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Saint Lucy

Lucia of Syracuse (283–304), also called Saint Lucia (Sancta Lucia) (and better known as Saint Lucy) was a Roman Christian martyr who died during the Diocletianic Persecution. She is venerated as a saint in Catholic, Anglican, Lutheran, and Eastern Orthodox Christianity. She is one of eight women (including the Virgin Mary) explicitly commemorated by Catholics in the Canon of the Mass. Her traditional feast day, known in Europe as Saint Lucy's Day, is observed by Western Christians on 13 December. Lucia of Syracuse was honored in the Middle Ages and remained a well-known saint in early modern England. She is one of the best known virgin martyrs, along with Agatha of Sicily, Agnes of Rome, Cecilia of Rome, and Catherine of Alexandria.

Life
All the details of her life are the conventional ones associated with female martyrs of the early fourth century. John Henry Blunt views her story as a Christian romance similar to the Acts of other virgin martyrs.

According to the traditional story, Lucy was born to rich and noble parents in 283. Her father was of Roman origin, but died when she was five years old, leaving Lucy and her mother without a protective guardian. Her mother's name, Eutychia, seems to indicate that she came from a Greek background.

Like many of the early martyrs, Lucy had consecrated her virginity to God, and she hoped to distribute her dowry to the poor. However, Eutychia, not knowing of Lucy's promise, and suffering from a bleeding disorder, feared for Lucy's future. She arranged Lucy's marriage to a young man of a wealthy pagan family.

Saint Agatha had been martyred 52 years before during the Decian persecution. Her shrine at Catania, less than 50 mi from Syracuse, attracted a number of pilgrims; many miracles were reported to have happened through her intercession. Eutychia was persuaded to make a pilgrimage to Catania, in hopes of a cure. While there, St. Agatha came to Lucy in a dream and told her that because of her faith, her mother would be cured and that Lucy would be the glory of Syracuse, as she was of Catania. With her mother cured, Lucy took the opportunity to persuade her mother to allow her to distribute a great part of her riches among the poor.

Eutychia suggested that the sums would make a good bequest, but Lucy countered, "...whatever you give away at death for the Lord's sake you give because you cannot take it with you. Give now to the true Savior, while you are healthy, whatever you intended to give away at your death."

News that the patrimony and jewels were being distributed came to Lucy's betrothed, who denounced her to Paschasius, the Governor of Syracuse. Paschasius ordered her to burn a sacrifice to the emperor's image. When she refused, Paschasius sentenced her to be defiled in a brothel.

The Christian tradition states that when the guards came to take her away, they could not move her even when they hitched her to a team of oxen. Bundles of wood were then heaped about her and set on fire, but would not burn. Finally, she met her death by the sword thrust into her throat.

Absent in the early narratives and traditions, at least until the fifteenth century, is the story of Lucia tortured by eye-gouging. According to later accounts, before she died, she foretold the punishment of Paschasius and the speedy end of the persecution, adding that Diocletian would reign no more and Maximian would meet his end. This so angered Paschasius that he ordered the guards to remove her eyes. Another version has Lucy taking her own eyes out in order to discourage a persistent suitor who admired them. When her body was prepared for burial in the family mausoleum it was discovered that her eyes had been miraculously restored. This is one of the reasons that Lucy is the patron saint of those with eye illnesses.

Veneration
By the sixth century, her story was sufficiently widespread that she appears in the Sacramentary of Pope Gregory I. She is also commemorated in the ancient Roman Martyrology. St. Aldhelm (English, died in 709) and later the Venerable Bede (English, died in 735) attest that her popularity had already spread to England, where her festival was kept in England until the Protestant Reformation, as a holy day of the second rank in which no work but tillage or the like was allowed.

Lucy is honored in the Church of England, in the Episcopal Church, and in the Lutheran Church on 13 December.

The monk Sigebert of Gembloux (1030–1112) wrote a mid-eleventh-century passio, to support a local cult of Lucy at Metz.

The General Roman Calendar formerly had a commemoration of Saints Lucy and Geminianus on 16 September. This was removed in 1969, as a duplication of the feast of her dies natalis on 13 December and because the Geminianus in question, mentioned in the Passio of Saint Lucy, seems to be a fictitious figure, unrelated to the Geminianus whose feast is on 31 January.

Relics
Sigebert of Gembloux, in his sermo de Sancta Lucia, chronicled that her body lay undisturbed in Sicily for 400 years, before Faroald II, Duke of Spoleto, captured the island and transferred the body to Corfinium in the Abruzzo, Italy. From there it was removed by the Emperor Otho I in 972 to Metz and deposited in the church of St. Vincent. It was from this shrine that an arm of the saint was taken to the monastery of Luitburg in the Diocese of Speyer – an incident celebrated by Sigebert in verse.

The subsequent history of the relics is not clear. According to Umberto Benigni, Stephen II (768) sent the relics of St. Lucy to Constantinople for safety against the Saracen incursions. On their capture of Constantinople in 1204, the French found some relics attributed to Saint Lucy in the city, and Enrico Dandolo, Doge of Venice, secured them for the monastery of St. George at Venice. In 1513 the Venetians presented to Louis XII of France the saint's head, which he deposited in the cathedral church of Bourges. Another account, however, states that the head was brought to Bourges from Rome, where it had been transferred during the time when the relics rested in Corfinium.

Parts of the body are present in Sicily in particular in Syracuse, which has preserved them from antiquity. The remainder of the relics remain in Venice: they were transferred to the church of San Geremia when the church of Santa Lucia was demolished in 1861 to make way for the new railway terminus. A century later, on 7 November 1981, thieves stole all her bones, except her head. Police recovered them five weeks later, on her feast day. Other parts of the corpse have found their way to Rome, Naples, Verona, Lisbon, Milan, as well as Germany and France.

Patronage
Lucy's Latin name Lucia shares a root (luc-) with the Latin word for light, lux. A number of traditions incorporate symbolic meaning of St. Lucy as the bearer of light in the darkness of winter, her feast day being 13 December. Because some versions of her story relate that her eyes were removed, either by herself or by her persecutors, she is the patroness saint of the blind.

She is also the patron saint of ophthalmologists, authors, cutlers, glaziers, laborers, martyrs, peasants, saddlers, salesmen, stained glass workers, and of Perugia, Italy. She is invoked against hemorrhages, dysentery, diseases of the eye, and throat infections.

St. Lucy is the patroness of Syracuse in Sicily, Italy. At the Piazza Duomo in Syracuse, the church of Santa Lucia alla Badia used to house the painting Burial of St. Lucy by Caravaggio. But it is now housed in the church of Santa Lucia al Sepolcro in Syracuse. She is also the patron saint of the coastal town of Olón, Ecuador, which celebrates with a week-long festival culminating on the feast day 13 December. She is also the patron saint of the town of Guane, Santander, Colombia.

The Caribbean island of Saint Lucia, one of the Windward Islands in the Lesser Antilles, is named after her.

Iconography
The emblem of eyes on a cup or plate apparently reflects popular devotion to her as protector of sight, because of her name, Lucia (from the Latin word "lux" which means "light"). In paintings St. Lucy is frequently shown holding her eyes on a golden plate. Lucy was represented in Gothic art holding a dish with two eyes on it. She also holds the palm branch, symbol of martyrdom and victory over evil. Other symbolic images include a lamp, dagger, sword or two oxen.

Dante
In Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy Lucy first appears in Canto 2 of Inferno as the messenger sent to Beatrice from "The blessed Dame" (the Virgin Mary), to rouse Beatrice to send Virgil to Dante's aid. Henry Fanshawe Tozer identifies Lucia as representing "illuminative grace". According to Robert Pogue Harrison and Rachel Jacoff, Lucia's appearance in this intermediary role is to reinforce the scene in which Virgil tries to fortify Dante's courage to begin the journey through the inferno.

In Purgatorio 9.52–63, Lucy carries a sleeping Dante to the entrance to purgatory. Since Lucy represents light, her appearance in Purgatorio 9 mirrors her appearance in Inferno 2; both times she carries him out of darkness. Lucy's light symbolism also explains why Dante tells this evening scene in Purgatorio 9 through the lens of the dawn. She carries him both out of the literal darkness to a new day, as well as the figurative darkness to lead him to salvation.

Then in Paradiso 32, Dante places her opposite Adam within the Mystic Rose in Canto XXXII of the Paradiso. Lucy may also be seen as a figure of Illuminating Grace or Mercy or even Justice.

Donne
In the Late Middle Ages the shortest day of the year usually fell on her feast day, and the two became associated, as in John Donne's poem, "A Nocturnal upon St. Lucie's Day, being the shortest day" (1627). The poem begins with: "'Tis the year's midnight, and it is the day's". Due to the inaccuracy of the Julian Calendar, the shortest day actually fell a day or two earlier in Donne's time.

Lucia is also the protagonist of a Swedish novel: "Ett ljus i mörkret" ("A light in the darkness") by Agneta Sjödin.

Popular celebration

Lucy's feast is on 13 December, in Advent. Her feast once coincided with the Winter Solstice, the shortest day of the year, before calendar reforms, so her feast day has become a festival of light.

St. Lucy is the patron saint of the city of Syracuse (Sicily). On 13 December a silver statue of St. Lucy containing her relics is paraded through the streets before returning to the Cathedral of Syracuse. Sicilians recall a legend that holds that a famine ended on her feast day when ships loaded with grain entered the harbor. Here, it is traditional to eat whole grains instead of bread on 13 December. This usually takes the form of cuccìa, a dish of boiled wheat berries often mixed with ricotta and honey, or sometimes served as a savory soup with beans.

Celebration of St. Lucy's day is particularly seen in Scandinavian countries, with their long dark winters. Traditionally, a young girl dressed in a white dress and a red sash (as the symbol of martyrdom) and wears a crown or wreath of candles on her head. In Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and parts of Finland, girls and boys dressed as Lucy or different roles associated with Christmastide, such as carry Saint Stephen or gingerbread men, walking in procession as songs are sung. Lucia celebrations are held in various places such as schools, churches, offices and hospitals, traditionally combined with eating saffron buns and gingerbread cookies. It is said that to vividly celebrate St. Lucy's Day will help one live the long winter days with enough light.

A special devotion to St. Lucy is practiced in the Italian regions of Lombardy, Emilia-Romagna, Veneto, Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Trentino-Alto Adige, in the North of the country, and Sicily and Calabria, in the South, as well as in the Croatian coastal region of Dalmatia. The feast is a Catholic-celebrated holiday with roots that can be traced to Sicily. On the 13th of every December it is celebrated with large traditional feasts of home-made pasta and various other Italian dishes, with a special dessert called cuccìa, made of wheatberries, butter, sugar, chocolate, and milk. The large grains of soft wheat are representative of her eyes and are a treat only to be indulged in once a year. In North Italy, Saint Lucy brings gift to children between 12 and 13 December. Traditionally a bouquet of hay is put outside of the house for Lucy's Donkey and food in the house for Lucy to refresh them after the long night bringing gifts to every kid. In small towns, a parade with Saint Lucy is held the evening of the 12th when she goes through the main streets of the town munching sweets and candy from her cart, always together with her donkey.

A Hungarian custom is to plant wheat in a small pot on St. Lucy's feast. By Christmas green sprouts appear, signs of life coming from death. The wheat is then carried to the manger scene as the symbol of Christ in the Eucharist.

In the Philippines, villagers from Barangay Sta. Lucia in Magarao, Camarines Sur, hold a novena to St. Lucy nine days before her feast. A procession of the saint's image is held every morning at the poblacion or village centre during the nine days leading up to St. Lucy's Day, attracting devotees from other parts of the Bicol Region. Hymns to the saint, known as the Gozos, as well as the Spanish version of the Ave Maria are chanted during the dawn procession, which is followed by a Mass.

The feast day is also commemorated in Barangay Sucad in Apalit Pampanga after the traditional nine-day novena, where a whole day celebration is observed through Eucharistic Masses, festivals and the procession of the religious sculpture of Sta. Lucia in the evening before the evening Mass.

Churches

 * Church of St. Lucia at the Tomb (Church of St. Lucia Outside the Walls), Syracuse, Sicily, Italy
 * Santa Lucìa alla Badìa, Siracusa, adjoining the Cathedral of Syracuse, Sicily, Italy
 * Chiesa di Santa Lucia, Belpasso, Catania, Sicily, Italy
 * Basilica di Santa Lucia a Mare, Naples, Italy
 * Church of San Geremia and the grave of Saint Lucy, Venice, Italy
 * Archdiocesan Shrine of Saint Lucy of Syracuse, Santa Lucia, Ilocos Sur, Philippines
 * Saint Lucy of Syracuse Parish, Sasmuan, Pampanga

Places

 * St. Lucia, a country in the Caribbean
 * Barangay Sta. Lucia, Novaliches, Quezon City, Metro Manila, Philippines
 * Barangay Sta. Lucia, Pasig, Metro Manila, Philippines
 * Borgo Santa Lucia, Naples, Italy
 * Port St. Lucie, Florida, United States
 * Saint Lucy, Barbados, Caribbean
 * Sainte-Lucie-de-Beauregard, Quebec, Canada
 * Sainte-Lucie-des-Laurentides, Quebec, Canada
 * Santa Lucia Parish Church Barangay Santa Lucia, Asturias, Cebu, Philippines
 * Santa Lucia Chapel, Barangay Sucad, Apalit, Pampanga (Philippines)
 * Santa Lucía de Tirajana (Gran Canaria) Canary Islands, Spain
 * Santa Lucia, Ilocos Sur, Philippines
 * Santa Lucía, La Rioja, Argentina
 * Santa Lucia, Magarao, Camarines Sur, Philippines
 * Santa Luċija, Malta
 * Santa Luċija, Gozo
 * Santa Lucia Mountains, California, United States
 * Sta. Lucia, Asturias, Cebu, Philippines
 * Sta. Lucia Village Phase 4, Punturin, Valenzuela City, Metro Manila, Philippines
 * St. Lucie County, Florida, United States
 * St. Lucie Village, Florida, United States
 * St. Lucia Estuary, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa
 * St Lucia, Queensland, Australia
 * St. Lucy's Holy Well, Killua Castle, Clonmellon, County Westmeath, Ireland
 * Santa Luzia, Minas Gerais, Brazil
 * Santa Luzia, Paraíba, Brazil
 * Santa Lucía del Tuy, Miranda, Venezuela
 * Santa Lucía, Canelones, Uruguay

Schools

 * St Lucia Girls High School Kauti, Nunguni, Makueni County, Kenya
 * Sta. Lucia Elementary School, Masantol, Pampanga, Philippines
 * Sta. Lucia Elementary School, De Castro Subd., Barangay Sta. Lucia, Pasig, Philippines
 * St. Lucy Integrated School of Manila, Malate, Manila, Philippines
 * St. Lucia's School, Kotahena, Colombo, Sri Lanka
 * St. Lucy Catholic Elementary School, Brampton, Ontario, Canada
 * St. Lucy Catholic Elementary School, Toronto, Ontario, Canada (defunct)
 * St. Lucy Catholic Elementary School, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
 * St. Lucy's Primary School, Abronhill, North Lanarkshire, Scotland
 * Sta. Lucia High School Novaliches, Quezon City, Metro Manila, Philippines
 * Santa Lucia Catholic School, Chicago, Illinois, United States
 * St. Lucy's Priory High School, Glendora, California, United States
 * St. Lucy Day School for the Blind and Visually Impaired, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
 * St. Lucy's School of Archdiocese of Pampanga, Sasmuan, Pampanga, Philippines
 * St. Lucy's School (dedicated in 1955), Bronx, New York, United States
 * Sta. Lucía del Tuy, Miranda, Venezuela
 * St Lucy's School for children with disabilities, Wahroonga (Sydney), Australia

Other

 * Santa Lucía Hill, otherwise known as Cerro Huelen, Santiago, Chile
 * Venezia Santa Lucia railway station, Venice, Italy
 * Sta. Lucia Mall, Cainta, Rizal, Philippines
 * Hospital Oftalmológico Santa Lucía, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina

title: Saint Lucy


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Arhan

Arhan may refer to:
 * Arhat, a concept in Buddhism
 * Arihant (Jainism)
 * Arhan, Iran, a village in Zanjan Province, Iran
 * Arhaan, an Indian name (including a list of people with the name)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Arhan


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Roe

Roe, or hard roe, is the fully ripe internal egg masses in the ovaries, or the released external egg masses, of fish and certain marine animals such as shrimp, scallop, sea urchins and squid. As a seafood, roe is used both as a cooked ingredient in many dishes, and as a raw ingredient for delicacies such as caviar.

The roe of marine animals, such as the roe of lumpsucker, hake, mullet, salmon, Atlantic bonito, mackerel, squid, and cuttlefish are especially rich sources of omega-3 fatty acids, but omega-3s are present in all fish roe. Also, a significant amount of vitamin B12 is among the nutrients present in fish roes.

Roe from a sturgeon or sometimes other fish such as flathead grey mullet, is the raw base product from which caviar is made.

The term soft roe or white roe denotes fish milt, not fish eggs.

South Africa
People in KwaZulu-Natal consume fish roe in the form of slightly sour curry or battered and deep fried.

Brazil
In southern Brazil, in particular in the litoral parts of the state of Santa Catarina (from Azorean colonization), mullet roesacks are consumed deep-fried or pan-seared by the locals.

Canada
Roe is extracted from sturgeon, salmon, sea urchins, etc. Herring roe sacs are also extracted mainly for export to Japan (as kazunoko q.v.). But spawned herring roe was also traditional foodstuff for indigenous people of British Columbia.

The collection and consumption of herring roe is actually a long-standing native practice for the Indigenous people of the (Northern and Middle ) Pacific coast. Traditional methods involves harvesting the naturally occurring "spawn-on-kelp" (Haida: k'aaw or eggs laid on purposefully submerged hemlock branches. Nowadays "spawn on kelp" is commercially produced, mostly bound for Japan.

Roe from the cisco is harvested from the Great Lakes, primarily for overseas markets.

In the province of New Brunswick, roe (caviare) of the Atlantic sturgeon is harvested from the Saint John river. Whereas in coastal British Columbia, Fraser River white sturgeon are sustainably farmed to produce caviar.

Chile
In Chile, sea urchin roe is a traditional food known as an "erizo de mar". Chile is one of many countries that exports sea urchins to Japan in order to fulfill Japanese demand.

Dominican Republic
In Dominican Republic, dried and smoked herring roe ("huevas de arenque") is eaten. Unlike in some countries, it's generally cooked before consumption.

Peru
In Peru, roe is served in many seafood restaurants sauteed, breaded and pan fried, and sometimes accompanied by a side of fresh onion salad. It is called Huevera Frita. Cojinova (Seriolella violacea) yields the best roe for this dish. Despite the fact that many people like it, it is hardly considered a delicacy. Upscale restaurants are not expected to offer it, but street vendors and smaller restaurants will make their first daily sales of it before they run out. Cojinova itself (considered a medium quality fish) is caught for its fish meal, not for its roe, which is considered a chance product. Sea urchin roe is considered a delicacy and it is used (at customer request) to add strength to ceviche.

United States
In the United States, several kinds of roe are produced: salmon from the Pacific coast, shad and herring species such as the American shad and alewife, mullet, paddlefish, American bowfin, and some species of sturgeon. Shad, pike, and other roe sometimes are pan-fried with bacon. Spot prawn roe (hard to find) is also a delicacy from the North Pacific. Flounder roe, pan-fried and served with grits is popular on the Southeastern coast.

Herring roe harvested in Alaska are mostly shipped to Japan (cf. kazunoko under ). The indigenous people (Tlingit) of the Sitka Sound had traditionally collected and eaten herring roe. (cf. also )

Cambodia
In Cambodia roe (ពងត្រី, pông trei) are fermented and usually eaten with steamed eggs, omelettes and other hen or duck egg dishes.

China
In many regions in China, crab and urchin roes are eaten as a delicacy. Crab roe are often used as topping in dishes such as "crab roe tofu" (蟹粉豆腐). Nanxiang Steamed Bun Restaurant serves "crab roe xiaolongbao" as their special. Shrimp roes are also eaten in certain places, especially around the downstream of Yangtze River, such as Wuhu, as toppings for noodle soup.

India, Pakistan and Bangladesh
Among the populace of eastern India, roe that has been deeply roasted over an open fire is a delicacy. In this region, the roe of rohu is also considered a delicacy and is eaten fried or as a stuffing within a fried pointed gourd to make potoler dolma.

Roe from the ilish fish is considered a delicacy in Bangladesh. The roe is usually deep-fried, although other preparations such as mashed roe where the roe crushed along with oil, onion and pepper, or curry of roe can also be found.

All along the Konkan coast and Northern Kerala, the roe of sardines, black mackerel and several other fish is considered a delicacy. The roe can be eaten fried (after being coated with red chilli paste) and also as a thick curry (gashi). In Goa and Malvan, roe is first steamed or poached, then coated with salt and chilli powder and then shallow fried or roasted on a tawa (flat pan). In the state of Kerala, roe is deep fried in coconut oil, and is considered a delicacy. A common method of quick preparation is to wrap the roe in wet banana leaves and cook it over charcoal embers.

In Odisha and West Bengal, roe of several fresh-water fish, including hilsa, are eaten, the roe being cooked separately or along with the fish, the latter method being preferred for all but large fishes. Roe, either light or deep-fried are also eaten as snacks or appetizers before a major meal.

All along the Indus River and Specially South Pakistan Sindh, the roe of Palla (fish), and several other fish is considered a delicacy. The roe can be eaten fried (after being coated with red chilli paste) and also as a thick curry (Salan/Curry). coated with salt and chilli powder and then shallow fried or roasted on a tawa (flat pan).

Indonesia
Pepes telur ikan is a dish of steamed or fried spiced roe wrapped in banana leaf. In Makassar, It is made from flying fish roe or locals called ikan tuing-tuing. Also in Gresik, the pepes is made from Java barb roe or locals called ikan bader.

In Kendal, telur ikan mimi has become a Ramadan dish. It is made from horseshoe crab roe with grated coconut.

Iran
In the Caspian provinces of Gilan and Mazandaran, several types of roe are used. Called ashpal or ashbal, roe is consumed grilled, cured, salted, or mixed with other ingredients. If salted or cured, it is consumed as a condiment. If used fresh, it is usually grilled, steamed, or mixed with eggs and fried to form a custard-like dish called "Ashpal Kuku".

Besides the much sought-after caviar, roe from kutum (also known as Caspian white fish or Rutilus frisii kutum), Caspian roach (called "kuli" in Gileki), bream (called "kulmeh" in Gileki), and Caspian salmon are highly prized. Roe from carp is less common and barbel roe is also occasionally used.

Israel
Several sections of the Israeli cuisine include roe. In Modern Hebrew, roe is commonly referred to by its Russian name "ikra" (איקרה). When necessary, the color is also mentioned: white or pink, as appropriate. Israeli "white ikra" is commonly made of carp or herring eggs, while "red ikra" is made of flathead mullet eggs or, in rarer cases, salmon eggs. The term "caviar" is separate, and denotes only sturgeon eggs.

Ikra is served as a starter dish, to be eaten with pita or similar breads, particularly in Arab restaurants. It can also be purchased in stores, in standard-sized plastic packages. In home cooking it is similarly served as a starter dish.

In Judaism, roe from kosher fish—fish with fins and scales—is considered kosher. Like fish in general, it is considered pareve. However, roe is considered kosher only if the fish from which it is harvested is kosher as well. Caviar from sturgeon is therefore not considered kosher from an Orthodox Jewish perspective, as that fish is not understood to have scales under Orthodox interpretations of Jewish law.

For most observant Orthodox Jewish consumers who keep kosher, roe or caviar must be processed under kosher supervision as well. The only exception to this rule is red roe, thanks to a widely accepted responsa by the Bais Yosef.

Japan

Various roe types are used in Japanese cuisine, including the following which are used raw in sushi:
 * Ebiko - Shrimp roe.
 * Ikura (イクラ) - Salmon roe. Large reddish-orange individual spheres. It is a loan word from the Russian, "икра" (roe, in this context caviar)
 * Sujiko (すじこ/筋子) - Salmon roe sac whole pieces. Sujiko is darker (red to dark-red), also sweeter in taste.
 * (数の子/鯑) - herring roe sac, yellow or pinkish, having a firm, rubbery texture and appearance, now usually brined..
 * 子持ち昆布 (komochi kombu) - herring eggs heavily laid on seaweed, mostly imported from Canada (cf. k'aaw above)
 * Karasumi (カラスミ/鱲子) - dried mullet roe, a specialty of Nagasaki. Along with sea urchin and konowata (cf. kuchiko below) it is considered one of the big three chinmi of Japan.
 * or konoko - sea cucumber roe. Often dried.
 * Masago (真砂子)- Capelin roe, similar to Tobiko, but smaller.
 * Tarako (たらこ/鱈子) - Salted Alaska pollock roe, sometimes grilled.
 * Mentaiko (明太子) - Alaska pollock roe sac, cured and spiced with red pepper. Mentaiko is usually pink to dark red.
 * Tobiko (飛び子) - Flying fish roe, very crunchy, reddish orange in color.
 * Uni (うに/雲丹) - Sea urchin roe, used in sushi, also preserved uni (packed in jars). Orange to pale yellow. The soup is a northern specialty (also available canned).

Korea
All kinds of fish roe are widely eaten in Korean cuisine, including the popular sea urchin, salmon, herring, flying fish, cod, among others. Myeongran (명란젓) refers to the jeotgal (salted fermented seafood) made with pollock roe seasoned with chili pepper powders. It is commonly consumed as banchan, small dish accompanied with cooked rice or ingredient for (알탕), a kind of jjigae (Korean stew).

Albap is a bibimbap made with roe.

Lebanon
Sea urchin roe, or توتية as it is known locally, is eaten directly from the sea urchin shell fresh using a small spoon. Some people add a twist of lemon juice to the roe and eat it in Lebanese flat bread.

Malaysia
Particularly in Sarawak, Malaysia, Toli Shad fish roe is a popular delicacy among locals and tourists. The roe is usually found in the street market in Sarawak's capital city of Kuching. The roe can be sold for up to US$19 per 100 grams and is considered expensive among locals, but the price can reach up to US$30 in other states of Malaysia.

The roe is usually salted before sale but fresh roe is also available. The salted roe is usually pan fried or steamed and eaten with steamed rice. The fish itself is also usually salted and served along with the roe.

New Zealand
The Māori people and other New Zealanders eat sea urchin roe, called "kina". Kina is sold in fish shops, supermarkets, and alongside the road. Most commercial kina is imported from the Chatham Islands.

Europe
All around the Mediterranean, bottarga is an esteemed specialty made of the cured roe pouch of flathead mullet, tuna, or swordfish; it is called bottarga (Italian), poutargue or boutargue (French), botarga (Spanish), batarekh (Arabic) or avgotaraho (Greek αυγοτάραχο).

Denmark
The most commonly eaten roe in Denmark is cod roe, usually sold canned with added water, starch, oil, salt, and tomato puree and then boiled and preserved. It is served sliced, either as is or slightly roasted in a pan, on top of rye bread, sometimes topped with remoulade and/or lemon. An everyday food item on many Danish lunch tables. Lumpfish (stenbider) roe is another roe used in Danish cuisine. It is considered somewhat of a luxury item and is primarily used as a condiment on top of halved or sliced hard-boiled eggs, on top of mounds of shrimp, or in combination with other fish or seafood.

France
Sea urchin roe (oursin in French) is eaten directly from the sea and in restaurants, where it is served both by itself and in seafood platters, usually spooned from the shell of the animal. Crab, shrimp and prawn roe still attached to those animals is also considered a delicacy.

Finland
Common whitefish and especially vendace from the fresh water lakes in Finland are renowned for the excellent delicate taste of the roe. Roe is served as topping of toast or on blini with onion and smetana.

Greece

Taramá is salted and cured carp or cod roe used to make taramosaláta, a Greek meze consisting of taramá mixed with lemon juice, bread crumbs, onions, and olive oil; it is eaten as a dip.

Avgotaraho (αυγοτάραχο) or botargo is the prepared roe of the flathead mullet.

Italy
Bottarga is a popular ingredient in the south of Italy. It consists of the salted and dried roe pouch of the Atlantic bluefin tuna; it can also be prepared with the dried roe pouch of the flathead mullet. It is used minced for dressing pasta or sliced with olive oil and lemon on bread. On the islands of Sardinia and Sicily, fresh sea urchin roe is widely consumed, both as is and as a pasta sauce. Its consumption is limited to certain months of the year to preserve the sea urchin.

Norway
Norwegian caviar is most commonly made from cod, but caviar made from lumpsucker or capelin roe is also available. During winter season, when skrei, winter cod is available, roe is cooked in its sack and served with cod liver and poached cod. This traditional dish is particularly popular in coastal Norway and is called mølje. In some areas it is also common to fry the roe from freshly caught fish, to be eaten on bread or with potatoes and flatbread.

Portugal
Codfish roe and sardine roe are sold in olive oil. The fresh roe of hake (pescada) is also consumed (a popular way of eating it is boiled with vegetables, and simply seasoned with olive oil and a dash of vinegar). In the South of Portugal, the "ouriço do mar" (sea urchin) is highly appreciated. In the Sines area (Alentejo), a layer of dried pine needles is placed on the ground and, on top of it, a layer of sea urchins. This layer is topped with a second layer of dried pine needles. The pile is set on fire. The roe is removed from the cooked sea urchins and eaten. Sea urchin is not consumed in May, June, July, and August.

Romania
Fish roe is very popular in Romania as a starter (like salată de icre) or sometimes served for breakfast on toasted bread. The most common roe is that of the European carp; pike, herring, cod are also popular. Fried soft roe is also a popular dish. Sturgeon roe is a delicacy normally served at functions.

Russia and ex-USSR countries
In Russian, all types of fish roe are called ikra (икра), and there is no linguistic distinction between the English words "roe" and "caviar". Also, Russians tend to translate any "ikra" as "caviar", thus creating the impression of availability of sturgeon roe.

Sturgeon roe, called chyornaya ikra (чёрная икра, "black caviar") is most prized. It is followed in prestige by salmon roe called krasnaya ikra (красная икра, "red caviar"), which is less expensive, but still considered a delicacy. Both types of roe are usually served lightly salted on buttered wheat bread, or as an accompaniment for blini, or used as an ingredient in various haute cuisine and festive dishes. The butter on bread may soften the taste of large pellets of black or red roe this way, by making it more dull, and the bread should be soft and fresh rather than soggy, crisp or bun-like dense.

More common roes, such as cod, Alaska pollock, and herring ones are everyday dishes, combining richness in protein with low price. Salted cod or pollock roe on buttered bread is common breakfast fare and herring roe is often eaten smoked or fried. The roe of freshwater fish is also popular but the commercial availability is lower. Soft roe of various fishes is also widely consumed, mostly fried, and is a popular cantina-style dish.
 * For those "everyday" roes, the buttered bread makes sense, since the canned roe is more salty than caviar sturgeon roe.
 * Capelin roe mixed with cream is sold in convenience stores of Russia as a more gentle-tasting variant of aforementioned canned roe spreads.

Roe found in dried vobla fish is considered delicious by some; though dried vobla roe is not produced separately as a stand-alone dish, roe-carrying vobla is prized.

Spain
Cod and hake roe is commonly consumed throughout Spain in many different forms: sautéed, grilled, fried, marinated, pickled, boiled, with mayonnaise, or in salad. Tuna and ling dry brined roe is traditional in Andalusia and the Mediterranean coasts since antiquity. In all of the Spanish coastal regions, sea urchin roe is considered a delicacy and consumed raw. Roe from the Mediterranean grey mullet, Mugil cephalus, is a sustainable roe resembling sturgeon roe that is marketed from Spain to countries around the world.

Sweden
Smoked and salted cod roe paste known as smörgåskaviar is commonly served as sandwich topping in Sweden.

Lightly salted roe of the vendace is called Löjrom in Swedish. It is naturally orange in colour. The most sought after type is Kalix Löjrom from Kalix in the northern Baltic sea.

Most Löjrom consumed in Sweden is however imported frozen from North America.

Stenbitsrom, the roe of lumpfish is naturally a bleak unappetizing gray, but is coloured black (to emulate black caviar) or orange (to emulate Löjrom). Stenbitsrom sells in much larger volume than Löjrom, but it has two drawbacks: it tastes of little more than its salt and artificial additives, and the colour additives tend to bleed into other parts of the food served with it (such as a boiled egg), or to discolour porcelain dishes.

There is also a trend to use more Laxrom (salmon roe), which is a natural orange colour, with a large diameter.

United Kingdom
Though not popular, herring roe is sold within many British supermarkets. Battered cod roe can also be bought from many fish and chip shops. Various tinned roes are on sale in supermarkets e.g. soft cod roes, pressed cod roes and herring roes.

title: Roe


text:
Regressive tax

A regressive tax is a tax imposed in such a manner that the tax rate decreases as the amount subject to taxation increases. "Regressive" describes a distribution effect on income or expenditure, referring to the way the rate progresses from high to low, so that the average tax rate exceeds the marginal tax rate.

The regressivity of a particular tax can also factor the propensity of the taxpayers to engage in the taxed activity relative to their resources (the demographics of the tax base). In other words, if the activity being taxed is more likely to be carried out by the poor and less likely to be carried out by the rich, the tax may be considered regressive. To measure the effect, the income elasticity of the good being taxed as well as the income effect on consumption must be considered. The measure can be applied to individual taxes or to a tax system as a whole; a year, multi-year, or lifetime.

Poll taxes
Poll taxes is a tax levied on individuals as a condition for voting. It is typically a fixed amount per person, regardless of their income or assets. By the late 20th century most major economies severed the practice (e.g. twenty-fourth amendment or council tax).

Perhaps the most notable example of public's dissatisfaction with poll taxes is the Community Charge implemented by Thatcher. The handling of the tax system transmission and the aftermath of inept government intervention became subject to mass criticism. Negative impacts of the poll tax disproportionally fell on lower income groups; Whilst an effective government would have provided extensive welfare programs and adjust national tax systems to aid those groups, the British government failed to provide any protection and only succeeded in antagonizing the beneficiaries of the reform.

The failure to gain public support only stagnated the already troublesome administrative burden. The result were riots and wide-spread noncompliance which rendered the tax uncollectable. Coupled with mismanagement of government injections and low tax revenue, the situation snowballed and endangered local autonomy which thus further fueled civic unrest.This stresses the importance of establishing tax systems which enjoy the wide support of the public and are simple to administer; The Community Charge was later scrapped and replaced under John Major's cabinet.

Lump-sum tax
Lump-sum tax is a fixed tax imposed on individuals or businesses. It doesn’t vary based on income or wealth. This means that all taxpayers are required to pay the same fixed amount, regardless of their financial status.

Lump-sum tax practice has fallen out from the mainstream with only one country, Switzerland, still adhering to it. However, this trend is still challenged by some economists who believe in its efficiency due to factors like the simplicity of administration or lower tax evasion rates.

Recent studies suggest utilizing modified lump-sum tax as a form of a wealth tax. This is derived from the belief that wealth can based upon estimated consumption of the individual, thus the tax indirectly targets the presumably higher level of expenditure of wealthy individuals. It shifts the tax burden to people with a higher marginal propensity to consume. In this case, it assumed to be non-mandatory and one-time.

A tax with a cap
A tax with a cap, above which no taxes are paid, such as the American Social Security Tax, which does not apply to wages over an annual limit.

Sin taxes
So-called "sin taxes" (pigouvian taxes) levies imposed on goods and activities deemed harmful to individuals or society (most common examples are tobacco, alcohol or gambling). Regressivity in sin taxes stems from their disproportionate impact on lower-income households, who tend to allocate a larger share of their income to sin goods compared to wealthier individuals. Such taxes are often imposed at a flat rate so they will make up a greater proportion of the final price of cheaper brands, compared to the higher-quality products generally consumed by the wealthy. For example, "people in the bottom income quintile spend a 78% larger share of their income on alcohol taxes than people in the top quintile." Tobacco in particular is highly regressive, with the bottom quintile of income paying an effective rate 583% higher than that of the top quintile. Other example is the fact that just 10% of households account for 80% of sin tax revenue in the USA.

Allowance reduction
An allowance reduction in an income tax system allows for an individual's personal allowance to be withdrawn, making a higher marginal tax for a limited band before returning to the underlying rate. In the UK, there is an effective 60% band at £100,000, which returns to 40% at £120,000.

Excise taxation
Non-uniform excise taxation based on everyday essentials like food (fat tax, salt tax), transport (fuel tax, fare hikes for public transport, mobility pricing), energy (carbon tax) and housing (council tax, window tax) is frequently regressive on income. The income elasticity of demand of food, for example, is usually less than 1 (inelastic) (see Engel's law) and therefore as a household's income rises, the tax collected on the food remains almost the same. Therefore, as a proportion of available expenditure, the relative tax burden falls more heavily on households with lower incomes. Some governments offer rebates to households with lower incomes, ostensibly in an effort to mitigate the regressive nature of these taxes.

A related concept exists where production and importation of essential goods are strictly controlled, such as milk, eggs, cheese and poultry under Canada's supply management system, the result being that the products will sell for a higher price than they would under a free market system. The difference in price is often criticized for being a "regressive tax" even though such products are generally not taxed directly.

Payroll taxes
Payroll taxes, such as FICA and Unemployment Insurance in the United States, and consumption taxes such as value-added tax and sales taxes are regressive in that they both raise prices of purchased goods. Lower-income earners save and invest less money, so pay a larger proportion of their income toward these taxes, directly for sales tax and as the price increase required to make revenue covering payrolls for payroll taxes.

Tariffs
Tariffs are a tax imposed on imported goods form another country. Their main purpose, besides increasing revenue, is to protect domestic industries, since governments can use tariffs to benefit particular industries, often doing so to protect companies and jobs. For example, a tariff might be imposed on an imported good that competes with a domestically-produced good, making the imported good more expensive and thus less attractive to consumers. Some examples include tariffs imposed on steel imported into United States from all countries except for Canada and Mexico in April 2018 by Donald Trump. Tariffs are often considered regressive as they disproportionately burden those with lower incomes, who typically spend a higher percentage of their earnings on goods affected by tariffs. The difference of change in after-tax income between lowest and top quintile is 0,2%.

Other forms of regressive taxes

 * Property tax in regard to automobiles, better known as the "car tax" in some jurisdictions.
 * Lotteries have been described as a disguised regressive tax.

Comparing progressive and regressive taxation
A progressive tax is a type of tax where the tax rate increases as the taxable amount or income increases. This means that individuals or entities with higher incomes pay a higher percentage of their income in taxes. On the contrary, a regressive tax is a tax system where the tax rate decreases as the taxable amount increases. This implies that as the value of the asset purchased or owned by the taxpayer increases, the tax rate applied decreases.

In a progressive tax system, the tax is levied on income or profit based on a rate schedule that increases as income or profit increases. This is in stark contrast to a regressive tax system, where the tax is charged as a percentage of the asset purchased or owned by the taxpayer, regardless of their income or ability to pay.

One of the key features of a progressive tax system is that it takes into account the taxpayer’s ability to pay. This means that higher-income individuals or entities are taxed at a higher rate because they have a greater ability to pay the tax. In contrast, in a regressive tax system, the level of income of the taxpayer is not considered. This means that the tax is applied equally to all taxpayers, regardless of their income level.

Progressive tax systems typically include all forms of direct taxes, which are taxes that are paid directly to the government by the individual or entity on whom it is imposed. On the other hand, regressive tax systems usually encompass all forms of indirect taxes, which are taxes that are collected by an intermediary (such as a retail store) from the person who bears the ultimate economic burden of the tax (such as the consumer).

In a progressive tax system, the marginal tax rate (the tax rate on the last dollar of income earned) is greater than the average tax rate (the total tax paid divided by total income earned). Conversely, in a regressive tax system, the marginal tax rate is lower than the average tax rate.

Measurement
One common way to measure tax progressivity is by looking at the percentage change in after-tax income. This method assumes that a household’s economic wellbeing, or welfare, is closely linked to its after-tax income. Therefore, a tax cut that increases everyone’s after-tax income by the same percentage leaves the relative distribution of after-tax income unchanged. If a tax cut increases after-tax income proportionately more for lower-income taxpayers than for higher-income taxpayers, it will make the tax system more progressive (or less regressive). Conversely, a tax cut that increases after-tax income proportionately more for higher-income taxpayers than for lower-income taxpayers will make the tax system less progressive (or more regressive).

However, this method has its limitations. For instance, it does not take into account the fact that the burden of paying a certain amount of tax is much greater on a household with a lower income than it is on a household with a higher income. Therefore, some analysts believe that other measures, such as the share of the tax cut received, and the size of the tax cut in both absolute dollars and as a percentage of initial tax liability, are more accurate representations of the distribution of tax burdens.

Another approach to measuring tax progressivity is by looking at the redistributive effect of taxes and transfers. This method involves measuring the difference in the Gini coefficient of incomes before and after taxes and transfers. The Gini coefficient is a measure of inequality, with 0 representing perfect equality and 1 representing perfect inequality. Therefore, a decrease in the Gini coefficient after taxes and transfers would indicate that the tax system is progressive.

In low-income countries, a detailed analysis of progressivity requires a welfare ranking of individuals or households, and for tax liabilities of each individual or household to be ascertained. This method takes into account the broader concept of redistribution, which includes not only taxes but also transfers and other forms of government intervention.

Political ideologies and taxation policy
Neoliberalism, characterized by its emphasis on free markets, limited government intervention, and individual responsibility, has had a profound impact on tax systems worldwide. Neoliberal tax policies typically prioritize reducing taxes for the wealthy and corporations under the belief that such measures stimulate economic growth and investment. This approach often results in regressive tax structures, where the burden falls disproportionately on lower-income individuals and households.

In contrast to neoliberalism, social democratic ideologies advocate for progressive taxation as a means of redistributing wealth and funding social welfare programs. Progressive taxation entails higher tax rates for those with higher incomes, with the aim of mitigating inequality and providing resources for public goods and services. Social democratic countries often prioritize universal access to healthcare, education, and social security, funded through progressive taxation and robust public investment.

Implementations
Examining real-world examples of regressive taxation offers valuable insights into its impact on different societies and the efficacy of various policy responses. In 2005, the Swiss canton of Obwalden implemented a regressive taxation system. It was struck down by the Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland in 2007, because it ran counter to the Swiss Federal Constitution.

Regressive taxes are implemented in the United States primarily through sales taxes, excise taxes, and payroll taxes. Sales taxes are imposed by state and local governments on goods and services, impacting lower-income individuals more as they spend a larger portion of their income on necessities subject to these taxes. Excise taxes, such as those on gasoline, tobacco, and alcohol, also tend to affect lower-income households disproportionately because they consume a higher percentage of their income on these taxed items. Additionally, the Social Security payroll tax is regressive up to a certain income threshold, as it applies to all workers but only taxes a portion of their earnings, exempting higher-income earners beyond that threshold. These regressive tax mechanisms exacerbates inequality since lower-income individuals are paying a larger share of their income in taxes compared to higher-income individuals. Tax cuts for the wealthy under the Trump administration further tilted the scales in favor of the rich, contributing to income inequality concerns in the U.S.

Brazil uses a regressive tax system. Those who earn up to twice the minimum wage spend 48.8% of their income on taxes, while the families with income higher than 30 times the minimum wage pay only 26.3% of their income on taxes. Brazil has a huge gap between the poor and the rich. Regressive taxation only widens this gap. This is the reason why the inequality in Brazil is as high as it is.

Arguments for regressive taxation

 * Funding public goods: Regressive taxes can be an effective way to fund public goods and services. A sales tax can help fund public infrastructure, education, and healthcare.
 * Healthier society: Sin taxes promote healthy behavior. The taxes can be used to discourage unhealthy behaviors. They can help reduce consumption of harmful products (cigarettes, alcohol or soda to name a few). Studies show that increased price is very effective way of incentivising smokers to quit smoking.
 * Economic growth: Some economists argue that that lowering taxes on high-income earners encourages entrepreneurship, investment, and job creation, thereby benefiting the overall economy, this can potentially stimulate economic activity.
 * Simplicity: Regressive tax system is easier to administer and enforce than a progressive one. This is because a regressive tax system has a flat tax rate for all income levels, requiring fewer resources to implement and enforce.
 * Efficiency: Regressive taxes are non-distortionary. They do not discourage people from working or investing, unlike progressive income taxes.
 * Balancing other taxes: Regressive taxes can help balance the tax system, since some parts of it are highly progressive (for example income tax). Thus introducing regressive taxes can help reduce the overall progressivity of the tax system.

Arguments against regressive taxation

 * Economic inequality: This is arguably the main argument against regressive taxes. At the individual level, regressive taxes disproportionately burden low-income households, consuming a larger share of their disposable income. This can perpetuate cycles of poverty and hinder upward mobility, as struggling families are forced to allocate more resources towards basic necessities rather than savings or investments.
 * Increased financial stress: Regressive taxes can lead to increased financial stress for low-income individuals and families. If a large portion of an individual’s income goes towards paying taxes, they may struggle to afford basic necessities such as food, housing, and healthcare.
 * Decreased productivity of workers: Heavily taxed individuals may be discouraged to work hard or they may choose to work less (or to not work at all).
 * Less consumer spending: People would spend less money because of higher tax burden. Lower purchasing power of consumers may lead to a failure of some businesses.

title: Regressive tax


text:
Wyoming-class battleship

The Wyoming class was a pair of dreadnought battleships built for the United States Navy. USS Wyoming (BB-32) and USS Arkansas (BB-33) were authorized in early 1909, and were built between 1910 and 1912. These were the fourth dreadnought design of the US Navy, but only an incremental improvement over the preceding Florida-class battleship, and the last US battleships to use 12-inch guns. The primary changes were the adoption of a more powerful 12 in/50 caliber Mark 7 gun, addition of a sixth twin-gun turret and improved armor protection, including the first use of a torpedo bulkhead on American battleships. The Navy considered using more powerful 14 in guns, but this would have caused delays and required larger docks.

The two ships frequently served together, first in the Atlantic Fleet in the 1910s. Both vessels were deployed to British waters after the United States entered World War I in April 1917 to reinforce the Royal Navy's Grand Fleet. They served in the Pacific Fleet in 1919–21, before both returned to the Atlantic Fleet. Much of their time in the Atlantic Fleet was spent conducting peacetime training exercises, along with taking midshipmen from the US Naval Academy on training cruises. Wyoming and Arkansas were heavily modernized in the mid-1920s, receiving more efficient oil-fired boilers to replace their old coal-fired models, thicker deck armor to protect against plunging fire, anti-torpedo bulges to increase their resistance to underwater damage, and anti-aircraft guns to defend against aerial attacks.

The London Naval Treaty of 1930 mandated that Wyoming be demilitarized; she accordingly was converted into a training ship, with half of her main battery turrets, belt armor, and anti-torpedo bulges removed. However, Arkansas was permitted to continue in service with the fleet. After the United States entered World War II, Arkansas was used to escort convoys to North Africa. By 1944, she served as a coastal bombardment vessel; in this role, she supported Allied landings at Normandy (Operation Overlord) and southern France (Operation Dragoon) before being transferred to the Pacific, where she provided fire support to Marines fighting on Iwo Jima and at Okinawa in 1945. Wyoming meanwhile continued as a training ship, being modified further in 1944 to include the various types of anti-aircraft guns that trainees would operate in the fleet. Both ships were decommissioned shortly after the war, with Arkansas being expended as a target ship during the 1946 nuclear tests at Operation Crossroads, and Wyoming being sold for scrap in 1947.

Design
On 22 July 1908, the Newport Conference was held; this included the General Board, the staff of the Naval War College, President Theodore Roosevelt—who had a keen interest in naval matters—and other officers. This conference examined a series of issues relating to existing battleships and new designs; the first of these new ships would become the Wyoming class. The Board on Construction received general instructions from the Newport Conference; those at the conference favored adopting the 14-inch gun, as the British Royal Navy had already traded their 12-inch guns for 13.5 in pieces. The Bureau of Ordnance (BuOrd) estimated that design work on the new gun, production, and testing would take two years. On 26 August, the Secretary of the Navy, Victor Metcalf, issued a request for eight- and ten-gun battleships armed with the 14-inch weapons to the Bureau of Construction and Repair (C&R). Speed was to be at least 20 kn, with as much armor as could be accommodated.

BuOrd argued that at likely battle ranges, 8000 to 8500 yd, the 12-inch gun was powerful enough to penetrate existing armor, and so the 14-inch gun was unnecessary. C&R produced three designs to meet Metcalf's request, all based on the preceding Florida-class battleship design; the first, referred to as design 404, was a battleship armed with eight 14-inch guns. The second, design 502, had an additional twin turret for a total of ten 14-inch guns. The third, design 601, would be fitted with twelve 12-inch guns. The General Board chose 601, since the design work for the 14-inch gun had not begun, and adopting it would have caused the class to be delayed. In addition, the ships' displacement would have increased more dramatically with the larger gun, requiring extensive improvements to harbor facilities; design 502 would have only been able to dock in Pearl Harbor and Puget Sound with the existing facilities. The placement of the secondary battery also proved to be problematic. The cruise of the Great White Fleet in 1907–09 had demonstrated the problems with casemates on the main deck. They were too easily washed out in even moderate seas, making them unusable. Some officers at the Newport Conference had advocated placing them in the superstructure, but the heavy 5 in guns used by the Navy would have added excessive top weight. Another alternative was to place them in the forecastle, but the additional weight forward would have strained the ship where the forecastle stepped down to the main deck. The designers ultimately settled on a full-length forecastle, which allowed the casemates to be moved about 4 ft higher in the hull.

The ships' armor protection was improved over earlier designs. The belt and barbette armor was increased by an inch compared to an earlier version of the twelve-gun battleship. A new protection scheme for the funnels was devised, after the Russian experience at the Battle of Tsushima three years before had highlighted the risk of a destroyed exhaust system. The designers also emphasized the need for improved underwater protection. As a result, the Wyomings design incorporated a torpedo bulkhead, the first time the feature was included on an American battleship design. Congress approved two new battleships, BB-32 and BB-33, on 3 March 1909. Design 502 later proved to be the basis for the subsequent class of battleships, the New York-class battleships.

General characteristics and machinery
The ships of the Wyoming class were 554 ft long at the waterline and 562 ft long overall. They had a beam of 93 ft and a draft of 28 ft. The ships displaced 26000 LT as designed and up to 27243 LT at full load. They had a full length flush deck, which improved sea-keeping and the ability to work the secondary guns in heavier seas. Both ships were fitted with lattice masts. Their transverse metacentric height was 5.4 ft. Freeboard was 25 ft forward, 19 ft amidships, 18 ft at the aftmost turret, and 16 ft at the stern. They had a crew of 58 officers and 1,005 enlisted men.

The ships were powered by four-shaft Parsons steam turbines rated at 28000 shp. Steam was provided by twelve mixed oil and coal-fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers, which were trunked into two closely spaced funnels amidships. The engines generated a top speed of 20.5 kn, though on speed trials Arkansas made 21.22 kn from 25546 shp. Fuel capacity was 1667 LT of coal and 266 LT of oil. This allowed the ships to cruise for 6700 nmi at a speed of 10 kn. At 20 kn, the range fell considerably, to 2655 nmi. Steering was controlled by a single rudder.

Armament
The ships were armed with a main battery of twelve 12-inch/50 caliber Mark 7 Mod 0 guns in six Mark IX twin-gun turrets all on the centerline, two of which were placed in a superfiring pair forward. The other four turrets were placed aft of the superstructure in two superfiring pairs. These guns fired a 870 lb shell with a 353 lb propellant charge, which produced a muzzle velocity of 2900 ft/s. Wyoming and Arkansas were the only ships of the US Navy to receive the gun; earlier dreadnoughts were equipped with the lower-velocity 12-inch/45-caliber Mark 5 gun. The Mark 7 had significantly better armor penetrating capabilities, owing to its higher muzzle velocity (and thus higher striking velocity). At a range of 12000 yd, the gun could penetrate 12.3 in of contemporary face-hardened armor, compared to 10.8 in for the Mark 5. The guns were mounted in the Mark IX gun turret, which allowed for elevation to 15 degrees and depression to −5 degrees. Unlike the turrets used on earlier dreadnoughts, the Mark IX turret required the guns to return to 0 degrees to reload.

The secondary battery consisted of twenty-one 5-inch/51 caliber guns mounted in casemates along the side of the hull. These guns fired a 50 lb shell with a charge of 24.5 lb, at a muzzle velocity of 3150 ft/s. As was standard for capital ships of the period, they carried a pair of submerged 21 in torpedo tubes in the hull on the broadside. They were equipped with the Mark III Bliss-Leavitt design, which carried a 218 lb warhead and had a range of 4000 yd at a speed of 26.5 kn.

Armor
The main armored belt, which was 8 ft high, was 11 in thick over the central portion of the ship, where it protected the ammunition magazines and machinery spaces. The belt reduced to 5 in toward the stern. On the bottom edge it was reduced to 9 in. The forward end of the belt was connected with an 11 in thick transverse bulkhead with the forward-most main battery barbette, while the aft end of the belt was connected with a 9 in bulkhead. The main armored deck was 2.5 in of special treatment steel, reduced to 1.5 in in less critical areas. The conning tower had 11.5 in thick sides and a 3 in thick roof.

The gun turrets had 12 in thick faces and 3 in thick roofs. Their supporting barbettes had 11 in thick sides where they were exposed; the portions that were masked by the armored belt were reduced to 4.5 in. The lower half of the casemate armor was 11 in thick, and the upper half was reduced to 6.5 in. Inboard of the casemate battery were longitudinal armored bulkheads; these were designed to protect the uptakes to the funnels. These were deemed important because during the Russo-Japanese War, three years before, Russian battleships had had their uptakes damaged, which ducted the boiler smoke into the ship rather than out through the funnels.

Modifications
Both ships were significantly modified throughout their careers. During and shortly after World War I, the horizontal armor of the ships was improved, including the roofs of the conning tower and the gun turrets. Their deck armor was increased to 3.5 in, and eight 3 in/50 caliber anti-aircraft guns were installed. Following the signing of the Washington Naval Treaty in February 1922, modernization work was strictly controlled. The treaty governed what modifications could be made to existing ships, and included restrictions on what could be changed or added. Displacement could rise by no more than 3000 LT and no alterations of any kind could be made to the main battery guns or mounts. The primary areas that could be improved were those that concerned defense against aerial and underwater attack, along with propulsion systems.

The two Wyomings, along with the Floridas and New Yorks, were heavily modernized in the 1920s. All six ships were converted to completely oil-fired boilers with equipment taken from the cancelled South Dakota-class battleships. The boilers were trunked into a single funnel. These boilers were much more efficient than the coal-fired models the ships had been completed with, and they allowed a significantly greater cruising radius of 11000 nmi. The ships were also fitted with anti-torpedo bulges, which improved their underwater defense and also provided additional oil storage capacity. Wyoming and Arkansas lost their cage main mast, which was replaced by a short tripod mast that carried searchlights and radio antennas. Some of their secondary battery guns were relocated higher in the ship to improve their workability in heavy seas. A sponson for six guns was built into the hull abreast of the conning tower and the eight 3-inch anti-aircraft guns were moved to the top of the sponson. Both ships had their torpedo tubes removed.

Under the terms of the 1930 London Naval Treaty, Wyoming was to be demilitarized and converted into a training ship. During the demilitarization process, her anti-torpedo bulges, side armor, and half of her main battery guns were removed. Wyoming was modernized at Norfolk Navy Yard from 12 January to 3 April 1944; the reconstruction removed the last of her three 12-inch gun turrets, and replaced them with four twin and two single enclosed mounts for 5-inch/38 caliber guns. New fire control radars were also installed; these modifications allowed Wyoming to train anti-aircraft gunners with the most modern equipment they would use while in combat with the fleet. Modifications to Arkansas during World War II were kept to a minimum. In 1942, Arkansas received a new tripod foremast and bridgework, along with more anti-aircraft guns throughout the war. By 1945, she carried nine quadruple 40 mm Bofors mounts and twenty-eight 20 mm Oerlikons, and the number of 3-inch guns had been increased to ten.

Service history

After entering service, both ships were assigned to the Atlantic Fleet. The ships took part in the normal routine of training and fleet maneuvers off the east coast of the United States and in the Caribbean, interspersed with periodic maintenance. Both ships toured the Mediterranean in late 1913, making stops in Italy and France, among others. In April 1914, Arkansas was involved in the occupation of Veracruz during the Mexican Revolution, and Wyoming arrived later to support the operation. Two men from Arkansas earned the Medal of Honor for their actions during the initial occupation of the city. After the United States declared war on Germany on 6 April 1917, Wyoming, along with the rest of Battleship Division 9 (BatDiv 9), steamed to Britain to reinforce the Royal Navy's Grand Fleet, stationed in Scapa Flow. Arkansas initially remained in the United States, training gun crews for the expanding wartime fleet. In July 1918, she too was sent to Britain. Neither ship saw action during the war, though they were present when the German High Seas Fleet surrendered in November 1918.

From mid-1919 to mid-1921, Arkansas and Wyoming served in the Pacific Fleet, with the latter serving as the flagship of BatDiv 6. During this time, the ships made a tour of Central and South American countries, culminating in a visit to Valparaiso, where they took part in a naval review for the Chilean president. Both battleships returned in service with the Atlantic Fleet in mid-1921. They returned to their peacetime routine of training and maneuvers and periodic maintenance. In the summers, the ships would generally take midshipmen from the US Naval Academy on training cruises. In June 1925, Arkansas assisted relief efforts after the 1925 Santa Barbara earthquake. From late 1925 to late 1926, Arkansas received her reconstruction, followed by Wyoming in 1927. In 1929 and 1930, Arkansas visited European waters on midshipmen cruises; she made stops in several countries. Wyoming was reduced to a training ship in 1931 in accordance with the London Naval Treaty, and she spent the next decade conducting training cruises for midshipmen and NROTC cadets.

From early 1932 to early 1934, Arkansas returned for another stint in the Pacific Fleet, followed by another tour of Europe later in the year. After the outbreak of World War II in September 1939, she was assigned to the reserve force for the Neutrality Patrols. She supported the replacement of Canadian troops by American ones maintaining the occupation of Iceland in July 1941 as an escort for the troopship convoys. In November, as it became increasingly apparent that the United States would become involved in World War II, Wyoming was reassigned as a gunnery training ship, a role she served in for the duration of the war. Arkansas, meanwhile, continued in front-line service during the war, first as an escort to convoys to North Africa, and then as a shore bombardment vessel. She supported the landings at Normandy in June 1944, shelling German positions at Omaha Beach, before bombarding Cherbourg later in the month. Her next bombardment mission came with Operation Dragoon, the invasion of southern France, in August that year. She was then transferred to the Pacific Theater of Operations for action against the Japanese. She bombarded Japanese positions on Iwo Jima in February 1945 and on Okinawa in April.

With the end of the war in September 1945, Arkansas was employed with Operation Magic Carpet, repatriating American soldiers in the Pacific. Wyoming remained in service briefly after the war, though she was decommissioned in August 1947. She was sold for scrap in October and subsequently broken up. Arkansas was instead retained for use as a target ship during the Operation Crossroads nuclear tests in mid-1946. She survived the first test, an air-burst code-named ABLE, though the second experiment, an underwater detonation code-named BAKER, sank the ship.

title: Wyoming-class battleship