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Seán MacBride

Seán MacBride (26 January 1904 – 15 January 1988) was an Irish Clann na Poblachta politician who served as Minister for External Affairs from 1948 to 1951, Leader of Clann na Poblachta from 1946 to 1965 and Chief of Staff of the IRA from 1936 to 1937. He served as a Teachta Dála (TD) from 1947 to 1957.

Rising from a domestic Irish political career, he founded or participated in multiple international organisations of the 20th century, including the United Nations, the Council of Europe and Amnesty International. He received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1974, the Lenin Peace Prize for 1975–1976 and the UNESCO Silver Medal for Service in 1980.

Early life
MacBride was born in Paris in 1904, the son of Maud Gonne and Major John MacBride. As a founding member of Inghinidhe na hÉireann and Cumann na mBan, his mother was to become a prominent figure in Irish nationalist and republican circles. Later, in the thirties, she became a devotee of the social credit ideas of Major C.H. Douglas and was "noisily anti-Semitic". His father had led the Irish Transvaal Brigade against the British in the Second Boer War. Within a year of MacBride's birth, he returned to Dublin where, following his participation in the Easter Rising, John MacBride was court-martialed by the British and executed in May 1916.

MacBride's first language was French, and he retained, or, as some would claim, affected, a French accent in the English language for the rest of his life. MacBride first studied at the Jesuit Lycée Saint-Louis-de-Gonzague, and remained in Paris until his father's execution by the British for his involvement in the 1916 Easter Rising, when he was sent to school at Mount St Benedict's, Gorey, County Wexford in Ireland, and briefly at the Downside School.

MacBride first became involved in politics during the 1918 Irish general election in which he was active for Sinn Féin. The following year in 1919, aged 15, he lied about his age to join the Irish Volunteers, which fought as part of the Irish Republican Army, and took part in the Irish War of Independence. He opposed the 1921 Anglo-Irish Treaty and was imprisoned by the Irish Free State during the Irish Civil War.

Anti-Treaty IRA, cooperation with the Soviets
On his release in 1924, MacBride studied law at University College Dublin and resumed his IRA activities. He worked briefly for Éamon de Valera as his personal secretary, travelling with him to Rome to meet various dignitaries.

In January 1925, on his twenty-first birthday, MacBride married Catalina "Kid" Bulfin, a woman four years his senior who shared his political views. Bulfin was the daughter of the Irish nationalist publisher and travel-writer William Bulfin.

Before returning to Dublin in 1927, where he became the IRA's Director of Intelligence, MacBride worked as a journalist in Paris and London.

According to historians Tom Mahon and James J. Gillogly, recently deciphered IRA messages from the 1920s reveal that the organisation's two main sources of funding were Clan na Gael and the Soviet Union. The messages further reveal that MacBride, before becoming IRA Director of Intelligence, was involved in the espionage activities in Great Britain of GRU spymaster Walter Krivitsky, whom ciphered IRA communications referred to only by the code name "James".

In addition to supplying the USSR with detailed information on Royal Navy ships and Royal Air Force aeroplane engines, MacBride provided Soviet agents with "a brief specification and a complete drawing" of ASDIC, an early sonar system for detecting submarines, at a covert meeting in Amsterdam during the autumn of 1926. MacBride also assisted the GRU by providing forged passports to Soviet intelligence operatives who were at risk of capture.

In October 1926, MacBride sent a ciphered report from Paris to his IRA superiors about Soviet counterfeiting operations, saying, "Several bad Bank of England notes have been passed here lately. These are said to emanate from Russia."

Soon after his return to Dublin in 1927, he was arrested and charged with the murder of politician Kevin O'Higgins, who had been assassinated near his home in Booterstown, County Dublin. At his trial, however, Cumann na nGaedheal politician Bryan Cooper testified as a witness for the defence that, at the time of Kevin O'Higgins' murder, both he and MacBride had been aboard a ferry travelling from Britain to Ireland. MacBride was then charged with being a subversive and interned in Mountjoy Prison.

In September 1927, Krivitsky sent the IRA a message from Amsterdam, demanding to see MacBride immediately, claiming to have a "present" he was anxious to give away, and naming a cafe where the meeting could take place. As MacBride was then imprisoned in Dublin, the IRA's chief of staff, Moss Twomey, replied that the request was "rather awkward and impossible to fulfill at the present". In response, Twomey and two other senior IRA members travelled to Amsterdam and met with Krivitsky instead.

In 1929 an Irish section of the League Against Imperialism was formed and MacBride served as its secretary. Aimed at creating a "mass anti-imperialist movement", the organization was founded with the support of the Comintern.

Towards the end of the 1920s, after many supporters had left to join Fianna Fáil, some members of the IRA started pushing for a more left-wing agenda. After the IRA Army Council voted down the idea, MacBride launched a new movement, Saor Éire ("Free Ireland"), in 1931. Although it was a non-military organisation, Saor Éire was declared unlawful along with the IRA, Cumann na mBan and nine other bodies. MacBride, meanwhile, became the security services' number-one target.

In 1936, the IRA's chief of staff Moss Twomey was sent to prison for three years; he was replaced by MacBride. At the time, the movement was in a state of disarray, with conflicts between several factions and personalities. Tom Barry was appointed chief of staff to head up a military operation against the British, an action with which MacBride did not agree.

In 1937, MacBride was called to the bar. He then resigned from the IRA when the Constitution of Ireland was enacted later that year. As a barrister, MacBride frequently defended IRA prisoners of the state (Thomas Hart & Patrick McGrath). MacBride was unsuccessful in preventing the 1944 death by hanging of Charlie Kerins, who had been convicted based on fingerprint evidence of the 1942 ambush and murder of Garda Detective Sergeant Denis O'Brien. In 1946, during the inquest into the death of Seán McCaughey, MacBride embarrassed the Irish State by forcing them to admit that conditions in Portlaoise Prison were inhumane.

Clann na Poblachta, Minister for External Affairs
In 1946, MacBride founded the republican/socialist party Clann na Poblachta. He hoped it would replace Fianna Fáil as Ireland's major political party. In October 1947, he won a seat in Dáil Éireann at a by-election in the Dublin County constituency. On the same day, Patrick Kinane also won the Tipperary by-election for Clann na Poblachta.

However, at the 1948 general election Clann na Poblachta won only ten seats. The party joined with Fine Gael, the Labour Party, the National Labour Party, Clann na Talmhan and several independents to form the First Inter-Party Government with Fine Gael TD John A. Costello as Taoiseach. Richard Mulcahy was the Leader of Fine Gael, but MacBride and many other Irish Republicans had never forgiven Mulcahy for his role in carrying out 77 executions under the government of the Irish Free State in the 1920s during the Irish Civil War. To gain the support of Clann na Poblachta, Mulcahy stepped aside in favour of Costello. Two Clann na Poblachta TDs joined the cabinet; MacBride became Minister for External Affairs while Noël Browne became Minister for Health.

On his ministerial accession, MacBride sent a telegram to Pope Pius XII offering: "...to repose at the feet of Your Holiness the assurance of our filial loyalty and our devotion to Your August Person, as well as our firm resolve to be guided in all our work by the teaching of Christ and to strive for the attainment of a social order in Ireland based on Christian principles."

At MacBride's suggestion, Costello nominated the northern Protestant Denis Ireland to Seanad Éireann, the first resident of Northern Ireland to be appointed as a member of the Oireachtas. While a Senator (1948–1951), Ireland was Irish representative to the Council of Europe assisting MacBride in the leading role he was to play in securing acceptance of the European Convention on Human Rights—signed in Rome on 4 November 1950. In 1950, MacBride was president of the Council of Foreign Ministers of the Council of Europe, and he was vice-president of the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC, later OECD) in 1948–1951. He was responsible for Ireland not joining the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO).

He was instrumental in the repeal of the External Relations Act and the passing of the Republic of Ireland Act which came into force in 1949. It declared that Ireland may officially be described as the Republic of Ireland and that the President of Ireland had the executive authority of the state in its external relations.

In 1951, MacBride controversially ordered Noël Browne to resign as a minister over the Mother and Child Scheme after it was attacked by the Irish Catholic hierarchy and the Irish medical establishment. Whatever the merits of the scheme, or of Browne, MacBride concluded in a Cabinet memorandum: "Even if, as Catholics, we were prepared to take the responsibility of disregarding [the Hierarchy's] views, which I do not think we can do, it would be politically impossible to do so . . . We are dealing with the considered views of the leaders of the Catholic Church to which the vast majority of our people belong; these views cannot be ignored."

Also in 1951, Clann na Poblachta was reduced to two seats after the general election. MacBride kept his seat and was re-elected again in 1954. Opposing the internment of IRA suspects during the Border Campaign (1956–1962), he contested both the 1957 and 1961 general elections but failed to be elected both times. He then retired from politics and continued practising as a barrister.

International roles and commissions
After retiring from politics in Ireland, MacBride assumed various international commissions and roles. He was among a group of lawyers who founded JUSTICE—the UK-based human rights and law reform organisation—initially to monitor the show trials after the 1956 Budapest uprising. Later it became the UK section of the International Commission of Jurists for which MacBride, from 1963 to 1971, was Secretary-General. In 1966, his standing on the Commission was unsuccessfully challenged by US claims that he had been involved with a Central Intelligence Agency funding operation.

In 1961, MacBride was a co-founder of Amnesty International, and he served as its International Chairman until 1975.

In 1963, he had helped draft the constitution of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU); following consultations on the constitutions of newly-independent Ghana, Zambia and Tanzania.

In 1968, MacBride was elected Chair and, in 1975, President of the International Peace Bureau in Geneva, a position he retained until 1985. He was also involved in the International Prisoners of Conscience Fund.

In the course of the 1970s, he held various positions with the United Nations. In 1973, he was elected by the UN General Assembly to the post of High Commissioner for Namibia, with the rank of Assistant Secretary-General. It was thought that, represented by man whose father had volunteered to fight alongside their forefathers, the Afrikaner leadership of Apartheid South Africa would find the UN's assurances in return for a withdrawal from Namibia more credible.

In 1977, MacBride was appointed president of the International Commission for the Study of Communication Problems, set up by UNESCO. In 1980, this produced the controversial MacBride Report which called for policies to reduce the international dominance of the Western media.

During the 1980s, he initiated the Appeal by Lawyers against Nuclear War which was jointly sponsored by the International Peace Bureau and the International Progress Organization. In close cooperation with Francis Boyle and Hans Köchler of the International Progress Organization he lobbied the General Assembly for a resolution demanding an Advisory Opinion from the International Court of Justice on the legality of nuclear arms. The Advisory Opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons was eventually handed down by the ICJ in 1996.

In 1982, MacBride was chairman of the International Commission to enquire into reported violations of International Law by Israel during its invasion of the Lebanon. The other members were Richard Falk, Kader Asmal, Brian Bercusson, Géraud de la Pradelle, and Stefan Wild. The commission's report, which concluded that "the government of Israel has committed acts of aggression contrary to international law", was published in 1983 under the title Israel in Lebanon.

Nobel Peace Prize and other international honours
MacBride's work was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize (1974) as a man who "mobilised the conscience of the world in the fight against injustice". He shared the prize with Eisaku Sato, the former Japanese Prime Minister acknowledged for his commitment to peace and non-proliferation.

Other international honours followed: the Lenin Peace Prize in 1975; the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement in 1978; and the UNESCO Silver Medal for Service (1980). He received the Lenin Peace Prize for his opposition to what MacBride referred to as "this absolutely obscene arms race." He was one of only two to win both the Lenin and Nobel peace prizes, the other being Linus Pauling.

Last Irish interventions
In 1977, in the midst of the Northern Ireland Troubles, MacBride co-operating with Desmond Boal (QC and former chairman of Ian Paisley's Democratic Unionist Party) as joint mediator in confidential negotiations between the Provisional IRA (PIRA) and the Ulster Volunteer Force about a federal settlement for Ireland. Their efforts included a meeting, brokered by West Belfast priest Des Wilson, between Boal and Gerry Adams. Inasmuch as their exchange was "frank", Adams found the discussion "constructive", but it failed to identify common political ground.

In 1984, MacBride was one of four well-known Irish activists, two Catholic and two Protestants, who endorsed a set of fair-employment guidelines for American investment in Northern Ireland, intended to redress a history of sectarian discrimination. The campaign for what became known as the MacBride Principles resulted in both British and American legislation.

In the Irish Republic, MacBride edited a 1981 report of a Commission of Enquiry into the Irish Penal System. Crime and Punishment broadly condemned the country's prisons, unreformed since independence, for failing to address the task of offender rehabilitation and consequently for its high degree of recidivism.

In 1983, MacBride voted yes to the Eighth Amendment to the Constitution, enshrining the legal ban on abortion, and wrote a newspaper article two days before stating his position. In 1985, he supported the largely female workforce in the Dunnes Stores Strike and attended at least one of their rallies.

Later life and death
In his later years, MacBride lived in his mother's home, Roebuck House, which served as a meeting place for many years for Irish nationalists, as well as in the Parisian arrondissement where he grew up with his mother.

Seán MacBride died in Dublin on 15 January 1988, eleven days before his 84th birthday. He is buried in Glasnevin Cemetery alongside his mother, and his wife, who died in 1976.

On the occasion of MacBride's death, Oliver Tambo of the African National Congress (ANC), stated "Seán MacBride will always be remembered for the concrete leadership he provided to the liberation movement and people of Namibia and South Africa. Driven by his own personal and political insight arising out of the cause of national freedom in Ireland ... our debt to him can never be repaid."

Legacy
Streets in Windhoek, Namibia and Amsterdam are named after him. The Headquarters of Amnesty International Ireland is called 'Seán MacBride House' in his honour. and the International Peace Bureau likewise named the 'Seán MacBride Prize' in his name.

A bust of MacBride was unveiled in Iveagh House, headquarters of the Irish Department of Foreign Affairs in 1995.

In popular culture
A novel, The Casting of Mr O'Shaughnessy, was published in 1995 (revised edition 2002) by Éamon Delaney in which the eponymous Mr O'Shaughnessy was, in the author's own words "partly, but quite obviously, based on the career of the colourful Seán MacBride".

Career summary

 * 1946–1965 Leader of Clann na Poblachta
 * 1947–1958 Member of Dáil Éireann
 * 1948–1951 Minister for External Affairs of Ireland in Inter-Party Government
 * 1948–1951 Vice-president of the Organization for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC)
 * 1950 President, Committee of Ministers of Council of Europe
 * 1954 Offered but declined, Ministerial office in Irish Government
 * 1963–1971 Secretary-General, International Commission of Jurists
 * 1966 Consultant to the Pontifical Commission on Justice and Peace
 * 1961–1975 Chairman Amnesty International Executive
 * 1968–1974 Chairman of the Executive International Peace Bureau
 * 1975–1985 President of the Executive International Peace Bureau
 * 1968–1974 Chairman Special Committee of International NGOs on Human Rights (Geneva)
 * 1973 Vice-chairman, Congress of World Peace Forces (Moscow, October 1973)
 * 1973 Vice-president, World Federation of United Nations Associations
 * 1973–1977 Elected by the General Assembly of the United Nations to the post of United Nations Commissioner for Namibia with the rank of Assistant Secretary-General of the United Nations
 * 1977–1980 Chairman, Commission on International Communication for UNESCO
 * 1982 Chairman of the International Commission to enquire into reported violations of International Law by Israel during its invasion of Lebanon

title: Seán MacBride


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Talk:Autonomous Region of Bougainville

Untitled
"Bougainville has gone through a long revolution to end imperialism." - all the sites that reference this are completely biased, accusing Australia of either generic or economic imperialism, perhaps no surprise to the occupants of the Australian Empire. In any case, we need a neutral description of who the revolutionaries are plus their aims. Stan 16:15 28 Jun 2003 (UTC)

Huh? Wrong target! Bougainville has never been an Australian football. It was part of New Guinea - i.e., it belonged to the German Empire - until one of the World Wars - the first, I think, at which point the League of Nations assigned it for "protection" to Australia. If colonial exploitation on the European model was the aim, Australia failed rather miserably. Independance for PNG (including Bougainville) was granted readily, and possibly rather unwisely - far too little was done in the 50s and 60s to prepare PNG for democracy, and then everything happened all at once. Many observers blame this mismanagement (at least I think it was mismanagement) for the much of the trouble that greater PNG has experienced in the years since then. Of course, this is a familiar story. Much the same could be said of many (most?) of the former colonies around the world.

On the other hand, far and away the biggest problem greater PNG has today is overpopulation. To make matters worse, PNG has very little income and depends on the large amount of foreign aid it gets (most of it from Australia). Aid aside, the one decent source of hard-cash income PNG had was the enormous copper mine on Bougainville, owned by a multi-national mining giant of Australian origin, and operated (from all that I hear) with little or no sense of environmental or community responsibility. Typical old-style mining company, in other words.

PNG desperately wanted to hang on to the mining revenue, the Bougainvillians desperately wanted to get rid of the (from their point of view) foreign oppressors. Eventually, the islanders decided that, if it meant getting rid of rule by Port Morseby's goon squads, then they could live without the mine. If they made the mine unworkable with civil unrest, then PNG would have no reason to insist on ruling Bougainville any more. And that's what they did.

The PNG troops and the hired mercenaries (Sandline Affair and all that stuff) got rougher and rougher, eventually converting Australian-supplied general-purpose helicopters into helicopter gunships. That, for Australia and New Zealand, was pretty much the last straw. Nothing much was said in public (at least not that I remember) but you didn't have to be Einstein to work out that the Oz government said to the PNG government "either you get your act together in Bougainville or we stop being the one and only thing that stands between you and total economic collapse".

Under heavy international pressure, PNG consented to negotiate with the rebels, and the rebels wound back their fight. Talks went on for a long time, with New Zealand playing a leading role. Last I heard, the island was (at least in relative terms) peaceful.

All of the above from memory, so I won't stick it in the article, but if anyone cares to cheack my facts, then edit as required and go right ahead. Tannin 16:49 28 Jun 2003 (UTC)

 * Heh, pretty good memory! I'd heard the occasional oblique ref to Bougainville troubles, but wasn't clear who was on whose side.  Next I suppose we'll hear about the penguins at Mawson being oppressed by the evil scientists (violation of privacy, etc) :-) Stan 17:11 28 Jun 2003 (UTC)

There were two secessions. The first one was not long after PNG independence, and the rebels called their country North Solomons. Then the later one was fought by a group whose name incorporate their political and military wings: the Bougainville Interim Government / Bougainville Revolutionary Army. That's BIG/BRA. I am not making this up, you know. Gritchka 17:32 28 Jun 2003 (UTC)

Merge into North Solomons
I propose merging this article into North Solomons. The two articles currently cover almost exactly the same ground.

Either that, or we rewrite Bougainville to cover Bougainville island only, and rewrite North Solomons to cover the island group/province only.

Wantok 06:48, 19 May 2006 (UTC)

 * Two articles I think - Bougainville can be primarily geographical/historical/ecological, while North Solomons Province is primarily political. The former is in Category:Islands of Papua New Guinea, while the latter is in Category:Provinces of Papua New Guinea. Stan 20:41, 19 May 2006 (UTC)

 * I've removed my merge proposal...but have suggested some restructuring of content. See Talk page at North Solomon Islands. Wantok 02:35, 22 May 2006 (UTC)

i actually went to bouganville and buka and arawa just recently so i have a first hand experience if you need any information

Is there any interest in trying to merge the Bougainville articles so they make a bit more sense? I think there isn't much sense in having different articles for Bougainville the island and Bougainville the province. Rebecca 00:32, 12 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Yep, I'd support a merge with Bougainville Island. The differences are too slight to warrant two separate articles, and it would be much clearer and more useful to readers if they were combined.  I'd suggest retaining the title Bougainville Province with redirects from North Solomons Province and Bougainville Island.  Also, I'd support Bougainville being a redirect to here, and moving the existing Bougainville (which is a dab) to Bougainville (disambiguation).  Wantok (toktok) 01:38, 12 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Makes sense, but why keep at Bougainville Province? I was thinking of Bougainville - that disambiguation page doesn't make much sense. If people use the word Bougainville, they're looking for Bougainville. Rebecca 01:53, 12 October 2007 (UTC)

Republic
There should be an article on the claimed Republic of Bougainville, on the uprisings, fighting etc. There is an article on Transnistria, and an article on Sealand, so this only makes sense.

No such thing as Bougainville Province
The correct name of the area referred to in this article is the Autonomous Region of Bougainville. Bougainville is not a province. Prior to this it was called the North Solomons Pronvince, and before that it was the Bougainville District.

The BRA certainly believed that they were fighting Australian imperialism. If you want to know their motivations, that's what they will tell you. Perhaps the person above doesn't believe what they say, or thinks there is some better explanation, ok, maybe that's true - but that requires some kind of supporting evidence.

Also, Bougainville was as much a colony of Australia as the rest of New Guinea. The mine, which was ultimately the source of the counflict, was basically forced on Bougainvilleans by Australian colonial officials; the mine was owned and operated by an Australian company. Australia continued to supply the Iroquois helicopters with parts until popular pressure and lobbying at the UN by the BRA made them reverse their position. Even after that, Australia continued to arm, train and cooperate with the PNGDF, despite the fact PNGDF commanders had been boasting about torching villages and what not. Maybe all this is embarrasing to Australians, they don't like to be reminded of it. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 144.139.145.252 (talk) 13:56, 21 October 2007 (UTC)

Fidelis Semoso is not governor of anything
Fidelis Semoso is the Open Member for Bougainville and the Minister for Bougainville Affairs in the PNG Parliament. He is not the governor of Bougainville, because there is no such position. Bougainville is not a province - it is an autonomous region. It has a president, Joseph Kabui. These distinctions are rather important; they certainly are very important to Bougainvilleans...

Really, the article needs a total overhaul. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 61.68.104.111 (talk) 12:48, 22 October 2007 (UTC)

Eastern coastal road from Buin to Kieta and Arawa
When was this completed, supplementing the previous inland road heading northwest? Masalai (talk) 06:39, 25 January 2013 (UTC)

The map
The map needs to be replaced: it has a dreadful error. Treasury, Shortland and Fauro Islands or on the southeast, not northwest side of the national border. Masalai (talk) 11:46, 30 May 2013 (UTC)

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 * Emblem of the Autonomous Bougainville Government.png

Districts and LLGs
The districts, there are actually 11, and LLG (there an none but an abundance of constituencies) do not match the official map as of 2015. --Chtrede (talk) 07:57, 12 October 2018 (UTC)

 * Please feel free to include your suggested fixes in the article - anyone can edit Wikipedia! The Drover's Wife (talk) 12:18, 12 October 2018 (UTC)
 * I know. But not my topic. Only working in German WP and just wanted to suggest it here as well. --Chtrede (talk) 10:08, 13 October 2018 (UTC)

Monarch
Is it correct to list Elizabeth II as monarch in the infobox? She's the monarch of Papua New Guinea, but, then Peter O'Neill is the prime minister of Papua New Guinea, yet he doesn't serve in that role directly in relation to the region, and he is accordingly not listed as its prime minister in the infobox. Does the region have a direct monarchical relationship with Elizabeth? Largoplazo (talk) 16:58, 7 February 2019 (UTC)

 * I only put it there following the model used for the devolved nations within the UK. If people think it is not appropriate for the Monarch to be included in the infobox i will gladly remove them. Cordyceps-Zombie (talk) 21:31, 7 February 2019 (UTC)

Merger Proposal
I propose merging 2019 Bougainvillean independence referendum as the other page is a stub and would be a better fit on the Autonomous Region of Bougainville page. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Peacekeeper 1234 (talk • contribs) 15:59, 2 July 2019 (UTC)
 * Oppose The article is stub now as the referendum will not occur until later this year. As the date approaches more info will be available to fill said article. Since this referendum can quite possibly lead to a new country I feel it is notable enough to have its own article. ProjectHorizons (talk) 19:32, 2 July 2019 (UTC)
 * Oppose As above. If Bougainville achieves independence this may affect both the title of this page and also the treatment of the referendum as a seperate page. Until then, needs to be as is. E x nihil (talk) : Ex nihil (talk) 21:00, 2 July 2019 (UTC)
 * Oppose referendum as well as elections always have their own page, whether they're stubs or not. The referendum is linked in the Bougainville election template. Cordially.--Aréat (talk) 11:05, 4 July 2019 (UTC)
 * Oppose as above. Super   Ψ   Dro  09:39, 7 July 2019 (UTC)
 * Oppose Standard to have a standalone article on independence referendums. Number   5  7  20:56, 1 August 2019 (UTC)
 * Oppose - very weak ground for merger Mimihitam (talk) 21:11, 5 August 2019 (UTC)

New country
It was announced on the news today (Saturday November 23 2019) that Bougainville might become independent of Papua New Guinea, making it the newest country in the world. This could be mentioned in the article. Vorbee (talk) 09:06, 23 November 2019 (UTC)

It ısn't ındependent yet for some reason. If Bouganvılle had 100 people & the same referendum was held, 98 would vote for ındependence. P.N.G. ıs so flıppıng corrupt tbh. PhoenixSummon (talk) 22:15, 22 December 2019 (UTC)

 * Don't hold your breath PhoenixSummon. I've been involved with the birth of two countries. The process is vast and complicated. Could be years. There needs to be a response from PNG, followed by a huge amount of negotiation and planning and almost certainly a major aid program by DFAT, MFAT, ADB and PIF to get them going. Think of Brexit. And, Vorbee, it is already in the ARB article. Things will change as they develop. One, day, we will have to rename the page, and probably merge the referendum into its history, but not yet a while. E x nihil (talk) : Ex nihil (talk) 12:34, 24 December 2019 (UTC)

Oĸ, Mr. Polıtıcıan, you can calm ıf you want, oĸ? PhoenixSummon (talk) 17:21, 24 December 2019 (UTC)
 * If it happens, I'd suggest not renaming the page, but creating a new one from scratch. The Autonomous Region of Bougainville will still need to be documented as an historical entity. ghouston (talk) 09:57, 1 February 2020 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Autonomous Region of Bougainville


text:
Protoplasm

Protoplasm is the living part of a cell that is surrounded by a plasma membrane. It is a mixture of small molecules such as ions, monosaccharides, amino acids, and macromolecules such as proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, etc.

In some definitions, it is a general term for the cytoplasm (e.g., Mohl, 1846), but for others, it also includes the nucleoplasm (e.g., Strasburger, 1882). For Sharp (1921), "According to the older usage the extra-nuclear portion of the protoplast [the entire cell, excluding the cell wall] was called "protoplasm," but the nucleus also is composed of protoplasm, or living substance in its broader sense. The current consensus is to avoid this ambiguity by employing Strasburger's (1882) terms cytoplasm [coined by Kölliker (1863), originally as synonym for protoplasm] and nucleoplasm [term coined by van Beneden (1875), or karyoplasm, used by Flemming (1878)]." The cytoplasm definition of Strasburger excluded the plastids (Chromatoplasm).

Like the nucleus, whether to include the vacuole in the protoplasm concept is controversial.

Terminology
Besides "protoplasm", many other related terms and distinctions were used for the cell contents over time. These were as follows:
 * Urschleim (Oken, 1802, 1809),
 * Protoplasma (Purkinje, 1840, von Mohl, 1846),
 * Primordialschlauch (primordial utricle, von Mohl, 1846),
 * sarcode (Dujardin, 1835, 1841),
 * Cytoplasma (Kölliker, 1863),
 * Hautschicht/Körnerschicht (ectoplasm/endoplasm, Pringsheim, 1854; Hofmeister, 1867),
 * Grundsubstanz (ground substance, Cienkowski, 1863),
 * metaplasm/protoplasm (Hanstein, 1868),
 * deutoplasm/protoplasm (van Beneden, 1870),
 * bioplasm (Beale, 1872),
 * paraplasm/protoplasm (Kupffer, 1875),
 * inter-filar substance theory (Velten, 1876)
 * Hyaloplasma (Pfeffer, 1877),
 * Protoplast (Hanstein, 1880),
 * Enchylema/Hyaloplasma (Hanstein, 1880),
 * Kleinkörperchen or Mikrosomen (small bodies or microsomes, Hanstein, 1882),
 * paramitome (Flemming, 1882),
 * Idioplasma (Nageli, 1884),
 * Zwischensubstanz (inter-alveolar substance, Bütschli, 1892),
 * Grundplasma (ground plasma, Schütt, 1895),
 * ergastoplasme (Garnier, 1897),
 * phaneroplasm/cryptoplasm (Seifriz, 1931),
 * cytoplasmic matrix (Munson, 1899; zytoplasmatische Matrix, Bergmann, 1956),
 * Protoplasma- oder Zelleinschlüsse (protoplasmic or cellular inclusions, Szymonowicz, 1901),
 * kinoplasm/trophoplasm (Strasburger et at., 1912),
 * cytosol (Lardy, 1965).

History
The word "protoplasm" comes from the Greek protos for first, and plasma for thing formed, and was originally used in religious contexts. It was used in 1839 by J. E. Purkinje for the material of the animal embryo. Later, in 1846 Hugo von Mohl redefined the term (also named as Primordialschlauch, "primordial utricle") to refer to the "tough, slimy, granular, semi-fluid" substance within plant cells, to distinguish this from the cell wall and the cell sap (Zellsaft) within the vacuole. Max Schultze in 1861 proposed the "Protoplasm Doctrine" which states that all living cells are made of a living substance called Protoplasm. Thomas Huxley (1869) later referred to it as the "physical basis of life" and considered that the property of life resulted from the distribution of molecules within this substance. The protoplasm became an "epistemic thing". Its composition, however, was mysterious and there was much controversy over what sort of substance it was.

In 1872, Beale created the vitalist term "bioplasm", to contrast with the materialism of Huxley. In 1880, term protoplast was proposed by Hanstein (1880) for the entire cell, excluding the cell wall, and some authors like Julius von Sachs (1882) preferred that name instead of cell.

In 1965, Lardy introduced the term "cytosol", later redefined to refer to the liquid inside cells.

By the time Huxley wrote, a long-standing debate was largely settled over the fundamental unit of life: was it the cell or was it protoplasm? By the late 1860s, the debate was largely settled in favor of protoplasm. The cell was a container for protoplasm, the fundamental and universal material substance of life. Huxley's principal contribution was to establish protoplasm as incompatible with a vitalistic theory of life. Attempts to investigate the origin of life through the creation of synthetic "protoplasm" in the laboratory were not successful.

The idea that protoplasm of eukaryotes is simply divisible into a ground substance called "cytoplasm" and a structural body called the cell nucleus reflects the more primitive knowledge of cell structure that preceded the development of electron microscopy, when it seemed that cytoplasm was a homogeneous fluid and the existence of most sub-cellular compartments, or how cells maintain their shape, was unknown. Today, it is known that the cell contents are structurally very complex and contain multiple organelles, the cytoskeleton and biomolecular condensates.the word protoplasm is mainly divided in to two parts cytoplasm and nucleus.

Physical nature
Protoplasm is physically translucent, granular slimy, semifluid or viscous. In it, granules of different shapes and sizes are suspended in solution. It may exist in two interchangeable states which are more liquid-like sol state and more solid-like gel state which is like jelly. The constituent molecules are free to move in sol state, while in gel state, the constituent molecules are compactly arranged. Protoplasm becomes opaque when it is heated. It also coagulates on heating. It occurs everywhere in the cell. In eukaryotes, the portion of protoplasm surrounding the cell nucleus is known as the cytoplasm and the portion inside the nucleus as the nucleoplasm. In prokaryotes the material inside the plasma membrane is the bacterial cytoplasm, while in Gram-negative bacteria the region outside the plasma membrane but inside the outer membrane is the periplasm.

Chemical composition
There are about 30 elements, like carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, sulphur, calcium and many others which are identified in protoplasm of different cells. They form compounds, like water (65-80%), carbohydrates, ions, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids (DNA and RNA), fatty acids, glycerol, nucleotides, nucleosides and minerals. They are living as long as they are part of protoplasm. They are not able to perform functions of life independently. The composition of protoplasm is inconsistent and continuous changes take place in it.

Functions
Some functions of protoplasm are:-

 * 1) It provides place where all life functions occur
 * 2) The cells respond to various stimuli like temperature, light, chemicals, gravitation, pricking, electric shocks and others because of properties of protoplasm.
 * 3) Cyclosis (the streaming movement of protoplasm is known as Cyclosis. It helps in even distribution of various materials in the cells.)

title: Protoplasm


text:
Pacific Electric

The Pacific Electric Railway Company, nicknamed the Red Cars, was a privately owned mass transit system in Southern California consisting of electrically powered streetcars, interurban cars, and buses and was the largest electric railway system in the world in the 1920s. Organized around the city centers of Los Angeles and San Bernardino, it connected cities in Los Angeles County, Orange County, San Bernardino County and Riverside County.

The system shared dual gauge track with the narrow gauge Los Angeles Railway, "Yellow Car," or "LARy" system on Main Street in downtown Los Angeles (directly in front of the 6th and Main terminal), on 4th Street, and along Hawthorne Boulevard south of downtown Los Angeles toward the cities of Hawthorne, Gardena, and Torrance.

Districts
The system had four districts:
 * Northern District: San Gabriel Valley, including Pasadena, Mount Lowe, South Pasadena, Alhambra, El Monte, Covina, Duarte, Glendora, Azusa, Sierra Madre, and Monrovia.
 * Eastern District: Pomona, San Bernardino, Arrowhead Springs, Riverside, Rialto and Redlands in the Inland Empire.
 * Southern District: Long Beach, Newport Beach, Huntington Beach, San Pedro via Dominguez, Santa Ana, El Segundo, Redondo Beach via Gardena, and San Pedro Via Torrance.
 * Western District: Hollywood, Glendale/Burbank, San Fernando Valley, Beverly Hills, Santa Monica, Manhattan/Redondo/Hermosa Beaches, Venice, Playa Del Rey.

Origins
Electric trolleys first appeared in Los Angeles in 1887. In 1895 the Pasadena & Pacific Railway was created from a merger of the Pasadena and Los Angeles Railway and the Los Angeles Pacific Railway (to Santa Monica.) The Pasadena & Pacific Railway boosted Southern California tourism, living up to its motto "from the mountains to the sea."

The Pacific Electric Railway was created in 1901 by railroad executive Henry E. Huntington and banker Isaias W. Hellman. As a Vice President of the Southern Pacific Railroad (SP), operated by his uncle, Collis P. Huntington, Huntington had a background in electric trolley lines in San Francisco where he oversaw SP's effort to consolidate many smaller street railroads into one organized network. Hellman, the President of the Nevada Bank, San Francisco's largest, became one of the largest bond holders for these lines and he and the younger Huntington developed a close business relationship. The success of their San Francisco trolley adventure and Hellman's experience in financing some early Los Angeles trolley lines led them to invest in the purchase of some existing downtown Los Angeles lines which they began to standardize and organize into one network called the Los Angeles Railway. When his uncle Collis died, Henry lost a boardroom battle for control of the Southern Pacific to Union Pacific President E. H. Harriman. Huntington then decided to focus his energies on Southern California.

In May 1901, Hellman, who had been Southern California's leading banker for almost three decades (and owned much property down there), wrote Huntington that "the time is at hand when we should commence building suburban railroads out of the city." Hellman added that he had already tasked engineer Epes Randolph to survey and lay out the company's first line which would be to Long Beach. In that same year, Huntington and Hellman incorporated a new entity, the Pacific Electric Railway of California, formed to construct new electric rail lines to connect Los Angeles with surrounding cities. Hellman and his group of investors owned the controlling majority of stock (double that of Huntington's) and the newspapers of the time referred to it as the Huntington-Hellman syndicate. Using surrogates, the syndicate began purchasing property and rights-of-way. The company's first main project, the line to Long Beach, opened July 4, 1902.

Huntington experienced periods of opposition from organized labor with the construction of the new railways. Tensions between union leaders and like-minded Los Angeles businessmen were high from the early 1900s up through the 1920s. Strikes and boycotts troubled the Pacific Electric throughout those years until they reached the height of violence in the 1919 Streetcar Strike of Los Angeles. The efforts of organized labor simmered with the onset of World War I.

Railroads were one part of the enterprise. Revenue from passenger traffic rarely generated a profit, unlike freight. The real money for the investors was in supplying electric power to new communities and in developing and selling real estate. To get the railways and electricity to their towns, local groups offered the Huntington interest opportunities in local land. Soon Huntington and his partners had significant holdings in the land companies developing Naples, Bay City (Seal Beach), Huntington Beach, Newport Beach and Redondo Beach.

Harriman, who controlled the powerful Southern Pacific Railroad, was concerned with the competition that these new electric lines gave his steam railroad traffic, and had been prodding Huntington for joint ownership of the lines but Huntington refused to negotiate. In early 1903, Harriman proposed a franchise plan with three-cent fare plan to the Los Angeles City Council, a plan which, if accepted, would have handicapped the other railways severely. Huntington countered with a ticket book which gave the rider 500 mi of travel for $6.25, which undercut the Harriman strategy. The Council vetoed the franchise idea, unable to believe adequate service could be provided for such a low fare. Then, on April 14, 1903, Harriman bought Hook's Los Angeles Traction Company, which ran lines within the downtown area and, through its California Pacific subsidiary, was constructing a line from Los Angeles to San Pedro.

The final confrontation came over a bidding war for the 6th Street franchise, in which the franchise (thought to be worth maybe $10,000), finally went to the top bidder for $110,000 (equivalent to $ in ), with Harriman the secret winner. In May 1903, Huntington made an overnight trip to San Francisco and worked out an arrangement with Harriman. The Pacific Electric would get the Los Angeles Traction Lines, SP's San Gabriel Valley Rapid Transit Railway line, the 6th Street franchise, and some downtown trackage. In return, Harriman got 40.3% of PE stock, an amount equal to Huntington's, with Hellman, Borel and De Guigne owning the remaining 20%. Huntington could expand the PE as he saw fit, but he was not to compete with existing SP lines. A byproduct of this sale was that Harriman sold the banking unit of his Wells Fargo Company to Hellman who merged it with his Nevada Bank operations and established the Pacific Coast's largest, most powerful bank.

Construction
On June 6, 1903, Huntington created the Los Angeles Inter-Urban Railway, capitalized at $10 million (equivalent to $ in ), with plans to extend lines to Santa Ana, Newport Beach, the San Fernando Valley, La Habra, Redlands and Riverside, with branches to Colton and San Bernardino. He simultaneously created the Los Angeles Land Company. Huntington owned almost all the stock in the companies, with token amounts allotted to company directors. Although the company allowed Huntington to proceed with construction plans unencumbered by outside interference, the poor state of the bond market meant that he had to turn to stockholders to finance expansion. In 1904 he acquired and finished the Los Angeles and Glendale Railway. In June, LAIU assumed control of the Riverside and Arlington Railway and the Santa Ana and Orange Motor Railway, and soon after, PE and LAIU finished their extension to Huntington Beach and began building a line to Covina.

Huntington continued to expand and not declare profits. On December 7, 1904, the Hellman group sold the rest of their shares and bonds in PE and LAIU to Huntington and Harriman for $1.2 million (equivalent to $ in ). Huntington and Harriman were now equal partners in ownership of the Pacific Electric. The Hellman syndicate retained their 45% interest in the Los Angeles Railway, which they thought would eventually declare dividends.

By 1905, the Newport and Santa Ana lines were completed. In 1906, the Newport line was extended to Balboa, and in late 1906, lines to Sierra Madre and Oak Knoll in Pasadena were finished. The two firms controlled 449 miles of track, with the Pacific Electric at 197 miles and the LAIU, 252 miles. Huntington purchased the Los Angeles and Redondo Railway in July 1905, along with the Redondo Land Company, which owned 90% of the land in the beach community. This announcement precipitated a land boom in the area which resulted in a quick return of Huntington's entire investment in the area and in the railway.

On March 19, 1906, an agreement was reached to sell control of the Los Angeles Pacific Railroad lines, owned by Moses Sherman and Eli P. Clark, for a reported $6 million to Harriman (equivalent to $ in ); this turned over all the lines in downtown Los Angeles to Santa Monica and down the coast to Redondo Beach to the Southern Pacific. In January 1907, the Hellman syndicate, after seeing that Huntington ran the Los Angeles Railway similarly to PE, continually expanding and not declaring dividends, sold their 45% stake in the Los Angeles Railway to Harriman and the Southern Pacific.

The Covina line was completed in 1907, as well as a line from Monrovia to Glendora. The system reached La Habra in 1908. By 1910 PE operated nearly 900 mi of track. Routes had been built into or passed through areas just beginning to grow.

1905 was the Pacific Electric's most profitable year, when the road made $90,711 (equivalent to $ in ). Profits from the Huntington Land and Improvement Company made up for the poor earnings of the interurban system, with profits of $151,000 in 1905 rising to $402,000 in 1907 (equivalent to $ and $ in ). However, in 1909, earnings were only $75,000.

Huntington had begun long negotiations with Harriman about consolidating the Los Angeles electric railways beginning in 1907. There had always been a difference between the two men as to the purpose of the railway, with Huntington seeing the PE as a means to facilitate his real estate efforts, and Harriman seeing it as part of the Southern Pacific's overall transportation system in Southern California. Harriman left Huntington alone until 1910, when the former refused to allow the latter to run a line to San Diego that would have interfered with a competitive arrangement Harriman had worked out with the Santa Fe Railway.

In July 1908, Huntington leased all the lines of the Los Angeles Inter-Urban Railway to Harriman. In 1909 he sold the systems in Fresno and Santa Clara County to the Southern Pacific. Talks paused after the death of Harriman on September 9, 1909, but resumed in early 1910. On September 27, 1910, Huntington and Southern Pacific management came to a final agreement. In a complicated stock and bond transaction, Huntington conveyed his 50% of Pacific Electric to the Southern Pacific, while he acquired SP's 45% interest in the Los Angeles Railway. In addition, Huntington conveyed the Los Angeles and Redondo Railway to the Southern Pacific. Huntington retained control of the Los Angeles Railway, the narrow gauge street car system known locally as "Yellow Cars," until a controlling interest in this company was sold off by Huntington's estate in 1944.

The Great Merger and the "New" Pacific Electric

In what was called the "Great Merger" of September 1, 1911, the Southern Pacific created a new Pacific Electric Railway Company, with all electrical operations now under the Pacific Electric name. The constituent railroads were:

 * Original "old" PE owned by Huntington
 * Los Angeles Inter-Urban Railway
 * Los Angeles Pacific Railway
 * Los Angeles and Redondo Railway
 * San Bernardino Valley Traction Company
 * San Bernardino Interurban Railway
 * Redlands Central
 * Riverside and Arlington Railway Company

Following these acquisitions, PE was the largest operator of interurban electric railway passenger service in the world, with 2,160 daily trains over 1000 mi of track. It operated to many destinations in Southern California, particularly to the south and east.

The Southern Pacific now began to emphasize freight operations. From 1911, when revenue from freight was $519,226 ($ adjusted for inflation), freight revenue climbed to $1,203,956 in 1915 (equivalent to $ in ), 13% of total revenue.

During the 1920s profits were good and the lines were extended to the Pasadena area, to the beaches at Santa Monica, Del Rey, Manhattan/Redondo/Hermosa Beach and Long Beach in Los Angeles County, and to Newport Beach and Huntington Beach in Orange County. Extra service beyond the normal schedules was provided on weekends, particularly in the late afternoon when passengers wanted to return simultaneously. Comedian Harold Lloyd highlighted the popularity and utility of the system in an extended sequence in his 1924 film Girl Shy, where, after finding one Red Car too crowded, he commandeered another and drove at high speed through the streets of Culver City and Los Angeles.

In response to a proposal to establish the first bus company in Los Angeles by William Gibbs McAdoo, Pacific Electric and the Los Angeles Railway proposed their own system, the Los Angeles Motor Bus Company. A public referendum chose the latter in May 1923. The first service began in August 1923, and by 1925 had 53 miles of bus routes, the second-most in the nation after Chicago.

PE operated frequent freight trains under electric power throughout its service area (as far as 65 mi) to Redlands, including operating electrically powered Railway Post Office routes, one of the few U.S. interurbans to do so. This provided important revenue. The PE was responsible for an innovation in grade crossing safety: the automatic electromechanical grade crossing signal, nicknamed the wigwag. This device was quickly adopted by other railroads. A few wigwags continue in operation.

During this period, the Los Angeles Railway provided local streetcar service in central Los Angeles and to nearby communities. These trolleys were known as the "Yellow Cars" and carried more passengers than the PE's "Red Cars" since they ran in the most densely populated portions of Los Angeles, including south to Hawthorne and along Pico Boulevard to near West Los Angeles to terminate at the huge Sears Roebuck store and distribution center (the L.A. Railway's most popular line, the "P" line). The Yellow Cars' unusual narrow gauge PCC streetcars, by now painted MTA two-tone green, continued to operate until the end of rail service in 1963.

Large profits from land development were generated along the routes of the new lines. Huntington Beach was incorporated in 1909 and developed by the Huntington Beach Company, a real-estate development firm owned by Henry Huntington, which still owns both land in the city and most of the mineral rights.

There are other local streetcar suburbs. Angelino Heights was built around the Temple Street horsecar, which was later upgraded to electric streetcar as part of the Yellow Car system. Highland Park was developed along the Figueroa Street trolley lines and railroads linking downtown Los Angeles and Pasadena. Huntington owned nearly all the stock in the Pacific Electric Land Company. West Hollywood was established by Moses Sherman and his partners of the Los Angeles and Pacific Railway. Moses Sherman, Harry Chandler, Hobart Johnstone Whitley, and others bought the entire southern San Fernando Valley in 1910. The electric railway and a $500,000 boulevard called Sherman Way connected the three townsites they were selling. These included Van Nuys, Marion (now Reseda), and Owensmouth (now Canoga Park). Parts of Sherman Way are now called Chandler Boulevard and Van Nuys Boulevard.

The railway company "connected all the dots on the map and was a leading player itself in developing all the real estate that lay in between the dots".

Decline
Huntington's involvement with urban rail was intimately tied to his real estate development operations. Real estate development was so lucrative for Huntington and SP that they could use the Red Car as a loss leader. However, by 1920, when most of the company's holdings had been developed, their major income source began to deplete. Many rural passenger lines were unprofitable, with losses offset by revenue generated from passenger lines in populated corridors and from freight operations. The least-used Red Car lines were converted to cheaper bus routes as early as 1925. In 1936, Pacific Electric acquired the Motor Transit Company, which operated intercity bus service within Southern California.

In the pre-automobile era, electric interurban rail was the most economical way to connect outlying suburban and exurban parcels to central cities.

Although the railway owned extensive private roadbeds, usually between urban areas, much PE trackage in urban areas such as downtown Los Angeles west of the Los Angeles River was in streets shared with automobiles and trucks. Virtually all street crossings were at-grade, and increasing automobile traffic led to decreasing Red Car speeds on much of its trackage. At its nadir, the busy Santa Monica Boulevard line, which connected Los Angeles to Hollywood and on to Beverly Hills and Santa Monica, had an average speed of 13 mph

Traffic congestion was of such great concern by the late 1930s that the influential Automobile Club of Southern California engineered an elaborate plan to create an elevated freeway-type Motorway System, a key aspect of which was the dismantling of the streetcar lines, replacing them with buses that could run on both local streets and on the new express roads.

When the freeway system was planned in the 1930s the city planners planned to include interurban tracks in the center margin of each freeway but the plan was never implemented. There was one exception that was within the Hollywood Freeway through Cahuenga Pass. The San Fernando Valley line from Hollywood took to the center of the Freeway over the pass and exited at Lankershim Boulevard. When that service was terminated, the freeway was expanded onto the former PE roadbed.

The Whittier & Fullerton line was cut in 1938, Redondo Beach, Newport Beach, Sawtelle via San Vicente, and Riverside in 1940. When the San Bernardino Freeway opened in 1941 but was not yet connected to the Hollywood Freeway, while the "Four Way" overpass was being constructed, westbound car traffic from the SB freeway poured onto downtown streets near the present Union Station. PE's multiple car trains coming and going from Pasadena, Sierra Madre, and Monrovia/Glendora used those same streets the final few miles from private right-of-way to reach the 6th and Main PE terminal and were bogged down within this jammed traffic. Schedules could not be met, plus former patrons were now driving. The San Bernardino line, Pomona branch, Temple City branch via Alhambra's Main Street, San Bernardino's Mountain View local to 34th Street, Santa Monica Boulevard via Beverly Hills, and all remaining Pasadena local services were all cut in 1941. Permission was received in September 1942 to abandon the shuttle line to General Hospital which company officials said had been operating at a loss for several months.

The Glendale line survived to the early 1950s due to the convenience of a subway into downtown Los Angeles and used the company's only modern equipment, a group of streamlined PCC cars. In 1940, Pacific Electric sold its Glendale, Burbank, and Pasadena operations to Pacific City Lines. San Bernardino operations were sold to San Bernardino Valley Transit.

PE carried increased passenger loads during World War II, when Los Angeles County's population nearly doubled as war industries concentrated in the region attracting millions of workers. There were several years when the company's income statement showed a profit when gasoline and rubber were rationed and much of the populace depended on mass transit. At peak operation toward the end of the war, the PE dispatched over 10,000 trains daily and was a major employer in Southern California. However, the equipment in use was old and suffered from deferred maintenance.

The nation's last interurban Railroad post office (RPO) service was operated by PE on its San Bernardino Line. This was inaugurated comparatively late, on September 2, 1947. It left LA's new Union Station interurban yard on the west side of the terminal, turned north onto Alameda Street at 12:45 pm and reached San Bernardino at 4:40 pm, taking three hours for the trip while making postal stops en route as required. It did not operate on Sundays or holidays. This last RPO was pulled off May 6, 1950.

Aware that most new arrivals planned to stay in the region after the war, local municipal governments, Los Angeles County and the state agreed that a massive infrastructure improvement program was necessary. At that time politicians agreed to construct a web of freeways across the region. This was seen as a better solution than a new mass transit system or an upgrade of the PE.

Freeway construction
Large-scale land acquisition for new freeway construction began in earnest in 1951. The original four freeways of the area, the Hollywood, Arroyo Seco (formerly Pasadena), Harbor, and San Bernardino, were in use or being completed. Partial completion of the San Bernardino Freeway to Aliso Street near downtown Los Angeles led to traffic chaos when inbound automobiles left the freeway and entered city streets.

The Southern District's passenger service to Santa Ana and Baldwin Park ended in 1950 as did the Northern District's Pasadena's Oak Knoll line, and the Sierra Madre line. The Western District's last line to Venice and Santa Monica also ended. The Pasadena and Monrovia/Glendora lines ended in 1951.

The various public agencies—city, county, and state—agreed with PE that further abandoning service was necessary and PE happily complied. PE management had earlier compared costs of refurbishing the Northern District interurban lines to Pasadena, Monrovia/Glendora, and Baldwin Park versus the alternative of converting to buses, and found in favor of the latter. Remaining PE passenger service was sold off in 1953 to Metropolitan Coach Lines, which was given two years of rent-free usage of rail facilities. Jesse Haugh, of Metropolitan Coach Lines, was a former executive of Pacific City Lines which together with National City Lines acquired local streetcar systems across the country with the intention of shutting them down and converting them to bus operation in what became known as the Great American Streetcar Scandal.

Several lines operating to the north and the west which used the Belmont Tunnel from the Subway Terminal Building downtown ceased operation – the Hollywood Boulevard and Beverly Hills lines were shut down in 1954 and service to the San Fernando Valley, Burbank and Glendale using newly acquired PCC streetcars lasted only to 1955. The Bellflower line to the south closed in 1958 as the Golden State/Santa Ana (Interstate 5) neared completion.

Public ownership
The Los Angeles Metropolitan Transit Authority was established in 1951 to study the possibility of establishing a publicly owned monorail line running north from Long Beach to downtown Los Angeles and then west to Panorama City in the San Fernando Valley. In 1954, the agency's powers were expanded to allow it to propose a more extensive regional mass-transit system. In 1957, it was given the authority to operate transit lines.

In 1958, the California state government through its Public Utility Commission took over the remaining and most popular lines from Metropolitan Coach Lines. The MTA also purchased the remaining streetcar "Yellow Car" lines of the successor of the Los Angeles Railway, then called Los Angeles Transit Lines. LARy/LATL had been purchased from the Huntington estate by National City Lines in 1945. The MTA started operating all lines as a single system on March 3, 1958.

The Los Angeles-to-Long Beach passenger rail line served the longest, from July 4, 1902, until April 9, 1961. It was both the first and last interurban passenger line of the former Pacific Electric system. It was replaced by the Motor Coach 36f ("F" representing Freeway Flyer) route. The line, which used long stretches of open country running on private right-of-way, was later utilized when the Southern California RTD was designing and building the Metro Blue Line light rail line. The Blue Line, the first modern mass transit line in Los Angeles since the discontinuation of the Red Car service, was first opened in 1990.

The few remaining trolley-coach routes and narrow gauge streetcar routes of the former Los Angeles Railway "Yellow Cars" were removed in early 1963. The public transportation system continued to be operated by the Los Angeles MTA until the agency was reorganized and relaunched as the Southern California Rapid Transit District in September 1964.

The Interstate Commerce Commission approved the merger of Pacific Electric into the Southern Pacific Railroad on August 12, 1965. Prior to the merger, PE's lucrative freight service had been by Southern Pacific diesel-electric locomotives on the heavy-duty PE rail-bed and rails and tripping the "Wig-Wag" crossing signals.

A Christmas tree lot was operated in the small stub yard at the northwest corner of Willow Street and Long Beach Boulevard – the stock arrived in and was stored in a steel sided box car until the Christmas trees were prepared for sale – the busy intersection was where dual trackage departed Long Beach Boulevard and joined the private right-of-way from Huntington Beach and Seal Beach towards Los Angeles. The crossing signal there was the first installation of the final design of the Magnetic Watchman wigwag crossing signal and crossbucks. Oil tank cars were still shuttled to Signal Hill even as the surface street tracks were torn up from the center of Long Beach Boulevard long after the copper overhead catenary supply wires had been removed. Southern Pacific (now part of Union Pacific) continues to operate freight service utilizing former PE right-of-way.

Successors
During the 1970s, there was serious discussion about the need for additional mass transit systems based on environmental concerns, increasing population and the 1973 oil crisis. A 1974 inquiry in the Senate heard allegations about the role that General Motors and other companies, including Pacific City Lines, played in the dismantlement of streetcar systems across the United States and in particular in Los Angeles, in what became known as the Great American Streetcar Scandal. The plot of the 1988 movie Who Framed Roger Rabbit is loosely modeled on the alleged conspiracy to dismantle the streetcar lines in Los Angeles.

In 1976, the state of California formed the Los Angeles County Transportation Commission to coordinate the Southern California Rapid Transit District's (SCRTD, advertised and known locally by Angelenos as the RTD) efforts with those of various municipal transit systems in the area and to take over planning of countywide transportation systems. The SCRTD continued planning of the Metro subway (the Red Line), while the LACTC developed plans for the light rail system. Caltrans surveyed the condition of former Pacific Electric lines in 1982. Construction began in 1985. In 1988, the two agencies formed a third entity under which all rail construction would be consolidated, and in 1993, the SCRTD and the LACTC were merged into the Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority (LACMTA).

When the Metro Blue Line commenced commuter service in 1990 from downtown Los Angeles to Long Beach, electric rail passenger train service returned to Los Angeles, using much of the PE roadbed that ceased in 1965. Since then, the LACMTA has opened additional lines.

The Metro Red Line subway opened next in three parts between 1993 and 2000, first from Union Station in central Los Angeles connecting with short subway which forms the northern terminus of Metro Blue Line at 7th/Figueroa Metro Center station, and then west under Wilshire Boulevard onward to Western Avenue. Construction was halted in 1985 due to an unrelated explosion of methane fumes in an underground portion of a Ross Dress for Less store along the proposed route turning north at Fairfax Avenue to Hollywood, which was to service the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Museum Row and the La Brea Tar Pits. After then-Congressman Henry Waxman banned federal funding for subway construction underneath Wilshire Boulevard past Western Avenue, the subway had to be re-routed. The second portion was the result of this: the subway now traveled north under Vermont Avenue to Hollywood Boulevard turning west to Highland Avenue. When the Hollywood Freeway was built, two PE tracks remained in the center, entering the canyon to Cahuenga Pass under the freeway at what is now the northbound Highland Avenue onramp. PE trackage continued to provide mass transit efficiently until the line was abandoned; the former roadbed was eventually converted for highway use. RTD bus service replaced rail service and remained the highest daily passenger volume corridor. When the third expansion of the Red Line subway opened, most long-distance commuter bus routes from Downtown Los Angeles to the San Fernando Valley were trimmed to connect with the new subway stations, reducing diesel fumes and motor vehicle congestion. At the northernmost Metro Red Line terminus, North Hollywood, connections can be made to several MTA bus routes of the San Fernando Valley, including several routes along the private right-of-way Metro Rapidway Metro Orange Line (route 901) dedicated exclusively for MTA vehicles that replicates many PE thru lines by transferring buses.

The Metro Green Line opened in 1995. Its right-of-way was planned from inception to be entirely isolated and protected, running in the median of Interstate 105, the Century Freeway west from Norwalk, connecting at Rosa Parks Station with Metro Blue Line, then further west to Los Angeles International Airport, and then south on elevated tracks to Redondo Beach. The Century Freeway, named for Century Boulevard the equivalent of 100th Street, was the world's first freeway built to bypass and relieve traffic congestion from another freeway – the 91, Artesia Freeway. It reutilized a segment of the West Santa Ana Branch for its part of its route.

The Metro Gold Line opened in 2003, connecting downtown Los Angeles to Pasadena. Mostly at-grade, the line runs along the former Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad (AT&SF) historic Super Chief right-of-way, which was converted to dual track overhead electric light rail. California's oldest surviving iron railroad bridge, built across the Arroyo Seco (1895), was also included in the conversion. The Gold Line Eastside Extension now connects Union Station, Downtown Los Angeles to East Los Angeles. A second extension extended east from Pasadena, again utilizing the former AT&SF right-of-way in the median of Interstate 210.

Metrolink provides weekday interurban commuters with high speed reversible trains – consisting of Diesel Locomotives hauling double-deck high capacity passenger cars servicing much of Los Angeles County and operating to connections in Ventura County, San Bernardino County, Riverside County, Orange County, and San Diego County as well.

Waterfront Red Car 1.5 mi was a streetcar line connecting the World Cruise Center south to Ports O' Call and the 22nd Street terminal, where a shuttle bus connected other attractions along the San Pedro waterfront. Two newly constructed Red Car replicas, #500 & #501, provided service along the line on cruise ship arrival/departure days as well as weekends – Friday, Saturday and Sunday. In addition, a restored 1907-vintage Pacific Electric car, No. #1508 originally rebuilt from two wrecks as a unique motor coach, was available for special rail excursions. It began operation as a tourist attraction on July 19, 2003. The last day of service was on September 27, 2015. The Port of Los Angeles financed, constructed and operated the replica equipment on heritage PE track, one of many of its waterfront revival projects. A new pedestrian esplanade featuring public art and fountains, sculpture and fountains was built alongside the track from the World Cruise Center to the Maritime Museum and Fire Boat Station. It connected to the Cabrillo Marine Aquarium and other San Pedro attractions when using the Waterfront Red Car trolley/shuttle. There were plans to extend the Waterfront Red Car line approximately two more miles south to the Cabrillo Marine Aquarium and the tidepools of Cabrillo Beach, which never came to pass. Plans for an extension of the line north into Wilmington to Avalon Boulevard along existing trackage were discussed as a part of the waterfront improvement plan. These same plans led to this line being discontinued in favor of redevelopment. Some transit advocates proposed linking this line to the Metro Blue Line Long Beach terminus, a very intensive and expensive expansion.

The E Line (formerly the Expo Line from 2012–2019) is a 22-mile (35 km) light rail line in Los Angeles County, California, running between Santa Monica to East Los Angeles. It is one of the six lines in the Los Angeles Metro Rail system and is operated by the Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority (Metro).

The western portion of the E line was originally named the Expo Line after Exposition Boulevard, along which it runs for most of its route, the line was renamed the E Line in late 2019, while retaining the aqua-colored line and icons used to designate it on maps. After the Regional Connector opened on June 16, 2023, the original E Line was joined with the Eastside portion of the L Line to create the current extended E Line, which is colored gold on maps.

The K Line is a light rail line running north-south between the Jefferson Park and Westchester neighborhoods of Los Angeles, California, passing through various South Los Angeles neighborhoods and the city of Inglewood. It is one of six lines in the Los Angeles Metro Rail system operated by the Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority (LACMTA). It was opened on October 7, 2022, making it the system's newest line.

The current K Line represents the initial operating segment of the Crenshaw/LAX Line project, which began construction in 2014. A segment connecting to the C Line via a wye is expected to open in 2024; the C and K Lines will be integrated and services realigned at that time. The C Line's western terminus will be redirected to LAX/Metro Transit Center station and the K Line extended to Redondo Beach station. A connection to the new LAX Automated People Mover is planned for late 2024.

The Regional Connector Transit Project constructed a 1.9-mile (3.1 km) light rail tunnel for the Los Angeles Metro Rail system in Downtown Los Angeles. It connected the A and E lines with the former L Line. The A and E lines previously both terminated at 7th Street/Metro Center station, while the L Line ran through Little Tokyo/Arts District to either Azusa or East Los Angeles. The project provides a one-seat ride into the core of Downtown for passengers on those lines who previously needed to transfer, thus reducing or altogether eliminating many transfers of passengers traveling across the region via Downtown Los Angeles.

Proposed developments
More rail lines are in the planning and building stages. Light rail is being designed to connect the city center of San Bernardino with the University of Redlands via the Redlands Subdivision by 2021. It will also be the first line in the country with a zero-emission, battery-operated passenger train.

The "Foothill Extension" of the Gold Line has continued with Phase 2 to extend the service to Montclair. As of March 2020, there was some support for extending the Gold Line to Ontario International Airport, though there are neither plans nor funding for this segment as of 2022. The line opened to Azusa on March 5, 2016. Phase 2B of the Foothill Extension began construction on July 10, 2020.

In 2005, with growing congestion along Wilshire Boulevard to the Westside, then Congressman Henry Waxman introduced legislation to repeal the ban on federal dollars being used for subway tunneling underneath Wilshire Boulevard he had passed 20 years earlier. The ban resulted in the Red Line subway ending at Wilshire and Western Avenue before being re-routed up Vermont Avenue towards the Valley. In 2006, the MTA renamed the line from Union Station to Wilshire/Western the Purple Line to differentiate it from the Red Line, which splits at Wilshire/Vermont. As a result, in May 2012, the MTA approved plans to extend the Purple Line to the west as far as the VA Hospital in Westwood, on an alignment mostly following Wilshire Boulevard, the city's most densely populated corridor, as was originally planned in mass transit plans designed as early as the 1920s. In 2005, Mayor Antonio Villaraigosa made as one of his most publicized campaign promises a pledge to set the wheels in motion for eventual construction of the "Subway to the Sea" as he called it. Construction finally began in 2014 on the Purple Line Extension, with the first phase to LaCienega Boulevard scheduled for completion in 2023, and full completion to the VA Hospital campus in West Los Angeles projected for the 2030s, though if additional funding can be found, the subway could be completed earlier.

Also under consideration is a new passenger rail line on the abandoned Harbor Subdivision railway corridor, connecting Carson to downtown Los Angeles via Torrance and the LA west side. Connections to the Harbor Subdivision from the World Cruise Center cruise ship terminal in the San Pedro District of Los Angeles Harbor to the Long Beach Transit Mall and the Metro Blue Line are also under evaluation.

The West Santa Ana Branch was acquired by local transit agencies with the intent to reactivate the line for rail transit. The Southeast Gateway Line project aims install a new light rail line to Artesia. On the south end of the line, the Orange County Transportation Authority is constructing the OC Streetcar, a modern streetcar system expected to commence service in 2022.

Legacy
The Pacific Electric Trail is a 21 mi rail trail that has been constructed along the former Upland–San Bernardino Line. , approximately 21 miles (33-kilometer) have been completed, from the planned western terminus at Huntington Drive in Claremont to the temporary eastern terminus at Cactus Avenue in Rialto, as well as connection to a 6.9 mi rail trail project being planned to run from Claremont to San Dimas.

Plot elements of the 1988 movie Who Framed Roger Rabbit are loosely based on folklore about the decline of streetcars in LA.

A transportation attraction based on the PE, the Red Car Trolley, is located at Disney California Adventure Park at the Disneyland Resort in Anaheim. It features two stylized replicas of PE rolling stock and is the first attraction in the park to provide transportation, running from Buena Vista Street to Guardians of the Galaxy – Mission: Breakout! in Hollywood Land, with four stations. Construction began on January 4, 2010, and the attraction opened on June 15, 2012. The Ghost Town & Calico Railroad attraction at Knott's Berry Farm uses a PE depot formerly located at Hansen station along the ROW in Stanton as the main station building. The building was moved to the theme park in 1952.

The iconic red livery of the Red Cars is also said to be the inspiration for the livery of trains on the Keikyu Railway, a commuter railway out of Tokyo with origins in an interurban line.

Routes
Northern Division:
 * Alhambra–San Gabriel
 * Annandale
 * Arlington–Corona
 * Arrowhead
 * Covina
 * East Washington
 * El Monte–Baldwin Park
 * Highland
 * Lamanda Park
 * Monrovia–Glendora
 * Mount Lowe
 * North Lake
 * Pasadena Short Line
 * Pasadena via Oak Knoll
 * Ontario–San Antonio Heights
 * Pomona
 * Pomona–Claremont
 * Redlands
 * Riverside–Arlington
 * Riverside–Rialto
 * San Bernardino–Riverside
 * San Dimas
 * San Dimas Local
 * Shorb
 * Sierra Madre
 * Sierra Vista Local
 * South Pasadena Local
 * Upland–Ontario
 * Upland–San Bernardino

Western Division:
 * Brush Canyon
 * Coldwater Canyon
 * Echo Park Avenue
 * Edendale Local
 * Glendale–Burbank
 * Hollywood
 * Lankershim–Van Nuys
 * Laurel Canyon
 * Owensmouth
 * Redondo Beach via Playa del Rey
 * San Fernando
 * Santa Monica Air Line
 * Sawtelle
 * Sherman
 * Soldiers' Home
 * Venice–Inglewood
 * Venice–Playa del Rey
 * Venice Short Line
 * West 16th Street
 * Western and Franklin Avenue
 * Westgate

Southern Division:
 * American Avenue
 * Balboa
 * Bellflower
 * Catalina Dock
 * East Seventh Street
 * East Third Street
 * Fullerton
 * Hawthorne–El Nido
 * Hawthorne–El Segundo
 * Huntington Beach–La Bolsa
 * La Habra–Fullerton–Yorba Linda
 * Long Beach
 * Long Beach–San Pedro
 * Redondo Beach via Gardena
 * San Pedro via Dominguez
 * San Pedro via Gardena
 * Santa Ana
 * Santa Ana–Huntington Beach
 * Santa Ana–Orange
 * Seal Beach
 * Seal Beach–Huntington Beach–Newport Beach
 * Terminal Island
 * Torrance
 * Watts
 * Whittier

Tourism loops

 * Balloon Route
 * Old Mission Trip: Los Angeles to Mission San Gabriel
 * Triangle Trip: Long Beach, Balboa, Santa Ana
 * Orange Empire Excursion: San Bernardino, Redlands, Riverside

Facilities

The Pacific Electric railway electrification system was based on 600 volt direct current power delivered to cars via overhead line. The San Bernardino Line operated partially at 1200 volts DC.

Some maintenance and operational sites include:
 * West Hollywood Car Barn and Yard
 * Ocean Park Car Barn and Yard
 * Torrance Shops
 * Pacific Electric Building (Station at 6th & Main Streets)
 * Subway Terminal Building (Station at 4th and Hill Streets)
 * Belmont Tunnel (Hollywood Subway)
 * Substation No. 8
 * Substation No. 14
 * Redlands Trolley Barn

Fleet
The number of cars that Pacific Electric owned after the merger would require its own separate page.

Work cars

 * LAP trolley wire greaser 1898–1957
 * PE tower car 1915–1957

Locomotives

 * 1600 class electric locomotives

Freight cars

 * LA&R flat-top caboose 1896
 * PE flat-top caboose PE 1939
 * LS&MS caboose 1915
 * LV caboose 1926
 * RF&P caboose 1905
 * SSC box car 1924

Buses

 * GM yellow coach

Photos

 * Pacific Electric Railway Historical Society Online Image Archive
 * DVD Documentary – This Was Pacific Electric – Complete documentary on the Pacific Electric. Movies, stills, and interviews.
 * Pacific Electric photos (Jim Stubchaer)
 * Pacific Electric Subway – Toluca Portal: 1925–1955 – 2008 photos (Harry Marnell)
 * Pacific Electric Railway Monuments archival photographs
 * Pacific Electric Subway photos (Elson Trinidad)
 * Bill Volkmer collection of Red Car photos and post cards

title: Pacific Electric


text:
Convergent boundary

A convergent boundary (also known as a destructive boundary) is an area on Earth where two or more lithospheric plates collide. One plate eventually slides beneath the other, a process known as subduction. The subduction zone can be defined by a plane where many earthquakes occur, called the Wadati–Benioff zone. These collisions happen on scales of millions to tens of millions of years and can lead to volcanism, earthquakes, orogenesis, destruction of lithosphere, and deformation. Convergent boundaries occur between oceanic-oceanic lithosphere, oceanic-continental lithosphere, and continental-continental lithosphere. The geologic features related to convergent boundaries vary depending on crust types.

Plate tectonics is driven by convection cells in the mantle. Convection cells are the result of heat generated by the radioactive decay of elements in the mantle escaping to the surface and the return of cool materials from the surface to the mantle. These convection cells bring hot mantle material to the surface along spreading centers creating new crust. As this new crust is pushed away from the spreading center by the formation of newer crust, it cools, thins, and becomes denser. Subduction begins when this dense crust converges with a less dense crust. The force of gravity helps drive the subducting slab into the mantle. As the relatively cool subducting slab sinks deeper into the mantle, it is heated, causing hydrous minerals to break down. This releases water into the hotter asthenosphere, which leads to partial melting of the asthenosphere and volcanism. Both dehydration and partial melting occur along the 1000 C isotherm, generally at depths of 65 to 130 km.

Some lithospheric plates consist of both continental and oceanic lithosphere. In some instances, initial convergence with another plate will destroy oceanic lithosphere, leading to convergence of two continental plates. Neither continental plate will subduct. It is likely that the plate may break along the boundary of continental and oceanic crust. Seismic tomography reveals pieces of lithosphere that have broken off during convergence.

Subduction zones
Subduction zones are areas where one lithospheric plate slides beneath another at a convergent boundary due to lithospheric density differences. These plates dip at an average of 45° but can vary. Subduction zones are often marked by an abundance of earthquakes, the result of internal deformation of the plate, convergence with the opposing plate, and bending at the oceanic trench. Earthquakes have been detected to a depth of 670 km (416 mi). The relatively cold and dense subducting plates are pulled into the mantle and help drive mantle convection.

Oceanic – oceanic convergence
In collisions between two oceanic plates, the cooler, denser oceanic lithosphere sinks beneath the warmer, less dense oceanic lithosphere. As the slab sinks deeper into the mantle, it releases water from dehydration of hydrous minerals in the oceanic crust. This water reduces the melting temperature of rocks in the asthenosphere and causes partial melting. Partial melt will travel up through the asthenosphere, eventually, reach the surface, and form volcanic island arcs.

Continental – oceanic convergence
When oceanic lithosphere and continental lithosphere collide, the dense oceanic lithosphere subducts beneath the less dense continental lithosphere. An accretionary wedge forms on the continental crust as deep-sea sediments and oceanic crust are scraped from the oceanic plate. Volcanic arcs form on continental lithosphere as the result of partial melting due to dehydration of the hydrous minerals of the subducting slab.

Continental – continental convergence
Some lithospheric plates consist of both continental and oceanic crust. Subduction initiates as oceanic lithosphere slides beneath continental crust. As the oceanic lithosphere subducts to greater depths, the attached continental crust is pulled closer to the subduction zone. Once the continental lithosphere reaches the subduction zone, subduction processes are altered, since continental lithosphere is more buoyant and resists subduction beneath other continental lithosphere. A small portion of the continental crust may be subducted until the slab breaks, allowing the oceanic lithosphere to continue subducting, hot asthenosphere to rise and fill the void, and the continental lithosphere to rebound. Evidence of this continental rebound includes ultrahigh pressure metamorphic rocks, which form at depths of 90 to 125 km, that are exposed at the surface. Seismic records have been used to map the torn slabs beneath the Caucasus continental – continental convergence zone, and seismic tomography has mapped detached slabs beneath the Tethyan suture zone (the Alps – Zagros – Himalaya mountain belt).

Volcanism and volcanic arcs
The oceanic crust contains hydrated minerals such as the amphibole and mica groups. During subduction, oceanic lithosphere is heated and metamorphosed, causing breakdown of these hydrous minerals, which releases water into the asthenosphere. The release of water into the asthenosphere leads to partial melting. Partial melting allows the rise of more buoyant, hot material and can lead to volcanism at the surface and emplacement of plutons in the subsurface. These processes which generate magma are not entirely understood.

Where these magmas reach the surface they create volcanic arcs. Volcanic arcs can form as island arc chains or as arcs on continental crust. Three magma series of volcanic rocks are found in association with arcs. The chemically reduced tholeiitic magma series is most characteristic of oceanic volcanic arcs, though this is also found in continental volcanic arcs above rapid subduction (>7 cm/year). This series is relatively low in potassium. The more oxidized calc-alkaline series, which is moderately enriched in potassium and incompatible elements, is characteristic of continental volcanic arcs. The alkaline magma series (highly enriched in potassium) is sometimes present in the deeper continental interior. The shoshonite series, which is extremely high in potassium, is rare but sometimes is found in volcanic arcs. The andesite member of each series is typically most abundant, and the transition from basaltic volcanism of the deep Pacific basin to andesitic volcanism in the surrounding volcanic arcs has been called the andesite line.

Back-arc basins
Back-arc basins form behind a volcanic arc and are associated with extensional tectonics and high heat flow, often being home to seafloor spreading centers. These spreading centers are like mid-ocean ridges, though the magma composition of back-arc basins is generally more varied and contains a higher water content than mid-ocean ridge magmas. Back-arc basins are often characterized by thin, hot lithosphere. Opening of back-arc basins may arise from movement of hot asthenosphere into lithosphere, causing extension.

Oceanic trenches
Oceanic trenches are narrow topographic lows that mark convergent boundaries or subduction zones. Oceanic trenches average 50. to 100. km wide and can be several thousand kilometers long. Oceanic trenches form as a result of bending of the subducting slab. Depth of oceanic trenches seems to be controlled by age of the oceanic lithosphere being subducted. Sediment fill in oceanic trenches varies and generally depends on abundance of sediment input from surrounding areas. An oceanic trench, the Mariana Trench, is the deepest point of the ocean at a depth of approximately 11,000. m.

Earthquakes and tsunamis
Earthquakes are common along convergent boundaries. A region of high earthquake activity, the Wadati-Benioff zone, generally dips 45° and marks the subducting plate. Earthquakes will occur to a depth of 670. km along the Wadati-Benioff margin.

Both compressional and extensional forces act along convergent boundaries. On the inner walls of trenches, compressional faulting or reverse faulting occurs due to the relative motion of the two plates. Reverse faulting scrapes off ocean sediment and leads to the formation of an accretionary wedge. Reverse faulting can lead to megathrust earthquakes. Tensional or normal faulting occurs on the outer wall of the trench, likely due to bending of the downgoing slab.

A megathrust earthquake can produce sudden vertical displacement of a large area of ocean floor. This in turn generates a tsunami.

Some of the deadliest natural disasters have occurred due to convergent boundary processes. The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami was triggered by a megathrust earthquake along the convergent boundary of the Indian plate and Burma microplate and killed over 200,000 people. The 2011 tsunami off the coast of Japan, which caused 16,000 deaths and did US$360 billion in damage, was caused by a magnitude 9 megathrust earthquake along the convergent boundary of the Eurasian plate and Pacific Plate.

Accretionary wedge
Accretionary wedges (also called accretionary prisms) form as sediment is scraped from the subducting lithosphere and emplaced against the overriding lithosphere. These sediments include igneous crust, turbidite sediments, and pelagic sediments. Imbricate thrust faulting along a basal decollement surface occurs in accretionary wedges as forces continue to compress and fault these newly added sediments. The continued faulting of the accretionary wedge leads to overall thickening of the wedge. Seafloor topography plays some role in accretion, especially emplacement of igneous crust.

Examples

 * The collision between the Eurasian Plate and the Indian Plate that is forming the Himalayas.
 * The collision between the Australian Plate and the Pacific Plate that formed the Southern Alps in New Zealand
 * Subduction of the northern part of the Pacific Plate and the NW North American Plate that is forming the Aleutian Islands.
 * Subduction of the Nazca Plate beneath the South American Plate to form the Andes.
 * Subduction of the Pacific Plate beneath the Australian Plate and Tonga Plate, forming the complex New Zealand to New Guinea subduction/transform boundaries.
 * Collision of the Eurasian Plate and the African Plate formed the Pontic Mountains in Turkey.
 * Subduction of the Pacific Plate beneath the Mariana Plate formed the Mariana Trench.
 * Subduction of the Juan de Fuca Plate beneath the North American Plate to form the Cascade Range.

title: Convergent boundary


text:
Talk:National Coalition Party

Untitled
Don't take me wrong, but is Harri Holkeri really of the same calibre as Paasikivi and Svinhufvud? I'm tempted to say "I've never heard about the guy", which is almost true. What was his main achievments? Rehabilitation of the Kookomus after the Kekkonen Era?

-- Ruhrjung 16:49 28 Jun 2003 (UTC)

 * I would vote yes and no :-) It's kind of a Jimmy Carter situation. Not what he did in office, but the international work as a "retiree", make him prominent as a person. But, no he wasn't the party leader when he did these prominent things. Yes and no. You call the toss. -- Cimon Avaro — Preceding undated comment added 23:05, 28 June 2003 (UTC)

 * Put in some sentences on his page, maybe?
 * And why care about if he was a resigned party leader or not? - So what, ...what was Svinhufvud or Paasikivi? Resigned, I would say.
 * -- Ruhrjung 23:15 28 Jun 2003 (UTC)
 * -- Ruhrjung 23:15 28 Jun 2003 (UTC)

 * Am not remotely qualified to do so. What I have written, I have written. -- Cimon Avaro — Preceding undated comment added 23:59, 28 June 2003 (UTC)

 * I think he is on the list primarily because we have an article on him. And he is the first prime minister from Kok since like 1944 (correct me if I am wrong). :) -- Jniemenmaa 09:55 29 Jun 2003 (UTC)

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List of party chairs archived

 * Hugo Suolahti (1918–1919)
 * Eemil Nestor Setälä (1920)
 * Antti Tulenheimo (1921–1924)
 * Hugo Suolahti (1925)
 * Kyösti Haataja (1926–1932)
 * Paavo Virkkunen (1932–1933)
 * Juho Kusti Paasikivi (1934–1936)
 * Pekka Pennanen (1936–1942)
 * Edwin Linkomies (1943–1944)
 * K. F. Lehtonen (1945)
 * Arvo Salminen (1946–1954)
 * Jussi Saukkonen (1955–1965)
 * Juha Rihtniemi (1965–1971)
 * Harri Holkeri (1971–1979)
 * Ilkka Suominen (1979–1991)
 * Pertti Salolainen (1991–1994)
 * Sauli Niinistö (1994–2001)
 * Ville Itälä (2001–2004)
 * Jyrki Katainen (2004–2014)
 * Alexander Stubb (2014–2016)
 * Petteri Orpo (2016–)

Name
"Finnish: Kansallinen Kokoomus; Kok.; Swedish: Samlingspartiet" --So the Finnish party name includes the word "National", but the Swedish version of the name doesn't (it just means "coalition party" - correct? Any idea why this divergence? 86.186.41.239 (talk) 14:37, 27 May 2019 (UTC)

 * never ask about the accuracy of translations of skandinavian parties Braganza (talk) 08:49, 29 November 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:National Coalition Party