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American Astronomical Society

The American Astronomical Society (AAS, sometimes spoken as "double-A-S") is an American society of professional astronomers and other interested individuals, headquartered in Washington, DC. The primary objective of the AAS is to promote the advancement of astronomy and closely related branches of science, while the secondary purpose includes enhancing astronomy education and providing a political voice for its members through lobbying and grassroots activities. Its current mission is to enhance and share humanity's scientific understanding of the universe as a diverse and inclusive astronomical community.

History
The society was founded in 1899 through the efforts of George Ellery Hale. The constitution of the group was written by Hale, George Comstock, Edward Morley, Simon Newcomb and Edward Charles Pickering. These men, plus four others, were the first Executive Council of the society; Newcomb was the first president. The initial membership was 114. The AAS name of the society was not finally decided until 1915, previously it was the "Astronomical and Astrophysical Society of America". One proposed name that preceded this interim name was "American Astrophysical Society".

The AAS today has over 8,000 members and six divisions – the Division for Planetary Sciences (1968), the Division on Dynamical Astronomy (1969), the High Energy Astrophysics Division (1969), the Solar Physics Division (1969), the Historical Astronomy Division (1980) and the Laboratory Astrophysics Division (2012). The membership includes physicists, mathematicians, geologists, engineers and others whose research interests lie within the broad spectrum of subjects now comprising contemporary astronomy. The annual meeting of the AAS is held in the spring and constitutes the largest gathering of astronomers, numbering over 3,000 in 2023.

In 2019 three AAS members were selected into the tenth anniversary class of TED Fellows.

The AAS established the AAS Fellows program in 2019 to "confer recognition upon AAS members for achievement and extraordinary service to the field of astronomy and the American Astronomical Society." The inaugural class was designated by the AAS Board of Trustees and includes an initial group of 232 Legacy Fellows.

Divisions
Because the field of astronomy is diverse, several divisions have been formed each of which promotes and enables a different branch of astronomy or astronomy-related science as well as working within the overall charter of the AAS. Many of the divisions hold separate meetings in addition to meeting with the main group. The divisions of the AAS, together with their main research interests, are:

 * The Division for Planetary Sciences (DPS) supports planetology and exploration of the Solar System.
 * The Division on Dynamical Astronomy (DDA) supports research on the dynamics (orbits, evolution, and history) of astronomical systems from the Solar System to superclusters of galaxies on cosmological scales.
 * The High Energy Astrophysics Division (HEAD) supports knowledge about high energy events, particles, quanta, relativistic gravitational fields, and related phenomena in the astrophysical universe.
 * The Historical Astronomy Division (HAD) supports topics relevant to the history of astronomy as a field, and research using historical astronomical records to solve current problems in astronomy.
 * The Solar Physics Division (SPD) supports solar physics (astrophysical research on the Sun), and its interactions with the Solar System and Earth.
 * In 2012, a new division was formed: the Laboratory Astrophysics Division (LAD) to advance humanity's understanding of the Universe through the promotion of fundamental theoretical and experimental research into the underlying processes that drive the Universe.

Publications

 * Astronomical Journal
 * Astronomy Education Review [no longer published]
 * The Astrophysical Journal
 * The Planetary Science Journal
 * Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society
 * Research Notes of the AAS (scientific publication of brief communications, non peer-reviewed)
 * AAS Nova, an online publication with highlights from the research journals of the Society.
 * In June 2019 AAS announced that it would be the new publisher of Sky & Telescope.
 * In August 2020 AAS announced that it had acquired the inventory, author contracts and related assets of Willmann-Bell, Inc. a publisher of astronomical books, atlases and software.

Prizes

 * The Henry Norris Russell Lectureship, for lifetime achievement in astronomy
 * The Newton Lacy Pierce Prize in Astronomy, for outstanding early career in observational astronomy
 * The Helen B. Warner Prize for Astronomy, for outstanding early career in theoretical astronomy
 * The Beatrice M. Tinsley Prize, for a creative or innovating contribution to astronomy
 * The Joseph Weber Award, for a significant advance in astronomical instrumentation
 * The Dannie Heineman Prize for Astrophysics (joint award with the American Institute of Physics), for outstanding work in astrophysics
 * The George Van Biesbroeck Prize, for outstanding service to astronomy
 * The Annie J. Cannon Award in Astronomy (awarded in concert with the American Association of University Women), for outstanding early career by a female astronomer
 * the Chambliss Astronomical Writing Award for astronomy writing for an academic audience
 * The Beth Brown Memorial Award for exemplary poster and oral research presentation by undergraduate and graduate students
 * The Chambliss Astronomy Achievement Student Award for exemplary research by undergraduate and graduate students
 * The Chambliss Amateur Achievement Award for exemplary research by an amateur astronomer
 * The AAS Education Prize for outstanding contributions to astronomy education (formerly called the Annenberg Foundation Award)

Similar prizes are awarded by AAS divisions. These include:

 * The Gerard P. Kuiper Prize (DPS), for lifetime achievement in planetary science
 * The Harold C. Urey Prize (DPS), for outstanding early career in planetary science
 * The Harold Masursky Meritorious Service Award (DPS), for outstanding service to planetary science
 * The Brouwer Award (DDA), for lifetime achievement in dynamical astronomy
 * The Bruno Rossi Prize (HEAD), for a significant recent contribution to high-energy astrophysics
 * The LeRoy E. Doggett Prize (HAD), for work in the history of astronomy
 * The George Ellery Hale Prize (SPD), for lifetime achievement in solar astronomy
 * The Karen Harvey Prize (SPD), for outstanding early career in solar astronomy

The AAS also manages an International Travel Grant program, which any astronomer working in the US may apply to for travel to international astronomy-related conferences and other smaller grant and award programs. American Astronomical Society won the 2020 Webby People's Voice Award for Association in the category Web.

Past presidents
The following past and present members served as president of the society during the listed periods:

 * Simon Newcomb (1899–1905)
 * Edward Charles Pickering (1905–1919)
 * Frank Schlesinger (1919–1922)
 * William Wallace Campbell (1922–1925)
 * George Cary Comstock (1925–1928)
 * Ernest William Brown (1928–1931)
 * Walter Sydney Adams (1931–1934)
 * Henry Norris Russell (1934–1937)
 * Robert Grant Aitken (1937–1940)
 * Joel Stebbins (1940–1943)
 * Harlow Shapley (1943–1946)
 * Otto Struve (1946–1949)
 * Alfred Harrison Joy (1949–1952)
 * Robert Raynolds McMath (1952–1954)
 * Donald Howard Menzel (1954–1956)
 * Paul Willard Merrill (1956–1958)
 * Gerald Maurice Clemence (1958–1960)
 * Lyman Spitzer Jr. (1960–1962)
 * Carlyle Smith Beals (1962–1964)
 * Leo Goldberg (1964–1966)
 * Bengt Strömgren (1966–1967)
 * Albert E. Whitford (1967–1970)
 * Martin Schwarzschild (1970–1972)
 * Bart J. Bok (1972–1974)
 * Robert Paul Kraft (1974–1976)
 * E. Margaret Burbidge (1976–1978)
 * Ivan R. King (1978–1980)
 * David S. Heeschen (1980–1982)
 * Arthur D. Code (1982–1984)
 * Maarten Schmidt (1984–1986)
 * Bernard F. Burke (1986–1988)
 * Donald Edward Osterbrock (1988–1990)
 * John Norris Bahcall (1990–1992)
 * Sidney C. Wolff (1992–1994)
 * Frank Shu (1994–1996)
 * Andrea K. Dupree (1996–1998)
 * Robert D. Gehrz (1998–2000)
 * Anneila I. Sargent (2000–2002)
 * Catherine A. Pilachowski (2002–2004)
 * Robert P. Kirshner (2004–2006)
 * J. Craig Wheeler (2006–2008)
 * John Peter Huchra (2008–2010)
 * Debra M. Elmegreen (2010–2012)
 * David Helfand (2012–2014)
 * Meg Urry (2014–2016)
 * Christine Jones-Foreman (2016–2018)
 * Megan Donahue (2018–2020)
 * Paula Szkody (2020–2022)
 * Kelsey Johnson (2022-2024)

Niels Bohr Library & Archives

 * American Astronomical Society Harlow Shapley Visiting Lectureship Program records, 1980-1999
 * American Astronomical Society miscellaneous publications, 1910-2017
 * American Astronomical Society records, 1897-1988 (bulk 1920-1980)
 * AAS Division on Dynamical Astronomy addition to records, 1967-2004
 * American Astronomical Society Education Office records, 1959-1984
 * Personal histories of x-ray astronomy records, 1967-2013, American Astronomical Society. High Energy Astrophysics Division
 * AAS Historical Astronomy Division records of Chairman Thomas R. Williams, 1979-2005
 * American Astronomical Society Historical Astronomy Division addition to records, 1898-1998 (bulk 1996-1998)
 * American Astronomical Society Historical Astronomy Division records of Secretary-Treasurer Joseph S. Tenn, 2007-2015
 * American Astronomical Society Historical Astronomy Division records of the Secretary/Treasurer, 1974-2000, (bulk 1985-1992)
 * AAS Office of Secretary Arlo Landolt records addition, 1990-2000
 * American Astronomical Society Office of the Treasurer records of Frank K. Edmondson, 1898-1979
 * AAS Solar Physics Division records, 1966-1996

title: American Astronomical Society


text:
Tioman Island

Tioman Island (Pulau Tioman) is 32 km off the east coast of Rompin District, Pahang, Malaysia. It is 39 km long and 12 km wide and has seven villages, the largest and most populous being Kampung Tekek on the central western coast. The densely forested island is sparsely inhabited, and is surrounded by numerous coral reefs, making it a popular scuba diving, snorkelling, and surfing spot. There are many resorts and chalets for tourists around the island, which has duty-free status.

The island is accessed via ferry service from the coastal town of Mersing and Teluk Gading, as well as by air, run by a regular private service from Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah Airport (formerly Subang International Airport) in Selangor.

History
Tioman has been used for thousands of years by Austronesian fishermen as an essential navigation point and a source of fresh water and wood. During the past thousand years, it has played host to Chinese, Arab, and European trading ships en route to Champa, and often Chinese porcelain shards can be found on beaches around the island.

In more recent history, Tioman played host to both the British and the Japanese navies during the Second World War. As a result, the waters around the island are littered with war remains, including HMS Repulse and HMS Prince of Wales.

Tioman island does not allow buildings to have more than three stories. Tioman Island is to be granted municipality status soon.

Nature
The marine area around Tioman Island and eight other nearby islands have been declared as marine parks and marine reserves.

Apart from its diverse marine life, the inland rainforest area was protected in 1972 as the Pulau Tioman Wildlife Reserve. However, a large part of the original reserve was sacrificed for agricultural and touristic development in 1984; the remaining area is approximately 8296 ha. There are several protected species of mammals on the island, including the binturong, long-tailed macaque, slow loris, black giant squirrel, red giant flying squirrel, mouse deer, brush-tailed porcupine, and common palm civet, from a total of 45 species of mammals and 138 species of birds, including the majestic frigatebird. Moreover, Tioman has species that are endemic to its shores. The Tioman walking catfish Clarias batu can be seen on rainforest walks. Kajang slender litter frog is only known from Mount Kajang.

Tioman Island Marine Park hosts three marine ecosystems: coral reef, seagrass bed, and mangrove forest. The coral reefs accommodate 350 species of scleractinian corals from 67 genera including three endangered species (Alveopora minuta, Isopora togianensis and Pectinia maxima), 86 vulnerable species and 85 near threatened species, 326 species of coral reef fish from 55 families including the endangered humphead wrasse, vulnerable blacktip reef shark, slender bambooshark, tawny nurse shark, brown-marbled grouper, squaretail coral grouper, finless sleeper ray, Jenkin's whipray and the near threatened blackspot tuskfish and Bower's parrotfish, and 76 taxa of benthic macroalgae. The seagrass beds support 3 species of seagrass and can be found near Kampung Air Batang, Kampung Genting, Teluk Nipah, Teluk Mukut and between Japamala Resort and Pasir Cina. The mangrove forests, a total of 59.90 hectares, support 23 mangrove species including a new hybrid species, one endangered species (Heritiera globose) which can be found near Kampung Genting and Kampung Juara and two near threatened species (Ceriops decandra and Sonneratia ovata) which can be found near Kampung Juara.

Impacts
Tioman's corals have been affected by a mass bleaching event in 2010 whereby the island lost a significant portion of its live coral cover. That resulted in many corals turning a dull white colour and some even fragmenting into pieces of dead coral skeleton. The 2016 bleaching event only just touched on Tioman's Coral Reefs, and as such, the coral has remained in good and healthy condition.

A proposal to build an international airport on Tioman Island which were rejected by authorities in 2018 due to the scale of the environmental impacts it would cause are still very much in the works as an environmental impact assessment (EIA) for the project has been submitted. The new airport would cover 186.4 hectares (460.6 acres) of the island's west coast between the villages of Kampung Paya and Kampung Genting. 76% of the development area would need to be land reclaimed from the sea (142.70 hectares) within Pulau Tioman Marine Park, according to the EIA report. Impacts on the marine environment cited in the EIA report include direct destruction of coral reefs and coastal habitats, underwater construction noise, pollutant runoff, artificial lighting, and plumes of silt and sediment. The development could displace local businesses, extinguish tourism revenue in two of the island's seven villages, and have cascading effects on the island's already limited natural resource.

The EIA report suggests carrying out a marine conservation and rehabilitation plan, which involves relocating and propagating corals to four designated sites and two coral farms before any construction begins. While the relocation of corals may appear to be a measure to protect these fragile organisms, it is important to examine the drawbacks and limitations of this approach. Relocating corals from their natural habitats to new sites can have an adverse effect on their survival and the ecosystems they support. Transplanted corals often struggle to adapt to new conditions, leading to a high mortality rate. The disturbance caused by relocation can disrupt the balance of the ecosystem and result in long-term ecological consequences.

The EIA report states that 54% of 300 island residents surveyed about the development viewed the development positively. However, the report concedes that many respondents were residents of Kampung Tekek, a village in the northern, most developed part of the island, far from the development footprint and close to a large resort linked to the project developer. In contrast, representatives surveyed from the affected villages of Kampung Genting and Kampung Paya typically held a negative view of the airport proposal.

The EIA report was prepared by Asia Pacific Environmental Consultants Sdn. Bhd. for Tioman Infra Sdn. Bhd., a subsidiary part-owned by the Berjaya Group, a Malaysia-based corporation that also operates a resort on the island. The project developer is Tioman Infra Sdn Bhd, a wholly owned subsidiary of Tioman Hill Resort Sdn Bhd which is 50% owned by Berjaya Group. The rest is owned by the royal family of Pahang through Aimvesco Sdn Bhd and the late Sultan Ahmad Shah.

Ghost nets are becoming increasingly common around the island, harming local wildlife.

Tioman Island

 * Tioman Airport
 * Panuba Bay
 * Salang
 * Tekek Village
 * Minang Cove - The only cove of Tioman Island
 * Asah Waterfall
 * Bagus Place Retreat - The most eco-friendly area on Tioman Island
 * Juara Turtle Project - volunteer sea turtle and environmental conservation
 * Golden City - part of Salang village
 * Air Batang - also known as ABC

Around Tioman

 * Pulo Jehat
 * Tulai Island also known as Coral Island, famous for its white sandy beach and amazing snorkeling and dive sites
 * Renggis Island - a popular snorkeling and dive site known for sightings of sharks and turtles near Tekek Village
 * Soyak Island - a popular snorkeling and dive site close to Salang Village
 * Tomok Island - a popular snorkeling and dive site close to Paya Village

Popular Dive and Snorkeling Sites off the coast of Tulai/Coral Island
 * Sepoi Island
 * Labas Island
 * Chebeh Island

Politics
Tioman Island lends its name to the state constituency of Tioman, comprising the island and part of the Rompin District including the town of Kuala Rompin. Its representative to the State Legislative Assembly is Mohd. Johari Hussain from UMNO-Barisan Nasional. Its representative to the Malaysian Parliament is Abdul Khalib Abdullah from BERSATU-Perikatan Nasional.

Non-governmental organisations

 * Juara Turtle Project- volunteer sea turtle and environmental conservation
 * Reef Check Malaysia - build ecological and social resilience on Tioman Island through its Cintai Tioman Programme

Air
The island houses the Tioman Airport with flights from Subang.

A proposal to build an international airport through land reclamation was rejected in 2018 on environmental grounds, although the proposal has been raised since.

Currently (May 2024) there are no commercial flights to Pulau Tioman, and discussions of an airport expansion are still on-going.

Water
The island is served by ferries from Mersing, Johor and Tanjung Gemok, Pahang. Both are located in Malaysia. Currently, two ferry companies are operating in both jetties. You can purchase the ticket at the counter book directly from their respective website to secure your seats in advance.

1. Bluewater Ferry - bluewater.my

2. Cata Ferry - cataferry.com

3. Jetty Location - Google Map

Legend
According to legend, Tioman Island is the resting place of a beautiful dragon princess. Whilst flying to visit her prince in Singapore, this beautiful maiden stopped to seek solace in the crystal-clear waters of the South China Sea. Enraptured by the charms of the place, she decided to discontinue her journey. By taking the form of an island, she pledged to offer shelter and comfort to passing travellers.

Local mythology claims that the island is the embodiment of the mighty dragon Sri Gumom. The dragon was on his way to visit his sister Gunung Linga (Lingin Peak). Still, the great Sri Rama forbade the meeting, and Sri Gumom was turned into a stone and fell into the deep sea where he now remains, frozen in eternity as this beautiful island with its distinctive topography.

Radio
Community radio within Tioman: From Malaysian mainland:
 * FM 90.0
 * FM 96.8 (Pahang FM) - owned by Radio Televisyen Malaysia
 * FM 100.7 Nasional FM
 * FM 103.2 (Airport radio)
 * FM 104.0 (Tioman community radio)
 * FM 104.1
 * FM 88.3 Minnal FM - owned by Radio Televisyen Malaysia
 * FM 89.1 Ai FM - owned by Radio Televisyen Malaysia
 * FM 90.1 Radio Klasik - owned by Radio Televisyen Malaysia
 * FM 92.1 Johor FM - owned by Radio Televisyen Malaysia
 * FM 92.9 (TraXX FM) - owned by Radio Televisyen Malaysia
 * FM 102.5 Best FM

Television

 * TV1 - Channel 50 (Temporarily unavailable)
 * TV2 - Channel 53 (Temporarily unavailable) - Currently broadcasting on Channel 11
 * TV3 - Channel 32
 * NTV7 -
 * 8TV - Channel 7
 * TV9 - Channel 9
 * TV Alhijrah - Channel 40

Local:
 * TV5 - Channel 5

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Tioman Island


text:
AAS

Aas or AAS may refer to:

Companies

 * Ateliers Aéronautiques de Suresnes, a defunct French aircraft manufacturing company
 * Alcatel Alenia Space, an aerospace company; now Thales Alenia Space
 * Austrian Air Services, a defunct airline from Austria (ICAO designator)

Organizations

 * African Academy of Sciences, an Africa-wide scientific organization
 * Air Ambulance Service, a UK charity
 * All-America Selections, an organization that promotes development of new garden seed varieties
 * American Antiquarian Society, an American society and national research library
 * American Anti-Slavery Society
 * American Arachnological Society, a society of amateur and professional arachnologists
 * American Association of Suicidology, an American nonprofit suicide prevention organization
 * American Astronautical Society, an independent scientific and technical group in the United States
 * American Astronomical Society, a United States society of professional astronomers
 * Ansar al-Sunna, or Jamaat Ansar al-Sunna, a militant group operating in Iraq
 * Arnold Air Society, a professional honorary service organization for US Air Force officer candidates
 * Association for Academic Surgery
 * Association for Asian Studies
 * Assyrian Academic Society
 * Assyrian Aid Society, an Iraqi organization of the Assyrian Democratic Movement
 * Australian Academy of Science, an independent, government-endorsed society with the aim of promoting science
 * Australian Anthropological Society

Publications

 * Austin American-Statesman, a Texas newspaper
 * Australian Aboriginal Studies, an Australian academic journal

Science, mathematics, and technology

 * Asymptotically almost surely
 * Angle-Angle-Side, see congruence (geometry)
 * Atomic absorption spectroscopy, for quantitative determination of chemical elements
 * ASCII Adjust after Subtraction, one of the x86 Intel BCD opcodes

Medicine

 * Acute aortic syndrome
 * Anabolic–androgenic steroid, or simply anabolic steroid

Other uses

 * A.a.s (art group), a British-based art collective
 * Aas (surname), people with the surname Aas
 * Aas (TV series), a Pakistani television series
 * Aas, Pyrénées-Atlantiques, a village in France
 * Abandon All Ships, an Italian-Canadian metalcore band from Toronto, Ontario
 * Acta Apostolicae Sedis, the official commentary of the Holy See/Vatican City State
 * Anglo-American School of Moscow
 * Anglo-American School of Sofia
 * Apalapsili Airport in Apalapsili, Indonesia, IATA code
 * Armed Aerial Scout a U.S. Army replacement program for the OH-58 Kiowa
 * As a service, a business model that allows companies to either outsource certain functions, or avoid purchasing certain goods
 * Asa language, an extinct language of Tanzania, ISO 639-3 code
 * Associate of Applied Science, a college degree
 * Audit and Assurance Standards issued by ICAI, the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India
 * Sony Auto-lock Accessory Shoe, on camera
 * Taylor County Airport (Kentucky), Campbellsville, US, FAA LID
 * Eyeish, a Native American tribe

title: AAS


text:
Roaches

Roaches may refer to:

 * Carl Roaches (born 1953), American former football player
 * Roaches, Illinois, United States, an unincorporated community
 * The Roaches, a gritstone escarpment in Staffordshire, England

title: Roaches


text:
Talk:Bastille Day

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 29 October 2018 and 5 December 2018. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Rcadieux22.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 15:22, 16 January 2022 (UTC)

Additional Information and Edits made to the Celebrations in other countries section
Under the header Bastille Day celebrations in other countries, I reformatted the section from a bullet-point list to sub-header sections. This change was made to make it easier to see which countries celebrate Bastille Day outside of France. I added more detailed information about each countries' celebration, to give a more cohesive understanding of how Bastille Day is celebrated around the world. I also added a section about the celebration of the holiday in Tahiti. Under the United States section, I edited the format so that the information about each states' celebration was in paragraph form under a sub-header of their location within the United States. These edits were made to make the section easier to read and add more information about the different celebrations themselves. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Rcadieux22 (talk • contribs) 15:06, 5 December 2018 (UTC)

Misunderstanding of French
Can someone fix this please? Not true: Homme with an uppercase h meaning "human", while homme with a lowercase h means "man" — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2601:19B:C700:6650:C492:9872:DA20:5358 (talk) 18:35, 23 July 2020 (UTC)

One bob can change the world Britney Spearsnyyhyuftft — Preceding unsigned comment added by 194.62.185.202 (talk) 19:46, 2 November 2021 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 20:49, 31 December 2021 (UTC)
 * Feu d'artifice du 14 juillet 2017 depuis le champ de Mars à Paris, devant la Tour Eiffel, Bastille day 2017 (35118978683).jpg

title: Talk:Bastille Day


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Airport Express

Airport Express may refer to:

Technology

 * AirPort Express, a wireless product by Apple Inc.

Rail
Several airport rail links are named Airport Express:
 * Capital Airport Express of Beijing Subway, the airport transit service to Beijing Capital International Airport in Beijing, China
 * Daxing Airport Express of Beijing Subway, the airport transit service to Beijing Daxing International Airport in Beijing, China
 * Delhi Airport Metro Express, a Delhi Metro line linking Indira Gandhi International Airport
 * Airport Express (MTR), the airport railway service in Hong Kong provided by MTR, the first of its type and the first to be named so
 * AREX (Airport Express), the airport railway service between Incheon Airport, Gimpo Airport and Seoul, South Korea
 * KLIA Ekspres, the airport railway express service between Kuala Lumpur and Kuala Lumpur International Airport in Malaysia
 * Aeroexpress (Moscow, Sochi, Vladivostok), operator of airport rail link services in Russia

Bus
Several airport bus connections are named Airport Express:
 * Airport Express (Sydney)
 * Toronto Airport Express, a former coach bus service between Downtown Toronto and Toronto Pearson International Airport
 * Wisconsin Coach Lines, AS Airport Express operates frequently to O'Hare Airport (ORD), Midway Airport (MDW) and Mitchell Airport (MKE) from Waukesha, Milwaukee, Racine, and Kenosha

title: Airport Express


text:
Tsing Yi

Tsing Yi, sometimes referred to as Tsing Yi Island, is an island in the New Territories of Hong Kong, to the northwest of Hong Kong Island and south of Tsuen Wan. With an area of 10.69 sqkm, the island has been extended drastically by reclamation along almost all its natural shore and the annexation of Nga Ying Chau (牙鷹洲) and Chau Tsai. Three major bays or harbours, Tsing Yi Lagoon, Mun Tsai Tong, and Tsing Yi Bay (青衣灣) in the northeast, have been completely reclaimed for new towns.

The island is generally zoned into four quarters: the northeast quarter is a residential area, the southeast quarter is Tsing Yi Town, the southwest holds heavy industry, and the northwest includes a recreation trail, a transportation interchange and some dockyards and ship building industry. The island is in the northwest of Victoria Harbour and part of its coastline is subject to the Protection of the Harbour Ordinance.

Etymology

Tsing Yi (青衣) literally means "green/ blue/ black clothes", but is also a kind of fish, most likely blackspot tuskfish, once abundant in nearby waters. People named the island after the fish. Tsing Yi Tam (青衣潭, Tsing Yi Deep Pool) or Tsing Yi Tam Shan (青衣潭山, Tsing Yi Deep Pool Hill) also appeared on some early Chinese maps.

The island was also known as Chun Fa Lok (春花落) once upon a time, which means the fall of spring flowers, or Chun Fa Island, on some Western maps. Now, Chun Fa Lok is still a place name or a former village on the southeast corner of the island. A government document in the Ming Dynasty named the water near Chun Fa Lok, Chun Fa Yeung (春花洋), which is the ocean of spring flowers. The Ming navy once defeated pirate fleets there.

In some historical sources, Tsing-I Island is used instead of Tsing Yi Island, and Chung-Hue Island instead of Chun Fa Island.

Administration
Tsing Yi Town, together with Kwai Chung Town, is part of Tsuen Wan New Town in the Kwai Tsing District in the New Territories. Although Tsing Yi Island is a de facto outlying island, it is not accordingly included in the Islands District.

Historically, Tsing Yi Island, with Kwai Chung, were usually in the same administration unit as Tsuen Wan because of their proximity and close-knit neighbourhood. Unlike Kwai Chung, however, whose villages are part of Tsuen Wan Rural Committee, Tsing Yi Island has its own, Tsing Yi Rural Committee. The rural committee was politically significant until the establishment of a District Council and Regional Council (now-abolished), and even less significant since the urban population grew much larger than the rural population.

Population
There were about 4,000 people on the island when the British took the New Territories around 1898. In the following one hundred years, the population has grown to nearly 50 times this size; the 2001 Census calculating that the population of the island was 193,432 in 55,478 households. In an estimation in 2007, there are about 200,400 people. It is expected to grow to 203,300 in the near future. Most of the population live in Tsing Yi Town.

Geography
Tsing Yi Island is a hilly island with Tsing Yi Peak in the south and Liu To Shan in the north east. Small plain can be found surrounding the former Tsing Yi Lagoon in island northeast. The rocks on the island are mainly granite and were exposed due to extensive housing, industrial and infrastructure construction. Although the island is not fallen in the administration of country park, most of the hilly area remains green. The Tsing Yi Peak climbs to 334 mand is a barrier separating industrial west and residential east.

Nature
The hilly area of the island largely remains intact and is designated as a green belt. In 1997 a once lost endemic plant, Hong Kong croton, was found in the woodland beneath the highest peak, Tsing Yi Peak, on the island.

History
In the early days, the inhabitants on the island were mostly farmers and fishermen. The major population concentrated in the northeast portion of the island. Farmers grew rice, vegetables and pineapples, while fishermen lived in huts connected by plank walkways in the small harbour of Tsing Yi Tong which stretched far back into the island. Many fishermen also lived on their junks and boats all the time, fishing in the nearby waters. Even as late as the 1970s, Tsing Yi Tong resembled Tai O with its characteristic stilt houses and water vehicles. Like many other fishing villages in Hong Kong, the Tsing Yi dwellers worshipped Tin Hau, the goddess of mercy and the sea. A Tin Hau Temple was built on the shore of Tsing Yi Tong. At the birthday of Tin Hau, fishermen of all nearby waters would come to the Temple for celebrations. The temple was white in color and thus people call it Pak Miu (白廟, lit. 'White Temple').

From the 1920s onwards, a Chinese company built lime factories on the present site of Greenfield Garden. It is the earliest known industry on the island. The lime industry continued to flourish during the 1950s, and a tanning factory was also founded at the same period. After World War II, other heavy industries moved in as well. In the 1960s, several oil companies moved their oil storage depots onto the island and a Green Island Cement cement plant. CLP later commissioned its 1520MW oil-fired Tsing Yi Power Station in 1969 at Nam Wan due to its proximity to the oil tank farms. Meanwhile, some small shipbuilding companies opened on Tsing Yi, and remain on the north side of the island. In the 1970s, six large-scale companies on the island collectively built the Tsing Yi Bridge to connect Tsing Yi Town and Kwai Chung Town over the Rambler Channel. The bridge was soon transferred to the Hong Kong Government, remaining the sole road connection to the island for more than ten years. Several industrial buildings for light industries were constructed beside the bridge afterward. Several dockyards moved to the west shore of the island at the end of the 1970s.

During the 1950s, Wok Tai Wan on Tsing Yi Island was a paradise for nudists, and hence Tsing Yi was once synonymous with nudism in Hong Kong.

After the establishment of the Tsing Yi Bridge, the Hong Kong government commenced an extensive new town project on the island. Cheung Ching Estate, Cheung Hong Estate and Mayfair Gardens were consequently built in heaps. The vicinity of the Mobil oil storage depot to Mayfair Garden and Cheung Ching Estate once aroused enormous concern for the safety of the residents. Some social workers and residents urged the government to relocate the storage facilities. The government decided to halt the last phase of the Mayfair Garden development scheme. The storage facility remained at the same location until Container Terminal 9 was on the government's agenda.

Later on, the tenor of town development shifted northward. Two fisherman harbours, Tsing Yi Tong and Mun Tsai Tong were reclaimed for residential use. Many fishermen were relocated from their boats parked in the typhoon shelter to the Ching Tao House, a new residential block on land, of Chueng Ching Estate. The land inhabitants were put together into several designated areas so as to re-build their villages. The primary sectors had all died out owing to the drastic town development. Tsing Yi Estate, Cheung On Estate, Cheung Fat Estate, Ching Tai Court and Tsing Yi Garden were built after all reclamations were accomplished. Ching Wah Court was built adjoining to Cheung Hong Estate. At the same time, Tsing Yi Bridge was seriously overburdened and its structure was unable to cope with increasing traffic. There was only a one-way road in each direction on the bridge. Traffic congestion became the burning problem in the community, and subsequently fueled protest. Finally, Tsing Yi North Bridge, a connection to Tsuen Wan town was built to ease off the congestion, as well as to accommodate the local residential population boom.

Tsing Yi was continually under further development and Greenfield Garden, Serene Garden, Broadview Garden, and Cheung Hang Estate were constructed.

The final decision to relocate Hong Kong International Airport spurred a new series of development: Airport Railway, Ting Kau Bridge to Ting Kau and North New Territories, Tsing Ma Bridge to Ma Wan and Lantau Island, Rambler Channel Bridge to Kowloon and Hong Kong Island, Duplicate Tsing Yi South Bridge on the south side of Tsing Yi Bridge. On the island, new residential projects, Tivoli Garden, Grand Horizon, Mount Haven, Villa Esplanada, Tierra Verde, and Cheung Wang Estate were completed. The final part of reclaimed land near the shore had been laid waste for almost a decade until Tsing Yi Promenade was built in 2004. Local Hong Kong cultural pursuits of Chinese music and dancing, walking and Chinese exercise are in evidence in most evenings.

From 2000 to 2004, Container Terminal 9 was built on the reclaimed southwest shore of the island, together with resident blocks, Rambler Crest. Nearby, and well within sight of Central. Victoria, a controversial new dioxin burning plant was also put into operation during 2004, arousing much concern for the residents of Tsing Yi and Hong Kong island.

Villages

 * Chung Mei Lo Uk Village (涌美老屋村)
 * Fishermen's Village (漁民村)
 * Fung Shue Wo Resite Village (楓樹窩新村)
 * Lam Tin Resite Village (藍田村)
 * St. Paul's Village (聖保祿村)
 * Sun Uk Resite Village (新屋村)
 * Tai Wong Ha Resite Village (大王下村)
 * Tsing Yi Hui (青衣墟)
 * Tsing Yi Lutheran Village
 * Tsing Yu Resite Village (青裕新村)
 * Yim Tin Kok Resite (鹽田角村)
 * Sai Shan Village

Hotels
There are three hotels in Tsing Yi Town, at the east of Tsing Yi Island, facing the marvellous view of Rambler Channel and the container terminals. They are:
 * Mexan Harbour Hotel,
 * Rambler Garden Hotel and
 * Rambler Oasis Hotel.

Transport
Tsing Yi Island is a transportation hub in Hong Kong.

Bridges
Eight bridges connect to the island.
 * Tsing Yi Bridge to Kwai Chung Town and Kowloon.
 * Kwai Tsing Bridge (Duplicate Tsing Yi South Bridge) to Kwai Chung Town and Kowloon.
 * Tsing Tsuen Bridge (Tsing Yi North Bridge) to Tsuen Wan Town.
 * Ting Kau Bridge to Tuen Mun Town and Yuen Long Town (Route 3).
 * Cheung Tsing Bridge to Kowloon and Hong Kong Island (Route 3).
 * Tsing Ma Bridge to Ma Wan and Lantau Island (Route 8).
 * Tsing Lai Bridge to Lai King station (dedicated MTR viaduct)
 * Stonecutters Bridge to Stonecutters Island, Kowloon and Sha Tin Town (Route 8).

Within the island:
 * Liu To Bridge (a part of Tsing Yi West Road)

Tunnels

 * Cheung Tsing Tunnel (Route 3)
 * Nam Wan Tunnel (Route 8)

Railway
Tsing Yi station, at the northeastern part of Tsing Yi Island, in Tsing Yi Town, is served by MTR Tung Chung line and Airport Express. It is also the only rail station on the island.

Bus transport
Tsing Yi is served by an extensive bus network, with routes terminating at different parts of Hong Kong.

There are 9 bus termini on the island:
 * Cheung Ching (長青)
 * Cheung Hang (長亨)
 * Cheung Hong (長康)
 * Cheung On (長安)
 * Cheung Wang (長宏), formerly known as "Tsing Yan" (青欣)
 * Mayfair Gardens (美景花園)
 * Tsing Yi station (青衣站)
 * Tsing Yi Estate (青衣邨)
 * Tsing Yi Ferry (青衣碼頭)

Pier
Before the completion of Tsing Yi Bridge, ferry was the only public transport to mainland Hong Kong. Tsing Yi Pier was built near Tsing Yi Town before the reclamation. The pier followed the change of shoreline owing after reclamation, and moved to the waterfront near Greenfield Garden.

Hovercraft service between Tsuen Wan, Tsing Yi and Central was provided by the former Hongkong and Yaumati Ferry. After the franchise of the company came to an end, Hong Kong and Kowloon Ferry took over the route and operated it.

All ferry services ceased with rapid development of road and rail transport, especially MTR Tung Chung line with its station just a few hundred metres away from the ferry pier. It no longer takes residents to Tsuen Wan and Central. The pier is now open to the public, and continues to be used as a drop-off point for fishermen and tourists, and as a mooring site for government boats.

Religious buildings

 * Tin Hau Temple (青衣天后古廟); the temple was originally located near Tsing Yi Tong. Upon reclamation of Tsing Yi, it was moved to Ha Ko Tan (下高灘), near today's Chung Mei Lo Uk Village.
 * Chun Kwan Temple (真君廟); dedicated to Chun Kwan. The temple was relocated near Tsing Yi Police Station.
 * Tsing Tak Tong Tat-more Temple (清德堂達摩廟); the Bodhidharma temple in Tsing Yi Lutheran Village.
 * Tai Wong Temple (大王古廟), Taoist temple in Tsing Yi Lutheran Village.
 * Tai Yam Neong Neong Temple (太陰娘娘廟); Taoist temple, dedicated to the Lunar Goddess, Sheung Ngo (嫦娥), located in Tsing Yi Lutheran Village.
 * St. Thomas the Apostle Church; the Catholic church building, near Tsing Yi Estate and Tsing Yi Park, was completed in July 1999.
 * Tsing Yi Ward of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church); The church is near Maritime Square and St. Pauls Village.
 * Tsing Lam Church (青霖堂), Protestant church by the side of Fishermen's Village and St. Paul's Village; the buildings were formally "Fish Marketing Organisation Tsing Yi Fishermen's Children's Primary School".

Education
In the early days, education on the Tsing Yi Island was mostly private. The first public school on the island is Tsing Yi Public School, a primary school founded by villagers and businessmen on the island. In the post-World War II era, Hong Kong Government provides 9-year free education to all children from primary one to secondary three. The public school is then mainly funded by the government. Another school for the children of fishermen, Tsing Yi Fishermen's Children's Primary School, was founded by Fish Marketing Organisation. In 1977, Cheung Ching Estate, the first public housing estates on the island, marked the beginning of the new town on the island. To accommodate new schooling children, three primary schools and Buddhist Yip Kei Nam Memorial College, the first secondary school on the island, were built with the estate. More schools were erected when new estates were completed. In 1999, a post-secondary college, Hong Kong Technical College (Tsing Yi), was completed and provides vocational training for all adults in Hong Kong. In the 2000s, the number of schooling children began to drop and the several schools are facing the fatal fate.

All of Tsing Yi is in Primary One Admission (POA) School Net 66. Within the school net are multiple aided schools (operated independently but funded with government money); no government schools are in this net.

Numerous schools are founded on Tsing Yi Island, namely:

Primary schools

 * CNEC Lui Ming Choi Primary School
 * Father Cucchiara Memorial School
 * HKCSCA Cheung Chi Cheong Memorial Primary School
 * HKSYIC&IA Chan Lai So Chun Memorial School
 * Delia (Man Kiu) English Primary School
 * PLK Castar Primary School
 * PLK Chan Yat Primary School
 * SKH Ho Chak Wan Primary School
 * SKH Tsing Yi Estate Ho Chak Wan Primary School
 * SKH Tsing Yi Chu Yan Primary School
 * Tsing Yi Public School
 * Tsing Yi Fishermen's Children's Primary School (closed)
 * Tsing Yi Trade Association Primary School
 * Tsuen Wan Trade Association Primary School
 * TWGHs Chow Yin Sum Primary School
 * TWGHs Wong See Sum Primary School
 * YCH Chiu Tsang Hok Wan Primary School

Secondary schools

 * Buddhist Yip Kei Nam Memorial College
 * Caritas St. Joseph Secondary School
 * CCC Yenching College
 * Lok Sin Tong Leung Chik Wai Memorial School
 * PLK Tsing Yi Secondary School (Skill Opportunity) (closed)
 * Po Leung Kuk Lo Kit Sing (1983) College
 * Queen's College Old Boys' Association Secondary School
 * S. C. Gaw Memorial College

Special schools

 * PLK Mr. and Mrs. Chan Pak Keung Tsing Yi School

Institute of Vocational Education

 * Hong Kong Institute of Vocational Education (Tsing Yi)

Medical services
The Department of Health operates two general out-patient clinics on the island in Tsing Yi Town. The first one is Tsing Yi Cheung Hong Clinic in Cheung Hong Estate and another is Tsing Yi Town Clinic near Tsing Yi Garden. There is also one maternal and child health centre, Tsing Yi Maternal and Child Health Centre, on the island. It is just next to Tsing Yi Cheung Hong Clinic.

There is at least one private clinic in each housing estate.

In town planning, Tsing Yi Hospital was supposed to be built near Cheung Hang Estate but the plan was put off owing to financial difficulty of Hospital Authority.

Shopping
All public and private housing estates on the island have their own shopping centres or markets. Cheung Fat Shopping Centre, by Hong Kong Housing Authority was once the largest shopping centre and was later supplanted by MTR Corporation's Maritime Square, as the shopping focus of the island.

Shipbuilding
Tsing Yi is home to Hong Kong United Dockyard, located on the west side since 1980.

Leisure facilities

 * Tsing Yi Swimming Pool
 * Tsing Yi Sports Ground
 * Fung Shue Wo Indoor Recreation Centre
 * Tsing Yi Indoor Recreation Centre
 * Cheung Fat Indoor Recreation Centre
 * Tsing Yi Public Library
 * Tsing Yi Park
 * Tsing Yi Nature Trail
 * Tsing Yi Promenade

People practise tai chi in Tsing Yi Promenade near Maritime Square in Tsing Yi Town in the early morning hours. Some gather and practise dancing in the playground near Tsing Yung House of Cheung Ching Estate.

title: Tsing Yi


text:
Lac de Serre-Ponçon

The Lac de Serre-Ponçon (Vivaro-Alpine: Lac de Sèrra Ponçon), known in English as the Lake of Serre-Ponçon, is a reservoir on the border between the Hautes-Alpes and Alpes-de-Haute-Provence departments, in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region, Southeastern France, one of the largest in Western Europe. The lake gathers the waters of the Durance and the Ubaye rivers, flowing down through the Hautes-Alpes and the Alpes du Sud to the Rhône. The waters are dammed by the Barrage de Serre-Ponçon, a 123 m high earth core dam.

As well as water control, sixteen hydroelectric plants use the water, with additional water control supporting; the lake provides irrigation to 1500 km2 of land.

History
The lake was created to control water flow after disastrous floods caused severe damage and loss of life in 1843 and 1856. First proposed in 1895, construction started in 1955 and was completed by 1961.

During construction of the lake, approximately 3000000 m3 of material was moved. The dam was constructed and the valley slowly became a lake, flooding some villages in the process. This flooding is the subject of Jean Giono's movie Girl and the River (1958), starring Guy Béart.

According to the official website of the Muséoscope, the "museum of the largest dam in Europe made of compacted soil", Lac de Serre-Ponçon includes a hydroelectric power plant with a 380 MW generator. In addition to the power plant on the lake itself, the dam provides the reservoir and overall water management to facilitate an additional 15 hydroelectric plants along the Durance and Verdon rivers in Southeastern France, with total capacity of 2,000 MW.

The dam's effects go beyond only the lake itself. It serves as a focal point that supports the functioning of a vast hydroelectric infrastructure network. In Southeast France, this network consists of 15 hydroelectric facilities that are carefully placed along the Durance and Verdon rivers. The combined capacity of these linked plants, which totals 2,000 MW, makes a substantial contribution to sustainable power generation and the region's energy landscape.

Within the lake is a small chapel, Chapelle Saint-Michel, which was originally built on a hill in the 12th century, destroyed by the army of Victor Amadeus II, Duke of Savoy in 1692, and rebuilt soon after. The chapel was originally condemned during the construction of the dam and lake, but survived, its hill becoming an island in the lake. The island is accessible on foot during winter and early spring as the lake is emptier at this period

Geography
Neighboring communes:
 * Embrun
 * Savines-le-Lac
 * Chorges

title: Lac de Serre-Ponçon


text:
Kirkkonummi

Kirkkonummi (Kyrkslätt,, Sweden ) is a municipality in Finland, located in the southern coast of the country. Kirkkonummi is situated in the western part of the Uusimaa region. The population of Kirkkonummi is approximately 0. It is the most populous municipality in Finland. Kirkkonummi is part of the Helsinki Metropolitan Area, which has approximately 0 million inhabitants.

Kirkkonummi is situated on the northern shore of the Gulf of Finland and borders Espoo, Vihti, Siuntio and Ingå. The literal meaning of the words "Kirkkonummi" and "Kyrkslätt" in English is "church heath".

Kirkkonummi is a bilingual municipality with Finnish and Swedish as its official languages. The population consists of NaN Finnish speakers, NaN Swedish speakers, and NaN speakers of other languages.

Geography
The municipality is located just outside the Helsinki Metropolitan Area, bordering the city of Espoo in the east. Other neighbouring municipalities are Vihti and Siuntio. The distance from the municipal centre to central Helsinki is some 30 km. Kirkkonummi also has excellent train and bus connections to other parts of the Greater Helsinki area, and many of its inhabitants commute daily to Helsinki.

The municipality covers an area of undefined km2 of which undefined km2 is water. The population density is undefined PD/km2. In recent years, Kirkkonummi has faced the highest population growth rate in the country, at over 3% per annum.

Major population centres in Kirkkonummi include the municipal centre, Masala, Veikkola, Kantvik and the Upinniemi naval garrison area. In addition to these, there are dozens of smaller villages. Geographically, Kirkkonummi has two famous peninsulas, namely Porkkala and Upinniemi, the latter one of which houses a major Finnish naval base. Porkkala is also on one of the main bird migration routes in the Baltic Sea region. Additionally, Kirkkonummi has a large central plains area, through which a railway goes from Helsinki to Turku as well as extensive lake areas, much of which is relatively untouched wilderness.

Climate
Kirkkonummi has a four-season humid continental climate (Köppen: Dfb) with long, cold, snowy winters, and warm summers; spring and fall are somewhat cool and brief seasons. Similar to that of Nova Scotia or Hokkaidō. The monthly daily average temperatures range from -3.9 °C (25.0 °F) in January to 20 °C (68 °F) in July. Precipitation is well-spread throughout the year, though late spring to early summer is the driest season while late fall to winter tends to be the wettest. Its location in the very southern tip of Finland gives it a milder climate than that of northern Finland, being influenced by the North Atlantic Current and the Baltic Sea. Record temperatures range from -31.4 °C (-24.5 °F) in February, up to 34.8 °C (94.6 °F) in July. The plant life hardiness zones are between 6a and 7a, representing an annual extreme minimum temperature between -23.3 and -17.8 C.

History
Kirkkonummi has been populated from the Stone Age to the present day as evidenced by the first Stone Age rock paintings found in Finland that are located by lake Vitträsk in the central lake region of Kirkkonummi. Incidentally, these paintings were found by the famous Finnish composer Jean Sibelius. The southern half of the municipality was leased to the Soviet Union between 1945 and 1956 for use as a naval base as part of the peace settlement that ended the hostilities between the Soviet Union and Finland during World War II. Signs of this time include concrete bunkers, other fortifications and the remains of an airbase.

Politics
Results of the 2011 Finnish parliamentary election in Kirkkonummi:

 * National Coalition Party  30.7%
 * Social Democratic Party  16.8%
 * True Finns  16.3%
 * Swedish People's Party  14.3%
 * Green League  10.1%
 * Centre Party  4.4%
 * Left Alliance  3.6%
 * Christian Democrats  2.3%

Attractions
Places of interest located in Kirkkonummi include the medieval stone church in the municipal centre, the wooden church in the village of Haapajärvi, as well as the Hvitträsk manor designed by Finnish architects Eliel Saarinen, Herman Gesellius and Armas Lindgren.

Notable people

 * Herman Gesellius (1874–1916), architect
 * Jani Hakanpää (born 1992), professional ice hockey player
 * Laura Närhi (born 1978), pop singer
 * Riikka Purra (born 1977), politician
 * Eero Saarinen (1910–1961), architect

Twin towns — Sister cities
Kirkkonummi is twinned with:

 * 🇸🇪 Sundbyberg, Sweden
 * 🇪🇪 Paldiski, Estonia

title: Kirkkonummi


text:
Talk:Airport Express

...Hong Kong station which is located in Central.

"Central" link is not relevant.

 * Fixed. - Patrick 12:08 15 Jul 2003 (UTC)

title: Talk:Airport Express


text:
Porkkalanniemi

Porkkalanniemi (Porkala udd) is a peninsula in the Gulf of Finland, located at Kirkkonummi (Kyrkslätt) in Southern Finland.

The peninsula had great strategic value, as coastal artillery based there would be able to shoot more than halfway across the Gulf of Finland. If the same power controlled the Estonian coast, on the opposite side of the gulf, it would then be able to block Saint Petersburg's naval access to the Baltic Sea. The distance to Estonia at the closest point is only 36 km. Porkkala is furthermore located only 30 km from Helsinki, the Finnish capital, and a foreign power based there would be able to exert significant pressure on the Finnish government.

Nowadays, the coasts of the peninsula are popular birdwatching areas during the spring migrations of Arctic geese and other waterfowl.

History
At the end of the Second World War, the Soviet Union secured the rights of lease to a naval base at Porkkala, in accordance with the Moscow armistice agreement that ended the Continuation War between Finland and the Soviets on 19 September 1944.

Porkkala thus replaced the peninsula of Hanko, which had been leased to the Soviets as a naval base in 1940–41. A large area centered on the peninsula, including land from the municipalities of Kirkkonummi, Siuntio and Ingå and almost the entire area of Degerby, was leased to the USSR from 29 September 1944, ten days after the armistice. At the time of the Soviet take-over of the area, there were about 7200 Finnish inhabitants and all were evacuated during ten days in September 1944.

Beyond its military use, the naval base served to apply political pressure on the Finnish governments and also to help build a Soviet espionage network.

It was immediately placed under a military commander, Neon Antonov (1907–1948), who remained in office until June 1945, when he was transferred to command the Amur River flotilla, in preparation for the war against Japan.

According to the armistice of 1944, the area was leased to the Soviet Union for 50 years. On 10 February 1947, the Paris Peace Treaty reaffirmed the Soviet Union's right to occupy the area until 1994.

No Soviet civilian administration was set up; the Soviet Union simply administered it through the military commander of Porkkala, a post held until 26 January 1956 by Sergey Kabanov (1901–1973), the former Commander of Hanko naval base.

At the height of the naval base operations, 30 000 Soviet troops were stationed in the area along with 10 000 Soviet officials and civilians such as members of officers' families.

While under Soviet control, Finnish passenger trains running between Helsinki and Turku were in 1947 allowed to use the railway through the area under payment of fees. However, all train windows had to be closed with shutters, and photography was prohibited during the 40 km (25 mile) transition.

During the 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki, the Soviet Olympic team was housed on the base, rather than in the Olympic village.

Although the Soviet lease for Porkkala had been conceded for 50 years, an agreement was reached to return it earlier. The agreement was signed on 19 September 1955, exactly 11 years after the armistice, and control of the area reverted to Finland on 26 January 1956. This may be attributed to the process of Finlandization and to technological progress making coastal artillery obsolete. The renunciation of Stalinism by the Soviet Union under Nikita Khrushchev and Finland's neutrality and remaining out of NATO were also important contributing factors.

Upon re-entering the area, the Finns found that the Soviets had destroyed about 50% of civilian housing and 80% of commercial properties which had been handed over in 1944. New constructions included a deep port in Båtvik and an airfield in Friggesby. The airfield was immediately demolished and returned to farmland and the majority of the evacuated population returned to their former homes. By the end of the 1960s, most traces of the Soviet tenure had been erased.

Currently, the Porkkala area houses one of the main bases of the Finnish Navy, located in Upinniemi, near Porkkala proper.

In popular culture
The Soviet lease of Porkkala and the return of the area to former inhabitants are key events in the Finnish Noir mystery, Below the Surface by Leena Lehtolainen. The naval base also forms part of the plot line of the TV series Shadow Lines (Nyrkki).

title: Porkkalanniemi


text:
Bulgarian lev

The lev (лев, plural: лева, левове / leva, levove; ISO 4217 code: BGN; numeric code: 975) is the currency of Bulgaria. In old Bulgarian, the word "lev" meant "lion"; the word "lion" in the modern language is lаv (in Bulgarian: лъв). The lev is divided in 100 stotinki (стотинки, singular: stotinka, стотинка). Stotinka in Bulgarian means "a hundredth" and in fact is a translation of the French term "centime." Grammatically, the word "stotinka" comes from the word "sto" (сто; a hundred).

Since 1997, the lev has been in a currency board arrangement with initially the Deutsche Mark at a fixed rate of BGL 1000 to DEM 1. After the introduction of the euro and the redenomination of the lev in 1999, this has resulted in a fixed rate to the euro of BGN 1.95583 : EUR 1. Since 2020, the lev has been a part of the European Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM II). When all the conditions are met, Bulgaria is supposed to join the Eurozone by 1 January 2025. In November 2023, Bulgarian euro coin designs have been revealed and approved by the Bulgarian National Bank.

Etymology
The currency's name comes from the archaic Bulgarian word "lev," which meant lion.

The lion has been the national symbol of Bulgaria over the centuries. In Bulgaria, the lion features in numerous historical monuments. The oldest images, found on slates in the city of Stara Zagora, date back to the 9th–10th century AD. A lion is depicted on The Madara Horseman – an impressive medieval rock relief carved into a towering rock plateau in northeastern Bulgaria, which is on UNESCO's World Heritage List. In the Middle Ages, Bulgarian kings such as Ivan Shishman, one of the last rulers of the Second Bulgarian kingdom, celebrated the lion as a symbol of power.

In the time of Bulgarian national awakening in the years of Ottoman bondage, the lion was considered and widely used as a major national symbol. Paisii of Hilendar, a discerning monastic and a key Revival figure, mentioned in his ground-breaking tome Istorija Slavjanobolgarskaja that Bulgarians had a lion on their kings' royal seal: a symbol of the bravery, courage and invincibility of Bulgarian warriors, who fought "like lions."

Lion images on revolutionary flags, used in the 1876 freedom-seeking April uprising, provide a proof that the lion continued to be considered as a national symbol. In the immediate period leading up to the revolt, revolutionary flags were made, featuring a golden lion rampant and the motto "Freedom or Death." These flags, most often hand-made by local teachers or icon painters, have been preserved in Bulgarian museums to the present day. Most flags were made of green silk and had a painted or embroidered lion on them, in a heraldic posture and trampling over the Crescent – the symbol of the Ottoman Empire. The same image can be seen on items of one-time rebel outfits such as hats and buttons. In Bulgarian folklore and Revival Literature, these lion depictions were called lion signs attributed to the Bulgarian revolutionaries' image. "Young Bulgarian heroes...lion signs on their foreheads, fire blazing in their eyes," says a most popular Bulgarian Revival period song.

First lev (1881–1952)
The lev was introduced as Bulgaria's currency in 1881 with a value equal to the French franc. The gold standard was suspended between 1899 and 1906 and suspended again in 1912. Until 1916, Bulgaria's silver and gold coins were issued to the same specifications as those of the Latin Monetary Union. Banknotes issued until 1928 were backed by gold (leva zlato / zlatni, лева злато / златни) or silver (leva srebro / srebarni, лева сребро / сребърни).

In 1928, a new gold standard of 1 lev = 10.86956 mg gold was established.

During World War II, in 1940, the lev was pegged to the German Reichsmark at a rate of 32.75 leva = 1 Reichsmark. With the Soviet occupation in September 1944, the lev was pegged to the Soviet ruble at 15 leva = 1 ruble. A series of pegs to the U.S. dollar followed: 120 leva = 1 dollar in October 1945, 286.50 leva in December 1945 and 143.25 leva in March 1947. No coins were issued after 1943; only banknotes were issued until the currency reform of 1952.

Coins
Between 1881 and 1884, bronze 2, 5, and 20 stotinki, and silver 50 stotinki, 1, 2, and 5 leva were introduced, followed, in 1888, by cupro-nickel $1/100$, 5, 10, and 20 stotinki. Gold 10 and 20 leva were issued in 1894. Bronze 1 stotinka were introduced in 1901.

Production of silver coins ceased in 1916, with zinc replacing cupro-nickel in the 5, 10, and 20 stotinki in 1917. In 1923, aluminum 1 and 2 leva coins were introduced, followed by cupro-nickel pieces in 1925. In 1930, cupro-nickel 5 and 10 leva and silver 20, 50, and 100 leva were introduced, with silver coins issued until 1937, in which year aluminium-bronze 50 stotinki were issued.

In 1940, cupro-nickel 20 and 50 leva were issued, followed, in 1941, by iron 1, 2, 5, and 10 leva. In 1943, nickel-clad-steel 5, 10 and 50 leva were struck. These were the last coins issued for this version of the lev.

Banknotes
In 1885, the Bulgarian National Bank introduced notes for 20 and 50 gold leva, followed in 1887 by 100 gold leva and, in 1890, by 5 and 10 gold leva notes. In 1899, 5, 10 and 50 silver leva notes were issued, followed by 100 and 500 silver leva in 1906 and 1907, respectively. 500 gold leva notes were also introduced in 1907.

In 1916, 1 and 2 silver leva and 1000 gold leva notes were introduced, followed by 2500 and 10,000 gold leva notes in 1919. In 1924, 5000 leva notes were issued, the first to lack a metal designation. In 1928, a new series of notes (dated 1922 and 1925) was introduced which gave the denominations solely in leva. Denominations introduced were 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 500, 1000 and 5000 leva. These were followed in 1929 by 200 and 250 leva.

In 1930, coins up to 100 leva replaced notes, although 20-lev notes were issued between 1943 and 1950. Between 1943 and 1945, State Treasury Bills for 1000 and 5000 leva were issued.

Second lev (1952–1962)
In 1952, following wartime inflation, a new lev replaced the original lev at a rate of 1 "new" lev = 100 "old" leva. However the rate for banking accounts was different, ranging from 100:3 to 200:1. Prices for goods were replaced at a rate of 25:1. The new lev was pegged to the U.S. dollar at a rate of 6.8 leva = 1 dollar, falling to 9.52 leva on July 29, 1957.

Coins
In 1952, coins (dated 1951) were introduced in denominations of 1, 3, 5, 10 and 25 stotinki, with the lower three denominations in brass and the higher three in cupro-nickel. Shortly after, cupro-nickel 20 stotinki coins dated 1952 were also issued, followed by 50 stotinki in 1959 and 1 lev in 1960 which replaced the 1 lev note (both also in cupro-nickel). All stotinki coins feature a head of wheat around denomination on the reverse and state emblem on the obverse, while the lev coin depicts an olive branch wreath around the denomination.

Banknotes
In 1952, state notes (dated 1951) were issued in 1, 3 and 5 leva, together with notes of the National Bank for 10, 25, 50, 100 and 200 leva. 500-lev notes were printed but not issued. 1 lev notes were withdrawn after the introduction of a coin in 1960. 1, 3, and 5 leva depict the state emblem, while all denominations 10 leva and up depict Georgi Dimitrov, who had a postmortem cult of personality built up around him by that time period. The reverse side of 1 lev, 3 and 5 leva notes depict hands holding up the hammer and sickle, while higher denominations each depict workers at various trades.

Third lev (1962–1999)
In 1962, another redenomination took place at the rate of 10 to 1, setting the exchange rate at 1.17 leva = 1 U. S. dollar, with the tourist rate falling to 2 leva on February 1, 1964. The ISO 4217 code was BGL. After this, the lev remained fairly stable for almost three decades. However, like other Communist countries' currencies, it was not freely convertible for Western funds. Consequently, black market rates were five to ten times higher than the official rate. During the period, until 1989 the lev was backed by gold, and the banknotes have the text stating: "The bank note is backed by gold and all assets of the bank" ("Банкнотата е обезпечена със злато и всички активи на банката").

After the fall of communism, Bulgaria experienced several episodes of drastic inflation and currency devaluation. In order to change this, in 1997, the lev was pegged to the Deutsche Mark, with 1,000 lev equal to 1 DM (one lev equal to 0.1 pfennig).

Since 1997, Bulgaria has been in a system of currency board, and all Bulgarian currency in circulation has been completely backed by the foreign exchange reserves of the Bulgarian National Bank (BNB).

Coins
In 1962, aluminum-bronze 1, 2, and 5 stotinki, and nickel-brass 10, 20 and 50 stotinki and 1 lev were introduced. The coin series strongly resembles coinage from the Soviet Union during the same period, particularly in design and size.

The state emblem is depicted on the obverse of all coins, which went through several changes. The first change in 1962 with the introduction of the new coinage, and the second change in 1974, with the ribbons being the most noticeable change.

A number of commemorative 2 leva coins also circulated during this period, often released into circulation as they had relatively high production numbers and little collector's value. Higher denomination lev coins have also been introduced into circulation at an irregular basis with varying sizes and metallic compositions, including silver. Mostly due to an overstock of numismatic coins not getting sold to collectors. Similar occurrences to this can be seen with high denomination coins from East Germany and Poland during the same period.

Post-communist coins
In 1992, after the communist era, older coins were withdrawn and a new coinage was introduced in denominations of 10, 20 and 50 stotinki, 1, 2, 5 and 10 leva. All were struck in nickel-brass except for the cupro-nickel 10 leva. In 1997, nickel-brass 10, 20 and 50 leva were introduced.

Banknotes
In 1962, the National Bank issued notes for 1, 2, 5, 10 and 20 leva. A second series, in the same denominations, was issued in 1974. 50 leva notes were introduced in 1990. Again, denominations 10 leva and up featured Georgi Dimitrov, 1, 2, and 5 featured the state emblem. After the fall of the communist regime, new notes were introduced for 20, 50, 100 and 200 leva. These were followed by 500 leva notes in 1993, 1000 and 2000 leva in 1994, 5000 and 10,000 leva in 1996 (re-released with new design and look in 1997), and 50,000 leva in 1997. Furthermore, two new banknotes of 20,000 and 100,000 leva were scheduled to be introduced in 1997 and 1998, but their production was canceled following the introduction of currency board in 1997.

Fourth lev (1999–present)
On 5 July 1999 the lev was redenominated at 1000:1 with 1 new lev equal to 1 Deutsche Mark. The ISO 4217 currency code for the new Bulgarian lev is BGN. The lev is pegged at €1 = 1.95583 leva (previously DEM 1 = BGN 1, continuing the fixed exchange rate from the third lev).

Euro adoption
Since Bulgaria gained EU membership in 2007 various dates have been suggested as the expected end of the lev: towards the end of that year 1 January 2012 was a possible date; however, the global financial crisis of 2008 and the Eurozone crisis cooled the initial enthusiasm for the euro. Nevertheless, in 2009 The Economist noted suggestions to accelerate Bulgaria's path to the euro, or even let it be adopted immediately, despite the EU institutions' unwillingness to deviate from a policy of euro adoption only after five Euro convergence criteria have been met. In 2011 the Bulgarian finance minister Simeon Djankov acknowledged his earlier eagerness for Bulgaria to join the euro, but considered 2015 as a more likely date. If Bulgaria follows the standard path to euro adoption, it would use the euro two years after joining the European exchange rate mechanism (ERM II) (a formality given the lev's peg to the euro). In late 2010, given Bulgaria's improving economy, analysts thought that Bulgaria would join the ERM II the following year. However, the continued postponement of joining the mechanism has prevented Bulgaria meeting all five convergence criteria: its rebounding economy later met the four other criteria.

On 10 July 2020, along with Croatia, Bulgaria joined the ERM II, which allows it to adopt the euro no earlier than two years after joining assuming the other convergence criteria are met.

Coins
In 1999, coins in denominations of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20 and 50 stotinki were introduced. A 1 lev coin replaced the 1 lev banknote 2002, and a 2 lev coin the 2 lev banknote in 2015.

Commemorative coins
In 2004, 2005, and 2007, commemorative circulation issues were struck of the 50 stotinkas coin. In 2018, a commemorative circulation issue of the 2 leva coin was issued. These coins are not found in general circulation.

Many commercial commemorative coins have also been minted.

Banknotes
In 1999, banknotes were introduced in denominations of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, and 50 leva. 100 leva notes were added in 2003. The 1 and 2 lev notes were later replaced by coins of similar value and withdrawn from circulation.

Exchange rates
The fourth lev was pegged to the German mark at par from the start. With the replacement of the Deutsche Mark by the euro, the lev's peg effectively switched to the euro at the rate of 1.95583 leva = 1 euro (precisely equivalent to the German mark's fixed exchange rate to euro). This rate is unlikely to change before the lev's eventual retirement.

title: Bulgarian lev