text:
Adrenal cortex

The adrenal cortex is the outer region and also the largest part of the adrenal gland. It is divided into three separate zones: zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata and zona reticularis. Each zone is responsible for producing specific hormones. It is also a secondary site of androgen synthesis.

Layers
The adrenal cortex comprises three main zones, or layers that are regulated by distinct hormones as noted below. This anatomic zonation can be appreciated at the microscopic level, where each zone can be recognized and distinguished from one another based on structural and anatomic characteristics.

Zona glomerulosa
The outermost layer, the zona glomerulosa is the main site for the production of aldosterone, a mineralocorticoid. The synthesis and secretion of aldosterone are mainly regulated by the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system. The zona glomerulosa cells express a specific enzyme aldosterone synthase (also known as CYP11B2). Aldosterone is largely responsible for the long-term regulation of blood pressure. Aldosterone's effects are on the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct of the kidney where it causes increased reabsorption of sodium and increased excretion of both potassium (by principal cells) and hydrogen ions (by intercalated cells of the collecting duct). Sodium retention is also a response of the distal colon, and sweat glands to aldosterone receptor stimulation. Although sustained production of aldosterone requires persistent calcium entry through low-voltage activated Ca2+ channels, isolated zona glomerulosa cells are considered nonexcitable, with recorded membrane voltages that are too hyperpolarized to permit Ca2+ channels entry.

The secretion of aldosterone is also stimulated by adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH).

The cells of the zona glomerulosa do not express 11β-hydroxylase and 17α-hydroxylase. This is the reason zona glomerulosa cannot synthesize cortisol, corticosterone or sex hormones (androgens). The expression of neuron-specific proteins in the zona glomerulosa cells of human adrenocortical tissues has been predicted and reported by several authors  and it was suggested that the expression of proteins like the neuronal cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) in the cells of the zona glomerulosa reflects the regenerative feature of these cells, which would lose NCAM immunoreactivity after moving to the zona fasciculata. However, together with other data on neuroendocrine properties of zona glomerulosa cells, NCAM expression may reflect a neuroendocrine differentiation of these cells.

Zona fasciculata
Situated between the glomerulosa and reticularis, the cells of the zona fasciculata synthesize and secrete glucocorticoids (such as 11-deoxycorticosterone, corticosterone, and cortisol), as well as small amounts of adrenal androgens and estrogens. The zona fasciculata has more 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase activity than the zona reticularis. Therefore, the zona fasciculata makes more 11-deoxycorticosterone, corticosterone, and cortisol. The major hormone that stimulates cortisol secretion in humans is the ACTH that is released from the anterior pituitary. It has been shown that the steroidogenic capacity of the zona fasciculata increases during illness in infants.

Zona reticularis
The inner most cortical layer, the zona reticularis produces adrenal androgens, as well as small amounts of estrogens and some glucocorticoids. The zona reticularis has more of the cofactors required for the 17,20-lyase activity of 17α-hydroxylase than zona fasciculata. Therefore, the zona reticularis makes more androgens, mainly dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), DHEA sulfate (DHEA-S), and androstenedione (the precursor to testosterone) in humans. The secretion of DHEAS is also stimulated by ACTH.

Hormone synthesis
The precursor of steroids synthesized in the adrenal cortex is cholesterol that is stored in vesicles. Cholesterol can be synthesized de novo in the adrenal cortex. Yet, the major source of cholesterol appears to be cholesterol that is taken up with circulating lipoproteins.

The steps up to this point occur in many steroid-producing tissues. Subsequent steps to generate aldosterone and cortisol, however, primarily occur in the adrenal cortex:
 * Progesterone → (hydroxylation at C21) → 11-Deoxycorticosterone → (two further hydroxylations at C11 and C18) → Aldosterone
 * Progesterone → (hydroxylation at C17) → 17-alpha-hydroxyprogesterone → (hydroxylation at C21) → 11-Deoxycortisol → (hydroxylation at C11) → Cortisol

Production
The adrenal cortex produces a number of different corticosteroid hormones.

Mineralocorticoids
The primary mineralocorticoid, aldosterone, is produced in the adrenocortical zona glomerulosa by the action of the enzyme aldosterone synthase (also known as CYP11B2). Aldosterone is largely responsible for the long-term regulation of blood pressure. Aldosterone effects on the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct of the kidney where it causes increased reabsorption of sodium and increased excretion of both potassium (by principal cells) and hydrogen ions (by intercalated cells of the collecting duct). Sodium retention is also a response of the distal colon, and sweat glands to aldosterone receptor stimulation. Although sustained production of aldosterone requires persistent calcium entry through low-voltage activated Ca2+ channels, isolated zona glomerulosa cells are considered nonexcitable, with recorded membrane voltages that are too hyperpolarized to permit Ca2+ channels entry.

Glucocorticoids
Glucocorticoids are produced mainly in the zona fasciculata.

Androgens
They are produced mainly in the zona reticularis. The most important androgens include:
 * Testosterone: a hormone with a wide variety of effects, ranging from enhancing muscle mass and stimulation of cell growth to the development of the secondary sex characteristics.
 * Dihydrotestosterone (DHT): a metabolite of testosterone, and a more potent androgen than testosterone in that it binds more strongly to androgen receptors.
 * Androstenedione (Andro): an androgenic steroid produced by the testes, adrenal cortex, and ovaries. While androstenediones are converted metabolically to testosterone and other androgens, they are also the parent structure of estrone.
 * Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA): It is the primary precursor of natural estrogens. DHEA is also called dehydroisoandrosterone or dehydroandrosterone. The reticularis also produces DHEA-sulfate due to the actions of a sulfotransferase, SULT2A1.

Pathology

 * Adrenal insufficiency (e.g. due to Addison's disease)
 * Cushing's syndrome
 * Cushing's disease
 * Conn's syndrome
 * Adrenocortical carcinoma

title: Adrenal cortex


text:
Operational semantics

Operational semantics is a category of formal programming language semantics in which certain desired properties of a program, such as correctness, safety or security, are verified by constructing proofs from logical statements about its execution and procedures, rather than by attaching mathematical meanings to its terms (denotational semantics). Operational semantics are classified in two categories: structural operational semantics (or small-step semantics) formally describe how the individual steps of a computation take place in a computer-based system; by opposition natural semantics (or big-step semantics) describe how the overall results of the executions are obtained. Other approaches to providing a formal semantics of programming languages include axiomatic semantics and denotational semantics.

The operational semantics for a programming language describes how a valid program is interpreted as sequences of computational steps. These sequences then are the meaning of the program. In the context of functional programming, the final step in a terminating sequence returns the value of the program. (In general there can be many return values for a single program, because the program could be nondeterministic, and even for a deterministic program there can be many computation sequences since the semantics may not specify exactly what sequence of operations arrives at that value.)

Perhaps the first formal incarnation of operational semantics was the use of the lambda calculus to define the semantics of Lisp. Abstract machines in the tradition of the SECD machine are also closely related.

History
The concept of operational semantics was used for the first time in defining the semantics of Algol 68. The following statement is a quote from the revised ALGOL 68 report:

The meaning of a program in the strict language is explained in terms of a hypothetical computer which performs the set of actions that constitute the elaboration of that program. (Algol68, Section 2)

The first use of the term "operational semantics" in its present meaning is attributed to Dana Scott (Plotkin04). What follows is a quote from Scott's seminal paper on formal semantics, in which he mentions the "operational" aspects of semantics.

It is all very well to aim for a more ‘abstract’ and a ‘cleaner’ approach to semantics, but if the plan is to be any good, the operational aspects cannot be completely ignored. (Scott70)

Approaches
Gordon Plotkin introduced the structural operational semantics, Matthias Felleisen and Robert Hieb the reduction semantics, and Gilles Kahn the natural semantics.

Structural operational semantics
Structural operational semantics (SOS, also called structured operational semantics or small-step semantics) was introduced by Gordon Plotkin in (Plotkin81) as a logical means to define operational semantics. The basic idea behind SOS is to define the behavior of a program in terms of the behavior of its parts, thus providing a structural, i.e., syntax-oriented and inductive, view on operational semantics. An SOS specification defines the behavior of a program in terms of a (set of) transition relation(s). SOS specifications take the form of a set of inference rules that define the valid transitions of a composite piece of syntax in terms of the transitions of its components.

For a simple example, we consider part of the semantics of a simple programming language; proper illustrations are given in Plotkin81 and Hennessy90, and other textbooks. Let $$C_1, C_2$$ range over programs of the language, and let $$s$$ range over states (e.g. functions from memory locations to values). If we have expressions (ranged over by $$E$$), values and locations ($$L$$), then a memory update command would have semantics:

$$ \frac{\langle E,s\rangle \Rightarrow V}{\langle L:=E\,,\,s\rangle\longrightarrow (s\uplus (L\mapsto V))} $$

Informally, the rule says that "if the expression $$E$$ in state $$s$$ reduces to value $$V$$, then the program $$L:=E$$ will update the state $$s$$ with the assignment $$L=V$$".

The semantics of sequencing can be given by the following three rules:

$$ \frac{\langle C_1,s\rangle \longrightarrow s'} {\langle C_1;C_2 \,,s\rangle\longrightarrow \langle C_2, s'\rangle} \quad\quad \frac{\langle C_1,s\rangle \longrightarrow \langle C_1',s'\rangle} {\langle C_1;C_2 \,,s\rangle\longrightarrow \langle C_1';C_2\,, s'\rangle} \quad\quad \frac{} {\langle \mathbf{skip} ,s\rangle\longrightarrow s} $$

Informally, the first rule says that, if program $$C_1$$ in state $$s$$ finishes in state $$s'$$, then the program $$C_1;C_2$$ in state $$s$$ will reduce to the program $$C_2$$ in state $$s'$$. (You can think of this as formalizing "You can run $$C_1$$, and then run $$C_2$$ using the resulting memory store.) The second rule says that if the program $$C_1$$ in state $$s$$ can reduce to the program $$C_1'$$ with state $$s'$$, then the program $$C_1;C_2$$ in state $$s$$ will reduce to the program $$C_1';C_2$$ in state $$s'$$. (You can think of this as formalizing the principle for an optimizing compiler: "You are allowed to transform $$C_1$$ as if it were stand-alone, even if it is just the first part of a program.") The semantics is structural, because the meaning of the sequential program $$C_1;C_2$$, is defined by the meaning of $$C_1$$ and the meaning of $$C_2$$.

If we also have Boolean expressions over the state, ranged over by $$B$$, then we can define the semantics of the while command: $$ \frac{\langle B,s\rangle \Rightarrow \mathbf{true}}{\langle\mathbf{while}\ B\ \mathbf{ do }\ C,s\rangle\longrightarrow \langle C;\mathbf{while}\ B\ \mathbf{do}\ C,s\rangle} \quad \frac{\langle B,s\rangle \Rightarrow \mathbf{false}}{\langle\mathbf{while}\ B\ \mathbf{ do }\ C,s\rangle\longrightarrow s} $$

Such a definition allows formal analysis of the behavior of programs, permitting the study of relations between programs. Important relations include simulation preorders and bisimulation. These are especially useful in the context of concurrency theory.

Thanks to its intuitive look and easy-to-follow structure, SOS has gained great popularity and has become a de facto standard in defining operational semantics. As a sign of success, the original report (so-called Aarhus report) on SOS (Plotkin81) has attracted more than 1000 citations according to the CiteSeer , making it one of the most cited technical reports in Computer Science.

Reduction semantics
Reduction semantics is an alternative presentation of operational semantics. Its key ideas were first applied to purely functional call by name and call by value variants of the lambda calculus by Gordon Plotkin in 1975 and generalized to higher-order functional languages with imperative features by Matthias Felleisen in his 1987 dissertation. The method was further elaborated by Matthias Felleisen and Robert Hieb in 1992 into a fully equational theory for control and state. The phrase “reduction semantics” itself was first coined by Felleisen and Daniel P. Friedman in a PARLE 1987 paper.

Reduction semantics are given as a set of reduction rules that each specify a single potential reduction step. For example, the following reduction rule states that an assignment statement can be reduced if it sits immediately beside its variable declaration:

$$\mathbf{let\ rec}\ x = v_1\ \mathbf{in}\ x \leftarrow v_2;\ e\ \ \longrightarrow\ \ \mathbf{let\ rec}\ x = v_2\ \mathbf{in}\ e$$

To get an assignment statement into such a position it is “bubbled up” through function applications and the right-hand side of assignment statements until it reaches the proper point. Since intervening $$\mathbf{let}$$ expressions may declare distinct variables, the calculus also demands an extrusion rule for $$\mathbf{let}$$ expressions. Most published uses of reduction semantics define such “bubble rules” with the convenience of evaluation contexts. For example, the grammar of evaluation contexts in a simple call by value language can be given as

$$ E ::= [\,]\ \big|\ v\ E\ \big|\ E\ e\ \big|\ x \leftarrow E  \ \big|\ \mathbf{let\ rec}\ x = v\ \mathbf{in}\ E\ \big|\ E;\ e $$

where $$e$$ denotes arbitrary expressions and $$v$$ denotes fully-reduced values. Each evaluation context includes exactly one hole $$[\,]$$ into which a term is plugged in a capturing fashion. The shape of the context indicates with this hole where reduction may occur. To describe “bubbling” with the aid of evaluation contexts, a single axiom suffices:

$$E[\,x \leftarrow v;\ e\,]\ \ \longrightarrow\ \ x \leftarrow v;\ E[\,e\,]  \qquad   \text{(lift assignments)}$$

This single reduction rule is the lift rule from Felleisen and Hieb's lambda calculus for assignment statements. The evaluation contexts restrict this rule to certain terms, but it is freely applicable in any term, including under lambdas.

Following Plotkin, showing the usefulness of a calculus derived from a set of reduction rules demands (1) a Church-Rosser lemma for the single-step relation, which induces an evaluation function, and (2) a Curry-Feys standardization lemma for the transitive-reflexive closure of the single-step relation, which replaces the non-deterministic search in the evaluation function with a deterministic left-most/outermost search. Felleisen showed that imperative extensions of this calculus satisfy these theorems. Consequences of these theorems are that the equational theory—the symmetric-transitive-reflexive closure—is a sound reasoning principle for these languages. However, in practice, most applications of reduction semantics dispense with the calculus and use the standard reduction only (and the evaluator that can be derived from it).

Reduction semantics are particularly useful given the ease by which evaluation contexts can model state or unusual control constructs (e.g., first-class continuations). In addition, reduction semantics have been used to model object-oriented languages, contract systems, exceptions, futures, call-by-need, and many other language features. A thorough, modern treatment of reduction semantics that discusses several such applications at length is given by Matthias Felleisen, Robert Bruce Findler and Matthew Flatt in Semantics Engineering with PLT Redex.

Natural semantics
Big-step structural operational semantics is also known under the names natural semantics, relational semantics and evaluation semantics. Big-step operational semantics was introduced under the name natural semantics by Gilles Kahn when presenting Mini-ML, a pure dialect of ML.

One can view big-step definitions as definitions of functions, or more generally of relations, interpreting each language construct in an appropriate domain. Its intuitiveness makes it a popular choice for semantics specification in programming languages, but it has some drawbacks that make it inconvenient or impossible to use in many situations, such as languages with control-intensive features or concurrency.

A big-step semantics describes in a divide-and-conquer manner how final evaluation results of language constructs can be obtained by combining the evaluation results of their syntactic counterparts (subexpressions, substatements, etc.).

Comparison
There are a number of distinctions between small-step and big-step semantics that influence whether one or the other forms a more suitable basis for specifying the semantics of a programming language.

Big-step semantics have the advantage of often being simpler (needing fewer inference rules) and often directly correspond to an efficient implementation of an interpreter for the language (hence Kahn calling them "natural".) Both can lead to simpler proofs, for example when proving the preservation of correctness under some program transformation.

The main disadvantage of big-step semantics is that non-terminating (diverging) computations do not have an inference tree, making it impossible to state and prove properties about such computations.

Small-step semantics give more control over the details and order of evaluation. In the case of instrumented operational semantics, this allows the operational semantics to track and the semanticist to state and prove more accurate theorems about the run-time behaviour of the language. These properties make small-step semantics more convenient when proving type soundness of a type system against an operational semantics.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Operational semantics


text:
Kikuko Inoue

Kikuko Inoue (井上 喜久子) is a Japanese voice actress, singer and narrator. She has been part of the singing groups DoCo and Goddess Family Club. She is the founder and manager of her voice-acting company, Office Anemone. Inoue tends to play the "perfect girlfriend" or "motherly" role in many series, but has also played more sultry and provocative roles.

Biography
Inoue's vocal roles are usually female characters characterized as dignified, reserved, beautiful, kind, regal, mature or domestic. For example, Belldandy, a goddess who is kind, compassionate and skilled at domestic tasks. Kasumi Tendo is an older sister who has taken over domestic duties after the death of her mother, and who acts as a counterbalance to the more rambunctious members of her family. Notably, both Kasumi and Belldandy are almost parallels of each other due to their roles as domestics in a home which could explode into chaos at any moment. She also plays Rune Venus in El-Hazard, a princess and leader of her country; as well as Kazami Mizuho in Please Teacher!, a sensible, strong-hearted alien agent in charge of observing humanity that ends up falling in love with an earthling. In the video game Danganronpa V3: Killing Harmony, she voices as Kirumi Tojo aka "The Ultimate Maid" A loyal and serious Ultimate who takes care of both chores and the students during the Killing School Semester, who goes by the saying "duty before self"; This role also exposes Kikuko's love of maids. When she thinks of maid characters, she always tend to imagine them as a lighthearted one, but Kirumi is definitely the type of an amazing perfectionist whose only cred is "selfless devotion." Inoue also said that she can be a little bit nervous playing as Kirumi in the official Artbook Character Profile. And on May 12, 2020, Kikuko cosplayed as Kirumi for Maid Day.

She occasionally takes on roles which are more sultry, such as Corvette in Idol Project, a curvaceous dancer who flirts quite intensely with Mimu, the young heroine. In the hentai OVA Ogenki Clinic she provides the voice of a sex-crazed nurse. Also, as Lust in Fullmetal Alchemist: Brotherhood, she was an antagonist the main characters have to contend with more than once. On very rare occasions she takes male roles, such as Tsubasa Oozora from Captain Tsubasa ROAD to 2002, as she has stated that these roles allow her to shout, which she finds "liberating".

She is referred to as "Onee-chan" ("big sister" in Japanese) and stayed with the title on her official site and a few albums because of her role as Kasumi Tendo in Ranma ½; this is confirmed in her online profile. She believes that in her past life she was a fish and therefore uses fish as her trademark. She made a guest appearance at the 2007 Animazement anime convention in Durham, North Carolina for an autograph and Q&A session. When asked her age, she often responds that she is only 17, which has become a running gag at events as well as anime shows. At an Otakon 2009 panel, she explained that the number 17 was an aesthetic choice. After voice acting Belldandy from the ''Ah! My Goddess'' anime, subsequent chapters of the manga used Inoue's distinctive style as the basis for Belldandy's character.

She won Best Supporting Voice Actress in the 4th Seiyu Awards. In 2016, at the 10th Seiyu Awards, she won the Kazue Takahashi Award for "the female performer who broadens the profession of voice acting in every form of media."

Inoue is married, and has a daughter named Honoka. Honoka uses Inoue as her stage "family" name and she is also a voice actress and singer. Kikuko Inoue is best friends with fellow voice actress Atsuko Tanaka.

Video games
<!-- NEED NOTABILITY 片桐朋美 || || トワイライトシンドローム 探索編 || Image voice イメージヴォイス || PS1/PS2 || 美少女バラエティーゲーム ラピュラスパニック || Ikaruga イカルガ || SS || ビルクラッシュ || Ryoko リョウコ || PS1/PS2 || ja:マクロス デジタルミッション VF-X || Riatorisu リアトリス || PS1/PS2 || ネクストキング 恋の千年王国 || Coriander Water cress / angelica コリアンダー・ウォータークレス／アンゼリカ || PS1/PS2 || だいすき♥ || Midori Sugita 杉田翠 || SS || 惑星攻機隊りとるキャッツ || Claire = Rihito / narrator クレア＝リヒトー／ナレーター || || My Dream ～On Airが待てなくて～ || Miyuki Yoshizawa 吉沢美雪 || PS1/PS2 || 慟哭 そして… || Shirakawa Kosuzu 白川子鈴 || SS || 機動戦士ガンダム ギレンの野望 || Cecilia Irene / Aina Sakhalin セシリア・アイリーン／アイナ・サハリン || SS || 惑星攻機隊りとるキャッツ || Claire Rihito / narrator クレア・リヒトー／ナレーター || PS1/PS2 || エリーのアトリエ ～ザールブルグの錬金術士2～ || Mirukasse-Furoberu ミルカッセ・フローベル || PS1/PS2 || サーカディア || Tomomi Shinohara / Rika Kamijo 篠原智美／上条里香 || PS1/PS2 || プレゼントプレイ || Takanashi Yoko 高梨ヨウコ || PC adult || 幻想のアルテミス || Morisato green 森里みどり || PS1/PS2 || 夏色剣術小町 || Munakata Yoshinoko 宗方佳乃子 || PS1/PS2 || infinity || Mamoruno Izumi 守野いづみ || PS1/PS2 || 神あやめ || DC || 悠久組曲 All Star Project || Alisa Astir アリサ・アスティア || PS1/PS2 || キミにSteady || Amemiya quiet 雨宮静音 || PS1/PS2 || D＋VINE[LUV] || Telles テレス || DC || どこまでも青く… || Eriko Seno 瀬能英里子 || PS1/PS2 || Card of Destiny ～光と闇の統合者～ || Yurishia shell Arudihina ユリシア・シェル・アルディヒナ || DC || ユズリハ／エリシオラ || PC（一般） || 火星計画DVD THE PROJECT MARS2＋3 || 姚妃 dragon 姚妃竜 || PC（一般） || Angelic Vale Progress || Yuzuriha ユズリハ || PC（一般） || 指極星 || Alcyone Sen quasar アルシオネ・セン・クエーサー || PC（一般） || D→A:BLACK || Izumi Megumito 和泉恵都 || PS1/PS2 || ja:青い涙 || Haruko Kudō || || Angelic Vale新伝 ～エフェメール島奇譚～ || Yuzuriha / Erishiora ユズリハ／エリシオラ || PC（一般） || SAKURA～雪月花～ 花鳥風月プレミアムエディション || Sake桝 Towako 酒桝十和子 || PC（一般） || バルドバレット イクリブリアム || Lena blap Tirith Kaya レナ・ブッティリスカヤ || PS1/PS2 || 橘薫子 || PC（一般） || 謎惑館 ～音の間に間に～ || Female 女性 || DS || メリッサ || PSP || こいけん！ ～私たちアニメになっちゃった！～ || Kikui Haruka 喜久井遥 || || 十条玖美子 || PS3 || -->
 * 1994-04-28 || Hatsukoi Monogatari || Katagiri Tomomi
 * 1996-03-01 || Twilight Syndrome search Hen
 * 1996-04-26 || Pretty Variety game La Publicis Las panic
 * 1996-10-25 || Bill crash
 * 1997-02-28 || Macross Digital Mission VF-X
 * 1997-06-27 || Millennial kingdom of the next king love
 * 1997-07-04 || I love ♥
 * 1997-07-04 || Planet attack machine Corps Little Cats
 * 1997-09-18 || My Dream ~ without being able to wait is ~ On Air
 * 1998-02-26 || Wailing and ...
 * 1998-03-13 || Pocket Love || Morizono Mirii, Morizono Marii || ||
 * 1998-04-09 || Ambition of Mobile Suit Gundam Gillen
 * 1998-06-25 || Planet attack machine Corps Little Cats
 * 1998-12-17 || Alchemist 2 to the Erie of Atelier Zaruburugu
 * 1999-01-14 || Sakadia
 * 1999-06-25 || Gift Play
 * 2000-01-27 || Artemis of fantasy
 * 2000-03-16 || Summer color swordsmanship Komachi
 * 2000-03-23 || infinity
 * 2000-04-21 || Fukakutei Sekai no Tantei Shinshi || Ayame Kami
 * 2000-08-24 || Eternal Suite All Star Project
 * 2000-09-28 || Kimi ni Steady
 * 2001-10-25 || D + VINE [LUV]
 * 2002-01-24 || Blue even where ...
 * 2002-03-28 || Card of Destiny ~ light and darkness of the integration's ~
 * 2003-04-24 || Angelic Vale || Yuzuriha / Erishiora
 * 2003-08-22 || Mars plan DVD THE PROJECT MARS2 + 3
 * 2003-11-27 || Angelic Vale Progress
 * 2003-11-28 || Yubikyokuboshi
 * 2003-12-25 || D → A: BLACK
 * 2004-05-27 || Aoi Namida
 * 2005-03-11 || Angelic Vale Shinden ~ Effects mail Shimaki Tan ~
 * 2005-05-27 || SAKURA ~ Setsugetsuka ~ beauties of nature Premium Edition
 * 2007-10-25 || Bardo Barrett Ikuriburiamu
 * 2010-10-28 || uni. || TachibanaKaoruko
 * 2011-08-04 ||
 * 2012-01-19 || Heroes Phantasia || Melissa
 * 2012-03-01 || Keuken! - It has become to us anime! ~
 * 2014-06-19 || || Jujo Kumiko
 * || Xuccess Heaven || || Smartphone RPG ||
 * || CV: Casting Voice || Kumiko Tojo || ||
 * || Koi-Ken || Haruka Kikui || ||
 * Air Grave: Ruiko Shiruba-su, SC-NB-03・Peace
 * Alice in Cyberland: Lucia, Hou Akane
 * Building Crush!: Ryoko
 * Go! Go! Birdy Chance: Saotome Hikaru
 * Kisou Louga: Elena
 * Miraculum The Last Revelation: Cindy Ryan
 * My Dream: On Air ga Matenakute: Miyuki Yoshizawa
 * Only You: Revel Cross: Simone Kyōko White
 * SD Gundam G Generation World: Aina Sahalin
 * Seiya Monogatari: Sister Maria
 * Star Breaker: Aria Beeze
 * Startling Odyssey II Maryuu Sensou: Julia Melrose
 * Yami no Ketsuzoku -Harukanaru Kioku: Yukihara Riin
 * Yūkyū Gensōkyoku: Arisa Astia
 * Next King: Koi no Sennen Ōkoku: Coriander, Angelica
 * 2018-07-05 || Food Fantasy (2018) || Yuxiang, Seaweed Soup
 * 2018-07-05 || Food Fantasy (2018) || Yuxiang, Seaweed Soup

Dubbing
<!-- NEED SOURCE AND NOTABILITY
 * Jennifer Connelly
 * The Heart of Justice (Emma Burgess)
 * The Hot Spot (Gloria Harper)
 * Naomi Watts

 * Aftershock: Earthquake in New York (Diane Agostini)
 * Amazing Stories (Jane, episode "Secret Cinema"), (Beth, episode "Hell Toupee")
 * Arrow (Carrie Cutter/Cupid)
 * The Astronaut's Wife (Jillian Armacost)
 * Awakenings (Paula)
 * Backdraft (Jennifer Vaitkus)
 * Back to the Future (Lorraine McFly)
 * The Big Bang Theory (Alicia, episode "The Dead Hooker Juxtaposition")
 * The Bling Ring (Laurie Moore)
 * Bouquet of Barbed Wire (Cassie Manson)
 * Burn Notice (Carla Baxter)
 * City Slickers (Bonnie Rayburn)
 * Confidence (Lily)
 * Date with an Angel (Angel)
 * Delta Force 2: The Colombian Connection (Rita Chavez)
 * Devious Maids (Carmen Luna)
 * Dillinger (Billie Frechette)
 * Entropy (Stella)
 * Everything, Everything (Dr. Pauline Whittier)
 * The Flintstones (Miss Sharon Stone)
 * Gangster Wars (Ruth Lasker)
 * The Goonies (Andrea "Andy" Carmichael)
 * Home Alone: The Holiday Heist (Catherine Baxter)
 * The Hot Chick (Jessica Spencer/Clive Maxtone)
 * Howard The Duck (Beverly Switzler)
 * In a World... (Dani Solomon)
 * Jane Eyre (Jane Eyre)
 * Jaws (Chrissie Watkins)
 * King of Kings (Marie Walewska)
 * Knock Knock (Karen Alvarado (Ignacia Allamand))
 * Knock Off (Karen Lee)
 * Lethal Weapon (Rianne Murtaugh)
 * Lulu on the Bridge (Celia Burns)
 * Made in America (Paula)
 * Mannequin Two: On the Move (Jessie)
 * Mars Attacks! (Nathalie Lake)
 * Meet Bill (Jess Jacoby)
 * The Middle (Frankie Heck)
 * Muriel's Wedding (Muriel Heslop)
 * My Blue Heaven (Crystal Rybak)
 * Nash Bridges (Michelle Chan)
 * Night Life (Roberta Woods)
 * A Nightmare on Elm Street 4: The Dream Master (Alice Johnson)
 * A Nightmare on Elm Street 5: The Dream Child (Alice Johnson)
 * Okja (Lucy Mirando, Nancy Mirando (Tilda Swinton))
 * Oscar (Theresa)
 * Only the Lonely (Billy Muldoon)
 * The Outer Limits (Hannah Valesic, episode "Caught in the Act")
 * Parenthood (Susan Buckman)
 * Picket Fences (Officer Maxine Stewart)
 * Police Academy 5: Assignment Miami Beach (Officer Kate)
 * Police Academy: Mission to Moscow (Katrina)
 * The Presidio (Patti Jean Lynch)
 * Pyrates (Sam)
 * Rambling Rose (Rose)
 * Remington Steele (Laura Holt)
 * The Right Stuff (Trudy Cooper)
 * Rizzoli & Isles (Dr. Maura Isles)
 * The Rock (Carla Pestalozzi)

 * Rudy (Mary)
 * Scent of a Woman (Karen Rossi)
 * School Ties (Sally Wheeler)
 * Sense and Sensibility (Lucy Steele)
 * Shattered (Nancy Mercer)
 * Speed (Annie Porter)
 * Spenser: For Hire (Susan Silverman)
 * State of Grace (Kathleen Flannery)
 * Stratton (Sumner)
 * The Three Musketeers (Queen Anne)
 * The Towering Inferno (Patty Duncan Simmons)
 * Trading Places (Penelope Witherspoon)
 * True Colors (Diana Stiles)
 * Unforgettable (Dr. Martha Briggs)
 * U.S. Marshals (Marie Bineaux)
 * When Harry Met Sally... (Amanda Reese)
 * The Wraith (Keri Johnson)
 * Year of the Gun (Lia)
 * Darby O'Gill and the Little People || Katie O'Gill || Janet Munro ||

Dubbing (animation)

 * Batman: The Animated Series (Summer Gleeson)
 * Batman: Gotham Knight (Cassandra, "Working Through Pain" segment)
 * Johnny Test (Lila Test)
 * Mr. Peabody & Sherman (Patty Peterson)
 * Spiral Zone (Katerina Anastasia)
 * X-Men (Carly)
 * The Blair Thumb || Stressy || ||
 * George of the Jungle 2 || Ursula || ||
 * Lake Placid || Kelly Scott || Bridget Fonda ||
 * Thumbtanic || Geranium || ||
 * The Vivero Letter || Catarina Carrara || ||
 * Warlock: The Armageddon || Samantha Ellison || ||

Narration

 * Shimada Kentei!! Kokuminteki Senzai Nōryoku Test (TBS; narration)
 * Tokoro-san & Osugi no Idai naru Tohoho Jinbutsuden (TV Tokyo; narration)
 * Satchan no Kimochi (a Flash movie created by the movie circle Team Doramusuco; Taeko)

>

Live appearances

 * TV Champion (TV Tokyo, September 15, 2005)

Stage appearances

 * Densha Otoko (Erumesu)
 * Sakura Taisen Paris Mini-Live 2001 Tokyo (Lobelia Carlini)
 * Sakura Taisen Paris no Christmas, Joyeux Noël! 2001 Dinner Show, Tokyo (Lobelia Carlini)

Albums

 * Bokura no Best da, Onee-chan
 * Funwari, Nobi Nobi Perfect Solo Collection (LD + 2-CD set)
 * Fushigi na Omajinai: Tadaima 2
 * Hidamari
 * merry fish: sound & photo book
 * Mizuumi
 * Shiawase Tambourine
 * Sora Iro no Ehon (2-CD set)
 * Tadaima
 * Tanoshii Koto
 * Yūbi na Osakana

 * Outside Japan
 * Anime Toonz Presents Kikuko Inoue (Jellybean, 2001)

Singles

 * Dōzo Yoroshiku ne.
 * Okaerinasai

Talk

 * Inoue Kikuko no Gekkan Onee-chan to Issho monthly series (1997)
 * Manbow Hōsōkyoku (1995-11-17)
 * Ruri Iro Aquarium: Manbow Hōsōkyoku 2 (1996-01-19)
 * Ruri Iro Aquarium Special: Manbow Hōsōkyoku 3 (1996-03-21)
 * Ruri Iro Aquarium Selection (1996-05-17)
 * Shin Onee-chan to Issho seasonal series (1999)

Collaboration

 * Lu · puty · La · puty (Shiawase Kurowassan, Kikuko Inoue and Maria Yamamoto)
 * Osakana Penguin no Theme (Osakana Penguin, Kikuko Inoue and Junko Iwao)
 * Osakana Penguin CD (Osakana Penguin, Kikuko Inoue and Junko Iwao)
 * Shiawase-san (Shiawase Kurowassan, Kikuko Inoue and Maria Yamamoto)

Soundtracks

 * Anata no Birthday (as Belldandy)
 * Aria Drama CD I (Alicia Florence and Hime M. Granchester from Aria)
 * Aria Drama CD II (Alicia Florence and Hime M. Granchester from Aria)
 * E-yume, Miyou! (Meimi and Seira from Saint Tail)
 * Gimme Love (from Voogie's Angel)
 * Girl Friends (from Voogie's Angel)
 * Oh My Goddess! Mikami Debut Pack (as Belldandy from Oh My Goddess!)
 * Shin Megami Tensei Devil Children Character File 3 (as Cool from Shin Megami Tensei Devil Children)

Radio
Listed in broadcast order.

AM radio

 * Inoue Kikuko no Twilight Syndrome (April–September 1995)
 * Inoue Kikuko no Ruri Iro Aquarium (October 1995–March 1996)
 * Kakikuke Kikuko no Sashisuse Sonata (October 1998–March 1999)
 * Hexamoon Guardians Kikuko Maria no Otsuki-sama ni Onegai (April 1999–March 2000)
 * It's on! (October 2001–March 2003)
 * Onegai Teacher: Mizuho-sensei no Hachimitsu Jugyō (January–October 2002)
 * Inoue Kikuko no Caramel Heights (October 2002–March 2005)
 * Onegai Teacher: Hachimitsu Jugyō♥Ho · Shu · U (October 2002–March 2003)
 * Onegai Teacher: Hachimitsu Jugyō Shingakki (April–June 2003)
 * Onegai Twins: Mizuho-sensei to Hachimitsu Twins (July 2003–March 2004)
 * Hāi Inoue Shōten Desu yo! (April 2005–current)

Satellite digital radio

 * Inoue Kikuko no Osakana Radio (November 2000–March 2002)
 * Inoue Kikuko no Shiitake Radio (April 2002–March 2003)
 * Inoue Kikuko no Caramel Town (March 2003–current)

Internet radio

 * Onegai Hour: Mizuho-sensei no Kojin Jugyō (May 2004–March 2005)
 * Onee-chan ha Mahō Shōjo? (June 2005–current)

Other products

 * Coco Macne (white) and Coco Macne (black) from the Macne series.
 * Haruno Sora, a Vocaloid for VOCALOID 5.

title: Kikuko Inoue


text:
Marina District Development

The Marina District Development Company, LLC was a joint venture of Boyd Gaming Corporation and MGM Resorts International that was established to develop and operate the Borgata Hotel Casino and Spa in Atlantic City, New Jersey.

History
After a competitive process, MGM Mirage was selected as the lead developer of government-owned vacant property in the "H-Tract" area, later renamed Renaissance Pointe. MGM Mirage sought the participation of Boyd Gaming, which became the operating partner of the Borgata.

Three casino-hotels were planned for Renaissance Pointe but only the Borgata has been built.

In early 2010, following the conclusion of an investigation by the New Jersey Casino Control Commission and the Division of Gaming Enforcement into the company's suitability as a casino licensee, executives at MGM announced that they would place their shares in MDDC into a special trust until they find a suitable buyer. In their investigation, the NJCCC and DGE alleged that Macau businesswoman Pansy Ho and her father Stanley have deep ties to criminal elements in Macau and mainland China, and therefore would not be suitable for licensing in New Jersey. The NJCCC gave MGM a choice of ending their relationship with Ho by selling their interest in the MGM Grand Macau, or facing revocation of their New Jersey casino license. On October 14, the New Jersey Casino Control Commission approved the $73 million sale of land underneath the Borgata to Vornado Realty Trust and Geyser Holdings as part of its exit strategy from Atlantic City. On September 10, 2014, the New Jersey Casino Control Commission approved MGM Resorts International's licensure to resume its 50 percent ownership stake in the partnership.

On August 1, 2016, MGM Resorts International completed the purchase of Boyd Gaming's 50 percent in Marina District Development and The Borgata for $900 million. On that day MDDC ceased to exist and a new company Borgata Hotel Casino & Spa, LLC. was formed as a wholly owned subsidiary of MGM Resorts International.

title: Marina District Development


text:
1903 in aviation

This is a list of aviation-related events from 1903:

January–December

 * 1 January – Konstantin Tsiolkovski deduces the Basic Rocket Equation in his article Explorations of outer space with the help of reaction apparatuses.
 * 12 February - The world's first successful heavier-than-air aircraft engine, which will power the Wright brothers' first airplane in December 1903, runs for the first time in Dayton, Ohio.
 * 16 February – Traian Vuia presents to the Académie des Sciences of Paris the possibility of flying with a heavier-than-air mechanical machine and his procedure for taking off, but is rejected for being a utopia, adding the comments: The problem of flight with a machine which weighs more than air can not be solved and it is only a dream.
 * 23 March – The Wright brothers file an application for a patent for an airplane based on the design of their Glider No. 3.
 * 31 March – Richard Pearse is reputed to have made a powered flight in a heavier-than-air craft, a monoplane of his own construction, that crash lands on a hedge. This date is computed from evidence of eyewitnesses as the flight was not well documented at the time. The flight is claimed to have been around 150 feet (45 m) on his farm at Upper Waitohi, near Timaru in south Canterbury, New Zealand.
 * 11 May – Richard Pearse is claimed to have made a flight of around 1,000 yards (900 m), landing in the semi-dry bed of the Ōpihi River.
 * 27 June – 19-year-old American socialite Aida de Acosta becomes the first woman to fly a powered aircraft solo when she pilots Santos-Dumont's motorized dirigible, “No. 9”, from Paris to Château de Bagatelle in France.
 * 18 August – Karl Jatho makes a flight with his motored aircraft in front of four people. His craft flies up to 200 feet (60 m) a few feet above the ground.
 * 7 October – Samuel Langley conducts the first tests of his full-sized man-carrying version of his earlier model aerodromes. The pilot, Charles Manly, nearly drowns when the machine slides off its launch apparatus atop a houseboat and falls into the Potomac River.
 * 12 November – The Lebaudy brothers make a controlled dirigible flight of 54 km from Moisson to Paris, France.
 * 19 November – Léon Y. K. Levavasseur demonstrates his Antoinette engine, designed as a lightweight powerplant specifically for aircraft.
 * 8 December – Second attempt by Charles Manly to fly Langley's repaired full-sized aerodrome. As with the October 7 attempt the machine fails to fly, tripping on its launch gear and somersaulting into the Potomac River, nearly killing Manly. A surviving photograph captures the machine upended on its side as it falls off the houseboat. Langley himself was absent at this attempt but the machine's failure to fly ended his government (i.e. U.S. Army) funded attempts at building a successful full sized man-carrying flying machine.
 * 17 December – The Wright Brothers make four flights in their Flyer at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina following years of research and development. Orville Wright takes off first and flies 120 ft (37 m) in 12 seconds. This is frequently considered the first controlled, powered heavier-than-air flight and is the first such flight photographed. On the fourth effort, Wilbur flies 852 ft (260 m) in 59 seconds.

Births

 * 9 January – Melitta Schenk Gräfin von Stauffenberg, German test pilot (shot down 1945)

title: 1903 in aviation


text:
Proximity card

A proximity card or prox card also known as a key card or keycard is a contactless smart card which can be read without inserting it into a reader device, as required by earlier magnetic stripe cards such as credit cards and contact type smart cards. The proximity cards are part of the contactless card technologies. Held near an electronic reader for a moment they enable the identification of an encoded number. The reader usually produces a beep or other sound to indicate the card has been read.

The term "proximity card" refers to the older 125 kHz devices as distinct from the newer 13.56 MHz contactless smartcards. Second generation prox cards are used for mass and distance reading applications. Proximity cards typically have a read range of up to 50 cm which is the main difference from the contactless smartcard with a range of 2 to 10 cm. The card can often be left in a wallet or purse, and read by simply holding the wallet or purse near the reader. These early proximity cards can't hold more data than a magnetic stripe card, and only cards with smart chips (ie, contactless smartcards) can hold other types of data like electronic funds balance for contactless payment systems, history data for time and attendance or biometric templates. When used without encoding data, only with the card serial number, contactless smartcards have similar functionalities to proximity cards.

Passive cards
Passive 125 kHz cards, the more widely used type which were described above, are powered by radio frequency signals from the reader device and so have a limited range and must be held close to the reader unit. They are used as keycards for access control doors in office buildings. A version with more memory, contactless smartcards, are used for other applications: library cards, contactless payment systems, and public transit fare cards.

Active cards
Active 125 kHz prox cards, sometimes called vicinity cards, are powered by an internal lithium battery. They can have a greater range, up to 2 meters (6 ft). Other contactless technologies like UHF (Ultra High Frequency) smart cards can reach up to 150 meters (500 ft) and are often used for applications where the card is read inside a vehicle, such as security gates which open when a vehicle with the access card inside approaches, or automated toll collection. The battery eventually runs down, however, and the card must be replaced after 2 to 7 years.

Method of operation
The card and the reader unit communicate with each other through 125 kHz radio frequency fields (13.56 MHz for the contactless smartcard cards) by a process called resonant energy transfer. Passive cards have three components which are sealed inside the plastic: an antenna consisting of a coil of wire, a capacitor, and an integrated circuit (IC) which contains the user's ID number in specific formats and no other data. The reader has its own antenna, which continuously transmits a short range radio frequency field.

When the card is placed within range of the reader, the antenna coil and capacitor, which form a tuned circuit, absorb and store energy from the field, resonating at the frequency emitted by the reader. This energy is rectified to direct current which powers the integrated circuit. The chip sends its ID number or other data to the antenna coil, which transmits it by radio frequency signals back to the reader unit. The reader checks whether the ID number from the card is correct, and then performs whatever function it has been programmed to do for that ID number. All the energy to power the card comes from the reader unit, so passive cards must be close to a reader to transmit their data.

An active card contains a flat lithium cell in addition to the above components to power it. The integrated circuit contains a receiver which uses the battery's power to amplify the signal from the reader unit so it is stronger, allowing the card to detect the reader at a greater distance. The battery also powers a transmitter circuit in the chip which transmits a stronger return signal to cover the greater distance.

Standards for Proximity cards
Proximity cards are all proprietary. This is also the case of the memory-based first generation of contactless smartcards. This means that there is no compatibility between the readers of a specific brand and the cards of another brand.

Contactless smartcards are covered by the ISO/IEC 14443 and/or the ISO/IEC 15693 OR ISO/IEC 18000 standards. These standards define two types of card ("A" and "B", each with different communications protocols) which typically have a range up to 10 cm. The related ISO/IEC 15693 (vicinity card) standard typically works up to a longer range of 100 cm. The reality is that ISO/IEC 14443 as well as ISO/IEC 15693 can only be fully implemented on microprocessor-based cards. The best way to check if a technology meets ISO standard is to ask the manufacturer if it can be emulated on other devices without any proprietary hardware.

125 kHz Readers and formats
The card readers communicate in various protocols, for example the Wiegand protocol that consists of a data 0 and a data 1 circuit (or binary or simple on/off (digital) type circuit). Other known protocols are mono directional Clock and Data or bidirectional OSDP (RS 485), RS 232 or UART. The earliest card formats were up to 64 bits long. As demand has increased, bit size has increased to continue to provide unique numbers. Often, the first several bits can be made identical; these are called facility or site codes. The idea is that company A has a facility code of xn and a card set of 0001 through 1000 and company B has a facility code of yn and a card set also of 0001 through 1000. For smartcards, a numbering system is internationally harmonized and allocated by Netherlands-based NEN (registration authority) according to ISO/IEC 6523 and ISO/IEC 15459 standards.

title: Proximity card


text:
Synthetic fiber

Synthetic fibers or synthetic fibres (in British English; see spelling differences) are fibers made by humans through chemical synthesis, as opposed to natural fibers that are directly derived from living organisms, such as plants (like cotton) or fur from animals. They are the result of extensive research by scientists to replicate naturally occurring animal and plant fibers. In general, synthetic fibers are created by extruding fiber-forming materials through spinnerets, forming a fiber. These are called synthetic or artificial fibers. The word polymer comes from a Greek prefix "poly" which means "many" and suffix "mer" which means "single units". (Note: each single unit of a polymer is called a monomer).

The first synthetic fibres
Nylon was the first commercially successful synthetic thermoplastic polymer. DuPont began its research project in 1927. The first nylon, nylon 66, was synthesized on February 28, 1935, by Wallace Hume Carothers at DuPont's research facility at the DuPont Experimental Station.

The next step was taken by Hilaire de Chardonnet, a French engineer and industrialist, who invented the first artificial silk, which he called "Chardonnet silk". In the late 1870s, Chardonnet was working with Louis Pasteur on a remedy to the epidemic that was destroying French silkworms. Failure to clean up a spill in the darkroom resulted in Chardonnet's discovery of nitrocellulose as a potential replacement for real silk. Realizing the value of such a discovery, Chardonnet began to develop his new product, which he displayed at the Paris Exhibition of 1889. Chardonnet's material was extremely flammable, and subsequently replaced with other, more stable materials.

Commercial products
The first successful process was developed in 1894 by English chemist Charles Frederick Cross, and his collaborators Edward John Bevan and Clayton Beadle. They named the fiber "viscose", because the reaction product of carbon disulfide and cellulose in basic conditions gave a highly viscous solution of xanthate. The first commercial viscose rayon was produced by the UK company Courtaulds in 1905. The name "rayon" was adopted in 1924, with "viscose" being used for the viscous organic liquid used to make both rayon and cellophane. A similar product known as cellulose acetate was discovered in 1865. Rayon and acetate are both artificial fibers, but not truly synthetic, being made from wood.

Nylon, the first synthetic fiber in the "fully synthetic" sense of that term, was developed by Wallace Carothers, an American researcher at the chemical firm DuPont in the 1930s. It soon made its debut in the United States as a replacement for silk, just in time for the introduction of rationing during World War II. Its novel use as a material for women's stockings overshadowed more practical uses, such as a replacement for the silk in parachutes and other military uses like ropes.

The first polyester fiber was patented in Britain in 1928 by the International General Electric company. It was also produced by British chemists working at the Calico Printers' Association, John Rex Whinfield and James Tennant Dickson, in 1941. They produced and patented one of the first polyester fibers which they named Terylene, also known as Dacron, equal to or surpassing nylon in toughness and resilience. ICI and DuPont went on to produce their own versions of the fiber.

The world production of synthetic fibers was 55.2 million tonnes in 2014.

Descriptions

About half of all fibres are synthetic, with applications in every field of fiber and textile technology. Although many classes of fibers based on synthetic polymers have been evaluated as potentially valuable commercial products, four of them - nylon, polyester, acrylic and polyolefin - dominate the market. These four account for approximately 98 percent by volume of synthetic fiber production, with polyester alone accounting for around 60 percent.

Synthetic fibers are a source of microplastic pollution from laundry machines.

Common synthetic fibers
Common synthetic fibers include:
 * Nylon (1931)
 * Modacrylic (1949)
 * Olefin (1949)
 * Acrylic (1950)
 * Polyester (1953)

Specialty synthetic fibers include:

 * Rayon (1894) artificial silk
 * Vinyon (1939)
 * Saran (1941)
 * Spandex (1959)
 * Vinalon (1939)
 * Aramids (1961) - known as Nomex, Kevlar and Twaron
 * Modal (1960s)
 * Dyneema/Spectra (1979)
 * PBI (Polybenzimidazole fiber) (1983)
 * Sulfar (1983)
 * Lyocell (1992) (artificial, not synthetic)
 * PLA (2002)
 * M-5 (PIPD fiber)
 * Orlon
 * Zylon (PBO fiber)
 * Vectran (TLCP fiber) made from Vectra LCP polymer
 * Derclon used in manufacture of rugs

Other synthetic materials used in fibers include:
 * Acrylonitrile rubber (1930)

Modern fibers that are made from older artificial materials include:
 * Glass fiber (1938) is used for:
 * industrial, automotive, and home insulation (glass wool)
 * reinforcement of composite materials (glass-reinforced plastic, glass fiber reinforced concrete)
 * specialty papers in battery separators and filtration
 * Metallic fiber (1946) is used for:
 * adding metallic properties to clothing for the purpose of fashion (usually made with composite plastic and metal foils)
 * elimination and prevention of static charge build-up
 * conducting electricity to transmit information
 * conduction of heat

title: Synthetic fiber


text:
Talk:Synthetic fiber

Permission
This is the top page for synthetic fibers. This structure seemed to make the most sense to me (and well, it also mirrored my source material) although I'm going to have to reconcile it with the Textile page.

I also intend to create pages and subpages on animal and plant fibers now that I've been given permission to copy. --Daniel Quinlan 08:49 17 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * I'm not sure it's a good idea to use material from this source, even with permission. All text content on Wikipedia (with rare exceptions, most notably brief, explicit quotations on which we claim fair use) is supposed to be licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. This permission doesn't seem compatible with that license. Among other problems, it doesn't provide rights for downstream users to distribute the material. How much of this article is taken from your source? Did you just use the information, or is a lot of it verbatim? We may end up having to delete the borrowed material, unless your source is willing to re-license the text under the GFDL or another GFDL-compatible license. —Caesura(t) 18:42, 22 June 2006 (UTC)

 * The article predates the usage of the GDFL -- it was 3 years ago! Also, they gave permission without requiring credit.  There is no issue.  If you wish, you can ask them for updated permission, if you're nice about it, I'm sure they'll give permission.  If not, I believe it is fine to leave the article alone.  Daniel Quinlan 08:04, 29 June 2006 (UTC)

Man Made / Cellulosics / Synthetics
I am not an expert on these terms, but it seems to me that this page could be tidied up a little to better reflect on the distinctions,. The page on fibers []  does a better job. It is my understanding that cellulosics are NOT included in the category of synthetics, but are listed on this page with a not very helpful note that they are not really synthetics. -- Natural fibre 11:29, 24 October 2006 (UTC)

 * (Ten years later!) I am confused a little about what this page covers, vs. what is covered elsewhere (and where). The lede includes sentence "Before synthetic fibers were developed, artificially manufactured fibers were made from polymers obtained from petro chemicals," which suggests artificial fibres made from petrochemicals are something else.  What are they called, and can we link to that?

 * In 's note, there is mention of "cellulosic" (which currently redirects to Cellulose). Back in 2006 that was not included in "synthetic fiber" but now it is?  Again some clarity in lede is needed. -- do  ncr  am  20:14, 7 September 2015 (UTC)

Production Methods
Descriptions of the various methods of producing synthetic fibers are incredibly poor. Would someone knowledgeable on the subject please elaborate each method into its own section, providing a clear overview? --BBUCommander (talk) 02:11, 5 January 2014 (UTC)

Comparison
A comparison of synthetic textiles should mention common applications for each. Why choose one over another? For example, in my experience, nylon "breathes" better than polyester. Is there a trade-off between breathe-ability and water resistance? Admittedly, water resistance can be enhanced for fabrics through the application of a durable water repellent (DWR). — Preceding unsigned comment added by 184.191.213.213 (talk) 19:49, 22 July 2016 (UTC)

redirect from "Synthetic materials"
Why does "synthetic material" redirect to this article? There are many synthetic materials that are not fibers (think synthetic resins for instance). Should we think of a higher-level article? Rama (talk) 15:35, 4 February 2018 (UTC)

 * "Synthetic material" now redirects to the disambiguation page Synthetic. Hyacinth (talk) 22:13, 27 July 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Synthetic fiber


text:
Bonyad

Bonyads ( "Foundation") are charitable trusts in Iran that play a major role in Iran's economy. They control an estimated 20% of Iran's GDP, and are second only to the oil industry in manufacturing, trading, and real estate development in Iran. As of 2010, the largest bonyad is the Mostazafan Foundation, worth approximately $10 billion. In addition to large national bonyads like the Mostazafan Foundation, there are numerous bonyads affiliated with local clerics in "almost every" Iranian town. All are answerable only to the Supreme Leader of Iran. As of 2008, bonyads employ somewhere between 400,000 and 5 million Iranians.

Technically religious charitable organizations, they have evolved into "giant private monopolies with no governmental oversight", and are now described as channeling revenues to groups supporting the Islamic Republic, while providing limited and inadequate charity to the poor. Exempt from taxes and benefiting from "huge subsidies from government," they have been called "bloated," and "a major weakness of Iran's economy," that siphons off production to the lucrative black market.

Monarchy
Founded as royal foundations by Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, the original bonyads were criticized for providing a "smokescreen of charity" to patronage, economic control, for-profit wheeling and dealing done with the goal of "keep[ing] the Shah in Power." Resembling more a secretive conglomerate than a charitable trust, these bonyads invested heavily in property development, such as the Kish Island resort; but the developments' housing and retail was oriented to the middle and upper classes, rather than the poor and needy.

Islamic Republic
After the 1979 Iranian revolution, the bonyads were nationalized and renamed with the declared intention of redistributing income to the poor and families of martyrs, i.e. those killed in the service of the country. The assets of many Iranians whose ideas or social positions ran contrary to the new Islamic government were also confiscated and given to the bonyads without any compensation.

Today, over 100 bonyads exist, and they are criticized for many of the same reasons as their predecessors. They form tax-exempt, government subsidized, consortiums receiving religious donations and answerable directly (and only) to the Supreme Leader of Iran. The bonyads are involved in everything from vast soybean and cotton fields to hotels to soft drinks to auto-manufacturing to shipping lines. The most prominent, the Bonyad-e Mostazafen va Janbazan, (Foundation for the Oppressed and Disabled), for example, "controls 20% of the country's production of textiles, 40% of soft drinks, two-thirds of all glass products and a dominant share also in tiles, chemicals, tires, foodstuffs." Some economists argue that its chair, and not the Minister of Finance or president of the Central bank, is considered the most powerful economic post in Iran. In addition to the very large national bonyads, "almost every Iranian town has its own bonyad," affiliated with local clerics.

Estimates of how many people the bonyads employ ranges from in excess of 400,000 to "as many as 5 million."

Bonyads also play a crucial role in the spread of Iranian influence through extensive transnational and international activities, including philanthropy and commerce as soft power as well as providing hard power support.

Criticism
Bonyads are criticized as an enormously wasteful use of Iran's resources: overstaffed, corrupt, and generally unprofitable. In 1999 Mohammad Forouzandeh, a former defense minister, reported that 80% of Iran's Bonyad companies were losing money.

Iran's unprotected private sector has difficulty competing with Bonyad companies, whose political connections provide government permits and subsidies which eliminate worries over the need to make a profit in many market sectors. Thus Bonyads, by their very presence, hamper healthy economic competition, efficient use of capital and other resources, and growth.

Unification of Iran's social security system
As charity organizations they are supposed to provide social services to the poor and the needy; however, bonyads do not fall under Iran's General Accounting Law and, consequently, are not subject to financial audits. Unaccountable to the Central Bank governor, the bonyads "jealously guard their books from prying eyes." With this lack of information for over 100 bonyads operating independently, "the government doesn't know what, why, how and to whom this help and assistance is given." Lack of proper oversight and control of these foundations has also hampered the government's efforts in creating a comprehensive, central and unified social security system in the country, undertaken since 2003. Iran has 12 million people living below the poverty line, six million of whom are not supported by any foundation or organization.

So as to clearly distinguish its activities from the formal Social Security Organization (SSO), bonyads would have to be in charge of vocational training centers, rehabilitation centers, socioeconomic centers, all drug-related rehabilitation centers, cooperative banking (while financing these activities with the bonyads large commercial holdings, which then could be privatized). The SSO, on the other hand, could have sole responsibility for unemployment-insurance, professional-rehabilitation/training costs, retirement-pensions, disability funds, etc.

Rather than charitable organizations, the bonyads have been described as "patronage-oriented holding companies that ensure the channeling of revenues to groups and milieus supporting the regime," but don't help the poor as a class. Another complaint describes them as having kept to their charitable mission for the first decade of the Islamic Republic, but having "increasingly forsaken their social welfare functions for straightforward commercial activities" since the death of the revolution's founder Ruhollah Khomeini. Local city and town bonyad have been accused of sometimes using extortionate techniques to draw the traditional Shia Islamic 20% khums donations from local business owners.

List of major bonyads

 * Mostazafen Foundation of Islamic Revolution, one of the largest welfare organizations, is a semi-public foundation founded in 1979 with the assets of the last Shah's family. It operates a wide variety of charitable activities with a reported $10 billion in assets (2003).
 * Astan Quds Razavi (Imam Reza shrine Foundation), with $15 billion in assets (2003).
 * NAJA Cooperation Bonyad
 * IRGC Cooperation Bonyad
 * Bonyad Shahid va Omur-e Janbazan (Foundation of Martyrs and Veteran Affairs), one of the biggest with over 100 companies. Provides welfare assistance to families of the Martyrs of the Iran–Iraq War.
 * Pilgrimage Foundation
 * Housing Foundation
 * Imam Khomeini Relief Committee, provides sickness, maternity, and work injury benefits to some workers in the private sector.
 * Bonyad-e-Barekat (Barakat Foundation)
 * Execution of Imam Khomeini's Order (Setad) has a stake in "nearly every sector of the Iranian economy, including energy, telecommunications, and financial services". It adds to its wealth by confiscating "land and property from opponents of the regime, including political opponents, religious minorities, and exiled Iranians". (Barakat Foundation is a subsidiary of Setad)

title: Bonyad


text:
Jeanloup Sieff

Jeanloup Sieff (November 30, 1933 – September 20, 2000) was a French photographer. He was born in Paris to Polish parents. He was a photography student of Gertrude Fehr. He is famous for his portraits of politicians, famous artists, landscapes, as well as for his nudes and use of wide-angle lens and visible dodging marks. He worked mainly in black and white and in fashion.

He died in Paris. His daughter, Sonia Sieff, is also a photographer.

Works

 * Femme assise sur une chaise, 1972, 40 x 30 cm, Musée d'art de Toulon

title: Jeanloup Sieff


text:
Giuseppe Castiglione (Jesuit painter)

Giuseppe Castiglione, S.J. (19 July 1688 – 17 July 1766), was an Italian Jesuit brother and missionary in China, where he served as an artist at the imperial court of three Qing emperors – the Kangxi, Yongzheng and Qianlong emperors. He painted in a style that is a fusion of European and Chinese traditions.

Early life
Castiglione was born in Milan's San Marcellino district on 19 July 1688. He was educated at home with a private tutor, then a common practice among wealthy families. He also learned to paint under the guidance of a master. In 1707, he entered the Society of Jesus in Genoa aged 19. Although a Jesuit, he was never ordained as a priest, instead he joined as a lay brother.

Paintings

In the late 17th century, a number of European Jesuit painters served in the Qing court of the Kangxi Emperor who was interested in employing European Jesuits trained in various fields, including painting. In the early 18th century, Jesuits in China made a request for a painter to be sent to the imperial court in Beijing. Castiglione was identified as a promising candidate and he accepted the post. In 1710, on the way to Lisbon, he passed through Coimbra where he stayed for several years to decorate the chapel of St. Francis Borgia in the Church of the novitiate, today the New Cathedral of Coimbra. He painted several panels in the chapel and a Circumcision of Jesus for the main altar of the same church.

In August 1715, Castiglione arrived in Macau, China, and reached Beijing later in the year. He stayed at a Jesuit church called St Joseph Mission or Eastern Hall (Dong Tang) in Chinese. He was presented to the Kangxi Emperor who viewed his painting of a dog, another source said a bird was also painted on the spot on Kangxi's request. He was assigned a few disciples, but was placed to work as an artisan in the palace enamelling workshop.

While in China, Castiglione took the name Lang Shining (郞世寧). Castiglione adapted his European painting style to Chinese themes and taste. His earliest surviving painting created in such style was from the first year of Yongzheng's reign in 1723. He was permitted to leave the enamel workshop by Yongzheng as it was affecting his eyesight. Although Castiglione was favoured by Yongzheng who commissioned a number of works by him, Yongzheng's reign was a difficult period for the Jesuits as Christianity was suppressed and those missionaries not working for the emperor were expelled.

His skill as an artist was appreciated by the Qianlong Emperor, and Castiglione served the Emperor for three decades and was granted increasingly higher official rank within the Qing court. He spent many years in the court painting various subjects, including the portraits of the emperor and empress. Qianlong showed particular interest in paintings of tribute horses presented to the Emperor on which Castiglione painted a series, such as the Four Afghan Steeds.

In 1765, Castiglione and other Jesuit painters also created a series of "Battle Copper Prints" commissioned by the Emperor to commemorate his military campaigns. Small-scale copies of his paintings were shipped to Paris and rendered into engravings with etching before being returned to China. This series of sixteen prints by Castiglione (who contributed two) and his contemporaries Jean-Denis Attiret, Ignatius Sichelbart and Jean-Damascène Sallusti were created in this way.

Castiglione died in Beijing on 17 July 1766. An obituary was personally penned by Qianlong, who also erected a special stone in Castiglione's memory. He was buried in the Jesuits' Zhalan Cemetery in Beijing.

Architecture
In addition to his skill as a painter, he was also in charge of designing the Western-Style Palaces in the imperial gardens of the Old Summer Palace with assistance from other Jesuits such as Jean-Denis Attiret. The project was initiated by Qianlong in 1747 in a garden once used by Yongzheng, with the construction of European-style palaces and gardens, aviaries, a maze, and perspective paintings organized as an outdoor theatrical stage, as well as fountains and waterworks designed by Michel Benoist. Castiglione also created trompe-l'œil paintings on the walls of the palaces. The buildings, however, were destroyed in 1860 during the Second Opium War. Castiglione's architectural works were lost, although influences of his trompe-l'œil murals survive in paintings on walls and ceilings which were executed by his assistant in Juanqinzhai in Qianlong Garden in the Forbidden City.

Style and techniques
Castiglione's style of painting is a unique blend of European and Chinese compositional sensibility, technique and themes. He adjusted the European style he was trained in to suit Chinese taste; for example, strong shadows used in chiaroscuro techniques were unacceptable in portraiture as the Qianlong Emperor thought that shadows looked like dirt, therefore when Castiglione painted the Emperor, the intensity of the light was reduced so that there was no shadow on the face, and the features were distinct. Emperors also preferred to have their portraits painted full face with a frontal posture; therefore, royal portraits were usually painted in such a manner.

The paintings were done on silk, and unlike European painting where mistakes can be reworked, in Chinese painting, where brushwork on silk is almost impossible to be removed, it requires careful and precise painting. The painting needed to be worked out in detail beforehand, which Castiglione did in a preparatory drawing on paper before he traced the design onto silk. An example is the most important early work by Castiglione, One Hundred Horses in a Landscape (百駿圖), for which the preparatory drawings survive. It was painted in 1728 for the Yongzheng emperor. Some of the horses are in a 'flying gallop' pose, which had not been done before by European painters. The painting was executed using tempera on silk in the form of a Chinese handscroll of nearly eight metres in length. It was largely done in a European style in accordance with the rules of perspective, and with a consistent light source. However, the dramatic chiaroscuro shading typical of Baroque paintings is reduced and there are only traces of shadow under the hooves of the horses.

Castiglione was assisted in many of his paintings by a number of court painters. For example, in the painting Deer Hunting Patrol (哨鹿圖, Shaolutu), he was responsible for painting the portraits of the emperor and other officials on horseback. Other members of the hunting party, the trees and landscape were painted by other court painters in a Chinese style that is distinctly different from Castiglione's.

Legacy
Due to Castiglione's work, Qing court paintings began to show a clear Western influence. Other European painters followed and a new school of painting was created that combined Chinese and Western methods. The influence of Western art on the Qing court paintings is particularly evident in the light, shade, and perspective, as well as the priority given to recording contemporary events.

In 2005, Castiglione became the subject of the television series Palace Artist in China, played by Canadian-Chinese actor Dashan (Mark Rowswell), and broadcast by China Central Television (CCTV).. Castiglione was portrayed by Steven Thomas Boergadine in the TV series Ruyi's Royal Love in the Palace; at the end of the 48th episode, Castiglione is seen painting the emperor and the empress together in one of the few happy episodes of the TV series.

title: Giuseppe Castiglione (Jesuit painter)