text:
1987 in aviation

This is a list of aviation-related events from 1987.

Events

 * Lauda Air begins scheduled service.

January

 * During January and February, the United States Navy conducts proof-of-concept tests of Pioneer (later RQ-2 Pioneer) unmanned aerial vehicles aboard the battleship USS Iowa (BB-61) in the Caribbean Sea to see if they can spot effectively for naval gunfire. Although four of the five Pioneers are lost during the tests, they demonstrate their ability to detect targets for Iowa's 16-inch (406-mm) guns.
 * January 1 – United States Coast Guard HH-65 Dolphin and United States Navy H-3 Sea King helicopters help rescue people trapped inside the Dupont Plaza hotel in Puerto Rico after a fire breaks out there late on December 31, 1986.
 * January 3 – Varig Flight 797, a Boeing 707-379C, develops engine trouble after departing Abidjan, Ivory Coast. It crashes while attempting to return to the airport, killing 50 of the 51 people on board.
 * January 7 – French Air Force jets attack the Libyan Air Force base in Ouadi Doum to avenge a raid by Libya against the French military three days before.
 * January 9 – In the Iran–Iraq War, an Iranian Hawk surface-to-air missile shoots down an Iraqi Air Force MiG-25 (NATO reporting name "Foxbat").
 * January 14 – Iranian Hawk missiles shoot down two Iraqi Air Force Tupolev Tu-22 (NATO reporting name "Badger") bombers.
 * January 15
 * Iraq claims to have shot down an Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force F-14 Tomcat in air-to-air combat.
 * Iraq claims its aircraft have flown over 500 combat missions in support of Iraqi ground forces since January 14.
 * Since January 1, Iraq has conducted airstrikes against five ships in the Persian Gulf and 30 economic and urban targets in Iran, while Iran has carried three airstrikes, all against economic and urban targets in Iraq.
 * January 22 – Iran claims to have shot down 57 Iraqi aircraft since January 1, while Iraq admits to the loss of 15.
 * January 28 – An Iranian Hawk missile shoots down an Iraqi MiG-23 (NATO reporting name "Flogger") flying at an altitude of 13,000 ft over the front lines at Basra, Iraq.
 * January 30 – Since January 15, Iraq has conducted airstrikes against two ships in the Persian Gulf and 18 economic and urban targets in Iran, while Iran has carried out 12 airstrikes, all against urban and economic targets in Iraq.
 * January 31
 * During the month, Iraq has conducted over 200 long-range air and ballistic missile strikes against 35 Iranian cities, including Qom, Nahawand, Ramhormoz, Isfahan, and Dezful. Iran claims that the raids have killed over 3,000 civilians in a single week, but later revises this claim to say that the raids killed over 1,800 Iranians and injured over 6,200. Iran claims to have shot down 69 Iraqi aircraft during the month, while Iraq admits to the loss of no more than 38.
 * During the month, Iran and Iraq have struck more targets in the Persian Gulf than in any other month of the Iran-Iraq War since it began in September 1980.

February

 * During early and mid-February, the Iraqi Air Force conducts continual strikes against the 13 major cities in western Iran and against Tehran.
 * During the month, a defecting Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force colonel says in Mujahideen-e-Khalq-sponsored press conferences that only one-third of Iran's 65 F-4 Phantom IIs, a third of its attack helicopters, 30 to 40 of its C-130 Hercules, six to ten of its F-14 Tomcats, and four of its tanker aircraft remain operational; that only one or two or its pre-Iran–Iraq War total of six P-3C Orion maritime patrol aircraft remain fully operational; that several C-130s had crashed due to poor maintenance; that two-thirds of Iran's 65 flyable fighter aircraft were not fully functional; that all of Iran's RF-4E Phantom II reconnaissance aircraft had been shot down or lost in accidents; that Iran had shot down 55 of its own aircraft due to radar and identification-friend-or-foe problems, including a Dassault Falcon jet transport shot down by a Hawk surface-to-air missile in early February; that Iran had too few technical experts to keep its remaining aircraft flying; and that 180 Iranian pilots had defected, many with their aircraft, and that Iranian pilots were briefed on their missions only an hour or so ahead of time so that they would not have time to plan defections.
 * February 1 – People Express Airlines and New York Air cease operations, and People Express, Frontier Airlines (which had ceased operations in August 1986), New York Air, and several commuter airlines merge into Continental Airlines.
 * February 9 – A single Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force plane drops bombs on Basra, Iraq.
 * February 11 – British Airways is privatised.
 * February 14 – Since January 1, Iraq has conducted 75 airstrikes against Iranian economic installations.
 * February 15
 * Iraq claims to have lost three aircraft over Iranian cities since 14 February, at least of them to an Iranian surface-to-air missile.
 * Since February 1, Iraq has conducted airstrikes against four ships in the Persian Gulf and 27 economic and urban targets in Iran.
 * February 18 – The latest phase of major Iraqi airstrikes against Iranian cities and Iranian ballistic missile strikes against Iraqi cities, which began on January 9, ends. Iran claims that Iraqi aircraft have struck 35 Iranian cities and towns, killing 3,000 Iranians and injuring 9,000.
 * February 28 – Since February 16, Iraq has conducted airstrikes against five ships in the Persian Gulf and eight economic and urban targets in Iran
 * February 28 – Since February 16, Iraq has conducted airstrikes against five ships in the Persian Gulf and eight economic and urban targets in Iran

March

 * Grumman delivers the last of 712 Grumman F-14 Tomcat fighters produced to the United States Navy. Production has included 557 F-14A (of which 18 later were converted into F-14Ds), 38 F-14A+ (later redesignated F-14B), and 37 F-14D aircraft for the U.S. Navy and 80 F-14As for the Imperial Iranian Air Force, of which 79 were delivered to Iran and one retained by the United States after the 1979 Iranian Revolution.
 * March 5 – American race car driver Don Yenko is killed when the Cessna 210 Centurion he is piloting lands hard near Charleston, West Virginia, veers off the runway, hits a bank of dirt, falls into a ravine, and crashes. His three passengers also die.
 * March 10 – The Pan Am Boeing 747-121 Clipper Ocean Pearl, operating as Flight 125 with 245 people on board, experiences pressurization problems during climbout from Heathrow Airport in England, and returns to the airport. An investigation finds that latching problems had allowed the forward cargo door to come ajar. A similar door problem will lead to a fatal accident aboard United Airlines Flight 811 in February 1989.
 * March 21 – American entertainer Dean Paul "Dino" Martin, the son of singer and actor Dean Martin, is killed when the California Air National Guard F-4C Phantom II he is piloting enters a maximum takeoff climb, flies into clouds, and crashes into a wall of granite on Mount San Gorgonio in California's San Bernardino Mountains while flying inverted at a speed of 560 mphr). His weapon systems officer also dies.
 * March 27 – Pacific Western Airlines purchases Canadian Pacific Air Lines, and the two airlines amalgamate to form Canadian Airlines.
 * March 29 – The United States Navy disbands United States Naval Reserve Light Photographic Reconnaissance Squadron 206 (VFP-206), its last squadron equipped with specialized photographic reconnaissance aircraft and the last equipped with any version of the Vought F-8 Crusader.
 * March 31 – Since March 1, Iraq has conducted airstrikes against eight ships in the Persian Gulf and four urban and economic targets in Iran. Iran has carried out one airstrike targeting Persian Gulf shipping but none against urban and economic targets in Iraq.

April

 * After purchasing and merging with Canadian Pacific Airlines and Nordair, Pacific Western Airlines announces that the name of the new combined airline will be Canadian Airlines International.
 * April 1
 * The Government of India′s Bureau of Civil Aviation Security, becomes an independent agency of the Ministry of Civil Aviation. Previously, it had been a department of the Directorate General of Civil Aviation.
 * Western Airlines ceases to exist as it merges with Delta Air Lines. Western had operated since April 1926.
 * April 2 – A Royal Air Force Vickers VC10 sets a new record time between the United Kingdom and Australia, landing in Perth, Australia, after a flight of 16 hours 1 minute.
 * April 4 – Garuda Indonesia Flight 035, a Douglas DC-9-32, strikes a pylon and crashes on approach to Medan-Polonia Airport in Medan on Sumatra in Indonesia. A fire following the crash kills 23 of the 45 people on board; all 22 survivors are injured.
 * April 10 – Johan Åhling of Sweden introduces the "Mosquito", a foot-launched powered hang glider harness.
 * April 11 – British charter airline Air 2000 begins operations with a leased Boeing 757-200.
 * April 13 – The Iranian Karbala 9 offensive ends. Since Iran launched its Katbala 4 offensive on the night of December 23–24, 1986, the Iraqi Air Force has lost between 70 and 90 aircraft, and during March and April it was lost several aircraft per week.
 * April 30 – Since April 1, Iraq has conducted five airstrikes against shipping in the Persian Gulf and seven urban and economic targets in Iran. Iran has carried out no airstrikes against Persian Gulf shipping or urban and economic targets in Iraq.

May

 * May 4 – American Eagle Flight 5452, a CASA C-212 operated by Executive Airlines, crashes on landing at Eugenio María de Hostos Airport in Mayagüez, Puerto Rico, killing both pilots. The other four people on board, all passengers, survive with minor injuries.
 * May 9 – The LOT Polish Airlines Ilyushin Il-62M Tadeusz Kościuszko, operating as LOT Flight 5055 bound for New York City, catches fire due to an engine failure soon after take-off from Okęcie Airport and crashes into the Kabaty Woods nature reserve on the outskirts of Warsaw, Poland, killing all 183 persons on board. It is the deadliest aviation disaster of 1987.
 * May 17 – In the USS Stark incident, an Iraqi Air Force Dassault Mirage F1 jet hits the United States Navy guided-missile frigate USS Stark (FFG-31) with two Exocet antiship cruise missiles, badly damaging her and killing 37 and wounding 21 of her crew.
 * May 29
 * To create an "imaginary bridge" between the Western world and the Communist Bloc and defuse tensions between the two, Mathias Rust, a 19-year-old West German pilot, makes an unauthorized flight from Helsinki-Malmi Airport in Helsinki, Finland, through supposedly impregnable Soviet air defenses and lands his rented Reims Cessna F172P adjacent to Red Square in Moscow in the Soviet Union. He is arrested. His flight results in the firing of many senior Soviet military personnel, including the Minister of Defense, Marshal of the Soviet Union Sergei Sokolov, and the Commander-in-Chief of the National Air Defense Forces, Chief Marshal Alexander Koldunov.
 * Pacific Southwest Airlines becomes a division of USAir.
 * May 31 – Since May 1, Iraq has conducted six airstrikes against shipping in the Persian Gulf and five against urban and economic targets in Iran. Iran has carried out eight airstrikes against Persian Gulf shipping and two against urban and economic targets in Iraq.

June

 * June 4 – In Operation Poomalai, five Indian Air Force Antonov An-32 (NATO reporting name "Cline") transport aircraft airdrop supplies by parachute into the city of Jaffna, Sri Lanka, to aid Tamil Tiger rebels who have been besieged there by Sri Lankan government forces during the Sri Lankan Civil War. Five Mirage 2000 fighters escort the An-32s, but the Indian aircraft meet no opposition.
 * June 11 – An unidentified warplane attacks the Greek tanker Ethnic in the Persian Gulf near Kuwait.
 * June 19–20 – The Iraqi Air Force strikes the tanker Tenacity in the Persian Gulf and the western jetty at Iran's Kharg Island.
 * June 21 – Air France pilot Partick Fourticq and friend Henri Pescarolo once again enter the record books, completing an around-the-world flight aboard a Lockheed Model 18 Lodestar in 88 hours 19 minutes.
 * June 27 – Philippine Airlines Flight 206, a Hawker Siddeley HS 748, crashes into Mount Ugu near Itogon, Benguet, in the Philippines, killing all 50 people on board. It is the second-worst aviation accident in Philippine history at the time.
 * June 30 – Since June 1, Iraq and Iran each has conducted a single airstrike against shipping in the Persian Gulf. Iraq has conducted a single airstrike against urban and economic targets in Iran, while Iran has carried out none against urban and economic targets in Iraq.

July

 * July 3 – Richard Branson and Per Lindstrand become the first people to complete a transatlantic flight in a hot-air balloon, aboard the balloon Virgin Atlantic Flyer.
 * July 24
 * The Government of Australia′s Department of Aviation is absorbed by the new Department of Transport & Communications, which is created on the same date.
 * Operation Ernest Will – the American military protection of Kuwaiti-owned tankers from Iranian attacks in the Persian Gulf – begins, covered by United States Navy forces including F-14 Tomcat, F/A-18 Hornet, A-6 Intruder, and EA-6B Prowler aircraft from the aircraft carrier USS Constellation (CV-64) in the Indian Ocean. The operation will continue for 14 months.
 * July 28 – Iraq shoots down a Syrian Air Force fighter that mistakenly flies over Iraqi territory.
 * July 31 – Since July 1, Iraq has conducted five airstrikes against shipping in the Persian Gulf and six against urban and economic targets in Iran. Iran has carried out four airstrikes against Persian Gulf shipping, but none against urban and economic targets in Iraq.

August

 * During the month, the United States Navy deploys eight RH-53D Sea Stallion minesweeping helicopters to the Persian Gulf to assist in the clearing of Iraqi and Iranian naval mines.
 * August 8 – A United States Air Force E-3 Sentry airborne early warning and control aircraft vectors two U.S. Navy F-14A Tomcat fighters from the aircraft carrier USS Constellation (CV-64) to an encounter with an Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force F-4 Phantom II fighter approaching a U.S. P-3C Orion maritime patrol aircraft in a threatening manner and refusing to be warned off. One F-14A fires two AIM-7F Sparrow air-to-air missiles at the F-4, scoring no hits, and the F-4 breaks off and returns to Iran. The entire encounter takes place beyond visual range via radar.
 * August 9 – US airline TranStar Airlines (formerly known as Muse Air), a subsidiary of SouthWest Airlines operating out of Dallas Love Field, ceases operation and is shut down.
 * August 10 – The Iraqi Air Force bombs Iranian oil facilities for the first time in 25 days, claiming to fly 110 sorties, attacking the oil refinery at Tabriz and oil sites at Biki Hakima, Marun-e Jayezan, Karanj, and Gachsaran.
 * August 15 – Since August 1, Iraq has conducted two airstrikes against urban and economic targets in Iran. Iran has carried out none against urban and economic targets in Iraq.
 * August 16 – A McDonnell Douglas MD-82 of Northwest Airlines operating as Flight 255 crashes on takeoff from Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport in Romulus, Michigan. The crash kills all but one of the 157 people on the plane, as well as two on the ground; only a seriously injured four-year-old girl survives. Among the dead is National Basketball Association player Nick Vanos. It remains the deadliest aviation accident with a sole survivor in American history.
 * August 17 – In the Philippines, Manila International Airport is renamed Ninoy Aquino International Airport.
 * August 30
 * Iraq resumes airstrikes in the Persian Gulf after a 45-day hiatus. Iraqi Air Force aircraft strike Kharg Island, Sirri Island, and Lavan Island, setting fire to at least one storage tanker.
 * The Government of Israel cancels the IAI Lavi programme.
 * August 31
 * Thai Airways Flight 365, a Boeing 737-2P5, crashes into the Andaman Sea while on approach to Ko Phuket in Phuket Province, Thailand, killing all 83 people on board.
 * Since August 1, Iraq has conducted no airstrikes against shipping in the Persian Gulf, while Iran has carried out three. Since 16 August, however, the pace of air attacks on urban and economic targets has increased sharply, with Iraq striking 13 such targets in Iran and Iran hitting seven in Iraq.

September

 * September 1 – In three straight days of air raids beginning on August 30, the Iraqi Air Force has hit Iranian tankers, oil facilities in the Persian Gulf, oil facilities ashore in Iran, and factories.
 * September 13 – A fully armed Soviet Air Forces Sukhoi Su-27 (NATO reporting name "Flanker") intercepts a Royal Norwegian Air Force Lockheed P-3 Orion maritime patrol aircraft flying over the Barents Sea and makes three close passes, colliding with P-3 on the third pass. The Su-27 then disengages, and both aircraft return to base safely.
 * September 15
 * The pace of Iraqi and Iranian airstrikes against shipping in the Persian Gulf and urban and economic targets on each other's territory has increased sharply during the first half of September. Since September 1, Iraq has conducted 22 airstrikes against Persian Gulf shipping and 35 against urban and economic targets in Iran, while Iran has conducted 10 airstrikes against shipping and eight against urban and economic targets in Iraq.
 * A Eurocopter AS565 Panther sets new time-to-altitude records for helicopters in its class.
 * September 16 – Iraq begins a new series of airstrikes against Iranian ships and oil facilities. Iran responds, and by September 19 both sides are striking inland oil targets.
 * September 21 – Two United States Army OH-6A Cayuse light attack helicopters equipped with night vision devices and operating from the United States Navy guided-missile frigate USS Jarrett (FFG-33) as part of Operation Prime Chance observe the Iranian naval landing craft Iran Ajr laying naval mines at night in the Persian Gulf. The helicopters fire on Iran Ajr, disabling her and killing three to five (sources differ) members of her crew. U.S. Navy SEALs soon board and seize Iran Ajr, which U.S. forces scuttle on 26 September.
 * September 30 – Since September 16, Iraq has conducted 19 airstrikes against shipping in the Persian Gulf and 19 against urban and economic targets in Iraq. Iran has carried out seven airstrikes against Persian Gulf shipping and three against urban and economic targets in Iraq.

October

 * October 3 – After United States Air Force E-3A Sentry airborne early warning and control aircraft detect 48 to 60 Iranian speed boats moving from Kharg Island across the Persian Gulf toward the Khafji oil field in Kuwait, Royal Saudi Air Force F-15 Eagle and Tornado aircraft join Royal Saudi Navy and United States Navy warships in moving toward them. After detecting the movement of the Saudi and American forces, the Iranian boats turn away and return to Iran.
 * October 5 – The Iraqi Air Force begins a new series of long-range strikes targeting tankers loading at Iran's Larak Island, scoring major hits in the vicinity of Larak Island for the first time. The attack is the 21st Iraqi airstrike against Persian Gulf shipping since late August. Although it fails to sink or set afire any ships, it does hit four tankers, including Seawise Giant, the world's largest ship.
 * October 8
 * A force of American helicopters including three United States Army MH-6 Little Bird night surveillance/attack helicopters attacks an Iranian naval force of a corvette and three speedboats approaching the barge Hercules, employed as a floating American base near Farsi Island in the Persian Gulf. The helicopters sink one Boghammer speedboat and damage two Boston Whaler-type boats, killing or mortally wounding eight Iranian crewmen, and United States Navy SEALs take six other Iranian crewmen prisoner.
 * The Iraqi Air Force hits a Greek-owned merchant ship, killing one crewman. The strike brings the total number of Iraqi Air Force antishipping raids since October 1 to 12, and the number of ships Iraq and Iran have hit in the Persian Gulf since October 1 to nine, with seven crewmen killed and four injured in the attacks. The Iraqi Air Force has flown some 50 sorties a day against Persian Gulf shipping since October 5 and has lost one Mirage F-1 since October 1.
 * October 12 – Since January 1, Iraq has made 60 air attacks against shipping in the Persian Gulf, three using bombs and the remainder using air-to-surface missiles, while Iran has conducted no air attacks against Persian Gulf shipping. The total of Iraqi air attacks against Persian Gulf shipping since 1984 has reached 185 – five using bombs, four using rockets, and 176 using air-to-surface missiles, while Iran's total since 1984 stands at 37.
 * October 15 – Since October 1, Iraq has conducted 15 airstrikes against shipping in the Persian Gulf and 12 against urban and economic targets in Iran. Iran has carried out eight airstrikes against Persian Gulf shipping and six against urban and economic targets in Iraq.
 * October 19 – In retaliation for a series of Iranian Silkworm missile strikes against Kuwait, a U.S. Navy force attacks Iran's Rustam oil platform in the Persian Gulf. Three U.S. Navy aircraft – two F-14 Tomcats and an E-2C Hawkeye – cover the operation. The only Iranian response is to launch a single Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force F-4 Phantom II, which turns away as soon as it detects the size of the American force.
 * October 20 – Attempting to make an emergency landing at Indianapolis International Airport in Indianapolis, Indiana, a U.S. Air Force A-7D-4-CV Corsair II crashes into the nearby Airport Ramada Inn. The pilot survives, but nine people in the hotel die.
 * October 23 – The last F-104 Starfighter is phased out of German Air Force service.
 * October 24
 * Iran claims that three Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force fighter aircraft have flown within 10 mi of a U.S. Navy warship in the Persian Gulf despite warnings not to do so.
 * A Pan American World Airways office in Kuwait is damaged by a terrorist bomb.
 * October 28 – Iraq claims hits on three Iranian tankers in an airstrike in the Persian Gulf. In fact, no ships are damaged.
 * October 31
 * British Airways accepts the airline's first women pilots.
 * In late October, Iraqi Air Force aircraft strike the Agha Jari oil field in southwestern Iran, an Iranian oil refinery in Shiraz, and tankers shuttling oil cargoes in the Persian Gulf for Iran, hitting a supertanker in use as a storage hulk. Since October 16, Iraq has conducted nine airstrikes against shipping in the Persian Gulf and four against urban and economic targets in Iran. Iran has carried out one airstrike against Persian Gulf shipping and four against urban and economic targets in Iraq.

November

 * The British Department for Transport′s Accidents Investigation Branch is renamed the Air Accidents Investigation Branch.
 * November 4 – Iraqi Air Force aircraft hit the National Iranian Tanker Company's tanker Taftan as she loads oil at Kharg Island. It is the first successful Iraqi antishipping strike since October 21.
 * November 14
 * Iraq claims to have conducted air raids against Iranian oil fields at Abed al-Khan, Marun-e Jayezan, and Kaj Saran.
 * The Canadian airline Air Transat begins operations.
 * November 15
 * Continental Airlines Flight 1713, a McDonnell Douglas DC-9-14 with 82 people on board, crashes while taking off from Stapleton International Airport in Denver, Colorado, during a snowstorm. Twenty-eight people lose their lives and all 54 survivors are injured, 28 of them seriously.
 * Iraq claims that its air force has hit 15 ships in the Persian Gulf since November 9, but it has damaged only three ships. Since November 1, Iraq has conducted 18 air strikes against shipping in the Persian Gulf and 14 against urban and economic targets in Iran. Iran has carried out three air strikes against Persian Gulf shipping and eight against urban and economic targets in Iraq.
 * November 17 – Iraqi Air Force aircraft conduct a major raid against the Iranian nuclear reactor under construction at Bushehr, killing one West German technician and injuring several other West Germans working on the reactor.
 * November 19 – Iraqi Air Force aircraft carry out another major raid against the Iranian nuclear reactor at Bushehr.
 * November 20 – Iraq claims that it has hit 21 ships in air attacks in the Persian Gulf since November 8, but in fact has damaged only four.
 * November 22 – Iran claims to have fired on four American helicopters operating over the Persian Gulf, although no such incident appears to have occurred.
 * November 28 – South African Airways Flight 295, the Boeing 747-244BM Combi Helderberg, suffers a catastrophic in-flight fire in the cargo area and crashes into the Indian Ocean east of Mauritius, killing all 159 people on board.
 * November 29 – A bomb planted by North Korean agents explodes over the Andaman Sea aboard a South Korean Boeing 707-3B5C operating as Korean Air Flight 858, destroying the airliner and killing all 115 people on board.
 * November 30 – Since November 16, Iraq has conducted 12 airstrikes against shipping in the Persian Gulf and 10 against urban and economic targets in Iran. Iran has carried out seven airstrikes against Persian Gulf shipping, but none against urban and economic targets in Iraq.

December

 * During the month, Iraq focuses it air campaign against Iran on strikes against shipping in the Persian Gulf, although the Iraqi Air Force also occasionally raids Iranian dams and oil refineries.
 * December 7 – David Burke, an angry former employee of USAir, the parent company of Pacific Southwest Airlines, shoots both pilots of Pacific Southwest Airlines Flight 1771, a BAe 146, while it is cruising at 22,000 ft over the central California coast. No longer under control, the plane pitches down (planes pitch nose up or nose down; they do not pitch "forward") and accelerates, crashing into the ground at a speed of around 700 mph near Cayucos, California, killing all 43 people on board.
 * December 8 – A Peruvian Naval Aviation Fokker F27 chartered by the Peruvian association football club Alianza Lima crashes into the Pacific Ocean off the Ventanilla District of Callao, Peru, killing 43 of the 44 people on board. Among the dead are José Casanova, Luis Antonio Escobar, José González Ganoza, Alfredo Tomassini, Johnny Watson, and 11 other players; head coach Marcos Calderon and nine other coaches and team staff; eight cheerleaders; three referees; two Peruvian Navy passengers; and five crew members. The pilot is the only survivor.
 * December 15 – Since December 1, Iraq has conducted eight airstrikes against shipping in the Persian Gulf and seven against urban and economic targets in Iran. Iran has carried out five airstrikes against Persian Gulf shipping and two against urban and economic targets in Iraq.
 * December 22 – The Iraqi Air Force conducts an unusually long-range raid, striking shipping around Iran's Larak Island. The raid hits four supertankers employed as storage ships there, including the world's largest ship, Seawise Giant.
 * December 31 – Iraq claims that it has hit four ships in the Persian Gulf since December 26, although none actually have been damaged. Since December 16, Iraq has conducted nine airstrikes against shipping in the Persian Gulf and a single airstrike against urban and economic targets in Iran. Iran has carried out 10 airstrikes against Persian Gulf shipping, but none against urban and economic targets in Iraq. During 1987, Iraq has conducted 83 attacks – mostly by air – on shipping in the Persian Gulf, an increase from 65 in 1986, while Iran has conducted 80, mostly by using surface warships, speedboats, and naval mines. Since 1984, Iraq has attacked 215 ships in the Persian Gulf, destroying 49 and badly damaging nine, while Iran has destroyed 16. Despite the Iraqi and Iranian antishipping campaigns, Iranian oil exports for 1987 are 40 percent higher in 1987 than in 1986 and both Iranian and Iraqi oil exports have increased during the second half of 1987.

February

 * February 13 – Fokker 50 – First production aircraft.
 * February 19 — Boeing E-6 Mercury — First production aircraft.
 * February 22 – Airbus A320

March

 * March 9 – Yakovlev Yak-141
 * March 19 – Glaser-Dirks DG-500M

April

 * April 15 — Glaser-Dirks DG-600
 * April 30 – Promavia Jet Squalus

May

 * May 15 — Starfire Firebolt
 * May 16 – Boeing VC-25

June

 * June 10 – Boeing Vertol Model 360
 * June 24 – Grob/E-Systems/AlliedSignal Egrett

July

 * July 1 – Questair Venture
 * July 20 – PZL M-24 Dromader Super
 * July 28 – Wheeler Express

August

 * August 17 – Sukhoi Su-33 (NATO reporting name "Flanker-D")
 * August 31 – Mitsubishi H-60

October

 * October 9 – EHI EH101, later rebranded as the AgustaWestland AW101

November

 * November 24 – F-14D Tomcat

December

 * AEA Maverick
 * December 29 – Scaled Composites AT3

Entered service
April – Tu-160 in Soviet Air Forces (184th Guards Heavy Bomber Regiment in Pryluki)

Deadliest crash
The deadliest crash of this year was LOT Polish Airlines Flight 5055, a Ilyushin Il-62M which crashed in Warsaw, Poland on 9 May, killing all 183 people on board.

title: 1987 in aviation


text:
If

If or IF may refer to:

 * If (preposition), a preposition used in English conditional sentences
 * If (subordinator), a subordinator used for English subordinate interrogative clauses

Film and television

 * If.... (1968), a Lindsay Anderson film starring Malcolm McDowell
 * IF (film), a 2024 fantasy film about imaginary friends
 * If... (TV series), a series of BBC drama-documentaries
 * "If..." (Desperate Housewives), a 2010 episode of Desperate Housewives
 * Agar... If, a 1977 Indian thriller film

Gaming

 * IF, a character in the Hyperdimension Neptunia game series
 * Interactive fiction, text-based computer games featuring interactive stories and environments
 * Shin Megami Tensei If..., a 1994 video game in the Shin Megami Tensei series
 * Kill la Kill the Game: IF, a 2019 video game based on the Kill la Kill anime

Literature

 * If (magazine), subtitled "Worlds of Science Fiction"
 * IF Magazine, Inside Film, Australian magazine
 * If... (comic), a political comic strip which appears in the UK newspaper The Guardian
 * "If—" (published 1910), a poem by Rudyard Kipling
 * The laconic phrase "If", a Spartan reply to a threat by Philip II

Music

 * If (band), 1970s British progressive jazz-rock band
 * In Flames, a melodic death metal band from Sweden, and a song from their album Lunar Strain
 * I-F, stage name of Ferenc E. van der Sluijs, a Dutch producer and DJ

Albums

 * If (Glass Hammer album), 2010 album by American band Glass Hammer
 * If (If album), 1970 album by the English band If
 * if (Mindless Self Indulgence album), a 2008 album recorded by Mindless Self Indulgence
 * (if), a 2009 album by Diary of Dreams
 * If..., a 2011 orchestral concept album by Bill Ryder-Jones
 * ‘’If…’’, a 1992 album by English band Scorpio Rising

Songs

 * "If..." (The Bluetones song), 1998
 * "If" (Bread song), 1971, covered by many artists, including a UK #1 by Telly Savalas in 1975
 * "If" (French Kiss song), 2011
 * "If" (Glasvegas song), 2013
 * "If" (Janet Jackson song), 1993
 * "If" (Kana Nishino song), 2010
 * "If" (Pink Floyd song), 1970
 * "If (Mata Aetara)", by Day6, 2018
 * "If (They Made Me a King)", written by Tolchard Evans, Robert Hargreaves and Stanley J. Damerell, 1934; notably recorded by Perry Como, 1950
 * "If", by Jeri Lynne Fraser (as Jeri Lynn), 1959
 * "If", by Femme Fatale from Femme Fatale, 1988
 * "If", by The Cult from Ceremony, 1991
 * "If", by Joe Satriani from his 1995 self-titled album
 * "If...", by The Divine Comedy from A Short Album About Love, 1997
 * "If", by Bananarama from Exotica, 2001
 * "If", by Destiny's Child from Destiny Fulfilled, 2004
 * "If", by Red Hot Chili Peppers from Stadium Arcadium, 2006
 * "If", by Freemasons from Unmixed, 2007
 * "If", by Joni Mitchell from Shine, 2007
 * "If", by Davido, 2017
 * "If", by R5 from New Addictions, 2017

Business and organizations

 * If (insurance company), in the Nordic countries
 * IF Metall, a trade union in Sweden
 * Illuminati Films, an Indian motion picture production, based in Mumbai
 * Independent Fabrication, a bicycle manufacturer
 * Intelligent Finance, a bank
 * Interflug (1958–1991; IATA airline designator IF)
 * International Federation, any of several world sport governing bodies
 * International Forum Design (iF), a society best known for its iF design awards
 * Islamic Front (Syria), Sunni Islamist rebel group involved in the Syrian Civil War
 * Islas Airways (founded 2002; IATA airline designator IF)

Biology and medicine

 * If current, a component current in the cardiac pacemaker potential
 * Immunofluorescence, a form of labeling substances with fluorescent antibodies
 * Initiation factor, an important component in protein synthesis
 * Intermediate filament, a component of the cytoskeleton
 * Interstitial fluid, the liquid outside of a cell
 * Intrinsic factor, produced by the stomach

Computing and mathematics

 * If-then-else, a conditional statement in computer programming
 * IF (x86 flag), the Interrupt Flag in the x86 processor architecture
 * Information filter, or inverse covariance filter, in Kalman filtering
 * Interface (computing), a shared boundary across which components of a computer system exchange information
 * Intermediate form, a type of data structure in computer programming

Other uses in science and technology

 * Information filtering system, which removes redundant or unwanted information at a semantic level
 * Intelligent falling, a satirical "alternative theory" of gravitation
 * Intermediate frequency, in radio transmission or reception
 * Internal focusing, a lens technology in which focusing occurs only with internal elements
 * Iodine monofluoride, an unstable interhalogen inorganic compound
 * International Fujita scale (IF-scale), a scale to rate a tornado's intensity

Other uses

 * If, a small island in the Bay of Marseille, France; location of the Château d'If
 * If, a prominent example of a laconic phrase
 * Impact factor, a measure reflecting the average number of citations to articles published in scholarly journals
 * Intellectual freedom, a right to access, explore, consider, and express ideas and information
 * Intermittent fasting, a diet having recurring periods of fasting
 * Internally Flawless, a grade of diamond clarity
 * Inside forward, a position in association football
 * Ilfov County (except Bucharest), on the vehicle registration plates of Romania

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: If


text:
Abyssinia Crisis

The Abyssinia Crisis, also known in Italy as the Walwal incident, was an international crisis in 1935 that originated in a dispute over the town of Walwal, which then turned into a conflict between the Fascist-ruled Kingdom of Italy and the Ethiopian Empire (then commonly known as "Abyssinia"). The League of Nations ruled against Italy and voted for economic sanctions, but they were never fully applied. Italy ignored the sanctions, quit the League, made special deals with the United Kingdom and France and ultimately annexed and occupied Abyssinia after it had won the Second Italo-Ethiopian War. The crisis is generally regarded as having discredited the League.

Walwal incident
The Italo–Ethiopian Treaty of 1928 stated that the border between Italian Somaliland and Ethiopia was 21 leagues from and parallel to the Banaadir coast (approximately 73.5 mi). In 1930, Italy built a fort at the Walwal oasis in the eastern Ogaden, well beyond the 21-league limit. The fort was in a boundary zone between the nations, which was not well defined, and is now about 130 km inside Ethiopia.

On 29 September 1934, Italy and Abyssinia released a joint statement renouncing any aggression against each other.

On 22 November 1934, a force of 1,000 Ethiopian militia with three fitaurari (Ethiopian military-political commanders) arrived near Walwal and formally asked the Dubats garrison stationed there (comprising about 60 soldiers) to withdraw from the area. The Somali NCO leading the garrison refused to withdraw and alerted Captain Cimmaruta, the commander of the garrison of Uarder, 20 km away, what had happened.

The next day, in the course of surveying the border between British Somaliland and Ethiopia, an Anglo–Ethiopian boundary commission arrived at Walwal. The commission was confronted by a newly-arrived Italian force. The British members of the boundary commission protested but withdrew to avoid an international incident. The Ethiopian members of the boundary commission, however, stayed at Walwal.

From the 5th of December to the 7th, for reasons which have never been clearly determined, there was a skirmish between the garrison of Somalis, who were in Italian service, and a force of armed Ethiopians. According to the Italians, the Ethiopians attacked the Somalis with rifle and machine-gun fire. According to the Ethiopians, the Italians attacked them and were supported by two tanks and three aircraft. In the end, approximately 107 Ethiopians and 50 Italians and Somalis were killed.

Neither side did anything to avoid confrontation; the Ethiopians repeatedly menaced the Italian garrison with the threat of an armed attack, and the Italians sent two planes over the Ethiopian camp. One of them fired a short machine-gun burst, which no one on the ground noticed, after the pilot saw Captain Cimmaruta in the midst of the Ethiopians and thought that he had been taken prisoner by them.

International response and subsequent actions
On 6 December 1934, Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia protested the Italian aggression at Walwal. On 8 December, Italy demanded an apology for Ethiopian aggression, and on 11 December, it followed up that demand with another for financial and strategic compensation.

On 3 January 1935, Ethiopia appealed to the League of Nations for arbitration of the dispute arising from the Walwal incident. However, the League's response was inconclusive. A subsequent analysis by an arbitration committee of the League of Nations absolved both parties of any culpability from all events.

Shortly after Ethiopia's initial appeal, French Minister of Foreign Affairs Pierre Laval and British Foreign Secretary Samuel Hoare met with the Italian dictator, Benito Mussolini, in Rome.

On 7 January 1935, a meeting between Laval and Mussolini resulted in the Franco-Italian Agreement, which gave Italy parts of French Somaliland (now Djibouti), redefined the official status of Italians in French-held Tunisia and essentially gave Italy a free hand in dealing with Ethiopia. In exchange, France hoped for Italian support against Germany.

On 25 January, five Italian askaris were killed by Ethiopian forces near Walwal.

On 10 February 1935, Mussolini mobilised two divisions. On 23 February, Mussolini began to send large numbers of troops to Eritrea and Italian Somaliland, the Italian colonies that bordered Ethiopia to the northeast and the southeast respectively. There was little international protest in response to the military build-up.

On 8 March, Ethiopia again requested arbitration and noted the Italian military build-up. Three days later, Italy and Ethiopia agreed on a neutral zone in the Ogaden. On 17 March, in response to the continued Italian build-up, Ethiopia again appealed to the League for help. On 22 March, the Italians yielded to pressure from the League to submit to arbitration on the dispute arising from the Walwal incident but continued to mobilise its troops in the region. On 11 May, Ethiopia again protested the ongoing Italian mobilisation.

Between 20 and 21 May, the League held a special session to discuss the crisis in Ethiopia. On 25 May, a League council resolved that it would meet if no fifth arbitrator had been selected by 25 June or if a settlement had not been reached by 25 August. On 19 June, Ethiopia requested neutral observers.

From 23 to 24 June, the United Kingdom tried to quell the crisis by sending Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs Anthony Eden to try to broker a peace agreement. The attempt was unsuccessful, and it became clear that Mussolini was intent on conquest. On 25 July, the United Kingdom imposed an embargo on arms sales to both Italy and Ethiopia. Many historians believe that the embargo was a response to Italy's decree that it would view arms sales to Ethiopia as an act of unfriendliness toward Italy, but other observers believe that the United Kingdom was protecting its economic interests in East Africa. The United Kingdom also cleared its warships from the Mediterranean Sea, which allowed Italy further unhindered access to East Africa.

On 25 June, Italian and Ethiopian officials met in The Hague to discuss arbitration. By 9 July, the discussions had failed.

On 26 July, the League confirmed that no fifth member of the arbitration panel had been selected. On 3 August, the League prevented arbitration talks from being held on the sovereignty of Walwal.

On 12 August, Ethiopia pleaded for the arms embargo to be lifted. On 16 August, France and the United Kingdom offered Italy large concessions in Ethiopia to try to avert war, but Italy rejected the offers. On 22 August, the United Kingdom reaffirmed its commitment to the arms embargo.

On 4 September, the League met again and exonerated Italy and Ethiopia of any culpability in the Walwal incident on the ground that each nation had believed Walwal to be in its own territorial borders. On 10 September, Laval, Eden and even Hoare agreed on limitations to sanctions against Italy.

On 25 September, Ethiopia again asked for neutral observers.

On 27 September, the British Parliament supported the initiative of Konni Zilliacus and unanimously authorised the imposition of sanctions against Italy if it continued its policy towards Ethiopia.

On 28 September, Ethiopia began to mobilize its large but poorly-equipped army.

On 7 November, the Irish Free State passed the League of Nations Bill, which placed sanctions on Italy.

The League of Nations had described Ethiopia as follows:

"At places where there is not a single Italian national, a consul establishes himself in an area known as consular territory with a guard of about ninety men, for whom he claims jurisdictional immunity. This is an obvious abuse of consular privileges. The abuse is all the greater that the consul's duties, apart from the supplying of information of a military character, take the form of assembling stocks of arms, which constitute a threat to the peace of the country, whether from the internal or the international point of view."

War and occupation
On 3 October 1935, shortly after the League had exonerated both parties in the Walwal incident, Italian armed forces from Eritrea invaded Ethiopia without a declaration of war, which prompted Ethiopia to declare war on Italy and thus started the Second Italo–Ethiopian War.

On 7 October in what would come to be known as the "Riddell Incident", the League of Nations declared Italy to be the aggressor and started the slow process of imposing economic sanctions on Italy. The sanctions were limited, however, since they did not prohibit the provision of several vital materials, such as oil, and were not carried out by all members of the League. The Canadian delegate to the League, Walter Alexander Riddell, suggested for the League to add steel and oil to the sanctions, which caused the world press to speak of the "Canadian initiative" and of the bold decision taken by Canadian Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King in pressing for oil sanctions against Italy. Riddell, who had acted on his own, was promptly disavowed by Mackenzie King, who characteristically announced that it was absolutely untrue that he made a decision, he had made no decision about anything and he had never heard of the "Canadian initiative" in Geneva. Mackenzie King's opposition to Riddell's "Canadian initiative" was motivated by domestic politics since Mussolini was widely admired in Catholic Quebec, especially by its nationalistic intelligentsia, and Mackenzie King's Liberal Party had just won the majority of the seats in Quebec in the 1935 election. Mackenzie King was terrified of the possibility of Canada taking the lead in imposing oil sanctions against Italy would cause the Liberals to lose their seats in Quebec in the next election. Thus, no more was heard of the "Canadian initiative".

The United States, which was generally indifferent to the League's weak sanctions, increased its exports to Italy, and the United Kingdom and France did not take any serious action against Italy, such as blocking Italian access to the Suez Canal. Even Italy's use of chemical weapons and other actions that violated international norms did little to change the League's passive approach to the situation.

In late December 1935, Hoare of the United Kingdom and Laval of France proposed the secret Hoare-Laval Pact, which would have ended the war but allowed Italy to control large areas of Ethiopia. Mussolini agreed to consider the plan to buy time for fear of oil sanctions against Italy, but he had no intention of accepting it. The plan caused an outcry and heavy public criticism in the United Kingdom and France when the plan was leaked to the media. Hoare and Laval were accused of betraying the Abyssinians, and both resigned. The pact was dropped, but the perception spread that the United Kingdom and France were not serious about the League's principles. The war continued, and Mussolini turned to the German dictator, Adolf Hitler, for an alliance.

In March 1936, Hitler marched troops into the Rhineland, which had been prohibited by the Treaty of Versailles. The French were now so desperate to get Italian support against German aggression directly on their border that they would not take any further action with sanctions. Since France was prepared to give Abyssinia to Mussolini, his troops were able to continue their war relatively unchallenged by the rest of Europe.

Haile Selassie was forced into exile on 2 May. All of the sanctions that had been put in place by the League were dropped after the Italian capture of the Ethiopian capital, Addis Ababa, on 5 May 1936. Ethiopia was then merged with the other Italian colonies to become Italian East Africa (Africa Orientale Italiana, or AOI).

Ethiopia never officially surrendered and pleaded for help from foreign nations, such as Haile Selassie's 7 June 1936, address to League of Nations. As a result, six nations did not recognize Italy's occupation in 1937: China, New Zealand, the Soviet Union, Spain, Mexico and the United States. Italian control of Ethiopia was never total because of continued guerrilla activity, which the British would later use to their advantage during World War II. However, by 1940, Italy had the complete control of three quarters of the country.

Aftermath
The end of the AOI came quickly during World War II. In early 1941, as part of the East African Campaign, Allied forces launched offensive actions against the isolated Italian colony. On 5 May 1941, five years after the Italians had captured his capital, Emperor Haile Selassie entered Addis Ababa.

There were also major impacts on the League of Nations:
 * The Hoare-Laval Pact showed distrust of Britain and France toward the League.
 * Hitler began reversing the Treaty of Versailles, such as by the Rhineland remilitarisation.
 * Britain and France looked weaker still as seen by Germany, Italy and the United States.

title: Abyssinia Crisis


text:
Michael O'Kennedy

Michael O'Kennedy (21 February 1936 – 15 April 2022) was an Irish Fianna Fáil politician who served in a range of cabinet positions, including Minister for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, Minister for Foreign Affairs, Minister for Finance and Irish European Commissioner. He served as a Teachta Dála (TD) for the Tipperary North constituency and was also a member of Seanad Éireann.

Early life
O'Kennedy was born in Nenagh, County Tipperary, into a family that had strong links to Sinn Féin and the Old IRA. He was educated locally at St. Mary's national school before later attending St Flannan's College in Ennis, County Clare. He briefly studied for the priesthood at St Patrick's College, Maynooth, where he was a contemporary of future Social Democratic and Labour Party leader John Hume. After securing first place in a university scholarship in 1953, O'Kennedy obtained an MA degree from University College Dublin. He taught in Switzerland for a while before resuming his legal studies; he was called to the Bar in 1961. Twelve years later, he was appointed Senior Counsel.

Beginnings
O'Kennedy joined Fianna Fáil in 1957 and became an active party member. He contested the 1965 general election in Tipperary North; however, he narrowly failed to win a seat. He was elected to the 11th Seanad, where he became party spokesperson on various issues, including finance and education.

O'Kennedy contested the 1969 general election and was successful in securing a seat in Dáil Éireann. He remained on the backbenches until 1970 when the Arms Crisis resulted in a major reshuffle at cabinet and junior ministerial levels. O'Kennedy became Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister for Education.

In December 1972, a cabinet reshuffle by Taoiseach Jack Lynch saw O'Kennedy join the cabinet as minister without portfolio. There was much speculation as to what portfolio he would take; however, the new year saw him become Minister for Transport and Power. His tenure was short-lived, for the 1973 general election saw a Fine Gael–Labour Party coalition government come to power.

Immediately after Fianna Fáil's loss of power, O'Kennedy was appointed Spokesperson on Foreign Affairs. He retained the same brief in a 1975 front bench reshuffle. After this reshuffle, he revealed his future leadership aspirations as he became associated with a hardline policy document regarding Northern Ireland. The paper called for a complete and immediate withdrawal of the British Government from Northern Ireland. This new policy opened up the old divisions in Fianna Fáil that had come to light during the Arms Crisis in 1970. It was also against the party's wishes and was at odds with party policy; however, O'Kennedy's new policy was welcomed by the hardline Republican element at the grassroots level within the party.

Cabinet minister and European commissioner
The 1977 general election saw Fianna Fáil return to government with a twenty-seat majority in the Dáil. O'Kennedy was appointed Minister for Foreign Affairs in Jack Lynch's new cabinet.

In 1979, Lynch resigned as Taoiseach and Fianna Fáil leader. The subsequent leadership election was a contest between George Colley and Charles Haughey. Colley was the favoured choice of the outgoing leadership and the majority of the cabinet, while Haughey had the backing of a large rump of backbench TDs who had become disillusioned with the party leadership. On the day before the crucial vote, O'Kennedy was the only cabinet minister to publicly endorse Haughey. Many believe that it was because of this support that Haughey was successful in becoming Taoiseach, albeit by a narrow margin of just six votes. O'Kennedy's loyalty was rewarded when he was appointed Minister for Finance in the new government.

O'Kennedy's tenure as Minister for Finance was short-lived, delivering a stringent budget, as he took the position of European commissioner in January 1981. Because of his new appointment in Brussels, he also resigned from his Dáil seat. O'Kennedy took over as European Commissioner for Personnel, Administration and the Statistics Office and was disappointed not to be made vice-president in the Thorn Commission. He was, however, made a delegate to the president.

O'Kennedy's tenure in the European Commission was unhappy. He quickly grew bored of the mundane day-to-day work as a commissioner and missed the cut-and-thrust nature of Irish politics, which was going through a volatile period. A general election was called for February 1982, and O'Kennedy returned to contest his old seat. He was elected for Tipperary North once again and resigned as a European commissioner. O'Kennedy's return was seen as an attempt to assert his claim to the future leadership of Fianna Fáil, something that had been a contentious issue under Haughey and his failure to secure an overall majority in two elections. Fianna Fáil returned to power with the help of several Independent TDs, and O'Kennedy demanded a senior government position. His request was refused. Haughey offered him the post of Attorney General, but O'Kennedy declined. As a result, he was left out of the short-lived administration.

The government fell in October that same year, and Fianna Fáil lost power at the subsequent general election. A period of instability followed within Fianna Fáil as several TDs attempted to oust Charles Haughey as party leader. Desmond O'Malley was seen as the clear front-runner to succeed Haughey; however, O'Kennedy's name was also mentioned alongside other party stalwarts like Gerry Collins and Brian Lenihan. In the end, Haughey survived as party leader.

Return to cabinet
Following the 1987 general election, Haughey was again Taoiseach and O'Kennedy returned to the cabinet as Minister for Agriculture and Food. This may have seemed like a demotion for someone with the experience of O'Kennedy; however, his nearly five-year tenure received praise from farming circles.

In November 1991, tensions arose within Fianna Fáil regarding the continued leadership of Haughey. Minister for Finance Albert Reynolds directly challenged the party leader and Taoiseach; however, the challenge failed. O'Kennedy supported the incumbent leader throughout the heave and took over as Minister for Labour in the subsequent reshuffle. Once again, this was viewed as a demotion; however, O'Kennedy viewed his role as one of the most important in the cabinet, considering the high unemployment rate.

In February 1992, Haughey stepped down as Taoiseach and Fianna Fáil leader, and Albert Reynolds won the subsequent leadership election by a large majority. The formation of his new cabinet caused widespread shock as O'Kennedy and seven of his cabinet colleagues were effectively sacked in favour of supporters of the new Taoiseach. This brought his cabinet career to an end.

Later years
O'Kennedy lost his seat at the 1992 general election, in what turned out to be a disaster for Fianna Fáil. He subsequently secured election to Seanad Éireann for the second time in his career.

O'Kennedy was re-elected to the Dáil at the 1997 general election. He sought the Fianna Fáil nomination in the 1997 presidential election, but received only 21 votes out of a total of 112, as Mary McAleese became the party's nominee and eventual victor of the election.

After the 2002 general election, O'Kennedy retired from national politics. He returned to work as a barrister and subsequently became a member of the Refugee Appeals Tribunal.

O'Kennedy died on 15 April 2022, aged 86.

title: Michael O'Kennedy


text:
Talk:Cathode-ray tube

Older Comments
since someones mentioned not messing with a CRT, should it be mentioned that one should short the large capacitors to avoid a shock

--- I've just added:

 * These high voltages can persist long after the device containg the CRT has been switched off.

In general, the untrained shouldn't be opening the box in the first place, and providing warnings is better than providing "how-to" details: where do you stop? -

To do:
 * phosphor metamerism
 * color gamut

The line "CRT is a triode. More complex CRTs contain greater numbers of electrodes. " was deleted. Primarily, this makes no sense logically, and also, triodes were mentioned later.

 * Sounds good to me, welcome to Wikipedia. -- Tim Starling 07:47, Jan 5, 2004 (UTC)

CRT illustrations made especially for Wikipedia
Hi - danish wikipedian here. For some snazzy illustrations, check out the danish article (language: "Dansk") on the subject: I just rendered some "cut-away" images of various CRTs...

User:Peo on danish Wikipedia

... and now I've moved large versions of those illustrations onto Commons. See: User:Peo, from danish Wikipedia - again!
 * http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:CRT_color.png
 * http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:CRT_monochrome.png
 * http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:CRT_oscilloscope.png

How many joules are in the capacitors? lysdexia 22:18, 19 Oct 2004 (UTC)

"...children should even be encouraged to do this so that they may see the immediate and dramatic effect of a magnetic field on moving charged particles, provided they are informed to never do the same with a color tube."
 * TEACHER: So remember, kids, never put a magnet near your TV or you'll mess up the screen.
 * JOHNNY (THINKS): Gee, that's great! If I mess up our crappy old TV Dad'll have to get a new one! Lee M 01:59, 2 Dec 2004 (UTC)

---

I wonder if *THAT* is what happened to my crappy old 13" TV? :)

Seriously, the Exploratorium has a color TV and a huge magnet set up for just this sort of playing around.

Meanwhile, User::lysdexia asks about how many joules are stored. Well, Joules = KV^2 * uF, so lets take a SWAG and call the CRT 0.01 uF. Meanwhile, the charge on the CRT can be 25 to 30 KV on a modern color CRT so we can calculate 6.25 to 9.00 Joules based on our SWAG about the capacitance. Having been on the receiving end of a 17KV discharge from an old B/W CRT (never grab the 1B3GT by the bottom; you might contact the HT pins!), I say that sounds like it's in the right ballpark. The shock wasn't too bad, but I really hurt my elbow when it smashed into the wall behind the TV set.

Atlant

"(CRT)" listed at Redirects for discussion
The redirect [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=(CRT)&redirect=no (CRT)] has been listed at redirects for discussion to determine whether its use and function meets the redirect guidelines. Readers of this page are welcome to comment on this redirect at  until a consensus is reached. Skynxnex (talk) 04:19, 31 August 2023 (UTC)

Additional environmental content
I've removed the content below from Digital television as CRT to flat-panel transition is separable from the transition from analog to digital transmission. I'll try to return and work this material into and  but if anyone else wants to take this on before I get to it, have at it! ~Kvng (talk) 16:26, 16 March 2024 (UTC)

 * According to one campaign group, a CRT computer monitor or TV contains an average of 8 lb of lead. According to another source, the lead in glass of a CRT varies from 1.08 lb to 11.28 lb, depending on screen size and type, but the lead is in the form of "stable and immobile" lead oxide mixed into the glass. It is claimed that the lead can have long-term negative effects on the environment if dumped as landfill. However, the glass envelope can be recycled at suitably equipped facilities. Other portions of the receiver may be subject to disposal as hazardous material.

 * Local restrictions on disposal of these materials vary widely; in some cases second-hand stores have refused to accept working color television receivers for resale due to the increasing costs of disposing of unsold TVs. Those thrift stores which are still accepting donated TVs have reported significant increases in good-condition working used television receivers abandoned by viewers who often expect them not to work after digital transition.

CRT TVs were popular until the late 2000s Beyond the United States and the last commercials for new CRT TV models were between 2007 and 2008.
CRT TVs known as tube TVs were popular around the world in general until the end of the 2000s because until the end of the 2000s in several countries CRT TVs were still selling a lot in stores because there was still great demand. They only began to be replaced slowly since the mid-2000s but were only completely replaced in the early 2010s when they lost popularity worldwide in general. Eusouwikipede2001 (talk) 18:48, 29 May 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Cathode-ray tube


text:
Adjacent channel

In broadcasting, an adjacent channel is an AM, FM, or TV channel that is next to another channel. First-adjacent is immediately next to another channel, second-adjacent is two channels away, and so forth. Information on adjacent channels is used in keeping stations from interfering with one another.

title: Adjacent channel


text:
User:Sachin1705

hi

This is sachin

title: User:Sachin1705


text:
Aspect ratio (aeronautics)

In aeronautics, the aspect ratio of a wing is the ratio of its span to its mean chord. It is equal to the square of the wingspan divided by the wing area. Thus, a long, narrow wing has a high aspect ratio, whereas a short, wide wing has a low aspect ratio.

Aspect ratio and other features of the planform are often used to predict the aerodynamic efficiency of a wing because the lift-to-drag ratio increases with aspect ratio, improving the fuel economy in powered airplanes and the gliding angle of sailplanes.

Definition
The aspect ratio $$\text{AR}$$ is the ratio of the square of the wingspan $$b$$ to the projected wing area $$S$$, which is equal to the ratio of the wingspan $$b$$ to the standard mean chord $$\text{SMC}$$:

$$\text{AR} \equiv \frac{b^2}{S} = \frac{b}{\text{SMC}}$$

Mechanism
As a useful simplification, an airplane in flight can be imagined to affect a cylinder of air with a diameter equal to the wingspan. A large wingspan affects a large cylinder of air, and a small wingspan affects a small cylinder of air. A small air cylinder must be pushed down with a greater power (energy change per unit time) than a large cylinder in order to produce an equal upward force (momentum change per unit time). This is because giving the same momentum change to a smaller mass of air requires giving it a greater velocity change, and a much greater energy change because energy is proportional to the square of the velocity while momentum is only linearly proportional to the velocity. The aft-leaning component of this change in velocity is proportional to the induced drag, which is the force needed to take up that power at that airspeed.

It is important to keep in mind that this is a drastic oversimplification, and an airplane wing affects a very large area around itself.

In aircraft
Although a long, narrow wing with a high aspect ratio has aerodynamic advantages like better lift-to-drag-ratio (see also details below), there are several reasons why not all aircraft have high aspect-ratio wings:

For example, the section drag coefficient $$c_d\;$$ of a NACA 23012 airfoil (at typical lift coefficients) is inversely proportional to chord length to the power 0.129: $$c_d \varpropto \frac{1}{(\text{chord})^{0.129}}.$$
 * Structural: A long wing has higher bending stress for a given load than a short one and therefore requires higher structural-design (architectural and/or material) specifications. Also, longer wings may have some torsion for a given load, and in some applications this torsion is undesirable (e.g. if the warped wing interferes with aileron effect).
 * Maneuverability: a low aspect-ratio wing will have a higher roll angular acceleration than one with high aspect ratio, because a high aspect-ratio wing has a higher moment of inertia to overcome. In a steady roll, the longer wing gives a higher roll moment because of the longer moment arm of the aileron. Low aspect-ratio wings are usually used on fighter aircraft, not only for the higher roll rates, but especially for longer chord and thinner airfoils involved in supersonic flight.
 * Parasitic drag: While high aspect wings create less induced drag, they have greater parasitic drag (drag due to shape, frontal area, and surface friction).  This is because, for an equal wing area, the average chord (length in the direction of wind travel over the wing) is smaller.  Due to the effects of Reynolds number, the value of the section drag coefficient is an inverse logarithmic function of the characteristic length of the surface, which means that, even if two wings of the same area are flying at equal speeds and equal angles of attack, the section drag coefficient is slightly higher on the wing with the smaller chord.  However, this variation is very small when compared to the variation in induced drag with changing wingspan.
 * A 20% increase in chord length would decrease the section drag coefficient by 2.38%.

 * Practicality: low aspect ratios have a greater useful internal volume, since the maximum thickness is greater, which can be used to house the fuel tanks, retractable landing gear and other systems.
 * Airfield size: Airfields, hangars, and other ground equipment define a maximum wingspan, which cannot be exceeded. To generate enough lift at a given wingspan, the aircraft designer must increase wing area by lengthening the chord, thus lowering the aspect ratio. This limits the Airbus A380 to 80m wide with an aspect ratio of 7.8, while the Boeing 787 or Airbus A350 have an aspect ratio of 9.5, influencing flight economy.

Variable aspect ratio
Aircraft which approach or exceed the speed of sound sometimes incorporate variable-sweep wings. These wings give a high aspect ratio when unswept and a low aspect ratio at maximum sweep.

In subsonic flow, steeply swept and narrow wings are inefficient compared to a high-aspect-ratio wing. However, as the flow becomes transonic and then supersonic, the shock wave first generated along the wing's upper surface causes wave drag on the aircraft, and this drag is proportional to the span of the wing. Thus a long span, valuable at low speeds, causes excessive drag at transonic and supersonic speeds.

By varying the sweep the wing can be optimised for the current flight speed. However, the extra weight and complexity of a moveable wing mean that such a system is not included in many designs.

Birds and bats
The aspect ratios of birds' and bats' wings vary considerably. Birds that fly long distances or spend long periods soaring such as albatrosses and eagles often have wings of high aspect ratio. By contrast, birds which require good maneuverability, such as the Eurasian sparrowhawk, have wings of low aspect ratio.

Details
For a constant-chord wing of chord c and span b, the aspect ratio is given by:
 * $$AR = {b\over c}$$

If the wing is swept, c is measured parallel to the direction of forward flight.

For most wings the length of the chord is not a constant but varies along the wing, so the aspect ratio AR is defined as the square of the wingspan b divided by the wing area S. In symbols,
 * $$AR = {b^2 \over S}$$.

For such a wing with varying chord, the standard mean chord SMC is defined as
 * $$SMC = {S\over b} = {b\over AR}$$

The performance of aspect ratio AR related to the lift-to-drag-ratio and wingtip vortices is illustrated in the formula used to calculate the drag coefficient of an aircraft $$C_d\;$$

 * $$C_D =C_{D0} + \frac{(C_L)^2}{\pi e AR}$$

where
 * {| border="0"

 * $$C_D\;$$          || is the aircraft drag coefficient
 * $$C_{D0}\;$$  || is the aircraft zero-lift drag coefficient,
 * $$C_L\;$$          || is the aircraft lift coefficient,
 * $$\pi\;$$          || is the circumference-to-diameter ratio of a circle, pi,
 * $$e\;$$            || is the Oswald efficiency number
 * $$AR$$      || is the aspect ratio.
 * }
 * $$\pi\;$$          || is the circumference-to-diameter ratio of a circle, pi,
 * $$e\;$$            || is the Oswald efficiency number
 * $$AR$$      || is the aspect ratio.
 * }
 * $$AR$$      || is the aspect ratio.
 * }

Wetted aspect ratio
The wetted aspect ratio considers the whole wetted surface area of the airframe, $$S_w$$, rather than just the wing. It is a better measure of the aerodynamic efficiency of an aircraft than the wing aspect ratio. It is defined as:

 * $$\mathit{AR}_{\mathrm{wet}} = {b^2 \over S_w}$$

where $$b$$ is span and $$S_w$$ is the wetted surface.

Illustrative examples are provided by the Boeing B-47 and Avro Vulcan. Both aircraft have very similar performance although they are radically different. The B-47 has a high aspect ratio wing, while the Avro Vulcan has a low aspect ratio wing. They have, however, a very similar wetted aspect ratio.

title: Aspect ratio (aeronautics)


text:
Low-power broadcasting

Low-power broadcasting is broadcasting by a broadcast station at a low transmitter power output to a smaller service area than "full power" stations within the same region. It is often distinguished from "micropower broadcasting" (more commonly "microbroadcasting") and broadcast translators. LPAM , LPFM  and LPTV  are in various levels of use across the world, varying widely based on the laws and their enforcement.

Canada
Radio communications in Canada are regulated by the Radio Communications and Broadcasting Regulatory Branch, a branch of Industry Canada, in conjunction with the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC). Interested parties must apply for both a certificate from Industry Canada and a license from CRTC in order to operate a radio station. Industry Canada manages the technicalities of spectrum space and technological requirements whereas content regulation is conducted more so by CRTC.

LPAM stations are authorized to operate with less than 100 watts of power.

LPFM is broken up into two classes in Canada, Low (50 watts) and Very Low (10 watts). The transmitters therefore range from 1 to 50 watts, as opposed to 1 to 100 watts in the U.S., 500 licenses (very low and low-power FM) have been issued. These transmitters are generally only allowed in remote areas.

Stations in the low-power class are subject to the same CRTC licensing requirements, and will generally follow the same call sign format, as full-power stations. Stations in the very low-power class formerly had to have CRTC licenses as well, although a series of CRTC regulation changes in the early 2000s exempted most such stations from licensing; a station in this class will usually not have a conventional call sign, but will instead be identified in a naming format consisting of a four-digit number preceded by the letters CH for a television station or VF for a radio station.

The regulation of spectrum space is strict in Canada, as well having restrictions on second and third adjacent channels, along with other protections for AM and FM commercial radio. In addition, because there have been a few cases that found that FM frequencies have caused interference to the aeronautical navigation and communications (NAV/COM) spectrum (though evidence is not very concrete presently), pirate radio regulation has remained very strict as well. However, the two regulating bodies do have certain exemptions. For example, low-power announcement transmitters that meet the requirement of Broadcasting Equipment Technical Standards 1, Limited Duration Special Events Distribution Undertakings, Temporary Resource Development Distribution Undertakings, and Public Emergency Radio Undertakings are a few instances, which according to certain criteria, may be exempt from certificate/license requirements.

A television station is considered very low power if its power does not exceed 2 watts for a VHF station, or 10 watts for a UHF station. Low-power analog & digital television stations are authorized to operate with up to 50 watts in VHF, or 500 watts for a UHF station.

New Zealand
In New Zealand residents are allowed a broadcast license (free-of-charge) at a maximum of 1 watt EIRP in the FM guardbands from 87.6 to 88.3 and from 106.7 to 107.7 MHz under a General User Radio License (GURL), which is issued by Radio Spectrum Management, managed by the Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment. Prior to June 2010, the lower band was located between 88.1 and 88.8 and a maximum of 500 mW EIRP allowed. Broadcasters on these frequencies are required to cease operations if they interfere with other, licensed broadcasters and have no protection from interference from other licensed or unlicensed broadcasters. Contact details must also be broadcast every hour.

Further restrictions are in place for the protection of aeronautical services. Use of the following frequencies is not permitted within certain boundaries approaching Auckland and Wellington airports: 107.5 to 107.7, and 107.0 to 107.3 MHz, respectively.

There exists a 25 km broadcast translator rule: one licensee may operate two transmitters anywhere (close together), but a third transmitter must be at least 25 km away from at least one of the first two transmitters.

There are efforts on self-regulation of the broadcasters themselves. The NZRSM Radio Inspectors do, however, regularly monitor and make random unannounced visits to broadcasters, and will impose fines for violations of the regulations. New broadcasters are also subject to an initial compulsory inspection.

United Kingdom
Temporary low-power stations are allowed at times via a Restricted Service Licence. Since 2001, long-term LPFM licenses have been available in remote areas of the country. These are currently used for many establishments, including military bases, universities and hospitals with fixed boundaries.

FM radio
Low Power FM (LPFM) is a non-commercial educational broadcast radio service created by the Federal Communications Commission in the United States in 2000. LPFM licenses, which are limited to a maximum effective radiated power (ERP) of 100 watts, may be issued to non-commercial educational entities, as well as public safety and transportation organizations. Individuals and holders of other types of broadcast licenses are not eligible. In addition, LPFM stations are not protected from interference from other classes of FM stations.

LPFM classes

 * Class L1 (LP100) is to 100 watts effective radiated power (ERP).
 * Class L2 (L10) is at least 1 and up to 10 watts ERP.

In addition, Class D educational licenses exist for stations of 10 watts transmitter power output (TPO) or less, regardless of ERP. These stations are all grandfathered operations, as no new licenses of this type have been issued since 1978, except in Alaska. They are not considered to be LPFM stations, although they operate noncommercially and have similar coverage areas to Class L2 stations.

Origins of LPFM
In January 2000, the Federal Communications Commission established Low Power FM (LPFM) as a new designated class of radio station. These stations were allowed to operate at 1–10 or 50–100 watts of power, compared to the minimum requirement for commercial stations at 100 watts. . Originally, it was supported by activists and groups associated with American progressivism; music artists (such as Bonnie Raitt); religious leaders/churches (such as the United Church of Christ); and educators (for example, American Library Association, the Communication Workers of America labor union, the National League of Cities).

The original purpose of LPFM was to serve as an alternative to "radio homogenization", described in 2001 in the J & MC Quarterly, as "... Necessary to offset the growing consolidation of station ownership in the wake of the Telecommunications Act of 1996, which removed caps on radio ownership, as well as the decline of locally produced radio programming." The main opposition to LPFMs came from the National Association of Broadcasters (NAB), which opposed the act on grounds to "maintain spectrum integrity" for commercial broadcasting, according to NAB President Edward O. Fritts.

Radio Broadcasting Preservation Act of 2000
Pressure from the National Association of Broadcasters urged Congress to slip the Radio Broadcasting Preservation Act of 2000 into a general spending bill then moving through Congress. President Bill Clinton signed the bill in December 2000. The bill passed by Congress (H.R.567) was meant to tighten standards for LPFM stations, making it harder for them to be approved, to protect full-power FM stations through certain provisions:
 * 1) The FCC has the ability and jurisdiction to license LPFM stations.
 * 2) Third adjacent channel interference protections require LPFM stations to be separated by at least 0.6 MHz from all other stations, to prevent signal interference.
 * 3) Applicants who have engaged in the unlicensed operation of any station cannot receive LPFM licenses.
 * 4) The FCC agreed to commission studies on the interference by, and economic impact of, LPFM on full-power stations (the findings, later published in the MITRE Corporation Report, suggest that third adjacent channel interference protections may not be necessary).

This act shifted policy making from the FCC to Congress, which was considered an insult against the FCC.

Local Community Radio Act of 2005
The Local Community Radio Act of 2005 was introduced by Senators John McCain, Maria Cantwell and Patrick Leahy. After the FCC complied with the provisions of the Radio Broadcasting Act of 2000 by commissioning the MITRE Report to test if there was significant interference from LPFM stations on the full-power stations, the study showed that the interference of LPFM is minimal and would not have a significant effect on other stations. According to Sen. Leahy, "This bill will open up the airwaves to truly local broadcasting while protecting full-power broadcasters from unreasonable interference and preserving important services such as reading services for the blind."

Local Community Radio Act of 2007
Sponsored in the U.S. House of Representatives by Congressmen Mike Doyle and Lee Terry and in the United States Senate by Senators Maria Cantwell and John McCain, the Local Community Radio Act of 2007 never came to a vote. The House bill, H.R. 2802, was referred to the Subcommittee on Telecommunications and the Internet on June 21, 2007. Since the bill was not passed in FY 2007, the bill was removed from the docket as Never Passed.

Local Community Radio Act of 2009
This bill was an update of the Local Community Radio Act of 2007. It would have required the FCC to alter current rules by removing the minimum frequency separation between low-power FM stations and third-adjacent channel stations. Previously, there was a minimum frequency separation; however the FCC found that LPFM stations did not cause any interference on third-adjacent channel stations, thus eliminating the need for such a requirement.

The Local Community Radio Act of 2009 also would have required that the FCC keep the rules that offer interference protection to third-adjacent channels that offer a radio reading service (the reading of newspapers, books or magazines for those who are blind or hearing impaired). This protection will ensure that such channels are not subject to possible interference by LPFM stations.

The final part of the bill required that when giving out licenses to FM stations, the FCC must make sure that these licenses are also available to LPFM stations and that licensing decisions are made with regard to local community needs. The bill had unanimous bipartisan support from FCC leadership. It was passed by the House and referred to the Senate.

Local Community Radio Act of 2010
The Local Community Radio Act of 2010 (based upon the legislation originally introduced in 2005) was signed into law by President Barack Obama on January 4, 2011, as, after passage in the House on December 17, 2010, and the U.S. Senate on December 18, 2010. In a statement after the bill became law, Federal Communications Commission chairman Julius Genachowski said, "Low power FM stations are small, but they make a giant contribution to local community programming. This important law eliminates the unnecessary restrictions that kept these local stations off the air in cities and towns across the country." The Act states that the Federal Communications Commission, when licensing new FM translator stations, FM booster stations, and low-power FM stations, should ensure that licenses are available to FM translator stations, FM booster stations, and low-power FM stations; such decisions are made based on the needs of the local community; and FM translator stations, FM booster stations, and low-power FM stations remain equal in status and secondary to existing and modified full-service FM stations.

In general, the FCC was to modify its rules to eliminate third-adjacent minimum frequency separation requirements between low-power FM stations; and full-service FM stations, FM translator stations, and FM booster stations.

Arguments for LPFM

 * Free Press, a non-partisan advocacy organization pushing for media reform, promoting "diversity and independent media ownership, strong public media, and universal access to communications," voiced its support of LPFM for a variety of reasons:
 * It strengthens community identity.
 * It creates an outlet for amateur musicians to have their music heard.
 * It promotes diversity on the air because more women and racial minorities are represented.
 * It creates an opportunity for young people, especially college students, who are interested in radio to learn about the business.
 * It provides farmers with up to date agricultural information.
 * Prometheus Radio Project, a non-profit organization that "builds, supports, and advocates for community radio stations which empower participatory community voices and movements for social change," also supported LPFM, citing these reasons:
 * The media should not limit democratic participation but should provide a way for communities and movements to express themselves
 * Public airwaves shouldn't be concentrated in private/corporate hands
 * Low Power FM gives a voice to communities
 * Low Power FM needs to be protected from big broadcasters

A New York Times article focusing on a LPFM station, KOCZ-LP, highlights a number of key arguments favoring low-powered broadcasting:
 * "In Louisiana, a large African-American community appreciates how LPFM plays a genre of music called zydeco, a potent blend of Cajun, rhythm and blues and, among a younger generation, hip-hop, often features accordion and washboard.“
 * LPFM influences commercial radio to offer listeners a wider range of music. “Commercial stations had started playing more zydeco since KOCZ started broadcasting in 2002. 'They know that we make them better,' an advocate said.”
 * Because LPFM is non-commercial, schools and organizations are able to promote many projects that help serve the local community. "KOCZ is licensed to the Southern Development Foundation, a civil rights group that grants scholarships and runs a business incubator but has fallen on hard times. The foundation treats the station as a 24-hour form of community outreach. "
 * LPFM promotes a very close community. "A woman walked into the station ... asked for an announcement to be broadcast about her lost dog... 'She was able to get her dog back the next day’”
 * LPFM is crucial for small communities in times of emergencies. “A low power FM radio station can stay on the air even if the power goes out. Low power FM saved lives during Katrina.”

Former President Bill Clinton has also become an advocate of LPFM for "giving voice to the voiceless", including schools, community-based organizations, churches, and ethnic groups.

Brown Paper Tickets CEO Steve Butcher supports LPFM, stating in a letter to the FCC, "We hear from event producers frequently who can't afford radio ad buys on commercial stations. These local entrepreneurs can afford underwriting on smaller stations that can help build awareness about their events."

LPFM stations are considered to be affordable compared to an average FM station, whose operating costs can run up to a million dollars, and could only afforded by businesses and the very wealthy. An antenna and transmitter can cost between $2,000 and $5,000.

Arguments against LPFM

 * Signal interference on FM station – High-power FM stations express concern that LPFM stations may cause interference with their signals if third adjacent-channel interference protections are not observed. While the Mitre Report suggests that the likelihood for interference is not as threatening as previously thought, high-power FM stations question the methodology, scope and validity of the study and its results.
 * FM translators – These devices allow a radio station to rebroadcast its signal to reach a greater area. FM translators could benefit religious broadcasters wishing to reach a larger audience, as well as many AM radio stations who, due to ionospheric refraction, are required to emit weaker signals during the night. FM translators are low-power, so compete with LPFM for limited space on the airwaves.
 * In some states, the local Department of Transportation operates large networks of LPFM stations that act as highway advisory radio stations – a service traditionally operated at the fringes of the AM band – restricting the number of available channels (these systems can be licensed to the entire AM band, but the LPFM service provides considerably greater coverage at 100 watts than the 10-watt limit on AM – hence the considerable appeal for government agencies).
 * Some investors in radio believe LPFM services prevent the development of digital radio.
 * NPR is a major opponent to low-power FM. Their stance is that allowing more flexible rules for LPFM would burden other stations by forcing them to deal with interference problems and because full-power broadcasters reach a broader audience and provide a greater service, they should be favored regarding spectrum availability.
 * The National Association of Broadcasters is the other major source of opposition. Its stance is that full-power FM broadcasters “enhance localism” by providing community-responsive information such as emergency information. Allowing low-power FM stations to have equal spectrum rights could be detrimental to these necessary programs.

LPFM vs. broadcast translators
Unlike the former FM class D license, an LPFM station has no priority over broadcast translators in the allocation of available spectrum. This is problematic insofar as the regulations for broadcast translators exempts non-commercial stations from the requirement that translators be within the coverage area of the original station that they rebroadcast. However, this provision only affects translators in the non-commercial portion of the band. Stations in the commercial part of the spectrum must be fed over the air unless they are within the actual service area of the primary station. Since the translator window of 2003 was only open for commercial channels, the use of directly-fed via satellite FM translators, commonly called "Satellators", was never a factor in the 2003 window.

The FCC licensing window for new translator applications in 2003 resulted in over 13,000 applications being filed, most of them coming from a few religious broadcasters. However even though all translators on commercial frequencies must be fed by a direct, over-the-air source, regardless of who owns the translator per FCC rule 74.1231(b), the actual over-the-air source (the primary station) can be satellite fed, just as commercial stations can be fed by satellite. This leads to programming from a single station (retransmitted by many others) ending up on several hundred different translators. One station cannot apply for hundreds or thousands of translators nationwide, using automated means to generate license applications for all available channels, unless all of their applications are exclusively on the non-commercial part of the broadcast band (88–91.9 MHz). As with any new service that shares the FM spectrum, when translators are added to an area, they can reduce or eliminate the availability of channels both for new LPFM applicants and for relocation of any existing LPFM stations displaced by full-service broadcasters. Unlike an LPFM station, a translator is not required to (and legally not authorized to) originate any local content except as permitted by. Thus there is competition for spectrum in some locations between the LPFM service and the FM translator service.

In May 2018, several groups supporting community-based low-power FM stations filed objections with the FCC, citing the Local Community Radio Act, accusing it of favoring existing station coverage expansion with translator licenses - "a spectrum grab" - over new LPFM spectrum licenses.

AM radio
The acronym 'LPAM' is not a legal term in the United States and is only used as an acronym. Unlike LPFM stations, which have legal and regulatory status, FCC rules do not define "LPAM" nor issue licenses for low-power AM transmission. LPAM is only an acronym applied to licensed low-power AM operations and to Part 15 transmissions as well.

Any use of the term "low power AM" in FCC licensing for United States stations is the requirement for higher-power licensed AM stations to reduce their transmit power at nighttime – post-sunset / pre-sunrise – as a condition of their high-power broadcast authorization. There is a category class D for AM broadcast licenses, which limited stations to daytime-only transmission before regulations changed in the 1980s. Many, but not all, class D stations have been granted authority to broadcast at night with enough power to be heard within a few miles of their transmitters.

Other LPAM operations are known as Travelers' Information Stations (TIS), sometimes also called highway advisory radio (HAR). Authorized under FCC Part 90.242, these are stations licensed to local transportation departments or other governmental or quasi-governmental agencies to provide bulletins to motorists regarding traffic conditions. These are often near highways and airports, and occasionally other tourism attractions such as national parks. Some are used by chemical and nuclear facilities for emergency evacuation information systems, others by public safety entities for mobile operations.

Music is not allowed on TIS/HAR stations, and they are restricted to only 3 kHz wide, "low-fidelity audio", compared to the 10 kHz audio for standard AM broadcasters and 15 kHz audio permitted on FM stations. (Modern AM stations in the US actually restrict their audio from 5 kHz down to 2.5 kHz - roughly the same as to TIS stations. TIS transmissions are normally authorized for 10 watts or less, although some higher authorizations exist, primarily in locations where emergency evacuation may become necessary. The 60–watt TIS stations on 1640 and 1680 kHz at Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport have the highest licensed power among full-time TIS stations.

Television
There are more than 2,450 licensed low-power television (LPTV) stations in the U.S., which are located in markets of all sizes, from New York City (five stations, though more exist in the market from other cities of license) down to Junction City, Kansas (two stations).

LPTV (-LP) and LPTV Digital (-LD) are common in the U.S., Canada and most of the Americas, where most stations originate their own programming. Stations that do not originate their own programming are designated as translators (-TX). The Community Broadcasters Act of 1998 directed the FCC to create a classification of LPTV licenses called Class A (-CA) and Class A Digital (-CD). Digital low-power and Class-A television stations have an ERP limit of 3,000 watts (3 kW) for VHF, and 15 kilowatts for UHF.

The LPTV service is considered a secondary service by the FCC, which means the licensee is not guaranteed protection from interference or displacement. An LPTV station must accept harmful interference from full-service television stations and may not cause harmful interference to any full-service television station (the FCC defines interference levels deemed to be "harmful"). The problem with potential displacement was made evident during the transition of broadcasting in the United States from analog to digital. All television stations operating on UHF channels 38 and above were required to move to channel 36 or below. Full-service stations were guaranteed a place to land in the new compressed band while LPTV stations operating on channels 38 and above were required to either enter a channel-sharing agreement with another station or lose their license.

Class A LPTV stations
The FCC provided a one-time filing opportunity for existing LPTV stations to become Class A stations. The designation was only available to LPTV stations that were producing two hours per week of local programming. Class A stations had to maintain a production studio within their Grade B contour, and comply with many of the requirements placed on full-service television stations. This allowed them to obtain protected channel status.

Must-carry
One of the key distinctions between full-service television stations and low-power stations is cable television and direct broadcast satellite (DBS) carriage. Full-service stations are guaranteed carriage in their local television market through "must-carry" whereas LPTV stations are not. In 2008, there was an effort put forward by FCC chairman Kevin Martin to grant must-carry rights to Class A LPTV stations. The effort failed due to a lack of support from the other FCC commissioners.

Network affiliates
Though many low-power television stations are either unaffiliated, or broadcast programming from small networks meant for their use, some LPTV stations are affiliated with minor broadcast networks like The CW or MyNetworkTV. Examples include in Boston, Massachusetts with NBC on WBTS-CD; Youngstown, Ohio, where a pair of LPTV stations based at WYFX-LD broadcast Fox programming, along with the digital subchannel of the co-owned CBS affiliate, WKBN-TV; or in the Lima, Ohio area, whose low-power stations are affiliates of major networks, such as CBS and ABC.

Digital transition
On July 15, 2011, the FCC issued an order to low-power broadcasters that effectively required all remaining television transmitters to vacate channels 52 to 69 by December 31, 2011. Originally, all low power analog TV stations were required to shut off by September 1, 2015, however, the deadline for low-power television stations and translators was postponed due to a spectrum auction that took place. While Class-A television stations were required to sign off on September 1, 2015, the last remaining low-powered analog television stations had signed off by July 13, 2021.

Unlike AM and FM, unlicensed use of television bands is prohibited for broadcasting. The amateur television channels do allow for some very limited non-entertainment transmissions however, with some repeaters airing NASA TV during Space Shuttle missions when they are not in local use.

The low-power television industry was represented by the Community Broadcasters Association (CBA), which held its annual convention each year in October and an annual meeting each year in April at the National Association of Broadcasters Convention in Las Vegas. The meeting was open to anyone interested in the low-power television industry. On August 13, 2009, the CBA announced in a statement that it would shut down after 20 years of representing LPTV stations. One reason given was the "restrictive regulations that kept the Class A and LPTV industry from realizing its potential". Another was the inability to reach most viewers, partly due to multichannel video programming distributors refusing to carry these channels. In addition, Amy Brown, former CBA executive director, said, "some 40% of Class A and LPTV station operators believe they will have to shut down in the next year if they are not helped through the digital transition."

In February 2006, the FCC released its Notices of Proposed Rules for Digital Radio. The Commission reaffirms its commitment to provide broadcasters with the opportunity to take advantage of digital audio broadcasting (DAB) technology, proposed criteria for evaluating models and systems, such as the In-band on-channel (IBOC) system, and inquired on the needs for a mandatory DAB transmission standard.

In section 39 of the Notice, the FCC inquires as how to balance incentives for broadcasters to switch to digital systems with incumbents of new entrance opportunities, stating that they “seek analyses of the minimum power levels that would preserve service within protected service areas in an all-digital environment, and alternatively, the levels that would not result in significant disruptions to current listening patterns.”

The DAB system that was identified as the best fit for LPFM was IBOC. This hybrid system uses existing frequencies and can operate carrying digital information along with analog broadcast signal on the sidebands. However, the digital carriers require the bandwidth to be widened, which would cause interference to stations on the first adjacent channel. If LPFM adopts IBOC, then LPFM would also need to accept a second adjacent channel restriction between two LPFM stations, as there is a potential that the sidebands of two LPFM stations would overlap causing interference. , imposing a second adjacent channel restriction would impact less than 10 LPFM stations.

title: Low-power broadcasting