text:
Effective radiated power

Effective radiated power (ERP), synonymous with equivalent radiated power, is an IEEE standardized definition of directional radio frequency (RF) power, such as that emitted by a radio transmitter. It is the total power in watts that would have to be radiated by a half-wave dipole antenna to give the same radiation intensity (signal strength or power flux density in watts per square meter) as the actual source antenna at a distant receiver located in the direction of the antenna's strongest beam (main lobe). ERP measures the combination of the power emitted by the transmitter and the ability of the antenna to direct that power in a given direction. It is equal to the input power to the antenna multiplied by the gain of the antenna. It is used in electronics and telecommunications, particularly in broadcasting to quantify the apparent power of a broadcasting station experienced by listeners in its reception area.

An alternate parameter that measures the same thing is effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP). Effective isotropic radiated power is the hypothetical power that would have to be radiated by an isotropic antenna to give the same ("equivalent") signal strength as the actual source antenna in the direction of the antenna's strongest beam. The difference between EIRP and ERP is that ERP compares the actual antenna to a half-wave dipole antenna, while EIRP compares it to a theoretical isotropic antenna. Since a half-wave dipole antenna has a gain of 1.64 (or 2.15 dB) compared to an isotropic radiator, if ERP and EIRP are expressed in watts their relation is $$\mathrm{EIRP(W)} = 1.64 \cdot \mathrm{ERP(W)}$$ If they are expressed in decibels $$\mathrm{EIRP(dB)} = \mathrm{ERP(dB)} + 2.15$$

Definitions
Effective radiated power and effective isotropic radiated power both measure the power density a radio transmitter and antenna (or other source of electromagnetic waves) radiate in a specific direction: in the direction of maximum signal strength (the "main lobe") of its radiation pattern. This apparent power is dependent on two factors: the total power output and the radiation pattern of the antenna – how much of that power is radiated in the direction of maximal intensity. The latter factor is quantified by the antenna gain, which is the ratio of the signal strength radiated by an antenna in its direction of maximum radiation to that radiated by a standard antenna. For example, a 1,000-watt transmitter feeding an antenna with a gain of 4 (6 dBi) will have the same signal strength in the direction of its main lobe, and thus the same ERP and EIRP, as a 4,000-watt transmitter feeding an antenna with a gain of 1 (0 dBi). So ERP and EIRP are measures of radiated power that can compare different combinations of transmitters and antennas on an equal basis.

In spite of the names, ERP and EIRP do not measure transmitter power, or total power radiated by the antenna, they are just a measure of signal strength along the main lobe. They give no information about power radiated in other directions, or total power. ERP and EIRP are always greater than the actual total power radiated by the antenna.

The difference between ERP and EIRP is that antenna gain has traditionally been measured in two different units, comparing the antenna to two different standard antennas; an isotropic antenna and a half-wave dipole antenna: In contrast to an isotropic antenna, the dipole has a "donut-shaped" radiation pattern, its radiated power is maximum in directions perpendicular to the antenna, declining to zero on the antenna axis. Since the radiation of the dipole is concentrated in horizontal directions, the gain of a half-wave dipole is greater than that of an isotropic antenna. The isotropic gain of a half-wave dipole is 1.64, or in decibels 10 log 1.64 = 2.15 dBi, so $$G_\text{i} = 1.64G_\text{d}$$ In decibels $$G\text{(dBi)} = G\text{(dBd)} + 2.15$$
 * Isotropic gain is the ratio of the power density $$S_\text{max}$$ (signal strength in watts per square meter) received at a point far from the antenna (in the far field) in the direction of its maximum radiation (main lobe), to the power $$S_\text{max,iso}$$ received at the same point from a hypothetical lossless isotropic antenna, which radiates equal power in all directions $$\mathrm{G}_\text{i} = {S_\text{max} \over S_\text{max,iso}}$$ Gain is often expressed in logarithmic units of decibels (dB). The decibel gain relative to an isotropic antenna (dBi) is given by $$\mathrm{G}\text{(dBi)} = 10\log{S_\text{max}  \over S_\text{max,iso}}$$
 * Dipole gain is the ratio of the power density received from the antenna in the direction of its maximum radiation to the power density $$S_\text{max,dipole}$$ received from a lossless half-wave dipole antenna in the direction of its maximum radiation $$\mathrm{G}_\text{d} = {S_\text{max} \over S_\text{max,dipole}}$$ The decibel gain relative to a dipole (dBd) is given by $$\mathrm{G}\text{(dBd)} = 10\log{S_\text{max}  \over S_\text{max,dipole}}$$

The two measures EIRP and ERP are based on the two different standard antennas above:
 * EIRP is defined as the RMS power input in watts required to a lossless isotropic antenna to give the same maximum power density far from the antenna as the actual transmitter. It is equal to the power input to the transmitter's antenna multiplied by the isotropic antenna gain $$\mathrm{EIRP} = G_\text{i} P_\text{in}$$ The ERP and EIRP are also often expressed in decibels (dB).  The input power in decibels is usually calculated with comparison to a reference level of one watt (W): $$P_\text{in}\mathrm{(dBW)} = 10 \log P_\text{in}$$.  Since multiplication of two factors is equivalent to addition of their decibel values $$\mathrm{EIRP(dBW)} = G\text{(dBi)} + P_\text{in}\mathrm{(dBW)}$$
 * ERP is defined as the RMS power input in watts required to a lossless half-wave dipole antenna to give the same maximum power density far from the antenna as the actual transmitter. It is equal to the power input to the transmitter's antenna multiplied by the antenna gain relative to a half-wave dipole $$\mathrm{ERP} = G_\text{d} P_\text{in}$$ In decibels $$\mathrm{ERP(dBW)} = G\text{(dBd)} + P_\text{in}\mathrm{(dBW)}$$

Since the two definitions of gain only differ by a constant factor, so do ERP and EIRP $$\mathrm{EIRP(W)} = 1.64 \cdot \mathrm{ERP(W)}$$ In decibels $$\mathrm{EIRP(dBW)} =\mathrm{ERP}\text{(dBW)} + 2.15$$

Relation to transmitter output power
The transmitter is usually connected to the antenna through a transmission line and impedance matching network. Since these components may have significant losses $$L$$, the power applied to the antenna is usually less than the output power of the transmitter $$P_\text{TX}$$. The relation of ERP and EIRP to transmitter output power is $$\mathrm{EIRP(dBW)} = P_\text{TX}\mathrm{(dBW)} - L\mathrm{(dB)} +  G\text{(dBi)}$$ $$\mathrm{ERP(dBW)} = P_\text{TX}\mathrm{(dBW)} - L\mathrm{(dB)} +  G\text{(dBi)} - 2.15$$ Losses in the antenna itself are included in the gain.

Relation to signal strength
If the signal path is in free space (line-of-sight propagation with no multipath) the signal strength (power flux density in watts per square meter) $$S$$ of the radio signal on the main lobe axis at any particular distance $$r$$ from the antenna can be calculated from the EIRP or ERP. Since an isotropic antenna radiates equal power flux density over a sphere centered on the antenna, and the area of a sphere with radius $$r$$ is $$A = 4\pi r^2$$ then $$S(r) = {\mathrm{EIRP} \over 4\pi r^2}$$ Since $$\mathrm{EIRP} = \mathrm{ERP} \times 1.64$$, $$S(r) = {\mathrm{0.41 \times ERP} \over \pi r^2}$$ After dividing out the factor of $$\pi$$, we get: $$S(r) = {\mathrm{0.13 \times ERP} \over r^2}$$

However, if the radio waves travel by ground wave as is typical for medium or longwave broadcasting, skywave, or indirect paths play a part in transmission, the waves will suffer additional attenuation which depends on the terrain between the antennas, so these formulas are not valid.

Dipole vs. isotropic radiators
Because ERP is calculated as antenna gain (in a given direction) as compared with the maximum directivity of a half-wave dipole antenna, it creates a mathematically virtual effective dipole antenna oriented in the direction of the receiver. In other words, a notional receiver in a given direction from the transmitter would receive the same power if the source were replaced with an ideal dipole oriented with maximum directivity and matched polarization towards the receiver and with an antenna input power equal to the ERP. The receiver would not be able to determine a difference. Maximum directivity of an ideal half-wave dipole is a constant, i.e., 0 dBd = 2.15 dBi. Therefore, ERP is always 2.15 dB less than EIRP. The ideal dipole antenna could be further replaced by an isotropic radiator (a purely mathematical device which cannot exist in the real world), and the receiver cannot know the difference so long as the input power is increased by 2.15 dB.

The distinction between dBd and dBi is often left unstated and the reader is sometimes forced to infer which was used. For example, a Yagi–Uda antenna is constructed from several dipoles arranged at precise intervals to create greater energy focusing (directivity) than a simple dipole. Since it is constructed from dipoles, often its antenna gain is expressed in dBd, but listed only as dB. This ambiguity is undesirable with respect to engineering specifications. A Yagi–Uda antenna's maximum directivity is 8.77 dBd = 10.92 dBi. Its gain necessarily must be less than this by the factor η, which must be negative in units of dB. Neither ERP nor EIRP can be calculated without knowledge of the power accepted by the antenna, i.e., it is not correct to use units of dBd or dBi with ERP and EIRP. Let us assume a 100-watt (20 dBW) transmitter with losses of 6 dB prior to the antenna. ERP < 22.77dBW and EIRP < 24.92dBW, both less than ideal by η in dB. Assuming that the receiver is in the first side-lobe of the transmitting antenna, and each value is further reduced by 7.2 dB, which is the decrease in directivity from the main to side-lobe of a Yagi–Uda. Therefore, anywhere along the side-lobe direction from this transmitter, a blind receiver could not tell the difference if a Yagi–Uda was replaced with either an ideal dipole (oriented towards the receiver) or an isotropic radiator with antenna input power increased by 1.57 dB.

Polarization
Polarization has not been taken into account so far, but it must be properly clarified. When considering the dipole radiator previously we assumed that it was perfectly aligned with the receiver. Now assume, however, that the receiving antenna is circularly polarized, and there will be a minimum 3 dB polarization loss regardless of antenna orientation. If the receiver is also a dipole, it is possible to align it orthogonally to the transmitter such that theoretically zero energy is received. However, this polarization loss is not accounted for in the calculation of ERP or EIRP. Rather, the receiving system designer must account for this loss as appropriate. For example, a cellular telephone tower has a fixed linear polarization, but the mobile handset must function well at any arbitrary orientation. Therefore, a handset design might provide dual polarization receive on the handset so that captured energy is maximized regardless of orientation, or the designer might use a circularly polarized antenna and account for the extra 3 dB of loss with amplification.

FM example
For example, an FM radio station which advertises that it has 100,000 watts of power actually has 100,000 watts ERP, and not an actual 100,000-watt transmitter. The transmitter power output (TPO) of such a station typically may be 10,000 to 20,000 watts, with a gain factor of 5 to 10 (5× to 10×, or 7 to 10 dB). In most antenna designs, gain is realized primarily by concentrating power toward the horizontal plane and suppressing it at upward and downward angles, through the use of phased arrays of antenna elements. The distribution of power versus elevation angle is known as the vertical pattern. When an antenna is also directional horizontally, gain and ERP will vary with azimuth (compass direction). Rather than the average power over all directions, it is the apparent power in the direction of the peak of the antenna's main lobe that is quoted as a station's ERP (this statement is just another way of stating the definition of ERP). This is particularly applicable to the huge ERPs reported for shortwave broadcasting stations, which use very narrow beam widths to get their signals across continents and oceans.

United States regulatory usage
ERP for FM radio in the United States is always relative to a theoretical reference half-wave dipole antenna. (That is, when calculating ERP, the most direct approach is to work with antenna gain in dBd). To deal with antenna polarization, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) lists ERP in both the horizontal and vertical measurements for FM and TV. Horizontal is the standard for both, but if the vertical ERP is larger it will be used instead.

The maximum ERP for US FM broadcasting is usually 100,000 watts (FM Zone II) or 50,000 watts (in the generally more densely populated Zones I and I-A), though exact restrictions vary depending on the class of license and the antenna height above average terrain (HAAT). Some stations have been grandfathered in or, very infrequently, been given a waiver, and can exceed normal restrictions.

Microwave band issues
For most microwave systems, a completely non-directional isotropic antenna (one which radiates equally and perfectly well in every direction – a physical impossibility) is used as a reference antenna, and then one speaks of EIRP (effective isotropic radiated power) rather than ERP. This includes satellite transponders, radar, and other systems which use microwave dishes and reflectors rather than dipole-style antennas.

Lower-frequency issues
In the case of medium wave (AM) stations in the United States, power limits are set to the actual transmitter power output, and ERP is not used in normal calculations. Omnidirectional antennas used by a number of stations radiate the signal equally in all horizontal directions. Directional arrays are used to protect co- or adjacent channel stations, usually at night, but some run directionally continuously. While antenna efficiency and ground conductivity are taken into account when designing such an array, the FCC database shows the station's transmitter power output, not ERP.

Related terms
According to the Institution of Electrical Engineers (UK), ERP is often used as a general reference term for radiated power, but strictly speaking should only be used when the antenna is a half-wave dipole, and is used when referring to FM transmission.

EMRP
Effective monopole radiated power (EMRP) may be used in Europe, particularly in relation to medium wave broadcasting antennas. This is the same as ERP, except that a short vertical antenna (i.e. a short monopole) is used as the reference antenna instead of a half-wave dipole.

CMF
Cymomotive force (CMF) is an alternative term used for expressing radiation intensity in volts, particularly at the lower frequencies. It is used in Australian legislation regulating AM broadcasting services, which describes it as: "for a transmitter, [it] means the product, expressed in volts, of: (a) the electric field strength at a given point in space, due to the operation of the transmitter; and (b)  the distance of that point from the transmitter's antenna".

It relates to AM broadcasting only, and expresses the field strength in "microvolts per metre at a distance of 1 kilometre from the transmitting antenna".

HAAT
The height above average terrain for VHF and higher frequencies is extremely important when considering ERP, as the signal coverage (broadcast range) produced by a given ERP dramatically increases with antenna height. Because of this, it is possible for a station of only a few hundred watts ERP to cover more area than a station of a few thousand watts ERP, if its signal travels above obstructions on the ground.

title: Effective radiated power


text:
Kingfisher plc

Kingfisher plc is a British multinational retailing company headquartered in London, England.

It has over 1,300 stores in nine countries, and its brands include B&Q, Castorama, Brico Dépôt and Screwfix. Kingfisher is listed on the London Stock Exchange, and is a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index.

History
The company was founded in 1982 as Paternoster Stores Ltd, to conduct a buyout of the British Woolworths chain. In March 1983, Paternoster changed its name to Woolworth Holdings plc. Woolworths already owned B&Q, and the company expanded through subsequent acquisitions of companies such as Superdrug and Comet.

The business acquired Screwfix in July 1999, which is now the United Kingdom's largest multi channel retailer of trade tools, accessories and hardware products. The company was led from January 1984, until his retirement in December 2002, by Sir Geoffrey Mulcahy. Largely through his influence, the company became the major sponsor of British sailor Ellen MacArthur.

Woolworth Holdings was renamed Kingfisher plc in December 1989. Further acquisitions included European companies such as Castorama, BUT S.A. and Wegert. In July 1999, Kingfisher attempted a takeover of Asda, one of the United Kingdom's largest supermarket chains, only to be beaten by Walmart.

In August 2001, coupled with an acrimonious battle for control of Castorama, the resultant share price pressure forced the sale and demerger of several parts of the company, including Woolworths (forming the Woolworths Group), and the demerger of the electricals business to form Kesa Electricals in July 2003 – causing the company to refocus entirely around DIY.

The company was led by Gerry Murphy from December 2002 to November 2007. In January 2008, Kingfisher appointed Ian Cheshire as group chief executive. Cheshire was formerly B&Q's chief executive; his B&Q role was taken over in April 2009, by Euan Sutherland, who also headed up the United Kingdom division of Kingfisher.

In September 2014, it was announced that the head of Castorama Véronique Laury would replace Ian Cheshire as Kingfisher group CEO in February 2015. Laury had worked at Kingfisher for eleven years, including roles at B&Q. In June 2017, Andy Cosslett succeeded Daniel Bernard as chairman.

In March 2019, it was announced that Laury would be leaving the business at a date to be announced, following the failure of her "One Kingfisher" plan, and a 52.8% collapse in pre tax profits. In September 2019, Thierry Garnier was appointed as CEO.

In March 2021, following a franchise agreement with Al-Futtaim Group, Kingfisher will expand its B&Q market to the Middle East. The Al-Futtaim Group will run and staff the stores in Saudi Arabia entirely.

Operations
Kingfisher currently operates over 1,300 stores in eight countries in Europe and in Turkey. Its main retail brands are B&Q, Castorama, Brico Dépôt and Screwfix.

The companies now part of the Kingfisher group are:
 * B&Q; operations in the United Kingdom and Ireland
 * Brico Dépôt; in France, Spain, Portugal and Romania
 * Castorama; in France and Poland
 * Koçtaş; 50% joint venture in Turkey
 * Screwfix; in the United Kingdom and Ireland

Former operations

 * Woolworths Group; spun off June 2001, closed in December 2008.
 * Comet Group; spun off July 2003, closed in December 2012.
 * Superdrug; sold to Kruidvat Beheer BV in July 2001, then A.S. Watson Group in October 2002.
 * MVC; spun off with the Woolworths Group, in July 2005, ceased trading January 2006.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Kingfisher plc


text:
George Grey

Sir George Grey, KCB (14 April 1812 – 19 September 1898) was a British soldier, explorer, colonial administrator and writer. He served in a succession of governing positions: Governor of South Australia, twice Governor of New Zealand, Governor of Cape Colony, and the 11th premier of New Zealand. He played a key role in the colonisation of New Zealand, and both the purchase and annexation of Māori land.

Grey was born in Lisbon, Portugal, just a few days after his father, Lieutenant-Colonel George Grey, was killed at the Battle of Badajoz in Spain. He was educated in England. After military service (1829–37) and two explorations in Western Australia (1837–39), Grey became Governor of South Australia in 1841. He oversaw the colony during a difficult formative period. Despite being less hands-on than his predecessor George Gawler, his fiscally responsible measures ensured the colony was in good shape by the time he departed for New Zealand in 1845.

Grey was the most influential figure during the European settlement of New Zealand. Governor of New Zealand initially from 1845 to 1853, he was governor during the initial stages of the New Zealand Wars. Learning Māori to fluency, he became a scholar of Māori culture, and wrote a study of Māori mythology and oral history. He developed a cordial relationship with the powerful rangatira Pōtatau Te Wherowhero of Tainui, in order to deter Ngāpuhi from invading Auckland. He was knighted in 1848. In 1854, Grey was appointed Governor of Cape Colony in South Africa, where his resolution of hostilities between indigenous South Africans and European settlers was praised by both sides. After separating from his wife and developing a severe opium addiction, Grey was again appointed Governor of New Zealand in 1861, three years after Te Wherowhero, who had established himself the first Māori King in Grey’s absence, had died. The Kiingitanga (Maori King) posed a significant challenge to the British push for sovereignty, and with his Ngāpuhi absent from the movement, Grey found himself challenged on two sides. He struggled to reuse his skills in negotiation to maintain peace with Māori, and his relationship with Te Wherowhero's successor Tāwhiao deeply soured. Turning on his former allies, Grey began an aggressive crackdown on Tainui and launched the Invasion of the Waikato in 1863, with 14,000 Imperial and colonial troops attacking 4,000 Māori and their families. Appointed in 1877, he served as Premier of New Zealand until 1879, where he remained a symbol of colonialism.

By political philosophy a Gladstonian liberal and Georgist, Grey eschewed the class system to be part of Auckland's new governance he helped to establish. Cyril Hamshere argues that Grey was a "great British proconsul", although he was also temperamental, demanding of associates, and lacking in some managerial abilities. For the wars of territorial expansion against Māori which he started, he remains a controversial and divisive figure in New Zealand.

Early life
Grey was born in Lisbon, Portugal, the only son of Lieutenant-Colonel George Grey, of the 30th (Cambridgeshire) Regiment of Foot, who was killed at the Battle of Badajoz in Spain just a few days before. His mother, Elizabeth Anne Vignoles, on the balcony of her hotel in Lisbon, overheard two officers speak of her husband's death and this brought on the premature birth of the child. She was the daughter of a retired soldier turned Irish clergyman, Major later Reverend John Vignoles. Grey's grandfather was Owen Wynne Gray (c. 1745 – 6 January 1819). Grey's uncle was John Gray, who was Owen Wynne Gray's son from his second marriage.

Grey was sent to the Royal Grammar School, Guildford in Surrey, and was admitted to the Royal Military College, Sandhurst in 1826. Early in 1830, he was gazetted ensign in the 83rd Regiment of Foot. In 1830, his regiment having been sent to Ireland, he developed much sympathy with the Irish peasantry whose misery made a great impression on him. He was promoted lieutenant in 1833 and obtained a first-class certificate at the examinations of the Royal Military College, in 1836.

Exploration
In 1837, at the age of 25, Grey led an ill-prepared expedition that explored North-West Australia. British settlers in Australia at the time knew little of the region and only one member of Grey's party had been there before. It was believed possible at that time that one of the world's largest rivers might drain into the Indian Ocean in North-West Australia; if that were found to be the case, the region it flowed through might be suitable for colonisation. Grey, with Lieutenant Franklin Lushington, of the 9th (East Norfolk) Regiment of Foot, offered to explore the region. On 5 July 1837, they sailed from Plymouth in command of a party of five, the others being Lushington; Dr William Walker, a surgeon and naturalist; and Corporals John Coles and Richard Auger of the Royal Sappers and Miners. Joining the party at Cape Town were Sapper Private Robert Mustard, J.C. Cox, Thomas Ruston, Evan Edwards, Henry Williams, and Robert Inglesby. In December they landed at Hanover Bay (west of Uwins Island in the Bonaparte Archipelago). Travelling south, the party traced the course of the Glenelg River. After experiencing boat wrecks, near-drowning, becoming completely lost, and Grey himself being speared in the hip during a skirmish with Aboriginal people, the party gave up. After being picked up by HMS Beagle and the schooner Lynher, they were taken to Mauritius to recover. Lieutenant Lushington was then mobilised to rejoin his regiment in the First Anglo-Afghan War. In September 1838 Grey sailed to Perth hoping to resume his adventures.

In February 1839 Grey embarked on a second exploration expedition to the north, where he was again wrecked with his party, again including Surgeon Walker, at Kalbarri. They were the first Europeans to see the Murchison River, but then had to walk to Perth, surviving the journey through the efforts of Kaiber, a Whadjuk Noongar man (that is, indigenous to the Perth region), who organised food and what water could be found (they survived by drinking liquid mud). At about this time, Grey learnt the Noongar language.

Due to his interest in Aboriginal culture in July 1839, Grey was promoted to captain and appointed temporary Resident Magistrate at King George Sound, Western Australia, following the death of Sir Richard Spencer, the previous Resident Magistrate.

Marriage and children
On 2 November 1839 at King George Sound, Grey married Eliza Lucy Spencer (1822–1898), daughter of the late Government Resident, Sir Richard Spencer. Their only child, born in 1841 in South Australia, died aged five months and was buried at the West Terrace Cemetery. It was not a happy marriage. Grey, obstinate in his domestic affairs as in his first expedition, accused his wife unjustly of flirting with Rear-Admiral Sir Henry Keppel on the voyage to Cape Town taken in 1860; he sent her away. Per her obituary, she was an avid walker, reader of literature, devout churchwoman, exceptional hostess and valued friend in her life away from him. It was noted that she had keen insight into character. After their separation, Grey began the habitual abuse of opium, and struggled to regain his tenacity in maintaining peace between indigenous people and British colonisers.

Grey adopted Annie Maria Matthews (1853–1938) in 1861, following the death of her father, his half-brother, Sir Godfrey Thomas. She married Seymour Thorne George on 3 December 1872 on Kawau Island.

Governor of South Australia
Grey was the third Governor of South Australia, from May 1841 to October 1845. Secretary of State for the Colonies, Lord John Russell, was impressed by Grey's report on governing indigenous people. This led to Grey's appointment as governor.

Grey replaced George Gawler, under whose stewardship the colony had become bankrupt through massive spending on public infrastructure. Gawler was also held responsible for the illegal retribution exacted by Major Thomas Shuldham O'Halloran on an Aboriginal tribe, some of whose members had murdered all 25 survivors of the Maria shipwreck. Grey was governor during another mass murder: the Rufus River Massacre, of at least 30 Aboriginals, by Europeans, on 27 August 1841.

Governor Grey sharply cut spending. The colony soon had full employment, and exports of primary products were increasing. Systematic emigration was resumed at the end of 1844. Gawler, to whom Grey ascribed every problem in the colony, undertook projects to alleviate unemployment that were of lasting value. The real salvation of the colony's finances was the discovery of copper at Burra Burra in 1845.

Aboriginal Witnesses Act
In 1844, Grey enacted a series ordinances and amendments first entitled the Aborigines' Evidence Act and later known as the Aboriginal Witnesses Act. The act, which was created to "facilitate the admission of the unsworn testimony of Aboriginal inhabitants of South Australia and parts adjacent", stipulated that unsworn testimony given by Australian Aboriginals would be inadmissible in court. A major consequence of the act in the following decades in Australian history was the frequent dismissal of evidence given by Indigenous Australians in massacres perpetrated against them by European settlers.

First term as governor of New Zealand
Grey served as Governor of New Zealand twice: from 1845 to 1853, and from 1861 to 1868.

During this time, European settlement accelerated, and in 1859 the number of Pākehā came to equal the number of Māori, at around 60,000 each. Settlers were keen to obtain land and some Māori were willing to sell, but there were also strong pressures to retain land – in particular from the Māori King Movement. Grey had to manage the demand for land for the settlers to farm and the commitments in the Treaty of Waitangi that the Māori chiefs retained full "exclusive and undisturbed possession of their Lands and Estates Forests Fisheries and other properties." The treaty also specifies that Māori will sell land only to the Crown. The potential for conflict between the Māori and settlers was exacerbated as the British authorities progressively eased restrictions on land sales after an agreement at the end of 1840 between the company and Colonial Secretary Lord John Russell, which provided for land purchases by the New Zealand Company from the Crown at a discount price, and a charter to buy and sell land under government supervision. Money raised by the government from sales to the company would be spent on assisting migration to New Zealand. The agreement was hailed by the company as "all that we could desire ... our Company is really to be the agent of the state for colonizing NZ." The Government waived its right of pre-emption in the Wellington region, Wanganui and New Plymouth in September 1841.

Following his term as Governor of South Australia, Grey was appointed the third Governor of New Zealand in 1845. During the tenure of his predecessor, Robert FitzRoy, violence over land ownership had broken out in the Wairau Valley in the South Island in June 1843, in what became known as the Wairau Affray (FitzRoy was later dismissed from office by the Colonial Office for his handling of land issues). It was only in 1846 that the war leader Te Rauparaha was arrested and imprisoned by Governor Grey without charge, which remained controversial amongst the Ngāti Toa people.

Hōne Heke and the Flagstaff War
In March 1845, Māori chief Hōne Heke began the Flagstaff War, the causes of which can be attributed to the conflict between what the Ngāpuhi understood to be the meaning of the Treaty of Waitangi (1840) and the actions of succeeding governors of asserting authority over the Māori. On 18 November 1845 George Grey arrived in New Zealand to take up his appointment as governor, where he was greeted by outgoing Governor FitzRoy, who worked amicably with Grey before departing in January 1846. At this time, Hōne Heke challenged the British authorities, beginning by cutting down the flagstaff on Flagstaff Hill at Kororareka. On this flagstaff the flag of the United Tribes of New Zealand had previously flown; now the Union Jack was hoisted; hence the flagstaff symbolised the grievances of Heke and his ally Te Ruki Kawiti, as to changes that had followed the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi.

There were many causes of the Flagstaff War and Heke had a number of grievances in relation to the Treaty of Waitangi. While land acquisition by the Church Missionary Society (CMS) were politicised, the rebellion led by Heke was directed against the colonial forces with the CMS missionaries trying to persuade Heke to end the fighting. Despite the fact that Tāmati Wāka Nene and most of Ngāpuhi sided with the government, the small and ineptly led British had been beaten at Battle of Ohaeawai. Backed by financial support, far more troops, armed with 32-pounder cannons that had been denied to FitzRoy, Grey ordered the attack on Kawiti's fortress at Ruapekapeka on 31 December 1845. This forced Kawiti to retreat. Ngāpuhi were astonished that the British could keep an army of nearly 1,000 soldiers in the field continuously. Heke's confidence waned after he was wounded in battle with Tāmati Wāka Nene and his warriors, and by the realisation that the British had far more resources than he could muster; his enemies included some Pākehā Māori supporting colonial forces.

After the Battle of Ruapekapeka, Heke and Kawiti were ready for peace. It was Tāmati Wāka Nene they approached to act as intermediary in negotiations with Governor Grey, who accepted the advice of Nene that Heke and Kawiti should not be punished for their rebellion. The fighting in the north ended and there was no punitive confiscation of Ngāpuhi land.

Ngati Rangatahi and Hutt Valley campaign
Colonists arrived at Port Nicholson, Wellington in November 1839 in ships charted by the New Zealand Company. Within months the New Zealand Company purported to purchase approximately 20 million acres (8 million hectares) in Nelson, Wellington, Whanganui and Taranaki. Disputes arose as to the validity of purchases of land, which remained unresolved when Grey became governor.

The company saw itself as a prospective government of New Zealand and in 1845 and 1846 proposed splitting the colony in two, along a line from Mokau in the west to Cape Kidnappers in the east – with the north reserved for Māori and missionaries. The south would become a self-governing province, known as "New Victoria" and managed by the company for that purpose. Britain's Colonial Secretary rejected the proposal. The company was known for its vigorous attacks on those it perceived as its opponents – the British Colonial Office, successive governors of New Zealand, and the Church Missionary Society (CMS) that was led by the Reverend Henry Williams. Williams attempted to interfere with the land purchasing practices of the company,  which exacerbated the ill-will that was directed at the CMS by the Company in Wellington and the promoters of colonisation in Auckland who had access to the Governor and to the newspapers that had started publication.

Unresolved land disputes that had resulted from New Zealand Company operations erupted into fighting in the Hutt Valley in 1846. The Ngati Rangatahi were determined to retain possession of their land. They assembled a force of about 200 warriors led by Te Rangihaeata, Te Rauparaha's nephew (son of his sister Waitohi, died 1839), also the person who had killed unarmed captives in Wairau Affray. Governor Grey moved troops into the area and by February had assembled nearly a thousand men together with some Māori allies from the Te Āti Awa hapu to begin the Hutt Valley campaign.

Māori attacked Taita on 3 March 1846, but were repulsed by a company of the 96th Regiment. The same day Grey declared martial law in the Wellington area.

Richard Taylor, a CMS missionary from Whanganui, attempted to persuade the Ngāti Tama and Ngāti Rangatahi to leave the disputed land. Eventually Grey paid compensation for the potato crop they had planted on the land. He also gave them 300 acres at Kaiwharawhara by the modern ferry terminal. Chief Taringakuri agreed to these terms. But when the settlers tried to move onto the land they were frightened off. On 27 February the British and their Te Ati Awa allies burnt the Māori Pā at Maraenuku in the Hutt Valley, which had been built on land that the settlers claimed to own. The Ngati Rangatahi retaliated on 1 and 3 March by raiding settlers' farms, destroying furniture, smashing windows, killing pigs, and threatening the settlers with death if they gave the alarm. They murdered Andrew Gillespie and his son. 13 families of settlers moved into Wellington for safety. Governor Grey proclaimed martial law on 3 March. Sporadic fighting continued, including a major attack on a defended position at Boulcott's Farm on 6 May. On 6 August 1846, one of the last engagements was fought – the Battle of Battle Hill – after which Te Rangihaeata left the area. The Hutt Valley campaign was followed by the Wanganui campaign from April to July 1847.

In January 1846 fifteen chiefs of the area, including Te Rauparaha, had sent a combined letter to the newly arrived Governor Grey, pledging their loyalty to the British Crown. After intercepting letters from Te Rauparaha, Grey realised he was playing a double game. He was receiving and sending secret instructions to the local Māori who were attacking settlers. In a surprise attack on his pā at Taupo (now named Plimmerton) at dawn on 23 July, Te Rauparaha, who was now quite elderly, was captured and taken prisoner. The justification given for his arrest was weapons supplied to Māori deemed to be in open rebellion against the Crown. However, charges were never laid against Te Rauparaha so his detention was declared unlawful. While Grey's declaration of Martial law was within his authority, internment without trial would only be lawful if it had been authorised by statute. Te Rauparaha was held prisoner on HMS Driver, then he was taken to Auckland on HMS Calliope where he remained imprisoned until January 1848.

His son Tāmihana was studying Christianity in Auckland and Te Rauparaha gave him a solemn message that their iwi should not take utu against the government. Tāmihana returned to his rohe to stop a planned uprising. Tāmihana sold the Wairau land to the government for 3,000 pounds. Grey spoke to Te Rauaparaha and persuaded him to give up all outstanding claims to land in the Wairau valley. Then, realising he was old and sick he allowed Te Rauparaha to return to his people at Ōtaki in 1848.

Government at Auckland
Auckland was made the new capital in March 1841 and by the time Grey was appointed governor in 1845, it had become a commercial centre as well as including the administrative institutions such as the Supreme Court. After the conclusion of the war in the north, government policy was to place a buffer zone of European settlement between the Ngāpuhi and the city of Auckland. The background to the Invasion of Waikato in 1863 also, in part, reflected a belief that the Auckland was at risk from attack by the Waikato Māori.

Governor Grey had to contend with newspapers that were unequivocal to their support of the interests of the settlers: the Auckland Times, Auckland Chronicle, The Southern Cross, which started by William Brown as a weekly paper in 1843 and The New Zealander, which was started in 1845 by John Williamson. These newspapers were known for their partisan editorial policies – both William Brown and John Williamson were aspiring politicians. The Southern Cross supported the land claimants, such as the New Zealand Company, and vigorously attacked Governor Grey's administration, while The New Zealander, supported the ordinary settler and the Māori. The northern war adversely affected business in Auckland, such that The Southern Cross stopped publishing from April 1845 to July 1847. Hugh Carleton, who also became a politician, was the editor of The New Zealander then later established the Anglo-Maori Warder, which followed an editorial policy in opposition to Governor Grey.

At the time of the northern war The Southern Cross and The New Zealander blamed Henry Williams and the other CMS missionaries for the Flagstaff War. The New Zealander newspaper in a thinly disguised reference to Henry Williams, with the reference to "their Rangatira pakeha [gentlemen] correspondents", went on to state: We consider these English traitors far more guilty and deserving of severe punishment than the brave natives whom they have advised and misled. Cowards and knaves in the full sense of the terms, they have pursued their traitorous schemes, afraid to risk their own persons, yet artfully sacrificing others for their own aggrandizement, while, probably at the same time, they were most hypocritically professing most zealous loyalty. Official communications also blamed the CMS missionaries for the Flagstaff War. In a letter of 25 June 1846 to William Ewart Gladstone, the Colonial Secretary in Sir Robert Peel's government, Governor Grey referred to the land acquired by the CMS missionaries and commented that "Her Majesty's Government may also rest satisfied that these individuals cannot be put in possession of these tracts of land without a large expenditure of British blood and money". By the end of his first term as governor, Grey had changed his opinion as to the role of the CMS missionaries, which was limited to attempts to persuade Hōne Heke bring an end to the fighting with the British soldiers and the Ngāpuhi, led by Tāmati Wāka Nene, who remained loyal to the Crown.

Grey was "shrewd and manipulative" and his main objective was to impose British sovereignty over New Zealand, which he did by force when he felt it necessary. But his first strategy to attain land was to attack the close relationship between missionaries and Māori, including Henry Williams who had relationships with chiefs.

In 1847 William Williams published a pamphlet that defended the role of the CMS in the years leading up to the war in the north. The first Anglican bishop of New Zealand, George Selwyn, took the side of Grey in relation to the purchase of the land. Grey twice failed to recover the land in the Supreme Court, and when Williams refused to give up the land unless the charges were retracted, he was dismissed from the CMS in November 1849. Governor Grey's first term of office ended in 1853. In 1854 Williams was reinstated to CMS after Bishop Selwyn later regretted the position and George Grey addressed the committee of the CMS and requested his reinstatement.

When he returned to New Zealand in 1861 for his second term as governor, Sir George and Henry Williams meet at the Waimate Mission Station in November 1861. Also in 1861 Henry Williams' son Edward Marsh Williams was appointed by Sir George to be the Resident Magistrate for the Bay of Islands and Northern Districts.

Self-government and Constitution Acts
Following a campaign for self-government by settlers in 1846, the Parliament of the United Kingdom passed the New Zealand Constitution Act 1846, granting the colony self-government for the first time, requiring Māori to pass an English-language test to be able to participate in the new colonial government. In his instructions to Grey, Colonial Secretary Earl Grey (no relation to George Grey) sent the 1846 Constitution Act with instructions to implement self-government. George Grey responded to Earl Grey that the Act would lead to further hostilities and that the settlers were not ready for self-government. In a dispatch to Earl Grey, Governor Grey stated that in implementing the Act, Her Majesty would not be giving the self-government that was intended, instead: "'...she will give to a small fraction of her subjects of one race the power of governing the large majority of her subjects of a different race... there is no reason to think that they would be satisfied with, and submit to, the rule of a minority'"

Earl Grey agreed and in December 1847 introduced an Act suspending most of the 1846 Constitution Act. Grey wrote a draft of a new Constitution Act while camping on Mount Ruapehu in 1851, forwarding this draft to the Colonial Office later that year. Grey's draft established both provincial and central representative assemblies, allowed for Māori districts and a Governor elected by the General Assembly. Only the latter proposal was rejected by the Parliament of the United Kingdom when it adopted Grey's constitution, the New Zealand Constitution Act 1852.

Grey was briefly appointed Governor-in-Chief on 1 January 1848, while he oversaw the establishment of the first provinces of New Zealand, New Ulster and New Munster.

Treaty obligations
In 1846, Lord Stanley, the British Colonial Secretary, who was a devout Anglican, three times British Prime Minister and oversaw the passage of the Slavery Abolition Act 1833, was asked by Governor Grey how far he was expected to abide by the Treaty of Waitangi. The direct response in the Queen's name was:

"You will honourably and scrupulously fulfil the conditions of the Treaty of Waitangi... <ref name='Moxon' /"

Following the election of the first parliament in 1853, responsible government was instituted in 1856. The direction of "native affairs" was kept at the sole discretion of the governor, meaning control of Māori affairs and land remained outside of the elected ministry. This quickly became a point of contention between the Governor and the colonial parliament, who retained their own "Native Secretary" to advise them on "native affairs". In 1861, Governor Grey agreed to consult the ministers in relation to native affairs, but this position only lasted until his recall from office in 1867. Grey's successor as governor, George Bowen, took direct control of native affairs until his term ended in 1870. From then on, the elected ministry, led by the Premier, controlled the colonial government's policy on Māori land.

The short-term effect of the treaty was to prevent the sale of Māori land to anyone other than the Crown. This was intended to protect Māori from the kinds of shady land purchases which had alienated indigenous peoples in other parts of the world from their land with minimal compensation. Before the treaty had been finalised the New Zealand Company had made several hasty land deals and shipped settlers from Great Britain to New Zealand, hoping the British would be forced to accept its land claims as a fait accompli, in which it was largely successful.

In part, the treaty was an attempt to establish a system of property rights for land with the Crown controlling and overseeing land sale to prevent abuse. Initially, this worked well with the Governor and his representatives having the sole right to buy and sell land from the Māori. Māori were eager to sell land, and settlers eager to buy.

Legacy of Grey's first term as Governor
Grey took pains to tell Māori that he had observed the terms of the Treaty of Waitangi, assuring them that their land rights would be fully recognised. In the Taranaki district, Māori were very reluctant to sell their land, but elsewhere Grey was much more successful, and nearly 33 million acres (130,000 km2) were purchased from Māori, with the result that British settlements expanded quickly. Grey was less successful in his efforts to assimilate Māori; he lacked the financial means to realise his plans. Although he subsidised mission schools, requiring them to teach in English, only a few hundred Māori children attended them at any one time.

During Grey's first tenure as Governor of New Zealand, he was created a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (1848). When Grey was knighted he chose Tāmati Wāka Nene as one of his esquires.

Grey gave land for the establishment of Auckland Grammar School in Newmarket, Auckland in 1850. The school was officially recognised as an educational establishment in 1868 through the Auckland Grammar School Appropriation Act of the Provincial Government. Chris Laidlaw concludes that Grey ran a "ramshackle" administration marked by "broken promises and outright betrayal" of Māori people. Grey's collection of Māori artefacts, one of the earliest from New Zealand and assembled during his first governorship, was donated to the British Museum in 1854.

Governor of Cape Colony
Grey was Governor of Cape Colony from 5 December 1854 to 15 August 1861. He founded Grey College, Bloemfontein in 1855 and Grey High School in Port Elizabeth in 1856. In 1859 he laid the foundation stone of the New Somerset Hospital, Cape Town. When he left the Cape in 1861 he presented the National Library of South Africa with a remarkable personal collection of medieval and Renaissance manuscripts and rare books.

During his term as governor, Grey faced a growing rivalry between the eastern and western halves of the Cape Colony, as well as a small, but also growing, movement for local democracy ("responsible government") and greater independence from British rule. "There were moves for responsible government in the Cape Parliament in 1855 and 1856 but they were defeated by a combination of Western conservatives and Easterners anxious about the defence of the frontier under a responsible system. But undoubtedly Sir George Grey's political ability, charm and force of personality – aided by the parliamentary leadership of liberal-minded Attorney-General, William Porter – contributed to this result." In South Africa Grey dealt firmly with the natives, endeavouring to "protect" them from white settlement while simultaneously using reservations to coercively demilitarize them, using natives, in his own words, "as real though unavowed hostages for the tranquillity of their kindred and connections." On more than one occasion, Grey acted as arbitrator between the government of the Orange Free State and the natives, eventually drawing the conclusion that a federated South Africa would be a good thing for everyone. The Orange Free State would have been willing to join the federation, and it is probable that the Transvaal would also have agreed. However, Grey was 50 years before his time: the Colonial Office would not agree to his proposals. In spite of their instructions, Grey continued to advocate union, and, in connection with other matters, such as the attempt to settle soldiers in South Africa after the Crimean War, instructions were ignored.

Sir George was recalled in 1859. He had, however, scarcely reached England before a change of government led to the offer of another term, on the understanding that he abandon schemes for the federation of South Africa and, in future obey his instructions. Grey was convinced that the boundaries of the South African colonies should be widened, but could not obtain support from the British government. He was still working for this support when, war with the Māori having broken out, it was decided that Grey should again be appointed governor of New Zealand. When he left his popularity among the people of Cape Colony was unbounded, and the statue erected at Cape Town during his lifetime described him as"a governor who by his high character as a Christian, a statesman, and a gentleman, had endeared himself to all classes of the community, and who by his zealous devotion to the best interests of South Africa and his able and just administration, has secured the approbation and gratitude of all Her Majesty's subjects in this part of her dominions."

Second term as governor of New Zealand
Grey was again appointed governor in 1861, to replace Governor Thomas Gore Browne, serving until 1868. His second term as governor was greatly different from the first, as he had to deal with the demands of an elected parliament, which had been established in 1852.

Invasion of the Waikato
Immediately prior to Grey's re-appointment as governor, there were rising tensions in Taranaki over land ownership and sovereignty that eventually led to the involvement of British military forces at Waitara, in what is called the First Taranaki War, from March 1860 until the fighting subsided in 1862.

The leaders of the King movement or Kīngitanga had written a letter to Governor Browne stating that the Waikato tribes had never signed the Treaty of Waitangi and that they were a separate nation. Browne regarded the stance of the Kīngitanga as an act of disloyalty; and prepared plans for the invasion of Waikato, in part to uphold "the Queen's supremacy" in the face of the Kīngitanga challenge.

Grey launched the invasion of the Waikato in June 1863 amid mounting tension between Kingites and the colonial government and fears of a violent raid on Auckland by Kingite Māori. Grey used as the trigger for the invasion Kingite rejection of his ultimatum on 9 July 1863 that all Māori living between Auckland and the Waikato take an oath of allegiance to Queen Victoria or be expelled south of the Waikato River.

The war brought thousands of Imperial British troops to New Zealand: 18,000 men served in the British forces at some point during the campaign, with a peak of about 14,000 troops in March 1864.

The subsequent invasion included the Battle of Rangiriri (November 1863)—which cost both sides more men than any other engagement of the New Zealand Wars —and the attack on Rangiaowhia (February 1864) a village largely occupied by women, children and older men. The 100 Māori deaths have been regarded as murder, rather than an act of war.

The campaign ended with the retreat of the Kingitanga Māori into the rugged interior of the North Island and the colonial government confiscating about 12,000 km2 of Māori land. The defeat and confiscations left the King Movement tribes with a legacy of poverty and bitterness that was partly assuaged in 1995 when the government conceded that the 1863 invasion and confiscation was wrongful and apologised for its actions.

In the later 1860s, the British government determined to withdraw Imperial troops from New Zealand. At the time the Māori chiefs Te Kooti and Tītokowaru had the colonial government and settlers extremely alarmed with a series of military successes. With the support of the Premier Edward Stafford, Grey evaded instructions from the Colonial Office to finalise the return of the regiments, which had commenced in 1865 and 1866. In the end, the British government recalled (removed) Grey from the office of governor in February 1868. He was replaced by Sir George Bowen and during his term hostilities concluded with the abandoned pursuit of war leader Riwha Tītokowaru – again in Taranaki – in 1869.

Legacy
Grey was greatly respected by some Māori and often travelled with a company of chiefs. He induced leading chiefs to write down their accounts of Māori traditions, legends and customs. His principal informant, Te Rangikāheke, taught Grey to speak Te Reo Māori. Historian Michael King noted: He learned Māori and persuaded Māori authorities to commit their legends and traditions to writing, some of which were subsequently published ... His collected papers would turn out to be the largest single repository of Māori-language manuscripts. Grey bought Kawau Island in 1862, on his return to New Zealand for a second term as governor. For 25 years, he lavished large amounts of his personal wealth on developing the island. He enlarged and remodeled Mansion House, the former residence of the copper mine superintendent. Here he planted a huge array of native and non-native trees and shrubs, and acclimatised many exotic birds and other animal species. The invasive species he introduced included pine trees and Australian marsupials (possum and wallabies), which went on to become significant weeds and pests. He also amassed a celebrated collection of rare books and manuscripts, many purchased from the Auckland bibliophile Henry Shaw, artworks and curiosities, plus artefacts from Māori. In 1865, during Grey's second term as governor, the capital was transferred to Wellington, which was seen as a better choice for an administrative capital because of its proximity to the South Island. Grey had appointed the commissioners responsible for the recommendation.

Return to England
Although by philosophy Grey was a liberal, his extremist views on the questions of the British Empire, of emigration, of Home Rule for Ireland and the cause of the English poor were contrary to the interests of Gladstone's Liberal government. Grey was marked as a "dangerous man". In 1870, at a parliamentary by-election for the Borough of Newark that followed the death of the sitting Liberal MP, Grey stood as an independent liberal against Gladstone's Liberal candidate Sir Henry Knight Storks. Determined that Grey should not be elected and seeing that splitting the Liberal vote would result in both Grey and Storks losing to the Conservative candidate, the Liberal government engineered an arrangement where both would withdraw, leaving another Liberal candidate, Samuel Boteler Bristowe, to take the seat. Storks was rewarded with the post of Surveyor-General of the Ordnance and Grey returned to New Zealand later that year.

Premier of New Zealand
In 1875 Sir George was elected Superintendent of Auckland Province (24 March 1875 – 31 October 1875). He stood in the general election for both the Auckland West and the Thames electorates in the 1875–1876 general election. In the two-member Auckland electorate, only Grey and Patrick Dignan were put forward as candidates, and were thus declared elected on 22 December 1875. The two-member Thames electorate was contested by six candidates, including Julius Vogel (who was Premier in 1875), William Rowe and Charles Featherstone Mitchell. On election day (6 January 1876), Grey attracted the highest number of votes and, unexpectedly, Rowe beat Vogel into second place (Vogel also stood in Wanganui, where he was returned). Hence Grey and Rowe were declared elected for Thames. A protest against Grey's election was lodged with the returning officer the following day, protesting that Grey had not been eligible to stand in Thames as he had already been elected in Auckland West. This petition was filed to the House of Representatives at the end of January.

With this controversy going on for several months unresolved, Grey advised in mid-June 1876 in a series of telegrams that he had chosen to represent Auckland West. On 8 July, the report of the committee inquiring into his election for Thames was read to the House. It was found that this was in accordance with the law, but that he had to make a decision for which electorate he would sit. On 15 July 1876, Grey announced that he would represent Thames, and he moved that a by-election be held in Auckland West for the seat that he would vacate there.

Grey opposed the abolition of the provinces, but his opposition proved ineffective; the provincial system was abolished in 1876. On defeating Harry Atkinson on 13 October 1877 in a vote of no confidence, he was elected Premier by Parliament. He asked Governor Lord Normanby for a dissolution of parliament but was flatly refused. Grey thought New Zealand's unique constitutional provincialism was under threat, so championed radical causes, such as one man-one vote. An economic downturn in 1878 put pressure on incomes; defection across the floor of the house of four Auckland members defeated Grey on a vote in October 1879. He resigned as prime minister. Grey described his philosophical radicalism: This is a revolt against despotism…. What I am resolved to maintain is this, that there shall be equal justice in representation and in the distribution of land and revenue to every class in New Zealand … equal rights to all – equal rights in education, equal rights in taxation, equal rights in representation … equal rights in every respect. His government did not operate particularly well, with Grey seeking to dominate the government came into conflict with the governor. His term as premier is regarded by historians as a failure. Towards the end of 1879, Grey's government got into difficulties over land tax. Eventually, Grey asked for an early election, in 1879.

Grey was elected in both the Thames and the City of Christchurch electorates in September 1879. Grey came first in the three-member Christchurch electorate (Samuel Paull Andrews and Edward Stevens came second with equal numbers of votes, 23 votes ahead of Edward Richardson). Richardson petitioned against Grey's return on technical grounds, as Grey had already been elected in the Thames electorate. The electoral commission unseated Grey on 24 October, effective 28 October, with Richardson declared elected to the vacancy on that date. Grey kept the Thames seat and remained a member of parliament through that electorate.

In the 1881 election, Grey was elected in Auckland East and re-elected in the 1884 election. In the 1887 election Grey was returned for the electorate.

In 1889, recalling his earlier proposal for the Governor to be elected from his first draft of the 1852 Constitution Act, Grey put forward the Election of Governor Bill, which would have allowed for a "British subject" to be elected to the office of Governor "precisely as an ordinary parliamentary election in each district."

By now Grey was suffering from ill health and he retired from politics in 1890, leaving for Australia to recuperate. While in Australia, he took part in the Australian Federal Convention. On returning to New Zealand, a deputation requested him to contest the Newton seat in Auckland in the 1891 by-election. The retiring member, David Goldie, also asked Grey to take his seat. Grey was prepared to put his name forward only if the election was unopposed, as he did not want to suffer the excitement of a contested election. Grey declared his candidacy on 25 March 1891. On 6 April 1891, he was declared elected, as he was unopposed. In December 1893, Grey was again elected, this time to Auckland City. He left for England in 1894 and did not return to New Zealand. He resigned his seat in 1895.

Death
Grey died at his residence at the Norfolk Hotel, Harrington Road, South Kensington, London, on 19 September 1898, aged 86 years, and was buried in St Paul's Cathedral.

Places and institutions named after Grey
Places named after Grey include Greytown in the Wairarapa region of New Zealand's North Island, the Grey River in the South Island's West Coast region (and thus indirectly the town of Greymouth at the river's mouth), and the Auckland suburb of Grey Lynn; the Division of Grey, an Australian Electoral Division in South Australia and the town of Grey in Western Australia. Grey Street, Melbourne, Grey Street, Wellington and Grey Street, Onehunga are also believed to have been named after George Edward Grey. Grey's Bay in Geraldton, Western Australia, is also named after him.

In South Africa, Grey was instrumental in the founding of the Grey Institute, later named the Grey High School, Port Elizabeth, Grey College, Bloemfontein and Grey's Hospital in Pietermaritzburg. Grey's Pass near Citrusdal and the towns of Greytown, KwaZulu-Natal and Greyton, Western Cape are named for him, while Lady Grey, Eastern Cape is named after his wife. The main business thoroughfare in the town of Paarl (Western Cape) is named Lady Grey Street after his wife, while Cape Town has Sir George Grey Street in the inner city suburb of Oranjezicht draped over the foothills of Table Mountain.

Grey's Spring, sometimes called Grey's Well, is a historic site in Kalbarri, Western Australia.

The Rhodesian Grey’s Scouts was also named after George Grey.

Taxa named after Grey
Menetia greyii, a species of lizard, is named after Grey. Other animal taxa named in his honour include two mammals and a bird.

The genus Greyia (wild bottlebrush) which is endemic to southern Africa was also named after him.

Popular culture and depiction in art

A Statue of George Grey created by William Calder Marshall was unveiled at the Company's Garden in Cape Town, South Africa in 1863. Sculptor Anton Teutenberg created a relief sculpture of Grey as a part of his commission for the Auckland High Court in 1866. In 1904, a statue of George Grey was erected on the corner of Greys Avenue and Queen Street, later moved to Albert Park in 1922. Grey's statue has been the target of vandalism and activism, including in 1987, when the head of the statue was broken off on Waitangi Day.

 The Governor, an historical drama miniseries based on Grey's life, was made by TVNZ and the National Film Unit in 1977, featuring Corin Redgrave in the title role. Despite critical acclaim, the miniseries attracted controversy at the time because of its then-large budget.

From the Herald archives

 * "A summary of 1863", New Zealand Herald, 31 December 1863
 * "Letter to the editor", New Zealand Herald, 26 February 1864
 * "Letter to the editor", New Zealand Herald, 19 May 1864
 * "William Thompson criticised for treachery", New Zealand Herald, 11 October 1864
 * "William Thompson obituary", New Zealand Herald, 5 February 1867
 * "George Grey obituary", New Zealand Herald, 21 September 1898
 * "Comment of George Grey", New Zealand Herald, 22 September 1898
 * "The Kingitanga represents our history – and future", NZ Herald online
 * "The year Auckland went mad", NZ Herald online, 25 August 2010
 * The New Zealand Railways Magazine, Volume 8, Issue 2 (1 June 1933), "Famous New Zealanders – No. 3 Sir George Grey – Some Impressions of a Great Administrator"

title: George Grey


text:
Height above average terrain

Height above average terrain (HAAT), or (less popularly) effective height above average terrain (EHAAT), is the vertical position of an antenna site above the surrounding landscape. HAAT is used extensively in FM radio and television, as it is more important than effective radiated power (ERP) in determining the range of broadcasts (VHF and UHF in particular, as they are line of sight transmissions). For international coordination, it is officially measured in meters, even by the Federal Communications Commission in the United States, as Canada and Mexico have extensive border zones where stations can be received on either side of the international boundaries. Stations that want to increase above a certain HAAT must reduce their power accordingly, based on the maximum distance their station class is allowed to cover (see List of North American broadcast station classes for more information on this).

The FCC procedure to calculate HAAT is: from the proposed or actual antenna site, either 12 or 16 radials were drawn, and points at 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 mi radius along each radial were used. The entire radial graph could be rotated to achieve the best effect for the station. The altitude of the antenna site, minus the average altitude of all the specified points, is the HAAT. This can create some unusual cases, particularly in mountainous regions—it is possible to have a negative number for HAAT (the transmitter would not be located underground, but rather in a valley, with hills on both sides taller than the transmitter itself, for example).

The FCC has divided the Contiguous United States into three zones for the determination of spacing between FM and TV stations using the same frequencies. FM and TV stations are assigned maximum ERP and HAAT values, depending on their assigned zones, to prevent co-channel interference.

The FCC regulations for ERP and HAAT are listed under Title 47, Part 73 of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR).

Zones I and I-A

 * Maximum HAAT: 150 m
 * Maximum ERP: 50 kilowatts (47dBW)
 * Minimum co-channel separation: 241 km

Zones II and III

 * Maximum HAAT: 600 m
 * Maximum ERP: 100 kilowatts (50dBW)
 * Minimum co-channel separation: 290 km.

TV
In all zones, maximum ERP for analog TV transmitters is as follows:

 * VHF 2-6: 100 kilowatts (50dBW) (analog); 45 kilowatts (46.5dBW) (digital)
 * VHF 7-13: 316 kilowatts (55dBW) (analog); 160 kilowatts (52dBW) (digital)
 * UHF: 5,000 kilowatts (67dBW) (analog); 1,000 kilowatts (60dBW) (digital)

Maximum HAAT

 * Zone I: 305 m
 * Zones II and III: 610 m

Zone layouts
Zone I (the most densely populated zone) consists of the entire land masses of the following states: Connecticut, Delaware, Illinois, Indiana, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Jersey, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, and West Virginia; in addition to the northern and eastern portions of Virginia; the areas of Michigan and southeastern Wisconsin south of 43° 30' north latitude; the coastal strip of Maine; the areas of New Hampshire and Vermont south of 45° north latitude; and the areas of western New York south of 43° 30' north latitude and eastern New York south of 45° north latitude. In addition, Zone I-A (FM only) consists of all of California south of 40° north latitude, Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands (If the dividing line between Zones I and II runs through a city, that city is considered to be in Zone I.).

Zones I and I-A have the most "grandfathered" overpowered stations, which are allowed the same extended coverage areas that they had before the zones were established. One of the most powerful of these stations is WBCT in Grand Rapids, Michigan, which operates at 320,000 watts and 238 meters (781 ft) HAAT.

Zone III (the zone with the flattest terrain) consists of all of Florida and the areas of Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas within approximately 241.4 km of the Gulf of Mexico.

Zone II is all the rest of the Continental United States, Alaska and Hawaii.

title: Height above average terrain


text:
TPO

TPO may refer to:

Arts

 * Taipei Philharmonic Orchestra
 * Thailand Philharmonic Orchestra
 * Tin Pot Operation, an indie-punk band from Belfast, Northern Ireland
 * Tokyo Philharmonic Orchestra

Biology and medicine

 * the temporo-parieto-occipital junction of the brain
 * thyroid peroxidase (or thyroperoxidase), an enzyme in the thyroid
 * thrombopoietin, a hormone stimulating platelet growth

Government

 * Transportation Planning Organization, United States

Law

 * Temporary protective order, a court order banning someone from going near a third party that they have allegedly harassed, in Ireland or the United States
 * a tree preservation order in the United Kingdom

Science and technology

 * Thermoplastic olefin, a plastic polymer/filler blend
 * Transmitter power output in radio transmission

Other

 * The People's Operator, a mobile virtual network operator in the United Kingdom
 * Third-party ownership in association football
 * A transit patrol officer of Victoria Transit Patrol, Australia
 * Travelling Post Offices, mail trains in Great Britain and Ireland
 * Travelling Post Office, Queensland, mail trains in Australia
 * Treatment plant operator, an operator of water and waste water treatment plants
 * Triple peel on opponent manoeuvre in croquet

title: TPO


text:
User:Franz Xaver

See also de:Benutzer:Franz Xaver

title: User:Franz Xaver


text:
User talk:Franz Xaver

Hi Franz,

nice image, definitely needs to go somewhere in the article - the underparts look a different colour to the existing pic, so it might be male/female or, less likely, adult/young. I'll chech it out.

No reason not to keep both for the time being. jimfbleak 12:25 19 Jul 2003 (UTC)
 * I agree with your comment, no reason to assume M/F as far as I can see

With regards to the taxobox pheasant pics, I agree that the bill looks a bit odd. I doubt if anyone will object, since I don't think the contributor who put that one on is active now. Realistically, I think this colourful and easily photographed species is going to have changes of image fairly regularly anyway. Thanks for your help with the motmot too, jimfbleak

Well spotted with the teals, thanks - jimfbleak

ranunculus vs. anemone
Hello! Indeed, I was suspicious about the picture, since both plants grow in Israel and bear some similarity. I will look it up in the printed identifier once the Passover holiday is over. Meanwhile I will revert the picture. Iorsh 06:59, 9 Apr 2004 (UTC)

I had doubts myself, having seen a photo of grey-headed crane recently that looked just the same. I'll knock the image out. jimfbleak

Bird of Paradise
I actually found the photograph on a website with no apparent copyright notice a while ago, before it was mandatory to state the copyright information of images. And I'm afraid I'm not 100% sure about the species, nor do I have a larger photo. But feel free to use the image in Paradiesvögel if you want. DO'Neil 00:12, 16 May 2004 (UTC)

Thanks
I agree, you are right

regards

Aftab Banoori (Talk) 04:45, 12 July 2014 (UTC)

ArbCom elections are now open!
MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 08:53, 23 November 2015 (UTC)

Robinsonia (Grote) on WS
Franz, I have no particular objection to the renaming of the page, but the content is now ruined! The "primary reference" is the wrong reference! The red linked species names are subspecies or synonyms (also intermedia is a synonym). The Name section is a mess (it should not show the disambiguation term, and both genus name and type species date from the same publication, so need the same date!) PeterR has removed the doi of one of the references here, in favour of a non-persistent link! The Name section is nonsense here! Good job, man! I can see you are a big ass-et to WS! Eves Pair (talk) 21:11, 18 July 2016 (UTC)
 * Great! If I still had doubt, you may not be identical with User:Stho002, now I am sure you are. Thanks for confirmation! I don't feel responsible for any mistakes, which may happen to other users under hard pressure. You gave PeterR a big task this morning. He is not young any more. I am concerned, that maybe in some situation he may suffer a heart attack. Would you be prepared, that maybe you will have to feel responsible, in such case? You would not call this a good job, would you? --Franz Xaver (talk) 21:36, 18 July 2016 (UTC)
 * If PeterR suffers a heart attack as a direct result of his activity on WS, then it would be entirely his own fault, and would not be without its positive benefits for WS. He is editing well out of his depth and protecting his mistakes, foisting said mistakes on present and future generations who might be silly enough to look to WS for information. I didn't give PeterR any task at all. I merely corrected his mistakes and improved his edits, which is what Wikimedia is supposed to be all about. It is not supposed to be about mutual masturbation by sysop mobs getting off on excluding others from the community. It wouldn't be so bad if they knew what they were doing, but they are just making a big mess. Of course I understand that you do good work on WS botany, but if the overall site is too badly infected by PeterR (or AndyBoorman) style garbage, nobody is going to take WS seriously, so your own efforts will be largely ignored. However, I also understand that you are far too bullheaded to take good advice, so good luck to you ... Eves Pair (talk) 21:50, 18 July 2016 (UTC)
 * If you admit, that I do good work on WS botany, this could make me happy. Anyway, I don't do it for my personal fame. Have a nice day. --Franz Xaver (talk) 22:38, 18 July 2016 (UTC)
 * If you still are editor on ZooBank, you may want to correct the ZooBank entry – for correct date of publication see species:Template:Grote, 1866 or JSTOR. Concerning reliability of information, you should not throw stones, when sitting in a glass house. --Franz Xaver (talk) 11:46, 19 July 2016 (UTC)
 * Yes, I am still an editor on ZooBank, but I do not want to "correct" that, and my house is not made of glass! ZooBank records have very limited scope for annotation. I have simply reported the date of publication as stated in the original reference. It is best left at that for now. There is no way on ZooBank to specify a source for the actual publication date, so people will just think that I put the date in wrong if I don't report the date as specified in the original publication! Luv ya ... Apricia oh so jovialis (talk) 05:28, 21 July 2016 (UTC)
 * You know, that ICZN in Recommendation 22A is distinguishing between actual date and imprint date, which might differ. I am wondering, that ZooBank is not able to present information on both. It seems to be a heavy deficiency of ZooBank, if this should be true. It is certainly not too rare, that a difference of weeks can be deciding, if the one or the other name has to be used. Maybe you should contact the ZooBank Committee concerning this issue. --Franz Xaver (talk) 09:21, 21 July 2016 (UTC)
 * Yeah, yeah, ZooBank is imperfect ... aren't we all, except for you of course! But that is a small problem in a sea of much bigger problems, and they don't have enough funding to do much more. Oh well, we can only do our best in the face of adversity and imperfection ... sweety dreams, Apricia oh so jovialis (talk) 23:52, 21 July 2016 (UTC)

Apricia jovialis on WS
Franzy baby! Looking at Apricia jovialis, I see that Mariusm has also put it in the wrong genus, in addition to the errors that you have noted! Luv ya ... Apricia oh so jovialis (talk) 05:19, 21 July 2016 (UTC)
 * Des konnst da spoan. --Franz Xaver (talk) 09:27, 21 July 2016 (UTC)

PeterR
Hey Franzy babes, I don't know about a heart attack, but something very odd is happening to PeterR! Check out his recent edit history on WS! Wot's goin' on??? Apricia oh so jovialis (talk) 23:49, 21 July 2016 (UTC)

Stephania capitata
Hi, Franz, thanks for the quick response. I will try to find the resources on JSTOR. Adeuss (talk) 07:33, 14 June 2017 (UTC)

title: User talk:Franz Xaver


text:
Indian Institutes of Management

The Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs) are Centrally Funded Business Schools for management offering undergraduate, postgraduate, doctoral and executive programmes along with some additional courses in the field of business administration. The establishment of IIMs was initiated by Jawaharlal Nehru, the first prime minister of India, based on the recommendation of the Planning Commission of India.

IIMs were declared institutions of national importance by the Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD) after the passage of Indian Institutes of Management Act, 2017. By this act, IIMs were given more autonomy in handling their day-to-day operations. The act changed the IIM governing body from the IIM council to an IIM coordination forum. IIMs were granted much leeway to decide their courses, fees and other related matters. Top IIMs — such as IIM Ahmedabad, IIM Bangalore, IIM Calcutta, IIM Indore and IIM Lucknow — have featured in top 100 global b-schools by FT MBA Ranking, as well as achieved top 10 rankings among management schools in India, according to the National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF) used by the HRD minister of India.

The full time Master of Business Administration (MBA) programmes, are the flagship programs across all IIMs. The full time MBA degree is offered as a two-year Post Graduate Programme in Management (PGP) or the one-year global MBA (EPGP, PGPX,MBAEx,PGPEX-VLM, PGP-BL & IPMX). Seven leading IIMs IIM Ahmedabad, Bangalore, Calcutta, Indore, Shillong, Lucknow and Kozhikode offer the one year MBA as a full-time programme that follows the global MBA norms. Some IIMs also offer a two-year part time (executive) MBA for graduates with more work experience.

IIMs only offered diplomas at the end of the full time programmes However, since the passage of IIM Act 2017, all IIMs have started offering Master of Business Administration (MBA). Some IIMs offer the Fellow Programme in Management (FPM), a doctoral programme. The fellowship is considered to be equivalent to a DBA globally. Most IIMs also offer short-term Executive MBA courses and part-time programmes. Some IIMs also offer unique programs, like IIM Bodh Gaya, IIM Rohtak, IIM Ranchi and IIM Indore's Five Year Integrated Programme in Management and IIM Lucknow's Working Managers' Programme of two years. IIM Rohtak is the only IIM which offers a Five Year Integrated Program in Law (BBA+LLB).

History
After India became independent in 1947, the Planning Commission was entrusted to oversee and direct the development of the nation. India grew rapidly in the 1950s, and in the late 1950s the Commission started facing difficulties in finding suitable managers for the large number of public sector enterprises that were being established in India as a part of its industrial policy. To solve this problem, the Planning Commission in 1959 invited Professor George Robbins of UCLA to help in setting up an All India Institute of Management Studies. Based on his recommendations, the Indian government decided to set up two elite management institutes, named Indian Institutes of Management. Calcutta and Ahmedabad were chosen as the locations for the two new institutes.

The institute at Calcutta was established first, on 13 November 1961, and was named Indian Institute of Management Calcutta or IIM Calcutta. It was set up in collaboration with the MIT Sloan School of Management, the government of West Bengal, the Ford Foundation, and Indian industry. The institute at Ahmedabad was established in the following month and was named the Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad. Like MIT Sloan in the case of IIM Calcutta, Harvard Business School played an important role in the initial stages of IIM Ahmedabad.

In 1972, a committee headed by Ravi J. Matthai took note of the success of the two established IIMs and recommended the setting up of two more IIMs. Based on the committee's recommendation, a new IIM, originally intended to cater exclusively to the needs of public sector enterprises, was established in Bangalore (IIM Bangalore) the next year. In 1981, the first IIM Review Committee was convened to examine the progress of the three existing IIMs and to make recommendations. The committee noted that the three IIMs were producing around 400 PGP graduates every year and that they had reached their optimum capacity. It proposed the opening of two more IIMs to meet the rising demand for management professionals. It also recommended expanding the Fellowship programmes, similar to PhD programmes, to meet the growing demand for faculty in management schools in India. The fourth IIM, IIM Lucknow, was established in 1984 based on the committee's recommendation.

Two more IIMs, the fifth and sixth, were established at Kozhikode and Indore in 1996. IIM Shillong was the seventh IIM to be established, following a 2005 decision by the Government of India; its foundation stone was laid on 1 December 2007; and its first academic session was 2008–09. Since 2007, fourteen new IIMs have been set up, bringing the total number of IIMs to 20, IIM-Jammu being the latest one, starting in 2016. In 2023, prestigious National Institute of Industrial Engineering (NITIE), Mumbai, was converted into an IIM, making for a total of 21 IIMs.

The Union Cabinet, on 24 January 2017, approved the bill that became the Indian Institutes of Management Act, 2017, which declares IIMs as Institutes of National Importance and enables them to grant degrees and to further make other important changes to the institute. The IIM bill was passed by the Lok Sabha on 28 July 2017 and by the Rajya Sabha on 19 December 2017. After receiving presidential assent, the IIM bill became an Act on 31 December 2017.

In the 2023 Union Budget grants to the IIMs were cut in half. Heads of IIMs and B-schools said this would effect the newer IIMs disproportionately.

Academics
The IIMs mainly offer undergraduate/ postgraduate, postgraduate, doctoral, and executive education programs. Some programs offered by all IIMs are similar; however, some IIMs offer unique programs for specialized purposes.

Two-year MBA (Post Graduate Program)
All IIMs offer a two-year full-time Post Graduate Program in Management (PGP), equivalent to a Master of Business Administration (MBA) degree. The program is considered the flagship program of IIMs, and awards the Master of Business Administration (MBA) to successful candidates. Since 2018, all the IIMs have started granting MBA degrees for this flagship program.

This program is usually structured into six trimesters spread across two years, starting in June and running until April of the second year. The first-year coursework generally consists of core courses in various management disciplines, while in the second year, students are allowed to select courses from an exhaustive list of electives. The PGP is a general, fully integrated management program with no specialization, and typically includes courses in: The 2-year MBA programs offered by IIMs at: are often termed as Master's in Management (MIM) internationally and are often placed around top 100 Master's in Management programs across the world since inception.
 * accounting,
 * behavioral science,
 * finance,
 * economics,
 * human resource management (HRM),
 * management sciences and information technology,
 * marketing,
 * business operations,
 * business mathematics,
 * public policy,
 * statistics and decision analysis,
 * strategy, and
 * general management.
 * Bangalore,
 * Ahmedabad,
 * Calcutta,
 * Udaipur,
 * Lucknow and
 * Indore

One-year full time MBA
To compete on the global stage, the premier IIMs found the necessity to start MBA programs that would be ranked globally at par with the MBA programs of Harvard (Harvard Business School of Harvard University) and Wharton (The Wharton School of Business of the University of Pennsylvania). Within a decade of their inception, the one-year MBA programs have catapulted the position of the top IIMs to within the top 50 global MBA list. Since 2006, IIM Ahmedabad, IIM Bangalore, IIM Calcutta, IIM Lucknow, IIM Indore, IIM Kozhikode, IIM Shillong and IIM Udaipur have started offering the one-year, full-time postgraduate programs for professionals having approximately 5 years or more of work experience, which are a unique addition to the bucket of flagship programs which adds experienced professionals who add valued experience to the system of full-time MBA.

The one-year program was necessitated because the normal 2-year program is primarily aimed at new graduates or graduates with less than 4–5 years of work experience. The 1-year programs are general, fully integrated management programs with no specialization, and typically include the same courses as offered in a typical 2-year MBA program. These intensive programs typically require 75 credits or around 750 hours of classroom teaching along with projects and other coursework as in a normal 2-year MBA program. The flagship 1-year MBA programs offered by IIMs at Bangalore, Ahmedabad and Calcutta are often termed as Global MBAs internationally and have been ranked within the top 50 Global MBA programs across the world since their inception.

Designed as a regular MBA program, which focuses on using the prior work experience of the students, the one-year Executive MBA is named differently by different IIMs. It is called Post Graduate Program for Executives at IIM Calcutta and IIM Shillong (PGPEX for short), and at IIM Ahmedabad and IIM Udaipur (PGPX for short). It is called an Executive Post Graduate Program (EPGP) at IIM Bangalore and IIM Indore, and International Program in Management for Executives (IPMX) at IIM Lucknow. All these programs admit only candidates with 5 or more years of professional experience and usually use a combination of GMAT score, essays, and personal interviews as entry criteria, similar to other globally reputed MBA programs. The median GMAT score of the batches at IIM Ahmedabad, Bangalore, Calcutta, Indore and IIM Udaipur is usually above 700 and compares with the best in the world.

Other specialty full time MBA programmes
Other than these general variants, many IIMs offer specialty programmes built which focus on different areas, e.g. Post Graduate Programme in Sustainable Management (PGP-SM) at IIM Lucknow, Post Graduate Programme in Human Resource Management (PGPHRM) at IIM Ranchi and many more.

Five-year Integrated Management Programme (Undergraduate/Postgraduate Education)
Five IIMs, IIM Indore and IIM Rohtak, IIM Jammu, IIM Bodh Gaya and IIM Ranchi also offer five-year integrated programs. Students join this program after high school (class XII). The program is called IPM (Integrated Programme in Management) at both the institutes. The course structures are similar though not same at both the institutes. For three years, students focus on "statistics, economics and humanities", joining the post-graduate cohort in years 4 and 5. IIM Indore established its program in 2011 and IIM Rohtak in 2019. They were followed by IIM Ranchi, IIM Jammu and IIM Bodhgaya in 2021. IIM Indore awards program graduates both BA (Foundations of Management) and MBA. IIM Rohtak awards the BBA/MBA to five-year graduates and BBA to students who opt-out after three years.

Fellow Programme in Management (DBA)
IIMs offer a Fellow Programme in Management (FPM) as a full-time DBA Programme. This programme is aimed at preparing students for careers in teaching or research in different disciplines of management, as well as for careers outside academics that demand a high degree of investigative and analytical ability. A student who completes this programme at any IIM, where (s)he is registered as a doctoral scholar, is awarded the title of Fellow Member (e.g. Fellow Member of the Indian Institutes of Management). This Fellow Programme is equivalent to the DBA degree. Students receiving such a fellowship every year, across all IIMs, work in close association with one another in specific research areas of their choice.

Executive Management Programme
Many IIMs offer Executive MBA programme targeted at working professionals. These are often short-term or part-time programmes and are known by various names such as Management Development Programme (MDP), Advanced Masters Program in Management of Global Enterprises (AMPM), and Executive General Management Programme (EGMP). The certificate programmes at IIMs are not considered equivalent to an Executive MBA offered by the IIMs. Only the diploma-level programmes are considered equivalent, depending on whether it is full-time or part-time. Many IIMs—such as IIMC, IIMB, IIMK, IIM Kashipur, and IIM Rohtak—have partnered with third-party companies to enable these courses to be provided under a distributed model.

Other programmes
Some IIMs offer specialised programmes targeted at various management segments. IIM Ahmedabad offers a six-month, full-time programme called the Armed Forces Programme (AFP) aimed at military personnel. IIM Ahmedabad and IIM Bangalore offer full-time programmes in public administration and public policy are called the Post Graduate Programme in Public Management and Policy (PGP-PMP) and Post Graduate Programme in Public Policy Management (PGPPM), respectively for civil servants of the Indian Administrative Service cadre. IIM Bangalore offers a two-year, part-time programme called the Post-Graduate Programme in Software Enterprise Management (PGPSEM), an executive general-management education programme designed for the specific needs of professionals working in the software and information technology industry. IIM Indore offers a 5-year Integrated Programme in Management (IPM) that leads to a combined undergraduate-cum-graduate diploma. IIM Ranchi is the first and only IIM to offer a full-time Post Graduate Diploma in Human Resource Management (PGDHRM) programme. IIM Bangalore offers a two-year Mahatma Gandhi National Fellowship to "promote skill development in district economies".

Admission process
Different programmes of IIMs follow different admission processes. Admission for residents of India to the two-year PGP programmes at all IIMs is based on the Common Admission Test (CAT). CAT scores are often used as the primary short-listing criteria for admissions. International/overseas applicants have the option to apply using GMAT scores in lieu of CAT scores. GMAT scores are a prerequisite short-listing criteria used for admission to the one-year full-time programme for experienced executives. Test requirements for doctoral programmes vary. Some IIMs require candidates to make a presentation of a broad research idea or take a Research Aptitude Test (RAT) followed by a round of interviews while all are compelled to accept scores on standardised tests such as the CAT, GATE, GMAT, and GRE. The overall profiles of candidates, including past academic and professional accomplishments, are considered for all programmes, along with valid standard test scores. Some programmes require essays and academic or professional recommendations. The final round of admission evaluations involves an interview, before which some IIMs conduct other evaluation processes like written assessment tests and group discussions.

Entrance exam
The Common Admission Test (CAT) is a management aptitude test conducted by the IIMs primarily as an evaluation tool for admission to their two-year PGP programmes. It is widely considered one of the most competitive exams in the world, with a success rate of around one in two hundred. Even with the recent addition of new colleges, in 2013 the acceptance rate at IIMs was 1.714%, one of the lowest in the world.

Originally conducted as a paper-and-pencil test given on a particular date all over India, in 2009 CAT began being given as a computer-based assessment operated by Prometric. In 2014, TCS received a 5-year contract to conduct the test. The online test is now given over a period of a few weeks.

In August 2011, the six newer IIMs (Raipur, Rohtak, Ranchi, Udaipur, Trichy and Kashipur) announced that in the coming year they will replace the group-discussion round with a common written analysis test to evaluate communication and comprehension skill. The seven older IIMs did not announce plans to change the admission process.

The admissions for the two-year full-time programme is done by shortlisting based on CAT scores in conjunction with candidate profile suitability. This is followed by evaluation of essays and a panel-interview round. The quality of prior work experience and future leadership potential is a critical factor in the selections.

Reservation policy
IIMs also follow a quota system, as per the provisions of the Indian constitution. As per the provisions, 15% of the seats are reserved for students of Scheduled Castes, and 7.5% for Scheduled Tribes. Since 2008, the Other Backward Classes have also been given 27% reservation and Economically Weaker Sections (EWS) have 10% reservation, after the Supreme Court of India upheld the validity of relevant government regulation. The provisions are being implemented in a phased manner due to resource constraints. All aspirants have to take the Common Admission Test which consists of an objective-type exam, a group-discussion round, and personal interviews, with the cut-off for reserved-category candidates being possibly lower than for general-category candidates. Once admitted to a programme, a reserved category student has to meet all the criteria for completing the programme as a general-category student. Regular counselling sessions, extra classes, and tutorials, by senior students, for needy students are a regular feature of the IIMs. IIMs provide financial support to needy and deserving students in the form of scholarships.

Post-graduate program fees
In 2004, IIM fees were adjusted by the HRE to inr 30000 annually.

However as of 2023 the total fees for the 2-year program, ranged from  inr 2000000 to inr 3000000 Inflation in India  has been cited as one of the reasons for the fee hikes at IIMs.

The fees of the college is influenced by the age and performance of the institute. For example IIM C, the oldest IIM in the country had a total course fees of inr 2700000 for the academic year 2022-24. While IIM Jammu,the youngest IIM had a total course fees of inr 1714999.9999999998.

Executive program fees
The IIMs also have several executive programs for working executives and professionals. The full-time executive program at IIM Udaipur launched in 2019 had a fees of inr 1580000 while the data analytics program was inr 2100000. The same year IIM Lucknow's 6-month data analytics program costs inr 249000.00000000003 while its analytics program for finance professionals costed inr 143000.

Profit Margin of the IIMs
The following data           pertains to the older six IIMs (Ahmedabad, Bengaluru, Kolkatta, Lucknow, Indore, Kozhikode):

As IIMs are considered as not-for-profit institutions, IIMs do not pay any 'corporate tax' to the Income Tax Department, Government of India. In 2023, the corporate tax in India was approximately 25% in the 2020s.

In 2023, the fee charged by the older six IIMs (ABCLIK) were in the range of approximately 21 - 26 lakhs for the two year full-time PG programme/ MBA. The fee charged by these IIMs were 22-26 times India's annual per capita income (Rs. 96,522 in 2022-23, at constant prices). Globally, this places IIMs amongst any of the institutions that charge the highest fee from its citizens, with reference to the annual per capita income of the nation.

In 2016, a constitution bench of the Supreme Court of India mentioned that “Education is... ...a noble ‘occupation’... those who establish and are managing the educational institutions are not expected to indulge in profiteering or commercialise this noble activity.” The Supreme Court also mentioned that “...that the occupation of education cannot be treated at par with other economic activities.”.

title: Indian Institutes of Management


text:
Transmitter power output

In radio transmission, transmitter power output (TPO) is the actual amount of power (in watts) of radio frequency (RF) energy that a transmitter produces at its output.

TPO is a concept related to effective radiated power (ERP), but refers to the power output of a transmitter, without accounting for antenna gain. The ERP for VHF/UHF transmitters is normally more than the TPO, for LF/MF transmitters it has nearly the same value, while for VLF transmitters it may be less.

Signal formula
The radio antenna's design "focuses" the signal, creating gain and increasing the ERP. There is also some loss (negative gain) from the feedline, which reduces some of the TPO to the antenna by both resistance and by radiating a small part of the signal.

The basic equation relating transmitter to effective power is:

 * $$TPO\ \times\ loss_{feedline}\ \times\ gain_{antenna}\ =\ ERP$$

Note that in this formula the Antenna Gain is expressed with reference to a tuned dipole (dBd)

title: Transmitter power output