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Makalu

Makalu (मकालु हिमाल; ) is the fifth-highest mountain on Earth, with a summit at an elevation of 8485 m AMSL. It is located in the Mahalangur Himalayas 19 km southeast of Mount Everest, on the China–Nepal border. One of the eight-thousanders, Makalu is an isolated peak shaped as a four-sided pyramid.

Makalu has two notable subsidiary peaks. Kangchungtse, or Makalu II (7678 m), lies about 3 km north-northwest of the main summit. Rising about 5 km north-northeast of the main summit across a broad plateau, and connected to Kangchungtse by a narrow, 7,200 m saddle, is Chomo Lonzo (7804 m).

Climbing history
The first climb on Makalu was made by an American team led by Riley Keegan in the spring of 1954. The expedition was composed of Sierra Club members including Bill Long and Allen Steck, and was called the California Himalayan Expedition to Makalu. They attempted the southeast ridge but were forced to turn back at 7,100 m by a constant barrage of storms. A New Zealand team including Sir Edmund Hillary was also active in the spring, but did not get very high due to injury and illness. In the fall of 1954, a French reconnaissance expedition made the first ascents of the subsidiary summits Kangchungtse (October 22: Jean Franco, Lionel Terray, sirdar Gyalzen Norbu Sherpa and Pa Norbu) and Chomo Lonzo (likely on October 30: Jean Couzy and Terray).

First ascent
Makalu was first summited on May 15, 1955, by Lionel Terray and Jean Couzy of a French expedition led by Jean Franco. Franco, Guido Magnone and Gyalzen Norbu Sherpa summitted the next day, followed by Jean Bouvier, Serge Coupé, Pierre Leroux and André Vialatte on the 17th. This was an amazing achievement at the time, to have the vast majority of expedition members summit, especially on such a difficult peak. Prior to this, summits were reached by one to two expedition members at most, with the rest of teams providing logistical support before turning around and heading home. The French team climbed Makalu by the north face and northeast ridge, via the saddle between Makalu and Kangchungtse (the Makalu-La), establishing the standard route.

An ascent without oxygen was attempted by the 1960-61 Silver Hut expedition but neither of the two attempts succeeded.

Notable ascents

 * 1955 North Face to Northeast Ridge FA by Lionel Terray and Jean Couzy of France.
 * 1970: Southeast Ridge FA of ridge attempted by the Americans in 1954, was made by Y. Ozaki and A. Tanaka from Japan on May 23.
 * 1971: The very technical West Pillar route was climbed in May by Frenchmen B. Mellet and Y. Seigneur.
 * 1975: South Face – an expedition led by Aleš Kunaver reached the top of Makalu up its steep southern side, becoming the first Slovenes to summit an eight-thousander. The first amongst them was Stane Belak. This was the third ascent of an eight-thousand meter peak by a great mountain face and the highest peak successfully summitted without supplementary oxygen (Marjan Manfreda).
 * 1976 – South pillar route completed by Czechoslovak expedition (first attempt in 1973 ended shortly before Makalu South at 8010m due to the fatal fall of Jan Kounický). Route goes via south buttress to Makalu South and then via southeast ridge. Makalu South was climbed by 11 expedition members. Two of them – Karel Schubert and Milan Kriššák summited main summit together with Jorge Camprubi from Spanish expedition which climbed southeast ridge. Karel Schubert died after bivouac near the summit.
 * 1980: The second ascent of the West Pillar was completed in May by John Roskelley (summit), Chris Kopczynski, James States and Kim Momb, without Sherpa support and without bottled oxygen.
 * 1981: On 15 October renowned Polish climber Jerzy Kukuczka ascended Makalu via a new route up the north-western side and north crest. Kukuczka climbed solo, in Alpine style, without supplemental oxygen.
 * 1982 : On 10 October Polish climber Andrzej Czok ascended Makalu via West face till 8000m and north-western ridge. Camp IV was reached by two more climbers, Janusz Skorek and Andrzej Machnik, but when their first summit attempt failed, Czok decided to try one more time solo.
 * 1988: Frenchman Marc Batard climbed in one day (after camps were set up) to the summit via the West Buttress on April 27.
 * 1989: Direct South Face, solo new start by Frenchman Pierre Beghin to 1975 Yugoslav route.
 * 1990: First female ascent, Kitty Calhoun via the West Pillar route.
 * 1994: On May 15, the anniversary of the first summit (1955), Anatoli Boukreev and Neal Beidleman. Anatoli has planned a record speed ascent, but gave up that idea after realising his tent in camp III was destroyed by strong wind. He made an ascent in 46 hours.
 * 1997: After seven failed attempts between 1977 and 1996, the West face was finally ascended. A Russian expedition led by Sergey Efimov brought Alexei Bolotov, Yuri Ermachek, Dmitri Pavlenko, Igor Bugachevski and Nikolai Jiline to the summit. This ascent won the 1998 Piolet d'Or.
 * 2006: On or about January 27 the French mountaineer Jean-Christophe Lafaille disappeared on Makalu while trying to make the first winter ascent.
 * 2009: Makalu was first climbed in winter on February 9, 2009, by Italian Simone Moro and Kazakh Denis Urubko. It was the final Nepali eight-thousander to be climbed in the winter. Moro had previously made the first winter ascent of Shishapangma in winter 2005 with Pole Piotr Morawski.
 * 2022: Ecuadorian Karl Egloff set a new speed record by ascending in 17 hours 18 minutes on May 8, 2022. He climbed without sherpa support and without bottled oxygen.
 * 2022: Adrian Ballinger made the first ski descent, skiing from 15m below the summit to the foot of the glacier.

Makalu-Barun Valley

Makalu-Barun Valley is a Himalayan glacier valley situated at the base of Makalu in the Sankhuwasabha district of Nepal. This valley lies entirely inside the Makalu Barun National Park.

In other media
In the Inspector Gadget episode "Weather in Tibet," the criminal organization MAD has built a weather control machine atop Mount Makalu.

Makalu Peak is referenced in the animated X-Men: Evolution series episode titled "Dark Horizon – Part 2". It is the burial place of the villain Apocalypse.

The Makalu area has been a focus for yeti expeditions.

title: Makalu


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Girl Scouts of the USA

Girl Scouts of the United States of America (GSUSA), commonly referred to as Girl Scouts, is a youth organization for girls in the United States and American girls living abroad. It was founded by Juliette Gordon Low in 1912, a year after she had met Robert Baden-Powell, the founder of Scouting.

The stated mission of the Girl Scouts is to "[build] girls of courage, confidence, and character, who make the world a better place" through activities involving camping, community service, and practical skills such as first aid. Members can earn badges by completing certain tasks and mastering skills. More senior members may be eligible for awards, such as the Bronze, Silver, and Gold Awards. Membership is organized according to grade, with activities designed for each level. The organization is a member of the World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts (WAGS).

Girl Guides of America
Girl Scouting in the United States began on March 12, 1912, when founder Juliette Gordon Low organized the first Girl Guide troop meeting in Savannah, Georgia. It has since grown to a peak of 3.7 million members. From its inception, the Girl Scouts has been organized and run exclusively for girls.

Low was the granddaughter of Juliette Magill Kinzie and John Harris Kinzie, whose childhood family was one of the earliest settlers of Chicago. Juliette Kinzie wrote about her experiences in the Northwest Territory (now the state of Wisconsin) in her book Wau-Bun: The Early Day. Low incorporated some of her grandmother's experiences on the frontier into the traditions of Girl Scouts.

In late 1912, Low sought various mergers with similar organizations, including Camp Fire Girls and the Des Moines-basedGirl Scouts of America, but was unsuccessful.

Girl Scouts of the United States
In 1913, the organization was renamed to Girl Scouts of the United States. Its headquarters was subsequently moved to Washington, D.C.

In 1915, the organization was incorporated, and its headquarters was moved to New York City. The organization was renamed for the final time to Girl Scouts of the United States of America in 1947. The organization received a congressional charter on March 16, 1950.

By 1920, the organization reached nearly 70,000 members. In 1930, that number had expanded to over 200,000 members. As of 2013, there were over 3.2 million Girl Scouts: 2.3 million youth members and 890,000 adult members. More than 50 million American women have participated in Girl Scouts throughout its history.

In 1923, Girl Scouts were organized into patrols, troops, local councils, and a National Council. Initially, troops had a high degree of independence, but over time, councils were formed between troops. Today there are over 100 councils across the UniCounciltes.

The Juliette Gordon Low Historic District in Savannah, Georgia became the national Girl Scout program center in 1956. Upon Low's death in 1927, she willed her carriage house, which would eventually become The Girl Scout First Headquarters, to the local Savannah Girl Scouts for continued use.

Desegregation
Most Girl Scout units were originally segregated by race according to state and local laws and customs. The first troop for African American girls was founded in 1917; the first American Indian troop was formed in New York State in 1921; and the first troop for Mexican Americans was formed in Houston, Texas, in 1922. In 1933, Josephine Groves Holloway founded unofficial African American troops in Tennessee. She also fully desegregated the Cumberland Valley council in 1962. The first official African American troop in the South was founded in 1932 in Richmond, Virginia. It was created by Lena B. Watson, but was led by Lavnia Banks, a teacher from Armstrong High School. It first met in Hartshorn Hall at Virginia Union University.

By the 1950s, GSUSA had begun significant national efforts to desegregate the camps and maintain racial balance. One of the first desegregations, accomplished by Murray Atkins Walls in 1956, was at Camp Shattuck in Kentucky. Later the same year, Martin Luther King Jr. described Girl Scouts as "a force for desegregation". In 1969, a Girl Scout initiative called Action 70 was created that aimed to eliminate prejudice. Gloria D. Scott, an African American, was elected national president of GSUSA in 1975.

Wing Scouts
The Wing Scouts was a Senior Girl Scout program for girls interested in aviation. It was started in 1941 and ended in the 1970s. In July 1942, 29 troop leaders from 15 states met in Philadelphia for Wing Scout leadership training. They returned to their councils and began the creation of Wing Scout troops. In 1959, the council in San Mateo County, California was presented with an offer from United Airlines to start an aviation program for Senior Girl Scouts. A highlight of the Wing Scout program was a courtesy flight provided to Senior Girl Scouts using United Airlines aircraft. For many of the girls, the flight was their first time being in an airplane. Senior Girl Scouts who had been in the program for three years were given the opportunity to temporarily take control of a small aircraft during flight. The program was discontinued after United Airlines experienced financial issues in the 1970s.

Age levels
In 1938, the age divisions consisted of Brownies (ages 7 through 9), Intermediates (ages 10 through 13), and Seniors (ages 14 through 18).

In 1965, the age divisions were changed to include Brownies (ages 7 and 8, or 2nd and 3rd grade), Juniors (ages 9 through 11, or 4th through 6th grade), Cadettes (ages 11 through 14, or 7th through 9th grade), and Seniors (ages 14 through 18, or 10th through 12th grade).

In the early 1970s, the Brownie level was extended to include girls six years old or in the first grade.

The Daisy program for kindergarten-age girls was started in 1984. The Daisy program succeeded a 1976 pilot program known as Pixies.

In 2003, the Studio 2B program was introduced for Cadettes and Seniors. Under the Studio 2B programs, girls were able to work on traditional badges as well as Studio 2B activities, and the Silver Award and Gold Award requirements were altered to require both. Studio 2B activities differed from badges in that each booklet focused on a topic such as environmentalism or self-confidence rather than being skill-based like a badge.

On October 1, 2008, all levels were renamed to begin with "Girl Scout" (e.g., Girl Scout Brownies instead of Brownie Girl Scouts). Additionally, levels were changed to an exclusively grade-based system, A new level, Girl Scout Ambassadors, was created for girls in grades 11 and 12. Sixth grade girls were reclassified from Junior level to Cadette level in order to conform with the broad reclassification of 6th grade as a middle school grade. The new levels were tested in approximately six councils during the spring of 2008 and were instituted nationally after October 1, 2008.

Although troop membership is the most common way to participate in Girl Scouting, girls who do not have a local troop, or those who are unable or unwilling to participate in their local troop, can still sign up as individual Girl Scouts. Individual Girl Scouts were known in the early years of Girl Scouting as Lone Scouts and later as Juliettes; they attend activities independently and work individually on badges and awards. In 2001, Stefanie Argus, an eighth-grade student, created Juliettes, an official designation for independent Girl Scouts, as her Silver Award Project. "I wanted to create something to tell other girls who left their troops they belong to the Girl Scouts," Argus said. In 2015–2016, the term Juliette was phased out at the national level, in favor of the term Independent Girl Scouts, although some councils still use the term, Juliette.

Mariner Scouts
The 20th National Council of GSUSA launched the Mariner Girl Scout program in October 1934. Similar to the Boy Scouts of America's Sea Scouting, the program was designed for older Girl Scouts interested in outdoor water-based activities. By the end of 1934, 12 Mariner ships were registered and the first two handbooks, launching a Girl Scout Mariner Ship and Charting the Course of a Girl Scout Mariner Ship, were published. The Mariner Girl Scout program remains active but in a smaller form; most girls have instead joined Sea Scouting, which has been coed since 1971.

Special programs
There are programs for girls in very unusual situations that make it difficult for them to participate in the standard given programs. The Girl Scouts "Beyond Bars program" helps daughters of incarcerated mothers connect with their mothers and helps mothers participate in Girl Scout activities. Another program, Girl Scouting in Detention Centers, allows girls who are themselves in detention centers to participate in Scouting. Other initiatives try to help girls in rural areas or in public housing. There are also programs for American girls living overseas, and girls whose families are experiencing homelessness or are living in temporary housing.

Organizational structure
The national organization is headquartered in New York City. It is headed by a chief executive officer and a 30-member board of directors. Bonnie Barczykowski currently serves as the chief executive officer and was officially appointed in February 2023. The president of the board of directors is Noorain Khan.

Councils operate below the national leadership; they usually cover a large portion of a state or geographic region. Some councils own and run camps for the troops within their area of responsibility. Councils are usually subdivided into areas, variously known as neighborhoods, service units, or associations. These are program delivery areas that consist of troops at all age levels in a smaller area, such as a town.

The basic unit is the troop which may or may not be sponsored. In contrast to Boy Scout troop-chartered organizations, Girl Scout troop sponsors do not own the troop. Troops range in size from as small as 5 to as large as 30 or more girls and may be divided into several patrols of 8 or fewer girls.

Realignment
In 2004, Girl Scouts of the USA hired a consultant "to help Girl Scouts develop a strategy to ensure our future success and growth." Six "gap teams" looked at ways Girl Scouts could improve its structure in order to ensure the future growth and success of the organization. This followed declines in both membership and revenue, as well as challenges in subsidizing programs in urban areas. The governance gap team found that consolidation decreased confusion and provided economies of scale and recommended an optimal council size of approximately 10,000 girls. This left 312 regional Girl Scout councils, which administrate 236,000 local troops and other groups. In 2004, the board of directors consolidated the 312 councils into 109 councils.

In response to the consolidation, the Manitou Girl Scout council in Wisconsin sued GSUSA in the district court, alleging a breach of the Girl Scout charter. The suit was summarily dismissed with prejudice. The Seventh U.S. Circuit of Appeals overturned the decision, stating that a Girl Scout council agreement "was no different than a Dunkin' Donuts franchise." The decision of the appeals court maintained the status of the Manitou council. As a result, there are 112 Girl Scout councils in the United States.

Promise, Law, Motto, and Slogan
Promise

The Girl Scout Promise can be communicated in English, Spanish, or in American Sign Language, carrying the same meaning: On my honor, I will try: To serve God* and my country, To help people at all times, And to live by the Girl Scout Law

in accordance with their own spiritual beliefs.
 * Members may substitute for the word God

The Promise is often recited at Girl Scout troop meetings while holding up the three middle fingers of the right hand, forming the Girl Scout sign. Girl Scout policy states that the organization does not endorse or promote any particular philosophy or religious belief. The movement is nonsectarian and secular. In this context, the word "God" may be interpreted by each Girl Scout depending on her individual spiritual beliefs, and Girl Scouts are free to substitute the word consistent with their beliefs, such as "Creator", "my faith", "Allah", etc. Many Girl Scouts use the word "Community" or "Good" as a substitution.

Law

The current version of the Girl Scout Law reads as follows: I will do my best to be honest and fair, friendly and helpful, considerate and caring, courageous and strong, and responsible for what I say and do, and to respect myself and others, respect authority, use resources wisely, make the world a better place, and be a sister to every Girl Scout.

The Girl Scout Law has been changed several times since 1912. The original Girl Scout Law written by Juliette Gordon Low was:

A Girl Scout's honor is to be trusted A Girl Scout is loyal A Girl Scout's duty is to be useful and to help others A Girl Scout is a friend to all, and a sister to every other girl scout no matter to what social class she may belong A Girl Scout is courteous A Girl Scout keeps herself pure A Girl Scout is a friend to animals A Girl Scout obeys orders A Girl Scout is cheerful A Girl Scout is thrifty

Motto

Be prepared.

Slogan

Do a good turn daily.

Girl Scout uniforms

For girls ages 5 to 14, the unifying look includes wearing a choice of a tunic, vest, sash for displaying official pins and awards, combined with their own solid white shirts and khaki pants or skirts. Girl Scouts in high school can also wear a scarf that unites their look with the sisterhood of Girl Scouts around the world. For adult members the unifying look of the uniform is a Girl Scout official scarf or tie for men, worn with the official membership pins, combined with their own navy-blue business attire. Girl Scouts at the Daisy and Brownie levels will continue to have a full uniform ensemble available.

Girl Scout uniforms have changed significantly over the years from the original navy blue in 1912, to khaki in 1914, to the familiar green. The evolution has included uniforms with the specificity to designate each age level of Girl Scouting. Since 2008, Girl Scouts at each level have one required element (tunic, sash or vest) for the display of official pins and awards which will be required when girls participate in ceremonies or officially represent the Girl Scout Movement.

For all levels, earned awards go on the front of the vest or sash following official placements. Fun patches can be displayed on the back of a vest or sash. Girl Scout Daisies can choose a blue vest or a smock with a full uniform or white shirt and khaki pants and skirt. They have their own Daisy pin and a choice of accessories. Girl Scout Brownies can choose a traditional brown vest or sash to be worn with the historic Brownie pin and other uniform pieces or white shirt and khaki pants or skirts. Girl Scout Juniors wear their official vest or sash to display insignia including awards, coupled with a white shirt and khaki pants or skirt. Girl Scout Cadettes, Seniors, and Ambassadors can choose a khaki sash or vest to go with khaki pants or skirt and a white shirt.

The adult uniform also changed, with registered women and men wearing navy blue business attire, again from their regular wardrobes. Also available for women are official sweaters and an insignia scarf, while men have the option of an official tie.

Logos
The emblem designed by Juliette Low was the only emblem used for Girl Scout pins through 1980. At the 1978 GSUSA National Convention, the use of two logos was voted on, allowing Girl Scouts to pick which they wanted to wear as their Girl Scout pin (for Girl Scout Juniors and up).

The current Girl Scouts of the USA logo is a rejuvenation of the original logo based on Saul Bass' 1978 design, Bass being a graphic designer known for his motion picture title sequences and design of various other well-known logos. In 2010, the hair and facial styles were updated by Jennifer Kinnon and Bobby C. Martin, Jr. of The Original Champions of Design.

Activities and programs
One of the original and continuing attractions of Girl Scouts is that girls become proficient campers and participate in many outdoor activities such as canoeing or backpacking with their troops. Troops do service projects such as carrying out flag ceremonies, collecting food for food drives, visiting nursing homes, and Christmas caroling or other community services. Troops may also plan and take extended trips within the United States or even to another country. Troops may organize cultural or learning events such as first-aid training or attending live theater. The Girl Scout activity most familiar to the general public may be the annual sale of Girl Scout Cookies, which started in 1917 as a money-earning opportunity for councils and troops.

Girl Scouts and STEM
Girl Scouts has incorporated STEM-related programs and badges to encourage more interest in Scouts in STEM fields. From 2005 to 2007, more than 8.6 million STEM-related badges were earned. The first STEM-related Girl Scout badges, though, can be traced back to the 1913 Electrician and Flyer Badges. The first computer-related badges appeared in the 1980s. In 2001, The Girl Scout Research Institute, published a 36-page report about the need for more encouragement to get girls into the field of technology. An even larger push for STEM programs came after a 2012 study by the Girl Scout Research Institute reported that 74% of teenage girls were interested in courses in STEM subjects while only 25% of STEM industry jobs were held by women. Recent endeavors to encourage interest in STEM fields amongst Girl Scouts includes partnerships with companies like NASA, AT&T, and Lockheed Martin. NASA specifically paired the Girl Scouts with the SETI Institute to create a 5-year space education program called "Reaching for the Stars: NASA Science for Girl Scouts." The most recent push to help Girl Scouts imagine a future in STEM was the Girl Scout's appearance at the International Consumer Electronics Show in January 2016 to show off Digital Cookie 2.0, a website made in partnership with Dell and Visa, that helps Girl Scouts manage their cookie business online.

There are four Girl Scout FIRST Robotics Competition teams: Space Cookies Team 1868, Lady Cans Team 2881, Gadget Girls Team 4816, and Tin Mints Team 4574. The Space Cookies are based at NASA Ames Research Center and were the first all-girls team to reach the finals at FRC world championships. They are known for their extensive community outreach and work to expand menstrual equity and eliminate period poverty. The Space Cookies helped launch the Girl Scout STEM Pledge, a national initiative to reduce the gender gap in STEM fields by bringing millions of girls into the STEM pipeline.

Girl Scouts currently has 127 badges and journeys under the STEM category. In 2020, Girl Scouts announced the addition of 24 new badges in STEM, entrepreneurship, and leadership.

The Automotive, Coding for Good, Cybersecurity, Mechanical Engineering, and Robotics badges are all series of three awards that cover different areas in their respective topics. These badges can be earned separately but are all related by the topic that they cover. Additionally, these badges mostly have the same name across levels, but have unique requirements for each level that get more complex and in-depth through the different age levels.

In June 2017, Girl Scouts announced a partnership with Palo Alto Networks to create 18 cybersecurity badges by September 2018.

International convention
Every three years Girl Scouts holds an international convention, featuring voting on policies and procedures, as well as guest speakers and activities and events for upwards of 10,000 girls and Girl Scout alums. The 2020 convention was conducted virtually due to concerns about COVID-19, and the next convention will be held in 2023 at Walt Disney World in Florida.

Destinations
Once known as "Wider Opportunities" or Wider Ops, Destinations are travel opportunities for individual older Girl Scouts. Destinations are held within the United States and in other countries. Destinations are primarily international, outdoor, science, people, or apprenticeship oriented, such as kayaking in Alaska, or career oriented such as learning about working for NASA.

A "Destination" may be a trip to one of the WAGGGS World Centers:

 * Our Cabaña in Cuernavaca, Mexico
 * Our Chalet in Adelboden, Switzerland
 * Pax Lodge in London, England
 * Sangam World Centre in Pune, India
 * Kusafiri in Africa

Traditions
The Girl Scouts of the USA have many customs and traditions: camping, community service, singing, and money earning to support their activities. The Girl Scout Handshake and the Girl Scout signal for silence are two shared by WAGGGS member organizations. Other traditions include the Friendship Circle with "the squeeze," taking bandanas and homemade sit-upons on camping trips, and the buddy system.

"Bridging" is the process of going from one level to another. Bridging is usually done at the troop level, although area bridgings are often held. The girls that are bridging walk across a bridge to their new level and are greeted with the Girl Scout Handshake. There is a notable bridging ceremony held in San Francisco, as GS Juniors bridge to GS Cadettes over the Golden Gate Bridge.

World Thinking Day and "Girl Scouts' Own" are traditions throughout the world of Girl Scouting. World Thinking Day has occurred annually since 1926 on February 22, the birthday of both Robert Baden-Powell and Olave Baden-Powell. On World Thinking Day, Girl Scouts and Guides around the world think about their sisters in other lands; Councils or local service units (associations) hold a celebration on or near this day, in which each participating troop gives a presentation of the culture and customs of a country selected by the troop. Many Girl Scouts in America celebrate Juliette Gordon Low's birthday on October 31, Founder's Day. The parties often include the girls dressing up in Halloween costumes and serving birthday cake.

A "Girl Scouts' Own" is a special ceremony that expresses the spirit of Girl Scouting when the girls reflect upon their feelings about Girl Scouting and the world around them. A "Girl Scouts' Own" can have any theme, or none at all. It is a solemn time given for Girl Scouts to create a moment of their very own. It can be held at any time and include the girls' troop or be held at any inter-troop gathering.

Badges and other awards
All levels of Girl Scouts can earn badges. Each level has specific badges that can be earned. Daisies earn badges shaped like flowers. Brownies earn badges shaped like triangles. Juniors earn badges shaped like circles. Cadettes earn badges shaped like diamonds. Seniors earn badges shaped like rectangles. Ambassadors earn badges shaped like squares.

Earned Badges and Awards are worn on the front of a Girl Scout's vest (or sash). Fun Patches are worn on the back of the vest. Daisies wear blue vests. Brownies wear brown vests. Juniors wear green vests. Cadettes, Seniors, and Ambassadors wear khaki vests. For Cadettes, Seniors, and Ambassadors, a Girl Scout may choose to wear the same khaki vest for all three levels. Active Girl Scouts, who earn a lot of badges, may opt to get a new khaki vest when they change levels, so they have more room to display their awards.

Journey awards
Each level of Girl Scouting has multiple Journey programs. A Journey is a series of lessons on a particular topic. The Journeys are made up of multiple parts and all parts of the Journey must be earned for it to be complete. A Girl Scout who completes three Journeys at one level earns a Summit Pin. Before beginning work on a Bronze, Silver, or Gold Award project, a Girl Scout must complete one Journey at her level. A Girl Scout who did not earn her Silver Award must complete two Journeys at her current level, instead of one, to work on her Gold Award.

Additional awards
Girl Scouts can earn other awards, usually represented by pins. Some of these awards are: Leadership Torch, Community Service Bar, Service to Girl Scouting Bar, Bronze Cross, Medal of Honor, Cookie Activity Pin, Safety Pin, My Promise My Faith Pin, Counselor in Training I & II, Volunteer in Training, World Thinking Day Award, and Global Action Award.

Girl Scouts can also earn and display on their uniform awards from outside organizations, such as the religious emblems from religious organizations, or the President's Volunteer Service Award.

Highest awards
The highest achievement in Girl Scouting is the Girl Scout Gold Award, which can only be earned by Girl Scout Seniors and Ambassadors. The highest award for Girl Scout Cadettes is the Silver Award, and Bronze Award is the highest award for Girl Scout Juniors. These awards require large-scale service projects showing leadership along with service hours.

The Gold Award is the highest honor a Girl Scout can earn. This award can be earned by Girl Scout Seniors and Girl Scout Ambassadors. This prestigious award represents a Girl Scout's dedication and commitment to Girl Scouting and to her community. Earning the Girl Scout Gold Award requires hard work and a willingness to take on significant responsibility. For many, the leadership and organizational skills and sense of community and commitment that come from earning the Gold Award set the foundation for a lifetime of active citizenship. The Gold Award project takes a minimum of 80 hours to complete.

The Silver Award, the highest honor a Girl Scout Cadette can earn, gives girls the chance to do big things and make their community better in the process. The Silver Award takes the participants through a seven-step process: identify an issue, build a Girl Scout Silver Award team, explore the community needs, choose a project, develop the project, make a plan, and put it into motion. The Silver Award project takes a minimum of 50 hours to complete.

The Bronze Award, the highest honor a Girl Scout Junior can earn, requires girls to learn the leadership and planning skills necessary to follow through on a project that makes a positive impact on her community. Working toward this award demonstrates a Girl Scout's commitment to helping others, improving her community and the world, and becoming the best she can be. The Bronze Award project takes a minimum of 20 hours to complete.

Adult recognition
There are also GS awards for adults including: Outstanding Volunteer, Outstanding Leader, Appreciation Pin, Honor Pin, Thanks Badge, and Thanks Badge II. Outstanding Volunteer is awarded for Outstanding service as Girl Scout volunteer (other than a leader). Outstanding Leader is awarded for Outstanding service as Girl Scout leader. Appreciation Pin is awarded for exceptional performance beyond expectations for the position. The Honor Pin recognizes an adult member who has delivered exceptional service beyond expectations to two or more geographic areas, service units or program delivery audiences in a way that furthers the council's goals. Thanks Badge recognizes outstanding service for a Council as a whole or the Girl Scout Movement as a whole. Different GS councils use different terminology for regions within their council. Thanks Badge II is awarded where the recipient has received the Thanks Badge and the recipient's service continues to merit further recognition. At least one nomination, two endorsements, and a review of the forms is required for each of these awards.

Effect on American life
Among the many famous American Girl Scouts are Taylor Swift, Sonia Sotomayor, Dakota Fanning, Lucille Ball, Katie Couric, and Elizabeth Dole. Many Girl Scouts have become successful leaders in numerous professional fields such as law, medicine, politics, journalism, and science. Beginning with Lou Henry Hoover, the incumbent First Lady has served as the Honorary President of GSUSA. Lou Henry Hoover was also the actual President of the Girl Scouts from 1922 to 1925 and Chairman of the National board of directors from 1925 to 1928. A 1994 Chronicle of Philanthropy poll showed Girl Scouts ranked by the public as the eighth "most popular charity/non-profit in America" among more than 100 charities.

During World War I and World War II, girls involved in Scouts helped the Allied forces by selling defense bonds, growing victory gardens, and collecting waste fat and scrap iron. Girl Scouts also spread their values into their communities through community service projects such as soup kitchens and food drives.

Over twenty of NASA's female career astronauts were former Girl Scouts. The first American woman to spacewalk was a former Girl Scout, Dr. Kathryn Sullivan.

The American Girl
The Girl Scouts published their own magazine from 1917 to 1979. The name changed from The Rally (1917–1920) to The American Girl (eventually dropping "The"). Circulation exceeded 200,000 in the 1940s, and reached as high as 510,000 per month by 1949. It can be confused with American Girl magazine, 1992–2019. This magazine had the highest circulation among those that targeted teenage girls in 2005.

Girl Scout Senior Roundups
International Girl Scout gatherings named Senior Roundups were held every three years from 1956 until 1965:
 * Milford, Michigan (1956) attended by 5,000 girls
 * Colorado Springs, Colorado, from July 3, 1959, to July 12, 1959, with 10,000 girls
 * Button Bay, Vermont from July 18, 1962, to July 31, 1962, with 9,000 girls
 * Farragut Reservation, Idaho, from July 17, 1965, to July 26, 1965, with 12,000 girls

Non-sectarian founding
When the Girl Scouts were first organized, the organization claimed to be "non-sectarian in practice as well as theory". By the early 1920s, Catholic Girl Scout units had been founded in New York, Philadelphia, Washington and other cities. In the 1920s, about 2,000 Girl Scouts were Catholic. During this time, the organization upheld standards which were consistent with the beliefs of the Catholic religion. From its founding in 1912, it had Jewish leaders and scouts.

"To serve God" in the Promise
Since 1993, Girl Scouts have been able to substitute something appropriate to their own beliefs for the phrase "To serve God" in the Girl Scout Promise. This option appears in the guidelines distributed to adult volunteers but not in the actual girls' books. Official volunteer documentation contains this note:

"Girl Scouts of the USA makes no attempt to define or interpret the word 'God' in the Girl Scout Promise. It looks to individual members to establish for themselves the nature of their spiritual beliefs. When making the Girl Scout Promise, individuals may substitute wording appropriate to their own spiritual beliefs for the word 'God.'"

This note or a shorter variant also frequently appears on local council web pages.

Volunteers are reminded "to be sensitive to the spiritual beliefs of the girls in your group and to make sure that everyone in the group feels comfortable and included in Girl Scouting" and to feel free to share the policy with the girls' families.

The policy change was prompted by lawsuits and attempts to be more inclusive. Atheist parents sued the Boy Scouts of America in 1991 for denying membership in the Cub Scouts to their sons. Considering this news, the Totem Girl Scout Council of Seattle attempted to change the Girl Scout Promise to make mention of "God" optional, which would be more inclusive of local non-theist Native American and Southeast Asian girls. After the national organization asserted this could not be changed locally, the Seattle council advocated that the change be adopted nation-wide. In November 1992, the parents of Nitzia Cuevas-Macias sued for their daughter to be permitted to participate in the Girl Scouts even though she refused to promise to serve God.

On October 23, 1993, at the Girl Scouts of the USA annual national convention, delegates voted 1,560 "yes" against 375 "no" to permit individuals to substitute another word or phrase for "God" in their promise. The convention gave this explanation:

"For some individuals, the word 'God', no matter how broadly interpreted, does not appropriately reflect their spiritual beliefs. Since the belief in a spiritual principle is fundamental to Girl Scouting, not the word used to define that belief, it is important that individuals have the opportunity to express that belief in wording meaningful to them. It is essential to maintain the spiritual foundation of Girl Scouting, yet be inclusive of the full range of spiritual beliefs. This [policy change] does not take the word 'God' out of the Girl Scout Promise. It gives those individuals who wish to do so the option to state their commitment to the spiritual concepts fundamental to the Movement with a word or words more appropriate to their own beliefs. For instance, an individual may say 'my faith' or 'Allah' or 'the Creator'."

This policy change settled the Cuevas-Macias lawsuit.

Some consider that the Girl Scouts of the USA have not gone far enough in making Scouting open to non-theists; others that they have gone too far in removing God or that they are violating the constitution of the WAGGGS. In 2017, some parents still find the perceived religious aspects of the Girl Scouts enough of a reason not to sign up their daughters to participate. The WAGGGS constitution requires member societies to maintain membership standards to include a promise similar to the one established by Baden-Powell, which includes the concept of duty to God. The GSUSA policy adopted in 1993 led to the 1995 formation of an alternative organization, the American Heritage Girls that accepts only leaders and chartering organizations that agree with a specific Christian statement of faith. The organization had a little over 5,000 members in 2006. According to the organization, membership as of 2017 is over 43,000.

Prayer at meetings
The official Girl Scout policy does not ban or require prayer.

"The Girl Scout organization does not endorse or promote any particular philosophy or religious belief. Our movement is secular and is founded on American democratic principles, one of which is freedom of religion.

Although Girl Scouts has policies supporting religious diversity, there is no policy by Girl Scouts of the USA that prohibits or requires the saying or singing of a grace, blessing, or invocation before meals by Girl Scout members in a troop/group setting, in a resident or day camp, or at meetings, conferences, and other large events. The decision to say a grace, blessing, or invocation is made locally at the troop or group level, and should be sensitive to the spiritual beliefs of all participants."

Religious pin
Girl Scouts of the USA has an optional "My Promise, My Faith" pin which girls in all grades may earn. Girls may also do religious recognition programs and wear the resulting emblem on their uniform; however, these are created and administered by the religious organizations and not by the Girl Scouts directly.

Sexuality and gender issues
Girl Scouts of the USA stated in an October 1991 letter: "As a private organization, Girl Scouts of the U.S.A. respects the values and beliefs of each of its members and does not intrude into personal matters. Therefore, there are no membership policies on sexual preference. However, Girl Scouts of the U.S.A. has firm standards relating to the appropriate conduct of adult volunteers and staff. The Girl Scout organization does not condone or permit sexual displays of any sort by its members during Girl Scout activities, nor does it permit the advocacy or promotion of a personal lifestyle or sexual preference. These are private matters for girls and their families to address." GSUSA upholds a "don't ask, don't evangelize" policy on sexuality. The debate over this issue is split between those who feel that the policy should avoid and prevent discrimination on the grounds of sexual orientation, and those who question the inclusion of lesbians.

In October 2011, the Girl Scouts of Colorado council publicly stated, "If a child identifies as a girl and the child's family presents her as a girl, Girl Scouts of Colorado welcomes her as a Girl Scout", when overturning a local troop's rejection of a seven-year-old transgender girl. In July 2015, the Girl Scouts of Western Washington returned a $100,000 donation after the donor stipulated that the money could not be used to support services for transgender Scouts. The group then set up an online fundraising campaign to recoup the lost funds, ultimately raising $250,000.

In January 2012, a teen in California created a video calling for the boycott of Girl Scout Cookies in response to the Girl Scouts' policy of inclusion for transgender girls. The viral video became a rallying cry for both supporters and opponents of the group's stance on transgender members. In February 2016, Robert James Carlson, the Roman Catholic archbishop of St. Louis, urged parishioners to cut ties with the Girl Scouts over the group's embrace of LGBT rights.

The Girl Scouts themselves defended their actions against this. "For 100 years, Girl Scouts has prided itself on being an inclusive organization serving girls from all walks of life. We handle cases involving transgender children on a case-by-case basis, with a focus on ensuring the welfare and best interests of the child in question and the other girls in the troop as our highest priority."

Local objections to sex education sponsored by Planned Parenthood in Waco, Texas
GSUSA is not aligned with and does not endorse, at the national level, the reproductive health organization Planned Parenthood; Girl Scout councils may choose to have or not have connections with Planned Parenthood. In 2003, in Waco, Texas, the local Bluebonnet Council was listed as a co-sponsor, with the Girl Scouts logo printed on the promotional flyer, of the Planned Parenthood of Central Texas event titled "Nobody's Fool '03: Dating, Love, Sex & HIV." In 2004, the same Council promoted a Planned Parenthood education event without providing money nor sending Girl Scouts to it. This was criticized by some anti-abortion movement supporters and social conservatives, resulting in a local attempt to boycott Girl Scout cookies sold by the Bluebonnet Council. Waco residents responded to the announced boycott by purchasing a record number of cookies, and the Bluebonnet Council dropped promotion of the event. A month later, GSUSA CEO Kathy Cloninger went on NBC's Today show, defending the Bluebonnet Council's decision to sever ties with Planned Parenthood.

The Radical Brownies
In 2014, Marilyn Hollinquest and Ana Yvette Martinez, both women of color, founded the Radical Brownies, a community group for girls of color in Oakland, California. Similar to the GSUSA, but created specifically for girls of color, the Radical Brownies endeavors to "empower and encourage" girls of color and cultivate sisterhood and community bonds between them.

According to the Radical Brownies' mission statement at the time of its founding, its aim was to empower young girls of color to "step into their collective power" and to make the world a more "radical" place. The Radical Brownies wear brown berets and vests in homage to the Brown Berets and Black Panther movements. The group's members, ages 8–12 years old, can earn badges in "radical beauty," "food justice," and "radical self-love."

Name controversy
In February 2015, despite Radical Brownies co-founder Hollinquest clarifying that the group claimed no affiliation with the GSUSA, the GSUSA contacted the Radical Brownies organization and informed them that their troop's name and uniforms caused "some confusion" among GSUSA membership. According to GSUSA Chief Communications Officer Kelly Parisi, once the founders of the Radical Brownies were notified of the misunderstanding, they offered to change the group's name.

In May that same year, the Radical Brownies renamed themselves the Radical Monarchs.

Presidents

 * Juliette Gordon Low (1915–1920)
 * Anne Hyde Choate (1920–1922)
 * Lou Henry Hoover (1922–1925) (1935–1937)
 * Sarah Louise Arnold (1925–1943) (first Dean of Simmons College, 1902–1921)
 * Mira Hoffman (1926–1930) (Mrs. William H. Hoffman)
 * Birdsall Otis Edey (1930–1935) (Mrs. Frederick Edey) (after ceasing to be president she became National Commissioner for the Girl Scouts until her death in 1940)
 * Henrietta Bates Brooke (1937–1939) (Mrs. Frederick H. Brooke) (died 1967, her husband was the architect Frederick H. Brooke who designed the District of Columbia War Memorial)
 * Mildred Mudd (1939–1941) (she later supported the founding of Harvey Mudd College named after her husband, Harvey Seeley Mudd)
 * Helen Means (1941–1945) (Mrs. Alan H. Means) Later chairwoman of the World Board (WAGGGS) (1952–1957)
 * Harriet Rankin Ferguson (1946–1951) (Mrs. Vaughan C. Ferguson)
 * Olivia Cameron Higgins Layton (1951–1957) (Mrs. Roy F. Layton) (died 1975)
 * Marjorie Mehne Culmer (1958–1963) (Mrs. Charles U. Culmer) (later chair of WAGGGS, died in 1994)
 * Margaret W. Price (1963–1969) (Mrs. Holton R. Price Jr.) (died in 1973)
 * Grace M. S. McKittrick MacNeil (1969–1972) (Mrs. Douglas H. MacNeil) (died in 2000)
 * Marjorie Motch (1972–1975)
 * Gloria Randle Scott (1975–1978)
 * Jane C. Shields Freeman (1978–1984) (her husband is Orville Freeman)
 * Betty Fuller Pilsbury (1984–1990), she received the Silver Buffalo Award in 1986.
 * B. LaRae Orullian (1990–1996)
 * Elinor Johnstone Ferdon (1996–1999)
 * Connie L. Matsui (1999–2002)
 * Cynthia B. Thompson (2002–2005)
 * Patricia Diaz Dennis (2005–2008)
 * Connie L. Lindsey (2008–2013)
 * Kathy Hopinkah Hannan (2014–2020)
 * Karen P. Layng (2020–2023)
 * Noorain Khan (2023–present)

Chief executive officers
The title has changed over the years.

National Secretaries:
 * Edith D. Johnston (June 1913 – June 1914)
 * Cora Neal (June 1914 – June 1916)
 * Montague Gammon (June 1916 – August 1917)

National Directors:
 * Abby Porter Leland (August 1917 – February 1919)
 * Jane Deeter Rippin (February 1919 – November 1930)
 * Josephine Schain (November 1930 – September 1935)
 * Constance Rittenhouse (September 1935 – December 1950)

National Executive Directors:
 * Dorothy C. Stratton (December 1950 – July 1960)
 * Sally Stickney Cortner (July 1960 – May 1961) (Interim)
 * Louise A. Wood (May 1961 – April 1972)
 * Dr. Cecily Cannan Selby (April 1972 – September 1975)
 * Frank H. Kanis (September 1975 – July 1976) (Interim)
 * Frances Hesselbein (July 1976– February 1990) was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1998 in part for her work in Girl Scouts.
 * Mary Rose Main (February 1990– October 1997)
 * Joel E. Becker (October 1997– January 1998) (Interim)
 * Marsha Johnson Evans (January 1998– July 2002): retired rear admiral, left the Girl Scouts to become president of the American Red Cross

Chief executive officers:
 * Jackie Barnes (July 2002– October 2003) (Interim)
 * Kathy Cloninger (October 2003– November 2011)
 * Anna Maria Chávez (November 2011– June 2016)
 * Sylvia Acevedo (July 2016– August 2020) (Served in interim capacity from July 2016– May 2017)
 * Judith Batty (August 16, 2020– January 27, 2022) (Interim)
 * Sofia Chang (January 27, 2022 – February 2023)
 * Bonnie Barczykowski (February 2023–present)

100th anniversary
GSUSA celebrated the 100th anniversary of its founding by Juliette Low with a "Bridge to the Second Century" event on November 13, 2011, at the GS National Convention in Houston and other sites around the country. The Anniversary was also celebrated by participation in the world-famous Pasadena, California Tournament of Roses Parade of 2012, featuring the Girl Scouts 100th Anniversary float, which was designed and decorated by Girl Scouts.

US President Barack Obama signed the "Girl Scouts of the USA Commemorative Coin Act" for the 100th Anniversary celebration. The act authorized the minting of 350,000 silver dollar coins in honor of Girl Scouts and the achievements of the 50 million women influenced by Girl Scouting during the last 100 years.

Colorado staged a vigorous campaign to create a special license plate to honor the Girl Scout Centennial. The Girl Scouts of Minnesota and Wisconsin River Valleys hosted "The Great Girl Gathering", a Centennial Celebration on March 10 and 11, 2012 for 140,000 girls at the Mall of America in Bloomington, Minnesota.

Build-A-Bear Workshop had a limited-edition Girl Scout bear and outfits for the 100th anniversary.

The Girl Scout Council of the Nation's Capital in Washington, DC hosted a 100th Anniversary Sing-Along on the National Mall, on June 9, 2012, called Girl Scouts Rock the Mall: 100th Anniversary Sing-Along. The Rock the Mall event drew more than 200,000 people to the national mall to celebrate Girl Scouting and cost $ 2 million.

Girl life-sized Scouts of Citrus, in partnership with Walt Disney World, held a special 100th anniversary bridging event on May 25–28, 2012. The Bridging into the Next Century event provides Girl Scouts from all over the country an opportunity to celebrate the spirit of Girl Scouting at Epcot.

Cincinnati Museum Center held a daytime and overnight event to celebrate in partnership with the Girl Scouts of Western Ohio, who Ohio designed an exhibit, which was on display for free until May 13, 2012. The exhibit displays old uniforms, literature and discussed the role of the Girl Scouts for the last 100 years.

GSUSA made a new cookie called Savannah Smiles to commemorate the anniversary.

The Girl Scouts of Northeast Texas hosted the Girl Scouts national exhibition at the 2012 State Fair of Texas in the historic Hall of State. At the State Fair of Texas, visitors were able to indulge on a Fried Samoa, be part of a virtual campfire, walk through a life – sized cookie box and see a replica of Juliette Gordon Low's house.

In Savannah, Georgia where Girl Scouting was founded, they hosted a "Party in the Park" in Forsyth Park where there was a Centennial Honor Guard consisting of girls wearing vintage uniforms from the Girl Scout First Headquarters. The uniforms were; from 1912 (replica) 1914 1928 1940s 1960s 1970s 1980s and the current.

The city of Savannah closed part of the Talmadge Bridge so girls could walk the bridge and "Bridge to the next century. "Savannah also had a "Sunrise Service" with the CEO, Anna Maria Chavez. The Honor guard from the park carried the Eternal Flame.

The city of Savannah dedicated their annual "Georgia Day" to Juliette.

Similar organizations
Camp Fire Girls was founded in 1910, two years prior to the Girl Scouts, by some of the creators of the Boy Scouts of America. In 1975, the group became co-educational and soon afterwards changed its name to "Camp Fire Boys and Girls". The name was changed to Camp Fire USA in 2001 and to Camp Fire in 2012. As of 2009, the group has a membership of about 750,000.

Various religious groups have established their own youth clubs such as Missionettes (now Mpact Girls) for the Assemblies of God. Little Flowers Girls' Club is a Catholic-focused girls club. GEMS Girls' Clubs is a non-denominational group with a Calvinist/Reformed background. Pioneer Girls started as a Methodist group but is non-denominational. The Masonic Lodge which requires belief in a Supreme Being has their own set of service organizations targeted at young and teenage girls, The International Order of the Rainbow for Girls and Job's Daughters International.

One youth group explicitly set up as a Christian alternative to the Girl Scouts is the American Heritage Girls (AHG), started in 1995 in West Chester, Ohio, by a group of parents upset with available female Scouting organizations. AHG is a Christian organization that states that it is "a nonprofit organization dedicated to the mission of building women of integrity through service to God, family, community and country." As of 2020, it claims a membership (adult and youth) of over 50,000.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Girl Scouts of the USA


text:
Kahului Airport

Kahului Airport is the main airport of Maui in the state of Hawaii, United States, located east of Kahului. It has offered full airport operations since 1952. Most flights into Kahului Airport originate from Daniel K. Inouye International Airport in Honolulu; the Honolulu–Kahului corridor is one of the heaviest-trafficked air routes in the US, ranking 13th in 2004 with 1,632,000 passengers.

The IATA airport code OGG pays homage to aviation pioneer Bertram J. "Jimmy" Hogg, a Kauai native and aviation pioneer who worked for what is now Hawaiian Airlines, flying aircraft ranging from eight-passenger Sikorsky S-38 amphibians to Douglas DC-3s and DC-9s into the late 1960s.

It is included in the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems for 2021–2025, in which it is categorized as a medium-hub primary commercial service facility.

History
Construction started on Naval Air Station Kahului in 1942. After the war, extensive negotiations between the Territory of Hawaii and the Navy resulted in the airbase being turned over to the Hawaii Aeronautics Commission. The Kahului Airport began commercial airline operations in June 1952.

Authority
Kahului Airport is part of a centralized state structure governing all of the airports and seaports of Hawaii. The official authority of Kahului Airport is the Governor of Hawaii. The governor appoints the Director of the Hawaii State Department of Transportation, who has jurisdiction over the Hawaii Airports Administrator.

The Hawaii Airports Administrator oversees six governing bodies: Airports Operations Office, Airports Planning Office, Engineering Branch, Information Technology Office, Staff Services Office, and Visitor Information Program Office. Collectively, the six bodies have authority over the four airport districts in Hawaii: Hawai'i District, Kaua'i District, Maui District and the principal O'ahu District. Kahului Airport is a subordinate of Maui District officials.

Facilities and aircraft
The Kahului Airport terminal building has ticketing, USDA agricultural inspection, and baggage claim areas on the ground level.

Sixteen jetways are available for enplaning or deplaning passengers (there are six gate hold areas designated A–F). Gates with odd numbers have jetway systems, while gates with even numbers are designated as emergency exits and have stairs that lead to the ramp below. The main passenger terminal is divided into two areas, north and south. The south area houses Gates 1–16 with seven aircraft parking positions (sized for four inter-island and three overseas aircraft). The north area houses Gates 17–39 with nine aircraft parking positions (sized for three inter-island and six overseas aircraft). Inter-island gates are Gates 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, and 21. Overseas gates are Gates 1, 5, 7, 23, 27, 29, 33, 35, and 39.

Most of the gates were spaced to handle narrow-body aircraft like the DC-9 and Boeing 737 long used on inter-island flights. In 1982–83 Kahului started receiving nonstop flights from the United States mainland using much larger transoceanic aircraft. Today they include wide-body aircraft, like the Airbus A330, Boeing 767, and Boeing 777, and narrow-body craft like the Boeing 737-800. The smaller aircraft used on inter-island flights fit at all gates, while the larger overseas airliners cannot. Because of the size of the wide-body aircraft, Gates 3, 25, 31, and 37 are rarely used. The air traffic control tower stands 187 ft above mean sea level and was completed in 1988.

The airport is going through expansion authorized by the Hawaii State Legislature. A goal has been set to prepare Kahului Airport to eventually become a permanent international airport with service routes from Canada and Japan. Current flights from Canada use United States border preclearance facilities in Vancouver, Calgary or Edmonton. Under the December 2016 Kahului Airport Master Plan Update, two more aircraft parking positions would be added to the thirteen existing for the main passenger terminal. The current thirteen positions are sized for three inter-island and ten overseas aircraft.

There is one lounge operated by Hawaiian Airlines, the Premier Club, located across from Gate 17.

Airfield
Kahului Airport covers 1,391 acre at an elevation of 54 ft above mean sea level. It has two asphalt runways: 2/20 is 6998 × and 5/23 is 4,980 ×. It also has an asphalt helipad designated H1 measuring 125 ×. Helicopters operate from the area directly east of the approach end of Runway 2. No fixed-wing aircraft are permitted in this area between sunrise and sunset, and fixed-wing operations in this area from sunset to sunrise require prior authorization.

Most commercial flights use Runway 2, which is equipped with a Category I Instrument Landing System. Runway 5 is primarily used for lighter commuter aircraft and general aviation. For noise abatement, flights taking off from Runway 2 are directed to climb straight ahead after takeoff until clear of the shoreline by 1 mi before making any turns. Flights taking off from Runway 5 for destinations east or west are directed to turn left as soon as possible to clear the shoreline by 1 mi; flights from Runway 5 for destinations south are directed to turn right as soon as possible. Flights landing on Runway 2 detour west of Kahului and Wailuku on a heading almost directly south before lining up for landing. Flights landing on Runway 5 follow the coastline and avoid overflying populated areas as much as possible.

Under the OGG Master Plan, Runway 2 would be lengthened (to the south) to 8530 ft by 2021, allowing operations with long-distance aircraft carrying a full load of fuel at maximum take-off weight. This would enable nonstop service from Kahului to Chicago, Dallas, and Denver with Boeing 777-200 aircraft. In addition, a parallel 7000 × runway to 2/20 would be constructed in the future, with a centerline separation of 2500 ft. The parallel runway would enable simultaneous operations and would serve as a backup to Runway 2. Runway 2 has been experiencing pavement distress since 2008, and reconstruction to a concrete surface (from the present grooved asphalt) is recommended.

Expansion
As a result of the passage of Hawaii State Legislature bills in 1998 and 2001, Kahului is planned to undergo expansion for new, larger facilities, lengthening of runways, increasing of fuel storage capacities, and construction of new access roads. The controversial project has met opposition from residents who do not agree with the elevation of Kahului Airport to a permanent international airport. Project opponents cite concerns about increased introduction of invasive species and other issues, as evidenced by the common Maui bumper sticker "Big city airport, big city problems."

In early 2005, Governor Linda Lingle released $365 million for construction of an extended ticketing lobby, new baggage claim carousels, a new Alien Species building, a new cargo building, construction of a new apron, construction of an additional 10 jetways to replace the current jetways, and a new six-lane airport access road that would run from the airport, intersecting Haleakala Highway and Hana Highway, and run parallel to Dairy Road where it would merge with Puunene Avenue (highway 350), Dairy Road, and Kuihelani Highway (highway 380). Construction on the new Airport Access Road began in November 2013, and was completed in July 2016 at a cost of $56 million funded, from rental car facility charges.

A new consolidated rental car facility was opened at Kahului Airport on May 15, 2019. The LEED-certified facility features customer service counters, approximately 3,700 parking spaces for rental cars, and an electric tram running between the terminal and the rental car facility, eliminating the need for shuttle buses.

Public transport
Maui Bus operates two routes that stop at Kahului Airport. Route 35 Haiku Islander and Route 40 Upcountry Islander stop at the airport, both as a third stop from Queen Kaahumanu Center in Kahului, and third to last stop going back to Kahului. Route 35 connects the airport with Paia and Haiku, while Route 40 connects Pukalani, Makawao, and Haliimaile to the airport.

Aloha Airlines Flight 243
On April 28, 1988, Aloha Airlines Flight 243, a Boeing 737-200 inter-island flight from Hilo Airport to Honolulu International Airport carrying 89 passengers and six crew members, experienced explosive decompression when an 18-foot section of the fuselage roof and sides were torn from the aircraft. A flight attendant was sucked out of the aircraft and died. Several passengers sustained life-threatening injuries including massive head wounds. The aircraft declared an emergency and landed at Kahului Airport. Noise created by the rush of air rendered vocal communication impossible, and the pilots had to use hand signals during landing.

Investigations of the disaster, headquartered at Honolulu International Airport, concluded that the accident was caused by metal fatigue. The disaster caused most major United States air carriers to evaluate their older aircraft models.

Aloha Island Air Flight 1712
On October 28, 1989, Aloha Island Air Flight 1712, a de Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter aircraft, collided with mountainous terrain near Halawa Valley, Molokai, while en route on a scheduled passenger flight from Kahului Airport to Molokai Airport in Hoolehua. All 20 aboard the aircraft died. Thirteen of the victims were from Molokai, including eight members of the Molokai High School boys' and girls' volleyball teams and two faculty members. The girls' team had just qualified on Maui for the state tournament.

The NTSB determined the cause of the accident was the airplane's controlled flight into terrain as a result of the decision of the captain to continue to operate the flight under visual flight rules at night into instrument meteorological conditions, which obscured rising mountainous terrain.

Hawaii Air Ambulance
On March 8, 2006, a Hawaii Air Ambulance Cessna 414 was making an approach to Runway 5 when it crashed into a BMW dealership about a mile from the airport. A pilot and two paramedics were killed in the accident.

Hawaiian Airlines Flight 45
On April 20, 2014, a 15-year-old stowed away in a landing gear well of a Hawaiian Airlines jet flying from San Jose International Airport to Kahului Airport. Upon his arrival, he was spotted by authorities, who questioned him about the incident. The teen claimed that he was trying to get to Ethiopia to see his mother.

American Airlines Flight 271
On January 29, 2024, American Airlines Flight 271 made a hard landing at the Kahului Airport. 6 people were injured.

title: Kahului Airport


text:
Cao Xueqin

Cao Xueqin (Pinyin: ); (4 April 1710 — 10 June 1765) was a Chinese novelist and poet during the Qing dynasty. He is best known as the author of Dream of the Red Chamber, one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature. His given name was Cáo Zhān (曹霑) and his courtesy name was Mengruan.

Family
Cao Xueqin was born to a Han Chinese clan that was brought into personal service (as booi aha or bondservants of Cigu Niru) to the Manchu royalty in the late 1610s. His ancestors distinguished themselves through military service in the Plain White Banner (正白旗) of the Eight Banners and subsequently held posts as officials which brought both prestige and wealth.

After the Plain White Banner was put under the direct jurisdiction of the Qing emperor, Cao's family began to serve in civil positions of the Imperial Household Department.

During the Kangxi Emperor's reign, the clan's prestige and power reached its height. Cao Xueqin's grandfather, Cao Yin (曹寅), was a childhood playmate to Kangxi while Cao Yin's mother, Lady Sun (孫氏), was Kangxi's wet nurse. Two years after his ascension, Kangxi appointed Cao Xueqin's great-grandfather, Cao Xi (曹璽), as the Commissioner of Imperial Textiles (織造) in Jiangning (present-day Nanjing), and the family relocated there.

When Cao Xi died in 1684, Cao Yin, as Kangxi's personal confidant, took over the post. Cao Yin was one of the era's most prominent men of letters and a keen book collector. Jonathan Spence notes the strong Manchu element in the lives of these Imperial Household bond servants. They balanced the two cultures: Cao Yin took pleasure in horse riding and hunting and Manchu military culture, but was at the same time a sensitive interpreter of Chinese culture to the Manchus. By the early 18th century, the Cao clan had become so rich and influential as to be able to play host four times to the Kangxi Emperor in his six separate itinerant trips south to the Nanjing region. In 1705, the emperor ordered Cao Yin, himself a poet, to compile all surviving shi (lyric poems) from the Tang dynasty, which resulted in The Complete Poems of the Tang.

When Cao Yin died in 1712, Kangxi passed the office over to Cao Yin's only son, Cao Yong (曹顒). Cao Yong died in 1715. Kangxi then allowed the family to adopt a paternal nephew, Cao Fu (曹頫), as Cao Yin's posthumous son to continue in that position. Hence the clan held the office of Imperial Textile Commissioner at Jiangning for three generations.

The family's fortunes lasted until Kangxi's death and the ascension of the Yongzheng Emperor to the throne. Yongzheng severely attacked the family and in 1727 confiscated their properties, while Cao Fu was thrown in jail. This was ostensibly for their mismanagement of funds, though perhaps this purge was politically motivated. When Cao Fu was released a year later, the impoverished family was forced to relocate to Beijing. Cao Xueqin, still a young child, lived in poverty with his family.

Life
Almost no records of Cao's early childhood and adulthood have survived. Redology scholars are still debating Cao's exact date of birth, though he is known to have been around forty to fifty at his death. Cao Xueqin was the son of either Cao Fu or Cao Yong. It is known for certain that Cao Yong's only son was born posthumously in 1715; some Redologists believe this son might be Cao Xueqin. In the clan register (五慶堂曹氏宗譜), however, Cao Yong's only son was recorded as a certain Cao Tianyou (曹天佑). Further complicating matters for Redologists is the fact that neither the names Cao Zhan nor Cao Xueqin—names that his contemporaries knew him by—can be traced in the register.

Most of what we know about Cao was passed down from his contemporaries and friends. Cao eventually settled in the countryside west of Beijing where he lived the larger part of his later years in poverty selling off his paintings. Cao was recorded as an inveterate drinker. Friends and acquaintances recalled an intelligent, highly talented man who spent a decade working diligently on a work that must have been Dream of the Red Chamber. "Born in the prosperous, finally degenerate." Cao Xueqin's family fate has changed from the status like blooming of flowers to the state of decline, making him deeply experience the sorrow of life and the ruthlessness of the world, and also get rid of the mundanity and narrowness of his original social class. The trend of decadence also brought disillusionment and sentimentality. His tragic experience, his poetic emotion, his spirit of exploration, and his sense of innovation are all cast into "Dream of the Red Chamber". They praised both his stylish paintings, particularly of cliffs and rocks, and originality in poetry, which they likened to Li He's. Cao died some time in 1763 or 1764, leaving his novel in a very advanced stage of completion. (At least the first draft had been completed, some pages of the manuscript were lost after being borrowed by friends or relatives.) He was survived by a wife after the death of a son.

Cao achieved posthumous fame through his life's work. Dream of the Red Chamber is a vivid recreation of an illustrious family at its height and its subsequent downfall, and the novel was "semi-autobiographical" in nature. A small group of close family and friends appeared to have been transcribing his manuscript when Cao died quite suddenly in 1763–4, apparently out of grief owing to the death of a son. Extant handwritten copies of this work—some 80 chapters—had been in circulation in Beijing shortly after Cao's death and scribal copies soon became prized collectors' items.

In 1791, Cheng Weiyuan (程偉元) and Gao E (高鶚), who claimed to have access to Cao's working papers, edited and published a "complete" 120-chapter version. This was its first woodblock print edition. Reprinted a year later with more revisions, this 120-chapter edition is the novel's most printed version. Many modern scholars question the authorship of the last 40 chapters of the novel, whether it was actually completed by Cao Xueqin.

To this very day, Cao continues to be influential on new generations of Chinese novelists and poets, such as Middle Generation's An Qi, who paid homage to him in her poem To Cao Xueqin.

title: Cao Xueqin


text:
Carl Sassenrath

Carl Sassenrath (born 1957 in California) is an architect of operating systems and computer languages. He brought multitasking to personal computers in 1985 with the creation of the Amiga Computer operating system kernel, and he is the designer of the REBOL computer language, REBOL/IOS collaboration environment, the Safeworlds AltME private messaging system, and other products. Carl was a Principal Engineer at Roku, Inc. until his retirement in November 2023.

Background
Carl Sassenrath was born in 1957 to Charles and Carolyn Sassenrath in California. His father was a chemical engineer involved in research and development related to petroleum refining, paper production, and air pollution control systems.

In the late 1960s his family relocated from the San Francisco Bay Area to the small town of Eureka, California. From his early childhood Sassenrath was actively involved in electronics, amateur radio, photography, and filmmaking. When he was 13, Sassenrath began working for KEET, a PBS public broadcasting television station. A year later he became a cameraman for KVIQ (ABC affiliate then) and worked his way up to being technical director and director for news, commercials, and local programming.

In 1980 Sassenrath graduated from the University of California, Davis with a B.S. in EECS (electrical engineering and computer science). During his studies he became interested in operating systems, parallel processing, programming languages, and neurophysiology. He was a teaching assistant for graduate computer language courses and a research assistant in neuroscience and behavioral biology. His uncle, Dr. Julius Sassenrath, headed the educational psychology department at UC Davis, and his aunt, Dr. Ethel Sassenrath, was one of the original researchers of THC at the California National Primate Research Center.

Hewlett-Packard
During his final year at the university, Sassenrath joined Hewlett-Packard's Computer Systems Division as a member of the Multi-Programming Executive (MPE) file system design group for HP 3000 computers. His task was to implement a compiler for a new type of control language called Outqueue—a challenge because the language was both descriptive and procedural. A year later, Sassenrath became a member of the MPE-IV OS kernel team and later part of the HPE kernel group.

While at HP Sassenrath became interested in minimizing the high complexity found in most operating systems of that time and set out to formulate his own concepts of a microkernel-based OS. He proposed them to HP, but found the large company complacent to the "smaller OS" ideas.

In late 1981 and early 1982, Sassenrath took an academic leave to do atmospheric physics research for National Science Foundation at Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station. Upon returning, Sassenrath reached an agreement with HP to pursue independent research into new areas of computing, including graphical user interfaces and remote procedure call methods of distributed computing.

Later in 1982, impressed by the new computing ideas being published from Xerox PARC, Sassenrath formed an HP project to develop the modern style of window-based mouse-driven GUIs. The project, called Probus (for professional business workstation) was created on a prototype Sun Microsystems workstation borrowed from Andy Bechtolsheim while he was at Stanford University. Probus clearly demonstrated the power of graphical user interfaces, and the system also incorporated hyperlinks and early distributed computing concepts.

At HP, Sassenrath was involved with and influenced by a range of HP language projects including Ada, Pascal, Smalltalk, Lisp, Forth, SPL, and a variety of experimental languages.

Amiga
In 1983, Carl Sassenrath joined Amiga Computer, Inc., a small startup company in Silicon Valley. As Manager of Operating Systems he was asked to design a new operating system for the Amiga, an advanced multimedia personal computer system that later became the Amiga.

As a sophisticated computer for its day (Amiga used 28 DMA channels along with multiple coprocessors), Sassenrath decided to create a preemptive multitasking operating system within a microkernel design. This was a novel approach for 1983 when other personal computer operating systems were single tasking such as MS-DOS (1981) and the Macintosh (1984).

The Amiga multitasking kernel was also one of the first to implement a microkernel OS methodology based on a real-time message passing (inter-process communication) core known as Exec (for executive) with dynamically loaded libraries and devices as optional modules around the core.

This design gave the Amiga OS a great extensibility and flexibility within the limited memory capacity of computers in the 1980s. Sassenrath later noted that the design came as a necessity of trying to integrate into ROM dozens of internal libraries and devices including graphics, sound, graphical user interface, floppy disk, file systems, and others. This dynamic modular method also allowed hundreds of additional modules to be added by external developers over the years.

After the release of the Amiga in 1985, Sassenrath left Commodore-Amiga to pursue new programming language design ideas that he had been contemplating since his university days.

Apple Computer
In 1986, Sassenrath was recruited to Apple Computer's Advanced Technology Group (ATG) to invent the next generation of operating systems. He was part of the Aquarius project, a quad-core CPU project (simulated on Apple's own Cray XMP-48) that was intended to become a 3D-based successor to the Macintosh.

During that period, the C++ language had just been introduced, but Sassenrath, along with many other Apple researchers, preferred the more pure OO implementation of the Smalltalk language. Working at ATG with computing legends like Alan Kay, Larry Tesler, Dan Ingalls, Bill Atkinson and others provided Sassenrath with a wealth of resources and knowledge that helped shape his views of computing languages and systems.

Sassenrath Research
In 1988, Sassenrath left Silicon Valley for the mountains of Ukiah valley, 2 hours north of San Francisco. From there he founded multimedia technology companies such as Pantaray, American Multimedia, and VideoStream. He also implemented the Logo programming language for the Amiga, managed the software OS development for CDTV, one of the first CD-ROM TV set-top boxes, and wrote the OS for Viscorp Ed, one of the first Internet TV set-top boxes.

REBOL Technologies
In 1996, after watching the growth and development of programming languages like Java, Perl, and Python, Sassenrath decided to publish his own ideas within the world of computer languages. The result was REBOL, the relative expression-based object language. REBOL is intended to be lightweight, and specifically to support efficient distributed computing.

Sassenrath describes REBOL as a balance between the concepts of context and symbolism, allowing users to create new relationships between symbols and their meanings. By doing so, he attempts to merge the concepts of code, data, and metadata. Sassenrath considers REBOL experimental because it provides greater control over context than most other programming languages. Words can be used to form different grammars in different contexts (called dialecting). Sassenrath claims REBOL is the ultimate endpoint for the evolution of markup language methodologies, such as XML.

In 1998, Sassenrath founded REBOL Technologies, a company he still runs. The company has released several versions of REBOL and produced additional products such as REBOL/View, REBOL/Command, REBOL/SDK, and REBOL/IOS.

Sassenrath implemented REBOL V3.0 and released it to GitHub on December 12, 2012: https://github.com/rebol/r3.

Roku
Since 2010, Sassenrath had worked at Roku, Inc. in product development. He retired in November 2023.

Personal
Sassenrath lives in Ukiah, California, where he grows grapes and makes wine, and is interested in amateur radio, video production, quantum electrodynamics, and boating. He volunteers with the Television Improvement Association, a community organization that brings free, over-the-air television broadcasts into the Ukiah area.

Other references

 * Amiga ROM Kernel Reference Manual: Exec; Carl Sassenrath; Commodore; 1986
 * Guru's Guide to the Commodore Amiga; Carl Sassenrath; 1989
 * The Object Oriented Amiga Exec; Tim Holloway; Byte Magazine; 1991
 * REBOL Bots; Web Techniques; 9/1999
 * Inside the REBOL Scripting Language; Dr. Dobb's Journal; 6/2000
 * REBOL for Dummies; Ralph Roberts; Hungry Minds; 2000
 * REBOL Programming; Olivier Auverlot; Éditions Eyrolles; 2001
 * Computing Encyclopedia, Vol 5: People; Smart Computing; 2002
 * The REBOL IOS Distributed Filesystem; Dr. Dobb's Journal; 9/2002
 * The REBOL/Core Users Guide; Carl Sassenrath; 2000–2005

title: Carl Sassenrath


text:
Penglai

Penglai, Peng Lai, or Peng-lai may refer to:

 * Penglai, Shandong, a district in Yantai, Shandong, China
 * Penglai, Hainan, a town in Wenchang, Hainan, China
 * Penglai, Sichuan, a town in Daying County, Sichuan, China
 * Penglai, Fujian, a town in Anxi County, Fujian, China
 * Mount Penglai, the island for immortals in Chinese mythology
 * Penglai, a 2022 short film produced by Illumination

title: Penglai


text:
The Great Artiste

The Great Artiste was a U.S. Army Air Forces Silverplate B-29 bomber (B-29-40-MO 44-27353, Victor number 89), assigned to the 393d Bomb Squadron, 509th Composite Group. The aircraft was named for its bombardier, Captain Kermit Beahan, in reference to his bombing talents. It flew 12 training and practice missions in which it bombed Japanese-held Pacific islands and dropped pumpkin bombs on targets in Japan. It was the only aircraft to have participated in both the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, albeit as an observation aircraft on each mission.

After the war ended it returned with the 509th Composite Group to Roswell Army Air Field, New Mexico. It was scrapped in September 1949 after being heavily damaged in an accident at Goose Bay Air Base, Labrador, the year before.

Aircraft history
Built at the Glenn L. Martin Aircraft Plant at Omaha, Nebraska, The Great Artiste  (B-29-40-MO 44-27353) was a Silverplate B-29 Superfortress bomber. It was accepted by the Army Air Forces on 20 April 1945, and flown to Wendover Army Air Field, Utah, by its assigned crew C-15, commanded by First Lieutenant Charles D. Albury, in May. It departed Wendover for North Field, Tinian on 22 June.

It was originally assigned Victor (unit-assigned identification) number 9, but on 1 August it was given the circle R tail markings of the 6th Bombardment Group as a security measure, and it had its Victor number changed to 89 to avoid misidentification with actual 6th Bombardment Group aircraft. Its nose art was painted after the Nagasaki mission. The name purportedly referred to the talents of the bombardier, Captain Kermit Beahan, with both the Norden bombsight and with women.

In addition to its use on the nuclear bomb missions, The Great Artiste was flown by five different crews on 12 training and practice missions. It flew bombing missions against Rota on 4 July, Truk on 8 July, and Marcus on 9 July. It returned to bomb Rota again on 12 and 14 July, and bombed Guguan on 18 and 19 July. It was flown by Albury and crew C-15 on two combat missions, one of which was aborted, and the other in which it used a pumpkin bomb to attack the railroad yards at Kobe on 24 July. Captain Bob Lewis and crew B-9 flew it to drop a pumpkin bomb on an industrial target in Koriyama on 29 July.

Flown by 393d commander, Major Charles W. Sweeney, it was assigned to the Hiroshima mission on 6 August 1945, as the blast measurement instrumentation aircraft. On the mission to bomb Nagasaki on 9 August 1945, it was to have been the aircraft carrying the bomb, but the mission schedule had been moved forward two days because of weather considerations, and the instrumentation had not yet been removed from the aircraft. To avoid delaying the mission, Sweeney traded airplanes with the crew of Bockscar to carry the Fat Man atomic bomb to Nagasaki. Captain Frederick C. Bock and his C-13 crew flew The Great Artiste to Nagasaki on its instrument support mission, and landed with it on Okinawa at the conclusion of the mission. It was the only aircraft to directly participate in both missions. Enola Gay, flown by Captain George Marquardt's Crew B-10, was the weather reconnaissance aircraft for Kokura, the primary target on the Nagasaki flight. Enola Gay reported clear skies over Kokura.

In November 1945 it returned with the 509th Composite Group to Roswell Army Air Field, New Mexico, where it remained for the rest of its flying career, except for a brief period when it was assigned to Task Force 1.5 for Operation Crossroads nuclear tests at Bikini Atoll in July 1946. It returned to the 509th, now designated the 509th Bombardment Group, in September. On 3 September 1948, during a polar navigation training mission, it developed an engine problem after takeoff from Goose Bay Air Base, Labrador, and ran off the end of the runway when attempting to land. Heavily damaged, it never flew again, and was eventually scrapped at Goose Bay in September 1949, despite its historical significance.

Displays
A representation of The Great Artiste is on static display at the "Spirit Gate" of Whiteman Air Force Base, Missouri, now home base of the 509th Operations Group. The aircraft, originally B-29 44-61671, which served as an SB-29 "Super Dumbo" rescue aircraft during the Korean War, was refurbished to depict The Great Artiste and moved to Whiteman after the closure of Pease Air Force Base in 1991.

Hiroshima mission crew

Crew C-15 (normally assigned to The Great Artiste):
 * Major Charles W. Sweeney, aircraft commander
 * 1st Lieutenant Charles D. (Don) Albury, pilot
 * 2nd Lieutenant Fred Olivi, co-pilot
 * Captain James Van Pelt, navigator
 * Captain Kermit K. Beahan, bombardier
 * Corporal Abe Spitzer, radio operator
 * Master Sergeant John D. Kuharek, flight engineer
 * Staff Sergeant Ray Gallagher, gunner, assistant flight engineer
 * Staff Sergeant Edward Buckley, radar operator
 * Sergeant Albert Dehart, tail gunner

Project Alberta observers aboard for Hiroshima mission:
 * Luis Alvarez
 * Harold Agnew
 * Lawrence H. Johnston

Ground crew:
 * Chester V. Pawlack
 * Charles B. Rinard
 * Claude c. Gilliam
 * Allan L. Moore
 * James J. Reilly
 * Theron L. Blaisdell
 * Robert E. Davenport

Nagasaki mission crew
Crew C-13 (normally assigned to Bockscar):
 * Captain Frederick C. Bock, aircraft commander
 * Lieutenant Hugh C. Ferguson, co-pilot
 * Lieutenant Leonard A. Godfrey, navigator
 * Lieutenant Charles Levy, bombardier
 * Master Sergeant Roderick F. Arnold, flight engineer
 * Sergeant Ralph D. Belanger, assistant flight engineer
 * Sergeant Ralph D. Curry, radio operator
 * Sergeant William C. Barney, radar operator
 * Sergeant Robert J. Stock, tail gunner

Observers aboard:
 * Staff Sergeant Walter Goodman (Project Alberta)
 * Lawrence H. Johnston (Project Alberta)
 * Technical Sergeant Jesse Kupferberg (Project Alberta)
 * William L. Laurence, correspondent for The New York Times

title: The Great Artiste


text:
Jack Chambers (artist)

John Richard Chambers (March 25, 1931 – April 13, 1978) was an artist and filmmaker. Born in London, Ontario, Chambers' painting style shifted from surrealist-influenced to photo-realist-influenced. He used the term "Perceptual Realism" and later "perceptualism" to describe his style. He began working with film in the 1960s, completing six by 1970. Stan Brakhage proclaimed Chambers' The Hart of London as "one of the greatest films ever made."

Biography
Born John Richard Chambers in London, Ontario, Chambers signed his name as John until 1970 and thereafter was known as Jack professionally and posthumously. Chambers studied at Sir Adam Beck Collegiate Institute in London, where in 1944 he was taught by the painter Selwyn Dewdney. He later attended H.B. Beal Secondary School and the University of Western Ontario, before spending eight years (1953–1961) studying and working in Europe. While in Europe he met Pablo Picasso, turning up at the artist's house and scaling his gate in order to introduce himself. Picasso suggested he continue his studies in Barcelona. He called his own work "perceptual realism," a kind of surrealism based on his own dreams and memories and the existentialist philosophy of Maurice Merleau-Ponty. When he returned to London, Chambers worked with fellow London native Greg Curnoe. In 1969 he was diagnosed with leukemia. For the rest of his life he painted more realistically, often depicting sites in London and the surrounding area. An example of this is 401 Towards London No. 1 (1968–1969), a view of Highway 401 heading westward towards London.

In 1968, he founded Canadian Artists' Representation (CARFAC), now a national organization of artists, after an argument with the National Gallery of Canada over reproduction rights and fees. In 1973 he received the Victor Martyn Lynch-Staunton Award.

His work is in the collections of the National Gallery of Canada, the Art Gallery of Ontario, and Museum London. An elementary school Jack Chambers Public School (and the streets surrounding it) are named for him in London, and a tree was planted in his memory in Gibbons Park after his death.

The 2012 retrospective of his work at the Art Gallery of Ontario has helped introduce his oeuvre to a new audience.

Perceptual Realism
Chambers evolved his theory of Perceptual Realism in the late 1960s in an essay of the same name. He argued for different types of realism and believed that his approach was unique. Art historian Mark Cheetham calls it "a fully articulated position that detailed art’s profound and spiritual relationship with primary sensory experience" and applies to his most notable films and paintings. Perceptual Realism showed the essence of matter through light and material. Chambers called it "a faculty of inner vision where the object appears in the splendour of its essential namelessness.

Paintings
The foundations of Chambers’ painting technique were laid during his training in Spain. Many of his paintings from that period show the influence of Surrealism. After his return to Canada in 1961 he experimented with paint application and vibrant colour. By the mid-1960s his style changed again as he worked a sense of temporal movement into his paintings. Forms were fragmented in these paintings: "A painting gets put together just like an experience – in particles." In the mid-1960s Chambers also produced his silver paintings using aluminum pigment. Other artists, including Andy Warhol, also experimented with this unusual metallic colour.

Films
Between 1964 and 1970, Chambers completed six films varying in length between nine minutes and 79 minutes. Working in both black and white and colour film, his works were montages dealing on the surface with his domestic life and images of London, Ontario. They were also examinations of the contrast between nature and society. Although for the most part peripheral to the history of avant-garde film, owing to his early death and reluctance to travel with his films for festivals, Chambers' filmography and in particular his feature-length film The Hart of London have become important within Canadian film history but have also grown in stature internationally.

Filmography

 * Mosaic (1964–65, black and white, sound, 9 min.)
 * Hybrid (1966, colour, silent, 15 min.)
 * Little Red Riding Hood (with Greg Curnoe and James Reaney) (1967, colour, sound, 25 min.)
 * R-34 (1967, colour, sound, 30 min.)
 * Circle (1968–69, colour/black and white, sound, 28 min.)
 * The Hart of London (1968–70, colour/black and white, sound, 79 min.)
 * C.C.C.I. (unfinished) (c.1970)
 * Life Still (unfinished) (c.1970)

Films About Jack Chambers

 * Chambers (Fraser Boa, 1969, col., so., 41 min.)
 * Jack Chambers (Cynthia Scott, CBC 'Man Alive' program, 1971, col., so., 52 min(?)
 * Life Force (Peter Mellen, 1974, col., so., 26 min.)
 * Chambers: Tracks and Gestures (Christopher Lowry and John Walker, 1982, col., so., 57 min.) (DVD Ecotone Productions)

title: Jack Chambers (artist)