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Eames House

The Eames House (also known as Case Study House No. 8) is a landmark of mid-20th century modern architecture located at 203 North Chautauqua Boulevard in the Pacific Palisades neighborhood of Los Angeles. It was constructed in 1949, by husband-and-wife design pioneers Charles and Ray Eames, to serve as their home and studio. The house was commissioned by Arts & Architecture mags as part of its Case Study House program, challenging architects to design progressive, but modest, homes in Southern California. Charles and Ray moved into the home on Christmas Eve in 1949 and never moved out (Charles died in August 1978 and Ray died in August 1988). Charles's daughter, Lucia Eames, inherited the home and created the non-profit organization, the Eames Foundation, in 2004. Still a historic house museum maintained by the Eames Foundation, it was designated a National Historic Landmark in 2006 and serves as a pilgrimage site for nearly 20,000 visitors a year (reservations are required).

Design and history
In the early 1940s, John Entenza, the owner of Arts & Architecture magazine and Case Study Program founder, purchased 5 acres of land on a wooded bluff that was once part of Will Rogers' large estate. He sold 1.4 acres of this land to Charles and Ray in 1945. Their home's design was first sketched out by Charles Eames with fellow architect Eero Saarinen in 1945 as a raised steel and glass box projecting out of the slope and spanning the entrance drive before cantilevering dramatically over the front yard. The structure was to be constructed entirely from "off-the-shelf" parts available from steel fabricator catalogs. Immediately after the war, though, these parts were in very short supply. By the time the materials arrived three years later, much pre-construction time had been spent picnicking at and exploring the lot where the house would stand. After a period of intense collaboration between Charles and Ray, the scheme was radically changed to sit more quietly in the land and avoid impinging upon the pleasant meadow that fronted the house. Although Eero Saarinen did not have any contribution to the Eames House as built, he did co-design the Entenza House (Case Study House #9) with Charles Eames next door for John Entenza.

The new Eames House design featured a residence building and a studio building tucked into the landscape's slope, with an 8-foot (2.4 m) tall by 200 foot (60 m) long concrete retaining wall. The lower level of the residence features a living room with alcove, hall with closets and spiral staircase, kitchen, and utility space. The upper level holds two bedrooms and overlooks the double-height living room in mezzanine fashion. The residence's second story also boasts two bathrooms, multiple hallways filled with aluminum closets, and a wire-embedded skylight. The studio building has a similar mezzanine, but is much shorter in length. The studio's ground floor features a utility sink, bathroom, dark room for processing photographs, and a large open space with double-volume height. The upper floor was primarily used as storage, but occasionally became guest quarters. A courtyard was also introduced, separating the residence from the studio space. This revised scheme required only one additional beam. The 17 foot (5.1 m) tall facade is broken down into a rigidly geometric composition of brightly colored and neutral-colored panels between thin steel columns and braces, painted "a warm grey". Over time, painting schemes allowed the grey to become black. The entry door is marked with a gold-leaf panel above. Planted in the 1880s by Abbot Kinney, an existing row of eucalyptus trees was preserved along the exposed wall of the house, providing some shading and a visual contrast with the house's bold facade.

As for the interior design, the Eameses' collection includes, among others: an Isamu Noguchi floor lamps, folk and Abstract Expressionist art, Japanese kokeshi dolls, Chinese lacquered pillows, Native American baskets, Thonet chairs, and numerous Eames furniture designs (some of which never made it past the prototype stage). The maximalist interiors were grouped by the Eameses in idiosyncratic tableaux and the home's interior decorating has sparked conversation of the Eameses "humanizing" modernism.

Of the twenty-five Case Study Houses built, the Eames house is considered the most successful both as an architectural statement and as a comfortable, functional living space. The brash sleekness of the design made it a favorite backdrop for fashion shoots in the 1950s and 1960s for publications such as Vogue. Perhaps the proof of its success in fulfilling its program is the fact that it remained at the center of the Eameses' life and work from the time they moved in (Christmas Eve 1949) until their deaths.

Eames House is one prominent architectural example with the influence of the De Stijl Movement outside Europe. The sliding walls and windows give it the trademark versatility and openness of the De Stijl Movement.

After the Eameses died, the house was largely unchanged.

The Eames Foundation
The Eames House is operated by The Eames Foundation, a non-profit foundation established in 2004 by Lucia Eames, Charles Eames's daughter from his first marriage. The Eames Foundation's corporate sponsors are the Eames Office, Herman Miller, and Vitra. On September 20, 2006, the Eames House was designated a National Historic Landmark (and administratively listed on the National Register of Historic Places the same day). In 2011, the contents of the living room were reassembled at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art as a centerpiece of the exhibition "California Design, 1930-1965: Living in a Modern Way".

Also in 2011, the Eames Foundation hired Los Angeles architectural firm Escher GuneWardena to develop a plan for the house, one that would restore and preserve the house as it was in 1988. In 2012, the Getty Conservation Institute pledged about $250,000 to preservation-related research work at the Eames House. In 2013, the Eames Foundation teamed up with the digital marketing agency Nebo to produce limited-edition prints for auction with a goal of raising $150,000; every donation will be matched by an Authenticity Fund created by modern furniture manufacturers Herman Miller and Vitra.

Lucia Eames died in 2014, leaving her five children as the Board of Directors of the Eames Foundation. Together, with the help of staff and docents, they oversee the ownership, conservation, and visitor services of the two structures, landscaping, and Charles and Ray's belongings. The Eames Foundation's 250 Year Project hopes to conserve and care for the home for 250 years into the future.

The Eames House is open to the public five days a week for reservations, which include exterior self-guided visits, private interior tours, picnics, events, and more.

Literature
In February 2010, LAS Magazine posted an article about the building's history and current significance to the Eames Century Modern Collection, a typography project by design studio House Industries.

In April 2019, the Getty Conservation Institute released the Conservation Management Plan (CMP) of the Eames House. This publication spanned over 200 pages and featured Eames House history, current use of the property, potential damage and ecological risks, and mitigations for conservation. This publication will aid the Eames Foundation's 250 Year Project for conservation and serves as a tool for other stewards of modern architecture around the globe.

title: Eames House


text:
Ñ

Ñ, or ñ (eñe, ), is a letter of the modern Latin alphabet, formed by placing a tilde (also referred to as a virgulilla in Spanish, in order to differentiate it from other diacritics, which are also called tildes) on top of an upper- or lower-case. It became part of the Spanish alphabet in the eighteenth century when it was first formally defined, but it has subsequently been used in other languages, such as Galician, Asturian, the Aragonese Grafía de Uesca, Basque, Chavacano, some Philippine languages (especially Filipino and Bisayan), Chamorro, Guarani, Quechua, Mapudungun, Mandinka, Papiamento, and Tetum alphabets, as well as in Latin transliteration of Tocharian and many Indian languages, where it represents  or  (similar to the $⟨ny⟩$ in "canyon"). It represents (the $⟨ng⟩$ in "wing") in Crimean Tatar, Kazakh, ALA-LC romanization for Turkic languages, the Common Turkic Alphabet, Nauruan and romanized Quenya. In Breton and in Rohingya, it denotes nasalization of the preceding vowel.

Unlike many other letters that use diacritics (such as in Catalan and Spanish and  in Catalan and sometimes in Spanish),  in Spanish, Galician, Basque, Asturian, Leonese, Guarani and Filipino is considered a letter in its own right, has its own name (Spanish: ), and its own place in the alphabet (after ). Historically, it came from a superscript abbreviation for a doubled. Its alphabetical independence is similar to the Germanic, which came from a doubled.

History

Historically, arose as a ligature of ; the tilde was shorthand for the second, written over the first; compare umlaut, of analogous origin. It is a letter in the Spanish alphabet that is used for many words—for example, the Spanish word año "year" ( in Old Spanish) derived from annus. Other languages used the macron over an or  to indicate simple doubling.

Already in medieval Latin palaeography, the sign that in Spanish came to be called virgulilla ("little comma") was used over a vowel to indicate a following nasal consonant ( or ) that had been omitted, as in tãtus for tantus or quã for quam. This usage was passed on to other languages using the Latin alphabet although it was subsequently dropped by most. Spanish retained it, however, in some specific cases, particularly to indicate the palatal nasal, the sound that is now spelt as. The word tilde comes from Spanish, derived by metathesis of the word título as tidlo, this originally from Latin TITVLVS "title" or "heading"; compare cabildo with Latin CAPITULUM.

From spellings of anno abbreviated as año, as explained above, the tilde was thenceforth transferred to the and kept as a useful expedient to indicate the new palatal nasal sound that Spanish had developed in that position: año. The sign was also adopted for the same palatal nasal in all other cases, even when it did not derive from an original, as in leña (from Latin ligna) or señor (from Latin SENIOR ).

Other Romance languages have different spellings for this sound: Italian and French use, a consonant cluster that had evolved from Latin, whereas Occitan and Portuguese chose and Catalan  even though these digraphs had no etymological precedent.

When Morse code was extended to cover languages other than English, a sequence ( — — · — — ) was allotted for this character.

Although is used by other languages whose spellings were influenced by Spanish, it has recently been chosen to represent the identity of the Spanish language, especially as a result of the battle against its obliteration from computer keyboards by an English-led industry.

Cross-linguistic usage
In Spanish it represents a palatal nasal. This is also the case of Philippine languages, Aymara, Quechua, Mapudungún, Guarani, Basque, Chamorro, Leonese, Yavapai, and, whose orthographies have some basis in that of Spanish. Many languages of Senegal also use it in the same way. Senegal is unique among countries of West Africa in using this letter.

It also represents a palatal nasal in Galician and Uruguayan Portuguese.

In Tetum, it was adopted to represent the same sound in Portuguese loanwords represented by, although this is also used in Tetum, as is , influenced by Indonesian.

In Tagalog, Visayan, and other Philippine languages, most Spanish terms that include are respelled with. The conventional exceptions (with considerable variations) are proper names, which usually retain and their original Spanish or Hispanicised spelling (Santo Niño, Parañaque, Mañalac, Malacañan). It is collated as the 15th letter of the Filipino alphabet. In old Filipino orthography, the letter was also used, along with, to represent (except at the end of a word, when  would be used) if appropriate instead of a tilde, which originally spanned a sequence of  and  (as in ), such as pan͠galan ("name"). That is because the old orthography was based on Spanish, and without the tilde, pangalan would have been pronounced with the sequence (therefore pang-GAlan). The form became a more common way to represent  until the early 20th century, mainly because it was more readily available in typesets than the tilde spanning both letters.

It is also used to represent the velar nasal in Crimean Tatar and Nauruan. In Malay, the Congress Spelling System (1957–1972) formerly used it for before. In Turkmen, it was used for until 1999. In Latin-script writing of the Tatar language and Lule Sámi language, is sometimes used as a substitute for ꞑ, which is not available on many computer systems. In addition to Tatar, represents  in the Common Turkic Alphabet.

In the Breton language, it nasalises the preceding vowel, as in Jañ, which corresponds to the French name Jean and has the same pronunciation.

It is used in a number of English terms of Spanish origin, such as jalapeño, piña colada, piñata, and El Niño. The Spanish word cañón, however, became naturalized as canyon. Until the middle of the 20th century, adapting it as nn was more common in English, as in the phrase "Battle of Corunna". Now, it is almost always left unmodified. The Society for the Advancement of Spanish Letters in the Anglo Americas (SASLAA) is the preeminent organization focused on promoting the permanent adoption of into the English language.

Cultural significance
has come to represent the identity of the Spanish language. Latin publisher Bill Teck labeled Hispanic culture and its influence on the United States "Generation Ñ" and later started a magazine with that name. Organizations such as the Instituto Cervantes and the National Association of Hispanic Journalists have adopted the letter as their mark for Hispanic heritage. It was used in the Spanish Republican Air Force for aircraft identification. The circumstances surrounding the crash of serial 'Ñ' Potez 540 plane that was shot down over the Sierra de Gúdar range of the Sistema Ibérico near Valdelinares inspired French writer André Malraux to write the novel L'Espoir (1937), translated into English as Man's Hope and made into the movie named Espoir: Sierra de Teruel.

In 1991, a European Community report recommended the repeal of a regulation preventing the sale in Spain of computer products not supporting "all the characteristics of the Spanish writing system," claiming that it was a protectionist measure against the principles of the free market. This would have allowed the distribution of keyboards without an "Ñ" key. The Real Academia Española stated that the matter was a serious attack against the language. Nobel Prize winner in literature Gabriel García Márquez expressed his disdain over its elimination by saying: "The 'Ñ' is not an archaeological piece of junk, but just the opposite: a cultural leap of a Romance language that left the others behind in expressing with only one letter a sound that other languages continue to express with two."

Among other forms of controversy are those pertaining to the anglicization of Spanish surnames. The replacement of with another letter alters the pronunciation and meaning of a word or name, in the same manner that replacing any letter in a given word with another one would. For example, Peña is a common Spanish surname and a common noun that means "rocky hill"; it is often anglicized as Pena, changing the name to the Spanish word for "pity", often used in terms of sorrow.

When Federico Peña was first running for mayor of Denver in 1983, the Denver Post printed his name without the tilde as "Pena." After he won the election, they began printing his name with the tilde. As Peña's administration had many critics, their objections were sometimes whimsically expressed as "ÑO."

Since 2011, CNN's Spanish-language news channel incorporates a new logo wherein a tilde is placed over both.

Another news channel, TLN en Español, has, with taking the place of the expected , as its logo.

As part of April Fool's Day, in 2013, Puerto Rican linguistics professor Aida Vergne penned a mock newspaper article stating that the Royal Spanish Academy had opted to eliminate from Spanish, instead being replaced by the original  in Old Spanish. As the Academy had previously eliminated letters such as and,  such an allegation was taken seriously and occasionally the Academy has to resort to deny and clarify the allegation.

The Google Doodle for 23 April 2021 celebrated as part of UN Spanish Language Day.

Computer usage

In Unicode has the code U+00D1 (decimal 209) while  has the code U+00F1 (decimal 241). Additionally, they can be generated by typing N or n followed by a combining tilde modifier, &#x303, U+0303, decimal 771.

In HTML character entity reference, the codes for and  are   and   or   and.

has its own key in the Spanish and Latin American keyboard layouts (see the corresponding sections at keyboard layout and Tilde). The following instructions apply only to English-language keyboards.

On Android devices, holding N or n down on the keyboard makes entry of and  possible.

On Apple Macintosh operating systems (including Mac OS X), it can be typed by pressing and holding the Option key and then typing N, followed by typing either N or n.

On the iPhone and iPad, which use the Apple iOS operating system, the is accessed by holding down the  key, which opens a menu (on an English-language keyboard). Apple's Mac OS X 10.7 Lion operating system also made the available in the same way.

The lowercase can be made in the Microsoft Windows operating system by typing Alt or Alt on the numeric keypad (with Num Lock turned on); the uppercase  can be made with Alt or Alt. Character Map in Windows identifies the letter as "Latin Small/Capital Letter N With Tilde". A soft (not physical) Spanish-language keyboard is easily installed in Windows.

In Microsoft Word, can be typed by pressing Control-Shift-Tilde  and then an.

On Linux it can be created by pressing Ctrl+Shift+U and then typing '00d1' or '00f1', followed by space or Ctrl to end the character code input. This produces or.

Another option (for any operating system) is to configure the system to use the US-International keyboard layout, with which can be produced either by holding Alt Gr and then pressing N, or by typing the tilde  followed by.

Yet another option is to use a compose key (hardware-based or software-emulated). Pressing the compose key, then, and then results in. A capital can be substituted to produce, and in most cases the order of  and  can be reversed.

Use in URLs
may be used in internationalized domain names, but it will have to be converted from Unicode to ASCII using Punycode during the registration process (i.e. from www.piñata.com to www.xn--piata-pta.com).

In URLs (except for the domain name), may be replaced by , and  by. This is not needed for newer browsers. The hex digits represent the UTF-8 encoding of and. This feature allows almost any Unicode character to be encoded, and it is considered important to support languages other than English.

Other symbols for the palatal nasal

 * Gn (digraph)
 * Nh (digraph)
 * Nj (letter)
 * Ny (digraph)
 * Ɲ
 * Ń
 * Њ
 * Ň
 * (IPA symbol)

Other letters with tilde

 * Ã
 * Ẽ
 * G̃
 * Ĩ
 * M̃
 * Õ
 * P̃
 * Ũ
 * Ṽ

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Ñ


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Ò

Ò, ò (o-grave) is a letter of the Latin script.

It is used in Catalan, Emilian, Lombard, Papiamento, Occitan, Kashubian, Romagnol, Sardinian, Scottish Gaelic, Taos, Vietnamese, Haitian Creole, Louisiana Creole, Norwegian, Welsh and Italian.

Chinese
In Chinese pinyin, ò is the yángqù tone (阳去, falling tone) of "o".

Emilian
Ò is used to represent, e.g. òs "bone".

Italian
In Italian, the grave accent is used over any vowel to indicate word-final stress: Niccolò (equivalent of Nicholas and the forename of Machiavelli).

It can also be used on the nonfinal vowels o and e to indicate that the vowel is stressed and that it is open: còrso, "Corsican", vs. córso, "course"/"run", the past participle of "correre". Ò represents the open-mid back rounded vowel /ɔ/ and È represents the open-mid front unrounded vowel /ɛ/.

Kashubian
Ò is the 28th letter of the Kashubian alphabet and represents, like the pronunciation of $⟨we⟩$ in "wet".

Lombard
It is used to represent vocalic phonemes /ɔ/ and /ɔː/ in every tonic occurrence to distinguish them from /o/ and /oː/ represented by O, e.g. fiòrd /ˈfjɔːrd/ (fjord) and sord /ˈsuːrd/ (deaf); còta /ˈkɔta/ (cooked) and sota /ˈsota/ (under/below).

Louisiana Creole
It is used to represent /ɔ/ by many (but not all) speakers to distinguish it from /o/, represented by o.

Macedonian
In Macedonian, о̀̀ is used to differentiate the word о̀̀д (walk) from the more common од (from). Both о̀̀ and о are pronounced as.

Norwegian
Ò can be found in the Norwegian word òg which is an alternative spelling of også, meaning "also". This word is found in both Nynorsk and Bokmål.

Romagnol
Ò is used to represent, e.g. piò "more".

Vietnamese
In the Vietnamese alphabet, ò is the huyền tone (falling tone) of "o".

Welsh
In Welsh, ò is sometimes used, usually in words borrowed from another language, to mark vowels that are short when a long vowel would normally be expected, e.g., clòs (close [of the weather]).

title: Ò


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Ó

Ó, ó (o-acute) is a letter in the Czech, Emilian-Romagnol, Faroese, Hungarian, Icelandic, Kashubian, Polish, Slovak, Karakalpak, and Sorbian languages. This letter also appears in the Afrikaans, Catalan, Dutch, Irish, Nynorsk, Bokmål, Occitan, Portuguese, Spanish, Italian and Galician languages as a variant of letter "o". In some cases, the letter "ó" is used in some languages as in a high rising tone (e.g. Vietnamese). It is sometimes also used in English for loanwords.

Chinese
In Chinese pinyin ó is the yángpíng tone (阳平, high-rising tone) of "o".

Czech and Slovak
Ó is the 24th letter of the Czech alphabet and the 28th letter of the Slovak alphabet. It represents.

Dutch
In Dutch, the acute Ó accent is used to mark different meanings for words, for example voor and vóór ("for" / "before"), or vóórkomen and voorkómen ("to occur" / "to prevent").

Emilian
In Emilian, ó is used to represent [o], e.g. sótt [sotː] "dry".

Faroese
Ó is the 18th letter of the Faroese alphabet and represents or.

Hungarian
Ó is the 25th letter of the Hungarian alphabet. It represents the long vowel.

Icelandic
Ó is the 19th letter of the Icelandic alphabet and represents.

Irish
Ó is widely used in Irish where it has various meanings:
 * the preposition ó "from"
 * the patronymic term Ó "grandson, (usually male) descendant, first or second cousin" (variants: Ua, Uí, Í Uaí). When Irish names were anglicized, the Ó commonly was either dropped or written as O'.
 * the interjection ó "oh"

Italian
In Italian, ó is an optional symbol (especially used in dictionaries) sometimes used to indicate that a stressed o should be pronounced with a close sound: córso, "course", as opposed to còrso , "Corsican" (but both are commonly written with no accent marks when the context is clear). A similar process may occur with é and è, as in *pésca, "fishing", and *pèsca "peach", in which the accent mark is not written (both are written as pesca).

Kashubian
Ó is the 23rd letter of the Kashubian alphabet and represents. It also represents in southern dialects.

Kazakh
It was proposed in 2018 that Ó should be one of their Latin alphabet to replace Ө and represents (or ). The proposal was modified to Ö in late 2019.

Karakalpak
Ó/ȯ is the 21rd letter of the Karakalpak alphabet and represents.

Polish
Ó is the 21st letter of the Polish alphabet, and represents. Historically it represented but morphed to  over time (similar to English "oo").

Portuguese
In Portuguese, ó is used to mark a stressed in words whose stressed syllable is in an unpredictable location within the word, as in "pó" (dust) and "óculos" (glasses). If the location of the stressed syllable is predictable, the acute accent is not used. Ó contrasts with ô.

Romagnol
In Romagnol, ó is used to represent [oː], e.g. alóra [aˈloːra] "then".

Scottish Gaelic
Ó was once widely used in Scottish, but it has now been largely superseded by "ò". It can still be seen in certain writings but is no longer used in standard orthography.

Spanish
Ó is used in the Spanish language to denote an 'o' vowel with abnormal stress.

Sorbian
Ó represents in Upper Sorbian and represents  or  in, especially, Lower Sorbian.

Vietnamese
In Vietnamese alphabet ó is the sắc tone (high-rising tone) of "o".

Key strokes

 * Microsoft Windows users can type an "ó" by pressing Alt on the numeric pad of the keyboard. "Ó" can be typed by pressing Alt
 * In Microsoft Word, pressing Ctrl, then O will produce the character ó. Pressing Ctrl, then Shift will produce the character Ó. Remember to not press shift before apostrophe, as that will not type this character.

title: Ó


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Multiplication sign

The multiplication sign (×), also known as the times sign or the dimension sign, is a mathematical symbol used to denote the operation of multiplication, which results in a product. While similar to a lowercase X (x), the form is properly a four-fold rotationally symmetric saltire.

The symbol is also used in botany, in botanical hybrid names and the heavy goods vehicle industry, to calculate the amount of powered wheels.

History
The earliest known use of the × symbol to represent multiplication appears in an anonymous appendix to the 1618 edition of John Napier's Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio. This appendix has been attributed to William Oughtred, who used the same symbol in his 1631 algebra text, Clavis Mathematicae, stating:"Multiplication of species [i.e. unknowns] connects both proposed magnitudes with the symbol 'in' or ×: or ordinarily without the symbol if the magnitudes be denoted with one letter."

An earlier use of the symbol from the 1500s appears in The Ground of Arts, where it is used in the context of a mental arithmetic method for computing simple, single-digit multiplications. Rob Eastaway theorizes that this may have been the original influence for John Napier's more general usage.

Two even earlier uses of a ✕ notation have been identified, but do not stand critical examination.

Uses
In mathematics, the symbol × has a number of uses, including
 * Multiplication of two numbers, where it is read as "times" or "multiplied by"
 * Cross product of two vectors, where it is usually read as "cross"
 * Cartesian product of two sets, where it is usually read as "cross"
 * Geometric dimension of an object, such as noting that a room is 10 feet × 12 feet in area, where it is usually read as "by" (e.g., "10 feet by 12 feet")
 * Screen resolution in pixels, such as 1920 pixels across × 1080 pixels down. Read as "by".
 * Dimensions of a matrix, where it is usually read as "by"
 * A statistical interaction between two explanatory variables, where it is usually read as "by"

In biology, the multiplication sign is used in a botanical hybrid name, for instance Ceanothus papillosus × impressus (a hybrid between C. papillosus and C. impressus) or Crocosmia × crocosmiiflora (a hybrid between two other species of Crocosmia). However, the communication of these hybrid names with a Latin letter "x" is common, when the actual "×" symbol is not readily available.

The multiplication sign is also used by historians for an event between two dates. When employed between two dates – for example 1225 and 1232 –  the expression "1225×1232" means "no earlier than 1225 and no later than 1232".

A monadic × symbol is used by the APL programming language to denote the sign function.

Similar notations
The lower-case Latin letter x is sometimes used in place of the multiplication sign. This is considered incorrect in mathematical writing.

In algebraic notation, widely used in mathematics, a multiplication symbol is usually omitted wherever it would not cause confusion: "$a$ multiplied by $b$" can be written as $ab$ or $a b$.

Other symbols can also be used to denote multiplication, often to reduce confusion between the multiplication sign × and the common variable $x$. In some countries, such as Germany, the primary symbol for multiplication is the "dot operator" ⋅ (as in $a⋅b$). This symbol is also used in compound units of measurement, e.g., N⋅m (see International System of Units). In algebra, it is a notation to resolve ambiguity (for instance, "b times 2" may be written as $b⋅2$, to avoid being confused with a value called $b_{2}$). This notation is used wherever multiplication should be written explicitly, such as in "$ab = a⋅2$ for $b = 2$"; this usage is also seen in English-language texts. In some languages, the use of full stop as a multiplication symbol, such as $a.b$, is common when the symbol for decimal point is comma.

Historically, computer language syntax was restricted to the ASCII character set, and the asterisk * became the de facto symbol for the multiplication operator. This selection is reflected in the numeric keypad on English-language keyboards, where the arithmetic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are represented by the keys +, -, * and /, respectively.

Unicode and HTML entities
Other variants and related characters:
 * (a zero-width space indicating multiplication)
 * (the interpunct, may be easier to type than the dot operator)
 * (intended to explicitly denote the cross product of two vectors)
 * (intended to explicitly denote the cross product of two vectors)
 * (intended to explicitly denote the cross product of two vectors)
 * (intended to explicitly denote the cross product of two vectors)
 * (intended to explicitly denote the cross product of two vectors)
 * (intended to explicitly denote the cross product of two vectors)
 * (intended to explicitly denote the cross product of two vectors)

title: Multiplication sign


text:
Ú

Ú, ú (u-acute) is a Latin letter used in the Czech, Faroese, Hungarian, Icelandic, Karakalpak and Slovak writing systems. This letter also appears in Dutch, Frisian, Irish, Occitan, Catalan, Pinyin, Portuguese, Spanish, Italian, Galician, and Vietnamese as a variant of the letter "U".

Czech
Ú/ú is the 34th letter of the Czech alphabet and represents a sound. It is always the first letter of the word except in compound words, such as "trojúhelník" triangle, which is composed of two words: "troj", which is derived from "tři" three, and "úhel", which means angle. If this sound is elsewhere in the word, letter Ů is used instead.

Faroese
Ú/ú is the 24th letter of the Faroese alphabet, and may represent the following sounds:
 * Short in such words as krúss  ("mug", "coffee cup")
 * Short before  in such words as kúgv  ("cow"), but also in brúdleyp  ("bridal")
 * Long diphthong in úti  ("out"), hús  ("house"), jú  ("but"),

Hungarian
Ú/ú is the 36th letter of the Hungarian alphabet and represents a sound.

Icelandic
Ú/ú is the 25th letter of the Icelandic alphabet, and represents a sound.

Javanese
Ú/ú is the letter of the Javanese Latin alphabet, and represents a sound

Kazakh
It was proposed in 2018 that Ú/ú should be one of its Latin script, it should represent the near-close front rounded vowel and is used to replace Cyrillic Ү. The replacement is modified to be Ü|Ü ü in 2020.

Karakalpak
Ú/ú is the 26th letter of the Karakalpak alphabet and represents near-close front rounded vowel.

Slovak
Ú/ú is the 39th letter of the Slovak alphabet and represents a sound.

Portuguese/Spanish/Catalan
In Portuguese, Spanish and Catalan, the "ú" is not a letter but the letter "u" with an accent. It is used to denote an "u" syllable with unusual stress.

Italian
Ú/ú is a variant of U carrying an acute accent; it represents an /u/ carrying the tonic accent. It is used only if it is the last letter of the word except in dictionaries.

title: Ú


text:
Û

Û, û (u-circumflex) is a letter of the Latin script.

Romanization from Cyrillic
This letter is used in some standards of Cyrillic transliteration as the letter Ю:
 * GOST 16876-71 table 1
 * ISO 9 (ISO 9:1986 and ISO 9:1995)

Romanization from Chinese
It is used in Wade-Giles (one of the romanization systems in Chinese) for apical dental unrounded vowel as in tzû, tz'û, ssû, corresponds to present zi, ci, si in Pinyin respectively.

Romanization from Japanese
û represents うう in both Nihon-shiki and Kunrei-shiki romanization systems.

Afrikaans
In Afrikaans, û is a punctuated form of u and a usage example includes "brûe". plural of "brug" (= bridge).

Emilian
Û represents [uː] in Emilian dialects: in the Bolognese dialect, anvûd [aŋˈvuːd] means "nephews".

French
In French, û does not change the pronunciation of the letter u except in jeune "young", which is pronounced differently from jeûne "a fast". In some other words like mû, the circumflex has no disambiguating value; attempts have been made to abolish it in such words. See Circumflex in French. Û also often appears in words that used to have an "s" after the "u": the French word for August, août, used to be written aoust.

Friulian
Û represents the sound.

Italian
Û is occasionally used to represent the sound in words like fûr, a poetic contraction of furono (they were).

Kurdish
Û is used in Kurdish Kurmanji alphabet in the to represent a long close back rounded vowel.

Polish
In the Masovian dialect, û represents /ju:/.

Turkish
Û indicates palatalization of the preceding consonant: "sükûnet" (quietness) is pronounced.

Welsh
In Welsh, û is used to represent a long stressed u or  when, without the circumflex, it would be pronounced as a short  or : cytûn  "agreed", bûm  "I was" as opposed to bum  "five" (soft-mutated prenominal form).

title: Û


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Niš

Niš (Ниш, ; names in other languages), less often spelled in English as Nish, is the third largest city in Serbia and the administrative center of the Nišava District. It is located in the southern part of Serbia. , the city proper has a population of 182,797, while its administrative area (City of Niš) has a population of 260,237 inhabitants.

Several Roman emperors were born in Niš or used it as a residence: Constantine the Great, the first Christian emperor and the founder of Constantinople, Constantius III, Constans, Vetranio, Julian, Valentinian I, Valens; and Justin I. Emperor Claudius Gothicus decisively defeated the Goths at the Battle of Naissus (present-day Niš). Later playing a prominent role in the history of the Byzantine Empire, the city's past would earn it the nickname ''Imperial City. ''

After about 400 years of Ottoman rule, the city was liberated in 1878 and became part of the Principality of Serbia, though not without great bloodshed—remnants of which can be found throughout the city. Today, Niš is one of the most important economic centers in Serbia, especially in the electronics, mechanical engineering, textile, and tobacco industries. Constantine the Great Airport is Niš's international airport. The city is also the seat of the University of Niš, the Eparchy of Niš and the Command of Serbian Army.

In 2013, the city was host to the celebration of 1700 years of Constantine's Edict of Milan.

Name
Niš was known as Нишь or Ньшь (Nyšь) in Old Serbian and Old Bulgarian. Nāissus is the Ancient name of the city. Naissus is itself probably a derivative of the older *Nāviskos, from *Nāvia ("trough valley"), the Celtic name of the Nišava River, which flows through the city. In historical sources, the town is mentioned as Naissus, Ναϊσσός, Naessus, urbs Naisitana, Нишь, Ньшь, Nisso and Nix.

Niš evolved from the toponym attested in Ancient Greek as ΝΑΙΣΣΟΣ (Naissos) achieving its present form via phonetic changes in Proto-Albanian and thereafter the placename entered Slavic. Nish might indicate that Proto-Albanian was spoken in the region in pre-Slavic antiquity. According to Ismajli (2015), when this settlement happened is a matter of debate, as Proto-Albanians might have moved relatively late in antiquity in the area which might have been an eastern expansion of Proto-Albanian settlement as no other toponyms known in antiquity in the area presuppose an Albanian development. It cannot be ruled out however that the development of Nish < Naiss- may also represent a regional development in late antiquity Balkans which, while closely related to Albanian (i.e. characterized by the same phonetic system), may not be identical with it. Attempts have been made to explain the place name in various ways as "a purely Slavic development", such as by Serbian linguist Aleksandar Loma, however, Austrian linguist Joachim Matzinger, who maintains the Albanian transmission of Naiss > Niš, states that "a discussion with historical South Slavic linguistics is an urgent desideratum".

Early history

The first settlement on the site of today's Niš may have been founded by the Celts at the end of the 3rd century BC. There is very little archaeological evidence however which can be used to reconstruct a pre-Roman history of Niš. During the Roman era, the city of Naissus became a large urban center. During the Roman conquest of the Balkans, between 168 and 75 BC, the city was used as a base of operations. Naissus was first mentioned in Roman documents near the beginning of the 2nd century CE, and was considered a place worthy of note in the Geography of Ptolemy of Alexandria.

The Romans occupied the town during the Dardanian campaign (75–73 BC), and set up a legionary camp in the city. The city, called refugia and vici in pre-Roman relation, as a result of its strategic position (the Thracians were based to the south ) developed as an important garrison and market town in the province of Moesia Superior. In 169 AD, Naissus was established as a municipium and from Diocletian onwards it belonged to the province of Dardania. In 272, the future Emperor Constantine the Great was born in Naissus. Constantine created the Dacia Mediterranea province, of which Naissus was the capital, which also included Remesiana on the Via Militaris and the towns of Pautalia and Germania. He lived in Naissus briefly from 316 to 322.

The city was of great importance for the Constantinian dynasty. It is the birthplace of Constantine the Great who turned it from a middle-sized town to a large city with many public buildings. The city flourished greatly in the Constantinian period. A bronze bust of Constantine decorated city. It was his temporary residence and the city where he promulgated many laws, preserved in the Theodosian code. In Constantinian narratives, Naissus was the city where the usurper Vetranio abdicated to Constantius II after a powerful speech he gave to the rebel armies. Julian, the last Constantinian emperor, used Naissus, which had arms factories, as his base in the civil war and recruited Illyrians and others as soldiers for his campaign.

In 364 AD, the imperial Villa Mediana 3 km was the site where emperors Valentinian and Valens met and divided the Roman Empire into halves which they would rule as co-emperors.

It was besieged by the Huns in 441 and devastated in 448, and again in 480 when the partially-rebuilt town was demolished by the Barbarians. Byzantine Emperor Justinian I restored the town but it was destroyed by the Avars once again. The Slavs, in their campaign against Byzantium, conquered Niš and settled here in 540.

Middle Ages
In 805, the town and its surroundings were taken by Bulgarian Emperor Krum. In the 11th century Byzantium reclaimed control over Naissus and the surrounding area.

King Solomon of Hungary and Prince Géza marched along the valley of the river Great Morava as far as Niš. The Hungarians seized the Byzantine city without any resistance in 1072. During the People's Crusade, on 3 July 1096, Peter the Hermit clashed with Byzantine forces at Naissus. Manuel I fortified the town, but under his successor Andronikos I it was seized by the Hungarian king Béla III. Byzantine control was eventually reestablished, but in 1185 it fell under Serbian control. By 1188, Niš became the capital of Serbian king Stefan Nemanja. On 27 July 1189, Nemanja received German emperor Frederick Barbarossa and his 100,000 crusaders at Niš. Niš is mentioned in descriptions of Serbia under Vukan in 1202, highlighting its special status. In 1203, Kaloyan of Bulgaria annexed Niš. Stefan Nemanjić later regained the region.

Ottoman period
The fall of the Serbian Empire, which was conquered by Ottoman Sultan Murad I in 1385, decided the fate of Niš as well. After a 25-day-long siege the city fell to the Ottomans. It was returned to Serbian rule in 1443. Niš again fell under Ottoman rule in 1448, and remained thusly for 241 years. During Ottoman rule Niš was a seat of the empire's military and civil administration. A Silesian traveler stated in 1596 that the route from Sofia to Niš was littered with corpses and described the gates of Niš as bedecked with the freshly-severed heads of poor Bulgarian peasants. In 1689, Niš was seized by the Austrian army during the Great Turkish War, but the Ottomans regained it in 1690. In 1737, Niš was again seized by the Austrians, who attempted to rebuild the fortifications around the city. The same year, the Ottomans reclaimed the city without resistance. The existing fortification is of Ottoman Turkish origin, dating from the first decades of the 18th century (1719–1723). It is well known as one of the most significant and best preserved monuments of this kind in the mid-Balkans. The Fortress was erected on the site of earlier fortifications – the ancient Roman, Byzantine, and later yet Medieval forts.

During the First Serbian uprising in 1809, Serbian revolutionaries attempted to liberate Niš in the Battle of Čegar. After the defeat of the Serbian forces, the Ottoman commander of Niš ordered the heads of the slain Serbs mounted on a tower to serve as a warning. The structure became known as Skull Tower (Ćele Kula). In 1821, the Ottomans arrested the Bishop of Niš, Milentija, as well as 200 Serbian patriots, on charges of preparing an uprising in the Niš area in support of the Greek War of Independence. On June 13 of that year, Bishop Milentija and other Serbian leaders were hanged in public.

In the 19th century Niš was an important town, but populated by Bulgarians in the 19th century, when the Niš rebellion broke out in 1841. According to Ottoman statistics during the Tanzimat the population of Sanjak of Niš was treated as Bulgarian, and according to French travelers such as Jérôme-Adolphe Blanqui and Ami Boue in 1837/1841. According to all authors between 1840-72 the delineation between Bulgarians and Serbs is undisputed and ran north of Nis, although one author Cyprien Robert claims that half of the population of the town was made up by Serbians. Serbian cartographers of the time (such as Dimitrije Davidović in 1828 and Milan Savić in 1878) also accepted South Morava river as such delineation and added Niš outside the borders of the Serbian people. In 1862 some Muslim families from Belgrade and Smederevo settled in Nis due to the forced displacement of Muslims in the Principality of Serbia. The urban population of Niš consisted of 17,107 Christian and 4,291 Muslim males, with total number of 3,500 Serbian houses and 2,000 Muslim houses. Muslim population of Niš consisted mainly of Turks, of which a part were of Albanian origin, and the rest were Muslim Albanians and Muslim Romani.

In 1870, Niš was included in the Bulgarian Exarchate. Before the area had been under the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople and the Serbian Patriarchate of Peć. The city was also stipulated the area to be ceded to Bulgaria according to the Constantinople Conference in 1876.

Niš was finally taken by the Serbian Army during the Serbo–Ottoman War of 1876–1878. The battle for the liberation of Niš started on 29 December 1877, and the Serbian Army entered Niš on 11 January 1878, and it became a part of Serbia. The Albanian quarter was burned and some of the town's Muslim population, which the majority were Albanians, were forced to flee to the Ottoman vilayet of Kosovo, resettling in Pristina, while others went to Skopje. The descendants of the Albanians that resettled in parts of now Kosovo, are now known as Muhaxhir. The number of remaining Muslims counted were 1,168, with many being Muslim Romani, out of the pre-war ca. 8,500. The demographics of Niš underwent change whereby Serbs who formed half the urban population prior to 1878 became 80 percent in 1884.

Independent Serbia
In the following years, the city saw rapid development. The city library was founded in 1879 and the famous Serbian writer Stevan Sremac, a native of Niš, was its first clerk. The first hotel, Europe, was built in 1879; shortly after the first district hospital and the first bank started operating in 1881. In 1878, the first Grammar School (Gimnazija), in 1882 the Teacher Training College, and in 1894, the Girls' College were founded in Niš. The City Hall was built from 1882 to 1887.

In 1883, Kosta Čendaš established the first printing house. In 1884, the first newspaper in the city Niški Vesnik was started. In 1884, Jovan Apel built a brewery. A railway line to Niš was built in 1884, as well as the city's railway station; on 8 August 1884, the first train arrived from Belgrade. In 1885, Niš became the last station of the Orient Express, until the railroad was built between Niš and Sofia in 1888. In 1887, the Niš Theatre Sinđelić was built.

In 1897 Mita Ristić founded the Nitex textile factory. In 1905 the female painter Nadežda Petrović established the Sićevo art colony. The first film was screened in 1897, and the first permanent cinema started operating in 1906. The hydroelectric dam in Sićevo Gorge on the Nišava was built in 1908; at the time, it was the largest in Serbia. The airfield was built in 1912 on the Trupale field, and the first aeroplane arrived on 29 December 1912. The city's museum was founded in 1913.

During the First Balkan War, Niš was the seat of The Main Headquarters of the Serbian Army, which led military operations against the Ottoman Empire. In World War I, Niš was the wartime capital of Serbia, hosting the Government and the National Assembly, until Central Powers conquered Serbia in November 1915, when the city was ceded to Bulgaria. After the breakthrough of the Salonika front, the First Serbian Army commanded by general Petar Bojović liberated Niš on 12 October 1918.

During the age and breakup of Yugoslavia
In the first few years after the war, Niš was recovering from the damage. In 1921, Niš became the centre of the Region (oblast), governed by a grand-župan, appointed by royal decree. From 1929 to 1941, Niš was the capital of the Morava Banovina of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. The tram system in Niš started to run in November 1930. The national airline Aeroput included Niš as a regular destination for the route Belgrade—Niš—Skopje—Thessaloniki in 1930. During the time of German occupation in World War II, the first Nazi Crveni Krst concentration camp in Yugoslavia was in Niš. About 30,000 people passed through this camp, of whom over 10,000 were shot on nearby Bubanj hill. On 12 February 1942, 147 prisoners staged a mass escape. In 1944, the city was heavily bombed by the Allies. In September 1943, the Germans established the Dulag 413 transit camp for Italian Military Internees in the city.

On 14 October 1944, after a long and exhausting battle, the 7th German SS Division 'Prinz Eugen' was defeated and Niš was liberated by Bulgarian Army,  and Partisans. The city was also the site of a unique and accidental friendly fire air war on November 7, 1944 between the air forces of the United States and Soviet Union. On 23 June 1948, Niš was the site of a catastrophic flood during which the Nišava river's water level raised by an unprecedented 5.5 meters.

After World War II, the University of Niš was founded on 15 June 1965. Over the course of the 1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia, Niš was subject to airstrikes on 40 occasions. On 7 May 1999, the city was the site of a NATO cluster bomb raid which killed 16 civilians. By the end of the NATO bombing campaign, a total of 56 people in Niš had been killed from airstrikes.

2000–present
In April 2012, the Russian-Serbian Humanitarian Center was established in the city of Niš. In December 2017, a new building of Clinical Centre of Niš spreading over 45,000 square meters was opened.

Geography
The road running from the North, from Western and Central Europe and Belgrade down to the Morava River valley, forks into two major lines at Niš: the southern line, leading to Thessalonica and Athens, and the eastern one leading towards Sofia and Istanbul.

Niš is situated at the 43°19' latitude north and 21°54' longitude east, in the Nišava valley, near the spot where it joins the South Morava. The main city square, the city's central part, is at 194 m above sea level. The highest point in the city area is "Sokolov kamen" (Falcon's rock) on the Suva Planina (Dry Mountain) (1523 m) while the lowest spot is at Trupale, near the mouth of the Nišava (173 m). The city covers 596.71 km² of five municipalities. Below Niska Banja and Nis, under the ground is a natural source of hot water, unique potential of clean and renewable geothermal energy at the surface of up to 65 square kilometers. According to some sources, the natural reservoir is at a depth of 500 to 800 meters, and the estimated capacity is about 400 million cubic meters of thermal mineral water.

Climate
Niš has a humid subtropical climate, but with continental influences. Average annual temperature in the area of Niš is 12.4 °C. July is the warmest month of the year, with an average of 23.1 °C. The coldest month is January, averaging at 0.9 °C. The average of the annual rainfall is 613.8 mm. The average barometer value is 992.74 mb. On average, there are 134 days with rain and snow cover lasts for 41 days.

Average temperatures in Niš are rising and they are about 1 °C higher in last 15 years than in period from 1991-2020. Number of snow days and days with frost is decreasing, since January is the only month with average lows below 0 °C.

Demographics

According to the final results from the 2022 census, the population of city proper of Niš was 182,797, while its administrative area had a population of 260,237. The city of Niš has 87,975 households with 2,96 members on average, while the number of homes is 119,196.

Religion structure in the city of Niš is predominantly Serbian Orthodox (240,765), with minorities like Muslims (2,486), Catholics (809), Protestants (258), Atheists (109) and others. Most of the population speaks Serbian language (249,949).

The composition of population by sex and average age:
 * Male – 126,645 (40.90 years) and
 * Female – 133,592 (42.81 years).

A total of 120,562 citizens (older than 15 years) have secondary education (53.81%), while the 51,471 citizens have higher education (23.0%). Of those with higher education, 34,409 (15.4%) have university education.

Ethnic composition
The ethnic composition of the city of Niš:

Economy
The city of Niš is the administrative, industrial, commercial, financial and cultural center of the south-eastern part of Republic of Serbia. The position of Niš is strategically important, at the intersection of European highway and railway networks connecting Europe with Asia. Niš is easily accessible, having an airport – Niš Constantine the Great Airport and being a point of intersection of numerous railroad and highway lines.

It is in Niš that the trunk road running from the north down the Morava River valley forks into two major lines:

 * the south one, leading to Thessalonica and Athens, along the Vardar River valley,
 * and the east one, running along the Nišava and the Marica, leading towards Sofia and Istanbul, and further on, towards the Near East.

These roads have been widely known from ancient times, because they represented the beaten tracks along which peoples, goods and armies moved. Known as 'Via Militaris' in Roman and Byzantine periods, or 'Constantinople road' in Middle Ages, these roads still represent major European traffic arteries. Niš thus stands at a point of intersection of the roads connecting Asia Minor to Europe, and the Black Sea to the Mediterranean. Nis had been a relatively developed city in the former Yugoslavia. In 1981, its GDP per capita was 110% of the Yugoslav average.

As of September 2017, Niš has one of 14 free economic zones established in Serbia.

 * Economic preview

The following table gives a preview of total number of registered people employed in legal entities per their core activity (as of 2019):

Companies
Niš is one of the most important industrial centers in Serbia, well known for its tobacco, electronics, construction, mechanical-engineering, textile, nonferrous-metal, food-processing and rubber-goods industries.

Among the manufacturing companies which had a huge impact during the second half of the 20th century on Niš's development are: EI Niš (electronics industry), Mechanical Industry Niš, "Građevinar" (construction company), Niš Tobacco Factory, "Nitex – Niš" (textile industry), "Niš Brewery" (beverages) and "Žitopek" (bakery). Other prominent companies which went bankrupt during the 1990s and 2000s are: "Vulkan" (rubber-goods manufacturer), "NISSAL" (nonferrous-metal industry).

Prominent tobacco manufacturer "Niš Tobacco Factory" was sold to Philip Morris in August 2003 for 518 million euros, while Nitex was sold to Benetton Group. In recent years, Integrated Micro-Electronics, Inc., Yura Corporation, Zumtobel Group, Johnson Electric and Shinwon opened their plants in Niš. Currently, Chinese manufacturer, Xingyu automotive systems, is building its factory.

In former Electronic and Mechanical Industry complexes, many smaller manufacturers opened their plants.

In 2019, companies with highest operating income were Philip Morris International, with over 190,000,000 Euros and Johnson Electric with over 140,000,000 Euros.

Transportation
Niš is strategically between the Morava river valley in North and the Vardar river valley in the south, on the main route between Greece and Central Europe. In the Niš area, this major transportation and communication route is linked with the natural corridor formed by the Nišava river valley, which runs Eastwards in the direction of Sofia and Istanbul. The city has been a passing station for the Orient Express.

The first highways date back to the 1950s when Niš was linked with capital Belgrade through the Brotherhood and Unity Highway, the first in Southeastern Europe.

Historically, because of its location, the city had always great importance in the region. The first to take advantage of it was the Roman Empire that built the important road Via Militaris, linking the city with Singidunum (current Belgrade) to the North and Constantinople (current Istanbul) to the southeast. Nowadays, the city is connected by the highway E75 with Belgrade and Central Europe in north, and Skopje, Thessaloniki and Athens in the south. The road E80 connects Niš with Sofia, Istanbul towards the Middle East, and Pristina, Montenegro and the Adriatic Sea to the West. The road E771 connects the city with Zaječar, Kladovo and Drobeta-Turnu Severin in Romania.

The city is also a major regional railway junction linking Serbia to Sofia and Istanbul.

The Niš Constantine the Great Airport is the second most important airport in Serbia. The first airfield serving the city of Niš was established in 1910, near the village of Donje Međurovo. In the 1930s then-national airline company Aeroput used the airport for civil service. In 1935 Aeroput included a stop in Niš in its route linking Belgrade with Skoplje.

The city public transportation consists nowadays of 13 bus lines. A tram system existed in Niš between 1930 and 1958. Niš Bus Station is the city's largest and main bus station which offers both local urban and intercity transport to international destinations. The largest intercity bus carrier based in the city is Niš-Ekspres, which operates to various cities and villages in Serbia, Montenegro, and Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Theatre

Niš is a home of the National Theatre in Niš, that was founded as "Sinđelić" Theatre in 1889.

Music
From 1981 Niš is the host of Nišville International Jazz music festival which begins in mid-August and lasts for 4 days. Galija, Kerber and Eyot are considered the most notable music bands to have originated from Niš. Other notable Niš music acts include Daltoni, Dobri Isak, Lutajuća Srca, Mama Rock, Hazari, Novembar, Trivalia and others.

Tourist sites

 * Čegar – The place where the Battle of Čegar took place on 19 May 1809.
 * Crveni Krst concentration camp – One of the few preserved Nazi concentration camps in Europe. It is on February 12 Boulevard.
 * Memorial to Constantine the Great – built in the city centre in 2013, in commemoration to Constantine the Great who was born in the city, on the anniversary of the Edict of Milan.
 * Bubanj – Monument to fallen Yugoslav World War II fighters, forming the shape of three clenched fists. The place where 10,000 civilian hostages from Niš and south Serbia were brutally murdered by German Nazis.
 * Kalča, City passage and Gorča – Trade centers situated in Milana Obrenovića Street.
 * Memorial Chapel in the memory of NATO bombing victims – The chapel was built by local authorities while the monument was built by the State government in 1999. They are situated in Sumatovacka street near Niš Fortress.
 * Niš Fortress – The remaining fortification was built by the Turks, and dates from the first decades of the 18th century (1719–23). It is situated in the city center.
 * The fortress-cafes – They are situated near Stambol gate (the main gate of the fortress).
 * Mediana – Archeological site, an Imperial villa, from the late Roman period on the road leading to Sofia, Bulgaria, near EI Nis.
 * Niška Banja (Niš spa) – A very popular spa during the summer season. It is 10 km from city center on the road leading to Sofia, in the bottom of Suva Planina Mountain.
 * Tinkers Alley – An old urban downtown zone in today's Kopitareva Street, built in the first half of the 18th century. It was a street full of tinkers and other craftsmen, but today it is packed with cafes and restaurants.
 * Skull Tower (Ćele Kula) – A monument to the Serbian revolutionaries (1804–13); a tower made out of skulls of Serbian uprisers, killed and decapitated by the Ottomans. It is situated on Zoran Đinđić Boulevard, on the old Constantinople road leading to Sofia.
 * Sultans Trail Long distance hiking and biking route from Vienna to İstanbul runs through Niš.

Architecture and monuments
Buildings in Niš are constantly being built. Niš is the second city in Serbia after Belgrade by number of high-rises. The Ambassador Hotel is one of the tallest buildings in Niš, but there are also other buildings like TV5 Tower.

Sport
The city of Niš is home to numerous sport clubs including Radnički Niš, RK Železničar 1949, Mašinac, ŽRK Naisa, OK Niš, Mašinac, Sinđelić Niš etc.

The biggest stadium in Niš is the Stadion Čair, with a total seating-capacity of 18,151 after renovations. The stadium is part of the Čair Sports Complex that also includes an indoor swimming pool and an indoor arena. Niš was one of four towns which hosting the 2012 European Men's Handball Championship.

Notable residents
The people listed below were born in, residents of, or otherwise closely associated with the city of Niš, and its surrounding metropolitan area.

 * Constantius I, Roman Emperor, father of Constantine I
 * Constantine I, the great, (Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus) – ruled 306 to 337
 * Constantius III, (Flavius Constantius) – ruled 421
 * Justin I, (Flavius Iustinus) – ruled 518 to 527
 * Nikephoros Lykaon protospatharios c. 1050
 * Stevan Sinđelić, war leader (vojvoda), died in 1809 in the Battle of Čegar.
 * Stevan Sremac (1855–1906), writer, came to Niš shortly after its liberation from the Turkish rule; wrote about life in old Niš (Ivkova slava, Zona Zamfirova).
 * Nikola Uzunović, (b. 1873), prime minister of Kingdom of Yugoslavia from 1926 to 1927.
 * Dragiša Cvetković, (1893–1969), prime minister of Kingdom of Yugoslavia from 1939 to 1941.
 * Svetislav Milosavljević, (1882–1960), a Yugoslav army general and first Ban of Vrbas Banovina.
 * Dušan Radović, (1922–84), journalist and writer.
 * Dušan Čkrebić, (b. 1927), President(1984–1986) and Prime Minister(1978–1982) of SR Serbia.
 * Spiridon, (?–1389), Patriarch of Serbian Patriarchate of Peć.
 * Irinej (1930–2020), Serbian patriarch (2010–2020) and Bishop of Niš (1975–2010)
 * Nadja Regin, (1931–2019), Serbian and British actress.
 * Predrag Antonijević, (b. 1959), film director.
 * Branko Miljković (1934–61), poet.
 * Bratislav Anastasijević (1936–1992), musician, conductor
 * Šaban Bajramović (1936–2008), Romani singer and composer.
 * Kornelije Kovač (b. 1942), rock musician and composer.
 * Goran Paskaljević (1947–2020), movie director; raised by his grandparents in Niš 1949–63, after the divorce of his parents.
 * Dragan Pantelić (b. 1951), former football goalkeeper, president of Radnički Niš.
 * Eva Haljecka Petković (1870–1947), doctor.
 * Predrag Miletić (b. 1952), actor.
 * Miki Manojlović (b. 1950), actor.
 * Zoran Živković (b. 1954), handball player and coach, Olympic champion
 * Aki Rahimovski (b. 1954), rock musician.
 * Nenad Milosavljević (b. 1954), rock musician.
 * Biljana Krstić (b. 1959), rock and traditional music singer and songwriter.
 * Ana Stanić (b.1975), Serbian pop-rock singer
 * Zoran Živković (b. 1960), politician, a former Prime Minister of Serbia.
 * Zoran Ćirić (b. 1962), writer.
 * Aleksandar Šoštar (b. 1964), water polo goalkeeper, Olympic, World and European champion.
 * Dragan Stojković (b. 1965), football player, Olympic bronze medalist.
 * Lidija Mihajlović (b. 1968), shooting champion.
 * Branislava Ilić (b. 1970), playwright, screenwriter, prose writer, essayist.
 * Ivan Miljković (b. 1979), volleyball player, Olympic and European champion.
 * Bojana Popović (b. 1979), Montenegrin handball player, Olympic silver medalist.
 * Nikola Karabatić (b. 1984), French handball player, Olympic, World and European champion.
 * Nemanja Radulović (b. 1985), violinist.
 * Ivan Kostic (b. 1989), footballer.
 * Stefan Jović (b. 1990), basketball player, Olympic, World Cup, and EuroBasket silver medalist.
 * Sava Ranđelović (b. 1993), water polo player, Olympic, World and European champion.
 * Andrija Živković (b. 1996), footballer, U-20 World champion.
 * Staša Gejo (b. 1997), sport climber, World and European champion.
 * Nemanja Radonjić (b. 1996), footballer, Serbian champion.
 * Georgios Sinas (Greek: Γεώργιος Σίνας, German: Georg Sina; 20 November 1783 – 18 May 1856) was an Austrian-Greek entrepreneur and banker. He became a national benefactor of Greece, he was born in Niš.

Diplomatic missions
The city of Niš, after Belgrade, has the largest diplomatic corps in Serbia. Bulgaria has General Consulate in Niš. Until 2010, there was also a Consulate General of Greece. Diplomatic agreements were given to five prominent citizens of Niš, who acquired the title of honorary consul. The United Kingdom, Hungary, France, Slovakia and Austria have chosen Nis as their honorary consuls, appreciating their commitment and contribution to strengthening ties and cooperation in various fields with these countries.

General Consulates

 * 🇧🇬 Bulgaria
 * 🇹🇷 Turkey (to be opened, as of 2022)

Honorary Consulates

 * 🇬🇧 United Kingdom
 * 🇭🇺 Hungary
 * 🇸🇰 Slovakia
 * 🇫🇷 France
 * 🇦🇹 Austria
 * 🇵🇱 Poland

Local media

 * Online newspaper:
 * Narodne novine "Народне новине"
 * Južne vesti (Southern news)

 * Online radio stations:
 * Internet.Radio.Magazin Super radio
 * Radio stations:
 * Baltazar radio (90.5) (renamed to Radio Jat (90.5))
 * Banker radio (98.3)
 * City radio (99.9)
 * Radio Nišava (104.0) (in Romany)
 * Radio Belle Amie (95.6)
 * Radio Belle Amie Folk Kanal (98.7/100.7) (closed)
 * Radio Seven (88.8)

 * TV stations:
 * Banker TV
 * TV 5 (closed)
 * BelleAmie TV
 * TV Nais
 * RTV Nišava (in Romany)
 * Čair (in Romany) (closed)
 * NTV Media Niš
 * Art TV
 * Puls TV (closed)
 * Kopernikus Televizija

Twin towns – sister cities
Niš is twinned with the following cities, according to their City Hall website:

title: Niš


text:
Reiner Knizia

Reiner Knizia is a prolific German-style board game designer. He was born in West Germany in 1957 and earned a doctorate in Mathematics from the University of Ulm before designing games full time. He is frequently included on lists of the greatest game designers of all time. Many of his hundreds of designs are considered modern classics, and many have won or been nominated for significant gaming awards, including the Spiel des Jahres and the Deutscher Spiele Preis. His notable designs include Amun-Re, Blue Moon City, Ingenious, Keltis, Lord of the Rings, Medici, Modern Art, Ra, Taj Mahal, Tigris and Euphrates, and Through the Desert. Many of his designs incorporate mathematical principles, such as his repeated use of auction mechanics.

Early life and education
Knizia was born in Illertissen, West Germany, in 1957. During his childhood, the small town of Illertissen offered only limited access to boardgames (the only place that sold games was the local barbershop, which had a limited selection). He played Monopoly, which had an impact mainly because the paper money allowed other forms of creativity, such as game design. Because of the limited selection of games in his hometown, at age 8 or 9 he began designing games of his own based on themes he found interesting, such as racing and castles, to play with friends. In one childhood design, a board used a fantasy map of spaces on which knights moved to attack pieces of the other player and occupy their castle. As a teenager, he developed an international-themed wargame, and in his 20s he self-published a play-by-mail magazine where readers would send moves which would be announced in new issues.

He later gained a Master of Science degree from Syracuse University in the United States and a doctorate in Mathematics from the University of Ulm in Germany. He went on to manage a two-billion-dollar mortgage services company in the United Kingdom, from which he was able to retire at age 40. He published many magazine-based games while writing for Spielbox (a German games magazine), and began having success publishing boxed games in the 1990s, with two games themed around digging for gold. Goldrausch was centered around the California Gold Rush, and Digging was themed about avoiding bandits while mining for gold.

Career
Knizia has been a full-time game designer since 1997, when he quit his job from the board of a large international bank. Knizia has been living in England since 1993.

In addition to having designed over 700 published games, Knizia is highly acclaimed as a designer, having won the Deutscher Spiele Preis four times, a Spiel des Jahres (in addition to a Kinderspiel des Jahres and a special award), and numerous other national and international awards. At the Origins Game Fair in 2002 he was inducted into the Gaming Hall of Fame. His games frequently make appearances on various "top games" lists, including the GAMES 100 list, the BoardGameGeek top 100, and the Internet Top 100 Games List. Several gaming conventions host "Kniziathons", which are tournaments dedicated to celebrating Knizia-designed games.

Reiner Knizia started developing games for his play-by-mail game zine Postspillion, founded in 1985. The zine still exists, and the game Bretton Woods (also a Reiner Knizia design), which was started in 1987, is still going.

One of Knizia's best selling games is Lord of the Rings, published in 17 languages with over one million copies sold. His dice game Pickomino has also reached 1 million copies sold and his Keltis sold over 600,000 copies. His game Ingenious has been published in over 20 languages. In 2011, Knizia designed a Star Trek-themed game for NECA/WizKids, based on the 2009 film that 'reset' the Star Trek universe. In 2015 Ravensburger released Star Wars VII - Galaxy Rebellion based on the popular movie franchise.

A number of Knizia designs have been redeveloped for the electronic gaming & console markets. Ingenious (aka Einfach Genial) and Keltis have both appeared in CD-ROM versions; Lost Cities was adapted for Xbox 360 via Xbox Live Arcade. An original game for the Nintendo DS, Dr. Reiner Knizia's Brainbenders was published in 2008; Keltis for the NDS followed in 2009. Other mobile implementations of Knizia titles include Lost Cities, Battle Line, Kingdoms, Medici, Ra, Through the Desert, Samurai and Tigris and Euphrates. Knizia has also designed various game applications specifically for the iPhone, including Robot Master, Dice Monster, Labyrinth and Pipes.

Over several years Knizia has developed a number of hybrid boardgames with electronic components, most notably with German publisher Ravensburger. The first of these was the King Arthur adventure game in 2003, later updated for use with the iPhone in 2014. Other titles include Die Insel, the award-winning Wer War's?, Der Drei ??? and in 2015 Captain Black (notable for a talking ghost pirate captain and a 90 cm – 3 foot – 3D ship).

Game characteristics
Knizia's games cover many board game genres. He has designed small two-player card games, children's games, and even a live-action roleplaying game.

One element of modern game design that Reiner Knizia has pioneered is abstract theme. Older themed games like Monopoly have traditionally developed their themes by trying to model or emulate the environment or situation they are thematically tied to. So Monopoly has players buying and developing properties as a real estate developer might. Knizia's thematic game designs tend not to try to model a specific environment, but instead try to invoke the thought and decision-making processes that are key to the theme. For example, Knizia's game Medici has a fairly abstract game system of drawing and buying cards that does not try to model any particular environment, but in the game-world, the players are always attempting to price risk, the key success factor in the investment banking business in which the Medicis made their fortune. A further example of this can be found in Knizia's game, Tigris and Euphrates. The players each take control of one of four different dynasties of Mesopotamia around 3,000 B.C. Each dynasty has priests, farmers, traders, and kings who are placed strategically on the board. The players take turns expanding their dynasties, controlling rivers, building temples, and attacking the other players' dynasties. Instead of Tigris and Euphrates having many complicated rules, the game is relatively simple and has very streamlined rules that does not attempt to emulate the real-life conflicts but rather abstracts this out, allowing for the players to focus on strategic decision making. This approach has allowed Knizia to develop games that are comparatively simple but require thoughtful game-play, while still retaining strongly thematic elements.

Using his understanding of principles in mathematics to full effect, pricing and evaluating risk are frequently recurring elements in Reiner Knizia games. Many of his most successful designs use auctions as a vehicle to price risk, as in Ra, Medici, and Modern Art.

Games
Some of Knizia's games are:
 * Abandon Ship
 * Age of War/Risk Express
 * Amun-Re
 * Winner, Deutscher Spiele Preis 2003
 * Nominee, International Gamers Awards—General Strategy; Multiplayer
 * Amphipolis
 * Auf Heller und Pfennig (released in English as Kingdoms)
 * Winner, Origins Award for Best Abstract Board Game of 2002
 * Battle Line (released as Schotten-Totten in Germany)
 * Beowulf: The Legend
 * Blue Moon/Blue Moon Legends
 * Blue Moon City
 * Nominee, Spiel des Jahres 2006
 * Carcassonne: The Castle
 * Recommended, Spiel des Jahres 2004
 * Clickbait (released by Big Potato Games)
 * Drahtseilakt (released as Tightrope and Relationship Tightrope in the US)
 * Dream Factory (released as Traumfabrik in Germany and Hollywood Blockbuster)
 * Winner, Arets Spel for Best Adult Game
 * Einfach Genial (released as Ingenious in the US and Mensa Connections in the UK)
 * Nominee, Spiel des Jahres 2004
 * Winner, Schweizer Spielepreis Best Strategy Game 2004
 * High Society (card game)
 * Indigo (board game)
 * Ivanhoe
 * Keltis
 * Winner, Spiel des Jahres 2008
 * LEGO Ramses Pyramid
 * L.L.A.M.A.
 * Nominee, Spiel des Jahres 2019
 * Loot
 * Looting London (card game)
 * Lord of the Rings
 * Winner, Spiel des Jahres 2001 special prize for best use of literature in a game
 * Lord of the Rings: The Confrontation
 * Lost Cities
 * Winner, International Gamers Award 2000 for Best 2-player strategy game
 * Medici
 * Recommended, Spiel des Jahres 1995
 * Modern Art
 * Winner, Deutscher Spiele Preis 1993
 * Winner, Finnish Game of the Year 2008
 * Recommended, Spiel des Jahres 1993
 * My City (board game)
 * Nominee, Spiel des Jahres 2020
 * My Word!
 * Orongo
 * Pickomino/Heckmeck
 * Prosperity
 * Co-designed with Sebastian Bleasdale
 * Qin (board game)
 * Quo Vadis?
 * Recommended, Spiel des Jahres 1992
 * Ra
 * Nominee, 2000 International Gamers Awards—General Strategy; Multi-player
 * Samurai
 * (Do You Know) Shakespeare?
 * Star Trek: Expeditions
 * Star Wars VII - Galaxy Rebellion
 * Taj Mahal
 * Winner, Deutscher Spiele Preis 2000
 * Winner, Essen Feather 2000
 * Through the Desert
 * Recommended, Spiel des Jahres 1998
 * Tigris and Euphrates
 * Winner, Deutscher Spiele Preis 1998 for Best Family/Adult Game
 * Recommended, Spiel des Jahres 1998
 * Tower of Babel
 * Winner, Schweizer Spielepreis best strategy game 2005
 * Vampire
 * Wer war's/Who Was It?
 * Winner, Kinderspiel des Jahres 2008
 * Winner, Deutscher Kinderspiele Preis 2008
 * Wettlauf nach El Dorado/The Quest for El Dorado
 * Nominee, Spiel des Jahres 2017
 * Winner's Circle (board game)
 * Recommended, Spiel des Jahres 2001

This is by no means a complete list of his work. He has been designing games since at least the 1990’s. For a complete list of his work, please visit his website at:

https://www.knizia.de/games/

title: Reiner Knizia