text:
Talk:Kazakhstan

Edit request
Please revert this unexplained edit, as it contradicts the article's body. 212.3.150.115 (talk) 13:07, 7 April 2024 (UTC)
 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done: The user reverted his own edit.  (talk | contribs) 13:15, 7 April 2024 (UTC)
 * ✅, the IP was referring to the later edit, in which the editor removed Russian from the infobox again. Liu1126 (talk) 13:20, 7 April 2024 (UTC)
 * In that case I'm very sorry for my mistake, and thank you for fixing it. I didn't see the full edit history and wrongly assumed that the edit in question was the only edit made by the user.  (talk | contribs) 13:25, 7 April 2024 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 13 May 2024
Steve Earls (talk) 03:47, 13 May 2024 (UTC)It was inhabited by Africans who first migrated from the horn of Africa 109,000 years ago.
 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done: please provide reliable sources that support the change you want to be made. Jamedeus (talk) 04:13, 13 May 2024 (UTC)
 * For what it's worth, I'll be surprised if there's any reliable source that supplies a number as specific as 109,000. Largoplazo (talk) 10:27, 13 May 2024 (UTC)

Horses
Wild horses have been reintroduced to their original home in Kazakhstan for the first time in centuries. Benjamin (talk) 21:30, 15 June 2024 (UTC) Benjamin (talk) 21:30, 15 June 2024 (UTC)

 * Added this. Beshogur (talk) 22:28, 15 June 2024 (UTC)

 * Thanks. But I'm curious why you found the BBC unreliable without even saying anything? Benjamin (talk) 17:27, 24 June 2024 (UTC)

 * It's because the reference was not correct with no context. Beshogur (talk) 15:02, 25 June 2024 (UTC)
 * What do you mean, how is it wrong? Benjamin (talk) 23:32, 5 July 2024 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 17 June 2024
The page says " Kazakh people, derives from Russian: казах." It is not true. Kazakh work derives from Turkic origin, is thought to mean “free man” 12.47.48.228 (talk) 20:13, 17 June 2024 (UTC)

 * Pretty sure that in that instance, "Kazakh comes from Russian" was actually meant to say that the spelling of the ethnic group's name came from Russian, as in "if the name was taken from Kazakh, it'd have been "Qazaq" or "Kazak", and not "kazaKH"". That "Kh" at the end is the thing that comes from Russian, not the name "Қазақ" itself. Nursultan Malik(talk) 00:11, 28 June 2024 (UTC)

 * Red question icon with gradient background.svg Not done: it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a "change X to Y" format and provide a reliable source if appropriate.
 * Is it unreasonable to suppose that English speakers picked up their knowledge of Kazakhs through Russians with whom they were more likely to have had direct contact than from Kazakhs themselves? Largoplazo (talk) 01:46, 28 June 2024 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 13 July 2024
I want to make a Infobox about alternative countries2601:601:D481:8140:15A0:698A:11E:305E (talk) 23:18, 13 July 2024 (UTC)
 * Red question icon with gradient background.svg Not done: it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a "change X to Y" format and provide a reliable source if appropriate. Largoplazo (talk) 00:53, 14 July 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Kazakhstan


text:
User:Acmuller

Originally from Long Island, New York, I am a Professor in the Humanities Department at Toyo Gakuen University in Chiba, Japan, where I have been living and working since March of 1994. Narrowly speaking, I am a scholar of Buddhism, and focusing on Korean Seon (Zen) Buddhism, Wonhyo, and the East Asian Yogacara/Tathagatagarbha traditions. I am furthermore an avid student of East Asian philosophy and religion (that is, Buddhism, Confucianism and Daoism), as a whole. My interest lies primarily in the area of translation and interpretation of classical works for the modern-Western audience. With this kind of intention, I have thus far published one book, which is a translation of a seminal Chan Buddhist scripture, called the Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment, which includes a superb commentary by the 15th century Korean monk Gihwa. I have other works in progress impelled by similar motivations, that will have a similar style of presentation.

I have been, for some time now, quite taken with the possibilities inherent in the digital domain, for the development of and sharing of information related to the area East Asian religious/philosophical thought. Therefore, I have developed an extensive web page which contains a wide range of materials connected to the study of East Asian philosophy and religion. Most important on this page at present is the Digital Dictionary of Buddhism.

As far as the digital production of my materials is concerned, I do most of my work in XML, working from a Debian Linux desktop. I have a link regarding Linux on my site below.

Links

 * Resources for East Asian Language and Thought
 * Digital Dictionary of Buddhism

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Acmuller


text:
Matthew Prior

Matthew Prior (21 July 1664 – 18 September 1721) was an English poet and diplomat. He is also known as a contributor to The Examiner.

Early life
Prior was born in Wimborne Minster, Dorset, where he lived with his father George, a Nonconformist joiner. His father moved to London, and sent him to Westminster School, under Dr Richard Busby. After his father's death, he left school, and was cared for by his uncle, a vintner in Channel Row. Here, Lord Dorset found him reading Horace, and set him to translate an ode. He did so well that the Earl offered to contribute to the continuation of his education at Westminster.

One of his schoolfellows and friends at Westminster was Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax. It was to avoid being separated from Montagu and his brother James that Prior accepted, against his patron's wish, a scholarship recently founded at St John's College, Cambridge. He took his B.A. degree in 1686, and two years later became a fellow. In collaboration with Montagu, he wrote in 1687 the City Mouse and Country Mouse, in ridicule of John Dryden's The Hind and the Panther.

Diplomacy and Early Writings
During an age when satirists could be sure of patronage and promotion, Montagu was promoted at once, and Prior, three years later, became secretary to the embassy at the Hague. After four years, he was appointed a Gentleman of the Bedchamber at court. Apparently, he acted as one of the King's secretaries, and in 1697 he was secretary to the plenipotentiaries who concluded the Peace of Ryswick. Prior's talent for affairs was doubted by Alexander Pope, who admittedly had little experience in diplomatic affairs, but it is not likely that King William would have employed in this important business a man who had not given proof of diplomatic skill and grasp of details.

The poet's knowledge of French was recognised by his being sent in the following year to Paris in attendance on the English ambassador. At this period Prior could say with good reason that "he had commonly business enough upon his hands, and was only a poet by accident." To verse, however, which had laid the foundation of his fortunes, he still occasionally trusted as a means of maintaining his position. His occasional poems during this period include an elegy on Queen Mary in 1695; a satirical version of Boileau's Ode sur le prise de Namur (1695); some lines on William's escape from assassination in 1696; and a brief piece called The Secretary.

After his return from France, Prior became under-secretary of state and succeeded John Locke as a commissioner of trade. In 1701 he sat in Parliament for East Grinstead. He had certainly been in William's confidence with regard to the Partition Treaty; but when Somers, Orford and Halifax were impeached for their share in it he voted on the Tory side, and immediately on Anne's accession he allied himself with Robert Harley and St John. Perhaps as a consequence of this; there is no mention of his name in connection with any public transaction for nine years. But when the Tories came into power in 1710, Prior's diplomatic abilities were again called into action, and until the death of Anne he held a prominent place in all negotiations with the French court, sometimes as secret agent, sometimes in an equivocal position as ambassador's companion and sometimes as fully accredited but very unpunctually paid ambassador. His share in negotiating the Treaty of Utrecht, of which he is said to have disapproved personally, led to its popular nickname of "Matt's Peace."

Prior is also known as a contributor to The Examiner newspaper.

Imprisonment and Poetry
When Queen Anne died and the Whigs regained power, Prior was impeached by Robert Walpole and kept in close custody from 1715 to 1717. By this time he had already published a collection of verse, written in 1709.

During his imprisonment, he wrote his longest humorous poem, Alma; or, The Progress of the Mind. It was published by subscription in 1718, along with Poems on Several Occasions. The sum received for this volume (4000 guineas), with a present of £4000 from Lord Harley, enabled him to live in some comfort.

Death and Legacy
Prior died in 1721 at Wimpole Hall, Cambridgeshire, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. A monument to Prior, sculpted by John Michael Rysbrack and designed by Gibbs, was erected in Poets' Corner of the Abbey.

A biography called The History of His Own Time was issued by John Bancks in 1740. The book claimed to be derived from Prior's papers, although some scholars doubt its authenticity.

Prior is commemorated by a plaque at Wittenham Clumps in Oxfordshire, where he is said to have written Henry and Emma.

He was also commemorated by other poets and writers; Everett James Ellis named Prior as a significant influence and source of inspiration, while William Thackeray (1811-1863) claimed Prior’s works to be “amongst the easiest, the richest, the most charmingly humorous of English lyrical poems.”

title: Matthew Prior


text:
Gigli (disambiguation)

Gigli is a 2003 American romantic comedy film.

Gigli may also refer to:

People

 * Abel Gigli (born 1990), Italian footballer
 * Angelo Gigli (born 1983), Italian professional basketball player
 * Beniamino Gigli (1890 – 1957), Italian tenor
 * Elena Gigli (born 1985), Italian water polo goalkeeper
 * Girolamo Gigli (1660 – 1722), Italian playwright
 * Giovanni Cobolli Gigli (born 1945), Italian lawyer and the former president of Juventus Football Club
 * Giovanni de' Gigli (dead 1498), medieval Bishop of Worcester
 * Giuseppe Cobolli Gigli (1892 – 1987), Italian politician
 * Leonardo Gigli (1863 – 1908), Italian obstetrician who invented the Gigli saw
 * Romeo Gigli (born 1949), Italian fashion designer
 * Silvestro de' Gigli (died 1521), medieval Bishop of Worcester

Other

 * Campanelle (also gigli or riccioli), type of pasta shaped like a bell or flower
 * Gigli saw, flexible wire bone saw used by surgeons

title: Gigli (disambiguation)


text:
Analects

The Analects, also known as the Sayings of Confucius, is an ancient Chinese philosophical text composed of sayings and ideas attributed to Confucius and his contemporaries, traditionally believed to have been compiled by his followers. The consensus among scholars is that large portions of the text were composed during the Warring States period (475–221 BC), and that the work achieved its final form during the mid-Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD). During the early Han, the Analects was merely considered to be a commentary on the Five Classics. However, by the dynasty's end the status of the Analects had grown to being among the central texts of Confucianism.

During the late Song dynasty (960–1279 AD) the importance of the Analects as a Chinese philosophy work was raised above that of the older Five Classics, and it was recognized as one of the "Four Books". The Analects has been one of the most widely read and studied books in China for more than two millennia; its ideas continue to have a substantial influence on East Asian thought and values.

Confucius believed that the welfare of a country depended on the moral cultivation of its people, beginning from the nation's leadership. He believed that individuals could begin to cultivate an all-encompassing sense of virtue through ren, and that the most basic step to cultivating ren was filial piety—primarily the devotion to one's parents and older siblings. He taught that one's individual desires do not need to be suppressed, but that people should be educated to reconcile their desires via li, rituals and forms of propriety, through which people could demonstrate their respect for others and their responsible roles in society. Confucius also believed that a ruler's sense of de, or 'virtue', was his primary prerequisite for leadership. His primary goal in educating his students was to produce ethically well-cultivated men who would carry themselves with gravity, speak correctly, and demonstrate consummate integrity in all things.

Creation of the text
According to Ban Gu, writing in the Book of Han, the Analects originated as individual records kept by Confucius's disciples of conversations between the Master and them, which were then collected and jointly edited by the disciples after Confucius' death in 479 BC. The work was titled Lunyu during the Han dynasty: in this context the character for lun means 'discuss' or 'dispute', while yu means 'speech' or 'sayings'. Lunyu therefore may mean 'edited conversations', or 'selected speeches' (thus ""). This broadly forms the traditional account of the genesis of the work accepted by later generations of scholars, for example the Song dynasty neo-Confucian scholar Zhu Xi stated that Analects is the records of Confucius's first- and second-generation pupils.

This traditional view has been challenged by Chinese, Japanese, and Western scholars. The Qing dynasty philologist Cui Shu argued on linguistic ground that the last five books were produced much later than the rest of the work. Itō Jinsai claimed that, because of differences he saw in patterns of language and content in the Analects, a distinction in authorship should be made between the "upper Analects" (Books 1–10) and "lower Analects" (Books 11–20). Arthur Waley speculated that Books 3–9 represent the earliest parts of the book. E. Bruce Brooks and A. Taeko Brooks reviewed previous theories of the chapters' creation and produced a "four stratum theory" of the text's creation. Many modern scholars now believe that the work was compiled over a period of around two hundred years, some time during the Warring States period (476–221 BC), with some questioning the authenticity of some of the sayings. Because no manuscript dated earlier than c. 70 BC has been discovered, and because the Analects was not referred to by name in any existing source before the early Han dynasty, some scholars have proposed dates as late as 140 BC for the text's final compilation.

Regardless of how early the text of the Analects existed, most Analects scholars believe that by the early Han dynasty (206 BC–220 AD) the book was widely known and transmitted throughout China in a mostly complete form, and that the book acquired its final, complete form during the Han dynasty. However, Han dynasty writer Wang Chong claimed that all copies of the Analects that existed during the Han dynasty were incomplete and formed only a part of a much larger work. This is supported by the fact that a larger collection of Confucius's teachings did exist in the Warring States period than has been preserved directly in the Analects: 75% of Confucius's sayings cited by his second-generation student, Mencius, do not exist in the received text of the Analects.

Textual history
According to the Han dynasty scholar Liu Xiang, there were two versions of the Analects that existed at the beginning of the Han dynasty: the "Lu version" and the "Qi version". The Lu version contained twenty chapters, and the Qi version contained twenty-two chapters, including two chapters not found in the Lu version. Of the twenty chapters that both versions had in common, the Lu version had more passages. Each version had its own masters, schools, and transmitters.

In the reign of Emperor Jing of Han ((r. 157 – 141 BC)), a third "Old Text" version was discovered hidden in a wall of the home believed at the time to have been Confucius's, when the home was in the process of being destroyed by King Gong of Lu ((r. 153 – 128 BC)) in order to expand the king's palace. The new version did not contain the two extra chapters found in the Qi version, but it split one chapter found in the Lu and Qi versions in two, so it had twenty-one chapters, and the order of the chapters was different.

The old text version got its name because it was written in characters not used since the earlier Warring States period (before 221 BC), when it was assumed to have been hidden. According to the Han dynasty scholar Huan Tan, the old text version had four hundred characters different from the Lu version—from which the received text is mostly based—and it seriously differed from the Lu version in 27 places. Of these twenty-seven differences, the received text only agrees with the old text version in two places.

Over a century later, Zhang Yu (Western Han), the tutor of the Analects to Emperor Cheng of Han,, synthesized the Lu and Qi versions by taking the Lu version as authoritative and selectively adding sections from the Qi version, and produced a composite text of the Analects known as the "Zhang Hou Lun". This text was recognized by Zhang Yu's contemporaries and by subsequent Han scholars as superior to either individual version, and is the text that is recognized as the Analects today. No complete copies of either the Lu version or the old text version of the Analects exist today, though fragments of the old text version were discovered at Dunhuang. The Qi version was lost for about 1,800 years, but was rediscovered during the excavation of the tomb of Marquis of Haihun in 2011.

Before the late twentieth century the oldest existing copy of the Analects known to scholars was found in the "Stone Classics of the Xinping Era", a copy of the Confucian classics written in stone in the old Eastern capital of Luoyang c. 175 AD. Archaeologists have since discovered two handwritten copies of the Analects that were written c. 50 BC, during the Western Han dynasty. They are known as the "Dingzhou Analects", and the "Pyongyang Analects", after the location of the tombs in which they were found. The Dingzhou Analects was discovered in 1973, but no transcription of its contents was published until 1997. The Pyongyang Analects was discovered in 1992. Academic access to the Pyongyang Analects has been highly restricted, and no academic study on it was published until 2009.

The Dingzhou Analects was damaged in a fire shortly after it was entombed in the Han dynasty. It was further damaged in an earthquake shortly after it was recovered, and the surviving text is just under half the size of the received text of the Analects. Of the sections that survive, the Dingzhou Analects is shorter than the received Analects, implying that the text of the Analects was still in the process of expansion when the Dingzhou Analects was entombed. There was evidence that "additions" may have been made to the manuscript after it had been completed, indicating that the writer may have become aware of at least one other version of the Analects and included "extra" material for the sake of completeness.

The content of the Pyongyang Analects is similar to the Dingzhou Analects. Because of the secrecy and isolationism of the North Korean government, only a very cursory study of it has been made available to international scholars, and its contents are not completely known outside of North Korea. Scholars do not agree about whether either the Dingzhou Analects or the Pyongyang Analects represent the Lu version, the Qi version, the old text version, or a different version that was independent of these three traditions.

To date, the oldest extant manuscript of the Analects are the discovered texts found in the Haihunhou Tomb in 2011; the Haihunhou Analects "circulated at least seventeen years" before the Dingzhou and Pyongyang ones.

Importance within Confucianism
During most of the Han period the Analects was not considered one of the principal texts of Confucianism. During the reign of Han Wudi (141–87 BC), when the Chinese government began promoting Confucian studies, only the Five Classics were considered by the government to be canonical (jing). They were considered Confucian because Confucius was assumed to have partially written, edited, and/or transmitted them. The Analects was considered secondary as it was thought to be merely a collection of Confucius's oral "commentary" (zhuan) on the Five Classics.

The political importance and popularity of Confucius and Confucianism grew throughout the Han dynasty, and by the Eastern Han the Analects was widely read by schoolchildren and anyone aspiring to literacy, and often read before the Five Classics themselves. During the Eastern Han, the heir apparent was provided a tutor specifically to teach him the Analects. The growing importance of the Analects was recognized when the Five Classics was expanded to the "Seven Classics": the Five Classics plus the Analects and the Classic of Filial Piety, and its status as one of the central texts of Confucianism continued to grow until the late Song dynasty (960–1279), when it was identified and promoted as one of the Four Books by Zhu Xi and generally accepted as being more insightful than the older Five Classics.

The writing style of the Analects also inspired future Confucian writers. For example, the Sui dynasty writer Wang Tong's Explanation of the Mean was purposely written to emulate the style of the Analects, a practice praised by the Ming dynasty philosopher Wang Yangming.

Commentaries
Since the Han dynasty, Chinese readers have interpreted the Analects by reading scholars' commentaries on the book. There have been many commentaries on the Analects since the Han dynasty, but the two which have been most influential have been the Collected Explanations of the Analects (Lunyu Jijie) by He Yan (c. 195–249) and several colleagues, and the Collected Commentaries of the Analects (Lunyu Jizhu) by Zhu Xi (1130–1200). In his work, He Yan collected, selected, summarized, and rationalized what he believed to be the most insightful of all preceding commentaries on the Analects which had been produced by earlier Han and Wei dynasty (220–265 AD) scholars.

He Yan's personal interpretation of the Lunyu was guided by his belief that Daoism and Confucianism complemented each other, so that by studying both in a correct manner a scholar could arrive at a single, unified truth. Arguing for the ultimate compatibility of Daoist and Confucian teachings, he argued that "Laozi [in fact] was in agreement with the Sage" (sic). The Explanations that was written in 248 AD, was quickly recognized as authoritative, and remained the standard guide to interpreting the Analects for nearly 1,000 years, until the early Yuan dynasty (1271–1368). It is the oldest complete commentary on the Analects that still exists.

He Yan's commentary was eventually displaced as the definitive, standard commentary by Zhu Xi's commentary. Zhu Xi's work also brought together the commentaries of earlier scholars (mostly from the Song dynasty), along with his own interpretations. Zhu's work took part in the context of a period of renewed interest in Confucian studies, in which Chinese scholars were interested in producing a single "correct" intellectual orthodoxy that would "save" Chinese traditions and protect them from foreign influences, and in which scholars were increasingly interested in metaphysical speculation.

In his commentary Zhu made a great effort to interpret the Analects by using theories elaborated in the other Four Books, something that He Yan had not done. Zhu attempted to give an added coherence and unity to the message of the Analects, demonstrating that the individual books of the Confucian canon gave meaning to the whole, just as the whole of the canon gave meaning to its parts. In his preface, Zhu Xi stated, "[T]he Analects and the Mencius are the most important works for students pursuing the Way [...] The words of the Analects are all inclusive; what they teach is nothing but the essentials of preserving the mind and cultivating [one's] nature."

From the first publication of the Commentaries, Zhu continued to refine his interpretation for the last thirty years of his life. In the fourteenth century, the Ming state endorsed Zhu's commentary. Until 1905 it was read and memorized along with the Analects by all Chinese aspiring to literacy and employment as government officials.

Contents
Very few reliable sources about Confucius exist besides that of the Analects. The principal biography available to historians is included in Sima Qian's Records of the Grand Historian, but because the history contains a significant amount of material unverifiable in other sources and possibly legendary, the biographical material on Confucius found in the Analects makes the Analects arguably the most reliable source of biographical information about Confucius. Confucius viewed himself as a "transmitter" of social and political traditions originating in the early Zhou dynasty (c. 1000–800 BC), and claimed not to have originated anything (§7.1), but Confucius's social and political ideals were not popular in his time.

Social philosophy
Confucius' discussions on the nature of the supernatural (§3.12; §6.20; §11.11) indicate his belief that while "ghosts" and "spirits" should be respected, they are best kept at a distance. Instead human beings should base their values and social ideals on moral philosophy, tradition, and a natural love for others. Confucius' social philosophy largely depended on the cultivation of ren by every individual in a community.

Later Confucian philosophers explained ren as the quality of having a kind manner, similar to the English words "humane", "altruistic", or "benevolent", but, of the sixty instances in which Confucius discusses ren in the Analects, very few have these later meanings. Confucius instead used the term ren to describe an extremely general and all-encompassing state of virtue, one which no living person had attained completely. (This use of the term ren is peculiar to the Analects.)

Throughout the Analects, Confucius's students frequently request that Confucius define ren and give examples of people who embody it, but Confucius generally responds indirectly to his students' questions, instead offering illustrations and examples of behaviours that are associated with ren and explaining how a person could achieve it. According to Confucius, a person with a well-cultivated sense of ren would speak carefully and modestly (§12.3); be resolute and firm (§12.20), courageous (§14.4), free from worry, unhappiness, and insecurity (§9.28; §6.21); moderate their desires and return to propriety (§12.1); be respectful, tolerant, diligent, trustworthy and kind (§17.6); and love others (§12.22). Confucius recognized his followers' disappointment that he would not give them a more comprehensive definition of ren, but assured them that he was sharing all that he could (§7.24).

To Confucius, the cultivation of ren involved depreciating oneself through modesty while avoiding artful speech and ingratiating manners that would create a false impression of one's own character (§1.3). Confucius said that those who had cultivated ren could be distinguished by their being "simple in manner and slow of speech." He believed that people could cultivate their sense of ren through exercising the inverted Golden Rule: "Do not do to others what you would not like done to yourself"; "a man with ren, desiring to establish himself, helps others establish themselves; desiring to succeed himself, helps others to succeed" (§12.2; §6.28).

Confucius taught that the ability of people to imagine and project themselves into the places of others was a crucial quality for the pursuit of moral self-cultivation (§4.15; see also §5.12; §6.30; §15.24). Confucius regarded the exercise of devotion to one's parents and older siblings as the simplest, most basic way to cultivate ren. (§1.2).

Confucius believed that ren could best be cultivated by those who had already learned self-discipline, and that self-discipline was best learned by practicing and cultivating one's understanding of li: rituals and forms of propriety through which people demonstrate their respect for others and their responsible roles in society (§3.3). Confucius said that one's understanding of li should inform everything that one says and does (§12.1). He believed that subjecting oneself to li did not mean suppressing one's desires but learning to reconcile them with the needs of one's family and broader community.

By leading individuals to express their desires within the context of social responsibility, Confucius and his followers taught that the public cultivation of li was the basis of a well-ordered society (§2.3). Confucius taught his students that an important aspect of li was observing the practical social differences that exist between people in daily life. In Confucian philosophy these "five relationships" include: ruler to ruled; father to son; husband to wife; elder brother to younger brother; and friend to friend.

Ren and li have a special relationship in the Analects: li manages one's relationship with one's family and close community, while ren is practiced broadly and informs one's interactions with all people. Confucius did not believe that ethical self-cultivation meant unquestioned loyalty to an evil ruler. He argued that the demands of ren and li meant that rulers could oppress their subjects only at their own peril: "You may rob the Three Armies of their commander, but you cannot deprive the humblest peasant of his opinion" (§9.26). Confucius said that a morally well-cultivated individual would regard his devotion to loving others as a mission for which he would be willing to die (§15.8).

Political philosophy
Confucius' political beliefs were rooted in his belief that a good ruler would be self-disciplined, would govern his subjects through education and by his own example, and would seek to correct his subjects with love and concern rather than punishment and coercion. "If the people be led by laws, and uniformity among them be sought by punishments, they will try to escape punishment and have no sense of shame. If they are led by virtue, and uniformity sought among them through the practice of ritual propriety, they will possess a sense of shame and come to you of their own accord" (§2.3; see also §13.6). Confucius' political theories were directly contradictory to the Legalistic political orientations of China's rulers, and he failed to popularize his ideals among China's leaders within his own lifetime.

Confucius believed that the social chaos of his time was largely due to China's ruling elite aspiring to, and claiming, titles of which they were unworthy. When the ruler of the large state of Qi asked Confucius about the principles of good government, Confucius responded: "Good government consists in the ruler being a ruler, the minister being a minister, the father being a father, and the son being a son" (§12.11).

The analysis of the need to raise officials' behavior to reflect the way that they identify and describe themselves is known as the rectification of names, and he stated that the rectification of names should be the first responsibility of a ruler upon taking office (§13.3). Confucius believed that, because the ruler was the model for all who were under him in society, the rectification of names had to begin with the ruler, and that afterwards others would change to imitate him (§12.19).

Confucius judged a good ruler by his possession of de ('virtue'): a sort of moral force that allows those in power to rule and gain the loyalty of others without the need for physical coercion (§2.1). Confucius said that one of the most important ways that a ruler cultivates his sense of de is through a devotion to the correct practices of li. Examples of rituals identified by Confucius as important to cultivate a ruler's de include: sacrificial rites held at ancestral temples to express thankfulness and humility; ceremonies of enfeoffment, toasting, and gift exchanges that bound nobility in complex hierarchical relationships of obligation and indebtedness; and, acts of formal politeness and decorum (i.e. bowing and yielding) that identify the performers as morally well-cultivated.

Education
The importance of education and study is a fundamental theme of the Analects. For Confucius, a good student respects and learns from the words and deeds of his teacher, and a good teacher is someone older who is familiar with the ways of the past and the practices of antiquity (§7.22). Confucius emphasized the need to find balance between formal study and intuitive self-reflection (§2.15). When teaching he is never cited in the Analects as lecturing at length about any subject, but instead challenges his students to discover the truth through asking direct questions, citing passages from the classics, and using analogies (§7.8). He sometimes required his students to demonstrate their understanding of subjects by making intuitive conceptual leaps before accepting their understanding and discussing those subjects at greater levels of depth. (§3.8)

His primary goal in educating his students was to produce ethically well-cultivated men who would carry themselves with gravity, speak correctly, and demonstrate consummate integrity in all things (§12.11; see also §13.3). He was willing to teach anyone regardless of social class, as long as they were sincere, eager, and tireless to learn (§7.7; §15.38). He is traditionally credited with teaching three thousand students, though only seventy are said to have mastered what he taught. He taught practical skills, but regarded moral self-cultivation as his most important subject.

Chapters
The traditional titles given to each chapter are mostly an initial two or three incipits. In some cases a title may indicate a central theme of a chapter, but it is inappropriate to regard a title as a description or generalization of the content of a chapter. Chapters in the Analects are grouped by individual themes, but the chapters are not arranged in a way as to carry a continuous stream of thoughts or ideas. The themes of adjacent chapters are completely unrelated to each other. Central themes recur repeatedly in different chapters, sometimes in exactly the same wording and sometimes with small variations.

Chapter 10 contains detailed descriptions of Confucius's behaviors in various daily activities. Voltaire and Ezra Pound believed that this chapter demonstrated how Confucius was a mere human. Simon Leys, who recently translated the Analects into English and French, said that the book may have been the first in human history to describe the life of an individual, historic personage. Elias Canetti wrote: "Confucius's Analects is the oldest complete intellectual and spiritual portrait of a man. It strikes one as a modern book; everything it contains and indeed everything it lacks is important."

Chapter 20, "Yao Yue", particularly the first verse, is bizarre in terms of both language and content. In terms of language, the text appears to be archaic (or a deliberate imitation of the archaic language of the Western Zhou) and bears some similarity with the language of the speeches in the Shujing. In terms of the content, the passage appears to be an admonition by Yao to Shun on the eve of Yao's abdication, which seems to be only tangentially related to Confucius and his philosophy. Moreover, there appear to be some problems with the text's continuity, and scholars have speculated that parts of the text were lost in the process of transmission and possibly transmitted with errors in the order. The fragmentary nature of the final chapter of the received Lu text has been explained by the "accretion theory", in which the text of the Analects was gradually accreted over a 230-year period, beginning with the death of Confucius and ending suddenly with the conquest of Lu in 249 BC.

Within these incipits, a large number of passages in the Analects begin with the formulaic ziyue, "The Master said," but without punctuation marks in classical Chinese, this does not confirm whether what follows ziyue is direct quotation of actual sayings of Confucius, or simply to be understood as "the Master said that.." and the paraphrase of Confucius by the compilers of the Analects.

English

 * Revised second edition (1893), Oxford: Clarendon Press, reprinted by Cosimo in 2006. ISBN 978-1-60520-643-1
 * ; rpt. London: Oxford University Press (1937).
 * Rpt. (2000), New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-375-41204-2
 * ; rpt. with Chinese text, Hong Kong: Chinese University Press (1979).
 * ; rpt. with Chinese text, Hong Kong: Chinese University Press (1979).

French

 * English version published as Simon Leys, trans. (1997), The Analects of Confucius (New York: W. W. Norton).
 * English version published as Simon Leys, trans. (1997), The Analects of Confucius (New York: W. W. Norton).
 * English version published as Simon Leys, trans. (1997), The Analects of Confucius (New York: W. W. Norton).

Japanese

 * Yoshikawa, Kōjirō 吉川幸次郎 (1978). Rongo 論語 [Lunyu], 3 vols. Tokyo: Asahi Shinbun. Rpt. 2 vols, Asahi Shinbun (1996).

title: Analects


text: Talk:São Tomé and Príncipe

title: Talk:São Tomé and Príncipe


text:
São Tomé

São Tomé is the capital and largest city of the Central African island country of São Tomé and Príncipe. Its name is Portuguese for "Saint Thomas". Founded in the 15th century, it is one of Africa's oldest colonial cities.

History
Álvaro Caminha founded the colony of São Tomé in 1493. The Portuguese came to São Tomé in search of land to grow sugarcane. The island was uninhabited before the arrival of the Portuguese sometime around 1470. São Tomé, situated about 40 km north of the equator, had a climate wet enough to grow sugarcane in wild abundance. In 1497, 2,000 Jewish children, eight years old and under, were taken from the Iberian peninsula, to receive catholic education, following the national policy of conversion to Catholicism. The nearby African Kingdom of Kongo eventually became a source of slave labor as well. The island of São Tomé was the main center of sugar production in the sixteenth century; it was overtaken by Brazil by 1600.

São Tomé is centred on a sixteenth-century cathedral, that was largely rebuilt in the 19th century. Another early building is Fort São Sebastião, built in 1566 and now the São Tomé National Museum. On July 9, 1595, a slave revolt led by Rei Amador took control of the capital; they were subjugated in 1596. In 1599, the Dutch took the city as well as the islands for two days; they re-occupied it in 1641 for a year. The city served as the capital of the Portuguese colony of São Tomé and Príncipe and, from São Tomé and Príncipe's independence in 1975, as capital of the sovereign nation.

Geography
Important as a port, São Tomé is located on Ana Chaves Bay in the northeast of São Tomé Island, and Ilhéu das Cabras lies nearby offshore. São Tomé is located northeast of Trindade, southeast of Guadalupe and northwest of Santana. It is linked to these towns by a highway which encircles the entire island of São Tomé. It is linked to Cape Verde by a weekly ferry.

Features of the town include the Presidential Palace, the cathedral, and a cinema. The city is also home to schools, and middle schools, high schools, one polytechnic, two markets, three radio stations, the public television station TVSP, several clinics and hospitals, the country's main airport - São Tomé International Airport (with direct regular scheduled flights to Angola, Gabon, Ghana and Portugal as well as occasional domestic flights to Príncipe), and many squares (praças). São Tomé also serves as the centre of the island's road and bus networks The town is well known for the tchiloli playing.

Transport
São Tomé is served by São Tomé International Airport with regular flights to Europe and other African countries.

Climate
São Tomé features a tropical wet and dry climate (Köppen As), although it is not far above a semi-arid climate (BSh) due to the influence of the cold Benguela Current, which makes even the wettest months drier than would be expected for such a low latitude but at the same time makes the city very cloudy and foggy even during the almost rainless dry season mid-year. The city has a relatively lengthy wet season from October through May and a short dry season. São Tomé sees on average just under 900 mm of rainfall per year. Temperatures in the city are relatively constant, with average high temperatures usually around 30 °C and average low temperatures around 22 °C.

Education

 * University of São Tomé and Príncipe, formed in 2016
 * National Lyceum
 * Patrice Lumumba Preparatory School
 * National Library of São Tomé and Príncipe

The following Portuguese international schools are in the city:
 * Escola Portuguesa de S. Tomé
 * Instituto Diocesano de Formação João Paulo II
 * Escola Bambino
 * Escola Internacional de S. Tomé e Príncipe

Health
The main hospital of the country is Hospital Ayres de Menezes.

Sports
Sports clubs based in the city include Sporting Praia Cruz and Vitória FC based in the neighborhood of Riboque. All clubs play at Estádio Nacional 12 de Julho.

Places of worship
Among the places of worship, they are predominantly Christian churches and temples : Roman Catholic Diocese of São Tomé and Príncipe (Catholic Church), Universal Church of the Kingdom of God, Assemblies of God.

Notable people

 * José Vianna da Motta (1868–1948) Portuguese pianist, teacher and composer
 * Alfredo Azancot (1872-??) Portuguese architect who emigrated to Chile
 * Almada Negreiros (1893–1970) Portuguese artist, created literature and painting, and developed ballet choreographies
 * Francisco José Tenreiro (1921–1963) geographer, poet and writer of the colonial era
 * Alda Neves da Graça do Espírito Santo (1926–2010) poet working in Portuguese, who also served in the Santomean government after independence
 * Guadalupe de Ceita (born 1929) writer and a doctor and national hero
 * Miguel Trovoada (born 1936) was Prime Minister 1975–1979 and President 1991–2001 of São Tomé and Príncipe
 * Fradique de Menezes (born 1942) President of São Tomé and Príncipe from 2003 to 2011
 * Olinda Beja (born 1946) poet, writer and narrator, emigrated to Portugal and moved to Viseu
 * Tomé Vera Cruz (born 1956) Prime Minister of São Tomé and Príncipe from April 2006 to February 2008
 * Conceição Lima (born 1961) poet from the town of Santana
 * Patrice Trovoada (born 1962) politician, Prime Minister of São Tomé and Príncipe 2008 to June 2008, 2010 to December 2012 and since November 2014
 * Aurélio Martins (born 1966) journalist, businessman and politician

Sports

 * Nuno Espírito Santo (born 1974) retired Portuguese footballer, Portuguese association football manager
 * Naide Gomes (born 1979) former heptathlete and long jumper, competed in 100 metres hurdles at the 2000 Summer Olympics
 * Lasset Costa, (born 1986) footballer
 * Yazaldes Nascimento (born 1986) Portuguese athlete, runs the 100 metres, competed in the 2004 Summer Olympics
 * Alcino Silva (born 1990) sprint canoer, competed in the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing
 * Harramiz (born 1990) professional footballer who plays in Portugal
 * Zé (born 1991) footballer
 * Buly Da Conceição Triste (born 1991) sprint canoeist, competed at the 2016 Summer Olympics
 * Faduley (born 1992) footballer in Portugal
 * Charles Monteiro (born 1994) footballer who plays in Portugal
 * Gilson Costa (born 1996) Portuguese professional footballer
 * Romário Leitão (born 1997) long distance runner, competed at the 2016 Summer Olympics in the men's 5000 metres
 * Gedson Fernandes (born 1999) Portuguese professional footballer

International relations
São Tomé is twinned with:

 * 🇻🇨 Kingstown, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
 * Luanda, Angola
 * 🇬🇦 Libreville, Gabon
 * 🇬🇭 Accra, Ghana
 * Lisbon, Portugal

title: São Tomé


text:
François de Bourbon, Prince of Conti

François de Bourbon, Prince of Conti (19 August 1558 – 3 August 1614) was the third son of Louis de Bourbon, Prince of Condé, a junior line of the House of Bourbon, and his first wife Eléanor de Roucy de Roye. He was given the title of Marquis of Conti and between 1581 and 1597 was elevated to the rank of a prince. The title of Prince of Conti was honorary and did not carry any territorial jurisdiction.

Biography
François was born in La Ferté-sous-Jouarre, in the Île-de-France region. He was a member of a junior line of the House of Bourbon, his first cousin being the future Henry IV of France. Brought up within a highly Protestant family, his mother died in 1564 followed by his father in 1569. His father remarried Françoise d'Orléans, Mademoiselle de Longueville in 1565 and had a further three children, Charles, Count of Soissons being the only child to survive infancy.

Conti, who belonged to the older faith, appears to have taken no part in the French Wars of Religion until 1587, when his distrust of Henry of Lorraine, Duke of Guise caused him to declare against the League and to support his cousin Henry of Navarre, afterwards King Henry IV.

In 1589 after the murder of Henry III he was one of the two princes of the blood who signed the declaration recognising Henry IV as king, and continued to support him even though he himself was mentioned as a candidate for the throne upon the death of Charles, Cardinal de Bourbon in 1590.

Conti's first wife was Jeanne de Coesme, heiress of Bonnétable. She was the mother of Anne de Montafié by her previous marriage to the Count of Montafié. The couple were married at the Palais du Louvre on 17 December 1581, Jeanne died in 1601 having had no children. On 24 July 1605 he married Louise Marguerite of Lorraine (1588–1631), daughter of Duke Henri of Guise and Catherine of Cleves, who was desired by Henry IV. The couple were married at the Château de Meudon. Conti died in 1614 and the title of Prince of Conti lapsed following his death in 1614, as his only child, Marie, predeceased him in 1610. She was only three weeks old.

He had an illegitimate son, Nicolas de Conti (d. 1648), abbot of Gramont.

His widow followed the fortunes of Maria de' Medici, from whom she received many marks of favour, and was secretly married to François de Bassompierre, who joined her in conspiring against Cardinal Richelieu. Upon the exposure of the plot the cardinal exiled her to her estate at Eu, near Amiens, where she died.

Issue

 * Marie de Bourbon (8 March 1610 – 20 March 1610) died in infancy.

title: François de Bourbon, Prince of Conti


text:
Palgrave's Golden Treasury

The Golden Treasury of English Songs and Lyrics is a popular anthology of English poetry, originally selected for publication by Francis Turner Palgrave in 1861. It was considerably revised, with input from Tennyson, about three decades later. Palgrave excluded all poems by poets then still alive.

The book continues to be published in regular new editions; still under Palgrave's name. These reproduce Palgrave's selections and notes, but usually include a supplement of more recent poems. Christopher Ricks in 1991 produced a scholarly edition of the original Treasury, along with an account of its evolution from 1861 to 1891, with inclusions and exclusions.

Book I (Palgrave)
William Alexander, 1st Earl of Stirling – Richard Barnefield – Thomas Campion – Samuel Daniel – Thomas Dekker – Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford – Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex – John Donne – Michael Drayton – William Drummond – W. Drummond of Hawthornden – Thomas Heywood – Thomas Lodge – John Lylye – Christopher Marlowe – Thomas Nashe – William Shakespeare – Sir Philip Sidney – Edmund Spenser – The Shepherd Tonie – Joshua Sylvester – John Webster – Sir Thomas Wyatt

Book II (Palgrave)
Francis Beaumont – Thomas Carew – Abraham Cowley – Richard Crashaw – John Dryden – John Fletcher – William Habington – George Herbert – Robert Herrick – Ben Jonson – Richard Lovelace – Andrew Marvell – John Milton – John Norris of Bemerton – Francis Quarles – Sir Charles Sedley – John Shirley – Sir John Suckling – Henry Vaughan – Edmund Waller – John Wilmot, Earl of Rochester – George Wither – Sir Henry Wotton

Book III (Palgrave)
Anna Laetitia Barbauld – William Blake – Robert Burns – Henry Carey – Colley Cibber – John Collins – William Collins – William Cowper – Jane Elliott – John Gay – Oliver Goldsmith – Robert Graham of Gartmore – Thomas Gray – Lady A. Lindsay – Joshua Logan – W. J. Mickle – Lady Nairn – Ambrose Philips – Alexander Pope – Matthew Prior – Samuel Rogers – Christopher Smart – James Thomson

Book IV (Palgrave)
William Blake – Lord Byron – Thomas Campbell – Hartley Coleridge – Samuel Taylor Coleridge – Allan Cunningham – Thomas Hood – John Keats – Charles Lamb – Mary Lamb – H. F. Lyte – Thomas Moore – Percy Bysshe Shelley – Sir Walter Scott – Robert Southey – Charles Wolfe – William Wordsworth

Book V as selected by Laurence Binyon

 * This five-book version is republished as a Penguin Popular Classic''

Matthew Arnold – William Barnes – F. W. Bourdillon – Robert Bridges – Emily Brontë – Rupert Brooke – Elizabeth Barrett Browning – Robert Browning – John Clare – Arthur Hugh Clough – Mary Coleridge – William Johnson Cory – John Davidson – Austin Dobson – D. M. Dolben – George Darley – R. W. Dixon – Edward FitzGerald – James Elroy Flecker – Thomas Hardy – Thomas Hood – Gerard Manley Hopkins – Lionel Johnson – Charles Kingsley – Rudyard Kipling – Walter Savage Landor – Hon. Emily Lawless – J. C. Mangan – John Masefield – George Meredith – William Morris – Sir Henry Newbolt – Alice Meynell – William Morris – Wilfred Owen – Coventry Patmore – Christina Georgina Rossetti – Dante Gabriel Rossetti – Charles Sorley – Robert Louis Stevenson – Algernon Charles Swinburne – Alfred, Lord Tennyson – Edward Thomas – Francis Thompson – H. F. Trench – William Butler Yeats

Additional Poems, as selected by C. Day-Lewis (1954, Collins)
An important edition was edited by Cecil Day-Lewis, later Poet laureate. It contained 229 Additional Poems, with Books I-IV, including in this case a number of American poets.

William Blake – Walter Savage Landor – T. L. Peacock – John Clare – W. C. Bryant – George Darley – William Barnes – Thomas Lovell Beddoes – Ralph Waldo Emerson – Elizabeth Barrett Browning – H. W. Longfellow – Edward Fitzgerald – Edgar Allan Poe – Alfred Tennyson – Robert Browning – Aubrey de Vere – Emily Brontë – A. H. Clough – Charles Kingsley – Herman Melville – Walt Whitman – Jean Ingelow – Matthew Arnold – William Cory – Coventry Patmore – William Allingham – Sydney Dobell – George Meredith – D. G. Rossetti – Emily Dickinson – Christina Rossetti – Richard Watson Dixon – William Morris – Warren de Tabley – Algernon Charles Swinburne – Thomas Hardy – Robert Bridges – Gerard Manley Hopkins – Andrew Lang – A. W. E. O’Shaughnessy – R. L. Stevenson – John Davidson – A. E. Housman – Francis Thompson – Mary E. Coleridge – Rudyard Kipling – W. B. Yeats – Ernest Dowson – Lionel Johnson – Laurence Binyon – Edwin Arlington Robinson – Hilaire Belloc – T. Sturge Moore – W. H. Davies – Ralph Hodgson – Walter de la Mare – G. K. Chesterton – Robert Frost – John Masefield – Edward Thomas – Harold Monro – Padraic Colum – James Stephens – James Elroy Flecker – D. H. Lawrence – Ezra Pound – Andrew Young – Siegfried Sassoon – Rupert Brooke – Edwin Muir – Edith Sitwell – T. S. Eliot – John Crowe Ransom – W. J. Turner – Dorothy Wellesley – V. Sackville-West – Wilfred Owen – Lilian Bowes Lyon – Robert Graves – Edmund Blunden – F. R. Higgins – William Soutar – Roy Campbell – C. Day-Lewis – John Betjeman – W. H. Auden – Louis MacNeice – Stephen Spender – George Barker – Laurie Lee – Henry Reed – Dylan Thomas – Alun Lewis – David Gascoyne – Sidney Keyes

OUP Edition (1994) in six books
Edited by John Press. The poets included were:

Dannie Abse – Fleur Adcock – William Alexander, Earl of Stirling – Kingsley Amis – Simon Armitage – Matthew Arnold – W. H. Auden – Francis Bacon, Lord Verulam – Anna Laetitia Barbauld – George Barker – Richard Barnfield – Francis Beaumont – Patricia Beer – John Betjeman – Laurence Binyon – Thomas Blackburn – Edmund Blunden – Eavan Boland – Ronald Bottrall – Robert Bridges – George Mackay Brown – Elizabeth Barrett Browning – Robert Browning – Alan Brownjohn – Robert Burns – George Gordon Noel, Lord Byron – Norman Cameron – Roy Campbell – Thomas Campbell – Thomas Campion – Thomas Carew – Henry Carey – Lewis Carroll – Charles Causley – Colley Cibber – John Clare – Austin Clarke – Jack Clemo – Arthur Hugh Clough – Hartley Coleridge – Samuel Taylor Coleridge – John Collins – William Collins – Tony Connor – Henry Constable – David Constantine – Abraham Cowley – William Cowper – Richard Crashaw – Robert Crawford – Allan Cunningham – Samuel Daniel – George Darley – Donald Davie – W. H. Davies – Dick Davis – Thomas Dekker – Walter de la Mare – Lord De Tabley – Richard Watson Dixon – Keith Douglas – Ernest Dowson – Michael Drayton – William Drummond – John Dryden – Carol Ann Duffy – Helen Dunmore – Douglas Dunn – Lawrence Durrell – Thomas Stearns Eliot – Alistair Elliot – Jean Elliot – William Empson – D. J. Enright – Gavin Ewart – James Fenton – Roy Fisher – Edward FitzGerald – John Fletcher – Veronica Forrest-Thomson – John Fuller – Roy Fuller – Elizabeth Garrett – David Gascoyne – John Gay – Oliver Goldsmith – Robert Graham – Robert Graves – Thomas Gray – Thom Gunn – Michael Hamburger – Ian Hamilton – Thomas Hardy – Tony Harrison – Seamus Heaney – John Heath-Stubbs – George Herbert – Robert Herrick – Thomas Heywood – Geoffrey Hill – Ralph Hodgson – David Holbrook – Molly Holden – Thomas Hood – Gerard Manley Hopkins – A. E. Housman – Ted Hughes – T. E. Hulme – Elizabeth Jennings – Lionel Johnson – Ben Jonson – Patrick Kavanagh – John Keats – Sidney Keyes – Thomas Kinsella – Rudyard Kipling – James Kirkup – Charles Lamb – Walter Savage Landor – Philip Larkin – D. H. Lawrence – Edward Lear – Laurie Lee – Alun Lewis – Cecil Day-Lewis – Lady Anne Lindsay – Thomas Lodge – John Logan – Michael Longley – Richard Lovelace – Edward Lowbury – John Lyly – George MacBeth – Norman MacCaig – Hugh MacDiarmid – Louis MacNeice – Derek Mahon – Christopher Marlowe – Andrew Marvell – John Masefield – George Meredith – William Julius Mickle – John Milton – Thomas Moore – William Morris – Andrew Motion – Edwin Muir – Paul Muldoon – Carolina, Lady Nairne – Thomas Nash – Robert Nichols – Norman Nicholson – Bernard O'Donoghue – Wilfred Owen – Coventry Patmore – Tom Paulin – Ambrose Philips – Alexander Pope – Peter Porter – Jonathan Price – F. T. Prince – Matthew Prior – Craig Raine – Peter Redgrove – Henry Reed – Anne Ridler – Michael Riviere – W. R. Rodgers – Samuel Rogers – Isaac Rosenberg – Alan Ross – Christina Georgina Rossetti – Dante Gabriel Rossetti – Carol Rumens – Lawrence Sail – Siegfried Sassoon – Vernon Scannell – Sir Walter Scott – Peter Scupham – Sir Charles Sedley – George Sewell – William Shakespeare – Percy Bysshe Shelley – James Shirley – Sir Philip Sidney – Jon Silkin – C. H. Sisson – Edith Sitwell – Iain Crichton Smith – Stevie Smith – Robert Southey – Bernard Spencer – Stephen Spender – Edmund Spenser – Jon Stallworthy – Anne Stevenson – Sir John Suckling – Algernon Charles Swinburne – Joshua Sylvester – Alfred, Lord Tennyson – Dylan Thomas – Edward Thomas – R. S. Thomas – Francis Thompson – James Thomson (The Seasons) – James Thomson (B.V.) – Anthony Thwaite – Terence Tiller – Charles Tomlinson – The Shepherd Tony – Henry Vaughan – Edward Vere, Earl of Oxford – John Wain – Ted Walker – Edmund Waller – Vernon Watkins – John Webster – Robert Wells – Lawrence Whistler – Hugo Williams – George Wither – Charles Wolfe – William Wordsworth – Sir Henry Wotton – David Wright – Kit Wright – Sir Thomas Wyat – William Butler Yeats – Andrew Young

Editions online

 * Online text at Bartleby.com (1875)
 * Scanned books at Google Books: 1861, 1894, 1903, 1905, 1906, 1911, 1911, 1916, 1921, 1922
 * (1861 edition)

title: Palgrave's Golden Treasury


text:
Talk:Unpinned knights

There is nothing special about knights being unpinned that the subject deserves an article to itself - I've redirected this to pin (chess) therefore, which can talk about unpins in general (if it doesn't already). --Camembert

title: Talk:Unpinned knights


text:
Masai

Masai may refer to:
 * Masai, Johor, a town in Malaysia
 * Masai Plateau, a plateau in Kolhapur, Maharashtra, India
 * Maasai people, an ethnic group in East Africa
 * Maasai language, language of the Maasai ethnic group
 * Masai (name), Kenyan / African name

title: Masai


text: Talk:List of national parks of Kenya

title: Talk:List of national parks of Kenya


text:
Henry Flynt

Henry Flynt (born 1940 in Greensboro, North Carolina) is an American philosopher, musician, writer, activist, and artist connected to the 1960s New York avant-garde. He coined the term "concept art" in the early 1960s, during which time he was associated with figures in the Fluxus scene. He later received attention for his anti-art demonstrations against New York cultural institutions in 1963 and 1964.

Since 1983, he has focused on philosophical writing related to nihilism, science, mathematical logic, post-capitalist economics, and personhood. A number of his archival musical recordings, which fuse hillbilly music with avant-garde techniques, were released in the 2000s. He has collaborated with artists such as C.C. Hennix, La Monte Young, George Maciunas, and John Berndt.

Background
Henry Flynt was born and raised in North Carolina, where he first studied classical violin. He became interested in logical positivism as a teenager, and later attended Harvard University on a scholarship, where he studied mathematics alongside companions Tony Conrad and John Alten. At Harvard, Flynt was introduced to jazz and the "New Music" of John Cage by graduate students Christian Wolff and Frederic Rzewski, and he also discovered country blues music through Samuel Charters's 1959 book on the subject at this time. He soon dropped out and visited New York in 1960, where through Conrad he was introduced to La Monte Young and other figures in the city's avant-garde scene. Young would dedicate his 1960 composition "X for Henry Flynt" to him. In 1960 and 1961, Flynt took part in the monthly concert series held at Yoko Ono's Chambers Street loft. He moved permanently to New York in 1963.

Flynt’s work developed from what he called "cognitive nihilism", a concept he first announced in the 1960 and 1961 drafts of a paper called Philosophy Proper. The concept derives from insights about the vulnerabilities of logic and mathematics, and aims to turn the principles of scientific positivism and analytical philosophy against themselves. Embracing Rudolf Carnap's empiricism and his positivist critique of metaphysics, Flynt concluded that science itself did not satisfy the syntactical criteria for empirical claims; he therefore set about developing a "radical empiricism" (or "radical unbelief") which undermined scientific systematization and much "avant-garde" art. Flynt refined these dispensations in the essay Is there language? that was published as Primary Study in 1964.

Concept art and activism
In 1961, Flynt coined the term "concept art" in the proto-Fluxus book An Anthology of Chance Operations (co-published by Jackson Mac Low and La Monte Young), released in 1963, alongside works by Fluxus artists such as George Brecht and Dick Higgins. Flynt's concept art, he maintained, devolved from cognitive nihilism and described art in which the medium was concepts. Drawing exclusively on the syntax of logic and mathematics, concept art was meant to surpass both mathematics and "serious" compositional practices by evacuating concepts of substance via logical paradox. Flynt maintained that, to merit the label concept art, a work had to be a critique of logic or mathematics in which the material is a linguistic concept, a quality which he claims is absent from subsequent "conceptual art".

In 1962, Flynt began to campaign for an anti-art approach to the arts. He advocated that avant-garde art and its institutions be superseded by the terms of veramusement and brend—neologisms meaning (approximately) pure recreation. As part of his campaign, he demonstrated against cultural institutions in New York City (such as MoMA and Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts) with Tony Conrad and Jack Smith in 1963 and against the composer Karlheinz Stockhausen twice in 1964 (accusing Stockhausen of white supremacy and cultural imperialism). Flynt read publicly from his text, From Culture to Veramusment, at Walter De Maria's loft on February 28, 1963—an act which can, in hindsight, be considered performance art. In the mid 1960s, Flynt converted himself to Marxism, joining the Workers World Party, and published the article "Communists Must Give Revolutionary Leadership in Culture" in collaboration with George Maciunas, criticizing the white supremacist cultural touchstones of the left-wing tradition and championing African-American music. From 1964 to 1966, Flynt wrote regularly for the WWP's Workers World under the pseudonym "Harry Stone", and edited the newspaper briefly in 1965. He left the party in 1967 after becoming dissatisfied with the party's support of the Soviet Union.

In 1987 he revived his "concept art" for tactical reasons; and spent seven years in the art world.

Music
Henry Flynt is known for musical work that attempts to fuse hillbilly music with the avant-garde, often with him performing on violin or guitar. Other influences included the free jazz of Ornette Coleman; rockabilly and country blues music; and the North Indian classical music he learned with singer Pandit Pran Nath. With the exception of the 1981 German cassette You Are My Everlovin'/Celestial Power, Flynt's recordings remained unreleased until the 21st century, via labels such as Recorded and Locust.

Flynt performed duets with La Monte Young in the 1960s, but recordings of these performances were rejected by Mainstream Records employee Earle Brown as being too unconventional for a classical label. In an early 1960s conversation with John Cage, Flynt announced his intention to abandon "serious" modern composition and pursue music in the style of rock artists like Bo Diddley and Chuck Berry, to which Cage expressed confusion. Flynt briefly performed violin with the Velvet Underground in 1966 as a fill-in for John Cale, and received guitar lessons from Lou Reed. In 1966, he recorded several rehearsal demo tapes with Walter De Maria, Art Murphy, and Paul Breslin in the garage rock band the Insurrections, which were later compiled and released in 2004 on Locust Music as I Don't Wanna.

In 1974 and 1975, Flynt led the group Nova'Billy and recorded material spanning rock, jazz, country, and funk that was later collected on Henry Flynt & Nova'Billy (Locust, 2007). With Catherine Christer Hennix, Flynt formed the jazz-rock group Dharma Warriors in 1978, initially including Arthur Russell on keyboard. Dharma Warriors (Locust, 2008) showcases another meeting between Hennix & Flynt recorded in 1980 in Woodstock, New York. Purified by the Fire, recorded in December 1981, features Hennix on tamboura and Flynt on electric violin and was released in 2005 on Locust.

Flynt's first CD release was a reissue of You Are My Everlovin'/Celestial Power on Recorded (curated by John Berndt, and initiating the New American Ethnic Music series on that label), quickly followed by Spindizzy and Hillbilly Tape Music also on Recorded. Later Recorded released NAEM 4, Ascent to The Sun. Recently, Flynt's Glissando No. 1 was published by Recorded (2010).

Philosophy
Flynt's philosophical writing attempts to sketch out a post-capitalist, post-scientific civilization which would be at odds with the current civilization's values. Flynt's early philosophical writings on logic and epistemology, including the 1961 draft of Philosophy Proper, was published in Milan in the book Blueprint for a Higher Civilization (1975). Deriving broadly from his early arguments around "cognitive nihilism" and positivism, Flynt's work aims to overturn the dogmatic scientism and apparent coherence of contemporary scientific and mathematical discourse.

In the early 1970s, he returned to college to study communist economics. In the late 1970s, he organized several meetings on the "crisis in physics" in an attempt to identify the areas where modern science represses incoherent or irrational logics in order to propagate its "objective" worldview. From about 1980, Flynt has written on philosophy and economics in mostly unpublished papers, focusing on two concepts which did not achieve the notoriety of the early actions: his concepts of meta-technology and personhood theory. These concepts continue his work in sketching a worldview which would supersede scientific objectification and dissolve contemporary determinations of objective reality. Much of his writing is now available on his website.

Relationship with Fluxus
Because of his friendship and collaboration with La Monte Young and George Maciunas, Flynt sometimes is linked to Fluxus. While Flynt himself describes Fluxus as his "publisher of last resort" (Flynt did permit Fluxus to publish his work, and took part in several Fluxus exhibitions) he claims no affiliation or interest in the Fluxus sensibility. In fact, he is a strong critic of the neo-Dada sensibility.

Discography

 * You Are My Everlovin' / Celestial Power, Hundertmark/Recorded (1986/2001; recorded 1980–81)
 * Graduation and Other New Country and Blues Music, Ampersand (2001; recorded 1975–79)
 * Raga Electric, Locust Music (2002; recorded 1963–71)
 * C Tune, Locust Music (2002; recorded November 17, 1980)
 * Back Porch Hillbilly Blues, Volume 1, Locust Music (2002)
 * Back Porch Hillbilly Blues, Volume 2, Locust Music (2002)
 * New American Ethnic Music, Volume 2: Spindizzy, Recorded Records (2002; recorded 1968–1983)
 * New American Ethnic Music, Volume 3: Hillbilly Tape Music, Recorded Records (2003; recorded 1971–78, 2001)
 * I Don't Wanna, Locust Music (2004; recorded 1966)
 * Purified by the Fire, Locust Music (2005; recorded December 14, 1981)
 * Henry Flynt & Nova' Billy, Locust Music (2007; recorded 1975)
 * New American Ethnic Music, Volume 4: Ascent to the Sun, Recorded Records (2007; recorded December 2004)
 * Dharma/Warriors, Locust Music (2008; recorded 1983)
 * Glissando No. 1, Recorded Records (2011; recorded 1978–79)

title: Henry Flynt


text:
Princess Alice of Battenberg

Princess Alice of Battenberg (Victoria Alice Elizabeth Julia Marie; 25 February 1885 – 5 December 1969) was the mother of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, mother-in-law of Queen Elizabeth II, and paternal grandmother of King Charles III. After marrying Prince Andrew of Greece and Denmark in 1903, she adopted the style of her husband, becoming Princess Andrew of Greece and Denmark.

A great-granddaughter of Queen Victoria, Alice was born in Windsor Castle and grew up in the United Kingdom, Germany and Malta. A Hessian princess by birth, she was a member of the Battenberg family, a morganatic branch of the House of Hesse-Darmstadt. She was congenitally deaf. She lived in Greece until the exile of most of the Greek royal family in 1917. On returning to Greece a few years later, her husband was blamed in part for the country's defeat in the Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922), and the family was once again forced into exile until the restoration of the Greek monarchy in 1935.

In 1930, Princess Andrew was diagnosed with schizophrenia and committed to a sanatorium in Switzerland; thereafter, she lived separately from her husband. After her recovery, she devoted most of her remaining years to charity work in Greece. She stayed in Athens during the Second World War, sheltering Jewish refugees, for which she is recognised as "Righteous Among the Nations" by Israel's Holocaust memorial institution, Yad Vashem. After the war, she stayed in Greece and founded a Greek Orthodox nursing order of nuns known as the Christian Sisterhood of Martha and Mary.

After the fall of King Constantine II of Greece and the imposition of military rule in Greece in 1967, Princess Andrew was invited by her son and daughter-in-law to live at Buckingham Palace in London, where she died two years later. In 1988, her remains were transferred from a vault in her birthplace, Windsor Castle, to the Church of Mary Magdalene at the Russian Orthodox convent of the same name on the Mount of Olives in Jerusalem.

Early life
Alice was born in the Tapestry Room at Windsor Castle, Berkshire, in the presence of her great-grandmother Queen Victoria. She was the eldest child of Prince Louis of Battenberg and his wife, Princess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhine. Her mother was the eldest daughter of Louis IV, Grand Duke of Hesse, and Princess Alice of the United Kingdom, the Queen's second daughter. Her father was the eldest son of Prince Alexander of Hesse and by Rhine through his morganatic marriage to Countess Julia Hauke, who was created Princess of Battenberg in 1858 by Louis III, Grand Duke of Hesse. Her three younger siblings, Louise, George, and Louis, later became Queen of Sweden, Marquess of Milford Haven, and Earl Mountbatten of Burma, respectively.

Alice was christened Victoria Alice Elizabeth Julia Marie in Darmstadt on 25 April 1885. She had six godparents: her three surviving grandparents, Grand Duke Louis IV of Hesse, Prince Alexander of Hesse and by Rhine, and Julia, Princess of Battenberg; her maternal aunt Grand Duchess Elizabeth Feodorovna of Russia; her paternal aunt Princess Marie of Erbach-Schönberg; and her maternal great-grandmother Queen Victoria.

Alice spent her childhood between Darmstadt, London, Jugenheim, and Malta (where her naval officer father was occasionally stationed). Her mother noticed that she was slow in learning to talk, and became concerned by her indistinct pronunciation. Eventually, she was diagnosed with congenital deafness after her grandmother, the Princess of Battenberg, identified the problem and took her to see an ear specialist. With encouragement from her mother, Alice learned to both lip-read and speak in English and German. Educated privately, she studied French, and later, after her engagement, she learned Greek. Her early years were spent in the company of her royal relatives, and she was a bridesmaid at the wedding of Prince George, Duke of York, and Princess Mary of Teck (later King George V and Queen Mary) in 1893. A few weeks before her 16th birthday, she attended Queen Victoria's funeral in St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, and shortly afterward she was confirmed in the Anglican faith.

Marriage
Princess Alice met Prince Andrew of Greece and Denmark (known as Andrea within the family), the fourth son of King George I of Greece and Olga Constantinovna of Russia, while in London for King Edward VII's coronation in 1902. They married in a civil ceremony on 6 October 1903 at Darmstadt. The following day, there were two religious marriage ceremonies; one Lutheran in the Evangelical Castle Church, and one Greek Orthodox in the Russian Chapel on the Mathildenhöhe. She adopted the style of her husband, becoming "Princess Andrew". The bride and groom were closely related to the ruling houses of the United Kingdom, Germany, Russia, Denmark, and Greece, and their wedding was one of the great gatherings of the descendants of Queen Victoria and King Christian IX held before World War I. Prince and Princess Andrew had five children: Margarita, Theodora, Cecilie, Sophie, and Philip.

After their wedding, Prince Andrew continued his career in the military and Princess Andrew became involved in charity work. In 1908, she visited Russia for the wedding of Grand Duchess Marie of Russia and Prince William of Sweden. While there, she talked with her aunt Grand Duchess Elizabeth Feodorovna, who was formulating plans for the foundation of a religious order of nurses. Princess Andrew attended the laying of the foundation stone for her aunt's new church. Later in the year, Elizabeth began giving away all her possessions in preparation for a more spiritual life. On their return to Greece, Prince and Princess Andrew found the political situation worsening, as the Athens government had refused to support the Cretan parliament, which had called for the union of Crete (still nominally part of the Ottoman Empire) with the Greek mainland. A group of dissatisfied officers formed a Greek nationalist Military League that eventually led to Prince Andrew's resignation from the army and the rise to power of Eleftherios Venizelos.

Successive life crises
With the advent of the Balkan Wars, Prince Andrew was reinstated in the army, and Princess Andrew acted as a nurse, assisting at operations and setting up field hospitals, work for which King George V awarded her the Royal Red Cross in 1913. During World War I, her brother-in-law King Constantine I of Greece followed a neutrality policy despite the democratically elected government of Venizelos supporting the Allies. Princess Andrew and her children were forced to shelter in the palace cellars during the French bombardment of Athens on 1 December 1916. By June 1917, the King's neutrality policy had become so untenable that she and other members of the Greek royal family were forced into exile when King Constantine abdicated. For the next few years, most of the Greek royal family lived in Switzerland.

The global war effectively ended much of the political power of Europe's dynasties. The naval career of Princess Andrew's father, Prince Louis of Battenberg, had collapsed at the beginning of the war in the face of anti-German sentiment in Britain. At the request of King George V, he relinquished the Hessian title Prince of Battenberg and the style of Serene Highness on 14 July 1917, and anglicized the family name to Mountbatten. The following day, the King created him Marquess of Milford Haven in the peerage of the United Kingdom. The following year, two of Princess Andrew's aunts, Empress Alexandra Feodorovna of Russia and Grand Duchess Elizabeth Feodorovna, were murdered by Bolsheviks after the Russian Revolution. At the end of the war the Russian, German and Austro-Hungarian empires had fallen, and Princess Andrew's uncle Ernest Louis, Grand Duke of Hesse, was deposed.

On Constantine's restoration in 1920, Prince and Princess Andrew briefly returned to Greece, taking up residence on Corfu at Mon Repos (inherited by Prince Andrew on his father's assassination in 1913). But after the defeat of the Hellenic Army in the Greco-Turkish War, a Revolutionary Committee under the leadership of Colonels Nikolaos Plastiras and Stylianos Gonatas seized power and forced King Constantine into exile once again. Prince Andrew, who had served as commander of the Second Army Corps during the war, was arrested. Several former ministers and generals arrested at the same time were shot following a brief trial, and British diplomats assumed that Prince Andrew was also in mortal danger. After a show trial, he was sentenced to banishment, and Prince and Princess Andrew and their children fled Greece aboard a British cruiser, HMS Calypso (D61), under the protection of the British naval attaché, Commander Gerald Talbot.

Illness
The family settled in a small house loaned to them by Princess George of Greece and Denmark at Saint-Cloud, on the outskirts of Paris, where Princess Andrew helped in a charity shop for Greek refugees. She became deeply religious and, in October 1928, converted to the Greek Orthodox Church. That winter, she translated into English her husband's defence of his actions during the Greco-Turkish War. Soon afterward, she began claiming that she was receiving divine messages and that she had healing powers.

In 1930, her behaviour became increasingly erratic, and she asserted that she was in communication with the Buddha and Christ. She was diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia, first by Thomas Ross, a psychiatrist specialising in the treatment of shell shock, and subsequently by Sir Maurice Craig, who had treated the future King George VI before he had speech therapy. The diagnosis was confirmed at Ernst Simmel's sanatorium at Tegel, Berlin. She was forcibly removed from her family and placed in Ludwig Binswanger's sanatorium in Kreuzlingen, Switzerland. It was a famous and well-respected institution with several celebrity patients, including Vaslav Nijinsky, the ballet dancer and choreographer, who was there at the same time as the princess. Binswanger also diagnosed her with schizophrenia. Both he and Simmel sought advice from Sigmund Freud, who concluded that the delusions derived from sexual frustration and suggested "X-raying her ovaries in order to kill off her libido." She continued to assert her sanity and made repeated efforts to leave the sanatorium.

During Princess Andrew's long convalescence, she and Prince Andrew drifted apart, her daughters all married German princes in 1930 and 1931 (she did not attend any of the weddings), and Prince Philip went to the United Kingdom to stay with his uncles, Lord Louis Mountbatten and George Mountbatten, 2nd Marquess of Milford Haven, and his grandmother, the Dowager Marchioness of Milford Haven.

Princess Andrew remained at Kreuzlingen for two years, but after a brief stay at a clinic in Merano in northern Italy, was released and began an itinerant, incognito existence in Central Europe. She maintained contact with her mother but broke off ties to the rest of her family until the end of 1936. In 1937, her daughter Cecilie, her son-in-law Georg, and two of her grandchildren were killed in an air accident at Ostend; she and Prince Andrew met for the first time in six years at the funeral. (Prince Philip and Lord Louis Mountbatten also attended.) She resumed contact with her family, and in 1938 returned to Athens alone to work with the poor, while living in a two-bedroom flat near the Benaki Museum.

World War II
During World War II, Princess Andrew was in the difficult situation of having sons-in-law fighting on the German side and a son in the British Royal Navy. Her cousin, Prince Victor zu Erbach-Schönberg, was the German ambassador in Greece until the occupation of Athens by Axis forces in April 1941. She and her sister-in-law, Princess Nicholas of Greece, lived in Athens for the duration of the war, while most of the Greek royal family remained in exile in South Africa. She moved out of her small flat and into her brother-in-law George's three-storey house in the centre of Athens. She worked for the Red Cross, helped organise soup kitchens for the starving populace and flew to Sweden to bring back medical supplies on the pretext of visiting her sister, Crown Princess Louise. She organised two shelters for orphaned and lost children, and a nursing circuit for poor neighbourhoods.

The occupying forces apparently presumed Princess Andrew was pro-German, as one of her sons-in-law, Prince Christoph of Hesse, was a member of the NSDAP and the Waffen-SS, and another, Berthold, Margrave of Baden, had been invalided out of the German army in 1940 after an injury in France. Nonetheless, when visited by a German general who asked her if there was anything he could do for her, she replied, "You can take your troops out of my country".

After the fall of Italian dictator Benito Mussolini in September 1943, the German Army occupied Athens, where a minority of Greek Jews had sought refuge. The majority (about 60,000 out of a total population of 75,000) were deported to Nazi concentration camps, where all but 2,000 died. During this period, Princess Andrew hid Jewish widow Rachel Cohen and two of her five children, who sought to evade the Gestapo and deportation to the death camps. In 1913, Rachel's husband, Haimaki Cohen, had aided King George I of Greece. In return, King George had offered him any service that he could perform should Cohen ever need it. Years later, during the Nazi threat, Cohen's son remembered this, and appealed to Princess Andrew, who, with Princess Nicholas, was one of only two remaining members of the royal family left in Greece. Princess Andrew honoured the promise and saved the Cohen family.

When Athens was liberated in October 1944, Harold Macmillan visited Princess Andrew and described her as "living in humble, not to say somewhat squalid conditions". In a letter to her son, she admitted that in the last week before liberation she had had no food except bread and butter, and no meat for several months. By early December, the situation in Athens was far from improved; Communist guerrillas (ELAS) were fighting the British for control of the capital. As the fighting continued, Princess Andrew was informed that her husband had died, just as hopes of a post-war reunion of the couple were rising. They had not seen each other since 1939. During the fighting, to the dismay of the British, she insisted on walking the streets distributing rations to policemen and children in contravention of the curfew order. When warned that she was in danger of being struck by a stray bullet, she replied "they tell me that you don't hear the shot that kills you and in any case I am deaf. So, why worry about that?"

Widowhood
Princess Andrew returned to the United Kingdom in April 1947 to attend the November wedding of her only son, Philip, to Princess Elizabeth, the elder daughter and heir presumptive of King George VI. She had some of her remaining jewels used in Princess Elizabeth's engagement ring. On the day of the wedding, her son was created Duke of Edinburgh by George VI. For the wedding ceremony, Princess Andrew sat at the head of her family on the north side of Westminster Abbey, opposite the King, Queen Elizabeth and Queen Mary. Princess Andrew's daughters were not invited to the wedding because of anti-German sentiment in Britain following World War II.

In January 1949, the princess founded a nursing order of Greek Orthodox nuns, the Christian Sisterhood of Martha and Mary, modelled after the convent that her aunt, the martyr Grand Duchess Elizabeth Feodorovna, had founded in Russia in 1909. She trained on the Greek island of Tinos, established a home for the order in a hamlet north of Athens, and undertook two tours of the United States in 1950 and 1952 in an effort to raise funds. Her mother was baffled by her actions, "What can you say of a nun who smokes and plays canasta?", she said. Princess Andrew's daughter-in-law became queen of the Commonwealth realms in 1952, and the princess attended the new queen's coronation in June 1953, wearing a two-tone grey dress and wimple in the style of her nun's habit. However, the order eventually failed through a lack of suitable applicants.

In 1960, she visited India at the invitation of Rajkumari Amrit Kaur, who had been impressed by Princess Andrew's interest in Indian religious thought, and for her own spiritual quest. The trip was cut short when she unexpectedly took ill, and her sister-in-law, Edwina Mountbatten, Countess Mountbatten of Burma, who happened to be passing through Delhi on her own tour, had to smooth things with the Indian hosts who were taken aback at Princess Andrew's sudden change of plans. She later claimed she had had an out-of-body experience. Edwina continued her own tour, and died the following month.

Increasingly deaf and in failing health, Princess Andrew left Greece for the last time following the 21 April 1967 Colonels' Coup. Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip invited Princess Andrew to reside permanently at Buckingham Palace in London. King Constantine II and Queen Anne-Marie of Greece went into exile that December after a failed royalist counter-coup.

Death and burial
Despite suggestions of senility in later life, Princess Andrew remained lucid but physically frail. She died at Buckingham Palace on 5 December 1969. She left no possessions, having given everything away. Initially her remains were placed in the Royal Crypt in St George's Chapel at Windsor Castle on 10 December 1969, but before she died she had expressed her wish to be buried at the Convent of Saint Mary Magdalene in Gethsemane on the Mount of Olives in Jerusalem (near her aunt Grand Duchess Elizabeth Feodorovna, a Russian Orthodox saint). When her daughter Princess George William of Hanover complained that it would be too far away for them to visit her grave, Princess Andrew jested, "Nonsense, there's a perfectly good bus service!" Her wish was realised on 3 August 1988 when her remains were transferred to her final resting place in a crypt below the church.

On 31 October 1994, Princess Andrew's two surviving children, the Duke of Edinburgh and Princess George of Hanover, went to Yad Vashem (the Holocaust Memorial) in Jerusalem to witness a ceremony honouring her as "Righteous Among the Nations" for having hidden the Cohens in her house in Athens during the Second World War. Prince Philip said of his mother's sheltering of persecuted Jews, "I suspect that it never occurred to her that her action was in any way special. She was a person with a deep religious faith, and she would have considered it to be a perfectly natural human reaction to fellow beings in distress." In 2010, the princess was posthumously named a Hero of the Holocaust by the British Government.

Titles and styles

 * 25 February 1885 – 6 October 1903: Her Serene Highness Princess Alice of Battenberg
 * 6 October 1903 – 5 December 1969: Her Royal Highness Princess Andrew of Greece and Denmark
 * From 1949 until her death, she was sometimes known as Mother Superior Alice-Elizabeth

Honours

 * Dame of the Order of the Golden Lion, 7 October 1903
 * Dame Grand Cross of the Order of Saints Olga and Sophia
 * 🇬🇧 Royal Red Cross, 1913
 * Dame of the Order of Queen Maria Luisa, 9 April 1928

Posthumous:
 * 🇮🇱 Righteous Among the Nations, 1993
 * 🇬🇧 British Hero of the Holocaust, 2010

title: Princess Alice of Battenberg


text:
Joseph-François Michaud

Joseph–François Michaud (19 June 1767 – 30 September 1839) was a French historian and publicist.

Biography
Michaud was born at either La Biolle or Albens in the Duchy of Savoy (then a part of the Holy Roman Empire and a possession of the King of Sardinia). He was educated at Bourg-en-Bresse, and afterwards engaged in literary work at Lyon, where the French Revolution first aroused the strong dislike of revolutionary principles which manifested itself throughout the rest of his life. In 1791 he went to Paris, where, at great risk to his own safety, he took part in editing several royalist journals. One of those was the Gazette universelle that he founded together with Pascal Boyer and Antoine Marie Cerisier. It was very successful until it was suppressed in August 1792 and its editors had to flee to escape arrest. In 1796 he became editor of La Quotidienne, for which he was arrested after the 13th of Vendémiaire; he evaded his captors, but was sentenced to death in absentia by the military council. Having resumed the editorship of his newspaper on the establishment of the French Directory, he was again proscribed on the 18th of Fructidor, but after two years returned to Paris, when the Consulate had superseded the Directory.

His Bourbon sympathies led to a brief imprisonment in 1800, and on his release he temporarily abandoned journalism, and began to write and edit books. In 1806, with his brother Louis Gabriel Michaud and two colleagues, he published Biographie moderne ou dictionnaire des hommes qui se sont fait un nom en Europe, depuis 1789, the earliest work of its kind. In 1811 published the first volume of his Histoire des Croisades (History of the Crusades) and also the first volume of his Biographie Universelle. In 1813 he was elected Academician, taking up the vacancy left by the death of Jean-François Cailhava de L'Estandoux. In 1814 he resumed the editorship of La Quotidienne. His brochure Histoire des quinze semaines ou le dernier règne de Bonaparte (1815) met with extraordinary success, passing through twenty-seven editions within a very short time.

His political services were now rewarded with the cross of an officer in the Legion of Honour and the modest post of king's reader, of which last he was deprived in 1827 for having opposed Peyronnet's "Loi d'Amour" against the freedom of the Press. In 1830-1831 he travelled in Syria and Egypt for the purpose of collecting additional materials for the Histoire des Croisades; his correspondence with a fellow explorer, Jean Joseph François Poujoulat, consisting practically of discussions and elucidations of various points in that work, was afterwards published (Correspondance d'Orient, 7 vols., 1833–1835). Like the Histoire, it is more interesting than exact. The Bibliothèque des croisades, in four volumes more, contained the "Pièces justificatives" of the Histoire. Michaud died at Passy, where his home had been since 1832.

Works

Michaud's Histoire des croisades was published in its final form in six volumes in 1840 under the editorship of his friend Jean Joseph François Poujoulat. This was translated to The History of the Crusades (1852) by British author William Robson (1785–1863), with a biographical notice on Michaud by American essayist Hamilton W. Mabie. Michaud, along with Poujoulat, also edited Nouvelle collection des mémoires pour servir de l'histoire de France (32 vols., 1836–1844). See Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi, vol. vii.

In 1875, the famous illustrator Gustave Doré produced 100 pictures for a 2 volume medium folio edition of the Histoire which was published by Hachette and Company. A detailed discussion and critique of the Histoire des croisades was done by British historian of the Crusades Christopher Tyerman in his The Debate on the Crusades, 1099–2010 (2011).

title: Joseph-François Michaud


text:
Conseil de l'Entente

The Conseil de l'Entente ("Council of Accord" or "Council of Understanding") is a West African regional co-operation forum established in May 1959 by Côte d'Ivoire, Niger, Upper Volta (now Burkina Faso) and Dahomey (now Benin), and joined in 1966 by Togo.

The body grew out of the short-lived Sahel-Benin Union, which was itself created by the four original Council members as a partial successor to the dissolved French regional colonial federation of French West Africa.

Since 1966, the Council has possessed a permanent administrative Secretariat based in Abidjan, the largest city of Côte d'Ivore. A Mutual Aid and Loan Guarantee Fund exists to assist poorer members from a common pool.

title: Conseil de l'Entente


text:
Red underwing

The red underwing (Catocala nupta) is a moth of the family Erebidae. The species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1767 12th edition of Systema Naturae.

This is a large (80 mm wingspan) nocturnal Palearctic (including Europe) species which, like most noctuids, is above and with the wings closed drably coloured to aid concealment during the day. It flies in August and September, and comes freely to both light and sugar.

Technical description and variation
C. nupta L. Forewing pale grey powdered with darker grey, sometimes with dark grey banded suffusion, and in some cases yellowish-tinged; sometimes the cellspace before reniform coalescent with the spot below reniform, and a space along outer line, before it above middle and beyond it below, are all whitish: inner and outer lines double, black and grey; the outer line less oblique below middle and forming two more conspicuous angles on each side of vein 2, the lower one double, then deeply indented along vein 1 median shade generally clear and produced squarely outwards beyond the reniform, which has a thick black central lunule, a curved black inner edge, and a tridentate outer one; subterminal line pale and dark grey, the paler inner portion sometimes whitish; hindwing crimson with a central black band bent on vein 5, and a thick black terminal border, the inner edge of which is waved towards abdominal margin; — in the form concubina Hbn. the red of the hindwing is brighter and the black median band more developed, being broader throughout and continued to inner margin; the lines of forewing blacker and the pale areas generally more developed; the subsp. nuptialis Stgr., from Tibet (Ili, Issyk-kul, Ala Tau) and the Altai Mts., has the forewing paler, more gaily marked, the submarginal line white, sharply edged with black; — the subsp. obscurata Oberth., from Amurland and Askold Island, is a much blacker form than the average European examples, though specimens from several localities in Europe are also dark: — ab. coerulescens Cockerell, named from a single example taken in Essex, has the hindwing blue instead of red; — ab. brunnescens ab. nov. represented by 3 rather small males captured in the neighbourhood of London, has the hindwing dark olive brown; in the ab. languescens ab. nov. the hindwing is yellowish white with a faint pink flush; a line example of this, but without locality label, exists in the Felder Collection, and a similar one is recorded by Mr. Tutt in British Noctuae, Vol. IV, p. 50; like other species with red hindwings nupta has an aberration in which that colour is supplanted by yellow, ab. flava Schultz, to which intermediate forms occur with the red only partially changed to yellow, or yellow only in one hindwing; - in ab. mutilata Schultz the black central band of hindwing is abbreviated and becomes obsolete a little below costa; — ab. fida Schultz differs from typical examples in having between the subterminal line and the termen a conspicuous dentated white line strongly edged with black; this example was from Silesia; — in the ab. dilutior Schultz the ground colour is generally paler, either brownish yellow with the dark markings slightly darker, or whitish grey with a faint yellowish intermixture; — ab. alterata ab. nov. (=ab. 6 Hmps.) has the black bands of hindwing altered to grey. — ab. rubridens ab. nov. shows the red ground colour of the hindwing running out along veins 2 and 1 in the shape of sharp wedge-shaped teeth, almost interrupting the black median band which is swollen between them into a large horseshoe-shaped blotch; the single example in the Tring Museum is unfortunately without locality; — a strange, probably accidental, aberration from Munich, figured as ab. confusa Oberth., has the whole forewing blurred dark grey, with the inner and outer lines and reniform stigma darker but diffuse on a slightly paler median area; the median band of hindwing strongly curved, its outer edge diffuse, and its lower extremity running up. narrowly to inner margin towards base; the black terminal border projecting basewards as long narrow teeth along the veins with the red ground colour running up between them. Larva pale or dark grey; only distinguishable from that of Catocala elocata by the absence of the dark dorsal and lateral bands, which are represented by lines.

Subspecies

 * Catocala nupta nupta Europe
 * Catocala nupta alticola Mell, 1942 (China: Yunnan)
 * Catocala nupta centralasiae Kusnezov, 1903
 * Catocala nupta clara Osthelder, 1933 (Turkey)
 * Catocala nupta concubia Walker, [1858] (northern Hindostan)
 * Catocala nupta japonica Mell, 1936
 * Catocala nupta kansuensis O. Bang-Haas, 1927 (China: Kansu)
 * Catocala nupta japonica Mell, 1936
 * Catocala nupta likiangensis Mell, 1936 (China: Yunnan)
 * Catocala nupta nozawae Matsumura, 1911 (Japan)
 * Catocala nupta nuptialis Staudinger, 1901 (Altai)
 * Catocala nupta obscurata Oberthür, 1880 (south-eastern Siberia)

Biology
The moths fly from mid-July to early October. At night, they fly to light sources, but they usually land slightly away from the light. The caterpillars are gray with a reddish tint and begin feeding in May and end in June. The adult feeds on nectar, the larva eat willow and poplar leaves. They pupate well hidden between spun leaves. Hibernation is as an egg. This species and other Catocala moths have brightly coloured underwings, in this case orange, red, or pink. These are not visible at rest, being hidden by the dull forewings, but they help the moth avoid predators such as birds if it is disturbed during the day. As the red underwing moth takes off, the sudden flash of colour may confuse the attacker, and when it lands and immediately closes its wings it may seem to disappear as the colour is "switched off". It is also thought that the symmetrical patterned orange sections on the rear wings form the illusion of another smaller creature (butterfly), so the attacker will go for the colourful "small illusive" rear safe region on the main body of this red underwing moth species.

title: Red underwing