text:
Talk:Philosemitism

Judeophile
The word Judeophile/Judeophillia should link to this page when entered in the search bar. I don't know how to do that. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 203.91.144.11 (talk) 03:34, 7 September 2008 (UTC)

Roman Proselytes?
The proselytes of the Roman era should be mentioned here, but I don't know much about them -- Error

 * Some info at Proselyte and Godfearers. 75.15.199.8 (talk) 22:12, 13 December 2010 (UTC)

Philosemitism
I've added the above to the article--Google is a great re-search engine as well (as a search engine).
 * Ludvikus 14:55, 23 November 2006 (UTC)

Philosemite
None of the cited authors have a WP pahe?
 * Can anyone please start stubs for them?

-
 * And should we not have a REDIRECT on this term?
 * Ludvikus 15:25, 23 November 2006 (UTC)

-
 * My google search produced this result: "Results 1 - 10 of about 9,280 for Philosemite. (0.21 seconds) ." So I'm putting in a REDIRECT on it to this article, as well as modifying the opening paragraph to include it. Ludvikus 15:29, 23 November 2006 (UTC)

A Wider Audience
I am a gentile, who found the word here accidentally on a search. I like the word and consider myself one; I am in awe the history of the Jewish People, their determination and survival. I am aware of and appreciate Jewish contributions to jazz and science, to name a few. I believe, however, that the previous version misses a target audience, that of Gentiles, and have made minor (I believe) edits to the first paragraph, to reflect that. I didn’t feel right about checking the ‘minor’ box, though, and didn’t.

Misc other comments: Para2, I could not link to the referenced Commentary opinion. Para3, I know little specific about it, but I find the statement ‘His detractor Norman Finkelstein agrees’, to be incomprehensible unless an explanation is added. Para4, nothing. Para5, last sentence, If by this you mean the "Righteous Among the Nations" and similar people, at various historic times, then I believe their role could be better highlighted in a more complete narative of the historic context of the word. The titles of the first three books would tend to support this view. I think deletion of 'so called' would be appropriate. CasualObserver'48 (talk) 09:58, 29 November 2007 (UTC)

AfD?
I think this article should be AfD'd. This term is a non-notable neologism; On the Islamophilia page I made a joke about having a wikipedia page called this as well, then I was shocked to see such a page actually existed. Do we really need an encyclopedia page for every bizarre compound word that someone uses in passing, when there is no clear history of scholarly literature specifically discussing the term or phrase as a meaningful construct? csloat (talk) 21:31, 4 April 2008 (UTC)
 * Hmm, I think I withdraw the objection; I just read a good chunk of this article on the topic and it seems I am just ignorant of a scholarly discussion that exists on this topic. There seems far more here than the "Islamophilia" topic that brought me here in the first place.  My apologies :) csloat (talk) 00:22, 5 April 2008 (UTC)

Nietzsche as anti-anti-semite
Nietzsche didn't declare his love for all things Jewish. instead his anti-anti-semitism was directed at Jew-haters and the kind of people who were Jew-haters. they are two different things. one might very well be indifferent to Jews and Jewish culture but also hate anti-semitism, after all, although i wouldn't go so far as to claim that Nietzsche was indifferent to Jews and Jewish culture. but many of his seemingly philosemitic statements are actually merely jabs at anti-semites and in particular the kinds of backward nationalist Germanophile xenophobic statist morons who were also anti-semites in Nietzsche's time. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.19.29.203 (talk) 23:28, 6 September 2010 (UTC)

 * Nietzsche was a heavy duty philosopher, so one should be careful making broad statements about him. Lots of people have opinions about Nietzsche that are often not traceable to the writings of Nietzsche himself. Somewhat to their defense, it is not easy to read Nietzsche. 75.15.199.8 (talk) 22:21, 13 December 2010 (UTC)

 * Yet Nietzsche certainly did appreciate at least some aspects of Jewishness. Baruch Spinoza was hands down one of his most significant influences. Nietzsche wrote, "The Jews, on the contrary [to Rome], were the priestly nation of ressentiment par excellence, in whom there dwelt an unequaled popular-moral genius: one only has to compare similarly gifted nations—the Chinese or the Germans, for instance—with the Jews, to sense which is of the first and which of the fifth rank." It's so ironic that the Nazi party couldn't get enough of that guy. 213.109.230.96 (talk) 13:21, 8 February 2014 (UTC)

 * Yes, yes, appreciate your contributions, all three of you. I am NOT a Nazi apologist, nor am I one of those self-hating Jews. I removed an unsourced pejorative (a single phrase in a lengthy sentence) referencing Nietzsche from the JudeoChristian article just now. It links to philosemitism. There is an American (anglo-sphere?) leftist, John Zerzan, who wrote a scathing critique of post-modernism, considering it to be nihilist. Like me, he perceives Nietzsche as a complicated but vigorous modernist and anti-anti-Semite.--FeralOink (talk) 02:37, 14 October 2022 (UTC)

Dispensationalism
This article articulates the liberal view, but not the conservative evangelical view, particularly those of Christian Zionists. This article should be expanded to include this. --Confession0791 talk 23:31, 13 December 2010 (UTC)

Philosephardism
There are more specific sections of philosemitism. Article expansion? --Houdinipeter talk 22:31, 16 March 2015 (UTC)

Jewish response
There's one reference in the "Jewish response" section, and it goes to theforward.com and says "editorial" without linking to the actual editorial, so it's very unclear what the actual Jewish response is. Likely needs a whole rewrite! --Prince Ludwig (talk) 19:23, 28 December 2019 (UTC)

Philosemitism is anti-semitic?
First line of the article, uhm, that seems rather contradictory. 2001:818:E970:4100:5190:C869:C05E:23B9 (talk) 11:18, 13 December 2023 (UTC)

 * Totally agree. I don’t like the “let’s lead with nonsense” approach 72.83.103.199 (talk) 02:45, 15 December 2023 (UTC)
 * Due to this strange recent edit, which completely changes the meaning of the paragraph. Should it be reverted? 96.246.240.43 (talk) 22:16, 15 December 2023 (UTC)

 * Not a strange edit, sources for this article *already* supported that wording. Making the connection more explicit was intentional since I've seen plenty of people misunderstand what philosemitism is in recent weeks. Liz-wiki-en (talk) 23:13, 15 December 2023 (UTC)

 * Liz-wiki-en, could you please point to the sources that support this claim? Several of the cited authors suggest that philosemitism may share tropes with antisemitism (G. Daniel Cohen, Martin Wein, Bennet Kravitz, and Liron Nagler-Cohen), but none describe philosemitism as a form of antisemitism as far as I can see. These are two distinct claims, and do not necessarily follow from each other. Thanks, Swadge2 (talk) 09:37, 4 January 2024 (UTC).
 * I'm aware of this argument, and am aware that there is a lot of informal discourse around it, but we do need reliable sources to include it in this article. There needs to be enough to add a whole section on it. As for the lead, at best, there's going to be a line saying something like "philosemitism is regarded by some as a benevolent form of antisemitism", but outright defining philosemitism as a form of antisemitism is going to fail NPOV. Ibadibam (talk) 06:05, 5 February 2024 (UTC)
 * fair enough. will scrounge up adequate sources when i have the spoons for it if no one beats me to it. Liz-wiki-en (talk) 01:03, 13 February 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Philosemitism


text:
Emil Wallber

Emil Wallber (April 1, 1841 – June 2, 1923) was a German American lawyer and judge. He was the Mayor of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, at the time of the Bay View massacre and labor strike, and adopted the city's first ordinance on an eight-hour work day.

Early life and career
Born in Berlin, Prussia, Wallber immigrated to the United States with his family in 1850. He is the son of Julius and Henrietta Krohn Wallber, both of whom had also been born in Berlin. They settled in New York City, where he was educated in the public schools and the New York free academy.

At age 14, Wallber moved to Milwaukee, intent on studying law. He first took a position as a clerk for Charles F. Bode, who was then justice of the peace. He then went to study in the law offices of Edward Salomon and Winfield Smith, who would later become the governor and Attorney General of Wisconsin, respectively. Salomon was elected lieutenant governor in 1861, and became governor on the death of Governor Harvey in April 1862. On ascending to the governorship, Salomon hired Wallber as his chief clerk. Wallber served with Governor Salomon until the end of his term in January 1864. Wallber meanwhile continued his study of the law and was admitted to the State Bar of Wisconsin later that year. He then returned to the service of Winfield Smith as an assistant attorney general and remained in that role until the end of Smith's term in 1866.

Elected office
Wallber then returned to Milwaukee and practiced law. He was elected as a school commissioner, and served as president of the school board from 1871 to 1873. He was elected to serve in the Wisconsin State Assembly for the 1872 session, and served as Milwaukee City Attorney from 1873 to 1878. He was County court commissioner for ten years, and from 1883 to 1890 was a regent of the state normal schools.

He was elected Mayor of Milwaukee in 1884 and was re-elected in 1886. During his second term as mayor, there was a major labor walkout during agitation for the eight-hour workday. The strikes closed virtually every business in Milwaukee, starting on May Day, May 1, 1886. At Wallber's request, the Governor, Jeremiah McLain Rusk, called up the Wisconsin National Guard. In what's now known as the Bay View massacre, on May 5, the national guard fired into the protesters as they marched on the North Chicago Rolling Mills in Bay View. Seven people died as a result, including a thirteen year old boy.

In April 1889, the year after he left the Mayors office, Wallber was elected judge of the municipal court. He was re-elected in 1895 and left office in 1902. In his later life, he served as a German consular agent in Milwaukee from 1906 to his retirement in 1917.

Wallber is buried at Forest Home Cemetery in Milwaukee.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Emil Wallber


text:
David Stuart Rose

David Stuart Rose (June 30, 1856 – August 8, 1932) was an American lawyer and Democratic politician.

Background
Born in Darlington, Wisconsin, Rose joined his father's law firm in Darlington. He served as mayor of Darlington in 1883 and 1884 and was county judge of Lafayette County, Wisconsin.

Move to Milwaukee
In 1886, he moved to Milwaukee where he practiced law and was twice elected mayor of the city of Milwaukee, Wisconsin serving from 1898 to 1906 and from 1908 to 1910, when he was defeated by Socialist Emil Seidel. He was the 1902 Democratic nominee for Governor of Wisconsin, running a conservative campaign losing to incumbent Robert M. La Follette by a wide margin.

His administration was known for widespread corruption. Under "All the Time Rosy", Milwaukee had a reputation as a "wide-open" town that tolerated prostitution, gambling and late-night saloons. As historian John Gurda put it, "Virtually everything that was not nailed down - from public hay supplies to aldermanic votes - was for sale to the highest bidder." After spending some time in California trying to promote trade with China, Rose returned to Milwaukee and ran once again for mayor in 1924 but lost the election to Socialist Daniel Hoan.

Back to Lafayette County
Rose later returned to Darlington and in 1931 ran once more (unsuccessfully) for county judge of Lafayette County. He died in Milwaukee on August 8, 1932, and is buried in Darlington.

title: David Stuart Rose


text:
Emil Seidel

Emil Seidel (December 13, 1864 – June 24, 1947) was an American politician. Seidel was the mayor of Milwaukee from 1910 to 1912. The first Socialist mayor of a major city in the United States, Seidel became the vice presidential candidate for the Socialist Party of America in the 1912 presidential election.

Early years
Seidel was born December 13, 1864, in the town of Ashland in Schuylkill County, Pennsylvania, the son of ethnic German emigrants from Pomerania. His family moved to Wisconsin in 1867, living first in Prairie du Chien before moving to the state capital of Madison. Seidel's father, Otto Seidel, was a carpenter, and his mother, Henrietta Knoll Seidel, was a homemaker.

Seidel attended public school up to the age of 13, when he dropped out to become a woodcarver. He continued to study after leaving school, reading extensively. At the age of 19 he started a trade union of local woodworkers, becoming the organization's first secretary.

At the age of 22, Seidel went abroad to refine his skills as a woodcarver. He lived for six years in Berlin, working at his trade during the day and attending school at night. It was in this period that Seidel first became an active socialist.

In 1895, Seidel married Lucy Geissel. They had one son, Lucius, who died in infancy, and one daughter, Viola. The pair would ultimately divorce in 1924.

Political career

When Seidel returned to the United States in 1892 he joined the Socialist Labor Party of America. Seidel was a charter member of the first SLP branch in Milwaukee. He also became an active member of the Pattern Makers Union.

Seidel later joined the Social Democracy of America (established 1897), the Social Democratic Party of America (established 1898), and the Socialist Party of America (established 1901) in turn. He resided briefly in Washington state, serving as the first secretary of Local Redmond SPA in the fall of 1901.

In 1904 Seidel was one of nine Socialists to win electoral victory as Milwaukee city aldermen, elected in the city's 20th ward. He served two terms in that position before making his first mayoral run in 1908. He was returned as a city alderman at large in the election of 1909.

In 1910, Seidel was elected mayor of Milwaukee, becoming the first Socialist mayor of a major city in the United States. During his administration the first public works department was established, the first fire and police commission was organized, and a city park system came into being. Seidel cleaned up the town with strict regulation of bars and the closing of brothels and sporting parlors (modern-day casinos). During his administration Seidel employed the noted American poet and author Carl Sandburg as his personal secretary. Seidel's socialist inclinations had attracted Sandburg to Milwaukee.

In his Spring 1912 bid for re-election, Seidel faced the combined forces of the Democratic and Republican parties, who ran a single candidate in order to defeat Seidel and the Socialists. Despite winning more votes in 1912 than in 1910, Seidel was defeated by Gerhard Bading, local doctor, professor of surgery, and commissioner of health, on a fusion Democratic-Republican ticket.

Freed of his mayoral duties by electoral defeat, Seidel became a logical choice as the Socialist Party's nominee for Vice President of the United States on the ticket with Eugene V. Debs. The pair won 901,551 votes in the 1912 presidential election, 6% of the total vote.

Seidel tried to win re-election as mayor of Milwaukee in 1914, but was soundly defeated. He was returned to the city council as an alderman at large in the city election of 1916. He won re-election in 1918, remaining at the post until 1920.

Seidel, an opponent of World War I, voted against Milwaukee's purchase of Liberty bonds to help finance the war effort. He also was an outspoken opponent of a proposed Milwaukee "loyalty ordinance". In the superheated wartime political climate, marked by political repression of the anti-war movement, Seidel ran afoul of the law when he was arrested on November 12, 1917, in Horicon, Wisconsin following a speech he made there. Charged with "tending to provoke an assault or breach of peace during an address", he was fined $50.

In 1932, Seidel ran for a seat in the United States Senate from Wisconsin, winning 6% of the vote. He served a final four-year stint as a Milwaukee city alderman from 1932 until 1936.

Later years
Seidel retired from political life in the mid-1930s. He remained a resident of Milwaukee, living on the northwest side of the city, passing his time painting, composing music, creating poetry, and writing his autobiography.

Death and legacy
Seidel died in Milwaukee on June 24, 1947, following an illness of several months' duration related to complications from a heart condition. He was 82 years old.

Seidel's unpublished memoirs reside in Madison at the Wisconsin Historical Society, where they are available to scholars on microfilm.

Works

 * What We Have Done in Milwaukee. Chicago, IL: National Office of the Socialist Party, 1911.
 * Which Must Go? America or Private Ownership of Railroads? Milwaukee: Socialist Party of Wisconsin, 1923.
 * Thy Kingdom Come: Sketches from My Life: Autobiography of Emil Seidel. [1944] Madison, WI: State Historical Society of Wisconsin.
 * Joining the Socialist Movement. Corvallis, OR: 1000 Flowers Publishing, 2013.
 * Building the Social Democratic Party. Corvallis, OR: 1000 Flowers Publishing, 2013.

title: Emil Seidel


text:
Dynamo theory

In physics, the dynamo theory proposes a mechanism by which a celestial body such as Earth or a star generates a magnetic field. The dynamo theory describes the process through which a rotating, convecting, and electrically conducting fluid can maintain a magnetic field over astronomical time scales. A dynamo is thought to be the source of the Earth's magnetic field and the magnetic fields of Mercury and the Jovian planets.

History of theory
When William Gilbert published de Magnete in 1600, he concluded that the Earth is magnetic and proposed the first hypothesis for the origin of this magnetism: permanent magnetism such as that found in lodestone. In 1822, André-Marie Ampère proposed that internal currents are responsible for Earth magnetism . In 1919, Joseph Larmor proposed that a dynamo might be generating the field. However, even after he advanced his hypothesis, some prominent scientists advanced alternative explanations. The Nobel Prize winner Patrick Blackett did a series of experiments looking for a fundamental relation between angular momentum and magnetic moment, but found none.

Walter M. Elsasser, considered a "father" of the presently accepted dynamo theory as an explanation of the Earth's magnetism, proposed that this magnetic field resulted from electric currents induced in the fluid outer core of the Earth. He revealed the history of the Earth's magnetic field through pioneering the study of the magnetic orientation of minerals in rocks.

In order to maintain the magnetic field against ohmic decay (which would occur for the dipole field in 20,000 years), the outer core must be convecting. The convection is likely some combination of thermal and compositional convection. The mantle controls the rate at which heat is extracted from the core. Heat sources include gravitational energy released by the compression of the core, gravitational energy released by the rejection of light elements (probably sulfur, oxygen, or silicon) at the inner core boundary as it grows, latent heat of crystallization at the inner core boundary, and radioactivity of potassium, uranium and thorium.

At the dawn of the 21st century, numerical modeling of the Earth's magnetic field has not been successfully demonstrated. Initial models are focused on field generation by convection in the planet's fluid outer core. It was possible to show the generation of a strong, Earth-like field when the model assumed a uniform core-surface temperature and exceptionally high viscosities for the core fluid. Computations which incorporated more realistic parameter values yielded magnetic fields that were less Earth-like, but indicated that model refinements may ultimately lead to an accurate analytic model. Slight variations in the core-surface temperature, in the range of a few millikelvins, result in significant increases in convective flow and produce more realistic magnetic fields.

Formal definition
Dynamo theory describes the process through which a rotating, convecting, and electrically conducting fluid acts to maintain a magnetic field. This theory is used to explain the presence of anomalously long-lived magnetic fields in astrophysical bodies. The conductive fluid in the geodynamo is liquid iron in the outer core, and in the solar dynamo is ionized gas at the tachocline. Dynamo theory of astrophysical bodies uses magnetohydrodynamic equations to investigate how the fluid can continuously regenerate the magnetic field.

It was once believed that the dipole, which comprises much of the Earth's magnetic field and is misaligned along the rotation axis by 11.3 degrees, was caused by permanent magnetization of the materials in the earth. This means that dynamo theory was originally used to explain the Sun's magnetic field in its relationship with that of the Earth. However, this hypothesis, which was initially proposed by Joseph Larmor in 1919, has been modified due to extensive studies of magnetic secular variation, paleomagnetism (including polarity reversals), seismology, and the solar system's abundance of elements. Also, the application of the theories of Carl Friedrich Gauss to magnetic observations showed that Earth's magnetic field had an internal, rather than external, origin.

There are three requisites for a dynamo to operate:

 * An electrically conductive fluid medium
 * Kinetic energy provided by planetary rotation
 * An internal energy source to drive convective motions within the fluid.

In the case of the Earth, the magnetic field is induced and constantly maintained by the convection of liquid iron in the outer core. A requirement for the induction of field is a rotating fluid. Rotation in the outer core is supplied by the Coriolis effect caused by the rotation of the Earth. The Coriolis force tends to organize fluid motions and electric currents into columns (also see Taylor columns) aligned with the rotation axis. Induction or generation of magnetic field is described by the induction equation: $$\frac{\partial \mathbf{B}}{\partial t} = \eta \nabla^2 \mathbf{B} + \nabla \times (\mathbf{u} \times \mathbf{B}) $$ where $u$ is velocity, $B$ is magnetic field, $t$ is time, and $$\eta = 1 / (\sigma\mu)$$ is the magnetic diffusivity with $$\sigma$$ electrical conductivity and $$\mu$$ permeability. The ratio of the second term on the right hand side to the first term gives the magnetic Reynolds number, a dimensionless ratio of advection of magnetic field to diffusion.

Tidal heating supporting a dynamo
Tidal forces between celestial orbiting bodies cause friction that heats up their interiors. This is known as tidal heating, and it helps keep the interior in a liquid state. A liquid interior that can conduct electricity is required to produce a dynamo. Saturn's Enceladus and Jupiter's Io have enough tidal heating to liquify their inner cores, but they may not create a dynamo because they cannot conduct electricity. Mercury, despite its small size, has a magnetic field, because it has a conductive liquid core created by its iron composition and friction resulting from its highly elliptical orbit. It is theorized that the Moon once had a magnetic field, based on evidence from magnetized lunar rocks, due to its short-lived closer distance to Earth creating tidal heating. An orbit and rotation of a planet helps provide a liquid core, and supplements kinetic energy that supports a dynamo action.

Kinematic dynamo theory
In kinematic dynamo theory the velocity field is prescribed, instead of being a dynamic variable: The model makes no provision for the flow distorting in response to the magnetic field. This method cannot provide the time variable behaviour of a fully nonlinear chaotic dynamo, but can be used to study how magnetic field strength varies with the flow structure and speed.

Using Maxwell's equations simultaneously with the curl of Ohm's law, one can derive what is basically a linear eigenvalue equation for magnetic fields ($B$), which can be done when assuming that the magnetic field is independent from the velocity field. One arrives at a critical magnetic Reynolds number, above which the flow strength is sufficient to amplify the imposed magnetic field, and below which the magnetic field dissipates.

Practical measure of possible dynamos
The most functional feature of kinematic dynamo theory is that it can be used to test whether a velocity field is or is not capable of dynamo action. By experimentally applying a certain velocity field to a small magnetic field, one can observe whether the magnetic field tends to grow (or not) in response to the applied flow. If the magnetic field does grow, then the system is either capable of dynamo action or is a dynamo, but if the magnetic field does not grow, then it is simply referred to as “not a dynamo”.

An analogous method called the membrane paradigm is a way of looking at black holes that allows for the material near their surfaces to be expressed in the language of dynamo theory.

Spontaneous breakdown of a topological supersymmetry
Kinematic dynamo can be also viewed as the phenomenon of the spontaneous breakdown of the topological supersymmetry of the associated stochastic differential equation related to the flow of the background matter. Within stochastic supersymmetric theory, this supersymmetry is an intrinsic property of all stochastic differential equations, its interpretation is that the model's phase space preserves continuity via continuous time flows. When the continuity of that flow spontaneously breaks down, the system is in the stochastic state of deterministic chaos. In other words, kinematic dynamo arises because of chaotic flow in the underlying background matter.

Nonlinear dynamo theory
The kinematic approximation becomes invalid when the magnetic field becomes strong enough to affect the fluid motions. In that case the velocity field becomes affected by the Lorentz force, and so the induction equation is no longer linear in the magnetic field. In most cases this leads to a quenching of the amplitude of the dynamo. Such dynamos are sometimes also referred to as hydromagnetic dynamos. Virtually all dynamos in astrophysics and geophysics are hydromagnetic dynamos.

The main idea of the theory is that any small magnetic field existing in the outer core creates currents in the moving fluid there due to Lorentz force. These currents create further magnetic field due to Ampere's law. With the fluid motion, the currents are carried in a way that the magnetic field gets stronger (as long as $$\; \mathbf{u} \cdot ( \mathbf{J} \times \mathbf{B} ) \;$$ is negative ). Thus a "seed" magnetic field can get stronger and stronger until it reaches some value that is related to existing non-magnetic forces.

Numerical models are used to simulate fully nonlinear dynamos. The following equations are used:

&\nabla \cdot \mathbf{B} = 0 \\[1ex] &\nabla \times \mathbf{B} = \mu_0 \mathbf{J} \end{align}$$
 * The induction equation, presented above.
 * Maxwell's equations for negligible electric field: $$\begin{align}
 * The continuity equation for conservation of mass, for which the Boussinesq approximation is often used: $$ \nabla \cdot \mathbf{u} = 0, $$
 * The Navier-Stokes equation for conservation of momentum, again in the same approximation, with the magnetic force and gravitation force as the external forces: $$ \frac{D\mathbf{u}}{Dt} = -\frac{1}{\rho_0}\nabla p + \nu \nabla^2 \mathbf{u} + \rho' \mathbf{g} + 2 \boldsymbol{\Omega} \times \mathbf{u} + \boldsymbol{\Omega} \times \boldsymbol{\Omega} \times \mathbf{R} + \frac{1}{\rho_0}\mathbf{J} \times \mathbf{B} ~, $$ where $$\,\nu\,$$ is the kinematic viscosity, $$\,\rho_0\,$$is the mean density and $$\rho'$$ is the relative density perturbation that provides buoyancy (for thermal convection $$\;\rho' = \alpha \Delta T\;$$ where $$\,\alpha\,$$ is coefficient of thermal expansion), $$\,\Omega\,$$ is the rotation rate of the Earth, and $$\,\mathbf{J}\,$$ is the electric current density.
 * A transport equation, usually of heat (sometimes of light element concentration): $$ \frac{\,\partial T\,}{\partial t} = \kappa \nabla^2 T + \varepsilon $$ where $T$ is temperature, $$\;\kappa = k / \rho c_p \;$$ is the thermal diffusivity with $k$ thermal conductivity, $$\,c_p\,$$ heat capacity, and $$\rho$$ density, and $$\varepsilon$$ is an optional heat source. Often the pressure is the dynamic pressure, with the hydrostatic pressure and centripetal potential removed.

These equations are then non-dimensionalized, introducing the non-dimensional parameters, $$ R_\mathsf{a} = \frac{\, g \alpha T D^3\,}{\nu \kappa} \;,\quad E = \frac{\nu}{\,\Omega D^2\,} \;,\quad P_\mathsf{r} = \frac{\,\nu\,}{\kappa} \;,\quad P_\mathsf{m} = \frac{\,\nu\,}{\eta} $$ where $R$$a$ is the Rayleigh number, $E$ the Ekman number, $P$$r$ and $P$$m$ the Prandtl and magnetic Prandtl number. Magnetic field scaling is often in Elsasser number units $$B = (\rho \Omega/\sigma)^{1/2}.$$

Energy conversion between magnetic and kinematic energy
The scalar product of the above form of Navier-Stokes equation with $$\;\rho_0 \mathbf{u}\;$$ gives the rate of increase of kinetic energy density, $$\; \tfrac{1}{2} \rho_0 u^2 c \;$$, on the left-hand side. The last term on the right-hand side is then $$\; \mathbf{u} \cdot ( \mathbf{J} \times \mathbf{B} ) \;$$, the local contribution to the kinetic energy due to Lorentz force.

The scalar product of the induction equation with $\tfrac{1}{\mu_0}\mathbf{B}$ gives the rate of increase of the magnetic energy density, $$\;\tfrac{1}{2} \mu_0 B^2\;$$, on the left-hand side. The last term on the right-hand side is then $\tfrac{1}{\mu_0} \mathbf{B} \cdot \left( \nabla \times \left( \mathbf{u} \times \mathbf{B} \right) \right) \;.$ Since the equation is volume-integrated, this term is equivalent up to a boundary term (and with the double use of the scalar triple product identity) to $\; -\mathbf{u} \cdot \left( \tfrac{1}{\mu_0} \left( \nabla \times \mathbf{B} \right) \times \mathbf{B} \right) = -\mathbf{u} \cdot \left( \mathbf{J} \times \mathbf{B} \right) ~$  (where one of Maxwell's equations was used). This is the local contribution to the magnetic energy due to fluid motion.

Thus the term $$\;-\mathbf{u} \cdot ( \mathbf{J} \times \mathbf{B} ) \;$$ is the rate of transformation of kinetic energy to magnetic energy. This has to be non-negative at least in part of the volume, for the dynamo to produce magnetic field.

From the diagram above, it is not clear why this term should be positive. A simple argument can be based on consideration of net effects. To create the magnetic field, the net electric current must wrap around the axis of rotation of the planet. In that case, for the term to be positive, the net flow of conducting matter must be towards the axis of rotation. The diagram only shows a net flow from the poles to the equator. However mass conservation requires an additional flow from the equator toward the poles. If that flow was along the axis of rotation, that implies the circulation would be completed by a flow from the ones shown towards the axis of rotation, producing the desired effect.

Order of magnitude of the magnetic field created by Earth's dynamo
The above formula for the rate of conversion of kinetic energy to magnetic energy, is equivalent to a rate of work done by a force of $$\;\mathbf{J} \times \mathbf{B}\;$$ on the outer core matter, whose velocity is $$\mathbf{u}$$. This work is the result of non-magnetic forces acting on the fluid.

Of those, the gravitational force and the centrifugal force are conservative and therefore have no overall contribution to fluid moving in closed loops. Ekman number (defined above), which is the ratio between the two remaining forces, namely the viscosity and Coriolis force, is very low inside Earth's outer core, because its viscosity is low (1.2–1.5 ×10$−2$ pascal-second ) due to its liquidity.

Thus the main time-averaged contribution to the work is from Coriolis force, whose size is $$\;-2\rho\,\mathbf{\Omega} \times \mathbf{u} \;,$$ though this quantity and $$\mathbf{J} \times \mathbf{B}$$ are related only indirectly and are not in general equal locally (thus they affect each other but not in the same place and time).

The current density $J$ is itself the result of the magnetic field according to Ohm's law. Again, due to matter motion and current flow, this is not necessarily the field at the same place and time. However these relations can still be used to deduce orders of magnitude of the quantities in question.

In terms of order of magnitude, $$\; J \, B \sim \rho\, \Omega\, u \;$$ and $$\; J \sim \sigma u B\;$$, giving $$\;\sigma\,u\, B^2 \sim \rho\, \Omega\,u \;,$$ or: $$B \sim \sqrt{\frac{\,\rho\,\Omega\,}{\sigma}\;}$$

The exact ratio between both sides is the square root of Elsasser number.

Note that the magnetic field direction cannot be inferred from this approximation (at least not its sign) as it appears squared, and is, indeed, sometimes reversed, though in general it lies on a similar axis to that of $$\mathbf{\Omega}$$.

For earth outer core, $ρ$ is approximately 104 kg/m3,  $Ω$ = 2$\pi$/day = 7.3×10−5/second   and   $σ$   is approximately   107Ω−1m−1. This gives  2.7×10−4 Tesla.

The magnetic field of a magnetic dipole has an inverse cubic dependence in distance, so its order of magnitude at the earth surface can be approximated by multiplying the above result with ($Router core/REarth$)$3$ = ($2890/6370$)$3$ = 0.093, giving  2.5×10−5 Tesla, not far from the measured value of 3×10−5 Tesla at the equator.

Numerical models
Broadly, models of the geodynamo attempt to produce magnetic fields consistent with observed data given certain conditions and equations as mentioned in the sections above. Implementing the magnetohydrodynamic equations successfully was of particular significance because they pushed dynamo models to self-consistency. Though geodynamo models are especially prevalent, dynamo models are not necessarily restricted to the geodynamo; solar and general dynamo models are also of interest. Studying dynamo models has utility in the field of geophysics as doing so can identify how various mechanisms form magnetic fields like those produced by astrophysical bodies like Earth and how they cause magnetic fields to exhibit certain features, such as pole reversals.

The equations used in numerical models of dynamo are highly complex. For decades, theorists were confined to two dimensional kinematic dynamo models described above, in which the fluid motion is chosen in advance and the effect on the magnetic field calculated. The progression from linear to nonlinear, three dimensional models of dynamo was largely hindered by the search for solutions to magnetohydrodynamic equations, which eliminate the need for many of the assumptions made in kinematic models and allow self-consistency. The first self-consistent dynamo models, ones that determine both the fluid motions and the magnetic field, were developed by two groups in 1995, one in Japan and one in the United States. The latter was made as a model with regards to the geodynamo and received significant attention because it successfully reproduced some of the characteristics of the Earth's field. Following this breakthrough, there was a large swell in development of reasonable, three dimensional dynamo models.

Though many self-consistent models now exist, there are significant differences among the models, both in the results they produce and the way they were developed. Given the complexity of developing a geodynamo model, there are many places where discrepancies can occur such as when making assumptions involving the mechanisms that provide energy for the dynamo, when choosing values for parameters used in equations, or when normalizing equations. In spite of the many differences that may occur, most models have shared features like clear axial dipoles. In many of these models, phenomena like secular variation and geomagnetic polarity reversals have also been successfully recreated.

Observations
Many observations can be made from dynamo models. Models can be used to estimate how magnetic fields vary with time and can be compared to observed paleomagnetic data to find similarities between the model and the Earth. Due to the uncertainty of paleomagnetic observations, however, comparisons may not be entirely valid or useful. Simplified geodynamo models have shown relationships between the dynamo number (determined by variance in rotational rates in the outer core and mirror-asymmetric convection (e.g. when convection favors one direction in the north and the other in the south)) and magnetic pole reversals as well as found similarities between the geodynamo and the Sun's dynamo. In many models, it appears that magnetic fields have somewhat random magnitudes that follow a normal trend that average to zero. In addition to these observations, general observations about the mechanisms powering the geodynamo can be made based on how accurately the model reflects actual data collected from Earth.

Modern modelling
The complexity of dynamo modelling is so great that models of the geodynamo are limited by the current power of supercomputers, particularly because calculating the Ekman and Rayleigh number of the outer core is extremely difficult and requires a vast number of computations.

Many improvements have been proposed in dynamo modelling since the self-consistent breakthrough in 1995. One suggestion in studying the complex magnetic field changes is applying spectral methods to simplify computations. Ultimately, until considerable improvements in computer power are made, the methods for computing realistic dynamo models will have to be made more efficient, so making improvements in methods for computing the model is of high importance for the advancement of numerical dynamo modelling.

Notable people

 * Stanislav I. Braginsky, research geophysicist

title: Dynamo theory


text:
Carl Zeidler

Carl Frederick Zeidler (January 4, 1908 – December 11, 1942) was an American politician and the mayor of the city of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, from 1940 to 1942, winning election by unseating six-term Socialist mayor Dan Hoan. After just two years in office Zeidler resigned his position as mayor to enlist in the United States Navy Reserve to fight in World War II. His merchant marine ship and all hands were lost off the coast of South Africa in December 1942.

Early years
Zeidler was born January 4, 1908, in Milwaukee, Wisconsin to parents of German ancestry. He graduated from Marquette University in 1929 and received a J.D. in 1931.

Political career
Serving as an assistant city attorney for Milwaukee (1936–1940), Zeidler stunned the city when he upset six-term Socialist mayor Daniel Hoan to become mayor of Milwaukee in 1940. Hoan had served as mayor for the past 24 years.

His rise to power was orchestrated by young writers Robert Bloch (later the author of Psycho) and Harold Gauer, who created elaborate campaign shows. In Bloch's autobiography, Once Around the Bloch, he gives an inside account of the campaign, and the innovations he and Gauer came up with, such as the original "releasing-balloons-from-the-ceiling" schtick. He comments bitterly on how, after Zeidler's election, they were ignored and not even paid their promised salaries, while credit was taken by local establishment figures like Milton Rice Polland instead.

Bloch ends the account with a philosophical point:

"If Carl Zeidler had not asked Jim Doolittle to manage his campaign, Doolittle would never have contacted me about it. And the only reason Doolittle knew me to begin with was because he read my yarn ('The Cloak') in Unknown.

Rattling this chain of circumstances, one may stretch it a bit further. If I had not written a little vampire story called 'The Cloak', Carl Zeidler might never have become mayor of Milwaukee."

Death and legacy

Zeidler's election was attracting attention on the national political scene as World War II broke out. After a year in office, Zeidler came to believe he could best help the war effort by enlisting; he resigned his position as mayor and accepted a Naval Reserve commission on April 8, 1942. He asked for the most dangerous job on ship and became officer in charge of a gun battery on board the merchant ship SS La Salle.

The ship and all hands were reported missing off the coast of South Africa on November 7, 1942, sunk by a German U-boat U-159 torpedo attack. Zeidler was officially presumed dead December 11, 1944. A gravestone cenotaph marks his plot at Forest Home Cemetery in Milwaukee.

Carl's brother, socialist Frank P. Zeidler, later became mayor of Milwaukee and served in that position from 1948 to 1960. Carl's mayoral papers are archived at Milwaukee Public Library.

title: Carl Zeidler


text:
Illini–Badger Football Conference

The Illini–Badger Football Conference (IBFC) was an athletic conference with the NCAA's Division III. Member teams were located in Illinois and Wisconsin. As the name indicates, member teams only competed in football. They participated in other athletic conferences in other sports. The conference's last season was in 2007.

In 1989, the conference changed its name to the Illini–Badger–Hawkeye Football Conference and added four new members: Blackburn College in Carlinville, Illinois, Greenville College—now known as Greenville University—in Greenville, Illinois, MacMurray College in Jacksonville, Illinois, and Iowa Wesleyan College—now known as Iowa Wesleyan University—in Mount Pleasant, Iowa.

Member teams during final season

 * Aurora University
 * Benedictine University
 * Concordia University Chicago
 * Concordia University Wisconsin
 * Eureka College
 * Greenville College
 * Lakeland College
 * MacMurray College

Former members

 * Iowa Wesleyan College (1989–1992)
 * Milton College (1976–1982)
 * Northeastern Illinois University (1976–1988)
 * Principia College (1989–1992)
 * Quincy University (1993–1996)

Conference champions

 * 1975 – Milton
 * 1976 – Milton
 * 1977 – Northeastern Illinois
 * 1978 – Milton
 * 1979 – Lakeland & Milton
 * 1980 – Milton
 * 1981 – Concordia (WI), Milton & Northeastern Illinois
 * 1982 – Northeastern Illinois
 * 1983 – Concordia (IL)
 * 1984 – Northeastern Illinois
 * 1985 – Lakeland
 * 1986 – Lakeland
 * 1987 – Concordia (IL)
 * 1988 – Concordia (WI)
 * 1989 – Greenville
 * 1990 – Concordia (WI)
 * 1991 – Eureka
 * 1992 – Greenville
 * 1993 – Quincy
 * 1994 – Quincy
 * 1995 – Eureka
 * 1996 – Lakeland
 * 1997 – Lakeland
 * 1998 – Aurora
 * 1999 – Aurora
 * 2000 – Aurora
 * 2001 – MacMurray
 * 2002 – MacMurray
 * 2003 – Concordia (WI)
 * 2004 – Aurora, Concordia (WI) & Lakeland
 * 2005 – Lakeland
 * 2006 – Concordia (WI)
 * 2007 – Concordia (WI) & Lakeland

title: Illini–Badger Football Conference


text:
Talk:Price discrimination

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 28 May 2019 and 2 July 2019. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Tailz88.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 07:10, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

Criticisms
After reading the entirety of this article, I can't help but feel like a large piece of the complete picture is missing. Specifically, objections and criticism.

The current content is great quality imo - I've never encountered a marketing/economics article that read so clearly and easily, so kudos to those involved.

That being said, it also read a bit like a chapter from the Handbook for Human Exploitation, or at least a bit anti-consumer, and I was surprised to see no mention of this. I can't tell if the article is neutral, or a zealous endorsement lacking the expected criticism. I don't want to fabricate controversy / original research / moral considerations, but curious what others say 2607:FEA8:FEF0:80F7:99BA:B074:76A6:1F94 (talk) 19:29, 8 February 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Price discrimination


text:
Frank Zeidler

Frank Paul Zeidler (September 20, 1912 – July 7, 2006) was an American socialist politician and mayor of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, serving three terms from April 20, 1948, to April 18, 1960. Zeidler, a member of the Socialist Party of America, is the most recent Socialist Party candidate to be elected mayor of a large American city.

Early life and career
Zeidler was born in Milwaukee on September 20, 1912. He studied at both the University of Chicago and Marquette University, but was never able to graduate due to ill health. He became a socialist because of socialism's emphasis on peace and improving the conditions for workers.

In an interview, Zeidler said he chose the ideology of socialism in 1933 "because of several things in its philosophy. One was the brotherhood of people all over the world. Another was its struggle for peace. Another was the equal distribution of economic goods. Another was the idea of cooperation. A fifth was the idea of democratic planning in order to achieve your goals. Those were pretty good ideas". He distanced himself from the beliefs of communism, especially communism linked in any way to the Soviet Union. Indeed, he was (and remained) an active Lutheran, a religious commitment which he saw as being fulfilled rather than contradicted by his Socialist activism.

Later, however, he credited his adoption of socialism to reading left-wing literature, with the majority being written by Eugene V. Debs and Norman Thomas during the Great Depression.

Zeidler became an active member of the Young People's Socialist League (YPSL), the youth branch of the Socialist Party of America, he later became the leader of the Milwaukee branch of the Red Falcons during the 1930s.

Elections
Zeidler was elected Milwaukee County Surveyor in 1938 on the Progressive Party ballot line (the Socialist Party and Progressives were in coalition in Milwaukee at that time).

He was elected to a six-year term on the Milwaukee Board of School Directors (a non-partisan office) in 1941, just after his brother Carl Zeidler was elected Mayor of Milwaukee in 1940. In 1942, Frank Zeidler was the Socialist nominee for Governor of Wisconsin, receiving 1.41% of the vote in a six-way race. He was re-elected to the Milwaukee School Board in 1947.

After two years in office, Carl Zeidler enlisted in the Navy at the height of World War II. Carl was killed at sea when his ship was lost and became a local hero, helping to pave the way for his younger brother to become mayor. In 1948 Frank Zeidler ran for mayor in a crowded field of fourteen candidates and won, undoubtedly aided by the familiarity of his surname. The large field of candidates was due to Mayor John Bohn declining to seek re-election in 1948. Among the candidates that year was attorney Henry S. Reuss, a Democrat who later went on to win election to Congress in 1954. Zeidler was re-elected in 1952 and 1956, but declined to seek another term in 1960, citing health reasons.

Zeidler was Milwaukee's third Socialist mayor (after Emil Seidel [1910-12] and Daniel Hoan [1916-40]), making Milwaukee the largest American city to elect three Socialists to its highest office (a fact that singer Alice Cooper pointed out in the 1992 film Wayne's World).

Mayoralty
During Frank Zeidler's administration, Milwaukee grew industrially and never had to borrow money to repay loans. During this period, Milwaukee nearly doubled its size with an aggressive campaign of municipal annexations: large parts of the Town of Lake and most of the Town of Granville were annexed to the city. The park system was upgraded. Zeidler spearheaded planning and construction of the beginning of Milwaukee's freeway system, and turned it over to Milwaukee County in 1954. A transportation advocate claims that Zeidler always maintained that the projected Milwaukee freeway system should have been built and that the city's competitiveness had been compromised by the failure to complete the planned system.

Zeidler's plans for the city were only a partial success. Milwaukee doubled in area through annexation and it experienced very little decline in population during a period of American urban decline starting in the 1960s and lasting until about 1990. Suburban residents and governments fiercely resisted annexation and the politics of regional Milwaukee became highly factional. An attorney who sued to block annexation claimed Zeidler planted listening devices in his office. Zeidler, angry about the resistance to his plans, said in 1958: "The city consults with suburban governments, but we do not believe they have reason for existing."

Zeidler faced the vexing issue of race relations as Milwaukee's African-American population tripled during the 1950s. Zeidler was a vocal supporter of the civil rights movement and his opponents tried to exploit this to their advantage. Zeidler's political enemies spread false rumors that Zeidler had put billboards in the South asking blacks to come north. Many workers in Milwaukee were threatened for supporting Zeidler. One manufacturer even threatened to fire employees who voted for Zeidler. Zeidler cited bad personal health and the race issue as reasons for not running for re-election in 1960.

A 1993 survey of historians, political scientists and urban experts conducted by Melvin G. Holli of the University of Illinois at Chicago ranked Zeidler as the twenty-first-best American big-city mayor to have served between the years 1820 and 1993.

Later years and death
After leaving office, Frank Zeidler worked as a mediator, as development director for Alverno College, and served in the administration of Wisconsin Governor John W. Reynolds. As a leader of the Public Enterprise Committee, Zeidler was a frequent and severe critic of his successor, Henry Maier. He supported a number of unsuccessful attempts to defeat Maier in subsequent elections.

Zeidler was instrumental in re-forming the Socialist Party USA in 1973, and served as its National Chair for many years. He was the party's presidential nominee in 1976, getting on ten state ballots. The party had 400-600 members nationwide at the time. Zeidler agreed to run when other leading members of the SPUSA declined to do so. He and his running mate, J. Quinn Brisben, received 6,038 votes, including approximately 2,500 in Milwaukee County, Wisconsin.

On July 26, 2004, Zeidler appeared at the 2004 Green Party National Convention in Milwaukee to welcome delegates to the convention.

He died on July 7, 2006, aged 93, and was interred at Forest Home Cemetery in Milwaukee. His mayoral and personal papers are archived at Milwaukee Public Library. Several additional boxes of his papers are archived at the Golda Meir Library of the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee.

Writing, scholarship, and legacy
Zeidler wrote several books, including not only treatises on municipal government, labor law, socialism, and Milwaukee history, but poetry, renditions of four of Shakespeare's plays into present-day English, and children's stories. His 1961 memoir of his time as mayor, A Liberal in City Government, was published in 2005 by Milwaukee Publishers LLC, a local company formed for the purpose.

On June 13, 1958, Zeidler was the first person to receive an honorary doctorate from the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee., which now sponsors the Frank P. Zeidler International Graduate Student Travel Award, a scholarship enabling a non-American scholar to study for a master's degree in American history at UWM. The Wisconsin Labor History Society also sponsors an annual undergraduate Frank P. Zeidler Scholarship in labor history.

The Milwaukee Public Library's historic collections are housed in the Frank P. Zeidler Humanities Room, named in his honor.

On May 21, 2006, he received an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters degree from Cardinal Stritch University in Milwaukee.

An urban park in downtown Milwaukee bears Zeidler's name. Zeidler Union Park (originally named for priest and explorer Jacques Marquette) now hosts the Westown Farmer's Market and other smaller festivals and gatherings.

Family
Zeidler's daughter, Jeanne Zeidler, served as mayor of Williamsburg, Virginia, from 1998 until 2010, when she retired.

title: Frank Zeidler


text:
Talk:Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure

A minor emendation is needed
Hello, all,

Having just watched both movies last night (with the subtitles playing) in a Bill and Ted marathon, I note that this article does not quite get Ted's name right. The subtitles make it clear that he considers his christened name to be Ted, and his nickname to be Theodore. To be precise, the subtitle captions read Ted "Theodore" Logan. The joke is so subtle prior editiors may have missed it.

Georgejdorner (talk) 15:58, 24 December 2012 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 5 one external links on Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20100923004248/http://uk.movies.yahoo.com/20092010/5/reeve-confirms-new-bill-ted-adventure-0.html to http://uk.movies.yahoo.com/20092010/5/reeve-confirms-new-bill-ted-adventure-0.html
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20121018153553/http://furiousfanboys.com/2012/08/bill-ted-3-has-a-director/ to http://furiousfanboys.com/2012/08/bill-ted-3-has-a-director/
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20060209005516/http://travelwithkids.about.com:80/b/a/118999.htm to http://travelwithkids.about.com/b/a/118999.htm
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20070318181149/http://www.errormacro.com:80/2006/06/the_saturday_scan_give_it_away.php to http://www.errormacro.com/2006/06/the_saturday_scan_give_it_away.php#more
 * Corrected formatting/usage for http://www.errormacro.com/images/2006/scans/contest5.php

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true or failed to let others know (documentation at ).

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 07:00, 2 November 2016 (UTC)

Comic books
There are a lot more Bill and Ted comics then the ones currently mentioned on the page. I'll try to put them in later. Lots42 (talk)

title: Talk:Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure


text:
1991 Governor General's Awards

Each winner of the 1991 Governor General's Awards for Literary Merit received $10,000 and a medal from the Governor General of Canada. The winners were selected by a panel of judges administered by the Canada Council for the Arts.

title: 1991 Governor General's Awards


text:
Graduate Management Admission Test

The Graduate Management Admission Test (GMAT ( )) is a computer adaptive test (CAT) intended to assess certain analytical, quantitative, verbal, and data literacy skills for use in admission to a graduate management program, such as a Master of Business Administration (MBA) program. Answering the test questions requires reading comprehension, and mathematical skills such as arithmetic, and algebra. The Graduate Management Admission Council (GMAC) owns and operates the test, and states that the GMAT assesses critical thinking and problem-solving abilities while also addressing data analysis skills that it believes to be vital to real-world business and management success. It can be taken up to five times a year but no more than eight times total. Attempts must be at least 16 days apart.

GMAT is a registered trademark of the Graduate Management Admission Council. More than 7,700 programs at approximately 2,400+ graduate business schools around the world accept the GMAT as part of the selection criteria for their programs. Business schools use the test as a criterion for admission into a wide range of graduate management programs, including MBA, Master of Accountancy, Master of Finance programs and others. The GMAT is administered online and in standardized test centers in 114 countries around the world. According to a survey conducted by Kaplan Test Prep, the GMAT is still the number one choice for MBA aspirants. According to GMAC, it has continually performed validity studies to statistically verify that the exam predicts success in business school programs. The number of test-takers of GMAT plummeted from 2012 to 2021 as more students opted for an MBA program that didn't require the GMAT.

History
In 1953, the organization now called the Graduate Management Admission Council (GMAC) began as an association of nine business schools, whose goal was to develop a standardized test to help business schools select qualified applicants. In the first year it was offered, the assessment (now known as the Graduate Management Admission Test), was taken just over 2,000 times; in recent years, it has been taken more than 230,000 times annually. Initially used in admissions by 54 schools, the test is now used by more than 7,700 programs at approximately 2,400 graduate business schools around the world. On June 5, 2012, GMAC introduced an integrated reasoning section to the exam that aims to measure a test taker's ability to evaluate information presented in multiple formats from multiple sources. In April 2020, when the COVID-19 pandemic resulted in the closing of in-person testing centers around the world, GMAC quickly moved to launch an online format of the GMAT exam. Starting from January 31, 2024, the previous edition of the GMAT was replaced by the GMAT Exam (Focus Edition). It now consists of three sections: Verbal, Quantitative, and Data Insights, and is graded between 205 and 805 in 5-point intervals.

Criticism
In 2013, an independent research study evaluated student performance at three full-time MBA programs and reported that the GMAT total score had a 0.29 statistical correlation with the first-year GPA (Grade Point Average) of the MBA programs while undergraduate GPA had a 0.35 correlation, suggesting that undergraduate performance was a stronger predictor of graduate school performance than GMAT scores. The AACSB score (a combination of GMAT total score and undergraduate GPA) provided the best predictive power (0.45 correlation) for the first-year performance on MBA core courses.

In 2017, GMAC conducted a large-scale validity study involving 28 graduate business programs, and the results showed that the median correlation between the GMAT Total score and graduate GPA was 0.38, the median correlation between the GMAT IR score and graduate GPA was 0.27, and the median correlation between undergraduate GPA and graduate GPA was 0.32. The results also showed that undergraduate GPA and GMAT scores (i.e., Verbal, Quant, IR, and AWA) jointly had a 0.51 correlation with graduate GPA.

Format and timing
The GMAT exam consists of three sections: Quantitative Reasoning, Verbal Reasoning, and Data Insights. The total testing time is two hours and 15 minutes to answer 64 questions, and test takers have 45 minutes for each section.

All three sections of the GMAT exam are multiple-choice and are administered in a computer-adaptive format, adjusting to a test taker's level of ability. At the start of each section, test takers are presented with a question of average difficulty. As questions are answered correctly, the computer presents the test taker with increasingly difficult questions, and as questions are answered incorrectly the computer presents the test taker with questions of decreasing difficulty. This process continues until test takers complete each section, at which point the computer will have an accurate assessment of their ability level in that subject area and come up with a raw score for each section.

On July 11, 2017, GMAC announced that from now on the order in which the different parts of the GMAT are taken can be chosen at the beginning of the exam. The three options were:
 * Analytical Writing Assessment, Integrated Reasoning, Quantitative, Verbal (original order)
 * Verbal, Quantitative, Integrated Reasoning, Analytical Writing Assessment
 * Quantitative, Verbal, Integrated Reasoning, Analytical Writing Assessment

In April 2018, the GMAC officially shortened the test by half an hour, shortening the verbal and quantitative sections from 75 minutes each to 65 and 62 minutes, respectively, and shortening some of the instruction screens.

In October 2023, with the launched of the GMAT Exam (Focus Edition), GMAC further shortened the exam and removed the Analytical Writing Assessment section, as well as sentence correction and geometry questions. Additionally, section order selection was expanded, giving test takers the opportunity to take the exam in any order they choose. A Question Review & Edit feature was also introduced, giving test takers the ability to review all answers at the end of each section and edit up to three answers per section.

Quantitative Reasoning section
The Quantitative Reasoning section of the GMAT seeks to measure the ability to reason quantitatively and solve quantitative problems. Questions require knowledge of certain algebra and arithmetic. There is only one type of quantitative question: problem-solving and data sufficiency. The use of calculators is not allowed on the quantitative section of the GMAT. Test takers must do their math work out by hand using a wet erase pen and laminated graph paper which are given to them at the testing center. Scores range from 60 to 90.

Problem-solving questions are designed to test the ability to reason quantitatively and to solve quantitative problems.

Verbal Reasoning section
The Verbal Reasoning section of the GMAT exam includes the following question types: reading comprehension and critical reasoning. Each question type gives five answer options from which to select. Verbal scores range from 60 to 90.

According to GMAC, the reading comprehension question type tests ability to analyze information and draw a conclusion. Reading comprehension passages can be anywhere from one to several paragraphs long. According to GMAC, the critical reasoning question type assesses reasoning skills.

Data Insights section
Data Insights is a section introduced in 2023 and is designed to measure a test taker's ability to evaluate data presented in multiple formats from multiple sources. The Data Insights section consists of 20 questions (which often consist of multiple parts themselves) in five different formats: data sufficiency, graphics interpretation, two-part analysis, table analysis, and multi-source reasoning. Data Insights scores range from 60 to 90.

The Data Insights section includes five question types: table analysis, graphics interpretation, multi-source reasoning, two-part analysis, and data sufficiency. In the table analysis section, test takers are presented with a sortable table of information, similar to a spreadsheet, which has to be analyzed. Each question will have several statements with opposite-answer options (e.g., true/false, yes/no), and test takers click on the correct option. Graphics interpretation questions ask test takers to interpret a graph or graphical image. Each question has fill-in-the-blank statements with pull-down menus; test takers must choose the options that make the statements accurate. Multi-source reasoning questions are accompanied by two to three sources of information presented on tabbed pages. Test takers click on the tabs and examine all the relevant information, which may be a combination of text, charts, and tables to answer either traditional multiple-choice or opposite-answer (e.g., yes/no, true/false) questions. Two-part analysis questions involve two components for a solution. Possible answers are given in a table format with a column for each component and rows with possible options. Test takers have to choose one response per column. Data sufficiency is a question type unique to the GMAT designed to measure the ability to understand and analyze a quantitative problem, recognize what information is relevant or irrelevant and determine at what point there is enough information to solve a problem or recognize the fact that there is insufficient information given to solve a particular problem.

Analytical Writing Assessment (AWA)
No longer part of the GMAT exam, the AWA consisted of a 30-minute writing task—analysis of an argument. It was important to be able to analyze the reasoning behind a given argument and write a critique of that argument. The essay was given two independent ratings and these ratings were averaged together to determine the test taker's AWA score. One rating was given by a computerized reading evaluation and another was given by a person at GMAC who will read and score the essay themselves without knowing what the computerized score was. The automated essay-scoring engine was an electronic system that evaluated more than 50 structural and linguistic features, including organization of ideas, syntactic variety, and topical analysis. If the two ratings differed by more than one point, another evaluation by an expert reader was required to resolve the discrepancy and determine the final score.

The Analytical Writing Assessment was graded on a scale of 0 (minimum) to 6 (maximum) in half-point intervals. A score of 0 indicates that the response was either nonsensical, off-topic, or completely blank. It did not count toward’s a test taker’s total GMAT score.

Integrated Reasoning section
The Integrated Reasoning (IR) was a section introduced in June 2012 and was replaced by Data Insights in 2023. Similar to Data Insights, it was designed to measure a test taker's ability to evaluate data presented in multiple formats from multiple sources. The skills tested by the Integrated Reasoning section were identified in a survey of 740 management faculty worldwide as important for incoming students. The Integrated Reasoning section consisted of 12 questions (which often consisted of multiple parts themselves) in four different formats: graphics interpretation, two-part analysis, table analysis, and multi-source reasoning. Integrated Reasoning scores ranged from 1 to 8. Like the Analytical Writing Assessment (AWA), this section was scored separately from the Quantitative and Verbal section. Performance on the IR and AWA sections did not contribute to the total GMAT score.

Scoring
The total GMAT score ranges from 205 to 805 and measures performance on all three sections together. Scores are given in increments of 10 (e.g. 545, 555, 565, 575, etc.).

In 2023, for the GMAT Exam (Focus Edition), the score scale for the exam was adjusted to reflect changes in the test-taking population, which has become more diverse and global. Over the years, scores had shifted significantly, resulting in an uneven distribution. The updated score scale fixed that, allowing schools to better differentiate performance on the exam.

The final score is not based solely on the last question the examinee answers (i.e. the level of difficulty of questions reached through the computer adaptive presentation of questions). The algorithm used to build a score is more complicated than that. The examinee can make a mistake and answer incorrectly and the computer will recognize that item as an anomaly. If the examinee misses the first question, the final score will not necessarily fall in the bottom half of the range.

At the end of the exam, an unofficial preview of the GMAT score earned is shown to the test taker.

Use by clubs for intellectuals
Scores at or above the 99th percentile are accepted as qualifying evidence to join Intertel, and a score of at least 746 qualifies one for admission to the International Society for Philosophical Enquiry. According to an official study conducted by the GMAC, a score of at least 760 is required to reach the 99th percentile.

title: Graduate Management Admission Test