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Southern Polytechnic State University

Southern Polytechnic State University (also called Southern Poly; abbreviated SPSU) was a public, co-educational, state university in Marietta, Georgia, United States approximately 20 mi northwest of downtown Atlanta. Until 2015, it was an independent part of the University System of Georgia and called itself "Georgia's Technology University."

Southern Tech was founded in 1948 as The Technical Institute in Chamblee, Georgia by Blake R. Van Leer. The first classes were held with 116 students. It was renamed the Southern Technical Institute in 1949 and moved to its present campus in Marietta, Georgia in 1962. It went through another name change in 1987 and became the Southern College of Technology. In the summer of 1996, the university adopted its polytechnic name. It was one among a small group of polytechnic universities in the United States that tend to be primarily devoted to the instruction of technical arts and applied sciences.

On November 1, 2013, plans were announced by the Georgia Board of Regents for Southern Polytechnic and Kennesaw State University to be consolidated into one university. On January 6, 2015, the Georgia Board of Regents of the University System of Georgia approved the consolidation of Southern Poly and Kennesaw State, with Kennesaw State as the surviving institution. On July 1, 2015, Kennesaw State established the Southern Polytechnic College of Engineering and Engineering Technology in honor of the former SPSU.

Establishment
After World War II, the need for technicians spiked due to a major economic shift in Georgia from being a largely agricultural state to one that is more industry heavy. The new industries required technicians to bridge the growing gap between engineers and craftsmen, effectively the gap between research/development and building/implementing. At the time, most technical institutes in the United States were in the northeastern states; thus the need for a technical institute in the south was great.

In response to the growing demand, the president of the Georgia Institute of Technology, Colonel Blake R. Van Leer, sought to establish a technical institute program in Georgia. In 1945 he was approached by the Associated Industries of Georgia (AIG) who shared their common desire to have such a program and offered Van Leer their support. It took years for Van Leer to convince the Board of Regents to give Georgia Tech authorization to establish a technical institute. On October 8, 1947, the authorization was granted. The location chosen for the fledgling institute was a Naval Air Station in Chamblee, GA, which eventually became the site of DeKalb–Peachtree Airport. The first director was to be Professor Lawrence V. Johnson, and it was going to open under the name of The Technical Institute. On March 24, 1948, The Technical Institute held registration for the spring quarter and 116 students enrolled (all but 10 World War II veterans), including one young woman named Barbara Hudson. The institute had a staff of 12.

Progression
In 1949, The Technical Institute became the Southern Technical Institute and was recognized as a college-level school by the U.S. Department of Education. Twelve years later, the college migrated to its present campus in Marietta, Georgia, which was previously part of Dobbins Air Reserve Base. The General Lucius D. Clay National Guard Center (then known as Naval Air Station Atlanta) also moved to the opposite (south) end of Dobbins Air Reserve Base around the same time. In 1961, Hoyt McClure was named acting director and led the movement to build eight new buildings on 120 acre of land.

The Southern Technical Institute became accredited as a four-year college in 1970 and was one of the first colleges in the nation to offer the Bachelor of Engineering Technology degree. It also earned independence in the University System of Georgia, separating ties with Georgia Tech. In the summer of 1980, the college officially became the fourteenth senior college and the thirty-third independent unit of the University System of Georgia. The college's first president, Dr. Stephen R. Cheshier of Purdue University, was named in that same year. He saw the college through two name changes — Southern College of Technology (often called Southern Tech) in 1987 and Southern Polytechnic State University in the summer of 1996, when the school became a university. Dr. Cheshier retired as president of the university in June 1997. Dr. Daniel S. Papp served as interim president from July 1997 to August 1998, when the university welcomed Dr. Lisa Rossbacher, formerly of Dickinson College, as its president.

In 2005, Georgia Highlands College established a satellite campus hosted on the SPSU campus.

USG Merger
Eleven days before its planned vote, the Georgia Board of Regents of the University System of Georgia announced plans to consolidate Southern Polytechnic State University and Kennesaw State University into one university. Given that public comments are only allowed with fifteen days notice the Regents consolidation plans were perceived as a deceitful and secretive move by faculty and students. The presidents of the two universities were not told of the consolidation plans until "a week and a half" before the public announcement. Reasons given for the consolidation effort focused on cost savings despite the merger of eight other colleges into four only saving an estimated 0.1%.

Post-consolidation
Since the completion of the merger several scandals have plagued the newly augmented Kennesaw State. Less than two years after the consolidation President Dan Papp announced that he was stepping down as president of the university. His replacement, Sam Olens, was appointed amidst controversy over his total lack of education experience or background. This appointment came on the heels of an audit that revealed that outgoing president Papp had violated financial policy in receiving more than a half million dollars in early retirement payment. Before Papp's retirement announcement a seven-figure embezzlement scheme was uncovered and five KSU staffers and contractors were arrested. The amount lost equated to nearly 15% of the merger-based savings of 2013.

Campus

 * Student housing
 * Dormitory facilities were provided at Southern Tech's first location in Chamblee, Georgia. They were created from former bachelor officers' quarters in facilities leased from the Atlanta Naval Air Station. When the campus moved in Marietta, housing was provided in residences originally built to house employees at the Bell Bomber plant (now the Lockheed Martin facility). The facilities were at that time being managed by the Marietta Housing Authority as low-income residences and were known as "Marietta Place." Construction for the Marietta campus' first dormitory began in 1964. The campus dormitories housed only men until 1974, when one end of the fourth floor of Howell dormitory was renovated for use by female students.

 * At the time of its merger with Kennesaw State University, Southern Polytechnic State University had five on-campus housing facilities for its students. These were Howell Hall, Hornet Village suites, University Commons apartments, University Courtyard apartments, and University Columns houses. These facilities are still used to house Kennesaw State University students.

 * Joe Mack Wilson Student Center (A Building)
 * The Joe Mack Wilson Student Center is located near the front entrance on the northern side of campus. It includes resources such as a University bookstore, a game room, eateries, various lounge areas, and many of KSU's departments and offices. Historically, it also housed student organizations and the WGHR radio station.

 * Administration Building (B Building)
 * The Administration Building housed the admissions, student records, and recruitment offices, as well as the president's office and public relations office. It served and was known as the welcoming center for visitors to the campus.

 * Academic Building (H Building)
 * The main floor of the Academic Building has a major auditorium, some physics labs, and a walk-up help desk. It also housed the facilities of the Construction Management Department. The building is near the center of the campus — just south of the Lawrence V. Johnson Library and northwest of the Atrium Building.

 * Design II (I2 Building)
 * The Design II building was completed December 2010 and cover 14,500 sqft. Acting as an extension of Design I, Design II houses six large studio spaces and a 286-seat auditorium.

 * Atrium (J Building)
 * The Atrium Building's name refers to the large atrium that lies in its center. The building housed multiple academic departments. The first floor consists mainly of classrooms; computer laboratories are on the second floor, and faculty offices and conference rooms are on the third floor. It is located near the center of the campus — just west of Howell Hall and southeast of the Academic Building.

 * Engineering Technology Center (Q Building)
 * On January 24, 2008, Governor Sunny Purdue recommended a little over $33 million toward the construction of a new building to house five programs: Electrical Engineering Technology, Computer Engineering Technology, Telecommunications Engineering Technology, Mechanical Engineering Technology, and Mechatronics Engineering. The facility, the Engineering Technology Center, covers 123,000 sqft and contains 36 labs, 12 classrooms, two seminar rooms, and a 200-seat lecture room. It was completed in December of 2010; it opened on the first day of classes for the spring semester of 2011. It is on the western side of the campus – north of the parking deck and Stingers Restaurant.

 * Stingers Restaurant (X Building)
 * Stingers replaced the established dining hall when it was completed in July 2010. The name references the former SPSU mascot, the Hornets. The upper level dining area supports a commercial food service and the lower level is designed to accommodate special events for the college and its administration. The building is on the western side of the campus, south of the parking deck and the Engineering Technology Center.

 * Recreation facilities
 * The Recreation and Wellness Center opened in 1996 and has a weight room, running machines, a basketball and volleyball gym, a swimming pool, and a racquetball and badminton court. The Outdoor Recreation Complex has three softball fields, a soccer field, and a large field for multiple sports. Intramural sports use these fields all year. The complex also has tennis courts and a running trail.

 * Other selected buildings
 * Other buildings include the Lawrence V. Johnson Library (C Building), Mathematics Building (D Building), Crawford Lab Building (E Building), Engineering Lab Building (G Building), Civil Engineering Technology Building (L Building), W. Clair Harris Textile Center (M Building), Architecture Building (N Building), Housing Office (R10 Building), Recreation and Wellness Center (S1 Building), and Gymnasium (S2 Building). Southern Polytechnic State University had one off-campus facility, a Continuing Education Center.

Faculty and staff
At the time of its consolidation with KSU, faculty at Southern Polytechnic State University were at a ratio of about 1 faculty member per 19 students. About 42.5% of students attended classes with fewer than 20 students. Every faculty member was required to have experience in relevant work or research of a topic to be qualified to teach at the school.

Between 2006, there was a general 70% to 30% ratio of male to female professors. In 2007–2008 male professors made up to $7,000 more than female professors on average. The gap between the difference in pay quickly decreased and by the 2009–2010 academic year the salary only differed by $300, $77,699 for males and $77,410 for females. Of the 48 full-time professors in 2007, 52% of them had tenure. The number of professors dropped from 48 to 44 in 2008; with the drop of full-time professors, only 44% of full-time faculty had tenure. It was recorded in 2010, that the number of full-time professors dropped again to 39, but the tenure rate remained the same. There were many awards given out at SPSU among the faculty including the Outstanding Faculty Award and the Employee Service Award. The university would choose a select group of faculty whose achievements had been noteworthy enough to receive the OFA. The OFA committee changed each year and was made up of the previous year's recipients. The Employee Service Award acknowledged the service and achievement of permanent employees at periodic intervals with appropriate ceremony and awards. A committee composed of representatives from the Staff Council and the Outstanding Faculty Awards Committee determined who received the awards and the ceremony date. Both awards were given out at the same ceremony at the end of spring term.

Student government
The SPSU Student Government Association was composed of elected and appointed undergraduate and graduate students. According to the organization's constitution, the mission of the Student Government Association was as follows:

"The Student Government Association shall provide a systematic process of open communication among students, faculty, and administration. The SGA shall act as an advocate and insure that the students of the Southern Polytechnic State University are capable of exercising their lawful rights concerning their education, safety, and the allocation and expenditure of service and activities monies. The SGA shall endeavor to support Southern Polytechnic State University goals and missions through activities which demonstrate the value and contributions of the Southern Polytechnic State University to our community and state."

Police department
Southern Polytechnic State University operated an on-campus police department. A police department still exists as part of KSU's Marietta campus, located on the ground floor of Building R2.

Academics
Southern Polytechnic State University offered a broad range of undergraduate degree programs and several master's degree programs through its four schools and its Division of Engineering. At the time of its consolidation with KSU, it offered 24 online certificate, graduate, and undergraduate degree programs as well as the "eCore" program which was made up of the first two years of college courses completely online and is composed primarily of core classes.

Undergraduate programs
Southern Polytechnic State University's academic divisions were made of its School of Architecture and Construction Management; School of Computing and Software Engineering; School of Engineering Technology and Management; School of Arts and Sciences; and Division of Engineering. The most popular programs of study for undergraduate students are Architecture, Computer Science, Mechanical Engineering Technology, and Mechanical Engineering. The university's construction engineering program was one of nine in the nation, and its mechatronics engineering program was the first in Georgia. Other unique programs at SPSU included a five-year professionally accredited architecture degree and undergraduate degrees in surveying and mapping, systems engineering, and technical communication.

SPSU followed the University System of Georgia's Common Core program.

Graduate programs
At the time of consolidation, SPSU offered eleven graduate degree programs, nine graduate certificate programs, and four advanced graduate certificate programs. The eleven graduate programs awarded master's degrees in Accounting, Business Administration, Computer Science, Construction Management, Electrical Engineering Technology, Information and Instructional Design, Information Design and Communication, Information Technology, Quality Assurance, Software Engineering, and Systems Engineering. The university has been offering many of its master's degrees online since 1997.

Special learning opportunities
Southern Polytechnic State University offered special learning opportunities including teacher certification, distance learning, and study abroad programs. The university featured cross-enrollment programs with the Georgia Institute of Technology that enabled SPSU students to participate in the Army Reserve Officers' Training Corps, Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps, and Air Force Reserve Officer Training Corps programs hosted at the Georgia Institute of Technology's campus.

University Honors Program
The Southern Polytechnic State University University Honors Program offered the students smaller classroom, research studies with the professors, a separate study room, and more intellectual rigor. To join the program, students were required to have a minimum GPA of 3.2 at the freshman or sophomore level, 3.3 at the junior level, or 3.4 at the senior level. The University Honors Program offered two types of honors degrees:
 * University Honors Scholar degree required 12 credit hours of honors course work and 6 credit hours of upper-division honors course work.
 * Departmental Honors Scholar degree required completion of 6 hours of enriched upper-division coursework or directed study.

Rankings
According to the American Society for Engineering Education, in its 2010 edition of Profiles of Engineering and Engineering Technology Colleges, Southern Polytechnic State University was ranked third for the most engineering technology degrees awarded in the United States from 2001 to 2010 in total and third in the number awarded to female graduates in that same time. The university ranked second in the nation in total enrollment of students in engineering technology degree programs. In 2010, the school was ranked as one of the toughest universities in the U.S. as reported by CBS News.

Accreditations
Southern Polytechnic State University earned the following academic accreditations:
 * Commission on Colleges of the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools
 * Technology Accreditation Commission of the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET)
 * Computing Accreditation Commission of the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology
 * Applied Science Accreditation Commission of the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology
 * National Architectural Accrediting Board (NAAB)
 * American Council for Construction Education (ACCE)
 * Association of Collegiate Business Schools and Programs (ACBSP)

Student media

Southern Polytechnic historically had three student-run media outlets: a college radio station, a student newspaper, and a yearbook.

WGHR (Green Hornet Radio), the campus radio station, was a non-commercial educational station that began as "WSTB" in 1969 on carrier current AM, then became licensed as WGHR at 102.5 on the FM dial in 1981, moving to 100.7 in 1998. The station's broadcast license was canceled in 2001 because two commercial radio stations were allowed to take those FM frequencies, without compensation to the station or the school. WGHR continued to webcast after the cancellation. The station's radio studios and office were located in the student center. According to the SPSU Student Handbook, WGHR offered interested students an opportunity to gain broadcast and technical experience.

Southern Tech's first student newspaper was published under the title The Technician in September 1948. The publication changed titles several times, first to The Engineering Technician (beginning with the issue of February 20, 1964), then Whatsizname? (beginning with the issue of September 24, 1973), Southern Seeds (only one issue on October 15, 1975); Unnamed (styled ?, two issues beginning October 22, 1975), and finally The Sting (beginning with the issue of November 5, 1975). With the consolidation of Kennesaw State University and Southern Polytechnic State University in January 2015, student publications were integrated, and The Sting merged with KSU's publication The Talon to create a new campus lifestyle publication (published under the title The Sting. The Sting was later retitled The Peak with the September 2016 issue.

The Technician's Log (often shortened to The Log) was the yearbook for Southern Tech. Its first volume was published in 1949, and the final volume was published in 1997.

Student organizations
At the time of its merger with KSU, Southern Polytechnic State University was home to fourteen fraternities and sororities: seven of the North American Interfraternity Conference (IFC), two of the National Panhellenic Conference (NPC), and five of the National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC). Greek organizations on campus were dedicated to philanthropy, education, and community service through their own organizations. The Greek organizations at SPSU participated in campus-wide events such as Goat Night, bathtub races, and Greek Week.
 * Fraternities and sororities

 * North-American Interfraternity Conference (IFC)
 * Kappa Sigma
 * Pi Kappa Phi
 * Sigma Alpha Epsilon
 * Sigma Nu
 * Sigma Pi
 * Tau Kappa Epsilon
 * Theta Chi

 * National Panhellenic Conference (NPHC)
 * Delta Sigma Theta
 * Kappa Alpha Psi
 * Omega Psi Phi
 * Phi Beta Sigma
 * Zeta Phi Beta

 * Panhellenic Association (NPC)
 * Alpha Xi Delta
 * Gamma Phi Beta

Southern Polytechnic State University supported many student-run and departmental organizations.
 * Other organizations

 * Activist organizations
 * Students for a Democratic Society (SDS)

 * Competitive organizations
 * Aerial Robotics Team
 * Aero Design Team
 * Alternative Power Vehicle Club
 * ASCE Concrete Canoe Team
 * ASCE Steel Bridge Team
 * Autonomous Underwater Vehicle Team
 * Information Security Association
 * Motorsports Formula SAE
 * NECA Student Chapter
 * Speech Team
 * SPSU Electric Vehicle Team (SPSU EVT)
 * Starcraft 2 Club

 * Spiritual Groups
 * Alpha Omega
 * Baptist Collegiate Ministries
 * Campus Crusade for Christ
 * Muslim Student Association
 * Open Diverse Tolerance Group
 * The Davidic Generation

 * Cultural organizations
 * International Students Association (ISA)
 * Recreational organizations
 * Pure Bliss: Ultimate Frisbee Club
 * Runnin' Hornets That Run (cross country running team)
 * Paintball Hornets
 * Cheerleaders
 * Dance Team
 * Hook'd Up Hornets (fishing team)
 * Hornet Swimming
 * Club Soccer Team
 * SPSU Foam Ballistics Team (Humans vs. Zombies Club and Nerf Club)

 * Honorary organizations
 * Alpha Chi National College Honor Society
 * Student Honors Council
 * Tau Alpha Pi National Honor Society
 * Upsilon Pi Epsilon (ΥΠΕ)

 * Performing arts organizations
 * Drama Club
 * Band
 * Choi Kwang Do

Bathtub race
In the 1960s one of the fraternities at Southern Polytechnic converted a cast-iron bath tub into a cooler for parties. When the tub became difficult to move they attached wheels to it. Some time after, other fraternities acquired their own cast-iron tubs, attached wheels, and the fraternities began to hold races around the perimeter of the school. In light of a growing liability risk the school ended the annual tub races in the early 1990s. In 2010 the SPSU alumni group resurrected the Bathtub Race, under the stipulation that the tubs be motorless.

Recreational
Southern Polytechnic State University offered intramural and club sports, which included many team and individual competitive programs throughout the year. Intramural sports consisted of basketball, racquetball, dodgeball, soccer, softball, and volleyball. The club sports are organized by individuals and groups on Southern Polytechnic's campus.

The recreational sports practices and competitions took place in the Recreation and Wellness Center, the Outdoor Recreation Complex, the Athletic Gymnasium, and Walter J. Kelly Jr. Field. The Recreation and Wellness Center opened in 1996.

Athletics
The Southern Poly (SPSU) athletic teams were called the Runnin' Hornets, although "Runnin' Hornets" is often shortened to "Hornets" in use. The university was a member of the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA), primarily competing in the Southern States Athletic Conference (SSAC; formerly known as Georgia–Alabama–Carolina Conference (GACC) until after the 2003–04 school year) from 1999–2000 to 2013–14. The university's mascot was Sting, a green and black, anthropomorphic hornet bearing the stylized version of the university's logo on its chest.

SPSU competed in four intercollegiate varsity sports: Men's sports included baseball, basketball and soccer; while women's sports included basketball.

Men's soccer
The soccer team was established in 2007. After not receiving a tournament bid in the first season, the Hornets subsequently received three consecutive NAIA tournament berths. In its most notable season of 2009–2010, Southern Polytechnic State University's soccer team went 14–2–1 and went to the NAIA tournament. The team made it past the first round defeating Bryan College but lost in the round of 16 to Martin Methodist.

Baseball
The baseball team went 53–10 in the 2009 regular season, won the SSAC conference championship, and finished fifth in the NAIA World Series. Three players from the team were drafted by major league baseball teams (the Baltimore Orioles, Philadelphia Phillies, and Florida Marlins). Former players have also signed with other professional organizations such as the St. Louis Cardinals, New York Mets, Cincinnati Reds, and Chicago Cubs.

In 2014, the SPSU baseball team won the SSAC conference tournament. The team also won the Daytona Beach first round regional, earning a trip to the Avista NAIA World Series in the schools final year of collegiate athletics.

Men's basketball
In 2009, the men's basketball team went 23–5 in the regular season and 12–2 in the conference. They reached the SSAC tournament and won three straight games to become SSAC Champions. They qualified for the NAIA tournament, where they won three straight games before losing in the final four to Azusa Pacific University.

During the 2009 season, many of the athletes on the men's basketball team received personal awards. Jas Rogers won the award for the 2009–2010 SSAC Player of the Year. Brent Jennings, Xavier Dawson, and Jas Rogers were voted to the SSAC All-Conference Team, Darrien Beacham was voted to the 2010 Musco Lighting Champion of Character Team, and Jordan Lemons was voted to the SSAC All-Academic Team.

Women's basketball
In 2009, women's basketball went 26–4 in the regular season and 12–4 in the conference. They won the SSAC tournament championship and went on to the NAIA tournament. They won the first game but lost the next one to Union University.

During the 2009 season, many of the athletes on the women's basketball received personal awards. Athlete Crystal Davis was awarded the NAIA Scholar-Athlete and All-Academic Team awards, Brittany White was voted to the All-Freshmen Team, Dione Parks and Marisa Stoler were voted to the All-Conference Team, and the 6th Man Award was given to Dione Parks. The Newcomer of the Year award was awarded to Marisa Stoler, and Aurielle Morgan Musco was voted to Lighting Champion of Character Team. Also, the Coach of the Year award was awarded to Coach Nathan Teymer.

Noted people

 * Mike Garrett, former president and CEO of Georgia Power, one of the leading producers of electricity in the United States.
 * Chris Owens of Lowe Engineers, who previously served as a member of the City Council of Alpharetta, Georgia
 * John Leverett, the founding and head of engineering at Panoz Auto Development graduated in 1993.
 * Jeff Glover, Steve Newey, and Brandon Fry - all work at the highest levels of international Sports Car and Indy Car racing.
 * Craig "Huey" Stewart, founder of Marietta Motorsports, attended the university. He and John Leverett of Panoz Auto Development are noted for having founded Southern Polytechnic State University's Formula SAE competition team in 1992..
 * President Emerita Dr. Lisa Rossbacher

title: Southern Polytechnic State University


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Al-Kindi

Abū Yūsuf Yaʻqūb ibn ʼIsḥāq aṣ-Ṣabbāḥ al-Kindī (أبو يوسف يعقوب بن إسحاق الصبّاح الكندي; Alkindus; c. 801–873 AD) was an Arab Muslim polymath active as a philosopher, mathematician, physician, and music theorist. Al-Kindi was the first of the Islamic peripatetic philosophers, and is hailed as the "father of Arab philosophy".

Al-Kindi was born in Kufa and educated in Baghdad. He became a prominent figure in the House of Wisdom, and a number of Abbasid Caliphs appointed him to oversee the translation of Greek scientific and philosophical texts into the Arabic language. This contact with "the philosophy of the ancients" (as Hellenistic philosophy was often referred to by Muslim scholars) had a profound effect on him, as he synthesized, adapted and promoted Hellenistic and Peripatetic philosophy in the Muslim world. He subsequently wrote hundreds of original treatises of his own on a range of subjects ranging from metaphysics, ethics, logic and psychology, to medicine, pharmacology, mathematics, astronomy, astrology and optics, and further afield to more practical topics like perfumes, swords, jewels, glass, dyes, zoology, tides, mirrors, meteorology and earthquakes.

In the field of mathematics, al-Kindi played an important role in introducing Hindu numerals to the Islamic world, and their further development into Arabic numerals along with al-Khwarizmi which eventually was adopted by the rest of the world. Al-Kindi was also one of the fathers of cryptography. Building on the work of al-Khalil (717–786), Al-Kindi's book entitled Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages gave rise to the birth of cryptanalysis, was the earliest known use of statistical inference, and introduced several new methods of breaking ciphers, notably frequency analysis. He was able to create a scale that would enable doctors to gauge the effectiveness of their medication by combining his knowledge of mathematics and medicine.

The central theme underpinning al-Kindi's philosophical writings is the compatibility between philosophy and other "orthodox" Islamic sciences, particularly theology, and many of his works deal with subjects that theology had an immediate interest in. These include the nature of God, the soul and prophetic knowledge.

Early life
Al-Kindi was born in Kufa to an aristocratic family of the Arabian tribe of the Kinda, descended from the chieftain al-Ash'ath ibn Qays, a contemporary of Muhammad. The family belonged to the most prominent families of the tribal nobility of Kufa in the early Islamic period, until it lost much of its power following the revolt of Abd al-Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn al-Ash'ath. His father Ishaq was the governor of Basra and al-Kindi received his preliminary education there. He later went to complete his studies in Baghdad, where he was patronized by the Abbasid caliphs al-Ma'mun ((r. 813 – 833)) and al-Mu'tasim ((r. 833 – 842)). On account of his learning and aptitude for study, al-Ma'mun appointed him to the House of Wisdom, a recently established center for the translation of Greek philosophical and scientific texts, in Baghdad. He was also well known for his beautiful calligraphy, and at one point was employed as a calligrapher by Caliph al-Mutawakkil ((r. 847 – 861)).

When al-Ma'mun died, his brother, al-Mu'tasim became caliph. Al-Kindi's position would be enhanced under al-Mu'tasim, who appointed him as a tutor to his son. But on the accession of al-Wathiq ((r. 842 – 847)), and especially of al-Mutawakkil, al-Kindi's star waned. There are various theories concerning this: some attribute al-Kindi's downfall to scholarly rivalries at the House of Wisdom; others refer to al-Mutawakkil's often violent persecution of unorthodox Muslims (as well as of non-Muslims); at one point al-Kindi was beaten and his library temporarily confiscated. Henry Corbin, an authority on Islamic studies, says that in 873, al-Kindi died "a lonely man", in Baghdad during the reign of al-Mu'tamid ((r. 870 – 892)).

After his death, al-Kindi's philosophical works quickly fell into obscurity; many were lost even to later Islamic scholars and historians. Felix Klein-Franke suggests several reasons for this: aside from the militant orthodoxy of al-Mutawakkil, the Mongols also destroyed countless libraries during their invasion of Persia and Mesopotamia. However, he says the most probable cause of this was that his writings never found popularity amongst subsequent influential philosophers such as al-Farabi and Avicenna, who ultimately overshadowed him. His philosophical career peaked under al-Mu'tasim, to whom al-Kindi dedicated his most famous work, On First Philosophy, and whose son Ahmad was tutored by al-Kindi.

Accomplishments
According to Arab bibliographer Ibn al-Nadim, al-Kindi wrote at least two hundred and sixty books, contributing heavily to geometry (thirty-two books), medicine and philosophy (twenty-two books each), logic (nine books), and physics (twelve books). Although most of his books have been lost over the centuries, a few have survived in the form of Latin translations by Gerard of Cremona, and others have been rediscovered in Arabic manuscripts; most importantly, twenty-four of his lost works were located in the mid-twentieth century in a Turkish library.

Philosophy
His greatest contribution to the development of Islamic philosophy was his efforts to make Greek thought both accessible and acceptable to a Muslim audience. Al-Kindi carried out this mission from the House of Wisdom (Bayt al-Hikma), an institute of translation and learning patronized by the Abbasid Caliphs, in Baghdad. As well as translating many important texts, much of what was to become standard Arabic philosophical vocabulary originated with al-Kindi; indeed, if it had not been for him, the work of philosophers like al-Farabi, Avicenna, and al-Ghazali might not have been possible.

In his writings, one of al-Kindi's central concerns was to demonstrate the compatibility between philosophy and natural theology on the one hand, and revealed or speculative theology on the other (though in fact he rejected speculative theology). Despite this, he did make clear that he believed revelation was a superior source of knowledge to reason because it guaranteed matters of faith that reason could not uncover. And while his philosophical approach was not always original, and was even considered clumsy by later thinkers (mainly because he was the first philosopher writing in the Arabic language), he successfully incorporated Aristotelian and (especially) neo-Platonist thought into an Islamic philosophical framework. This was an important factor in the introduction and popularization of Greek philosophy in the Muslim intellectual world.

Astronomy

Al-Kindi took his view of the solar system from Ptolemy, who placed the Earth at the centre of a series of concentric spheres, in which the known heavenly bodies (the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and the stars) are embedded. In one of his treatises on the subject, he says that these bodies are rational entities, whose circular motion is in obedience to and worship of God. Their role, al-Kindi believes, is to act as instruments for divine providence. He furnishes empirical evidence as proof for this assertion; different seasons are marked by particular arrangements of the planets and stars (most notably the sun); the appearance and manner of people varies according to the arrangement of heavenly bodies situated above their homeland.

However, he is ambiguous when it comes to the actual process by which the heavenly bodies affect the material world. One theory he posits in his works is from Aristotle, who conceived that the movement of these bodies causes friction in the sub-lunar region, which stirs up the primary elements of earth, fire, air and water, and these combine to produce everything in the material world. An alternative view found in the treatise On Rays (De radiis) is that the planets exercise their influence in straight lines; but this treatise, written by a Latin author, probably around the middle of the 13th century, is apocryphal. In each of these, two fundamentally different views of physical interaction are presented; action by contact and action at a distance. This dichotomy is duplicated in his writings on optics.

Some of the notable astrological works by al-Kindi include:
 * The Book of the Judgement of the Stars, including The Forty Chapters, on questions and elections.
 * On the Stellar Rays (spurious)
 * Several epistles on weather and meteorology, including De mutatione temporum, ("On the Changing of the Weather").
 * Treatise on the Judgement of Eclipses.
 * Treatise on the Dominion of the Arabs and its Duration (used to predict the end of Arab rule).
 * The Choices of Days (on elections).
 * On the Revolutions of the Years (on mundane astrology and natal revolutions).
 * De Signis Astronomiae Applicitis as Mediciam 'On the Signs of Astronomy as applied to Medicine'
 * Treatise on the Spirituality of the Planets.

Optics
Al-Kindi was the first major writer on optics since antiquity. Roger Bacon placed him in the first rank after Ptolemy as a writer on the topic. In the apocryphal work known as De radiis stellarum, is developed the theory "that everything in the world ... emits rays in every direction, which fill the whole world." This theory of the active power of rays had an influence on later scholars such as Ibn al-Haytham, Robert Grosseteste and Roger Bacon.

Two major theories of optics appear in the writings of al-Kindi: Aristotelian and Euclidean. Aristotle had believed that in order for the eye to perceive an object, both the eye and the object must be in contact with a transparent medium (such as air) that is filled with light. When these criteria are met, the "sensible form" of the object is transmitted through the medium to the eye. On the other hand, Euclid proposed that vision occurred in straight lines when "rays" from the eye reached an illuminated object and were reflected back. As with his theories on Astrology, the dichotomy of contact and distance is present in al-Kindi's writings on this subject as well.

The factor which al-Kindi relied upon to determine which of these theories was most correct was how adequately each one explained the experience of seeing. For example, Aristotle's theory was unable to account for why the angle at which an individual sees an object affects his perception of it. For example, why a circle viewed from the side will appear as a line. According to Aristotle, the complete sensible form of a circle should be transmitted to the eye and it should appear as a circle. On the other hand, Euclidean optics provided a geometric model that was able to account for this, as well as the length of shadows and reflections in mirrors, because Euclid believed that the visual "rays" could only travel in straight lines (something which is commonly accepted in modern science). For this reason, al-Kindi considered the latter preponderant.

Al-Kindi's primary optical treatise "De aspectibus" was later translated into Latin. This work, along with Alhazen's Optics and the Arabic translations of Ptolemy and Euclid's Optics, were the main Arabic texts to affect the development of optical investigations in Europe, most notably those of Robert Grosseteste, Vitello and Roger Bacon.

Medicine
There are more than thirty treatises attributed to al-Kindi in the field of medicine, in which he was chiefly influenced by the ideas of Galen. His most important work in this field is probably De Gradibus, in which he demonstrates the application of mathematics to medicine, particularly in the field of pharmacology. For example, he developed a mathematical scale to quantify the strength of a drug, and a system (based on the phases of the moon) that would allow a doctor to determine in advance the most critical days of a patient's illness. According to Plinio Prioreschi, this was the first attempt at serious quantification in medicine.

Chemistry
Al-Kindi denied the possibility of transmuting base metals into precious metals such as gold and silver, a position that was later attacked by the Persian alchemist and physician Abu Bakr al-Razi (c. 865).

One work attributed to al-Kindi, variously known as the Kitāb al-Taraffuq fī l-ʿiṭr ("The Book of Gentleness on Perfume") or the Kitāb Kīmiyāʾ al-ʿiṭr wa-l-taṣʿīdāt ("The Book of the Chemistry of Perfume and Distillations"), contains one of the earliest known references to the distillation of wine. The work also describes the distillation process for extracting rose oils, and provides recipes for 107 different kinds of perfumes.

Mathematics
Al-Kindi authored works on a number of important mathematical subjects, including arithmetic, geometry, the Hindu numbers, the harmony of numbers, lines and multiplication with numbers, relative quantities, measuring proportion and time, and numerical procedures and cancellation. He also wrote four volumes, On the Use of the Hindu Numerals (كتاب في استعمال الأعداد الهندية Kitāb fī Isti`māl al-'A`dād al-Hindīyyah) which contributed greatly to diffusion of the Hindu system of numeration in the Middle-East and the West. In geometry, among other works, he wrote on the theory of parallels. Also related to geometry were two works on optics. One of the ways in which he made use of mathematics as a philosopher was to attempt to disprove the eternity of the world by demonstrating that actual infinity is a mathematical and logical absurdity.

Cryptography

Al-Kindi is credited with developing a method whereby variations in the frequency of the occurrence of letters could be analyzed and exploited to break ciphers (i.e. cryptanalysis by frequency analysis). His book on this topic is Risāla fī Istikhrāj al-Kutub al-Mu'ammāh (رسالة في استخراج الكتب المعماة; literally: On Extracting Obscured Correspondence, more contemporarily: On Decrypting Encrypted Correspondence). In his treatise on cryptanalysis, he wrote:"One way to solve an encrypted message, if we know its language, is to find a different plaintext of the same language long enough to fill one sheet or so, and then we count the occurrences of each letter. We call the most frequently occurring letter the 'first', the next most occurring letter the 'second', the following most occurring letter the 'third', and so on, until we account for all the different letters in the plaintext sample. Then we look at the cipher text we want to solve and we also classify its symbols. We find the most occurring symbol and change it to the form of the 'first' letter of the plaintext sample, the next most common symbol is changed to the form of the 'second' letter, and the following most common symbol is changed to the form of the 'third' letter, and so on, until we account for all symbols of the cryptogram we want to solve."

Al-Kindi was influenced by the work of al-Khalil (717–786), who wrote the Book of Cryptographic Messages, which contains the first use of permutations and combinations to list all possible Arabic words with and without vowels.

Meteorology
In a treatise entitled as Risala fi l-Illa al-Failali l-Madd wa l-Fazr (Treatise on the Efficient Cause of the Flow and Ebb), al-Kindi presents a theory on tides which "depends on the changes which take place in bodies owing to the rise and fall of temperature." In order to support his argument, he gave a description of a scientific experiment as follows:

"One can also observe by the senses... how in consequence of extreme cold air changes into water. To do this, one takes a glass bottle, fills it completely with snow, and closes its end carefully. Then one determines its weight by weighing. One places it in a container... which has previously been weighed. On the surface of the bottle the air changes into water, and appears upon it like the drops on large porous pitchers, so that a considerable amount of water gradually collects inside the container. One then weighs the bottle, the water and the container, and finds their weight greater than previously, which proves the change. [...] Some foolish persons are of opinion that the snow exudes through the glass. This is impossible. There is no process by which water or snow can be made to pass through glass."

In explaining the natural cause of the wind, and the difference for its directions based on time and location, he wrote: "When the sun is in its northern declination northerly places will heat up and it will be cold towards the south. Then the northern air will expand in a southerly direction because of the heat due to the contraction of the southern air. Therefore most of the summer winds are merits and most of the winter winds are not."

Music theory
Al-Kindi was the first great theoretician of music in the Arab-Islamic world. He is known to have written fifteen treatises on music theory, but only five have survived. He added a fifth string to the 'ud. His works included discussions on the therapeutic value of music and what he regarded as "cosmological connections" of music.

Influences
While Muslim intellectuals were already acquainted with Greek philosophy (especially logic), al-Kindi is credited with being the first real Muslim philosopher. His own thought was largely influenced by the Neo-Platonic philosophy of Proclus, Plotinus and John Philoponus, amongst others, although he does appear to have borrowed ideas from other Hellenistic schools as well. He makes many references to Aristotle in his writings, but these are often unwittingly re-interpreted in a Neo-Platonic framework. This trend is most obvious in areas such as metaphysics and the nature of God as a causal entity. Experts have suggested that he was influenced by the Mutazilite school of theology, because of the mutual concern both he and they demonstrated for maintaining the singularity (tawhid) of God. A minority view however holds that such agreements are considered incidental.

Metaphysics
According to al-Kindi, the goal of metaphysics is knowledge of God. For this reason, he does not make a clear distinction between philosophy and theology, because he believes they are both concerned with the same subject. Later philosophers, particularly al-Farabi and Avicenna, would strongly disagree with him on this issue, by saying that metaphysics is actually concerned with being qua being, and as such, the nature of God is purely incidental.

Central to al-Kindi's understanding of metaphysics is God's absolute oneness, which he considers an attribute uniquely associated with God (and therefore not shared with anything else). By this he means that while we may think of any existent thing as being "one", it is in fact both "one" and many". For example, he says that while a body is one, it is also composed of many different parts. A person might say "I see an elephant", by which he means "I see one elephant", but the term 'elephant' refers to a species of animal that contains many. Therefore, only God is absolutely one, both in being and in concept, lacking any multiplicity whatsoever. Some feel this understanding entails a very rigorous negative theology because it implies that any description which can be predicated to anything else, cannot be said about God.

In addition to absolute oneness, al-Kindi also described God as the Creator. This means that He acts as both a final and efficient cause. Unlike later Muslim Neo-Platonic philosophers (who asserted that the universe existed as a result of God's existence "overflowing", which is a passive act), al-Kindi conceived of God as an active agent. In fact, of God as the agent, because all other intermediary agencies are contingent upon Him. The key idea here is that God "acts" through created intermediaries, which in turn "act" on one another – through a chain of cause and effect – to produce the desired result. In reality, these intermediary agents do not "act" at all, they are merely a conduit for God's own action. This is especially significant in the development of Islamic philosophy, as it portrayed the "first cause" and "unmoved mover" of Aristotelian philosophy as compatible with the concept of God according to Islamic revelation.

Epistemology

Al-Kindi theorized that there was a separate, incorporeal and universal intellect (known as the "First Intellect"). It was the first of God's creation and the intermediary through which all other things came into creation. Aside from its obvious metaphysical importance, it was also crucial to al-Kindi's epistemology, which was influenced by Platonic realism.

According to Plato, everything that exists in the material world corresponds to certain universal forms in the heavenly realm. These forms are really abstract concepts such as a species, quality or relation, which apply to all physical objects and beings. For example, a red apple has the quality of "redness" derived from the appropriate universal. However, al-Kindi says that human intellects are only potentially able to comprehend these. This potential is actualized by the First Intellect, which is perpetually thinking about all of the universals. He argues that the external agency of this intellect is necessary by saying that human beings cannot arrive at a universal concept merely through perception. In other words, an intellect cannot understand the species of a thing simply by examining one or more of its instances. According to him, this will only yield an inferior "sensible form", and not the universal form which we desire. The universal form can only be attained through contemplation and actualization by the First Intellect.

The analogy he provides to explain his theory is that of wood and fire. Wood, he argues, is potentially hot (just as a human is potentially thinking about a universal), and therefore requires something else which is already hot (such as fire) to actualize this. This means that for the human intellect to think about something, the First Intellect must already be thinking about it. Therefore, he says that the First Intellect must always be thinking about everything. Once the human intellect comprehends a universal by this process, it becomes part of the individual's "acquired intellect" and can be thought about whenever he or she wishes.

The soul and the afterlife
Al-Kindi says that the soul is a simple, immaterial substance, which is related to the material world only because of its faculties which operate through the physical body. To explain the nature of our worldly existence, he (borrowing from Epictetus) compares it to a ship which has, during the course of its ocean voyage, temporarily anchored itself at an island and allowed its passengers to disembark. The implicit warning is that those passengers who linger too long on the island may be left behind when the ship sets sail again. Here, al-Kindi displays a stoic concept, that we must not become attached to material things (represented by the island), as they will invariably be taken away from us (when the ship sets sail again). He then connects this with a Neo-Platonist idea, by saying that our soul can be directed towards the pursuit of desire or the pursuit of intellect; the former will tie it to the body, so that when the body dies, it will also die, but the latter will free it from the body and allow it to survive "in the light of the Creator" in a realm of pure intelligence.

The relationship between revelation and philosophy
In the view of al-Kindi, prophecy and philosophy were two different routes to arrive at the truth. He contrasts the two positions in four ways. Firstly, while a person must undergo a long period of training and study to become a philosopher, prophecy is bestowed upon someone by God. Secondly, the philosopher must arrive at the truth by his own devices (and with great difficulty), whereas the prophet has the truth revealed to him by God. Thirdly, the understanding of the prophet – being divinely revealed – is clearer and more comprehensive than that of the philosopher. Fourthly, the way in which the prophet is able to express this understanding to the ordinary people is superior. Therefore, al-Kindi says the prophet is superior in two fields: the ease and certainty with which he receives the truth, and the way in which he presents it. However, the crucial implication is that the content of the prophet's and the philosopher's knowledge is the same. This, says Adamson, demonstrates how limited the superiority al-Kindi afforded to prophecy was.

In addition to this, al-Kindi adopted a naturalistic view of prophetic visions. He argued that, through the faculty of "imagination" as conceived of in Aristotelian philosophy, certain "pure" and well-prepared souls, were able to receive information about future events. Significantly, he does not attribute such visions or dreams to revelation from God, but instead explains that imagination enables human beings to receive the "form" of something without needing to perceive the physical entity to which it refers. Therefore, it would seem to imply that anyone who has purified themselves would be able to receive such visions. It is precisely this idea, amongst other naturalistic explanations of prophetic miracles that al-Ghazali attacks in his Incoherence of the Philosophers.

Critics and patrons
While al-Kindi appreciated the usefulness of philosophy in answering questions of a religious nature, there would be many Islamic thinkers who were not as enthusiastic about its potential. But it would be incorrect to assume that they opposed philosophy simply because it was a "foreign science". Oliver Leaman, an expert on Islamic philosophy, points out that the objections of notable theologians are rarely directed at philosophy itself, but rather at the conclusions the philosophers arrived at. Even al-Ghazali, who is famous for his critique of the philosophers, was himself an expert in philosophy and logic. And his criticism was that they arrived at theologically erroneous conclusions. The three most serious of these, in his view, were believing in the co-eternity of the universe with God, denying the bodily resurrection, and asserting that God only has knowledge of abstract universals, not of particular things (not all philosophers subscribed to these same views).

During his life, al-Kindi was fortunate enough to enjoy the patronage of the pro- Mutazilite Caliphs al-Ma'mun and al-Mu'tasim, which meant he could carry out his philosophical speculations with relative ease. In his own time, al-Kindi would be criticized for extolling the "intellect" as being the most immanent creation in proximity to God, which was commonly held to be the position of the angels. He also engaged in disputations with certain Mutazilites, whom he attacked for their belief in atoms, as not all Mutazilites accepted the belief of atomism. But the real role of al-Kindi in the conflict between philosophers and theologians would be to prepare the ground for debate. His works, says Deborah Black, contained all the seeds of future controversy that would be fully realized in al-Ghazali's Incoherence of the Philosophers.

Legacy
Al-Kindi was a master of many different areas of thought and was held to be one of the greatest philosophers. His influence in the fields of physics, mathematics, medicine, philosophy, and music were far-reaching and lasted for several centuries. Ibn al-Nadim in his praised al-Kindi and his work stating: "The best man of his time, unique in his knowledge of all the ancient sciences. He is called the Philosopher of the Arabs. His books deal with different sciences, such as logic, philosophy, geometry, arithmetic, astronomy etc. We have connected him with the natural philosophers because of his prominence in Science."

Al-Kindi's major contribution was his establishment of philosophy in the Islamic world and his efforts in trying to harmonize the philosophical investigation along with the Islamic theology and creed. The philosophical texts which were translated under his supervision would become the standard texts in the Islamic world for centuries to come, even after his influence has been eclipsed by later Philosophers.

Al-Kindi was also an important figure in medieval Europe. Several of his books got translated into Latin influencing western authors like Robert Grosseteste and Roger Bacon. The Italian Renaissance scholar Geralomo Cardano (1501–1575) considered him one of the twelve greatest minds.

In 1986, the Royal Commission for Riyadh City inaugurated the Al Kindi Plaza in the Diplomatic Quarter district of Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Al-Kindi


text:
Bushland

In Australia, bushland is a blanket term for land which supports remnant vegetation or land which is disturbed but still retains a predominance of the original floristics and structure.

Human survival in bushland has a whole mythology evolving around it, with the stories of Aboriginal trackers and bushrangers deeply entrenched in Australian folklore. Bushland has been a traditional source of wood for fuel and bushfood.

Bushland provides a number of ecosystem services including the protection of water quality, stopping erosion, acting as a windbreak, and trapping nutrients. Bushland is prone to bushfires. This presents a challenge to authorities as infrastructure and habitations encroach into bushland areas.

Preservation
Until recently Australia had a very high rate of land clearing, which resulted in the destruction of bushland. Since 2006 the rate of land clearing has declined significantly. This is partially attributed to legislation that placed a ban on broad scale clearing of mature bushland in Queensland in 2006 and an expansion of those bans to regrowing bushland with a high conservation value in 2009. In New South Wales bushfires cause the greatest destruction of bushland, followed by land clearing for crops, grazing, road and buildings. Bushland preservation has become the focus of some conservation efforts. In Brisbane, the Brisbane City Council has established a Bushland Acquisition Program, which is funded by a small levy paid by rate-payers. The program began in 1990 and aims to protect koala habitat from urban development. It is estimated that the koala population in the area had declined from 6,240 in 1996 to 1,500 in 2012.

title: Bushland


text:
Bishop (disambiguation)

A bishop is a Christian cleric of authority.

Bishop, Bishops, Bishop's, or The Bishop may also refer to:

Antarctica

 * Bishop Peak (Antarctica)
 * Mount Bishop (Antarctica)

Canada

 * Bishop Island, Nunavut
 * Bishop River, British Columbia
 * Bishop Street, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
 * Mount Bishop (Camelsfoot Range), British Columbia
 * Mount Bishop (Elk Range), on the British Columbia–Alberta boundary
 * Mount Bishop (Fannin Range), British Columbia

United Kingdom

 * Bishop Auckland, a town in County Durham, England, aka "Bishop"
 * Bishop's ward, in the London Borough of Lambeth

United States

 * Bishop, California, a city
 * Bishop, Georgia, a small town
 * Bishop, Illinois, an unincorporated community
 * Bishop, Maryland, an unincorporated community
 * Cecil, an unincorporated community in Cecil-Bishop, Pennsylvania, a census-designated place
 * Bishop, Texas, a city
 * Bishop, Virginia and West Virginia, an unincorporated community
 * Bishop, Washington, a ghost town
 * Bishop Arts District, Dallas
 * Bishop Paiute Tribe reservation
 * Bishop Peak (California)
 * Bishop Subbasin, an aquifer in California
 * Bishop's Block, Iowa, a building

Elsewhere

 * Bishop Island (Queensland), Australia

People

 * Bishop (surname)
 * The Bishop, pseudonym of John Tomkins, a convicted American extortionist
 * Robert Bishop (artist), bondage artist, known by the pseudonym "Bishop"

Animals

 * Bishop, birds of the genus Euplectes in the Weaver family, Ploceidae
 * Bishops (mammal), genus of Mesozoic mammals in the family Ausktribosphenidae

Fictional characters

 * Bishop (Aliens), in the Alien series of films, played by Lance Henriksen
 * Bishop (comics), in Marvel Comics' X-Men books
 * Bishop, in the film Juice, played by Tupac Shakur
 * Bishop, a Fangire in the 2008 series Kamen Rider Kiva
 * Bishop, in Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six: Vegas 2
 * Bishop, in the computer game Ultima Underworld II: Labyrinth of Worlds (1993)
 * Bishop, a character class in the game Wizardry
 * Obispo "Bishop" Losa, a main character in the FX television series Mayans M.C.
 * The Bishop (Monty Python), a secret agent in a Monty Python skit

Literature

 * The Bishop (novel), a 1970 novel by Scottish writer Bruce Marshall
 * "The Bishop" (short story), a 1902 short story by Anton Chekhov

Music

 * Bishop (band), a Straight Edge hardcore band from Florida
 * The Bishops, a British band
 * Bishop Briggs, stage name of British-American singer and songwriter Sarah Grace McLaughlin (born 1992)
 * Bishop Don "Magic" Juan (born 1950), American entertainer

Schools

 * Bishop College, Marshall, Texas, United States, a historically black college
 * Bishop State Community College, Mobile, Alabama, United States
 * Bishop's University, Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada
 * Diocesan College, also known as Bishops, a private school in Rondebosch in Cape Town, South Africa
 * The Bishop's School, La Jolla, California, United States, an Episcopal day school
 * The Bishop's Education Society, Pune, India, a private school

Other uses

 * Bishop (chess), a chess piece
 * Bishop Airport (disambiguation)
 * Bishop (artillery), a British Second World War self-propelled gun
 * Bishop, a form of mulled wine
 * Bishop, a type of sleeve
 * Bishop Museum, Honolulu, Hawaii, United States

title: Bishop (disambiguation)


text:
Tetrazine

Tetrazine is a compound that consists of a six-membered aromatic ring containing four nitrogen atoms with the molecular formula C2H2N4. The name tetrazine is used in the nomenclature of derivatives of this compound. Three core-ring isomers exist: 1,2,3,4-tetrazines, 1,2,3,5-tetrazines, and 1,2,4,5-tetrazines, also known as v-tetrazines, as-tetrazines and s-tetrazines respectively.

1,2,3,4-Tetrazines
1,2,3,4-Tetrazines are often isolated fused to an aromatic ring system and are stabilized as the dioxide derivatives.

1,2,4,5-Tetrazine
1,2,4,5-Tetrazines are very well known and myriad 3,6-disubstituted 1,2,4,5-tetrazines are known. These materials are of use in the area of energetic chemistry.

The compound 3,6-di-2-pyridyl-1,2,4,5-tetrazine' has two pyridine substituents and is of importance as a reagent in Diels-Alder reactions. It reacts with norbornadiene in a sequence of one DA reaction and two retro-DA reactions to cyclopentadiene and a pyridazine with exchange of an acetylene unit:

 * [[Image:DielsAlderCycloadditionDTP.png|500px|reaction of norbornadiene with 3,6-di-2-pyridyl-1,2,4,5-tetrazine]]

With norbornadiene fused to an arene the reaction stops at an intermediary stage.

title: Tetrazine


text:
Sisinnius I of Constantinople

Sisinnius I (Σισίνιος, Sisinios; died December 24, 427) was the Archbishop of Constantinople from 426 to 427.

Before the election, Sisinnius was priest in the area of Elaea (modern-day Cihangir) and had become known for his virtues and piety, as well as for acts of charity.

After the death of Archbishop Atticus of Constantinople, the patriarch's throne was vacant for some time, as there was controversy about the choice of a successor. According to the dominant view, this period was about four months and ended with the election of Sisinnius on February 426.

For the consecration and its establishment, the Emperor Theodosius II convened a meeting chaired by the Theodotus of Antioch.

In the days of the patriarch was in recession the question of the attitude of the followers of John Chrysostom, which occurred when he was exiled.

title: Sisinnius I of Constantinople