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Warship

A warship or combatant ship is a ship that is built and primarily intended for naval warfare. Usually they belong to the navy branch of the armed forces of a nation, though they have also been operated by individuals, cooperatives and corporations. As well as being armed, warships are designed to withstand damage and are typically faster and more maneuverable than merchant ships. Unlike a merchant ship, which carries cargo, a warship typically carries only weapons, ammunition and supplies for its crew.

In wartime, the distinction between warships and merchant ships is often blurred. Until the 17th century it was common for merchant ships to be pressed into naval service, and not unusual for more than half of a fleet to be composed of merchant ships—there was not a large difference in construction, unlike the difference between a heavily armoured battleship and an ocean liner. Until the threat of piracy subsided in the 19th century, it was normal practice to arm larger merchant ships such as galleons. Warships have also often been used as troop carriers or supply ships, such as by the French Navy in the 18th century or the Imperial Japanese Navy during the Second World War. In war since the early 20th century, merchant ships were often armed and used as auxiliary warships, such as the Q-ships of the First World War and the armed merchant cruisers of the Second World War.

Types and classes
The main types of warships today are, in order of decreasing size: aircraft carriers – amphibious assault ships – cruisers – destroyers – frigates – corvettes – fast attack boats. A more extensive list follows:

 * Amphibious warfare ships are warships employed to land and support ground forces, such as marines, on enemy territory during an amphibious assault.
 * Amphibious assault ship is a type of amphibious warfare ship employed to land and support ground forces with ship-deployed helicopters and V/STOL aircraft on enemy territory by an amphibious assault.
 * Amphibious transport dock is an amphibious warfare ship, that embarks, transports, and lands elements of a landing force for expeditionary warfare missions.
 * Dock landing ship is an amphibious warfare ship with a well dock to transport and launch landing craft and amphibious vehicles.
 * Landing craft are small and medium seagoing watercraft, such as boats and barges, used to convey a landing force (infantry and vehicles) from the sea to the shore during an amphibious assault.
 * Landing Craft Utility is a type of landing craft used by amphibious forces to transport equipment and troops to the shore. They are capable of transporting tracked or wheeled vehicles and marines from amphibious assault ships to beachheads.
 * Landing Craft Mechanized is a landing craft designed for carrying vehicles during amphibious assaults.
 * Landing ship, tank is the naval designation for ships first developed during World War II to support amphibious operations by carrying tanks, armoured fighting vehicles, transport vehicles, cargo, and landing troops directly onto shore with no docks or piers.
 * Landing Craft Support were two distinct classes of amphibious warfare vessels used by the United States Navy during World War II to support landing crafts.
 * Armed merchantman is a type of merchant ship equipped with naval guns, usually for defensive purposes, either by design or after the fact. In the days of sail, piracy and privateers.
 * Armed yachts were modified yachts that were armed with weapons and were typically in the service of a navy.
 * Balloon carrier was a type of ship equipped with a hot-air balloon tied to the ship with a rope or cable, which was used for observation. This type of ship was later replaced by the seaplane carrier.
 * Cottonclad warships were steam-powered warships with bales of cotton lining as armour used in the American Civil War. The armaments consisted of a ram, random numbers of different cannons and sharpshooters.
 * Dispatch boats were small boats, and sometimes large ships, tasked to carry military dispatches from ship to ship or from ship to shore or, in some cases from shore to shore. Dispatch boats were employed when other means of transmitting a message was not possible or safe or as quick.
 * Aviso, a kind of dispatch boat
 * Brig of War is a brig armed for use by a navy.
 * Anti-submarine warfare carrier is a type of small aircraft carrier whose primary role is as the nucleus of an anti-submarine warfare hunter-killer group.
 * Capital ship, the largest and most important ships in a nation's fleet. These were previously battleships, battlecruisers, and aircraft carriers, but the first two warship types are now no longer used.
 * Aircraft carrier, a warship primarily armed with carrier-based aircraft.
 * Fleet carrier is an aircraft carrier designed to operate with the main fleet of a nation's navy.
 * Light aircraft carrier is an aircraft carrier that is smaller than the standard carriers of a navy.
 * Escort carrier, also called a "jeep carrier" or "baby flattop" is a slow type of aircraft carrier used during WWII.
 * Battlecruiser, a ship with battleship-level armament and cruiser-level armour; typically faster than a battleship because the reduction in armour allowed mounting of more powerful propulsion machinery, or the use of a more slender hull shape with a lower drag coefficient.
 * Battleship, a large, heavily armored warship equipped with many powerful guns. A term which generally post-dates sailing warships.
 * Ironclad battleship, battleships built before the pre-dreadnought in the late 1850s to the early 1890s.
 * Pre-dreadnought battleship, sea-going battleships built to a common design before the launch of dreadnoughts, between the mid-1880s to the early 1900s. Pre-dreadnoughts commonly featured a mixed main battery composed of several different caliber guns.
 * Dreadnought, an early 20th-century battleship, which set the pattern for all subsequent battleship construction. Dreadnoughts differ from pre-dreadnoughts in that they feature an all-big-gun main battery. The advantage lies in that if all the big guns have the same characteristics, only one firing solution will be needed to aim them all.
 * Fast battleships were battleships which emphasized speed without – in concept – undue compromise of either armor or armament
 * Bomb vessels were wooden sailing ships which carried mortars instead of cannons.
 * Coastal defence ship, a type of cruiser-sized warship built for the purpose of coastal defense.
 * Commerce raider, any armed vessel—privately or government-owned—sanctioned to raid a nation's merchant fleet.
 * Merchant raiders are disguised commerce raiders.
 * Corvettes were small ships during the age of sail. The concept was revived again in WWII as a merchant convoy escort and anti-submarine ship. They were only used by the Royal Navy and the Royal Canadian Navy. Today they are used for anti-submarine warfare and patrolling.
 * Cruiser, a fast, independent warship. Traditionally, cruisers were the smallest warships capable of independent action. Along with battleships and battlecruisers, they have largely vanished from modern navies.
 * Armored cruiser was a type of warship of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It was designed like other types of cruisers to operate as a long-range, independent warship, capable of defeating any ship apart from a battleship and fast enough to outrun any battleship it encountered
 * Scout cruiser was a type of warship of the early 20th century, which were smaller, faster, more lightly armed and armoured than protected cruisers or light cruisers, but larger than contemporary destroyers. They were used for scouting.
 * Protected cruiser is a type of naval cruiser of the late-19th century, gained their description because an armored deck offered protection for vital machine-spaces from fragments caused by shells exploding above them.
 * Torpedo cruiser is a type of cruiser that is armed primarily with torpedoes.
 * Unprotected cruiser was a type of naval cruiser in use during the early 1870s Victorian or pre-dreadnought era.
 * Heavy cruiser was a type of cruiser, a naval warship designed for long range and high speed, armed generally with naval guns of roughly 203 mm (8 in) caliber; its parameters were dictated by the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 and the London Naval Treaty of 1930.
 * Pocket battleship
 * Light cruiser is a type of small or medium-sized warship. The term is a shortening of the phrase "light armored cruiser", describing a small ship that carried armor in the same way as an armored cruiser: a protective belt and deck.
 * Large cruiser is the class of the battlecruiser-sized Alaska-class cruisers of the United States Navy during World War II.
 * Guided missile cruisers are cruisers armed anti-ship missiles.
 * Aircraft cruiser (also known as aviation cruiser or cruiser-carrier) is a type of warship that combines the features of the aircraft carrier and a surface warship, such as a cruiser or battleship.
 * Destroyer, a fast and highly maneuverable warship, traditionally incapable of independent action. Originally developed to counter the threat of torpedo boats, they are now the largest independent warship generally seen on the ocean.
 * Guided missile destroyer are destroyers armed with anti-ship missiles.
 * Destroyer escort was the United States Navy mid-20th-century classification for a 20-knot (37 km/h; 23 mph), warship designed with the endurance necessary to escort mid-ocean convoys of merchant marine ships similar to frigates.
 * East Asian warships
 * Geobukseon (literally Turtle ship) were wooden sail and oar propelled Korean warships armed with cannons.
 * Panokseon (literally board roofed ship) were a type of Korean wooden warships propelled by both sailing and rowing armed with cannons and Hwacha multiple rocket launchers.
 * Atakebune were wooden oar propelled 16th Century Japanese warships armed with few cannons, arquebusiers, and archers. They were mostly bulky floating fortifications.
 * Mengchong (literally Covered Assaulter) was a type of leather-covered assault warship used in the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE in China.
 * Louchuan (literally Tower Ship) was a type of warship used as a floating fortress in Ancient China. The Louchuan was meant to board troops onto enemy ships. Although they were also armed with trebuchets for ranged combat.
 * Wugongchuan (literally Centipede Ship) was a Chinese oared vessel of the 16th century inspired by the Portuguese galley.
 * Fast attack crafts are a small, fast, agile, offensive, often affordable type of warships armed with anti-ship missiles, guns or torpedoes.
 * Fire ship, a vessel of any sort set on fire and sent into an anchorage or fleet with the intention of causing destruction and chaos. Exploding fire ships are called hellburners.
 * Frigate, originally a medium-sized sailing ship. Frigates used in modern navies (although they date back to the 17th century) are typically used to protect merchant vessels and other warships.
 * Armoured frigate are frigates with armour which was added to ships based on existing frigate and ship of the line designs. The additional weight of the armour on these first ironclad warships meant that they could have only one gun deck, and they were technically frigates, even though they were more powerful than existing ships-of-the-line and occupied the same strategic role.
 * Guided missile frigates are frigates armed with anti-ship missiles.
 * Galleass, a sailing and rowing warship, equally well suited to sailing and rowing.
 * Galleon, a 16th-century armed cargo carriers.
 * Hellenistic galleys, warships propelled by oars with a sail for use in favorable winds used in the Mediterranean Sea.
 * Bireme, an ancient vessel, propelled by two banks of oars.
 * Trireme, an ancient warship propelled by three banks of oars.
 * Quadrireme, an ancient warship invented in Carthage with two levels of oarsmen, and was therefore lower than the quinquereme.
 * Quinquereme, an ancient warship propelled by three banks of oars. On the upper row, two rowers hold one oar; on the middle row, two rowers; and on the lower row, one man to an oar.
 * Hexareme, an ancient warship invented in Syracuse. The exact arrangement of the hexareme's oars is unclear. If it evolved naturally from the earlier designs, it would be a trireme with two rowers per oar.
 * Septireme, an ancient warship invented by the Macedonia, the septireme was derived by adding a standing rower to the lower level of the hexareme.
 * Octeres, very little is known about the octeres, at least two of their type were in the fleet of Philip V of Macedon at the Battle of Chios.
 * Enneres, a type of warship whose oaring system may have been a modification of the quadrireme, with two teams of five and four oarsmen.
 * Deceres, a type of warship which is present alongside "nines" in the fleet of Antigonus I Monophthalmus in 315 BC. It is most likely that the "ten" was derived from adding another oarsman to the "nine".
 * Tessarakonteres, a very large catamaran galley reportedly built by Ptolemy IV Philopator of Egypt. It had seven naval rams, with one primary, and the deck would have provided a stable platform for catapults that were often mounted on supergalleys. However, the "forty" was likely just a showpiece; Plutarch describes the ship as for exhibition only.
 * Lembos, light warships most commonly associated with the vessels used by the Illyrian tribes, chiefly for piracy, in the area of Dalmatia. Was soon adopted by Macedonia, Seleucid Empire, Roman Republic and Sparta.
 * Hemiolia, light and fast warship that appeared in the early 4th century BC. It was particularly favoured by pirates in the eastern Mediterranean, but also used by Alexander the Great as far as the rivers Indus and Jhelum, and by the Romans as a troop transport. According to one view, it was manned by half the number of oarsmen to make room for the soldiers. According to another, there were one and a half files of oarsmen on each side, with the additional half file placed amidships, where the hull was wide enough to accommodate them.
 * Trihemiolia, this type was classed with the trireme, and had two and a half files of oarsmen on each side. Judging from the Lindos relief and the famous Nike of Samothrace, both of which are thought to represent trihemioliai, the two upper files would have been accommodated in an oarbox, with the half-file located beneath them in the classic thalamitai position of the trireme.
 * Liburna, a type of small galley used for raiding and patrols. It was originally used by the Liburnians, a pirate tribe from Dalmatia, and later used by the Roman Navy. It had one bench with 25 oars on each side, while in the late Roman Republic, it was equipped with two banks of oars (a bireme), remaining faster, lighter, and more agile than triremes.
 * Gunboats are naval watercraft designed for the express purpose of carrying one or more guns to bombard coastal targets.
 * River gunboat is a type of gunboat for riverine use.
 * Flat-iron gunboats were a number of classes of coastal gunboats generally characterized by small size, low freeboard, the absence of masts, and the mounting of a single non-traversing large gun, aimed by pointing the vessel.
 * Torpedo gunboat were a form of gunboat armed with torpedoes and designed for hunting and destroying smaller torpedo boats.
 * Motor gunboat is a type of a fast gunboat armed with machine-guns and autocannons.
 * Grab was a type of ship common on the Malabar Coast in the 18th and 19th centuries. The ghurāb was originally a galley, but the type evolved into sailing ships armed with cannons.
 * Gallivat were small, armed type of boats, with sails and oars, armed with swivel guns and used on the Malabar Coast in the 18th and 19th centuries.
 * Helicopter carrier, an aircraft carrier especially suited to carry helicopters and V/STOL aircraft.
 * Ironclad, a wooden warship with external iron plating.
 * Casemate ironclad were a type of ironclad gunboats used in the American Civil War.
 * Central battery ship in European continental navies, was a development of the (high-freeboard) broadside ironclad of the 1870s
 * Turret ship was a 19th-century type of warship, the earliest to have their guns mounted in a revolving gun turret, instead of a broadside arrangement.
 * Floating battery is a kind of armed watercraft, often improvised or experimental, which carries heavy armament but has few other qualities as a warship.
 * Littoral Combat Ship is a United States Navy classification of warships with the size and role of corvettes.
 * Longship, a Viking raiding ship.
 * Maritime Southeast Asian warships:
 * Djong were sailing warships armed with up to a hundred cannons.
 * Kakap were small warships used in Maritime Southeast Asia.
 * Kelulus were Nusantaran warships used as troop transports and raiding vessels.
 * Lancaran were a type of galley warships armed with Cetbang cannons.
 * Man-of-war, a British Navy expression for a sailing warship.
 * Minesweeper are small warships designed to remove or detonate naval mines.
 * Minehunter are naval vessels that seek, detect, and destroys individual naval mines.
 * Mine countermeasures vessels are atype of naval ships designed for the location of and destruction of naval mines which combines the role of a minesweeper and minehunter in one hull.
 * Minelayer are naval vessels that plant naval mines offshore.
 * Missile boats are small, fast warship armed with anti-ship missiles.
 * Monitor, a type of small, heavily gunned warships with shallow draft designed for shore bombardment.
 * River monitor, a type of monitors used in rivers.
 * Breastwork monitor was a modification of the monitor by Sir Edward Reed of the Royal Navy.
 * Naval trawlers are vessels built along the lines of fishing trawlers but fitted out for naval purposes
 * Naval drifters are boats built along the lines of a commercial fishing drifter but fitted out for naval purposes.
 * Patrol vessels are relatively small naval vessels generally designed for coastal defence, border protection, immigration law-enforcement, search and rescue duties.
 * Penjajap were galley-like warships used by several Austronesian ethnic groups in Maritime Southeast Asia armed with Lantaka swivel guns.
 * Q-ship, also known as Q-boats, decoy vessels, special service ships, or mystery ships, were heavily armed merchant ships with concealed weaponry, designed to lure submarines into making surface attacks. This gave Q-ships the chance to open fire and sink them.
 * Seaplane tenders were a type of ship used to carry seaplanes into the open sea. They are considered by some as the predecessor of the aircraft carrier.
 * Submarine chaser is a small warship used in anti-submarine warfare.
 * Ship of the line, a sailing warship capable of standing in the line of battle. A direct predecessor to the later battleship.
 * Sloop-of-war was a sailing vessel category later revived in WWII as a convoy escort ship.
 * Screw sloop was a propeller-driven sloop-of-wars used during the mid-19th Century.
 * Submarine, are ships capable of staying submerged for days. Modern submarines can stay underwater for months, with food supplies as the only limiting factor.
 * Cruiser submarine were a type of a very large submarine designed to remain at sea for extended periods in areas distant from base facilities.
 * Coastal submarine or littoral submarine is a small, maneuverable type of submarine with shallow draft well suited to navigation of coastal channels and harbors.
 * Fleet submarine is a type of submarine with the speed, range, and endurance to operate as part of a navy's battle fleet.
 * Midget submarine is any submarine under 150 tons, typically operated by a crew of one or two but sometimes up to six or nine
 * Submarine aircraft carrier is a submarine equipped with aircraft for observation or attack missions. These submarines saw their most extensive use during World War II, although their operational significance remained small
 * Attack Submarine is a submarine with the purpose of attacking other submarines.
 * Ballistic Missile Submarine is a submarine capable of deploying submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) with nuclear warheads.
 * Cruise missile submarine are submarines equipped with cruise missiles
 * Torpedo boat, are small, fast surface vessels designed for launching torpedoes.
 * Torpedo ram is a type of torpedo boat combining a ram with torpedo tubes.
 * Motor torpedo boat is a type of fast torpedo boat, especially of the mid 20th century.
 * War canoe was a kind of watercraft of the canoe type designed and outfitted for warfare using bow, spear and shield wielding warriors. During the gunpowder era a single brass or iron cannon was mounted on the bow or stern along with musketeers. These warships were used by many tribes and cultures all around the globe.

First warships
The first evidence of ships being used for warfare comes from Ancient Egypt, specifically the northern Nile River most likely to defend against Mediterranean peoples. The galley warship most likely originated in Crete an idea which was soon copied and popularized by the Phoenicians. In the time of Mesopotamia, Ancient Persia, Phoenicia, Ancient Greece and the Ancient Rome, warships were always galleys (such as biremes, triremes and quinqueremes): long, narrow vessels powered by banks of oarsmen and designed to ram and sink enemy vessels, or to engage them bow-first and follow up with boarding parties. The development of catapults in the 4th century BC and the subsequent refinement of this technology enabled the first fleets of siege engine - equipped warships by the Hellenistic age. During late antiquity, ramming fell out of use and the galley tactics against other ships used during the Middle Ages until the late 16th century focused on boarding.

The Age of Sail
Naval artillery was redeveloped in the 14th century, but cannon did not become common at sea until the guns were capable of being reloaded quickly enough to be reused in the same battle. The size of a ship required to carry a large number of cannons made oar-based propulsion impossible, and warships came to rely primarily on sails. The sailing man-of-war emerged during the 16th century.

By the middle of the 17th century, warships were carrying increasing numbers of cannons on their broadsides and tactics evolved to bring each ship's firepower to bear in a line of battle. The man-of-war now evolved into the ship of the line. In the 18th century, the frigate and sloop-of-war – too small to stand in the line of battle – evolved to escort convoy trade, scout for enemy ships and blockade enemy coasts.

Steel, steam and shellfire
During the 19th century a revolution took place in the means of marine propulsion, naval armament and construction of warships. Marine steam engines were introduced, at first as an auxiliary force, in the second quarter of the 19th century. The Crimean War gave a great stimulus to the development of guns. The introduction of explosive shells soon led to the introduction of iron, and later steel, naval armour for the sides and decks of larger warships. The first ironclad warships, the French FRENCH IRONCLAD Gloire and British HMS Warrior (1860), made wooden vessels obsolete. Metal soon entirely replaced wood as the main material for warship construction.

From the 1850s, the sailing ships of the line were replaced by steam-powered battleships, while the sailing frigates were replaced by steam-powered cruisers. The armament of warships also changed with the invention of the rotating barbettes and turrets, which allowed the guns to be aimed independently of the direction of the ship and allowed a smaller number of larger guns to be carried.

The final innovation during the 19th century was the development of the torpedo and development of the torpedo boat. Small, fast torpedo boats seemed to offer an alternative to building expensive fleets of battleships.

Pre-dreadnought era
Pre-dreadnought battleships were sea-going battleships built between the mid- to late- 1880s and 1905, before the launch of HMS Dreadnought in 1906. The pre-dreadnought ships replaced the ironclad battleships of the 1870s and 1880s. Built from steel, protected by case-hardened steel armour, and powered by coal-fired triple-expansion steam engines, pre-dreadnought battleships carried a main battery of very heavy guns in fully-enclosed rotating turrets supported by one or more secondary batteries of lighter weapons. The role of corvettes, sloops and frigates were taken by new types of ships like destroyers, protected cruisers and armoured cruisers.

The dreadnought era
Another revolution in capital warship design began shortly after the start of the 20th century, when Britain launched the Royal Navy's all-big-gun battleship HMS Dreadnought (1906) in 1906. Powered by steam turbines, it was bigger, faster and more heavily gunned than any existing battleships, which it immediately rendered obsolete. It was rapidly followed by similar ships in other countries. The Royal Navy also developed the first battlecruisers. Mounting the same heavy guns as the dreadnoughts on an even larger hull, battlecruisers sacrificed armour protection for speed. Battlecruisers were faster and more powerful than all existing cruisers, but much more vulnerable to shellfire than contemporary battleships. The torpedo-boat destroyer was developed at the same time as the dreadnoughts. Bigger, faster and more heavily gunned than the torpedo boat, the destroyer evolved to protect the capital ships from the menace of the torpedo boat.

At this time, Britain also introduced the use of fuel oil to power steam warships, instead of coal. Oil produced twice as much power per unit weight as coal, and was much easier to handle. Tests were conducted by the Royal Navy in 1904 involving the torpedo-boat destroyer HMS Spiteful (1899), the first warship powered solely by fuel oil. These proved its superiority, and all warships procured for the Royal Navy from 1912 were designed to burn fuel oil.

Obsolescence of battleships
During the lead-up to the Second World War, Germany and the United Kingdom once again emerged as the two dominant Atlantic sea powers. The German navy, under the Treaty of Versailles, was limited to only a few minor surface ships. But the clever use of deceptive terminology, such as Panzerschiffe deceived the British and French commands. They were surprised when ships such as GERMAN CRUISER Admiral Graf Spee, GERMAN BATTLESHIP Scharnhorst, and GERMAN BATTLESHIP Gneisenau raided Allied supply lines. The greatest threat however, was the introduction of the Kriegsmarine's largest vessels, GERMAN BATTLESHIP Bismarck and GERMAN BATTLESHIP Tirpitz. Bismarck was heavily damaged and sunk/scuttled after a series of sea battles in the north Atlantic in 1941, while Tirpitz was destroyed by the Royal Air Force in 1944. The British Royal Navy gained dominance of the European theatre by 1943.

The Second World War brought massive changes in the design and role of several types of warships. For the first time, the aircraft carrier became the clear choice to serve as the main capital ship within a naval task force. World War II was the only war in history in which battles occurred between groups of carriers. World War II saw the first use of radar in combat. It brought the first naval battle in which the ships of both sides never engaged in direct combat, instead sending aircraft to make the attacks, as in the Battle of the Coral Sea.

Cold War-era
Modern warships are generally divided into seven main categories, which are: aircraft carriers, cruisers, destroyers, frigates, corvettes, submarines, and amphibious warfare ships. Battleships comprise an eighth category, but are not in current service with any navy in the world. Only the deactivated American Iowa-class battleships still exist as potential combatants, and battleships in general are unlikely to re-emerge as a ship class without redefinition. The destroyer is generally regarded as the dominant surface-combat vessel of most modern blue-water navies. However, the once distinct roles and appearances of cruisers, destroyers, frigates, and corvettes have blurred. Most vessels have come to be armed with a mix of anti-surface, anti-submarine and anti-aircraft weapons. Class designations no longer reliably indicate a displacement hierarchy, and the size of all vessel types has grown beyond the definitions used earlier in the 20th century. Another key difference between older and modern vessels is that all modern warships are "soft", without the thick armor and bulging anti-torpedo protection of World War II and older designs.

Most navies also include many types of support and auxiliary vessels, such as minesweepers, patrol boats and offshore patrol vessels.

By 1982 the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) treaty negotiations had produced a legal definition of what was then generally accepted as a late-twentieth century warship. The UNCLOS definition was : "A warship means a ship belonging to the armed forces of a State bearing the external marks distinguishing such ships of its nationality, under the command of an officer duly commissioned by the government of the State and whose name appears in the appropriate service list or its equivalent, and manned by a crew which is under regular armed forces discipline."

Development of the submarine
The first practical submarines were developed in the late 19th century, but it was only after the development of the torpedo that submarines became truly dangerous (and hence useful). By the end of the First World War submarines had proved their potential. During the Second World War Nazi Germany's fleet of U-boats (submarines) almost starved Britain into submission and inflicted huge losses on US coastal shipping. The success of submarines led to the development of new anti-submarine convoy escorts during the First and Second World Wars, such as the destroyer escort. Confusingly, many of these new types adopted the names of the smaller warships from the age of sail, such as corvette, sloop and frigate.

Development of the aircraft carrier
A seaplane tender is a ship that supports the operation of seaplanes. Some of these vessels, known as seaplane carriers, could not only carry seaplanes but also provided all the facilities needed for their operation; these ships are regarded by some as the first aircraft carriers and appeared just before the First World War.

A major shift in naval warfare occurred with the introduction of the aircraft carrier. First at Taranto and then at Pearl Harbor, the aircraft carrier demonstrated its ability to strike decisively at enemy ships out of sight and range of surface vessels. By the end of the Second World War, the carrier had become the dominant warship.

Development of the amphibious assault ship
JAPANESE AMPHIBIOUS ASSAULT SHIP Shinshū Maru was a ship of the Imperial Japanese Army during World War II. She was the world's first purpose-built landing craft carrier ship, and a pioneer of modern-day amphibious assault ships. During some of her operations, she was known to have used at least four cover names, R1, GL, MT, and Ryujo Maru.

An amphibious warfare ship is an amphibious vehicle warship employed to land and support ground forces, such as marines, on enemy territory during an amphibious assault. Specialized shipping can be divided into two types, most crudely described as ships and craft. In general, the ships carry the troops from the port of embarkation to the drop point for the assault and the craft carry the troops from the ship to the shore. Amphibious assaults taking place over short distances can also involve the shore-to-shore technique, where landing craft go directly from the port of embarkation to the assault point. Amphibious assault ships have a well deck with landing craft which can carry tanks and other armoured fighting vehicles and also have a deck like a helicopter carrier for helicopters and V/STOL aircraft.

title: Warship


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Vaishya

Vaishya (Sanskrit: वैश्य, vaiśya) is one of the four varnas of the Vedic Hindu social order in India. Vaishyas are classed third in the order of Varna hierarchy.

The occupation of Vaishyas consists mainly of agriculture, taking care of cattle, trade and other business pursuits as mentioned in the Bhagavad Gita.

Traditional duties
Hindu religious texts assigned Vaishyas to traditional roles in agriculture and cattle-rearing, but over time they came to be landowners, traders and money-lenders. Therefore making it their responsibility to provide sustenance for those of higher class, since they were of lower class. The Vaishyas, along with members of the Brahmin and Kshatriya varnas, claim dvija status ("twice born", a second or spiritual birth) after sacrament of initiation as in Hindu theology. Indian traders were widely credited for the spread of Indian culture to regions as far as southeast Asia.

Historically, Vaishyas have been involved in roles other than their traditional pastoralism, trade and commerce. According to historian Ram Sharan Sharma, the Gupta Empire was a Vaishya dynasty that "may have appeared as a reaction against oppressive rulers".

Many Vaishyas are vegetarian due to the influence of Jainism and Buddhism which preaches the concept of ahimsa which forbade killing of animals for food.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Vaishya


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Osteoglossiformes

Osteoglossiformes (Greek: "bony tongues") is a relatively primitive order of ray-finned fish that contains two sub-orders, the Osteoglossoidei and the Notopteroidei. All of at least 245 living species inhabit freshwater. They are found in South America, Africa, Australia and southern Asia, having first evolved in Gondwana before that continent broke up. In 2008, several new species of marine osteoglossiforms were described from the Danish Eocene Fur Formation, dramatically increasing the diversity of this group. This implies that the Osteoglossomorpha is not a primary freshwater fish group with the osteoglossiforms having a typical Gondwana distribution.

The Gymnarchidae (the only species being Gymnarchus niloticus, the African knifefish ) and the Mormyridae are weakly electric fish able to sense their prey using electric fields.

The mooneyes (Hiodontidae) are often classified here, but may also be placed in a separate order, Hiodontiformes.

Members of the order are notable for having toothed or bony tongues, and for having the forward part of the gastrointestinal tract pass to the left of the oesophagus and stomach (for all other fish it passes to the right). In other respects, osteoglossiform fishes vary considerably in size and form; the smallest is Pollimyrus castelnaui, at just 2 cm long, while the largest, the arapaima (Arapaima gigas), reaches as much as 2.5 m.

Phylogeny
Phylogeny based on the following works:

title: Osteoglossiformes


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User:Tannin/Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy

'''A work in progress. All please feel free to edit at will.''' -- Tannin

title: User:Tannin/Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy


text:
Schonchin Butte

Schonchin Butte is a cinder cone on the northern flank of Medicine Lake Volcano in the Cascade Range in northern California. Frothy lava, cooled in the air, created the large cinder cones throughout Lava Beds National Monument. It is named for Old Schonchin, a chief of the Modoc people during the late nineteenth century. Erupting more than 30,000 years ago, the volcano spewed ash and cinders into the air much like a can of soda when shaken. A lava spatter rampart is at the very top.

The butte's 3/4 mi trail leads to a panoramic view from the historic fire lookout. From the lookout panoramic views of the Medicine Lake Volcano, Mount Shasta, Mount McLoughlin, the Clear Lake Hills and the Warner Mountains can be seen. On a really clear day, the south rim of Crater Lake in Oregon is visible.

Fire lookout
The Schonchin Butte Fire Lookout is a fire lookout tower on Schonchin Butte, a cinder cone in Lava Beds National Monument.

The Civilian Conservation Corps built a fire lookout at Schonchin Butte during the summers of 1939 and 1940, as part of federal infrastructure development under the President Franklin D. Roosevelt administration during the Great Depression. The site was selected for its view of Lava Beds National Monument, while the United States Forest Service wanted a lookout constructed on Hippo Butte, probably because of its view of the Modoc National Forest. The CCC crew manually carried all materials to the building site after constructing the trail. Roger Reid was the first to staff the lookout in 1941. The 1942 date on the doorstep of the lookout represents when it was installed, not when the lookout was built, or first staffed.

The lookout has changed over the years, but its general appearance and structure have remained relatively unchanged. Linoleum, not carpet, used to cover the building's floor, and the furnishings were stained while trim was painted. Early lookouts used a radio phone, and a regular telephone was not installed for several decades. Many original items remain: the Osborne Fire Finder and its stand, the sink, and the insulated stool which lookouts use during thunderstorms.

Through the 1980s, rangers staffed the lookout for extended periods. They used gas for light and cooking, but electricity replaced gas in the 1950s when the National Park Service constructed a power line that ascended the cinder cone's east slope. The National Park Service removed the line in the mid-1980s when electric lines were buried along the Monument's main road. Solar panels now power a repeater, radio, and small lights.

Maintenance has been done piecemeal from the building's creation through the 1990s. By 1992, the building, placed on the National Register of Historic Places, showed signs of its age. In 1993, the Park Service received about $50,000 to restore the lookout. During June and July 1994, maintenance workers stripped the inside of paint and bad sheetrock. They removed old fixtures and a gas stove from the main level and various junk from the basement. The refrigerator was moved to the basement. Helicopters brought dirt and rock for the trail. Workers drained the cistern in the basement and installed new carpets and light fixtures capable of using electricity generated by solar panels.

Schonchin Butte is staffed approximately from May to September from about 10 A.M. to 6 P.M., but park rangers stay longer in cases of extreme fire danger, fire activity, or significant lightning activity. Lookouts no longer live in the building and carry up daily supplies on their backs. The lack of electricity and cooking equipment also limit a lookout's tour of duty.

Schonchin Butte appears as a topic in the American Park Network publication Oh, Ranger!. The chapter "The Lookout Tower" describes Schonchin Butte and chronicles two storms atop the lookout.

It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2017.

The lookout and the trail leading up to it were built by the Civilian Conservation Corps during 1939 to 1941.

It is an active fire lookout tower, used during fire seasons.

title: Schonchin Butte


text:
User talk:Alex n

Leave a Comment ---

MfD nomination of User:Mèþru/El Goonish Shive
User:Mèþru/El Goonish Shive, a page which you created or substantially contributed to, has been nominated for deletion. Your opinions on the matter are welcome; you may participate in the discussion by adding your comments at Wikipedia:Miscellany for deletion/User:Mèþru/El Goonish Shive and please be sure to sign your comments with four tildes ( ~ ). You are free to edit the content of User:Mèþru/El Goonish Shive during the discussion but should not remove the miscellany for deletion template from the top of the page; such a removal will not end the deletion discussion. Thank you. Ten Pound Hammer • (What did I screw up now?) 22:38, 25 December 2020 (UTC)

Concern regarding Draft:El Goonish Shive
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Your draft article, Draft:El Goonish Shive

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Thanks for your submission to Wikipedia, and happy editing. Liz Read! Talk! 06:07, 2 January 2022 (UTC)

title: User talk:Alex n


text:
Volcanic cone

Volcanic cones are among the simplest volcanic landforms. They are built by ejecta from a volcanic vent, piling up around the vent in the shape of a cone with a central crater. Volcanic cones are of different types, depending upon the nature and size of the fragments ejected during the eruption. Types of volcanic cones include stratocones, spatter cones, tuff cones, and cinder cones.

Stratocone
Stratocones are large cone-shaped volcanoes made up of lava flows, explosively erupted pyroclastic rocks, and igneous intrusives that are typically centered around a cylindrical vent. Unlike shield volcanoes, they are characterized by a steep profile and periodic, often alternating, explosive eruptions and effusive eruptions. Some have collapsed craters called calderas. The central core of a stratocone is commonly dominated by a central core of intrusive rocks that range from around 500 m to over several kilometers in diameter. This central core is surrounded by multiple generations of lava flows, many of which are brecciated, and a wide range of pyroclastic rocks and reworked volcanic debris. The typical stratocone is an andesitic to dacitic volcano that is associated with subduction zones. They are also known as either stratified volcano, composite cone, bedded volcano, cone of mixed type or Vesuvian-type volcano.

Spatter cone
A spatter cone is a low, steep-sided hill or mound that consists of welded lava fragments, called spatter, which has formed around a lava fountain issuing from a central vent. Typically, spatter cones are about 3-5 m high. In case of a linear fissure, lava fountaining will create broad embankments of spatter, called spatter ramparts, along both sides of the fissure. Spatter cones are more circular and cone shaped, while spatter ramparts are linear wall-like features.

Spatter cones and spatter ramparts are typically formed by lava fountaining associated with mafic, highly fluid lavas, such as those erupted in the Hawaiian Islands. As blobs of molten lava, spatter, are erupted into the air by a lava fountain, they can lack the time needed to cool completely before hitting the ground. Consequently, the spatter are not fully solid, like taffy, as they land and they bind to the underlying spatter as both often slowly ooze down the side of the cone. As a result, the spatter builds up a cone that is composed of spatter either agglutinated or welded to each other.

Tuff cones

A tuff cone, sometimes called an ash cone, is a small monogenetic volcanic cone produced by phreatic (hydrovolcanic) explosions directly associated with magma brought to the surface through a conduit from a deep-seated magma reservoir. They are characterized by high rims that have a maximum relief of 100-800 m above the crater floor and steep slopes that are greater than 25 degrees. They typically have a rim to rim diameter of 300-5000 m. A tuff cone consists typically of thick-bedded pyroclastic flow and surge deposits created by eruption-fed density currents and bomb-scoria beds derived from fallout from its eruption column. The tuffs composing a tuff cone have commonly been altered, palagonitized, by either its interaction with groundwater or when it was deposited warm and wet. The pyroclastic deposits of tuff cones differ from the pyroclastic deposits of spatter cones by their lack or paucity of lava spatter, smaller grain-size, and excellent bedding. Typically, but not always, tuff cones lack associated lava flows.

A tuff ring is a related type of small monogenetic volcano that is also produced by phreatic (hydrovolcanic) explosions directly associated with magma brought to the surface through a conduit from a deep-seated magma reservoir. They are characterized by rims that have a low, broad topographic profiles and gentle topographic slopes that are 25 degrees or less. The maximum thickness of the pyroclastic debris comprising the rim of a typical tuff ring is generally thin, less than 50 m to 100 m thick. The pyroclastic materials that comprise their rim consist primarily of relatively fresh and unaltered, distinctly and thin-bedded volcanic surge and air fall deposits. Their rims also can contain variable amounts of local country rock (bedrock) blasted out of their crater. In contrast to tuff cones, the crater of a tuff ring generally has been excavated below the existing ground surface. As a result, water commonly fills a tuff ring's crater to form a lake once eruptions cease.

Both tuff cones and their associated tuff rings were created by explosive eruptions from a vent where the magma is interacting with either groundwater or a shallow body of water as found within a lake or sea. The interaction between the magma, expanding steam, and volcanic gases resulted in the production and ejection of fine-grained pyroclastic debris called ash with the consistency of flour. The volcanic ash comprising a tuff cone accumulated either as fallout from eruption columns, from low-density volcanic surges and pyroclastic flows, or combination of these. Tuff cones are typically associated with volcanic eruptions within shallow bodies of water and tuff rings are associated with eruptions within either water saturated sediments and bedrock or permafrost.

Next to spatter (scoria) cones, tuff cones and their associated tuff rings are among the most common types of volcanoes on Earth. An example of a tuff cone is Diamond Head at Waikīkī in Hawaii. Clusters of pitted cones observed in the Nephentes/Amenthes region of Mars at the southern margin of the ancient Utopia impact basin are currently interpreted as being tuff cones and rings.

Cinder cone

Cinder cones, also known as scoria cones and less commonly scoria mounds, are small, steep-sided volcanic cones built of loose pyroclastic fragments, such as either volcanic clinkers, cinders, volcanic ash, or scoria. They consist of loose pyroclastic debris formed by explosive eruptions or lava fountains from a single, typically cylindrical, vent. As the gas-charged lava is blown violently into the air, it breaks into small fragments that solidify and fall as either cinders, clinkers, or scoria around the vent to form a cone that often is noticeably symmetrical; with slopes between 30 and 40°; and a nearly circular ground plan. Most cinder cones have a bowl-shaped crater at the summit. The basal diameters of cinder cones average about 800 m and range from 250 to 2500 m. The diameter of their craters ranges between 50 and 600 m. Cinder cones rarely rise more than 50-350 m or so above their surroundings.

Cinder cones most commonly occur as isolated cones in large basaltic volcanic fields. They also occur in nested clusters in association with complex tuff ring and maar complexes. Finally, they are also common as parasitic and monogenetic cones on complex shield and stratovolcanoes. Globally, cinder cones are the most typical volcanic landform found within continental intraplate volcanic fields and also occur in some subduction zone settings as well. Parícutin, the Mexican cinder cone which was born in a cornfield on February 20, 1943, and Sunset Crater in Northern Arizona in the US Southwest are classic examples of cinder cones, as are ancient volcanic cones found in New Mexico's Petroglyph National Monument. Cone-shaped hills observed in satellite imagery of the calderas and volcanic cones of Ulysses Patera, Ulysses Colles and Hydraotes Chaos are argued to be cinder cones.

Cinder cones typically only erupt once like Parícutin. As a result, they are considered to be monogenetic volcanoes and most of them form monogenetic volcanic fields. Cinder cones are typically active for very brief periods of time before becoming inactive. Their eruptions range in duration from a few days to a few years. Of observed cinder cone eruptions, 50% have lasted for less than 30 days, and 95% stopped within one year. In case of Parícutin, its eruption lasted for nine years from 1943 to 1952. Rarely do they erupt either two, three, or more times. Later eruptions typically produce new cones within a volcanic field at separation distances of a few kilometers and separate by periods of 100 to 1,000 years. Within a volcanic field, eruptions can occur over a period of a million years. Once eruptions cease, being unconsolidated, cinder cones tend to erode rapidly unless further eruptions occur.

Rootless cones
Rootless cones, also called pseudocraters, are volcanic cones that are not directly associated with a conduit that brought magma to the surface from a deep-seated magma reservoir. Generally, three types of rootless cones, littoral cones, explosion craters, and hornitos are recognized. Littoral cones and explosion craters are the result of mild explosions that were generated locally by the interaction of either hot lava or pyroclastic flows with water. Littoral cones typically form on the surface of a basaltic lava flow where it has entered into a body of water, usually a sea or ocean. Explosion craters form where either hot lava or pyroclastic flows have covered either marshy ground or water-saturated ground of some sort. Hornitos are rootless cones that are composed of welded lava fragments and were formed on the surface of basaltic lava flows by the escape of gas and clots of molten lava through cracks or other openings in the crust of a lava flow.

title: Volcanic cone


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Hiodontiformes

Hiodontiformes is an order of ray-finned fish consisting of the two living species of the mooneye family, Hiodontidae, and three extinct genera.

These are traditionally classified within the order Osteoglossiformes, a placement some authorities still follow. Fossil study of the extinct genus Yanbiania suggests that the hiodontids separated from other osteoglossomorphs early and thus may deserve a separate order.

Taxonomy

 * Order Hiodontiformes McAllister 1968 sensu Taverne 1979
 * Genus †Chetungichthys Chang & Chou 1977
 * †Chetungichthys brevicephalus Chang & Chou 1977
 * †Chetungichthys dalinghensis Su 1991
 * Genus †Yanbiania Li 1987
 * †Yanbiania wangqingica Li 1987
 * Genus †Plesiolycoptera Zhang & Zhou 1976
 * †Plesiolycoptera daqingensis Zhang & Zhou 1976
 * †Plesiolycoptera parvus ( (Sytchevskaya, 1986) (syn Eohiodon (Gobihiodon) parvus Sytchevskaya, 1986 )
 * Family Hiodontidae (mooneyes) Valenciennes 1846 sensu stricto
 * Genus Hiodon Lesueur 1818 [(syn: Amphiodon Rafinesque 1819 non Huber 1909 ; Hiodon (Amphiodon) (Rafinesque 1819) ; Hiodon (Clodalus) Rafinesque 1820 ; Clodalus (Rafinesque 1820) ; Hiodon (Elattonistius) Gill & Jordan ex Jordan 1877 ; Elattonistius (Gill & Jordan ex Jordan 1877) ; Glossodon Rafinesque 1818 non Heckel 1843 ; Eohiodon Cavender 1966 )
 * Hiodon alosoides (goldeye) (Rafinesque 1819)
 * †Hiodon consteniorum Li & Wilson 1994
 * †Hiodon falcatus (Grande, 1979) (syn Eohiodon falcatus (Grande, 1979) )
 * †Hiodon rosei (Hussakof 1916) (syn Eohiodon rosei (Hussakof 1916) ; Leucisus rosei Hussakof, 1916 )
 * Hiodon tergisus (mooneye) Lesueur 1818
 * †Hiodon woodruffi Wilson, 1978
 * †Hiodon shuyangensis Shen 1989 (nom dubium, possibly an immature Phareodus)

title: Hiodontiformes


text:
Edward Tufte

Edward Rolf Tufte (born March 14, 1942), sometimes known as "ET", is an American statistician and professor emeritus of political science, statistics, and computer science at Yale University. He is noted for his writings on information design and as a pioneer in the field of data visualization.

Biography
Edward Rolf Tufte was born in 1942 in Kansas City, Missouri, to Virginia Tufte (1918–2020) and Edward E. Tufte (1912–1999). He grew up in Beverly Hills, California, where his father was a longtime city official, and he graduated from Beverly Hills High School. He received a BS and MS in statistics from Stanford University and a PhD in political science from Yale. His dissertation, completed in 1968, was titled The Civil Rights Movement and Its Opposition. He was hired in 1967 by Princeton University's Woodrow Wilson School as a lecturer of Politics and Public Affairs, where he steadily moved up to the rank of full Professor. He taught courses there in political economy and data analysis while publishing three quantitatively inclined political science books. In 1977, he left Princeton for Yale University, where he accepted an appointment as Professor of Political science, Statistics, and Computer science, as well as a Senior Critic in the School of Art. In 1999, these positions were made Emeritus.

In 1975, while at Princeton, Tufte was asked to teach a statistics course to a group of journalists who were visiting the school to study economics. He developed a set of readings and lectures on statistical graphics, which he further developed in joint seminars he taught with renowned statistician John Tukey, a pioneer in the field of information design. These course materials became the foundation for his first book on information design, The Visual Display of Quantitative Information.

After negotiations with major publishers failed, Tufte decided to self-publish Visual Display in 1982, working closely with graphic designer Howard Gralla. He financed the work by taking out a second mortgage on his home. The book quickly became a commercial success and secured his transition from political scientist to information expert.

On March 5, 2010, President Barack Obama appointed Tufte to the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act's Recovery Independent Advisory Panel "to provide transparency in the use of Recovery-related funds".

Work
Tufte is an expert in the presentation of informational graphics such as charts and diagrams, and is a fellow of the American Statistical Association. He has held fellowships from the Guggenheim Foundation and the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences.

Information design
Tufte's writing is important in such fields as information design and visual literacy, which deal with the visual communication of information. He coined the word chartjunk to refer to useless, non-informative, or information-obscuring elements of quantitative information displays. Tufte's other key concepts include what he calls the lie factor, the data-ink ratio, and the data density of a graphic.

Tufte uses the term "data-ink ratio" to argue against using excessive decoration in visual displays of quantitative information. In Visual Display, Tufte explains, "Sometimes decoration can help editorialize about the substance of the graphic. But it is wrong to distort the data measures—the ink locating values of numbers—in order to make an editorial comment or fit a decorative scheme."

Tufte encourages the use of data-rich illustrations that present all available data. When such illustrations are examined closely, every data point has a value, but when they are looked at more generally, only trends and patterns can be observed. Tufte suggests these macro/micro readings be presented in the space of an eye-span, in the high resolution format of the printed page, and at the unhurried pace of the viewer's leisure.

Tufte uses several historical examples to make his case. These include John Snow's cholera outbreak map, Charles Joseph Minard's Carte Figurative, early space debris plots, Galileo Galilei's Sidereus Nuncius, and Maya Lin's Vietnam Veterans Memorial. For instance, the listing of the names of deceased soldiers on the black granite of Lin's sculptural memorial is shown to be more powerful as a chronological list rather than as an alphabetical one. The sacrifice each fallen individual has made is thus highlighted within the overall time scope of the war. In Sidereus Nuncius, Galileo presents the nightly observations of the moons of Jupiter in relation to the body itself, interwoven with the two-month narrative record.

Criticism of PowerPoint
Tufte has criticized the way Microsoft PowerPoint is typically used. In his essay "The Cognitive Style of PowerPoint", Tufte criticizes many aspects of the software:
 * Its use as a way to guide and reassure a presenter, rather than to enlighten the audience;
 * Its unhelpfully simplistic tables and charts, a design decision holdover from the low resolution of early computer displays;
 * The outliner's causing ideas to be arranged in an artificially deep hierarchy, itself subverted by the need to restate the hierarchy on each slide;
 * Enforcement of the audience's lockstep linear progression through that hierarchy (whereas with handouts, readers could browse and relate items at their leisure);
 * Poor typography and chart layout, from presenters who are poor designers or who use poorly designed templates and default settings (in particular, difficulty in using scientific notation);
 * Simplistic thinking—from ideas being squashed into bulleted lists; and stories with a beginning, middle, and end being turned into a collection of disparate, loosely disguised points—presenting a misleading façade of objectivity and neutrality that people associate with science, technology, and "bullet points".

Tufte cites the way PowerPoint was used by NASA engineers in the events leading to the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster as an example of PowerPoint's many problems. The software style is designed to persuade rather than to inform people of technical details. Tufte's analysis of a NASA PowerPoint slide is included in the Columbia Accident Investigation Board’s report -- including an engineering detail buried in small type on a crowded slide with six bullet points, that if presented in a regular engineering white paper, might have been noticed and the disaster prevented.

Instead, Tufte argues that the most effective way of presenting information in a technical setting, such as an academic seminar or a meeting of industry experts, is by distributing a brief written report that can be read by all participants in the first 5 to 10 minutes of the meeting. Tufte believes that this is the most efficient method of transferring knowledge from the presenter to the audience and then the rest of the meeting is devoted to discussion and debate.

Small multiple
One method Tufte encourages to allow quick visual comparison of multiple series is the small multiple, a chart with many series shown on a single pair of axes that can often be easier to read when displayed as several separate pairs of axes placed next to each other. He suggests this is particularly helpful when the series are measured on quite different vertical (y-axis) scales, but over the same range on the horizontal x-axis (usually time).

Sparkline
Sparklines are a condensed way to present trends and variation, associated with a measurement such as average temperature or stock market activity, often embedded directly in the text; for example: The Dow Jones index for February 7, 2006. These are often used as elements of a small multiple with several lines used together. Tufte explains the sparkline as a kind of "word" that conveys rich information without breaking the flow of a sentence or paragraph made of other "words" both visual and conventional. To date, the earliest known implementation of sparklines was conceived by interaction designer Peter Zelchenko and implemented by programmer Mike Medved in early 1998.

Sculpture
Beyond his academic endeavors over the years, Tufte has created sculptures, often large outdoor ones made of metal or stone, that were first primarily exhibited on his own rural Connecticut property. In 2009–10, some of these artworks were exhibited at the Aldrich Contemporary Art Museum in Ridgefield, Connecticut, in the one-man show Edward Tufte: Seeing Around.

Hogpen Hill Farms
Hogpen Hill Farms, the 234 acre Tufte sculpture garden in Woodbury, Connecticut, is open to the public on summer weekends.

ET Modern
In 2010, Edward Tufte opened a gallery, ET Modern, in New York City's Chelsea Art District" at 11th Avenue and 20th Street. The gallery closed in 2013.

Works on political economy

 * Edward R. Tufte reviewed work:
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Exhibitions

 * . Unavailable 19 Feb. 2020.
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 * . Unavailable 19 Feb. 2020.

title: Edward Tufte


text:
Mooneye

Hiodontidae, commonly called mooneyes, is a family of ray-finned fish with a single included genus Hiodon. The genus comprise two living species native to North America and three to five extinct species recorded from Paleocene to Eocene age fossils. They are large-eyed, fork-tailed fish that superficially resemble shads. The vernacular name comes from the metallic shine of their eyes.

The higher classification of the mooneyes is not yet fully established. Some sources have place them in their own order, Hiodontiformes, while others retain them in the order Osteoglossiformes.

Species
The goldeye, Hiodon alosoides, is widespread across eastern North America, and is notable for a conspicuous golden iris in the eyes. It prefers turbid slower-moving waters of lakes and rivers, where it feeds on a wide variety of organisms including insects, crustaceans, small fish, and mollusks. The fish has been reported up to 52 cm in length.
 * Hiodon alosoides (Rafinesque, 1819)

The mooneye, Hiodon tergisus, is also widespread across eastern North America, living in the clear waters of lakes, ponds, and rivers. It consumes aquatic invertebrates, insects, and fish. Mooneyes can reach 47 cm in length.
 * †Hiodon consteniorum Li & Wilson, 1994
 * †Hiodon falcatus (Grande, 1979)
 * †Hiodon rosei (Hussakof, 1916)
 * Hiodon tergisus Lesueur, 1818

An Early Eocene, Ypresian to Late Eocene, Lutetian species. Hiodon woodruffi was described from fossils found in the Klondike Mountain Formation, Washington and Horsefly shale, British Columbia. Further finds have increased the known paleogeographic range to include the Kishenehn Formation of northwestern Montana.
 * †Hiodon woodruffi Wilson, 1978

 * ?†Hiodon shuyangensis Shen, 1989

title: Mooneye


text:
Sebastiano Ziani

Sebastiano Ziani was Doge of Venice from 1172 to 1178. He was one of the greatest planners of Venice.

During his short term as Doge, Ziani divided the city-state into many districts. He realised that the government headquarters were too close to the shipyard. As such, they were affected by the noise from the shipyard. Ziani resolved this problem by donating a piece of land to the city-state and relocating the shipyard in it. One of the most notable changes he made to the city was in funding the construction of the Piazza San Marco. Projects included filling up Rio Batario that ran parallel to the Basilica San Marco which could be found at what is today the half way point of the Piazza. He paved the main square as well as the Piazzetta that it is connected to. Ziani hired an engineer to erect two columns (possibly of Greek origin) that lie at the head of the Piazzetta facing the lagoon.

He also hosted Pope Alexander III, the Emperor Frederick I, and the delegation of William II of Sicily for the signing of the Treaty of Venice in July 1177. The event was a massive point in Venetian history, providing it with an elevated view among the powerful of Europe and allowing for all to behold the wealth and extravagance of the republic.

Feeling imminent death, Sebastiano Ziani retired to S. Giorgio Maggiore, where he died three days later.

Ziani was married to a woman named Cecilia.

title: Sebastiano Ziani


text:
Talk:Loriini

Untitled
The rainbow lorikeets in the photo are not in the species list. Are they just missing, or is "Trichoglossus haematodus" a synonym for another species? -- Cordyph 13:45 9 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * Well spotted! Fix on the way. Tannin

Rainbow lorikeet is a generic term for several different subspecies
There are more than 20 types of rainbow lorikeets, the most common are the green naped and the Swainson's(I think these are the ones in the photo.) Here's a link with a good description: http://www.lorikeets.com/rainbows.htm

where do they live/where are they found? could someone add a little more info?

"Lorikeet"- a subset of "Lory"
It might make more sense to roll the Lory and Lorikeet articles together under the title "Lories and Lorikeets". Many reference books use 'Lory' to refer to both lories and lorikeets (ie. Handcock House Encyclopedia of the Lories, Mivart's Monograph of the Lories.)Individuals searching Wikipedia for Lory, Lorikeet, or Brush-tounged parrot should be redirected to this article. The Alice in Wonderland reference should be handled in the same way as the other fictional animals in the book.

In the pet industry, the term 'lorikeet' is used to refer to members of the loriidae family with long tails. In aviculture, is quite common to see the two terms used interchangeably when describing the long-tailed members. For example, Stella's Lory is also referred to as Stella's Lorikeet, Green-naped lory is the same as Green-naped Lorikeet.

Does anyone else agree with this? Voodlecat 13:54, 2 April 2007 (UTC)

 * Most links go to "Lorikeet" at the present time, and there are only a few links going to the "Lory" page. Perhaps the page could be called "Loriinae", but it is a wiki guideline to use the most widely used name as page names.  I think that a consensus is needed before someone does a lot of work changing all the links.  Your suggestion of "Lories and Lorikeets" is a good idea.  I will make it a redirect at the present time to make it linkable.  A page can be moved over a redirect. Snowman 10:51, 31 August 2007 (UTC)

 * Ah yes, determining which is the most commonly used term is the rub. In my circle (owners of various species of this subfamily) the term "lory" can refer to either the long-tailed or short-tailed species (Edward's Lory/lorikeet), but "lorikeet" is never used to refer to the short-tailed species (ex. Balck Lory). In that sense "lorikeet" is a subset of "lory". Also, I did a quick analysis of the common names within the subfamily and it was 67% lory over lorikeet. On the other hand, most individuals encounter these types of parrots at zoos or pet stores where the majority of species are of the trichoglossus genus (green-nape, blue mountain or Swainson's) which are referred to as "lorikeets" in their native land of Australia. And to further the confusion, Rosemary Low uses the terms interchangably. I still think that "Lories and Lorikeets" is the best suited title. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Voodlecat (talk • contribs) 22:43, 14 September 2007 (UTC)
 * Perhaps, "Lories and lorikeets" and they are not proper nouns. Snowman 19:04, 15 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Now moved and redirects fixed. Snowman 22:41, 15 October 2007 (UTC)

Requested move

 * Um, the article should be moved back to lorikeet. The Naming conventions state a strong preference for singular usage in the article titles except when plurals are most commonly used. In this instance Lory is already a dab page so the natural place to put the article is lorikeet. This is no different to many other bird taxa where there are two (or more) common names used often interchangably, for example we have the main Ardeidae page at heron even though many herons are actually called egrets or bitterns, we keep the main Psittaciformes article at parrot even though there are many that are known as parakeets, lories, lorikeets and cockatoos, and the main Cuculidae article at Cuckoo, even though many species are actually called coucals, koels, roadrunners, anis, yellowbills and malkohas. If you find it unacceptable to house the article at lorikeet please at least move it to Loriinae. Sabine's Sunbird  talk  03:29, 24 February 2008 (UTC)

 * "Um" is difficult to interpret; does it mean that you are not sure? There were many links for "Lories and lorikeets" as one phrase, and it is used a lot as one phrase. If the name was Lorikeets there would need to be a lot of piped links, so this is an exception. I am not sure that lories are a subset of lorikeets for everybody. I agree that Loriinae would be a good name, which I suggested and nearly used, but is "Loriinae" a well known word and will it be searched for? (see above) I think that the current name "Lories and lorikeets" is working well. It might be best to wait for a week or two for a consensus on the name of the page, because there are a lot of redirects to change. Snowman (talk) 11:08, 24 February 2008 (UTC)

 * To address some of your points
 * Um in that context was just verbally padding indicating that I don't really want to broach the subject but...
 * There were many links for "Lories and lorikeets" as one phrase, and it is used a lot as one phrase. Maybe so. But as far as I am aware no one would get to a page called Lorikeet and go "No dammit! I want Lories! Lories!" or, conversely, be looking for lorikeet and have their nose put out of joint if they came to a page called Lory. And no one is going to get too confused, since the term lories and lorikeets will still be in the taxobox and intro.
 * so this is an exception.  Exceptions need exceptionally good rationales to my mind. I cannot see any in this case. Loriinae is preferable to breaking the MOS. Not to mention the possibility of creating a precedent which will lead some 'helpful' editor to come along and move cuckoo to cuckoos, coucals, koels, roadrunners, anis, yellowbills and malkohas.
 * but is "Loriinae" a well known word and will it be searched for? Does it matter? If there is a redirect and a dab page then the common terms will lead to the desired page regardless. Pigeon redirects to Columbidae and is neater than Pigeons and doves.
 *  I think that the current name "Lories and lorikeets" is working well. And I think it is hideous. Sabine's Sunbird  talk  20:41, 24 February 2008 (UTC)
 * For clarity please indicate if you now suggesting Lorrikeet (your resent first edit here) or Loriinae (your next edit here) as your preferred name of this page? Snowman (talk) 21:17, 24 February 2008 (UTC)
 * In the parlance of the last US election, anything except what it is now. Lorikeet was fine, Loriinae would be fine too. I don't much care. Just not the plurals. Sabine's Sunbird  talk  21:47, 24 February 2008 (UTC)
 * Loriinae would be ok. This is the name for the classification as a sub-family, but some classify it as a family called Loriidae. Perhaps, lorikeets may not include lories for many. I am not totally happy with the name "Lorikeets and lories", but I thought I did the correct move at the time. Not many people participated in the discussion lasting over six months and I waited a long time for more people to contribute to the discussion. I am glad that you have raised the point again. Loriidae is a link in a lot of taxoboxes, so if this page was named loriidae many of the wikilinks would be tidier than if the name was Lorikeet. If no one else participates in this discussion, I think that it would be likely that we would agree to change the name of the page to the proper scientific name of the sub-family of parrots called "Loriinae". Redirects and an appropriate introduction would make the "Loriinae" page user friendly. Snowman (talk) 22:37, 24 February 2008 (UTC)

Comment: The discussion period prior to reaching a consensus for the move from "Lorikeet" to "Lories and lorikeets" lasted for more than six months from 2 April 2007 to 15 October 2007. At that time "Lorikeet" was not thought to be a good name for the page. Nevertheless, after a period of time, a consensus can change, and anyone can request a page move. Snowman (talk) 21:17, 24 February 2008 (UTC)
 * I have left a note at WP:BIRD asking for people to come weigh in. There isn't, as you observe, a compelling rush, although it would be best to have a concensus of more than two....Sabine's Sunbird  talk  21:47, 24 February 2008 (UTC)
 * I agree that the page should be moved from Lories and lorikeets; guess I'd prefer Loriinae (or Loriidae) to Lorikeet if, as Snowmanradio says, some may not think of Lory as being part of Lorikeet. MeegsC | Talk 23:38, 24 February 2008 (UTC)

After three weeks, there doesn't seem to be an overwhelming desire to move the page, so I'm declining the move. If I've misunderstood the discussion or missed something, please re-open the discussion at WP:RM. -- SatyrTN (talk / contribs) 04:46, 16 March 2008 (UTC)

Lory discoveries?
Can we ask why the historical discovery of the Lorys was removed by snowman? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 67.142.130.46 (talk) 14:23, 27 February 2009 (UTC)

Reference
Not sure how to add an external link to the diet part of this article. It is information I know from owning lorikeets but it seems support for statements is desirable. Supporting info from http://birds.about.com/od/feeding/tp/poisonousfoods.htm I have permission from the original author to use her article.

Hi Ilja,

Thanks for writing, and thanks for reading About Pet Birds. Of course you may link to my article on Wikipedia. I'm glad that you found it informative and flattered that you would like to include it in your entry. Thank you!

Best Wishes,

Alyson Burgess Guide to Pet Birds www.about.com http://birds.about.com Become an About.com Guide: beaguide@about.com About.com is part of the New York Times Company —Preceding unsigned comment added by Azuron (talk • contribs) 09:45, 20 June 2009 (UTC)

Word etymology
From loro (Spanish), roro (Cariban origin)?--达伟 (talk) 22:21, 3 June 2010 (UTC)

Photo correction
The photo has the species name as H.t. moluccanus. Should be T.h. moluccanus. And I saw that error propagated to a photo in National Geographic 2012 Photo contest. 208.61.97.117 (talk) 12:59, 24 September 2012 (UTC)

Lorini vs. Loriini
The lead, category and navbox call this tribe "Lorini", while the infobox has "Loriini", which sounds more convincing to me given the subfamily name "Loriinae" and the genus "Lorius". Could someone clarify this? Thanks, ἀνυπόδητος (talk) 20:45, 22 October 2014 (UTC)

molecular?
"Traditionally, they were considered a separate subfamily (Loriinae) from the other subfamily (Psittacinae) based on the specialized characteristics, but recent molecular  and morphological studies show that the group is positioned in the middle of various other groups."

should this be genetic? ∈Sensorsweep (talk) 04:08, 7 November 2014 (UTC)

“Lorries” are also a term in the UK for a truck.
Perhaps there should be a note at the top of the page for those looking for the truck—especially if there's a redirect from "Lories" to this page. Granted, the spelling is different, but some people using mobile devices will get it wrong. Will (Talk - contribs) 22:51, 1 January 2018 (UTC)
 * as you may have noted since writing this comment, some time ago now, articles titles are usually singular [lorry, not lorries], and this exception is something I propose to rectify. Regards, cygnis insignis 15:11, 26 November 2018 (UTC)

Requested move 26 November 2018

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: moved as requested per the discussion below. Dekimasu よ! 20:28, 3 December 2018 (UTC)

Lories and lorikeets → Loriini – Loriini, it rolls off the tongue when you have heard it once, and it is purdy as a pail full o' kittens, like a country-singin' ingénue. This is the common and accepted name for the group, this parenthetical descriptor is not an appropriate title on so many levels, and that wonkish deviation from the literature is instantly recognisable to those who attempt to negotiate wikipedia's vernacular taxonomy that this title is the epitome of … Lories and lorikeets?! , pardon, I mean of course, lories and lorikeets … [double exclamation point]. Please agree to this helpful proposal, I'm running out of novel pitches to undo reactionary silliness. cygnis insignis 15:11, 26 November 2018 (UTC)
 * Not decided "Lories and lorikeets" makes more sense in being WP:COMMONNAME, which surely "(tribe Loriini)" is not for these "small to medium-sized arboreal parrots" In ictu oculi (talk) 22:26, 26 November 2018 (UTC)
 * I think that page supports my proposal, so another perspective then? The scope of the page regards a theory, defined by a name, the french loan words, trade names and so on, are incidental. English vernacular might be loosely appended to all sorts of ranks, unlike the proposed title, it is unconstrained by rules, unlike the proposed title, they are merely casual references to an intricate web of citations, "lory/ies and lorikeet/s" does not give any clue to which citations the author or text is referring. The correspondence to defined groups becomes even poorer as understanding of these groups relationships is improved. That is why any reliable source uses a systematic name, it is the citation, and communication was greatly facilitated by this nigh-universally agreed system of names. Deciding on one common name, or a pair, is not something people are generally bothered about. The only english naming committees that I am aware of, outside of wikiprojects, do not even attempt to apply them to ranks higher than species (wp:birds follows IOC, a former IOU committee, they only try to rename species). I've got another way of looking it at, if you are interested, it's a pearler. cygnis insignis 08:13, 27 November 2018 (UTC)

 * Support - the proposal is kind of a word salad, but titles that follow a "thing and other thing" format are not ideal (loosely per WP:XY). The proposed new title is preferable. Ivanvector (Talk/Edits) 16:02, 27 November 2018 (UTC)
 * , nice cygnis insignis 03:21, 28 November 2018 (UTC)

 * Support. Current title is an abomination. Title containing "and" are discouraged if there is a reasonable alternative (WP:AND). Titles with plurals are also discouraged (WP:PLURAL) (although I suppose the "and" makes the plural forms more grammatical). Use of scientific name is CONSISTENT with the vast majority of Wikipedia articles on organisms (and even with many bird higher taxa). Plural/and form is inconsistent with any other organism article using a vernacular name title. The scientific name is more CONCISE than the current title. Scientific names are inherently more PRECISE than vernacular names. The scientific name is far more NATURAL (in large part due to the current double-barreled "and" title). RECOGNIZABLE? OK, there's one of the five title criteria that favors a vernacular name title. But redirects and external search engines are good at getting are readers to relevant articles regardless of what title is chosen, and if we drop the "and" and go with either Lory or Lorikeet for the title, it loses recognizability for anybody searching for the term that isn't chosen. Plantdrew (talk)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page or in a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

title: Talk:Loriini


text:
Caesarius of Heisterbach

Caesarius of Heisterbach (ca. 1180 – ca. 1240), sometimes erroneously called, in English, Caesar of Heisterbach, was the prior of a Cistercian monastery, Heisterbach Abbey, which was located in the Siebengebirge, near the small town of Oberdollendorf, Germany.

Life
Born about 1170 at or near Cologne, he was educated at the Cathedral School, where he studied the theology of St. Ambrose, St. Augustine, St. Jerome, and St. Gregory the Great; the philosophy of Boethius, and the literary masterpieces of Virgil, Ovid, Senca, and Claudian. He was a gifted and diligent scholar and upon the completion of his studies was thoroughly conversant with the writings of the Fathers of the Church and master of a refined and fluent Latin style.

Acting on the advice of Gevard, Abbot of Heisterbach, Caesarius entered that monastery in 1199 and after some time was appointed master of novices. It was his duty to imbue the candidates with the spirit of austere asceticism which then animated the Cistercian Order, and to instruct them in the necessary knowledge of theology.

Caesarius of Heisterbach is remembered for a paradoxical maxim concerning the rise and decline of monasteries according to which discipline causes prosperity in a monastery, and prosperity undermines discipline. He also gave the name of Titivillus as the demon who caused typographical errors in the work of scribes. He is further known as having attributed to Arnaud Amalric, a leader in the Albigensian Crusade, a famous declaration. Upon being asked how to distinguish Cathars from Catholics at the besieged town of Béziers, Arnaud supposedly replied "Caedite eos. Novit enim Dominus qui sunt eius", which translates as: "Slay them all, God will recognize his own." This statement is often cited as "Kill them all and let God sort them out." Both Arnaud and Caesarius were Cistercians. Arnaud was the head of the Cistercian Order at the time, and Caesarius required an imprimatur, so it is unlikely that Arnaud's alleged order as reported by Caesarius was seen at the time as reflecting badly on Arnaud. On the contrary the incident was included as an exemplum in Caesarius's Book of Miracles because (to Cistercians at least) it reflected well on Arnaud.

Heisterbach Abbey was dissolved in 1803, and the library and archives were given to the city of Düsseldorf. The monastery and the church were sold and demolished in 1809, only the ruined apse with fragments of the choir remaining. In 1897 a monument was erected nearby in honour of Caesarius.

Writings
His fame as teacher soon spread far beyond the walls of his monastery and, yielding to requests from various quarters, Abbot Henry, Gevard's successor, asked Caesarius to write an abstract of his teachings.

As an author, Caesarius of Heisterbach is best known as the compiler of a book of hagiography, the Dialogus miraculorum (ca. 1219-1223), a collection of 746 miracle stories arranged according to twelve distinctions. The tales are told in the form of dialogues between a monk and a novice. The work was often referred to by preachers seeking material for sermons in the Late Middle Ages. It was extremely popular and was widely distributed, and its popularity was rivaled only, perhaps, by the Golden Legend of Jacobus de Voragine. A vision reported in the book provided the source for the iconography of the Virgin of Mercy.

The first writings of Caesarius were sermons, which he wrote for his own use. But it was not long before his fellow monks approached him with requests for elaboration and explanation. His ninth book was written because his fellow monks asked him for a simple and clearly understandable explanation of the Maria sequence "Ave preclara maris stella". His other writings were responses to requests.

Caesarius often complained that his works were taken out of his hand, unfinished and uncorrected. They were extremely well-known and popular, and some sixty known transcriptions of the  Dialogus miraculorum  preceded the publication of a critical edition.

In his sermons Caesarius treats passages from the Bible, often examining psalms or parts of them. He also relates the movements of heavenly bodies to the destinies of men. His homilies, on the other hand, deal with the evangelical texts of the Sundays and festivals throughout the entire Church year, and are to be regarded as theological tracts and meditations rather than sermons and speeches. They are directed not to laymen, but to monks and novices of the Cistercian Order. The interpretations often deal with the lives of monks. The writings of Caesarius are of considerable importance for the study of medieval homiletics.

title: Caesarius of Heisterbach


text:
User talk:Matthowikipedia

Hi, there

This is a testing. Thanks for visiting me.

MH

title: User talk:Matthowikipedia


text:
Tony MacAlpine

Tony MacAlpine (born August 29, 1960) is an American musician and composer. In a career spanning four decades, he has released twelve studio albums. MacAlpine is best known as an instrumental rock and heavy metal solo guitarist, although he has worked with many different bands and musicians in guest appearances and collaborations.

Biography
Having started playing piano at the age of five and guitar at twelve, MacAlpine studied classical piano and violin for a number of years at the Springfield Conservatory of Music in Massachusetts, as well as various music programs at the University of Hartford in Connecticut. One of his musical influences is Frédéric Chopin, to whom he pays homage in his interpretations of the latter's études, which are featured on the majority of his studio albums.

Together with his first studio releases, Edge of Insanity (1986) and Maximum Security (1987), he had a prominent role on other works during the popular shred era, including keyboard performances on the debut albums of fellow guitarists Vinnie Moore (Mind's Eye, 1986) and Joey Tafolla (Out of the Sun, 1987). Soon after his own debut, he played guitar in a heavy metal supergroup named M.A.R.S. (MacAlpine/Aldridge/Rock/Sarzo), which resulted in the 1986 album Project: Driver.

As part of a band effort named 'MacAlpine', Eyes of the World was released in 1990 as a more commercially oriented attempt to emulate other hard rock acts at the time. The venture was short-lived, and his subsequent album Freedom to Fly (1992) was a return to his instrumental-based work. A further consecutive string of instrumental albums followed throughout the 1990s, most of them through the renowned Shrapnel Records label: Madness (1993), Premonition (1994), Evolution (1995) and Violent Machine (1996). For his last album of the decade, Master of Paradise (1999), MacAlpine briefly assumed singing duties in an effort to experiment with different styles. After the release of Chromaticity in August 2001, he took an extended hiatus from recording solo albums and worked with a variety of other musicians and bands, most notably with supergroups CAB and Ring of Fire. Nearly a decade later, in June 2011, he released his self-titled eleventh studio album through guitarist Steve Vai's Favored Nations label.

From 2001 to 2005, MacAlpine played both guitar and keyboards in Vai's touring band The Breed. He is featured on the band's DVD release Live at the Astoria London (2003), along with two DVDs of the G3 tour: G3: Live in Denver (2004) and G3: Live in Tokyo (2005). During that time, he was also the guitarist for progressive metal supergroup Planet X, alongside keyboardist Derek Sherinian and drummer Virgil Donati. He played with them for three albums in the first part of the decade—Universe (2000), Live from Oz (2002) and MoonBabies (2002)—and rejoined them in 2009 for a string of live performances, and at that time a possible new album. His most recent collaborations have included Seven the Hardway, a progressive metal group with whom he released their self-titled album in 2010, and a guest appearance on Sherinian's seventh studio album Oceana (2011). In the second half of 2012, MacAlpine toured Europe and Asia as part of PSMS (Portnoy/Sheehan/MacAlpine/Sherinian), an instrumental supergroup. Instrumental Inspirations, a DVD of their live material, was released October 21, 2012. Additionally, in an October 2012 interview, he stated that he was working on new studio material (one of them being a "strictly classical record" recorded solely on piano), as well as a new album with Ring of Fire. Battle of Leningrad, Ring of Fire's fourth studio album, was released on January 28, 2014.

MacAlpine's twelfth studio album, Concrete Gardens, was released on April 21, 2015.

Style and influence
MacAlpine was highly influential in the neoclassical metal genre, becoming known for his instrumental rock style of playing that displays highly advanced shred techniques; one of his most oft-used techniques being 'sweep tapping', a variation of sweep picking. He has incorporated elements of classical, jazz, fusion, hard rock and heavy metal on both guitar and keyboard, and has been described as a virtuoso by Jason Ankeny at AllMusic.

Equipment

 * Edge of Insanity: Kramer guitars, DiMarzio pickups, Peavey amplification
 * Project: Driver: B.C. Rich guitars, DiMarzio pickups, GHS strings, Peavey and Rockman amplification
 * Maximum Security: B.C. Rich guitars, DiMarzio pickups, Peavey amplification, Ibanez effects
 * Eyes of the World: Mason Bernard guitars, DiMarzio pickups, Dean Markley strings, Peavey amplification, Baldwin keyboards
 * Freedom to Fly: Peavey guitars, Seymour Duncan pickups, GHS strings, Peavey amplification, Baldwin pianos
 * Madness: Washburn Mercury series guitars, Seymour Duncan pickups, Dean Markley strings, Hughes & Kettner amplification
 * Premonition: Washburn guitars, Seymour Duncan pickups, Dean Markley strings, Hughes & Kettner amplification
 * Evolution: B.C. Rich guitars, Seymour Duncan pickups, Hughes & Kettner amplification
 * Chromaticity: Carvin guitars and amplification
 * Tony MacAlpine: Ibanez guitars, DiMarzio pickups, Ernie Ball strings, Hughes & Kettner amplification, Source Audio effects, Toontrack software

MacAlpine became a prominent user of seven-string guitars after joining Planet X and still plays them regularly, along with eight-string guitars. A long-time endorsee of Carvin guitars (notably the T-Mac and DC series), he switched to Ibanez in 2010. Since 2011 he has played a customized RG Prestige eight-string model with EMG pickups, while his seven- and six-string models use DiMarzios. For amplification, he uses the Hughes & Kettner TriAmp for studio recording and the Coreblade model for live touring. An Ernie Ball wah and volume pedal completes his live setup. A detailed diagram of his 2011 gear can be found at Guitar Geek.

Personal life
MacAlpine currently resides in Pasadena, California. On August 25, 2015, he posted on his Facebook profile that he may have developed colon cancer, which forced cancellation of some dates on his tour to promote Concrete Gardens. In August 2016 he wrote on his personal website, "I have been feeling back to normal and tests indicate that all is well in medical land. Deep and sincere thanks to you all for your wonderful support through this very difficult last 12 months."

MacAlpine also revealed in an interview with Herman Li that, among his traumatic experiences, his wife had died and the release of his new record was a way for him to get back into creativity.

Solo studio albums

 * 1986: Edge of Insanity
 * 1987: Maximum Security
 * 1992: Freedom to Fly
 * 1993: Madness
 * 1994: Premonition
 * 1995: Evolution
 * 1996: Violent Machine
 * 1999: Master of Paradise
 * 2001: Chromaticity
 * 2011: Tony MacAlpine
 * 2015: Concrete Gardens
 * 2017: Death of Roses
 * 2021: Equilibrium

Solo live albums

 * 1997: Live Insanity

Solo compilation albums

 * 2006: Collection: The Shrapnel Years

MacAlpine

 * 1990: Eyes of the World

Vinnie Moore

 * 1986: Mind's Eye
 * 1999: The Maze
 * 2006: Collection: The Shrapnel Years (compilation)

Planet X

 * 2000: Universe
 * 2002: Live from Oz (live)
 * 2002: MoonBabies

CAB

 * 2000: CAB
 * 2001: CAB 2
 * 2002: CAB Live at The Baked Potato
 * 2003: CAB 4
 * 2008: Theatre de Marionnettes
 * 2010: Live on Sunset
 * 2001: CAB Live at the Baked Potato: First and Second Set (DVD)
 * 2002: CAB Live at The Musician Institute (DVD)

Mark Boals

 * 2000: Ring of Fire
 * 2002: Edge of the World

Steve Vai

 * 2003: Live at the Astoria London
 * 2004: G3: Live in Denver
 * 2005: G3: Live in Tokyo

Ring of Fire

 * 2003: Dreamtower
 * 2004: Burning Live in Tokyo (live)
 * 2004: Lapse of Reality
 * 2014: Battle of Leningrad

Other appearances

 * 1986: Project: Driver – M.A.R.S. (with Tommy Aldridge, Rob Rock and Rudy Sarzo)
 * 1987: Out of the Sun – Joey Tafolla
 * 1999: VK3 – Vitalij Kuprij
 * 2004: Eric Clapton's Guitar Festival - "I'm the Hell Out of Here" (with Steve Vai)
 * 2007: Clinophobia – Devil's Slingshot (with Virgil Donati and Billy Sheehan)
 * 2007: Ze re Tour 2007 – Michel Polnareff
 * 2010: On Revolute – Dave Weiner
 * 2010: Seven the Hardway – Seven the Hardway (with Virgil Donati and Mark Boals)
 * 2011: Oceana – Derek Sherinian
 * 2012: Plains of Oblivion – Jeff Loomis
 * 2012: Instrumental Inspirations – PSMS (with Mike Portnoy, Billy Sheehan and Derek Sherinian) (DVD)
 * 2013: Live in Tokyo – PSMS (with Mike Portnoy, Billy Sheehan and Derek Sherinian)
 * 2018: Enfin! – Michel Polnareff

title: Tony MacAlpine


text:
Ghettotech

Ghettotech (also known as Detroit club) is a genre of electronic music originating from Detroit. It combines elements of Chicago's ghetto house with electro, Detroit techno, Miami bass.

Overview
Former Detroit music journalist for the Detroit Metro Times, Hobey Echlin describes ghettotech as a genre that combines "techno's fast beats with rap's call-and-response." It features four-on-the-floor rhythms and is usually faster than most other dance music genres, at roughly 145 to 160 BPM. Vocals are often repetitive, crude, and pornographic. As DJ Godfather puts it, "the beats are really gritty, really raw, nothing polished."

Ghettotech was born as a DJing style in the late 1980s, inspired by the eclecticism of The Electrifying Mojo and the fast-paced mixing and turntablism of Jeff "The Wizard" Mills. DJs would mix multiple genres including jungle, ghetto house, hip hop, R&B, electro and Detroit techno. The music of 2 Live Crew is also cited as influential to the genre.

A Detroit ghettotech style of dancing is called the jit. This dance style relies heavily on fast footwork combinations, drops, spins and improvisations. The roots of jit date back to Detroit jitterbugs in the 1970s. Chicago's equivalent dance style is Juke, where the focus is on footwork dating back to the late 1980s.

Ghettotech was an integral part of the Detroit Electronic Music Festival, an annual event.

Key record labels

 * Twilight 76
 * Databass
 * Electrofunk
 * Jefferson Ave
 * Motor City Electro Company
 * Intuit-Solar
 * 666aline

title: Ghettotech


text:
Leona Gom

Leona Gom (born 1946) is a Canadian poet and novelist. Born on an isolated farm in northern Alberta, she received her B.Ed. and M.A. from the University of Alberta in Edmonton. She has published six books of poetry and eight novels and has won both the Canadian Authors Association Award for her poetry collection Land of the Peace in 1980 and the Ethel Wilson Fiction Prize for her novel Housebroken in 1986.

She taught for many years at Douglas College, Kwantlen College, the University of Alberta and the University of British Columbia. For about ten years she edited the award-winning magazine Event. She held writer-in-residencies at the University of Alberta, the University of Lethbridge and the University of Winnipeg.

Her work has been included in many journals and over fifty anthologies, and five of her books have been translated into other languages. Her novel The Y Chromosome has been optioned for a movie and has been used as a text in both women's studies and sociology courses in Canada and the U.S. Her latest novel is The Exclusion Principle (Sumach Press, 2009). Quill & Quire calls it "an entertaining read, in which the quotidian world of marriage and the exotic field of astronomy mesh."

The Leona Gom Archive is housed at the University of Calgary.

Fiction

 * Housebroken (Edmonton: NeWest, 1986) and (Toronto: Paperjacks, 1989)
 * Zero Avenue (Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre, 1989) and (In Europe: Orlanda Frauenverlag, 1991 and Fischer Paperbacks, 1984)
 * The Y Chromosome (Toronto: Sumach/Second Story, 1990) and (Montreal: Alire Press, 2000)
 * After-Image: A Vicky Bauer Mystery (Toronto: Sumach/Second Story, 1996) and (In USA: St. Martin's Press, 1996) and (In Germany: Fischer Paperbacks, 2000)
 * Double Negative: A Vicky Bauer Mystery (Toronto: Sumach/Second Story, 1998, ISBN 1-896764-07-X) and (In Germany: Fischer Paperbacks, 2000)
 * Freeze Frame: A Vicky Bauer Mystery (Toronto: Sumach/Second Story, 1999) and (In Germany: Fischer Paperbacks, 2000)
 * Hating Gladys (Toronto: Sumach, 2002)
 * The Exclusion Principle (Toronto: Sumach, 2009)

Poetry

 * Kindling (Fredericton: Fiddlehead,1972)
 * The Singletree (Victoria: Sono Nis, 1975)
 * Land of the Peace (Saskatoon: Thistledown, 1980)
 * Northbound (Saskatoon: Thistledown, 1984)
 * Private Properties (Victoria: Sono Nis, 1986)
 * The Collected Poems (Victoria: Sono Nis, 1991)
 * Justice (Something: Some Thing, 19something)

title: Leona Gom