text:
Holiness movement

The Holiness movement is a Christian movement that emerged chiefly within 19th-century Methodism, and to a lesser extent influenced other traditions such as Quakerism, Anabaptism, and Restorationism. The movement is historically distinguished by its emphasis on the doctrine of a second work of grace, which is called entire sanctification or Christian perfection. The word Holiness refers specifically to the belief in entire sanctification as a definite, second work of grace, in which original sin is cleansed, the heart is made perfect in love, and the believer is empowered to serve God. Churches aligned with the holiness movement additionally teach that the Christian life should be free of sin. For the Holiness movement, "the term 'perfection' signifies completeness of Christian character; its freedom from all sin, and possession of all the graces of the Spirit, complete in kind." A number of Christian denominations, parachurch organizations, and movements emphasize those Holiness beliefs as central doctrine.

In addition to the regular holding of church services in the morning and evening of the Lord's Day, and usually having a midweek Wednesday church service, within parts of denominations or entire denominations aligned with the holiness movement, camp meetings and tent revivals are organized throughout the year—especially in the summertime. These are aimed at preaching the New Birth (first work of grace) and entire sanctification (second work of grace), along with calling backsliders to repentance. Churches in the holiness tradition emphasize a sober lifestyle, especially with regard to clean speech, modesty, and teetotalism.

Entire sanctification
The Holiness movement believes that the "second work of grace" (or "second blessing") refers to a personal experience subsequent to regeneration, in which the believer is cleansed from original sin. It was actually upon this doctrine, the attainment of complete freedom from sin, that the movement was built.

"In this line of thinking, a person is first saved, at which point he is justified and born again. Following this, he experiences a period of growth...This ultimately culminates in a second work of grace whereby the Holy Spirit cleanses his heart of original sin, eradicating all inbred sin. The Holy Spirit then imparts His indwelling presence, empowering the believer...This is the baptism of the Holy Spirit. It happens instantaneously as the believer presents himself or herself as a living sacrifice to God with an attitude of full consecration," and faith.

John Wesley, who articulated the doctrine, taught that those who had been entirely sanctified would be perfect in love, engaging in works of piety and works of mercy—both of which are characteristic of a believer's growing in grace.

The First General Holiness Assembly's 1885 Declaration of Principles, which explained: "Entire Sanctification... is that great work wrought subsequent to regeneration, by the Holy Ghost, upon the sole condition of faith...such faith being preceded by an act of solemn and complete consecration. This work has these distinct elements:

 * 1) The entire extinction of the carnal mind, the total eradication of the birth principle of sin
 * 2) The communication of perfect love to the soul...
 * 3) The abiding indwelling of the Holy Ghost."

The Church of the Nazarene, a large Wesleyan-Holiness denomination in the Methodist tradition, explains that: "'We believe that entire sanctification is that act of God, subsequent to regeneration, by which believers are made free from original sin, or depravity, and brought into a state of entire devotement to God, and the holy obedience of love made perfect. It is wrought by the baptism with or infilling of the Holy Spirit, and comprehends in one experience the cleansing of the heart from sin and the abiding, indwelling presence of the Holy Spirit, empowering the believer for life and service. Entire sanctification is provided by the blood of Jesus, is wrought instantaneously by grace through faith, preceded by entire consecration; and to this work and state of grace the Holy Spirit bears witness.'"

According to Stephen S. White, a noted Holiness scholar from the mid-1900s, there are "five cardinal elements" in the doctrine of entire sanctification:

 * 1) "Entire Sanctification is a Second work of Grace
 * 2) Entire Sanctification is received Instantaneously
 * 3) Entire Sanctification -- Frees from Sin
 * 4) Entire Sanctification -- Is Attainable in This Life
 * 5) Entire Sanctification -- and the Baptism with the Holy Spirit are Simultaneous"

This experience of entire sanctification or Perfection is generally identified with the filling of or the baptism of the Holy Ghost. As such, entire sanctification is also known in the Holiness Methodist tradition as Baptism with the Holy Spirit. In Pentecostalism, this term carries a different meaning. John Swanel Inskip, a minister in the Methodist Episcopal Church, explained, "There is, however, one doctrine, in a great measure peculiar to Methodism. It is that, in which we teach the possibility of man attaining a state of grace in the present life, in which he will be made free from sin."

Reflecting this inward holiness, Holiness Methodists, who make up the bulk of the Holiness Movement, have emphasized the Wesleyan-Arminian doctrine outward holiness, which includes practices such as the wearing of modest clothing and not using profanity in speech. Holiness Quakers have emphasized the Friends teaching on testimony of simplicity. Holiness Anabaptists, such as Holiness River Brethren and Holiness Mennonites, have upheld their belief in nonconformity to the world. Baptists who have embraced the second work of grace have founded their own denominations, such as the Ohio Valley Association of the Christian Baptist Churches of God. The Original Church of God and the Church of Christ (Holiness) U.S.A. were founded by Baptist ministers, including Charles W. Gray and Charles Price Jones, who embraced the doctrine of entire sanctification.

Definition of sin
Holiness adherents also hold to a distinctive definition of (actual) sin. They believe that "only conscious sins are truly sins." Historian Charles Jones explained, "Believing that sin was conscious disobedience to a known law of God, holiness believers were convinced that the true Christian, having repented of every known act of sin, did not and could not willfully sin again and remain a Christian." Historian Benjamin Pettit described the approach of the Wesleyan-Holiness movement as: 1. "The person who sins is not a Christian but a sinner.

2.             When a person is saved, he is out of the sin business (may but must not sin)

3.             The sinner must repent and be restored to his lost relationship with God.

4.             To sin results in spiritual death." In his study of this question, Caleb Black concluded that "the consensus understanding of sin in the Holiness tradition is that sin is an avoidable, voluntary, morally responsible act that those born of God do not commit." Put simply, Holiness adherents adhere to the definition of sin, as explained by Wesley himself. "Nothing is sin, strictly speaking, but a voluntary transgression of a known law of God. Therefore, every voluntary breach of the law of love is sin; and nothing else, if we speak properly. To strain the matter farther is only to make way for Calvinism." Dr. Timothy Cooley explained, "If this definition is compromised, victorious Christian living becomes meaningless, and entire sanctification an impossibility." "The definition and consequences of sin are a key theological distinctive of the Holiness Movement as it underlies their entire theological system. To differ on the conception of sin is to destroy the foundation of holiness theology."

With this definition of sin, Holiness adherents believe while Christians may fall into sin, they also have the God-given power to avoid committing sin, and in this sense be free from sin. Furthermore, not only does God enable this obedience he also requires it. One of the founders of the movement, J. A. Wood, explains "The lowest type of a Christian sinneth not, and is not condemned. The minimum of salvation is salvation from sinning. The maximum is salvation from pollution—the inclination to sin." Another founder, C. J. Fowler explains that "We teach that regeneration does not allow the committing of conscious sin."

Harry Jessop warns "It should ever be born in mind that believers cannot commit sin without forfeiting justification." The founder of the Church of God (Anderson, Indiana), D. S. Warner, explains "Holiness writers and teachers, as far as my knowledge extends, uniformly hold up a sinless life, as the true test and Bible standard of regeneration." This doctrine follows in the footsteps of Wesley who wrote “If a believer wilfully sins, he casts away his faith. Neither is it possible he should have justifying faith again, without previously repenting."

Lifestyle
Holiness groups believe the moral aspects of the law of God are pertinent for today, and expect their adherents to obey behavioral rules. Consequently, members of the Holiness movement readily apply Scriptural lifestyle commands to their lives, and view them as generally binding today, and apply these principles in numerous different ways. "Holiness churches have been distinguished from other churches by their more careful lifestyle. Many churches and denominations in the Holiness movement prohibit smoking, drinking, dancing, listening to inappropriate worldly music, or wearing makeup or flashy clothes."

Diversity in belief and practice
Christian denominations aligned with the holiness movement all share a belief in the doctrine of Christian perfection (entire sanctification). Apart from this, denominations identified with the holiness movement differ on several issues, given that there are Methodist, Quaker, Anabaptist and Restorationist churches that comprise the holiness movement and these denominations have unique doctrines and theologies. Methodist denominations that are a part of the holiness movement, such as the Free Methodist Church or Missionary Methodist Church, affirm the celebration of the sacraments, chiefly Holy Baptism and Holy Communion. Denominations of the Quaker tradition, such as the Central Yearly Meeting of Friends, are entirely non-sacramental.

Anabaptist denominations aligned with the holiness movement, such as the Apostolic Christian Church, teach the observance of ordinances, such as communion, headcovering and footwashing. While the Methodist denominations of the holiness movement hold to church membership, such as the Lumber River Conference of the Holiness Methodist Church, the concept of membership rolls is rejected in holiness denominations of a Restorationist background, such as the Church of God (Anderson, Indiana).

Roots
Though it became a multi-denominational movement over time and was furthered by the Second Great Awakening which energized churches of all stripes, the bulk of Holiness movement has its roots in John Wesley and Methodism.

Early Methodism
The Holiness movement traces their roots back to John Wesley, Charles Wesley, John Fletcher, and the Methodists of the 18th century. The Methodists of the 19th century continued the interest in Christian holiness that had been started by their founder, John Wesley in England. They continued to publish Wesley's works and tracts, including his famous A Plain Account of Christian Perfection. From 1788 to 1808, the entire text of A Plain Account was placed in the Discipline manual of the Methodist Episcopal Church (U.S.), and numerous persons in early American Methodism professed the experience of entire sanctification, including Bishop Francis Asbury. The Methodists during this period placed a strong emphasis on holy living, and their concept of entire sanctification.

Second Great Awakening
By the 1840s, a new emphasis on Holiness and Christian perfection began within American Methodism, brought about in large part by the revivalism and camp meetings of the Second Great Awakening (1790–1840).

Two major Holiness leaders during this period were Methodist preacher Phoebe Palmer and her husband, Dr. Walter Palmer. In 1835, Palmer's sister, Sarah A. Lankford, started holding Tuesday Meetings for the Promotion of Holiness in her New York City home. In 1837, Palmer experienced what she called entire sanctification and had become the leader of the Tuesday Meetings by 1839. At first only women attended these meetings, but eventually Methodist bishops and hundreds of clergy and laymen began to attend as well. At the same time, Methodist minister Timothy Merritt of Boston founded a journal called the Guide to Christian Perfection, later renamed The Guide to Holiness. This was the first American periodical dedicated exclusively to promoting the doctrine of Christian holiness. In 1865, the Palmers purchased The Guide which at its peak had a circulation of 30,000. In New York City, Palmer met with Amanda Smith, a preacher in the African Methodist Episcopal Church who testified that she became entirely sanctified in 1868 and then began to preach Christian holiness throughout the world.

Also representative was the revivalism of Rev. James Caughey, an American missionary sent by the Wesleyan Methodist Church to work in Ontario, Canada from the 1840s through 1864. He brought in the converts by the score, most notably in the revivals in Canada West 1851–53. His technique combined restrained emotionalism with a clear call for personal commitment, thus bridging the rural style of camp meetings and the expectations of more "sophisticated" Methodist congregations in the emerging cities. Phoebe Palmer's ministry complemented Caughey's revivals in Ontario circa 1857. Jarena Lee of the African Methodist Episcopal Church and Julia A. J. Foote of the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church aligned themselves with the Wesleyan-Holiness movement and preached the doctrine of entire sanctification throughout the pulpits of their connexions.

While many holiness proponents stayed in the mainline Methodist Churches, such as Henry Clay Morrison who became president of Asbury College and Theological Seminary, at least two major Holiness Methodist denominations broke away from mainline Methodism during this period. In 1843, Orange Scott organized the Wesleyan Methodist Connection (an antecedent of the Wesleyan Church, as well as the Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection and the Bible Methodist Connection of Churches) at Utica, New York. The major reason for the foundation of the Wesleyan Methodist Church was their emphasis on the abolition of slavery.

In 1860, B.T. Roberts and John Wesley Redfield founded the Free Methodist Church on the ideals of slavery abolition, egalitarianism, and second-blessing holiness. In 1900, the Lumber River Conference of the Holiness Methodist Church was organized to minister to Native Americans, especially the Lumbee tribe. Advocacy for the poor remained a hallmark of these and other Methodist offshoots. Some of these offshoots would currently be more specifically identified as part of the Conservative holiness movement, a group that would represent the more conservative branch of the movement.

At the Tuesday Meetings, Methodists soon enjoyed fellowship with Christians of different denominations, including the Congregationalist Thomas Upham. Upham was the first man to attend the meetings, and his participation in them led him to study mystical experiences, looking to find precursors of Holiness teaching in the writings of persons like German Pietist Johann Arndt and the Roman Catholic mystic Madame Guyon.

Other non-Methodists also contributed to the Holiness movement in the U.S. and in England. "New School" Calvinists such as Asa Mahan, the first president of Oberlin College, and Charles Grandison Finney, an evangelist associated with the college and later its second president, promoted the idea of Christian holiness and slavery abolition, which Wesleyan Methodists also supported. In 1836, Mahan experienced what he called a baptism with the Holy Spirit. Mahan believed that this experience had cleansed him from the desire and inclination to sin. Finney believed that this experience might provide a solution to a problem he observed during his evangelistic revivals. Some people claimed to experience conversion but then slipped back into their old ways of living. Finney believed that the filling with the Holy Spirit could help these converts to continue steadfast in their Christian life. This phase of the Holiness movement is often referred to as the Oberlin-Holiness revival.

Presbyterian William Boardman promoted the idea of Holiness through his evangelistic campaigns and through his book The Higher Christian Life, which was published in 1858, which was a zenith point in Holiness activity prior to a lull brought on by the American Civil War.

Many adherents of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) stressed George Fox's doctrine of Perfectionism (which is analogous to the Methodist doctrine of entire sanctification). These Holiness Quakers formed Yearly Meetings such as the Central Yearly Meeting of Friends. Around the same period, Hannah Whitall Smith, an English Quaker, experienced a profound personal conversion. Sometime in the 1860s, she found what she called the "secret" of the Christian life—devoting one's life wholly to God and God's simultaneous transformation of one's soul. Her husband, Robert Pearsall Smith, had a similar experience at the camp meeting in 1867. The couple became figureheads in the now-famous Keswick Convention that gave rise to what is often called the Keswick-Holiness revival, which became distinct from the holiness movement.

Among Anabaptists, the Brethren in Christ Church (as well as the Calvary Holiness Church that later split from it) emerged in Lancaster County as a denomination of River Brethren who adopted Radical Pietistic teaching, which "emphasized spiritual passion and a warm, personal relationship to Jesus Christ." They teach "the necessity of a crisis-conversion experience" as well as the existence of a second work of grace that "results in the believer resulting in the ability to say no to sin". These Holiness Anabaptist denominations emphasize the wearing of a headcovering by women, plain dress, temperance, footwashing, and pacifism. Founded by Samuel Heinrich Fröhlich, the Apostolic Christian Church (Nazarene) is an Anabaptist denomination aligned with the holiness movement, thus being "distinguished by its emphasis on entire sanctifiation". Mennonites who were impacted by Radical Pietism and the teaching of holiness founded the Missionary Church, a holiness church in the Anabaptist tradition.

General Baptists who embraced belief in the second work of grace established their own denominations, such as the Holiness Baptist Association (founded in 1894) and the Ohio Valley Association of the Christian Baptist Churches of God (formed in 1931).

Post-Civil War
Following the American Civil War, many Holiness proponents—most of them Methodists—became nostalgic for the heyday of camp meeting revivalism during the Second Great Awakening.

The first distinct "Holiness camp meeting" convened at Vineland, New Jersey in 1867 under the leadership of John Swanel Inskip, John A. Wood, Alfred Cookman, and other Methodist ministers. The gathering attracted as many as 10,000 people. At the close of the encampment, while the ministers were on their knees in prayer, they formed the National Camp Meeting Association for the Promotion of Holiness, and agreed to conduct a similar gathering the next year. This organization was commonly known as the National Holiness Association. Later, it became known as the Christian Holiness Association and subsequently the Christian Holiness Partnership.

The second National Camp Meeting was held at Manheim, Pennsylvania, and drew upwards of 25,000 persons from all over the nation. People called it a "Pentecost." The service on Monday evening has almost become legendary for its spiritual power and influence. The third National Camp Meeting met at Round Lake, New York. This time the national press attended and write-ups appeared in numerous papers, including a large two-page pictorial in Harper's Weekly. These meetings made instant religious celebrities out of many of the workers. "By the 1880s holiness was the most powerful doctrinal movement in America and seemed to be carrying away all opposition both within the Methodist Church and was quickly spreading throughout many other denominations." This was not without objection. "The leaders of the National Camp Meeting Association for the Promotion of Holiness generally opposed 'come-outism,'...They urged believers in entire sanctification and Christian perfection to remain in their denominations and to work within them to promote holiness teaching and general spiritual vitality."

Though distinct from the mainstream Holiness movement, the fervor of the Keswick-Holiness revival in the 1870s swept Great Britain, where it was sometimes called the higher life movement after the title of William Boardman's book The Higher Life. Higher life conferences were held at Broadlands and Oxford in 1874 and in Brighton and Keswick in 1875. The Keswick Convention soon became the British headquarters for this movement. The Faith Mission in Scotland was another consequence of the British Holiness movement. Another was a flow of influence from Britain back to the United States: In 1874, Albert Benjamin Simpson read Boardman's Higher Christian Life and felt the need for such a life himself. Simpson went on to found the Christian and Missionary Alliance.

American Holiness associations began to form as an outgrowth of this new wave of camp meetings, such as the Western Holiness Association—first of the regional associations that prefigured "come-outism"—formed at Bloomington, Illinois. In 1877, several "general holiness conventions" met in Cincinnati and New York City.

In 1871, the American evangelist Dwight L. Moody had what he called an "endowment with power" as a result of some soul-searching and the prayers of two Free Methodist women who attended one of his meetings. He did not join the Wesleyan-Holiness movement but maintained a belief in progressive sanctification which his theological descendants still hold to.

While the great majority of Holiness proponents remained within the three major denominations of the mainline Methodist church, Holiness people from other theological traditions established standalone bodies. In 1881, D. S. Warner started the Evening Light Reformation, out of which was formed the Church of God (Anderson, Indiana), bringing Restorationism to the Holiness family. The Church of God Reformation Movement held that "interracial worship was a sign of the true Church", with both whites and blacks ministering regularly in Church of God congregations, which invited people of all races to worship there. Those who were entirely sanctified testified that they were "saved, sanctified, and prejudice removed." Though outsiders would sometimes attack Church of God services and camp meetings for their stand for racial equality, Church of God members were "undeterred even by violence" and "maintained their strong interracial position as the core of their message of the unity of all believers".

In the 1890s, Edwin Harvey and Marmaduke Mendenhall Farson started the Metropolitan Methodist Mission which became known as the Metropolitan Church Association; it taught communal living, holding that "material possessions could be idols that might threaten one's sanctification experience" and that "while people who do not have the Holy Spirit may give, those who do give all."

Palmer's The Promise of the Father, published in 1859, which argued in favor of women in ministry, later influenced Catherine Booth, co-founder of the Salvation Army. The practice of ministry by women is common but not universal within the denominations of the Holiness movement. The founding of the Salvation Army in 1878 helped to rekindle Holiness sentiment in the cradle of Methodism—a fire kept lit by Primitive Methodists and other British descendants of Wesley and George Whitefield in prior decades.

Overseas missions emerged as a central focus of the Holiness people. As one example of this world evangelism thrust, Pilgrim Holiness Church founder Martin Wells Knapp, who also founded the Revivalist in 1883, the Pentecostal Revival League and Prayer League, the Central Holiness League 1893, the International Holiness Union and Prayer League, and God's Bible School and College, saw much success in Korea, Japan, China, India, South Africa and South America. Methodist mission work in Japan led to the creation of the One Mission Society, one of the largest missionary-sending Holiness agencies in the world. Another such missionary organization, World Gospel Mission, originated out of the Missionary Department of the National Association for the Promotion of Holiness, continuing to receive support from Free Methodist, Global Methodist, Nazarene and Wesleyan congregations.

Wesleyan realignment
Though many Holiness preachers, camp meeting leaders, authors, and periodical editors were Methodists, this was not universally popular with Methodist leadership. Out of the four million Methodists in the United States during the 1890s, probably one-third to one-half were committed to the idea of entire sanctification as being brought about instantaneously.

An opponent of the Holiness movement within Methodism named Daniel Whedon, a newsletter editor, claimed that "they are not Wesleyan. We believe that a living Wesley would never admit them to the Methodist system.” Methodist proponents of the Holiness Movement fiercely resisted this accusation, and defended their doctrine from Wesley's own words. One of the founders of the camp meeting association, J. A. Wood, defended his doctrine with an extensive survey of Wesley's doctrine of Christian Perfection, entitled Christian Perfection as Taught by John Wesley. In this book, he spent several hundred pages exclusively quoting Wesley in defense of the Holiness Movement's view of entire sanctification.

The Holiness Movement was able to defend its doctrine so well that historian Melvin Dieter comments that "The holiness movement was 'so closely identified with traditional Methodism and Wesleyan doctrine and life that Methodist opponents of the revival were forced to distance themselves from Wesley and the standard authors of prevailing Methodist theology to re-solve the struggle with the holiness elements within the church.'" Even still "The leaders of the National Camp Meeting Association for the Promotion of Holiness generally opposed “come-outism,”...They urged believers in entire sanctification and Christian perfection to remain in their denominations and to work within them to promote holiness teaching and general spiritual vitality."

Southern Methodist minister B. F. Haynes wrote in his book, Tempest-Tossed on Methodist Seas, about his decision to leave the Methodist church and join what would become Church of the Nazarene. In it, he described the bitter divisions within the Methodist church over the Holiness movement, including verbal assaults made on Holiness movement proponents at the 1894 conference. This tension reached a head at the 1898 conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, when it passed rule 301:

"Any traveling or local preacher, or layman, who shall hold public religious services within the bounds of any mission, circuit, or station, when requested by the preacher in charge not to hold such services, shall be deemed guilty of imprudent conduct, and shall be dealt with as the law provides in such cases."

Many Holiness evangelists and traveling ministers found it difficult to continue their ministry under this new rule—particularly in mainline Methodist charges and circuits that were unfriendly to the Holiness movement. In the years that followed, scores of new Holiness Methodist associations were formed—many of these "come-outer" associations and various parties alienated by certain parts of Mainline Methodism consolidated to form new denominations (e.g., the Free Methodist Church, the Wesleyan Methodist Church, the Salvation Army and the Church of the Nazarene).

Other Holiness Methodists (the "stay-inners") remained within the mainline Methodist Churches, such as H. C. Morrison who became the first president of Asbury Theological Seminary, a prominent university of the holiness movement that remains influential among holiness adherents in Methodism.

Those who left mainline Methodist churches to form Holiness denominations during this time numbered no more than 100,000.

Early 20th century
Throughout the early 20th century, week-long revival campaigns with local churches, and revival elements brought into the worship service, carried on the tradition of camp meetings.

Pentecostalism and the Charismatic movement competed for the loyalties of Holiness advocates (see related section below), and a separate Holiness Pentecostal movement was born that taught three works of grace: (1) New Birth, (2) entire sanctification, (3) speaking in tongues. This new dichotomy gradually dwindled the population of the mainstream of the Holiness movement.

Some Holiness advocates found themselves at home with Fundamentalism and later the Evangelical movement. It was during this time (1939) that the Methodist Episcopal Church (North and South) and the Methodist Protestant Church merged to form The Methodist Church. This merger created a Mainline Christian organization which made remaining Holiness elements within U.S. Methodism less influential.

Mid-to-late 20th century
Cultural shifts following World War II resulted in a further division in the Holiness movement.

Not content with what they considered to be a lax attitude toward sin, several small groups left Holiness denominations of the Methodist tradition, and to a lesser extent Quaker, Anabaptist and Restorationist denominations, to form the conservative holiness movement. Staunch defenders of Biblical inerrancy, they stress modesty in dress and revivalistic worship practices. They identify with classical Fundamentalism more so than Evangelicalism. While some have pointed out that the broader holiness movement has declined in its original strong emphasis of the doctrine of entire sanctification, the conservative holiness movement still frequently promotes, preaches, and teaches this definition of holiness and entire sanctification, both at the scholarly level, and in pastoral teaching.

As the Holiness Conservatives were distancing themselves even further, Mainline Methodism was becoming larger with the merger between The Methodist Church and the Evangelical United Brethren Church, forming the United Methodist Church in 1968. A slow trickle of disaffected Holiness-friendly United Methodists left for Holiness movement denominations. Other Holiness advocates stayed in the United Methodist Church and are represented in the Good News Movement and Confessing Movement. These movements eventually led to the creation of the Global Methodist Church. Many United Methodist clergy, and now Global Methodist clergy, in the holiness tradition are educated at Asbury Theological Seminary.

Meanwhile, the bulk of the Wesleyan-Holiness churches began to developed a disdain for what they considered to be legalism, and gradually dropped prohibitions against dancing and theater patronage, while maintaining rules against gambling, as well as alcohol and tobacco use. Continued stances on the sanctity of marriage and abstinence matched similar convictions. In the 1970s, opposition to abortion became a recurring theme, and by the 1990s statements against practicing homosexuality were increasingly common. A devotion to charity work continued, particularly through the Salvation Army and other denominational and parachurch agencies.

21st century
Faced with a growing identity crisis and continually dwindling numbers, Wesleyan-Holiness Evangelicals have hosted several inter-denominational conferences and begun several initiatives to draw a clearer distinction between Wesleyan theology and that of other Evangelicals and to explore how to address contemporary social issues and appear winsome to a "post-modern world." As one such example, in 2006 the Wesleyan Holiness Consortium published "The Holiness Manifesto" in conjunction with representatives from historic Holiness Methodist denominations, including the Free Methodist Church, United Methodist Church, Wesleyan Church, and the Church of the Nazarene.

The divide between classical Fundamentalism and Evangelicalism became greater following the 9/11 terrorist attacks on the U.S. by militant Muslim fundamentalists—as the term "fundamental" became associated with intolerance and aggressive attitudes. Several Evangelical Holiness groups and publications have denounced the term "fundamentalist" (preferring Evangelical) while others are reconciling to what extent the Fundamentalist movement of the 1920s remains a part of their history.

The Church of the Nazarene, the Wesleyan Church, and the Free Methodist Church were the largest Wesleyan-Evangelical Holiness bodies as of 2015. Talks of a merger were tabled, but new cooperatives such as the Global Wesleyan Alliance were formed as the result of inter-denominational meetings.

The Global Methodist Church consists of a large number of traditionalists, including those aligned with the Wesleyan-Holiness movement. The Book of Discipline of the Global Methodist Church thus teaches that "a life of holiness or 'entire sanctification' should be the goal of each individual’s journey with God." After its establishment, Asbury Theological Seminary, a flagship institution of the Wesleyan-Holiness movement, signed a church planting partnership with the Global Methodist Church.

At this point the legacy of the Holiness Movement is fragmented between the more conservative branch (cf. conservative holiness movement), attempting to maintain and revive historic Holiness doctrine and practice, and others more willing to move beyond the doctrine and tradition of the past.

Influences
The main roots of the Holiness movement are as follows:

 * The Reformation itself, with its emphasis on salvation by grace through faith alone.
 * Puritanism in 17th-century England and its transplantation to America, with its emphasis on adherence to the Bible and the right to dissent from the established church.
 * Pietism in 17th-century Germany, led by Philipp Jakob Spener, as well as the Moravians, both of whom emphasized the spiritual life of the individual, coupled with a responsibility to live an upright life.
 * Quietism, as taught by the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers), with its emphasis on the individual's ability to experience God and understand God's will for himself.
 * The 1730s Evangelical Revival in England, led by Methodists John Wesley and his brother Charles Wesley, which introduced the concept of Entire Sanctification and certain teachings of German Pietism to England and eventually to the United States.
 * The First Great Awakening in the 18th and early 19th centuries in the United States, propagated by George Whitefield, Jonathan Edwards, and others, with its emphasis on the initial conversion experience of Christians.
 * The Second Great Awakening in the 19th century in the United States, propagated by Francis Asbury, Charles Finney, Lyman Beecher, Phoebe Palmer and others, which also emphasized the need for personal holiness, and is characterized by the rise of evangelistic revival meetings.

Relation and reaction to Pentecostalism
The traditional Holiness movement is distinct from the Holiness Pentecostal movement, the latter of which believes that the baptism in the Holy Spirit involves supernatural manifestations such as speaking in unknown tongues. On the other hand, the holiness movement views entire sanctification and baptism with the Holy Spirit synonymously. Many of the early Pentecostals (known as Holiness Pentecostals) originated from the Holiness movement, and to this day Holiness Pentecostals maintain the belief in a first work of grace (New Birth) and second work of grace (entire sanctification).

However, Holiness Pentecostals additionally teach a third work of grace, that manifests in speaking in tongues. This concept of a third work of grace is rejected by the holiness movement. Several of Holiness Pentecostal denominations include the word "Holiness" in their names, including the Calvary Holiness Association and Pentecostal Holiness Church, among others.

The terms pentecostal and apostolic, now used by adherents to Pentecostal and charismatic doctrine, were once widely used by Holiness churches in connection with the consecrated lifestyle they see described in the New Testament.

During the Azusa Street Revival, often considered the advent of Pentecostalism, the practice of speaking in tongues was strongly rejected by leaders of the traditional Holiness movement. Alma White, the leader of the Pillar of Fire Church, a Holiness Methodist denomination, wrote a book against the Pentecostal movement that was published in 1936. The work, entitled Demons and Tongues, represented early rejection of the tongues-speaking Pentecostal movement. White called speaking in tongues "satanic gibberish" and Pentecostal services "the climax of demon worship". However, some contemporary Holiness churches (such as those networking with Aldersgate Renewal Ministries) now believe in the legitimacy of speaking in unknown tongues, but not as a sign of baptism with the Holy Spirit as Holiness Pentecostals teach. Others, such as the Pilgrim Holiness Church, maintain the historic rejection of speaking in tongues.

There are an estimated 78 million classical Pentecostals, and 510 million assorted Charismatics who share a heritage or common beliefs with the Pentecostal movement. If the Holiness movement and Pentecostal/Charismatic Christians were counted together, the total population would be around 600 million.

Denominations and associations
Several organizations and programs exist to promote the Holiness movement, plan missions, and promote ecumenism among churches:
 * Christian Holiness Partnership
 * Interchurch Holiness Convention
 * Global Wesleyan Alliance
 * Holiness Unto the Lord
 * Worldwide Faith Missions
 * One Mission Society
 * Wesleyan Holiness Consortium
 * World Gospel Mission
 * Wesleyan Holiness Women Clergy

The Holiness movement led to the formation and further development of several Christian denominations and associations. Below are denominations that substantially adhere to Holiness movement doctrine. Though denominations of the Conservative Holiness movement affirm the same beliefs, they are more strict in practice and are not included here (see list). Holiness Pentecostal bodies are not included, as they affirm a third work of grace—a belief vehemently rejected by the Holiness movement:

 * Association of Independent Methodists
 * Apostolic Christian Church (Nazarene)
 * Bible Missionary Church
 * Brethren in Christ Church
 * Christ's Sanctified Holy Church
 * The Church of the Nazarene
 * Church of Christ (Holiness) U.S.A.
 * Churches of Christ in Christian Union
 * Church of Daniel's Band
 * Church of God (Anderson)
 * Church of God by Faith
 * Congregational Methodist Church
 * Evangelical Christian Church
 * Evangelical Church of North America
 * Evangelical Friends Church International-Eastern Region
 * Evangelical Methodist Church
 * Free Methodist Church
 * Freewill Baptists (certain congregations)
 * Global Methodist Church
 * God's Missionary Church
 * Immanuel General Mission (Japan)
 * International Fellowship of Bible Churches
 * Kentucky Mountain Holiness Association
 * Korea Evangelical Holiness Church
 * Korea Jesus Holiness Sungkyul Church
 * Korea Holiness Church of the Nazarene
 * Korea Church of God
 * Korea Evangelical Church of America
 * Lumber River Conference of the Holiness Methodist Church
 * Metropolitan Church Association
 * Missionary Church (North-Central District and others)
 * Missionary Methodist Church
 * National Association of Wesleyan Evangelicals
 * Ohio Valley Association of the Christian Baptist Churches of God
 * Original Church of God
 * Pillar of Fire International
 * Primitive Methodist Church
 * The Salvation Army
 * Southern Congregational Methodist Church
 * United Holiness Church of Jesus Christ
 * United Methodist Church (certain districts and local churches, as well as universities)
 * The Wesleyan Church
 * Wesleyan Nazarene Church

Colleges, Bible schools, and universities
Many institutions of higher learning exist to promote Holiness ideas, as well as to provide a liberal arts education.
 * Ambrose University College

Allegheny Wesleyan College

American Indian College

Anderson University (Indiana)

Asbury University

Azusa Pacific University

Bible Missionary Institute

Booth College

Central Christian College of Kansas

Eastern Nazarene College

Evangelical Wesleyan Bible Institute

God's Bible School and College

Global University

Greenville University

Hobe Sound Bible College

Houghton University

Indiana Wesleyan University

Kansas Christian College

Kentucky Mountain Bible College

Kingswood University

Laurel University

Life Pacific University

Malone University

Messiah University

MidAmerica Nazarene University

Mid-America Christian University

Mount Vernon Nazarene University

Native American Bible College

Nazarene Bible College

North Central University

Northwest Nazarene University

Ohio Christian University

Oklahoma Wesleyan University

Olivet Nazarene University

Ozark Bible Institute and College

Peniel School of Ministry

Penn View Bible Institute

Pillar College

Point Loma Nazarene University

Roberts Wesleyan University

Seattle Pacific University

Simpson University

Southwestern Christian University

Southern Nazarene University

Southern Wesleyan University

Spring Arbor University

Tyndale University College & Seminary

Toccoa Falls College

Trevecca Nazarene University

Trinity Bible College and Graduate School

Trinity Western University

Union Bible College and Seminary

University of Valley Forge

Vanguard University

Warner Pacific University

Warner University

Wesley Seminary

Wesley Biblical Seminary

title: Holiness movement


text:
Luis Rodriguez

Luis Rodriguez may refer to:

Arts and entertainment

 * Luis Rodríguez (producer) (born 1948), Spanish record producer based in Germany
 * Luis J. Rodriguez (born 1954), American poet and novelist
 * Luis Rodríguez (born 1978), Puerto Rican singer and songwriter known professionally as Luis Fonsi
 * Luis Rodriguez, a human character on Sesame Street, played by Emilio Delgado

Association football (soccer)

 * Luisín Rodríguez (1910–1990) Spanish footballer, player and manager of CD Logroñés
 * Luis Rodríguez (Chilean footballer) (born 1961)
 * Luis Rodriguez de la Rosa (born 1979), referee in the 2009–10 CONCACAF Champions League group stage
 * Luis Rodríguez (Guatemalan footballer) (born 1982), Guatemalan football player
 * Luis Antonio Rodríguez (born 1985), Argentine football player
 * Luis Sánchez Rodríguez (born 1988), Mexican footballer
 * Luis Rodríguez (footballer, born 1991) (born 1991), Mexican football player
 * Luis Eduardo Rodríguez (born 1991), Mexican football player
 * Luis Rodríguez (born 1992), member of the Costa Rican team in the 2009 FIFA under-17 world cup
 * Luis Rodríguez (Bolivian footballer) (born 1994), Bolivian football left-back
 * Luis Rodríguez (footballer, born October 1994), Mexican football midfielder for Chiapas
 * Luis Rodríguez (Colombian footballer) (born 1995)

Other sports

 * Luis Rodriguez Olmo (1919–2017), Puerto Rican baseball player
 * Luis Manuel Rodríguez (1937–1996), Cuban boxer
 * Luis Rodríguez (Venezuelan boxer) (born 1947), Venezuelan boxer
 * Luis Rodríguez (sprinter) (born 1966), Spanish athlete
 * Luis Rodríguez (volleyball) (born 1969), Puerto Rican volleyball player
 * Luis Rodríguez (baseball) (born 1980), Venezuelan baseball player

Other

 * Luis Orlando Rodríguez (1912–1989), Cuban journalist, politician and interior minister and the first commentator of Radio Rebelde
 * Luis Rodríguez (astronomer) (born 1948), Mexican astronomer, member of the Colegio Nacional

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Luis Rodriguez


text:
Paul Williams (saxophonist)

Paul "Hucklebuck" Williams (July 13, 1915 – September 14, 2002) was an American jazz and blues saxophonist, bandleader, and songwriter. His record "The Huckle-Buck", recorded in December 1948, was one of the most successful R&B records of the time. In his Honkers and Shouters, Arnold Shaw credited Williams as one of the first to employ the honking tenor saxophone solo that became the hallmark of rhythm and blues and rock and roll in the 1950s and early 1960s.

Biography
Williams was born in Lewisburg, Tennessee, and grew up in Bowling Green, Kentucky, before moving with his parents to Detroit, Michigan, at the age of 13. He started learning saxophone and played in school bands before forming his own band, Paul Williams and his Kings of Rhythm, with the trumpeter Lloyd Henderson, in the mid-1930s, and playing in local clubs. The band split up during World War II, and Williams then joined Clarence Dorsey's band. He toured with the band, then known as the Sensational Six, until 1945, when he left to join another local band, led by King Porter (born James A. Pope, 1916–1983).

Williams became known for his showmanship in Porter's band. He made his first recordings with Porter for the Paradise label in 1947. He attracted the attention of the agent and record producer Teddy Reig and, under Reig's tutelage, formed his own band. Credited as the Paul Williams Sextette, they recorded in Detroit for Savoy Records in September 1947, and "Thirty-Five Thirty" (named for Joe Von Battle's record shop at 3530 Hastings Street) reached number 8 on the Billboard R&B chart (then called the race records chart) in early 1948. Williams followed up its success with three further chart hits released in 1948 – "The Twister" (which, according to Joel Whitburn, "had a 'rockin' beat" and "laid the foundation for Hank Ballard's 'The Twist'"); "Waxie Maxie"; and "Walkin' Around" – all featuring the honking tenor sax of Wild Bill Moore.

Williams and his band toured nationally, and his concerts became increasingly popular and riotous. Reig claimed that he taught Williams to perform vigorously, "kicking as he played, bending and dipping, getting down on the floor while blowing that saxophone." At a rehearsal for a concert, either in Newark or Baltimore, he heard Lucky Millinder and his band playing a tune, originally known as "D'Natural Blues", written for Millinder by Andy Gibson. The composition was strongly influenced by "Now's the Time", recorded by Charlie Parker for Savoy Records at a 1945 session produced by Reig. Williams began performing Gibson's composition, and at a show in Devon, Pennsylvania, noticed that audience members were performing a new dance, the Hucklebuck, to it. Williams renamed the tune "The Huckle-Buck", and his recording, made in December 1948 with Reig producing, rapidly rose to the top of the R&B chart. It reached number 1 in March 1949 and stayed in that position for 14 weeks, spending a total of 32 weeks on the chart. It reportedly sold half a million copies and broke sales records.

"The Huckle-Buck" established Williams's popularity, and he was billed as Paul "Hucklebuck" Williams for the rest of his career. He had three more R&B chart successes in 1949 – "House Rocker", "He Knows How to Hucklebuck", and "Pop-Corn" – but these failed to match the earlier record's success. However, his band continued to be popular. The band played on many of Amos Milburn's recordings. With Tiny Grimes, Williams co-headlined the first Moondog Coronation Ball, promoted by Alan Freed in Cleveland on March 21, 1952, often claimed to be the first rock and roll concert, and was the only act to perform before the show was abandoned because of the size of the crowd. He also played on many of the nationwide concert tours organised by Freed.

Williams left Savoy Records in 1952 and recorded for several labels thereafter. Band members during the 1950s included Moore, Noble "Thin Man" Watts, the trumpeter Phil Guilbeau, and the singers Danny Cobb, Jumpin' Jimmy Brown, Joan Shaw and Connie Allen. Williams worked in the Atlantic Records house band, backing singers including Ruth Brown, and performed with musicians including Elmore James and Dave "Baby" Cortez. He was the musical director for Lloyd Price and James Brown in the early 1960s and performed with Otis Redding and Tommy Tucker. He worked as a session musician in New York City before setting up a booking agency in 1968. In 1986, he appeared at a Smithsonian symposium on rhythm and blues at the National Museum of American History. He received the Rhythm and Blues Foundation Pioneer Award in 1992.

Williams died in September 2002, in New York City, at the age of 87.

Albums

 * Paul Williams and His Orchestra featuring Noble Watts - the Hucklebuck (Saxophonograph, 1981)
 * The Complete Recordings Volume 1 1947-1949 (Blue Moon, 1999)
 * The Complete Recordings 1949-1952 - Volume 2 (Blue Moon, 1999)
 * The Complete Recordings 1952-1956 - Volume 3 (Blue Moon, 2001)

With Ruth Brown
 * Ruth Brown (Atlantic, 1957)

Singles
Sources:
 * "Hastings St. Bounce" / "Way Late" (Savoy 459, 1947)
 * "Thirty-Five Thirty" / "Come with Me Baby" (Savoy 661, 1948)
 * "Bouncing with Benson" / "Boogie Ride" (Savoy 664, 1948)
 * "The Twister, Part 1" / "Part 2" (Savoy 665, 1948)
 * "Waxie Maxie" / "Spider Sent Me" (Savoy 670, 1948)
 * "Bouncing with Buddy, Part 1" / "Part 2" (Savoy 674, 1948)
 * "Walkin' Around" / (Savoy 680, 1949)
 * "The Huckle-Buck" / "Hoppin' John" (Savoy 683, 1949)
 * "House Rocker" / "He Knows How to Hucklebuck" (Savoy 702, 1949)
 * "Pop-Corn" / "Free Dice" (Savoy 711, 1949)
 * "Cranberries" / "Juice Bug Boogie" (Savoy 721, 1949)
 * "What's Happening" / "Camp Meeting Bounce" (Savoy 734, 1950)
 * "Rye Boogie" / "Weasel Swing" (Savoy 751, 1950)
 * "Jeep's Blues" / "Paul's Boogie" (Savoy 758, 1951)
 * "Turtle Rock" / "Blues at Daybreak" (Savoy 773, 1952)
 * "Rockin' Chair Blues" / "Sinners' Hop, Part 1" (Savoy 814, 1952)
 * "Blowin' the Boogie" / "It's All Over Baby" (Savoy 831, 1952)
 * "I Need Your Love" / "I'm So Happy" (Savoy 841, 1952)
 * "Hello" / "Rock It Davy Crockett" (Capitol F3205, 1955)
 * "You're Breaking My Heart No More" / "It's Over" (Capitol F3255, 1955)
 * "Give It Up" / "Pass the Buck" (Vee Jay VJ234, 1957)
 * "Walkin' the Track" / "Back to Back" (7 Arts S713, 1961)
 * "I Don't Want to Set the World on Fire" / "I Can't Stand It" (Ascot AS2114, 1962)

title: Paul Williams (saxophonist)


text:
Backyard Basketball

Backyard Basketball is a series of entries into the Backyard Sports franchise of video games. The first game was developed by Humongous Entertainment and published by Infogrames for Microsoft Windows and Mac platforms in 2001. Additional games have been released on a variety of consoles, each sporting different characters and slightly altered gameplay mechanics.

As with the other entries into the Backyard Sports franchise, Backyard Basketball has received notoriety for its inclusion of pro basketball players as playable characters. The first incarnation included Kevin Garnett and Lisa Leslie. The most recent release includes Stephen Curry as its mascot.

Gameplay
Backyard Basketball offers two primary modes of gameplay: Single Game, which allows the player to select a team to compete against a computer-controlled team, and Season Play, which allows the player to select a team to compete against a series of computer-controlled teams over an 18-game season, including two best-of-three playoff series and a best-of-five championship series should the player achieve a large number of victories. The Single Game mode also allows the player to compete against a second player or to practice using a single character.

Before games can occur, the player has the option to modify a variety of settings. These include court selection, A.I. difficulty (easy, medium, or hard), the presence of certain rules (fouls, fatigue, violations, shot control, and power-ups), sound options (game music, background sounds, and in-game dialogue), controls, and team names. Team modification also involves the customization of jerseys.

The game's controls are set to mouse usage by default, capitalizing on a point & click style of gameplay to move characters around. The game is also compatible with keyboards and game pads.

The selection of team members follows one of two settings: First Five Picks, which allows each player to select their team members freely, or Full Draft, which forces each player to select their team members one at a time in an alternating fashion. Each potential team member, including younger versions of Kevin Garnett and Lisa Leslie, is ranked according to five statistics operating on a 1 to 10 scale. These include Inside Shooting (the relative accuracy of the character's shot from inside the three-point line), Outside Shooting (the relative accuracy of the character's shot from beyond the three-point line), Ballhandling (the relative likelihood that the character will not have the ball stolen or blocked on offense), Defense (the relative likelihood that the character will be able to steal or block the ball on defense), and Quickness (the relative speed at which the character moves along the court). Players also have the option to customize rookie characters with either manually chosen or randomly allocated statistics, as well as heights, skin tones, shooting hands, birthdays, and names. Although rookie characters generally have lower overall statistics compared to pre-rendered players, they have the additional ability to increase all of their statistics by three levels should the player's team make the playoffs in Season Play.

Gameplay in Backyard Basketball is set to a point & click control scheme by default. With three characters on the court at one time, the player clicks at various locations on the court to guide the character with the ball to that location. Clicking on a teammate causes the character to pass the ball to that teammate while clicking the basket (indicated by a basketball icon) causes the character to attempt a shot. If shot control is on, then players have the option to make the shooting character pump fake by clicking rapidly, finally shooting the ball when the click is held down. If shot control is off, then the character will automatically release the shot once the basketball icon is clicked. On defense, the player can switch between characters to control by clicking on them as they run about, guiding the chosen character by clicking the location on the court where he or she should go. If an opposing character is clicked when an 'X' symbol hovers by them, the character nearest him or her will attempt to steal the ball. If a pair of hands appears near the basket when an opposing character goes to shoot the ball, the nearest character will attempt to block the shot or rebound the ball.

Each quarter of a game lasts approximately three minutes while each overtime period (if necessary) lasts approximately one minute. The longer characters play without rest, the more tired and prone to mistakes (poor shooting and ball-handling) they will be; as such, substitutions can be made after any completed play or during a time-out. Characters will recover their energy while on the bench (only two players can stay on the bench at a time). Granted, a character's energy will never decrease if the fatigue option is turned off.

Over the course of a game, power-ups may occasionally be rewarded to teams. The majority of these power-ups are useful, such as the flaming ball (which guarantees that the next attempted shot will go in), the tornado (which increases the speed of all characters on the court), the doughnut (which causes the next character who attempts a shot to automatically attempt a slam dunk), and 110% Juice (which provides energy to otherwise tired players if the fatigue option is turned on). However, some power-ups provide detrimental effects, such as the icy ball (which makes shots more likely to miss), the stick of butter (which reduces the team's ball-handling abilities), and the ice cream truck (which prevents the entire team from moving for a brief period of time).

Releases
Backyard Basketball games have been released numerous times to a variety of platforms. The first game of the series was intended to be released for Windows and Macintosh in 1999, but production was delayed to 2001 and Backyard Football got released in its original slot. Kevin Garnett (the game's primary mascot), and Lisa Leslie appear as pros.

In 2004, a game was released for the Game Boy Advance, PlayStation 2, and PC, featuring Tim Duncan as its primary mascot. The PlayStation 2 version was released in Europe under the name of Junior Sports Basketball, although it lacked any license from the NBA, and the Backyard Kids were redubbed with British voice actors (a lot of the characters were even renamed).

The game was released yet again in 2007, this time for the Nintendo DS as well as the aforementioned systems, featuring Paul Pierce as its primary mascot. A planned release for the GameCube was cancelled.

The game has most recently been released in early 2015, as a mobile app featuring Stephen Curry as its primary mascot. Only ten of the original Backyard Kids appeared in that version, along with 14 pro players.

Reception
In the United States, the debut version of Backyard Basketball sold 780,000 copies and earned $13.2 million by August 2006, after its release in October 2001. It was the country's 15th best-selling computer game between January 2000 and August 2006. Combined sales of all Backyard Sports games released between January 2000 and August 2006, including Backyard Basketball, had reached 5.3 million units in the United States by the latter date.

Backyard Basketball has received low to mixed reviews throughout its multiple releases. Ivan Sulic of IGN awarded the original version a score of 6.5 out of 10, complimenting the simplistic gameplay and colorful graphics while lamenting the amount of crashes that the game is susceptible to encountering. Chris Adams of IGN awarded the 2007 Nintendo DS version the same score, commenting that the addition of new gameplay modes offered more variety.

title: Backyard Basketball


text:
Talk:Chuuk

Untitled

 * The reason I made truk redirect here is because Ponape redirects to Pohnpei.
 * The reason why I made it redirect here because I think that chuuk is cool and alot of my family comes from there.And also because they made ponpe redirect to phonpei

 * I noticed there was a lot of editing. There use to be a lot of usefull information that has since been taken out.

 * I just noticed that some person wants to merge Chuuk with Truk Lagoon. Honestly this is a poor choice to make.  Truk Lagoon is name for geographical area with Chuuk State which comprises of outer barrier reef and high volcanic islands (about 17).  Chuuk on other hand is name of State of Federated States of Micronesia.  It is headed by Executive, Judicial and Legislative Branches. Chuuk also includes outer island regions such as Northwest, Halls and Mortlocks.  If you merge Chuuk into Truk Lagoon, you will then exclude the other regions of Chuuk.  You will also ignore that its a political region, too.  Truk Lagoon should either be a separate artical or integrated into artical of Chuuk, not the other way around.  I should also note that when people refer to Truk Lagoon its normaly done today in refering to wreck diving which is found in lagoon.  It should be noted that technicaly this is no longer the name.  Truk was changed to Chuuk in 1991/92.  Reason for this mistake was in outer islands people called Chuuk Ruk, the germans misprounced it as Truk.  In any case today its Chuuk Lagoon.  Only people who refer it to Truk Lagoon are either old timers, or Divers.  I also believe that given the signifance of diving in the lagoon, there should be another artical on it in Wikipedia.

From Nauru page
I came to Chuuk page from Nauru page for further information having just read "The Japanese deported 1,200 Nauruans to work as labourers in the Chuuk islands, where 463 died. There is no mention at all of this here. I would think it was a fairly important historical item for the islands. Tiddy (talk) 04:39, 6 January 2008 (UTC)

Icon / flag / template for Chuuk?
Is there a Icon / flag / template for Chuuk that works like these examples: 🇵🇼  or 🇲🇻?

GeoFan49 20:40, 16 December 2006 (UTC)

Anyone else notice that is a little funny that in the same paragraph that states that the Chuukese are the best navigators in the world and have the two remaining navigation schools yet they are hard to visit because of a lack of reliable transportation?

It sounds a bit contradictory. Can that be reworded a bit?

List of municipalities
The list of municipalities in the main article is a dumb list. Anyone can sort a list of names alphabetically, an alphabetical sequence contains no additional information. Better would be a geographic sequence or grouping. Like which municipalities are located in the Truk lagoon (preferably divided between the Faichuuk and Namoneas groups), which ones in the Hall Islands, which ones in the Mortlock Islands, which ones in the western atolls (is that what they call "Pattiw"?). For a starter, Pisaris, Ruo, Magur, Ulul, Onari, Ono are all islets of the large Namonuito Atoll, so I presume they correspond to the namesake municipalities in the list (rather than for example to Ruo islet on the fringing reef of Truk lagoon).--Ratzer (talk) 09:51, 7 December 2007 (UTC)
 * sorted municipalities by region and atoll--Ratzer (talk) 17:13, 7 December 2007 (UTC)

Population
Why are there no stats? Chris (クリス) (talk) 03:05, 12 January 2008 (UTC)
 * I'll work on this and find verifiable source(s) and cite. Sprinkler21 (talk) 03:12, 9 May 2012 (UTC)Sprinkler21

The population of Chuuk is around 48,654 people. MicronesianHelper2016 (talk) 07:04, 2 September 2016 (UTC)

baseball
A reputed article: Waging Baseball, Playing War: Games of American Imperialism by Bill Brown, Cultural Critique, No. 17 (Winter, 1990-1991), pp. 51-78 Published by: University of Minnesota Press, discusses the Japanese introduction of baseball to Truk and the role it played in pacifying the islands. I think there should be mention made of this in the article, and perhaps this should be linked to the project baseball page. 75.145.75.206 (talk) 23:56, 24 July 2009 (UTC)

title: Talk:Chuuk


text:
Paul Williams

Paul Williams may refer to:

Authors

 * Paul O. Williams (1935–2009), American science-fiction author and poet
 * Paul L. Williams (author) (born 1944), FBI consultant, journalist
 * Paul Williams (journalist) (1948–2013), American founder of music magazine Crawdaddy!
 * Paul Williams (media personality) (born 1964), Irish journalist and non-fiction crime writer
 * Paul Williams (author) (born 1967), British author and consultant on ska music

Characters

 * Paul Williams (The Young and the Restless), character on The Young and the Restless

Films

 * Paul Williams (director) (born 1943), American film and television director
 * Paul Andrew Williams (born 1973), British film writer and director
 * Paul Williams, Australian actor in the film Sky Trackers

Musicians

 * Paul Williams (saxophonist) (1915–2002), American rhythm and blues saxophonist
 * Paul Williams (1934–2016), birth name of soul musician Billy Paul
 * Paul Williams (bluegrass musician), American bluegrass and gospel musician
 * Paul Williams (composer), English composer and pianist

Politics

 * Paul Williams (Conservative politician) (1922–2008), British MP for Sunderland South
 * Paul Williams (health service manager) (born 1948), NHS Wales
 * Paul Williams (Labour politician) (born 1972), British

Singer/songwriters

 * Paul Williams (The Temptations singer) (1939–1973), founding member of The Temptations
 * Paul Williams (English singer) (1940–2019), vocalist for Juicy Lucy, Tempest
 * Paul Williams (songwriter) (born 1940), songwriter for The Carpenters, The Muppets, film and television actor
 * Paul Williams (comedian) (born 1992), New Zealand comedian and singer-songwriter

Football (association, rugby, and gridiron)

 * Billy Williams (coach) (Paul Beauchamp Williams, 1892–1973), American college football, baseball, basketball coach
 * Paul Williams (Canadian football) (born 1947), Canadian football defensive back
 * Paul Williams (footballer, born 1962), English footballer
 * Paul Williams (quarterback) (born 1963), American football player
 * Paul Williams (Northern Ireland footballer) (born 1963), Northern Ireland footballer
 * Paul Williams (footballer, born 1965), English footballer
 * Paul Williams (footballer, born 1969), English footballer
 * Paul Williams (footballer, born 1970), English footballer
 * Paul Williams (footballer, born 1971), English footballer and coach
 * Paul Williams (Australian rules footballer) (born 1973), Australian rules footballer
 * Paul Williams (wide receiver) (born 1983), for the Houston Texans
 * Paul Williams (rugby union) (born 1983), New Zealand
 * Paul Williams (referee) (born 1985), New Zealand rugby union referee

Other sports

 * Paul Williams (water polo) (born 1955), Australian Olympic water polo player
 * Paul Williams (runner) (born 1956), Canadian
 * Paul Williams (basketball) (born 1961), American
 * Paul Williams (darts player) (born 1964), English
 * Paul Williams (boxer) (born 1981), American professional boxer
 * Paul Williams (sprinter) (born 1986), Grenadian

Others

 * Paul L. Williams (general) (1894–1968), U.S. general in World War II
 * Paul R. Williams (1894–1980), architect in Los Angeles, California
 * Paul X. Williams (1908–1994), U.S. federal judge
 * Paul S. Williams Jr. (1929-1995), American Army lieutenant general
 * Paul Williams (Buddhist studies scholar) (born 1950), at the University of Bristol, UK
 * Paul R. Williams (professor of law), peace negotiator
 * Paul Williams (bishop) (born 1968), Bishop of Southwell and Nottingham

title: Paul Williams


text:
Talk:Marxist film theory

POV
I removed some POV stuff. Verditer 23:54, 27 May 2006 (UTC)

Not really about "theory"
This article is about marxist film, not about theoretical engagements with film from a marxist point of view. That is, the article is about "marxist film" theory, when it should be about "marxist theory" of film.

Would be good to eliminate or start from scratch. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 168.105.153.25 (talk) 22:56, 2 November 2012 (UTC)

Off-site plagiarism of this article
It's come to my attention that parts of this article have been plagiarised by a YouTube video essayist, specifically paragraphs 1 and 3 of the overview. This is rather concerning, not only because of the plagiarism involved, but because the parts being plagiarised didn't cite any sources for the information. In fact, most of this article is unsourced and the only source provided for the lead failed verification, never actually discussing "Marxist film theory". If anyone comes across this and is interested in learning about Marxist film theory from people with expertise on the matter - or if you're interested in improving this article - I can recommend the book Marxist Film Theory and Fight Club by Anne Kornbluh and the journal article "Marxism, Film and Theory: From the Barricades to Postmodernism" by Scott Forsyth. For now, I'll build a bibliography at the bottom of the article with these two works, just so we can direct interested readers to reliable sources. -- Grnrchst (talk) 15:16, 4 December 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Marxist film theory


text:
Bob Denard

Robert Denard (born Gilbert Bourgeaud; 7 April 1929 – 13 October 2007) was a French mercenary. He served as the de facto military leader of the Comoros twice with him first serving from 13 May 1978 to 15 December 1989 and again briefly from the 28th of September to the 5th of October in 1995. Sometimes known under the aliases Gilbert Bourgeaud and Saïd Mustapha Mhadjou, he was known for having performed various jobs in support of Françafrique—France's sphere of influence in its former colonies in Africa—for Jacques Foccart, co-ordinator of President Charles de Gaulle's African policy.

Having served with the French Navy in the Algerian War, the ardently anti-communist Denard took part in the Katanga secession effort in the 1960s and subsequently operated in many African countries including Congo, Angola, Rhodesia (today Zimbabwe), and Gabon. Between 1975 and 1995, he participated in four coup attempts in the Comoro Islands. It is widely believed that his adventures had the implicit support of the French state, even after the 1981 election of the French Socialist Party candidate, François Mitterrand, despite moderate changes in France's policy in Africa.

Born a Roman Catholic, Denard converted first to Judaism, then to Islam, and finally back to Catholicism again. He was polygamously married seven times, and fathered eight children. Denard had a swashbuckling, larger-than-life image as the South African journalist Al J Venter called him "a warrior king out of Homer" who achieved the dream of every mercenary by conquering the Comoros in 1978, which he ruled via a puppet president until 1989. Venter believed Denard to be the most successful of the mercenaries in Africa, and certainly one of the best known.

Early career
After having served with the French Navy as a Quartermaster in the Fusiliers marins during the First Indochina War and in French Algeria, Denard served as a colonial policeman in Morocco from 1952 to 1957. He worked as a demonstrator for washing machines in Paris. In 1954, he was convicted of an assassination plot against Prime Minister Pierre Mendès-France, a left-wing member of the Radical-Socialist Party who was negotiating the end of the Indochina War and withdrawal from Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria, and served 14 months in prison. An adamant anti-communist, Denard then took part in many anti-colonialist conflicts, simultaneously on his own behalf and on that of the French state. Once he was freed from jail, he worked for the French secret services during the war in Algeria.

He began his mercenary career, which was to span three decades, in Katanga, probably in December 1961 when he and other foreign mercenaries were brought in by the leader of the mercenaries in Katanga, Roger Faulques. Denard fought there until the secessionist movement led by Moise Tshombe collapsed in January 1963. Then, Denard and his men moved to Portuguese Angola.

In mid-1963 he was in North Yemen, which was then in the middle of a civil war between a Nasserist government and royalist tribesmen. The royalists were supported by the Western European and Saudi Arabia governments. The French and British sponsored a number of mercenaries to train the royalist volunteers in military techniques, and Denard was among those who joined the Imam al-Badr, leader of the royalists.

After about eighteen months Denard returned to the Congo to take employment under Moise Tshombe who was now the prime minister of the central government in Leopoldville from July 1964 till October 1965 when he was dismissed by President Joseph Kasa-Vubu. Denard served for two years in the Congo battling Simba rebels supporters of the late Congolese leader Patrice Lumumba, who had been murdered in Katanga in 1961 after having been overthrown by rival politicians and severely tortured while in transit. The Simba rebels were backed by the Chinese and Cubans, including Che Guevara while the central government were tacitly backed by the United States and Belgium. Denard was in charge of his own unit of French mercenaries called les affreux (the awful ones). He became famous after rescuing civilians encircled by rebels in Stanleyville. Denard helped to support an attempted secessionist revolt on behalf of Tshombe by Katangan separatists in July 1966.

A year later Denard sided with Katangan separatists and Belgian mercenaries led by Jean Schramme and Jerry Puren in a revolt in eastern Congo to restore Moise Tshombe to power known as the Mercenaries Revolt. The rebels were soon bottled up in Bukavu. Denard was wounded in the initial rising and flew out with a group of more seriously wounded men to Rhodesia. In January 1968 he invaded Katanga with a force of a hundred men on bicycles in an attempt to create a diversion for a breakout from Bukavu.

Denard was involved in mercenary activity in Biafra during the Nigerian civil war during the late 1960s. From 1968 to 1978 he was employed supporting the government in Gabon and was available to carry out military actions on behalf of the French government in Africa. He may have been involved in a raid against Guinea in 1970. He was involved in a failed coup attempt in Benin (Opération Crevette, or Operation Shrimp), against Mathieu Kérékou, the president of the People's Republic of Benin, in 1977. Although Jacques Foccart denied knowledge of the attempted coup after its failure, he did recognize that it had been backed-up by Gnassingbé Eyadéma (Togo), Houphouet-Boigny (Ivory Coast), Omar Bongo (Gabon) and Hassan II (Morocco), all allies of France.

Denard is known to have participated in conflicts in Rhodesia with 7 Independent Company, Rhodesia Regiment in 1977, Iran, Nigeria, Angola, Zaire and the Comoros, the last-named nation having been subject to more than twenty coups d'état in the past decades. For most of his career Denard had the quiet backing of France and the French secret service which wished to maintain French influence over its ex-colonies.

The Comoros
He was most active in the Comoros, making four separate attempts to overthrow the government of this small island group. On orders from Jacques Foccart, he ousted the first president, Ahmed Abdallah, who had just unilaterally proclaimed the Comoros' independence on 6 July 1975. Ahmed Abdallah was replaced by Ali Soilih.

He then failed at a coup in Benin in 1977 and carried out some operations in Rhodesia from 1977 to 1978 as part of the Rhodesian Army's short-lived French-speaking unit, 7 Independent Company. With the support of the Rhodesian government, he returned to the Comoros with 43 men on 13 May 1978 and carried out a coup against president Ali Soilih, who had turned toward socialist policies. Soilih was killed under mysterious circumstances on 29 May 1978. The official story that Soilih was "shot while trying to escape" is not generally believed. Helped by Denard, Ahmed Abdallah took the presidency back. For eleven years (1978 to 1989), Denard headed Abdallah's 500-strong presidential guard and had strong influence and business interests in the archipelago, marrying and converting to Islam and eventually becoming a citizen of the country. He adopted the Islamic name Said Mustapha Mhadjou upon his conversion.

The Comoros also served as his logistic base for military operations in Mozambique and Angola. He was then supported by Paris, as the Comoros provided France for a base to get around the embargo imposed on South Africa because of its government's policy of apartheid. Denard accumulated considerable holdings in the Comoros, composed of hotels, lands, and the presidential guard. According to Xavier Renou, author of a book on private military contractors, Denard foresaw the transition between traditional mercenaries to contemporary private military contractors, creating a small army during his stay in the Comoros in the 1980s.

1989 coup and subsequent trial
In 1989, fearing a probable coup d'état, president Ahmed Abdallah signed a decree ordering the Presidential Guard, led by Denard, to disarm the armed forces. Shortly after the signing of the decree, a military officer allegedly entered president Abdallah's office and shot him, injuring Denard at the same time. A few days later, Denard agreed to leave the Comoros after meeting French businessman Jean-Yves Ollivier, and was evacuated to South Africa by French paratroopers.

Denard then waited in the Médoc region, in France, for his trial for the murder of president Ahmed Abdallah in 1989. With his lieutenant Dominique Malacrino, he had to face charges in May 1999 for his role in the 1989 coup, in which, according to the French prosecution, president Ahmed Abdallah was killed on the orders of Denard because he was about to remove Denard as head of the presidential guard. The prosecution said Ahmed Abdallah was shot on orders from Denard during a faked attack on his palace on the night of 26 November 1989. But a few days before the trial, Abdallah's family dropped their suit, and finally Denard and Dominique Malacrino were acquitted because of lack of evidence. The Comoros experienced its twentieth coup attempt since independence on the day that the trial began.

Afterward, president Mohamed Taki Abdulkarim declared that he refused Denard's return to the Comoros.

1995 coup and subsequent trial
On the night of 27 September 1995 Denard launched a fourth coup Operation Kaskari, in the Comoros. Denard landed on the Comoros with 33 men in Zodiac inflatable boats in an attempted coup against president Said Mohamed Djohar, Abdallah's successor. On 4 October, in accordance with an agreement between France and the Comoros, the French army put an end to the attempt. The French government sent an expeditionary force to capture Denard and his mercenaries. Despite having over 300 armed Comorians ready to fight and having machine gun posts set up, Denard surrendered without a shot being fired. Denard was brought back to France by the French DGSE intelligence agency and spent ten months in a Paris jail. At his trial a number of former Gaullist politicians, including Charles Pasqua, spoke on his behalf.

Later trials and death
In 2001, Guido Papalia, Italian attorney of Verona, prosecuted Denard for having tried to recruit mercenaries in the far-right Italian movement (through Franco Nerozzi) in order to make a coup against Colonel Azali Assoumani, the current president, also opposed to his return to the Comoros.

On 9 March 2006, attorney Olivier Bray asked for five years of prison for the 1995 coup d'état against Said Mohamed Djohar under the code-name "Eskazi", and sentences between one and four years for his 26 accomplices. During the three-week-long trial, Denard and his accomplices tried to convince the court that they had acted with implicit support of French authorities. Dominique Malacrino talked about the "numerous phone calls of Jacques Foccart, then responsible for the African office at the Elysée palace" to Denard. Emmanuel Pochet, another suspect, declared that Denard had "support from senior officers of the special forces of the DGSE", the French external intelligence agency. Olivier Feneteau, another suspect, declared that he had belonged in the past to the "action service" of the DGSE. On 9 March, Denard's lawyer presented declarations by former president Djohar, who had stated, during an interview to Comorian newspaper Kashkazi at the end of October 2005, that his security chief, Captain Rubis, a French officer that the French authorities had recommended to him, "was aware of the coup".

In June 2006 Denard, who by then was suffering from Alzheimer's, was found guilty of "belonging to a gang who conspired to commit a crime", and was given a five-year suspended jail term. During the trial, the role of the French secret services in the 1995 coup against Saïd Djohar was recognized, but not deemed sufficient to discharge the mercenaries of their guilt. However, the knowledge of the French authorities of the attempted coup was one of the reasons given by the Court to abstain from ordering a firm prison sentence. During his trial in 2006 before the Court of Appeal, a former head of the foreign intelligence service explicitly stated that "When special services are unable to undertake certain kinds of undercover operation, they use parallel structures. This was the case of Bob Denard." In July 2007, he was sentenced by the Court of Appeal to four years in prison (three of them suspended). However, he never served his sentence for health reasons.

His death was announced by his sister on 14 October 2007. In 2011, his story was the basis of the film Mister Bob.

Religious beliefs
Born a Catholic, Denard converted to Judaism in Morocco, then to Islam in the Comoros, and finally back to Catholicism. His funeral took place at the Paris church of Saint-François Xavier.

title: Bob Denard


text:
Earl Bostic

Eugene Earl Bostic (April 25, 1913 – October 28, 1965) was an American alto saxophonist. Bostic's recording career was diverse, his musical output encompassing jazz, swing, jump blues and the post-war American rhythm and blues style, which he pioneered. He had a number of popular hits such as "Flamingo", "Harlem Nocturne", "Temptation", "Sleep", "Special Delivery Stomp", and "Where or When", which all showed off his characteristic growl on the horn. He was a major influence on John Coltrane.

Career
Bostic was born in 1913 in Tulsa, Oklahoma. In his youth, he played the clarinet in school and saxophone with the local Boy Scouts troop. He turned professional at the age of 18 when he joined Terence Holder's "Twelve Clouds of Joy". Bostic made his first recording with Lionel Hampton in October 1939, with Charlie Christian, Clyde Hart and Big Sid Catlett. Before that, he performed with Fate Marable on New Orleans riverboats. Bostic graduated from Xavier University in New Orleans. He worked with territory bands as well as Arnett Cobb, Hot Lips Page, Rex Stewart, Don Byas, Charlie Christian, Thelonious Monk, Edgar Hayes, Cab Calloway, and other jazz luminaries. In 1938, and in 1944, Bostic led the house band at Smalls Paradise. While playing at Small's Paradise, he doubled on guitar and trumpet. During the early 1940s, he was a well-respected regular at the famous jam sessions held at Minton's Playhouse. He formed his own band in 1945 and made the first recordings under his own name for the Majestic label. He turned to rhythm and blues in the late 1940s. His biggest hits were "Temptation", "Sleep", "Flamingo", "You Go to My Head" and "Cherokee". At various times, his band included Keter Betts, Jaki Byard, Benny Carter, John Coltrane, Teddy Edwards, Benny Golson, Blue Mitchell, Tony Scott, Cliff Smalls, Charles Thompson, Stanley Turrentine, Tommy Turrentine, and other musicians who rose to prominence, especially in jazz.

Bostic's King album entitled Jazz As I Feel It (1963) featured Shelly Manne on drums, Joe Pass on guitar and Richard "Groove" Holmes on organ. Bostic recorded A New Sound about one month later, again featuring Holmes and Pass. These recordings allowed Bostic to stretch out beyond the three-minute limit imposed by the 45 RPM format. Bostic was pleased with the sessions, which highlight his total mastery of the blues, but they also foreshadowed musical advances that were later evident in the work of John Coltrane and Eric Dolphy.

He wrote arrangements for Paul Whiteman, Louis Prima, Lionel Hampton, Gene Krupa, Artie Shaw, Hot Lips Page, Jack Teagarden, Ina Ray Hutton, and Alvino Rey.

His songwriting hits include "Let Me Off Uptown", performed by Anita O'Day and Roy Eldridge, and "Brooklyn Boogie", which featured Louis Prima and members of the Brooklyn Dodgers.

Bostic's signature hit, "Flamingo" was recorded in 1951 and remains a favorite among followers of Carolina Beach Music in South Carolina, North Carolina and Virginia.

In 1953, Bostic and his Orchestra performed for the famed ninth Cavalcade of Jazz concert held at Wrigley Field in Los Angeles which was produced by Leon Hefflin, Sr. on June 7. Also featured that day were Roy Brown and his Orchestra, Don Tosti and His Mexican Jazzmen, Shorty Rogers, Nat "King" Cole with Velma Middleton, and Louis Armstrong and his All Stars.

During the early 1950s, Bostic lived with his wife in Addisleigh Park in St. Albans, Queens, in New York City, where many other jazz stars made their home. After that, he moved to Los Angeles, where he concentrated on writing arrangements after suffering a heart attack. He opened his own R&B club in Los Angeles, known as the Flying Fox.

Death
Bostic died on October 28, 1965, from a heart attack in Rochester, New York, while performing with his band. He was buried in Southern California's Inglewood Park Cemetery on November 2, 1965. Honorary pallbearers at the funeral included Slappy White and Louis Prima. Today he rests under a simple black slate grave marker inscribed with his name, birth/death dates, and a solo saxophone, located not far from such other musical luminaries as Chet Baker, Ray Charles, and Ella Fitzgerald, who was born exactly four years after Earl. Bostic was inducted into the Oklahoma Jazz Hall of Fame in 1993.

Style and influence
Bostic was influenced by Sidney Bechet and (according to James Moody) John Coltrane was in turn influenced by Bostic. Coltrane told Down Beat magazine in 1960 that Bostic "showed me a lot of things on my horn. He has fabulous technical facilities on his instrument and knows many a trick." Moody mentioned that "Bostic knew his instrument inside out, back to front and upside down." If one listens carefully to Bostic's fabulous stop time choruses and his extended solo work, the roots of Coltrane's "sheets of sound" become clear.

Bostic's early jazz solos bear similarity to Benny Carter's long flowing lines. Other influences on Bostic include European concert music, bebop and the sounds associated with his Oklahoma roots. Bostic admitted that he was interested in selling records and he went as far as to write out his popular solos note for note in order to please his admiring fans during concerts. Nonetheless, Bostic was always ready to improvise brilliantly during his live performances.

Bostic's virtuosity on the saxophone was legendary, and is evident on records such as "Up There in Orbit", "Earl's Imagination", "Apollo Theater Jump", "All On", "Artistry by Bostic", "Telestar Drive", "Liza", "Lady Be Good" and "Tiger Rag". He was famous as a peerless jammer who held his own against Charlie Parker. The alto saxophonist Lou Donaldson recalled seeing Parker get burned by Bostic during one such jam session at Minton's. Donaldson said that Bostic "was the greatest saxophone player I ever knew. Bostic was down at Minton's and Charlie Parker came in there. They played 'Sweet Georgia Brown' or something and he gave Charlie Parker a saxophone lesson. Now you'd see him, we'd run up there and think that we're going to blow him out, and he'd make you look like a fool. Cause he'd play three octaves, louder, stronger and faster." Art Blakey remarked that "Nobody knew more about the saxophone than Bostic, I mean technically, and that includes Bird. Working with Bostic was like attending a university of the saxophone. When Coltrane played with Bostic, I know he learned a lot." Victor Schonfield pointed out that "...his greatest gift was the way he communicated through his horn a triumphant joy in playing and being, much like Louis Armstrong and only a few others have done." He was able to control the horn from low A without using his knee up into the altissimo range years before other saxophonists dared to stray. Bostic played melodies in the altissimo range with perfect execution. He could play wonderfully in any key at any tempo over any changes. Benny Golson, who called Bostic "the best technician I ever heard in my life," mentioned that "He could start from the bottom of the horn and skip over notes, voicing it up the horn like a guitar would. He had circular breathing before I even knew what circular breathing was – we're talking about the early 50s. He had innumerable ways of playing one particular note. He could double tongue, triple tongue. It was incredible what he could do, and he helped me by showing me many technical things." Bostic used a Beechler mouthpiece with a tenor saxophone reed on his Martin Committee model alto sax.

Bostic was a master of the blues and he used this skill in a variety of musical settings. Although he recorded many commercial albums, some notable jazz-based exceptions on the King label include Bostic Rocks Hits of the Swing Age, Jazz As I Feel It and A New Sound. Compositions such as "The Major and the Minor" and "Earl's Imagination" display a solid knowledge of harmony. In 1951, Bostic successfully toured with Dinah Washington on the R&B circuit. Bostic was always well dressed and articulate during interviews. His live performances provided an opportunity for a departure from his commercial efforts and those who witnessed these shows remember him driving audiences into a frenzy with dazzling technical displays. Always the consummate showman, he appeared on the Soupy Sales TV show and danced the "Soupy Shuffle" better than Soupy while playing the saxophone.

During the late 1940s, Bostic changed his style in a successful attempt to reach a wider audience. The new sound incorporated his unmistakable rasp or growl, shorter lines than in his jazz-based recordings, emphasis on a danceable back beat and a new way of wringing "...the greatest possible rhythmic value from every note and phrase." Bostic showed off the new approach in his hit "Temptation", which reached the Top Ten of the R&B chart during the summer of 1948. The addition of Gene Redd on vibes in 1950 rounded out the Bostic sound and he used the vibes on his major hits such as "Flamingo" in 1951. The 1956 version of "Where or When" features Bostic growling through the mid-range of the instrument behind a heavy backbeat and loud bass and it is a marked departure from his approach to the same tune recorded on Gotham in 1947 which showed off his sweet "singing" in the upper register with barely audible percussion. Bostic proved that saxophone instrumentals could climb the hit charts and other saxists with hits including Boots Randolph and Stanley Turrentine have acknowledged his influence.

In February 1959, Bostic was voted No. 2 jazz alto sax in the Playboy jazz poll over leading saxists including Cannonball Adderley and Sonny Stitt. He recorded an inimitable version of "All The Things You Are" released on the Playboy label. In August 1959, he performed at the famous Playboy Jazz Festival in Chicago on the same bill as the major jazz stars of the time.

Bostic discussed his approach to improvising in an interview with Kurt Mohr. "Of course I am maybe one of the few musicians who like simple recurring melody patterns and in all my playing I try to keep a basic melody line in my mind and attempt to develop meaningful inversions and variations...I like the basic blues.... The blues has it all; basic rhythmic quality, genuine lyric content, essential and basic chord structure and maybe above all else, personality. Blues and jazz are inseparable."

Bostic's recording career was diverse and it included small group swing-based jazz, big band jazz, jump blues, organ-based combos and a string of commercial successes.

Albums
Sources:

 * Earl Bostic and His Alto Sax, Volume 1, King 295-64 [10" LP] (1953); reissued as 295–76 with 2 extra tracks in 1954.
 * Earl Bostic and His Alto Sax, Volume 2, King 295-65 [10" LP] (1953); reissued as 295–77 with 2 extra tracks in 1954.
 * Earl Bostic and His Alto Sax, Volume 3, King 295-66 [10" LP] (1953); reissued as 295–78 with 2 extra tracks in 1954.
 * Earl Bostic and His Alto Sax, Volume 4, King 295-72 [10" LP] (1953); reissued as 295–79 with 2 extra tracks in 1954.
 * Earl Bostic Plays The Old Standards, King 295-95 [10" LP] (1955); reissued as 295–103, re-titled Earl Bostic and His Alto Sax, Volume 5
 * (Dance to) The Best of Bostic, King 500 (1956)
 * Earl Bostic for You, King 503 (1956)
 * Alto-Tude, King 515 (1956)
 * Dance Time, King 525 (1956)
 * Let's Dance with Earl Bostic, King 529 (1956)
 * Invitation to Dance with Bostic, King 547 (1957)
 * C'mon and Dance with Earl Bostic, King 558 (1958)
 * Bostic Rocks (Hits of the Swing Age), King 571 (1958)
 * Bostic Showcase of Swinging Dance Tunes, King 583 (1958)
 * Alto Magic in Hi-Fi (A Dance Party with Bostic), King 597 (1958)
 * Earl Bostic Plays Sweet Tunes of the Fantastic 50s, King 602 (1958)
 * Dance Music From the Bostic Workshop, King 613 (1959)
 * Earl Bostic Plays Sweet Tunes of the Roaring '20s, King 620 (1959)
 * Earl Bostic & His Big Band Play Sweet Tunes of the Swinging '30s, King 632 (1959)
 * Earl Bostic Plays Sweet Tunes of the Sentimental 40s, King 640 (1959)
 * Musical Pearls by Bostic, King 662 (1959)
 * Earl Bostic Plays the Hit Tunes of the Big Broadway Shows, King 705 (1960)
 * Earl Bostic by Popular Demand, King 786 (1962)
 * Earl Bostic Plays Bossa Nova, King 827 (1963)
 * Songs of the Fantastic 50s, Vol. 2, King 838 (1963)
 * Jazz As I Feel It (featuring Richard "Groove" Holmes), King 846 (1963)
 * The Best of Earl Bostic, Volume 2, King 881 (1964)
 * A New Sound by Earl Bostic (featuring Richard "Groove" Holmes), King 900 (1964)
 * Earl Bostic Plays the Great Hits of 1964, King 921 (1964)
 * Memorial to Earl Bostic: 24 Tunes That Earl Loved the Most!, King 947 (1966) [2LP]
 * Harlem Nocturne, King 1048 (1969)
 * 14 Original Greatest Hits, King/Gusto 5010X (1977)
 * 27 Saloon Songs, Diplomat DS-2407 [2LP]
 * The Earl of Bostic, Grand Prix KS-404
 * Wild, Man!, Grand Prix KS-416
 * Sax "O" Boogie, Oldie Blues OL-8007 (1984)
 * Blows a Fuse, Charly R&B CRB-1091 (1985); reissued on CD as Charly R&B CD-CHARLY-241 (1991) with 4 extra tracks

CD compilations

 * Flamingo (Charly R&B Masters, Vol.16), Charly CDRB-16 (1996)
 * The Chronological Earl Bostic 1945–1948, Classics 'Blues & Rhythm Series' 5005 (2001)
 * The Chronological Earl Bostic 1948–1949, Classics 'Blues & Rhythm Series' 5022 (2002)
 * The Chronological Earl Bostic 1949–1951, Classics 'Blues & Rhythm Series' 5039 (2002)
 * The Chronological Earl Bostic 1952–1953, Classics 'Blues & Rhythm Series' 5093 (2004)
 * The Chronological Earl Bostic 1954–1955, Classics 'Blues & Rhythm Series' 5179 (2007)
 * Flamingo, Proper (PROPERPAIRS) PVCD-100 (2002) [2CD]
 * Magic Bostic 1944–1952 (Jazz Archives No. 209), EPM Musique 160402 (2003)
 * The Very Best of Earl Bostic, Collectables COL-2886 (2004)
 * Earl Bostic Plays Flamingo, ASV/Living Era CDAJA-5635 (2006)
 * Earl Bostic Plays Jazz Standards, Definitive DRCD-11295 (2006)
 * The Earl Bostic Story, Proper PROPERBOX-112 (2006) [4-CD box set]
 * Let's Ball Tonight!, Rev-Ola CRREV-163 (2006)
 * The Earl Bostic Collection 1939-59, Acrobat ADDCD-3131 (2015) [2CD]
 * Four Classic Albums, Avid AMSC-1210 (2016) [2CD] — includes all of the tracks from the albums Dance Time, Let's Dance With Earl Bostic, Alto Magic in Hi-Fi (A Dance Party with Bostic), and Dance Music from the Bostic Workshop

title: Earl Bostic


text:
List of municipalities of the Brussels-Capital Region

The 19 municipalities of the Brussels-Capital Region are the political subdivisions of Belgium's central region. The government of each municipality is responsible for the handling of local level duties, such as law enforcement and the upkeep of schools and roads within its borders. Municipal administration is also conducted by a mayor, a council, and an executive.

In 1831, Belgium was divided into 2,739 municipalities, including 20 within the current Brussels-Capital Region (which at that time did not exist). In 1841, a 21st and 22nd municipality were created when Berchem-Sainte-Agathe formally separated from neighbouring Koekelberg and Jette-Ganshoren split into Jette and Ganshoren. Since then, three municipalities have been merged with the City of Brussels: Laeken, Haren, and Neder-Over-Heembeek, in 1921. Unlike most of the municipalities in Belgium, the ones located in the Brussels-Capital Region were not merged with others during mergers occurring in 1964, 1970, and 1975. However, many territorial changes have occurred, predominantly between the City of Brussels and its neighbouring municipalities.

The largest and most populous of the municipalities is the City of Brussels, covering 32.6 km2 with 176,545 inhabitants. The least populous is Koekelberg with 21,609 inhabitants, and the smallest in area is Saint-Josse-ten-Noode, which is only 1.1 km2 and also has the highest population density, at 24650 PD/km2. Watermael-Boitsfort has the lowest population density, at 1928 PD/km2.

List
The names of the municipalities are given in the two official languages of the Brussels-Capital Region: French and Dutch.

* — "City of Brussels"/"Brussels-City"