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Al Stewart

Alastair Ian Stewart (born 5 September 1945) is a Scottish-born singer-songwriter and folk-rock musician who rose to prominence as part of the British folk revival in the 1960s and 1970s. He developed a unique style of combining folk-rock songs with tales of characters and events from history.

Stewart is best known for his 1976 hit single "Year of the Cat", from the platinum album of the same name. Though Year of the Cat and its 1978 platinum follow-up Time Passages brought Stewart his biggest worldwide commercial successes, earlier albums such as Past, Present and Future from 1973 are often seen as better examples of his intimate brand of historical folk-rock, a style to which he returned in later albums.

Stewart appears throughout the musical history of the folk revivalist era. He played at the initial Glastonbury Festival in 1970, knew Yoko Ono before she met John Lennon, shared a London flat with Paul Simon (who was collaborating with Bruce Woodley of The Seekers), and hosted at the Les Cousins folk club in London in the 1960s.

Stewart has released 16 studio and three live albums since his debut album Bed-Sitter Images in 1967, and continues to tour extensively in the US, Canada, Europe, and the UK. His most recent release, Uncorked, was released on Stewart's independent label, Wallaby Trails Recordings, in 2009.

Stewart has worked with Peter White, Alan Parsons, Jimmy Page, Richard Thompson, Rick Wakeman, Francis Monkman, Tori Amos, and Tim Renwick, and more recently has played with Dave Nachmanoff and former Wings lead-guitarist Laurence Juber.

Early life
Although born in Greenock, Al Stewart grew up in the town of Wimborne, Dorset, England, after moving from Scotland with his mother, Joan Underwood. His father, Alastair MacKichan Stewart, who served as a flight lieutenant in the Royal Air Force volunteer reserve, died in a plane crash during a 1945 training exercise before his son Al was born. Stewart attended Wycliffe College, Gloucestershire as a boarder. After that, according to the song "Post World War II Blues" (from Past, Present and Future): "I came up to London when I was 19 with a corduroy jacket and a head full of dreams."

Having bought his fourth guitar from future Police guitarist Andy Summers, Stewart traded in his electric guitar for an acoustic guitar when he was offered a weekly slot at Bunjies Coffee House in London's Soho in 1965. From there, he went on to serve as master of ceremonies at the Les Cousins folk club on Greek Street, where he played alongside Cat Stevens, Bert Jansch, Van Morrison, Roy Harper, Ralph McTell, and Paul Simon with whom he shared a flat in Dellow Street, Stepney, London.

Career
Stewart's first recording was on Jackson C. Frank's debut album, 1965's Jackson C. Frank, playing guitar on "Yellow Walls". His first record was the single "The Elf" (backed with a version of The Yardbirds' "Turn into Earth"), which was released in 1966 on Decca Records and included guitar work from Jimmy Page (later of the Yardbirds and Led Zeppelin). Stewart then signed to Columbia Records (CBS in the UK), for whom he released six albums. Though the first four of these attracted relatively little commercial interest, Stewart's popularity and cult following grew steadily through albums that contain some of Stewart's most incisive and introspective songwriting.

Early albums (1967–1973)
Stewart's debut album, Bedsitter Images, was released in 1967. A revised version appeared in 1970 as The First Album (Bedsitter Images) with a few tracks changed, and the album was reissued on CD in 2007 with all tracks from both versions.

Love Chronicles (1969) was notable for the 18-minute title track, an anguished autobiographical tale of sexual encounters that was the first mainstream record release ever to include the word "fucking". It was voted "Folk Album of the Year" by the UK music magazine Melody Maker and features Jimmy Page and Richard Thompson on guitar.

His third album, Zero She Flies, followed in 1970 and included a number of shorter songs which ranged from acoustic ballads and instrumentals to songs that featured electric lead guitar. These first three albums (including The Elf) were later released as the two-CD set To Whom it May Concern: 1966–70.

In 1970, Stewart and fellow musician Ian A. Anderson headed to the small town of Pilton, Somerset. There, at Michael Eavis's Worthy Farm, Stewart performed at the first-ever Glastonbury Festival to a field of 1,000 hippies, who had paid just £1 each to be there.

On the back of his growing success, Stewart released Orange in 1972. It was written after a tumultuous breakup with his girlfriend and muse, Mandi, and was very much a transitional album, combining songs in Stewart's confessional style with more intimations of the historical themes that he would increasingly adopt (e.g., "The News from Spain" with its progressive rock overtones, including dramatic piano by Rick Wakeman).

The fifth release, Past, Present and Future (1973), was Stewart's first album to receive a proper release in the United States, via Janus Records. It echoed a traditional historical storytelling style and contained the song "Nostradamus," a long (9:43) track in which Stewart tied into the rediscovery of the claimed seer's writings by referring to selected possible predictions about 20th century people and events. While it ran too long for mainstream radio airplay at that time, the song became a hit on many US FM and college radio stations, which were flexible about runtime.

Such airplay helped the album to reach No. 133 on the Billboard album chart in the US. Other songs on Past, Present and Future characterized by Stewart's "history genre" mentioned American President Warren G. Harding, World War II, Ernst Röhm, Christine Keeler, Louis Mountbatten, and Joseph Stalin's purges.

Alan Parsons years (1975–1978)
Stewart followed Past, Present and Future with Modern Times (1975), in which the songs were lighter on historical references and more of a return to the theme of short stories set to music. Significantly, though, it was the first of his albums to be produced by Alan Parsons.

In a highly positive retrospective review of Modern Times, AllMusic senior editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine described the album as "exquisite". Erlewine wrote that the album "establishes Stewart's classic sound of folky narratives and Lennonesque melodies, all wrapped up in a lush, layered production from Alan Parsons. The production gives epics like the title track a real sense of grandeur that makes their sentiments resonate strongly."

Modern Times produced Stewart's first hit single, "Carol". The album reached No. 30 in the US and received substantial airplay on album-oriented stations some 30 years before Bob Dylan would release an album of the same name.

Stewart's contract with CBS Records expired at this point, and he signed to RCA Records for the world outside North America. His first two albums for RCA, Year of the Cat (released on Janus Records in the US, then reissued by Arista Records after Janus folded) and Time Passages (released in the U.S. on Arista), set the style for his later work and have been his biggest-selling recordings.

Stewart told Kaya Burgess of The Times: "When I finished Year of the Cat, I thought: 'If this isn't a hit, then I can't make a hit.' We finally got the formula exactly right."

Stewart had all of the music and orchestration written and completely recorded before he had a title for any of the songs. He mentioned in a Canadian radio interview that he has done this for six of his albums, and he often writes four different sets of lyrics for each song.

Both albums reached the top ten in the US, with Year of the Cat peaking at No. 5 and Time Passages at No. 10, and both albums produced hit singles in the US ("Year of the Cat" No. 8, and "On the Border", #42; "Time Passages" No. 7 and "Song on the Radio", #29). Meanwhile, "Year of the Cat" became Stewart's first chart single in Britain, where it peaked at No. 31. It was a huge success at London's Capital Radio, reaching number 2 on their Capital Countdown chart. The overwhelming success of these songs on the two albums, both of which still receive substantial radio airplay on classic-rock/pop format radio stations, has perhaps later overshadowed the depth and range of Stewart's body of songwriting.

1980s
Stewart then released 24 Carrots (#37 US 1980) and his first live album Live/Indian Summer (#110 US 1981), with both featuring backing by Peter White's band Shot in the Dark (who released their own album in 1981). While "24 Carrots" did produce a No. 24 single with "Midnight Rocks", the album sold less well than its two immediate predecessors.

After those releases, Stewart was dropped by Arista and his popularity declined. Despite his lower profile and waning commercial success, he continued to tour the world, record albums, and maintain a loyal fanbase. There was a four-year gap between his next two albums, the highly political Russians and Americans (1984) and the upbeat pop-oriented Last Days of the Century (1988), which appeared on smaller labels and had lower sales than his previous works.

1990s
Stewart followed up with his second live album, the acoustic Rhymes in Rooms (1992), which featured only Stewart and Peter White, and Famous Last Words (1993), which was dedicated to the memory of the late Peter Wood (co-writer of "Year of the Cat"), who died the year of its release.

After parting ways with his longtime collaborator of almost 20 years, Peter White (who was credited on every studio and live album between Year of the Cat and Famous Last Words and also served as his regular songwriting partner), Stewart joined with former Wings guitarist Laurence Juber to record a concept album, Between the Wars (1995), covering major historical and cultural events from 1918 to 1939, such as the Treaty of Versailles, Prohibition, the Spanish Civil War, and the Great Depression. Juber produced the album, and went on to produce Stewart's subsequent studio albums.

In 1995, Stewart was invited to play at the 25th anniversary Glastonbury Festival.

21st century
In 2000, Stewart released Down in the Cellar, a concept album themed on wine. Stewart had begun a love affair with wine in the 1970s when, he admitted, he had more money than he knew how to spend, and so turned to fine wines.

In 2005, he released A Beach Full of Shells, which was set in places varying from First World War England to the 1950s rock 'n' roll scene that influenced him.

In 2008, he released Sparks of Ancient Light, produced, like his most recent albums, by Laurence Juber. On this album he weaves tales of William McKinley, Lord Salisbury, and Hanno the Navigator. A video for the song "Elvis at the Wheel" was released in December 2013.

Stewart and guitarist Dave Nachmanoff released a live album, Uncorked, on Stewart's label, Wallaby Trails Recordings, in 2009. They played the Glastonbury Festival 40th anniversary in June 2010 on the acoustic stage.

Stewart sang a duet with Albert Hammond of Hammond's "It Never Rains in Southern California" on Hammond's 2010 album Legend.

In 2011, Stewart sang a duet with his guitarist and opening act Dave Nachmanoff on Nachmanoff's album Step Up. The song, "Sheila Won't Be Coming Home", was co-written by Stewart and Nachmanoff.

In May 2015, Stewart performed the albums Past, Present and Future and Year of the Cat in their entirety at the Royal Albert Hall with a band that included Tim Renwick, Peter White and Stuart Elliott, who had appeared on the original recordings.

In April 2017, Stewart was given a Lifetime Achievement award at the BBC Radio 2 Folk Awards, presented by Tony Blackburn, with whom he had once played in a band in Dorset.

In October 2022 he toured in the UK supported by The Empty Pockets (who opened with their own set before backing Stewart).

Personal life
Born in Scotland, raised in Dorset, and gaining fame in London, Stewart moved to Los Angeles shortly after the release of Year of the Cat. He was married to Kristine from 1993 to 2005 with whom he had two daughters. He subsequently married Jill on 12 September 2020.

Historical references
Stewart's historical work includes such subjects as:
 * World War I pilots – "Fields of France", from the album Last Days of the Century
 * The career of Admiral Sir John Fisher of the World War I Royal Navy inspired "Old Admirals", from Past, Present, and Future
 * The Wehrmacht's invasion of the Soviet Union in World War II is the focus of "Roads to Moscow", from Past, Present, and Future. There are references to both Wehrmacht General Heinz Guderian and also to the German Tiger tank and to the brutal treatment of returning Russian soldiers, which is drawn from the Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn book The Gulag Archipelago.
 * Both the Basque separatists in Spain and the crisis in the republic of Rhodesia are referenced in "On the Border", from Year of the Cat
 * There's an allusion to Harold Macmillan winds of change speech (1960) in "On the Border", from Year of the Cat
 * The Soviet Union is the focus of "In Red Square", from Seemed Like a Good Idea at the Time, and in "Joe the Georgian" from Between the Wars.
 * The Battle of Flores (1591) and the efforts of English admiral Sir Richard Grenville are chronicled in "Lord Grenville," from Year of the Cat.
 * The French Revolution is addressed in the song "The Palace of Versailles", from Time Passages.
 * Amy Johnson inspired the song "Flying Sorcery", from Year of the Cat.
 * Henry VIII of England (misidentified by Stewart as Henry Plantagenet (Henry II)) and Thomas More (Henry VIII's chancellor) are referenced in "A Man for All Seasons" from Time Passages.
 * The assassin of Jean-Paul Marat is the subject of "Charlotte Corday", from Famous Last Words.
 * The subject of Nazi war criminals hiding in South America is featured in "Running Man" from 24 Carrots.
 * The scandals of the foreshortened Warren Harding administration are the subject of "Warren Harding" from Past, Present and Future.
 * Benjamin Franklin is the subject of the song "Franklin's Table" from his album Down in the Cellar.
 * William McKinley is the subject of the song "Like William McKinley" from his album Sparks of Ancient Light.
 * Other US presidents mentioned in Al Stewart's songs are Dwight Eisenhower in (A Child's View) of the Eisenhower Years, Calvin Coolidge in Lindy Comes to Town, which is about Charles Lindbergh's transatlantic flight, and Woodrow Wilson in A League of Notions, about the formation of the League of Nations and the aftermath of World War I.
 * Ernst Röhm, leader of the Nazi SA, is the subject of "The Last Day of June 1934" from Past, Present and Future.
 * Michel de Nostredame, the 16th century alchemist/polyglot, is referenced in the song "Nostradamus" from ''Past, Present and Future,", as is Francisco Franco as well as Adolf Hitler and "Napoleon I", "Hister" and "Napoloron" respectively.
 * The escape of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, the last Shah of Iran, during the Iranian Revolution is the subject of "Shah of Shahs", from Sparks of Ancient Light
 * Hanno the Navigator is the subject of the song "Hanno the Navigator" from his album Sparks of Ancient Light.
 * The song title Katherine of Oregon from the album A Beach Full of Shells is a pun on Catherine of Aragon.

Literary sources
"Sirens of Titan", from Modern Times is a musical precis of Kurt Vonnegut's novel of the same name.

On occasion, Stewart has set poems to music, such as "My Enemies Have Sweet Voices" (lyrics by the poet Pete Morgan) on the 1970 album Zero She Flies. During his 1999 UK tour, Stewart invited Morgan to read the lyrics as he performed this song in the Leeds City Varieties Theatre show of 7 November 1999. Stewart also invited Morgan to read the poem at the Beverly gig on the same tour, whilst Stewart took a short break, and Morgan subsequently read another poem from his works as well.

Songwriting
In a 23 June 2012 telephone interview with Bob Reid and Blair Packham on NewsTalk 1010 AM in Toronto, Ontario (partially transcribed below), Al Stewart provided these insights into his songwriting "process":

I don't like repetition. For example, there have been nine songs in the Top Ten, I think, called "Hold On" (Including, I think, once there were two called "Hold On" simultaneously in the Top Ten). OK, if you're really cynical, and you've written a new song, you'll probably want to call it "Hold On" because it gives you an extra edge. But at the same time it shows so little interest in originality that I can't actually listen to anything called "Hold On" at this point in my life. I mean, it just seems crazy. So, if I have two little rules and guiding principles, they would be:

(a) Don't use words that other people use. Very few people would put the word, oh, I don't know, "pterodactyl" into a song. So that's fine. No "Oh"'s. No "Baby"'s. No "I miss you so"'s. And no "you done me wrong". No "bad"'s or "sad"'s.

(b) And the other thing is, write about subjects that no one else writes about. Basically 90% of all songs seem to be either "Baby, I love you so", or "Baby, you've done me wrong". Now, when people look at songs, when I play anybody on the planet this song, and I say "What is this?", they will say, "Oh, that's Reggae", or "Oh, that's Heavy Metal", or "That's Country & Western", or "Oh, that's Opera", you know what I mean? But that's not what I asked. They're answering a question I didn't ask. What they're saying is "That's the music". What I'm saying is "What is the song?" And the song is either "I've done you wrong", or, "Baby, I love you so", no matter what style it's played in. In other words, there's a huge difference between content and style, and, if you work more towards content, why not make it content that is original.

…

If it's already been written, why write it again? If it's already been said, why say it again? I mean there are some remarkable quotes that I love. But I didn't say them. And you don't want to pass them off as your own work. Napoleon said that "Time spent in reconnaissance is never wasted". And that, actually, has governed my life. You know what I mean? That's a quote you can live by. But it's not my quote. So if I say it I always credit it to Napoleon. There is another way of saying any of the things you want to say, rather than rehashing someone else's words.

…

I think of songs as cinema, really. It's aural cinema. I want to show you a movie when I'm playing a song. That's essentially what I'm doing. And, of course, the songs are geographical too. One of the ways I get inspired to write a song – and this will always produce a song that sounds like nothing else (I can't recommend this highly enough) – I just open a world atlas, just at random, and whatever page I'm looking at, at least six songs immediately occur to me.

…

So, if you look at pretty much any of the songs, a lot of them are geographical, historical, and form a movie.

Compilation albums

 * The Early Years (1977)
 * The Best of Al Stewart – Songs From the Radio (1985)
 * Chronicles... The Best of Al Stewart (1991)
 * To Whom it May Concern 1966–1970 (1993)
 * Premium Gold Collection (1996)
 * Seemed Like a Good Idea at the Time (1996) (limited distribution of B-sides and rarities)
 * On the Border (1998)
 * Singer Songwriter (2001)
 * The Very Best Al Stewart Album Ever (2002)
 * The Essential Al Stewart (2003)
 * Introducing... Al Stewart – Running Man (2003)
 * Greatest Hits (2004)
 * Just Yesterday (2005)
 * A Piece of Yesterday – The Anthology (2006)
 * The Definitive Pop Collection (2006)
 * An Introduction To : Al Stewart (2017)

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User talk:Seshat~enwiki

Welcome to Wikipedia, Seshat! Some useful links for newcomers are Naming conventions, Manual of Style, and The perfect article. Most questions are answered at Help; if you have a question not answered there, then you can post it to the Village pump.

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John Larsson

John Alfred Larsson (2 April 1938 – 18 March 2022) was a Swedish Salvationist, writer and composer of Christian music and hymns, who was the 17th General of The Salvation Army.

Biography
The son of officer Sture Larsson and Flora Ethel Mildred Benwell, he spent his early years in his native Sweden, in Denmark, Chile and Argentina. Even his grandparents were officers in The Salvation Army, and his grandfather on his father's side, Commissioner Karl Larsson, is known in the Army's history as the one who "opened fire" in Russia the first time (1914). John Larsson became an officer in 1957 from the Upper Norwood Corps, London, England. He graduated from the University of London with a BD degree.

After a year as a corps officer in the north of England, he served on the staff of the International Training College in London for seven years before returning to corps appointments.

Larsson and Captain Freda Turner were married in 1969 while Larsson was stationed at the corps in Ealing. They have two sons, Karl Larsson and Kevin Larsson, who are both members of The Salvation Army.

Larsson and his wife were appointed to the South America West Territory in 1980, he as Chief Secretary and she as Territorial Home League Secretary. In 1984, they were appointed to the International Training College as principal and librarian, respectively. They were appointed to International Headquarters in London in 1988. Larsson, as assistant to the Chief of the Staff for United Kingdom administrative planning, was given the task of researching and planning for the separation of the international and national administrations. Freda Larsson served as coordinator for married women officers.

The Larssons were then appointed Territorial Commander and Territorial President of Women's Organisations for the United Kingdom Territory with the Republic of Ireland in 1990. In 1993, they were appointed territorial leaders for the New Zealand, Fiji and Tonga Territory; and in 1996, they received similar appointments for the Sweden and Latvia Territory.

Larsson was the author of Doctrine Without Tears, The Man Perfectly Filled with the Spirit, Spiritual Breakthrough and How Your Corps Can Grow. He is also the author of 1929, a history of the events that took place that year in The Salvation Army, Inside a High Council, explaining the workings of The Salvation Army High Council, and Those incredible Booths: William and Catherine Booth as parents.

Larsson was also a composer and, together with John Gowans, co-authored ten full-length stage musicals, Take-Over Bid (1967), Hosea (1969), Jesus Folk (1972), Spirit (1973), Glory (1975), White Rose (1977), The Blood Of The Lamb (1978), Son Of Man (1983), Man Mark II (1985), and The Meeting (1990).

In 1999, Larsson became chief of the staff, second-in-command of The Salvation Army worldwide. His wife became World Secretary for Women's Organisations (later Women's Ministries).

Larsson was elected General on 6 September 2002, and assumed the office following the retirement of his predecessor, General John Gowans. Shaw Clifton succeeded to the office of General when Larsson retired at midnight on 1 April 2006.

Larsson died at his home in Bromley, London on 18 March 2022, at the age of 83.

title: John Larsson


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Nevado del Ruiz

Nevado del Ruiz, also known as La Mesa de Herveo (Mesa of Herveo, the name of the nearby town) is a volcano on the border of the departments of Caldas and Tolima in Colombia, being the highest point of both. It is located about 130 km west of the capital city Bogotá. It is a stratovolcano composed of many layers of lava alternating with hardened volcanic ash and other pyroclastic rocks. Volcanic activity at Nevado del Ruiz began about two million years ago, during the Early Pleistocene or Late Pliocene, with three major eruptive periods. The current volcanic cone formed during the present eruptive period, which began 150,000 years ago.

The volcano usually generates Vulcanian to Plinian eruptions, which produce swift-moving currents of hot gas and rock called pyroclastic flows. These eruptions often cause massive lahars (mud and debris flows), which pose a threat to human life and the environment. The impact of such an eruption is increased as the hot gas and lava melt the mountain's snowcap, adding large quantities of water to the flow. On November 13, 1985, a small eruption produced an enormous lahar that buried and destroyed the town of Armero in Tolima, causing an estimated 25,000 deaths. This event later became known as the Armero tragedy—the deadliest lahar in recorded history. Similar but less deadly incidents occurred in 1595 and 1845, consisting of a small explosive eruption followed by a large lahar.

The volcano is part of Los Nevados National Natural Park, which also contains several other volcanoes. The summit of Nevado del Ruiz is covered by large glaciers. The volcano continues to pose a threat to the nearby towns and villages, and it is estimated that up to 500,000 people could be at risk from lahars from future eruptions. Today, the Nevado del Ruiz volcano is constantly monitored by the Colombian Geological Survey via the Volcanic and Seismic Observatory of Manizales.

Geography and geology
Nevado del Ruiz, which lies about 129 km west of Bogotá, is part of the Andes mountain range. The volcano is part of the Ruiz–Tolima volcanic massif (or Cordillera Central), a group of five ice-capped volcanoes which also includes the Tolima, Santa Isabel, Quindio and Machin volcanoes. The massif is located at the intersection of four faults, some of which are still active.

Nevado del Ruiz lies within the Pacific Ring of Fire, a region that encircles the Pacific Ocean and contains some of the world's most active volcanoes. It is the third most northernly of the volcanoes lying in the North Volcanic Zone of the Andean Volcanic Belt, which contains 75 of the 204 Holocene-age volcanoes in South America. The Andean Volcanic Belt is produced by the eastward subduction of the oceanic Nazca Plate beneath the South American continental plate. As is the case for many subduction-zone volcanoes, Nevado del Ruiz can generate explosive Plinian eruptions with associated pyroclastic flows that can melt snow and glaciers near the summit, producing large and sometimes devastating lahars (mud and debris flows).

Like many other Andean volcanoes, Nevado del Ruiz is a stratovolcano: a voluminous, roughly conical volcano consisting of many strata of hardened lava and tephra including volcanic ash. Its lavas are andesitic–dacitic in composition. The modern volcanic cone comprises five lava domes, all constructed within the caldera of an ancestral Ruiz volcano: Nevado El Cisne, Alto de la Laguna, La Olleta, Alto la Pirana, and Alto de Santano. It covers an area of more than 200 km2, stretching 65 km from east to west. The mountain's broad summit includes the Arenas crater, which is 1 km in diameter and 240 m deep. Nevado del Ruiz, as its neighbours to the southwest Nevado El Cisne and Nevado de Santa Isabel is located over the Palestina Fault that crosscuts the underlying El Bosque Batholith, dated at 49.1 ± 1.7 Ma.

The summit of the volcano has steep slopes inclining from 20 to 30 degrees. At lower elevations, the slopes become less steep; their inclination is about 10 degrees. From there on, foothills stretch almost to the edge of the Magdalena River, north of the volcano and the Cauca River to the west. On the two major sides of the summit, headwalls show where past rock avalanches occurred. At times, ice on the summit has melted, generating devastating lahars, including the continent's deadliest eruption in 1985. On the volcano's southwest flank is the pyroclastic cone La Olleta, which is not currently active, but may have erupted in historical times.

Glaciers
The summit of Nevado del Ruiz is covered by glaciers (nevado means "snow-covered" in Spanish), which formed over many thousands of years, and have generally retreated since the last glacial maximum. From 28,000 to 21,000 years ago, glaciers occupied about 1500 km2 of the Ruiz–Tolima massif. As late as 12,000 years ago, when the ice sheets from the last glacial period were retreating, they still covered 800 km2. During the Little Ice Age, which lasted from about 1600 to 1900 CE, the ice cap covered approximately 100 km2.

Since then the glaciers have retreated further because of atmospheric warming. By 1959, the massif's glaciated area had dropped to 34 km2. Since the 1985 eruption, which destroyed about 10% of the summit ice cover, the area of Nevado del Ruiz covered by glaciers has halved—from 17 to 21 km2 just after the eruption to about 10 km2 in 2003. The glaciers reached altitudes as low as 4500 m in 1985 but have now retreated to elevations of 4800 - 4900 m.

The ice cap is approximately 50 m thick on average. It is thickest in parts of the summit plateau and under the Nereides Glacier on the southwestern slopes, where it is as deep as 190 m. Glaciers on the northern and, to a lesser extent, the eastern slopes lost the most ice in the 1985 eruption, and therefore reach only up to 30 m deep. The deep ice covering the summit plateau may hide a caldera. Five domes ringing the summit plateau have emerged as the ice has retreated.

The meltwater from the glaciers drains primarily to the Cauca River and Magdalena River via the western and eastern flanks of the volcano, respectively. Runoff from these glaciers and those on the surrounding volcanoes is a source of fresh water for forty surrounding towns, and Colombian scientists and government officials are concerned about the towns' water supply should the glaciers melt completely.

Flora and fauna
Nevado del Ruiz is generally poorly forested because of its high elevation, and its forest cover decreases with increasing elevation. At lower elevations, well-developed mesic forests (20–35 meters / 66–110 ft high) are present. Above these but below the tree line, parts of the volcano are covered with dwarf forests 3 – high. Above the tree line, in the Páramo zone, the vegetation is dominated by plants such as bunchgrass and Espeletia. Regional vegetation consists of different families of woody plants, including Rubiaceae, Leguminosae, Melastomataceae, Lauraceae, and Moraceae. Flowers such as Polypodiaceae s.l., Araceae, Poaceae, Asteraceae, Piperaceae, and Orchidaceae are also present in the region.

Animals living on the volcano include the mountain tapir and spectacled bear, both of which are designated as threatened. Other animals inhabiting the surrounding region include the rufous-fronted parakeet, buffy helmetcrest, and Herveo plump toad. The volcano is home to 27 species of birds endemic to Colombia, with 14 of these species confined to the region around the volcano. 15 bird species in the area are considered threatened.

Los Nevados National Park
Nevado del Ruiz is one of several stratovolcanoes within Los Nevados National Natural Park, a national park located west of Bogotá in the centre of the Colombian Andes. The park is a popular tourist destination and contains several tourist shelters. The slopes of the volcano are used for winter sports, and nearby Lake Otún offers trout fishing. A number of commercially operated spas can be found nearby. In 1868–1869, German geologists Wilhelm Reiss and Alphons Stübel were the first to attempt to climb Ruiz. In 1936, W. Cunet and Augusto Gansser-Biaggi made the first successful ascent, partly by ski; they repeated the ascent in 1939.

Eruptive history

The first eruptions of Nevado del Ruiz occurred about 1.8 million years ago at the beginning of the Pleistocene epoch. Three primary eruption periods in the history of the massif have been identified: ancestral, older and present. During the ancestral period between one million to two million years ago, a complex of large stratovolcanoes was created. Between 1.0 million and 0.8 million years ago, they partially collapsed, forming large (5–10 km wide) calderas. During the older period, which lasted from 0.8 million to 0.2 million years ago, a new complex of large stratovolcanoes developed (including Older Ruiz, Tolima, Quindio, and Santa Isabel). Once again explosive summit calderas formed from 0.2 million to 0.15 million years ago.

The present period began about 150,000 years ago and involved the development of the present volcanic edifice through the emplacement of lava domes made of andesite and dacite (igneous rocks) inside older calderas. During the past 11,000 years, Nevado del Ruiz passed through at least 12 eruption stages, which included multiple slope failures (rock avalanches), pyroclastic flows and lahars leading to partial destruction of the summit domes. During the past several thousand years, eruptions of the volcanoes in the Ruiz–Tolima massif have mostly been small, and the pyroclastic flow deposits have been much less voluminous than during the Pleistocene. Since the volcano's earlier eruptions are not recorded, volcanologists have used tephrochronology to date them.

During recorded history, eruptions have consisted primarily of a central vent eruption (in the caldera) followed by an explosive eruption, then lahars. Ruiz's earliest identified Holocene eruption was about 6660 BC, and further eruptions occurred in 1245 BC ± 150 years (dated through radiocarbon dating), about 850 BC, 200 BC ± 100 years, 350 AD ± 300 years, 675 AD ± 50 years, in 1350, 1541 (perhaps), 1570, 1595, 1623, 1805, 1826, 1828 (perhaps), 1829, 1831, 1833 (perhaps), 1845, 1916, December 1984 – March 1985, September 1985 – July 1991, and possibly in April 1994. Many of these eruptions involved a central vent eruption, a flank vent eruption, and a phreatic (steam) explosion. Ruiz is the second-most active volcano in Colombia after Galeras.

1595 lahar
On November 13, 1595, Nevado del Ruiz erupted. The episode consisted of three Plinian eruptions, which were heard up to 100 km from the summit of the volcano. A large amount of ash was ejected, which completely darkened the surrounding area. The volcano also erupted lapilli (a form of tephra) and pumice bombs. In total, the eruption produced 0.16 km3 of tephra. The eruption was preceded by a large precursor earthquake three days before. The eruption caused lahars, which traveled down the valleys of the nearby Gualí and Lagunillas rivers, clogging up the water, killing fish and destroying vegetation. More than 600 people died as a result of the lahar. The 1595 eruption was the last major eruption of Nevado del Ruiz before 1985. The 1595 and 1985 eruptions were similar in many respects, including in the chemical composition of the erupted material.

1845 lahar
On the morning of February 19, 1845, a large earthquake resulted in a substantial mudflow. This mudflow flowed down the valley of the Lagunillas River for approximately 70 km, spilling out of the river channel and killing much of the local population. After reaching an alluvial fan, the mudflow split into two branches. The larger portion of it joined the Lagunillas River and flowed into the nearby Magdalena River, while the smaller portion was diverted by hills in front of Lagunillas Canyon, turned 90 degrees to the north until it reached the Sabandija River, and then flowed east with the Sabandija River, until it rejoined the other branch of the mudflow at the junction of the Sabandija and the Magdalena. It is estimated that 1000 people were killed in the mudflows.

Eruption (1985)
Beginning November 1984, geologists observed an increasing level of seismic activity near Nevado del Ruiz. Such volcanic tectonic seismicity is often a precursor of an upcoming eruption. Other signs of a forthcoming eruption included increased fumarole activity, deposition of sulfur on the summit of the volcano, and small phreatic eruptions. In the latter, hot magma came in contact with water, resulting in explosions as the water was almost instantly turned into steam. The most notable of these events was an ash ejection on September 11, 1985. The activity of the volcano decreased in October 1985. The most likely explanation of the events is that new magma rose into the volcanic edifice before September 1985.

An Italian volcanological mission analyzed gas samples from fumaroles along the Arenas crater floor and proved them to be a mixture of carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide, indicating a direct release of magma into the surface environment. The mission's report, delivered on October 22, 1985, judged the risk of lahars to be very high. The report proposed various simple preparedness techniques to local authorities.

In November 1985, volcanic activity once again increased as magma neared the surface. The volcano began releasing increasing quantities of gases rich in sulfur dioxide and elementary sulfur. The water content of the fumaroles' gases decreased, and water springs in the vicinity of Nevado del Ruiz became enriched in magnesium, calcium and potassium, which were leached from the magma. The thermodynamic equilibration (stationary heat energy) temperatures, corresponding to the chemical composition of the discharged gases, were from 200 °C to 600 °C. The extensive degassing of the magma caused pressure to build up inside the volcano, which eventually resulted in the explosive eruption.

Eruption and lahars

At 3:06 pm, on November 13, 1985, Nevado del Ruiz began to erupt, ejecting dacitic tephra more than 30 km into the atmosphere. The total mass of the erupted material (including magma) was 35 million tonnes —only 3% of the amount that erupted from Mount St. Helens in 1980. The eruption reached a value of 3 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index. The mass of the ejected sulfur dioxide was about 700,000 tonnes, or about 2% of the mass of the erupted solid material, making the eruption atypically sulfur-rich.

The eruption produced pyroclastic flows that melted summit glaciers and snow, generating four thick lahars that raced down river valleys on the volcano's flanks. It also destroyed a small lake that was observed in Arenas crater several months before the eruption. Water in such volcanic lakes tends to be extremely salty and contain dissolved volcanic gases. The lake's hot, acidic water significantly accelerated the melting of the ice; this effect was confirmed by the large amounts of sulfates and chlorides found in the lahar flow.

The lahars, formed of water, ice, pumice, and other rocks, mixed with clay as they travelled down the volcano's flanks. They ran down the volcano's sides at an average speed of 60 km per hour, eroding soil, dislodging rock, and destroying vegetation. After descending thousands of meters down the side of the volcano, the lahars were directed into all of the six river valleys leading from the volcano. While in the river valleys, the lahars grew to almost 4 times their original volume. In the Gualí River, a lahar reached a maximum width of 50m (164ft).

One of the lahars virtually erased the town of Armero in Tolima, which lay in the Lagunilla River valley. Only one quarter of its 28,700 inhabitants survived. The second lahar, which descended through the valley of Chinchiná River, killed about 1,800 people and destroyed about 400 homes in the town of Chinchiná, in the department of Caldas. In total, over 23,000 people were killed and approximately 5,000 were injured. More than 5,000 homes were destroyed. The Armero tragedy, as the event came to be known, was the second-deadliest volcanic disaster in the 20th century, being surpassed only by the 1902 eruption of Mount Pelée, and is the fourth-deadliest volcanic eruption in recorded history. It is also the deadliest known lahar, and Colombia's worst natural disaster. A young girl named Omayra Sánchez became a worldwide symbol of the disaster after images of her trapped under the debris of her former home, after the eruption made the news worldwide.

The loss of life during the 1985 eruption was due partly to the fact that scientists did not know precisely when the eruption would occur, and the authorities would not take costly preventive measures without clear warnings of imminent danger. Because the volcano's last substantial eruption occurred more than 140 years earlier, it was also hard for many to accept the danger the volcano presented; locals even called it the "Sleeping Lion". Hazard maps showing Armero would be completely flooded after an eruption were distributed more than a month before the eruption, but the Colombian Congress criticized the scientific and civil defense agencies for scaremongering. Local authorities failed to alert people to the seriousness of the situation, with Armero's mayor and a priest both reassuring the populace after an ash eruption on the afternoon of November 13 and the consequent ashfall early that evening. Another factor was the storm that hit that evening, causing electrical outages and hindering communications. Civil defense officials from four nearby towns tried to warn Armero the lahar was approaching in the hour or so before it reached Armero, but failed to make radio contact.

Scientists later looked back to the hours before the eruption and noticed that several long-period earthquakes, which start out strong and then slowly die out, had occurred in the final hours before the eruption. Volcanologist Bernard Chouet said that, "the volcano was screaming 'I'm about to explode'", but the scientists who were studying the volcano at the time of the eruption were not able to read this signal.

Current threats and preparedness

The volcano continues to pose a serious threat to nearby towns and villages. The most likely hazard is small-volume eruptions, which might destabilize glaciers and trigger lahars. Despite the significant retrenchment of the volcano's glaciers, the volume of ice atop Nevado del Ruiz and other volcanoes in the Ruiz–Tolima massif remains large. Melting merely 10% of the ice would produce mudflows with a volume of up to 2000000 m3—similar to the mudflow that destroyed Armero in 1985. Such lahars can travel up to 100 km along river valleys in a matter of few hours. Estimates show that up to 500,000 people living in the Combeima, Chinchiná, Coello-Toche, and Guali valleys are in danger, and 100,000 of these are considered to be at high risk. Lahars pose a threat to nearby towns of Honda, Mariquita, Ambalema, Chinchiná, Herveo, Villa Hermosa, Salgar and La Dorada. Although small eruptions are more likely, the two million-year eruptive history of the Ruiz–Tolima massif includes numerous large eruptions, indicating that the threat of a large eruption cannot be ignored. A large eruption would have more widespread effects, including the potential closure of Bogotá's airport due to ashfall.

As the Armero tragedy was exacerbated by the lack of early warnings, unwise land use, and the unpreparedness of nearby communities, the government of Colombia created a special program (Oficina Nacional para la Atencion de Desastres, 1987) to prevent such incidents in the future. All Colombian cities were directed to promote prevention planning in order to mitigate the consequences of natural disasters, and evacuations due to volcanic hazards have been carried out. About 2,300 people living along five nearby rivers were evacuated when Nevado del Ruiz erupted again in 1989. When another Colombian volcano, the Nevado del Huila, erupted in April 2008, thousands of people were evacuated because volcanologists worried that the eruption could be another "Nevado del Ruiz". In October 2022, the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) listed Nevado del Ruiz as one of 100 "geological heritage sites" for being among the "best-studied volcanoes in the world" and a "model for volcanic risk management".

In 2006, heavy rains on Ruiz sent a mudslide down the Chinchiná River, killing nine children aged 12–19 on a scouting expedition near the volcano.

Recent activity
During September and October 2010, the Colombian Geological Survey noted gradual increases in seismic activity near the Arenas crater. Sulfurous odors and phreatic eruptions reported at Nevado del Ruiz prompted an alert level of Yellow on October 1. Chemical analysis of the volcano demonstrated deformative changes and geochemical alterations. Over the next four months a smattering of long-period earthquakes, considered pseudo-Tornillo events, raised worries that the volcano might erupt. In 2010, tilt increased, and on average 890 volcanic tremors were recorded monthly, roughly eight times as many as had been recorded from 2009 to 2010.

Scientists flying over the volcano on March 8, 2012, noted fresh ash deposits on the east flank of the volcano near the crater, likely from an phreatic eruption on February 22. Later that day, a small ash plume erupted from the crater; by March 13, scientists detected ash deposits at the head of the Gualí River. After seismicity continued to increase, the alert level was raised to Orange, and in April Nevados National Natural Park authority closed the reserve, fearing lahars and ashfall hazards. The sudden activity peak in March did not culminate in a major eruption, and activity declined enough that the alert level was lowered to Yellow on May 3. On May 29, seismicity rapidly increased, and the alert level was restored to Orange because ash fell into more than 20 nearby communities. Over the next few months ash fell frequently until earthquakes increased again in June. Because of the severity of these tremors, evacuations were ordered by the Emergency Committee of Caldas on news media for 300–1500 people near the volcano. The alert level was raised to Red, indicating an imminent major volcanic event, and an eruption 7.5 km in diameter took place on July 2, 2012, continuing intermittently until the end of August. Ash plumes and sulfur dioxide emissions recurred until January 2013.

Through the beginning of July 2013, ashfall took place at Nevado del Ruiz a few times per month. On July 11, 2013, there was a relatively large explosion, followed by inactivity until August, when emission of ash resumed, continuing intermittently until April 2014. Reports of ashfall stopped until October 2014. In November 2014, earthquakes were recorded, and volcanic ash was observed near the summit; ashfall reached local communities within a 30 km radius of Nevado del Ruiz multiple times each month until December 2015. A lava dome was extruded from August to the end of October in 2015, coinciding with thermal anomalies increasing near the summit crater at the end of the same year. According to the Global Volcanism Program, the last documented eruption at Nevado del Ruiz took place in 2017. However, reports from the Servicio Geológico Colombiano observatory at Manizales through the end of October 2018 suggested earthquakes near the volcano, with phreatic eruptions ejecting water vapor, volcanic ash, and volcanic gases up to 1.5 km over its crater. In March 2023, seismic activity around the volcano dramatically increased, prompting the Colombian Geological Survey to raise the alert level from yellow to orange. Families living in the area near the volcano were evacuated, and local schools transitioned to online classes; Los Nevados Natural Park was closed. Ultimately, in June 2023, the threat level was lowered back to yellow without an eruption.

title: Nevado del Ruiz


text:
User:Stan Shebs/Articles

This represents the first six months of work only, after that I got tired of updating.

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title: User:Stan Shebs/Articles


text:
Talk:Proof of mathematical induction

Untitled
It seems that the proof uses the well-ordering axiom on numbers, which is essentially equivalent to the principle of mathematical induction!!! wshun 04:12, 10 Aug 2003 (UTC)

 * Yes, ummmm....that's the point. To prove their equivalence.  I don't see what your point is.

Merge?
I'm looking at this article, and I'm thinking that maybe this should be merged with Mathematical induction. -- Fogger 00:06, 13 September 2005 (UTC)

Problem with the proof of the converse...
When proving the converse you are using that there is no integer between n and n+1. The problem is that the standard proof of this use well-ordering.

 * That can be proven using induction, but that proof should be included. Alternately, a proof that a number is either 0 or the successor of a number should be included.

Implicit assumption
While proving induction principle you use the assumption
 * for all x: x>0 => there exists y such that x=y+1

but this is not provable from the other Peano axioms (in fact you need to add this axiom to Robinson arithmetic (where you no longer have induction).--Pokipsy76 17:11, 26 March 2006 (UTC)

 * Added this axiom to the set of assumptions to prove the induction principle. The trans-finite naturals (ordinals) are well ordered but standard induction fails because of limit ordinals which are not the successor or another ordinal.

 * It's not up to our decision to add assumptions to make proofs work: we must just understand how things work in the mathematical literature.--Pokipsy76 08:05, 14 July 2006 (UTC)

Clearer english statement
I believe I can state this proof in a way that would be easier for a reader less mathematically minded (like myself) to understand:

Proof:
 * 1) Having proved that 0 has a certain property P: formally P(0)
 * And, having proved that, if any natural number n has the property P then n+1 must also have this property: formally P(n)=>P(n+1)
 * 1) It is asserted that every natural number m must have this property: formally P(m)
 * Assume that there is/are some natural number(s) mˈ which does/do not have the P property: formally notP(mˈ)
 * The smallest mˈ, call it mˈˈ, is not 0 (by #1)
 * But then mˈˈ-1 must have the property P: formally P(mˈˈ-1)
 * And mˈˈ = (mˈˈ-1)+1, so, by substitution in #2, P(mˈˈ-1)=>P((mˈˈ-1)+1), which is simply P(mˈˈ-1)=>P(mˈˈ)
 * This says that since the largest natural number smaller than mˈˈ, having the property P, implies that the successor, mˈˈ must also have the property P (by #2)
 * The assumption is thus contradicted, and #3 is proved.

I am sure that someone will correct any errors I have made. Too Old 05:34, 22 April 2006 (UTC)

Integer values
should be swap integer values with natural numberrs to be more clear in the line: in other words P is true for all integer values of m.

Changing the tile
What about changing the title to "equivalence between induction principle and well ordering principle"?--Pokipsy76 13:57, 23 July 2006 (UTC)
 * I should prefer not to, because they're not equivalent. The ordered set (1,2,3...∞) is well ordered, but mathematical induction does not apply to it (consider the property "is finite": 1 is finite, and if n is finite, n + 1 is finite, but ∞ is not.) Transfinite induction is another article.  Septentrionalis 18:20, 23 July 2006 (UTC
 * Also, in intuitionistic mathematics natural induction is (usually) an accepted proof principle, while well-orderability is in general not considered true. --Lambiam Talk 00:44, 24 July 2006 (UTC)

 * I don't see how induction on the natural numbers is related to the original post in this section.  It is of course true, and provable in ZF without choice, that a linearly ordered set is already well ordered if and only if it supports induction for arbitrary subsets of the order (in the language of ordered sets).  I doubt this is provable intuitionistically, because $$\lnot \forall$$ doesn't translate to $$\exists$$ in that setting; but this article is not about intuitionistic reasoning, and it is unreasonable to add a caveat to every article that is not valid intuitionistically.   CMummert 02:59, 24 July 2006 (UTC)
 * I thought the article was about induction on the natural numbers, and that the post was related to the subject of the article. Further, I don't see why Wikipedia should claim without caveat that something is true if it is only true under the assumption of an unfounded set of axioms. --Lambiam Talk 11:25, 24 July 2006 (UTC)

 * In a structure for PA without induction, every nonzero number is the successor of some other number; the second post in this section (by Septentrionalis) seems confused about this, because the counterexample there does not have this property. I think that the first post in this section (by Pokipsy76) was proposing something more general: change the article to prove the equivalence between an arbitrary ordered set supporting transfinite induction and the set being well ordered. I don' t know that that is any more interesting than the article as it stands, but its how I interpret the post. As to the value of adding intuitionsim disclaimers to everything: let's postpone that discussion to some other time. CMummert 13:04, 24 July 2006 (UTC)
 * And that's a much narrower property than well-ordering. Septentrionalis 15:23, 24 July 2006 (UTC)

A principled proof
A principled proof can be given by defining the natural numbers to be the carrier of the initial algebra in the class of algebras with signature
 * zero : 1 → N
 * succ : N → N

This defines a set with the appropriate "Peano structure" uniquely up to isomorphism. It can now be shown that for this set the proposition usually called the "axiom of induction" is actually a theorem. I've no idea if this is considered standard. --Lambiam Talk 00:54, 24 July 2006 (UTC)

That is indeed standard; it has been known for a long time that second order PA has only one model, and all the category-theoretical language is just another way to express this fact. CMummert 02:43, 24 July 2006 (UTC)

From Introductory Real Analysis
This excerpt from Kolmogorov and Fomin may be of interest.  Theorem 4 (Mathematical induction). Given a proposition P(n) formulated for every positive integer n, suppose that Then P(n) is true for all n = 1, 2, …
 * 1) P(1) is true;
 * 2) The validity of P(k) for all k ≤ n implies the validity of P(n+1).

Proof. Suppose P(n) fails to be true for all n = 1, 2, …, and let n1 be the smallest integer for which P(n) is false (the existence of n1 follows from the well-ordering of the positive integers). Clearly n1 > 1, so that n1−1 is a positive integer. Therefore P(n) is valid for all k ≤ n1−1 but not for n1. Contradiction! ∎

Replacing the set of all positive integers by an arbitrary well-ordered set, we get

Theorem 4′. (Transfinite induction). Given a well ordered set A, let P(a) be a proposition formulated for every element a ∈ A. Suppose that Then P(a) is true for all a ∈ A.
 * 1) P(a) is true for the smallest element of A;
 * 2) The validity of P(a) for all a < a∗ implies the validity of P(a∗).

Proof. Suppose P(a) fails to be true for all a ∈ A. Then P(a) is false for all a in some nonempty subset A∗ ⊂ A. By the well-ordering, A∗ has a smallest element a∗. Therefore P(a) is valid for all a < a∗ but not for a∗. Contradiction! ∎

Remark. Since any set can be well-ordered, by the well-ordering theorem, transfinite induction can in principle be applied to any set M whatsoever. In practice, however, Zorn's lemma is a more useful tool, requiring only that M be partially ordered.

Both these proofs are trivial. Munkres, in Topology, mentions that the "Principle of Induction" follows from a definition of the positive integers (which he defines using "inductive sets"), but omits a proof, and only introduces transfinite induction in an exercise. Admittedly neither of these books is concentrating on foundations. (For example, K&F do not give a formal definition of the integers prior to these proofs, but are using the much broader well-ordering of sets Zermelo derived from the axiom of choice.)

Still, my feeling is that this article must do something more to justify its independent existence. For example, contrast the content here with that at Proofs of Fermat's little theorem or Proof that the sum of the reciprocals of the primes diverges. --KSmrqT 15:56, 26 July 2006 (UTC)

 * In the article Well-ordering principle there is a sketch of this argument.--Pokipsy76 09:38, 27 July 2006 (UTC)

Looking for more substance on foundations, I checked Enderton, A mathematical introduction to logic (ISBN 978-0-12-238450-9). As expected, there is an extended discussion, but none of it closely matches this article. Perhaps someone would like to check Suppes, Axiomatic Set Theory (ISBN 978-0-486-61630-8) or some other careful source. For alternatives, note that Troelstra's Lectures on linear logic (ISBN 978-0-937073-77-3) considers "inductive proof structures" in the context of Girard proof nets, a radically different discussion. However, the incredibly dense Freyd and Scedrov, Categories, Allegories (ISBN 978-0-444-70368-2) again builds induction into Peano axioms. --KSmrqT 16:01, 27 July 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Proof of mathematical induction


text:
Arkansas State University

Arkansas State University (A-State or ASU) is a public research university in Jonesboro, Arkansas. It is the flagship campus of the Arkansas State University System and the second largest university in the state. The university was founded in 1909 and is located atop 1376 acres on Crowley's Ridge.

Arkansas State University is classified among "R2: Doctoral Universities – High research activity".

History
A-State was founded as the First District Agricultural School in Jonesboro in 1909 by the Arkansas Legislature as a regional agricultural training school. Robert W. Glover, a Missionary Baptist pastor who served in both houses of the Arkansas Legislature from Sheridan (1905–1912), introduced in 1909 the resolution calling for the establishment of four state agricultural colleges, including the future ASU.

In 1918, ASU began offering a two-year college program. In 1925, it became First District Agricultural and Mechanical College. A four-year degree program was begun in 1930. A & M College became Arkansas State College in 1933. In 1967, the Arkansas Legislature elevated the college to university status and changed the name to Arkansas State University.

In the fall of 2014, A-State welcomed its most academically prepared freshman class. The result of several years of growing both admission standards and increasing on-campus housing, A-State's incoming first-year first-time student composite ACT was 23.9 with an average high school GPA of 3.47 (Current freshman ACTs are 20-26 and the average high school GPA is 3.7 ). This was the third consecutive year of improvement for the ACT/GPA freshman classes for Arkansas State. The Arkansas State Honors College has grown 59% since 2009. The university also posted back-to-back high graduate counts in spring 2012 and spring 2013, producing the most graduates in a two-year period in school history. The university contains the largest library in the state of Arkansas, the Dean B. Ellis Library.

Campuses

 * Arkansas State University, Jonesboro, Arkansas (primary campus)
 * Arkansas State University Campus Queretaro, Querétaro, Mexico
 * Arkansas State University-Beebe, Beebe, Arkansas
 * Arkansas State University-Beebe Searcy Campus, Searcy, Arkansas
 * Arkansas State University-Beebe Heber Springs Campus, Heber Springs, Arkansas
 * Arkansas State University-Beebe at Little Rock Air Force Base, Jacksonville, Arkansas
 * Arkansas State University-Newport, Newport, Arkansas
 * Arkansas State University-Newport Marked Tree Campus, Marked Tree, Arkansas
 * Arkansas State University-Newport Jonesboro Campus, Jonesboro, Arkansas
 * Arkansas State University-Mountain Home, Mountain Home, Arkansas
 * Arkansas State University Mid-South, West Memphis, Arkansas
 * Arkansas State University Three Rivers, Malvern, Arkansas
 * Henderson State University, Arkadelphia, Arkansas

Former campus

 * Arkansas State University-Paragould, an instructional site of the Jonesboro campus closed in 2018

Academics
The university has more than 100,000 alumni and offers programs at the doctoral, specialist's, master's, bachelor's, and associate degree levels. They are organized into several colleges: Agriculture, Engineering & Technology, Business, Education & Behavioral Science, Liberal Arts & Communication, Nursing & Health Professions, Sciences & Mathematics, and Undergraduate Studies.

In 2018, Arkansas State was classified among "R2: Doctoral Universities – High research activity". The university nevertheless maintains a focus on undergraduate instruction and small class sizes, with a student-faculty ratio of 16:1, ranked #76 in undergraduate teaching nationwide. The university is ranked #1119 (SCImago Rankings 2018) and #1645 (URAP Rankings 2020-2021) in the current global university ranking.

Master's degree graduate programs were initiated in 1955, and ASU began offering its first doctoral degree, in educational leadership, in the fall of 1992. A second doctoral program, in environmental science, was begun in the fall of 1997, and the doctoral program in heritage studies began in the fall of 2001. Newer doctoral programs are in environmental science, molecular biosciences, and physical therapy. In the fall of 2016, Arkansas State enrolled the first class of approximately 115 students to its branch of the New York Institute of Technology's medical school. The medical school is located on campus in the historic Wilson Hall.

Media
A-State's journalism program reorganized into the College of Media and Communication for fall 2013. The College of Media and Communication is home to three student-led media outlets and a NPR affiliate radio station. The Herald, a weekly student newspaper, was founded in 1921 and has a circulation of 5,000. ASU-TV, a program under the Department of Radio-Television, gives students hands-on experience in the field of television broadcasting. Starting in fall 2013, an Internet-based student radio station, Red Wolf Radio, was added to the student media. Arkansas State is also home to KASU, a 100,000-watt FM station, which is the oldest NPR affiliate west of the Mississippi River.

Athletics
Arkansas State participates as a member of the NCAA Division I Sun Belt Conference. The athletic teams, previously known as the Indians, are now known as the Red Wolves.

In 2012, the Red Wolves football team became Sun Belt Conference champions for a second straight year, finishing the regular season with a 9–3 record, and capped off its successful season with its first bowl game victory since becoming a Division I-A (FBS) program with a 17–13 victory over Kent State in the GoDaddy.com Bowl, as well as earning its first win over a ranked opponent since joining the FBS in 1992.

In 2013, the football team became the Sun Belt Conference champions for a third straight year, finishing with a 7-5 regular season record and won a second consecutive GoDaddy Bowl with a 23–20 victory over then 10-2 Ball State.

International Partner Universities
Arkansas State University's global partnerships provide students with valuable opportunities for cultural exchange, collaborative research, and internships abroad.

Anhui Medical University - China

Dominica State College - Dominica

Horizon Campus - Sri Lanka

Institut Informatika Indonesia (IKADO) - Indonesia

INTI - Malaysia

Methodist College Kuala Lumpur - Malaysia

Metropolitan College - Greece

Saitama University - Japan

Sri Lanka Institute of Information Technology (SLIIT) - Sri Lanka

Woong-Ji Accounting & Tax College - South Korea

Greek life
Approximately 15% of ASU's undergraduate students are members of one of the 21 Greek organizations located on the campus.

Notable alumni

 * Joey L. Carr - American politician
 * Ann Clemmer - Republican former member of the Arkansas State House of Representatives from Saline County
 * Adrian Banks -American-Israeli professional basketball player for Hapoel Tel Aviv of the Israeli Basketball Super League
 * Bill Bergey - NFL player
 * Larry P. Arnn – president, Hillsdale College
 * Fred Barnett – NFL player
 * Mike Beebe – governor of Arkansas (2006–2014)
 * Earl Bell – Olympic bronze medalist in pole vaulting (1984) and former world record holder
 * Darren Benson – NFL player
 * Lonnie D. Bentley – professor and the department head of computer and information technology at Purdue University
 * Ty Bodden, Wisconsin State Assembly Representative
 * Gene Bradley – USFL player and NFL draftee
 * Ray Brown – NFL player
 * Rodger Bumpass – comedian and voice of Squidward on the popular TV show SpongeBob SquarePants
 * Ronald R. Caldwell – Arkansas state senator from District 23; real estate businessman in Wynne
 * Davy Carter – former Speaker of the Arkansas House of Representatives, banker and attorney
 * Maurice Carthon – NFL player and coach
 * Rick Crawford – U.S. Representative for the First District of Arkansas.
 * Demario Davis – NFL player
 * John Dickson- former ABA player
 * Patrick Eddie – NBA player
 * Carlos Emmons – NFL player
 * Jake Files (bachelor's degree in accounting) – former state senator from District 8 in Fort Smith
 * Brad Franchione – two-time NJCAA National Championship head football coach
 * Jeremy Gillam – farmer and former Speaker of the Arkansas House of Representatives from White County
 * Zachary Gramlich, American politician
 * Michael John Gray (B.S. marketing) – former Democratic member of the Arkansas House of Representatives from Woodruff County; a farmer with a law degree
 * Michelle Gray (Class of 1999, B.S. accounting) – Republican member of the Arkansas House of Representatives from Melbourne in Izard County
 * Leroy Harris – NFL player
 * Jeff Hartwig – former U.S. record holder in pole vault
 * Julia Butterfly Hill – environmental activist
 * Thomas Hill – Olympic bronze medalist in 110-meter hurdles (1972)
 * Robert C. Hinson – U.S. Air Force lieutenant general
 * Beth Holloway – speech pathologist and motivational speaker, mother of Natalee Holloway
 * V. E. Howard, Church of Christ clergyman who started the radio International Gospel Hour, based originally in Texarkana, Texas
 * John K. Hutchison, former Republican member of the Arkansas House of Representatives from 2013 to 2015; farmer in Harrisburg
 * Buddy Jewell, country music singer
 * Blake Johnson (exercise science) – Republican member of the Arkansas State Senate from Clay County; rice and soybean farmer in Corning
 * David Johnson – NFL player
 * Tyrell Johnson – NFL player, Minnesota Vikings, Detroit Lions
 * Ken Jones – NFL player
 * Al Joyner – Olympic gold medalist in the triple jump (1984)
 * George Kell – broadcaster and Hall of Fame baseball player
 * Koby Arthur Koomson – Ghanaian diplomat
 * Cleo Lemon – NFL player
 * D. Price Marshall – federal judge, United States District Court for the Eastern District of Arkansas
 * J. D. McKissic – NFL player
 * Ron Meeks – NFL and CFL player
 * Dennis Meyer – CFL coach
 * Josh Miller – member of the Arkansas House of Representatives from Heber Springs; obtained associate degree from ASU campus in Heber Springs
 * Jerry Muckensturm – NFL player
 * David Nail – Mercury and MCA Nashville recording artist
 * Chris Odom – NFL player
 * Stetson Painter -Member of the Arkansas House of Representatives
 * Chad Puryear -Member of the Arkansas House of Representatives
 * Jordan Richard - Professional bowler; 2023 PWBA Player of the Year; three-time All-American at Arkansas State (2016, 2017, 2018)
 * Kyle Richardson – NFL player
 * Jerry Rook – former American Basketball Association player
 * Elbert Shelley – NFL player
 * George K. Sisler – posthumous Medal of Honor recipient from Vietnam War
 * Edward J. Steimel – Louisiana business lobbyist and columnist
 * Dan A. Sullivan – Republican member of the Arkansas House of Representatives for Craighead and Greene counties since 2015; played basketball for ASU
 * Kellie Suttle – Two-time Olympic pole vaulter and silver medalist at 2001 World Indoor Championships and 1999 Pan American Games
 * Charley Thornton – sports figure
 * Debbye Turner – Miss America, 1990
 * Frederick C. Turner, Jr., one of first 3 Black students, first Black faculty member at ASU, Commander of SHAPE
 * Dave Wallace (Class of 1970) – member of the Arkansas House of Representatives from Mississippi County; inductee of the ASU Hall of Heroes for his military service in the Vietnam War
 * Steven Walker, American politician
 * Corey Williams – NFL player
 * Miller Williams – poet

title: Arkansas State University


text:
Greening Earth Society

The Greening Earth Society, now defunct, was a public relations organization which denied the effects of climate change and the impacts of increased levels of carbon dioxide. The Society published the World Climate Report, a newsletter edited by Patrick Michaels of the Cato Institute.

It was a non-profit organization created by the Western Fuels Association, with which it shared an office and many staff members. It has been called a "front group created by the coal industry" and an "industry front". Fred Palmer, a Society staffer, is a registered lobbyist for Peabody Energy, a coal company.

Although the Greening Earth Society generally rejected the science of climate change, it acknowledged some degree of global warming as real: "Fact #1. The rate of global warming during the past several decades has been about 0.18°C per decade". Note that the actual increase in the global surface temperature during the 100 years ending in 2005 was 0.74 ± 0.18 °C.

title: Greening Earth Society


text:
Indiana Limestone

Indiana limestone (also known as Bedford limestone) is a form of limestone used as a building material, particularly for monumental public structures. Some 35 of the 50 state capitol buildings in the United States are made of Indiana limestone, as are the Empire State Building, Biltmore Estate, and National Cathedral in Washington, D.C..

Indiana limestone is a more common term for Salem Limestone, a geological formation primarily quarried in south central Indiana, USA, between the cities of Bloomington and Bedford. It has been called the best quarried limestone in the United States.

Indiana limestone, like all limestone, is a rock primarily formed of calcium carbonate. It was deposited over millions of years as marine fossils decomposed at the bottom of a shallow inland sea which covered most of the present-day Midwestern United States during the Mississippian Period.

History
Native Americans were the first people to discover limestone in Indiana. Not long after they arrived, American settlers used this rock around their windows and doors and for memorials around the towns. The first quarry was started in 1827, and by 1929 Hoosier quarries yielded 12,000,000 ft3 (340,000 cubic meters) of usable stone. The expansion of the railroads brought great need for limestone to build bridges and tunnels and Indiana was the place to get it.

American architecture of the late 19th and early 20th century included a lot of limestone detail work on buildings, but as architectural styles changed, so did the demand for limestone. Indiana limestone was officially designated as the state stone of Indiana by the Indiana General Assembly in 1971. With the Arab Oil Embargo of 1973, the price of alternative building materials skyrocketed so Indiana limestone reemerged as an energy-efficient building material.

Local
Many of Indiana's official buildings, such as the State capitol building, the monuments in Downtown Indianapolis, the Indiana University Robert H. McKinney School of Law, many university buildings, and the Indiana Government Center, and most of the state's 92 courthouses are all examples of Indiana architecture made with Indiana limestone. The majority of Indiana University, Bloomington, was constructed out of limestone. 1959's architecturally significant St. Augustine's Episcopal Church, in Gary, Indiana, uses Indiana limestone in the interior. The Saint Sava Serbian Orthodox Church in Merrillville, Indiana, consecrated in 1991 and awarded a Gold Medal Award for Excellence in Masonry Design, uses Indiana limestone on its exterior facade.

National
Nationally, Indiana limestone has long been part of a high-end market. It has mostly been used on the exteriors of homes and commercial and government buildings.

Many prominent public buildings in the United States — such as the National Cathedral, Biltmore Estate, Empire State Building, the Pentagon, The Crescent in Dallas, and the Hotel Pennsylvania — feature Indiana limestone in their exteriors. Some 35 of the 50 state capitol buildings in the United States are made of Indiana limestone. It was used extensively in rebuilding Chicago after the Great Chicago Fire of 1871. The sculptural group atop the main façade of New York City's Grand Central Terminal — known as Glory of Commerce — is made of Indiana Limestone. (A work by Jules-Félix Coutan, it includes representations of Minerva, Hercules, and Mercury and, at its unveiling in 1914, was considered the largest sculptural group in the world. )

The original 1930s buildings of Rockefeller Center use limestone from Bedford. In 1955 the Tennessee State Capitol exterior was renovated using Indiana limestone to replace the poorer-quality Tennessee limestone that had started to deteriorate. Some 15,000 cubic feet of Indiana limestone was used in the rebuilding of the Pentagon after the terrorist attack of Sept. 11, 2001. The new Yankee Stadium in the Bronx, which opened in 2009, extensively uses Indiana limestone paneling on its exterior facade.

Indiana limestone has been particularly popular for the construction of university buildings. The Neo-Gothic campus of the University of Chicago is almost entirely constructed out of Indiana limestone; in keeping with the trend of post-Fire buildings using the material. The campus of Washington University in St. Louis – both for new construction and original buildings – makes use of Indiana limestone in its collegiate gothic architecture. Many buildings on the north side of Michigan State University use Indiana limestone. The Cathedral of Learning, a 42-story neo-gothic skyscraper that is the largest educational building in the Western Hemisphere, along with other nearby buildings of the University of Pittsburgh, are clad in Indiana limestone. The St. Anthony Society Chapter House at Yale University also is built of Indiana limestone. Many of the gargoyles on the buildings of Princeton University were carved from Indiana limestone, including "Flute Player", located on the exterior of Firestone Library. Both structures of the Kenosha County Courthouse and Jail in Kenosha, Wisconsin, were built out of the limestone. This stone was used as far north as the Hotel Macdonald in Edmonton. The Nebraska State Capitol is clad in Indiana Limestone, after native limestone was deemed too prone to weathering.

Because of the awareness of acid rain, which wears Indiana Limestone relatively quickly, the stone is not as often used in monuments today as it was in the 19th and early 20th centuries.

title: Indiana Limestone