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Tsung-Dao Lee

Tsung-Dao Lee (born November 24, 1926) is a Chinese-American physicist, known for his work on parity violation, the Lee–Yang theorem, particle physics, relativistic heavy ion (RHIC) physics, nontopological solitons, and soliton stars. He was a university professor emeritus at Columbia University in New York City, where he taught from 1953 until his retirement in 2012.

In 1957, at the age of 30, Lee won the Nobel Prize in Physics with Chen Ning Yang for their work on the violation of the parity law in weak interactions, which Chien-Shiung Wu experimentally proved from 1956 to 1957, with her well known Wu experiment.

Lee remains the youngest Nobel laureate in the science fields after World War II. He is the third-youngest Nobel laureate in sciences in history after William L. Bragg (who won the prize at 25 with his father William H. Bragg in 1915) and Werner Heisenberg (who won in 1932 also at 30). Lee and Yang were the first Chinese laureates. Since he became a naturalized American citizen in 1962, Lee is also the youngest American ever to have won a Nobel Prize.

Family
Lee was born in Shanghai, China, with his ancestral home in nearby Suzhou. His father Chun-kang Lee, one of the first graduates of the University of Nanking, was a chemical industrialist and merchant who was involved in China's early development of modern synthesized fertilizer. Lee's grandfather Chong-tan Lee was the first Chinese Methodist Episcopal senior pastor of St. John's Church in Suzhou (蘇州聖約翰堂).

Lee has four brothers and one sister. Educator Robert C.T. Lee is one of T. D.'s brothers. Lee's mother Chang and brother Robert C. T. moved to Taiwan in the 1950s.

Early life
Lee received his secondary education in Shanghai (High School Affiliated to Soochow University, 東吳大學附屬中學) and Jiangxi (Jiangxi Joint High School, 江西聯合中學). Due to the Second Sino-Japanese war, Lee's high school education was interrupted, thus he did not obtain his secondary diploma. Nevertheless, in 1943, Lee directly applied to and was admitted by the National Che Kiang University (now Zhejiang University). Initially, Lee registered as a student in the Department of Chemical Engineering. Very quickly, Lee's talent was discovered and his interest in physics grew rapidly. Several physics professors, including Shu Xingbei and Wang Ganchang, largely guided Lee, and he soon transferred into the Department of Physics of National Che Kiang University, where he studied in 1943–1944.

However, again disrupted by a further Japanese invasion, Lee continued at the National Southwestern Associated University in Kunming the next year in 1945, where he studied with Professor Wu Ta-You.

Life and research in US
Professor Wu nominated Lee for a Chinese government fellowship for graduate study in the US. In 1946, Lee went to the University of Chicago and was selected by Professor Enrico Fermi to become his PhD student. Lee received his PhD under Fermi in 1950 for his research work Hydrogen Content of White Dwarf Stars. Lee served as research associate and lecturer in physics at the University of California at Berkeley from 1950 to 1951.

In 1953, Lee joined Columbia University, where he remained until retirement. His first work at Columbia was on a solvable model of quantum field theory better known as the Lee model. Soon, his focus turned to particle physics and the developing puzzle of K meson decays. Lee realized in early 1956 that the key to the puzzle was parity non-conservation. At Lee's suggestion, the first experimental test was on hyperion decay by the Steinberger group. At that time, the experimental result gave only an indication of a 2 standard deviation effect of possible parity violation. Encouraged by this feasibility study, Lee made a systematic study of possible Time reversal (T), Parity (P), Charge Conjugation (C), and CP violations in weak interactions with collaborators, including C. N. Yang. After the definitive experimental confirmation by Chien-Shiung Wu and her assistants that showed that parity was not conserved, Lee and Yang were awarded the 1957 Nobel Prize in Physics. Unfortunately Wu was not awarded the Nobel prize, which is considered one of the largest controversies in Nobel committee history. In the early 1960s, Lee and collaborators initiated the important field of high-energy neutrino physics. In 1964, Lee, with M. Nauenberg, analyzed the divergences connected with particles of zero rest mass, and described a general method known as the KLN theorem for dealing with these divergences, which still plays an important role in contemporary work in QCD, with its massless, self-interacting gluons. In 1974–75, Lee published several papers on "A New Form of Matter in High Density", which led to the modern field of RHIC physics, now dominating the entire high-energy nuclear physics field.

Besides particle physics, Lee has been active in statistical mechanics, astrophysics, hydrodynamics, many body system, solid state, lattice QCD. In 1983, Lee wrote a paper entitled, "Can Time Be a Discrete Dynamical Variable?"; which led to a series of publications by Lee and collaborators on the formulation of fundamental physics in terms of difference equations, but with exact invariance under continuous groups of translational and rotational transformations. Beginning in 1975, Lee and collaborators established the field of non-topological solitons, which led to his work on soliton stars and black holes throughout the 1980s and 1990s.

From 1997 to 2003, Lee was director of the RIKEN-BNL Research Center (now director emeritus), which together with other researchers from Columbia, completed a 1 teraflops supercomputer QCDSP for lattice QCD in 1998 and a 10 teraflops QCDOC machine in 2001. Most recently, Lee and Richard M. Friedberg have developed a new method to solve the Schrödinger equation, leading to convergent iterative solutions for the long-standing quantum degenerate double-wall potential and other instanton problems. They have also done work on the neutrino mapping matrix.

Lee is one of the 20 American recipients of the Nobel Prize in Physics to sign a letter addressed to President George W. Bush in May 2008, urging him to "reverse the damage done to basic science research in the Fiscal Year 2008 Omnibus Appropriations Bill" by requesting additional emergency funding for the Department of Energy's Office of Science, the National Science Foundation, and the National Institute of Standards and Technology.

Educational activities
Soon after the re-establishment of China-American relations with the PRC, Lee and his wife, Jeannette Hui-Chun Chin, were able to go to China, where Lee gave a series of lectures and seminars, and organized the CUSPEA (China-U.S. Physics Examination and Application).

In 1998, Lee established the Chun-Tsung Endowment (秦惠䇹—李政道中国大学生见习基金) in memory of his wife, who had died three years earlier. The Chun-Tsung scholarships, supervised by the United Board for Christian Higher Education in Asia (New York), are awarded to undergraduates, usually in their 2nd or 3rd year, at six universities, which are Shanghai Jiaotong University, Fudan University, Lanzhou University, Soochow University, Peking University and Tsinghua University. Students selected for such scholarships are named "Chun-Tsung Scholars" (䇹政学者).

Personal life
Chin and Lee were married in 1950 and have two sons: James Lee (born 1952) and Stephen Lee (born 1956).

Honours and awards

 * Awards
 * Nobel Prize in Physics (1957)
 * G. Bude Medal, Collège de France (1969, 1977)
 * Galileo Galilei Medal (1979)
 * Order of Merit, Grande Ufficiale, Italy (1986)
 * Oskar Klein Memorial Lecture and Medal (1993)
 * Science for Peace Prize (1994)
 * China National-International Cooperation Award (1995)
 * Matteucci Medal (1995)
 * Naming of Small Planet 3443 as the 3443 Leetsungdao (1997)
 * New York City Science Award (1997)
 * Pope Joannes Paulus Medal (1999)
 * Ministero dell'Interno Medal of the Government of Italy (1999)
 * New York Academy of Science Award (2000)
 * The Order of the Rising Sun, Gold and Silver Star, Japan (2007)
 * Marcel Grossmann Awards (2015), “for his work on white dwarfs motivating Enrico Fermi’s return to astrophysics and guiding the basic understanding of neutron star matter and fields”

 * Memberships
 * National Academy of Sciences
 * American Academy of Arts and Sciences
 * American Philosophical Society
 * Academia Sinica
 * Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei
 * Chinese Academy of Sciences
 * Third World Academy of Sciences
 * Pontifical Academy of Sciences

Selected publications

 * Technical reports
 * "Conservation Laws in Weak Interactions," Columbia University, United States Department of Energy (through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission, March 1957).
 * "Weak Interactions," Columbia University, United States Department of Energy (through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission, June 1957).
 * (with C.N. Yang) "Elementary Particles and Weak Interactions," Brookhaven National Laboratory, United States Department of Energy (through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission, October 1957).
 * "History of Weak Interactions," Columbia University, United States Department of Energy (through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission), July 1970).
 * "High Energy Electromagnetic and Weak Interaction Processes," Brookhaven National Laboratory, United States Department of Energy (through predecessor agency the Atomic Energy Commission, January 11, 1972).

 * Books

Related archival collections

 * Haskell A. Reich collection of student notes, circa 1945-1954, Niels Bohr Library & Archives (includes lecture notes from Tsung-Dao Lee's courses at Columbia University)

title: Tsung-Dao Lee


text:
Talk:Sexual norm

Wow
"There is much hypocrisy about sexual behavior in all directions." "...far more common than these societies are willing to acknowledge." "A large part of present social unrest in both Eastern and Western cultures is due to this conflict between these two trends, and views upon acceptability and control of social and sexual norms."

Almost none of this article is sourced at all and it's heavily POV. Someone who knows something about this, please fix it quickly. Vesperal 07:22, 13 August 2006 (UTC)
 * I'll delete some of the more egregious examples - and also the implication that religious objections to changes in the norm are inextricably linked to people trying to "keep their wives in the kitchen"... Thomas Ash 10:51, 19 December 2006 (UTC)

Resolved issues
As in everyday usage, the article consistantly confuses the two primary meanings of the words "norm" and "normal." "Normal" means following a norm or a standard. "Normal" can also mean average. They are not the same thing. We can imagine a society where some chemical mutagen causes everyone to be born with one or more deformities. Even if such a people had no access to another society, thinkers among them could develop an idea of what normal, healthy people should look like by creating an ideal chimera based on the best examples available to them, a chimera based on simmetry and made up, for example, of the best working hands and legs. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.19.29.203 (talk) 12:33, 12 March 2010 (UTC)

As an example, societies which aggresively regulate sexual behavior tend to have high levels of child sexual abuse, the discussion of which is taboo.

A statement like this needs to be backed up with some solid facts. If the discussion of child sex abuse is taboo, how is the level assesed? Theresa knott 10:54 24 Jun 2003 (UTC)

See alas. -- The Anome
 * http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/2678479.stm
 * http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/248219.stm

Could someone with time and inclination clean up the crossover between this and sexual morality? The latter formerly referenced this as its secular equivalent; I've changed that (sexual morality is a subset of sexual norms, and also a method by which norms are promoted), but a lot of stuff could now be partitioned out to one or the other. -- Perey 06:12, 29 Nov 2004 (UTC)

"...normal sexuality to consist only of heterosexual sex acts between married couples." Khm... "between couples"? Someone should really correct this. I would do it myself, but since I'm not native English speaker, I wouldn't want to mess it up again. Arny

I have several problems with this sentence: "These are often associated with people and societies having strong religious feelings, and are prevalent in much of Christianity in America, as well as Islam in the Middle East and Asia, and other devout religious groups such as Hasidic Jews in Israel. In such countries, social roles are often strictly delineated, with the wife in a marriage often (but not always) playing a secondary role as home-maker, or obliged to be socially retiring."

1. Societies do not have religious feelings, people do. In fact, they usually have religious beliefs, which I think is a more precise word. 2. "In such countries"? - no, maybe in such regions or societies. 3. The meaning of "secondary" is ambiguous. The wife may well play a secondary role in the marriage, but as a home-maker she plays a primary role (usually, in such traditional structures). In any case, this has little to do with sexual norms, unless cleaning and cooking have a sexual connotation. :)

If no-one objects, I will try to rewrite this in a few days.

Gsandi 11:49, 12 October 2006 (UTC)
 * I've tried to rewrite it. Thomas Ash 10:53, 19 December 2006 (UTC)

Biological and procreation
I have added a section about the relation of "normal sex" to procreation. I realize that it may be inadequate and hopefully someone will edit it better. Still, it is ridiculous to have an article about normal sex without any reference to procreation at all. Tpellman 13:43, 30 March 2007 (UTC)

 * I've taken out that section. What you describe isn't an interpretation I've ever heard of--I've never heard of sexual norms which prohibit sex between infertile people, or the elderly, or even oral sex between a heterosexual couple, while I've seen plenty of the "biological function" argument applied as a figleaf over an "icky icky" reaction to, for instance, homosexuality. If you have evidence that the "biological function" argument is the former as opposed to the latter, I'd be quite happy to see it. For now, I've removed what you've written, because it seems like the same disingenuous weasel-wording around "but it's gross!" that I've seen elsewhere. (For an example of what I'm talking about, here's Bishop Paul Morton: "You don't try to put 2 plugs or 2 sockets together. I want some folk to get deliverance. You ain't got no socket rubbing up against another socket talkin' 'bout 'come on light my fire!' It ain't gon light! We need to break the curse 'cause even some of these older women are attacking some of these younger women and placing them in this lifestyle. That’s why you can't even walk right when you doin' that stuff.  You hurtin' 'cause it ain't natural.") grendel|khan 18:42, 30 March 2007 (UTC)

 * You're saying that cultural sexual norms and taboos generally have nothing to do with procreation? That's what you're saying? See this article for clarification.  On second thought, after rereading your comments I realize you are saying that cultural norms shouldn't have anything to do with procreation. Hole in sand, insert head.
 * But I am leaving the deletion though for a different reason. My edit did not have to do with "sexual norms". But the phrase "Normal sex" address redirects to this page and I was addressing a different use of the phrase "normal sex" than cultural norm, to whit, in analogy with normal digestion or normal use of the legs.  I am only leaving it out because it doesn't really fit with this article and does not warrant its own article, since it is about as obvious as can be.  We no more should need such an article than we need to have one that states that noses are for smelling. It is still ridiculous that a discussion of cultural norms does not mention procreation though, as if that has just been some minor factor in the shaping of norms and isn't worth mentioning.

Tpellman 12:59, 2 April 2007 (UTC)

My edit
Hello, I made an edit that some people might be confused by, so I thought to document the reason here (I do not know of a more appropriate place to do so, if one exists, please inform me of such). You can find the edit here.

I removed "homosexual and bisexual" from this list of so-called behaviors that are suppose to be fairly hidden from society, and doesn't fit in the "norm", as the title of this article properly suggests. First, we must take the up-most care when we start to label people by relations that vary by gender. Is a male having relations with a woman any different then having relations with another male on the grand scheme of things? Are they both behaviors? If we label homosexuality a particular behavior, then does heterosexuality include itself as a behavior? Does a preference in genitals define what is and isn't a behavior? I think not. Homosexuality is not a behavior. If it individual has sexual relations with a member of their own gender, must we practice social ostrication by labeling it as some sort of behavioral characteristic?

The article goes on to say that certain "behaviors" are hidden from the public forums. It states that masturbation, pre-marital sex, etc are quite frequent behaviors. With that said, homosexuality is not quite as common (we've already dis-proven it as a "odd" behavior) as the others. The Department of Health and Human Services estimates the gay and lesbian population to make up about 9 million people. That comes out to about 3% of the entire population. I would consider the other behaviors to be much better placed, such as the so called behavior of pre-marital sex, with 75% of individuals under the age of 20 having had sex before they are formally married.

All in all, I believe that the inclusion of homosexuality and bisexuality in the list to be misplaced, seeing as it is neither a so called behavior nor that frequent of an occurrence. I would also advise that the article be re-worded to not place certain activities in a bad light, as it seems to do with pre-marital sex.

If you have any questions, please contact me. Thank you, Will 00:39, 18 September 2008 (UTC)

Sexual norms and sexual practice is loaded with opinions and not based up in facts. Please either modify/remove this section or back up your opinions with cited facts.

68.4.167.194 (talk) 22:51, 6 July 2010 (UTC)

Misleading redirect from Sexual freedom
It's misleading to reditect Sexual freedom to Sexual norm. See talk.--Sum (talk) 18:46, 20 November 2010 (UTC)

 * I just encountered that same curveball. Does anyone object if I redirect to Sexual revolution instead? Weeb Dingle (talk) 22:18, 23 July 2019 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Sexual norm


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Scottish Trades Union Congress

The Scottish Trades Union Congress (STUC) is the national trade union centre in Scotland. With 40 affiliated unions as of 2020, the STUC represents over 540,000 trade unionists.

The STUC is a separate organisation from the English and Welsh Trades Union Congress (TUC), having been established in 1897 as a result of a political dispute with the TUC regarding political representation for the Labour movement.

The current General Secretary of the Scottish Trades Union Congress is Rozanne Foyer.

Administrative history
The Scottish Trades Union Congress (STUC) is a completely independent and autonomous trade union centre for Scotland. It is not a Scottish regional organisation of the Trades Union Congress (TUC). It was established in 1897 largely as a result of a political dispute with the TUC regarding political representation for the Labour movement. A number of meetings were held by the various Scottish trades councils to discuss the situation, resulting in the formation of the STUC in Glasgow, Scotland, in March 1897. From the outset, the STUC was not in competition with the TUC, nor was it a political movement, but sought to ensure that "in any scheme for the government of Scotland provision should be made for the same industrial legislation being applied throughout Great Britain." Close contact was retained with the TUC with reciprocal arrangements existing for mutual assistance and co-operation when the occasion warranted.

The STUC originally had a rented office at 58 Renfield Street, Glasgow, Scotland, in a building belonging to the Scottish Council for Women's Trades. Between 1900 and 1949 the STUC had offices in various locations in Glasgow city centre and the Govanhill area of Glasgow before moving to Woodlands Terrace in the west end of the city in 1949. In 1998, the offices moved to Woodlands Road.

The Annual Congress is the Governing Body of the STUC. From the earliest days, the Congress concerned itself with a wide range of economic and social questions, lobbying British Members of Parliament, and from 1999 the Scottish Parliament and executive, on major issues. Hours and conditions of work and the battles around these issues were always a central preoccupation of the Congress, but it also concerned itself with wider issues such as international affairs, housing, education, transport, peace, racism, and social and economic issues, as well as promoting and supporting joint trades union councils (later renamed trade union councils).

The struggle for independent working class political representation was one of the concerns on which the Congress was founded and in 1900, the Congress was instrumental in establishing the Scottish Workers' Parliamentary Election Committee, a forerunner of the Scottish Council of the Labour Party, which would nominate and support candidates for Parliamentary elections. The Congress was also involved with the Scottish Workers' Representation Committee which continued to function until 1909 when its duties were taken over by the national Labour Party. A Scottish Council of the Labour Party was formed in 1915. Despite this involvement in the process which established the Labour Party, the STUC is not, and has never been, affiliated to any political party.

The STUC has always had active women members. In 1897 a female delegate, Margaret Irwin, obtained the highest vote in the election of the first Parliamentary Committee (later renamed the General Council), the governing body of the Congress. She was nominated for chairman but declined nomination on the grounds that to appoint a woman chairman at that time was too premature. However, she acted as the Parliamentary Secretary and was also Secretary of the Scottish Council for Women's Trade. The first female President, Bell Jobson, presided at the 1937 Congress. In 1926, the Organisation of Women Committee (later the Women's Advisory Committee, now the Women’s Committee) was established by the Congress, specialising in issues relating particularly to women.

In 1937 the Congress agreed a motion to establish youth fellowships as a way of attracting young people to join the unions, and therefore encourage union membership regardless of sex or age. It was realised that to create separate youth fellowships was restrictive, suggesting that the old and young should work separately. Therefore, in 1938, it was decided to establish the Trade Union Youth Advisory Committee (now called the Youth Committee) encouraging youth sections within the existing unions. The Committee is elected by an annual conference of young trade unionists that deals with youth related issues, and elects a delegation to the Annual Congress which submits three motions and amendments like other affiliates. It also organises day and weekend schools and other activities for young trade unionists.

From the 1930s onwards, probably the most important concern of the Congress has been the Scottish economy. The STUC has played its part in the legend of Red Clydeside 1910-1922; the period of militancy and protest by the working people of Glasgow and elsewhere. It has played a role in many historic struggles of the Scottish people including the General Strike of 1926, the post-war reconstruction of Scottish industry, and more recent events like the Upper Clyde Shipbuilders work-in of 1971–1972, the 1984–1985 miners' strike and the defeat of the poll tax in the early 1990s. The Congress was instrumental in bringing the motor industry to Bathgate and Linwood, Scotland, in the 1960s the STUC played a central role for many decades in the campaign which established the Scottish Parliament.

By 1947 the STUC consisted of 83 affiliated trades unions with a membership of 671,630. In addition, 51 trades councils were affiliated. Membership was made up of members of the Scottish unions and Scottish members of unions covering the British Isles. The period 1977 to 1980 saw membership of the STUC peak to over one million with 80 affiliated unions and 45 trades union councils. A gradual decline of membership then occurred to a total of 634,797 in 2001 with 46 affiliated unions and 33 trades union councils. In 2013, the STUC represented over 630,000 trade unionists, the members of 37 affiliated trade unions and 20 Trades Union Councils.

The focal point of the STUC is its Annual Congress held in April and attended by delegates from affiliated organisations. It is the Annual Congress which sets down the policy of the STUC and which elects the General Council (known as the Parliamentary Committee until 1923). Between Congresses, it is the General Council which implements policy. The affiliates are divided into seven sections: transport, mining and distribution; steel, engineering and electrical; manufacturing; municipal, general and building; financial, scientific and technical services; civil and public services; education and cultural services; and trades union councils. Each of these sections is represented on the General Council (with a number of places in each section reserved for representatives of women workers), approximately on the basis of its proportion of the total STUC membership. There are also two places on the General Council for representatives of black workers, and two places for representatives of young (under the age of 26) workers. Whilst the General Council is elected by the whole of Congress, candidates are restricted to standing for election to the section to which their organisation belongs.

In 2020, the STUC moved to temporary accommodation in Rutherglen before its planned move to a new build premises in Landressy Street, Bridgeton, Glasgow in early 2021.

STUC affiliate unions
The following unions were affiliated to the STUC as of July 2020:

 * Accord
 * Associated Society of Locomotive Engineers and Firemen (ASLEF)
 * Association of Educational Psychologists (AEP)
 * Bakers, Food and Allied Workers' Union (BFAWU)
 * British Airline Pilots' Association (BALPA)
 * British Dietetic Association (BDA)
 * British Orthoptic Society (BOS)
 * Chartered Society of Physiotherapy (CSP)
 * Communication Workers Union (CWU)
 * Community
 * Educational Institute of Scotland (EIS)
 * Equity
 * FDA
 * Fire Brigades Union (FBU)
 * GMB
 * Hospital Consultants and Specialists Association (HCSA)
 * Musicians' Union (MU)
 * National Association of Racing Staff [NAORS]
 * National Association of Schoolmasters Union of Women Teachers (NASUWT)
 * National Union of Journalists (NUJ)
 * National Union of Mineworkers (NUM)
 * National Union of Rail, Maritime and Transport Workers (RMT)
 * Nautilus UK
 * Prison Officers Association (Scotland)
 * Prospect
 * Public and Commercial Services Union (PCS)
 * Royal College of Midwives (RCM)
 * Scottish Artists Union (SAU)
 * Scottish Secondary Teachers' Association (SSTA)
 * Scottish Society of Playwrights
 * Society of Chiropodists and Podiatrists (SCP)
 * Society of Radiographers (SoR)
 * Transport Salaried Staffs' Association (TSSA)
 * Union of Shop, Distributive and Allied Workers (USDAW)
 * UNISON
 * Unite
 * United Road Transport Union (URTU)
 * University and College Union (UCU)

Projects

 * Scottish Union Learning

title: Scottish Trades Union Congress


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Learning English (version of English)

Learning English (previously known as Special English) is a controlled version of the English language first used on October 19, 1959, and still presented daily by the United States broadcasting service Voice of America (VOA). World news and other programs are read one-third slower than regular VOA English. Reporters avoid idioms and use a core vocabulary of about 1500 words, plus any terms needed to explain a story. The intended audience is intermediate to advanced learners of English. In 1962 the VOA published the first edition of the Word Book.

VOA has teamed up with the University of Oregon and produced free online training Let’s Teach English for English language educators. The series is based on the Women Teaching Women English and is aimed for adult beginning level learners.

Examples
VOA Learning English has multiple daily newscasts and 14 weekly features. These include reports on agriculture, economics, health and current events. Other programs explore American society, U.S. history, idiomatic expressions, science, and arts and entertainment.

For example, a May 18, 2010, script described rheumatoid arthritis this way:

"Rheumatoid arthritis is a painful disease that can destroy joints. Women are three times more likely to get it than men. Rheumatoid arthritis is considered an autoimmune disease, a disease where the body attacks healthy cells. The exact cause is unknown. But in a recent study, an experimental drug showed signs of halting the disorder in laboratory mice."

A program from July 15, 2010, dealt with patent law:

"Recently, the United States Supreme Court decided a case on the property rights of inventors. The question was whether a business method is enough of an invention to receive a patent. Patents are a form of intellectual property. They give legal protections to individuals and companies against the copying of their inventions."

A remembrance of Michael Jackson aired on July 5, 2009, shortly after his death:

"Today we tell about one of the most famous performers in the world, Michael Jackson. Known as the 'King of Pop', Jackson sold more than seven hundred fifty million albums over his career. Michael Jackson redefined popular culture with his energetic music, dance moves and revolutionary music videos. But Jackson’s huge success as a performer was not always easy. He was a complex individual with an often troubled private life."

For English learners, the service not only provides clear and simple news and information, it also helps them improve their use of American English. In some countries such as the People's Republic of China, VOA Special English is increasingly popular for junior and intermediate English learners. Many teachers around the world, including at the university level, use the programs for language and content.

The BBC and China Radio International have both used the name "Special English" for their slow speed English broadcasts, but they do not appear to have applied the full methodology of the VOA original.

Specialized English
Specialized English is a dialect of Special English developed and used by Feba Radio, and now used by staff in the U.S. and in the U.K. The same parameters apply as for Special English — slow speed, short sentences and restricted vocabulary. The word list has over 90% commonality with that of VOA Special English.

title: Learning English (version of English)


text:
Carlos Gardel

Carlos Gardel (born Charles Romuald Gardès; 11 December 1890 – 24 June 1935) was a French-born Argentine singer, songwriter, composer and actor, and the most prominent figure in the history of tango. He was one of the most influential interpreters of world popular music in the first half of the 20th century. Gardel is the most famous popular tango singer of all time and is recognized throughout the world. Described variously as a baritone or tenor because of his wide vocal range, he was known for his rich voice and dramatic phrasing. Together with lyricist and long-time collaborator Alfredo Le Pera, Gardel wrote several classic tangos.

Gardel died in an airplane crash at the height of his career, becoming an archetypal tragic hero mourned throughout Latin America. For many, Gardel embodies the soul of the tango style. He is commonly referred to as "Carlitos", "El Zorzal" ("The Song thrush"), "The King of Tango", "El Mago" (The Wizard), "El Morocho del Abasto" (The Brunette boy from Abasto), and ironically "El Mudo" (The Mute).

In 1967, a controversial theory was published by Uruguayan writer Erasmo Silva Cabrera, asserting that Gardel was born in Tacuarembó, Uruguay. Other authors expanded upon this theory, and a museum to Gardel was established in Tacuarembó. But Gardel's friends and family all knew him as a French immigrant from Toulouse. Scholarly researchers analyzed the contradictory evidence, especially French birth and baptismal records, and confirmed his birthplace as Toulouse.

Early life
Gardel was born to unmarried 25-year-old laundress Berthe Gardès, the baby registered under the name Charles Romuald Gardès in Toulouse, France, on 11 December 1890. The father of the baby boy was listed on his birth certificate as "unknown", but 11 days later Berthe Gardès signed a statement establishing the baby's father as Paul Laserre, a married man who left Toulouse a few months before the baby was born. Berthe Gardès also left Toulouse, a little over a year later, likely to escape the social stigma of having a child born out of wedlock. In early 1893 in Bordeaux, France, mother and son boarded the ship SS Don Pedro and sailed to Buenos Aires, arriving on 11 March 1893. Berthe Gardès had her passport recorded upon arrival; she told immigration authorities that she was a widow. The two-year-old boy was recorded as Charles Gardès.

Gardel's mother settled at the western edge of the central San Nicolás district of Buenos Aires, at Calle Uruguay 162. She worked two blocks away on Calle Montevideo, pressing clothes in the French style, which commanded a relatively high price in the fashion-conscious city. Gardel grew up speaking Spanish, not French, with friends and family calling him Carlos, the Spanish version of his French name, and often by the familiar diminutive form Carlitos.

Some time after 1918, Laserre traveled from France to Buenos Aires to ask Berthe Gardès, now called Doña Berta, whether she would like to legitimize her son by marrying Laserre. This would have disrupted her story about being a widow. Gardel told his mother that if she did not need this man in her life, neither did he, closing the matter with "I don't even wish to see him."

Career
Gardel began his singing career in bars and at private parties. He also sang with Francisco Martino and later in a trio with Martino and José Razzano. Gardel created the tango-canción in 1917 with his rendition of Pascual Contursi and Samuel Castriota's Mi noche triste. The recording sold 10,000 copies and was a hit throughout Latin America.

Gardel went on tour through Argentina, Uruguay, Chile, Brazil, Puerto Rico, Venezuela and Colombia, as well as making appearances in Paris, New York, Barcelona and Madrid. He sold 70,000 records in the first three months of a 1928 visit to Paris. As his popularity grew, he made a number of films for Paramount in France and the U.S. While sentimental films such as Cuesta abajo (1934) and El día que me quieras (1935) lack lasting dramatic value, they were outstanding showcases of his tremendous singing talents and movie star looks.

Romantic life
Gardel was aware of the fact that much of his popularity was based on his attractiveness to women. In an effort to seem as if he were available to any woman, he sought to keep his love life secret. Gardel had one major girlfriend in his life: Isabel del Valle. He met del Valle in late 1920 when she was fourteen years of age. At the time, he was performing at the Esmeralda Theater in Buenos Aires. They were close for more than a decade. Gardel and del Valle were not seen together very often in public. Gardel's mother and del Valle's family helped make sure the relationship was not well known. Only Gardel's closest friends knew about it.

Gardel arranged for del Valle to have a house; he provided money for her to live on. Around 1930 the relationship began to degrade. Gardel had his lawyer stop making payments to del Valle, who later married another man and moved to Uruguay. She was always respectful of the memory of Gardel, even when interviewed about him in late life for a 1980s television program.

Death

Gardel died on 24 June 1935 in a crash between two Ford Trimotor transport aircraft at Olaya Herrera Airfield, Medellín, Colombia. Others who died included the pilot Ernesto Samper, lyricist Alfredo Le Pera, guitarists Guillermo Barbieri and Ángel Domingo Riverol, several business associates, and other friends of the group. It is believed that a third guitarist, José María Aguilar Porrás, died a few days after the crash.

Millions of Gardel's fans throughout Latin America went into mourning. Hordes came to pay their respects as his body was taken from Colombia through New York City and Rio de Janeiro. Thousands rendered homage during the two days he lay in state in Montevideo, the city in which his mother lived at the time. Gardel's body was laid to rest in La Chacarita Cemetery in Buenos Aires.

Birthplace controversy
The place and year of Gardel's birth was a controversy that provoked debate; Toulouse, France, in 1890 was the most widely accepted version for many years. The Toulouse birthplace was confirmed in 2012 with the location of his birth certificate. Scholars such as Vanderbilt University history professor Simon Collier, University of Belgrano agriculture history professor Osvaldo Barsky and Uruguayan history professor Jorge Ruffinelli from Stanford University write about how Gardel was born in Toulouse, France, in 1890, and how he laid a false trail about his birthplace beginning in 1920, when he was almost 30.

In October 1920, Gardel first applied for Uruguayan citizenship; in Buenos Aires he went to the Uruguayan consulate to complete paperwork that said he was born in 1887 in Tacuarembó, Uruguay. One month later he was issued a new Argentine identity card that listed him as a Uruguayan national. On 7 March 1923 he applied for citizenship in Argentina. On 1 May 1923 he took the oath of Argentine citizenship. Today, there is no absolute certainty regarding why he took these steps. The most likely reason for this act was to avoid problems with French authorities during an upcoming tour of France. As a French citizen by birth, Gardel had been required to register with the French military during the Great War. It is likely that Gardel never registered; his name is not found on any lists of registrants. Uruguay maintained a neutrality policy during the war, so Gardel probably chose Uruguayan citizenship on that basis.

In 1967, writer Erasmo Silva Cabrera started the modern dispute over Gardel's birthplace when he published arguments describing Gardel as having been born in Tacuarembó, Uruguay. Nelson Bayardo wrote a similar book in 1988. In 1990, Eduardo Payssé González published a book containing many biographical details supporting a birthplace of Tacuarembó. The story is that Gardel was born in 1887 the son of influential Uruguayan landowner Carlos Escayola and Escayola's sister-in-law, 13-year-old Maria Lelia Oliva. The unwanted boy, named Carlos, was offered to Bertha Gardes who was passing through the area on a cabaret dance tour. Gardes took the boy back to France, where she was from. Later, she and the boy traveled again, this time to Buenos Aires, where they settled. This version of events conflicts with scholarly accounts describing Gardes as an ordinary woman who ironed and pressed clothing in Toulouse in 1890, not a touring dancer.

After Gardel's death, his legal representative, Armando Defino, produced a handwritten will which he said was written by Gardel himself, stating he was born in Toulouse, France, to Berthe Gardes (1865–1943), and baptized with the name of Charles Romuald Gardes. This statement agrees with the original birth certificate registered in Toulouse on 11 December 1890.

In his youth in Buenos Aires, Gardel's group of close friends called him "El francesito" (Frenchie), acknowledging his French origin. After 1920, Gardel gave contradictory and evasive stories about his birthplace, most likely because of the false papers he had filed. Reporters often wrote that Gardel was Uruguayan, born in Tacuarembó. In the newspaper El Telégrafo (Paysandú, Uruguay, 25 October 1933), Gardel was reported as saying, "I'm Uruguayan, born in Tacuarembó". In the June 1935 issue of Caretas magazine of Antioquia, Colombia, Gardel was reported as saying, "My heart is Argentine, but my soul is Uruguayan, because that is where I was born". In 1931, Gardel wrote in a witnessed document, "I am French, born in Toulouse, 11 December 1890, son of Berthe Gardes."

Compositions
Gardel wrote the music and Alfredo Le Pera the lyrics for the following compositions:

 * Amargura (tango)
 * Amores de Estudiante (waltz)
 * Apure, Delantero Buey (song)
 * Arrabal Amargo (tango)
 * Caminito Soleado (song)
 * Cheating Muchachita
 * Criollita, decí que sí (song)
 * Cuesta Abajo (tango)
 * El día que me quieras (song)
 * Golondrinas (tango)
 * Guitarra, Guitarra Mía
 * La Criolla
 * La Vida en un Trago
 * Lejana Tierra Mía (song)
 * Los Panchos en Buenos Aires

 * Melodía de Arrabal (tango)
 * Mi Buenos Aires Querido (tango, 1934)
 * Olvido
 * Por tu Boca Roja
 * Por una cabeza (tango, 1935)
 * Quiéreme
 * Recuerdo Malevo (tango)
 * Rubias de New York (foxtrot)
 * Soledad (tango)
 * Suerte Negra (waltz)
 * Sus ojos se Cerraron (tango)
 * Viejos Tiempos (tango)
 * Volver (tango, 1934)
 * Volvió una Noche (tango)

Filmography

 * Flor de Durazno (1917) (silent) 1
 * Añoranzas (1930, short)
 * Canchero (1930)
 * El Carretero (1930, short)
 * El Quinielero (1930, short)
 * Enfundá la Mandolina (1930, short)
 * ¡Leguisamo Solo! (1930, short)
 * Mano a Mano (1930, short)
 * Padrino Pelado (1930, short)
 * Tengo Miedo (1930)
 * Viejo Smoking (1930, short)
 * Yira, Yira (1930, short)
 * The Lights of Buenos Aires (1931) (filmed in Paris)
 * Esperame (1932)
 * La Casa es Seria (1932)
 * Suburban Melody (1933)
 * Downward Slope (1934)
 * The Tango on Broadway (1934)
 * El día que me quieras (1935)
 * Cazadores de Estrellas (1935)
 * Tango Bar (1935)

Notes:
 * 1 Gardel's first film, directed by Francisco Defilippis Novoa and made in collaboration with Celestino Petray.

Legacy
Gardel's legacy is intimately tied with the tango. For his tango singing, Gardel is still revered from Tokyo to Buenos Aires. A popular saying in Argentina, which serves as a testimony to his long-lived popularity, claims, "Gardel sings better every day." Another commonly used phrase in Argentina (and some other Latin American countries) which asserts that Veinte años no es nada (Twenty years is nothing), comes from his song Volver (1934). Another common Argentine phrase is soy/sos Gardel y Le Pera (I'm/You are Gardel and Le Pera) referring to the greatness of both; used when somebody excels at something. Gardel has been posthumously inducted into the International Latin Music Hall of Fame in 2000 and the Latin Songwriters Hall of Fame in 2014.

In the neighborhood of Abasto, Buenos Aires, the Carlos Gardel Museum opened in 2003, in a house that Gardel bought for his mother in 1927, and where he also lived from 1927 to 1933. Another Carlos Gardel Museum opened in 1999 in Valle Edén, an old farm site 23 km south of Tacuarembó, Uruguay.

There is also a small house museum, Casa Gardeliana, in Medellín.

In literature
António Lobo Antunes wrote a novel entitled The Death of Carlos Gardel, in which one of the characters believes that Gardel did not die in the plane crash in 1935.

Gardel appears as a fictionalized character in the play El día que me quieras (1979) by the Venezuelan writer José Ignacio Cabrujas.

In film
In the 1939 biopic The Life of Carlos Gardel, he is portrayed by Hugo del Carril.

Doble o Nada starring Dario Grandinetti and Aitana Sánchez-Gijón was released by Maverick in April 2003. It is a fictional story about a struggling Argentine tango singer who looks and sings like Gardel, and a woman admirer of Gardel, who encounters Franchi.

Stamps
Over the years, Argentina has issued several postal stamps honoring Gardel. In 1976 and again in 2004, Uruguay produced Gardel stamps, with Uruguay calling him the "immortal Tacuaremboan" in the 2004 version. In 1985, on the 50th anniversary of his death, Colombia produced a Gardel stamp which featured the singer and the airplane model that caused his death. On 16 March 2011, the United States Postal Service issued a set of five "Latin Music Legends" stamps including one picturing Carlos Gardel.

title: Carlos Gardel


text:
Melt

Melt may refer to:

Science and technology

 * Melting, in physics, the process of heating a solid substance to a liquid
 * Melt (manufacturing), the semi-liquid material used in steelmaking and glassblowing
 * Melt (geology), magma
 * Melt inclusions, a feature of igneous rock
 * Meltwater, water released from the thawing of snow and ice
 * MLT framework, a software test tool for the Media Lovin' Toolkit
 * Melt, one of the former names for the American social media app Gas.

Music

 * Melt! Festival, an annual music festival at Ferropolis in Germany

Albums

 * Melt (Straitjacket Fits album), a 1990 album by Straitjacket Fits
 * Melt (Rascal Flatts album), a 2002 album by Rascal Flatts
 * Melt, a 2018 extended play by Shaed, featuring the song "Trampoline"
 * Peter Gabriel (1980 album), a self-titled album also referred to as Melt

Songs

 * "Melt!" (Siouxsie and the Banshees song), a 1982 song by Siouxsie and the Banshees
 * "Melt" (Melanie C song), a 2003 song by Melanie C
 * "Melt", a song by Big Red Machine from their self-titled album
 * "Melt", a song by the band Supercell from their album Supercell

People

 * Melt van Schoor (born 1967), South Africa-born Namibian cricketer
 * Melt Sieberhagen, South African actor

Other uses

 * Melt sandwich or cheese melt, a grilled sandwich

title: Melt


text:
Kinsey Institute

The Kinsey Institute for Research in Sex, Gender, and Reproduction (often shortened to The Kinsey Institute) is a research institute at Indiana University. Established in Bloomington, Indiana, in 1947 as a nonprofit, the institute merged with Indiana University in 2016, "abolishing the 1947 independent incorporation absolutely and completely."

The institute's mission is "To foster and promote a greater understanding of human sexuality and relationships through research, outreach, education, and historical preservation." Research, graduate training, information services, and the collection and preservation of library, art, and archival materials are main activities carried out by The Kinsey Institute. The institute and Alfred Kinsey himself have been the subject of much controversy. evolutionary biologist and sex researcher Justin Garcia holds the title of executive director of The Kinsey Institute, previously noted as the institute's research director. Garcia is the institute's eighth executive director and their youngest in history at 34 years old when appointed as executive director.

Formation
The origins of the Kinsey Institute lie in the scientific research of Indiana University professor and entomologist turned sexuality researcher, Alfred Kinsey. The 1947 creation of the nonprofit institute, originally named the Institute for Sex Research (ISR), was supported by both Indiana University president Herman B Wells and the Rockefeller Foundation, a major financial backer of Kinsey's research. The ISR was established to protect and preserve the confidentiality of Kinsey's data and research materials by creating a secure, permanent repository for them.

Alfred Kinsey was director of the institute from 1947 until his death in 1956. Since then, the institute has had six directors: Paul Gebhard PhD (1956–1982), June Reinisch PhD (1982–1993), Stephanie Sanders PhD (interim director, 1993–1995), John Bancroft MD (1994–2004), Julia Heiman PhD (2004–2014), C. Sue Carter PhD (2014–2019), and Justin Garcia PhD (2019–present).

Kinsey's directorship (1947–1956)
Shortly after the ISR's establishment, Kinsey's interview based research was published in the 1948 bestselling book, Sexual Behavior in the Human Male. Its companion Sexual Behavior in the Human Female was published five years later. These books were popularly known as the "Kinsey Reports". Also, in 1950, research materials being shipped to the ISR were seized by U.S. Customs thereby resulting in the federal court case U.S. v. 31 Photographs. This case continued on after Kinsey's death, until it was finally settled in the institute's favor in 1957. The ruling granted ISR permission to import erotic materials for "research purposes".

Gebhard's directorship (1956–1982)
Under Paul Gebhard's leadership, the interview based research project continued, resulting in the publication of Pregnancy, Birth and Abortion and Sex Offenders: An Analysis of Types. Other significant publications included JoAnn Brook's Sexual Nomenclature: A Thesaurus and Alan Bell and Martin Weinberg's Homosexualities: A Study of Diversity Among Men and Women. Additionally, in response to criticism that Kinsey's original data was biased and not well defined, Gebhard and Johnson wrote The Kinsey Data: Marginal Tabulations of the 1938-1963 Interviews. To honor its founder, the Institute for Sex Research was renamed The Kinsey Institute for Sex Research in 1981.

June Reinisch's directorship (1982–1993)
When June Machover Reinisch became the new director, the name of the institute changed to The Kinsey Institute for Research in Sex, Gender, and Reproduction, in order to better reflect its expanded mission. During her first years as director, as part of her contract with the university, the institute was completely renovated and expanded adding a new full floor for the library including temperature and humidity controlled stacks, a scholars' reading room, additional staff offices, and The John Money Visiting Scholars Study, an art gallery and new archives for the art and artifacts collections and additional research offices and laboratory space. Reinisch's directorship also saw the creation of a five-volume monographic series, The Kinsey Institute Series, beginning with the publication of Masculinity/Femininity resulting from institute-sponsored multidisciplinary seminars. Research focused on at-risk sexual behavior and the effects of prenatal exposure to medications on sexual and psychosexual development. Additionally, in 1990 the establishment of the institute's art gallery led to exhibitions featuring its art collection. From 1984 to 1993, with direction from Indiana University to play an active role in public education, the institute produced "The Kinsey Report", an internationally syndicated newspaper column. Although "The Kinsey Report" is no longer a syndicated column, the Kinsey Institute continues to maintain a sex and sexuality FAQ and statistics page on their website. Additionally, a trade book aimed at popular audiences, The Kinsey Institute New Report on Sex: What you must know to be Sexually Literate, was released in 1991.

Stephanie Sanders's interim directorship (1993–1995)
Following June Reinisch's retirement, Stephanie Sanders held the institute's research and curriculum programs together as the Board reorganized its internal structure amid drastic budget cuts from Indiana University.

John Bancroft's directorship (1995–2004)
From 1995 to 2001, The Kinsey Institute operated a clinic for sexual health and menstrual problems under the directorship of John Bancroft. Research focus was placed upon the psychology of sexual behavior, hormonal effects on sex, and sexuality and well-being. Bancroft and Erick Janssen developed the Dual-control model of sexual arousal, a theory of sexual arousal involving inhibitory and excitation processes. In 1999, the website Kinsey Confidential (originally called Kinsey Institute Sexuality Information Service for Students) was started to provide research-based information regarding sexuality to college-aged adults. It includes sex questions and answers provided by sex researcher and columnist Debby Herbenick in both column-format and podcast-format. During the following year, the institute began regularly rotating exhibitions of artwork and archival materials in addition to offering public tours.

Julia Heiman's directorship (2004–2013)
In 2006, the institute began hosting an annual juried art show. In 2007, The Kinsey Institute also hosted the inaugural conference of The University Consortium for Sexuality Research and Training. Also, a question and answer column from the Kinsey Confidential runs in university newspapers including Indiana University's Indiana Daily Student. Ongoing research themes include such topics as condom usage, sex in long-term relationships, and hormones and reproduction.

Sue Carter's directorship (2014–2019)

Sue Carter, a pioneer in examining mechanisms underlying love, bonding and other emotions, was named director in October 2014. Carter said her directorship will emphasize love, sexuality and well-being. "I want to take Kinsey into directions that are unequivocally important" including sexual trauma, the transgender movement, and medical interventions that can affect a person's sexuality and relationships. Reflecting this broadened scope, the institute changed its tagline from "advancing sexual health and knowledge worldwide" to "explore love, sexuality, and well-being" and introduced a new red logo, a circle inscribed with a hexagonal arrangement of circular arcs. The prior logo, a stylised K designed by Enock, Inc., had been phased out around 2010–11. For most of her life, Carter has studied prairie voles. Unlike most other mammals, these voles pair-bond.

Justin Garcia's directorship (2019–present)
On July 1, 2019, evolutionary biologist and sex researcher Justin Garcia became the institute's youngest executive director at 34 years old, replacing director Sue Carter.

Other
In 2023, the Indiana House of Representatives passed legislation banning any state funds from going to the Kinsey Institute.

Library, archive, and art collection
The Kinsey Institute is considered to have one of the largest collections of library, archival, and art materials pertaining to sex, gender, and reproduction. The current collection began as Alfred Kinsey's private research collection. To ensure its protection, Kinsey sold it to the institute for one dollar. Over the years, neither state nor grant money have been used to build collections. Instead the institute uses funds obtained from book royalties and fees in addition to donations. A sampling of the broad range of items housed at the institute includes scientific and popular books, pulp magazines, publications from both sexual and anti-sexual organizations, data from Kinsey's original interview project, films, photos, erotic objects, and artwork by both professionals and amateurs. Items from all over the world are represented in the collection and some objects even date back to the pre-Columbian era. However, materials do not circulate and must be studied within the reading room which is open to scholars, professionals, university faculty, and students over eighteen who are researching topics pertaining to sexuality, gender, and reproduction. Due to the highly specialized nature of the collection, holdings are described using subject headings created by The Kinsey Institute and organized using a modified version of the Dewey Decimal System.

Art gallery
The Kinsey Institute's art gallery is accessible to the public and hosts a variety of exhibitions each year. Some titles of past exhibitions have included Nature & Nurture: Exploring Human Reproduction from Pregnancy through Early Childhood, Private Eyes: Amateur Art from The Kinsey Institute Collections, Eros in Asia: Erotic Art from Iran to Japan, and Sex and Presidential Politics. Exhibits featuring the institute's collection have also traveled around both the state of Indiana and country. Each year since 2006, The Kinsey Institute's annual juried art show features art work that explores themes of sexuality, gender, romance, reproduction, gender and sexual politics, the human figure, and the relation between illness and sexuality. Due to the large size of the show, it is hosted at Indiana University's SoFa gallery.

title: Kinsey Institute


text:
D20 System

The d20 System is a role-playing game system published in 2000 by Wizards of the Coast, originally developed for the 3rd edition of Dungeons & Dragons. The system is named after the 20-sided dice which are central to the core mechanics of many actions in the game.

Much of the d20 System was released as the System Reference Document (SRD) under the Open Game License (OGL) as Open Game Content (OGC), which allows commercial and non-commercial publishers to release modifications or supplements to the system without paying for the use of the system's associated intellectual property, which is owned by Wizards of the Coast.

The original impetus for the open licensing of the d20 System involved the economics of producing role-playing games (RPGs). Game supplements suffered far more diminished sales over time than the core books required to play the game. Ryan Dancey, brand manager for Dungeons & Dragons at the time, directed the effort of licensing the new edition of Dungeons & Dragons through the d20 System Trademark, allowing other companies to support the d20 System under a common brand identity. This is distinct from the Open Game License, which simply allows any party to produce works composed of or derivative of designated Open Game Content.

Mechanics
The d20 System is a derivative of the third edition Dungeons & Dragons game system. The three primary designers behind the d20 System were Jonathan Tweet, Monte Cook, and Skip Williams; many others contributed, most notably Richard Baker and Wizards of the Coast then-president Peter Adkison. Many give Tweet the bulk of the credit for the basic resolution mechanic, citing similarities to the system behind his game Ars Magica. Tweet, however, stated "The other designers already had a core mechanic similar to the current one when I joined the design team".

To resolve an action in the d20 System, a player rolls a 20-sided die and adds modifiers based on the natural aptitude of the character (defined by six attributes: Strength, Dexterity, Constitution, Intelligence, Wisdom, and Charisma) and how skilled the character is in various fields (such as in combat), as well as other, situational modifiers. If the result is greater than or equal to a target number (called a Difficulty Class or DC) then the action succeeds. This is called the Core Mechanic. This system is consistently used for all action resolution in the d20 System. In prior games in the D&D family, the rules for different actions, such as the first-edition hit tables or the second-edition Advanced Dungeons & Dragons (AD&D) "THAC0" and saving throw mechanics, varied considerably in which dice were used and even whether high numbers or low numbers were preferable.

The d20 System is not presented as a universal system in any of its publications or free distributions, unlike game systems like GURPS. Rather, the core system has been presented in a variety of formats that have been adapted by various publishers (both Wizards of the Coast and third-party) to specific settings and genres, much like the Basic Role-Playing system common to early games by veteran role-playing game publisher Chaosium.

The rules for the d20 System are defined in the System Reference Document or SRD (two separate SRDs were released, one for D&D 3rd edition and one for edition 3.5), which may be copied freely or even sold. Designed for fantasy-genre games in (usually) a pseudo-medieval setting, the SRD is drawn from the following D&D books: Player's Handbook v3.5, Expanded Psionics Handbook, Dungeon Master's Guide v3.5, Monster Manual v3.5, Deities and Demigods v3.0, Unearthed Arcana, and Epic Level Handbook. Information from these books not in the SRD include detailed descriptions, flavor text, and material Wizards of the Coast considers more specific product identity (such as references to the Greyhawk campaign setting and information on mind flayers).

d20 Modern has its own SRD, called the Modern System Reference Document (MSRD). The MSRD includes material from the d20 Modern Roleplaying Game, Urban Arcana Campaign Setting, d20 Menace Manual, and d20 Future. The MSRD can cover a wide variety of genres, but is intended for a modern-day, or in the case of the last of these, a futuristic setting.

Development
Ryan Dancey believed that the strength of Dungeons & Dragons came from its gaming community instead of its game system, which supported his belief in an axiom that Skaff Elias promoted known as the "Skaff Effect" which posited that other role-playing game companies increased the success of the market leader, which at that time was Wizards of the Coast. Dancey also theorized that the proliferation of numerous game systems actually made the role-playing game industry weaker, and these beliefs together led Dancey to the idea to allow other publishers to create their own Dungeons & Dragons supplements. This led to a pair of licenses that Wizards of the Coast released in 2000, before 3rd edition Dungeons & Dragons was released: the Open Gaming License (OGL) made most of the game mechanics of 3rd edition D&D permanently open and available for use as what was known as system reference documents, while the d20 Trademark License allowed publishers to use the official "d20" mark of their products to show compatibility with those from Wizards of the Coast. Unlike the OGL, the d20 License was written so that Wizards could cancel it in the future.

2000–2003: d20 boom
Initially there was a boom in the RPG industry caused its use by the d20 license, with numerous companies publishing their own d20 supplements. Some companies used the d20 system to attempt to boost the sales of their proprietary systems, such as Atlas Games and Chaosium, while many other publishers produced d20 content exclusively, including existing companies such as Alderac Entertainment, Fantasy Flight Games, and White Wolf Publishing, as well as new companies like Goodman Games, Green Ronin, Mongoose Publishing, and Troll Lord Games. The success of the d20 license helped create an industry for PDF publishing for role-playing games to fill the demand for d20 products, where electronic delivery presented players with a very quick and inexpensive method to distribute content.

Wizards also began using their d20 system beyond just fantasy games, including their own Star Wars Roleplaying Game (2000) and the d20 Modern Roleplaying Game (2002). Wizards developed one of the settings from d20 Modern into the full Urban Arcana Campaign Setting (2003) sourcebook, and further extending the d20 into science-fiction with d20 Future (2004) and into historical settings with d20 Past (2005), then finished up their d20 line in 2006 with the classic Dark•Matter campaign setting. Third-party publishers used these d20 genre books to base their own campaign settings on, such as White Wolf using the d20 Modern rules to publish a licensed version of Gamma World (2006) and some supplements.

2003 onward: 3.5 edition and d20 bust
In response to the sexually explicit Book of Erotic Fantasy (2003) announced by Valar Project for Dungeons & Dragons, Wizards of the Coast changed the d20 license so that publications were required to meet "community standards of decency", prompting Valar to simply remove direct references to Dungeons & Dragons and publish the book under the OGL. This event, by highlighting that Wizards of the Coast still held wide discretionary power over what counted as legitimate d20 material, made third-party game writers leery of publishing under the d20 license.

Wizards of the Coast released an updated version of Dungeons & Dragons, edition 3.5 at Gen Con 36 in August 2003. Third-party publishers were given little warning regarding the update and therefore many companies were stuck with books that were out-of-date before even reaching their audience. Wizards did not make any 3.5 update available for the d20 trademark. Between these two crises, many d20 publishers went out of business or left the field, but most that remained totally abandoned the d20 trademark in favor of publishing under the OGL. Publishers realized that they could publish d20 games successfully without depending upon the core books from Wizards of the Coast, and publishers even started to create OGL-based games that were direct competitors to D&D.

Trademark license
Because Dungeons & Dragons is the most popular role-playing game in the world, many third-party publishers of the 2000s produced products designed to be compatible with that game and its cousin, d20 Modern. Wizards of the Coast provided a separate license allowing publishers to use some of its trademarked terms and a distinctive logo to help consumers identify these products. This was known as the d20 System Trademark License (d20STL).

The d20STL required publishers to exclude character-creation and advancement rules, apply certain notices, and adhere to an acceptable content policy. D20STL products were also required to clearly state that they require the core books from Wizards of the Coast for use. All d20STL products also had to use the OGL to make use of d20 System open content. However, products that only use the OGL are not bound by these restrictions; thus publishers were able to use the OGL without using the d20STL, and by including their own character-creation and advancement rules allow them to function as complete standalone games.

With the release of the 4th edition of Dungeons & Dragons in 2008, Wizards of the Coast revoked the original d20STL, replacing it with a new license specifically for D&D, known as the Game System License. The terms of this license are similar to the d20STL, but there is no associated OGL or Open Content, and the 4th-edition SRD merely lists the items and terms which may be used in licensed products. This did not affect the legal standing of the OGL, and products based on the SRD may still be released under the OGL alone.

Controversy
When gaming company Valar Project attempted to publish the d20 Book of Erotic Fantasy (BoEF), which focused on sexual content, Wizards of the Coast altered the d20 System Trademark License in advance of publication of BoEF by adding a "quality standards" provision that required publishers to comply with "community standards of decency." This subsequently prevented the book's publication under the d20STL. Wizards of the Coast said this was done to protect its d20 System trademark. The Book of Erotic Fantasy was subsequently published without the d20 System trademark under the OGL. Other books subsequently published under similar circumstances include Skirmisher Publishing's Nuisances, which includes on its cover the disclaimer "Warning: intended for mature readers only."

The same round of changes to the license also limited the size at which the text "Requires the use of the Dungeons & Dragons Player's Handbook, Third Edition, published by Wizards of the Coast" (which is required to appear on the front or back cover of most fantasy d20 System products) could be printed, and prohibited making part of it larger than the rest.

title: D20 System


text:
Institute for Sex Research

Institute for Sex Research may refer to:
 * Kinsey Institute, an independent institution associated with Indiana University from 1947 to 2016
 * Institut für Sexualwissenschaft, a research institution associated with Magnus Hirschfeld in Germany, 1919–1933

title: Institute for Sex Research


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Waldshut (district)

Waldshut is a Landkreis (district) in the south of Baden-Württemberg, Germany. Neighbouring districts are (clockwise from the west) Lörrach, Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald and Schwarzwald-Baar; followed in the south by the Swiss cantons of Schaffhausen, Zürich and Aargau.

History
The district dates to the Oberamt Waldshut, which was created when the area became part of the state of Baden in the beginning of the 19th century. After some changes it was converted to a district in 1938. In 1973 the districts Säckingen and Hochschwarzwald were dissolved and were partially added to the district Waldshut, which then grew to its current size.

Geography
The district covers the southern part of the Black Forest. The river Rhine forms most of the boundary to Switzerland.

Coat of arms
The present coat of arms was granted on December 11, 1973, superseding an older one. The bend wavy represents the river Rhine as the main river of the district. The wheel on a blue ground symbolizes the district's hydro-electric power industry (there was also a wheel in the old coat of arms). The abbot's staff was taken from the arms of the district of Säckingen, to symbolize its monasteries. Green is used to signify the Black Forest.

title: Waldshut (district)