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Lok Sabha

The Lok Sabha, also known as the House of the People, is the lower house of India's bicameral Parliament, with the upper house being the Rajya Sabha. Members of the Lok Sabha are elected by an adult universal suffrage and a first-past-the-post system to represent their respective constituencies, and they hold their seats for five years or until the body is dissolved by the President on the advice of the council of ministers. The house meets in the Lok Sabha Chambers of the Parliament House, New Delhi.

The maximum membership of the House allotted by the Constitution of India is 552 (Initially, in 1950, it was 500.) Currently, the house has 543 seats which are filled by the election of up to 543 elected members. Between 1952 and 2020, two additional members of the Anglo-Indian community were also nominated by the President of India on the advice of the Government of India, which was abolished in January 2020 by the 104th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2019. The new parliament has a seating capacity of 888 for Lok Sabha.

A total of 131 seats (24.03%) are reserved for representatives of Scheduled Castes (84) and Scheduled Tribes (47). The quorum for the House is 10% of the total membership. The Lok Sabha, unless sooner dissolved, continues to operate for five years from the date appointed for its first meeting. However, while a proclamation of emergency is in operation, this period may be extended by Parliament by law or decree.

An exercise to redraw Lok Sabha constituencies' boundaries is carried out by the Boundary Delimitation Commission of India every decade based on the Indian census, the last of which was conducted in 2011. This exercise earlier also included redistribution of seats among states based on demographic changes but that provision of the mandate of the commission was suspended in 1976 following a constitutional amendment to incentivize the family planning program which was being implemented. The 18th Lok Sabha was elected in May 2024 and is the latest to date.

The Lok Sabha proceedings are televised live on channel Sansad TV, headquartered within the premises of Parliament.

History
A major portion of the Indian subcontinent was under British rule from 1858 to 1947. During this period, the office of the Secretary of State for India (along with the Council of India) was the authority through whom British Parliament exercised its rule in the Indian sub-continent, and the office of Viceroy of India was created, along with an Executive Council in India, consisting of high officials of the British government. The Indian Councils Act 1861 provided for a Legislative Council consisting of the members of the Executive Council and non-official members. The Indian Councils Act 1892 established legislatures in each of the provinces of British India and increased the powers of the Legislative Council. Although these Acts increased the representation of Indians in the government, their power remained limited, and the electorate very small. The Indian Councils Act 1909 admitted some Indians to the various councils. The Government of India Act 1919 further expanded the participation of Indians in the administration, creating the Central Legislative Assembly, for which Parliament House, New Delhi, was built and opened in 1927.

The Government of India Act 1935 introduced provincial autonomy and proposed a federal structure in India. The Indian Independence Act 1947, passed by the British parliament on 18 July 1947, divided British India (which did not include the Princely States) into two newly independent countries, India and Pakistan, which were to be dominions under the Crown until they had each enacted a new constitution. The Constituent Assembly was divided into two for the separate nations, with each new Assembly having sovereign powers transferred to it for the respective dominion.

The Constitution of India was adopted on 26 November 1949 and came into effect on 26 January 1950, proclaiming India to be a sovereign, democratic republic. This contained the founding principles of the law of the land which would govern India in its new form, which now included all the princely states which had not acceded to Pakistan.

According to Article 79 (Part V-The Union.) of the Constitution of India, the Parliament of India consists of the President of India and the two Houses of Parliament known as the Council of States (Rajya Sabha) and the House of the People (Lok Sabha).

The Lok Sabha (Lower house of the People) was duly constituted for the first time on 17 April 1952 after the first General Elections held from 25 October 1951 to 21 February 1952.

Qualifications
Article 84 (under Part V. – The Union) of Indian Constitution sets qualifications for being a member of Lok Sabha, which are as follows:
 * 1) They should be a citizen of India, and must subscribe before the Election Commission of India, an oath or affirmation according to the form set out for the purpose in the Third Schedule of the Indian Constitution.
 * 2) They should not be less than 25 years of age.
 * 3) They possess other such qualifications as may be prescribed in that behalf by or under any law made by the Parliament.
 * 4) They should not be proclaimed criminal i.e. they should not be a convict, a confirmed debtor or otherwise disqualified by law; and
 * 5) They should have their name in the electoral rolls in any part of the country.

However, a member can be disqualified from being a member of Parliament: A seat in the Lok Sabha will become vacant in the following circumstances (during the normal functioning of the House): Furthermore, as per article 101 (Part V.—The Union) of the Indian Constitution, a person cannot be:
 * 1) If they hold the office of profit;
 * 2) If they are of unsound mind and stand so declared by a competent court
 * 3) If they are an undischarged insolvent;
 * 4) If they are not a citizen of India, or have voluntarily acquired the citizenship of a foreign State, or are under any acknowledgement of allegiance or adherence to a foreign State;
 * 5) If they are violating party discipline (as per the Tenth Schedule of the constitution); disqualified under Representation of People Act.
 * 1) When the holder of the seat, by writing to the speaker, resigns.
 * 2) When the holder of the seat is absent from 60 consecutive days of proceedings of the House, without prior permission of the Speaker.
 * 3) When the holder of the seat is subject to any disqualifications mentioned in the Constitution or any law enacted by Parliament.
 * 4) A seat may also be vacated when the holder stands disqualified under the 'Anti-Defection Law'.
 * 1) A member of both Houses of Parliament and provision shall be made by Parliament by law for the vacation by a person who is chosen a member of both Houses of his seat in one House or the other.
 * 2) A member both of Parliament and of a House of the Legislature of a State.

System of elections in Lok Sabha
Members of the Lok Sabha are directly elected by the people of India, based on universal suffrage. Elections are by the people directly to the Lok Sabha and each state is divided into territorial constituencies under two provisions of the Constitution:
 * 1) Each state is allotted several seats in the Lok Sabha in such a manner that the ratio between that number and its population was as close to uniform as possible. This provision does not apply to states having a population of less than 6 million. The number of seats per state has been frozen under the constitutional amendment of 1976.
 * 2) Each state is divided into territorial constituencies in such a manner that the ratio between the population of each constituency and the number of seats allotted to it (in each case, one) remain the same throughout the state. This principle is upheld by the boundary reviews mentioned above.

Notes:
 * 1) The expression "population" while distributing seats among states refers to the population ascertained at the census of 1971, per the Constitutional Amendment of 1976.
 * 2) The expression "population" while distributing constituencies within a state refers to the population ascertained at the census of 2011.

Powers
The Lok Sabha has certain powers that make it more powerful than the Rajya Sabha.

 * Motions of no confidence against the government can be introduced and passed in the Lok Sabha. If passed by a majority vote, the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers resign collectively. The Rajya Sabha has no power over such a motion and hence has no real power over the executive. This is because the Constitution of India has only made the Union Council of ministers responsible to the Lok Sabha, not to the Rajya Sabha.
 * Money bills can only be introduced in the Lok Sabha, and upon being passed, are sent to the Rajya Sabha, where it can be deliberated on for up to 14 days. If not rejected by the Rajya Sabha, or 14 days lapse from the introduction of the bill in the Rajya Sabha without any action by the House, or recommendations made by the Rajya Sabha are not accepted by the Lok Sabha, the bill is considered passed. The budget is presented in the Lok Sabha by the Finance Minister in the name of the President of India.
 * In matters about non-financial (ordinary) bills, after the bill has been passed by the House where it was originally tabled (Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha), it is sent to the other house, where it may be kept for a maximum period of 6 months. If the other House rejects the bill or a period of 6 months elapses without any action by that House, or the House that originally tabled the bill does not accept the recommendations made by the members of the other house, it results in a deadlock. This is resolved by a joint session of both Houses, presided over by the speaker of the Lok Sabha and decided by a simple majority. Though the Constitution has placed both houses on the same footing in this regard, in reality, it is the Lok Sabha's opinions that mostly prevail—due to its bigger numerical strength.
 * Equal Powers with the Rajya Sabha in initiating and passing any Bill for Constitutional Amendment (by a majority of the total membership of the House and at least two-thirds majority of the members present and voting).
 * Equal Powers with the Rajya Sabha in initiating and passing a motion for the impeachment of the President (by two-thirds of the membership of the House).
 * Equal Powers with the Rajya Sabha in the impeachment process (initiating and passing a motion for the removal) of the judges of the Supreme Court and the state High Courts (by a majority of the membership of the House and at least two-thirds majority of the members present and voting), who then can be removed by the President of India.
 * Equal Powers with the Rajya Sabha in initiating and passing a resolution declaring war or national emergency (by two-thirds majority) or constitutional emergency (by simple majority) in a state.
 * If the Lok Sabha is dissolved before or after the declaration of a National Emergency, the Rajya Sabha becomes the sole Parliament. It cannot be dissolved. This is a limitation on the Lok Sabha. But there is a possibility that the president can exceed the term to not more than 1 year under the proclamation of emergency and the same would be lowered down to six-month if the said proclamation ceases to operate.

In conclusion, the Lok Sabha is more powerful than the Rajya Sabha in almost all matters. Even in those matters in which the Constitution has placed both Houses on an equal footing, the Lok Sabha has more influence due to its greater numerical strength. This is typical of parliamentary democracies, many of which have a lower house that is more powerful than the upper.

Procedure in the House
The Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business in Lok Sabha and Directions issued by the Speaker from time to time there under regulate the procedure in Lok Sabha. The items of business, a notice of which is received from the Ministers/ Private Members and admitted by the Speaker, are included in the daily List of Business which is printed and circulated to members in advance.

Sessions
The period during which the House meets to conduct its business is called a session. The Constitution empowers the President to summon each House at such intervals that there should not be more than a six-month gap between the two sessions. Hence the Parliament must meet at least twice a year. But, three sessions of Lok Sabha are held in a year:
 * Budget session: February to May.
 * Monsoon session: July to September.
 * Winter session: November to mid-December.

When in session, Lok Sabha holds its sittings usually from 11 a.m. to 1 p.m. and from 2 p.m. to 6 p.m. On some days the sittings are continuously held without observing lunch break and are also extended beyond 6 p.m. depending upon the business before the House. Lok Sabha does not ordinarily sit on Saturdays and Sundays and other closed holidays.

Question Hour
The first hour of every sitting is called Question Hour. Asking questions in Parliament is the free and unfettered right of members, and during Question Hour they may ask questions of ministers on different aspects of administration and government policy in the national and international spheres. Every minister whose turn it is to answer questions has to stand up and answer for his department's acts of omission or commission.

Questions are of three types—Starred, Unstarred, and Short Notice. A Starred Question is one to which a member desires an oral answer in the House and which is distinguished by an asterisk mark. An unstarred question is not called for oral answer in the house and on which no supplementary questions can consequently be asked. An answer to such a question is given in writing. A minimum period of notice for starred/unstarred questions is 10 clear days. If the questions given notice are admitted by the Speaker, they are listed and printed for an answer on the dates allotted to the Ministries to which the subject matter of the question pertains.

The normal period of notice does not apply to short-notice questions that relate to matters of urgent public importance. However, a short-notice question may be answered only on short notice if so permitted by the Speaker and the Minister concerned is prepared to answer it at shorter notice. A short-notice question is taken up for answer immediately after the Question Hour, popularly known as Zero Hour.

Zero Hour
The time immediately following the Question Hour has come to be known as "Zero Hour". It starts at around noon (hence the name) and members can, with prior notice to the Speaker, raise issues of importance during this time. Typically, discussions on important Bills, the Budget, and other issues of national importance take place from 2 p.m. onwards.

Business after Question Hour
After the Question Hour, the House takes up miscellaneous items of work before proceeding to the main business of the day. These may consist of one or more of the following: Adjournment Motions, Questions involving breaches of Privileges, Papers to be laid on the Table, Communication of any messages from Rajya Sabha, Intimations regarding President's assent to Bills, Calling Attention Notices, Matters under Rule 377, Presentation of Reports of Parliamentary Committee, Presentation of Petitions, miscellaneous statements by Ministers, Motions regarding elections to Committees, Bills to be withdrawn or introduced.

Main business
The main business of the day may be consideration of a bill or financial business or consideration of a resolution or a motion.

Legislative business
Legislative proposals in the form of a bill can be brought forward either by a minister or by an individual member. In the former case, it is known as a government bill and in the latter case, it is known as a private members' bill. Every bill passes through three stages—each called readings—before it is passed. To become law it must be passed by both the houses of Parliament, the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha, and then assented to by the president.

Financial business
The presentation, discussion of, and voting on the annual general and railways budgets—followed by the passing of the appropriations Bill and the finance bill—is a long, drawn-out process that takes up a major part of the time of the House during its budget session every year.

Motions and resolutions
Among other kinds of business that come up before the House are resolutions and motions. Resolutions and motions may be brought forward by the government or by individual members. The government may move a resolution or a motion for obtaining the sanction to a scheme or opinion of the house on an important matter of policy or a grave situation. Similarly, an individual member may move a resolution or motion to draw the attention of the house and the government to a particular problem. The last two and half hours of sitting every Friday are generally allotted for the transaction of individual members' business. While private members' bills are taken up on one Friday, private members' resolutions are taken up on the succeeding Friday, and so on.

Parliamentary committees
Most of the business of drafting a bill or amendments is initially discussed and debated in the parliamentary committees. Since the time for legislation is limited, the work of all departments of the government and any special focus tasks are delegated to the committees, wherein the committees shall prepare the initial draft of the bill/amendment for consideration by both the houses. They consist of members of both houses.

There are primarily two kinds of parliamentary committees based on their nature:-
 * Parliament Standing Committees (PSC) – Permanent in nature, reconstituted from time to time with every new election.
 * Department based
 * Others
 * Ad hoc committees – Created for a specific purpose and ceases to exist when that purpose is achieved.

Half-an-Hour discussion
A half-an-hour discussion can be raised on a matter of sufficient public importance which has been the subject of a recent question in Lok Sabha irrespective of the fact whether the question was answered orally or the answer was laid on the Table of the House and the answer which needs elucidation on a matter of fact. Normally not more than half an hour is allowed for such a discussion. Usually, the half-an-hour discussion is listed on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays only. In one session, a member is allowed to raise not more than two half-hour discussions. During the discussion, the member, who has given notice, makes a short statement, and not more than four members, who have intimated earlier and have secured one of the four places on the ballot, are permitted to ask a question each for further elucidating any matter of fact. Thereafter, the minister makes replies. There is no formal motion before the house nor voting.

Discussion on matters of urgent public importance
Members may raise discussions on matters of urgent public importance with the permission of the Speaker. Such discussions may take place two days a week. No formal motion is moved in the House nor is there any voting on such a discussion.

Debate in the House
After the member who initiates discussion on an item of business has spoken, other members can speak on that item of business in such order as the Speaker may call upon them. Only one member can speak at a time and all speeches are directed to the chair. A matter requiring the decision of the House is decided to employ a question put by the Speaker on a motion made by a member.

Division
A division is one of the forms in which the decision of the House is ascertained. Normally, when a motion is put to the House members for and against it indicate their opinion by saying "Aye" or "No" from their seats. The chair goes by the voices and declares that the motion is either accepted or rejected by the House. If a member challenges the decision, the chair orders that the lobbies be cleared. Then the division bell is rung and an entire network of bells installed in the various parts and rooms in Parliament House and Parliament House Annexe rings continuously for three and a half minutes. Members and Ministers rush to the Chamber from all sides. After the bell stops, all the doors to the Chamber are closed and nobody can enter or leave the Chamber till the division is over. Then the chair puts the question for a second time and declares whether in its opinion the "Ayes" or the "Noes", have it. If the opinion so declared is again challenged, the chair asks the votes to be recorded by operating the Automatic Vote Recording Equipment.

Automatic vote recording system
With the announcement of the Speaker for recording the votes, the Secretary-General of the Lok Sabha presses the button of a keyboard. Then a gong sounds, serving as a signal to members for casting their votes. To vote, each member present in the chamber has to flip a switch and then operate one of the three pushbuttons fixed in their seat. The push switch must be kept pressed simultaneously until the gong sounds for the second time after 10 seconds. There are two indicator boards installed in the wall on either side of the Speaker's chair in the chamber. Each vote cast by a member is flashed here. Immediately after the votes are cast, they are totalled mechanically and the details of the results are flashed on the result indicator boards installed in the railings of the Speakers and diplomatic galleries.

Divisions are normally held with the aid of automatic vote recording equipment. Where so directed by the Speaker in terms of the relevant provision in the Rules of Procedure etc. In the Lok Sabha, divisions may be held either by the distribution of 'Aye'/'No' and 'Abstention' slips to members in the House or by the members recording their votes by going into the lobbies. There is an indicator board in the machine room showing the name of each member. The result of the division and vote cast by each member with the aid of automatic vote recording equipment also appear on this board and immediately a photograph of the indicator board is taken. Later the photograph is enlarged and the names of members who voted 'Ayes' and for 'Noes' are determined with the help of the photograph and incorporated in Lok Sabha debates.

Publication of debates
Three versions of Lok Sabha debates are prepared: the Hindi version, the English version, and the original version. Only the Hindi and English versions are printed. The original version, in cyclostyled form, is kept in the Parliament Library for record and reference. The Hindi version contains proceedings (all questions asked and answers are given thereto and speeches made) in Hindi and verbatim Hindi translation of proceedings in English or regional languages. The English version contains proceedings in English and the English translation of the proceedings take place in Hindi or any regional language. The original version, however, contains proceedings in Hindi or English as they actually took place in the House and also the English/Hindi translation of speeches made in regional languages.

If conflicting legislation is enacted by the two Houses, a joint sitting is held to resolve the differences. In such a session, the members of the Lok Sabha would generally prevail, since the Lok Sabha includes more than twice as many members as the Rajya Sabha.

Officers of Lok Sabha
As per Article 93 of the Indian Constitution, the Lok Sabha has a Speaker and a Deputy Speaker. In the Lok Sabha, both presiding officers — the Speaker and the Deputy Speaker — are elected from among its members by a simple majority of members present and voting in the House. No specific qualifications are prescribed for being elected Speaker; the Constitution only requires that Speaker should be a member of the House. But an understanding of the Constitution and the laws of the country and the rules of procedure and conventions of Parliament is considered a major asset for the holder of the office of the Speaker. Vacation and resignation of, and removal from, the offices of Speaker and Deputy Speaker are mentioned under Article 94 of the Constitution of India. As per Article 94 of the Indian Constitution, a Speaker or a Deputy Speaker should vacate their office, a) if they cease to be a member of the House of the People, b) they resign, or c) is removed from office by a resolution of the House passed by a majority.
 * Speaker and Deputy Speaker

The Speaker of Lok Sabha is both a member of the House and its Presiding Officer. The Speaker conducts the business in the House. They decide whether a bill is a money bill or not. They maintain discipline and decorum in the house and can punish a member for their unruly behaviour by suspending them. They permit the moving of various kinds of motions and resolutions like the motion of no confidence, motion of adjournment, motion of censure and calling attention notice as per the rules. The Speaker decides on the agenda to be taken up for discussion during the meeting. It is the Speaker of the Lok Sabha who presides over joint sittings called in the event of disagreement between the two Houses on a legislative measure. Following the 52nd Constitution amendment, the Speaker is vested with the power relating to the disqualification of a member of the Lok Sabha on grounds of defection. The Speaker makes obituary references in the House, formal references to important national and international events, and the valedictory address after every Session of the Lok Sabha and also when the term of the House expires. Though a member of the House, the Speaker does not vote in the House except on those rare occasions when there is a tie at the end of a decision. To date, the Speaker of the Lok Sabha has not been called upon to exercise this unique casting vote. While the office of Speaker is vacant due to absence/resignation/removal, the duties of the office are performed by the Deputy Speaker or, if the office of Deputy Speaker is also vacant, by such member of the House of the People as the President may appoint for the purpose. The Lok Sabha has also a separate non-elected Secretariat staff.

Shri G. V. Mavalankar was the first Speaker of Lok Sabha (15 May 1952 – 27 February 1956) and Shri M. Ananthasayanam Ayyangar was the first Deputy Speaker (30 May 1952 – 7 March 1956). In the 17th Lok Sabha, Om Birla is the current Speaker.

The Secretariat of Lok Sabha was set up according to the provisions contained in Article 98 of the Constitution. The said Article, which provides for a separate secretarial staff for each House of Parliament, reads as follows:- 98. Secretariat of Parliament – Each House of Parliament shall have a separate secretarial staff: Provided that nothing in this clause shall be construed as preventing the creation of posts common to both Houses of Parliament. (2) Parliament may by law regulate the recruitment and the conditions of service of persons appointed to the secretarial staff of either House of Parliament.
 * Secretariat

The Lok Sabha Secretariat functions under the overall guidance and control of the Speaker. The main activities of the Secretariat inter alia include the following:

(i) providing secretarial assistance and support to the effective functioning of the House of the People (Lok Sabha) possible to Members of Lok Sabha; (ii) providing amenities as admissible to Members of Lok Sabha; (iii) servicing the various Parliamentary Committees; (iv) preparing research and reference material and bringing out various publications; (v) recruitment of manpower in the Lok Sabha Secretariat and attending to personnel matters; & (vi) preparing and publishing a record of the day-to-day proceedings of the Lok Sabha and bringing out such other publications, as may be required concerning the functioning of the Lok Sabha and its Committees, among other things.

In the discharge of his constitutional and statutory responsibilities, the Speaker of the Lok Sabha is assisted by the Secretary-General, who holds the rank equivalent to the Cabinet Secretary to the Government of India. The Secretary-General, in turn, is assisted by senior functionaries at the level of Secretary, Additional Secretary, Joint Secretary and other officers and staff of the Secretariat. Since November 2020, the Secretary-General of Lok Sabha is Utpal Kumar Singh, IAS.

Lok Sabha general elections
Each Lok Sabha is constituted after a general election:

Statewise representation
As of 26 January 2020, the Lok Sabha is composed of 543 members made up of up to 524 members representing the people of 28 states and 19 members representing people of 8 Union territories based on their population. While maximum seats can now go up to 550 even though maximum size of the Lok Sabha as outlined in the Constitution of India, at its commencement, was 552 members because after The Constitution (One Hundred and Fourth Amendment) Act, 2019, Article 334 (b) of the Constitution of India was maintained at seventy years. See the table below for details:

Membership by party
No. of Lok Sabha MP's party-wise:

title: Lok Sabha


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The Right to Be Lazy

The Right to Be Lazy (French: Le Droit à la paresse) is a book by Paul Lafargue, published in 1883. In it, Lafargue, a French socialist, opposes the labour movement's fight to expand wage labour rather than abolish or at least limit it. According to Lafargue, wage labour is tantamount to slavery, and to fight as a labour movement for the extension of slavery is preposterous. In the book, Lafargue proposes the right to be lazy, in contrast to the right to work, which he deems bourgeois.

Introduction
After an initial quote from Gotthold Ephraim Lessing ("Let us be lazy in everything, except in loving and drinking, except in being lazy"), the book's introduction reads: "A strange delusion possesses the working classes of the nations where capitalist civilization holds its sway. This delusion drags in its train the individual and social woes which for two centuries have tortured sad humanity. This delusion is the love of work, the furious passion for work, pushed even to the exhaustion of the vital force of the individual and his progeny. Instead of opposing this mental aberration, the priests, the economists and the moralists have cast a sacred halo over work."

Content
According to Lafargue, it is sheer madness that people are fighting for the right to an eight-hour working day. In other words, eight hours of servitude, exploitation and suffering, when it is leisure, joy, and self-realisation that should be fought for, and as few hours of slavery as possible. Automation, which had already come a long way in Lafargue's time, could easily reduce working hours to three or four hours a day. This would leave a large part of the day for the things we really want to do, such as to spend time with friends, relax, enjoy life, and be lazy. Lafargue argues the machine is the saviour of humanity only if the working time it frees up becomes leisure time. The time that is freed up is usually converted into more hours of work, which he compares to more hours of toil and drudgery. Working too many hours a day is often degrading, while working very few hours can be very refreshing and enriching, leading to general advancement, health, joy, and satisfaction. He is also polemical against human rights, and instead prefers the right to be lazy.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: The Right to Be Lazy


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Tape loop

In music, tape loops are loops of magnetic tape used to create repetitive, rhythmic musical patterns or dense layers of sound when played on a tape recorder. Originating in the 1940s with the work of Pierre Schaeffer, they were used among contemporary composers of 1950s and 1960s, such as Éliane Radigue, Steve Reich, Terry Riley, and Karlheinz Stockhausen, who used them to create phase patterns, rhythms, textures, and timbres. Popular music authors of 1960s and 1970s, particularly in psychedelic, progressive and ambient genres, used tape loops to accompany their music with innovative sound effects. In the 1980s, analog audio and tape loops with it gave way to digital audio and application of computers to generate and process sound.

Description
In a tape loop, a section of magnetic tape is cut and spliced end-to-end, creating a circle or loop which can be played continuously, usually on a reel-to-reel tape recorder, making the sound repeat endlessly.

Simultaneous playing of tape loops to create patterns and rhythms was developed and initially used by musique concrète and tape music composers, and was most extensively utilized by Steve Reich for his "phasing" pieces such as "Come Out" (1966) and "It's Gonna Rain" (1965), and by Karlheinz Stockhausen in Gesang der Jünglinge (1955–56) and Kontakte (1958–60). Stockhausen also used the technique for live performance in Solo (1965–66).

If, instead of simply playing back a recorded loop, something is done to progressively alter the recorded material between cycles, such as re-recording the sound before it passes the playback head or adding new material to the loop, then a process of change will occur in the content, quality and complexity of the material.

On a standard reel-to-reel tape recorder, one loop can be no more than few seconds long. Some composers were satisfied with this approach, but there were other methods to allow for longer loops. For example, placing two reel-to-reel machines side by side with the tape path running from the one to the other. By using this method, some composers could create very long loops which allowed for sounds of greater duration. When recording his landmark 1978 ambient album Music for Airports, Brian Eno reported that for a particular song, "One of the tape loops was seventy-nine feet long and the other eighty-three feet". The longest open tape loop ever created was made by Barry Anderson for performances of Stockhausen's Solo, but closed cartridges commonly make much longer lengths available.

By accelerating the speed of a loop to a sufficient degree (e.g., 1,280 times faster), a sequence of events originally perceived as a rhythm becomes heard as a pitch, and variation of the rhythm in the original succession of events produces different timbres in the accelerated sound. The maximum available acceleration of most three-speed tape recorders is four times.

History
In the late 1940s, Pierre Schaeffer used special phonograph discs with a sillon fermé (closed groove) to repeat segments of sounds in his musique concrète studio in Paris. When magnetic tape technology became available, he replaced this technique with tape loops, where such segments could either be simply repeated, or could undergo electronic transformation during repetition.

In 1955, Éliane Radigue, an apprentice of Pierre Schaeffer at Studio d'Essai, learned to cut, splice and edit tape using his techniques. However, in the late 60s she became more interested in tape feedback. She composed several pieces (Jouet Electronique [1967], Elemental I [1968], Stress-Osaka [1969], Usral [1969], Ohmnht [1970] Vice Versa, etc [1970]) by processing the feedback between two tape recorders and a microphone.

Halim El-Dabh, who experimented with tape music from the early 1940s to the 1950s, also utilized tape loops. Beginning in the late 1950s, the BBC Radiophonic Workshop began using tape loops to add special effects to some BBC programming. Several different configurations of tape loops were employed in the early years of the WDR Studio in Cologne. One such arrangement was used to build up multilayered textures by sequentially recording sounds with the erase head disconnected or with a customised arrangement of the heads. Gottfried Michael Koenig applied this method in 1954, in his Klangfiguren I.

In Canada, Hugh Le Caine produced "a particularly clear and memorable example of musique concrète" in 1955 titled Dripsody. It was built from the sound of a single drop of water, using a variable-speed tape recorder, tape loops, and just 25 splices. At this same time in Cologne, Karlheinz Stockhausen produced a more ambitious work, Gesang der Jünglinge (1955–56), which made extensive use of tape loops, particularly for its stratified impulse groups and choral swarms.

Minimalist composer Terry Riley began employing tape loops at the end of the 1950s. Using simple Wollensak tape recorders, he recorded piano music, speech and other sound samples, which he would reproduce on speakers surrounding the audience along with live performance, creating "orchestral textures", as Edward Strickland puts it. With assistance of Richard Maxfield and Ramon Sender, Riley combined tape loops with echoplex devices, producing an "acid trip" piece Mescalin Mix (1961), made from sound samples from his earlier works. Later, he experimented with combining different tapes together, producing pieces such as Music for the Gift (1963) and culminating in his use of a tape delay/feedback system employing two tape recorders (collectively described by Riley as the "time lag accumulator") in live solo performances.

The use of tape loops in popular music dates back to Jamaican dub music in the 1960s. Dub producer King Tubby used tape loops in his productions, while improvising with homemade delay units. Another dub producer, Sylvan Morris, developed a slapback echo effect by using both mechanical and handmade tape loops. These techniques were later adopted by hip hop musicians in the 1970s.

Steve Reich also used tape loops to compose, using a technique which he called "phasing". He would put two tape loops together at slightly different speeds, so they would start playing simultaneously and then drift apart. Pieces created by this method are It's Gonna Rain (1965) and Come Out (1966). In Violin Phase (1967) he combined the tape loop with an instrumental score. Later on, Gavin Bryars explored a similar concept in composition 1, 2, 1-2-3-4 (1971), played by a small ensemble in which every musician independently tried to reproduce tape recording.

In the 1960s and 1970s, use of tape loops made a breakthrough in popular music. As they progressed towards their "psychedelic" phase, the Beatles increasingly experimented with new technology and tape recorders, a process which culminated with Revolver (1966) and its last track "Tomorrow Never Knows", based on five tape loops running simultaneously. "Revolution 9" (1968) was an even more experimental venture, consisting almost entirely of tape loops fading in and out.

Introduction of new technologies, such as analog music sequencers and synthesizers in the 1970s, followed by digital sequencers in 1977, marked an end of the tape loop era in the music industry. With the advent of MIDI in 1983, computers and digital devices took over the production of sound effects from analog devices. Tape loop compositions have seen only sporadic revivals since, such as William Basinski's The Disintegration Loops series (2002–2003), evidencing the slow death of his tapes originally recorded in the 1980s.

Recordings

 * Sounds of New Music. LP recording 1 disc: 33⅓ rpm, monaural, 12 in. (New York City: Folkways Records, 1957, FX 6160). Reissued on CD, as Sounds of New Music: Science Series. CD recording, 1 disc: digital, monaural, 4 3/4 in. (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Folkways Recordings, 1990s, FX 6160).
 * Karlheinz Stockhausen: Solo, für Melodie-Instrument mit Rückkopplung; Vinko Globokar: Discours II pour cinq trombones; Luciano Berio: Sequenza V; Carlos Roqué Alsina: Consecuenza. Vinko Globokar (trombone). Avant Garde. LP recording. Deutsche Grammophon 137 005. [Hamburg]: Deutsche Grammophon Gesellschaft 1969.
 * Jean Jacques Perrey & Gershon Kingsley: The In Sound From Way Out (Vanguard Records, 1966, VSD 79222), Kaledoscopic Vibrations (Vanguard Records, 1967, VSD 79264), Moog Indigo (Vanguard Records, 1970, VSD 6549).
 * Knut Sønstevold, bassoon. Knut Sønstevold; Miklós Maros; Carel Brons; Arne Mellnäs; Lars-Gunnar Bodin; Karlheinz Stockhausen; Sten Hanson. [Solo recorded at Danviken Hospital Church, 23–26 June 1977]. LP recording Fylkingen Records FYLP 1011. [Stockholm]: Fylkingen Records, 1977.
 * Stockhausen, Karlheinz: Solo (Version für Flöte); Solo (Version für Synthesizer); Spiral (Version für Oboe). Dietmar Wiesner (flute), Simon Stockhausen (synthesizer) Catherine Milliken (oboe). CD recording. Stockhausen Complete Edition CD 45. Kürten: Stockhausen-Verlag, 1995.
 * Sönstevold Plays Stockhausen. Karlheinz Stockhausen: Solo, In Freundschaft, Spiral, Tierkreis. Knut Sønstevold (bassoon); Kina Sønstevold (piano). Nosag CD 042; [Solo recorded by Swedish Radio on 4 October 1985 during the EAM Festival, Berwaldhallen]. [Sweden]: Nosag Records, 2000.

title: Tape loop


text:
Talk:Socialism in one country

Old talk
Why isn't this article at Socialism in one country with Socialism in One Country a redirect to it? --Robert Merkel 00:31 23 Jul 2003 (UTC)

I agree. I attempted to move it, but the lower case name is already there, directed to the upper case version. I propose deleting the lower case version, then moving the upper case to the lower case. RickK | Talk 05:02, 16 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * Fixed. Mikkalai 05:07, 16 Mar 2004 (UTC)

I put Stalin's picture simply because it makes the article look better.--RainyDayCrow 02:50, 19 December 2006 (UTC)

from Stalin's О НЕКОТОРЫХ ВОПРОСАХ ИСТОРИИ БОЛЬШЕВИЗМА

Кто дал контрреволюционной буржуазии духовное, идеологическое оружие против большевизма в виде тезиса о невозможности построения социализма в нашей стране, в виде тезиса о неизбежности перерождения большевиков и т. п.? Это оружие дал ей троцкизм. Нельзя считать случайностью тот факт, что все антисоветские группировки в СССР в своих попытках обосновать неизбежность борьбы с Советской властью ссылались на известный тезис троцкизма о невозможности построения социализма в нашей стране, о неизбежности перерождения Советской власти, о вероятности возврата к капитализму.

Lenin (1905): "от революции демократической мы сейчас асе начнём переходить и как раз в меру нашей силы, силы сознательного и организованного пролетариата, начнём переходить к социалистической революции", "мы стоим за непрерывную революцию"

Can someone put in the article WHY stalin believed socialism was possible in one country and why Lenin didn't believe it, or even Trotskys reasoning? The article is essentially useless without it.

 * This is English Wikipedia - so why are there, not one but two blocks of Russian text without translation stuck in the middle of this Talk page?
 * Nuttyskin (talk) 03:09, 16 January 2024 (UTC)

Bukharin's proirity

 * ..though it was actually developed by Bukharin

Stalin's publications on the issue dated at least by 1924. What are Bukharin's? Mikkalai 23:25, 10 Jan 2005 (UTC)

I've looked through the Foundations of Leninism and the quote doesn't appear anywhere (a search on google only returns the wiki entry and clones). The bits that do include theory on One Country seem to be added post-1924, so Bukharin would be the one who actually developed theory, though Josef Stalin may not have been in opposition to it.

If you have evidence that a quote supporting "Socialism in One country" existed in Foundations of Leninism, please post a link to the 1924 edition. That said, this only means that stalin was partial to the position - you cant say he developed the theory based on one sentence he uttered. More likely that Stalin picked positions he liked (or could use to political advantage) out of the ones developed by other, more ideologically minded, communists, like Bukharin.

Yarilo2 15:13, 9 October 2007 (UTC)

Suspected Original Research or Opinion Requiring Attribution
The current text reads:

 * Mensheviks and Trotsky had also come to the conclusion that Socialism in One Country would be impossible at any level, but the latter based their idea on Trotsky's theory of Permanent Revolution, which was disputed by Lenin as potentially reactionary because it appeared to discourage building socialism in the USSR at all, given that the hoped-for communist revolutions in more advanced countries like Germany and France had not been carried through."

This statement includes a claim regarding the cause of Trotsky's (and others) rejection of the theory of Socialism in One Country. The claim is that the rejection of Socialism in One Country is based upon the theory of Permanent Revolution. That is certainly a reasonable POV. However, another reasonable POV is that Socialism in One Country was rejected by the majority of Bolsheviks (prior to Stalin's assumption of power) based upon more general principles of Marxism. Who deduced the alleged causal relationship? If the editor has made the deduction, then it is original research and should be removed.

I will wait for 48 hours to allow editors time to provide verifiable sources that Trotsky's rejection of Socialism in One Country is based upon the Theory of Permanent Revolution, rather than upon more general theoretical considerations. If an editor needs more time to find such a verifiable source, they should make a request here. If no verifiable sources or requests for more time are made within 48 hours, I will delete the references to Permanent Revolution, both in the text in question, and in the subsequent text related to Lenin's writings against Trotsky. --BostonMA 16:53, 30 December 2005 (UTC)

Isn't "socialism in one country" the true national-socialist ideology, and not the Hitlerian hypocrisy? Darth Sidious 04:44, 19 November 2006 (UTC)

Darth - be careful not to confuse the nation with the state or geographic boundaries

A single large anonymous edit was made recently which I reverted, partly because it introduced some unclear statements and typos. However, I went through the edits and have re-made some of the changes where it made the article clearer or where it removed controversial and possibly POV material. BobFromBrockley (talk) 11:11, 27 March 2008 (UTC)

Is this useful?
The quotes below are too long to be useful on Trotskyism, but might it be useful in this article? --Duncan (talk) 10:19, 28 May 2009 (UTC)

 * However, it is worth noting that in 1915 Lenin wrote, “Uneven economic and political development is an absolute law of capitalism. Hence the victory of socialism is possible first in several or even in one capitalist country taken separately. The victorious proletariat of that country, having expropriated the capitalists and organised its own socialist production, would stand up against the rest of the world, the capitalist world.” The ‘United States of Europe Slogan’, Collected Works, Vol. 18, p. 232.

 * And in 1918, he wrote, “I know that there are, of course, sages who think they are very clever and even call themselves Socialists, who assert that power should not have been seized until the revolution had broken out in all countries. They do not suspect that by speaking in this way they are deserting the revolution and going over to the side of the bourgeoisie. To wait until the toiling classes bring about a revolution on an international scale means that everybody should stand stock-still in expectation. That is nonsense.” Speech delivered at a joint meeting of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee and the Moscow Soviet, 14th May 1918, Collected Works, Vol. 23, p. 9.
 * This is not about "Socialism in One Country, this is about "revolution in one country", a quite different issue: "We are blowing up the World Fire". - Altenmann >t 16:04, 28 May 2009 (UTC)

First paragraph.
I'm just wondering if the word approbation is used correctly here. Approbation means approval and i suspect that the author is aiming for the opposite meaning. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 92.2.77.134 (talk) 21:52, 7 May 2010 (UTC)

 * I suspect that the word should be "opprobrium", not "approbation". DWorley (talk) 02:26, 14 June 2010 (UTC)

poorly sourced/fringe term
marxism.org being half of the 2 sources which ?legally? post a chapter of a book by an unknown, which references EH Carr who first published the term maybe. EH Carr, ''The crucial point about Hitlerism is that its disciples not only believe in themselves, but believe in Germany. For the first time since the war a party appeared outside the narrow circles of the extreme Right which was not afraid to proclaim its pride in being German. It will perhaps one day be recognized as the greatest service of Hitlerism that, in a way quite unprecedented in German politics, it cut across all social distinctions, embracing in its ranks working men, bourgeoisie, intelligentsia and aristocrats. Germany Awake! became a living national faith'' Darkstar1st (talk) 13:04, 12 November 2011 (UTC)

 * from the same blog:
 * Utopian socialists and nationalists have advocated the theory of socialism in a single country before this time. In Germany today, the theory of an “independent” national economy, which progressively diminishes its connection with world economy to the vanishing point “autarchy,” as it is called – is the reactionary ideal of Hitler’s Fascists.
 * Marx and Engels specific ally polemicized against the idea of a national socialist utopia in all their writings. Even Stalin was compelled to admit that the two founders of scientific socialism never entertained the idea, when he said that the possibility of building socialism in a single country was first formulated by Lenin in 1915. Darkstar1st (talk) 13:22, 12 November 2011 (UTC)

 * The article is by the "unknown" writer, Duncan Hallas, who referenced the historian E.H. Carr. The other passage from "the same blog" was written by Max Shachtman in 1933.  What btw is your point?  TFD (talk) 02:34, 13 November 2011 (UTC)
 * my point is he used the term national socialist, not socialism in one country. Darkstar1st (talk) 03:56, 13 November 2011 (UTC)

 * Do you think we should rewrite Wikipedia based on the terminology used in Trotskyist pamphlets in 1933? TFD (talk) 04:09, 13 November 2011 (UTC)
 * that passage was from the lone source in the article, marxist.org.  Darkstar1st (talk) 04:20, 13 November 2011 (UTC)
 * Marxism.org is not the source, it is a website that provide access to numerous sources. You are aware that Shachtman's article was written before the website was set up?  TFD (talk) 14:12, 13 November 2011 (UTC)

Contested deletion
This page should not be speedily deleted because it is a great article that is very beneficial to history and politics learners. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2.120.68.158 (talk) 13:19, 12 November 2011 (UTC)

Requested move 3 December 2019

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.

The result of the move request was: Moved. (non-admin closure) Cwmhiraeth (talk) 14:19, 11 December 2019 (UTC)

Is there any reason why the main article is Socialism in One Country rather than Socialism in one country (like Permanent revolution rather than Permanent Revolution)? For instance, here it's only capitalised in the title, but in the text it's socialism in one country. See also on Google Scholar.--Davide King (talk) 14:20, 3 December 2019 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page or in a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

Marx and Engels on the Russian Revolution
The quote by Marx and Engels from their 1882 introduction to the Communist Manifesto requires a secondary source because it is not clear what they were talking about, how it relates to socialism in one country or how subsequent people interpreted it. i can't find it and it should be removed if no sources can be found. TFD (talk) 17:30, 21 March 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Socialism in one country


text:
John Schlesinger

John Richard Schlesinger (16 February 1926 – 25 July 2003) was an English film and stage director, and actor. He emerged in the early 1960s as a leading light of the British New Wave, before embarking on a successful career in Hollywood, often directing films dealing frankly in provocative subject matter, combined with his status as one of the rare openly gay directors working in mainstream films.

Schlesinger started his career making British dramas A Kind of Loving (1962), Billy Liar (1963), and Far from the Madding Crowd (1967). He won the Academy Award for Best Director for Midnight Cowboy (1969) and was Oscar-nominated for Darling (1965) and Sunday Bloody Sunday (1971). He gained acclaim for his Hollywood films The Day of the Locust (1975), and Marathon Man (1976). His later films include Madame Sousatzka (1988) and Cold Comfort Farm (1995). He also served as an associate director of the Royal National Theatre.

Over his career he received numerous accolades including an Academy Award, and four BAFTA Awards as well as nominations for three Golden Globe Awards. In 1970, he was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 1970 Birthday Honours for services to film, and in 2002, he was made a BAFTA Fellow. Four of Schlesinger's films are on the British Film Institute's Top 100 British films.

Early life
Schlesinger was born and raised in Hampstead, London, in a Jewish family, the eldest of five children of distinguished Emmanuel College, Cambridge–educated paediatrician and physician Bernard Edward Schlesinger (1896–1984), who had also served in the Royal Army Medical Corps as a brigadier, and his wife Winifred Henrietta, daughter of Hermann Regensburg, a stockbroker from Frankfurt. She had left school at 14 to study at the Trinity College of Music, and later studied languages at the University of Oxford for three years. Bernard Schlesinger's father Richard, a stockbroker, had come to England in the 1880s from Frankfurt.

After St Edmund's School, Hindhead and Uppingham School (where his father had also been), Schlesinger enlisted in the British Army during World War II. While serving with the Royal Engineers, he made films on the war's front line. He also entertained his fellow troops by performing magic tricks. After his tour of duty, he continued making short films and acted in stage productions while studying at Balliol College, Oxford, where he was involved in the Oxford University Dramatic Society.

Career
Schlesinger's acting career began in the 1950s and consisted of supporting roles in British films such as The Divided Heart and Oh... Rosalinda!!, and British television productions such as BBC Sunday Night Theatre, The Adventures of Robin Hood and The Vise. He began his directorial career in 1956 with the short documentary Sunday in the Park about London's Hyde Park. In 1958, Schlesinger created a documentary on Benjamin Britten and the Aldeburgh Festival for the BBC's Monitor TV programme, including rehearsals of the children's opera Noye's Fludde featuring a young Michael Crawford. In 1959, Schlesinger was credited as exterior or second unit director on 23 episodes of the TV series The Four Just Men and four 30-minute episodes of the series Danger Man. He also appeared in Col March of Scotland Yard as "Dutch cook" in "Death and the Other Monkey" 1956.

By the 1960s, he had virtually given up acting to concentrate on a directing career, and another of his earlier directorial efforts, the British Transport Films' documentary Terminus (1961), gained a Venice Film Festival Gold Lion and a British Academy Award. His first two fiction films, A Kind of Loving (1962) and Billy Liar (1963) were set in the North of England. A Kind of Loving won the Golden Bear award at the 12th Berlin International Film Festival in 1962. His third feature film, Darling (1965), tartly described the modern way of life in London and was one of the first films about 'swinging London'. Schlesinger's next film was the period drama Far from the Madding Crowd (1967), an adaptation of Thomas Hardy's popular novel accentuated by beautiful English country locations. Both films (and Billy Liar) featured Julie Christie as the female lead.

Schlesinger's next film, Midnight Cowboy (1969), was internationally acclaimed. A story of two hustlers living on the fringe in the bad side of New York City, it was Schlesinger's first film shot in the US, and it won Oscars for Best Director and Best Picture. The film was one of the earliest mainstream American films to deal explicitly with homosexual relationships, and is considered a groundbreaking work of queer cinema. During the 1970s, he made an array of films that were mainly about loners, losers and people outside the mainstream world, such as Sunday Bloody Sunday (1971), The Day of the Locust (1975), Marathon Man (1976) and Yanks (1979). Later, came the major box office and critical failure of Honky Tonk Freeway (1981), followed by films that attracted mixed responses from the public, and low returns, although The Falcon and the Snowman (1985) made money and Pacific Heights (1990) was a box-office hit. In Britain, he did better with films like Madame Sousatzka (1988) and Cold Comfort Farm (1995). Other later works include plays for television An Englishman Abroad (1983) and A Question of Attribution (1991), both with scripts by Alan Bennett, The Innocent (1993) and The Next Best Thing (2000).

Schlesinger directed on stage Timon of Athens (1965) for the Royal Shakespeare Company and the musical I and Albert (1972) at London's Piccadilly Theatre. From 1973, he was an associate director of the Royal National Theatre, where he produced George Bernard Shaw's Heartbreak House (1975). He directed several operas, including Les contes d'Hoffmann (1980) and Der Rosenkavalier (1984), both at Covent Garden.

Schlesinger directed a party political broadcast for the Conservative Party in the general election of 1992, which featured Prime Minister John Major returning to Brixton in south London, thus highlighting Major's humble background, something atypical for a Conservative politician at that time. Schlesinger said he had voted for all three main political parties in the UK at one time or another.

Later life and death
In 1991, Schlesinger made a brief return to acting, portraying the gay character 'Derek' in the TV adaptation of The Lost Language of Cranes for the BBC. Schlesinger had himself come out during the making of Midnight Cowboy.

Schlesinger was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 1970 Birthday Honours for services to film. Maintaining a flat in London and house at Palm Springs, California Schlesinger had a Golden Palm Star on the Palm Springs Walk of Stars dedicated to him in January 2003, which was his final public appearance.

Schlesinger underwent a quadruple heart bypass in 1998, before suffering a stroke on New Year's Day 2001, which substantially diminished his faculties. He died at Desert Regional Medical Center in Palm Springs on the morning of 25 July 2003, at the age of 77.

Schlesinger was survived by his partner of over 30 years, photographer Michael Childers. A memorial service was held on 30 September 2003. He was cremated, with most of his ashes interred next to his parents, and the remainder left to be interred with Childers.

Films

 * A Kind of Loving (1962)
 * Billy Liar (1963)
 * Darling (1965)
 * Far From the Madding Crowd (1967)
 * Midnight Cowboy (1969)
 * Sunday Bloody Sunday (1971)
 * The Day of the Locust (1975)
 * Marathon Man (1976)
 * Yanks (1979)
 * Honky Tonk Freeway (1981)
 * The Falcon and the Snowman (1985)
 * The Believers (1987)
 * Madame Sousatzka (1988)
 * Pacific Heights (1990)
 * The Innocent (1993)
 * Cold Comfort Farm (1995)
 * Eye for an Eye (1996)
 * The Next Best Thing (2000)

Television

 * The Adventures of Aggie (1956–57)
 * Separate Tables (1983) (TV)
 * An Englishman Abroad (1983) (TV)
 * A Question of Attribution (1991) (TV)
 * Cold Comfort Farm (1995) (TV)
 * The Tale of Sweeney Todd (1998) (TV)

Documentary

 * Sunday in the Park (1956)
 * Terminus (1961)
 * Israel: A Right to Live (1967)
 * Visions of Eight (segment, The Longest) (1973)

Awards and honours
He was twice nominated for the Venice Film Festival's Golden Lion, and was recipient of the Directors Guild of Great Britain's Lifetime Achievement Award. In 1970, he was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 1970 Birthday Honours for services to film. In 1981, the Hamburg-based Alfred Toepfer Foundation awarded Attenborough its annual Shakespeare Prize in recognition of his life's work. In 2002 he was made a BAFTA Fellow.

Academy Awards BAFTA Awards Golden Globe Awards
 * Best Director (1966) (Darling) – Nominated
 * Best Director (1970) (Midnight Cowboy) – Won
 * Best Director (1972) (Sunday Bloody Sunday) – Nominated
 * Best Short Film (1962) (Terminus) – Won
 * Best British Film (1966) (Darling) – Nominated
 * Best Direction (1970) (Midnight Cowboy) – Won
 * Best Direction (1972) (Sunday Bloody Sunday) – Won
 * Best Direction (1980) (Yanks) – Nominated
 * Best Single Drama (1984) (An Englishman Abroad) – Won
 * Best Single Drama (1992) (A Question of Attribution) – Won
 * BAFTA Fellowship (1996)
 * Best Director (1966) (Darling) – Nominated
 * Best Director (1970) (Midnight Cowboy) – Nominated
 * Best Director (1977) (Marathon Man) – Nominated

title: John Schlesinger


text:
Talk:The Right to Be Lazy

The author of this book may believe that one has the right to be lazy. Unfortunately, this right does not apply to the contributors to the Wikipedia~ At least write a stub article, please. See the perfect stub article for an example of a minimal Wikipedia article. --Robert Merkel 00:34 23 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Robert Merkel Is this better? Pauloroboto (talk) 09:57, 27 October 2021 (UTC)

 * Yes :) Robert Merkel (talk) 10:24, 25 December 2021 (UTC)

Needs balance
Critiques of this position from left & right are needed. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 27.85.205.105 (talk) 10:06, 18 July 2022 (UTC)

Writing Style, References, and Bias
This article currently contains idiosyncratic language and possible bias, especially in the content section, for example, “It is sheer madness…” The only reference used is the book itself. Veritas Virtutis (talk) 10:57, 12 October 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:The Right to Be Lazy


text:
Anime International Company

Anime International Company, Inc. (株式会社アニメインターナショナルカンパニー), often abbreviated as AIC, is a Japanese animation studio founded on June 15, 1982 and located in Nerima, Tokyo, Japan. On December 10, 2015, AIC RIGHTS Company, Inc. was established through a company split, in which AIC Rights received the transfer of some of the copyrights owned by Anime International Company.

Their notable works include series such as Tenchi Muyo!, Bubblegum Crisis, El Hazard, and several adaptations of the manga Oh My Goddess!.

AIC had eight sub-studios within itself, named: AIC ASTA (2003, formerly: AIC A.S.T.A.), AIC Build (2010), AIC Classic (2010), AIC Digital (1997), AIC Frontier (June 2012), AIC PLUS+ (2006), AIC Spirits (2003) and AIC Takarazuka (2006).

History
In June 2006, a partnership was started with NTU for the development of the CACANI system, a software used as a tool in the animation process to generate fills between keyframes.

In September 2010, Oizumi Corporation acquired 95% of the studio from the ACA-managed investment fund MCP Synergy for 530 million yen. Also on the same day of the acquisition, AIC will buyback the remaining shares of the company held by TM Company. Together with the 5% share buyback from AIC, the studio subsequently became a wholly owned subsidiary of Oizumi Corporation.

In March of the following year, Aplix Corporation acquired all shares of the studio except AIC's treasury stock from Oizumi Corporation for 660 million yen, and AIC became a subsidiary of the company.

In February 2013, production producers of AIC Spirits quit the company and established an animation studio Production IMS. Also in May of that year, production producers of AIC Classic quit and founded the studio, Troyca.

On January 20, 2014, Aplix IP Holdings transferred all shares of AIC to Tōru Miura at 8,000 yen (1 yen per share).

In August 2015, former AIC animator Atsushi Okuda tweeted a post stating that AIC's production department had been disbanded.

In December 2015, Yasutaka Omura was appointed as the CEO of AIC. Also in the same month, AIC RIGHTS CO., Ltd was established through a company split from AIC, in which AIC Rights received the transfer of some of the copyrights of the work of Anime International Company. Omura was appointed as the CEO of AIC Rights.

In February 2017, AIC Rights launched the "anime reboot projects" initiative to celebrate AIC's 35th anniversary.

On January 12, 2020, Omura announced his resigning from his CEO position at Anime International Company, although he remained as CEO of AIC Rights. Following Omura's resignation, Tōru Miura would return as CEO of AIC.

In April 2021, AIC Rights entered into a business alliance with Toei Agency, with the two companies going forward co-owning the copyrights to some of the intellectual property owned by AIC Rights.

In February 2022, Kenji Tsukamoto was appointed as the new representative director of AIC Rights, replacing Omura.

title: Anime International Company


text:
SUNY (disambiguation)

SUNY may refer to...

 * State University of New York
 * Ronald Grigor Suny
 * A takeoff on the name Sony as seen on TVs depicted in South Park. Which incidentally Sony's etymology came from the similarly spelt word "sunny".

title: SUNY (disambiguation)


text:
Control system

A control system manages, commands, directs, or regulates the behavior of other devices or systems using control loops. It can range from a single home heating controller using a thermostat controlling a domestic boiler to large industrial control systems which are used for controlling processes or machines. The control systems are designed via control engineering process.

For continuously modulated control, a feedback controller is used to automatically control a process or operation. The control system compares the value or status of the process variable (PV) being controlled with the desired value or setpoint (SP), and applies the difference as a control signal to bring the process variable output of the plant to the same value as the setpoint.

For sequential and combinational logic, software logic, such as in a programmable logic controller, is used.

Logic control
Logic control systems for industrial and commercial machinery were historically implemented by interconnected electrical relays and cam timers using ladder logic. Today, most such systems are constructed with microcontrollers or more specialized programmable logic controllers (PLCs). The notation of ladder logic is still in use as a programming method for PLCs.

Logic controllers may respond to switches and sensors and can cause the machinery to start and stop various operations through the use of actuators. Logic controllers are used to sequence mechanical operations in many applications. Examples include elevators, washing machines and other systems with interrelated operations. An automatic sequential control system may trigger a series of mechanical actuators in the correct sequence to perform a task. For example, various electric and pneumatic transducers may fold and glue a cardboard box, fill it with the product and then seal it in an automatic packaging machine.

PLC software can be written in many different ways – ladder diagrams, SFC (sequential function charts) or statement lists.

On–off control
On–off control uses a feedback controller that switches abruptly between two states. A simple bi-metallic domestic thermostat can be described as an on-off controller. When the temperature in the room (PV) goes below the user setting (SP), the heater is switched on. Another example is a pressure switch on an air compressor. When the pressure (PV) drops below the setpoint (SP) the compressor is powered. Refrigerators and vacuum pumps contain similar mechanisms. Simple on–off control systems like these can be cheap and effective.

Fuzzy logic
Fuzzy logic is an attempt to apply the easy design of logic controllers to the control of complex continuously varying systems. Basically, a measurement in a fuzzy logic system can be partly true.

The rules of the system are written in natural language and translated into fuzzy logic. For example, the design for a furnace would start with: "If the temperature is too high, reduce the fuel to the furnace. If the temperature is too low, increase the fuel to the furnace."

Measurements from the real world (such as the temperature of a furnace) are fuzzified and logic is calculated arithmetic, as opposed to Boolean logic, and the outputs are de-fuzzified to control equipment.

When a robust fuzzy design is reduced to a single, quick calculation, it begins to resemble a conventional feedback loop solution and it might appear that the fuzzy design was unnecessary. However, the fuzzy logic paradigm may provide scalability for large control systems where conventional methods become unwieldy or costly to derive.

Fuzzy electronics is an electronic technology that uses fuzzy logic instead of the two-value logic more commonly used in digital electronics.

Physical implementation

The range of control system implementation is from compact controllers often with dedicated software for a particular machine or device, to distributed control systems for industrial process control for a large physical plant.

Logic systems and feedback controllers are usually implemented with programmable logic controllers. The Broadly Reconfigurable and Expandable Automation Device (BREAD) is a recent framework that provides many open source hardware devices which can be connected to create more complex data acquisition and control systems.

title: Control system