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Kilij Arslan I

Kilij Arslan ibn Suleiman (قِلِیچ اَرسلان; ; I. Kılıç Arslan or Kılıcarslan, lit. "Sword Lion") (1079–1107) was the Seljuq Sultan of Rum from 1092 until his death in 1107. He ruled the Sultanate during the time of the First Crusade and thus faced the earliest attacks from Christian forces. He also re-established the Sultanate of Rum after the death of Malik Shah I of the Seljuk Empire and defeated the Crusaders in three battles during the Crusade of 1101. Kilij Arslan was the first Muslim and Turkish commander to fight against the Crusaders, commanding his horse archers as a teenager.

Rise to power
After the death of his father, Suleiman ibn Qutalmish, in 1086, he became a hostage of Sultan Malik Shah I of Great Seljuq in Isfahan, but was released when Malik Shah died in 1092 in the wake of a quarrel among his jailers. Kilij Arslan then marched at the head of the Turkish Oghuz Yiva tribe army and set up his capital at Nicaea, replacing Amin 'l Ghazni, the governor appointed by Malik Shah I.

Following the death of Malik Shah I the individual tribes, the Danishmends, Mangujekids, Saltuqids, Tengribirmish begs, Artuqids (Ortoqids) and Akhlat-Shahs, had started vying with each other to establish their own independent states. Alexius Comnenus's Byzantine intrigues further complicated the situation. He married Ayşe Hatun, the daughter of the Emir Tzachas to attempt to ally himself against the Byzantines, who commanded a strong naval fleet. They had four sons: Malik Shah, Mesud I, Arab and Toghrul. In 1094, Kilij Arslan received a letter from Alexius suggesting that the Tzachas sought to target him to move onto the Byzantines, thereupon Kilij Arslan marched with an army to Smyrna, Tzachas's capital, and invited his father-in-law to a banquet in his tent where he slew him while he was intoxicated.

People's Crusade
The People's Crusade (also called the Peasants' Crusade) army of Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless arrived at Nicaea in 1096. A German contingent of the crusade overran the castle Xerigordon and held it until Kilij sent a force to starve them out. Those that renounced Christianity were spared and sent into captivity to the east, the rest were put to death. Kilij Arslan also cunningly sent spies to trick the Crusaders into thinking Xerigordon was ripe for the taking, and the ill-disciplined Crusaders rushed to Xerigordon despite orders against this. They were consequently ambushed, forcing Peter the Hermit eventually to give up the crusade.

The remainder of Peter's crusade composed almost entirely of unarmed civilians was surprised near the village of Civetot by Kilij Arslan's army. They were easily overwhelmed and around 17,000 out of the 20,000 remaining Christians died. He then invaded the Danishmend Emirate of Malik Ghazi in eastern Anatolia.

The First Crusade would start a few months later.

First Crusade
Because of this easy first victory he did not consider the main crusader army, led by various nobles of western Europe, to be a serious threat. He resumed his war with the Danishmends, and was away from Nicaea when these new Crusaders besieged Nicaea in May 1097. He hurried back to his capital to find it surrounded by the Crusaders, and was defeated in battle with them on 21 May. The city then surrendered to the Byzantines and his wife and children were captured. When the crusaders sent the Sultan's wife to Constantinople, to their dismay she was later returned without ransom in 1097 because of the relationship between Kilij Arslan and Alexios I Komnenos.

As result of the stronger invasion, Rum and the Danishmends allied in their attempt to turn back the crusaders. The Crusaders continued to split their forces as they marched across Anatolia. The combined Danishmend and Rum forces planned to ambush the Crusaders near Dorylaeum on 29 June. However, Kilij Arslan's horse archers could not penetrate the line of defense set up by the Crusader knights, and the main body under Bohemond arrived to capture the Turkish camp on 1 July. In this battle, the Kilij Arslan and his troops won the respect of his enemy, as the Gesta Francorum states: "had the Turks been Christian, they would be the finest of all races."

Kilij Arslan was defeated and settled for harassing the Crusader army with guerilla warfare and hit-and-run tactics. He also destroyed crops and water sources along their route in order to hinder the Crusader Army from collecting supplies, ultimately with little success.

Crusade of 1101

Gazi Gümüshtigin captured Bohemond resulting in a new force of Lombards attempting to rescue him. In their march they took Ankara from Arslan upon the Danishmends. In alliance with Radwan the Atabeg of Aleppo he ambushed this force at the Battle of Mersivan. In 1101 he defeated another Crusader army at Heraclea Cybistra, which had come to assist the fledgling Crusader states in Syria. This was an important victory for the Turks, as it proved that an army of Crusader knights was not invincible. After this victory he moved his capital to Konya and defeated a force led by William II of Nevers who attempted to march upon it as well as the subsequent force a week later.

In 1104 he resumed his war with the Danishmends who were now weakened after the death of Malik Ghazi, demanding half the ransom gained for Bohemond. As a result, Bohemond allied with the Danishmends against Rum and the Byzantines.

War and drowning in river
After the crusades he moved towards the east, taking Harran and Diyarbakr. In 1107 he conquered Mosul, but he was defeated by Muhammad I Tapar supported by Ilghazi of the Artuqids and Fakhr al-Mulk Radwan of Aleppo at the battle of Khabur River. Having lost the battle, Kilij Arslan drowned trying to escape across the river.

Discovery of his burial
In January 2021, archaeologists led by professor Ahmet Tanyıldız from the Dicle University claimed to discover his and his daughter Saide Hatun's grave in Silvan, Diyarbakır. Researchers dug two metres deep across a 35-square-metre area and focused their works on two gravesites in Orta Çeşme Park.

title: Kilij Arslan I


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George Francis Train

George Francis Train (March 24, 1829 – January 18, 1904) was an American businessman who organized the clipper ship line that sailed around Cape Horn to San Francisco; he also organized the Union Pacific Railroad and the Credit Mobilier in the United States in 1864 to construct the eastern portion of the Transcontinental Railroad, and a horse tramway company in England while there during the American Civil War.

In 1870 Train made the first of three widely publicized trips around the globe. He believed that a report of his first journey in a French periodical inspired Jules Verne's novel Around the World in Eighty Days; protagonist Phileas Fogg may have been modeled on him.

In 1872, he ran for president of the United States as an independent candidate. That year, he was jailed on obscenity charges while defending suffragist Victoria Woodhull against charges regarding an article her newspaper had published on an alleged adulterous affair. Despite business successes in early life, he was known as an increasingly eccentric figure in American and Australian history.

Early life and education
George Francis Train was born on March 24, 1829, in Boston, son of Oliver Train and his wife Maria Pickering. His cousin Adeline later became a noted author. His parents and three sisters died in a yellow fever epidemic in New Orleans in 1833 when George was four. He was raised by strict Methodist grandparents in Boston. They hoped George would become a minister.

He attended common schools, where he acquired knowledge about different countries, got exposed to logical ways of thinking, and honed mechanical engineering skills using toy blocks and sticks. His best friend in school had immigrated from England, and related to Train how difficult it was to get around in his hometown, Birkenhead. This is what inspired Train to set up a tramway system in the same town. He did not go into the ministry, instead becoming a businessman and adventure seeker.

Career
Train entered the mercantile business in Boston, and made it his career all his life in the United States, Britain and in Australia. He initiated numerous new businesses, building the corporate and financial structures to make them work.

Australia
He and his wife arrived in Melbourne on 23 May 1853 aboard the Bavaria, where he became the local agent for the White Diamond Line. In partnership with another American, former mariner Captain Ebenezer Caldwell, he imported clothing, building materials, guns, flour, patent medicines, mining tools, coaches and carts. Caldwell, Train & Co. built warehouses at either end of the newly constructed railway line from Sandridge to Flinders St, making it easier for White Star Line passengers to move their luggage between port and city. He was involved in the Melbourne Chamber of Commerce and he helped establish a volunteer fire brigade in the city.

Train's wife returned to Boston in 1854 to give birth to their daughter. He left Australia in November 1855 to join her, travelling via the Orient and the Middle East.

Britain
In 1860 he went to England to found horse tramway companies in Birkenhead and London, where he soon met opposition. He was also involved in the construction of a short-lived horse tramway in Cork, Ireland. Although his trams were popular with passengers, his designs had rails that stood above the road surface and obstructed other traffic. In 1861 Train was arrested and tried for "breaking and injuring" Uxbridge Road in London. He tried again with the Staffordshire Potteries Street Railway Company in 1861 and then with the Darlington Street Railroad Company in 1862, but the latter was short-lived, closing in 1865.

United States
Train was involved in the formation of the Union Pacific Railroad (UP) in 1864 during the American Civil War. The federal government chartered the railroad for construction of the portion of the Transcontinental Railroad west of the Missouri River. Train helped set up the shadow finance company for the project, the Credit Mobilier of America, whose principal officers were the same as those of UP. (See below)

That year, he left the United States for England. Referring to himself as "Citizen Train", Train became a shipping magnate, a prolific writer, a minor presidential candidate after return to the United States, and a confidant of French and Australian revolutionaries. He claimed to have been offered the presidency of a proposed Australian republic, but declined. During the American Civil War, he gave numerous speeches in England in favor of the Union and denounced the Confederacy.

In 1868 Train was arrested while aboard the RMS Scotia in the port of Queenstown (now Cobh) in Ireland, and held in custody. He had in his possession speeches he had given in the United States in defense of the Fenian cause of Irish independence. These documents were seized by a local magistrate. His release four days later was on condition that he disavow any intention of promoting Fenianism while in Ireland or England.

In the middle of his campaign for president in 1870, Train decided to make a trip around the globe, which was covered by many newspapers. The actual traveling took 80 days, though he stayed two months in France, supporting the Paris Commune, for which he spent two weeks in jail (the US government and Alexandre Dumas intervened to get him released). His exploits possibly inspired Jules Verne's novel Around the World in Eighty Days; the protagonist Phileas Fogg is believed to have been partially modeled on Train.

While in Europe after his 1870 trip, Train met with the Grand Duke Constantine. During that period, he persuaded the Queen of Spain to back construction of a railway in the backwoods of Pennsylvania. Her support provided funding for the Atlantic and Great Western Railroad. He promoted and built tramways in Britain after opposition which he overcame by agreeing to run the rails level with the streets.

On his return to the U.S., Train's popularity and reputation soared. He began promoting the Union Pacific Railroad, with which he had been involved for several years, despite the advice of Vanderbilt, who told him it would never work. Forming a finance company called Credit Foncier of America, Train made a fortune from real estate when the transcontinental railway opened up for colonization huge swaths of western America, including large amounts of land in Council Bluffs, Iowa; Omaha, Nebraska; and Columbus, Nebraska. He was responsible for building the Cozzens Hotel and founding Train Town in Omaha.

Train was noted for having created the Credit Mobilier in 1864, started to finance the Union Pacific. While appearing to be a separate, independent company which Union Pacific hired, Crédit Mobilier was staffed by the same officers as the railroad. Train and others created a structure that allowed them to realize outsize profits during the railroad's construction. The story about this scam and congressional graft was broken in 1872 by The Sun, a New York newspaper opposed to the re-election of Ulysses S. Grant for president. Eventually the scandals resulted in congressional and executive federal investigations which implicated numerous congressmen, including James Garfield. Denying the charges, Grant was re-elected as president.

In 1872, Train ran for president of the United States as an independent candidate. He was a supporter of the temperance movement. That year, he was jailed on obscenity charges while defending Victoria Woodhull for her newspaper's reporting of the alleged adulterous affair of abolitionist Henry Ward Beecher and Elizabeth Tilton. He was the primary financier of the newspaper The Revolution, which was dedicated to women's rights and published by Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton.

Later years
As he aged, Train seemingly became more eccentric. In 1873, he was arrested and threatened with institutionalization in an insane asylum.

He stood for the position of dictator of the United States, charged admission fees to campaign rallies, and drew record crowds. He became a vegetarian and adopted various fads. Instead of shaking hands with other people, he shook hands with himself, a manner of greeting he claimed to have seen in China. He spent his final days on park benches in New York City's Madison Square Park, handing out dimes and refusing to speak to anyone but children and animals.

In 1890, Nellie Bly traveled around the world in 72 days, instigating Train to do a second circumnavigation of the earth in the same year. He completed the trip from Tacoma, Washington, and back in 67 days 12 hours and 1 minute, a world record at the time. A plaque in Tacoma commemorates the location where the 1890 trip began and ended. Train was accompanied on many of his travels by George Pickering Bemis, his cousin and private secretary. Bemis was later elected as mayor of Omaha, Nebraska.

In 1892, the town of Whatcom, Washington, offered to finance yet another trip around the world in order to publicize itself. Train finished this trip in a record 60 days.

He became ill with smallpox while visiting his daughter Susan M. Train Gulager in Stamford, Connecticut, in 1903.

On January 5, 1904, Train died of heart failure in New York. At the time of his death, he was living in a cheap lodging house named the Mills Hotel. He was buried at a small private ceremony at Green-Wood Cemetery in Brooklyn. After his death, The Thirteen Club, of which he was a member, passed a resolution that he was one of the few sane men in "a mad, mad world."

Marriage and family
Train married Wilhelmina Wilkinson Davis in 1851, with whom he had four children, including daughter Susan M. Train Gulager.

In 1869, Train erected a large Italianate summer cottage in Newport, Rhode Island. Known as Train Villa, it stood at Bellevue Avenue at Bailey's Beach. After Train's death, it was renamed Beachholm. It was destroyed by fire in the 1970s.

Publications

 * An American Merchant in Europe, Asia, and Australia (1851)
 * Young America Abroad (1857)
 * Young America in Wall Street (1858)
 * Irish Independency (1865)
 * Championship of Women (1868)
 * My Life in Many States and in Foreign Lands (1902)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: George Francis Train


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SCA (company)

Svenska Cellulosa Aktiebolaget SCA (lit. 'Swedish Cellulose Stock Corporation SCA') is a Swedish timber, pulp and paper manufacturer with headquarters in Sundsvall. It has approximately 3,300 employees and a turnover of approximately SEK 20.8 billion (€1.8 billion). Its main products include many one-use paper products, containerboard, solid-wood products, pulp and forest-based biofuel. SCA is Europe's largest private owner of forest land, with 2.7 million hectares. The global hygiene product company Essity was part of SCA until 2017.

History
SCA was founded by Ivar Kreuger on 27 November 1929 as a holding company for ten Swedish forest industry companies. Following Kreuger's bankruptcy in 1932, the company came to be controlled by the bank Handelsbanken, who along with associated funds and companies continue to control SCA. Axel Enström was the managing director from 1950 to 1960 and chairman of the board from 1960 to 1965.

In 1975 SCA acquired Mölnlycke, a leading western European producer of disposable hygiene products, and in 1990 SCA acquired transport packaging company Reedpack. In 1995 the Germany-based paper and packaging company PWA was acquired. In 2001 the division Wisconsin Tissue of the United States company Georgia-Pacific Tissue was acquired.

In 2007, SCA bought the European business of Procter & Gamble, significantly expanding its hygiene product business. In 2008 SCA increases ownership in Chinese tissue company Vinda. In 2012 SCA divested its packaging operations – excluding the two kraftliner mills in Sweden – to DS Smith.

In August 2015 it was announced that SCA was to invest in increased capacity for mass production at the Östrand pulp mill in Timrå, Sweden. The annual production capacity of bleached sulphate pulp was to increase from approximately 430 000 tonnes to 900 000 tonnes. The investment amounted to approximately SEK 7.8 billion (€815m) and was expected to be one of the largest industrial investment in the history of Norrland.

In August 2015 it was announced that SCA's hygiene operations and forest operations were to be divided into two different divisions. A year later, 24 August 2016, the company announced that it intended to split SCA into two separately listed companies. In 2017 the company Essity was formed and was introduced on the Stock Exchange in Stockholm.

In September 2021, St1 and SCA announced their half-owned joint ventures St1 Gothenburg Biorefinery AB and SCA Östrand Biorefinery. The biorefinery in Gothenburg produces biofuel from pine oil from SCA and other renewable raw materials

Business
SCA's operations are divided in five business areas: Forest, Wood, Containerboard, Pulp and Renewable energy.

Manufacturing Units in Sweden
Business 2023

 * Bollsta sawmill in Bollstabruk
 * Gällö sawmill in Gällö
 * Pellet (biofuel) manufacturing in Härnösand
 * Munksund paper mill, containerboard production (kraftliner white top) in Munksund
 * Munksund sawmill
 * Obbola paper mill, containerboard production (kraftliner) in Obbola
 * Ortviken pulp mill (CTMP) in Sundsvall
 * Östrand pulp mill in Timrå
 * Tunadal sawmill in Tunadal

The planing mills in Tunadal, Stugun and Bollsta are part of SCA Wood Scandinavia.

Operations in other countries
SCA has operations in several countries. Located near its own forests in northern Sweden, SCA Wood's sawmills and planing mills supply wood products to global markets. Approximately 950 employees over five sawmills and two planing mills enable deliveries of wood to Europe, North Africa, North America, as well as parts of Asia and the MENA region. Pulp has a sales network in Europe and North America. Containerboard has sales managers in Europe. SCA is present in the Netherlands and Germany in logistics and in the Baltics within the business area SCA Forest. The company has no operations in Russia or Ukraine.

Forest holdings
SCA is Europe's largest private owner of forest land and manages a total of around 2.6 million hectares in northern Sweden, of which two million hectares of productive forest land, which corresponds to up to nine percent of Sweden's total productive forest land. The company also has forests in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, which are responsible for managing their own forests, felling and purchasing timber in order to supply SCA's industries with raw material. SCA uses its forest to produce wood-based products such as sawn timber, paper pulp and packaging paper (kraftliner). The company owns wind turbines and produces solid and liquid biofuels from its by-products. The company also provides services for forest owners and transport solutions.

Sustainability
SCA is nominated for sustainable forestry and certified products. Continuous work is underway to strengthen biological diversity and secure functional ecosystems. In 2014, the Ethisphere Institute selected SCA as one of the world's most ethical companies for the seventh time in a row. There are several perceptions of what sustainable forestry is.

title: SCA (company)


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Anarchist Federation (Britain)

The Anarchist Federation (AF, AFed) is a federation of anarcho-communists in Great Britain. It is not a political party, but a direct action, agitational and propaganda organisation.

History
The British anarchist movement had been revitalized during the time of the miners' strike of 1984–1985, which had drawn many new people to anarchism and caused a number of anarchist organizations to spring up in the wake of Class War. In 1984, a number of former members of the Libertarian Communist Group established the Libertarian Communist Discussion Group (LCDG), drawing inspiration from texts such as the Platform by Nestor Makhno and the Manifesto of Libertarian Communism by Georges Fontenis. The LCDG then began to collaborate with the editor of Virus magazine and started publishing their own texts about anarcho-communism, changing their name again to the Anarchist Communist Discussion Group (ACDG). After the split of Syndicalist Fight (SyF) from the Direct Action Movement (DAM) in 1986, the ACDG merged together with SyF and established the Anarchist Communist Federation (ACF).

Throughout the late-1980s, the ACF drew together many people that were new to anarchism, which effectively made it into an entirely new organization, almost completely disconnected from its roots. At the beginning of the 1990s, they participated in the poll tax riots, calling for "the abolition of all hierarchy" and "the creation of a worldwide classless society". According to one report by the Economic League in 1991, the ACF had quickly become "second only to Class War" in terms of its "militancy and commitment to violence". Although a small organization, much of the ACF's influence came from its "cordial relationships" with other libertarian socialist groups, cooperating particularly closely with the autonomous Marxists of Subversion. In 1999, the ACF changed its name one final time, becoming the Anarchist Federation (AF).

By the turn of the 21st century, the AF were involved in the anti-globalization movement and participated in protests against rising third world debt. The Special Branch of the Metropolitan Police began investigating the AF, following 2000's May Day demonstration at Parliament Square, during which some activists had dug up the grass to plant vegetables. Following a series of vandalisms and arson attacks by green anarchists, a large police investigation was launched into Bristol's anarchist community, to which the Bristol Anarchist Federation responded with a statement denouncing the police's "concerted effort to intimidate and divide" local anarchists. In February 2020, eco-socialist activists connected to the Anarchist Federation took part in the occupation of Paddington Green Police Station, but they were swiftly evicted.

Ideology
The Anarchist Federation propagates a theory of anarchist communism, distancing itself from individualist anarchism, anarcho-pacifism and anarcho-syndicalism. It had come to outright reject trade unionism during the suppression of the miners' strike of 1984–1985, which had caused it to question the role of the trade unions in a class conflict. It extends its skepticism of trade unions to any permanent workplace organizations, arguing they can become integrated into the functioning of capitalism.

The AF advocates for prefigurative politics, out of a belief in a "strong correlation between means and ends", which rejects all politicians and political parties. It considers participation in representative democracy to be "ceding political power to someone or some party", and thus favors direct action over electoralism. It further went on to claim that Members of Parliament inevitably become corrupted by power and distant from their own communities.

title: Anarchist Federation (Britain)


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Chiltern Hills

The Chiltern Hills or the Chilterns are a chalk escarpment in southern England, northwest of London, covering 660 sqmi across Oxfordshire, Buckinghamshire, Hertfordshire, and Bedfordshire, stretching 45 mi from Goring-on-Thames in the southwest to Hitchin in the northeast. The hills are 12 mi at their widest.

In 1965, almost half of the Chilterns was designated as an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB). The northwest boundary is clearly defined by the escarpment. The dip slope is by definition more gradual, and merges with the landscape to the southeast. The southwest endpoint is the River Thames. The hills decline slowly in prominence in northeast Bedfordshire.

Geology
The chalk escarpment of the Chiltern Hills overlooks the Vale of Aylesbury and roughly coincides with the southernmost extent of the ice sheet during the Anglian glacial maximum. The Chilterns are part of a system of chalk downlands throughout eastern and southern England, formed between 65 and 95 million years ago, comprising rocks of the Chalk Group; this also includes Salisbury Plain, Cranborne Chase, the Isle of Wight and the South Downs in the south. In the north, the chalk formations continue northeastwards across Hertfordshire, Norfolk and the Lincolnshire Wolds, finally ending as the Yorkshire Wolds in a prominent escarpment, south of the Vale of Pickering. The beds of the Chalk Group were deposited over the buried northwestern margin of the Anglo-Brabant Massif during the Late Cretaceous. During this time, sources for siliciclastic sediment had been eliminated due to the exceptionally high sea level. The formation is thinner through the Chiltern Hills than the chalk strata to the north and south and deposition was tectonically controlled, with the Lilley Bottom structure playing a significant role at times. The Chalk Group, like the underlying Gault Clay and Upper Greensand, is diachronous.

During the late stages of the Alpine Orogeny, as the African Plate collided with Eurasian Plate, Mesozoic extensional structures, such as the Weald Basin of southern England, underwent structural inversion. This phase of deformation tilted the chalk strata to the southeast in the area of the Chiltern Hills. The gently dipping beds of rock were eroded, forming an escarpment.

The chalk strata are frequently interspersed with layers of flint nodules which apparently replaced chalk and infilled pore spaces early in the diagenetic history. Flint has been mined for millennia from the Chiltern Hills. They were first extracted for fabrication into flint axes in the Neolithic period, then for knapping into flintlocks. Nodules are to be seen everywhere in the older houses as a construction material for walls.

Topography
The highest point is at 267 m (876 ft.) above sea level at Haddington Hill near Wendover in Buckinghamshire; a stone monument marks the summit. The nearby Ivinghoe Beacon is a more prominent hill, although its altitude is only 249 m (817 ft.). It is the starting point of the Icknield Way Path and the Ridgeway long-distance path, which follows the line of the Chilterns for many miles to the west, where they merge with the Wiltshire downs and southern Cotswolds. To the east of Ivinghoe Beacon is Dunstable Downs, a steep section of the Chiltern scarp. Near Wendover is Coombe Hill, 260 m (852 ft.) above sea level. The more gently sloping country – the dip slope – to the southeast of the Chiltern scarp is also generally referred to as part of the Chilterns; it contains much beech woodland and many villages.

Landscape and land use
Enclosed fields account for almost 66% of the "Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty" (AONB) area. The next most important, and archetypal, landscape form is woodland, covering 21% of the Chilterns, which is thus one of the most heavily wooded areas in England. Built-up areas (settlements and industry) make up over 5% of the land area; parks and gardens nearly 4%, open land (commons, heaths and downland) is 2%, and the remaining 2% includes a variety of uses, including communications, military, open land, recreation, utilities and water.

Rivers
The Chilterns are almost entirely located within the River Thames drainage basin, and also drain towards several major Thames tributaries, most notably the Lea, which rises in the eastern Chilterns, the Colne to the south, and the Thame to the north and west. Other rivers arising near the Chilterns include the Mimram, the Ver, the Gade, the Bulbourne, the Chess, the Misbourne and the Wye. These are classified as chalk streams, although the Lea is degraded by water from road drains and sewage treatment works. The Thames flows through a gap between the Berkshire Downs and the Chilterns. Portions around Leighton Buzzard and Hitchin are drained by the Ouzel, the Flit and the Hiz, all of which ultimately flow into the River Great Ouse (the last two via the Ivel).

Transport
Several transport routes pass through the Chilterns in natural or human-made corridors. There are also over 2000 km of public footpaths in the Chilterns, including long-distance trackways such as the Icknield Way and The Ridgeway. The M40 motorway passes through the Chilterns in Buckinghamshire and Oxfordshire sections with a deep cutting through the Stokenchurch Gap. The M1 motorway crosses the Bedfordshire section near Luton. Other major roads include the A41 and the A413.

The Chiltern Main Line Railway via High Wycombe and Princes Risborough, the London to Aylesbury Line via Amersham, the West Coast Main Line via Berkhamsted, and the Midland Main Line all run through the Chiltern Hills. The Great Western Main Line and its branches such as the Henley and Marlow branch lines link the southern side of the Chilterns with London Paddington. The Chinnor and Princes Risborough Railway is a preserved line.

High Speed 2 (HS2) will pass underneath the Chilterns in the Chiltern tunnel. This tunnel, the longest under construction on the HS2 route, will be 16 km in length. The Conservation Board has made clear it was opposed to the routing of HS2 through the Chilterns AONB.

Bus services are provided by Arriva Shires & Essex and Carousel Buses. Air corridors from Luton Airport pass over the Chilterns.

Apart from the River Thames, there are no navigable rivers. The Grand Union Canal passes through the Chilterns between Berkhamsted and Marsworth following the course of the Gade and Bulbourne. Also, after crossing a watershed, the Ouzel is partly in the Chilterns.

History
During the Iron Age, the Chiltern ridge provided a relatively safe and easily navigable route across southern Britain. The toponym, Chiltern, is believed to be Brittonic in origin. According to Eilert Ekwall, Chiltern is possibly related to the broader ethnic name Celt (Celtæ in early Celtic languages); the root celto- "high" (and suffix -erno-) could provide the origin of Chiltern.

Before the 18th century, the population lived dispersed across the largely rural landscape of the Chilterns in remote villages, hamlets, farmsteads, and market towns along the main turnpike routes which coursed through the navigable valleys. The development of canals in the 18th century and railways in the 19th century encouraged settlement and the growth of High Wycombe, Tring, and Luton. Significant housing and industrial development took place in the first half of the 20th century and continued throughout the 20th century.

In 1965 almost half of the Chiltern Hills was designated as an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB).

List of towns and villages in the Chilterns

 * Aldbury, Amersham, Apsley, Ashridge, Aston Clinton
 * Barton-le-Clay, Bellingdon, Berkhamsted, Bledlow Ridge, Bovingdon, Bradenham, Breachwood Green, Buckland Common
 * Caddington, Chalfont St Giles, Chalfont St Peter, Chartridge, Checkendon, Cheddington, Chesham, Chiltern Green, Chinnor, Cholesbury, Christmas Common, Coleshill
 * Dagnall, Downley, Dunsmore, Dunstable
 * Edlesborough, Ellesborough
 * Fawley, Fingest, Flackwell Heath, Frieth
 * Gerrards Cross, Goring-On-Thames, Great Hampden, Great Kingshill, Great Missenden, Great Offley
 * Halton, Hambleden, Harlington, Hawridge, Hazlemere, Hemel Hempstead, Henley-on-Thames, Hexton, High Wycombe, Hitchin, Holmer Green, Hughenden, Hyde Heath
 * Ibstone, Ivinghoe, Jordans, Kensworth
 * Lacey Green, Lane End, Latimer, Ley Hill, Lilley, Little Chalfont, Little Gaddesden, Little Kingshill, Little Missenden, Luton
 * Markyate, Marlow, Marlow Bottom, Medmenham
 * Naphill, Nettlebed, Nuffield
 * Penn, Pishill, Pitstone, Prestwood, Princes Risborough, Radnage, Redbourn
 * Seer Green, Sharpenhoe, Shiplake, Skirmett, Southend, South Heath, Speen, St Leonards, Stokenchurch, Stonor, Streatley (Beds), Studham
 * Thame, The Lee, Tring, Turville, Tylers Green
 * Walter's Ash, Watlington, Wendover, West Wycombe, Whipsnade, Whitwell, Wigginton, Winchmore Hill, Woodcote

Strip parishes associated with the Chilterns
The western edge of the Chilterns is notable for ancient strip parishes, elongated parishes with villages in the flatter land below the escarpment, and woodland and summer pastures in the higher land.
 * Bedfordshire: Eaton Bray, Toddington, Totternhoe
 * Buckinghamshire: Aston Clinton, Aylesbury, Bledlow, Buckland, Drayton Beauchamp, Great Kimble, Horsenden, The Lee, Marsworth, Monks Risborough, Pitstone, Princes Risborough, Saunderton, Stoke Mandeville, Weston Turville
 * Hertfordshire: Tring, Wigginton
 * Oxfordshire: Aston Rowant, Checkendon, Chinnor, Ipsden, Lewknor, Mongewell, Newnham Murren, Nuffield, Pyrton, Shirburn, South Stoke, Watlington

Economic use
The hills have been used for their natural resources for millennia. The chalk has been quarried for the manufacture of cement, and flint for local building material. Beechwoods supplied furniture makers with quality hardwood. The area was once (and still is to a lesser degree) renowned for its chair-making industry, centred on the towns of Chesham and High Wycombe (the nickname of Wycombe Wanderers Football Club is the Chairboys). Water was and remains a scarce resource in the Chilterns. Historically it was drawn from the aquifer via ponds, deep wells, occasional springs or bournes and chalk streams and rivers. The River Chess directly supplies watercress beds. Today the chalk aquifer is exploited via a network of pumping stations to provide a public supply for domestic consumption, agriculture and business uses, both within and well-beyond the Chilterns area. Over-exploitation has possibly led to the disappearance of some streams over long periods.

In a region without building stone, local clay provided the raw materials for brick manufacture. Timber and flint were also used for construction.

Mediaeval strip parishes reflected the diversity of land from clay farmland, through wooded slopes to downland. Their boundaries were often drawn to include a section of each type of land, resulting in an irregular county boundary. These have tended to be smoothed out by successive reorganisations.

As people have come to appreciate the open country, the area has become a visitor destination and the National Trust has acquired land to preserve its character, for example at Ashridge, near Tring. In places, with the reduction of sheep grazing, action has been taken to maintain open downland by suppressing the natural growth of scrub and birch woodland. In the 1920s and 1930s, the Youth Hostels Association established several youth hostels for people visiting the hills.

The hills have been used as a location for telecommunication relay stations such as Stokenchurch BT Tower and that at Zouches Farm.

Protection
The Chilterns are an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB) and so enjoys special protection from major developments, which should not take place in such areas except in exceptional circumstances. This protection applies to major development proposals that raise issues of national significance. In 2000 the government confirmed that the landscape qualities of AONBs are equivalent to those of National Parks, and that the protection given to both types of area by the land use planning system should also be equivalent.

Chilterns Conservation Board
The Chilterns Conservation Board was established by Parliamentary Order in July 2004. It is an independent body comprising 27 members drawn from the relevant local authorities and from those living in local communities within the Chiltern AONB area.

The Board's purposes are set out in Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000: In summary these are:- First, to conserve and enhance the natural beauty of the AONB, and increase the understanding and enjoyment by the public of the special qualities of the AONB. Second, while taking account of the first purpose, to foster the economic and social wellbeing of local communities within the AONB. Third, to publish and promote the implementation of a management plan for the AONB.

In contrast to National Parks, The Chilterns – as other AONBs – do not possess their own planning authority. The Board has an advisory role on planning and development matters and seeks to influence the actions of local government by commenting upon planning applications.

The local authorities (two County Councils, three Unitary Authorities and four District and Borough Councils) are expected to respect the area's status as a designated Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty.

Heritage
Examples of historical architecture in the Chiltern region are preserved at the Chiltern Open Air Museum near Chalfont St Giles. This open-air folk museum contains reconstructed buildings which might otherwise have been destroyed or demolished as a result of redevelopment or road construction.

Chiltern Hundreds
The Chilterns include the Chiltern Hundreds. By established custom, Members of Parliament (MPs) in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom, who are prohibited from resigning their seats directly, may apply for the Stewardship of the Chiltern Hundreds as a device to enable their departure from the House.

List of hills
Hills in The Chilterns more than 200 metres in elevation and with more than 30 metres of topographic prominence are listed from southwest to northeast.

title: Chiltern Hills


text:
Smurfit-Stone Container

Smurfit-Stone Container Corporation was a global paperboard and paper-based packaging company based in Creve Coeur, Missouri, and Chicago, Illinois, with approximately 21,000 employees. In 2007, Smurfit-Stone was ranked 13 in PricewaterhouseCoopers' "Top 100" forest, paper, and packaging companies in the world as ranked by sales revenue. The company was also among the world's largest paper recyclers.

Rock-Tenn bought the company in a $3.5 billion deal that closed in May 2011. Rock-Tenn is now known as Smurfit WestRock.

History
SSCC was formed in November 1998, with the merger of Jefferson Smurfit Corporation (JSC) and Stone Container Corporation (Stone). JSC’s roots go back to 1974, when Dublin, Ireland-based Jefferson Smurfit Group (JSG) acquired partial interest in Time Industries, a Chicago-based paper and packaging company. JSG established a major presence in the United States with the 1981 acquisition of the Alton Box Board Company and the 1982 acquisition of Diamond International’s packaging operations. In 1983, JSG’s U.S. operations reorganized and the majority of these operations became subsidiaries of JSC. JSC went on to establish a leadership position in the U.S. paper and packaging industry with its 1986 acquisition of 50 percent of Container Corporation of America (CCA) from Mobil Corporation.

Morgan Stanley Leveraged Equity Fund II (MSLEF II) purchased the other half of CCA. JSC restructured as a privately held company in 1989, jointly owned by JSG and MSLEF II. As part of the restructuring, JSC acquired the remainder of CCA. In 1994, JSC recapitalized as a publicly traded company.

Stone Container was founded in 1926 as J.H. Stone and Company. In 1945, it incorporated under the name Stone Container Corporation. In the 1950s, Stone expanded outside of Chicago, buying and building corrugated container plants in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, and Michigan. The company acquired facilities from Continental Group in 1983 and acquired additional facilities from Champion International in 1986 and Southwest Forest Industries in 1987. Stone Container sold its forest products division to management in 1996.

The merger of JSC and Stone in 1998 brought together two leaders of the paper-based packaging industry. In conjunction with the merger closing, JSG purchased 20 million shares of JSC’s stock from MSLEF II and certain other investors. In May 2000, SSCC acquired St. Laurent Paperboard, Inc. In September 2002, the company acquired MeadWestvaco’s Stevenson, Alabama, containerboard mill and related operations. That same month, JSG privatized and distributed its stake in SSCC. Later, neither JSG nor MSLEF II were stockholders of Smurfit-Stone. In March 2003, SSCC exchanged its European assets for JSG’s 50 percent ownership of Smurfit-MBI, a Canadian packaging company, and $189 million cash. SSCC later owned 100 percent of Smurfit-MBI. As a result of this transaction, SSCC focused almost exclusively on the North American market.

In May 2008, Smurfit-Stone opened a high-tech corrugated container-producing facility in New Lenox, Illinois. The newer plant was to employ 145 people and supply companies in the pizza, oil lubricants, detergents and household goods, cooking, and health care industries.

The firm had naming rights to a high-profile building on Chicago's skyline, until it was re-named the Crain Communications Building in 2012. Adventures in Babysitting with Elisabeth Shue was filmed there.

Products
Smurfit-Stone had two reportable business segments. The containerboard and corrugated containers segment accounted for 75 percent of net sales and included the company’s containerboard mills and corrugated container operations. The consumer packaging segment represented 20 percent of net sales and consists of CRB, folding carton plants, and multiwall and specialty bag operations. It also included packaging equipment, flexible packaging, tube, and label plants. Other operations included nonreportable segments, which accounts for 5 percent of net sales and primarily consists of recycling operations, including collection centers and brokerage sales offices.

On 15 May 2006, the firm reported the definitive sale for $1.04 billion in cash of its Consumer Packaging division to Texas Pacific Group.

Bankruptcy and corporate reorganization
In early January 2009, The Wall Street Journal announced that Smurfit-Stone had hired lawyers to plan for a potential bankruptcy filing – which caused an 83% collapse of Smurfit-Stone's stock price. On January 27, 2009, Smurfit-Stone filed petitions for reorganization under Chapter 11 in the U.S. Bankruptcy Court in Wilmington, Delaware.

The company's CEO claims Smurfit-Stone was forced to file bankruptcy because of higher operations costs, burdensome debt levels from prior corporate mergers, and weakened demand for packaging caused by a global economic recession. Pending court approval, the company hoped to obtain debtor-in-possession (DIP) financing to continue ongoing business operations, payment of employee wages and benefits, and payment of existing vendor obligations.

Rock-Tenn buyout
Rock-Tenn (NYSE: RKT) bought the company in a $3.5 billion deal that closed in May 2011.

title: Smurfit-Stone Container


text:
Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Higher education/tables

Most of the comments have been made irrelevant by Template:Infobox University

Cleanup
As a part of reviving the univerity wikiproject, I'm going to clean up and organize this talk page. Much of what has been discussed here is now settled and not really relevant anymore, so a lot of it will be removed. Acaides 20:56, 1 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Current standard
The table currently included in the university example (sandbox) is the university infobox template. I think a wikipedia template is definately the way to go for the table in university articles. It greatly simplifies the article source, it makes uniformity very easy, and style changes can be applied to every article that uses it by just changing the template. Acaides 20:56, 1 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Contents
The following fields are currently included in the infobox, in order:

 * Motto - the offical motto of the school
 * Established - year the school was founded
 * School type - private or public
 * President - president of the school
 * Location - location of the school
 * Campus - size and type of campus (urban, suburban, etc)
 * Enrollment
 * undergraduate - number of undergraduates at last count
 * graduate - number of graduate students (masters, doctor's, etc)
 * Faculty - number of full-time academic faculty at last count
 * Free - any useful statistic at author's discretion
 * Homepage - the offical website of the school

Images

 * Adding in the university logo might be nice, but be might run into copyright issues. See how it's done at Drexel University. Disclaimer notice?--Jiang 21:27, 10 Aug 2003 (UTC)
 * It's legal as long as we provide the copyright notice, right? --Jiang
 * We also could use photos of the campus or famous buildings instead of logos, were available. -- till we *) 22:53, Aug 10, 2003 (UTC)
 * I don't think photos should be put in the table. Photos naturally come in different dimensions. What standard would there be? What would the photo show? --Jiang
 * The photos should show the university, simply ;-) (i.e., the most remarkable building), and logos don't have a standard size (some are quadratic, some not, ...). A landscape photograph could be perfectly included into the table. (Only in cases where no logo is available).
 * About logos - I was thinking of putting either the coat-of-arms, or the corporate logo in the template on the UWO page. The logo is kind of boring looking, but they apparently prefer it to the actual coat-of-arms (and there are no good pictures of it anyway). Which one should we use? On the other hand, the logo is presumably copyrighted... Adam Bishop 02:32, 11 Aug 2003 (UTC)
 * Logos has some guidelines for using them; the talk page has more on what the community is thinking about future usage. It all boils down to "go for it, within reason." I would be especially careful to make sure that the  template is in the description, because that will make all the logos easier to track down should the policy change later. iMeowbot~Mw 12:49, 2 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Rankings

 * National Research Council rankings are done every 5 (?) years or so, i think. US news rankings are done every yr. But to inlcude them would be endorsing them? We could send in a bot to change them when new rankings come out, I guess. Yes, no. of students/faculty could be added. Maybe including the official name would be redundant, as it would be bolded in the first intrductory paragraph. Most of the time, the title of the article is the official name. I don't think photos would fit into the table. I think it'll be interesting to know what their sports teams are called...--Jiang 22:11, 10 Aug 2003 (UTC)
 * We have rankings like that, done in Maclean's magazine, but they are considered either completely accurate or completely useless, depending on the school :) Adam Bishop 22:28, 10 Aug 2003 (UTC)
 * I don't think putting rankings in is a good idea. There are solid reasons to reject quantitative data like that.  In my opinion (and this is, of course, all this is) there's too much controversy over rankings to include them in Wiki data.  --Paul Musgrave 22:45, 10 Aug 2003 (UTC)
 * I agree! -- till we *) 22:52, Aug 10, 2003 (UTC)

Application

 * I think the sections that don't apply (i.e., with "n/a") should simply be left out of the table. I think the photos are better placed in the body of the article. --Jiang 23:33, 10 Aug 2003 (UTC)
 * I had another thought - if the school has official colours, shouldn't the table reflect that? For UWO for example, the table would look better (for me, as a UWO student :)) if it had purple in it somewhere, in the headers for example. I'll put that in so you can see what I mean. Adam Bishop 22:22, 11 Aug 2003 (UTC)
 * I think color-matching each table to each university is a bad idea. The whole point of this project is to establish a sort of universal standard for these articles, this wouldn't help that goal. Also, if you ever look at Encarta or print encyclopedias, you won't see this school color matching. In fact, in every article I have read from other encyclopedias, you don't even see a mention of the school colors, let alone an incorporation of them into the encyclopedia's look and feel. One table color for everyone. Acaides 20:56, 1 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Mottos

 * What about including mottos in the table? I don't know if every school has one, though (UWO does). Adam Bishop 00:47, 11 Aug 2003 (UTC)
 * I think the motto might be a good idea for the table, but I know not all universities have one. This could be a big problem. Maybe it would be better to mention in in the text of the article. Acaides 20:56, 1 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Religious affiliation

 * In my version, I readded the "religious affiliation" line because it needs to be more clear when no religious affiliation exists. I also rearranged the order. Just as the president of a country is listed first, I think the u. leader might as well be lister first also. --Jiang 00:51, 11 Aug 2003 (UTC)
 * I think religious affiliation should be in the table. It is not a part of the current Infobox template, we need to take a look at how to incorporate it. Acaides 20:56, 1 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Endowment

 * Adding the school's endowment is a useful piece of information that might be hard to work into the body of the article. Rkevins82 15:58, 9 August 2005 (UTC)

Table placement

 * Align=right, okay. but vertically aligned to the first line of text (placing it right in front of the definition/intro in the source code) or aligned with the start of the toc, or where? I'd prefer the first one. -- till we *) 00:49, Aug 11, 2003 (UTC)
 * And related: If we use one of the photo templates (or put it as an option on the WikiProject), we should say how wide the photograph could be -- I set the photo tables from 285px to 300px (because my photo has that width), but it doesn't look that well. Good night everybody! -- till we *) 00:55, Aug 11, 2003 (UTC)
 * I vote for aligned with the TOC. Just like with country articles, I think that a defining paragraph should always be the first thing in an article. Also, 300px is quite a standard width for photos in tables (see WikiProject Constellations). --seav 01:03, Aug 11, 2003 (UTC)

Country-specific infoboxes
There are now the following country-specific university infobox templates, with one example for each (of several in some cases) where it has been applied:
 * Template:Infobox_Austrian_University, applied at University of Vienna (added to the list today / up◦land 17:26, 15 Feb 2005 (UTC))
 * Template:Infobox_Belgian_University, applied at Ghent University (added by Phlebas 18:26, 17 Feb 2005 (UTC))
 * Template:Infobox British University, applied at University of Cambridge (added to list today. - up◦land 21:14, 4 May 2005 (UTC))
 * Template:Infobox_Czech_University, applied at Charles University of Prague
 * Template:Infobox_Danish_University, applied at University of Copenhagen
 * Template:Infobox_Dutch_University, applied at University of Leiden
 * Template:Infobox_German_University, applied at Ruprecht Karls University of Heidelberg
 * Template:Infobox_Hungarian_University, applied at Eötvös Loránd University
 * Template:Infobox_Irish_University, applied at National University of Ireland (added to the list today / Djegan 13:56, 8 January 2006 (UTC))
 * Template:Infobox_Italian_University, applied at University of Pisa
 * Template:Infobox_Norwegian_University, applied at University of Oslo
 * Template:Infobox Peruvian University, applied at University of Lima (made by User:StarbucksFreak on May 30, 2005; added to list today. --up◦land 10:21, 13 Jun 2005 (UTC))
 * Template:Infobox_Polish_University, applied at Warsaw University
 * Template:Infobox_Portuguese_University, applied at University of Coimbra
 * Template:Infobox Ancient Scottish University, applied at University of Edinburgh (added to list today. - up◦land 21:14, 4 May 2005 (UTC))
 * Template:Infobox_Spanish_University, applied at University of Salamanca
 * Template:Infobox_Swedish_University, applied at Lund University
 * Template:Infobox_Swedish_University2, applied at Uppsala University (added to list today. - up◦land 21:14, 4 May 2005 (UTC))
 * Template:Infobox_Swiss_University, applied at University of Geneva

(Check "What links here" on the infoboxes for other examples.)

These represent three different designs. Some of them have been around for some time. I made a bunch the last few days based on one of the designs. The point in making one for each country is that relevant or specific data varies between educational systems, and that adaptations can made for each country. Additionally, differences occur within national systems. In Germany, education is in the hands of the Länder, and thus may vary to some extent within the country. It is possible that there will be a need for additional infoboxes for each country, reflecting different types of institutions or regional differences.

Sometimes the variation lies in terminology: In some universities the rector is called a rector magnificus. I just put a box on Georg August University of Göttingen, and noticed from the webpage that the head of the university is called a Präsident. I don't know if this is a recent import from American terminology (presumably connected with the recent creation of a foundation for the university) or has existed before. The infobox should reflect this, and perhaps it can be solved by making the title a variable, as is the case in the Template:Infobox_Swedish_University.

For the Italian box I added a "Sports teams" header, as it was there in old hard-coded infobox on the University of Pisa page. Generally, this is not as relevant with European universities as with American ones; I am not well enough acquainted with Italian universities if this is usually significant there. OK, there are other things which deserve comment, but I think I'll stop for now. / up◦land 00:03, 4 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Regarding the British Universities infobox, it still doesn't apply to all British universities. For example, University of London colleges all share the same Chancellor/V-C, but have individual heads of colleges who often wield as much power as the V-C in other universities in Britain. e.g. King's College London has a Principal, UCL has a Rector (and President, oddly). Any advice on how to best adapt for these, or should another template be created? I note those entries have adapted the template for themselves already. --81.178.106.116 11:03, 28 September 2005 (UTC)

European Universities information template
(moved from Talk:University)

I'd like to make a Template for European universities, like the one for American (Template:University_information). Let's take a look at which terms I think don't fit for a European one:

 * Motto: mine doesn't have a motto. I think this is an american thing.

(snip)

 * Sports Team: Sport team? What? There is 1 team per sport. They don't have silly names.

So, how could we do it to fit for all European universities?

Phlebas 16:18, 15 Feb 2005 (UTC)

 * There have been a number of these already for a while, and I have made a number for different European countries, based on the pre-existing templates, which I have then modified. I don't know if you have looked at these or not (Template:Infobox German University etc.). I don't see any reason to have one in common for all European universities. U.S. universities have some characteristics which European universities mostly don't (like the emphasis on sports with teams with "silly names" and mascots), but there are enough differences to warrant one for each country. If someone wants to modify one of these, it won't affect the other templates and create unnecessary conflicts between users with knowledge of different educational systems. For Leuven (I just looked at your user page), you could probably use and perhaps modify the Template:Infobox_Dutch_University (look at University of Leiden). Please continue this discussion at the Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Universities/tables, in order to keep the topic in one place. / up◦land 17:27, 15 Feb 2005 (UTC)

 * Thanks for showing me the way (it's easy to get lost in wikipedia). I have made one for the Belgian (Wallonia and Flanders) university (identical to the Dutch one, except for Rector Magnificus), used for now for the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven and Ghent University. Here: Template:Infobox_Belgian_University.


text:
Talk:Software piracy as price control

Untitled
Two comments:

Firstly, our naming conventions state that things other than proper names should be titled in lowercase (so this page should be moved to software piracy as price control). The software ignored the case of the first letter.

Secondly, the material on this page seems to fit better on the software piracy page. Is there any reason why it doesn't belong there? --Robert Merkel 00:39, 11 Aug 2003 (UTC)

title: Talk:Software piracy as price control


text:
Mesothelae

The Mesothelae are a suborder of spiders (order Araneae). , two extant families were accepted by the World Spider Catalog, Liphistiidae and Heptathelidae. Alternatively, the Heptathelidae can be treated as a subfamily of a more broadly circumscribed Liphistiidae. There are also a number of extinct families.

This suborder is thought to form the sister group to all other living spiders, and to retain ancestral characters, such as a segmented abdomen with spinnerets in the middle and two pairs of book lungs. Extant members of the Mesothelae are medium to large spiders with eight eyes grouped on a tubercle. They are found only in China, Japan, and southeast Asia. The oldest known Mesothelae spiders are from the Carboniferous, over 300 million years ago.

Taxonomy
Reginald Innes Pocock in 1892 was the first to realize that the exceptional characters of the genus Liphistius (the only member of the group then known) meant that it was more different from the remaining spiders than they were among themselves. Accordingly, he proposed dividing spiders into two subgroups, Mesothelae for Liphistius, and Opisthothelae for all other spiders. The names refer to the position of the spinning organs, which are in the middle of the abdomen in Liphistius and nearer the end in all other spiders. In Greek, μέσος (mesos) means "middle", and θήλα (thēla) "teat".

Phylogeny and classification
Pocock divided his Opisthothelae into two groups, which he called Mygalomorphae and Arachnomorphae (now Araneomorphae), implicitly adopting the phylogeny shown below.

Pocock's approach was criticized by other arachnologists. Thus in 1923, Alexander Petrunkevitch rejected grouping mygalomorphs and araneomorphs into Opisthothelae, treating Liphistiomorphae (i.e. Mesothelae), Mygalomorphae and Arachnomorphae (Araneomorphae) as three separate groups. Others, such as W. S. Bristowe in 1933, put Liphistiomorphae and Mygalomorphae into one group, called Orthognatha, with Araneomorphae as Labidognatha:

In 1976, Platnick and Gertsch argued for a return to Pocock's classification, drawing on morphological evidence. Subsequent phylogenetic studies based on molecular data have vindicated this view. The accepted classification of spiders is now:

Order Araneae (spiders)
 * Suborder Mesothelae Pocock, 1892
 * Suborder Opisthothelae Pocock, 1892
 * Infraorder Mygalomorphae Pocock, 1892
 * Infraorder Araneomorphae Smith, 1902 (syn. Arachnomorphae Pocock, 1892 )

Extant families
Initially the Mesothelae consisted of a single family, Liphistiidae. In 1923, the new genus Heptathela was described and placed in a separate tribe within Liphistiidae, Heptatheleae. In 1939, Alexander Petrunkevitch raised the tribe to a separate family, Heptathelidae. In 1985, Robert Raven reunited the two families, a view supported by Breitling in 2022. Other authors have maintained two separate families, a position accepted by the World Spider Catalog.

Description
Members of Mesothelae have paraxial chelicerae, two pairs of coxal glands on the legs, eight eyes grouped on a nodule, two pairs of book lungs, and no endites on the base of the pedipalp. Most have at least seven or eight spinnerets near the middle of the abdomen. Lateral spinnerets are multi-segmented.

Recent Mesothelae are characterized by the narrow sternum on the ventral side of the cephalothorax (prosoma). Several plesiomorphic characteristics may be useful in recognizing these spiders: there are tergite plates on the dorsal side and the almost median position of the spinnerets on the ventral side of the opisthosoma. Although it has been claimed that they lack venom glands and ducts, which almost all other spiders have, subsequent works have demonstrated that at least some, possibly all, do in fact have both the glands and ducts. All Mesothelae have eight spinnerets in four pairs. Like mygalomorph spiders, they have two pairs of book lungs.

Unlike all other extant mesothelians, heptathelids do not have fishing lines in front of the entrances to the burrows that they construct, making them more difficult to find. They also have a paired receptaculum (unpaired in other liphistiids), and have a conductor in their palpal bulb. These long palps can confusingly look like an extra pair of legs, a mistake also made of some solifugids.

Distribution
Liphistiidae spiders are mainly distributed in Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Sumatra, and Thailand, with two species native to China. Heptathelidae are found in Vietnam, the eastern provinces of China, and southern Japan, including the Ryukyu Islands.

Fossils
A number of families and genera of fossil arthropods have been assigned to the Mesothelae, particularly by Alexander Petrunkevitch. However, Paul A. Selden has shown that most only have "the general appearance of spiders", with segmented abdomens (opisthosomae), but no definite spinnerets. These families include:
 * †Arthrolycosidae Frič, 1904
 * †Arthromygalidae Petrunkevitch, 1923
 * †Pyritaraneidae Petrunkevitch, 1953
 * †Palaeothele Selden, 2000 (unplaced in a family)

Between 2015 and 2019 six genera of Mesothele spider in four families were described from Late Cretaceous (Cenomanian) aged Burmese Amber in Myanmar. Cretaceothele (Cretaceothelidae)  Burmathele (Burmathelidae), Parvithele, Pulvillothele (Parvithelidae) Intermesothele and Eomesothele (Eomesothelidae)

title: Mesothelae


text:
Talk:Indiana University system

Untitled
This article is so...Bloomington centric... Is that right? --Jiang

title: Talk:Indiana University system


text:
Sappi

Sappi Limited, originally incorporated as South African Pulp and Paper Industries Limited in 1936, is a South African pulp and paper company with global operations.

Products and operation
South African Pulp and Paper Industries Limited was founded in 1936. The company is now known as Sappi and is headquartered in Johannesburg, It produces and sells commodity paper products, pulp, dissolving pulp, and forest and timber products for Southern Africa and export markets. In 2013, it was the world's largest producer of dissolving pulp.

In 2003, Sappi announced that Andre Wagenaar had been appointed as the CEO of Sappi's Forest Products Division, with effect from 1 January 2004, when Dr John Job relinquished his responsibilities for the Southern African businesses.

As of 1 July 2014, Steve Binnie became Sappi's Chief Executive Officer. His predecessor, Ralph Boettger, resigned for health reasons after serving as CEO from 2007 to 2014.

In July 2019, Michael G. Haws was appointed as President and CEO of Sappi North America, succeeding Mark Gardner who retired at the end of September 2019.

Global acquisitions and closures
In 1990, Sappi purchased the paper mills of UK Dickinson Robinson Group – Nash Mills, Keynsham Paper Mill and Fife Paper Mills from the asset-stripper Roland Franklin (Pembridge Investments). These mills were subsequently closed by Sappi as were all other acquisitions (Kymmini Oy, Blackburn Mill and Wolvercote Mill) they had made in the UK.

On 29 September 2008, Sappi purchased two paper mills in Finland, one in Switzerland and one in Germany from the M-real company. In the United States, Sappi closed its Muskegon, Michigan plant in 2009, which was founded in 1899 by the Central Paper Company. In 2011 Sappi announced closure of their Swiss production site. The company's existing kraft pulp plant in Cloquet, Minnesota was replaced by a new mill which began producing dissolving pulp in June 2013.

Price fixing controversy
In 1996, Sappi along other 10 main producers of carbonless paper was investigated by the European Commission for illegal price fixing in various countries in the EU. Although found guilty of earning millions by fixing the price of printing paper, Sappi was granted full immunity from the fine due to its cooperation with the EC's cartel investigating unit. Other companies implicated were fined a total of $145 million.

title: Sappi


text:
Eddington–Finkelstein coordinates

In general relativity, Eddington–Finkelstein coordinates are a pair of coordinate systems for a Schwarzschild geometry (e.g. a spherically symmetric black hole) which are adapted to radial null geodesics. Null geodesics are the worldlines of photons; radial ones are those that are moving directly towards or away from the central mass. They are named for Arthur Stanley Eddington and David Finkelstein. Although they appear to have inspired the idea, neither ever wrote down these coordinates or the metric in these coordinates. Roger Penrose seems to have been the first to write down the null form but credits it to the above paper by Finkelstein, and, in his Adams Prize essay later that year, to Eddington and Finkelstein. Most influentially, Misner, Thorne and Wheeler, in their book Gravitation, refer to the null coordinates by that name.

In these coordinate systems, outward (inward) traveling radial light rays (which each follow a null geodesic) define the surfaces of constant "time", while the radial coordinate is the usual area coordinate so that the surfaces of rotation symmetry have an area of $4\pir^{2}$. One advantage of this coordinate system is that it shows that the apparent singularity at the Schwarzschild radius is only a coordinate singularity and is not a true physical singularity. While this fact was recognized by Finkelstein, it was not recognized (or at least not commented on) by Eddington, whose primary purpose was to compare and contrast the spherically symmetric solutions in Whitehead's theory of gravitation and Einstein's version of the theory of relativity.

Schwarzschild metric
The Schwarzschild coordinates are $$(t,r,\theta,\varphi)$$, and in these coordinates the Schwarzschild metric is well known:
 * $$ds^2 = \left(1-\frac{2GM}{r} \right) \, dt^2 - \left(1-\frac{2GM}{r}\right)^{ -1} \, dr^2- r^2 d\Omega^2 $$

where
 * $$d\Omega^2\equiv d\theta^2+\sin^2\theta\,d\varphi^2.$$

is the standard Riemannian metric of the unit 2-sphere.

Note the conventions being used here are the metric signature of (− + + +) and the natural units where c = 1 is the dimensionless speed of light, G the gravitational constant, and M is the characteristic mass of the Schwarzschild geometry.

Tortoise coordinate
Eddington–Finkelstein coordinates are founded upon the tortoise coordinate – a name that comes from one of Zeno of Elea's paradoxes on an imaginary footrace between "swift-footed" Achilles and a tortoise.

The tortoise coordinate $$r^*$$ is defined:
 * $$r^* = r + 2GM\ln\left|r - 2GM\right|.$$

so as to satisfy:
 * $$\frac{dr^*}{dr} = \left(1-\frac{2GM}{r}\right)^{-1}.$$

The tortoise coordinate $$r^*$$ approaches $$-\infty$$ as $$r$$ approaches the Schwarzschild radius $$2GM$$.

When some probe (such as a light ray or an observer) approaches a black hole event horizon, its Schwarzschild time coordinate grows infinite. The outgoing null rays in this coordinate system have an infinite change in t on travelling out from the horizon. The tortoise coordinate is intended to grow infinite at the appropriate rate such as to cancel out this singular behaviour in coordinate systems constructed from it.

The increase in the time coordinate to infinity as one approaches the event horizon is why information could never be received back from any probe that is sent through such an event horizon. This is despite the fact that the probe itself can nonetheless travel past the horizon. It is also why the space-time metric of the black hole, when expressed in Schwarzschild coordinates, becomes singular at the horizon – and thereby fails to be able to fully chart the trajectory of an infalling probe.

Metric
The ingoing Eddington–Finkelstein coordinates are obtained by replacing the coordinate t with the new coordinate $$v=t+r^*$$. In these coordinates, the Schwarzschild metric can be written as
 * $$ds^2 = \left(1-\frac{2GM}{r} \right) dv^2 - 2 \, dv \, dr - r^2 d\Omega^2.$$

where again $$ d\Omega^2 = d\theta^2+\sin^2\theta \, d\varphi^2$$ is the standard Riemannian metric on the unit radius 2-sphere.

Likewise, the outgoing Eddington–Finkelstein coordinates are obtained by replacing t with the null coordinate $$u=t-r^*$$. The metric is then given by
 * $$ds^2 = \left(1-\frac{2GM}{r} \right) du^2 + 2 \, du \, dr - r^2 d\Omega^2.$$

In both these coordinate systems the metric is explicitly non-singular at the Schwarzschild radius (even though one component vanishes at this radius, the determinant of the metric is still non-vanishing and the inverse metric has no terms which diverge there.)

Note that for radial null rays, v=const or $$v-2r^*$$=const or equivalently $$u+2r^*$$=const or u=const we have dv/dr and du/dr approach 0 and ±2 at large r, not ±1 as one might expect if one regarded u or v as "time". When plotting Eddington–Finkelstein diagrams, surfaces of constant u or v are usually drawn as cones, with u or v constant lines drawn as sloping at 45 degree  rather than as planes (see for instance Box 31.2 of MTW). Some sources instead take $$t' = t \pm (r^* - r)\,$$, corresponding to planar surfaces in such diagrams. In terms of this $$t'$$ the metric becomes
 * $$ds^2 = \left( 1-\frac{2GM}{r} \right) dt'^2 \pm \frac{4GM}{r} \,dt' \,dr - \left( 1 + \frac{2GM}{r} \right) \,dr^2 - r^2 d\Omega^2 =(dt'^2 - dr^2 - r^2 d\Omega^2)+\frac{2GM}{r} (dt'\pm dr)^2$$

which is Minkowskian at large r. (This was the coordinate time and metric that both Eddington and Finkelstein presented in their papers.)

The Eddington–Finkelstein coordinates are still incomplete and can be extended. For example, the outward traveling timelike geodesics defined by (with τ the proper time)
 * $$ r(\tau)= \sqrt{2GM\tau} $$

\begin{align} v(\tau) & = \int \frac{r(\tau)}{r(\tau)-2GM} \, d\tau \\ & = C+\tau +2\sqrt{2GM\tau} +4GM\ln\left(\sqrt{\frac{\tau}{2GM}}-1 \right) \end{align} $$ has v(τ) → −∞ as τ → 2GM. Ie, this timelike geodesic has a finite proper length into the past where it comes out of the horizon (r = 2GM) when v becomes minus infinity. The regions for finite v and r < 2GM is a different region from finite u and r < 2GM. The horizon r = 2GM and finite v (the black hole horizon) is different from that with r = 2GM and finite u (the white hole horizon).

The metric in Kruskal–Szekeres coordinates covers all of the extended Schwarzschild spacetime in a single coordinate system. Its chief disadvantage is that in those coordinates the metric depends on both the time and space coordinates. In Eddington–Finkelstein, as in Schwarzschild coordinates, the metric is independent of the "time" (either t in Schwarzschild, or u or v in the various Eddington–Finkelstein coordinates), but none of these cover the complete spacetime.

The Eddington–Finkelstein coordinates have some similarity to the Gullstrand–Painlevé coordinates in that both are time independent, and penetrate (are regular across) either the future (black hole) or the past (white hole) horizons. Both are not diagonal (the hypersurfaces of constant "time" are not orthogonal to the hypersurfaces of constant r.) The latter have a flat spatial metric, while the former's spatial ("time" constant) hypersurfaces are null and have the same metric as that of a null cone in Minkowski space ($$t=\pm r$$ in flat spacetime).

title: Eddington–Finkelstein coordinates


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MeadWestvaco

MeadWestvaco Corporation was an American packaging company based in Richmond, Virginia. It had approximately 23,000 employees. In February 2006, it moved its corporate headquarters to Richmond. In March 2008, the company announced a change to start using "MWV" as its brand, but the legal name of the company remained MeadWestvaco.

MeadWestvaco announced in January 2015 that it would form a combined $16 billion company with RockTenn to take on market leaders in the packaging industry in the U.S. The combined company is named WestRock.

Overview
MeadWestvaco was a producer of packaging, specialty papers, consumer and office products and specialty chemicals. The company had 153 operating and office locations in 30 countries, and served customers in over 100 countries. The company’s paperboard, package and paper brands included Carrier Kote, Custom Kote, Printkote, Tango, Digipak, Amaray, Dosepak and Vision. MeadWestvaco held leading positions in the markets it served. MeadWestvaco managed over 3 million acres (12,000 km2) of forestlands that met environmental standards and was certified to Sustainable Forestry Initiative standards.

History
MeadWestvaco was formed in January 2002 as the result of a merger between The Mead Corporation of Dayton, Ohio, and Westvaco.

1800s
The Mead Corporation was founded as Ellis, Chaflin & Co in 1846. In 1856, the name was changed to Weston & Mead. In 1861, it became Mead & Weston. In 1881, the company's name changed again, this time to The Mead Paper Company. In 1890, the Ingham Mill in Chillicothe was purchased by the Mead Paper Company, making it a two mill operation. In June 1906, the mill in Dayton closed and milling operations shifted to the Ingham Mill.

In 1888, Westvaco's predecessor company was founded as Piedmont Pulp & Paper Co.

1900-1950
In March 1920, the Mead Fibre Company was created to take over operations of the Kingsport Pulp Corporation in Kingsport, Tennessee. In 1921, the Mead Sales Company was formed to sell the Mead Paper Company's projects. In 1928, the Mead Paperboard Corporation was formed to operate mills in Virginia, South Carolina and Tennessee. In 1930, the Mead Corporation was formed to unite the several Mead companies under one umbrella.

During the 1930s and '40s, the company acquired several mills and companies, including the Dill and Collins mill in Philadelphia, the Brunswick Pulp and Paper Company in Brunswick, Georgia and the Escanaba Paper Company. It was first listed on the New York Stock Exchange in 1935.

1951-2000
In 1955, Mead acquired the Chillicothe Paper Company and the Jackson Box Company. In 1957, Mead acquired Cleveland Paper, a merchant paper distributor.

In 1966, Mead acquired Westab, a school supply company whose product line included the Big Chief tablet, Spiral Notebook brand and Hytone Notebooks.

In 1968, Mead entered the information technology sector by acquiring Data Corporation for $6 million and renaming it Mead Data Central. Mead was originally interested in an inkjet printing system developed by Data. However, Data had also been working on a full-text information retrieval system for the U.S. Air Force, and by 1967 had adapted this product to the task of indexing and searching legal precedent as part of an experiment with the Ohio State Bar. After a study led by Arthur D. Little indicated that the product had a profitable future, Mead Data Central launched it as the LEXIS legal research system in 1973. In December 1994, Mead sold the LexisNexis system to Reed Elsevier for $1.5 billion.

The U.S. state of Illinois subsequently audited Mead's income tax returns and charged Mead an additional $4 million in income tax and penalties for the sale of LexisNexis; Mead paid the tax, but sued for a refund in Illinois state court. On April 15, 2008, the U.S. Supreme Court agreed with Mead that the Illinois courts had incorrectly applied the Court's precedents on whether Illinois could constitutionally apply its income tax to Mead, an out-of-state, Ohio-based corporation. The Court reversed and remanded so that the lower courts could apply the correct test and determine whether Mead and Lexis were a "unitary" business.

In the 1960s and '70s, Mead acquired several companies, including the Woodward Corp, an iron company, in 1968, Stanley Furniture of Virginia in 1969 and Murray Rubber in 1977. In 1978, Mead and 13 other companies were sued for violating anti-trust laws. The suit alleged that the companies had collaborated to increase the cost of cardboard containers between March 1973 and December 1975. In 1982, Mead settled an antitrust lawsuit for $45 million.

In 1986, Mead acquired Ampad makers of legal pads which it sold in 1992 to Bain Capital.

Mead acquired the Hilroy Companies in 1994 from a consortium of banks that had purchased Olympia and York from the receiver, O&Y's subsidiary through Abitibi-Price.

2000 to present
In 2005, the Papers business unit—including both Mead and Westvaco paper mills—was sold to the investment firm Cerberus Capital Management for about $2.3 billion. The new company was called NewPage Corporation.

In 2008, MeadWestvaco sold its Charleston, SC kraft paper mill to Kapstone Paper and Packaging. Also in 2008, MeadWestvaco began using the "MWV" brand.

In February 2011, MeadWestvaco sold its Envelope Products Business, including the Columbian Brand Envelope, to Cenveo Corporation's Quality Park Envelope Products Group.

In 2012, ACCO Brands acquired Mead.

In January 2015, MeadWestvaco and Rock-Tenn Co agreed to a merger.

Environmental record
In 2002, researchers at the University of Massachusetts Amherst have identified MeadWestvaco as the 57th-largest corporate producer of air pollution in the United States, with roughly 35,000 pounds of toxic chemicals released annually into the air. Major pollutants indicated by the study include sulfuric acid, chlorine dioxide, chlorine, and methyl iodide.

MeadWestvaco took steps to improve its environmental impact by upholding both mandated and voluntary performance standards. It was included in the Dow Jones Sustainability World Index, a system that tracks the financial performance of leading sustainability-driven companies worldwide. MWV met the carbon reduction targets of the Chicago Climate Exchange (CCX), the world's first and North America's only legally binding rules-based greenhouse gas emissions allowance trading system. It held leadership positions in and actively supports Sustainable Packaging Coalition, Cerflor, CCX, World Business Council for Sustainable Development, Abundant Forests Alliance, Duke University Climate Change Policy Partnership and Sustainable Forestry Initiative.

MeadWestvaco Foundation
In 2002, MeadWestvaco established the MeadWestvaco Foundation as a vehicle to appropriately give back to the communities in which its employees live and work. The Foundation works closely with local MWV business unit managers to determine the goals, priorities, and strategies best for each location.

The Foundation’s 2007 contributions totaled roughly $3.7million. Funds were allocated to the following categories: United Way, education, environment, health & human services, culture & art, and civic organizations. MWV employees, families, and friends also contributed over 46,000 volunteer hours to schools, charitable organizations, and public institutions.

title: MeadWestvaco


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Flavr Savr

Flavr Savr (also known as CGN-89564-2; pronounced "flavor saver"), a genetically modified tomato, was the first commercially grown genetically engineered food to be granted a license for human consumption. It was developed by the Californian company Calgene in the 1980s. The tomato has an improved shelf-life, increased fungal resistance and a slightly increased viscosity compared to its non-modified counterpart. It was meant to be harvested ripe for increased flavor for long-distance shipping. The Flavr Savr contains two genes added by Calgene; a reversed antisense polygalacturonase gene which inhibits the production of a rotting enzyme and a gene responsible for the creation of APH(3')II, which confers resistance to certain aminoglycoside antibiotics including kanamycin and neomycin. On May 18, 1994, the FDA completed its evaluation of the Flavr Savr tomato and the use of APH(3')II, concluding that the tomato "is as safe as tomatoes bred by conventional means" and "that the use of aminoglycoside 3'-phosphotransferase II is safe for use as a processing aid in the development of new varieties of tomato, rapeseed oil, and cotton intended for food use." It was first sold in 1994, and was only available for a few years before production ceased in 1997. Calgene made history, but mounting costs prevented the company from becoming profitable, and it was eventually acquired by Monsanto Company.

Characteristics
Tomatoes have a short shelf-life in which they remain firm and ripe. This lifetime may be shorter than the time needed for them to reach market when shipped from winter growing areas to markets in the north, and the softening process can also lead to more of the fruit being damaged during transit. If picked while ripe, tomatoes can spoil before reaching far-away consumers due to their short lifetime. To address this, tomatoes intended for shipping are often picked while they are unripe, or "green", and then prompted to ripen just before delivery through the use of ethylene gas which acts as a plant hormone. The downside to this approach is that the tomato does not complete its natural growing process, and the final flavor suffers as a result.

Through genetic engineering, Calgene hoped to slow down the ripening process of the tomato and thus prevent it from softening too early, while still allowing the tomato to retain its natural color and flavor. This would allow it to fully ripen on the vine and still be shipped long distances without it going soft. Calgene scientists used the modified bacterial parasite Agrobacterium tumefaciens to transfer genetic material into Flavr Savr plant cells. The bacterium normally "infects" plants with foreign genes as a part of its life cycle. The harmful, parasitic genetic material was removed from the bacterial T-plasmid and was replaced by the favored genes.

The Flavr Savr was made more resistant to rotting by the addition of an antisense gene which interferes with the production of the enzyme Beta polygalacturonase. The enzyme normally contributes to spoilage by degrading pectin in cell walls and results in the softening of fruit which makes them more susceptible to being damaged by fungal infections.

Flavr Savr turned out to disappoint researchers in that respect, as the antisensed PG gene had a positive effect on shelf life, but not on the fruit's firmness. The Flavr Savr was too soft to be reliably machine-picked and transported when harvested while ripe, so the tomatoes still had to be harvested like any other unmodified vine-ripe tomato. An improved flavor, later achieved through traditional breeding of Flavr Savr and better tasting varieties, would contribute to selling Flavr Savr at a premium price at the supermarket.

The Flavr Savr also contained a kanamycin-resistance gene. This gene gave bacterial cells and chloroplasts resistance to multiple antibiotics, including kanamycin. The kanamycin-resistance gene was used during the tomato's creation phase to help scientists identify plants with the genes successfully added. Kanamycin is toxic to chloroplasts and is deadly for some plants. When researchers exposed tomato plants to high levels of kanamycin, only plants with the added genes survived.

Controversy
The FDA stated that special labeling for these modified tomatoes was not necessary because they have the essential characteristics of non-modified tomatoes. Specifically, there was no evidence for health risks, and the nutritional content was unchanged. According to the existing policy at the time, genetically modified products were only required to be labeled if there was a significant alteration made. Most GMOs were not subjected to mandatory labeling, which allowed for the vast majority of commercially-sold genetically modified foods to remain unlabeled.

Flavr Savr tomatoes were still labeled as genetically altered, even though it was not a requirement. The FDA's no-label policy was criticized because people believed that consumers deserved the right to know what was in their food. Safety concerns were also cited. Thousands of comments were sent to the FDA asking for a change to the labeling guidelines. However, the FDA still did not implement mandatory labeling of foods derived from biotechnology until January 2022.

Some did not trust the tomato's safety. Because some members of the public were misinformed on genetic technology, people feared the Flavr Savr and other genetically modified products to be potentially hazardous to human health or the environment. Some chefs and food distributors boycotted the Flavr Savr and refused to sell the tomatoes in their stores. Jeremy Rifkin, an anti-biotechnology activist, said that, "It may be benign, but [the Flavr Savr] may turn out to be toxic." He founded the Pure Food Campaign, which opposed the introduction of genetically-modified foods into consumer markets.

Acquisition by Monsanto
Because of high research and production costs and low profits, Calgene was sold to the Monsanto Corporation in 1997 for more than $200 million. Monsanto acquired all of Calgene's products, including the Flavr Savr. The company was more interested in Calgene's patents to certain key technologies, and the Flavr Savr has since been shelved and is currently out of production.

The failure of the Flavr Savr has been attributed to Calgene's inexperience in the business of growing and shipping tomatoes.

Tomato paste
In the UK, Zeneca produced a tomato paste that used technology similar to the Flavr Savr. Don Grierson was involved in the research to make the genetically modified tomato. Due to the characteristics of the tomato, it was cheaper to produce than conventional tomato paste, resulting in the product being 20% cheaper. Between 1996 and 1999, 1.8 million cans, clearly labelled as genetically engineered, were sold in the major supermarket chains Sainsbury's and Safeway UK. At one point the paste outsold normal tomato paste but sales fell in the autumn of 1998.

The House of Commons of the United Kingdom published a report in which they stated that the decline in sales during this period was linked to changing consumer perceptions of genetically modified crops. The report identified several possible factors, including product labeling and perception of choice, lobbying campaigns, and media attention. It concluded that the tone of media reports on the subject underwent a "fundamental shift" in response to a high-profile incident in which Dr. Arpad Pusztai, a researcher for Rowett Research Institute, was fired after making a televised claim about detrimental health effects in lab rats fed a diet of genetically modified potatoes (see the Pusztai affair). Subsequent peer review and testimony by Dr. Pusztai led the House Science and Technology Select Committee to conclude that his initial claim was "contradicted by his own evidence." In the intervening period, Sainsbury's and Safeway both pledged that none of their house brand products would contain genetically modified ingredients.

title: Flavr Savr