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Paul Keres

Paul Keres (7 January 1916 – 5 June 1975) was an Estonian chess grandmaster and chess writer. He was among the world's top players from the mid-1930s to the mid-1960s, and narrowly missed a chance at a World Chess Championship match on five occasions. As Estonia was repeatedly invaded and occupied during World War II, Keres was forced by the circumstances to represent the Soviet Union (1940–41, 1944–75) and Nazi Germany (1941–44) in international tournaments.

Keres won the AVRO 1938 chess tournament, which led to negotiations for a title match against the reigning World Champion Alexander Alekhine, but the match never took place due to the outbreak of World War II in 1939. Keres was runner-up in the Candidates Tournament on four consecutive occasions in 1953–1962. Due to these and other strong results, many chess historians consider Keres one of the greatest "Super grandmasters" in history, and, along with Viktor Korchnoi, the strongest player never to become world champion.

Widely considered an Estonian national hero, he was nicknamed "Paul the Second", "The Eternal Second", and "The Crown Prince of Chess".

Early life
Keres was born in the town of Narva (now in Estonia), then Petrograd Governorate of the Russian Empire. He was two years old when Estonia became an independent country in 1918. Keres first learned about chess from his father and his elder brother Harald (afterwards a prominent physicist, who later told friendly jokes to his students: "I am not Paul's brother; Paul is my brother"). With the scarcity of chess literature in his home town, he learned about chess notation from the chess puzzles in the daily newspaper, and compiled a handwritten collection of almost 1000 games. In his early days, he was known for a brilliant and sharp attacking style.

In independent Estonia
Keres was a three-time schoolboy champion of the country, in 1930, 1932, and 1933. His playing matured after playing correspondence chess extensively while in high school. He probably played about 500 correspondence games, and at one stage had 150 correspondence games going simultaneously. In 1935, he won the Internationaler Fernschachbund (IFSB) international correspondence chess championship. From 1937 to 1941 he studied mathematics at the University of Tartu, and competed in several interuniversity matches.

Keres achieved a very good result at the age of 17 in a Master tournament in Tallinn 1933 with 5/7 (+5−2=0), tied 3rd–4th, half a point behind joint winners Paul Felix Schmidt and V. Kappe. Keres became champion of Estonia for the first time in 1935. He tied for first (+5−2=1) with Gunnar Friedemann in the tournament, then defeated him (+2−1=0) in the playoff match. In April 1935, Keres defeated Feliks Kibbermann, one of Tartu's leading masters, in a training match, by (+3−1=0).

Keres played on for Estonia in the 6th Chess Olympiad at Warsaw 1935, and was regarded as the new star, admired for his dashing style. His success there gave him the confidence to venture onto the international circuit.

At Helsinki 1935, he placed 2nd behind Paulin Frydman with 6½/8 (+6−1=1). He won in Tallinn 1936 with 9/10 (+8−0=2). Keres' first major international success against top-level competition came at Bad Nauheim 1936, where he tied for first with Alexander Alekhine at 6½/9 (+4−0=5). He struggled at Dresden 1936, placing only 8–9th with (+2−4=3), but wrote that he learned an important lesson from this setback. Keres recovered at Zandvoort 1936 with a shared 3rd–4th place (+5−3=3). He then defended his Estonian title in 1936 by drawing a challenge match against Paul Felix Schmidt with (+3−3=1).

Keres had a series of successes in 1937. He won in Tallinn with 7½/9 (+6−0=3), then shared 1st–2nd at Margate with Reuben Fine at 7½/9 (+6−0=3), 1½ points ahead of Alekhine. In Ostend, he tied 1st–3rd places with Fine and Henry Grob at 6/9 (+5−2=2). Keres dominated in Prague to claim first with 10/11 (+9−0=2). He then won a theme tournament in Vienna with 4½/6 (+4−1=1); the tournament saw all games commence with the moves 1.d4 Nf6 2.Nf3 Ne4, known as the Döry Defence. He tied for 4–5th places at Kemeri with 11½/17 (+8−2=7), as Salo Flohr, Vladimirs Petrovs and Samuel Reshevsky won. Then he tied 2nd–4th in Pärnu with 4½/7 (+3−1=3).

This successful string earned him an invitation to the tournament at Semmering–Baden 1937, which he won with 9/14 (+6−2=6), ahead of Fine, José Raúl Capablanca, Reshevsky, and Erich Eliskases. Keres, in his autobiographical games collection, refers to this major event as a 'Candidates' Tournament', and claimed that he was recognized as a Grandmaster after winning it, although its parallel connection with later FIDE-organized Candidates' tournaments (from 1950 onwards) is not exact, and the Grandmaster title was not formalized by FIDE until 1950.

Keres tied for second at Hastings 1937–38 with 6½/9 (+4−0=5) (half a point behind Reshevsky), and at Noordwijk 1938 (behind Eliskases) with 6½/9 (+4−0=5). Keres drew an exhibition match at Stockholm 1938 with Gideon Ståhlberg on 4–4 (+2−2=4).

He continued to represent Estonia with success in Olympiad play. His detailed results for Estonia follow. Of note was the team bronze medal attained by Estonia in 1939; this was exceptional for a country with a population of less than two million people.
 * Warsaw 1935, Estonia board 1, 12½/19 (+11−5=3);
 * Munich 1936 (unofficial Olympiad), Estonia board 1, 15½/20 (+12−1=7), board gold medal;
 * Stockholm 1937, Estonia board 1, 11/15 (+9−2=4), board silver medal;
 * Buenos Aires 1939, Estonia board 1, 14½/19 (+12−2=5), team bronze medal.

World Championship match denied
In 1938, he tied with Fine for first, with 8½/14, in the all-star AVRO tournament, held in various cities in the Netherlands, ahead of chess legends Mikhail Botvinnik, Max Euwe, Reshevsky, Alekhine, Capablanca and Flohr. AVRO was one of the strongest tournaments in history; some chess historians believe it the strongest ever staged. Keres won on tiebreak because he beat Fine 1½–½ in their individual two games.

It was expected that the winner of this tournament would be the challenger for the World Chess Championship, in a match against World Champion Alexander Alekhine, but the outbreak of the Second World War, especially because of the first occupation of Estonia by the Soviet Union in 1940–41, brought negotiations with Alekhine to an end. Keres had begun his university studies in 1937, and this also played a role in the failure to set up a match.

Keres struggled at Leningrad–Moscow 1939 with a shared 12–13th place; he wrote that he had not had enough time to prepare for this very strong event, where he faced many Soviet top players for the first time. But he recovered with more preparation time, and won Margate 1939 with 7½/9 (+6−0=3), ahead of Capablanca and Flohr.

World War II
During World War II, the previously independent nation of Estonia was invaded and occupied by the Stalinist Soviet Union in June 1940. This lasted until the 1941 invasion and occupation by Nazi Germany, which in turn lasted until the Soviet Union reoccupied Estonia in 1944. The country remained under Soviet control for the rest of Keres' life. The 1944 Soviet reconquest of Estonia was a particularly dangerous time for Keres.

At the outbreak of WWII in 1939, Keres was in Buenos Aires, Argentina for the Olympiad. He stayed on to play in a Buenos Aires international tournament after the Olympiad, and tied for first place with Miguel Najdorf with 8½/11 (+7−1=3).

His next event was a 14-game match with former World Champion Max Euwe in the Netherlands, held from December 1939 – January 1940. Keres won a hard-fought struggle by 7½–6½ (+6−5=3). This was a superb achievement, because not only was Euwe a former World Champion, but he had enormous experience at match play, far more than Keres.

First Soviet occupation (1940–41)
Estonia was invaded and occupied by the Soviet Red Army in June 1940, and formally annexed by the USSR in August 1940. Keres played in his first Soviet Championship at Moscow 1940 (URS-ch12), placing fourth (+9−4=6) in an exceptionally strong field, placing him ahead of the defending champion Mikhail Botvinnik, among others. The USSR Chess Federation organized the "Absolute Championship of the USSR" in 1941, with the top six finishers from the 1940 championship meeting each other four times; it was split between Leningrad and Moscow. Botvinnik won the event, one of the strongest ever organized, with 13½/20, and Keres placed second with 11, ahead of Vasily Smyslov, Isaac Boleslavsky, Andor Lilienthal, and Igor Bondarevsky.

German occupation (1941–44)
After Nazi Germany had invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, Estonia came under German control a few weeks later. During 1942 and 1943, Keres and Alekhine both played in four tournaments organized by Ehrhardt Post, President of the Grossdeutscher Schachbund. Alekhine won at the Salzburg 1942 chess tournament (Six Grandmasters' Tournament) in June 1942, at Munich (European Individual Chess Championship) in September 1942, and at Prague (International Tournament) in April 1943, always ahead of Keres, who placed second in all three of those tournaments. They tied for first at Salzburg (Six Grandmasters' Tournament) in June 1943, with 7½/10.

During World War II, Keres played in several more chess tournaments. He won all 15 games at Tallinn 1942 (Estonian championship), and swept all five games at Posen 1943. He also won the Estonian title event held at Tallinn 1943, and Madrid 1944 (13/14, +12−0=2). He was second, behind Stig Lundholm, at Lidköping 1944 (playing hors concours in the Swedish Championship). Keres won a match with Folke Ekström at Stockholm in 1944 by 5–1 (+4−0=2).

As resident of German-occupied Estonia (then part of Reichskommissariat Ostland) in 1941–1944, Keres was able to travel across the European continent and participate in a number of international tournaments, held both in neutral countries (1944 Madrid, Lidköping, Stockholm) and in countries under Nazi German control (1942 Tallinn, Salzburg, Munich; 1943 Prague, Posen, Salzburg, Tallinn).

Second Soviet occupation (after 1944)
Before the Soviet Union reoccupied Estonia, in the autumn of 1944 Keres made an unsuccessful attempt to escape from the country over the sea to the west. A 1942 newspaper interview with Keres was later used by the Nazis for anti-Soviet propaganda. As a consequence, he was suspected of collaboration with the Nazis and questioned by the Soviet authorities. Keres managed to avoid deportation or any worse fate (e.g., that of Vladimirs Petrovs); however, he may have been held in detention; precise details are difficult to ascertain.

But his return to the international chess scene was delayed, in spite of his excellent form; he won at Riga 1944/45 (Baltic Championship) (10½/11). Presumably for political reasons, he was excluded from the ten-player Soviet team for the 1945 radio match against the US, and he did not participate in the first great post-war tournament at the 1946 Groningen tournament which was won by Botvinnik, just ahead of Euwe and Smyslov.

He won the Estonian Championship at Tallinn 1945 with 13/15 (+11−0=4), ahead of several strong visiting Soviets, including Alexander Kotov, Alexander Tolush, Lilienthal, and Flohr. He then won at Tbilisi 1946 (hors concours in the Georgian Championship) with a near-perfect score of 18/19, ahead of Vladas Mikėnas and a 16-year-old Tigran Petrosian.

Keres returned to international play in 1946 in the Soviet radio match against Great Britain, and continued his excellent playing form that year and the next year.

World Championship Candidate (1948–1965)
Although Keres participated in the 1948 World Championship tournament, arranged to determine the world champion after Alekhine's death in 1946, his performance was far from his best. Held jointly in The Hague and Moscow, the tournament was limited to five participants: Mikhail Botvinnik, Vasily Smyslov, Paul Keres, Samuel Reshevsky, and Max Euwe. (Reuben Fine had also been invited but declined.) The event was played as a quintuple round-robin. Keres finished joint third, with 10½ out of 20 points. In his individual match with the winner, Botvinnik, he lost four of five games, winning only in the last round when the tournament's result was already determined.

Since Keres lost his first four games against Botvinnik in the 1948 tournament, suspicions have sometimes been raised that Keres was forced to "throw" games to allow Botvinnik to win the championship. Chess historian Taylor Kingston investigated the available evidence and arguments, concluded that Soviet chess officials had given Keres "strong hints" that he should not hinder Botvinnik's attempt to win the World Championship, and that Botvinnik only discovered this about halfway through the tournament and reportedly protested so strongly that he angered Soviet officials; and that Keres, in Kingston's assessment, probably did not deliberately lose games to Botvinnik or anyone else in the tournament.

Keres finished second or equal second in four straight Candidates' tournaments (1953, 1956, 1959, 1962), making him the player with the most runner-up finishes in that event. (He was therefore occasionally nicknamed "Paul II".) Keres participated in a total of six Candidates' Tournaments:
 * Budapest 1950, 4th, behind David Bronstein and Isaac Boleslavsky, with 9½/18 (+3−2=13).
 * Zürich 1953, tied 2nd–4th, along with David Bronstein and Reshevsky, two points behind Smyslov, with 16/28 (+8−4=16).
 * Amsterdam 1956, 2nd, 1½ points behind Smyslov, with 10/18 (+3−1=14).
 * Yugoslavia 1959, 2nd, 1½ points behind Mikhail Tal, with 18½/28 (+15−6=7). He had positive or equal scores against all the competitors, including 3–1 against Tal, but this was not enough, since Tal scored 14½/16 against the bottom four finishers.
 * Curaçao 1962, tied 2nd–3rd, with Efim Geller, half a point behind Tigran Petrosian, with 17/27 (+9−2=16). This event is discussed further at World Chess Championship 1963. Keres won a match at Moscow 1962 against Geller, for an exempt place in the 1965 Candidates, by 4½–3½ (+2−1=5).
 * Riga 1965, lost his quarter-final match to eventual Candidates' winner Boris Spassky by 6–4 (+2−4=4). This was the only match loss of Keres' long career.

Keres' run of four successive second places in Candidates' tournaments (1953, 1956, 1959, 1962) has prompted suspicions that he was under orders not to win these events. Taylor Kingston concludes that: there was probably no pressure from Soviet officials, since from 1954 onwards, Keres was rehabilitated and Botvinnik was no longer in favour with officials. At Curaçao 1962, there was an unofficial conspiracy by Petrosian, Geller and Keres, and this worked out to Keres' disadvantage, since he may have been slightly stronger than both Petrosian and Geller at this stage. Bronstein, in his final book, published just after his death in late 2006, wrote that the Soviet chess leadership favoured Smyslov to win Zurich 1953, and pressured several of the other top Soviets to arrange this outcome, which did in fact occur. Bronstein wrote that Keres was ordered to draw his second cycle game with Smyslov, to conserve Smyslov's fading physical strength; Keres, who still had his own hopes of winning the event, tried as White to win an attacking game, but instead lost because of Smyslov's excellent play.

Three-time champion of USSR
In several other post-war events, however, Keres dominated the field. He won the exceptionally strong USSR Chess Championship three times. In 1947, he won at Leningrad, URS-ch15, with 14/19 (+10−1=8); the field included every top Soviet player except Botvinnik. In 1950, he won at Moscow, URS-ch18, with 11½/17 (+8−2=7) against a field which was only slightly weaker than in 1947. Then in 1951, he triumphed again at Moscow, URS-ch19, with 12/17 (+9−2=6), against a super-class field which included Efim Geller, Petrosian, Smyslov, Botvinnik, Yuri Averbakh, David Bronstein, Mark Taimanov, Lev Aronin, Salo Flohr, Igor Bondarevsky, and Alexander Kotov.

Keres won Pärnu 1947 with 9½/13 (+7−1=5), Szczawno-Zdrój 1950 with 14½/19 (+11−1=7), and Budapest 1952 with 12½/17 (+10−2=5), the latter ahead of world champion Botvinnik and an all-star field which included Geller, Smyslov, Gideon Ståhlberg, László Szabo, and Petrosian. The Budapest victory, which capped a stretch of four first-class wins over a two-year span, may represent the peak of his career. The Hungarian master and writer Egon Varnusz, in his books on Keres, states that at this time, "The best player in the world was Paul Keres".

International team successes
Keres represented the Soviet Union in seven consecutive Olympiads, winning seven consecutive team gold medals, five board gold medals, and one bronze board medal. Of note was his appearance on for the USSR in 1952, when the Soviets entered the event for the first time; Keres was the only Soviet team member with Olympiad experience (from his previous appearances for Estonia), and world champion Mikhail Botvinnik was not on the Soviet team. His four straight board gold medals from 1954–1960 is an Olympiad record. Although not selected after 1964, Keres served successfully as a team trainer with Soviet international teams for the next decade. Altogether, in 11 Olympiads, playing for both the USSR and Estonia (counting the unofficial Munich 1936 event), and in 161 games, Keres accumulated a brilliant total of (+97−13=51), for 76.1%. His detailed 1952–1964 Olympiad results are:
 * Helsinki 1952, USSR board 1, 6½/12, team gold;
 * Amsterdam 1954, USSR board 4, 13½/14 (+13−0=1), team gold, board gold, best overall score;
 * Moscow 1956, USSR board 3, 9½/12 (+7−0=5), team gold, board gold;
 * Munich 1958, USSR board 3, 9½/12 (+7−0=5), team gold, board gold;
 * Leipzig 1960, USSR board 3, 10½/13 (+8−0=5), team gold, board gold;
 * Varna 1962, USSR board 4, 9½/13 (+6−0=7), team gold, board bronze;
 * Tel Aviv 1964, USSR board 4, 10/12 (+9−1=2), team gold, board gold.

Keres also appeared three times for the Soviet Union in the European Team Championships, winning team and individual gold medals on all three occasions. He scored 14/18 (+10−0=8), for 77.8%. His detailed Euroteams results are:
 * Vienna 1957, USSR board 2, 3/5 (+1−0=4), team gold, board gold;
 * Oberhausen 1961, USSR board 3, 6/8 (+4−0=4), team gold, board gold;
 * Kapfenberg 1970, USSR board 8, 5/5 (+5−0=0), team gold, board gold.

Keres also represented the USSR in many international team matches, in Europe and the Americas, with great success. He represented Estonia on top board with distinction in Soviet team championships, contested between regions.

Later career
Beginning with the Pärnu 1947 tournament, Keres made some significant contributions as a chess organizer in Estonia; this is an often overlooked aspect of his career.

Keres continued to play exceptionally well on the international circuit. He tied 1st–2nd at Hastings 1954–55 with Smyslov on 7/9 (+6−1=2). He dominated an internal Soviet training tournament at Pärnu 1955 with 9½/10. Keres placed 2nd at the 1955 Gothenburg Interzonal, behind David Bronstein, with 13½/20. Keres defeated Wolfgang Unzicker in a 1956 exhibition match at Hamburg by 6–2 (+4−0=4). He tied 2nd–3rd in the USSR Championship, Moscow 1957 (URS-ch24) with 13½/21 (+8−2=11), along with Bronstein, behind Mikhail Tal. Keres won Mar del Plata 1957 (15/17, ahead of Miguel Najdorf), and Santiago 1957 with 6/7, ahead of Alexander Kotov. He won Hastings 1957–58 (7½/9, ahead of Svetozar Gligorić). He was tied 3rd–4th at Zürich 1959, at 10½/15, along with Bobby Fischer, behind Tal and Gligorić. He placed tied 7–8th in the USSR Championship, Tbilisi 1959 (URS-ch26) with 10½/19, as Petrosian won. Keres was third at Stockholm 1959–60 with 7/9. He won at Pärnu 1960 with 12/15. He was the champion at Zürich 1961 (9/11, ahead of Petrosian). At the elite Bled 1961 event, Keres shared 3rd–5th places, on 12½/19 (+7−1=11), behind Mikhail Tal and Bobby Fischer. In the USSR Championship, Baku 1961 (URS-ch29), Keres scored 11/20 for a shared 8–11th place, as Boris Spassky won. Keres shared first with World Champion Tigran Petrosian at the very strong 1963 Piatigorsky Cup in Los Angeles with 8½/14.

Further tournament championships followed. He won Beverwijk 1964, with 11½/15, tied with Iivo Nei. He shared first place with World Champion Tigran Petrosian at Buenos Aires 1964, with 12½/17. He won at Hastings 1964–65 with 8/9. He shared 1st–2nd places at Marianske Lazne 1965 on 11/15 with Vlastimil Hort. In the USSR Championship at Tallinn 1965 (URS-ch33), he scored 11/19 for 6th place, as Leonid Stein won. He won at Stockholm 1966–67 with 7/9. At Winnipeg 1967, he shared 3rd–4th places on 5½/9 as Bent Larsen and Klaus Darga won.

At Bamberg 1968, he won with 12/15, two points ahead of World Champion Tigran Petrosian. He was 2nd at Luhacovice 1969 with 10½/15, behind Viktor Korchnoi. At Tallinn 1969, he shared 2nd–3rd places on 9/13 as Stein won. At Wijk aan Zee 1969, he shared 3rd–4th places on 10½/15, as Geller and Botvinnik won. He won Budapest 1970 with 10/15, ahead of Laszlo Szabo. Also in 1970, Keres's 3:1 win over Ivkov on the tenth board gave victory to the Soviet team in the match vs Rest of the World. He shared 1st–2nd at Tallinn 1971 with Mikhail Tal on 11½/15. He shared 2nd–3rd at Pärnu 1971, on 9½/13, as Stein won. He shared 2nd–4th at Amsterdam 1971 with 9/13, as Smyslov won. He shared 3rd–5th places at Sarajevo 1972 on 9½/15, as Szabo won. He placed 5th at San Antonio 1972 on 9½/15, as Petrosian, Lajos Portisch, and Anatoly Karpov won.

At Tallinn 1973, he shared 3rd–6th places on 9/15, as Mikhail Tal won. His last Interzonal was Petropolis 1973, where he scored 8/17 for a shared 12–13th place, as Henrique Mecking won. That same year, he made his last Soviet Championship appearance, at Moscow for URS-ch41, scoring 8/17 for a shared 9–12th place, as Spassky won.

Death
Keres' health declined the next year, and he did not play any major events in 1974. His last major tournament win was Tallinn 1975, ahead of Spassky and Friðrik Ólafsson, just a few months before his death.

Keres died of a heart attack in Helsinki, Finland, at the age of 59 (it is often erroneously reported that he died on the same date in Vancouver, Canada). His death occurred while returning to Estonia from a tournament in Vancouver, which he had won. He was buried at Metsakalmistu cemetery in Tallinn. The Paul Keres Memorial Tournaments have been held annually mainly in Vancouver and Tallinn ever since.

Over 100,000 were in attendance at Keres' funeral in Tallinn, Estonia; and FIDE President Max Euwe, his old friend and rival, was also present.

Memory and memorials
A statue honouring him is located in Tõnismägi, Tallinn. A bronze statue of Keres was unveiled on his 100th birthday in his hometown Narva on 7 January 2016. There is also a street in Nõmme, a district of Tallinn, named after Keres.

The five kroons (5 krooni) Estonian banknote bore his portrait. Kroons have been replaced by the euro since 2011.

An annual international chess tournament has been held in Tallinn every other year since 1969. Keres won this tournament in 1971 and 1975. Starting in 1976 after Keres' death, it has been called the Paul Keres Memorial Tournament. There are also the annual Keres Memorial tournament held in Vancouver and a number of chess clubs and festivals named after him.

In 2000, Keres was elected the Estonian Sportsman of the Century.

The World Chess Federation named 2016 as "The Year of Paul Keres".

Legacy and writings
The unofficial Chessmetrics system places Keres in the top 10 players in the world between approximately 1936 and 1965, and overall he had one of the highest winning percentages of all grandmasters in history. He has the seventh highest Chessmetrics 20-year average, from 1944 to 1963, behind five World Champions and Victor Korchnoi.

He was one of few players to have plus records against Capablanca, Euwe and Tal, and he also had equal records against Smyslov, Petrosian and Anatoly Karpov. In his long career, he played 10 world champions. He won at least one game against all from Capablanca to Bobby Fischer (his two games with Karpov were drawn), making him one of only three players to beat nine undisputed world champions (the other two are Victor Korchnoi and Alexander Beliavsky). Other notable grandmasters against whom he had plus records include Fine, Flohr, Viktor Korchnoi, Efim Geller, Savielly Tartakower, Mark Taimanov, Milan Vidmar, Svetozar Gligorić, Isaac Boleslavsky, Efim Bogoljubov and Bent Larsen.

He wrote chess books that included a well-regarded, deeply annotated collection of his best games, Grandmaster of Chess ISBN 0-668-02645-6, The Art of the Middle Game (with Alexander Kotov) ISBN 0-486-26154-9, and Practical Chess Endings ISBN 0-7134-4210-7. All three books are still considered among the best of their kind for aspiring masters and experts. He also wrote several tournament books, including an account of the 1948 World Championship Match Tournament. He authored several openings treatises, often in German: Spanisch bis Französisch, Dreispringer bis Königsgambit ISBN 4871875431, and Vierspringer bis Spanisch. He contributed to the first volume, 'C', of the first edition of the Yugoslav-published Encyclopaedia of Chess Openings (ECO), which appeared in 1974. Keres also co-founded the Riga magazine Shakhmaty.

Keres made many important contributions to opening theory. Perhaps best-known is the Keres Attack against the Scheveningen Variation of the Sicilian Defence (1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 d6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 Nf6 5.Nc3 e6 6.g4), which was successfully introduced against Efim Bogolyubov at Salzburg 1943, and remains an important line. An original system on the Black side of the Closed Ruy Lopez (1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bb5 a6 4.Ba4 Nf6 5.0-0 Be7 6.Re1 b5 7.Bb3 d6 8.c3 0-0 9.h3 Na5 10.Bc2 c5 11.d4 Nd7) was introduced by Keres at the 1962 Candidates' tournament, and was popular for several years. He also popularized the Keres Defence (1.d4 e6 2.c4 Bb4+) and a system on the Black side of the English Opening that runs 1.c4 e5 2.Nc3 Nf6 3.g3 c6.

Keres published 180 problems and 30 studies, including a rook ending that won a first prize in 1947."

Keres won top-class tournaments from the mid-1930s into the mid-1970s, a span of 40 years, and won major events in western Europe, eastern Europe, the Soviet Union, South America, and North America. Botvinnik, by contrast, never competed in the Americas during his career.

His rival Samuel Reshevsky said that Keres failed to become world champion because he lacked a killer instinct and "was too mild a person to give his all in order to defeat his opponents. He took everything, including his chess, philosophically. Keres is one of the nicest people that I have ever had the pleasure of meeting. With his friendly and sincere smile, he makes friends easily. He is goodnatured and kind. Yes, he loves chess, but being a human being is his first consideration. In addition to chess, Keres was interested in tennis, ping-pong, swimming, and bridge."

Notable games

 * Keres vs. Alexander Alekhine, Margate 1937, Ruy Lopez, Modern Steinitz Defence (C71), . Here Keres outplayed Alekhine already in the first 15 moves. The game is crowned by two small combinations.
 * Keres vs. José Raúl Capablanca, AVRO Amsterdam 1938, French Defence, Tarrasch Variation (C09), 1–0. Almost unpredictable jumps of the white knight slowly destroy Black's position. A beautiful game.
 * Max Euwe vs. Keres, Amsterdam 1940 (match), Queen's Indian Defence, Old main line (E19), . Black reveals a series of brilliant tactical surprise moves, concluding elegantly against the former world champion.
 * Keres vs. Jaroslav Šajtar, Amsterdam 1954 (ol), Sicilian Defence, Najdorf Variation (B94), 1–0. A typical Sicilian sacrifice on e6 leads to swift.
 * Keres vs. Mikhail Botvinnik, Moscow 1956 (Alekhine Memorial), Sicilian Defence, Classical Variation, Richter–Rauzer Attack (B63), 1–0. Keres had a minus score against Botvinnik, but here he defeats the world champion in convincing style.
 * Keres vs. Edgar Walther, Tel Aviv 1964, King's Indian Defence, Petrosian Variation, Keres Variation (E93), 1–0. The game in which Keres introduced a new plan against the King's Indian: Bg5, h4, Nh2 and a sacrifice on g4.

Tournament and match record
Keres' tournament and match record:

Tournaments

 * {| class="wikitable sortable"

! Year !! Tournament !! Place !! class="unsortable" | Notes
 * 1935 || Warsaw 6th Olympiad || – || +11−5=3 on for Estonia
 * 1935 || Helsinki || 2 || Frydman won
 * 1936 || Nauheim || 1–2 || shared 1–2 with Alekhine
 * 1936 || Dresden || 8–9 || Alekhine won
 * 1936 || Zandvoort || 3–4 || Fine won
 * 1937 || Margate || 1–2 || shared 1–2 with Fine
 * 1937 || Ostend || 1–3 || shared 1–3 with Grob and Fine
 * 1937 || Prague || 1 || ahead of Zinner
 * 1937 || Vienna || 1 || Quadrangular
 * 1937 || Kemeri || 4–5 || Reshevsky, Flohr, and Petrovs shared 1st–3rd
 * 1937 || Pärnu || 2–4 || Schmidt won
 * 1937 || Stockholm 7th Olympiad || – || individual silver (+9−2=4) on first board for Estonia
 * 1937 || Semmering/Baden || 1 || ahead of Fine
 * 1937/38 || Hastings || 2–3 || Reshevsky won
 * 1938 || Noordwijk || 2 || Eliskases won
 * 1938 || AVRO || 1–2 || shared 1–2 with Fine, ahead of Botvinnik
 * 1939 || Leningrad–Moscow || 12–13 || Flohr won
 * 1939 || Margate || 1 || ahead of Capablanca and Flohr
 * 1939 || Buenos Aires 8th Olympiad || – || +12−2=5 on first board for bronze medal winning Estonia
 * 1939 || Buenos Aires || 1–2 || shared 1–2 with Najdorf
 * 1940 || 12th USSR Championship || 4 || Lilienthal and Bondarevsky won
 * 1941 || Absolute USSR Championship || 2 || behind Botvinnik
 * 1942 || Tallinn || 1 || Estonian Championship +15−0=0
 * 1942 || Salzburg || 2 || behind Alekhine
 * 1942 || Munich || 2 || "European Championship", behind Alekhine
 * 1943 || Prague || 2 || behind Alekhine
 * 1943 || Poznań || 1 || ahead of Grünfeld
 * 1943 || Salzburg || 1–2 || shared 1–2 with Alekhine
 * 1943 || Tallinn || 1 || Estonian Championship +6−1=4
 * 1943 || Madrid || 1 ||
 * 1944 || Lidköping || 2 || Swedish Championship
 * 1944/45 || Riga || 1 || Baltic Championship
 * 1946 || Tbilisi || 1 || Georgian Championship
 * 1947 || Pärnu || 1 ||
 * 1947 || 15th USSR Championship || 1 ||
 * 1947 || Moscow || 6–7 ||
 * 1948 || World Championship Tournament || 3–4 || Botvinnik 1st, Smyslov 2nd
 * 1949 || 17th USSR Championship || 8 ||
 * 1950 || Budapest || 4 || Candidates Tournament, Bronstein and Boleslavsky 1st–2nd, Smyslov 3rd
 * 1950 || Szczawno-Zdrój || 1 ||
 * 1950 || 18th USSR Championship || 1 ||
 * 1951 || 19th USSR Championship || 1 ||
 * 1952 || 20th USSR Championship || 10–11 || Botvinnik won
 * 1952 || Budapest || 1 ||
 * 1952 || Helsinki 10th Olympiad || – || +3−2=7 on first board for gold medal USSR team
 * 1953 || Zürich || 2–4 || Candidates Tournament, Smyslov 1st
 * 1954 || Amsterdam 11th Olympiad || – || individual gold (+13−0=1) on fourth board for gold medal USSR team
 * 1954/55 || Hastings || 1–2 || shared 1–2 with Smyslov
 * 1955 || 22nd USSR Championship || 7–8 || Geller won
 * 1955 || Göteborg || 2 || Interzonal, Bronstein won
 * 1956 || Amsterdam || 2 || Candidates Tournament, Smyslov won
 * 1956 || Moscow 12th Olympiad || – || individual gold (+7−0=5) on third board for gold medal USSR team
 * 1956 || Moscow || 7–8 ||
 * 1957 || 24th USSR Championship || 2–3 || Tal won
 * 1957 || Mar del Plata || 1 ||
 * 1957 || Santiago || 1 ||
 * 1957/58 || Hastings || 1 ||
 * 1958 || Munich 13th Olympiad || – || individual gold (+7−0=5) on third board for gold medal USSR team
 * 1959 || 26th USSR Championship || 7–8 || Petrosian won
 * 1959 || Zürich || 3–4 || Tal won
 * 1959 || Bled/Belgrade/Zagreb || 2 || Candidates Tournament, Tal won
 * 1959/60 || Stockholm || 3 ||
 * 1960 || Leipzig 14th Olympiad || – || individual gold (+8−0=5) on third board for gold medal USSR team
 * 1961 || Zürich || 1 ||
 * 1961 || Bled || 3–5 || Tal won
 * 1961 || 29th USSR Championship || 8–11 ||
 * 1962 || Curaçao || 2–3 || 1962 Candidates Tournament, Petrosian won
 * 1962 || Varna 15th Olympiad || − || individual bronze (+6−0=7) on fourth board on gold medal USSR team
 * 1963 || Los Angeles || 1–2 || 1st Piatigorsky Cup, tied with Petrosian for first
 * 1964 || Beverwijk || 1–2 || Hoogovens tournament, shared 1–2 with Nei
 * 1964 || Buenos Aires || 1–2 || shared 1–2 with Petrosian
 * 1964 || Tel Aviv 16th Olympiad || − || individual gold (+9−1=2) on fourth board for gold medal USSR team
 * 1964/65 || Hastings || 1 ||
 * 1965 || Mariánské Lázně || 1–2 || shared 1–2 with Hort
 * 1965 || 33rd USSR Championship || 6 || Stein won
 * 1966/67 || Stockholm || 1 ||
 * 1967 || Moscow || 9–12 ||
 * 1967 || Winnipeg || 3–4 ||
 * 1968 || Bamberg || 1 ||
 * 1969 || Beverwijk || 3–4 || Hoogovens tournament, behind Botvinnik and Geller
 * 1969 || Tallinn || 2–3 ||
 * 1970 || Budapest || 1 ||
 * 1971 || Amsterdam || 2–4 ||
 * 1971 || Pärnu || 2–3 ||
 * 1971 || Tallinn || 1-2 ||with Tal
 * 1972 || Sarajevo || 3–5 ||
 * 1972 || San Antonio || 5 || Karpov, Petrosian, and Portisch shared 1st–3rd
 * 1973 || Tallinn || 3–6 ||
 * 1973 || Dortmund || 6–7 ||
 * 1973 || Petropolis || 12–13 || Interzonal, Mecking 1st; Geller, Polugaevsky, and Portisch 2nd–4th
 * 1973 || 41st USSR Championship || 9–12 || Spassky won
 * 1975 || Tallinn || 1 ||
 * 1975 || Vancouver || 1 ||
 * }
 * 1954/55 || Hastings || 1–2 || shared 1–2 with Smyslov
 * 1955 || 22nd USSR Championship || 7–8 || Geller won
 * 1955 || Göteborg || 2 || Interzonal, Bronstein won
 * 1956 || Amsterdam || 2 || Candidates Tournament, Smyslov won
 * 1956 || Moscow 12th Olympiad || – || individual gold (+7−0=5) on third board for gold medal USSR team
 * 1956 || Moscow || 7–8 ||
 * 1957 || 24th USSR Championship || 2–3 || Tal won
 * 1957 || Mar del Plata || 1 ||
 * 1957 || Santiago || 1 ||
 * 1957/58 || Hastings || 1 ||
 * 1958 || Munich 13th Olympiad || – || individual gold (+7−0=5) on third board for gold medal USSR team
 * 1959 || 26th USSR Championship || 7–8 || Petrosian won
 * 1959 || Zürich || 3–4 || Tal won
 * 1959 || Bled/Belgrade/Zagreb || 2 || Candidates Tournament, Tal won
 * 1959/60 || Stockholm || 3 ||
 * 1960 || Leipzig 14th Olympiad || – || individual gold (+8−0=5) on third board for gold medal USSR team
 * 1961 || Zürich || 1 ||
 * 1961 || Bled || 3–5 || Tal won
 * 1961 || 29th USSR Championship || 8–11 ||
 * 1962 || Curaçao || 2–3 || 1962 Candidates Tournament, Petrosian won
 * 1962 || Varna 15th Olympiad || − || individual bronze (+6−0=7) on fourth board on gold medal USSR team
 * 1963 || Los Angeles || 1–2 || 1st Piatigorsky Cup, tied with Petrosian for first
 * 1964 || Beverwijk || 1–2 || Hoogovens tournament, shared 1–2 with Nei
 * 1964 || Buenos Aires || 1–2 || shared 1–2 with Petrosian
 * 1964 || Tel Aviv 16th Olympiad || − || individual gold (+9−1=2) on fourth board for gold medal USSR team
 * 1964/65 || Hastings || 1 ||
 * 1965 || Mariánské Lázně || 1–2 || shared 1–2 with Hort
 * 1965 || 33rd USSR Championship || 6 || Stein won
 * 1966/67 || Stockholm || 1 ||
 * 1967 || Moscow || 9–12 ||
 * 1967 || Winnipeg || 3–4 ||
 * 1968 || Bamberg || 1 ||
 * 1969 || Beverwijk || 3–4 || Hoogovens tournament, behind Botvinnik and Geller
 * 1969 || Tallinn || 2–3 ||
 * 1970 || Budapest || 1 ||
 * 1971 || Amsterdam || 2–4 ||
 * 1971 || Pärnu || 2–3 ||
 * 1971 || Tallinn || 1-2 ||with Tal
 * 1972 || Sarajevo || 3–5 ||
 * 1972 || San Antonio || 5 || Karpov, Petrosian, and Portisch shared 1st–3rd
 * 1973 || Tallinn || 3–6 ||
 * 1973 || Dortmund || 6–7 ||
 * 1973 || Petropolis || 12–13 || Interzonal, Mecking 1st; Geller, Polugaevsky, and Portisch 2nd–4th
 * 1973 || 41st USSR Championship || 9–12 || Spassky won
 * 1975 || Tallinn || 1 ||
 * 1975 || Vancouver || 1 ||
 * }
 * 1964 || Buenos Aires || 1–2 || shared 1–2 with Petrosian
 * 1964 || Tel Aviv 16th Olympiad || − || individual gold (+9−1=2) on fourth board for gold medal USSR team
 * 1964/65 || Hastings || 1 ||
 * 1965 || Mariánské Lázně || 1–2 || shared 1–2 with Hort
 * 1965 || 33rd USSR Championship || 6 || Stein won
 * 1966/67 || Stockholm || 1 ||
 * 1967 || Moscow || 9–12 ||
 * 1967 || Winnipeg || 3–4 ||
 * 1968 || Bamberg || 1 ||
 * 1969 || Beverwijk || 3–4 || Hoogovens tournament, behind Botvinnik and Geller
 * 1969 || Tallinn || 2–3 ||
 * 1970 || Budapest || 1 ||
 * 1971 || Amsterdam || 2–4 ||
 * 1971 || Pärnu || 2–3 ||
 * 1971 || Tallinn || 1-2 ||with Tal
 * 1972 || Sarajevo || 3–5 ||
 * 1972 || San Antonio || 5 || Karpov, Petrosian, and Portisch shared 1st–3rd
 * 1973 || Tallinn || 3–6 ||
 * 1973 || Dortmund || 6–7 ||
 * 1973 || Petropolis || 12–13 || Interzonal, Mecking 1st; Geller, Polugaevsky, and Portisch 2nd–4th
 * 1973 || 41st USSR Championship || 9–12 || Spassky won
 * 1975 || Tallinn || 1 ||
 * 1975 || Vancouver || 1 ||
 * }
 * 1971 || Amsterdam || 2–4 ||
 * 1971 || Pärnu || 2–3 ||
 * 1971 || Tallinn || 1-2 ||with Tal
 * 1972 || Sarajevo || 3–5 ||
 * 1972 || San Antonio || 5 || Karpov, Petrosian, and Portisch shared 1st–3rd
 * 1973 || Tallinn || 3–6 ||
 * 1973 || Dortmund || 6–7 ||
 * 1973 || Petropolis || 12–13 || Interzonal, Mecking 1st; Geller, Polugaevsky, and Portisch 2nd–4th
 * 1973 || 41st USSR Championship || 9–12 || Spassky won
 * 1975 || Tallinn || 1 ||
 * 1975 || Vancouver || 1 ||
 * }
 * 1973 || Dortmund || 6–7 ||
 * 1973 || Petropolis || 12–13 || Interzonal, Mecking 1st; Geller, Polugaevsky, and Portisch 2nd–4th
 * 1973 || 41st USSR Championship || 9–12 || Spassky won
 * 1975 || Tallinn || 1 ||
 * 1975 || Vancouver || 1 ||
 * }
 * 1975 || Tallinn || 1 ||
 * 1975 || Vancouver || 1 ||
 * }
 * }

Matches

 * {| class="wikitable"

! Year !! Opponent !! Result
 * 1935 || Gunnar Friedemann || +2−1=0
 * 1935 || Feliks Kibbermann || +3−1=0
 * 1936 || Paul Felix Schmidt || +3−3=1
 * 1938 || Gideon Ståhlberg || +2−2=4
 * 1939/40 || Max Euwe || +6−5=3
 * 1944 || Folke Ekström || +4−0=2
 * 1956 || Wolfgang Unzicker || +4−0=4
 * 1962 || Efim Geller || +2−1=5
 * 1965 || Boris Spassky || +2−4=4
 * 1970 || Borislav Ivkov || +2−0=2
 * }
 * 1944 || Folke Ekström || +4−0=2
 * 1956 || Wolfgang Unzicker || +4−0=4
 * 1962 || Efim Geller || +2−1=5
 * 1965 || Boris Spassky || +2−4=4
 * 1970 || Borislav Ivkov || +2−0=2
 * }
 * 1965 || Boris Spassky || +2−4=4
 * 1970 || Borislav Ivkov || +2−0=2
 * }
 * }

Scores against other top grandmasters
Only official tournament or match games are accounted for.

 * Alexander Alekhine: +1−5=8
 * Mikhail Botvinnik: +3−8=9
 * David Bronstein: +4−6=18
 * José Raúl Capablanca: +1−0=5

 * Max Euwe: +11−7=9
 * Reuben Fine: +3−1=8
 * Bobby Fischer: +3−4=3
 * Efim Geller: +8−7=21

 * Anatoly Karpov: +0−0=2
 * Viktor Korchnoi: +4−1=12
 * Bent Larsen: +2−0=4
 * Tigran Petrosian: +3−3=27

 * Lajos Portisch: +1−4=3
 * Vasily Smyslov: +8−10=21
 * Boris Spassky: +3−5=29
 * Mikhail Tal: +8−4=20

title: Paul Keres


text:
All Species Foundation

The All Species Foundation (stylized as ALL Species Foundation) was an organization aiming to catalog all species on Earth by 2025 through their All Species Inventory initiative. The project was launched in 2000 by Kevin Kelly, Stewart Brand and Ryan Phelan. Along with other similar efforts, the All Species Foundation was promoted as an important step forward in expanding, modernizing and digitizing the field of taxonomy. The Foundation started with a large grant from the Schlinger Foundation but had difficulty finding continued funding. the project is no longer active and "hands off [its] mission to the Encyclopedia of Life".

The All Species Foundation received some critique for its approach to defining and identifying species. An open letter expressed concern over the species problem, a fundamental issue in taxonomy of what exactly defines a species. The letter argued that failing to acknowledge and account for this fundamental issue could undermine the use of the database for conservation and biodiversity preservation.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: All Species Foundation


text:
Sangir Island

Sangir Besar, commonly called Sangir Island (with the spelling variants "Sangihe", "Sanghir" or "Sangi"), is an island in the Sangir Islands group. Its Indonesian name literally means "Great Sangir", in reference to the fact that it is the archipelago's main island. It is part of the North Sulawesi province. The main language is the Sangir language.

It was the scene of the violent eruption of Gunung Awu volcano on 2 March 1856. The existing mountain was reshaped by the eruption, and flooding was extensive. The death toll was estimated to exceed two thousand, possibly as high as 6,000. Other major eruptions occurred in 1966 and 2004.

The critically endangered cerulean flycatcher and Sangihe whistler are endemic to Sangir Island as is the endangered Elegant Sunbird.

title: Sangir Island


text:
Catechism

A catechism (from κατηχέω, "to teach orally") is a summary or exposition of doctrine and serves as a learning introduction to the Sacraments traditionally used in catechesis, or Christian religious teaching of children and adult converts. Catechisms are doctrinal manuals – often in the form of questions followed by answers to be memorised – a format that has been used in non-religious or secular contexts as well. According to Norman DeWitt, the early Christians appropriated this practice from the Epicureans, a school whose founder Epicurus had instructed to keep summaries of the teachings for easy learning. The term catechumen refers to the designated recipient of the catechetical work or instruction. In the Catholic Church, catechumens are those who are preparing to receive the Sacrament of Baptism. Traditionally, they would be placed separately during Holy Mass from those who had been baptized, and would be dismissed from the liturgical assembly before the Profession of Faith (Nicene Creed) and General Intercessions (Prayers of the Faithful).

Catechisms are characteristic of Western Christianity but are also present in Eastern Christianity. In 1973, The Common Catechism, the first joint catechism of Catholics and Protestants, was published by theologians of the major Western Christian traditions, as a result of extensive ecumenical dialogue.

Format
Before the Protestant Reformation, Christian catechesis took the form of instruction in and memorization of the Apostles' Creed and Lord's Prayer, and basic knowledge of the sacraments. However, there were also more comprehensive documents that outlined the Christian faith, such as the Catechetical Lectures of St. Cyril of Jerusalem, "The Morals" of St. Basil of Caesarea, and the Enchiridion on Faith, Hope and Love by St. Augustine of Hippo. The earliest known catechism is the Didache, which was written between 60 and 85 AD.

The word "catechism" for a manual for this instruction appeared in the Late Middle Ages. The use of a question and answer format was popularized by Martin Luther in his 1529 Small Catechism. He wanted the catechumen to understand what he was learning, so the Decalogue, Lord's Prayer, and Apostles' Creed were broken up into small sections, with the question "What does this mean?" following each portion. The format calls upon two parties to participate, a master and a student (traditionally termed a "scholar"), or a parent and a child. The Westminster Shorter Catechism (1647) is an example:

Q. What is the chief end of man? A. To glorify God and enjoy Him forever! Q. What rule hath God given to direct us how we may glorify and enjoy Him? A. The word of God which is contained in the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments is the only rule to direct us how we may glorify and enjoy him.

Catholic catechisms
The Catechism of the Catholic Church (see below) is the catechism that is in most widespread use among Catholics today. It is the official catechism of the Church.

For Catholics, all the canonical books of the Bible (including the Deuterocanonical books), the tradition of the Church and the interpretation of these by the Magisterium (which may be outlined in a catechism, a compendium or a declaration) constitute the complete and best resource for fully attaining to God's revelation to mankind. Catholics believe that sacred scripture and sacred tradition preserved and interpreted by the Magisterium are both necessary for attaining to the fullest understanding of all of God's revelation.

The term catechist is most frequently used in Catholicism, often to describe a lay catechist or layperson with catechetical training who engages in such teaching and evangelization. This can be in both parish church and mission contexts.

Ignorantia sacerdotum
Ignorantia Sacerdotum are the first words and the better-known title of De Informatione Simplicium, a catechetical manual drafted by Archbishop Pecham's provincial Council of Lambeth in 1281. It called for the memorisation of the Apostles' Creed, the Ten Commandments, and the two-fold injunction to "love the Lord thy God with all thy heart... and thy neighbour as thyself.".

It also emphasised the Seven Virtues, the Seven Deadly Sins, the Seven Sacraments, and the Seven Works of Mercy.

A 1357 translation into English is often called the Lay-Folk's Catechism.

The Catechetical Instructions of St. Thomas Aquinas
The catechetical instructions of Saint Thomas Aquinas were used generally throughout the 13th and 14th centuries as manuals and textbooks for priests and teachers of religion. "The Explanations of St. Thomas," wrote Spirago, "are remarkable for their conciseness and their simplicity of language; they are especially noteworthy because the main parts of the catechetical course of instruction are brought into connection with one another so that they appear as one harmonious whole." The influence of these works is especially prominent in the "Roman Catechism" which the Council of Trent ordered written for parish priests and for all teachers of religion. Many of the explanatory passages in both works are almost identical.

Catechism of Christian Doctrine (or "Penny Catechism")
A question-and-answer format catechism that was the standard catechetical text in Great Britain in the earlier part of the 20th century. Popularly called the Penny Catechism, as the original version only cost one penny. Various editions of the Penny Catechism were issued through the century and changes were made to the text.

Catechism for Filipino Catholics
The Catechism for Filipino Catholics (CFC) is a contextualised and inculturated Filipino Catholic catechism prepared by the Catholic Bishops' Conference of the Philippines and approved by the Holy See. The draft was produced by the Conference's "Episcopal Commission on Catechesis and Catholic Education," and is an update of the late 16th century Doctrina Christiana en Lengua Espanola Y Tagala, which was a Hispano-Tagalog version of the earlier Hispano-Chinese Doctrina that was the First book of the Spanish Philippines|first book printed in the Philippines using moveable type.

The Doctrina Cristiana was written in Tagalog (both in a hispanised Latin script and the then-common indigenous Baybayin script), as well as Spanish. Amongst the contents of the Doctrina are the Spanish alphabet and phonics, basic prayers shown in both languages – in the case of the Tagalog, using archaic words and both scripts – and a brief catechism in question-and-answer format.

Enchiridion symbolorum, definitionum et declarationum de rebus fidei et morum
The Enchiridion symbolorum, definitionum et declarationum de rebus fidei et morum, also known as Enchiridion or Denzinger, is a compendium of all basic texts of Catholic dogma and morality since the apostles. Commissioned by Pope Pius IX, it has been in use since 1854, and has been updated periodically. It is a compendium of faith, like a catechism. By including all relevant teachings throughout history, it is at the same time, more than a catechism. It is a search instrument for theologians, historians and anybody interested in Christian religion. The latest updates of the Enchiridion extend to the teachings of Pope John Paul II.

The Archbishop of Baltimore Cardinal James Gibbons is quoted in earlier versions of the Enchiridion, that every theologian should have always two books at hand, the Holy Bible and this Enchiridion.

Tradivox series
Tradivox (or the Catholic Catechism Index) is a multi-volume book series by Sophia Institute Press, which restores and reprints Catholic catechisms. Ongoing, it will consist of twenty cross-indexed hardcover volumes upon the series' completion. The project received several endorsements from prominent members of the Catholic clergy & public, including Cardinal Burke, Cardinal Müller, Cardinal Pell, Bishop Strickland, Bishop Schneider, & theologian Peter Kwasniewski. Schneider also provided a foreword in the hardcover edition of Vol. 1.

Orthodox catechisms
Unlike the Catholic Church, there is no teaching Magisterium in the Orthodox world. Most catechumens are instructed orally by a deacon or priest at the church. There is emphasis on being taught by simply being in church, and listening to the services.

Most Orthodox would refer back to the original writings of the Church Fathers, including the Catechetical Lectures of St. Cyril of Jerusalem and The Ladder of Divine Ascent. New catechumens would generally be encouraged to read "The Orthodox Church" by Kallistos Ware to get an overview of the Christian faith from an Orthodox perspective before being given more advanced readings.

In recent times, perhaps under influence from the West, a number of catechisms have emerged in the Eastern Orthodox Church such as the Philaret Catechism, which is entitled, "The Longer Catechism of The Orthodox, Catholic, Eastern Church," "A new-style catechism on the Eastern Orthodox faith for adults" by Rev. George Mastrantonis, and the more modern "The Orthodox Faith" by Protopresbyter Thomas Hopko. However, presently such catechisms are not widely used.

The Oriental Orthodox Churches rely heavily on the Didascalia Apostolorum. The Ethiopic version is known as the "Ethiopic Didascalia." It is included in the Orthodox Tewahedo biblical canon, and is read from on Sundays. The faith of the Coptic Orthodox Church has historically been evidenced in the lives and sayings of the early desert monks, which was recorded in "The paradise of the holy fathers," Volume 1 and Volume 2. Recently the Coptic church has used Fr. Tadros Malaty's books, along with Pope Shenouda III of Alexandria's many books, to help lay people better understand their Coptic faith. However, like the Eastern Orthodox church, the faith is mostly expounded in the lives of the saints and the material recited during the services.

Protestant catechisms
The catechism's question-and-answer format, with a view toward the instruction of children, was a form adopted by the various Protestant confessions almost from the beginning of the Reformation.

Among the first projects of the Reformation was the production of catechisms self-consciously modelled after the older traditions of Cyril of Jerusalem and Augustine. These catechisms showed special admiration for Chrysostom's view of the family as a "little church", and placed strong responsibility on every father to teach his children, to prevent them from coming to baptism or the Lord's table ignorant of the doctrine under which they are expected to live as Christians.

Anglican catechisms
The Anglican Book of Common Prayer includes a catechism. In older editions it is a brief manual for the instruction of those preparing to be brought before the bishop for confirmation: the baptised first professes his baptism, and then rehearses the principal elements of the faith into which he has been baptised: the Apostles' Creed, Ten Commandments, the Lord's Prayer, and the sacraments.

Catechist: What is your Name? Answer: N. or M. Catechist: Who gave you this Name? Answer: My Godfathers and Godmothers in my Baptism; wherein I was made a member of Christ, the child of God, and an inheritor of the kingdom of heaven.

The "N. or M." stands for the Latin, "nomen vel nomina", meaning "name or names". It is an accident of typography that "nomina" (nn.) came to be represented by "m".

The catechism was published in 1604 as a stand-alone document. It was later bound up with the 1662 Book of Common Prayer. This edition holds authority across the Anglican Communion.

United States
The Episcopal Church's 1928 prayer book included a catechism with offices of instruction, based upon the catechism of the Church of England's 1662 prayer book.

The Episcopal Church's 1979 prayer book includes a catechism newly written for the prayer book, intended as "an outline of instruction" and "a brief summary of the Church's teaching".

"To Be A Christian: An Anglican Catechism" was published in 2020 by Anglican House Media Ministries, the publishing house of the Anglican Church in North America (ACNA).

Baptist catechisms
Keach's Catechism is utilized in many Particular Baptist congregations. Nondenominational Reformed Baptist preacher John Piper wrote a commentary on this catechism, publishing it in 1986.

Lutheran catechisms
Luther's Large Catechism (1529) typifies the emphasis which the churches of the Augsburg Confession placed on the importance of knowledge and understanding of the articles of the Christian faith. Primarily intended as instruction to teachers, especially to parents, the catechism consists of a series of exhortations on the importance of each topic of the catechism. It is meant for those who have the capacity to understand, and is meant to be memorized and then repeatedly reviewed so that the Small Catechism could be taught with understanding. For example, the author stipulates in the preface:

"Therefore it is the duty of every father of a family to question and examine his children and servants at least once a week and to ascertain what they know of it, or are learning and, if they do not know it, to keep them faithfully at it. The catechism, Luther wrote, should consist of instruction in the rule of conduct, which always accuses us because we fail to keep it (Ten Commandments), the rule of faith (Apostles' Creed), the rule of prayer (Lord's Prayer), and the sacraments (baptism, confession, and communion)."

Luther adds: "However, it is not enough for them to comprehend and recite these parts according to the words only, but the young people should also be made to attend the preaching, especially during the time which is devoted to the catechism, that they may hear it explained and may learn to understand what every part contains, so as to be able to recite it as they have heard it, and, when asked, may give a correct answer, so that the preaching may not be without profit and fruit."

Luther's Small Catechism, in contrast, is written to accommodate the understanding of a child or an uneducated person. It begins:

"The First Commandment You shall have no other gods.

Q. What does this mean?

A. We should fear, love, and trust in God above all things."

Methodist catechisms
The Probationer's Catechism was authored by Methodist divine S. Olin Garrison for probationary members of the Methodist Episcopal Church seeking full membership in the connexion; it has been one of the most widely used catechisms in Methodist history. A Catechism on the Christian Religion: The Doctrines of Christianity with Special Emphasis on Wesleyan Concepts by Mel-Thomas and Helen Rothwell is another popular catechism used to explicate Wesleyan-Arminian theology. More recent publications are A Catechism Prepared Especially for the Members of the Evangelical Wesleyan Church (printed in the United States), A Larger Catechism: For Members of the Christian Methodist Episcopal Church (printed in the United States), and A Catechism for the Use of the People Called Methodists (printed in Great Britain).

Pentecostal catechisms
While the Pentecostal movement has no one official catechism or confession, nevertheless Pentecostal authors have produced catechetical works. William Seymour, founder of the Azusa Street revival, included a catechism in the Doctrines and Disciplines of the Azusa Street Apostolic Faith Mission. Assemblies of God minister Warren D. Combs produced a catechism in the 1960s. In 2016 Henry Volk the host of the Theology in Perspective podcast authored a resource entitled, A Pentecostal Catechism.

Quaker catechisms
A prominent catechism of the Religious Society of Friends is A Catechism and Confession of Faith (1673), published by Robert Barclay.

Reformed catechisms

Calvin's 1545 preface to the Genevan Catechism begins with an acknowledgement that the several traditions and cultures which were joined in the Reformed movement would produce their own form of instruction in each place. While Calvin argues that no effort should be expended on preventing this, he adds:

"We are all directed to one Christ, in whose truth being united together, we may grow up into one body and one spirit, and with the same mouth also proclaim whatever belongs to the sum of faith. Catechists not intent on this end, besides fatally injuring the Church, by sowing the materials of dissension in religion, also introduce an impious profanation of baptism. For where can any longer be the utility of baptism unless this remain as its foundation – that we all agree in one faith?

Wherefore, those who publish Catechisms ought to be the more carefully on their guard, by producing anything rashly, they may not for the present only, but in regard to posterity also, do grievous harm to piety, and inflict a deadly wound on the Church."

The scandal of diverse instruction is that it produces diverse baptisms and diverse communions, and diverse faith. However, forms may vary without introducing substantial differences, according to the Reformed view of doctrine.

Genevan Catechism
John Calvin produced a catechism while at Geneva (1541), which underwent two major revisions (1545 and 1560). Calvin's aim in writing the catechism of 1545 was to set a basic pattern of doctrine, meant to be imitated by other catechists, which would not affirm local distinctions or dwell on controversial issues, but would serve as a pattern for what was expected to be taught by Christian fathers and other teachers of children in the church. The catechism is organized on the topics of faith, law, prayer and sacraments.

"# Master. What is the chief end of human life?
 * Scholar. To know God by whom men were created.
 * 1) M. What reason have you for saying so?
 * S. Because he created us and placed us in this world to be glorified in us. And it is indeed right that our life, of which himself is the beginning, should be devoted to his glory.
 * 1) M. What is the highest good of man?
 * S. The very same thing."

Heidelberg Catechism
After Protestantism entered into the Palatinate, in 1546 the controversy between Lutherans and Calvinists broke out, and especially while the region was under the elector Otto Heinrich (1556–1559), this conflict in Saxony, particularly in Heidelberg, became increasingly bitter and turned violent.

When Frederick III, Elector Palatine, came into power in 1559 he put his authority behind the Calvinistic view on the Lord's Supper, which denied the local presence of the body of Jesus Christ in the elements of the sacrament. He turned Sapienz College into a school of divinity, and in 1562 he placed over it a pupil and friend of Luther's colleague, Philipp Melanchthon, named Zacharias Ursinus. In an attempt to resolve the religious disputes in his domain, Frederick called upon Ursinus and his colleague Caspar Olevianus (preacher to Frederick's court) to produce a catechism. The two collaborators referred to existing catechetical literature, and especially relied on the catechisms of Calvin and of John Lasco. To prepare the catechism, they adopted the method of sketching drafts independently, and then bringing together the work to combine their efforts. "The final preparation was the work of both theologians, with the constant co-operation of Frederick III. Ursinus has always been regarded as the principal author, as he was afterwards the chief defender and interpreter of the Catechism; still, it would appear that the nervous German style, the division into three parts (as distinguished from the five parts in the Catechism of Calvin and the previous draft of Ursinus), and the genial warmth and unction of the whole work, are chiefly due to Olevianus." (Schaff, in. Am. Presb. Rev. July 1863, p. 379). The structure of the Heidelberg Catechism is spelled out in the second question; and the three-part structure seen there is based on the belief that the single work of salvation brings forward the three persons of the Trinity in turn, to make God fully and intimately known by his work of salvation, referring to the Apostles' Creed as an epitome of Christian faith. Assurance of salvation is the unifying theme throughout this catechism: assurance obtained by the work of Christ, applied through the sacraments, and resulting in grateful obedience to the commandments and persistence in prayer.

"Lord's Day 1.

Q. What is thy only comfort in life and death? A. That I with body and soul, both in life and death, am not my own, but belong unto my faithful Saviour Jesus Christ; who, with his precious blood, has fully satisfied for all my sins, and delivered me from all the power of the devil; and so preserves me that without the will of my heavenly Father, not a hair can fall from my head; yea, that all things must be subservient to my salvation, and therefore, by his Holy Spirit, He also assures me of eternal life, and makes me sincerely willing and ready, henceforth, to live unto him.

Q. How many things are necessary for thee to know, that thou, enjoying this comfort, mayest live and die happily? A. Three; the first, how great my sins and miseries are; the second, how I may be delivered from all my sins and miseries; the third, how I shall express my gratitude to God for such deliverance."

The Heidelberg Catechism is the most widely used of the Catechisms of the Reformed churches.

Westminster Catechisms

Together with the Westminster Confession of Faith (1647), the Westminster Assembly also produced two catechisms, a Larger and a Shorter, which were intended for use in Christian families and in churches. These documents have served as the doctrinal standards, subordinate to the Bible, for Presbyterians and other Reformed churches around the world. The Shorter Catechism shows the Assembly's reliance upon the previous work of Calvin, Lasco, and the theologians of Heidelberg. It comprises two main sections summarizing what the Scriptures principally teach: the doctrine of God, and the duty required of men. Questions and answers cover the usual elements: faith, the Ten Commandments, the sacraments, and prayer.

"Q. What is the chief end of man? A. Man's chief end is to glorify God, and to enjoy him forever.

Q. What rule hath God given to direct us how we may glorify and enjoy him? A. The Word of God, which is contained in the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments, is the only rule to direct us how we may glorify and enjoy him.

Q. What do the scriptures principally teach? A. The scriptures principally teach, what man is to believe concerning God, and what duty God requires of man."

Other Reformed catechisms
Oecolampadius composed the Basel Catechism in 1526, Leo Juda (1534) followed by Bullinger (1555) published catechisms in Zurich. The French Reformed used Calvin's Genevan catechism, as well as works published by Louis Cappel (1619), and Charles Drelincourt (1642).

Spiritual Milk for Boston Babes, written by the Puritan minister John Cotton and published in 1656, was the first known children's book published in the United States.

Abrahamic religions
Judaism does not have a formal catechism. While there have been several attempts to formulate Jewish principles of faith, and some of these have achieved wide acceptance, none can be described as being in the form of a catechism. The most widely recited formulation, Yigdal, is in the form of a hymn based on Maimonides' 13 Articles of Faith.

Besides the manuals of instruction that were published by the Christians for use in their families and churches, there were other works produced by heretical sectarian groups intended as a compact refutation of Christian orthodoxy.

For example, Socinians in Poland published the Racovian Catechism in 1605, using the question and answer format of a catechism for the orderly presentation of their arguments against the Trinity and the doctrine of Hell, as these were understood by the Reformed churches from which they were forced to separate.

Islam teaches children and new Muslims the matters of faith, worship, and ethics in the form of a concise manual. They are popular in Turkish as Ilmihal (from the Arabic Ilm ul-Hal, Situation Science). It is also advised for every Muslim to have a basic knowledge of such matters of religion. The first chapter is the book of cleanliness and first to be taught are subjects such as: which are clean, what is clean and what is not clean, what people need to be cleansed from, how they should clean, and which water should they use to clean. There is a well-known book of catechism that is studied in Islamic boarding schools in Indonesia called Safinatun Najah, which talks about of matters of faith, worship and jurisprudence.

Indian religions
Bhaktivinoda Thakur's book Jaiva Dharma is an example of Gaudiya Vaishnava catechism. It follows the usual question-answer format.

In the Pali Canon of Theravada Buddhism a small bit of catechism appears as the fourth section of the Khuddakapatha, as well as the forty-third and forty-fourth suttas of the Majjhima Nikaya. Henry Steel Olcott introduced his own form of Buddhist Catechism, appropriated from Christianity, to Ceylon when setting up his Buddhist education system during the late 19th century Buddhist revival on the island.

Other religious traditions
In Zoroastrianism there is the "ČĪDAG ANDARZ Ī PŌRYŌTKĒŠĀN" also known as "Pand-nāmag ī Zardušt" (Book of the counsels of Zoroaster), which is a post-Sasanian compendium of apothegms intended to instruct every Zoroastrian male, upon his attaining the age of fifteen years, in fundamental religious and ethical principles, as well as in the daily duties incumbent upon him. In Robert Charles Zaehner's words, it "sums up succinctly the whole of Zoroastrian doctrine: it is what every boy and girl of fifteen must know before he or she is invested with the sacred girdle {kusti}."

Epicurean catechesis may have originated from the practice of writing outlines of Epicurean doctrines for easy memorization. Epicurus' Letter to Herodotus is known as the "Little Epitome" which young students are instructed to memorize, and in antiquity they would move on to more advanced teachings with the "Large Epitome". The 40 Principal Doctrines also serve the role of a catechism. The philosopher Philodemus of Gadara instructed his students to keep an outline of the doctrines on wealth and economics, so that there are additional doctrines that advanced students may focus on.

Schools of esoteric learning have used a catechetical style of instruction, as this Zodiac catechism shows:

Q. "Where is the animal, O Lanoo? and where the Man? A. Fused into one, O Master of my Life. The two are one. But both have disappeared and naught remains but the deep fire of my desire.

Secular catechisms
In the past, catechisms were written to rehearse the basic knowledge of a non-religious subject. Examples include numerous political catechisms published from the 18th to the 20th century in Europe as well as in North and South America. See also the Catechism of the History of Newfoundland (c1856), the Coal Catechism (1898), and A Catechism of the Steam Engine (1856). "Elementary catechism on the Constitution of the United States" Arthur J. Stansbury (1828), "Catechism of the Constitution of the United States" Lewis Cruger (1863) and "A Catechism of the Constitution of the United States of America" John V. Overall. Friedrich Engels' 1847 work Principles of Communism was written as a catechism: Engels subsequently decided that the format was not suited to the addition of historical material which he felt was necessary, and he and Karl Marx restructured the material and used it as the nucleus of The Communist Manifesto.

Some literary works have also taken the form of a catechism. The 17th episode of James Joyce's novel Ulysses, known as "Ithaca", is written in the form of a catechism, as is Ted Hughes' poem Examination at the Womb Door, from the collection Crow. In Henry IV, Part 1: Act V, Scene I, Line 141 Falstaff refers to his monologue as a catechism, explaining his view of the virtue of honor.

title: Catechism


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Makian

Makian (also Machian), known to local people as Mount Kie Besi, is a volcanic island, one of the Maluku Islands within the province of North Maluku in Indonesia. It lies near the southern end of a chain of volcanic islands off the western coast of the province's major island, Halmahera, and lies between the islands of Moti and Tidore to the north and Kayoa and the Bacan Group to the south. The island, which forms two districts (Pulau Makian and Makian Barat) within South Halmahera Regency of North Maluku Province, covers an area of 84.36 sq.km, and had a population of 12,394 at the 2010 Census, which rose to 14,000 at the 2020 Census. The official estimate as at mid 2022 was 13,833.

Makian Island District (Kecamatan Pulau Makian) consists of the 15 villages (desa) of Dalam, Dauri, Gitang, Gorup, Gurua, Kyowor, Matentengin, Ploili, Rabutdaiyo, Sangapati, Suma, Waigitang, Wailoa, Walo and Waykion. West Makian District (Kecamatan Makian Barat) covers the 7 villages (desa) of Bobawae, Malapat, Mateketen, Ombawa, Sebelei, Talapaon and Tegono.

The island is 10 km wide, and its 1357 m high summit consists of a large 1.5 km wide crater, with a small lake on its Northeast side. There are four parasitic cones on the western slopes of Makian. Makian volcano is also known as Mount Kiebesi (or Kie Besi).

Volcanic history
Makian volcano has had infrequent, but violent eruptions that destroyed villages on the island.

Its first recorded eruption was in the 1550s. The eruptions of July 19, 1646, September 22, 1760 and December 28, 1861 are rated 4 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index. Since the first known eruption in the 1550s, it has erupted seven times, four of which caused fatalities.

The 1760 eruption of the volcano killed about three thousand inhabitants. It erupted in 1890, and was then dormant until July 1988, when a series of eruptions forced the temporary evacuation of the island's entire population, then about fifteen thousand people.

Languages
There are 2 unrelated languages spoken in this island, Taba and West Makian languages. Taba or East Makian belongs to the Austronesian language family, while West Makian belongs to the West Papuan language family.

title: Makian


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All You Zombies (song)

"All You Zombies" is a song by American rock band The Hooters, written by the band's founding members Eric Bazilian and Rob Hyman. It was first recorded live and released as a single in 1982. It was subsequently included on the band's debut album Amore (1983) and an extended version of the song was included on their second album Nervous Night (1985). This version was released as a single in 1985 and reached No. 58 on the US Billboard Hot 100. It also charted within the top 20 in Germany and New Zealand, but was most successful in Australia, where it reached Number 8 on the charts in 1985.

Background
Influenced by reggae music, co-writer Eric Bazilian said the band was working on a different song when the idea "just came to us, like a vision." The band members dropped their work on the other song and finished "All You Zombies" that night. Writing partner Rob Hyman believed the song to be the fastest they had written "that was of any quality."

The Hooters first released a version of "All You Zombies" recorded live at the Emerald City nightclub in Cherry Hill, New Jersey, on 11 April 1981. The single was released in 1982 by Eighty Percent Records. A different version of the song later appeared on the Amore album, released independently in 1983. Hyman and Bazilian had worked with Cyndi Lauper on her album She's So Unusual, which led to Columbia Records offering the band a contract. They re-released "All You Zombies" with additional instrumental sections, making the song almost six minutes long. It became a minor hit in the US, reaching the Billboard Hot 100 chart, and a top 10 success in Australia, where it peaked at No. 8 for two weeks in September 1985. The single also reached the top 20 in New Zealand and Germany.

Eric Bazilian told the Chicago Tribune in 1985 that he didn't know the meaning of the song despite having written it. "People ask us what it's about ... the weird thing is we didn't consciously put [the heavy stuff] there." Hyman later told Songfacts that the biblical images, including Moses and Noah, were not part of any agenda, though some radio stations refused to play it. "I love songs like that, you just listen and every time you hear it you kind of wonder what's going on."

Formats and track listings

 * 7" single (1982)
 * A. "All You Zombies" (Live) – 4:09
 * B. "Rescue Me" – 4:03

 * 7" single (1985)
 * A. "All You Zombies" (Long) – 5:54
 * B. "Nervous Night" – 3:57

 * 12" promo single (1985)
 * A. "All You Zombies" (Long) – 5:54
 * B. "All You Zombies" (Short) – 3:52

 * 12" single (1986)
 * A. "All You Zombies" (Extended Version) – 5:58
 * B. "Where Do the Children Go" (Extended Version) – 5:29

Cover versions

 * The song was covered by German singer Sandra for her eighth studio album The Art of Love (2007). It was then released as a promotional single to radio stations in Poland where it received considerable airplay.
 * German band Santiano covered the song in German as "Bis in alle Ewigkeit (Walhalla)" on their 2013 album Mit den Gezeiten. They changed the lyrics into a song about the Vikings going to Valhalla.

title: All You Zombies (song)