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Ben Hogan

William Ben Hogan (August 13, 1912 – July 25, 1997) was an American professional golfer who is generally considered to be one of the greatest players in the history of the game. He is notable for his profound influence on golf swing theory, inventing the idea of practicing golf and his ball-striking ability.

Hogan's nine career professional major championships tie him with Gary Player for fourth all-time, trailing only Jack Nicklaus (18), Tiger Woods (15) and Walter Hagen (11). He is one of only five players to have won all four majors: the Masters Tournament, The Open Championship (despite only playing once), the U.S. Open, and the PGA Championship. The other four are Nicklaus, Woods, Player, and Gene Sarazen. Hogan's first major win came at age 34.

Early life and character
Hogan was born in Stephenville, Texas, the third and youngest child of Chester and Clara (Williams) Hogan. His father was a blacksmith and the family lived 10 mi southwest in Dublin until 1921, when they moved 70 mi northeast to Fort Worth. When Hogan was nine years old in 1922, Chester committed suicide by gunshot at the family home. By some accounts, Chester committed suicide in front of him, which some (including Hogan biographer James Dodson) have cited as the cause of his introverted personality in later years.

The family incurred financial difficulties after his father's suicide, and the children took jobs to help their seamstress mother make ends meet. Older brother Royal quit school at age 14 to deliver office supplies by bicycle, and nine-year-old Ben sold newspapers after school at the nearby train station. A tip from a friend led him to caddying at age eleven at Glen Garden Country Club, a nine-hole course located three miles out of town. One of his fellow caddies at Glen Garden was Byron Nelson, later a tour rival. The two would tie for the lead at the annual Christmas caddie tournament in December 1927, when both were fifteen. Nelson sank a 30 ft putt to tie on the ninth and final hole. Instead of sudden death, they played another nine holes; Nelson sank another substantial putt on the final green to win by a stroke.

The following spring, Nelson was granted the only junior membership offered by the members of Glen Garden. Club rules did not allow caddies age 16 and older, so after August 1928, Hogan took his game to three scrubby daily-fee courses: Katy Lake, Worth Hills, and Z-Boaz.

Turns professional
Hogan dropped out of Central High School during the final semester of his senior year. He turned pro six months shy of his 18th birthday at the Texas Open in San Antonio, in late January 1930. Hogan met Valerie Fox in Sunday school in Fort Worth in the mid-1920s, and they reacquainted in 1932 when he landed a low-paying club-pro job in Cleburne, where her family had moved. They married in April 1935 at her parents' home.

Hogan's early years as a pro were very difficult; he went broke more than once. He did not win his first tournament (as an individual) until March 1940, when he won three consecutive events in North Carolina at age 27. Although it took a decade for Hogan to secure his first victory, his wife Valerie believed in him, and this helped see him through the tough years when he battled a hook that he later cured.

Despite finishing 13th on the money list in 1938, Hogan took an assistant pro job at Century Country Club in Purchase, New York. He worked at Century as an assistant and then as the head pro until 1941, when he took the head pro job at Hershey Country Club in Hershey, Pennsylvania.

Career-threatening accident
During Hogan's prime years of 1938 through 1959, he won 63 professional golf tournaments despite the interruption of his career by World War II and a near-fatal car accident. Hogan served in the U.S. Army Air Forces from March 1943 to June 1945; he was stationed locally at Fort Worth and became a utility pilot with the rank of lieutenant.

Driving home to Fort Worth after a Monday playoff loss at the 1949 Phoenix Open, Hogan and his wife Valerie survived a head-on collision with a Greyhound bus east of Van Horn, Texas. On the morning of Wednesday, February 2, Hogan had reduced his speed in the limited visibility ground fog; the bus was attempting to pass another vehicle on a narrow bridge, which left no place to avoid the crash. Hogan threw himself across Valerie to protect her. He would have been killed had he not done so, because the steering column punctured the driver's seat of their new Cadillac sedan.

This accident left Hogan, age 36, with a double-fracture of the pelvis, a fractured collar bone, a left ankle fracture, a chipped rib, and near-fatal blood clots: he would suffer lifelong circulation problems and other physical limitations. His doctors said he might never walk again, let alone play golf competitively. While Hogan was in the hospital in El Paso, his life was endangered by a blood clot problem that led doctors to tie off the vena cava. He left the hospital on the first of April, 59 days after the accident, and returned to Fort Worth by train.

Hogan regained his strength by extensive walking and resumed his golf activities in November 1949. He returned to the PGA Tour to start the 1950 season at the Los Angeles Open, where he tied with Sam Snead over 72 holes, but lost the 18-hole playoff, held over a week later (due to course conditions).

The "Triple Crown" season
The win at Carnoustie was only a part of Hogan's watershed 1953 season, a year in which he won five of the six tournaments he entered, including three major championships (a feat known as the Triple Crown of Golf).

It still stands among the greatest single seasons in the history of professional golf. Hogan, 40, was unable to enter—and possibly win—the 1953 PGA Championship (to complete the Grand Slam) because its play (July 1–7) overlapped the play of The Open at Carnoustie (July 6–10), which he won. It was the only time that a golfer had won three major professional championships in a year until Tiger Woods won the final three majors in 2000 (and the first in 2001).

Hogan often declined to play in the PGA Championship; he skipped it more and more often as his career wore on. There were two reasons for this. First, the PGA Championship was, until 1958, a match play event, and Hogan's particular skill was "shooting a number"—meticulously planning and executing a strategy to achieve a score for a round on a particular course (even to the point of leaving out the 7-iron in the U.S. Open at Merion, saying "there are no 7-iron shots at Merion"). Second, the PGA required several days of 36 holes per day competition, and after his 1949 auto accident, Hogan struggled to manage more than 18 holes a day.

After the win at Carnoustie, Hogan and his wife Valerie were passengers on the SS United States westbound to New York City, where he received a ticker tape parade down Broadway on July 21.

Hogan's golf swing
Hogan was known to practice more than any of his contemporary golfers and is said to have "invented practice". On this matter, Hogan himself said, "You hear stories about me beating my brains out practicing, but... I was enjoying myself. I couldn't wait to get up in the morning, so I could hit balls. When I'm hitting the ball where I want, hard and crisply, it's a joy that very few people experience." He was also one of the first players to match particular clubs to yardages, or reference points around the course such as bunkers or trees, to improve his distance control.

Hogan thought that an individual's golf swing was "in the dirt" and that mastering it required plenty of practice and repetition. He is also known to have spent years contemplating the golf swing, trying a range of theories and methods before arriving at the finished method which brought him his greatest period of success.

The young Hogan was badly afflicted by hooking the golf ball. Although slight of build at 5'8½" and 145 pounds – attributes that earned him the nickname "Bantam", which he thoroughly disliked – he was long off the tee early in his career. Like many professional golfers of his day, he competed in long drive contests as well as matchplay and strokeplay events.

It has been alleged that Hogan used a "strong" grip, with hands more the right of the club grip in tournament play prior to his accident in 1949, despite often practicing with a "weak" grip, with the back of the left wrist facing the target, and that this limited his success, or, at least, his reliability, up to that date. Jacobs alleges that Byron Nelson told him this information, and furthermore that Hogan developed and used the "strong" grip as a boy to be able to hit the ball as far as bigger, stronger contemporaries. This strong grip is what resulted in Hogan hitting the odd disastrous snap hook.

Hogan's late swing produced the famed "Hogan Fade" ball flight, lower than usual for a great player and from left to right. This ball flight was the result of his using a "draw" type swing in conjunction with a "weak" grip, a combination that all but negated the chance of hitting a hook.

Hogan played and practiced golf with only bare hands, i.e., without wearing gloves. Moe Norman did the same, playing and practicing without gloves. The two were arguably the greatest ball strikers golf has ever known; even Tiger Woods quoted them as the only players ever to have "owned their swings", in that they had total control of it and, as a result, the ball's flight.

In May 1967, the editor of Cary Middlecoff's 1974 book The Golf Swing watched every shot that 54-year-old Hogan hit in the Colonial National Invitational in Fort Worth, Texas. "Hogan shot 281 for a third-place tie with George Archer. Of the 281 shots, 141 were taken in reaching the greens. Of the 141, 139 were rated from well-executed to superbly executed. The remaining two were a drive that missed the fairway by some 5 yards and a 5-iron to a par-3 hole that missed the green by about the same distance. It was difficult, if not impossible to conceive of anybody hitting the ball better over a four-day span."

Hogan's secret
In the spring of 1953, Hogan announced he had discovered a "secret" that made his swing nearly automatic. There are many theories as to its exact nature. The earliest theory is that the "secret" was a special wrist movement known as "cupping under". This information was revealed in a 1955 Life magazine article. However, many believed Hogan did not reveal all that he knew at the time. It has since been alleged in Golf Digest magazine, and by Jody Vasquez in his book "Afternoons With Mr Hogan", that the second element of Hogan's "secret" was the way in which he used his right knee to initiate the swing and that this right knee movement was critical to the correct operation of the wrist.

Hogan revealed later in life that the "secret" involved cupping the left wrist at the top of the backswing and using a weaker left-hand grip (thumb more on top of the grip as opposed to on the right side).

Hogan did this to prevent himself from ever hooking the ball off the tee. By positioning his hands in this manner, he ensured that the club face would be slightly open upon impact, creating a fade (left to right ball flight) as opposed to a draw or hook (right to left ball flight).

Hand dominance
Many believe that although he played right-handed as an adult, Hogan was actually left-handed. In his book Five Lessons, in the chapter entitled "The Grip", Hogan said "I was born left-handed -- that was the normal way for me to do things. I was switched over to doing things right-handed when I was a boy but I started golf as a left-hander because the first club I ever came into possession of, an old five-iron, was a left-handed stick." This belief also seemed to be corroborated by Hogan himself in his earlier book Power Golf. However, some mystery still remains about this since Hogan in subsequent interviews said that the belief of his being left-handed was actually a myth (noted in what was probably his last video interview and in his 1987 Golf Magazine interview).

In these interviews Hogan said that he was indeed a right-handed player who early on practiced/played with a left-hand club that had been given to him because it was all that he had and that it was this issue that brought about the myth that he was left-handed. This may be the reason that his early play with right-handed equipment found him using a cross-handed grip (right hand at the end of the club, left hand below it). In "The Search for the Perfect Golf Swing", researchers Cochran and Stobbs held the opinion that a left-handed person playing right-handed would be prone to hook the ball.

Famous 1-iron shot
Hy Peskin, a staff photographer for Sports Illustrated, took a famous photo of Ben Hogan playing a 1-iron shot to the green at the 72nd hole of the 1950 U.S. Open. It was ranked by Sports Illustrated as one of the greatest sports photographs of the 20th century.

"Five Lessons" and golf instruction
Hogan believed that a solid, repeatable golf swing involved only a few essential elements, which, when performed correctly and in sequence, were the essence of the swing. His book Five Lessons: The Modern Fundamentals of Golf (written with Herbert Warren Wind) is perhaps the most widely read golf tutorial ever written, although Harvey Penick's Little Red Book would also have a claim to that title, and the principles therein are often parroted by modern "swing gurus". In the Five Lessons, Hogan breaks down the swing into four parts: The Fundamentals, The Grip, Stance and Posture, and The Swing.

"The Fundamentals"
Hogan explains that the average golfer underestimates himself. He believes that beginners place too much emphasis on the long game. If you have a correct, powerful and repeating swing, then you can shoot in the 70s. "The average golfer is entirely capable of building a repeating swing and breaking 80." Through years of trial and error, Ben has developed techniques that have proved themselves under various types of pressure.

"The Grip"
Hogan says, "Good golf begins with a good grip." Without a good grip, one cannot play to his or her potential. The grip is important because it is the only direct physical contact you have with the ball via your golf club. A bad grip can cause dipping of the hands at the top of the swing and a decrease in club head speed. This can cause a loss of power and accuracy. The following describes the perfect golf grip in the eyes of Mr. Hogan: "With the back of your left hand facing the target, place the club in the left hand so that, 1) The shaft is pressed up under the muscular pad at the inside heel of the palm, and 2) The shaft also lies directly across the top joint of the forefinger".

"Crook the forefinger around the shaft and you will discover that you can lift the club and maintain a fairly firm grip on it by supporting it just with the muscles of that finger and the muscles of the pad of the palm."

"Now just close the left hand-close the fingers before you close the thumb-and the club will be just where it should be."

"To gain a real acquaintance with this preparatory guide to correct gripping, I would suggest practicing it five or 10 minutes a day for a week until it begins to become second nature."

"To obtain the proper grip with the right hand, hold it somewhat extended, with the palm facing your target. Now-your left hand is already correctly affixed-place the club in your right hand so that the shaft lies across the top joint of the four fingers and definitely below the palm."

"The right hand is a finger grip. The two fingers which should apply most of the pressure are the two middle fingers."

"Now with the club held firmly on the fingers of your right hand, simply fold your right hand over your left thumb."

"Stance and Posture"
The right stance not only allows for proper alignment, but also for a balanced swing, prepared usage of the proper muscles, and the maximum strength and control over your swing. We align our body to the target only after we have aligned the club head to the target. A proper stance starts with your feet being aligned at the target, followed by your knees, hips and shoulders. Your feet should be shoulder width apart, your front foot should be slightly opened towards the target and your back foot should be perpendicular to the target. As you increase in club, your stance should widen for further stability. Your shoulders will be naturally open to the target line because your arms are not at equal length while holding the club. Make sure to close your shoulders slightly to stay aligned with the target line. The proper stance affects how controlled the backswing is, governs the amount of hip turn in the backswing, and allows for the hips to clear through the downswing. Your front arm should be extended at all times to allow the club to travel in its maximum arc.

"The elbows should be tucked in, not stuck out from the body. At address, the left elbow should point directly at the left hipbone and the right elbow should point directly at the right hipbone.  Furthermore, there should be a sense of fixed jointness between the two forearms and the wrists, and it should be maintained throughout the swing."

"You should bend your knees from the thighs down. As your knees bend, the upper part of the trunk remains normally erect, just as it does when you sit down in a chair. In golf, the sit-down motion is more like lowering yourself onto a spectator-sports-stick.  Think of the seat of the stick as being about two inches or so below your buttocks."

"The Backswing"
Hogan advocates the use of a waggle not only because it helps you loosen your muscles, but also because it allows for your hands and arms to remember where to go for the first part of your backswing. The angle of the swing should feel like you are swinging under a slanting plane of glass. The "glass" has a hole for your head while it rests on your shoulders and touches the ground on top of your ball. Also, the backswing should be slightly steeper than the downswing. At the top of your backswing, your back should be facing the target.

"On the backswing, the order of movement goes like this: hands, arms, shoulders, hips."

"Actually, the hands start the club head back a split second before the arms start back. And the arms begin their movement a split second before the shoulders begin to turn."

"Just before your hands reach hip level, the shoulders, as they turn, automatically start pulling the hips around.  As the hips begin to turn, they pull the left leg in to the right."

"When you have turned your shoulders all the way, your back should face squarely toward your target."

"When you finish your backswing, your chin should be hitting against the top of your left shoulder."

"As you begin the backswing, you must restrain your hips from moving until the turning of the shoulders starts to pull the hips around…It is this increased tension that unwinds the upper part of the body. It unwinds the shoulder, the arms and the hands in that order, the correct order.  It helps the swing so much it makes it almost automatic."

"If he executes his backswing properly, as his arms are approaching hip level, they should be parallel with the plane and they should remain parallel with the plane, just beneath the glass, till they reach the top of the backswing. At the top of his backswing, his left arm should be extended at the exact same angle (to the ball) as the glass."

"The Downswing"
Hogan believes the second part of the swing, the downswing, is initiated by the hips starting to turn. A baseball player throws a ball by transferring his weight and rotates his hips. Then his shoulders and arm follow after. Hogan thinks that the downswing is very similar to this action. The downswing is at a slightly shallower angle and therefore the arms and hands should come from the inside-out on the downswing. The club head reaches its maximum speed, not at impact, but right after, when both arms are fully extended.

"At impact the back of the left hand faces toward your target. The wrist bone is definitely raised.  It points to the target and, at the moment the ball is contacted, it is out in front, nearer to the target than any part of the hand."

"At impact the right arm is still bent slightly."

"At that point just beyond impact where both arms are straight and extended the club head reaches its maximum speed."

"The hips lead the shoulders all the way on the downswing."

The Five Lessons were initially released as a five-part series in Sports Illustrated magazine, beginning with the issue of March 11, 1957. It was compiled and printed in book form later that year and is currently in its 64th printing. Even today it continues to maintain a place at or near the top of the Amazon.com golf book sales rankings. The book was co-authored by Herbert Warren Wind, and illustrated by artist Anthony Ravielli.

Playing style
Hogan is widely acknowledged to have been one of the finest ball strikers that ever played the game.

Hogan's ball striking has also been described as being of near miraculous caliber by other very knowledgeable observers such as Jack Nicklaus, who only saw him play some years after his prime. Nicklaus once responded to the question, "Is Tiger Woods the best ball striker you have ever seen?" with, "No, no - Ben Hogan, easily".

Further testimony to Hogan's (and Moe Norman's) status among top golfers is provided by Tiger Woods, who said that he wished to "own his (golf) swing" in the same way as Moe Norman and Hogan had. Woods claimed that this pair were the only players ever to have "owned their swings", in that they had total control of it and, as a result, of the ball's flight.

By most accounts, Ben Hogan was the best golfer of his era and still stands as one of the greatest of all time. "The Hawk" possessed fierce determination and an iron will, which combined with his unquestionable golf skills, formed an aura that could intimidate opponents into competitive submission. In Scotland, Hogan was known as "The Wee Ice Man", or, in some versions, "Wee Ice Mon," a moniker earned during his famous British Open victory at Carnoustie in 1953. It is a reference to his steely and seemingly nerveless demeanor, itself a product of a golf swing he had built that was designed to perform better the more pressure he put it under. Hogan rarely spoke during competition, and mostly kept to himself. Hogan was also highly respected by fellow competitors for his superb course management skills. During his peak years, he rarely if ever attempted a shot in competition which he had not thoroughly honed in practice.

Although his ball striking was perhaps the greatest ever, Hogan's putting skills are thought to have been below average, though he was capable of putting very well. Solid and sometimes spectacular in his early and peak years, Hogan by his later years deteriorated to the point of being an often poor putter by professional standards, particularly on slow greens. The majority of his putting problems developed after his 1949 car accident, which nearly blinded his left eye and impaired his depth perception. Toward the end of his career, he often stood over the ball inordinately long before drawing his putter back.

While he suffered from the "yips" in his later years, Hogan was known as an effective putter from mid to short range on quick, U.S. Open style surfaces at times during his career.

Career and records
Ben Hogan won ten tournaments in 1948 alone, including the U.S. Open at Riviera Country Club, a course known as "Hogan's Alley" because of his success there. His 8-under par score in 1948 set a U.S. Open record that was matched only by Jack Nicklaus in 1980, Hale Irwin in 1990, and Lee Janzen in 1993. It was not broken until Tiger Woods shot 12-under par in 2000 (Jim Furyk also shot 8-under par in the 2003, Rory McIlroy set the current record with 16-under par in 2011, which was matched by Brooks Koepka in 2017).

Hogan remains the only player to win at least 10 PGA tour events in a year twice (13 in 1946 and 10 in 1948). Hogan owns the longest streaks of consecutive major attempts finishing in both the top 5 with 12 (1940–1947) and the top 10 with 18 (1948–1956). He is the only player to win as many as 8 majors in as few as 11 attempts (1948–1953). Hogan owns the longest streak of consecutive U.S. Open attempts finishing in the top 10 with 16 (1940–1960). The next longest streak is 7. Hogan is one of only two players to win 3 consecutive U.S. Opens in 3 attempts (the other is Willie Anderson). Hogan finished in the top 10 and scored under 290 in 12 consecutive U. S. Open attempts (1941–1956) which is still the longest such streak in Open history. He achieved this on 12 different courses and won 5 times.

Colonial Country Club in Fort Worth, a modern PGA Tour tournament venue, is also known as "Hogan's Alley" and may have the better claim to the nickname as he won its tour event five times. It was his home course after his retirement, and he was an active member of Colonial as well for many years. The sixth hole at Carnoustie, a par five on which Hogan took a famously difficult line off the tee during each of his rounds in the 1953 Open Championship, was renamed Hogan's Alley in 2003 during a ceremony celebrating the 50th anniversary of Hogan's Open victory at Carnoustie.

Prior to the 1949 accident, Hogan never truly captured the hearts of his galleries, despite being one of the best golfers of his time. Perhaps this was due to his perceived cold and aloof on-course persona. But when Hogan shocked and amazed the golf world by returning to tournament golf only eleven months after his accident, and took second place in the 1950 Los Angeles Open after a playoff loss to Sam Snead, he was cheered on by ecstatic fans. "His legs simply were not strong enough to carry his heart any longer," famed sportswriter Grantland Rice said of Hogan's near-miss. However, he proved to his critics (and to himself, especially) that he could still win by completing his famous comeback five months later, defeating Lloyd Mangrum and George Fazio in an 18-hole playoff at Merion near Philadelphia to win his second U.S. Open title.

Hogan went on to achieve what is perhaps the greatest sporting accomplishment in history, limping to twelve more PGA Tour wins (including six majors) before retiring. In 1951, Hogan entered just five events, but won three of them – the Masters, U.S. Open, and World Championship of Golf, and finished second and fourth in his other two starts. He finished fourth on that season's money list, barely $6,000 behind the season's official money list leader Lloyd Mangrum, who played over twenty events. That year also saw the release of a biopic starring Glenn Ford as Hogan, called Follow the Sun: The Ben Hogan Story. He even received a ticker-tape parade in New York City in 1953, upon his return from winning the British Open, the only time he played the event. With that victory, Hogan became just the second player, after Gene Sarazen, to win all four of the modern major championships—the Masters, U.S. Open, British Open, and PGA Championship.

Hogan remains the only player to win the Masters, U.S. Open, and British Open in the same calendar year (1953). His 14-under par at the 1953 Masters set a record that stood for a dozen years; as of 2018, he remains one of just twelve (Jack Nicklaus, Raymond Floyd, Ben Crenshaw, Tiger Woods, David Duval, Phil Mickelson, Charl Schwartzel, Jordan Spieth, Justin Rose, Rickie Fowler, and Patrick Reed) to have recorded such a low score in the tournament. In 1967, at age 54, Hogan shot a record 30 on the back nine at the Masters; the record stood until 1992.

In 1945, Hogan set a PGA Tour record for a 72-hole event at the Portland Open Invitational by shooting 27-under-par. The record stood until 1998, when it was broken by John Huston (it has since been surpassed by nine others, including most recently Phil Mickelson's 28-under in the 2013 Waste Management Phoenix Open).

Hogan never competed on the Senior PGA Tour, as that circuit did not exist until he was in his late sixties.

According to his PGA Tour profile, Hogan earned just $332,516 in official PGA events, however, a 2021 study concluded that Hogan's tournament performances could have earned him $91.8M if he had played in the modern era.

Hale America Open – a tenth major title for Hogan?
Many supporters of Hogan and some golf historians feel that his victory at the Hale America Open in 1942 should be counted as his fifth U.S. Open and 10th major championship, since the tournament was to be a substitute for the Open after its cancellation by the USGA. The Hale America National Open was held in the same time slot and was run like the U.S. Open with more than 1,500 entries, local qualifying at 69 sites and sectional qualifying at most major cities. The top players, who were not away fighting in World War II, participated and the largest purse of the year was awarded. Included in the field were the very top players of the day including Byron Nelson, Gene Sarazen, Jimmy Demaret, Lloyd Mangrum, and defending Open champion Craig Wood. The only player of that level who did not play was Sam Snead, but the field did also include Bobby Jones who had competed in his own Masters event in April of that year. The championship winner's badge was donated to the event by the USGA, and was the badge that they had intended to award for the then-canceled US Open.

Distinctions and honors

 * A special room is dedicated to Hogan's career, comeback, and accomplishments at the United States Golf Association Museum and Arnold Palmer Center for Golf History in Far Hills, New Jersey.
 * The Hogan Bridge at Augusta National is one of the most photographed sights during The Masters as it is the footbridge that takes golfers to the green on the famous 12th hole.
 * He was inducted into the World Golf Hall of Fame in 1974. In 1976, Ben Hogan was voted the Bob Jones Award, the highest honor given by the United States Golf Association in recognition of distinguished sportsmanship in golf.
 * Hogan helped to design the original plans for the Trophy Club Country Club Golfcourse in Trophy Club and 18 of the course's 36 holes are designated as the "Hogan" Course.
 * Hogan played on two U.S. Ryder Cup teams, 1947 and 1951, and captained the team three times, 1947, 1949, and 1967, famously claiming on the last occasion to have brought the "twelve best golfers in the world" to play in the competition. (This line was used by subsequent Ryder Cup captain Raymond Floyd in 1989. In 1989, playing at The Belfry, the two sides halved at 14 points each and Team Europe retained the cup.)
 * Hogan ranked 38th in ESPN's SportsCentury 50 Greatest Athletes of the 20th Century in 1999.
 * Hogan won the Vardon Trophy for lowest scoring average three times: 1940, 1941, and 1948. In 1953, Hogan won the Hickok Belt as the top professional athlete of the year in the United States.
 * In 2000, Hogan was ranked as the second greatest player of all time by Golf Digest magazine. Jack Nicklaus was first, and Sam Snead was third.
 * In 2009, Hogan was ranked as the fourth greatest player of all time by Golf Magazine. Jack Nicklaus was first, Tiger Woods was second, and Bobby Jones was third.
 * The Ben Hogan Award is given annually by the Golf Writers Association of America to a golfer who has stayed active in golf despite a physical handicap or serious illness. The first winner was Babe Zaharias.
 * The Ben Hogan Award is given by Friends of Golf and the Golf Coaches Association of America to the best college golf player since 1990.

 * At the 2024 Masters during the press conference for the honorary starters Jack Nicklaus, Tom Watson, and Gary Player, Mr. Player proclaimed: “I never saw a man hit a ball like Ben Hogan. He was the only man I ever met in my life that knew the swing from A to Z … He knew more about the golf swing than anybody.”

 * The Ben Hogan Museum, located in Hogan's childhood hometown of Dublin, Texas, pays homage to the legendary golfer—the boy, the businessman, the golfer. It highlights his early experiences and their resulting impact on his private and professional life. As the son of the local blacksmith, Hogan learned from an early age the way metal could be forged to best accomplish specific tasks. He is thought to have used that knowledge to his advantage, later in life, as he went on to design and manufacture optimum golf equipment.

The Ben Hogan Golf Equipment Company
Following his most successful season, Hogan started his golf club company in the fall of 1953 in Fort Worth. Production began in the summer of 1954, with clubs targeted toward "the better player." Always a perfectionist, Hogan is said to have ordered the entire first production run of clubs destroyed because they did not meet his exacting standards.

In 1960, he sold the company to American Machine and Foundry (AMF), but stayed on as chairman of the board for several more years. AMF Ben Hogan golf clubs were sold continuously from 1960 to 1985 when AMF was bought by Minstar who sold The Ben Hogan company in 1988 to Cosmo World, who owned the club manufacturer until 1992, when it was sold to another independent investor, Bill Goodwin.

Goodwin moved the company out of Fort Worth, and a union shop, to Virginia so it would be close to his home of operations for other AMF brands and, incidentally, a non-union shop in an effort to return the company to profitability. Goodwin sold to Spalding in 1997, closing the sale in January 1998. Spalding returned manufacturing to Hogan's Fort Worth before eventually including the company's assets in a bankruptcy sale of Spalding's Top-Flite division to Callaway in 2004. After over a half century and numerous ownership changes, the Ben Hogan line was discontinued by Callaway in 2008. The brand name was sold to Perry Ellis International in 2012. In May 2014, Eidolon Brands approached Perry Ellis International and got the rights to use Ben Hogan's name for a line of golf clubs. The company ceased trading in 2022.

Ownership timeline

 * 1953 – company founded
 * 1960 – sold to AMF, Hogan retained as president
 * 1984 – sold to Irwin Jacobs for $15 million
 * 1988 – sold to Cosmo World of Japan for $55 million, initial sponsor of the Ben Hogan Tour from 1990 to 1992
 * 1992 – sold to Bill Goodwin of Richmond, Virginia
 * 1997 – sold to Spalding Top-Flite
 * 2003 – sold to Callaway Golf, Hogan line discontinued in 2008
 * 2012 – brand name sold to Perry Ellis International
 * 2014 – brand name licensed by Eldolon Brands, led by CEO Terry Koehler. Company failed late 2016
 * 2017 – Ben Hogan Golf Equipment Company re-emerged, funded by ExWorks Capital
 * 2022 – Filed for its third and final bankruptcy and ceased trading

Death
Hogan died at age 84 in Fort Worth on July 25, 1997. His wife Valerie died two years later; they are interred at Greenwood Memorial Park in Fort Worth.

PGA Tour wins (64)

 * 1938 (1) Hershey Four-Ball (with Vic Ghezzi)
 * 1940 (4) North and South Open, Greater Greensboro Open, Asheville Land of the Sky Open, Goodall Palm Beach Round Robin
 * 1941 (5) Asheville Open, Chicago Open, Hershey Open, Miami Biltmore International Four-Ball (with Gene Sarazen), Inverness Invitational Four-Ball (with Jimmy Demaret)
 * 1942 (6) Los Angeles Open, San Francisco Open, North and South Open, Asheville Land of the Sky Open, Hale America Open, Rochester Times-Union Open
 * 1945 (5) Nashville Invitational, Portland Open Invitational, Richmond Invitational, Montgomery Invitational, Orlando Open
 * 1946 (13) Phoenix Open, San Antonio Texas Open, St. Petersburg Open, Miami International Four-Ball (with Jimmy Demaret), Colonial National Invitation, Western Open, Goodall Round Robin, Inverness Invitational Four-Ball (with Jimmy Demaret), Winnipeg Open, PGA Championship, Golden State Open, Dallas Invitational, North and South Open
 * 1947 (7) Los Angeles Open, Phoenix Open, Colonial National Invitation, Chicago Victory National Open, World Championship of Golf, Miami International Four-Ball (with Jimmy Demaret), Inverness Invitational Four-Ball (with Jimmy Demaret)
 * 1948 (10) Los Angeles Open, PGA Championship, U.S. Open, Inverness Invitational Four-Ball (with Jimmy Demaret), Motor City Open, Reading Open, Western Open, Denver Open, Reno Open, Glendale Open
 * 1949 (2) Bing Crosby Pro-Am, Long Beach Open
 * 1950 (1) U.S. Open
 * 1951 (3) Masters Tournament, U.S. Open, World Championship of Golf
 * 1952 (1) Colonial National Invitation
 * 1953 (5) Masters Tournament, Pan American Open, Colonial National Invitation, U.S. Open, The Open Championship
 * 1959 (1) Colonial National Invitation

Major championships are shown in bold.

Source:

Other wins (7)
this list is probably incomplete
 * 1936 Land of the Sky Open
 * 1937 Land of the Sky Open
 * 1940 Westchester Open, Westchester PGA Championship
 * 1950 Greenbrier Pro-Am
 * 1956 World Cup of Golf individual; World Cup of Golf team

Wins (9)
Note: The PGA Championship was match play until 1958 1Defeated Mangrum and Fazio in 18-hole playoff; Hogan 69 (−1), Mangrum 73 (+3), Fazio 75 (+5).

Results timeline
{{legend|lime|Win}} {{legend|yellow|Top 10}} {{legend|#eeeeee|Did not play}} NT = no tournament WD = Withdrew CUT = missed the half-way cut (3rd round cut in 1960 PGA Championship) R64, R32, R16, QF, SF = Round in which player lost in PGA Championship match play "T" indicates a tie for a place

Summary

 * Longest streak of top-10s – 18 (1948 Masters – 1956 U.S. Open)
 * Most consecutive cuts made – 35 (1939 Masters – 1956 U.S. Open)

U.S. national team appearances
Professional
 * Ryder Cup: 1947 (winners, playing captain), 1949 (winners, non-playing captain), 1951 (winners), 1967 (winners, non-playing captain)
 * Canada Cup: 1956 (winners, individual winner), 1958

title: Ben Hogan


text:
Snoqualmie River

The Snoqualmie River is a 45 mi long river in King County and Snohomish County in the U.S. state of Washington. The river's three main tributaries are the North, Middle, and South Forks, which drain the west side of the Cascade Mountains near the town of North Bend and join near the town of Snoqualmie just above the Snoqualmie Falls. After the falls the river flows north through rich farmland and the towns of Fall City, Carnation, and Duvall before meeting the Skykomish River to form the Snohomish River near Monroe. The Snohomish River empties into Puget Sound at Everett. Other tributaries of the Snoqualmie River include the Taylor River and the Pratt River, both of which enter the Middle Fork, the Tolt River, which joins at Carnation, and the Raging River at Fall City.

Many of the Snoqualmie River's headwaters originate as snowmelt within the Alpine Lakes Wilderness. On August 8, 2007, U.S. Representative Dave Reichert (WA-08), King County Executive Ron Sims, and others announced a proposal to expand the Alpine Lakes Wilderness to include the valley of the Pratt River, a tributary of the Middle Fork, near the town of North Bend. The proposal would also give the Pratt River National Wild and Scenic River status.

South Fork
The South Fork, approximately 31 mi long, begins at the outlet of tiny Source Lake, 47.455°N, -121.4525°W, and flows southeast before soon turning southwest and continuing to flow in that direction until after Denny Creek joins. It then flows west for a bit before turning northwest and continuing in that general direction until it merges with the Snoqualmie River Proper just above Snoqualmie Falls. It drops over a total of 6 waterfalls (many would argue 8 because many people divide the final one into three portions).

Middle Fork
The Middle Fork, approximately 41 mi long, originates from Chain Lakes, 47.55833°N, -121.2375°W, and flows south to Williams Lake, then in a westerly direction until it meets with the North Fork near North Bend. It receives the waters of the Taylor River and the Pratt River in short order about halfway between its source and its mouth. It has one major waterfall along its course. The upper reaches of the Middle Fork, Taylor, and Pratt river valleys are within the boundaries of the Alpine Lakes Wilderness area.

The Middle Fork Valley is a popular recreational area since it is accessible during the winter due to its low altitude and close proximity to Seattle. For many years the Middle Fork Road extended 24 miles to Hardscrabble Creek, but was gated at Dingford Creek in June 2007, 18 miles in. The gate at Dingford Creek was a controversial part of the Access and Travel Management plan adopted by the US Forest Service in 2005. Much of the road's route is on the 1920s and 30's era railroad grade of the North Bend Timber Company. The paved portion of the Middle Fork road was extended by 9.7 miles during a 3-year construction project from 2014 to 2016, extending pavement to just before the Taylor River bridge. The Middle Fork Valley was heavily logged starting in 1923 and continued up through the 1970s. The obvious railroad grades, pilings, and related debris are from the North Bend Timber Company's activity from 1923 to 1941.

North Fork
The North Fork, approximately 28 mi long, originates at the outlet of small, rarely visited Lake Kanim, 47.66139°N, -121.48278°W. Almost directly after exiting the lake it drops over Kanim Falls. The river then flows east before making a wide turn north. Just before its confluence with the Middle Fork the river flows through a canyon near Ernie's Grove. There are several waterfalls within this canyon including Fantastic Falls.

Waterfalls
The Snoqualmie River has quite a few major waterfalls. By far the most famous waterfall in Washington, receiving over 1 million visitors every year, is the 268 ft high Snoqualmie Falls. However, the three forks of the upper Snoqualmie River also have notable waterfalls. The north fork has Fantastic Falls (35 ft) and Kanim Falls (200 ft). The middle fork has Nellie Falls (150 ft). And, the south fork has Twin Falls (135 ft), Middle Twin Falls, Upper Twin Falls, Weeks Falls, Upper Weeks Falls, Denny Camp Falls, Franklin Falls (135 ft), and Fall-into-the-Wall Falls (22 ft).

Snoqualmie Falls was featured on the television series Twin Peaks. Shots of upriver Snoqualmie also feature in some of the show's title sequences.

Whitewater kayaking, canoeing and rafting
The Snoqualmie River has quite a few sections suitable for whitewater kayaking and rafting. It features run rate Class II to Class V+. The nearby Raging River also features a kayaking run.

Flooding
The Snoqualmie River is prone to flooding and typically sees multiple flood events annually that inundate local farmland and close low-lying roads. During record level floods, all road access to the towns of Carnation and Duvall becomes closed off. The last four times this happened were during the floods of 2020, 2009, 2006, and 1990.

The river level of the Snoqualmie River is monitored by six USGS streamgages, one on each fork, one just above the falls, one below Carnation, and one near Duvall. Data from the streamgages are used by the National Weather Service for flood forecasting and warning. The Tolt River and the Raging River are also monitored by USGS streamgages.

The Snoqualmie Flood Reduction Project was a controversial Army Corps of Engineers project completed in 2005 to reduce the effect of floods in the town of Snoqualmie by widening the river just above the falls.

Cities on the river

 * North Bend, Washington
 * Snoqualmie, Washington
 * Fall City, Washington
 * Carnation, Washington
 * Duvall, Washington

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Snoqualmie River


text:
Moscow mule

A Moscow mule is a cocktail made with vodka, ginger beer and lime juice, garnished with a slice or wedge of lime, and a sprig of mint. The drink, being a type of buck, is sometimes called vodka buck. It is popularly served in a copper mug, which takes on the cold temperature of the liquid.

Some public health advisories recommend copper mugs with a protective coating (such as stainless steel) on the inside and the lip, to reduce the risk of copper toxicity.

Variations
Due to the popularity of the Moscow mule, other buck cocktails with different liquors or other ingredients have been labeled with the "mule" name in recent years. Variations with the name changed accordingly:

 * Aussie mule: Pear vodka, lime juice, pineapple juice.
 * Aussie mule: Bundaberg Rum.
 * Berner mule: Ingwerer.
 * Bohemian mule: Absinthe.
 * Canary mule: Honey rum
 * Congo mule: Tonic water
 * Dead man's mule: Absinthe and cinnamon schnapps.
 * French mule: Cognac and angostura bitters.
 * Gin-gin mule, London mule, Munich mule, Foghorn: Gin.
 * Glasgow mule: Blended Scotch whisky and St-Germain liqueur.
 * Irish mule: Irish whiskey.
 * Jallu-muuli: Jaloviina.
 * Jamaican mule: Spiced rum.
 * Kentucky mule, Horsefeather: Bourbon.
 * Manila mule: Lambanog and calamansi instead of lime.
 * Merican Mule: Canned Moscow Mule brand.
 * Mexican mule: Tequila.
 * Mezcal mule: Mezcal.
 * Mistletoe mule: Garnished with rosemary and cranberries.
 * Mumbai mule: Moscow mule, coriander, cumin.
 * New Orleans mule: Bourbon and coffee liqueur.
 * Oslo mule: Akvavit.
 * Portuguese mule: Pinguça.
 * Prickly pear mule: Pear liqueur and Poire Williams.
 * Southern mule: Southern Comfort liqueur.
 * Tennessee mule: Tennessee whiskey.
 * Tuscan mule: Tuaca liqueur.
 * Berlin mule: Jägermeister
 * Mississippi mule: Cathead Honeysuckle vodka.
 * Westphalian mule: Korn, Apple juice instead of lime and cucumber

Another variation uses ginger syrup instead of ginger beer.

Other ingredients, such as carrot juice and angostura bitters, can also be added.

A variant which uses Mountain Dew soda in place of the ginger beer is known as a Moscow Mole.

History
George Sinclair's 2007 article on the origin of the drink quotes the New York Herald Tribune from 1948: "The mule was born in Manhattan but 'stalled' on the West Coast for the duration. The birthplace of 'Little Moscow' was in New York's Chatham Hotel. That was back in 1941 when the first carload of Jack Morgan's Cock 'n' Bull ginger beer was railing over the plains to give New Yorkers a happy surprise…The Violette Family helped. Three friends were in the Chatham bar, one John A. Morgan, known as Jack, president of Cock 'n' Bull Products and owner of the Hollywood Cock 'n' Bull Restaurant; one was John G. Martin, president of G.F. Heublein Brothers Inc. of Hartford, Conn., and the third was Rudolph Kunett, president of the Pierre Smirnoff, Heublein's vodka division. As Jack Morgan tells it, 'We three were quaffing a slug, nibbling an hors d'oeuvre and shoving toward inventive genius'. Martin and Kunett had their minds on their vodka and wondered what would happen if a two-ounce shot joined with Morgan's ginger beer and the squeeze of a lemon. Ice was ordered, lemons procured, mugs ushered in and the concoction put together. Cups were raised, the men counted five and down went the first taste. It was good. It lifted the spirit to adventure. Four or five days later the mixture was christened the Moscow mule..."

Mayo Methot's husband, Percy T. Morgan, an oil tycoon, was a co-owner of the Cock n' Bull restaurant.

This story was well known for years, however in 2007, a new version of the invention of the Moscow mule cocktail was published. In this story the cocktail's inventor was Wes Price, getting the idea from Hudes Potache, Morgan's head bartender and the drink was born out of a need to clear the bar's cellar, packed with unsold inventory, including vodka and ginger beer.

Eric Felten quotes Wes Price in an article that was published in 2007 in The Wall Street Journal "'I just wanted to clean out the basement,' Price would say of creating the Moscow mule. 'I was trying to get rid of a lot of dead stock.' The first one he mixed he served to the actor Broderick Crawford. 'It caught on like wildfire,' Price bragged.'"

The Moscow mule is often served in a copper mug. The popularity of this drinking vessel is attributable to Martin, who went around the United States to sell Smirnoff vodka and popularize the Moscow mule. Martin asked bartenders to pose with a specialty copper mug and a bottle of Smirnoff vodka, and took Polaroid photographs of them. He took two photos, leaving one with the bartender for display. The other photo was put into a collection and used as proof to the next bar Martin visited of the popularity of the Moscow mule. The copper mug remains, to this day, a popular serving vessel for the Moscow mule.

According to a 1942 Insider Hollywood article, the Moscow mule was most popular in Los Angeles, where it originated. The Nevada State Journal (October 12, 1943) reinforced the mule's popularity in reporting: "Already the mule is climbing up into the exclusive handful of most-popular mixed drinks". It became known as a favorite drink of Reno casino owner William F. Harrah. In his book Beat the Dealer (1964), Edward O. Thorp did not name the Tahoe casino where he thought he had been poorly treated as a card counter. Instead, he wrote, "Immediately I had a Moscow mule", subtly hinting that the location was Harrah's Lake Tahoe, due to Harrah's then well-known proclivity for the drink.

Following the Russian invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, some American and Canadian bars began to refer to the drink as a "Kyiv mule" – referring to the Ukrainian capital of Kyiv – in protest of the invasion.

Health concerns
There are some health concerns related to the tradition of serving a Moscow Mule in a copper vessel. The ingredients in a Moscow mule cocktails are acidic, and the resulting beverage has a pH well below 6.0. This creates a problem when using traditional copper mugs without coating, as copper can start dissolving into acidic solutions. Copper in solution is considered toxic at concentrations above 1 mg/L. On July 28, 2017, the Iowa Alcoholic Beverages Division issued a statement that pure copper vessels should not be used to serve acidic drinks, but that "copper mugs lined on the interior with another metal, such as nickel or stainless steel, are allowed to be used and are widely available". The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) 2013 Food Code states that copper and copper alloys such as brass "may not be used in contact with a food that has a pH below 6 such as vinegar, fruit juice, or wine or for a fitting or tubing installed between a backflow prevention device and a carbonator."

The FDA's Model Food Code specifically prohibits copper from "coming into direct contact with foods that have a pH below 6.0". The advisory relates only to solid copper mugs. Copper mugs that are lined with stainless steel or other food-safe materials are exempt from the advisory.

The risk of copper poisoning has however been questioned by Trisha Andrew, who teaches chemistry at University of Massachusetts Amherst, saying that the cold temperature and the short duration of a usual serving would not cause the copper levels to rise high enough to pose a risk.

title: Moscow mule


text:
Situationist Times

The Situationist Times ran to six issues edited and published by Jacqueline de Jong between May 1962 and December 1967 in Hengelo (Netherlands), Copenhagen and Paris, in editions of between 1,000 and 2,000.

Contributors include: Theo Wolvecamp, de Jong, Armando, Vanderkamm, Gruppe SPUR, de Boer, Edle Hansen, Singer, Gordon Fazarkely, Max Bucaille, G. Hay, Asger Jorn, P. Schat, Noël Arnaud, Pierre Alechinsky, Boris Vian, and many others.

No. 3
This issue is the "International British Edition", dedicated to "The Typology of Knots".

No. 4
This issue deals with labyrinths;

No. 5
This issues deals with the Ring, the interlaced ring and consequently the Chain.
 * a letter from Luc d'Heusch,
 * Mind and Sense by Asger Jorn
 * Der Kleine Bootsmann (17th century Danish poem)
 * Art and Orders by Asger Jorn
 * Regular forms of closed non-orientabe surfaces by Lech Tomaszewski
 * Extract from Het Verleden van Oost-Europa by Dr. Z. R. Diettrich
 * Extract from Topology by Patterson
 * Cosmogonie annulaires, Port d'Anneau and Structure d'Anneau by Max Bucaille
 * Von den Polyeder zu den gekrümmten Flächen by Professor W. Lietzmann
 * Origin et géénéologie d'Anneau by Max Bucaille
 * Forgotten knowledge of the universe in the children's hopscotch by Virtus Schade
 * L'infini du doigt by Max Bucaille
 * L'anneau retrouvé - folk tale from Kashmir
 * Cercles mysterieux by Max Bucaille
 * Ringsleken en Ringrijden - Children's game
 * Noeds et dénouments by D. G. Emmerich
 * Die Legende des Heiligen Oswald
 * Cinétisations by Pol Bury
 * What goes up still goes down by Dr Narlikar and Professor Fred Hoyle
 * ''Kreisen, Kreissegementen und Wellenlinien usw. by F. van der Waals
 * Die Parabel des 3 Ringe (Nathan der Weise) Gotthold Ephraim Lessing
 * Some mathematical aspects by H. C. Doets
 * Tournures by D. G. Emmerich
 * Venus de l'île by Mérimée
 * Extract from the Opera The Labyrinth by Peter Schat
 * Drawings b Karl Pelgram
 * Poems and drawings by Jim Ryan
 * No happy returns for me by E. Mazman

No. 6
(International Parisian Edition) contains 33 lithographs (Alechinsky, Peter Klasen, Jorn, Wifredo Lam, Roberto Matta, Roland Topor, Antonio Saura.)

title: Situationist Times


text:
Garbo

Garbo may refer to:

People

 * Greta Garbo (1905–1990), Swedish actress
 * Gunnar Garbo (1924–2016), Norwegian journalist and politician
 * Ingvald Garbo (1891–1941), member of the Norwegian Resistance in WWII
 * Norman Garbo (1919–2017), American author, lecturer and painter
 * Raffaellino del Garbo (1466), Florentine painter
 * Juan Pujol García (1912–1988), codename "Garbo", Spanish double agent for the British
 * Garbo (singer) (Renato Abate, born 1958), Italian singer
 * Greg Garbowsky (born 1986), known as Garbo, American musician

Places

 * Għarb, Gozo, Malta
 * Garbo, Tibet

Arts and entertainment

 * Garbo (film), a 1992 Australian comedy
 * Garbo (2005 film), a documentary about Greta Garbo by Kevin Brownlow
 * Garbo, a fictional character in American TV drama Dirt

Other uses

 * "Garbo", Australian slang for a waste collector
 * Garbo (Darawiish), a Darawiish administrative division
 * Garbo (Puerto Vallarta), a bar in Puerto Vallarta, Mexico

title: Garbo


text:
Charles Duncombe (Upper Canada Rebellion)

Charles Duncombe (28 July 1792 – 1 October 1867) was a leader in the Upper Canada Rebellion in 1837 and subsequent Patriot War. He was an active Reform politician in the 1830s, and produced several important legislative reports on banking, lunatic asylums, and education.

Early life
He was the eldest son of Thomas and Rhoda Tyrill Duncombe, born July 28, 1792, in Stratford, Connecticut. He studied medicine at the college of the One Hundred and One Members of the Medical Society of the City of New York, graduating in 1819. He then settled in Delaware, Upper Canada, and in 1824 he established the first medical school in Upper Canada with Dr John Rolph, in St. Thomas, under the patronage of Colonel Thomas Talbot.

Freemasonry
Debates within Upper Canada on the nature of the relationship of the provincial Grand Lodge and the English Grand Lodge paralleled political discussions on the colony's constitution. Those Freemasons who immigrated from the United States favoured an independent Provincial Grand Lodge. Duncombe was a Freemason, serving as first master of the Mount Moriah lodge at Westminster. In 1836, in a move that presaged the Rebellion, he set up a Grand Lodge independent from the British lodges and became its first Grand Master.

Duncombe's Grand Lodge was short-lived, but he soon helped found another during the Patriot War that followed the Rebellion: the Hunters' Lodge. The Hunters' Lodge was patterned on Freemasonry.

His last known Masonic activity was to establish a Masonic lodge in Sacramento in 1852.

Upper Canada Legislature
Duncombe was elected in 1830 to the Legislative Assembly as a representative for Oxford County. He was originally a Reformer in the same vein as Robert Baldwin, but was attracted by William Lyon Mackenzie's more radical reform movement.

In 1836, Duncombe made extensive reports to a parliamentary committee of reformers on prisons, asylums and education based on an extensive tour of American facilities. In his report on prisons, Duncombe argued crime was the result of social injustice, and not just the product of individual error. He argued that government had the responsibility to not merely punish the offender, but to rectify the social conditions that produced the offender. This, he argued, was particularly true for juvenile offenders. He viewed penitentiaries as "schools for criminals" and sought their eradication.

"Doctor Charles Duncombe's Report upon the Subject of Education, made to the Parliament of Upper Canada, 25th February, 1836." called for a radical expansion of common school education in the province. He rejected the grammar school model pursued by the Family Compact and argued for practical education; the classics were of limited use in the real world for which education should prepare students. A bill based on Duncombe's report passed the assembly on 4 April 1836, only to be rejected by the Family Compact-dominated legislative council. Many of its provisions, however, would be introduced under after the Rebellion including elective school boards, female education, creation of normal schools, prescribed textbooks, and non-sectarian religious instruction.

The 1836 provincial elections were marked by widespread violence by the Orange Order, and claims of voter fraud. The Lt. Governor, Sir Francis Bond Head was in charge of the elections but intervened directly in favour of the Tories in the campaign. The Reformers complained that he issued illegal land patents to new immigrants to entice them to vote for Tory candidates. When the new Tory dominated Assembly refused to hear their petition, Duncombe was charged with presenting it to the British government. He travelled to London, England in the summer of 1836 but was refused an audience by the Colonial Office. Duncombe was all the more disillusioned when his 14-year-old son was killed before his return in November. Like Samuel Lount, his fellow reform assemblyman and rebellion organizer, he virtually withdrew from public life in 1837.

Rebellion & Hunters' Lodges
In December 1837, Duncombe heard reports of Mackenzie's rebellion in Toronto. Duncombe, with Robert Alway, Finlay Malcolm, Eliakim Malcolm, Enoch Moore and Joshua Doan, gathered about 200 men on 8 December and marched towards Toronto; this is sometimes known as the Western Rising. A few hundred more rebels joined them on their march, but they dispersed near Hamilton on December 13 when they learned of Mackenzie's defeat, and that a militia under Colonel Allan MacNab was on their way to stop them. Duncombe and Eliakim Malcolm fled to the United States. Duncombe was a central organizer of the Hunters' Lodge, a secret Masonic-like military organization with its Grand Lodge in Cleveland. This organization inducted more than 40,000 men into lodges spread across the Great Lakes and St Lawrence region. They launched the Patriot War in 1838–39, almost bringing the United States and the United Kingdom to war. The organization also declared a provisional Republic of Canada at a convention in Cleveland in September 1838, at which Duncombe established a Republican Bank of Canada to finance the war. Duncombe remained there for the rest of his life, despite being pardoned in 1843. Joshua Doan was executed in 1839.

The Story of His Escape
Main Article: The History of the County Brant, 1883, p. 395 Local History of Burford Township Ontario speaks of Dr. Charles Duncombe and his escape from Canada. A writer was able to give it from the statement of the gentleman who, by his intrepidity and knowledge of the Western part of the Ontario frontier, aided an escape and which recalls those of some of Scott's Jacobite heroes a century before. Charles Tilden, Uncle of Dr. Hagel of Toronto, Ontario, was, with several of the Hagel family among the Scotland insurgents. Living near Amherstberg, he happened to be specially well acquainted with the entire western frontier, and noticed that although Sir Francis Head's agents had placed guards all along the line to prevent the escape of "rebels", now that a month had passed from the first excitement, the vigilance was much relaxed. Tilden went to see Duncombe, who, in the depth of winter (January, 1838, was a specially cold season), was kept hid in a hay-loft, and supplied with food by stealth by those who left the house as if to feed the cattle. Tilden urged him to attempt escape disguised as a woman, which Duncombe's smooth round face rendered it possible enough. The attempt was dangerous; a reward had been offered for his head, and all over the country the noble savages of the Grand River reserve were on the lookout for his scalp and the blood-money it would bring. They left the house next day in an old-fashioned farmers box sleigh. Tilden drove, Mrs. Shennick and Duncombe sat side by side, the latter disguised as an elderly farmer's wife. Mrs. Shennick's little girl, a child of nine years, was taught to address him as "Auntie". All day they drove along without molestation; at night they stopped at a country hotel, where there not being sufficient accommodation, Charles Tilden had to sleep in another a room for the hotel staff, while the three women had a room to themselves. Unable to sleep from the excitement of his position, Dr. Duncombe sat up all night. At early dawn they drove away breakfastless, and arrived after several hours' drive at the crossing place, which was at a village opposite what is now Marine City, Michigan. They drove into the yard of the tavern where were the soldiers of a party in command of a sergeant, posted there to watch the crossing place, and if possible arrest the "rebel Chief". Very calmly Tilden watered his horses, and then addressing the sergeant in command as "Captain", asked if the ice was safe. The sergeant asked whence he came. Tilden replied, truly enough, that he came from London, and he was going with his Aunt and Mother to visit some friends, whose names he mentioned, on the opposite coast of Michigan. The sergeant ordered one of his men to accompany them across the ice. Then they get half way for the rest of the river, the young soldier said that they could easily find their way for the rest of the track, and was about to leave them. Dr. Duncombe handed Charles Tilden fifty cents for the soldier, and while the latter was thanking them, felt very much inclined to send Dr. Duncombe's compliments to the sergeant who had furnished them with a guide, but refrained lest he should spoil the chance of some other unfortunate who might try the same stratagem for evading the blood-hounds of the Family Compact Government. In a few minutes he stood "a free man" on a free soil." They entered a store to buy some food, and Duncombe careless about preserving his disguise soon attracted attention. It became known that the Canadian Republican, Dr. Duncombe, a crowd gathered. He escaped capture, which in those days would have been certain death. He had a long and prosperous career in the U.S. lay before him. He was included in the general amnesty, and his Buford property was restored to him. Charles Tilden's son lived in possession of a farm of two hundred acres which Dr. Duncombe deeded to him as an acknowledgment of his father's generous friendship.  Dr. Duncombe was the first known physician in Sacramento, California practicing medicine in 1851. He would later be elected to State Legislature in 1858, but was denied a seat  for not being a citizen. He was elected the following year but was denied a seat. It was in 1862 he became a citizen, he took his place in the State Assembly.

Free Banking
Until 1835, all banks in Upper Canada required a legislative charter; this left them subject to political corruption and manipulation, as was the case with the largest of them, the Bank of Upper Canada. The Bank of Upper Canada was controlled by the Family Compact and used by them to control the province's money supply and trade. Reformers tried several legislative strategies, including attempts to incorporate credit unions such as the Farmers' Storehouse company. This came to an end in 1835 when Charles Duncombe produced a "Report on Currency" for the Legislative Assembly which demonstrated the legality of the Scottish joint-stock bank system in Upper Canada.

The difference between the English chartered banks and the Scottish joint stock banks is that the Scottish banks were considered partnerships and hence didn't need a legislated Act in order to operate. The joint stock banks thus lacked limited liability, and every partner in the bank was responsible for the bank's debts to the full extent of their personal property. The chartered banks, in contrast, protected their shareholders with limited liability and hence from major loss; they thus encouraged speculation. The Scottish joint-stock banks followed a "hard money policy." They avoided speculative risk because if they failed, their shareholders were responsible for the full loss. Since the banks did not require a legislated charter, many more banks could be founded, and they were more competitive and freer from political influence and corruption. Following Duncombe's report, the Farmers' Bank and the Bank of the People were founded on a joint stock basis, until the Family Compact conspired to make them illegal in 1838. The Bank of the People funded William Lyon Mackenzie newspaper, The Constitution in 1836.

Similar issues existed in the United States, where the chartered banks were accused of creating a "monied aristocracy" responsible for the financial panic of 1837–1838. The Equal Rights Party (the Locofocos) called for the introduction of the Scottish system, called by them "Free Banking". The Patriot War has been described as "Locofocoism with a Gun."

When the Hunters' Lodges held their convention in Cleveland in September 1838, Duncombe presented "An address to the Different Lodges on the Subject of a Joint-Stock Company Bank" in which he proposed financing the Patriot War with a republican bank. The bank was established for a short period.

Duncombe continued to pursue the idea of joint stock banking after the end of the Patriot War, publishing a lengthy book on the subject: Duncombe’s Free Banking: An essay on Banking, Currency, Finance, Exchanges and Political Economy (Cleveland: Sanford & Co., 1841). In it, he argued that a democratic state depended upon Free Banking.

California State Assembly
After his activity in the Patriot War, Duncombe moved from Cleveland to Rochester, in 1841. He practised medicine there until he moved to Sacramento County, California in 1849 at the beginning of the California Gold Rush. Although one of the first doctors to arrive in Sacramento, he did not qualify to practise in the state until 1851. He married Lucy Millard of California in 1857. He was elected to the Sacramento city council.

In 1859, he was elected to the California State Assembly as one of four members from Sacramento County, but was disqualified because it was argued that he gave up his American citizenship when he allowed himself to be elected to a foreign (Canadian) legislature. He became an American citizen and was elected again in 1863 as one of the county's five representatives. He died in Hicksville, California, in 1867 after a severe case of sunstroke and buried in the Masonic Section of the Sacramento Historic City Cemetery in Sacramento, California.


text:
Armando (artist)

 * For the online writer/blogger, see Daily Kos.

Armando (18 September 1929 – 1 July 2018), born Herman Dirk van Dodeweerd, was a Dutch painter, sculptor and writer.

Biography
Armando was born in Amsterdam, and as child moved to Amersfoort. There he saw, during the German occupation of the Netherlands, how the Nazis set up a "transition camp" for prisoners who were to be sent to concentration camps. The suffering of the victims and the cruelty of the Nazi camp guards, so near his home, influenced him for the rest of his life. After the liberation (1945), he studied art history at the University of Amsterdam.

His first solo exhibition was at the Galerie Le Canard, Amsterdam, in 1954. At this time he also started to write poetry. He was influenced by the CoBrA art group, and made abstract drawings—with his left hand, in the dark. He was also influenced by Jean Dubuffet and Jean Fautrier, producing thickly impastoed paintings.

In 1958 he was one of the founding members of the Nederlandse Informele Groep (Informelen), with the painters, , Henk Peeters, and others.

By 1959 he had joined the Situationist International (SI) and attended their Third conference, held in Munich 17–20 April 1959. With Anton Alberts, Constant and Har Oudejans he wrote First proclamation of the Dutch Section of the SI. However, he was expelled from the SI in the Spring of 1960, though continuing to contribute to other Situationist publications like the Situationist Times. He also contributed to Podium, Gard Sivik, De Nieuwe Stijl, and Barbarber.

He lived partly in Amsterdam, partly in Amersfoort, and until 1989 also in Berlin.

Fire at the Armando museum, 2007
Amersfoort, the place of his childhood, hosted a museum devoted to his work. On 22 October 2007 a large fire struck the museum and burned thirteen Armando paintings. At the time of the fire there was also an exhibition with works of painters like Ruisdael, Dürer, Seghers and Kiefer, which were all lost, with damages estimated at about three million euros (US$4,000,000). (Source: Dutch TV News NOS, 24 October 2007) A final balance of the damage by the fire was made on Tuesday 20 November 2007. According to a Dutch newsarticle, 63 paintings were lost, 8 were recovered. 6 of the recovered paintings are badly damaged, two are lightly damaged.

The new Armando museum: Museum Oud Amelisweerd (MOA)
Since 2014 the Armando Collection has been housed in a new home, the Museum Oud Amelisweert near Bunnik (NLD). The MOA regularly organizes exhibitions with works by Armando, sometimes in relation with works by other artists. Unfortunately the museum was closed in 2018, due to insufficient funding.

Honours

 * 1990 - Knight of the Order of Oranje-Nassau
 * 2006 - Knight of the Order of the Netherlands Lion
 * 2009 - The Honorary medal for Arts and Science of the Order of the House of Orange

Awards

 * 1987 - The Gouden Ganzenveer voor his contribution to the Dutch culture and the distribution throughout Europa.

title: Armando (artist)


text:
Translation (biology)

In biology, translation is the process in living cells in which proteins are produced using RNA molecules as templates. The generated protein is a sequence of amino acids. This sequence is determined by the sequence of nucleotides in the RNA. The nucleotides are considered three at a time. Each such triple results in addition of one specific amino acid to the protein being generated. The matching from nucleotide triple to amino acid is called the genetic code. The translation is performed by a large complex of functional RNA and proteins called ribosomes. The entire process is called gene expression.

In translation, messenger RNA (mRNA) is decoded in a ribosome, outside the nucleus, to produce a specific amino acid chain, or polypeptide. The polypeptide later folds into an active protein and performs its functions in the cell. The ribosome facilitates decoding by inducing the binding of complementary transfer RNA (tRNA) anticodon sequences to mRNA codons. The tRNAs carry specific amino acids that are chained together into a polypeptide as the mRNA passes through and is "read" by the ribosome.

Translation proceeds in three phases:
 * 1) Initiation: The ribosome assembles around the target mRNA. The first tRNA is attached at the start codon.
 * 2) Elongation: The last tRNA validated by the small ribosomal subunit (accommodation) transfers the amino acid. It carries to the large ribosomal subunit which binds it to the one of the preceding admitted tRNA (transpeptidation). The ribosome then moves to the next mRNA codon to continue the process (translocation), creating an amino acid chain.
 * 3) Termination: When a stop codon is reached, the ribosome releases the polypeptide. The ribosomal complex remains intact and moves on to the next mRNA to be translated.

In prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea), translation occurs in the cytosol, where the large and small subunits of the ribosome bind to the mRNA. In eukaryotes, translation occurs in the cytoplasm or across the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum in a process called co-translational translocation. In co-translational translocation, the entire ribosome/mRNA complex binds to the outer membrane of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER), and the new protein is synthesized and released into the ER; the newly created polypeptide can be stored inside the ER for future vesicle transport and secretion outside the cell, or immediately secreted.

Many types of transcribed RNA, such as tRNA, ribosomal RNA, and small nuclear RNA, do not undergo a translation into proteins.

Several antibiotics act by inhibiting translation. These include anisomycin, cycloheximide, chloramphenicol, tetracycline, streptomycin, erythromycin, and puromycin. Prokaryotic ribosomes have a different structure from that of eukaryotic ribosomes, and thus antibiotics can specifically target bacterial infections without any harm to a eukaryotic host's cells.

Basic mechanisms

The basic process of protein production is the addition of one amino acid at a time to the end of a protein. This operation is performed by a ribosome. A ribosome is made up of two subunits, a small subunit, and a large subunit. These subunits come together before the translation of mRNA into a protein to provide a location for translation to be carried out and a polypeptide to be produced. The choice of amino acid type to add is determined by a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule. Each amino acid added is matched to a three-nucleotide subsequence of the mRNA. For each such triplet possible, the corresponding amino acid is accepted. The successive amino acids added to the chain are matched to successive nucleotide triplets in the mRNA. In this way, the sequence of nucleotides in the template mRNA chain determines the sequence of amino acids in the generated amino acid chain. The addition of an amino acid occurs at the C-terminus of the peptide; thus, translation is said to be amine-to-carboxyl directed.

The mRNA carries genetic information encoded as a ribonucleotide sequence from the chromosomes to the ribosomes. The ribonucleotides are "read" by translational machinery in a sequence of nucleotide triplets called codons. Each of those triplets codes for a specific amino acid.

The ribosome molecules translate this code to a specific sequence of amino acids. The ribosome is a multisubunit structure containing ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and proteins. It is the "factory" where amino acids are assembled into proteins.

Transfer RNAs (tRNAs) are small noncoding RNA chains (74–93 nucleotides) that transport amino acids to the ribosome. The repertoire of tRNA genes varies widely between species, with some bacteria having between 20 and 30 genes while complex eukaryotes could have thousands. tRNAs have a site for amino acid attachment, and a site called an anticodon. The anticodon is an RNA triplet complementary to the mRNA triplet that codes for their cargo amino acid.

Aminoacyl tRNA synthetases (enzymes) catalyze the bonding between specific tRNAs and the amino acids that their anticodon sequences call for. The product of this reaction is an aminoacyl-tRNA. The amino acid is joined by its carboxyl group to the 3' OH of the tRNA by an ester bond. When the tRNA has an amino acid linked to it, the tRNA is termed "charged". In bacteria, this aminoacyl-tRNA is carried to the ribosome by EF-Tu, where mRNA codons are matched through complementary base pairing to specific tRNA anticodons. Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases that mispair tRNAs with the wrong amino acids can produce mischarged aminoacyl-tRNAs, which can result in inappropriate amino acids at the respective position in the protein. This "mistranslation" of the genetic code naturally occurs at low levels in most organisms, but certain cellular environments cause an increase in permissive mRNA decoding, sometimes to the benefit of the cell.

The ribosome has two binding sites for tRNA. They are the aminoacyl site (abbreviated A), and the peptidyl site/ exit site (abbreviated P/E). Concerning the mRNA, the three sites are oriented 5' to 3' E-P-A, because ribosomes move toward the 3' end of mRNA. The A-site binds the incoming tRNA with the complementary codon on the mRNA. The P/E-site holds the tRNA with the growing polypeptide chain. When an aminoacyl-tRNA initially binds to its corresponding codon on the mRNA, it is in the A site. Then, a peptide bond forms between the amino acid of the tRNA in the A site and the amino acid of the charged tRNA in the P/E site. The growing polypeptide chain is transferred to the tRNA in the A site. Translocation occurs, moving the tRNA to the P/E site, now without an amino acid; the tRNA that was in the A site, now charged with the polypeptide chain, is moved to the P/E site and the uncharged tRNA leaves, and another aminoacyl-tRNA enters the A site to repeat the process.

After the new amino acid is added to the chain, and after the tRNA is released out of the ribosome and into the cytosol, the energy provided by the hydrolysis of a GTP bound to the translocase EF-G (in bacteria) and a/eEF-2 (in eukaryotes and archaea) moves the ribosome down one codon towards the 3' end. The energy required for translation of proteins is significant. For a protein containing n amino acids, the number of high-energy phosphate bonds required to translate it is 4n-1. The rate of translation varies; it is significantly higher in prokaryotic cells (up to 17–21 amino acid residues per second) than in eukaryotic cells (up to 6–9 amino acid residues per second).

Initiation and termination of translation
Initiation involves the small subunit of the ribosome binding to the 5' end of mRNA with the help of initiation factors (IF). In bacteria and a minority of archaea, initiation of protein synthesis involves the recognition of a purine-rich initiation sequence on the mRNA called the Shine–Dalgarno sequence. The Shine–Dalgarno sequence binds to a complementary pyrimidine-rich sequence on the 3' end of the 16S rRNA part of the 30S ribosomal subunit. The binding of these complementary sequences ensures that the 30S ribosomal subunit is bound to the mRNA and is aligned such that the initiation codon is placed in the 30S portion of the P-site. Once the mRNA and 30S subunit are properly bound, an initiation factor brings the initiator tRNA–amino acid complex, f-Met-tRNA, to the 30S P site. The initiation phase is completed once a 50S subunit joins the 30S subunit, forming an active 70S ribosome. Termination of the polypeptide occurs when the A site of the ribosome is occupied by a stop codon (UAA, UAG, or UGA) on the mRNA, creating the primary structure of a protein. tRNA usually cannot recognize or bind to stop codons. Instead, the stop codon induces the binding of a release factor protein (RF1 & RF2) that prompts the disassembly of the entire ribosome/mRNA complex by the hydrolysis of the polypeptide chain from the peptidyl transferase center of the ribosome. Drugs or special sequence motifs on the mRNA can change the ribosomal structure so that near-cognate tRNAs are bound to the stop codon instead of the release factors. In such cases of 'translational readthrough', translation continues until the ribosome encounters the next stop codon.

Errors in translation
Even though the ribosomes are usually considered accurate and processive machines, the translation process is subject to errors that can lead either to the synthesis of erroneous proteins or to the premature abandonment of translation, either because a tRNA couples to a wrong codon or because a tRNA is coupled to the wrong amino acid. The rate of error in synthesizing proteins has been estimated to be between 1 in 105 and 1 in 103 misincorporated amino acids, depending on the experimental conditions. The rate of premature translation abandonment, instead, has been estimated to be of the order of magnitude of 10−4 events per translated codon.

Regulation
The process of translation is highly regulated in both eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms. Regulation of translation can impact the global rate of protein synthesis which is closely coupled to the metabolic and proliferative state of a cell.

To delve deeper into this intricate process, scientists typically use a technique known as ribosome profiling. This method enables researchers to take a snapshot of the translatome, showing which parts of the mRNA are being translated into proteins by ribosomes at a given time. Ribosome profiling provides valuable insights into translation dynamics, revealing the complex interplay between gene sequence, mRNA structure, and translation regulation. For example, research utilizing this method has revealed that genetic differences and their subsequent expression as mRNAs can also impact translation rate in an RNA-specific manner.

Expanding on this concept, a more recent development is single-cell ribosome profiling, a technique that allows us to study the translation process at the resolution of individual cells. This is particularly significant as cells, even those of the same type, can exhibit considerable variability in their protein synthesis. Single-cell ribosome profiling has the potential to shed light on the heterogeneous nature of cells, leading to a more nuanced understanding of how translation regulation can impact cell behavior, metabolic state, and responsiveness to various stimuli or conditions.

Clinical significance
Translational control is critical for the development and survival of cancer. Cancer cells must frequently regulate the translation phase of gene expression, though it is not fully understood why translation is targeted over steps like transcription. While cancer cells often have genetically altered translation factors, it is much more common for cancer cells to modify the levels of existing translation factors. Several major oncogenic signaling pathways, including the RAS–MAPK, PI3K/AKT/mTOR, MYC, and WNT–β-catenin pathways, ultimately reprogram the genome via translation. Cancer cells also control translation to adapt to cellular stress. During stress, the cell translates mRNAs that can mitigate the stress and promote survival. An example of this is the expression of AMPK in various cancers; its activation triggers a cascade that can ultimately allow the cancer to escape apoptosis (programmed cell death) triggered by nutrition deprivation. Future cancer therapies may involve disrupting the translation machinery of the cell to counter the downstream effects of cancer.

Mathematical modeling of translation
Model M0 of protein synthesis.png
 * M – amount of mRNA with translation initiation site not occupied by assembling ribosome,
 * F – amount of mRNA with translation initiation site occupied by assembling ribosome,
 * R – amount of ribosomes sitting on mRNA synthesizing proteins,
 * P – amount of synthesized proteins. ]]

The transcription-translation process description, mentioning only the most basic "elementary" processes, consists of:

 * 1) production of mRNA molecules (including splicing),
 * 2) initiation of these molecules with help of initiation factors (e.g., the initiation can include the circularization step though it is not universally required),
 * 3) initiation of translation, recruiting the small ribosomal subunit,
 * 4) assembly of full ribosomes,
 * 5) elongation, (i.e. movement of ribosomes along mRNA with production of protein),
 * 6) termination of translation,
 * 7) degradation of mRNA molecules,
 * 8) degradation of proteins.

The process of amino acid building to create protein in translation is a subject of various physic models for a long time starting from the first detailed kinetic models such as or others taking into account stochastic aspects of translation and using computer simulations. Many chemical kinetics-based models of protein synthesis have been developed and analyzed in the last four decades. Beyond chemical kinetics, various modeling formalisms such as Totally Asymmetric Simple Exclusion Process, Probabilistic Boolean Networks, Petri Nets and max-plus algebra have been applied to model the detailed kinetics of protein synthesis or some of its stages. A basic model of protein synthesis that takes into account all eight 'elementary' processes has been developed, following the paradigm that "useful models are simple and extendable". The simplest model M0 is represented by the reaction kinetic mechanism (Figure M0). It was generalised to include 40S, 60S and initiation factors (IF) binding (Figure M1'). It was extended further to include effect of microRNA on protein synthesis. Most of models in this hierarchy can be solved analytically. These solutions were used to extract 'kinetic signatures' of different specific mechanisms of synthesis regulation.

Genetic code
It is also possible to translate either by hand (for short sequences) or by computer (after first programming one appropriately, see section below); this allows biologists and chemists to draw out the chemical structure of the encoded protein on paper.

First, convert each template DNA base to its RNA complement (note that the complement of A is now U), as shown below. Note that the template strand of the DNA is the one the RNA is polymerized against; the other DNA strand would be the same as the RNA, but with thymine instead of uracil.

DNA -> RNA A ->  U  T  ->  A  C  ->  G  G  ->  C  A=T-> A=U Then split the RNA into triplets (groups of three bases). Note that there are 3 translation "windows", or reading frames, depending on where you start reading the code. Finally, use the table at Genetic code to translate the above into a structural formula as used in chemistry.

This will give the primary structure of the protein. However, proteins tend to fold, depending in part on hydrophilic and hydrophobic segments along the chain. Secondary structure can often still be guessed at, but the proper tertiary structure is often very hard to determine.

Whereas other aspects such as the 3D structure, called tertiary structure, of protein can only be predicted using sophisticated algorithms, the amino acid sequence, called primary structure, can be determined solely from the nucleic acid sequence with the aid of a translation table.

This approach may not give the correct amino acid composition of the protein, in particular if unconventional amino acids such as selenocysteine are incorporated into the protein, which is coded for by a conventional stop codon in combination with a downstream hairpin (SElenoCysteine Insertion Sequence, or SECIS).

There are many computer programs capable of translating a DNA/RNA sequence into a protein sequence. Normally this is performed using the Standard Genetic Code, however, few programs can handle all the "special" cases, such as the use of the alternative initiation codons which are biologically significant. For instance, the rare alternative start codon CTG codes for Methionine when used as a start codon, and for Leucine in all other positions.

Example: Condensed translation table for the Standard Genetic Code (from the NCBI Taxonomy webpage).

AAs   = FFLLSSSSYY**CC*WLLLLPPPPHHQQRRRRIIIMTTTTNNKKSSRRVVVVAAAADDEEGGGG Starts = ---M---M---M Base1 = TTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG Base2 = TTTTCCCCAAAAGGGGTTTTCCCCAAAAGGGGTTTTCCCCAAAAGGGGTTTTCCCCAAAAGGGG Base3 = TCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAGTCAG

The "Starts" row indicate three start codons, UUG, CUG, and the very common AUG. It also indicates the first amino acid residue when interpreted as a start: in this case it is all methionine.

Translation tables
Even when working with ordinary eukaryotic sequences such as the Yeast genome, it is often desired to be able to use alternative translation tables—namely for translation of the mitochondrial genes. Currently the following translation tables are defined by the NCBI Taxonomy Group for the translation of the sequences in GenBank:

 * 1) The standard code
 * 2) The vertebrate mitochondrial code
 * 3) The yeast mitochondrial code
 * 4) The mold, protozoan, and coelenterate mitochondrial code and the mycoplasma/spiroplasma code
 * 5) The invertebrate mitochondrial code
 * 6) The ciliate, dasycladacean and hexamita nuclear code
 * 7) The kinetoplast code
 * 8) The echinoderm and flatworm mitochondrial code
 * 9) The euplotid nuclear code
 * 10) The bacterial, archaeal and plant plastid code
 * 11) The alternative yeast nuclear code
 * 12) The ascidian mitochondrial code
 * 13) The alternative flatworm mitochondrial code
 * 14) The Blepharisma nuclear code
 * 15) The chlorophycean mitochondrial code
 * 16) The trematode mitochondrial code
 * 17) The Scenedesmus obliquus mitochondrial code
 * 18) The Thraustochytrium mitochondrial code
 * 19) The Pterobranchia mitochondrial code
 * 20) The candidate division SR1 and gracilibacteria code
 * 21) The Pachysolen tannophilus nuclear code
 * 22) The karyorelict nuclear code
 * 23) The Condylostoma nuclear code
 * 24) The Mesodinium nuclear code
 * 25) The peritrich nuclear code
 * 26) The Blastocrithidia nuclear code
 * 27) The Cephalodiscidae mitochondrial code

title: Translation (biology)


text:
Translation (disambiguation)

Translation, from the Latin for "carry across", is the conversion of text from one language to another.

Science

 * Translation studies, the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization
 * Translation (biology), part of the biological process of protein biosynthesis from messenger RNA
 * Frequency translation, converting a radio signal from one frequency to another by mixing the input signal with a second signal
 * Broadcast translator, rebroadcasting a radio signal at a different frequency
 * Translation (physics), movement that changes the position of an object, moving every point the same distance in the same direction, without rotation, reflection or change in size
 * Translation operator, an alternative name for the displacement operator in quantum optics

 * Translational research
 * Translation (sociology)

Mathematics

 * Translation (geometry), moving points the same distance in the same direction
 * Shift operator, a translation within the real line
 * Translation (group theory), the operation of multiplying by a group element

Computing

 * Address translation
 * Port address translation, allows a single public IP address to be used by many hosts on a private network
 * Network address translation, transceiving network traffic through a router by re-writing the source and/or destination IP addresses
 * Virtual-to-physical address translation
 * Program transformation
 * The translation phase of a compiler (or, by extension, the entire process of compilation)
 * Translate Toolkit, freeware localization toolkit
 * Translator (computing), multiple meanings
 * Bing Translator, online machine translation service in Bing.com
 * Google Translate, online machine translation service in Google
 * Translate (Apple), a translation app developed by Apple for their iOS and iPadOS devices

Literature and entertainment

 * Translations (play), 1980 play by Brian Friel
 * "...In Translation", seventeenth episode of the first season of Lost
 * Translate (Sexy Sadie album), 2006 album by Sexy Sadie
 * Translation (album), 2020 album by Black Eyed Peas
 * Translate (Luke Abbott album), 2020 album by Luke Abbott

Religion

 * Translation (relic), the removal of holy objects from one locality to another
 * Translation (ecclesiastical), the transfer of a bishop from one diocese or episcopal see to another
 * Translation (Mormonism), in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the change of a person from mortality to immortality without death

title: Translation (disambiguation)


text:
David H. Rosenthal

David H. Rosenthal (1945–1992) was an American author, poet, editor, and translator. He wrote mostly on the history of jazz music and was also an important translator of Catalan literature. Among his translations was the first English rendering of the Catalan epic Tirant Lo Blanch, of which Cervantes said, "I swear to you, my friend, it's the best book of its kind in the world." In 1986, he translated popular Mercè Rodoreda's novel The Time of the Doves.

Selected books

 * Eyes on the Street (1974)
 * Modern Catalan Poetry (editor, 1979)
 * Loves of the Poets: Poems (1989)
 * Hard Bop: Jazz and Black Music 1955–1965 (1992)
 * The Journey: Poems (1992)
 * Four Postwar Catalan Poets (editor, 1994)

title: David H. Rosenthal