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Talk:McGill University

Ranking in lead
@Shabel432098 as opposed to getting in an edit war, would you care to explain your exact rationale here. Specifically, could you firstly provide a source that says that the ranking being discussed in the lead isn't a medical-doctoral ranking. Furthermore, could you explain why it would be in any way beneficial for the reader to not mention what is even being ranking (being medical-doctoral universities). Leventio (talk) 04:56, 29 June 2023 (UTC)

 * Again @Shabel432098, discuss this on the talk page as opposed to starting an edit war. Now lets get the facts clear here.
 * 1. Maclean's does not have a "best university" ranking, nor does it use the phrase "best university", rather it uses "best X university" or "best university in X", as Maclean's does not have a singular ranking of institutions but three (based off primarily undergraduate, medical-doctoral, and comprehensive). My position has not changed in any of my edit summaries nor in my earlier attempts to open a discussion with you on this talk page and your personal talk page. Maclean's does not refer to any of the institutions that lead any of their rankings as singularly the "best university" as that is not how their rankings function. You're conflating the phrase "best university" for Maclean's preferred phrasing "best X university". That conflation is your own issue and yours alone.
 * 2. To answer this statement in your past edit summary: There's no official rule that "medical-doctoral" has to be included in the description, I'd advise you to read up on the guidelines and policies of WP:RS, as well as WP:UNI's own established consensus, which very much make it clear that issues of this nature should be presented as they are presented in the attributing source (which every source in this article states it's a medical-doctoral ranking, even in its headline), and not refactored to omit key details.
 * 3. Even if there isn't a policy or a WikiProject consensus that says it doesn't need to be there (which there is), you have yet to give ANY reason as to why it is perfectly fine for us to exclude such information. Simply, Maclean's operates several university rankings, and we need to disambiguate which one is being discussed (unless you are all for people mistaking that they were categorized as a comprehensive or primarily undergraduate institution). Again, there is absolutely no reason to obfuscate what the ranking is, especially when there is an actual need to disambiguate which ranking is being referred to. Forget rules the rules I brought up earlier, that's simply common sense in terms of presenting new information to an uninitiated reader. Leventio (talk) 19:05, 29 June 2023 (UTC)
 * @Leventio @Korensho Notwithstanding this past conversation, I also don't support the presentation of college rankings websites in the lede in accordance with WP:HIGHEREDREP and WP:UNDUE. GuardianH (talk) 00:03, 10 October 2023 (UTC)
 * I'm generally in agreement with the consensus established in HIGHEREDREP, and because that statement places undue weight on a single publication's ranking over multiple others. That said, I'd be open to additional opinions from WP:UNI participants. Leventio (talk) 01:33, 11 October 2023 (UTC)
 * @Leventio I agree. Until removed, what currently stands is WP:BOOSTER; definitely WP:UNDUE weight meant to present the university in a more promotional light. I'll add the tag to reflect this. GuardianH (talk) 05:45, 11 October 2023 (UTC)

James McGill's slaves
A user added "and slaveowner" to the description of founder James McGill in the lead: "There is greater institutional recognition of James McGill's ownership of Black and Indigenous human beings, by the institution itself. This is a key aspect of James McGill's biography and the foundation of the school."

The source used is the fourth paragraph of a brief biography of McGill in on the university's website.

Manual of Style/Lead section says the lead should summarize the most important contents of the article. First, McGill's ownership of slaves is not included in the contents of the article. Second, inclusion in the fourth paragraph in a biography of James McGill does not show the weight required to place it in the first paragraph of an article about McGill University.

~ TFD (talk) 23:32, 30 April 2024 (UTC)

 * James McGill is an important figure in the University's founding. I two word addition clarifying his a significant aspect of his biography is relevant enough to make the lead.
 * I am happy to change the source to one where his slaveholding is mentioned in the first paragraph since that will demonstrate it's relevance. Chamawacka (talk) 23:46, 30 April 2024 (UTC)
 * I also cannot see how him being a merchant is relevant of inclusion but the human beings that allowed for his trade to flourish are not worthy of inclusion! Chamawacka (talk) 23:52, 30 April 2024 (UTC)
 * Please note that the weight provided to information in articles is determined by Balancing aspects: "An article should not give undue weight to minor aspects of its subject but should strive to treat each aspect with a weight proportional to its treatment in the body of reliable, published material on the subject".
 * IOW if articles about McGill University regularly mention that James McGill was a slaveholder in their second sentence, then so should this article. You obviously believe they should and you may be right. The problem is that sources, including the one you used, do not provide the same weight.
 * Note that the issue is not whether James McGill owned slaves or whether that is important. The sole issue is whether your edit gives it the same degree of prominence as in reliable sources. For example, if the McGill Univesity website home page said, "Welcome to McGill Univesity, the university in Montreal founded by James McGill, Scottish merchant and slave-owner", then I would agree with you.
 * Can you provide any reason, based on Wikipedia policy or guidelines that support inclusion in the second sentence?
 * Actually it would be helpful if you could find a source about McGill University that mentions its founder was a slave-owner in the second sentence. However, it must be about McGill University specifically, not about James McGill or any controversy concerning the naming of the university. IOW an article named "McGill considers changing its name" would not be acceptable, while an entry in "World's Top 100 univerisites" would. TFD (talk) 21:07, 1 May 2024 (UTC)

Student Numbers in the Lead
@User:GuardianH insists that student numbers must be included in the lead section of the university page. However, this is just his opinion, and nobody really cares. The number of students is already included in the summary, making it redundant to repeat it. According to MOS:LEDE and WP:UNIGUIDE, there is no requirement to include student numbers in the lead. In fact, none of the university pages I know of, such as Harvard University, Yale University, Princeton University, Stanford University, University of California, Berkeley, University of Toronto, and University of British Columbia, mention student numbers in the lead. This information is redundant and subject to change. Totally unnecessary. Loudmals (talk) 17:51, 31 May 2024 (UTC)

 * The assortment of university pages you chose is few and unrepresentative. Tallying the amount of articles with enrollment in the lede is misguided, but if you want some examples there are plenty, including the University of Texas at Austin, Ohio State University, University of Michigan, University of California, Los Angeles, Dartmouth College, and numerous others. Canadian articles with them include Université de Montréal, University of Waterloo, and are also numerous, not to mention other universities abroad like the University of London, University College London, and the University of Edinburgh.
 * Nothing is required per se, but MOS:LEDE does dictate that information in the body should be represented in the lede. And, here, in addition to the established practice of putting enrollment numbers in uni-ledes, the article has good detail on the number and history of the university's enrolment, hence its addition and why its appropriate. GuardianH (talk) 18:49, 31 May 2024 (UTC)
 * Loudmals and User:Hdsksj4839, whatever you are trying to do, it's not going to work. Drmies (talk) 00:19, 4 June 2024 (UTC)
 * Just as expected, this dirty, shameless, and retarded administrators named Drmies and Bbb23 blocked my account and ran away. They are believed to be the same person using two different accounts.
 * The only thing he can do is revert constructive edits and block users he disagrees with on the false charge of "sock puppet," rather than engaging in conversation and discussion. He aligns himself with another individual of low IQ, like GuardianH. They act as dictators, forming their own closed circles. Drmies even blocked editing on his talk page to prevent the influx of negative criticism. He is nothing more than a coward who blocks users and runs away. What a chicken.
 * I knew Wikipedia was a dirty playground where administrators and their allies stick together, excluding outsiders. However, these good-for-nothing individuals are corrupting the integrity of today's world and the transparency of the internet. 122.222.63.32 (talk) 15:46, 6 June 2024 (UTC)
 * , you and I "are believed to be..." Don't know how many times I told student to be careful with passive constructions. IP, who believes that? And Bbb, where did we run away to? Is it a better place? Drmies (talk) 15:51, 6 June 2024 (UTC)
 * User:Melchior2006, GuardianH, thanks for helping to improve this article. It's amazing what some people with a low IQ can actually achieve! Drmies (talk) 15:53, 6 June 2024 (UTC)
 * , you figure blocking the IP will take away a free source of entertainment?--Bbb23 (talk) 15:55, 6 June 2024 (UTC)
 * It's getting boring. They're a long ways away from McGill. Drmies (talk) 15:59, 6 June 2024 (UTC)
 * Good decision. I think the IP may have a point, though, about my IQ. Dropping steadily, soon I'll descend to genius level, and I've always been shameless.--Bbb23 (talk) 16:07, 6 June 2024 (UTC)
 * Thank you for the response Drmies and Bbb23, and for the kind-hearted laughs. Looks like IP has caught us red-handed, thwarting his plans of saving the internet, and presumably our villainly now goes unimpeded all while our devil-horns and tails are in towe and our hands are clasped together, rubbed mischeviously. GuardianH (talk) 20:06, 6 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:McGill University


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Michaelis–Menten kinetics

In biochemistry, Michaelis–Menten kinetics, named after Leonor Michaelis and Maud Menten, is the simplest case of enzyme kinetics, applied to enzyme-catalysed reactions of one substrate and one product. It takes the form of a differential equation describing the reaction rate $$v$$ (rate of formation of product P, with concentration p) to a, the concentration of the substrate A (using the symbols recommended by the IUBMB). Its formula is given by the Michaelis–Menten equation:

$$V$$, which is often written as $$V_\max$$, represents the limiting rate approached by the system at saturating substrate concentration for a given enzyme concentration. The Michaelis constant $$K_\mathrm{m}$$ is defined as the concentration of substrate at which the reaction rate is half of $$V$$. Biochemical reactions involving a single substrate are often assumed to follow Michaelis–Menten kinetics, without regard to the model's underlying assumptions. Only a small proportion of enzyme-catalysed reactions have just one substrate, but the equation still often applies if only one substrate concentration is varied.

"Michaelis–Menten plot"
The plot of $$v$$ against $$a$$ has often been called a "Michaelis–Menten plot", even recently,  but this is misleading, because Michaelis and Menten did not use such a plot. Instead, they plotted $$v$$ against $$\log a$$, which has some advantages over the usual ways of plotting Michaelis–Menten data. It has $$v$$ as dependent variable, and thus does not distort the experimental errors in $$v$$. Michaelis and Menten did not attempt to estimate $$V$$ directly from the limit approached at high $$\log a$$, something difficult to do accurately with data obtained with modern techniques, and almost impossible with their data. Instead they took advantage of the fact that the curve is almost straight in the middle range and has a maximum slope of $$0.576V$$ i.e. $$0.25\ln 10 \cdot V$$. With an accurate value of $$V$$ it was easy to determine $$\log K_\mathrm{m}$$ from the point on the curve corresponding to $$0.5V$$.

This plot is virtually never used today for estimating $$V$$ and $$K_\mathrm{m}$$, but it remains of major interest because it has another valuable property: it allows the properties of isoenzymes catalysing the same reaction, but active in very different ranges of substrate concentration, to be compared on a single plot. For example, the four mammalian isoenzymes of hexokinase are half-saturated by glucose at concentrations ranging from about 0.02 mM for hexokinase A (brain hexokinase) to about 50 mM for hexokinase D ("glucokinase", liver hexokinase), more than a 2000-fold range. It would be impossible to show a kinetic comparison between the four isoenzymes on one of the usual plots, but it is easily done on a semi-logarithmic plot.

Model
A decade before Michaelis and Menten, Victor Henri found that enzyme reactions could be explained by assuming a binding interaction between the enzyme and the substrate. His work was taken up by Michaelis and Menten, who investigated the kinetics of invertase, an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of sucrose into glucose and fructose. In 1913 they proposed a mathematical model of the reaction. It involves an enzyme E binding to a substrate A to form a complex EA that releases a product P regenerating the original form of the enzyme. This may be represented schematically as

where $$k_\mathrm{+1}$$ (forward rate constant), $$k_\mathrm{-1}$$ (reverse rate constant), and $$k_\mathrm{cat}$$ (catalytic rate constant) denote the rate constants, the double arrows between A (substrate) and EA (enzyme-substrate complex) represent the fact that enzyme-substrate binding is a reversible process, and the single forward arrow represents the formation of P (product).

Under certain assumptions – such as the enzyme concentration being much less than the substrate concentration – the rate of product formation is given by

in which $$e_0$$ is the initial enzyme concentration. The reaction order depends on the relative size of the two terms in the denominator. At low substrate concentration, so that the rate varies linearly with substrate concentration $$a$$ (first-order kinetics in $$a$$). However at higher $$a$$, with $$a \gg K_\mathrm{m}$$, the reaction approaches independence of $$a$$ (zero-order kinetics in $$a$$), asymptotically approaching the limiting rate $$V_\mathrm{max} = k_\mathrm{cat} e_0$$. This rate, which is never attained, refers to the hypothetical case in which all enzyme molecules are bound to substrate. $$k_\mathrm{cat}$$, known as the turnover number or catalytic constant, normally expressed in s –1, is the limiting number of substrate molecules converted to product per enzyme molecule per unit of time. Further addition of substrate would not increase the rate, and the enzyme is said to be saturated.

The Michaelis constant $$K_\mathrm{m}$$ is not affected by the concentration or purity of an enzyme. Its value depends both on the identity of the enzyme and that of the substrate, as well as conditions such as temperature and pH.

The model is used in a variety of biochemical situations other than enzyme-substrate interaction, including antigen–antibody binding, DNA–DNA hybridization, and protein–protein interaction. It can be used to characterize a generic biochemical reaction, in the same way that the Langmuir equation can be used to model generic adsorption of biomolecular species. When an empirical equation of this form is applied to microbial growth, it is sometimes called a Monod equation.

Michaelis–Menten kinetics have also been applied to a variety of topics outside of biochemical reactions, including alveolar clearance of dusts, the richness of species pools, clearance of blood alcohol, the photosynthesis-irradiance relationship, and bacterial phage infection.

The equation can also be used to describe the relationship between ion channel conductivity and ligand concentration, and also, for example, to limiting nutrients and phytoplankton growth in the global ocean.

Specificity
The specificity constant $$k_\text{cat}/K_\mathrm{m}$$ (also known as the catalytic efficiency) is a measure of how efficiently an enzyme converts a substrate into product. Although it is the ratio of $$k_\text{cat}$$ and $$K_\mathrm{m}$$ it is a parameter in its own right, more fundamental than $$K_\mathrm{m}$$. Diffusion limited enzymes, such as fumarase, work at the theoretical upper limit of 108 – 1010 M−1s−1, limited by diffusion of substrate into the active site.

If we symbolize the specificity constant for a particular substrate A as $$k_\mathrm{A} = k_\text{cat}/K_\mathrm{m}$$ the Michaelis–Menten equation can be written in terms of $$k_\mathrm{A}$$ and $$K_\mathrm{m}$$ as follows:

 * $$v = \dfrac{k_\mathrm{A} e_0 a}{1 + \dfrac{a}{K_\mathrm{m}}}$$

At small values of the substrate concentration this approximates to a first-order dependence of the rate on the substrate concentration:

Conversely it approaches a zero-order dependence on $$a$$ when the substrate concentration is high:

 * $$ v \rightarrow k_\mathrm{cat} e_0 \text{ when } a \rightarrow \infty$$

The capacity of an enzyme to distinguish between two competing substrates that both follow Michaelis–Menten kinetics depends only on the specificity constant, and not on either $$k_\text{cat}$$ or $$K_\mathrm{m}$$ alone. Putting $$k_\mathrm{A}$$ for substrate $$\mathrm{A}$$ and $$k_\mathrm{A'}$$ for a competing substrate $$\mathrm{A'}$$, then the two rates when both are present simultaneously are as follows:

 * $$v_\mathrm{A} = \frac{k_\mathrm{A}e_0 a}{1 + \dfrac{a}{K_\mathrm{m}^\mathrm{A}} +  \dfrac{a'}{K_\mathrm{m}^\mathrm{A'}}},\;\;\;

v_\mathrm{A'} = \frac{k_\mathrm{A'} e_0 a'}{1 + \dfrac{a}{K_\mathrm{m}^\mathrm{A}} +  \dfrac{a'}{K_\mathrm{m}^\mathrm{A'}}}$$

Although both denominators contain the Michaelis constants they are the same, and thus cancel when one equation is divided by the other:

 * $$\frac{v_\mathrm{A}}{v_\mathrm{A'}} = \frac{k_\mathrm{A}\cdot a}{k_\mathrm{A'}\cdot a'}$$

and so the ratio of rates depends only on the concentrations of the two substrates and their specificity constants.

Nomenclature
As the equation originated with Henri, not with Michaelis and Menten, it is more accurate to call it the Henri–Michaelis–Menten equation, though it was Michaelis and Menten who realized that analysing reactions in terms of initial rates would be simpler, and as a result more productive, than analysing the time course of reaction, as Henri had attempted. Although Henri derived the equation he made no attempt to apply it. In addition, Michaelis and Menten understood the need for buffers to control the pH, but Henri did not.

Applications
Parameter values vary widely between enzymes. Some examples are as follows:

Equilibrium approximation
In their analysis, Michaelis and Menten (and also Henri) assumed that the substrate is in instantaneous chemical equilibrium with the complex, which implies

 * $$k_{+1} e a = k_{-1} x$$

in which e is the concentration of free enzyme (not the total concentration) and x is the concentration of enzyme-substrate complex EA.

Conservation of enzyme requires that

 * $$e = e_0 - x$$

where $$e_0$$ is now the total enzyme concentration. After combining the two expressions some straightforward algebra leads to the following expression for the concentration of the enzyme-substrate complex:

 * $$x= \frac{e_0 a}{K_\mathrm{diss} + a}$$

where $$K_\mathrm{diss} = k_{-1} / k_{+1}$$ is the dissociation constant of the enzyme-substrate complex. Hence the rate equation is the Michaelis–Menten equation,

 * $$v = \frac{k_{+2}e_0 a}{K_\mathrm{diss} + a}$$

where $$k_{+2}$$ corresponds to the catalytic constant $$k_\mathrm{cat}$$ and the limiting rate is $$V_\mathrm{max} = k_{+2}e_0 = k_\mathrm{cat}e_0$$. Likewise with the assumption of equilibrium the Michaelis constant $$K_\mathrm{m} = K_\mathrm{diss}$$.

Irreversible first step
When studying urease at about the same time as Michaelis and Menten were studying invertase, Donald Van Slyke and G. E. Cullen made essentially the opposite assumption, treating the first step not as an equilibrium but as an irreversible second-order reaction with rate constant $$k_{+1}$$. As their approach is never used today it is sufficient to give their final rate equation:
 * $$v = \frac{k_\mathrm{+2}e_0 a}{k_{+2}/k_{+1} + a}$$

and to note that it is functionally indistinguishable from the Henri–Michaelis–Menten equation. One cannot tell from inspection of the kinetic behaviour whether $$K_\mathrm{m}$$ is equal to $$k_{+2}/k_{+1}$$ or to $$k_{-1}/k_{+1}$$ or to something else.

Steady-state approximation
G. E. Briggs and J. B. S. Haldane undertook an analysis that harmonized the approaches of Michaelis and Menten and of Van Slyke and Cullen, and is taken as the basic approach to enzyme kinetics today. They assumed that the concentration of the intermediate complex does not change on the time scale over which product formation is measured. This assumption means that $$k_{+1} e a = k_{-1}x + k_\mathrm{cat} x = (k_{-1} + k_\mathrm{cat})x$$. The resulting rate equation is as follows:

 * $$v =  \frac{k_\mathrm{cat}e_0 a}{K_\mathrm{m} + a}$$

where
 * $$k_\mathrm{cat} = k_{+2} \text { and }

K_\mathrm{m} = \frac{k_{-1} + k_\mathrm{cat}}{k_{+1}}$$

This is the generalized definition of the Michaelis constant.

Assumptions and limitations
All of the derivations given treat the initial binding step in terms of the law of mass action, which assumes free diffusion through the solution. However, in the environment of a living cell where there is a high concentration of proteins, the cytoplasm often behaves more like a viscous gel than a free-flowing liquid, limiting molecular movements by diffusion and altering reaction rates. Note, however that although this gel-like structure severely restricts large molecules like proteins its effect on small molecules, like many of the metabolites that participate in central metabolism, is very much smaller. In practice, therefore, treating the movement of substrates in terms of diffusion is not likely to produce major errors. Nonetheless, Schnell and Turner consider that is more appropriate to model the cytoplasm as a fractal, in order to capture its limited-mobility kinetics.

Graphical methods
Determining the parameters of the Michaelis–Menten equation typically involves running a series of enzyme assays at varying substrate concentrations $$a$$, and measuring the initial reaction rates $$v$$, i.e. the reaction rates are measured after a time period short enough for it to be assumed that the enzyme-substrate complex has formed, but that the substrate concentration remains almost constant, and so the equilibrium or quasi-steady-state approximation remain valid. By plotting reaction rate against concentration, and using nonlinear regression of the Michaelis–Menten equation with correct weighting based on known error distribution properties of the rates, the parameters may be obtained.

Before computing facilities to perform nonlinear regression became available, graphical methods involving linearisation of the equation were used. A number of these were proposed, including the Eadie–Hofstee plot of $$v$$ against $$v/a$$, the Hanes plot of $$a/v$$ against $$a$$, and the Lineweaver–Burk plot (also known as the double-reciprocal plot) of $$1/v$$ against $$1/a$$. Of these, the Hanes plot is the most accurate when $$v$$ is subject to errors with uniform standard deviation. From the point of view of visualizaing the data the Eadie–Hofstee plot has an important property: the entire possible range of $$v$$ values from $$0$$ to $$V$$ occupies a finite range of ordinate scale, making it impossible to choose axes that conceal a poor experimental design.

However, while useful for visualization, all three linear plots distort the error structure of the data and provide less precise estimates of $$v$$ and $$K_\mathrm{m}$$ than correctly weighted non-linear regression. Assuming an error $$\varepsilon (v)$$ on $$v$$, an inverse representation leads to an error of $$\varepsilon (v)/v^2$$ on $$1/v$$ (Propagation of uncertainty), implying that linear regression of the double-reciprocal plot should include weights of $$v^4$$. This was well understood by Lineweaver and Burk, who had consulted the eminent statistician W. Edwards Deming before analysing their data. Unlike nearly all workers since, Burk made an experimental study of the error distribution, finding it consistent with a uniform standard error in $$v$$, before deciding on the appropriate weights. This aspect of the work of Lineweaver and Burk received virtually no attention at the time, and was subsequently forgotten.

The direct linear plot is a graphical method in which the observations are represented by straight lines in parameter space, with axes $$K_\mathrm{m}$$ and $$V$$: each line is drawn with an intercept of $$-a$$ on the $$K_\mathrm{m}$$ axis and $$v$$ on the $$V$$ axis. The point of intersection of the lines for different observations yields the values of $$K_\mathrm{m}$$ and $$V$$.

Weighting
Many authors, for example Greco and Hakala, have claimed that non-linear regression is always superior to regression of the linear forms of the Michaelis–Menten equation. However, that is correct only if the appropriate weighting scheme is used, preferably on the basis of experimental investigation, something that is almost never done. As noted above, Burk carried out the appropriate investigation, and found that the error structure of his data was consistent with a uniform standard deviation in $$v$$. More recent studies found that a uniform coefficient of variation (standard deviation expressed as a percentage) was closer to the truth with the techniques in use in the 1970s. However, this truth may be more complicated than any dependence on $$v$$ alone can represent.

Uniform standard deviation of $$1/v$$. If the rates are considered to have a uniform standard deviation the appropriate weight for every $$v$$ value for non-linear regression is 1. If the double-reciprocal plot is used each value of $$1/v$$ should have a weight of $$v^4$$, whereas if the Hanes plot is used each value of $$a/v$$ should have a weight of $$v^4/a^2$$.

Uniform coefficient variation of $$1/v$$. If the rates are considered to have a uniform coefficient variation the appropriate weight for every $$v$$ value for non-linear regression is $$v^2$$. If the double-reciprocal plot is used each value of $$1/v$$ should have a weight of $$v^2$$, whereas if the Hanes plot is used each value of $$a/v$$ should have a weight of $$v^2/a^2$$.

Ideally the $$v$$ in each of these cases should be the true value, but that is always unknown. However, after a preliminary estimation one can use the calculated values $$\hat v$$ for refining the estimation. In practice the error structure of enzyme kinetic data is very rarely investigated experimentally, therefore almost never known, but simply assumed. It is, however, possible to form an impression of the error structure from internal evidence in the data. This is tedious to do by hand, but can readily be done in the computer.

Closed form equation
Santiago Schnell and Claudio Mendoza suggested a closed form solution for the time course kinetics analysis of the Michaelis–Menten kinetics based on the solution of the Lambert W function. Namely,

 * $$\frac{a}{K_\mathrm{m}} = W(F(t))$$

where W is the Lambert W function and

 * $$F(t) = \frac{a_0}{K_\mathrm{m}} \exp\!\left(\frac{a_0}{K_\mathrm{m}} - \frac{Vt}{K_\mathrm{m}} \right)$$

The above equation, known nowadays as the Schnell-Mendoza equation, has been used to estimate $$V$$ and $$K_\mathrm{m}$$ from time course data.

Reactions with more than one substrate
Only a small minority of enzyme-catalysed reactions have just one substrate, and even the number is increased by treating two-substrate reactions in which one substrate is water as one-substrate reactions the number is still small. One might accordingly suppose that the Michaelis–Menten equation, normally written with just one substrate, is of limited usefulness. This supposition is misleading, however. One of the common equations for a two-substrate reaction can be written as follows to express $$v$$ in terms of two substrate concentrations $$a$$ and $$b$$:

 * $$v = \frac{Vab}{K_\mathrm{iA}K_\mathrm{mB} +  K_\mathrm{mB}a +   K_\mathrm{mA}b + ab}$$

the other symbols represent kinetic constants. Suppose now that $$a$$ is varied with $$b$$ held constant. Then it is convenient to reorganize the equation as follows:

 * $$v = \frac{Vb \cdot a}{K_\mathrm{iA}K_\mathrm{mB}+ K_\mathrm{mA}b +(K_\mathrm{mB} + b)a}

= \dfrac{\dfrac{Vb }{K_\mathrm{mB}+b}\cdot a}{\dfrac{K_\mathrm{iA}K_\mathrm{mB}+ K_\mathrm{mA}b}{K_\mathrm{mB}+b} +a} $$

This has exactly the form of the Michaelis–Menten equation

 * $$ v = \frac{V^\mathrm{app} a}{K^\mathrm{app}_\mathrm{m} + a} $$

with apparent values $$V^\mathrm{app}$$ and $$K^\mathrm{app}_\mathrm{m}$$ defined as follows:

 * $$V^\mathrm{app} = \dfrac{Vb}{K_\mathrm{mB}+b}$$

 * $$K^\mathrm{app}_\mathrm{m} = \dfrac{K_\mathrm{iA}K_\mathrm{mB}+ K_\mathrm{mA}b}{K_\mathrm{mB}+b}

$$

Linear inhibition
The linear (simple) types of inhibition can be classified in terms of the general equation for mixed inhibition at an inhibitor concentration $$i$$:

 * $$v = \dfrac{Va}{K_\mathrm{m}\left(1 + \dfrac {i}{K_\mathrm{ic}} \right)

+ a\left(1 + \dfrac {i}{K_\mathrm{iu}} \right)} $$

in which $$K_\mathrm{ic}$$ is the competitive inhibition constant and $$K_\mathrm{iu}$$ is the uncompetitive inhibition constant. This equation includes the other types of inhibition as special cases:

 * If $$K_\mathrm{iu} \rightarrow \infty$$ the second parenthesis in the denominator approaches $$1$$ and the resulting behaviour is competitive inhibition.
 * If $$K_\mathrm{ic} \rightarrow \infty$$ the first parenthesis in the denominator approaches $$1$$ and the resulting behaviour is uncompetitive inhibition.
 * If both $$K_\mathrm{ic}$$ and $$K_\mathrm{iu}$$ are finite the behaviour is mixed inhibition.
 * If $$K_\mathrm{ic} = K_\mathrm{iu}$$ the resulting special case is pure non-competitive inhibition.

Pure non-competitive inhibition is very rare, being mainly confined to effects of protons and some metal ions. Cleland recognized this, and he redefined noncompetitive to mean mixed. Some authors have followed him in this respect, but not all, so when reading any publication one needs to check what definition the authors are using.

In all cases the kinetic equations have the form of the Michaelis–Menten equation with apparent constants, as can be seen by writing the equation above as follows:

 * $$v = \dfrac{\dfrac{V}{1 + i/K_\mathrm{iu}} \cdot a}

{\dfrac{K_\mathrm{m}(1 + i/K_\mathrm{ic})} {1 + i/K_\mathrm{iu}} +a} = \frac{V^\mathrm{app} a}{K^\mathrm{app}_\mathrm{m} + a} $$

with apparent values $$V^\mathrm{app}$$ and $$K^\mathrm{app}_\mathrm{m}$$ defined as follows:

 * $$V^\mathrm{app} = \dfrac{V}{1 + i/K_\mathrm{iu}}$$

 * $$K^\mathrm{app}_\mathrm{m} =

\dfrac{K_\mathrm{m}(1 + i/K_\mathrm{ic})}{1 + i/K_\mathrm{iu}} $$

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Michaelis–Menten kinetics


text:
Jingdezhen

Jingdezhen is a prefecture-level city, in northeastern Jiangxi province, with a total population of 1,669,057 (2018), bordering Anhui to the north. It is known as the "Porcelain Capital" because it has been producing Chinese ceramics for at least 1,000 years, and for much of that period Jingdezhen porcelain was the most important and finest quality in China. The city has a well-documented history that stretches back over 2,000 years.

History
Throughout both the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period, the area of present-day Jingdezhen belonged to the Chu State. After the fall of the Chu, the area was incorporated into the Qin dynasty as part of Fan County in. Under the Han dynasty, the area belonged to Poyang County in. Under the Han dynasty, the particular area of future Jingdezhen was known as Xinping. Historical records show that it was during this time that it began to make porcelain.

The town was established during the Jin dynasty under the name Changnan, due to its location on the south bank of the Chang river. The town's name would be changed twice, first in 742 CE to Fuliang, and then in 1004 to Jingdezhen, its current name, after the era name of the Emperor Zhenzong of Song during whose reign its porcelain production first rose to fame. The town was placed under the jurisdiction of Fuliang County.

In the Ming and Qing dynasties, Jingdezhen was considered one of China's four great towns in terms of commercial and industrial importance. The others were Foshan in Guangdong, Hankou in Hubei, and Zhuxian in Henan.

In 1855 during the Taiping Rebellion, Taiping forces destroyed all 9,000 kilns in Jingdezhen. They would be rebuilt after the war in 1866.

In the 19th century, Jingdezhen became a county.

On April 29, 1949, Communist forces took the city.

May 4, 1949, it was upgraded to a prefecture city. However, to honor its history, Jingdezhen retained it the word zhen meaning town in its name. Usually when a town is upgraded to a city, the designation of shi meaning city replaces that of zhen.

On June, 1953 Jindezhen was upgraded into a provincial level city.

In 1960, Fuliang County was merged into the city.

Jingdezhen was named one of top 24 national historical and cultural cities of the People's Republic of China on February 28, 1982.

In July 1983, Leping County was also merged into the city. In October 1988, Fuliang County was re-established, and in September 1992, Leping County was re-established as a county-level city.

In 2004, Jingdezhen celebrated the millennium of its becoming the porcelain capital and it is assuming its present name.

Due to the relatively low cost of living and the heritage of the porcelain industry, Jingdezhen has become a haven for young artists from all over China, who are often referred to known as Jingpiao (景漂).

Geography
Jingdezhen is situated in the north-east of Jiangxi and borders on Anhui; the city center area is located in the north-east of the Poyang Lake Plain. Its area is 5256 km2. The highest point is 1618 m, with plains on the southern part having an average altitude of 200 m.

There are some cities and counties between Jiangxi and Anhui Province around Jingdezhen. To its north, northwest and northeast are Dongzhi, Xiuning, and Qimen County of Anhui province. To its south are Wannian County and Yiyang County. To its west is Boyang County. Lastly, to its southeast are Wuyuan County and Dexing City.

The prefecture's natural resources include kaolin, coal, manganese, and lime. Although various forms of kaolin has since been found around the world, it was the Jingdezhen kilns who first perfected its use in combination with petuntse to create world-class hard-paste porcelain. The name "kaolin" itself derives from the French Jesuit d'Entrecolles's transcription of the local term (高嶺土), taken from Gaoling (高嶺, ), a village in Ehu Town in Fuliang County that provided most of the city's kaolin during the early and mid-Qing dynasty.

Climate
Jingdezhen has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa) affected by the East Asian monsoon, with long, humid, very hot summers and cool and drier winters with occasional cold snaps. The monthly 24-hour average temperature ranges from 5.6 °C in January to 29.1 °C in July, with an annual average of 17.81 °C. The average annual precipitation is 1805 mm. With monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 25% in March to 56% in August, the city receives 1,798 hours of bright sunshine annually. Winter begins somewhat sunny and dry but becomes progressively wetter and cloudier; spring begins especially gloomy, and from March to July each of the months averages more than 190 mm of rainfall. Summer is the sunniest season here, while autumn remains warm to mild and relatively dry. Extreme maximum temperatures of above 40 °C have been recorded, as have extreme minimums below −10 °C.

Administrative divisions
The city of Jingdezhen is divided into 4 county-level divisions: Zhushan District, Changjiang District, Fuliang County, and the county-level city of Leping. These 4 county-level divisions administer 52 township-level divisions, and 687 village-level divisions.

Porcelain
Jingdezhen may have produced pottery as early as the sixth century CE, though it is named after the reign name of Emperor Zhenzong, in whose reign it became a major kiln site, around 1004. By the 14th century it had become the largest centre of production of Chinese porcelain, which it has remained, increasing its dominance in subsequent centuries. For several centuries, almost all top quality Chinese porcelain has come from the town. From the Ming period onwards, official kilns in Jingdezhen were controlled by the emperor, making "imperial porcelain" in large quantity for the court and the emperor to give as gifts.

Although apparently an unpromising location for potteries, being a remote town in a hilly region, Jingdezhen is close to the best quality deposits of petuntse, more contemporarily called pottery stone,   in China, as well as being surrounded by forests, mostly of pine, providing wood for the kilns. It also has a river leading to river systems flowing north and south, facilitating transport of fragile wares. The imperial kilns were in the centre of the city at Zhushan (Pearl Hill), with many other kilns four kilometres away at Hutian.

It has produced a great variety of pottery and porcelain, for the Chinese market and as Chinese export porcelain, but its best-known high quality porcelain wares have been successively Qingbai ware in the Song and Yuan dynasties, blue and white porcelain from the 1330s, and the "famille rose" and other "famille" colours under the Qing dynasty. The town continues to produce cheaper tablewares in great quantity, as well as more expensive decorative pieces. During the Cultural Revolution, Jingdezhen produced a large number of porcelain Mao badges and statues of a seated Mao Zedong.

Jingdezhen porcelain has fetched record prices at auctions, with a blue and white porcelain jar produced during the Yuan dynasty auctioning for $27.7 million in London in 2005, and a porcelain cup produced during the Ming dynasty auctioning for $36.3 million in 2014.

Economy
Jingdezhen serves as an important industrial and commercial base in Jiangxi Province. In 2018, Jingdezhen achieved a GDP of 92.611 billion yuan. Of this, 6.62% of the city's GDP came from its primary sector, 44.22% came from its secondary sector, and the remaining 49.16% came from its tertiary sector.

As of 2018, the per capita disposable income of urban residents in the city is ¥37,183, which ranks third among prefecture-level divisions in Jiangxi (behind Nanchang and Xinyu). Per capita disposable income for rural residents for 2018 is ¥16,510, which ranks fourth among prefecture-level divisions in Jiangxi (behind Pingxiang, Xinyu, and Nanchang).

For 2018, the city's public budget revenue was ¥8.98555 billion, and its public budget expenditure was ¥20.43550 billion.

Industry
There are some important industrial enterprises in Jingdezhen City, such as Changhe Aircraft Industries Corporation; Jingdezhen Ceramics; Jingdezhen Refrigeration Compressor, etc.

Changhe Aircraft Industries Corporation, a subsidiary of the Aviation Industry Corporation of China, is based in Jingdezhen. The firm, established in 1969, mainly sells helicopters to the People's Liberation Army, but also does business with firms such as Boeing, Sikorsky, and Leonardo. Changhe produces aircraft parts for the Boeing 767-300BCF.

Jiangxi Changhe Automobile Co Ltd, commonly known as Changhe, is an automotive firm owned by BAIC Group which is based in the city. The firm is forecast to produce 53,400 vehicles in 2019.

Jingdezhen Ceramics Co Ltd is a joint venture with a French company and is most famous of Jingdezhen's ceramic companies. In February 2002, then-CCP General Secretary Jiang Zemin presented a porcelain set produced by the company under its Hongye brand to U.S. President George W. Bush.

Jingdezhen Refrigeration Compressor Company is well known in China for its non-Eph refrigeration compressor. It holds a 20% share of its market in China.

Agriculture
Jingdezhen is a major agricultural center in Jiangxi, with extensive rice cultivation within its boundaries. The area is also an important producer of commodity grain, pigs, and cotton.

In Fuliang County there are some large-scale tea plantations and processing facilities. The tea of Fuliang County is well known in China. Bai Juyi, a famous poet of Tang dynasty China, wrote a poem that says "My merchant loved money more than family, he left me to go to Fuliang to buy tea last month". This suggests that one thousand years ago Fuliang was already well known for its tea. In 1915, Fuliang's "Fuhong" brand tea won a golden prize in Panama–Pacific International Exposition.

Leping City, the "Vegetable Township of South China", is a major vegetable growing and processing area for Jiangxi Province even for China. Its vegetable output and sales are important to the agricultural economy of Jiangxi Province. In 2007, Leping had 1.7 million hectares under cultivation that produced a total output of 620,000 tons. The Agriculture Ministry of China also designated Leping as a demonstration zone for "pollution-free" vegetable production.

Transportation
Jingdezhen is the most important transportation hub in the northeast region of Jiangxi province. Historically, Jingdezhen's main communication route was via the Chang River. It could ship its porcelain down the Chang to Poyang Lake and connected there with the Yangtze River in Hukou County, Jiangxi Province. From there the porcelain could get to the coast for export. Today, the city is connected to the rest of China via road, rail, and air.

Road

 * G35, running from Jinan, Shandong to Guangzhou, Guangdong,
 * G56 Hangzhou-Ruili Highway from Hangzhou, Zhejiang to Ruili, Yunnan,
 * G206, running from Yantai, Shandong to Shantou, Guangdong.

Rail
The Anhui–Jiangxi Railway connects Jingdezhen to many key cities in China such as Shanghai, Nanjing, Jinan, Qingdao, Hefei, Guangzhou, Fuzhou, Xiamen, Nanchang, Kunming and Guiyang, etc. In addition, the Jiujiang- Jingdezhen-Quzhou Railway is under construction. In the near future, the two rail lines will intersect in Jingdezhen, and make the city an important rail transportation hub in Jiangxi Province and East China. The Jingdezhen Railway Station is located in the city center and is under the control of the Nanchang Railway Bureau.

Air
Jingdezhen Luojia Airport is located at Luojian Village, northwest of Jingdezhen city, and about 8 km from the city's downtown.

CAAC statistics show that in 2008 Jingdezhen Airport served 189,256 passengers, 81st among all Chinese airports. Annual cargo and mail traffic was 119.8 tons; annual landings were 2,424, ranking 111st and 91st respectively in China.

There are flights from Jingdezhen to Beijing(CA), Shanghai(ZH), Guangzhou(ZH), Shenzhen(ZH), Chengdu(CA), Hangzhou(MU), Fuzhou(ZH), Kunming(MU), Xiamen(CA), Xi'an(ZH). There are no international flights. Jingdezhen Airport is the second largest airport in Jiangxi Province. The largest is at Nanchang.

Local transit
There was only one bus line in Jingdezhen before the 1980s, which was from Huang-ni-tou to Nan-men-tou with a total line distance of 7 km. In that time, the city had no taxi service and the buses were channel-type bus, it could carry more than one hundred passengers at most at the same time. This kinds of buses were renewed when they were operated to the end of 1990s.

Currently, Jingdezhen public buses and taxis are the two main means of transportation within the city. Nearly more than 20 public bus lines crisscross the city and its countryside. Taxis in Jingdezhen are plentiful; fares start at ¥8 for the first 2 km.

Education
Jingdezhen has 4 higher education institutions, 110 secondary schools, 328 primary schools, and 4 special education schools.

The city's 4 higher education institutions are the Jingdezhen Ceramic Institute (JCI),, Jiangxi Ceramic Arts and Crafts Vocational and Technical College , and Jingdezhen Ceramic Vocational and Technical College.

Among the city's secondary schools is the No.1 Middle School of Jingdezhen, which was founded in 1940. It is famous for its success rate, relative to other schools in Jiangxi Province, in placing its students in Chinese colleges.

Public health
Jingdezhen has more than 20 medical service institutions with a total 2182 beds. Doctors and nurses number 2,672. It has the largest hospital system in the north-east of Jiangxi Province. The No.1, No.2 and No.3 People's Hospital of Jingdezhen are the most important hospitals in the city; the No.4 People's Hospital is a psychiatric hospital.

Travel Overview
Jingdezhen is a major tourism destination within Jiangxi Province, receiving 85.063 million tourists in 2018. Many of the city's tourist attractions are related to the city's famous ceramics, including the, a 5A tourist attraction. Jingdezhen also has 8 4A tourist attractions, and 14 3A tourist attractions. The city also provides access to nearby popular tourist areas such as Lushan, Huangshan, and Wuyuan.

At present, Jingdezhen has the most tourist hotels of any city in Jiangxi Province. In the city there is one quasi-five-star hotel, two four-star hotels, and many three-star and other common grade hotels.

Twin towns – sister cities

 * 🇯🇵: Arita, Saga, Japan
 * 🇯🇵: Seto, Aichi, Japan
 * 🇰🇷: Icheon, Gyeonggi-do, South Korea
 * : Redbridge, London, UK
 * : Delft, South Holland, Netherlands
 * 🇺🇸: Door County, Wisconsin, US

Domestic

 * Chaoyang District, Beijing
 * Dongcheng District, Beijing
 * Shenzhen, Guangdong

title: Jingdezhen


text:
Automated Mathematician

The Automated Mathematician (AM) is one of the earliest successful discovery systems. It was created by Douglas Lenat in Lisp, and in 1977 led to Lenat being awarded the IJCAI Computers and Thought Award.

AM worked by generating and modifying short Lisp programs which were then interpreted as defining various mathematical concepts; for example, a program that tested equality between the length of two lists was considered to represent the concept of numerical equality, while a program that produced a list whose length was the product of the lengths of two other lists was interpreted as representing the concept of multiplication. The system had elaborate heuristics for choosing which programs to extend and modify, based on the experiences of working mathematicians in solving mathematical problems.

Controversy
Lenat claimed that the system was composed of hundreds of data structures called "concepts," together with hundreds of "heuristic rules" and a simple flow of control: "AM repeatedly selects the top task from the agenda and tries to carry it out. This is the whole control structure!" Yet the heuristic rules were not always represented as separate data structures; some had to be intertwined with the control flow logic. Some rules had preconditions that depended on the history, or otherwise could not be represented in the framework of the explicit rules.

What's more, the published versions of the rules often involve vague terms that are not defined further, such as "If two expressions are structurally similar, ..." (Rule 218) or "... replace the value obtained by some other (very similar) value..." (Rule 129).

Another source of information is the user, via Rule 2: "If the user has recently referred to X, then boost the priority of any tasks involving X." Thus, it appears quite possible that much of the real discovery work is buried in unexplained procedures.

Lenat claimed that the system had rediscovered both Goldbach's conjecture and the fundamental theorem of arithmetic. Later critics accused Lenat of over-interpreting the output of AM. In his paper Why AM and Eurisko appear to work, Lenat conceded that any system that generated enough short Lisp programs would generate ones that could be interpreted by an external observer as representing equally sophisticated mathematical concepts. However, he argued that this property was in itself interesting—and that a promising direction for further research would be to look for other languages in which short random strings were likely to be useful.

Successor
This intuition was the basis of AM's successor Eurisko, which attempted to generalize the search for mathematical concepts to the search for useful heuristics.

title: Automated Mathematician


text:
Nördlinger Ries

The Nördlinger Ries is an impact crater and large circular depression in western Bavaria and eastern Baden-Württemberg. It is located north of the Danube in the district of Donau-Ries. The city of Nördlingen is located within the depression, about 6 km south-west of its centre.

Etymology
"Ries" is derived from Raetia, since the tribe of Raetians lived in the area in pre-Roman times.

Description
The depression is a meteorite impact crater formed 14.808 ± 0.038 million years ago in the Miocene. The crater is most commonly referred to simply as Ries crater or the Ries. The original crater rim had an estimated diameter of 24 km. The present floor of the depression is about 100 to 150 m below the eroded remains of the rim.

It was originally assumed that the Ries was of volcanic origin. In 1960 Eugene Shoemaker and Edward C. T. Chao showed that the depression was caused by meteorite impact. The key evidence was the presence of coesite, which, in unmetamorphosed rocks, can only be formed by the shock pressures associated with meteorite impact. The coesite was found in suevite from Otting quarry, but even before, Shoemaker was encouraged by St. George's Church in Nördlingen, which is built of locally derived suevite. The suevite was formed from mesozoic sediments shocked by the bolide impact.

The Ries impact crater was a rampart crater, thus far a unique finding on Earth. Rampart craters have almost exclusively been found on Mars. Rampart craters exhibit a fluidized ejecta flow after impact of the meteorite, most simply compared to a bullet fired into mud, with the ejecta resembling a mudflow.

Another impact crater, the much smaller (3.8 km diameter) Steinheim crater, is located about 42 km west-southwest from the center of Ries. It had previously been thought that the two craters formed simultaneously by the impact of a binary asteroid 14.8 million years ago, but a study published in 2020 suggests that Steinheim could actually be about 500,000 years younger than Nördlinger Ries.

Recent computer modeling of the impact event indicates that the impactors probably had diameters of about 1.5 km (Ries) and 150 m (Steinheim), had a pre-impact separation of some tens of kilometers, and impacted the target area at an angle around 30 to 50 degrees from the surface in a west-southwest to east-northeast direction. The impact velocity is thought to have been about 20 km/s. The resulting explosion had the power of 1.8 million Hiroshima bombs, an energy of roughly 2.4 joules.

The Ries crater impact event is believed to be the source of moldavite tektites found in southern Bohemia and Moravia (Czech Republic). The tektite melt originated from a sand-rich surface layer that was ejected to distances up to 450 km downrange of the crater. The shape of the strewnfield suggests that the direction of impact was from the west-southwest.

Stone buildings in Nördlingen contain millions of tiny diamonds, all less than 0.2 mm across. The impact that caused the Nördlinger Ries crater created an estimated 72000 t of them when it impacted a local graphite deposit. Stone from this area was quarried and used to build the local buildings.

Archaeology
On one edge of the Nördlinger Ries are the Ofnet Caves, where, at the beginning of the 20th century, archaeologists discovered thirty-three human skulls dating to the Mesolithic period.

Astronaut training
The landing site for Apollo 14 is a heavily craterized terrain, and one of the science goals of the mission was to sample ejecta from the impact that formed Mare Imbrium. Nördlinger Ries is an easily accessible, large impact crater, making it a convenient analog for lunar craters. Because of this, it was used as a location to train Apollo 14 astronauts, so that they would be able to investigate lunar impact structures and related rocks. Astronauts Alan Shepard and Edgar Mitchell, as well as Apollo 14 backup astronauts Eugene Cernan and Joe Engle, trained here from August 10 to August 14, 1970.

title: Nördlinger Ries


text:
Linguistic imperialism

Linguistic imperialism or language imperialism is occasionally defined as "the transfer of a dominant language to other people". This language "transfer" (or rather unilateral imposition) comes about because of imperialism. The transfer is considered to be a sign of power; traditionally military power but also, in the modern world, economic power. Aspects of the dominant culture are usually transferred along with the language. In spatial terms, indigenous languages are employed in the function of official (state) languages in Eurasia, while only non-indigenous imperial (European) languages in the "Rest of the World". In the modern world, linguistic imperialism may also be considered in the context of international development, affecting the standard by which organizations like the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank evaluate the trustworthiness and value of structural adjustment loans by virtue of views that are commonly foregrounded in English-language discourse and not neutral (linguistic relativism).

Since the early 1990s, linguistic imperialism has attracted attention among scholars of applied linguistics. In particular, Robert Phillipson's 1992 book, Linguistic Imperialism, has led to considerable debate about its merits and shortcomings. Phillipson found denunciations of linguistic imperialism that dated back to Nazi critiques of the British Council (European aristocracy was, at the time, agreeing on the use of English), and to Soviet analyses of English as the language of world capitalism and world domination. In this vein, criticism of English as a world language is often rooted in anti-globalism.

Definition
Linguistic imperialism is a form of linguicism which benefits and grants power to the dominating/oppressing language and its speakers. As summarized by linguists Heath Rose and John Conama, Dr. Phillipson argues that the defining characteristics of linguistic imperialism are:
 * 1) As a form of linguicism, which manifests in favoring the dominant language over another along similar lines as racism and sexism.
 * 2) As a structurally manifested idea, where more resources and infrastructure are given to the dominant language
 * 3) As being ideological, in that it encourages beliefs that the dominant language form is more prestigious than others. These ideas are hegemonic and internalized and naturalized as being "normal".
 * 4) As intertwined with the same structure as imperialism in culture, education, media, and politics.
 * 5) As having an exploitative essence, which causes injustice and inequality between those who use the dominant language and those who do not.
 * 6) As having a subtractive influence on other languages, in that learning the dominant language is at the expense of others.
 * 7) As being contested and resisted, because of these factors.

Although it is not easy to determine the intentions of specific policies which have led to linguicism, some scholars believe that intent can be proven by observing whether imperialist practices are continued once their sociolinguistic, sociological, psychological, political, and educational harm of other languages are made aware.

History
The impacts of colonization on linguistic traditions vary based on the form of colonization experienced: trader, settler or exploitation. Congolese-American linguist Salikoko Mufwene describes trader colonization as one of the earliest forms of European colonization. In regions such as the western coast of Africa as well as the Americas, trade relations between European colonizers and indigenous peoples led to the development of pidgin languages. Some of these languages, such as Delaware Pidgin and Mobilian Jargon, were based on Native American languages, while others, such as Nigerian Pidgin and Cameroonian Pidgin, were based on European ones. As trader colonization proceeded mainly via these hybrid languages, rather than the languages of the colonizers, scholars like Mufwene contend that it posed little threat to indigenous languages.

Trader colonization was often followed by settler colonization, where European colonizers settled in these colonies to build new homes. Hamel, a Mexican linguist, argues that "segregation" and "integration" were two primary ways through which settler colonists engaged with aboriginal cultures. In countries such as Uruguay, Brazil, Argentina, and those in the Caribbean, segregation and genocide decimated indigenous societies. Widespread death due to war and illness caused many indigenous populations to lose their indigenous languages. In contrast, in countries that pursued policies of "integration", such as Mexico, Guatemala and the Andean states, indigenous cultures were lost as aboriginal tribes mixed with colonists. In these countries, the establishment of new European orders led to the adoption of colonial languages in governance and industry. In addition, European colonists also viewed the dissolution of indigenous societies and traditions as necessary for the development of a unified nation state. This led to efforts to destroy tribal languages and cultures: in Canada and the United States, for example, Native children were sent to boarding schools such as Col. Richard Pratt's Carlisle Indian Industrial School. Today, in countries such as the United States, Canada and Australia, which were once settler colonies, indigenous languages are spoken by only a small minority of the populace.

Mufwene also draws a distinction between settler colonies and exploitation colonies. In the latter, the process of colonization was focused on the extraction of raw materials needed in Europe. As a result, Europeans were less invested in their exploitation colonies, and few colonists planned to build homes in these colonies. As a result, indigenous languages were able to survive to a greater extent in these colonies compared to settler colonies. In exploitation colonies, colonial languages were often only taught to a small local elite. During the period of British rule in India, for example, Lord Macaulay highlighted the need for "...a class who may be interpreters between us and the millions who govern... a class of persons, Indian in blood and color, but English in taste, in my opinion, in morals and in intellect" in his now-famous "Macaulay minutes", which were written in support of the English Education Act of 1835. The linguistic differences between the local elite and other locals exacerbated class stratification, and also increased inequality in access to education, industry and civic society in postcolonial states.

English
In Linguistic Imperialism, Robert Henry Phillipson defines English linguistic imperialism as "the dominance of English... asserted and maintained by the establishment and continuous reconstitution of structural and cultural inequalities between English and other languages." English is often called a worldwide "lingua franca", but Phillipson argues that when its dominance leads to a linguicide, it can be more aptly titled a "lingua frankensteinia" by his view.

Phillipson's theory supports the historic spread of English as an international language and that language's continued dominance, particularly in postcolonial settings such as Wales, Scotland, Ireland, India, Pakistan, Uganda, Zimbabwe, etc., but also increasingly in "neo-colonial" settings such as continental Europe. His theory draws mainly on Johan Galtung's imperialism theory, Antonio Gramsci's theory, and in particular on his notion of cultural hegemony.

A central theme of Phillipson's theory is the complex hegemonic processes which, he asserts, continue to sustain the pre-eminence of English in the world today. His book analyzes the British Council's use of rhetoric to promote English, and discusses key tenets of English applied linguistics and English-language-teaching methodology. These tenets hold that:
 * English is best taught monolingually ("the monolingual fallacy");
 * the ideal teacher is a native speaker ("the native-speaker fallacy");
 * the earlier English is taught, the better the results ("the early-start fallacy");
 * the more English is taught, the better the results ("the maximum-exposure fallacy");
 * if other languages are used much, standards of English will drop ("the subtractive fallacy").

According to Phillipson, those who promote English—organizations such as the British Council, the IMF and the World Bank, and individuals such as operators of English-language schools—use three types of argument:
 * Intrinsic arguments describe the English language as "providential", "rich", "noble" and "interesting". Such arguments tend to assert what English is and what other languages are not.
 * Extrinsic arguments point out that English is well-established: that it has many speakers, and that there are trained teachers and a wealth of teaching material.
 * Functional arguments emphasize the usefulness of English as a gateway to the world.

Other arguments for English are:
 * its economic utility: it enables people to get access to some technologies
 * its ideological function: it is said as standing for modernity;
 * its status might be seen as symbol for material advance and efficiency.

Another theme in Phillipson's work is "linguicism"—the kind of prejudice which can lead to endangered languages becoming extinct or losing their local eminence due to the rise and competing prominence of English.

Other languages
At various times, especially in colonial settings or where a dominant culture has sought to unify a region under its control, a similar phenomenon has arisen. In the Roman Empire, Latin—originally the language of a limited region in central Italy—was imposed first on the rest of Italy and later on parts of Europe, largely displacing local languages, while in Roman Africa Latin was dominant only until it and the native languages were displaced by Arabization.

Anatolia had similar linguistic diversity when it was ruled by small native states. Under the Persian and Hellenistic empires, the tongue of the conqueror served as the lingua franca. The indigenous Anatolian languages disappeared.

In the Far East, Africa and the Americas, regional languages have been or are being coercively replaced or slighted—Tibetan and regional Chinese varieties by Mandarin Chinese, Ainu and Ryukyuan by Japanese, Quechua and Mesoamerican languages by Spanish, Malayo-Polynesian languages by Malay (incl. Indonesian), Philippine languages by Filipino and so on. Arabization has eliminated many indigenous Berber languages in North Africa and restricted Coptic to use as a liturgical language by Coptic Christian Orthodox and Coptic Catholic Churches.

The English language during the Middle Ages was an object of linguistic imperialism by the French language, particularly following the Norman conquest. For hundreds of years, French or Anglo-Norman was the language of administration (See Law French) and therefore a language of higher status in England. Latin remained the tongue of church and learning. Although many words introduced by the Normans are today indistinguishable by most English-speakers from native Germanic words, later-learned loanwords, copied from Latin or French may "sound more cultured" to a native English-speaker.

Following the establishment of the Holy Roman Empire over much of present-day Germany and Central Europe, the German language and its dialects became the preferred language of many Central-European nobility. With varying success, German spread across much of Central and Eastern Europe as a language of trade and status. This ended with World War II (See also Germanization.).

French has also expanded. Languages such as Occitan, Breton, Basque, Catalan and Corsican have been slighted in France. This process, known as Francization, often causes resistance amongst minority peoples, leading to demands for independence. Examples of this can still be found in Breton nationalism and in the Flanders' Flemish Movement in Belgium).

In Italy there is a situation similar to the French one, with Italian that has expanded at the expense of languages such as Sardinian, Sicilian, Ladin, Venetian and Friulan, while languages such as German (in South Tyrol) or French (in Aosta Valley), historically persecuted, are now co-official in those regions (See also Italianization). Portuguese and Spanish colonization made these languages prevalent in South America and in parts of Africa and Asia (the Philippines, Macau, and for a short time Formosa). In Spain, Spanish spread and was imposed over other languages, becoming the only official language of the state from the 18th to the 20th century. It was labelled "the companion of the Empire" by Antonio de Nebrija (1492) in the introduction to his Gramática de la lengua castellana.

Russian linguistic imperialism can be seen in Belarus both in the former dispute over the name of the country (Belarus vs Belorussia) and in the common spelling of the name of their president. The English transcription of his name is the Russian form, Alexander Lukashenko, instead of the Belarusian form, Alyaksandr Lukashenka.

In post-independence India, there were attempts to make Hindi as the sole official language which was vehemently opposed by various provinces, particularly by the state of Tamil Nadu (see also Hindi imposition). In Karnataka, linguistic imperialism manifests as pushes to impose Kannada almost everywhere.

Criticism
Many scholars have participated in lively discussions of Phillipson's claims. Alan Davies, for instance, envisions the ghost of Phillipson haunting the Department of Applied Linguistics in Edinburgh: "'Round up the usual suspects', he cries, outing those who have pretended all these years merely to teach applied linguistics, but who have really been plotting with the British Council to take over the world."

For Davies, two cultures inhabit linguistic imperialism: one, a culture of guilt ("colonies should never have happened"); the other, that of romantic despair ("we shouldn't be doing what we are doing"). Rajagopalan goes a step farther and maintains that Phillipson's book has led to a guilt complex among English language learning and teaching (ELT) professionals.

Davies also argues that Phillipson's claims are not falsifiable: what "if the dominated... wanted to adopt English and continue to want to keep it? Phillipson's unfalsifiable answer must be that they don't, they can't, they've been persuaded against their better interests." It has thus been argued that Phillipson's theory is patronizing in its implication that developing countries lack independent decision-making capacity (to adopt or not to adopt ELT). In the context of Nigeria, Bisong holds that people in the "periphery" use English pragmatically—they send their children to English-language schools precisely because they want them to grow up multilingual. Regarding Phillipson, Bisong maintains that "to interpret such actions as emanating from people who are victims of Centre linguistic imperialism is to bend sociolinguistic evidence to suit a preconceived thesis". If English should be abolished because it is foreign, Bisong argues, then Nigeria itself would also have to be dissolved, because it was conceived as a colonial structure.

Furthermore, the assumption that the English language itself is imperialistic has come under attack. Henry Widdowson has argued that "there is a fundamental contradiction in the idea that the language of itself exerts hegemonic control: namely that if this were the case, you would never be able to challenge such control". Additionally, the idea that the promotion of English necessarily implies a demotion of local languages has been challenged. Holborrow points out that "not all Englishes in the centre dominate, nor are all speakers in the periphery equally discriminated against". Hiberno-English or New Zealand English or even England's regional dialects such as Cornish English, for instance, could be regarded as a non-dominant centre variety of English.

Some scholars believe that English's dominance is not due to specific language policies, but rather as a side-effect of the spread of English-speaking colonists through colonization and globalization.

Thus it could be argued that, while those who follow Phillipson see choices about language as externally imposed, the other camp sees them as personal choices.

Response
Those who support the arguments favoring the existence of linguistic imperialism claim that arguments against it are often advanced by monolingual native-speakers of English who may see the current status of English as a fact worthy of celebration.

Those who see the increasing spread of English in the world as a worrying development (which lowers the status of local and regional languages as well as potentially undermining or eroding cultural values) are likely to be more receptive to Phillipson's views. Alastair Pennycook, Suresh Canagarajah, Adrian Holliday and Julian Edge fall into this group and are described as critical applied linguists.

However, Henry Widdowson’s remarks on critical discourse analysis may also be applied to the critical applied linguists: "It ought surely to be possible to say that an argument is confused, or an analysis flawed, without denying the justice of the cause they support. My view would be that if a case is just then we should look for ways of supporting it by coherent argument... And I would indeed argue that to do otherwise is to do a disservice to the cause. For the procedures of ideological exposure by expedient analysis... can, of course be taken up to further any cause, right wing as well as left.... If you have the conviction and commitment, you will always find your witch."

In Ireland, the issue of de-anglicising the influence of English has been a topic of debate in the country even before independence. An argument for de-anglicisation was delivered before the Irish National Literary Society in Dublin, 25 November 1892; "When we speak of 'The Necessity for De-Anglicising the Irish Nation', we mean it, not as a protest against imitating what is best in the English people, for that would be absurd, but rather to show the folly of neglecting what is Irish, and hastening to adopt, pell-mell, and indiscriminately, everything that is English, simply because it is English."

According to Ghil'ad Zuckermann, "Native tongue title and language rights should be promoted. The government ought to define Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander vernaculars as official languages of Australia. We must change the linguistic landscape of Whyalla and elsewhere. Signs should be in both English and the local indigenous language. We ought to acknowledge intellectual property of indigenous knowledge including language, music and dance."

Appropriation
Some who reject the idea of linguistic imperialism argue that the global spread of English is better understood in the framework of appropriation —that English is used around the world for local purposes. In addition to the example of Nigeria, other examples have been given:
 * Demonstrators in non-English-speaking countries often use signs in English to convey their demands to TV audiences around the world. In some cases, demonstrators may not understand what their signs say.
 * Bobda shows how Cameroon has moved away from a mono-cultural, Anglo-centered way of teaching English and has gradually accommodated teaching materials to a Cameroonian context. Non-Western topics are treated, such as rule by emirs, traditional medicine, and polygamy. Bobda argues for bi-cultural, Cameroonian and Anglo-American education.
 * Kramsch and Sullivan describe how Western methodology and textbooks have been appropriated to suit local Vietnamese culture.
 * The Pakistani textbook Primary Stage English includes lessons such as "Pakistan, My Country", "Our Flag," and "Our Great Leader", which might sound jingoistic to western ears. Within the native culture, however, establishing a connection between ELT, patriotism and the Muslim faith is seen as an aim of ELT, as the chairman of the Punjab Textbook Board openly states: "The board... takes care, through these books to inoculate in the students a love of the Islamic values and awareness to guard the ideological frontiers of your [the student's] home lands."

Such an "internationalization" of English may also offer new possibilities to English native-speakers. McCabe elaborates: "...whereas for two centuries we exported our language and our customs in hot pursuit of... fresh markets, we now find that our language and our customs are returned to us but altered so that they can be used by others... so that our own language and culture discover new possibilities, fresh contradictions."

title: Linguistic imperialism


text:
Discovery system (bibliographic search)

A discovery system is a bibliographic search system based on search engine technology. It is part of the concept of Library 2.0 and is intended to supplement or even replace the existing OPAC catalogs. These systems emerged in the late 2000s in response to user desire for a more convenient search option similar to that of internet search engine. The results from searching a discovery system may include books and other print materials from the library's catalog, electronic resources such as e-journals or videos, and items stored in other libraries.

Terminology
The term discovery layer has been described as an overarching term that can include:
 * , a graphical user interface that library users search or browse with. It includes search-engine like amenities such as spelling correction, tolerance for punctuation differences, and typeahead search. This idea is also called a next-generation catalog.
 * , an interconnected search system, allowing library users to search not only the catalog of library print materials, but various digital resources and perhaps resources located in other libraries. The discovery system queries more than one data source upon a single user request; this is sometimes called federated search.

The term indicates that the software is modular and can be used to emphasize the separability of catalog search and browse functionality from an integrated library system (ILS). The distinction between discovery, , and is not rigorous and the terms are sometimes used as synonyms. These "inconsistencies were in part due to the field's newness" when the terms were being created.

OPACs
Users searching for print materials (such as books) at a library once used card catalogs, and later computerized catalogs called OPACs. Searching for resources other than material in the catalog, such as electronic resources, was (or is) done with separate tools. Using card or computerized catalogs well required skills and jargon particular to libraries.

As computerization advanced, OPACs were integrated with other library systems, like acquisition and circulation systems. The resulting monolithic software systems were named integrated library systems.

Changing expectations
As the web became more widespread, library users developed "the expectation of being able to discover the collection in a search engine style". Gradually, discovery interfaces were created to be more forgiving of misspellings and punctuation choices than historical OPACs, and to offer features like suggestion of related search terms and faceted search.

Reference librarians in the mid-2000s also spent "a lot of time talking about information silos". They were concerned that library users had to hunt for various types of resources with various tools, an obstacle to users, resulting in underused resources. Librarians sought multidatabase search products that would collapse the silos.

Emergence of the discovery layer
These two features, search-engine-like interfaces and multidatabase search, began to appear in the same software systems. One author dates the uniting of these features to 2009; this would be the invention of the discovery system. Particularly if decoupled from an ILS, this united product can also be called a discovery layer. "The discovery layer still uses the information and indexing in the integrated library system (ILS), but it also searches across proprietary databases and other electronic resources, all with the goal of revealing everything that a library owns or has licensed on a given topic be it a print monograph, an electronic journal article, streaming video, or a collection of archival documents"

The discovery layer can be looked on as the replacement for the OPAC. Some libraries maintain both a catalog interface OPAC and a discovery layer interface.

Typical features of a discovery system

 * Large search space: A search can search the data from different data sources (the discovery system has a comprehensive central subject index). For example, you can search a journal article or a textbook directly in the discovery system and you do not have to change from a subject database to the library catalog.
 * Intuitive usability, like a search engine. The search is basically only a simple form, an advanced search function is not always provided.
 * Ranking of the results according to relevance: The "best" hit is displayed first, not necessarily the newest one. A good ranking is important because many hits are often found due to the large search space.
 * Search refinement with drill-down menus (facets): For example, a search can be restricted to all matches available online.
 * Correction of input errors via a "Did you mean ...?" function.
 * Autocomplete: After input to the search field, a drop-down list of suggestions appears.
 * Exploratory search: One finds results of interest that were not specifically requested. For example, links to similar hits, entries in subject databases, or Wikipedia articles are displayed (integration of other web technologies).

Examples of discovery system products
Some discovery layer or discovery service products are modules of a particular ILS or database product, and are sold by that product's vendor: an example is EBSCO Discovery Service. Other discovery tools are free-standing software products: Blacklight and VuFind are open-source examples.

Commercial products: Open-source products:
 * Summon (Serial Solutions)
 * Primo Central (ExLibris)
 * EBSCO Discovery Service
 * WorldCat Discovery (OCLC)
 * Blacklight
 * VuFind (Villanova University Library)
 * Lukida (GBV Common Library Network)
 * Aspen Discovery (ByWater Solutions)

title: Discovery system (bibliographic search)


text:
Abe (given name)

Abe is commonly used in English-speaking countries as a diminutive of the masculine name Abraham, or as a personal name in its own right. It may refer to:

People

 * Abe Aaron (1910–1970), Canadian clarinetist and saxophonist
 * Abe Addams (1926–2017), American football player
 * Abe Ajay (1919–1998), American artist
 * Abe Akira (1934–1989), Japanese author
 * Abe Alvarez (born 1982), American baseball pitcher and coach
 * Abe Anellis (1914–2001), Russian food microbiologist
 * Abe Aronovitz (1898–1960), American lawyer and politician
 * Abe Atkins (1893–1961), American baseball player
 * Abe Attell (1884–1970), American world champion Hall-of-Fame featherweight boxer
 * Abe Bailey (1864–1940), South African diamond tycoon, politician, financier and cricketer
 * Abe Bekker (born 1935), British boxer
 * Abe Bell, American baseball pitcher
 * Abe Berenbaum, American table tennis player
 * Abe Bernstein (1892–1968), American gangster
 * Abe L. Biglow (1872–1923), American politician and businessman
 * Abe Bluestein (1909–1997), American anarchist
 * Abe Bolar (1909–2000), American double bass player
 * Abe Bonnema (1926–2001), Dutch architect
 * Abe Bowman (1893–1979), American baseball pitcher
 * Abe Brault (1909–2007), American lawyer, naval veteran, and politician
 * Abe Burrows (1910–1985), American playwright, director and humorist
 * Abe Clark (1894–1973), Australian rugby player
 * Abe Cohen (1933–2001), American football player
 * Abe Cohn (1897–1970), American football player and basketball player, coach, and official
 * Abe Coleman (1905–2007), Polish wrestler, promoter, and referee
 * Abe Cunningham (born 1973), American drummer of the alternative metal band Deftones
 * Abe Deutschendorf (1935–2012), American politician
 * Abe Elenkrig (1878–1965), Russian-American bandleader, cornet player, barber, and recording artist
 * Abe Elimimian (born 1982), American football player and coach
 * Abe Eliowitz (1910–1981), American college and Canadian football player, member of the Canadian Football Hall of Fame
 * Abe Elkinson (born 1969), English businessman
 * A. L. Erlanger (1859–1930), American theatrical producer, director, designer and theatre owner
 * Abe Espinosa (1889–1980), American golfer
 * Abe Feder (1908–1997), American lighting designer
 * Abe Forsythe (born 1981), Australian film and television actor, director, writer, and producer
 * Abe Fortas (1910–1982), U.S. Supreme Court Associate Justice
 * Abe Garver, American investment banker, magazine contributor, television commentator, and conference speaker
 * Abe Gelbart (1911–1994), American mathematician
 * Abe Geldenhuys (1932–1998), South African wrestler
 * Abe Gibron (1925–1997), American football player and coach
 * Abe Goff (1899–1984), American politician
 * Abe Goldberg (1929–2016), Polish-born Jewish Australian businessman
 * Abe Goldstein (1898–1977), American world champion bantamweight boxer
 * Abe Gray (born 1982), American-New Zealand politician and cannabis activist
 * Abe Greenhalgh (1920–1982), British weightlifter
 * Abe Greenthal (1822–1889), American criminal
 * Abe Gubegna (1933–1980), Ethiopian writer
 * Abe Gutnajer (1888–1942), Polish art dealer
 * Abe Harrison (1867–1932), American baseball player
 * Abe Hartley (1872–1909), Scottish footballer
 * Abe Hawkins (died 1867), American horse jockey and freed slave
 * Abe Holzmann (1874–1939), American composer
 * Abe M. Hudson Jr. (born 1976), American politician
 * Abe Isoo (1865–1949), Japanese socialist, parliamentarian, and pacifist
 * Abe Jacob (born 1944), American sound designer and audio engineer
 * Abe Jacobs (1928–2023), New Zealand professional wrestler
 * Abe Johnson, American baseball player
 * Abe Jones (1880–1890), American baseball player
 * Abe Jones, American attorney
 * Abe Jones Jr. (1899–1923), English footballer
 * Abe Kakepetum (1944–2019), Canadian Anishinaabe painter
 * Abe Katzman (1868–1940), Klezmer violinist, bandleader, composer, and recording artist
 * Abe Kesh (1933–1989), American DJ and record producer
 * Abe King (born 1957), Filipino basketball player
 * Abe Knoop (born 1963), Dutch football goalkeeper
 * Abe Kovnats (1928–1996), Canadian politician
 * Abe Kruger (1885–1962), American baseball pitcher
 * Abe Laboriel Jr. (born 1971), American drummer
 * Abe Laguna (born 1992), American DJ
 * Abe Landa (1902–1989), Australian politician
 * Abe Lastfogel (1898–1984), Russian politician
 * Abe Lemons (1922–2002), American college basketball player and coach
 * Abe Lenstra (1920–1985), Dutch footballer
 * Abe Levitow (1922–1975), American cartoon animator and director
 * Abraham Lincoln (1809–1865), 16th president of the United States
 * Abe Lincoln (1907–2000), American jazz trombonist
 * Abe Loewen, Canadian drag racer
 * Abe Lyman (1897–1957), American jazz bandleader
 * Abe Manley (1885–1952), American baseball executive
 * Abe Martin (1906–1997), American football player, football, basketball, and baseball coach, and college athletics administrator
 * Abe Martin (1908–1979), American college football player, head coach and administrator
 * Glenn Martin (coach) (1906–1997), American college football, basketball and baseball coach
 * Abe Masahiro (1819–1857), Japanese chief senior councillor
 * Abe Masakatsu (1541–1600), Japanese samurai
 * Abe Masakiyo (1850–1878), Japanese daimyō
 * Abe Masakoto (1860–1925), Japanese daimyō
 * Abe Masanori (1806–1823), Japanese daimyō
 * Abe Masatsugu (1569–1647), Japanese daimyō
 * Abe Masatō (1828–1887), Japanese daimyō
 * Abe Masayoshi (1769–1808), Japanese daimyō
 * Abe McDougall (1876–1948), Australian rules footballer
 * Abe Meyer (1901–1969), American film score composer
 * Abe Mickal (1912/1913–2001), Lebanese-American college football player and doctor
 * Abe William Miller (1897–1964), Canadian lawyer and politician
 * Abe Mitchell (1887–1947), English golfer
 * Abe Mitchell, American baseball player
 * Abe Moffat (1896–1975), Scottish trade unionist and communist activist
 * Abe Mosseri (born 1974), American professional backgammon and poker player
 * Abe Most (1920–2002), American clarinetist and alto saxophonist
 * Abe Motozane (1513–1587), Japanese samurai
 * Abe Munro (1896–1974), New Zealand rugby player
 * Abe Newborn (1920–1997), American talent agent and theatre producer
 * Abe Notshweleka (1954–2021), South African Army soldier
 * Abe Okpik (1928–1997), Canadian Inuit community leader
 * Abe Olman (1887–1984), American songwriter and music publisher
 * Abe Orpen (1854–1937), Canadian businessman
 * Glenn Osser (1914–2014), American musician, musical arranger, orchestra leader and songwriter
 * Abe Peck (born 1945), American magazine consultant, writer, editor, and professor
 * Abe Peled, Israeli-American businessman
 * Abe Piasek (1928–2020), American U.S. Army soldier and slave labor camp survivor
 * Abe E. Pierce III (1934–2021), American educator and politician
 * Abe Poffenroth (1917–1997), American football and baseball coach
 * Abe Pollin (1923–2009), American businessman and owner of several major sports teams
 * Abe Reles (1906–1941), American-Jewish mobster
 * Abe Rich (1926–2008), Lithuanian wood craftsman and Holocaust survivor
 * Abe Rosenthal (1921–1986), English footballer
 * Abe Ruef (1864–1936), American lawyer and politician
 * Abe Saffron (1919–2006), Australian hotelier, nightclub owner, and property developer
 * Abe Saperstein (1908–1966), UK-born American founder and owner of the Harlem Globetrotters
 * Abe Sarkis (1913–1991), American mobster
 * Abe Schwartz (1881–1963), Romanian-American Klezmer violinist, composer, Yiddish theater and ethnic recordings bandleader
 * Abe Segal (1930–2016), South African tennis player
 * Abe Shannon (1869–1945), Australian pastoralist
 * Abe Shires (1917–1993), American football player
 * Abe Silverstein (1908–2001), American engineer
 * Abe Simon (1913–1969), American heavyweight boxer
 * Abe Sklar (1925–2020), American mathematician and professor
 * Abe Stark (1894–1972), American businessman and politician
 * Abe Stern (1888–1951), American film producer
 * Abe Tadaaki (1602–1671), Japanese politician
 * Abe Terry (born 1934), English rugby league footballer of the 1950s and 1960s
 * Abe Thompson (born 1982), American soccer player
 * Abe Turner (1924–1962), American chess master
 * Abe W. Turner (1893–1947), American politician
 * Abe Vigoda (1921–2016), American actor
 * Abe Waddington (1893–1959), English cricketer
 * Abe Walsh (born 1971), American author
 * Abe Watson (1871–1932), Australian rules footballer
 * Abe White (1904–1978), American baseball player
 * Abe Wiersma (born 1994), Dutch rower
 * Abe Wilson (1899–1981), American football player
 * Abe Wolstenholme (1861–1916), American baseball player
 * Abe Woodson (1934–2014), American football player
 * Abe Yourist (1909–1991), Russian-American basketball player
 * Abe Zvonkin (1910–2002), Canadian track and field athlete, Canadian football player, and wrestler

Fictional characters

 * Abe (Oddworld), primary protagonist in the Oddworld fictional universe
 * Abe Carver, on the soap opera Days of Our Lives
 * Abe Martin, titular main character of the American comic strip of the same name
 * Abe Sapien, in the Hellboy comic book series
 * Abraham Simpson, on The Simpsons
 * Abe Slaney Sherlock Holmes The Adventure of the Dancing Men

title: Abe (given name)


text:
Eurovision Young Dancers 1985

The Eurovision Young Dancers 1985 was the first edition of the Eurovision Young Dancers, held at Teatro Municipale in Reggio Emilia, Italy on 16 June 1985. Organised by the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) and host broadcaster Radiotelevisione Italiana (RAI), dancers from eleven countries participated in the televised final.

Arantxa Argüelles of Spain won the contest, with Norway and Sweden placing second and third respectively.

Location
Teatro Municipale (also since the 1980s called the Teatro Municipale Valli due to being named after the actor Romolo Valli), a theatre in Reggio Emilia, Northern Italy was the host venue for the 1985 edition of the Eurovision Young Dancers.

Following the destruction by fire of the 1741 Teatro Cittadella in April 1851, the new theatre was designed by the architect Cesare Costa and constructed in the neoclassic style between 1852 and 1857. Its inauguration took place on 21 April 1857 with the performance of the Vittor Pisani by local composer Achille Peri.

Format
The format consists of dancers who are non-professional and between the ages of 16–21, competing in a performance of dance routines of their choice, which they have prepared in advance of the competition. All of the acts then take part in a choreographed group dance during 'Young Dancers Week'.

Jury members of a professional aspect and representing the elements of ballet, contemporary, and modern dancing styles, score each of the competing individual and group dance routines. The overall winner upon completion of the final dances is chosen by the professional jury members.

The interval act was a ballet performance from presenters repertoire.

Final
Awards were given to the top three countries. The table below highlights these using gold, silver, and bronze. The placing results of the remaining participants is unknown and never made public by the European Broadcasting Union.

Jury members
The jury members consisted of the following:
 * – Peter Schaufuss (chairman)
 * – Alicia Markova
 * – Paolo Bortoluzzi
 * / — Marika Besobrasova
 * – Helba Nogueira

Broadcasting
The 1985 Young Dancers competition was broadcast in at least 11 countries. It was also reportedly broadcast in the Soviet Union via Intervision.

title: Eurovision Young Dancers 1985


text:
Eurovision Young Dancers 1987

The Eurovision Young Dancers 1987 was the second edition of the Eurovision Young Dancers, held at the Schlosstheater Schwetzingen, Germany on 31 May 1987. Organised by the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) and host broadcaster Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen (ZDF), dancers from fourteen countries participated in the televised final. ,, and  made their debut at the contest, while  and  competed together with a joint entry.

For the first time ever, the Canadian broadcaster CBC (an EBU associate member), joined the show with its participant, making it the only Eurovision event to feature a country from North America, and the only EBU event to feature an associate member as a participant prior to Australia's debut at the Eurovision Song Contest in 2015. The participant countries could send one or two dancers, male or female, that could not be older than 20. Each entry consisted in one or two dances with no rules or limitations regarding the style. The dances could not be longer than 5 minutes (for soloists) or 10 minutes (for couples).

Rose Gad Poulsen and Nikolaj Hübbe of Denmark won the contest, with Switzerland and West Germany placing second and third respectively.

Location
Schlosstheater Schwetzingen (Schwetzingen palace theater), a court theater in Schwetzingen, Baden-Württemberg, Germany was the host venue for the 1987 edition of the Eurovision Young Dancers.

The historic building, opened in 1753, is part of Schloss Schwetzingen and since 1952 the principal venue of the Schwetzingen Festival. It is also called Hoftheater (court theater), Hofoper (court opera), and Comoedienhaus (comedy house). The frequently applied name Rokokotheater (Rococo theater) is misleading, because it shows also neoclassical elements, added in 1762.

Format
The format consists of dancers who are non-professional and between the ages of 16–21, competing in a performance of dance routines of their choice, which they have prepared in advance of the competition. All of the acts then take part in a choreographed group dance during 'Young Dancers Week'.

Jury members of a professional aspect and representing the elements of ballet, contemporary, and modern dancing styles, score each of the competing individual and group dance routines. The overall winner upon completion of the final dances is chosen by the professional jury members.

The interval was Arne Fagerholt who performed Kjersti Alveberg's production Spirits.

Final
Awards were given to the top three countries. The table below highlights these using gold, silver, and bronze. The placing results of the remaining participants is unknown and never made public by the European Broadcasting Union.

Jury members
The jury members consisted of the following:

 * – Paolo Bortoluzzi (Head of jury)
 * – Frank Andersen
 * – Oscar Araiz
 * – Celia Franca
 * – Mary Hinkson
 * – Mette Hønningen
 * – Galina Samsova
 * – Heinz Spoerli
 * – José de Udaeta

Broadcasting
The 1987 Young Dancers competition was broadcast in at least 15 countries.

title: Eurovision Young Dancers 1987