text:
League of American Bicyclists

The League of American Bicyclists (LAB), officially the League of American Wheelmen, is a membership organization that promotes cycling for fun, fitness and transportation through advocacy and education. A Section 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization, the League is one of the largest membership organizations of cyclists in the United States.

History
Founded in Newport, Rhode Island, on May 30, 1880, as the League of American Wheelmen by Kirk Munroe and Charles E. Pratt, it soon became the leading national membership organization for cyclists in the United States. The organization's first officers were Charles E. Pratt as president, T.K. Longstreet as vice president, O.S. Parsons as corresponding secretary, J.F. Furrell as recording secretary, and H.L. Willoughby as treasurer. The board of directors consisted of two from each state having regularly organization clubs.

Pratt served two terms as the organization's first president, from 1880 to 1882. He was the author in 1879 of the first cycling guidebook in the United States, The American Bicycler: a manual for the observer, the learner and the expert.

The League was also the governing body for amateur bicycle racing in the U.S. during the late 19th century. Membership peaked at 103,000 in 1898.

The 1880–1902 period
The League was a prominent advocacy group for the improvement of roads and highways in the United States long before the advent of the automobile. The Good Roads Movement in the late 19th century was founded and led by the League, which began publishing Good Roads magazine in 1892.

In the mid-1890s, bicycling became accessible to the population at large with the advent of the mass-produced, chain-driven safety bicycle. A huge boom in bicycle sales occurred, then collapsed as the market became saturated. Bicycle manufacturers were no longer able to support the League financially, and the interest of its members, largely well-to-do hobbyists, turned elsewhere.

In 1894, the League voted to prohibit membership by non-white people, pushed by southern members. Since the League was the governing body for bicycle racing at that time, the League's action effectively banned non-white people from most races in the United States. Local clubs had some discretion, as well as a separate racing league being set up, yet racism was still prevalent. Efforts were made the following years to repeal the "white exclusive" clause, an 1895 amendment to reverse the decision was dropped, as a "continued and energetic resistance" ensued before the original League dissolved in 1902. In 1999, a reformed League disavowed the 1894 action.

At its height in 1898, the League had over 103,000 members. Early members included three of the wealthiest men of the Gilded Age: Newport socialites John Jacob Astor, Diamond Jim Brady, and John D. Rockefeller.

Amateur bicycle racing declined with the rise of professional racing. League membership declined to 76,944 in 1900 and only 8,692 in 1902. The League dissolved that year, when there were still only a very few motorized vehicles on the roads. The American Automobile Association was founded the same year, 1902, and was, to an extent, a successor organization. It provided—and still provides—route information to members, as the League had provided. The League's Secretary, Abbott Bassett, produced a monthly publication under the League's name until 1924, but there was no League organization. Bassett's Scrap Book covered topics such as Frank W. Weston's role in developing cycling in Boston.

The 1939–1955 revival
Bicycle club activity revived and was particularly strong in the Chicago area during the Great Depression of the 1930s. Attempts to revive the League were initiated by representatives of the bicycle industry in 1933 and continued through the 1930s, and consisted primarily of a number of exhibitions and races under the League's name. Chicago-area bicycle clubs formed the core of a revived League governed by recreational cyclists in 1939 and which adopted a constitution in April 1942. This incarnation of the League was primarily a social organization, holding group rides and annual conventions. World War II contributed to the success of the League through rationing of motor vehicle fuel and tires. Membership was 614 in 1945, with 200 honorary members in the armed services. However, in the late 1940s, the League went into decline. Factors included the increasing availability of motor vehicles; the "baby boom", which made for difficulties in pursuing recreational cycling; narrow highways; and conformist social attitudes, with a perception of bicycling as a children's activity. Membership was only 507 in 1950 and 238 in 1953. The League dissolved again in 1955.

1965–present
The League reorganized once again in 1965. By this time, highways had improved, the Eisenhower Interstate Highway System had drained traffic from many of them, and new interest in recreational cycling was spurred by the promotion of sports bicycles with derailleur gearing by the Schwinn Bicycle Company and others. Increasing awareness of the importance of physical fitness also contributed to the popularity of bicycling.

Through the end of the 20th century, the League existed as a national clearinghouse for cycling advocacy, but more so as a social organization, holding three or more regional rallies each year, usually in June, centered on public college campuses in various parts of the US. Each of these rallies featured mapped rides of various lengths, dormitory housing and meals, a variety of cycling-related lectures, and vendors selling products. At their peak, rallies would each attract as many as 2,000 cyclists.

With increasing popularity of bicycling, however, various other organizations adopted functions which the League dropped or did not pursue—most prominently, Bikecentennial (later renamed as the Adventure Cycling Association), which maps touring routes and provides services for touring bicyclists; the Rails-to-Trails Conservancy, which promotes conversion of abandoned rail lines to trails; and the Alliance for Biking and Walking (formerly Thunderhead Alliance), a loosely organized consortium of state and local advocacy organizations which maintains communication over the Internet.

In the late 20th century, the League was criticized for its name: League of American Wheelmen. Also, the term Wheelmen was becoming increasingly obscure. In response, the League began doing business as the League of American Bicyclists in 1994.

The League reached a peak of 24,000 paid memberships in 1997, then declined to around 20,000, where it has remained since (as of 2009), though it is able to cite larger numbers by using a multiplier for family memberships and counting the approximately 300,000 members of affiliated bicycle clubs and advocacy organizations.

The League's rallies became less successful as bicyclists became able to find similar events closer to home. Beginning in 2003, the League would no longer organize its own rallies, but rather, would designate an existing event in one part of the country or another as its National Rally.

A major change in the direction of the League occurred in 1997 when it moved its offices from Baltimore, Maryland, to Washington, D.C., and focused increasingly on advocacy at the federal level. The League has shed most of the services it once provided to individual members, other than its magazine, and now is primarily an advocacy organization. Its major annual event is now the National Bicycle Summit (which see, under Advocacy, below).

The League has continued to play a leading role in cycling issues into the 21st century. One example is the certification of cycling instructors, since the 1970s. The League's education program concentrates on practical bicycle handling and traffic skills, and has more than 1,000 active instructors as of 2009. The League's Bicycle Friendly America program distributes awards to communities which have adopted measures to accommodate and encourage bicycle use. The League manages liability insurance programs for its instructors and for bicycle clubs, an invaluable service to them.

Advocacy
LAB is the voice for cyclists at the national level, and organizes an annual National Bike Summit to bring professionals and advocates in Washington, D.C., together with government representatives. The Summit has attracted around 500 attendees in recent years (as of 2009).

In addition to PeopleForBikes, LAB works in partnership with other organizations such as America Bikes ("leveraging federal transportation dollars for bicycling", primarily with PeopleForBikes money), the Alliance for Bicycling and Walking (lobbies for government money to encourage bicycle usage while receiving substantial industry funding), Federal Highway Administration, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), NCUTCD and NCUTLO in order to "create a more bicycle-friendly America".

Education
The League offers cycling education for adults and children in many locations across the U.S. Originally the education consisted of a single Effective Cycling (EC) course developed by John Forester and given to the League in 1976. Later, citing poor attendance and blaming the 30-hour length of the EC course, the League developed a curriculum consisting of multiple shorter courses. Forester did not agree with some of the changes to the program and withdrew permission for the League to use the EC name. The name of the League's program was then changed to "Bike Ed". In 2008, the program was renamed "Smart Cycling".

In addition to sponsoring the biennial "Bicycle Education Leaders Conference", the League is active in "Safe Routes to School" programs at a national level.

Bicycle-friendly communities
, the League has formally recognized 450 communities across all 50 states as bicycle-friendly communities for "providing safe accommodation and facilities for bicyclists and encouraging residents to bike for transportation and recreation." These are the communities:

Diamond-level
 * No Diamond-level communities.

Platinum-level - 5 Communities
 * Boulder, Colorado
 * Davis, California
 * Fort Collins, Colorado
 * Madison, Wisconsin
 * Portland, Oregon

Gold-level - 33 Communities
 * Ashland, Oregon
 * Austin, Texas
 * Bellingham, Washington
 * Bloomington, Indiana
 * Breckenridge, Colorado
 * Cambridge, Massachusetts
 * Carbondale, Colorado
 * Chico, California
 * Corvallis, Oregon
 * Crested Butte, Colorado
 * Durango, Colorado
 * Eugene, Oregon
 * Fayetteville, Arkansas
 * Hilton Head Island, South Carolina
 * Jackson and Teton County, Wyoming
 * Menlo Park, California
 * Minneapolis, Minnesota
 * Missoula, Montana
 * Palo Alto, California
 * Park City, Utah
 * San Francisco, California
 * San Luis Obispo, California
 * Santa Cruz, California
 * Scottsdale, Arizona
 * Seattle, Washington
 * Somerville, Massachusetts
 * Steamboat Springs, Colorado
 * Tempe, Arizona
 * Tucson, Arizona
 * Urbana, Illinois
 * The Villages, Florida
 * Washington, DC
 * Wood River Valley, Idaho

Silver-level - 90 Communities
 * Ada County, Idaho
 * Alexandria, Virginia
 * Anchorage, Alaska
 * Ann Arbor, Michigan
 * Appleton, Wisconsin
 * Arcata, California
 * Arlington, Virginia
 * Arvada, Colorado
 * Aspen, Colorado
 * Battle Creek, Michigan
 * Beaverton, Oregon
 * Bend, Oregon
 * Boise, Idaho
 * Bozeman, Montana
 * Burlington, Vermont
 * Calistoga, California
 * Carrboro, North Carolina
 * Champaign, Illinois
 * Charlottesville, Virginia
 * Chattanooga, Tennessee
 * Chicago, Illinois
 * Claremont, California
 * Coeur d'Alene, Idaho
 * Colorado Springs, Colorado
 * Columbia, Missouri
 * Coronado, California
 * Cottonwood, Arizona
 * Denver, Colorado
 * Ellensburg, Washington
 * Emeryville, California
 * Evanston, Illinois
 * Fitchburg, Wisconsin
 * Flagstaff, Arizona
 * Folsom, California
 * Gainesville, Florida
 * Glenwood Springs, Colorado
 * Golden, Colorado
 * Grand Marais, Minnesota
 * Gresham, Oregon
 * Gunnison, Colorado
 * Henderson, Nevada
 * Hennepin County, Minnesota
 * Houghton, Michigan
 * Iowa City, Iowa
 * Irvine, California
 * La Crosse, Wisconsin
 * Las Vegas, Nevada
 * Logan, Utah
 * Long Beach, California
 * Longmont, Colorado
 * Louisville, Kentucky
 * Marquette, Michigan
 * Mesa, Arizona
 * Miami Beach, Florida
 * Moab City & Grand County, Utah
 * Mountain View, California
 * Nantucket, Massachusetts
 * New Orleans, Louisiana
 * New York City
 * Oakland, California
 * Oceanside, California
 * Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
 * Port Townsend, Washington
 * Provincetown, Massachusetts
 * Provo, Utah
 * Redmond, Washington
 * Sacramento, California
 * Salida, Colorado
 * Salt Lake City, Utah
 * Sanibel, Florida
 * Santa Barbara, California
 * Santa Fe, New Mexico
 * Santa Monica, California
 * Sedona, Arizona
 * Shorewood, Wisconsin
 * Simsbury, Connecticut
 * Sitka, Alaska
 * Solana Beach, California
 * South Bend, Indiana
 * South Lake Tahoe, California
 * St. Louis, Missouri
 * St. Paul, Minnesota
 * St. Petersburg, Florida
 * Summit County Government, Colorado
 * Tallahassee, Florida
 * Vail, Colorado
 * Venice, Florida
 * West Sacramento, California
 * Winter Park, Florida
 * York, Pennsylvania

Bronze-level - 324 Communities
 * Akron, Ohio
 * Alameda, California
 * Albany, Oregon
 * Albuquerque, New Mexico
 * Ames, Iowa
 * Anacortes, Washington
 * Arlington, Massachusetts
 * Arroyo Grande, California
 * Asheville, North Carolina
 * Athens, Georgia
 * Athens, Ohio
 * Atlanta, Georgia
 * Auburn, Alabama
 * Aurora, Illinois
 * Baltimore, Maryland
 * Batavia, Illinois
 * Bath, Maine
 * Baton Rouge, Louisiana
 * Bellevue, Washington
 * Bemidji, Minnesota
 * Bentonville, Arkansas
 * Bethesda, Maryland
 * Bettendorf, Iowa
 * Bethlehem, Pennsylvania
 * Billings, Montana
 * Bismarck-Mandan, North Dakota
 * Boca Raton, Florida
 * Boone, North Carolina
 * Brentwood, California
 * Brookings, South Dakota
 * Brookline, Massachusetts
 * Broward County, Florida
 * Brownsville, Texas
 * Brunswick, Maine
 * Buffalo, New York
 * Camp Hill, Pennsylvania
 * Cape Coral, Florida
 * Carbondale, Illinois
 * Carmel, Indiana
 * Carrollton, Georgia
 * Carson City, Nevada
 * Cary, North Carolina
 * Castle Rock, Colorado
 * Cedar Falls, Iowa
 * Cedar Rapids, Iowa
 * Chandler, Arizona
 * Chapel Hill, North Carolina
 * Charlotte, North Carolina
 * Chula Vista, California
 * Cincinnati, Ohio
 * Clackamas County, Oregon
 * Clark County, Nevada
 * Clayton, Missouri
 * Clermont, Florida
 * Cleveland, Ohio
 * Cleveland Heights, Ohio
 * Columbia, Maryland
 * Columbia, South Carolina
 * Columbus, Georgia
 * Columbus, Indiana
 * Columbus, Ohio
 * Concord, New Hampshire
 * Conway, Arkansas
 * Coralville, Iowa
 * Crosby, Minnesota
 * Cupertino, California
 * Dane County, Wisconsin
 * Davidson, North Carolina
 * Dayton, Ohio
 * Decatur, Georgia
 * DeKalb, Illinois
 * Des Moines, Iowa
 * Doral, Florida
 * Dover, Delaware
 * Dublin, Ohio
 * Duluth, Minnesota
 * Durham, North Carolina
 * East Lansing, Michigan
 * Eastern Placer County, California
 * Eau Claire, Wisconsin
 * Edina, Minnesota
 * El Paso, Texas
 * Elmhurst, Illinois
 * Essex Junction, Vermont
 * Eureka, California
 * Fairfax County, Virginia
 * Falmouth, Massachusetts
 * Fargo, North Dakota-Moorhead, Minnesota
 * Farmington, Connecticut
 * Fergus Falls, Minnesota
 * Ferguson, Missouri
 * Fernandina Beach, Florida
 * Flint, Michigan
 * Fort Wayne, Indiana
 * Fort Worth, Texas
 * Franklin, Pennsylvania
 * Frazee, Minnesota

Bronze-level, continued
 * Frederick, Maryland
 * Fresno, California
 * Frisco, Texas
 * Gilbert, Arizona
 * Glastonbury, Connecticut
 * Glenview, Illinois
 * Goshen, Indiana
 * Grand Junction, Colorado
 * Grand Rapids, Michigan
 * Grand Rapids, Minnesota
 * Greater Grand Forks, South Dakota-Minnesota
 * Greater Mankato, Minnesota
 * Greater Wenatchee MPO, Washington
 * Greeley, Colorado
 * Greensboro, North Carolina
 * Greenville, South Carolina
 * Gulf Shores, Alabama
 * Hagerstown, Maryland
 * Hanover, New Hampshire
 * Harrisonburg, Virginia
 * Hartford, Connecticut
 * Hattiesburg, Mississippi
 * Healdsburg, California
 * Helena, Montana
 * Highland Park, Illinois
 * Hoboken, New Jersey
 * Honolulu, Hawaii
 * Houston, Texas
 * Hudson, Ohio
 * Huntington Beach, California
 * Hutchinson, Minnesota
 * Indianapolis, Indiana
 * Indian River County, Florida
 * Inverness, Florida
 * Ithaca, New York
 * Jackson, Minnesota
 * Jamestown S'Klallam Tribe of Washington
 * Jekyll Island, Georgia
 * Juneau, Alaska
 * Kalamazoo, Michigan
 * Kansas City, Missouri
 * Keene, New Hampshire
 * Kenmore, Washington
 * Key Biscayne, Florida
 * Kirkland, Washington
 * Knoxville, Tennessee
 * Lakeland, Florida
 * Lakewood, Colorado
 * Lakewood, Ohio
 * Lambertville, New Jersey
 * Lansing, Michigan
 * Laramie, Wyoming
 * Las Cruces, New Mexico
 * Lawrence, Kansas
 * Lebanon, New Hampshire
 * Lee's Summit, Missouri
 * Lewes, Delaware
 * Lexington-Fayette County, Kentucky
 * Lexington, Massachusetts
 * Liberty Lake, Washington
 * Lima, Ohio
 * Lincoln, Nebraska
 * Little Rock, Arkansas
 * Los Alamos, New Mexico
 * Los Altos, California
 * Los Angeles, California
 * Manhattan, Kansas
 * Mansfield, Connecticut
 * Memphis, Tennessee
 * Menomonie, Wisconsin
 * Mesquite, Nevada
 * Miami, Florida
 * Miami-Dade County, Florida
 * Miami Shores, Florida
 * Middleton, Wisconsin
 * Midland, Michigan
 * Milledgeville, Georgia
 * Milton, Massachusetts
 * Milwaukee, Wisconsin
 * Monona, Wisconsin
 * Montclair, New Jersey
 * Montpelier, Vermont
 * Morgantown, West Virginia
 * Morro Bay, California
 * Moscow, Idaho
 * Muncie, Indiana
 * Napa, California
 * Naperville, Illinois
 * Naples, Florida
 * Nashville, Tennessee
 * New Britain, Connecticut
 * New Brunswick, New Jersey
 * New Haven, Connecticut
 * New Ulm, Minnesota
 * Newark, Delaware
 * Newport, Rhode Island
 * Newton, Massachusetts
 * Norfolk, Virginia
 * Normal, Illinois
 * Norman, Oklahoma
 * North Little Rock, Arkansas
 * Northampton, Massachusetts
 * Northwest Arkansas-Benton and Washington Counties
 * Oak Park, Illinois
 * Oberlin, Ohio
 * Ocean City, New Jersey
 * Ogden, Utah
 * Omaha, Nebraska
 * Onalaska, Wisconsin
 * Orange County, California
 * Orem, Utah
 * Orlando, Florida
 * Oxford, Mississippi
 * Paso Robles, California
 * Peachtree City, Georgia
 * Phoenix, Arizona
 * Piqua, Ohio
 * Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
 * Plano, Texas
 * Pleasanton, California
 * Port Angeles-Clallam County, Washington
 * Portage, Michigan
 * Portsmouth, New Hampshire
 * Portsmouth, Virginia
 * Prescott, Arizona
 * Princeton, New Jersey
 * Pueblo, Colorado
 * Raleigh, North Carolina
 * Rancho Cordova, California
 * Rancho Cucamonga, California
 * Reading, Pennsylvania
 * Redding, California
 * Redondo Beach, California
 * Redwood City, California
 * Reno-Sparks, Washoe County, Nevada
 * Reston, Virginia
 * Richardson, Texas
 * Richfield, Minnesota
 * Richmond, Virginia
 * Ridgeland, Mississippi
 * River Falls, Wisconsin
 * Riverdale, Utah
 * Riverside, California
 * Roanoke, Virginia
 * Rochester, Minnesota
 * Rochester, New York
 * Rock Hill, South Carolina
 * Rockville, Maryland
 * Rogers, Arkansas
 * Roseburg, Oregon
 * Roseville, California
 * Roswell, Georgia,
 * Salem, Oregon
 * Salisbury, Maryland
 * San Antonio, Texas
 * San Carlos, California
 * San Diego, California
 * San Jose, California
 * San Mateo, California
 * San Mateo County, California
 * San Buenaventura, California
 * Santa Clara, California
 * Santa Clarita, California
 * Santa Rosa, California
 * Savannah, Georgia
 * Schaumburg, Illinois
 * Sequim, Washington
 * Shaker Heights, Ohio
 * Shawnee, Kansas
 * Sheboygan, Wisconsin
 * Sierra Vista, Arizona
 * Silverthorne, Colorado
 * Sioux Falls, South Dakota
 * Snohomish, Washington
 * Sonoma, California
 * South Lake County, Florida
 * South Miami, Florida
 * South San Francisco, California
 * South Sioux City, Nebraska
 * South Windsor, Connecticut
 * Spartanburg, South Carolina
 * Spokane, Washington
 * Springboro, Ohio
 * Springfield, Illinois
 * Springfield, Missouri
 * Springfield, Oregon
 * State College - Centre Region, Pennsylvania
 * Stevens Point, Wisconsin
 * Stillwater, Oklahoma
 * Sturgeon Bay, Wisconsin
 * St. Cloud, Minnesota
 * St. George, Utah
 * St. Louis Park, Minnesota
 * Sturgeon Bay, Wisconsin
 * Sunnyvale, California
 * Tacoma, Washington
 * Tampa, Florida
 * Temecula, California
 * The Woodlands, Texas
 * Thousand Oaks, California
 * Topeka, Kansas
 * Troy, Ohio
 * Tulsa, Oklahoma
 * Tybee Island, Georgia
 * University Heights, Iowa
 * Vancouver, Washington
 * Vienna, Virginia
 * Virginia Beach, Virginia
 * Wake Forest, North Carolina
 * Walla Walla, Washington
 * Warrenville, Illinois
 * Warsaw & Winona Lake, Indiana
 * Washington, Illinois
 * Watsonville, California
 * Wausau, Wisconsin
 * West Hartford, Connecticut
 * West Windsor, New Jersey
 * Westerville, Ohio
 * Weston, Florida
 * Wichita, Kansas
 * Williamsburg, Virginia
 * Willmar, Minnesota
 * Wilmette, Illinois
 * Wilmington, North Carolina
 * Windsor, California
 * Winona, Minnesota
 * Winston-Salem, North Carolina
 * Woodland, California
 * Yellow Springs, Ohio
 * Ypsilanti, Michigan
 * Yuma, Arizona
 * Zionsville, Indiana

Bicycle-friendly universities
, the league has formally recognized the following 221 universities, as bicycle-friendly institutions of higher education for "promoting and providing a more bikeable campus for students, staff and visitors." These are the universities:

Platinum-level - 9 Schools
 * Boise State University - Boise, Idaho
 * Colorado State University - Fort Collins, Colorado
 * Portland State University - Portland, Oregon
 * Stanford University - Stanford, California
 * University of California, Davis - Davis, California
 * University of California, Irvine - Irvine, California
 * University of California, Santa Barbara - Santa Barbara, California
 * University of Minnesota - Twin Cities, Minnesota
 * University of Wisconsin–Madison - Madison, Wisconsin

Gold-level - 31 Schools
 * Arizona State University - Tempe, Arizona
 * Dartmouth College - Hanover, New Hampshire
 * Dickinson College - Carlisle, Pennsylvania
 * Georgia Institute of Technology - Atlanta
 * Harvard University - Cambridge, Massachusetts
 * Indiana University - Bloomington, Indiana
 * Lees–McRae College - Banner Elk, North Carolina
 * Michigan State University - East Lansing, Michigan
 * Northern Arizona University - Flagstaff, Arizona
 * Oregon State University - Corvallis, Oregon
 * Pennsylvania State University - University Park, Pennsylvania
 * Purdue University - West Lafayette, Indiana
 * University of Arkansas - Fayetteville, Arkansas
 * University of Arizona - Tucson, Arizona
 * University of California, Berkeley - Berkeley, California
 * University of California, Los Angeles - Los Angeles
 * University of California, Santa Cruz - Santa Cruz, California
 * University of Colorado Boulder - Boulder, Colorado
 * University of Florida - Gainesville, Florida
 * University of Kentucky - Lexington, Kentucky
 * University of Maryland - College Park, Maryland
 * University of Montana - Missoula, Montana
 * University of Oregon - Eugene, Oregon
 * University of Utah - Salt Lake City, Utah
 * University of Vermont - Burlington, Vermont
 * University of Washington - Seattle
 * University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee - Milwaukee
 * Utah State University - Logan, Utah
 * Virginia Commonwealth University - Richmond, Virginia
 * Virginia Tech - Blacksburg, Virginia
 * Washington University in St. Louis - St. Louis,

Silver-level - 68 Schools
 * Arkansas State University - Jonesboro, Arkansas
 * Auburn University - Auburn, Alabama
 * Brigham Young University - Provo, Utah
 * Bowdoin College - Brunswick, Maine
 * CSU Long Beach - Long Beach, California
 * CSU Sacramento - Sacramento, California
 * Carnegie Mellon University - Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
 * Champlain College - Burlington, Vermont
 * Clemson University - Clemson, South Carolina
 * Coastal Carolina University - Conway, South Carolina
 * College of William & Mary - Williamsburg, Virginia
 * Columbia University - New York City
 * Concordia University - Moorhead, Minnesota
 * Duke University - Durham, North Carolina
 * Emory University - Atlanta, Georgia
 * Florida State University - Tallahassee, Florida
 * Franklin & Marshall College - Lancaster, Pennsylvania
 * George Mason University - Fairfax, Virginia
 * Grand Valley State University - Allendale, Michigan
 * Illinois Wesleyan University - Bloomington, Illinois
 * James Madison University - Harrisonburg, Virginia
 * Keene State College - Keene, New Hampshire
 * Louisiana State University - Baton Rouge, Louisiana
 * Loyola Marymount University - Los Angeles, California
 * Loyola University Chicago - Chicago, Illinois
 * Macalester College - St. Paul, Minnesota
 * MIT - Cambridge, Massachusetts
 * Montana State University - Bozeman, Montana
 * Morehead State University - Morehead, Kentucky
 * New York University - New York City
 * North Carolina State University - Raleigh, North Carolina
 * Northwestern University - Evanston, Illinois
 * Ohio State University - Columbus, Ohio
 * Ohio University - Athens, Ohio
 * Rice University - Houston
 * Santa Monica College - Santa Monica, California
 * School of the Art Institute of Chicago - Chicago
 * Southern Illinois University - Carbondale, Illinois
 * Southern Oregon University - Ashland, Oregon
 * Temple University - Philadelphia
 * Texas A&M University - College Station, Texas
 * Texas Tech University - Lubbock, Texas
 * University of Alaska Fairbanks - Fairbanks, Alaska
 * University of California, San Diego - San Diego,
 * University of Cincinnati - Cincinnati
 * University of Colorado Colorado Springs - Colorado Springs, Colorado
 * University of Illinois Chicago - Chicago
 * University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign - Urbana-Champaign, Illinois
 * University of Iowa - Iowa City, Iowa
 * University of Louisville - Louisville, Kentucky
 * University of Massachusetts Lowell - Lowell, Massachusetts
 * University of Michigan - Ann Arbor, Michigan
 * University of Michigan–Flint - Flint, Michigan
 * University of Nebraska - Lincoln, Nebraska
 * University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill - Chapel Hill, North Carolina
 * University of North Carolina Wilmington - Wilmington, North Carolina
 * University of Oklahoma - Norman, Oklahoma
 * University of Pennsylvania - Philadelphia
 * University of Pittsburgh - Pittsburgh
 * University of Rochester - Rochester, New York
 * University of South Carolina - Columbia, South Carolina
 * University of South Florida - Tampa, Florida
 * University of Texas at Austin - Austin, Texas
 * University of Virginia - Charlottesville, Virginia
 * University of Wisconsin–Stevens Point - Stevens Point, Wisconsin
 * Vassar College - Poughkeepsie, New York
 * Western Washington University - Bellingham, Washington
 * Yale University - New Haven, Connecticut

Bronze-level - 114 Schools
 * University of Alabama at Birmingham - Birmingham, Alabama
 * Arizona State University, Downtown Campus - Phoenix, Arizona
 * Arizona State University West campus - Glendale, Arizona
 * Hendrix College - Conway, Arkansas
 * University of Central Arkansas - Conway, Arkansas
 * California Polytechnic State University - San Luis Obispo, California
 * California Institute of Technology - Pasadena, California
 * California State University, Bakersfield - Bakersfield, California
 * California State University, Monterey Bay - Seaside, California
 * California State University, Northridge - Northridge, California
 * San Francisco State University - San Francisco
 * University of California, Riverside - Riverside, California
 * University of San Diego - San Diego, California
 * University of San Francisco - San Francisco
 * Colorado College - Colorado Springs, Colorado
 * Colorado Mesa University - Grand Junction, Colorado
 * Naropa University - Boulder, Colorado
 * University of Denver - Denver
 * University of Northern Colorado - Greeley, Colorado
 * University of Connecticut, Mansfield, Connecticut
 * American University - Washington, D.C.
 * Georgetown University - Washington, D.C.
 * Catholic University of America - Washington, D.C.
 * Florida Institute of Technology - Melbourne, Florida
 * University of Central Florida - Orlando, Florida
 * University of Miami - Coral Gables, Florida
 * University of South Florida St. Petersburg - St. Petersburg, Florida
 * Columbus State University - Columbus, Georgia
 * Georgia College & State University - Milledgeville, Georgia
 * Kennesaw State University - Kennesaw campus - Kennesaw, Georgia
 * Kennesaw State University - Marietta campus - Marietta, Georgia
 * University of Georgia - Athens, Georgia
 * University of West Georgia - Carrollton, Georgia
 * City Colleges of Chicago - Chicago
 * Illinois Institute of Technology - Chicago, Illinois
 * Knox College - Galesburg, Illinois
 * Southern Illinois University Edwardsville -Edwardsville, Illinois

Bronze-level, continued
 * Alfred University - Alfred, New York
 * Appalachian State University - Boone, North Carolina
 * Aquinas College - Grand Rapids, Michigan
 * Bemidji State University - Bemidji, Minnesota
 * Bentley University - Waltham, Massachusetts
 * Black Hills State University - Spearfish, South Dakota
 * Boston University - Charles River campus - Boston, Massachusetts
 * Boston University Medical Campus - Boston, Massachusetts
 * Brown University - Providence, Rhode Island
 * Chatham University - Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
 * College of Charleston - Charleston, South Carolina
 * East Carolina University - Greenville, North Carolina
 * Emporia State University - Emporia, Kansas
 * George Mason University Arlington campus - Arlington, Virginia
 * Gustavus Adolphus College - St. Peter, Minnesota
 * Kansas State University - Manhattan, Kansas
 * Kent State University - Kent, Ohio
 * Lawrence Technological University - Southfield, Michigan
 * Minnesota State Community and Technical College Fergus Falls - Fergus Falls, Minnesota
 * Miami University - Oxford, Ohio
 * Michigan Technological University - Houghton, Michigan
 * Minnesota State University, Mankato - Mankato, Minnesota
 * Monroe Community College - Rochester, New York
 * Montgomery County Community College - Pottstown, Pennsylvania
 * Nazareth College - Rochester, New York
 * New Mexico State University - Las Cruces, New Mexico
 * Norfolk State University - Norfolk, Virginia
 * North Carolina Central University - Durham, North Carolina
 * Northern Michigan University - Marquette, Michigan
 * Oklahoma State University - Stillwater, Oklahoma
 * Old Dominion University - Norfolk, Virginia
 * Pennsylvania College of Technology - Williamsport, Pennsylvania
 * Pomona College - Claremont, California
 * Princeton University - Princeton, New Jersey
 * Rochester Institute of Technology - Rochester, New York
 * Salisbury University - Salisbury, Maryland
 * Savannah College of Art and Design - Savannah, Georgia
 * Shippensburg University - Shippensburg, Pennsylvania
 * St. Lawrence University - Canton, New York
 * University at Buffalo, The State University of New York - Buffalo, New York
 * State University of New York at Cortland - Cortland, New York
 * SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry - Syracuse, New York
 * State University of New York at Stony Brook - Stony Brook, New York
 * Texas State University - San Marcos, Texas
 * The College at Brockport, State University of New York - Brockport, New York
 * Towson University - Towson, Maryland
 * Transylvania University - Lexington, Kentucky
 * Truman State University - Kirksville, Missouri
 * Tufts University - Medford and Somerville, Massachusetts
 * University of Central Oklahoma - Edmond, Oklahoma
 * University of Dayton - Dayton, Ohio
 * University of Illinois Springfield - Springfield, Illinois
 * University of Kansas - Lawrence, Kansas
 * University of Louisiana at Lafayette - Lafayette, Louisiana
 * University of Memphis - Memphis, Tennessee
 * University of Mississippi - Oxford, Mississippi
 * University of Missouri-Kansas City - Kansas City, Missouri
 * University of Nevada, Reno - Reno, Nevada
 * University of New England - Biddeford, Maine
 * University of New Mexico - Albuquerque, New Mexico
 * University of North Carolina, Charlotte - Charlotte, North Carolina
 * University of North Carolina, Greensboro - Greensboro, North Carolina
 * University of North Texas - Denton, Texas
 * University of Toledo - Toledo, Ohio
 * University of Tulsa - Tulsa, Oklahoma
 * University of Wisconsin–Eau Claire - Eau Claire, Wisconsin
 * University of Wisconsin–La Crosse - La Crosse, Wisconsin
 * University of Wisconsin-Stout - Menomonie, Wisconsin
 * University of Wyoming - Laramie, Wyoming
 * Vanderbilt University and Vanderbilt University Medical Center - Nashville, Tennessee
 * Washtenaw Community College - Ann Arbor, Michigan
 * West Virginia University - Morgantown, West Virginia

Honorable mentions
 * Central Baptist College - Conway, Arkansas
 * Farmingdale State College - East Farmingdale, New York
 * SUNY New Paltz - New Paltz, New York

title: League of American Bicyclists


text:
ISO/IEC 8859-11

ISO/IEC 8859-11:2001, Information technology — 8-bit single-byte coded graphic character sets — Part 11: Latin/Thai alphabet, is part of the ISO/IEC 8859 series of ASCII-based standard character encodings, first edition published in 2001. It is informally referred to as Latin/Thai. It is nearly identical to the national Thai standard TIS-620 (1990). The sole difference is that ISO/IEC 8859-11 allocates non-breaking space to code 0xA0, while TIS-620 leaves it undefined. (In practice, this small distinction is usually ignored.)

ISO-8859-11 is not a main registered IANA charset name despite following the normal pattern for IANA charsets based on the ISO 8859 series. However, it is defined as an alias of the close equivalent TIS-620 (which lacks the non-breaking space), and which can without problems be used for ISO/IEC 8859-11, since the no-break space has a code which was unallocated in TIS-620. Microsoft has assigned code page 28601 a.k.a. Windows-28601 to ISO-8859-11 in Windows. A draft had the Thai letters in different spots.

As with all varieties of ISO/IEC 8859, the lower 128 codes are equivalent to ASCII. The additional characters, apart from no-break space, are found in Unicode in the same order, only shifted from 0xA1 to U+0E01 and so forth.

The Microsoft Windows code page 874 as well as the code page used in the Thai version of the Apple Macintosh, MacThai, are variants of TIS-620 — incompatible with each other, however.

Character set
Code values D1, D4-DA, E7-EE are combining characters.

Code page 874 (IBM) / 9066
IBM code page 874 (CP874, IBM-874, x-IBM874), also known as Code page 9066 (IBM-9066), differs from ISO/IEC 8859-11 in only nine symbols shown boxed in the following table:

{{legend|#FFD|Differences from ISO 8859-11}}

Code page 1161
Code page 1161 (CP1161, IBM-1161), is a variant of IBM code page 874. The only difference is the euro sign (€) in position DEhex (222).

Code page 874 (Microsoft) / 1162
Windows code page 874 (windows-874, MS874, x-windows-874), known as Code page 1162 (CP1162, IBM-1162) by IBM, is used by Microsoft Windows. It differs from ISO/IEC 8859-11 only by adding the nine symbols shown in the following table:

{{legend|#FFD|Differences from ISO 8859-11}}

Mac OS Thai
This is the variant used on the Classic Mac OS.

{{legend|#FFD|Differences from ISO 8859-11}}

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: ISO/IEC 8859-11


text:
Nicolas Freeling

Nicolas Freeling (born Nicolas Davidson; 3 March 1927 – 20 July 2003), was a British crime novelist, best known as the author of the "Van der Valk" series of detective novels. A television series based on the character, Van der Valk, was produced for the British ITV network by Thames Television during the 1970s and was revived in 1991–92; a remake with new cast, characters, and storylines was launched in 2020 as Van der Valk.

Biography
Freeling was born in London, but travelled widely, and ended his life at his long-standing home at Grandfontaine to the west of Strasbourg. He had followed a variety of occupations, including the armed services and the catering profession. He began writing during a three-week prison sentence, after being convicted of taking home some veal from a restaurant where he worked, though that was common practice in the restaurant trade.

Freeling got bored with writing about his Amsterdam detective Van der Valk and killed him off in 1972, when he was shot while following up a rather unpromising lead. Freeling refused to bring the detective back to life and wrote two novels in which his widow Arlette is the detective. Then he started his second detective series, about a French police inspector, Henri Castang to revive his failing income. He eventually revived Van der Valk with Sand Castles (1989).

Freeling's The King of the Rainy Country received a 1967 Edgar Award, from the Mystery Writers of America, for Best Novel.

Gun Before Butter won France's Grand Prix de Littérature Policière and was a runner-up for the UK Crime Writers' Association's 1963 Gold Dagger Award.

In 1968 Freeling's novel Love in Amsterdam was adapted as the film Amsterdam Affair directed by Gerry O'Hara and starring Wolfgang Kieling as Van der Valk.

A radio drama of his Henri Castang novel The Night Lords adapted by Michael Bakewell was made in 1990 starring Keith Barron, Richard Vernon, and Edita Brychta as part of the BBC Radio 4 Saturday Night Theatre series.

Van der Valk series

 * Love in Amsterdam (1962), a.k.a. Death in Amsterdam
 * In an eccentric piece of police procedure, Van der Valk involves narrator Martin Roy in investigating the death of his ex-lover Elsa de Charmoy, a promiscuous and manipulative potter. The novel features the Huis van Bewaring I (Weteringschans) on Amsterdam's Weteringschans, the remand centre where Freeling was held for taking home some food when he was working as a hotel cook.

 * Because of the Cats (1963)
 * Gun Before Butter (1963), a.k.a. Question of Loyalty
 * Double-Barrel (1964)
 * Criminal Conversation (1965)
 * The King of the Rainy Country (1966)
 * Van der Valk is asked to discreetly trace Jean-Claude Marschal, the disappeared heir to a business fortune, and follows him to Innsbruck, Strasbourg and a village in the Vosges, benefitting from the cooperation of German, Austrian and French police colleagues. He discovers Marschal dead in a suicide pact reminiscent of the Mayerling incident. He then tracks Marschal's wife Anne-Marie to Biarritz and the Spanish border, where, despite having previously tried to seduce him, she shoots him.

 * Strike Out Where Not Applicable (1967)
 * Tsing-Boum! (1969)
 * Over the High Side (1971), a.k.a. The Lovely Ladies
 * A Long Silence (1972), a.k.a. Auprès de ma Blonde
 * Sand Castles (1989)

Television
Created by Freeling, the British television crime drama Van der Valk (1972 TV series) is an adaptation of the novels. It premiered on ITV and ran from 1972 to 1992. Van der Valk (2020 TV series), also produced for ITV, is a remake of the original programme.

Film

 * Amsterdam Affair (1968), a lesser-known British film, with German actor Wolfgang Kieling in the title role.
 * Pas de frontières pour l'inspecteur (Van der Valk), three French-West German co-produced TV films, starring Frank Finlay in the title role:
 * Van der Valk und das Mädchen (Le milieu n'est pas tendre) (1972), based on the novel Gun Before Butter, directed by Peter Zadek.
 *  (Discrétion absolue) (1973), based on the novel The King of the Rainy Country, directed by Wolfgang Petersen.
 * Van der Valk und die Toten (Le bouc émissaire) (1975), based on the novel Double-Barrel, directed by Marcel Cravenne.
 * Because of the Cats (1973), a Dutch/Belgian co-production, starring British actor Bryan Marshall in the title role.

Radio
Adapted for BBC Radio:

 * Gun Before Butter (1993) - Starring Ian Hogg as Van der Valk and Sophie Thompson as Lucienne.
 * King of the Rainy Country (1994) - Starring Martin Jarvis as Van der Valk.
 * Arlette and The Widow (1999) - Starring Stella Gonet as Arlette Van der Valk and Nigel Anthony as Piet Van der Valk.

Featuring Arlette Van der Valk

 * The Widow (1979)
 * One Damn Thing After Another (1981), a.k.a. Arlette

Henri Castang series

 * Dressing of Diamond (1974)
 * What are the Bugles Blowing For? (1975), a.k.a. The Bugles Blowing
 * Lake Isle (1976), a.k.a. Sabine
 * The Night Lords (1978)
 * Castang's City (1980)
 * Wolfnight (1982)
 * The Back of the North Wind (1983)
 * No Part in Your Death (1984)
 * Cold Iron (1986)
 * Lady Macbeth (1988)
 * Not as Far as Velma (1989)
 * Those in Peril (1990)
 * Flanders Sky (1992), a.k.a. The Pretty How Town
 * You Who Know (1994)
 * The Seacoast of Bohemia (1994)
 * A Dwarf Kingdom (1996)

In 1990 Not as Far as Velma was adapted as a six-part BBC Radio serial starring Keith Barron as Castang.

Other novels

 * Valparaiso (1964, 1. edition as by F. R. E. Nicolas )
 * The Dresden Green (1966)
 * This is the Castle (1968)
 * Gadget (1977)
 * A City Solitary (1984)
 * One More River (1998)
 * Some Day Tomorrow (1999)
 * The Janeites (2002)

Non-fiction

 * The Kitchen (1970)
 * Cook Book (1972)
 * Criminal Convictions (1994)
 * The Village Book (2001)
 * The Kitchen and the Cook (2002)

title: Nicolas Freeling


text:
Michael Cunningham

Michael Cunningham (born November 6, 1952) is an American novelist and screenwriter. He is best known for his 1998 novel The Hours, which won the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction and the PEN/Faulkner Award in 1999. Cunningham is Professor in the Practice of Creative Writing at Yale University.

Early life and education
Cunningham was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, and grew up in La Cañada Flintridge, California. He studied English literature at Stanford University, where he earned his degree. Later, at the University of Iowa, he received a Michener Fellowship and was awarded a Master of Fine Arts degree from the Iowa Writers' Workshop. While studying at Iowa, he had short stories published in the Atlantic Monthly and The Paris Review. His short story "White Angel" was later used as a chapter in his novel A Home at the End of the World. It was included in "The Best American Short Stories, 1989", published by Houghton Mifflin.

In 1988, Cunningham received a National Endowment for the Arts Fellowship and in 1993 a Guggenheim Fellowship. In 1995 he was awarded a Whiting Award. Cunningham has taught at the Fine Arts Work Center in Provincetown, Massachusetts, and in the creative writing M.F.A. program at Brooklyn College.

Career
The Hours established Cunningham as a major force in the American writing sphere, and his 2010 novel, By Nightfall, was also well received by U.S. critics. Cunningham edited a book of poetry and prose by Walt Whitman, Laws for Creations, and co-wrote, with Susan Minot, a screenplay adapted from Minot's novel Evening. He was a producer for the 2007 film Evening, starring Glenn Close, Toni Collette, and Meryl Streep.

In November 2010, Cunningham judged one of NPR's "Three Minute Fiction" contests.

In April 2018, it was announced that Cunningham would serve as consulting producer for a revival of the Tales of the City miniseries, which is based on Armistead Maupin's book series of the same name. The miniseries premiered on June 7, 2019.

Personal life
Although Cunningham is gay, and married to psychoanalyst Ken Corbett, he dislikes being referred to as a gay writer, according to a PlanetOut article. While he often writes about gay people, he does not "want the gay aspects of [his] books to be perceived as their single, primary characteristic." Cunningham lives in Brooklyn, New York and works in Manhattan.

Novels

 * Golden States (1984)
 * A Home at the End of the World (1990)
 * Flesh and Blood (1995)
 * The Hours (1998)
 * Specimen Days (2005)
 * By Nightfall (2010)
 * The Snow Queen (2014)
 * Day (2023)

Short stories
Collections:
 * A Wild Swan and Other Tales (2015), Farrar, Straus and Giroux ISBN 978-0374290252, collection of 11 short stories:
 * "Dis. Enchant.", "A Wild Swan", "Crazy Old Lady", "Jacked", "Poisoned", "A Monkey's Paw", "Little Man", "Steadfast; Tin", "Beasts", "Her Hair", "Ever/After"

Uncollected short stories:
 * "White Angel" (1989), later used as a chapter in novel A Home at the End of the World
 * "Mister Brother" (1999)
 * "The Destruction Artist" (2007), collected in A Memory, a Monologue, a Rant, and a Prayer (2007), edited by Eve Ensler and Mollie Doyle
 * "A Wild Swan" (2010), collected in anthology My Mother She Killed Me, My Father He Ate Me: Forty New Fairy Tales (2010), edited by Kate Bernheimer and Carmen Giménez Smith

Non-fiction

 * , article
 * Land's End: A Walk in Provincetown (2002), travels
 * Company (2008), an essay on the influence of Virginia Woolf on Cunningham's writing
 * About Time: Fashion and Duration (2020), with Andrew Bolton, couture

Screenplays

 * A Home at the End of the World (2004)
 * Evening (2007)

Contributor

 * Drawn by the Sea (2000) (exhibition catalogue text; 110 signed copies)
 * The Voyage Out (2001), by Virginia Woolf (Modern Library Classics edition) (Introduction)
 * I Am Not This Body: The Pinhole Photographs of Barbara Ess (2001) (Text)
 * Washington Square (2004), by Henry James (Signet Classics edition) (Afterword)
 * Death in Venice (2004), by Thomas Mann (new translation by Michael Henry Heim) (Introduction)
 * Laws for Creations (2006), poems by Walt Whitman (Editor and introduction)
 * Fall River Boys (2012), photo book by Richard Renaldi, introductory essay

Adaptations

 * The Hours (2002), film directed by Stephen Daldry, based on novel The Hours
 * The Hours (2022), opera with music by Kevin Puts and libretto by Greg Pierce, based on the novel and the film
 * A Home at the End of the World (2004), film directed by Michael Mayer, based on novel A Home at the End of the World
 * The Destruction Artist (2012), short film directed by Michael Sharpe, based on short story "The Destruction Artist"
 * The Hours: A Live Tribute (2016), short film directed by Tim McNeill, based on novel The Hours

Awards and achievements

 * "White Angel" was included in the 1989 Best American Short Stories.
 * "Mister Brother" was included in the 2000 O. Henry Prize Stories.

For The Hours, Cunningham was awarded the:
 * Pulitzer Prize for Fiction - 1999
 * PEN/Faulkner Award - 1999
 * Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Transgender Book Award - 1999

In 1995, Cunningham received the a Whiting Award.

In 2011, Cunningham won the Fernanda Pivano Award for American Literature in Italy.

title: Michael Cunningham


text:
Arrow Air

Arrow Air was a passenger and cargo airline based in Building 712 on the grounds of Miami International Airport (MIA) in Miami-Dade County, Florida. At different times over the years, it operated over 90 weekly scheduled cargo flights, had a strong charter business and at one point operated scheduled international and domestic passenger flights. Its main base was Miami International Airport. Arrow Air ceased operations on June 29, 2010, and filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection on July 1, 2010. It was then liquidated.

California origins
Arrow Air founder George E. Batchelor was born of Native American ancestry in Shawnee, Oklahoma, in 1920. He became a pilot, and the loss of his first wife and son in a plane crash did not stop him from moving to Compton, California, in 1947 and establishing Arrow Air. The carrier established its base at Torrance Municipal Airport, Torrance, California, from where it operated Douglas DC-3s on passenger and cargo services within the state. The airline halted scheduled operations in 1953 due to Batchelor's perception of an anti-competitive regulatory environment in the air transport business. However, Batchelor continued leasing aircraft, often with crews, to other small airlines.

Batchelor moved Arrow Air to South Florida in 1964. Considered a pioneer in both south Florida's aviation industry and in the Latin American air cargo market, Batchelor would amass a considerable fortune and donate much of it to homeless and children's causes before dying in July 2002.

Relaunched in 1981

On May 26, 1981, Arrow Air relaunched as a charter airline under Miami's Batchelor Enterprises, whose aviation operations included fixed-base operator (FBO) Batch Air and International Air Leases, Inc., Arrow's parent company. (Batch Air eventually became owned by an employee group and was sold to Greenwich Air in 1987 for more than $30 million.) Arrow added scheduled passenger services in April 1982, beginning with California-Montego Bay.

Low fares were causing the company to lose money. In October 1984, it canceled several routes, including Tampa–London. At the same time, the company reoriented its route structure from an east–west alignment to a north–south one, reported Aviation Week & Space Technology. San Juan, Puerto Rico, where the company was building a new hub, was the center of the scheduled network, and by the end of 1985 Arrow Air was flying between SJU and Aguadilla, Puerto Rico, Montreal, Toronto, New York City, Philadelphia, Boston, Baltimore, Orlando, and Miami. In 1985, more than one million people flew onboard Arrow Air to 245 destinations in 72 countries with the majority of these flights being unscheduled charter service.

Arrow Air was operating Douglas DC-8 and wide-body McDonnell Douglas DC-10 aircraft at this time. Like other start-ups, Arrow contracted some functions to other airlines. United Airlines trained Arrow Air crews in Denver, and Florida Air supplemented Batch-Air's maintenance work.

The company was approved for military charters in 1984, and in October 1985 won a $13.8 million contract with the Department of Defense. This accounted for only a small segment of Arrow's revenues. Most of its business came from scheduled service from Canada and the East Coast to Puerto Rico and Mexico. Commercial charters accounted for another 20 percent or so.

In carrying out its military flights, the airline experienced a large-scale disaster and its second fatal accident and first since the airline's relaunch. On December 12, 1985, one of the company's DC-8s crashed after takeoff in Gander, Newfoundland, killing 248 soldiers of the 101st Airborne Division and eight of Arrow's flight crew personnel. The flight had originated in Cairo and had taken on fuel in Gander after stopping in Cologne, West Germany. The accident resulted in a great deal of unfavorable media coverage and government scrutiny for the airline. Arrow filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy reorganization on February 11, 1986, laying off 400 employees. However, operations continued.

Richard Haberly was named president of Arrow Air in 1987. Arrow's wet lease business—the practice of hiring out planes complete with crews and fuel—began to pick up again. In 1987, Arrow began leasing a DC-8 to LOT Polish Airlines for a Warsaw–New York–Chicago route. It also provided a long-range Douglas DC-8-62CF jet to Air Marshall Islands which was operated in a mixed passenger/freight combi aircraft configuration on flights linking several remote Pacific islands with Honolulu. In early 1991, Arrow was again carrying U.S. troops, this time for the military buildup preceding the war in the Persian Gulf.

Arrow boasted a 98 percent on-time rate and a high degree of customer loyalty. Rates for Latin American cargo fell 15 percent in the early 1990s as U.S. passenger airlines United Airlines and American Airlines paid increased attention to that market. After a few profitable years, Arrow posted losses in 1992 and 1993. Richard Haberly was succeeded as Arrow president in June 1994 by Jonathan D. Batchelor, stepson of chairman and company founder George Batchelor.

In the mid-1990s, Arrow's fleet numbered 18 aircraft including Douglas DC-8s and Boeing 727-200s (two of which were configured for passengers). Many of the planes were acquired from bankrupt Eastern Air Lines. The company removed the Boeing 727s from the fleet and began leasing Lockheed L-1011 wide-body jets in 1996 when its fleet numbered just nine aircraft. By this time, charter flights for other airlines were accounting for half of Arrow's business.

Grounded in 1995

Market conditions were not Arrow's only worries. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) grounded Arrow in March 1995, charging the carrier had improperly documented maintenance. A company spokesman countered that the grounding was unfair and was related simply to the FAA's request that Arrow prints out a hard copy of its fleet records, which were stored electronically. Company officials blamed the affair on a disgruntled employee who had been fired for theft.

Arrow contracted other carriers to handle its business during the crisis. British Airways, for example, handled the route between Columbus, Ohio, and Glasgow, Scotland. Arrow also laid off 368 of its 587 employees. During the shutdown, Arrow lost $3.5 million, plus another $1.5 million in FAA fines.

The FAA allowed the company to begin flying cargo again in June 1995. Soon, Arrow was carrying more international freight at Miami International Airport than any other carrier. It was connecting San Juan to the Northeast via Hartford, Connecticut; to the Midwest via Columbus, Ohio; and to the Southeast via Atlanta.

A restructuring in June 1996 placed Terence Fensome as president and CEO of Arrow Air. Jonathan Batchelor soon took over again as president, but in July 1998 relinquished that role for the positions of chairman and CEO as Guillermo J. "Willy" Cabeza became president and chief operating officer. Cabeza had been vice-president of operations at Arrow.

Arrow failed to profit from the upswing in the economy in 1997. It lost $15.1 million for the year on revenues of $88.3 million. The company had posted losses of $11.3 million in 1996 on revenues of $61.1 million.

Arrow started a new weekly service from Houston to Peru and Ecuador in February 1998. Houston was billing itself as a "Gateway to Latin America" to compete with Miami, which handled 85 percent of cargo traffic to the region. Arrow revenues were $87 million in fiscal 1998.

A merger and a bankruptcy: 1999–2004

After a few difficult years, Arrow was acquired by Fine Air Services in early 1999 (the deal was finalized in April) from International Air Leases Inc. for $115 million. Frank and Barry Fine, owners of Fine Air, planned to keep Arrow's brand name viable and continued to emphasize scheduled, rather than charter, cargo service. Included in the purchase were 13 Douglas DC-8 jets, four Lockheed L-1011 wide-body jets, 130 jet engines, and spare parts. The buy gave Arrow access to Fine's 133000 sqft refrigerated distribution facility for handling perishables, which made up the bulk of Latin American cargo.

Unfortunately, Fine Air had its own set of woes resulting from a fatal crash of one of its DC-8s in August 1997. This scuttled Fine's planned $123 million initial public offerings. Rising fuel costs, a downturn in the Latin American market, and debt left over from its Arrow Air acquisition combined to make the airline unflyable. Fine lost $108 million in 2000 on revenues of $152 million, and another $36 million on 2001 revenues of $148 million.

The company filed for bankruptcy on September 27, 2000, and subsequently merged with Arrow Air, Inc., leaving behind the Fine Air Services name. The Fine family would no longer control the company. It emerged from Chapter 11 in May 2002 as a unit of Arrow Air Holdings Corp., a Greenwich, Connecticut, investment group led by Dort Cameron.

Revenues were $148 million in 2001 when Arrow had about 800 employees in Miami and another 200 in other locations. The fleet had grown to 16 DC-8s and two Lockheed L-1011s; the carrier had also begun leasing a pair of McDonnell Douglas DC-10s.

The new Arrow was losing $3 million a month, reported Traffic World in early 2002, yet the company aimed to break even by year-end. The withdrawal of Grupo TACA's freighters from the market provided Arrow with an opportunity to expand services in Central America with some east–west routes. Arrow re-entered the charter business and diversified geographically via partnerships with airlines such as Atlas Air, Lloyd Aéreo Boliviano, and Air Global International (AGI). AGI had been formed in 2001 and leased two Boeing 747s to carry cargo to South America. Its routes complemented those of Arrow Air, which acquired AGI in March 2002. Operationally, Arrow Air planned to retire its Lockheed L-1011 by 2003 and replace its dozen DC-8s with DC-10s a few years after. In January 2004 Arrow Air filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection, but exited in June 2004 after a bankruptcy court approved its restructuring.

Arrow Cargo's strategic alliance

In March 2008, Arrow announced that it entered into a strategic alliance with the firm known as MatlinPatterson Global Opportunities, a private equity investment fund which formerly controlled the Brazilian company Varig Log along with the rebranded ATA Holdings (the parent company of ATA Airlines) which has now been renamed Global Aviation Holdings. As of April, indications were MatlinPatterson would be shuttering Arrow Cargo.

End of operations
Arrow Cargo ceased scheduled operations on June 30, 2010. After failing to find a buyer, the company was liquidated.

Transatlantic and South American routes in 1983-84
According to the worldwide edition of the Official Airline Guide (OAG), in 1983 Arrow Air was operating scheduled passenger service with stretched Super DC-8 jets between the U.S. and Europe including nonstop flights between London Gatwick Airport (LGW) and both Denver (DEN) and Tampa (TPA) and also direct between Miami (MIA) and both London Gatwick Airport and Amsterdam (AMS) as well as direct between Tampa and Amsterdam. Also according to the OAG, the airline was flying Boeing 707 passenger service nonstop between New York JFK Airport and Georgetown, Guyana at this time. By 1984, Arrow Air was operating nonstop Super DC-8 service between San Juan (SJU) and Amsterdam (AMS) in conjunction with Surinam Airways which was flying connecting service between San Juan and its home base at Paramaribo at the time. None of these flights were operated on a daily basis but were instead primarily flown several days a week.

Destinations
The November 14, 1985, Arrow Air system timetable listed the following destinations. The airline was operating Boeing 727-200, stretched Super Douglas DC-8 and wide body McDonnell Douglas DC-10 jetliners in scheduled passenger service at this time.

 * Aguadilla, PR (BQN)
 * Baltimore, MD (BWI)
 * Boston, MA (BOS)
 * Orlando, FL (MCO)
 * Miami, FL (MIA)
 * Montreal, QC (YUL)
 * New York City, NY - JFK Airport (JFK)
 * Philadelphia, PA (PHL)
 * San Juan, PR (SJU) - Hub
 * Toronto, ON (YYZ)

The route map accompanying the above referenced Arrow Air timetable lists San Juan, Puerto Rico as a hub at this time with nonstop service to and from Baltimore, Miami, Montreal, New York City, Orlando, Philadelphia, and Toronto, and direct one-stop service to and from Boston.

This same Arrow Air timetable also lists the following new destinations that were to begin receiving scheduled passenger service on December 13, 1985:

 * Cancun, Mexico (CUN)
 * Caracas, Venezuela (CCS)
 * Cozumel, Mexico (CZM)
 * Merida, Mexico (MID)
 * Tampa, FL (TPA)

Cargo destinations in 2005
Cargo Solutions (cargo routes & schedules)

Arrow Air operated the following freight services (at January 2005):

 * Domestic scheduled destinations
 * Atlanta (ATL)
 * San Juan, Puerto Rico (SJU)
 * Miami (MIA)

 * International scheduled destinations
 * Mérida (MID)
 * Iquitos (IQT)
 * Bogotá (BOG)
 * Lima (LIM)
 * Panama City (PTY)
 * San José (SJO)
 * Santo Domingo (SDQ)
 * Santiago (SCL)
 * Port au Prince (PAP)

 * Scheduled destinations of Arrow Air, Inc. dba Arrow Cargo
 * Canada
 * Windsor
 * Central America
 * Guatemala City
 * El Salvador
 * San Pedro Sula, Honduras
 * Managua, Nicaragua
 * San José, Costa Rica
 * Panama City
 * South America
 * Bogotá
 * Medellin
 * Cali
 * Ciudad del Este
 * Guayaquil
 * Iquitos
 * Lima
 * Manaus
 * Quito
 * Salvador, Brazil
 * Santiago, Chile
 * São Paulo
 * Recife
 * Campinas

Final fleet
The Arrow Cargo fleet includes the following aircraft (at Aug 1, 2009):

Retired fleet
Over the years, Arrow Air had in the past operated a variety of aircraft, including:

Livery
The livery used when the airline was operating as Arrow Air had a large dark blue 'A' on the aircraft tail, one end of which extended into a line along the fuselage below the window-level and to the nose below the cockpit windows. The remainder of the aircraft was white, with "Arrow Air" titles above the windows forward in red. At the time Arrow Cargo ceased operating, its livery consisted of a white fuselage forward, with blue and green to the rear of the aircraft, and with "Arrow Cargo" titles in green accompanied by a blue logo near the front. N140WE was an Arrow Air plane that was painted all white.

Accidents and incidents

 * December 7, 1949: An Arrow Air Douglas DC-3 (registered N60256), en route from Oakland to Sacramento, flew into the ground near Benicia, California, during bad weather. All aboard (six passengers and three flight crew) were killed, including Batchelor's 26-year-old wife, Lorraine, and 2-year-old son, George.  The plane crashed into terrain at 800 feet elevation when its reported altitude was 4,000 feet;  it was never determined whether the crash was due to pilot error or an instrument malfunction.
 * December 12, 1985: An Arrow Air Douglas DC-8-63CF (registered N950JW), operating as Arrow Air Flight 1285, carrying American military personnel on a charter flight home for Christmas, crashed in Newfoundland, killing all 248 passengers on board and 8 crew members.
 * On April 4, 2001 at 01:00 AM Arrow Air Flight from Cali after a refueling stop had a nose landing gear malfunction warning. After checklists completed with putting gear handle down, the nose gear down lock indices were inspected through a viewing hole after depressurizing the jet in flight, and the crew found stow aways in the nose gear compartment and the nose gear down lock 1/8" out of alignment in agreement with the warning. They hoped to land with gear held in place by the 3000 psi hyd pressure. They touched down at 120 kias but at about 90 acidic skydrol fumes came into the flight deck through the open down lock viewing hole. The fumes turned out to be caused by a broken line in the ceiling pf the gear well going to the hyd pressure sensor because of it being tightly held on to by one of the stow aways fearful of the gear doors opening again, evidenced by the stainless line being found broken downwards instead of upwards by the crushing event when the loss of hydraulic pressure through the broken line allowed the nose gear to collapse. The two young men's belongings were found next to the hold short line for the runway including a book about the Eastern Airlines L-1011 which had a heated pressurized avionics bay in the nose wheel well. Arrow Air had a L-1011 with the same paint job taking off a couple hours later. The young men mistakingly crawled into the wrong jet to Miami on the dark night at the edge of the runway. This written by one of the crew members who has evidence and citation of the incident.
 * On February 28, 2002, Arrow Air Flight P6L, a Douglas DC-8-62F operated by Arrow Air (registered N1808E), named "Santa Rosa", touched down at Singapore Changi Airport. The tower instructed the aircraft to park at Bay 117. Instead, the aircraft turned right into a grassy area and fell into a ditch where the main landing gears broke off from the aircraft.
 * On December 13, 2002, Arrow Air Flight P5L, a Douglas DC-8-62F operated by Arrow Air (registered N1804), named "Caribbean Queen", flying from Yokota Air Force Base in Japan was approaching runway 20R at Singapore Changi Airport. Due to a miscommunication between the First Officer and Captain during landing, when the aircraft touched down only about 1,500 m of the runway was available. The aircraft overran the runway and came to rest about 300 m from its end.
 * In 2004, a former Arrow Air Lockheed L-1011 TriStar that was stored at Miami International Airport was damaged by a hurricane. The aircraft had been retired and was waiting for a new operator.
 * June 4, 2006: A McDonnell Douglas DC-10-10F (registered N68047) en route from Miami to Managua touched down fast at Managua and was unable to stop before the end of the runway. The aircraft overran the end of the runway by about 350 m. The front landing gear collapsed, which led to substantial damage to the engines on the wing of the aircraft as well as a rupture in a fuel tank.
 * On March 26, 2009, Arrow Air Flight 431, a McDonnell Douglas DC-10F, (registered N526MD), en route Manaus-Bogotá lost parts of an engine whilst flying over Manaus. The engine parts fell into the city, damaging 12 houses. The aircraft managed to land safely at El Dorado International Airport, Bogotá, Colombia. No one was injured or killed in this incident.

title: Arrow Air


text:
Asylum seeker

An asylum seeker is a person who leaves their country of residence, enters another country, and makes in that other country a formal application for the right of asylum according to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights Article 14. A person keeps the status of asylum seeker until the right of asylum application has concluded.

The relevant immigration authorities of the country of asylum determine whether the asylum seeker will be granted the right of asylum protection or whether asylum will be refused and the asylum seeker becomes an illegal immigrant who may be asked to leave the country and may even be deported in line with non-refoulement. Signatories to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights create their own policies for assessing the protection status of asylum seekers, and the proportion of asylum applicants who are accepted or rejected varies each year from country to country.

The asylum seeker may be simultaneously recognized as a refugee and given refugee status if their circumstances fall into the definition of refugee according to the Convention relating to the Status of Refugees or regionally applicable refugee laws—such as the European Convention on Human Rights, if within the European Union.

The terms asylum seeker, refugee and illegal immigrant are often confused. In North American English, the term asylee is used both for an asylum seeker, as defined above, and a person whose right of asylum has been granted. On average, about 1-2 million people apply globally for asylum every year.

Asylum and protection
The right of asylum according to the Article 14 of Universal Declaration of Human Rights: "1. Everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution. 2. This right may not be invoked in the case of prosecutions genuinely arising from non-political crimes or from acts contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations." Asylum seekers who have committed crimes against peace, a war crime or a crime against humanity, or other non-political crimes, or whose actions are contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations, are excluded from international protection. This asylum right is also included in 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees. As of 1 July 2013, there were 145 parties to the 1951 Refugee Convention and 146 to the 1967 Protocol. These states are bound by an obligation under international law to grant asylum to people who fall within the definition of Convention and Protocol. Persons who do not fall within this definition may still be granted refugee according to the refugee definitions of 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and the 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees and persons who fall within this definition are called Convention refugees and their status is called Convention refugee status. Complementary forms of protection exist depending on country if the person falls within other refugee definitions.

The practical determination of whether a person obtains the right of asylum or not is most often left to certain government agencies within the host country. In some countries the refugee status determination (RSD) is done by the UNHCR. The burden of substantiating an asylum claim lies with the claimant, who must establish that they qualify for protection.

In many countries, country-of-origin information is used by migration officials as part of the assessment of asylum claims, and governments commission research into the accuracy of their country reports. Some countries have studied the rejection rates of their migration officials making decisions, finding that individuals reject more applicants than others assessing similar cases—and migration officials are required to standardise the reasons for accepting or rejecting claims, so that the decision of one adjudicator is consistent with what their colleagues decide.

Subsidiary protection status
Subsidiary protection is an international protection for persons seeking asylum who do not qualify as refugees. It is an option to get asylum for those who do not have a well-founded fear of persecution (which is required for refugee status according to the 1951 Convention), but do indeed have a substantial risk to be subjected to torture or to a serious harm if they are returned to their country of origin, for reasons that include war, violence, conflict and massive violations of human rights. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights and European Union law have a broader definition of who is entitled to asylum.

Temporary protection visa
Temporary protection visas are used to persons in Australia who applied for refugee status after making an unauthorised arrival. It is the main type of visa issued to refugees when released from Australian immigration detention facilities and they are required to reapply for it every three years.

Statistics of asylum decisions
Outcomes of asylum applications 2000-2023 according to UNHCR:

Group determination
Asylum seekers may be given refugee status on a group basis. Refugees who went through the group status determination are also referred to as prima facie refugees. This is done in situations when the reasons for seeking refugee status are generally well known and individual assessment would otherwise overwhelm the capacities of assessors. Group determination is more readily done in states that not only have accepted the refugee definition of the 1951 Convention, but also use a refugee definition that includes people fleeing indiscriminate or generalized violence, which are not covered in the 1951 Convention.

Individual assessment
For persons who do not come into the country as part of a bigger group, individual asylum interviews are conducted to establish whether the person has sufficient reasons for seeking asylum. Meanwhile, high numbers of asylum seekers necessitate governments to provide machine learning systems to assist both asylum seekers and immigration officers in performing fair and just assessments.

Appeals
In many countries, asylum applicants can challenge a rejection by challenging the decision in a court or migration review panel. In the United Kingdom, more than one in four decisions to refuse an asylum seeker protection are overturned by immigration judges.

Rights of asylum seekers
Whilst waiting for a decision asylum seekers have limited rights in the country of asylum. In most countries they are not allowed to work and in some countries not even to volunteer. In some countries they are not allowed to move freely within the country. Even access to health care is limited. In the European Union, those who have yet to be granted official status as refugees and are still within the asylum process have some restricted rights to healthcare access. This includes access to medical and psychological care. However, these may vary depending on the host country. For instance, under the Asylum Seekers Benefits Act (Asylbewerberleistungsgesetz) in Germany, asylum seekers are outside primary care and are limited to emergency health care, vaccinations, pregnancy and childbirth with limitations on specialty care. Asylum seekers have greater chance of experiencing unmet health needs as compared to the general German population. Asylum seekers also have greater odds of hospital admissions and at least one visit to a psychotherapist relative to the German general population.

Concerns in asylum-seeking processes
Research suggests cross-sector collaboration is key to assist refugees and asylum seekers resettle and integrate into receiving communities, workplaces and schools.

Non-governmental organizations concerned with refugees and asylum seekers have pointed out difficulties for displaced persons to seek asylum in industrialized countries. As the immigration policy in many countries often focuses on the fight of illegal immigration and the strengthening of border controls, it deters displaced persons from entering territory in which they could lodge an asylum claim. The lack of opportunities to legally access the asylum procedures can force displaced persons to undertake often expensive and hazardous attempts at illegal entry.

In recent years, the public as well as policy makers of many countries are focusing more and more on refugees arriving through third country resettlement and pay less and less attention to asylum seekers and those who have already been granted refugee status but did not come through resettlement. Asylum seekers have even been referred to as 'queue jumpers', because they did not wait for their chance to be resettled.

Legal interpreters are assigned to assist asylum seekers throughout interviews and court proceedings. These legal interpreters reflect the training they received in the training program they were certified in. The accuracy of the legal interpretation may vary depending on the training received from the interpreter and potential biases they carry coming into the interpreting session. Lack of training in asylum settings may influence interpretation sessions.

Quality of life of asylum seekers and refugees is highly correlated with the mental health status. The presence of mental disorders like depression or PTSD is mainly due to the forced migration and the resettlement in host countries.

Challenges in Relaying Trauma and Experiences
Asylum seekers encounter significant challenges in effectively conveying their traumatic experiences during the asylum application process. A comprehensive study by Sarah C. Bishop, examining nonverbal communication in US asylum interviews and hearings, highlights several critical elements influencing asylum seekers' ability to articulate their narratives.

The study underscores the complexity of asylum seekers' narratives, often shaped by emotional distress and the need to recount traumatic events within strict timelines. This pressure contributes to fragmented storytelling. This case leads to difficulties in presenting a coherent account of their experiences.

Language barriers further compound these challenges. Asylum seekers' linguistic disparities and stress during interviews impede their ability to articulate experiences accurately. Stress-induced memory lapses contribute to incomplete or non-sequential storytelling, affecting the quality and coherence of their narratives.

Additionally, the study delves into nonverbal communication complexities, particularly regarding eye contact and credibility within asylum hearings. Cultural variations in eye contact influence credibility assessments, potentially leading to misinterpretations by immigration personnel. Differing cultural expectations impact asylum seekers' credibility assessments, potentially affecting the outcomes of their claims.

Destitution
Because asylum seekers often have to wait for months or years for the results of their asylum applications and because they are usually not allowed to work and only receive minimal or no financial support, destitution is a considerable risk.

Asylum seekers usually get some kind of support from governments whilst their application is processed. However, in some countries this support ends immediately once they are given refugee status. But the fact that they were given refugee status does not mean that they were already given all the documents they need for starting their new lives. Long waiting times significantly reduce the likelihood to obtain a job and the social integration of refugees.

Refusal of asylum
It often happens that the country neither recognizes the refugee status of the asylum seekers nor sees them as legitimate migrants and thus treats them as illegal aliens. If an asylum claim has been rejected, the asylum seeker is said to be refused asylum and called a failed asylum seeker. Some failed asylum seekers return home voluntarily. Depending on the country, failed asylum seekers are allowed to remain temporarily or are forcibly returned in line with non-refoulement. The latter are most often placed in immigration detention before being deported.

Related organizations

 * Organization for Refugees Asylum and Migration
 * Amnesty International
 * International Committee of the Red Cross
 * International Cities of Refuge Network
 * United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

title: Asylum seeker


text:
Guillaume Durand

Guillaume Durand, or William Durand (c. 1230 – 1 November 1296), also known as Durandus, Duranti or Durantis, from the Italian form of Durandi filius, as he sometimes signed himself, was a French canonist and liturgical writer, and Bishop of Mende.

Life
Durand was born at Puimisson, near Béziers, of a noble family of Languedoc. He studied law at Bologna, with Bernard of Botone, and by about 1264 was teaching canon law with success at Modena. Pope Clement IV, another Frenchman, called him to the pontifical court as a chaplain and auditor of the palace, and in 1274 he accompanied Clement's successor, Pope Gregory X, to the Second Council of Lyons, the constitutions of which he helped draw up. As spiritual and temporal legate of the patrimony of St. Peter, he received in 1278, in the pope's name, the homage of Bologna and the other cities of Romagna. Pope Martin IV made him vicar spiritual in 1281, then governor of Romagna and of the March of Ancona (1283). In the midst of the struggles between Guelfs and Ghibellines, Durand successfully defended the papal territories, both by diplomacy and by arms. Pope Honorius IV retained him in his offices, and although elected bishop of Mende in 1286, he remained in Italy until 1291. In 1293 he created a rite for all those who were taking up the cross to participate in the crusades, “to go in aid of the Holy Land”. In September 1294 he was present at Orleans at the Provincial Council presided over by Simon, Bishop of Bourges. In 1295 he refused the archbishopric of Ravenna, offered him by Pope Boniface VIII, but accepted the task of pacifying his former provinces of Romagna and the March of Ancona. In 1296 he withdrew to Rome, where he died. His tomb is in the church of Santa Maria sopra Minerva.

Durand's nephew, also called Guillaume Durand, was also a canonist. Guillaume Durand the Younger, a later bishop of Mende, was an advocate of ecclesiastical reform at the Council of Vienne.

Important works
Durand's principal work is the Speculum iudiciale, which was compiled in 1271, and revised in 1286 and 1291. It is a general explanation of civil, criminal, and canonical procedure, and also includes a survey of the subject of contracts. It is a remarkable encyclopaedic synthesis of Roman and ecclesiastical law, distinguished by its clarity, its method, and especially its practical sense, and it was long highly regarded in the courts as in the schools. It won Durand the nickname of Doctor Speculator, an obvious pun on the title of his work. It was commented upon by Giovanni d'Andrea (in 1346), and by Baldus. In 1306 Cardinal Béranger drew up an alphabetic table of its contents (Inventorium). There are many manuscripts of the Speculum, and several printed editions, of which the most usual is that of Turin in 1578 in 2 volumes, containing all additions – among them those by Giovanni d'Andrea – and tables. This edition was reproduced at Frankfurt in 1612 and 1668.

Another important work by Durand was the Rationale divinorum officiorum, a liturgical treatise written in Italy before 1286, on the origin and symbolic sense of Christian ritual. It presents a picture of the liturgy of the 13th century in the West, studied in its various forms, its traditional sources, and its relation to the church buildings and furniture. It long served as a major authority on medieval Latin liturgy and ran through various editions from its first printing  in 1459. The other important works of Durand comprise:
 * Repertorium iuris canonici (Breviarium aureum), a collection of citations from canonists on questions of controversy, often published along with the Speculum
 * Commentarius in sacrosanctum Lugdunense concilium (ed. Fano, 1569), of especial value owing to Durand's part in drawing up the council's constitutions, and inserted by Pope Boniface VIII in the Sextus.

title: Guillaume Durand


text:
Lake Simcoe

Lake Simcoe is a lake in southern Ontario, Canada, the fourth-largest lake wholly in the province, after Lake Nipigon, Lac Seul, and Lake Nipissing. At the time of the first European contact in the 17th century, the lake was called Ouentironk ("Beautiful Water") by the native Wendat/Ouendat (Huron) people. It was also known as Lake Taronto until it was renamed by John Graves Simcoe, the first Lieutenant-Governor of Upper Canada, in memory of his father, Captain John Simcoe of the Royal Navy. In Anishinaabemowin, the historical language of the First Nations living around this lake, namely Anishinaabek of Rama and Georgina Island First Nations, the lake is called Zhooniyaang-zaaga'igan, meaning "Silver Lake".

Toponymy
Lake Simcoe's name was given by John Graves Simcoe in 1793 in memory of his father, Captain John Simcoe. Captain Simcoe was born on 28 November 1710, in Staindrop, in County Durham, northeast England, and served as an officer in the Royal Navy, dying of pneumonia aboard his ship, HMS Pembroke, on 15 May 1759.

Historically, at the time of the first European contact in the 17th century, the lake was called Ouentironk ("Beautiful Water") by the Wyandot (Huron) natives; The Wyandot name for the lake was rendered as Wentaron in European sources up until the 20th century. A 1675 map by Pierre Raffeix referred to the lake with the French term Lac Taronto and a 1687 map by Lahontan called it Lake Taronto, while the name Tarontos Lac appeared on a 1678 map of New France by cartographer Jean-Baptiste-Louis Franquelin. The term Taranto refers to an Iroquoian expression meaning gateway or pass. Taronto had originally referred to The Narrows, a channel of water through which Lake Simcoe discharges into Lake Couchiching. (Natural Resources Canada gives a related translation: "it originated as the Mohawk phrase tkaronto, which means "where there are trees standing in the water". According to several Mohawk speakers and aboriginal language expert John Steckley. Mohawks used the phrase to describe The Narrows, where Hurons and other natives drove stakes into the water to create fish weirs. Since then, many subsequent mapmakers adopted this name for it, though cartographer Vincenzo Coronelli is thought to have introduced the more commonly used spelling of Toronto in a map he created in 1695.

The name 'Toronto' found its way to the current city through its use in the name for the Toronto Carrying-Place Trail (or Toronto Passage), a portage running between Lake Ontario and Georgian Bay, that passed through Lake Toronto, which in turn was used as the name for an early French fort located at the foot of the Toronto Passage, on Lake Ontario. The Severn River, its outlet stream, was once called 'Rivière de Toronto' which flows into Georgian Bay's Severn Sound, then called the 'Baie de Toronto'.

Later French traders referred to it as Lac aux Claies, meaning "Lake of Grids (or Trellises)" in reference to the Huron fishing weirs in the lake. It was known by this name until the beginnings of Upper Canada, when it was renamed to Lake Simcoe.

Geography
The lake is bordered by Simcoe County, Durham Region, and York Region. The city of Barrie is located on Kempenfelt Bay, and Orillia is located at the entrance to Lake Couchiching. The watershed draining into the lake contains a population of roughly half a million people, including the northern portion of the Greater Toronto Area (GTA).

The town of Georgina lies along the entire south shore of Lake Simcoe and consists of smaller residential towns and communities, including Keswick on Cook's Bay, Sutton, Jackson's Point, Pefferlaw, and Udora.

The town of Innisfil occupies the western shore south of Barrie and north of Bradford. Eastside Simcoe includes the towns of Beaverton, Brechin and Lagoon City.

Lake Couchiching was at one time thought of as a third bay of Simcoe, known as the Bristol Channel; however, the narrows between the two bodies of water separate them enough to consider this to be another lake. The narrows, known as "where trees stand in the water", an interpretation of the word 'Toronto', was an important fishing point for the First Nations peoples who lived in the area, and the Mohawk term toran-ten eventually gave its name to Toronto by way of the portage route running south from that point, the Toronto Carrying-Place Trail. Radiocarbon dating of surviving stakes reveals that the weirs at The Narrows were in use more than 4,000 years ago. The meaning of "where trees stand in the water", is likely to have originated from Huron practice of driving stakes into the channel sediments to corral fish. Fresh-cut saplings placed in the water and sediments would have sprouted branches and leaves, persisting for some time, leading to a place "where trees stand in the water".

Islands
Lake Simcoe contains a large island, Georgina, which along with Snake Island and Fox Island forms the reserve of the Chippewas of Georgina Island First Nation. The lake is dotted with several smaller islands, including Thorah Island (a cottage destination), Strawberry Island, Snake Island, Helmers Island and Fox Island. Pope John Paul II stayed on Strawberry Island for four days just before World Youth Day 2002 in Toronto.

Before the completion of the Trent Severn Waterway, the water level on Lake Simcoe was quite low enabling residents to cross in wagons or walk in ankle deep water to the mainland. However, when it was completed, the water table increased by several feet. Grape Island on the north end the lake is located off of Orillia. To the east of Grape Island is Goffatt Island, a small and private island located within Ramara.

Georgina, Snake and Fox Islands are within York Region, Thorah is within Durham Region, where as Strawberry Island and Helmers Island are privately owned but within the boundaries of Ramara in Simcoe County. Grape is within Orillia and Goffatt is within Ramara with both owned privately by residents.

Geology
The lake is about 30 km long, 25 km wide and 722 km2 in area. Lake Simcoe is a remnant of a much bigger, prehistoric lake known as Lake Algonquin. This lake's basin also included Lake Huron, Lake Michigan, Lake Superior, Lake Nipigon, and Lake Nipissing. The melting of an ice dam at the close of the last ice age greatly reduced water levels in the region, leaving the lakes of today.

The lake is located on Paleozoic limestone of the Ordovician period. However, due to deep deposits of glacial sediments, this bedrock only appears exposed along the lakeshore on Georgina Island. This rock, however, also appears along the shore of Lake Couchiching, where sediments are thinner. The outlet of the lake at the north end of Lake Couchiching is controlled by Precambrian bedrock which first makes its appearance about mid-way along this lake. As a result, the lake has persisted to the present, with the outlet-flow unable to cut down through the rock, and thereby draining the lake. This is unlike its one-time smaller sister-lake of 'Lake Minesing' to the west, being a remnant of Lake Algonquin, and, later the Nipissing stage of Lake Huron. This lake's outlet was founded on sediments located near Edenvale, which have largely been cut through, draining most of the lake. Today 'Lake Minesing' exists as the Minesing Swamp, but it re-establishes itself for a short period each spring when spring run-off floods the basin.

Isostatic rebound from the retreat of the last glaciers results in a steady rise of Lake Simcoe, particularly at its south end, and is further responsible for the deep organic sediments that have accumulated in its one-time shallow southern arm, known as the Holland Marsh. Here, organic deposits created by vegetation have largely kept pace with the steady rise in water level, and today supports extensive market gardening. All rivers, and most streams, flowing into the lake have wide, deep, navigable mouths as a consequence of the rising waters drowning the river channels.

2017 data for the year prior from the NOAA shows the lake has a yearly average surface temperature of 2.5 degrees Celsius.

Ecology
When a lake is healthy, cold-water fish such as lake trout, herring, and whitefish are abundant and active. It is sometimes known as Canada's ice fishing capital.

Ecological issues
Lake Simcoe has been victim to significant eutrophication. Lake Simcoe has seen a dramatic decline in some fish species, along with an increase in algae blooms and aquatic weed growth. Phosphorus emissions from both urban and rural sources have upset the lake's ecosystem and fostered excessive aquatic plant growth, raising water temperatures, and decreasing oxygen levels, thereby rendering limited breeding grounds inhospitable.

Lake Simcoe has been victim to zebra mussel, purple loosestrife, black crappie, spiny water flea, round goby, rusty crayfish and Eurasian milfoil invasions.

The zebra mussel, which arrived in North American waters in 1985, originated in the Black Sea and Caspian Sea area and is thought to have been brought to North America in the ballast of foreign freighters. Zebra mussels are particularly harmful to Lake Simcoe because they increase the clarity of the water allowing sunlight to penetrate to the bottom of the lake, where more algae and aquatic weeds can grow, accelerating the eutrophication process.

The Rainbow Smelt are another introduced species and they were first observed in the early 1960s. They were believed to compete with native Lake Whitefish and be somewhat responsible for a decline in their populations.

Several initiatives, such as the Lake Simcoe Environmental Management Strategy (LSEMS), the Lake Simcoe Conservation Foundation, and the Lake Simcoe Region Conservation Authority, are making efforts to rectify some of the lake's environmental woes. A local activist group, The Ladies of the Lake, are using the $250,000 they raised from the sale of a nude picture calendar to rally government, business, the school system, and the local citizenry to rescue the lake. Several towns and communities on the lakeshore depend on Lake Simcoe for their drinking water.

The Region of York is currently finalizing plans for a sewage treatment plant to be constructed on the shores of Lake Simcoe to be located on the Holland River in Cook's Bay. This plant's purpose is to support intensification of development in the Lake Simcoe watershed.

Watershed
A number of southern Ontario rivers flow, generally north, into the lake, draining 2581 km2 of land. From the east, the Talbot River, part of the Trent–Severn Waterway, is the most important river draining into Lake Simcoe, connecting the lake with the Kawartha lakes system and Lake Ontario. From its connection to Lake Couchiching, the Severn River is the only drainage from the lake to Georgian Bay, part of Lake Huron (Simcoe itself is not one of the Great Lakes). The canal locks of the Trent-Severn Waterway make this connection navigable. A number of creeks and rivers flow into the lake:

 * Black River
 * Bluffs Creek
 * Beaver River
 * Holland River
 * Maskinonge River
 * Pefferlaw River
 * Talbot River
 * White's Creek
 * Duclos Creek
 * Burnie Creek
 * Virginia CreekA
 * Virginia CreekB
 * Virginia CreekC
 * Virginia CreekD

Recreation
The lake has little commercial activity, but sees many recreational uses. In the winter, it freezes over completely and hosts a number of ice fishing competitions, making it one of the most intensely fished lakes in Ontario. However, claims that it is one of the world's largest lakes that freeze over completely in winter are pure speculation, and, in fact, spurious; Canada alone has a large number of lakes of the same size or larger that do the same.

In the summer, fishing is still an attraction; however, there are also a number of poker runs, jet-skiing, and other boating events. The lake is surrounded with summer cottages leading to heavy recreational and boating use in summer.

There are a number of beaches which attract visitors from the greater Toronto area, as Lake Simcoe has a reputation for cleaner and warmer water than nearby Lake Ontario beaches. Many of the beaches are used for kite surfing as well. Willow Beach in Georgina on the south shore is one of the largest and most popular public beaches on Lake Simcoe.

There are seven yacht clubs (sailing) around the lake, which host a number of regattas, and an active sailing community exists on the lake. The lake also forms part of the Trent–Severn Waterway system that links Lake Ontario and Georgian Bay/Lake Huron.

Lake Simcoe is also well known for its scuba diving. The ship J. C. Morrison sank in 1857 and is a great dive site off Centennial Beach. There are also a number of other popular scuba diving entrance points popular among fresh water divers. Kempenfelt Bay is the most popular for scuba divers as it is the deepest. Visibility ranges from over 30 feet to almost zero.

Maritime enforcement
Ontario Provincial Police, South Simcoe Police Service, York Regional Police, Durham Regional Police, and Barrie Police have marine units that patrol on the waters of the lake. Georgina Island Police patrol on Georgina, Fox and Snake Islands with some capability to respond to marine needs off these islands. As part of Orillia, Grape Island is policed by the OPP.

title: Lake Simcoe