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Ford Crown Victoria

The Ford Crown Victoria ("Crown Vic") is a full-size sedan that was marketed and manufactured by Ford. The successor to the Ford LTD Crown Victoria, two generations of the model line were produced from the 1992 until the 2012 model years. The Ford counterpart of the Mercury Grand Marquis, the Crown Victoria was the largest sedan marketed by Ford in North America, slotted above the Ford Taurus. The Crown Victoria Police Interceptor (1992–2011) was marketed specifically for law-enforcement use; a long-wheelbase Crown Victoria sedan (2002–2011) was marketed primarily for taxi cab fleets.

The Crown Victoria was produced on the rear-wheel drive, body-on-frame Ford Panther platform, sharing its chassis with the Grand Marquis and Lincoln Town Car. From 1997 until their 2011 discontinuation, the three model lines were the sole four-door sedans produced in North America with a full-length frame, rear-wheel drive, and a standard V8 engine. While the front and rear crumple zones were engineered into the vehicle, it was one of Ford's products that were not of unibody construction for the entire generation. The Crown Victoria was the last car made using the Ford Panther platform.

For its entire production, the Crown Victoria was produced by Ford Canada alongside the Grand Marquis at St. Thomas Assembly in Southwold, Ontario. From 1991 until 2011, over 1.5 million cars (including Police Interceptors) were produced by St. Thomas Assembly prior to its closure. A 2012 Crown Victoria (intended for Middle East export) was the final vehicle produced by the facility. Following the discontinuation of the model line, the Crown Victoria was not directly replaced, with the full-size Ford Taurus serving as the next basis for Ford police cars.

Origin of name
Prior to the 1992 model year, Ford used the Crown Victoria nameplate on two vehicles; both were flagship models of their full-size model range. From 1955 until 1956, the nameplate was used for premium two-door Ford Fairlanes. For 1980, the nameplate returned as the top trim of Ford LTD sedans, denoting all Ford full-size sedans in North America from 1983 through 1991.

A styling feature used for both versions is a stainless-steel band trimming the B-pillars ("crowning" the roof).

1955–1956
For 1955, the Ford Fairlane was introduced as the premium Ford model range. Slotted above the Victoria two-door hardtop, the Crown Victoria debuted as the flagship trim of the Fairlane. In place of the popular hardtop roofline, the Crown Victoria was fitted with a B-pillared roofline. Similar to the Mercury XM-800 concept car (though changed in angle), the B-pillar was fitted with a wide stainless-steel band ("crowning" the roof), giving a sleeker appearance to the roofline.

Alongside the standard two-tone roof, the Crown Victoria Skyliner was fitted with a fixed sunroof; a tinted acrylic glass panel formed the entire roof ahead of the B-pillar.

For 1956, the Lifeguard option package was introduced as an option for the Fairlane Crown Victoria (as with all Ford cars).

For the 1957 redesign of the Ford model line, the Crown Victoria was retired from the Fairlane series with no replacement. The Skyliner name made its return in a different form, denoting the Ford Fairlane 500 Skyliner retractable hardtop convertible.

1980–1991
For the 1980 model year, the Crown Victoria nameplate was revived after a 23-year hiatus, becoming part of the Ford LTD model range. Again, a premium trim of the full-size range (replacing the LTD Landau), the LTD Crown Victoria became two-door and four-door sedans. To distinguish the model line from its Mercury (Grand) Marquis counterpart, Ford revived the stainless-steel band to trim the B-pillars (in heavily revised form); the design was used on examples with the standard vinyl half roof.

For 1983, as part of an extensive revision of the midsize and full-size model lines of all three Ford divisions, the LTD Crown Victoria became a stand-alone model line (alongside its Mercury Grand Marquis counterpart). The Ford LTD nameplate was shifted to the midsize segment, replacing the Ford Granada. While having a separate roofline (separate doors and B-pillar trim) from its sedan counterparts, the LTD Country Squire station wagon shared its interior trim with the Crown Victoria sedan (a non-woodgrain Crown Victoria wagon was also introduced).

Discontinued after the 1991 model year, the LTD Crown Victoria (and LTD Country Squire station wagon) marked the final usage of the Ford LTD nameplate in North America. Ford of Australia produced its own Ford LTD as its flagship model line (derived from its own Fairlane) from 1973 until 2007; as neither Mercury nor Lincoln were officially marketed in Australia, the LTD was developed as a luxury vehicle.

First generation (EN53; 1992–1997)
In the first quarter of 1987, development began on a redesign codenamed "EN53". The Ford Crown Victoria was unveiled on November 28, 1990, and began production in January 1991 as a 1992 model, launching on March 21, 1991. Fleet sales of the vehicle were postponed for 14 months to maximize availability for buyers at launch. In line with the redesign of the 1991 Chevrolet Caprice (its chief competitor), the 1992 Crown Victoria featured a major exterior redesign, while retaining the previous-generation chassis. Ford reduced the coefficient of drag of the exterior from 0.42 to 0.34 (nearly matching the 0.32 of the Ford Taurus) to enhance aerodynamics and fuel efficiency, giving the first generation Crown Victoria its sleek, wedge-shaped design that came to be known as the "aero" look.

Due to a market shift in family-oriented vehicles, the Crown Victoria was offered exclusively as a four-door sedan, with the wood-trimmed LTD Country Squire station wagon discontinued. While the Ford Taurus and Mercury Sable continued in production with optional three-row seating, the Country Squire was essentially replaced by the Ford Aerostar, Ford Econoline/Club Wagon, and Ford Explorer.

Ford benefitted from a unique loophole in CAFE standards when the 1992 Crown Victoria and its Grand Marquis twin were launched. To avoid paying gas-guzzler taxes, Ford modified its supplier network so that the two vehicles could be classified as imports from Canada, effectively removing the full-size sedans from the Ford domestic CAFE fleet (alongside the Ford Mustang V8) and placing them in its imported fleet (alongside the Ford Festiva).

Chassis
In lieu of developing an all-new platform architecture, the Crown Victoria retained the Panther platform of its LTD Crown Victoria predecessor. Although launched in 1978, the Panther chassis underwent extensive upgrades to improve its road manners and handling; major updates were made to the steering and suspension tuning. To improve braking performance, the Crown Victoria gained four-wheel disc brakes, which were only seen on the Lincoln Mark VII, Ford Taurus SHO, and Ford Escort GT (1991-1996). Available as options, anti-lock brakes and low-speed traction control became popular features. For 1997, several updates were made to improve handling response and steering control

Showcased in the redesign was the new Modular V8 engine. First introduced in the 1991 Lincoln Town Car, the 4.6 L SOHC V8 replaced the overhead-valve 302 CID small block V8 and was the first of a family of overhead-cam engines that would eventually appear in several Ford and Lincoln-Mercury cars and trucks. Lighter than its predecessor, the 4.6 engine produced nearly identical torque output while producing 40 additional horsepower in its standard single-exhaust configuration. As with its predecessor and the Lincoln Town Car, the 4.6 was paired with a four-speed overdrive automatic transmission. In 1993, the Ford AOD transmission was replaced by the electronically controlled AOD-E version. For 1995, the AOD-E was replaced by the 4R70W, a heavier-duty version introduced in the Lincoln Mark VIII.

Body
Ford based much of the Crown Victoria's appearance on the first-generation Ford Taurus, a look pioneered by Ford VP of Design Jack Telnack. Though the Taurus became wildly popular in its market segment, Telnack's "aero" look proved to be either a love or hate proposition with potential buyers of the Crown Victoria. Along with its distinctive no-grille front fascia, the Crown Victoria shared a similar roofline with the Taurus, similar body and bumper moldings, similar door handles, aircraft-style doors, and similarly shaped headlamp and taillamp clusters. To reduce aesthetic commonality with the Mercury Grand Marquis, only the front doors, windshield, and alloy wheels were shared between them.

For the interior, the two vehicles also were given different seats, door trim, and dashboards; the Crown Victoria featured an instrument panel with round dials that included voltage and oil-pressure gauges, while the Grand Marquis featured a horizontal speedometer without the full instrumentation. An electronic instrument panel was introduced as an option, featuring a trip computer with two trip odometers, instantaneous and average fuel economy, distance remaining to an empty fuel tank, and outside temperature readout. Though better received than the 1991 redesign of the Chevrolet Caprice, the 1992 Crown Victoria was met with disapproval from some critics and buyers, leading Ford to revise the exterior. For the 1993 model year, a grille was added to the front fascia (though it retained its "bottom-breather" cooling system configuration) and a red reflector strip was added to the trunk lid to visually connect the taillamps. For the 1995 model year, a midcycle redesign had more extensive changes to the Crown Victoria; a 6-six-slot grille replaced the egg-crate design, and wider taillamps were added to the rear with the license plate positioned between them on the trunk lid. Inside, the 1995 Crown Victoria had redesigned seats and a new dashboard, which was now shared with the Grand Marquis. The new design featured larger controls and switches, with the radio enlarged and positioned higher. The gauge cluster retained its previous layout. In late 1995, the first-generation "brick" airbag steering wheel was replaced by one with a smaller hub that returned the horn button to the center of the wheel.

Features
As with its LTD Crown Victoria predecessor, the Crown Victoria was a six-passenger automobile; the front seat was a 50/50 split bench seat. The Crown Victoria was sold in two trim levels: base and LX, with the latter forming the majority of non-fleet sales. In addition, the Crown Victoria P71 replaced the fleet-market "S" designation in 1993; the P71 was marketed exclusively for law-enforcement sales.

As with the Mercury Grand Marquis, a driver airbag was standard equipment and a passenger airbag was added as an option during later 1991 production. It later became standard in 1993 for the 1994 model year. Popular features were the antilock brakes and low-speed traction control. For 1996, a single-key entry system became standard, along with a hidden radio antenna, rear window defroster, and tinted glass. Automatic digital climate control and a JBL audio system became available on the LX.

For the 1993 model year, cupholders were added to the pull-out dashboard ashtray drawer, and the date feature was removed from the digital clock. A one-touch down feature was added for the driver's door power window as standard equipment, while a remote keyless entry system with trunk release and panic alarm, as well as an auto-dimming electrochromic rearview mirror, became optional equipment. Audio systems were also updated with an optional JBL sound system with a subwoofer and an optional 10-disc CD changer.

Touring Sedan
For 1992, Ford introduced the Crown Victoria Touring Sedan as a performance-oriented flagship trim. The Touring Sedan featured a number of suspension and handling improvements over the Crown Victoria LX, featuring the heavier-duty suspension components of the police-package version, and also including wider tires, rear air suspension, removal of the speed limiter, and a 210 hp dual-exhaust variant of the 4.6 L V8. Optional features included speed-sensitive steering and larger-diameter sway bars. Distinguished by its standard two-tone exterior paint scheme (with painted alloy wheels), the Touring Sedan featured a unique leather interior with every feature available on a Crown Victoria at the time. For a lower price, Ford offered the performance upgrades of the Touring Sedan on the LX as the Handling and Performance Package alongside a separate towing package. The Touring Sedan was a one-year-only model, as it was discontinued after 1992. However, the Handling and Performance Package remained an option in various forms until 2007.

Second generation (EN114; 1998–2012)
The second-generation Crown Victoria commenced sales on December 26, 1997. Although the previous Ford Crown Victoria had better critical and marketplace acceptance than the controversial styling of the 1991 Chevrolet Caprice, its sales struggled to match those of its Mercury Grand Marquis counterpart. In an effort to gain acceptance among buyers (and increase parts commonality), for the 1998 model year, the Crown Victoria adopted much of the exterior design of the Mercury Grand Marquis.

Following its 1998 introduction, the second-generation Crown Victoria underwent an extensive revision for the 2003 model year. Introduced in April 2002, while the exterior saw no change, nearly the entire chassis was redesigned, with major updates to the suspension and steering.

Body
The redesigned Crown Victoria adopted the formal notch-back roof-line of its Mercury counterpart, causing it to lose its rear C pillar windows. All four doors were now shared with the Mercury (previously, the front doors were shared). On the front fascia, both the grille and headlamps were enlarged. The rear fascia underwent a redesign, as large tail lamp units were mounted at the corners of the body, replacing the previous full-width design. A fender mounted radio antenna would appear for 2005, but was reversed back to the original rear-windshield unit in 2006. In contrast to its Mercury counterpart, the Crown Victoria had considerably less use of chrome trim. LX Sport models forewent chrome trim altogether, as they adopted a fully monochromatic paint scheme.

Interior
While a large portion of the interior was retained from the first generation, the 1998 redesign brought some changes to the interior, as the seat design was revised slightly, and the chrome trim found on the column shifter and turn signal switch was deleted. The gauge cluster needles were switched from orange to red, and its backlighting was switched from light blue to green. Ford's "Securi-Lock" anti-theft system (PATS) was now standard on all retail models; the move necessitated the switch to a transponder key and a new key-less entry remote. Also, a new two-spoke steering wheel took the place of the former four-spoke design. LX models were now equipped with an 8-way power driver seat that featured a lumbar function and an auto-dimming rear-view mirror with a built-in compass. For the 2000 model year, changes included an emergency trunk release system, a "Belt Minder" (seat belt reminder chime that sounds for an unbelted front seat occupant), and LATCH anchors to comply with US federal safety regulations.

In 2001, the seat-belts were redesigned; the move coincided with the introduction of Ford's Personal Safety System, which also included seat position sensors, seat belt pre-tensioners, and dual stage airbags for improved safety. Furthermore, redundant controls for the climate control and radio became optional on LX trim vehicles. Heated side mirrors became standard in 2002, along with floor mats, power pedals, and improved cloth upholstery; for LX-trim vehicles, a trunk storage organizer became an option.

With the 2003 update, the interior saw further revisions. Redesigned door panels, seats, headrests, and new switchgear modernized it. Wiper-activated headlamps were now standard for all non-police models. A new dual media CD/cassette radio was initially standard, but became optional midway through the 2003 model year. Additionally, side airbags were introduced as an option.

As the model progressed, the interior would continue to see periodic updates. The Crown Victoria was offered with PPG laminated side glass beginning in 2004 to reduce the transmission of UV light in the interior; it was one of the first American vehicles to do so. A new steering wheel design with a non-locking column was introduced in 2005, replacing the design seen since 1998. 2005 also introduced a front passenger weight sensor, which allowed the restraint system to automatically enable or disable the passenger airbag, when necessary. Lastly for 2005, a factory sunroof was made available for LX models.

In 2006, the digital dash cluster option was deleted and a new gauge cluster with a tachometer became standard; the Crown Victoria was the last Ford vehicle without a tachometer while the analog odometer on the standard gauge cluster was dropped. On LX models, the new gauge cluster included a message center, which featured a redundant speedometer, distance to empty reading, fuel economy reading, oil life monitor, digital odometer, and compass. For the 2007 model year, the optional side airbags underwent revisions to better protect passengers in side-impact collisions; they were made standard in 2009 along with recessed window switches and power pedals. The final change to the interior came for 2011, where the headrests were redesigned to meet new federal safety standards.

Chassis and specification
Under the 1998 redesign, multiple changes were made to the Crown Victoria's mechanical systems. An updated 4.6L V8 engine now received an increase in horsepower to 200 hp and 215 hp for dual exhaust models. A two-speed electronically controlled radiator fan was introduced along with fail-safe cooling. The ignition system was switched over to a coil-on-plug design (shared with other Modular engines), replacing the dual coil pack design from 1997. Additionally, the radiator overflow tank was moved off the passenger fender well and onto the radiator surround, while the power steering reservoir was moved from the driver-side fender well to the front of the engine block. The 4R70W transmission now mandated the use of Mercon V fluid. Furthermore, the rear suspension was redesigned to improve general road manners (at the expense of reduced towing capacity), as its original three-link coil-spring configuration was replaced with a four-link configuration that featured a Watt's linkage. Continuing the use of four-wheel disc brakes, larger brake rotors and new dual-piston front calipers necessitated a shift to 16-inch wheels for all models. Lastly, the traction control system was revamped to work on all speeds. For 1999, ABS became standard on all retail Crown Victoria models.

For the 2001 model year, the 4.6L V8 received new "Performance Improved" (PI) cylinder heads. As a result, horsepower ratings were increased to 220 hp and 235 hp on dual exhaust models. Additionally, ABS once again became optional.

From 1998 through 2004, the 4R70W four-speed automatic was paired with the 4.6 L V8, replaced by the 4R70E for 2005 (the latter designed to accommodate electronic throttle controls); the 4R75W was exclusive to the 2004 Police Interceptor. In 2006, a revised 4R75E transmission became standard on all Crown Victoria models. Most models used a 12-inch torque converter, while 2000-01 Handling and Performance Package and Police Interceptor models from 1999 to 2011 used a higher stall 11.25-inch unit.

2003 Update and Reengineering
For the 2003 model year, the Ford Panther platform was reengineered for the first time since its 1979 introduction. While the Lincoln Town Car and Mercury Grand Marquis saw extensive exterior redesigns, the Crown Victoria retained its exterior design introduced in 1998. However, substantial changes were made to the chassis. A new, fully boxed & hydro-formed frame along with a new aluminum #2 cross-member strengthened chassis rigidity and improved safety. According to Ford, the torsional rigidity of the new frame was increased by 24%, and its resistance to vertical bending was increased by 20%. For the first time, the Crown Victoria adopted speed-sensitive rack and pinion power steering (replacing the long-running recirculating ball system); it increased steering precision and road feel. The suspension was entirely revamped, with the adoption of aluminum front lower control arms, revised front upper control arms, updated steering knuckles, and coil-over front shocks. In the rear, twin-tube shocks (in use since the mid-1960s) were replaced by mono-tube shocks; to improve handling, the shocks were inverted and moved to the outside of the chassis rails. As part of the suspension upgrades, the Panther-chassis vehicles were fitted with high positive offset (flat-face) wheels. ABS once again became standard, as improved brakes were introduced. They featured a quiet EBD brake booster with mechanical panic assist that optimized front-rear brake bias. To add, the entire exhaust system was redesigned, with exhaust hangers now mounted to the frame rails to reduce the transmission of exhaust vibration into the cabin.

Several changes were also made under the hood, with the 4.6L V8 receiving revised engine tuning and a power increase due to the addition of an engine knock sensor. The engine now produced 224 hp and 239 hp on dual exhaust models; these would be the final horsepower increases for retail and non-police fleet models until the end of production in 2011; police models would however see one final increase to 250 hp in 2004. The engine oil pan was enlarged to 6 U.S. quarts for increased oil life. Additionally, the fuel system was switched over to an electronic return-less system, and the EGR system was revised, which resulted in improved carbon emissions. Several visual changes were also made under the hood, with a new engine cover being introduced that featured a silver "V8" emblem. The power steering reservoir was relocated from the front of the engine and onto the radiator shroud. A quieter, improved variable-speed radiator fan replaced the outgoing two-speed unit. Furthermore, the engine oil fill cap was moved to the passenger side valve cover. Lastly, an accessory belt shield was now mounted to the front of the engine.

There were some minor mechanical changes from 2003 to 2012. The natural gas (NGV) engine option was discontinued for 2005, and the throttle control was switched to drive-by-wire. The switch to electronic throttle control necessitated that the cruise function be moved to the engine computer, which was relocated to the top of the left inner fender. Furthermore, 2005 introduced an improved 31-spline rear axle as well as a heated PCV valve. 2006 saw the introduction of Flex Fuel as an option. In a minor revision for 2008, the engine's valve covers were redesigned, and Flex Fuel capability became standard.

2003 Mid-year Decontenting
Midway through the 2003 model year, Ford introduced a series of cost-cutting measures to all Panther platform vehicles, which were estimated to save around US$4,000,000 (~$ in ) in production costs per year. The Crown Victoria saw numerous deletions including the removal of the remote locking fuel door, body-colored mirror caps, auto parking brake release, engine compartment lamp, front seat bottom pouches, dual media CD/Cassette radio, power-adjustable pedals (except LX models), foam sound absorbing inserts inside the headliner, black B-pillars (now body-colored), silver "V8" emblem on the engine cover, and the elimination of the rear stabilizer bar on all non Fleet, Handling, or LX Sport versions. Several colors were also deleted: Aspen Green Metallic, Chestnut Clearcoat Metallic, Deep Wedgwood Blue, Gold Ash Metallic, Matador Red, and Silver Frost. These changes took effect in December 2002. The de-contented 2003 vehicles are often referred to as "2003 Job #2" and "2003.5" models.

With falling retail sales and increased focus on other models, the Crown Victoria would continue to see periodic cost-cutting measures: For 2004, the chrome bumper trim strips were deleted along with the passenger-side dual sun-visor, standard heated mirrors (now optional), and the optional trunk organizer. Additionally, the keyless entry pad was deleted from the driver door on the base model. Base trim versions also lost their chrome exterior door handles in favor of black handles. Moreover, the tail-lamps had their amber turn signal lens deleted, and the four bulb setup was simplified to a two-bulb design with an all red housing. Beginning in 2008, the five-spoke LX Sport wheels became the sole wheel choice for all LX and GCC Export models. In 2009, the exterior side trim was switched to a single design, and side airbags became standard equipment along with power adjustable pedals; all of which were done to streamline production. Further production streamlining occurred for 2010, when all Crown Victoria models received an extended transmission tail-shaft housing (formerly exclusive to the Police Interceptor). As production neared the end, most 2011-12 models were produced with black trunk fascias.

Trim and Variants
Carried over from the previous Crown Victoria, the second-generation Crown Victoria was marketed in two trim levels: Ford Crown Victoria (Base) and Ford Crown Victoria LX. The Police Crown Victoria was carried over, with Ford creating the Crown Victoria Police Interceptor as a stand-alone model for the 1999 model year.

Base - Included: Cloth upholstery, manual seats, power locks, key less entry, Securi-Lock anti-theft system (PATS), power windows with automatic drivers side window, solar glass, power remote control mirrors, illuminated entry, steel rims with hubcaps, air conditioning, battery saver, power trunk release, power steering, and an AM/FM stereo with clock (later, a cassette player was added, replaced by a single CD/cassette player, then a single-CD player). Later standard features were a power drivers seat and wiper-activated automatic headlamps. The base Crown Victoria was discontinued following the 2008 model year.

LX- Added: Luxury cloth upholstery, power drivers seat, alloy wheels, leather-wrapped steering wheel, an AM/FM stereo with a cassette player (later, a single CD/cassette player, then just a single-CD player), and illuminated mirrors. Leather seating, dual power seats, and eventually, a sunroof were all options on LX models. Several packages were offered for the LX over the course of the model run including an LX Comfort Package, Premier Package, Special Edition, and Sport (see below).

Handling and Performance Package
Carried over from the first generation, the Handling and Performance Package (option code 41G) was available on both base and LX models. It included dual exhaust, increased horsepower, shorter rear gears (3.27:1 for most years, 3.55:1 for 2000-mid 01), as well as an upgraded suspension with revised springs, shocks, larger sway bars, and rear air springs. The package also featured lacy-spoke wheels riding on P225/60TR16 tires, and external oil-to-air coolers for both the power steering and transmission. The package was restricted to LX models beginning in 2002. As part of the 2003 update, it received new 16x7 inch "snowflake" wheels. New nine-spoke 16x7 wheels were introduced for the 2006 model year, and the package was discontinued after the 2007 model year; it coincided with the end of retail sales for the model line.

LX Sport
Initially called Sport Appearance Package, it was introduced in 2001 as a counterpart to the Mercury Grand Marquis LSE. According to Ford, the trim package was aimed at buyers who sought style and improved features. The LX Sport featured all mechanical upgrades found on the Handling and Performance Package. It added an auto-dimming rear-view mirror, heated exterior mirrors, monochromatic exterior trim (on select colors), 17-inch “Sport” wheels, standard leather interior trim, a floor-mounted shifter with center console, front bucket seats, an AM/FM/CD/Cassette radio (the cassette player was eventually deleted), as well as steering wheel controls for the radio and climate control. The LX Sport was renamed to LX Premium Sport Handling and Performance Package in 2007; it was discontinued entirely mid-year 2008. A total of 14,777 LX Sport units were produced over the model run.

Crown Victoria Police Interceptor (1998-2011)

Starting with the 1999 model year, the police version of the Crown Victoria, previously named Crown Victoria P71, was changed to Police Interceptor, and new rear badging was assigned instead of the standard Crown Victoria badge. However, the Crown Victoria badge was still affixed to Police Interceptors equipped with the optional Street Appearance Package for vehicles that required ordinary styling. Compared to the standard Crown Victoria, Police Interceptor models had a host of heavy-duty features that enabled them to be used for emergency response style driving and long idling times. Some of these features included heavy-duty suspension components, larger brakes, a bigger alternator, a shorter rear gear ratio and re-calibrated engine computer for improved acceleration, re-tuned steering with no variable assist, and an external engine oil-to-water cooler. The exterior largely featured black exterior trim with black steel wheels, with the exception of Street Appearance Package models, which donned chrome trim; they looked similar to a base Crown Victoria. During and shortly following its production run, it was the most popular police vehicle in the U.S. and became ubiquitous with law enforcement. Ford has replaced the Crown Victoria Police Interceptor with the Ford Police Interceptor Sedan and Ford Police Interceptor Utility, both of which are heavy-duty variants of the Ford Taurus and Ford Explorer, respectively.

The final Crown Victoria Police Interceptor was produced in August 2011 and purchased by the Kansas Highway Patrol.

Long Wheelbase (Taxi/Fleet)

In 2002, Ford introduced a long-wheelbase version of the Crown Victoria featuring a six-inch extension to a 120.7-inch wheelbase. As with the extended-wheelbase Lincoln Town Car L, the long-wheelbase Crown Victoria was modified through the use of a longer frame and longer rear doors; all additional interior room was added to the rear seat. Unavailable on retail Crown Victoria models, the seating surfaces had the option of being entirely vinyl, the rear seats had their own HVAC vents with dual on/off switches, and strap handles were added to the rear door panels. Additionally, the long-wheelbase Crown Victoria featured several heavy-duty features to accommodate use in taxi applications including heavy-duty front springs and shocks; a rear stabilizer bar; auxiliary oil to air coolers for both the power steering and transmission; steel wheels (shared with the Police Interceptor); frame reinforcements in critical locations; and a heavy-duty battery. Beginning in 2006, an engine idle hour meter, similar to that found in the Police Interceptor, was made standard equipment. On the exterior, the chrome trim was deleted in favor of all-black trim, like the Police model.

While not offered for retail sale in North America, the long-wheelbase Crown Victoria was available for fleet sales targeting the taxi and livery markets. From 2002 to 2006, a special-service version was offered for law-enforcement sale (though not as a Police Interceptor) with chrome street-appearance trim from 2002 to 2004. For GCC export (see below), Ford offered long-wheelbase versions of both the Crown Victoria and Mercury Grand Marquis for retail sale.

Short Wheelbase (Fleet)
A short-wheelbase fleet model, with many of the same features as the long-wheelbase version, was available for sale beginning in 2002. Like its long wheelbase counterpart, it was not available for retail sale.

End of Retail Sales and Transition to Fleet Sales (2008-2011)
In 2006, after factoring out fleet/Police Interceptor sales (95% of production), retail sales of the Crown Victoria dwindled to 3,000 (coming within 1,100 units of the Ford GT super-car), outsold by its Mercury Grand Marquis counterpart by an 18-to-1 margin. For 2008, Ford ended retail sales of the Crown Victoria in the United States, removing the model from its website (later replacing it with the newly revived 2008 Ford Taurus). Ford Fleet sales continued the marketing of the Police Interceptor and commercial (taxi/fleet/LWB) variants. Subsequently, the only retail market selling the Ford Crown Victoria was the GCC/Middle East, with the Crown Victoria sold alongside the Mercury Grand Marquis.

For 2009, the Crown Victoria model line underwent a consolidation, as the LX became the sole version of the standard-wheelbase Crown Victoria (alongside the standard Fleet model and Police Interceptor).

For 2010, the Crown Victoria saw changes to its long-running VIN designation for each trim:

Canada
Ford of Canada (the official manufacturer of the Crown Victoria, Police Interceptor, and Mercury Grand Marquis) marketed the Ford Crown Victoria in Canada through the 1999 model year. For the 2000 model year, the Crown Victoria was replaced in retail markets by the Mercury Grand Marquis (sold at Ford dealerships); the Crown Victoria was restricted to fleet sales (consisting largely of the Police Interceptor).

After the 2011 model year, Ford of Canada ended sales of the Grand Marquis, Crown Victoria, and Crown Victoria Police Interceptor; their lack of stability control precluded further official sales in Canada. All three model lines were replaced by the sixth-generation Ford Taurus.

Middle East (GCC)
Through its production, the Ford Crown Victoria was exported to the Gulf Cooperation Council nations alongside its Lincoln-Mercury counterparts. In a region favoring full-size sedans (among other vehicles), the Crown Victoria became popular, as buyers of the region favored its durability, reliability, and ease of use (in comparison to German and British luxury vehicles), along with its lower price. As American nameplates shifted to newer vehicles (with the introduction of the Chrysler 300C, Dodge Charger, and the Chevrolet Caprice becoming a variant of the Holden Caprice), during the 2000s, the Crown Victoria, Grand Marquis, and Lincoln Town Car, while still popular, began to lose market share, primarily due to their age.

Panther-chassis sedans destined for Middle East export were referred to as "GCC-Spec" vehicles. Five versions of the Crown Victoria were available: Standard, Sport, Long-wheelbase, LX, and LX Sport. Unlike the United States and Canada, the long-wheelbase Crown Victoria was available for retail sale. In Kuwait, where the Crown Victoria was outsold by the higher-trim Mercury Grand Marquis, only the Standard and Long-wheelbase versions were sold after 2000 (the LX was discontinued in 1999).

Modifications from American vehicles
Along with a metric instrument panel, several modifications are made to the GCC-Spec Crown Victoria. In place of the 50/50 bench seat of the standard Crown Victoria, GCC-Spec vehicles use a 40/20/40 bench seat. Derived from the Lincoln Town Car, the front console assembly has air conditioning vents for the rear seats (except for LX Sport models), an eight-way driver's seat, a four-way manual passenger seat (an eight-way power seat as an option); seat upholstery is either cloth or leather. On all standard-wheelbase models, a true dual-exhaust system was fitted (not available on a U.S. Crown Victoria). On Standard and Standard Long-Wheelbase models, a driver's side spotlight assembly was optional. A DVD entertainment system (marketed as Export DVD Entertainment System) was added for the 2007 model year, it was optional on Sport, LX, and LX Sport models.

Differing from its American/Canadian counterpart, the warranty offered for a GCC-spec Crown Victoria was 5 years/200,000 kilometers (125,000 miles) – whichever came first.

Derived from the Mercury Marauder, a trunk-lid spoiler was either standard or an option on all standard-wheelbase models. For GCC-spec vehicles, the optional Handling and Performance Package (HPP) offered in the United States was rebranded the Export Handling Package (EHP). The EHP differed from the HPP largely by its retention of the 2.73:1 rear axle ratio (the base axle) and the use of a true dual exhaust system (standard equipment on all standard-wheelbase export versions). Included as part of the Sport and LX Sport trims (optional on the LX), the package includes a tuned rear air suspension, revised coil springs, handling shock absorbers, and a larger rear stabilizer bar. On GCC-Spec Crown Victorias, the EHP option is externally distinguished by a monochromatic paint scheme, with Ford offering Dark Toreador Red, Silver Birch, Tungsten, and Black as color choices.

2008 Special Edition
With no major redesign of the Crown Victoria since 1998, to keep the model line competitive, the GCC importer of Ford vehicles designed a commemorative trim package for the 2008 model year. Exclusive to GCC-Spec Standard models, the cosmetic package added several cosmetic features, including a three-bar grille (in the style of the Ford Fusion), Mercury Marauder trunk lid spoiler (derived from EHP), chrome trim on the front and rear bumpers, "Special Edition" logos on the front fenders, trunk lid, and dashboard, as well as an AM/FM/CD Premium stereo.

All other features of the Special Edition are identical to the Standard-trim model. Not listed in any sales literature, it was available in a choice of three different colors. In Kuwait, the Special Edition was only available in black (due to market size); the price was about KWD 6,000 (roughly US$22,000). For 2009, the Special Edition was withdrawn.

Discontinuation and legacy
As part of The Way Forward plan of 2006, the St. Thomas Assembly Plant was switched to a single daily production shift in an effort to reduce operating costs. The plan also detailed that Ford would be closing 14 facilities in North America by 2012. It was estimated that the plan would save the company nearly US$5,000,000,000, as its workforce would be reduced by roughly 30,000 employees. The Lincoln Town Car joined its Ford and Mercury counterparts in production at St. Thomas by 2008; the Wixom Assembly Plant, where it was produced, fell victim to the plan and ceased operations following the 2007 model year.

In 2008, Ford signaled that it would be closing the St. Thomas Assembly Plant in 2010. However, the Canadian Auto Workers Union successfully negotiated an extension to at least 2011. In 2009, Ford officially announced that the St. Thomas Assembly Plant would be closed in 2011, as Ford was hard hit by the 2008–2010 automotive industry crisis; it also affected demand for full size cars, which decreased significantly. Moreover, Ford offered retirement incentives to employees at the plant for up to $90,000, allowances up to $100,000, and vouchers for a new Ford vehicle.

Another reason why the Crown Victoria was discontinued was due to its lack of electronic stability control, which became federally mandated for all new vehicles in the US and Canada for the 2012 model year. As a result, the entire batch of 2012 versions were exported to the Middle East.

In April 2011, Ford stopped taking new orders for the Crown Victoria. In August 2011, a short production run of 2012 models destined for the Middle East commenced. Production of the Crown Victoria officially ended on September 15, 2011, at 12:25 PM EDT, when a white LX model rolled off the assembly line. It became the final Panther platform vehicle produced, the final full-size body-on-frame sedan produced, and the last vehicle to be produced by the St. Thomas Assembly Plant, which was closed immediately following the end of production for the model.

The Crown Victoria was the only Panther platform vehicle produced for the 2012 model year, with the Mercury Grand Marquis ending production on January 4, 2011, and the Lincoln Town Car following in suit on August 29, 2011; both ended production as 2011 models.

Taxi fleets revered the Crown Victoria, particularly in New York City, where it was the primary vehicle of its yellow cab fleet for over a decade. They were noted by operators for their durability, simplicity, and cost effectiveness. In 2007, NYC gathered stakeholders, taxi drivers, passengers, and other representatives to set goals that the next NYC yellow taxi should follow as part of the "Taxi of Tomorrow" program. When Ford announced the end of production for the Crown Victoria in 2009, the NYC Taxi and Limousine Commission promptly issued proposal requests to automakers, who submitted their ideas for a purpose-built taxi vehicle to the commission. On May 3, 2011, NYC officially announced that a purpose-built version of the Nissan NV200 minivan would become the successor to its fleet of Crown Victoria yellow cabs, and was selected over the Ford Transit Connect, as well as a minivan built by Turkish auto manufacturer Karsan.

However, the Crown Victoria remains popular in taxi use, as de-commissioned Police versions often end up being purchased and used by privately owned taxi and livery cab companies.

Police fleets also mourned the end of the Crown Victoria, as it became the primary police vehicle for most police fleets in the US following the discontinuation of the B-body Chevrolet Caprice in 1996. Some agencies have been reluctant to retire the last of their Crown Victoria fleet, as the model was the last traditional police vehicle (body-on-frame, full size sedan). Several departments such as the Los Angeles Sheriff Department, Austin, TX Police Department, and the Long Beach, CA Police Department stockpiled the Crown Victoria during its final model year, as they were hesitant to adopt new models. As of December 2023, the Los Angeles Sheriff Department still had over 400 CVPI's in service, as they ordered a batch of 600 units immediately before new orders ceased in 2011. According to the department, the CVPI has held up well over the years, and is still a go to choice for tenured deputies working in the department.

For television and film, the Ford Crown Victoria has made more appearances than any other vehicle of all time, with nearly 7,000 appearances in over 70,000 pieces of media and counting. They continue to be a popular choice to depict police cars and taxicabs.

Between 1991 and 2011, the St. Thomas Assembly Plant produced over 1.5 million examples of the Crown Victoria, second only to its Mercury counterpart, which saw more than 1.7 million examples produced by the plant in that timespan.

Fuel tank
The reports that the cars were more prone to fires during a rear collision were a simple combination of three things. First, most law-enforcement agencies relied on the Crown Victoria as their primary vehicle, meaning that any police-related auto accident was very likely to involve a Crown Victoria. Second, the accidents occurred as the result of the officers intentionally parking their vehicles close to active traffic to shield a stopped motorist—something most regular drivers would never do. Third, the impacting vehicle was often traveling at, or above, the posted legal limit (65 to 75 mph in most jurisdictions).

The condition was exacerbated by police equipment installers drilling over the package tray in the luggage compartment. Due to the gas tank's orientation, drilling through the package tray may result in drilling into the gas tank. Installers also used screws set directly into the bulkhead and facing the fuel tank. In the event of a high-energy collision, these screws could be forced into the tank, both rupturing the tank and possibly acting as a spark source. Long bolts for mounting heavier equipment were also suspected. The manufacturer provided an aftermarket shield to help prevent these items from puncturing the tank during impact. Further, many investigations, both performed by federal/state agencies, and the police department themselves, have found that removable items in the trunk were improperly stowed. These items became tank-piercing projectiles during the rear-collision scenarios. Ford's second solution came in the form of a recall kit including patterns to mark unsafe areas (to drill) in the luggage compartment. Also included were rubberized Kevlar and hard ballistic nylon shields for the differential cover lower shock bolts. They also included a Kevlar-based trunk liner. Ford used similar kits on early-1980s model passenger vehicles. For 2005 and newer models, Ford offers an optional onboard fire-suppression system for the Crown Victoria Police Interceptor units. The system itself is integrated with the antilock braking system as part of the activation and can be activated manually. However, Ford does cite several system limitations regarding fuel loss and impact speeds.

Despite numerous court cases charging Ford with partial liability for fires caused in accidents, the company has never been found liable in a Crown Victoria accident.

Steering shaft recall
In September 2013, Ford issued a recall for 370,000 Ford Crown Victoria, Mercury Grand Marquis, and Lincoln Town Car vehicles built between 2005 and 2011, due to the possibility of steering shaft corrosion. According to Ford, the corrosion could cause loss of steering, potentially leading to a crash. Vehicles sold in the following states were covered by the recall: Connecticut, Delaware, D.C., Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont, Virginia, Wisconsin, and West Virginia. 15,000 of the affected vehicles were also sold in Canada. Ford recommended that dealers inspect the vehicles and replace the steering intermediate shaft, lower steering column bearing, and upper intermediate shaft, if necessary.

Light Control Module (LCM)
On April 14, 2017, Ford issued a recall for approximately 313,000 2003-05 Ford Crown Victoria and Mercury Grand Marquis models due to an issue with the Light Control Module, which could result in a loss of the headlamp function. According to Ford, the solder joints on the module could crack and interrupt power to the headlamps. The dealer will inspect and replace the module, free of charge.

Rear Axle
Certain 2003 model vehicles produced before January 2003 could develop issues with the rear axle. The axle may not have been properly heat treated from the factory, leading to premature wear. The issue mostly affected fleet and police models. Dealers sometimes treated this as a silent recall for non-fleet vehicles.

Timing Chain
Certain 2000-03 models were found to exhibit excessive noise from the engine timing chain area. According to Ford, the noise was caused by premature wear of the timing chain tensioner arms, which were manufactured from nylon. The issue could also be found by the detection of aluminum or nylon grit in the engine oil. Dealers were instructed to inspect and replace all timing chain components if necessary. Vehicles that have had this service performed by Ford are marked with an "X" on both valve covers.

Intake Manifold
Model years from 1996 through 2001 using an all-composite intake manifold manufactured by DuPont were subject to coolant leaks. Cracks would develop along the thermostat housing area, causing antifreeze leaks and overheating issues. Misfires have also been reported, as leaking anti-freeze may seep down into the spark plug wells. For 2002, a revised intake manifold with a bolt-on aluminum thermostat housing and anti-freeze crossover was produced and fitted to all new vehicles in an attempt to remedy the issue. The new intake was more reliable, however, these intake manifolds also proved to be problematic. Another common failure point on the intake is the rear heater hose fitting, located in front of the passenger-side firewall. The fitting used an integral plastic nipple to connect the heater return hose to the heater core. This fitting has been known to break off from the intake manifold, causing rapid antifreeze loss. Late in 2005, Ford settled a class-action lawsuit regarding the intake manifold.

title: Ford Crown Victoria


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Assassination of John F. Kennedy

On November 22, 1963, John F. Kennedy, the 35th president of the United States, was assassinated while riding in a presidential motorcade through Dealey Plaza in Dallas, Texas. Kennedy was in the vehicle with his wife, Jacqueline, Texas Governor John Connally, and Connally's wife, Nellie, when he was fatally shot from the nearby Texas School Book Depository by former U.S. Marine Lee Harvey Oswald. The motorcade rushed to Parkland Memorial Hospital, where Kennedy was pronounced dead about 30 minutes after the shooting; Connally was also wounded in the attack but recovered. Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson was hastily sworn in as president two hours and eight minutes later aboard Air Force One at Dallas Love Field.

After the assassination, Oswald returned home to retrieve a pistol; he shot and killed lone Dallas policeman J. D. Tippit shortly afterwards. Around 70 minutes after Kennedy and Connally were shot, Oswald was apprehended by the Dallas Police Department and charged under Texas state law with the murders of Kennedy and Tippit. Two days later, at 11:21 a.m. on November 24, 1963, as live television cameras covered Oswald's being moved through the basement of Dallas Police Headquarters, he was fatally shot by Dallas nightclub operator Jack Ruby. Like Kennedy, Oswald was taken to Parkland Memorial Hospital, where he soon died. Ruby was convicted of Oswald's murder, though the decision was overturned on appeal, and Ruby died in prison in 1967 while awaiting a new trial.

After a 10-month investigation, the Warren Commission concluded that Oswald assassinated Kennedy, and that there was no evidence that either Oswald or Ruby was part of a conspiracy. In 1967, New Orleans District Attorney Jim Garrison brought the only trial for Kennedy's murder, against businessman Clay Shaw; Shaw was acquitted. Subsequent federal investigations—such as the Rockefeller Commission and Church Committee—agreed with the Warren Commission's general findings. In its 1979 report, the United States House Select Committee on Assassinations (HSCA) concluded that Kennedy was likely "assassinated as a result of a conspiracy". The HSCA did not identify possible conspirators, but concluded that there was "a high probability that two gunmen fired at [the] President". The HSCA's conclusions were largely based on a police Dictabelt recording later debunked by the U.S. Justice Department.

Kennedy's assassination is still the subject of widespread debate and has spawned many conspiracy theories and alternative scenarios; polls found that a vast majority of Americans believed there was a conspiracy. The assassination left a profound impact and was the first of four major assassinations during the 1960s in the United States, coming two years before the assassination of Malcolm X in 1965, and five years before the assassinations of Martin Luther King Jr. and Kennedy's brother Robert in 1968. Kennedy was the fourth U.S. president to be assassinated and is the most recent to have died in office.

Kennedy
In 1960, John F. Kennedy, then a U.S. senator from Massachusetts, was elected the 35th president of the United States with Lyndon B. Johnson as his vice presidential running mate. Kennedy's tenure saw the height of the Cold War, and much of his foreign policy was dedicated to countering the Soviet Union and communism. As president, he authorized operations to overthrow Fidel Castro's communist government in Cuba, which culminated in the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion in 1961, during which he declined to directly involve American troops. The following year, Kennedy deescalated the Cuban Missile Crisis, an incident widely regarded as the closest that humanity has come to nuclear holocaust.

In 1963, Kennedy decided to travel to Texas to smooth over frictions in the state's Democratic Party between liberal U.S. Senator Ralph Yarborough and conservative Governor John Connally. The visit was first agreed upon by Kennedy, Johnson, and Connally during a meeting in El Paso in June. The motorcade route was finalized on November 18 and announced soon thereafter. Kennedy also viewed the Texas trip as an informal launch of his 1964 reelection campaign.

Oswald
Lee Harvey Oswald (born 1939) was a former U.S. Marine who had served in Japan and the Philippines and had espoused communism since reading Karl Marx at the age of 14. After accidentally shooting his elbow with an unauthorized handgun and fighting an officer, Oswald was court-martialed twice and demoted. In September 1959, he received a dependency discharge after claiming his mother was disabled. A 19-year-old Oswald sailed on a freighter from New Orleans to France and then traveled to Finland, where he was issued a Soviet visa.

Oswald defected to the Soviet Union, and in January 1960 he was sent to work at a factory in Minsk, Belarus. In 1961, he met and married Marina Prusakova, with whom he had a child. In 1962, he returned to the United States with a repatriation loan from the U.S. Embassy. He settled in the Dallas/Fort Worth area, where he socialized with Russian émigrés—notably George de Mohrenschildt. In March 1963, a bullet narrowly missed General Edwin Walker at his Dallas residence; a witness observed two conspicuous men. Relying on Marina's testimony, a note left by Oswald, and ballistic evidence, the Warren Commission attributed this assassination attempt to Oswald.

In April 1963, Oswald returned to his birthplace, New Orleans, and established an independent chapter of the pro-Castro Fair Play for Cuba Committee, of which he was the sole member. While passing out pro-Castro literature alongside unknown compatriots, Oswald was arrested after scuffling with anti-Castro Cuban exiles. In late September 1963, Oswald traveled to Mexico City, where, according to the Warren Commission, he visited the Soviet and Cuban embassies. On October 3, Oswald returned to Dallas and found work at the Texas School Book Depository on Dealey Plaza. During the workweek he lived separately from Marina at a Dallas rooming house. On the morning of the assassination, he carried a long package (which he told coworkers contained curtain rods) into the Depository; the Warren Commission concluded that this package contained Oswald's disassembled rifle.

Kennedy's arrival in Dallas and route to Dealey Plaza
On November 22, Air Force One arrived at Dallas Love Field at 11:40 a.m. President Kennedy and the First Lady boarded a 1961 Lincoln Continental convertible limousine to travel to a luncheon at the Dallas Trade Mart. Other occupants of this vehicle—the second in the motorcade—were Secret Service Agent Bill Greer, who drove; Special Agent Roy Kellerman in the front passenger seat; and Governor Connally and his wife Nellie, who sat just forward of the Kennedys. Four Dallas police motorcycle officers accompanied the Kennedy limousine. Vice President Johnson, his wife Lady Bird, and Senator Yarborough rode in another convertible.

The motorcade's meandering 10 mi route through Dallas was designed to give Kennedy maximum exposure to crowds by passing through a suburban section of Dallas, and Main Street in Downtown Dallas, before turning right on Houston Street. After another block, the motorcade was to turn left onto Elm Street, pass through Dealey Plaza, and travel a short segment of the Stemmons Freeway to the Trade Mart. The planned route had been reported in newspapers several days in advance. Despite concerns about hostile protestors—Kennedy's UN Ambassador Adlai Stevenson had been spat on in Dallas a month earlier—Kennedy was greeted warmly by enthusiastic crowds.

Shooting
Kennedy's limousine entered Dealey Plaza at 12:30 p.m. CST. Nellie Connally turned and commented to Kennedy, who was sitting behind her, "Mr. President, they can't make you believe now that there are not some in Dallas who love and appreciate you, can they?" Kennedy's reply – "No, they sure can't" – were his last words.

From Houston Street, the limousine made the planned left turn onto Elm, passing the Texas School Book Depository. As it continued down Elm Street, multiple shots were fired: about 80% of the witnesses recalled hearing three shots. The Warren Commission concluded that three shots were fired and noted that most witnesses recalled that the second and third shots were bunched together. Shortly after Kennedy began waving, some witnesses heard the first gunshot, but few in the crowd or motorcade reacted, many interpreting the sound as a firecracker or backfire.

Within one second of each other, Governor Connally and Mrs. Kennedy turned abruptly from their left to their right. Connally—an experienced hunter—immediately recognized the sound as that of a rifle and turned his head and torso rightward, noting nothing unusual behind him. He testified that he could not see Kennedy, so he started to turn forward again (turning from his right to his left), and that when his head was facing about 20 degrees left of center, he was struck in his upper right back by a shot he did not hear, then shouted, "My God. They're going to kill us all!"

According to the Warren Commission and the HSCA, Kennedy was waving to the crowds on his right when a shot entered his upper back and exited his throat just beneath his larynx. He raised his elbows and clenched his fists in front of his face and neck, then leaned forward and leftward. Mrs. Kennedy, facing him, put her arms around him. Although a serious wound, it likely would have been survivable.

According to the Warren Commission's single-bullet theory—derided as the "magic bullet theory" by conspiracy theorists—Governor Connally was injured by the same bullet that exited Kennedy's neck. The bullet created an oval-shaped entry wound near his right shoulder, struck and destroyed several inches of Connally's right fifth rib, and exited his chest just below his right nipple, puncturing and collapsing his lung. That same bullet then entered his arm just above his right wrist and shattered his right radius bone. The bullet exited just below the wrist at the inner side of his right palm and finally lodged in his left thigh.

As the limousine passed the grassy knoll, Kennedy was struck a second time, by a fatal shot to the head. The Warren Commission made no finding as to whether this was the second or third bullet fired, and concluded—as did the HSCA—that the second shot to strike Kennedy entered the rear of his head. It then passed in fragments through his skull, creating a large, "roughly ovular" [sic] hole on the rear, right side of the head, and spraying blood and fragments. His brain and blood spatter landed as far as the following Secret Service car and the motorcycle officers.

Secret Service Agent Clint Hill was riding on the running board of the car immediately behind Kennedy's limousine. Hill testified to the Warren Commission that he heard one shot, jumped onto the street, and ran forward to board the limousine and protect Kennedy. Hill stated that he heard the fatal headshot as he reached the Lincoln, "approximately five seconds" after the first shot that he heard. After the headshot, Mrs. Kennedy began climbing onto the limousine's trunk, but she later had no recollection of doing so. Hill believed she may have been reaching for a piece of Kennedy's skull. He jumped onto the limousine's bumper, and he clung to the car as it exited Dealey Plaza and sped to Parkland Memorial Hospital. After Mrs. Kennedy crawled back into her seat, both Governor and Mrs. Connally heard her repeatedly saying: "They have killed my husband. I have his brains in my hand."

Bystander James Tague received a minor wound to the cheek—either from bullet or concrete curb fragments—while standing by the triple underpass. Nine months later, the FBI removed the curb, and spectrographic analysis revealed metallic residue consistent with the lead core in Oswald's ammunition. Tague testified before the Warren Commission and initially stated that he was wounded by either the second or third shot of the three shots that he remembered hearing. When the commission counsel pressed him to be more specific, Tague testified that he was wounded by the second shot.

Aftermath in Dealey Plaza

As the motorcade left Dealey Plaza, some witnesses sought cover, and others joined police officers to run up the grassy knoll in search of a shooter. No shooter was found behind the knoll's picket fence. Among the 178 witnesses who testified to the Warren Commission, 78 were unsure of the shots' origin, 49 believed they came from the Depository, and 21 thought they came from the grassy knoll. No witness ever reported seeing anyone — with or without a gun (except policemen) — immediately behind the knoll's picket fence at the time of the shooting.

Lee Bowers was in a two-story railroad switch tower 120 yd behind the grassy knoll's picket fence; he was watching the motorcade and had an unobstructed view of the only route by which any shooter could flee the grassy knoll; he saw no one leaving the scene. Bowers testified to the Warren Commission that "one or two" men were between him and the fence during the assassination: one was a familiar parking lot attendant and the other wore a uniform like a county courthouse custodian. He testified seeing "some commotion" on the grassy knoll at the time of the assassination: "something out of the ordinary, a sort of milling around, but something occurred in this particular spot which was out of the ordinary, which attracted my eye for some reason which I could not identify".

At 12:36 p.m., teenager Amos Euins approached Dallas police Sergeant D.V. Harkness to report having seen a "colored man ... leaning out of the window [with] a rifle" on the sixth floor of the Depository during the assassination; in response, Harkness radioed that he was sealing off the Depository. Witness Howard Brennan then approached a police inspector to report seeing a shooter—a white man in khaki clothing—in the same window. Police broadcast Brennan's description of the man at 12:45 p.m. Brennan testified that, after the second shot, "This man... was aiming for his last shot ... and maybe paused for another second as though to assure himself that he had hit his mark." Witness James R. Worrell Jr. also reported seeing a gun barrel emerge from a sixth floor Depository window. Bonnie Ray Williams, who was on the fifth floor of the Depository, stated that the rifle's report was so loud and near that ceiling plaster fell onto his head.

Oswald's flight, killing of J. D. Tippit, and arrest
When searching the sixth floor of the Depository, two deputies found an Italian Carcano M91/38 bolt-action rifle. Oswald had purchased the used rifle the previous March under the alias "A. Hidell" and had it delivered to his Dallas P.O. box. The FBI found Oswald's partial palm print on the barrel, and fibers on the rifle were consistent with those of Oswald's shirt. A bullet found on Governor Connally's hospital gurney and two fragments found in the limousine were ballistically matched to the Carcano.

Oswald left the Depository and traveled by bus to his boarding house, where he retrieved a jacket and revolver. At 1:12 p.m., police officer J. D. Tippit spotted Oswald walking in the residential neighborhood of Oak Cliff and called him to his patrol car. After an exchange of words, Tippit exited his vehicle; Oswald then shot Tippit three times in the chest. As Tippit lay on the ground, Oswald fired a final shot into Tippit's right temple. Oswald then calmly walked away before running as witnesses emerged.

As Dallas police officers conducted a roll call of Depository employees, Oswald's supervisor Roy Truly realized that Oswald was absent and notified the police. Based on a false identification of Oswald, Dallas police raided a library in Oak Cliff before realizing their mistake. At 1:36 p.m., the police were called after a conspicuous Oswald, tired from running, was seen sneaking into the Texas Theatre without paying. With the film War Is Hell still playing, Dallas policemen arrested Oswald after a brief struggle in which Oswald drew his fully loaded gun. He denied shooting anyone and claimed he was being made a "patsy" because he had lived in the Soviet Union.

Kennedy declared dead; Johnson sworn in
At 12:38 p.m., Kennedy arrived in the emergency room of Parkland Memorial Hospital. Although Kennedy was still breathing after the shooting, his personal physician, George Burkley, immediately saw that survival was impossible. After Parkland surgeons performed futile cardiac massage, Kennedy was pronounced dead at 1:00 p.m., 30 minutes after the shooting. CBS host Walter Cronkite broke the news on live television.

The Secret Service was concerned about the possibility of a larger plot and urged Johnson to leave Dallas and return to the White House, but Johnson refused to do so without any proof of Kennedy's death. Johnson returned to Air Force One around 1:30p.m., and shortly thereafter, he received telephone calls from advisors McGeorge Bundy and Walter Jenkins advising him to depart for Washington, D.C., immediately. He replied that he would not leave Dallas without Jacqueline Kennedy and that she would not leave without Kennedy's body. According to Esquire, Johnson did "not want to be remembered as an abandoner of beautiful widows".

At the time of Kennedy's assassination, the murder of a president was not under federal jurisdiction. Accordingly, Dallas County medical examiner Earl Rose insisted that Texas law required him to perform an autopsy. A heated exchange between Kennedy's aides and Dallas officials nearly erupted into a fistfight before the Texans yielded and allowed Kennedy's body to be transported to Air Force One. At 2:38 p.m., with Jacqueline Kennedy at his side, Johnson was administered the oath of office by federal judge Sarah Tilghman Hughes aboard Air Force One shortly before departing for Washington with Kennedy's coffin.

Autopsy
President Kennedy's autopsy was performed at Bethesda Naval Hospital in Maryland on the night of November 22. Jacqueline Kennedy had selected a naval hospital as the postmortem site as President Kennedy had been a naval officer during World War II. The autopsy was conducted by three physicians: naval commanders James Humes and J. Thornton Boswell, with assistance from ballistics wound expert Pierre A. Finck; Humes led the procedure. Under pressure from the Kennedy family and White House staffers to expedite the procedure, the physicians conducted a "rushed" and incomplete autopsy. Kennedy's personal physician, Rear Admiral George Burkley, signed a death certificate on November 23 and recorded that the cause of death was a gunshot wound to the skull.

Three years after the autopsy, Kennedy's brain—which had been removed and preserved for later analysis—was found to be missing when the Kennedy family transferred material to the National Archives. Conspiracy theorists often claim that the brain may have shown that the headshot entered from the front. Alternatively, the HSCA concluded that an assistant to Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, the president's brother, likely removed the footlocker holding the brain and other materials at his direction, and he "either destroyed these materials or otherwise rendered them inaccessible" to prevent "misuse" of said material or to hide the extent of the president's chronic illnesses and consequent medication. Some autopsy X-rays and photographs have also been lost.

Most historians regard the autopsy as the "most botched" segment of the government's investigation. The HSCA forensic pathology panel concluded that the autopsy had "extensive failings", including failure to take sufficient photographs, failure to determine the exact exit or entry point of the head bullet, not dissecting the back and neck, and neglecting to determine the angles of gunshot injuries relative to body axis. The panel further concluded that the two doctors were not qualified to have conducted a forensic autopsy. Panel member Milton Helpern—Chief Medical Examiner for New York City—said that selecting Humes (who had only taken a single course on forensic pathology) to lead the autopsy was "like sending a seven-year-old boy who has taken three lessons on the violin over to the New York Philharmonic and expecting him to perform a Tchaikovsky symphony".

Funeral

Following the autopsy, Kennedy lay in repose in the East Room of the White House for 24 hours. President Johnson issued Presidential Proclamation 3561, declaring November 25 to be a national day of mourning, and that only essential emergency workers be at their posts. The coffin was then carried on a horse-drawn caisson to the Capitol to lie in state. Hundreds of thousands of mourners lined up to view the guarded casket, with a quarter million passing through the rotunda during the 18 hours of lying in state. Even in the Soviet Union—according to a memo by FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover—news of the assassination "was greeted by great shock and consternation and church bells were tolled in the memory of President Kennedy".

Kennedy's funeral service was held on November 25, at St. Matthew's Cathedral, with the Requiem Mass led by Cardinal Richard Cushing. About 1,200 guests, including representatives from over 90 countries, attended. Although there was no formal eulogy, Auxiliary Bishop Philip M. Hannan read excerpts from Kennedy's speeches and writings. After the service, Kennedy was buried at Arlington National Cemetery in Virginia. An eternal flame was lit at his burial site in 1967.

Killing of Oswald
On Sunday, November 24, at 11:21 a.m., as Oswald was being escorted to a car in the basement of Dallas Police headquarters for the transfer from the city jail to the county jail, he was shot by Dallas nightclub owner Jack Ruby. The shooting was broadcast live on television. Robert H. Jackson of the Dallas Times Herald photographed the shooting which was titled, Jack Ruby Shoots Lee Harvey Oswald for which he was awarded the 1964 Pulitzer Prize for Photography.

Drifting in and out of consciousness, Oswald was taken by ambulance to Parkland Memorial Hospital; he was treated by the same surgeons who had tried to save Kennedy. The bullet had entered his lower left chest but had not exited; major heart blood vessels such as the aorta and inferior vena cava were severed, and the spleen, kidney, and liver were hit. Despite surgical intervention and defibrillation, Oswald died at 1:07 p.m.

Arrested immediately after the shooting, Ruby testified to the Warren Commission that he had been distraught by Kennedy's death and that killing Oswald would spare "Mrs. Kennedy the discomfiture of coming back to trial". He also stated he shot Oswald on the spur of the moment when the opportunity presented itself, without considering any reason for doing so. Initially, Ruby wished to represent himself in his trial until his lawyer Melvin Belli dissuaded him: Belli argued that Ruby had an episode of psychomotor epilepsy and was thus not responsible. Ruby was convicted, but the decision was overturned on appeal. While awaiting retrial in 1967, Ruby died of a pulmonary embolism, secondary to cancer. Like Oswald and Kennedy, Ruby was declared dead at Parkland Hospital.

Films and photographs of the assassination

Standing on the pergola wall some 65 ft from the road, tailor Abraham Zapruder recorded Kennedy's killing on 26 seconds of silent 8 mm film — known as the Zapruder film. Frame 313 captures the exact moment at which Kennedy's head explodes. Life magazine published frame enlargements from the Zapruder film shortly after the assassination. The footage itself was first publicly shown at the 1969 trial of Clay Shaw, and on television in 1975 by Geraldo Rivera. In 1999, an arbitration panel ordered the federal government to pay $615,384 per second of film to Zapruder's heirs, valuing the complete film at $16 million (equivalent to $ in 2022).

Zapruder was one of at least 32 people in Dealey Plaza known to have made film or still photographs at or around the time of the shooting. Most notably among the photographers, Mary Moorman took several photos of Kennedy with her Polaroid, including one of Kennedy less than one-sixth of a second after the headshot.

As well as Zapruder, Charles Bronson, Marie Muchmore, and Orville Nix filmed the assassination, but at farther distances than Zapruder. Of the three, only Nix — who filmed the assassination from the opposite side of Elm Street from Zapruder, capturing the grassy knoll — actually recorded the fatal shot. In 1966, Nix claimed that, after he gave the film to the FBI, the duplicate that they returned had frames "missing" or "ruined". Although lower-quality duplicates exist, the original film has been missing since 1978. Previously unknown footage filmed by George Jefferies was released in 2007. Recorded a few blocks before the shooting, the film captures Kennedy's bunched suit jacket, explaining the discrepancies between the location of the bullet hole in Kennedy's back and his jacket.

Some films and photographs captured an unidentified woman apparently filming the assassination; researchers have nicknamed her the Babushka Lady due to the shawl around her head. In 1978, Gordon Arnold came forward and claimed that he had filmed the assassination from the grassy knoll and that a police officer had confiscated his film. Arnold is not visible in any photographs taken of the area, which Vincent Bugliosi—author of Reclaiming History—called "conclusive photographic proof that Arnold's story was fabricated".

Dallas Police
At the Dallas Police headquarters, officers interrogated Oswald about the shootings of Kennedy and Tippit; these intermittent interviews lasted for approximately 12 hours between 2:30 p.m. on November 22 and 11 a.m. on November 24. Throughout, Oswald denied any involvement and resorted to statements that were found to be false.

Captain J. W. Fritz of the Homicide and Robbery Bureau did most of the questioning and kept only rudimentary notes. Days later, Fritz wrote a report of the interrogation from notes he made afterwards. There were no stenographic or tape recordings. Representatives of other law enforcement agencies were also present, including the FBI and the Secret Service, and occasionally participated in the questioning. Several of the FBI agents who were present wrote contemporaneous reports of the interrogation.

On the evening of November 22, Dallas Police performed paraffin tests on Oswald's hands and right cheek in an effort to establish whether or not he had recently fired a weapon. The results were positive for the hands and negative for the right cheek. Such tests were unreliable, and the Warren Commission did not rely on these results.

The Dallas police forced Oswald to host a press conference after midnight on November 23, and, early in the investigation, made many leaks to the media. Their conduct angered Johnson, who instructed the FBI to tell them to "stop talking about the assassination". Dallas Police, after the FBI expressed concerns that someone might try to kill Oswald, assured federal authorities that they would provide him adequate protection.

FBI investigation

The FBI immediately launched an investigation into the assassination, relying on a federal statute that forbade assaulting a federal officer. Within 24 hours of the killing, FBI Director Hoover sent President Johnson a preliminary report finding that Oswald was the sole culprit. After Ruby killed Oswald, Johnson decided that the Texan authorities were incompetent and instructed the FBI to conduct a complete investigation.

On December 9, 1963, the Warren Commission received the FBI's report of its investigation which concluded that three bullets had been fired—the first striking Kennedy in the upper back; the second striking Connally; and the third striking Kennedy in the head, killing him. The FBI continued to serve as the main investigative arm of the Warren Commission in the field. A total of 169 FBI agents worked on the case, conducting over 25,000 interviews and writing over 2,300 reports.

The thoroughness of the FBI's investigation is contested. Bugliosi applauded its quality and cites conspiracy theorist Harrison Edward Livingstone's praise of the FBI's commitment to following all leads. In its 1979 report, the HSCA found that the FBI's investigation of pro- and anti-Castro Cubans, and any connections to Oswald or Ruby, was insufficient. The HSCA also noted that Hoover "seemed determined [to make the case that Oswald was the lone assassin] within 24 hours of the assassination".

Warren Commission
On November 29, President Johnson established by executive order "The President's Commission on the Assassination of President Kennedy" and selected Chief Justice Earl Warren of the U.S. Supreme Court to chair the investigation, commonly known as the Warren Commission. Its 888-page final report was presented to Johnson on September 24, 1964, and made public three days later. It concluded that Lee Harvey Oswald had acted alone in killing Kennedy and wounding Connally, and that Jack Ruby acted alone in killing Oswald. It made no conclusions as to Oswald's motive, but noted his Marxism, anti-authoritarianism, violent tendencies, failure to form personal relationships, and his desire to be significant in history.

Upon examining the Zapruder film, commission staffers realized that the FBI's gunshot theory was impossible. The reaction times of Kennedy and Connally were too close to have been caused by two bullets from Oswald: the reaction interval was less than the 2.3 seconds that it took to reload. This was one of the commission's most crucial findings: that a single shot caused the non-fatal wounds of Kennedy and Connally, known as the "single-bullet theory". In May 1964, staffer Arlen Specter replicated the single bullet's trajectory via a reenactment in Dealey Plaza: the bullet's path was exactly consistent with Kennedy's and Connally's wounds.

Out of the eight commission members, three—Representative Hale Boggs and Senators John Cooper and Richard Russell—found the theory "improbable"; their qualms were not mentioned in the final report. Conspiracy theorists labelled this theory the "magic bullet theory", partly due to the bullet's intact and purportedly pristine state. However, the HSCA's Michael Baden noted that the bullet, despite its lack of fragmentation, was fundamentally deformed. In 2023, Secret Service Agent Paul Landis—who had stood on the running board of Kennedy's car—told The New York Times that he retrieved the "magic bullet" from immediately behind Kennedy's seat upon arrival at Parkland, and that he placed it on Kennedy's stretcher. Landis believes that the bullet dislodged from a shallow wound in Kennedy's back.

As well as the Warren Report's 27 published volumes, the commission created hundreds of thousands of pages of investigative reports and documents. Relman Morin stated that "Never in history was a crime probed as intensely"; Bugliosi concluded that the commission's basic findings have "held up remarkably well". According to Gerald Posner, the Warren report is "universally derided" by the American public. Walter Cronkite noted that, "Although the Warren Commission had full power to conduct its own independent investigation, it permitted the FBI and the CIA to investigate themselves – and so cast a permanent shadow on the answers." According to a 2014 report by CIA Chief Historian David Robarge, then-CIA director John A. McCone was involved in a "benign cover-up" by withholding information from the commission.

Trial of Clay Shaw

On March 22, 1967, New Orleans District Attorney Jim Garrison arrested and charged New Orleans businessman Clay Shaw with conspiring to assassinate President Kennedy, with the help of Oswald, David Ferrie, and others. A respected businessman who had helped renovate and preserve the French Quarter, Shaw was described as "the unlikeliest villain since Oscar Wilde". Both Shaw and the neurotic, avidly anti-Castro Ferrie were members of New Orleans' gay community. Ferrie died, possibly by suicide, four days after news of the investigation broke. On The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson in 1968, Garrison first publicly alleged that Shaw and Ferrie had been part of a larger CIA scheme to kill Kennedy and frame Oswald. In the 34-day trial conducted in 1969, Garrison played the Zapruder film and argued that the backwards motion of Kennedy's head after the fatal shot was indicative of a shooter in front on the grassy knoll.

After a brief deliberation, the jury found Shaw not guilty. Mark Lane interviewed the jurors after the trial and stated that some believed that Shaw likely was involved in a conspiracy but that there was insufficient evidence to convict. Lane's claims have been disputed by playwright James Kirkwood—a personal friend of Clay Shaw—who said that he met several jurors who denied ever speaking to Lane. Kirkwood also questioned Lane's claim that the jury believed that there was a conspiracy: jury foreman Sidney Hebert told Kirkwood, "I didn't think too much of the Warren Report either until the trial. Now I think a lot more of it than I did before."

According to academic E. Jerald Ogg, the Shaw trial is now widely regarded as a "travesty of justice"; Kirkwood likened the trial to a Spanish Inquisition hearing. Other observers have characterized the proceedings as relying on homophobia. It remains the only trial to be brought for the Kennedy assassination. In 1979, former CIA director Richard Helms testified that Shaw had been a part-time contact of the Domestic Contact Service of the CIA, through which Shaw volunteered information from his travels abroad, mostly to Latin America. However, according to Max Holland, some 150,000 Americans were contacts. In 1993, the PBS program Frontline obtained a group photograph that featured Ferrie and Oswald together at a 1955 cookout for the Civil Air Patrol: Ferrie had denied ever knowing Oswald.

Ramsey Clark Panel
Excluding Chief Justice Warren, the members of Warren Commission did not view the photographs or X-rays taken during Kennedy's autopsy. According to Warren, this was to avoid having to publicly release the explicit material to "sensation mongers". Due to persistent speculation, in February 1968, Attorney General Ramsey Clark convened a panel of four medical experts to examine the photographs and X-rays from the Kennedy autopsy. Their findings concurred with the Warren Commission: Kennedy was struck by two bullets, both from behind.

Rockefeller Commission
In 1975, President Gerald Ford—who had been a member of the Warren Commission a decade prior—established the United States President's Commission on CIA Activities within the United States, better known as the Rockefeller Commission after its chairman, Vice President Nelson Rockefeller. The commission received a mandate to determine if any domestic activities by the CIA were unlawful and to make appropriate recommendations: accordingly, it also re-examined the Kennedy assassination. After five months of investigation, the Rockefeller Commission submitted its report to President Ford. The report reviewed the medical evidence and agreed that Kennedy had been killed by two shots from behind. Refuting Garrison's claims that the backwards motion of Kennedy's head seen on the Zapruder film was indicative of a grassy knoll shooter, the commission found that "such a motion would be caused by a violent straightening and stiffening of the entire body as a result of a seizure-like neuromuscular reaction to major damage inflicted to nerve centers in the brain". The later HSCA suggested that the "propulsive effect resulting from brain matter" ejected from the exit wound may have been responsible. Pathologist Vincent Di Maio testified before the HSCA that the notion of a "transfer of momentum" from a grassy knoll bullet was unfounded and something from "Arnold Schwarzenegger pictures".

The Rockefeller Commission also sought to determine whether CIA operatives—particularly E. Howard Hunt and Frank Sturgis—were present in Dealey Plaza during the assassination, and whether they were among the "three tramps" pictured shortly after the assassination. The commission found no evidence for these claims. It also inquired into purported connections between the CIA and Oswald and Ruby, for which it found no evidence and concluded was "farfetched speculation". They concluded that there was "no credible evidence of CIA involvement".

Church Committee
In 1975, following the Watergate scandal and the revelation of CIA misconduct by Seymour Hersh (the CIA's so-called "Family Jewels"), the U.S. Senate launched the United States Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities—better known as the Church Committee after its chairman, Senator Frank Church. The committee was to investigate all improper and unlawful actions by the CIA and FBI, both foreign and domestic. Due to persisting theories, the Church Committee organized a subcommittee (staffed by Senators Richard Schweiker and Gary Hart) to examine CIA and FBI conduct pertaining to the assassination.

In its final report, the Church Committee concluded that there was no evidence of a CIA- or FBI-led conspiracy. They found that the original investigation into the assassination was "deficient" and criticized the FBI and CIA for withholding information from the Warren Commission. In particular, it noted that knowledge of the CIA's many failed attempts to assassinate Castro may have significantly affected the course of the investigation. Moreover, the Church Committee revealed that the CIA had conspired with the Mafia in these plots against Castro. These revelations led to further public scrutiny of the assassination.

United States House Select Committee on Assassinations
As a result of increasing public and congressional skepticism of the Warren Commission's findings and the transparency of government agencies, in 1976 the House Select Committee on Assassinations was created to investigate the assassinations of Kennedy and that of Martin Luther King, Jr.

The HSCA conducted its inquiry until 1978 and issued its final report the following year, concluding that Kennedy was likely assassinated as a result of a conspiracy. They concluded that there was a "high probability" that a fourth shot was fired from the grassy knoll, but they stated that this shot missed Kennedy. Concerning the conclusions of "probable conspiracy", four of the twelve committee members wrote dissenting opinions.

The HSCA also concluded that previous investigations into Oswald's responsibility were "thorough and reliable" but did not adequately investigate the possibility of a conspiracy, and that federal agencies performed with "varying degrees of competency". Specifically, the FBI and CIA were found to be deficient in sharing information with other agencies and the Warren Commission. Instead of furnishing all relevant information, the FBI and CIA only responded to specific requests and were still occasionally inadequate. Furthermore, the Secret Service did not properly analyze information it possessed prior to the assassination and was inadequately prepared to protect Kennedy.

The chief reason for the conclusion of "probable conspiracy" was, according to the report's dissent, the subsequently discredited acoustic analysis of a police channel Dictabelt recording. In accordance with the recommendations of the HSCA, the Dictabelt recording and acoustic evidence of a second assassin was subsequently reexamined. In light of investigative reports from the FBI's Technical Services Division and a specially appointed National Academy of Sciences Committee determining that "reliable acoustic data do not support a conclusion that there was a second gunman", the Justice Department concluded "that no persuasive evidence can be identified to support the theory of a conspiracy" in the Kennedy assassination.

JFK Act and Assassination Records Review Board
In 1991, Oliver Stone's film JFK renewed interest in the assassination and particularly in the still-classified files relating to the killing. In response, Congress passed the JFK Records Act, which called for the National Archives to collect and release all assassination-related documents within 25 years. The act also mandated the creation of an independent office, the Assassination Records Review Board, to review the submitted records for completeness and continued secrecy. From 1994 until 1998, the Assassination Records Review Board gathered and unsealed about 60,000 documents comprising over 4 million pages.

A 1998 staff report for the Assassinations Records Review Board contended that brain photographs in the Kennedy records may not be of Kennedy's brain, reportedly showing much less damage than Kennedy sustained. Dr. Boswell refuted these allegations. The board also found that, conflicting with the photographic images showing no such defect, several witnesses (at both Parkland hospital and the autopsy) remembered a large wound in the back of Kennedy's head. The board, and board member Jeremy Gunn, stressed the problems with witness testimony, urging people to weigh all of the evidence, with due concern for human error, rather than take single statements as "proof" for one theory or another.

All remaining assassination-related records were scheduled to be released by October 2017, with the exception of documents certified for continued postponement by succeeding presidents due to "identifiable harm... to the military, defense, intelligence operations, law enforcement, or conduct of foreign relations... of such gravity that it outweighs the public interest in disclosure." President Donald Trump said in October 2017 that he would not block the release of documents, but in April 2018—the deadline he set to release all JFK records—Trump blocked the release of some records until October 2021. President Joe Biden, citing the COVID-19 pandemic, delayed the release further, before releasing 13,173 unredacted documents in 2022. A second group of files were unsealed in June 2023, at which point 99 percent of documents had been made public.

Conspiracy theories
The Kennedy assassination has been described as "the mother of all conspiracies". For decades, polls have consistently found that a majority of Americans believe there was a conspiracy; some 1,000 to 2,000 books—mostly pro-conspiracy—have been written about the killing. Across different theories, Oswald's role varies from co-conspirator to entirely innocent. Common culprits include the FBI, the CIA, the U.S. military, the Mafia, the military-industrial complex, Vice President Johnson, Castro, the KGB, or some combination thereof. Bugliosi estimated that a total of 42 groups, 82 assassins, and 214 people had been accused in various assassination theories.

Conspiracy theorists often argue that there were multiple shooters—a "triangulation of crossfire"—and that the fatal shot was fired from the grassy knoll and struck Kennedy in the front of the head. Individuals present in Dealey Plaza have been the subject of much speculation, including the three tramps, the umbrella man, and the purported Badge Man. Conspiracy theorists argue that the autopsy and official investigations were flawed or, at worst, complicit, and that witnesses to the Kennedy assassination met mysterious and suspicious deaths.

Conspiracy theories have been espoused by notable figures, such as L. Fletcher Prouty, Chief of Special Operations for the Joint Chiefs of Staff under Kennedy, who believed that elements of the U.S. military and intelligence communities had conspired to assassinate the president. Governor Connally also rejected the single-bullet theory, and President Johnson reportedly expressed doubt regarding the Warren Commission's conclusions prior to his death. According to Robert F. Kennedy Jr., his father believed that the Warren Report was a "shoddy piece of craftsmanship" and that John F. Kennedy had been killed by a conspiracy, possibly involving Cuban exiles and the CIA. Communist rulers like Castro and Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev believed that Kennedy had been killed by right-wing Americans. Former CIA director R. James Woolsey has argued that Oswald killed Kennedy as part of a Soviet conspiracy.

Political impact and memorialization

On November 27—five days after the assassination—President Johnson delivered his "Let Us Continue" speech to Congress. Effectively an inaugural address, Johnson called for the realization of Kennedy's policies, particularly on civil rights; this effort soon materialized as the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Confusion surrounding Johnson's succession led to the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the U.S Constitution, which was adopted in 1967 and affirmed that the vice president became president upon the president's death.

On November 29, President Johnson issued Executive Order 11129, renaming Florida's Cape Canaveral—a name borne since at least 1530—to Cape Kennedy. NASA's Launch Operations Center, located on the cape, was also renamed as the Kennedy Space Center. The federal government honored Kennedy in other ways, such as replacing the Benjamin Franklin half dollar with the Kennedy half dollar, and renaming Washington, D.C.'s long-planned National Culture Center as the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts. New York City's airport was also renamed as the John F. Kennedy International Airport.

Kennedy's assassination also resulted in an overhaul of the Secret Service and its procedures. Open limousines were eliminated, staffing was significantly increased, and specialized teams like counter-sniper units were established. The agency's budget has also increased, from $5.5 million in 1963 (equivalent to $ million in 2013) to over $1.6 billion by the 50th anniversary in 2013.

Cultural impact and depictions
John F. Kennedy's assassination was the first of four major assassinations during the 1960s, coming two years before the assassination of Malcolm X in 1965, and five years before the assassinations of Martin Luther King Jr. and Robert F. Kennedy in 1968. For the public, Kennedy's assassination mythologized him into a heroic figure. Although scholars typically regard Kennedy as a good but not great president, public opinion polls consistently find him the most popular post-WWII president.

Kennedy's murder left a lasting impression on many worldwide. As with the attack on Pearl Harbor of December 7, 1941, and, much later, the September 11 attacks in 2001, asking "Where were you when you heard about President Kennedy's assassination?" became a common topic of discussion. Journalist Dan Rather opined that the Kennedy assassination will be discussed "a hundred years from now, a thousand years from now, in somewhat the same way as people discuss the Iliad. Different people read Homer's description of the war and come to different conclusions, and so it shall be for Kennedy's death."

Along with Oliver Stone's JFK, the assassination has been portrayed in several films: the pro-conspiracy, Dalton Trumbo–written Executive Action (1973) was the first feature film to depict the assassination. Besides explicit portrayals, some critics have argued that the Zapruder film—which itself has been featured in many films and television episodes—advanced cinéma vérité or inspired more graphic depictions of violence in American cinema. Many works of literature have also explored the killing, such as Don DeLillo's 1988 novel Libra in which Oswald is a CIA agent, James Ellroy's 1995 work American Tabloid, and Stephen King's 2011 time travel novel 11/22/63. The assassination has also been featured in several musical compositions, such as Igor Stravinsky's 1964 piece Elegy for J.F.K. and Phil Ochs' 1966 song "Crucifixion", which reportedly brought Robert Kennedy to tears. Other songs include "Abraham, Martin and John" (1968) and Bob Dylan's "Murder Most Foul" (2020).

Artifacts, museums, and locations today

In 1993, the National Park Service designated Dealey Plaza, the surrounding buildings, the overpass, and a portion of the adjacent railyard as a National Historic Landmark District. The Depository and its Sixth Floor Museum, operated by the city of Dallas, draw over 325,000 visitors annually.

The Boeing 707 that served as Air Force One at the time of the assassination is on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force; Kennedy's limousine is at the Henry Ford Museum. The Lincoln Catafalque, on which Kennedy's coffin rested in the Capitol, is exhibited at the Capitol Visitor Center. Jacqueline's pink suit, autopsy X-rays, and President Kennedy's blood-stained clothing are in the National Archives, with access controlled by the Kennedy family. Other items in the Archives include Parkland Hospital trauma room equipment; Oswald's rifle, diary, and revolver; bullet fragments; and the limousine's windshield. The Texas State Archives preserve Connally's bullet-punctured clothes; the gun Ruby used to kill Oswald came into the possession of Ruby's brother Earl, and was sold in 1991 for $220,000 (equivalent to $ in 2022).

At the direction of Robert F. Kennedy, some items were destroyed. The casket in which Kennedy's body was transported from Dallas to Washington was dropped into the sea, because "its public display would be extremely offensive and contrary to public policy".

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title: Assassination of John F. Kennedy