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User talk:Paul1022~enwiki

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title: User talk:Paul1022~enwiki


text:
Nexhmije Hoxha

Nexhmije Hoxha (8 February 1921 – 26 February 2020) was an Albanian communist politician. For many years she was the wife of Enver Hoxha, the first leader of the Socialist People's Republic of Albania and the First Secretary of the Party of Labour of Albania. Very close to her husband, she attempted to remain politically influential after his death in 1985. She was one of the few spouses of a ruling communist party leader with a high political profile of her own.

Biography
Nexhmije Hoxha was born Nexhmije Xhuglini in Bitola, in present-day North Macedonia, then Yugoslavia. Later moving with her parents to the Albanian capital, Tirana, she studied at the Queen Mother Pedagogical Institute. In November 1941, while still training to be a schoolteacher, she joined the newly founded Albanian Communist Party and a year later was elected to the General Council of the Albanian National Liberation Movement.

During the Second World War she fought against the forces of Fascist Italy and German Wehrmacht troops, as part of the First Division of the National Liberation Army, a resistance group which was dominated by communists and supported by Special Operations Executive forces which were sent to Albania by the British. In 1943 she was elected to the Secretariat of the Albanian Women's League, and served as its chairwoman from 1946 to 1952, replacing Ollga Plumbi.

Relationship with Enver Hoxha
The then Nexhmije Xhuglini met Enver Hoxha at a meeting of the Albanian Party of Labour. Hoxha proposed to her in 1942 at a house which was being rented to him by the generous party supporter Syrja Selfo, who would be sentenced to death and executed in 1946. Then for the next several months, the Hoxhas stayed on and off in the house of Enver's brother-in-law Bahri Omari, who was destined to be executed by a firing squad in 1945 for collaboration with Nazi occupation forces. They married in 1945. Enver Hoxha steadily rose to a prominent position after the end of the war and the establishment of a communist government.

Political career
In 1966, as Albania increasingly isolated itself, she became director of the Institute of Marxist–Leninist Studies, a body which was responsible for ensuring ideological purity and spreading propaganda. Her relationship with the Sigurimi secret police is widely discussed. Nexhmije later claimed in her 1998 memoir, My Life with Enver, that her husband expressed some regrets over the number of executions which the Sigurimi carried out.

After her husband died in 1985, Nexhmije was elected chairwoman of the Democratic Front, an umbrella association, and she defended her husband's heritage during the period of reforms (1990–1991). She was forced to resign as chairwoman of the Democratic Front in December 1990, and she was replaced by Prime Minister Adil Çarçani.

In the initial days after the Fall of communism in Albania, she described Ramiz Alia as a "national traitor", but later recanted her statement, claiming that Alia and the entire Party of Labour of Albania only tried to save what could be saved of socialism, that he could not be described as a "national traitor" and that the original accusation came only out of personal anger and emotion.

Later life and death
She was expelled from ALP on 13 June 1991 and the party organ Zeri i Popullit criticised her for her allegedly pompous way of life. She was arrested on 10 December 1991 and at the end of January 1993 she was sentenced to nine years in prison for embezzlement of 750,000 leks. The sentence was increased to eleven years by the appeal court. Hoxha was released from prison in January 1997.

Hoxha died on 26 February 2020 aged 99 at her home in Tirana from natural causes. At the time of her death she was the oldest living member of the communist leadership of Albania.

Personal
For many years she lived with her husband in the section of Tirana which was known as the Bllok, reserved for the country's ruling elite. However, Nexhmije maintained that she personally did not live extravagantly, emphasizing the prosaic nature of her marriage ceremony in 1945, which did not include a dress, a reception or a honeymoon.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Nexhmije Hoxha


text:
Periplus of the Erythraean Sea

The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (, Períplous tē̂s Erythrâs Thalássēs), also known by its Latin name as the Periplus Maris Erythraei, is a Greco-Roman periplus written in Koine Greek that describes navigation and trading opportunities from Roman Egyptian ports like Berenice Troglodytica along the coast of the Red Sea and others along the Horn of Africa, the Persian Gulf, Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean, including the modern-day Sindh region of Pakistan and southwestern regions of India.

The text has been ascribed to different dates between the first and third centuries, but a mid-first-century date is now the most commonly accepted. While the author is unknown, it is a first-hand description by someone familiar with the area and is nearly unique in providing accurate insights into what the ancient Hellenic world knew about the lands around the Indian Ocean.

Name
A periplus (περίπλους, períplous, lit. "a sailing-around") is a logbook recording sailing itineraries and commercial, political, and ethnological details about the ports visited. In an era before maps were in general use, it functioned as a combination of atlas and traveller's handbook.

The Erythraean Sea (Ἐρυθρὰ Θάλασσα, Erythrà Thálassa, lit. "the Red Sea") was an ancient geographical designation that always included the Gulf of Aden between Arabia Felix and the Horn of Africa and was often extended (as in this periplus) to include the present-day Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and Indian Ocean as a single maritime area.

Date and authorship
The 10th-century Byzantine manuscript which forms the basis of present knowledge of the Periplus attributes the work to Arrian, but apparently for no better reason than its position beside Arrian's much later Periplus of the Euxine Sea.

One historical analysis, published by Wilfred Harvey Schoff in 1912, narrowed the date of the text to AD59–62, in agreement with present-day estimates of the middle of the 1st century. Schoff additionally provides a historical analysis as to the text's original authorship, and arrives at the conclusion that the author was a "Greek in Egypt, a Roman subject". By Schoff's calculations, this would have been during the time of Tiberius Claudius Balbilus, who coincidentally also was an Egyptian Greek.

Schoff continues by noting that the author could not have been "a highly educated man" as "is evident from his frequent confusion of Greek and Latin words and his clumsy and sometimes ungrammatical constructions". Because of "the absence of any account of the journey up the Nile and across the desert from Coptos", Schoff prefers to pinpoint the author's residence to "Berenice rather than Alexandria".

John Hill maintains that "the Periplus can now be confidently dated to between AD 40 and 70 and, probably, between AD 40 and 50." This dating corresponds with the argumentation of L. Casson ("between A.D. 40 and 70") in his key book ''The Periplus Maris Erythraei: Text with Introduction, Translation and Commentary.

Synopsis
The work consists of 66 sections, most of them about the length of a long paragraph. For instance, the short section 9 reads in its entirety: "From Malao (Berbera) it is two courses to the mart of Moundou, where ships anchor more safely by an island lying very close to the land. The imports to this are as aforesaid [Chapter 8 mentions iron, gold, silver, drinking cups, etc.], and from it likewise are exported the same goods [Chapter 8 mentions myrrh, douaka, makeir, and slaves], and fragrant gum called mokrotou (cf. Sanskrit makaranda). The inhabitants who trade here are more stubborn."

In many cases, the description of places is sufficiently accurate to identify their present locations; for others, there is considerable debate. For instance, "Rhapta" is mentioned as the farthest market down the African coast of "Azania", but there are at least five locations matching the description, ranging from Tanga to south of the Rufiji River delta. The description of the Indian coast mentions the Ganges River clearly, yet after that it is ambiguous, describing China as a "great inland city Thina" that is a source of raw silk.

The Periplus says that a direct sailing route from the Red Sea to the Indian peninsula across the open ocean was discovered by Hippalus (1st centuryBC).

Many trade goods are mentioned in the Periplus, but some of the words naming trade goods are found nowhere else in ancient literature, leading to guesswork as to what they might be. For example, one trade good mentioned is "lakkos chromatinos". The name lakkos appears nowhere else in ancient Greek or Roman literature. The name re-surfaces in late medieval Latin as lacca, borrowed from medieval Arabic lakk in turn borrowed from Sanskritic lakh, meaning lac i.e. a red-coloured resin native to India used as a lacquer and used also as a red colourant. Some other named trade goods remain obscure.

Himyarite kingdom and Saba
Ships from Himyar regularly travelled the East African coast. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea describes the trading empire of Himyar and Saba, regrouped under a single ruler, "Charibael" (probably Karab'il Watar Yuhan'em II), who is said to have been on friendly terms with Rome:

"23. And after nine days more there is Saphar, the metropolis, in which lives Charibael, lawful king of two tribes, the Homerites and those living next to them, called the Sabaites; through continual embassies and gifts, he is a friend of the Emperors."

Frankincense kingdom
The Frankincense kingdom is described further east along the southern coast of the Arabian Peninsula, with the harbour of Cana (South Arabic Qana, modern Bi'r Ali in Hadramaut). The ruler of this kingdom is named Eleazus, or Eleazar, thought to correspond to King Iliazz Yalit I:

"27. After Eudaemon Arabia there is a continuous length of coast, and a bay extending two thousand stadia or more, along which there are Nomads and Fish-Eaters living in villages; just beyond the cape projecting from this bay there is another market-town by the shore, Cana, of the Kingdom of Eleazus, the Frankincense Country; and facing it there are two desert islands, one called Island of Birds, the other Dome Island, one hundred and twenty stadia from Cana. Inland from this place lies the metropolis Sabbatha, in which the King lives. All the frankincense produced in the country is brought by camels to that place to be stored, and to Cana on rafts held up by inflated skins after the manner of the country, and in boats. And this place has a trade also with the far-side ports, with Barygaza and Scythia and Ommana and the neighboring coast of Persia."

Somalia
Ras Hafun in northern Somalia is believed to be the location of the ancient trade centre of Opōnē. Ancient Egyptian, Roman and Persian Gulf pottery has been recovered from the site by an archaeological team from the University of Michigan. Opōnē is in the thirteenth entry of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, which in part states: "And then, after sailing four hundred stadia along a promontory, toward which place the current also draws you, there is another market-town called Opone, into which the same things are imported as those already mentioned, and in it the greatest quantity of cinnamon is produced, (the arebo and moto), and slaves of the better sort, which are brought to Egypt in increasing numbers; and a great quantity of tortoiseshell, better than that found elsewhere."

- Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, §13

In ancient times, Opōnē operated as a port of call for merchants from Phoenicia, ancient Egypt, ancient Greece, Persia, Yemen, Nabataea, Azania, the Roman Empire, and elsewhere, as it possessed a strategic location along the coastal route from Azania to the Red Sea. Merchants from as far afield as Indonesia and Malaysia passed through Opōnē, trading spices, silks and other goods, before departing south for Azania or north to South Arabia or Egypt on the trade routes that spanned the length of the Indian Ocean's rim. As early as AD50, Opōnē was well known as a center for the cinnamon trade, along with the trading of cloves and other spices, ivory, exotic animal skins and incense.

The ancient port city of Malao, situated in present-day Berbera in northern Somalia, is also mentioned in the Periplus: "After Avalites there is another market-town, better than this, called Malao, distant a sail of about eight hundred stadia. The anchorage is an open roadstead, sheltered by a spit running out from the east. Here the natives are more peaceable. There are imported into this place the things already mentioned, and many tunics, cloaks from Arsinoe, dressed and dyed; drinking-cups, sheets of soft copper in small quantity, iron, and gold and silver coin, not much. There are exported from these places myrrh, a little frankincense, (that known as far-side), the harder cinnamon, duaca, Indian copal and macir, which are imported into Arabia; and slaves, but rarely."

- Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, §8

Aksum Empire

Aksum is mentioned in the Periplus as an important market place for ivory, which was exported throughout the ancient world:

"From that place to the city of the people called Auxumites there is a five days' journey more; to that place all the ivory is brought from the country beyond the Nile through the district called Cyeneum, and thence to Adulis."

According to the Periplus, the ruler of Aksum was Zoscales, who, besides ruling in Aksum also held under his sway two harbours on the Red Sea: Adulis (near Massawa) and Avalites (Assab). He is also said to have been familiar with Greek literature:

"These places, from the Calf-Eaters to the other Berber country, are governed by Zoscales; who is miserly in his ways and always striving for more, but otherwise upright, and acquainted with Greek literature."

Rufiji (Tanzania) theory
Research by the Tanzanian archaeologist Felix A. Chami has uncovered remains of Roman trade items near the mouth of the Rufiji River and the nearby Mafia island, and makes a case that the ancient port of Rhapta was situated on the banks of the Rufiji River just south of Dar es Salaam.

The Periplus informs us that:

"Two runs beyond this island [Menuthias = Zanzibar?] comes the very last port of trade on the coast of Azania, called Rhapta ['sewn'], a name derived from the aforementioned sewn boats, where there are great quantities of ivory and tortoise shell."

Chami summarizes the evidence for Rhapta's location as follows: "The actual location of the Azanian capital, Rhapta, remains unknown. However, archaeological indicators reported above suggest that it was located on the coast of Tanzania, in the region of the Rufiji River and Mafia Island. It is in this region where the concentration of Panchaea/Azanian period settlements has been discovered. If the island of Menuthias mentioned in the Periplus was Zanzibar, a short voyage south would land one in the Rufiji region.

The 2nd-century geographer Ptolemy locates Rhapta at latitude 8° south, which is the exact latitude of the Rufiji Delta and Mafia Island. The metropolis was on the mainland about one degree west of the coast near a large river and a bay with the same name. While the river should be regarded as the modern Rufiji River, the bay should definitely be identified with the calm waters between the island of Mafia and the Rufiji area. The peninsula east of Rhapta would have been the northern tip of Mafia Island. The southern part of the bay is protected from the deep sea by numerous deltaic small islets separated from Mafia Island by shallow and narrow channels. To the north the bay is open to the sea and any sailor entering the waters from that direction would feel as if he were entering a bay. Even today the residents identify these waters as a bay, referring to it as a 'female sea', as opposed to the more violent open sea on the other side of the island of Mafia."

Felix Chami has found archaeological evidence for extensive Roman trade on Mafia Island and, not far away, on the mainland, near the mouth of the Rufiji River, which he dated to the first few centuries. Furthermore, J. Innes Miller points out that Roman coins have been found on Pemba island, just north of Rhapta.

Quelimane (Mozambique) theory
Nevertheless, Carl Peters has argued that Rhapta was near modern-day Quelimane in Mozambique, citing the fact that (according to the Periplus) the coastline there ran down towards the southwest. Peters also suggests that the description of the "Pyralaoi" (i.e., the "Fire people") – "situated at the entry to the [Mozambique] Channel" – indicates that they were the inhabitants of the volcanic Comoro Islands. He also maintains that Menuthias (with its abundance of rivers and crocodiles) cannot have been Zanzibar; i.e., Madagascar seems more likely.

Himyaro-Sabaean suzerainty
The Periplus informs us that Rhapta, was under the firm control of a governor appointed by Arabian king of Musa, taxes were collected, and it was serviced by "merchant craft that they staff mostly with Arab skippers and agents who, through continual intercourse and intermarriage, are familiar with the area and its language".

The Periplus explicitly states that Azania (which included Rhapta) was subject to "Charibael", the king of both the Sabaeans and Homerites in the southwest corner of Arabia. The kingdom is known to have been a Roman ally at this period. Charibael is stated in the Periplus to be "a friend of the (Roman) emperors, thanks to continuous embassies and gifts" and, therefore, Azania could fairly be described as a vassal or dependency of Rome, just as Zesan is described in the 3rd-century Chinese history, the Weilüe.

Bharuch
Trade with the Indian harbour of Barygaza is described extensively in the Periplus. Nahapana, ruler of the Indo-Scythian Western Satraps is mentioned under the name Nambanus, as ruler of the area around Barigaza: "41. Beyond the gulf of Baraca is that of Barygaza and the coast of the country of Ariaca, which is the beginning of the Kingdom of Nambanus and of all India. That part of it lying inland and adjoining Scythia is called Abiria, but the coast is called Syrastrene. It is a fertile country, yielding wheat and rice and sesame oil and clarified butter, cotton and the Indian cloths made therefrom, of the coarser sorts. Very many cattle are pastured there, and the men are of great stature and black in color. The metropolis of this country is Minnagara, from which much cotton cloth is brought down to Barygaza."

Under the Western Satraps, Barigaza was one of the main centres of Roman trade in the subcontinent. The Periplus describes the many goods exchanged:

"49. There are imported into this market-town (Barigaza), wine, Italian preferred, also Laodicean and Arabian; copper, tin, and lead; coral and topaz; thin clothing and inferior sorts of all kinds; bright-colored girdles a cubit wide; storax, sweet clover, flint glass, realgar, antimony, gold and silver coin, on which there is a profit when exchanged for the money of the country; and ointment, but not very costly and not much. And for the King there are brought into those places very costly vessels of silver, singing boys, beautiful maidens for the harem, fine wines, thin clothing of the finest weaves, and the choicest ointments. There are exported from these places spikenard, costus [Saussurea costus], bdellium, ivory, agate and carnelian, lycium, cotton cloth of all kinds, silk cloth, mallow cloth, yarn, long pepper and such other things as are brought here from the various market-towns. Those bound for this market-town from Egypt make the voyage favorably about the month of July, that is Epiphi."

Goods were also brought down in quantity from Ujjain, the capital of the Western Satraps:

"48. Inland from this place and to the east, is the city called Ozene, formerly a royal capital; from this place are brought down all things needed for the welfare of the country about Barygaza, and many things for our trade: agate and carnelian, Indian muslins and mallow cloth, and much ordinary cloth."

Early Chera, Pandyan, and Chola kingdoms
The lost port city of Muziris (near present day Kodungallur) in the Chera kingdom, as well as the Early Pandyan Kingdom are mentioned in the Periplus as major centres of trade, pepper and other spices, metal work and semiprecious stones, between Damirica and the Roman Empire.

According to the Periplus, numerous Greek seamen managed an intense trade with Muziris: "Then come Naura (Kannur) and Tyndis, the first markets of Damirica or Limyrike, and then Muziris and Nelcynda, which are now of leading importance. Tyndis is of the Kingdom of Cerobothra; it is a village in plain sight by the sea. Muziris, of the same kingdom, abounds in ships sent there with cargoes from Arabia, and by the Greeks; it is located on a river (River Periyar), distant from Tyndis by river and sea five hundred stadia, and up the river from the shore twenty stadia. Nelcynda is distant from Muziris by river and sea about five hundred stadia, and is of another Kingdom, the Pandian. This place also is situated on a river, about one hundred and twenty stadia from the sea ..."

According to the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (53:17:15-27), Limyrike began at Naura and Tyndis; Ptolemy (7.1.8) mentions only Tyndis as its starting point. The region probably ended at Kanyakumari; it thus roughly corresponds to the present-day Malabar Coast. Further, this area served as a hub for trade with the interior, in the Gangetic plain: "Besides this there are ex-ported great quantities of fine pearls, ivory, silk cloth, spikenard from the Ganges, malabathrum from the places in the interior, transparent stones of all kinds, diamonds and sapphires, and tortoise-shell; that from Chryse Island, and that taken among the islands along the coast of Damirica (Limyrike). They make the voyage to this place in a favorable season who set out from Egypt about the month of July, that is Epiphi."

Indian–Chinese border
The Periplus also describes the annual fair in present-day Northeast India, on the border with China. "Every year there turns up at the border of Thina, a certain tribe, short in body and very flat-faced ... called Sêsatai ... They come with their wives and children bearing great packs resembling mats of green leaves and then remain at some spot on the border between them and those on the Thina side, and they hold a festival for several days, spreading out the mats under them, and then take off for their own homes in the interior."

Sêsatai are the source of malabathron. Schoff's translation mentions them as Besatae: they are a people similar to Kirradai and they lived in the region between "Assam and Sichuan".

"The [? locals], counting on this, then turn up in the area, collect what the Sêsatai had spread out, extract the fibers from the reeds, which are called petroi, and lightly doubling over the leaves and rolling them into ball-like shapes, they string them on the fibers from the reeds. There are three grades: what is called big-ball malabathron from the bigger leaves; medium-ball from the lesser leaves; and small-ball from the smaller. Thus three grades of malabathron are produced, and then they are transported into India by the people who make them."

Remains of the Indo-Greek kingdom
The Periplus claims that Greek buildings and wells exist in Barigaza, falsely attributing them to Alexander the Great, who never went this far south. This account of a kingdom tracing its beginnings to Alexander's campaigns and the Hellenistic Seleucid empire that followed: "The metropolis of this country is Minnagara, from which much cotton cloth is brought down to Barygaza. In these places there remain even to the present time signs of the expedition of Alexander, such as ancient shrines, walls of forts and great wells."

The Periplus further claims to the circulation of Indo-Greek coinage in the region: "To the present day ancient drachmae are current in Barygaza, coming from this country, bearing inscriptions in Greek letters, and the devices of those who reigned after Alexander, Apollodorus [sic] and Menander."

The Greek city of Alexandria Bucephalous on the Jhelum River is mentioned in the Periplus, as well as in the Roman Peutinger Table:

"The country inland of Barigaza is inhabited by numerous tribes, such as the Arattii, the Arachosii, the Gandaraei and the people of Poclais, in which is Bucephalus Alexandria"

Manuscripts
The Periplus was originally known only through a single manuscript dating from the 14th or 15th century, now held by the British Library. This manuscript proved to be a corrupt and error-ridden copy of a 10th-century Byzantine manuscript in minuscule hand. The 10th-century manuscript placed it beside Arrian's Periplus of the Euxine Sea and (apparently mistakenly) also credited Arrian with writing it as well. The Byzantine manuscript was taken from Heidelberg to Rome during the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), then to Paris under Napoleon after his army's conquest of the Papal States in the late 1790s, then returned to Heidelberg's University Library in 1816 where it remains.

Editions
The British manuscript was edited by Sigmund Gelen in Prague and first published by Hieronymus Froben in 1533. This error-ridden text served as the basis for other editions and translations for three centuries, until the restoration of the original manuscript to Heidelberg in 1816.

Schoff's heavily annotated 1912 English translation was itself based on a defective original; as late as the 1960s, the only trustworthy scholarly edition was Frisk's 1927 French study.

title: Periplus of the Erythraean Sea


text: Talk:Cluster sampling

title: Talk:Cluster sampling


text:
Prostate-specific antigen

Prostate-specific antigen (PSA), also known as gamma-seminoprotein or kallikrein-3 (KLK3), P-30 antigen, is a glycoprotein enzyme encoded in humans by the KLK3 gene. PSA is a member of the kallikrein-related peptidase family and is secreted by the epithelial cells of the prostate gland in men and the paraurethral glands in women.

PSA is produced for the ejaculate, where it liquefies semen in the seminal coagulum and allows sperm to swim freely. It is also believed to be instrumental in dissolving cervical mucus, allowing the entry of sperm into the uterus.

PSA is present in small quantities in the serum of men with healthy prostates, but is often elevated in the presence of prostate cancer or other prostate disorders. PSA is not uniquely an indicator of prostate cancer, but may also detect prostatitis or benign prostatic hyperplasia.

Screening
Clinical practice guidelines for prostate cancer screening vary and are controversial, in part due to uncertainty as to whether the benefits of screening ultimately outweigh the risks of overdiagnosis and overtreatment. In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved the PSA test for annual screening of prostate cancer in men of age 50 and older. The patient is required to be informed of the risks and benefits of PSA testing prior to performing the test.

In the United Kingdom, the National Health Service (NHS) does not mandate, nor advise for PSA test, but allows patients to decide based on their doctor's advice. The NHS does not offer general PSA screening, for similar reasons.

PSA levels between 4 and 10ng/mL (nanograms per milliliter) are considered to be suspicious, and consideration should be given to confirming the abnormal PSA with a repeat test. If indicated, prostate biopsy is performed to obtain a tissue sample for histopathological analysis.

While PSA testing may help 1 in 1,000 avoid death due to prostate cancer, 4 to 5 in 1,000 would die from prostate cancer after 10 years even with screening. This means that PSA screening may reduce mortality from prostate cancer by up to 25%. Expected harms include anxiety for 100–120 receiving false positives, biopsy pain, and other complications from biopsy for false positive tests.

Use of PSA screening tests is also controversial due to questionable test accuracy. The screening can present abnormal results even when a man does not have cancer (known as a false-positive result), or normal results even when a man does have cancer (known as a false-negative result). False-positive test results can cause confusion and anxiety in men, and can lead to unnecessary prostate biopsies, a procedure which causes risk of pain, infection, and hemorrhage. False-negative results can give men a false sense of security, though they may actually have cancer.

Of those found to have prostate cancer, overtreatment is common because most cases of prostate cancer are not expected to cause any symptoms due to low rate of growth of the prostate tumor. Therefore, many will experience the side effects of treatment, such as for every 1000 men screened, 29 will experience erectile dysfunction, 18 will develop urinary incontinence, two will have serious cardiovascular events, one will develop pulmonary embolus or deep venous thrombosis, and one perioperative death. Since the expected harms relative to risk of death are perceived by patients as minimal, men found to have prostate cancer usually (up to 90% of cases) elect to receive treatment.

Risk stratification and staging
Men with prostate cancer may be characterized as low, intermediate, or high risk for having/developing metastatic disease or dying of prostate cancer. PSA level is one of three variables on which the risk stratification is based; the others are the grade of prostate cancer (Gleason grading system) and the stage of cancer based on physical examination and imaging studies. D'Amico criteria for each risk category are:
 * Low risk: PSA < 10, Gleason score ≤ 6, AND clinical stage ≤ T2a
 * Intermediate risk: PSA 10-20, Gleason score 7, OR clinical stage T2b/c
 * High risk: PSA > 20, Gleason score ≥ 8, OR clinical stage ≥ T3

Given the relative simplicity of the 1998 D'Amico criteria (above), other predictive models of risk stratification based on mathematical probability constructs exist or have been proposed to allow for better matching of treatment decisions with disease features. Studies are being conducted into the incorporation of multiparametric MRI imaging results into nomograms that rely on PSA, Gleason grade, and tumor stage.

Post-treatment monitoring
PSA levels are monitored periodically (e.g., every 6–36 months) after treatment for prostate cancer – more frequently in patients with high-risk disease, less frequently in patients with lower-risk disease. If surgical therapy (i.e., radical prostatectomy) is successful at removing all prostate tissue (and prostate cancer), PSA becomes undetectable within a few weeks. A subsequent rise in PSA level above 0.2ng/mL L is generally regarded as evidence of recurrent prostate cancer after a radical prostatectomy; less commonly, it may simply indicate residual benign prostate tissue.

Following radiation therapy of any type for prostate cancer, some PSA levels might be detected, even when the treatment ultimately proves to be successful. This makes interpreting the relationship between PSA levels and recurrence/persistence of prostate cancer after radiation therapy more difficult. PSA levels may continue to decrease for several years after radiation therapy. The lowest level is referred to as the PSA nadir. A subsequent increase in PSA levels by 2.0ng/mL above the nadir is the currently accepted definition of prostate cancer recurrence after radiation therapy.

Recurrent prostate cancer detected by a rise in PSA levels after curative treatment is referred to as a "biochemical recurrence". The likelihood of developing recurrent prostate cancer after curative treatment is related to the pre-operative variables described in the preceding section (PSA level and grade/stage of cancer). Low-risk cancers are the least likely to recur, but they are also the least likely to have required treatment in the first place.

Prostatitis
PSA levels increase in the setting of prostate infection/inflammation (prostatitis), often markedly (> 100).

Forensic identification of semen
PSA was first identified by researchers attempting to find a substance in seminal fluid that would aid in the investigation of rape cases. PSA is used to indicate the presence of semen in forensic serology. The semen of adult males has PSA levels far in excess of those found in other tissues; therefore, a high level of PSA found in a sample is an indicator that semen may be present. Because PSA is a biomarker that is expressed independently of spermatozoa, it remains useful in identifying semen from vasectomized and azoospermic males.

PSA can also be found at low levels in other body fluids, such as urine and breast milk, thus setting a high minimum threshold of interpretation to rule out false positive results and conclusively state that semen is present. While traditional tests such as crossover electrophoresis have a sufficiently low sensitivity to detect only seminal PSA, newer diagnostics tests developed from clinical prostate cancer screening methods have lowered the threshold of detection down to 4ng/mL. This level of antigen has been shown to be present in the peripheral blood of males with prostate cancer, and rarely in female urine samples and breast milk.

Mechanism of action
The physiological function of KLK3 is the dissolution of the coagulum, the sperm-entrapping gel composed of semenogelins and fibronectin. Its proteolytic action is effective in liquefying the coagulum so that the sperm can be liberated. The activity of PSA is well regulated. In the prostate, it is present as an inactive pro-form, which is activated through the action of KLK2, another kallikrein-related peptidase. In the prostate, zinc ion concentrations are 10 times higher than in other bodily fluids. Zinc ions have a strong inhibitory effect on the activity of PSA and on that of KLK2, so that PSA is totally inactive.

Further regulation is achieved through pH variations. Although its activity is increased by higher pH, the inhibitory effect of zinc also increases. The pH of semen is slightly alkaline and the concentrations of zinc are high. On ejaculation, semen is exposed to the acidic pH of the vagina, due to the presence of lactic acid. In fertile couples, the final vaginal pH after coitus approaches the 6-7 levels, which coincides well with reduced zinc inhibition of PSA. At these pH levels, the reduced PSA activity is countered by a decrease in zinc inhibition. Thus, the coagulum is slowly liquefied, releasing the sperm in a well-regulated manner.

Biochemistry
Prostate-specific antigen (PSA, also known as kallikrein III, seminin, semenogelase, γ-seminoprotein and P-30 antigen) is a 34-kD glycoprotein produced almost exclusively by the prostate gland. It is a serine protease enzyme, the gene of which is located on the 19th chromosome (19q13) in humans.

History
The discovery of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) is beset with controversy; as PSA is present in prostatic tissue and semen, it was independently discovered and given different names, thus adding to the controversy.

Flocks was the first to experiment with antigens in the prostate and 10 years later Ablin reported the presence of precipitation antigens in the prostate.

In 1971, Mitsuwo Hara characterized a unique protein in the semen fluid, gamma-seminoprotein. Li and Beling, in 1973, isolated a protein, E1, from human semen in an attempt to find a novel method to achieve fertility control.

In 1978, Sensabaugh identified semen-specific protein p30, but proved that it was similar to E1 protein, and that prostate was the source. In 1979, Wang purified a tissue-specific antigen from the prostate ('prostate antigen').

PSA was first measured quantitatively in the blood by Papsidero in 1980, and Stamey carried out the initial work on the clinical use of PSA as a marker of prostate cancer.

Serum levels
PSA is normally present in the blood at very low levels. The reference range of less than 4ng/mL for the first commercial PSA test, the Hybritech Tandem-R PSA test released in February 1986, was based on a study that found 99% of 472 apparently healthy men had a total PSA level below 4ng/mL.

Increased levels of PSA may suggest the presence of prostate cancer. However, prostate cancer can also be present in the complete absence of an elevated PSA level, in which case the test result would be a false negative.

Obesity has been reported to reduce serum PSA levels. Delayed early detection may partially explain worse outcomes in obese men with early prostate cancer. After treatment, higher BMI also correlates to higher risk of recurrence.

PSA levels can be also increased by prostatitis, irritation, benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), and recent ejaculation, producing a false positive result. Digital rectal examination (DRE) has been shown in several studies to produce an increase in PSA. However, the effect is clinically insignificant, since DRE causes the most substantial increases in patients with PSA levels already elevated over 4.0ng/mL.

The "normal" reference ranges for prostate-specific antigen increase with age, as do the usual ranges in cancer (per associated table).

PSA velocity
Despite earlier findings, recent research suggests that the rate of increase of PSA (e.g. >0.35ng/mL/yr, the 'PSA velocity' ) is not a more specific marker for prostate cancer than the serum level of PSA.

However, the PSA rate of rise may have value in prostate cancer prognosis. Men with prostate cancer whose PSA level increased by more than 2.0ng per milliliter during the year before the diagnosis of prostate cancer have a higher risk of death from prostate cancer despite undergoing radical prostatectomy. PSA velocity (PSAV) was found in a 2008 study to be more useful than the PSA doubling time (PSA DT) to help identify those men with life-threatening disease before start of treatment.

Men who are known to be at risk for prostate cancer, and who decide to plot their PSA values as a function of time (i.e., years), may choose to use a semi-log plot. An exponential growth in PSA values appears as a straight line on a semi-log plot, so that a new PSA value significantly above the straight line signals a switch to a new and significantly higher growth rate, i.e., a higher PSA velocity.

Free PSA
Most PSA in the blood is bound to serum proteins. A small amount is not protein-bound and is called 'free PSA'. In men with prostate cancer, the ratio of free (unbound) PSA to total PSA is decreased. The risk of cancer increases if the free to total ratio is less than 25%. (See graph) The lower the ratio is, the greater the probability of prostate cancer. Measuring the ratio of free to total PSA appears to be particularly promising for eliminating unnecessary biopsies in men with PSA levels between 4 and 10ng/mL. However, both total and free PSA increase immediately after ejaculation, returning slowly to baseline levels within 24 hours.

Inactive PSA
The PSA test in 1994 failed to differentiate between prostate cancer and benign prostate hyperplasia (BPH) and the commercial assay kits for PSA did not provide correct PSA values. Thus with the introduction of the ratio of free-to-total PSA, the reliability of the test has improved. Measuring the activity of the enzyme could add to the ratio of free-to-total PSA and further improve the diagnostic value of test. Proteolytically active PSA has been shown to have an anti-angiogenic effect and certain inactive subforms may be associated with prostate cancer, as shown by MAb 5D3D11, an antibody able to detect forms abundantly represented in sera from cancer patients. The presence of inactive proenzyme forms of PSA is another potential indicator of disease.

Complexed PSA
PSA exists in serum in the free (unbound) form and in a complex with alpha 1-antichymotrypsin; research has been conducted to see if measurements of complexed PSA are more specific and sensitive biomarkers for prostate cancer than other approaches.

PSA in other biologic fluids and tissues
The term prostate-specific antigen is a misnomer: it is an antigen but is not specific to the prostate. Although present in large amounts in prostatic tissue and semen, it has been detected in other body fluids and tissues.

In women, PSA is found in female ejaculate at concentrations roughly equal to that found in male semen. Other than semen and female ejaculate, the greatest concentrations of PSA in biological fluids are detected in breast milk and amniotic fluid. Low concentrations of PSA have been identified in the urethral glands, endometrium, normal breast tissue and salivary gland tissue. PSA also is found in the serum of women with breast, lung, or uterine cancer and in some patients with renal cancer.

Tissue samples can be stained for the presence of PSA in order to determine the origin of malignant cells that have metastasized.

Interactions
Prostate-specific antigen has been shown to interact with protein C inhibitor. Prostate-specific antigen interacts with and activates the vascular endothelial growth factors VEGF-C and VEGF-D, which are involved in tumor angiogenesis and in the lymphatic metastasis of tumors.

title: Prostate-specific antigen


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Eurylaimidae

The Eurylaimidae are a family of suboscine passerine birds that occur from the eastern Himalayas to Indonesia and the Philippines. The family previously included the sapayoa from the Neotropics, the asities from Madagascar, and the Calyptomenidae from Africa and Asia, but these are now separated into distinct families.

Description
Many of the species are brightly coloured birds that present broad heads, large eyes and a hooked, flat and broad beak. They range from 13 to 28 centimetres in length, and live in the dense canopies of wet forests, allowing them to hide despite their brightly coloured plumage. The plumage of the juvenile eurylaimids are similar to those of the adults, differing in being duller and shorter-winged and shorter-tailed in some cases.

Behaviour and ecology
They are for the most part insectivorous and carnivorous. Prey taken includes insects, spiders, centipedes, and millipedes, as well as lizards and tree frogs. Prey is obtained by sallying from a perch to snatch it in flight, and gleaning the prey off leaves and branches while flying. Some species may take some fruit, but only the green broadbills of the genus Calyptomena and the Grauer's broadbill are primarily frugivores (which also take some insects).

They are generally gregarious, with many species moving about in flocks of about 20 individuals. They attach their purse-shaped nests to suspended vines, and leave a tail of fibres hanging below it. This gives the nest the appearance of being random debris caught in the tree, an effect further enhanced by the birds covering the nest with lichen and spider webs. Broadbills typically lay two to three eggs.

Taxonomy and systematics
The family Eurylaimidae was introduced in 1831 (as Eurylaimes) by the French naturalist René Lesson. They were characterized by a simple syrinx with just a single pair of muscles, the front toes being partially fused at the base and having 15 neck vertebrae. A DNA sequence-based study by Carl Oliveros and colleagues published in 2019 determined the phylogenetic relationships of the Eurylaimidae to other families in the Eurylaimides (Old World suboscines):

A study published in 2017 determined the following phylogenetic relationships among the Eurylaimidae:

The family includes ten species of which four are each placed in their own monotypic genus:

title: Eurylaimidae


text:
Nagoya Airfield

Nagoya Airfield (名古屋飛行場), also known as Komaki Airport or Nagoya Airport, is an airport which lies within the local government areas of Toyoyama, Komaki, Kasugai and Nagoya in Aichi Prefecture, Japan. Prior to 2005, it was once an international airport, but is now a domestic secondary airport serving Nagoya while the current primary civil airport for Nagoya is Chūbu Centrair International Airport in Tokoname.

It is the main operating base for FDA (Fuji Dream Airlines), the only airline that offers scheduled air service from the airfield. It is also used for general aviation and, by Japan Self-Defense Forces, as an airbase.

Mitsubishi Aircraft Corporation is headquartered in the airport's terminal building, and its parent company Mitsubishi Heavy Industries produced the Mitsubishi Regional Jet aircraft at a factory adjacent to the airport.

Alternate names

 * "Nagoya Airfield" is the name as the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism of the national government, as of 2008, recognizes it as an "other airport".
 * The airfield was Nagoya Airport (名古屋空港) until the opening of Centrair on February 17, 2005.
 * It has been conventionally called Komaki Airport (小牧空港).
 * Aichi Prefectural Government, the current owner of the airport, nicknames it Prefectural Nagoya Airport (県営名古屋空港).
 * The Japan Self-Defense Forces shares the runway as a part of Japan Air Self-Defence Force Komaki Base (航空自衛隊小牧基地). The four Boeing KC-767J tankers of the 404th Tactical Airlift Tanker Squadron are based there.

History
Nagoya Airport served as the main airport for Nagoya until the opening of Chubu Centrair International Airport on February 17, 2005. This airport IATA Airport Code used to be NGO (now overtaken by the new Centrair airport), and its ICAO Airport Code used to be RJNN when it was classified as a second class airport; the new designations are NKM for regional flights and RJNA designation for general aviation flights. Aichi Prefecture manages the facilities and regularly handles international business flights.

During the 1980s and early 1990s, Nagoya Airport was a busy international airport because of overflow from Japan's other international airports, New Tokyo International Airport (now Narita International Airport) near Tokyo and Osaka International Airport (Itami Airport) near Osaka.

Since the opening of Kansai International Airport in 1994, the airport's main traffic source has been the nearby automotive and manufacturing industries, causing carriers such as United Airlines (San Francisco and Chicago–O'Hare) (United, as successor to Continental Airlines, currently serves Centrair Airport with flights to Guam) and Delta Air Lines (Portland (OR)) (Delta, as successor to Northwest Airlines, currently serves Centrair Airport with flights to Detroit) to stop flying to Nagoya. Some discount holiday flights still operated from Nagoya, drawing passengers from the Kansai region. On the other hand, the cargo handling capacity of Nagoya Airport was not enough to satisfy the demands from the regional economy and air cargo shifted to Narita and Kansai. In addition, the airport was hampered by its location in a residential area of Aichi Prefecture, limiting the number of flights that can use the airport, as well as the hours in which they can fly.

Because of these reasons, a new airport, Chubu Centrair International Airport, was built on an island south of Nagoya. On February 17, 2005, nearly all of Nagoya Airport's commercial transport flights moved to Centrair. On the same day, the old airport became a general aviation and airbase facility, as well as was renamed to the current names. It also became J-AIR's headquarters after a hub relocation from Hiroshima-Nishi Airport. The airline continued to operate through the airport until Fuji Dream Airlines opened a base at the airport and a corporate restructuring of its parent company Japan Airlines in 2010 resulted in J-Air's departure from the airport and moving of its operation base to Itami Airport in Osaka. A dedicated business aviation terminal and commuter flights within Japan then became the key features of Nagoya's secondary airport. The Aichi Museum of Flight opened at the airport in November 2017.

Imperial Period
Nagoya Airport was first opened in 1944 as a military airport named Kamake Airfield. It was primarily used as the home base of the 55th Sentai of the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service. As such, it was attacked on several occasions during the Pacific War in 1944 and 1945 by USAAF B-29 Superfortress bombing raids.

U.S. period
After the end of World War II, the airfield was taken over by the American occupation forces and renamed Nagoya Air Base. Reconstruction of the heavily damaged airfield began and in May 1946, Nagoya became the headquarters of the Fifth Air Force, which controlled Air Force occupation units throughout Japan. In December 1950 during the Korean War, Fifth Air Force headquarters was moved to South Korea; however, it returned to Nagoya Air Base in September 1954 and remained until July 1957 when it moved to Fuchu Air Station in Tokyo as part of the USAF return of Nagoya Airport to Japanese control.

The U.S. primarily used Nagoya Air Base as a headquarters station for the next ten years, stationing several command and control units at the base:
 * 308th Bombardment Wing, 1 Mar 1947-30 Jun 1948
 * Moved to Nagoya in March from Kimpo Air Base, South Korea where it had been performing occupation duty since moving there from Okinawa in September 1945

 * 85th Fighter Wing, 1 Jun 1947-30 Jun 1948
 * Moved from the Philippines to set up an air defense organization in Japan.

 * 314th Air Division, 1 Dec 1950-1 Mar 1952
 * Activated at Nagoya. During the Korean War it assumed the missions of airfield construction and defense of Japan as well as providing logistical support for the Fifth Air Force.

Operational use from the airfield began in February 1947 when the 347th Fighter Group (All Weather) began operating P-61 Black Widow interceptor aircraft, which were used to provide air defense for Japan. It operated from the airfield until June 1950 when the Black Widows were retired and the unit was inactivated.

After the Armistice in South Korea which ended combat, the 49th Fighter Group moved to Nagoya Air Base with F-84 Thunderjets. The unit provided air defense until June 1957 when it moved to Misawa Air Base.

The 6110th Air Base Group, which had maintained the base and the myriad of ground support units at the base since the Americans moved in during 1946 began phasing down after July 1957. The 6110th USAF Hospital remained open until 30 June 1958 when the last Americans left Nagoya Airfield and it was returned to Japanese control.

Japan Self-Defense Force
In 2009 the first dedicated air-to-air refueling squadron of the Japan Air Self-Defense Force was formed at Komaki. Named the 404th Tactical Airlift Tanker Squadron, it is equipped with Boeing KC-767J aircraft.

Incidents and accidents

 * On April 26, 1994, an Airbus A300B4-622R jet operating as China Airlines Flight 140 (B-1816) from Taipei to Nagoya crashed onto the south-east corner of the airport apron whilst trying to land on Runway 34, killing 264 of the 271 people on board. It is the second deadliest crash on Japanese soil, after Japan Airlines Flight 123.
 * On October 31, 2007, a Mitsubishi F-2 fighter jet, whilst on a test flight, crashed and exploded in flames during takeoff. Both pilots survived the incident with minor injuries.
 * On May 30, 2015, Solar Impulse 2, part of a Swiss long-range experimental solar-powered aircraft project, made an emergency landing after diverting due to weather en route from Nanjing Lukou International Airport in China to Kalaeloa Airport in Hawaii; it continued to Hawaii on 28 June.

Tenant squadrons

 * Japan Air Self-Defense Force
 * 401st Tactical Airlift Squadron (Lockheed C-130H/KC-130H)
 * 404th Tactical Airlift Tanker Squadron (Boeing KC-767J)(2009–)

Stage Carriage Coach
Airport Terminal Bus stop

Toyoyamachō Shakaikyōiku Center Bus stop

title: Nagoya Airfield


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Sali Berisha

Sali Ram Berisha (born 15 October 1944) is an Albanian cardiologist and conservative politician who served as the president of Albania from 1992 to 1997 and 32nd prime minister from 2005 to 2013. Berisha serves as Chairman of the Democratic Party of Albania since 2022 and has held the position previously from 1990 to 2013. He also serves as the incumbent Leader of Opposition in the Albanian parliament.

He has been banned from entering the United States and the United Kingdom after being accused of "involvement in significant corruption" and links to organised crime groups and criminals that pose a "risk to public safety in Albania".

On 9 September 2021, Berisha was expelled by party chairman Lulzim Basha from the Democratic Party's Parliamentary Group due to legal issues with the US Department of State. This decision led to put 79-year-old Berisha starting a nation-wide movement to remove Basha as leader of the Democratic Party, causing a major rift in the party's internal structures, between Berisha's and Basha's supporters.

On 30 December 2023, Berisha was placed under house arrest for allegations regarding corruption in his previous governments.

Early life and career
Berisha was born in Viçidol, then Tropojë District, in northern Albania, to a Muslim family of mountain farmers, his family are a part of the Berisha tribe. As a child, he tended sheep.

After his father became a functionary of the Party of Labour of Albania, Berisha enjoyed a higher education and was then able to study medicine at the University of Tirana, graduating in 1967. With a one-year scholarship, he specialized in cardiology in Paris.

Subsequently, he was appointed as an assistant professor of medicine at the same university and as staff cardiologist at the Tirana General Hospital. At the same time, Berisha became a member of a discussion forum for changes in the Albanian Party of Labor while having been enrolled as a member a few years earlier. During the 1970s, Berisha gained distinction as the leading researcher in the field of cardiology in Albania and became professor of cardiology at the University of Tirana. In 1978 he received a United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural (UNESCO) fellowship for nine months of advanced study and training in Paris.

He also conducted a research program on hemodynamics that attracted considerable attention among his colleagues in Europe. In 1986 he was elected to be a member of the European Committee for Research on Medical Sciences.

In an interview for the Albanian Writers League newspaper published also in the international press, Berisha demanded that the remaining barriers to freedom of thought and expression be ended, that Albanians be granted the right to travel freely within the country and abroad, and that Albania abandon its isolationist foreign policy. At an August 1990 meeting of the nation's intellectuals convened by President Ramiz Alia, Berisha urged the Albanian Party of Labor to abolish the third article of the communist constitution which sanctioned that the Party of Labor had the hegemony of the Power, to recognize the Human Rights Charter, the drafting of a new democratic constitution, and to remove all monuments of Stalin in the country.

In an article published in the Bashkimi newspaper on 17 September 1990, Berisha condemned what he termed the "cosmetic reforms" of the Alia regime, which had only served to aggravate unrest within the nation. Without political pluralism, he argued, there could be no true democracy in Albania.

Berisha emerged as the chairman of the Democratic Party of Albania (DP), the first and largest of the new opposition parties. All leading members of the party wore white coats during demonstrations. He was formally elected DP chairman in February 1991 at the party's first national congress. He was elected member of Albania parliament in 1991, 1992, 1997, 2001 from the constituency of Kavajë.

President (1992–97)
After the 1992 elections—the second free legislative elections held in the country—Berisha was elected president on 9 April 1992. He was the country's second freely elected head of state, and the first non-Communist head of state in 53 years.

Following his election, Berisha and his government were engaged in a profound course of political, economic, institutional, legislative and multifaceted reforms. Therefore, the complete privatisation of land and residencies, as well as of all small and medium state enterprises, was accomplished over the period 1992–96; prices and exchange rates were fully liberalised, and Albania changed from a country of a three figure inflation rate and economic growth regression of −20% into a country with a one-figure inflation rate and with an average economic growth rate of 9% in 1992 and, in '93 – '96, 75% of GDP was generated from the private sector.

Albania opened towards the West: it signed the Partnership for Peace Agreement in 1994 and it became a member of the Council of Europe in 1995.

Berisha also introduced Islam to the Albanian political scene, pursued re-Islamisation of the country (approximately 74% Sunni Muslims of Albania's population) to reverse decades of anti-religious policy under Communism. Non-Governmental Organisations from Saudi Arabia and other parts of the Muslim world were invited in to build mosques and schools and provide other aid, and spread Wahhabi or Salafi Islam to Albania (and along with it, Saudi geopolitical influence).

The collapse of the Ponzi schemes towards the end of 1996, into which Albanians allegedly invested $1 billion worth of life savings from 1994, recapped the crisis. The schemes failed, one by one, from December 1996, and demonstrators took to the streets accusing the government of having stolen the money. In the midst of the crisis that had escalated into a civil war, Sali Berisha was re-elected president for a second five-year term on 3 March 1997 by a parliament totally controlled by the Democratic Party.

During the first ten days of March, the situation deteriorated, culminating in the desertion of large numbers of police and military, leaving their arsenals unlocked. These were promptly looted, mostly by militias and some criminal gangs, and for a time it looked like civil war would erupt between the government and rebels. Although the Prime Minister resigned immediately, Berisha refused opposition demands to step down, claiming he had to ensure continuity, and UN and European Multinational Forces were required to step in and take the situation under control. After their intervention in Albania, early elections were held in June 1997, leading to the victory of a socialist-led coalition of parties. On 23 July 1997, a month after the DP lost the 1997 elections to the left coalition, Berisha stepped down as president and was replaced by the socialist Rexhep Meidani. In 1997 he became the chairman of the Democratic Party, which became the biggest opposition party. He eventually returned to power as Prime Minister between 2005 and 2013.

Opposition leader (1997–2005)
The murder of DP MP Azem Hajdari on 12 September 1998, triggered two days of violent protests in Tirana. During Hajdari's funeral procession on 14 September 1998, armed DP supporters ransacked government offices, and for a brief period, held the PM's office, the parliament building, and the Albanian State television and radio building. Estimates of casualties during the protests and riots ranged between 3 and 7 deaths and 14 and 76 injuries. After 72 hours, the Government restored order and reclaimed tanks and armored personnel carriers seized by DP supporters that were being held at the Democratic Party main offices in Tirana. Parliament subsequently lifted Berisha's immunity due to his alleged role in what the government described as a coup d'état, but no charges were laid. Berisha blamed the Socialist Party of Albania and its leaders for the murder. Twelve people were arrested for their alleged involvement in the violence. In February 2002 five people, including Jaho Mulosmani, were sentenced for the murder by a Tirana district court.

Sali Berisha led the coalition of the center-right parties in the general elections held in five rounds in June–August 2001.

In the winter of 2004, a number of protests with over 20,000 people were organized by the opposition led by Berisha demanding Nano resign as prime minister which became known as the "Nano Go Away" Movement (Levizja "Nano Ik").

Prime Minister (2005–13)
On 3 July 2005, Sali Berisha led a coalition of five right center parties into the 2005 parliamentary elections, which eventually won a majority of 74 MPs from a total of 140. He was appointed Prime Minister of Albania on 8 September 2005.

On 10 June 2007, Berisha met with U.S. President George W. Bush in Tirana. Bush became the first U.S. president to visit Albania and repeated his staunch support for the independence of neighbouring Kosovo from Serbia: "At some point in time, sooner rather than later, you've got to say, enough is enough. Kosovo is independent." On 15 March 2008, Berisha faced the toughest challenge of his government when an ammunition dump exploded in the village of Gërdec near Tirana, killing 26 people and injuring over 100. Defense Minister Fatmir Mediu resigned, and the press reported many irregularities at the blast site, operated by an Albanian company that deactivated the country's aging ammunition and then sold it for scrap.

In June 2009, Democrats declared a narrow win in the parliamentary elections. Berisha's alliance came up one seat short of a majority and had to join forces with a splinter socialist party, the Socialist Movement for Integration of Ilir Meta, in order to retain power. Berisha appointed Meta to the post of Deputy Prime Minister and at the same time Minister for Foreign Affairs, and later Minister of Economy, Trade and Energy. It was the first time since the start of multi-party democracy in 1991 that a ruling party had been forced into a coalition due to not winning enough seats on its own.

The 2009 elections were called flawed by the socialist opposition, which asked for a recount of the ballots. Berisha refused, on the ground that the Albanian Constitution does not call for such a procedure. He however called the opposition to the Parliament to change the Constitution, but the Socialist Party refused. The political crisis between government and opposition worsened over time, with the Socialists abandoning parliamentary debates for months and staging hunger strikes to ask for internal and international support. The EU attempted a conciliation, which failed. The ongoing political crisis was one of the reasons for the EU's refusal to grant Albania official candidate status in late 2010. However, The elections were certified by the OSCE/ODIHR as having marked significant progress in voter registration, the identification process, the legal framework, the voting process, the counting of votes and the resolution of complaints.

In 2009 during the government led by Berisha, more than 10,000 km of roads were built, connecting over 900 villages with the municipalities and 169 municipalities with the national road infrastructure with paved roads. To be mentioned are the Tirana-Elbasan road and, in particular, the Durrës-Kukës road, otherwise known as the "Nation Road", because it connected neighboring Kosovo with the city of Durrës. The latter crosses Albania from east to west and is the largest road project in the history of Albania. The construction of this road was criticized by the Socialist Party.

On 21 January 2011, clashes broke out between police and protesters in an anti-government rally in front of the Government building in Tirana. Four people were shot dead by government special forces. The EU issued a statement to Albanian politicians, warning both sides to refrain from violence, while Berisha called the protests and subsequent charges by judges upon policemen as stages of an attempted coup against him – consequently, he attempted to consolidate his grip on state institutions. He accused the then-President of having been part of the coup after relations had soured between the two, and embraced his perceived victim status to install his own 'yes man' in the office.

In 2011, commenting on the Middle East, Berisha said: "Peace between Israel and the Palestinians must go through direct negotiations, and by guaranteeing the security of both states.... The solution must bring full security to both states, but I have not seen any support for the acceptance and recognition of the State of Israel."

Under his leadership, Albania made several strides in sustainable development. In the 2012 Environmental Performance Index, the country ranked 4th out of 132 countries, while maintaining an average GDP growth of 5.1% between 2007 and 2011. By 2012, the country was producing more than 96 percent of the energy through renewable hydropower resources. For his significant achievements and contributions to sustainable development, he was awarded the Fray International Sustainability Award in 2012.

After his party's defeat in the 2013 parliamentary election, Berisha resigned as party leader, but remained in parliament.

Opposition leader (2022–present)
Following the decision of Lulzim Basha in expelling Berisha from the Democratic Party parliamentary group. Prior to this, members of the Democratic Party who had been also unsettled with Basha over election results following two consecutive losses in parliament. Calling for him Basha to resign. However Basha was not willing to resign. On 9 September 2021, Basha had expelled Berisha from the Democratic party due to issues concerning the United States and Berisha and his Public Designation by the United States Department of State. On 11 December at Arena Kombëtare, Berisha and members who were against Basha during the national council voted to remove Basha as leader of the Democratic Party. On 8 January 2021, Berisha and members of the Democratic party who were against Basha staged protests outside the Democratic Party headquarters which resulted in the RENEA being called in due to the protests becoming violent.

On 21 March 2022, due to demand Lulzim Basha stepped down from party leadership which resulted in Berisha being elected. However, despite Enkelejd Alibeaj claiming he is the official leader of the Democratic Party, Berisha is considered the de facto leader. As de facto leader, on 7 July 2022, he staged protests against the Albanian government over prices and wages in front of the Prime Minister's Office. Berisha also stated that the future of Albania and the Albanians was at risk and the people should decide in their own hands.

On 6 December 2022 during protests Berisha was assaulted in the face resulting in him being given a black eye. The assailant's mother had told the media that her son had been suffering from mental problems for 5 years. He is awaiting trial. President Begaj, Prime Minister Rama, and Lulzim Basha all condemned the assault on Berisha. Berisha himself forgave the perpetrator.

On 11 June 2024, the Court of Appeal gave a final verdict recognizing Berisha as the official Chairman of the Democratic Party.

Personal life
Berisha is married to Liri Berisha (née Ramaj), a pediatrician. Liri Berisha is the president of Albanian Children Foundation. Her foundation focuses on children with autism and Down syndrome. The couple have two children, a daughter, Argita Malltezi (née Berisha) who is a professor of law at the University of Tirana, and a son, Shkëlzen Berisha.

On October 21, 2023, Berisha's son in law, Jamarbër Malltezi, was arrested by Albanian police on accusations of corruption and money laundering allegedly committed during Berisha's tenure as Prime Minister of Albania. Berisha himself was accused of aiding and abetting the alleged crime, and had his passport confiscated by the prosecutors, until the trial's end. Berisha has strongly denied the allegations, and has publicly accused the prosecutors of a political attack, claiming that they were acting on the orders of Prime Minister Edi Rama.

Elmar Brok, former Member of the European Parliament and Chairman of the Committee on Foreign Affairs of the European Parliament, visited Berisha while under house arrest by labelling him as the last political prisoner in Europe considering that "a man should not be prohibited to go to Parliament until a court has taken a decision that he is guilty".

Sanctions
On 19 May 2021, Berisha, his wife, son and daughter were sanctioned by the US Department of State and barred from entry into the United States after being accused of "involvement in significant corruption". On the press conference Secretary of State Antony J. Blinken stated: "In his official capacity as Prime Minister of Albania in particular, Berisha was involved in corrupt acts, such as misappropriation of public funds and interfering with public processes, including using his power for his own benefit and to enrich his political allies and his family members at the expense of the Albanian public's confidence in their government institutions and public officials." Berisha has disputed the allegations.

On July 21, the British embassy in Tirana announced it had taken action against several Albanian individuals but did not disclose their names. The prime minister's special envoy to the Western Balkans Stuart Peach said in a statement: "This week, we took disruptive action against several Albanian individuals with well publicised and documented ties to criminality and corruption. This is the first wave of a set of actions intended to encourage accountability and end impunity."The next day, Berisha revealed that he was subject to this action.

Human rights abuses
In 1996, Human Rights Watch published a report regarding human rights abuses perpetrated under Berisha's administration. It claims that: "Since coming to power in March 1992, the Democratic Party (DP), led by President Berisha, has used a variety of means to promote itself and stifle the opposition. The secret police, the state-owned media and the judicial system are used to silence political opponents. There have been numerous violations of the right to association, peaceful assembly, freedom of speech and freedom of the press directed against the political opposition and other initiatives that express views critical of the state."

Haklaj family
In December 2022, Zylfie and Muharrem Haklaj filed a lawsuit against Berisha and 15 other people in the Special Prosecution Against Corruption and Organized Crime (SPAK) for allegedly ordering and directing the murder of their four brothers Shkëlqim, Halil, Fatmir and Ylli Haklaj in Tropojë in the late 1990s and early 2000s and the attacks with shells and TNT against their tower in the village of Kirnajë.

Political imprisonment & Partizani complex
On 22 October 2023, the Special Prosecution Against Corruption and Organized Crime (SPAK) officially announced the charges against Sali Berisha, his son-in-law Jamarbër Malltezi and builder Fatmir Bektashi. Sali Berisha was accused of "Passive corruption of high state officials or local elected officials". He was also given the measures "ordered to appear" and "not to leave the country".

On 30 December 2023, only after the Parliament vote, an Albanian court has ordered house arrest for former Prime Minister Sali Berisha. Judges accepted the prosecutors’ request to Berisha under house arrest after he violated the previous restrictive measures of reporting every two weeks.

Honours and awards

 * 1996 – ITA OMRI 2001 GC-GCord BAR.svg Knight Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic (23 April 1996)
 * 2009 – Doctor Honoris Causa of the University of Pristina
 * 2009 – Doctor Honoris Causa of the International University of Struga
 * 2012 – Kosovo : Honorary Citizen of Deçan
 * 2013 – Kosovo : Honorary Citizen of Prizren
 * 2013 – North Macedonia : Honorary Citizen of Debar
 * 2015 – ALB National Flag Order.png National Flag Order (Albania, 2015) – decorated by President of Albania Bujar Nishani

title: Sali Berisha


text:
User talk:Ekyeeki

Greetings! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. If you have questions or doubts of any sort, do not hesitate to post them on the Village Pump, somebody will respond ASAP. Other helpful pages include: Have fun! --Jiang 06:18 15 Jul 2003 (UTC)
 * Welcome, newcomers
 * How does one edit a page
 * Manual of style
 * Naming conventions

title: User talk:Ekyeeki


text:
User talk:H0146392

Greetings! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. If you have questions or doubts of any sort, do not hesitate to post them on the Village Pump, somebody will respond ASAP. Other helpful pages include: Have fun! --Jiang 06:18 15 Jul 2003 (UTC)
 * Welcome, newcomers
 * How does one edit a page
 * Manual of style
 * Naming conventions

title: User talk:H0146392


text:
Breed

A breed is a specific group of domestic animals having homogeneous appearance (phenotype), homogeneous behavior, and/or other characteristics that distinguish it from other organisms of the same species. In literature, there exist several slightly deviating definitions. Breeds are formed through genetic isolation and either natural adaptation to the environment or selective breeding, or a combination of the two. Despite the centrality of the idea of "breeds" to animal husbandry and agriculture, no single, scientifically accepted definition of the term exists. A breed is therefore not an objective or biologically verifiable classification but is instead a term of art amongst groups of breeders who share a consensus around what qualities make some members of a given species members of a nameable subset.

Another point of view is that a breed is consistent enough in type to be logically grouped together and when mated within the group produce the same type. When bred together, individuals of the same breed pass on these predictable traits to their offspring, and this ability – known as "breeding true" – is a requirement for a breed. Plant breeds are more commonly known as cultivars. The offspring produced as a result of breeding animals of one breed with other animals of another breed are known as crossbreeds or mixed breeds. Crosses between animal or plant variants above the level of breed/cultivar (i.e. between species, subspecies, botanical variety, even different genera) are referred to as hybrids.

Breeding: selection by breeders
The breeder (or group of breeders) who initially establishes a breed does so by selecting individual animals from within a gene pool that they see as having the necessary qualities needed to enhance the breed model they are aiming for. These animals are referred to as foundation stock. Furthermore, the breeder mates the most desirable representatives of the breed from his or her point of view, aiming to pass such characteristics to their progeny. This process is known as selective breeding. A written description of desirable and undesirable breed representatives is referred to as a breed standard.

Breed characteristics
Breed specific characteristics, also known as breed traits, are inherited, and purebred animals pass such traits from generation to generation. Thus, all specimens of the same breed carry several genetic characteristics of the original foundation animal(s). In order to maintain the breed, a breeder would select those animals with the most desirable traits to achieve further maintenance and developing of such traits. At the same time, the breed would avoid animals carrying characteristics undesirable or not typical for the breed, including faults or genetic defects. The population within the same breed should consist of a sufficient number of animals to maintain the breed within the specified parameters without the necessity of forced inbreeding.

Domestic animal breeds commonly differ from country to country, and from nation to nation. Breeds originating in a certain country are known as "native breeds" of that country.

Lists of breeds
{|
 * align="left" width="275px" valign="top"|

Mammals

 * List of cat breeds
 * List of cattle breeds
 * List of dog breeds
 * List of dog fighting breeds
 * List of extinct dog breeds
 * List of police dog breeds
 * List of domestic pig breeds
 * List of donkey breeds
 * List of goat breeds
 * List of guinea pig breeds
 * List of horse breeds
 * List of rabbit breeds
 * List of fancy rat varieties
 * List of laboratory rat strains
 * List of sheep breeds
 * List of water buffalo breeds

 * align="left" width="275px" valign="top"|

Insects

 * List of Apis mellifera subspecies

 * align="left" width="275px" valign="top"|

Birds

 * List of chicken breeds
 * List of duck breeds
 * List of goose breeds
 * List of pigeon breeds
 * List of turkey breeds
 * }

title: Breed


text:
Talk:MineSweeper3D (game)

684 visitors to this site when i went there.

I'd be more sympathetic if it didn't cost $15.

I think this (and the other contribs) should be removed. (Unless the game becomes immensely popular and well-known.)

title: Talk:MineSweeper3D (game)


text:
List of Israeli musical artists

The following is a list of Israeli musical artists, singers and bands.

A

 * Omer Adam
 * Ayal Adler
 * Moshik Afia
 * Aharit HaYamim (End of Days)
 * Chen Aharoni
 * Chava Alberstein
 * Alon De Loco
 * Jo Amar
 * Etti Ankri
 * Keren Ann
 * Yardena Arazi
 * Zohar Argov
 * Meir Ariel
 * Shlomo Artzi
 * Asaf Amdurski
 * Michal Amdurski
 * The Apples
 * Izhar Ashdot
 * Astral Projection
 * Astrix
 * Gali Atari
 * Gilad Atzmon
 * Asaf Avidan
 * Din Din Aviv
 * Alien Project

B

 * Ehud Banai
 * Eviatar Banai
 * Meir Banai
 * Yossi Banai
 * Yuval Banai
 * Shlomo Bar
 * Abatte Barihun (Abatte)
 * Rami Bar-Niv
 * Netta Barzilai
 * Danni Bassan
 * Batzal Yarok (Scallion)
 * Beer7
 * Zehava Ben
 * Mosh Ben-Ari
 * Amir Benayoun
 * Dana Berger
 * Yoni Bloch
 * Yisrael Borochov
 * David Broza

C

 * Matti Caspi
 * The Churchills
 * Anat Cohen
 * Avishai Cohen, bassist
 * Avishai Cohen, trumpeter
 * Meytal Cohen
 * Yizhar Cohen
 * Riff Cohen
 * Charlie Puth

D

 * DAM
 * Daklon
 * DJ Raphi
 * Yair Dalal
 * Shoshana Damari
 * David D'Or
 * Arkadi Duchin
 * Dana International
 * Duo Datz
 * Roni Duani
 * The Dudaim

E

 * Alon Eder
 * Seffy Efrati
 * Eifo HaYeled (Where's the Child)
 * Arik Einstein
 * Gad Elbaz
 * Electrowavez
 * Dudu Elharar
 * Ethnix

F

 * Bradley Fish
 * Dudu Fisher
 * Rami Fortis

G

 * Nurit Galron
 * Yehoram Gaon
 * Aviv Geffen
 * Yehonatan Geffen
 * Eyal Golan
 * Zion Golan
 * Efrat Gosh
 * Nathan Goshen
 * Dan Gottfried
 * Gidi Gov
 * Dedi Graucher, Orthodox Jewish singer
 * Shlomo Gronich
 * Amir Gwirtzman

H

 * The Brothers & the Sisters (Ha'achim veha'achayot)
 * HaClique (The Clique)
 * Sarit Hadad
 * HaDag Nahash (The Snakefish)
 * Hadorbanim (The Porcupines)
 * HaGashash HaHiver (The Pale Tracker)
 * Hagit Yaso
 * HaHalonot HaGvohim (The High Windows)
 * The Friends of Natasha
 * Haivrit
 * HaKol Over Habibi (Everything Passes, Habibi)
 * Hamsa
 * Victoria Hanna
 * Shalom Hanoch
 * Yaron Hasson
 * Israeli Andalusian Orchestra
 * HaYehudim (The Jews)
 * Ofra Haza
 * Nechama Hendel
 * Uzi Hitman
 * Ariel Horowitz
 * Harel Moyal
 * Harry Styles

I

 * Ilanit
 * Infected Mushroom
 * Ishtar
 * Ishay Ribo
 * Idan Raichel

J

 * Noam Jacobson
 * J.Viewz

K

 * Itzik Kala
 * Mika Karni
 * Katamine
 * Shlomo Katz
 * Kaveret (Beehive)
 * Rami Kleinstein
 * Rona Kenan
 * Kerach Tesha (Ice Nine)
 * Amir Kertes
 * Knesiyat Hasekhel (Church of the Mind)
 * Yael Kraus
 * Kruzenshtern & Parohod, Russophone klezmer-rock band from Tel Aviv, created in 2002

L

 * Tzruya Lahav
 * Daliah Lavi
 * Arik Lavie
 * Oren Lavie
 * Oshik Levi
 * Yishai Levi
 * Ivri Lider

M

 * Marbin
 * Mashina
 * Boaz Mauda
 * Minimal Compact
 * Miri Aloni
 * MissFlag
 * Monica Sex
 * Haim Moshe
 * Harel Moyal

N

 * Tamer Nafer
 * Lior Narkis
 * Ron Nesher
 * Nikmat HaTraktor (The Tractor's Revenge)
 * Achinoam Nini
 * Offer Nissim
 * Shy Nobleman

O

 * Esther Ofarim
 * Orphaned Land
 * Shaike Ophir
 * Kobi Oz

P

 * Keren Peles
 * Natalia Paruz
 * Avi Peretz
 * Kobi Peretz
 * Inbal Perlmutter
 * Eytan Pessen, pianist and opera director of the Semperoper
 * Tzvika Pik
 * Ravid Plotnik
 * Yehuda Poliker
 * Pharaoh's Daughter

Q

 * Nasreen Qadri

R

 * Idan Raichel
 * Adi Ran
 * Ras Deshen duo
 * Yehudit Ravitz
 * Yoni Rechter
 * Rinat Gabay
 * Rita
 * Danny Robas
 * Rockfour
 * Pavlo Rosenberg

S

 * Sagol 59 (Purple 59)
 * Berry Sakharof
 * Daniel Salomon
 * Sheygets
 * Aris San
 * Danny Sanderson
 * Seek Irony
 * Sfatayim (Lips)
 * Shabak S
 * Gene Simmons
 * Avner Strauss
 * Shlomi Shabat
 * Boaz Sharabi
 * Naomi Shemer
 * Sheva (Seven)
 * Shiri Maimon
 * Shotei HaNvu'a (Fools of Prophecy)
 * Ofir Shwartz
 * Harel Skaat
 * Skazi
 * Malka Spigel
 * Edna Stern (born 1977), pianist
 * Subliminal

T

 * Pe'er Tasi
 * Shimi Tavori
 * Ninette Tayeb
 * Teapacks
 * Tislam
 * Avi Toledano
 * Margalit Tzan'ani
 * Tzofei Tel Aviv
 * The Voca People
 * Totemo

U

 * Useless ID

V

 * Ilana Vered

Y

 * Yaffa Yarkoni
 * Yitzhak Yedid
 * Shefi Yishai
 * Idan Yaniv

Z

 * Ziknei Tzfat (The Elders of Safed)
 * Ariel Zilber
 * Zino and Tommy

title: List of Israeli musical artists


text: Talk:Greater Toronto Area

title: Talk:Greater Toronto Area