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Battle of Santiago de Cuba

The Battle of Santiago de Cuba was a decisive naval engagement that occurred on July 3, 1898 between an American fleet, led by William T. Sampson and Winfield Scott Schley, against a Spanish fleet led by Pascual Cervera y Topete, which occurred during the Spanish–American War. The significantly more powerful US Navy squadron, consisting of four battleships and two armored cruisers, decisively defeated an outgunned squadron of the Royal Spanish Navy, consisting of four armored cruisers and two destroyers. All of the Spanish ships were sunk for no American loss. The crushing defeat sealed the American victory in the Cuban theater of the war, ensuring the independence of Cuba from Spanish rule.

Tensions between Spain and the United States worsened over the Spanish conduct during their efforts to quell the Cuban War of Independence, with many Americans being agitated by largely exaggerated reports of Spanish atrocities against the Cubans. In January 1898, fearing the fate of American interests in Cuba from the war, the cruiser USS Maine was dispatched to protect them. Less than a month later, the cruiser exploded while lying at anchor in Havana harbor, killing 266 sailors and inflaming American opinion with Spain being portrayed as the culprit in the American media at the time, despite the fact that the actual cause of the explosion was never conclusively determined. Two months later, war was declared.

The Americans realized that defeating a significant Spanish squadron then stationed in Cuba was vital to ensuring victory in the war. A squadron consisting of six warships were dispatched to ensure success, commanded by both Sampson and Schley, each admiral having his own approach to naval warfare. On July 3, the Spanish squadron steamed out of the harbor to engage with the Americans. The Spanish, totally unprepared and outgunned, made a desperate attempt to reach the open sea with the American battleships and cruisers in hot pursuit. The entire Spanish squadron was sunk with minimal casualties for the Americans, who suffered only two men killed or wounded.

The Americans pulled a total of 1889 Spanish sailors from the water, among them Cervera. The captured Spaniards were treated with respect and care by the Americans, and Cervera gained respect from the American officers for his dignified conduct during and after the battle. Although the battle ensured the American campaign in Cuba would end in a success, tensions soon arose between Sampson and Schley, with various parties in the US Navy and the American public debating over which admiral had made the greater contribution to victory, and the dispute reached the desk of Theodore Roosevelt. The battle remains one of the most significant naval battles in US maritime history.

Preliminary context
The battle marked the culmination of the Cuban Wars for Independence, which had been waged by Cuban revolutionaries against Spanish imperial power for several decades. The United States had political, economic, cultural, and ideological interests in Cuba. Within the larger context, many American political leaders, pushed by interventionist public opinion, were outraged by the publication of a private letter by Spanish Minister Enrique Dupuy de Lôme critical of US President William McKinley and by the destruction of the American armored cruiser USS Maine (ACR-1) that was touted by newspapers at the time as the "Battleship Maine" for which a naval court of inquiry and American yellow journalism blamed Spain.

Cuban revolutionaries had staged revolts against Spanish colonial authority in the Ten Years' War (1868–1878), the Little War (1879–1880), and the Cuban War of Independence (1895–1898). During the last war, Spanish General Valeriano Weyler established a policy of interning Cubans in camps he called reconcentrados, which functioned as internment camps. The etymology behind the re- prefix is that formerly the Cubans lived in villages but now they were going to be redistributed into new villages under the hypocritical pretext that it was for their own protection. Spanish forces gathered Cubans who lived in the countryside and centralized them in camps, where they could be monitored. As a consequence, many Cubans died of disease and malnutrition. That policy did as much to paint the Spanish as barbarians to the Cuban natives and the United States as any other item of misrule by the Spanish.

With outrage over Weyler's seemingly-brutal policy and sympathy with the Cubans' struggle building, US public opinion pushed for war with Spain after the publication of the de Lôme Letter in February. Enrique Dupuy de Lôme had been appointed the Spanish Minister to the United States in 1892. In that capacity, it was his duty to refrain from allowing his personal beliefs to intervene with his public duty to support peaceful diplomatic relations between the United States and Spain. However, a letter that expressed his opposition to McKinley's foreign policy decisions was exposed, and the New York Journal translated and printed the letter. Many Americans considered it an insult to the nation and to the president.

Although Spain apologized on February 13, 1898, Maine exploded and sank in Havana Harbor, Cuba, two days later and killed 266 American sailors. After a hasty naval court of inquiry, the American press blamed Spain and accused it of planting a mine that sank the battleship. The war with Spain became known as the "Correspondents' War". Journalists not only wrote stories about the conflict but also took part in the fight. In 1898, the prestige of the press ran high.

American society was changing as literacy rates increased. There was a new revolution of readers. As war zones became more open to the press, journalists wrote eyewitness accounts of what was happening. In an era before radio and television, newspapers were the main source of information, opinion, and entertainment for the American public. In New York City, where the population was about 2,800,000, the combined circulation of daily papers was about 2,000,000.

In response to the public's outcry, McKinley took action against Spain. On April 25, the United States declared war and claimed to have had no self-serving interest in Cuba, but some political and military leaders and imperialists believed that war would be an opportunity for the United States to expand territories overseas and to demonstrate its increasing naval power against a weak foe. Moreover, the United States sought to expand economic ties with Cuba for its resources in sugar and tobacco, all of which influenced America's decision to intervene. It was evident that gaining territories across the globe would increase US strength and influence and tap markets for the products of American industry.

Spanish Prime Minister Práxedes Mateo Sagasta did not seek war with the United States. He did not expect victory but knew that Spanish citizens would likely revolt if he conceded to American demands in Cuba. Meanwhile, Spanish naval leaders tried to employ a strategy that would not win the war outright but resist the US Navy as much as possible. On May 1, 1898, American and Spanish naval forces met in the Philippines at the Battle of Manila Bay, which resulted in a decisive victory for the United States. The Spanish government sent their fleet, under Admiral Pascual Cervera y Topete, to defend Cuba and keep an open line of communication with the Spanish garrison there. Cervera opposed that strategy since he believed his squadron lacked the strength necessary to engage the American squadron. He preferred to engage the Americans near the Canary Islands or to mount an attack against the American coast, but he was overruled by his superiors in Madrid. Cervera's own misgivings reveal the seriousness of the situation faced:
 * It is impossible for me to give you an idea of the surprise and consternation experienced by all on the receipt of the order to sail. Indeed, that surprise is well justified, for nothing can be expected of this expedition except the total destruction of the fleet or its hasty and demoralized return.

Lacking a clear strategy, the Spanish policymakers at home may have hoped to end the war quickly in a "glorious defeat" against the more powerful US Navy. Cervera knew better but like a good officer followed orders to the letter. There is a hint of his real views in his attack orders to the fleet. He suggests they nail their flags to the masts; that is, not even to think about lowering them in surrender. As the fleet was being massacred against superior firepower, some captains in fact ran their ships aground and surrendered to save what was left of their men.

Spanish fleet
Before taking command of the Spanish Caribbean Squadron, Cervera had served a variety of military and political roles, then retired after a dispute with opposing politicians. However, when war against the United States broke, Cervera was recalled into the Spanish Navy and given command of the Caribbean Squadron. The squadron was to be dispatched from Spain with the ultimate destination of the Caribbean, initially Puerto Rico but then changed to Cuba, to reinforce the Spanish garrison, defend the island from American invasion, and break the American naval blockade. Before the outbreak of war, Cervera attempted to inform Spanish officials of the Spanish Navy's weakness relative to the US Navy. Captain Fernando Villaamil, the Second Officer in the Ministry of the Navy and a pioneer in destroyer warfare, disagreed with Cervera's passivity and advocated Spain to offset American naval superiority by scattering the fleet and taking the initiative through quick and dispersed actions. A lack of consensus between Cervera, Villaamil, and the Spanish government put Spanish naval strategy in flux from the beginning.

On April 29, Cervera steamed from Cape Verde. Panic gripped the American people, who did not know what his ships might do: attack the largely-undefended East Coast while the fleet sailed about in an effort to engage him; prey upon American shipping; or perhaps sail up the Potomac and set fire to Washington, DC. Ultimately, Cervera did none of those but managed to evade the US fleet for several weeks, confounded his American counterparts, and recoaled in the process before he finally sought refuge in the harbor of Santiago de Cuba. On May 29, 1898, an American squadron sighted Cervera's newest ship, the cruiser SPANISH CRUISER Cristóbal Colón, and immediately established a blockade around the mouth of the harbor. The Spanish soon found themselves "blockaded closely by an American semicircle of ships about six miles from the Morro by day, and moving discreetly closer after nightfall." Moreover, by early July, the Spanish were nearly surrounded at Santiago from the east by an advancing American army numbering some 16,000 soldiers, 3,000 Cuban insurgents to the west, and the American fleet to the south.

The Spanish squadron consisted of the cruisers SPANISH CRUISER Almirante Oquendo, SPANISH CRUISER Vizcaya, SPANISH CRUISER Infanta Maria Teresa, and Cristóbal Colón in addition to Villaamil's destroyers SPANISH DESTROYER Plutón and SPANISH DESTROYER Furor. The cruisers displaced approximately 7,000 tons each, but they were not heavily armored, and their armament did not match the Americans. With the exception of Cristóbal Colón, which was more lightly armed, the cruisers' main armament consisted of two 11 in guns each and a secondary armament of ten 5.5 in guns. Cervera's fleet was at a further disadvantage relative to the Americans because of the condition of its ships. The breech mechanisms in many of the Spanish guns were dangerously faulty and caused jams and other mishaps. Many of the ships' boilers were in need of repair. Several ships, including Viscaya, desperately needed bottom-cleaning as they were suffering from extra drag from fouling. The most well-protected ship in Cervera's fleet, the second-generation armored cruiser Cristóbal Colón, had not even had her main battery installed and carried wooden dummy guns instead.

Finally, Cervera's crews were poorly trained. They lacked experience and practice in gunnery drills, and their training had emphasized rapid fire at regular intervals but the Americans favored more deliberately-aimed fire. Relative to the Americans' fleet, which consisted mainly of modern battleships, Cervera's force was lightly armed, a result of recent budget cuts but also a naval policy that for many years favored the construction of light swift ships to patrol the far-flung oceanic empire.

With Cervera's fleet bottled in Santiago, Captain General Ramon Blanco y Erenas, the top military commander in Cuba, ordered it to sortie from the harbor along the coast westward to Cienfuegos. In Cervera's eyes, escape from the bay seemed nearly impossible. He strongly considered fleeing under protection of night but opted to sail by day instead to ensure the safe navigation of his ships through Santiago's narrow channel. On July 3, 1898, Cervera, aboard his flagship Infanta Maria Teresa, led the Spanish fleet out of the safety of the Santiago harbor at 7 min intervals.

American fleet
The primary elements of the American forces in Cuban waters were initially divided between two commands: Rear Admiral William T. Sampson of the North Atlantic Squadron and Commodore Winfield Scott Schley, commanding the "Flying Squadron". Although the two combined squadrons outnumbered the Spanish fleet, victory was not achieved solely by American numerical superiority. Rather, victory resulted from strategic and tactical decisionmaking in addition to the general superiority of the American forces. As the historian James C. Rentfrow argues, the American victory at Santiago was, in many ways, the culmination of an "ongoing process towards [the North Atlantic Fleet's] construction as a combat unit."

At the head of the American fleet were Sampson's armored cruiser USS New York (ACR-2) and Schley's armored cruiser USS Brooklyn (ACR-3). New York and Brooklyn, although only armored cruisers, were well-armed for their class. Schley's flagships were powerful cruisers, but the primary firepower of the American fleet resided in its battleships USS Indiana (BB-1), USS Massachusetts (BB-2), USS Iowa (BB-4), and USS Texas (1892). The American battleships were modern steam-powered and steel-hulled coast defense battleships all built within the decade. The oldest and least powerful of them was Texas, a near-sister ship to the Maine, which had exploded in Havana Harbor in February. The ships were armed with 13 in guns and could steam at speeds up to 17 kn. Off Santiago, Schley's "Flying Squadron" was merged into the larger fleet under Sampson's overall command.

To bolster the force, US Navy Secretary John D. Long ordered the battleship USS Oregon (BB-3) to sail from Mare Island, California, to join the fleet in the Caribbean. The "West coast's lone battleship" steamed from San Francisco around Cape Horn to Key West to join the rest of Sampson's fleet in early May, a 14,500 nmi journey completed in 66 days. The ship's armament included four 13-inch guns, eight 8 in/30 caliber guns, and 18 in-thick steel armor. With its 11,000 hp engines, it was propelled through the water at a rate upwards of 17 knots. Its combined speed and firepower gave Oregon the nickname "bulldog of the Navy." These "were clearly superior ships," observed W.J. Murphy, a sailor aboard Iowa. The powerful battleships, at least according to Murphy, enabled the US fleet to be victorious in battle.

Battleships and cruisers, however, were not the only forces the Americans employed in the conflict. Other vessels included torpedo boats like USS Porter (TB-6), light cruisers such as USS New Orleans (CL-22), and even the collier USS Merrimac (1894), which sank on June 3. Sampson specifically approached Lieutenant Richmond P. Hobson, the commanding officer, charging him with the task to "sink the collier in the channel" in order to both blockade the Spanish fleet and to clear the narrow passage of any mines.

Standoff at Santiago
Sampson structured the blockade as a semicircle at the opening of the harbor. An auxiliary ship floated around the edges and waited to be used if a forced entrance was necessary, and a torpedo boat was stationed farther off the front line. The newly-developed torpedo boat was charged with guarding Sampson's flagship when he broke the blockade to perform "frequent inspections, attacks, and pursuits," according to a correspondent aboard the New York.

Except for the sinking of Merrimac, the duty proved tedious. "Blockade duty off the Cuban coast was long, dull and unremitting," wrote the historian Jim Leeke. During the day, the blockade stationed constant lookouts. At night, a battleship shone a searchlight on the entrance of the harbor if the Spanish fleet attempted an escape under the cover of darkness. The chore was repeated daily for nearly two months. As a sailor aboard USS Gloucester (1891) put it, "what at first had been a pleasure had become a duty."

As long as Cervera remained within Santiago Harbor, his fleet was relatively safe. The guns of the city were quite sufficient to make up for his fleet's deficiencies, and the area was well defended with sea mines, torpedoes, and other obstructions. Nevertheless, Cervera was terribly outmatched. Though his ships were modern, they were too few, and their technical problems compounded his worries. The lack of refitting facilities in Santiago to assist with the repairs of the vessels in Cervera's squadron made the situation all the more desperate.

For more than a month, the two fleets faced off, with only a few inconclusive skirmishes resulting. For his part, Cervera was content to wait in the hope that bad weather would scatter the Americans so that he could make a run to a position more favorable for engaging the enemy. However, US land forces began to drive on Santiago de Cuba, and by the end of June 1898, Cervera found himself unable to remain safely in the harbor, and Governor-General Ramón Blanco y Erenas wanted a sortie: "it is better for the honor of our arms that the squadron perish in battle...."

The breakout was planned for 09:00 on July 3. That seemed the most logical time: the Americans would be at religious services, and waiting until night would only make the escape even more treacherous. By noon on July 2, the fleet had a full head of steam and had fallen into position for the breakout.

At about 8:45 a.m., just as his ships had slipped their moorings, Admiral Sampson and two ships of his command, his flagship, the armored cruiser New York, and the torpedo boat USS Ericsson (TB-2) had left their positions for a trip to Siboney and a meeting with Major General William Rufus Shafter of the US Army. That opened a gap in the western portion of the American blockade line, which left a window for Cervera. Sampson's New York was one of only two ships in the squadron fast enough to catch Cervera if he managed to break through the blockade. Further, the battleship Massachusetts and the cruisers USS Newark (C-1) and New Orleans had left that morning to coal at Guantanamo Bay.

With the departure of Admiral Sampson, who had signaled, "Disregard movements of flagship," immediate command devolved to Commodore Schley in armored cruiser Brooklyn, which now became the de facto flagship of the blockade.

Thus, the blockade formation that morning consisted of Schley's Brooklyn, followed by the battleships Texas, Oregon, Iowa, and Indiana and the armed yachts USS Vixen (PY-4) and Gloucester.

At 09:35, the navigator of Brooklyn sighted a plume of smoke coming from the mouth of the port and reported to Schley,

The enemy's ships are coming out!

Battle

The Spanish column made its way around Cay Smith at around 9:31 a.m. on July 3 and left the channel about five minutes later. In the lead was Cervera's flagship Infanta Maria Teresa, followed by Vizcaya, Cristóbal Colón, Almirante Oquendo, travelling at around 8 - 10 kn and 800 yd apart, followed by the torpedo-boat destroyers Plutón and Furor, respectively. They then formed three echelons, the destroyers heading eastward, followed by Cristóbal Colón and Almirante Oquendo, and Infanta Maria Teresa and Vizcaya made for Brooklyn.

The battle commenced almost immediately. At the mouth of the harbor, the American vessels, Texas, Iowa, Oregon, and Indiana, engulfed the Spanish fleet in a "hail of fire." At 9:30 a.m., the first shot was fired by Iowa and Signal No. 250 was hoisted when the ships were seen in the channel. The Spanish responded, supported by the batteries on Morro and Upper Socapa. After leaving the channel, the Spanish vessels turned westward in column towards the American fleet.

While the Spanish had taken the initiative by beginning the engagement, two factors slowed their escape. One was the continuing problem experienced in maintaining proper speed by Vizcaya; the other was the poor quality of most of the coal in the Spanish holds. An expected resupply of high-quality anthracite had been captured aboard the collier Restormel, by the American auxiliary cruiser USS Saint Paul (1895) on May 25.

Brooklyn headed nearly straight for Infanta Maria Teresa at first, but by 10:05, it was apparent they were on a collision course, and Commodore Schley ordered a sharp turn to starboard, the so-called "retrograde loop," when all of the other American ships had already turned to port. That threatened Texas with collision and Captain Philip of Texas ordered "all engines back full," which brought Texas to a near standstill until Brooklyn passed across the bow of Texas. Infanta Maria Teresa and Vizcaya then altered course to the west, Cristóbal Colón and Almirante Oquendo falling in behind, and the two squadrons paralleled each other. Texas then swung behind Brooklyn, but Oregon then ran up on Texas and passed inboard, masking the fire of Texas. Oregon, initially to the rear of the action but the fastest ship in the US fleet, soon raced past Indiana, which had an engine problem and could go only 9 kn at the time of the battle. Iowa had started from a disadvantaged position and was passed by Infanta Maria Teresa but hit her with two 12 in rounds from 2600 yd and swung into the chase. As Iowa was passed in turn by Cristóbal Colón, the Spanish ship hit her with two shots from her secondary battery. One of them struck near the waterline and caused Iowa to slow and she therefore engaged Almirante Oquendo, bringing up the rear of Cervera's four cruisers. With the Spanish fleet past the American blockade, the battle became a chase.

Rather than expose the entirety of his fleet to the American battle line, Cervera had signaled his other ships to continue to the southwest while he attempted to cover their escape by directly engaging Brooklyn, his nearest enemy. Though Brooklyn was hit more than 20 times during the battle, she suffered only two casualties, and her return fire resulted in the deaths of most of Cervera's bridge crew and grave damage to the ship generally. Under that brutal punishment, Infanta Maria Teresa began to burn furiously. According to Admiral Sampson's battle report, "it was afterward learned that the Infanta Maria Teresa's fire-main had been cut by one of [the] first shots." Cervera ordered her aground at 10:35 in shallows along the Cuban coast and had been completely wrecked and aflame. Admiral Cervera survived and was rescued after he had been picked up near Punta Cabrera by the crew of Gloucester.

The rest of the Spanish fleet continued its race for the open sea. Almirante Oquendo was hit a total of 57 times and was driven out of the battle by the premature detonation of a shell stuck in a defective breech-block mechanism of an 11-inch turret, which killed the entire gun crew. A boiler explosion finished her, and she was ordered scuttled by the mortally wounded Captain Lazaga. At 10:35 Almirante Oquendo ran aground no more than a mile beyond Infanta Maria Teresa. Meanwhile, Plutón and Furor made a dash in a direction opposite the rest of the Spanish squadron. Gloucester inflicted a considerable amount of damage by direct fire at close range to the destroyers, which eventually led to their destruction from the battleships Iowa, Indiana, and eventually New York. After receiving word of the battle, Sampson turned his flagship New York around and raced to join the fight. Furor was sunk at 10:50 before making the beach. Plutón succeeded in grounding herself at 10:45 near Cabanas Bay. In total, Furor and Plutón lost two thirds of their men.

Vizcaya was locked in a running gun duel for nearly an hour with Brooklyn. Despite steaming side by side with Schley's flagship at a range of about 1200 yd and even with some good shooting, which knocked out a secondary gun aboard Brooklyn, almost none of the Spaniards' nearly 300 shots caused significant damage, and Brooklyn pounded Vizcaya with devastating fire. Subsequent claims by Admiral Cervera and later research by historians have suggested that nearly 85% of the Spanish ammunition at Santiago was utterly useless, defective, or simply filled with sawdust as a cost-saving measure for practice firing. The American ammunition had no such issues of lethality. Vizcaya continued the fight until she was overwhelmed and by the end of the engagement, she had been struck as many as 200 times by the fire from Brooklyn and Texas. Brooklyn had closed to within 950 yd when she finally delivered an 8 in round, which, according to witnesses, may have detonated a torpedo being prepared for launch. A huge explosion ensued, Vizcaya was mortally wounded, and fires raged out of control that burned her reserves of ammunition that were on deck. She hauled down her flag and turned toward the Aserraderos beach to ground herself at 11:15.

Schley signaled Indiana to go back to the harbor entrance, and Iowa was signaled to resume blockading station. Iowa, Ericsson, and USS Hist (1895) aided the crew of the burning Vizcaya. Meanwhile, USS Harvard (1888) and Gloucester rescued those of Infanta Maria Teresa and Almirante Oquendo. With flames and ready-to-explode ammunition on deck, the officers and sailors still ran into harm's way to rescue the Spanish crews. These proved to be some of the most valiant actions performed that day.

While Vizcaya was under fire, Cristóbal Colón had drawn ahead. Within a little more than an hour, five of the six ships of the Spanish Caribbean Squadron had been destroyed or forced aground. Only one vessel, the speedy new armored cruiser Cristóbal Colón, still survived and steamed as fast as she could for the west and freedom. Though modern in every respect and possibly the fastest ship in either fleet, Cristóbal Colón had one serious problem: she had been only recently purchased from Italy, and her main 10 in armament had not yet been installed because of a contractual issue with Armstrong Whitworth. She therefore sailed with empty main turrets but retained her ten 6 in secondary battery. That day, speed was her primary defense.

By the time Vizcaya had been beached, Cristóbal Colón was nearly six miles beyond Brooklyn and Oregon. At her best rate of nearly 15 kn, Cristóbal Colón slowly distanced herself from the pursuing US fleet. Her closest antagonist, USS Brooklyn, had begun the battle with just two of her four engines coupled because of her long stay on the blockade line, and she could manage barely 16 kn while she was building steam. As Brooklyn ineffectively fired 8-inch rounds at the rapidly-disappearing Cristóbal Colón, there was only one ship in the US fleet with a chance of maintaining the pursuit, Oregon, burning Cardiff coal and New York, doing 20 kn.

For 65 min, Oregon pursued Cristóbal Colón. which hugged the coast and was unable to turn toward the open sea because Oregon was standing out about 1.5 mi from the course of Cristóbal Colón and would have been able to close the gap fatally of Cristóbal Colón had turned to a more southerly course.

Finally, three factors converged to end the chase. Cristóbal Colón had run through her supply of high-quality Cardiff coal and was forced to begin using an inferior grade obtained from Spanish reserves in Cuba. Also, a peninsula jutting out from the coastline would soon force her to turn south, across Oregon's path. Finally, on the flagship Brooklyn, Commodore Schley signaled Oregon Captain Charles Edgar Clark to open fire. Despite the immense range still separating Oregon and Cristóbal Colón, the forward turret of Oregon launched a pair of 13-inch shells that bracketed the wake of Cristóbal Colón just astern of the ship.

Vizcaya exploded at 1:20 p.m., Captain Jose de Paredes, declining to see his crew needlessly killed, abruptly turned the Cristóbal Colón toward the mouth of the Turquino River and ordered the scuttle valves opened and the colors struck as she grounded. Captain Cook of Brooklyn went on board to receive the surrender. Oregon was in charge of the wreck of Cristóbal Colón with orders to save her if possible. All of the prisoners were to be transferred to USS Resolute (1894). Despite all efforts, Cristóbal Colón was taken by the sea and sank in shoal water. As the ships of the US fleet pushed through the carnage and rescued as many Spanish survivors as possible, one officer was fished out by sailors of Iowa. The man proved to be Captain Don Antonio Eulate of Vizcaya. He thanked his rescuers and presented his sword to Captain Robley Evans, who handed it back as an act of chivalry.

By the end of the battle, the Spanish fleet had been completely destroyed. The Spanish lost more than 300 killed and 150 wounded out of 2,227 men, or approximately 22% of the fleet. 1,800 officers and men were taken prisoner by the Americans, and roughly 150 returned to Santiago de Cuba. The American fleet lost only one killed and one wounded, the former being Yeoman George Henry Ellis of the Brooklyn. The Spanish ships were devastated by the overwhelming barrage of firepower by the Americans. However, according to historian David Trask, despite the overwhelming victory, only 1–3% of all rounds fired by the Americans found their mark.

Sampson-Schley controversy
The American victory bred controversy in the ranks of the naval officer corps over the question of the commanding officer who deserved credit for the victory. Should it be Sampson, who was in operational command of the fleet, but absent when Cervera's force engaged the Americans, or Schley, who remained in tactical command during Sampson's absence and who saw the fight to a successful close from the bridge of Brooklyn? The controversy between the two officers began almost immediately after the conclusion of the battle.

At the conclusion of the battle, Sampson's flagship New York approached Brooklyn. Schley sent the message by signal flag: "The enemy has surrendered" and "We have gained a great victory." Against common practice at the end of a victorious battle, Sampson did not respond with the expected congratulatory remark, but rather, according to historian Joseph G. Dawson, "the answering signal was terse and seemed needlessly brusque." After the messages were exchanged, more tension grew between the two officers when Schley requested for he and his crew to "have the honor of the surrender of the Cristobal Colon." With disregard to Schley and the other commanding officers, Sampson cabled Secretary Long, "The fleet under my command offers the nation as a Fourth of July present the whole of Cevera’s fleet." He invoked General William T. Sherman's message to President Abraham Lincoln after taking Atlanta in 1864 but made no reference to Schley. A day after the news reached the United States, The New York Times published an article with the headline "Sampson's Fourth of July Victory," which expressed gratitude towards Sampson for his leadership during the battle. In Sampson's hometown of Palmyra, New York, a respectful 100 shots were fired for his victory. Following the newspaper headlines were interviews and telegraphs from Sampson's wife, sister, and two sons. Each message displayed praise and congratulations for his accomplishments in the battle.

Less than two weeks before Sampson's battle report was due, reporters sensed that there was tension between the two officers. On July 5, Kentucky Representative Albert S. Berry went on record in favor of Schley by declaring, "Schley is the real hero of the incident. Sampson commands the fleet in those waters, but it was Commodore Schley in command when Cervera and his fleet made the plucky attempt at escape and it was under Schley that every one of that Spanish fleet met its destruction." Berry still did not impugn Sampson but believed that Schley deserved much of the credit for the American victory. The next day, a news report from the Baltimore American declared that "Schley [was] the real hero."

The controversy quickly became a public spectacle inflamed by journalistic sensationalism, popular interest in the recent war, and in the war's celebration of military heroism. On August 9, 1898, the Springfield Republic claimed the controversy to be largely a product of writers determined "to get a brilliant hero out of the Santiago battle at any cost." Many journalists felt that Sampson's "careful, thorough and comprehensive leadership" did not fit the mold of the brash American hero in the era of Rooseveltian masculinity. Just as early motion picture-makers such as Thomas Edison made films celebrating Schley's leadership at Santiago, journalists by and large placed Schley on a pedestal for winning the battle because he was the man standing on the bridge who led the fleet towards the enemy and victory in combat.

The controversy also sharply divided the Navy's officer corps. Alfred Thayer Mahan, author of The Influence of Sea Power upon History: 1660–1783, threw his considerable influence behind Sampson. He argued that it did not matter who was in command during the battle because the "stringent methods laid down" by Sampson brought about the ultimate victory. In Mahan's eyes, the press and the public were robbing Sampson of the credit that he deserved since it was through his overall command that Schley had the means to defeat the enemy.

Within the Navy, the controversy sharpened when Long proposed promotions for the two officers. Prior to the war, both men had held the rank of captain, and both men were promoted to rear admiral to reflect their wartime commands. After the war, Long proposed for both officers to be promoted to vice admiral. Sampson had ranked number ten in the Naval Register and Schley ranked number eight. Upon promotion, Sampson would be moved eight numbers up and Schley only six and would rank Sampson higher in the register than Schley. Alexander McClure, editor of the Philadelphia Times, warned President McKinley that the promotion of Sampson over Schley would be a "great injustice" in the eyes of the public. His warning was ignored, and the promotion of Sampson over Schley became permanent on March 3, 1899.

Shortly thereafter, The New York Sun published an article that quoted Brooklyn's navigator, Lieutenant Commander Albon C. Hodgson, as saying that Schley gave orders to turn "hard aport" when first met by the Spanish fleet. That turn, in which Brooklyn had nearly collided with the battleship Texas, was a key critique of Schley's antagonist that Sampson and his supporters had been using to construct an argument of cowardice against Schley. Hodgson asked if he meant to starboard, and Schley replied "no." According to that testimony, Schley apparently said "damn the Texas; let her look out for herself!" Schley, denying any such remark, requested for Hodgson to write a formal statement retracting his accusations. He pointed out that such a statement would damage the reputation of not only Schley but also Hodgson. The latter complied and retracted his statement but requested Schley to write a statement explaining why he retracted his claim. Schley did not answer that request.

Long grew increasingly frustrated by the issue and its detrimental effects within the service. In November 1899, he ordered all officers to refrain from discussing the matter in public. However, debate continued in private, and those against Schley "were determined to destroy his reputation through a court of inquiry" that would investigate Schley's actions and ultimately give credit to the appropriate officer. Schley had nothing to gain from a court of inquiry but was forced to seek a hearing on his own accord in order to clear his name. Outraged by the publication of Edgar S. Maclay's History of the United States Navy, which Schley supporters deemed slanderous to the admiral's reputation, Schley sought and received the court of inquiry.

A court of inquiry opened on September 12, 1901 at the Washington Navy Yard to investigate 24 charges against Schley from his search for Cervera off Cienfuegos to the conclusion of the Battle of Santiago de Cuba. Contrary to public opinion, the court concluded after 40 days of deliberations closely followed by the public and the press that Schley did not "project the right image of a naval officer" because of his failure to act "decisively between his departure from Key West to the time of the battle." In the court's findings, Schley was criticized for his route to the battle and for possibly endangering the Texas. It also referenced the "injustice to Lt. Cmdr. Hodgson when he published only a portion of the correspondence that passed between the officers about the matter." Admiral George Dewey, president of the court of inquiry and a so-called supporter of Schley, offered a dissenting opinion.

Disappointed with the court's conclusions, Schley appealed his case to President Theodore Roosevelt. The president called for an end to all public disputes. Tensions died down temporarily, but arose after the publication of Long's personal memoir in which the former secretary of the navy credited Sampson fully and believed that Schley contributed little to the battle's outcome. Sampson died in 1902 and Schley in 1911, but the controversy left an internecine struggle within the Navy that in some ways tarnished its image after what had otherwise seemed a glorious naval victory.

Aftermath
The end of the Spanish–American War was in many ways a new beginning for the US Navy and marked a watershed moment in American and Spanish history. The defeat of the Spanish Navy gave the US nearly uncontested control of the seas surrounding Cuba. With resupply of the Spanish garrison nearly impossible, Spain ultimately sued for peace and surrendered in August, and the war was over. Some of the terms of surrender were as follows:

 * 3. Que los Estados Unidos convienen en transportar todas las fuerzas españolas en dicho territorio al Reino de España con la menor demora posible… [That the United States agrees to carry all Spanish forces in that territory to the Kingdom of Spain with the least possible delay...]

 * 5. Las autoridades españoles convienen en quitar, o ayudar a que sean quitadas por la Marina americana, todas las minas y demás entorpecimientos a la navegación que existen ahora en la bahía de Santiago de Cuba y su entrada. [The Spanish authorities agree to remove or help to remove with the American Navy, all mines or other obstructions to navigation that now exist in the Bay of Santiago de Cuba and its entrance.]

 * 9. Que las fuerzas españolas saldrán de Santiago de Cuba con honores de guerra, depositando después sus armas en un lugar mutuamente convenido... [That the Spanish forces will leave Santiago de Cuba with the honors of war, afterwards depositing their weapons in a mutually agreed-upon place...]

The terms, upon which both sides came to an agreement during the 1898 Treaty of Paris (1898) negotiations, decided the fate of the remaining Spanish troops, vessels, and the matter of Cuba's sovereignty. Spanish prisoners-of-war who were not wounded were sent to Seavey's Island at the Portsmouth Naval Shipyard in Kittery, Maine, where they were confined at Camp Long from July to September 1898. The Americans treated Spain's officers, soldiers, and sailors with great respect. Ultimately, Spanish prisoners were returned to Spain with their "honors of war" on American ships.

The battle was the end of any noteworthy Spanish naval presence in the New World. It forced Spain to reassess its strategy in Cuba and resulted in an ever-tightening blockade of the island. Fighting continued until August. When the Treaty of Paris was signed, all surviving Spanish capital ships were now husbanded to defend their homeland and left only isolated units of auxiliary vessels to defend the coast. Uncontested US control of the seas around Cuba made resupply of the Spanish garrison impossible and its surrender inevitable. Admiral Cervera received different treatment from the sailors taken to Portsmouth. For a time, he was held at Annapolis, Maryland, where he was received with great enthusiasm by the people of that city. The Battle of Santiago de Cuba brought Cervera peace of mind that he had fulfilled an officer's duties and that his fleet had upheld Spanish honor. His bravery in the face of the enemy's superiority garnered respect from Spanish and American sailors and officers alike. The Spanish prisoners-of-war were released upon the signing of the 1898 Treaty of Paris, and the remaining Spanish forces left Cuba. Civil order was left to the military government that the United States established. The US Army under the overall administration of General Leonard Wood governed the island for some time afterwards and, with help, removed many of the mines that had been laid in the bay.

In the imperial vacuum left by Spain's New World empire, the United States now exerted considerable influence both in annexing formal territories such as Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines and in subsequent American military interventions throughout the Caribbean over the next half-century.

The late 19th century was a transitional period for the US Navy and for the growth of American power. The war and the conquest of territory seemed to validate American navalism and tipped the scale of US naval policy towards the full embrace of Mahanian sea power. The Spanish–American War and subsequent interventions in Latin America known collectively as the Banana Wars were indicative of American commitment to the Monroe Doctrine articulated by the Roosevelt Corollary, which committed the United States, through the Navy and Marine Corps particularly, to be an international police force in the Western Hemisphere.

Imperialist sentiments followed the victory of the US Navy and the newfound celebrity status of some of its commanders. Part of the impetus for new territorial expansion was the need for foreign naval bases and the need for a larger navy to take and maintain control of such bases. The Philippines, Guam, Puerto Rico, and others had become locations for US overseas naval bases and coaling stations, but native resistance remained high. The resistance in the Philippines developed into a colonial war between local guerrillas and US forces under Major General Elwell S. Otis, who was appointed military governor of the Philippines after the Spanish–American War. The territorial conflict was ironic because the roles of the Spanish–American War were now reversed. The US had fought to free Cuba from Spain's colonial power but now aimed to colonize the Philippines. Ultimately, the Spanish–American War brought to light deeply rooted conflicts between the principles of democracy and the urges of the buffing American imperialism.

Two of the Spanish ships, Infanta Maria Teresa and Cristóbal Colón, were later re-floated and taken over by the US. Both eventually foundered and were lost. SPANISH CRUISER Reina Mercedes, abandoned in Santiago Bay because of engine troubles, was an unprotected cruiser captured by the US Navy and used as a receiving ship until 1957 as USS Reina Mercedes (IX-25).

All of the various flags, warship pennants, national combat flags, the royal standard, admirals' flags, and so on retrieved from the Spanish ships in the days following the battle are part of the United States Navy Trophy Flag Collection at the U.S. Naval Academy Museum in Annapolis, Maryland. The collection was given to the care of the US Naval Academy by an act of Congress in 1949.

In 1998, in recognition of the hundredth anniversary of the battle and the Spanish–American War, the US Secretary of the Navy authorized the return of the National Combat Flag from the Spanish flagship Infanta Maria Teresa to the Spanish Navy via their Chief of Staff, who was to meet with the US Navy Chief of Naval Operations in Newport, Rhode Island. However, the return of the flag was aborted when the curator of the Naval Academy Museum, citing the congressional language from 1949, refused to surrender the banner.

title: Battle of Santiago de Cuba


text:
Scott McNealy

Scott McNealy (born November 13, 1954) is an American businessman. He is most famous for co-founding the computer technology company Sun Microsystems in 1982 along with Vinod Khosla, Bill Joy, and Andy Bechtolsheim. In 2004, while still at Sun, McNealy founded Curriki, a free online education service. In 2011, he co-founded Wayin, a social intelligence and visualization company based in Denver. McNealy stepped down from his position as CEO of Wayin in 2016.

Career
McNealy earned a Bachelor of Arts in economics from Harvard and an MBA from the Stanford Graduate School of Business. McNealy has self-deprecatingly referred to himself as a "golf major" rather than a computer scientist.

McNealy started out working at American Motors, where his father was vice chairman and vice president of marketing. He later became manufacturing director at Onyx Systems, a vendor of microprocessor-based Unix systems.

In 1982, he was approached by fellow Stanford alumnus Vinod Khosla to help provide the necessary organizational and business leadership for Sun Microsystems. Sun, along with companies such as Apple Inc., Silicon Graphics, 3Com, and Oracle Corporation, was part of a wave of successful startup companies in California's Silicon Valley during the early and mid-1980s. The name "Sun" was derived from co-founder Andy Bechtolsheim's original Stanford University Network (SUN) computer project, the SUN workstation.

In 1984, McNealy took over the CEO role from Khosla, who ultimately would leave the company in 1985. On April 24, 2006, McNealy stepped down as CEO after serving in that position for 22 years, and turned the job over to Jonathan I. Schwartz. McNealy is one of the few CEOs of a major corporation to have had a tenure of over twenty years.

According to the book The Decline and Fall of Nokia, Scott McNealy was the "dream candidate" to become CEO of Nokia in 2010. However, McNealy said he was not offered the job.

In 2017, Scott joined the golf app startup 18Birdies as advisor and equity partner.

In early 2018, he joined the Redis Labs Advisory Board.

Wayin
In 2010, the same year Oracle Corporation purchased Sun, McNealy co-founded the social media intelligence company Wayin. The new venture was not widely covered in the media; the day he invited reporters to his home to launch Wayin was the same day Apple co-founder Steve Jobs died. Their product is an application store for brands to self-publish interactive advertising campaigns using reusable digital assets, removing the bulk of cost involved in delivering multi-channel digital advertising.

Wayin sought out and merged with EngageSciences in 2016, to acquire senior staff and diversify their market. In May of that year, McNealy stepped down as CEO and EngageSciences head Richard Jones became CEO of the combined company. In July 2019, Wayin was acquired by Cheetah Digital.

Personal life
McNealy was born to Marmalee  Doris (née Noffke)   and Raymond William McNealy Jr. (1927–2014), in Columbus, Indiana. He grew up in Bloomfield Hills, Michigan, where his father, was vice chairman of the American Motors Corporation. He graduated from Cranbrook School; he later supported the campaign of fellow Cranbrook alumnus and 2012 presidential nominee Mitt Romney. Most of his work experience prior to joining Sun was in automotive manufacturing.

He is married to Susan Ingemanson. They lived in Portola Valley, CA, now in Nevada, and have four sons: Maverick, Dakota, Colt, and Scout. He is known to be an enthusiastic ice hockey player and has been ranked as one of the best golfers in executive ranks.

He is the commissioner of the Alternative Golf Association (known as "Flogton").

Positions at Sun

 * Chairman of the board of directors from April 2006 to January 2010
 * Chairman of the board of directors and chief executive officer from April 2004 to April 2006
 * Chairman of the board of directors, president and chief executive officer from July 2002 to April 2004
 * Chairman of the board of directors and chief executive officer from April 1999 to June 2002
 * Chairman of the board of directors, president and chief executive officer from December 1984 to April 1999
 * President and chief operating officer from February 1984 to December 1984
 * Vice president of operations from February 1982 to February 1984

Awards
In 1987, McNealy was named an Award Recipient of the EY Entrepreneur of the Year Award in the Northern California Region.

Opinions
While at Sun, McNealy used the phrase “disagree and commit” (which later became a management principle adopted by other large cooperations) as early as some time between 1983 and 1991, as part of the line "Agree and commit, disagree and commit, or get out of the way".

In 1999, McNealy said, "You have zero privacy anyway. Get over it." Writer Stephen Manes criticized the statement in his Full Disclosure column: "He's right on the facts, wrong on the attitude.... Instead of 'getting over it', citizens need to demand clear rules on privacy, security, and confidentiality." The authors of Privacy in the 21st Century admitted, "While a shocking statement, there is an element of truth in it."

McNealy was an early advocate of the networked environment; his company's motto was The Network is the Computer. At times, he has been known to be skeptical of products that do not integrate well with networked environments. One example McNealy has given involved the Apple iPod. As quoted in The Register, McNealy said, "There’s a pendulum thing where stuff is on the client side and then goes back into the network where it belongs. The answering machine put voicemail by the desk, and then it went back into the network. Your iPod is like your home answering machine. I guarantee you it will be hard to sell an iPod five or seven years from now when every cell phone can access your entire music library wherever you are."

McNealy is a self-proclaimed "raging libertarian", although he often supports and endorses the Republican Party. He makes regular appearances on the Fox Business Channel to discuss libertarian business issues. In 2017, McNealy praised the 45th U.S. President, Donald Trump, for his free-market economic policies. On September 17, 2019, McNealy hosted a fundraiser for Donald Trump's re-election campaign.

McNealy was a member of the 1776 Commission. Created by President Donald Trump, it released a report two days before the end of that administration.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Scott McNealy


text:
Richard Neutra

Richard Joseph Neutra (April 8, 1892 – April 16, 1970) was an Austrian-American architect. Living and building for most of his career in Southern California, he came to be considered a prominent and important modernist architect. His most notable works include the Kaufmann Desert House, in Palm Springs, California.

Biography
Neutra was born in Leopoldstadt, the second district of Vienna, Austria Hungary, on April 8, 1892, into a wealthy Jewish family. His Jewish-Hungarian father Samuel Neutra (1844–1920), was a proprietor of a metal foundry, and his mother, Elizabeth "Betty" Glaser Neutra (1851–1905) was a member of the IKG Wien. Richard had two brothers, who also emigrated to the United States, and a sister, Josephine Theresia "Pepi" Weixlgärtner, an artist who married the Austrian art historian Arpad Weixlgärtner and who later emigrated to Sweden. Her work can be seen at the Modern Art Museum in Stockholm.

Neutra attended the Sophiengymnasium in Vienna until 1910. He studied under Max Fabiani and Karl Mayreder at the Vienna University of Technology (1910–18) and also attended the private architecture school of Adolf Loos. In 1912, he undertook a study trip to Italy and the Balkans with Ernst Ludwig Freud (son of Sigmund Freud).

In June 1914, Neutra's studies were interrupted when he was ordered to Trebinje, where he served as an lieutenant in the artillery until the end of World War I. Dione Neutra recalled her husband Richard's hatred of the retribution against the Serbs in an interview conducted in 1978 after his death: "He talked about the people he met [i.e. in Trebinje] … how his commander was a sadist, who was able to play out his sadistic tendencies…. He was just a small town clerk in Vienna, but then he became his commander."

Neutra took a leave in 1917 to return to the Technische Hochschule to take his final examinations.

After World War I, Neutra moved to Switzerland, where he worked with the landscape architect Gustav Ammann. In 1921, he served briefly as city architect in the German town of Luckenwalde, and later in the same year he joined the office of Erich Mendelsohn in Berlin. Neutra contributed to the firm's competition entry for a new commercial center for Haifa, Palestine (1922), and to the Zehlendorf housing project in Berlin (1923). He married Dione Niedermann, the daughter of an architect, in 1922. They had three sons, Frank L (1924–2008), Dion (1926–2019), who became an architect and his father's partner, and Raymond Richard Neutra (1939–), a physician and environmental epidemiologist.

Richard Neutra moved to the United States by 1923 and became a naturalized citizen in 1929. He worked briefly for Frank Lloyd Wright before accepting an invitation from Rudolf Schindler, a close friend from his university days, to work and live communally in Schindler's Kings Road House in California. Neutra's first works in California were both in the realm of landscape architecture: namely, the grounds of the Lovell Beach House (1922–25), in Newport Beach, which Schindler had designed for Philip Lovell; and a pergola and wading pool for the complex that Wright and Schindler had designed for Aline Barnsdall on Olive Hill (1925), in Hollywood. Schindler and Neutra would go on to collaborate on an entry for the League of Nations Competition (1926–27); in the same year, they formed a firm with the planner Carol Aronovici (1881–1957), called the Architectural Group for Industry and Commerce (AGIC). Neutra subsequently developed his own practice and went on to design numerous buildings embodying the International Style, 12 of which are designated as Historic Cultural Monuments (HCM), including the Lovell Health House (HCM #123; 1929), for the same client as the Lovell Beach House, and the Richard and Dion Neutra VDL Research House (HCM #640; 1966). In California, he became celebrated for rigorously geometric but airy structures that epitomized a West Coast version of mid-century modern residential design. His clients included Edgar J. Kaufmann, (who had commissioned Wright to design Fallingwater, in Pennsylvania),  Galka Scheyer, and Walter Conrad Arensberg. In the early 1930s, Neutra's Los Angeles practice trained several young architects who went on to independent success, including Gregory Ain, Harwell Hamilton Harris, and Raphael Soriano. In 1932, he tried to move to the Soviet Union, to help design workers' housing that could be easily constructed, as a means of helping with the housing shortage.

In 1932, Neutra was included in the seminal MoMA exhibition on modern architecture, curated by Philip Johnson and Henry-Russell Hitchcock. From 1943 to 1944, Neutra served as a visiting professor of design at Bennington College in Bennington, Vermont. In 1949 Neutra formed a partnership with Robert E. Alexander that lasted until 1958, which finally gave him the opportunity to design larger commercial and institutional buildings. In 1955, the United States Department of State commissioned Neutra to design a new embassy in Karachi. Neutra's appointment was part of an ambitious program of architectural commissions to renowned architects, which included embassies by Walter Gropius in Athens, Edward Durrell Stone in New Delhi, Marcel Breuer in The Hague, Josep Lluis Sert in Baghdad, and Eero Saarinen in London. In 1965, Neutra formed a partnership with his son Dion Neutra. Between 1960 and 1970, Neutra created eight villas in Europe, four in Switzerland, three in Germany, and one in France. Prominent clients in this period included Gerd Bucerius, publisher of Die Zeit, as well as figures from commerce and science. His work was also part of the architecture event in the art competition at the 1932 Summer Olympics.

Richard Joseph Neutra died on April 16, 1970, at the age of 78.

Architectural style
He was known for the attention he gave to defining the real needs of his clients, regardless of the size of the project, in contrast to other architects eager to impose their artistic vision on a client. Neutra sometimes used detailed questionnaires to discover his client's needs, much to their surprise. His domestic architecture was a blend of art, landscape, and practical comfort.

In a 1947 article for the Los Angeles Times, "The Changing House," Neutra emphasizes the "ready-for-anything" plan – stressing an open, multifunctional plan for living spaces that are flexible, adaptable and easily modified for any type of life or event.

Neutra had a sharp sense of irony. In his autobiography, Life and Shape, he included a playful anecdote about an anonymous movie producer-client who electrified the moat around the house that Neutra designed for him and had his Persian butler fish out the bodies in the morning and dispose of them in a specially designed incinerator. This was a much-embellished account of an actual client, Josef von Sternberg, who indeed had a moated house but not an electrified one.

The novelist/philosopher Ayn Rand was the second owner of the Von Sternberg House in the San Fernando Valley (now destroyed). A photo of Neutra and Rand at the home was taken by Julius Shulman.

Neutra's early watercolors and drawings, most of them of places he traveled (particularly his trips to the Balkans in WWI) and portrait sketches, showed influence from artists such as Gustav Klimt, Egon Schiele etc. Neutra's sister Josefine, who could draw, is cited as developing Neutra's inclination towards drawing.

Legacy
Neutra's son Dion has kept the Silver Lake offices designed and built by his father open as "Richard and Dion Neutra Architecture" in Los Angeles. The Neutra Office Building is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

In 1980, Neutra's widow donated the Van der Leeuw House (VDL Research House), then valued at $207,500, to California State Polytechnic University, Pomona (Cal Poly Pomona) to be used by the university's College of Environmental Design faculty and students. In 2011, the Neutra-designed Kronish House (1954) at 9439 Sunset Boulevard in Beverly Hills sold for $12.8 million.

In 2009, the exhibition "Richard Neutra, Architect: Sketches and Drawings" at the Los Angeles Central Library featured a selection of Neutra's travel sketches, figure drawings and building renderings. An exhibition on the architect's work in Europe between 1960 and 1979 was mounted by the MARTa Herford, Germany.

The Kaufmann Desert House was restored by Marmol Radziner + Associates in the mid-1990s.

The typeface family Neutraface, designed by Christian Schwartz for House Industries, was based on Richard Neutra's architecture and design principles.

In 1977, he was posthumously awarded the AIA Gold Medal, and in 2015, he was honored with a Golden Palm Star on the Walk of Stars in Palm Springs, California.

Lost works
Neutra's 14,000 sqf "Windshield" house built on Fishers Island, NY for John Nicholas Brown II burned down on New Year's Eve 1973 and was not rebuilt.

The 1935 Von Sternberg House in Northridge, California was demolished in 1972.

Neutra's 1960 Fine Arts Building at California State University, Northridge was demolished in 1997, three years after suffering severe damage in the 1994 Northridge earthquake.

The 1962 Maslon House in Rancho Mirage, California, was demolished in 2002.

Neutra's Cyclorama Building at Gettysburg was demolished by the National Park Service in March 2013.

The Slavin House (1956) in Santa Barbara, California was destroyed in a fire in 2001.

Selected works

 * Jardinette Apartments, 1928, 5128 Marathon Street, Hollywood Hills, Los Angeles, California
 * Lovell House, 1929, Los Angeles, California
 * Van der Leeuw House (VDL Research House), 1932, Los Angeles, California
 * Mosk House, 1933, 2742 Hollyridge Drive, Hollywood, California
 * Nathan and Malve Koblick House, 1933, 98 Fairview Avenue, Atherton, California
 * Universal-International Building (Laemmle Building), 1933, 6300 Hollywood Boulevard, Hollywood, Los Angeles, California
 * Scheyer House, 1934, 1880 Blue Heights Drive, Hollywood Hills, Los Angeles, California
 * William and Melba Beard House (with Gregory Ain), 1935, 1981 Meadowbrook, Altadena
 * California Military Academy, 1935, Culver City, California
 * Corona Avenue Elementary School, 1935, 3835 Bell Avenue, Bell, California
 * Largent House, 1935, 49 Hopkins Avenue at the corner of Burnett Avenue, San Francisco. Building was demolished by new owners and, they have been ordered to rebuild an exact replica.
 * Von Sternberg House, 1935, San Fernando Valley, Los Angeles
 * Sten and Frenke House (Los Angeles Historic-Cultural Monument #647), 1934, 126 Mabery Road, Santa Monica
 * The Neutra House Project, 1935, Restoration of the Neutra "Orchard House" in Los Altos, California
 * Josef Kun House, 1936, 7960 Fareholm Drive, Nichols Canyon, Hollywood Hills, Los Angeles, California
 * Darling House, 1937, 90 Woodland Avenue, San Francisco, California
 * George Kraigher House, 1937, 525 Paredes Line Road, Brownsville, Texas
 * Landfair Apartments, 1937, Westwood, Los Angeles, California
 * Strathmore Apartments, 1937, Westwood, Los Angeles, California
 * Aquino Duplex, 1937, 2430 Leavenworth Street, San Francisco
 * Leon Barsha House (with P. Pfisterer), 1937, 302 Mesa Road, Pacific Palisades, California
 * Miller House, 1937, Palm Springs, California
 * Windshield House, 1938, Fisher's Island, New York
 * Albert Lewin House, 1938, 512-514 Palisades Beach Road, Santa Monica, Los Angeles
 * Emerson Junior High School, 1938, 1650 Selby Avenue, West Los Angeles, California
 * Ward-Berger House, 1939, 3156 North Lake Hollywood Drive, Hollywood Hills, Los Angeles, California
 * Kelton Apartments, Westwood, Los Angeles
 * Sidney Kahn House, 1940, Telegraph Hill, San Francisco
 * Beckstrand House, 1940, 1400 Via Montemar, Palos Verdes Estates, Los Angeles County
 * Bonnet House, 1941, 2256 El Contento Drive, Hollywood Hills, Los Angeles, California
 * Neutra/Maxwell House, 1941, 475 N. Bowling Green Way, Brentwood, Los Angeles (Moved to Angelino Heights in 2008.)
 * Van Cleef Residence, 1942, 651 Warner Avenue, Westwood, Los Angeles
 * Geza Rethy House, 1942, 2101 Santa Anita Avenue, Sierra Madre, California
 * Channel Heights Housing Projects, 1942, San Pedro, California
 * John Nesbitt House, 1942, 414 Avondale, Brentwood, Los Angeles
 * Kaufmann Desert House,  1946, Palm Springs, California
 * Stuart Bailey House, 1948, Pacific Palisades, California (Case Study 20A)
 * Case Study Houses #6, #13, #20A, #21A
 * Schmidt House, 1948, 1460 Chamberlain Road, Linda Vista, Pasadena, California
 * Joseph Tuta House, 1948, 1800 Via Visalia, Palos Verdes, California
 * Holiday House Motel, 1948, 27400 Pacific Coast Highway, Malibu, California
 * Elkay Apartments, 1948, 638-642 Kelton Avenue, Westwood, Los Angeles
 * Gordon Wilkins House, 1949, 528 South Hermosa Place, South Pasadena, California
 * Alpha Wirin House, 1949, 2622 Glendower Avenue, Los Feliz, Los Angeles
 * Hines House, 1949, 760 Via Somonte, Palos Verdes, California
 * Atwell House, 1950, 1411 Atwell Road, El Cerrito, California
 * Nick Helburn House, 1950, Sourdough Road, Bozeman, Montana
 * Neutra Office Building — Neutra's design studio from 1950 to 1970
 * Kester Avenue Elementary School, 5353 Kester Avenue, Los Angeles (with Dion Neutra), 1951, Sherman Oaks, California
 * Everist House, 1951, 200 W. 45th Street, Sioux City, Iowa
 * Moore House, 1952, Ojai, California (received AIA award)
 * Perkins House, 1952–55, 1540 Poppypeak Drive, Pasadena, California
 * Schaarman House, 1953, 7850 Torreyson Drive, Hollywood Hills, Los Angeles, California
 * Olan G. and Aida T. Hafley House, 1953, 5561 East La Pasada Street, Long Beach
 * Brown House, 1955, 10801 Chalon Road, Bel Air, Los Angeles
 * Kronish House, 1955, Beverly Hills, California
 * Sidney R. Troxell House, 1956, 766 Paseo Miramar, Pacific Palisades, California
 * Chuey House, 1956, 2460 Sunset Plaza Drive, Hollywood Hills, Los Angeles, California
 * Clark House, 1957, Pasadena, California
 * Airman's Memorial Chapel, 1957, 5702 Bauer Road, Miramar, California
 * Sorrell's House, 1957, Old State Highway 127, Shoshone, California
 * Ferro Chemical Company Building, 1957, Cleveland, Ohio
 * The Lew House, 1958, 1456 Sunset Plaza Drive, Los Angeles
 * Connell House, 1958, Pebble Beach, California
 * Mellon Hall and Francis Scott Key Auditorium, 1958, St. John's College, Annapolis, Maryland
 * Riviera United Methodist Church, 1958, 375 Palos Verdes Boulevard, Redondo Beach
 * Loring House, 1959, 2456 Astral Drive, Los Angeles (addition by Escher GuneWardena Architecture, 2006
 * Singleton House, 1959, 15000 Mulholland Drive, Hollywood Hills, Los Angeles, California
 * Oyler House, 1959 Lone Pine, California
 * UCLA Lab School, 1959 (with Robert Alexander)
 * Garden Grove Community Church, Community Church, 1959 (Fellowship Hall and Offices), 1961 (Sanctuary), 1968 (Tower of Hope), Garden Grove, California
 * Three senior officer's quarters on Mountain Home Air Force Base, Idaho, 1959
 * Julian Bond House, 1960, 4449 Yerba Santa, San Diego, California
 * R.J. Neutra Elementary School, 1960, Naval Air Station Lemoore, in Lemoore, California (designed in 1929)
 * Buena Park Swim Stadium and Recreation Center, 1960, 7225 El Dorado Drive, Buena Park, California
 * Palos Verdes High School, 1961, 600 Cloyden Road, Palos Verdes, California
 * Haus Rang, 1961, Königstein im Taunus, Germany
 * Hans Grelling House/Casa Tuia on Monte Verità, 1961, Strada del Roccolo 11, Ascona, Tessin, Switzerland
 * Los Angeles County Hall of Records, 1962, Los Angeles, California.
 * Gettysburg Cyclorama, 1962, Gettysburg National Military Park, Pennsylvania
 * Gonzales Gorrondona House, 1962, Avenida la Linea 65, Sabana Grande, Caracas, Venezuela
 * Bewobau Residences, 1963, Quickborn near Hamburg, Germany
 * Mariners Medical Arts, 1963, Newport Beach, California
 * Painted Desert Visitor Center, 1963, Petrified Forest National Park, Arizona
 * United States Embassy, (later US Consulate General until 2011), 1959, Abdullaha Haroon Road, Karachi, Pakistan
 * Swirbul Library, 1963, Adelphi University, Garden City, New York
 * Kuhns House, 1964, Woodland Hills, Los Angeles, California
 * Rice House (National Register of Historic Places), 1964, 1000 Old Locke Lane, Richmond, Virginia
 * VDL II Research House,  1964, (rebuilt with son Dion Neutra) Los Angeles, California
 * Rentsch House, 1965, Wengen near Berne in Switzerland; Landscape architect: Ernst Cramer
 * Ebelin Bucerius House, 1962–1965, Brione sopra Minusio in Switzerland; Landscape architect: Ernst Cramer
 * Roberson Memorial Center, 1965, Binghamton, New York
 * Haus Kemper, 1965, Wuppertal, Germany
 * Sports and Congress Center, 1965, Reno, Nevada
 * Delcourt House, 1968–69, Croix, Nord, France
 * Haus Pescher, 1969, Wuppertal, Germany
 * Haus Jürgen Tillmanns, 1970, Stettfurt, Thurgau, Switzerland

Publications

 * 1927: Wie Baut Amerika? (How America Builds) (Julius Hoffman)
 * 1930: Amerika: Die Stilbildung des neuen Bauens in den Vereinigten Staaten (Anton Schroll Verlag). New Ways of Building in the World [series], vol. 2. Edited by El Lissitzky.
 * 1935:
 * 1948: Architecture of Social Concern in Regions of Mild Climate (Gerth Todtman)
 * 1951: Mystery and Realities of the Site (Morgan & Morgan)
 * 1954: Survival Through Design (Oxford University Press)
 * 1956: Life and Human Habitat (Alexander Koch Verlag).
 * 1961: Welt und Wohnung (Alexander Kock Verlag)
 * 1962: Life and Shape: an Autobiography (Appleton-Century-Crofts), reprinted 2009 (Atara Press)
 * 1962: Auftrag für morgen (Claassen Verlag)
 * 1962: World and Dwelling (Universe Books)
 * 1970: Naturnahes Bauen (Alexander Koch Verlag)
 * 1971: Building With Nature (Universe Books)
 * 1974: Wasser Steine Licht (Parey Verlag)
 * 1977: Bauen und die Sinneswelt (Verlag der Kunst)
 * 1989: Nature Near: The Late Essays of Richard Neutra (Capra Press)

Other sources

 * reprinted in 1975 by Praeger
 * reprinted in 1994 by the University of California Press
 * reprinted in 2006 by Rizzoli Publications
 * reprinted in 1994 by the University of California Press
 * reprinted in 2006 by Rizzoli Publications

Publications on Richard Neutra:
 * Harriet Roth; Richard Neutra in Berlin, Die Geschichte der Zehlendorfer Häuser, Berlin 2016. Hatje Cantz publishers.
 * Harriet Roth; Richard Neutra. The Story of the Berlin Houses 1920–1924, Berlin 2019. Hatje Cantz publishers.
 * Harriet Roth; Richard Neutra. Architekt in Berlin, Berlin 2019. Hentrich&Hentrich publishers.

title: Richard Neutra


text:
Matsu

Matsu may refer to:
 * Mazu, or Matsu, a sea goddess in Chinese folk religion
 * Matsu-class destroyer
 * Matsu Islands (Lienchiang County), Fujian, Republic of China (Taiwan)
 * Matsu Beigan Airport
 * Matsushima (Matsu Islands), in Miyagi Prefecture, Japan
 * Japanese ship Matsu, several ships
 * Matsu (Sekirei), a character in the Sekirei manga and anime
 * Japanese pine (まつ, 松), matsu in Japanese

title: Matsu


text:
Coherent (operating system)

Coherent is a clone of the Unix operating system for IBM PC compatibles and other microcomputers, developed and sold by the now-defunct Mark Williams Company (MWC). Historically, the operating system was a proprietary product, but it became open source in 2015, released under the BSD-3-Clause license.

Development
Coherent was not Unix; the Mark Williams Company had no rights to either the Unix trademark or the AT&T/Bell Labs source code. In the early years of its existence, MWC received a visit from an AT&T delegation looking to determine whether MWC was infringing on AT&T Unix property. The delegation included Dennis Ritchie, who concluded that "it was very hard to believe that Coherent and its basic applications were not created without considerable study of the OS code and details of its applications." However, he also stated that:

"[...] looking at various corners [for peculiarities, bugs, etc. that I knew about in the Unix distributions of the time] I couldn't find anything that was copied. It might have been that some parts were written with [AT&T] source nearby, but at least the effort had been made to rewrite. If it came to it, I could never honestly testify [...] that what they generated was irreproducible from the manual."

Much of the operating system was written by alumni from the University of Waterloo: Tom Duff, Dave Conroy, Randall Howard, Johann George, and Trevor John Thompson. Significant contributions were also made by people such as Nigel Bree (from Auckland, New Zealand), the later author of Ghost.

Versions
Coherent was originally written for the PDP-11 range of minicomputers in 1980, then ported to various early 1980s microcomputer systems including IBM PC compatibles and machines based on the Zilog Z8000 and Motorola 68000. Initially sold to OEMs, starting 1983 it was available on the consumer market from MWC directly. At this point, Coherent 2.3 offered roughly the functionality of Version 7 Unix on PC hardware, including the nroff formatter but not the BSD extensions offered by competing Unix/clone vendors; compared to its competitors, it was a small system distributed on only seven double-sided floppy disks, costing only US$500 for a license.

BYTE in 1984 called Coherent a "highly compatible UNIX Version 7 lookalike". In 1985 it criticized the difficulty of installation, but stated that "as a UNIX clone, Coherent is amazingly complete ... it should be easy to port programs ... the price of $495 is a bargain". Early 1990s reviews of Coherent pointed out that the system was much smaller than other contemporary Unix offerings, as well as less expensive at US$99.95, but lacking in functionality and software support. PC Magazine called Coherent 3.0 a "time capsule" that captured the state of Unix in the late 1970s, without support for mice, LANs or SCSI disks, good for learning basic Unix programming but not for business automation. A review in the AUUG's newsletter was more positive, favorably comparing Coherent to MKS Toolkit, Minix and Xenix, and suggesting it might fill a niche as a low-end training platform.

Coherent was able to run on most Intel-based PCs with Intel 8088, 286, 386, and 486 processors. Coherent version 3 for Intel-based PCs required at least a 286, Coherent version 4 for Intel-based PCs required at least a 386. Like a true Unix, Coherent was able to multitask and support multiple users. From version 4, released 1992, Coherent also had support for X11 and MGR windowing systems.

Later versions of Coherent (version 4 and higher) supported features common in modern Unix-like systems, including a version of MicroEMACS, access to FAT16 file systems, an optimizing C compiler, and a modified version of Taylor UUCP. The final releases of Coherent also fully supported the iBCS COFF binary standard, which allowed binary compatibility with SCO Unix applications, including WordPerfect, Lotus 1-2-3, and several Microsoft applications including QuickBASIC, Microsoft Word, and MultiPlan. The last 386 versions supported virtual memory, but not demand paging.

A Zilog Z8000 port of Coherent was also used by the canceled Commodore 900 system.

In 1983, NCSC (a subsidiary of Nixdorf) announced a port of Coherent to IBM mainframes, in the form of a Unix compatibility subsystem for IBM's DOS/VS and DOS/VSE and Nixdorf's Edos/VS and Edos/VSE operating systems, known as Programmer Work Station/VSE-Advanced Functions, or PWS/VSE-AF for short.

The Mark Williams Company closed in 1995.

On January 3, 2015, Coherent sources were released under the BSD-3-Clause license.

title: Coherent (operating system)


text:
Talk:Matsu Islands

Untitled
This article is part of WikiProject Taiwanese counties.

"Nominal"
"...is nominally in Lienchiang County". Doesn't "nominal" mean that the Matsu aren't really administered in power by the ROC? But they are under the control of the ROC, completely. The modern and official facilities on the Matsu are built by the ROC, aren't they? And the officials definitely are paid for, legally, by the ROC, since they represent the ROC. Of course, the PRC claims the Matsu, but it claims the entire Taiwan as well. Does it mean then, that Taiwan is also nominally in the ROC? --Menchi 07:56 29 Jun 2003 (UTC)

 * Yeah, I would take out the "nominal." A functioning county government still exists for Lienchiang. --Jiang 00:09 4 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Complete island list
I tried to find a complete list of the 19 islands' names, but couldn't. Maybe many are unnamed because unexplored and uninhabited. --Menchi 07:03 30 Jun 2003 (UTC)

Following is moved from Talk:Lianjiang

(merge Lienchiang into Lianjiang? --Jiang [Summarized])

 * Now, yes, Lianjiang & Lienchiang have the same official name, and it's no coincidence, but theoretically, should it? Many Matsu residents aren't so sure. It could've been Matsu County, maybe it'll, although probably it won't any time soon, probably never. But if it is called Matsu County, wouldn't be merged with Matsu Islands in an instant? Why wait? What's the difference? The merger should happen between Matsu Islands and Lienchiang County. But what would be called? Matsu seems the best choice, but it's taken (thanks to me, Mwa-haha!!!!). Maybe Matsu (region)?

 * I can't find a precedent on WP, most islands with a collective name have been under the jurisdiction of a political entity by that exact name. Some one-named island(s) are divided, but that's irrelvant to the Matsu Islands case here, for they are the political entity that got divided. Do you know another political island like Matsu?

 * --Menchi 23:21 1 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * I don't see anything wrong with merging Lienchiang with Matsu Islands. Actually, I see Taiwan as a precedent. The country template is placed in Taiwan rather than Republic of China, even though ROC is technically the country and Taiwan just a region. Go ahead with the merger, but it needs to be clarified in Lianjiang that the county is divided and that particular article just deals with the PRC side. --Jiang 06:53 3 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * That country template actually is used on some major regions as well, like Tibet, but admittedly, that's just a fragmentary remnants of stuff moved to Xizang.

 * I actually thought the Taiwan-ROC merged article is a horrible, horrible one, of two mismatching things. Moreover, we do have a ROC article in existence! That table with flag and coat of arms definitely don't belong on the Taiwan article, although some stats probably apply. But I don't know what to leave in the Taiwan article, what to add, and what to take out (into the ROC article).

 * But that's besides the point, since the Matsu/Lienchiang case is different: They co-exist completely (whereas TW/ROC do not), and the Matsu/Lienchiang merger seems fine to me.

 * Ok, so back to the merger, so what should the titles be? Does Matsu (region) work? Does that imply something it's not? I don't know, the specifer seems to be ignoring its aspect as a ROC county. But Lienchiang ignores the famous name of Matsu. It's a hard one. --Menchi 19:53 3 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * I see nothing wrong with Matsu Islands or Matsu (islands). Matsu (region) seems somewhat awkward, as "regions" usually refer to sections of landmasses. I think the current title is fine. --Jiang 23:49 3 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Naming
> The People's Republic of China controls the part of the county > adjoining the mainland and has a separate administration for that > jurisdiction, Lianjiang County, which claims the entire archipelago to > be its Mazu Township (妈祖乡). Are the islands considered Mazu Township? Is this fact correct? Wouldn't an area that big be bigger than a township? Moreover, Mazu is not listed under the lists of townships on Lianjiang on the Lianjiang page. Can somebody clarify?

Dpr 04:55 27 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Move finished

Call to rename, include a geographical diferentiator
So there are 2 Lianjiang counties: one under the PRC and the other under the ROC control: y dont we rename both?

Lianjiang County, People's Republic of China and Lianjiang County, Republic of China

Hanyu Pinyin is now the legal standard in the ROC, the same as in the PRC...

Mazu is not an official name, its just the common name...

We have Taiwan Province (ROC) and Taiwan Province PRC

Just now i watched: wiki this: "Taoyuan County": it shows 2 taoyuan counties: both reflect a geographical differentiator in their name (Taiwan and Hunan, shouldnt we follow that? Gumuhua (talk) 18:16, 6 January 2009 (UTC)
 * This suggestion was unwarranted at the time (2009) and is still unwarranted today (2020). The local government website calls the county Lienchiang County. Geographyinitiative (talk) 01:27, 5 October 2020 (UTC)

Clarification on "First government" wishing to change name
The statement: "This is the first example of a local government officially wishing to change its name." Is this first EVER in the world, or in Taiwan, or in the history of China? Newfoundland in Canada officially changed its name to Newfoundland and Labrador after unofficially using the name for many years. --Mistakefinder (talk) 12:54, 18 November 2009 (UTC)

 * In 1820, the District of Maine was changed into the State of Maine after decades of being part of Massachusetts ever since the 1600s. In 1792, the western end of Virginia became Kentucky because its residents wanted to have their own state, and Virginia consented to it. Then the case of part of Virginia becoming West Virginia in 1863 is more complicated, but once again, the residents of that part of Virginia wanted to have their own state.
 * In Europe, what we now call Belgium and Luxembourg both used to be part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, but Belgium split off during the 1840s (during a period of strife but no war) and Luxembourg split off in about 1890 because the people there did not want a female monarch, Queen Wilhelmina. Here, we're talking about countries, but Luxembourg is quite small. During 1940-44, Luxembourg was also part of the Third Reich, but that was involuntary since this was imposed by Nazi Germany from the outside.
 * In the United States, the former City of New York (Manhattan) voluntarily joined with Brooklyn (a real city), Queens County, and The Bronx merged in 1892 to form Metropolitan New York. Then Richmond County (Staten Island) was added to that in 1894. Brooklyn and Richmond County gave up what they had had to become the Borough of Brooklyn and the Borough of Staten Island. The Commonwealth of the Philippines (est. 1935), gave up that name and status in mid-1946 because the people of the Philippines had asked for independence and the United States had grated it peacefully and with its blessings. Thus, those islands became the Republic of the Philippines.

98.67.108.16 (talk) 19:12, 28 July 2013 (UTC)

Move discussion in progress
There is a move discussion in progress on Talk:Kaohsiung which affects this page. Please participate on that page and not in this talk page section. Thank you. —RMCD bot 20:59, 26 February 2014 (UTC)

wow, really so close to Mainland China?!
Hi,

I just checked power stations of taiwan, and since in Nangan is one 15.4 MW Diesel, and I did not find any other in the "Matsu Islands" (only the largest are shown seperated by fuel source), 15.4 MW is not much, but now "low" too... However, than I saw this map since I thought it would be a place with not so many citizen and no real towns or even cities, 15,400 kW is a lot for private use to a small population, especially if you use modern energy efficient things, but there is also a massive 2,000 MW fuel oil-fired power station, and 2,000 MW is really large, this station is one of the largest consumer of fuel oil for power stations in the world if it is not just a standby-powerplant, but I do not think so... Taiwan gets now since oil price crash 2014 a discount from OPEC members to the anyway alrready low prices, the discount was/is(?) up to 5% to hold/win market share, since Russia could offer to supply, or Malaysia, Brunei... China could re-export but I think because of the difficult diplomatic status this is no real option.

For example ~10% of the whole US electricity consumption is done by refrigerators, I think the very large and big for warehouses, stores etc... and I think it is quite warm there?!

combined with the Home refrigerator... I just checked the European Energy-Efficiency standards from A+++ down to B (could only find 2 "B Models"), A and A+ are the cheapest mass-produced, however in the US it is heavy, but I do not know the clima there, in South US and Hawaii of course there is a large need... a refrigerator with a room temperature of 17° Celsius is using of course less energy for cooling than one which is staying right in the sunlight and where the temperatures are above 30° Celsius (which would be 86° Fahrenheit), and in the South there are often temperatures above 30° Celsius... 35° Celsius is already 95° Fahrenheit but possible in Florida, Texas, California etc for more than only 1 or 2 days a year...

but back to the card:

How far is the smallest distance between Taiwan Islands and "Peoples Republic China" Mainland or their Islands?! Greetings Kilon22 (talk) 12:29, 26 September 2016 (UTC)

External links modified
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Move to Mazu Islands
Should we move this article to Mazu Islands? Pinyin is the government standard now. Placenames in the ROC are now always in pinyin, unless they are on this list. Matsu Islands is not (as it is not the name of a county). So why would we keep the old spelling, instead of moving this page to Mazu Islands? De wafelenbak (talk) 11:13, 28 May 2018 (UTC)
 * The Matsu Islands local governments call their location by the name Matsu in English:    and not by the name "Mazu". The central government does too: "The Republic of China (Taiwan) is situated in the West Pacific between Japan and the Philippines. Its jurisdiction extends to the archipelagoes of Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu, as well as numerous other islets."  . The position expressed above is more pro-Hanyu Pinyin than is the position of China Daily  and Xinhua News Agency, mainland China media outlets that call the main island Matsu and the island group the Matsu Islands. The main airport is Matsu Nangan Airport (see signage in the photograph). This proposal is seemingly just an overextension of the Hanyu Pinyin-only viewpoint that ignores the conditions on the ground in terms of actual English language usage (journalism, etc) and the Taiwan government's apparent policies as seen on the central and local government websites. It's just too insensitive to the actual situation to make the change proposed- not even English language mainland China media outlets ignore what the English language name of the island and island group is. Geographyinitiative (talk) 01:23, 5 October 2020 (UTC) (modified)
 * Also: Google results for "Matsu Islands"- 83,200. Google results for "Mazu Islands"- 2,540, and the first result is this talk page conversation. Geographyinitiative (talk) 23:33, 6 October 2020 (UTC)

Excessive quotes
Re

Earlier in the debate, then-Vice President Nixon mentioned: In the Truman Administration 600 million people went ...

UNDUE. Let us remove them. Zezen (talk) 14:49, 11 January 2020 (UTC)
 * The quotes added here are an important part of the history of the islands. They were quoted widely at the time and are still being quoted today- see the citations. Geographyinitiative (talk) 01:25, 5 October 2020 (UTC)

Potentially Useful Content for this Page
Not sure how this image could be used here, but it seems like it could be. Geographyinitiative (talk) 23:45, 4 October 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Matsu Islands


text:
Quota

Quota may refer to:

Economics

 * Import quota, a restriction on the quantity of goods that can be imported into a country
 * Market Sharing Quota, an economic system used in Canadian agriculture
 * Milk quota, a quota on milk production in Europe

 * Individual fishing quota, a quota on allowable catch

Politics

 * Electoral quota
 * Quotas in electoral systems
 * Quota rule, a requirement for systems of apportionment
 * Largest remainder methods

Demographic quotas

 * Quotaism, the concept of organizing society around a quota system
 * Racial quota, numerical requirements for hiring, promoting, admitting or graduating members of a particular racial group
 * Gender quota

Music and entertainment

 * The Quota (Jimmy Heath album) or the title song, 1961
 * The Quota (Red Garland album), an 1973 song.
 * Quota (EP), by Eleventyseven, an 2011 song.
 * Quota (film) - a 2020 Indian film.

Other

 * Ticket quota, directives by police departments for their officers to deliver a predetermined number of summons
 * Disk quota, a limit that restricts disk file system usage in computing
 * Quota International, a service organization

title: Quota


text:
Ōsaka Station

Ōsaka Station (大阪駅) is a major railway station in the Umeda district of Kita-ku, Osaka, Japan, operated by West Japan Railway Company (JR West). It forms as one of the city's main railway terminals to the north, the other being Shin-Ōsaka.

Although it is officially served by only the JR Kobe/Kyoto Lines (Tōkaidō Main Line) and the Osaka Loop Line, Ōsaka is the starting point of JR Takarazuka Line service, and serves as the terminal for trains bound for the San'in region via JR Takarazuka Line and the Hokuriku region via JR Kyoto Line, while offering connections to trains bound for Nara, Wakayama and Kansai International Airport via the Osaka Loop Line.

Umeda Station (Hankyu, Hanshin, and Osaka Metro Midosuji Line), Nishi-Umeda Station (Subway Yotsubashi Line) and Higashi-Umeda Station (Subway Tanimachi Line) are directly connected to Ōsaka Station, and Kitashinchi Station on the JR Tozai Line is within walking distance.

Ōsaka Station and Umeda Station, effectively part of the same complex, together constitute the busiest station in Western Japan, serving 2,343,727 passengers daily in 2005, and the fourth-busiest railway station in the world.

Ōsaka Station also houses a large terminal for overnight bus services to other cities in Japan, and until March 2013 also had a nearby freight terminal complex, Umeda Freight Terminal, owned by JR Freight.

Station layout

Ōsaka station is elevated above street level, on the second floor of the station complex. There are four concourses, corresponding to four sets of ticket gates: the Midosuji gates, serving as a transfer point to Hankyu and Subway Umeda Station and Higashi-Umeda Station; the Central gates, with access to Daimaru, Lucua, Yodobashi Camera, Umeda Sky Building, Grand Front and transfers to Hanshin Umeda and JR Kitashinchi Station; the Sakurabashi gates, with access to Ōsaka Garden City and transfers to Subway Nishi-Umeda Station, city bus, hotel shuttle buses and taxi; and the Bridge Gates, with direct access into Daimaru and Lucua, as well as a bridge passage to Hankyu Umeda. The Midosuji concourse is on the lower level, with escalators and elevators leading directly to platforms; the Central concourse has both direct escalators and a mezzanine-level transfer passage connected by stairs; the Sakurabashi concourse has gates on ground level but is primarily on the mezzanine level, connected to the central concourse by a corridor; and the Bridge Gate is on the third level above the platforms, and connected by escalators and elevators. An additional concourse is planned for the west side of the station, which will link the elevated platforms with the under-construction underground platforms to the northwest of the main station.

Platforms and tracks are on the second floor. There were previously six island platforms and one side platform serving 13 tracks; the highest-numbered track was Track 11, as the Osaka Loop Line tracks were referred to as "Inner Loop" and "Outer Loop" only. In preparation for the construction of the new north building, the sixth platform was closed and the seventh was removed altogether; at the same time, the remaining platforms were renumbered so that Tracks 1 and 2 were for the Ōsaka Loop Line, and so on. The sixth platform reopened on 20 December 2009 and there became five island platforms and a side platform serving 11 tracks in total (up to the new Track 11—the old Track 9). The remainder of the old Track 11 platform, on the west side of the station, was used as a pedestrian walkway linking the North Gate Building with its parking garage until 2020, when it was removed to facilitate construction of a new West Gate Building. There was originally a through track in between tracks 8 and 9, but it had been long disused; during the closure of Track 11, the platform for Tracks 9 and 10 was expanded and this track was used temporarily as Track 9. Since 12 October 2010, this track has been used permanently as Track 8 after the widening of the adjoining platform.

An additional four tracks are located under the northwest side of the station complex. Opened for service on 18 March 2023, these tracks serve the western terminus of the Osaka Higashi Line, as well as Haruka and Kuroshio limited express services.

Limited express trains

 * for the Hokuriku Line
 * Limited express Thunderbird (Osaka - Tsuruga)
 * for the Tokaido Line and the Takayama Line
 * Sleeper limited express Sunrise Izumo/Sunrise Seto (Takamatsu/Izumoshi → Tokyo) - Tokyo-bound train only
 * Limited express Hida (Osaka - Takayama)
 * Commuter limited express Biwako Express (Osaka - Kusatsu, Maibara)

for the Sanyo Line

 * Commuter limited express Rakuraku Harima (Osaka - Himeji)

 * for the San'in region
 * Limited express Super Hakuto (Kyoto - Tottori, Kurayoshi) via the Chizu Express Chizu Line
 * Limited express Hamakaze (Osaka - Kasumi, Hamasaka, Tottori) via the Bantan Line
 * for the north area of the Kansai region via the Fukuchiyama Line
 * Limited express Kounotori (Shin-Osaka - Fukuchiyama, Toyooka, Kinosaki-Onsen)

for the Kansai Airport Line via the Osaka Loop Line and the Hanwa Line

 * Limited express Haruka (Yasu - Kyoto - Shin-Osaka - Osaka - Tennoji - Kansai Airport)

for the Kisei Main Line via the Osaka Loop Line and the Hanwa Line

 * Limited express Kuroshio (Kyoto - Shin-Osaka - Osaka - Tennoji - Wakayama - Shirahama - Kushimoto - Shingu)

History
Osaka Station opened on 11 May 1874, as one of the first railway stations in the Kansai region when the railway between Osaka and Kobe started operation. It was electrified along with the Tōkaidō Main Line in 1934.

The existence of the station naturally made the area the primary transport hub of the city. Railways that set Ōsaka Station as the terminal or built their terminal around Osaka Station include Osaka Railway (present-day east half of the Osaka Loop Line) in 1895, Nishinari Railway (west half of the Osaka Loop Line) in 1898, Hanshin Electric Railway in 1906, Minoo Arima Electric Tramway (Hankyu Railway) in 1910, and Osaka Municipal Subway in 1933. The regional railways tended to name their stations Umeda, the name of the area, rather than the city name.

The air raids in World War II flattened the blocks in front of the station. Immediately after the war, the area turned into a huge black market, the atmosphere of which remained until redevelopment in the 1970s.

The station building was rebuilt in 1901, 1940, and 1979 (north building). In 1983, a high-rise building, Acty Osaka, which housed a department store and a hotel, was added to the south of the station.

A new north station building (the North Gate Building) was opened in 2011, coinciding with an expansion of Acty Osaka (now the South Gate Building) and major renovation of the station areas with a new concourse and north–south connection. This is the first step in a larger drive to redevelop the land used by JR Freight's Umeda Terminal, which is seen as the last undeveloped piece of real estate in the area. Plans also call for moving the Umeda Freight Line underground and establishing a terminal for the Osaka Higashi Line just north of ALBi, with an eye towards a future extension to JR Namba Station (thus alleviating delays on the Osaka Loop Line caused by Limited Express trains). The relocation of the former Umeda Freight line (and related redevelopments) ultimately became part of the Naniwasuji Line project in 2019.

Station numbering was introduced in March 2018 with the Tokaido Line platforms being assigned station number JR-A47, the Fukuchiyama Line platforms being assigned station number JR-G48, and the Osaka Loop Line platforms being assigned station number JR-O11.

The new underground facilities at Osaka Station (nicknamed Ume-kita during planning and construction) opened for service from the start of the revised timetable on 18 March 2023. In preparation for the opening, all limited express trains running on the Umeda Freight Line were re-routed through the new underground tracks in February 2023.

Future expansion
A new line called the Naniwasuji Line is planned to be opened by 2031 and will route trains under the Naniwasuji corridor to JR Namba Station and further south. To prepare for the opening of the line, an additional two underground platforms serving four tracks opened for service on the northwest side of the station on 18 March 2023. The next phase of the Naniwasuji Line is to construct the underground tracks south to JR Namba Station and the Nankai Main Line.

Surrounding area

 * Osaka Station City
 * South Gate Building
 * Daimaru Umeda
 * Pokémon Center Osaka
 * Nintendo Osaka
 * Hands
 * Hotel Granvia Osaka
 * North Gate Building
 * Lucua (shopping mall)
 * Lucua 1100 (shopping mall, successor of Osaka Mitsukoshi-Isetan Department Store)
 * Osaka Station City Cinema
 * Itochu
 * JR Expressway bus terminal
 * eki marche (restaurants and fashion stores)
 * ALBi (outdoor shops and fashion stores)
 * Umesan-koji (restaurants)

North side

 * Hankyu bus stop (for Kashima-ekimae and Nishikawa via Oyodo-minami Itchome and Juso)
 * Hankyu San-bangai
 * San-bangai Expressway bus terminal
 * Hotel New Hankyu Osaka
 * Airport shuttle bus terminal for Kansai International Airport and Osaka International Airport
 * Grand Front Osaka
 * InterContinental Osaka
 * Yodobashi Camera
 * Links Umeda
 * Hotel Hankyu Respire Osaka
 * Shin Umeda City
 * Umeda Sky Building
 * The Westin Osaka
 * Chayamachi district
 * NU Chayamachi
 * Mainichi Broadcasting System
 * Umeda Arts Theater
 * Loft
 * Umekita Gardens

South side

 * Osaka city bus terminal (Osaka-ekimae)
 * Hankyu Department Store, Hanshin Department Store (Both owned by Hankyu Hanshin Department Stores, Inc.)
 * Hankyu bus stop (for Hinodecho (Hankyu Bus Co.), Kozushima, Hankyu Sonoda and Toyonaka via Juso)
 * Umeda DT Tower
 * Osaka Ekimae Buildings
 * Osaka Central Post Office (in Osaka Ekimae Dai-Ichi Building)
 * Osaka Marubiru Building
 * Airport shuttle bus terminal for Osaka International Airport
 * Hilton Osaka (Plaza East)
 * Osaka Garden City
 * Hilton Osaka (Plaza West)
 * Ritz-Carlton Osaka
 * Herbis Osaka
 * Airport shuttle bus for Kansai International Airport and Osaka International Airport
 * Herbis Ent
 * Osaka Shiki Theatre
 * Billboard live Osaka
 * Mainichi Shimbun
 * HEP Five

title: Ōsaka Station