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Jiang Wei

Jiang Wei (202 – 3 March 264), courtesy name Boyue, was a Chinese military general and politician of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period of China. Born in Ji County (present-day Gangu County, Gansu), Jiang Wei started his career as a military officer in his native Tianshui Commandery, which was a territory of Wei. In 228, when Wei's rival state Shu launched an invasion led by Zhuge Liang, Jiang Wei was distrusted by Ma Zun, then administrator of Tianshui Commandery. As such, Jiang Wei had to defect to Shu. Zhuge Liang, the Imperial Chancellor and regent of Shu, highly regarded Jiang Wei and appointed him as a general in Shu. After Zhuge Liang's death in 234, Jiang Wei continued serving as a military commander during the regencies Jiang Wan and Fei Yi, eventually rising to the highest military rank of General-In-Chief (大將軍) after Fei Yi's death in 253. Between 240 and 262, he continued Zhuge Liang's legacy of waging war against Wei by leading another 11 military campaigns. However, Jiang Wei's campaigns were relatively constrained in terms of both scale and duration due to Shu's limited resources and inadequate food supplies, as well as internal political faultlines. In 263, when Wei launched a massive invasion of Shu, Jiang Wei led Shu forces to resist the invaders at Tazhong, Yinping and Jiange, himself defending Jiange which was under Zhong Hui's attack. While Jiang Wei managed to temporarily stall Wei's main force led by Zhong Hui, Deng Ai, another military commander of Wei, took a shortcut via Yinping and showed up at Chengdu unexpectedly. Liu Shan surrendered to Deng Ai without putting up resistance and ordered Jiang Wei to surrender to the Wei general Zhong Hui; this event marked the end of Shu's existence. In the following year, Jiang Wei instigated Zhong Hui to launch a rebellion in Chengdu against the Wei regent Sima Zhao and hoped to use the opportunity to gain military power and restore Shu. However, some of Zhong Hui's officers were unwilling to participate in the rebellion and started a mutiny, killing Jiang Wei and Zhong Hui.

Family background
Jiang Wei was from Ji County (冀縣/兾縣), Tianshui Commandery (天水郡), which is present-day Gangu County, Gansu. As his father died early, Jiang Wei grew up with his mother and was known for his interest in the writings of the Confucian scholar Zheng Xuan.

The Fu Zi recorded that Jiang Wei was a fame-seeking person with great ambitions. He also secretly raised a private militia.

Early career in Wei
Jiang Wei began his career in his native Tianshui Commandery, which was a territory of the state of Wei during the Three Kingdoms period. He started out as a clerk in charge of records and later became an assistant officer under the commandery administrator. After considering that his father died in service, the Wei government commissioned Jiang Wei as a zhonglang (中郎) and allowed him to participate in military affairs in Tianshui Commandery.

Sanguozhi account
In the spring of 228, Zhuge Liang, the Imperial Chancellor and regent of Wei's rival state Shu, launched the first of a series of military campaigns against Wei. He occupied Mount Qi (祁山; the mountainous regions around present-day Li County, Gansu) and deployed his troops there in orderly formations. Three Wei-controlled commanderies – Nan'an (南安; around present-day Longxi County, Gansu), Tianshui and Anding (安定; around present-day Zhenyuan County, Gansu) – responded to the invasion by defecting to the Shu side.

Jiang Wei's biography in the Sanguozhi recorded that at the time, Jiang Wei and his colleagues Liang Xu, Yin Shang and Liang Qian were out on an inspection tour with Ma Zun (馬遵), the Administrator of Tianshui Commandery. When Ma Zun learnt of the Shu invasion and heard that many counties in Tianshui Commandery had defected to the enemy, he suspected that Jiang Wei and the others were going to betray him so he fled overnight and took shelter in Shanggui County (上邽縣; within present-day Tianshui, Gansu).

By the time Jiang Wei and his colleagues realised that Ma Zun had abandoned them and fled on his own, they attempted to catch up with him but it was too late. They were denied entry when they showed up at Shanggui County, so Jiang Wei led them to his home county, Ji County (冀縣/兾縣; present-day Gangu County, Gansu). However, the official in charge of Ji County also refused to allow them to enter. Faced with no other choice, Jiang Wei and his colleagues surrendered and defected to Shu.

Alternative account in the Weilüe
The Weilüe recorded a different account of Jiang Wei's defection from Wei to Shu.

At the time of the Shu invasion, Ma Zun and his subordinates (including Jiang Wei) were on an inspection tour with the Wei general Guo Huai when they received news that Zhuge Liang and the Shu army had occupied Mount Qi. After telling Ma Zun that Zhuge Liang was "up to no good", Guo Huai wanted to quickly head back to Shanggui County in the east of Tianshui Commandery. Even though his headquarters was at Ji County in the west, Ma Zun did not want to go back because he feared that there would be unrest in Ji County in light of the Shu invasion. He decided to join Guo Huai and move to Shanggui County instead.

When Jiang Wei urged Ma Zun to return to Ji County, the latter told him and the others: "If you go back, then you will become my enemy." Jiang Wei ignored Ma Zun because he was worried about the safety of his family in Ji County, so he parted ways with Ma Zun and returned to Ji County with his colleague Shangguan Zixiu (上官子脩) and others.

When Jiang Wei returned to Ji County, the people welcomed him back and insisted that he meet Zhuge Liang. Jiang Wei and Shangguan Zixiu relented and went to see Zhuge Liang, who was delighted to meet them. By the time Jiang Wei wanted to go back to Ji County to fetch his family members (mother, wife and child(ren)), Wei forces under Zhang He and Fei Yao had defeated the Shu vanguard at the Battle of Jieting. Unable to return to Ji County and left with no other option, Jiang Wei decided to defect to Shu and follow Zhuge Liang. After Wei forces recaptured Ji County, they took Jiang Wei's family members captive but did not execute them because they knew that Jiang Wei did not originally intend to defect to the enemy. Jiang Wei's family members thus spent the rest of their lives in prison.

During Zhuge Liang's regency
After returning to Hanzhong Commandery, Zhuge Liang appointed Jiang Wei as an Assistant official in charge of food supplies (倉曹掾). Later, Jiang Wei was commissioned as General Who Upholds Righteousness (奉義將軍) and enfeoffed as the Marquis of Dangyang Village (當陽亭侯).

Jiang Wei was subsequently promoted to the rank of General Who Attacks the West (征西將軍) and given the appointment of Central Army Supervisor (中監軍).

During Jiang Wan's regency
Following Zhuge Liang's death at the Battle of Wuzhang Plains in the autumn of 234, Jiang Wei returned to the Shu capital Chengdu and was reassigned to serve as Right Army Supervisor (右監軍) with the rank of General Who Assists Han (輔漢將軍). He was put in command of Chengdu's armed forces and promoted from a village marquis to a county marquis under the title "Marquis of Pingxiang" (平襄侯).

In 238, Jiang Wei accompanied the Shu regent Jiang Wan to Hanzhong Commandery near the Wei–Shu border. After Jiang Wan was appointed Grand Marshal (大司馬) in April or May 239, he appointed Jiang Wei as a Major (司馬) under him. He also put Jiang Wei in charge of a separate force to make incursions into Wei territory.

First Northern Expedition
In 240, Jiang Wei led Shu forces to attack the Wei-controlled Longxi Commandery but was driven back by Wei forces under Guo Huai's command.

Three years later, Jiang Wei was promoted to the rank of Senior General Who Guards the West (鎮西大將軍) and appointed as the nominal Inspector of Liang Province (涼州刺史).

During Fei Yi's regency
Following Jiang Wan's death in 246, Fei Yi became the regent of Shu.

A year later, Jiang Wei was promoted to General of the Guards (衞將軍). He also shared power with Fei Yi by jointly holding the office of Manager of the Affairs of the Masters of Writing (錄尚書事) with him.

In the same year, Jiang Wei suppressed a rebellion in Pingkang County (平康縣; southwest of present-day Songpan County, Sichuan).

Second Northern Expedition
In 247, the Qiang tribes started a rebellion against Wei in four commanderies in Yong and Liang provinces, and called for support from Shu. Baihuwen (白虎文) and Zhiwudai (治無戴), two tribal kings in Liang Province, responded by rebelling against Wei. When Jiang Wei led Shu forces into Liang Province to support the Qiang rebels, Baihuwen and Zhiwudai led their forces to join him.

In response, the Wei government sent Xiahou Ba and Guo Huai to lead troops to suppress the rebellion and repel the Shu invasion. Jiang Wei attacked Xiahou Ba's position at the west of the Tao River but retreated back to Shu when Wei reinforcements led by Guo Huai showed up.

Third Northern Expedition
In 248, Jiang Wei led Shu forces from Shiying (石營; northwest of present-day Xihe County, Gansu) to Qiangchuan (彊川; west of present-day Lintan County, Gansu) to rendezvous with the tribal king Zhiwudai (治無戴), who had recently been defeated by the Wei general Guo Huai at Longyi County (龍夷縣; west of present-day Huangyuan County, Qinghai) He left his subordinate Liao Hua behind to guard the fortress at Chengzhong Mountain (成重山; located west of present-day Lintao County, Gansu).

Guo Huai split his army into two groups with the aim of preventing Jiang Wei from meeting up and combining forces with Zhiwudai. He led one group to attack Liao Hua at Chengzhong Mountain to force Jiang Wei to turn back to save Liao Hua. At the same time, he ordered his subordinate Xiahou Ba to attack Jiang Wei and push him back towards Tazhong (沓中; northwest of present-day Zhugqu County, Gansu). Guo Huai's plan succeeded as Jiang Wei turned back to save Liao Hua when he learnt that Chengzhong Mountain was under attack. In doing so, he failed to meet up with Zhiwudai and eventually retreated back to Shu.

Fourth Northern Expedition
In the autumn of 249, after he was granted acting imperial authority by the Shu emperor Liu Shan, Jiang Wei led Shu forces to attack the Wei-controlled Yong Province and gained support from the Qiang tribes. He had two fortresses constructed at Qushan (麴山; southeast of present-day Min County, Gansu).

In response to the Shu invasion, the Wei general Guo Huai ordered his subordinates Chen Tai, Xu Zhi and Deng Ai to besiege the two fortresses and cut off their supply routes.

When Jiang Wei led troops from Mount Niutou (牛頭山; west of present-day Zhaohua District, Guangyuan, Sichuan) to reinforce the two fortresses, Chen Tai led a Wei army to block his path. At the same time, Chen Tai sought help from Guo Huai, who led his troops across the Tao River to attack Jiang Wei's base at Mount Niutou. Jiang Wei became fearful so he pulled back all his troops and abandoned the two fortresses.

Three days after his apparent retreat, Jiang Wei sent Liao Hua to lead a small force to distract Deng Ai at Baishui (白水; in present-day Qingchuan County, Sichuan) while he led the main army to attack Taocheng (洮城; northeast of present-day Min County, Gansu). Deng Ai saw through Jiang Wei's ruse and immediately dispatched reinforcements to Taocheng. Jiang Wei failed to capture Taocheng as Deng Ai had already strengthened its defences so he withdrew all his troops and returned to Shu.

Fifth expedition (250)
In 250, Jiang Wei led Shu forces to attack the Wei-controlled Xiping Commandery (西平郡; around present-day Xining, Qinghai). He retreated after failing to capture Xiping.

Fei Yi's opposition to Jiang Wei's hawkish stance
Jiang Wei believed that he was familiar with the culture of the Qiang and other non-Han Chinese tribes in western China, and had great confidence in his skills as a military leader. He often boasted that he could easily conquer the Wei-controlled lands in present-day Gansu if he had the support of the Qiang and non-Han Chinese tribes living in the region.

Fei Yi, however, disapproved of Jiang Wei's hawkish stance and warmongering behaviour towards Wei, and attempted to rein him in by limiting the number of troops he led into battle each time to no more than 10,000.

The Han Jin Chunqiu (漢晉春秋) recorded that Fei Yi once told Jiang Wei: "We aren’t as brilliant as the Imperial Chancellor. If even he can't stabilise the Empire, what makes you think we can do it? Wouldn't it be better to defend our state, govern our people well, respect and safeguard his legacy, and pass it on to future generations? Stop your wishful thinking that you can achieve victory in one fell swoop. If you fail, it will be too late for regrets."

Fei Yi's assassination
On 16 February 253, Fei Yi was assassinated during a party on the first day of the Chinese New Year. The assassin, Guo Xiu (郭脩), was a Wei civilian captured in battle by Jiang Wei. After reluctantly surrendering to Shu, he attempted to assassinate Liu Shan but failed to get close to the emperor so he switched his target to Fei Yi and succeeded. Fei Yi's death allowed Jiang Wei to gain greater control over the Shu military and continue waging war against Wei.

Sixth Northern Expedition
In the summer of 253, Jiang Wei led tens of thousands of Shu troops from Shiying (石營; northwest of present-day Xihe County, Gansu) to besiege Didao (狄道; around present-day Lintao County, Gansu). In response to the Shu invasion, the Wei regent Sima Shi ordered his generals Guo Huai and Chen Tai to lead the Wei forces stationed in the Guanzhong region to attack the invaders and lift the siege on Didao. Chen Tai attacked the Shu forces at Luomen (洛門; in present-day Wushan County, Gansu) and defeated them. Jiang Wei eventually withdrew all his forces and retreated back to Shu when they ran out of food supplies.

Seventh Northern Expedition
In the summer of 254, after the Shu government granted him authority to oversee internal and external military affairs, Jiang Wei led Shu forces to attack the Wei-controlled Longxi Commandery again. Li Jian (李簡), the Wei official in charge of Didao (狄道; around present-day Lintao County, Gansu), surrendered to Jiang Wei. Jiang Wei then pressed further to attack Xiangwu County (襄武縣; southeast of present-day Longxi County, Gansu) and engaged the Wei general Xu Zhi in battle. Xu Zhi was defeated and killed, but the Shu army also lost a general, Zhang Ni. The victorious Shu forces then occupied three counties – Didao, Heguan (河關; in the vicinity of present-day Dingxi, Gansu) and Lintao – and forced the residents to relocate to Shu-controlled territory.

Eighth Northern Expedition
In 255, despite strong objection from a fellow Shu general Zhang Yi, Jiang Wei went ahead with another campaign against Wei and even brought along Zhang Yi as his deputy. As the massive Shu army prepared to attack Didao (狄道; present-day Lintao County, Gansu), Wang Jing, the Wei governor of Yong Province, sought help from the Wei general Chen Tai.

After suffering a disastrous defeat against Shu forces at the west bank of the Tao River, Wang Jing and his remaining men retreated to Didao and took shelter inside the fortress. When Jiang Wei wanted to take advantage of the momentum to press on and besiege Didao, Zhang Yi advised him to stop advancing further because they would risk losing everything they had gained so far. Jiang Wei ignored him and ordered his forces to surround Didao.

In the meantime, Chen Tai, Deng Ai, Sima Fu and other Wei officers led reinforcements to Didao to save Wang Jing. Chen Tai led his troops to the hills southeast of Didao, where they lit more fires and beat their war drums loudly to let the Wei forces in Didao know that reinforcements were on the way. As a result, the Wei forces in Didao experienced a surge in morale, and the Shu forces were taken by surprise. At the same time, Chen Tai also spread false news that they were planning to cut off the Shu army's retreat route. When Jiang Wei heard about it, he became fearful so on 11 November 255 he withdrew all the Shu forces and retreated to Zhongti (鐘堤; south of present-day Lintao County, Gansu).

Ninth Northern Expedition
In the spring of 256, the Shu emperor Liu Shan promoted Jiang Wei to the position of General-in-Chief (大將軍). In autumn, Jiang Wei led Shu forces from Zhongti (鐘堤; south of present-day Lintao County, Gansu) to conquer Mount Qi (祁山; the mountainous regions around present-day Li County, Gansu) but failed because the Wei general Deng Ai had anticipated the attack and already set up strong defences. Jiang Wei then attacked Deng Ai at Mount Wucheng (武城山; in present-day Chencang District, Baoji, Shaanxi) but was driven back. Later, he led his troops across the Wei River to launch a coordinated strike on Shanggui County (上邽縣; in present-day Tianshui, Gansu) with another Shu force led by Hu Ji. However, Hu Ji failed to show up in time so Jiang Wei came under attack by Deng Ai and his army sustained heavy casualties.

As the Northern Expeditions took a huge toll on Shu's population and resources, the people increasingly resented Jiang Wei for his warmongering behaviour. In order to appease public anger, Jiang Wei wrote a memorial to the Shu imperial court to take full responsibility for the failure of the ninth Northern Expedition and requested to be demoted as punishment. Liu Shan approved Jiang Wei's request and demoted him to the position of General of the Rear (後將軍) but allowed him to remain as acting General-in-Chief (大將軍).

Tenth Northern Expedition
In 257, when the Wei general Zhuge Dan started a rebellion in Shouchun (壽春; present-day Shou County, Anhui), Jiang Wei decided to take advantage of the situation to stage another invasion of Wei. He led Shu forces to attack the Wei garrisons near the Great Wall which were well-stocked with supplies but poorly defended. The Wei forces stationed there started panicking when they heard of the Shu army's approach.

The Wei generals Sima Wang and Deng Ai led separate armies to the Great Wall to resist the Shu invaders. Jiang Wei then retreated to Mangshui (芒水; southeast of present-day Zhouzhi County, Shaanxi) and set up a camp there with its back facing a mountain. When the Wei forces encircled his position, Jiang Wei tried to taunt them to attack his camp but Sima Wang and Deng Ai ordered their troops to ignore the enemy and refrain from attacking.

In 258, after Jiang Wei received news that Wei forces had suppressed Zhuge Dan's rebellion, he withdrew his troops and returned to the Shu capital Chengdu. The Shu emperor Liu Shan restored him to the position of General-in-Chief (大將軍).

At the time, having seen year after year of battles against Wei, the people of Shu were growing tired of having to endure the costs and effects of war. The Shu official Qiao Zhou also wrote the "Chou Guo Lun" (仇國論; "Disquisition on Rivalling States"), a satirical piece criticising Jiang Wei for his warmongering behaviour.

Eleventh Northern Expedition
In the winter of 262, Jiang Wei led Shu forces to occupy Taoyang County (洮陽縣; in present-day Lintao County, Gansu) and attack Wei forces led by Deng Ai at Houhe County (侯和縣) but they lost the battle. He retreated to Tazhong (沓中; northwest of present-day Zhugqu County, Gansu) and garrisoned there.

Huang Hao's rise to power
Jiang Wei knew that given his background as a defector from Wei, he had to prove his loyalty to Shu so he was eager to gain glory in battle. However, despite leading eleven campaigns against Wei, he had not made any significant achievements. While he was away at the frontline, the palace eunuch Huang Hao, whom the emperor Liu Shan favoured, gradually gained power in the Shu government and dominated the political scene. Huang Hao had a close partnership with the Shu general Yan Yu (閻宇) and he considered replacing Jiang Wei with Yan Yu as General-in-Chief. Jiang Wei had long suspected that Huang Hao had something against him so he remained in Tazhong (沓中; northwest of present-day Zhugqu County, Gansu) and did not return to Chengdu after the eleventh Northern Expedition.

The Chronicles of Huayang recorded that Jiang Wei hated Huang Hao for his power-grabbing behaviour and once advised Liu Shan to execute the eunuch. However, Liu Shan refused and said: "Huang Hao is but a servant running errands for me. In the past, I was annoyed by Dong Yun's deep hatred of him. Sir, why do you need to take this so personally?" Jiang Wei soon realised that he had a mistake in advising Liu Shan to execute Huang Hao because Huang Hao had strong influence in the Shu government, so he quickly excused himself and left. Liu Shan later instructed Huang Hao to visit Jiang Wei and apologise to him. Jiang Wei also managed to convince Huang Hao to let him remain in Tazhong to oversee agricultural production. His true intention, however, was to avoid getting caught up in a power struggle with Huang Hao in Chengdu.

Jiang Wei's early warnings
In 263, Jiang Wei wrote a memorial to Liu Shan as follows: "'I heard that Zhong Hui has been mobilising troops in Guanzhong and appears to be preparing to launch an invasion. As a precautionary measure, I think we should send Zhang Yi and Liao Hua to lead our forces to guard Yang'an Pass and the bridge at Yinping.'"

Huang Hao believed fortune-tellers' prediction that Wei would not invade Shu, so he advised Liu Shan to ignore Jiang Wei's memorial and not put it up for discussion in the imperial court.

From Tazhong to Yinping
Around August or September 263, the Wei regent Sima Zhao ordered Zhong Hui, Deng Ai and Zhuge Xu to lead Wei forces to invade Shu from three different directions. When Zhong Hui reached Luo Valley (駱谷; southwest of present-day Zhouzhi County, Shaanxi) and Deng Ai attacked Tazhong (沓中; northwest of present-day Zhugqu County, Gansu), the Shu government ordered Liao Hua to lead reinforcements to support Jiang Wei at Tazhong. At the same time, they also sent Zhang Yi, Dong Jue and other Shu officers to lead troops to guard Yang'an Pass (陽安關; in present-day Ningqiang County, Shaanxi) and assist the Shu forces on the external perimeter.

When the Shu reinforcements reached Yinping (陰平; present-day Wen County, Gansu), they heard that Zhuge Xu was attacking Jianwei (建威; northeast of present-day Wudu District, Longnan, Gansu), so they stopped in their tracks at Yinping. After about a month, Deng Ai defeated Jiang Wei and occupied Tazhong, so Jiang Wei retreated to Yinping.

At the same time, Zhong Hui besieged Hancheng (漢城; present-day Mian County, Shaanxi) and Lecheng (樂城; present-day Chenggu County, Shaanxi) counties, and sent his subordinates to attack Yang'an Pass. The Shu officer Jiang Shu (蔣舒) opened up the pass and surrendered to the enemy, while his colleague Fu Qian died trying to defend the pass. After failing to take Lecheng County, Zhong Hui gave up and advanced towards Yang'an Pass when he learnt that his subordinates had captured the pass.

Defence of Jiange
By the time Zhang Yi and Dong Jue reached Hanshou County (漢壽縣; northeast of present-day Jiange County, Sichuan), Jiang Wei and Liao Hua had decided to abandon their position at Yinping and rendezvous with Zhang Yi and Dong Jue at the mountain pass Jiange, where they resisted attacks by Zhong Hui.

At one point, Zhong Hui wrote to Jiang Wei: "Sir, you are skilled in both civil and military affairs. You are exceptionally brilliant in strategy and your achievements are well-known throughout the Bashu region and the rest of the Empire. People from near and afar admire you. Every time I reflect on history, I hope that we can serve the same dynasty. Our relationship is like the friendship between Jizha and Zichan."

Jiang Wei did not reply Zhong Hui and he ordered his troops to strengthen their defences at Jiange. After failing to breach the mountain pass and with his army's food supplies running low, Zhong Hui considered pulling back all his troops and retreating.

Shu surrender
In the meantime, Deng Ai and his troops took a shortcut from Yinping through mountainous terrain and showed up at Mianzhu, where they defeated the Shu defenders led by Zhuge Zhan. After taking Mianzhu, Deng Ai advanced further and approached Chengdu, the Shu capital. In late November or December 263, Liu Shan decided to surrender to Deng Ai, thus bringing an end to the existence of Shu.

When Jiang Wei first heard that Mianzhu had fallen, he also received confusing information about the situation in Chengdu. Some said that Liu Shan wanted to remain in Chengdu and defend the city, while others claimed that the Shu emperor was going to abandon Chengdu and flee south to Jianning Commandery (建寧郡; covering parts of present-day Yunnan and Guizhou). Jiang Wei thus prepared to abandon Jiange and lead his troops to Qi County (郪縣; present-day Santai County, Sichuan), which was nearer to Chengdu, to verify the truth.

Just then, Jiang Wei and his troops received orders from Chengdu to lay down their arms and surrender to Zhong Hui at Fu County (涪縣; present-day Mianyang, Sichuan). Many Shu soldiers felt so shocked and angry when they heard of their emperor's surrender that they drew their swords and slashed at rocks to vent their frustration. When Zhong Hui finally met Jiang Wei, he asked him: "Why are you late?" With a solemn expression on his face and tears streaming down his cheeks, Jiang Wei replied: "Our meeting today came too early." Zhong Hui was impressed by Jiang Wei's response.

Instigating Zhong Hui to rebel against Wei
Zhong Hui treated Jiang Wei well and returned him his tallies and other insignia. They travelled in the same carriage and sat at the same table during meals. Zhong Hui also told his chief clerk Du Yu: "Famous people from the Central Plains like Gongxiu and Taichu can't be compared to Boyue."

Jiang Wei sensed that Zhong Hui had the intention of rebelling against Wei and sought to exploit this opportunity to stage an uprising and restore Shu. He told Zhong Hui: "'I heard that you have been very detailed and comprehensive in your planning since you got involved in Huainan. You have never miscalculated before. It was because of your help that Sima Zhao became the Duke of Jin and gained control over the Wei government. Now that you have vanquished Shu, your fame spreads throughout the Empire and the people sing praises of you. Wouldn't Sima Zhao feel worried that your glory will outshine his? Are you willing to live in seclusion for the rest of your life to avoid bringing disaster upon yourself? In the past, Han Xin didn't betray the Han dynasty but the emperor still doubted his loyalty. Wen Zhong didn't heed Fan Li's advice to retire and ended up being forced to commit suicide. Were they muddleheaded rulers and foolish subjects? They weren't. They were forced to do what they had to because of power politics. Now that you have made a great achievement and earned everlasting fame, why don't you follow in the footsteps of Fan Li and go into retirement to save yourself? You can then tour the peak of Mount Emei or travel around the world like Chisongzi.'"

Zhong Hui replied: "What you just said is so far-off. I can't do this. Besides, given my current situation, there isn't a need for me to do this."

Jiang Wei then said: "'I only suggested that you go into retirement. I am sure that given your intelligence, you can think of other options and carry them out. You don't need an old man like me to get longwinded on this.'"

They became even closer friends after this.

Death
Zhong Hui then framed his fellow Wei general Deng Ai for plotting a rebellion and had him arrested and sent back to the Wei capital Luoyang as a prisoner. With Deng Ai gone, Zhong Hui had control over Chengdu and the former Shu territories. In March 264, he started a revolt against the Wei regent Sima Zhao and declared himself the Governor of Yi Province (益州牧).

Zhong Hui wanted to put Jiang Wei in command of 50,000 troops and let him lead the vanguard force to attack Luoyang. However, around noon on 3 March 264, some Wei officers who were unwilling to participate in the rebellion started a mutiny against Zhong Hui. At the time, Jiang Wei was collecting his armour and weapons from Zhong Hui when they heard shouting and received news that a fire had broken out. Moments later, it was reported that many soldiers were crowding near the city gates. Zhong Hui was surprised and he asked Jiang Wei: "Those men are causing trouble. What should we do?" Jiang Wei replied: "Kill them."

Zhong Hui then ordered his men to kill the officers who refused to participate in the rebellion. A while later, there were reports of people climbing up the city gates on ladders and of people setting fire to buildings. Chaos broke out and arrows were fired in all directions. The mutinying officers regrouped with their men and attacked Zhong Hui and Jiang Wei. Zhong Hui and Jiang Wei fought the mutinying soldiers and slew about five or six of them, but were eventually overwhelmed and killed. The soldiers also killed Jiang Wei's wife and child(ren). The Shiyu (世語) recorded that the soldiers sliced open Jiang Wei's body when they killed him and saw that his gallbladder was one dou in size.

Alternative account from the Chronicles of Huayang
The Chronicles of Huayang recorded that Jiang Wei was only pretending to cooperate with Zhong Hui. He first instigated Zhong Hui to execute the Wei officers who were unwilling to join the rebellion, and then sought to find an opportunity to assassinate Zhong Hui. He would then lead the Shu people to kill all the Wei soldiers and restore their state. He also wrote a secret letter to Liu Shan as follows: "'I hope that Your Majesty can temporarily endure humiliation over the next few days. I am planning to overturn the situation and restore our state in the same way the Sun and Moon transition from darkness to brightness.'"

Family and descendants
Jiang Wei's father, Jiang Jiong (姜冏), served as a military officer in Tianshui Commandery and lost his life while suppressing a rebellion by the Qiang and other non-Han Chinese tribes.

Although Jiang Wei's biography in the Sanguozhi recorded that he lost contact with his mother after defecting to Shu, the Zaji (雜記) recorded that after he later received a letter from his mother asking him to return home. He wrote a reply as follows: "'One mu of land is nothing compared to a hundred qing of fertile farmland. When one's ambition lies far away, he will not want to return home.'"

A genealogy book titled Da Tang Chi Xiulie Shan Siyue Tianshuijun Jiang Xing Gu Pu Zong Shixi (大唐敕修烈山四岳天水郡姜姓古譜總世系), dating from the Tang dynasty, recorded that Jiang Wei's wife was a certain Lady Liu (柳氏).

The Tang dynasty general Jiang Baoyi (姜寶誼) and chancellor Jiang Ke (姜恪) were descendants of Jiang Wei according to the table of chancellors' family trees in the New Book of Tang.

Appraisal
In his modern Chinese edition of the 11th-century historical text Zizhi Tongjian, the Taiwan-based Chinese historian Bo Yang mentioned that Jiang Wei was a highly controversial figure in Chinese history. He cited seven writers (Xi Zheng, Sun Sheng, Chen Shou, He Zhuo, Gan Bao, Wang Mingsheng and Pei Songzhi) who held different and discordant views of Jiang Wei.

Boyang himself, however, declined to comment but later shared in an open letter to a reader that he agreed with all seven views: Jiang Wei committed a fatal error in draining Shu's resources but he was also a loyal general who was willing to sacrifice himself in a futile attempt to restore Shu.

Zhuge Liang's views
Zhuge Liang once told Zhang Yi and Jiang Wan: "'Jiang Boyue is loyal and diligent in performing his duties. He is very thorough and detailed in his thinking. After assessing his strengths and character, I think Yongnan, Jichang and the others are not as good as him. He is truly a great talent from Liang Province.'"

On another occasion, Zhuge Liang said: "'I should put him in command of 5,000 to 6,000 troops. Jiang Boyue is well-versed in military affairs. He not only demonstrates courage and righteousness, but also shows a deep understanding of warfare. This man is loyal to the Han dynasty and he is exceptionally talented. I should entrust him with greater authority in the military. I will send him to the imperial palace to meet the Emperor.'"

Xi Zheng's views
Xi Zheng, a scholar from Shu who later served as an official under the Jin dynasty, commented on Jiang Wei as follows: "'Jiang Boyue held the responsibilities of a top general and occupied a high position in the government, yet he lived in a plain-looking residence, had no other income besides his salary, had only one wife and no concubines, and had no form of entertainment. His clothes and transport were just sufficient for use; he also imposed restrictions on his meals. He was neither extravagant nor shabby. He kept his spending within the limits of his state-issued allowance. His purpose in doing so was neither to prove that he was incorruptible nor to resist temptation. He did so ungrudgingly because he felt satisfied with what he already had. Mediocre people tend to praise those who achieve success and condemn those who fail; they praise those of higher status than them, and condemn those of lower status than them. Many people hold negative views of Jiang Wei because he died in a terrible way and his entire family was killed. These people do not look beyond the superficial. They fail to grasp the true meaning of appraisal as set out in the Spring and Autumn Annals. Jiang Wei's studiousness, as well as his modesty and humility, make him a role model for his contemporaries.'"

Sun Sheng's views
The Jin dynasty historian Sun Sheng responded to Xi Zheng's comments on Jiang Wei as follows: "'I disagree with Xi Zheng's view. Although scholar-officials may take different paths and have different goals, they should live by the four fundamental values of loyalty, filial piety, righteousness and integrity. Jiang Wei was originally from Wei yet he defected to Shu and betrayed his ruler for personal gain. Therefore, he was disloyal. He abandoned his family to lead a meaningless life. Therefore, he was unfilial. He also turned against his native state. Therefore, he was unrighteous. He lost battles but chose to live on. Therefore, he had no integrity. When he was in power, he failed to establish himself as a virtuous leader and instead brought untold suffering to the people by forcing them into a prolonged war to boost his personal glory. Although he was responsible for defending his state, he ended up provoking the enemy and lost his state. Therefore, he was neither wise nor courageous. Jiang Wei possessed not a single one of these six values. In reality, Jiang Wei was nothing more than a traitor to Wei and an incompetent head of government to Shu, yet Xi Zheng said he was worthy of serving as a role model. How absurd is that. Even though Jiang Wei may be studious, that is just a good habit rather than a praiseworthy virtue. That is no different from a robber taking his due share of the loot, and no different from Cheng Zheng pretending to be humble.'"

In his Jin Yang Qiu (晉陽秋), Sun Sheng also wrote: "'During the early Yonghe era, when I accompanied General Huan Wen on a campaign against the Cheng Han state, I spoke to many Shu locals about Jiang Wei. They told me: 'After Jiang Wei surrendered, he wrote a secret letter to Liu Shan saying that he was going to pretend to serve under Zhong Hui and wait for an opportunity to assassinate him and restore Shu. However, due to unforeseen circumstances, his plan failed and he lost his life. The people still mourn him today.' I have a different view. The ancients said: 'If one puts himself through difficulty when he shouldn't, his reputation will suffer. When one takes possession of things he shouldn't, his life will be in danger. When one's reputation suffers and his life is in danger, it won't be long before he meets his end.' This is a very befitting description of Jiang Wei. When Deng Ai entered Jiangyou, he had very few troops with him, yet Jiang Wei could neither stop him at Mianzhu nor lead the five Shu generals to protect their emperor. In order to implement their plan for the future, they alternated between good and bad timings, and hoped for success when their chances were so low. Given that his state was already so weak, he still constantly waged war in Guanzhong. After his state fell, he still hoped to exploit an opportunity that depended on external circumstances. How foolish he was!'"

Chen Shou's views
Chen Shou, the Jin dynasty historian who wrote Jiang Wei's biography in the Sanguozhi, appraised Jiang Wei as follows: "'Jiang Wei was proficient in civil and military affairs, and he desired to attain personal glory and leave his name in history. However, he lacked foresight and good judgment when he chose a path of warmongering, and that resulted in his downfall. As Laozi once said, 'governing a state is like cooking a small dish.' Shu was a small state, so all the more he should not have continuously disturbed it.'"

He Zhuo's views
The Qing dynasty writer He Zhuo (何焯) wrote: "'A state cannot function if it lacks any of these institutions: a palace, a government, a judiciary and a military. Jiang Wei was isolated and Liu Shan was an incompetent ruler. Shu's foundation was already shaky and its government and judiciary were not functioning as well as they did in the past. In Zhuge Liang's time, the people found it easier to get over the fact that their state lost a battle; it was no longer the same when it came to Jiang Wei's time. Besides, the defeat at Shanggui was much worse than the defeat at Jieting. Jiang Wei only saw how fast his predecessor recovered from defeats, and failed to realise that he did not have a capable deputy like Fei Yi to take charge of internal affairs. That was why he never made it as far as Zhuge Liang. It was a huge pity for a person with great ambition like him.'"

Gan Bao's views
The Jin dynasty historian Gan Bao wrote: "'Jiang Wei was the head of government in Shu. It was a pity that he died during Zhong Hui's rebellion instead of dying when his state was conquered and his ruler suffered humiliation. It is not difficult to die, but it is difficult to choose how to die. When martyrs of ancient times abandoned the missions they received in times of crisis and fled, it was not because they feared death but because they knew they could not live forever and did not want to sacrifice their lives for nothing.'"

Wang Mingsheng's views
The Qing dynasty historian Wang Mingsheng (王鳴盛) wrote: "'Jiang Wei's goal was to restore the state of Shu but he failed and died in his attempt. It feels as if his noble heart is still beating today. Although Chen Shou was a former Shu subject, he was serving under the Jin dynasty (when he wrote the Sanguozhi) so he had to choose his words carefully. When he wrote about a major historical figure like Jiang Wei, he decided to censor any favourable opinion of Jiang Wei, and criticise Jiang Wei for seeking his own doom with his warmongering behaviour. How could Chen Shou not know that it was a better choice for Shu to go to war with Wei instead of waiting to be conquered by Wei? However, he could not voice this out given his status as a subject of the Jin dynasty. Even if Chen Shou agreed that Jiang Wei was wrong to have considered assassinating Zhong Hui, he would have to keep such an opinion to himself. Chen Shou thus wrote a negative appraisal of Jiang Wei in order to save himself from getting into trouble because of his writings. Jiang Wei was significant to Shu in the same way Zhang Shijie and Lu Xiufu were significant to the Southern Song dynasty."

Pei Songzhi's views
The Liu Song dynasty historian Pei Songzhi, who annotated the Sanguozhi, commented on Jiang Wei as follows: "'When Zhong Hui and his massive army attacked Jiange, Jiang Wei and his officers led their troops to put up a solid defence. When Zhong Hui wanted to retreat after failing to breach Jiange, Jiang Wei nearly gained the glory of successfully defending Shu from an invasion. However, Deng Ai took a shortcut, bypassed Jiang Wei, defeated Zhuge Zhan and conquered Chengdu. If Jiang Wei turned back to save Chengdu, Zhong Hui would attack him from the rear. Under such circumstances, how could he possibly achieve both goals? People who criticise Jiang Wei for not turning back to retake Mianzhu and save the emperor are being unreasonable. Zhong Hui later planned to execute all the Wei officers who opposed his rebellion and put Jiang Wei in command of a 50,000-strong vanguard force. If everything went according to plan, all the Wei officers would have been executed and Jiang Wei could have seized military power and killed Zhong Hui, and thus it would not have been too difficult for him to restore Shu. When great people made remarkable achievements while others least expected it, they receive praise for creating miracles. When unforeseen circumstances ruin a plan, it does not mean that the plan was a bad one to begin with. If an unforeseeable condition caused Tian Dan's 'fire cattle columns' tactic to fail, would people say that he was foolish?'"

Pei Songzhi also rebutted Sun Sheng's response to Xi Zheng's comments on Jiang Wei: "'I think that Xi Zheng only said that Jiang Wei's studiousness, modesty and humility are praiseworthy; he did not say that we should emulate Jiang Wei's career path and live by the same standards as him. When Xi Zheng said Jiang Wei was 'a good role model for his contemporaries', he was referring only to Jiang Wei's studiousness, modesty and humility. Jiang Wei's original biography and the Weilüe both recorded that he had no intention of betraying Wei and it was the circumstances that forced him to defect to Shu. Out of Sun Sheng's many criticisms of Jiang Wei, only the one that says Jiang Wei was unfilial is valid. The other criticisms are not only too extreme, but also not directly relevant to what Xi Zheng said.'"

Chang Qu's views
Chang Qu, who wrote extensively about the history of the Sichuan region in the Chronicles of Huayang (Huayang Guo Zhi), commented on Jiang Wei as follows: "'Jiang Wei's ability did not match Zhuge Liang yet he wanted to carry on his legacy. The people blamed him for their toil therefore family and country were ended.'"

Miscellaneous
The Shiyu (世語) recorded that Jiang Wei had no equal among the talented persons serving in the Shu government during his time.

In Romance of the Three Kingdoms

Jiang Wei is a major character in the later chapters of the 14th-century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, which romanticises the historical events and figures of the late Eastern Han dynasty and Three Kingdoms period of China. In the novel, he is depicted as Zhuge Liang's protégé and successor who inherits the legacy of leading Shu into war against Wei with the aim of restoring the fallen Eastern Han dynasty.

Jiang Wei first appears in Chapters 92 and 93 as a Wei military officer serving in Tianshui Commandery during Zhuge Liang's first Northern Expedition. When Zhuge Liang tries to trick Ma Zun, the Administrator of Tianshui, to lead his troops out of Tianshui to save the Wei general Xiahou Mao in Nan'an Commandery, Jiang Wei sees through Zhuge Liang's ruse and advises Ma Zun to remain in Tianshui and set a trap for the enemy. When the Shu general Zhao Yun shows up to take Tianshui, he falls into the trap and briefly duels with Jiang Wei before Shu reinforcements arrive and save him. Zhao Yun tells Zhuge Liang that he is impressed that Tianshui has such a talent like Jiang Wei. When Jiang Wei successfully repels another Shu attack, Zhuge Liang is even more impressed and eager to recruit Jiang Wei to serve in Shu. He tricks Ma Zun into believing that Jiang Wei has defected to Shu in order to prevent Jiang Wei from going back to Wei, and then springs a trap for Jiang Wei. When Jiang Wei gets cornered, he attempts suicide but Zhuge Liang stops him and manages to convince him to surrender and join Shu.

Jiang Wei accompanies Zhuge Liang on his subsequent Northern Expeditions. Chapters 107 to 115 dramatise Jiang Wei's Northern Expeditions and refer to them as Jiang Wei's "Nine Campaigns on the Central Plains" when historically there were actually eleven campaigns instead of nine. In Chapter 119, Jiang Wei instigates Zhong Hui to launch a rebellion against Wei, but their rebellion fails when some of Zhong Hui's officers start a mutiny against their superior. Cornered by the enemy, Jiang Wei sighs, "It is Heaven's will that my plan doesn't succeed!" He then commits suicide by slitting his throat.

A verse from the novel in Jiang Wei's honour reads: "天水誇英俊，涼州產異才. Tianshui boasts of heroes; Liang Province produces rare talents. 系從尚父出，術奉武侯來. He descends from Shangfu; he inherits his skills from Marquis Wu. 大膽應無懼，雄心誓不回. Courageous and fearless; stouthearted and self-sacrificing. 成都身死日，漢將有餘哀. The day he dies in Chengdu; a Han general still has sorrows."

In popular culture
Jiang Wei appears as a playable character in the video game series Dynasty Warriors and Warriors Orochi produced by Koei Tecmo. In the games, he is portrayed as a young warrior fiercely devoted to his mentor Zhuge Liang. He also appears in Koei Tecmo's Romance of the Three Kingdoms series.

Memorials and relics
A Jiang Wei Memorial Museum (姜維紀念館) was constructed in 1999 near Jiang Wei's hometown in the east of Gangu County, Tianshui, Gansu. The museum, covering an area of 360 square metres, was funded by the locals. Among other things, it contains a four-metre-tall statue of Jiang Wei in the main hall, as well as a stone tablet inscribed with the words "Jiang Wei's hometown" in calligraphy by the general Yang Chengwu.

The Pingxiang Tower (平襄楼) in present-day Lushan County, Sichuan is a 24-metre-tall building commemorating Jiang Wei. Its name comes from Jiang Wei's peerage, the Marquis of Pingxiang (平襄侯). The tower was built during the Song dynasty, renovated in 1445 during the Ming dynasty, and designated as a Major Historical and Cultural Site Protected at the National Level by China's State Administration of Cultural Heritage in 2006.

There are a number of relics related to Jiang Wei at Jianmen Pass in present-day Jiange County, Sichuan, including a Jiang Wei Well (姜維井), Jiang Wei Cave (姜維洞), Jiang Wei Fortress (姜維城), Jiang Wei Temple (姜維廟), Lord Jiang Bridge (姜公橋), Jiang Wei Armoury (姜維軍械) and Jiang Wei Tomb (姜維墓). Poets such as Lu You, Zuo Mu (左牧), Li Tiaoyuan (李調元) and Zhuang Xuehe (莊學和) have written poems at Jianmen Pass to praise Jiang Wei.

title: Jiang Wei


text:
Talk:List of words derived from toponyms

Why don't you put links here? webkid 21:36 14 Jul 2003 (UTC)

I think this needs to be better organized. The list of terms sometimes link to the term, and at other times link to the place itself. --seav 04:39, Jul 31, 2003 (UTC)

 * You are right. I linked a few unlinked terms, but it is not yet completely satisfactory. For example, Siamese now points to Siam, but there is no explanation there why the word is used in the context of twin. Probably explanations need to be added here. -- Viajero 07:32, 31 Jul 2003 (UTC)

What is that Chinese Wall thing? Is it Internet censorship in China? --Menchi 07:36, Jul 31, 2003 (UTC)

 * No, it is an expression in English. The American Heritage dictionary says: "A barrier, especially one that seriously hinders communication or understanding." You encounter it in various contexts, for example: in investment banking, they say there is a Chinese wall between the consulting and market research groups. At Microsoft they say there is a Chinese Wall between the OS and the apps groups. So, do you believe in fairies too? ;-) -- Viajero 08:38, 31 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * I miss the joke(?), what fairies? Mushroom rings? --Menchi 23:18, Aug 1, 2003 (UTC)

 * I was trying to be ironical: that if one believes in what these companies say, especially MSFT, then perhaps one also believes in the tooth fairy and so on. In other words, it is mostly a pack of lies... -- Viajero 06:19, 2 Aug 2003 (UTC)

This has been said above but I don't think it's clear yet - should the links go to the object under discussion or the source name? I just disambiguated American to American but maybe I should have linked it to American (cheese) -- sannse 19:44, 31 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * I don't think there is a quick and easy answer. For some entries on the list, there is source page which refers to the generalized usage, see for example Bantustan. For others, this doesn't exist yet, so may be an explanatory tag is in order as in the case, for example, Holland: (cotton or linen fabric) Hope this helps. -- Viajero 21:51, 31 Jul 2003 (UTC)

I think the page may be more useful with some sort of standard format - and I think it needs links to both the word and its source. At the moment I see Bible and it leads me to a long article that doesn't explain (as far as I can see) why this is a toponym. Similarly I see Detroit which leads to an article that doesn't tell me the meaning of the word outside its use as a name.

Maybe a table would make it clearer:

Of course that would make it more complicated so may be a bad idea.

Perhaps a better format would be something like:

 * Canary - a small songbird named for the Canary Islands
 * Holland - Cotton or linen fabric named for the country Holland

The disadvantage here would be repetitiveness.

I'm just throwing out ideas here, it's an interesting list so it would be good to develop it -- sannse 22:41, 31 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * I can agree with you for the table, maybe we should try with this. The only problem will be if it becomes as large as this list. -- webkid 06:24, 1 Aug 2003 (UTC)

Rename
Unless you're talking about some 18th-century obscure connotation, "toponym" has only one popular meaning, i.e., = place-name. So List of toponyms means List of placenames. The proper titlte should be List of toponym-derived words or List of toponym-derived words and phrases. --Menchi 07:11, Aug 1, 2003 (UTC)

 * The third edition of the American Heritage Dictionary (1992) defines toponym as:
 * 1. A place name
 * 2. A name derived from a place or region.
 * -- Viajero 08:13, 1 Aug 2003 (UTC)

 * Merriam-Webster doesn't have the "derived" definition, and M-W is pretty good on modern usage.
 * Assuming that AHD is up-to-date, the intro sentences is a paradox, since it basically says, "This is ...toponyms², which are derived from toponyms¹." Very confusing to most ppl don't use ADH.
 * --Menchi 23:15, Aug 1, 2003 (UTC)

Why not just call it List of placename-derived words. Clear and no ambiguity. --Menchi 17:33, Aug 11, 2003 (UTC)

 * Well, because we have a word that means that: toponym! Words drift in meaning over time. According to the AHD, which was first American dictionary based corpora work (ie, is is descriptive rather thanprescriptive) it carries that conotation now. -- Viajero 19:03, 11 Aug 2003 (UTC)

mythical ＝ ?
not so happy with the question mark to identify mythical. Makes it seem dubious. Myths may be non-factual, but they are for the most part clearly defined and known as such. What do the others think? -- Viajero 10:49, 1 Aug 2003 (UTC)

What about just putting mythical in brackets after the word. Or maybe it will be fine without once links to both the word and the source are included. The question mark is ambiguous IMO, I don’t think it really works. -- sannse 16:45, 1 Aug 2003 (UTC)

Well they are dubious, mythical places, aren't they? But surely if you meant the word was dubious it what have the word dubious or (?) after it, mythical means a certain thing. Wellingtons are not named after a place called Wellington, any more than Occam's razor is named after a place called Occam - Adrian.

I know wikipedia is not a dictionary, but definitions and examples would definitely be helpful here. orthogonal 19:29, 13 Nov 2003 (UTC)

I plan to remove the contents of the "Elements" section, merge it with Chemical elements named after places and just have the link there. Jay 11:47, 14 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * Sounds good to me. -- Viajero 12:17, 14 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Need clarifications
1. The following are place names but I could not find their toponymical meaning:
 * paisley
 * I guess it's the pattern used while weaving shawls Jay 21:59, 9 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * peoria
 * Maybe the name of a native American tribe Jay 21:59, 9 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * It's a city in Illinois, but generally, it refers to some generic Middle American community, as in "Yeah, they love it in L.A., but will it play in Peoria?" Funnyhat 06:49, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * stalingrad

2. Is Peyton Place a real or fictional place ?

3. Is sardine from the name Sardinia ?
 * I guess so. Jay 21:59, 9 Jul 2004 (UTC)

4. Trojan is not a verb. So what is "Trojaned" about?

5. Main street - real or fictional place ?

 * There are literally thousands of Main Streets in the United States. It's come to refer to any small town. Funnyhat 06:49, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)

6. motown - where's this place ?

 * Refers to either R & B music or Detroit, Michigan Funnyhat 06:49, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)

7. maus - which meaning and which place?

8. Nuremberg (defense) - what does defense stand for here? Is it the trials ?

9. Seltzer - is there an article abt the place

10. labyrinth - what was the corresponding name of the place and where was it

11. Masada - what does it stand for

12. Manchester - where is the textile article for manchester

13. Beltway - which place is this road system named after ?

 * The highway surrounding Washington, D.C.. It's commonly used in American media ("Inside the Beltway," etc.) Funnyhat 06:49, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)

14. Boetian - whats this ??

 * A misspelling of Boeotian, the adjective form of the place name Boeotia. Wareh 23:20, 11 November 2006 (UTC)

15. Brazilianization - what does this term refer to ?
 * See Brazilianization - apparently, it's the idea that the white population in the United States will increasingly withdraw from a disjointed society. Funnyhat 07:09, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Okay, some more entries that I have issues with, and I think either need clarifying or removing. I'll list these here and see if I can get some agreement before cleaning this up.

As far as I understand it, a toponym is a word named after a place, right? It's seems like this article needs to stick rather more precisely to that definition, or just about anything that has a place-name in it could be listed in here. I've looked on Dictionary.com and the Concise OED {9th edition} to try and get some guidance on what names are used as words. In particular:

 * Acapulco. Is there a word that is named after this place? I don't know of one, and the dictionaries I used don't show one either.

 * Auschwitz. Is this really a word? Yes, it's an event / place name, and it's used as a metaphor for the Holocaust, but is it really a word? I don't see it myself.

 * Carthaginian. No idea what this refers to - anyone know?

 * Berlin Wall. It's the name of a man-made object that was in Berlin. If Berlin Wall is in here, why not the Tower of London, the New York Stock Exchange, the Seattle Public Library etc, etc? I don't think this makes sense unless it's really used as a phrase distinct from being a reference to the wall in Berlin.

 * Georgia. Okay, it's the name of a font produced by Microsoft. I don't think that makes it a word. I reckon there are thousands of commercial products named after places, do we need to list them all?

 * Gibraltar. Dictionary.com says a fortress or stronghold. Is that what was meant here? I'll add this explanation in if so.

 * Nuremberg. Again, is it a word? I don't see it myself.

 * Peoria. The place-name is used as a symbol for middle-America, but I don't think it, in itself, is a word.

 * Stalingrad. Same deal. Is it a word?

 * On the Events/Agreements section I see a similar issue. Presumably we don't really want to list every agreement or event that has a place name in it. Instead I would argue this needs to be for words where the place name itself has become a short-hand or new word for the agreement. So I would argue that "Seattle" is not a toponym and should not be on the list, because I don't think anyone commonly uses "Seattle" to refer specifically to the WTO meeting of 1999. But I think "Bretton Woods" makes sense on the list, I'm sure lots of people use this phrase without even knowing it refers to a place name!

 * I'm also suspicious of including on this list place names that refer to something famous that happened in the place, e.g. My Lai, Hiroshima. Just about every battle of note is named after a place - should these all be listed?

Wow, that all sounds very negative!. I think cleaning this stuff up and the above list would be very helpful though ... Dave w74 21:11, 20 May 2006 (UTC)

Move
I have moved the page under a new heading "List of words derived from toponyms". The previous heading was inappropriate, because the normal meaning of toponym in linguistics and common usage is just 'place-name'. The move had already been proposed in 2003 (s.a.), but opposed by Viajero because toponym supposedly also has the meaning 'a name derived from a place or region'. While this might be the case, such usage is entirely marginal, and would also contradict the contents of the article Toponymy. --AAikio 15:13, 31 August 2006 (UTC)

Metonyms
I cut the following because they are more properly metonyms: I also cut Bay Street for the same reason. I rm Bantustan because there is no place called "Bantustan". I'm going to move Eden, Utopia, etc to a new section of "Fictional and literary place names". I also started adding cites. -- Sig Pig  |SEND - OVER 05:14, 5 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Beltway, a nickname for the powerful elite of Washington, D.C., after the highway surrounding the city
 * Detroit, often used as shorthand for the American automobile industry
 * Hollywood, shorthand for the American film industry – Hollywood, district of Los Angeles, California
 * K Street, lobbying industry
 * Madison Avenue, a metaphor for advertising — Madison Avenue, a street in New York
 * Main Street, name for a generic American community
 * Tin Pan Alley
 * Wall Street, financial market — Wall Street, a narrow thoroughfare in lower Manhattan running east from Broadway downhill to the East River
 * I've added a few cites to the first section. I have also moved legendary/mythical/literary toponyms to a new section, since they aren't real places (if consensus is they should remain in the first section, I have no problem with that). However, I have to cease my travails for a while as my brain has started to shut down for the night. I'll try to continue later, either tomorrow or the weekend. -- Sig Pig  |SEND - OVER 06:53, 5 October 2007 (UTC)

 * I have restored some of these metonyms under two new headings, Industries and professions and Government agencies. They are just as valid as Skid row (which was originally a nickname for Yesler Way, Seattle) among other metonyms in this article. —Anomalocaris (talk) 21:41, 3 February 2011 (UTC)

Issues: Citation style & Notability
I have added an 'Issues' tag to the page, noting that the citation style should be improved, and that the subject may lack notability. Although most of the items include external links to dictionaries, etymology guides, etc., these could be more efficiently handled in a References section. See WP:IC, WP:REF. It is also not clear how notable this topic is. The list criteria should be made specific, preferably with reliable third-party sources that establish notability cited in the lead section. See WP:Stand-alone lists. Cnilep (talk) 15:52, 2 May 2009 (UTC)

Corporations
All the corporations appear to be Finnish. There are definitely some Japanese corporations named after their hometowns (Toyota for a start), and I assume there are probably some others. Any particular reason they're all Finnish? 95.149.232.139 (talk) 18:34, 3 September 2011 (UTC)

Lists of things named after places
I've created an article titled Lists of things named after places, which currently links to eight lists: chemical elements, chess openings, foods and drinks, inventions, mathematical problems, minor planets, (two lists of) other places. Michael Hardy (talk) 17:58, 28 November 2011 (UTC)

Sodomy
Currently, the entry for sodomy reads, "Sodomy, forbidden sexual acts — Sodom, Biblical town on the plain of the Dead Sea." This is incorrect, as sodomy means anal sex (and sometimes other non-penile-vaginal sex). It is not forbidden in the majority of developed countries. 185.11.66.147 (talk) 08:56, 6 June 2015 (UTC)

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Subcategory (name for this?): derogatory toponyms
By this, I mean a 'toponym plus noun' pair where attributes of the place referred to (or people associated with the place) make the result disparaging, usually to humorous effect. Eg, 'Glasgow kiss' (already included), 'Brixton briefcase' (boombox), 'Jamaican toothpick' (switchblade). It would help collect these if there were a searchable term for them. Skepticaltogether (talk) 23:35, 2 November 2022 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Sun Jian

Sun Jian  (155–191? ), courtesy name Wentai, was a Chinese military general, politician, and warlord who lived during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. He allied himself with Yuan Shu in 190 when warlords from eastern China formed a coalition to oust Dong Zhuo, a tyrannical warlord who held the puppet Emperor Xian in his power. Although he controlled neither many troops nor much land, Sun Jian's personal bravery and resourcefulness were feared by Dong Zhuo, who placed him among Yuan Shao, Yuan Shu and Liu Biao as the most influential men at that time. After the coalition disbanded in the next year, China fell into civil war. In 191, Sun Jian was killed in battle during an offensive campaign against Liu Biao.

Sun Jian was also the father of Sun Quan, one of the central figures of the Three Kingdoms era who eventually established the Eastern Wu state and declared himself its first emperor in 229, whereupon Sun Jian was given the posthumous title Emperor Wulie (武烈皇帝).

Early life and career
Sun Jian was born in Fuchun County (富春縣), Wu Commandery, around present day Fuyang, Zhejiang. He was allegedly a descendant of Sun Tzu, the author of The Art of War. No more immediate records survive, indicating his family probably played a very small part during the Han dynasty. Even his father's name is unrecorded, although a folk tradition gives it as Sun Zhong (孫鍾).

Sun Jian was a civil official in his home county during his youth. When he was 16, Sun Jian travelled with his father to Qiantang, where they encountered a band of pirates dividing up their spoils on land. Sun Jian jumped on shore with a sabre in hand and pointed in different directions as if commanding a detachment of soldiers to surround the pirates. Seeing this, the pirates were deceived and fled. Sun Jian pursued, and only after taking the head of every pirate did he return (or just the leaders according to some accounts). His name henceforth spread.

In 172, he became acting major for the pro-government militias which fought against Xu Chang's rebellion in Kuaiji Commandery. He raised a militia of about 1,000 men and served with distinction, whereupon he was recommended to the court by Yang Province Inspector Zhang Min. Sun Jian was consequently rewarded with a post as assistant magistrate in Guangling Commandery, and later in two counties in Xiapi. This allowed him to gather many followers.

In 184, the Yellow Turban Rebellion led by Zhang Jiao broke out across the country. Sun Jian joined the general Zhu Jun to quell the rebellion in Yu Province (covering roughly present-day southern Henan and northern Anhui). The soldiers fought hard, forcing the rebels to retreat to Wan (宛; present-day Wancheng District, Nanyang, Henan). Sun Jian placed himself in the forefront and climbed onto the city walls alone. The rest then swarmed in and defeated the rebels.

Around this time, Bian Zhang and Han Sui colluded with the Qiang tribes and rebelled in Liang Province (涼州; present-day western Gansu). After Dong Zhuo failed to put down the rebellion, the central government sent in his place the Minister of Works Zhang Wen, who invited Sun Jian along as an adviser. When Zhang Wen summoned Dong Zhuo to the encampment at Chang'an, Dong Zhuo procrastinated and took a long time to arrive. When he did, he showed little respect for Zhang Wen. Sun Jian then advised Zhang Wen to execute Dong Zhuo, but Zhang Wen declined as Dong Zhuo held high reputation in the west.

Despite scoring a major victory against the rebels at Meiyang, Zhang Wen could not press their advantage and the rebellion was still not quelled. Zhang Wen and the rest returned to the capital Luoyang in disgrace and thus no honor was accorded. Meanwhile, another local-scale rebellion broke out near Changsha Commandery and the rebels besieged the city. Sun Jian was then appointed as the Administrator of Changsha Commandery. Within a month upon taking up office, Sun Jian had quelled the rebellion. Meanwhile, rebellions also broke out in the neighbouring commanderies of Lingling (零陵; around present-day Yongzhou, Hunan) and Guiyang (桂陽; around present-day Guiyang County, Hunan). Sun Jian defeated the rebel leaders Ou Xing (區星), Zhou Chao (周朝) and Guo Shi (郭石), and suppressed both rebellions. The Han imperial court enfeoffed him as the Marquis of Wucheng (烏程侯) in recognition of his contributions.

Coalition against Dong Zhuo
In 189, Emperor Ling died, leaving his young son in the care of Empress Dowager He and General-in-Chief He Jin. He Jin then summoned Dong Zhuo to lead troops into the capital to assist in a plot to eliminate the powerful eunuch faction. Before Dong Zhuo arrived, however, He Jin was assassinated by the eunuchs and Luoyang fell into chaos following a clash between supporters of both sides. Dong Zhuo then seized military control of the capital and deposed the young emperor for the puppet Emperor Xian. However, his tyrannical ways incurred the wrath of many and in the following year, warlords from eastern China formed a coalition against him.

Sun Jian also raised an army and joined Yuan Shu, one of the leaders of the coalition at Luyang (魯陽; present-day Lushan County, Henan). On his way, he killed Inspector of Jing Province Wang Rui and Administrator of Nanyang Zhang Zi. Yuan Shu appointed Sun Jian as General Who Destroys Barbarians (破虜將軍, also translated as "General Who Smashes the Caitiffs") and Inspector of Yu Province (豫州刺史). Sun Jian then began training and preparing his troops at Luyang. A force sent by Dong Zhuo was so impressed with the strict discipline of Sun Jian's troops that they gave up the plan to attack Luyang. When Sun Jian moved out to Liangdong (梁東; east of present-day Linru County, Henan), he was outnumbered by Dong Zhuo's forces. With several dozen horsemen, Sun Jian broke out of the encirclement. He took off the red felt scarf he had always been wearing and handed it to his trusted aide Zu Mao (祖茂), whom Dong Zhuo's soldiers then chased after while Sun Jian escaped. Unable to shake off his pursuers, Zu Mao then dismounted, hung the scarf onto a half-burnt pillar, and hid himself in the tall grass nearby. The enemies surrounded the pillar and approached cautiously till they realised they had been fooled, whereupon they retreated.

After regrouping his troops, Sun Jian pressed his troops towards Luoyang and engaged in battle against Dong Zhuo's forces at Yangren (陽人; believed to be near present-day Wenquan, Ruzhou, Henan). He scored a brilliant victory and killed the enemy commander Hua Xiong in battle (191). At this time, someone told Yuan Shu that if Sun Jian defeated Dong Zhuo and took over Luoyang, he would no longer submit to anyone. Feeling doubtful, Yuan Shu stopped providing food supplies to Sun Jian's army. Sun Jian rode the hundred odd li from Yangren to Luyang overnight to see Yuan Shu, whereupon he told the latter, "I put myself in danger during battle, firstly to eliminate the villain (Dong Zhuo) for the Han Empire, and secondly to avenge the deaths of your family members. I have no personal grudge against Dong Zhuo. Yet you believe slanderous talks and suspect me!" The words put Yuan Shu to shame and he immediately ordered his men to continue delivering food supplies to Sun Jian's army.

Fearing Sun Jian, Dong Zhuo then sent his general Li Jue as an emissary to seek peace and propose a marriage to cement the alliance. However, Sun Jian rejected the proposals with harsh words and continued to lead his troops towards Luoyang. In late 190, his army was merely 90 li away from the capital when Dong Zhuo retreated west to Chang'an after ordering the destruction of Luoyang by fire. Entering the ruins of Luoyang, Sun Jian ordered his men to reseal the tombs of Han emperors that were excavated by Dong Zhuo, after which he returned to Luyang. It was said in the Book of Wu (吳書) by Wei Zhao that Sun Jian found one of the emperor's jade seals in a well south of Luoyang and kept it. Later, when Yuan Shu declared himself emperor, he held Sun Jian's wife Lady Wu hostage in exchange for the seal.

Later life
In 191, Yuan Shu sent Sun Jian to attack Liu Biao, the Governor of Jing Province (荆州; covering present-day Hubei and Hunan). He defeated Liu Biao's forces led by Huang Zu and pursued the enemy across the Han River to Xiangyang. While he was travelling alone through Xianshan (峴山), Huang Zu's troops ambushed him and shot him to death with arrows. The Record of Heroes (英雄記) by Wang Can, however, claims that Sun Jian died in 193 and that he was crushed to death by boulders while pursuing the enemy commander Lü Gong (呂公). Sun Jian's nephew, Sun Ben, gathered his uncle's troops and returned to Yuan Shu, who then appointed him as the Inspector of Yu Province to replace his uncle.

Sun Jian was buried in the Gao Mausoleum in Qu'e (曲阿; in present-day Danyang, Jiangsu). He was survived by at least five sons and three daughters. His eldest son, Sun Ce, became a warlord and conquered several territories in the Jiangdong region. Like his father, Sun Ce died at a relatively young age and was succeeded by his younger brother, Sun Quan. Sun Quan built on his brother's legacy and eventually established the state of Eastern Wu in 229, with himself as its founding emperor, during the Three Kingdoms period. Lady Sun later married the warlord and founder of the state of Shu Han, Liu Bei, in an attempt to forge an alliance to defeat Cao Cao after the Battle of Red Cliff. After ascending the throne, Sun Quan honoured his father with the posthumous title "Emperor Wulie" (武烈皇帝).

Historical discrepancies on death date
There are multiple differing accounts on Sun Jian's death date.

Death in 191
A Wu Lu annotation in Sun Ce's biography in Sanguozhi recorded that Sun Ce stated in a memorial to the imperial court that he was 17 (by East Asian reckoning) when his father died. In this account, since Sun Ce died in 200 at the age of 26 (by East Asian reckoning), Sun Jian should have died in 191.

Death in 192
Sun Jian's biography in Sanguozhi recorded that he was sent by Yuan Shu to attack Jing province in the 3rd year of the Chuping era of Liu Xie's reign. This account was also found in Book of the Later Han (volume 09 ) and Annals of the Later Han (compiled by Yuan Hong; volume 27 ). Pei Songzhi in his commentary found in Sun Ce's biography of Sanguozhi noted that Sun Jian dying in 192 as recorded in his Sanguozhi biography should be an error, noting that Zhang Fan's Annals of Han and the Wu Li both recorded that Sun Jian died in 191. Sima Guang, in his Zizhi Tongjian Kao Yi, agreed that Sun Jian died in 191.

Death in 193
Wang Can's Records of Heroes recorded that Sun Jian died on the 7th day of the 1st month of the 4th year of the Chuping era. This corresponds to 25 February 193 in the Julian calendar.

Sun Jian
Four of Sun Jian's sons – Sun Ce, Sun Quan, Sun Yi and Sun Kuang – and one of his daughters (her identity is unrecorded) were born to his wife Lady Wu, who was Wu Jing's elder sister. Lady Sun married Liu Bei.

Father

 * Sun Zhong is the father of Sun Jian, grandfather of Sun Quan. Living with his mother, he believed in filial piety and grew melons as a career.

Brothers

 * Sun Jing
 * Sun Qiang

Sisters

 * Lady Sun (Sun Jian's sister), A younger sister who was Xu Kun's mother (and thus Lady Xu's grandmother)

Children

 * Sun Ce, eldest son, warlord in Jiangdong.
 * Sun Quan, second son, Emperor Da of Wu
 * Sun Yi, third son.
 * Sun Kuang, fourth son.
 * Lady Sun, the wife of Emperor Zhaolie Liu Bei.
 * Sun Lang, later disowned by Sun Quan.
 * Hong Zi's wife, who is older than Sun Quan
 * Pan Mi's wife

Grandchildren

 * Sun Shao, posthumous son of Sun Ce.
 * Sun Deng, was an imperial prince of the state of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms period of China. He was the eldest son of Sun Quan.
 * Sun Lü, as a noble and military general of the state of Eastern Wu in the Three Kingdoms period of China. He was the second son of Sun Quan, the founding emperor of Eastern Wu.
 * Sun He, as an imperial prince of the state of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms period of China. He was the third son of Sun Quan, the founding emperor of Wu.
 * Sun Ba, was an imperial prince of the state of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms period of China. He was the fourth son of Sun Quan, the founding emperor of Eastern Wu.
 * Sun Fen, was an imperial prince of the state of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms period of China. He was the fifth son of Sun Quan, the founding emperor of Eastern Wu.
 * Sun Liang, was the second emperor of the state of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms period of China. He was the youngest son and heir of Sun Quan.
 * Sun Luban, was an imperial princess of the state of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms period of China. She was the elder daughter of Sun Quan,
 * Sun Luyu, was an imperial princess of the state of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms period of China. She was the younger daughter of Sun Quan.

In Romance of the Three Kingdoms
In the 14th-century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, some events of Sun Jian were romanticised by Luo Guanzhong.

Sun Jian first appears the novel in Chapter 2 as a great warrior and descendant of Sun Tzu who takes part in suppressing the Yellow Turban Rebellion. Later, he joins the coalition against Dong Zhuo. In the battle against Hua Xiong, the commander of the enemy army, Sun Jian took off his own red scarf and handed it to Zu Mao (祖茂) when Sun Jian's army was raided. Having distracted Hua Xiong and let Sun Jian escape, Zu Mao was chased after by Hua Xiong, so he hid himself in woods after hanging the scarf on a half-burnt pillar. When Hua Xiong found himself to be fooled, he killed Zu Mao who dashed out of his hideout to challenge him. Hua Xiong then launched an attack on Sun's army, which lasted for a whole night. Sun Jian could not resist Hua Xiong, so he called for assistance from the coalition. Hua Xiong was unrivalled until he met the unfamed Guan Yu.

After Dong Zhuo retreated to Chang'an, Sun Jian was the first to enter Luoyang and ordered to put off the fires set by Dong Zhuo. Seeing the destruction of the imperial capital and Han dynasty, Sun Jian sighed and shed a tear. However, when his men found a jade seal, which was proven to be the imperial seal, Sun Jian grew ambitious and requested to retreat to his base. The news was leaked, to Sun Jian's miscalculation. When Yuan Shao, the leader of the coalition, interrogated Sun Jian, the latter swore by saying, "Should I have hid the treasure, I shall die miserably under arrows!" Under the protection by his guards, Sun Jian left Luoyang immediately.

On the way to his base, Sun Jian passed through Jing Province, where the governor, Liu Biao, was asked by Yuan Shao to attack Sun Jian. Sun Jian badly lost the battle and barely escaped. When he later launched a revenge attack upon Jing Provence, in accordance with the order of his senior, Yuan Shu, he was lured under a cliff where he was shot dead by arrows from the above. Sun's camp reclaimed Sun Jian's corpse using a captive, Huang Zu, who was Liu Biao's brother-in-law. When Dong Zhuo heard of Sun's death in Chang'an, he said, "One of my greatest enemies is removed!" and consequently usurped more power in the imperial court.

In popular culture
Sun Jian is featured as a playable character in Koei's Dynasty Warriors and Warriors Orochi video game series. He also appears in Koei's Romance of the Three Kingdoms series.

He is a playable warlord in the 2019 game Total War: Three Kingdoms by Creative Assembly.

In the SD Gundam series BB Senshi Sangokuden, which is based on Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Sun Jian is characterised as the Gundam Sonken Zephyranthes. His design invokes a white tiger motif as he was known in life as the Tiger of Jiandong.

In Koei's 2023 video game Wo Long: Fallen Dynasty, Sun Jian appears as a character and one of the bosses of the game.

title: Sun Jian