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Familiar

In European folklore of the medieval and early modern periods, familiars (strictly familiar spirits, as "familiar" also meant just "close friend" or companion, and may be seen in the scientific name for dog, Canis familiaris) were believed to be supernatural entities, interdimensional beings, or spiritual guardians that would protect or assist witches and cunning folk in their practice of magic, divination and spiritual insight. According to records of the time, those alleging to have had contact with familiar spirits reported that they could manifest as numerous forms, usually as an animal, but sometimes as a human or humanoid figure, and were described as "clearly defined, three-dimensional ... forms, vivid with colour and animated with movement and sound", as opposed to descriptions of ghosts with their "smoky, undefined form[s]".

When they served witches, they were often thought to be malevolent, but when working for cunning folk, they were often considered benevolent (although there was some ambiguity in both cases). The former were often categorized as demons, while the latter were more commonly thought of and described as fairies. The main purpose of familiars was to serve the witch, providing protection for them as they came into their new powers.

Since the 20th century some magical practitioners, including adherents of the Neopagan religion of Wicca, use the concept of familiars, due to their association with older forms of magic. These contemporary practitioners use pets or wildlife, or believe that invisible versions of familiars act as magical aides.

Definitions

Pierre A. Riffard proposed this definition and quotations "A familiar spirit – (alter ego, doppelgänger, personal demon, personal totem, spirit companion) is the double, the alter ego, of an individual. It does not look like the individual concerned. Even though it may have an independent life of its own, it remains closely linked to the individual. The familiar spirit can be an animal (animal companion)."

The French poet Charles Baudelaire, a cat fancier, believed in familiar spirits. "It is the familiar spirit of the place; It judges, presides, inspires Everything in its empire; It is perhaps a fairy or a god? When my eyes, drawn like a magnet To this cat that I love ..."

A. P. Elkin studied the belief in familiar spirits among Australian Aboriginal people: "A usual method, or explanation, is that the medicine man sends his familiar spirit (his assistant totem, spirit-dog, spirit-child or whatever the form may be) to gather the information. While this is occurring, the man himself is in a state of receptivity, in sleep or trance. In modern phraseology [spiritism], his familiar spirit would be the control [control spirit]."

Mircea Eliade: "The Goldi [Nanai people in Siberia] clearly distinguish between the tutelary spirit (ayami), which chooses the shaman, and the helping spirits (syven), which are subordinate to it and are granted to the shaman by the ayami itself. According to Sternberg the Goldi explain the relations between the shaman and his ayami by a complex sexual emotion. Here is the report of a Goldi shaman.

'Once I was asleep on my sick-bed, when a spirit approached me. It was a very beautiful woman. Her figure was very slight, she was no more than half an arshin (71 cm) tall. Her face and attire were quite as those of one of our Gold women ... She said: 'I am the ayami of your ancestors, the Shamans. I taught them shamaning. Now I am going to teach you ... I love you, I have no husband now, you will be my husband and I shall be a wife unto you. I shall give you assistant spirits. You are to heal with their aid, and I shall teach and help you myself ...' Sometimes she comes under the aspect of an old woman, and sometimes under that of a wolf, so she is terrible to look at. Sometimes she comes as a winged tiger ... She has given me three assistants—the jarga (the panther), the doonto (the bear) and the amba (the tiger). They come to me in my dreams, and appear whenever I summon them while shamaning. If one of them refuses to come, the ayami makes them obey, but, they say, there are some who do not obey even the ayami. When I am shamaning, the ayami and the assistant spirits are possessing me; whether big or small, they penetrate me, as smoke or vapour would. When the ayami is within me, it is she who speaks through my mouth, and she does everything herself.'"

Descriptions
Among those accused witches and cunning-folk who described their familiar spirits, there were commonly certain unifying features. The historian Emma Wilby noted how the accounts of such familiars were striking for their "ordinariness" and "naturalism", despite the fact that they were dealing with supernatural entities.

Familiar spirits were most commonly small animals, such as cats, rats, dogs, ferrets, birds, frogs, toads, and hares. There were also cases of wasps and butterflies, as well as pigs, sheep, and horses. Familiar spirits were usually kept in pots or baskets lined with sheep's wool and fed a variety of things including, milk, bread, meat, and blood.

Familiar spirits usually had names and "were often given down-to-earth, and frequently affectionate, nicknames." One example of this was Tom Reid, who was the familiar of the cunning-woman and accused witch Bessie Dunlop, while other examples included Grizell and Gridigut, who were the familiars of 17th-century Huntingdonshire witch Jane Wallis.

An agathion is a familiar spirit which appears in the shape of a human or an animal, or even within a talisman, bottle, or magic ring. It is strongest at midday.

Relationship with sorcerers

Using her studies into the role of witchcraft and magic in Britain during the Early Modern period as a starting point, the historian Emma Wilby examined the relationship that familiar spirits allegedly had with the witches and cunning-folk in this period.

Meeting
In the British accounts from the early modern period at least, there were three main types of encounter narrative related to how a witch or cunning person first met their familiar. The first of these was that the spirit spontaneously appeared in front of the individual while they were going about their daily activities, either in their home or outdoors somewhere. Various examples for this are attested in the sources of the time, for instance, Joan Prentice from Essex, England, gave an account when she was interrogated for witchcraft in 1589 claiming that she was "alone in her chamber, and sitting upon a low stool preparing herself to bedward" when her familiar first appeared to her, while the Cornish cunning-woman Anne Jeffries related in 1645 that hers first appeared to her when she was "knitting in an arbour in our garden".

The second manner in which the familiar spirit commonly appeared to magical practitioners in Britain was that they would be given to a person by a pre-existing individual, who was sometimes a family member and at other times a more powerful spirit. For instance, the alleged witch Margaret Ley from Liverpool claimed, in 1667, that she had been given her familiar spirit by her mother when she died, while the Leicestershire cunning-woman Joan Willimot related, in 1618, that a mysterious figure whom she only referred to as her "master", "willed her to open her mouth and he would blow into her a fairy which should do her good. And that she open her mouth, and that presently after blowing, there came out of her mouth a spirit which stood upon the ground in the shape and form of a woman."

In a number of accounts, the cunning person or witch was experiencing difficulty prior to the appearance of the familiar, who offered to aid them. As historian Emma Wilby noted, "their problems... were primarily rooted in the struggle for physical survival—the lack of food or money, bereavement, sickness, loss of livelihood and so on", and the familiar offered them a way out of this by giving them magical powers.

Working
In some cases, the magical practitioner then made an agreement or entered a pact with their familiar spirit. The length of time that the witch or cunning person worked with their familiar spirit varied between a few weeks through to a number of decades. In most cases, the magical practitioner would conjure their familiar spirit when they needed their assistance, although there are many different ways that they did this: the Essex witch Joan Cunny claimed, in 1589, that she had to kneel down within a circle and pray to Satan for her familiar to appear while the Wiltshire cunning woman Anne Bodenham described, in 1653, that she conjured her familiars by methods learned from books. In some rarer cases there were accounts where the familiars would appear at times when they were unwanted and not called upon, for instance the Huntingdonshire witch Elizabeth Chandler noted, in 1646, that she could not control when her two familiars, named Beelzebub and Trullibub, appeared to her, and had prayed for a god to "deliver her therefrom". It was also believed that familiars "helped diagnose illnesses and the sources of bewitchment and were used for divining and finding lost objects and treasures. Magicians conjured them in rituals, then locked them in bottles, rings and stones. They sometimes sold them as charms, claiming the spirits would ensure success in gambling, love, business or whatever the customer wanted. This sort of familiar was technically not illegal; England's Witchcraft Act 1603 prohibited only evil and wicked spirits".

Types
Familiars are most common in western European mythology, with some scholars arguing that familiars are only present in the traditions of Great Britain and France. In these areas, three categories of familiars are believed to exist:

 * familiar spirits manifesting as humans and humanoids, throughout Western Europe
 * divinatory spirits manifesting as animals, Great Britain and France
 * malevolent spirits manifesting as animals, only in Greece

Prince Rupert's dog

During the English Civil War, the Royalist general Prince Rupert was in the habit of taking his large poodle dog named Boy into battle with him. Throughout the war the dog was greatly feared among the Parliamentarian forces and credited with supernatural powers. As noted by Morgan, the dog was apparently considered a kind of familiar. At the end of the war the dog was shot, allegedly with a silver bullet.

Witch trials
Most data regarding familiars comes from the transcripts of English and Scottish witch trials held during the 16th–17th centuries. The court system that labeled and tried witches was known as the Essex. The Essex trial of Agnes Sampson of Nether Keith, East Lothian, Scotland, in 1590, presents prosecution testimony regarding a divinatory familiar. This case is fundamentally political, trying Sampson for high treason, and accusing Sampson for employing witchcraft against King James VI. The prosecution asserts Sampson called familiar spirits and resolved her doubtful matter. Another Essex trial is that of Hellen Clark, tried in 1645, in which Clark was compelled to state that the Devil appeared as a "familiar" in the form of a dog.

The English court cases reflect a strong relationship between State's accusations of witchcraft against those who practiced ancient indigenous traditions, including the familiar animal or spirit.

In some cases familiars replace children in the favour of their mothers. (See witchcraft and children.)

In colonial America animal familiars can be seen in the witch hunts that took place in Salem, Massachusetts, in 1692. Familiar spirits often appear in the visions of the afflicted girls. Although the 1648 law that defined a witch as one who "hath or consulteth with a familiar spirit" had been suspended ten years earlier, association with a familiar spirit was used in the Salem trials as evidence to convict suspected witches. Sarah Good was said to have a yellow bird who sucked between her fingers. Ann Putnam in particular was supposed to have frequently seen the yellow bird in her afflictions. Tituba was said to have seen strange animals that urged her to hurt children, which included a hog, a black dog, a red cat and a black cat. "During the Salem witch trials, there is little account of the practice of animal familiars, although one man was charged with encouraging a dog to attack by way of magical means. The dog, interestingly enough, was tried, convicted, and hanged".

The witch's mark added a sexual component to the familiar spirit and is often found in trial records as a way to convict a suspected witch. The mark was most commonly an extra teat found somewhere on the body and was suspected to be used to suckle the familiar spirits. An example of this can be seen in the Salem witch trials of 1692. For example, Ann Putnam told Martha Corey that, "There is a yellow burd a sucking between your fore finger and midel finger I see it."

Historiography
Recent scholarship on familiars exhibits the depth and respectability absent from earlier demonological approaches. The study of familiars has grown from an academic topic in folkloric journals to a general topic in popular books and journals incorporating anthropology, history and other disciplines. James Sharpe, in The Encyclopedia of Witchcraft: the Western Tradition, states: "Folklorists began their investigations in the 19th Century [and] found that familiars figured prominently in ideas about witchcraft."

In the first decades of the 20th century, familiars are identified as "niggets", which are "creepy-crawly things that witches kept all over them".

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Bune

Bune is a demon listed in demonological grimoires such the Lesser Key of Solomon (including Thomas Rudd's version, as Bime) Johann Weyer's Pseudomonarchia Daemonum,  Jacques Collin de Plancy's Dictionnaire Infernal, and the Livre des Esperitz.

All of these texts describe Bune as a duke who is able to move the dead, make one rich, and answer a variety of questions. The Livre des Esperitz claims that Bune rules 35 legions of spirits, while the other texts only give him 30 legions to command. The other texts further describe Bune's appearance as a three headed dragon (with one head being human) and give him the additional powers of making devils gather around graves and making one wise and charismatic.

Practicing occultist Carroll "Poke" Runyon suggests that the name ultimately derives from Buto (a title for Isis), as part of an overall claim that the Lesser Key of Solomon was by Solomon and rooted in Mesopotamian mythology.

According to Rudd, Bune is opposed by the Shemhamphorasch angel Haaiah.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Bune


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Drag strip

Drag strip (or Dragstrip) may refer to:

 * Dragstrip, track used for drag racing
 * Drag Strip (Transformers), Transformer character who is one of the Stunticons
 * Videocart-9: Drag Strip, drag racing videogame released in 1976

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Dragstrip

A dragstrip is a facility for conducting automobile and motorcycle acceleration events such as drag racing. Although a quarter mile (1320 feet, 402 m) is the best known measure for a drag track, many tracks are eighth mile (201 m) tracks, and the premiere classes will run 1,000 foot (304.8 m) races. The race is begun from a standing start which allows three factors to affect the outcome of the race: reaction time, power/weight ratio, and traction.

Features
A dragstrip is a straight, purpose-built racetrack, typically an eighth, ten feet longer than three-sixteenths, or a quarter of a mile long (660/1,000/1320 feet, 201/304.8/402 m), with an additional shutdown area to allow vehicles room to stop after crossing the finish line. Common features also include a 'water box' where vehicles and motorcycles start their burnouts for tire clean-up and also to heat up their tires to improve traction. There is a set of lights known as a 'Christmas Tree' that counts down to the start. There are also return lanes for the vehicles to return from the end of the track to the pit area.

Vehicle equipment requirements
Like all other motorsports, drag racing has many safety requirements for the vehicles that compete. These can be found in the applicable governing body's rule book. Most rules do not apply until the vehicle exceeds a specified time, such as 10.99 seconds. This allows anyone with a regular production vehicle to take part for very little cost, and encourages participation of many people who cannot afford a proper racing vehicle. The grassroots efforts are primarily bracket racing cars. Many classes allow drivers to drive their street cars and participate in an event.

Quarter mile times
Acceleration times differ even between identical vehicles due to widely varying factors - vehicle tune, elevation, driver/rider differences, payload, track surface conditions, weather conditions.

NOTE: Nitro Funny Car records set at 1000 ft, which since 2008 in the US by NHRA, 2012 internationally by FIA, and 2017 in Australia by IHRA is the official distance for both Top Fuel and Funny Car in the respective sanctioning bodies.

''All official records must be backed up within one percent during the same race meet in order to be claimed. The official records for terminal velocity and elapsed time are different in the professional car categories, and only the elapsed time run (and respective speed of that run) is listed. There have been some cases where a car has run faster than the official record, but because they were not backed up within one percent during the same meet, they are not recognised by the NHRA, IHRA, or FIA. The Top Fuel record listed as the final quarter-mile record in IHRA prior to off-season rule change at the end of 2016–17 season that shortened Top Fuel to 1,000 feet.''

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Gamigin

Gamigin is a demon described in demonological grimoires such as The Lesser Key of Solomon (the fourth Goetic demon; referred to in the Crowley/Mathers edition as Samigina) and Johann Weyer's Pseudomonarchia Daemonum (the forty-sixth; referred to as Gamygyn).

Both works describe him as a marquis who initially takes the form of a small horse before transforming into a hoarse-voiced human. The Lesser Key of Solomon merely leaves his duties at teaching liberal arts and giving accounts of souls that died in sin.

According to Rudd, Gamigin is opposed by the Shemhamphorasch angel Ieuiah. The Pseudomonarchia Daemonum, Thomas Rudd's variant of the Ars Goetia, and the Dictionnaire Infernal go into more detail than the Lesser Key, with Gamigin forcing the souls of those who drowned into "airy bodies" to answer questions in either, with Weyer and de Plancy further claiming that Gamigan can do likewise for souls "which dwell in purgatorie (which is called Cartagra, that is, affliction of soules)".

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Gravediggaz

Gravediggaz were an American hip hop group from New York. Known for their dark sense of humor and abrasive, menacing soundscapes, Gravediggaz blended hardcore hip hop, gangsta rap and heavy metal with horror elements to pioneer the hip-hop subgenre of horrorcore.

The group was formed in 1994, which brought together Prince Paul (The Undertaker), Frukwan (The Gatekeeper), Too Poetic (The Grym Reaper) and RZA (The RZArector). It came about largely due to the efforts of Prince Paul. Frukwan and Prince Paul were previously together in the group Stetsasonic.

Biography
The group's first album was originally titled Niggamortis; however, this potentially risqué title was changed to 6 Feet Deep for the American market (European versions of the album retained the original title, and also included the bonus track "Pass the Shovel"); it was released on August 9, 1994. The four members adopted Gravedigga alter egos for their work with the group: RZA became The RZArector; Poetic became The Grym Reaper; Prince Paul became The Undertaker; and Frukwan became The Gatekeeper. In 1995, the three rhyming members (without Prince Paul) released a collaborative EP titled The Hell E.P. with English trip hop artist Tricky.

The second full-length Gravediggaz album The Pick, the Sickle and the Shovel was less humorous, dealing more with social and political issues; it also used calmer and more conventional production. Prince Paul played a considerably smaller role in the making of this album, with many of the production duties eventually taken care of by RZA and his Wu-Tang affiliates (including True Master and 4th Disciple).

A bootleg Gravediggaz album, named Scenes from the Graveyard, surfaced in 1998. It featured seven unreleased tracks plus some remixes from the first two albums.

Gravediggaz recruited DJ Diamond J. Poetic died of colon cancer in July 2001. Frukwan stated in an interview not long after Poetic's death that a new album using leftover Poetic material would be released. Nightmare in A-Minor, the third official album, came out in 2001; it featured two of the original members, Poetic and Frukwan. The album is considered to be the group’s darkest work yet, including many references to Poetic's struggle with cancer, as well as apocalyptic themes to do with the teachings of the Five-Percent Nation. Although RZA did not take part in the album, some Wu-Tang Clan affiliates such as 4th Disciple, True Master, Prodigal Sunn, Beretta 9, and Shogun Assason were involved. The album was mostly produced by Poetic and Frukwan. A different version of the album (minus the song "Better Wake Up") was released in 2002, for which some of the tracks created by Poetic were replaced or altered.

In 2003, Frukwan released his debut solo album, Life. The compilation album, 6 Feet Under, was released in 2004 by X-Ray/Cleopatra Records and featured songs from Nightmare in A-Minor and Life. According to Frukwan, he had nothing to do with the release and claimed that song titles were changed without permission, making it an unauthorized release.

In 2010, Gravediggaz recorded a new song, "2 More Cups of Blood". In 2011, it was announced that the group had been recording new tracks involving Shabazz the Disciple & Killah Priest.

In 2018, the Gatekeeper released "1 Cup of Blood" under the Gravediggaz name.

Style and influence
According to Frukwan, the group's name means "digging graves of the mentally dead, and it stood for resurrecting the mentally dead from their state of unawareness and ignorance." The group's lyrics mix black humor, including topics such as suicide, death, killing, psychopathy, hell, etc.; criticism regarding the music industry; cartoonish violence reminiscent of the Geto Boys, Insane Poetry, or early Three 6 Mafia; and esoteric references to the Nation of Gods and Earths. The group pioneered the horrorcore genre.

The irony used by Gravediggaz has influenced hardcore techno through Mark Newland's sampling of the group's prose in Nasenbluten.

Studio albums

 * 6 Feet Deep (1994)
 * The Pick, the Sickle and the Shovel (1997)
 * Nightmare in A-Minor (2001)

Compilation albums

 * 6 Feet Under (2004)
 * Halloween Nights In The Graveyard (2023)

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Talk:Graphic organizer

I'm still stuck
I'm not sure what this is, it just says it "helps to ...", it doesn't really say how it works. I would like to learn this as i get REALLY bored in lessons and our teachers are tryin to increase my attention span.90.240.114.176 00:21, 13 October 2007 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Graphic organizer


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Fox Mulder

Fox William Mulder is a fictional FBI Special Agent and one of the two protagonists of the Fox science fiction-supernatural television series The X-Files, played by David Duchovny. Mulder's peers dismiss his many theories on extraterrestrial or paranormal activity as those of a conspiracy theorist and supernaturalist; however, his skeptical but supportive partner, Special Agent Dana Scully, often finds them to be unexpectedly correct. He and Scully work in the X-Files office, concerned with unsolved FBI cases that are often revealed to be supernatural or extraterrestrial in nature. Mulder was a main character for the first seven seasons, but was limited to a recurring character for the following two seasons. He returns as a main character for the tenth and eleventh seasons.

Mulder made his first appearance in the first season pilot episode, broadcast in 1993. Mulder believes in extraterrestrial unidentified flying objects (UFOs) and a government conspiracy to hide or deny the truth of their existence. Mulder considers the X-Files and the truth behind the supposed conspiracy so important that he has made them the main focus of his life.

Fictional character biography
Mulder was born on October 13, 1961, on the island of Martha's Vineyard, Massachusetts. The mysterious disappearance of Mulder's sister and his ensuing search for her became the consuming drive of his life. In 1983, Mulder graduated with first-class honors from the University of Oxford with a Bachelor of Arts degree in psychology. He then graduated with honors from the Quantico FBI Training Academy in 1986. Mulder joined the FBI on October 24, 1984. On graduating from the academy, Mulder began his work in the Behavioral Science Unit (psychological profiling) under Special Agent Bill Patterson, with whom he had a testy relationship.

In 1988, the FBI assigned Mulder to the Violent Crimes Unit. Around this time, Mulder first came across the X-Files, an obscure FBI section dealing with cases relating to the paranormal; he pored over these cases in his spare time, becoming obsessed with them. In 1991, Mulder re-opened the X-Files with Special Agent Diana Fowley, but Fowley left shortly thereafter. Mulder investigated the X-Files by himself until March 1992, when Special Agent Dana Scully, an instructor at the FBI Academy's Forensic Science Research and Training Center, was partnered with him for the purpose of applying scientific reasoning to Mulder's work and theories.

Mulder's ultimate goal was to uncover what he believed to be a government conspiracy to hide the truth about alien life, and to find out what had happened to his sister. His quest and belief in the existence of aliens were, for most of the series, the driving force of the plot, or mytharc. However, during a period of time after Scully's cancer went into remission (season 5), Mulder was convinced by Michael Kritschgau that aliens did not in fact exist and that the government conspirators had merely concocted that threat as a smokescreen, to justify military activities and toy with him.

During the seventh season, Mulder eventually discovers the truth about his sister. Samantha was abducted (either by the alien colonists or the government conspirators), and various tests were performed on her. She was then returned to The Smoking Man to live out her life under his supervision, all the while undergoing additional tests. She was unable to bear the testing any longer so she ran away from her home and was eventually admitted to a nearby hospital, where she disappeared from her locked room. It is revealed that Samantha was taken by "spiritual intervention", with the help of beings called "Walk-ins". Mulder is briefly reunited with Samantha's spirit.

Mulder was also abducted by the aliens himself in 2000, and returned to Earth, almost dead, a few months later. He had been infected by an alien virus (for the second time), but Scully found a way to rescue him. After Mulder returned home to his apartment, an application was submitted to the FBI for his reinstatement to the X-Files but this was declined by Deputy Director Alvin Kersh, who had been promoted in charge of the X-Files shortly after Mulder had been abducted. He returned to work for a brief period of time, but was eventually fired for failure to follow orders not to investigate any X-Files. After Scully gave birth to William, Mulder went into hiding in New Mexico after Kersh said his life was in danger.

After about a year in hiding, Mulder obtains crucial information from a secret facility about the date of the planned alien colonization effort, but is caught and put on trial for the murder of Knowle Rohrer. Despite a defense organized by Walter Skinner with numerous witnesses, the judges sentence Mulder to death. With help from several people, including a reformed Kersh and the ghost of Alex Krycek, Mulder breaks out of prison and escapes with Scully. As of the series finale, Mulder and Scully were on the run. Six years after the events of the ninth season, Fox Mulder's fugitive status is clear. Scully mentions that he is wanted by the FBI and the dialogue also shows that the FBI does not really want to find him and is simply happy to have him "out of their hair". He is called to assist with the investigation of a missing FBI agent. In exchange for his help, all charges against him are dropped.

Seven years later, Mulder returns to the FBI when the X-Files is re-opened, in order to look into a government conspiracy, when it transpires they have been using alien technology. Along with Scully, they investigate several cases together like they had done originally. Six weeks after their return to the X-Files, Mulder confronts an alive Smoking Man to try to prevent him from carrying out a plan to depopulate the United States using a virus applied to smallpox vaccines. In a vision of Scully's, Mulder falls sick to the disease, but refuses the Smoking Man's help and his proposal to join his elite. Mulder is saved by Agent Miller and they regroup with Scully; however, she says Mulder needs a blood transfusion and only their son can give it to them. At that moment, an unidentified flying object hovers over the trio, which is where season ten ends. The beginning of season eleven reveals this vision came from Scully's son, William. Over the course of season eleven, Scully and Mulder search for William. Skinner learns from the Smoking Man that the Smoking Man, who is Mulder's father, also artificially impregnated Scully, and thus is William's father as well. In the third episode of the eleventh season, "Plus One", Scully and Mulder are intimate again. In the season 11 finale, "My Struggle IV", she reveals to Mulder that she is pregnant with his child.

Characterization
Despite his aloofness and cynical sense of humor, Mulder displays unbridled enthusiasm and interest when it comes to the paranormal, especially because of his personal involvement after his sister's abduction. Walter Skinner and other FBI officials have become concerned by his unprofessional behavior. This only proves true as Mulder makes a habit of letting his personal feelings cloud his judgment; his emotional attachment to UFO cases becomes more severe throughout the series, because of Dana Scully's eventual abduction and resultant cancer as well as his sister's abduction. Mulder can lose his temper when Scully is involved; on multiple occasions, he has become violent in his grief and unreserved in threatening physical force. Mulder's overprotectiveness of Scully stems not only from his obvious devotion and love for her, but also a long-harbored guilt; Mulder has admitted feeling indirectly responsible for the ordeals and tragedies Scully had gone through because of their investigations.

In the episode "Drive", Mulder facetiously apologizes on behalf of the "international Jewish conspiracy" in response to the abusive and anti-Semitic tirades of a suspect, to which Mulder appears to take offense; the suspect also guesses Mulder's ethnicity is Jewish based on his last name. Despite this, in the episode "Kaddish", Mulder is unable to identify a Talmudic book, states that he does not know Hebrew, and quips that Jesus returned from the dead. Also, Mulder, as his father before him, had a Christian burial presided over by a Protestant minister following his apparent "death" in the episode "Deadalive". This suggests he hails from a Protestant background, as Scully hails from a Catholic background. Mulder also seeks comfort in a Christian church following the events of the episode "Conduit". Of course Mulder could conceivably be of a Jewish ethnic descent but a Christian background, perhaps through ancestral marriage or conversion. David Duchovny suggested Mulder is Jewish when interviewed during production of the second season. In the episode "The Field Where I Died", Mulder went into a hypnotic trance and recalls a past life, where he is in a concentration camp during the Holocaust, and another where he was a Confederate soldier killed in the Battle of Chattanooga.

Mulder is almost never seen sleeping in a bed. The bedroom in his apartment (which appeared as late as the sixth season of the show's run) is apparently used for storage and is filled floor to ceiling with junk, including a couple of boxes of pornographic magazines. Instead, Mulder sleeps on his couch, often falling asleep to a blaring television. Mulder can seem to go through manic periods when worried or working on a case, contributing to or exacerbating his insomniac tendencies. Since "Dreamland II" where a "man in black" body-swaps with Mulder and takes over his life, Mulder gets his bedroom renovated and equipped with a waterbed. In "Monday" he finds himself soaked through when his waterbed (which he can't remember getting because Morris Fletcher got it in Dreamland) is leaking.

Relationships
Mulder had a rather strained relationship with his parents Bill and Teena Mulder, not least thanks to the X-Files. Initially, he had no idea his father was involved in the conspiracy and Samantha's disappearance. Bill, who became disenchanted with the shadow government and his own role in the conspiracy, eventually approached Fox about his past deeds but was shot and killed by Alex Krycek – working as an assassin for the Syndicate – before he could reveal any great amount of information. Over the next few years, Mulder got into several conflicts with his mother while trying to discover the extent of her own knowledge of his father's precise involvement. Teena dies of an apparent suicide when the stress of Samantha's abduction finally becomes too painful.

During the last years of his work on the X-Files, Mulder was even forced to doubt that Bill was his true father. He is led to consider the possibility that his mother had had an affair with the Smoking Man, a connection which may have resulted in the birth of either Samantha or Mulder himself. The possibility was hinted at later in the series, and Jeffrey Spender, who certainly was the Smoking Man's son, said that Mulder was his half-brother. In the ninth season, "William" explains that Spender and Mulder have very similar DNA, providing strong evidence that they do have the same father.

During his studies at Oxford, around the year of 1983, he was dating Phoebe Green; future investigator of Metropolitan Police Service (season 1, episode 12, Fire). When he started his work on The X-Files, around 1991, he was close with his current partner; Diana Fowley (season 5, episode 20, The End). None of those remained longterm and stable.

Mulder's closest friend was FBI partner Dana Scully, who was assigned to "debunk [his] work" by the conspirators and the FBI brass. But against their intentions, her loyalties quickly became affixed to Mulder's quest and Mulder himself, a connection which seemed to pull Mulder's work out of obscurity, as Scully's scientific bent afforded them a certain amount of credibility. Their intense professional and personal relationship continued to strengthen through the years. While the relationship was platonic for the greater part of the series, there are clues that it developed into a romantic one by the last few seasons. Mulder and Scully almost always called each other by their surnames – Mulder purportedly hated his first name, but Scully had no such aversion. At the fourth episode of season seven the romantic undertones were confirmed when the two shared a kiss. In the series finale, the final scene depicted Mulder and Scully after running away together, in bed together, contemplating what the future held. In the season 11 finale Scully revealed to be pregnant with his unborn child.

Mulder's greatest nemesis was The Smoking Man, who, despite his obvious ill-intent, seemed to hold Mulder in special regard. Though he mocked Mulder to his face for his foolishness and the futility of his quest, in "Two Fathers", he told his son Jeffrey Spender, "You pale [sic] to Fox Mulder." Mulder also developed an intense enmity for Alex Krycek, a double agent who briefly worked with Mulder in the FBI as an infiltrator, and who continued to serve as a recurring adversary, acting as an assassin for the Syndicate in the murders of Bill Mulder and Melissa Scully.

Appearances
Duchovny portrays Mulder as a series regular for the first seven seasons of the show. Duchovny left the show following the seventh-season finale "Requiem", wherein he was abducted by aliens. Although he makes a handful of cameos in the first part of season eight—most notably in the episodes "Within", "Without", "The Gift", and "Per Manum"—Mulder is returned by the aliens and the latter part of the season deals with his death, subsequent resurrection, and his departure from the FBI. After the conclusion of the eighth season, Duchovny left the show and only appeared in four ninth-season episodes: "Trust No 1", "Jump the Shark", "William", and "The Truth". Duchovny's appearances in "Trust No 1" and "Jump the Shark" were via archival footage, and he only made a small cameo in the third. However, his appearance in "The Truth", the program's series finale, was substantial, and Duchovny was once again listed in the credits as starring.

Conceptual history
David Duchovny had worked in Los Angeles three years prior to The X-Files. At first, he wanted to base his acting career around films, but in 1993 his manager Melanie Green gave him a script of the pilot episode of The X-Files. Green and Duchovny were both convinced it was a good script, so Duchovny auditioned for the lead. When Duchovny was auditioning for the part of Fox Mulder, he made a terrific audition but talked rather slowly. Chris Carter thought that he was a good judge of character, and thought that Duchovny wasn't too bright. So he talked to Duchovny and asked him if he could please imagine himself as an FBI agent for the future weeks. The casting director of the show was very positive about him, while according to Carter, Duchovny turned out to be one of the best-read people he knew. After getting the role, Duchovny thought the show wouldn't last for long or that it wouldn't make as much impact as it did.

Carter has said that he named Mulder after his mother's maiden name. His first name, Fox, was actually not a tribute to the Fox network which aired The X-Files, as often assumed – Carter said he had a childhood friend named Fox. Mulder was inspired by the fictional character Carl Kolchak, a newspaper reporter Carter described as a "believer" just like Mulder. Kolchak was in turn inspired by the fictional character Harry Picard, a policeman in Les Whitten's vampire novel The Progeny of the Adder. Duchovny got the script with many of Mulder's characteristics fully formed. Executive producer Frank Spotnitz called portraying actor Duchovny amazingly smart. He further stated that Duchovny was behind some of the main characteristic ideas behind Mulder.

At the end of the seventh season Duchovny was in negotiations with the Fox network, saying he wanted more money (while not saying how much) and an improved work schedule, among other issues. After settling his contract dispute, Duchovny quit full-time participation in the show after the seventh season. This contributed to uncertainties over the likelihood of an eighth season. Carter and most fans felt the show was at its natural endpoint with Duchovny's departure, but it was decided Mulder would be abducted at the end of the seventh season, leaving things open for the actor's return in 12 episodes the following year. Duchovny's character Mulder was replaced by John Jay Doggett (portrayed by Robert Patrick). In season nine, Duchovny wasn't available for shooting, so he only appeared in three episodes with small cameos, the first being an archive footage only in "Trust No 1", a brief cameo in "William", which he also directed and appeared full-time in the series finale, "The Truth".

After the show ended, Carter and Frank Spotnitz started to talk about a movie sequel. Duchovny stated in an interview that very same year that it always had been a desire to come back to the franchise, saying it was a natural stage of development for the franchise to go to the cinema. When talking about Mulder in The X-Files: I Want to Believe, Duchovny said that he wanted to play him a "little different". He continued saying that Mulder had "lost every battle" and was "beaten down by life ... . He's the same guy, but he is older Mulder".

Mulder had a brief cameo on The Lone Gunmen, an X-Files spin-off featuring the characters of the same name. He appeared on the episode "All About Yves". In the Millennium episode "Lamentation", the main character, Frank Black, visits the FBI Academy in Quantico, Virginia, and Mulder and Dana Scully are briefly seen descending a stairway. In fact, they are Duchovny and Anderson's stand-ins.

Reception
Duchovny was nominated for two Emmy Awards in 1997 and 1998 in the category "Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series", but lost. He was nominated for a Golden Globe Award in 1995 in the category "Best Actor – Drama Series". Two years later he was again nominated for a Golden Globe in the same category and won, in 1997 and 1998 he was nominated in the same category but didn't win. Duchovny has been nominated five times in the category "Outstanding Actor – Drama Series" by the Screen Actors Guild awards but didn't win once. Duchovny won a Satellite Award in the category "Best Actor – Drama Series" in 1997, and was nominated once again 1998.

Animated versions of Mulder appeared on The Simpsons and Eek! the Cat (both series which have been featured in episodes of The X-Files), in the episodes "The Springfield Files" and "Eek Space-9", respectively. Both featured the voice acting of Duchovny. Duchovny appeared as Mulder on the sketch show Saturday Night Live with Molly Shannon as Scully, when he hosted an episode. Joining him was co-star Nicholas Lea, who would appear as Alex Krycek in a sketch that spoofed The X-Files.

The New York Times writer Joyce Millman said that Twin Peaks character Special Agent Dale Cooper could have been Mulder's "quirky ... spiritual twin" if David Duchovny hadn't appeared in the show earlier. When reviewing The X-Files: I Want to Believe, reviewer Moira Macdonald said it was a "kick" watching Duchovny and Gillian Anderson (who portrayed Dana Scully). Jesse Hassenger from PopMatters when reviewing season eight, was throughout negative to the new season, claiming that Patrick was miscast and calling David Duchovny's appearances as Mulder shallow. Critics and fans alike have praised Duchovny and Anderson's "on-screen chemistry" for years. Richard Corliss from Time magazine praised Duchovny for settling in his role so "quickly" and calling the character "an obsessive plodder". Robert Patrick, the actor who replaced Duchovny as the male lead after the seventh season, commented that the chemistry Duchovny and Gillian Anderson had, could only happen "once in a lifetime".

TV Guide ranked Fox Mulder #7 in its "50 Greatest Sci-Fi Legends" list.

title: Fox Mulder


text:
Paimon

Paimon is a spirit named in early grimoires. These include The Lesser Key of Solomon (in the Ars Goetia), Johann Weyer's Pseudomonarchia Daemonum, Jacques Collin de Plancy's Dictionnaire Infernal, the Livre des Esperitz (as "Poymon"), the Liber Officiorum Spirituum (as Paimon), The Book of Abramelin, and certain French editions of The Grimoire of Pope Honorius (as Bayemon); as well as British Library, Sloane MS 3824.

Status and rank
The Goetia and Weyer begin entries on King Paimon noting that he is quite obedient to Lucifer.

King Paimo(n) appears as the ninth spirit in the Ars Goetia, the 22nd spirit in the Pseudomonarchia Daemonum, and in the Dictionnaire Infernal. In the Liber Officiorum Spirituum, he is first listed as the sixth spirit and later as the third king.

The Goetia, Weyer, de Plancy, Livre des Esperitz, Liber Officiorum Spirituum, and Sloane MS 3824 all rank Paimon as a king. The Livre des Espiritz, Sloane MS 3824, and the Grimoire of Pope Honorius specify that King Paimon is king of the west. In the Book of Abramelin (where his appearance is given no description), he is instead one of the eight dukes. It is said that he has no power over the lord above and would be demolished in any battle.

Relationship to hierarchy
The Goetia, Weyer, and de Plancy warn that if King Paimon appears alone, a sacrifice must be made to summon Lebal (sometimes called Bebal), the most devoted to Lucifer, and Abalam, two kings who serve under him but do not always accompany him. These three sources state that he rules 66 legions of spirits, some of which are of the order of Angels and the rest being Powers. The Livre des Esperitz, on the other hand, credits him with just 25 legions of spirits. Sloane MS 3824 mentions him as employing a "bishop" named Sperion, among other spirits.

Critical editions of the Lesser Key of Solomon list him as a former Dominion. Weyer notes a confusion over whether he was a former Dominion or Cherub. According to Thomas Rudd, King Paimon is opposed by the Shem HaMephorash angel Haziel.

Appearance
In the Goetia, Weyer, de Plancy, Livre des Esperitz, Liber Officiorum Spirituum, he is described as a man riding a dromedary, preceded by men playing loud music (particularly trumpets), as well as cymbals. Sloane MS 3824 describes the camel as crowned, while the rest describe King Paimon himself as crowned. The Goetia itself makes no mention of King Paimon's face, while the rest describe him as having a beautiful face but still refer to him as male.

Possession
Sloane MS 3824 and the Liber Officiorum Spirituum describe him as having a "Hoarse Voice", and those works, Weyer, and the Goetia note that he must be commanded to speak, with the Liber Officiorum Spirituum specifying that King Paimon will speak in his native language until commanded to converse in the summoner's own language.

Powers
The Goetia, Weyer, Livre des Esperitz, and the Liber Officiorum Spirituum all describe him as teaching science and answering other questions. The Goetia and Weyer specify that his knowledge includes all arts and "secret Things" [sic], such as knowledge regarding the Earth, its waters, and the winds. The Livre des Esperitz and the Liber Officiorum Spirituum broaden this to truthfully answering all questions asked of him, with the former source also claiming that he can reveal hidden treasures and the latter highlighting that he knows all the affairs of the world. The Goetia, Weyer, and the Livre des Esperitz also claim he has the ability to bestow dignities and lordships. The Goetia and Weyer credited him with granting familiars (who are likewise good at teaching). The Liber Officiorum Spirituum uniquely gives him command over fish. Sloane MS 3824 mentions Paimon in "An Experiment to Cause a Thief to Return".

In Abramelin, King Paimo(n)'s powers include knowledge of past and future events, clearing up doubts, making spirits appear, creating visions, acquiring and dismissing servant spirits, reanimating the dead for several years, flight, remaining underwater indefinitely, and general abilities to "make all kinds of things" (and) "all sorts of people and armor appear" at the behest of the magician.

In popular culture
King Paimon is portrayed as the primary antagonist in Ari Aster's 2018 film, Hereditary. Annie Graham and her family are tormented by him and his cult as a result of her mother Ellen's pledge to him. Paimon and his cult are responsible for everything happening to the family, as their goal is to give Paimon a male vessel. An altered version of the Sigil of Paimon can be seen multiple times within the film, along with many other signs indicating his presence.

Paimon is portrayed in Helluva Boss as the father of Stolas. He is voiced by Jonathan Freeman.

title: Paimon


text:
Buer (demon)

Buer is a spirit that appears in the 16th-century grimoire Pseudomonarchia Daemonum and its derivatives, where he is described as a Great President of Hell, having fifty legions of demons under his command. He appears when the Sun is in Sagittarius. Like Chiron, the chief centaur of Greek mythology, he teaches natural and moral philosophy, logic, and the qualities and uses of all herbs and plants, and is also capable of healing all infirmities (especially of humans) and bestows good familiars.

He has been described as being a wheel with several legs, or even as a lion head with multiple goat legs. Additionally, Louis Le Breton created an illustration of Buer, later engraved by M. Jarrault, depicting the demon as having the head of a lion and five, six or more goat or horse legs surrounding his body to walk in every direction.

In popular culture

 * In the hit 2020 fighting game Guilty Gear Strive, Zato-1's jumping slash (j.s) is modeled after Louis Le Breton's illustration of the demon. However, instead of a lion's head, it is a large open mouth.
 * In the video game Genshin Impact, Buer is the Goetic title given to Lesser Lord Kusanali, the Archon of Dendro (nature) and wisdom who is the tutelary deity of the nation of Sumeru and is the reincarnation of Greater Lord Rukkhadevata, her predecessor, who created her from the purest branch of Irminsul, the tree that keeps all of Teyvat's knowledge. She currently resides in her vessel as Nahida.
 * Buer appears as a minor enemy in several Castlevania games as well as the Castlevania TV series. It also appears in Bloodstained: Ritual of the Night, the spiritual successor to Castlevania, as well as in the Dead Cells DLC "Return to Castlevania".
 * Buer is a character in the animated series Rage of Bahamut.
 * Buer also appears at the very beginning of Resident Evil 7: Biohazard as a set of strung up cow legs and a decapitated cow head.
 * Buer can be seen in background of The Owl House in the fourth episode of Season 1
 * Buer is a minor boss in La-Mulana, appearing as a lion head with many hooved legs walking in a crab-like manner. When flying between platforms, the legs rotate around the head as depicted in Breton's illustration.
 * Buer appears as a secret character in the video game Pony Island by Daniel Mullins. Buer can be found in the broken map section of the game in the bottom right corner.
 * In the Yu-Gi-Oh! Trading Card Game, there is a monster "Buerillabaisse de Nouvelles", whose name is a portmanteau of "Buer" and "bouillabaisse", a French soup consisting of various fish and herbs.
 * In the game Vampire Survivors, there is a monster called Lionhead, who looks like Buer. In fact, it's bestiary entry is a nod to him.

title: Buer (demon)


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Joint European Torus

The Joint European Torus (JET) was a magnetically confined plasma physics experiment, located at Culham Centre for Fusion Energy in Oxfordshire, UK. Based on a tokamak design, the fusion research facility was a joint European project with the main purpose of opening the way to future nuclear fusion grid energy. At the time of its design JET was larger than any comparable machine.

JET was built with the hope of reaching scientific breakeven where the fusion energy gain factor Q =1.0. It began operation in 1983 and spent most of the next decade increasing its performance in a lengthy series of experiments and upgrades. In 1991 the first experiments including tritium were made, making JET the first reactor in the world to run on the production fuel mix of 50–50 tritium and deuterium. It was also decided to add a divertor design to JET, which occurred between 1991 and 1993. Performance was significantly improved, and in 1997 JET set the record for the closest approach to scientific breakeven, reaching Q = 0.67 in 1997, producing 16 MW of fusion power while injecting 24 MW of thermal power to heat the fuel.

Between 2009 and 2011, JET was shut down to rebuild many of its parts, to adopt concepts being used in the development of the ITER project in Saint-Paul-lès-Durance, in Provence, southern France. In December 2020, a JET upgrade commenced using tritium, as part of its contribution to ITER.

Immediately after the announcement of JET's closure at the IAEA conference in London, October 2023, the group "Scientists for JET" launched a petition to call for a review of the decision to close JET, with scientists fearing a research time gap and personnel loss between JET's closure and the start of ITER's operations.

JET finished operations in December 2023, with decommissioning expected to last until 2040.

Background
By the early 1960s, the fusion research community was in the "doldrums". Many initially promising experimental paths had all failed to produce useful results, and the latest experiments suggested performance was stalled at the Bohm diffusion limit, far below what would be needed for a practical fusion generator.

In 1968, the Soviets held the periodic meeting of fusion researchers in Novosibirsk, where they introduced data from their T-3 tokamak. This represented a dramatic leap in fusion performance, at least 10 times what the best machines in the world had produced to that point. The results were so good that some dismissed them as faulty measurements. To counter this, the Soviets invited a team from the UK to independently test their machine. Their 1969 report confirmed the Soviet results, resulting in a "veritable stampede" of tokamak construction around the world.

A key issue in tokamak designs was that they did not generate enough of an electric current in their plasma to provide enough heating to bring the fuel to fusion conditions. Some sort of external heating would be required. There was no shortage of ideas for this, and in the mid-1970s a series of machines were built around the world to explore these concepts. One of these, the Princeton Large Torus (PLT) demonstrated that neutral beam injection was a workable concept, using it to reach record temperatures well over the 50 million K that is the minimum needed for a practical reactor.

With the PLT's success, the path to scientific breakeven finally appeared possible after decades of effort. Scientific breakeven is the point where the power produced by the fusion reactions is equal to the amount of power injected to heat the plasma. Once breakeven is achieved, even small improvements from that point begin to rapidly increase the amount of net energy being released. Teams around the world began planning for a new generation of machines combining PLT's injectors with superconducting magnets and vacuum vessels that could hold deuterium-tritium fuel instead of the test fuels containing pure deuterium or hydrogen that had been used up to that point.

European design
In 1971, the member states of the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) decided in favour of a robust fusion programme and provided the necessary legal framework for a European fusion device to be developed. In 1975, the first proposals for the JET machine were completed. Detailed design took three years. At the end of 1977, after a long debate, Culham was chosen as the host site for the new design. Funding was approved on 1 April 1978 as the "JET Joint Undertaking" legal entity.

The reactor was built at a new site next to the Culham Centre for Fusion Energy, the UK's fusion research laboratory which opened in 1965. The construction of the buildings was undertaken by Tarmac Construction, starting in 1978 with the Torus Hall. The Hall was completed in January 1982 and construction of the JET machine itself began immediately after the completion of the Torus Hall. The cost was 198.8 Million European Units of Account (predecessor to the Euro) or 438 million in 2014 US dollars.

JET was one of only two tokamak models designed to work with a real deuterium-tritium fuel mix, the other being the US-built TFTR. Both were built with the hope of reaching scientific breakeven where the "fusion energy gain factor" or Q = 1.0.

JET achieved its first plasma on 25 June 1983. It was officially opened on 9 April 1984 by Queen Elizabeth II. On 9 November 1991, JET performed the world's first deuterium-tritium experiment. This beat the US's machine, TFTR, by a full two years.

Upgrades
Although very successful, JET and its counterpart TFTR failed to reach scientific breakeven. This was due to a variety of effects that had not been seen in previous machines operating at lower densities and pressures. Based on these results, and a number of advances in plasma shaping and divertor design, a new tokamak layout emerged, sometimes known as an "advanced tokamak". An advanced tokamak capable of reaching scientific breakeven would have to be very large and very expensive, which led to the international effort ITER.

In 1991, the first experiments including tritium were made, allowing JET to run on the production fuel of a 50–50 mix of tritium and deuterium. It was also decided at this time to add a divertor, allowing removal of waste material from the plasma. Performance was significantly improved, allowing JET to set many records in terms of confinement time, temperature and fusion triple product. In 1997, JET set the record for the closest approach to scientific breakeven. It attained Q = 0.67, producing 16 MW of fusion energy while injecting 24 MW of thermal power to heat the fuel, a record that endured until 2021. This was also the record for greatest fusion power produced.

In 1998, JET's engineers developed a remote handling system with which, for the first time, it was possible to exchange certain components using artificial hands only. A "Remote Handling" system is, in general, an essential tool for any subsequent fusion power plant and especially for the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) being developed at Saint-Paul-lès-Durance, in Provence, southern France. This Remote Handling system was later to lead on to become RACE (Remote Applications in Challenging Environments).

In 1999, the European Fusion Development Agreement (EFDA) was established with responsibility for the future collective use of JET.

ITER design work
In October 2009, a 15-month shutdown period was started to rebuild many parts of the JET to adopt concepts being used in the development of the ITER project in Saint-Paul-lès-Durance, in Provence, southern France. This including replacing carbon components in the vacuum vessel with tungsten and beryllium ones.

In mid-May 2011, the shutdown reached its end. The first experimental campaign after the installation of the "ITER-Like Wall" started on 2 September 2011.

On 14 July 2014, the European Commission signed a contract worth €283m for another 5-year extension so more advanced higher energy research can be performed at JET.

Post-Brexit
Brexit threw the plans for JET in doubt. As part of its plan to leave the EU, the UK was to leave Euratom, which provides the funding for JET. Talks on the funding after 2018, when the 5-year plan expired, commenced and a new agreement to extend JET's operation until 2019 or 2020 appeared to be largely complete. These talks were put on hold after the Brexit announcement. However, in March 2019, the UK Government and European Commission signed a contract extension for JET. This guaranteed JET operations until the end of 2024 regardless of Brexit situation. In December 2020, a JET upgrade commenced using tritium, as part of its contribution to ITER.

On 21 December 2021, JET produced 59 megajoules using deuterium-tritium fuel while sustaining fusion during a five-second pulse, beating its previous record of 21.7 megajoules with Q = 0.33, set in 1997.

In October 2023, JET set its final fusion energy record, producing 69.29 megajoules over 6 seconds from only 0.21 mg of D-T fuel. In November 2023, a petition asking that JET not be closed was started, with scientists fearing a research time gap and personnel loss between JET's closure and the start of ITER's operations. Operations ceased in December, after performing 105,842 pulses, with decommissioning expected to last until 2040. The final pulses were used to operate JET outside of its design capabilities. The decommissioning and repurposing process is expected to last until 2040.

Petition against the closure of JET
Immediately after the announcement of JET's closure at the IAEA conference in London, October 2023, the group "Scientists for JET" launched a petition to call for a review of the decision to close JET. The scientists are concerned that JET's end date was set assuming that ITER would be up and running by that date to continue fusion experiments, but with ITER's startup being postponed and ITER's deuterium-tritium (D-T) reactions only scheduled for 2035, that there will be a gap of many years with no fusion research.

Description

JET has a major radius of 3 metres, and the D-shaped vacuum chamber is 2.5 metres wide and 4.2 metres high. The total plasma volume within it is 100 cubic metres, about 100 times larger than the largest machine in production when the JET design began.

JET was one of the first tokamaks to be designed to use a D-shaped vacuum chamber. This was initially considered as a way to improve the safety factor, but during the design, it was also noticed that this would make it much easier to build the system mechanically, as it reduced the net forces across the chamber that are trying to force the torus towards the centre of the major axis. Ideally, the magnets surrounding the chamber should be more curved at the top and bottom and less on the inside and outsides in order to support these forces, which leads to something like an oval shape that the D closely approximated. The flatter shape on the inside edge was also easier to support due to the larger, flatter surface.

While exploring the stability of various plasma shapes on a computer, the team noticed that non-circular plasmas did not exactly cancel out the vertical drift that the twisted fields have originally been introduced to solve. If the plasma was displaced up or down, it would continue travelling in that direction. However, the simulations demonstrated that the drift rate was slow enough that it could be counteracted using additional magnets and an electronic feedback system.

The primary magnetic field in a tokamak is supplied by a series of magnets ringing the vacuum chamber. In JET, these are a series of 32 copper-wound magnets, each one weighing 12 tonnes. In total, they carry a current of 51 MA, and as they had to do so for periods of tens of seconds, they are water cooled. When operating, the coil is attempting to expand with a force of 6 MN, there is a net field towards the centre of the major axis of 20 MN, and a further twisting force because the poloidal field inside the plasma is in different directions on the top and bottom. All of these forces are borne on the external structure.

Surrounding the entire assembly is the 2,600 tonne eight-limbed transformer which is used to induce a current into the plasma. The primary purpose of this current is to generate a poloidal field that mixes with the one supplied by the toroidal magnets to produce the twisted field inside the plasma. The current also serves the secondary purpose of ionizing the fuel and providing some heating of the plasma before other systems take over.

The main source of heating in JET is provided by two systems, positive ion neutral beam injection and ion cyclotron resonance heating. The former uses small particle accelerators to shoot fuel atoms into the plasma, where collisions cause the atoms to ionize and become trapped with the rest of the fuel. These collisions deposit the kinetic energy of the accelerators into the plasma. Ion cyclotron resonance heating is essentially the plasma equivalent of a microwave oven, using radio waves to pump energy into the ions directly by matching their cyclotron frequency. JET was designed so it would initially be built with a few megawatts of both sources, and then later be expanded to as much of 25 MW of neutral beams and 15 MW of cyclotron heating.

JET's power requirements during the plasma pulse are around 500 MW with peak in excess of 1000 MW. Because power draw from the main grid is limited to 575 MW, two large flywheel generators were constructed to provide this necessary power. Each 775-ton flywheel can spin up to 225 rpm and store 3.75 GJ, roughly the same amount of kinetic energy as a train weighing 5,000 tons traveling at 140 kph. Each flywheel uses 8.8 MW to spin up and can generate 400 MW (briefly).

title: Joint European Torus


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Sunshine Logroño

Emmanuel Logroño (born November 1, 1951), better known as Sunshine Logroño, is an American actor. Logroño has worked in Puerto Rican media for close to three decades.

Early years
Born in New York to a Puerto Rican mother, Logroño moved to San Juan, Puerto Rico along with his family when he was nine years old. He was soon recognized as a multifaceted entertainer by his schoolteachers and classmates. His nickname "Sunshine" came from a short stint (1973) as a disc jockey for San Juan-based WBMJ-AM, Puerto Rico's first rock and roll station (another WBMJ disc jockey at the time, Raymond Broussard, better known as Moonshadow, later became the co-host of El Vacilón de la Mañana, a very popular Spanish language morning radio talk show in New York City). Sunshine was also heard in 1974 as a part of the new announcing crew at "The New WRAI" 1520, a station created by Bill Thompson and "Radio Man" after the format change from English to Spanish at WBMJ. Besides his short stint as a disc jockey, Logroño served as a voice actor for Puerto Rico's then-active dubbing industry. His was the Spanish-language voice for "Little Joe", one of the Cartwright brothers (played by Michael Landon) in the U.S. television show Bonanza.

Logroño obtained a Bachelor of Arts (English Language Literature) degree ("a degree in unemployment", Logroño claims) from the University of Puerto Rico at Río Piedras and a Master of Arts (Theater) degree from Michigan State University. After his return to Puerto Rico, Logroño was a member of the Puerto Rican folk group, Moliendo Vidrio, which also starred bandleader Gary Nuñez and later comedic actress Carmen Nydia Velázquez. Moliendo Vidrio made a few albums during the 1970s. By the late years of that decade, the group disbanded.

Logroño kept himself busy in the late 1970s as a voice talent for radio commercials, as a comedic actor on Puerto Rican television, and as a radio host. He co-hosted a morning radio program, Rompiendo el Día (Daybreak) with Puerto Rican entrepreneur and musician Silverio Pérez, and served as part of the comedic team behind Desafiando a los Genios (Defying the Geniuses), a popular TV mock quiz show starring, among others, actor, writer and film director Jacobo Morales and Puerto Rico's premier comedic actor, José Miguel Agrelot. Two of Logroño's TV characters would surface around this time: Agapito Flores, a rather naive country bumpkin with a speech impairment, and Nicky El Bro, a Nuyorican hustler. A third character, "Chinito Rivera" (a flasher that said little and wore a raincoat he was eager to open at the slightest provocation) would eventually evolve into "El Barbarazo del Amor", one of his radio characters.

Los Rayos Gamma
Morales and Perez would soon revive, along with actor and radio announcer Horacio Olivo, a musical group named Los Rayos Gamma, Puerto Rico's most beloved political satire troupe, which had an extremely short but popular stint in 1968 as the creative vehicle for the late satirical writer and journalist, Eddie López. Logroño filled in for Pérez on vacation, and when Pérez returned, he was allowed to fill in López's shoes (who was considered irreplaceable by some), with great success. Los Rayos Gamma had a television show on channel 7 where they satirized politicians with their songs to high ratings and which would be taken off the air due to their rather direct satirical jabs at then-governor of Puerto Rico Carlos Romero Barceló. They went on to make a few albums and would return to the public spotlight in roughly four-year intervals, coinciding with each general election in Puerto Rico.

At his initial stages in "Los Rayos Gamma", Logroño created a character that seemed to lighten up the absurdity and gravity of another character, played by Morales, that was in turn based on a real-life incident. During the 1930s, Dr. Cornelius P. Rhoads, in charge of health services for the Institute of Tropical Medicine in San Juan, wrote a few letters to friends in the United States in which he described his hatred for Puerto Ricans. Whether the letters were in jest or not, he claimed in them to have implanted cancer cells in local subjects without their consent. One of these letters was intercepted by affiliates to Pedro Albizu Campos's Nationalist Party of Puerto Rico, and Albizu vehemently denounced Rhoades as an unethical and sadistic doctor who treated his patients as guinea pigs. At their television show, Morales played a descendant of Rhoads, "Dr. Cornelius Rodas"; Logroño played his assistant, Igor, wearing a fake hunch, doing guttural noises, and inevitably messing up whatever plans Rodas had for his avowed plans to exterminate Puerto Ricans. Igor reportedly was created when Rodas submitted an unwilling participant to a 23-hour long orgasm using Frankenstein-like electrodes. Igor was a big fan of Puerto Rican culture, Van Halen and pornography, and walked around with a small doll, "Calerito", resembling him, a comedic device that preceded Mini Me by many years. Due to the physical demands on him while playing the character, Logroño has since played Igor only sporadically. A big fan of the character, who got "Igor" as a nickname when he imitated him in high school for his friends, is Juan Gonzalez, the Major League Baseball player.

Los Rayos Gamma edited a music album in 1982, from which "Me apesta la vida" (My Life Stinks), a funk-meets-rap fusion song penned by Logroño, was a minor radio hit in Puerto Rico. Logroño updated the song in a newer version, found in the 2006 Culebro Mendoza album "Culebro Legal", this time set to a hip-hop beat.

Later years
After Los Rayos Gamma's TV show was yanked off the air, Sunshine kept active, doing voice-overs for commercials (at one time half of all radio commercials in Puerto Rico featured Logroño's talents in one way or another) and making appearances at several TV shows and radio programs. At one of these shows the comedic characters of Eleuterio Quiñones and his son Elpidio were born. Eleuterio Quiñones, a die-hard supporter of Puerto Rican statehood whose grasp of public affairs and general culture level would be best compared to those of Archie Bunker in the U.S., and his son Elpidio -a 38-year-old special education patient with the emotional age of a child but with rather stunning reproductive organs - are still a staple of Puerto Rican radio and television. Logroño also developed his own audio production company, Man-TK Records (Man-TK being a pun on manteca, the Spanish word for lard. Logroño's work is filled with porcine references throughout his career).

Sunshine's Café
In 1988 Logroño began hosting a show named Sunshine's Cafe on WAPA-TV. Sunshine's Cafe was very popular among Puerto Rico's television viewers and its risqué sense of humor guaranteed four seasons of high ratings and extreme controversy. After the show's first airing all sponsors except one canceled their contracts, and the program spent close to six months without advertising. The program was controversial because it confronted many Puerto Rican stereotypes head-on. It also provided Logroño with a vehicle to bring in many taboo topics in subtext, a technique that he personally credits Bill Cosby with teaching him when Cosby developed a pilot for a Latino-based series in American television that did not evolve into a series.

In the program, Sunshine played many characters; one particular character portrayed a clever closet homosexual named Vitín Alicea Arévalo, many of whose phrases became household sayings. Another character portrayed a fake Pentecostal minister, El Hermano Emmanuel (Brother Emmanuel), who had a hunch (mirroring that of a famous Puerto Rican minister, Yiye Avila), was constantly angry (as yet another local minister, Jorge Raschke), frequently schemed to profit from the members of his congregation, and almost always was caught doing so. El Hermano Emmanuel constantly spoke trilling r's (and was often referred to as "Hermano Emmanuerrrrr"), and used a phrase mocking speaking in tongues: "¡Salamaya!" (derived from "¡Sea la madre!", or "[Damned] be his mother!") as a punchline, particularly whenever the Hermano met a stunningly attractive woman, or when another character caught him in a profiteering scheme. A famous episode had the Hermano try (unsuccessfully) to cure José Feliciano from his blindness (Feliciano's memorable response was: "I can see! I can see! I can see that you're a fake, I still can't see a damn!)

The phrase "Salamaya" is still used in Puerto Rico to refer in jest to devout Pentecostal followers (Hermano Emmanuel constantly had two naive female parishioners follow him everywhere) or a small Pentecostal congregation (particularly those with rudimentary facilities, such as tents). Rapper René Pérez ("Residente") uses it in the Calle 13" song "Ojalai" to describe the song's attractive female subject in rapture-like amazement.

Offended by Logroño's portrayal of ministers, Pentecostal leaders in Puerto Rico threatened Logroño's program with boycotts, and Raschke and Milton Picón (the local representative for Morality in Media) actually confronted him on television talk shows. On a rare bow to public pressure, Logroño discontinued the character ("If I keep on doing it their followers will lynch me!", he gives as an explanation).

Chona, La Puerca Asesina
In exchange for a cameo in the film "La Guagua Aérea", Logroño somehow persuaded film maker Luis Molina Casanova to direct a satirical action film, "Chona, La Puerca Asesina" ("Chona, The Killer Pig"), released in 1988 and filmed in black and white. Many Puerto Rican artists and media personalities (along with Argentine actor Pablo Alarcón, who played a Puerto Rican peasant with a strong Argentine accent) appeared in the film, in which a piglet grows to become ten stories tall and attacks Puerto Rico, Godzilla-style. Among the cameos and film roles are those played by José Miguel Agrelot, Nena Rivera, Wilson Torres (later known for another comedic character named Maneco), Guillermo José Torres, Enrique Cruz, Antonio Pantojas and others (Ruth Fernández sings the movie's theme, her trademark song "Gracias, Mundo"). Jacobo Morales and Logroño appear as Cornelius Rodas and Igor, respectively; Rodas is responsible for enlarging the pig, as requested by Don Rodriguez, one of Agrelot's many comedic characters. A remasterized version, or director's cut, which adds Vitín Alicea to the plot and features improved sound effects, was released in DVD format in 1998.

In 1991, Logroño had a chance to star in a Hollywood movie: he acted opposite Martin Short and Kurt Russell in Captain Ron. He appeared in the movie Contact, alongside Jodie Foster, as a taxi driver, but actually - thanks to the rather extreme talents of the film's editor, Logroño claims - only his left elbow appears on the screen. He won the audition over Rafael Fuentes much to his dismay.

According to an interview that Logroño gave Vea one time, one day, he arrived at his office to learn there was an audition for another movie. By his own account, he caught a flight to New York City, made the audition, and flew back to Puerto Rico, arriving just in time to participate at a play in Mayagüez.

Logroño attempted to show his serious actor side in the late 1990s, participating in various theater plays.

More recent history
He was the host of a show named De Noche Con Iris y Sunshine (At Night With Iris & Sunshine), co-hosted by Iris Chacón. When Iris later left the show for personal reasons, it was renamed to De Noche con Sunshine (At Night With Sunshine). In a controversial network switch Sunshine switched to WAPA-TV in 1998 and was the host of a show named Club Sunshine, which was aired until May 2009. During that time in WAPA-TV he was also the vice-president for talent affairs of the television station. Club Sunshine was followed up by Sunshine Remix (later retitled El Remix) and Risas en Combo, both aired on WAPA-TV in an alternating season-wise fashion until both were replaced together by El Remix alone, which still airs on WAPA as of 2019.

On February 25, 2007, Logroño appeared as an archbishop in the filming of the video for Calle 13's "Tango del Pecado", the first featured single of their recent album, "¿Residente o Visitante?". He marries Calle 13's René Pérez and ex-girlfriend Denise Quiñones in a surrealistic wedding where Tego Calderón and Voltio are the best men. On March 21, 2007, Logroño released a children's book, "El coquí que quiso ser sapo" (The coquí who wanted to be a bullfrog), based on a story he once developed and recorded as part of a children stories' album for the Museo del Niño (Children's Museum) in San Juan. A children's musical play based on the book was produced in Puerto Rico in April 2008.

Sunshine has been hosting the afternoon radio show Agitando El Show since 1997, with Fernando Arévalo. The show has one of the biggest audiences and is one of the longest running shows in local radio.

During 2014, Logroño became involved in a dispute with television personality Josué Carrión over a section of Logroño's show, "El Tiempo es Poco", which mocked Carrión's television show El Tiempo Es Oro. Logroño decided to cancel the section, much like during the 1980s, when he had a similar situation in which he mocked journalist and emcee Ivan Frontera, who got murdered early in 1985, causing the cancellation of Logroño's character, "Ivan Fontecha", during Logroño's shows.

title: Sunshine Logroño


text:
Operation Veritas

Operation Veritas was the codename used for British military operations against the Taliban government of Afghanistan in 2001. British forces played a supporting role to the American Operation Enduring Freedom. In addition, the British contribution was an important part of the overall forces deployed. Operation Veritas also incorporated Operation Oracle, Operation Fingal, and Operation Jacana. It was succeeded by Operation Herrick.

Many British forces were on exercise Saif Sareea II in Oman when the September 11 attacks occurred. This allowed for the swift deployment of some to Afghanistan for operations against the Taliban.

First rotation
The first rotation of forces left in place after the war started included: 2nd Battalion, Parachute Regiment 40 Commando, Royal Marines was assigned as infantry for the operation, the unit initially deployed only C Coy and B Coy from Diego Garcia BIOT to Bagram in mid November 2001 to support UKSF operations. They were later relieved by A Coy (40 Cdo RM) in mid March 2002, prior to 45 Commando Royal Marines deployment in Operation Anaconda. A Coy were subsequently relieved in June 2002 by B Coy, who were based there until Oct 2002.
 * HMS Illustrious
 * HMS Fearless
 * HMS Cornwall
 * HMS Nottingham
 * HMS Southampton
 * HMS Trafalgar
 * HMS Triumph
 * HMS Beagle
 * RFA Sir Tristram
 * RFA Sir Percivale
 * RFA Fort Victoria
 * RFA Fort Rosalie
 * RFA Bayleaf
 * RFA Brambleleaf
 * RFA Diligence

Second rotation
In March 2002, the initial naval force were relieved by one centred on HMS Ocean, carrying 45 Commando Royal Marines. Sir Tristram and Sir Percivale remained in the area. The other ships in that force were:
 * HMS Ocean
 * HMS York
 * HMS Campbeltown
 * HMS Portland
 * RFA Fort George
 * RFA Fort Austin

In addition to the naval taskforces present, a substantial RAF presence in the region was extant. Tristar and VC10 tankers refuelled British and US Navy aircraft. Nimrod and Canberra aircraft performed electronic and photo reconnaissance, and Nimrods also conducted maritime patrol operations. Sentry AWACS aircraft were also deployed.

2 CH47 Chinooks from 27 Squadron RAF were deployed, initially aboard HMS Illustrious in October 2001 and redeployed from HMS Ocean to Bagram on the night of 26 March 2002, to be joined by a further 3 CH47 deployed from the UK by C17 aircraft from 99 Squadron. The Chinooks remained at Bagram to support the 45 Commando deployment, returning to RAF Odiham later that year.

Post operation
After the main combat operations were over, the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) was established in Kabul with Bravo Company 40 Commando providing protection. It was under British leadership for the first few months of its existence, and British troops are still involved with the force in 2006. 45 Commando deployed into Afghanistan from HMS Ocean in March 2002, and conducted several search and destroy operations until July. It did not contact the enemy during that time period.

On 25 August 2004, it was announced by Secretary of State for Defence Geoff Hoon that 6 RAF Harrier GR7 from No. 3 Squadron would be deployed to Afghanistan. This was the first deployment to Afghanistan of RAF fighter aircraft and they are intended to provide close air support (CAS) and reconnaissance for ISAF and Coalition forces.

Commanders
The following have been UK National Contingent Commander for Operation Veritas:
 * 2001 Lieutenant Colonel Henry Worsley
 * September 2001 to January 2002, Air Marshal Jock Stirrup

title: Operation Veritas


text:
Rete mirabile

A rete mirabile (Latin for "wonderful net"; : retia mirabilia) is a complex of arteries and veins lying very close to each other, found in some vertebrates, mainly warm-blooded ones. The rete mirabile utilizes countercurrent blood flow within the net (blood flowing in opposite directions) to act as a countercurrent exchanger. It exchanges heat, ions, or gases between vessel walls so that the two bloodstreams within the rete maintain a gradient with respect to temperature, or concentration of gases or solutes. This term was coined by Galen.

Effectiveness
The effectiveness of retia is primarily determined by how readily the heat, ions, or gases can be exchanged. For a given length, they are most effective with respect to gases or heat, then small ions, and decreasingly so with respect to other substances.

The retia can provide for extremely efficient exchanges. In bluefin tuna, for example, nearly all of the metabolic heat in the venous blood is transferred to the arterial blood, thus conserving muscle temperature; that heat exchange approaches 99% efficiency.

Birds
In birds with webbed feet, retia mirabilia in the legs and feet transfer heat from the outgoing (hot) blood in the arteries to the incoming (cold) blood in the veins. The effect of this biological heat exchanger is that the internal temperature of the feet is much closer to the ambient temperature, thus reducing heat loss. Penguins also have them in the flippers and nasal passages.

Seabirds distill seawater using countercurrent exchange in a so-called salt gland with a rete mirabile. The gland secretes highly concentrated brine stored near the nostrils above the beak. The bird then "sneezes" the brine out. As freshwater is not usually available in their environments, some seabirds, such as pelicans, petrels, albatrosses, gulls and terns, possess this gland, which allows them to drink the salty water from their environments while they are hundreds of miles away from land.

Fish
Fish have evolved retia mirabilia multiple times to raise the temperature (endothermy) or the oxygen concentration of a body part above the ambient level.

In many fish, a rete mirabile helps fill the swim bladder with oxygen, increasing the fish's buoyancy. The rete mirabile is an essential part of the system that pumps dissolved oxygen from a low partial pressure ($${P_{\rm O_2}}$$) of 0.2 atmospheres into a gas filled bladder that is at a pressure of hundreds of atmospheres. A rete mirabile called the choroid rete mirabile is found in most living teleosts and raises the $${P_{\rm O_2}}$$ of the retina. The higher supply of oxygen allows the teleost retina to be thick and have few blood vessels thereby increasing its sensitivity to light. In addition to raising the $${P_{\rm O_2}}$$, the choroid rete has evolved to raise the temperature of the eye in some teleosts and sharks.

A countercurrent exchange system is utilized between the venous and arterial capillaries. Lowering the pH levels in the venous capillaries causes oxygen to unbind from blood hemoglobin because of the Root effect. This causes an increase in venous blood oxygen partial pressure, allowing the oxygen to diffuse through the capillary membrane and into the arterial capillaries, where oxygen is still sequestered to hemoglobin. The cycle of diffusion continues until the partial pressure of oxygen in the arterial capillaries exceeds that in the swim bladder. At this point, the dissolved oxygen in the arterial capillaries diffuses into the swim bladder via the gas gland.

The rete mirabile allows for an increase in muscle temperature in regions where this network of vein and arteries is found. The fish is able to thermoregulate certain areas of its body. Additionally, this increase in temperature leads to an increase in basal metabolic temperature. The fish is now able to split ATP at a higher rate and ultimately can swim faster.

The opah utilizes retia mirabilia to conserve heat, making it the newest addition to the list of regionally endothermic fish. Blood traveling through capillaries in the gills must carry cold blood due to their exposure to cold water, but retia mirabilia in the opah's gills are able to transfer heat from warm blood in arterioles coming from the heart that heats this colder blood in arterioles leaving the gills. The huge pectoral muscles of the opah, which generate most of the body heat, are thus able to control the temperature of the rest of the body.

Mammals
In mammals, an elegant rete mirabile in the efferent arterioles of juxtamedullary glomeruli is important in maintaining the hypertonicity of the renal medulla. It is the hypertonicity of this zone, resorbing water osmotically from the renal collecting ducts as they exit the kidney, that makes possible the excretion of a hypertonic urine and maximum conservation of body water.

Vascular retia mirabilia are also found in the limbs of a range of mammals. These reduce the temperature in the extremities. Some of these probably function to prevent heat loss in cold conditions by reducing the temperature gradient between the limb and the environment. Others reduce the temperature of the testes increasing their productivity. In the neck of the dog, a rete mirabile protects the brain when the body overheats during hunting; the venous blood is cooled down by panting before entering the net.

Retia mirabilia also occur frequently in mammals that burrow, dive or have arboreal lifestyles that involve clinging with the limbs for lengthy periods. In the last case, slow-moving arboreal mammals such as sloths, lorises and arboreal anteaters possess retia of the highly developed type known as vascular bundles. The structure and function of these mammalian retia mirabilia are reviewed by O'Dea (1990).

The ancient physician Galen mistakenly thought that humans also have a rete mirabile in the neck, apparently based on dissection of sheep and misidentifying the results with the human carotid sinus, and ascribed important properties to it; it fell to Berengario da Carpi first, and then to Vesalius to demonstrate the error.

title: Rete mirabile