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Janusz Gajos

Janusz Gajos (born 23 September 1939) is a Polish film, television and theatre actor as well as pedagogue and photographer. Professor of Theatre Arts and an Honorary Doctor of the National Film School in Łódź, he is considered one of the greatest Polish actors.

Life and career
He was born in Dąbrowa Górnicza. At the age of 11, he moved to Będzin where in 1957, he graduated from the High School No 3. In 1965 he graduated from the National Film School in Łódź as one of its best students despite having been rejected during entrance exams three times. He debuted while he was still in film school in children's film Panienka z okienka directed by Maria Kaniewska in 1964. Shortly afterwards he was cast in a role of Janek Kos in a widely popular TV World War II series Czterej pancerni i pies (Four Tank Men and a Dog). He starred in numerous other films and theatrical plays, notably in Krzysztof Kieślowski's Three Colors: White, Ryszard Bugajski's Interrogation, Andrzej Wajda's Man of Marble, Wojciech Marczewski's Escape from the 'Liberty' Cinema, Władysław Pasikowski's Pigs, Andrzej Wajda's The Revenge, Małgorzata Szumowska's Body and Wojciech Smarzowski's Clergy.

He performed in numerous theatres throughout his acting career including Stefan Jaracz Theatre in Łódź as well as the Komedia Theatre, Polish Theatre, Kwadrat, the Dramatic Theatre and the National Theatre in Warsaw. In 2003, he became an academic teacher at the National Film School in Łódź. He is also known for performing in popular Olga Lipińska's Cabaret.

In 2010, he officially endorsed the candidacy of Bronisław Komorowski in the 2010 Polish Presidential Elections as well as the 2015 Polish Presidential Elections.

In 2007, he received the Golden Medal for Merit to Culture – Gloria Artis. In 2011, he was awarded the Commander's Cross with Star of the Order of Polonia Restituta. He is a five-time winner of the Polish Film Awards including the Polish Film Award for Lifetime Achievement in 2016.

Filmography

 * Solid Gold (2019), as CBŚ officer Nowicki
 * Clergy (2018), as archbishop Mordowicz
 * Kamerdyner (2018), as Bazyli Miotke
 * Breaking the Limits (2017)
 * Blindness (2016)
 * Body (2015)
 * The Closed Circuit
 * Ekipa, as former Prime Minister Henryk Nowasz
 * Jasminum (2006) as monk Zdrówko
 * Pitbull (2005)
 * Hamlet (2004/II) (TV), as Claudius
 * Treasure Planet (2002), as John Silver (voice, Polish Dub)
 * Zemsta (2002) a.k.a. The Revenge, as Cześnik Raptusiewicz
 * Chopin: Desire for Love (2002), as Grand Duke Constantine Pavlovich Romanov:
 * Tam i z powrotem (2002) a.k.a. There and Back, as Andrzej Hoffman
 * Przedwiośnie (2001) a.k.a. The Spring to Come, as Seweryn Baryka
 * Weiser (2001), as Antiquarian
 * Żółty szalik (2000) (TV)
 * To ja, złodziej (2000) a.k.a. It's Me, the Thief, as Roman Wyskocz
 * Ostatnia misja (2000) a.k.a. The Last Mission, as Police Inspector
 * Egzekutor (1999), as Kowalik
 * Fuks (1999), as Policeman
 * Szczęśliwego Nowego Jorku (1997) a.k.a. Happy New York, as Professor
 * Czas zdrady (1997), as Messer Niccolo
 * Poznań 56 (1996), as Professor
 * Revenge of the Musketeers (1994), as D'Artagnan (voice, Polish Dub)
 * Akwarium (1996)
 * Łagodna (1995) a.k.a. A Gentle Woman, as He
 * Śmierć jak kromka chleba (1994) a.k.a. Death like a Slice of Bread, as Miodek
 * Three Colors: White (1994), as Mikołaj
 * Straszny sen Dzidziusia Górkiewicza (1993) a.k.a. The Terrible Dream of Babyface Gorkiewicz
 * Szwadron (1993) a.k.a. Squadron
 * Coupable d'innocence (1992) a.k.a. When Reason Sleeps
 * Pigs (1992), as Major SB "Siwy" Gross
 * Escape from the 'Liberty' Cinema (1991), as Cenzor
 * Stan wewnętrzny (1990) a.k.a. Inner State
 * Dekalog (1989) a.k.a. The Decalogue (mini) TV Series, as Michał
 * Piłkarski poker (1989) a.k.a. Soccer Poker, as Referee Jan Laguna
 * Dekalog, cztery (1988) (TV) a.k.a. Honor Thy Father and Thy Mother, as Michał
 * Big Bang (1986) (TV), as Janek
 * Hamlet we wsi Głucha Dolna (1985) (TV)
 * Rok spokojnego słońca (1984) a.k.a. The Year of the Quiet Sun, as Moonlighter
 *  (1984) a.k.a. After Your Decrees, as Driver
 * Alternatywy 4 (1983) TV Series, as Jan Winnicki
 * Gwiezdny pył (1982)
 * Limuzyna Daimler-Benz (1982) a.k.a. The Consul, as Kuschmerek
 * Nieciekawa historia (1982) a.k.a. Uninteresting Story
 * Interrogation (1982) a.k.a. Interrogation, as Major UB "Kapielowy" Zawada
 * From a Far Country (1981) a.k.a. Z dalekiego kraju
 * Man of Iron (1981) a.k.a. Man of Iron, as Committee vice-chairman
 * Wahadełko (1981) a.k.a. Shilly-Shally
 * The War of the Worlds: Next Century (1981)
 * The Orchestra Conductor (1980), as High Official
 * Kontrakt (1980) a.k.a. The Contract, as Boleslaw Bartoszuk
 * Kung-Fu (1979), as Editor-in-Chief Maciek
 * What Will You Do When You Catch Me? (1978), as Supermarket Manager
 * Milioner (film) (1978) a.k.a. Millionaire, as Józef Mikula
 * Mgła (1976) a.k.a. The Fog
 * Wakacje z duchami (1970) TV Series, as Antoniusz
 * Bicz boży (1967) a.k.a. God's Whip, as Klen
 * Stajnia na Salwatorze (1967) a.k.a. Stall on Salvador
 * Barrier (1966) (uncredited), as Tram Driver with Letter "E"
 * Czterej pancerni i pies (1966) TV Series, as Pvt./Cpl./Sgt./Lt. Jan Kos
 * The Codes (1966), as White monk
 * Panienka z okienka (1964)

title: Janusz Gajos


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Mathematical notation

Mathematical notation consists of using symbols for representing operations, unspecified numbers, relations, and any other mathematical objects and assembling them into expressions and formulas. Mathematical notation is widely used in mathematics, science, and engineering for representing complex concepts and properties in a concise, unambiguous, and accurate way.

For example, Albert Einstein's equation $$E=mc^2$$ is the quantitative representation in mathematical notation of the mass–energy equivalence.

Mathematical notation was first introduced by François Viète at the end of the 16th century and largely expanded during the 17th and 18th centuries by René Descartes, Isaac Newton, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, and overall Leonhard Euler.

Symbols
The use of many symbols is the basis of mathematical notation. They play a similar role as words in natural languages. They may play different roles in mathematical notation similarly as verbs, adjective and nouns play different roles in a sentence.

Letters as symbols
Letters are typically used for naming—in mathematical jargon, one says representing—mathematical objects. The Latin and Greek alphabets are used extensively, but a few letters of other alphabets are also used sporadically, such as the Hebrew $\aleph$, Cyrillic $Ш$, and Hiragana $よ$. Uppercase and lowercase letters are considered as different symbols. For Latin alphabet, different typefaces provide also different symbols. For example, $$r, R, \R, \mathcal R, \mathfrak r,$$ and $$\mathfrak R$$ could theoretically appear in the same mathematical text with six different meanings. Normally, roman upright typeface is not used for symbols, except for symbols representing a standard function, such as the symbol "$$\sin$$" of the sine function.

In order to have more symbols, and for allowing related mathematical objects to be represented by related symbols, diacritics, subscripts and superscripts are often used. For example, $$\hat {f'_1}$$ may denote the Fourier transform of the derivative of a function called $$f_1.$$

Other symbols
Symbols are not only used for naming mathematical objects. They can be used for operations $$(+, -, /, \oplus, \ldots),$$ for relations $$(=, <, \le, \sim, \equiv, \ldots),$$ for logical connectives $$(\implies, \land, \lor, \ldots),$$ for quantifiers $$(\forall, \exists),$$ and for other purposes.

Some symbols are similar to Latin or Greek letters, some are obtained by deforming letters, some are traditional typographic symbols, but many have been specially designed for mathematics.

Expressions
An expression is a finite combination of symbols that is well-formed according to rules that depend on the context. In general, an expression denotes or names a mathematical object, and plays therefore in the language of mathematics the role of a noun phrase in the natural language.

An expression contains often some operators, and may therefore be evaluated by the action of the operators in it. For example, $$3+2$$ is an expression in which the operator $$+$$ can be evaluated for giving the result $$5.$$ So, $$3+2$$ and $$5$$ are two different expressions that represent the same number. This is the meaning of the equality $$3+2=5.$$

A more complicated example is given by the expression$\int_a^b xdx$ that can be evaluated to $\frac {b^2}2-\frac {a^2}2.$  Although the resulting expression contains the operators of division, subtraction and exponentiation, it cannot be evaluated further because $a$ and $b$ denote unspecified numbers.

Numbers
It is believed that a notation to represent numbers was first developed at least 50,000 years ago —early mathematical ideas such as finger counting have also been represented by collections of rocks, sticks, bone, clay, stone, wood carvings, and knotted ropes. The tally stick is a way of counting dating back to the Upper Paleolithic. Perhaps the oldest known mathematical texts are those of ancient Sumer. The Census Quipu of the Andes and the Ishango Bone from Africa both used the tally mark method of accounting for numerical concepts.

The concept of zero and the introduction of a notation for it are important developments in early mathematics, which predates for centuries the concept of zero as a number. It was used as a placeholder by the Babylonians and Greek Egyptians, and then as an integer by the Mayans, Indians and Arabs (see the history of zero).

Modern notation
Until the 16th century, mathematics was essentially rhetorical, in the sense that everything but explicit numbers was expressed in words. However, some authors such as Diophantus used some symbols as abbreviations.

The first systematic use of formulas, and, in particular the use of symbols (variables) for unspecified numbers is generally attributed to François Viète (16th century). However, he used different symbols than those that are now standard.

Later, René Descartes (17th century) introduced the modern notation for variables and equations; in particular, the use of $$x,y,z$$ for unknown quantities and $$a,b,c$$ for known ones (constants). He introduced also the notation $i$ and the term "imaginary" for the imaginary unit.

The 18th and 19th centuries saw the standardization of mathematical notation as used today. Leonhard Euler was responsible for many of the notations currently in use: the functional notation $$f(x),$$ $e$ for the base of the natural logarithm, $\sum$ for summation, etc. He also popularized the use of $\pi$ for the Archimedes constant (proposed by William Jones, based on an earlier notation of William Oughtred).

Since then many new notations have been introduced, often specific to a particular area of mathematics. Some notations are named after their inventors, such as Leibniz's notation, Legendre symbol, Einstein's summation convention, etc.

Typesetting
General typesetting systems are generally not well suited for mathematical notation. One of the reasons is that, in mathematical notation, the symbols are often arranged in two-dimensional figures, such as in:
 * $$\sum_{n=0}^\infty \frac {\begin{bmatrix}a&b\\c&d\end{bmatrix}^n}{n!}.$$

TeX is a mathematically oriented typesetting system that was created in 1978 by Donald Knuth. It is widely used in mathematics, through its extension called LaTeX, and is a de facto standard. (The above expression is written in LaTeX.)

More recently, another approach for mathematical typesetting is provided by MathML. However, it is not well supported in web browsers, which is its primary target.

International standard mathematical notation
The international standard ISO 80000-2 (previously, ISO 31-11) specifies symbols for use in mathematical equations. The standard requires use of italic fonts for variables (e.g., E=mc2) and roman (upright) fonts for mathematical constants (e.g., e or π).

Non-Latin-based mathematical notation
Modern Arabic mathematical notation is based mostly on the Arabic alphabet and is used widely in the Arab world, especially in pre-tertiary education.

(Western notation uses Arabic numerals, but the Arabic notation also replaces Latin letters and related symbols with Arabic script.)

In addition to Arabic notation, mathematics also makes use of Greek letters to denote a wide variety of mathematical objects and variables. On some occasions, certain Hebrew letters are also used (such as in the context of infinite cardinals).

Some mathematical notations are mostly diagrammatic, and so are almost entirely script independent. Examples are Penrose graphical notation and Coxeter–Dynkin diagrams.

Braille-based mathematical notations used by blind people include Nemeth Braille and GS8 Braille.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Mathematical notation


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Glasgow dialect

The Glasgow dialect, also called Glaswegian, varies from Scottish English at one end of a bipolar linguistic continuum to the local dialect of West Central Scots at the other. Therefore, the speech of many Glaswegians can draw on a "continuum between fully localised and fully standardised". Additionally, the Glasgow dialect has Highland English and Hiberno-English influences owing to the speech of Highlanders and Irish people who migrated in large numbers to the Glasgow area in the 19th and early 20th centuries. While being named for Glasgow, the accent is typical for natives across the full Greater Glasgow area and associated counties such as Lanarkshire, Renfrewshire, Dunbartonshire and parts of Ayrshire, which formerly came under the single authority of Strathclyde. It is most common in working class people, which can lead to stigma from members of other classes or those outside Glasgow.

As with other dialects, it is subject to dialect levelling where particularly Scots vocabulary is replaced by Standard English words and, in particular, words largely from colloquial English. However, Glaswegians continue to create new euphemisms and nicknames for well-known local figures and buildings.

Literature
The Glasgow vernacular has also established itself in Scottish literature. Many authors spell some of the Scots elements phonetically, often coinciding with common spelling errors, rather than using the prestigious Modern Scots conventions. The general effect of that, particularly its comic forms, is to exaggerate the unintelligibility of Glasgow speech to outsiders. The resulting orthographic representation of the vernacular gives the overall impression of an anti-standard rather than a local standard.

Michael Munro wrote a guide to Glaswegian entitled The Patter, first published in 1985. With illustrations by David Neilson, and later by the Paisley-born artist and playwright John Byrne, the book was followed by The Patter – Another Blast in 1988, with The Complete Patter, an updated compendium of the first and second books, being published in 1996.

James Kelman's 1994 novel How Late It Was, How Late is written largely in Glaswegian dialect from the point of view of Sammy Samuels, a 38-year-old ex-convict who wakes up blind after a drinking binge and a fight with police. The novel won the 1994 Booker Prize.

Jamie Stuart, a Church of Scotland elder from the High Carntyne Church, produced "A Glasgow Bible" in 1997, relating some biblical tales in the Glaswegian vernacular. More recently, in 2014 Alice's Adventures in Wonderland was translated into Glaswegian Scots by Thomas Clark as Alice's Adventirs in Wunnerlaun.

A 2020 Graeme Armstrong novel, The Young Team, narrated by a gang member in the local dialect, focuses on the 'ned culture' of the region in the early 21st century (albeit set in Airdrie, North Lanarkshire a few miles east of Glasgow rather than in the city itself). Armstrong, who had been inspired by the style used by Irvine Welsh for Trainspotting – written in the similar but distinct accent of Edinburgh – struggled to have his novel published and was advised to mitigate the use of the dialect to appeal to a wider audience, but refused to compromise the authenticity of the characters' voices.

Phonology
Jane Stuart-Smith contributed a chapter to the 1999 book Urban Voices entitled "Glasgow: accent and voice quality". She defined two varieties for descriptive purposes:
 * Glasgow Standard English (GSE), the Glaswegian form of Scottish Standard English, spoken by most middle-class speakers
 * Glasgow vernacular (GV), the dialect of many working-class speakers, which is historically based on West-Central Scots, but which shows strong influences from Irish English, its own distinctive slang and increased levelling towards GSE

Differences between the two systems are mostly in lexical incidence. Many working-class speakers use the SSE system when reading aloud, albeit with different qualities for the vowels. The table below shows the vowels used in both variants, as given in Table 11.1 of Stuart-Smith's work.

Stuart-Smith also gave the following summary of how consonants differ in the Glasgow patter from other dialects.
 * T-glottalization is "strongly stigmatized yet extremely common". Glottalization also occurs of  and, albeit less frequently.
 * and can be pronounced with dentalisation.   is sometimes omitted at the end of a word (e.g. old, stand).
 * Th-fronting occurs with some younger speakers.
 * is used in words such as loch, although this is dying out amongst younger speakers.
 * is used in words beginning "wh" (e.g. whine).
 * There is no H-dropping except in unstressed cases of him and her.
 * Yod-dropping only occurs after or.
 * Most Glasgow speech is rhotic, but non-rhoticity can be found amongst some younger working-class speakers. The realisation of /r/ can be,  or.
 * is a dark l in almost all positions.

In the media
In the 1970s, the Glasgow-born comedian Stanley Baxter parodied the patter on his television sketch show. "Parliamo Glasgow" was a spoof programme in which Baxter played a language coach and various scenarios using Glaswegian dialogue were played out for laughs. Popular television comedies using the dialect include Rab C. Nesbitt, Chewin' the Fat, Still Game, Burnistoun and Limmy's Show.

The 1998 film by Ken Loach, My Name is Joe, is one of the few films recorded [almost] entirely in Glasgow dialect. As a result, the film had to be given subtitles when released in the United States and even for audiences in England. The same situation occurred with another Loach film, 2002's Sweet Sixteen, based in the town of Greenock which has a local accent virtually identical to that of Glasgow, and  with the 2010 release Neds set in the city.

Alleged influence from Cockney
Studies have indicated that working-class adolescents in areas such as Glasgow have begun to use certain aspects of Cockney and other Anglicisms in their speech, infiltrating the traditional Glasgow speech. For example, th-fronting is commonly found, and typical Scottish features such as the post-vocalic /r/ are reduced, although this last feature is more likely to be a development of Central Belt Scots origin, unrelated to Anglo-English nonrhoticity. Researches suggest the use of English speech characteristics is likely to be consequential on the influence of London and south east England accents which feature prominently on television.

The linguist John C. Wells, a critic of the media reporting on Estuary English, has questioned whether Glasgow is being influenced by Cockney speech. He claimed that journalists had misrepresented the prevalence of th-fronting in Glasgow and that there is no evidence that th-fronting originated in London. He also wrote that all dialects change over time and that change does not mean that the Glasgow patter will disappear.

title: Glasgow dialect


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Estrildidae

Estrildidae, or estrildid finches, is a family of small seed-eating passerine birds of the Old World tropics and Australasia. They comprise species commonly known as munias, mannikins, firefinches, parrotfinches and waxbills. Despite the word "finch" being included in the common names of some species, they are not closely related to birds with this name in other families, such as the Fringillidae, Emberizidae or Passerellidae.

They are gregarious and often colonial seed eaters with short, thick, but pointed bills. They are all similar in structure and habits, but vary widely in plumage colours and patterns.

All estrildids build large, domed nests and lay five to ten white eggs. Many species build roost nests. Some of the firefinches and pytilias are hosts to the brood-parasitic indigobirds and whydahs, respectively.

Most are sensitive to cold and require warm, usually tropical, habitats, although a few, such as the eastern alpine mannikin, mountain firetail, red-browed finch, and the genus Stagonopleura, have adapted to the cooler climates of southern Australia and the highlands of New Guinea.

The smallest species of the family is the Shelley's oliveback (Nesocharis shelleyi) at a mere 8.3 cm, although the lightest species is the black-rumped waxbill (Estrilda troglodytes) at 6 g. The largest species is the Java sparrow (Padda oryzivora) at 17 cm and 25 g.

Taxonomy
The family Estrildidae was introduced in 1850 by the French naturalist Charles Lucien Bonaparte as "Estreldinae", a spelling variant of the subfamily name. In the list of world birds maintained by Frank Gill, Pamela Rasmussen and David Donsker on behalf of the International Ornithological Committee (IOC) the family contains 140 species divided into 41 genera. Molecular phylogenetic studies have shown the family Estrildidae is sister to the family Viduidae containing the indigobirds and whydahs. The two families diverged around 15.5 million year ago. The most recent common ancestor of the Estrildidae is estimated to have lived around 10.9 million years ago. A genetic study of the Estrildidae by Urban Olsson and Per Alström published in 2020 identified 6 major clades. The radiations within these clades occurred between 4.5 and 8.9 million years ago. The authors proposed that each of these clades should be treated as a subfamily. This contrasts with an earlier proposal in which the family was divided into three subfamilies.

title: Estrildidae


text: Wikipedia:WikiProject Mathematics/List of mathematics articles (D–F)


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Valencia (disambiguation)

Valencia (València) is the capital of the Valencian Community in Spain.

Valencia may also refer to:

Spain

 * Valencian Community (or the Valencian Community), an autonomous community of Spain
 * Valencians, an ethnic group or nationality whose homeland is the Valencian Community
 * Valencian language, the "own language" (llengua pròpia) of the Valencian Community, also regarded as a linguistic variety of the Catalan language
 * Province of Valencia, a Valencian subnational entity within the Valencian Community
 * Valencia (Congress of Deputies constituency), the parliamentary district covering the province of Valencia
 * Valencia (DO), Denominación de Origen wine-producing region within Valencia province
 * University of Valencia, a Spanish University
 * Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Valencia in Spain, a Catholic ecclesiastical territory located in northeastern Iberia
 * Gulf of Valencia
 * Taifa of Valencia, an entity that existed during Islamic Spain from c. 1010 to c. 1238
 * Kingdom of Valencia, an entity of the Crown of Aragon that existed from 1238 to 1707
 * Principality of Valencia, a principality founded by El Cid
 * Valencia de Alcántara, a town in Extremadura
 * Valencia de Don Juan, a town in Castile and León

Philippines

 * Nueva Valencia, a third income class municipality in the province of Guimaras
 * Valencia, Bohol, a fourth income class municipality in the province of Bohol
 * Valencia, Bukidnon, a second income class component city in the province of Bukidnon
 * Valencia, Cagdianao, a barangay in Cagdianao municipality in the province of Dinagat Islands
 * Valencia, Negros Oriental, a first income class municipality in the province of Negros Oriental

United States

 * Valencia, California, an unincorporated community in Los Angeles County
 * Valencia, Santa Clarita, California, a neighborhood in Santa Clarita in Los Angeles County
 * Valencia West, Arizona, a census-designated place (CDP)
 * Valencia, Santa Fe County, New Mexico, a CDP
 * Valencia, Valencia County, New Mexico, a CDP
 * Valencia, Pennsylvania, a borough
 * Valencia (Ridgeway, South Carolina), plantation house listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places in Fairfield County, South Carolina

Venezuela

 * Valencia, Venezuela, third largest city in Venezuela
 * Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Valencia in Venezuela, an archdiocese located in the city of Valencia in Venezuela
 * Lake Valencia (Venezuela), a lake within Carabobo State and Aragua State, in northern Venezuela

Other

 * Valencia Park, Mbombela, South Africa
 * Valencia, Córdoba, Colombia
 * Valencia, Ecuador
 * Valencia, Trinidad and Tobago
 * Valencia, Universidad, Puerto Rico
 * Lake Valencia (Peru)

People

 * Adolfo Valencia (born 1968), Colombian footballer
 * Alejandra Valencia (born 1994), Mexican archer
 * Antonio Valencia (born 1985), Ecuadorian footballer
 * Angie Sanclemente Valencia (born 1979), Colombian model
 * Clemente Valencia (1968–2011), Mexican professional wrestler better known as Doctor X
 * Danny Valencia (born 1984), American-Israeli major league baseball player
 * Enner Valencia (born 1989), Ecuadorian footballer
 * Esteban Valencia (born 1972), Chilean footballer
 * Eugene A. Valencia Jr. (1921–1972), United States Navy fighter ace in World War II
 * Juan José Florián Valencia (born c. 1982), Colombian paracyclist
 * Jesse Valencia, American musician, author, and actor
 * Larry Valencia (born 1958), American politician
 * Robin Valencia, American "canon-girl" stuntwoman

Sports

 * Club Valencia (Maldives), a Maldivian football club
 * Valencia Basket, a Spanish basketball club
 * Valencia CF, a Spanish football club
 * Valencia FC (Haiti), a Haitian football club
 * Circuit de Valencia, a motor racing circuit in Spain
 * Valencia Street Circuit, a motor racing circuit in Spain
 * Comunitat Valenciana, Spanish cycling team (2004–2006), formerly Kelme

Music

 * Valencia (band), an American alternative rock band
 * "Valencia" (song), a 1926 pasodoble by Spanish composer José Padilla
 * "O Valencia!", a 2006 song by The Decemberists

Other uses

 * Valencian, a member of Pembroke College, Cambridge
 * SS Valencia, a ship wrecked in 1906
 * Valencia (1926 film), a 1926 American silent romance film
 * Valencia (1927 film), a 1927 German silent film
 * Valencia (2011 film), a 2011 adaptation of Michelle Tea's novel of the same name
 * Valencia, the code name of the American film 10 Cloverfield Lane
 * Valencia College, in Florida
 * Valencia orange, a variety of the orange fruit
 * Valencia (fish), a genus of fish
 * Valencia (novel), a novel by Michelle Tea

title: Valencia (disambiguation)


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Ludington Pumped Storage Power Plant

The Ludington Pumped Storage Plant is a hydroelectric plant and reservoir in Ludington, Michigan. It was built between 1969 and 1973 at a cost of $315 million and is owned jointly by Consumers Energy and DTE Energy and operated by Consumers Energy. At the time of its construction, it was the largest pumped storage hydroelectric facility in the world.

Characteristics
It consists of a reservoir 110 ft deep, 2.5 mi long, and 1 mi wide which holds 27 e9USgal or 82859 acre-feet of water. The 1.3 sqmi reservoir is located on the banks of Lake Michigan. Because impervious bedrock is more than 800 ft below the reservoir, the builders had to line the reservoir with a layer of asphalt and clay to prevent water seeping into the ground.

The power plant consists of six reversible turbines that can each generate 312 megawatts of electricity for a total output of 1,872 megawatts. Water is delivered from the upper reservoir to the turbines by six penstocks each 1100 ft long that taper from 28 to 24 ft in diameter.

At night, during low demand for electricity, the turbines run in reverse to pump water 363 ft uphill from Lake Michigan into the reservoir. The plant takes advantage of the natural steep sand dune landform of eastern Lake Michigan. During periods of peak demand water is released to generate power. Electrical generation can begin within two minutes with peak electric output of 1872 MW achieved in under 30 minutes. Maximum water flow is over 33 e6USgal per minute.

This process was designed to level the load of nearby nuclear power plants on the grid. It also replaces the need to build natural gas peak power plants used only during high demand. The Ludington Pumped Storage plant is connected to six 345-kV Transmission lines, all owned and maintained by METC, a subsidiary of ITC Holdings.

The project was given the 1973 award for "Outstanding Civil Engineering Achievement" by the American Society of Civil Engineers.

Upgrade
Consumers Energy discussed plans in 2008 to extend the life of the facility and upgrade the pumps to increase efficiency by up to 9%. Consumers Energy also planned to tap the wind power resources along the eastern Lake Michigan shore with wind farms. Because wind is an intermittent power source and may inconveniently deliver large amounts of power during periods of low electric demand, pumped storage facilities are desirable to have on the same grid with large-scale wind farms. The available pumped storage capacity, along with the wind characteristics, partly determine the maximum contribution wind power can make to the overall electricity use in a region.

Consumers Energy and Detroit Edison announced an $800 million upgrade on February 7, 2011. The six-year project would begin in 2013 and extend the plant's life by at least forty years and upgrade the generating capacity from 1,872 megawatts to 2,172 megawatts. Plans for the upgrade include replacing all six of the plant's turbines, which would increase the plant's total generating capacity by 15 percent, and efficiency by 5 percent. Upon completion, the plant will produce enough power for a community of 1.65 million (a quarter million increase). As of August 2020, five of the six turbines had been successfully replaced; the project was expected to be completed in May or June 2021. However claims of defective parts and timeline overruns led Consumers Power and Detroit Edison to sue the project contractor, Toshiba America in April 2022.

title: Ludington Pumped Storage Power Plant


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Freethought

Freethought (sometimes spelled free thought) is an unorthodox attitude or belief.

A freethinker holds that beliefs should not be formed on the basis of authority, tradition, revelation, or dogma, and should instead be reached by other methods such as logic, reason, and empirical observation. According to the Collins English Dictionary, a freethinker is "One who is mentally free from the conventional bonds of tradition or dogma, and thinks independently." In some contemporary thought in particular, free thought is strongly tied with rejection of traditional social or religious belief systems. The cognitive application of free thought is known as "freethinking", and practitioners of free thought are known as "freethinkers". Modern freethinkers consider free thought to be a natural freedom from all negative and illusive thoughts acquired from society.

The term first came into use in the 17th century in order to refer to people who inquired into the basis of traditional beliefs which were often accepted unquestioningly. Today, freethinking is most closely linked with agnosticism, deism, secularism, humanism, anti-clericalism, and religious critique. The Oxford English Dictionary defines freethinking as, "The free exercise of reason in matters of religious belief, unrestrained by deference to authority; the adoption of the principles of a free-thinker." Freethinkers hold that knowledge should be grounded in facts, scientific inquiry, and logic. The skeptical application of science implies freedom from the intellectually limiting effects of confirmation bias, cognitive bias, conventional wisdom, popular culture, urban myth, prejudice, or sectarianism.

Definition
Atheist author Adam Lee defines free thought as thinking which is independent of revelation, tradition, established belief, and authority, and considers it as a "broader umbrella" than atheism "that embraces a rainbow of unorthodoxy, religious dissent, skepticism, and unconventional thinking."

The basic summarizing statement of the essay The Ethics of Belief by the 19th-century British mathematician and philosopher William Kingdon Clifford is: "It is wrong always, everywhere, and for anyone, to believe anything upon insufficient evidence." The essay became a rallying cry for freethinkers when published in the 1870s, and has been described as a point when freethinkers grabbed the moral high ground. Clifford was himself an organizer of free thought gatherings, the driving force behind the Congress of Liberal Thinkers held in 1878.

Regarding religion, freethinkers typically hold that there is insufficient evidence to support the existence of supernatural phenomena. According to the Freedom from Religion Foundation, "No one can be a freethinker who demands conformity to a bible, creed, or messiah. To the freethinker, revelation and faith are invalid, and orthodoxy is no guarantee of truth." and "Freethinkers are convinced that religious claims have not withstood the tests of reason. Not only is there nothing to be gained by believing an untruth, but there is everything to lose when we sacrifice the indispensable tool of reason on the altar of superstition. Most freethinkers consider religion to be not only untrue, but harmful."

However, philosopher Bertrand Russell wrote the following in his 1944 essay The Value of Free Thought:

"What makes a freethinker is not his beliefs but the way in which he holds them. If he holds them because his elders told him they were true when he was young, or if he holds them because if he did not he would be unhappy, his thought is not free; but if he holds them because, after careful thought he finds a balance of evidence in their favour, then his thought is free, however odd his conclusions may seem."

A freethinker, according to Russell, is not necessarily an atheist or an agnostic, as long as he or she satisfies this definition:

"The person who is free in any respect is free from something; what is the free thinker free from? To be worthy of the name, he must be free of two things: the force of tradition, and the tyranny of his own passions. No one is completely free from either, but in the measure of a man's emancipation he deserves to be called a free thinker."

Fred Edwords, former executive of the American Humanist Association, suggests that by Russell's definition, liberal religionists who have challenged established orthodoxies can be considered freethinkers.

On the other hand, according to Bertrand Russell, atheists and/or agnostics are not necessarily freethinkers. As an example, he mentions Stalin, whom he compares to a "pope":

"what I am concerned with is the doctrine of the modern Communistic Party, and of the Russian Government to which it owes allegiance. According to this doctrine, the world develops on the lines of a Plan called Dialectical Materialism, first discovered by Karl Marx, embodied in the practice of a great state by Lenin, and now expounded from day to day by a Church of which Stalin is the Pope. […] Free discussion is to be prevented wherever the power to do so exists; […] If this doctrine and this organization prevail, free inquiry will become as impossible as it was in the middle ages, and the world will relapse into bigotry and obscurantism."

In the 18th and 19th century, many thinkers regarded as freethinkers were deists, arguing that the nature of God can only be known from a study of nature rather than from religious revelation. In the 18th century, "deism" was as much of a 'dirty word' as "atheism", and deists were often stigmatized as either atheists or at least as freethinkers by their Christian opponents. Deists today regard themselves as freethinkers, but are now arguably less prominent in the free thought movement than atheists.

Characteristics
Among freethinkers, for a notion to be considered true it must be testable, verifiable, and logical. Many freethinkers tend to be humanists, who base morality on human needs and would find meaning in human compassion, social progress, art, personal happiness, love, and the furtherance of knowledge. Generally, freethinkers like to think for themselves, tend to be skeptical, respect critical thinking and reason, remain open to new concepts, and are sometimes proud of their own individuality. They would determine truth for themselves – based upon knowledge they gain, answers they receive, experiences they have and the balance they thus acquire. Freethinkers reject conformity for the sake of conformity, whereby they create their own beliefs by considering the way the world around them works and would possess the intellectual integrity and courage to think outside of accepted norms, which may or may not lead them to believe in some higher power.

Symbol

The pansy serves as the long-established and enduring symbol of free thought; literature of the American Secular Union inaugurated its usage in the late 1800s. The reasoning behind the pansy as the symbol of free thought lies both in the flower's name and in its appearance. The pansy derives its name from the French word pensée, which means "thought". It allegedly received this name because the flower is perceived by some to bear resemblance to a human face, and in mid-to-late summer it nods forward as if deep in thought. In the 1880s, following examples set by freethinkers in France, Belgium, Spain and Sweden, it was proposed in the United States as "the symbol of religious liberty and freedom of conscience".

Pre-modern movement
Critical thought has flourished in the Hellenistic Mediterranean, in the repositories of knowledge and wisdom in Ireland and in the Iranian civilizations (for example in the era of Khayyam (1048–1131) and his unorthodox Sufi Rubaiyat poems). Later societies made advances on freedom of thought such as the Chinese (note for example the seafaring renaissance of the Southern Song dynasty of 1127–1279), on through heretical thinkers on esoteric alchemy or astrology, to the Renaissance and the Protestant Reformation pioneered by Martin Luther.

French physician and writer Rabelais celebrated "rabelaisian" freedom as well as good feasting and drinking (an expression and a symbol of freedom of the mind) in defiance of the hypocrisies of conformist orthodoxy in his utopian Thelema Abbey (from θέλημα: free "will"), the device of which was Do What Thou Wilt:

So had Gargantua established it. In all their rule and strictest tie of their order there was but this one clause to be observed, Do What Thou Wilt; because free people ... act virtuously and avoid vice. They call this honor.

When Rabelais's hero Pantagruel journeys to the "Oracle of The Div(in)e Bottle", he learns the lesson of life in one simple word: "Trinch!", Drink! Enjoy the simple life, learn wisdom and knowledge, as a free human. Beyond puns, irony, and satire, Gargantua's prologue-metaphor instructs the reader to "break the bone and suck out the substance-full marrow" ("la substantifique moëlle"), the core of wisdom.

Modern movements
The year 1600 is considered a landmark in the era of modern free thought. It was the year of the execution in Italy of Giordano Bruno, a former Dominican friar, by the Inquisition.

Australia
Prior to World War II, Australia had high rates of Protestantism and Catholicism. Post-war Australia has become a highly secularised country. Donald Horne, one of Australia's well-known public intellectuals, believed rising prosperity in post-war Australia influenced the decline in church-going and general lack of interest in religion. "Churches no longer matter very much to most Australians. If there is a happy eternal life it's for everyone ... For many Australians the pleasures of this life are sufficiently satisfying that religion offers nothing of great appeal", said Horne in his landmark work The Lucky Country (1964).

Belgium
The Université Libre de Bruxelles and the Vrije Universiteit Brussel, along with the two Circles of Free Inquiry (Dutch and French speaking), defend the freedom of critical thought, lay philosophy and ethics, while rejecting the argument of authority.

Canada
In 1873, a handful of secularists founded the earliest known secular organization in English Canada, the Toronto Freethought Association. Reorganized in 1877 and again in 1881, when it was renamed the Toronto Secular Society, the group formed the nucleus of the Canadian Secular Union, established in 1884 to bring together freethinkers from across the country.

A significant number of the early members appear to have come from the educated labour "aristocracy", including Alfred F. Jury, J. Ick Evans and J. I. Livingstone, all of whom were leading labour activists and secularists. The second president of the Toronto association, T. Phillips Thompson, became a central figure in the city's labour and social-reform movements during the 1880s and 1890s and arguably Canada's foremost late nineteenth-century labour intellectual. By the early 1880s scattered free thought organizations operated throughout southern Ontario and parts of Quebec, eliciting both urban and rural support.

The principal organ of the free thought movement in Canada was Secular Thought (Toronto, 1887–1911). Founded and edited during its first several years by English freethinker Charles Watts (1835–1906), it came under the editorship of Toronto printer and publisher James Spencer Ellis in 1891 when Watts returned to England. In 1968 the Humanist Association of Canada (HAC) formed to serve as an umbrella group for humanists, atheists, and freethinkers, and to champion social justice issues and oppose religious influence on public policy—most notably in the fight to make access to abortion free and legal in Canada.

France

In France, the concept first appeared in publication in 1765 when Denis Diderot, Jean le Rond d'Alembert, and Voltaire included an article on Liberté de penser in their Encyclopédie. The concept of free thought spread so widely that even places as remote as the Jotunheimen, in Norway, had well-known freethinkers such as Jo Gjende by the 19th century.

François-Jean Lefebvre de la Barre (1745–1766) was a young French nobleman, famous for having been tortured and beheaded before his body was burnt on a pyre along with Voltaire's Philosophical Dictionary. La Barre is often said to have been executed for not saluting a Roman Catholic religious procession, but the elements of the case were far more complex.

In France, Lefebvre de la Barre is widely regarded a symbol of the victims of Christian religious intolerance; La Barre along with Jean Calas and Pierre-Paul Sirven, was championed by Voltaire. A second replacement statue to de la Barre stands nearby the Basilica of the Sacred Heart of Jesus of Paris at the summit of the butte Montmartre (itself named from the Temple of Mars), the highest point in Paris and an 18th arrondissement street nearby the Sacré-Cœur is also named after Lefebvre de la Barre.

The 19th century saw the emergence of a specific notion of Libre-Pensée ("free thought"), with writer Victor Hugo as one of its major early proponents. French Freethinkers (Libre-Penseurs) associate freedom of thought, political anti-clericalism and socialist leanings. The main organisation referring to this tradition to this day is the Fédération nationale de la libre pensée, created in 1890.

Germany

In Germany, during the period 1815–1848 and before the March Revolution, the resistance of citizens against the dogma of the church increased. In 1844, under the influence of Johannes Ronge and Robert Blum, belief in the rights of man, tolerance among men, and humanism grew, and by 1859 they had established the Bund Freireligiöser Gemeinden Deutschlands (literally Union of Free Religious Communities of Germany), an association of persons who consider themselves to be religious without adhering to any established and institutionalized church or sacerdotal cult. This union still exists today, and is included as a member in the umbrella organization of free humanists. In 1881 in Frankfurt am Main, Ludwig Büchner established the Deutscher Freidenkerbund (German Freethinkers League) as the first German organization for atheists and agnostics. In 1892 the Freidenker-Gesellschaft and in 1906 the Deutscher Monistenbund were formed.

Free thought organizations developed the "Jugendweihe" (literally Youth consecration), a secular "confirmation" ceremony, and atheist funeral rites. The Union of Freethinkers for Cremation was founded in 1905, and the Central Union of German Proletariat Freethinker in 1908. The two groups merged in 1927, becoming the German Freethinking Association in 1930.

More "bourgeois" organizations declined after World War I, and "proletarian" free thought groups proliferated, becoming an organization of socialist parties. European socialist free thought groups formed the International of Proletarian Freethinkers (IPF) in 1925. Activists agitated for Germans to disaffiliate from their respective Church and for secularization of elementary schools; between 1919–1921 and 1930–1932 more than 2.5 million Germans, for the most part supporters of the Social Democratic and Communist parties, gave up church membership. Conflict developed between radical forces including the Soviet League of the Militant Godless and Social Democratic forces in Western Europe led by Theodor Hartwig and Max Sievers. In 1930 the Soviet and allied delegations, following a walk-out, took over the IPF and excluded the former leaders. Following Hitler's rise to power in 1933, most free thought organizations were banned, though some right-wing groups that worked with so-called Völkische Bünde (literally "ethnic" associations with nationalist, xenophobic and very often racist ideology) were tolerated by the Nazis until the mid-1930s.

Ireland
In the 19th century, received opinion was scandalized by George Ensor (1769–1843). His Review of the Miracles, Prophecies, & Mysteries of the Old and New Testaments (1835) argued that, far from being a source of moral teaching, revealed religion and its divines regarded questions of morality as "incidental"--as a "mundane and merely philosophical" topic.

Netherlands

In the Netherlands, free thought has existed in organized form since the establishment of De Dageraad (now known as De Vrije Gedachte) in 1856. Among its most notable subscribing 19th century individuals were Johannes van Vloten, Multatuli, Adriaan Gerhard and Domela Nieuwenhuis.

In 2009, Frans van Dongen established the Atheist-Secular Party, which takes a considerably restrictive view of religion and public religious expressions.

Since the 19th century, free thought in the Netherlands has become more well known as a political phenomenon through at least three currents: liberal freethinking, conservative freethinking, and classical freethinking. In other words, parties which identify as freethinking tend to favor non-doctrinal, rational approaches to their preferred ideologies, and arose as secular alternatives to both clerically aligned parties as well as labor-aligned parties. Common themes among freethinking political parties are "freedom", "liberty", and "individualism".

Switzerland
With the introduction of cantonal church taxes in the 1870s, anti-clericals began to organise themselves. Around 1870, a "freethinkers club" was founded in Zürich. During the debate on the Zürich church law in 1883, professor Friedrich Salomon Vögelin and city council member Kunz proposed to separate church and state.

Turkey
In the last years of the Ottoman Empire, free thought made its voice heard by the works of distinguished people such as Ahmet Rıza, Tevfik Fikret, Abdullah Cevdet, Kılıçzade Hakkı, and Celal Nuri İleri. These intellectuals affected the early period of the Turkish Republic. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk –field marshal, revolutionary statesman, author, and founder of the secular Turkish nation state, serving as its first President from 1923 until his death in 1938– was the practitioner of their ideas. He made many reforms that modernized the country. Sources point out that Atatürk was a religious skeptic and a freethinker. He was a non-doctrinaire deist or an atheist,   who was antireligious and anti-Islamic in general. According to Atatürk, the Turkish people do not know what Islam really is and do not read the Quran. People are influenced by Arabic sentences that they do not understand, and because of their customs they go to mosques. When the Turks read the Quran and think about it, they will leave Islam. Atatürk described Islam as the religion of the Arabs in his own work titled Vatandaş için Medeni Bilgiler by his own critical and nationalist views.

Association of Atheism (Ateizm Derneği), the first official atheist organisation in Middle East and Caucasus, was founded in 2014. It serves to support irreligious people and freethinkers in Turkey who are discriminated against based on their views. In 2018 it was reported in some media outlets that the Ateizm Derneği would close down because of the pressure on its members and attacks by pro-government media, but the association itself issued a clarification that this was not the case and that it was still active.

United Kingdom
The term freethinker emerged towards the end of the 17th century in England to describe those who stood in opposition to the institution of the Church, and the literal belief in the Bible. The beliefs of these individuals were centered on the concept that people could understand the world through consideration of nature. Such positions were formally documented for the first time in 1697 by William Molyneux in a widely publicized letter to John Locke, and more extensively in 1713, when Anthony Collins wrote his Discourse of Free-thinking, which gained substantial popularity. This essay attacks the clergy of all churches and it is a plea for deism.

The Freethinker magazine was first published in Britain in 1881; it continued in print until 2014, and still exists as a web-based publication.

United States

The freethought movement first organized itself in the United States as the "Free Press Association" in 1827 in defense of George Houston, publisher of The Correspondent, an early journal of Biblical criticism in an era when blasphemy convictions were still possible. Houston had helped found an Owenite community at Haverstraw, New York in 1826–27. The short-lived Correspondent was superseded by the Free Enquirer, the official organ of Robert Owen's New Harmony community in Indiana, edited by Robert Dale Owen and by Fanny Wright between 1828 and 1832 in New York. During this time Robert Dale Owen sought to introduce the philosophic skepticism of the Free Thought movement into the Workingmen's Party in New York City. The Free Enquirer's annual civic celebrations of Paine's birthday after 1825 finally coalesced in 1836 in the first national freethinkers organization, the "United States Moral and Philosophical Society for the General Diffusion of Useful Knowledge". It was founded on August 1, 1836, at a national convention at the Lyceum in Saratoga Springs with Isaac S. Smith of Buffalo, New York, as president. Smith was also the 1836 Equal Rights Party's candidate for Governor of New York and had also been the Workingmen's Party candidate for Lt. Governor of New York in 1830. The Moral and Philosophical Society published The Beacon, edited by Gilbert Vale.

Driven by the revolutions of 1848 in the German states, the 19th century saw an immigration of German freethinkers and anti-clericalists to the United States (see Forty-Eighters). In the United States, they hoped to be able to live by their principles, without interference from government and church authorities.

Many Freethinkers settled in German immigrant strongholds, including St. Louis, Indianapolis, Wisconsin, and Texas, where they founded the town of Comfort, Texas, as well as others.

These groups of German Freethinkers referred to their organizations as Freie Gemeinden, or "free congregations". The first Freie Gemeinde was established in St. Louis in 1850. Others followed in Pennsylvania, California, Washington, D.C., New York, Illinois, Wisconsin, Texas, and other states.

Freethinkers tended to be liberal, espousing ideals such as racial, social, and sexual equality, and the abolition of slavery.

The "Golden Age of Freethought" in the US came in the late 1800s. The dominant organization was the National Liberal League which formed in 1876 in Philadelphia. This group re-formed itself in 1885 as the American Secular Union under the leadership of the eminent agnostic orator Robert G. Ingersoll. Following Ingersoll's death in 1899 the organization declined, in part due to lack of effective leadership.

Freethought in the United States declined in the early twentieth century. By the early twentieth century, most freethought congregations had disbanded or joined other mainstream churches. The longest continuously operating freethought congregation in America is the Free Congregation of Sauk County, Wisconsin, which was founded in 1852 and is still active. It affiliated with the American Unitarian Association (now the Unitarian Universalist Association) in 1955. D. M. Bennett was the founder and publisher of The Truth Seeker in 1873, a radical free thought and reform American periodical.

German freethinker settlements were located in:

 * Burlington, Racine County, Wisconsin
 * Belleville, St. Clair County, Illinois
 * Castell, Llano County, Texas
 * Comfort, Kendall County, Texas
 * Davenport, Scott County, Iowa
 * Fond du Lac, Fond du Lac County, Wisconsin
 * Frelsburg, Colorado County, Texas
 * Hermann, Gasconade County, Missouri
 * Jefferson, Jefferson County, Wisconsin
 * Indianapolis, Indiana
 * Latium, Washington County, Texas
 * Manitowoc, Manitowoc County, Wisconsin
 * Meyersville, DeWitt County, Texas
 * Milwaukee, Wisconsin
 * Millheim, Austin County, Texas
 * Oshkosh, Winnebago County, Wisconsin
 * Ratcliffe, DeWitt County, Texas
 * Sauk City, Sauk County, Wisconsin
 * Shelby, Austin County, Texas
 * Sisterdale, Kendall County, Texas
 * St. Louis, Missouri
 * Tusculum, Kendall County, Texas
 * Two Rivers, Manitowoc County, Wisconsin
 * Watertown, Dodge County, Wisconsin

United States tradition
Freethought influenced the development of anarchism in the United States. In the U.S., "'free thought was a basically anti-Christian, anti-clerical movement, whose purpose was to make the individual politically and spiritually free to decide for himself on religious matters. A number of contributors to Liberty were prominent figures in both free thought and anarchism. The American individualist anarchist George MacDonald [(1857–1944)] was a co-editor of Freethought and, for a time, The Truth Seeker. E. C. Walker was co-editor of the freethought/free love journal Lucifer, the Light-Bearer.'" "Many of the anarchists were ardent freethinkers; reprints from free thought papers such as Lucifer, the Light-Bearer, Freethought and The Truth Seeker appeared in Liberty...The church was viewed as a common ally of the state and as a repressive force in and of itself."

European tradition

In Europe, a similar development occurred in French and Spanish individualist anarchist circles: "'Anticlericalism, just as in the rest of the libertarian movement, in another of the frequent elements which will gain relevance related to the measure in which the (French) Republic begins to have conflicts with the church...Anti-clerical discourse, frequently called for by the French individualist André Lorulot [(1885–1963)], will have its impacts in Estudios (a Spanish individualist anarchist publication). There will be an attack on institutionalized religion for the responsibility that it had in the past on negative developments, for its irrationality which makes it a counterpoint of philosophical and scientific progress. There will be a criticism of proselytism and ideological manipulation which happens on both believers and agnostics'." These tendencies would continue in French individualist anarchism in the work and activism of Charles-Auguste Bontemps (1893–1981) and others. In the Spanish individualist anarchist magazines Ética and Iniciales "'there is a strong interest in publishing scientific news, usually linked to a certain atheist and anti-theist obsession, philosophy which will also work for pointing out the incompatibility between science and religion, faith, and reason. In this way, there will be a lot of talk on Charles Darwin's theories or on the negation of the existence of the soul'."

In 1901, the Catalan anarchist and freethinker Francesc Ferrer i Guàrdia established "modern" or progressive schools in Barcelona in defiance of an educational system controlled by the Catholic Church. The schools had the stated goal to "educate the working class in a rational, secular and non-coercive setting". Fiercely anti-clerical, Ferrer believed in "freedom in education", education free from the authority of church and state. Ferrer's ideas, generally, formed the inspiration for a series of Modern Schools in the United States, Cuba, South America, and London. The first of these started in New York City in 1911. Ferrer also inspired the Italian newspaper Università popolare, founded in 1901.

Freethinking in Freemasonry
Freemasonry served an important purpose in the spreading of the freethinking movement, Freemason lodges in 18th century Europe served as sites for enlightenment thinking and discussion of new ideas, helping spread freethought philosophies. The informal, secretive nature of the lodges allowed intellectuals and elites to gather and debate radical topics away from the scrutiny of church and state.

Freemasonry attracted many freethinkers and became a hub of the movement, during the Enlightenment era due to its emphasis on inclusive membership, logic, rationalism, and religious tolerance. Freemasonry's origins from stonemason guilds meant its symbolism and rituals drew on concepts from the Trivium and Quadrivium, they include the Mastery of Grammar, Rhetoric, logic then mastery of arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy as well as other arts such as the mechanical arts, reflecting Enlightenment ideals in the goal of making its members Masters of their thoughts and opinions thus making them Freethinkers. This distinguished Freemasonry from other fraternal orders focused on chivalry or Christian morality.

Rationalism and science

Due to Freemasonry utilizing extensive symbols and allegories related to mathematics, geometry, and architecture, conveying the importance of reason and science, and the central Masonic symbol of the compass and square represented logic and rigor as well references to the "Great Architect of the Universe", these concepts were interpreted as a deist scientific creator by Enlightenment freethinkers.

Influential early Speculative Masonic writings by James Anderson and Jean-Theophile Desaguliers frequently cited Isaac Newton and promoted Newtonian scientific ideas. Desaguliers was a close friend and student of Newton, further spreading Newton's theories to lodges. Geometry textbooks and lectures were common in early lodges, aligning with Enlightenment interest in mathematics and science.

Freemasonry's multi-tiered system of initiation rituals allegorically used the tools, stages, and concepts of architecture and mechanics to represent enlightenment and self-improvement through education and reason. This resonated with freethinkers' belief in perfecting society through spreading knowledge.

Religious tolerance

Unlike most contemporary fraternal orders, Freemasonry did not require its members to follow a specific religious creed. This openness allowed men of diverse faiths, including freethinkers and deists, to join local lodges throughout Europe and America in the Enlightenment era. While utilizing religious imagery and themes, Freemasonry intentionally avoided dogmatic disputes and focused its moral lessons on shared values of virtue, charity, and righteousness.

This religious tolerance attracted Enlightenment thinkers, like Voltaire, who viewed organized religion as upholding oppressive traditional monarchs and hindering free thought. Benjamin Franklin praised Masonic principles of "liberality, tolerance and unity in essentials, leaving each Brother to his own opinions on non-essentials" in his writings.

Political liberalism
Many Enlightenment freethinkers perceived established religion as upholding traditional monarchies and oppressing free thought. Consequently, the secrecy and hierarchical Initiatory structure of Freemasonry alarmed some authoritarian states, concerned it could encourage liberal revolutionary ideas.

However, most Masonic lodges mainly aimed to promote morality, sociability, and philanthropic causes rather than radical politics. Values of freethinking, liberty, equality, and opposition to tyranny were also celebrated in Masonic rituals and writings. This intellectual spirit likely contributed to many Freemasons supporting independence movements and participating as Founding Fathers of the United States.

In the 19th and 20th centuries, some authoritarian states also suspected Freemasonry of encouraging liberal freethinking philosophies and suppressed Masonic lodges.

Pursuit of mastery
A core goal of Freemasonry's initiatory system is to guide men's intellectual and moral development towards mastery and enlightenment. Masonic rituals and degrees symbolically depict the passage from an Apprentice to Fellowcraft to Master Mason as a metaphor for independent learning and self-improvement to the goal of becoming a Master of himself, thus a full freethinker.

Attaining mastery is presented as freeing a man's mind from reliance on authorities and dogmas so he can autonomously reason and have educated opinions. The perfectibility of human nature through education and liberty is a key theme. This aligns with freethinkers' views on thinking for oneself using logic and empiricism.

title: Freethought


text:
Talk:John Stith Pemberton

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Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 01:22, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

Thingy majiger
the page was named under the header 'Dr. Joseph Graham Pemberton' which i just changed to Dr. John Pemberton- ehich corresponds to the information given in the article. [user- Priya Chandran, 16:43, 20 December 2005]

I've just removed some information on Dr. John Stith Pemberton that was the same as that on this webpage. If the contributor who added it had the relevant rights to use this material, please reply below. I have also removed some Stith genealogical information, because although I find that sort of thing interesting, it related to the 17th and 18th centuries, and the connection to Mr. Pemberton wasn't made at all clear. And it wasn't written in proper prose. However, if I'm interpreting it correctly, it seems that the poster was hinting at a descent from William Randolph and Mary Isham, which would make Mr. Pemberton a relative of Thomas Jefferson. This connection would be nice if real, and might be worth mentioning in the article. Maybe. -- Oliver P. 17:15 25 Jul 2003 (UTC)

John Pemberton had died in 1888.. He died in the year 1886.. You should change that.

Also the in the category box it has him in the 1791 births category, but the article says his birth took place in 1831. I can do research to fix this problem. -- Frenchgeek 04:19, Mar 18, 2005 (UTC)
 * His mother was born in 1791, not him, so I'm going to change the category listing on this one. --Frenchgeek 04:26, Mar 18, 2005 (UTC)

huh?
he was a folk singer? that seems too random

someone take out 'folk singer'

 * And someone added "Jewish" too, but unsourced. I removed it.  Bruxism (talk) 03:16, 4 February 2009 (UTC)

Pemberton's addiction
How reliable is this information? It's sourced to Dominic Streatfeild's Cocaine: An Unauthorised Biography, but how reliable is that book? It has no footnotes, and on the very page containing this information it also claims that Pemberton sold the business to Candler in 1891, which is impossible since he was already three years in the grave! It seems to me that a mistake like that casts doubt on Streatfeild's research (if any), and none of his story about Pemberton should be usable. -- Zsero (talk) 00:10, 29 October 2009 (UTC)

Cause of death?
Does anyone know how Pemberton died? He would have been 57 at the time of death which is too young to die of old age. 98.226.68.29 (talk) 19:32, 26 September 2010 (UTC)
 * I always figured he died of an overdosis morphine. But searching the internet I found no such indication. NNDB.com states cancer as his cause of death. However the type is unspecified, so I have my doubts whether the doctor did a proper autopsy. --Robinandroid (talk) 20:25, 10 February 2011 (UTC)
 * How did he died 71.213.136.176 (talk) 22:26, 21 February 2024 (UTC)

NOT THE NEPHEW OF JOHN CLIFFORD PEMBERTON, CIVIL WAR CONFEDERATE GENERAL
John S. Pemberton's father was James C. Pemberton, who was born about 1803-1806 in either North Carolina or South Carolina, according to the 1850 and 1860 census records. General John Clifford Pemberton's father and mother were not married until 1812 in Pennsylvania, according to Colonial and Revolutionary Families of Pennsylvania (published 1978 by the Genealogical Publishing Company). Therefore, it is very unlikely that James C. Pemberton is a brother of General John Clifford Pemberton. James was born before the marriage and in a different state entirely. A tree someone put on a Rootsweb website with no sources cited is NOT a valid source for the family connections. '''Just because John S Pemberton is of the right age to be the nephew of John C. Pemberton, and they both fought on the Confederate side, and they both have the same last name, and they are both famous, does NOT make them related. ''' Jtrahan2003 (talk) 02:49, 12 April 2011 (UTC)

 * Okay, my claim that he is the general's nephew is casual. If somebody knows better, they should correct my possible mistake.  I am adding a "citation needed".  In case it is found that he is not the general's nephew, the article should have a note to the effect that he is often mistaken for the general's nephew.CountMacula (talk) 01:25, 27 June 2011 (UTC)

 * The article currently reflects Brownsguides for Georgia. When the authors of that biography change their story, per argument above, then correction will be forced.Rgdboer (talk) 21:57, 24 April 2015 (UTC)

First sold in what form?
You say Coca-Cola was first bottled in 1894. In what form, or in what sort of container, was it distributed before that? 86.181.87.252 (talk) 15:13, 24 September 2011 (UTC)

Founder, not inventor, and here's why
In order to be an inventor, you have to create a generic type of product not previously in existence. Creating a brand name, as opposed to a generic type of product, makes you a founder and not an inventor.

Soda pop does in fact predate the 1886 founding of Coca-Cola. Quod Erat Demonstrandum. The Mysterious El Willstro (talk) 05:57, 23 October 2016 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 12 June 2018
This is not correct- This is not correct Mango458 (talk) 07:15, 12 June 2018 (UTC) ✅ - by another - Arjayay (talk) 11:03, 12 June 2018 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 12 June 2018
change Knoxville, Georgia to Jumritalayya, India change Inventor of Coca-Cola to Shikanji Desaiardeshir (talk) 09:14, 12 June 2018 (UTC)

 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done: as you have not cited reliable sources to back up your request, without which no information should be added to, or changed in, any article. - Arjayay (talk) 11:04, 12 June 2018 (UTC)

WOW
man. He looks like a former president. But he's actually a owner of coke 76.25.196.38 (talk) 03:19, 12 December 2022 (UTC)

Notice: Updated John Pemberton ref; url thereof has changed (but only slightly)
In fixing the following reference, I discovered that the source cited has a slightly different url:

The url in the reference was changed from https://lemelson.mit.edu/resources/john-s-pemberton to https://lemelson.mit.edu/resources/john-pemberton

The john-s-pemberton page has been archived on the wayback machine 9 times starting April 29, 2016 and (as of this date) ending January 24, 2023 The last intact page was captured on August 10, 2020. The captures in 2021 and thereafter are Page not found.

The john-pemberton page has been archived on the wayback machine 10 times beginning January 26, 2021 and (as of this date) ending October 5, 2023. I haven't checked all of these pages, but the first one, Jan 26, 2021 is complete

I'm not sure where, if anywhere, I should note this change so I have written this brief notice. --CmdrDan (talk) 19:41, 14 February 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:John Stith Pemberton