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Talk:Soprano

Welcome to the Soprano discussion page
Constructive suggestions and discussion welcome! The contents of this page are for ongoing discussions. If you want to start a new discussion feel free to do so at the bottom of the page. For past discussions please see the archives.

Including a list of musical roles
I invite everyone to join this discussion on the voice type talk page. Past consensus has been to not include a list of such roles but perhaps this topic should be re-adressed. This topic involves all voice types as there has been a strong attempt to try and make each voice type page similar in content and format.Nrswanson (talk) 22:33, 9 February 2008 (UTC)
 * This page needs to have a musical list jsut liek the mezzo-soprano and contralto pages do. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.103.94.196 (talk) 01:15, 3 January 2009 (UTC)

Sfogato Soprano?
I noticed that this section was added but I removed it as there were no references given and I had never heard the term before described in that way. It is my understanding that the Sfogato Soprano is a type of coloratura with even higher notes than what is usual for a coloratura. The music dictionary just says "A very high soprano". It says nothing about lower extension. Also, if Callas was a Sfogato Soprano than so was Sutherland who had an even larger range than Callas.Nrswanson (talk) 00:54, 18 February 2008 (UTC)

Article needs a spinto soprano link
...because the youtube link (Leontyne Price in the title role of Tosca) is dead. Cuddlyable3 (talk) 14:31, 15 June 2008 (UTC)

 * No it isn't. I just pulled it up. The link works just fine.Nrswanson (talk) 18:37, 15 June 2008 (UTC)

 * Yes now the link works. I am delighted. Cuddlyable3 (talk) 18:43, 18 June 2008 (UTC)

Coloratura as vocal property?!
The article refers to a certain type of voice as "having almost no coloratura" or something like that. Now as I understand, coloratura as originally defined is actually a compositional technique, involving a rapid, florid vocal line; coloratura passages can be (and have been) sung by singers of all vocal ranges and timbres, even basses. By extension, the word has come to refer to a certain class of soprano singers for whom the singing of such music is easiest, but even among these singers there is as much variety of vocal timbre as among any others. I submit that using this term to denote a property of a voice is vague to the point of meaninglessness, and I would like to see the passage rephrased and clarified.74.182.241.159 (talk) 01:35, 26 June 2008 (UTC)

 * The term "coloratura facility" within vocal music refers to the voice's ability to sing dextrous (a.k.a coloratura) vocal passages. This is common practice within the opera world. Heavier voices tend to not be able to sing coloratura passages well and the vocal literature reflects that. Of course a soubrette is a lighter voice. In this case, Stark (the author) is pointing out that soubrette roles are not written with extensive coloratura passages, which is true.Nrswanson (talk) 01:44, 26 June 2008 (UTC)

Sporano men
Is soprano regarded only as a female voice? How about Leo Sayer and the Bee-Gees? Thanks 77.126.62.150 (talk) 10:47, 26 July 2008 (UTC)

 * The term "male soprano" is a somewhat controvercial term with some vocal pedagogists rejecting it outright and others embracing it. The issue is actually addressed on the countertenor article. The term countertenor is the name most frequently used in the opera world for classifying men who can sing in the soprano vocal range.Nrswanson (talk) 22:55, 26 July 2008 (UTC)

 * How about Davina Pons ? Yes (s)he's funny but it's a serious question. Cuddlyable3 (talk) 23:27, 3 January 2009 (UTC)

Hey it would be nice if you give a soundbite for this
a sample o sound —Preceding unsigned comment added by 193.151.115.9 (talk) 11:17, 16 May 2009 (UTC)

High extreme
Article sais: "In rare cases, some coloratura roles go as high as G6 or A6 such as Mozart's concert aria Popoli di Tessaglia or the role of Europa in Antonio Salieri's Europa riconosciuta."

Both mentioned examples are G6, but there isn't any example for A6. I've noticed G#6 in http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TSNwU1SsqBk, but the point about A6 remains unproved as of now. --Dlougach (talk) 13:48, 12 July 2011 (UTC)

 * Ok, since there has been no reply, I've just changed that part in the article to make it verifiable. --Dlougach (talk) 13:18, 5 August 2011 (UTC)

Voice types
I take issue with the way some voice types have been described in this article and elsewhere in Wikpedia. For instance, a lyric soprano is "a warm voice with a bright, full timbre, which can be heard over a big orchestra", while a dramatic soprano "has a powerful, rich, emotive voice that can sing over a full orchestra". This is all arbitrary. Voices are flexible and versatile. There are sopranos that can sing different types of roles (e.g. lyric and dramatic soprano roles.) There are no voice types as such. Only operatic roles. Also, there is no such thing as a Wagnerian soprano. Did Wagnerian sopranos exist before Wagner? This has to be made clear, because it is a source of unending confusion amongst musicophiles. Finally, where did the idea that a lyric soprano or a soubrette cannot sing over a full orchestra come from? It's arbitrary. There are sopranos whose voice is more suited to the soprano lirico repertoire, yet whose voices are big. It is not accidental that most professional singers do not accept this classification. Amadeus webern (talk) 11:33, 24 April 2012 (UTC)

 * Voice classification is not an exact science and many writers on the topic express different opinions. The current content in the article is a reflection of the references currently used. That does not of course mean that other opinions can not be expressed either. I would note that you seem to be confusing lyric sopranos with spinto sopranos according to classification outlines in many English language references. Many authors state that a true lyric soprano could never tackle a dramatic role, and vice versa. Those singers who bridge the two repertoires would be considered neither lyric nor dramatic but spinto singers. That said, there are voices which defy classification, and productions which have cast lyric singers in dramatic roles but as a trade off have used microphones or cut the number of instumentalists to accomodate the singer. Remember, also, that voice classification in the English speaking world is inconsistant, often merging ideas from the French, German, and Italian schools in indiscriminate fashion. As a result, it is really difficult to provide a clear and succinct outline of classification as opinions and practices will differ.
 * As for Wagnerian sopranos, I agree that the term really shouldn't be separated from "dramatic soprano" as it currently is. The term "Wagnerian Singer (insert voice type)" came about largely because Wagnerian operas require much larger orchestras than what is typically called for in opera. As a result, some singers who could perform dramatic roles like Amelia and Leonore (and nowadays many Strauss roles) with the typically sized orchestra were unable to successfully project over the larger orchestra. This led to a clear division in repertoire choices among dramatic singers: those who took on all the heavy Wagner roles and those who either avoided Wagner or chose only those Wagner parts which avoided having to sing above loud dense orchestration. Singers who chose to take on the big heavy Wagner parts became known as Wagnerian singers whereas those who did not were simply identified by music writers as dramatic performers. I hope that helps explain the origin of the term "Wagnerian" as a descriptive term. Ultimately repertoire choices are highly individual and there will always be casting discrepancies. Not every performer will fit neetly into a category. Best.4meter4 (talk) 00:03, 25 April 2012 (UTC)

 * I know what a soprano lirico spinto is. But that was not my point. Maria Callas for example sung both dramatic, Wagnerian and lyric and coloratura roles. And she is not the only one who could or can do that. While it is true that there are certain voice types and opera roles corresponding to the classification given in this article, the idea that voice types are classified according to their power over a full orchestra (i.e. dramatic sopranos=big voice, lyric soprano=not so big) is erroneous.
 * Also, there are many misconceptions concerning Wagner and the human voice. When it comes to Wagnerian roles, most people tend to forget that Wagner's operas were meant to be performed in Bayreuth, whose acoustics and architecture favour and reinforce the human voice against the orchestra.
 * It would be better if the different voice types were defined according to their different qualities and tessitura, instead of their dynamics in relation to a full orchestra.Amadeus webern (talk) 15:35, 13 June 2012 (UTC)

 * I don't think that the issue of vocal weight or power can be dismissed so easily. It is a major concern in voice classification and no book on opera, the art of singing, or the history of vocal pedagogy will tell you differently. And, contrary to your statement, Callas was cited as an unusual singer for being able to jump around so much in her repertoire in many publications.4meter4 (talk) 20:58, 13 June 2012 (UTC)

Hz
The article has numerous references to 'middle C' and such like but never actually specifies a frequency. I came to this article curious about the frequency of a soprano (in Hz). Are there any objections to me giving the 'middle C', 'high D' type references a frequency? Mtpaley (talk) 23:03, 12 November 2013 (UTC)

 * I think that's unnecessary and unhelpful to the subject of "Soprano". The article already links to Scientific pitch notation which has a table of note frequencies covering 11 octaves and the linked term middle C has a similar table. From those tables it seems the answer you might be looking for is "middle C = 261.626 Hz, high D = 1174.7 Hz." -- Michael Bednarek (talk) 04:50, 13 November 2013 (UTC)

Most common female voice type?
Baritone notes that this is the most common male voice type. Isn't soprano the most common female voice type? If so, then we should note that too. --Florian Blaschke (talk) 11:32, 26 October 2014 (UTC)

 * Yes, if you have a source. The Baritone source is from Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Encyclopedia. Prhartcom (talk) 13:46, 27 October 2014 (UTC)

 * A standard medical handbook should be a just about ideal source. I've added it.
 * I've frequently seen the claim on the web that mezzo-sopranos are the most common type, perhaps because they are in the middle just like baritones are in men, but this seemed dubious to me. I found the competing claim that sopranos are more common, and specifically lyric sopranos (or other light, non-coloratura sopranos), immediately more believable for some reason (experience probably). I asked a singer friend and she confirmed my hunch, referring to her teacher as source. True mezzo-sopranos (let alone contraltos) are rare. This encouraged me to look for a print source once again, and I finally found the right keywords. There appears to be considerable interest but also a lot of confusion about this issue, so I thought this was a useful point to add to the article. --Florian Blaschke (talk) 19:00, 1 November 2014 (UTC)

Re: Most common female voice type?
I don't think saying that lyric sopranos are the most common voice type is true nor particularly helpful without adding reputable sources. It is true that contraltos (as in women who are comfortable singing between approximately E3-C4 for long periods of time) are not common as well as the deepest mezzo-sopranos. However, I don't believe that the average woman can sing up to C6 (or higher) comfortably or musically, as is the requirement for the soprano voice type). Most women I have dealt with are perfectly content and comfortable to sing down to about Ab3 or G3, which again falls into the mezzo-soprano tessitura. I am not necessarily saying that this claim is factually incorrect; I just want to know how the author came to the the conclusion that the most common female voice type is a lyric soprano. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.245.43.128 (talk) 04:07, 17 December 2014 (UTC)

 * Experience of many years, perhaps? Possibly statistical investigations (more reliable than anecdata)? I don't know; you'll have to mail the authors and ask them yourself. Their addresses can be found on their personal webpages: Here is Arnold Aronson's and here is Diane Bless's. --Florian Blaschke (talk) 10:25, 19 February 2015 (UTC)

"Male sopranos"
This article is about the female voice type. The hatnote at the top of this article refers readers to the males. The disambiguation page handles the saxophone.

The following text discussing "male sopranos" used to appear at the top of the article before any discussion of females. It has now been removed from this article to keep the article focused on the primary definition of a soprano: the female soprano voice type. However, as it is sourced, would someone who has access to the sources like to integrate this into the sopranist article? Caution: this prose starts out encyclopedic then begins to go downhill a bit. Comments welcome. Cheers. Prhartcom (talk) 14:31, 19 February 2015 (UTC)

Typically, a "soprano" is a female singer but at times men who sing in the soprano vocal range using falsetto vocal production instead of the modal voice have been called a "male sopranos". Male sopranos are most commonly found in choral music in England. However, these men are usually called countertenors or sopranists. Referring to countertenors as "male sopranos" is somewhat controversial as these men do not produce sound in the same physiological way as female sopranos. Michael Maniaci is able to sing the modal voice like a woman because his larynx did not fully develop during puberty. Radu Marian is also able to sing in the modal voice because he never went through puberty, and is considered to be a "natural" castrato. In choral music, the term soprano refers to a vocal part or line and not a voice type. Male singers whose voices have not yet changed and are singing the soprano line are technically known as "trebles". The term "boy soprano" is often used as well, but this is just a colloquialism and not the correct term.

Historically, women were not allowed to sing in the Church so the soprano roles were given to young boys and later to castrati—men whose larynges had been fixed in a pre-adolescent state through the process of castration.

 * I share your concern, but lack expertise. I'm particularly uncertain about the difference between male sopranos and countertenors. Perhaps posting your comment at Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Opera will yield more reaction. --Florian Blaschke (talk) 13:28, 21 February 2015 (UTC)

 * Good suggestion, done. But please call them "sopranist", there is no "male soprano". Prhartcom (talk) 13:35, 21 February 2015 (UTC)

Hello and. I edited this article earlier as well mainly to split from the lead the males-detailing as I share your opinion that such specific-rarer reference should not take the focus of the subject. I also wasn't aware for the article sopranist with already detailing much of this-aspect content here.

With that, the article stands under the subject of the term "soprano" and was previously only hatnoted to differentiate between human and instrument voice-type. The reason I was making a more generalized lead definition (alongside moving this gender-crossing with historical perspective under its own chapter) is in order to correspond to the general concept of producing soprano, one way or another via this comparisons; with that add interest of an attached contra for the typical female singing coverage with its use in history (of how man performed this kind of singing instead of women), precisely on this article about soprano with its primary female focus, which sheds historical light on this focus as well. Although soprano is considered exceptional for the male body, males can also sing within this range categorization with falsetto as well as producing it within the natural boy's body system. For this I also find the definition "a type of classical female singing voice" to be lacking.

Therefore, I think it would be beneficial to leave a few sentences-chapter at the bottom of the article (also in contrast to my earlier placement of it at the top) and link from its text to the "sopranist" and "soprano saxophone" for further info (in addition to the article's top hatnotes). With that, for the lead definitions I'm in favor of something along the more flexible-line of: "Soprano is primarily a female/feminine singing voice type" with also briefly mentioning that males are able producing it under biological circumstances and that it uses for instruments and songs lines - in accordance to my proposed bottom-short chapter. I don't have expertise in this subject, my humble opinion is based on reading this male, boys and instruments content which deviates the term from solely a "female voice" and with regards to the article's subject. אומנות (talk) 16:17, 2 March 2015 (UTC)

 * Hi אומנות; do you have sources? As you know, our humble opinions do not count on Wikipedia, only reliable sources. As editors, our only job is to state in our own words what the reliable sources say. If you have appropriate sources that state this, yes, it may be beneficial to place a small section at the bottom of this article. Cheers. Prhartcom (talk) 17:47, 2 March 2015 (UTC)

 * Hi, my opinion was in regards to your reasoning that this content (which had few sources) should be moved to other related articles, also once it will be properly sourced; my opinion was for thinking you objecting having this material here altogether.
 * The males-children-instruments info had some sources here, as well as appears within those sopranist, Michael Maniaci and soprano saxophone articles, and included on dictionaries covering the term. This makes "soprano" to be overall and basically defined by a production of a specific vocal/sound range in humans/instruments, which makes it the most comprehensive and neutral way for our editorial job the way I see it; addressing the term from presenting this basic vocal range point, then attach the female gender as the primary reference of the term. This is what I wanted to make with my prior edit to the lead, in addition and as a summary to the historical and males context chapter. In regards to more and proper sourcing, I can try and look for more sources at the next days. אומנות (talk) 15:35, 3 March 2015 (UTC)

 * Hi אומנות, I agree that the Soprano article may have a section referring to this as you say. If you would like, you can place a new section into the bottom of the Soprano article with this information, removing it from this talk page, and perhaps also place this information into the Sopranist article. Cheers. Prhartcom (talk) 16:34, 2 June 2015 (UTC)

 * I don't think I would go so far as to say there is no "male soprano". After all, the term soprano was first applied to men, not women, in opera scores of the Baroque Era. Although we typically think of these roles today as castrati roles, the actual scores written by Monteverdi, Caccini, and their contemporaries labled these male parts 'soprano'. In fact contemporary republished scores of works like L'Orfeo will not use the term castrati in the list of roles but actually label them '(male) soprano' with the "(male)" as a modern editorial insert (see here). Further the term 'male soprano' is used widely in published material on the art of singing (see here). That said, I too prefer the term sopranist. However, several sources describe a sopranist or male soprano as a type of countertenor, so I am wondering if we shouldn't just redirect both male soprano and sopranist to that article. For example Margaret Olson on page 52 of Listening to Art Song: An Introduction (2015, Rowman & Littlefield) lists sopranist and mezzist as two subtypes of the countertenor voice type see here.

 * In response to אומנות, the primary usage of the term soprano is the highest female voice. Gender should be included in the lead sentence because that is clearly the primary use of the term today, and to indicate otherwise would be contrary to the vast majority of authoratative published references in this area of study. Other uses of the term, such as soprano saxophone or male soprano, can be addressed elsewhere in the article. Ultimately it may be beneficial to this article to add a history of the use of the term.4meter4 (talk) 20:51, 2 June 2015 (UTC)

 * Hi Prhartcom and 4meter4. Prhartcom, I started working on phrasing a new chapter (from the previous material on the article) and found sources on the days after we talked, but wanted to keep compare them - mainly the issue of "countertanors"-conception as including "male sopranos", and "sopranists" verses "male sopranos" as it is a bit complex with varying views between different sources, as been also talked above. Also, following your ping, I saw the "In choral music" chapter and template addition to this article and read the preceding discussion on WikiProject Opera for the Alto-voice and the additional template as another classification for choir's characterization, so I want to verify this things before writting on the article.
 * 4meter4, I formerly edited the lede to say: "A soprano is the highest vocal range of all voice types which primarily refers to classical female singing voice, with diversification to reference male falsetto vocal range, as well as a member of an instrumental family...". I understand that voice-types articles open with gender-reference as the primary identification, but a general description of "highest voice range" followed by "primarily refers to female voice type", still seems to pay respect to this nowadays primary reference, just after a general introduction paying respect to the term's spectrum. I think that at least the end of the lede should still summarize by mentioning other aspects of the term, if the article touches other terms of the soprano spectrum.
 * Following this discussion, the opera project discussion and article developments, I'm not sure now if it's better to put the content I worked on at the bottom of the article or to seperate some choir-info from that to appear under the "Choral music chapter". So I have decided to first introduce what I made on this talk page. I bring beneath the content with bracketted notes and references - for the references I added specific places directions and citations, as the sources have quite a lot of reading material. Here it is:
 * Typically, a "soprano" is a female singer, able to produce the range from middle C and higher by using the modal voice. Men are able to sing in the soprano range by using falsetto vocal production instead, as they do not produce sound in the same physiological way as female sopranos. In this falsetto technique reference they are called sopranists as a specific kind of the countertenor singing, by reaching the higher soprano notes in comparisson to the lower countertenor-charactarization notes range.(note a)  (reference "3" also point this, but to distinguish between "male soprano" and "countertenor").
 * However, the use of a modal voice to naturally produce the soprano range can also be achieved by young boys called trebles(note b) and by men whose voices have not changed as their larynges had been fixed in a pre-adolescent state through the process of castration, or men who are refered to as "natural castratos" as their larynges did not fully develop during puberty. Examples include Michael Maniaci and Radu Marian.
 * Historically, this gender crossing of soprano singing was conjoined with forbidding women to sing in the Church, as the soprano roles were given to young boys and later to castrato. In choral music, the term soprano refers to a higher vocal part or line and not a voice type, which was also used to be sung by males.

 * ===Notes===
 * a. The males alternative and different circumstances to sing in the soprano vocal range compared to females, has also led to call them "male sopranos" alongside the classical term "sopranists".
 * b. The term "boy soprano" is often used as well for boys singing the higher parts in a choir, but this is just a colloquialism and not the correct term.

 * Please let me know if you think this male-soprano material is fine and what material can be seperated to appear under the "In choral music" chapter. Also, what you think in regards to point out the other references of the term at the end of the current lede. Thank you for your time to look at my material and my counselling questions and views.
 * אומנות (talk) 17:41, 6 June 2015 (UTC)

 * אומנות, I prefer the article's opening sentence as it currently is because it is a better reflection of the majority of published references on this subject, and is the definition than one immediately thinks of when hearing the term soprano (indeed this is the primary use of the term since the mid 18th century). I don't think a leading definition other than that is appropriate as it lends towards WP:UNDUE WEIGHT. I do think a use of the term "male soprano" could be mentioned further down in the lede, and then be addressed briefly in a historical context further down in the article in a history of the term soprano section. A detailed discussion of the term "male soprano" should be relegated to its own article since it really is a different, albeit related, topic.4meter4 (talk) 17:59, 6 June 2015 (UTC)

 * Yes, agreed, we are not changing the lede or its opening sentence at all, אומנות, as I wrote that sentence last year to be consistent with the opening sentence to all voice type articles (keeping the "big picture"). Thinking about it further, and after reading the voice type article, I realise the soprano article should not include any reference to male voices at all, in any way whatsoever, as the referenced knowledge above discusses not sopranos but countertenors. In voice types, males and females always have their own definite types, and sopranos are strictly female. Countertenors, however, are always men and can (rarely) be equivalent to a soprano, which is what the above is discussing. So yes, your carefully written and referenced prose may be placed into that article immediately, if you wish, removing reference to males and females (as the context is already strictly males), and I hope you will do so. You may also wish to consider placing it into the sopranist (a sub-type of the countertenor) article. Looking at the countertenor article, it appears the best place is into the existing Terminology section. Looking at the sopranist article, it appears the best place is into the existing Controversy over the term male soprano section. I am especially pleased to see you obviously have access to the reliable sources. אומנות, thank-you for this and for mentioning the need to expand the choral music section. Wikipedia relies on you and 4meter4 and others who have this access to the reliable sources to maintain the content of the voice type articles. Prhartcom (talk) 21:45, 6 June 2015 (UTC)

 * Thank you for your further views as well. I went through different specific voice-type articles earlier and now read the voice type article which refers vocal range by gender classification, for means as tessitura and other qualities, and not just factual vocal range (which therefore exclude the falsetto-soprano-countertenors). I also understand from 4meter4 comment, about the use of the term nowadays already from the 18th century for female singing voice, and gather the consistency to open voice type articles by gender reference.
 * My last comment was for mentioning the male sopranos somewhere in the continuation of the lead, as a summary for other uses of the term on other angles-chapters of the article, which 4meter4 discussed as well and agreed on - in regards to historical use. For this I highlight the historical replacement of females by castratos and trebles in church as very much relevant to the History chapter and in reference for the choral singing chapter - this gender-phenomenon occurred within this presentation-frame (which is also more inclusive for voice type definition compared to solo singer and opera roles) and with that sheds light on the nowadays accepted female singing term (as the focus of this article) compared to the past, on top of giving the angle of rare male-cases and castratos for the soprano spectrum as a complete picture about soprano-references. That is regardless of more in depth material on male sopranos on the "Countertenor" and "Sopranists" articles, that I can follow the advices of where to add such material there.
 * "Soprano" in reference to countertenor still varies from such different sourced views which seem to contribute to this article as well, if written briefly. Leaving the opening lead sentence and vocal range details in its opening is agreed, but I'm still with the view of a brief inclusion in this article (as I presented above, which can be further shortened if someone sees feat) under the history chapter, and that the lead needs to point out in its continuation the term male sopranos and references to the historical use of the term. אומנות (talk) 16:20, 9 June 2015 (UTC)

 * If you are saying the reliable sources clearly state that males could at one time in history be considered sopranos, then in that case I concur, and will always bow to whatever the reliable sources say. To clarify my position on all this, I am approaching this simply as an editor who wishes to bring a big-picture consistency and good organizational structure to the voice type articles. I am not well versed in the intricate historical and contemporary details nor do I have the library of sources: for this I rely on you and 4meter4 and others, and I hope you will rely on me for the attributes I mention about myself that I hope are helpful. As you may have noticed, since I wrote my last comment I brought even more consistent structure to the voice type articles including this one, inserting a previously missing History section as it exists in other voice type articles. Therefore, I look forward to some expertly written and well-cited prose in this section, not only about males of course, but mostly about females in order to keep the proper WP:WEIGHT, and not only in this article but in the other voice type articles you wish to contribute to. Cheers. Prhartcom (talk) 16:35, 9 June 2015 (UTC)

 * Prhartcom, sorry for the bit late reply, I kept research and allocate more sources, and thinking how to incorporate other views of the term under the article's current chapter-division. In relation to this, I understand and appreciate the way you designed this article, along with the impressive organizational work you made for the consistency of voice type articles. In regards to male sopranos, I didn't know at first if they were identified as the classic definition of the "soprano" term at some point in history (as before the prominence of female-voice-classification); what I meant was about the importance of explaining other ways (mostly of males) to produce the "soprano" range in this article, with rare cases of also realizing more soprano qualities in their singing. With that, after 4meter4 info about the term referring to males at first, I also now found more sources to this, so I can add this to the history section in combination with bits of biological conditions of the male soprano-singing. I will work on this some more, regardless of course if someone else will start to fill the chapters before. Greets. אומנות (talk) 09:34, 15 June 2015 (UTC)

New content in History section
User:GoldenGuy23, thank-you for adding content to the History section; it is needed. I notice you provided no verifiability of any kind when you added this new content. Can you please tell us if this information came from yourself? Otherwise can you please provide all the usual details of the reliable source? If there's no reliable source the content needs to be removed. I am available if you need help; just let me know below or at my talk page. Best, Prhartcom (talk) 01:46, 20 April 2016 (UTC)

 * +1, especially for a sweeping statement like "Soprano opera singers usually get the leading female (or Trouser) roles in operas." That'll surprise many singers of Rossini or Carmen, and the count in the article Breeches role seems to favour mezzos 43–32 over sopranos, with 14 contraltos. -- Michael Bednarek (talk) 00:30, 21 April 2016 (UTC)

 * User: Prhartcom, to answer your question, I'm trying to see how to add sources & citations to the history section of the Soprano (voice type) web page, as some of those statements are based on actual articles.
 * User:Michael Bednarek, I was just saying how most of the leading roles in operas usually go to Sopranos. Women of lower voice types (Contraltos & Mezzos) do have leading roles in operas such as Carmen, Rosina from the Barber of Seville, Angelina (Cinderella) from La Cenerentrola, & Hansel from Hansel & Gretel, just to name a few. However, Contraltos & Mezzos hey usually play secondary roles (such as maids, mothers, witches, etc.) while the Soprano plays the main character.  — Preceding unsigned comment added by GoldenGuy23 (talk • contribs) 21:24, 20 April 2016

 * (GoldenGuy23, please sign your contributions.) – So you maintain that sopranos get the leading trouser roles? -- Michael Bednarek (talk) 04:02, 21 April 2016 (UTC)

 * GoldenGuy23, I have deleted the trouser paragraph as unreferenced generalization. Sorry, but we need to delete all of the History section now actually, since it, too, is unreferenced. All Wikipedia articles must cite their sources, specifying which books, journals, and news articles the editor read to get the knowledge summarized in the article. Note that the editor must contribute no original research; meaning the editor cannot write about things they themselves know; that is not allowed. Instead, the editor can only write what they read in reliable sources. To meet verifiability, they then document where the knowledge originally came from. Here is a video showing the basics of Wikipedia's verifiability policy. Now, if you have the sources, a helpful shortcut to writing the cited reference is this tool; try it. I'm here to answer any question; we really need an accurate and well-written History of the Soprano. Best, Prhartcom (talk) 05:12, 21 April 2016 (UTC)

 * Note to us all: The History section could be better sourced. I hope someone adds reference to books that cover the history of the soprano voice type. Prhartcom (talk) 16:14, 23 April 2016 (UTC)

GoldenGuy23, I don't think you've quite got the hang of it yet. I explicitly told you that you cannot add material to the encyclopedia without an accompanying reference to a reliable source. And please don't just provide yet another link to Encyclopedia Britannica. Read the policies I have linked and understand how we do things here, leave any questions you have below, then please try again. Prhartcom (talk) 00:21, 24 April 2016 (UTC)

 * The History section is looking much better. All other voice type articles have a History section and I added the heading title and expansion tag awhile ago while doing large, structural edits to all voice type articles, hoping someone would step up and provide content research on the history of this voice type. I am pleased that this has been adequately done for now and hope others will contribute to it also. Best, Prhartcom (talk) 14:56, 26 April 2016 (UTC)

Potential edit warring on the voice types articles
See Talk:Bass_(voice_type). Kuulopuhe (talk) 13:35, 30 January 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Soprano


text:
Ben Stein

Benjamin Jeremy Stein (born November 25, 1944) is an American writer, lawyer, actor, comedian, and commentator on political and economic issues. He began his career as a speechwriter for U.S. presidents Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford before entering the entertainment field as an actor, comedian, and game show host. He is best known on screen as the economics teacher in Ferris Bueller's Day Off, as the host of Win Ben Stein's Money, and as Dr. Arthur Neuman in The Mask and Son of the Mask. Stein also co-wrote and starred in the controversial 2008 film Expelled which was widely criticized for promoting pseudoscientific intelligent design creationist claims of persecution. Stein is the son of economist and writer Herbert Stein, who worked at the White House under President Nixon. As a character actor he is well known for his droning, monotonous delivery. In comedy, he is known for his deadpan delivery.

Early life
Stein was born in Washington, D.C., the son of Mildred (née Fishman), a homemaker, and Herbert Stein, a writer, economist, and presidential adviser. and grew up in the Woodside Forest neighborhood of Silver Spring, Maryland. Stein graduated from Montgomery Blair High School in 1962 along with classmate journalist Carl Bernstein (class of 1960); actress Goldie Hawn (class of 1963) was one year behind. He went on to major in economics at Columbia University's Columbia College, where he was a member of Alpha Delta Phi and the Philolexian Society. After graduating with honors from Columbia in 1966, Stein went to Yale Law School, graduating as valedictorian in June 1970.

Legal and academic career
He was first a poverty lawyer in New Haven, Connecticut, and Washington, D.C., before becoming a trial lawyer for the Federal Trade Commission.

Stein's first teaching stint was as an adjunct professor, teaching about the political and social content of mass culture at American University in Washington, D.C. He subsequently taught classes at the University of California, Santa Cruz on political and civil rights under the United States Constitution. At Pepperdine University Stein taught libel law and United States securities law and its ethical aspects. He was a professor of law and economics at Pepperdine University Law School from about 1990 to 1997.

Writing career
Stein writes a regular column in the conservative media outlets The American Spectator and Newsmax. He has also written for numerous publications, including The Wall Street Journal, The New York Times, New York Magazine, Penthouse, Los Angeles Magazine, and Barron's Magazine. He wrote a regular biweekly column for Yahoo! Finance online, with his last article dated August 7, 2009. His bestselling books (with investment advisor Phil DeMuth) include Yes, You Can Retire Comfortably; Can America Survive?; and Yes, You Can Time the Market. In 2009, he published a collection of essays, The Real Stars.

Stein was fired from his position as a Sunday Business columnist at The New York Times in August 2009 owing to a policy prohibiting writers from making product endorsements or advertising. Stein had recently become an advertising spokesman for credit information company Freescore.com and, according to a Times statement, had assumed there would be no conflict provided that he did not discuss credit scoring in general or FreeScore.com itself in his column. However, the publication felt that it would be inappropriate for him to write for them while he was involved in advertising and terminated his contract. Writing in The Spectator, Stein states his belief that the real reasons for his firing were budget cuts at the Times, his criticism of Obama, and pressure from those critical of Expelled, who "bamboozled some of the high pooh-bahs at the Times into thinking there was a conflict of interest".

Political career
Stein began his political career as a speechwriter and lawyer for President Richard Nixon, and later for President Gerald Ford. On May 3, 1976, Time magazine speculated on the possibility of Stein having actually been Deep Throat. Stein responded over the years not only by denying he was Deep Throat but by going further and accusing journalist Bob Woodward of falsifying the famous secret source. In the May 14–21, 1998, edition of the Philadelphia City Paper, Stein is quoted as saying, "Oh, I don't think there was a Deep Throat. That was a fake. I think there were several different sources and some they just made up." After Mark Felt's identity as Deep Throat was revealed, Stein stated that Nixon would have prevented the rise to power of the Khmer Rouge if he had not been forced to resign. For his actions leading to that resignation, Stein said: "If there is such a thing as karma, if there is such a thing as justice in this life or the next, Mark Felt has bought himself the worst future of any man on this earth. And Bob Woodward is right behind him, with Ben Bradlee bringing up the rear. Out of their smug arrogance and contempt, they hatched the worst nightmare imaginable: genocide."

In 2005, Stein said in the American Spectator:"Can anyone even remember now what Nixon did that was so terrible? He ended the war in Vietnam, brought home the POWs, ended the war in the Mideast, opened relations with China, started the first nuclear weapons reduction treaty, saved Eretz Israel's life, started the Environmental Protection Agency. Does anyone remember what he did that was bad?

Oh, now I remember. He lied. He was a politician who lied. How remarkable. He lied to protect his subordinates who were covering up a ridiculous burglary that no one to this date has any clue about its purpose. He lied so he could stay in office and keep his agenda of peace going. That was his crime. He was a peacemaker and he wanted to make a world where there was a generation of peace. And he succeeded.

That is his legacy. He was a peacemaker. He was a lying, conniving, covering up peacemaker. He was not a lying, conniving drug addict like JFK, a lying, conniving war starter like LBJ, a lying, conniving seducer like Clinton—a lying, conniving peacemaker."

Career in the media
Stein acted as the monotonous economics teacher in the 1986 movie Ferris Bueller's Day Off. In one scene, he lectures on the Smoot-Hawley Tariff of 1930 and the then-current debate over supply-side economics.

Stein played similarly bland and unemotional characters. He had a recurring role in the TV series The Wonder Years as science teacher Mr. Cantwell, who would narrate 16 mm films in monotone. Stein also played himself in Dave.

He appeared in several television advertisements, such as for Clear Eyes eye drops throughout the 1990s and 2000s, Godfather's Pizza in 1987, a bland science teacher in 1990 for Sprinkled Chips Ahoy! cookies, and in 2013 for small business accounting service firm 1-800Accountant.

From 1997 to 2003, Stein hosted the Comedy Central game show Win Ben Stein's Money along with co-host Jimmy Kimmel (replaced by Nancy Pimental and later by Sal Iacono). True to its name, the money that contestants won on the show was subtracted from the $5,000 pay that Stein earned per episode (in addition to his salary). The show won five Daytime Emmy Awards before ending its run in 2003.

In 1999, Stein also hosted the Comedy Central talk show Turn Ben Stein On. One of the mainstays of the show was Stein's dog, Puppy Wuppy, who had free run of the set. In 2001, Stein appeared on a celebrity episode of The Weakest Link entitled "TV Hosts Edition" alongside other television hosts and was voted off in round 6 despite being that round's Strongest Link. Anne Robinson's quip was that while he "might win Ben's money; you're NOT taking ours!".

Other movies and television shows in which Stein has appeared include Charles in Charge; Seinfeld; Full House; Casper; Casper: A Spirited Beginning; Casper Meets Wendy; The Mask and its sequel, Son of the Mask as well as the television show, The Mask: Animated Series; Earthworm Jim; Star Search; MacGyver; Tales from the Crypt; Richie Rich; Game Show Moments Gone Bananas; Cavuto on Business; The O'Reilly Factor; CBS News Sunday Morning; Planes, Trains and Automobiles; Family Guy; the 1998–2004 version of Hollywood Squares; the Michael Berger-hosted version of Match Game; The Fairly OddParents; Duckman; Married... with Children; The Emperor's New School; My Girl 2; Ghostbusters II; and the intelligent design documentary Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed.

In addition, Stein's voice roles include The Pixies, magical creatures on the animated series The Fairly OddParents; Mr. Purutu on the animated series The Emperor's New School; Professor Wisenstein in Bruno the Kid; the birthday party clown, Mr. Giggles, on The Adventures of Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius; a bingo caller on Rugrats; Pip Pumphandle in Animaniacs; and H.A. Futterman in Freakazoid!. Stein also voiced a psychiatrist, again named after himself, in the USA TV series Duckman; he once appeared in the sitcom Married... with Children as a receptionist in the animal afterlife. He also made a cameo appearance in the comic book Young Justice, as Ali Ben Styn. Another cameo appearance was as Rabbi Goldberg in the Family Guy episodes "When You Wish Upon a Weinstein" and "Family Goy". Stein also voiced the character Sam Schmaltz in the 1996 computer adventure game Toonstruck.

Stein has written for the television industry, including outlines for the TV movie Murder in Mississippi and for the lengthy ABC miniseries Amerika. He has also contributed to the creation of the talk show parody series Fernwood 2 Night.

Stein hosted a show on VH1 called America's Most Smartest Model. The show aimed to find the smartest among 14 models through a series of challenges.

On May 14, 2006, during an appearance on the Fox News program Your World with Neil Cavuto, Stein called for a tax increase of 3.5% for wealthy Americans, to be earmarked for soldiers and military initiatives. Stein wrote an editorial for The New York Times critical of those who would rather make money in the world of finance than fight terrorism.

On December 28, 2009, Stein appeared on CNN's Larry King Live with Ron Paul to discuss the attempted bombing of an American plane on Christmas Day 2009. Stein said that Paul's stance that the United States were "occupiers" in Iraq and Afghanistan was antisemitic. The comment started a shouting match between the two men. Two days later, Stein clarified that "if Rep. Paul says he is... not an anti-Semite, I believe him".

Stein's political and economics commentary has appeared on CNBC's The Kudlow Report and CNN.

Commentary in the lead-up to and during the Great Recession
In the months before the late-2000s recession, Stein made frequent and vehement claims about the economy's good health and the relative unimportance of the mortgage-derivative market; these would shortly be proven dead wrong.

Examples include:

 * On March 18, 2007, as the subprime mortgage crisis began, Stein wrote a column for the online version of CBS News Sunday Morning. He proclaimed that the foreclosure problem would "blow over and the people who buy now, in due time, will be glad they did," that the economy was "still very strong," and that the "smart money" was "now trying to buy—not sell—as much distressed merchandise" in mortgages as possible.
 * In an August 12, 2007, column in The New York Times, titled "Chicken Little's Brethren, on the Trading Floor", Stein—while acknowledged that "I don't know where the bottom is on subprime. I don't know how bad the problems are at Bear [ Bear Stearns]"—claimed that "subprime losses are wildly out of all proportion to the likely damage to the economy from the subprime problems," and "[t]his economy is extremely strong. Profits are superb. The world economy is exploding with growth. To be sure, terrible problems lurk in the future: a slow-motion dollar crisis, huge Medicare deficits and energy shortages. But for now, the sell-off seems extreme, not to say nutty. Some smart, brave people will make a fortune buying in these days, and then we'll all wonder what the scare was about."
 * On August 18, 2007, on Fox News Channel's Cavuto on Business, Stein and other financial experts dismissed worries about a coming credit crunch. Thirteen months later, in the global financial crisis in September 2008, global stock markets crashed, Lehman Brothers went bankrupt, Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac were taken over by the US government, AIG was bailed out by the Federal Reserve, Merrill Lynch was sold to Bank of America Corporation, and Morgan Stanley and Goldman Sachs confirmed that they would become traditional bank holding companies.

In January 2008, business commentator Henry Blodget wrote a piece for Business Insider entitled, "Ben Stein is an Idiot", which stated that Stein's criticism of those with bearish views and positions on the market was either "delusional" or a deliberate and "shrewd" attempt to create false controversy and increase web traffic.

In a Yahoo! Finance article published on October 17, 2008, Stein said his wildly incorrect claims were due to his expectations that the real-estate market would roughly resemble the collapse of junk bonds in the early 1990s. He said he failed to understand that debt obligations based on real estate loans were less than the "staggeringly large" amount of obligations that were created through trading in derivatives of those: "Where I missed the boat was not realizing how large were the CDS [credit default swaps] based on the junk mortgage bonds."

Personal life
Stein is married to entertainment lawyer Alexandra Denman. They were married in 1968 and divorced in 1974. They reconciled and in 1977 they were married again. Stein lives with Denman in Beverly Hills and Malibu, California. He also has a summer home in Sandpoint, Idaho, and an apartment in the Watergate complex in Washington, D.C., which he inherited from his parents.

In 2014, performance artist Tanya Ma claimed that a financial arrangement between her and Stein had turned inappropriate. Stein said of the incident that he only expected "hugging and kissing" and that he often gets "mad crushes" on women that "last about ten minutes."

Abortion
Stein is a supporter of the criminalization of abortion and was given an anti-abortion award in 2003 by the National Right to Life Educational Trust Fund.

Larry Craig scandal
In 2007, Stein chastised the police and the GOP leadership for their response to the Larry Craig scandal. Stein said that Craig's sexuality should not be an issue: "A party that believes in individual rights should be rallying to his defense, not making him walk the plank."

Tax code
Stein has criticized the United States Internal Revenue Code for being too lenient on the wealthy. He has repeated the observation made by Warren Buffett, one of the richest individuals in the world (who pays mostly capital gains tax), that Buffett pays a lower overall tax rate than his secretaries (who pay income taxes and payroll taxes). Stein has advocated increasing taxation on the wealthy. Stein objected to Obama's proposal in 2010 not to extend tax cuts for the highest earning taxpayers in the midst of the recession, saying that: "There is no known economic theory under which raising my taxes in the midst of a severe recession will help the economy recover. It isn't part of any well known monetarist or Keynesian theory. So if it does no good to raise our taxes, I assume we are being punished. But for what? I don't own slaves. I employ a lot of people full- and part-time and they are all happy with their pay. When charity calls, I almost always write out a check...Maybe when the economy recovers, raising my taxes makes sense, but for now, it's just punishment." In 2012, Stein stated that due to the tremendous amount of national debt, he agreed with Obama's proposal to increase taxes on the wealthy and that ultimately everyone's taxes should be raised to avoid defaulting on the debt.

Dominique Strauss-Kahn
When the head of the International Monetary Fund, Dominique Strauss-Kahn, was arrested for sexual assault and attempted rape in 2011, Stein published an editorial in The American Spectator in which he closely scrutinized Strauss-Kahn's accuser and cited Strauss-Kahn's education, wealth, and position as reasons to believe he was unlikely to have committed the crime: "In life, events tend to follow patterns. People who commit crimes tend to be criminals, for example. Can anyone tell me any economists who have been convicted of violent sex crimes?"

Stein's editorial was criticized by a number of media outlets. Jon Stewart dedicated an entire segment on The Daily Show to his response. All charges against Dominique Strauss-Kahn were formally dismissed by a judge on 23 August 2011.

Ferguson shooting
In response to the death of Michael Brown, Stein made the following comment: "The idea of calling this poor young man unarmed when he was 6'4', 300 pounds, full of muscles, apparently, according to what I read in The New York Times, on marijuana. To call him unarmed is like calling Sonny Liston unarmed or Cassius Clay unarmed. He wasn't unarmed. He was armed with his incredibly strong, scary self."

Evolution
Stein has denounced the scientific theory of evolution, which he and other intelligent design advocates call "Darwinism", declaring it to be "a painful, bloody chapter in the history of ideologies", "the most compelling argument yet for Imperialism", and the inspiration for the Holocaust. Stein does not say belief in evolution alone leads to genocide, but that scientific materialism is a necessary component. He co-wrote and stars in Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed, a film that aims to persuade viewers that evolution was instrumental to the rise of the eugenics movement, Nazi Germany, and the Holocaust, and portrays advocates of intelligent design as victims of intellectual discrimination by the scientific community, which has rejected intelligent design as creationist pseudoscience. In the trailer for the film, Stein said that his aim was to expose "people out there who want to keep science in a little box where it can't possibly touch God."

Many critics point out that Stein selectively used and edited quotes by Charles Darwin to make his case in Expelled, also noting that scenes shot at Pepperdine University, in which Stein gives a speech to an auditorium full of students, in fact used a large number of extras, hired to respond favorably to Stein's speech, to fill the room. The media response to the film has been largely unfavorable. It received an 11% meta-score from Rotten Tomatoes. Multiple reviews, including those of USA Today and Scientific American, have described the film as propaganda.

In a Trinity Broadcasting Network interview with Paul Crouch Jr. regarding the movie, Stein claimed that "[religion] leads you to a very glorious place, and science leads you to killing people".

The Anti-Defamation League issued a statement condemning the film's misuse of the Holocaust and its imagery, "Using the Holocaust in order to tarnish those who promote the theory of evolution is outrageous and trivializes the complex factors that led to the mass extermination of European Jewry".

At the University of Vermont, Stein was invited to receive an honorary degree and be the commencement speaker for the graduating class of 2009. University President Dan Fogel received complaints about Stein's planned appearance, due to Stein's views on evolution. Stein declined his commencement invitation.

At the private, Christian Liberty University 2009 graduation, Stein was awarded an honorary degree and, according to the university, "spoke extensively about his work on Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed".

Foreign policy
Stein is a staunch supporter of Israel. On Larry King Live in 2009, in a heated exchange with then-Congressman Ron Paul, he referred to Paul as antisemitic for referring to the U.S. as "occupiers" in the Arabian peninsula.

Political endorsements
Stein endorsed John McCain for president in 2008, calling him "an impressive guy". That year, he also stated that he would vote for Ralph Nader. In January 2012, Stein appeared in political advertisements sponsored by Associated Industries of Florida supporting legislation that would create three resort casinos in South Florida. He claimed in late 2014 that President Barack Obama was the most racist president in American history, saying Obama "made everything about race".

In 2016, Stein reprised the famous attendance scene from Ferris Bueller in a campaign ad for Iowa Senator Chuck Grassley. In it, Stein intoned the last name of Grassley's opponent (Patty Judge) to silence, while facts about her missed votes and absences from state board meetings were listed. Stein then calls out "Grassley," which gets a response; Stein mutters, "He's always here."

Stein initially supported Donald Trump in the 2016 U.S. presidential election, but retracted his support in October 2016, writing, "But it's time for Donald Trump to go back to Trump Tower. Time for Mike Pence to move to the top of the ticket." However, Stein went on to vote for Trump.

Aunt Jemima
In February 2023, Stein released a video on Donald Trump's Truth Social stating he missed the Aunt Jemima logo with a "large African American woman chef." He added, "But, I prefer when it was a black person, showing their incredible skill at making pancakes." The video was also shared on Twitter and the story ran on media outlets across the country.

The original Aunt Jemima logo and brand name was retired in 2021 by PepsiCo and its subsidiary, Quaker Oats. This was due to the connection with the "Mammy" stereotype and racial connotations associated with the character.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Ben Stein


text:
Antbird

The antbirds are a large passerine bird family, Thamnophilidae, found across subtropical and tropical Central and South America, from Mexico to Argentina. There are more than 230 species, known variously as antshrikes, antwrens, antvireos, fire-eyes, bare-eyes and bushbirds. They are related to the antthrushes and antpittas (family Formicariidae), the tapaculos, the gnateaters and the ovenbirds. Despite some species' common names, this family is not closely related to the wrens, vireos or shrikes.

Antbirds are generally small birds with rounded wings and strong legs. They have mostly sombre grey, white, brown and rufous plumage, which is sexually dimorphic in pattern and colouring. Some species communicate warnings to rivals by exposing white feather patches on their backs or shoulders. Most have heavy bills, which in many species are hooked at the tip.

Most species live in forests, although a few are found in other habitats. Insects and other arthropods form the most important part of their diet, although small vertebrates are occasionally taken. Most species feed in the understory and midstory of the forest, although a few feed in the canopy and a few on the ground. Many join mixed-species feeding flocks, and a few species are core members. To various degrees, around eighteen species specialise in following swarms of army ants to eat the small invertebrates flushed by the ants, and many others may feed in this way opportunistically.

Antbirds are monogamous, mate for life, and defend territories. They usually lay two eggs in a nest that is either suspended from branches or supported on a branch, stump, or mound on the ground. Both parents share the tasks of incubation and of brooding and feeding the nestlings. After fledging, each parent cares exclusively for one chick.

Thirty-eight species are threatened with extinction as a result of human activities. Antbirds are not targeted by either hunters or the pet trade. The principal threat is habitat loss, which causes habitat fragmentation and increased nest predation in habitat fragments.

Systematics
The antbird family Thamnophilidae used to be considered a subfamily, Thamnophilinae, within a larger family Formicariidae that included antthrushes and antpittas. Formerly, that larger family was known as the "antbird family" and the Thamnophilinae were "typical antbirds". In this article, "antbird" and "antbird family" refer to the family Thamnophilidae.

Thamnophilidae was removed from Formicariidae, leaving behind the antthrushes and antpittas, due to recognition of differences in the structure of the breastbone (sternum) and syrinx, and Sibley and Ahlquist's examination of DNA–DNA hybridization. The Thamnophilidae antbirds are members of the infraorder Tyrannides (or tracheophone suboscines), one of two infraorders in the suborder Tyranni. The Thamnophilidae are now thought to occupy a fairly basal position within the infraorder, i. e. with regard to their relatives the antthrushes and antpittas, tapaculos, gnateaters, and also the ovenbirds. The sister group of the Thamnophilidae is thought to be the gnateaters. The ovenbirds, tapaculos, antthrushes and antpittas are thought to represent a different radiation of that early split.

The antbird family contains over 230 species, variously called antwrens, antvireos, antbirds and antshrikes. The names refer to the relative sizes of the birds (increasing in the order given, though with exceptions) rather than any particular resemblance to the true wrens, vireos or shrikes. In addition, members of the genus Phlegopsis are known as bare-eyes, Pyriglena as fire-eyes and Neoctantes and Clytoctantes as bushbirds. Although the systematics of the Thamnophilidae is based on studies from the mid-19th century, when fewer than half the present species were known, comparison of the myoglobin intron 2, GAPDH intron 11 and the mtDNA cytochrome b DNA sequences has largely confirmed it. There are two major clades – most antshrikes and other larger, strong-billed species as well as Herpsilochmus, versus the classical antwrens and other more slender, longer-billed species – and the monophyly of most genera was confirmed.

The Thamnophilidae contains several large or very large genera and numerous small or monotypic ones. Several, which are difficult to assign, seem to form a third, hitherto unrecognised clade independently derived from ancestral antbirds. The results also confirmed suspicions of previous researchers that some species, most notably in Myrmotherula and Myrmeciza, need to be assigned to other genera. Still, due to the difficulties of sampling from such a large number of often poorly known species, the assignment of some genera is still awaiting confirmation.

Morphology
The antbirds are a group of small to medium-sized passerines that range in size from the large giant antshrike, which measures 45 cm (18 in) and weighs 150 g (5.29  oz), to the tiny 8-cm (3 in) pygmy antwren, which weighs 7  g (0.25 oz). In general terms, "antshrikes" are relatively large-bodied birds, "antvireos" are medium-sized and chunky, while "antwrens" include most smaller species; "antbird" genera can vary greatly in size. Members of this family have short rounded wings that provide good manoeuvrability when flying in dense undergrowth. The legs are large and strong, particularly in species that are obligate ant-followers. These species are well adapted to gripping vertical stems and saplings, which are more common than horizontal branches in the undergrowth, and thus the ability to grip them is an advantage for birds following swarms of army ants. The claws of these antbirds are longer than those of species that do not follow ants, and the soles of some species have projections that are tough and gripping when the foot is clenched. Tarsus length in antbirds is related to foraging strategy. Longer tarsi typically occur in genera such as the Thamnophilus antshrikes that forage by perch-gleaning (sitting and leaning forward to snatch insects from the branch), whereas shorter tarsi typically occur in those that catch prey on the wing, such as the Thamnomanes antshrikes.

Most antbirds have proportionately large, heavy bills. Several genera of antshrike have a strongly hooked tip to the bill, and all antbirds have a notch or 'tooth' at the tip of the bill which helps in holding and crushing insect prey. The two genera of bushbirds have upturned chisel-like bills.

The plumage of antbirds is soft and not brightly coloured, although it is occasionally striking. The colour palette of most species is blackish shades, whitish shades, rufous, chestnut and brown. Plumages can be uniform in colour or patterned with barring or spots. Sexual dimorphism – differences in plumage colour and pattern between males and females – is common in the family. Overall the pattern within the family is for the males to have combinations of grey, black or white plumage and the females having buff, rufous and brown colours. For example, the male dot-winged antwren is primarily blackish, whereas the female has rust-coloured underparts. In some genera, such as Myrmotherula, species are better distinguished by female plumage than by male. Many species of antbirds have a contrasting 'patch' of white (sometimes other colours) feathers on the back (known as interscapular patches), shoulder or underwing. This is usually concealed by the darker feathers on the back but when the bird is excited or alarmed these feathers can be raised to flash the white patch. dot-winged antwrens puff out white back patches, whereas in bluish-slate antshrikes and white-flanked antwrens the white patch is on the shoulder.

Voice
The songs and calls of antbirds are generally composed of repeated simple uncomplicated notes. The family is one of the suboscines (suborder Tyranni) which have simpler syrinxes ("voiceboxes") than other songbirds. Nevertheless, their songs are distinctive and species-specific, allowing field identification by ear. Antbirds rely on their calls for communication, as is typical of birds in dark forests. Most species have at least two types of call, the loudsong and the softsong. The functions of many calls have been deduced from their context; for example some loudsongs have a territorial purpose and are given when birds meet at the edges of their territories, or during the morning rounds of the territory. Pairs in neighbouring territories judge the proximity of rivals by the degradation of the song caused by interference by the environment. In bouts of territorial defence the male will face off with the other male and the female with her counterpart. Loudsong duets are also potentially related to the maintenance of pair bonds. The functions of softsongs are more complex, and possibly related to pair-bond maintenance. In addition to these two main calls a range of other sounds are made; these include scolding in mobbing of predators. The calls of antbirds are also used interspecifically. Some species of antbirds and even other birds will actively seek out ant-swarms using the calls of some species of ant-followers as clues.

Distribution and habitat
The distribution of the antbirds is entirely Neotropical, with the vast majority of the species being found in the tropics. A few species reach southern Mexico and northern Argentina. Some species, such as the barred antshrike, have a continental distribution that spans most of the South and Middle American distribution of the family; others, such as the ash-throated antwren, have a tiny distribution.

Antbirds are mostly birds of humid lowland rainforests. Few species are found at higher elevations, with less than 10% of species having ranges above 2000 m (6500 ft) and almost none with ranges above 3000  m (10000 ft). The highest species diversity is found in the Amazon basin, with up to 45 species being found in single locations in sites across Brazil, Colombia, Bolivia and Peru. The number of species drops dramatically towards the further reaches of the family's range; there are only seven species in Mexico, for example. Areas of lower thamnophilid diversity may contain localised endemics, however. The Yapacana antbird, for example, is restricted to the stunted woodlands that grow in areas of nutrient-poor white-sand soil (the so-called Amazonian caatinga) in Brazil, Venezuela and Colombia. Some species are predominantly associated with microhabitats within a greater ecosystem; for example, the bamboo antshrike is predominantly found in bamboo patches.

Genetic comparison of the whole genomes of higher and lower-humidity antbirds have shown some differences in genes linked to water balance and temperature regulation. More significantly, antbirds differ in the regions of the genome that regulate gene activity, suggesting that differences for antbirds are a result less of the genes themselves than of how they are deployed.

Behaviour
Antbirds are diurnal: they feed, breed and defend territories during the day. Many of the family are, however, reluctant to enter areas of direct sunlight where it breaks through the forest canopy. Antbirds will engage in anting, a behaviour in which ants (or other arthropods) are rubbed on the feathers before being discarded or eaten. While this has conventionally been considered a way to remove and control feather parasites, it has been suggested that for antbirds it may simply be a way to deal with the distasteful substances in prey items.

Feeding
The main component of the diet of all antbirds is arthropods. These are mostly insects, including grasshoppers and crickets, cockroaches, praying mantises, stick insects and the larvae of butterflies and moths. In addition antbirds often take spiders, scorpions and centipedes. They swallow smaller prey items quickly, whereas they often beat larger items against branches in order to remove wings and spines. Larger species can kill and consume frogs and lizards as well, but generally these do not form an important part of the diet of this family. Other food items may also be eaten, including fruit, eggs and slugs.

The family uses a number of techniques to obtain prey. The majority of antbirds are arboreal, with most of those feeding in the understory, many in the middle story and some in the canopy. A few species feed in the leaf litter; for example, the wing-banded antbird forages in areas of dense leaf-litter. It does not use its feet to scratch the leaf litter, as do some other birds; instead it uses its long bill to turn over leaves rapidly (never picking them up). The antbirds that forage arboreally show a number of techniques and specialisations. Some species perch-glean, perching on a branch watching for prey and snatching it by reaching forward, where others sally from a perch and snatch prey on the wing. In both cases birds will hop through the foliage or undergrowth and pause, scanning for prey, before pouncing or moving on. The time paused varies, although smaller species tend to be more active and pause for shorter times.

Mixed-species feeding flocks
Many species participate in mixed-species feeding flocks, forming a large percentage of the participating species within their range. Some of these are core or "nuclear species". These nuclear species share territories with other nuclear species but exclude conspecifics (members of the same species) and are found in almost all flocks; these are joined by "attendant species". Loud and distinctive calls and conspicuous plumage are important attributes of nuclear species as they promote cohesion in the flock. The composition of these flocks varies geographically; in Amazonia species of Thamnomanes antshrike are the leading nuclear species; elsewhere other species, such as the dot-winged antwrens and checker-throated stipplethroats, fill this role. Other species of antwren and antbird join them along with woodcreepers, ant-tanagers, foliage-gleaners and greenlets. The benefits of the mixed flock are thought to be related to predation, since many eyes are better for spotting predatory hawks and falcons. Comparisons between multi-species feeding flocks in different parts of the world found that instances of flocking were positively correlated with predation risk by raptors. For example, where Thamnomanes antshrikes lead the group they give loud warning calls in the presence of predators. These calls are understood and reacted to by all the other species in the flock. The advantage to the Thamnomanes antshrikes is in allowing the rest of the flock, which are typically gleaners, to act as beaters, flushing prey while foraging which the antshrikes can obtain by sallying. Similar roles are filled in other flocks by other antbird species or other bird families, for example the shrike-tanagers. Within the feeding flocks competition is reduced by microniche partitioning; where dot-winged antwrens, checker-throated stipplethroats and white-flanked antwrens feed in flocks together, the dot-wings feed in the densest vines, the white-flank in less dense vegetation, and the checker-throats in the same density as the latter but in dead foliage only.

Ant followers
Swarms of army ants are an important resource used by some species of antbird, and the one from which the family's common name is derived. Many species of tropical ant form large raiding swarms, but the swarms are often nocturnal or raid underground. While birds visit these swarms when they occur, the species most commonly attended by birds is the Neotropical species Eciton burchellii, which is both diurnal and surface-raiding. It was once thought that attending birds were actually eating the ants, but numerous studies in various parts of Eciton burchellii's range has shown that the ants act as beaters, flushing insects, other arthropods and small vertebrates into the waiting flocks of "ant followers". The improvement in foraging efficiency can be dramatic; a study of spotted antbirds found that they made attempts at prey every 111.8 seconds away from ants, but at swarms they made attempts every 32.3 seconds. While many species of antbirds (and other families) may opportunistically feed at army ant swarms, 18 species of antbird are obligate ant-followers, obtaining most of their diet from swarms. With only three exceptions, these species never regularly forage away from ant swarms. A further four species regularly attend swarms but are as often seen away from them. Obligate ant-followers visit the nesting bivouacs of army ants in the morning to check for raiding activities; other species do not. These species tend to arrive at swarms first, and their calls are used by other species to locate swarming ants.

Because army ants are unpredictable in their movements, it is impractical for obligate ant-followers to maintain a territory that always contains swarms to feed around. Antbirds have evolved a more complicated system than the strict territoriality of most other birds. They generally (details vary among species) maintain breeding territories but travel outside those territories in order to feed at swarms. Several pairs of the same species may attend a swarm, with the dominant pair at the swarm being the pair which holds the territory that the swarm is in. In addition to competition within species, competition among species exists, and larger species are dominant. In its range, the ocellated antbird is the largest of the obligate ant-following antbirds and is dominant over other members of the family, although it is subordinate to various species from other families (including certain woodcreepers, motmots and the rufous-vented ground cuckoo). At a swarm, the dominant species occupies positions above the central front of the swarm, which yields the largest amount of prey. Smaller, less dominant species locate themselves further away from the centre, or higher above the location of the dominant species, where prey is less plentiful.

Breeding
Antbirds are monogamous, in almost all cases forming pair bonds that last the life of the pair. Studies of the dusky antbird and the white-bellied antbird did not find "infidelity". In the white-plumed antbird, divorces between pairs are common, but, as far as known, this species is exceptional. In most species the pair defends a classic territory, although the nesting territories of ant followers are slightly different (see feeding above). Territories vary in size from as small as 0.5 ha for the Manu antbird, to 1500 m (5000 ft) in diameter for the ocellated antbird. Ocellated antbirds have an unusual social system where the breeding pair forms the nucleus of a group or clan that includes their male offspring and their mates. These clans, which can number up to eight birds, work together to defend territories against rivals. Pair bonds are formed with courtship feeding, where the male presents food items to the female. In spotted antbirds males may actually feed females sufficiently for the female to cease feeding herself, although she will resume feeding once copulation has occurred. Mutual grooming also plays a role in courtship in some species.

The nesting and breeding biology of antbirds have not been well studied. Even in relatively well-known species the breeding behaviour can be poorly known; for example the nest of the ocellated antbird was first described in 2004. Nests are constructed by both parents, although the male undertakes more of the work in some species. Antbird nests are cups of vegetation such as twigs, dead leaves and plant fibre, and they follow two basic patterns: either suspended or supported. Suspended cups, which may hang from forks in branches, or between two branches, are the more common style of nest. Supported nests rest upon branches, amongst vines, in hollows, and sometimes on mounds of vegetation on the ground. Each species nests at the level where it forages, so a midstory species would build its nest in the midstory. Closely related species nest in the same ways. For example, antvireos in the genus Dysithamnus are all suspension nesters.

Almost all antbirds lay two eggs. A few species of antshrike lay three eggs, and a smaller number of antbirds lay one egg, but this is unusual. Small clutch sizes are typical of tropical birds compared to more temperate species of the same size, possibly due to nest predation, although this is disputed. Both parents participate in incubation, although only the female incubates at night. The length of time taken for chicks to hatch is 14–16 days in most species, although some, such as the dusky antbird, can take as long as 20 days. The altricial chicks are born naked and blind. Both parents brood the young until they are able to thermoregulate, although, as with incubation, only the female broods at night. In common with many songbirds, the parents take faecal sacs for disposal away from the nest. Both parents feed the chicks, often bringing large prey items. When the chicks reach fledging age, after 8–15 days, attending parents call their chicks. As each chick leaves the nest it is cared for exclusively from then on by the parent that was present then. After the first chick fledges and leaves with a parent the remaining parent may increase the supply of food to speed up the process of fledging. After fledging, chicks spend the first few days well hidden as the parents bring them food. Chicks of some species may not become independent of the parents for as long as four months in some antwrens, but two months is more typical for the rest of the family.

Ecology
Antbirds are common components of the avifauna of some parts of the Neotropics and are thought to be important in some ecological processes. They are preyed upon by birds of prey, and their tendency to join flocks is thought to provide protection against such predation. The greater round-eared bat preys on some antbird species, such as the white-bibbed antbird and the scaled antbird; the latter is the bat's preferred prey. Nests, including incubating adults, chicks and eggs, are vulnerable to predators, particularly snakes but also nocturnal mammals. Nesting success is low for many species, particularly in areas of fragmented habitat.

It was once suggested that the relationship between the obligate and regular ant-followers and the army ants, particularly Eciton burchellii, was mutualistic, with the ants benefiting by having the birds chase prey back down towards them. However, experiments where ant followers were excluded have shown that the foraging success of the army ants was 30% lower when the birds were present, suggesting that the birds' relationship was in fact parasitic. This has resulted in a number of behaviours by the ants in order to reduce kleptoparasitism, including hiding of secured prey in the leaf litter and caching of food on trails. It has been suggested that the depressive effect of this parasitism slows the development of E. burchellii swarms and in turn benefits other ant species which are preyed upon by army ants. The ant-following antbirds are themselves followed by three species of butterfly in the family Ithomiinae which feed on their droppings. Bird droppings are usually an unpredictable resource in a rainforest, but the regular behaviour of ant followers makes the exploitation of this resource possible.

Status and conservation
As of April 2008, 38 species are considered by the IUCN to be near threatened or worse and therefore at risk of extinction. Antbirds are neither targeted by the pet trade nor large enough to be hunted; the principal cause of the decline in antbird species is habitat loss. The destruction or modification of forests has several effects on different species of antbirds. The fragmentation of forests into smaller patches affects species that are averse to crossing gaps as small as roads. If these species become locally extinct in a fragment, this reluctance to cross unforested barriers makes their re-establishment unlikely. Smaller forest fragments are unable to sustain mixed-species feeding flocks, leading to local extinctions. Another risk faced by antbirds in fragmented habitat is increased nest predation. An unplanned experiment in fragmentation occurred on Barro Colorado Island, a former hill in Panama that became an isolated island during the flooding caused by the creation of the Panama Canal. Numerous species of antbird formerly resident in the area were extirpated, in no small part due to increased levels of nest predation on the island. While the species lost from Barro Colorado are not globally threatened, they illustrate the vulnerability of species in fragmented habitats and help explain the declines of some species. The majority of threatened species have very small natural ranges. Some are also extremely poorly known; for example the Rio de Janeiro antwren is known only from a single specimen collected in 1982, although there have been unconfirmed reports since 1994 and it is currently listed as critically endangered. Additionally, new species are discovered at regular intervals; the Caatinga antwren was described in 2000, the acre antshrike in 2004, the sincorá antwren in 2007, and the description of a relative of the Paraná antwren discovered in 2005 in the outskirts of São Paulo is being prepared. While not yet scientifically described, conservation efforts have already been necessary, as the site of discovery was set out to be flooded to form a reservoir. Consequently, 72 individuals were captured and transferred to another locality.

title: Antbird


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List of teams and cyclists in the 2003 Tour de France

The 2003 Tour de France was the 90th edition and centenary of the Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Tour began in Paris on 5 July with a prologue individual time trial and finished on the Champs-Élysées, back in Paris, on 27 July. The Tour started with 22 teams of 9 cyclists each.

Teams
Qualified teams

Invited teams

By team
"DNF" indicates that a rider did not finish the race.

By nationality
The 198 riders that are competing in the 2003 Tour de France originated from 26 different countries.


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Fennoman movement

The Fennoman movement or Fennomania was a Finnish nationalist movement in the 19th-century Grand Duchy of Finland, built on the work of the fennophile interests of the 18th and early-19th centuries.

History
After the Crimean War, Fennomans founded the Finnish Party and intensified the language strife, yearning to raise the Finnish language and Finnic culture from peasant status to the position of a national language and a national culture. The opposition, the Svecomans, tried to defend the status of Swedish and the ties to the Germanic world.

Although the notion of Fennomans was not as common after the generation of Juho Kusti Paasikivi (born 1870), their ideas have dominated the Finns' understanding of their nation.

The mother tongue of many of the first generation of Fennomans, like Johan Vilhelm Snellman, was Swedish. Some of the originally Swedish-speaking Fennomans learned Finnish, and made a point of using it inside and outside the home.

Several Fennomans were from Finnish or bilingual homes. Some originally had Swedish surnames, common in Finland at that time.

Most of the Fennomans also Finnicized their family names, particularly from the end of the 19th century.

In the last years of the 19th century, and in the first years of the 20th, the Fennoman movement split into two political parties: the Old Finnish Party and the Young Finnish Party.

Motto
The Fennoman motto attributed to Adolf Ivar Arwidsson was actually coined by Johan Vilhelm Snellman: "Svenskar äro vi icke, ryssar vilja vi icke bli, låt oss alltså vara finnar."
 * "We are not Swedes,
 * We do not want to be Russians,
 * So let's be Finns."

Prominent Fennomans

 * Daniel Juslenius
 * Fredrik Cygnaeus
 * Yrjö Sakari Yrjö-Koskinen, formerly Georg Zacharias Forsman
 * Alexandra Gripenberg
 * Lauri Kivekäs, formerly Stenbäck
 * Johannes Linnankoski
 * Agathon Meurman
 * Hjalmar Mellin
 * Julius Krohn
 * Juho Kusti Paasikivi, formerly Johan Gustav Hellsten
 * Eemil Nestor Setälä
 * Johan Vilhelm Snellman
 * Eero Järnefelt
 * Otto Donner
 * Heikki Renvall
 * Toivo Kuula
 * Yrjö Jahnsson

title: Fennoman movement


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Murder at Midnight (radio series)

Murder at Midnight is an old-time radio show featuring macabre tales of suspense, often with a supernatural twist. It was produced in New York and was syndicated beginning in 1946. The show's writers included Robert Newman, Joseph Ruscoll, Max Ehrlich, and William Norwood, and it was directed by Anton M. Leader. The producer was Louis G. Cowan. The host was Raymond Morgan, who delivered the lines of introduction over Charles Paul's organ theme: "Midnight, the witching hour when the night is darkest, our fears the strongest, and our strength at its lowest ebb. Midnight, when the graves gape open and death strikes."

A total of 50 episodes were produced. Ten shows were syndicated and rerun on Mutual in 1950.

Critical response
A review in the trade publication Variety called Murder at Midnight "just another routine chiller series", comparing its writing to horror films from 10 years earlier. It described the acting as "fairly good" and found the direction to be "mechanical rather than imaginative".

title: Murder at Midnight (radio series)