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Sash

A sash (from the شَاش ) is a large and usually colorful ribbon or band of material worn around the human body, either draping from one shoulder to the opposing hip and back up, or else encircling the waist. The sash around the waist may be worn in daily attire, but the sash from shoulder to hip is worn on ceremonial occasions only. Ceremonial sashes are also found in a V-shaped format, draping straight from both shoulders down, intersecting and forming an angle over the chest or abdomen.

Old Europe
In the mid- and late-16th century waist and shoulder sashes came up as mark of (high) military rank or to show personal affection to a political party or nation. During the Thirty Years' War the distinctive sash colour of the House of Habsburg was red while their French opponents wore white or blue sashes and the Swedish voted for blue sashes.

Beginning from the end of the 17th century, commissioned officers in the British Army wore waist sashes of crimson silk. The original officer's sash was six inches wide by eighty-eight inches long with a ten-inch (gold or silver) fringe. It was large enough to form a hammock stretcher to carry a wounded officer. From about 1730 to 1768, the officer's sash was worn baudericke wise, i.e. from the right shoulder to the left hip, and afterwards around the waist again.

Sergeants were permitted sashes of crimson wool, with a single stripe of facing colour following the clothing regulations of 1727. Whereas it remained vague whether the sash was to be worn over the shoulder or around the waist, it was clarified in 1747 that sergeants had to wear their sashes around the waist. From 1768, the sergeant's waist sash had one (until 1825) resp. three (until 1845) stripes of facing colour; in regiments with red or purple facings the sergeant's sash had white stripes or remained plain crimson.

Until 1914 waist-sashes in distinctive national colours were worn as a peace-time mark of rank by officers of the Imperial German, Austro-Hungarian and Russian armies, amongst others.

The barrel sash is a type of belt traditionally worn by hussars.

Modern Europe
Since then sashes have been part of formal military attire (compare the sword-belt known as a baldric, and the cummerbund). Thus several other modern armies retain waist-sashes for wear by officers in ceremonial uniforms. These include the armies of Norway (crimson sashes), Sweden (yellow and blue), Greece (light blue and white), the Netherlands (orange), Portugal (crimson) and Spain (red and gold for generals, light blue for general staff and crimson for infantry officers).

The Spanish Regulares (infantry descended from colonial regiments formerly recruited in Spanish Morocco) retain their historic waist-sashes for all ranks in colours that vary according to the unit.

Sashes are a distinctive feature of some regiments of the modern French Army for parade dress. They are worn around the waist in the old Algerian or zouave style ("ceinture de laine"). Traditionally these sashes were more than 4 m in length and 40 cm in width. In the historic French Army of Africa, sashes were worn around the waist in either blue for European or red for indigenous troops.

(British) Commonwealth of Nations
The modern British Army retains a scarlet sash for wear in certain orders of dress by sergeants and above serving in infantry regiments, over the right shoulder to the left hip. A similar crimson silk net sash is worn around the waist by officers of the Foot Guards in scarlet full dress and officers of line infantry in dark blue "Number 1" dress. The same practice is followed in some Commonwealth armies.

The present-day armies of India and Pakistan both make extensive use of waist-sashes for ceremonial wear. The colours vary widely according to regiment or branch and match those of the turbans where worn. Typically two or more colours are incorporated in the sash, in vertical stripes. One end hangs loose at the side and may have an ornamental fringe. The practice of wearing distinctive regimental sashes or cummerbunds goes back to the late nineteenth century.

Cross-belts resembling sashes are worn by drum majors in the Dutch, British and some Commonwealth armies. These carry scrolls bearing the names of battle honours.

United States of America
In the United States, George Washington, who served as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War and later served as the first President of the United States, was noted for wearing a blue ribbed sash, similar to that of the British Order of the Garter, early in the war, as he had in 1775 prescribed the use of green, pink, and blue sashes to identify aides de camp, brigade-majors, brigadiers general, majors general, and the commander in chief in the absence of formal uniforms. He later gave up the sash as "unrepublican" and "pretentious for all but the highest-ranking aristocracy", according to historians. Washington is seen wearing the sash in Charles Wilson Peale's 1779 painting Washington at Princeton.

Sashes continued to be used in the United States Army for sergeants and officers. In 1821 the red sashes (crimson for officers) were limited to first sergeants and above. In 1872 the sashes were abolished by all ranks but generals who continued to wear their buff silk sashes in full dress until 1917. Waist sashes (in combination with a sabre) in the old style are still worn by the officers and senior NCOs of the Commander-in-Chief's Guard of the 3rd U.S. Infantry Regiment (The Old Guard) as well by the West Point Band drum major along with the West Point cadet officers. The drum major of the Old Guard Fife and Drum Corps also still wears a waist sash, but no sidearms.

At the time of the American Civil War (1861–65) generals of the regular US Army wore silk sashes in buff. Officers were authorized silk sashes in crimson (medical officers: emerald) while red woolen sashes were entitled to senior non-commissioned officers (Army Regulations of 1861). In the Confederate Army sashes were worn by all sergeant ranks and officers. The colour indicated the corps or status of the wearer. For example: yellow for cavalry, burgundy for infantry, black for chaplains, red for sergeants, green or blue for medics, and grey or cream for general officers.

Japan
Japanese officers continued the practice in full dress uniform until 1940.

Presidential sash
A presidential sash is a cloth sash worn by presidents of many nations in the world. Such sashes are worn by presidents in Africa, Asia, Europe and, most notably, in Latin America.

The sash is an important symbol of the continuity of the presidency, and is only worn by the president. Its value as a symbol of the office of the head of state can be compared to that of a crown in monarchies. Presidents leaving office formally present the sash to their successor as part of the official inauguration ceremony.

Presidential sashes are usually very colorful and very large and designed to resemble the nation's flag, especially those of Latin American presidents. They are usually worn over the right shoulder to the left side of the hip. The national coat of arms is also usually placed on the sash. A national order's star or chain of office can also be worn.

Modern civilian and cultural use
With the genesis of complex systems of military and civilian awards during the 18th century in most European countries, sashes became a distinguishing part of honorific orders and are mostly worn along with decorations and medals. Today, various members of most European royal families wear sashes (also known as ribands) as part of their royal (and/or military) regalia on formal occasions. Some merit orders (such as the French Legion of Honour) also include sashes as part of the senior-most grades' insignia. Likewise, Italian military officers wear light blue sashes over the right shoulder on ceremonial occasions.

In Latin America and some countries of Africa, a special presidential sash indicates a president's authority. In France and Italy, sashes – featuring the national flag tricolours and worn on the right shoulder – are used by public authorities and local officials (such as legislators) during public ceremonial events.

In the United States, the sash has acquired a more ceremonial and less practical purpose. Sashes are used at higher education commencement ceremonies, by high school homecoming parade nominees, in beauty pageants, and by corporations to acknowledge high achievement.

In Canada, hand-woven sashes (known as ceintures fléchées or sometimes "L'Assomption sashes" after a Quebec town named L'Assomption in which they were mass-produced) were derived from Iroquois carrying belts sometime during the 18th century. As a powerful multi-use tool, this sash found use in the fur trade, which brought it into the North West by means of French voyageurs. During this period, the weave got tighter and size expanded, with some examples more than four metres in length. Coloured thread was widely used. The sash is a shared cultural emblem between French-Canadians and Métis peoples. Today, it is considered to be primarily a symbol of the 1837 Lower Canada Rebellion Patriotes and the Métis Nation. In modern times, Bonhomme Carnaval, the snowman mascot of the Quebec Winter Carnival, wears a ceinture fléchée as part of his attire in recognition of the province's heritage.

In the British Isles, especially Northern Ireland, the sash is a symbol of the Orange Order. Orange Order sashes were originally of the ceremonial shoulder-to-hip variety, as worn by the British military. Over the course of the 20th century, the sash was mostly replaced by V-shaped collarettes, which are still generally referred to as sashes. The item is celebrated in the song "The Sash my Father Wore".

Sashes are also worn by:
 * Boy Scouts and Girl Guides, with badges sewn onto the sash to indicate Scouting achievements;
 * Beauty pageant contestants, to display their region or title.

Sashes are part of the diplomatic uniform of many countries.

Many modern schools of Chinese martial arts use sashes of various colors to denote rank, as a reflection of the Japanese ranking system using belts. The Japanese equivalent of a sash, obi, serves to hold a kimono or yukata together.

Honorific orders
Sashes are indicative of holding the class of Grand Cross or Grand Cordon in a chivalric order or an order of merit. The sash is usually worn from the right shoulder to the left hip. A few orders do the contrary, according to their traditional statute.

Orders with the sash worn on the left shoulder
Europe:
 * 🇩🇰 Denmark: Order of the Elephant
 * 🇮🇸 Iceland: Order of the Falcon
 * Kingdom of Serbia: Order of the White Eagle
 * 🇬🇧 United Kingdom: Order of the Garter
 * 🇬🇧 United Kingdom (Scotland): Order of the Thistle

Asia:
 * 🇰🇷 South Korea: Grand Order of Mugunghwa
 * 🇹🇭 Thailand: Order of the Royal House of Chakri
 * 🇹🇭 Thailand: Order of Chula Chom Klao
 * 🇹🇭 Thailand: Knight Grand Cordon (Special Class) on left shoulder but Knight Grand Cross (First Class): right shoulder, for:
 * Order of the White Elephant
 * Order of the Crown of Thailand

title: Sash


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User:Will/old.

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Hi, I'm Will. My favorite task on Wikipedia is fixing links to disambiguation pages. It's more productive than playing videogames, and gets kinda fun after a while. I also randomly copyedit, though I'm no good at it. Most of the time, though, I just read Wikipedia.

I intend to be a librarian when I grow up. That might explain a lot of the weirdness in my mind.

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text:
1985 in aviation

This is a list of aviation-related events from 1985.

Events

 * Lauda Air begins flight operations as a charter and air taxi service. It began scheduled service in 1987.
 * Ryanair is founded, initially as a full-service carrier.
 * Emirates Airlines is founded, with the help of the Government of Dubai and Pakistan International Airlines.

January

 * January 1
 * In the Iran–Iraq War, the Iraqi Air Force begins the year with a strength of 500 operational aircraft and 40,000 men including air defense troops, while the Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force has 40,000 men but only 60 to 80 operational aircraft.
 * Flying at night in poor weather, Eastern Air Lines Flight 980, a Boeing 727, crashes into Bolivia's Mount Illimani at an altitude of 19,600 ft, killing all 29 people on board. The wreckage was not discovered until 2016.
 * The United States Government's Civil Aeronautics Board is abolished in accordance with the Airline Deregulation Act of 1978.
 * January 5 – Operation Moses – a covert, cooperative effort by the Israel Defense Forces, the Central Intelligence Agency, the United States Embassy in Khartoum, mercenaries, and Sudanese state security forces – comes to an abrupt end when Israeli Prime Minister Shimon Peres reveals its existence during a press conference, prompting the Government of Sudan to terminate it immediately. An airlift of Jews of the Beta Israel community who had fled a famine in Ethiopia and were living in refugee camps in Sudan, Operation Moses since its beginning on November 21, 1984, has evacuated about 8,000 Jews 200 or so at time in over 30 flights by Trans European Airways airliners, flying them from Sudan to Israel via Brussels, Belgium.
 * January 18 – A Chinese Antonov An-24 turbo-prop airliner flying from Shanghai to Beijing via Nanjing crashes during an emergency landing at Jinan, China, south of Beijing. Thirty-eight of the 41 people on board perish.
 * January 20 – São Paulo–Guarulhos International Airport officially opens in São Paulo, Brazil.
 * January 21 – Galaxy Airlines Flight 203, a Lockheed L-188 Electra, crashes immediately after takeoff from Reno-Cannon International Airport in Reno, Nevada, killing 70 of the 71 people on board and damaging a store and seven recreational vehicles parked at a dealership. The lone survivor is a 17-year-old boy who is thrown clear of the aircraft, landing upright on a city street still strapped into his seat.

February

 * February 1
 * Trans World Airlines becomes the first airline to operate an ETOPS (Extended-range Twin-engine Operational Performance Standards) flight. The flight also makes it the first airline to operate a twin-engine jet on scheduled transatlantic services. The aircraft is a Boeing 767.
 * Aeroflot Flight 7841 crashes shortly after takeoff, killing 58 people on board.
 * February 11 – Record-setting hot-air balloonist Ben Abruzzo dies along with his wife and his other four passengers when the Cessna 421C he is piloting collides with the tops of trees and crashes at Albuquerque, New Mexico, after Abbruzzo becomes distracted by a baggage door that opens in flight.
 * February 19
 * Iberia Flight 610, a Boeing 727-256 named Alhambra de Granada, strikes a television antenna on the summit of Mount Oiz in Biscay, Spain, and crashes, killing all 148 people on board.
 * China Airlines Flight 006, a Boeing 747SP with 284 people on board, miraculously survives a 30,000 ft plunge over the Pacific Ocean near San Francisco after an engine failure. Twenty-four people are injured, two of them seriously.
 * February 24 – Polar 3, a Dornier 228 operated as a survey and research airplane by the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, is shot down over Western Sahara south of Dakhla by Polisario Front guerrillas while en route to West Germany from Antarctica, killing its entire three-man crew. In December 1984 it had become one of the first two German planes ever to land at the South Pole.

March

 * In the Iran–Iraq War, Iraqi Air Force aircraft carry out 158 sorties against Iranian cities over a three-day period.
 * March 1 – The Boy Scouts of America officially ends powered aircraft flight in its Aviation Exploring program, citing difficulties with maintaining insurance coverage in the event of an aircraft accident. The decision affects 450 Explorer Posts and over 10,000 Explorer Scouts.
 * March 4 – The Iraqi Air Force conducts its first raid against the Iranian nuclear reactor under construction at Bushehr.
 * March 10–11 – Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force aircraft conduct the first air raid against Baghdad in months. The Iraqi Air Force retaliates with a raid on Tehran.
 * March 11–18 – A fully committed Iraqi Air Force flies 150 to 200 sorties a day as Iraq turns back an Iranian offensive out of the Hawizeh Marshes.
 * March 19–23 – Iraqi strike aircraft and helicopters join artillery in employing mustard gas to halt an Iranian offensive in the Majnoon area.
 * March 22 – In Operation Joshua, also known as Operation Sheba, six United States Air Force C-130 Hercules aircraft airlift around 500 Jews of the Beta Israel community who had fled a famine in Ethiopia and were living in refugee camps in Sudan. Taking the refugees aboard near Al Qadarif, Sudan, the aircraft fly them to Uvda Airbase in southern Israel.
 * March 25 – The Emirates airline is founded in Dubai, UAE.
 * March 29 – Ten service personnel are killed when two Canadian military planes collide at CFB Edmonton during a mass flyover.
 * March 31
 * Kemayoran Airport in Jakarta, Indonesia, closes. The city's new main airport, Soekarno–Hatta International Airport, opens simultaneously.
 * Iraq claims to have hit about 30 ships in air attacks in the Persian Gulf since January 1, while Iran has hit seven over the same time period. Some estimates place the number of Iraqi attacks since March 1984 at 65 and Iranian attacks over the same period at 25.

April

 * Frontier Horizon, a low-cost subsidiary of Frontier Airlines operating Boeing 727-100s, ceases operations.
 * April 22 – Pan American World Airways sells off its Pacific routes to United Airlines for US$750 million.
 * April 24 – LOT Polish Airlines resumes flights to New York City's John F. Kennedy International Airport.
 * April 28 – Continental Airlines inaugurates its first scheduled service to Europe, flying from Houston Intercontinental Airport in Houston, Texas, to Gatwick Airport in London, England.
 * April 29 – In a ceremony at Naval Air Station Oceana in Virginia Beach, the United States Navy accepts its first IAI Kfir fighters into service for use as MiG-23 (NATO reporting name "Flogger") simulators in air-to-air combat training. The Israeli-built Kfir is one of only two foreign-designed aircraft to see service in significant numbers in the United States Armed Forces during the Cold War, the other being the British-designed AV-8B Harrier II. Designated the F-21A in American service, the Kfirs will be operated by Fighter Squadron 43 (VF-43), a U.S. Navy "adversary" squadron.

May

 * 1 May – United Airlines partners with Air Wisconsin, Aspen Airways, and WestAir as United Express, the brand name for a new regional airline that feeds United's hubs at (respectively) Chicago's O'Hare International Airport, Denver's Stapleton International Airport, and San Francisco's San Francisco International Airport.
 * 3 May – A Tupolev Tu-134 operating as Aeroflot Flight SSSR-65856 with 79 people on board and a Soviet Air Forces Antonov An-26 with 15 people on board collide at 13,000 ft near Zolochev in the Soviet Union's Ukrainian SSR, killing all 94 people on board the two planes. The cause of the collision is attributed to air traffic control errors. Among the dead are the Estonian table-tennis player Alari Lindmäe, two Soviet Army generals and Nikolai Dmitrijev, a Hero of Socialist Labor and one of the Soviet Union's most decorated civil airline pilots. Dmitrijev was the captain of the Tu-134.
 * 13 May – During an armed standoff between members of the MOVE organization and officers of the Philadelphia Police Department at MOVE's house in the Cobbs Creek area of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, a Pennsylvania State Police helicopter drops two 1-pound (0.45-kg) bombs made of water gel explosive on a fortified cubicle on the roof of the house. The bombs start a fire that destroys the MOVE house, killing 11 people in it, and then spreads, destroying approximately 65 houses before it is extinguished.
 * 30 May – The Iraqi Air Force makes its first successful strike against the Iranian oil terminal at Kharg Island since June 1984. It will not attack Kharg Island again until mid-August.

June
1985 Frankfurt Airport bombing.
 * June 12 – The Government of Cuba creates the Civil Aviation Institute of Cuba (Instituto de Aeronáutica Civil de Cuba) as Cuba's civil aviation authority.
 * June 14 – Two Amal guerrilla gunmen hijack Trans World Airlines Flight 847, a Boeing 727-231 with 151 other people on board, during a flight from Athens, Greece to Rome, Italy. They divert the plane to Beirut International Airport, where 19 passengers are released in exchange for fuel. They then force the pilots to fly to Algiers, where 20 more passengers are released. They then return to Beirut, where they beat and murder United States Navy diver Robert Stethem, remove seven American passengers with what they believe are "Jewish-sounding" names to be held hostage in Beirut, and are joined by nearly a dozen more gunmen. They then force the plane to return to Algiers on June 15, release 65 more passengers and order the plane to fly back to Beirut on June 16. In Beirut they release Greek pop singer Demis Roussos in exchange for hijacking accomplice Ali Atwa on June 17, but remove 40 more people from the plane to be held hostage. The remaining 39 passengers and crew remain on the plane until June 30, when Israel agrees to free 700 Shiite prisoners. Flight attendant Uli Derickson plays a key role in maintaining calm aboard the airliner and negotiating with the gunmen.
 * Mid-June – The Iraqi Air Force carries out its fiftieth raid on Tehran since the beginning of the Iran–Iraq War in September 1980.
 * June 19 - A group of Islamic extremists blow up a section of the Frankfurt Airport. This is known as the
 * June 21 – A drunken Stein Arvid Huseby hijacks Braathens SAFE Flight 139, a Boeing 737-205 with 121 people on board, during its flight from Trondheim Airport in Værnes, Norway, to Oslo Airport in Fornebu, Norway, demanding that he be allowed on arrival at Fornebu to make a political statement and meet with Norwegian Prime Minister Kåre Willoch and Minister of Justice Mona Røkke due to his mistreatment in his incarceration. After the aircraft runs out of beer at Fornebu, Huseby trades his weapon for more beer and Norwegian police storm the plane and arrest him. It is the first aircraft hijacking in Norwegian history.
 * June 23 – A bomb explodes at Narita International Airport in Japan amongst luggage intended for Air India Flight 301 to Bangkok, Thailand, killing two baggage handlers and injuring four. Fifty-five minutes later, Air India Flight 182, the Boeing 747 Emperor Kanishka, explodes off the Irish coast, killing all 329 on board; a terrorist bomb is suspected, but never confirmed.

July

 * July 10 – Aeroflot Flight 7425, a Tupolev Tu-154B-2, crashes near Uchkuduk in the Soviet Union's Uzbek SSR after encountering a stall at 11,600 m, resulting in a flat spin. All 200 people on board perish. It remains the deadliest air disaster in the history of the Soviet Union and Uzbekistan, as well as the deadliest incident involving a Tu-154.

August
August 1985 remains commercial aviation's deadliest month for passengers and crew (a distinction from the non-passenger fatalities of the September 11, 2001 attacks) in history.

 * August 2
 * Delta Air Lines Flight 191, a Lockheed L-1011, encounters a microburst just short of the approach end of runway 17L at Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport. The aircraft strikes the ground, collides with a water storage tank, and explodes. The crash kills 137 people, including eight of the 12 crew and 128 of the 152 passengers, plus one person on the ground. Among the dead are Don Estridge, the inventor of the IBM PC, and his wife.
 * People Express Airlines announces the beginning of daily Boeing 747 service between Newark International Airport in New Jersey and Brussels, Belgium, at a price of $149.00, with fares discounted to $99.00 through September 30.
 * August 12 – Japan Airlines Flight 123, a Boeing 747 flying from Haneda Airport to Osaka, suffers a bulkhead explosion 12 minutes into its flight that was the result of improper repairs from a tailstrike accident seven years earlier. The resulting decompression blows off the vertical stabilizer and severs all of the aircraft's hydraulic lines. The pilots struggle to control the aircraft for 32 minutes until it crashes into Mount Takamagahara, killing 520 of 524 people on board. Among the dead are singer Kyu Sakamoto and Japanese banker Akihisa Yukawa, father of violinist Diana Yukawa. Farewell notes written from victims to their family and friends are found next to the bodies. It remains the worst single-aircraft air disaster and second-worst air disaster in history.
 * August 14 – The Iraqi Air Force begins a series of air raids on the Iranian oil terminal at Kharg Island, seriously damaging a main offshore loading point there.
 * August 21 – Sir Freddie Laker accepts GB£8 million in a settlement with British Airways. Laker had sued twelve airlines for conspiring to drive Laker Airways out of business.
 * August 22 – The flight crew of British Airtours Flight 28M, a Boeing 737-236, aborts their takeoff at Manchester International Airport in Manchester, England, and find an engine on fire after taxiing to a stop. The fire spreads to the cabin, killing 55 people, 48 of them killed by toxic smoke; the other 82 people on board escape.
 * August 25
 * A major Iraqi Air Force raid on Kharg Island apparently temporarily cuts the oil terminal's oil export capacity by about 30 percent.
 * Bar Harbor Airlines Flight 1808, a Beechcraft Model 99, crashes at Auburn, Maine, while on final approach to Auburn/Lewiston Municipal Airport, killing all eight people on board; among them is 13-year-old Samantha Smith, an American school girl who had become famous as a "Goodwill Ambassador" to the Soviet Union and who had been cast on the television show Lime Street.
 * August 26 – Carl Icahn and associates purchase Trans World Airlines.

September

 * September 1
 * The Iraqi Air Force makes its fourth large raid against the Iranian oil terminal at Kharg Island since mid-August. The Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force responds by increasing raids against commercial shipping in the Persian Gulf and threatening to attack ships visiting ports in the southern Persian Gulf; by early September, Iran and Iraq have carried out a combined 130 attacks on shipping since March 1985.
 * American race car driver Richie Panch dies along with the other three people aboard a Piper PA-28 Cherokee that flies into a squall line and heavy rain near Rion, South Carolina, and comes apart in mid-air.
 * September 6 – Midwest Express Airlines Flight 105, a McDonnell Douglas DC-9-14, crashes just after takeoff from General Mitchell International Airport in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, after its right engine fails. All 31 people on board die.
 * September 12 – The Iraqi Air Force launches its ninth major raid on the Iranian oil terminal at Kharg Island since mid-August.
 * September 13 – Flying an F-15A Eagle about 200 mi west of Vandenberg Air Force Base, California, United States Air Force Major William D. Pearson Jr. becomes the first pilot to destroy a space object. Flying at 38,000 ft, he launches an ASM-135 antisatellite missile which ascends into space and destroys the P78-1 Solwind satellite at an altitude of 345 mi over the Pacific Ocean. It is the third of five test launches of the ASM-135, and the first fully successful test of the entire missile system.
 * September 16 – American aerobatic pilot, aerial cameraman, flight instructor, and educator Art Scholl dies during filming of the movie Top Gun when he puts his Pitts S-2 camera plane into a flat spin to film the spin but fails to pull out of it and crashes into the Pacific Ocean off Carlsbad, California.
 * September 23 – Henson Airlines Flight 1517, a Beechcraft Model 99, goes off course while on approach to Shenandoah Valley Regional Airport and crashes into a 2,400-foot (732-meter) mountain near Grottoes, Virginia, killing all 14 people on board. American playwright and actor Larry Shue is among the dead.
 * September 19 – A major Iraqi air raid on Kharg Island cuts its export production by as much as 50 percent.
 * September 27 – Iraqi aircraft again damage loading terminals at Kharg Island.
 * September 30 – The first Italian aircraft carrier, Giuseppe Garibaldi, is commissioned.

October

 * October 1 – The Israeli Air Force conducts Operation Wooden Leg, a strike by eight F-15 Eagles flying from Tel Nof Airbase in Israel against the headquarters of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) at Hammam al-Shatt, Tunisia, near Tunis, using precision-guided munitions. The strike completely destroys the headquarters and kills between 47 and 271 people, according to various reports, but misses PLO leader Yasser Arafat, who is absent at the time. The Israeli F-15s and an Israeli Boeing 707 aerial tanker supporting them all return safely to base. With a target 1,280 mi from the operation's starting point, Wooden Leg is the most distant action the Israel Defense Forces have undertaken since Operation Entebbe in July 1976.
 * October 3 – An Iraqi Air Force raid on the Iranian oil terminal at Kharg Island damages loading terminal facilities there.
 * October 5 – People Express Airlines acquires Frontier Airlines. Instead of merging Frontier into People Express, it operates Frontier as an independent entity.
 * October 10 – United States Navy F-14 Tomcat fighters of Fighter Squadrons 74 and 103 from the aircraft carrier USS Saratoga (CV-60) intercept an EgyptAir Boeing 737-200 flying from Egypt to Tunisia carrying members of the Palestinian Liberation Front who had hijacked the passenger ship MS Achille Lauro. They force it to land at Naval Air Station Sigonella on Sicily, where Italian authorities arrest the hijackers.
 * October 17 – Tirirical Airport in São Luís, Brazil, is renamed Marechal Cunha Machado International Airport.

November

 * The delivery of French AS-30 air-to-ground missiles to Iraq is confirmed, although they may have been in use by the Iraqi Air Force by mid-August.
 * Mid-November – The total of Iraqi Air Force strikes against the Iranian oil terminal at Kharg Island reaches 37.
 * November 18
 * General Dynamics purchases Cessna.
 * The first Space Shuttle, Enterprise, is flown to Washington Dulles International Airport atop a Boeing 747 Shuttle Carrier Aircraft and transferred from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration to the Smithsonian Institution for eventual museum display. Although lacking engines and a heat shield and never having flown in space, it has been used for shuttle portability, gliding, vibration, and launch pad tests and on publicity tours.
 * November 23 – Omar Rezaq and two other members of the Abu Nidal Organization calling themselves the "Egypt Revolution" hijack EgyptAir Flight 648, a Boeing 737-200 – the same aircraft U.S. Navy fighters had intercepted in October – with 95 other people on board, during a flight from Athens, Greece, to Cairo, Egypt. An Egyptian security agent on board soon kills one of the hijackers before himself being wounded along with two flight attendants. The surviving hijackers force the plane to fly to Malta International Airport on Malta, where they kill two passengers and wound three others before Egyptian commandos storm the plane on November 24. The Egyptian raid kills 56 of the remaining 88 passengers as well as two crew members and one hijacker; Rezaq is arrested. In the end, only 38 passengers and crew survive the hijacking.
 * November 25
 * South African Special Forces use a shoulder-launched surface-to-air missile to shoot down a Soviet Antonov An-12 carrying 21 people 43 km east of Menongue, Angola. All aboard the aircraft die.
 * A Rockwell Aero Commander 500S attempting to land at Des Moines, Iowa, with iced wings strikes trees and a power pole and crashes, killing all seven people on board. Three team members and two coaches of the Iowa State University women's cross country team are among the dead.

December

 * December 12 – Arrow Air Flight 1285, a chartered McDonnell Douglas DC-8-63CF, crashes shortly after takeoff from Gander, Newfoundland (now Newfoundland and Labrador), while taking 248 soldiers of the United States Army's 101st Airborne Division from West Germany to the United States for Christmas, killing all 256 people on board.
 * December 19 – Yakutsk United Air Group Flight 101/435, an Antonov An-24 with 51 people on board making a domestic flight in the Soviet Union from Yakutsk to Chita, is hijacked by its co-pilot, Shamil Alimuradov, who is armed with a hatchet. He orders it to land in the People's Republic of China, and Soviet authorities give the airliner the radio frequency for Qiqihar Airport in Qiqihar, China. Alimuraov insisted that the An-24 land at Hailar, China, instead; the airliner runs out of fuel before it can reach Hailar and makes an emergency landing in a rice field, where Chinese authorities arrest Alimuradov. The passengers and other crew members will fly back to the Soviet Union on December 21 in a Tupolev Tu-134 they meet at Harbin, China, and the An-24 flies back to the Soviet Union in January 1986.
 * December 27 – Using assault rifles and hand grenades, four men attack the ticket counter El Al and Trans World Airlines share at Leonardo da Vinci-Fiumicino Airport outside Rome, Italy, and a few minutes later three others attack the El Al ticket counter at Vienna International Airport in Vienna, Austria, killing a combined total of 19 people and wounding about 140 at the two airports. Police kill three of the Rome attackers and one of the attackers in Vienna, and the rest are arrested in both cities. The Abu Nidal Organization claims credit for the attacks.
 * December 31
 * The Iraqi Air Force claims to have flown 20,011 sorties against Iran, to have made 77 destructive hits on the Iranian oil terminal at Kharg Island, and to have hit 124 "hostile maritime targets" in the Persian Gulf; Iraq will declare 1985 "The Year of the Pilot." Some reports indicate that Iran has carried out a total of 60 air raids against Kharg Island, and the Iraqi Air Force has attacked more than 200 ships in the Persian Gulf since beginning such attacks in May 1981, with over 150 of those attacks occurring since March 1985. Iraq claims to have bombed Tehran 30 times during 1985.
 * During 1985, Iraq has made 33 air attacks against shipping in the Persian Gulf, one using bombs and the remainder using air-to-surface missiles, while Iran has conducted 10 air attacks against Persian Gulf shipping. The total of Iraqi air attacks against Persian Gulf shipping since 1984 has reached 68, one using bombs and the rest air-to-surface missiles, while Iran's total since 1984 has reached 28.
 * American singer-songwriter and actor Ricky Nelson and six others die in the crash of a Douglas DC-3 near DeKalb, Texas.

February

 * February 3 – Atlas Alpha XH-1
 * February 12 – Valmet L-90 Redigo prototype OH-VBB

March

 * March 11 – ARV Super 2
 * March 15 — Radab Windex

July

 * July 9 - Prescott Pusher
 * July 12 - Avid Amphibian
 * July 25 - Politechnika Warszawska PW-2
 * July 29 – Kawasaki T-4

August

 * August 1 - PZL Krosno KR-03 Puchatek
 * August 30 – Bell D-292 85-24371

September

 * September 19 - Gulfstream IV
 * September 19 - Centrair 201 Marianne

October

 * October 6 - Ultimate Aircraft 10 Dash
 * October 8 - Mudry CAP 230
 * October 15 – Fairchild Republic T-46
 * October 28 - NAL Asuka

December

 * December 11 – Changhe Z-8
 * December 28 - Fokker 50

June

 * June 22 – Sukhoi Su-27 (NATO reporting name "Flanker") with the Soviet Air Forces

December

 * December 3 – ATR-42 with Air Littoral

Deadliest crash
1985 remains one of the deadliest years in aviation history. The deadliest of this year was Japan Airlines Flight 123, a Boeing 747 which crashed in mountainous terrain in Gunma prefecture, Japan, on 12 August, killing 520 of the 524 people on board; the accident was the deadliest of the 1980s decade, and remains the deadliest single-aircraft accident in aviation history. The second deadliest of the 1980s took place only weeks before, when Air India Flight 182, also a Boeing 747, was destroyed by a terrorist bomb over the Atlantic Ocean west of Ireland on 23 June, killing all 329 people on board. August 1985 remains the worst single month for commercial aviation fatalities in history. Largely accounting for Flights 123, 182 and the 12 December crash of Arrow Air Flight 1285R (256 fatalities), a total of 2,010 people were killed in commercial aviation accidents in 1985; the second highest in commercial aviation history since 1942; only 1972 had more fatalities (2,373).

title: 1985 in aviation


text:
Kowloon Walled City

Kowloon Walled City (Chinese: 九龍寨城) was an extremely densely populated and largely ungoverned enclave of China within the boundaries of Kowloon City, British Hong Kong.

Built as an Imperial Chinese military fort, the walled city became a de jure enclave after the New Territories were leased to the United Kingdom in 1898. Its population increased dramatically after the end of the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong during World War II, attracting mostly refugees fleeing the renewed Chinese Civil War.

By the late 1980s, the walled city contained roughly 35,000 residents within its territory of 2.6 ha. As a result of the absence of any widely recognized bureaucracy, the city's residents and businesses had no municipal codes with which to adhere. Stemming further from the anarchic nature of the area, businesses that dealt in otherwise banned products, ranging from narcotics to dog meat, thrived. From the 1950s to the 1970s, it was controlled by local triads and had high rates of prostitution, gambling, and drug abuse.

In January 1987, the British colonial government announced plans to demolish the walled city. After an arduous eviction process, and the transfer of de jure sovereignty of the enclave from China to Britain, demolition began in March 1993 and was completed in April 1994.

Kowloon Walled City Park opened in December 1995 and occupies the area of the former walled city. Some historical artefacts from the walled city, including its yamen building and remnants of its southern gate, have been preserved there.

Military outpost

The history of the walled city can be traced back to the Song dynasty (960–1279), when a military outpost was set up to manage the salt trade in the area. Little took place for hundreds of years afterward, although 30 guards were stationed there in 1668. A small coastal fort was established around 1810 after Chinese forces abandoned Tung Lung Fort. In 1842, during Qing Daoguang Emperor's reign, Hong Kong Island was ceded to Britain by the Treaty of Nanking. As a result, the Qing authorities felt it necessary to improve the fort to rule the area and check further British influence. The improvements, including the formidable defensive wall, were completed in 1847. The walled city was captured by rebels during the Taiping Rebellion in 1854, before being retaken a few weeks later. The present walled city's "Dapeng Association House" forms the remnants of what was previously Lai Enjue's garrison.

The Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory of 1898 handed additional parts of Hong Kong (the New Territories) to Britain for 99 years, but excluded the walled city, which at the time had a population of roughly 700. China was allowed to continue to keep officials there as long as they did not interfere with the defence of British Hong Kong. The following year, the governor, Sir Henry Blake, suspected that the viceroy of Canton was using troops to aid resistance to the new arrangements. On 14 April 1899, British forces attacked the walled city, only to find the viceroy's soldiers gone, leaving behind only the mandarin and 150 residents. The Qing dynasty ended its rule in 1912, leaving the walled city to the British.

Though the British claimed ownership of the walled city, they did little with it over the following few decades. The Holy Trinity Church established an old people's home in the old yamen as well as a school and an almshouse in other former offices. Aside from such institutions, however, the walled city became a mere curiosity for British colonials and tourists to visit; it was labelled as "Chinese Town" in a 1915 map. In 1933, the Hong Kong authorities announced plans to demolish most of the decaying walled city's buildings, compensating the 436 squatters that lived there with new homes. That same year, the Nationalist Chinese government protested, claiming jurisdiction over the city. The Nationalist Chinese government continued to make claims on its jurisdiction throughout 1935, 1936, and the first half of 1937, until the war between China and Japan started.

By 1940, only the yamen, the school, and one house remained. During the World War II occupation of Hong Kong, the Japanese occupying forces demolished the city's wall and used the stone to expand the nearby Kai Tak Airport.

Urban settlement

After Japan's surrender in 1945, China announced its intent to reclaim the walled city. In November 1946, Nationalist Chinese officials created the "Draft Outline Plan for Reinstatement of Administration" of the area, which included an office, schools, police, and other functions. Refugees fleeing the Chinese Civil War post-1945 poured into Hong Kong, and 2,000 squatters occupied the walled city by 1947. After a failed attempt to drive them out in 1948, the British adopted a 'hands-off' policy in most matters concerning the walled city. On 8 January 1948, the Nationalist Chinese government sent a memorandum to the British Ambassador, stating "The Ministry of Foreign Affairs now formally declare to the British Embassy that, in accordance with the provisions of the said Convention, the Chinese Government enjoys jurisdiction over the City of Kowloon and that they have no intention whatsoever of renouncing this jurisdiction." The British Foreign Office, on 4 February 1948, considered a variety of solutions (including turning the site into a Nationalist Chinese Consulate-General), and ultimately recommended that the British "accept the principle of Chinese jurisdiction over Kowloon Walled City but the Chinese agree not to attempt to exercise that jurisdiction in practice." Additionally, the British Foreign Office said that "A public garden controlled by the municipal authorities of Kowloon Leased territory offers such a solution and so would a Chinese consular compound, if the Chinese could first be induced to agree in principle to the appointment of a Consul General."

In January 1950, a fire broke out that destroyed over 2,500 huts, home to nearly 3,500 families and 17,000 total people. The disaster highlighted the need for proper fire prevention in the largely wooden-built squatter areas, complicated by the lack of political ties with the colonial and Chinese governments. The ruins gave new arrivals to the walled city the opportunity to build anew, causing speculation that the fire may have been intentionally set.

With no government enforcement from the Chinese or the British aside from a few raids by the Hong Kong Police, the walled city became a haven for crime and drugs. It was only during a 1959 trial for a murder that occurred within the walled city that the Hong Kong government was ruled to have jurisdiction there. By that time, however, the walled city was virtually ruled by the organised crime syndicates known as triads.

Beginning in the 1950s, triad groups such as the 14K and Sun Yee On gained a stranglehold on the walled city's numerous brothels, gaming parlours, and opium dens. The walled city had become such a haven for criminals that police would venture into it only in large groups. It was not until 1973 and 1974, when a series of more than 3,500 police raids resulted in over 2,500 arrests and over 1800 kg of seized drugs, that the triads' power began to wane. With public support, particularly from younger residents, the continued raids gradually eroded drug use and violent crime. In 1983, the district police commander declared the walled city's crime rate to be under control.

The city also underwent massive construction during the 1960s, with developers building new modular structures above older ones. The city became extremely densely populated and "a world unto its own", an enclave, with over 33,000 people in 300 buildings occupying little more than 7 acre. As a result, the city reached its maximum size by the late 1970s and early 1980s; a height restriction of 13 to 14 storeys had been imposed on the city due to the flight path of planes heading toward Kai Tak Airport. As well as limiting building height, the proximity of the airport subjected residents to serious noise pollution. Eight municipal pipes provided water to the entire structure, although more could have come from wells. A few of the streets were illuminated by fluorescent lights, as sunlight rarely reached the lower levels due to the outstanding disregard to air rights within the city. Although the rampant crime of earlier decades diminished in later years, the walled city was still known for its high number of unlicensed doctors and dentists who could operate there without threat of prosecution.

Although the walled city was for many years a hotbed of criminal activity, most residents were not involved in any crime and lived peacefully within its walls. Numerous small factories and businesses thrived inside the walled city, and some residents formed groups to organise and improve daily life there. An attempt by the government in 1963 to demolish some shacks in a corner of the city gave rise to an "anti-demolition committee" that served as the basis for a kaifong association. Charities, religious societies, and other welfare groups were gradually introduced to the city. While medical clinics and schools went unregulated, the Hong Kong government provided some services such as water supply and mail delivery.

Eviction and demolition

The quality of life in the city—sanitary conditions in particular—remained far behind the rest of Hong Kong. The Sino-British Joint Declaration in 1984 laid the groundwork for the city's demolition. The mutual decision by the two governments to tear down the walled city was announced on 14 January 1987. On 10 March 1987, following the announcement that the walled city would be converted to a park, the Secretary for District Administration formally requested the Urban Council to take over the site following demolition. Owing to the presence of numerous other green spaces in the area, the Urban Services Department doubted the need for "yet another park" from a planning and operations point of view, but the council agreed nonetheless to accept the government's proposal on the condition that the government bear the cost of park construction.

The government distributed some HK$2.7 billion (US$350 million) in compensation to the estimated 33,000 residents and businesses in a plan devised by a special committee of the Hong Kong Housing Authority. Some residents were not satisfied with the compensation and were forcibly evicted between November 1991 and July 1992. While it was deserted, the empty city was used to film a scene in the 1993 movie Crime Story.

After four months of planning, demolition of the walled city began on 23 March 1993 and concluded in April 1994. Construction work on Kowloon Walled City Park started the following month. Some historic structures within the former have been preserved and integrated into the new park.

Layout and architecture

The walled city was located in an area of Kowloon that became known as Kowloon City. In spite of its transformation from a fort into an urban enclave, the walled city retained the same basic layout. The original fort was built on a slope and consisted of a 2.6 ha plot measuring about 210 by. The stone wall surrounding it had four entrances and measured 4 m tall and 4.6 m thick before it was dismantled in 1943.

Construction surged dramatically during the 1960s and 1970s, until the formerly low-rise city consisted almost entirely of buildings with 10 storeys or more (with the notable exception of the yamen in its centre). However, due to Kai Tak Airport's position 800 m south of the city, buildings did not exceed 14 storeys. The two-storey Sai Tau Tsuen settlement bordered the walled city to the south and west until it was cleared in 1985 and replaced with Carpenter Road Park.

The city's dozens of alleyways were often only 1 – wide, and had poor lighting and drainage. An informal network of staircases and passageways also formed on upper levels, which was so extensive that one could travel north to south through the entire city without ever touching solid ground. Construction in the city went unregulated, and most of the roughly 350 buildings were built with poor foundations and few or no utilities. Because apartments were so small—a typical unit was 23 m2—space was maximised with wider upper floors, caged balconies and rooftop additions. Roofs in the city were full of television antennas, clothes lines, water tanks, and rubbish, and could be crossed using a series of ladders.

Demography

Kowloon Walled City's early population fluctuated between zero and a few hundred, and began growing steadily shortly after World War II. However, there is no accurate population information available for much of the walled city's later existence. Official census numbers estimated the walled city's population at 10,004 in 1971 and 14,617 in 1981, but these figures were commonly considered to be much too low. Informal estimates, on the other hand, often mistakenly included the neighbouring squatter village of Sai Tau Tsuen. Population figures of about 50,000 were also reported.

A thorough government survey in 1987 gave a clearer picture: an estimated 33,000 people resided within the walled city. Based on this survey, the walled city had a population density of approximately 1255000 PD/sqkm in 1987, making it the most densely populated spot in the world.

Names in Kowloon Walled City were mostly Cantonese, like the rest of Hong Kong at the time.

Culture

In response to difficult living conditions, residents formed a tightly knit community, helping one another endure various hardships. Within families, wives often did housekeeping, while grandmothers cared for their grandchildren and other children from surrounding households. The city's rooftops were important gathering places, especially for residents who lived on upper floors. Parents used them to relax, and children would play or do homework there after school.

The yamen in the heart of the city was also a major social centre, a place for residents to talk, have tea or watch television, and to take classes such as calligraphy. The Old People's Centre also held religious meetings for Christians and others. Other religious institutions included the Fuk Tak and Tin Hau temples, which were used for a combination of Buddhist, Taoist, and animist practices.

Design and construction
The area where the walled city once stood is now Kowloon Walled City Park, adjacent to Carpenter Road Park. The 31000 m2 park was completed in August 1995 and handed over to the Urban Council. It was opened officially by Governor Chris Patten a few months later on 22 December. Construction of the park cost a total of HK$76 million.

The park's design is modelled on Jiangnan gardens of the early Qing dynasty. It is divided into eight landscape features, with the fully restored yamen as its centrepiece. The park's paths and pavilions are named after streets and buildings in the walled city. Artefacts from the walled city, such as five inscribed stones and three old wells, are also on display in the park. The park was designed by the Architectural Services Department, which won a "prestigious award" from the Central Society of Horticulture of Germany for the redevelopment.

Components of the park include:
 * The Eight Floral Walks, each named after a different plant or flower
 * The Chess Garden, featuring four 3 by Chinese chessboards
 * The Garden of Chinese zodiac, containing stone statues of the 12 Chinese zodiac animals
 * The Garden of Four Seasons (named Guangyin Square after the small open area in the walled city), a 300 m2 garden with plants that symbolise the four seasons
 * The Six Arts Terrace, a 600 m2 wedding area containing a garden and the Bamboo Pavilion
 * The Kuixing Pavilion, including a moon gate framed by two stone tablets and the towering Guibi Rock, which represents Hong Kong's return to China
 * The Mountain View Pavilion, a two-storey structure resembling a docked boat that provides a good view of the entire park
 * The Lung Tsun, Yuk Tong, and Lung Nam Pavilions
 * The yamen and the remains of the South Gate (see below).

Declared monuments

The Antiquities and Monuments Office conducted archaeological examinations as the walled city was being demolished, and several cultural remains were discovered. Among them were the walled city's yamen and remnants of its South Gate, which were officially designated declared monuments of Hong Kong on 4 October 1996.

The South Gate had originally served as the walled city's main entrance. Along with its foundation, other remains included two stone plaques inscribed with "South Gate" and "Kowloon Walled City" from the South Gate and a flagstone path that had led up to it. The foundations of the city's wall and East Gate were also discovered. The Hong Kong government preserved the South Gate remnants next to a square in front of the yamen.

The yamen building is made up of three halls. Originally the middle hall served the Assistant Magistrate of Kowloon's administrative office, and the rear block was his residence. After the government officials left the area in 1899, it was used for several other purposes, including an old people's home, a refuge for widows and orphans, a school, and a clinic. It was restored in 1996 and is now found near the centre of the park. It contains a photo gallery of the walled city, and two cannons dating back to 1802 sit at the sides of its entrance.

Cultural memory
A lack of governance, and separation from Hong Kong, provided a distinct culture in the city. Crime and corruption were common; the police were known to co-operate with the triads operating in the city. During the 1970s greater police presence reduced crime and the city became home to those seeking to avoid business regulation and taxes.

While the city was shunned in its early existence, it has since become a source of pride for many Hong Kong residents. The rising publicity around Hong Kong following the 1997 handover sparked a re-emergence in the public interest of Kowloon Walled City and its disappearance. Popular memory tends to sanitise the city, forgetting the crime and corruption. The city has begun to be portrayed with a romantic dystopian identity, and many forms of modern media have borrowed the city's culture in their works. Many authors, filmmakers, game designers, and visual artists have used the walled city to convey a sense of oppressive urbanisation or unfettered criminality.

Literature
A few of the people who spent time in Kowloon Walled City have written accounts of their experiences. Evangelist Jackie Pullinger wrote a 1989 memoir, Crack in the Wall, about her involvement in treating drug addicts within the walled city. In his 2004 autobiography Gweilo, Martin Booth describes his exploration of the walled city as a child in the 1950s. Gordon Jones, a District Officer of Kowloon City District at the time also published his recollections of the city during his time in office.

Robert Ludlum's novel The Bourne Supremacy uses the walled city as one of its settings. The city appears as a virtual reality environment (described by Steven Poole as an "oasis of political and creative freedom") in William Gibson's Bridge trilogy, and as a contrast with Singapore in his Wired article "Disneyland with the Death Penalty". The walled city finds an extensive mention in Doctor Robin Cook's 1991 novel Vital Signs. The filth, squalor and the crime-oriented nature of the area is described vividly when the characters Marissa and Tristan Williams pass by the back-lanes.

Films and television
The 1982 Shaw Brothers film Brothers from the Walled City is set in Kowloon Walled City. The 1984 gangster film Long Arm of the Law features the walled city as a refuge for gang members before they are gunned down by police. In the 1988 film Bloodsport, starring Jean-Claude Van Damme, the walled city is the setting for a martial arts tournament. The 1992 non-narrative film Baraka features several highly detailed shots of the walled city shortly before its demolition. The 1993 film Crime Story starring Jackie Chan was partly filmed in the deserted walled city, and includes real scenes of building explosions. A walled neighbourhood called the Narrows in the 2005 film Batman Begins was inspired by the walled city. The 2006 Hong Kong horror film Re-cycle features a decrepit, nightmarish version of the walled city, complete with tortured souls from which the protagonist must flee. The 2016 TVB martial arts drama A Fist Within Four Walls takes place in the triad-ridden walled city in the early 1960s. The 2024 Hong Kong action crime film Twilight of the Warriors: Walled In, an adaptation of the manhua City of Darkness by Andy Seto, sets its location and plot premise in Kowloon Walled City during the 1980s.

Anime and manga
In the manga Crying Freeman, the titular character's wife travels to the walled city to master her swordsmanship and control a cursed sword. The manga Blood+: Kowloon Nights uses the walled city as the setting for a series of murders. The later part of episode 3 and episode 4 of the anime Street Fighter II V are set in Kowloon Walled City, depicted as a dark and lawless area where Ryu, Ken and Chun-Li have to fight for their lives at every turn, being rescued by the police once they reach the walled city's limits. The manga Kowloon Generic Romance is also set in the walled city.

Video games
Kowloon Walled City is depicted in several games, including Kowloon's Gate and Shenmue II. The game Stranglehold, a sequel to the film Hard Boiled, features a version of the walled city filled with hundreds of Triad members. In the games Fear Effect and Fear Effect 2, photographs of the walled city were used as inspiration "for moods, camera angles and lighting". Concept art for the MMORPG Guild Wars Factions depicts massive, densely packed structures inspired by the walled city. The pen-and-paper RPG Shadowrun and CRPG Shadowrun: Hong Kong include a crime-ridden, rebuilt version of the Walled City set in 2056. The walled city also features in the 2010 game Call of Duty: Black Ops. The 2022 video game Stray's environment is influenced by the walled city as well.

Amusement arcade
A partial recreation of Kowloon Walled City existed in the Warehouse Kawasaki, an amusement arcade that operated from 2009 to 2019 in the Japanese suburb of Kawasaki, Kanagawa. The atmosphere of the walled city was reflected in the arcade's narrow corridors, electrical wires, pipes, postboxes, sign boards, neon lights, frayed posters, and various other small touches.

Books and research papers

 * City of Darkness: Revisited, by Ian Lambot (writer, photographer) and Greg Girard (photographer), published by Watermark, 2014, ISBN 9781873200889 (revised edition of City of Darkness)
 * "Kowloon Walled City Exploration: People Who Live in the Devil's Den (City of Darkness)" (九龍城探訪 魔窟で暮らす人々　City of Darkness), by Ian Lambot (writer, photographer) and Greg Girard (photographer), published by EastPress, 2004, ISBN 9784872574234 (Japanese edition of City of Darkness)
 * "Grand Kowloon Walled City Schematics" (大図解九龍城), by the Kyūryūjō Tankentai (the "Kowloon Walled City Exploration Team"), including Hitomi Terasawa (illustrator), Takayuki Suzuki (architect) and Hiroaki Kani (supervisor), published by Iwanami Shoten, 1997, ISBN 9784000080705
 * "Kowloon Walled City" (九龍城砦), by Ryūji Miyamoto (photographer), Hiroshi Aramata (text contributor) and Ken'ichi Ōhashi (text contributor), published by Heibonsha, 1997, ISBN 9784582277364; Heibonsha, 1998, ISBN 9784582277364; Heibonsha, 1999, ISBN 9784582277364
 * "The End of Kowloon Walled City" (最期の九龍城砦), by Shintarō Nakamura, published by Shinpusha, 1996, ISBN 9784883066469
 * An Architectural Study on the Kowloon Walled City: Preliminary Findings, by Suenn Ho, published by Columbia University, 1992
 * Jiulong Cheng Zhai shihua, by Lu Jinzhe, published by Joint Publishing, 1997, ISBN 9789620406829
 * , by Wong Kwan-yiu et al., published by the Chinese University of Hong Kong – Department of Geography, 1992
 * FARMAX: Excursions on Density, by Winy Maas, Jacob van Rijs and Richard Koek (main contributors), published by 010 Publishers, 1998, ISBN 9789064502668; 010 Publishers, 2006, ISBN 9789064505874
 * FARMAX: Excursions on Density, by Winy Maas, Jacob van Rijs and Richard Koek (main contributors), published by 010 Publishers, 1998, ISBN 9789064502668; 010 Publishers, 2006, ISBN 9789064505874

Documentary films

 * The Walled City, as part of Hong Kong Connection's 70th segment, produced by Radio Television Hong Kong (RTHK), 1979
 * Hongkongs geheime Stadt – Ein Labyrinth für 50.000 Menschen ("Hong Kong's Secret City: A Labyrinth for 50,000 People"), produced by Hugo Portisch of the public Austrian Broadcasting Corporation (ORF), 1989
 * Kowloon Walled City, as part of Whicker's World, produced by ITV Yorkshire, 1980
 * City of Imagination: Kowloon Walled City 20 Years Later (archive footage by ORF and Suenn Ho), produced by The Wall Street Journal, 2014

title: Kowloon Walled City


text:
User talk:Twinnyho

Greetings! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. If you have questions or doubts of any sort, do not hesitate to post them on the Village Pump, somebody will respond ASAP. Other helpful pages include: Have fun! --Jiang 09:46 16 Jul 2003 (UTC)
 * Welcome, newcomers
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title: User talk:Twinnyho


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User talk:Garbo

Greetings! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. If you have questions or doubts of any sort, do not hesitate to post them on the Village Pump, somebody will respond ASAP. Other helpful pages include: Have fun! --Jiang 09:47 16 Jul 2003 (UTC)
 * Welcome, newcomers
 * How does one edit a page
 * Manual of style
 * Naming conventions

title: User talk:Garbo


text:
User talk:Acebee

Greetings! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. If you have questions or doubts of any sort, do not hesitate to post them on the Village Pump, somebody will respond ASAP. Other helpful pages include: Have fun! --Jiang 09:47 16 Jul 2003 (UTC)
 * Welcome, newcomers
 * How does one edit a page
 * Manual of style
 * Naming conventions

title: User talk:Acebee


text:
Methemoglobinemia

Methemoglobinemia, or methaemoglobinaemia, is a condition of elevated methemoglobin in the blood. Symptoms may include headache, dizziness, shortness of breath, nausea, poor muscle coordination, and blue-colored skin (cyanosis). Complications may include seizures and heart arrhythmias.

Methemoglobinemia can be due to certain medications, chemicals, or food or it can be inherited. Substances involved may include benzocaine, nitrites, or dapsone. The underlying mechanism involves some of the iron in hemoglobin being converted from the ferrous [Fe2+] to the ferric [Fe3+] form. The diagnosis is often suspected based on symptoms and a low blood oxygen that does not improve with oxygen therapy. Diagnosis is confirmed by a blood gas.

Treatment is generally with oxygen therapy and methylene blue. Other treatments may include vitamin C, exchange transfusion, and hyperbaric oxygen therapy. Outcomes are generally good with treatment. Methemoglobinemia is relatively uncommon, with most cases being acquired rather than genetic.

Signs and symptoms

Signs and symptoms of methemoglobinemia (methemoglobin level above 10%) include shortness of breath, cyanosis, mental status changes (~50%), headache, fatigue, exercise intolerance, dizziness, and loss of consciousness.

People with severe methemoglobinemia (methemoglobin level above 50%) may exhibit seizures, coma, and death (level above 70%). Healthy people may not have many symptoms with methemoglobin levels below 15%. However, people with co-morbidities such as anemia, cardiovascular disease, lung disease, sepsis, or who have abnormal hemoglobin species (e.g. carboxyhemoglobin, sulfhemoglobinemia or sickle hemoglobin) may experience moderate to severe symptoms at much lower levels (as low as 5–8%).

Acquired
Methemoglobinemia may be acquired. Classical drug causes of methemoglobinemia include various antibiotics (trimethoprim, sulfonamides, and dapsone ), local anesthetics (especially articaine, benzocaine, prilocaine, and lidocaine ), and aniline dyes, metoclopramide, rasburicase, umbellulone, chlorates, bromates, and nitrites. Nitrates are suspected to cause methemoglobinemia.

In otherwise healthy individuals, the protective enzyme systems normally present in red blood cells rapidly reduce the methemoglobin back to hemoglobin and hence maintain methemoglobin levels at less than one percent of the total hemoglobin concentration. Exposure to exogenous oxidizing drugs and their metabolites (such as benzocaine, dapsone, and nitrates) may lead to an increase of up to a thousandfold of the methemoglobin formation rate, overwhelming the protective enzyme systems and acutely increasing methemoglobin levels.

Infants under 6 months of age have lower levels of a key methemoglobin reduction enzyme (NADH-cytochrome b5 reductase) in their red blood cells. This results in a major risk of methemoglobinemia caused by nitrates ingested in drinking water, dehydration (usually caused by gastroenteritis with diarrhea), sepsis, or topical anesthetics containing benzocaine or prilocaine resulting in blue baby syndrome. Nitrates used in agricultural fertilizers may leak into the ground and may contaminate well water. The current EPA standard of 10 ppm nitrate-nitrogen for drinking water is specifically set to protect infants. Benzocaine applied to the gums or throat (as commonly used in baby teething gels, or sore throat lozenges) can cause methemoglobinemia.

Genetic
Due to a deficiency of the enzyme diaphorase I (cytochrome b5 reductase), methemoglobin levels rise and the blood of met-Hb patients has reduced oxygen-carrying capacity. Instead of being red in color, the arterial blood of met-Hb patients is brown. This results in the skin of white patients gaining a bluish hue. Hereditary met-Hb is caused by a recessive gene. If only one parent has this gene, offspring will have normal-hued skin, but if both parents carry the gene, there is a chance the offspring will have blue-hued skin.

Another cause of congenital methemoglobinemia is seen in patients with abnormal hemoglobin variants such as hemoglobin M (HbM), or hemoglobin H (HbH), which are not amenable to reduction despite intact enzyme systems.

Methemoglobinemia can also arise in patients with pyruvate kinase deficiency due to impaired production of NADH – the essential cofactor for diaphorase I. Similarly, patients with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency may have impaired production of another co-factor, NADPH.

Pathophysiology
The affinity for oxygen of ferric iron is impaired. The binding of oxygen to methemoglobin results in an increased affinity for oxygen in the remaining heme sites that are in ferrous state within the same tetrameric hemoglobin unit. This leads to an overall reduced ability of the red blood cell to release oxygen to tissues, with the associated oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve therefore shifted to the left. When methemoglobin concentration is elevated in red blood cells, tissue hypoxia may occur.

Normally, methemoglobin levels are <1%, as measured by the CO-oximetry test. Elevated levels of methemoglobin in the blood are caused when the mechanisms that defend against oxidative stress within the red blood cell are overwhelmed and the oxygen carrying ferrous ion (Fe2+) of the heme group of the hemoglobin molecule is oxidized to the ferric state (Fe3+). This converts hemoglobin to methemoglobin, resulting in a reduced ability to release oxygen to tissues and thereby hypoxia. This can give the blood a bluish or chocolate-brown color. Spontaneously formed methemoglobin is normally reduced (regenerating normal hemoglobin) by protective enzyme systems, e.g., NADH methemoglobin reductase (cytochrome-b5 reductase) (major pathway), NADPH methemoglobin reductase (minor pathway) and to a lesser extent the ascorbic acid and glutathione enzyme systems. Disruptions with these enzyme systems lead to methemoglobinemia. Hypoxia occurs due to the decreased oxygen-binding capacity of methemoglobin, as well as the increased oxygen-binding affinity of other subunits in the same hemoglobin molecule, which prevents them from releasing oxygen at normal tissue oxygen levels.

Diagnosis
The diagnosis of methemoglobinemia is made with the typical symptoms, a suggestive history, low oxygen saturation on pulse oximetry measurements (SpO2) and these symptoms (cyanosis and hypoxia) failing to improve on oxygen treatment. The definitive test would be obtaining either CO-oximeter or a methemoglobin level on an arterial blood gas test. Arterial blood with an elevated methemoglobin level has a characteristic chocolate-brown color as compared to normal bright red oxygen-containing arterial blood; the color can be compared with reference charts.

The SaO2 calculation in the arterial blood gas analysis is falsely normal, as it is calculated under the premise of hemoglobin either being oxyhemoglobin or deoxyhemoglobin. However, co-oximetry can distinguish the methemoglobin concentration and percentage of hemoglobin. At the same time, the SpO2 concentration as measured by pulse ox is false high, because methemoglobin absorbs the pulse ox light at the 2 wavelengths it uses to calculate the ratio of oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin. For example with a methemoglobin level of 30–35%, this ratio of light absorbance is 1.0, which translates into a false high SpO2 of 85%.

Differential diagnosis
Other conditions that can cause bluish skin include argyria, sulfhemoglobinemia, heart failure, amiodarone-induced bluish skin pigmentation and acrodermatitis enteropathica.

Treatment

Methemoglobinemia can be treated with supplemental oxygen and methylene blue. Methylene blue is given as a 1% solution (10 mg/ml) 1 to 2 mg/kg administered intravenously slowly over five minutes. Although the response is usually rapid, the dose may be repeated in one hour if the level of methemoglobin is still high one hour after the initial infusion. Methylene blue inhibits monoamine oxidase, and serotonin toxicity can occur if taken with an SSRI (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor) medicine.

Methylene blue restores the iron in hemoglobin to its normal (reduced) oxygen-carrying state. This is achieved by providing an artificial electron acceptor (such as methylene blue or flavin) for NADPH methemoglobin reductase (RBCs usually don't have one; the presence of methylene blue allows the enzyme to function at 5× normal levels). The NADPH is generated via the hexose monophosphate shunt.

Genetically induced chronic low-level methemoglobinemia may be treated with oral methylene blue daily. Also, vitamin C can occasionally reduce cyanosis associated with chronic methemoglobinemia, and may be helpful in settings in which methylene blue is unavailable or contraindicated (e.g., in an individual with G6PD deficiency). Diaphorase (cytochrome b5 reductase) normally contributes only a small percentage of the red blood cell's reducing capacity, but can be pharmacologically activated by exogenous cofactors (such as methylene blue) to five times its normal level of activity.

Epidemiology
Methemoglobinemia mostly affects infants under 6 months of age (particularly those under 4 months) due to low hepatic production of methemoglobin reductase. The most at-risk populations are those with water sources high in nitrates, such as wells and other water that is not monitored or treated by a water treatment facility. The nitrates can be hazardous to the infants. The link between blue baby syndrome in infants and high nitrate levels is well established for waters exceeding the normal limit of 10 mg/L. However, there is also evidence that breastfeeding is protective in exposed populations.

Blue Fugates
The Fugates, a family that lived in the hills of Kentucky in the US, had the hereditary form. They are known as the "Blue Fugates". Martin Fugate and Elizabeth Smith, who had married and settled near Hazard, Kentucky, around 1800, were both carriers of the recessive methemoglobinemia (met-H) gene, as was a nearby clan with whom the Fugates descendants intermarried. As a result, many descendants of the Fugates were born with met-H.

Blue Men of Lurgan
The "blue men of Lurgan" were a pair of Lurgan men suffering from what was described as "familial idiopathic methemoglobinemia" who were treated by James Deeny in 1942. Deeny, who would later become the Chief Medical Officer of the Republic of Ireland, prescribed a course of ascorbic acid and sodium bicarbonate. In case one, by the eighth day of treatments, there was a marked change in appearance, and by the twelfth day of treatment, the patient's complexion was normal. In case two, the patient's complexion reached normality over a month-long duration of treatment.

title: Methemoglobinemia


text:
Kowloon Peninsula

The Kowloon Peninsula is a peninsula that forms the southern part of the main landmass in the territory of Hong Kong, alongside Victoria Harbour and facing toward Hong Kong Island. The Kowloon Peninsula and the area of New Kowloon are collectively known as Kowloon.

Geographically, the term "Kowloon Peninsula" may also refer to the area south of the mountain ranges of Beacon Hill, Lion Rock, Tate's Cairn, Kowloon Peak, etc. The peninsula covers five of the eighteen districts of Hong Kong. Kowloon Bay is located at the northeast of the peninsula.

Geology and reclamation
The main rock type of the peninsula consists of a medium grained monzogranite with some fine granite outcrops, part of the Kowloon Granite. Early maps and photographs show flat, low-lying land behind the beach of Tsim Sha Tsui Bay with a raised area, Kowloon Hill, in the west.

The peninsula has been significantly expanded through land reclamation from the sea, over several phases. In the south and west most of the reclamation was carried out before 1904. Reclamation in several other small areas along the main Tsim Sha Tsui waterfront was completed by 1982. Since 1994, parts of the Hung Hom Bay were reclaimed and by 2019, it had been completely extinguished. The West Kowloon Reclamation was formed as part of the Airport Core Programme and largely completed by 1995.

History
Before the actual Kowloon boundaries were established, the Kowloon Peninsula served as one of the first destinations for escape during China's dynastic times. In 1287, the last emperor of the Song dynasty, Emperor Bing was fleeing from the Mongol leader Kublai Khan. Taking refuge in a cave in the Kowloon peninsula, the inscription wrote "Sung Wong Toi" or "Song Emperor's Pavilion". In the 17th century, after the fall of the Ming dynasty, many of the Emperor's followers also found shelter in the Kowloon peninsula to hide from the Manchus.

Historically speaking, Kowloon Peninsula refers to the ceded territories of Kowloon in 1860 as part of the Convention of Peking, but geographically it covers the entire Kowloon south of the mountain ranges of Lion Rock, Kowloon Peak and other hills. Kowloon Peninsula had a population of 800 when it was ceded to the British Empire in 1860.

In 1898 a resolution was passed by the Colonial Hong Kong Legislative Council to preserve the land where some of the caves stand.

title: Kowloon Peninsula


text:
Cent (currency)

The cent is a monetary unit of many national currencies that equals $1/100$ of the basic monetary unit. Etymologically, the word cent derives from the Latin centum meaning 'hundred'.

The cent sign is commonly a simple minuscule (lower case) letter c. In North America, the c is crossed by a diagonal or vertical stroke (depending on typeface), yielding the character ¢.

The United States one cent coin is generally known by the nickname "penny", alluding to the British coin and unit of that name. Australia ended production of their 1¢ coin in 1992, as did Canada in 2012. Some Eurozone countries ended production of the 1 euro cent coin, most recently Slovakia in 2022.

Symbol
The cent may be represented by the cent sign, written in various ways according to the national convention and font choice. Most commonly seen forms are a minuscule letter c crossed by a diagonal stroke, a vertical line, a simple c, depending on the currency (see below). Cent amounts from 1 to 99 can be represented as one or two digits followed by the appropriate abbreviation (2¢, 5c, 75¢, 99c), or as a subdivision of the base unit ($0.75, €0.99). In some countries, longer abbreviations like "ct." are used. Languages that use other alphabets have their own abbreviations and conventions.

The cent symbol has largely fallen into disuse since the mid-20th century as inflation has resulted in very few things being priced in cents in any currency. It was included on US typewriter keyboards, but has not been adopted on computers.

North American cent sign
The cent sign appeared as the shift of the 6 keys on American manual typewriters, but the freestanding circumflex on computer keyboards has taken over that position. The character (offset 162) can still be created in most common code pages, including Unicode and Windows-1252:
 * On DOS- or Windows-based computers with a numeric keypad, Alt can be held while typing 0 or 1 on the keypad. See for techniques involving the hexadecimal code point A2 that can be used when there is no numeric keypad, as on many laptops. For the US International keyboard  can be typed.
 * On Mac systems, Option can be held and 4 on the number row pressed.
 * On Unix/Linux systems with a compose key, Compose and Compose are typical sequences.

Orthography
When written in English and Mexican Spanish, the cent sign (¢ or c) follows the amount (with no space between)—for example, 2¢ and $0.02, or 2c and €0.02. Conventions in other languages may vary.

Minor currency units called cent or similar names
Examples of currencies around the world featuring centesimal ($1/100$) units called cent, or related words from the same root such as céntimo, centésimo, centavo or sen, are:

 * Argentine peso (as centavo)
 * Aruban florin, but all circulating coins are in multiples of 5 cents.
 * Australian dollar, but all circulating coins are in multiples of 5 cents.
 * Barbadian dollar
 * Bahamian dollar, but all circulating coins are in multiples of 5 cents.
 * Belize dollar
 * Bermudian dollar
 * Bolivian boliviano (as centavo), but all circulating coins are in multiples of 10 centavos
 * Brazilian real (as centavo)
 * Brunei dollar (as sen)
 * Canadian dollar
 * Cayman Islands dollar
 * Chilean peso (as centavo). Centavos officially exist and are considered in financial transactions, but there are no current centavo-denominated coins.
 * Colombian peso (as centavo)
 * Cook Islands dollar (cent, although some 50 cent coins are marked "50 tene")
 * Cuban peso (as centavo)
 * East Caribbean dollar, but all circulating coins are in multiples of 5 cents.
 * Eritrean nakfa
 * Estonian kroon (as sent)
 * Ethiopian birr (as santim)
 * Euro – the coins bear the text "Euro cent". Greek coins have ΛΕΠΤΟ ("lepto") on the obverse of the one-cent coin and ΛΕΠΤΑ ("lepta") on the obverse of the others. The actual usage varies depending on the language.
 * Fijian dollar
 * Guyanese dollar
 * Hong Kong dollar, but all circulating coins are in multiples of 10 cents.
 * Indonesian rupiah (as sen)
 * Jamaican dollar, but there are no circulating coins with a value below one dollar.
 * Kenyan shilling
 * Lesotho loti (as sente)
 * Liberian dollar
 * Lithuanian litas (as centas)
 * Macanese pataca (as avo), but all circulating coins are in multiples of 10 avos.
 * Malaysian ringgit (as sen), but all circulating coins are in multiples of 5 sen.
 * Mauritian rupee
 * Mexican peso (as centavo)
 * Moroccan dirham (as santim)
 * Namibian dollar
 * Netherlands Antillean gulden
 * New Zealand dollar, but all circulating coins are in multiples of 10 cents.
 * Panamanian balboa (as centésimo)
 * Peruvian sol (as céntimo)
 * Philippine peso (as sentimo or centavo)
 * Seychellois rupee
 * Sierra Leonean leone
 * Singapore dollar, but all circulating coins are in multiples of 5 cents.
 * South African rand, but all circulating coins are in multiples of 10 cents.
 * Sri Lankan rupee
 * Surinamese dollar
 * Swazi lilangeni
 * New Taiwan dollar, but all circulating coins are in multiples of 50 cents.
 * Tanzanian shilling
 * Tongan paʻanga (as seniti)
 * Trinidad and Tobago dollar
 * United States dollar
 * Uruguayan peso (as centésimo)
 * Zimbabwean dollar

Minor currency units with other names
Examples of currencies featuring centesimal ($1/100$) units not called cent

Obsolete centesimal currency units
Examples of currencies which formerly featured centesimal ($1/100$) units but now have no fractional denomination in circulation:

Examples of currencies which use the cent symbol for other purposes:
 * Costa Rican colón – The common symbol '¢' is frequently used locally to represent '₡', the proper colón designation
 * Ghanaian cedi – The common symbol '¢' is sometimes used to represent '₵', the proper cedi designation

title: Cent (currency)


text:
Cent (music)

The cent is a logarithmic unit of measure used for musical intervals. Twelve-tone equal temperament divides the octave into 12 semitones of 100 cents each. Typically, cents are used to express small intervals, to check intonation, or to compare the sizes of comparable intervals in different tuning systems. For humans, a single cent is too small to be perceived between successive notes.

Cents, as described by Alexander John Ellis, follow a tradition of measuring intervals by logarithms that began with Juan Caramuel y Lobkowitz in the 17th century. Ellis chose to base his measures on the hundredth part of a semitone, $\sqrt{2|1200}$, at Robert Holford Macdowell Bosanquet's suggestion. Making extensive measurements of musical instruments from around the world, Ellis used cents to report and compare the scales employed, and further described and utilized the system in his 1875 edition of Hermann von Helmholtz's On the Sensations of Tone. It has become the standard method of representing and comparing musical pitches and intervals.

History
Alexander John Ellis' paper On the Musical Scales of Various Nations, published by the Journal of the Society of Arts in 1885, officially introduced the cent system to be used in exploring, by comparing and contrasting, musical scales of various nations. The cent system had already been defined in his History of Musical Pitch, where Ellis writes: "If we supposed that, between each pair of adjacent notes, forming an equal semitone [...], 99 other notes were interposed, making exactly equal intervals with each other, we should divide the octave into 1200 equal hundrecths [sic] of an equal semitone, or cents as they may be briefly called."

Ellis defined the pitch of a musical note in his 1880 work History of Musical Pitch to be "the number of double or complete vibrations, backwards and forwards, made in each second by a particle of air while the note is heard". He later defined musical pitch to be "the pitch, or V [for "double vibrations"] of any named musical note which determines the pitch of all the other notes in a particular system of tunings." He notes that these notes, when sounded in succession, form the scale of the instrument, and an interval between any two notes is measured by "the ratio of the smaller pitch number to the larger, or by the fraction formed by dividing the larger by the smaller". Absolute and relative pitches were also defined based on these ratios.

Ellis noted that "the object of the tuner is to make the interval [...] between any two notes answering to any two adjacent finger keys throughout the instrument precisely the same. The result is called equal temperament or tuning, and is the system at present used throughout Europe. He further gives calculations to approximate the measure of a ratio in cents, adding that "it is, as a general rule, unnecessary to go beyond the nearest whole number of cents."

Ellis presents applications of the cent system in this paper on musical scales of various nations, which include: (I. Heptatonic scales) Ancient Greece and Modern Europe, Persia, Arabia, Syria and Scottish Highlands, India, Singapore, Burmah and Siam,; (II. Pentatonic scales) South Pacific, Western Africa, Java, China and Japan. And he reaches the conclusion that "the Musical Scale is not one, not 'natural,' nor even founded necessarily on the laws of the constitution of musical sound, so beautifully worked out by Helmholtz, but very diverse, very artificial, and very capricious".

Use

A cent is a unit of measure for the ratio between two frequencies. An equally tempered semitone (the interval between two adjacent piano keys) spans 100 cents by definition. An octave—two notes that have a frequency ratio of 2:1—spans twelve semitones and therefore 1200 cents. The ratio of frequencies one cent apart is precisely equal to 2$1/undefined$ = $\sqrt{2|1200}$, the 1200th root of 2, which is approximately $1.001$. Thus, raising a frequency by one cent corresponds to multiplying the original frequency by this constant value. Raising a frequency by 1200 cents doubles the frequency, resulting in its octave.

If one knows the frequencies $$f_1$$ and $$f_2$$ of two notes, the number of cents $$c$$ measuring the interval from $$f_1$$ to $$f_2$$ is:

 * $$c = 1200 \cdot \log_2 \left( \frac{f_2}{f_1} \right)$$

Likewise, if one knows $$f_1$$ and the number of cents $$c$$ in the interval from $$f_1$$ to $$f_2$$, then $$f_2$$ equals:

 * $$f_2 = f_1 \times 2 ^ \frac{c}{1200} \, .$$

Comparison of major third in just and equal temperament
The major third in just intonation has a frequency ratio 5:4 or ~386 cents, but in equal temperament is 400 cents. This 14 cent difference is about a seventh of a half step and large enough to be audible.

Piecewise linear approximation
As x increases from 0 to $1/12$, the function 2x increases almost linearly from $1$ to $1.059$, allowing for a piecewise linear approximation. Thus, although cents represent a logarithmic scale, small intervals (under 100 cents) can be loosely approximated with the linear relation 1 + $0.001$ $$c$$ instead of the true exponential relation 2$c/1200$. The rounded error is zero when $$c$$ is 0 or 100, and is only about 0.72 cents high at $$c$$=50 (whose correct value of 2$1/24$ ≅ $1.029$ is approximated by 1 + $0.001$ × 50 ≅ 1.02973). This error is well below anything humanly audible, making this piecewise linear approximation adequate for most practical purposes.

Human perception

It is difficult to establish how many cents are perceptible to humans; this precision varies greatly from person to person. One author stated that humans can distinguish a difference in pitch of about 5–6 cents. The threshold of what is perceptible, technically known as the just noticeable difference (JND), also varies as a function of the frequency, the amplitude and the timbre. In one study, changes in tone quality reduced student musicians' ability to recognize, as out-of-tune, pitches that deviated from their appropriate values by ±12 cents. It has also been established that increased tonal context enables listeners to judge pitch more accurately. "While intervals of less than a few cents are imperceptible to the human ear in a melodic context, in harmony very small changes can cause large changes in beats and roughness of chords."

When listening to pitches with vibrato, there is evidence that humans perceive the mean frequency as the center of the pitch. One study of modern performances of Schubert's Ave Maria found that vibrato span typically ranged between ±34 cents and ±123 cents with a mean of ±71 cents and noted higher variation in Verdi's opera arias.

Normal adults are able to recognize pitch differences of as small as 25 cents very reliably. Adults with amusia, however, have trouble recognizing differences of less than 100 cents and sometimes have trouble with these or larger intervals.

Octave
The representation of musical intervals by logarithms is almost as old as logarithms themselves. Logarithms had been invented by Lord Napier in 1614. As early as 1647, Juan Caramuel y Lobkowitz (1606-1682) in a letter to Athanasius Kircher described the usage of base-2 logarithms in music. In this base, the octave is represented by 1, the semitone by 1/12, etc.

Heptamerides
Joseph Sauveur, in his Principes d'acoustique et de musique of 1701, proposed the usage of base-10 logarithms, probably because tables were available. He made use of logarithms computed with three decimals. The base-10 logarithm of 2 is equal to approximately 0.301, which Sauveur multiplies by 1000 to obtain 301 units in the octave. In order to work on more manageable units, he suggests to take 7/301 to obtain units of 1/43 octave. The octave therefore is divided in 43 parts, named "merides", themselves divided in 7 parts, the "heptamerides". Sauveur also imagined the possibility to further divide each heptameride in 10, but does not really make use of such microscopic units.

Savart
Félix Savart (1791-1841) took over Sauveur's system, without limiting the number of decimals of the logarithm of 2, so that the value of his unit varies according to sources. With five decimals, the base-10 logarithm of 2 is 0.30103, giving 301.03 savarts in the octave. This value often is rounded to 1/301 or to 1/300 octave.

Prony
Early in the 19th century, Gaspard de Prony proposed a logarithmic unit of base $$\sqrt[12]{2}$$, where the unit corresponds to a semitone in equal temperament. Alexander John Ellis in 1880 describes a large number of pitch standards that he noted or calculated, indicating in pronys with two decimals, i.e. with a precision to the 1/100 of a semitone, the interval that separated them from a theoretical pitch of 370 Hz, taken as point of reference.

Centitones
A centitone (also Iring) is a musical interval (2$1/600$, $$\sqrt[600]{2}$$) equal to two cents (2$2/1200$) proposed as a unit of measurement by Widogast Iring in Die reine Stimmung in der Musik (1898) as 600 steps per octave and later by Joseph Yasser in A Theory of Evolving Tonality (1932) as 100 steps per equal tempered whole tone.

Iring noticed that the Grad/Werckmeister (1.96 cents, 12 per Pythagorean comma) and the schisma (1.95 cents) are nearly the same (≈ 614 steps per octave) and both may be approximated by 600 steps per octave (2 cents). Yasser promoted the decitone, centitone, and millitone (10, 100, and 1000 steps per whole tone = 60, 600, and 6000 steps per octave = 20, 2, and 0.2 cents).

For example: Equal tempered perfect fifth = 700 cents = 175.6 savarts = 583.3 millioctaves = 350 centitones.

Sound files
The following audio files play various intervals. In each case the first note played is middle C. The next note is sharper than C by the assigned value in cents. Finally, the two notes are played simultaneously.

Note that the JND for pitch difference is 5–6 cents. Played separately, the notes may not show an audible difference, but when they are played together, beating may be heard (for example if middle C and a note 10 cents higher are played). At any particular instant, the two waveforms reinforce or cancel each other more or less, depending on their instantaneous phase relationship. A piano tuner may verify tuning accuracy by timing the beats when two strings are sounded at once.

, beat frequency = 0.16 Hz , beat frequency = 1.53 Hz, beat frequency = 3.81 Hz

title: Cent (music)


text:
Talk:Kowloon Peninsula

Doesn't correspond
This does not quite correspond with the Hong Kong article:

the Kowloon peninsula, also containing the New Territories.

Patrick 10:03 16 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * I have updated the Hong Kong article. olivier 10:19 16 Jul 2003 (UTC)

But then in the New Territories article:

''The New Territories... comprising the northern part of the Kowloon peninsula...''

--Lorenzarius 10:26 16 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * Let us talk about it in Talk:Kowloon. olivier 11:14 16 Jul 2003 (UTC)
 * and discussion below Earthlyreason (talk)

I do not see why Kowloon Bay is an irrelevant piece of information. I have reverted the deletion. olivier 10:56, Feb 25, 2004 (UTC)

Definition of Kowloon peninsula
Surely 'Kowloon peninsula' or 'Kowloon Peninsula' is a geographical term. But the main definition in this article (somewhat implied) is that 'Kowloon Peninsular' is only south of Boundary St. This is a political/administrative division and surely wrong. And we don't show any specific reference to support it.

I agree with Britannica that the term (with capital or lowercase 'p') can be either a) the land south of Lion Rock etc, or the whole of mainland Hong Kong (ie all except islands, and including all New Territories).

Any objections if I align our definition with Britannica? Earthlyreason (talk) 06:33, 12 July 2009 (UTC)
 * I am not sure what you mean by kowloon peninsula = mainland HK? This is a small geographical term. Benjwong (talk) 20:38, 12 July 2009 (UTC)
 * It means that part of Hong Kong that is on the Eurasian land mass - everything except the islands. Earthlyreason (talk) 17:48, 13 July 2009 (UTC)

 * The definitions of Kowloon and Kowloon Peninsula are not clear cut. Both can be used to refer to the piece of land south of Boundary Street, or all of the land south of the Lion Rock etc.

 * The former is used in political, legal and historical contexts to refer to the area south of Boundary Street. In daily lives, nevertheless, it's become a term meaning Kowloon and New Kowloon combined.

 * The latter, i.e. Kowloon Peninsula, is more geographical... but it really depends on how you look at the maps. The piece of land south of Boundary Street appear as a triangle. But there is no geographical feature apart from the street. Lion Rock, etc., are the actual geographical feature that mark Kowloon apart from the rest of the mainland part of the territory of Hong Kong. Montemonte (talk) 21:26, 14 August 2009 (UTC)

 * Are you, Montemonte, rejecting that the term can mean all of mainland Hong Kong? It does seem to be used that way. Earthlyreason (talk) 13:37, 15 August 2009 (UTC)

 * It contemporarily don't mean all of mainland Hong Kong. Not too sure in historical records prior to British rule. Montemonte (talk) 19:45, 15 August 2009 (UTC)

title: Talk:Kowloon Peninsula


text:
User talk:H0104782

Greetings! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. If you have questions or doubts of any sort, do not hesitate to post them on the Village Pump, somebody will respond ASAP. Other helpful pages include: Have fun! --Jiang 10:05 16 Jul 2003 (UTC)
 * Welcome, newcomers
 * How does one edit a page
 * Manual of style
 * Naming conventions

title: User talk:H0104782