text:
Talk:Zhongshan

Untitled
Just out of curiousity, anyone know the source of the legend "drunken Liu"? kt2 02:11, 6 Aug 2003 (UTC)

 * Guoyu Cidian says that one of the first written records of the story was by Zhang Hua (張華) in Jin. It was, at that time already, used as a metaphor for excellent wine. So, to me, it sounds like some tavern's elaborate advertisement tool originally! The metaphor was later mentioned again by Zuo Si (左思), and then again by Xie Lingyun (謝靈運). ---Menchi 02:21, Aug 6, 2003 (UTC)

 * Just did a google search on ("张华" + "刘元石"), this site quoted from Zhang Hua's work that a Liu Yuanshi sold wine in a tavern amidst the mountains (Shanzhong 山中). Search on "左思" + "刘元石" and "谢灵运"+ "刘元石" did not yield any related articles. But the entry at Guoyu Cidian  countradicts it. Funny, seems like I need to have a look of the authentic work by Zhang Hua. kt2 02:54, 6 Aug 2003 (UTC)

World Lamp King Museum
Is the World Lamp King Museum really under construction?

 * According to Skyscraperpage.com, it should have been completed in 2010 and is currently on-hold. 82.141.119.188 (talk) 11:16, 5 October 2011 (UTC)

Population of Xiaolan Town
Is the number correct? So far as I know it's more than 150k.

Realhon5 (talk) 04:50, 11 June 2013 (UTC)

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Zhongshan
Zhongshan 5.113.21.179 (talk) 00:16, 9 January 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Zhongshan


text:
Li Lu

Li Lu (born April 6, 1966) is a Chinese-born American value investor, businessman and philanthropist. He is the founder and chairman of Himalaya Capital Management. Prior to immigrating to America, he was one of the student leaders of the 1989 Tiananmen Square student protests. In 2021, he also co-founded The Asian American Foundation and serves as its chairman.

Early life and education
Li Lu was born in April 1966, in Tangshan, China. He was a survivor of 1976 Tangshan earthquake, one of the deadliest in recorded history. During Mao Zedong's Cultural Revolution of the 1960's, his parents were sent to labor camps by the government. As a consequence, he transitioned through multiple orphanages and caretakers as he grew up.

In 1985, he went to Nanjing University, majored in Physics but later transferred to Economics. In 1989, he participated in the Tiananmen Square student protests and became one of the student leaders. He helped organize the students and participated in a hunger strike. After the crackdown on the movement, he fled the PRC and went to New York City at the age of 23, where his grandfather had received his PhD at Columbia University.

In 1990, he published a book about his experience in China titled Moving the Mountain: My Life in China. The book was the basis of a 1994 feature-film documentary, Moving the Mountain, produced by Trudie Styler and directed by Michael Apted, which probed the origins of the 1989 protests in Tiananmen Square and the consequences of the movement in the lives of several of the movement's student leaders. The book recounts a symbolic marriage ceremony on May 22, 1989, between Li Lu and his then girlfriend, Zhao Ming, at the Heroes' Monument. Students gathered at the wedding to congratulate the married couple and sang the "Wedding March," which gradually turned into "The Internationale." Chai Ling quotes Li Lu in her book as saying the marriage was meaningless.

At Columbia, Li first enrolled in the American Language Program to learn English. He then studied in the School of General Studies and later transferred to Columbia College. He ended up joining the college, law school and business school over a six-year period. Li Lu was one of the first in Columbia's history to receive three degrees simultaneously: a B.A. in economics, a M.B.A. and a J.D. in 1996.

Investment career
Li was inspired to get into investment after hearing Warren Buffett, a Columbia alumnus, give a lecture at Columbia in 1993. As detailed in the Foreword to the Chinese Edition of Poor Charlie's Almanack: The Wit and Wisdom of Charles T. Munger, Li Lu found Buffett's lecture on the principles of investing in the stock market "concise, logical and convincing." Shortly thereafter, Li Lu began investing in stocks while a student at Columbia University.

He began his career in investment banking as a corporate finance associate at Donaldson, Lufkin & Jenrette in 1996. In 1997, he founded Himalaya Capital Management, known for its disciplined and value-oriented approach to investing.

Charlie Munger, vice-chairman of Berkshire Hathaway and a long-time partner of the legendary investor Warren Buffett, was one of the investors of his fund, and a "mentor and good friend" (in Li Lu's own words). Li Lu met Charlie Munger on Thanksgiving 2003 and they had been lifetime friends. With Munger's help, Li transformed his hedge fund into a long-only investment vehicle which is currently focused on global investment opportunities. Munger gave Li $88 million to invest which Li more than quadrupled into $400 million. Munger has stated that Li Lu is the only outside manager he has ever invested with and has described him as the "Chinese Warren Buffett." Part of Li's agreement with Munger was that the fund would be closed to new investors. The fund remained closed to new investors from 2004 to 2013 and does not charge a management fee.

Himalaya now has almost US$18.5 billion in capital under management investing in global securities. As of June 2021, its largest U.S. investment is in Micron Technology with a value of US$1 billion.

Li Lu's investing mantra is "accurate and complete information," including understanding the character of a CEO by visiting his local church and speaking to his neighbors. He believes the most important thing in investing is intellectual honesty, recognizing that there is always a possibility that "you don't know that you don't know." According to a 2021 interview by Columbia Business School Professor Bruce Greenwald, Li Lu's investment strategy attempts to identify and invest in long-term compounders, focusing on the nature of a business' competition "such that one could predict the outcome in 10 years, even with all the up and downs in the macro environment" which he says is the most important.

Li Lu has been known as the man who introduced the Chinese battery and electric car maker BYD Company to Charlie Munger and Warren Buffett. He is an informal advisor to BYD. His investment partnership owns about 2.5% of BYD.

Li was rumored to be the front runner to manage a large portion of Berkshire Hathaway's investment portfolio once Warren Buffett steps down. A report in The Wall Street Journal quoted Charlie Munger as saying he regards it as "a foregone conclusion" that Li Lu would be one of Berkshire's top investment officials after Warren Buffett retires. This was also hinted several times in some conversations with Buffett. In 2010, it was revealed that Li Lu had withdrawn himself from consideration for the job.

Philanthropy & other activities
In May 2021, Li Lu alongside several Asian-American business leaders, including Jerry Yang, co-founder of Yahoo, and Joseph Tsai, co-founder of Alibaba, launched The Asian American Foundation (TAAF) a nonprofit organization with $125 million in initial commitments from the board. TAAF's mission statement is to serve the 23 million Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders (AAPI) in three key areas: anti-hate programs, education, and data and research. Li Lu serves as co-founder and chairman of the board of The Asian American Foundation (TAAF). Since launch, TAAF has raised over $1 billion to support AAPI communities.

In January 2020, Li Lu co-founded the Guardians of the Angeles Charitable Foundation to combat the global COVID-19 crisis and now serves as Chairman of the Board of the Foundation.

In May 2010, Li Lu helped to translate and publish the Chinese version of Poor Charlie's Almanack, The Wit and Wisdom of Charles T. Munger (ISBN 978-7-208-08994-5) in China and wrote a foreword for the book. In 2020, Li Lu wrote and published a book in China titled Civilization, Modernization, Value Investment and China.

Li Lu currently serves as a trustee of Columbia University and California Institute of Technology (Caltech).

Recognition
Li Lu was elected to The American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2020. He is a past recipient of the John Jay Award from Columbia College, the Raoul Wallenberg Human Rights Award from the Congressional Human Rights Foundation, and the Reebok Human Rights Award. He is featured in the Smithsonian Institute's Family of Voices, a part of the ongoing twenty-year Exhibition, starting in 2017, "Many Voices, One Nation" at the National Museum of American History.

Published works

 * 文明、现代化、价值投资与中国 (Civilization, Modernization, Value Investing and China, 2020) (ISBN 9-7-87521-712-59-9)
 * Foreword to the Chinese Edition of Poor Charlie's Almanack: The Wit and Wisdom of Charles T. Munger (2010) (ISBN 978-7-208-08994-5)
 * Moving the Mountain: My Life in China (ISBN 0-399-13545-6)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Li Lu


text:
ISO 3166-2:DO

ISO 3166-2:DO is the entry for the Dominican Republic in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.

Currently for the Dominican Republic, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 10 regions, 31 provinces and 1 district. The Distrito Nacional contains the capital of the country Santo Domingo and has special status equal to the provinces.

Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is DO, the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of the Dominican Republic. The second part is two digits:
 * 01: district
 * 02–27: provinces as of late 1970s
 * 28–30: provinces created in the 1980s and 1990s
 * 31–32: provinces created in 2001 and 2002
 * 33–42: regions

Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).

Click on the button in the header to sort each column.

Provinces and district

 * Notes

Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998. ISO stopped issuing newsletters in 2013.

The following changes to the entry are listed on ISO's online catalogue, the Online Browsing Platform:

Codes changed in Newsletter I-1
Note: Two provinces were assigned the code DO-EP.

title: ISO 3166-2:DO


text:
ISO 3166-2:ER

ISO 3166-2:ER is the entry for Eritrea in ISO 3166-2, part of the ISO 3166 standard published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which defines codes for the names of the principal subdivisions (e.g., provinces or states) of all countries coded in ISO 3166-1.

Currently for Eritrea, ISO 3166-2 codes are defined for 6 regions.

Each code consists of two parts, separated by a hyphen. The first part is ER, the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code of Eritrea. The second part is two letters.

Current codes
Subdivision names are listed as in the ISO 3166-2 standard published by the ISO 3166 Maintenance Agency (ISO 3166/MA).

ISO 639-1 codes are used to represent subdivision names in the following administrative languages:
 * (ar): Arabic
 * (ti): Tigrinya

Click on the button in the header to sort each column.

 * Notes

Changes
The following changes to the entry have been announced in newsletters by the ISO 3166/MA since the first publication of ISO 3166-2 in 1998:

title: ISO 3166-2:ER


text:
Talk:Gene Robinson

Did Barbara Harris really wear a bullet proof vest?
In the section on Gene Robinson's ordination, citation #14 (Gledhill, London:The Times 2009) states that Barbara Harris had to wear a bulletproof vest at her ordination. The linked article does state this. However, Barbara Harris' own wikipedia article states that she was urged to wear a b-p vest, but refused. An offline Wall Street Journal article is cited.

Given the ambiguity, I would be inclined to excise the entire sentence: "The security was strong: just as Barbara Harris had to wear a bullet-proof vest at her consecration,[14] Robinson was showing his bullet-proof vest to Harris herself." I would not consider the Gledhill reference to be reliable. Is there a reliable citation about Robinson showing Harris that he was wearing a vest? Ideally, there should be a separate citation found for this. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Tensegrity (talk • contribs) 17:32, 1 June 2011 (UTC)

The sentence about this and the "expected" crowd needs editing. I can't make sense of it.Conscientia (talk) 06:14, 22 June 2016 (UTC)

Documentary "Live free or die" about Gene Robinson
The documentary "Love Free or Die" about Gene Robinson is being screened in the UK at the moment (screened in the USA in January) but has yet to be mentioned in the article. The documentary covers key recent events surrounding recent changes in church policy as well as supporting interviews relating to his personal life (such as the threats he received as mentioned in the article), the Obama speech (2009) and his experience visiting the UK in 2008. The documentary itself seems a useful reference and has sufficient impact to be worth mentioning in the After ordination section. I have taken the initiative to email the production company to ask if they would be interested in releasing any of the stills, on a free release, to be available on Wikipedia Commons. Thanks --Fæ (talk) 10:02, 25 March 2012 (UTC)

Birth Certificate/Death Certificate
The article states that the physician who attended Robinson's birth asked for a name for the death certificate as well as the birth certificate. This seems highly unlikely. If the doctor were only given a name for the birth certificate, wouldn't he use the same name for a death certificate? Does a person ordinarily change his name when he dies? Let's see a citation for this story.John Paul Parks (talk) 21:53, 28 July 2012 (UTC)

 * In his interview with Terry Gross on WHYY's Fresh Air (http://www.npr.org/2013/01/14/169066917/retired-bishop-gene-robinson-on-being-gay-and-loving-god), Robinson states that the doctors told his father "your newborn son is definitely going to die and we need a name for his birth and death certificates." My take on the article is that this statement makes sense and is accurate. Jmanbeck (talk) 21:14, 14 January 2013 (UTC)

first openly gay, non-celibate priest to be ordained a bishop
I'm inclined to drop the non-celibate as (a) he was the first openly gay priest ordained a bishop (celibate or non-celibate) as opposed to coming out later and (b) he was celibate at the time of the ordination (celibate means unmarried and due to the law both church and state he was not officially married or in a civil union with Mark Andrew at the time of ordination even though everyone in the decision making knew he was in a long-term relationship [which was legally formalized in 2008 when such became possible and became officially marriage in 2011]). --Erp (talk) 04:01, 7 June 2012 (UTC)
 * a. You cannot cite any reference that no other priest ordained a bishop was openly gay. This also complicated by the fact that being "open" happens in degrees and would not necessarly be recorded for history.
 * b. Celibate does not mean unmarried. Celibate means not sexually active. tahc chat 05:23, 7 June 2012 (UTC)

 * Wrong - "celibate" does in fact correctly mean "unmarried". Over time, however, it has popularly but incorrectly been used to refer to sexual abstinence outside of marriage - for which the correct word is "chastity" although this term is also used for sexual faithfulness within marriage. Anglicanus (talk) 08:31, 7 June 2012 (UTC)
 * We have to use words in the way the typical reader would use and understand them, not just how a readers who have taken a vow of celibacy would use and understand them.
 * We can consider using "non-celibate (non-chaste)" but I do not think it is needed. tahc chat 12:27, 7 June 2012 (UTC)

He was in a relationship with another man, which is believed not to be chast, when he was elected bishop. To have a openly gay and partnered bishop explains all the controversy that has followed.81.193.223.15 (talk) 15:44, 7 June 2012 (UTC)

 * Being openly gay even if unpartnered would have been controversial. I also suspect that Bishop Robinson and those who voted for him consider him to be chaste in that he has and had presumably kept sexual faithfulness to Mark Andrew.   Also it is probable  that in the past certain suspected gay episcopal priests who were ordained bishops  were not celibate in that they had spouses of the opposite sex.  --Erp (talk) 04:50, 8 June 2012 (UTC)
 * Then that make the current text the best text to use. tahc chat 07:02, 8 June 2012 (UTC)

 * How so? "Openly gay non-celibate priest" is equivalent to in religious/legal speak (which uses non-celibate=married) to "openly gay married priest".  Now from a very liberal Christian point of view I suspect he was married in the eyes of God (much like slave marriages in very early Christianity [the Christians recognized them even if the state did not]) but I suspect that is non-NPOV.  --Erp (talk) 00:51, 11 June 2012 (UTC)

 * If he were not in a relationship with another man, and had no intention of ever getting involved in such a relationship, there would be no reason for him to "come out" or discuss whatever attractions he might have.John Paul Parks (talk) 21:57, 28 July 2012 (UTC)

 * This isn't the place for such a discussion and I'm not saying this is the case here but a man could very well come out to his wife so as to explain why he isn't really sexually attracted to her and perhaps can't satisfy her. He might come out publicly to give her a reason for divorce that doesn't put blame on her so that she can find someone else who could fully cherish her.  A person might admit to being gay though not involved sexually with anyone just to show public empathy with those gays  being hounded.  Neither case supposes he is actually engaged in sex with a third party.  In any case Robinson wasn't legally non-celibate when he became bishop (though the majority of Episcopalian bishops are non-celibate); he was celibate from the time of his divorce which happened well before becoming bishop until he formally married his current spouse which happened legally after he became bishop. --Erp (talk) 00:47, 29 July 2012 (UTC)

 * You seem to laboring under the delusion that "celibate" is another word for "unmarried", and that Biblical Christianity objects to gays as people-- rather that just objects to homosexuality activity. If you want to try to reword "celibate" as something else, then that is one thing-- but to remove "celibate" and claim he was "just gay" obscures any reason for any controversity in his becoming bishop and woefully misleads anyone reading the article. tahc chat 06:04, 29 July 2012 (UTC)

 * It is you who are mistaken. Non-celibate can mean in casual speech either "married" (and is neutral in implication) or can mean "unmarried but engaged in sexual relations" (which is negative in implication) so the meaning is vague.  The Roman Catholic church defines it as 'unmarried' see Catholic encyclopedia http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03481a.htm "Celibacy is the renunciation of marriage implicitly or explicitly made, for the more perfect observance of chastity, by all those who receive the Sacrament of Orders in any of the higher grades".  In other words the formal religious definition is 'unmarried'.  This is also the definition used in the article on clerical celibacy.  Now in Bishop Robinson's case it can be argued whether he was married in the eyes of God  (and therefore non-celibate and chaste) or unmarried but in an extra-marital relationship (celibate but unchaste).  Some might also argue that he was still married to his first wife (as they don't recognize divorce) and therefore non-celibate and unchaste.   Someone using the formal religious definition (which in an article on a bishop seems to be the obvious choice) would come to the conclusion that Bishop Robinson was the first married gay bishop (which a some would agree with but I think it is a disputable statement).  BTW just being gay seems sufficient for controversy or why the dispute over Jeffrey John who is in a non-sexual relationship. --Erp (talk) 10:54, 29 July 2012 (UTC)

External link broken
The first external link is broken. The Episcopal Church in New Hampshire's site no longer hosts biographies of its former bishops. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2605:E000:3E0B:BA00:5CFC:2F5F:8049:C10B (talk) 21:50, 21 December 2015 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Gene Robinson


text:
User:Tempshill

__NOINDEX__ Hi. Tempshill 18:05, 18 Sep 2003 (UTC)

Quidquid latine dictum sit, altum sonatur. — Whatever is said in Latin sounds profound.

Politics and the English Language, by George Orwell, is the best 5,321-word guide to writing that you'll find.

There is no need for our writing on Wikipedia to be dry while being encyclopedic. Probably my favorite clause I have written on Wikipedia is "...Hewlett-Packard's now-forgotten NewWave...." Has NewWave technically been completely forgotten by our civilization? No, but it is not an error to call it "now-forgotten", and that term makes the sentence a lot more interesting and informative to the layman. And it's still extremely accurate — not 100% accurate, but somehow more accurate than it would be if "now-forgotten" were deleted.

In this vein, my favorite sentence in all of Wikipedia is currently a comment in the Borat article: "Everything that Borat has said about Kazakhstan is incorrect."

US military photos
If you, yes you, have the inclination and time, I've found that the websites of the branches of the US military are a great source of public-domain photos, and many of them could and should be copied over to Wikimedia Commons, or to Wikipedia if necessary, to illustrate articles here. I don't really mean photos of military hardware — most Wikipedia articles on fighter planes and tanks have already been very well illustrated by fans of the topic. I mean the photos of people doing all sorts of both white- and blue-collar jobs; construction hardware; sports photos; and miscellaneous equipment of all kinds; all of which are of very high quality; and it's all PD. Granted, it seems like the PR arm of each branch of the military tends to post lots of photos that emphasize individuals rather than their surroundings or what they're doing; but they will continue to provide a stream of really high quality photos over time, all of which we can use freely.

Useful links

 * Citation maker
 * Don't draw misleading graphs
 * Citation templates
 * Extended image syntax
 * Image copyright tags
 * The latter 3 images on Nez Perce (as reformatted by User:Whosyourjudas 11/04)
 * Cleanup resources
 * How to edit has character formatting stuff.
 * Categorization
 * Lists of articles by category
 * Template messages for various dispute and cleanup tags
 * Image copyright tags
 * User:Tempshill/c
 * User:Tempshill/work
 * WikiProject Stub sorting/Stub types
 * Image copyright tags
 * User:Tempshill/c
 * User:Tempshill/work
 * WikiProject Stub sorting/Stub types

Fair use problems

 * Fair use
 * Category:Candidates for speedy deletion
 * Fair use
 * Category:Candidates for speedy deletion

To-do

 * Jiří Trnka
 * Max von Sydow needs a quote in the intro; User:Tempshill/Max has a few candidates, need more
 * Merge Expanded memory and Expanded Memory Specification
 * Go through the images tagged "fair use" and "fair use with permission" and start disputing the bad ones. I think there are plenty.
 * Nansen passport
 * Category:Airliner shootdowns - there's a list of lots more on the Talk page.
 * CatFur and Catsend
 * ESRB re-rating of The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion - when an FA, the article, especially the intro, seemed stunningly irrelevant unless you were a gamer and already knew what the controversy was really about.
 * User:Tempshill/Perkins v. Elg

title: User:Tempshill


text:
Noguchi Museum

The Noguchi Museum (chartered as The Isamu Noguchi Foundation and Garden Museum) is a museum and sculpture garden at 3237 Vernon Boulevard in the Long Island City neighborhood of Queens in New York City, designed and created by the Japanese American sculptor Isamu Noguchi (1904–1988). Opening on a limited basis to the public in 1985, the museum and foundation were intended to preserve and display Noguchi's sculptures, architectural models, stage designs, drawings, and furniture designs. The two-story, 24000 sqft museum and sculpture garden, one block from the Socrates Sculpture Park, underwent major renovations in 2004 allowing the museum to stay open year-round.

History
To house the museum, in 1974 Noguchi purchased a photogravure plant and gas station located across the street from his New York studio, where he had worked and lived since 1961. The Isamu Noguchi Garden Museum opened to the public in 1985 on a seasonal basis. At the time, it was the first such museum to be established by a living artist in America.

In 1999, the Foundation Board approved a $13.5 million capital master plan to address structural concerns, ADA and NYC Building Code compliance and create a new public education facility. During renovation, the museum relocated to a temporary space in Sunnyside, Queens, and held several thematic exhibitions of Noguchi's work. In February 2004, the museum was formally chartered as a museum, and granted 501(c)(3) public charity status. The Noguchi Museum reopened to the public at its newly renovated space in June 2004. The museum building continued to suffer from structural issues into the early 2000s and a second $8 million stabilization project was begun in September 2008. As a result, there are now 12 galleries and a gift shop within the museum.

In 2022, the museum was awarded $4.5 million in capital funding, $1.5 million of which came from Mayor Eric Adams and the rest from Queens Borough president Donovan Richards. The funds will be used for a restoration of the artist's original 1959 living and studio space situated opposite the museum as well as for a new two-story, 6,000-square-foot building adjacent to the studio to house the museum's collection and archival material.

Tree of Heaven
Until March 26, 2008, a 60 ft-tall 75-year-old Tree of Heaven (Ailanthus altissima) was a prominent centerpiece of the sculpture garden at the museum. The tree was spared by Noguchi when in 1975 he bought the building which would become the museum and cleaned up its back lot. "[I]n a sense, the sculpture garden was designed around the tree", said a former aide to Noguchi, Bonnie Rychlak, who later became the museum curator. By early 2008, the tree was found to be dying and threatened to crash into the building, which was about to undergo an $8.2 million renovation. The museum hired the Detroit Tree of Heaven Woodshop, an artists' collective, to use the wood to make benches, sculptures and other amenities in and around the building.

Exhibition
The museum celebrated the 25th anniversary of its opening with the exhibition ''On Becoming an Artist. Isamu Noguchi and His Contemporaries, 1922 – 1960'', which open from November 17, 2010, to April 24, 2011

Other artists whose work have been featured include Koho Yamamoto and Toshiko Takaezu.

Education
The museum's educational program, Art for Families, is a community outreach program aimed at families. The museum also runs a program called Art for Tots for young children.

Isamu Noguchi Award
Since 2014, the Isamu Noguchi Award has been given annually "to individuals who share [museum founder] Noguchi's spirit of innovation, global consciousness, and East-West exchange." Recipients have included:
 * 2014: Norman Foster, Hiroshi Sugimoto
 * 2015: Jasper Morrison, Yoshio Taniguchi
 * 2016: Tadao Ando, Elyn Zimmerman
 * 2017: John Pawson, Hiroshi Senju
 * 2018: Naoto Fukasawa, Edwina von Gal
 * 2019: Rei Kawakubo
 * 2020: David Adjaye, Cai Guo-Qiang
 * 2021: Shio Kusaka, Toshiko Mori
 * 2022: Daniel Brush, Thaddeus Mosley

Directors

 * 1989–2003: Shoji Sadao
 * 2003–2017: Jenny Dixon
 * 2018–2023: Brett Littman
 * 2024: Amy Hau

title: Noguchi Museum


text:
User talk:Libdemplus

Libdemplus, welcome to Wikipedia! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. If you ever need editing help visit How does one edit a page and experiment at Sandbox. If you need pointers on how we title pages visit Naming conventions. If you have any other questions about the project then check out Help or add a question to the Village pump. Kat 02:34, 6 Aug 2003 (UTC)

I have left a message for you at Talk:Arthur Kellermann. Kat 18:08, 6 Aug 2003 (UTC)

title: User talk:Libdemplus


text:
Glenn Curtiss

Glenn Hammond Curtiss (May 21, 1878 – July 23, 1930) was an American aviation and motorcycling pioneer, and a founder of the U.S. aircraft industry. He began his career as a bicycle racer and builder before moving on to motorcycles. As early as 1904, he began to manufacture engines for airships. In 1908, Curtiss joined the Aerial Experiment Association, a pioneering research group, founded by Alexander Graham Bell at Beinn Bhreagh, Nova Scotia, to build flying machines.

Curtiss won a race at the world's first international air meet in France and made the first long-distance flight in the U.S. His contributions in designing and building aircraft led to the formation of the Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor Company, which later merged into the Curtiss-Wright Corporation. His company built aircraft for the U.S. Army and Navy, and, during the years leading up to World War I, his experiments with seaplanes led to advances in naval aviation. Curtiss civil and military aircraft were some of the most important types in the interwar and World War II eras.

Birth and early career
Glenn Curtiss was born in 1878 in Hammondsport, New York, situated on the southern tip of Keuka Lake, one of the Finger Lakes in New York. His mother was Lua Curtiss née Andrews and his father was Frank Richmond Curtiss a harness maker who had arrived in Hammondsport with Glenn's grandparents in 1876. Glenn's paternal grandparents were Claudius G. Curtiss, a Methodist Episcopal clergyman, and Ruth Bramble. Glenn Curtiss had a younger sister, Rutha Luella, also born in Hammondsport.

Although his formal education extended only to eighth grade, his early interest in mechanics and inventions was evident at his first job at the Eastman Dry Plate and Film Company (later Eastman Kodak Company) in Rochester, New York. His job at the factory was to stencil numbers on the paper backing of the film manufactured by the company. He figured out how to speed up the process of stenciling and built a "stencil machine": a rack with a brush on a hinge which would stencil one hundred paper strips with a single stroke of the brush. This improved his throughput ten times, and eventually the company adopted his invention.

He also built a rudimentary camera to study photography.

Marriage and family
On March 7, 1898, Curtiss married Lena Pearl Neff (1879–1951), daughter of Guy L. Neff and Jenny M. Potter, in Hammondsport, New York. They had two children: Carlton N. Curtiss (1901–1902) and Glenn Hammond Curtiss (1912–1969)

Bicycles and motorcycles
Curtiss began his career as a Western Union bicycle messenger, a bicycle racer, and bicycle-shop owner. In 1901, he developed an interest in motorcycles when internal-combustion engines became more available. In 1902, Curtiss began manufacturing motorcycles with his own single-cylinder engines. His first motorcycle's carburetor was adapted from a tomato soup can containing a gauze screen to pull the gasoline up by capillary action. In 1903, he set a motorcycle land speed record at 64 mph for one mile (1.6 km). When E.H. Corson of the Hendee Mfg Co (manufacturers of Indian motorcycles) visited Hammondsport in July 1904, he was amazed that the entire Curtiss motorcycle enterprise was located in the back room of the modest "shop". Corson's motorcycles had just been trounced the week before by "Hell Rider" Curtiss in an endurance race from New York to Cambridge, Maryland.

On January 24, 1907, Curtiss set an unofficial world record of 136.36 mph, on a 40 hp 269 cuin V-8-powered motorcycle of his own design and construction in Ormond Beach, Florida. The air-cooled F-head engine was intended for use in aircraft. He remained "the fastest man in the world", the title the newspapers gave him, until 1911, and his motorcycle record was not broken until 1930. This motorcycle is now in the Smithsonian Institution. Curtiss's success at racing strengthened his reputation as a leading maker of high-performance motorcycles and engines.

Curtiss, motor expert
In 1904, Curtiss became a supplier of engines for the California "aeronaut" Tom Baldwin, who inspired Curtiss to pursue aviation. In that same year, Baldwin's California Arrow, powered by a Curtiss 9 HP V-twin motorcycle engine, became the first successful dirigible in America.

In 1907, Alexander Graham Bell invited Curtiss to develop a suitable engine for heavier-than-air flight experimentation. Bell regarded Curtiss as "the greatest motor expert in the country" and invited Curtiss to join his Aerial Experiment Association (AEA).

AEA aircraft experiments

Between 1908 and 1910, the AEA produced four aircraft, each one an improvement over the last. Curtiss primarily designed the AEA's third aircraft, Aerodrome #3, the famous June Bug, and became its test pilot, undertaking most of the proving flights. On July 4, 1908, he flew 5080 ft to win the Scientific American Trophy and its $2,500 prize. This is considered to be the first pre-announced public flight of a heavier-than-air flying machine in America. The flight of the June Bug propelled Curtiss and aviation firmly into public awareness. On June 8, 1911, Curtiss received U.S. Pilot's License #1 from the Aero Club of America, because the first batch of licenses were issued in alphabetical order; Wilbur Wright received license #5. At the culmination of the Aerial Experiment Association's experiments, Curtiss offered to purchase the rights to Aerodrome #3, essentially using it as the basis of his Curtiss No. 1, the first of his production series of pusher aircraft.

Aviation competitions
After a 1909 fall-out with the AEA, Curtiss joined with A. M. Herring (and backers from the Aero Club of America) to found the Herring-Curtiss Company in Hammondsport. During the 1909–1910 period, Curtiss employed a number of demonstration pilots, including Eugene Ely, Charles K. Hamilton, J.A.D. McCurdy, Augustus Post, and Hugh Robinson. Aerial competitions and demonstration flights across North America helped to introduce aviation to a curious public; Curtiss took full advantage of these occasions to promote his products. This was a busy period for Glenn Curtiss.

In August 1909, Curtiss took part in the Grande Semaine d'Aviation aviation meeting at Reims, France, organized by the Aéro-Club de France. The Wrights, who were selling their machines to customers in Germany at the time, decided not to compete in person. Two Wright aircraft (modified with a landing gear) were at the meet, but they did not win any events. On August 28, 1909, flying his No. 2 biplane, Curtiss won the overall speed event, the Gordon Bennett Cup, completing the 20-km (12.5-mile) course in just under 16 minutes at a speed of 46.5 mph, six seconds faster than runner-up Louis Blériot.

On May 29, 1910, Curtiss flew from Albany to New York City to make the first long-distance flight between two major cities in the U.S. For this 137 mi flight, which he completed in just under four hours including one stop to refuel, he won a $10,000 prize offered by publisher Joseph Pulitzer and was awarded permanent possession of the Scientific American Trophy.

In June 1910, Curtiss provided a simulated bombing demonstration to naval officers at Hammondsport. Two months later, Lt. Jacob E. Fickel demonstrated the feasibility of shooting at targets on the ground from an aircraft with Curtiss serving as pilot. One month later, in September, he trained Blanche Stuart Scott, who was possibly the first American woman pilot. The fictional character Tom Swift, who first appeared in 1910 in Tom Swift and His Motor Cycle and Tom Swift and His Airship, has been said to have been based on Glenn Curtiss. The Tom Swift books are set in a small town on a lake in upstate New York.

Patent dispute
A patent lawsuit by the Wright brothers against Curtiss in 1909 continued until it was resolved during World War I. Since the last Wright aircraft, the Wright Model L, was a single prototype of a "scouting" aircraft, made in 1916, the U.S. government, desperately short of combat aircraft, pressured both firms to resolve the dispute. Of nine suits Wright brought against Curtiss and others and the three suits brought against them, the Wright Brothers eventually won every case in courts in the United States.

Naval aviation
On November 14, 1910, Curtiss demonstration pilot Eugene Ely took off from a temporary platform mounted on the forward deck of the cruiser USS Birmingham. His successful takeoff and ensuing flight to shore marked the beginning of a relationship between Curtiss and the Navy that remained significant for decades. At the end of 1910, Curtiss established a winter encampment at San Diego to teach flying to Army and Naval personnel. Here, he trained Lt. Theodore Ellyson, who became U.S. Naval Aviator #1, and three Army officers, 1st Lt. Paul W. Beck, 2nd Lt. George E. M. Kelly, and 2nd Lt. John C. Walker, Jr., in the first military aviation school. (Chikuhei Nakajima, founder of Nakajima Aircraft Company, was a 1912 graduate.) The original site of this winter encampment is now part of Naval Air Station North Island and is referred to by the Navy as "The Birthplace of Naval Aviation".

Through the course of that winter, Curtiss was able to develop a float (pontoon) design that enabled him to take off and land on water. On January 26, 1911, he flew the first seaplane from the water in the United States. Demonstrations of this advanced design were of great interest to the Navy, but more significant, as far as the Navy was concerned, was Eugene Ely successfully landing his Curtiss pusher (the same aircraft used to take off from the Birmingham) on a makeshift platform mounted on the rear deck of the battleship USS Pennsylvania. This was the first arrester-cable landing on a ship and the precursor of modern-day carrier operations. On January 28, 1911, Ellyson took off in a Curtiss "grass cutter" to become the first Naval aviator.

Curtiss custom built floats and adapted them onto a Model D so it could take off and land on water to prove the concept. On February 24, 1911, Curtiss made his first amphibious demonstration at North Island by taking off and alighting on both land and water. Back in Hammondsport, six months later in July 1911, Curtiss sold the U.S. Navy their first aircraft, the A-1 Triad. The A-1, which was primarily a seaplane, was equipped with retractable wheels, also making it the first amphibious aircraft. Curtiss trained the Navy's first pilots and built their first aircraft. For this, he is considered in the US to be "The Father of Naval Aviation". The Triad was immediately recognized as so obviously useful, it was purchased by the U.S. Navy, Russia, Japan, Germany, and Britain. Curtiss won the Collier Trophy for designing this aircraft.

Henry Kleckler, considered Curtiss' "right hand man", and a "master innovator and mechanic", was also a native of Hammondsport and worked with Curtiss in developing more efficient  engines for the "flying boats" pioneered and developed by Curtiss.

Around this time, Curtiss met retired British naval officer John Cyril Porte, who was looking for a partner to produce an aircraft with him to win the Daily Mail prize for the first transatlantic crossing. In 1912, Curtiss produced the two-seat Flying Fish, a larger craft that became classified as a flying boat because the hull sat in the water; it featured an innovative notch (known as a "step") in the hull that Porte recommended for breaking clear of the water at takeoff. Curtiss correctly surmised that this configuration was more suited to building a larger long-distance craft that could operate from water, and was also more stable when operating from a choppy surface. With the backing of Rodman Wanamaker, Porte and Curtiss produced the America in 1914, a larger flying boat with two engines, for the transatlantic crossing.

World War I
With the start of World War I, Porte returned to service in the Royal Navy, which subsequently purchased several models of the America, now called the H-4, from Curtiss. Porte licensed and further developed the designs, constructing a range of Felixstowe long-range patrol aircraft, and from his experience passed along improvements to the hull to Curtiss. The later British designs were sold to the U.S. forces, or built by Curtiss as the F5L. The Curtiss factory also built a total of 68 "Large Americas", which evolved into the H-12, the only American designed and built aircraft to see combat in World War I.

As 1916 approached, the United States was feared to be drawn into the conflict. The Army's Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps ordered the development of a simple, easy-to-fly-and-maintain, two-seat trainer. Curtiss created the JN-4 "Jenny" for the Army, and the N-9 seaplane version for the Navy, designed as a trainer. They were some of the most famous products of the Curtiss company, and thousands were sold to the militaries of the United States, Canada, and Britain. Civilian and military aircraft demand boomed, and the company grew to employ 18,000 workers in Buffalo and 3,000 workers in Hammondsport.

In 1917, the U.S. Navy commissioned Curtiss to design a long-range, four-engined flying boat large enough to hold a crew of five, which became known as the Curtiss NC. Three of the four NC flying boats built attempted a transatlantic crossing in 1919. Thus NC-4 became the first aircraft to be flown across the Atlantic Ocean, (a feat quickly overshadowed by the first non-stop Atlantic crossing by Alcock and Brown,) while NC-1 and NC-3 were unable to continue past the Azores. NC-4 is now on permanent display in the National Museum of Naval Aviation in Pensacola, Florida.

Post-World War I
Peace brought cancellation of wartime contracts. In September 1920, the Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor Company underwent a financial reorganization. Glenn Curtiss cashed out his stock in the company for $32 million and retired to Florida. He continued on as a director of the company, but served only as an adviser on design. Clement M. Keys gained control of the company, which later became the nucleus of a large group of aviation companies.

Later years
Curtiss and his family moved to Florida in the 1920s, where he founded 18 corporations, served on civic commissions, and donated extensive land and water rights. He co-developed the city of Hialeah with James Bright and developed the cities of Opa-locka and Miami Springs, where he built a family home, known variously as the Miami Springs Villas House, Dar-Err-Aha, MSTR No. 2, or Glenn Curtiss House. The Glenn Curtiss House, after years of disrepair and frequent vandalism, is being refurbished to serve as a museum in his honor.

His frequent hunting trips into the Florida Everglades led to a final invention, the Adams Motor "Bungalo", a forerunner of the modern recreational vehicle trailer (named after his business partner and half-brother, G. Carl Adams). Curtiss later developed this into a larger, more elaborate fifth-wheel vehicle, which he manufactured and sold under the name Aerocar. Shortly before his death, he designed a tailless aircraft with a V-shaped wing and tricycle landing gear that he hoped could be sold in the price range of a family car.

The Wright Aeronautical Corporation, a successor to the original Wright Company, ultimately merged with the Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor Company on July 5, 1929, forming the Curtiss-Wright company, shortly before Curtiss's death.

Controversies
Curtiss, working with the head of the Smithsonian Institution Charles Walcott, sought to discredit the Wrights and rehabilitate the reputation of Samuel Langley, a former head of the Smithsonian, who failed in his attempt at powered flight. Secretly, Curtiss extensively modified Langley's 1903 aerodrome (aircraft) then demonstrated in 1914 that it could fly. In turn, the Smithsonian endorsed the false statement that "Professor Samuel P. Langley had actually designed and built the first man-carrying flying machine capable of sustained flight." Walcott ordered the plane modified by Curtiss to be returned to its original 1903 condition before going on display at the Smithsonian to cover up the deception. In 1928 the Smithsonian Board of Regents reversed its position and acknowledged that the Wright Brothers deserved the credit for the first flight.

Death
Traveling to Rochester to contest a lawsuit brought by former business partner August Herring, Curtiss suffered an attack of appendicitis in court. He died on July 23, 1930, in Buffalo, New York, of complications from an appendectomy. His funeral service was held at St. James Episcopal Church in his home town, Hammondsport, with interment in the family plot at Pleasant Valley Cemetery in Hammondsport.

Awards and honors
By an act of Congress on March 1, 1933, Curtiss was posthumously awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross, which now resides in the Smithsonian Institution. Curtiss was inducted into the National Aviation Hall of Fame in 1964, the International Aerospace Hall of Fame in 1965, the Motorsports Hall of Fame of America in 1990, the Motorcycle Hall of Fame in 1998, and the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 2003. The Smithsonian's National Air and Space Museum has a collection of Curtiss's original documents as well as a collection of airplanes, motorcycles and motors. LaGuardia Airport was originally called Glenn H. Curtiss Airport when it began operation in 1929.

Other Curtiss honors include: Naval Aviation Hall of Honor; OX-5 Aviation Pioneers Hall of Fame; Empire State Aviation Hall of Fame; Niagara Frontier Aviation and Space Hall of Fame; International Air & Space Hall of Fame; Long Island Air & Space Hall of Fame; Great Floridians 2000; Steuben County (NY) Hall of Fame; Hammondsport School Lifetime Achievements Wall of Fame; Florida Aviation Hall of Fame; Smithsonian Institution Langley Medal; Top 100 Stars of Aerospace and Aviation; Doctor of Science (honoris causa), University of Miami.

The Glenn H. Curtiss Museum in Hammondsport is dedicated to Curtiss' life and work. Curtiss' famed airplane appeared on a 1918 issue U. S. airmail stamp. along with fifteen other US airmail stamps, (including the first air mail stamps), and on the stamps of at least 17 other countries. Curtiss himself appeared on the cover of Time in 1924.

There is a Curtiss Avenue in Hammondsport, NY, along with the Glenn Curtiss Elementary School. Carson, CA has Glenn Hammond Curtiss Middle School and Glenn Curtiss Street. Glenn H. Curtiss Road is in San Diego, CA, and Glenn Curtiss Boulevard in East Meadow/Uniondale, NY (Long Island). Glenn Curtiss Drive is in Addison, TX, and Curtiss Parkway in Miami Springs, FL. Buffalo, NY has a Curtiss Park and a Curtis Parkway (named for Glenn despite the incorrect spelling). The Curtiss E-Library in Hialeah, FL was originally the Lua A. Curtiss Branch Library, named for Glenn's mother.

Timeline

 * 1878 Birth in Hammondsport, New York
 * 1898 Marriage
 * 1900 Manufactures Hercules bicycles
 * 1901 Motorcycle designer and racer
 * 1903 American motorcycle champion
 * 1903 Unofficial one-mile motorcycle land speed record 64 mph on Hercules V8 at Yonkers, New York
 * 1904 Thomas Scott Baldwin mounts Curtiss motorcycle engine on a hydrogen-filled dirigible
 * 1904 Set 10-mile world speed record
 * 1904 Invented handlebar throttle control; also credited to the 1867–1869 Roper steam velocipede
 * 1905 Created G.H. Curtiss Manufacturing Company, Inc.
 * 1906 Curtiss writes the Wright brothers offering them an aeronautical motor
 * 1907 Curtiss joins Alexander Graham Bell in experimenting in aircraft
 * 1907 Set world motorcycle land speed record of 77.6 mi/h
 * 1907 Set world motorcycle land speed record at 136.36 mi/h in his V8 motorcycle in Ormond Beach, Florida
 * 1908 First Army dirigible flight with Curtiss as flight engineer
 * 1908 One of several claimants for the first flight of a powered aircraft controlled by ailerons (manned glider flights with ailerons having been accomplished in 1904, unmanned flights even earlier)
 * 1908 Lead designer and pilot of "June Bug" on July 4
 * 1909 Sale of Curtiss's "Golden Flyer" to the New York Aeronautic Society for US$5,000.00, marks the first sale of any aircraft in the U.S., triggers Wright Brothers lawsuits.
 * 1909 Won first international air speed record with 46.5 mi/h in Rheims, France
 * 1909 First U.S. licensed aircraft manufacturer.
 * 1909 Established first flying school in United States and exhibition company
 * 1910 Long distance flying record of 150 mi from Albany, New York to New York City
 * 1910 First simulated bombing runs from an aircraft at Keuka Lake
 * 1910 First firearm use from aircraft, piloted by Curtiss
 * 1910 First radio communication with aircraft in flight in a Curtiss biplane
 * 1910 Curtiss moved to California and set up a shop and flight school at the Los Angeles Motordrome, using the facility for sea plane experiments
 * 1910 Trained Blanche Stuart Scott, the first American female pilot
 * 1910 First successful takeoff from a United States Navy ship (Eugene Burton Ely, using Curtiss Plane)
 * 1911 First landing on a ship (Eugene Burton Ely, using Curtiss Plane) (2 Months later)
 * 1911 The Curtiss School of Aviation, established at Rockwell Field in February
 * 1911 Pilot license #1 issued for his June Bug flight
 * 1911 Ailerons patented
 * 1911 Developed first successful pontoon aircraft in US
 * 1911 Hydroplane A-1 Triad purchased by US. Navy (US Navy's first aircraft)
 * 1911 Developed first retractable landing gear on his hydroaeroplane
 * 1911 His first aircraft sold to U.S. Army on April 27
 * 1911 Created first military flying school
 * 1912 Developed and flew the first flying boat on Lake Keuka
 * 1912 First ship catapult launching on October 12 (Lt. Ellyson)
 * 1912 Created the first flying school in Florida at Miami Beach
 * 1914 Curtiss made a few short flights in the Langley Aerodrome, as part of an unsuccessful attempt to bypass the Wright Brothers' patent on aircraft
 * 1915 Start production run of "Jennys" and many other models including flying boats
 * 1915 Curtiss started the Atlantic Coast Aeronautical Station on a 20-acre tract east of Newport News (VA) Boat Harbor in the Fall of 1915 with Captain Thomas Scott Baldwin as head.
 * 1917 Opens "Experimental Airplane Factory" in Garden City, Long Island
 * 1919 Curtiss NC-4 flying boat crosses the Atlantic
 * 1919 Commenced private aircraft production with the Oriole
 * 1921 Developed Hialeah, Florida, including Hialeah Park Race Track
 * 1921 Donated his World War I training field to the Navy
 * 1922 Opened Hialeah Park Race Track with his business partner James H. Bright
 * 1923 Developed Miami Springs, Florida and created a flying school and airport
 * 1923 (circa) Created first airboats
 * 1925 Built his Miami Springs mansion
 * 1926 Developed Opa-locka, Florida and airport facility
 * 1928 Created the Curtiss Aerocar Company in Opa-locka, Florida.
 * 1928 Curtiss towed an Aerocar from Miami to New York City in 39 hours
 * 1930 Death in Buffalo, New York
 * 1930 Buried in Pleasant Valley Cemetery in Hammondsport, New York
 * 1964 Inducted in the National Aviation Hall of Fame
 * 1990 Inducted in the Motorsports Hall of Fame of America in the air-racing category

title: Glenn Curtiss


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Elizabeth Ford

Elisabeth Ford may refer to:

 * Betty Ford, first lady of the United States from 1974 to 1977, as the wife of President Gerald Ford
 * Elizabeth Johnson (actress) (1771 —1830), English actress who performed under her maiden name Elizabeth Ford before her marriage

title: Elizabeth Ford


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Socrates Sculpture Park

Socrates Sculpture Park is an outdoor museum and public park where artists can create and exhibit sculptures and multi-media installations. It is located one block from the Noguchi Museum at the intersection of Broadway and Vernon Boulevard in the neighborhood of Astoria, Queens, New York City. In addition to exhibition space, the park offers an arts education program, artist residency program, and job training.

History and description
Socrates Sculpture Park is located atop the mouth of the buried Sunswick Creek. In 1986, American sculptor Mark di Suvero created Socrates Sculpture Park on an abandoned landfill and illegal dumpsite in Long Island City. The 4 acre site is the largest outdoor space in New York City dedicated to exhibiting sculpture. The former landfill was renovated into the current park by a team of contemporary artists and local youths. The park operated for 14 years with only a temporary city park status. In 1998, the park was given official status by then New York City mayor Rudolph Giuliani as a permanent city park after a developer attempted to erect luxury apartments and a marina on the site after the park's lease had expired.

In 2005, the park was among 406 New York City arts and social service institutions to receive part of a $20 million grant from the Carnegie Corporation, which was made possible through a donation by New York City mayor Michael Bloomberg.

At the Socrates Sculpture Park's main entrance hangs a 10 by billboard structure that has been an ongoing installation since 1999. The original billboard was a mirror image of the street created by artist Mathieu Borysevicz built by ongoing volunteer Ross H. Radtke, a mechanical engineer and neighbour.

New billboards are installed once or twice per year. Artists work with printmaking and photography to create an image that greets visitors as they enter the park and sets the tone for the current show. The billboards are in conjunction with each spring exhibition. The park has numerous workshops and public programming. Many artists lead tour programs of current exhibitions, there are summer art projects, and various free public events, such as yoga and capoeira on Saturdays and outdoor movie screenings on Wednesdays that begin in mid-July and end in mid-August. GrowNYC runs an Astoria Farmer's Market in the park every Saturday during the summer months.

In January 2019, the Park announced its plan to construct and install permanent staff offices made out of shipping containers. This would be the park's first permanent on-site structure.

Artists who have exhibited at Socrates Sculpture Park
Socrates Sculpture Park offers emerging and established artists an opportunity to make a temporary or permanent public sculpture in a New York City park. In 2018, Virginia Overton became the first female artist to have a solo exhibition at the Socrates Sculpture Park. Other artists who have shown work at Socrates Sculpture Park include:
 * Vito Acconci 1986
 * Maren Hassinger 1988, 2022
 * Merle Temkin 1991
 * Sanford Biggers 2001
 * Agnes Denes 2015
 * Virginia Overton 2018
 * Guadalupe Maravilla 2021
 * Mary Mattingly 2023

Governance
The current executive director of the park is John Hatfield, former deputy director of the New Museum of Contemporary Art. Some former executive directors of the park include Alyson Baker (2000–2011), Kathleen Gilrain (1995–2000), and Eve Sussman (1993- ).

Board of directors

 * Mark di Suvero, chair emeritus
 * Stuart Match Suna, president
 * Robert F. Goldrich, vice president
 * Ivana Mestrovic, secretary and treasurer
 * Joel Shapiro
 * Maxine Frankel
 * Richard Gluckman, FAIA
 * Hugh Hardy, FAIA
 * Brooke Kamin Rapaport
 * Ursula von Rydingsvard
 * Deidrea Miller
 * Shaun Leonardo Shaun Leonardo
 * Alison Saar
 * Kimberly Strong
 * Martin Silver, Ex Officio

title: Socrates Sculpture Park


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Airfoil

An airfoil (American English) or aerofoil (British English) is a streamlined body that is capable of generating significantly more lift than drag. Wings, sails and propeller blades are examples of airfoils. Foils of similar function designed with water as the working fluid are called hydrofoils.

When oriented at a suitable angle, a solid body moving through a fluid deflects the oncoming fluid (for fixed-wing aircraft, a downward force), resulting in a force on the airfoil in the direction opposite to the deflection. This force is known as aerodynamic force and can be resolved into two components: lift (perpendicular to the remote freestream velocity) and drag (parallel to the freestream velocity).

The lift on an airfoil is primarily the result of its angle of attack. Most foil shapes require a positive angle of attack to generate lift, but cambered airfoils can generate lift at zero angle of attack. Airfoils can be designed for use at different speeds by modifying their geometry: those for subsonic flight generally have a rounded leading edge, while those designed for supersonic flight tend to be slimmer with a sharp leading edge. All have a sharp trailing edge.

The air deflected by an airfoil causes it to generate a lower-pressure "shadow" above and behind itself. This pressure difference is accompanied by a velocity difference, via Bernoulli's principle, so the resulting flowfield about the airfoil has a higher average velocity on the upper surface than on the lower surface. In some situations (e.g. inviscid potential flow) the lift force can be related directly to the average top/bottom velocity difference without computing the pressure by using the concept of circulation and the Kutta–Joukowski theorem.

Overview

The wings and stabilizers of fixed-wing aircraft, as well as helicopter rotor blades, are built with airfoil-shaped cross sections. Airfoils are also found in propellers, fans, compressors and turbines. Sails are also airfoils, and the underwater surfaces of sailboats, such as the centerboard, rudder, and keel, are similar in cross-section and operate on the same principles as airfoils. Swimming and flying creatures and even many plants and sessile organisms employ airfoils/hydrofoils: common examples being bird wings, the bodies of fish, and the shape of sand dollars. An airfoil-shaped wing can create downforce on an automobile or other motor vehicle, improving traction.

When the wind is obstructed by an object such as a flat plate, a building, or the deck of a bridge, the object will experience drag and also an aerodynamic force perpendicular to the wind. This does not mean the object qualifies as an airfoil. Airfoils are highly-efficient lifting shapes, able to generate more lift than similarly sized flat plates of the same area, and able to generate lift with significantly less drag. Airfoils are used in the design of aircraft, propellers, rotor blades, wind turbines and other applications of aeronautical engineering.

A lift and drag curve obtained in wind tunnel testing is shown on the right. The curve represents an airfoil with a positive camber so some lift is produced at zero angle of attack. With increased angle of attack, lift increases in a roughly linear relation, called the slope of the lift curve. At about 18 degrees this airfoil stalls, and lift falls off quickly beyond that. The drop in lift can be explained by the action of the upper-surface boundary layer, which separates and greatly thickens over the upper surface at and past the stall angle. The thickened boundary layer's displacement thickness changes the airfoil's effective shape, in particular it reduces its effective camber, which modifies the overall flow field so as to reduce the circulation and the lift. The thicker boundary layer also causes a large increase in pressure drag, so that the overall drag increases sharply near and past the stall point.

Airfoil design is a major facet of aerodynamics. Various airfoils serve different flight regimes. Asymmetric airfoils can generate lift at zero angle of attack, while a symmetric airfoil may better suit frequent inverted flight as in an aerobatic airplane. In the region of the ailerons and near a wingtip a symmetric airfoil can be used to increase the range of angles of attack to avoid spin–stall. Thus a large range of angles can be used without boundary layer separation. Subsonic airfoils have a round leading edge, which is naturally insensitive to the angle of attack. The cross section is not strictly circular, however: the radius of curvature is increased before the wing achieves maximum thickness to minimize the chance of boundary layer separation. This elongates the wing and moves the point of maximum thickness back from the leading edge.

Supersonic airfoils are much more angular in shape and can have a very sharp leading edge, which is very sensitive to angle of attack. A supercritical airfoil has its maximum thickness close to the leading edge to have a lot of length to slowly shock the supersonic flow back to subsonic speeds. Generally such transonic airfoils and also the supersonic airfoils have a low camber to reduce drag divergence. Modern aircraft wings may have different airfoil sections along the wing span, each one optimized for the conditions in each section of the wing.

Movable high-lift devices, flaps and sometimes slats, are fitted to airfoils on almost every aircraft. A trailing edge flap acts similarly to an aileron; however, it, as opposed to an aileron, can be retracted partially into the wing if not used.

A laminar flow wing has a maximum thickness in the middle camber line. Analyzing the Navier–Stokes equations in the linear regime shows that a negative pressure gradient along the flow has the same effect as reducing the speed. So with the maximum camber in the middle, maintaining a laminar flow over a larger percentage of the wing at a higher cruising speed is possible. However, some surface contamination will disrupt the laminar flow, making it turbulent. For example, with rain on the wing, the flow will be turbulent. Under certain conditions, insect debris on the wing will cause the loss of small regions of laminar flow as well. Before NASA's research in the 1970s and 1980s the aircraft design community understood from application attempts in the WW II era that laminar flow wing designs were not practical using common manufacturing tolerances and surface imperfections. That belief changed after new manufacturing methods were developed with composite materials (e.g. laminar-flow airfoils developed by Professor Franz Wortmann for use with wings made of fibre-reinforced plastic). Machined metal methods were also introduced. NASA's research in the 1980s revealed the practicality and usefulness of laminar flow wing designs and opened the way for laminar-flow applications on modern practical aircraft surfaces, from subsonic general aviation aircraft to transonic large transport aircraft, to supersonic designs.

Schemes have been devised to define airfoils – an example is the NACA system. Various airfoil generation systems are also used. An example of a general purpose airfoil that finds wide application, and pre–dates the NACA system, is the Clark-Y. Today, airfoils can be designed for specific functions by the use of computer programs.

Airfoil terminology

The various terms related to airfoils are defined below:

 * The suction surface (a.k.a. upper surface) is generally associated with higher velocity and lower static pressure.
 * The pressure surface (a.k.a. lower surface) has a comparatively higher static pressure than the suction surface. The pressure gradient between these two surfaces contributes to the lift force generated for a given airfoil.

The geometry of the airfoil is described with a variety of terms :

 * The leading edge is the point at the front of the airfoil that has maximum curvature (minimum radius).
 * The trailing edge is the point on the airfoil most remote from the leading edge. The angle between the upper and lower surfaces at the trailing edge is the trailing edge angle.
 * The chord line is the straight line connecting leading and trailing edges. The chord length, or simply chord, $$c$$, is the length of the chord line. That is the reference dimension of the airfoil section.

The shape of the airfoil is defined using the following geometrical parameters:
 * The mean camber line or mean line is the locus of points midway between the upper and lower surfaces. Its shape depends on the thickness distribution along the chord;
 * The thickness of an airfoil varies along the chord. It may be measured in either of two ways:
 * Thickness measured perpendicular to the camber line. This is sometimes described as the "American convention";
 * Thickness measured perpendicular to the chord line. This is sometimes described as the "British convention".

Some important parameters to describe an airfoil's shape are its camber and its thickness. For example, an airfoil of the NACA 4-digit series such as the NACA 2415 (to be read as 2 – 4 – 15) describes an airfoil with a camber of 0.02 chord located at 0.40 chord, with 0.15 chord of maximum thickness.

Finally, important concepts used to describe the airfoil's behaviour when moving through a fluid are:
 * The aerodynamic center, which is the chord-wise location about which the pitching moment is independent of the lift coefficient and the angle of attack.
 * The center of pressure, which is the chord-wise location about which the pitching moment is momentarily zero. On a cambered airfoil, the center of pressure is not a fixed location as it moves in response to changes in angle of attack and lift coefficient.

In two-dimensional flow around a uniform wing of infinite span, the slope of the lift curve is determined primarily by the trailing edge angle. The slope is greatest if the angle is zero; and decreases as the angle increases. For a wing of finite span, the aspect ratio of the wing also significantly influences the slope of the curve. As aspect ratio decreases, the slope also decreases.

Thin airfoil theory
Thin airfoil theory is a simple theory of airfoils that relates angle of attack to lift for incompressible, inviscid flows. It was devised by German mathematician Max Munk and further refined by British aerodynamicist Hermann Glauert and others in the 1920s. The theory idealizes the flow around an airfoil as two-dimensional flow around a thin airfoil. It can be imagined as addressing an airfoil of zero thickness and infinite wingspan.

Thin airfoil theory was particularly notable in its day because it provided a sound theoretical basis for the following important properties of airfoils in two-dimensional inviscid flow:
 * 1) on a symmetric airfoil, the center of pressure and aerodynamic center are coincident and lie exactly one quarter of the chord behind the leading edge.
 * 2) on a cambered airfoil, the aerodynamic center lies exactly one quarter of the chord behind the leading edge, but the position of the center of pressure moves when the angle of attack changes.
 * 3) the slope of the lift coefficient versus angle of attack line is $$2 \pi\!$$ units per radian.

As a consequence of (3), the section lift coefficient of a thin symmetric airfoil of infinite wingspan is:
 * $$ \ c_l = 2\pi \alpha$$
 * where $$c_l\!$$ is the section lift coefficient,
 * $$\alpha\!$$ is the angle of attack in radians, measured relative to the chord line.

(The above expression is also applicable to a cambered airfoil where $$\alpha\!$$ is the angle of attack measured relative to the zero-lift line instead of the chord line.)

Also as a consequence of (3), the section lift coefficient of a cambered airfoil of infinite wingspan is:
 * $$ \ c_l = c_{l_0} + 2\pi\alpha$$
 * where $$ \ c_{l_0}$$ is the section lift coefficient when the angle of attack is zero.

Thin airfoil theory assumes the air is an inviscid fluid so does not account for the stall of the airfoil, which usually occurs at an angle of attack between 10° and 15° for typical airfoils. In the mid-late 2000s, however, a theory predicting the onset of leading-edge stall was proposed by Wallace J. Morris II in his doctoral thesis. Morris's subsequent refinements contain the details on the current state of theoretical knowledge on the leading-edge stall phenomenon. Morris's theory predicts the critical angle of attack for leading-edge stall onset as the condition at which a global separation zone is predicted in the solution for the inner flow. Morris's theory demonstrates that a subsonic flow about a thin airfoil can be described in terms of an outer region, around most of the airfoil chord, and an inner region, around the nose, that asymptotically match each other. As the flow in the outer region is dominated by classical thin airfoil theory, Morris's equations exhibit many components of thin airfoil theory.

Derivation

 * Laminar flow airfoil for a RC park flyer
 * Laminar flow airfoil for a RC pylon racer
 * Laminar flow airfoil for a crewed propeller aircraft
 * Laminar flow at a jet airliner airfoil
 * Stable airfoil used for flying wings
 * Aft loaded airfoil allowing for a large main spar and late stall
 * Transonic supercritical airfoil
 * Supersonic leading edge airfoil

In thin airfoil theory, the width of the (2D) airfoil is assumed negligible, and the airfoil itself replaced with a 1D blade along its camber line, oriented at the angle of attack $α$. Let the position along the blade be $x$, ranging from $0$ at the wing's front to $c$ at the trailing edge; the camber of the airfoil, $dy/dx$, is assumed sufficiently small that one need not distinguish between $x$ and position relative to the fuselage.

The flow across the airfoil generates a circulation around the blade, which can be modeled as a vortex sheet of position-varying strength $ds ≈ dx$. The Kutta condition implies that $γ(x)$, but the strength is singular at the bladefront, with $γ(c)=0$ for $γ(x)∝1/√x$. If the main flow $V$ has density $x ≈ 0$, then the Kutta–Joukowski theorem gives that the total lift force $F$ is proportional to $$\rho V \int_{0}^{c} \gamma (x) \, dx$$and its moment $M$ about the leading edge proportional to $$\rho V \int_{0}^{c} x \; \gamma (x) \, dx.$$

From the Biot–Savart law, the vorticity $ρ$ produces a flow field $$w(x) = \frac{1}{2\pi} \int_{0}^{c} \frac{\gamma (x')}{x-x'}\, dx'\text{,}$$ oriented normal to the airfoil at $x$. Since the airfoil is an impermeable surface, the flow $$w(x)$$ must balance an inverse flow from $V$. By the small-angle approximation, $V$ is inclined at angle $γ(x)$ relative to the blade at position $x$, and the normal component is correspondingly $α-dy/dx$. Thus, $(α-dy/dx)V$ must satisfy the convolution equation $$\left(\alpha - \frac{dy}{dx}\right)V = -w(x) = -\frac{1}{2 \pi} \int_{0}^{c} \frac {\gamma(x')}{x-x'} \,dx'\text{,}$$ which uniquely determines it in terms of known quantities.

An explicit solution can be obtained through first the change of variables$$x = c \cdot \frac{1 + \cos(\theta)}{2},$$and then expanding both $γ(x)$ and $dy/dx$ as a nondimensionalized Fourier series in $γ(x)$ with a modified lead term:$$\begin{align} &\frac{dy}{dx}=A_0+A_1\cos(\theta)+A_2\cos(2\theta)+\dots \\ &\gamma(x)=2(\alpha+A_0)\left(\frac{\sin\theta}{1+\cos\theta}\right)+2A_1\sin(\theta)+2A_2\sin(2\theta)+\dots\text{.} \end{align}$$ The resulting lift and moment depend on only the first few terms of this series.

The lift coefficient satisfies $$C_L = 2\pi\left(\alpha+A_0+\frac{A_1}{2}\right)=2\pi\alpha+2\int_0^\pi{\frac{dy}{dx}\cdot(1+\cos\theta)\,d\theta}$$ and the moment coefficient $$C_M = -\frac{\pi}{2}\left(\alpha+A_0+A_1-\frac{A_2}{2}\right)=-\frac{\pi}{2}\alpha-\int_0^\pi{\frac{dy}{dx}\cdot\cos(\theta)(1+\cos\theta)\,d\theta}\text{.}$$  The moment about the 1/4 chord point will thus be $$C_M(1/4c) = - \pi /4 (A_1 - A_2)\text{.}$$  From this it follows that the center of pressure is aft of the 'quarter-chord' point $θ$, by $$\Delta x /c = \pi /4 ((A_1-A_2)/C_L)\text{.}$$  The aerodynamic center is the position at which the pitching moment $0.25c$ does not vary with a change in lift coefficient: $$\frac{ \partial (C_{M'}) }{ \partial (C_L)} = 0\text{.}$$ Thin-airfoil theory shows that, in two-dimensional inviscid flow, the aerodynamic center is at the quarter-chord position.

title: Airfoil