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Earl of Warwick

Earl of Warwick is one of the most prestigious titles in the peerages of the United Kingdom. The title has been created four times in English history, and the name refers to Warwick Castle and the town of Warwick.

Overview
The first creation came in 1088, and the title was held by the Beaumont and later by the Beauchamp families. The 14th earl was created Duke of Warwick in 1445, a title which became extinct on his early death the following year. The best-known earl of this creation was the 16th earl jure uxoris, Richard Neville, who was involved in the deposition of two kings, a fact which later earned him the epithet of "Warwick the Kingmaker". This creation became extinct on the death of the 17th earl in 1499.

The title was revived in 1547 for the powerful statesman John Dudley, 1st Viscount Lisle, who was later made Duke of Northumberland. The earldom was passed on during his lifetime to his eldest son, John, but both father and son were attainted in 1554. The title was recreated or restored in 1561 in favour of Ambrose Dudley, younger son of the Duke of Northumberland. However, Ambrose was childless and the earldom became extinct on his death in 1590.

It was created for a third time in 1618 for Robert Rich, 3rd Baron Rich, in spite of the fact that the Rich family was not in possession of Warwick Castle. From 1673, the earls also held the title of Earl of Holland. All of the titles became extinct on the death of the 8th earl in 1759.

The earldom was revived the same year in favour of Francis Greville, 1st Earl Brooke. The Greville family was in possession of Warwick Castle, and the title and castle were thereby re-united for the first time in over a century. The 1759 creation is extant and currently held by Guy Greville, 9th Earl of Warwick. However, Warwick Castle was sold by the family in 1978, and they currently live in Australia.

1088 creation
The medieval earldom created in 1088 was held to be heritable via a female line of descent, and thus was held by members of several different families. It was traditionally associated in its feudal form with possession of Warwick Castle. The ancient heraldic device of the Earls of Warwick, the Bear and Ragged Staff, is believed to derive from two legendary Earls, Arthal and Morvidus. Arthal is thought to mean "bear", while Morvidus was to have slain a giant "with a young ash tree torn up by the roots." Alternatively the emblem of a bear (Latin ursus) is believed to refer to Urse d'Abetot (c. 1040 – 1108), 1st feudal baron of Salwarpe in Worcestershire, a Norman who followed King William the Conqueror to England, and served as Sheriff of Worcestershire. His heir was his son-in-law Walter de Beauchamp (died 1130/3), whose descendant was William de Beauchamp, 9th Earl of Warwick (c. 1238–1298).

The first Earl of Warwick was Henry de Beaumont (d.1119), second son of Roger de Beaumont (d. circa 1094) by his wife Adeline de Meulan (c. 1014/20–1081), daughter and heiress of Waleran III, Count of Meulan. Henry's elder brother was Robert de Beaumont, 1st Earl of Leicester, Count of Meulan, who fought at the Battle of Hastings with William the Conqueror. The family name of "Beaumont" was Latinised to de Bello Monte ("from the beautiful mountain"); the Warwick branch of the family was also known as de Newburgh, Latinised to de Novo Burgo ("from the new borough/town"). Henry changed his name to "de Newburgh", after the Castle de Neubourg, his home in Normandy, an ancient Beaumont possession. Henry became Constable of Warwick Castle in 1068 and Earl of Warwick in 1088 as reward for his support for the king during the Rebellion of 1088.

The title passed through several generations of the Beaumont family until 1242 when Thomas de Beaumont, 6th Earl of Warwick died without male issue. The earldom then went to his sister, Margaret de Beaumont, 7th Countess of Warwick and her successive husbands jure uxoris, and on her death to her cousin William Mauduit, 8th Earl of Warwick. When he died also without a male heir, the title passed to his sister, Isabel de Mauduit, and her husband Lord William de Beauchamp (d.1268), and thence to her son William de Beauchamp, 9th Earl of Warwick. During this period the Earldom and the Beauchamps were elevated to the highest levels until Henry de Beauchamp, 1st Duke of Warwick, 14th Earl of Warwick, was created Duke of Warwick with precedence over all except the Duke of Norfolk.

This precedence was disputed however and with Henry's death in 1445, also without male issue, the dukedom was extinguished. The earldom went to his infant daughter, and on her death aged 5 a few years later passed to Henry's sister Anne de Beauchamp, 16th Countess of Warwick and her husband Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, who "succeeded in right of his wife" but was subsequently "confirmed" in that title on 23 July 1449 which confirmation he thereafter resigned and was definitively created Earl of Warwick by letters patent dated 2 March 1450, with his wife being similarly created Countess of Warwick. He is known to history as "Warwick the Kingmaker" and died without male issue in 1471, aged 42, when the Earldom fell into abeyance between his two daughters. After Richard Neville's death the title was passed through his eldest daughter Isabel Neville to her husband George Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Clarence, brother of Kings Edward IV and Richard III, who on 25 March 1472 by letters patent was created Earl of Warwick (and Earl of Salisbury). Although he was so created, The Complete Peerage nevertheless terms him the 17th Earl of Warwick, which suggests perhaps that the creation was considered a mere formality and confirmation of his inheritance. He was attainted and executed in 1478 whereupon his titles became forfeited. His Earldom was forfeited and thus not able to be inherited by his son Edward Plantagenet, who did however manage to inherit it from his maternal grandmother Anne de Beauchamp (d.1492), wife of "Warwick the Kingmaker", who had been created Countess of Warwick by letters patent in 1450, at the same time her husband was created Earl of Warwick. He thus became Edward Plantagenet, 17th Earl of Warwick, but on his beheading for treason in 1499 the title became forfeited.

1547 creation
The title was next conferred upon the powerful statesman and soldier John Dudley, 1st Viscount Lisle. He had already been created Viscount Lisle in right of his deceased mother, Elizabeth Grey, in 1543, and was made Earl of Warwick in the Peerage of England in 1547. In 1551 he was further honoured when he was created Duke of Northumberland. In January 1553 Parliament passed the earldom to his eldest son John, the second Earl. He died young in 1554, and having been attainted along with his father in August 1553, the title became extinct until it was revived in 1561 for his younger brother Ambrose, the third Earl. He served as Master-General of the Ordnance and Lord Lieutenant of Warwickshire. On his death in 1590 the earldom became extinct.

1618 creation
The title was re-created when Robert Rich, 3rd Baron Rich, was made Earl of Warwick in 1618. This was despite the fact that the Rich family were not in possession of Warwick Castle (this was in the hands of the Greville family; see the 1759 creation below). His second son Henry Rich was created Baron Kensington in 1623 and Earl of Holland in 1624. Lord Warwick was succeeded by his eldest son, the second Earl. He represented Maldon in the House of Commons and served as Lord Lieutenant of Essex.

His eldest son, the third Earl, sat as Member of Parliament for Essex. He died without surviving male issue and was succeeded by his younger brother, the fourth Earl. He represented Sandwich and Essex in Parliament. On his death the line of the second Earl of Warwick failed and the titles were inherited by his first cousin Robert Rich, 2nd Earl Holland, who became the fifth Earl of Warwick as well. He was the son of the aforementioned Henry Rich, 1st Earl of Holland, younger son of the first Earl of Warwick (see the Earl of Holland for earlier history of this branch of the family). This line of the family failed on the early death of his grandson, the seventh Earl, in 1721. The late Earl was succeeded by his second cousin Edward Rich, the eighth Earl. He was the grandson of Cope Rich, younger son of the first Earl of Holland. On his death in 1759 all the titles became extinct.

Lady Mary Rich, daughter of the first Earl of Holland, married Sir John Campbell, 5th Baronet, who was created Earl of Breadalbane and Holland in 1681. Also, Lady Elizabeth Rich, only daughter and heiress of the fifth Earl of Warwick and second Earl of Holland, married Francis Edwardes. Their son William Edwardes succeeded to parts of the Rich estates and was created Baron Kensington in the Peerage of Ireland in 1776, a revival of the barony attached to the earldom of Holland.

Charles Rich, son of Sir Edward Rich, younger son of the second Baron Rich, was created a baronet in 1676 (see Rich baronets).

1759 creation
The title was again created in 1759 when Francis Greville, 8th Baron Brooke was made Earl of Warwick in the Peerage of Great Britain. In 1746 he had been created Earl Brooke, of Warwick Castle in the County of Warwick, in the Peerage of Great Britain. The earldom and Warwick Castle were thereby re-united for the first time in over a century. In 1767 the Earl petitioned the House of Lords for permission to use just the more prestigious title and style of "Earl of Warwick" only, with the precedence of 1746. Such permission was never granted but the Earls nevertheless ceased to use the Brooke earldom in style, and have always been known (except in the House of Lords) simply as the Earl of Warwick.

The first Earl was succeeded by his eldest son, the second Earl. He represented Warwick in Parliament and served as a Lord of Trade and as Lord Lieutenant of Warwickshire. His eldest son from his second marriage, the third Earl, sat as Member of Parliament for Warwick and held minor office in the second administration of Sir Robert Peel. He was also Lord Lieutenant of Warwickshire. He was succeeded by his son, the fourth Earl. He represented Warwickshire South in the House of Commons. His eldest son, the fifth Earl, was Conservative Member of Parliament for Somerset East and served as Lord Lieutenant of Essex. As of 2018, the titles are held by the latter's great-great-grandson, the ninth Earl, who succeeded his father in 1996.

Earl of Warwick, first creation (1088)

 * Henry de Beaumont, 1st Earl of Warwick (died 1119)
 * Roger de Beaumont, 2nd Earl of Warwick (c. 1102 – 1153), son, who married Gundred de Warenne, daughter of William de Warenne, 2nd Earl of Surrey, and Elizabeth de Vermandois.
 * William de Beaumont, 3rd Earl of Warwick (before 1140 – 1184), son,
 * Waleran de Beaumont, 4th Earl of Warwick (1153–1204), younger brother
 * Henry de Beaumont, 5th Earl of Warwick (c. 1192–1229), son
 * Thomas de Beaumont, 6th Earl of Warwick (1208–1242), son
 * Margaret de Beaumont, 7th Countess of Warwick (died 1253), sister
 * John Marshal, jure uxoris 7th Earl of Warwick (died 1242)
 * John du Plessis, jure uxoris 7th Earl of Warwick (died 1263)
 * William Mauduit, 8th Earl of Warwick (c. 1221 – 1268), grandson of Waleran, half-cousin of Margaret
 * William de Beauchamp, 9th Earl of Warwick (c. 1238 – 1298), great-grandson of Waleran, nephew of William (8th)
 * Guy de Beauchamp, 10th Earl of Warwick (c. 1272 – 1315), son of William (9th)
 * Thomas de Beauchamp, 11th Earl of Warwick (c. 1313 – 1369), son of Guy
 * Thomas de Beauchamp, 12th Earl of Warwick (1338–1401), son of Thomas (11th)
 * Richard de Beauchamp, 13th Earl of Warwick (1382–1439), son of Thomas (12th), the Earl of Warwick in Shakespeare's First Part of Henry the Sixth
 * Henry de Beauchamp, 14th Earl of Warwick (1425–1446), son of Richard (created Duke of Warwick in 1445)
 * Anne de Beauchamp, 15th Countess of Warwick (1444–1449), daughter of Henry (14th)
 * Anne Neville, 16th Countess of Warwick (1426–1492), daughter of Richard (13th)
 * Richard Neville, jure uxoris 16th Earl of Warwick (1428–1471) (Warwick the Kingmaker)
 * Edward Plantagenet, 17th Earl of Warwick (1475–1499), nephew of Anne (16th)

Duke of Warwick (1445–1446)

 * Henry de Beauchamp, 1st Duke of Warwick (1425–1446)

Earl of Warwick, second creation (1547)

 * John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland, 1st Earl of Warwick (1504–1553)
 * John Dudley, 2nd Earl of Warwick (c. 1527 – 1554)
 * Ambrose Dudley, 3rd Earl of Warwick (c. 1530 – 1590)

Earl of Warwick, third creation (1618)
Other title: Baron Rich (1547)
 * Robert Rich, 1st Earl of Warwick (1559–1619)
 * Robert Rich, 2nd Earl of Warwick (1587–1658)
 * Robert Rich, 3rd Earl of Warwick (1611–1659)
 * Charles Rich, 4th Earl of Warwick (1623–1673)
 * Robert Rich, 5th Earl of Warwick, 2nd Earl of Holland (1620–1675)
 * Henry Rich, Lord Kensington (1642–1659)
 * Edward Rich, 6th Earl of Warwick, 3rd Earl of Holland (1673–1701)
 * Edward Henry Rich, 7th Earl of Warwick, 4th Earl of Holland (1698–1721)
 * Edward Rich, 8th Earl of Warwick, 5th Earl of Holland (1695–1759)

Earl of Warwick, fourth creation (1759), also Earl Brooke (1746)
Other title: Baron Brooke (1621)
 * Francis Greville, 1st Earl of Warwick, 1st Earl Brooke (1719–1773)
 * George Greville, 2nd Earl of Warwick, 2nd Earl Brooke (1746–1816)
 * George Greville, Lord Brooke (1772–1786)
 * Henry Richard Greville, 3rd Earl of Warwick, 3rd Earl Brooke (1779–1853)
 * George Guy Greville, 4th Earl of Warwick, 4th Earl Brooke (1818–1893)
 * Francis Richard Charles Greville, 5th Earl of Warwick, 5th Earl Brooke (1853–1924)
 * Leopold Guy Francis Maynard Greville, 6th Earl of Warwick, 6th Earl Brooke (1882–1928)
 * Charles Guy Fulke Greville, 7th Earl of Warwick, 7th Earl Brooke (1911–1984)
 * David Robin Francis Guy Greville, 8th Earl of Warwick, 8th Earl Brooke (1934–1996)
 * Guy David Greville, 9th Earl of Warwick, 9th Earl Brooke (born 1957)

Present peer
Guy David Greville, 9th Earl of Warwick (born 30 June 1957) is the son of the 8th Earl and his wife Sarah Anne Chester Beatty. He was educated at Eton College and the École des Roches in France and was styled as Lord Brooke between 1984 and 1996.

He made a career in mining and property in Australia, where he was a founding shareholder in Windimurra Vanadium, serving as a director of the company from 1991 to 2009. He was also chairman of Central Asia Resources from 2008 to 2013.

On 20 January 1996 he succeeded his father as Earl of Warwick (G.B., 1759), Earl Brooke of Warwick Castle (G.B., 1746), and Baron Brooke of Beauchamps Court (E., 1621).

In 1981 he married firstly Susan McKinley Cobbold, daughter of George William McKinley Wilson, of Melbourne, Australia, formerly married to Nicholas Sydney Cobbold. They were divorced in 1992. With his first wife he has one son:

 * Charles Fulke Chester Greville, Lord Brooke (born 1982), the heir apparent

On 2 October 1996, Warwick married secondly Louisa Heenan, daughter of Dr Peter Heenan, of Perth, Western Australia, with whom he has a son:

 * Hon. Rudolf Maxwell Greville (born 2003).

In 2008, Warwick was living in Claremont, a suburb of Perth, Western Australia.

Other uses

 * Earl of Warwick was one of the GWR 3031 Class locomotives that were built for and run on the Great Western Railway between 1891 and 1915.
 * The Guy Earl of Warwick is a public house in Welling, Dartford.
 * "Riccardo, Earl of Warwick and governor of Boston" is a fictional character and lead role for tenor in the traditional setting of Giuseppe Verdi's opera, Un ballo in maschera.

title: Earl of Warwick


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Walloon language

Walloon (natively walon; wallon) is a Romance language that is spoken in much of Wallonia and, to a very small extent, in Brussels, Belgium; some villages near Givet, northern France; and a clutch of communities in northeastern Wisconsin, United States.

It belongs to the langues d'oïl language family, the most prominent member of which is French. The historical background of its formation was the territorial extension since 980 of the Principality of Liège to the south and west. Walloon is classified as "definitely endangered" by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger.

Despite its rich literature, beginning anonymously in the 16th century and with well-known authors since 1756, the use of Walloon has decreased markedly since France's annexation of Wallonia in 1794. This period definitively established French as the language of social promotion, far more than it was before. After World War I, public schools provided French-speaking education to all children, inducing a denigration of Walloon, especially when accompanied by official orders in 1952 to punish its use in schools. Subsequently, since the middle of the 20th century, generational transmission of the language has decreased, resulting in Walloon almost becoming a dead language. Today it is scarcely spoken among younger people, with the vast majority of its native speakers being the elderly (aged 65 and over). In 2007, the number of people with knowledge of the language was estimated at 600,000.

Numerous associations, especially theatre companies, are working to keep the language alive. Formally recognized as a langue régionale endogène (regional indigenous language) of Belgium since 1990, Walloon has also benefited from a continued corpus planning process. The "Feller system" (1900) regularized transcription of the different accents. Since the 1990s, a common orthography was established (the Rifondou walon), which allowed large-scale publications, such as the Walloon Wikipedia officially in 2003. In 2004, a Walloon translation of a Tintin comic was released under the name L'èmerôde d'al Castafiore; in 2007 an album consisting of Gaston Lagaffe comic strips was published in Walloon.

Walloon is more distinct as a language than Belgian French, which differs from the French spoken in France only in some minor points of vocabulary and pronunciation.

Disputed nature of Walloon
Linguists had long classified Walloon as a dialect of French, which in turn is a langue d'oïl. Like French, it descended from Vulgar Latin. Arguing that a French-speaking person could not understand Walloon easily, especially in its eastern forms, Jules Feller (1859–1940) insisted that Walloon had an original "superior unity", which made it a language.

The phonological divisions of regional languages of southern Belgium were studied by the contemporary linguist E.B. Atwood. He defined the precise geographical repartition of the four chief dialects of Walloon. In addition, he defined them against the dialects of Picard, Lorrain and Champenois.

Since then, most linguists (among them Louis Remacle), and gradually also Walloon politicians, regard Walloon as a regional language, the first in importance in Wallonia. It is the only one to have originated from that part of Belgium. The eleventh edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica identified Walloon as the "northernmost Romance language".

Walloon
Walloon is spoken in the Wallonia Region in Belgium. In addition, it is spoken in:
 * a small part of France: the Pointe de Givet in northern Ardennes, and several villages in the Nord département, making it one of the regional languages of France;
 * a small district of Door County, Wisconsin, US, owing to fairly large-scale immigration there in the 19th century; as well as portions of Kewaunee County, Wisconsin, US, and Brown County, Wisconsin, US; and
 * Brussels, by some Walloon residents.

Although Walloon was widely spoken until the mid-20th century, today only a small proportion of the inhabitants of the region are fluent in the language. Those born since the 1970s usually know little more than a few idiomatic expressions, often profanities. The Walloon language is still part of the Walloon heritage; it is one component of Walloon identity.

Dialects

Four dialects of Walloon developed in four distinct zones of Wallonia:
 * Central, spoken in Namur (Nameur), the Wallon capital, and the cities of Wavre (Åve) and Dinant;
 * Eastern – in many respects the most conservative and idiosyncratic of the dialects, spoken in Liège (Lidje), Verviers (Vervî), Malmedy (Måmdi), Huy (Hu), and Waremme (Wareme);
 * Western – the dialect closest to French proper and with a strong Picard influence, spoken in Charleroi (Tchårlerwè), Nivelles (Nivele), and Philippeville (Flipvile); and
 * Southern – close to the Lorrain and to a lesser extent Champenois languages, spoken in Bastogne, Marche-en-Famenne (Måtche-el-Fåmene), and Neufchâteau (Li Tchestea), all in the Ardennes region.

Despite local phonetic differences, there is a regional movement towards the adoption of a common spelling, called the Rifondou walon. This orthography is diasystemic, reflecting different pronunciations for different readers, a concept inspired by the spelling of Breton. The written forms attempt to reconcile current phonetic uses with ancient traditions (notably the reintroduction of xh and oi that were used for writing Walloon until the late 19th century) and the language's own phonological logic.

Other regional languages
Other regional languages spoken in Wallonia, outside the Walloon domain, are:
 * Picard, in Mons, Ath, and Tournai;
 * Lorrain (also called Gaumais locally), in Virton;
 * Champenois, in Bohan; and
 * Luxembourgish, in Arlon and Martelange.

The Picard, Lorrain and Champenois dialects spoken in Wallonia are sometimes also referred to as "Walloon", which may lead to confusion.

Phonetics and phonology

 * may also be heard as or  in word-final positions.

 * may also be pronounced as an alveolar trill among speakers.

 * can have an allophone of.

 * Latin before  and  before, , or  gave Walloon affricate phonemes spelled tch  and dj : vatche (vs. French vache "cow"), djambe (Fr. jambe "leg").
 * Latin persisted in clusters: spene (Fr. épine "thorn, spine"), fistu "wisp of straw", mwaîsse (Fr. maître "master"), fiesse (Fr. fête "party, feast"), tchestea (Fr. château "castle"), and so on.
 * Final obstruent devoicing: rodje "red" is pronounced exactly as rotche "rock".
 * Nasal vowels may be followed by nasal consonants, as in djonne "young", crinme "cream", mannet "dirty", etc.
 * Vowel length has a phonological value. It allows distinguishing cu "arse" and cû "cooked", i l' hosse "he cradles her" and i l' hôsse "he increases it", messe "mass" and mêsse "master", etc.

Orthography
The Walloon alphabet generally consists of the basic ISO Latin Alphabet, and six types of diacritic. It also makes frequent use of digraphs. Various orthographies have been used, most notably the Feller system (sistinme Feller) and Unified Walloon (rifondou walon or rfondou walon).

Language family
Walloon is distinguished from other languages in the langue d'oïl family both by archaism coming from Latin and by its significant borrowing from Germanic languages, as expressed in its phonetics, its lexicon, and its grammar. At the same time, Walloon phonetics are singularly conservative: the language has stayed fairly close to the form it took during the High Middle Ages.

Morphology

 * The plural feminine adjectives before the noun take an unstressed ending -ès (except in the Ardenne dialect): compare li djaene foye "the yellow leaf" and les djaenès foyes "the yellow leaves".
 * There is no gender difference in definite articles and possessives (except in the Ardenne dialect): compare Walloon li vweteure ("the car", feminine) and li cir ("the sky", masculine), with French la voiture and le ciel; Walloon has si coir ("his/her body", masculine) and si finiesse ("his/her window", feminine) with French son corps and sa fenêtre.

Lexicon

 * Walloon has a few Latin remnants that have disappeared from neighboring Romance languages: compare Walloon dispierter to Spanish despertar and Romanian deștepta (all with the same meaning: "to awaken").
 * The most distinctive feature is its number of borrowings from Germanic languages (Dutch and German dialects): compare Walloon flåwe to today's Dutch flauw "weak" (cognate of English flaw). Other common borrowings, among hundreds of others, are dringuele ("tip"; Dutch drinkgeld), crole ("curl"; Dutch krul), spiter ("to spatter"; same root as the English to spit, and to spew, or German spützen; Dutch spuwen), li sprewe (the starling; Dutch spreeuw, or German Sperling).

Syntax

 * The adjective is often placed before the noun: compare Walloon on foirt ome with French un homme fort, "a strong man"; ene blanke måjhon and French une maison blanche, "a white house".
 * Borrowing from Germanic languages, the construction Cwè çki c'est di ça po ene fleur? "What kind of flower is this?" can be compared word for word to German Was ist das für eine Blume? and Dutch Wat is dat voor een bloem?, as opposed to Standard French Quelle sorte de fleur est-ce? or (colloquially) Quelle sorte de fleur est-ce que c'est?.

History

From a linguistic point of view, Louis Remacle has shown that a good number of the developments that we now consider typical of Walloon appeared between the 8th and 12th centuries. Walloon "had a clearly defined identity from the beginning of the 13th century". In any case, linguistic texts from the time do not mention the language, although they mention others in the langue d'oïl family, such as Picard and Lorrain. During the 15th century, scribes in the region called the language "Roman" when they needed to distinguish it. It is not until the beginning of the 16th century that first occurrence of the word "Walloon" appeared in the current linguistic sense. In 1510 or 1511, Jean Lemaire de Belges made the connection between Rommand to Vualon:

"Et ceux cy [les habitants de Nivelles] parlent le vieil langage Gallique que nous appellons Vualon ou Rommand (...). Et de ladite ancienne langue Vualonne, ou Rommande, nous usons en nostre Gaule Belgique: Cestadire en Haynau, Cambresis, Artois, Namur, Liège, Lorraine, Ardenne et le Rommanbrabant, et est beaucoup differente du François, lequel est plus moderne, et plus gaillart."

"And those people [the inhabitants of Nivelles] speak the old Gallic language which we call Vualon or Rommand (...). And we use the said old Vualon or Rommand language in our Belgian Gaul: That is to say in Hainaut, Cambrai, Artois, Namur, Liège, Lorraine, Ardennes and Rommand Brabant, and it is very different from French, which is more fashionable and courtly."

The word "Walloon" thus came closer to its current meaning: the vernacular of the Roman part of the Low Countries. One might say that the period which saw the establishment of the unifying supremacy of the Burgundians in the Walloon country was a turning-point in their linguistic history. The crystallization of a Walloon identity, as opposed to that of the thiois (i.e. Dutch-speaking) regions of the Low Countries, established "Walloon" as a word for designating its people. Somewhat later, the vernacular of these people became more clearly distinct from central French and other neighbouring langues d'oïl, prompting the abandonment of the vague term "Roman" as a linguistic, ethnic, and political designator for "Walloon".

Also at this time, following the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts in 1539, the French language replaced Latin for all administrative purposes in France. Established as the academic language, French became the object of a political effort at normalization; La Pléiade posited the view that when two languages of the same language family coexist, each can be defined only in opposition to the other. Around the year 1600, the French writing system became dominant in the Wallonia. From this time, too, dates a tradition of texts written in a language marked by traces of spoken Walloon. The written language of the preceding centuries, scripta, was a composite language with some Walloon characteristics but it did not attempt to be a systematic reproduction of the spoken language.

Walloon society and culture

Walloon was the predominant language of the Walloon people until the beginning of the 20th century, although they had a passing knowledge of French. Since that time, the use of French has spread to the extent that now only 15% of the Walloon population speak their ancestral language. Breaking the statistics down by age, 70–80% of the population aged over 60 speak Walloon, while only about 10% of those under 30 do so. Passing knowledge of Walloon is much more widespread: claimed by some 36–58% of the younger age bracket. Laurent Hendschel estimates there are 1,300,000 bilingual people in Wallonia (Walloon-French, Picard-French...). Many French words that pertain to mining and to the textile trade derive from the Walloon-Picard complex.

Legally, Walloon has been recognized since 1990 by the French Community of Belgium, the cultural authority of Wallonia, as an "indigenous regional language" which must be studied in schools and encouraged. The Walloon cultural movement includes the Union Culturelle Wallonne, an organization of over 200 amateur theatre circles, writers' groups, and school councils. About a dozen Walloon magazines publish regularly. The Société de Langue et de Littérature Wallonne, founded in 1856, promotes Walloon literature and the study (dialectology, etymology, etc.) of the regional Roman languages of Wallonia. There is a difference between the Walloon culture, according to the Manifesto for Walloon culture, and the Walloon language (even if the latter is a part of the culture).

Literature
Walloon-language literature has been printed since the 16th century, or at least since the beginning of the 17th century. It had its "golden age" during the peak of the Flemish immigration to Wallonia in the 19th century: "That period saw an efflorescence of Walloon literature, plays and poems primarily, and the founding of many theaters and periodicals."

The New York Public Library holds a large collection of literary works in Walloon, quite possibly the largest outside Belgium, and its holdings are representative of the output. Out of nearly a thousand works, twenty-six were published before 1880. Thereafter the numbers rise gradually year by year, reaching a peak of sixty-nine in 1903. After that, publications in Walloon fell markedly, to eleven in 1913. Yves Quairiaux counted 4,800 plays for 1860–1914, published or not. In this period, plays were almost the only popular entertainment in Wallonia. The Walloon-language theatre remains popular in the region; theatre is flourishing with more than 200 non-professional companies playing in the cities and villages of Wallonia for an audience of over 200,000 each year.

During the 19th-century renaissance of Walloon-language literature, several authors adapted versions of Aesop's Fables to the racy speech (and subject matter) of Liège. They included Charles Duvivier (in 1842); Joseph Lamaye (1845); and the team of Jean-Joseph Dehin (1847, 1851–1852) and François Bailleux (1851–1866), who covered books I-VI. Adaptations into other dialects were made by Charles Letellier (Mons, 1842) and Charles Wérotte (Namur, 1844). Decades later, Léon Bernus published some hundred imitations of La Fontaine in the dialect of Charleroi (1872); he was followed during the 1880s by Joseph Dufrane, writing in the Borinage dialect under the pen-name Bosquètia. In the 20th century, Joseph Houziaux (1946) published a selection of 50 fables in the Condroz dialect. The motive among Walloon speakers in both France and Belgium was to assert regional identity against the growing centralism and encroachment of the language of the capital, on what had until then been predominantly monoglot areas.

There are links between French literature and Walloon literature. For instance, the writer Raymond Queneau set the publication of a Walloon Poets' anthology for Editions Gallimard. Ubu roi was translated into Walloon by André Blavier, an important 'pataphysician of Verviers, and friend of Queneau, for the new and important Puppet theater of Liège of Jacques Ancion. The Al Botroûle theater operated "as the umbilical cord" in Walloon, indicating a desire to return to the source. Jacques Ancion also wanted to develop a regular adult audience. "From the 19th century he included the Walloon play Tati l'Pèriquî by E. Remouchamps and the avant-garde Ubu roi by A. Jarry." The scholar Jean-Marie Klinkenberg writes, "[T]he dialectal culture is no more a sign of attachment to the past but a way to participate to a new synthesis".

Walloon is also being used in popular song. The most well-known singer in Walloon in present-day Wallonia is William Dunker (b. 15 March 1959).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Walloon language


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User talk:StinKerr

Hello and welcome to Wikipedia.

Please don't add just external links to pages as these will be deleted. There needs to be more in a page than that. You might find it useful to check out some of these links;

 * How to edit a page
 * Naming conventions
 * Manual of Style
 * Help

You can practice in the sandbox and ask questions at the Village pump. Angela 21:15, 11 Aug 2003 (UTC)

Thank you, Angela. I put those external links in the industrial robots page as the companies were named and made links. I suppose that the company names should not have been made links in the first place because it would be difficult to write a page on a company without sounding like an advertisement. Perhaps I should put the external links in the original robots page. I was unable to locate instructions on naming external links, but through the edit process I can see now how it's done: ([www.whateveritis.duh nameoflink]) StinKerr 23:10, 11 Aug 2003 (UTC)

Ships etc
Hi, which page do you mean when you say "Guided Missile Destroyers"? Sorry, but I have been on a bit of a redirect spree tonight and I can't remember that one. The chances are if I redirected it, it was because the page just contained something like "see also - xyz", so I would redirect it to "xyz". Let me know which one it was and I'll check. Don't worry about any work you do being affected by things like this. You can always 'un-redirect' a page if you have some more to add to it.

By the way, just to clarify what I meant about the external links, it's fine to use them in an article, just so long the page doesn't contain only links.

Good luck with the ships articles. Do you know there is a Ships Project?

I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian. Angela 00:53, 15 Aug 2003 (UTC)

 * Oh right, well in that case, this is one which is a perfect example of a redirect which is only temporary. I just thought there shouldn't be a page called "list of..." where there was only one listed (USS Parsons DDG33). If you have more to add to make it into a list, please do. Advice often given is be bold in editing - don't worry about getting rid of the redirect if you can use the page for something better. Angela 01:58, 15 Aug 2003 (UTC)

No problem on the Gyatt updates. You made an excellent contribution, and like everyone else, it takes a while to learn all the editing tricks. I'm still just starting to climb that learning curve. I actually stumbled on the table format while looking at another ship page. Cheers, SpeakerFTD 20:49, 15 Aug 2003 (UTC)

title: User talk:StinKerr


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Chambourcin

Chambourcin is a variety of grapevine belonging to the Vitis genus in the flowering plant family Vitaceae. It is a French-American interspecific hybrid grape variety used for making wine. Its parentage is uncertain, but genetic studies show it likely includes several North American Vitis species in its background including: V. berlandieri Planch., V. labrusca L., V. lincecumii Buckley, V. riparia Michx., V. rupestris Scheele, and V. vinifera. The hybrid was produced by Joannes Seyve who often used Seibel hybrids produced in the 1860s. The grape has only been available since 1963; it has a good resistance to fungal disease, and is one of the parents of the new disease resistant variety, Regent, which is increasing in popularity among German grape growers.

Chambourcin is considered a very productive grape with crop yields reported ranging from 11.1 tons per hectare to 17.3 tons per hectare in a study performed by Ohio State University.

Chambourcin wine
The grape produces a deep-colored and aromatic wine. It can be made into a dry style or one with a moderate residual sugar level. Chambourcin is a teinturier, a grape whose juice is pink or red rather than clear like most red vitis vinifera cultivars.

The red juice fermented over the red skins can produce a very strongly flavoured wine. Most red wines are served at cellar temperature of 55 to 58 F to bring out the flavour but some Chambourcin wines have such a strong flavour that it is recommended that they be served chilled.

Wine regions
Chambourcin has been planted widely in the mid-Atlantic region of North America, particularly in such states as New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania. It is also grown in Harrow and Ruthven, Ontario, and in Kelowna, B.C., Canada; several counties in Virginia; Frederick, Washington, Harford, Prince George's County, Maryland, Calvert County, Maryland, and St. Mary's County, Maryland; Kent County, Delaware; Monroe County, Indiana; Daviess County, Kentucky; in the Ohio River Valley AVA Ohio; in the Lake Erie AVA of Ohio, New York, and Pennsylvania; Greenbrier, Calhoun, Roane, and Mineral counties in West Virginia; Allegan County, Michigan; the Shawnee Hills AVA of southern Illinois; the Yadkin Valley and Haw River Valley of North Carolina; Western Tennessee in the Mississippi Delta AVA ; Missouri[Augusta AVA] Missouri; south-central Kansas; Norman Oklahoma; New Zealand's Northland Region; the Hunter Valley Region of New South Wales and other warm, humid regions in Australia; also in France and Portugal.

title: Chambourcin


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Talk:Chinese Buddhism

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 7 January 2019 and 23 March 2019. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Itsellali.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 17:30, 16 January 2022 (UTC)

 * Ok 103.207.83.193 (talk) 04:57, 7 October 2023 (UTC)

Imperial favour
"Buddhist monks enjoyed imperial favour" is inaccurate. There is no single sovereign of the Han dynasty who supported Buddhism systematically in China over a significant period.

A extract from the Zizhi tongjian: "Since the time of the Yongping period [of Emperor Ming: 58-75 AD] there were officials and common people who had practised the arts of Buddhism, but the Son of Heaven himself had never paid them attention. Emperor Huan was the first to give this teaching respect and take a personal interest in the ceremonies. Because of this, the Buddhist doctrines gradually gained influence, and it was for that reason Xiang Kai mentioned them."

Although Emperor Huan was known to have been a worshipper of the Buddha and Laozi, his religious practices were generally criticised by Confucian officials. During his reign a number of shrines in the provinces were destroyed for heretical abuses. Nevertheless, Buddhism probably reached a level of "acceptance" but not "imperial favour" around the 2nd century.

The official Xiang Kai (mentioned in the above extract): "Again, I have heard that sacrifices have been held within the palace to Huang-Lao and the Buddha. Their teachings are those of purity and emptiness, with particular emphasis on action only in accordance with the way. They love life and hate killing, they eliminate desires and reject ostentation."

--Jie 04:21, 25 Jul 2004 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the nomination page. —Community Tech bot (talk) 18:36, 8 December 2019 (UTC)
 * Kumarajiva at Kizil Caves, Kuqa.jpg

A Commons file used on this page has been nominated for speedy deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page has been nominated for speedy deletion: You can see the reason for deletion at the file description page linked above. —Community Tech bot (talk) 15:53, 12 December 2019 (UTC)
 * Chin Kung 20091002.jpg

Buddhism refining process.
I have modified the dissemination of buddhism to include cultural influences that impacted on its refinement. Including Taoists and Confucian thought, of cause there will be many other contributors, to name Shinto or Shin Dao ( Spirit or Heart path ) as one. Buddhism is about change not about constant constructs, we all know this. To not respect this not only is harmful to a culture but also to the intention of Buddha. It is in my opinion that two of the main tenants that is, "to not harm Buddha or the Sangha" will be violated if this is not implemented. Amituofo 🙏🏼🙏🏼🙏🏼 Shenqijing (talk) 01:41, 9 September 2020 (UTC)

Adjacency of Mongols in Tibet contrast/aversion needed?
Noticed that the Mongols invited in by the arguably treacherous/naive Sonam Rapten scandal, and the under-mongol period after it, then argued by some needing to be reversed / superseeded by the Qing, even if only portraying that rationale of THEIRS,.. is missing. I know the page is ABOUT chinese Buddhism, but were there no developments / further enshrinings / strengthenings of principles,.. i dunno,.. something,.. due the adjacency, of what was happening right next door? surely!

OK, more of a proposition for research, rather than a suggesting with a presented, clear, concrete-need, sorry. Perhaps there is one, i am just wondering. 120.21.81.165 (talk) 11:24, 10 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Chinese Buddhism


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Kilij Arslan II

Kilij Arslan II (قِلِج اَرسلان دوم) or ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kilij Arslān ibn Masʿūd (Modern Turkish Kılıç Arslan, meaning "Sword Lion") was a Seljuk Sultan of Rûm from 1156 until his death in 1192.

Reign
In 1159, Kilij Arslan attacked Byzantine emperor Manuel I Comnenus as he marched past Iconium (Konya, capital of Rüm), as Manuel returned from negotiating with Nur ad-Din Zengi in Syria. In 1161, Manuel's nephew John Contostephanus defeated Kilij Arslan, and the sultan travelled to Constantinople in a show of submission.

As Arnold of Lübeck reports in his Chronica Slavorum, he was present at the meeting of Henry the Lion with Kilij-Arslan during the former's pilgrimage to Jerusalem in 1172. When they met near Tarsus, the sultan embraced and kissed the German duke, reminding him that they were blood cousins ('amplexans et deosculans eum, dicens, eum consanguineum suum esse'). When the duke asked for details of this relationship, Kilij Arslan informed him that 'a noble lady from the land of Germans married a king of Russia who had a daughter by her; this daughter's daughter arrived to our land, and I descend from her.'

In 1173, Kilij Arslan, now at peace with the Byzantines, allied with Nur ad-Din against Mosul. The peace treaty with the Byzantines lasted until 1175, when Kilij Arslan refused to hand over to Manuel the territory conquered from the Danishmends, although both sides had for some time been building up their fortifications and armies in preparation for a renewed war. Kilij Arslan tried to negotiate, but Manuel invaded the sultanate in 1176, intending to capture Iconium itself. Kilij Arslan was able to defeat Emperor Manuel I Komnenos's army at the Battle of Myriokephalon, the Sultan forced the emperor to negotiate a fragile peace.

In 1179, Kilij Arslan captured and held to ransom Henry I, the renowned count of Champagne, who was returning overland from a visit to Jerusalem. The ransom was paid by the Byzantine Emperor and Henry was released, but died soon afterwards.

In 1180, the sultan took advantage of the instability in the Byzantine Empire after Manuel's death to secure most of the southern coast of Anatolia, and sent his vizier Ikhtiyar al-Din to conclude an alliance with Saladin, Nur ad-Din's successor, that same year. Then in 1182, he succeeded in capturing the city of Cotyaeum from the Byzantines. In 1185, he made peace with Emperor Isaac II Angelus, but the next year he transferred power to his eleven sons, who immediately fought each other for control. Despite Kilij Arslan's alliance with Saladin, he promised the armies of the Third Crusade, led by Frederick Barbarossa to freely pass through his territories; however, his sons who were local chieftains disagreed and fought against the Crusaders at the Battle of Philomelion and Battle of Iconium. Following the Crusaders departure, his eldest son Qutb al-Din who led the Turks in the latter battle then fled afterwards, came back to control Konya; hence, Kilij Arslan II escaped and took refuge in Kayseri. Later on, Qutb al-Din declared himself to be the new Sultan, but his father and his brother Kaykhusraw I drove him out of Konya in 1192, then chased him to Aksaray, and besieged the city.

Kilij Arslan II died during the siege of Aksaray in August 1192, aged 77, after promising Kaykhusraw I the succession. Then he was buried in the Alâeddin Kosku in Konya. Kaykhusraw I's brothers continued to fight for control of the other parts of the sultanate.

Issue
In 1186, Kilij Arslan II decided to divide the Sultanate among his 11 sons and 3 daughters as follows:
 * 1) Qutb al-Din (Sivas, Aksaray)
 * 2) Rukn al-Din (Tokat and its surroundings)
 * 3) Nur al-Din (Kayseri and its surroundings)
 * 4) Muqsed al-Din (Elbistan)
 * 5) Muizz al-Din Caesar Shah (Malatya)
 * 6) Muhyiddin Mesut (Ankara, Çankırı, Kastamonu and Eskişehir)
 * 7) Kaykhusraw I (Uluborlu, Kutahya)
 * 8) Naser al-Din (Niksar, Koyulhisar)
 * 9) Nizam al-Din (Amasya)
 * 10) Arslanshah (Niğde)
 * 11) Sancarshah (Ereğli and its south)
 * 12) Fülane Hatun
 * 13) Gevher Nesibe Khatun
 * 14) Seljuki Khatun

title: Kilij Arslan II


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User:Ugly~enwiki

So where do I start? where i live? what i do for a living? what my qualifications are?

Sorry, it's none of your business I'm afraid, and would bore the hell out of you anyway. I'm Ugly and I will work on articles over a diverse range of subjects.

I never saw an ugly thing in my life: for let the form of an object be what it may, - light, shade, and perspective will always make it beautiful. --John Constable

title: User:Ugly~enwiki


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Joseph Alessi

Joseph Norman Alessi (born September 20, 1959) is an American classical trombonist with the New York Philharmonic.

Life
Joseph Norman Alessi was born in Detroit, Michigan and attended high school in San Rafael, California. His father, also named Joseph Alessi, was a professional trumpet player, and his mother, Maria (née Leone) sang in the Metropolitan Opera chorus. His younger brother Ralph Alessi is a jazz trumpeter. Displaying notable talent himself from an early age, Alessi graduated early from high school at age 16 and successfully auditioned to join the San Francisco Ballet Orchestra. During this time he appeared as a soloist with the San Francisco Symphony. In 1976-77, following a previously unsuccessful audition, Alessi gained entry to the Curtis Institute of Music in Philadelphia, where he studied until 1980.

Career
During his third year at Curtis, Alessi joined the Philadelphia Orchestra as interim Second Trombone; he later won the job permanently and performed with the orchestra for four seasons. Following one season as Principal Trombone at the Montreal Symphony Orchestra, Alessi joined the New York Philharmonic as Principal Trombone in the Spring of 1985.

Alessi made his solo debut with the New York Philharmonic in 1990 when he performed the Fantasy for Trombone by Paul Creston. In 1992, he performed with the New York Philharmonic in the world premiere of the Trombone Concerto by Christopher Rouse, which later received the 1993 Pulitzer Prize for Music. Alessi has since developed an increasingly active solo career, performing throughout the United States and internationally. His discography consists of over 14 full-length albums, in addition to guest appearances on albums by other artists. The New York Philharmonic has released recordings of the Rouse Concerto and the Colorado Symphony, featuring Alessi as soloist. His 1999 recording of Star-Child, by George Crumb, was voted Best Classical Contemporary Composition at the 43rd Grammy Awards in 2001.

Alessi joined the faculty of the Juilliard School in 1986, shortly after joining the New York Philharmonic. The Juilliard trombone studio has since furthered its international reputation as one of the most exemplary trombone college programs, and the Juilliard Trombone Choir has regularly performed with Alessi on his recording projects. Since 1999 Alessi has conducted the Alessi Seminar; a biennial trombone workshop that attracts trombonists from around the world to spend time with him in lessons, masterclasses, and recitals. Several of his past students now occupy senior positions in major orchestras throughout the world.

In recognition of Alessi's immense contributions to the trombone community, he was awarded the 2002 ITA Award, the most prestigious award offered by the International Trombone Association.

Playing style
Joseph Alessi's playing is often noted for refined musicianship, an extraordinarily rich sound quality and complete technical control. The music he chooses to play is mainly romantic, classical, and modern (but mainly tonal) music, while occasionally adding in some jazz playing.

Solo recordings

 * Beyond the End of the Century - with Jonathan Feldman, piano (Summit Records DCD-309)
 * Bone-A-Fide Brass - with Imperial Brass (Summit Records DCD-480)
 * Illuminations - with the University of New Mexico Wind Symphony (Summit Records DCD-367)
 * New York Legends (Cala Records CACD0508)
 * Nicola Ferro: Caliente - Latin music (CD Baby)
 * Return to Sorrento (Naxos Records 8.570232)
 * Slide Area - with Jonathan Feldman, piano (Summit Records d'Note DCD-130) - 1992
 * Slide Partners - 100 Years of American Trombone Virtuosity (Dillon Music CD004)
 * Trombonastics (Summit Records DCD-314)
 * Trombone Recital Tour in Japan 2011 (Pro Arte Musicae PAMP-1047)
 * Visions - with Columbus State University Wind Ensemble; Robert Rumbelow, conductor (Summit Records DCD-486)

Recordings as featured soloist

 * An American Celebration; Volume II - includes live recording of Rouse Concerto with the New York Philharmonic (New York Philharmonic Special Editions)
 * Christopher Rouse: Gorgon - with Colorado Symphony Orchestra; Marin Alsop, conductor (RCA 09026-68410-2)
 * Eric Nathan: Multitude Solitude (Albany Records TROY1586)
 * Fandango - with Philip Smith, trumpet; University of New Mexico Wind Symphony (Summit Records DCD-271)
 * French Wind Band Classics - with Royal Northern College of Music Wind Orchestra; Timothy Reynish, conductor (Chandos Records CHAN 9897)
 * Hora Decima Brass Ensemble (Summit DCD 363)
 * Maestro - with Foden's Band; Bramwell Tovey, conductor (Egon CD-SFZ136)
 * Melinda Wagner: Concerto for Trombone and Orchestra; Four Settings; Wick - with New York Philharmonic; Lorin Maazel, conductor (Bridge Records 9345)
 * Passaggi: Music for Wind Band - with The Hartt School Wind Ensemble; Glen Adsit, conductor (Naxos 8.572109)
 * Rock Stars - with University of Florida Wind Symphony; David A. Waybright, conductor (Mark Masters 9409-MCD)
 * Song of Exuberance - with Metro Brass; Charles Baker, conductor (Dillon Music DILLONCD001) - 2001
 * The 66th Annual Midwest Clinic - In Honor of Our Mentors - 2012 - with Senzoku Gakuen College of Music Blue Tie Wind Ensemble; Masato Ikegami, conductor (Mark Records 50306-MCD)

Ensemble recordings

 * Four of a Kind: Music for Trombone Quartet - with Blair Bollinger, Scott Hartman, and Mark Lawrence (Summit Records DCD-123) - 1991
 * Four of a Kind 2: Take me out to the ball game - with Blair Bollinger, Scott Hartman, and Mark Lawrence (Summit Records DCD-345) - 2003
 * Trombones Under the Tree - with Mark Lawrence, Carl Lenthe, and M. Dee Stewart (Summit Records DCD-146) - 1993
 * Collage, the New York Trombone Quartet Plays! - with Edward Neumeister, James E. Pugh, and David Taylor (TNC CD 1441) - 2013
 * Just for Fun - World Trombone Quartet with Michel Becquet, Jörgen van Rijen, and Stefan Schulz (arcantus arc 16004) - 2016
 * Slide Monsters- with Eijiro Nakagawa, Marshall Gilkes, and Brandt Attema - 2018

Orchestral recordings

 * George Crumb: 70th Birthday Album - The Complete Works, Volume 3 - with Warsaw Philharmonic Orchestra (Bridge 9095)
 * Mahler: Symphonie No. 3 in d minor - with New York Philharmonic, Leonard Bernstein, conductor (Deutsche Grammophon 427 328-2)
 * Charles Wuorinen: Choral Works - with Minnesota Orchestra (Koch 37336-2)

title: Joseph Alessi