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Bradley International Airport

Bradley International Airport is a public international airport in Windsor Locks, Connecticut, United States. Owned and operated by the Connecticut Airport Authority (CAA), it is the second-largest airport in New England.

The airport is about halfway between Hartford, Connecticut, and Springfield, Massachusetts. It is the state of Connecticut's busiest commercial airport and the second-busiest airport in New England after Boston's Logan International Airport, with over 6.75 million passengers in 2019. The four largest carriers at Bradley International Airport are Southwest, Delta, JetBlue, and American with market shares of 29%, 19%, 15%, and 14%, respectively. As a dual-use military facility with the U.S. Air Force, the airport is home to the 103rd Airlift Wing (103 AW) of the Connecticut Air National Guard.

Bradley was originally branded as the "Gateway to New England" and is home to the New England Air Museum. In 2016, Bradley International launched its new brand, "Love the Journey". In 2019, Bradley was the 55th-busiest commercial airport in the United States, by passengers enplaned.

The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems for 2017–2021 categorized it as a medium-hub primary commercial service facility.

The former discount department store chain Bradlees was named after the airport as many of the early planning meetings were held there.

20th Century
Bradley has its origins in the 1940 acquisition of 1700 acre of land in Windsor Locks by the state of Connecticut. In 1941, this land was turned over to the U.S. Army, as the country began its preparations for the impending war.

The airfield was named after 24-year-old Lt. Eugene M. Bradley of Antlers, Oklahoma, assigned to the 64th Pursuit Squadron, who died when his P-40 crashed during a dogfight training drill on August 21, 1941.

The airfield began civil use in 1947 as Bradley International Airport. Its first commercial flight was Eastern Air Lines Flight 624. International cargo operations at the airport also began that year. Bradley eventually replaced the older, smaller Hartford–Brainard Airport as Hartford's primary airport, then becoming Springfield's own primary airport with the closure of the Springfield Airport in the early 1950s and the eventual build-out of Interstate 91 facilitiating fast access from the airport to the downtowns of both cities.

In 1948, the federal government deeded the Airport to the State of Connecticut for public and commercial use.

In 1950, Bradley International Airport exceeded the 100,000-passenger mark, handling 108,348 passengers. In 1952, the Murphy Terminal opened. Later dubbed Terminal B, it was the oldest passenger terminal of any major airport in the U.S. when it closed in 2010.

The April 1957 OAG shows 39 weekday departures: 14 American, 14 Eastern, 9 United, and 2 Northeast. The first jets were United 720s to Cleveland in early 1961. Nonstops never reached west of Chicago or south of Washington until Eastern and Northeast began nonstops to Miami in 1967; nonstops to Los Angeles and Atlanta started in 1968.

In 1960, Bradley handled 500,238 passengers.

In 1971, the Murphy Terminal was expanded with an International Arrivals wing. This was followed by the installation of instrument landing systems on two runways in 1977.

In 1974, construction began on an experimental People Mover to move people between the terminal and a parking lot 7/10 of a mile away. It was completed in December 1975. The People Mover consisted of a 7' wide roadway and two 30' long cars. It cost US$4.5 million to construct and was anticipated to cost $250,000 annually to operate. Due to the high operating cost and the fact that the parking lot it was connected to was not being used, the system was never put in service and was dismantled in 1984 to make room for a new terminal building. The retired vehicles from the system are now on display at the Connecticut Trolley Museum in East Windsor, Connecticut.

In 1979, the Windsor Locks tornado ripped through the eastern portions of the airport. The New England Air Museum sustained some of the worst damage. It reopened in 1981.

The new Terminal A and Bradley Sheraton Hotel were completed in 1986. The Roncari cargo terminal was also built.

21st century
2001 saw the commencement of the Terminal Improvement Project to expand Terminal A with a new concourse, construct a new International Arrivals Building and centralize passenger screening. The airport expansion was part of a larger project to enhance the reputation of the Hartford metropolitan area as a destination for business and vacation travel. The new East Concourse, designed by HNTB, opened in September 2002.

In December 2002 a new International Arrivals Building opened west of Terminal B, housing the Federal Inspection Station with one jetway. Two government agencies support the facility; U.S. Customs and Border Protection and the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The FIS Terminal can process more than 300 passengers per hour from aircraft as large as a Boeing 747. This facility cost approximately $7.7 million, which included the building and site work, funded through the Bradley Improvement Fund. Currently the International Arrivals Building is utilized by Delta Air Lines and Frontier Airlines (Apple Vacations) for their seasonal service to Cancun, Mexico and Punta Cana, Dominican Republic. All international arrivals except for those from airports with customs preclearance are processed through the IAB. International departures are handled from the existing terminal complex.

In July 2007, Northwest Airlines launched a route to Amsterdam, Hartford's first direct flight to Europe. Three months later, the Airbus A380 visited Bradley on its world tour, stopping in Hartford to showcase the aircraft to Connecticut workers for Pratt & Whitney and Hamilton Sundstrand, both divisions of United Technologies, which helped build the GP7000 TurboFan engines, which is an option to power the aircraft. Bradley Airport is one of only 68 airports worldwide large enough to accommodate the A380. No carriers provide regular A380 service to Bradley, but the airport occasionally is a diversion airfield for JFK-bound A380s.

Northwest Airlines terminated its service to Amsterdam in October 2008 because of the increased cost of jet fuel. In the same month, Embraer, an aerospace company based in Brazil, selected Bradley as its service center for the Northeastern United States. An $11 million project was begun with support from teams of the Connecticut Department of Transportation and Connecticut's Economic and Community Development. The center is intended to be a full maintenance and repair facility for its line of business jets and is expected to employ up to 60 aircraft technicians. The facility was temporarily closed ten months after opening due to economic conditions, reopening on February 28, 2011.

On October 21, 2015, Bradley announced renewed transatlantic service, partnering with Aer Lingus to bring daily flights between Bradley and Dublin. Service to Dublin began on September 28, 2016. On September 13, 2018, Governor Dannel P. Malloy announced that Aer Lingus service at Bradley International Airport will continue for at least four more years under a new agreement made with the state, committing the airline to continue its transatlantic service at the airport through September 2022. Aer Lingus committed to placing one of its first four A321LR aircraft on the Bradley to Dublin route, replacing the Boeing 757-200 assigned to the route.

On February 17, 2022, Breeze Airways announced they would be establishing an operating base at Bradley International Airport. The announcement included the airline would begin service to an additional eight nonstop destinations from Bradley and create more than 200 new jobs. On March 8, 2022, they announced service to six new destinations, Akron/Canton, Jacksonville, Nashville, Richmond, Sarasota/Bradenton and Savannah all beginning in June 2022. On July 13, 2022, the $210 million Ground Transportation Center opened, hosting a consolidated rental car facility and 830 additional general-purpose parking spaces.

Facilities
Bradley International Airport covers 2,432 acres (984 ha) at an elevation of 173 feet (53 m). It has two asphalt runways: 6/24 is 9,510 by 200 feet (2,899 × 61 m); 15/33 is 6,847 by 150 feet (2,087 × 46 m).

In the year ending July 31, 2023, the airport had 77,685 aircraft operations, averaging 213 per day: 71% airline, 16% general aviation, 13% air taxi, and <1% military. At that time, 52 aircraft were based at this airport: 27 jet, 18 military, 5 helicopter, and 2 multi-engine.

Current terminals
The airport has one terminal known as Terminal A with two concourses: East Concourse (Gates 1–12) and West Concourse (Gates 20–30). The East Concourse has 12 gates and houses the following airlines: Aer Lingus, Delta, Frontier, JetBlue, Southwest, Spirit, Sun Country. The West Concourse has 11 gates and houses the following airlines: Air Canada, American, Breeze, United.

The Customs Building that is used for arriving international flights has been dubbed Terminal B and consists of one passenger gate.

The third floor of Terminal A has the administrative offices of the Connecticut Airport Authority.

Former terminal
Former terminal B, also known as the Murphy Terminal, opened in 1952 and was closed to passenger use in 2010. It was slowly demolished starting in late 2015 and ending in early 2016. It housed the administrative offices of the CAA and TSA until its demolition.

Cargo
In addition to the regular cargo services described above, Bradley is occasionally visited by Antonov An-124 aircraft operated by Volga-Dnepr Airlines, and Antonov Airlines, transporting heavy cargo, such as Sikorsky helicopters or Pratt & Whitney engines, internationally.

Military operations

 * Connecticut Air National Guard
 * 103d Airlift Wing (103 AW) "Flying Yankees"
 * 118th Airlift Squadron (118 AS): operates the C-130 Hercules.
 * Connecticut Army National Guard
 * 169th Aviation Regiment, 104th Aviation Regiment, 142nd Aviation Regiment.
 * UH-60 Blackhawk, CH-47 Chinook, C-12 Huron
 * The Connecticut Wing Civil Air Patrol 103rd Composite Squadron (NER-CT-004) operates out of the airport.

Airport construction
On July 3, 2012, the Connecticut Department of Transportation released an Environmental Assessment and Environmental Impact Evaluation, detailing a proposal to replace the now-vacant Terminal B with updates and facilities intended to improve access and ease of use for Bradley travelers. The replacement proposal calls for: The proposal calls for a three-phase construction program:
 * Demolition of the Murphy Terminal and existing International Arrivals Building;
 * Construction of a new Terminal B, with two concourses containing a total of 19 gates, two of which could accommodate international widebody aircraft;
 * Inclusion of a new Federal Inspection Services facility within the new Terminal;
 * Construction of a new Central Utility Plant;
 * Relocation of the Terminal B arrival roadway and departure viaduct;
 * Realignment of Schoephoester Road; and
 * Construction of a new 7-level parking garage and consolidated car rental facility, adding 2,600 public parking spaces and 2,250 rental car spaces.
 * Demolition of the existing Terminal B, realignment of surface roads and construction of the new garage/rental car facility would occur during the initial phase. The initial phase is estimated to cost between $630 million and $650 million.
 * Construction of part of Terminal B and its upper roadway would occur in a second phase. The original estimated completion date was 2018.
 * Construction of the final segment of Terminal B and its upper roadway would occur in a third phase. The original estimated completion date was 2028.

Actual completion dates depend upon funding and demand. As of May 2018 the project had not left the planning stage.

Rail
Amtrak and Hartford Line trains serve both the nearby Windsor Locks and Windsor stations. , weekday service includes eleven southbound trains and twelve northbound trains at Windsor Locks.

Bus
CT Transit provides bus transportation to and from Bradley International Airport through two routes. Route 24 (Windsor-Bradley Int'l Airport-Windsor Locks) connects the airport with the Windsor Locks and Windsor train stations while Route 30x (Bradley Flyer) provides express service to Downtown Hartford.

Environment
The Connecticut Air National Guard 103d Airlift Wing leases 144 acre in the southwest corner of the airport for their Bradley ANG Base. The base is a designated Superfund site.

Bradley has also been identified as one of the last remaining tracts of grassland in Connecticut suitable for a few endangered species of birds, including the upland sandpiper, the horned lark, and the grasshopper sparrow.

Awards
In 2017, Bradley Airport was named 5th-best airport in the United States by Condé Nast Traveler's Reader's Choice Awards. Bradley scored well with readers in the categories of on-site parking, availability of charging stations and free Wi-Fi, decent restaurant options, and overall relaxed atmosphere.

In 2018, Bradley Airport was named 3rd-best airport in the United States by Condé Nast Traveler's Reader's Choice Awards. Bradley scored well with readers in the categories of flight choices, on-site parking, availability of charging stations and free Wi-Fi, restaurant options, and overall relaxed atmosphere.

In 2022, BDL airport was named 2nd-best airport in the United States by Condé Nast Traveler's Reader's Choice Awards. Only Savannah/Hilton Head International Airport kept Bradley Airport out of the top spot.

Accidents and incidents

 * On March 4, 1953, a Slick Airways Curtiss-Wright C-46 Commando N4717N on a cargo flight from New York-Idlewild Field crashed. Bradley was experiencing light rain and a low ceiling at the time of the incident. After being cleared to land on Runway 06, the pilot reported problems intercepting the localizer, and continued to circle down to get under the weather. The plane struck trees approximately 1.6 mi southwest of the airport, killing the crew of two.
 * On January 15, 1959, a USAF Douglas DC-4 impacted a wooded hillside in fog without the use of a compass during approach, the pilot survived, the co-pilot and mechanic were killed.
 * On July 16, 1971, a Douglas C-47B N74844 of New England Propeller Service crashed on approach. The aircraft was on a ferry flight to Beverly Municipal Airport, Massachusetts, when an engine lost power shortly after take-off due to water in the fuel. At the time of the accident, the aircraft was attempting to return to Bradley Airport. All three occupants survived.
 * On June 4, 1984, a Learjet 23 operated by Air Continental crashed on approach to runway 33 due to asymmetric retraction of the spoilers, two crew and one passenger were killed.
 * On May 3, 1991, a Ryan International (wet-leased by Emery Worldwide) Boeing 727-100QC, N425EX, caught fire during take-off. The take-off was aborted and the three crew members escaped while the aircraft was destroyed by the fire. The fire was determined to have started in the number 3 engine. It was determined that the 9th stage HP compressor had ruptured.
 * On November 12, 1995, American Airlines Flight 1572 crashed while trying to land at Bradley. The plane, a McDonnell Douglas MD-83, was substantially damaged when it impacted trees while on approach to runway 15 at Bradley International Airport. The airplane also impacted an instrument landing system antenna as it landed short of the runway on grassy, even terrain. The cause of the accident was determined to be the pilot's failure to reset the altimeter, however, severe weather may have played a factor. One of the 78 passengers and five crew on board were injured.
 * On January 21, 1998, a Continental Express ATR-42, N15827, had an emergency during roll on landing. During the landing roll, a fire erupted in the right engine. The airplane was stopped on the runway, the engines were shut down and the occupants evacuated. The fire handles for both engines were pulled and both fire bottles on the right engine discharged. However, the fire in the right engine continued to burn. The airport fire services attended shortly afterward and extinguished the fire.
 * On October 2, 2019, a vintage Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress owned by the Collings Foundation carrying three crew and ten passengers crashed into deicing tanks and a shed while attempting an emergency landing and caught fire. Seven deaths and seven injuries were reported including one person injured on the ground. Witnesses reported that an engine failed upon takeoff and then the aircraft circled back at low altitude.

title: Bradley International Airport


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1987 Governor General's Awards

Each winner of the 1987 Governor General's Awards for Literary Merit received $5000 and a medal from the Governor General of Canada. The winners and nominees were selected by a panel of judges administered by the Canada Council for the Arts.

The Governor General's Awards for Literary Merit nominally increased in number from 8 in 1986 to 14 in 1987, with the addition of four awards for children's book writing and illustration and two awards for translation. The four Children's Literature awards, however, were simply the four annual Canada Council Children's Literature Prizes (1975 to 1986) under a new name.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: 1987 Governor General's Awards


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Denver International Airport

Denver International Airport, locally known as DIA, is an international airport in the Western United States, primarily serving metropolitan Denver, Colorado, as well as the greater Front Range Urban Corridor. At 33,531 acres, it is the largest airport in the Western Hemisphere by land area and the second largest on Earth, behind King Fahd International Airport. Runway 16R/34L, with a length of 16000 ft, is the longest public use runway in North America and the seventh longest on Earth. The airport is 25 mi driving distance northeast of Downtown Denver, 19 mi farther than the former Stapleton International Airport which DEN replaced; the airport is actually closer to the City of Aurora than central Denver, and many airport-related services, such as hotels, are located in Aurora.

Opened in 1995, DEN currently serves 25 different airlines offering non-stop service to over 215 destinations throughout the Americas, Europe, and Asia; it was the fourth airport in the U.S. to exceed 200 destinations. The airport is a major hub for United Airlines and the largest operating base for both Frontier Airlines and Southwest Airlines. With over 40,000 employees, the airport is the largest employer in Colorado. The airport is located on the western edge of the Great Plains and within sight of the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains.

In both 2021 and 2022, DEN was the third busiest airport in the world as well as the third busiest airport in the United States by passenger traffic. In 2023, it was the sixth busiest airport in the world and remained the third busiest airport in the United States having served around 77.8 million passengers, more than a 12% increase from the prior year. DEN has been among the top 20 busiest airports in the world every year since 2000.

History
Denver has traditionally been home to one of the busier airports in the United States because its midcontinent location was ideal for an airline hub. Several airlines, notably United Airlines and Continental Airlines, were hubbed at the former Stapleton International Airport, helping make it the sixth-busiest airport in the country by the 1960s. But Stapleton was cramped, with little room to add additional flights and with runways too close together, leading to long waits in bad weather that would cause nationwide travel disruptions.

From 1980 to 1983, the Denver Regional Council of Governments investigated areas for a new area airport north and east of Denver. Meanwhile, in 1983, Federico Peña was elected mayor of Denver, campaigning on a plan to expand Stapleton onto Rocky Mountain Arsenal lands. The plan had broad support, but leaders in nearby Adams County threatened to sue over noise concerns.

Eventually Peña struck a deal: Adams County leaders would rally citizens to back a plan for Denver to annex 54 sqmi of the county to build an airport away from established neighborhoods. In 1988, Adams County voters approved the annexation. The proposal was met with some skepticism because of its location: 24 mi from the heart of the city. But seeing the importance of a Denver air hub to the national transportation system, the federal government put $500 million (equivalent to $ billion ) toward the new airport. The rest of the cost would be financed by bonds, to be repaid with fees on airlines. Ground was broken in September 1989.

Two years later, Mayor Wellington Webb inherited the megaproject, which at that time was scheduled to open on October 29, 1993. At the time United was refusing to move to the new airport over the high proposed fees. The airline finally relented under the condition that the airport include an automated baggage system.

Construction delays pushed opening day back, first to December 1993, then to March 1994. By September 1993, delays due to a millwright strike and other events meant opening day was pushed back again to May 1994.

In April 1994, the city invited reporters to observe the first test of the new automated baggage system. Reporters were treated to scenes of clothing and other personal effects scattered beneath the system's tracks and carts that would often toss the luggage right off the system. After the embarrassing preview, the mayor cancelled the planned May opening. The baggage system continued to be a maintenance hassle and was finally terminated in September 2005, with traditional baggage handlers manually handling cargo and passenger luggage.

DEN finally replaced Stapleton on February 28, 1995, 16 months behind schedule and at a cost of $4.8 billion (equivalent to $ billion ), nearly $2 billion over budget ($ billion ). The construction employed 11,000 workers. United Airlines Flight 1062 to Kansas City International Airport was the first to depart DEN and United Flight 1474 from Colorado Springs Airport was the first to arrive at the new airport.

[[File:Denver airport USGA 2002 mod.jpg|thumb|In 2002 when 16R/34L was under construction

]] In September 2003, runway 16R/34L was added, the airport's sixth and at 16000 ft, it is 4000 ft longer than the other runways. Its length, exceeded by only six other runways in the world, allows fully laden Airbus A380s and Boeing 747-8s to take off in the hot and high conditions at the airport, which is roughly 1 mi above sea level.

During a blizzard on March 17–19, 2003, the weight of heavy snow tore a hole in the terminal's white fabric roof, and over 2 ft of snow on paved areas closed the airport and its main access road (Peña Boulevard) for almost two days, stranding several thousand people. Another blizzard on December 20–21, 2006, dumped over 20 in of snow in about 24 hours. The airport was closed for more than 45 hours, stranding thousands. Following this, the airport invested heavily in new snow-removal equipment that has led to a dramatic reduction in runway occupancy times to clear snow, down from an average of 45 minutes in 2006 to just 15 minutes. In 2020, the airport was awarded the Balchen/Post award, which is presented by the Northeast Chapter of the American Association of Airport Executives (AAAE) for the outstanding snow and ice removal operation during difficult winter conditions.

After shunning DEN for over a decade for its high fees, Southwest Airlines entered the airport in January 2006 with 13 daily flights. Southwest has since rapidly expanded and is now the airport's second-largest carrier after United.

On November 19, 2015, a hotel was added to the airport and on April 22, 2016, DEN received commuter rail service to Denver Union Station with the opening of RTD's A Line.

On September 9, 2015, a political campaign was launched by Mayor Michael Hancock to radically expand commercial development at DEN, previously prohibited by intergovernmental agreement between Denver and Adams County. The changes to the agreement were approved by both Denver and Adams County voters in November 2015.

In 2018, work began on a major interior renovation and reconfiguration to the entire Jeppesen Terminal including the beginning phases of construction to relocate two out of the three TSA security checkpoints from the Great Hall on Level 5 to Level 6 (East & West) while simultaneously updating and consolidating airline ticket counters/check-in for all airlines. Eventually, both pre- and post-security gathering and leisure areas will be incorporated into the spaces where both expansive TSA security areas on Level 5 are currently located. The third TSA security checkpoint currently accessible via the Concourse A bridge is expected to be removed once the new Level 6 security areas are completed. The renovation and reconfiguration will bring back the original intent and use of the Great Hall as a large commons area for airport patrons and visitors to enjoy. First phases of completion—including updated check-in and baggage drop counters for United & Southwest Airlines as well as visual and facility updates to parts of the terminal—began in late 2020 and progressively continue to this day. In early February 2024, the first of two new security screening areas (West Security on Level 6) opened to the public. It is located directly north of the new United Airlines Check-In facilities. The new East Security, directly across the Great Hall from West, is expected to open in mid to late 2025. At that time both Level 5 North & South Security areas (who have been in operation for over 20 years) will be closed and removed in addition to the A-Bridge Security. This phased terminal project is expected to be completed by 2028.

Additionally in 2018, work commenced on a major gate expansion to all three concourses with 12 new gates being added to A (including several single and double-jetway gates with direct access to U.S. Customs and Border Protection), 11 to B, and 16 to C, for a total of 39 new gates. Following the completion of this project, United Airlines has leased 24 additional gates on both A and B (bringing its total gate count at DEN to around 90), as well as build a new United Club in A and expand their existing clubs in B. Southwest Airlines leased 16 of the new gates in C bringing its total gate count at DEN to 40, which is SWA's largest gate count at any single airport. As of November 2022, all new gates in A-West, B-West, B-East and C-East are in use and new retail and restaurant tenants will continue to open through 2024 as well as new art commissioned and installed through 2025. Additionally, all existing way-finding signs, flight information display systems and gate signs are expected to be replaced in the coming years matching what is found at the new gates and within the renovated portions of the terminal. When both the ongoing terminal and concourse projects are completed, the airport will be able to handle upwards of 100 million passengers per year.

In 2021, the airport experienced a notable failure of the train system. In response, a request for information from the private sector was issued to analyze options to possibly supplement the train system in the future. By 2023, several companies proposed their ideas to transport passengers.

In 2022, a committee was formed to support efforts to establish flights between Denver and Africa.

In August 2022, DEN broke ground on an additional gate expansion project that will bring a total of 14 ground loaded gates to the east end of Concourse A to be used solely for Frontier Airlines operations. This A-East wing is intended to be removed once a more permanent A-East expansion (similar to what just opened in A-West) occurs at an unknown future date. This will be a gain of four gates for Frontier once completed. Currently there are several ground loaded gates at this location which were constructed back in 2018 for United's temporary regional operations while a new and additional regional wing was being constructed onto the east end of Concourse B. The new United Concourse B regional wing opened in late 2022 and United has now vacated the A regional wing making way for Frontier to move in once the renovations and addition are completed. The expanded Concourse A wing for Frontier is expected to open by mid-2024.

In December 2023 DEN started construction on a new 'Center of Equity and Excellence in Aviation' which will help underserved communities and prepare current and future employees for a career in aviation. The CEEA will be located directly below the Westin Hotel and DEN Plaza and is expected to open in late 2024 or early 2025.

In late 2023, the airport laid out preliminary plans to add four new concourses with 100 more gates east and west of the terminal by 2045. The project is being referred to as 'Operation 2045' and will help support the airport’s goal of serving over 125 million passengers annually by that time.

Facilities

The airport is 23 mi from Downtown Denver, which is 15 mi farther away than Stapleton International Airport, the airport DIA replaced.

The 52.4 sqmi of land occupied by the airport is more than one and a half times the size of Manhattan (33.6 sqmi). DIA is larger in land area (excluding water) than the US cities of Boston, Massachusetts and San Francisco, California. DIA occupies the largest amount of commercial airport land area in North America, by a great extent. The land was transferred from Adams County to Denver after a 1989 vote, increasing the city's size by 50 percent and bifurcating the western portion of the neighboring county. All freeway traffic accessing the airport from central Denver leaves the city and passes through Aurora for nearly 2 mi, making the airport a practical exclave. Similarly, the A Line rail service connecting the airport with downtown Denver has two intervening stations in Aurora.

Terminal
DIA has one terminal, named The Jeppesen Terminal after aviation safety pioneer Elrey Borge Jeppesen, and three midfield concourses, spaced far apart. The three midfield concourses have a total of 179 gates in operation as of late 2022. Concourse A is accessible via a pedestrian bridge directly from the terminal building, as well as via the underground train system that services all three concourses. For access to Concourses B and C, passengers must utilize the train. All international arrivals without border pre-clearance are processed in Concourse A; this concourse also has 4 3-jetway international gates that can support ADG Group VI aircraft such as an Airbus A380 and a Boeing 747-8, the two largest commercial aircraft in the world.

In 2023, the airport announced a plan to significantly increase its passenger capacity by expanding the Jeppesen Terminal with additional check-in and TSA counters. The plan would also add new concourses with a further 100 gates.
 * Concourse A is used by Delta Air Lines, Frontier Airlines, JetBlue, United Airlines (including all international arrivals), and all international carriers. It has 60 gates, including several ground-level boarding and double jetway gates.
 * Concourse B is solely used for United Airlines flights. It has 72 gates, including four double jetways and several regional gates.
 * Concourse C is primarily used for Southwest Airlines flights, as well as American Airlines, Alaska Airlines, and most regional airliner flights. It has 47 gates, including four ground-level boarding gates.

Art and aesthetics

The Jeppesen Terminal's internationally recognized peaked roof, designed by Fentress Bradburn Architects, resembles snow-capped mountains and evokes the early history of Colorado when Native American teepees were located across the Great Plains. The catenary steel cable system, similar to the Brooklyn Bridge design, supports the fabric roof. DIA is also known for a pedestrian bridge connecting the terminal to Concourse A that allows travelers to walk from the main Terminal to Concourse A, while viewing planes taxiing beneath them. It offers views of the Rocky Mountains to the west and the high plains to the east.

Denver's public art program, which is financed by a mandatory 1% capital improvement budget, has resulted in a significant number of artworks being installed at the airport, where some can only be appreciated after passing through security. The artwork includes sculptures, murals, photos, sound art and paintings.

The airport features a bronze statue of Denver native Jack Swigert by Loveland, Colorado artist George Lundeen in Concourse B. Swigert flew on Apollo 13 as Command Module Pilot, and was elected to the House of Representatives in 1982, but died of cancer before he was sworn in. The statue is dressed in an A7L pressure suit, and is posed holding a gold-plated helmet. It is a duplicate of a statue placed at the United States Capitol in 1997. George Lundeen is also the sculptor of "The Aviator", a monumental bronze sculpture of Elrey Borge Jeppesen, for whom the terminal is named.

Denver International Airport has four murals by the Chicano artist Leo Tanguma. "Children of the World Dream of Peace" is in two-parts. The first depicts the horrors of war, with a man in a gas-mask brandishing a saber. The second, larger part shows this man toppled, and smiling children from many nations making swords into plowshares; Tanguma explains this is a reference to the Book of Isaiah 2:4: "and they shall beat their swords into plowshares—nation shall not lift up sword against nation, neither shall they learn war any more." Per Denver Public Art, "Children of the World Dream of Peace" is a powerful mural expressing the artist's desire to abolish violence in society. One section of the piece speaks to the tragedy and devastation of war and its impact on humanity. The mural then moves on to images of smiling children, dressed in traditional folk costumes from around the world, celebrating peace prevailing over war." "In Peace and Harmony With Nature" is also in two parts; Denver Public Art explains that "The first half of the mural shows children displaying great sadness over the destruction and extinction of life, as the second half of the artwork depicts humanity coming together to rehabilitate and celebrate nature." Tanguma confirms this was his intent.

In March 2019, the airport unveiled an animated, talking gargoyle in the middle of one of the concourses. The gargoyle interacted with passengers and joked about the supposed conspiracies connected to the airport.

Blue Mustang, by El Paso-born artist Luis Jiménez, was one of the earliest public art commissions for Denver International Airport in 1993. The 32 ft sculpture is a bright blue cast-fiberglass sculpture of a horse with glowing red eyes located between the inbound and outbound lanes of Peña Boulevard. Jiménez was killed in 2006 at age 65 while creating the sculpture when a part of it fell on him and severed an artery in his leg. At the time of his death, Jiménez had completed painting the head of the mustang. Blue Mustang was completed by others, and unveiled at the airport on February 11, 2008. The statue has been the subject of considerable controversy, and has acquired the nickname Blucifer for its demonic appearance.

Ground transportation
The Regional Transportation District (RTD) operates the A Line rail service between DIA and Denver Union Station in downtown Denver, making the 37 minute trip about every 15 minutes. RTD also operates an airport express bus service called skyRide between Arapahoe County or Boulder and DIA. There is also hourly service to Thornton on RTD route 104L, a limited stop bus. The airport is also served by two commuter routes with just a few runs per day: RTD route 145X to Brighton and 169L to Aurora.

Scheduled bus service is also available to points such as Fort Collins, and van services stretch into Nebraska, Wyoming, and Colorado summer and ski resort areas. Amtrak offers a Fly-Rail plan for ticketing with United Airlines for trips into scenic areas in the Western U.S. via a Denver stopover.

The airport is connected to the I-70 and Denver via the Peña Boulevard freeway. A number of car rental companies are located at the airport, providing courtesy shuttle services from Jeppesen Terminal Level 5, Island 4, to their parking areas.

The airport claims that it is completely accessible to bicycling travelers. The city of Denver's designated bike route consists of the non-separated shoulders of the 65-mph Peña Boulevard freeway, a route which Denver's former bicycle planner James Mackay has called "a facade, an appearance, a deceit, a contrivance." The airport suggests that cyclists who prefer a less-traveled route may use 56th Avenue to Valleyhead Road, a rural 55-mph highway with no shoulder.

Conspiracy theories
Conspiracies concerning the airport, inspired by the type of art, unusual architecture, and construction problems, started shortly after its completion. With the expansion of the internet, television shows such as Conspiracy Theory, and annual media reporting of these theories, they continued to grow. Airport administration decided to embrace the conspiracy theories instead of trying to fight them. In 2016, a small "Conspiracy Theories Uncovered" exhibition was installed in the terminal, explaining some of the more popular theories. In 2019, an animatronic gargoyle named Gregoriden, or Greg for short, that randomly makes statements such as "welcome to Illuminati headquarters" was installed. Some took offense to the gargoyle, claiming it was satanic, so the gargoyle was removed and replaced with a more muted version. Other gargoyle statues, sitting on open suitcases, are in the baggage claim area. Some also view these statues as malevolent, despite their intended purpose as playful artistic creations that are claimed to safeguard luggage.

In April 2019, the Roswell International Air Center and Denver International Airport became "supernatural sister airports." In the agreement, they would work together to enhance industry best practices that involve commerce, trade and tourism. It also includes a clause that they would share strategies for extraterrestrial combat. For the airport's 20th birthday, plans to decorate the airport property with crop circles proved to be too expensive, so they were not implemented. In a marketing campaign that was tied to renovations started in 2018, posters were created with aliens joking that breeding grounds for gargoyles or meeting halls for Freemasons were being constructed. The campaign was successful, generating over $8 million in revenue.

Theories

 * Tunnels: The delay in opening the airport and the large budget overrun led to a variety of rumors about the tunnels that were built under the airport. The scope has been exaggerated, and there is lore that the tunnels lead to underground survival bunkers for the rich and elite, military bases, homes for aliens, homes for lizard people, or to the North American Aerospace Defense Command. The actual use for the tunnels is to move luggage between check-in counters, airplanes and baggage claim areas. Employees have been known to prank the media by wearing lizard masks. Videos of blurry lizard people have appeared online and drawings of aliens have appeared on tunnel walls. However, other graffiti, besides alien drawings, exist along the tunnels.
 * New World Order and other secret societies: Because of the isolated location, there are rumors that the airport will be used by the New World Order as a prison or concentration camp. The time capsule at the airport showcases an inscribed plaque that has the Freemason symbol and the words "New World Airport Commission," which is a group that has never existed, prompting the conspiracy theory that the airport is controlled by Freemasons and linked to the New World Order or other secret societies. A spokesperson for the Denver International Airport, Alex Renteria, has said that the Freemasons had created the cover, and thus had included their symbol, but there is no evidence that they have any influence in running the airport. The wording about the commission was used to represent that the new airport would permit access to the world and is a reference to Dvorák's New World Symphony.
 * Nazism: Tanguma's murals have been purported to represent Nazism, death, or a prophecy of the end of the world, counter to the artist's meaning. The removal of the murals to keep them safe during construction prompted rumors that the project was an excuse to cover the truth. In addition, there are conspiracy theories around Nazism based on the supposedly swastika-shaped runway arrangement, which aerial views refute.
 * Alien languages: People have noted apparent markings that are supposed to represent alien or secret languages. The markings are actually Navajo language characters and identifiers for the airport artists.
 * Blue Mustang eyes: The red, glowing eyes have led some to call the horse statue demonic, thinking that the glowing eyes are referencing the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse. The eyes are actually a tribute to the artist's father, who owned a neon light shop in Mexico.
 * Flat Earth: On TikTok in April 2023, a video went viral, claiming that an artistic 30-year-old world map art installation was new and confirmed flat earth theory.

Accidents and incidents

 * On February 16, 2007, 14 aircraft suffered windshield failures within a three-and-a-half-hour period at the airport. A total of 26 windshields on these aircraft failed. The NTSB opened an investigation, determining that foreign object damage was the cause, possibly the sharp sand used earlier that winter for traction purposes combined with wind gusts of 48 mi/h.
 * On December 20, 2008, a Continental Airlines Boeing 737-500 operating as Flight 1404 to Houston–Intercontinental Airport veered off the left side of runway 34R and caught fire during its takeoff roll at DIA. There were 38 injuries sustained by the passengers and crew; however, there were no fatalities. There was no snow or ice on the runway, however there were 31 knot crosswinds at the time of the accident. On July 13, 2010, the NTSB published that the probable cause of this accident was the captain's cessation of right rudder input, which was needed to maintain directional control of the airplane.
 * On April 3, 2012, an ExpressJet Embraer ERJ-145, registration N15973, operating as Flight UA/EV-5912 from Peoria, IL to Denver, was landing on 34R when the aircraft hit the approach lights and stopped on the runway. Smoke developed inside the aircraft and passengers were evacuated onto the runway. One passenger was taken to a hospital for treatment of his injuries.
 * On February 20, 2021, United Airlines Flight 328, a Boeing 777-200 that was on its way from Denver to Honolulu, Hawaii, suffered engine damage just after takeoff and had to return to Denver International Airport. Debris from the damaged engine fell on a neighborhood in Broomfield, a city around 25 miles from the airport. The damaged airplane landed safely on runway 26 and no injuries were reported.
 * On April 7, 2024, Southwest Airlines Flight 3695, a Boeing 737-800 bound for Houston, Texas, suffered a detached engine cowling which struck a wing flap during take-off. The plane returned to Denver, where it landed safely. The incident was recorded by a passenger and put on online media. There were no injuries reported to passengers or crew.

title: Denver International Airport


text:
Talk:Crocodile

Rehabilitation of the Much-Vandalized Etymology Section
The Etymology section which I painstakingly researched and wrote in 2008 has suffered some erroneous mutations due to being repeatedly vandalized and repaired.

(Why is an article on crocodiles subjected to so much vandalism?? Get a life.)

For example, the Greek letter kappa should always be transliterated as 'k' not 'c' according to present-day academic conventions. (Though note 'c' is correct once a Greek word has been Latinized). Accents on the Greek transliterations have also suffered, and some other points.

I do recognize that our contributions to Wikipedia get altered by later editors -- but in this case you will see that none of the changes has been for the better.

The 4th sentence that has the word ‘priority’ in the socialization section makes no sense.

You'll find my pristine original version in the article history at:

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Crocodile&oldid=213450868

The source code of the entire Etymology section there should simply be cut and pasted into the current article.

Thank you. ~CrocodileCorrector

Edit request: Change
Please, change the table, for a god lay out for the book... i can't download as pdf... thank you. 08:04, 21 October 2012 User:84.123.39.175

So which actually is the smallest
At the moment the article describes both the Osborn’s dwarf crocodile and the Dwarf crocodile as "It is the smallest of all living crocodiles".©Geni (talk) 12:14, 17 February 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Crocodile


text:
San Diego International Airport

San Diego International Airport is an international airport serving San Diego, California, United States. The airport is located 3 mi northwest of downtown San Diego. It covers 663 acres of land and is ranked the third busiest airport in California in terms of passenger traffic. It is the busiest single-runway airport in the United States.

The airport is owned and operated by the San Diego County Regional Airport Authority. It operates in controlled airspace served by Southern California TRACON. The airport's landing approach is well known for its close proximity to the skyscrapers of downtown San Diego, and can sometimes prove difficult to pilots due to the relatively short usable landing area, steep descent angle over the crest of Bankers Hill, and shifting wind currents just before landing.

History

Prior to the development of the airport, the area was a delta river outlet for the San Diego River into San Diego Bay, which was then re routed to terminate to the Pacific Ocean parallel to Mission Bay.

The airport is near the site of the Ryan Airlines factory, but it is not the same as Dutch Flats Airport, the Ryan airfield where Charles Lindbergh flight-tested the Spirit of St. Louis before his historic 1927 transatlantic flight. The site of Dutch Flats is on the other side of the Marine Corps Recruit Depot, in the Midway neighborhood, near the intersection of Midway and Barnett Avenues.

Inspired by Lindbergh's flight and excited to have made his plane, the city of San Diego passed a bond issue in 1928 for the construction of a two-runway municipal airport. Lindbergh encouraged the building of the airport and agreed to lend his name to it. The new airport, dedicated on August 16, 1928, was San Diego Municipal Airport – Lindbergh Field, with 140 Navy and 82 Army planes involved in a flyover.

The airport was the first federally certified airfield to serve all aircraft types, including seaplanes. The original terminal was on the northeast side of the field, on Pacific Highway. The airport was also a testing facility for several early US sailplane designs, notably those by William Hawley Bowlus (superintendent of construction on the Spirit of St. Louis) who also operated the Bowlus Glider School at Lindbergh Field from 1929 to 1930. The airport was also the site of a national and world record for women's altitude established in 1930 by Ruth Alexander. The airport was also the site of the first transcontinental glider tow by Capt. Frank Hawks departing Lindbergh Field on March 30, 1930, and ending in Van Cortland Park in New York City on April 6, 1930. On June 1, 1930, a regular San Diego–Los Angeles airmail route started. The airport gained international airport status in 1934. In April 1937, United States Coast Guard Air Base was commissioned next to the airfield. The Coast Guard's fixed-wing aircraft used Lindbergh Field until the mid-1990s when their fixed-wing aircraft were assigned elsewhere.

A major defense contractor and contributor to World War II heavy bomber production, Consolidated Aircraft, later known as Convair, had their headquarters on the border of Lindbergh Field, and built many of their military aircraft there. Convair used the airport for test and delivery flights from 1935 to 1995.

The US Army Air Corps took over the field in 1942, improving it to handle the heavy bombers being manufactured in the region. Two camps were established at the airport during World War II and were named Camp Consair and Camp Sahara. This transformation, including an 8750 ft runway, made the airport "jet-ready" long before jet airliners came into service. The May 1952 C&GS chart shows an 8,700-ft runway 9 and a 4,500-ft runway 13.

Pacific Southwest Airlines (PSA) established its headquarters in San Diego and started service at Lindbergh Field in 1949. The April 1957 Official Airline Guide shows 42 departures per day: 14 American, 13 United, 6 Western, 6 Bonanza, and 3 PSA (5 PSA on Friday and Sunday). American had a nonstop flight to Dallas and one to El Paso; aside from that, nonstop flights did not reach beyond California and Arizona. The first scheduled flights using jets at Lindbergh Field were in September 1960: American Airlines Boeing 720s to Phoenix and United Airlines 720s to San Francisco. Nonstop flights to Chicago started in 1962 and to New York in 1967.

The airport was built and operated by the City of San Diego through the sale of municipal bonds to be repaid by airport users. In 1962 it was transferred to the San Diego Unified Port District by a state law. The original terminal was on the north side of the airport; the current Terminal 1 opened on the south side of the airport on March 5, 1967. Terminal 2 opened on July 11, 1979. These terminals were designed by Paderewski Dean & Associates. Western Airlines discontinued service to Mexico City in 1981, leaving the airport without any international flights.

In June 1988, British Airways inaugurated service to London's Gatwick Airport via Los Angeles aboard Boeing 747s and McDonnell Douglas DC-10s. This was the airport's first transatlantic flight. Inbound travelers had to clear customs in Los Angeles, which made the journey cumbersome. The San Diego airport's customs facility had not been used in seven years, and the US Customs Service said it did not meet the latest security requirements. The Port District performed the necessary upgrades, allowing the facility to reopen in 1989. Nevertheless, British Airways ended the route in November 1990. The airline was struggling from high fuel prices and the seizure of one of its planes in Kuwait amid the Gulf War.

In July 1996, British Airways began a flight to London-Gatwick via Phoenix on a DC-10. A third terminal, dubbed the Commuter Terminal, opened later that month. Terminal 2 was expanded by 300000 sqft in 1998, and opened on January 7, 1998. The expanded Terminal 2 and the Commuter Terminal were designed by Gensler and SGPA Architecture and Planning.

British Airways started nonstop service to London using a Boeing 777 in March 2001. In 2001 the San Diego County Regional Airport Authority was created, and assumed jurisdiction over the airport in December 2002. The Authority changed the airport's name from Lindbergh Field to San Diego International Airport in 2003, reportedly considering the new name "a better fit for a major commercial airport." British Airways left the city in October 2003. Few people were traveling in business and first class. In addition, the SARS outbreak and the Iraq War had a negative impact on the airline industry.

Relocation proposals

In 1950 the city acquired what is today Montgomery-Gibbs Executive Airport and much of the land surrounding it through eminent domain to build a new airport, but the Korean War brought with it a massive expansion in jet traffic to nearby Naval Air Station Miramar, which soon rendered a commercial service airport in the area impractical. The CAA refused to fund any major enhancements to SDIA through the 1950s, and at various times the city proposed NAS North Island, Mission Bay, and Brown Field as replacements. Cost, conflicts with the Navy, and potential interference with other air traffic stymied these plans.

It was not until 1964 that the FAA would finally agree to an expansion of SDIA, which at this point was over double the capacity of its 1940s era terminals, leading to the construction of today's Terminal 1. Even then, it was only allowed with the assurance of San Diego Mayor Charles Dail that it was only a temporary measure until a replacement could be found. From that time until 2006, various public agencies conducted studies on potential locations for a replacement airport. One revisited a study done in the 1980s by the City in 1994 when Naval Air Station Miramar closed and was then immediately transferred to the US Marine Corps as Marine Corps Air Station Miramar. Another was by the City of San Diego in 1984 and another that started in 1996 and sat dormant with SANDAG until the airport authority was formed.

California State Assembly Bill 93 created the San Diego County Regional Airport Authority (SDCRAA) in 2001. At the time, the SDCRAA projected SAN would be constrained by congestion between 2015 and 2022; the Great Recession, however, extended the forecast capacity limitations into the 2030s. In June 2006, SDCRAA board members selected Marine Corps Air Station Miramar as its preferred site for a replacement airport, despite military objections the compromises this would require would severely interfere with the readiness and training of aviators stationed at the air station. On November 7, 2006, San Diego County residents rejected an advisory relocation ballot that included a joint use proposal measure over these and related concerns over the potential impact reducing the region's military value would have on the defense-focused San Diego economy.

Expansion
San Diego International Airport's expansion and enhancement program for Terminal 2 was dubbed "The Green Build." Additions included 10 gates on the west side of Terminal 2 West, a two-level roadway separating arriving and departing passengers, additional security lanes, and an expanded concession area. It was completed on August 13, 2013, and cost US$900 million. In January 2016, the airport opened a new consolidated rental car facility on the airport's north side. The US$316 million, 2 e6sqft facility houses 14 rental car companies and is served by shuttle buses to and from the terminals. A new three-story parking structure in front of Terminal 2 was launched in July 2016 and completed in May 2018.

Due to the sharp rise of international travel at the airport, with traffic at international arrival gates 20, 21 and 22 increasing "from 50,000 passengers a year in 1990 to more than 400,000 a year in 2017," a new immigration and customs facility at Terminal 2 West began construction in 2017. The new facility was partially built into the now-four year old Green Build, adding a new upper level and vertical cores to move passengers from existing Green Build gates (46, 47, 48, 49, 50, and 51) to 55,000 square feet of new international arrivals facilities at the southwest corner of the terminal. The facility was completed in June 2018 and is almost five times the size of its predecessor.

In 2021, the airport began construction on a complete replacement of Terminal 1, as per the Airport Development Plan (ADP), a study by the airport that began in 2016. The new Terminal 1's construction is split into two phases, the first of which consists of a new 19-gate standalone terminal built directly east of the existing Terminal 1. This first phase is scheduled to open in 2025 with a budget of US$2.6 billion, and is 60% complete as of April 4, 2024. Upon the opening of the first phase, the existing Terminal 1 is planned to be demolished, and the 11 remaining gates of the new Terminal 1 are planned to be built in its place, to open in 2028. Other aspects of the ADP include a new 7,500-space parking structure to open in 2024, a new dual-level arrivals/departures roadway in front of the new Terminal 1 to match Terminal 2's, a new entry road extended from Harbor Drive, an expanded aircraft taxiway A to pair with existing taxiway B for almost the complete length of the airport's runway, and a new airport operations center to replace the one located within the long-decommissioned Commuter Terminal. Space has also been set aside west of the new parking structure for a to-be-determined rail transit station to connect with Downtown San Diego, although neither constructing this station nor constructing tracks leading to it are the responsibility of the airport.

The ADP also called for a third phase, a further westward expansion to Terminal 2 West, which would increase the total number of gates at San Diego International Airport to 61. While the airport may decide to move forward with this third phase at some point, it is not expected to be completed before 2035 at the earliest.

Terminals
San Diego International Airport has two terminals and 51 gates:
 * Terminal 1 has two concourses (East and West). The terminal currently has 14 gates (5-18), Five gates (1, 1A, 2, 3 and 4) were demolished by early 2022, to make room for the construction of the New T1 project.
 * Terminal 2 has two concourses (East and West), 32 gates, and three lounges (Delta Sky Club, United Club, and Aspire Lounge).

Runway
The airport has one runway, designated 09/27 for its magnetic headings of 095 degrees (106 True) and 275 degrees (286 True). The runway, built of asphalt and concrete, measures 9401 x. Each end has a displaced threshold: on Runway 27, the first 1810 ft are displaced, while the first 1000 ft are displaced on Runway 9.

Westerly winds predominate, so most takeoffs and landings use Runway 27. The approach to Runway 27 is unusually steep due to utility poles and buildings over 200 ft tall that are located within 2 miles of the east end of the runway. Nearby skyscrapers are no factor.

The final approach to Runway 27 has also gained notoriety among passengers for the unusual experience of flying relatively low and close to San Diego's densely populated downtown, and has drawn comparisons to Kansas City's Charles B. Wheeler Downtown Airport and Hong Kong's former Kai Tak Airport. From the left side of the aircraft, the approach offers closeup views of skyscrapers, Petco Park (home of the San Diego Padres), San Diego Bay, and the San Diego–Coronado Bridge, while Balboa Park, site of the 1915–1916 Panama-California Exposition, can be seen on the right. Contrary to local lore, the parking garage located 800 ft from the east of the end of the runway was built in the 1980s – long after previous obstructions also on the east side of I-5 were built – and does not affect the approach.

To appease the concerns of the airport's neighbors regarding noise and to head off any ensuing lawsuits, a curfew was implemented in 1979 whereby takeoffs are only allowed between 6:30 a.m. and 11:30 p.m. Outside these hours, they are subject to a large fine. However, law enforcement, emergency, fire or rescue aircraft, and medical flights can operate normally. Arrivals are permitted 24 hours per day. While several flights have scheduled departure times before 6:30 a.m., these are pushback times, and the first takeoff roll does not occur until 6:30 a.m.

Ground transportation
The airport is on North Harbor Drive, which is accessible from Interstate 5 northbound via the Hawthorn Street exit and southbound via the Sassafras Street exit. Short-term parking is located in front of both terminals: Terminal 2 has covered parking plaza and an outdoor lot, while Terminal 1 only has an outdoor lot. Long term parking is on North Harbor Drive to the east of the terminals and is served by shuttle buses.

Both terminals have designated areas for taxis and ride-share pickups.

Public transportation
There are four public transportation options: Extension of the San Diego Trolley to directly serve the airport terminals, has been proposed several times but has not yet come to fruition. A 2021 study has found that such an extension to the airport is feasible and could be completed within ten years.
 * Metropolitan Transit System Route 992: operates between Downtown San Diego, Terminal 1, Terminal 2 East, and Terminal 2 West. Route 992 operates from 5 a.m. to 12:45 a.m. with buses arriving every 15 minutes. Route 992 connects to several major transportation hubs in Downtown San Diego:
 * Santa Fe Depot served by Amtrak, Coaster, the Blue and Green lines of the San Diego Trolley, and Rapid buses
 * City College Transit Center served by the Blue and Orange lines of the San Diego Trolley, and Rapid buses
 * Metropolitan Transit System Route 923: operates between Ocean Beach and Downtown San Diego, stopping just outside the airport on North Harbor Drive from 6 a.m. to 7 p.m. every 30 minutes on weekdays. Service does not operate on weekends.
 * TERMINAL → TROLLEY shuttle: buses serving the rental car center make a stop at the corner of Admiral Boland Way and West Palm Street, one block (about 900 feet) from Middletown station served by the Blue and Green lines of the San Diego Trolley.
 * San Diego Flyer shuttle: complimentary buses operate between the airport and Old Town Transit Center every 20 to 30 minutes. Pickup and drop-offs are timed to meet the first and last Trolley, Coasters, Amtrak trains, and MTS buses. Passengers can transfer via Old Town Transit Center to Amtrak, Coaster, along with Blue and Green lines trains of the San Diego Trolley.

Military
Coast Guard Air Station San Diego is near the southeast corner of the airport. The installation originally supported seaplane operations during the 1970s, 1980s, and early 1990s, when the station had HU-25 Guardian jets assigned.

Airline Support Building
The 93000 sqft Airline Support Building, which houses cargo operations and storage areas for aircraft provisions, and serves as a pick up and drop off point for live animals and large cargo, opened on July 20, 2021. Located on the south side of the airfield along North Harbor Drive, the building counts among its cargo tenants Alaska Airlines, American, Delta, Hawaiian, Lufthansa, Southwest, Sun Country, and United. The design-build project to construct the facility was awarded to SUNDT construction in 2018 for approximately $130 million.

Other facilities
BBA Aviation's Signature Flight Support (previously known as Landmark Aviation ) is the fixed-base operator (FBO) at San Diego International Airport. The FBO ramp is at the northeast end of the airfield.

Stormwater is captured on Terminal 2 Parking Plaza and used in the cooling towers that heat, ventilate and air condition the terminals and jet bridges.

A portion of the southeast infield at San Diego International Airport is set aside as a nesting site for the endangered California least tern. April through September is the least tern nesting season at SAN. Since 1970, this endangered migratory sea bird has found a suitable nesting site each year in the sand and gravel located in four oval areas between the runway and airplane taxiway. Approximately 135 nests were established there in 2007.

Annual traffic
Note: Obtained passenger data for 2011-present from Air Traffic Reports, data does not match up with the Historical Passenger table from 2011-2018.

Accidents and incidents

 * On April 29, 1929, a Ford Trimotor operated by Maddux Air Lines collided in mid-air with a PW-9D shortly after taking off from Lindbergh Field. The aircraft collided over Downtown San Diego, killing all 5 aboard the Trimotor and the USAAC pilot of PW-9D. According to eyewitness accounts shortly before the collision the Air Corps pilot had been flying extremely close to the larger airliner in an impromptu show for viewers on the ground, when he misjudged the distance between the two aircraft and crashed into it.
 * On June 2, 1941, the first British Consolidated LB-30 Liberator II, AL503, on its acceptance flight for delivery from the Consolidated Aircraft Company plant in San Diego, crashed into San Diego Bay when the flight controls froze, killing all five of the civilian crew: Consolidated Aircraft Company's chief test pilot William Wheatley, co-pilot Alan Austen, flight engineer Bruce Kilpatrick Craig, and two chief mechanics, Lewis McCannon and William Reiser. Craig had been commissioned a 2nd Lieutenant in the US Army Reserve in 1935 following Infantry ROTC training at the Georgia Institute of Technology, where he earned a Bachelor of Science degree in aeronautical engineering. He had applied for a commission in the US Army Air Corps before his death; this was granted posthumously, with the rank of 2nd Lieutenant. On August 25, 1941, the airfield in his hometown of Selma, Alabama was renamed Craig Field, later Craig Air Force Base. Investigation into the cause of the accident caused a two-month delay in deliveries, resulting in the Royal Air Force not receiving Liberator IIs until August 1941.
 * On May 10, 1943, the first Consolidated XB-32 Dominator, 41–141, crashed on take-off at Lindbergh Field, likely from failure of the flaps. Although the bomber did not burn when it piled up at end of runway, Consolidated's senior test pilot Dick McMakin was killed. Six others on board were injured. This was one of only two twin-finned B-32s (41–142 was the other); all subsequent planes had a PB4Y-style single tail.
 * On November 22, 1944, Consolidated PB4Y-2 Privateer, BuNo 59544, on a pre-delivery test flight from Lindbergh Field, took off at 12:23 am, lost its left outer wing on climb-out, and crashed in a ravine in an undeveloped area of Loma Portal near the Naval Training Center, less than 2 mi from the runway. All 6 members of the Consolidated Vultee test crew were killed, including pilot Marvin R. Weller, co-pilot Conrad C. Cappe, flight engineers Frank D. Sands and Clifford P. Bengston, radio operator Robert B. Skala, and Consolidated Vultee field operations employee Ray Estes. A wing panel landed on a home at 3121 Kingsley Street in Loma Portal. The cause was found to be 98 missing bolts; the wing was only attached with four spar bolts. Four employees who either were responsible for installation, or were inspectors who signed off on the undone work, were fired two days later. A San Diego coroner's jury found Consolidated Vultee guilty of "gross negligence" by vote of 11–1 on January 5, 1945, and the Bureau of Aeronautics reduced its contract by one at a cost to firm of US$155,000. Consolidated Vultee paid out US$130,484 to the families of the six dead crew.
 * On April 5, 1945, the prototype Ryan XFR-1 Fireball, BuNo 48234, on a test flight over Lindbergh Field, lost skin between the front and rear spars of the right wing, interrupting airflow over the wing and causing it to break apart. Ryan test pilot Dean Lake bailed out as the airframe disintegrated. The wreckage struck a brand new Consolidated PB4Y-2 Privateer, BuNo 59836, just accepted by the US Navy and preparing to depart for the modification center at Litchfield Park, Arizona. The bomber caught fire and the four man Navy crew was forced to evacuate the burning PB4Y, with Aviation Machinist J. H. Randall suffering first, second, and third degree burns and minor lacerations while the rest of the crew was uninjured.
 * On April 30, 1945, just before midnight, the first production Consolidated PB4Y-2 Privateer, BuNo 59359, was being prepared on the ramp at Lindbergh Field for a flight to Naval Air Station Twin Cities in Minneapolis, Minnesota. A mechanic attempted to remove the left battery solenoid, located 14 in below the cockpit floor, but did so without disconnecting the battery. A ratchet wrench accidentally punctured a hydraulic line 3 in above the battery and the fluid ignited, setting the entire aircraft alight. The mechanic suffered severe burns. Only the number four (outer right) engine was deemed salvageable. The cause was an unqualified mechanic attempting a task that only a qualified electrician should perform.
 * On August 5, 1952, Convair B-36D-25-CF Peacemaker, 49-2661, returning from a pre-delivery test after being modified for the San-San project, suffered an uncontrollable engine fire in the right wing while attempting to land at Lindbergh Field. The #4 and #5 engines fell off the aircraft as the Convair test crew steered the crippled bomber towards the ocean. Seven of the eight crew on board bailed out, with Pilot David H. Franks heroically electing to stay with the aircraft to prevent it turning back towards the heavily populated coast, but flight engineer W.W. Hoffman drowned before he could be rescued. A USAF accident investigation was inconclusive, with a failure in the #5 engine's alternator, supercharger, fuel or exhaust systems suggested as possible causes.
 * On July 15, 1953, the prototype Convair XP5Y-1 Tradewind seaplane, BuNo 121455, on a test flight off Point Loma after taking off from the water next to Lindbergh Field, fractured an elevator torque tube rendering the aircraft uncontrollable. All 9 on board bailed out safely and were rescued.
 * On November 4, 1954, an experimental Convair YF2Y Sea Dart seaplane, BuNo 135762, on a demonstration flight for Navy officials over San Diego Bay after taking off from the water next to Lindbergh Field, disintegrated in mid-air after its pilot inadvertently exceeded the airframe's structural limits. Convair test pilot Charles E. Richbourg was pulled from the water but did not survive.
 * On September 25, 1978, a Boeing 727-200 operating flight PSA Flight 182 on the Sacramento–Los Angeles–San Diego route collided in mid-air with a Cessna 172 while attempting to land at San Diego Airport. The two aircraft collided with 727 above the Cessna over San Diego's North Park neighborhood, killing all 135 people on Flight 182, the two people in the Cessna, and seven people on the ground. An NTSB accident investigation found the probability of the accident's cause was that PSA flight crew's failure to inform the tower they had lost sight of the Cessna, in contradiction to Air Traffic Control instructions to "keep visual separation" from the smaller aircraft. Other factors named were errors on the part of ATC, including the use of pilot-maintained visual separation when ATC-monitored radar clearances were available, and an unexpected turn by the Cessna that put it directly in the path of the 727.
 * On August 11, 2023, Southwest Airlines Flight 2493 and a Cessna Citation V business jet nearly collided, but this was avoided when the Cessna aborted its landing and passed over the Southwest plane waiting to depart by 100 feet. There were no injuries.

title: San Diego International Airport


text:
Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport

Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport is an international airport under Class B airspace in Kenner city, Jefferson Parish, Louisiana, United States. It is owned by the city of New Orleans and is 11 mi west of downtown New Orleans. A small portion of Runway 11/29 is in unincorporated St. Charles Parish. Armstrong International is the primary commercial airport for the New Orleans metropolitan area and southeast Louisiana.

MSY covers 1,500 acres (607 ha) of land. At an average of 4.5 ft above sea level, MSY is the third lowest-lying international airport in the world, only behind Amsterdam Airport Schiphol in the Netherlands, which is 11 ft below sea level, and Atyrau International Airport in Kazakhstan, which lies 72 feet (22 m) below sea level.

Beginnings
Plans for a new airport began in 1940, as evidence mounted that the older Shushan Airport (New Orleans Lakefront Airport) was too small.

The airport was originally named Moisant Field after daredevil aviator John Moisant, who died in 1910 in an airplane crash on agricultural land where the airport is now located. Its IATA code MSY was derived from Moisant Stock Yards, as Lakefront Airport retained the code NEW. In World War II the land became a government air base. It returned to civil control after the war and commercial service began at Moisant Field in May 1946. In September 1947, the airport was shut down as it was submerged under two feet of water in the wake of the 1947 Fort Lauderdale Hurricane's impact.

When commercial service began at Moisant Field in 1946, the terminal was a large, makeshift hangar-like building—a sharp contrast to airports in then-peer cities. A new terminal complex debuted in 1959 towards the end of Mayor DeLesseps "Chep" Morrison's administration. The core of this structure formed much of the facility used until November 2019. It is situated on the south side of the airfield. The terminal contained two sections, East and West, connected by a central ticketing alley. Four concourses, A, B, C and D, were attached to the terminal, and had a total of 47 gates. The vaulted arrivals lounge at the head of Concourse C and the adjacent, western half of the ticketing alley are the remaining portions of the airport's 1959 terminal complex.

Retired United States Air Force Major General Junius Wallace Jones served as airport director in the 1950s. During his term, the airport received many improvements. By the time the previous airport terminal building opened in 1959, the name Moisant International Airport was being used for the New Orleans facility. In 1961, the name was changed to New Orleans International Airport. In the early 1970s, the airport was expanded. A lengthened main terminal ticketing area, an airport access road linking the terminal to I-10, and Concourses A and B were constructed.

In July 1978, National Airlines began service to Frankfurt via Amsterdam aboard McDonnell Douglas DC-10s. This was New Orleans' first transatlantic flight. Less than a month later, National added a stop in Tampa due to low demand. In May 1981, British Airways inaugurated a flight from London's Gatwick Airport to Mexico City that stopped in New Orleans. It flew a Lockheed L-1011 TriStar on the route. The airline discontinued the service in October 1982 because of financial problems.

Northeastern International Airways operated a small hub at MSY in the spring of 1984. Another airline that attempted to operate a hub at MSY was short-lived Pride Air which was based in New Orleans and was operating nonstop or direct Boeing 727 service from the airport to sixteen destinations including cities in California, Florida, and the western U.S. in the summer of 1985.

In July 2001, to honor the 100th anniversary of Louis Armstrong's birth (August 4, 1901), the airport's name became Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport.

Post-Hurricane Katrina capacity restoration

MSY reopened to commercial flights on September 13, 2005, after the devastation of Hurricane Katrina the previous month, with four flights operated by Delta Air Lines to Atlanta and a Northwest Airlines flight to Memphis. Slowly, service from other carriers began to resume. All international service into MSY was suspended while the FIS facility was closed post-Katrina. The facility reopened to chartered flights arriving from London, Manchester, Bournemouth, and Nottingham, UK—all carrying tourists in for Mardi Gras and set to depart aboard a cruise liner.

MSY served 9,785,394 passengers in 2014, exceeding for the first time in the post-Katrina era the total passenger count of 9,733,179 achieved in 2004, the last full calendar year prior to Katrina's landfall in August 2005. A new record passenger count was set by the airport in 2015. 10,673,301 passengers were served, eclipsing the earlier record of 9.9 million passengers, set in 2000. In 2019 the airport served 13.1 million passengers.

In December 2015, the New Orleans Aviation Board, along with New Orleans Mayor Mitch Landrieu and City Council, approved a plan to build a new $598 million terminal building on the north side of the airport property with two concourses and 30 gates. Designed by world-renowned Argentine-American architect Cesar Pelli, construction on the new main terminal began in January 2016. During the construction, the scope of the project was expanded so the terminal would feature 35 gates. In March 2017, British Airways commenced nonstop service to London's Heathrow Airport on a Boeing 787. The new terminal opened in November 2019 at a cost of $1.3 billion.

Terminal
MSY has a single terminal with three concourses labeled A, B, and C. There are a total of 35 gates. Departures and Ticketing are on Level 3, TSA Security Screening is on Level 2, and Arrivals and Baggage Claim are on Level 1. International flights are processed in Concourse A, which contains the airport's customs facilities.

Ground transportation
The terminal is served by Interstate 10. Bus service between the airport and downtown New Orleans is provided by New Orleans Regional Transit Authority Airport Express Route 202 and Jefferson Transit bus E-2. Airport Shuttle has services to most hotels and hostels in the Central Business District of New Orleans. The rental car facility is on the south side of the airfield next to the former terminal.

Accidents and incidents

 * On November 16, 1959 National Airlines Flight 967, a Douglas DC-7 flying from Tampa to New Orleans crashed into the Gulf of Mexico. All 42 passengers and crew were killed.
 * On February 25, 1964, Eastern Air Lines Flight 304 operated with a Douglas DC-8 flying from New Orleans International Airport to Washington Dulles International Airport crashed nine minutes after takeoff. All 51 passengers and 7 crew members were killed.
 * On March 30, 1967, Delta Air Lines Flight 9877, a Douglas DC-8-51, a training exercise with 6 crewmembers aboard, crashed on approach to MSY at 12:50 AM Central Time Zone after simulating a two-engine out approach, resulting in a loss of control. All 6 crewmembers and 13 on the ground were killed. The DC-8 crashed into a residential area, destroying several homes and a motel complex.
 * On March 20, 1969, Douglas DC-3 N142D, leased from Avion Airways for a private charter, crashed on landing, killing 16 of the 27 passengers and crew members on board. The aircraft was operating a domestic non-scheduled passenger flight from Memphis International Airport, Tennessee.
 * On July 9, 1982, Pan Am Flight 759, en route from Miami to San Diego, departed New Orleans International on its way to a second stop-over at Las Vegas. The Boeing 727-200 jetliner took off from the east–west runway (Runway 10/28) traveling east but never gained an altitude higher than 150 ft. The aircraft traveled 4,610 feet (1405 m) beyond the end of Runway 10, hitting trees along the way, until crashing into a residential neighborhood. A total of 153 people were killed (all 145 on board and 8 on the ground). The crash was, at the time, the second-deadliest civil aviation disaster in U.S. history. The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) determined the probable cause was the aircraft's encounter with a microburst-induced wind shear during the liftoff. This atmospheric condition created a downdraft and decreasing headwind forcing the plane downward. Modern wind shear detection equipment protecting flights from such conditions is now in place both onboard planes and at most commercial airports, including Armstrong International.
 * On May 24, 1988, TACA Flight 110 was forced to glide without power and make an emergency landing on top of a levee east of New Orleans International Airport after flame-out in both engines of the Boeing 737-300 in a severe thunderstorm. There were no casualties and the aircraft was subsequently repaired and returned to service.
 * On April 4, 2011, United Airlines Flight 497 en route from New Orleans to San Francisco made an emergency landing back at New Orleans after the flight crew reported smoke on board. The aircraft excursed from the runway during landing, sustaining minor damage. All 109 people on board evacuated the aircraft with no injuries. The NTSB determined that the captain had failed to properly manage the warning about smoke, which was actually erroneous and had been caused by contamination. No smoke was found on board the aircraft.


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Tuna salad

Tuna salad is a salad dish consisting of tuna and mayonnaise. The tuna used is usually pre-cooked, canned, and packaged in water or oil. Pickles, celery, relish, and onion are popular ingredients to add. Tuna salad is also regularly served by itself, or on top of crackers, lettuce, tomato, or avocado. Chopped boiled eggs may be added.

Dishes
In Belgium, the dish pêches au thon/perziken met tonijn ('peaches with tuna') is made from halved canned or fresh peaches stuffed with tuna salad. It is widespread throughout the country, and, due to its ease of preparation, it is common fare at potlucks.

In the United States, tuna salad is often considered its own dish. However, it may be added to noodles with its standard ingredients (onions, mayonnaise, and celery) to make a tuna pasta salad. Tuna salad is also commonly seen in American salad bars.

History
Tuna salad has been eaten for over 100 years. The first written reference to tuna salad, in America, appeared in 1907, and by 1914, dozens of recipes had been published. Tuna salad, especially with celery, is similar to chicken salad while also being more convenient (due to the use of canned tuna), a fact that helped its early rise in popularity.

Due to the high nutritional content of tuna salad, it assumed the reputation of a diet food in the 1960s.

title: Tuna salad


text:
Trillium Book Award

The Trillium Book Award (Prix littéraire Trillium or Prix Trillium) is an annual literary award presented to writers in Ontario, Canada. It is administered by Ontario Creates, a Crown agency of the Government of Ontario, which is overseen by the Ministry of Heritage, Sport, Tourism and Culture Industries. The monetary component for the award includes amounts paid to the author of the book and to the publisher of the book. The award has been expanded several times since its establishment in 1987: a separate award for French-language literature was added in 1994, an award for poetry in each language was added in 2003, and an award for French-language children's literature was added in 2006.

History
The Trillium Book Award was created for three reasons:
 * to recognize a book of literary excellence which furthers the understanding of Ontarians and Ontario society;
 * to assist Ontario’s publishing industry; and,
 * to bring Ontario’s public library and writing communities closer together.

The Trillium Award was one of several creative initiatives undertaken by the Libraries and Community Information Branch while under the direction of Wil Vanderelst during the 1980s, that encouraged the development of Ontario writers and the distribution of their works. When created in 1987 the Trillium Book Award/Prix Trillium was the richest book award in Canada with a cash prize of $10,000 to the winner. It was also unique in that a separate $2000 would go to the publisher of the winning book to assist in its marketing and promotion. Under the auspices of the Libraries Branch, both the shortlisted books and the finalist were marketed through a unique logo for the prize, posters, bookmarks as well as an aggressive six-week media campaign targeting both bookstores as well as public libraries. (The prize today is $20,000 for the writer with $2,500 for the publisher, and $10,000/$2000 for the poetry prize.)

The first jury was bilingual and selected seven nominees for the book award. Books in both languages were considered, as were poetry, fiction, and non-fiction books. The members of the first jury were Joyce Marshall, novelist and translator; Pierre Levesque, an Ottawa bookseller and specialist in French Canadian books; Grace Buller, retired librarian and former editor of Ontario Library Review (of Books); William Eccles, historian and Professor Emeritus; and Wayne Grady, anthologist, critic, translator, and former editor of Harrowsmith.

The Trillium Book Award met with considerable approval from newspaper book editors at the time of the first award in 1988. While some critics did not like a judged competition involving personal taste in reading the material, the benefits of the award in assisting the marketing of Canadian books was thought more important. The Writers’ Union led at that time by the writer Matt Cohen met with Wil Vanderelst and strongly supported both programs given cutbacks in support for arts organizations at the federal level. Through reprioritizing, the public libraries budget these programs continued – although the writers in libraries program was eventually eliminated as part of the province’s budgetary restrictions. The Trillium Book Award managed to avoid the budgetary ax only through the personal support of the then Premier, Bob Rae. He is the only Premier of Ontario who has attended the presentation program of the award.

Awards and eligibility
The Trillium Award is open to books in any genre: fiction, non-fiction, drama, children's books, and poetry. Anthologies, new editions, re-issues and translations are not eligible. Electronic and self-published books are also ineligible. Three jury members per language judge the submissions, select the shortlist and the winning title. The jury is composed of writers and other members of the literary community.

Canadian citizens and landed immigrants who have lived in Ontario for at least three out of the past five years and who have been published anywhere in the world are eligible. Their publishers are invited to submit titles to the Ministry of Culture for consideration. In 1993 the award was expanded by Premier Bob Rae's government to also include a French-language category; it was first awarded in 1994.

In 2003, new English and French poetry categories were added to the awards. The following year, however, due to the smaller number of French-language titles published in Ontario there were not enough French poetry submissions to present an award; accordingly, the French section is now divided into poetry and children's literature awards presented in alternating years, with each award having an eligibility period of two years rather than one. The English poetry award continues to be presented yearly, and an English children's literature award is not presented; however, English children's books are eligible to be nominated for the English fiction award.

Winners and nominees
From 1987 to 1993, when only a single award was presented irrespective of language or literary genre, winners and nominees are directly listed below. From 1994 on, please see Trillium Book Award, English and Trillium Book Award, French.

title: Trillium Book Award


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A20 line

The A20, or address line 20, is one of the electrical lines that make up the system bus of an x86-based computer system. The A20 line in particular is used to transmit the 21st bit on the address bus.

A microprocessor typically has a number of address lines equal to the base-two logarithm of the number of words in its physical address space. For example, a processor with 4 GB of byte-addressable physical space requires 32 lines (log2(4 GB) = log2(232 B) = 32), which are named A0 through A31. The lines are named after the zero-based number of the bit in the address that they are transmitting. The least significant bit is first and is therefore numbered bit 0 and signaled on line A0. A20 transmits bit 20 (the 21st bit) and becomes active once addresses reach 1 MB, or 220.

Overview
The Intel 8086, Intel 8088, and Intel 80186 processors had 20 address lines, numbered A0 to A19; with these, the processor can access 220 bytes, or 1 MB. Internal address registers of such processors only had 16 bits. To access a 20-bit address space, an external memory reference was made up of a 16-bit offset address added to a 16-bit segment number, shifted 4 bits to the left so as to produce a 20-bit physical address. The resulting address is equal to segment × 16 + offset. There are many combinations of segment and offset that produce the same 20-bit physical address. Therefore, there were various ways to address the same byte in memory. For example, here are four of the 4096 different segment:offset combinations, all referencing the byte whose physical address is 0x000FFFFF (the last byte in 1 MB-memory space):

 * F000:FFFF
 * FFFF:000F
 * F555:AAAF
 * F800:7FFF

Referenced the last way, an increase of one in the offset yields F800:8000, which is a proper address for the processor, but since it translates to the physical address 0x00100000 (the first byte over 1 MB), the processor would need another address line for actual access to that byte. Since there is no such line on the 8086 line of processors, the 21st bit above, while set, gets dropped, causing the address F800:8000 to "wrap around" and to actually point to the physical address 0x00000000.

When IBM designed the IBM PC AT (1984) machine, it decided to use the new higher-performance Intel 80286 microprocessor. The 80286 could address up to 16 MB of system memory in protected mode. However, the CPU was supposed to emulate an 8086's behavior in real mode, its startup mode, so that it could run operating systems and programs that were not written for protected mode. The 80286 did not force the A20 line to zero in real mode, however. Therefore, the combination F800:8000 would no longer point to the physical address 0x00000000, but to the address 0x00100000. As a result, programs relying on the address wrap around would no longer work. To remain compatible with such programs, IBM decided to correct the problem on the motherboard.

That was accomplished by inserting a logic gate on the A20 line between the processor and system bus, which got named Gate-A20. Gate-A20 can be enabled or disabled by software to allow or prevent the address bus from receiving a signal from A20. It is set to non-passing for the execution of older programs that rely on the wrap-around. At boot time, the BIOS first enables Gate-A20 when it counts and tests all of the system memory, and then disables it before transferring control to the operating system.

Originally, the logic gate was a gate connected to the Intel 8042 keyboard controller. Controlling it was a relatively slow process. Other methods have since been added to allow more efficient multitasking of programs that require this wrap-around with programs that access all of the system memory. There are multiple methods to control the A20 line.

Disconnecting A20 would not wrap all memory accesses above 1 MB, just those in the 1–2 MB, 3–4 MB, 5–6 MB, etc. ranges. Real-mode software cared only about the area slightly above 1 MB, so the Gate-A20 line was enough.

Enabling the Gate-A20 line is one of the first steps that a protected-mode x86 operating system does in the bootup process, often before control has been passed to the kernel from the bootstrap (in the case of Linux, for example).

Virtual 8086 mode, introduced with the Intel 80386, allows the A20 wrap-around to be simulated by using the virtual memory facilities of the processor; physical memory may be mapped to multiple virtual addresses. Thus, the memory mapped at the first megabyte of virtual memory may be mapped again in the second megabyte of virtual memory. The operating system may intercept changes to Gate A20 and make corresponding changes to the virtual-memory address space, which also makes irrelevant the efficiency of Gate-A20 line toggling.

A20 gate
Controlling the A20 line was an important feature at one stage in the growth of the IBM PC architecture, as it added access to an additional 65,520 bytes (64 KB − 16 bytes) of memory in real mode, without significant software changes.

In what was arguably a "hack", the A20 gate was originally part of the keyboard controller on the motherboard, which could open or close it depending on what behavior was desired.

In order to keep full compatibility with the Intel 8086, the A20 gate was still present in Intel CPUs until 2008. As the gate was initially closed right after boot, protected-mode operating systems typically opened the A20 gate early during the boot process to never close it again. Such operating systems had no compatibility reasons for keeping it closed, and they gained access to the full range of physical addresses available by opening it.

The Intel 80486 and Pentium added a special pin named A20M#, which when asserted low forces bit 20 of the physical address to be zero for all on-chip cache- or external-memory accesses. It was necessary, since the 80486 introduced an on-chip cache and so masking this bit in external logic was no longer possible. Software still needs to manipulate the gate and must still deal with external peripherals (the chipset) for that.

The PC System Design Guide PC 2001 removes compatibility for the A20 line: "If A20M# generation logic is still present in the system, this logic must be terminated such that software writes to I/O port 92, bit 1, do not result in A20M# being asserted to the processor."

Support for the A20 gate was changed in the Nehalem microarchitecture (some sources incorrectly claim that A20 support was removed). Rather than the CPU having a dedicated A20M# pin that receives the signal whether or not to mask the A20 bit, it has been virtualized so that the information is sent from the peripheral hardware to the CPU using special bus cycles. From a software point of view, the mechanism works exactly as before, and an operating system must still program external hardware (which in-turn sends the aforementioned bus cycles to the CPU) to disable the A20 masking.

Intel no longer supports the A20 gate, starting with Haswell. Page 271 of the Intel System Programmers Manual Vol. 3A from June 2013 states: "The functionality of A20M# is used primarily by older operating systems and not used by modern operating systems. On newer Intel 64 processors, A20M# may be absent."

A20 handler
The A20 handler is IBM PC memory manager software that controls access to the high memory area (HMA). Extended-memory managers usually provide this functionality. A20 handlers are named after the 21st address line of the microprocessor, the A20 line.

In DOS, HMA managers such as HIMEM.SYS have the "extra task" of managing A20. HIMEM.SYS provided an API for opening/closing A20. DOS itself could use the area for some of its storage needs, thereby freeing up more conventional memory for programs. That functionality was enabled by the  or   directives in the CONFIG.SYS configuration file.

Affected programs
Since 1980, the address wrap was internally used by 86-DOS and MS-DOS to implement the DOS CALL 5 entry point at offset +5 to +9 (which emulates the CP/M-80-style CALL 5 BDOS API entry point at offset +5 to +7) in the Program Segment Prefix (PSP) (which partially resembles CP/M-80's zero page). This was, in particular, utilized by programs machine-translated from CP/M-80 through assembly language translators like Seattle Computer Products' TRANS86. The CALL 5 handler this entry point refers to resides at the machine's physical address 0x000000C0 (thereby overlapping the four bytes of the interrupt service routine entry point reserved for INT 30h and the first byte of INT 31h in the x86 real mode interrupt vector table). However, by the design of CP/M-80, which loaded the operating system immediately above the memory available for the application program to run in, the 8080/Z80 16-bit target address stored at offset +6 to +7 in the zero page could deliberately also be interpreted as the size of the first memory segment. In order to emulate this in DOS with its 8086 segment:offset addressing scheme, the far call entry point's 16-bit offset had to match this segment size (i.e. 0xFEF0), which is stored at offset +6 to +7 in the PSP, overlapping parts of the CALL 5. The only way to reconcile these requirements was to choose a segment value that, when added to 0xFEF0, results in an address of 0x001000C0, which, on an 8086, wraps around to 0x000000C0.

A20 had to be disabled for the wraparound to occur and DOS programs using this interface to work. Newer DOS versions which can relocate parts of themselves into the HMA, typically craft a copy of the entry point at FFFF:00D0 in the HMA (which again resolves to physical 0x001000C0), so that the interface can work without regard to the state of A20.

One program known to use the CALL 5 interface is the DOS version of the Small-C compiler. Also, the SPELL utility in Microsoft's Word 3.0 (1987) is one of the programs depending on the CALL 5 interface to be set up correspondingly. Sun Microsystems' PC-NFS (1993) requires the CALL 5 fix-up as well.

Also, to save program space, a trick was used by some BIOS and DOS programmers, for example, to have one segment that has access to program data (such as from F800:0000 to F800:7FFF, pointing to the physical addresses 0x000F8000–0x000FFFFF), as well as the I/O data (such as the keyboard buffer) that was located in the first memory segment (with addresses F800:8000 to F800:FFFF pointing to the physical addresses 0x00000000 to 0x00007FFF).

This trick works for as long as the code isn't executed in low memory, the first 64 KB of RAM, a condition that was always true in older DOS versions without load-high capabilities.

With the DOS kernel relocated into higher memory areas, low memory increasingly became available for programs, causing those depending on the wraparound to fail. The executable loaders in newer versions of DOS attempt to detect some common types of affected programs and either patch them on-the-fly to function also in low memory or load them above the first 64 KB before passing execution on to them. For programs, which are not detected automatically, LOADFIX or MEMMAX -L can be used to force programs to be loaded above the first 64 KB.

The trick was utilized by IBM/Microsoft Pascal itself as well as by programs compiled with it,   including Microsoft's MASM. Other commonly used development utilities using this were executable compressors like Realia's Spacemaker (written by Robert B. K. Dewar in 1982 and used to compress early versions of the Norton Utilities  ) and Microsoft's EXEPACK     (written by Reuben Borman in 1985) as well as the equivalent /E[XEPACK] option in Microsoft's LINK 3.02 and higher. Programs processed with EXEPACK would display a "Packed file is corrupt" error message.

Various third-party utilities exist to modify compressed executables either replacing the problematic uncompression routine(s) through restubbing, or attempting to expand and restore the original file.

Modern Legacy BIOS boot loaders (such as GNU GRUB) use the A20 line. UEFI boot loaders use 32-bit protected mode or 64-bit long mode.

title: A20 line