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Kafir

Kafir (كَافِر; plural: كَافِرُون, كُفَّار , or كَفَرَة ; feminine: كَافِرَة ; feminine plural: كَافِرَات or كَوَافِر ) is an Arabic term in Islam which refers to a person who disbelieves the God in Islam, denies his authority, rejects the tenets of Islam, or simply is not a Muslim—one who does not believe in the guidance of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.

Kafir is often translated as 'infidel', 'pagan', 'rejector', 'denier', 'disbeliever', 'unbeliever', 'nonbeliever',  and 'non-Muslim'. The term is used in different ways in the Quran, with the most fundamental sense being ungrateful toward God. Kufr means 'disbelief', 'unbelief', 'non-belief', 'to be thankless', 'to be faithless', or 'ingratitude'. The opposite term of kufr ('disbelief') is iman ('faith'), and the opposite of kafir ('disbeliever') is mu'min ('believer'). A person who denies the existence of a creator might be called a dahri.

One type of kafir is a mushrik (مشرك), another group of religious wrongdoer mentioned frequently in the Quran and other Islamic works. Several concepts of vice are seen to revolve around the concept of kufr in the Quran.

Historically, while Islamic scholars agreed that a mushrik was a kafir, they sometimes disagreed on the propriety of applying the term to Muslims who committed a grave sin or the People of the Book. The Quran distinguishes between mushrikūn and People of the Book, reserving the former term for idol worshippers, although some classical commentators considered the Christian doctrine to be a form of shirk.

In modern times, kafir is sometimes applied to self-professed Muslims, particularly by members of Islamist movements. The act of declaring another self-professed Muslim a kafir is known as takfir, a practice that has been condemned but also employed in theological and political polemics over the centuries.

A dhimmi or mu'ahid is a historical term for non-Muslims living in an Islamic state with legal protection. Dhimmis were exempt from certain duties specifically assigned to Muslims if they paid the jizya poll tax, but otherwise equal under the laws of property, contract, and obligation according to some scholars,  whereas others state religious minorities subjected to the status of dhimmis (such as Hindus, Christians, Jews, Samaritans, Gnostics, Mandeans, and Zoroastrians) were inferior to the status of Muslims in Islamic states. Jews and Christians were required to pay the jizya and kharaj taxes, while others, depending on the different rulings of the schools of Islamic jurisprudence, might be required to convert to Islam, pay the jizya, exiled, or subject to the death penalty.

In 2019, Nahdlatul Ulama, the world's largest independent Islamic organization, issued a proclamation urging Muslims to refrain from using the word kafir to refer to non-Muslims because the term is both offensive and perceived as "theologically violent".

Etymology
The word is the active participle of the verb كَفَرَ, from root ك-ف-ر K-F-R. As a pre-Islamic term it described farmers burying seeds in the ground. One of its applications in the Quran has also the same meaning as farmer. Since farmers cover the seeds with soil while planting, the word implies a person who hides or covers. Ideologically, it implies a person who hides or covers the truth. Arabic poets personify the darkness of night as, perhaps as a survival of pre-Islamic Arabian religious or mythological usage.

The noun for 'disbelief', 'blasphemy', 'impiety' rather than the person who disbelieves, is.

In the Quran
The distinction between those who believe in Islam and those who do not is an essential one in the Quran. , and its plural, is used directly 134 times in Quran, its verbal noun is used 37 times, and the verbal cognates of  are used about 250 times.

By extension of the basic meaning of the root, 'to cover', the term is used in the Quran in the senses of ignore/fail to acknowledge and to spurn/be ungrateful. The meaning of 'disbelief', which has come to be regarded as primary, retains all of these connotations in the Quranic usage. In the Quranic discourse, the term typifies all things that are unacceptable and offensive to God. Whereby it is not necessary to deny the existence of God, but it suffices to deviate from his will as seen in a dialogue between God and Iblis, the latter called a. According to Al-Damiri (1341–1405) it is neither denying God, nor the act of disobedience alone, but Iblis' attitude (claiming that God's command is unjust), which makes him a. The most fundamental sense of in the Quran is 'ingratitude', the willful refusal to acknowledge or appreciate the benefits that God bestows on humankind, including clear signs and revealed scriptures.

According to the E. J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936, Volume 4, the term first applied in the Quran to unbelieving Meccans, who endeavoured "to refute and revile the Prophet". A waiting attitude towards the was recommended at first for Muslims; later, Muslims were ordered to keep apart from unbelievers and defend themselves against their attacks and even take the offensive. Most passages in the Quran referring to unbelievers in general talk about their fate on the day of judgement and destination in hell.

According to scholar Marilyn Waldman, as the Quran "progresses" (as the reader goes from the verses revealed first to later ones), the meaning behind the term does not change but "progresses", i.e. "accumulates meaning over time". As the Islamic prophet Muhammad's views of his opponents change, his use of "undergoes a development". moves from being description of Muhammad's opponents to the primary one. Later in the Quran, becomes more and more connected with. Finally, towards the end of the Quran, begins to also signify the group of people to be fought by the  ('believers').

Khaled Abou El Fadl argues that Quran 2:62 supports religious pluralism, implying that some non-Muslims are not kafirs: "Those who believe, Jews, Christians, Sabians --whoever believes in God and the Last Day and do good, will have their reward with their Lord and they will not fear, nor grieve."

People of the Book
Charles Adams writes that the Quran reproaches the People of the Book with for rejecting Muhammad's message when they should have been the first to accept it as possessors of earlier revelations, and singles out Christians for disregarding the evidence of God's unity. The Quranic verse ("Certainly they disbelieve [] who say: God is the third of three"), among other verses, has been traditionally understood in Islam as rejection of the Christian doctrine on the Trinity, though modern scholarship has suggested alternative interpretations. Other Quranic verses strongly deny the deity of Jesus Christ, son of Mary and reproach the people who treat Jesus as equal with God as disbelievers who will have strayed from the path of God which would result in the entrance of hellfire. While the Quran does not recognize the attribute of Jesus as the Son of God or God himself, it respects Jesus as a prophet and messenger of God sent to children of Israel. Some Muslim thinkers such as Mohamed Talbi have viewed the most extreme Quranic presentations of the dogmas of the Trinity and divinity of Jesus as non-Christian formulas that were rejected by the Church.

On the other hand, modern scholarship has suggested alternative interpretations of verse Q.. Cyril Glasse criticizes the use of (plural of ) to describe Christians as "loose usage". According to the Encyclopedia of Islam, in traditional Islamic jurisprudence, are "usually regarded more leniently than other  [plural of ]" and "in theory" a Muslim commits a punishable offense if they say to a Jew or a Christian: "Thou unbeliever". Charles Adams and A. Kevin Reinhart also write that "later thinkers" in Islam distinguished between ahl al-kitab and the polytheists/mushrikīn.

Historically, People of the Book permanently residing under Islamic rule were entitled to a special status known as, while those visiting Muslim lands received a different status known as.

The Mushrikun
The mushrikun are those who believe in shirk 'association', which refers to accepting other gods and divinities alongside God. The term is often translated as polytheist.

The Quran distinguishes between mushrikun and People of the Book, reserving the former term for idol worshipers, although some classical commentators considered Christian doctrine to be a form of shirk. Shirk is held to be the worst form of disbelief and it is identified in the Quran as the only sin that God will not pardon.

Accusations of have been common in religious polemics within Islam. Thus, in the early Islamic debates on free will and theodicy, Sunni theologians charged their Mutazila adversaries with, accusing them of attributing to man creative powers comparable to those of God in both originating and executing actions. Mu'tazila theologians, in turn, charged the Sunnis with shirk because under their doctrine a voluntary human act results from an "association" between God, who creates the act, and the individual who appropriates it by carrying it out.

In classical jurisprudence, Islamic religious tolerance applied only to the People of the Book, while mushrikun, based on the Sword Verse, faced a choice between conversion to Islam and fight to the death, which may be substituted by enslavement. In practice, the designation of People of the Book and the dhimmī status was extended even to non-monotheistic religions of conquered peoples, such as Hinduism. Following destruction of major Hindu temples during the Muslim conquests in South Asia, Hindus and Muslims on the subcontinent came to share a number of popular religious practices and beliefs, such as veneration of Sufi saints and worship at Sufi dargahs, although Hindus may worship at Hindu shrines also.

In the 18th century, followers of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, known as Wahhabis, believed kufr or shirk was found in the Muslim community itself, especially in "the practice of popular religion": "[S]hirk took many forms: the attribution to prophets, saints, astrologers, and soothsayers of knowledge of the unseen world, which only God possesses and can grant; the attribution of power to any being except God, including the power of intercession; reverence given in any way to any created thing, even to the tomb of the Prophet; such superstitious customs as belief in omens and in auspicious and inauspicious days; and swearing by the names of the Prophet, ʿAlī, the Shīʿī imams, or the saints. Thus the Wahhābīs acted even to destroy the cemetery where many of the Prophet's most notable companions were buried, on the grounds that it was a center of idolatry."

While ibn Abd al-Wahhab and the Wahhābīs were "the best-known premodern" revivalist and "sectarian movement" of that era, other revivalists included Shah Ismail Dehlvi and Ahmed Raza Khan Barelvi, leaders of the Mujāhidīn movement on the North-West frontier of India in the early 19th century.

Sinners
Whether a Muslim could commit a sin great enough to become a was disputed by jurists in the early centuries of Islam. The most tolerant view (that of the ) was that even those who had committed a major sin were still believers and "their fate was left to God". The most strict view (that of Kharidji Ibadis, descended from the Kharijites) was that every Muslim who dies having not repented of their sins was considered a. In between these two positions, the believed that there was a status between believer and unbeliever called "rejected" or.

The Kharijites' view that the self-proclaimed Muslim who had sinned and "failed to repent had ipso facto excluded himself from the community, and was hence a " (a practice known as ) was considered so extreme by the Sunni majority that they in turn declared the Kharijites to be, following the hadith that declared, "If a Muslim charges a fellow Muslim with , he is himself a if the accusation should prove untrue".

Nevertheless, in Islamic theological polemics was "a frequent term for the Muslim protagonist" holding the opposite view, according to Brill's Islamic Encyclopedia.

Present-day Muslims who make interpretations that differ from what others believe are declared ; (edicts by Islamic religious leaders) are issued ordering Muslims to kill them, and some such people have been killed also.

Another group that are "distinguished from the mass of " are the, or apostate ex-Muslims, who are considered renegades and traitors. Their traditional punishment is death, even, according to some scholars, if they recant their abandonment of Islam.

/
are non-Muslims living under the protection of an Islamic state. are exempt from certain duties assigned specifically to Muslims if they paid the poll tax but were otherwise equal under the laws of property, contract, and obligation according to some scholars,   whereas others state that religious minorities subjected to the status of  (such as Jews, Samaritans, Gnostics, Mandeans, and Zoroastrians) were inferior to the status of Muslims in Islamic states. Jews and Christians were required to pay the while pagans, depending on the different rulings of the four, might be required to accept Islam, pay the jizya, be exiled, or be killed under the Islamic death penalty. Some historians believe that forced conversion was rare in Islamic history, and most conversions to Islam were voluntary. Muslim rulers were often more interested in conquest than conversion.

Upon payment of the tax, the would receive a receipt of payment, either in the form of a piece of paper or parchment or as a seal humiliatingly placed upon their neck, and was thereafter compelled to carry this receipt wherever they went within the realms of Islam. Failure to produce an up-to-date receipt on the request of a Muslim could result in death or forced conversion to Islam of the  in question.

Types of disbelief
Various types of unbelief recognized by legal scholars include:
 * (verbally expressed unbelief)
 * (unbelief expressed through action)
 * (unbelief of convictions)
 * (major unbelief)
 * (minor unbelief)
 * (general charge of unbelief, i.e. charged against a community like ahmadiyya
 * (charge of unbelief against a particular individual)
 * (charge of unbelief against "rank and file Muslims" for example following taqlid.
 * (category covers general statements such as 'whoever says X or does Y is guilty of unbelief')
 * (original unbelief of non-Muslims, those born to non-Muslim family)
 * (acquired unbelief of formerly observant Muslims, i.e. apostates)

Iman
Muslim belief/doctrine is often summarized in "the Six Articles of Faith", (the first five are mentioned together in the ).

 * 1) God
 * 2) His angels
 * 3) His Messengers
 * 4) His Revealed Books,
 * 5) The Day of Resurrection
 * , Divine Preordainments, i.e. whatever God has ordained must come to pass

According to the Salafi scholar Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din al-Hilali, " is basically disbelief in any of the articles of faith." He also lists several different types of major disbelief, (disbelief so severe it excludes those who practice it completely from the fold of Islam):

 * : disbelief in divine truth or the denial of any of the articles of Faith (Quran 39:32)
 * : refusing to submit to God's Commandments after conviction of their truth (Quran 2:34)
 * : doubting or lacking conviction in the six articles of Faith. (Quran 18:35–38)
 * : turning away from the truth knowingly or deviating from the obvious signs which God has revealed. (Quran 46:3)
 * : hypocritical disbelief (Quran 63:2–3)

Minor disbelief or indicates "ungratefulness of God's Blessings or Favours".

According to another source, a paraphrase of the by Ibn Kathir,  there are eight kinds of  (major unbelief), some are the same as those described by Al-Hilali  and some different.

 * : Disbelief out of stubbornness. This applies to someone who knows the Truth and admits to knowing the Truth, and knowing it with their tongue, but refuses to accept it and refrains from making a declaration.
 * : Disbelief out of denial. This applies to someone who denies with both heart and tongue.
 * : Disbelief out of rejection. This applies to someone who acknowledges the truth in their heart, but rejects it with their tongue. This type of is applicable to those who call themselves Muslims but who reject any necessary and accepted norms of Islam such as  and.
 * : Disbelief out of hypocrisy. This applies to someone who pretends to be a believer but conceals their disbelief. Such a person is called a or hypocrite.
 * : Disbelief out of detesting any of God's commands.
 * : Disbelief due to mockery and derision.
 * : Disbelief due to avoidance. This applies to those who turn away and avoid the truth.
 * : Disbelief because of trying to substitute God's Laws with man-made laws.

Ignorance
In Islam, ('ignorance') refers to the time of Arabia before Islam.

Usage in the earliest sense
When the Islamic empire expanded, the word was broadly used as a descriptive term for all pagans and anyone else who disbelieved in Islam. Historically, the attitude toward unbelievers in Islam was determined more by socio-political conditions than by religious doctrine. A tolerance toward unbelievers "impossible to imagine in contemporary Christendom" prevailed even to the time of the Crusades, particularly with respect to the People of the Book. However, due to animosity towards Franks, the term developed into a term of abuse. During the Mahdist War, the Mahdist State used the term against Ottoman Turks, and the Turks themselves used the term  towards Persians during the Ottoman-Safavid wars. In modern Muslim popular imagination, the (Antichrist-like figure) will have k-f-r written on his forehead.

However, there was extensive religious violence in India between Muslims and non-Muslims during the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire (before the political decline of Islam). In their memoirs on Muslim invasions, enslavement and plunder of this period, many Muslim historians in South Asia used the term for Hindus, Buddhists, Sikhs and Jains. Raziuddin Aquil states that "non-Muslims were often condemned as, in medieval Indian Islamic literature, including court chronicles, Sufi texts and literary compositions" and were issued that justified persecution of the non-Muslims.

Relations between Jews and Muslims in the Arab world and use of the word were equally as complex, and over the last century, issues regarding  have arisen over the conflict in Israel and Palestine. Calling the Jews of Israel, "the usurping ", Yasser Arafat turned on the Muslim resistance and "allegedly set a precedent for preventing Muslims from mobilizing against 'aggressor disbelievers' in other Muslim lands, and enabled 'the cowardly, alien ' to achieve new levels of intervention in Muslim affairs."

In 2019, Nahdlatul Ulama, the largest independent Islamic organization in the world, issued a proclamation urging Muslims to refrain from using the word to refer to non-Muslims, as the term is both offensive and perceived to be "theologically violent".

Muhammad's parents
According to Islamic sources, none of forefathers of Muhammad were. According to Ibn Hajar, the Quran clearly declares that Ahl al-Fatrah were among the Muslims. Ibn Hajar is of opinion that none of the Muhammad's parents who were non-prophets were (disbelievers) and all the hadiths on this subject (although some hadiths seem to contradict it) mean that. Ibn Hajar says about Muhammad saying his is in the Hell, that the  in the hadith refers to the paternal uncle and that Arabs widely use  to refer to  (paternal uncle). Most Sunni scholars hold the view that the parents of Muhammad are saved and inhabitants of Heaven.

Shia Muslim scholars likewise consider Muhammad's parents to be in Paradise. In contrast, the Salafi website IslamQA.info, founded by the Saudi Arabian Salafi scholar Muhammad Al-Munajjid, argues that Islamic tradition teaches that Muhammad's parents were ('disbelievers') who are in Hell.

Other uses
By the 15th century, Muslims in Africa were using the word in reference to the non-Muslim African natives. Many of those were enslaved and sold to European and Asian merchants by their Muslim captors, most of the merchants were from Portugal, which had established trading outposts along the coast of West Africa by that time. These European traders adopted the Arabic word and its derivatives.

Some of the earliest records of European usage of the word can be found in The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques and Discoveries of the English Nation (1589) by Richard Hakluyt. In volume 4, Hakluyt writes: "calling them Cafars and Gawars, which is, infidels or disbelievers". Volume 9 refers to the slaves (slaves called Cafari) and inhabitants of Ethiopia ("and they use to go in small shippes, and trade with the Cafars") by two different but similar names. The word is also used in reference to the coast of Africa as "land of Cafraria". The 16th century explorer Leo Africanus described the Cafri as "negroes", and he also stated that they constituted one of five principal population groups in Africa. He identified their geographical heartland as being located in a remote region of southern Africa, an area which he designated as Cafraria.

By the late 19th century, the word was in use in English-language newspapers and books. One of the Union-Castle Line ships operating off the South African coast was named SS. In the early 20th century, in his book The Essential, Dudley Kidd writes that the word had come to be used for all dark-skinned South African tribes. Thus, in many parts of South Africa, became synonymous with the word "native". Currently in South Africa, however, the word kaffir is regarded as a racial slur, applied pejoratively or offensively to blacks.

The song "Kafir" by the American technical death metal band Nile on its sixth album Those Whom the Gods Detest uses the violent attitudes that Muslim extremists have towards as subject matter.

The Nuristani people were formerly known as the Kaffirs of Kafiristan before the Afghan Islamization of the region.

The Kalash people who live in the Hindu Kush mountain range which is located south west of Chitral are referred to as by the Muslim population of Chitral.

In modern Spanish, the word cafre, derived from the Arabic word by way of the Portuguese language, also means 'uncouth' or 'savage'.

title: Kafir


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Health care

Health care, or healthcare, is the improvement of health via the prevention, diagnosis, treatment, amelioration or cure of disease, illness, injury, and other physical and mental impairments in people. Health care is delivered by health professionals and allied health fields. Medicine, dentistry, pharmacy, midwifery, nursing, optometry, audiology, psychology, occupational therapy, physical therapy, athletic training, and other health professions all constitute health care. The term includes work done in providing primary care, secondary care, tertiary care, and public health.

Access to healthcare may vary across countries, communities, and individuals, influenced by social and economic conditions and health policies. Providing health care services means "the timely use of personal health services to achieve the best possible health outcomes". Factors to consider in terms of healthcare access include financial limitations (such as insurance coverage), geographical and logistical barriers (such as additional transportation costs and the ability to take paid time off work to use such services), sociocultural expectations, and personal limitations (lack of ability to communicate with health care providers, poor health literacy, low income). Limitations to health care services affect negatively the use of medical services, the efficacy of treatments, and overall outcome (well-being, mortality rates).

Health systems are the organizations established to meet the health needs of targeted populations. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), a well-functioning healthcare system requires a financing mechanism, a well-trained and adequately paid workforce, reliable information on which to base decisions and policies, and well-maintained health facilities to deliver quality medicines and technologies.

An efficient healthcare system can contribute to a significant part of a country's economy, development, and industrialization. Health care is an important determinant in promoting the general physical and mental health and well-being of people around the world. An example of this was the worldwide eradication of smallpox in 1980, declared by the WHO, as the first disease in human history to be eliminated by deliberate healthcare interventions.

Delivery
The delivery of modern health care depends on groups of trained professionals and paraprofessionals coming together as interdisciplinary teams. This includes professionals in medicine, psychology, physiotherapy, nursing, dentistry, midwifery and allied health, along with many others such as public health practitioners, community health workers and assistive personnel, who systematically provide personal and population-based preventive, curative and rehabilitative care services.

While the definitions of the various types of health care vary depending on the different cultural, political, organizational, and disciplinary perspectives, there appears to be some consensus that primary care constitutes the first element of a continuing health care process and may also include the provision of secondary and tertiary levels of care. Health care can be defined as either public or private.

Primary care

Primary care refers to the work of health professionals who act as a first point of consultation for all patients within the health care system. The primary care model supports first-contact, accessible, continuous, comprehensive and coordinated person-focused care. Such a professional would usually be a primary care physician, such as a general practitioner or family physician. Another professional would be a licensed independent practitioner such as a physiotherapist, or a non-physician primary care provider such as a physician assistant or nurse practitioner. Depending on the locality and health system organization, the patient may see another health care professional first, such as a pharmacist or nurse. Depending on the nature of the health condition, patients may be referred for secondary or tertiary care.

Primary care is often used as the term for the health care services that play a role in the local community. It can be provided in different settings, such as Urgent care centers that provide same-day appointments or services on a walk-in basis.

Primary care involves the widest scope of health care, including all ages of patients, patients of all socioeconomic and geographic origins, patients seeking to maintain optimal health, and patients with all types of acute and chronic physical, mental and social health issues, including multiple chronic diseases. Consequently, a primary care practitioner must possess a wide breadth of knowledge in many areas. Continuity is a key characteristic of primary care, as patients usually prefer to consult the same practitioner for routine check-ups and preventive care, health education, and every time they require an initial consultation about a new health problem. The International Classification of Primary Care (ICPC) is a standardized tool for understanding and analyzing information on interventions in primary care based on the reason for the patient's visit.

Common chronic illnesses usually treated in primary care may include, for example, hypertension, diabetes, asthma, COPD, depression and anxiety, back pain, arthritis or thyroid dysfunction. Primary care also includes many basic maternal and child health care services, such as family planning services and vaccinations. In the United States, the 2013 National Health Interview Survey found that skin disorders (42.7%), osteoarthritis and joint disorders (33.6%), back problems (23.9%), disorders of lipid metabolism (22.4%), and upper respiratory tract disease (22.1%, excluding asthma) were the most common reasons for accessing a physician.

In the United States, primary care physicians have begun to deliver primary care outside of the managed care (insurance-billing) system through direct primary care which is a subset of the more familiar concierge medicine. Physicians in this model bill patients directly for services, either on a pre-paid monthly, quarterly, or annual basis, or bill for each service in the office. Examples of direct primary care practices include Foundation Health in Colorado and Qliance in Washington.

In the context of global population aging, with increasing numbers of older adults at greater risk of chronic non-communicable diseases, rapidly increasing demand for primary care services is expected in both developed and developing countries. The World Health Organization attributes the provision of essential primary care as an integral component of an inclusive primary health care strategy.

Secondary care
Secondary care includes acute care: necessary treatment for a short period of time for a brief but serious illness, injury, or other health condition. This care is often found in a hospital emergency department. Secondary care also includes skilled attendance during childbirth, intensive care, and medical imaging services.

The term "secondary care" is sometimes used synonymously with "hospital care". However, many secondary care providers, such as psychiatrists, clinical psychologists, occupational therapists, most dental specialties or physiotherapists, do not necessarily work in hospitals. Some primary care services are delivered within hospitals. Depending on the organization and policies of the national health system, patients may be required to see a primary care provider for a referral before they can access secondary care.

In countries that operate under a mixed market health care system, some physicians limit their practice to secondary care by requiring patients to see a primary care provider first. This restriction may be imposed under the terms of the payment agreements in private or group health insurance plans. In other cases, medical specialists may see patients without a referral, and patients may decide whether self-referral is preferred.

In other countries patient self-referral to a medical specialist for secondary care is rare as prior referral from another physician (either a primary care physician or another specialist) is considered necessary, regardless of whether the funding is from private insurance schemes or national health insurance.

Allied health professionals, such as physical therapists, respiratory therapists, occupational therapists, speech therapists, and dietitians, also generally work in secondary care, accessed through either patient self-referral or through physician referral.

Tertiary care
Tertiary care is specialized consultative health care, usually for inpatients and on referral from a primary or secondary health professional, in a facility that has personnel and facilities for advanced medical investigation and treatment, such as a tertiary referral hospital.

Examples of tertiary care services are cancer management, neurosurgery, cardiac surgery, plastic surgery, treatment for severe burns, advanced neonatology services, palliative, and other complex medical and surgical interventions.

Quaternary care
The term quaternary care is sometimes used as an extension of tertiary care in reference to advanced levels of medicine which are highly specialized and not widely accessed. Experimental medicine and some types of uncommon diagnostic or surgical procedures are considered quaternary care. These services are usually only offered in a limited number of regional or national health care centers.

Home and community care
Many types of health care interventions are delivered outside of health facilities. They include many interventions of public health interest, such as food safety surveillance, distribution of condoms and needle-exchange programs for the prevention of transmissible diseases.

They also include the services of professionals in residential and community settings in support of self-care, home care, long-term care, assisted living, treatment for substance use disorders among other types of health and social care services.

Community rehabilitation services can assist with mobility and independence after the loss of limbs or loss of function. This can include prostheses, orthotics, or wheelchairs.

Many countries are dealing with aging populations, so one of the priorities of the health care system is to help seniors live full, independent lives in the comfort of their own homes. There is an entire section of health care geared to providing seniors with help in day-to-day activities at home such as transportation to and from doctor's appointments along with many other activities that are essential for their health and well-being. Although they provide home care for older adults in cooperation, family members and care workers may harbor diverging attitudes and values towards their joint efforts. This state of affairs presents a challenge for the design of ICT (information and communication technology) for home care.

Because statistics show that over 80 million Americans have taken time off of their primary employment to care for a loved one, many countries have begun offering programs such as the Consumer Directed Personal Assistant Program to allow family members to take care of their loved ones without giving up their entire income.

With obesity in children rapidly becoming a major concern, health services often set up programs in schools aimed at educating children about nutritional eating habits, making physical education a requirement and teaching young adolescents to have a positive self-image.

Ratings
Health care ratings are ratings or evaluations of health care used to evaluate the process of care and health care structures and/or outcomes of health care services. This information is translated into report cards that are generated by quality organizations, nonprofit, consumer groups and media. This evaluation of quality is based on measures of:
 * health plan quality
 * hospital quality
 * of patient experience
 * physician quality
 * quality for other health professionals

Access to health care
Access to healthcare may vary across countries, communities, and individuals, influenced by social and economic conditions as well as health policies. Providing health care services means "the timely use of personal health services to achieve the best possible health outcomes". Factors to consider in terms of healthcare access include financial limitations (such as insurance coverage), geographical and logistical barriers (such as additional transportation costs and the ability to take paid time off work to use such services), sociocultural expectations, and personal limitations (lack of ability to communicate with health care providers, poor health literacy, low income). Limitations to health care services affects negatively the use of medical services, the efficacy of treatments, and overall outcome (well-being, mortality rates).

Related sectors
Health care extends beyond the delivery of services to patients, encompassing many related sectors, and is set within a bigger picture of financing and governance structures.

Health system
A health system, also sometimes referred to as health care system or healthcare system, is the organization of people, institutions, and resources that deliver health care services to populations in need.

Industry
The healthcare industry incorporates several sectors that are dedicated to providing health care services and products. As a basic framework for defining the sector, the United Nations' International Standard Industrial Classification categorizes health care as generally consisting of hospital activities, medical and dental practice activities, and "other human health activities." The last class involves activities of, or under the supervision of, nurses, midwives, physiotherapists, scientific or diagnostic laboratories, pathology clinics, residential health facilities, patient advocates or other allied health professions.

In addition, according to industry and market classifications, such as the Global Industry Classification Standard and the Industry Classification Benchmark, health care includes many categories of medical equipment, instruments and services including biotechnology, diagnostic laboratories and substances, drug manufacturing and delivery.

For example, pharmaceuticals and other medical devices are the leading high technology exports of Europe and the United States. The United States dominates the biopharmaceutical field, accounting for three-quarters of the world's biotechnology revenues.

Research
The quantity and quality of many health care interventions are improved through the results of science, such as advanced through the medical model of health which focuses on the eradication of illness through diagnosis and effective treatment. Many important advances have been made through health research, biomedical research and pharmaceutical research, which form the basis for evidence-based medicine and evidence-based practice in health care delivery. Health care research frequently engages directly with patients, and as such issues for whom to engage and how to engage with them become important to consider when seeking to actively include them in studies. While single best practice does not exist, the results of a systematic review on patient engagement suggest that research methods for patient selection need to account for both patient availability and willingness to engage.

Health services research can lead to greater efficiency and equitable delivery of health care interventions, as advanced through the social model of health and disability, which emphasizes the societal changes that can be made to make populations healthier. Results from health services research often form the basis of evidence-based policy in health care systems. Health services research is also aided by initiatives in the field of artificial intelligence for the development of systems of health assessment that are clinically useful, timely, sensitive to change, culturally sensitive, low-burden, low-cost, built into standard procedures, and involve the patient.

Financing
There are generally five primary methods of funding health care systems: In most countries, there is a mix of all five models, but this varies across countries and over time within countries. Aside from financing mechanisms, an important question should always be how much to spend on health care. For the purposes of comparison, this is often expressed as the percentage of GDP spent on health care. In OECD countries for every extra $1000 spent on health care, life expectancy falls by 0.4 years. A similar correlation is seen from the analysis carried out each year by Bloomberg. Clearly this kind of analysis is flawed in that life expectancy is only one measure of a health system's performance, but equally, the notion that more funding is better is not supported.
 * 1) General taxation to the state, county or municipality
 * 2) Social health insurance
 * 3) Voluntary or private health insurance
 * 4) Out-of-pocket payments
 * 5) Donations to health charities

In 2011, the health care industry consumed an average of 9.3 percent of the GDP or US$ 3,322 (PPP-adjusted) per capita across the 34 members of OECD countries. The US (17.7%, or US$ PPP 8,508), the Netherlands (11.9%, 5,099), France (11.6%, 4,118), Germany (11.3%, 4,495), Canada (11.2%, 5669), and Switzerland (11%, 5,634) were the top spenders, however life expectancy in total population at birth was highest in Switzerland (82.8 years), Japan and Italy (82.7), Spain and Iceland (82.4), France (82.2) and Australia (82.0), while OECD's average exceeds 80 years for the first time ever in 2011: 80.1 years, a gain of 10 years since 1970. The US (78.7 years) ranges only on place 26 among the 34 OECD member countries, but has the highest costs by far. All OECD countries have achieved universal (or almost universal) health coverage, except the US and Mexico. (see also international comparisons.)

In the United States, where around 18% of GDP is spent on health care, the Commonwealth Fund analysis of spend and quality shows a clear correlation between worse quality and higher spending.

Expand the OECD charts below to see the breakdown:
 * "Government/compulsory": Government spending and compulsory health insurance.
 * "Voluntary": Voluntary health insurance and private funds such as households' out-of-pocket payments, NGOs and private corporations.
 * They are represented by columns starting at zero. They are not stacked. The 2 are combined to get the total.
 * At the source you can run your cursor over the columns to get the year and the total for that country.
 * Click the table tab at the source to get 3 lists (one after another) of amounts by country: "Total", "Government/compulsory", and "Voluntary".

Administration and regulation
The management and administration of health care is vital to the delivery of health care services. In particular, the practice of health professionals and the operation of health care institutions is typically regulated by national or state/provincial authorities through appropriate regulatory bodies for purposes of quality assurance. Most countries have credentialing staff in regulatory boards or health departments who document the certification or licensing of health workers and their work history.

Health information technology
Health information technology (HIT) is "the application of information processing involving both computer hardware and software that deals with the storage, retrieval, sharing, and use of health care information, data, and knowledge for communication and decision making."

Health information technology components:
 * Electronic health record (EHR) – An EHR contains a patient's comprehensive medical history, and may include records from multiple providers.
 * Electronic Medical Record (EMR) – An EMR contains the standard medical and clinical data gathered in one's provider's office.
 * Health information exchange (HIE) – Health Information Exchange allows health care professionals and patients to appropriately access and securely share a patient's vital medical information electronically.
 * Medical practice management software (MPM) – is designed to streamline the day-to-day tasks of operating a medical facility. Also known as practice management software or practice management system (PMS).
 * Personal health record (PHR) – A PHR is a patient's medical history that is maintained privately, for personal use.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Health care


text:
Aurora (province)

Aurora, officially the Province of Aurora (Lalawigan ng Aurora; Probinsia ti Aurora), is a province in the Philippines located in the eastern part of Central Luzon region, facing the Philippine Sea. Its capital is Baler and borders, clockwise from the south, the provinces of Quezon, Bulacan, Nueva Ecija, Nueva Vizcaya, Quirino, and Isabela.

Before 1979, Aurora was part of the province of Quezon. Aurora was, in fact, named after Aurora Aragon, the wife of Manuel L. Quezon, the president of the Philippine Commonwealth, after whom the mother province was named.

Spanish colonial era
In 1572, the Spanish explorer Juan de Salcedo became the first European to visit the region that would be known as Aurora while he was exploring the northern coast of Luzon. Salcedo reportedly visited the towns of Casiguran, Baler and Infanta. Baler & Casiguran were part of La Provincia de La Pampanga, which also included Pampanga, Bulacan, and Tarlac, and in 1591, the towns became part of Kalilayan, which included Nueva Ecija, until Kalilayan changed its name to Tayabas in 1749, taken from the town of the same name.

In the early days of the Spanish colonial period, Aurora was ecclesiastically linked to Infanta, which today rests further south, in northern Quezon. The earliest missionaries in the province were the Franciscans, who had established missions in Baler and Casiguran in 1609. Due to lack of available personnel, the region was given to the jurisdiction of the Augustinians and Recollects in 1658, but was returned to the Friars Minor in 1703. Other early missions included Dipaculao, established in 1719, and Casiguran, in 1753.

In 1705, the Military Comandancia of Nueva Ecija was created and was governed by Governor-General Fausto Cruzat y Góngora. It included huge swathes of Central Luzon, the Contracosta towns, as well as the Kalilayan area and Polillo Islands, however Nueva Ecija was still part of La Pampanga province at that time. Contracosta was the Spanish colonial name for the towns on the east coast and included towns from Mauban, Binangonan de Lampon, to El Principe. Since Contracosta & Kalilayan were part of La Laguna province at that time before including them in Nueva Ecija, they became jointly ruled by La Pampanga & La Laguna provinces. Contracosta and Tayabas area became jointly ruled by Tayabas and Pampanga when Tayabas became independent from La Laguna in 1754. When Rafael María de Aguilar y Ponce de León took over as Governor-General of the Philippines, he decreed the separation of the military- district of Nueva Ecija from the province of Pampanga and became a regular province on April 25, 1801, including the town of Baler, acquired from Tayabas.

In 1818, Nueva Ecija annexed the towns of Palanan from Isabela, as well as Baler, Casiguran, Infanta (formerly called Binangonan de Lampon) and Polillo Islands from Tayabas, and Cagayan, Nueva Vizcaya, Quirino, and part of Rizal. In 1853, the new military district of Tayabas was separated from Nueva Ecija and included present-day Southern Quezon as well as present-day Aurora. In 1858, Binangonan de Lampon and the Polillo Islands were separated from Nueva Ecija to form part of Infanta. Between 1855 and 1885, El Principe was established as its own Military Comandancia with its capital in Baler.

District of El Principe
The early history of Aurora is linked to Quezon province, of which it formed a part, and Nueva Ecija, under which the area was governed as the District of El Príncipe. In 1902, the district was separated from Nueva Ecija and transferred to the province of Tayabas (now Quezon). The northern area which is part of the modern Dilasag and area of modern Casiguran was part of Nueva Vizcaya and also transferred to Tayabas in 1905. In 1918, the area of modern Aurora north of Baler was transferred to the authority of Nueva Vizcaya, but returned to Tayabas in 1946, when Tayabas was renamed to Quezon. This was named in honor of Manuel Quezon who was the second President of the Philippines and elected governor of Tayabas in 1906 and congressman of 1st district of Tayabas in 1907 born and raised in Baler, formerly one of the towns of the province.

World War II
In 1942, invading Japanese forces landed in the town of Casiguran. On February 19, 1945, to May 11, 1945, Allied troops as well as Philippine Commonwealth forces and recognized guerrilla units fought on the Battle of Casiguran during the return of American forces on Luzon on World War II.

Postwar era
During the postwar years, there were several attempts to make Aurora independent from the rest of Quezon Province. One obvious reason was the area's isolation from the rest of Quezon Province: there were no direct links to the rest of the province and much of the terrain was mountainous and heavily forested, which made the area relatively isolated. Independence from Quezon also meant that Aurora would belong in the Central Luzon region, in keeping with its precolonial history, rather than part of Southern Luzon.

Aurora became a sub-province of Quezon in 1951 through Republic Act No. 648 under the presidency of Elpidio Quirino, after whom its neighboring province was named.

In 1978, the Lieutenant Governor of the Sub-Province Atty. Luis S. Etcubañez filed a Parliamentary Bill for the establishment of Aurora at the Interim Batasang Pambansa, leveraging his political ties with the various Assemblymen of Region IV. This led to a plebiscite in May 1979 to confirm the citizens of the Province's willingness to separate from Quezon Province, and the eventual establishment of the province through ''Batas Pambansa Blg. 7'' on November 21, 1978.

1968 Casiguran earthquake
On 04:19:22 local time on August 2, the 1968 Casiguran earthquake, with a moment magnitude of 7.6 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent), took place with an epicenter was in Casiguran. The quake generated a small non-destructive tsunami, but the majority of the 207 people killed during the quake were the result of the collapse of a six-story building in Manila.

During the Marcos dictatorship
The beginning months of the 1970s had marked a period of turmoil and change in the Philippines, as well as in Aurora. During his bid to be the first Philippine president to be re-elected for a second term, Ferdinand Marcos launched an unprecedented number of foreign debt-funded public works projects. This caused the Philippine economy took a sudden downwards turn known as the 1969 Philippine balance of payments crisis, which in turn led to a period of economic difficulty and a significant rise of social unrest.

With only a year left in his last constitutionally allowed term as president Ferdinand Marcos placed the Philippines under Martial Law in September 1972 and thus retained the position for fourteen more years. This period in Philippine history is remembered for the Marcos administration's record of human rights abuses, particularly targeting political opponents, student activists, journalists, religious workers, farmers, and others who fought against the Marcos dictatorship.

One significant impact on the residents of Aurora, especially its farmers, was the administration's practice of hamletting to achieve military control of the area. After the September 1972 declaration, Marcos forces were ordered into the province to achieve a military presence. But the New People's Army (NPA) which was fighting them responded by establishing a presence of their own in Aurora's mountainous areas. Despite the fact that the residents generally resisted invitations to join the NPA, the dictatorship troops told the residents that they were not allowed into the fields between Four in the afternoon and Seven in the morning. This made farming very difficult because people had to work in the fields during the hottest parts of the day.

Things took a more violent turn in the town Dinalungan during the early 1980s, after farmers organized a rally against a landowner who attempted to claim their farms, seeking help and support from the nuns at the Carmelite mission which had been established there. However, the military accused the Carmelites of working with the NPA, and even hunted down the convent's caretaker and one of the church workers. Young men started disappearing from the farms, and rumors begun to spread that they had been victims of extrajudicial killings by Marcos' forces. Much of the male population of Dinalungan began to disappear altogether, with some believed to be victims of the extrajudicial killings, and the rest forced to join the NPA because of the circumstances. The unrest persisted until the town was finally declared "insurgency free" in October 2018.

Birth of the Surf tourism industry
One of the positive things that did happen to Aurora during the 1970s was the development of the Surf tourism industry after the helicopter attack and surfing sequences of the film Apocalypse Now were filmed at Baler in 1976–77. The exposure of locals to the art of surfing during the production of the movie is credited with having sparked the surfing culture in Aurora and the Philippines.

Administrative assignment
Being originally part of the province of Quezon, Aurora was part of the Southern Tagalog Region (Region IV). Upon the issuance of Executive Order No. 103, dated May 17, 2002, by then-President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, the province of Aurora was moved to Central Luzon (Region III), the geographical location of the province. The provinces south of Aurora were reformed as Calabarzon and Mimaropa, and Southern Tagalog was limited to being a cultural-geographic region. The total separation of Aurora from Quezon, and the transfer of Aurora to Central Luzon were the fulfillment of the wishes and prayers of the residents of the original Municipalities of Baler and Casiguran to be truly independent from Quezon Province for the first time and to reform the original La Pampanga since the Spanish occupation. The transfer of Aurora to Central Luzon opened the access of Central Luzon to Pacific Ocean.

Contemporary
On April 22, 2024, newly installed Governor Reynante A. Tolentino took his oath of office as governor before his brother, Dipaculao Mayor Danilo A. Tolentino. He replaced Atty. Christian Noveras, who was dismissed by the Office of the Ombudsman along with his father, Vice Governor Gerardo Noveras, in December, 2023.

Geography
Aurora is a coastal province covering an area of 3,147.32 km2 in east-central Luzon. To the north, it is bordered by the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park of Isabela, to the west by the central range of the Sierra Madre which contains the Casecnan Protected Landscape and Aurora Memorial National Park, to the south by the Umiray River, and to the east by the Philippine Sea which opens to the Pacific Ocean. The San Ildefonso Peninsula lies in the province's northern portion between the Philippine Sea and the Casiguran Sound.

Topography
The province covers a portion of the Sierra Madre mountain range. As such, the elevation is generally steep to very steep and only about 14% of the province's total area is flat.

Climate
Aurora's climate is classified as Tropical rainforest climate. It experiences significant rainfall throughout the year. Because the coastal province faces the Pacific Ocean, it is frequently visited by typhoons.

Administrative divisions
Aurora is politically subdivided into 8 municipalities, all encompassed by a lone legislative district.

Dilasag and Casiguran form the northern part of the province, while Dinalungan, Dipaculao, Maria Aurora, and Baler (the capital) make up the central portion. The southern half of the province consists of San Luis and Dingalan.

Barangays
The 8 municipalities of the province comprise a total of 151 barangays, with Suclayin in Baler as the most populous in 2010, and Dibalo in San Luis as the least.

Demographics
The population of Aurora in the 2020 census was 235,750 people, with a density of undefined PD/km2.

Based on the 2000 census survey, Tagalogs comprised NaN% (NaN) of the total provincial population of 173,589, and about less than 1/3 of the population were Ilocano at NaN% (NaN). Other ethnic groups in the province were Kasiguranin at NaN% (NaN), Bicolano at NaN% (NaN), Kankanaey at NaN% (NaN), Bisaya at NaN% (NaN), Dumagat (Umiray) at NaN% (NaN), and Cebuano at NaN% (832).

There are also pockets of Bugkalots & Negritos, called Dumagats. Most Dumagats are living in the hillsides or mountains. They are believed to have result from a fusion of Austronesian and Melanesian ancestries, and survive from fishing and hunting. There are three kinds of Dumagats in Aurora province, the Umiray Dumagat, Casiguran Dumagat, and the Palanan Dumagat. Bugkalots are the second tribe indigenous to Aurora, most of them live in Dipaculao & Maria Aurora.

Tagalogs, some originating from Palanan and Infanta, Quezon, came in to the area to trade by boat, some Tagalogs settled in Aurora (especially Baler) and married with the Aeta and Bugkalots. Kapampangans assimilated to the Tagalog settlers. The Spanish brought in Filipino acolytes from other areas of Luzon from 1609 to 1899. During this period, Baler can only be access by sea though the town saw increase migration from other parts of Luzon such as Laguna, Tayabas, and Bicol from the south. The opening of the Baler-Bongabon Road allowed easier migration of people from Ilocos and Isabela areas from the north. The road also allowed Igorot people and Batangueño Tagalogs to settle in Baler & other places of Aurora. The majority of Igorots settled Dipaculao, Maria Aurora, & Baler. In 1896, a group of Ilocanos from Aringay, La Union came to settle in San Jose, now called Maria Aurora; in 1906, another group of Ilocanos arrived from La Union and Pangasinan. In the early 1920s, Ilocano settlers from Central Luzon settled a Bugkalot territory Dipaculao, which in turn was derived from the phrase Dipac naulaw or Naulaw ni Dipac, the Ilocano for "Dipac got dizzy", idiomatically "Dipac is/got drunk", Dipac is the name of a Bugkalot chief; another group of Ilocano settlers arrived from La Union, Pangasinan, and other areas of Ilocos Region. The guerrilla movement during the Japanese occupation brought Novo Ecijanos (people from Nueva Ecija) to Baler; Novo Ecijanos include Tagalogs, Ilocanos, and Kapampangans, with quite large number of Pangasinenses. The Balereños learned trade from the Batangueños and the Novo Ecijanos; where before they used to share what they have, now they would sell coconut to their neighbors. Other ethnic groups who came and stayed in Aurora include Christianized Gaddang and Isinai settlers who settled the surrounding lowlands of Baler Bay. These ethnic groups who lived for several centuries & left cultural influences & legacies made Aurora the melting pot of the Central Luzon, next to Tarlac & Nueva Ecija.

Languages
The Tagalog and Ilocano languages are spoken by their respective ethnic groups. The province primarily speaks a Tagalog dialect that is closely related to Tayabas Tagalog of Quezon with some Ilocano influences. In Baler, for example, the variety is called Tagalog-Baler (Balereño). The Balereño is also known for distinctive expressions like akkaw, used to express surprise, wonder, disgust, and objection; it is also akin to the English term "Wow!" Other regional term expressions spoken in Baler are are (h), used to express a negative feeling of surprise; anin, used to express regret or pity for a situation; and many other words are also spoken similarly to neighboring Quezon, like adyo, meaning to climb, and puropur, which pertain to rain with gusty wind. Ilocano is mostly spoken in northern areas of the province. The working population is ready in speech in the English language as well as in the Filipino language. Manuel L. Quezon, who was from Baler, was called the Father of the National Language for approving the recommendation of the Institute of National Language for Tagalog as the basis of the national language. Other languages spoken in Aurora are Kapampangan & Pangasinan (in some areas of the province, most of which is in Baler), & another language native in Aurora is Casiguranin or Kasiguranin, spoken in Casiguran & neighboring areas Dilasag & Dinalungan.

Catholicism
The people of Aurora are heavily Catholics (large majority being Roman Catholic by 87%) as a result of hundreds of years of Spanish colonization.

Others
Some other Christian believers are also present, which includes Members Church of God International (MCGI), Methodists, Aglipayan Church 2-3%, Baptists, Born Again Christians, Jehovah's Witnesses, Iglesia ni Cristo 4% and Seventh-day Adventist while Muslims are also found which presence is traced to migration by some people from some parts of Mindanao. Muslims, Anitists, animists, and atheists are also present in the province.

Economy
Corn, rice and other major agricultural crops are grown in Aurora, with a total of 13% of the provincial land area used for agriculture. It also has 8,945 ha of rice plantation that averages 24,000 MT every year.

Aurora Pacific Economic Zone
Casiguran is home to the Aurora Pacific Economic Zone and Freeport Authority or APECO a special economic zone located in this coastal town. Created in 2007 by virtue of Republic Act No. 9490 through the efforts of Sen. Edgardo Angara and his son, Aurora Rep. Sonny Angara, it is expected be a major transshipment hub going to the Pacific region. It aims to boost social, economic and industrial developments in Aurora and nearby provinces by generating jobs for the people, improving the quality of their living conditions, advocating an eco-friendly approach to industrialization and enhancing the potential of the community in productivity.

Notable people

 * Sonny Angara, senator since 2013.
 * Bellaflor Angara-Castillo, governor from 2004 to 2013.
 * Manuel L. Quezon, first president of the Commonwealth of the Philippines
 * Aurora Quezon, former first lady of the Philippines, wife of President Manuel L. Quezon

title: Aurora (province)


text:
Commonwealth Coast Football

Commonwealth Coast Football (CCC Football) was a single-sport athletic conference that competed in football in the NCAA's Division III. It began play as CCC Football in 2017 after the New England Football Conference (NEFC) was renamed following the 2016 season. CCC Football was administered by the Commonwealth Coast Conference.

The conference competed under the NEFC banner from 1965 through the 2016 season. Member teams are located in New England.

Before an NEFC conference split that took effect with the 2013 season, the NEFC was divided into the Boyd Division and the Bogan Division, with the division champions competing in Division III football's only season-ending conference championship game.

After the 2012 season, the NEFC split, with the seven Massachusetts state institutions and Plymouth State playing in the MASCAC for football. The conference's automatic bid to the NCAA Division III playoffs continued to be held by the eight remaining members: Curry, Endicott, Maine Maritime, MIT, Nichols, Salve Regina, Coast Guard, and Western New England. In the 12 seasons the NEFC hosted a championship game between its two division winners, these remaining eight members accounted for 16 of the 24 championship game participants and 8 of 12 conference champions.

The decision to rename the NEFC was made in October 2015, as the Commonwealth Coast Conference announced that it would add football by effectively absorbing the NEFC as a single-sport conference known as Commonwealth Coast Football, starting with the 2017–18 school year. Accordingly, the 2016 season was the last for the NEFC under its long-standing name and acronym.

The CCC and Commonwealth Coast Football unveiled a new family of logos during a June 2019 visual rebrand.

Due to changes in NCAA Division III legislation regarding the number of members required for a conference to receive an automatic qualifier (AQ), football was incorporated into the multi-sport Commonwealth Coast Conference in 2022, eliminating the need for the football-only league.

NEFC and CCC Football Membership evolution
1965 – The New England Football Conference is founded by charter members Curry, Bridgewater State and Maine Maritime.

1971 – Plymouth State and New England College become conference members.

1972 – Nichols College and Boston State become conference members.

1972 – New England College suspends football program following '72 season; Mass. Maritime Academy becomes conference member.

1973 – Framingham State and New Haven become conference members.

1979 – Western Connecticut State becomes conference member.

1981 – Western New England College becomes conference member.

1981 – New Haven leaves conference, moves to Division II.

1981 – Boston State suspends football program following '81 season.

1982 – Westfield State becomes conference member.

1985 – Fitchburg State and Worcester State become conference members.

1985 – Western Connecticut leaves conference to pursue independent schedule.

1987 – UMass Lowell becomes conference member in 1987, initiating a split into two six-team divisions with divisional winners meeting in championship playoff game.

1988 – UMass Boston and UMass Dartmouth become conference members.

1988 – Western New England leaves conference following '88 season.

1992 – Plymouth State and UMass Lowell join the Freedom Football Conference; Curry and Nichols join the Eastern Collegiate Football Conference.

1992 – The conference now numbers nine colleges that play a round robin schedule.

1997 – Five new members begin conference play in 1998: Curry, Nichols, MIT, Salve Regina and WNEC. The 14-team conference had two 7-team divisions.

1999 – Bridgewater State (10–0) receives first automatic qualification to NCAA playoffs.

2000 – The first Championship game in the 14-team Conference is scheduled. Wal*Mart agrees to sponsor the game. The Divisions are renamed with the Red being the Bogan Division and the Blue becoming the Boyd Division named after the NEFC's first two commissioners. Bridgewater State defeats Salve Regina 27–24 for the championship. UMass Boston drops football.

2001 – The Bogan Division plays with only six teams while the Boyd continues with seven. Endicott College begins a football program and is admitted into the Boyd Division beginning with the 2003 season.

2004 – A Most Valuable Player Award is established for the NEFC Championship Game and is named the William Mottola Award in honor of the long-time conference commissioner.

2005 – Plymouth State University and the United States Coast Guard Academy are admitted as members for play beginning in the 2006 season. Plymouth enters the Boyd Division and Coast Guard Academy competes in the Bogan Division. The Conference decides that the Championship Game will be played at the campus of the Bogan Division winner in even numbered years and on the field of the Boyd Division champion in odd numbered years.

2007 – Curry College becomes the first NEFC team to win an NCAA Division III Championship Tournament game, defeating Hartwick College 42–21.

2008 – The NEFC qualifies two teams for the NCAA Division III Championship Tournament for the first time. Conference champion Plymouth State University receives the automatic bid, and Curry College receives an at-large bid.

2010 – Maine Maritime Academy sets a new NCAA Division III season rushing record with 5189 yards in 11 games. The Mariners miss the all-Division mark set by the University of Oklahoma in 1971 by eight yards.

2011 – Massachusetts State College Athletic Conference institution presidents decide to form a MASCAC football league, which consists of nine schools, and the league champion is awarded an automatic berth to the NCAA D-III Football National Tournament. Bridgewater State University, Fitchburg State University, Framingham State University, Massachusetts Maritime Academy, Westfield State University, and Worcester State University are the six core schools deciding to join the new MASCAC conference. Also, Plymouth State University, UMass-Dartmouth, and Western Connecticut State also join the MASCAC conference as flagship members, effectively in 2013.

2012 – The NEFC qualifies two teams for the NCAA Division III National Tournament for the second time in league history. Framingham State (10–1) won the NEFC Championship and received the automatic bid, while Bridgewater State (9–1) received an at-large bid. Framingham State lost in the first round, 20–19 to Cortland State (NY), while Bridgewater State also lost in the first round, 44–14 to Widener University (PA).

2013 – Retired Bridgewater State University Director of Athletics John Harper is named Commissioner of the Conference

2014 – The Conference Championship traveling trophy is named for former Maine Maritime Academy Director of Athletics and football coach Bill Mottola. Mottola was NEFC Commissioner from 1997 to 2007 and was affiliated with the conference for four decades.

2015 – Maine Maritime Academy, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and the United States Coast Guard Academy announce plans to leave the NEFC following the 2016 season to compete in the NEWMAC, which begins sponsoring football as a championship sport in 2017.

2015 – Gregg Kaye, Commissioner of the Commonwealth Coast Conference, is named NEFC Commissioner.

2016 – The NEFC completes its final season of play under the NEFC name. Curry, Endicott, Nichols, Salve Regina, and Western New England compete in a renamed NEFC known as Commonwealth Coast Football (CCC Football) in succeeding years. Becker joins as an associate member in 2017 and the University of New England adds a football program and becomes CCC Football's seventh football member in 2018. As a renamed NEFC, CCC Football continues to receive automatic qualification to the NCAA Division III Championship Tournament.

2017 – The NEFC begins play as Commonwealth Coast Football and continues to operate as a single-sport conference administered by the Commonwealth Coast Conference.

2019 – Husson joins as an associate member.

2021 – Becker ceases operations.

2022 - Football fully incorporated into the CCC sport sponsorship, rendering CCC Football a defunct league.

Former NEFC/CCC Football members
The years of departure listed are the calendar years in which each school left the conference. Because football is a fall sport, the year of departure is the calendar year after the last season of competition.

Primary conferences
When the conference operated under the NEFC name, its teams competed in other primary multi-sport conferences.

title: Commonwealth Coast Football


text:
Oleanna

Oleanna (anglicized from Oleana) is:

 * Oleona, Pennsylvania, an unincorporated community
 * "Oleanna" (song), a folk song mocking Ole Bull's ambitions of a perfect community
 * Oleanna (play), a play named after the folk song, written by David Mamet
 * Oleanna (film), a film based on Mamet's play, directed by the author and starring William H. Macy
 * Oleana (clothing), a Norwegian textile company named after Ole Bull's Oleana community
 * Oleana (restaurant) Cambridge, Massachusetts
 * Oleana, a character from Pokémon Sword and Shield

title: Oleanna


text:
Talk:Edgar F. Codd

Untitled
IBM did NOT ignore Codd's work until the "successes" of Larry Ellison. IBM was deeply involved in relational database research and the development of SQL in the early 1970s, before Ellison even got started. Even the unskeptical do not contend that Oracle delivered commercial product prior to late 1979, and other commercial relational products were well on the way in that time frame. Oracle's early product saw little success until the mid 1980s with products like Ingres having the early lion's share of the market. If anything, it was Ellison who ignored Codd's work -- the early Oracle product was far from meeting the principles of the relational model. Oracle did not achieve market dominance until much later and by that time IBM had established two relational products SQL/DS and DB2 in the market.

David McGoveran

F stands for Frank —Preceding unsigned comment added by 121.217.255.142 (talk) 10:18, 17 August 2008 (UTC)

 * ill be brief. Ibm was very much committed to todds work with many product groups involved. They wanted to release a product that was both robust, and could fit into a much larger context than oracles niche product. Oracle just released first, and has been extremely agressive in marketing pricing and aquisitions. For more than a few years, oracle was thought to be in serious trouble, against both INGRESS and IBMs SQL aind DB2. Consider  that despite oracles dominance DB2 is still widely used. --22:47, 26 August 2011 (UTC)  — Preceding unsigned comment added by 107.37.217.154 (talk)

PhD in Computer Science
Did Dr. Codd get his PhD in Computer Science as it says here in this article? I thought it was in Communication Sciences? See Edgar F. Codd: A Tribute and Personal Memoir from ACM SIGMOD. 69.224.58.213 (talk) 08:48, 27 June 2009 (UTC)Steven
 * says: "From 1961 to 1965 Codd was on leave from IBM while he undertook Ph.D. studies at the University of Michigan. Codd's Ph.D. was in communication sciences and his thesis was on self-reproducing computers consisting of a large number of simple identical cells, each of which could interact in a uniform manner with its four immediate neighbors. Academic Press eventually published this work in 1968 as Cellular Automata." Ferkel (talk) 23:09, 18 April 2011 (UTC)

F
What does the "F" stand for in Edward F. Codd? - 203.134.166.99 07:42, 20 July 2005 (UTC)

Frank

Don't know. But his name wasn't Edward ;-) Mhkay 13:26, 16 August 2007 (UTC)

Future System and System R
The statement "Then IBM included in its Future System project a System R subproject" is not correct or at least misleading". System R was a Research project and preceded Future System. Future System was a later Development project. I know. I was part of System R. See "A History and Evaluation of System R" at www.cs.berkeley.edu/~brewer/cs262/SystemR.pdf or the System R website at www.mcjones.org/System_R . James W. (Jim) Mehl

Also misleading: "but put in charge of it developers who were not thoroughly familiar with Codd's ideas, and isolated the team from Codd". The System R project was in San Jose, where Ted was, and researchers were relocated from IBM Yorktown to IBM San Jose to be on the project. In particular, Don Chamberlin and Ray Boyce, who invented SEQUEL/SQL, were quite aware of Ted's work. Read this oral history of Don for his interactions with Ted: http://archive.computerhistory.org/resources/access/text/Oral_History/102702111.05.01.acc.pdf. Paul McJones, who, like Jim Mehl, was part of System R. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Pmcjones (talk • contribs) 18:43, 18 April 2011 (UTC)

 * Because I stumbled over this and the succeeding sentence, I try to reword it and by the way remove the mentioned inaccuracies, as long as those aren't sourced correctly. But all things considered, an unsigned comment on the talk page wouldn't count as source either. 91.66.90.117 (talk) 22:38, 14 January 2017 (UTC)

British?
Codd was British and he was a computer scientist, but can he really be described as a "British Computer Scientist" when all his professional career as a computer scientist was spent in the United States? Mhkay 13:25, 16 August 2007 (UTC)

Codd was very proud of being British. When I had lunch with him in the early 80s he described flying Spitfires for the RAF. He was small of stature but had a warm personality and a generous spirit. Above all he was a mathematician. He was very focused on the mathematical rigor of relational theory. Date was a bit more practically oriented. Saltysailor (talk) 14:10, 12 June 2008 (UTC)

WikiProject class rating
This article was automatically assessed because at least one WikiProject had rated the article as start, and the rating on other projects was brought up to start class. BetacommandBot 14:58, 9 November 2007 (UTC)

Turing Award 13 years ahead of ACM fellow recognition?
Can someone shed some light on why Codd wasn't an ACM fellow a dozen years after he got his Turing Award. Both recognition are from the same organization, and the former is supposed to be many times more selective than the latter, no? Jim —Preceding unsigned comment added by 148.87.1.170 (talk) 17:58, 27 February 2008 (UTC)

The reason is that the first ACM Fellow awards were given in 1994, and included Codd. Paul McJones — Preceding unsigned comment added by Pmcjones (talk • contribs) 18:38, 18 April 2011 (UTC)

IBM Fellow
Codd was an IBM Fellow according to this: http://www.research.ibm.com/resources/news/20030423_edgarpassaway.shtml However, he is listed in the Wikipedia "IBM employee" category. Contrast with Benoit Mandelbrot, who is not listed in the employee category, but rather the fellow category. I assume this is an oversight, but perhaps there is some rationale? Dolphin Cheese (talk) 21:10, 3 March 2008 (UTC) Palavra Hepsi —Preceding unsigned comment added by 85.105.191.122 (talk) 09:43, 23 June 2008 (UTC)

Normalization
The un-cited anecdote about "a little know fact as to how Codd came up with the term 'normalization' " is highly dubious. "Normalization" is a common, ordinary mathematical term for this type of operation, one that would have been quite familiar to him. The entire paragraph smells prankish. ~ Ningauble (talk) 13:41, 17 September 2009 (UTC)

 * I totally agree, I'm removing it. Asymmetric (talk) 20:17, 22 September 2009 (UTC)

I distinctly remember sitting outside a railway station reading an interview of Codd in DBMS magazine, published in 1994, where he said if Nixon could normalize relations (with China), so could he. He also mused that he could have been rich if he'd patented the relational model. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 199.119.235.145 (talk) 13:54, 7 May 2015 (UTC)

--Geneandeddie59 (talk) 18:09, 22 June 2012 (UTC)== Relational Operators ==

Starting in 1967, Luther J. Woodrum implemented a searchable patent database at IBM using the APL language. The database was arranged similar to a large No-SQL table with classes and sub-classes associated with the patent number. The classes and sub-classes represented the different searchable fields (columns), eg Inventor, Assignee, Filing Date, Claims, etc for any patent. The database held several million world-wide patents that were relevant to IBM's business interests. The API also had a Boolean based query capability which Luther described as n-tuple relational operators. Luther presented this as an example of a "database" system in 1970 at his Poughkeepsie IBM Education Center class. Ted Codd was a student in this class. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Geneandeddie59 (talk • contribs) 16:36, 22 June 2012 (UTC)

External links modified
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Named after who?
Codd continued to develop and extend his relational model, sometimes in collaboration with Christopher J. Date. One of the normalised forms, the Boyce–Codd normal form, is named after him. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 209.90.32.9 (talk) 17:54, 11 March 2019 (UTC)

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 05:27, 20 December 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Edgar F. Codd


text:
New England Small College Athletic Conference

The New England Small College Athletic Conference (NESCAC) is an intercollegiate athletic conference that competes in the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division III comprising sports teams from eleven highly selective liberal arts institutions of higher education in the Northeastern United States. The eleven institutions are Amherst College, Bates College, Bowdoin College, Colby College, Connecticut College, Hamilton College, Middlebury College, Tufts University, Trinity College, Wesleyan University, and Williams College.

The conference originated with an agreement among Amherst, Bowdoin, Wesleyan and Williams in 1955. In 1971, Bates, Colby, Hamilton, Middlebury, Trinity, Tufts, and Union College joined on and the NESCAC was officially formed. Union withdrew in 1977 and was replaced by Connecticut College in 1982. Members of the conference have some of the largest financial endowments of any liberal arts colleges in the world, with Williams College's $3.89 billion being the largest. Undergraduate enrollment at the schools ranges from about 1,800 (several institutions) to 6,000 (Tufts).

History
Williams began its inaugural football season in 1881 and its rivalry with Amherst College is one of the longest at any level of college football. Bates and Bowdoin have competed against each other athletically since the 1870s and subsequently share one of the ten oldest NCAA Division III football rivalries, in the United States, there is a long history of athletic competition between the two colleges and Colby. Colby began its now most notable hockey rivalry, with Bowdoin in 1922.

In 1899, Amherst, Wesleyan and Williams schools first began to compete together as the "Triangular League". Since then they have continued to play each other in most sports on a regular basis. The conference originated with an agreement among Amherst, Bowdoin, Wesleyan and Williams in 1955. Later, Bates, Colby, Connecticut College, Hamilton, Middlebury, Trinity, Tufts joined and the NESCAC was officially formed. The Conference was created out of a concern for the direction of intercollegiate athletic programs and remains committed to keeping a proper perspective on the role of sport in higher education.

Member institutions believe athletic teams should be representative of school's entire student bodies and hew to NCAA Division III admissions and financial policies prohibiting athletic scholarships while awarding financial aid solely on the basis of need. Due to the prestigious reputations of its member schools, the NESCAC is able to attract many of the most athletically and intellectually gifted student-athletes in the country. Members stress that intercollegiate athletic programs should operate in harmony with the educational mission of each institution. Schools are committed to maintaining common boundaries to keep athletics strong yet in proportion to their overall academic mission. Presidents of each NESCAC institution control intercollegiate athletic policy. Conference tenets are usually more restrictive than those of the NCAA Division III regarding season length, number of contests and post-season competition.

Four NESCAC institutions are among the 39 that founded the NCAA in 1905: Amherst, Tufts, Wesleyan, and Williams. Prior to 1993 NESCAC generally did not allow member schools to send teams to NCAA championships. Since then all sports except football have had this freedom, many excelling in the NCAA Division III championships. The NACDA Directors' Cup, awarded since 1996 to the college or university in each NCAA Division that wins the most college championships, has been claimed at the Division III level by a NESCAC institution every year except 1998. In the 2012–13 season, four of the top ten NACDA Director's Cup institutions were from NESCAC: Williams (1), Middlebury (3), Amherst (6), and Tufts (8).

Chronological timeline

 * 1971 - The New England Small College Athletic Conference (NESCAC) was founded. Charter members included Amherst College, Bates College, Bowdoin College, Colby College, Hamilton College, Middlebury College, Trinity College, Tufts University, Union College, Wesleyan University and Williams College, effective beginning the 1971-72 academic year.
 * 1977 - Union (N.Y.) left the NESCAC, effective after 1976-77 academic year.
 * 1982 - Connecticut College joined the NESCAC, effective in the 1982-83 academic year.

Member schools
Member colleges of the athletic conference possesses some of the largest financial endowments in the world. As of the 2021-2022 academic year, Williams College in Williamstown, Massachusetts, has the largest endowment of any college in the conference, followed closely by Amherst, and then Bowdoin and Tufts respectively. Admission to NESCAC institutions is often highly competitive, with most member schools touting acceptance rates lower than 15 percent as of the 2020-2021 admissions cycle. Many NESCAC schools are also some of the oldest institutions of higher education in the United States, with Williams, Bowdoin and Middlebury being among the 40 oldest institutions in the country.

Current members
The NESCAC currently has 11 full members; all are private schools. Every institution fields a football team except for Connecticut College.

 * Notes:

Academics
Many schools in the New England Small College Athletic Conference are known for low grade inflation, grade deflation, and rigorous academic standards. Some members have received limited media coverage over perceived grade inflation and deflation.

The colleges are also known for a range of high and relatively low tuition rates and comprehensive fees. Some of the colleges have been named the most expensive in the United States.

Association of American Universities
Tufts University is a member of the prestigious Association of American Universities.

Geographic distribution
Most applicants to schools in the NESCAC come from the Northeast, largely from the New York City, Boston, and Philadelphia areas. As all NESCAC schools are located on the East Coast, and all but one are in New England, most graduates end up working and residing in the Northeast after graduation.

Spending and revenue
Total revenue includes ticket sales, contributions and donations, rights/licensing, student fees, school funds, and all other sources including TV income, camp income, food, and novelties. Total expenses includes coaching/staff, buildings/grounds, maintenance, utilities and rental fees, and all other costs including recruiting, team travel, equipment and uniforms, conference dues, and insurance costs.

Culture
Many colleges banned fraternities and sororities on the grounds of unwarranted exclusivity, and provided on-campus social houses for all students to engage with. Williams College displaced their fraternity system in the 1960s due to high levels of racial and religious discrimination. Williams College President Chandler stated, "there remained the system of blackballing and secret agreements between some fraternities and their national bodies to exclude blacks and Jews... it was essentially a caste system based on socioeconomic status as perceived by students."

Bates rejected the fraternity system in 1855, when it was founded. Colby disbanded its fraternities and sororities in 1984. At Bowdoin, fraternities were phased out in 2000. Despite the lack of Greek life, NESCAC schools are widely known for a prominent drinking culture.

Schools within the NESCAC conference have made institutional efforts to diversify student body, and attract and wide range of students to their institutions. Many schools in the NESCAC provide significant financial aid to help increase the enrollment of lower income and middle class students.

Notable alumni
Schools in the New England Small College Athletic Conference have graduated three U.S. presidents. The first president to graduate from the athletic conference was Franklin Pierce, the 14th president of the United States, a Bowdoin graduate of 1824. The 20th president, James A. Garfield, graduated from Williams College in 1856. The third U.S. president to graduate from a NESCAC institution was Calvin Coolidge, who graduated from Amherst College in 1895. President Chester Arthur was an 1848 graduate of Union College, a former NESCAC member, and President Woodrow Wilson was a professor at Wesleyan from 1888 to 1890.

Sports
The New England Small College Athletic Conference sponsors championship competition in 13 men's and 14 women's NCAA sanctioned sports.

Men's sponsored sports by school
Men's varsity sports not sponsored by the New England Small College Athletic Conference that are played by NESCAC schools

 * Notes:

Women's sponsored sports by school
Women's varsity sports not sponsored by the New England Small College Athletic Conference that are played by NESCAC schools

 * Notes:

Football
Until the 2017 season, the 10 football-playing NESCAC schools only played 8 regular season games. On April 27, 2017, the NESCAC announced that it would adopt a full 9-game round robin schedule.

In addition to the ban on postseason play, the NESCAC football league is notable for member teams playing conference games only. While some Division II and Division III teams play only conference schedules, NESCAC is unique in all of its members playing only within conference games.

Baseball
NESCAC Baseball is the only men's sport to utilize divisions. Bates, Bowdoin, Colby, Tufts, and Trinity compete in the East Division, while Amherst, Hamilton, Middlebury, Wesleyan, and Williams compete in the West Division. Connecticut College does not sponsor baseball.

The NESCAC has won the College World Series once: by the Trinity Bantams in 2008. Current member schools have appeared in the College World Series a combined total of 5 times.

 * Notes:

NCAA team championships
The Middlebury Panthers lead the NESCAC in NCAA men's titles with 15, while the Williams Ephs lead in women's titles with 30 and in overall NCAA titles with 38. Excluded from this list are all national championships earned outside the scope of NCAA competition, including women's AIAW championships.

The following is a list of NCAA-recognized national team championships by NESCAC schools.

Baseball (1):
 * 2008 – Trinity

Men's basketball (3):
 * 2003 – Williams
 * 2007 – Amherst
 * 2013 – Amherst

Women's basketball (3):
 * 2011 – Amherst
 * 2017 – Amherst
 * 2018 – Amherst

Men's cross country (2):
 * 1994 – Williams
 * 1995 – Williams

Women's cross country (10):
 * 2000 – Middlebury
 * 2001 – Middlebury
 * 2002 – Williams
 * 2003 – Middlebury
 * 2004 – Williams
 * 2006 – Middlebury
 * 2007 – Amherst
 * 2008 – Middlebury
 * 2010 – Middlebury
 * 2015 – Williams

Field hockey (10):
 * 1998 – Middlebury
 * 2007 – Bowdoin
 * 2008 – Bowdoin
 * 2010 – Bowdoin
 * 2012 – Tufts
 * 2013 – Bowdoin
 * 2015 – Middlebury
 * 2017 – Middlebury
 * 2018 – Middlebury
 * 2019 – Middlebury

Women's golf (1):
 * 2015 – Williams

Men's ice hockey (9):
 * 1995 – Middlebury
 * 1996 – Middlebury
 * 1997 – Middlebury
 * 1998 – Middlebury
 * 1999 – Middlebury
 * 2004 – Middlebury
 * 2005 – Middlebury
 * 2006 – Middlebury
 * 2015 – Trinity

Women's ice hockey (5):
 * 2004 – Middlebury
 * 2005 – Middlebury
 * 2006 – Middlebury
 * 2009 – Amherst
 * 2010 – Amherst
 * 2022 - Middlebury

Men's lacrosse (7):
 * 2000 – Middlebury
 * 2001 – Middlebury
 * 2002 – Middlebury
 * 2010 – Tufts
 * 2014 – Tufts
 * 2015 – Tufts
 * 2018 – Wesleyan

Women's lacrosse (10):
 * 1997 – Middlebury
 * 1999 – Middlebury
 * 2001 – Middlebury
 * 2002 – Middlebury
 * 2003 – Amherst
 * 2004 – Middlebury
 * 2008 – Hamilton
 * 2012 – Trinity
 * 2016 – Middlebury
 * 2019 – Middlebury

Women's rowing (15)
 * 2002 – Williams
 * 2003 – Colby
 * 2006 – Williams
 * 2007 – Williams
 * 2008 – Williams
 * 2009 – Williams
 * 2010 – Williams
 * 2011 – Williams
 * 2012 – Williams
 * 2013 – Williams
 * 2014 - Trinity
 * 2015 – Bates
 * 2017 – Bates
 * 2018 – Bates
 * 2019 – Bates
 * 2021 – Bates

Men's soccer (7):
 * 1995 – Williams
 * 2007 – Middlebury
 * 2014 – Tufts
 * 2015 – Amherst
 * 2016 – Tufts
 * 2018 – Tufts
 * 2019 – Tufts
 * 2021 – Connecticut College

Women's soccer (3):
 * 2015 – Williams
 * 2017 – Williams
 * 2018 – Williams

Softball (3):
 * 2013 – Tufts
 * 2014 – Tufts
 * 2015 – Tufts

'''Women's swimming & diving (2):
 * 1982 – Williams
 * 1983 – Williams

Men's tennis (10):
 * 1999 – Williams
 * 2001 – Williams
 * 2002 – Williams
 * 2004 – Middlebury
 * 2010 – Middlebury
 * 2011 – Amherst
 * 2013 – Williams
 * 2014 – Amherst
 * 2016 – Bowdoin
 * 2018 – Middlebury

Women's tennis (12):
 * 1999 – Amherst
 * 2001 – Williams
 * 2002 – Williams
 * 2008 – Williams
 * 2009 – Williams
 * 2010 – Williams
 * 2011 – Williams
 * 2012 – Williams
 * 2013 – Williams
 * 2015 – Williams
 * 2017 – Williams
 * 2019 – Wesleyan

Women's indoor track (2):
 * 2007 – Williams
 * 2019 – Williams