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Commentaries on the Laws of England

The Commentaries on the Laws of England (commonly, but informally known as Blackstone's Commentaries) are an influential 18th-century treatise on the common law of England by Sir William Blackstone, originally published by the Clarendon Press at Oxford between 1765 and 1769. The work is divided into four volumes, on the rights of persons, the rights of things, of private wrongs and of public wrongs.

The Commentaries were long regarded as the leading work on the development of English law and played a role in the development of the American legal system. They were in fact the first methodical treatise on the common law suitable for a lay readership since at least the Middle Ages. The common law of England has relied on precedent more than statute and codifications and has been far less amenable than the civil law, developed from the Roman law, to the needs of a treatise. The Commentaries were influential largely because they were in fact readable, and because they met a need. As such, they were used in the training of American and British lawyers long after the death of Blackstone.

The Commentaries are often quoted as the definitive pre-Revolutionary source of common law by United States courts. Opinions of the Supreme Court of the United States quote from Blackstone's work whenever they wish to engage in historical discussion that goes back that far, or farther (for example, when discussing the intent of the Framers of the Constitution). The book was famously used as the key in Benedict Arnold's book cipher, which he used to communicate secretly with his conspirator John André during their plot to betray the Continental Army during the American Revolution.

Publication history
In 1765 Blackstone announced his resignation from the Vinerian Chair, effective after his 1766 lectures. These were divided into two 14-lecture series, on "private wrongs" and "public wrongs" delivered between 12 February and 24 April. At this point Blackstone had published nothing new since A Treatise on the Law of Descents in Fee Simple in 1759. The decision to resign was most likely due to the increasing demands of his legal practice and the reduced profit from the lectures, which, after peaking at £340 in 1762, dropped to £239 a year later and to £203 for the final round of lectures in 1765–66.

In response, Blackstone decided to publish a new book – Commentaries on the Laws of England. The first volume was published in November 1765, bringing the author £1,600; the full work would eventually bring in over £14,000. Owen Ruffhead described Volume I as "masterly", noting that "Mr Blackstone is perhaps the first who has treated the body of the law in a liberal, elegant and constitutional manner. A vein of good sense and moderation runs through every page". Every copy was sold within six months, and the second and third volumes, published in October 1766 and June 1768, received a similar reception. The fourth and final volume appeared in 1769, dealing with criminal law. With the financial success of the Commentaries, Blackstone moved in 1768 from his London property in Carey Fields to No. 55 Lincoln's Inn Fields. Neighbours included the Sardinian ambassador, Sir Walter Rawlinson, Lord Northington, John Morton and the Third Earl of Abingdon, making it an appropriate house for a "great and able Lawyer".

Blackstone's treatise was republished in 1770, 1773, 1774, 1775, 1778 and in a posthumous edition in 1783. Reprints of the first edition, intended for practical use rather than antiquary interest, were published until the 1870s in England and Wales, and a working version by Henry John Stephen, first published in 1841, was reprinted until after the Second World War. The first American edition was produced in 1772; prior to this, over 1,000 copies had already been sold in the Thirteen Colonies.

The Rights of Persons
The Rights of Persons is the first volume in the four part series that is the Commentaries. Divided into 18 chapters, it is largely concerned with the rights of individuals; the rights of Parliament; the rights and title of the King; the royal family; the councils belonging to the King; kingly duties; the royal prerogative; the King's revenue; subordinate magistrates; the people (aliens, denizens, and natives); the rights of the clergy; the civil state; the military and maritime states; the relationship between master and servant (in modern-day terminology, employer and employee), husband and wife, parent and child, guardian and ward; and finally corporates.

The Rights of Things
The Rights of Things, Blackstone's longest volume, deals with property. The vast majority of the text is devoted to real property, this being the most valuable sort in the feudal law upon which the English law of land was founded. Property in chattels was already beginning to overshadow property in land, but its law lacked the complex feudal background of the common law of land, and was not dealt with nearly as extensively by Blackstone.

Of Private Wrongs
Of Private Wrongs dealt with torts as they existed in Blackstone's time. The various methods of trial that existed at civil law were also dealt with in this volume, as were the jurisdictions of the several courts, from the lowest to the highest. Almost as an afterthought, Blackstone also adds a brief chapter on equity, the parallel legal system that existed in English law at the time, seeking to address wrongs that the common law did not handle.

Of Public Wrongs
Of Public Wrongs is Blackstone's treatise on criminal law. Here, Blackstone the apologist takes centre stage; he seeks to explain how the criminal laws of England were just and merciful, despite becoming later known as the Bloody Code for their severity. He does however accept that "It is a melancholy truth, that among the variety of actions which men are daily liable to commit, no less than an hundred and sixty have been declared by Act of Parliament to be felonious without benefit of clergy; or, in other words, to be worthy of instant death". Blackstone frequently resorted to assuring his reader that the laws as written were not always enforced, and that the King's power of pardon could be exercised to correct any hardships or injustices.

Legacy
Blackstone for the first time made the common law readable and understandable by non-lawyers. At first, his Commentaries were hotly contested, some seeing in them an evil or covert attempt to reduce or codify the common law which was anathema to common law purists.

For decades, a study of the Commentaries was required reading for all first year law students. Lord Avonmore said of Blackstone: "He it was who first gave to the law the air of a science. He found it a skeleton and clothed it with life, colour and complexion. He embraced the cold statue and by his touch, it grew into youth, health and beauty." Jeremy Bentham, who had been a critic of the Commentaries when they were first published, credits Blackstone with having "taught jurisprudence to speak the language of the scholar and the gentleman; put a polish upon that rugged science, cleansed her from the dust and cobwebs of the office and, if he has not enriched her with that precision which is drawn only from the sterling treasury of the sciences, has decked her out to advantage from the toilet of classical erudition, enlivened her with metaphors and allusions and sent her abroad in some measure to instruct."

While there is much valuable historical information in the Commentaries, later historians have tended to be somewhat critical of the uses Blackstone made of history. the easy and contradictory assurance that England's current political settlement represented the optimal state of rational and just government, while claiming simultaneously that this optimal state was an ideal that had always existed in the past, despite the many struggles in England's history between overreaching kings and wayward parliaments.

But Blackstone's chief contribution was to create a succinct, readable, and above all handy epitome of the common law tradition. While useful in England, Blackstone's text answered an urgent need in the developing United States and Canada. In the United States, the common law tradition was being spread into frontier areas, but it was not feasible for lawyers and judges to carry around the large libraries that contained the common law precedents. The four volumes of Blackstone put the gist of that tradition in portable form. (A modern paperback printing of the four volumes total about 1500 pages. ) They were required reading for most lawyers in the Colonies, and for many, they were the only reading.

Two decades after their publication, Blackstone's Commentaries were the focus of a mocking polemic by Jeremy Bentham, called Fragment on Government. This dissection of Blackstone's first book made Bentham's name notorious, though it was originally published anonymously.

In 1841–1845, Henry John Stephen published New Commentaries on the Laws of England (Partly Founded on Blackstone), whose structure was modelled on Blackstone's work and which liberally quoted from it; much of Blackstone's text remained as late as 1914 in the 16th edition of Stephen's Commentaries; in 1922 under Edward Jenks most of the text was rewritten but the structure was realigned more closely to Blackstone's original.

Quotations
"Of great importance to the public is the preservation of this personal liberty; for if once it were left in the power of any the highest magistrate to imprison arbitrarily whomever he or his officers thought proper, (as in France it is daily practised by the crown,) there would soon be an end of all other rights and immunities. Some have thought that unjust attacks, even upon life or property, at the arbitrary will of the magistrate, are less dangerous to the commonwealth than such as are made upon the personal liberty of the subject. To bereave a man of life, or by violence to confiscate his estate, without accusation or trial, would be so gross and notorious an act of despotism, as must at once convey the alarm of tyranny throughout the whole kingdom; but confinement of the person, by secretly hurrying him to jail, where his sufferings are unknown or forgotten, is a less public, a less striking, and therefore a more dangerous engine of arbitrary government."

"[T]he principal aim of society is to protect individuals in the enjoyment of those absolute rights, which were vested in them by the immutable laws of nature, but which could not be preserved in peace without that mutual assistance and intercourse which is gained by the institution of friendly and social communities. Hence it follows, that the first and primary end of human laws is to maintain and regulate these absolute rights of individuals."

"That the King can do no wrong, is a necessary and fundamental principle of the English constitution."

"It is better that ten guilty persons escape than one innocent suffer."

"There is nothing which so generally strikes the imagination, and engages the affections of mankind, as the right of property; or that sole and despotic dominion which one man claims and exercises over the external things of the world, in total exclusion of the right of any other individual in the universe. And yet there are very few, that will give themselves the trouble to consider the original and foundation of this right."

Notable editions

 * A bibliography of The Commentaries of the Laws of England from Legal Bibliography (1905)
 * The Fifth Edition, Oxford, at the Clarendon Press, MDCCLXXIII., printed for William Strahan, Thomas Cadell, and Daniel Prince. 8vo., 4 vols.
 * The Twelfth Edition (with portraits of the judges), with the last corrections of the author and with notes and additions by Edward Christian, Esq., Barrister at Law and Professor of the Laws of England in the University of Cambridge, London, 1793–1795. 4 vols., 8vo.
 * Blackstone's Commentaries: with notes of reference, to the Constitution and laws, of the federal government of the United States, and of the Commonwealth of Virginia : in five volumes, with an appendix to each volume, containing short tracts upon such subjects as appeared necessary to form a connected view of the laws of Virginia, as a member of the federal union / by St. George Tucker.
 * The Sixteenth Edition, with notes by J. F. Archbold, (added to Christian's), London, 1811. 4 vols., royal 8vo.
 * The Sixteenth Edition, with notes by J. T. Coleridge, London, 1825.
 * The Eighteenth Edition, with notes by J. Chitty, London, 1826 (often reprinted in America).
 * 'Commentaries on the laws of England: in four books''] / by Sir William Blackstone ... ; together with such notes of enduring value as have been published in the several English editions ; and also, a copious analysis of the contents ; and additional notes with references to English and American decisions and statutes, to date, which illustrate or change the law of the text ; also a full table of abbreviations and some considerations regarding the study of the law, by Thomas M. Cooley. Published: Chicago: Callaghan and Co., 1871, Second Edition 1876, Third Edition 1884, Fourth Edition edited by James DeWitt Andrews 1899.
 * Commentaries on the laws of England / by Sir William Blackstone, KT. Edition Information: From the author's 8th ed., 1778 / edited for American lawyers by William G. Hammond ; with copious notes, and references to all comments on the text in the American reports, 1787–1890. Published: San Francisco : Bancroft–Whitney Company, 1890. Description: 4 vols.
 * Commentaries on the Laws of England in Four Books / by Sir William Blackstone. Notes selected from the editions of Archibold, Christian, Coleridge, Chitty, Stewart, Kerr, and others, Barron Field's Analysis, and Additional Notes, and a Life of the Author by George Sharswood. In Two Volumes. (Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Co., 1893).
 * Commentaries on the laws of England : in four books / by Sir William Blackstone ; with notes selected from the editions of Archbold, Christian, Coleridge, Chitty, Stewart, Kerr, and others ; and in addition, notes and references to all text books and decisions wherein the Commentaries have been cited, and all statutes modifying the text by William Draper Lewis. Published: Philadelphia : Rees Welsh and Company, 1897. Description: 4 vols.
 * Commentaries on the Laws of England by Sir William Blackstone, Kt. ; edited by William Carey Jones. Published: San Francisco : Bancroft–Whitney, 1915–16.  Description: 2 vols.
 * Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England; edited by Wayne Morrison. 4 vols. Published: London:  Routledge–Cavendish; London, England: 2001. Description 4 vols.
 * Online: via Yale University's Avalon Project
 * Online: via Yale University's Avalon Project

Abridgements
Ralph Thomas in Notes & Queries, 4th Series, II August 8, 1868 gave the following list of the abridgements of Blackstone's Commentaries.

 * 1) A Summary of the Constitutional Law of England: being an Abridgment of Blackstone's Commentaries. By the Rev. Dr. J. Trusler, 1788, 12mo ; 228 and index. "Everything in Blackstone necessary for the general reader is here comprised ... and nothing omitted but what is peculiarly adapted to the profession of a lawyer." (Advertisement.)
 * 2) The Commentaries of Sir W. Blackstone, Knight, on the Law and Constitution of England, carefully abridged in a new manner, and continued down to the present time, by Wm. Curry 1796, 8vo; viii. contents, 566. 2nd edit. 1809. Consists of selections of the most essential parts in the words of the author.
 * 3)  Commentaries on the Law of England, principally in the order, and comprising the whole substance, of Commentaries of Sir W. Blackstone. [By J. Addams], 1819, 8vo.
 * 4) An Abridgment of Blackstone's Commentaries. By John Gifford [pseud. i. e. Edward Foss], 1821, 8vo. See No. VI.
 * 5) An Abridgment of Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England, in a series of Letters from a Father to his Daughter, chiefly intended for the Use and Advancement of Female Education. By a Barrister at Law, F.R., F.A., and F.L.S. [Sir E. E. Wilmot], 1822, 12mo; viii. 304.
 * 6) Same by Sir J. E.E. W. . . . A new edition [the 2nd] corrected ... by his son Sir J. E. E. W.  3rd edit. 1855.
 * 7) Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England, abridged for the Use of Students, &c. By John Gifford, author of the Life of . . . . Pitt [pseud. John Richards Green], 1823, 8vo.
 * 8) The British Constitution; or, an Epitome of Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England, for the Use of Schools. By Vincent Wanostrocht, LL.D., Alfred House Academy, Camberwell, 1823, 12mo; xi. 845.
 * 9) An American Abridgment, 1832. [Mr Thomas may be referring to John Anthon's An Analytical Abridgment of the Commentaries of Sir William Blackstone on the laws of England: in four books: together with an analytical synopsis of each book, printed and published by Isaac Riley in 1809, second edition 1832.]
 * 10) Select Extracts from Blackstone's Commentaries, carefully adapted to the Use of Schools and Young Persons; with a Glossary, Questions, and Notes, and a General Introduction. By Samuel Warren, 1837, 12mo; xxvi. 428 (no index).
 * 11) Commentaries on the Laws of England, in the Order and Compiled from the Text of Blackstone, and embracing the New Statutes and Alterations to the present time. By J. Bethune Bayly, of the Middle Temple, 1840, roy. 8vo; li. 700.
 * 12) A Synopsis of Blackstone's Commentaries. London. [1847]. A large single sheet in folio.
 * 13) The Law Student's First Book, being chiefly an Abridgment of Blackstone's Commentaries; incorporating the Alterations in the Law down to the present time. By the Editors of The Law Student's Magazine, 1848, 12mo; xxiv. 508, xvi.
 * 14) Blackstone's Commentaries systematically arranged and adapted to the existing State of the Law and Constitution, with great Additions. By S. Warren, . . . 1855, 8vo  2nd edition, 1856. See IX. The original portions of Blackstone are indicated.
 * 15) The Student's Blackstone; Selections from the Commentaries on the Laws of England. By Sir W. B.; being those portions of the work which relate to the British Constitution and the Rights of Persons. By R. M. Kerr, 1858, 12mo; xix. 575. The Student's Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England, in four books, by Sir W. Blackstone, &c., abridged ... By R. M. Kerr. 2nd edit. 1865, 12mo; xx. 612.

Other abridgments include:
 * Blackstone economized: being a compendium of the laws of England to the present time by Sir William Blackstone, David Mitchell Aird Published: London: Longmans, Green, & Co.: 1878
 * Essentials of the Law: A Review of Blackstone's Commentaries for the Use of Students at Law (1882) Author: Marshall Davis Ewell Published: Boston: Charles C Soule: 1882
 * Selections from Blackstone edited by William Carey Jones Published: San Francisco: Bancroft–Whitney Co.  1926.
 * The Sovereignty of the Law: Selections from Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England edited by Gareth Jones, Published: London: Macmillan, 1973 ISBN 0-8357-4720-4

title: Commentaries on the Laws of England


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Talk:Commentaries on the Laws of England

Analogy
Master: servant as employer:employee:) funny analogy. Me like.

Um it's the law, not a joke.

It should be noted, when he discusses the Rights of Husbands and Wives, it's really the Rights of Husbands until they're passing... Then it's the Rights of the King. (Pg. 139) Pseymour24 (talk) 16:50, 11 September 2016 (UTC)

Quotations
Suggest that these should be placed in wikiqoute. James500 (talk) 10:28, 8 December 2008 (UTC)

Treatment of Catholics
It would be interesting if the article could provide more context on Blackstone's explanation of British laws on recusant Catholics. ADM (talk) 11:03, 3 July 2009 (UTC)

 * As to papists, what has been said of the Protestant dissenters would hold equally strong for a general toleration of them; provided their separation was founded only upon difference of opinion in religion, and their principles did not also extend to a subversion of the civil government. If once they could be brought to renounce the supremacy of the pope, they might quietly enjoy their seven sacraments, their purgatory, and auricular confession; their worship of relics and images; nay even their transubstantiation. But while they acknowledge a foreign power, superior to the sovereignty of the kingdom, they cannot complain if the laws of that kingdom will not treat them upon the footing of good subjects..
 * — Bl. Comm. IV, c.4 ss. iii.2, p. *54

Comment on Blackstone
Interesting comment on Blackstone himself, seen in changes to his famous work, as worked upon by his contemporaries. Not complimentary, that. Shenme (talk) 02:05, 7 May 2020 (UTC)

Size of books
Since much is made of how convenient the four books were, it would be good to give their six. How big were they? Wis2fan (talk) 04:18, 14 February 2022 (UTC)

 * I found the books on Amazon, summed the page count, and added it to the Legacy section, citing the Amazon page. JamesCurran (talk) 22:06, 13 September 2023 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Talk:Quantum chemistry

Query
Maybe some explanation about the basics of ab initio calculations should be here (or linked here). And the self-consistent-field scheme could be turned into a link.

4lex

A couple questions before I edit: 1) is there a specific reason why Density functional theory is not included? It's probably the most widely used quantum theory at present 2) Why is Dogonadze's work specifically mentioned in this overview? He doesn't have anywhere near the stature of anyone else mentioned in the article, and he is far from the only person to apply quantum chemistry to a specific class of problesm, nor is he the most well-known person to do so. Salsb 14:58, 22 July 2005 (UTC)
 * I think the answer to all your questions is the same: this page is simply not cared for. Not many people read this page, and even fewer edit it. I have been wanting to update/imporove/expand this article, but I have serious time restraints. So feel free to edit if you feel the need and have the time. I may get arounf to it sometime soon, too. Karol July 8, 2005 15:39 (UTC) (P.S. always do sign your posts, please)

MD
I don't think Molecular Dynamics should have such coverage, as in its own section, in this article. MD in itself doesn't have much to do with quantum mechanics, and its concept is based on classical Newtonian dynamics. So maybe the section should be renamed and/or rewritten a bit? Karol 07:41, July 23, 2005 (UTC) P.S. Please remember this is just a general wondering... it seems to me that maybe a more appropriate motif would be Nuclear motion or something else that is clearly related to the Born-Oppenheimer approx., which is the initial reason why electronic structure and nuclei are considered separately in quantum chemistry. And then, MD is a plausible extension of QC for considering nuclear motion, but also molecular mechanics and so forth. What do other people think? Karol 08:00, July 23, 2005 (UTC)

 * I think having a section, albeit shorter, on ab initio molecular dynamics makes sense, since it is a growing aspect of quantum chemistry. Although the sections at present aren't about MD, rather they are on reaction rate theory. One can obtain the parameters for these theories from molecular dynamics, but you don't have to. 13:14, 23 July 2005 (UTC)

 * This is not a growing aspect of quantum chemistry this is a very important aspect and that from the beginning of quantum chemistry on (see references in this article)! Chemistry is the science of molecules and of their transformations!  Not only of their structures.  This is therefore not surprizing that, since the beginning (1927), quantal chemists - all physicists by the way - have tried use quantum mechanics to model reactivity.
 * You are thinking of what would be called chemical dynamics or reactive dynamics. See the molecular dynamics entry for a rough but reasonable definition. Salsb 13:07, 25 July 2005 (UTC)
 * The problem is the slang word "MD-Molecular Dynamics" which is in fact restricted to classical molecular dynamics. But molecular dynamics has allways been used for all kind of dynamics that you call "chemical dynamics or reactive dynamics".  This is just recently (when the field of classical MD developed that this happened.  One sometimes hear Quantum Molecular Dynamics to stress the distinction but basically molecular dynamics is the science of the motion of nuclei.  Independently of the method used.
 * MD is far from a slang word, it has been established in the literature for quite a few years now. Also MD need not be classical, there are now quantum molecular dynamics methods, both for the nuclei and the elections. Furthmore, MD has been around for at least 25 years, so I would not call it recently either. I have several texts on, at least partially, reactive dynamics on my bookshelf,  and neither my recollection, nor a quick glance through them shows molecular dynamics being used in the manner you wish to use it. I'll assume your usage is old though. There of course is overlap between molecular dynamics and chemical dynamics, e.g. reactive molecular dynamics,  Salsb 14:15, 25 July 2005 (UTC)
 * I think what is very fruitfull in writing an encyclopedia is to speak with people from different communities and try to find a common language. I know many people who pretend they are doing molecular dynamics but are doing what you call chemical dynamics.  According to the definition provided by the article molecular dynamics quantum molecular dynamics is not molecular dynamics but let us call this chemical dynamics.  I think we can find a compromise by replacing molecular dynamics in my sense with chemical dynamics.  Do you agree that molecular dynamics is a subfield of chemical dynamics? If not than which name do you give to the science concerned with the movement of the nuclei in general? --131.220.68.177 14:35, 25 July 2005 (UTC)
 * I disagree with calling molecular dynamics a subfield of chemical dynamics, as molecular dynamics rarely concerns itself with reactivity, whereas chemical dynamics almost always does. There is no name for the field concerned with movements of nuclei in general. Incidently, the article on molecular dynamics does discuss the use of quantum models briefly; likely too briefly. Salsb 17:28, 26 July 2005 (UTC)
 * The quantum models referred to in molecular dynamics are model for the interaction potential! Not for the motion of the nuclei.  I think the problem is that in contradistinction with what the normal use of the English language suggests : quantum molecular dynamics and semiclassical quantum dynamics are not subfields of molecular dynamics (MD) in the present use of these words.  So I think my new suggestion take this fact into account. --81.209.204.128 21:22, 26 July 2005 (UTC)

 * I think this is a conceptual problem. Quantum chemistry is concerned with solving the Schroedinger equation for the total molecular Hamiltonian and not only of the electronic molecular Hamiltonian.  Spectroscopists are measuring the energy levels of the molecular Hamiltonian and not only of its electronic term. It is therefore important to present on an equal (formal) footing the electronic structure and the molecular dynamics.  But I understand that, since the community concerned with molecular dynamics is much less extended that the one concerned with electronic structure, the part of the article on dynamics should be also less extended.  BUT this must be done by extending the electronic structure part and NOT by cutting into the dynamics part!

 * On the other hand, the electronic structure part of the problem MUST be quantal. This is not because molecular mechanics seems at first glance to be purely classical that it is.  Molecular mechanics tries to mimic the quantal properties (the potential surfaces) with classical forces but this is usefull only because it is very difficult to compute potential energy surfaces with more than 4 degrees of freedom.  On the other hand the traditionally -- well this tradition is in fact very young -- chosen name Molecular Dynamics (MD) is a bit confusing because it is usually restricted to the application of Newton's laws of motion to the movement of the nuclei on potential energy surfaces (which can be in turn obtained from the molecular mechanical approximation).  But basically molecular dynamics is the theory of the dynamics of the nuclei independent of the method used : quantal, semiclassical, classical, or even statistical!

 * Reaction rate theory is a quantum theory applied to the movement of the nuclei in chemistry. It is therefore a branch of molecular dynamics.  Of course the parameters must not come from electronic structure calculation but the conceptual point -- the important one from the encyclopedic point of view -- is that they can!  Just as potential energy surfaces which can be fitted to microwave spectroscopical data.
 * sorry, reaction rate theory is not a branch of molecular dynamics. Please look through the references provided on the molecular dynamics article and that will be clear. Salsb 13:07, 25 July 2005 (UTC)
 * It is a branch of what then? Does is stand alone?  If you define molecular dynamics as the science concerned with the movement of the molecular nuclei, it is.  Even if nowadays classical MD people do not consider it as a part of their field of research.

 * Here in this article I have followed the tradition developed by my predecessors and focused on the historical aspects only. Who has been the first to do what. I think this is a good point of view because nowadays (i.e. since the 1970's) it is not possible anymore to distinguish quantum chemistry from computational chemistry.  I therefore think the quantum chemistry article should focus on the quantal aspects of chemistry which are not linked (or have not been influenced) by the coming up of the computer techniques. Of course I understand there are methods usefull for chemistry which have nothing to do with quantum chemistry but nevertheless require computer implementation. I am not a specialist in this domain but why not making a new section in the article of computational chemistry?

 * Another point of view (which is as good as the preceeding) is the following. One could move all quantal techniques presented in the article computational chemistry to this article.  One should then name the first part "historical introduction or the birth of quantum chemistry" and the second part "contemporary or modern techniques".  One could even mix all sections together.  OK.  That's a good point too but then one would have problems with the classical molecular dynamics community which shall not find it good to find its work under the title "quantum chemistry".  The other problem is that there would not be more or less anything left in the article "computational chemistry" except a link to "quantum chemistry" and something looking like a stub which would require much expansion like the "theoretical chemistry" article. So if you think this is the good way to do it.  Please be bold : do it! :-) --131.220.68.177 09:05, 25 July 2005 (UTC)

Chemical dynamics
I didn't think chemical dynamics existed as a concept because I come from a department called "molecular dynamics" in its old sense. I have looked on the internet and found that indeed some people use the term chemical dynamics. So I think we could use this term to distinguish "molecular dynamics" from "MD". --131.220.68.177 13:56, 25 July 2005 (UTC)

What is the science of the "motion of the nuclei"?
Well I have reverted the last version because we have first to agree on a name for the science of the "motion of the nuclei".

I had suggested "molecular dynamics" but this is a reserved name for newtonian molecular dynamics. So I thought "chemical dynamics" would be good but then one editor wants to restrict this concept to the science of "chemical rates".

I am awaiting your advice before editing further on. --131.220.68.177 15:02, 25 July 2005 (UTC)

 * I propose simply the motion of nuclei :) Karol 15:08, July 25, 2005 (UTC)

 * The term the motion of nuclei is sounding a bit too much as if nuclei were moving according to the laws of Newton only. --131.220.68.177 15:15, 25 July 2005 (UTC)

 * Well, how about paraphrasing to nuclear motion? Karol 17:33, July 25, 2005 (UTC)

Wow!
I am so impressed with how this article has progressed - I stopped looking at it a few months ago, and now, look at it today! Congrats to everyone who has effort into making it better! --HappyCamper 01:28, 19 December 2005 (UTC)

Origen of the field of quantum chemistry
In a public lecture at Caltech in 1960, Linus Pauling explained that he had intended to teach a physics course on bonding, but that, even though he had been appointed professor of physics as well as of chemistry, his boss was the chemistry department chairman who discouraged his teaching a physics course. As a result of this, he "included the material in his [chemistry] course on "the nature of the chemical bond". David R. Ingham 04:58, 30 January 2006 (UTC)

Equivalent name for quantum chemistry(?)
Is the term quantum chemistry equivalent to molecular quantum mechanics?--86.125.174.102 (talk) 21:14, 25 November 2014 (UTC)

Image:LinusPauling.jpg
What happened to that picture of Linus Pauling that used to be on the top part of this article?--71.249.23.233 14:55, 8 October 2006 (UTC)

Delisted GA
This article has been removed from the GA list due to lack of inline citations. Tarret 15:47, 15 March 2007 (UTC)

Difference from Physical Chemistry
Hello. I was just wondering what the difference between physical chemistry and quantum chemistry is? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 165.91.166.244 (talk) 21:12, 15 April 2010 (UTC)
 * If you look at any of the many texts called "Physical Chemistry", you will see that they contain much material that is not Quantum Chemistry and that the latter is often just a section of the book. -- Bduke   (Discussion)  22:03, 15 April 2010 (UTC)
 * I think the article would benefit from a better discussion of the relationship between quantum and physical chemistry. I was under the impression that quantum chemistry is considered a subfield of physical chemistry, and Bduke's response implies that this is the case.  The opening paragraph of this article states, "[Quantum chemistry] has a strong and active overlap with the field of atomic physics and molecular physics, as well as physical chemistry," which suggests that quantum and physical chemistry are distinct disciplines. Myceteae (talk) 03:27, 10 August 2010 (UTC)
 * so i have a question does quantum chemistry have to do with studying space? 102.249.0.175 (talk) 22:00, 10 May 2023 (UTC)

Reason for hatnote
Every sentence in the opening paragraph is misguided. QFT appears in only a minute part of literature of chemistry. Electronic structure of molecules should be mentioned before reactivity. "Border" is vague -- maybe "studied by scientists trained in chemistry, physics and mathematics". Needs complete rewrite. Michael P. Barnett (talk) 20:20, 30 January 2011 (UTC)

New lede
I am trying to edit the article about Charles Coulson. This has to refer to topics that include Quantum chemistry. I have put in a new lede with which I am comfortable as a former student of Charles. I have published on quantum chemistry for the past 60 years. I do not speak for the world of quantum chemistry, and I would welcome informed editing. I cannot become involved in editing the material already in place. I hope the tactic that I have adopted, by putting the previous lede under "An alternative approach" is a reasonable compromise. What happens to my lede will provide data for a study on the extent to which the Wikipedia approach allows articles based on professional knowledge. Michael P. Barnett (talk) 14:39, 3 February 2011 (UTC)

Sections removed April 28
Absent comments on my earlier comments on old lede that I moved down to the section "An alternative approach" (see above) I deleted it.

Absent justification of the section on quantum field theory I deleted it. No WK verifiability was provided of "The application of quantum field theory (QFT) to chemical systems and theories has become increasingly common". The only specific provided is the photomagneton. A Web of Science search using this as the key found 14 papers published in the mid 1990s. A cursory inspection of the articles on nuclear chemistry, sonochemistry, astrochemistry did not find mention of quantum field theory, but even if it did verifiably, I thought WK requires each article to stand on its own feet for verifiability.

I would be glad to see useful information in the two deleted sections reinstated with appropriate references if verifiableMichael P. Barnett (talk) 10:43, 28 April 2011 (UTC)

Removing the template
I think that this paper is not misleading and the template can cause fear in the readers, although the article seems OK. The definition in the abstract is correct. OFLOMENBOM (talk) 17:43, 17 June 2011 (UTC)

 * I agree. I was shocked to see that template there, and I don't see anything on the talk page telling us why it's there. Also, no one has replied to you in 10 years (minus 2 weeks). So I'm okay with you taking down the templates from the article. Since your comment was so long ago, I don't expect you to see this, and if you don't remove it and no one responds to this, I'll remove the templates in a couple weeks. Dr. Universe (talk) 15:50, 3 June 2021 (UTC)

Is Quantum chemistry a branch of physics or of chemistry?
Please see recent edits and discussion at User talk:Elie.nasrallah. If my revert is reverted by him, he will have breached WP:3RR. He has made similar edits to Molecule. All his edits are making the point that quantum chemistry is a branch of physics. -- Bduke   (Discussion)  08:29, 29 October 2012 (UTC)
 * Perhaps it is a branch of both physics and chemistry.--193.231.19.53 (talk) 11:09, 27 November 2014 (UTC)

Bohmian quantum chemistry
Some details about quantum chemistry based on Bohmian mechanics should be inserted in article.--5.15.14.104 (talk) 08:51, 25 November 2014 (UTC)
 * Do you have any reliable sources? -- Bduke   (Discussion)  09:26, 25 November 2014 (UTC)
 * A Google search for Bohmian quantum chemistry gives some results, like one from Eur. Phys. J. D (2014) 68: 286 which is also on arxiv and says: Fifteen years ago, the quantum chemistry community began to study the practical usefulness of Bohmian mechanics.--5.15.15.105 (talk) 21:25, 25 November 2014 (UTC)
 * I will take a look at that reference, but I think it is going to need more than that. I suppose I am part of the quantum chemistry community in a sense, but I do not think I have ever come across anything on Bohmian quantum chemistry, although I could be forgetting it in my old age of course. -- Bduke   (Discussion)  21:40, 25 November 2014 (UTC)

Clean-up
Hey hi howdy!

I'm a high school senior who plans on (maybe) pursuing Chemistry as a major, and I really want to clean up this article. Only thing is that I may not be as skilled at quantum chemistry as others might; I'm pretty good at copy-editing, so I can do that, and I can try and find sources possible, but I can't guarantee for certain that my edits will be perfect. This being said, please correct me with a message on my talk page instead of just reverting and putting something in the edit summary. I'd love to learn from my mistakes (and learn more about this topic!) so I'd love your cooperation.

Thanks! ɯ ɐ ɔ 💬 14:26, 8 February 2017 (UTC)

 * Note: while this is being placed on all the Chemistry articles I'm editing that I feel like I'm not exemplary in, it doesn't make it any less personal!
 * hi thisisnotcam FYI, You can't control the way other editors respond to your edits. If you make a change that is clearly wrong or violates a Wikipedia standard other editors should just revert your edit. It's nothing personal. Also, this is a really complex topic. If you aren't well versed in it, especially since you are new to editing it might be a good idea to start by editing other articles. You might want to check out User:Suggestbot it can give you suggestions based on your edit history. Cheers, --MadScientistX11 (talk) 23:06, 12 March 2017 (UTC)

Butadiene image
I have linked the title for the image of Butadiene, but I think there are other issues. It is totally unclear what the image represents. It seems to be of a molecular orbital. I suggest that it be deleted. If not deleted, it should certainly be moved lower in the article and better explained. --Bduke (talk) 00:08, 15 July 2021 (UTC)
 * I was going to guess electron density, but that doesn't seem right if it is bonding orbitals. Second guess is it is the pi orbitals, but that is a guess, and it really should say. It is nice, though, to have a calculated picture that shows something of an actual molecule. Gah4 (talk) 00:17, 15 July 2021 (UTC)
 * Checking the file supports the conclusion that this image is of an anti-bonding molecular orbital. I will move it down to the appropriate section and retitle it. --Bduke (talk) 00:14, 15 July 2021 (UTC)
 * OK, that is what it looks like, but I didn't know why anyone would do that. The whole idea is to understand bonding, so compute bonding orbitals. I suppose keep it, but I would rather have one with bonding orbitals if it exists. Gah4 (talk) 00:19, 15 July 2021 (UTC)
 * I entirely agree. Can we find one? I have moved it down for now.--Bduke (talk) 00:24, 15 July 2021 (UTC)
 * OK, that is what it looks like, but I didn't know why anyone would do that. The whole idea is to understand bonding, so compute bonding orbitals. I suppose keep it, but I would rather have one with bonding orbitals if it exists. Gah4 (talk) 00:19, 15 July 2021 (UTC)
 * I entirely agree. Can we find one? I have moved it down for now.--Bduke (talk) 00:24, 15 July 2021 (UTC)
 * I entirely agree. Can we find one? I have moved it down for now.--Bduke (talk) 00:24, 15 July 2021 (UTC)
 * I entirely agree. Can we find one? I have moved it down for now.--Bduke (talk) 00:24, 15 July 2021 (UTC)

Making a new structure for this Quantum Chemistry page
Hi there,

Is it possible to further organize and enrich the content of this page? I suggest focusing on improving its structure to ensure it is more coherent and informative.

To start, should we maybe go with the first few pargraphs:

Intro:

 * Brief overview of Quantum Chemistry
 * Why the quantum chemistry arose
 * It's importance in the broader research areas of chemistry and physics

Overview + Fundamental Concepts

 * Fundamental questions Quantum Chemistry seeks to answer vs. Quantum Physics
 * Brief Review of the Fundamentals of Quantum Mechanics
 * Applications that fundamentally differentiate Quantum Chemistry from Quantum Physics and Computational Chemistry

A brief overview about the mathematical formulations of Quantum mechanics

Mathematical Formalisms such as Atomic Term symbols, Basis Sets Expansions, and so on.

Problems Solved in Quantum Chemistry - brief overview

History (mostly attributed to atomic theory)

 * Early developments in quantum theory relevant to chemistry
 * Key figures and their contributions (e.g., Schrödinger, Heisenberg, Dirac)
 * Evolution of Quantum Chemistry as a discipline

Erdabravest (talk) 09:38, 5 February 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Quantum chemistry


text:
1940 in sports

 * Note — many sporting events did not take place because of World War II

1940 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.

Alpine skiing
FIS Alpine World Ski Championships
 * The 10th FIS Alpine World Ski Championships are cancelled due to World War II

American football
NFL championship College championship
 * The Chicago Bears defeat the Washington Redskins 73–0 in the NFL championship game.
 * This game still holds records for the highest score and biggest win in National Football League history.
 * College football national championship – Minnesota Golden Gophers

Association football

 * La Liga – won by Athletic Aviación Club
 * Serie A – won by S.S. Ambrosiana-Inter
 * Primeira Liga – won by F.C. Porto.
 * There is no major football competition in England, Scotland or France due to World War II. In England, several regional leagues are set up but statistics from these are not counted in players’ figures.

Athletics

 * The 1940 Summer Olympics to be held in Helsinki, were cancelled due to outbreak of World War II. The major international athletics event of the year was thus the annual Finland-Sweden athletics international, held at the new Helsinki Olympic Stadium, exceptionally held as a triple international between Finland, Sweden and Germany.

Australian rules football

 * Victorian Football League
 * 28 September: Melbourne wins the 44th VFL Premiership, defeating Richmond 15.17 (107) to 10.8 (68) in the 1940 VFL Grand Final.
 * Brownlow Medal awarded to Des Fothergill (Collingwood) and Herbie Matthews (South Melbourne)
 * South Australian National Football League
 * 28 September: Sturt 14.16 (100) defeat South Adelaide 11.13 (79) for their fifth SANFL premiership, but their last until 1966.
 * Western Australian National Football League
 * 17 August: Claremont become the first team to score 200 points in a senior WANFL match when they kick 33.22 (220) against Swan Districts.
 * 12 October: Claremont 13.13 (91) defeat South Fremantle 9.20 (74) for their third successive WANFL premiership.

Baseball

 * The Cincinnati Reds defeated the Detroit Tigers in the 1940 World Series by 4 games to 3

Basketball
NBL Championship

 * Akron Firestone Non-Skids over Oshkosh All-Stars (3–2)

Events
 * The eighth South American Basketball Championship in Montevideo is won by Uruguay.

Boxing
Events Lineal world champions
 * 4 October – Henry Armstrong loses the last of his three world titles when defeated by new World Welterweight Champion Fritzie Zivic over fifteen rounds in New York City
 * World Heavyweight Championship – Joe Louis
 * World Light Heavyweight Championship – Billy Conn
 * World Middleweight Championship – vacant
 * World Welterweight Championship – Henry Armstrong → Fritzie Zivic
 * World Lightweight Championship – Lou Ambers → Lew Jenkins
 * World Featherweight Championship – Joey Archibald → Harry Jeffra
 * World Bantamweight Championship – vacant → Lou Salica
 * World Flyweight Championship – vacant

Cricket
England Australia India New Zealand South Africa West Indies
 * Because of World War II, no first-class cricket is played in England from 1940 to 1944, and the Minor Counties Championship is similarly not contested until 1946.
 * Sheffield Shield – New South Wales
 * Most runs – Don Bradman, 1475 @ 122.61 (HS 267)
 * Most wickets – Clarrie Grimmett 73 @ 22.65 (BB 6–57)
 * Ranji Trophy – Maharashtra defeats United Provinces by ten wickets.
 * Bombay Pentangular – Hindus
 * Plunket Shield – Auckland
 * The Currie Cup is not contested, but a total of nineteen first-class friendly matches are held. Inter-provincial cricket is abandoned after the 1939–40 season until the end of the war.
 * Most runs – Eric Rowan, 590 @ 147.50 (HS 306 not out)
 * Most wickets – Norman Gordon 28 @ 14.92 (BB 6–61)
 * No first-class cricket is played in the 1939–40 season due to the outbreak of World War II, though in later years a few matches are arranged.

Cycling
Tour de France Giro d'Italia
 * not contested due to World War II
 * Fausto Coppi

Figure skating
World Figure Skating Championships
 * not contested due to World War II

Golf
Men's professional Men's amateur Women's professional
 * Masters Tournament – Jimmy Demaret
 * U.S. Open – Lawson Little
 * British Open – not played due to World War II
 * PGA Championship – Byron Nelson
 * British Amateur – not played due to World War II
 * U.S. Amateur – Dick Chapman
 * Women's Western Open – Babe Zaharias
 * Titleholders Championship – Helen Hicks

Horse racing
Steeplechases Hurdle races Flat races
 * March 2 – in his final race, Seabiscuit wins the $121,000 Santa Anita Handicap
 * Cheltenham Gold Cup – Roman Hackle
 * Grand National – Bogskar
 * Champion Hurdle – Solford
 * Australia – Melbourne Cup won by Old Rowley
 * Canada – King's Plate won by Willie the Kid
 * France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe – not held due to World War II
 * Ireland – Irish Derby Stakes won by Turkhan
 * English Triple Crown Races:
 * 2,000 Guineas Stakes – Djebel
 * The Derby – Pont l'Eveque
 * St. Leger Stakes – Turkhan
 * United States Triple Crown Races:
 * Kentucky Derby – Gallahadion
 * Preakness Stakes – Bimelech
 * Belmont Stakes – Bimelech

Ice hockey

 * The New York Rangers defeat the Toronto Maple Leafs 4 games to 2 to win the National Hockey League's Stanley Cup.

Olympic Games
1940 Winter Olympics 1940 Summer Olympics
 * The 1940 Winter Olympics, due to take place at Sapporo, are cancelled due to World War II
 * The 1940 Summer Olympics, due to take place at Tokyo, are cancelled due to World War II

Rowing
The Boat Race
 * Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race is not contested due to World War II

Rugby league

 * 1940 New Zealand rugby league season
 * 1940 NSWRFL season
 * 1939–40 Northern Rugby Football League Wartime Emergency League season / 1940–41 Northern Rugby Football League Wartime Emergency League season

Rugby union

 * Five Nations Championship series is not contested due to World War II

Speed skating
Speed Skating World Championships
 * not contested due to World War II

Tennis
Australia England France USA Davis Cup
 * Australian Men's Singles Championship – Adrian Quist (Australia) defeats Jack Crawford (Australia) 6–3, 6–1, 6–2
 * Australian Women's Singles Championship – Nancye Wynne Bolton (Australia) defeats Thelma Coyne Long (Australia) 5–7, 6–4, 6–0
 * Wimbledon Men's Singles Championship – not contested
 * Wimbledon Women's Singles Championship – not contested
 * French Men's Singles Championship – not contested
 * French Women's Singles Championship – not contested
 * American Men's Singles Championship – Don McNeill (USA) defeats Bobby Riggs (USA) 4–6, 6–8, 6–3, 6–3, 7–5
 * American Women's Singles Championship – Alice Marble (USA) defeats Helen Jacobs (USA) 6–2, 6–3
 * 1940 International Lawn Tennis Challenge – not contested

Awards

 * Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year – Tom Harmon, College football
 * Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year – Alice Marble, Tennis

title: 1940 in sports


text:
Reagan (disambiguation)

Ronald Reagan (1911–2004) was the 40th president of the United States from 1981 to 1989.

Reagan may also refer to:

United States

 * Reagan, Indiana
 * Reagan, Oklahoma
 * Reagan, Henderson County, Tennessee
 * Reagan, McMinn County, Tennessee
 * Reagan, Texas
 * Reagan County, Texas

Other uses

 * Reagan (given name), a given name and list of people with the given name
 * Reagan (surname), a surname and list of people with the surname
 * Reagan (2011 film), an American documentary film
 * Reagan (2024 film), an American biographical drama film
 * Reagan (EP), an EP by Whirlwind Heat
 * "Reagan", track from Killer Mike's album R.A.P. Music

title: Reagan (disambiguation)


text:
User talk:DeGeneral

Hello DeGeneral and welcome to Wikipedia. A few tips for you:

 * When you upload pictures, please give them an unambiguous name. Also, the one you just uploaded is a GIF, and we don't like GIFs. See Image use policy for more information.
 * Peruse Welcome, newcomers and associated pages
 * Sign talk page entries with ~, which is automatically converted to a name and date
 * Ask questions on Village pump
 * Have fun.

-- Tim Starling 07:29 11 Jul 2003 (UTC)

title: User talk:DeGeneral


text:
User talk:4lex

Hello Alex and welcome to Wikipedia. A few tips for you:

 * Be bold in updating pages. If you think SCF should be a link, make it one.
 * Peruse Welcome, newcomers and associated pages
 * Sign talk page entries with ~, which is automatically converted to a name and date
 * Ask questions on Village pump
 * Have fun.

-- Tim Starling 07:32 11 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Hello there, welcome to the 'pedia! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. If you need pointers on how we title pages visit Naming conventions or how to format them visit our manual of style. If you have any other questions about the project then check out Help or add a question to the Village pump. Cheers! --maveric149

¡Holla Alejandro!

you used the term magnetic ordering. Others use magnetic order. So, may be, you can contribute to a discussion on the common form. Regards! --SteffenB 11:52, 6 Mar 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:4lex


text:
Syntax highlighting

Syntax highlighting is a feature of text editors that is used for programming, scripting, or markup languages, such as HTML. The feature displays text, especially source code, in different colours and fonts according to the category of terms. This feature facilitates writing in a structured language such as a programming language or a markup language as both structures and syntax errors are visually distinct. This feature is also employed in many programming related contexts (such as programming manuals), either in the form of colorful books or online websites to make understanding code snippets easier for readers. Highlighting does not affect the meaning of the text itself; it is intended only for human readers.

Syntax highlighting is a form of secondary notation, since the highlights are not part of the text meaning, but serve to reinforce it. Some editors also integrate syntax highlighting with other features, such as spell checking or code folding, as aids to editing which are external to the language.

Practical benefits
Syntax highlighting is one strategy to improve the readability and context of the text; especially for code that spans several pages. The reader can easily ignore large sections of comments or code, depending on what they are looking for. Syntax highlighting also helps programmers find errors in their program. For example, most editors highlight string literals in a different color. Consequently, spotting a missing delimiter is much easier because of the contrasting color of the text. Brace matching is another important feature with many popular editors. This makes it simple to see if a brace has been left out or locate the match of the brace the cursor is on by highlighting the pair in a different color.

A study published in the conference PPIG evaluated the effects of syntax highlighting on the comprehension of short programs, finding that the presence of syntax highlighting significantly reduces the time taken for a programmer to internalise the semantics of a program. Additionally, data gathered from an eye-tracker during the study suggested that syntax highlighting enables programmers to pay less attention to standard syntactic components such as keywords.

Support in text editors
Some text editors can also export the coloured markup in a format that is suitable for printing or for importing into word-processing and other kinds of text-formatting software; for instance as a HTML, colorized LaTeX, PostScript or RTF version of its syntax highlighting. There are several syntax highlighting libraries or "engines" that can be used in other applications, but are not complete programs in themselves, for example the Generic Syntax Highlighter (GeSHi) extension for PHP.

For editors that support more than one language, the user can usually specify the language of the text, such as C, LaTeX, HTML, or the text editor can automatically recognize it based on the file extension or by scanning contents of the file. This automatic language detection presents potential problems. For example, a user may want to edit a document containing:
 * more than one language (for example when editing an HTML file that contains embedded JavaScript code),
 * a language that is not recognized (for example when editing source code for an obscure or relatively new programming language),
 * a language that differs from the file type (for example when editing source code in an extension-less file in an editor that uses file extensions to detect the language).

In these cases, it is not clear what language to use, and a document may not be highlighted or be highlighted incorrectly.

Syntax elements
Most editors with syntax highlighting allow different colors and text styles to be given to dozens of different lexical sub-elements of syntax. These include keywords, comments, control-flow statements, variables, and other elements. Programmers often heavily customize their settings in an attempt to show as much useful information as possible without making the code difficult to read.

Called syntax decoration, some editors also display certain syntactical elements in more visually pleasing ways, for example by replacing a pointer operator like  in source code by an actual arrow symbol (→), or changing text decoration clues like /italics/, *boldface*, or _underline_ in source code comments by an actual italics, boldface, or underlined presentation.

Examples
Below is a comparison of a snippet of C code:

Below is another snippet of syntax highlighted C++ code:

In the C++ example, the editor has recognized the keywords,  ,  , and. The comment at the beginning is also highlighted in a specific manner to distinguish it from working code.

History and limitations
The ideas of syntax highlighting overlap significantly with those of syntax-directed editors. One of the first such editors for code was Wilfred Hansen's 1969 code editor, Emily. It provided advanced language-independent code completion facilities, and unlike modern editors with syntax highlighting, actually made it impossible to create syntactically incorrect programs.

In 1982, Anita H. Klock and Jan B. Chodak filed a patent for the first known syntax highlighting system, which was used in the Intellivision's Entertainment Computer System (ECS) peripheral, released in 1983. It would highlight different elements of BASIC programs and was implemented in an attempt to make it easier for beginners, especially children, to start writing code. Later, the Live Parsing Editor (LEXX) written for the VM operating system for the computerization of the Oxford English Dictionary in 1985 was one of the first to use color syntax highlighting. Its live parsing capability allowed user-supplied parsers to be added to the editor, for text, programs, data file, etc. On microcomputers, MacPascal 1.0 (October 10, 1985) recognized Pascal syntax as it was typed and used font changes (e.g., bold for keywords) to highlight syntax on the monochrome compact Macintosh and automatically indented code to match its structure.

Some text editors and code formatting tools perform syntax highlighting using pattern matching heuristics (e.g. Regular expressions) rather than implementing a parser for each possible language. This can result in a text rendering system displaying somewhat inaccurate syntax highlighting and in some cases performing slowly. A solution used by text editors to overcome this problem is not always parsing the whole file but rather just the visible area, sometimes scanning backwards in the text up to a limited number of lines for "syncing".

On the other hand, the editor often displays code during its creation, while it is incomplete or incorrect, and the strict parsers (like ones used in compilers) would fail to parse the code most of the time.

Some modern, language-specific IDEs (in contrast to text editors) perform full language parsing which results in very accurate understanding of code. An extension of syntax highlighting was called "semantic highlighting" in 2009 by David Nolden for the open-source C++ IDE KDevelop. For example, semantic highlighting may give local variables unique distinct colors to improve the comprehensibility of code. In 2014 the idea of colored local variables was further popularized due to a blog post by Evan Brooks, and after that, the idea was transferred to other popular IDEs like Visual Studio, Xcode, and others.

Color in a user interface is less useful if the user has some degree of color blindness.

title: Syntax highlighting