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Platte River

The Platte River is a major American river, in the state of Nebraska. It is about 310 mi long; measured to its farthest source via its tributary, the North Platte River, it flows for over 1050 mi. The Platte River is a tributary of the Missouri River, which itself is a tributary of the Mississippi River which flows to the Gulf of Mexico. The Platte over most of its length is a broad, shallow, meandering stream with a sandy bottom and many islands—a braided stream.

The Platte is one of the most significant tributary systems in the watershed of the Missouri, draining a large portion of the central Great Plains in Nebraska and the eastern Rocky Mountains in Colorado and Wyoming. The river valley played an important role in the westward expansion of the United States, providing the route for several major emigrant trails, including the Oregon, California, Mormon and Bozeman trails. The first Europeans to see the Platte were French explorers and fur trappers about 1714; they first called it the Nebraskier (Nebraska), a transliteration of the name given by the Otoe people, meaning "flat water". This expression is very close to the French words "rivière platte" ("flat river"), the probable origin of the name Platte River.

Headwaters
The Platte River is formed in western Nebraska east of the city of North Platte, Nebraska by the confluence of the North Platte and the South Platte Rivers, which both arise from snowmelt in the eastern Rockies east of the Continental Divide.

In central north Colorado is the North Park valley, ringed by mountains of 12,000 feet (3,700 m) height; this is where the North Platte River originates. The head of the North Platte River is essentially all of Jackson County; its boundaries are the continental divide on the west and south and the mountain drainage peaks on the east—the north boundary is the state of Wyoming. The nearest Colorado town is Walden, the county seat. The rugged Rocky Mountains Continental Divide surrounding Jackson County have at least twelve peaks over 11,000 feet (3,400 m) in height. From Jackson County, the North Platte flows north about 200 mi out of the Routt National Forest and North Park near what is now Walden to Casper, Wyoming. Shortly after passing Casper, the North Platte turns to the east-southeast and flows about 350 mi to the city of North Platte, Nebraska. In Colorado and Wyoming, the North Platte is narrower and much swifter flowing than it is in Nebraska, where it becomes a slow flowing, shallow braided stream.

The North Platte River has been dammed about eight times for water storage and irrigation purposes in Wyoming and Nebraska as it flows to its confluence with the South Platte River. The upper reaches of the river in the Rockies in Colorado and Wyoming are popular for recreation rafting and lure and fly fishing for rainbow, brown, cutthroat trout and other sport fish. In western Nebraska, the banks and riverbed of the North Platte provide a green oasis amid an otherwise semi-arid region of North America. Today, by the time the North Platte reaches Paxton, Nebraska it is much smaller due to the extensive water taken from it for irrigation. Historically, the North Platte River was up to a mile wide (1.6 km) in many places, as evidenced by the old streambed and historic written records.

The South Platte River drainage includes about 28000 mi2 in the north east corner of Colorado, parts of southeastern Wyoming in the vicinity of the city of Cheyenne and a small part of the southwest corner of Nebraska. The South Platte drains a large part of the Front Range mountains east of the continental divide. The part of the river labeled the South Platte is formed in Park County, Colorado, located southwest of Denver, in the South Park grassland basin and mountains east of the continental divide. It is formed by the confluence of the South Fork South Platte River and Middle Fork South Platte River, approximately 15 mi southeast of Fairplay, Colorado. After the South and Middle fork join, the South Platte flows east-southeast till it exits Elevenmile Reservoir; it turns almost ninety degrees to skirt the west side of Pikes Peak and flows roughly east-northeast about 100 mi through Denver and on to Greeley, Colorado. From Greeley, the South Platte turns east and flows about 200 mi to its confluence with the North Platte River near the city of North Platte, Nebraska.

The South Platte River has been dammed about 20 times for water storage, drinking water and irrigation purposes in Colorado as it flows to its confluence with the North Platte River. The total number of dams in the South Platte drainage may exceed 1,000 as nearly all major streams have at least one dam on them. The South Platte River serves as the principal source of water for arid eastern Colorado. The South Platte River valley provided a major emigration path to Denver. The wagon trails followed the south side of the Platte/North Platte River. Wagon trains were ferried or waded in low water years across the swampy-bottomed South Platte River in several places to stay on the south side of the North Platte River where the trails were located. Miners who later went on to Denver followed the South Platte River trail into Colorado.

Main stem

After the North Platte and the South Platte rivers join to form the Platte River, over most of its length it is a sandy, broad, shallow, braided river. Its many shallow channels and islands and ever-changing sandbars made navigation difficult; it was never used as a major water transportation route. The Platte flows in a large arc, east-southeast to near Fort Kearny and then east-northeast, across Nebraska south of Grand Island and on to Columbus. The Platte River is joined from the north by the about 70 mi Loup River about 2 mi southeast of Columbus. During pioneer days, a Loup River ferry crossed the river. From Columbus, the Platte flows almost due east about 50 mi past North Bend and then on to Fremont.

Near Fremont, the Platte bends south and then east around the location of Omaha in a large "L" turn. Near Fremont the Platte turns sharply and flows south-southeast about 10 mi to about Waterloo, Nebraska—located about 20 mi west of Omaha. Near Waterloo the Platte turns even more and heads almost due south for about 10 mi. About 30 mi east-southeast of Waterloo and about 30 mi from the Platte's confluence with the Missouri River, the Platte is joined from the north by the Elkhorn River. The Elkhorn, a 290 mi river, originates in the eastern Sandhills of Nebraska and is one of the largest tributaries of the Platte River. The Elkhorn joins the Platte on its south-bound path just southwest of Omaha, approximately 1 mile (2 km) south and 3 miles (5 km) west of Gretna. The pioneers leaving from near Omaha (established 1854) or Council Bluffs, Iowa (established 1846) used the Mormon Trail north of the Platte River and had to ferry across the Elkhorn. After the Union Pacific railroad was constructed west from Omaha in 1866, it had to build a major bridge across the Elkhorn. After the confluence of the Elkhorn and the Platte River, the Platte continues southward, about 7 mi before it turns sharply and heads almost due East for about 20 mi before its confluence with the Missouri River. Sarpy County is shaped like a crescent, being bounded on the east by the Missouri River, on the south and west by the Platte, and on the north by Douglas County which contains Omaha. The Platte-Missouri River confluence is about 10 mi south of Omaha.

Including the North Platte River, the Platte River stretches over 850 mi, with a drainage basin of about 90000 sqmi. The mean annual flow is estimated at 3240 cuft/s. The Platte drains one of the most arid areas of the Great Plains with a flow that is considerably lower than rivers of comparable length in North America. For much of its length, it is a classic wide, muddy and shallow braided stream which in the lower reaches flows in a floodplain bordered by bluffs. During pioneer days, the common humorous description was that the Platte was "a mile wide at the mouth, but only six inches deep." 49ers said it was "too thick to drink, too thin to plow". In western Nebraska, the banks and riverbed of the Platte provide a green oasis amid an otherwise semi-arid region of North America. The central Platte River valley is an important stopover for migratory water birds, such as the whooping crane and sandhill crane, in their yearly traversal of the Central Flyway. Fossil evidence in the Platte River valley indicates this crane stopover has been active for over 10 million years.

Since the mid-20th century, this river has shrunk significantly. This reduction in size is attributed in part to its waters being used for irrigation, and to a much greater extent to the waters diverted and used by the growing population of Colorado, which has outstripped the ability of its groundwater to sustain them.

History

Varying cultures of indigenous peoples lived intermittently along the Platte for thousands of years before European exploration. Historical tribes claimed various territories in the region. The Indian tribes typically visited different areas in different seasons, as they followed the bison herds for hunting periods. The introduction of horses, which had escaped from early Spanish explorers in the 1540s, dramatically changed life in the Great Plains. Indian tribes could more easily follow the buffalo herds as they migrated from north to south and back. Before 1870, herds of several hundred thousand bison (buffalo) periodically migrated across the Platte in following seasonal grazing. The animals often waded or swam across the Platte. The first-known European to see the Platte was the French explorer Étienne de Veniard, sieur de Bourgmont in 1714, who named it the Nebraskier, after its Oto name, meaning "flat water". The French later applied the French word plate (meaning flat, and pronounced plat, or platte) to the river.

Occupied by various Indian tribes for part of each year, the Platte River territory had been claimed by both Spanish and French explorers trying to rule the Great Plains. Spain had claimed all of the Great Plains after Coronado's 1541–42 expedition. Jose Naranjo, an African-Hopi who served as a Spanish scout and explorer in the Southwest, was a war captain of the Spanish Indian auxiliaries. By 1714 (the same year the French explorers reached the Platte), he and a small exploration group from the south had reportedly already reached the Platte three times. He later guided the 1720 Villasur expedition to the area in a Spanish effort to stop French expansion onto the Great Plains. Naranjo and Villasur's party made the most northern of Spanish exploration trips into the central plains. A Pawnee and Otoe Indian attack defeated the Spanish forces; the survivors returned to Santa Fe, New Mexico, and the Spanish left the Great Plains to the American Indians.

As a result of the Seven Years' War (1756–1763) (called the French and Indian War in America), the French ceded all of their lands in North America east of the Mississippi River to the British. The Spanish took over lands west of the Mississippi River. Since there were few fur-bearing animals on the Platte of interest to the fur traders, the French and British explorers and fur trappers ignored the Platte territory for some time. During the course of the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815), France briefly reacquired the land west of the Mississippi River from Spain.

In 1804, Napoleon sold the area west of the Mississippi River to the US in the Louisiana Purchase; the US roughly doubled its area at a cost of about $15,000,000. In 1820 the U.S. Army ordered Major Stephen H. Long to explore and map the area around the Platte. Long reported the area as a great American desert, despite its native inhabitants and wildlife, due to a lack of easily-cultivated land. As a result of his and other reports, the US initially had little interest in settling the land on the plains. The next "good" land was believed to be in Oregon or California, especially the coastal areas, and those were the destinations of most emigrant traffic. The Mormons settled Utah, largely due to religious persecution in eastern areas. Various gold and silver strikes attracted further emigration to nearly all western states.

The Native American trail west along the Platte, North Platte River and Sweetwater River was first written about after its discovery in 1811 by Wilson Price Hunt of the Astor Expedition. He was returning to the Missouri River posts from the newly established Fort Astoria on the Columbia River near the Pacific Ocean. Because few American trappers and settlers were then in the contested Oregon Territory, his trail discovery was little used and nearly forgotten.

In 1823 Jedediah Smith and several trappers "rediscovered" the route. The trail along the Platte, North Platte and Sweetwater rivers became a major route of fur traders to their summer Rocky Mountain Rendezvous. In 1824 fur trappers and traders directing mule trains carrying trade goods and supplies for the mountain men were some of the first European-American parties to use the trail. On their return trip, the fur traders carried out furs destined for eastern markets. The fur trade route was used to about 1840.

By about 1832, the fur traders had improved the trail along the Platte, North Platte, and Sweetwater rivers to a rough wagon trail from the Missouri River to the Green River in Wyoming, where most of the Rocky Mountain Rendezvous were held. In 1834 Benjamin Bonneville, a U.S. Army officer on leave, led an expedition to the west financed by John Jacob Astor. They took wagons along the Platte, North Platte and Sweetwater River trail to the Green River in present-day Wyoming. The notable author Washington Irving wrote an account of Bonneville's explorations in the west that made him well known in the US.

Following the fur traders, the major emigration trails established along the north and south banks of the Platte and North Platte River were the Oregon (1843–1869), California (1843–1869), Mormon (1847–1869) and the Bozeman (1863–68) trails. This network of trails, sometimes called the Emigrant Trails or the Great Platte River Road, all went west along both sides of the Platte River. The route along the Platte River included all these emigration trails and was developed as an important trail route used by migrant wagon trains for westward United States expansion after 1841. The settlement of the Oregon boundary dispute with Britain in 1846, the conclusion of the Mexican–American War in 1848, and the California Gold Rush in 1849 and other gold and silver strikes rapidly attracted increased emigrant traffic west.

The Platte River in the future state of Nebraska and the North Platte River in Wyoming typically had many channels and islands. The waterways were often too shallow, crooked, muddy and unpredictable for a canoe to travel far. The Platte River valley provided an easily passable wagon corridor; it sloped gradually up in height as it went almost due west from the Missouri. The Platte route had access to water, grass, buffalo and buffalo 'chips,' which the Indians and emigrants used as fuel for fires. Long Native American use had created trails on both sides of the muddy, about 1 mi wide and shallow Platte River. The Platte's water was silty and bad tasting, but it was usable if no other water was available. Emigrants learned to let it sit in a bucket for an hour or so to settle most of the silt. The trail(s) through the Platte River Valley extended about 450 mi in the present state of Nebraska. Nearly all the trails from the Missouri converged on the Platte River at or before Fort Kearny in mid-state Nebraska. Historians have estimated about 400,000 emigrants followed the trails along the Platte.

The Pony Express, operational from 1860–61, and the First Transcontinental Telegraph, completed in 1861, both followed the earlier emigrant trails along the Platte. The completion of the telegraph put the Pony Express out of business as it could provide much faster east–west communication. In 1866 the Union Pacific portion of the first Transcontinental Railroad was constructed along the Platte River as it started west from Omaha. In the 20th century, the Lincoln Highway and later Interstate 80 were constructed through the Platte valley. The highways parallel the Platte and the North Platte through much of Nebraska.

Many of Nebraska’s larger cities originated on or near the Platte River, as it was the first path of transportation. These include Omaha (est. 1854), Fort Kearny (est. 1848), Grand Island (est. 1857) and North Platte (est. 1869). In 1859 settlers built the first irrigation ditch to divert water from the Platte for farming.

In March 1924, the U.S. Army Air Corps conducted a three-day bombing campaign on an ice gorge that threatened bridges near the town of North Bend.

Ecosystem

The Platte is in the middle of the Central Flyway, a primary north–south corridor for migratory birds from their summer nesting grounds in the north (Alaska and Canada), south for the winter, and the return in the spring. The Central Flyway bird species include trumpeter swans, tundra swans, over one million Canada geese, greater white-fronted geese, sandhill cranes, canvasback ducks and others. Other species such as bald eagles, herons and several species of ducks migrate through the Platte River area but over shorter distances. The whooping crane, piping plover, and the interior least tern are birds using the flyway which have been classified as endangered and are protected under the Platte River Endangered Species Partnership.

Common plants in the Platte River area are big and little bluestem, switch grass, and cottonwood trees. White-tail deer, many types of catfish, Canada geese, and bald eagles attract fans. The Platte River area has long supported many animals but recently, due to urbanization and farming causing loss of habitat, the numbers have declined. Canada geese have adapted to the farm fields and scavenge a large part of their fare from unharvested grain. Many have taken up residence at suburban office parks and stopped seasonal migrations.

Management and policy

The Platte River flowing through an arid part of the mid-west has been widely overused. The claims on the Platte River water have exceeded the supply of water in drier years. Under Nebraska law, a river basin, subbasin, or reach shall be deemed overappropriated if it is subject to an interstate cooperative agreement among more states and if, prior to such date, the state has declared a moratorium on the issuance of new surface water appropriations in such river, subbasin, or reach, and has requested each natural resources district jurisdiction in the affected area to close or continue in effect a previously adopted closure of part of such river basin, subbasin, or reach to the issuance of additional water well permits, or to temporarily suspend or continue in effect a temporary suspension previously adopted on the drilling of new water wells in all or part of such river basin, subbasin, or reach. Most of the Platte River basin is currently considered as overappropriated.

Beginning in 2004, a number of Nebraska stakeholders embarked upon the Platte River Cooperative Hydrology Study (COHYST). Conducted with assistance from the United States Geological Survey and the Natural Resources Conservation Service, this study attempts to arrive at a better understanding of the geology and hydrology of the Platte River basin from the Colorado and Wyoming borders to Columbus, including the Loup basin. This improved understanding could be used to develop policies for management of the river system, both for human use and for the sake of the basin's endangered species. As of October 2009, the study is still ongoing.

title: Platte River


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Talk:Latin phonology and orthography

Quality contrast between long and short vowels
If you read the article "On the Evolution of Short High Vowels of Latin into Romance" by Andrea Calabrese, you'll see that he contests Allen's Classical Latin vowel system as [iː ɪ eː ɛ ä(ː) ɔ oː ʊ uː]. According to Calabrese, Classical Latin had a vowel system with five different qualities, i.e. [i(ː) ɛ(ː) ä(ː) ɔ(ː) u(ː)], with no quality distinction between long and short vowels, at least until the 1st century AD. YanisBourgeois (talk) 00:14, 26 November 2023 (UTC)

 * Yes, this has been discussed before (see archives). Calabrese's view, unfortunately popularized by some youtuber, runs counter to the overwhelming scholarly majority in favour of Allen's. It is mentioned in footnote #4 already. Nicodene (talk) 13:17, 28 November 2023 (UTC)
 * Yet I haven't seen a counterargument against Calabrese's vowel system other than the argument of majority. It has been discarded as a minority view, but not debunked (or maybe I'm wrong, please tell me if I am). Thanks for your response YanisBourgeois (talk) 08:39, 30 November 2023 (UTC)
 * The reason I'm saying that Calabrese hasn't been debunked is that nobody as far as I know has justified Allen's vowel system for Classical Latin while taking into account Calabrese's objection to Allen. All the sources that justify Allen's vowel system accept as a premise that Classical Latin is the most recent "common ancestor" to the Western Romance Languages (French, Spanish, Portuguese, etc.) which is incorrect. Those languages, used to justify Allen's system, are actually descended from Vulgar Latin. So Allen may very well have described Vulgar Latin while believing to describe Classical Latin. The Romance languages that actually descend from Classical Latin as opposed to Vulgar Latin (e.g. Sardinian) tend to indicate Calabrese's vowel system. YanisBourgeois (talk) 09:47, 30 November 2023 (UTC)
 * WP:NOTFORUM and WP:FRINGE. We can discuss this on my private talk page or yours, if you like, but such a discussion will have no impact on this article. Nicodene (talk) 11:26, 30 November 2023 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Latin phonology and orthography


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Karaganda

Karaganda, also known as Qaraghandy or Karagandy, (Қарағанды/Qarağandy, ; Караганда, ) is the capital of Karaganda Region, Kazakhstan. It is the fifth most populous city in Kazakhstan, behind Almaty (Alma-Ata), Astana, Shymkent and Aktobe. Population: 497,777 (2020 Estimate);  Karaganda is approximately 230 km south-east of Kazakhstan's capital Astana.

The city has been a major center for coal mining throughout much of its modern history, and experienced major growth during the Soviet Union as its coal industry developed. Coal mining remains a significant part of the city's economy.

Etymology
The name "Karaganda" is derived from "caragana" bushes (Caragana arborescens, Caragana frutex), which are abundant in the area.

Old Town
Modern-day Karaganda dates back to 1833, when local shepherd allegedly found coal on the site of the city, prompting a coal mining boom. By the late 19th century, the local mines had attracted workers from nearby villages, Russian merchants, and entrepreneurs from France and England. After this initial boom, the mines were abandoned, but are often still labeled on city maps as the "Old Town", but almost nothing remains on that site.

20th century
In the late 1920s, Soviet geologists examined the region's coal deposits, prompting Soviet authorities to establish the Karaganda Coal Trust, and plan for the creation of coal mines and a mining town in the area. Planners set out to create a dozen coal mines, and drafted blueprints for a city to house an estimated 40,000 workers. Coal mining in the area resumed in 1930, and temporary structures were built for miners and their families. The new area for the city was to the south of the initial mines. Initially, Karaganda suffered from an inadequate amount of supplies, and living conditions in the settlement were often poor. In 1930, coal production was below expectations. In February 1931, the area was connected via railroad, bringing in a wealth of supplies and highly-qualified personnel. Later that year, NKVD officials established the Karlag Prison. Upon the establishment of the Karlag Prison, authorities began to import labor into the region en masse. During the 1930s, the area experienced rapid growth. In 1931, Karaganda was incorporated as a village, and in 1934, was declared a city. Led by planner Alexander Ivanovich Kuznetsov, masters plans for Karaganda were laid out from 1934 until 1938. During the Stalinist purges, peoples from many different nationalities, including Germans, Karachais, Kalmyks, Chechens, Ingush, Greeks, and Crimean Tatars were sent to Karlag. By 1939, Karaganda had a population of about 100,000, about half of which were prisoners.

In the 1940s, up to 70% of the city's inhabitants were ethnic Germans. Most of the ethnic Germans were Soviet Volga Germans who were collectively deported to Siberia and Kazakhstan on Stalin's order when Hitler invaded Soviet-annexed eastern Poland and the Soviet Union proper in 1941. Until the 1950s, many of these deportees were interned in labor camps, often simply because they were of German descent. The population of Karaganda fell by 14% from 1989 to 1999 following the dissolution of the Soviet Union; it was once Kazakhstan's second-largest city after Almaty. Over 100,000 people have since emigrated to Germany. There is also a concentration of ethnic Poles in the city.

Robert F. Kennedy (later US Attorney General and US Senator), alongside US Supreme Court Justice William O. Douglas, visited "five Soviet Central Asian Republics": Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tadzhikistan, Kirghizia, and Kazakhstan. While on the six week trip (e.g., Bukhara, 300 to 1 mosque after Soviet rule), his biographers reported that their delegation was not allowed to visit the city of Karaganda which was one of the sites of the most notorious labor camps within the confines of the Soviet Union. The delegation was diverted to Siberia after four denials of visas.

1962 electromagnetic pulse incident
Karaganda suffered the most severe electromagnetic pulse effects ever observed when its electrical power plant was set on fire by currents induced in a 1000 km long shallow buried power cable by Soviet Test ‘184’ on 22 October 1962. The test was part of the Soviet Project K nuclear tests (ABM System A proof tests), and consisted of a 300-kiloton high-altitude nuclear explosion at an altitude of 290 km over Zhezkazgan.

Prompt gamma ray-produced EMP induced a current of 2,500 amps measured by spark gaps in a 570 km stretch of overhead telephone line to Zharyq, blowing all the protective fuses. The late-time MHD-EMP was of low enough frequency to enable it to penetrate 90 cm into the ground, overloading a shallow buried lead and steel tape-protected 1000 km long power cable between Aqmola (now called Astana) and Almaty. It fired circuit breakers and set the Karaganda power plant on fire.

Late 20th century
Kuznetsov's master plan for the city was intended to accommodate 300,000 inhabitants, which was surpassed by the late 1960s. This prompted planners to devise a new plan with the goal of accommodating 600,000 people. By the 1980s, the city's population surpassed 600,000 people, creating the need for further expansion. In 1983, the Karaganda Circus was constructed, which was criticized for its high cost.

In the early 1990s, Karaganda was briefly considered as a candidate for the capital of the (then) newly independent Republic of Kazakhstan, but its bid was turned down in favour of Astana.

2019 archaeological findings
In July 2019, remains of a young couple buried face to face dated 4,000 years back were unearthed in Karaganda region in central Kazakhstan by a group of archaeologists led by Igor Kukushkin from Saryarka Archaeological Institute in Karaganda. It is assumed that the Bronze Age couple were 16 or 17 years old when they died. Kukushkin supposes that they were from a 'noble family' thanks to the buried gold and jewelry artifacts, ceramic pots, woman's two bracelets on each arm beads, remains of horses and knives found in the grave.

2023 Kostenko mine fire
On October 28, 2023, the Kostenko mine, a coal mine in Karaganda run by ArcelorMittal Temirtau, the local unit of ArcelorMittal, caught on fire, and killed at least 32 people. In weeks prior to the fire, the Kazakhstani government announced it was in talks to take over part of ArcelorMittal Temirtau's operations, in part due to its dissatisfaction by ArcelorMittal's failure to invest more in its operations, including equipment upgrades and safety precautions.

Geography
Karaganda is located in a steppe area of the Kazakh Uplands at an elevation of 546 m. To the northeast flows the Nura river and to the west the Sherubainura, its main tributary. In the southern part of the city lies the Fedorov Reservoir, built in 1941 by filling a coal mine pit with the water of river Sokyr that flows along the southern limit. The Bugyly Range (Бұғылы), reaching a height of 1187 m, rises about 60 km to the south of the city. The Bugyly Nature Reserve is located in the range.

Climate
Karaganda has a Continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfb) with warm summers and very cold winters. Precipitation is moderately low throughout the year, although slightly heavier from May to July. Snow is frequent, though light, in winter. The lowest temperature on record is -42.9 °C, recorded in 1938, and the highest temperature is 40.2 °C, recorded in 2002.

Pollution
Due to the prominence of heavy industry in Karaganda, the city experiences a high level of air pollution. Air pollution tracking company IQAir found it to have Kazakhstan's highest level of PM2.5 concentration among cities measured from 2017 to 2022, and the 23rd highest in the world among cities measured.

Economy
Karaganda is a largely industrial city, and coal mining is a major component of its economy. As of 2023, the city hosts 8 coal mines, and during the times of the Soviet Union, hosted as many as 26.

Since local water resources are not sufficient for the needs of a major industrial city, the Irtysh–Karaganda Canal was constructed in the 1960s, to supply the Karaganda metropolitan area with water from the Irtysh River more than 400 km away.

Religion

The city is the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Karaganda. In 2012, the Catholic Cathedral of the Blessed Virgin Mary of Fatima was opened.

Theater
The city is home to the, a large theater.

Sports
FC Shakhter Karagandy is a football club based in the city who play at Shakhtyor Stadium. They finished 7th in the Kazakhstan Premier League in 2022. They last won the competition in the 2012 season and also won the Kazakhstan Cup in 2013. One of the biggest accomplishments of the club is a victory against Celtic from Scotland in the Champions League qualifying rounds in 2013. The score was 2–0. Saryarka Karagandy is an ice hockey team which competes in the Kazakhstan Hockey Championship, and used to play in the Russian-based Supreme Hockey League (VHL)

Monuments
On May 28, 2011, a monument to a popular catchphrase "Where-where? In Karaganda!" was created.

On May 31, 2022, on the Day of Remembrance of the Victims of Political Repressions in the Karaganda Ethnopark, a new monument to the victims of the Holodomor was opened. The monument is located near the mosque on the territory of the Ethnopark, created from granite by Zharmukhamed Tlegenuly. The height of the monument on the pedestal is 1.2 m.

Parks
The Central Park serves as Karaganda's main park. It was built from 1935 to 1941 and covers an area of 150 ha.

Other

 * Qaraghandy Zoo

Education

 * Karaganda Technical University
 * Karaganda University
 * Karaganda State Medical University

Transport
Sary-Arka Airport is 20 kilometers south-east of the city. The city is also served by trains with all of them stopping at Karaganda railway station.

In popular culture
Karaganda was often used as the punchline in a popular joke in the former Soviet Union. Karaganda is fairly isolated in a vast area of uninhabited steppe, and is thought by many to be "the middle of nowhere". When used in the locative case (Караганде), the final syllable rhymes with the Russian word for "where" (где), as well as with a Russian obscenity used to answer to an unwanted question "Where?". Thus the exchange: "Где?" — "В Караганде!" ("Where?" — "In Karaganda!"). In 2011 an art-installation was installed in Karaganda, deticated to this phrase.

Author Flora Leipman, a British resident who moved to the Soviet Union during the 1930s, wrote about her time in the Karlag Prison near Karaganda, and her subsequent decades where she lived in Karaganda, in her book The Long Journey Home. The labor camp described in One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich where the author Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn had served some time was located near Karaganda.

Notable residents

 * Gennady Golovkin, boxer, former WBA, WBC, IBF and IBO Middleweight Champion, holds the greatest knockout ratio in middleweight championship history and silver medalist in the 2004 Summer Olympics
 * Nurken Abdirov, Soviet World War II pilot and Hero of the Soviet Union. A statue in Abdirov's honor is in the center of the city.
 * Anjelika Akbar, pianist
 * Toktar Aubakirov, former cosmonaut (Soyuz TM-13) and member of Kazakhstan parliament
 * Boris Avrukh, chess grandmaster
 * Konstantin Engel, professional football player
 * Inna German, female volleyball player.
 * Katia Ivanova, glamour model, reality TV star, UK Celebrity Big Brother contestant 2009 (born in Karaganda in 1988)
 * Akhmad Kadyrov, former President of the Chechen Republic
 * Dimitri Kotschnew, professional ice hockey player
 * Andrei Krukov, Olympic figure skater (1998 Winter Olympics)
 * Juri Litvinov, Olympic figure skater (1998 Winter Olympics) and national champion
 * Aslan Maskhadov, third President, Chechen Republic of Ichkeria
 * Valery Oisteanu, writer, photographer, and performance artist
 * Aleksandr Shustov, gold medal-winning high jumper
 * Dmitriy Karpov, bronze medal-winning decathlon and heptathlon athlete (2004 Summer Olympics)
 * Aleksei Grigorievich Stakhanov, Director of Number 31 mine (1943-1957) and Hero of the Soviet Union as a folk hero mine worker with 14 times quota production
 * Pavel Vorobiev, professional ice hockey player
 * Joseph Werth, Bishop of Transfiguration, Novosibirsk, Russia
 * Anatoli Zarapin, Russian professional football coach and former player

Sister cities

 * 🇰🇷 Songpa-gu, South Korea (since 1994)
 * 🇺🇦 Kamianske, Ukraine
 * 🇮🇷 Arak, Iran (since 2008)

title: Karaganda


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Talk:South Platte River

I can't tell if this should be changed to a redirect to Platte River or if the Platte River article should be rearranged to point back here. There's definite overlap. -- ESP 05:32 15 Jul 2003 (UTC) How long is the south platte river anyway?

Merge from South Platte Fly Fishing ??
A separate article has been created to cover fly fishing -- possibly it should be incorporated here... Regards, Ariconte (talk) 03:42, 21 December 2009 (UTC)

Spanish 18th-century name?
"Jesús María" or "Jesús y María"? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 212.8.98.118 (talk) 11:48, 21 April 2010 (UTC)

This article is missing the catastrophic 1965 Platte River flood
Quite surprised to find that this article is completely missing any mention of the catastrophic regional flood, and record Denver flood, from 1965. I'll try to get back here and drop some sources. Cheers. N2e (talk) 21:12, 12 August 2019 (UTC)

Chatfield a Denver Water source? Not likely
I would be good to see some source supporting the claim that Chatfield Reservoir is a major source of Denver Water. By Denver Water's info 80% of Denver Waters' supply is diverted above Chatfield Reservoir, by a diversion from Strontia Springs Dam to the Foothills Water Treatment Plant (near Roxborough) and an in-stream diversion to the Marston Treatment Plant, both above Chatfield. Based on this info I am changing "a major source of drinking water" to "a flood control basin"

Elrey (talk) 14:44, 30 October 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:South Platte River


text:
Talk:Q.E.D.

A suggestion for the authors of this article
Ladies & Gentlemen:

I am not a mathematician or a philosopher. When I came to this article to learn what "Q.E.D." meant, I found a very concise and clear statement at the beginning of the article, which reads "The phrase is traditionally placed in its abbreviated form at the end of a mathematical proof or philosophical argument when what was specified in the enunciation — and in the setting-out — has been exactly restated as the conclusion of the demonstration".

This is clear enough, but it presumes that the reader knows what a mathematical proof or a philosophical argument is and how these two items are constructed. Regrettably, I really don't know what either one of these concepts are. May I respectfully suggest that immediately after the above-mentioned paragraph, you provide a (very simple) example of a mathematical proof with Q.E.D. at the end, and also a (very simple) example of a philosophical argument with Q.E.D. at the end? I believe that this would greatly contribute to the usefulness of this article.

Thank you for your consideration of this suggestion. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 70.48.150.42 (talk) 21:39, 18 November 2010 (UTC)

Tombstone notation?
Are the squares (■, □) commonly called "tombstone notations"? If so, it should be included. --Menchi 05:36 15 Jul 2003 (UTC)
 * A quick google search on "tombstone notation" turns up one match, but I do like the term... ;) - Hephaestos

 * I do seem to recall they're called tombstones, but I don't remember exactly, so I thought it best not to mention so until I was sure :) Dysprosia 05:40 15 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * i like weener!!!!  Ok I checked, they're called the tombstone or halmos. In Lucida Sans Unicode (which has almost every Unicode char under the sun, it's ∎, but the Times New Roman approximations should be still appropriate Dysprosia 05:42 15 Jul 2003 (UTC) PS it turns out it renders properly :) I'll edit

...to the ridiculous.
i think that the acronym Q.E.F. deserves a page for its own.

''"In English speaking countries the letters can also mean "Quite Easily Done" or, occasionally, "Quite Eloquently Done", or humourously "Quite Enough Done", "Quite Elegantly Done". A more colloquial translation might be "See, I Told You So".

"In Asian speaking countries, the letters sometimes mean, "Question Easy Done", in a parody of Chinglish."

 * The Hong Kong joke is a general one that I think is common among English speakers in general as "Quite Easily Done". Other stupid variations:

 * Stupid QED acronyms --
 * Quite Easily Done
 * Quite Erotically Done
 * Quite Erroneously Done
 * Quite Esoterically Done
 * Quite Evasivally Done

 * Is the italicized text above, from the article, actually information? --Wetman 23:54, 20 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * It's information, but it's too much information. I think the existence of such backronyms is worth mentioning here, but we don't need a dozen of variations on the theme, or explanations of why they're funny. I might do some sort of rewrite at some point. EldKatt 19:33, 10 July 2005 (UTC)

 * I think two or three should at least be included in there somewhere, so that people know they exist. I'm not sure it comes under the category of too much information. — metaprimer (talk) 11:16, 20 August 2007 (UTC)

 * My opinion on points like this (see also linguistic variants and appearances in popular culture) is that they clutter the article with factoids of subjective importance. This is not to say that this sort of thing is never valuable, but one has to ask whether that value is encyclopedic or merely personal.  In this particular case: is the existence of such "stupid QED acronyms" (I've structured the existing list in Wetman's comments):
 * a documented trend in people's understanding of this term,
 * a documented reaction to some aspect of mathematical education,
 * a documented cultural trend pertaining to the appropriation of scientific terms in popular usage,
 * part of a documented reaction in Hong Kong or China in general, which has nothing to do with mathematics in particular, to racist foreign stereotypes,
 * a documented student fad, or
 * a mixture of such things, together with some undocumented and probably non-notable local and/or personal additions that someone thought was funny?
 * I'm going with "all of the above", so if you're going to include any of these acronyms, be sure to include the documentation. Because it is, at its heart, something someone made up in school one day, and all that separates that from something worthy of being noted in this encyclopedia is the fact that people other than the perpetrators took notice of it.
 * On a different topic, thank you for your sectioning effort. The article is much more attractive and the directions of potential expansion are much clearer now.  Though I worry that having a heading for linguistic variants will encourage more of the same.... Ryan Reich 10:08, 21 August 2007 (UTC)

 * I felt it was far too hard to follow and find the information contained within the article when it was just one big section. I think of it in terms of, "if I wanted to come back to this page to find information I read earlier, would I immediately know where it was on the page?" That article pretty much failed in that respect. I did notice that someone previously had included sections and that they were removed without much explanation; it may happen again. Nevertheless, I'm sure someone will improve and expound upon the sections. As for the linguistic variants thing, I hadn't thought of that -- maybe someone will find a way to better integrate it into the article without tempting others to add more? I left the HTML comment in when I edited it, though. — metaprimer (talk) 11:35, 21 August 2007 (UTC)

 * It's kind of you to omit mention of it, but I was the one who removed the previous sections. Looking back at the edit history, I had a few reasons: first, because the sections seemed very arbitrary (rather than having been chosen because they represented important aspects of QED, they appeared to have been chosen to justify the inclusion of certain data already in the article); second, because I was trying to clean up the "popular culture" additions and I thought that the existing section headers encouraged them; and third, because after having done this janitorial work and thought about the article a bit, it struck me as being, essentially, a stubbish article on a relatively limited, self-contained topic, and that the sections just diluted the prose.  The only way these criticisms apply to the present sectioning scheme is that your division of the usage into "early" and "modern" may be precisely the sort of encouragement I don't want, though of course if good examples of modern usage can be found, that will be the place to put them.  And as for the linguistic variants, at one point I had a note referring readers to the language Wikis, but that was removed as being self-referential.  The languages I've included are there because they are mathematically significant; perhaps one can find sources identifying French, German, and Russian (for which I couldn't find an equivalent) as the three other languages of mathematics?  Then the section will work as it is. Ryan Reich 13:03, 21 August 2007 (UTC)

 * I didn't actually know that it was you who removed the previous sections, I simply remembered that someone had done so from checking the history after I had rewritten it in my edit. I should point out that my sectioning didn't take into account much of the arguments that people have made on this discussion page, since I hadn't read it; I was simply reorganising the information which was already present. — metaprimer (talk) 14:28, 21 August 2007 (UTC)

Q.E.F.
The difference in meaning is not very clear here. It says how Euclid used it, but without actually saying what it means. --Scottandrewhutchins (talk) 19:15, 1 February 2023 (UTC)

Greek notation

 * From TFA: "This is a translation of the Greek oper edei deixai ..."

What is the Greek notation of those words? Is it ωπερ ηδηι δηιχαι?
 * No. One could have tried a better guess by noting that it's really hoper edei deixai with x = ks, but since Euclid is available online I've just looked it up @ http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0085&query=book%3D2%3Aproposition%3D5&layout=&loc=2.5 (Be sure to configure for pre-combined diacritics; that'll probably look best.) As an added advantage, we now know where the accents should be. Shinobu 00:43, 16 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Should some accented characters appear as hollow squares, just copy the text to a word processor and select a font containing the right characters. Shinobu 00:50, 16 July 2005 (UTC)

asia

 * "In Asian countries, the letters are sometimes taken to mean (mistakenly and ungrammatically) "Question Easy Done." "

How about changing that to
 * "In Asian countries, the letters are sometimes taken to mean "Question Easily Done." "

? And why would this be restricted to asian countries now that it is not ungrammatical any more? --MarSch 12:33, 3 November 2005 (UTC)
 * I'm not sure but I think the original contributer intended to say just what he said. Correcting the grammar also changes the statement made. Effectively your're removing the original statement and inserting a new one; I'll handle both seperately:
 * If in Asian countries Q.E.D is taken to mean "Question Easy Done" we should be able to find a source for this. Not to mention find out which Asian countries are meant (Asia is quite large, actually). I personally wouldn't mind removing this, but if someone cares enough about this to provide a source then let it stay.
 * Q.E.D. as "Question Easily Done" seems to me to be a tongue-in-cheek interpretation. I don't think it's specifically Asian, or caused by any misunderstanding or uninformedness (is that a word?) of the real meaning.
 * Shinobu 22:44, 3 November 2005 (UTC)

Popular usage
I think I also remember QED being used in the Guns of Navarone, among others. Since that section is open to the addition of lots and lots of links and instances, without any objective criterium as to what to add and what not to add, is it really wise to have it? Shinobu 16:08, 13 December 2005 (UTC)

 * Assuming that the implied answer to the rhetorical question is no, I agree with you. Listing every instance of "popular usage" of this not uncommon phrase would not only be impossible, but also of no aid to readers. Even disregarding the practical difficulties you mention, we have to ask ourselves if anyone, ever, will want to read about it. I suspect not. EldKatt (Talk) 16:32, 13 December 2005 (UTC)

I observe the "Popular usage" section has grown since. diff Q.E.D. is a very common phrase and the "Popular usage" section will keep growing for ever, getting less and less interesting. Unless I remove it, that is. Which is exactly what I'll do. Shinobu 13:41, 7 July 2006 (UTC)
 * I dislike the idea of this being removed entirely, although I appreciate there is a lack of objectivity. Maybe it should spawn a Popular usage of Q.E.D. page - that way people who what to read the examples can, but those only interested in the content of this page dont have to. Remeber, just because you don't want to read about it doesn't mean no-one does. Poobarb 00:25, 8 July 2006 (UTC)

Perhaps in the see also section. Although I think trying to record every instance of popular usage is a futile and pointless endeavor, you are free to go ahead if you disagree. Yours faithfully, Shinobu 12:12, 8 July 2006 (UTC)

Being a user that apparently added one of the back-breaking entries to this section (the HBO citation), I find it a little surprising the extent of dominion over this page exerted by one user's wholesale clipping of the popular usage section. Perhaps their explanation could have at least been worded differently, on the more practical side, rather than sounding smarmy and petulant.Eudy7 07:32, 14 July 2006 (UTC)
 * I don't understand your complaint. In my view, the explanation was practical and clear enough, and I would appreciate a more concrete explanation of what is "smarmy and petulant" about it. Furthermore, Shinobu's suggestion of removal (as well as my agreement with it) had been on this talk page for nearly seven months without meeting any disagreement before the user actually removed the section. It could hardly have been done in a more respectful fashion. EldKatt (Talk) 12:12, 14 July 2006 (UTC)

More Concrete Explanation: I agree the history of your discussion with Shinobu largely handled the issue with pragmatism. I see the potential for excessive growth of the section, given enough time. I'm not above admitting my comment may just be sour grapes -- I find it regretful that my contribution became the catalyst for every other section contributor's work getting clipped. And my initial reaction to Shinobu's final two sentences in the comment which explained the mass edit is the source of my "smarmy and petulant" accusation. Upon another reading, I still extract a degree of flippancy in the those final two, short sentences at the close of the explanation. It's simply my interpretation, and I could be completely wrong on the question of the writer's tone or intent. Overall, the specific matter is rather insignificant in my opinion and the underlying principle doesn't rise to any level I feel needs strident debate. I simply felt a strongly worded comment was in order to remind anyone inclined to remove large amounts of material that they are removing someone's inspiration and effort, however tiny. Cheers.--Eudy7 01:02, 15 July 2006 (UTC)

Improper translations of QED/QEF?
If you look at the linked Latin lexicon (which shows the morphology), you'll notice that erat is the imprefect active indicate form of the "be" verb [see Perseus morphology as well], which corresponds exactly to the Greek ἔδει (imperfect active indicative). It is not a subjunctive or imperative form. I understand that many Mathematicians take the expression as "was to be," but I figure that is due to the fact that they are expert in Maths, not translating languages (they also often add the word "that", i.e., "that which", though the word is entirely absent from the Latin [and Greek] phrase). Is there any evidence from Latin lexicographers or grammarians, that erat can be translated as "was to be"? It seems that "was" or "was being" is the accurate translation. See 2nd conjugation ("-at" ending) 3rd person translation of the imperfect (="was") and Uses of the tenses in Latin grammar (imprefect="was").

Another related issue is that even if by some obscure convention or nuance it could be translated "was to be," that doesn't convey the ancient or current use of the expression. Where "was to be" implies "but might not have been", the whole point of appending it to some propositions and not all of them, was to point up the fact that the author thought that they had proven that proposition beyond all dispute. When QED is used today, it is used the same way — not to say the weaker "I think I've shown this," but the much stronger "I have shown this, period."

So both in terms of grammar and practice, "was to be" seems wrong. Remember, just because various Math sites say "was to be" doesn't mean it is correct — the lexicographers and grammarians must decide the issue of the proper translation of a Latin phrase. I'm open to correction on all points, however. --MonkeeSage 07:05, 7 April 2006 (UTC)

 * erat is being translated as 'was'. The 'to be' comes from converting the gerund demonstrandum into a passive infinitive. Peter Grey 07:15, 7 April 2006 (UTC)

 * Hmmm...that would explain the rendering. But that is odd, in that demonstrandum has a verbal root — taking it as a gerund/participal doesn't make a lot of sense to me...mabye the future could be understand as "to be (in the future)", but it reads more like "(I intended it) to be" in English, as if it had a subjunctive nuance. But, then, I'm no expert in Latin, so I won't hold out for one translation over another, I was just wondering. --MonkeeSage 09:03, 7 April 2006 (UTC)

 * NM, it is listed as a participle. But in this case, where demonstrandum follows the imperfect erat which takes an abstract rather than personal subject, wouldn't the rendering be "being demonstrated"? If demonstrandum is rendered as a subjunctive, then you have an assertion about a property of the quod rather than the speaker (i.e., "which was demonstrating"), where the intent seems to be with the implied subject ("which was being demonstrated [by me]", or "which [I] was demonstrating"). Ah, I don't know, I'm going to bed, it's too late to be trying to think about Latin! --MonkeeSage 09:42, 7 April 2006 (UTC)

 * Surely 'demonstrandum' is a gerundIVE - with the passive meaning "requiring to be demonstrated"?
 * Q.E.D. - that which was requiring to be demonstrated
 * Or if you prefer: gerundive + the verb to be = necessity. That which must be demonstrated.

 * That's correct - it's a gerundive, just like in Cato's famous declamation regarding Carthage. The translation is essentially correct.  I think we can leave the finer details of Latin grammar to other articles. PubliusFL 12:13, 19 September 2006 (UTC)

 * The Greek translates quiet well to `that which it was necessary to show'. My Latin is poor (merely in progress), but I believe that `erat demonstrandum' is to be taken as a unit called a passive periphrastic construction.  However, I can talk extensively about the Greek.  ἔδει is the imperfect impersonal form translating roughly as 'it was necessary'.  ὅπερ is an intensive form of the Greek accusative (direct object) pronoun; often in English translations of Latin and Greek, it is not improper (and sometimes necessary) to include complementizers in its translation, etc: `that which', `for which', or others.  δεῖξαι is the aorist infinitive; in non-finite forms (when not a main verb), the aorist tense often denotes aspect (a quality English fails to distinguish), thus here `to show on one occasion'.  It is actually difficult to communicate this well in English, but it implies that the proof is not an ongoing process, but (supposedly) has been completed and is unnecessary to consider again.  No longer must this be proven to be used, its result can now be accepted without explanation in further work. It is curious, and on this point I defer to my betters in Greek, why the perfect infinite δεδεικέναι (there may be a consononental assimilation that I've missed in constructing this) is not used, since the result of this `showing' is resonant, ie lasts beyond the end of the page on which the proof culminates.  Here is a page which discusses this, and then some, which I have just found while searching for the correct form of the perfect infinitive: http://www.du.edu/~etuttle/classics/nugreek/lesson9.htm  ub3rm4th 19:54, 15 November 2006 (UTC)
 * @passive periphrastic: correct, the gerundive is commonly used for this. At school we were thought to think of the gerundive as "having to be ed". Not that this is also reflected in the Latin name of this verb form. A way to remember the meaning of the gerundive: "ceterum censeo cartaginem esse delendam" - "I also think Cartago must be destroyed." Shinobu 02:23, 16 November 2006 (UTC)

 * It's not the passive periphrastic, but the gerundive of obligation; the passive periphrastic utilizes the perfect passive participle, not the gerundive. Since English doesn't include gerundives (or future passive particles, as they are also known), the most literal translation is probably "to be ___ed," but in this case obligation is specifically implied, which is not always clear in English; still, "to be ___ed" often implies obligation in English, too, as it seems to fairly well here. "Which was to be demonstrated" is about the best translation you'll get, in my opinion, since it's fairly literal and understandable. "That which" seems inappropriate to me, since it makes the phrase a fragment rather than a relative clause modifying the proof. However, it's such a small issue that I'll leave it as it is unless anybody else cares. Eebster the Great (talk) 23:40, 8 December 2008 (UTC)

"what was to be demonstrated" is simply bad English; it does not make sense. "Quod" translates as "that", according to my (inferior) source. "That" is a pronoun. "That which was to be demonstrated" makes sense in English, even though it is a sentence fragment (god forbid). I changed the translations in the article to make sense in English and to accord with "quod", but if anyone can improve them, go ahead. Just make sure the English satisfies the prime requirement of translation (aside from poetry), i.e., makes sense. Zaslav (talk) 21:20, 9 February 2024 (UTC)

Other source
I would recommend to move/rewrite/get permission/include the article QED by robin hartshorne. at the moment i add this as an external link.Marhahs 21:50, 27 September 2006 (UTC)
 * I expect that he won't mind its inclusion here but his email address (robin at math dot berkeley dot edu) is at the bottom of the page linked if you want to ask. He never officially published the note, nor does he intend to (I'm pretty sure).  BTW, what does your first sentence mean?  You want to move the article or rewrite his article or include the contents in this article or ...  I'm not sure what your desire is.  --Maplebed 06:33, 28 October 2006 (UTC)

Appropriate Use
As a teaching assistant / grader in mathematics, I'd like to point out that students (and journal authors) should only use "QED" appropriately -- to me, at least, it makes a very strong statement that the proof-writer is proud of their proof. There's nothing wrong with being proud, but it's annoying when QED is overused. I suggest only using it when you prove something in a very elegant fashion, or for a novel proof. In all other cases, the "tombstone" or "halmos" suffices. There are several ways to write a halmos in latex; one simple way, that works most of the time (depending on where the last line of your proof ends) is \hfill $\square$.

Of course, this is only my opinion, but I suspect others might agree. Agree, disagree? Lavaka 17:53, 14 February 2007 (UTC)

 * There's some incidental support for this in Grothendieck's EGA and SGA: most proofs just trail off (the text is organized in numbered "paragraphs", one statement + proof each), but with something important, he writes QED at the end, and for a particularly long, difficult proof (like characterizing quasicoherent sheaves on an affine scheme, in EGA1), he writes a triumphant CQFD (the French version). That makes two of you, but then, Grothendieck is a good mathematician to be supported by.

 * By the way, regarding the "halmos": in TeX, it is almost always appropriate to use the proof environment, so you can just write \end{proof} and get a square, or if necessary put a \qedhere in the desired place. My experience is that the more you try to be clever about formatting and spacing in LaTeX, the more wrong you are: someone else has already done it better, by now. Ryan Reich 13:49, 31 May 2007 (UTC)

Foreign equivalents
Okay, I deserve the blame for this since I started it with "qcfd", but the proliferation of foreign equivalents of "qed" is getting ridiculous. I can defend "qcfd" in that French is a major mathematical language, but without disrespect to the Finnish I can say that only they will ever see "mot". I don't want to draw the line arbitrarily, but maybe the foreign translations can be reduced to just the French, German, and Russian (the canonical three other mathematical languages) and a note that other equivalents can be found in the language-specific wikipedias in the sidebar. Ryan Reich 02:28, 7 March 2007 (UTC)

 * That makes sense. Actually, the reason I came here was because I wanted to see if it mentioned "ketsuron," which is the Japanese equivalent, but I really didn't expect it. I think it's really interesting, but it's not necessary. -Ravenwolf Zero (talk) 00:34, 19 March 2008 (UTC)

 * The number of foreign language translations has now become absurd. How many people possibly come to this page for the Icelandic translation of QED? The Vietnamese? The Esperanto?! I have deleted all but French, German, Russian, and Spanish94.142.32.114 (talk) 09:15, 29 June 2011 (UTC)

 * And the w.z.b.w. in German isnt used. It may be an equivalent but all schools, school books, teachers and the universities use q..e.d.

 * That is misleading. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 80.171.184.101 (talk) 02:31, 19 August 2010 (UTC)

 * At least in the school I went to, it was used. --93.135.223.71 (talk) 23:04, 16 February 2012 (UTC)

The German form of Q.E.D is, accoridung to Duden - die deutsche Rechtschreibung not capitalized. The correct version, or at least the version that can be found in most German literature is "q.e.d." 78.53.217.212 (talk) 20:54, 26 February 2015 (UTC)
 * In fact, "most German literature", indeed the great great majority of up-to-date modern German literature, uses the Halmos symbol just as English literature dues. "w.z.b.w." does sometimes come natural, though, in that it is a normal German subclause, especially I guess when people use a more geometrico proof of non-mathematical statements, while avoiding the "there, I've proved it for ya!" triumph that seems to come with a "q.e.d." - especially if the phrase would be capitalized, which it usually isn't (indeed).--2001:A61:20F1:7D01:65E3:6B3B:3966:9441 (talk) 12:14, 26 August 2017 (UTC)

proper pronunciation
How do you say it? I always thought you just said, "Q(cue) E(ee) D(dee)," but my professor told me it was pronounced like "cued," or even like "kood (like in kudos)." Which way is correct? Ye Olde Luke 01:53, 16 May 2007 (UTC)

 * In my opinion, it's an acronym, or abbreviation, or initialism, or whatever term is pedantically correct, and pedantically, you should say it letter-by-letter. On the other hand, plenty of these things, especially acronyms, are expressly designed to be pronounced, so it can't be wrong to try to pronounce it as a word.  Still, this one is clearly not one of these, especially since it is an abbreviation for a phrase in a different language which is itself a translation of a prhase in a third language, and I don't think that either you, I, or your professor can claim to know the customs for pronouncing acronyms in Greek or Latin.  If he claims that it is supposed to be proncouced as a word, he is wrong, both because he cannot know, and because the opposite is held by many, many people. Ryan Reich 02:31, 16 May 2007 (UTC)

 * Per the Wikipedia article, an acronym is an abbreviation where the letters are said as a word, such as NATO, and an initialism is one where each letter is said individually. Anyway, I would say that pronouncing QED as a word would be frowned upon, and many mathematicians in earshot would maybe cringe to hear it. — metaprimer (talk) 09:52, 20 August 2007 (UTC)

I had a Latin teacher who was a stickler on pronunciation. The proper way is: KOO-ode A-raht deh-moan-STRAHN-doom. They always pronounced every letter the same way every time. This is the way they would pronounce it in Roman times. This is not the "church" or "scientific" variety of Latin. Gregbard 10:26, 10 September 2007 (UTC)

 * "KOO-ode?" Really? The vowel U following a Q isn't even scanned in poetry; why should it be a separate, accented syllable in prose? I think "Kwode" is a more appropriate pronunciation. Eebster the Great (talk) 23:46, 8 December 2008 (UTC)

 * Yes it is surprising, but it is KOO-ode because that's how you always pronounce a "u" in Latin: "OO." There are no exceptions just because it's next to a "q." The whole "kw" thing came much later. Pontiff Greg Bard (talk) 23:10, 11 August 2009 (UTC)

 * Your teacher is obviously wrong. The Romans wrote it "QVOD" and "V" was always pronounced V after Q. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 85.197.139.184 (talk) 18:58, 15 March 2010 (UTC)

Humorous variants
Apropos of some of the earlier discussions (from a long time ago) up on this page, I've decided to snip all of the material on QED that doesn't have to do with proofs, or doesn't have to do with its classical meaning. Not that popular takes on the phrase aren't potentially interesting, but as I noted in the edit comment, Wikipedia is not for things made up in school one day. The potential for humor on this subject is endless (three letters could mean almost anything, especially in a language with so many words) but most of it is not notable. Rather than let the article collect junk, I'm inclined to say that anything of this nature should come with a source, or leave in a hurry. Ryan Reich 13:04, 31 May 2007 (UTC)

Popular usage (movies, etc).
I'm wondering whether anyone else thinks it might be a decent idea to add a small section at the bottom of this article about the acronym's usage in notable movies, etc. (Captain Sparrow in Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End comes to mind during the Locker scene). Exigence 06:47, 6 July 2007 (UTC)

 * Being the person responsible for cleaning out the last few batches of such trivia from this article, I don't like this idea. This would just be a Trivia section, concerning which we have an entire guideline (also see Handling trivia).  The basic point is: trivia is by definition unimportant information, so if you're going to include it, you should restrain yourself unless you can present it relevantly to the subject of the article.  The South Park example at the beginning of the second article is pretty good, and following it, I can say that "QED" being used in Pirates of the Caribbean by Jack Sparrow is unimportant to the movie (it's just a quip), of minimal importance to QED itself (being little more than an illustration of the fact that it is used in popular culture), and of perhaps slightly more importance to Jack Sparrow (if using QED, as opposed to some other phrase like "boo-ya!", has any significance to the nature of his character).  Just because the subject of a Wikipedia article is addressed in some notable context, like a big movie, doesn't make that appearance notable; it also has to be of some significance in that context, which I don't think this was.  Now, there is a point to be made here that "QED" is increasingly popular in casual use, and that this is notable; however, making this claim would, as usual, require support from a reliable source, and not simply from a list of examples (see this section of the above essay for a parallel example about depictions of God).  So if you or someone else wants to write about the popular use of "QED", you or they should find someone who has already written about it first.  So I think that any trivia along these lines is really only going to cause the article to be cluttered.  Once you put it in, someone else will find their favorite movie and put in a reference to that, and so on.  I know, because this happened when I tried to put in foreign-language variants of "QED".  None of this will really add any more than an unsourced comment that "QED" is now a popular term for intensifying claims, which is what I already have in the article (maybe I should put a  tag on it to encourage someone to find a source?).  Yes, I know that thousands of other articles have Trivia sections unmolested, but that doesn't change the fact that they are discouraged.  Perhaps their contributors were carried away by their enthusiasm for the subject and forgot that "Anyone can contribute to Wikipedia" doesn't mean that everything anyone could write actually belongs where they put it. Ryan Reich 15:48, 6 July 2007 (UTC)

For the record, I would recommend scrapping the Babel fish example as well. There's nothing special about the use of the abbreviation in the book; by this standard, just about any work where any proof (or "proof") is made could be included. - Mike Rosoft (talk) 14:49, 21 November 2009 (UTC)

The last sentence of the Ice Princess section should be reworked. As it is, it doesn't make sense.--Slowlikemolasses (talk) 03:30, 25 November 2012 (UTC)

Anonymous edit, "albeit" to "less"
I would've just asked this on the user's talk page, but it was an anonymous edit, so I thought I'd voice my question here. Is diff an improving edit? Should it be undone? etc. — metaprimer (talk) 21:32, 25 August 2007 (UTC)

 * I think it's harmless, and maybe even improves the sentence. "Albeit" is a slightly unusual word and perhaps he felt it made the article more accessible to remove it.  I am usually vigilant over articles I've contributed to significantly (like this one), but I also usually let minor changes like this, which are matters of personal opinion, go.  Maybe it does improve the article, maybe it doesn't; there's no point in reverting it if it does nothing at all, and I don't think it is damaging. Ryan Reich 22:32, 25 August 2007 (UTC)

Quadrilateral Ends Discussion
Has anyone else heard the backronym "Quadrilateral Ends Discussion"? Or am I the only one? —Preceding unsigned comment added by Singingwolfboy (talk • contribs) 17:28, 3 September 2008 (UTC)

 * That makes no sense at all . . . Eebster the Great (talk) 23:50, 8 December 2008 (UTC)

computers?
why can't they just write QED at the end instead of some symbol???? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 98.165.243.53 (talk) 00:43, 18 November 2008 (UTC)

Quite Easily Done
Wikipedia is not a haphazard collection of information, but a short sentence on the existence of humorous (or supposedly so) backronyms does belong in an encyclopaedia that deals with the subject in a thorough manner. The most common of these seems to be Quite Easily Done, so I'm adding a small reference to that in Section 2.--Jchthys (talk) 17:05, 3 February 2009 (UTC)

 * I can think of an argument that the edit history of this article would itself constitute reliable evidence for this claim, even. Probably you've hit on the best way to present this "fact". Ryan Reich (talk) 18:27, 3 February 2009 (UTC)
 * Thank you. Jchthys (talk) 04:00, 4 February 2009 (UTC)

Please see WP:RS; random factoids are OK if sourced; otherwise not. Dicklyon (talk) 06:26, 4 February 2009 (UTC)
 * As Ryan Reich said, the fact that the argument exists is proof for the inclusion of the fact, if only a brief reference. I sourced The Free Dictionary's acronym database; though one might not consider this a reliable source, all that needs to be proven is that these backronyms exist. (No-one is arguing that they are the original or correct origin of Q.E.D.) Jchthys (talk) 17:59, 4 February 2009 (UTC)

 * So you're not going to read WP:RS, just try to work around it? Dicklyon (talk) 03:52, 5 February 2009 (UTC)

 * It's not good debating to argue against your own side, but I do want to point out that I intended my comment ironically. However, I think it is good for the article to have a place where as little time as possible is devoted to this stupidity in order to attract and satisfy the obvious fascination of the general public with humorous interpretations of this abbreviation, and I also think that the persistent addition of these phrases by totally different users is informal evidence for their existence and notability.  It is at least encouragement that somewhere out there must exist some writing on the subject.  Now, I know of the WP:OTHERSTUFF fallacy, and I also know that unsourced material must go, but in practice it doesn't always go immediately because it can be improved.  The way Jchthys presented the neologism is pretty neutral, tacitly discourages  further such additions, and by its presence is encouragement to find a source...just like much dubiously sourced material throughout Wikipedia that is merely graced with a fact tag.  I'm not going to put it back myself, but leave it to your discretion. Ryan Reich (talk) 04:30, 5 February 2009 (UTC)

 * Is there a reason not to include a reference? The information does pertain to the subject—in my experience, the backronyms are almost always mentioned when Q.E.D. is. Wikipedia should treat every article thoroughly—not with useless or random information, but with relative and accurate information. There can't be a better source for the backronyms than the usage of them themselves. ¶ I claim that the current consensus on this page is in favour of the inclusion of a brief sentence or two; please refute that claim if you do not want a reference to the backronyms. Jchthys (talk) 19:19, 5 February 2009 (UTC)

 * There can't be a better source for the backronyms than the usage of them themselves. Nonsense; find a reliable source. Dicklyon (talk) 02:11, 6 February 2009 (UTC)
 * See the section on using sources as sources on themselves. For example, on the Ichthys article, there is a section—completely unreferenced—about Ichthys parodies. Yet it belongs there, for though it is a parody of the topic, it is relevant, just as Quite Easily Done is a parody but is relevant.
 * Also, it looks like you're the only one on this talk page with the opinion that there should be no reference to the parodies. Jchthys (talk) 20:43, 6 February 2009 (UTC)

 * I added a journal article as source for the Jesus fish parodies. And I didn't say there should be no reference to the parodies, I said that it is NECESSARY to cite a reference. Dicklyon (talk) 06:16, 7 February 2009 (UTC)
 * Did you read the section on using sources as sources on themselves? If you don't consider that acceptable, then maybe there could be a Popular usage of Q.E.D. page. Jchthys (talk) 16:24, 7 February 2009 (UTC)
 * Yes; it's about using self-published sources as sources on the persons who published them; I don't see why you bring it up in this context. Dicklyon (talk) 01:15, 8 February 2009 (UTC)
 * I think it would be ridiculous to act as though the phrase "Quite Easily Done" isn't noteworthy just because there are either no published sources discussing the origin or prevalence of the phrase, or because there are no Wiki authors who are aware of such sources. If you obsessively compulsively feel you MUST have a reference to support its insertion in the article, then reference the TV series Q.E.D: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q.E.D._(American_TV_series) - 'characters would sometimes state the initials to represent "quite easily done."' MathewMunro (talk) 23:34, 12 February 2024 (UTC)

Does this count as a "reliable source"? 71.175.12.187 (talk) 16:35, 7 February 2009 (UTC)

 * That would be enough to support a statement that the Telegraph has used it that way. Dicklyon (talk) 01:15, 8 February 2009 (UTC)

 * Yes, and sourcing usages of "Quite Easily Done" proves that Q.E.D. is (mis)used in that way. Jchthys (talk) 03:04, 9 February 2009 (UTC)

Clarification request

 * With computers frequently being used to "write" proofs (see LaTeX), there are several symbolic alternatives in use...

I'm not sure I understand what this means. What do the quotes around "write" signify? Is it referring to proofs generated by a computer program, or just to the mundane fact that people use word-processors and desktop publishing software to write up proofs? Either way, why would this encourage the use of other symbols? Needs clarification. 86.134.12.220 (talk) 00:28, 10 March 2009 (UTC).

 * The second one. The point is that the ability to typeset proofs also opens up new opportunities for notating them.  In particular, you see purely artificial, symbolic alternatives like the "halmos" replacing easier-to-typeset traditions like Q.E.D., which has come to look old-fashioned as a result (and thus fallen into further disuse).  Citation junkies can make what they will of the claims in that statement; for your question, perhaps just changing the quoted "write" to "typeset" (without extra quotes) is enough.

 * It's not a question of being a citation junkie. It is difference between syntax (or appearance) and semantics. Most of my semantic junkie work comes from articles written by academics who don't give a shit about the people who come after them; their references are "valid" but useless to anyone else without links. I find citations the hardest part of wikipedia, if others took a little time on their own additions I think it could be a lot better. Gosh I am in a bad mood tonight. SimonTrew (talk) 02:24, 19 March 2009 (UTC)

 * And in many cases it is pure laziness. They know a citation junkie will come along and fix it after them. SimonTrew (talk) 02:26, 19 March 2009 (UTC)

Unicode
Unicode descriptions of characters are usually WRITTEN IN UPPER CASE. I don't know what the style guide says but I would expect e.g. U+0013 CARRIAGE RETURN.

It is also important to make a distinction between a character (which has a semantic function) and a glyph (which is the way it is represented).

Opinions? Best SimonTrew (talk) 02:19, 19 March 2009 (UTC)

Wordiness
It is not necessary or desirable to pack the maximum number of words into the minimum amount of thought. Jchthys' did just that, adding no value or comprehension, just words. I am tempted to revert immediately, but I am being nice. Since I have had no response on user talk pages I will do so shortly unless I get a reply. I see absolutely no use in this edit, in fact I think it comes close to vandalism. SimonTrew (talk) 03:09, 19 March 2009 (UTC)

 * Got a response, and I apologised from my intemperate nature. Nevertheless I do think that there is no need just to add words unless they add sence. I have offreed to have a discussion here, but so far no take-up. SimonTrew (talk) 05:06, 19 March 2009 (UTC)

kqed
how much more relevant in modern culture can a smart radio station with the call letters kqed be? i say leave it. XKV8R (talk) 22:49, 12 June 2009 (UTC)

 * Though I'm a member of KQED, a great radio station, I don't see the relevance to this article. But if you find a reliable source that connects it, I won't object. Dicklyon (talk) 23:03, 12 June 2009 (UTC)
 * the folks at kqed chose the call letters precisely because of the meaning of the phrase's letters. do we really need an article or reference in order to demonstrate why the station chose its letters?
 * and to be honest, i don't care if you object (with all due respect). you have no grounds whatsoever for its deletion. it's a fact about the use of the letters - plain and simple.XKV8R (talk) 01:07, 13 June 2009 (UTC)
 * but, just to show i am acting in good faith, i referenced it. you will note that the KQED-TV article references the Q.E.D. article.XKV8R (talk) 01:14, 13 June 2009 (UTC)
 * also mind the WP three revert rule. i count you, Dicklyon, as having reverted twice so thus far today. goodnite. XKV8R (talk) 01:18, 13 June 2009 (UTC)

 * So why have you put it back without a source? A link to another wikipedia article where it's unsourced does not make for a verifiable connection.  Yes, you really do need a source, or I will remove it again.  For now, I'll just tag it.  Dicklyon (talk) 03:53, 13 June 2009 (UTC)
 * i shake my head. now are you going to cite the claims/facts made throughout the rest of the article? shall i mark them with cn for you? are we really gonna play this game? please don't pick a fight where there is none. all the same, i'll summon some other sets of eyes to watch. XKV8R (talk) 08:05, 13 June 2009 (UTC)

 * Well, yes. Just because an article is short on sourcing doesn't mean we should welcome new unsourced additions. Dicklyon (talk) 12:26, 13 June 2009 (UTC)

In spanish Q.E.D.!= queda entonces demostrado because it is like "is then shown" http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quod_erat_demonstrandum fix it please —Preceding unsigned comment added by 190.44.9.42 (talk) 13:18, 23 April 2010 (UTC)

Demonstrate
Would anyone have a short paragraph handy that could be cited showing an example of the common usage of QED? All this talk about the abbreviation, not one example showing its use... 134.193.238.42 (talk) 16:22, 16 November 2010 (UTC)

Comparison with ὅπερ ἔδει δεῖξαι

 * Translating from the Latin into English yields, "what was to have been demonstrated"; however, translating the Greek phrase ὅπερ ἔδει δεῖξαι produces a slightly different meaning. A better translation from the Greek would read, "what was required to be proved."

I don't know Greek, so I'm unclear on the exact difference... but "quod erat demonstrandum" could definitely be read as "what was required to be demonstrated" -- since the future passive participle often carries the implication of obligation in Latin, particularly when used with forms of "esse" such as "erat" -- and "demonstrated" is synonymous with "proved" in this context, so is there really any difference in meaning here at all? I'd say if anything the difference is a result of the process of translation and not any actual difference in meaning. - furrykef (Talk at me) 22:34, 9 January 2011 (UTC)

QED
This explanation of QED blows. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 66.189.119.113 (talk) 03:39, 22 May 2011 (UTC)

Slightly inconsistent translations
In one place the article translates as "which was to be demonstrated", and in another "what was to be demonstrated". Which should it be? Is the second even correct English (other than as a question, which is obviously not the intention)? 86.181.200.87 (talk) 00:39, 4 April 2012 (UTC)

Use of 'physics nerd'
Not sure what the best term would be, but physics nerd does not seem to be an encyclopedic term. --Techdude 42 (talk) 02:59, 15 November 2012 (UTC)

Summary not good enough
The starting summary/description doesn't give nearly a clear/good enough description of the acronym - particularly given its wider cultural usage now, for humorous effect (mocking an obvious untruth, by appending it with Q.E.D., to lend it more absurdity).

The current introduction/summary/description ought to be scrapped in entirety, and rewritten. Arfed (talk) 01:54, 13 April 2014 (UTC)

Languages section
Some of the alleged "examples" of Q.E.D. equivalents in other languages are really stretching it. "Q.E.D." doesn't stand for anything in Japanese or Korean; "かく示された" and "これが証明すべきことだった" are literally translations of "thus proven" and its alternate forms, and not what Q.E.D. actually stands for within those languages. There is a difference between saying that Q.E.D. is used when mathematics is taught in those countries and claiming that it stands for something within those languages, and the table provided is supposed to pair up equivalent abbreviations with what they stand for. Many of the bad examples (Persian, Norwegian, Japanese, etc.) have got to go. The table is not for listing the equivalents and direct translations of "and thus proven" within each language, it is used to denote what languages have their own equivalents to Q.E.D. -- benlisquare T•C•E 09:39, 1 June 2015 (UTC)

"Thus"
The usage and primary topic of is under discussion, see talk:Thus (company) -- 67.70.32.190 (talk) 06:55, 1 August 2015 (UTC)

In Hebrew
מה שהיה להוכיח הראש (talk) 11:31, 18 June 2019 (UTC)

Translation (again)
I see the translations from Latin and Greek have been discussed ad nauseam above, but I'm still confused. (I have a working knowledge of Latin; none of Greek.) The "Etymology and early use" section currently claims that a direct translation of the Latin is "that was to be demonstrated" (with which I would agree); but that translating from the Greek "can produce a slightly different meaning. In particular, since the verb "δείκνυμι" also means to show or to prove, a different translation from the Greek phrase would read 'The very thing it was required to have shown.'" Where's the discrepancy? To demonstrate, show or prove are all pretty much synonyms; while "the very thing" is more emphatic but still means effectively the same as "that". The two translations are subtly variant in emphasis, but there's no "different meaning". Some rewording or clarity required. Q.E.D. GrindtXX (talk) 13:29, 5 June 2024 (UTC)

Modern Popular Usage
The Supreme Court uses the phrase, QED, as abbreviated, in its famous decision in District of Columbia v. Heller, 554 U. S. 570 (2008), at p. 634. Specifically, Justice Scalia criticizes Justice Breyer's employment of “a judge-empowering ‘interest-balancing inquiry’ ” that invariably reaches an “interest-balanced answer,” viz., that “[b]ecause handgun violence is a problem, […] the interest-balancing inquiry results in the constitutionality of the handgun ban. QED.”

Whatever the merits of Heller (I agree with its disposition, for whatever that may be worth), one must respect Justice Scalia's masterful prose. OzzyMuffin238 (talk) 01:56, 15 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Q.E.D.


text:
Wolfenstein (disambiguation)

Wolfenstein is a video game series.

Wolfenstein may also refer to:

 * Castle Wolfenstein, the original 1981 game that the series is based off
 * Wolfenstein 3D, a 1992 game in the series
 * Return to Castle Wolfenstein, a 2001 game in the series
 * Wolfenstein (2009 video game), a game in the series
 * Wolfenstein: The New Order, a 2014 game in the series
 * Wolfenstein (rock), a rock formation between Tirschenreuth and Hohenwald in Bavaria

People with the surname

 * Eugene Victor Wolfenstein (1940-2010), American social theorist and psychoanalyst
 * Lincoln Wolfenstein (1923–2015), American physicist
 * Martha Wolfenstein (1869–1906), American novelist

title: Wolfenstein (disambiguation)


text:
Arachidonic acid

Arachidonic acid (AA, sometimes ARA) is a polyunsaturated omega-6 fatty acid 20:4(ω-6), or 20:4(5,8,11,14). If its precursors or diet contains linoleic acid it is formed by biosynthesis and can be deposited in animal fats. It is a precursor in the formation of leukotrienes, prostaglandins, and thromboxanes.

Together with omega-3 fatty acids and other omega-6 fatty acids, arachidonic acid provides energy for body functions, contributes to cell membrane structure, and participates in the synthesis of eicosanoids, which have numerous roles in physiology as signaling molecules.

Its name derives from the ancient Greek neologism arachis 'peanut', but peanut oil does not contain any arachidonic acid.

Chemistry

In chemical structure, arachidonic acid is a carboxylic acid with a 20-carbon chain and four cis-double bonds; the first double bond is located at the sixth carbon from the omega end.

Some chemistry sources define 'arachidonic acid' to designate any of the eicosatetraenoic acids. However, almost all writings in biology, medicine, and nutrition limit the term to all cis-5,8,11,14-eicosatetraenoic acid.

Biology
Arachidonic acid is a polyunsaturated fatty acid present in the phospholipids (especially phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylcholine, and phosphatidylinositides) of membranes of the body's cells, and is abundant in the brain, muscles, and liver. Skeletal muscle is an especially active site of arachidonic acid retention, accounting for roughly 10–20% of the phospholipid fatty acid content typically.

In addition to being involved in cellular signaling as a lipid second messenger involved in the regulation of signaling enzymes, such as PLC-γ, PLC-δ, and PKC-α, -β, and -γ isoforms, arachidonic acid is a key inflammatory intermediate and can also act as a vasodilator. (Note separate synthetic pathways, as described in section below.)

Biosynthesis and cascade in humans
Arachidonic acid is freed from phospholipid by hydrolysis, catalyzed by the phospholipase A2 (PLA2).

Arachidonic acid for signaling purposes appears to be derived by the action of group IVA cytosolic phospholipase A2 (cPLA2, 85 kDa), whereas inflammatory arachidonic acid is generated by the action of a low-molecular-weight secretory PLA2 (sPLA2, 14-18 kDa).

Arachidonic acid is a precursor to a wide range of eicosanoids:
 * The enzymes cyclooxygenase-1 and -2 (i.e. prostaglandin G/H synthase 1 and 2 {PTGS1 and PTGS2}) convert arachidonic acid to prostaglandin G2 and prostaglandin H2, which in turn may be converted to various prostaglandins, to prostacyclin, to thromboxanes, and to the 17-carbon product of thromboxane metabolism of prostaglandin G2/H2, 12-hydroxyheptadecatrienoic acid (12-HHT).
 * The enzyme 5-lipoxygenase catalyzes the oxidation of arachidonic acid to 5-hydroperoxyeicosatetraenoic acid (5-HPETE), which in turn converts to various leukotrienes (i.e., leukotriene B4, leukotriene C4, leukotriene D4, and leukotriene E4) as well as to 5-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (5-HETE) which may then be further metabolized to 5-HETE's more potent 5-keto analog, 5-oxo-eicosatetraenoic acid (5-oxo-ETE) (also see 5-Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid).
 * The enzymes 15-lipoxygenase-1 (ALOX15) and 15-lipoxygenase-2 (ALOX15B). ALOX15B catalyzes the oxidation of arachidonic acid to 15-hydroperoxyeicosatetraenoic acid (15-HPETE), which may then be further converted to 15-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (15-HETE) and lipoxins;  15-Lipoxygenase-1 may also further metabolize 15-HPETE to eoxins in a pathway analogous to (and presumably using the same enzymes as used in) the pathway which metabolizes 5-HPETE to leukotrienes.
 * The enzyme 12-lipoxygenase (ALOX12) catalyzes oxidation of arachidonic acid to 12-hydroperoxyeicosatetraenoic acid (12-HPETE), which may then be metabolized to 12-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (12-HETE) and to hepoxilins.
 * Arachidonic acid is also a precursor to anandamide.
 * Some arachidonic acid is converted into hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acids (HETEs) and epoxyeicosatrienoic acids (EETs) by epoxygenase.

The production of these derivatives and their actions in the body are collectively known as the "arachidonic acid cascade"; see Essential fatty acid interactions and the enzyme and metabolite linkages given in the previous paragraph for more details.

PLA2 activation
PLA2, in turn, is activated by ligand binding to receptors, including:
 * 5-HT2 receptors
 * mGLUR1
 * bFGF receptor
 * IFN-α receptor
 * IFN-γ receptor

Furthermore, any agent increasing intracellular calcium may cause activation of some forms of PLA2.

PLC activation
Alternatively, arachidonic acid may be cleaved from phospholipids after phospholipase C (PLC) cleaves off the inositol trisphosphate group, yielding diacylglycerol (DAG), which subsequently is cleaved by DAG lipase to yield arachidonic acid.

Receptors that activate this pathway include:
 * A1 receptor
 * D2 receptor
 * α-2 adrenergic receptor
 * 5-HT1 receptor

PLC may also be activated by MAP kinase. Activators of this pathway include PDGF and FGF.

Cell membranes
Along with other omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids, arachidonic acid contributes to the structure of cell membranes. When incorporated into phospholipids, the omega fatty acids affect cell membrane properties, such as permeability and the activity of enzymes and cell-signaling mechanisms.

Brain
Arachidonic acid, one of the most abundant fatty acids in the brain, is present in similar quantities to docosahexaenoic acid, with the two accounting for about 20% of brain fatty-acid content. Arachidonic acid is involved in the early neurological development of infants.

Dietary supplement
Arachidonic acid is marketed as a dietary supplement. A 2019 review of clinical studies investigating the potential health effects of arachidonic acid supplementation of up to 1500 mg per day on human health found there were no clear benefits. There were no adverse effects in adults of using high daily doses (1500 mg) of arachidonic acid on several biomarkers of blood chemistry, immune function, and inflammation.

A 2009 review indicated that consumption of 5-10% of food energy from omega-6 fatty acids including arachidonic acid may reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases compared to lower intakes. A 2014 meta-analysis of possible associations between heart disease risk and individual fatty acids reported a significantly reduced risk of heart disease with higher levels of EPA, DHA, and arachidonic acid.

title: Arachidonic acid


text:
Ramiz Alia

Ramiz Alia (18 October 1925 – 7 October 2011) was an Albanian politician serving as the second and last leader of the People's Socialist Republic of Albania from 1985 to 1991, serving as First Secretary of the Party of Labour of Albania. He was also the country's head of state from 1982 to 1992. He had been seen as a successor by Enver Hoxha and took power after Hoxha died.

Early life and politics
Alia was born on October 18, 1925, in Shkodër to Gheg Albanian parents who were Muslim. They fled persecution in Yugoslavia. He grew up and spent his childhood in Tirana. In the early part of World War II, Alia was a member of a fascist youth organisation known as the Fascist Lictor Youth Organisation but joined the underground Albanian Communist Youth Organisation in 1941. In 1943, he became a member of the Albanian Communist Party. He had risen rapidly under Hoxha's patronage, and was elected to the Central Committee in 1948, and in 1956, was named a candidate member of the Politburo. By 1961, he was made a full member of the Politburo (Politburo of the Party of Labour of Albania). Alia distinguished himself as the chief ideologist in the social and cultural fields for the Party of Labour of Albania, specifically during the years of the Cultural and Ideological Revolution.

Although Hoxha never designated an official successor, there were clear signs that he favoured Alia. In introducing Alia to one of his doctors, Hoxha said "My friend, I'm getting old, and my health is not the best it could be. Younger comrades, like this one [Alia], will step in."

First Secretary of the Albanian Labour Party
After World War II, Alia resumed his duties in the Communist Youth Organisation, and at the First Congress of the Albanian Party of Labour in November 1948, he was elected to its Central Committee and was assigned to the department of agitation and propaganda.

As late as 1988, Alia had continued insisting that Hoxha was the only statesman in decades who stayed loyal to Marxism-Leninism, claiming in his speech at the unveiling of Hoxha's statue in Skanderbeg Square: "Enver Hoxha has been and remains to this day the only name among the communist leaders of the last 4–5 decades who defended the teachings of Marxism-Leninism, the ideals of the revolution and socialism, both in theory and practice."

Transition to multi-party system and presidency
Despite Alia's efforts to proceed with change on a limited, cautious basis, reform from above threatened to turn into reform from below, largely because of the increasingly vocal demands of Albania's youth. On 9 December 1990, student demonstrators marched from the Enver Hoxha University (now University of Tirana) at Tirana through the streets of the capital shouting slogans and demanding reforms. By 11 December, the number of participants had reached almost 3,000. In an effort to quell the student unrest, which had led to clashes with riot police, Alia met with the students and agreed to take further steps toward democratization. The students informed Alia that they wanted to create an independent political organisation of students and youth. Alia's response was that such an organisation had to be registered with the Ministry of Justice.

In his traditional New Year's message to the Albanian people, Alia welcomed the changes that had been occurring in the country and claimed that 1991 would be a turning point in terms of the economy.

Alia was a crucial figure in the peaceful political transition of the early 1990s. Many believe that he helped the rise to power of the anti-communist opposition forces, thus eliminating possible bloodshed. He managed to remain a key political figure throughout several political crises. Nonetheless, with Albania in the throes of a grave economic crisis, Alia had to face challenges that he could not surmount. On 12 December 1990, he signed a law allowing political pluralism, on which he would later comment as his life's greatest failure. In the 1991 elections, the first democratic elections in the country, where Alia ran for Member of National Parliament in a constituency in the capital, which was a stronghold of the communist party, he was badly defeated by a surprising majority of 61% by the renowned mining engineer in the country, Franko Kroqi. Kroqi ran as a candidate of the newly formed Democratic Party of Albania, although he never became a party member.

After this loss, and later on the Democratic Party of Albania's (DPA) landslide victory in the spring 1992 general election, he resigned as president on 3 April 1992. On 9 April the People's Assembly elected DPA leader Sali Berisha as Albania's new head of state.

Arrest
On 21 May 1994, senior officials from the Communist government, including Ramiz Alia, went on trial. Alia was charged with abuse of power and misappropriation of state funds, as was prime minister Adil Çarçani, deputy prime minister Manush Myftiu, and Rita Marko who was a vice-president.

Alia had been placed under house arrest in August 1992 and his detention was converted into imprisonment in August 1993. In court he claimed he was the victim of a political show trial and demanded that the trial be broadcast on television, a request denied by the presiding judge. The trial was monitored by a Human Rights Watch representative and proceeded with only minor due process irregularities. The ten defendants were found guilty as charged and sentenced to between three and nine years in prison; Alia received a nine-year sentence.

A court of appeals subsequently reduced some of the sentences, notably Alia's to five years. Alia, Myftiu, Carçani, Stefani and Isai were also ordered to repay various sums to the state. On 30 November, the Court of Cassation reduced Alia's term by an additional three years. On 7 July 1995, Ramiz Alia was freed from jail. However, his freedom was short-lived and in 1996 he was charged with committing crimes against humanity during his term, and was imprisoned anew in March. The trial against him began on 18 February 1997, but he escaped from the prison following the unrest in the country and the desertion of the guards. Amid the unrest he appeared on state TV in an exclusive interview with Blendi Fevziu. In December 1997 he returned to Albania after escaping briefly to France to join his family during the Albanian unrest. In the late 2000s he was sometimes seen travelling to Albania from Dubai to give interviews or publicize his books.

Death
Alia died on October 7, 2011, in Tirana, Albania, 11 days before his 86th birthday.

title: Ramiz Alia


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