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Nevers

Nevers (, ; Noviodunum, later Nevirnum and Nebirnum) is a town and the prefecture of the Nièvre department in the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region in central France. It was the principal city of the former province of Nivernais. It is 260 km south-southeast of Paris.

History
Nevers first enters written history as Noviodunum, a town held by the Aedui at Roman contact. The quantities of medals and other Roman antiquities found on the site indicate the importance of the place, and in 52 BCE, Julius Caesar made Noviodunum, which he describes as in a convenient position on the banks of the Loire, a depot (B. G. vii. 55). There, he had his hostages, corn and military chest, with the money in it allowed him from home for the war, his own and his army's baggage and a great number of horses which had been bought for him in Spain and Italy.

After his failure before Gergovia, the Aedui at Noviodunum massacred those who were there to look after stores, the negotiators and the travellers who were in the place. They divided the money and the horses among themselves, carried off in boats all the corn that they could and burned the rest or threw it into the river.

Thinking they could not hold the town, they burned it. That was a great loss to Caesar, and it may seem that he was imprudent in leaving such great stores in the power of treacherous allies. However, he was in straits that year, and probably he could not have done other than he did.

Dio Cassius (xl. 38) tells the story of Caesar out of the affair of Noviodunum. He states incorrectly what Caesar did on the occasion, and he shows that he neither understood his original nor knew what he was writing about.

The city was later called Nevirnum, as the name appears in the Antonine Itinerary. In the Tabula Peutingeriana, it is corrupted into Ebrinum. In still other sources the name appears as Nebirnum or Nivernum.

It became the seat of a bishopric at the end of the 5th century. The county dates at least from the beginning of the 10th century. The citizens of Nevers obtained charters in 1194 and 1231. For a short time in the 14th century the town was the seat of a university, transferred from Orléans, to which it was restored.

In 1565, the town became the seat of a branch of the Gonzaga family, who in 1627 succeeded to the Duchy of Mantua. This line of the Gonzaga Dukes of Nevers itself died out in 1708.

Geography
Nevers is situated on the slope of a hill on the right bank of the river Loire.

Climate
Nevers has an oceanic climate (Köppen Cfb) in spite of being far inland. In spite of moderate averages, temperatures are highly variable depending on weather patterns, with a temperature amplitude of 64.4 C-change for its records since 1946. While summer nights frequently fall into the single digits, every month between April and October has reached 30 C during the afternoon at some point.

Main sights
Narrow winding streets lead from the quay through the town where there are numerous old houses dating from the 14th to the 17th century.

Among the ecclesiastical buildings the most important is the Cathédrale of Saint Cyr-Sainte Julitte, dedicated to Saint Quiricus and Saint Julietta, which is a combination of two buildings, and possesses two apses. The apse and transept at the west end are the remains of a Romanesque church, while the nave and eastern apse are in the Gothic style and belong to the 14th century. There is no transept at the eastern end. The lateral portal on the south side belongs to the late 15th century; the massive and elaborately decorated tower which rises beside it dates to the early 16th century.

The church of Saint Étienne is a specimen of the Romanesque style of Auvergne of which the disposition of the apse with its three radiating chapels is characteristic. It was consecrated at the close of the 9th century, and belonged to a priory affiliated to Cluny.

The Ducal Palace (now occupied by the courts of justice and an important ceramic museum) was built in the 15th and 16th centuries and is one of the principal feudal edifices in central France. The façade is flanked at each end by a turret and a round tower. A middle tower containing the great staircase has its windows adorned by sculptures relating to the history of the House of La Marck by the members of which the greater part of the palace was built.

Behind the palace lies an open space with a fine view over the Loire Valley. The Porte du Croux, a square tower, with corner turrets, dating from the end of the 14th century, is among the remnants of the old fortifications; it now contains a collection of sculptures and Roman antiquities.

A triumphal arch from the 18th century, commemorating the victory of Fontenoy and the hôtel de ville, a 19th-century building which contains the library, are of some interest. The Loire is crossed by a modern stone bridge, and by an iron railway bridge.

At the Chapel of Saint Bernadette at the mother house of the Sisters of Charity of Nevers, it is possible to view the incorrupt body of Saint Bernadette Soubirous, the famous seer of Our Lady of Lourdes apparitions, which are presented in a gold and crystal reliquary.

Economy
Nevers is the seat of a bishopric, of tribunals of first instance and of commerce and of a cour d'assises and has a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. Its educational institutions include several lycées, a training college for female teachers, ecclesiastical seminaries, a school of art (Esaab) and an automotive and transports engineering school (Institut supérieur de l'automobile et des transports) being part of the University of Burgundy. The town manufactures porcelain, agricultural implements, chemical manures, glue, boilers and iron goods, boots and shoes and fur garments, and has distilleries, tanneries and dye works. Its trade is in iron and steel, wood, wine, grain, livestock, etc. hydraulic lime, kaolin and clay for the manufacture of faience are worked in the vicinity.

Transport
Nevers railway station offers connections to Paris, Dijon, Lyon, Clermont-Ferrand and several regional destinations. The A77 motorway connects Nevers with Paris.

Notable people

 * Marie Louise Gonzaga, Queen of Poland, born in Nevers in 1611
 * Marie Casimire Louise de La Grange d'Arquien, Queen of Poland, born in Nevers in 1641
 * Pierre Gaspard Chaumette, revolutionary, born in Nevers in 1763
 * Bernadette Soubirous, better known as Saint Bernadette of Lourdes, died in Nevers in 1879 (aged 35).
 * Anne Boutiaut, born in Nevers in 1851 and later known as La Mère Poulard in Mont St-Michel
 * Michel Vieuchange, Saharan explorer, adventurer and writer, born in Nevers in 1904, where there is a street named after him
 * Jean Vieuchange, editor of Michel Vieuchange's travel notebooks, born in Nevers in 1906
 * Pierre Bérégovoy, former Prime Minister of France, committed suicide in 1993 in Nevers
 * Parfait Mandanda, footballer, born in Nevers in 1989
 * Valérie Beauvais, politician, born in Nevers in 1963
 * Alexandre Oukidja, Algerian professional footballer, born in Nevers in 1988
 * Roselyne Bachelot, French politician and former Minister of Culture, born in Nevers in 1946
 * Guy Savoy, French chef, born in Nevers in 1953
 * Da Silva, singer-songwriter, born in Nevers in 1976

Culture
Nevers has been known for several centuries for its Nevers faience.

The Formula One circuit of Magny-Cours is located near Nevers, as well as the museum Conservatoire de la monoplace française.

The anonymous French woman (played by Emmanuelle Riva) who is the main character in the film Hiroshima mon amour by Alain Resnais is from Nevers, and the film features many flashbacks to her youth there during World War II. In the final scene of the film, her Japanese lover tells her "You are Nevers". There is a lot of play on the English translation of the town's name throughout the film, with dialogue such as "Nevers ? Jamais !" ("Nevers? Never!")

Most of the scenes in the film Rosalie Blum were filmed in Nevers between March and April 2015, with the exception of the end scenes, which were filmed at Leffrinckoucke in the Nord.

Nevers is also the setting of most of the second half of Éric Rohmer's 1992 film, Conte d'Hiver.

International relations
Nevers is twinned with:

 * 🇩🇪 Koblenz, Germany
 * 🇭🇺 Erzsébetváros (Budapest), Hungary
 * 🇮🇹 Mantua, Italy
 * 🏴 St Albans, England, United Kingdom
 * 🇸🇪 Lund, Sweden
 * 🇬🇷 Stavroupoli, Greece

 * 🇷🇴 Curtea de Argeș, Romania
 * 🇨🇳 Taizhou, China
 * 🇫🇷 Charleville-Mézières, France
 * 🇹🇳 Hammamet, Tunisia
 * 🇩🇪 Neubrandenburg, Germany

title: Nevers


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User:Sanxiyn

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license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Sanxiyn


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Talk:Viceroy of India

The page has "The term viceroy derives from vice and royal. The Viceroy's wife was called the vicerine."

Is that correct? I have always thought that viceroy derives from vice and roy (where roy means "king"). Also, is the spelling of the title of his wife "vicereine"? Does anyone know which is right please?

Songwriter 13:47 13 Jul 2003 (UTC)

My dictionary has Vice + roy, and your spelling for the wife's name, so I'll put that info into the article. (of course it also claims that vicereine can also mean a female viceroy: are they guessing, or has there actually been one somewhere?) -- Someone else

I have a bit of a problem. I'm about to rewrite the article on the Earl of Halifax but I have his dates of the Viceroyship as being April 1926 to April 1931, these being the dates he arrived and left India. His DNB article clearly describes him as carrying out viceroy-type activities right up until his departure - certainly until January 1931 but that rather eliminates Goschen from proceedings. Is there perhaps quite a big gap between the time when viceroys are named and the time they take up their positions and does this table reflect that? I'll make no changes (except to the Halifax article) until I know what the situation is for fear of making a mess of everything.

--Mr impossible 15:11, 6 May 2004 (UTC)

Huh, yeah, I've seen that dating as well. The National Portrait Gallery only calls Goschen Governor of Madras from 1924-1929. The Langer Encyclopedia of World History calls Irwin Viceroy from 1926 to 1931, and discusses stuff he did in 1931. On the other hand, Britannica says that he was Viceroy from 1925 to 1931, but then says his "term in India" was from 1925 to 1929. I would imagine that what we have here is that Halifax remained Viceroy until 1931, but left India in 1929, and Goschen was acting Governor-General in his absence. But I have no idea - need to find a good book on the Raj to check up on this, I'd guess. john 16:54, 6 May 2004 (UTC)

Surely it's the other way round. He definitely left India in April 1931 but perhaps Goschen had been appointed before that. I wouldn't trust Britannica to tell me the sun was coming up tomorrow. I shall look in Lawrence James' Raj if I can track down a copy. Bookshop for lunch again then. I'm just getting sadder and sadder. --Mr impossible 10:24, 7 May 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Viceroy of India


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Barnave

Barnave can refer to:

 * Antoine Pierre Joseph Marie Barnave (1761-1793), French politician
 * Barnave, Drôme, a commune of the Drôme département in France

title: Barnave


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Appanage

An appanage, or apanage (apanage ), is the grant of an estate, title, office or other thing of value to a younger child of a monarch, who would otherwise have no inheritance under the system of primogeniture (where only the eldest inherits). It was common in much of Europe.

The system of appanage greatly influenced the territorial construction of France and the German states and explains why many of the former provinces of France had coats of arms which were modified versions of the king's arms.

Etymology
Late Latin *appanaticum, from appanare or adpanare 'to give bread' (panis), a pars pro toto for food and other necessities, hence for a "subsistence" income, notably in kind, as from assigned land.

History of the French appanage
An appanage was a concession of a fief by the sovereign to his younger sons, while the eldest son became king on the death of his father. Appanages were considered as part of the inheritance transmitted to the puisné (younger sons). The word Juveigneur was specifically used for the royal princes holding an appanage. These lands returned to the royal domain (the territory directly controlled by the king) on the extinction of the princely line, and could not be sold (neither hypothetically nor as a dowry). Daughters were initially able to inherit the appanages under the Capetian Kings. However, under the House of Valois, Salic law was applied which prohibited women from inheriting.

The system of appanage has played a particularly important role in France. It developed there with the extension of royal authority from the 13th century, then disappeared from the late Middle Ages with the affirmation of the exclusive authority of the royal state. It strongly influenced the territorial construction, explaining the arms of several provinces. The prerogative of Burgundy is also the origin of the Belgian, Luxembourgeois and Dutch states, through the action of its dukes favored by their position in the court of the kings of France.

Primogeniture avoids territorial splintering, which the earlier Frankish tradition of partible inheritance (equal division) suffered from (e.g. under the Merovingians and subsequent Carolingians). But primogeniture creates resentment in younger sons who inherit nothing. Appanages thus were used to sweeten the bitter pill of primogeniture and deter revolt of younger sons by diverting their aspirations of claiming their eldest brother's throne.

House of Capet
Unlike their predecessors (the Carolingians), the Capetian dynasty's hold on the crown was initially tenuous. They could not afford to divide the kingdom among all their sons, and the royal domain was very small, initially consisting solely of the Île-de-France. So the Capetians broke away from the Frankish custom of partible inheritance, to instead have the eldest son alone become King and receive the royal domain (except for any appanages). Most Capetians endeavored to add to the royal domain through incorporation of additional fiefs, large or small, and thus gradually obtained direct lordship over almost all of France.

Their first king Hugh Capet (elected King of the Franks on the death of Louis V in 987) only had one son, Robert II. But Robert had multiple sons. One of them, Henry I of France, became the first king to create an appanage in 1032, when he gave the Duchy of Burgundy to his younger brother Robert I of Burgundy (whose descendants retained the duchy until 1361 with the extinction of the first Capetian House of Burgundy by the death of Philip de Rouvre).

Louis VIII and Louis IX also created appanages.

House of Valois
The king who created the most powerful appanages for his sons was John II of France. His youngest son, Philip the Bold, founded the second Capetian House of Burgundy in 1363. By marrying the heiress of Flanders, Philip also became ruler of the Low Countries.

King Charles V tried to abolish the appanage system, but in vain. Provinces conceded in appanage tended to become de facto independent and the authority of the king was recognized there reluctantly. In particular the line of Valois Dukes of Burgundy caused considerable trouble to the French crown, with which they were often at war, often in open alliance with the English. Theoretically appanages could be reincorporated into the royal domain but only if the last lord had no male heirs. Kings tried as much as possible to rid themselves of the most powerful appanages. Louis XI retook the Duchy of Burgundy at the death of its last duke, Charles the Bold. Francis I confiscated the Bourbonnais, after the treason in 1523 of his commander in chief, Charles III, Duke of Bourbon, the 'constable of Bourbon' (died 1527 in the service of Emperor Charles V).

The first article of the Edict of Moulins (1566) declared that the royal domain (defined in the second article as all the land controlled by the crown for more than ten years) could not be alienated, except in two cases: by interlocking, in the case of financial emergency, with a perpetual option to repurchase the land; and to form an appanage, which must return to the crown in its original state on the extinction of the male line. The apanagist (incumbent) therefore could not separate himself from his appanage in any way.

After Charles V of France, a clear distinction had to be made between titles given as names to children in France, and true appanages. At their birth the French princes received a title independent of an appanage. Thus, the Duke of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV, never possessed Anjou and never received any revenue from this province. The king waited until the prince had reached adulthood and was about to marry before endowing him with an appanage. The goal of the appanage was to provide him with a sufficient income to maintain his noble rank.

The fief given in appanage could be the same as the title given to the prince, but this was not necessarily the case.

Only seven appanages were given from 1515 to 1789.

Post-Revolution
Appanages were abolished in 1792 before the proclamation of the Republic. The youngest princes from then on were to receive a grant of money but no territory.

Appanages were reestablished under the first French empire by Napoleon Bonaparte and confirmed by the Bourbon restoration-king Louis XVIII. The last of the appanages, the Orléanais, was reincorporated to the French crown when the Duke of Orléans, Louis-Philippe, became king of the French in 1830.

The word apanage is still used in French figuratively, in a non-historic sense: "to have appanage over something" is used, often in an ironic and negative sense, to claim exclusive possession over something. For example, "cows have appanage over prions".

Direct Capetians

 * Henry I gave the Duchy of Burgundy to his brother Robert.
 * Louis VI gave the County of Dreux to his son Robert. The lineage of the counts became extinct in 1355, but a cadet line, descended from Pierre Mauclerc, became Dukes of Brittany.
 * Philip II gave his son Philippe Hurepel the county of Clermont, then the counties of Domfront and Mortain.
 * Louis VIII, by his 1225 will, granted
 * the County of Artois to his second son Robert. Artois was lost by Robert's male heirs, passing through a female line, and eventually was inherited by the Dukes of Burgundy. Louis XI seized it upon the death of Charles the Bold in 1477, but his son returned it to Charles's heirs in preparation for his invasion of Italy in 1493.
 * the Counties of Poitou and Auvergne to his fourth son Alphonse. These returned to the crown when Alphonse died without heirs in 1271.
 * the Counties of Anjou and Maine to his third son John. They returned to the crown when John died without heirs in 1232.
 * Louis IX endowed
 * the Counties of Anjou and Maine (1246) to his youngest brother, Charles. They passed to Charles's granddaughter, who married Charles, Count of Valois, the younger son of Philip III, and thence to their son, Philip. When Philip inherited the throne as Philip VI, the lands reverted to the crown.
 * the County of Orléans to his eldest son, Philip. It returned to the crown when he succeeded his father in 1270 as Philip III.
 * the County of Valois (c. 1268) to his second son, Jean Tristan. This title became extinct upon Jean Tristan's death in 1270.
 * the Counties of Alençon and Perche (1268) to his third son, Pierre. This title became extinct on Pierre's death in 1284.
 * the County of Clermont-en-Beauvaisis (1269) to his fourth son, Robert. Robert's son, Louis, was later given the Duchy of Bourbon, which was treated as an appanage, although it was not technically one. Louis later traded Clermont for La Marche with his cousin Charles, Count of Angoulême, younger brother of King Philip V. These appanages remained in the Bourbon family until they were confiscated due to the treason of Charles III, Duke of Bourbon in 1527.
 * Philip III granted
 * the County of Valois to his second son Charles. Charles was later given the Counties of Alençon, Perche, and Chartres by his brother, Philip IV of France. Valois passed to Charles's eldest son Philip upon his death in 1325, and returned to the crown when Philip became King Philip VI in 1328. Alençon and Perche passed to Charles's younger son, Charles. A descendant was raised to the dignity of Duke of Alençon. These titles returned to the crown upon the extinction of the Alençon line in 1525.
 * the County of Beaumont-sur-Oise to his third son Louis. Louis was later given the County of Évreux by his brother Philip IV. These titles returned to the throne upon the death of Queen Blanche of Navarre in 1441.
 * Philip IV endowed
 * the County of Poitou for his second son, Philip. This title returned to the throne when Philip became king in 1316.
 * the Counties of La Marche and Angoulême for his third son, Charles IV. Charles later traded La Marche for the County of Clermont-en-Beauvaisis with the Duke of Bourbon. His titles returned to the throne when Charles became king in 1322.

House of Valois

 * Philip VI granted
 * the Duchy of Normandy to his elder son John. This title returned to the throne when John succeeded his father in 1350.
 * the Duchy of Orléans to his younger son Philip. This title returned to the throne when Philip died without issue in 1375.
 * John II 'the Good', on his departure to England in 1360, granted
 * the Duchies of Anjou and of Maine to his second son Louis. This title returned to the throne upon the death of duke Charles IV, Louis I's great-grandson, in 1481.
 * the Duchies of Berry and Auvergne to his third son John. These titles returned to the throne upon John's death without male issue in 1416.
 * In 1363, John II granted the Duchy of Burgundy to his fourth son Philip. Upon the death of Philip's great-grandson Charles the Bold in 1477, King Louis XI claimed the reversion of Burgundy and seized the territory. It continued to be claimed, however, by Charles's daughter Mary and her heirs. When Mary's grandson Emperor Charles V defeated and captured Francis I at the Battle of Pavia in 1525, he forced Francis to sign a treaty recognizing him as Duke of Burgundy, but Francis disavowed the treaty when he was released, and the cession was revoked by the Treaty of Cambrai four years later. Charles and his heirs reserved their claims, however, and this reservation was repeated as late as the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659, when Philip IV of Spain continued to reserve his rights to the Duchy.
 * Charles VI granted the Duchy of Orléans and the County of Angoulême to his brother Louis in 1392. The Duchy of Orléans returned to the crown when Louis I's grandson became Louis XII of France in 1498. The County of Angoulême returned to the crown when Louis I's great-grandson became Francis I of France in 1515.
 * Louis XI granted the Duchies of Berry, Normandy, and Guyenne to his younger brother Charles. These titles returned to the crown when Charles died in 1472.
 * Francis I granted the Duchies of Orléans, Angoulême, and Châtellerault and the Counties of Clermont-en-Beauvaisis and La Marche to his second surviving son, Charles in 1540. To this was added the Duchy of Bourbon in 1544. These titles returned to the crown when Charles died without issue in 1545.
 * Charles IX granted
 * the Duchies of Anjou and Bourbonnais and the County of Forez to the older of his two brothers, Henry, in 1566. He added the Duchy of Auvergne to these holdings in 1569. The titles returned to the crown when Henry succeeded his brother in 1574.
 * the Duchies of Alençon and Château-Thierry and the Counties of Perche, Mantes, and Meulan to his youngest brother, Francis in 1566. To this he later added the Duchy of Évreux and the County of Dreux in 1569. Francis's other brother, Henry III, increased his holdings still further in 1576, granting him the Duchies of Anjou, Touraine, and Berry and the County of Maine. All these titles returned to the crown upon Francis's death without issue in 1584.

House of Bourbon

 * Louis XIII granted the Duchies of Orléans and Chartres and the County of Blois to his younger brother Gaston in 1626. To this was added the Duchy of Valois in 1630. These titles returned to the crown on Gaston's death without male issue in 1660.
 * Louis XIV granted
 * the Duchies of Orléans, Chartres, and Valois to his brother, Philippe in 1661. To this was added the Duchy of Nemours in 1672. These titles passed to his descendants and were abolished during the Revolution in 1790. They were restored to the heir at the time of the Restoration in 1814. At the accession of Louis Philippe, these titles merged into the crown.
 * the Duchies of Alençon and Angoulême and the County of Ponthieu to his third grandson, Charles, duc de Berry in 1710. These titles returned to the crown upon his death without surviving issue in 1714.
 * Louis XV granted
 * the Duchy of Anjou and the Counties of Maine, Perche, and Senonches to his second surviving grandson, Louis Stanislas, comte de Provence in 1771. Louis was further given the Duchy of Alençon by his brother Louis XVI in 1774. These titles were abolished during the Revolution in 1790. When the monarchy and appanages were restored in 1814, Louis had inherited the throne as Louis XVIII, and his titles merged into the crown.
 * the Duchies of Auvergne, Angoulême and Mercœur and the Viscounty of Limoges to his youngest grandson Charles, comte d'Artois in 1773. To this was added in 1774 by his brother, Louis XVI the Marquisate of Pompadour and the Viscounty of Turenne. In 1776, Louis XVI deprived Charles of Limoges, Pompadour, and Turenne, and gave him in exchange the Duchies of Berry and Châteauroux, the Counties of Argenton and Ponthieu, and the Lordship of Henrichemont. In 1778, the appanage was further reshaped, with Auvergne and Mercœur removed and replaced with the County of Poitou, leaving Charles with a final appanage consisting of the Duchies of Angoulême, Berry, and Châteauroux, the Counties of Argenton, Ponthieu, and Poitou, and the Lordship of Henrichemont. These titles were abolished during the Revolution in 1790, but were restored at the time of the Restoration in 1814. They merged into the crown when Charles became king in 1824.

Although Napoleon restored the idea of appanage in 1810 for his sons, none were ever granted, nor were any new appanages created by the restoration monarchs.

Appanages within Britain
English and British monarchs frequently granted appanages to younger sons of the monarch. Most famously, the Houses of York and Lancaster, whose feuding over the succession to the English throne after the end of the main line of the House of Plantagenet caused the Wars of the Roses, were both established when the Duchies of York and Lancaster were given as appanages for Edmund of Langley and John of Gaunt respectively, two of the four younger sons of King Edward III.

In modern times, the Duchy of Cornwall is the permanent statutory appanage of the monarch's eldest son, intended to support him until such time as he inherits the Crown. Other titles have continued to be granted to junior members of the royal family, but without associated grants of land directly connected with those titles, any territorial rights over the places named in the titles, or any income directly derived from those lands or places by virtue of those titles.

Scotland
The defunct Kingdom of Strathclyde was granted as an appanage to the future David I of Scotland by his brother Edgar, King of Scots. Remnants of this can be found within the patrimony of the Prince of Scotland, currently Prince William, Duke of Rothesay.

Kingdom of Jerusalem
In the only crusader state of equal rank in protocol to the states of Western Europe, the Kingdom of Jerusalem, the County of Jaffa and Ascalon was often granted as an appanage.

Brigantine Portugal
With the installation of the House of Braganza on the Portuguese throne in 1640, an official appanage was created for the second eldest son of the monarch, the House of the Infantado. The Infantado included several land grants and palaces, along with a heightened royal pension.

Russia
The principalities of European Russia had a similar practice; an appanage given to a younger male of the princely family was called udel principalities (appanage principalities, удельное княжество, see ru:Удельное княжество). The frequency and importance of the custom was particularly important between the mid-13th and the mid-15th centuries; some historians refer to this era as the Appanage Period or Appanage Russia. The last appange Russian prince was Vladimir of Staritsa.

In the late Russian Empire, appanages for members of the imperial family were created by Emperor Paul I in 1797. By decree of the emperor, the members of the imperial family who were in the line of succession of the throne received civil list payments from state revenues; those not in the line of succession were given appanages from revenues of special estates called an udel estate (appanage estate, удельное имение, see ru:Удельное имение). Revenues of appanage estates were created by tribute of state (unlike private owned) peasants who lived on the territory of appanage estates and owned by the imperial family (see ru:Удельные крестьяне). Appanage estates were managed by the Department of Appanage Estates.

Serbia
In medieval Serbia, an appanage was predominantly given to a younger brother of the supreme ruler, called a Župa. Its use began in the 9th century and continued into the 14th century, with the fall of the Serbian Empire.

Indian subcontinent
In the Indian subcontinent, the jagir (a type of fief) was often thus assigned to individual junior relatives of the ruling house of a princely state, but not as a customary right of birth, though in practice usually hereditarily held, and not only to them but also to commoners, normally as an essentially meritocratic grant of land and taxation rights (guaranteeing a "fitting" income, in itself bringing social sway, in the primary way in a mainly agricultural society), or even as part of a deal.

The seniormost woman in the Travancore royal family held the estate of Attingal, also known as the Sreepadam Estate, in appanage for life. All the income derived from this 15000 acre estate was the private property of the senior maharani, alternatively known as the Senior Rani of Attingal (Attingal Mootha Thampuran).

Indonesia
The Javanese kingdom of Majapahit, which dominated eastern Java in the 14th and 15th centuries, was divided into nagara (provinces). The administration of these nagara was entrusted to members of the royal family, who bore the title of Bhre i.e. Bhra i, "lord of" (the word bhra being akin to the Thai Phra), followed by the name of the land they were entrusted with: for example a sister of King Hayam Wuruk (r. 1350–1389) was "Bhre Lasem", "lady of Lasem".

Mongol Empire
The royal family of the Mongol Empire owned the largest appanages in the world because of their enormous empire. In 1206, Genghis Khan awarded large tracts of land to his family members and loyal companions, most of whom were of common origin. Shares of booty were distributed much more widely. Empresses, princesses, and meritorious servants, as well as children of concubines, all received full shares including war prisoners. For example, Kublai summoned two siege engineers from the Ilkhanate, and after their success rewarded them with lands. After the Mongol conquest in 1238, the port cities in Crimea paid the Jochids customs duties and the revenues were divided among all Chingisid princes in Mongol Empire in accordance with the appanage system. As loyal allies, the Kublaids in East Asia and the Ilkhanids in Persia sent clerics, doctors, artisans, scholars, engineers and administrators to and received revenues from the appanages in each other's khanates.

The Great Khan Möngke divided up shares or appanages in Persia and made redistribution in Central Asia in 1251–1256. Although the Chagatai Khanate was the smallest in size, the Chagatai Khans held the cities of Kat and Khiva in Khorazm, and some cities and villages in Shanxi and Iran, as well as their nomadic grounds in Central Asia. The first Ilkhan, Hulagu, owned 25,000 households of silk-workers in China, valleys in Tibet, and lands in Mongolia. In 1298, his descendant Ghazan of Persia sent envoys with precious gifts to the Great Khan Temür, and asked for the share of lands and revenues held by his great-grandfather in the territories ruled by the Yuan dynasty (in modern-day China and Mongolia). It is claimed that Ghazan received revenues that were not sent since the time of Möngke Khan.

The appanage holders demanded excessive revenues and freed themselves from taxes. Ögedei decreed that nobles could appoint darughachi and judges in the appanages instead of direct distribution without the permission of the Great Khan, due to Khitan minister Yelü Chucai. Both Güyük and Möngke restricted the autonomy of the appanages, but Kublai Khan continued Ögedei's regulations. Ghazan also prohibited any misfeasance of appanage holders in the Ilkhanate, and Yuan councillor Temuder restricted Mongol nobles' excessive powers in appanages in China and Mongolia. Kublai's successor Temür abolished imperial son-in-law King Chungnyeol of Goryeo's 358 departments which caused financial pressures to Korean people, though the Mongols gave them some autonomy.

The appanage system was severely affected beginning with the civil strife in the Mongol Empire from 1260 to 1304. Nevertheless, this system survived. For example, Abagha of the Ilkhanate allowed Möngke Temür of the Golden Horde to collect revenues from silk workshops in northern Persia in 1270, and Baraq of the Chagatai Khanate sent his Muslim vizier to the Ilkhanate in 1269, ostensibly to investigate his appanages there. (The vizier's real mission was to spy on the Ilkhanids.) After a peace treaty declared among Mongol khans Temür, Duwa, Chapar, Tokhta and Oljeitu in 1304, the system began to see a recovery. During the reign of Tugh Temür, the Yuan court received a third of revenues of the cities of Transoxiana (Mawarannahr) under Chagatai Khans while Chagatai elites such as Eljigidey, Duwa Temür, Tarmashirin were given lavish presents and sharing in the Yuan Dynasty's patronage of Buddhist temples. Tugh Temür was also given some Russian captives by Chagatai prince Changshi as well as Kublai's future khatun Chabi had servant Ahmad Fanakati from Fergana Valley before her marriage. In 1326, the Golden Horde started sending tributes to Great Khans of the Yuan Dynasty again. By 1339, Ozbeg and his successors had received annually 24 thousand ding in paper currency from their Chinese appanages in Shanxi, Cheli and Hunan. H. H. Howorth noted that Ozbeg's envoy required his master's shares from the Yuan court, the headquarters of the Mongol world, for the establishment of new post stations in 1336. This communication ceased only with the breakup, succession struggles and rebellions of Mongol Khanates.

After the fall of the Mongol Empire in 1368, the Mongols continued the tradition of appanage system. They were divided into districts ruled by hereditary noblemen. The units in such systems were called Tumen and Otog during Northern Yuan Dynasty in Mongolia. However, the Oirats called their appanage unit ulus or anggi. Appanages were called banners (Khoshuu) under the Qing dynasty.

title: Appanage


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Despot

Despot may refer to:

 * Despot (court title), a Byzantine court title
 * Despotism, a form of government in which power is concentrated in the hands of one individual
 * Despot (rapper), rapper Alec Reinstein's stage name
 * , a TV series
 * Despot (vehicle), armoured multifunctional vehicle

People with the given name

 * Despot Badžović (1850–1930), teacher, activist of the Serbian national movement

People with the surname

 * Blaženka Despot (1930–2001), Croatian philosopher and sociologist
 * Branko Despot (1942–), Croatian philosopher
 * Dragan Despot (1956–), Croatian actor
 * Iacob Heraclid Despot (1527–1563), Prince of Moldavia
 * Ilija Despot (1885–1970), Croatian poet and writer
 * Veljko Despot (born 1948), Croatian record producer

title: Despot


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Bureaucrat

A bureaucrat is a member of a bureaucracy and can compose the administration of any organization of any size, although the term usually connotes someone within an institution of government.

The term bureaucrat derives from "bureaucracy", which in turn derives from the French "bureaucratie" first known from the 18th century. Bureaucratic work had already been performed for many centuries. The term may also refer to managerial and directorial executives in the corporate sector.

Role in society
Bureaucrats play various roles in modern society, by virtue of holding administrative, functional, and managerial positions in government. They carry out the day-to-day implementation of enacted policies for central government agencies, such as postal services, education and healthcare administration, and various regulatory bodies.

Types of bureaucrat
Bureaucrats can be split into different categories based on the system, nationality, and time they come from.
 * 1) Classical – someone who starts at a low level of public work and does not have to express opinions of their own in their professional capacities. They follow policy guidelines and gain increasing ranks within the system. Tax collectors, government accountants, police officers, fire fighters, and military personnel are examples of classical bureaucrats.
 * 2) American bureaucrats – these are different from other types because they operate within a republican form of government, and the political culture traditionally seeks to limit their power.
 * 3) Chinese bureaucrats, also called "Mandarin bureaucrats" – Mandarins were important from 605 to 1905 CE. The Zhou dynasty is the earliest recording of Chinese bureaucrats. There was a 9 rank system, each rank having more power than the lower rank. This type of bureaucrat went on until the Qing dynasty. After 1905, the Mandarins were replaced by modern civil servants. In 1949, the Communist Party took over China, and by their theory, all people were bureaucrats who worked for the government.
 * 4) European – originally referred to as "Mandarins" stemming from the Chinese word for government employee. Bureaucracy did not catch on in Europe very much due to the many different governments in the region, and constant change and advancement, and relative freedom of the upper class. With the translation of Confucian texts during the Enlightenment, the concept of a meritocracy reached intellectuals in the West, who saw it as an alternative to the traditional ancien regime of Europe. Voltaire and François Quesnay wrote favourably of the idea, with Voltaire claiming that the Chinese had "perfected moral science" and Quesnay advocating an economic and political system modeled after that of the Chinese. The implementation of His Majesty's Civil Service as a systematic, meritocratic civil service bureaucracy, followed the Northcote–Trevelyan Report of 1854 which was influenced by the ancient Chinese imperial examination. This system was modeled on the imperial examinations system and  bureaucracy of China based on the suggestion of Northcote–Trevelyan Report. Thomas Taylor Meadows, Britain's consul in Guangzhou, China argued in his Desultory Notes on the Government and People of China, published in 1847, that "the long duration of the Chinese empire is solely and altogether owing to the good government which consists in the advancement of men of talent and merit only," and that the British must reform their civil service by making the institution meritocratic. In 1958, though, after the formation of the European Union the job of the Bureaucrat became extremely important to help organize and govern such a large and diverse community. In 1961 the term Eurocrat was coined by Richard Mayne, a journalist at the time. A Eurocrat is a bureaucrat of the European Union.
 * 5) Modern Bureaucrat – Bureaucrats gained increasingly negative reputations throughout the second half of the 20th century. As populations grow it becomes harder for bureaucratic systems to work because it often involves a lot of paperwork, which increases processing times, which eventually will be nearly impossible to manage. The digital age and the Internet have revolutionized Bureaucrats and the modern Bureaucrat has a different skill set than before. Also, the internet lowers the corruption levels of some Bureaucratic entities such as the Police Force due to social media and pro–am journalism.

Attributes of bureaucrats
German sociologist Max Weber defined a bureaucratic official as the following:

 * They are personally free and appointed to their position on the basis of conduct.
 * They exercise the authority delegated to them in accordance with impersonal rules, and their loyalty is enlisted on behalf of the faithful execution of their official duties.
 * Their appointment and job placement are dependent upon their technical qualifications.
 * Their administrative work is a full-time occupation.
 * Their work is rewarded by a regular salary and prospects of advancement in a lifetime career.
 * They must exercise their judgment and their skills, but their duty is to place these at the service of a higher authority. Ultimately they are responsible only for the impartial execution of assigned tasks and must sacrifice their personal judgment if it runs counter to their official duties.
 * Bureaucratic control is the use of rules, regulations, and formal authority to guide performance. It includes such things as budgets, statistical reports, and performance appraisals to regulate behavior and results.

As an academic, Woodrow Wilson, later a US president, professed in his 1887 article The Study of Administration:

"But to fear the creation of a domineering, illiberal officialism as a result of the studies I am here proposing is to miss altogether the principle upon which I wish most to insist. That principle is, that administration in the United States must be at all points sensitive to public opinion. A body of thoroughly trained officials serving during good behavior we must have in any case: that is a plain business necessity. But the apprehension that such a body will be anything un-American clears away the moment it is asked. What is to constitute good behavior? For that question obviously carries its own answer on its face. Steady, hearty allegiance to the policy of the government they serve will constitute good behavior. That policy will have no taint of officialism about it. It will not be the creation of permanent officials, but of statesmen whose responsibility to public opinion will be direct and inevitable. Bureaucracy can exist only where the whole service of the state is removed from the common political life of the people, its chiefs as well as its rank and file. Its motives, its objects, its policy, its standards, must be bureaucratic. It would be difficult to point out any examples of impudent exclusiveness and arbitrariness on the part of officials doing service under a chief of department who really served the people, as all our chiefs of departments must be made to do. It would be easy, on the other hand, to adduce other instances like that of the influence of Stein in Prussia, where the leadership of one statesman imbued with true public spirit transformed arrogant and perfunctory bureaux into public-spirited instruments of just government."

title: Bureaucrat


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Sailor Malan

Adolph Gysbert Malan, (3 October 1910 – 17 September 1963), better known as Sailor Malan, was a South African fighter pilot and flying ace in the Royal Air Force (RAF) who led No. 74 Squadron RAF during the Battle of Britain. He finished his fighter career in 1941 with twenty-seven destroyed, seven shared destroyed and two unconfirmed, three probables and sixteen damaged. At the time he was the RAF's leading ace, and one of the highest scoring pilots to have served wholly with RAF Fighter Command during the Second World War.

After the war, Malan returned to South Africa. In the 1950s Malan became leader of the Torch Commando, a liberal anti-authoritarian organization that opposed the introduction of the apartheid system.

Early life
Malan was born on 3 October 1910 to an Afrikaner family of Huguenot descent in Wellington, Western Cape. He joined the South African Training Ship General Botha in 1924 or 1925 as a naval cadet at the age of 14, and on 5 January 1928 engaged as an officer cadet aboard the Landsdown Castle of the Union-Castle Line which later earned him the nickname of "Sailor" amongst his pilot colleagues. On 19 February 1932, he joined the Royal Naval Reserve as an acting sub-lieutenant, and was commissioned a sub-lieutenant on 18 June 1935.

Royal Air Force
In 1935 the Royal Air Force (RAF) started the rapid expansion of its pilot corps, for which Malan volunteered. He learned to fly in the de Havilland Tiger Moth at an elementary flying school near Bristol, flying for the first time on 6 January 1936. He was commissioned as an acting pilot officer on 2 March, completed training by the end of the year, and was sent to join 74 Squadron on 20 December 1936. He was confirmed as a pilot officer on 6 January 1937. He was promoted to acting flying officer on 20 May 1938 and promoted to substantive flying officer on 6 July. He received another promotion to acting flight lieutenant on 2 March 1939, six months before the outbreak of war.

Malan developed the Ten Rules for Air Fighting for fighter pilots.

Battle of Barking Creek

No. 74 Squadron was dispatched 15 hours after war was declared to intercept a bomber raid that turned out to be returning RAF planes. On 6 September 1939, "A" Flight was scrambled to intercept a suspected enemy radar track and ran into the Hurricanes of No. 56 Squadron RAF. Believing 56 to be the enemy, Malan ordered an attack. Paddy Byrne and John Freeborn downed two RAF aircraft, killing one officer – Montague Hulton-Harrop – in friendly fire, which became known as the Battle of Barking Creek. At the subsequent court-martial, Malan denied responsibility for the attack. He testified for the prosecution against his own pilots stating that Freeborn had been "irresponsible, impetuous, and had not taken proper heed of vital communications". This prompted Freeborn's counsel, Patrick Hastings, to call Malan a bare-faced liar. Hastings was assisted in defending the pilots by Roger Bushell, who, like Malan, had been born in South Africa. The court ruled the entire incident as an unfortunate error and acquitted both pilots.

Dunkirk
After fierce fighting over Dunkirk during the evacuation of the British Army from Dunkirk on 28 May 1940, Malan was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross (DFC) having achieved five "kills". During the night of 19/20 June Malan flew a night sortie in bright moonlight and shot down two Heinkel He 111 bombers, a then-unique feat for which a bar was awarded to his DFC. On 6 July, he was promoted to flight lieutenant.

Malan and his senior pilots abandoned the Vic formation used by the RAF and turned to a looser formation (the finger-four) similar to the four aircraft Schwarm the Luftwaffe had developed during the Spanish Civil War. It is believed that on 28 July he met Werner Mölders in combat, damaged his plane and wounded him, but failed to bring him down, though recent research has suggested that Mölders was wounded in a fight with No. 41 Squadron RAF.

Squadron leader of No. 74 Squadron
On 8 August, Malan was given command of 74 Squadron and promoted to acting squadron leader at the height of the Battle of Britain. On 11 August, action started at 7 am when the squadron was sent to intercept a raid near Dover, which was followed by three more raids, lasting all day. At the end of the day, 74 Squadron had claimed to have shot down 38 aircraft, and was known from then on as "Sailor's August the Eleventh". Malan himself commented, "thus ended a very successful morning of combat". He received a bar to his DFC on 13 August.

On 29 December 1941 Malan was added to the select list of airmen who had sat for one of Cuthbert Orde's iconic RAF charcoal portraits. He had the rarer honour of also being the subject of a full colour painting by Orde.

Wing commander – Biggin Hill
On 24 December, Malan received the Distinguished Service Order, and on 22 July 1941, a bar to the DSO. On 10 March 1941 he was appointed as one of the first wing leaders for the offensive operations that spring and summer, leading the Biggin Hill Wing until mid-August, when he was rested from operations. He finished his active fighter career in 1941 with 27 kills destroyed, 7 shared destroyed and 2 unconfirmed, 3 probables and 16 damaged, as one of the highest scoring pilots to have served wholly with Fighter Command during World War II. He was transferred to the reserve as a squadron leader on 6 January 1942.

After a lecture tour to the USA, he commanded the Central Gunnery School for more than a year. Malan was promoted to temporary wing commander on 1 September 1942 and became station commander at RAF Biggin Hill, receiving a promotion to war substantive wing commander on 1 July 1943.

Post-war opposition to apartheid
After the conclusion of the war, Malan resigned his commission with the Royal Air Force in April 1946, retaining the rank of group captain, and returned home to South Africa, where he commenced a career in sheep farming.

Malan maintained his ties to the RAF community however, acting as president of the Royal Air Forces Association’s South African Area and becoming a life-member of its Johannesburg Branch.

In the early 1950s he became involved in increasingly volatile South African domestic politics with its radical polarizing atmosphere and racially and culturally divided societal tensions. After the National Party was voted into government in the late 1940s South Africa's domestic governance moved to a position of national conservatism and introduced apartheid, which Malan objected to. In the early 1950s in response Malan joined a liberal politically organized protest movement opposed to the introduction of the apartheid system styling itself as the Torch Commando, of which – with his public recognition acquired from his war career – he was elected president. Through the early 1950s he involved himself in political opposition to what he perceived was increasing authoritarianism of the National Party in government, which he felt threatened to become fascist in nature. At one point the Torch Commando (called for its predilection for staging night-time rallies outside government buildings with the protestors bearing flaming torches for dramatic illumination) movement had 250,000 members, and staged well-attended rallies across South Africa, which Malan often publicly addressed. By the late 1950s, the movement lost momentum as some of the factions that constituted it increasingly moved from a hitherto public liberal position to one of world communism, and splintered away to join the African National Congress (ANC), with which Malan was not sympathetic. The rise of the ANC and its ideological radical agenda discouraged the majority of the Torch Commando's membership from continuing with their campaign against the apartheid state laws, leaving Malan with the disintegrating organization and him retiring from politics and public life, leaving the National Party to rule South Africa for the next four decades.

Death
Malan died at the age of 52 on 17 September 1963 from Parkinson's disease, at the time a rare and little understood medical condition. A considerable sum of money was raised in his name to further study the disease. His funeral service was at St Cyprian's Cathedral, Kimberley, and his body was buried at West End Cemetery in Kimberley, Cape Province. Due to his prominent role in opposition to apartheid, the South African government sought to marginalize the event of his passing in order to further erase any lasting legacy of the Torch Commando. Malan was not permitted a military funeral and all South African military personnel who attended his funeral were instructed not to wear their uniforms. The South African Air Force was instructed not to give any tribute to his passing.

Awards and decorations

 * 1939-45 Star & Battle of Britain clasp.png 1939-45 Star with Battle of Britain Clasp
 * Ribbon - Air Crew Europe Star & Rosette.png Air Crew Europe Star with France & Germany Clasp
 * Croix de Guerre 1939-1945 ribbon.svg Croix de Guerre 1939–1945 (France)
 * Czechoslovak War Cross 1939-1945 Bar.png Czechoslovak War Cross 1939 Ribbon
 * Croix de Guerre 1939-1945 ribbon.svg Croix de Guerre 1939–1945 (France)
 * Czechoslovak War Cross 1939-1945 Bar.png Czechoslovak War Cross 1939 Ribbon
 * Croix de Guerre 1939-1945 ribbon.svg Croix de Guerre 1939–1945 (France)
 * Czechoslovak War Cross 1939-1945 Bar.png Czechoslovak War Cross 1939 Ribbon
 * Czechoslovak War Cross 1939-1945 Bar.png Czechoslovak War Cross 1939 Ribbon
 * Czechoslovak War Cross 1939-1945 Bar.png Czechoslovak War Cross 1939 Ribbon

Cinematic portrayals
In the 1969 film Battle of Britain, the character of Squadron Leader Skipper played by Robert Shaw was based on Malan.

title: Sailor Malan


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Anson Burlingame

Anson Burlingame (November 14, 1820 – February 23, 1870) was an American lawyer, Republican/American Party legislator, diplomat, and abolitionist. As diplomat, he served as the U.S. minister to China (1862–1867) and then as China's envoy to the U.S., which resulted in the 1868 landmark Burlingame Treaty.

Early life
Burlingame was born in New Berlin, Chenango County, New York. In 1823 his parents (Joel Burlingame and Freelove Angell) took him to Ohio, and about ten years afterwards to Michigan. Between 1838 and 1841 he studied at the Detroit branch of the University of Michigan, and in 1846 graduated from Harvard Law School. He was a brother of the Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity (Sigma chapter). On June 3, 1847, he married Jane Cornelia Livermore. They had sons Edward Livermore Burlingame (born 1848) and Walter Angell Burlingame (born 1852), as well as a daughter Gertrude Burlingame (born 1856).

Early career
Burlingame practiced law in Boston, Massachusetts, and won a wide reputation by his speeches for the Free Soil Party in 1848. He was a member of the Massachusetts constitutional convention in 1853, of the Massachusetts State Senate from 1853 to 1854, and of the United States House of Representatives from 1855 to 1861, being elected for the first term as a Know Nothing and afterwards as a member of the new Republican Party, which he helped to organize in Massachusetts.

Burlingame vs. Preston Brooks
In May 1856, Senator Charles Sumner (R-Massachusetts) delivered a fiery anti-slavery speech. He was subsequently brutally assaulted in the Senate chamber by Representative Preston Brooks (D-South Carolina), who was hailed as a hero by the pro-slavery South.

Shortly afterwards, Burlingame delivered what The New York Times referred to as "the most celebrated speech" of his career: a scathing denunciation of Brooks' assault on Sumner, branding him as "the vilest sort of coward" on the House floor. In response, Brooks challenged Burlingame to a duel, stating he would gladly face him "in any Yankee mudsill of his choosing". Burlingame eagerly accepted; as the challenged party, he had his choice of weapons and location. A well-known marksman, he selected rifles as the weapons and the Navy Yard on the Canadian side of the U.S. border in Niagara Falls as the location (in order to circumvent the U.S. ban on dueling). Brooks, reportedly dismayed by both Burlingame's unexpectedly enthusiastic acceptance and his reputation as a crack shot, neglected to show up, instead citing unspecified risks to his safety if he were to cross "hostile country" (the northern U.S. states) in order to reach Canada. Burlingame's solid defense of a fellow Bostonian greatly raised his stature throughout the North.

Minister to China (Qing Empire)
On March 22, 1861, after Burlingame lost his bid for re-election, President Abraham Lincoln appointed Burlingame as Minister to the Austrian Empire, but Burlingame, who had championed the Hungarian Lajos Kossuth and his drive for independence from the Austrian Empire, was not acceptable and did not serve.

On June 14, 1861, Lincoln instead appointed Burlingame as minister to the Qing Empire. Burlingame worked for a cooperative policy rather than the imperialistic policies of force which had been used during the First and Second Opium Wars and developed relations with the reform elements of the court. As he put it, the "cooperative policy... substituted for the old doctrine of violence one of fair diplomatic action," and the representatives of the Western powers agreed that they would not interfere in the internal affairs of China. Burlingame reported that he had used his diplomacy to get the European powers to agree that they would "give to the treaties a fair and Christian construction; that they ... never would menace the territorial integrity of China."

China's envoy to U.S. and European nations
The success of this diplomacy was not lost on Qing dynasty court officials. On November 16, 1867, when he was set to retire and return to his political career at home, the Chinese government appointed Burlingame envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary to head a Chinese diplomatic mission to the United States and the principal European nations. The mission, which included two Chinese ministers, an English and a French secretary, six students from Peking, and a considerable retinue, arrived in the United States in March 1868. Burlingame used his personal relations with the Republican administration to negotiate a relatively quick and favorable treaty. In a series of speeches across the country, he displayed eloquent oratory to advocate equal treatment of China and a welcoming stance toward Chinese immigrants.

On July 28, 1868, the mission concluded at Washington, D.C., a series of articles, supplementary to the Reed Treaty of 1858, and later known as the Burlingame Treaty. The treaty provided that Chinese subjects in the United States should enjoy the same rights as citizens of the most favored nation, a legal strategy which up until that point had only been used to expand foreign privileges in China. Burlingame worked successfully to include a clause permitting Chinese to become citizens, which was barred by American law. This treaty was the first equal treaty between China and a western power after the Opium War.

Subsequently, Burlingame also negotiated treaties with Denmark, Sweden, Holland, and Prussia. He died suddenly at Saint Petersburg on February 23, 1870, while negotiating terms for a treaty with Russia. He was buried in Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Family
His son Edward L. Burlingame was founding editor of Scribner's Magazine. His grandson (Edward's son), Roger Burlingame, was an author of fiction, nonfiction, and biographies.

Legacy
After Burlingame's death, the spirit and many of the specific provisions of the treaty bearing his name were reversed. Foreign powers continued to encroach upon China, and Congress passed strict laws against Chinese immigration. The success of the Communist Revolution of 1949 led to animosity between the two countries and Burlingame's reputation was as a naive and euphoric advocate of China. After warming of relations in the 1980s, Burlingame's reputation began to rise again, however.

Burlingame, California; Burlingame, Kansas; and Anson, Wisconsin, are all named after Anson Burlingame. The ranch which Burlingame purchased in San Mateo on the San Francisco Bay retained his name and was eventually developed after his death.

Anson Burlingame's portrait, painted by Albion Harris Bicknell, hangs in historic Faneuil Hall, Boston. In 2018, upon the 150th anniversary of the Burlingame Treaty, a new bust of Anson Burlingame sculpted by Zhou Limin was unveiled at an international ceremony held at the Burlingame Public Library in Burlingame, California.

title: Anson Burlingame


text:
Dreyfus

Dreyfus may refer to:

 * Dreyfus (surname)
 * Dreyfus affair, a French political scandal
 * Dreyfus (1930 film), a German film on the Dreyfus affair
 * Dreyfus (1931 film), a British film on the Dreyfus affair
 * Dreyfus Corporation, a Mellon Financial Corporation subsidiary
 * Disques Dreyfus, a French record label
 * The Camille and Henry Dreyfus Foundation, a United States-based charitable foundation
 * Dreyfus Prize in the Chemical Sciences, a chemistry award
 * 6317 Dreyfus, a main-belt asteroid

title: Dreyfus


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Boulanger

Boulanger is a typical French and Francophone surname, equivalent of the English Baker, the Italian Panettiere, etc.

It is shared by several notable persons:

 * André Boulanger (1886–1958), French professor of literature and Latin scholar
 * Daniel Boulanger (1922-2014), French novelist, playwright, poet and screenwriter
 * Ernest Boulanger (composer) (1815–1900), French composer and conductor, father of Nadia and Lili
 * Ernest Boulanger (politician) (1831–1907), French politician and economist
 * Georges Ernest Boulanger (1837–1891), French general and politician
 * Georges Boulanger (violinist) (1893–1958), Romanian violinist, conductor and composer
 * Graciela Rodo Boulanger (born 1935), Bolivian painter
 * Gustave Boulanger (1824–1888), French painter
 * Lili Boulanger (1893–1918), French composer, Nadia's sister
 * Louis Boulanger (1806–1867), French Romantic painter, pastellist, lithographer and poet
 * Mike Boulanger (born 1949), American baseball coach
 * Mousse Boulanger (1926-2023), Swiss poet and actress
 * Nadia Boulanger (1887–1979), French composer, Lili's sister
 * Nicolas Antoine Boulanger (1722–1759), French writer of the Age of Enlightenment
 * Pierre Boulanger (born 1987), French actor
 * Pierre-Jules Boulanger (1885–1950), French engineer and businessman
 * Richard Boulanger (born 1956), American composer and professor

title: Boulanger


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Talk:Anson Burlingame

Untitled
The basic article was taken from the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica. Some of the detail in the online version of the EB appears to have been garbled during scanning. I deleted details of the treaty since they are more appropriate in the Burlingame Treaty entry. Bill 14:49 13 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Don't remove
Anson Burlingame should not be removed from Wikipedia. Important historical character - at least to the present day Burlingames...rumor has it that he is the son of 'Honest Joe Burlingame,' the ?speaker of the House fo Representatives from Rhode Island.Iileenb 12:44, 6 September 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Anson Burlingame


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Endgame study

In the game of chess, an endgame study, or just study, is a composed position—that is, one that has been made up rather than played in an actual game—presented as a sort of puzzle, in which the aim of the solver is to find the essentially unique way for one side (usually White) to win or draw, as stipulated, against any moves the other side plays. If the study does not end in the end of the game, then the game's eventual outcome should be obvious, and White can have a selection of many different moves. There is no limit to the number of moves which are allowed to achieve the win; this distinguishes studies from the genre of direct mate problems (e.g. "mate in 2"). Such problems also differ qualitatively from the very common genre of tactical puzzles based around the middlegame, often based on an actual game, where a decisive tactic must be found.

Composed studies
Composed studies predate the modern form of chess. Shatranj studies exist in manuscripts from the 9th century, and the earliest treatises on modern chess by the likes of Luis Ramirez Lucena and Pedro Damiano (late 15th and early 16th century) also include studies. However, these studies often include superfluous pieces, added to make the position look more "game-like", but which take no part in the actual solution (something that is never done in the modern study). Various names were given to these positions (Damiano, for example, called them "subtleties"); the first book which called them "studies" appears to be Chess Studies, an 1851 publication by Josef Kling and Bernhard Horwitz, which is sometimes also regarded as the starting point for the modern endgame study. The form is considered to have been raised to an art in the late 19th century, with A. A. Troitsky and Henri Rinck particularly important in this respect.

Most composers, including Troitsky, Rinck, and other famous figures such as Genrikh Kasparyan, are known primarily for their studies, being little known as players. However, some famous players have also composed endgame studies, with Emanuel Lasker, Richard Réti, Vasily Smyslov, and Jan Timman being perhaps the most notable ones.

Examples
Richard Réti's study is one of the most famous of all time. It is White to play and draw. At first sight, this seems an impossible task: if White tries to chase after Black's pawn he can never catch it (1.Kh7 h4 2.Kh6 h3 etc. is clearly hopeless), while it is clear that Black will simply take White's pawn if he tries to promote it.

White can draw, however, by taking advantage of the fact that the king can move towards both pawns at once. The solution is '''1. Kg7 h4 (1...Kb6 2. Kf6! h4 3.Ke5! transposes) 2. Kf6! Kb6 (if 2...h3, then 3.Ke6 h2 4.c7 Kb7 5.Kd7 allows white to promote his pawn) 3. Ke5!''' Now, if 3...Kxc6, then 4.Kf4 stops Black's pawn after all, while if 3...h3 4.Kd6 allows White to promote his pawn. Either way, the result is a draw. (Also see King and pawn versus king endgame, the section Rule of the square.)

Not all studies are as simple as the above Réti example. This study (first diagram) is by Genrikh Kasparyan (first published in Magyar Sakkélet, 1962). White is to play and draw. The main line of the solution is '''1. Ra1 a2 2. Ke6 Ba3 3. Bf4 Bb2 4. Be5 a3 5. Kd5 Bg6 6. Bd4 Bf7+ 7. Ke4 Bc4 8. Rg1''', but there are various alternatives for both sides. For example, White could try 1.Bf4 on his first move, with the idea 1...Bxa2 2.Bxd6 and 3.Bxa3 is a draw, but Black can defeat this idea with 1...Bxf4 2.Rxa3 Bc2, which wins. To understand why one move works and another one does not, requires quite advanced chess knowledge. Indeed, it will not be obvious to many players that the position at the end of the given line (second diagram) is a draw at all.

One of the most notable studies is Leopold Mitrofanov's 1967 first-prize winner. Unfortunately, Mitrofanov's original study was subsequently found to have a, a miraculous defense that enabled Black either to obtain perpetual check or reach a drawn ending.

Solution: '''1. b6+ Ka8 2. Re1! Nxe1 3. g7 h1=Q (if 3...Nc4+ then 4.Kb5 h1=Q 5.g8=Q+ Bb8 6.a7 Na3+ 7.Kc6 Qh2 8.axb8=Q+ Qxb8 9.b7+ Ka7 10.Qg1+ Ka6 11.Qb6 mate) 4. g8=Q+ Bb8 5. a7 Nc6+ 6. dxc6 Qxh5+ 7. Qg5 (not 7.Ka6 Qe2+ or 7.Kb4? Qh4+ with perpetual check) Qxg5+ 8. Ka6 (the queen is deflected from the white diagonal where she could give check) 8... Bxa7 (or 8...Qb5+ 9.Kxb5 Nc2 10.c7 and wins) 9. c7! (a silent move; the double threat c8=Q+ and b7 mate forces Black to sacrifice the queen) 9... Qa5+ 10. Kxa5 Kb7 11. bxa7''' and White wins.

Early example
Most old shatranj studies are not valid in modern chess because of changed rules. However, the moves of the king, rook, and knight are unchanged. In this Arabic study White wins because the black knight is poorly placed. With White to move the best move is '''1. Rd1''', but it is not the only winning move. If Black is to move, '''1... Kb8! 2. Kc6! Na5+! 3. Kb6! Nc4+ 4. Kb5! Ne5 5. Re1! Nd7 6. Kc6!''' wins.

Studies and special moves
The special moves or rules of chess, such as castling, underpromotion, double-square pawn advance, and en passant are commonly a key feature of studies, as are sacrifices.

Castling
Castling in the endgame occurs seldom and is more often seen in studies. Here is one example where White wins by privilege of castling rights.

 * 1.0-0-0? Ra2! 2.d7 Ra1+ 3.Kc2 Rxd1 4.Kxd1 Kc7 drawn.

White needs: '''1. d7! Kc7 2. d8=Q+! Kxd8 3. 0-0-0+''' simultaneously attacking the king and rook that is captured next move.

Study engineering
With the creation and popularization of chess-playing computer software programs, many of which have achieved Elo ratings significantly higher than top human players, many composers collaborate with them both in composing and solving compositions. Though proven to be helpful, positions have been found which cause even the strongest engines to incorrectly evaluate the outcome. Chess master Frédéric Lazard's 1946 composition is White to play and draw.

Solution: '''1. Ne4+ Kh4 (1...dxe4 2.Be1#) 2. Ng3! Qf8 (2...fxg3 3.Bb6) 3. Be1 fxg3 4. Bf2! d4 (4...Qxf2 stalemate, 4...gxf2 5.g3+ Kh3 stalemate) 5. Bxd4 c5 6. Bxc5 Qf1+ 7. Bg1 Qf2 8. Bxf2 gxf2 9. g3+ Kxg3''' drawn.

title: Endgame study


text:
Tom Friedman

Tom Friedman may refer to:

 * Tom Friedman (artist) (born 1965), American sculptor
 * Thomas Friedman (born 1953), journalist and author

title: Tom Friedman


text:
Jerry O'Connell

Jeremiah O'Connell (born February 17, 1974) is an American actor. He is known for his roles as Quinn Mallory in the television series Sliders, Andrew Clements in My Secret Identity, Vern Tessio in the film Stand by Me (1986), Joe in Joe's Apartment (1996), Frank Cushman in Jerry Maguire (1996), Derek in Scream 2 (1997), Michael in Tomcats (2001), Charlie Carbone in Kangaroo Jack (2003), and Detective Woody Hoyt on the NBC drama Crossing Jordan. He starred as Pete Kaczmarek in the single 2010–2011 season of The Defenders. He also had a starring role in the comedy horror film Piranha 3D (2010). Currently, he voices Commander Jack Ransom on the animated series Star Trek: Lower Decks, is co-host of The Talk, and hosts a version of Pictionary syndicated on Fox stations.

Early life
O'Connell was born in New York City, the eldest son of Linda, a Special Education teacher in New Jersey, and Michael O'Connell, an advertising agency art director originally from the United Kingdom. He is of half Irish, one quarter Italian, and one quarter Polish ancestry. O'Connell's paternal grandfather was from County Cork, Ireland while his maternal grandmother was from Belfast, Northern Ireland. His maternal grandfather was Charles S. Witkowski, the 34th mayor of Jersey City, New Jersey. O'Connell was raised in Manhattan with his younger brother, actor Charlie O'Connell. As a teenager, he attended Manhattan's Professional Children's School. He attended New York University from 1991 to 1994, majoring in film. While there, he studied screen writing and competed on the fencing team, serving a stint as captain of the sabre squad. He graduated in 1995.

Career
O'Connell began his acting career at a young age. As a child, he did commercial work for Duncan Hines cookies. Shortly after turning eleven, he landed his first feature film role as the character Vern Tessio in Rob Reiner's Stand by Me. In 1987, O'Connell appeared in a commercial for Frosted Flakes. He starred in the Canadian science-fiction sitcom My Secret Identity from 1988 to 1991 as the teen hero who develops superhuman traits. During a summer break from NYU, Jerry starred in the feature film Calendar Girl alongside Jason Priestley and Gabriel Olds. He also appeared in the short-lived ABC sitcom Camp Wilder, with Jay Mohr and Hilary Swank, in 1992. During his junior year, O'Connell auditioned for the television pilot Sliders (also filmed in Canada). He was offered the role of Quinn Mallory in the series, which ran for three seasons on Fox and two seasons on the Syfy Channel. He served as producer during his fourth season, and is credited with writing and directing several episodes.

O'Connell has since gone on to star in such films as Jerry Maguire, Body Shots, Mission to Mars, Tomcats, Scream 2, and Kangaroo Jack. O'Connell also guest-hosted in the late 90s on the late night talk show Later. O'Connell has also tried his hand at screenwriting and sold his first screenplay, for First Daughter, to New Regency in 1999. The film was released in 2004 by 20th Century Fox-based Davis Entertainment. O'Connell served as executive producer and received a "story by" credit on the film, which starred Katie Holmes and Michael Keaton.

O'Connell starred as Detective Woody Hoyt on the NBC crime drama Crossing Jordan (2001) until its cancelation in May 2007, and was engaged to actress Rebecca Romijn. He starred opposite her in the Ugly Betty episode "Derailed". He played Hoyt in several episodes of Las Vegas. In 2004, he wore a diaper on Last Call with Carson Daly, during a mock commercial skit for the GoodNites bedwetting product. The National Enquirer caught him filming the skit and printed a photo of him in his diaper.

In 2005, O'Connell guest-starred in the Justice League Unlimited episode "Clash", voicing Captain Marvel. He reprised the role in the DC Universe Animated Original Movies short film Superman/Shazam!: The Return of Black Adam alongside George Newbern, who reprised the role of Superman, having done the voice for the animated series. Jerry's younger brother, Charlie has appeared in several productions in which his brother starred, such as in Sliders and Crossing Jordan. In 2007–2008 O'Connell starred in ABC's Carpoolers, which ran from October 2, 2007, to March 4, 2008. In early 2008, O'Connell participated in a widely circulated Internet video parody of the leaked Tom Cruise video on Scientology. Cruise was O'Connell's co-star in Jerry Maguire.

O'Connell co-wrote and appeared in a video parody called "Young Hillary Clinton", satirizing Hillary Clinton's 2008 primary campaign. On February 2, 2008, O'Connell hosted VH1's Pepsi Smash Super Bowl Bash, which aired the night before Super Bowl XLII and featured musical guests Maroon 5 and Mary J. Blige. On April 28, 2008, he appeared as a guest star on ABC's Samantha Who?. In late 2008 O'Connell starred in Fox's Do Not Disturb, co-starring Niecy Nash, but Fox cancelled the show after only three episodes.

O'Connell appeared in the 2009 thriller film Obsessed as "Ben", the best friend and co-worker of the film's protagonist Derek Charles (Idris Elba). He appeared in Eastwick on ABC, on which his wife Romijn starred in the series. He portrayed Derrick Jones in Alexandre Aja's Piranha 3D, which also stars Adam Scott and Elisabeth Shue.

O'Connell co-starred with David Tennant in the pilot for legal drama Rex Is Not Your Lawyer, which was not picked up for production. In 2010, O'Connell starred with Jim Belushi in the CBS comedy drama The Defenders, which was cancelled on May 15, 2011, after one season.

O'Connell appeared on Broadway at the Golden Theatre in Seminar, written by Theresa Rebeck. The play, directed by Sam Gold, opened on November 20, 2011, starring Alan Rickman, Lily Rabe, Hamish Linklater and Hettienne Park. On June 4, 2012, it was announced that O'Connell would play Herman Munster in a reboot of The Munsters, titled Mockingbird Lane; the remake series was never picked up for production; however, the pilot would air as a Halloween special on October 26. On May 15, 2013, it was announced that O'Connell would play Stuart Strickland on We Are Men, alongside Tony Shalhoub.

In April 2015, O'Connell returned to Broadway in the comedy Living on Love, with Renee Fleming, Anna Chlumsky and Douglas Sills. It closed after 37 performances.

In 2017, O'Connell was the main love interest in the Hallmark film Love Locks, co-starring his real-life wife Rebecca Romijn.

He also starred in a Canadian police Comedy-drama series called Carter. It was filmed in 2017 in North Bay Ontario, Canada and aired for two seasons. There was good reception for the series, but it was likely another victim of the worldwide epidemic that interrupted and ended many entertainment projects.

In January 2020, O'Connell appeared in the Roundabout's American Airlines Theatre's Broadway revival of A Soldier's Play as Captain Taylor in an ensemble cast headed by David Alan Grier and Blair Underwood.

In 2020, he began starring in commercials for Bob Evans grocery items alongside Alfonso Ribeiro.

In July 2021, CBS announced that O'Connell would be joining The Talk as a permanent co-host, replacing Sharon Osbourne. That same month, he hosted a test-run of a new syndicated version of Pictionary on Fox stations, which was successful enough to launch with a full season in fall 2022. He and wife Romijn hosted The Real Love Boat on CBS, in 2022.

Personal life
On July 14, 2007, O'Connell married actress and former model Rebecca Romijn. Their twin girls were born in 2008.

O'Connell enrolled in Southwestern Law School in Los Angeles in August 2009, but dropped out to return to acting full-time.

O'Connell has dual American and British citizenship.

O'Connell is a regular and commonly recurring guest on the Barstool Sports podcast Pardon My Take, where he discusses his passion for fantasy football and his fandom for their show.

O'Connell was once roommates with actor and comedian TJ Miller.

Music videos

 * "David Duchovny" – Bree Sharp (1999)
 * "Heartbreaker" – Mariah Carey (1999)
 * "12 Days of Christmas" from Christmas Queens – Katya Zamolodchikova

Podcast appearances

 * Pardon My Take – August 6, 2018; August 23, 2019; July 24, 2020; September 1, 2021; February 9, 2022; September 2, 2022; December 2, 2022; September 1, 2023; February 7, 2024; May 6, 2024
 * Comments by Celebs – September 24, 2018
 * The Dan LeBatard Show with Stugotz feat. Baron Davis – August 5, 2020
 * The Kinda Funny Podcast – April 8, 2021
 * I’ve Had It - February 6, 2024

title: Jerry O'Connell


text:
Talk:Burlingame Treaty

Treaty details were drawn from the 1911 encyclopedia. Bill 15:20 13 Jul 2003 (UTC)

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Add reactions section?
Was just reading in The New Immigration Federalism by Pratheepan Gulasekaram and S. Kartick Ramakrishnan that anti-Chinese sentiment in California was so strong at the time of the treaty that it "galvanized significant backlash in the state, ranging from rioting and lynching, to legislative efforts to curb what many argued were the deleterious effects of Chinese migration on California's economy and society." I believe including a section on this part of American history is important to keeping our long history with xenophobia visible so we don't repeat it. Thoughts? Perhaps a subsection of the "Impact" section? Footnote reference from this quote cites Laws Harsh as Tigers by Lucy Salyer which I've added to my to-read list but not sure when I'll circle back. -kim. (talk) 09:16, 27 February 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Burlingame Treaty


text:
Durban International Airport

Durban International Airport (formerly Louis Botha Airport) was the international airport of Durban from 1951 until 2010, when it was replaced by King Shaka International Airport, 60 km to the north. The airport is co-located with AFB Durban.

History
The airport was opened in 1951, replacing the Stamford Hill Aerodrome. The original name of the airport was Louis Botha International, named after the South African statesman. The airport maintained this name until 1994 when the political changes that came with that year in South Africa resulted in a change of name to Durban International Airport. While the airport served the domestic market well, the airport suffered from low international passenger numbers and a runway that was too short for a fully laden Boeing 747 to take off. Due to the short runway and the hub and spoke policy that was adopted in the 1990s (favouring OR Tambo International Airport in Johannesburg), Durban lost almost all of its international traffic.

Plans to move the airport to La Mercy, approximately 60 km north of Durban International Airport, were proposed and shelved numerous times between the 1970s and 2007, before construction of what was to become King Shaka International Airport began in September 2007. Construction of the new airport was completed in 2010, with Durban International Airport handling its final flight on 30 April 2010 and all flights transferring to King Shaka International Airport in a single, overnight move.

Accidents and incidents

 * On 30 June 1962, a Douglas DC-4 (registration ZS-BMH) operating a scheduled South African Airways flight from Johannesburg to Durban collided with a South African Air Force Harvard trainer. The DC-4 made a successful emergency landing with 46 passengers and 5 crew; the Harvard trainer crashed with its crew of two parachuting to safety. The DC-4 was subsequently repaired.
 * On 28 December 1973, a Douglas DC-3 (registration ZS-DAK) operated by Executive Funds lost both engines when turning onto final approach and ditched in the Indian Ocean. One passenger drowned out of the 22 passengers and 3 crew.
 * On 26 November 1981, a hijacked Air India B707-300 (registration VT-DVB) was forced to land at the airport. The plane had been hijacked by mercenaries fleeing an abortive coup in the Seychelles. After freeing the 79 passengers and crew, the mercenaries surrendered.
 * On 18 June 2008, a British Airways Boeing 737-200 registration ZS-OKD (operated by Comair), operating as Flight 6203 from Johannesburg, skidded off the runway while landing under adverse weather conditions. The aircraft was reported to have hit a wet patch on the tarmac, causing it to skid and resulting in the right landing-gear becoming embedded in the surrounding earth. The incident caused the closure of the airport for both arrivals and departures for several hours. All 87 passengers and six crew members escaped without serious injury.
 * On 24 September 2009, South African Airlink Flight 8911 crashed in the suburb of Merebank shortly after takeoff from Durban International Airport, injuring its crew of three and one person on the ground, with the pilot subsequently dying of his injuries in hospital.

Plans
The airport was used by the South African Air Force and the Police Air Wing during the 2010 FIFA World Cup, before being decommissioned.

Although it is currently unclear as to what the future usage of the airport site will be, it is widely expected that the site will be used for future industrial development. The site is located on a large parcel of flat land in the Durban South Industrial Basin, which is already home to much of the city's heavy industry; given Durban's generally very hilly terrain, such a large, flat parcel is ideal for future industrial development, port expansion, or both. Ownership of the airport was transferred from the Airports Company South Africa to Transnet in 2012, for the construction of a dig-out port. In 2017, it was reported that plans for the dig-out port had been placed on hold until "at least 2030".

No provision was made during the planning and construction of KSIA to accommodate the South African Air Force base at DIA, thus AFB Durban, 15 Squadron and related support units are still operating from this airport.

title: Durban International Airport


text:
Ken Whyld

Kenneth Whyld (6 March 1926 – 11 July 2003) was a British chess author and researcher, best known as the co-author (with David Hooper) of The Oxford Companion to Chess, a single-volume chess reference work in English.

Whyld was a strong amateur chess player, taking part in the British Chess Championship in 1956 and winning the county championship of Nottinghamshire. He subsequently made his living in information technology while writing books on chess and researching its history.

As well as The Oxford Companion to Chess, Whyld was the author of other reference works such as Chess: The Records (1986), an adjunct to the Guinness Book of Records and the comprehensive The Collected Games of Emanuel Lasker (1998). He also researched more esoteric subjects, resulting in works such as Alekhine Nazi Articles (2002) on articles in favour of the Nazi Party supposedly written by world chess champion Alexander Alekhine, and the bibliographies Fake Automata in Chess (1994) and Chess Columns: A List (2002).

From 1978 until his death in 2003, Whyld wrote the "Quotes and Queries" column in the British Chess Magazine.

A number of chess historians, including Dale Brandreth, Frank Skoff and Edward Winter, all of whom had close contact with Whyld, came to question his reliability and bona fides on certain issues.

Shortly after Whyld's death, the Ken Whyld Association was established with the aim of compiling a comprehensive chess bibliography in database form and promoting chess history.

Whyld's library was later sold to the Musée Suisse du Jeu, located on the shores of Lake Geneva in Switzerland (as reported in number 152 of EG).

title: Ken Whyld


text:
King Phalo Airport

King Phalo Airport (Koning Phalo Internasionale Lughawe; formerly East London Airport (Oos-Londen Lughawe) until 23 February 2021) is an airport serving East London, a city in the Eastern Cape province on the southeast coast of South Africa.

The airport handles between 20 and 30 flights daily, which bring 946,000 people to East London each year. Of these, about 540,000 are holidaymakers, mostly local, and about 15% are foreign tourists. In 2013, the airport served 658,363 passengers. In 2016, King Phalo Airport was voted the fastest growing airport in South Africa, having accomplished an almost 19% increase in traffic over a 12-month-period. The airport welcomed over 806,000 passengers in 2016, beating the 679,000 that passed through East London in 2015. The second best performing airport for growth in 2014 was Kimberley, with its traffic growing by 11%. Overall the top airports of South Africa witnessed nearly 39.7 million passengers in 2016, up 5.3% on the year before.

History
The airport had an inauspicious beginning in 1927, when Lieut Colonel Alistair Miller asked the East London town council to help establish a municipal aerodrome at Woodbrook, west of the city.

Passenger flights were undertaken by two de Havilland Moth planes on Saturday afternoons and all day on Sundays, weather permitting. Flights could also be booked for weekdays, but only by special arrangement. In 1931 it took 11 hours to fly from Windhoek in Namibia to King Phalo Airport.

In 1944 a new airport was built at Collondale, about 2 km west of the present terminal building.

In 1965 the airport was again moved, this time to its present site, 9 km west of the city centre. Construction of the terminal buildings finished in 1966, and the airport was named after Ben Schoeman, the minister of transport at the time.

The airport was renamed in 1994. Since then, major alterations to the terminal building have been completed and a new first-floor office development for the airport management team has been added.

Runways
King Phalo Airport has two asphalt runways: 11/29 is 1,939 by 46 meters and 06/24 is 1,585 by 46 meters.

Facilities
King Phalo Airport is at an elevation of 435 ft above mean sea level. It has two asphalt paved runways: 11/29 is 1939 x and 06/24 is 1585 x.

Incidents

 * On 13 March 1967, South African Airways Flight 406 crashed into the Indian Ocean while on approach to King Phalo Airport. All 25 passengers and crew on board were killed.

title: King Phalo Airport