text:
List of transport museums

A transport museum is a museum that holds collections of transport items, which are often limited to land transport (road and rail)—including old cars, motorcycles, trucks, trains, trams/streetcars, buses, trolleybuses and coaches—but can also include air transport or waterborne transport items, along with educational displays and other old transport objects. Some transport museums are housed in disused transport infrastructure such as dismantled trolley systems, former engine sheds or bus garages.

Argentina

 * Tramway Histórico de Buenos Aires, Caballito, Buenos Aires

Australia

 * Archer Park Rail Museum, Rockhampton, Queensland
 * Australian National Maritime Museum, Sydney, New South Wales
 * Australian Road Transport Heritage Centre, Gundagai, New South Wales
 * Ballarat Tramway Museum, Ballarat, Victoria
 * Bendigo Tram Museum, Bendigo, Victoria
 * Brisbane Tramway Museum, Ferny Grove, Queensland
 * Bus Preservation Society of Western Australia, Whiteman Park, Perth
 * Canberra Railway Museum, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory
 * Dorrigo Steam Railway & Museum, Dorrigo, New South Wales
 * Glenreagh Mountain Railway, Glenreagh, New South Wales
 * Goulburn Rail Heritage Centre, Goulburn, New South Wales
 * Hawthorn tram depot, Hawthorn, Melbourne, Victoria
 * Lachlan Valley Railway, Cowra, New South Wales
 * National Railway Museum, Port Adelaide, South Australia
 * National Road Transport Hall of Fame, Alice Springs, Northern Territory
 * NSW Rail Museum, Thirlmere, New South Wales
 * Old Ghan Heritage Railway and Museum, Alice Springs, Northern Territory
 * Pichi Richi Railway – Quorn to Port Augusta, South Australia
 * Puffing Billy Railway, Belgrave, Victoria
 * Qantas Founders Outback Museum, Longreach, Queensland
 * Queensland Motorsport Museum, Ipswich, Queensland
 * Rail Heritage WA, Bassendean, Western Australia
 * Rail Motor Society, Paterson, New South Wales
 * Revolutions Transport Museum, Whiteman Park, Western Australia
 * Shepparton Motor Museum, Shepparton, Victoria
 * South Australian Maritime Museum, Port Adelaide, South Australia
 * Steamtown Heritage Rail Centre, Peterborough, South Australia
 * Sydney Bus Museum, Leichhardt, Sydney, New South Wales
 * Sydney Heritage Fleet, Rozelle, Sydney, New South Wales
 * Sydney Tramway Museum, Loftus, Sydney, New South Wales
 * Tasmanian Transport Museum, Glenorchy, Tasmania
 * Tramway Museum Society of Victoria, Bylands, Victoria
 * Tramway Museum, St Kilda, South Australia
 * Valley Heights Locomotive Depot Heritage Museum, Valley Heights, New South Wales
 * Western Australia's Heritage Tramway, Whiteman Park, Western Australia
 * Western Australian Maritime Museum, Fremantle, Western Australia
 * Zig Zag Railway, near Lithgow, New South Wales.

Austria

 * TMB's Innsbruck Tramway Museum, Innsbruck
 * Graz Tramway Museum, Graz
 * SKGLB-Museum, Mondsee
 * Vienna Transport Museum Remise, Vienna

Belgium

 * Brussels Tram Museum (MTUB (fr) / MSVB (nl)), Woluwe-Saint-Pierre, Brussels – streetcar/tram/trolleybus
 * Tramsite Schepdaal, Schepdaal – streetcar/tram
 * Centre de découverte du Vicinal, Trammuseum of the ASVi, Thuin – interurban and rural streetcar/tram
 * Flemish Tram and Bus Museum (VlaTAM), Berchem, Antwerp – streetcar/tram/bus
 * Musée des Transports en Commun de Wallonie (MTCW), Liège – streetcar / tram / interurban and rural tram / trolleybus / motorbus
 * Train World, Schaerbeek — Railway Museum
 * CFV3V, Mariembourg, Treignes — Railway Museum

Bermuda

 * Railway Museum and Curiosity Shop, Hamilton

Brazil

 * Museu Aeronáutico de Guarulhos, Guarulhos
 * Museu Asas de um Sonho, São Carlos
 * Museu do Automóvel de São Paulo, São Paulo
 * Museu dos Transportes Públicos Gaetano Ferolla, São Paulo
 * Museu Ferroviário Barão de Mauá, Jundiaí, – Railways (Avenida União dos Ferroviários)
 * Museu Ferroviário de Bauru, Bauru
 * Museu Ferroviário de Campinas, Campinas
 * Museu Tecnológico Ferroviário, Santo André
 * Museu American Old Trucks, Canela - Grupo Dreams
 * Museu Hollywood Dreams Cars, Gramado - Grupo Dreams

Bulgaria

 * National Transport Museum, Rousse

Canada

 * Alberta Railway Museum, Edmonton, Alberta
 * British Columbia Aviation Museum, Sidney, British Columbia
 * Canadian Museum of Flight, Langley, British Columbia
 * Canadian Railway Museum, Saint-Constant, Québec
 * Canadian Transportation Museum & Heritage Village, Essex, Ontario
 * Edmonton Radial Railway Society, Edmonton, Alberta
 * Halton County Radial Railway, Rockwood, Ontario
 * Marine Museum of the Great Lakes, Kingston, Ontario
 * Muskoka Marine Museum, Huntsville, Ontario
 * Railway Coastal Museum, St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador
 * Reynolds-Alberta Museum, Wetaskiwin, Alberta, automobiles
 * Saskatchewan Railway Museum, Saskatoon Saskatchewan
 * Western Canada Aviation Museum, Winnipeg, Manitoba
 * Winnipeg Railway Museum, Winnipeg, Manitoba

China Mainland

 * China Aviation Museum, Datangshan, Changping, Beijing – (200 airplanes)
 * China Railway Museum, Beijing
 * Shanghai Metro Museum, Shanghai
 * Shanghai Railway Museum, Shanghai

Croatia

 * Croatian Railway Museum, Zagreb (Croatian: Hrvatski željeznički muzej)

Czech Republic

 * National Technical Museum, Prague
 * Muzeum městské hromadné dopravy v Praze, Praha Střešovice (Czech: Muzeum městské hromadné dopravy v Praze)
 * Czech Railways Museum, Lužná (Czech: České dráhy Museum)
 * Železniční muzeum Zlonice (Czech: Železniční muzeum Zlonice)
 * (Czech: Zubrnická museální železnice)
 * Museum of Limestone Mining and Transport, Český Karst (Czech: Muzeum těžby a dopravy vápence)
 * Pošumav Railway Museum, Nové Údolí (Czech: Muzeum Pošumavských železnic)
 * Horse-drawn Railway Museum, České Budějovice (Czech: Muzeum koněspřežné železnice)
 * Jaroměř Heating Plant (Czech: Výtopna Jaroměř)
 * Mladějov Museum of Industrial Railways (Czech: Muzeum průmyslových železnic Mladějov)

Denmark

 * Bornholm Automobilmuseum, Bornholm, Region Hovedstaden
 * Danish Railway Museum, Odense
 * Danish Tramway Museum, Skjoldenæsholm, near Ringsted
 * Dansk Veteranflysamling, Skjern, Midtsjælland – Scandinavian airplanes
 * Vikingeskibsmuseet, Roskilde, Midtsjælland – Viking ships

Estonia

 * Estonian Railway Museum, Haapsalu

Finland

 * Finnish Railway Museum, Hyvinkää
 * Aviation Museum of Central Finland, Tikkakoski, Central Finland
 * Finnish Aviation Museum, Vantaa, near Helsinki's international airport
 * Kotka Maritime Center

France

 * Cité de l'Automobile, Mulhouse : car museum
 * Musée Français du Chemin de Fer : railway museum
 * Musée Maurice Dufresne
 * Musée de l'Aventure Peugeot, Sochaux, Kanton Sochaux-Grand-Charmont – Peugeot-Automobile
 * Musée de Transports Urbains de France, Chelles : urban transport museum
 * Musée des 24 Heures du Mans
 * Musée de l'Air, Le Bourget : Airplane Museum

Germany

 * PS Speicher in Einbeck
 * Museum of Ancient Seafaring in Mainz
 * DB Museum, Nuremberg, operated by Deutsche Bahn AG — rail transport in Germany
 * Deutsches Schiffahrtsmuseum in Bremerhaven — water transport
 * Otto-Lilienthal-Museum, air transport
 * Eisenbahnmuseum Bochum, Bochum in the suburb Dahlhausen at the river Ruhr — railway museum
 * Eisenbahnmuseum Neustadt Neustadt (Weinstrasse) in central Rhineland-Palatinate (Rheinland-Pfalz)
 * Auto & Technik Museum, Sinsheim, Baden-Württemberg
 * Hannoversches Straßenbahn-Museum, Sehnde near Hannover
 * Deutsches Museum Verkehrszentrum, Munich, Bavaria
 * Deutsches Museum Flugwerft, Oberschleißheim, Bavaria
 * Deutsches Dampflokomotiv-Museum Neuenmarkt-Wirsberg in northern Bavaria
 * MVG Museum, Munich, Bavaria
 * Schifffahrtsmuseum Flensburg in Flensburg, Schleswig-Holstein
 * Straßenbahnmuseum Dresden, Dresden, Sachsen
 * Verkehrsmuseum Dresden, Dresden, Sachsen
 * Verkehrsmuseum Frankfurt am Main, Frankfurt, Hesse
 * Verein Historische Straßenbahn in Köln

Greece

 * Aegean Maritime Museum, Mykonos
 * Andros Maritime Museum, Andros
 * Electric Railways Museum of Piraeus
 * Hellenic Air Force Museum, Athens
 * Hellenic Maritime Museum, Piraeus
 * Hellenic Motor Museum, Athens
 * Nautical Museum of Crete, Chania
 * Phaethon Museum of Technology (cars), Oropos
 * Railway Museum of Athens
 * Railway Museum of Thessaloniki
 * Thessaly Railway Museum, Volos

Hong Kong

 * Hong Kong Maritime Museum, Central, City of Victoria
 * Hong Kong Railway Museum, Tai Po District, New Territories

Hungary

 * Hungarian Railway History Park, Budapest – Railways
 * Budapest Transport Museum, City Park (past), Diesel Hall - former Északi Vehicle Repair Center (future), Budapest
 * Urban Public Transport History Museum, Szentendre.
 * Millennium Underground Railway Museum, Deák Ferenc Square, Budapest.

India

 * Kursura Submarine Museum, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh - Submarine Museum
 * TU 142 Aircraft Museum, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh - Aircraft Museum
 * Heritage Transport Museum, Gurgaon, Haryana - Transport Museum

Indonesia

 * Ambarawa Railway Museum, Ambarawa
 * Maritime Museum, Jakarta
 * Museum Angkut, Batu
 * Transport Museum, Taman Mini Indonesia Indah, Jakarta

Ireland

 * Ulster Folk and Transport Museum, Belfast
 * National Maritime Museum of Ireland, Dublin – Ships
 * National Transport Museum of Ireland, (Iarsmalann Náisiunta Iompair na hÉireann), Howth, Fingal
 * Foynes Flying Boat Museum, Foynes – Flugboote

Isle of Man

 * Jurby Transport Museum, Jurby
 * Manx Electric Railway Museum, Derby Castle, Douglas
 * Manx Transport Museum, Peel
 * Port Erin Railway Museum, Port Erin

Israel

 * Israel Railway Museum, Haifa –

Italy

 * Museo Ferrari, Maranello
 * Ducati Museum, Bologna
 * Museo Nazionale dell'Automobile, Turin
 * Moto Guzzi Museum, Mandello del Lario
 * Alfa Romeo Museum, Arese
 * Museo Piaggio Giovanni Alberto Agnelli, Pontedera
 * Museo Nazionale della Scienza e della Tecnologia, Milan
 * Museo Nazionale dei Trasporti, La Spezia
 * Museo Ferroviario Piemontese, Savigliano, Turin
 * Volandia, Somma Lombardo
 * Museo Ferroviario di Trieste Campo Marzio, Trieste
 * Museo Nazionale Ferroviario di Pietrarsa, Naples

Japan

 * Honda Collection Hall, Motegi - automobiles, motorcycles
 * Hiroshima City Transportation Museum, Hiroshima – Tramways
 * Matsuda Collection, Gotemba, Shizuoka - automobiles
 * Kyoto Railway Museum, Kyoto - Railway
 * Modern Transportation Museum, Osaka, Osaka – Railways
 * Nagahama Railroad Square, Nagahama, Shiga
 * Ome Railway Park, Ome, Tokyo
 * Railway Museum, Saitama, Saitama – Railway
 * SCMaglev and Railway Park, Nagoya - Railway
 * Tokyo Subway Museum, Tokyo
 * Kyushu Railway History Museum, Kitakyushu, Fukuoka
 * Tokyo Subway Museum, Tokyo
 * Tokyo Transportation Museum, Tokyo (Closed)
 * Toyota Automobile Museum, Nukata District, Aichi – Automobiles (also other brands)
 * Umekōji Steam Locomotive Museum, Kyoto – Steam locomotives
 * Usui Pass Railway Heritage Park, Annaka, Gunma - Railways
 * Yokohama Municipal Tramway Museum, Yokohama

Kuwait

 * Historical, Vintage, and Classical Cars Museum, Kuwait City -
 * Maritime Museum of Kuwait, Kuwait City, Kuwait

Latvia

 * Latvian Railway History Museum, Riga –
 * Riga Motor Museum, Riga –

Lithuania

 * Lithuanian Railway Museum, Vilnius –

Luxembourg

 * Luxembourg's tram and bus museum, Luxembourg City –

Mexico

 * Ferrocarril Interoceanico heritage railway & museum. Cuautla, Morelos –
 * Museo de los Ferrocarriles de Yucatán, Mérida, Yucatán,
 * Museo Nacional de los Ferrocarriles Mexicanos, Puebla, Puebla
 * Museo Tecnológico de la Comisión Federal de Electricidad (MUTEC), Mexico City
 * Museo del Transporte, Xalapa, Veracruz
 * Museo del Ferrocarril de Torreón, Torreón, Coahuila

Namibia

 * Trans-Namib Railroad Museum

Netherlands

 * Aviodrome, Lelystad, Flevoland – Aviation
 * Elekrische Museumtramlijn, Amsterdam, North Holland - Tramway
 * DAF Museum, Eindhoven, North Brabant – Automobile
 * Haags Openbaar Vervoer Museum, The Hague, South Holland – Streetcars/tram
 * Nationaal Openbaar vervoer Museum NOV, Ouwsterhaule, Friesland – Railways/Busses
 * Nationaal Bus Museum NBM, Hoogezand, Groningen – Busses
 * Industrieel Smalspoor Museum, Erica, Drenthe - Industrial narrow gauge railway
 * Louwman Museum - The Hague, South Holland – Automobile
 * Marinemuseum Den Helder, Den Helder, North Holland – Ships (Koninklijke Marine)
 * Museum Buurtspoorweg, Haaksbergen, Overijssel – Railways
 * National Carriage Museum, Leek, Groningen (province) - Carriages
 * Dutch Railway Museum, Utrecht (city), Utrecht (province) - – Railways
 * Nederlands Transport Museum, Nieuw-Vennep, North Holland – air, road and rail vehicles
 * NZH Public Transport Museum, Haarlem, North Holland - Public transport by the former NZH
 * Museumstoomtram Hoorn-Medemblik, Hoorn, North Holland - Steamtram
 * Stoom Stichting Nederland, Rotterdam, South Holland – Steamlocomotives
 * Trammuseum Rotterdam, Rotterdam, South Holland - Trams
 * Trolleybus Museum Arnhem, Arnhem, Gelderland - Trolley Busses
 * Veluwsche Stoomtrein Maatschappij, Beekbergen, Gelderland – Railways
 * Stoomtrein Katwijk Leiden, Valkenburg, South Holland – Narrow gauge, formerly known as Stoomtrein Valkenburgse Meer / Nationaal Smalspoormuseum

New Zealand

 * Christchurch City Tramway
 * Ferrymead Heritage Park, Christchurch
 * Foxton Trolleybus Museum, Horowhenua
 * Museum of Transport & Technology, Auckland
 * National Maritime Museum, Auckland
 * National Transport & Toy Museum, Wānaka
 * Otago Settlers Museum, Dunedin
 * Packard and Pioneer Museum, Northland
 * Southward Car Museum, Kāpiti Coast
 * Wellington Tramway Museum, Kāpiti Coast
 * Transport World, Invercargill

Norway

 * Old Voss Line Railway Museum, Bergen
 * Krøderen Line Railway Museum, Krøderen –
 * Norwegian Railway Museum, Hamar,
 * Norwegian Aviation Museum, Bodø,
 * Setesdal Line Railway Museum, Vennesla,
 * Sporveismuseet Vognhall 5, Oslo – Tramway
 * Trondheim Tramway Museum, Trondheim –
 * Viking Ship Museum (Oslo), Oslo

Pakistan

 * PAF Museum, Karachi
 * Pakistan Maritime Museum, Karachi
 * Pakistan Railways Heritage Museum, near Islamabad

Poland

 * Warsaw Railway Museum, Warsaw – Railways
 * Polish Aviation Museum, Kraków, – Aviation
 * Narrow Gauge Railway Museum in Gryfice, Gryfice, Woiwodschaft Westpommern – Railways
 * Narrow Gauge Railway Museum in Wenecja, Wenecja, Woiwodschaft Kujawien-Pommern – Railways
 * Skansen Parowozownia Kościerzyna, Kościerzyna, Pomeranian Voivodeship, – Railways
 * Museum of city transport, Poznań
 * Bydbus Zabytkowe Autobusy, Bydgoszcz, Woiwodschaft Kujawien-Pommern

Portugal

 * Carris Museum, Lisbon
 * Museu Nacional Ferroviário, Entroncamento –
 * Porto Tram Museum, Porto
 * Museu dos Transportes e Comunicações, Porto

Russia

 * Central Railway Museum, Saint Petersburg
 * Museum of Electrical Transport, Saint Petersburg (see in Russian)
 * Moscow Metro Museum, Moscow
 * Oktyabrskaya Railway Museum, Saint Petersburg
 * Pereslavl Narrow Gauge Railway Museum, Pereslavl-Zalessky –
 * Museum of Carriages and Autocars, Moscow
 * Vadim Zadorozhny's Technical Museum, Moscow –
 * Museum of Retro Cars, Moscow
 * Museum of Urban Transport, Moscow – unofficial site
 * Monino Air Force Museum, Moscow
 * Museum of the Moscow Railway, Moscow

Saudi Arabia

 * Hejaz Railway Museum in Medina
 * The Hejaz railway station at Mada'in Saleh

Serbia

 * Muzej Vazduhoplovstva, Belgrade
 * Zeleznicki Muzej, Belgrade

Singapore

 * Land Transport Gallery, Singapore -

Slovakia

 * Museum of Transport, Bratislava –
 * Museum of Aviation, Košice –
 * Čierny Hron Railway heritage railway, Čierny Balog, Hronec et al.
 * Historical Logging Switchback Railway heritage railway, Vychylovka
 * Orava Logging Railway heritage railway, Oravská Lesná
 * Railway Museum of Railway Depot "East", Bratislava
 * Košice Children's Heritage Railway, Košice
 * Museum of Transport, Rajecké Teplice
 * Museum of Vintage Automobiles, Mlynica (defunct, moved)
 * Exhibit of Vintage Automobiles, Kežmarok Museum, Kežmarok (moved from Mlynica)
 * Classic Car Museum, Piešťany
 * 1st Slovak Private Transport Museum in Prešov, Prešov-Šarišské Lúky (private collections, open on demand)

Slovenia

 * Slovenian Railway Museum, Ljubljana

South Africa

 * James Hall Transport Museum, Johannesburg
 * Franschhoek Motor Museum, Franschhoek -

Spain

 * Museo del Ferrocarril, Madrid
 * Torre Loizaga, Biscay
 * Museo EMT Madrid Madrid

Sweden

 * Nynäshamns Järnvägsmuseum, Nynäshamn
 * Nässjö Järnvägsmuseum, Nässjö
 * Spårvägsmuseet, Stockholm
 * Sveriges Järnvägsmuseum, Gävle
 * Marcus Wallenberg-hallen (Scania)
 * Bothnia Railway Museum, Luleå

Switzerland

 * Heritage Railway Blonay-Chamby, Blonay, Waadt; Heritage Railway including a museum
 * Bahnmuseum Kerzers/Kallnach, Kerzers, FR und Kallnach, BE; Railways
 * EUROVAPOR (Railway Society)
 * Fliegermuseum Dübendorf, Dübendorf, ZH, – Aviation
 * Swiss Museum of Transport, Lucerne; Large Museum exhibiting all forms of transport.
 * Zürich Tram Museum, Zürich

Taiwan

 * Chung Cheng Aviation Museum, Taoyuan City
 * Evergreen Maritime Museum, Taipei City
 * Kaohsiung Harbor Museum, Kaohsiung City
 * Miaoli Railway Museum, Miaoli County
 * Takao Railway Museum, Kaohsiung City
 * Tamkang University Maritime Museum, New Taipei City
 * Taxi Museum, Yilan County
 * Wulai Tram Museum, New Taipei City

Turkey

 * Rahmi M. Koç Museum, Istanbul
 * Ural Ataman Classic Car Museum, Istanbul
 * Key Museum, İzmir

United Arab Emirates

 * Emirates National Auto Museum, Abu Dhabi

England

 * Amberley Museum & Heritage Centre, West Sussex – Motor buses, industrial narrow-gauge railways, road making
 * Beamish Museum, Durham – Locomotives, trams, trolleys, motor buses
 * Bentley Wildfowl and Motor Museum, Halland, East Sussex - Automobiles and motorcycles
 * Black Country Living Museum, Dudley, West Midlands – trams and motor buses
 * British Motor Museum, Gaydon, Warwickshire - Cars
 * Brooklands, Weybridge, Surrey – Automobiles, aircraft
 * Bury Transport Museum, Bury, Greater Manchester - Road vehicles, railway equipment, maps and signs
 * C. M. Booth Collection of Historic Vehicles, Rolvenden, Kent - Pre-war automobiles and motorcycles
 * Coventry Transport Museum, Coventry – Automobiles
 * Cotswold Motoring Museum and Toy Collection, Bourton on the Water, Gloucestershire – Automobiles and nostalgia
 * Dewsbury Bus Museum, West Yorkshire - Motor buses and coaches - Home of two Guy Wulfrunian buses
 * Donington Grand Prix Collection, Leicestershire – Motor Racing Cars
 * East Anglia Transport Museum, Suffolk – Trams, Trolleys, Motor Buses
 * Ensignbus transport museum, Essex – Motor Buses
 * Fleet Air Arm Museum, Yeovilton, Somerset – Air Planes
 * Greater Manchester's Museum of Transport, Manchester – Buses
 * Haynes Motor Museum, Sparkford, Somerset – Automobiles, Motorcycles
 * Heritage Motor Centre, Gaydon, Warwickshire – Automobiles
 * Hopetown Carriage Works, Darlington, Durham
 * Hovercraft Museum, Lee-on-the-Solent, Hampshire
 * Imperial War Museum Duxford Airfield, near Cambridge – Civilian and Military Planes, Tanks
 * Ingrow Railway Centre, Keighley, West Yorkshire – Steam Locomotives
 * Ipswich Transport Museum – Trams, Trolleys, Motor Buses
 * London Bus Museum, Weybridge - London buses
 * London Canal Museum, London – Canal
 * London Motor Museum, Hayes, Hillingdon - Custom and American automobiles
 * London Motorcycle Museum – Motorcycles
 * London Transport Museum, London – Rail Rolling Stock, Trams, Trolleys, Motor buses
 * Midland Air Museum, near Coventry, Warwickshire. – Airplanes
 * Museum of Transport in Manchester – Buses, (Trolleys), some train ephemera.
 * National Maritime Museum, Greenwich and Falmouth – Maritime
 * National Motor Museum, Beaulieu, Hampshire – Cars, Motorcycles
 * National Motorcycle Museum, Solihull, West Midlands
 * National Railway Museum, York – Locomotives, carriages, wagons and all related railway equipment
 * National Tramway Museum, near Matlock, Derbyshire – Trams
 * National Waterways Museum, Gloucester – Inland waterways collection
 * Newark Air Museum, Nottinghamshire – Airplanes
 * North West Museum of Road Transport, St Helens - Buses, Cars, Fire Engines, Trucks and Trams.
 * North East Land, Sea and Air Museums, Sunderland - Aircraft, Trams, Buses, Fire Appliances and military vehicles.
 * Nottingham Transport Heritage Centre, Nottinghamshire, – mainly railways, buses, cars
 * Oxford Bus Museum, Long Hanborough – Buses
 * Royal Air Force Museum, Hendon, London – Airplanes
 * Royal Air Force Museum, Cosford, Shropshire – Airplanes
 * Sammy Miller Motorcycle Museum, New Milton, Hampshire - Motorcycles
 * Shildon Locomotion Museum, Durham – Locomotives, carriages, wagons and all related railway equipment
 * Shuttleworth Collection, Old Warden, Bedfordshire – Pre-war automobiles, motorcycles and airplanes
 * Solent Sky, Southampton, Hampshire – Aircraft
 * Southampton Maritime Museum, Southampton, Hampshire – Maritime
 * Streetlife Museum, Kingston upon Hull – Bicycles, carriages, cars, railway and Streetscene
 * Swindon Steam Railway Museum – Railway
 * The Transport Museum, Wythall, Worcestershire – Buses and electric cars
 * Trolleybus Museum at Sandtoft, Lincolnshire – Trolleys
 * Whitewebbs Museum of Transport, Enfield, London – Cars, trucks, fire engines, motorcycles, memorabilia, etc.
 * Yorkshire Air Museum – Aircraft

Northern Ireland

 * Ulster Folk and Transport Museum, Belfast – all kinds of transport

Scotland

 * Glasgow Museum of Transport (now closed)
 * Museum of Flight, East Lothian Aerospace
 * Riverside Museum, Glasgow (the city's new transport museum, opened in 2011)
 * Grampian Transport Museum, Aberdeenshire
 * Dundee Museum of Transport, Dundee
 * Scottish Vintage Bus Museum, Lathalmond, Fife

Wales

 * Pembrokeshire Motor Museum – cars
 * Pendine Museum of Speed – cars
 * Swansea Bus Museum - buses

Alabama

 * Barber Vintage Motorsports Museum, Leeds, Alabama
 * Heart of Dixie Railroad Museum, Calera, Alabama
 * Huntsville Depot, Huntsville, Alabama
 * North Alabama Railroad Museum, Huntsville, Alabama
 * US Space & Rocket Center, Huntsville, Alabama

Alaska

 * White Pass and Yukon Route from Skagway, Alaska to Whitehorse, Yukon

Arizona

 * Arizona Street Railway Museum, Phoenix, Arizona
 * Southern Arizona Transportation Museum, Tucson, Arizona

California

 * Aerospace Museum of California, McClellan Air Force Base, northeast of Sacramento, California
 * Cable Car Museum, San Francisco, California
 * California Automobile Museum, Sacramento, California
 * California State Railroad Museum, Sacramento, California (located in Old Sacramento)
 * Golden Gate Railroad Museum, formerly San Francisco, California – relocated to Niles Canyon Railway in Sunol, California
 * Hiller Aviation Museum, San Carlos, California
 * Oakland Aviation Museum, Oakland, California
 * Pacific Bus Museum, Fremont, California
 * Pacific Coast Air Museum, Santa Rosa, California
 * Petersen Automotive Museum, Los Angeles, California
 * San Diego Air & Space Museum, San Diego, CaliforniaSan Diego Air & Space Museum entrance 2009.jpg
 * San Diego Automotive Museum, San Diego, California
 * San Diego Model Railroad Museum, San Diego, California
 * San Francisco Maritime Museum, San Francisco, California
 * San Francisco Railway Museum, San Francisco, California
 * South Coast Railroad Museum, Goleta, California
 * Southern California Railway Museum, Perris, California
 * Travel Town Museum, Los Angeles, California
 * Western Pacific Railroad Museum, Portola, California
 * Western Railway Museum, Rio Vista, California

Colorado

 * Colorado Railroad Museum, Golden, Colorado
 * Durango and Silverton Narrow Gauge Railroad, Durango, Colorado
 * Forney Transportation Museum, Denver, Colorado
 * Golden Oldy Cyclery, The Sustainable Museum of Sustainable Transportation, Golden, Colorado, pre-1900 bicycles and tricycles & 21st century electric cars in a carbon negative museum.

Connecticut

 * Connecticut Trolley Museum, East Windsor, Connecticut
 * Shore Line Trolley Museum, East Haven, Connecticut

District of Columbia

 * National Air and Space Museum (Smithsonian), Washington, D.C.

Florida

 * Gold Coast Railroad Museum, Florida
 * National Naval Aviation Museum, formerly known as the National Museum of Naval Aviation and the Naval Aviation Museum, Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida.
 * Tallahassee Automobile Museum, Tallahassee, Florida
 * Tampa Bay Automobile Museum, Pinellas Park, Florida

Georgia

 * Delta Heritage Museum, Atlanta, Georgia
 * Southeastern Railway Museum, Atlanta, Georgia

Illinois

 * Illinois Railway Museum, Union, Illinois
 * Monticello Railway Museum, Monticello, Illinois
 * Volo Auto Museum, Volo, Illinois

Indiana

 * Auburn Cord Duesenberg Museum, Auburn, Indiana
 * Grissom Air Museum, Grissom Air Reserve Base, Peru, Indiana
 * Indiana Aviation Museum, Valparaiso, Indiana
 * Indiana Railway Museum, French Lick, Indiana
 * Indiana Transportation Museum, Noblesville, Indiana

Kansas

 * Carona Train Museum, Carona, Kansas
 * Great Plains Transportation Museum, Wichita, Kansas
 * Midland Railway, Baldwin City, Kansas

Kentucky

 * Kentucky Railway Museum, New Haven, Kentucky
 * National Corvette Museum, Bowling Green, Kentucky

Maine

 * Owls Head Transportation Museum, Owls Head, Maine
 * Seashore Trolley Museum, Kennebunkport, Maine

Maryland

 * B&O Railroad Museum, Baltimore, Maryland. Located at Mount Clare Station, the birthplace of American railroading.
 * Baltimore Streetcar Museum, Baltimore, Maryland. Located on Falls Road on the old MD & PA right of way.
 * Chesapeake and Ohio Canal National Historical Park from Georgetown, Washington, D.C. to Cumberland, Maryland
 * National Capital Trolley Museum, Montgomery County, Maryland

Massachusetts

 * American Heritage Museum, Stow, Massachusetts
 * Edaville Railroad, South Carver, Massachusetts
 * National Streetcar Museum, Lowell, Massachusetts
 * Shelburne Falls Trolley Museum, Shelburne Falls, Massachusetts

Michigan

 * Air Zoo, Portage, Michigan
 * Automotive Hall of Fame, Dearborn, Michigan
 * Ford Piquette Avenue Plant, Detroit, Michigan. Birthplace of the Ford Model T and the oldest car factory building on Earth open to the general public (built 1904).
 * Gilmore Car Museum, Hickory Corners, Michigan
 * Henry Ford Museum and Greenfield Village, Dearborn, Michigan
 * R.E. Olds Transportation Museum, Lansing, Michigan
 * Walter P. Chrysler Museum, Auburn Hills, Michigan
 * Yankee Air Museum, Belleville, Michigan

Minnesota

 * Bandana Square, Saint Paul, Minnesota, home of Twin Cities Model Railroad Club and old Northern Pacific Como shops.
 * Minnesota Transportation Museum, Saint Paul, Minnesota

Missouri

 * National Museum of Transportation, St. Louis, Missouri

Montana

 * Montana Auto Museum, Deer Lodge, Montana

Nevada

 * Nevada Northern Railway Museum, Ely, Nevada

New Hampshire

 * Conway Scenic Railroad, North Conway, New Hampshire

New York

 * Brooklyn Trolley Museum, Brooklyn, New York
 * Champlain Valley Transportation Museum, Plattsburgh, New York
 * Glenn H. Curtiss Museum, Hammondsport, New York
 * National Soaring Museum, Elmira, New York
 * New York Museum of Transportation, Rush, New York
 * New York Transit Museum, Brooklyn, New York
 * Old Rhinebeck Aerodrome, Rhinebeck, New York
 * Railroad Museum of the Niagara Frontier, North Tonawanda, New York
 * Trolley Museum of New York, Kingston, New York

North Carolina

 * North Carolina Transportation Museum, Spencer, North Carolina

Ohio

 * National Museum of the United States Air Force, formerly the US Air Force Museum, in Dayton, Ohio
 * Ohio Railway Museum, Worthington, Ohio

Oklahoma

 * Oklahoma Railway Museum, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
 * Stafford Air & Space Museum, Weatherford, Oklahoma

Oregon

 * Columbia River Maritime Museum, Astoria, Oregon
 * Evergreen Aviation Museum, McMinnville, Oregon – Aviation,. Hughes H-4, Boeing B-17 und Supermarine Spitfire
 * Oregon Electric Railway Museum, Brooks, Oregon

Pennsylvania

 * American Helicopter Museum and Education Center, West Chester, Pennsylvania
 * Bicycle Heaven, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
 * Museum of Bus Transportation, Hershey, Pennsylvania
 * Pennsylvania Trolley Museum, Washington, Pennsylvania
 * Railroad Museum of Pennsylvania
 * Steamtown National Historic Site, Scranton, Pennsylvania

Rhode Island

 * Herreshoff Marine Museum, Bristol, Rhode Island

South Carolina

 * Transportation Museum of the World featuring the Miniature World of Trains, Greenville, South Carolina

Tennessee

 * Memphis Railroad & Trolley Museum, Memphis, Tennessee
 * Tennessee Central Railway Museum, Nashville, Tennessee
 * Tennessee Valley Railroad Museum, Chattanooga, Tennessee

Texas

 * National Aviation Education Center, Dallas, Texas
 * Texas Museum of Automotive History, Dallas, Texas
 * Texas Transportation Museum, San Antonio, Texas

Utah

 * Golden Spike National Historic Site, Promontory Summit, Utah. Location of the completion of the First transcontinental railroad on May 10, 1869.

Virginia

 * Commonwealth Coach & Trolley Museum, Roanoke, Virginia
 * Mariners' Museum, Newport News, Virginia
 * Norfolk Southern Museum, Norfolk, Virginia
 * Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center (Part of the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum), Fairfax County, Virginia – Airplanes (Boeing B-29 Enola Gay) and Space Shuttle Enterprise
 * Virginia Museum of Transportation, Roanoke, Virginia

Washington

 * America's Car Museum, Tacoma, Washington
 * Flying Heritage Collection, Everett, Washington
 * Museum of Flight, Seattle, Washington
 * Naval Undersea Museum, Keyport, Washington – U-Boote
 * Northwest Railway Museum, Snoqualmie, Washington

Wisconsin

 * East Troy Electric Railroad Museum, Wisconsin
 * Harley-Davidson Museum, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
 * National Railroad Museum, Green Bay, Wisconsin

Wyoming

 * Wyoming Transportation Museum, Cheyenne, Wyoming

Vatican City

 * Padiglione delle Carozze (Museo Storico, Vatican Museums)

Venezuela

 * Guillermo José Schael Transport Museum, Caracas, Venezuela

title: List of transport museums


text:
Vaitupu

Vaitupu is the largest atoll of the nation of Tuvalu. It is located at 7.48 degrees south and 178.83 degrees east. There are 1,061 people (2017 Census) living on 5.6 km2 with the main village being Asau.

Discovery and settlement
The exact date of Vaitupu's first settlement is unknown. According to oral history, the founder of the Vaitupuan community was a Samoan by the name of Telematua, who arrived in the 16th or 17th century. However, it is possible that Tongans may have first reached the atoll during the mid-13th century. Vaitupu has maintained contacts with Tonga throughout its history, both peaceful (alliances through marriage) and hostile (visits by Tongan slave-seekers). Vaitupu was also visited by I-Kiribati, and was thus far from isolated. Vaitupu means 'the fountain of water'.

Obed Starbuck—captain of the whaler Loper from Nantucket, Massachusetts—sighted the island on 26 April 1826, naming it 'Tracy Island'. William Plaskett, captain of the Nantucket whaler Independence II, called at Vaitupu on 21 August 1827. Given Starbuck's earlier sighting of the island, the log entry by Plaskett for the day that he rediscovered it suggests the locals hadn't seen another ship before then:

"[...] At daylight found it to be a small low island about 6 miles long. [...] Having one native and an interpreter on board who we brought from Rotumah, who formerly belonged to one of the islands about here and who understood their language we learned that they had never seen a ship before. The natives name of this island is voytopu. It is not laid down on the books or charts so we call it a new discovery. Lat.7°-25 [south] Longitude 178°-78 East."

19th century
The United States Exploring Expedition under Charles Wilkes visited Vaitupu in 1841.

Samoan pastors from the London Missionary Society successfully introduced Christianity to the island in the 1860s. The pastors implemented religious regulations, outlawing many cultural practices. They also introduced the Samoan language, as their Bibles were written in Samoan. Vaitupuans became literate in Samoan rather than in their own language. Henry (Harry) Nitz, the resident trader, helped in the construction of the first church.

Vaitupuans celebrate Te Aso Fiafia (Happy Day) on 25 November of each year. Te Aso Fiafia commemorates 25 November 1887 which was the date on which the final instalment of a debt of $13,000 was repaid to H. M. Ruge and Company, a German trading firm that operated from Apia, Samoa. Vaitupu history is that Thomas William Williams, the Ruge agent, pretended to do his customers a favour by allowing them to obtain goods on credit. In 1883 the debt of the Vaitupuans was $13,000 and H. M. Ruge and Company had threatened to seize the entire island unless the debt was repaid. Neemia, a Vaitupuan pastor living in Samoa, returned and organised working parties to collect coconuts and prepare copra to sell to pay off the debt, with Henry Nitz, the Webber & Co agent on Vaitupu, contributing money to meet the final payment. The Vaitupuans, with the help of their friends from Funafuti, repaid the debt by the due date. Seven thousand dollars was repaid by 1886 and the balance was paid on 25 November 1887.

Vaitupuan tradition is that chance favoured their efforts, a ship sent to collect the last payment sank, as did the second ship the trading schooner Vaitupulemele. By the time a third ship arrived most of the money had been collected. However, the trading schooner Vaitupulemele appears to have a different role in the history of Vaitupu. The creation of the debt that was repaid to Ruge & Co extended beyond the purchase of goods on credit to include the purchase price of the Vaitupulemele by the Vaitupu Company. While T.M. Williams had been the Ruge agent, he later formed the Vaitupu Company with the Vaitupuan community and purchased the Vaitupulemele from Ruge & Co. However the schooner was lost during a voyage from Samoa and soon after Williams died, leaving no accounting for copra that had been shipped from Vaitupu. In any event the Vaitupuans paid the full amount claimed by Ruge & Co, although that company soon after went into liquidation.

20th century
Vaitupu Post Office opened around 1916.

Donald Gilbert Kennedy, the resident District Officer in the administration of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony from 1932 to 1938, describe the construction of paopao and of the variations of single-outrigger canoes that had been developed on Vaitupu and Nanumea.

Neli Lifuka was the magistrate on Vaitupu from 1945 to 1951. He was instrumental in collecting the funds to purchase Kioa Island in Fiji. Initially 37 people migrated from Vaitupu to live on Kioa Island; within a decade, more than 235 people followed.

On 30 January and 1 February 1990, Cyclone Ofa had a major impact on Vaitupu, with around 85 percent of residential homes, trees and food crops being destroyed.

21st century
Vaitupu received worldwide attention in 2000, when a fire in a dormitory at the Motufoua school killed 18 girls and a female adult supervisor. It was later discovered that the fire was caused by a student using a candle to read during the night. The Prime Minister Ionatana Ionatana declared a national tragedy and quickly travelled to the island to witness the aftermath. A memorial service was held the following year in memory of the 18 girls and their matron who died. Tuvaluan leaders as well as parents of the victims attended the memorial service.

In the 2011 Tuvalu drought, Vaitupu experienced the loss of coconut palm trees, pulaka and taro due to the high temperatures and arid soil.

In March 2015, storm surges resulting from Cyclone Pam caused damage to houses, crops and infrastructure.

Geography
The island, which covers approximately 5.6 km2, includes swamps, mangroves, a fringing coral reef, and a large lagoon.

Vaitupu atoll consists of at least nine isles:
 * Luasamotu
 * Mosana (group of 2)
 * Motutanifa
 * Temotu
 * Te Motu Olepa
 * Tofia
 * Vaitupu proper
 * and at least one other islet

The biggest island is Vaitupu proper, followed by Tofia.

The only village on Vaitupu consists of the neighbourhoods Tumaseu and Asau. There is a church, Tolise Primary School, at least one guesthouse and a post office. An aquaculture project has been established in the lagoon.

Renewable energy
In 2010 what was then described as the largest diesel-solar photovoltaic (PV) hybrid electricity system in the South Pacific was installed at Motufoua Secondary School. Prior to the instalment of the system the school relied upon a diesel powered generator, which needed to be turned off during the night. The hybrid system systems saves thousands of dollars in diesel costs and provides the school with a 24-hour supply of energy, with up to 200 kWh per day.

In 2014 New Zealand and the European Union agreed to provide finance to the Government of Tuvalu to install battery-backed solar photovoltaic (PV) systems for the outer islands. From January to March 2015 Powersmart, a New Zealand company, implemented German solar power technology to build the new Vaitupu powerhouse.

Transportation and tourism
There is a wharf on Vaitupu but no harbour, meaning passengers must board a smaller boat from the inter-island passenger/cargo ships to get to the Vaitupu. There are paths and small unpaved roads throughout the island. Only a few cars drive on Vaitupu. In the main village there is a guest house called Vivalia III located at the wharf near the main church.

Culture
The community activities on Vaitupu include the Nafa Moa and Talo (Taro crops and chickens competition). In this contest the community is divided into two rival teams. Members of each team compete for who can grow the heavier taro or larger chickens; the climax comes with the weigh-off between the competitors, concluding a day of good-natured rivalry and fun.

Demographics
The population of Vaitupu from 1860 to 1900 is estimated to be 400 people. Vaitupu is home to the second-largest population in Tuvalu, numbering 1,576 (2002 Census) and 1,555 (2012 census). Despite its relatively large size, Vaitupu became so overcrowded during the 1940s that a number of families migrated to Fiji to live on Kioa Island.

In the 2012 census, the population of the villages of Vaitupu were:
 * Apalolo - Saniuta: 263
 * Tumaseu: 248
 * Potufale: 230
 * Asau: 198

Politics
Paulson Panapa and Maina Talia were elected in the 2024 general election.

Education
The primary school on Vaitupu is called Tolise, which was established in 1953. A secondary school called Elisefou (New Ellice), opened in 1923 and closed in 1953 when the boys were transferred to King George V School located in Bikenibeu, South Tarawa. The first headmaster of Elisefou was Donald Gilbert Kennedy, who was a strict disciplinarian who would not hesitate to beat his students. The two most famous Tuvaluans from the school were Tuvalu's first Governor General, Sir Fiatau Penitala Teo and its first Prime Minister, Toaripi Lauti. Kennedy published Field Notes on the Culture of Vaitupu, Ellice Islands in the Journal of the Polynesian Society in instalments between 1929 and 1932 and as a book in 1931.

Motufoua Secondary School was established in 1905 by the London Missionary Society. Over time the school has evolved and it is now a boarding school for boys and girls that is administered by the Department of Education. In 2009 the student roll at Motufoua Secondary School was 550. In the 2012 census, 502 people were recorded as being at Motufoua Secondary School.

Notable residents
The Reverend Sir Filoimea Telito (19 March 1945 – 11 July 2011) as a young man was a teacher at Motufoua Secondary School. After completing theological studies, he returned to Motufoua to serve as Pastor. Later he became Principal of Motufoua. He served as the Governor-General of Tuvalu (2005-2010).

Sir Tomasi Puapua represented Vaitupu in the Parliament of Tuvalu. He was the second Prime Minister (1981–1989). Puapua later served as Governor-General of Tuvalu (1998–2003).

Apisai Ielemia (19 August 1955 – 19 November 2018) represented Vaitupu in the Parliament of Tuvalu. He served as Prime Minister of Tuvalu (2006–2010).

Taukelina Finikaso represented Vaitupu in the parliament from 2006 to 2019. He served as Minister of Communications and Works (2006–2010) and served as the Foreign Minister in the Sopoaga Ministry (2013-2019).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Vaitupu


text:
Connectionism

Connectionism (coined by Edward Thorndike in the 1931 ) is the name of an approach to the study of human mental processes and cognition that utilizes mathematical models known as connectionist networks or artificial neural networks. Connectionism has had many 'waves' since its beginnings.

The first wave appeared 1943 with Warren Sturgis McCulloch and Walter Pitts both focusing on comprehending neural circuitry through a formal and mathematical approach, and Frank Rosenblatt who published the 1958 book “The Perceptron: A Probabilistic Model For Information Storage and Organization in the Brain” in Psychological Review, while working at the Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory. The first wave ended with the 1969 book about the limitations of the original perceptron idea, written by Marvin Minsky and Papert, which contributed to discouraging major funding agencies in the US from investing in connectionist research. With a few noteworthy deviations, the majority of connectionist research entered a period of inactivity until the mid-1980s. The term connectionist model was reintroduced in the early 1980s in a Cognitive Science paper by Jerome Feldman and Dana Ballard.

The second wave blossomed in the late 1980s, following the 1987 book about Parallel Distributed Processing by James L. McClelland, David E. Rumelhart et al., which introduced a couple of improvements to the simple perceptron idea, such as intermediate processors (known as "hidden layers" now) alongside input and output units and used sigmoid activation function instead of the old 'all-or-nothing' function. Their work has, in turn, built upon that of John Hopfield, who was a key figure investigating the mathematical characteristics of sigmoid activation functions. From the late 1980s to the mid-1990s, connectionism took on an almost revolutionary tone when Schneider, Terence Horgan and Tienson posed the question of whether connectionism represented a fundamental shift in psychology and GOFAI. Some advantages of the second wave connectionist approach included its applicability to a broad array of functions, structural approximation to biological neurons, low requirements for innate structure, and capacity for graceful degradation. Some disadvantages of the second wave connectionist approach included the difficulty in deciphering how ANNs process information, or account for the compositionality of mental representations, and a resultant difficulty explaining phenomena at a higher level.

The current (third) wave has been marked by advances in Deep Learning allowing for Large language models. The success of deep learning networks in the past decade has greatly increased the popularity of this approach, but the complexity and scale of such networks has brought with them increased interpretability problems.

Basic principle
The central connectionist principle is that mental phenomena can be described by interconnected networks of simple and often uniform units. The form of the connections and the units can vary from model to model. For example, units in the network could represent neurons and the connections could represent synapses, as in the human brain. This principle has been seen as an alternative to GOFAI and the classical theories of mind based on symbolic computation, but the extent to which the two approaches are compatible has been the subject of much debate since their inception.

Activation function
Internal states of any network change over time due to neurons sending a signal to a succeeding layer of neurons in the case of a feedforward network, or to a previous layer in the case of a recurrent network. Discovery of non-linear activation functions has enabled the second wave of connectionism.

Memory and learning
Neural networks follow two basic principles:

 * 1) Any mental state can be described as an (N)-dimensional vector of numeric activation values over neural units in a network.
 * 2) Memory and learning are created by modifying the 'weights' of the connections between neural units, generally represented as an N×M matrix. The weights are adjusted according to some learning rule or algorithm, such as Hebbian learning.

Most of the variety among the models comes from:
 * Interpretation of units: Units can be interpreted as neurons or groups of neurons.
 * Definition of activation: Activation can be defined in a variety of ways. For example, in a Boltzmann machine, the activation is interpreted as the probability of generating an action potential spike, and is determined via a logistic function on the sum of the inputs to a unit.
 * Learning algorithm: Different networks modify their connections differently. In general, any mathematically defined change in connection weights over time is referred to as the "learning algorithm".

Biological realism
Connectionist work in general does not need to be biologically realistic. One area where connectionist models are thought to be biologically implausible is with respect to error-propagation networks that are needed to support learning, but error propagation can explain some of the biologically-generated electrical activity seen at the scalp in event-related potentials such as the N400 and P600, and this provides some biological support for one of the key assumptions of connectionist learning procedures. Many recurrent connectionist models also incorporate dynamical systems theory. Many researchers, such as the connectionist Paul Smolensky, have argued that connectionist models will evolve toward fully continuous, high-dimensional, non-linear, dynamic systems approaches.

Precursors
Precursors of the connectionist principles can be traced to early work in psychology, such as that of William James. Psychological theories based on knowledge about the human brain were fashionable in the late 19th century. As early as 1869, the neurologist John Hughlings Jackson argued for multi-level, distributed systems. Following from this lead, Herbert Spencer's Principles of Psychology, 3rd edition (1872), and Sigmund Freud's Project for a Scientific Psychology (composed 1895) propounded connectionist or proto-connectionist theories. These tended to be speculative theories. But by the early 20th century, Edward Thorndike was experimenting on learning that posited a connectionist type network.

Hopfield networks had precursors in the Ising model due to Wilhelm Lenz (1920) and Ernst Ising (1925), though the Ising model conceived by them did not involve time. Monte Carlo simulations of Ising model required the advent of computers in the 1950s.

The first wave
The first wave begun in 1943 with Warren Sturgis McCulloch and Walter Pitts both focusing on comprehending neural circuitry through a formal and mathematical approach. McCulloch and Pitts showed how neural systems could implement first-order logic: Their classic paper "A Logical Calculus of Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity" (1943) is important in this development here. They were influenced by the work of Nicolas Rashevsky in the 1930s.

Hebb contributed greatly to speculations about neural functioning, and proposed a learning principle, Hebbian learning. Lashley argued for distributed representations as a result of his failure to find anything like a localized engram in years of lesion experiments. Friedrich Hayek independently conceived the model, first in a brief unpublished manuscript in 1920, then expanded into a book in 1952.

The Perceptron machines were proposed and built by Frank Rosenblatt, who published the 1958 paper “The Perceptron: A Probabilistic Model For Information Storage and Organization in the Brain” in Psychological Review, while working at the Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory. He cited Hebb, Hayek, Uttley, and Ashby as main influences.

Another form of connectionist model was the relational network framework developed by the linguist Sydney Lamb in the 1960s.

The research group led by Widrow empirically searched for methods to train two-layered ADALINE networks, with limited success.

A method to train multilayered perceptrons with arbitrary levels of trainable weights was published by Alexey Grigorevich Ivakhnenko and Valentin Lapa in 1965, called the Group Method of Data Handling. This method employs incremental layer by layer training based on regression analysis, where useless units in hidden layers are pruned with the help of a validation set. In 1972, Shun'ichi Amari made this architecture adaptive.

The first multilayered perceptrons trained by stochastic gradient descent was published in 1967 by Shun'ichi Amari. In computer experiments conducted by Amari's student Saito, a five layer MLP with two modifiable layers learned useful internal representations to classify non-linearily separable pattern classes.

The second wave
The second wave begun in late 1980s, following the 1987 two-volume book about the Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) by James L. McClelland, David E. Rumelhart et al., which has introduced a couple of improvements to the simple perceptron idea, such as intermediate processors (known as "hidden layers" now) alongside input and output units and using sigmoid activation function instead of the old 'all-or-nothing' function. Their work has, in turn, built upon John Hopfield, who was a key figure investigating the mathematical characteristics of sigmoid activation functions.

Connectionism vs. computationalism debate
As connectionism became increasingly popular in the late 1980s, some researchers (including Jerry Fodor, Steven Pinker and others) reacted against it. They argued that connectionism, as then developing, threatened to obliterate what they saw as the progress being made in the fields of cognitive science and psychology by the classical approach of computationalism. Computationalism is a specific form of cognitivism that argues that mental activity is computational, that is, that the mind operates by performing purely formal operations on symbols, like a Turing machine. Some researchers argued that the trend in connectionism represented a reversion toward associationism and the abandonment of the idea of a language of thought, something they saw as mistaken. In contrast, those very tendencies made connectionism attractive for other researchers.

Connectionism and computationalism need not be at odds, but the debate in the late 1980s and early 1990s led to opposition between the two approaches. Throughout the debate, some researchers have argued that connectionism and computationalism are fully compatible, though full consensus on this issue has not been reached. Differences between the two approaches include the following:

 * Computationalists posit symbolic models that are structurally similar to underlying brain structure, whereas connectionists engage in "low-level" modeling, trying to ensure that their models resemble neurological structures.
 * Computationalists in general focus on the structure of explicit symbols (mental models) and syntactical rules for their internal manipulation, whereas connectionists focus on learning from environmental stimuli and storing this information in a form of connections between neurons.
 * Computationalists believe that internal mental activity consists of manipulation of explicit symbols, whereas connectionists believe that the manipulation of explicit symbols provides a poor model of mental activity.
 * Computationalists often posit domain specific symbolic sub-systems designed to support learning in specific areas of cognition (e.g., language, intentionality, number), whereas connectionists posit one or a small set of very general learning-mechanisms.

Despite these differences, some theorists have proposed that the connectionist architecture is simply the manner in which organic brains happen to implement the symbol-manipulation system. This is logically possible, as it is well known that connectionist models can implement symbol-manipulation systems of the kind used in computationalist models, as indeed they must be able if they are to explain the human ability to perform symbol-manipulation tasks. Several cognitive models combining both symbol-manipulative and connectionist architectures have been proposed. Among them are Paul Smolensky's Integrated Connectionist/Symbolic Cognitive Architecture (ICS). and Ron Sun's CLARION (cognitive architecture). But the debate rests on whether this symbol manipulation forms the foundation of cognition in general, so this is not a potential vindication of computationalism. Nonetheless, computational descriptions may be helpful high-level descriptions of cognition of logic, for example.

The debate was largely centred on logical arguments about whether connectionist networks could produce the syntactic structure observed in this sort of reasoning. This was later achieved although using fast-variable binding abilities outside of those standardly assumed in connectionist models.

Part of the appeal of computational descriptions is that they are relatively easy to interpret, and thus may be seen as contributing to our understanding of particular mental processes, whereas connectionist models are in general more opaque, to the extent that they may be describable only in very general terms (such as specifying the learning algorithm, the number of units, etc.), or in unhelpfully low-level terms. In this sense, connectionist models may instantiate, and thereby provide evidence for, a broad theory of cognition (i.e., connectionism), without representing a helpful theory of the particular process that is being modelled. In this sense, the debate might be considered as to some extent reflecting a mere difference in the level of analysis in which particular theories are framed. Some researchers suggest that the analysis gap is the consequence of connectionist mechanisms giving rise to emergent phenomena that may be describable in computational terms.

In the 2000s, the popularity of dynamical systems in philosophy of mind have added a new perspective on the debate; some authors now argue that any split between connectionism and computationalism is more conclusively characterized as a split between computationalism and dynamical systems.

In 2014, Alex Graves and others from DeepMind published a series of papers describing a novel Deep Neural Network structure called the Neural Turing Machine able to read symbols on a tape and store symbols in memory. Relational Networks, another Deep Network module published by DeepMind, are able to create object-like representations and manipulate them to answer complex questions. Relational Networks and Neural Turing Machines are further evidence that connectionism and computationalism need not be at odds.

Symbolism vs. connectionism debate
Smolensky's Subsymbolic Paradigm has to meet the Fodor-Pylyshyn challenge    formulated by classical symbol theory for a convincing theory of cognition in modern connectionism. In order to be an adequate alternative theory of cognition, Smolensky's Subsymbolic Paradigm would have to explain the existence of systematicity or systematic relations in language cognition without the assumption that cognitive processes are causally sensitive to the classical constituent structure of mental representations. The subsymbolic paradigm, or connectionism in general, would thus have to explain the existence of systematicity and compositionality without relying on the mere implementation of a classical cognitive architecture. This challenge implies a dilemma: If the Subsymbolic Paradigm could contribute nothing to the systematicity and compositionality of mental representations, it would be insufficient as a basis for an alternative theory of cognition. However, if the Subsymbolic Paradigm's contribution to systematicity requires mental processes grounded in the classical constituent structure of mental representations, the theory of cognition it develops would be, at best, an implementation architecture of the classical model of symbol theory and thus not a genuine alternative (connectionist) theory of cognition. The classical model of symbolism is characterized by (1) a combinatorial syntax and semantics of mental representations and (2) mental operations as structure-sensitive processes, based on the fundamental principle of syntactic and semantic constituent structure of mental representations as used in Fodor's "Language of Thought (LOT)". This can be used to explain the following closely related properties of human cognition, namely its (1) productivity, (2) systematicity, (3) compositionality, and (4) inferential coherence.

This challenge has been met in modern connectionism, for example, not only by Smolensky's "Integrated Connectionist/Symbolic (ICS) Cognitive Architecture", but also by Werning and Maye's "Oscillatory Networks". An overview of this is given for example by Bechtel & Abrahamsen, Marcus and Maurer.

title: Connectionism


text:
Orlando International Airport

Orlando International Airport is the primary international airport located 6 miles southeast of Downtown Orlando, Florida. In 2021, it had 19,618,838 enplanements, making it the busiest airport in the state and seventh busiest airport in the United States. The airport code MCO stands for the airport's former name, McCoy Air Force Base, a Strategic Air Command (SAC) installation, that was closed in 1975 as part of a general military drawdown following the end of the Vietnam War.

The airport serves as an hub for Silver Airways, an operating base for Avelo Airlines, Breeze Airways, Frontier Airlines, Southwest Airlines and Spirit Airlines, as well as a focus city for JetBlue. Southwest is the airport's largest carrier by passengers carried. The airport is also a major international gateway for the Florida region, with over 850 daily flights on 44 airlines. The airport also serves 135 domestic and international destinations. At 11,605 acres, MCO is one of the largest commercial airports in terms of land area in the United States. In addition, the airport is home to a maintenance base for United Airlines. The airport was also a hub for Delta Air Lines until 2007.

Military years

The airfield was originally constructed as a U.S. Army Air Forces facility and military operations began in 1942 as Orlando Army Air Field #2, an auxiliary airfield to Orlando Army Air Base, now known as Orlando Executive Airport. Orlando Army Air Field #2 was renamed Pinecastle Army Airfield in January 1943. At the end of World War II, Pinecastle was briefly used for unpowered glide tests of the Bell X-1 from B-29 aircraft before the program moved to Muroc Army Airfield in California– now Edwards AFB – for the world's first supersonic flight. With the establishment of an independent U.S. Air Force in 1947, the airfield was briefly placed in caretaker status, until being reactivated during the Korean War as a Strategic Air Command (SAC) facility for B-47 Stratojets and KC-97 Stratofreighters and renamed Pinecastle AFB.

In the 1950s, the base began hosting SAC's annual Bombing and Navigation Competition. A B-47 Stratojet crashed during the 1958 competition, killing Colonel Michael Norman Wright McCoy, commander of the 321st Bombardment Wing, which was the host wing for Pinecastle AFB. The following year the base was renamed for McCoy. The base later was home to the 306th Bombardment Wing operating the B-52 Stratofortress and the KC-135 Stratotanker. It was also used by EC-121 Warning Star early warning aircraft of the 966th Airborne Early Warning and Control Squadron, a tenant unit at McCoy assigned to the Aerospace Defense Command.

During the Cuban Missile Crisis in October 1962, McCoy AFB became a temporary forward operating base for more than 120 F-100 Super Sabre and F-105 Thunderchief fighter bombers and the primary base for U-2 reconnaissance aircraft flying over Cuba. One of these U-2s was shot down by Soviet-operated SA-2 Guideline surface-to-air missiles near Banes, Cuba. Its pilot, Major Rudolf Anderson Jr., USAF, was the crisis' only combat death. Following the crisis, McCoy AFB hosted a permanent U-2 operating detachment of the 100th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing until 1973.

McCoy AFB was identified for closure in early 1973 as part of a post-Vietnam reduction in force. The following year, McCoy's 306th Bombardment Wing was inactivated, its B-52D Stratofortress and KC-135A Stratotanker aircraft reassigned to other SAC units and most of the McCoy AFB facility turned over to the city of Orlando by the General Services Administration (GSA) in late 1974 and early and mid 1975. USAF responsibility for the airfield's air traffic control tower was turned over to the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and the airport established its own crash, fire and rescue department, initially utilizing equipment transferred by the GSA.

Civil-military years
In the early 1960s, when jet airline flights came to Orlando, the installation became a joint civil-military facility.

Early jetliners such as the Boeing 707, Boeing 720, Douglas DC-8 and Convair 880 required longer and sturdier runways than the ones at Herndon Airport (now Orlando Executive Airport). Nearby lakes and commercial and residential development made expansion impractical, so an agreement was reached between the City of Orlando and the United States Air Force in 1962 to use McCoy AFB under a joint arrangement. The military offered a large AGM-28 Hound Dog missile maintenance hangar and its associated flight line ramp area in the northeast corner of the field for conversion into a civil air terminal. The city would then cover the cost of building a replacement missile maintenance hangar on the main base's western flight line. The new civil facility would be known as the Orlando Jetport at McCoy and would operate alongside McCoy AFB. This agreement became a model for other joint civil-military airports in operation today.

Airline flights to the Orlando Jetport began shortly after an agreement was signed by the city and USAF in October 1961. Over the next few years airline flights shifted from the old Herndon Airport (renamed in 1982 as the Orlando Executive Airport). In 1971 scheduled airlines were Delta Air Lines, Eastern Air Lines, National Airlines and Southern Airways. As the years progressed many other airlines have also begun to offer regularly scheduled flights to Orlando Executive Airport, including Spirit Airlines, Copa Air, LATAM Airlines and many more.

The 1971 opening of the Magic Kingdom at Walt Disney World led to a significant increase in air travel as Orlando became a major tourist destination. For much of the 1970s, Shawnee Airlines would directly link MCO with Walt Disney World using de Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter commuter aircraft. These connecting flights flew from MCO to the Walt Disney World STOL Airport, a small, short-lived airfield near the Magic Kingdom's parking lot. Deregulation of the airline industry in 1978 also contributed to increases in air service to Orlando.

When McCoy AFB closed in 1975, part of the facility stayed under military control to support Naval Training Center Orlando and several tenant commands.

There are only a few enclaves on the original McCoy AFB site that the military still uses such as the 164th Air Defense Artillery Brigade from the Florida Army National Guard in the former McCoy AFB Officers Club complex, an Army Reserve intelligence unit in the former SAC Alert Facility, the 1st Lieutenant David R. Wilson Armed Forces Reserve Center supporting multiple units of the Army Reserve, Navy Reserve and Marine Corps Reserve that was constructed in 2002, and a large Navy Exchange for active, reserve and retired military personnel and their dependents.

Civil years
In 1975, the final Air Force contingent departed McCoy AFB and the Greater Orlando Aviation Authority (GOAA) was established as a state-chartered local governmental agency and an enterprise fund of the city of Orlando. GOAA's mission was to operate, manage and oversee construction of expansions and improvements to both the Orlando International Airport and the Orlando Executive Airport. The airport gained its current name and international airport status a year later in 1976, but retained its old IATA airport code MCO and ICAO airport code KMCO.

The airport became a U.S. Customs Service Foreign Trade Zone (FTZ) in 1978, said zone being designated as FTZ #42. In 1979, the facility was also designated as a large hub airport by the FAA based on flight operations and passenger traffic.

In 1978, construction of the current Landside Terminal and two Airsides on the west side of the terminal (known today as Airsides 1 and 3) began, opening in 1981. In 1983 a small chapel was opened memorializing Michael Galvin who died during the construction of the airport's expansion. The original International Concourse was housed in Airside 1 and opened in 1984. Funding to commence developing the east side of the airport was bonded in 1986, with Runway 17/35 (now 17R/35L) completed in 1989. Airside 4 opened in 1990 and also contains an International Concourse for the processing of international flights. Airside 2, which filled out what will become known as the North Terminal complex, was completed in 2000, with the last additional gates added in 2006. Runway 17L/35R was opened in 2003, providing the airport with a total of four runways.

In 1978, the airport handled 5 million passengers. By 2018, that number had risen to 47 million. Today it covers 47 square kilometers (18.1 sq mi) and is the fifth-largest airport in the United States by land area after Denver International Airport which covers 136 square kilometers (52.4 sq mi), Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport which covers 70 square kilometers (26.9 sq mi), Southwest Florida International Airport which covers 55 square kilometers (21.2 sq mi), and Washington Dulles International Airport which covers 53 square kilometers (20.3 sq mi). MCO has North America's fourth tallest control tower at 345 feet, replacing two earlier Air Force and FAA control towers.

Orlando was a designated Space Shuttle emergency landing site. The west-side runways, Runway 18L/36R and Runway 18R/36L, were designed for B-52 Stratofortress bombers and due to their proximity to NASA's John F. Kennedy Space Center, were an obvious choice for an emergency landing should an emergency return to launch site (RTLS) attempt to land at KSC have fallen short. The runway was also an emergency divert site for NASA's Boeing 747 Shuttle Transport Aircraft when relocating orbiters from either west coast modification work or divert recoveries at Edwards AFB, California or the White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico.

Eastern Air Lines used Orlando as a focus city during the 1970s and early 1980s, and became "the official airline of Walt Disney World." Following Eastern's demise, Delta Air Lines assumed this role.

Delta Air Lines began operating a hub at MCO in 1987. Airside 4, which opened in 1990, was primarily designed for Delta's hub operation and it included a ramp tower, an international arrivals facility, and a wing for regional aircraft under the people mover guideway. Delta would later pull much of its large aircraft from its hub operations and focused its service there on regional flights via their Delta Connection affiliate Comair. Comair operated intra-Florida flights as well as flights to other southeastern cities and to the Caribbean. In 2002, Chautauqua Airlines replaced Comair as the primary Delta Connection carrier at MCO. Delta closed the Orlando hub entirely in 2007.

Orlando-based AirTran Airways also operated a hub at MCO from 1993 to 2014. After Delta closed their hub in 2007, AirTran relocated their hub to Airside 4, using some of Delta's former gates which allowed them to double their capacity. AirTran merged with Southwest Airlines in 2014, which is today the busiest carrier at MCO.

Saudi Arabian Airlines began service to Orlando in 1994. Its seasonal flights to Jeddah proved popular among Saudi tourists. Bookings declined after the September 11 attacks, however, so Saudi Arabian terminated the link.

On February 22, 2005, the airport became the first airport in Florida to accept E-Pass and SunPass toll transponders as a form of payment for parking. The system allows drivers to enter and exit a parking garage without pulling a ticket or stopping to pay the parking fee. The two toll roads that serve the airport, SR 528 (Beachline Expressway) and SR 417 (Central Florida GreeneWay), use these systems for automatic toll collection.

The original terminal building, a converted hangar, was described as inadequate for the task at hand even when it was first opened as Orlando Jetport. After its closure in 1981, it passed through several tenants, the last of which was UPS. It was demolished in May 2006.

On February 1, 2010, Allegiant Air began operations at the airport. The company moved one half of its Orlando Sanford International Airport (SFB) schedule to Orlando to test revenue at the higher cost airport. After evaluating the routes out of Orlando, the carrier decided to consolidate and return its Orlando area operations to Sanford citing an inability to achieve a fare premium at Orlando as anticipated, passenger preference for Orlando Sanford International Airport, higher costs at Orlando than expected and a more efficient operating environment at Sanford.

In March 2015, Emirates announced that they would begin daily service to the airport from Dubai International Airport beginning September 1, 2015. The airport had tried to attract Emirates for five years before the service was announced. Orlando International was the first airport in Florida served by Emirates. The airline expects three major markets for the flights: leisure and corporate travelers along with locals of Asian heritage traveling to Asia, which is well-served by the airline. Greater Orlando Aviation Association Chair Frank Kruppenbacher called the new service "without question the biggest, most significant move forward for our airport" and estimates that the local economic impact of the new service will be up to $100 million annually. The inaugural flight was made with an Airbus A380. Regularly scheduled flights operate with Boeing 777-300ERs. Gate 90 was updated in the summer of 2018 with 3 jetways to be able to properly handle the A380, 3 years after the airplane first arrived at Orlando, docking at Gate 84.

In May 2016, the airport launched its own radio station, FlyMCO 105.1 HD2, a subchannel of WOMX-FM. FlyMCO 105.1 HD2 provides access to airport information, local weather, and music. In 2017, the airport reached 44.6 million passengers, surpassing Miami International Airport to become the busiest airport in the state of Florida.

The Orlando International Airport Intermodal Terminal, which was partially funded by the Florida Department of Transportation, opened in November 2017 and is connected to the Terminal A/B complex by an automated people mover (APM) line. The $684 million station is directly connected to Terminal 3, a new 2,500 space parking garage, and the Orlando station for the Brightline higher speed regional rail service to South Florida. The station reused some of the plans of the Orlando Airport station of the now defunct Florida High Speed Rail project. Phase 1 of the South Terminal Complex includes the new Parking Garage C, the Rail Station, and the 20 gate Terminal C. Phase 1 officially opened in September 2022, adding several new and old airlines to MCO's new terminal.

Future
The airport is currently building a new terminal south of the North Terminal A/B complex. In May 2015, the Board of the Greater Orlando Aviation Authority (GOAA) voted unanimously to approve construction of the $1.8 billion South Terminal Complex. The South Terminal Complex will be built adjacent to the Orlando International Airport Intermodal Terminal, which was completed in late 2017 and is connected to the existing terminal by a Automated People Mover (APM) line. At full buildout, the South Terminal Complex will have 120 new gates between two terminals, C and D.

Phase I (which will be known as "Terminal C") of South Terminal Complex will encompass approximately 300 acre and will include new aircraft taxiways and aprons, a 2.7 e6sqft terminal building with 20 gates. Construction of Terminal C began in 2017, and it was opened on September 19, 2022. Terminal D will start construction when the airport reaches 70 million passengers annually. The final estimated capacity of the airport is set at 100 million passengers annually when completed.

The Orlando International Airport Intermodal Terminal was built to accommodate an extension of the SunRail commuter rail service. The route to the current SunRail line would travel along an Orlando Utilities Commission rail spur, before either branching off to the intermodal station, or have an intermediate transfer point on to light rail to complete the journey to this station.

Multiple options are being considered for a link to International Drive, either with elevated maglev train system, connecting the airport to the Orange County Convention Center, the Florida Mall, and the Sand Lake Road SunRail station, or a light rail link running along a similar route as the maglev alternative between the airport and International Drive.

Terminals
Orlando International Airport has 3 terminals. The North Terminal Complex consists of a large main terminal building divided into north and south sides, and four airside concourses accessible with elevated people movers, with a total of 93 gates.

 * Terminal A consists of the northern half of the main terminal, with tramway systems to Airside 1 (Gates 1–29) and Airside 2 (Gates 100–129).
 * Terminal B consists of the southern half of the main terminal, with tramway systems to Airside 3 (Gates 30–59), Airside 4 (Gates 70–99) and Terminal C.
 * Terminal C, also known as the South Terminal Complex contains gates 230–245 with a pre-security tramway connecting to Terminals A & B. Terminal C accommodates international flights by non-US airlines as well as all JetBlue flights. The terminal is also connected to the Intermodal Terminal by an elevated enclosed walkway and a shared parking garage.

Hotel
The airport features an on-site Hyatt Regency hotel within the main terminal structure. The hotel is located on the east side of the Terminal A/B complex with a fourth floor lobby level and guest rooms beginning on level five and above. The airport features an expansive lobby area for guests awaiting flights, convention space, several bars, and two restaurants including a signature restaurant on the top level of the terminal building overlooking the airport facility and runways below.

Interfaith Chapel
In 1981, an interfaith chapel was constructed behind the security for Gates 1-59. Prior to 2019, the chapel held religious services, but this moved to a nearby hotel because of an uptick in religious violence.

title: Orlando International Airport


text:
Memphis International Airport

Memphis International Airport is a civil-military airport located 7 mi southeast of Downtown Memphis in Shelby County, Tennessee, United States. It is the primary international airport serving Memphis. It covers 3900 acre and has four runways.

It is home to the FedEx Express global hub, often referred to as the FedEx Superhub or simply the Superhub, which processes many of the company's packages. Nonstop FedEx destinations from Memphis include cities across the continental United States, Canada, Europe, the Middle East, Asia, and South America.

From 1993 to 2009, Memphis International had the largest cargo operations of any airport worldwide. It dropped to the second position in 2010, just behind Hong Kong. It still remained the busiest cargo airport in the United States and in the Western Hemisphere, until 2020, when it once again became the world's busiest cargo handling airport due to the surge in ecommerce partly caused by the COVID-19 pandemic.

The airport averages over 80 passenger flights per day. The 164th Airlift Wing of the Tennessee Air National Guard is based at the co-located Memphis Air National Guard Base, operating C-17 Globemaster III transport aircraft.

History
Memphis Municipal Airport, dedicated in 1929, opened on a 200 acre plot of farmland just over 7 mi from downtown Memphis. In its early years the airport had three hangars and an unpaved runway; passenger and air mail service was provided by American Airlines and Chicago and Southern Air Lines (acquired by Delta Air Lines in 1953). A modern terminal was built in 1938 to meet the demands for increased commercial passenger service. In 1939 Eastern Air Lines arrived; that March, Eastern had one departure a day to Muscle Shoals and beyond, American had four east/west and C&S had four north/south.

During World War II the United States Army Air Forces Air Transport Command 4th Ferrying Group used Memphis while sending new aircraft overseas. In April 1951 the runways were 6000-ft 2/20, 6530-ft 9/27, 4370-ft 14/32 and 4950-ft 17/35; the airport was all north of Winchester Road during the 1950s.

The April 1957 OAG shows 64 weekday departures: 25 on Delta, 18 American, 7 Southern, 5 Eastern, 4 Braniff, 3 Trans-Texas and 2 Capital. American DC-6s flew nonstop to Washington and New York, but westward nonstops did not reach beyond Fort Worth and Kansas City until American started Los Angeles in 1964. The first scheduled jets were Delta 880s ORD-MEM-MSY and back, starting in July–August 1960.

The current terminal was designed by Mann & Harrover and cost $6.5 million. It opened on June 7, 1963, and Memphis Municipal changed its name to Memphis International in 1969. In 1985–86 Republic Airlines began flights to Mexico. The terminal was expanded for $31.6 million in 1974, adding two new concourses and extending the others, which were designed by Roy P. Harrover & Associates.

Hub status
Southern Airways was an important regional carrier at Memphis in the 1960s; it merged into Republic Airlines in 1979 as the first large merger after the passage of the Airline Deregulation Act. With the dismantling of the Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB) flight approval requirements, airlines began developing around a large hub model as opposed to the former point-to-point networks that were common before deregulation. Republic established Memphis as a hub operation in 1985 before merging into Northwest Airlines in 1986. Northwest operated around 300 daily flights at the peak of the hub, including international flights to Canada, Mexico, and the Caribbean. KLM, a partner of Northwest, launched a flight to Amsterdam Airport Schiphol in June 1995. This was Memphis's first transatlantic passenger service. The airline used McDonnell Douglas MD-11 on the route. In preparation for the flight, the airport had constructed a customs facility that cost $12.6 million. In 2003, Northwest began flying the route instead, initially with a McDonnell Douglas DC-10-30, and later with an Airbus A330. In 2007 Northwest considered launching a nonstop flight to Narita International Airport in Tokyo, Japan in 2009 after the Boeing 787 Dreamliner was delivered. This would have been Memphis's first transpacific passenger service.

Federal Express (now FedEx Express) began operations in Memphis in 1973. It opened its current "SuperHub" facility on the north side of the airport in 1981, and maintains a large presence to the present day.

Northwest was acquired by Delta Air Lines (which operates a large hub in Atlanta) in 2008, and Delta continued operating at Memphis as a hub, flying as many as 200 flights per day in 2009. However, the carrier discontinued the Amsterdam link in September 2012 due to high fuel prices, diminished passenger numbers, and economic challenges. Delta continued to scale back its operations at Memphis before closing the hub in 2013. Passenger traffic at the airport declined for the next several years until it bottomed out at 3.5 million in 2015.

Recent years
In 2014, the Memphis–Shelby County Airport Authority announced a planned $114 million renovation of the airport. This renovation included demolishing the largely vacant south ends of Concourses A and C, mothballing the remaining portions and widening and modernizing the larger Concourse B. The renovation, which was expected to start in late 2015 and end around 2020, would have left the airport with about 60 gates.

The initial project was only partly completed, with the south end of Concourse A demolished. Memphis officials decided to rethink the plans; several aspects of the project changed. The plan had called for renovating and widening Concourse B, the updated plan included a full redesign of most of the concourse. Concourse B was closed during construction, and airlines and tenants moved to Concourses A and C during that time. The southwest leg of Concourse B will be updated in a future phase, and will only be utilized in the near term for passengers from inbound international flights. The modernization began in September 2018 and was completed in February 2022.

In November 2022, Memphis opened its new $309 million consolidated de-icing facility located at the southern edge of the airport. It has capacity for 12 wide-body planes and included the construction of two new taxiway bridges and a control tower.

In 2023, the south end of Concourse C was demolished.

In October 2022, the Airport Authority revealed their revised master plan, including expansion of the landside portion of the terminal, expanding space for parking and car rentals, and runway expansions. Terminal construction will begin in summer of 2024.

Terminal
Memphis International Airport has three concourses (A,B,C) within a single terminal. Concourse B is the only active concourse with 23 gates. All non pre–cleared international flights are processed on the southwestern leg of the concourse.

Ground transportation
Memphis International Airport's passenger terminal can be accessed from Interstate 240 at exit 23B via Plough Blvd and Jim McGehee Pkwy. It can also be accessed via Winchester Rd.

MATA Bus #28 offers connections to the Hudson and Airways transit centers.

The Ground Transportation Center, completed in February 2013, contains the airport's economy parking and parking for all car rental companies.

Accidents and incidents

 * On August 12, 1944, a USAAF Douglas C-47 caught fire after takeoff after one of the propeller blades cut through the fuselage, causing a fire on the runway. All except the captain got out safely.
 * On December 17, 1944, a USAAF Douglas C-47 drifted to the right after takeoff, stalled and hit a brick storehouse. Three out of the six on board died.
 * On January 13, 1963, a Douglas DC-7 operated by the USAF struck a USAF Fairchild C-123 Provider taxiing at night. The pilot of the DC-7 was killed, and the Provider was destroyed after catching fire.
 * On May 18, 1978, a Dassault Falcon 20 C operated by Flight Safety International collided with a Cessna 150 3.8 miles west of MEM, all four occupants on the Falcon and two aboard the Cessna died as both aircraft crashed.
 * On August 11, 1984, Douglas C-47 N70003 of Aviation Enterprises crashed shortly after takeoff from Memphis International Airport on a domestic nonscheduled passenger flight to O'Hare International Airport, Chicago. All three people on board died. A missing spark plug on the port engine caused a loss of power. Maintenance involving the removal of the spark plugs had been performed the previous day.
 * On October 8, 1987, a Volpar Turboliner II operated by Connie Kalitta Services crashed while attempting to return to MEM due to an attached tail stand. The aircraft was overweight and the cg (Center of Gravity) was three inches forward of the limit. The sole occupant died.
 * On April 7, 1994, Federal Express Flight 705 bound for San Jose, California, experienced an attempted hijacking shortly after takeoff. FedEx employee Auburn Calloway tried to hijack the plane in order to crash it into the FedEx hub at Memphis International, in a Kamikaze-style attack. The crew—although seriously injured—fought him off and returned to Memphis, where police and emergency crews subdued him.
 * On October 15, 2002, a Northwest Airlines Avro RJ 85 collided with the jetway at gate C2 while taxiing for a maintenance check. The mechanics were unable to slow the aircraft down in time. Due to their error, the aircraft suffered minor damage, but the number one engine was ripped almost entirely off, and the jetway. The aircraft was eventually torn apart and set in a field near the airport.
 * On December 18, 2003, FedEx Express Flight 647 veered off the runway after the landing gear collapsed upon landing. The flight had departed Oakland International Airport (OAK) earlier that day. The aircraft was immediately engulfed in flames. All five crew members escaped by exiting via the cockpit window.
 * On July 28, 2006, FedEx Flight 630's landing gear collapsed upon landing at Memphis International Airport after a flight from Seattle–Tacoma International Airport. After coming to a stop, the plane caught fire, engulfing the left wing and engine. While the three crew members sustained injuries, they all survived. The aircraft was written off.

title: Memphis International Airport