text:
Be Inc.

Be Inc. was an American computer company that created and developed the BeOS and BeIA operating systems, and the BeBox personal computer. It was founded in 1990 by former Apple Computer executive Jean-Louis Gassée, who also served as the company's CEO, and was based in Menlo Park, California.

The company's main intent was to develop a new operating system using the C++ programming language on a proprietary hardware platform; although the result received a mainly positive reception, it had little commercial success. BeOS was initially exclusive to the BeBox before being ported to the Power Macintosh and then to the Intel x86 architecture. After a stint in Internet appliances with BeIA, Be's assets were purchased by Palm, Inc. in 2001.

History
Be was founded by former Apple Computer executive Jean-Louis Gassée in 1990 with Steve Sakoman (with capital from Seymour Cray) after being ousted by Apple CEO John Sculley. Legend says that they started building a prototype computer the day after Gassée left Apple Computer, on October 1, 1990. Soon joined also Erich Ringewald, lead engineer in Apple 'Pink' OS team, as CTO, and joined by a number of other ex-Apple Computer employees. Originally named Be Labs based in San Jose,  Gassée and his team worked behind closed doors for over four years before publicly revealing their product.

According to several sources including Macworld UK, the company name "Be" originated in a conversation between Gassée and Sakoman. Gassée originally thought the company should be called "United Technoids Inc.", but Sakoman disagreed and said he would start looking through the dictionary for a better name. A few days later, when Gassée asked if he had made any progress, Sakoman replied that he had got tired and stopped at "B." Gassée said, " 'Be' is nice. End of story." Its original slogan was One processor per person is not enough.

The prototype computer evolved into having five AT&T Hobbit processors. By about 1992, Be had started developing a kernel and interface for the hardware, what would eventually become the BeOS. By 1994 the project was nearing completion, but the sudden discontinuation of Hobbit (AT&T exited the processor business due to weak sales) forced Be to look elsewhere. Eventually, the company adopted the PowerPC platform, and ported the then-yet unreleased BeOS to PowerPC.

BeBox and BeOS
In October 1995, the BeBox personal computer was released by Be, with its distinctive strips of lights along the front that indicate the activity of each PowerPC CPU, and the combined analogue/digital, 37-pin GeekPort. Due to its impressive power and showcase of multimedia applications, the BeBox received much attention at launch, especially by fans and enthusiasts of Amiga. The company's financial state was not very good after years of development, but in April 1996 managed to secure funding from "several leading Silicon Valley venture capital firms".

Toward the end of 1996, Apple Computer was still looking for a replacement to Copland in their operating system strategy. Amidst rumours of Apple's interest in purchasing BeOS, Be wanted to increase their user base, to try to convince software developers to write software for the operating system. Be courted Macintosh clone vendors to ship BeOS with their hardware, and Power Computing became a licensee in November 1996. Eventually, the two final options for Apple were BeOS and NeXTSTEP - NeXT was chosen and acquired due to the persuasive influence of Steve Jobs and the incomplete state of the BeOS product, criticized at the time for lacking such features as printing capability. It was rumoured that the deal fell apart because of money, with Be Inc allegedly wanting US$500M and a high-level post in the company, when the NeXT deal closed at US$400M. The rumours were dismissed by Gassée.

After BeBox
By the start of 1997, a combination of hardware and financial problems led to the discontinuation of BeBox and the company's exit from hardware to focus on software. The BeOS software started appearing on some Macintosh clones and was also later to Apple Computer's Power Macs despite resistance from Apple, due to the hardware specifications assistance of Power Computing. In 1998, Be acquired StarCode Software which developed the PackageBuilder and SoftwareValet software distribution tool for BeOS. The company also secured new funding, including from Intel which took a 10 percent stake (soon after BeOS was ported to Intel x86 platform). At the same time, the company received its first major partner manufacturer, Hitachi, to bundle BeOS on some of its products.

In July 1999, Be Inc. had an initial public offering, listed on Nasdaq. However the company continued to struggle with adoption, partly due to the agreements of most OEMs with Microsoft preventing the offering of BeOS. An anticipated deal with a "major OEM" later in 1999 did not materialize and led to a decline in its stock.

Change of focus
The company introduced the BeIA operating system in February 2000 with a declaration that Be Inc. will shift its focus to Internet appliances. Version 5 of BeOS was given away for free as a download, as BeOS could not take off in the market. At the event, Compaq and Hitachi announced that they would release devices running on BeIA.

Be managed to partner with consumer electronics giant Sony which adopted BeIA for its eVilla home internet appliance, unveiled at CES 2001. Be Inc.'s stock however had by 2001 declined sharply and there were reports that it would soon run out of cash.

Dissolution and litigation
Be, Inc. announced on August 16, 2001 that Palm, Inc. will acquire the company for a sum of US$11 million. The deal was approved by Be's shareholders on November 13, at which point the company entered dissolution. CEO Gassée went to serve on the board of directors of Palm. Palm was not interested in the desktop operating system market; Palm subsequently spun off a wholly owned subsidiary PalmSource to develop its Palm OS and related software, with the Be assets being transferred to PalmSource. It likely used some BeOS code in Palm OS 6. PalmSource (and hence the rights of BeOS) was subsequently acquired by Japanese-based ACCESS.

The Be company (while under dissolution) initiated litigation against Microsoft for aggressively anti-competitive and monopolistic business practices. Joining a long history of antitrust lawsuits against Microsoft, Be specifically contested Microsoft's prohibition of OEMs to allow dual-boot systems containing both Microsoft and non-Microsoft operating systems, and that Compaq had been pressured not to market an Internet appliance in partnership with Be. Be also claimed that Microsoft acted to artificially depress Be Inc.'s initial public offering (IPO). The suit was settled out of court in September 2003 with a US$23.25 million payout to Be, Inc.

Legacy
After Palm's acquisition of Be's assets, The Register wrote that Be shouldn't be viewed as a failure:

"'The fact that the company survived for ten years - and through such dramatic shifts: taking it from being an independent workstation manufacturer, to an alternative Macintosh software platform, through to being an alternative x86 OS, and finally to being an embedded media appliance platform - without a discernible revenue stream is a testament to its engineering prowess, practicality and foresight. [..] For example, in its pomp Be Inc had only a sixth of the engineers of the Apple Copland project, and still managed to turn out a working operating system... and quite a good one, at that.'"

The open source operating system Haiku resumed BeOS's legacy in the form of a complete reimplementation. Beta 1 of Haiku was released in September 2018. As of then, there is an active development team with nightly releases.

title: Be Inc.


text:
Talk:California Common beer

This reads like an advertisement to me. Karada 18:13 23 Jun 2003 (UTC)

Agreed. I've removed the most aggregious of it, I think. Still, it smacks of having been lifted from a commercial page, possibly with copyright concerns. Bill 18:23 23 Jun 2003 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:California Common beer


text:
Praseodymium

Praseodymium is a chemical element; it has symbol Pr and the atomic number 59. It is the third member of the lanthanide series and is considered one of the rare-earth metals. It is a soft, silvery, malleable and ductile metal, valued for its magnetic, electrical, chemical, and optical properties. It is too reactive to be found in native form, and pure praseodymium metal slowly develops a green oxide coating when exposed to air.

Praseodymium always occurs naturally together with the other rare-earth metals. It is the sixth-most abundant rare-earth element and fourth-most abundant lanthanide, making up 9.1 parts per million of the Earth's crust, an abundance similar to that of boron. In 1841, Swedish chemist Carl Gustav Mosander extracted a rare-earth oxide residue he called didymium from a residue he called "lanthana", in turn separated from cerium salts. In 1885, the Austrian chemist Carl Auer von Welsbach separated didymium into two elements that gave salts of different colours, which he named praseodymium and neodymium. The name praseodymium comes from the Ancient Greek πράσινος (prasinos), meaning 'leek-green', and δίδυμος (didymos) 'twin'.

Like most rare-earth elements, praseodymium most readily forms the +3 oxidation state, which is the only stable state in aqueous solution, although the +4 oxidation state is known in some solid compounds and, uniquely among the lanthanides, the +5 oxidation state is attainable in matrix-isolation conditions. The 0, +1, and +2 oxidation states are rarely found. Aqueous praseodymium ions are yellowish-green, and similarly, praseodymium results in various shades of yellow-green when incorporated into glasses. Many of praseodymium's industrial uses involve its ability to filter yellow light from light sources.

Physical properties
Praseodymium is the third member of the lanthanide series, and a member of the rare-earth metals. In the periodic table, it appears between the lanthanides cerium to its left and neodymium to its right, and above the actinide protactinium. It is a ductile metal with a hardness comparable to that of silver. Praseodymium is calculated to have a very large atomic radius; with a radius of 247 pm, barium, rubidium and caesium are larger. However, observationally, it is usually 185 pm.

Neutral praseodymium's 59 electrons are arranged in the configuration [Xe]4f36s2. Like most other lanthanides, praseodymium usually uses only three electrons as valence electrons, as the remaining 4f electrons are too strongly bound to engage in bonding: this is because the 4f orbitals penetrate the most through the inert xenon core of electrons to the nucleus, followed by 5d and 6s, and this penetration increases with higher ionic charge. Even so, praseodymium can in some compounds lose a fourth valence electron because it is early in the lanthanide series, where the nuclear charge is still low enough and the 4f subshell energy high enough to allow the removal of further valence electrons.

Similarly to the other early lanthanides, praseodymium has a double hexagonal close-packed crystal structure at room temperature, called the alpha phase (α-Pr). At it transforms to a different allotrope that has a body-centered cubic structure (β-Pr), and it melts at.

Praseodymium, like all of the lanthanides, is paramagnetic at room temperature. Unlike some other rare-earth metals, which show antiferromagnetic or ferromagnetic ordering at low temperatures, praseodymium is paramagnetic at all temperatures above 1 K.

Chemical properties
Praseodymium metal tarnishes slowly in air, forming a spalling green oxide layer like iron rust; a centimetre-sized sample of praseodymium metal corrodes completely in about a year. It burns readily at 150 °C to form praseodymium(III,IV) oxide, a nonstoichiometric compound approximating to Pr6O11:
 * 12 Pr + 11 O2 → 2 Pr6O11

This may be reduced to praseodymium(III) oxide (Pr2O3) with hydrogen gas. Praseodymium(IV) oxide, PrO2, is the most oxidised product of the combustion of praseodymium and can be obtained by either reaction of praseodymium metal with pure oxygen at 400 °C and 282 bar or by disproportionation of Pr6O11 in boiling acetic acid. The reactivity of praseodymium conforms to periodic trends, as it is one of the first and thus one of the largest lanthanides. At 1000 °C, many praseodymium oxides with composition PrO2−x exist as disordered, nonstoichiometric phases with 0 < x < 0.25, but at 400–700 °C the oxide defects are instead ordered, creating phases of the general formula PrnO2n−2 with n = 4, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, and ∞. These phases PrOy are sometimes labelled α and β′ (nonstoichiometric), β (y = 1.833), δ (1.818), ε (1.8), ζ (1.778), ι (1.714), θ, and σ.

Praseodymium is an electropositive element and reacts slowly with cold water and quite quickly with hot water to form praseodymium(III) hydroxide:
 * 2 Pr (s) + 6 H2O (l) → 2 Pr(OH)3 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)

Praseodymium metal reacts with all the stable halogens to form trihalides:
 * 2 Pr (s) + 3 F2 (g) → 2 PrF3 (s) [green]
 * 2 Pr (s) + 3 Cl2 (g) → 2 PrCl3 (s) [green]
 * 2 Pr (s) + 3 Br2 (g) → 2 PrBr3 (s) [green]
 * 2 Pr (s) + 3 I2 (g) → 2 PrI3 (s)

The tetrafluoride, PrF4, is also known, and is produced by reacting a mixture of sodium fluoride and praseodymium(III) fluoride with fluorine gas, producing Na2PrF6, following which sodium fluoride is removed from the reaction mixture with liquid hydrogen fluoride. Additionally, praseodymium forms a bronze diiodide; like the diiodides of lanthanum, cerium, and gadolinium, it is a praseodymium(III) electride compound.

Praseodymium dissolves readily in dilute sulfuric acid to form solutions containing the chartreuse Pr3+ ions, which exist as [Pr(H2O)9]3+ complexes:

 * 2 Pr (s) + 3 H2SO4 (aq) → 2 Pr3+ (aq) + 3 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)

Dissolving praseodymium(IV) compounds in water does not result in solutions containing the yellow Pr4+ ions; because of the high positive standard reduction potential of the Pr4+/Pr3+ couple at +3.2 V, these ions are unstable in aqueous solution, oxidising water and being reduced to Pr3+. The value for the Pr3+/Pr couple is −2.35 V. However, in highly basic aqueous media, Pr4+ ions can be generated by oxidation with ozone.

Although praseodymium(V) in the bulk state is unknown, the existence of praseodymium in its +5 oxidation state (with the stable electron configuration of the preceding noble gas xenon) under noble-gas matrix isolation conditions was reported in 2016. The species assigned to the +5 state were identified as [PrO2]+, its O2 and Ar adducts, and PrO2(η2-O2).

Organopraseodymium compounds
Organopraseodymium compounds are very similar to those of the other lanthanides, as they all share an inability to undergo π backbonding. They are thus mostly restricted to the mostly ionic cyclopentadienides (isostructural with those of lanthanum) and the σ-bonded simple alkyls and aryls, some of which may be polymeric. The coordination chemistry of praseodymium is largely that of the large, electropositive Pr3+ ion, and is thus largely similar to those of the other early lanthanides La3+, Ce3+, and Nd3+. For instance, like lanthanum, cerium, and neodymium, praseodymium nitrates form both 4:3 and 1:1 complexes with 18-crown-6, whereas the middle lanthanides from promethium to gadolinium can only form the 4:3 complex and the later lanthanides from terbium to lutetium cannot successfully coordinate to all the ligands. Such praseodymium complexes have high but uncertain coordination numbers and poorly defined stereochemistry, with exceptions resulting from exceptionally bulky ligands such as the tricoordinate [Pr{N(SiMe3)2}3]. There are also a few mixed oxides and fluorides involving praseodymium(IV), but it does not have an appreciable coordination chemistry in this oxidation state like its neighbour cerium. However, the first example of a molecular complex of praseodymium(IV) has recently been reported.

Isotopes
Praseodymium has only one stable and naturally occurring isotope, 141Pr. It is thus a mononuclidic and monoisotopic element, and its standard atomic weight can be determined with high precision as it is a constant of nature. This isotope has 82 neutrons, which is a magic number that confers additional stability. This isotope is produced in stars through the s- and r-processes (slow and rapid neutron capture, respectively). Thirty-eight other radioisotopes have been synthesized. All of these isotopes have half-lives under a day (and most under a minute), with the single exception of 143Pr with a half-life of 13.6 days. Both 143Pr and 141Pr occur as fission products of uranium. The primary decay mode of isotopes lighter than 141Pr is positron emission or electron capture to isotopes of cerium, while that of heavier isotopes is beta decay to isotopes of neodymium.

History

In 1751, the Swedish mineralogist Axel Fredrik Cronstedt discovered a heavy mineral from the mine at Bastnäs, later named cerite. Thirty years later, the fifteen-year-old Wilhelm Hisinger, from the family owning the mine, sent a sample of it to Carl Scheele, who did not find any new elements within. In 1803, after Hisinger had become an ironmaster, he returned to the mineral with Jöns Jacob Berzelius and isolated a new oxide, which they named ceria after the dwarf planet Ceres, which had been discovered two years earlier. Ceria was simultaneously and independently isolated in Germany by Martin Heinrich Klaproth. Between 1839 and 1843, ceria was shown to be a mixture of oxides by the Swedish surgeon and chemist Carl Gustaf Mosander, who lived in the same house as Berzelius; he separated out two other oxides, which he named lanthana and didymia. He partially decomposed a sample of cerium nitrate by roasting it in air and then treating the resulting oxide with dilute nitric acid. The metals that formed these oxides were thus named lanthanum and didymium.

While lanthanum turned out to be a pure element, didymium was not and turned out to be only a mixture of all the stable early lanthanides from praseodymium to europium, as had been suspected by Marc Delafontaine after spectroscopic analysis, though he lacked the time to pursue its separation into its constituents. The heavy pair of samarium and europium were only removed in 1879 by Paul-Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran and it was not until 1885 that Carl Auer von Welsbach separated didymium into praseodymium and neodymium. Von Welsbach confirmed the separation by spectroscopic analysis, but the products were of relatively low purity. Since neodymium was a larger constituent of didymium than praseodymium, it kept the old name with disambiguation, while praseodymium was distinguished by the leek-green colour of its salts (Greek πρασιος, "leek green"). The composite nature of didymium had previously been suggested in 1882 by Bohuslav Brauner, who did not experimentally pursue its separation.

Occurrence and production
Praseodymium is not particularly rare, despite it being in the rare-earth metals, making up 9.2 mg/kg of the Earth's crust. Praseodymium's classification as a rare-earth metal comes from its rarity relative to "common earths" such as lime and magnesia, the few known minerals containing it for which extraction is commercially viable, as well as the length and complexity of extraction. Although not particularly rare, praseodymium is never found as a dominant rare earth in praseodymium-bearing minerals. It is always preceded by cerium and lanthanum and usually also by neodymium.

The Pr3+ ion is similar in size to the early lanthanides of the cerium group (those from lanthanum up to samarium and europium) that immediately follow in the periodic table, and hence it tends to occur along with them in phosphate, silicate and carbonate minerals, such as monazite (MIIIPO4) and bastnäsite (MIIICO3F), where M refers to all the rare-earth metals except scandium and the radioactive promethium (mostly Ce, La, and Y, with somewhat less Nd and Pr). Bastnäsite is usually lacking in thorium and the heavy lanthanides, and the purification of the light lanthanides from it is less involved. The ore, after being crushed and ground, is first treated with hot concentrated sulfuric acid, evolving carbon dioxide, hydrogen fluoride, and silicon tetrafluoride. The product is then dried and leached with water, leaving the early lanthanide ions, including lanthanum, in solution.

The procedure for monazite, which usually contains all the rare earth, as well as thorium, is more involved. Monazite, because of its magnetic properties, can be separated by repeated electromagnetic separation. After separation, it is treated with hot concentrated sulfuric acid to produce water-soluble sulfates of rare earth. The acidic filtrates are partially neutralized with sodium hydroxide to pH 3–4, during which thorium precipitates as hydroxide and is removed. The solution is treated with ammonium oxalate to convert rare earth to their insoluble oxalates, the oxalates are converted to oxides by annealing, and the oxides are dissolved in nitric acid. This last step excludes one of the main components, cerium, whose oxide is insoluble in HNO3. Care must be taken when handling some of the residues as they contain 228Ra, the daughter of 232Th, which is a strong gamma emitter.

Praseodymium may then be separated from the other lanthanides via ion-exchange chromatography, or by using a solvent such as tributyl phosphate where the solubility of Ln3+ increases as the atomic number increases. If ion-exchange chromatography is used, the mixture of lanthanides is loaded into one column of cation-exchange resin and Cu2+ or Zn2+ or Fe3+ is loaded into the other. An aqueous solution of a complexing agent, known as the eluant (usually triammonium edtate), is passed through the columns, and Ln3+ is displaced from the first column and redeposited in a compact band at the top of the column before being re-displaced by. The Gibbs free energy of formation for Ln(edta·H) complexes increases along with the lanthanides by about one quarter from Ce3+ to Lu3+, so that the Ln3+ cations descend the development column in a band and are fractionated repeatedly, eluting from heaviest to lightest. They are then precipitated as their insoluble oxalates, burned to form the oxides, and then reduced to metals.

Applications
Leo Moser (not to be confused with the mathematician of the same name), son of Ludwig Moser, founder of the Moser Glassworks in what is now Karlovy Vary in the Czech Republic, investigated the use of praseodymium in glass coloration in the late 1920s, yielding a yellow-green glass given the name "Prasemit". However, at that time far cheaper colorants could give a similar color, so Prasemit was not popular, few pieces were made, and examples are now extremely rare. Moser also blended praseodymium with neodymium to produce "Heliolite" glass ("Heliolit" in German), which was more widely accepted. The first enduring commercial use of purified praseodymium, which continues today, is in the form of a yellow-orange "Praseodymium Yellow" stain for ceramics, which is a solid solution in the zircon lattice. This stain has no hint of green in it; by contrast, at sufficiently high loadings, praseodymium glass is distinctly green rather than pure yellow.

Like many other lanthanides, praseodymium's shielded f-orbitals allow for long excited state lifetimes and high luminescence yields. Pr3+ as a dopant ion therefore sees many applications in optics and photonics. These include DPSS-lasers, single-mode fiber optical amplifiers, fiber lasers, upconverting nanoparticles as well as activators in red, green, blue, and ultraviolet phosphors. Silicate crystals doped with praseodymium ions have also been used to slow a light pulse down to a few hundred meters per second.

As the lanthanides are so similar, praseodymium can substitute for most other lanthanides without significant loss of function, and indeed many applications such as mischmetal and ferrocerium alloys involve variable mixes of several lanthanides, including small quantities of praseodymium. The following more modern applications involve praseodymium specifically or at least praseodymium in a small subset of the lanthanides:
 * In combination with neodymium, another rare-earth element, praseodymium is used to create high-power magnets notable for their strength and durability. In general, most alloys of the cerium-group rare earths (lanthanum through samarium) with 3d transition metals give extremely stable magnets that are often used in small equipment, such as motors, printers, watches, headphones, loudspeakers, and magnetic storage.
 * Praseodymium–nickel intermetallic (PrNi5) has such a strong magnetocaloric effect that it has allowed scientists to approach within one thousandth of a degree of absolute zero.
 * As an alloying agent with magnesium to create high-strength metals that are used in aircraft engines; yttrium and neodymium are suitable substitutes.
 * Praseodymium is present in the rare-earth mixture whose fluoride forms the core of carbon arc lights, which are used in the motion picture industry for studio lighting and projector lights.
 * Praseodymium compounds give glasses, enamels and ceramics a yellow color.
 * Praseodymium is a component of didymium glass, which is used to make certain types of welder's and glass blower's goggles.
 * Praseodymium oxide in solid solution with ceria or ceria-zirconia has been used as an oxidation catalyst.

Due to its role in permanent magnets used for wind turbines, it has been argued that praseodymium will be one of the main objects of geopolitical competition in a world running on renewable energy. However, this perspective has been criticized for failing to recognize that most wind turbines do not use permanent magnets and for underestimating the power of economic incentives for expanded production.

Biological role and precautions
The early lanthanides have been found to be essential to some methanotrophic bacteria living in volcanic mudpots, such as Methylacidiphilum fumariolicum: lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, and neodymium are about equally effective. Praseodymium is otherwise not known to have a biological role in any other organisms, but it is not very toxic either. Intravenous injection of rare earths into animals has been known to impair liver function, but the main side effects from inhalation of rare-earth oxides in humans come from radioactive thorium and uranium impurities.

title: Praseodymium


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Talk:Lennox Lewis

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Legacy and historical standing section
"Alongside Rocky Marciano and Ingemar Johansson, Lewis is one of three world heavyweight champions to have retired while holding victories over every opponent he faced as a professional." is incorrect. Tunney also beat every opponent. Johansson would make 4 and I think there are others. I prefer the "unavenged" wording.--SaskatchewanSenator (talk) 19:20, 8 July 2017 (UTC)

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Birthplace in the infobox
Throughout his boxing professional career, Lewis identified as British, not English. So, why are we omitting the "United Kingdom" from his birthplace? GoodDay (talk) 17:24, 5 July 2022 (UTC)
 * People born in England are British. There's no need to include UK after England. This is standard practice across BLPs. – 2 . O . Boxing  18:25, 5 July 2022 (UTC)
 * People born in Maryland are American. There's no need to include USA after Maryland. Standard practice should be consistent across all BLPs. GoodDay (talk) 18:28, 5 July 2022 (UTC)
 * That has no relevance to whether the UK should be included here. Check a few random British articles; the vast majority omit UK. I'd call that standard practice – 2 . O . Boxing  18:45, 5 July 2022 (UTC)
 * Yes, I'm aware that the UK gets special treatment in that area. My concern though is about Boxing BLPS. I've no interest in adding the UK to Joe Calzaghe's infobox (even though it should be added), because he identified as Welsh, during his pro career. GoodDay (talk) 19:22, 5 July 2022 (UTC)
 * Boxing BLPs should be no different to other BLPs of people born in England, specifically identifying as British and omitting UK from the birth place. Calzaghe identifying as Welsh is not the reason UK is omitted from his article. Its omitted (like on the vast majority of British BLPs) because it's unnecessary. – 2 . O . Boxing  20:22, 5 July 2022 (UTC)
 * Because the UK still gets special treatment. Nothing new. Anyways, will be waiting for input from others. GoodDay (talk) 22:06, 5 July 2022 (UTC)
 * Special treatment in comparison to where? The US? It's not comparable; it's not a constituent country. If you want a direct comparison: people from Oranjestad (or other parts of Aruba) do not have Oranjestad, Aruba, Kingdom of the Netherlands as their place of birth. But sure, we can wait for other's input. – 2 . O . Boxing  22:28, 5 July 2022 (UTC)
 * England (for example) isn't equal to the United States, India, Canada, Mexico, etc. Its being called a 'country', doesn't make it independent. GoodDay (talk) 22:55, 5 July 2022 (UTC)
 * What has dependency got to do with anything? Calzaghe was born in England and grew up in Wales. Neither are independent, yet you're fine with UK being omitted there. Sorry, but as of yet, your arguments have either been inconsistent or illogical (same shit at WP:BOXING). I'm disengaging from this merry-go-round. You'll have to gain consensus if you want to go against standard practice and start including UK in British articles. – 2 . O . Boxing  08:22, 6 July 2022 (UTC)
 * The UK should be added to all of them, as they're all British. Anyways, I too am done with this. I already know 'how' consensus will go concerning 'standard practice' on this topic at post-1707 British bios GoodDay (talk) 16:12, 6 July 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Lennox Lewis


text:
Black Arrows

The Black Arrows, one of the predecessors to the current Royal Air Force Aerobatic Team the Red Arrows, were an aerobatic demonstration team formed in 1956 by Squadron Leader Roger L.Topp, then Commanding Officer 111 Squadron ("treble-one"). One of the many memorable feats accomplished by the Black Arrows was the execution of a world record loop of 22 Hawker Hunters in formation at the Society of British Aircraft Constructors' show at Farnborough in 1958. This was a world record for the greatest number of aircraft looped in formation, and remains unbroken to this day. After the loop the Black Arrows performed the world's first 16 aircraft barrel roll. Roger Topp handed over the lead of the Black Arrows to Squadron Leader Peter Latham in late 1958. Latham expanded the size of the team to nine aircraft from the original five and led the Squadron for two years.

No. 111 Squadron was formed at RAF North Weald where they received the Hunter before moving to RAF Wattisham in Suffolk. Until 1961, the Black Arrows were the RAF's premier team. In the early years of the 1960s the "Blue Diamonds" of No. 92 Squadron RAF (also flying Hunters), "The Tigers" of No. 74 Squadron RAF, equipped with the new English Electric Lightning, the "Red Pelicans" flying BAC Jet Provosts, and the "Yellowjacks" flying Folland Gnats formed. The large number of squadron display teams later rationalised to a single unit from the Central Flying School.

List of Leaders

 * 1956–1958: Roger Topp
 * 1958–1960: Peter Latham

title: Black Arrows


text:
Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907

The Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907 (日米紳士協約) was an informal agreement between the United States of America and the Empire of Japan whereby Japan would not allow laborers further emigration to the United States and the United States would not impose restrictions on Japanese immigrants already present in the country. The goal was to reduce tensions between the two Pacific nations such as those that followed the Pacific Coast race riots of 1907 and the segregation of Japanese students in public schools. The agreement was not a treaty and so was not voted on by the United States Congress. It was superseded by the Immigration Act of 1924.

Background
Chinese immigration to California boomed during the Gold Rush of 1852, but the Japanese government practiced strict policies of isolation that thwarted Japanese emigration. In 1868, the Japanese government lessened restrictions, and Japanese immigration to the United States began. Anti-Chinese sentiment motivated American entrepreneurs to recruit Japanese laborers.

Most Japanese immigrants wanted to reside in America permanently and came in family groups, in contrast to the Chinese immigrants, most of whom were young men who soon returned to China. Japanese immigrants assimilated to American social norms, such as those on clothing. Many joined Methodist and Presbyterian churches.

As the Japanese population in California grew, they were viewed with suspicion as an entering wedge by Japan. By 1905, Japanese Americans lived not only in Chinatown but throughout San Francisco, while anti-Japanese rhetoric was common in the Chronicle newspaper. In that year, the Japanese and Korean Exclusion League was established to promote four policies:
 * 1) extension of the Chinese Exclusion Act to include Japanese and Koreans,
 * 2) exclusion by League members of Japanese employees and the hiring of firms that employ Japanese,
 * 3) pressuring the School Board to segregate Japanese from white children,
 * 4) a propaganda campaign to inform Congress and the President of the "menace".

Tensions had been rising in San Francisco, and since Japan's decisive victory against Russia in the Russo-Japanese War in 1905, Japan demanded treatment as an equal. The result was a series of six notes communicated between Japan and the United States from late 1907 to early 1908. The immediate cause of the Agreement was anti-Japanese nativism in California. In 1906, the San Francisco Board of Education passed a regulation whereby children of Japanese descent would be required to attend separate, segregated schools. At the time, Japanese immigrants made up approximately 1% of the population of California, many of whom had immigrated under a treaty in 1894 that had assured free immigration from Japan.

In the Agreement, Japan agreed not to issue passports for Japanese citizens wishing to work in the Continental United States, thus effectively eliminating new Japanese immigration to the United States. In exchange, the United States agreed to accept the presence of Japanese immigrants already residing there; to permit the immigration of wives, children, and parents; and to avoid legal discrimination against Japanese American children in California schools. There was also a strong desire on the part of the Japanese government to resist being treated as inferiors. Japan did not want the United States to pass any legislation such as had happened to the Chinese under the Chinese Exclusion Act. US President Theodore Roosevelt, who had a positive opinion of Japan, accepted the Agreement as proposed by Japan to avoid more formal immigration restrictions.

Segregation of schools
At the time, there were 93 Japanese students spread across 23 elementary schools. For decades, policies segregated Japanese schools, but they were not enforced as long as there was room and white parents did not complain. The Japanese and Korean Exclusion League appeared before the school board multiple times to complain. The school board dismissed its claims because it was fiscally infeasible to create new facilities to accommodate only 93 students. After the 1906 fire, the school board sent the 93 Japanese students to the Chinese Primary School and renamed it "The Oriental Public School for Chinese, Japanese, and Koreans." Transportation was limited after the earthquake, and many students could not attend the Oriental Public School.

Many Japanese Americans argued with the school board that the segregation of schools went against the Treaty of 1894, which did not expressly address education but indicated that Japanese in America would receive equal rights. Under the controlling decisions of the United States Supreme Court (Plessy v. Ferguson, 1896), a state did not violate the Equal Protection Clause of the United States Constitution by requiring racial segregation so long as the separate facilities were substantially equal. Tokyo newspapers denounced the segregation as an insult to Japanese pride and honor. The Japanese government wanted to protect its reputation as a world power. Government officials became aware that a crisis was at hand, and intervention was necessary to maintain diplomatic peace.

Federal intervention
President Roosevelt had three objectives to resolve the situation: showing Japan that the policies of California did not reflect the ideals of the entire country, forcing San Francisco to remove the segregation policies, and reaching a resolution to the Japanese immigration problem. Victor Metcalf, Secretary of Commerce and Labor, was sent to investigate the issue and to force the rescission of the policies. He was unsuccessful since local officials wanted Japanese exclusion. Roosevelt tried to pressure the school board, but it would not budge. On February 15, 1907, the parties came to a compromise. If Roosevelt could ensure the suspension of Japanese immigration, the school board would allow Japanese American students to attend public schools. The Japanese government did not want to harm its national pride or to suffer humiliation like the Qing government in 1882 in China from the Chinese Exclusion Act. The Japanese government agreed to stop granting passports to laborers who were trying to enter the United States unless such laborers were coming to occupy a formerly-acquired home; to join a parent, spouse, or child; or to assume active control of a previously acquired farming enterprise.

Concessions were agreed in a note consisting of six points a year later. The agreement was followed by the admission of students of Japanese ancestry into public schools. The adoption of the 1907 Agreement spurred the arrival of "picture brides," marriages of convenience made at a distance through photographs. By establishing marital bonds at a distance, women seeking to emigrate to the United States were able to gain a passport, and Japanese workers in America were able to gain a partner of their own nationality. Because of that provision, which helped close the gender gap within the community from a ratio of 7 men to every woman in 1910 to less than 2 to 1 by 1920, the Japanese American population continued to grow despite the Agreement's limits on immigration. The Gentlemen's Agreement was never written into a law passed by the US Congress, but was an informal agreement between the United States and Japan, enacted via unilateral action by President Roosevelt. It was nullified by the Immigration Act of 1924, which legally banned all Asians from migrating to the United States.

title: Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907


text:
List of governors of Wisconsin

The governor of Wisconsin is the head of government of Wisconsin and the commander-in-chief of the state's army and air forces. The governor has a duty to enforce state laws, and the power to either approve or veto bills passed by the Wisconsin Legislature, to convene the legislature, and to grant pardons, except in cases of treason and impeachment.

44 individuals have held the office of governor of Wisconsin since the state's admission to the Union in 1848, one of whom—Philip La Follette—served non-consecutive terms. Nelson Dewey, the first governor, took office on June 7, 1848. The longest-serving governor was Tommy Thompson, who took office on January 5, 1987, and resigned on February 1, 2001, a total of 14 years and 28 days. Arthur MacArthur Sr. had the shortest term: he was governor for a total of just 5 days—from March 21 to 25, 1856. The current governor is Tony Evers, a Democrat who took office on January 7, 2019.

List of governors
Initially after the American Revolution, parts of the area now known as Wisconsin were claimed by Virginia, Massachusetts and Connecticut; however, Virginia ceded its claim in 1784, Massachusetts in 1785 and Connecticut in 1786. On July 13, 1787, the Northwest Territory, including the area now called Wisconsin, was formed; Wisconsin remained part of the territory until 1800. The territorial governor during this period was Arthur St. Clair. As parts of the Northwest Territory were admitted to the Union as states, Wisconsin became part of first the Indiana Territory (1800–1809), then the Illinois Territory (1809–1818), and then the Michigan Territory (1818–1836); see the lists of governors of Indiana, of Illinois, and of Michigan for these periods.

Wisconsin Territory
Wisconsin Territory was formed on July 3, 1836. During the time of its existence, the Wisconsin Territory had three people appointed governor by the President of the United States, one of whom served non-consecutive terms.

When most of Wisconsin Territory was admitted as the state of Wisconsin, the remainder became unorganized territory. However, the citizens of the region maintained a territorial government, and even elected a delegate to the United States House of Representatives, essentially making it a de facto continuation of Wisconsin Territory. As the region no longer had an official governor, Territorial Secretary John Catlin acted as governor of the region.

State of Wisconsin
Wisconsin was admitted to the Union on May 29, 1848. Since then, it has had 45 governors, one of whom served non-consecutive terms.

Originally, governors of Wisconsin served for two-year terms, but in 1967 the state constitution was amended to change this to four. Jeremiah McLain Rusk served 1 3-year term in the 1880s as the constitution was amended during his first term to move elections from odd to even years, and all officers were allowed to serve an extra year, rather than have their terms cut a year short. Patrick Lucey, elected in the 1970 election, was the first governor to serve a 4-year term. Governors of Wisconsin are not term limited.

The state constitution provides for the election of a lieutenant governor; originally, the governor and lieutenant governor were elected on different tickets, and thus were not necessarily of the same party. Since the 1967 amendment, however, the two have been nominated, and voted on, together. Originally, if the office of the governor was vacant for any reason, "the powers and duties of the office . . . devolve[d] upon the lieutenant governor." In 1979, the constitution was amended to make this more specific: if the governor dies, resigns, or is removed from office, the lieutenant governor becomes governor, but becomes acting governor if the governor is absent from the state, impeached, or unable to carry out of duties. If any of these events occur while the office of lieutenant governor is vacant, the secretary of state becomes either governor or acting governor. Two Wisconsin governors have died while in office, one has died after being elected but before taking office, and four have resigned.

title: List of governors of Wisconsin


text:
Talk:Fanny Cradock

Memory
I removed the phrase that said that Cradock "seemed to be having problems with her memory" when she listed her age on her last marriage certificate as 55 instead of 68. The cited source (http://www.scotsman.com/news/fanny-cradock-1-1139496) doesn't make such a claim. Another explanation could have been that Cradock was simply trying to make herself seem younger than her actual age, as many people (both celebrities and not) have been known to do. --Metropolitan90 (talk) 04:18, 27 April 2016 (UTC)

Telegraph dates
< a column under the pen name of "Bon Viveur"[13] which appeared in The Daily Telegraph from 1950 to 1955 >

but the column was still going strong in the 'seventies; it made frequent references to Chateau Belair 1970!

When did the column finish?

86.148.153.255 (talk) 18:14, 9 December 2017 (UTC)

Works of Fanny Cradock
As people can see, I've split off the various works of Cradock (all books, television appearances etc) and hived them off to a new and separate article. This means that this article can be better developed to cover her life in prose form, without the long lists that break up the texts in several places. I'll be re-working much of the article over the coming few weeks to ensure it actually covers all aspects of her life, rather than focusing on a narrow area. - SchroCat (talk) 07:16, 30 April 2020 (UTC)
 * . Can you explain why you keep putting in the information that is now all at another page - Works of Fanny Cradock? There is no point in having it in two places, particularly when this is incorrect, incomplete, poorly formatted, and unsupported by reliable sources. If you don't wish to discuss, but just keep reverting, or if you keep referring to this as "vandalism", I'm happy to open an RfC for wider community input. - SchroCat (talk) 07:58, 8 May 2020 (UTC)

RfC on the placement of her television appearances
Is it preferable to have a long list of every programme Cradock appeared in (as it appears in this version, or even this version), or is it preferable to have the information separated into Works of Fanny Cradock, along with all her other professional work? – SchroCat (talk) 08:07, 8 May 2020 (UTC)

 * Remove lists and keep them on the Works page As it stands (with this version), readers are left to wade through too much pointless listy dross. it's badly done, poorly sourced, awfully formatted and leaves the reader completely bemused as to what "Score with the Scaffold (28 August 1970)" actually is (much less to they care). I have taken all this out and put it all into Works of Fanny Cradock (properly referenced and formatted), and hoped that would leave the article clear to be re-written with the reader in mind. I have been reverted in my changes, with the steps being referred to as "vandalism" (on several occasions). I have asked the editor concerned, to actually look at what was done, and to comment on the talk page, but further accusations of "vandalism" have made, with no effort to discuss on this page. I am now opening this up to a wider RfC for community comment. - SchroCat (talk) 08:16, 8 May 2020 (UTC)

 * Remove lists and keep them on the Works page. I agree with User:SchroCat that the more concise version is better, with the works moved to their own sub-article. This is what summary style is for.  -- Ssilvers (talk) 09:11, 8 May 2020 (UTC)

 * Remove lists to their own page. This would be compliant with WP:SS and remove an eye-glazingly long list from the text of the main article. As well as respecting WP guidelines like WP:SS we also ought to consider our readers and not just dump a ton of unsorted information, much of it trivial: is a reader likely to be interested in the fact that Cradock once appeared on Larry Grayson's Generation Game or Juke Box Jury? If any one is, he or she can go to the sub-article: if it turns out to get a massive number of hits we might reconsider, but that's for the future. For now, let's be rid of this huge list from the biographical article.  Tim riley  talk   14:12, 8 May 2020 (UTC)

 * Remove lists and keep them on the Works page, even though I generally tend to love pointless listy dross and find it quite intriguing that Cradock once appeared on Larry Grayson's Generation Game! (... Juke Box Jury, not so much) Martinevans123 (talk) 16:00, 8 May 2020 (UTC)

 * Remove lists per WP:INDISCRIMINATE; and report filed at WP:AN/EW 107.190.33.254 (talk) 18:35, 8 May 2020 (UTC)

 * Remove lists per Ssilvers. Ali Ahwazi (talk) 20:03, 11 May 2020 (UTC)

 * Remove lists and keep them on the Works page per SchroCat Idealigic (talk) 20:23, 11 May 2020 (UTC)

Pizza Claim
I notice the claim that she popularised the Pizza in the UK following her book Common Market Cookery: France in 1973. I am a little worried about that claim since Pizza Express opened in 1965 and the mass market Pizzaland opened in 1970. Indeed, the first Pizza restaurants opened in the 30s. Also, I am trying to find her actual recipe. If anyone has the book I would be interested to see it. But I suspect it might be for Pissaladière, which is made with a high-fat pastry rather than a bread dough. Joss (talk) 20:18, 20 September 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Fanny Cradock


text:
Juan Rulfo

Juan Nepomuceno Carlos Pérez Rulfo Vizcaíno, best known as Juan Rulfo (16 May 1917 – 7 January 1986 ), was a Mexican writer, screenwriter, and photographer. He is best known for two literary works, the 1955 novel Pedro Páramo, and the collection of short stories El Llano en llamas (1953). This collection includes the popular tale "¡Diles que no me maten!" ("Tell Them Not to Kill Me!").

Early life
Rulfo was born in 1917 in Apulco, Jalisco (Disputed as being in San Gabriel, Jalisco) Mexico, although he was registered at Sayula, in the home of his paternal grandfather. Rulfo's birth year was often listed as 1918, because he had provided an inaccurate date to get into the military academy that his uncle, David Pérez Rulfo — a colonel working for the government — directed.

After his father was killed in 1923 and his mother died in 1927, Rulfo's grandmother raised him in Guadalajara, Jalisco. Their extended family consisted of landowners whose fortunes were ruined by the Mexican Revolution and the Cristero War of 1926–1928, a Roman Catholic revolt against the persecutions of Christians by the Mexican government, following the Mexican Revolution.

Rulfo was sent to study in the Luis Silva School, where he lived from 1928 to 1932. He completed six years of elementary school and a special seventh year from which he graduated as a bookkeeper, though he never practiced that profession. Rulfo attended a seminary (analogous to a secondary school) from 1932 to 1934, but did not attend a university afterwards, as the University of Guadalajara was closed due to a strike and because Rulfo had not taken preparatory school courses.

Rulfo moved to Mexico City, where he entered the National Military Academy, which he left after three months. He then hoped to study law at the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. In 1936, Rulfo was able to audit courses in literature at the University, because he obtained a job as an immigration file clerk through his uncle.

Career
At the University Rulfo began writing under the tutelage of a coworker, Efrén Hernández. In 1944, Rulfo co-founded the literary journal Pan. Later, he was able to advance in his career and travel throughout Mexico as an immigration agent. In 1946, he started as a foreman for Goodrich-Euzkadi, but his mild temperament led him to prefer working as a wholesale traveling sales agent. This obligated him to travel throughout all of southern Mexico, until he was fired in 1952 for asking for a radio for his company car.

Rulfo obtained a fellowship at the Centro Mexicano de Escritores, supported by the Rockefeller Foundation. There, between 1952 and 1954, he was able to write two books.

The first book was a collection of harshly realistic short stories, El Llano en llamas (1953). The stories centered on life in rural Mexico around the time of the Mexican Revolution and the Cristero War. Among the best-known stories are "¡Diles que no me maten!" ("Tell Them Not To Kill Me!"), a story about an old man, set to be executed, who is captured by order of a colonel, who happens to be the son of a man whom the condemned man had killed about forty years ago, the story contains echoes of the biblical Cain and Abel theme as well as themes critical to the Mexican Revolution such as land rights and land use; and "No oyes ladrar los perros" ("Don't You Hear the Dogs Barking(?)"), about a man carrying his estranged, adult, wounded son on his back to find a doctor.

The second book was Pedro Páramo (1955), a short novel about a man named Juan Preciado who travels to his recently deceased mother's hometown, Comala, to find his father, only to come across a literal ghost town ─ populated, that is, by spectral figures. Initially, the novel met with cool critical reception and sold only two thousand copies during the first four years; later, however, the book became highly acclaimed. Páramo was a key influence for Latin American writers such as Gabriel García Márquez. Pedro Páramo has been translated into more than 30 languages, and the English version has sold more than a million copies in the United States.

The book went through several changes in name. In two letters written in 1947 to his fiancée Clara Aparicio, he refers to the novel he was writing as Una estrella junto a la luna (A Star Next to the Moon), saying that it was causing him some trouble. During the last stages of writing, he wrote in journals that the title would be Los murmullos (The Murmurs). With the assistance of a grant from the Centro Mexicano de Escritores, Rulfo was able to finish the book between 1953 and 1954; it was published in 1955.

In passages of the novel Pedro Páramo, the influence of American novelist William Faulkner is notorious, according to Rulfo's former friend, philologist Antonio Alatorre, in an interview with the latter made by journalists of Mexican newspaper El Universal in November 1998, which was published on 31 October 2010.

Between 1956 and 1958, Rulfo worked on a novella entitled  (The Golden Cockerel), which was not published until 1980. A revised and corrected edition was issued posthumously in 2010. The Fundación Rulfo possesses fragments of two unfinished novels, La cordillera and Ozumacín. Rulfo told interviewer Luis Harss that he had written and destroyed an earlier novel set in Mexico City.

From 1954 to 1957, Rulfo collaborated with "La comisión del rio Papaloapan", a government institution working on socioeconomic development of the settlements along the Papaloapan River. From 1962 until his death in 1986, he worked as editor for the National Institute for Indigenous People.

Personal life
Rulfo married Clara Angelina Aparicio Reyes (Mexico City, 12 August 1928) in Guadalajara, Jalisco, on 24 April 1948; they had four children, Claudia Berenice (Mexico City, 29 January 1949), Juan Francisco (Guadalajara, Jalisco, 13 December 1950), Juan Pablo (México City, 18 April 1955) and Juan Carlos Rulfo (México City, 24 January 1964).

Legacy
Gabriel García Márquez has said that he felt blocked as a novelist after writing his first four books and that it was only his life-changing discovery of Pedro Páramo in 1961 that opened the way to the composition of his masterpiece, One Hundred Years of Solitude. He noted that all of Rulfo's published writing, put together, "add up to no more than 300 pages; but that is almost as many and I believe they are as durable, as the pages that have come down to us from Sophocles".

Jorge Luis Borges considered Pedro Páramo to be one of the greatest texts written in any language.

The Juan Rulfo Foundation, which was established by Rulfo's family after his death, holds more than 6,000 negatives of his photographs. A selection of Rulfo's photographs, accompanied by essays by Carlos Fuentes and others, has been published under the title of Juan Rulfo's Mexico.

Books

 * El llano en llamas (1953). Translated by George D. Schade as The Burning Plain (University of Texas, 1967); Ilan Stavans and Harold Augenbraum as The Plain in Flames (University of Texas, 2012); Stephen Beechinor as El Llano in Flames (Structo, 2019).
 * Pedro Páramo (1955). Translated by Lysander Kemp (Grove Press, 1959); Margaret Sayers Peden (Grove Press, 1994); and Douglas J. Weatherford (2023).
 * El gallo de oro (1980; revised 2010). Translated by Douglas J. Weatherford as The Golden Cockerel & Other Writings (Deep Vellum, 2017).

Spanish

 * Lecturas rulfianas / Milagros Ezquerro, 2006
 * Tríptico para Juan Rulfo: poesía, fotografía, crítica / Víctor Jiménez, 2006
 * La recepción inicial de Pedro Páramo / Jorge Zepeda (Editorial RM-Fundación Juan Rulfo, México, 2005. ISBN 84-933036-7-4)
 * Entre la cruz y la sospecha: los cristeros de Revueltas, Yáñez y Rulfo / Angel Arias Urrutia, 2005
 * Estructura y discurso de género en Pedro Páramo de Juan Rulfo / Alba Sovietina Estrada Cárdenas, 2005
 * Voces de la tierra: la lección de Rulfo / Felipe Garrido, 2004
 * Mito y poesía en la obra de Juan Rulfo / María Luisa Ortega, 2004
 * La ficción de la memoria: Juan Rulfo ante la crítica / Federico Campbell, 2003
 * Juan Rulfo / Nuria Amat, 2003
 * Análisis de Pedro Páramo, Juan Rulfo / César Pérez P, 2003
 * Homenaje a Juan Rulfo / Dante Medina, 2002
 * Perfil de Juan Rulfo / Sergio López Mena, 2001
 * Revisión crítica de la obra de Juan Rulfo / Sergio López Mena, 1998
 * Juan Rulfo / Alberto Vital Díaz, 1998
 * La sociedad en la obra de Juan Rulfo / Magdalena González Casillas, 1998
 * Rulfo en su lumbre: y otros temas latinoamericanos / Jaime Mejía Duque, 1998
 * Juan Rulfo, el eterno: caminos para una interpretación / Anita Arenas Saavedra, 1997
 * Juan Rulfo: la naturaleza hostil / Antonio Aliberti, 1996
 * Recopilación de textos sobre Juan Rulfo / La Habana, Cuba: Centro de Investigaciones Literarias, 1995
 * Los caminos de la creación en Juan Rulfo / Sergio López Mena, 1994
 * Juan Rulfo: la lengua, el tiempo y el espacio / Gustavo C Fares, 1994
 * Juan Rulfo, del Páramo a la esperanza: una lectura crítica de su obra / Yvette Jiménez de Báez, 1994
 * Juan Rulfo y el sur de Jalisco: aspectos de su vida y obra / Wolfgang Vogt, 1994
 * El laberinto y la pena: ensayo sobre la cuentística rulfiana / Rafael José Alfonzo, 1992
 * Imaginar Comala: el espacio en la obra de Juan Rulfo / Gustavo C Fares, 1991
 * Rulfo y el dios de la memoria / Abel Ibarra, 1991
 * Rulfo, dinámica de la violencia / Marta Portal, 1990

Photography

 * Mexico: Juan Rulfo Fotógrafo, 2001: The Spanish language edition of his photographs with essays by the same authors as the volume above, but written in Spanish.
 * Inframundo: El México de Juan Rulfo / 1st ed. 1980, 2nd ed. 1983 / Versions in Spanish and English with essays. Published in 1980/83 by Ediciones del Norte in Hanover, New Hampshire
 * Juan Rulfo: Letras e imágenes, RM, 2002. The book is outlined in: https://web.archive.org/web/20110613163940/http://www.clubcultura.com/clubliteratura/clubescritores/juanrulfo/letrasimagenes01.htm
 * http://www.guiarte.com/noticias/juan-rulfo-fotografo.html
 * http://www.elpais.com/articulo/cultura/ojos/Pedro/Paramo/elpepuint/20070903elpepicul_2/Tes
 * https://web.archive.org/web/20110519065034/http://elangelcaido.org/2005/11/200511jrulfo/200511jrulfoe.html

title: Juan Rulfo


text:
Talk:Black Arrows

Untitled
If you have photos of the Black Arrows of Treble One Squadron, of which I was a member of the ground crew from 1956 to 1959, please contact me by e-mail ockie11137@gmail.com

I am particularly looking for a colour photo of the 22 ship loop at SBAC Farnborough in 1958.

Thanks

Andrew M. Ockenden

23 June 2003

Weird start to second paragraph
Why does the paragraph start with ""It is made for big man"? The Real Walrus (talk) 09:14, 24 December 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Black Arrows


text:
Brian Brett

Brian Brett (April 28, 1950 – January 17, 2024) was a Canadian poet, journalist, editor and novelist. Brett wrote and published extensively, starting in the late 1960s, and he worked as an editor for several publishing firms, including the Governor-General's Award-winning Blackfish Press. He also wrote a three-part memoir of his life in British Columbia.

Early life
Brian Brett was born in British Columbia. He grew up with a rare endocrine disorder, Kallmann syndrome, which prevented his body from entering puberty; he later wrote a memoir about the effect this has had on his life. Brett attended Simon Fraser University between 1969 and 1974, studying literature.

Career
Brett began writing in the 1960s. In the early 1970s, he worked as a freelance journalist and critic for The Globe and Mail, the Toronto Star, the Vancouver Sun, The New Reader, Books in Canada, and the Victoria Times-Colonist. He was a poetry critic and columnist for Vancouver's The Province. He also wrote articles for many other newspapers in Canada, and his essays appeared in many magazines. For ten years he wrote a monthly newspaper column called CultureWatch for the Yukon News.

Brett inaugurated the B.C. Poetry-in-the-Schools program, which for several years introduced students to world poetry. He has presented many writing workshops across Canada.

Brett was a member of P.E.N. International and the Federation of BC Writers, and the Writers' Union of Canada. He embarked on a national reading tour organized by the League of Canadian Poets, of which he was also a member.

Brett gave readings of his work on CBC Radio as well at universities, Harbourfront, Vancouver International Writers Festival, Saltwater Festival, Sechelt Writers' Festival, Wordfest: Banff Calgary International Writers Festival, the Winnipeg International Writers Festival, National Book Festival, and the Canada Council.

In May 2005, Brett became chair of the Writers' Union of Canada.

In 2004 Brett published a book, Uproar's Your Only Music, about his struggles with Kallmann syndrome.

In November 2009, Brett won Canada's Writers' Trust Non-Fiction Prize for Trauma Farm: A Rebel History of Rural Life. The book describes a typical day in the life of his farm, with insight into the natural history of farming.

In 2016, the Writers' Trust of Canada awarded Brett the Matt Cohen Lifetime Award to honour his body of work.

Personal life and death
Brett lived on his farm on Salt Spring Island, British Columbia. He took testosterone to mitigate the effects of Kallmann syndrome, which included pain and osteoporosis. Brett died on January 17, 2024, at the age of 73.

Discography

 * Night Directions for the Lost- The Talking Songs of Brian Brett Tongue & Groove Records - 2003
 * Talking Songs by Scattered Bodies - 2014

Anthologies

 * Poems from Planet Earth, (Poetry), Leaf Press, Winter 2013
 * In The Flesh, Twenty Writers Explore the Body, (Essays) Brindle & Glass, ed. by Lynne Van Luven & Kathy Page, 2011
 * Measure of the Year, (introduction), by Roderick Haig-Brown, Touchwood Editions, 2011
 * The Heart Does Break: Canadian Writers on Grief and Mourning, (Essays) Random House. Ed. By George Bowering and Jean Baird. Random House. 2009
 * Open Wide Wilderness: Canadian Nature Poems, Wilfrid Laurier Press, ed. by Nancy Holmes. 2009
 * A Verse Map of Vancouver ed. By George McWhirter, Anvil Press, 2009.
 * Wild Rivers of the Yukon's Peel Watershed: A Traveller's Guide (Poetry & Prose), Juri Peepre and Sarah Locke, 2008.
 * Writing The West Coast, Ronsdale Press, 2008.
 * Three Rivers: The Yukon's Great Boreal Wilderness Harbour Publishing, 2005.
 * Rendezvous With The Wild Houghton Mifflin, 2004.
 * The Eye In The Thicket (Natural History Essays) Thistledown Books 2002.
 * Mocambo Nights, ed. by Patrick Lane, Ekstasis Editions, 2001.
 * Lost Classics ed. by Ondaatje, Spalding, Redhill (Essays) Anchor Classics, 2001.
 * In The Clear (Fiction & Poetry) Thistledown Books, 1998.
 * What is Already Known (Fiction & Poetry) Thistledown Books, 1995.
 * How I Learned To Speak Dog (Poetry & Prose) Douglas & McIntyre.
 * Witness To Wilderness (Poetry & Prose), Arsenal Pulp Press, 1994.
 * Because You Loved Being A Stranger, (Poems) ed. by Susan Musgrave, Harbour Publishing, 1994.
 * Myths & Voices (Short Stories), White Pine Press, U.S.A.,1993.
 * The Last Map Is The Heart (Short Stories), Thistledown Books, 1989.
 * 15 Years In Exile, Exile, 1992.
 * Vancouver Poetry (Poetry), Polestar Press, 1986.
 * For Rexroth (Poetry), The Ark, 1980.
 * Western Windows (Poetry & Prose), Commcept Publishing Ltd., 1977.
 * A Government Job At Last (Poetry), MacLeod Books, 1977.

title: Brian Brett


text:
Proud

Proud may refer to:

Music

 * Proud (Heather Small album), the debut album by Heather Small
 * "Proud" (Heather Small song), a song by Heather Small that was the official song for the London 2012 Olympic bid
 * Proud: An Urban-Pacific Streetsoul Compilation, a New Zealand hip hop compilation album
 * "Proud" (2 Chainz song), 2018
 * "Proud" (Britannia High song), a 2008 song written for Britannia High and later covered by Susan Boyle
 * "Proud" (JLS song), 2012
 * "Proud" (Key Glock song), 2022
 * "Proud" (Tamara Todevska song), 2019 song that represented North Macedonia in the Eurovision Song Contest 2019
 * "Proud", a song by D-Block Europe from The Blue Print: Us vs. Them
 * "Proud", a song by Korn from Live & Rare
 * "Proud", a song by Rita Ora
 * "Proud", a song by Roger Daltrey from Ride a Rock Horse
 * "Proud", a song by Todrick Hall from Straight Outta Oz

Other uses

 * Proud (surname)
 * Proud (film), a 2004 film dramatizing the story of the African American crew of the USS Mason (DE-529)
 * Proud (play), a 2009 play by John Stanley
 * Proud Island, South Georgia, Atlantic Ocean

title: Proud


text:
Arabic music

Arabic music (الموسيقى العربية) is the music of the Arab world with all its diverse music styles and genres. Arabic countries have many rich and varied styles of music and also many linguistic dialects, with each country and region having their own traditional music.

Arabic music has a long history of interaction with many other regional musical styles and genres. It represents the music of all the peoples that make up the Arab world today.

Pre-Islamic period
Pre-Islamic Arabia was the cradle of many intellectual achievements, including music, musical theory and the development of musical instruments. In Yemen, the main center of pre-Islamic Arab sciences, literature and arts, musicians benefited from the patronage of the Kings of Sabaʾ who encouraged the development of music. For many centuries, the Arabs of Hejaz recognized that the best real Arabian music came from Yemen, and Hadhrami minstrels were considered to be superior. Pre-Islamic Arabian Peninsula music was similar to that of Ancient Middle Eastern music. Most historians agree that there existed distinct forms of music in the Arabian peninsula in the pre-Islamic period between the 5th and 7th century AD. Arab poets of that time—called shu`ara' al-Jahiliyah (Arabic: شعراء الجاهلية) or "Jahili poets", meaning "the poets of the period of ignorance"—used to recite poems with a high notes.

It was believed that Jinns revealed poems to poets and music to musicians. The choir at the time served as a pedagogic facility where the educated poets would recite their poems. Singing was not thought to be the work of these intellectuals and was instead entrusted to women with beautiful voices who would learn how to play some instruments used at that time such as the drum, the lute or the rebab, and perform the songs while respecting the poetic metre. The compositions were simple and every singer would sing in a single maqam. Among the notable songs of the period were the huda (from which the ghina derived), the nasb, sanad, and rukbani.

Early Islamic period
Both compositions and improvisations in traditional Arabic music are based on the maqam system. Maqams can be realized with either vocal or instrumental music, and do not include a rhythmic component.

Al-Kindi (801–873 AD) was a notable early theorist of Arabic music. He joined several others like al-Farabi in proposing the addition of a makeshift fifth string to the oud. He published several tracts on musical theory, including the cosmological connotations of music. He identified twelve tones on the Arabic musical scale, based on the location of fingers on and the strings of the oud.

Abulfaraj (897–967) wrote the Kitab al-Aghani, an encyclopedic collection of poems and songs that runs to over 20 volumes in modern editions.

Al-Farabi (872–950) wrote a notable book on Islamic music titled Kitab al-Musiqa al-Kabir (The Great Book of Music). His pure Arabian tone system is still used in Arabic music.

Al-Ghazali (1059–1111) wrote a treatise on music in Persia which declared, "Ecstasy means the state that comes from listening to music".

In 1252, Safi al-Din developed a unique form of musical notation, where rhythms were represented by geometric representation. A similar geometric representation would not appear in the Western world until 1987, when Kjell Gustafson published a method to represent a rhythm as a two-dimensional graph.

Al-Andalus
By the 11th century, Islamic Iberia had become a center for the manufacture of instruments. These goods spread gradually throughout France, influencing French troubadours, and eventually reaching the rest of Europe. The English words lute, rebec, and naker are derived from Arabic oud, rabab or Maghreb rebab, and naqareh.

16th to 19th century

Bartol Gyurgieuvits (1506–1566) spent 13 years as a slave in the Ottoman Empire. After escaping, he published De Turcarum ritu et caermoniis in Amsterdam in 1544. It is one of the first European books to describe music in Islamic society.

20th century–present

In the early 20th century, Egypt was the first in a series of Arab countries to experience a sudden emergence of nationalism, as it became independent after 2000 years of foreign rule. Any English, French or European songs got replaced by national Egyptian music. Cairo became a center for musical innovation.

Female singers were some of the first to take a secular approach. Egyptian performer Umm Kulthum and Lebanese singer Fairuz were notable examples of this. Both have been popular through the decades that followed and both are considered legends of Arabic music. Across the Mediterranean, Moroccan singer Zohra Al Fassiya was the first female performer to achieve wide popularity in the Maghreb region, performing traditional Arab Andalusian folk songs and later recording numerous albums of her own.

During the 1940s and 1960s, Arabic music began to take on a more Western tone – Egyptian artists Umm Kulthum and Abdel Halim Hafez along with composers Mohammed Abdel Wahab and Baligh Hamdi pioneered the use of western instruments in Egyptian music. By the 1970s several other singers had followed suit and a strand of Arabic pop was born. Arabic pop usually consists of Western styled songs with Arabic instruments and lyrics. Melodies are often a mix between Eastern and Western. Beginning in the mid-1980s, Lydia Canaan, musical pioneer widely regarded as the first rock star of the Middle East   fused English lyrics and Western sound with Middle-Eastern quarter tones and microtones and became the first internationally successful Lebanese recording artist.

Western pop music was also being influenced by Arabic music in the early 1960s, leading to the development of surf music, a rock music genre that later gave rise to garage rock and punk rock. Surf rock pioneer Dick Dale, a Lebanese American guitarist, was greatly influenced by the Arabic music he learnt from his uncle, particularly the oud melodies and skills which he later applied to his electric guitar playing when recording surf rock in the early 1960s.

Baligh Hamdi who created and composed many hit songs for several Arab singers, frequently said that he drew upon musical ideas and aesthetics in Egyptian folk melodies and rhythms in composing his songs. He also drew on ideas that were floating around in the contemporary music of his time. His sound has a classical flavor due to the heavy use of the string orchestra. But he also made some use of electronic keyboards and guitars in harmony with the strings, or alternating with the strings, in many songs. His best work is published as recordings under the name of the singer. The singers include Umm Kulthum, Abdel Halim Hafez, Shadia, Layla Murad, Najat Al Saghira, Fayza Ahmed, Warda (whom he was married to for a decade), Sabah, and other singers. He had also collaborated with the legendary singer Aziza Jalal who promoted her songs Mestaniak and Haramt El Hob Alaya one of the best Arabic songs in the 80s.

In the 1990s, several Arab artists have taken up such a style including Amr Diab, Moustafa Amar, Najwa Karam, Elissa, Nawal Al Zoghbi, Nancy Ajram, Haifa Wehbe, Angham, Fadl Shaker, Majida Al Roumi, Wael Kfoury, Asalah Nasri, Myriam Fares, Carole Samaha, Yara, Samira Said, Hisham Abbas, Kadhem Al Saher, Ehab Tawfik, Mohamed Fouad, Diana Haddad, Mohamed Mounir, Latifa, Cheb Khaled, George Wassouf, Hakim, Fares Karam, Julia Boutros, and Amal Hijazi. Due to Iraq's diversity and the long history, the country encompasses the music of a number of ethnic groups and musical genres. In 1936, Iraq Radio was established by two of Iraq's most prominent performers and composers, the Iraqi Jewish musicians, Saleh and Daoud al-Kuwaity with an ensemble, with the exception of the percussion player. The brothers had a pioneering role in the modern music of Iraq. Saleh was considered the father of Iraqi maqam as he was the pioneer of its first song. He also composed for the most famous singers of that era in Iraq and in the Arab world, such as Salima Murad, Afifa Iskandar, Nazem al-Ghazali, Umm Kulthum, Mohammed Abdel Wahab.

One of the main reasons for the predominance of Jewish instrumentalists in early 20th century Iraqi music was a prominent school for blind Jewish children in Baghdad, which was founded in the late 1920s by the great qanunji ("qanun player") Joseph Hawthorne (Yusef Za'arur) (Hebrew: דנדהי ללוואלד-יוסף זערור).

Salima Pasha was one of the most famous singers of the 1930s–1940s. The respect and adoration for Pasha were unusual at the time, since public performance by women was considered shameful by some countries in the region, and most female singers were recruited from brothels.

The music in Iraq began to take a more Western tone during the 1960s and 1970s, notably by Ilham Madfai, with his Western guitar stylings with traditional Iraqi music which made him a popular performer in his native country and throughout the Middle East.

Influence of Arabic music
The majority of musical instruments used in European medieval and classical music have roots in Arabic musical instruments that were adopted from the medieval Arab world. They include the lute, which shares an ancestor with the oud; rebec (an ancestor of the violin) from rebab, guitar from qitara, naker from naqareh, adufe from al-duff, alboka from al-buq, anafil from al-nafir, exabeba (a type of flute) from al-shabbaba, atabal (a type of bass drum) from al-tabl, atambal from al-tinbal, the balaban, castanet from kasatan, and sonajas de azófar from sunuj al-sufr.

The Arabic rabāb, also known as the spiked fiddle, is the earliest known bowed string instrument and the ancestor of all the European bowed instruments, including the rebec, the Byzantine lyra, and the violin. The Arabic oud in Arab music shares an ancestor with the European lute. The oud is also cited as a precursor to the modern guitar. The guitar has roots in the four-string oud, brought to Iberia by the Moors in the 8th century. A direct ancestor of the modern guitar is the guitarra morisca (Moorish guitar), which was in use in Spain by the 12th century. By the 14th century, it was simply referred to as a guitar.

A number of medieval conical bore instruments were likely introduced or popularized by Arab musicians, including the xelami (from zulami).

Some scholars believe that the troubadors may have had Arabian origins, with Magda Bogin stating that the Arab poetic and musical tradition was one of several influences on European "courtly love poetry". Évariste Lévi-Provençal and other scholars stated that three lines of a poem by William IX of Aquitaine were in some form of Arabic, indicating a potential Andalusian origin for his works. The scholars attempted to translate the lines in question and produced various different translations. The medievalist Istvan Frank contended that the lines were not Arabic at all, but instead the result of the rewriting of the original by a later scribe.

The theory that the troubadour tradition was created by William after his experience of Moorish arts while fighting with the Reconquista in Spain has been championed by Ramón Menéndez Pidal and Idries Shah. George T. Beech states that there is only one documented battle that William fought in Spain, and it occurred towards the end of his life. Beech adds that William and his father did have Spanish individuals within their extended family, and that while there is no evidence he himself knew Arabic, he may have been friendly with some Europeans who could speak the language. Others state that the notion that William created the concept of troubadours is itself incorrect, and that his "songs represent not the beginnings of a tradition but summits of achievement in that tradition."

Most scholars believe that Guido of Arezzo's Solfège musical notation system had its origins in a Latin hymn, but others suggest that it may have had Arabic origins instead. It has been argued that the Solfège syllables (do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, ti) may have been derived from the syllables of an Arabic solmization system Durr-i-Mufassal ("Separated Pearls") (dal, ra, mim, fa, sad, lam). This was first proposed by Meninski in his Thesaurus Linguarum Orientalum (1680). However, there is no documentary evidence for this theory, and no Arabic musical manuscripts using sequences from the Arabic alphabet are known to exist. Henry George Farmer believes that there is no firm evidence on the origins of the notation, and therefore the Arabian origin theory and the hymnal origin theories are equally credible.

Improvisational music in the Arab world
Ethnomusicologist Ali Jihad Racy talks about the improvisation style of music that is present in much of the Arab world. Racy discusses the regional attitudes towards improvisation music in the Middle East describing that improvisation can suggest casual or untrained or even non-professional music-making. This is held only by certain communities within the Arabic world and can differ from each region or community. Some regions look at improvisation music as the intuitive artistic ability that momentarily expresses the feeling of the player. Other groups tend to view improvisation as though it is the fulfillment of music transcending the classical maqam style or other styles of music playing. Other schools of thought on improvisation music, in the Arab world, believe that improvisation music shows a lack of understanding in musical training. Racy does not specify which groups have what views. Rather, the discussion is more focused on the idea that the Arabic music world is not monolithic in its view on improvisation in music. Other groups view improvisation as only learned through trial and error taking many years to perfect thus being a style played professionals.

Taqsim
A respectable tradition in improvisation music is known as Taqsim. Taqsim music uses a maqam and improvises the form or structure of the song, which creates a cathartic experience for the listener. Further, the improvisation aspects go beyond the form and are expressed in the quartertones of the song. This tradition historically was performed as a chant. Now it is used by performers on the oud/ud, violin, or nay, a type of flute. This style of improvisation is known for the effects it can conjure up in a listener. Listeners may laugh, cry, and shout at different points in the performance due to the emotions evoked by the music.

Improvisation in Chant

 * A certain type of Arabic chant is in the melismatic style and is both long and highly ornamented. It has specific elements of free rhythm and improvisation as part of its structure. Syllabic chant is isochronic and is accompanied by an al-durbkkeh (a percussion instrument or drum) while being relatively fast in its nature. There is usually participation from the listeners who contribute through the clapping of hands to the rhythm.
 * Ethnomusicologist Jargy tells of another type of improvisation music in which he uses the name Median . This music is a combination of the syllabic chant and the melismatic style. Median improvisation music uses more extreme improvisation methods and expands the boundaries of improvisation and is usually faster than syllabic chant.
 * The last improvisation style discussed by Jargy is the recitative style that is sung predominantly by women and is built on aural tradition.

Franco-Arabic
Franco-Arabic music is a form of music which is similar to modern Arabic Pop. The genre was popularized by artists such as Dalida from Egypt, Sammy Clark from Lebanon and Aldo from Australia. Franco-Arabic music includes a variety of languages, including Arabic, Italian, French Arabic and English.

Arabic R&B, reggae, and hip hop
A rise of Arabic R&B, reggae and hip hop has been taking place since the early 2010s. These songs usually feature a rapper in a traditional Arab pop song (such as Ishtar's song 'Habibi Sawah'). The Moroccan singer Elam Jay developed a contemporary version of the Gnawa genre that is fused with R&B, named Gnawitone Styla. Another variation of contemporary Gnawa played in Morocco was introduced by the band Darga. Based in Casablanca, the group utilises a mix Gnawa and Reggae in some of their songs.

Political Reggae artists such as TootArd from the occupied Syrian Golan Heights started gaining popularity in Palestine in 2011 after the release of a song about the Arab Spring (mainly the Tunisian revolution), called "The Green Revolution". It was sung by them and an ensemble of Palestinian artists, most notable among them being Mahmoud Jrere of DAM. Another notable Arab artist is Shadia Mansour, who is a Palestinian British rapper known as "The First Lady of Arab Hip Hop. Much of her music focuses on the Palestinian cause.

Starting in the 2010s, some artists such as Darine began to utilise fully R&B and reggae beats in their songs. This has been met with mixed reviews and mixed commercial performance.

Arabic electronica
Electronic dance music is another genre which came to prominence in Arabic music. Songs in this genre combine electronic musical instruments with traditional Middle Eastern instruments. Artists like Richii popularized this style with songs like "Ana Lubnaneyoun".

Arabic jazz
Another popular form of West meets East, Arabic jazz is also popular, with many songs using jazz instruments. Early jazz influences began with the use of the saxophone by musicians like Samir Suroor, in the "oriental" style. The use of the saxophone in that manner can be found in Abdel Halim Hafez's songs, as well as Kadim Al Sahir and Rida Al Abdallah today. The first mainstream jazz elements were incorporated into Arabic music by the Rahbani brothers. Fairuz's later work was almost exclusively made up of jazz songs, composed by her son Ziad Rahbani. Ziad Rahbani also pioneered today's oriental jazz movement, to which singers including Rima Khcheich, Salma El Mosfi, and (on occasion) Latifa adhere. We can also find a lot of jazz music in Mohamed Mounir's songs starting from his first album Alemony Eneeki in 1977, and he is considered to be the King of Arabic Jazz and Arabic Music generally. Another notable performer of this genre is the Palestinian singer Reem Kelani who blends jazz with Arabic music, both in her own compositions and in her arrangements of traditional songs.

Arabic Jazz has met many new kinds of composition since the end of the 20th century:
 * Modal forms with Anouar Brahem and Rabih Abou Khalil
 * Mixed electric sound experiences with Dhafer Youssef and Kamal Musallam
 * New pop jazz styles with Titi Robin and Toufic Farroukh
 * Other acoustic youth experiences with Hamdi Makhlouf, Amine & Hamza M'raihi and Jasser Haj Youssef

Arabic rock
There have been many Arab rock bands along the years that fused rock, metal and alternative rock sounds with traditional Arab instruments.

Arabic rock has been gaining attention in the Middle East since the early 2000s, with bands such as Tanjaret Daghet, JadaL, Kayan, Autostrad, El Morabba3, Akher Zapheer, The Wanton Bishops, Mashrou' Leila, Adonis and Meen, Cairokee, Massar Egbari, Sahara, Wyvern, Cartoon Killerz, Khalas, Chaos and Acrassicauda all gaining popularity.

Recently, there has been a new wave of bands emerging in the underground scene across the Arab world. These include Shaghaf, Khayal, Sada That, Code Masr and Hawas of Egypt and Ayloul of Lebanon.

Musical regions
The world of modern Arabic music has long been dominated by musical trends that have emerged from Cairo, Egypt. The city is generally considered one of the important cultural centers in the Arab world. Innovations in popular music via the influence of other regional styles have also abounded from Morocco to Saudi Arabia. In recent years, Beirut has become an important city where singers can fluently sing in various Arabic Dialects. Other regional styles that have enjoyed popular music status throughout the Arab world, including:

North Africa

 * Al Jeel (Egypt)
 * Shaabi Music (Egypt)
 * Mawwal (Egypt)
 * Semsemya (Egypt)
 * Andalusian classical music (Morocco and Algeria) and Tunisia
 * Malouf (Libya)
 * Malhoun (Algeria)
 * Chaabi (Algeria)
 * Chaabi (Morocco)
 * Gnawa (Morocco and the southwest of Algeria)
 * Haqibah
 * Malhun (Morocco)
 * Mezwed (Tunisia)
 * Raï (Algeria)
 * Sanaa (Algeria)
 * Malouf (Algeria)
 * Bedoui (Algeria)

Arabian Peninsula

 * Adani
 * Ardah
 * Ardham
 * Bandari Khaliji
 * Dazah
 * Fann at-Tanbura
 * Fijiri
 * Khabayti
 * Khaliji
 * Khuwizaani
 * Liwa
 * Mizmar
 * M'alayah
 * Rumba Khaliji
 * Samri
 * Sawt
 * Shaabi Khaliji
 * Yanbaawi
 * Yowlah
 * Zafah Khaliji

Sacred music
Arabic religious music includes Jewish (Pizmonim and Baqashot), Christian, and Islamic music. However, Islamic music, including the Tajwid or recitation of Qur'an readings, is structurally equivalent to Arabic secular music, while Christian Arab music has been influenced by Syriac Orthodox, Catholic, Greek Orthodox, Anglican, Coptic, and Maronite church music.

Art music
Secular art musical genres include maqam al-iraqi, andalusi nubah, muwashshah, Fijiri songs, qasidah, layali, mawwal, taqsim, bashraf, sama'i, tahmilah, dulab, sawt, and liwa.

Characteristics of Arabic music
Much of Arabic music is characterized by an emphasis on melody and rhythm, as opposed to harmony. There are some genres of Arabic music that are polyphonic, but typically, Arabic music is homophonic.

Habib Hassan Touma submits that there are five components that characterize Arabic music:
 * 1) The Arab tone system; that is, a musical tuning system that relies on specific interval structures and was invented by al-Farabi in the 10th century
 * 2) Rhythmic-temporal structures that produce a rich variety of rhythmic patterns, known as awzan or "weight", that are used to accompany metered vocal and instrumental genres, to accent or give them form.
 * 3) A number of musical instruments that are found throughout the Arab world that represent a standardized tone system, are played with generally standardized performance techniques, and display similar details in construction and design.
 * 4) Specific social contexts that produce sub-categories of Arabic music, or musical genres that can be broadly classified as urban (music of the city inhabitants), rural (music of the country inhabitants), or Bedouin (music of the desert inhabitants)..."
 * 5) An Arab musical mentality, "responsible for the esthetic homogeneity of the tonal-spatial and rhythmic-temporal structures throughout the Arab world whether composed or improvised, instrumental or vocal, secular or sacred."

Maqam system
The basis of Arabic music is the maqam (pl. maqamat), which looks like the mode, but is not quite the same. The tonic note, dominant note, and ending note (unless modulation occurs) are generally determined by the maqam used. Arabic maqam theory as described in literature over the ages names between 90 and 110 maqams, that are grouped into larger categories known as fasilah. Fasilah are groupings of maqams whose first four primary pitches are shared in common.

Ajnas
The maqam consists of at least two ajnas, or scale segments. Ajnas is the plural form of jins, which in Arabic comes from the Latin word genus, meaning "type". In practice, a jins is either a trichord (three notes), a tetrachord (four notes), or a pentachord (five notes). A maqam usually covers only one octave (usually two ajnas), but can cover more. Like the melodic minor scale, some maqamat use different ajnas when descending and ascending. Due to continuous innovation and the emergence of new ajnas, and because most music scholars have not reached consensus on the subject, a solid figure for the total number of ajnas in use is uncertain. In practice, however, most musicians would agree there are at least eight major ajnas: rast, bayat, sikah, hijaz, saba, kurd, nahawand, and ajam, and commonly used variants such as nakriz, athar kurd, sikah beladi, saba zamzama. For example, Mukhalif is a rare jins (in the Sikah) family used almost exclusively in Iraq, and it is not used in combination with other ajnas.

Microtones in Arabic music
Unlike the tradition of Western music, Arabic music contains microtones, which are notes that lie between notes in the Western chromatic scale. While notes in the chromatic scale are separated by semitones (or half steps), notes in Arabic music can be separated by quarter tones. In some treatments of theory, the quarter tone scale or all twenty four tones should exist, but according to Yūsuf Shawqī (1969), fewer tones are used in practice.

Additionally, in 1932, at the Cairo Congress of Arab Music held in Cairo, Egypt—and attended by such Western luminaries as Béla Bartók and Henry George Farmer—experiments were done that determined conclusively that the notes in actual use differ substantially from an even-tempered 24-tone scale. Furthermore, the intonation of many of those notes differ slightly from region to region (Egypt, Turkey, Syria, Iraq).

Regional scales
As a result of these findings, the following recommendation was issued: "The tempered scale and the natural scale should be rejected. In Egypt, the Egyptian scale is to be kept with the values, which were measured with all possible precision. The Turkish, Syrian, and Iraqi scales should remain what they are...." Both in modern practice, and evident in recorded music over the course of the last century, several differently-tuned Es in between the E-flat and E-natural of the Western Chromatic scale are used, that vary according to the types of maqams and ajnas used, and the region in which they are used.

Practical treatment
Musicians and teachers refer to these in-between notes as quarter tones, using "half-flat" or "half-sharp" as a designation for the in-between flats and sharps, for ease of nomenclature. Performance and teaching of the exact values of intonation in each jins or maqam is usually done by ear. It should also be added, in reference to Habib Hassan Touma's comment above, that these quarter tones are not used everywhere in the maqamat: in practice, Arabic music does not modulate to 12 different tonic areas like the Well-Tempered Klavier. The most commonly used quarter tones are on E (between E and E♭), A, B, D, F (between F and F♯), and C.

Vocal traditions
Arab classical music is known for its famed virtuoso singers, who sing long, elaborately ornamented, melismatic tunes, coloraturas unheard in any other musical genres and are known for driving audiences into ecstasy. Its traditions come from pre-Islamic times, when female singing slaves entertained the wealthy, inspired warriors on the battlefield with their rajaz poetry, and performed at weddings. A vast number of female Arab vocalists are mezzo-sopranos who cultivate darker and richer tones than generic Soprano voices.

Instruments and ensembles

The prototypical Arabic music ensemble in Egypt and Syria is known as the takht, and includes, (or included at different time periods) instruments such as the 'oud, qānūn, rabab, ney, violin (introduced in the 1840s or 50s), riq and dumbek. In Iraq, the traditional ensemble, known as the chalghi, includes only two melodic instruments—the jowza (similar to the rabab but with four strings) and santur—accompanied by the riq and dumbek. The Arab world has incorporated instruments from the West, including the electric guitar, cello, double bass and oboe, and incorporated influences from jazz and other foreign musical styles.

The singers have remained the stars, however, especially after the development of the recording and film industry in the 1920s in Cairo. These singing celebrities are (or were) the biggest stars in Arabic classic music, they include Farid Al Attrache, Asmahan, Abdel Halim Hafez, Sayed Darwish, Mohamed Abdel Wahab, Warda Al-Jazairia, Wadih El Safi, Fairuz, Sabah, and Umm Kulthum.

Research and documentation of Arabic music
Even though musical traditions in the Arab world have been handed down orally, Arab scholars Al-Kindi, Abulfaraj or Al-Farabi and later Safi al-Din published treatises in Arabic music since at least the 9th century AD. In 1932, the first Congress of Arab Music was held in Cairo, where scholarship about the past, present and future of Arabic music was presented both from Western as well as Arab experts. The results were later documented, both in writing as well as in the form of audio recordings.

Research on Arabic music is a focus of departments of ethnomusicology at universities worldwide, and the global interest in World music has led to a growing number of studies and re-issues of historic recordings by independent researchers or private companies.

Making use of digital archives for texts, pictures and sounds, detailed information on the history of Arabic music is also made accessible over the Internet. The Lebanese foundation AMMAR, for example, is committed to the preservation and dissemination of traditional Arab music and has published a host of historical documents.

title: Arabic music