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Jacob Baradaeus

Jacob Baradaeus (Ἰάκωβος Βαραδαῖος; مار يعقوب البرادعي; ), also known as Jacob bar Addai or Jacob bar Theophilus, was the Bishop of Edessa from 543/544 until his death in 578. He is venerated as a saint in the Oriental Orthodox Churches and his feast day is 31 July. Jacob's missionary efforts helped establish the non-Chalcedonian Syriac Orthodox Church, also known as the "Jacobite" Church after its eponymous leader, and ensured its survival despite persecution.

Background
Following the Council of Chalcedon in 451, the church in the Eastern Roman Empire suffered division between Chalcedonians, supporters of the council, and non-Chalcedonians, also known as miaphysites and pejoratively called monophysites, who opposed the council. Non-Chalcedonians lost political support at the ascension of Emperor Justin I in 518, who subsequently persecuted non-Chalcedonians. Consequentially, the number of non-Chalcedonian religious leaders declined and, despite the widespread support they held in Syria, Armenia, and Egypt, non-Chalcedonianism faced extinction.

Biography
Jacob was born in c. 500 in the city of Tall Mawzalt, and was the son of Theophilus bar Manu, a priest. At the age of two, Jacob was left in the care of Eustathius, Abbot of the Monastery of Fsilta, and studied Greek, Syriac, and religious and theological texts. Jacob's mother later returned to the monastery and attempted to bring him home, however, Jacob refused to return and declared his dedication to Christ. After his parents' death, Jacob donated his inheritance to the poor and manumitted several slaves he had inherited, to whom he bestowed his parents' house. Later, Jacob was ordained a deacon and priest at the monastery. At this time, Jacob became renowned as a miracle-worker and people came to him seeking healing. Several miracles are attributed to Jacob, such as the resurrection of the dead, the healing of the blind, procurement of rain, and stopping the movement of the sun. He is also reputed to have ended the Siege of Edessa as Khosrow I was afflicted with a vision and abandoned the siege.

Empress Theodora, a non-Chalcedonian, learned of Jacob and invited him to meet with her at Constantinople, however, he was reluctant to do so. In a vision, Jacob was instructed to travel to Constantinople, and thus, in c. 527, he arrived at the capital. Theodora received Jacob with honour, however, he was uninterested in life at court, and entered the Monastery of Sykai, where he remained for 15 years. Whilst at Constantinople, he gained the favour of Theodora and Al-Harith ibn Jabalah, King of the Ghassanids, both fellow non-Chalcedonians. An outbreak of persecution of non-Chalcedonians carried out by Ephraim, Patriarch of Antioch, spurred Empress Theodora and Al-Harith to urge Pope Theodosius I of Alexandria to consecrate bishops to counter Ephraim and ensure the survival of non-Chalcedonianism. Thus, Jacob was consecrated Bishop of Edessa by Pope Theodosius in Constantinople in 543/544.

After his episcopal appointment, Jacob travelled to Alexandria, where he, with two non-Chalcedonian bishops, consecrated Conon as Bishop of Tarsus and Eugenius as Bishop of Seleucia. He then set about consecrating non-Chalcedonian clergymen throughout Mesopotamia, Anatolia, Syria, Palestine, and Egypt. At this time, through his missionary work, Jacob aimed to restore non-Chalcedonianism as the official position of the church in the Eastern Roman Empire. The Roman government attempted to hinder the non-Chalcedonian revival and imprison Jacob, however, in his travels he wore a disguise and thus became known as Burde'ana, "man in ragged clothes", from which the sobriquet "Baradaeus" is derived. Jacob ordained Sergius bar Karya as Bishop of Harran and Sergius of Tella as Patriarch of Antioch in 544. After Sergius of Tella's death in 547, with Eugenius, Jacob ordained Paul as Patriarch of Antioch in 550. Differences between Jacob and Eugenius and Conon later emerged and Jacob anathematised the pair for their adherence to Tritheism, and they anathematised Jacob on the accusation of adherence to Sabellianism.

In 553, Emperor Justinian I convened the Second Council of Constantinople in an attempt to unite Chalcedonians and non-Chalcedonians. However, the council was unconvincing to Syrian non-Chalcedonians, and Jacob began to form a separate, non-Chalcedonian church, that would later become the Syriac Orthodox Church. Jacob ordained John of Ephesus as Bishop of Ephesus in 558. In 559, Jacob consecrated Ahudemmeh as Metropolitan of the East. In 566, Jacob attended discussions held by Emperor Justin II at Constantinople between Chalcedonians and non-Chalcedonians with the goal of a compromise between the two factions. At the end of the discussions in 567, Justin issued an edict which was agreed upon by all who attended, however, the edict was rejected by a non-Chalcedonian council at Raqqa. Later, in 571, Jacob Baradaeus and other non-Chalcedonian bishops gave their approval to an edict of union with the Chalcedonian church as they both agreed they held the same beliefs but expressed them differently. Jacob and the other bishops subsequently accepted communion from John Scholasticus, Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople. This angered many non-Chalcedonians, however, and the bishops withdrew their approval of the edict.

Unbeknownst to Jacob, Paul, Patriarch of Antioch, and several other non-Chalcedonian bishops, had been tortured by the Roman government and unwillingly agreed to adhere to Chalcedonianism. Jacob consequentially forbade Paul from receiving communion and Paul took refuge in the Kingdom of the Ghassanids. Three years later, Paul was brought before a non-Chalcedonian synod and Jacob restored him to communion for his penance. This angered Egyptian non-Chalcedonians, and, in 576, Pope Peter IV of Alexandria deposed Paul as Patriarch of Antioch, contrary to canon law. Jacob denounced Peter. However, in an effort to reunite non-Chalcedonians, he travelled to Alexandria and agreed to give his assent to Paul's deposition on the condition that he was not excommunicated, thus restoring good relations between the Syrian and Egyptian non-Chalcedonians. Nevertheless, on Jacob's return to Syria, many Syrian non-Chalcedonians expressed anger at the compromise and violence erupted between Jacob and Paul's supporters. King Al-Mundhir III ibn al-Harith, Al-Harith's successor, and Paul attempted to discuss the conflict with Jacob, however, he refused to seek another compromise.

Jacob, with several other bishops, abruptly left Syria with the intention of travelling to Alexandria. Whilst en route, Jacob and his group stopped at the Monastery of St. Romanus in Maiuma where they became ill and Jacob died on 30 July 578. According to Cyriacus, Bishop of Mardin, Jacob's remains were kept at the Monastery of St. Romanus until moved to the Monastery of Fsilta in 622. Some historians note the name of the monastery as the Monastery of Cassian.

title: Jacob Baradaeus


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Off-by-one error

An off-by-one error or off-by-one bug (known by acronyms OBOE, OBO, OB1 and OBOB) is a logic error that involves a number that differs from its intended value by +1 or −1. An off-by-one error can sometimes appear in a mathematical context. It often occurs in computer programming when a loop iterates one time too many or too few, usually caused by the use of non-strict inequality (≤) as the terminating condition where strict inequality (<) should have been used, or vice versa. Off-by-one errors also stem from confusion over zero-based numbering.

Looping over arrays
Consider an array of items, and items m through n (inclusive) are to be processed. How many items are there? An intuitive answer may be n − m, but that is off by one, exhibiting a fencepost error; the correct answer is n − m + 1.

For this reason, ranges in computing are often represented by half-open intervals; the range from m to n (inclusive) is represented by the range from m (inclusive) to n + 1 (exclusive) to avoid fencepost errors. For example, a loop that iterates five times (from 0 to 4 inclusive) can be written as a half-open interval from 0 to 5:

The loop body is executed first of all with index equal to 0; index then becomes 1, 2, 3, and finally 4 on successive iterations. At that point, index becomes 5, so index < 5 is false and the loop ends. However, if the comparison used were <= (less than or equal to), the loop would be carried out six times: index takes the values 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. Likewise, if index were initialized to 1 rather than 0, there would only be four iterations: index takes the values 1, 2, 3, and 4. Both of these alternatives can cause off-by-one errors.

Another such error can occur if a do-while loop is used in place of a while loop (or vice versa.) A do-while loop is guaranteed to run at least once.

Array-related confusion may also result from differences in programming languages. Numbering from 0 is most common, but some languages start array numbering with 1. Pascal has arrays with user-defined indices. This makes it possible to model the array indices after the problem domain.

Fencepost error
A fencepost error (occasionally called a telegraph pole, lamp-post, or picket fence error) is a specific type of off-by-one error. An early description of this error appears in the works of Vitruvius. The following problem illustrates the error:

"If you build a straight fence 30 feet long with posts spaced 3 feet apart, how many posts do you need?"

The common answer of 10 posts is wrong. This response comes from dividing the length of the fence by the spacing apart from each post, with the quotient being erroneously classified as the number of posts. In actuality, the fence has 10 sections and 11 posts.

In this scenario, a fence with n sections will have n + 1 posts. Conversely, if the fence contains n posts, it will contain n − 1 sections. This relationship is important to consider when dealing with the reverse error. The reverse error occurs when the number of posts is known and the number of sections is assumed to be the same. Depending on the design of the fence, this assumption can be correct or incorrect.

The following problem demonstrates the reverse error:

"If you have n posts, how many sections are there between them?"

The interpretation for the fence's design changes the answer to this problem. The correct number of sections for a fence is n − 1 if the fence is a free-standing line segment bounded by a post at each of its ends (e.g., a fence between two passageway gaps), n if the fence forms one complete, free-standing loop (e.g., enclosure accessible by surmounting, such as a boxing ring), or n + 1 if posts do not occur at the ends of a line-segment-like fence (e.g., a fence between and wall-anchored to two buildings). The precise problem definition must be carefully considered, as the setup for one situation may give the wrong answer for other situations. Fencepost errors come from counting things rather than the spaces between them, or vice versa, or by neglecting to consider whether one should count one or both ends of a row.

Fencepost errors can also occur in units other than length. For example, the Time Pyramid, consisting of 120 blocks placed at 10-year intervals between blocks, is scheduled to take 1,190 years to build (not 1,200), from the installation of the first block to the last block. One of the earliest fencepost errors involved time, where the Julian calendar originally calculated leap years incorrectly, due to counting inclusively rather than exclusively, yielding a leap year every three years rather than every four.

"Fencepost error" can, in rare occasions, refer to an error induced by unexpected regularities in input values, which can (for instance) completely thwart a theoretically efficient binary tree or hash function implementation. This error involves the difference between expected and worst case behaviours of an algorithm.

In larger numbers, being off by one is often not a major issue. In smaller numbers, however, and specific cases where accuracy is paramount, committing an off-by-one error can be disastrous. Sometimes such an issue will also be repeated and, therefore, worsened, by someone passing on an incorrect calculation, if the following person makes the same kind of mistake again (of course, the error might also be reversed).

An example of this error can occur in the computational language MATLAB with the  linear interpolation function, whose parameters are   and not. A programmer who misunderstands the third parameter to be the number of increments might hope that  would  achieve a sequence  but instead would get.

Security implications
A common off-by-one error which results in a security-related bug is caused by misuse of the C standard library  routine. A common misconception with  is that the guaranteed null termination will not write beyond the maximum length. In reality it will write a terminating null character one byte beyond the maximum length specified. The following code contains such a bug:

Off-by-one errors are common in using the C library because it is not consistent with respect to whether one needs to subtract 1 byte – functions like  and   will never write past the length given them (  subtracts 1 itself, and only retrieves (length − 1) bytes), whereas others, like   will write past the length given them. So the programmer has to remember for which functions they need to subtract 1.

On some systems (little endian architectures in particular) this can result in the overwriting of the least significant byte of the frame pointer. This can cause an exploitable condition where an attacker can hijack the local variables for the calling routine.

One approach that often helps avoid such problems is to use variants of these functions that calculate how much to write based on the total length of the buffer, rather than the maximum number of characters to write. Such functions include  and , and are often considered "safer" because they make it easier to avoid accidentally writing past the end of a buffer. (In the code example above, calling  instead would remove the bug.)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Off-by-one error


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Pacific (disambiguation)

The Pacific Ocean is the largest ocean in the world.

Pacific may also refer to:

Related to the Pacific Ocean

 * Pacific-Antarctic Ridge, oceanic ridge at the boundary between the Pacific and Antarctic tectonic plates
 * Pacific-Farallon Ridge, former oceanic ridge at the boundary between the Pacific and Farallon tectonic plates
 * Pacific-Kula Ridge, former oceanic ridge at the boundary between the Pacific and Kula tectonic plates
 * Pacific Rim, political and economic term used to designate the countries on the edges of the Pacific Ocean as well as the various island nations within the region

Places

 * Pacific, California, community in El Dorado County
 * Pacific, Missouri, place in the United States
 * Pacific, Washington, city in King County, Washington
 * Pacific, Wisconsin
 * Pacific County, Washington
 * Pacific Highway (disambiguation), any one of several highways around the world
 * Pacific Time Zone

Military history

 * Asiatic-Pacific Theater (aka Pacific Theater of Operations), the term used in the United States for all military activity in the Pacific Ocean and the countries bordering it during World War II
 * Pacific Ocean Areas (command), the major Allied military command in the Pacific Ocean theatre of World War II
 * Pacific Ocean theater of World War II, one of four major theaters of the Pacific War, between 1941 and 1945
 * Pacific War, the part of World War II — and preceding conflicts — that took place in the Pacific Ocean, its islands, and in East Asia, from 1937 to 1945
 * War of the Pacific, fought between Chile and the joint forces of Bolivia and Peru, from 1879 to 1884

Art, entertainment, and media

 * Pacific Theatres, a movie theater chain in southern California
 * Pacific TV, an Indonesian television station
 * The Pacific (miniseries), an HBO TV miniseries about the US involvement in the Pacific during World War II
 * Pacific Jazz Records, a Los Angeles-based record company and label
 * Pacific (1978 album), an album by Haruomi Hosono, Shigeru Suzuki and Tatsuro Yamashita
 * Pacific (NEWS album), a 2007 album by NEWS
 * "Pacific" also known as "Pacific State" a 1989 single by 808 State
 * Pacific (book), a non-fiction book by Simon Winchester
 * Pacific, a painting by Alex Colville

Companies

 * A&P (The Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea Company), a former American and Canadian supermarket chain
 * COSCO Pacific, a Chinese port operator
 * Georgia-Pacific, an American pulp and paper company
 * Pacific Basin Shipping Limited, a Hong Kong shipping company
 * Pacific Investment Management, an investment company
 * Pacific Trucks, a Canadian heavy truck maker

Schools

 * Pacific High School (disambiguation), the name of several American high schools
 * Pacific University, a private college in Oregon
 * Universidad del Pacífico (disambiguation), usually translated as "University of the Pacific", any of a number of distinct Latin American universities
 * University of the Pacific (United States), a private university in California
 * University of the South Pacific

Sports

 * Pacific FC, a Canadian soccer team
 * Pacific F.C. (Mexico), a former Mexican football team
 * Pacific Grand Prix, former Formula 1 race in Japan
 * Pacific Racing, an extinct Formula 1 team
 * Pacific Tigers, the intercollegiate sports program of the University of the Pacific in California

Airlines

 * Air Pacific (airline) (now called Fiji Airways), a Fijian airline
 * Cathay Pacific, a Hong Kong airline
 * Pacific Airlines, an airline based in Vietnam
 * Pacific Air Lines, a defunct airline

Railroads and trains

 * Pacific, a name often given to steam locomotives of the 4-6-2 wheel arrangement
 * Southern Pacific Railroad, a former Class 1 railroad network in the United States
 * Union Pacific Railroad, a railroad network in the United States
 * Canadian Pacific Railway, a former railroad network in Canada

Ships

 * MS Pacific, a cruise ship formerly called MS Pacific Princess
 * Pacific-class patrol boat, a class of 22 patrol boats built by Australia and donated to twelve South Pacific countries
 * SS Pacific (1849), a Collins Line transatlantic sidewheel steamship that sank off the coast of Wales in 1856
 * SS Pacific (1850), an ocean liner that sank off the coast of Washington State in 1875
 * SS Pacific (1914), later renamed Hewitt, a cargo steamship that went missing off the United States Atlantic coast in 1921

People

 * Saint Pacific (Pacificus of San Severino), Roman catholic saint (1653 – 1721)

title: Pacific (disambiguation)


text:
Quarrendon

Quarrendon or Quarrendon Leas is a medieval English village near Aylesbury in Buckinghamshire, England, which has been depopulated since the 16th century and is now a scheduled monument.

Description
Quarrendon's site is now a large area of fields and riverside meadows that provide green space between Meadowcroft and Central on the outskirts of the town of Aylesbury. Visible in these fields and meadows are the remains of a medieval village, a church, a manor house and its moat and a Tudor water garden. These historic features are now nationally-protected as a scheduled monument. The area also has wildlife value with a mixture of habitats and the River Thame forming the southern boundary of the site.

The deserted village
The layout of the village of Quarrendon in the late middle ages is preserved among the earthworks which can be seen in the area today. At this time the village consisted of farmsteads which were clustered around irregularly shaped greens, linked to each other, to their fields and to Aylesbury by sunken roadways. This village had developed over a long period, centuries, during which time the layout and social structure may have changed. The earthworks which form the visible remains are important but below these there are probably more remnants and artefacts which could be excavated by archaeologists in the future. There are also areas that were significant to the village which are outside the boundaries of the scheduled monument, these areas should also be under appropriate management. An example is that of a field containing ridge-and-furrow, which is an indicator of a medieval open field system of farming situated between the scheduled monument and Quarrendon House Farm.

There are two deserted village sites which are considered to both belong a single medieval settlement which shifted, during the medieval period, from a less suitable location. The smaller of the two sites is west of the ruined building of Church Farm and consists of some platforms used to build houses on and a trackway which runs from east to west across the pasture. On the western edge of the pasture is a considerable flat area crossed by a wide street, this may represent pens and a drove way. The second village site is to the east of the smaller site and it is thought that the villagers of the original settlement shifted to this site. The village was probably abandoned around 1485. The layout of streets and houses is clearly represented by the visible earthworks and show a village which covers 25 acre with the streets and crofts radiating out from a pond with a mill and a sunken main street, which runs westwards from the village up the hill to the manor. The ruins of a small 13th-century church, St Peters Chapel can also be made out

The Tudor manor and water gardens
Henry VII confiscated the lands around Quarrendon from the Earl of Warwick in 1499 and a Crown lease of Quarrendon was granted to Richard Lee. Sir Robert Lee, Sheriff of Buckinghamshire, was Richard Lee's son, and he had a new moated house and garden built on the site, the moat survives and is still partially flooded. Sir Robert's grandson, Sir Henry Lee created an elaborate series of gardens delineated by canals and banks after he inherited Quarrendon in 1549. Sir Henry replaced parts of the deserted medieval village with an elaborate rabbit warren as well as a grand water garden with elevated embanked walkways. After Sir Henry died in 1611 Quarrendon declined and the mansion was replaced by a farm.

Earthwork
The Royalist forces in the Battle of Aylesbury on 1 November 1642 used an earthwork in the area of Quarrendon.

title: Quarrendon


text:
Night Watch

Night Watch or Nightwatch may refer to:

Books

 * The Night Watch, a 1977 memoir by Central Intelligence Agency officer David Atlee Phillips

Novels

 * Night Watch, a 1972 play by American dramatist Lucille Fletcher, later adapted into the 1973 film)
 * Night Watch, a 1989 UNACO novel by Alastair MacNeill
 * Night Watch, a 1990 novel by American writer Robin Wayne Bailey
 * Night Watch (Sigurðardóttir novel), a 1992 novel by Icelandic author Fríða Á. Sigurðardóttir
 * The Night Watch, a 1997 novel by American-Canadian science fiction and fantasy author Sean Stewart
 * Night Watch (Lukyanenko novel), a 1998 fantasy novel by Russian author Sergei Lukyanenko
 * Nightwatch, a 1999 novel by American novelist and screenwriter Richard P. Henrick
 * Night Watch (Discworld), a 2002 fantasy novel by British writer Terry Pratchett
 * The Night Watch (Waters novel), a 2006 historical fiction novel by Sarah Waters
 * Night Watch, a 2012 novel by American author, attorney, and former New York City prosecutor Linda Fairstein
 * Night Watch (Phillips novel), a 2023 novel by American author Jayne Anne Phillips

Fictional elements

 * Night's Watch, a group of characters from the A Song of Ice and Fire series of epic fantasy novels
 * Nightwatch (comics), a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics
 * Raphael (Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles) (also Nightwatcher), a fictional superhero
 * A paramilitary group in the Babylon 5 universe

Films

 * The Night Watch (1925 film), a French drama film directed by Marcel Silver
 * The Night Watch (1926 film), a lost silent film directed by Fred Caldwell
 * Night Watch (1928 film), an American drama film directed by Alexander Korda
 * The Hole (1960 film) (also The Night Watch in the US), a French crime film directed by Jacques Becker
 * Night Watch (1973 film), a British-American suspense-thriller film directed by Brian G. Hutton
 * Nightwatch (1994 film), a Danish thriller film directed and written by Danish director Ole Bornedal
 * Night Watch (1995 film), an American television spy film directed by David Jackson
 * Nightwatch (1997 film), an American horror thriller film directed by Ole Bornedal
 * Night Watch (2004 film), a Russian urban fantasy supernatural thriller film directed by Timur Bekmambetov
 * Rond Nocturna, a 2005 film by Argentinian writer and filmmaker Edgardo Cozarinsky
 * Nightwatching, a 2007 film directed by Peter Greenaway
 * The Night Watch, a 2010 film adaptation of Sarah Waters' 2006 historical fiction novel The Night Watch

Music

 * The Night Watch (album), a live album by the English rock band King Crimson
 * "The Night Watch", the fourth track from King Crimson's 1974 album Starless and Bible Black
 * "Night Watch", the eighth track from Tegan and Sara's 2009 album Sainthood
 * Nightwatch (album), the second solo album from Kenny Loggins
 * Nightwatch a 2003 album by Norwegian jazz vocalist and songwriter Silje Nergaard
 * Noisia (also Nightwatch), a Dutch electronic music trio

Television

 * CBS Overnight News (also CBS News Nightwatch), an American overnight news broadcast
 * Nightwatch with Steve Scott, a weekday late-night documentary series in the UK on ITV
 * Nightwatch (TV series), an unscripted television series broadcast by A&E

Other uses

 * The Night Watch, a 1642 painting by Rembrandt van Rijn
 * Night Watch (video game), a tactical role-playing game developed by Russian developer Nival Interactive
 * Nochnoy Dozor (group), a group of mostly Russophone political activists living in Estonia
 * Operation Nightwatch, a mission undertaken by Boeing E-4 and previously by Boeing EC-135s
 * Watchman (law enforcement), organized groups of men to deter criminal activity and provide law enforcement
 * Gender neutral term for Nightwatchman (cricket)

title: Night Watch


text:
Parkville

Parkville may refer to:

Australia

 * Parkville, Victoria, an inner suburb of Melbourne, Victoria
 * Parkville, New South Wales, a small town near Scone, New South Wales

United States

 * Parkville, Hartford, Connecticut, a neighborhood
 * Parkville, Maryland
 * Parkville, Michigan
 * Parkville, Missouri, a suburb of Kansas City
 * Parkville, Pennsylvania

Transportation

 * Parkville railway station, in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
 * Parkville station (Connecticut), in Hartford, Connecticut, United States

title: Parkville


text:
St Trinian's School

St Trinian's is a British gag cartoon comic strip series, created and drawn by Ronald Searle from 1946 until 1952. The cartoons all centre on a boarding school for girls, where the teachers are sadists and the girls are juvenile delinquents. The series was Searle's most famous work and inspired a popular series of comedy films.

Concept
Searle published his first St Trinian's School cartoon in 1941 in the magazine Lilliput. He was captured at Singapore in 1942 and spent the rest of the Second World War as a prisoner of the Japanese. After the war, in 1946 Searle started making new cartoons about the girls, but the content was much darker compared to the earlier years.

The school is the antithesis of the type of posh girls' boarding school depicted by Enid Blyton or Angela Brazil; its female pupils are bad and often well armed, and mayhem is rife. The schoolmistresses are also disreputable. Cartoons often showed dead bodies of girls who had been murdered with pitchforks or succumbed to violent team sports, sometimes with vultures circling; girls drank, gambled and smoked. It is reputed that the gymslip style of dress worn by the girls was closely modelled on the school uniform of James Allen's Girls' School (JAGS) in Dulwich, which Searle's daughter Kate attended.

In the 1950s, films were developed that were based on the cartoon series. These comedies implied that the girls at the school were the daughters of dubious characters, such as gangsters, crooks, and shady bookmakers. The institution is often referred to as a "female borstal", as if it were a reform school.

The inspiration
During 1941 Searle had gone to the artists' community in the village of Kirkcudbright. Whilst visiting the family Johnston, he made a drawing to please their two schoolgirl daughters, Cécilé and Pat, (their school had been evacuated to New Gala House in Galashiels in the Scottish Borders owing to the war). Searle was puzzled as to why two schoolgirls should seem so keen to return to their school, an Academy for Young Ladies in Dalkeith Road known as St Trinnean's. The school was of the experimental sort, and allowed its pupils a certain degree of freedom and autonomy in their own educational choices. The school's original building is now part of the University of Edinburgh.

Searle's St Trinian's was based on two private girls' schools in Cambridge – Perse School for Girls, now known as the co-educational Stephen Perse Foundation, and St Mary's School for girls, a Catholic school established by the Sisters of Mary Ward. Growing up in Cambridge, Searle regularly saw the girls on their way to and from school; they originally inspired his cartoons and characters. The Perse School for Girls' Archive area holds several original St Trinian's books, given to the school by Ronald Searle. He also based the school partly on the former Cambridgeshire High School for Girls (now Long Road Sixth Form College).

During his BBC interview Searle agreed that the cruelty depicted at St Trinian's derived partly from his captivity during World War II but stressed that he included it only because the ignoble aspect to warfare in general had become more widely known.

Books

 * Hurrah for St Trinian's (1948)
 * The Female Approach (1950)
 * Back to the Slaughterhouse (1952)
 * The Terror of St Trinians or Angela's Prince Charming (1952; text by Timothy Shy, pen-name for D. B. Wyndham Lewis)
 * Souls in Torment (1953)

Film adaptations
In the 1950s, a series of St Trinian's comedy films was made, featuring well-known British actors, including Alastair Sim (in drag as the headmistress, and also playing her brother); George Cole as spiv "Flash Harry", Joyce Grenfell as Sgt Ruby Gates, a beleaguered policewoman; and Richard Wattis and Eric Barker as the civil servants at the Ministry of Education for whom the school is a source of constant frustration and nervous breakdowns. Searle's cartoons appeared in the films' main title design.

In the films the school became embroiled in various shady enterprises, thanks mainly to Flash, and, as a result, was always threatened with closure by the Ministry. (In the last of the original four, this became the "Ministry of Schools", possibly because of fears of a libel action from a real Minister of Education.) The first four films form a chronological quartet, and were produced by Frank Launder and Sidney Gilliat. They had earlier produced The Happiest Days of Your Life (1950), a stylistically similar school comedy, starring Alastair Sim, Joyce Grenfell, George Cole, Richard Wattis, Guy Middleton, and Bernadette O'Farrell, all of whom later appeared in the St Trinian's series, often playing similar characters.

Barchester and Barset were used as names for the fictional towns near which St Trinian's School was supposedly located in the original films. In Blue Murder at St Trinian's, a signpost was marked as 2 miles to Barset, 8 miles to Wantage, indicating a location in what was Berkshire at the time of filming (transferred to Oxfordshire in 1974).

St Trinian's is depicted as an unorthodox girls' school where the younger girls wreak havoc and the older girls express their femininity overtly, turning their shapeless schoolgirl dress into something sexy and risqué by the standards of the times. St Trinian's is often invoked in discussions about groups of schoolgirls running amok.

The St Trinian's girls themselves come in two categories: the Fourth Form, most closely resembling Searle's original drawings of ink-stained, ungovernable pranksters, and the much older Sixth Form, sexually precocious to a degree that may have seemed alarming to some in 1954.

In the films, the Fourth Form includes a number of much younger girls who are the most ferocious of them all. It is something of a rule of thumb that the smaller a St Trinian's is, the more dangerous she is—especially when armed, most commonly with a lacrosse or hockey stick—though none of them can ever be considered harmless.

In the first two films, St Trinian's is presided over by the genial Miss Millicent Fritton (Sim in drag), whose philosophy is summed up as: "In other schools girls are sent out quite unprepared into a merciless world, but when our girls leave here, it is the merciless world which has to be prepared." Later other headmistresses included Dora Bryan in The Great St Trinian's Train Robbery.

In December 2007, a new film, St Trinian's, was released. The cast included Rupert Everett, Colin Firth, Russell Brand, Lily Cole, Talulah Riley, Stephen Fry, and Gemma Arterton. Reviews were mixed. A second new St Trinian's film, St Trinian's 2: The Legend of Fritton's Gold, was released in 2009.

 * The first series
 * 1) The Belles of St Trinian's (1954)
 * 2) Blue Murder at St Trinian's (1957)
 * 3) The Pure Hell of St Trinian's (1960)
 * 4) The Great St Trinian's Train Robbery (1966)

 * The first reboot
 * The Wildcats of St Trinian's (1980, with Maureen Lipman taking on the Joyce Grenfell role)

 * The second reboot
 * 1) St Trinian's (2007)
 * 2) St Trinian's 2: The Legend of Fritton's Gold (2009)

Coat of arms
The school's coat of arms was originally shown as a black skull-and-crossbones on a field of white. This was later changed to a white tau cross (symbolising the "T" in Trinian's) on a black field bordered white.

School motto
The school has no fixed motto but has had several suggested ones. The school's motto is depicted in the original movies from the 1950s and 1960s as In flagrante delicto ("Caught in the Act"). This can be seen on the trophy shelf, above the stairs in The Belles of St Trinian's (1954). The lyrics of the original theme song by Sidney Gilliat (c. 1954) imply that the school's motto is "Get your blow in first" (Semper debeatis percutis ictu primo).

A poem in one of Searle's books called "St Trinian's Soccer Song", by D. B. Wyndham Lewis and Johnny Dankworth, states that the motto is Floreat St Trinian's ("May St Trinian's Bloom/Flourish"), a reference to the motto of Eton (Floreat Etona—"May Eton Flourish").

School songs
The musical score for the St Trinian films was written by Malcolm Arnold and included the school song, with words accredited to Sidney Gilliat (1954). In the 2007 film, a new school song, written by Girls Aloud, was called "Defenders of Anarchy". The school also has a fight song.

In popular culture

 * Between 1968 and 1972, the British comic-book The Beano ran a series entitled The Belles of St. Lemons, which was inspired by the original St Trinian's cartoons by Ronald Searle.
 * The gauge 0 model train manufacturer ACE Trains produce an "unorthodox" model of a British Schools Class steam locomotive (which were named after British schools), numbered 1922 and named "St Trinneans" (sic). This model is bright pink and has a pair of uniformed schoolgirls as driver and fireman.
 * In 1990, Chris Claremont and Ron Wagner paid tribute to both Searle and St Trinian's in a story arc in the Marvel comic book Excalibur, in which Kitty Pryde became a student at "St Searle's School for Young Ladies". Towards the end of the arc, Commandere Dai Thomas exclaims, "I took a look at the Special Branch records. Have you any notion what this school's done in the past? With them about, who needs the perishing SAS?"

title: St Trinian's School


text:
Dorset (disambiguation)

Dorset is a ceremonial county in England.

Dorset may also refer to:

Places

 * Dorset Council (Australia), a local government area in Tasmania, Australia
 * Cape Dorset, Nunavut, Canada
 * Dorset, Ontario, a small community located between the touristic Muskoka and Haliburton regions of Ontario, Canada
 * Dorset Island, one of the Canadian Arctic islands located in Hudson Strait, Nunavut, Canada
 * Dorset (district), a unitary district within the ceremonial county of Dorset, England, created in 2019
 * Dorset (UK Parliament constituency), United Kingdom
 * Dorset, Minnesota, United States
 * Dorset, Ohio, United States
 * Dorset, Vermont, United States

People

 * Marion Dorset (1872–1935), medical scientist who developed immunization procedures for swine fever and father of the purple meat stamp
 * Ray Dorset (born 1946), British musician

Other uses

 * Dorset culture, a prehistoric culture that preceded the Inuit in Arctic North America
 * Dorset (sheep) (disambiguation), several breeds of sheep
 * Marquess of Dorset, a title in the Peerage of England

title: Dorset (disambiguation)


text:
Berlin Schönefeld Airport

Berlin Schönefeld Airport (Flughafen Berlin-Schönefeld) was  the secondary international airport of Berlin, the capital of Germany. It was located 18 km southeast of Berlin near the town of Schönefeld in the state of Brandenburg and bordered Berlin's southern boundary. It was the smaller of the two airports in Berlin, after Berlin Tegel Airport, and served as an operating base for easyJet and Ryanair. In 2017, the airport handled 12.9 million passengers by serving mainly European metropolitan and leisure destinations. In the same year, the travel portal eDreams ranked Berlin Schönefeld as the worst airport in the world after evaluating 65,000 airport reviews. Schönefeld Airport was the major civil airport of East Germany (GDR) and the only airport of the former East Berlin.

On 25 October 2020 the Schönefeld name and IATA code ceased to exist, marking its closure as an independent airport, with large parts of its infrastructure being incorporated into the new Berlin Brandenburg Airport  as its Terminal 5. However by November 2022, the refurbished Terminal 5 had been closed for good without being put in operation.

First years, World War II, and GDR period: 1934–1990
On 15 October 1934, construction began to build three 800 m long runways to serve the Henschel aircraft plant in Schönefeld. By the end of the Second World War, over 14,000 aircraft had been built. On 22 April 1945, the facilities were occupied by Soviet troops, and the plant was dismantled and demolished. By late 1947, the railway connection had been repaired and agricultural machinery was built and repaired on the site.

In 1946, the Soviet Air Forces moved from Johannisthal Air Field to Schönefeld, including the civil airline Aeroflot. In 1947, the Soviet Military Administration in Germany approved the construction of a civilian airport at the site.

A stipulation of the Four Power Agreement following World War II was a total ban on German carriers' participation in air transport to Berlin, where access was restricted to American, British, French, and Soviet airlines. Since Schönefeld airport was located outside the city boundaries of Berlin, this restriction did not apply. Thus, aircraft of the East German flag carrier Interflug could use Schönefeld airport, while West German Lufthansa was denied access to Tegel or Tempelhof airports.

Development after German reunification: 1990–2020
Berlin Schönefeld Airport saw a major increase in passenger numbers over recent years, which was caused by the opening of bases for both easyJet and Germanwings. In 2008, the airport served 6.6 million passengers.

Following German reunification in 1990, operating three separate airports became increasingly cost-prohibitive, leading the Berlin legislature to pursue plans for a single airport that would be more efficient and would decrease the amount of aircraft noise from airports within the city. Therefore, it was decided to build Berlin Brandenburg Airport at the current site of Schönefeld Airport, originally scheduled to open in late 2012. For various reasons, mainly issues with the fire alarm/safety system, the opening was postponed to November 2020.

At the start of the winter season in 2012 Germanwings left Schönefeld for Berlin-Tegel to maintain closer operations within the Lufthansa Group there. However, to provide competition for Ryanair's new routes, Germanwings announced a return to Schönefeld in addition to their Tegel operations from October 2015.

Aer Lingus also announced it would switch airports within Berlin, from Schönefeld to Tegel, by March 2015. Meanwhile, Ryanair announced the establishment of their sixth German base in Schönefeld by 27 October 2015 by deploying five aircraft to the airport and adding 16 new routes.

On 2 May 2015, aircraft departing from Schönefeld became the first commercial flights to use the southern runway of the new Berlin Brandenburg Airport, which temporarily became Schönefeld's only runway while its own, which has become the northern runway of the new airport, was renovated.

Extension work at Schönefeld Airport was completed in 2016. Terminal K was extended by approx. 600 m2 and the baggage area was also enlarged by 40 per cent. Terminal M2, an entirely new arrival terminal was built west of Terminal M. Spanning almost 3800 m2, this building features three baggage carousels and the coach parking area was relocated to a new area in P6.

The airport continued to see exceptionally high growth of passenger numbers with Berlin's economic growth. As of November 2016, the airport operated near full capacity despite several additions to the infrastructure in recent years.

Closure
As of late 2018, construction works began to upgrade the airport's terminal and apron to provide higher capacity as part of its successor, nearby Berlin Brandenburg Airport. Previously, Schönefeld's facilities were supposed to be demolished to make way for a new government terminal.

On 25 October 2020, Schönefeld Airport became Terminal 5 of Berlin Brandenburg Airport. The IATA code SXF was discontinued on this day. Schönefeld's terminal buildings were intended to be used until the inauguration of a planned Terminal 3 by 2030 with Ryanair as their primary tenant.

However, in November 2020, it was announced that Terminal 5 would be closed due to low passenger numbers in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic in Germany, with all flights relocating to the main Terminal 1. The terminal was subsequently indefinitely closed on 22 February 2021.

In November 2022, it was announced that Terminal 5, the former Schönefeld Airport, would be permanently closed.

Facilities
Schönefeld Airport consisted of the four terminals A, B, C, and D which were renamed to K, L, M, and Q prior to the merger into the new Berlin Brandenburg Airport. These terminals were located next to each other but have separate landside areas. However, they were connected through a joint airside concourse. Terminal Q had no check-in facilities; it was used exclusively for passengers clearing security checks to enter the airside boarding gates. Due to a lack of space, there were not as many facilities as those at many other international airports. There are some shops, however, including duty-free, newsstands, a few fast food restaurants, and a single airline lounge.

Terminal A
The main building was the original part of the airport. It housed check-in for Terminals K and L. Terminal A featured check-in counters L01–L18, with the largest user being Ryanair alongside several other airlines like Aeroflot.

Terminal B
Terminal B, located in a side wing, was originally reserved for transit passengers to and from West Berlin who took advantage of cheaper airfares and package tours arranged by an East German travel agency. More recently it has been used exclusively by easyJet with check-in counters K20–K29 and has been refurbished in recent years. The airside consisted of three jet bridges as well as several walk-boarding aircraft stands located at Pier 3a, an extension that was opened in 2005. Pier 3a was under extensive reconstruction until mid-2019 to allow use as part of the new Berlin Brandenburg Airport.

Terminal C
Terminal C was originally built in the early 1980s as an external VIP lounge called "Sonderraum" (Special Room), and was tightly secured by the Ministry for State Security (Stasi). Only official guests of the East German government and its subordinated organizations were admitted. Check-in and all mandatory controls were either waived or done invisibly for travelers. After 1990, the Special Room was converted into Terminal C to accommodate highly security-sensitive flights like those of Israeli airlines, but also for charter flights to North America. It was reconfigured in 2008 to handle sightseeing trips and flights in connection with special events. It was further reconfigured in 2015 to provide access to all terminal gates. To reduce congestion in other terminals, it then housed additional security checkpoints for passengers who are checked in and have checked their luggage or only carry hand luggage.

Terminal D
Terminal D was opened in December 2005 due to rapidly growing passenger numbers. Being nearly identical to Terminal C at Berlin Tegel Airport, it featured check-in counters M40–M57, which were mainly used by Ryanair, Condor, and Norwegian Air Shuttle. It did not feature jet bridges but several walk-boarding stands. In November 2016, the new 4500 m2 large arrivals area D2 opened right next to Terminal D.

Other facilities

 * The head office of Private Wings has been located in the General Aviation Terminal on the property of Schönefeld Airport.
 * Before its demise, the East German flag carrier Interflug had its headquarters on the airport property.
 * Until Brandenburg Airport started construction c. 2006, 07L/25R was actually known as 07R/25L as Schönefeld had a different 07L/25R. This runway cut across the current Autobahn 113, with the approach lighting to the old runway 25R stretching into Bohnsdorf. This runway was about 8891 ft long - some 850 ft shorter than the then 07R/25L, and was surfaced with concrete slabs instead of asphalt pavement.

Airlines and destinations
Prior to its closure as an independent airport, Schönefeld had been served mostly by low-cost and leisure carriers with easyJet, Ryanair, Condor, and Wizz Air offering the most destinations. The airport did not see any long-haul traffic but did serve several dozen routes to European metropolitan and leisure destinations around the Mediterranean. Only a few legacy carriers preferred Schönefeld over Tegel Airport, most notably Aeroflot, El Al and Egypt Air.

Train
Berlin Schönefeld Airport was served by Berlin-Schönefeld Flughafen railway station, a short walking distance through a ground-level covered walkway from the airport terminals. Berlin Central Station (Berlin Hbf) was served directly by regional trains (RE Regional-Express or RB Regional-Bahn). These ran every 30 minutes and transit through Berlin Ostbahnhof, Alexanderplatz, Friedrichstraße, Berlin Central Station (after 30 minutes), Zoologischer Garten, Charlottenburg, and beyond. Berlin S-Bahn lines S9 and S45 ran every twenty minutes, but only the S9 went through Berlin Central Station.

Car
The airport could be reached via the nearby motorway A113 (Exit Schönefeld Süd) which itself is connected to motorways A100 which leads to Berlin city center and A10 which circles around Berlin and connects further to all directions.

Bus
The airport was linked by local BVG bus lines 162 (towards Adlershof) and 171 (towards Neukölln). Additionally the X7 bus service provided a connection to the Berlin U-Bahn network at Rudow Station. At night, the underground replacement bus N7 was available.

Accidents and incidents

 * On 14 August 1972, an Ilyushin Il-62 aircraft of Interflug (registered DM-SEA) crashed near Königs Wusterhausen shortly into a flight to Burgas, killing all 156 passengers and crew on board.
 * On 22 November 1977, a Tupolev Tu-134 aircraft of Interflug (registration DM-SCM) crashed upon landing at Schönefeld Airport due to a falsely configured autopilot. There were no fatalities among the 74 passengers and crew, but the aircraft was damaged beyond repair.
 * On 19 August 1978, LOT Polish Airlines Flight 165, a LOT flight from Gdańsk-Rębiechowo Airport to Schönefeld (carried out on a Tupolev Tu-134, registration SP-LGC), was hijacked and forced to land at Tempelhof Airport in West Berlin, thus having been used as a means for escaping the Eastern Bloc. In these cases, perpetrators were usually not charged by Western authorities.
 * On 12 December 1986, Aeroflot Flight 892 an Aeroflot Tupolev Tu-134 (registration CCCP-65795) coming from Minsk Airport crashed in Berlin Bohnsdorf on its approach towards Schönefeld airport, after having attempted to land on a runway that was temporarily blocked for construction work, killing 72 of the 82 passengers and crew on board.
 * On 17 June 1989, an Ilyushin Il-62 aircraft of Interflug (registration DDR-SEW) bound for Moscow crashed shortly after take-off into a field near the airport and caught fire. 21 people on board as well as one person on the ground were killed. The East German authorities feared an act of sabotage due to the anniversary of the East German uprising, which led to a delayed aid for injured people. West Berlin rescuers offering help were denied access to the scene. The cause for the accident was later given as a jammed rudder due to a manufacturing defect.
 * On 28 March 2000, a Boeing 737-300 of Germania (registration D-AGES) operating a charter flight on behalf of LTU from Tenerife South Airport to Schönefeld was the subject of an attempted hijack in mid-flight. A passenger forced his way into the cockpit, where he attacked the pilot, leading to a sudden loss of altitude. The perpetrator was restrained and the flight continued to Berlin.
 * On 19 June 2010, a 1944-built, historic Douglas DC-3 D-CXXX of Berlin Air Services crashed shortly after takeoff on a local sightseeing flight, causing 7 injuries but no fatalities.

title: Berlin Schönefeld Airport


text:
Pearl River (disambiguation)

The Pearl River is an extensive river system in southern China.

Pearl River may also refer to:
 * Pearl River (Mississippi–Louisiana), in the United States
 * Pearl River, an older name for Pearl Harbor in O'ahu, Hawai'i

Communities and administrative divisions
In the United States:
 * Pearl River, Louisiana
 * Pearl River, Mississippi
 * Pearl River, New York
 * Pearl River County, Mississippi
 * Pearl River County School District

In music

 * Pearl River Piano Group, the largest piano factory in the world
 * Pearl River (band), a country music band
 * Pearl River (album), the above band's second album

Other

 * Pearl Rivers — the nom de plume of Eliza Jane Poitevent Holbrook Nicholson
 * Pearl River (Metro-North station), New York train station
 * Pearl River Mart, New York City retail store
 * Pearl River Resort, Mississippi casino resort
 * Pearl River Community College, Mississippi community college
 * Pearl River Tower, business tower

title: Pearl River (disambiguation)


text:
SuperDisk

The SuperDisk LS-120 is a high-speed, high-capacity alternative to the 90 mm (3.5 in), 1.44 MB floppy disk. The SuperDisk hardware was created by 3M's storage products group Imation in 1996, with manufacturing chiefly by Matsushita.

The SuperDisk had little success in North America; with Compaq, Gateway and Dell being three of only a few OEMs who supported it. It was more successful in Asia and Australia, where the majority of second-generation SuperDisk LS-240 drives and disks were released. There was one model of LS-240 drive released in North America, by QPS. SuperDisk worldwide ceased manufacturing in 2003.

History
The design of the SuperDisk system came from an early 1990s project at Iomega. It is one of the last examples of floptical technology, where lasers are used to guide a magnetic head which is much smaller than those used in traditional floppy disk drives. Iomega orphaned the project around the time they decided to release the Zip drive in 1994. The idea eventually ended up at 3M, where the concept was refined and the design was licensed to established floppy drive makers Matsushita and Mitsubishi. Other companies involved in the development of SuperDisk include Compaq and OR Technology.

Matsushita continued development of the technology and released the LS-240. It has double the capacity of the LS-120 and the added feature of being able to format regular floppy disks to 32 MB capacity. However, this higher density comes at a price – the entire disk must be rewritten any time a change is made, much like early CD-RW media.

A SuperDisk drive was used in two Panasonic digital cameras, the PV-SD4090 and PV-SD5000, which allowed them to use both SuperDisk (LS120) and 3.5" floppy disks as the memory media..

Technical information
The SuperDisk's format was designed to supersede the floppy disk with its higher-capacity media that imitated the ubiquitous format with its own 120 MB (and later 240 MB) disk storage while the SuperDisk drive itself was backwards compatible with 1.44 MB and 720 KB floppy formats (MFM). Superdisk drives read and write faster to these sorts of disks than conventional 1.44 MB or 720 KB floppy drives..

The newer LS-240 drives also have the ability to read and write regular 1.44 MB floppies at much higher densities in a format called "FD32MB". Described in the help file for the SuperWriter32 application included with the driver package, the increase of capacity for FD32MB is achieved through the use of shingled magnetic recording (SMR) to reduce track pitch to 18.8μm from the standard 187.5μm allowing 777 tracks per side. This is combined with linear recording density improvements enabling 36-53 sectors per track through partial-response maximum-likelihood and zone bit recording.

The true capacity of these "SD120MB" drives is 120.375 MiB aka 126.22 MB (FAT16B with logical geometry 963/8/32 CHS × 512 bytes). The "SD240MB" drives have a capacity of 229.25 MiB aka 240.39 MB (FAT16B with logical geometry 262/32/56 CHS × 512 bytes). 1.44 MB HD floppies formatted to 32 MB as "FD32MB" (FAT16B with logical geometry 1024/2/32 CHS × 512 bytes) in the LS-240 show a dummy FAT12 file system (with logical geometries 160/2/9 or 80/2/18) when inserted into a normal floppy drive..

SuperDisk drives have been sold in parallel port, USB, ATAPI and SCSI variants. All drives can read and write 1.44 MB and 720 KiB MFM floppies, as used on PCs, Apple Macintoshes (High Density format only, see below), and many workstations. 2.88 MB floppy formats are not supported..

Imation also released a version of the SuperDisk with "Secured Encryption Technology", which uses Blowfish with a 64-bit key to encrypt the contents..

Criticism and obsolescence
Macintosh users found trouble making SuperDisk drives work with the GCR 800 KB or 400 KB diskettes used by older Macintoshes. These disks could be used in a SuperDisk drive only if formatted to PC 720 KB MFM format. Note that almost no other USB floppy drives supported Mac GCR floppies..

The biggest hurdle standing in the way of success was that Iomega's Zip drive had been out for three years when SuperDisk had been released. Zip had enough popularity to leave the public mostly uninterested in SuperDisk, despite its superior design and its compatibility with the standard floppy disk..

By 2000, the entire removable magnetic disk category was finally obsoleted by the falling prices of CD-R and CD-RW drives, and later on solid-state (USB flash drives or USB keydrives). Over the next few years, SuperDisk was quietly discontinued, even in areas where it was popular. Today, disks are very hard to find..

Under Windows XP, a USB SuperDisk drive will appear as a 3.5" floppy disk drive, receiving either the drive letter A: (if there is no floppy in the machine) or B: (if there already is one). This enables use by software that expects a floppy drive when 1.44 MB or 720 KB disks are inserted. 120 MB and 240 MB disks are also accessed via A: or B:.

Practicality
The USB models were quite popular for debugging and installing servers that did not have a CD drive available. They could both store massive numbers of drivers for installation purposes as well as be used to run live operating systems, such as ReactOS, which amounts to 150 MB..

title: SuperDisk


text:
Languedocien dialect

Languedocien (French name, ), Languedocian, or Lengadocian is an Occitan dialect spoken in rural parts of southern France such as Languedoc, Rouergue, Quercy, Agenais and Southern Périgord. It is sometimes also called Languedocien-Guyennais. Due to its central position among the dialects of Occitan, it is often used as a basis for a Standard Occitan.

About 10% of the population of Languedoc are fluent in the language (about 300,000), and another 20% (600,000) "have some understanding" of the language. All speak French as their first or second language.

Geographic distribution
Languedocien is spoken in certain parts of three French regions.

 * Occitanie: Aveyron, Lot, Tarn, Tarn-et-Garonne except Lomagne, Ariège (except a western part), Haute-Garonne (except the districts of Saint-Gaudens and Muret), Aude, Hérault, Lozère, western and northern parts of Gard and Fenouillèdes.
 * Nouvelle-Aquitaine: south of the Dordogne, east of the Gironde, north-eastern two-thirds of Lot-et-Garonne, the southern fringe of Corrèze.
 * Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes: area of Bas-Vivarois, Languedocien-Nord-Cévenol

Other dialects spoken in these areas include: Gascon, Catalan, Limousin, and Auvergnat, as well as the unrelated Basque language.

Characteristics
The following are the main characteristics of the Languedocien dialect:

 * occlusives are kept at the end of a word: cantat [kanˈtat] (in Provençal: [kãnˈta]);
 * preservation of the final s of a word: los òmes [luˈzɔmes] (in Limousin: [luzɔˈmej]);
 * the final n of a word is dropped: occitan [utsiˈta] (in Provençal: [usiˈtãn]);
 * absence of palatalisation of CA and GA groups: cantar, gal (in Auvergnat: chantar, jal);
 * preservation of the final l of a word (i.e. not vocalised): provençal (in Provençal and in Gascon: provençau);
 * lack of distinction between the sounds b and v (betacism): vin [bi] (in Auvergnat, Limousin and Provençal: [vji], [vi], [vin]).

None of these characteristics are unique to Languedocien; many are shared with one or more other Occitan dialects. Languedocien is both a central and conservative dialect. For these reasons, certain linguists are in favour of a standardisation of Occitan using Languedocien as a basis for this.

Variations
Languedocien encompasses a number of variations, the classification of which is still ongoing.

Jules Ronjat gives three sub-groups:

 * Eastern Languedocien dialects: Alésien, Montpelliérain, Lodévois, and Bitterrois (the latter tending towards Western Languedocien).
 * Western Languedocien dialects: Narbonnais, Carcassonnais, Toulousain (including Fuxéen and Capcinois), Albigeois, Montalbanais, Agenais (the latter tending towards Guyennais and Gascon).
 * Guyennais dialects: Rouergat, Gévaudanais (Lozère, Cévennes), Quercinois, Aurillacois, Sarladais, Bergeracois.
 * He also classes Bas-Vivarois as a Languedocien dialect but separate from the above categories.

Louis Alibert uses four sub-groups:

 * Eastern dialects: Cévenol, Montpelliérain, Bitterois.
 * Southern dialects: Toulousain, Fuxéen, Donezanais, Narbonnais, "Central" (Carcassonais), Agenais.
 * Western dialects: Bergeracois, Villeneuvois, Sarladais, Haut-Quercinois, Bas-Quercinois, Albigeois.
 * Northern dialects: Aurillacois, Rouergat, Gévaudanais.

Domergue Sumien defines the categories thus:

 * Eastern dialects: Cévenol, Montpelliérain.
 * Southern dialects: Toulousain, Fuxéen, Donezanais, Narbonnais, Carcassonais.
 * Western dialects: Bas-Quercinois, Albigeois, Agenais, Bitterois.
 * Northern dialects: Bergeracois, Villeneuvois, Sarladais, Haut-Quercinois, Aurillacois, Rouergat, Gévaudanais, Bas-Vivarois.

In their supra-dialectal classification of Occitan, Pierre Bec and Domergue Sumien divide Languedocien into one or two supra-dialectal groups:

 * Pierre Bec places Southern Languedocien dialects in the Aquitanian-Pyrenean group and the rest of the Languedocien dialects in the Central Occitanian group.
 * Domergue Sumien classifies these Languedocien dialects similarly, but groups both Aquitanian-Pyrenean and Central Occitanian under the title of Pre-Iberian.

Usage
With the absence of a linguistic census, it is difficult to obtain exact figures on the number of speakers. The most recent global studies on Occitan say the number of speakers ranges from 500,000 to 700,000 for the language as a whole. UNESCO, which is the only organisation to treat Languedocien independently, estimates the number at around 500,000, and considers the language under serious threat.

title: Languedocien dialect


text:
Atticus of Constantinople

Atticus (Ἀττικός; died 10 October 425) was an archbishop of Constantinople, succeeding to the episcopal throne in March 406. He is known for having been an opponent of John Chrysostom whom he helped depose, and having rebuilt the small church that was located on the site of the later Hagia Sophia. He was an opponent of the Pelagians, which helped increase his popularity among the citizens of Constantinople, and he contributed to the theological framework for the developing cult of the Virgin Mary.

Biography
Born at Sebaste in Armenia in the second half of the 4th century, Atticus early embraced a monastic life and received his education from Macedonian monks, a fact which restricted his philosophical learning and ensured he would always have an Armenian accent considered unpleasant to Greek ears. Removing to Constantinople, he adopted the orthodox faith, was ordained presbyter, and soon became known as a rising man for his intelligence, charm, and political moderation. He proved himself one of Chrysostom's most bitter adversaries. If not, as Palladius of Galatia asserts, the architect of the whole cabal, he certainly took a leading part in carrying it into execution. The organization of the Synod of the Oak owed much to his practical skill and he was one of the seven witnesses called to testify against Chrysostom. The expulsion of Chrysostom took place 10 June 404 and his successor, the aged Arsacius who was the brother of Chrystom's predecessor Nectarius, died 5 November 405. Four months of intrigue ended in the selection of Atticus.

Vigorous measures were at once adopted by Atticus in conjunction with the other members of the triumvirate to which the Eastern church had been subjected, Theophilus of Alexandria, and Porphyry of Antioch, to crush the adherents of Chrysostom. An imperial rescript was obtained imposing the severest penalties on all who dared to reject the communion of the patriarchs. A large number of the bishops of the East persevered in the refusal, and suffered a cruel persecution; while even the inferior clergy and laity were compelled to keep themselves in concealment or to flee the country. The small minority of Eastern bishops who for peace's sake deserted Chrysostom's cause were made to feel the guilt of having once supported it, being compelled to leave their sees and take other dioceses in the inhospitable regions of Thrace, where they might be more under Atticus's eye and hand.

Unity seemed hardly nearer when the death of Chrysostom (14 September 407) removed the original ground of the schism. A large proportion of the Christian population of Constantinople still supported their former bishop, with many refusing communion with the man they considered a usurper and continuing to hold their religious assemblies, more numerously attended than the churches, in the open air in the suburbs of the city. Atticus subsequently made strides to reconcile with the 'Johannites", placing Chrysostom's name in the diptychs of the Church around 412–415. Nevertheless, the internal schism would last until the late bishop's memory was fully rehabilitated with the transfer of his relics to the capital two decades later.

In 408 Emperor Arcadius died, leaving behind a son, Theodosius II, and three daughters, all of whom were children. Thus the affairs of state and the education of the youthful Imperial Family were managed by a regency government of which Atticus played a leading part. Atticus gained particular influence over the princesses, Pulcheria, Arcadia, and Marina. His episcopacy saw a period of prosperity and peace for church and empire; shrines, monasteries and churches were built throughout the capital, the walls of which were greatly expanded in 412. The iconic Church of the Holy Wisdom was rebuilt after a fire.

Some time before 425, Atticus received a delegation of Armenian clergymen who sought to secure approval for using the newly invented Armenian alphabet. Persian and Syrian influence was growing in the Armenian Church during this time, and Bishop Atticus had to navigate a diplomatically sensitive affair.

Atticus's 19 year archepiscopal endeavours were vigorously directed to the maintenance and enlargement of the authority of the see of Constantinople. He obtained a rescript from emperor Theodosius II subjecting to it the whole of Illyria and the "Provincia Orientalis." This gave great offence to Pope Boniface I and the emperor Honorius, and the decree was never put into execution. Another rescript declaring his right to decide on and approve of the election of all the bishops of the province was more effectual. Silvanus was named by him bishop of Philippopolis, and afterwards removed to Alexandria Troas. Atticus asserted his right to ordain in Bithynia, and put it in practice at Nicaea in 425.

He died on 10 October 425.

Anti-heretical endeavours
Though he was lenient toward the Novatians and the partisans of John Chrysostom, Atticus displayed great vigour in combating and repressing heresy. He wrote to the bishops of Pamphylia and to Amphilochius of Iconium, calling on them to drive out the Messalians (Phot. c. 52). He likewise strove against the lingering adherents of Arianism and Apollinarianism in his Letter to Eupsychius, in which he affirmed that "God sufferred in a body" and that Jesus is "self-same God and man." The letter was later recognised at the Council of Chalcedon.

Socrates Scholasticus, who is a partial witness, attributes to him a sweet and winning disposition which caused him to be regarded with much affection. Those who thought with him found in him a warm friend and supporter. Towards his theological adversaries he at first showed great severity, and after they submitted, changed his behaviour and won them by gentleness. He characterised Atticus as spending whole nights in study of "the ancients".

The zeal and energy he displayed against the Pelagians are highly commended by Pope Celestine I, who goes so far as to posthumously style him "a true successor of St. Chrysostom".; Theod. Ep. cxlv. ). His writings were quoted as those of an orthodox teacher by the councils of Ephesus and Chalcedon. Atticus was more an administrator than a writer, and of what he did publish little remains. A treatise On Faith and Virginity, combating by anticipation the errors of Nestorius, addressed to emperor Theodosius I's daughters Pulcheria and her sisters, is mentioned by Marcellinus. Constas esteems that it "probably contributed to the princesses' decision to embrace virginity and asceticism, tied up with burgeoning Marian devotion.

Mariology
Atticus played a noteworthy role in the development of Marian theology. He used the term Theotokos long before the outbreak of the Nestorian controversy, and has been reckoned among the earliest champions of the cult of the Virgin. In the Letter to Eupsychius he "stressed the importance of Mary for a proper understanding of orthodox christology", characterising Mary's womb as that which "like heaven, receives God" in emphasising the wonder of the divine maternity. Constas identifies this strong Christological-Mariological synthesis in the intellectual and devotional climate of the city, building upon earlier works by figures like the Cappadocians, as the catalyst for later Nestorian repudiation. The Bishop's comparative lack of rhetorical erudition was offset by his talented secretary Proclus who acted as his ghost-writer. Because of his reputation for devotion to Mary, it is probable that the first official Marian feast in Constantinople, held during the Nativity cycle, was introduced during Atticus' tenure.

Veneration
He is highly regarded for his charity and piety and is venerated as a Saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church, which observes his feast on 8 January.

title: Atticus of Constantinople


text:
Peterborough (disambiguation)

Peterborough is a city in the county of Cambridgeshire, England, formerly in Northamptonshire.

Peterborough may also refer to:

Australia

 * Peterborough, South Australia
 * Peterborough, Victoria

Canada

 * Peterborough (electoral district), Ontario
 * Peterborough (provincial electoral district), Ontario
 * Peterborough, Ontario
 * Peterborough County, Ontario

England

 * Peterborough (UK Parliament constituency), Cambridgeshire
 * City of Peterborough, a district of Cambridgeshire
 * Peterborough Rural District, a former district of England
 * Soke of Peterborough, a historic area in England

United States

 * Peterborough, New Hampshire, a New England town
 * Peterborough (CDP), New Hampshire, the main village in the town

Other uses

 * Peterborough (HM Prison), in Peterborough, England
 * Peterborough railway station, the railway station in Peterborough, England
 * Peterborough United F.C., a football team in the English Championship
 * HMCS Peterborough, 1944 Royal Canadian Navy corvette
 * BR Standard Class 5 73050, a preserved British steam locomotive

title: Peterborough (disambiguation)