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Chandragupta I

Chandragupta I (Gupta script: Gupta allahabad ndr.jpgGupta allahabad pt.jpg Cha-ndra-gu-pta, r. c. 319–335/350 CE) was a king of the Gupta Empire, who ruled in northern and central India. His title Mahārājadhirāja ("Great king of kings") suggests that he was the first emperor of the dynasty. It is not certain how he turned his small ancestral kingdom into an empire, although a widely accepted theory among modern historians is that his marriage to the Licchavi princess Kumaradevi helped him extend his political power. Their son Samudragupta further expanded the Gupta empire.

Period of reign
Chandragupta was a son of the Gupta king Ghatotkacha, and a grandson of the dynasty's founder Gupta, both of whom are called Maharaja ("great king") in the Allahabad Pillar inscription. Chandragupta assumed the title Maharajadhiraja ( "great king of kings") and issued gold coins, which suggests that he was the first imperial ruler of the dynasty.

Chandragupta certainly reigned in the first quarter of the 4th century CE, but the exact period of his reign is uncertain. His assumption of the title Maharajadhiraja has led to suggestions that he founded the Gupta calendar era, and that the epoch of this era marks his coronation. Based on this argument, several historians, including V. A. Smith and P. L. Gupta, date Chandragupta's ascension to 319–320 CE, which they believe to be the beginning of the Gupta era. However, this is merely an assumption, and the identity of the founder of the Gupta era is not certain. Some historians, such as D. C. Sircar and R. C. Majumdar, theorize that the Gupta era marks the coronation of his son Samudragupta. S. R. Goyal theorizes that the era was started by the later king Chandragupta II, but its beginning was dated to Samudragupta's ascension.

Chandragupta I probably had a long reign, as the Allahabad Pillar inscription suggests that he appointed his son as his successor, presumably after reaching an old age. However, the exact period of his reign is debated.

Various estimates for Chandragupta's reign include:

 * A. S. Altekar: 305–325 CE
 * S. R. Goyal: 319–350 CE
 * Tej Ram Sharma: 319–353 CE
 * Upinder Singh: 319-335/336 CE CE

Marriage to Kumaradevi
Chandragupta married the Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi. Licchavi is the name of an ancient clan that was headquartered at Vaishali in present-day Bihar during the time of Gautama Buddha. A Lichchhavi kingdom existed in the present-day Nepal in the first millennium CE. However, the identity of Kumaradevi's Lichchhavi kingdom is not certain.

An 8th-century inscription of the Lichchhavi dynasty of Nepal claims that their legendary ancestor Supushpa was born in the royal family of Pushpapura, that is, Pataliputra in Magadha. According to some historians, such as V. A. Smith, the Lichchhavis ruled at Pataliputra during Samudragupta's time. However, this inscription states that Supushpa ruled 38 generations before the 5th-century king Manadeva, that is, centuries before Chandragupta's period. Therefore, the claim made in this inscription, even if true, cannot be taken as concrete evidence of the Lichchhavi rule at Pataliputra during Chandragupta's time.

The Lichchhavi kingdom of Kumaradevi is unlikely to have been located in present-day Nepal because Samudragupta's Allahabad Pillar inscription mentions Nepala (that is, Nepal) as a distinct, subordinate kingdom. Given the lack of any other evidence, historian R. C. Majumdar assumed that during Chandragupta's time, the Lichchhavis ruled at Vaishali, which is the only other base of the clan known from the historical records.

Impact of marriage
The gold coins attributed to Chandragupta bear portraits of Chandragupta and Kumaradevi, and the legend Lichchhavayah ("the Lichchhavis"). Their son Samudragupta is described as Lichchhavi-dauhitra ("Lichchhavi daughter's son") in the Gupta inscriptions. Except Kumaradevi, these inscriptions do not mention the paternal family of the dynasty's queens, which suggests that the Gupta family considered Kumaradevi's marriage to Chandragupta an important event.

Numismatist John Allan theorized that Chandragupta defeated a Lichchhavi kingdom headquartered at Vaishali, and that Kumaradevi's marriage to him happened as part of a peace treaty. He suggested that the Guptas considered this marriage a prestigious one simply because of the ancient lineage of the Lichchhavis. However, the ancient text Manusamhita regards the Lichchhavis as "unorthodox and impure" (vratya). Therefore, it is unlikely that the Guptas proudly mentioned Samudragupta's Lichchhavi ancestry to increase their social prestige. Also, it is unlikely that the Guptas allowed the name of the Lichchhavis to appear on the dynasty's coins after defeating them.

It is more likely that the marriage helped Chandragupta extend his political power and dominions, enabling him to adopt the title Maharajadhiraja. The appearance of the Lichchhavis' name on the coins is probably symbolic of their contribution to the expansion of the Gupta power. After the marriage, Chandragupta probably became the ruler of the Lichchhavi territories. Alternatively, it is possible that the Gupta and the Lichchhavi states formed a union, with Chandragupta and Kumaradevi being regarded as the sovereign rulers of their respective states, until the reign of their son Samudragupta, who became the sole ruler of the united kingdom.

Extent of kingdom
Little is known about Chandragupta other than his ancestry, his marriage, and his expansion of the Gupta power, as evident from his title Maharajadhiraja. The territorial extent of Chandragupta's kingdom is not known, but it must have been substantially larger than that of the earlier Gupta kings, as Chandragupta bore the title Maharajadhiraja. Modern historians have attempted to determine the extent of his kingdom based on the information from the Puranas and the Allahabad Pillar inscription issued by his son Samudragupta.

The Allahabad Pillar inscription names several kings subjugated by Samudragupta. Based on the identity of these kings, several modern historians have tried to determine the extent of the territory that he must have inherited from Chandragupta. For example, since the king of the northern part of the Bengal region is not mentioned among the kings subjugated by Samudragupta, these historians theorize that northern Bengal was a part of Chandragupta's kingdom. However, such conclusions cannot be made with certainty, as the identity of several of the kings subjugated by Samudragupta is a matter of debate. Nevertheless, the information from the inscription can be used to determine the territories that were not a part of Chandragupta's kingdom:

 * In the west, Chandragupta's kingdom probably did not extend much beyond Prayaga (modern Prayagraja), as Samudragupta defeated the kings of present-day western Uttar Pradesh.
 * In the south, Chandragupta's kingdom did not include the Mahakoshala area of Central India, as Samudragupta defeated the kings of the forest region, which is identified with this area.
 * In the east, Chandragupta's kingdom did not include southern Bengal, because the Allahabad Pillar inscription mentions Samatata in that region as a frontier kingdom. Moreover, the Delhi Iron Pillar inscription suggests that Vanga kingdom in that region was conquered by the later king Chandragupta II.
 * In the north, the Allahabad Pillar inscription mentions Nepala (in present-day Nepal) as a frontier kingdom.

A passage in the Vayu Purana states that the Guptas ruled over Saketa (modern Ayodhya), Prayaga, and Magadha. Based on this, multiple modern scholars have theorized that Chandragupta ruled over these territories. However, this conclusion is not certain, as the Vayu Purana does not mention the name of a specific ruler. Scholars critical of this theory argue that the passage describes the territories of either the dynasty's founder Gupta or its 6th century rulers who oversaw the kingdom's decline. Critics also point out that the corresponding passage in the Vishnu Purana states that the Guptas and the Magadhas jointly ruled over Prayaga and Magadha, and does not mention Saketa at all. The corresponding passage in the various manuscripts of Bhagavata Purana either does not mention the word "Gupta", or uses it as a common noun meaning "protected" instead of using it as the name of a specific dynasty. Even somes manuscripts of the Vayu Purana use the words "Guhya", "Sapta" or "Manidhanyaka" instead of "Gupta". Supporters of the theory dismiss these as scribal mistakes. Historian Ashvini Agrawal argues that the Vayu Purana passage cannot be a reference to the Gupta territories during the empire's period of decline, as it does not mention Bengal, which formed a part of the Gupta kingdom during this period.

According to historian R. C. Majumdar, Chandragupta's kingdom may have included the whole of present-day Bihar, and a part of present-day Uttar Pradesh and Bengal. Historian Dilip Kumar Ganguly believes that he ruled a large kingdom extending from Allahabad in the west to the Ganga river in Bengal in the east; the kingdom excluded south-eastern Bengal (Samatata), southern Bengal (Vanga), eastern Bengal, and western Bengal (the kingdom of Chandravarman). Historian Ashvini Agarwal states that his kingdom included central and eastern Uttar Pradesh (including Prayaga and Awadh), and Bihar; but not Bengal.

Coinage
Gold coins bearing portraits of Chandragupta and Kumaradevi have been discovered at Mathura, Ayodhya, Lucknow, Sitapur, Tanda, Ghazipur, and Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh; Bayana in Rajasthan; and Hajipur in Bihar. The obverse of these coins depicts portraits of Chandragupta and Kumaradevi, with their names in the Gupta script. The reverse shows a goddess seated on a lion, with the legend "Li-ccha-va-yah" ( 𑁊 , "the Lichchhavis").

Various scholars, including numismatist John Allan, have considered that the gold coins bearing the portraits of Chandragupta and Kumaradevi were issued by Samudragupta to commemorate his parents, while others have attributed the issue of these coins to Chandragupta himself, or even suggested that these coins were issued by the Lichchhavis.

V. S. Pathak theorized that the coins show the royal couple in the vaivahika (nuptial) pose, but there is no concrete evidence that the coins depict the royal wedding. S.V. Sohoni theorized that the coins depicted Chandragupta taking leave of Kumaradevi while going on a military campaign, but this is doubtful given the lack of a phrase indicative of military prowess (unlike the coins of their son Samudragupta). The coins probably simply depict Chandragupta and Kumaradevi as joint rulers.

The identity of the female figure appearing on the reverse of these coins is uncertain. It is unlikely that she was a Gupta queen, as the depiction of a female figure seated on a lion is characteristic of a goddess in historical art of India. Some historians, such as A. S. Altekar, have identified the goddess as Durga. However, although Durga is often represented as seated on a lion, this attribute is not unique to her: Lakshmi has also been depicted as seated on a lion. For example, Hemadri's works mention Simha-vahini ("having lion as her vahana") Lakshmi, and images from Khajuraho depict Simha-vahini Gajalakshmi. Some scholars, such as John Allan, have identified the goddess on the coins as Lakshmi, who is the goddess of fortune and the wife of Vishnu. She may have been featured on the coins as a symbol of the Guptas' royal prosperity, or as a mark of their Vaishnavite affiliation, but this cannot be said with certainty. The goddess may also have been a tutelary goddess of the Lichchhavis, whose name appears below her image, but this cannot be said with certainty either.

Successor
The Allahabad Pillar inscription and the Eran stone inscription of Samudragupta state that his father Chandragupta selected him as the next king. The Allahabad Pillar inscription states that Chandragupta appointed him to "protect the earth", which suggests that Chandragupta renounced the throne in his old age, and appointed his son as the next king.

The discovery of the coins issued by a Gupta ruler named Kacha have led to some debate about Chandragupta's successor. According to one theory, Kacha was another name for Samudragupta. Another theory is that Kacha was the elder brother of Samudragupta, and succeeded their father Chandragupta.

The Kaliyuga-raja-vrttanta section of the Bhavishyottara Purana mentions that Kacha was a son of Chandragupta I from a Licchavi princess. It describes Kacha as jointly ruling with his father, and states that Samudragupta killed their father. However, these passages (and possibly the entire text) are a modern forgery.

title: Chandragupta I


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Talk:Fallacies of definition

Pleonasm
I would argue that "unmarried adult male" is a pleonasm. If one is confused about "bachelor" but not "marriage" or "males" then one knows that only adults marry. There are exceptions to everything but, as we say in french, the exception confirms the rule. The sentient being business isn't very helpful either, as some might argue that X is "male," "adult," "sentient," and a "being" (e.g., God*) and yet claim that it isn't right to say that X is a bachelor. Therefore, I don't think that "unmarried male" is a worse definition than "unmmaried adult male sentient being."

(*) (I'm an atheist. Don't bother me with your theology. This is an example.)

Loisel 03:25 3 Jul 2003 (UTC)

I think "Unmarried adult male Homo Sapiens" is better.

-- Reductio ad absurdum seems to talk about the same matter.

What is saying that God isn't a bachelor? CherubAgent1440 (talk) 09:55, 21 September 2020 (UTC)

Good examples to complement the bad ones
The examples in this article would be more useful if each bad definition were accompanied by a good one. --Doradus 18:48, Jan 8, 2005 (UTC)

Circularity
Circular definitions aren't necessarily invalid. For example, the recursive definition of an ancestor as "one's parent, or one's parent's ancestor", is legitimate and arguably useful.

It is also legitimate to define a term using a synonym or near synonym, so long as the synonym has a clear, independent definition.

Townmouse 00:14, 30 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Is that really a circular definition, or a subset, where all A's are B's, all B's are A's? Parents are ancestors and ancestors are parents, but the idea that a parent could be "one's ancestor's parent" is preposterous in the case of a childless bachelor. Go figure. That situationalism example is better. MMetro 10:04, 12 October 2007 (UTC)

 * A recursive definition isn't circular as long as it provides an "out" by bringing in entities whose definition is not in terms of entities defined by the recursive definition; parents in this case. The definition of "ancestor" is being made in terms of the definition of "parent". The given definition is an abbreviation of "a person's ancestors are that person's parents, their parents' parents, their parents' parents' parents, their parents' parents' parents' parents, ...". One can start by marking one's parents as "ancestors"; then locate their parents, and mark them as "ancestors". If you encounter a parent who is already marked as an "ancestor", you don't need to continue along their branch of the family tree. The circularity disappears because you are only looking at people's parents, and identifying those doesn't depend on the meaning of "ancestor". Even if the person in question appears in one of those later groups (I'm my own grandpa) there is no circularity, any more than any other person appearing more than once (my parents are 17th cousins); one's ancestors consist of those people that are reached by following the transitive closure of the "parent" relation.

I have a problem with the claim that circular definitions are automatically fallacious. All definitions are, by necessity, circular. Take a dictionary of the entire English language (or some appropriate subset of the language). Now, every word in the dictionary is defined using the English language, which means each word is defined in terms of the other words, which are in turn defined in terms of still other words. Even words not used in the definition of another word are still circular, because every definition will eventually result in one or more loops of some type.

Of course, this all makes sense as soon as we realize that words aren't defined by dictionaries, but by experience, and that dictionaries assume the reader already knows a decent number of words through experience, from which base the rest of the language can be defined. But it also means the definition "Judaism is the religion of the Jews", and a reverse definition "Jews are people who practice Judaism" are perfectly acceptable, under the assumption that the reader already knows one of the two definitions.

A fallaciously circular definition is then a definition which happens to be useless to the particular reader because that reader doesn't have the appropriate real-world experience with which to understand the necessarily circular definitions. The definitions above are likely to be fallaciously circular to anyone who doesn't already know them, but aren't inherently so. 199.127.114.114 (talk) 02:07, 5 March 2017 (UTC)

Another problem in the Circularity section is the "inflammable liquid" definition. "Liquid" isn't circular with "liquid", it is "liquid". The assumption there is that most people already know the word "liquid" without extra help. "Inflammable", on the other hand, is a rather odd word, because most people would look at the prefix "in" and logically conclude it means "not", as in "incapable", "indescribable", etc. So defining "inflammable" as "easily bursts into flames" tells the reader their default presumption is wrong and gives a correct definition.

From there, the phrase "easily bursts into flames" isn't directly circular with "inflammable". You might well see the word as a synonym of the phrase, but the phrase will be defined by the constituent words "easily", "bursts", "into", and "flames". From Merriam-Webster, those words are defined as "without difficulty", "to emerge or spring suddenly" (the phrase "burst into flames" is given here as an example, but not a definition), "to the state, condition, or form of", and "a state of blazing combustion" (again, the phrase "the car burst into flame" is used as an example, but not a definition), respectively.

As I mentioned above, all words are indirectly circular, but "inflammable liquid" isn't directly circular using the definition of "inflammable" currently given with Merriam-Webster's definitions of the words from there, and is therefore a bad example of a fallaciously circular definition. 199.127.114.114 (talk) 02:57, 5 March 2017 (UTC)

Article name
Should this article not be named in the singular - "Fallacy of definition"? I'm not a logician so I'll leave it to others. Rwxrwxrwx 13:28, 4 November 2006 (UTC)

There are several different kinds of definition fallacies:

Incongruous Definition, Negative Definition, Obscure or figurative Definition, Extraneous Definition

yes they are all about a defintion, but they are different kinds of fallacies, therefore fallacies of defintion! :) —Preceding unsigned comment added by 81.111.237.157 (talk) 04:05, 25 November 2009 (UTC)

Defining with a near synonym
The meanings of 'beautiful' and 'aesthetic' are nothing like synonymous! Bitbut 03:30, 25 May 2007 (UTC)

Over-narrow definition
This may be a bit nitpicky, but "object used to sit on" doesn't seem like a too narrow definition to me. After all, you can use a table, wardrobe, bed, etc to sit on. Wouldn't "designed to be sat on" "or meant to be sat on" make a better example? Baranxtu (talk) 08:51, 23 July 2008 (UTC)

Merger proposal
I propose that Fallacies of definition be merged into Formal fallacy. I think that the content in this article does not warrant it having its own exclusive article. With all due respect, Orpherebus. (talk) 02:43, 28 April 2012 (UTC)
 * I took a look at Formal fallacy, and I'm not sure I agree with you that merger would be a good idea. Formal fallacy defines its subject as "is a pattern of reasoning that is always wrong", and the fallacy of definition is not a fallacy of reasoning. Furthermore, the other article's "See also" section refers to many others whose common theme seems to be "unsound thinking", such as Cognitive bias, Demagogy, Fallacy, False statement, Invalid proof, and Sophism. I added the present article to the list, and added Fallacy and Formal fallacy to the present article's "See also" section. Is this a satisfactory solution to you? Teemu Leisti (talk) 11:59, 12 August 2012 (UTC)
 * I disagree. A formal fallacy is a defect which can be identified by analyzing the logical structure of an argument. However a fallacy of definition is false due to its premise. This article should not be merged there. Slacka123 (talk) 03:13, 6 October 2012 (UTC)
 * A "formal fallacy" is a flaw in logical deduction, whereas a "fallacy of definition" would be an example of an informal fallacy. I've changed the suggested merge target accordingly.—Machine Elf 1735  10:54, 17 October 2012 (UTC)

Definitions are not arguments, though they may be used in such, and they may be argued about. In light of this, and seeing as this proposal hasn't attracted any support, I am closing this proposal as failed. If anyone objects, they are of course welcome to revive the discussion. Paradoctor (talk) 12:19, 23 July 2014 (UTC)

Introductory Paragraph
Both sentences in the introduction make the use/mention error (see WP:REFERS), and I can't parse the meaning of the second sentence. I would prefer something like "Fallacies of definition are ways in which a definition may fail to be meaningful. They are examples of informal fallacies." 2001:44B8:5129:A700:5842:BA72:69BC:6C96 (talk) 08:34, 9 July 2013 (UTC)

Added example for Circularity
I find it clearer with an example; however I could only think of this one. If a better one comes to you, please feel free to change it, of course. Cheers, Thouny (talk) 00:04, 15 January 2014 (UTC)

Self-contradictory statements in context
I am not sure the example given in this paragraph is actually self-contradicting. There are 2 elements required for 'society to be free', liberty should be _maximized_(made as big or great _as possible_) AND people should take responsibility for their actions.Ezetreal (talk) 18:31, 18 March 2014 (UTC)
 * I scrapped it, I'm certain we can do better. Paradoctor (talk) 15:24, 28 August 2014 (UTC)

For clarity, the scrapped example referred to above: Hyacinth (talk) 15:28, 28 August 2014 (UTC)
 * Often statements can contradict themselves due to a difference in definitions while defining something. For example, the statement "A society is free if and only if liberty is maximized and people are required to take responsibility for their actions" is true or paradoxical, depending on the individual's definition of liberty. If liberty is taken to mean "the ability to exercise one's rights as provided for by the law and nature" then this is true, but if it means "the state when one is not held to nor required to perform anything against their will" then this is clearly false.

 * The quote or statement "A society is free if and only if liberty is maximized and people are required to take responsibility for their actions" is awesome. Where is it from? Misty MH (talk) 06:54, 8 April 2018 (UTC)

Examples
What is the criteria for including or excluding examples? Hyacinth (talk) 15:30, 28 August 2014 (UTC)
 * Just my opinion: Ideally, one used widely in the relevant literature, literally a textbook example. Other than that, editorial consensus, with a default of "none". I object to the "circular definition" example because it is directly self-referential. I daresay that circular definitions are usually considerably less painfully obvious. You'll note that the article talks about pairs of definitions, each relying on the other. I would support an illustration of this kind.
 * In general, I think the "start-class" rating for this article is rather generous. What is sorely needed is solid sources, not just two WP:SPS, one of which may at least be presumed remotely "expert" on the topic. Paradoctor (talk) 16:00, 28 August 2014 (UTC)

 * That is criteria for inclusion. What makes the current examples, none of which are cited and none of which are cited as widely used, acceptable?
 * What is the pair of definitions discussed for "square"?
 * Hyacinth (talk) 16:40, 28 August 2014 (UTC)

 * "pair of definitions" If you kindly check the text again, you'll see that one these is not a definition of "square". I think it is time for a WP:COOLing break. Later. Paradoctor (talk) 16:58, 28 August 2014 (UTC)

 * I'm not sure how/why I upset you. How about you quote the two definitions of square here. Hyacinth (talk) 23:11, 28 August 2014 (UTC)

Mutual exclusivity
This section could probably be worded more carefully. I had some trouble trying to figure out what was event intended. I originally thought it referred to what the article calls "Self-contradictory requirements". At this point I 'believe' the intended meaning is "no part of the false definition is present in a correct definition, and no part of a correct definition is present in the false definition". (Although either half of that sentence is sufficient, I assume the "mutual" part of the label is intended to imply both halves.)

If my interpretation is correct, then the example is incorrect, since cows are, in fact, animals. Instead of "cows are flying animals with no legs", "cows are flying insects with no legs", or something, would be better. 199.127.114.114 (talk) 02:25, 5 March 2017 (UTC)

Self-contradictory requirements
Dynamic equilibrium can exist. CherubAgent1440 (talk) 09:58, 21 September 2020 (UTC)

 * Of course it can. A well-known concept in physics. I have removed the example. MichaelMaggs (talk) 08:21, 25 April 2024 (UTC)

Needs expansion?
Just been through the article The sections seemed short Should a template saying they need expansion John Kryten (talk) 15:37, 24 April 2024 (UTC)

 * The article does need a lot of work, but to be honest I doubt that such a template would help. It doesn't in practice seem to attract editors. MichaelMaggs (talk) 08:23, 25 April 2024 (UTC)
 * I see What should we do with the article then John Kryten (talk) 14:24, 25 April 2024 (UTC)
 * I think it needs some fundamental work. Even "fallacy of definition" needs a better definition. The whole thing needs better, more scholarly, sources. There are very few sources that use that term, and it seems to be a rag-bag of definitional isues, most of which not fallacies at all. MichaelMaggs (talk) 14:33, 25 April 2024 (UTC)
 * I will look for some more sources John Kryten (talk) 16:47, 25 April 2024 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Fallacies of definition


text:
Ghatotkacha

Ghatotkacha (घटोत्कच, ; lit. 'Bald Pot') is a prominent character in the ancient Indian epic Mahabharata. His name comes from the fact that his head was hairless (utkacha) and shaped like a ghatam, or a pot. Ghatotkacha was the son of the Pandava Bhima and the demoness Hidimbi, and thus a half-human, half-demon hybrid.

He is the father of Anjanparva, Barbarika and Meghavarna. As the head of one akshauhini army, he was an important fighter from the Pandava side in the Kurukshetra war and caused a great deal of destruction to the Kaurava army. Ghatotkacha killed many demons like Alambusha, Alayudha, and many gigantic Asuras. He was specifically called out as the warrior who forced Karna to use his Vasavi Shakti weapon, and courted a hero’s death in the great war.

Birth and legends
On the burning of the 'Lakshagriha', the Pandavas escape through a tunnel and reach a forest. While they were sleeping, the demon chief Hidimba in the forest sees the Pandavas from the top of a tree, and he appoints his sister Hidimbi to bring them to him for food.

Hidimbi goes to the Pandavas in the guise of a beautiful woman. She is attracted to Bhima and prays for the return of her love. She alerts the Pandavas to her brother's demands, pleading with them to leave the forest; however, Bhima refuses. Impatient at the delay, Hidimba runs towards the Pandavas but is slain by Bhima.

Hidimbi then approaches Kunti and requests Bhima's hand in marriage. The Pandavas agree to the proposal on the condition that once a child is born to Hidimbi, they'd have to continue their peregrinations. Later, Ghatotkacha is born to Hidimbi and Bhima. Indra bestows on Ghaṭotkacha prowess enough to be a suitable opponent to Karna.

Ghatotkacha grows up under the care of Hidimbi. Like his father, Ghatotkacha's weapon of choice is the gada.

According to folktales, Ghatotkacha marries Ahilawati and their sons are Barbarika, Anjanaparva, and Meghavarna.

Hidimbi's sacrifice request
According to non canonic folktales, years later, one day Hidimbi asks Ghatotkacha to fetch a human to sacrifice to Kali. On his way to do so, he spots a Brahmin and his wife traveling with their three children. Ghatotkacha approaches them and requests one of them to come with him to be his mother's sacrifice to the goddess.

The Brahmin offers himself, but his wife insists that she would go. Finally, their second son agrees to go with Ghatotkacha but asks to first bathe in the river Ganga. Bhima, living in exile in the forest with his brothers, comes across the scene. Upon discovering the pending sacrifice, he steps in to take the child's place. Ghatotkacha returns to his mother with Bhima in tow, only to become shocked when she tells him that Bhima is his father. Scolded by Bhima, both Ghatotkacha and Hidimbi agree to end the practice of human sacrifice.

Interactions with Bhima
During their exile in the forest the Pandavas were too tired to walk further, then Bhima remembers Ghatotkacha, who immediately appeared before the Pandavas, and also brought down many demons at the behest of Bhima. Ghatotkach carrying Panchali on his shoulders, and the demons carrying Pandava brothers on their shoulders went by air to Badrikashrama, where Naranarayana was meditating, landed them there, and then he (Ghatotkach and his companions) bid farewell to the Pandavas.

Kurukshetra War
In the Kurukshetra War, Ghatotkacha is summoned by Bhima to fight on the Pandava side. In the battle of the first day he fought against Alambusha, Duryodhana, and Bhagadatta. Terrified of the terrible course of the battle, the Kauravas deliberately postponed the battle for that day. On the 8th day of battle, Ghatotkacha has a prolonged clash with Alambusha, and though he manages to severely wound the other demon, he is unable to prevent his retreat.

The 14th day of battle features Ghatotkacha in a major role. During the morning battle, he becomes enraged when his mighty son Anjanparva is killed by Ashwatthama. Invoking his magical powers, he brings great havoc to the Kaurava army using his power of illusion, even scaring away great warriors like Drona, Duryodhana, Karna and Dushasana. Ashwatthama attempts to rally fleeing soldiers, dispelling Ghatotkacha's illusion and managing to knock the demon unconscious. After coming to his senses, Ghatotkacha fights with Ashwatthama in a long duel. During the fight, both combatants use their magical powers and celestial weapons, though Ashwatthama manages to hold his ground and forces Ghatotkacha to withdraw.

After the death of Jayadratha on Day 14, with the battle continuing past sunset, Ghatotkacha truly shines; his powers were at their most effective at night as demons' abilities are heightened. Along with his troops, Ghatotkacha kills Alayudha and Alambusha, smashing the latter's head with a mace. With Ghatotkacha on a rampage, another fight took place between Ashwatthama and Ghatotkacha. Ashwatthama manages to defeat Ghatotkacha multiple times, but the powerful demon manages to escape using his illusions. On the other hand Karna also defeats Ghatotkacha twice on the battlefield after some tough battles but yet is unable to prevent Ghatotkacha from wreaking havoc on the Kaurava army. As the army breaks around him, with even Duryodhana forced to flee with his flag in tatters, Karna uses Vasavi Śhakti as a last resort to ultimately kill the powerful demon. This weapon had been bestowed by Lord Indra and could only be used once; Karna had been keeping it in reserve to use against Arjuna.

Though mortally wounded by the weapon Vasavi Śakti, Ghatotkacha rises to the sky and manages to enlarge his body, crushing one akshauhini of the Kaurava army. The Pandavas were filled with grief at Ghatotkacha's death. Krishna, however, could not help but smile, knowing that Ghatotkacha has saved Arjuna from Karna.

Indonesian version
The Kurukshetra War in Javanese and also Balinese wayang is usually called by the name Bharatayuddha. The story was adapted and developed from the script Kakawin Bharatayuddha written in 1157 during the time of the Kediri Kingdom (present day East Java, Indonesia). In the wayang puppet version, Ghatotkacha (locally spelled 'Gatotkaca') is very close to his cousin named Abhimanyu, son of Arjuna. Abhimanyu married Uttara the daughter of Virata Kingdom, after he claimed he was a virgin. In fact, Abhimanyu was married to Sitisundari, daughter of Krishna. Sitisundari who is entrusted in the palace of Ghatotkacha heard the news that her husband had remarried. Ghatotkacha's Uncle, named Kalabendana, came to Abhimanyu to take him home (Kalabendana was Arimbi's youngest brother, a dwarf giant but with a plain and noble heart). This had made Uttara jealous, and Abhimanyu was forced to swear that if he indeed had a wife other than Uttara, he would be willing to die beaten by his enemies later on. Kalabendana met with Ghatotkacha to report Abhimanyu's attitude. Ghatotkacha actually scolded Kalabendana, which he considered presumptuously interfering in his cousin's household affairs. Out of an impulse of anger, Ghatotkacha hit Kalabendana's head, and even though the act was carried out accidentally, Kalabendana was killed instantly.

When the Bharatayuddha war broke out, Abhimanyu was actually killed by the Kauravas on the 13th day. On the 14th day, Arjuna managed to avenge his son's death by beheading Jayadratha. Duryodhana was very sad over the death of Jayadratha, his own brother-in-law. He forced Karna to attack the Pandava camp that night. Karna obeyed even though this violates the rules of the war. After learning that the Kauravas launched a night attack, the Pandavas sent Ghatotkacha to head off. Ghatotkacha was deliberately chosen because Kotang Antrakusuma armor which he wears is able to emit bright light to shine on Kaurava's army. Ghatotkacha successfully killed a Kaurava ally named Lembusa. Meanwhile, two of his uncles, Brajalamadan and Brajawikalpa, died at the hands of their enemies, each named Lembusura and Lembusana.

Ghatotkacha faced Karna, the wielder of Kontawijaya weapon. He created his twins as many as a thousand people to make Karna feel confused. On the instructions of his father, named Surya, Karna managed to find the original Ghatotkacha. He then released Konta weapon in the direction of Ghatotkacha. Ghatotkacha tried to evade this by flying as high as possible. But the spirit of Kalabendana suddenly appeared to catch Kontawijaya while delivering news from heaven that the death of Ghatotkacha had been set that night. Ghatotkacha surrenders himself to his fate and requests that his body would be used to kill Kaurava's armies. Kalabendana agrees, then stabbed Ghatotkacha's navel using Konta weapon. The weapon merges back into its sheath, which is the mastaba wood still stored in Ghatotkacha's gut. Ghatotkacha dies, and the spirit of Kalabendana threw his body towards Karna who managed to jump to escape death. Karna's chariot was shattered to pieces as a result of being crushed by Ghatotkacha's body, and the fragments of the chariot shot in all directions and killed the Kaurava soldiers who were around it.

Lineage
Ghatotkacha had three sons - Barbarika, Anjanparva and Meghavarna. The existence of Barbarika is debated as he is mentioned in the later additions to the Skanda Purana, and not in the official renditions of the Mahabharata.

However, Ghatotkacha's Lineage is supposed to have extended longer. The royal family of the Dimasa Kingdom claimed descent from Ghatotkacha.

Temples

 * There is a temple built in Champawat, Uttrakhand where it is meant his head fell after he was killed by Karna in the battle of Mahabharata.
 * There is a temple built to honor Ghatotkacha in Manali, Himachal Pradesh near the Hidimba Devi Temple.
 * An ancient 7th Century Hindu temple structure in Dieng Temples complex, Central Java is named as "Ghatotkacha Temple" in honour of the Mahabharata character.

In popular culture

 * The folktale of Sasirekha Parinayam (not originally in the Mahabharata) about Abhimanyu's love for Shashirekha/Vatsala (the daughter of Balarama) and Ghatotkacha's help in breaking off Vatsala's engagement with Laxmana Kumar has been filmed numerous times in India. These include:
 * Surekha Haran, a 1921 Indian silent film directed by Baburao Painter.
 * Vatsalaharan, a 1923 Indian silent film directed by Baburao Painter.
 * Maya Bazaar, a 1925 Indian silent film directed by Baburao Painter.
 * Maya Bazaar, a 1932 Indian Hindi film starring Baburao Pendharkar.
 * Maya Bazaar, a 1935 Indian Tamil film directed by R. Padmanabhan.
 * Mayabazar, or Sasirekha Parinayam, a 1936 Indian Telugu-language fantasy film directed by P. V. Das.
 * Maya Bazaar, a 1939 Indian film directed by G. P. Pawar.
 * Maya Bazaar, a 1949 Indian Hindi fantasy film directed by Datta Dharmadhikari.
 * Mayabazar, a 1957 Indian epic fantasy film directed by K. V. Reddy.
 * Maya Bazaar, a 1958 Indian Hindi adventure fantasy film directed by Babubhai Mistry.
 * Maya Bazar, a 1984 Indian Hindi/Gujarati fantasy film directed by Babubhai Mistry.
 * Maya Bazaar, a 1984 Indian Telugu romance drama film directed by Dasari Narayana Rao.
 * Other Indian films about Ghatotkacha include:
 * Veer Ghatotkach, a 1949 Indian Hindi/Marathi mythological film.
 * Veer Ghatotkajan, a 1959 Indian Tamil mythological film directed by Babubhai Mistry.
 * Ghatotkachudu, a 1995 Indian Telugu comedy film directed by S. V. Krishna Reddy.
 * Veer Ghatotkach, a 1970 Indian Hindi mythological adventure film directed by Shantilal Soni.
 * A 2008 Indian animated film Ghatothkach was based on his life. It was directed by Singeetham Srinivas Rao.
 * Ghatotkacha, another Indian animated film released in 2008, directed by Rakesh Prasad.
 * Amar Chitra Katha, an Indian comic book series, published an issue on Ghatotkacha. This was later adapted as an episode in the 2010 animated series of the comics.
 * Razaq Khan (Not comedian Rajaq Khan) played Ghatotkacha in 1988 TV Series Mahabharat.
 * Ketan Karande played Ghatotkacha in 2013 TV Series Mahabharat.
 * Since ancient until current modern Indonesia, Ghatotkacha has become a very popular pop culture figure and wayang puppet character, having its own version of stories told in the Javanese and Balinese version of Mahabharata story.
 * In Javanese wayang, he is known as Gatotkoco with superhero fame and well known for the nickname the "Satria otot kawat balung wesi" ("Wire muscle and Iron bone Warrior").
 * For Javanese and Balinese, Ghatotkacha is revered as a deity and popularly depicted in artworks and statues, such as the Satria Gatotkaca Park Statue in Kuta major road intersection in Bali.
 * Ghatotkacha has been frequently depicted in Indonesian popular culture, such as music, comics and film, such as the superhero action film Satria Dewa: Gatotkaca (2021).
 * Javanese version of Ghatotkacha, known as Gatotkaca, depicted in Garudayana, an Indonesian comic series, is featured as a playable character in the game Mobile Legends: Bang Bang.

title: Ghatotkacha


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Herbsaint

Herbsaint is a brand name of anise-flavored liqueur originally created as an absinthe-substitute in New Orleans, Louisiana in 1934, and currently produced by the Sazerac Company.

It was developed by J. Marion Legendre and Reginald Parker of the city, who had learned how to make absinthe while in France during World War I. It was originally produced under the name "Legendre Absinthe", although it never contained absinthe's essential ingredient, Grande Wormwood (Artemisia absinthium). It first went on sale following the repeal of Prohibition, and was unique in its category as an absinthe substitute, as opposed to a pastis. The Federal Alcohol Control Administration soon objected to Legendre's use of the word "absinthe", so the name was changed to "Legendre Herbsaint", French/Creole for "Herbe Sainte" (Sacred Herb), the Artemisia absinthium.

The Sazerac Company bought J.M. Legendre & Co. in June 1949. Herbsaint was originally bottled at 120 proof, but this was later reduced to 100 proof, then changed to a different 90 proof recipe in the mid-1950s. By the early 1970s only the 90 proof remained. In December 2009, the Sazerac Company reintroduced J.M. Legendre's original 100 proof recipe as Herbsaint Original.

Cocktails
Herbsaint was and still is used in several cocktails, including:

 * Herbsaint frappé
 * Pour two ounces of Herbsaint into a thin six-ounce glass.
 * Fill the glass three-quarters full with cracked ice.
 * Add a half teaspoon of simple syrup or sugar and two ounces of carbonated or plain water, then fill glass with more cracked ice.
 * Stir, using a long-handled spoon with up and down motion until outside of glass is well frosted.
 * Strain into another glass that has been chilled.
 * Remove the ice from the original glass.
 * Pour back into the well frosted glass and serve.

It is also sometimes used in the Sazerac cocktail as a substitute for absinthe.

title: Herbsaint


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Coombs

Coombs is an English surname. Notable people with the surname include:

 * Anthony Coombs (politician) (born 1952), British politician
 * Anthony Coombs (Canadian football) (born 1992), Canadian football player
 * Bobby Coombs (1908–1991), American baseball player
 * Clyde Coombs (1912–1988), American psychologist
 * David Coombs (born 1937), British author, historian and teacher
 * David Coombs (lawyer) (born 1969), American lawyer
 * Derek Coombs (1931–2014), British politician
 * Doug Coombs (1957–2006), American skier and mountaineer
 * Ernie Coombs (1927–2001), Canadian/American children's entertainer
 * Frank Coombs (1853–1934), American politician
 * H.C. Coombs (1906–1997), Australian economist
 * Jack Coombs (1882–1957), American baseball player
 * James Coombs (1869–1935), American football coach
 * Joe Coombs (born 1991), British canoe slalom athlete
 * John Coombs (1922–2013), British racing driver and racing team owner
 * Kris Coombs-Roberts, Welsh guitarist
 * Mary Coombs (1929–2022), English computer programmer
 * Melvin Coombs (1948–1997), American cultural educator and cultural interpreter
 * Michelle Coombs, American geologist
 * Nathan Coombs (1826–1877), American founder of Napa, California
 * Orde M. Coombs (1939–1984), Saint Vincent-born American writer and editor
 * Pat Coombs (1926–2002), English actress
 * Patricia Coombs (born 1926), American children's author and illustrator
 * Peter Coombs (born 1928), English priest
 * Robert Coombs (politician) (born 1959), Australian politician
 * Robert Coombs (cricketer) (born 1959), English cricketer
 * Robin Coombs (1921–2006), British immunologist
 * Simon Coombs (born 1947), British politician
 * Stephen Coombs (born 1960), British pianist
 * Ted Coombs (born 1954), American artist, roller skater and forensic scientist
 * W. H. Coombs (1816–1896), English/Australian priest

title: Coombs


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Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel

The Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel (Landgrafschaft Hessen-Kassel), spelled Hesse-Cassel during its entire existence, also known as the Hessian Palatinate (Hessische Pfalz), was a state of the Holy Roman Empire. The state was created in 1567 when the Landgraviate of Hesse was divided upon the death of Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse. His eldest son William IV inherited the northern half of the Landgraviate and the capital of Kassel. The other sons received the Landgraviates of Hesse-Marburg, Hesse-Rheinfels and Hesse-Darmstadt.

During the Napoleonic reorganisation of the Empire in 1803, the Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel was elevated to an Electorate and Landgrave William IX became an Imperial Elector. Many members of the House of Hesse-Kassel served in the Danish military gaining high ranks and power in the realm because many Landgraves were married to Danish princesses. Members of the family who are known to have served Denmark-Norway include Prince Frederik of Hesse-Kassel, Prince Frederick of Hesse-Kassel, and Prince Charles of Hesse-Kassel. It had two votes to the Reichstag: one for itself and one for Hersfeld Abbey. It was later occupied by French troops and became part of the Kingdom of Westphalia, a French satellite state. The Electorate of Hesse was restored at the end of the Napoleonic Wars, though by that time there was no longer an emperor to elect.

History
The Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel was founded by William IV the Wise, the eldest son of Philip I. On his father's death in 1567, the Landgraviate of Hesse was divided into four parts. William IV received about half of the territory, with Kassel as his capital. Hesse-Kassel expanded in 1604 when Maurice, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel inherited the Landgraviate of Hesse-Marburg from his childless uncle, Louis IV, Landgrave of Hesse-Marburg (1537–1604).

Thirty Years' War
In 1605, Maurice became Calvinist and entered the Thirty Years' War on the Protestant side. After being forced to cede some of his territories to Hesse-Darmstadt, Maurice abdicated in 1627 in favour of his son William V. His younger sons received appanages, which created several cadet lines in yet another partition of Hesse. William V allied himself with Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden and then France, losing most of Hesse-Kassel when Imperial troops invaded. He died in exile in 1637, leaving his widow Amalie Elisabeth of Hanau-Münzenberg to act as regent for their eight-year-old son William VI.

Amalie Elisabeth vigorously advanced the interests of Hesse-Kassel. After expelling Imperial troops from Hesse-Kassel, she sent troops to take the city of Marburg, which her father-in-law had lost to their Hesse-Darmstadt relatives. At the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, Hesse-Kassel was further rewarded with most of the County of Schaumburg and the newly secularized Hersfeld Abbey. Amalie Elisabeth also introduced the rule of primogeniture to prevent Hesse-Kassel from being divided again in the future. However, her health was ruined by the stresses of the war, and she died in 1651.

17th and 18th centuries
William VI, who came of age in 1650, was an enlightened patron of learning and the arts. He was succeeded by his son William VII, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel, then an infant, who died in 1670. He was succeeded by his brother Charles I. Charles' chief claim to fame is that he hired out his soldiers to foreign powers as auxiliaries, as a means of improving the finances of his principality. William V was succeeded by Landgraves William VI and William VII. Frederick I of Sweden, the next landgrave, became by marriage King of Sweden. Although the Landgraviate was in personal union with Sweden from 1730 to 1751, the King's younger brother, Prince William, ruled in Kassel as regent until he succeeded his brother as William VIII.

On Frederick I's death in 1751, he was succeeded by his brother William VIII, who fought as an ally of Kingdom of Great Britain during the Seven Years' War. His successor, Frederick II, converted to Catholicism after a long line of Protestant Landgraviates. When the American Revolutionary War broke out, Frederick II leased Hessian troops to Great Britain for service in America.

End of the landgraviate
Following the reorganization of the German states during the German mediatisation of 1803, the Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel was raised to the Electorate of Hesse and Landgrave William IX was elevated to Imperial Elector, taking the title William I, Elector of Hesse. The principality thus became known as Kurhessen (aka Kurfürstentum Hessen), although still usually referred to as Hesse-Kassel.

In 1806, William I was dispossessed by Napoleon Bonaparte for his support of the Kingdom of Prussia in the War of the Fourth Coalition. Kassel was designated as the capital of a new Kingdom of Westphalia, where Napoleon appointed his brother Jérôme Bonaparte as king. Following Napoleon's defeat in 1813, the elector was restored. At the Congress of Vienna, a number of Napoleonic electorates were elevated to kingdoms, and William tried to secure recognition as King of the Chatti. However, he was rebuffed by the Great Powers, who listed him as a "Royal Highness" along with the other grand dukes. To secure his pre-eminence over his cousin, the Grand Duke of Hesse in the former Hesse-Darmstadt, William chose to keep his title of Prince-Elector. The rulers of the Electorate of Hesse became the only Prince-Electors in the German Confederation, even though there was no longer a Holy Roman Emperor for them to elect.

Hessian troops in foreign service
The Landgraves of Hesse-Kassel were famous for renting out their army to other European nations during the 17th and 18th centuries. It was a widespread practice at the time for small countries to rent out troops to larger countries in exchange for subsidies. International jurists drew a distinction between mercenaries and auxiliaries. Mercenaries served in foreign armies as individuals, while auxiliaries were sent by their ruler to the aid of another ruler.

Hesse-Kassel took the practice to an extreme, maintaining 5.3% of its population under arms in 1730. This was a higher proportion than even Prussia, a country that was so heavily militarized that it was described as "not a country with an army, but an army with a country". The Hessian army served as a readily available reserve for other European nations. During the American Revolutionary War, the Kingdom of Great Britain rented thousands of German troops to fight in the Thirteen Colonies, half of whom came from Hesse-Kassel and nearby Hesse-Hanau. Due to this, American colonists in the colonies referred to all German troops serving with the British with the synecdoche "Hessian".

Namesakes
The village of Hessen Cassel, Indiana, near Fort Wayne, founded by German immigrants, is named for the Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel.

title: Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel


text:
Turkmen language

Turkmen (türkmençe, түркменче, تۆرکمنچه, or türkmen dili, түркмен дили, تۆرکمن ديلی, ), is a Turkic language of the Oghuz branch spoken by the Turkmens of Central Asia. It has an estimated 4.3 million native speakers in Turkmenistan (where it is the official language), and a further 719,000 speakers in northeastern Iran and 1.5 million people in northwestern Afghanistan, where it has no official status. Turkmen is also spoken to lesser varying degrees in Turkmen communities of Uzbekistan and Tajikistan and by diaspora communities, primarily in Turkey and Russia.

Turkmen is a member of the Oghuz branch of the Turkic languages. It is closely related to Azerbaijani, Crimean Tatar, Gagauz, Qashqai, and Turkish, sharing varying degrees of mutual intelligibility with each of those languages. However, the closest relative of Turkmen is considered Khorasani Turkic, spoken in northeastern regions of Iran and with which it shares the eastern subbranch of Oghuz languages, as well as Khorazm, the Oghuz dialect of Uzbek spoken mainly in Khorezm along the Turkmenistan border. Elsewhere in Iran, the Turkmen language comes second after the Azerbaijani language in terms of the number of speakers of Turkic languages of Iran.

The standardized form of Turkmen (spoken in Turkmenistan) is based on the Teke dialect, while Iranian Turkmen use mostly the Yomud dialect, and Afghan Turkmen use the Ersary variety. The Turkmen language, unlike other languages of the Oghuz branch, preserved most of the unique and archaic features of the language spoken by the early Oghuz Turks, including phonemic vowel length.

Iraqi and Syrian "Turkmen" speak dialects that form a continuum between Turkish and Azerbaijani, in both cases heavily influenced by Arabic and Persian. These varieties are not Turkmen in the sense of this article.

Classification
Turkmen is a member of the East Oghuz branch of the Turkic family of languages; its closest relatives being Turkish and Azerbaijani, with which it shares a relatively high degree of mutual intelligibility. However, the closest language to Turkmen is considered Khorasani Turkic, with which it shares the eastern subbranch of the Oghuz languages, and Khorazm, spoken mainly in northwestern Uzbekistan.

Turkmen has vowel harmony, is agglutinative and has no grammatical gender. Word order is subject–object–verb.

Written Turkmen today is based on the Teke (Tekke) dialect. The other dialects are Nohurly, Ýomud, Änewli, Hasarly, Nerezim, Gökleň, Salyr, Saryk, Ärsary and Çowdur. The Teke dialect is sometimes (especially in Afghanistan) referred to as "Chagatai", but like all Turkmen dialects it reflects only a limited influence from classical Chagatai.

Comparison with other Turkic languages
Turkmen has dental fricatives and  unlike other Oghuz Turkic languages, where these sounds are pronounced as  and. The only other Turkic language with a similar feature is Bashkir. However, in Bashkir and  are two independent phonemes, distinct from  and, whereas in Turkmen  and  are the two main realizations of the common Turkic  and. In other words, there are no and  phonemes in Turkmen, unlike Bashkir, which has, ,  and.

Turkmen vs. Azerbaijani
The 1st person personal pronoun is "men" in Turkmen, just as "mən" in Azerbaijani, whereas it is "ben" in Turkish. The same is true for demonstrative pronouns "bu", where sound "b" is replaced with sound "m". For example:. In Turkmen, "bu" undergoes some changes just as in:.

Here are some words with a different pronunciation in Turkmen and Azerbaijani that mean the same in both languages:

Turkmen vs. Turkish
Turkey was first to recognize Turkmenistan's independence on 27 October 1991, following the Dissolution of the Soviet Union and to open its Embassy in Ashgabat on 29 February 1992. Sharing a common history, religion, language and culture, the two states have balanced special relations based on mutual respect and the principle of "One Nation, Two States".

Turkmen language is very close to Turkish with regard to linguistic properties. However, there are a couple of differences due to regional and historical reasons. Most morphophonetic rules are common in Turkmen and Turkish languages. For instance, both languages show vowel harmony and consonant mutation rules, and have similar suffixes with very close semantics.

Here are some words from the Swadesh list in Turkmen and Turkish that mean the same in both languages:

Writing system
Turkmen written language was formed in the 13–14th centuries. During this period, the Arabic alphabet was used extensively for writing. By in the 18th century, there had been a rich literary tradition in the Turkmen language. At the same time, the literacy of the population in their native language remained at low levels; book publishing was extremely limited, and the first primer in the Turkmen language appeared only in 1913, while the first newspaper ("Transcaspian native newspaper") was printed in 1914.

The Arabic script was not adapted to the phonetic features of the Turkic languages. Thus, it did not have necessary signs to designate specific sounds of the Turkmen language, and at the same time there were many letters to designate Arabic sounds that were not in the Turkmen language.

During the first years after the establishment of the Soviet power, the Arabic alphabet of Turkmen under the USSR was reformed twice, in 1922 and 1925. In the course of the reforms, letters with diacritics were introduced to denote Turkic phonemes; and letters were abolished for sounds that are absent in the Turkmen language.

The Turkmens of Afghanistan and Iran continue to use Arabic script.

In January 1925, on the pages of the republican newspaper Türkmenistan, the question of switching to a new, Latin alphabet was raised. After the first All-Union Turkological Congress in Baku (February–March 1926), the State Academic Council under the People's Commissariat of Education of the Turkmen SSR developed a draft of a new alphabet. On 3 January 1928, the revised new Latin alphabet was approved by the Central Executive Committee of the Turkmen SSR.

At the end of the 1930s, the process of the Cyrillization of writing began throughout the USSR. In January 1939, the newspaper "Sowet Türkmenistany" published a letter from teachers in Ashgabat and the Ashgabat region with an initiative to replace the Turkmen (Latin) script with Cyrillic. The Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Turkmen SSR instructed the Research Institute of Language and Literature to draw up a draft of a new alphabet. The teachers of the Ashgabat Pedagogical Institute and print workers also took part in the development of the new writing system. In April 1940, the draft alphabet was published.

In May 1940, the Council of People's Commissars of the Turkmen SSR adopted a resolution on the transition to a new alphabet of all state and public institutions from 1 July 1940, and on the beginning of teaching the new alphabet in schools from 1 September of the same year.

After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, in January 1993, a meeting was held at the Academy of Sciences of Turkmenistan on the issue of replacing the Cyrillic with the Latin alphabet, at which a commission was formed to develop the alphabet. In February, a new version of the alphabet was published in the press. On 12 April 1993, the Mejlis of Turkmenistan approved a presidential decree on the new alphabet.

Grammar
Turkmen is a highly agglutinative language, in that much of the grammar is expressed by means of suffixes added to nouns and verbs. It is very regular compared with many other languages of non-Turkic group. For example, "from the villages" can be analysed as  "village", -lar (plural suffix), -dan (ablative case, meaning "from"); alýaryn "I am taking" as al "take", -ýar (present continuous tense), -yn (1st person singular).

Another characteristic of Turkmen is vowel harmony. Most suffixes have two or four different forms, the choice between which depends on the vowel of the word's root or the preceding suffix: for example, the ablative case of is  "from the villages" but, the ablative case of  "dogs" is  "from the dogs".

Directives and speech levels
Levels of respect or formality are focused on the final suffix of commands, while in normal sentences adding -dyr can increase formality.

Literature

Turkmen literature comprises oral compositions and written texts in Old Oghuz Turkic and Turkmen languages. Turkmens are direct descendants of the Oghuz Turks, who were a western Turkic people that spoke the Oghuz branch of the Turkic language family.

The earliest development of the Turkmen literature is closely associated with the literature of the Oghuz Turks. Turkmens have joint claims to a great number of literary works written in Old Oghuz and Persian (by Seljuks in 11-12th centuries) languages with other people of the Oghuz Turkic origin, mainly of Azerbaijan and Turkey. These works include, but are not limited to the Book of Dede Korkut, Zöhre Tahyr, Gorogly, Layla and Majnun, Yusuf Zulaikha and others.

There is general consensus, however, that distinctively modern Turkmen literature originated in the 18th century with the poetry of Magtymguly Pyragy, who is considered the father of the Turkmen literature. Other prominent Turkmen poets of that era are Döwletmämmet Azady (Magtymguly's father), Mollanepes, Nurmuhammet Andalyp, Mämmetweli Kemine, Abdylla Şabende, Şeýdaýy, Mahmyt Gaýyby and Gurbanally Magrupy.

Numbers
Note: Numbers are formed identically to other Turkic languages, such as Turkish. So, eleven (11) is "on bir" (lit. 'ten-one'). Two thousand seventeen (2017) is iki müň on ýedi (two-thousand-ten-seven).

Example
The following is Magtymguly's Türkmeniň (of the Turkmen) poem with the text transliterated into Turkmen (Latin) letters, whereas the original language is preserved. Second column is the poem's Turkish translation, third one is the Azerbaijani translation, while the last one is the English translation.

Turkmen in Iran
Turkmens in Iran speak a dialect of Turkmen in the province of Golestan. It is mutually intelligible with the Turkmen dialects in Afghanistan, and is written in the Nastaliq script.

title: Turkmen language


text:
Turkmen

Turkmen, Türkmen, Turkoman, or Turkman may refer to:

Historical ethnonym

 * Turkoman (ethnonym), ethnonym used for the Oghuz Turks during the Middle Ages

Ethnic groups

 * Turkmen in Anatolia and the Levant (Seljuk and Ottoman-Turkish descendants):
 * Until the 17th and 18th centuries, Azerbaijani Turks were also called this way
 * Iraqi Turkmen, a Turkish minority living mostly in the Turkmeneli region in northern Iraq
 * Israeli Turkmen, a Turkish minority living in Israel
 * Turks in Lebanon, a Turkish minority living in Lebanon
 * Syrian Turkmen, a Turkish minority living mostly in northern Syria
 * Yörüks, a semi-nomadic group in Anatolia often referred to as Turkmen in Turkey
 * Anatolian beyliks, small principalities in Anatolia governed by Beys, late 11th–13th centuries
 * Turkmens, a Turkic people native to Central Asia living primarily in Turkmenistan and North Caucasus
 * Iranian Turkmens, Turkmen minority living in Iran
 * Afghan Turkmens, Turkmen minority living in Afghanistan
 * Turkmen in Pakistan, mostly Turkmen refugees from Afghanistan and Turkmenistan living in Pakistan
 * Turkmen tribes, the major modern Turkmen tribes that live in Turkmenistan, Iran and Afghanistan

Other uses for people

 * Türkmen (surname), list of people with the surname
 * Qarapapaqs or Terekeme, an ethnic minority living in Turkey, Iran and the South Caucasus
 * Oghuz Turks, a large branch of Turkic peoples, historically Muslim nomadic Oghuz Turks (in the 10th–18th centuries)

Eastern Oghuz

 * Turkmen language, the official language of Turkmenistan
 * Turkmen alphabet, used for official purposes in Turkmenistan

Western Oghuz

 * Iraqi Turkmen/Turkman dialects, a Turkish dialect in Iraq
 * Syrian Turkmen/Turkman dialects, a Turkish dialect in Syria

Afghanistan

 * Turkman Valley

Azerbaijan

 * Türkmən, Barda
 * Türkmən, Goychay
 * Türkmən, Qabala

Iran

 * Turkmen Sahra
 * Torkamanchay
 * Torkaman County
 * Central District (Torkaman County)
 * Bandar Torkaman
 * Torkaman, West Azerbaijan
 * Tappeh Torkaman
 * Qarah Tappeh, Torkaman

Iraq

 * Turkmeneli

Northern Cyprus

 * Kontea, known in Turkish as Türkmenköy

Syria

 * Turkmen Mountain

Turkey

 * Türkmen, Çüngüş
 * Türkmen, Emirdağ
 * Türkmen, Gölpazarı
 * Türkmen, Keşan
 * Türkmen, Vezirköprü
 * Türkmenakören, Emirdağ

Turkmenistan

 * Türkmenabat
 * Türkmenbaşy, Turkmenistan

Culture

 * Music of Turkmenistan
 * Turkmen rug, a type of handmade floor-covering originating in Central Asia

Media

 * Türkmen Owazy, a music TV channel in Turkmenistan
 * Türkmeneli TV, a bilingual (Arabic and Turkish) TV channel based in Iraq and Turkey

Other uses

 * Someone or something related to Turkmenistan

Animals

 * Hybrid camel, sometimes called a Turkoman
 * Central Asian Shepherd Dog, known as the Turkmen Alabai
 * Turkoman horse, or Turkmene, an extinct breed of horse from Turkmenistan
 * Turkmenian kulan, Equus hemionus kulan, a type of wild ass
 * Turkoman (horse) (born 1982), an American Thoroughbred racehorse

Films

 * Torkaman (film), a 1974 Iranian film

title: Turkmen


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Pastis

Pastis (,, ; pastís ) is an anise-flavoured spirit and apéritif traditionally from France, typically containing less than 100 g/L sugar and 40–45% ABV (alcohol by volume).

Origins
Pastis was first commercialized by Paul Ricard in 1932 and enjoys substantial popularity in France, especially in the southeastern regions of the country, mostly Marseille, (Bouches-du-Rhône) and the Var department. Pastis emerged some 17 years after the ban on absinthe, during a time when the French nation was still apprehensive of high-proof anise drinks in the wake of the absinthe debacle. The popularity of pastis may be attributable to a penchant for anise drinks that was cultivated by absinthe decades earlier, but is also part of an old tradition of Mediterranean anise liquors that includes sambuca, ouzo, arak, rakı, and mastika. The name "pastis" may be derived from Occitan "pastís," a mash-up or blend, or French "pastiche," a stylistic imitation.

Composition
By legal definition, pastis is described as an anise-flavoured spirit that contains additional flavor of liquorice root, contains less than 100 grams per litre of sugar, and is bottled at a minimum of 40% ABV (pastis) or 45% ABV (pastis de Marseille). While pastis was originally artisanally produced from whole herbs like most spirits at the time of its creation, modern versions are typically prepared by mixing base alcohol with commercially prepared flavorings (essences and/or extracts) and caramel coloring.

Pastis is often compared with its historical predecessor, absinthe, yet the two are quite different. Pastis was created years following the prohibition of absinthe, and traditionally does not contain grand wormwood (Artemisia absinthium), the herb from which absinthe derives its name. Also, pastis far more commonly obtains its anise flavour from star anise,  an Asian spice, whereas absinthe traditionally obtains its base flavour from a distillation of green anise and fennel, both Mediterranean herbs. Additionally, pastis typically exhibits some degree of flavour derived from liquorice root, which is not traditionally employed for absinthe. Where bottled strength is concerned, traditional absinthes were bottled at 45–74% ABV, while pastis is typically bottled at 40–50% ABV. Finally, whereas traditional absinthe is invariably a dry spirit, pastis may be bottled with sugar.

Serving
Pastis is normally diluted with water before drinking, generally five volumes of water for one volume of pastis, but often neat pastis is served together with a jug of water for the drinker to blend together according to preference. The resulting decrease in alcohol percentage causes some of the constituents to become insoluble, which changes the liqueur's appearance from dark transparent yellow to milky soft yellow, a phenomenon also present with absinthe and known as louche or the ouzo effect. The drink is consumed cold and considered a refreshment for hot days. Ice cubes can be added (after the water, to avoid crystallization of the anethole in the pastis). Many pastis drinkers decline to add ice, preferring to drink the beverage with cool spring water.

Although consumed throughout France, pastis is generally associated with southeastern regions of the country, particularly the city of Marseille, where it is nicknamed Pastaga, and with such clichés of the Provençal lifestyle as pétanque.

130 million litres are sold each year (more than two litres per inhabitant in France).

Chemistry
Pastis beverages become cloudy when diluted because they are anise-based. Such beverages contain oils called terpenes, which are soluble in an aqueous solution that contains 30% ethanol or more by volume. When the solution is diluted to below 30% ethanol, the terpenes become insoluble; this causes a cloudy precipitate to form in the solution. The same chemistry causes absinthe to go cloudy when diluted.

Cocktails
Among the better known cocktails using pastis and syrups are:
 * Rourou (cocktail): made with strawberry syrup
 * Tomate (cocktail) (French for "tomato"): made with grenadine syrup
 * Perroquet (French for "parrot"): made with green mint syrup
 * Mauresque (French for "Moorish"): made with orgeat syrup
 * Feuille morte (French for "dead leaf"): made with grenadine and green mint syrup
 * Violet: made with lavender syrup
 * Rômarino: made with Rosemary syrup
 * Sazerac: made with cognac or rye whiskey; pastis mentioned as a substitute for absinthe in some recipes
 * Momisette: (French for “little mother” or “godmother”) made with orgeat and orange flower water

Notable brands

 * Henri Bardouin made by Distilleries et Domaines de Provence
 * Ricard, Pernod, Pastis 51, Pacific made by Pernod Ricard

title: Pastis


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Rose Valley

Rose Valley may refer to:

 * Rose Valley, Bulgaria
 * Rose Valley, Saskatchewan, Canada
 * Rose Valley, Chişinău, Moldova
 * Rose Valley, Pennsylvania, United States
 * Rose Valley, Washington, United States

title: Rose Valley


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Anisette

Anisette, or Anis, is an anise-flavored liqueur that is consumed in most Mediterranean countries. It is colorless and, because it contains sugar, is sweeter than dry anise flavoured spirits (e.g. absinthe). The most traditional style of anisette is that produced by means of distilling aniseed, and is differentiated from those produced by simple maceration by the inclusion of the word distilled on the label. And while Pastis is a similar-tasting liqueur that is prepared in similar fashion and sometimes confused with anisette, it employs a combination of both aniseed and licorice root extracts. Sambuca is essentially an anisette of Italian origin that requires a high minimum (350g/L) sugar content.

The liqueur is often mixed with water or poured over ice cubes because of its strong flavour.

Mediterranean

In the Mediterranean Basin, anise-based or liquorice-based spirits include:

 * Spain: Anís del Mono ("the monkey's anisette") has been produced since 1870. The label, with a monkey holding a scroll and a bottle, was designed by Ramon Casas i Carbó. It is the anisette of choice in Malcolm Lowry's Under the Volcano. Characters in Ernest Hemingway's novel The Sun Also Rises and his short story "Hills Like White Elephants" drink and discuss Anís del Toro – "Bull's Anisette." Another type, Aguardiente de Ojén (es), gained fame abroad and is popular in New Orleans, Louisiana, especially during the Mardi Gras festivities.
 * France: Anisette, made by Marie Brizard since 1755 and Pastis, made by Paul Ricard since 1932
 * Greece: Ouzo
 * Malta: Anisetta (Żambur), made with anise and herbs.
 * Italy: Sambuca
 * Portugal: Licor Aniz Escarchado (crystallized)
 * Turkey, Azerbaijan, Armenia, and Albania: Rakı
 * Lebanon, Syria, Palestine, Israel, Jordan, and Egypt: Arak
 * Algeria: Anisette Cristal

Latin America
Anise-flavoured alcohols from other parts of the world include Aguardiente from Colombia and Mexico.

Philippines
Anise liqueur was also introduced to the Philippines by the Spanish, which developed into the local anisado, an anise-flavored liqueur usually made from distilled sugarcane wine. A notable variant of Filipino anisado with sugar is known as anisado Mallorca, or simply Mallorca. They are commonly used as ingredients in Filipino cuisine.

title: Anisette


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Talk:Food porn

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 22 January 2019 and 23 May 2019. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Bhumes001.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 21:37, 16 January 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Food porn


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Polyuria

Polyuria is excessive or an abnormally large production or passage of urine (greater than 2.5 L or 3 L over 24 hours in adults). Increased production and passage of urine may also be termed as diuresis. Polyuria often appears in conjunction with polydipsia (increased thirst), though it is possible to have one without the other, and the latter may be a cause or an effect. Primary polydipsia may lead to polyuria. Polyuria is usually viewed as a symptom or sign of another disorder (not a disease by itself), but it can be classed as a disorder, at least when its underlying causes are not clear.

Causes
The most common cause of polyuria in both adults and children is uncontrolled diabetes mellitus, which causes osmotic diuresis; when glucose levels are so high that glucose is excreted in the urine. Water follows the glucose concentration passively, leading to abnormally high urine output. In the absence of diabetes mellitus, the most common causes are the decreased secretion of aldosterone due to adrenal cortical tumor, primary polydipsia (excessive fluid drinking), central diabetes insipidus, and nephrogenic diabetes insipidus. Polyuria may also be due to various chemical substances, such as diuretics, caffeine, and ethanol. It may also occur after supraventricular tachycardias, during an onset of atrial fibrillation, childbirth, and the removal of an obstruction within the urinary tract. Diuresis is controlled by antidiuretics such as vasopressin, angiotensin II and aldosterone. Cold diuresis is the occurrence of increased urine production upon exposure to cold, which also partially explains immersion diuresis. High-altitude diuresis occurs at altitudes above 10000 ft and is a desirable indicator of adaptation to high altitudes. Mountaineers who are adapting well to high altitudes experience this type of diuresis. People who produce less urine even in the presence of adequate fluid intake are probably not adapting well to high altitudes.

List of causes
• General

• polydipsia

• psychogenic polydipsia

• diuretic drugs, osmotic diuresis

• Urinary system

• interstitial cystitis

• urinary tract infection

• renal tubular acidosis

• Fanconi syndrome

• nephronophthisis (genetic)

• Hormonal

• hypokalemia

• diabetes mellitus

• corticosteroid use

• pheochromocytoma

• hyperparathyroidism

• diabetes insipidus

• hypercalcaemia

• hyperthyroidism

• hypopituitarism

• Conn's disease

• hyperglycaemia

• Circulation

• congestive heart failure

• cardiorespiratory disease

• postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS)

• Neurologic

• cerebral salt-wasting syndrome

• neurologic damage

• migraine

• Other

• high doses of riboflavin (vitamin B2)

• high doses of vitamin D

• altitude diuresis

• side effect of lithium

• hemochromatosis

• ochratoxicosis

Mechanism
Polyuria, in osmotic cases, increases flow amount in the distal nephron where flow rates and velocity are low. The significant pressure increase occurring in the distal nephron takes place particularly in the cortical-collecting ducts. One study from 2008 laid out a hypothesis that hyperglycaemic and osmotic polyuria play roles ultimately in diabetic nephropathy.

Diagnosis
Among the possible tests to diagnose polyuria are: • Urine test

• FBC

• Blood test

• Pituitary function test

Treatment
Depending on the cause of the polyuria, the adequate treatment should be afforded. According to NICE, desmopressin can be considered for nocturnal polyuria, which can be caused by diabetes mellitus, if other medical treatments have failed. The recommendation had no studies that met the criteria for consideration.

title: Polyuria


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Talk:Tridentine Mass

gender segregation during Mass
I don't know where to put the fact that although gender segregation was traditionally practiced, it is not practiced in American Tridentine Mass anymore, although the practice survives in Europe(correct me if i'm wrong)Akj150 (talk) 01:48, 22 April 2008 (UTC)
 * I can't comment on practices aside from where I have attended Masses, but in no German TLMs, and I have attended them in several Parish churches in Frankfurt, Berlin, Nuremberg, Regensburg, at the FSSP seminary in Wigratzbad, and in two Munich parishes, have I found segregated naves.Caisson 06 (talk) 03:46, 24 November 2019 (UTC)

Lima, do you happen to know since when the gender segregation was dropped in America?--Akj150 (talk) 16:41, 22 April 2008 (UTC)
 * I presume such separation was even less universal in America than in Europe, where it was the practice in some parishes, but not all - in spite of being recommended in the 1917 Code of Canon Law. In any case, it was not prescribed in the Missal and so is, I think, off-topic.Lima (talk) 18:34, 22 April 2008 (UTC)
 * I'm going to hazzard a guess that it was likely between the world wars. Caisson 06 (talk) 21:23, 3 September 2009 (UTC)

Segregation by sex (not gender) was recommended up to the 1917 Code of Canon Law. (Canon 1262.1). It continued after that time as a local custom in many places but has since pretty much stopped. Sue De Nimes (talk) 10:20, 19 March 2016 (UTC)

Page should be titled "Extraordinary form of the Roman Rite"
Given that it's most recently been referred to as such by the highest authority on the matter. "Tridentine Mass" as a name for the Mass is historically inaccurate as what is referred to as the "Tridentine Mass" is essentially the same Mass from a thousand years prior to the Council of Trent with all the extra prayers added in over the years removed that made the liturgy too long. There is also an article titled 'Extraordinary form of the Roman Rite' already so perhaps this one should be merged into that one.

 * I don't agree that it should be changed. "Extraordinary Form" is a controversial term by coined by Benedict in 2007. "Tridentine Mass" is how it is referred to in most literature and is generally accepted by other prolific Catholic groups such as the SSPX, Sedevacantist, etc. It would make more sense to simply explain the historical consistency of the Roman Rite (prior to the Novus Ordo Rite being called the "Roman Rite") in the article. 71.233.70.210 (talk) 05:16, 3 January 2022 (UTC)

 * Also, "Tridentine Mass" seems to be the preferred term in historical academia, as it dovetails with the Counter-Reformation theory. I think "Missal of Pope XXX" is preferable for specific references. Rick Jelliffe (talk) 12:17, 19 October 2023 (UTC)

refill created broken citations
Re: by Editor Veverve whose edit summary stated: they are not broken I did not have to look hard to find:
 * The Mass of the Consilium and the Mass of the Ages
 * The Mass of the Consilium and the Mass of the Ages

converted to:

or
 * God Was Worshipped Here Today
 * God Was Worshipped Here Today

converted to:

or
 * The Mass of the Apostles
 * The Mass of the Apostles

converted to:

Every one of these examples is broken:
 * 1) in the first example, the url is long dead and the domain now for sale, but, AGF, the attached title was the correct title. ReFill discarded that good title in favor of the content of the  tags in the seller's webpage
 * 2) in the second example, the url was determined to be permanently dead by InternetArchiveBot but Refill ignored that and created what appears to be a good citation until you click the linked title and end up at a 404 page
 * 3) in the third example, the result is obviously broken because emits two red error messages which were ignored by the editor who activated Refill; complaints about the y problem have been ignored by the original author and subsequent maintainers

Editors who use WP:Refill are responsible for the edits that it suggests. It is poor practice to simply accept the tool's suggestions as good edits (they very often are not) and leave behind a mess for other editors to cleanup. I shall revert Editor Veverve's revert.

—Trappist the monk (talk) 23:14, 19 July 2021 (UTC)
 * While I was writing the above, Editor Veverve has made come changes that I will not revert. But, there are sill broken citations in the article that WP:Refill made that someone will have to fix.
 * —Trappist the monk (talk) 23:18, 19 July 2021 (UTC)
 * Everything seems fixed now. Thanks for pointing out the problems. Veverve (talk) 23:35, 19 July 2021 (UTC)

Scope of article topic
This article has a confused and overlapping scope with other articles. The hatnote claims that this article is only about the historical situation and to see Preconciliar rites after the Second Vatican Council. Yet at the end of this "Tridentine Mass" article we have "Present practice" and lots of stuff about the post-Vatican II, modern up-to-the-minute situation for the TLM. So which is it going to be? Elizium23 (talk) 08:40, 2 January 2023 (UTC)

 * I have done the split. I think the confusion was due to the Preconciliar rites after the Second Vatican Council article being created only recently. Veverve (talk) 08:56, 2 January 2023 (UTC)

Pre-1955 missal and indults
“Sometimes the term "Tridentine Mass" is applied restrictively to Masses in which the final 1962 edition of the Tridentine Roman Missal is used, the only edition still authorized, under certain conditions, as an extraordinary form of the Roman Rite Mass.”

I think this is incorrect. I am pretty sure the FSSP and (maybe) the ICKSP have an indult to practise the pre-1955 Holy Week, which doesn’t use the 1962 missal. Ed is the standard text editor (talk) 00:50, 17 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Tridentine Mass