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Train robbery

Since the invention of locomotives in the early 19th century, trains have often been the target of robbery, in which the goal is to steal money or other valuables. Train robbery was especially common during the 19th century and is commonly associated with gangs of outlaws in the American Old West. It has continued into the 21st century, with criminals usually targeting freight trains carrying commercial cargo, or targeting passengers of public transportation for their valuables.

Background
Prior to the development of railroads, stagecoach robbery was common. Especially in Europe and North America, stagecoaches and mail couriers were frequently targeted for their cargo. As coaches and horses were phased out in favor of trains, which could haul far more freight and passengers, so too did robbers adjust their targets.

Victorian England
Several major train robberies occurred in England in the mid-19th century. The Great Western Mail Robbery occurred in 1849. In two robberies on the Bristol and Exeter Railway, two passengers climbed from their carriage to the mail van and back. They were discovered at Bridgwater after the second robbery. One was Henry Poole, a former guard on the Great Western Railway, dismissed for misconduct (possibly on suspicion of another robbery); the other was Edward Nightingale, the son of George Nightingale, accused, but acquitted, of robbing the Dover mail coach in 1826, when two thieves had dressed in identical clothes to gain an alibi for the other. They were transported for 15 years. Henry was sent to Bermuda on the Sir Robert Seppings (ship) in December 1850 whilst Edward was transported to Fremantle on the Sea Park in January 1854.

On May 15, 1855, a train carrying gold departed London, England, for Boulogne, France, and was found upon arrival to be missing over £12,000 worth of gold and money. The incident became known as the Great Gold Robbery of 1855. Four men were arrested in 1856 for the crime.

American Old West
During the 19th and early 20th centuries, train robberies were frequent in the American Old West, where trains carrying valuable cargo, like payroll shipments, were a frequent target. These shipments would be guarded by an expressman whose duty was to protect the cargo of the "express car". Changing social and economic situations after the American Civil War led to the development of gangs and individuals who took up train robbery as a means of income. After the war, many soldiers were faced with little economic opportunity upon returning home, and train robbing required little specialized skill. Other robbers held the railroad companies in contempt, particularly those from the Midwest and West. The first post-Civil War robberies occurred in Indiana; Wells Fargo and American Express Company cars carrying money and other expensive materials were common targets.

Initially, trains were perceived to be largely impenetrable—especially when compared with the earlier stagecoach—and were often unguarded or only lightly guarded. Early trains passed through large stretches of rural landscape with little to no communication available, leaving them vulnerable to attack and hindering investigation and response by law enforcement. Early bandits were rarely caught. The sensationalization of these crimes in newspapers, dime novels, and Wild West shows added to the appeal for copycat and repeat crimes.

Infamous train robbers from this era include Butch Cassidy, Bill Miner, and Jesse James. Jesse James is mistakenly thought to have completed the first successful train robbery in the American West when on July 21, 1873, the James–Younger Gang took US$3,000 from a Rock Island Railroad train after derailing it southwest of the town of Adair, Iowa. However, the first peacetime train robbery in the United States occurred on October 6, 1866, when robbers boarded an Ohio & Mississippi train shortly after it left Seymour, Indiana. They broke into one safe and tipped the other off the train before jumping off. The Pinkerton National Detective Agency later traced the crime to the Reno Gang. There was one earlier train robbery in May 1865, but because it was committed by armed guerrillas and occurred shortly after the end of the Civil War, it is not considered to be the first train robbery in the United States.

Train robberies peaked in the 1890s. Although they occurred in a wide variety of states, California, Missouri, Texas, and Oklahoma recorded the highest numbers. Notable robberies during this period include the Union Pacific Big Springs robbery in 1877, the Canyon Diablo Train Robbery in 1889, the Fairbank Train Robbery in 1900, and the Baxter's Curve Train Robbery in 1912.

Several factors contributed to the decline of train robberies around the turn of the 20th century and the decades following, although they did not stop entirely. Ruddell and Decker (2017) write, "train robberies were eliminated, in large part, due to making targets less attractive, increasing guardianship, and reducing offender motivation or in other words taking routine precaution". Law enforcement agencies and railroad companies, which once struggled to investigate crimes and arrest perpetrators, began creating or recruiting specialized task forces, such as the Pinkerton National Detective Agency. These bodies relentlessly pursued offenders, often for years, and imposed harsher sentences, which deterred further crime. Railroad companies spent more than they lost from the robberies on investigating and preventing thefts; "that for every dollar that was stolen in a train robbery, five dollars were spent on apprehending offenders". Trains also became faster and thus more difficult to board. Wireless communications spread and the population and law enforcement presence in once-sparse areas grew, making crime reporting and response much faster. The first train robbery to be reported by telephone occurred in 1907.

In 1923, what would later be dubbed the "Last Great Train Robbery", the DeAutremont Brothers targeted a Southern Pacific Railroad carrying mail. The would-be robbers attempted to breach the mail car using dynamite but accidentally used too much, causing a large explosion that destroyed the targeted goods; ultimately, four people died in the attack. Southern Pacific and the Pinkertons pursued the gang for years and distributed 3.5 million leaflets worldwide for information, eventually apprehending the members. Train robbery had become obsolete by the 1930s in the United States, and many criminals began instead targeting banks.

The outlaw culture in the American Old West became romanticized in Hollywood's Western films, such as The Great Train Robbery in 1903. Some serial train robbers, like William L. Carlisle, became folk heroes.

20th century
Train robbery saw a marked decline as the 20th century progressed, although isolated incidents still occurred. Train robberies outside the United States were not as common before the mid-20th century; additionally, many robberies in Canada and Mexico during that time were perpetrated by American outlaws. Examples of 20th-century robberies outside of the US include the 1906 Rogów raid in Poland; the 1908 Bezdany raid in Lithuania; the 1923 Lincheng Outrage in China; the 1925 Kakori Train Robbery in India; and the 1976 Sallins Train robbery in Ireland.

Some countries were an exception to this rule. Egypt, then a British colony, struggled with an epidemic of train robberies during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. At the time, Egypt had high rates of poverty and social inequality, leading some citizens to turn to crime; some of these were train employees who were underpaid. An unorganized and ill-equipped police force hampered efforts to resolve cases; during this time, only about 17% of train robbers were apprehended. Some gangs were sheltered by local residents, and in turn gangs often used their profits to support their communities. Most cases occurred in Gharbia Governorate, Beheira Governorate, and Cairo and Giza. Egypt established its Railway Police force in 1893, and this combined with new advances in security and forensic technology led to the gradual decrease of train robberies after 1904.

The Great Train Robbery of 1963, the UK's most infamous occurrence, occurred in Buckinghamshire in 1963. On April 8, a group of robbers targeted a Post Office train enroute from Glasgow to London and stole over £2.3 million in parcels. Apprehended members of the gang were sentenced to a collective total of 307 years imprisonment.

21st century
Modern train robbery still exists, although it no longer resembles the mythos set by Hollywood Westerns. Thieves often target train cars carrying cargo for large corporations, such as Walmart and Amazon; and are most interested in commercial goods, particularly electronics, or raw industrial materials like metals and textiles. In the United States, the Los Angeles Basin is the most common spot for freight to be stolen en route. Other hotspots include areas near large depots, like Detroit, Chicago, and Memphis.

In Mexico in 2011, train theft had increased by 120% from the previous year. Railroads in the south-central part of the country, such as Zacatecas, Veracruz, Puebla, and Guanajuato, are at the highest risk. The area around Acultzingo has the highest rate of train robberies, recording 521 in 2017–2018 alone.

A string of train robberies in India have targeted both cargo and passengers. On August 9, 2016, a group of robbers drilled a hole into the roof of a secure car aboard the Chennai–Salem Express and stole ₹57.8 million ($860,000; £570,000). The train had been transporting ₹342 crore from the Indian Overseas Bank to the Reserve Bank of India in Chennai. The Indian media dubbed it "the great train robbery". Eight arrests were made in 2018 in connection with the heist. Since 2023, several instances of armed dacoits boarding trains and robbing money, mobile phones, and valuables from passengers have been reported aboard Indian passenger trains. Multiple people have been injured in these attacks.

In 2021, train robberies in Los Angeles resulted in hundreds of discarded packages to be strewn about the tracks. Trains were targeted on a section of tracks that they must slow down on and that are easy to access. Thieves used bolt cutters to cut open the locks on shipping containers and took the packages inside. The dropped packages were then picked over by thieves as well as passerby. Union Pacific estimated that losses were in the millions from all the stolen merchandise. By late 2021, an average of 90 containers were broken into daily. The Los Angeles Police Department assembled the Train Burglary Task Force in response to the robberies.

Methods
The nature of train robbery varies. Cargo can be stolen from either a moving or stationary train in a variety of ways. Perpetrators of train robberies may work alone or in groups and might be committed by gangs or other organized crime. Sometimes, gangs might recuit local residents to partake in the robbery. Goods are often stolen from unattended train cars and in transitional areas like rail yards, parking lots, and warehouses. Thieves might sabotage the train itself and bypass security measures, either causing it to drop cargo, creating a distraction, or triggering an emergency stop, thereby creating an easier method of boarding the train. Sometimes, thieves will climb onto the train and pass or spill cargo onto the ground below, where packages can be retrieved.

However, as was much more common historically but is still done today, robbers sometimes use more violent means of breaching a train. Some will obstruct or sabotage the railroad itself in an attempt to derail a moving train. Some use dynamite to damage the rails or train itself to gain entry.

Before the invention of dynamite, it was almost impossible to break into safes. Criminals required the combination lock to open safes and often relied on the courier to provide it. Following its invention and widespread use, it became much easier to break into safes and rob trains. Criminals sometimes robbed passengers of the train's carriages at gunpoint, stealing their jewelry or currency.

Contrary to the method romanticized by Hollywood, outlaws in the American Old West were never known to jump from horseback onto a moving train. Usually, they would either board the train normally and wait for a good time to initiate the heist, or they would stop or derail the train and then begin the holdup.

Effects
Train theft results in significant financial and commercial losses. As e-commerce has increased demand for large quantities of goods to be transported even longer distances, and as trains create fewer emissions than cargo trucks, the size of trains has also increased. Ferromex, Mexico's largest railroad company, reported that its carload volume had increased by 6.6% in 2011.

Financial losses to train robbery are difficult to calculate and vary from one crime to another. Robberies during the American Old West period resulted in an average loss of $9,980 per crime. In 2006, 11,711 train robberies in China were reported, with losses totalling ¥41.7 million ($6.8 million).

Sometimes, train drivers do not realize a car has been breached, and packages may continue to fall from the train, causing more loss as cargo is damaged by the fall or the train's wheels. Train derailment, caused either directly or indirectly, is also frequent. One such derailment in China caused a pileup in a railway tunnel that cost ¥3 million to clear, and millions more in indirect costs and loss of income. Additionally, packages or debris falling from a train can damage surrounding infrastructure. In one case in China, sheet metal being thrown from a train by robbers damaged nearby power lines, causing a blackout.

Humanitarian cost
Especially during the early decades of train robbery, violence against train staff and passengers, both directly and indirectly, was common. A 2017 review of 241 train robberies in the United States between 1866 and 1930 found that 91% were committed at gunpoint, 28% used dynamite, 29% resulted in shootings, 13.5% led to deaths, and 7.5% included derailments. One 1896 train derailment caused by robbers resulted in the deaths of about 27 passengers. Such violence only added to the high mortality rate of railroad employees, which during the first decades of operation averaged about 12,000 deaths annually. Additionally, perpetrator death was high; in almost 10% of cases, robbers died at the scene or during apprehension. Others were later executed, lynched, or died by suicide.

Today, violence against train employees is rare, and the majority of robberies on freight trains are nonviolent, as robbers prefer to avoid confrontation in most cases. However, passengers aboard carrier trains generally still fear being victimized. A 2024 study on Swedish rail safety reported 19% of surveyed passengers feared robbery while on or waiting for a train.

Investigation and prevention
Railroad companies have long hired private security agencies to protect cargo during transport, or even establish their own internal police forces to patrol railroads. They may also hire private detectives to investigate and deter theft. In the early decades of train robbery, sheriffs would often recruit vigilante posses of citizens to apprehend perpetrators. Of the robberies during 1965–1930 studied by Ruddell and Decker, up to 90% of all train robbers were eventually caught. Those who survived the arrest—30% died during the confrontation—were sentenced to prison and sometimes faced capital punishment or were lynched.

In response to increased cargo train traffic, the Mexican federal government made train robbery a federal crime. China has its own railway police force, which in 2013 employed approximately 80,000 officers. Chinese cargo trains transporting electronics are usually accompanied by armed guards.

Several preventative measures are taken to deter and complicate robberies. These include increased security, target hardening, heavier punishments for convicted criminals, and collaboration with different law enforcement bodies. New technology, such as motion sensors, cameras, anti-theft doors, GPS, and smart seals are all used to deter theft.

Notable train robbers and gangs
Some of the most notable train robbers and gangs are:

United Kingdom

 * 1963 Great Train Robbery
 * Ronnie Biggs
 * Buster Edwards
 * Brian Field
 * Bruce Reynolds
 * Charlie Wilson

United States

 * Rube Burrow
 * William L. Carlisle
 * Butch Cassidy's Wild Bunch
 * Laura Bullion
 * William Carver
 * Butch Cassidy
 * Flat-Nose Curry
 * Kid Curry
 * Ben Kilpatrick
 * Elzy Lay
 * Sundance Kid
 * Bill Downing
 * Dalton Gang
 * James–Younger Gang
 * Frank James
 * Jesse James
 * Bob Younger
 * Cole Younger
 * Jim Younger
 * Elmer McCurdy
 * Bill Miner
 * Tom Ketchum
 * Reno Gang

Elsewhere

 * Pancho Villa
 * Sun Meiyao

In Westerns
Train robberies are a common depiction in Western films and media. The first movie to depict a train robbery was the 1903 silent film The Great Train Robbery, produced by Edison Studios. This 11-minute film depicts a gang of outlaws who rob a train, only to later be hunted down by vigilantes and killed in a shootout. The Great Train Robbery is credited with popularizing and setting a narrative standard for the enture Western film genre. Since then, dozens of Westerns have depicted train robberies, including:
 * The Great K & A Train Robbery (1926)
 * Jesse James (1939), based on the life of the titular character
 * Whispering Smith (1948), starring Alan Ladd
 * Rage at Dawn (1955), starring Randolph Scott and Forrest Tucker
 * Man of the West (1958), starring Gary Cooper
 * Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid (1969), starring Paul Newman and Robert Redford
 * The Wild Bunch (1969), starring William Holden
 * One More Train to Rob (1971), starring George Peppard
 * The Train Robbers (1973), starring John Wayne
 * The Missouri Breaks (1976), starring Jack Nicholson and Marlon Brando
 * The Grey Fox (1982), based on the life of Bill Miner
 * The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford (2007), another biopic

In the 2018 video game Red Dead Redemption 2, train robberies are a source of income for the player. One of the game's cutscenes recreated the opening train robbery scene in The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford shot-for-shot.

Other examples
Other notable train robberies in media include:

 * O Assalto ao Trem Pagador (1962) a Brazilian film which portrays the 1960 Japeri Train Robbery
 * The Taking of Pelham One Two Three, film (1974), starring Walter Matthau
 * The 2009 remake, starring Denzel Washington and John Travolta
 * The First Great Train Robbery, film, (1979), starring Sean Connery
 * The Chase, novel by Clive Cussler
 * Tough Guys (1986) a comedy film about two elderly train robbers, starring Kirk Douglas and Burt Lancaster
 * Buster (film)
 * Money Train, film (1995), starring Woody Harrelson and Wesley Snipes
 * "The Train Job", an episode of the TV series Firefly that involved a train robbery
 * "Dead Freight", an episode of the TV series Breaking Bad in which methylamine is stolen from a train
 * Solo: A Star Wars Story, film (2018), includes a train heist scene
 * Marighella, Brazilian film by Wagner Moura, with Seu Jorge on the role of Marighella (2021)

title: Train robbery


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Railway signal

A railway signal is a visual display device that conveys instructions or provides warning of instructions regarding the driver's authority to proceed. The driver interprets the signal's indication and acts accordingly. Typically, a signal might inform the driver of the speed at which the train may safely proceed or it may instruct the driver to stop.

Application and positioning of signals

Originally, signals displayed simple stop or proceed indications. As traffic density increased, this proved to be too limiting and refinements were added. One such refinement was the addition of distant signals on the approach to stop signals. The distant signal gave the driver warning that they were approaching a signal which might require a stop. This allowed for an overall increase in speed, since train drivers no longer had to drive at a speed within sighting distance of the stop signal.

Under timetable and train order operation, the signals did not directly convey orders to the train crew. Instead, they directed the crew to pick up orders, possibly stopping to do so if the order warranted it.

Signals are used to indicate one or more of the following:
 * That the line ahead is clear (free of any obstruction) or blocked
 * That the driver has permission to proceed
 * That points (also called switch or turnout in the US) are set correctly
 * Which way points are set
 * The speed the train may travel
 * The state of the next signal
 * That the train orders are to be picked up by the crew

Early signal systems

Signals can be placed:
 * At the start of a section of track
 * On the approach to a movable item of infrastructure, such as points or switches or a swingbridge
 * In advance of other signals
 * On the approach to a level crossing
 * At a switch or turnout
 * Ahead of platforms or other places that trains are likely to be stopped
 * At train order stations

'Running lines' are usually continuously signalled. Each line of a double track railway is normally signalled in one direction only, with all signals facing the same direction on either line. Where bidirectional signalling is installed, signals face in both directions on both tracks (sometimes known as 'reversible working' where lines are not normally used for bidirectional working). Signals are generally not provided for controlling movements within sidings or yard areas.

Aspects and indications

Signals have aspects and indications. The aspect is the visual appearance of the signal; the indication is the meaning. In American practice the indications have conventional names, so that for instance "Medium Approach" means "Proceed at not exceeding medium speed; be prepared to stop at next signal". Different railroads historically assigned different meanings to the same aspect, so it is common as a result of mergers to find that different divisions of a modern railroad may have different rules governing the interpretation of signal aspects. For example, stop aspect refers to any signal aspect that does not allow the driver to pass the signal.

Signals control motion past the point at which the signal stands and into the next section of track. They may also convey information about the state of the next signal to be encountered. Signals are sometimes said to "protect" the points or switches, section of track, etc. that they are ahead of. The term "ahead of" can be confusing, so official UK practice is to use the terms in rear of and in advance of. When a train is waiting at a signal it is "in rear of" that signal and the danger being protected by the signal is "in advance of" the train and signal.

In North American practice, a distinction must be made between absolute signals, which can display a "Stop" (or "Stop and Stay") indication, and permissive signals, which display a "Stop & Proceed" aspect. Furthermore, a permissive signal may be marked as a Grade Signal where a train does not need to physically stop for a "Stop & Proceed" signal, but only decelerate to a speed slow enough to stop short of any obstructions. Interlocking ('controlled') signals are typically absolute, while automatic signals (i.e. those controlled through track occupancy alone, not by a signalman) are usually permissive.

Drivers need to be aware of which signals are automatic. In current British practice for example, automatic signals have a white rectangular plate with a black horizontal line across it. In US practice a permissive signal typically is indicated by the presence of a number plate. In the Australian states of New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia, as well as New Zealand, a permissive signal has the lower set of lights offset (usually to the right) from the upper lights; in Victoria and New Zealand, an absolute signal displaying a red or white "A" light is also treated as a permissive signal. Some types of signal display separate permissive and absolute stop aspects. In Germany, the rules which apply to the respective signal are indicated by a vertical plate on the signal's post (Mastschild).

Operating rules normally specify that a signal with an abnormality, such as one with an extinguished lamp or an entirely dark signal, must be interpreted as the most restrictive aspect – generally "Stop" or "Stop and Proceed".

Signal forms
Signals differ both in the manner in which they display aspects and in the manner in which they are mounted with respect to the track.

Mechanical signals

The oldest forms of signal displays their different indications by a part of the signal being physically moved. The earliest types comprised a board that was either turned face-on and fully visible to the driver, or rotated away so as to be practically invisible. These signals had two or at most three positions.

Semaphore signals were developed in France at the end of the 18th century, before being later adopted by the railways. The first railway semaphore was erected by Charles Hutton Gregory on the London and Croydon Railway (later the Brighton) at New Cross Gate, southeast London, in 1841. It was similar in form to the optical telegraphs then being replaced on land by the electric telegraph. Gregory's installation was inspected and approved for the Board of Trade by Major-General Charles Pasley. Pasley had invented a system of optical telegraphy through semaphores in 1822 for the British military, and appears to have suggested to Gregory the application of the semaphore to railway signaling. The semaphore was afterwards rapidly adopted as a fixed signal nearly universally. Disc signals, such as those made by the Hall Signal Company, were sometimes used, but semaphores could be read at much longer distances. The invention of the electric light, which could be made brighter than oil lamps and hence visible both by night and day, resulted in the development of position light signals and colour-light signals at the beginning of the 20th century, which gradually displaced semaphores. A few remain in modern operations in the United Kingdom.

Mechanical signals may be operated manually, connected to a lever in a signal-box, by electric motors, or hydraulically. The signals are designed to be fail-safe so that if power is lost or a linkage is broken, the arm will move by gravity into the horizontal position.

In the U.S., semaphores were employed as train order signals, with the purpose of indicating to engineers whether they should stop to receive a telegraphed order, and also as simply one form of block signalling.

Colour light signals

The introduction of electric light bulbs made it possible to produce colour light signals which were bright enough to be seen during daylight, starting in 1904.

The signal head is the portion of a colour light signal which displays the aspects. To display a larger number of indications, a single signal might have multiple signal heads. Some systems used a single head coupled with auxiliary lights to modify the basic aspect.

Colour light signals come in two forms. The most prevalent form is the multi-unit type, with separate lights and lenses for each colour, in the manner of a traffic light. Hoods and shields are generally provided to shade the lights from sunlight which could cause false indications.

Searchlight signals were the most often used signal type in the U.S. until recently. In these, a single incandescent light bulb is used in each head, and either an A.C. or D.C. relay mechanism is used to move a coloured spectacle (or "roundel") in front of the lamp. In this manner, gravity (fail safe) returns the red roundel into the lamp's optical path. In effect, this mechanism is very similar to the colour light signal that is included in an electrically operated semaphore signal, except that the omission of the semaphore arm allows the roundels to be miniaturized and enclosed in a weatherproof housing. Widely used in the U.S. from World War II onward, searchlight signals have the disadvantage of having moving parts which may be deliberately tampered with. This had led to them becoming less common during the last fifteen to twenty years when vandalism began to render them vulnerable to false indications.

However, in some other countries, such as on the Italian railways (FS) as from the Regolamento Segnali, they are still the standard colour light signal albeit with new installations being as outlined below.

More recently, clusters of LEDs have started to be used in place of the incandescent lamps, reflectors and lenses. These use less power and have a purported working life of ten years, but this may not in reality be the case.

Operating rules generally dictate that a dark signal be interpreted as giving the most restrictive indication it can display (generally "stop" or "stop and proceed"). Many colour light systems have circuitry to detect such failures in lamps or mechanism.

Position light signals

A position light signal is one where the position of the lights, rather than their colour, determines the meaning. The aspect consists solely of a pattern of illuminated lights, which are all of the same colour. In many countries, small position light signals are used as shunting signals, while the main signals are of colour light form. Also, many tramway systems (such as the Metro of Wolverhampton) use position light signals.

Colour-position signals

A system combining aspects of the colour and position systems was developed on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (B&O) in 1920 and was patented by L.F. Loree and F.P. Patenall. It is similar to the position light system with the central light removed and the resulting pairs of lights colored in correspondence to the angle they make: green for the vertical pair, amber for the right diagonal pair, and red for the horizontal pair. An additional pair, colored "lunar white", may be added on the other diagonal for restricting indications. Speed signalling is indicated not by additional signal heads, but by a system of white or amber "orbital" lights placed in one of six positions above and below the main head. The position above or below indicates the current speed, while the left-to-right position indicates the speed at the next signal (full, medium, or slow in both cases). Dwarf signals have the same aspects as full-sized signals. One of the advantages claimed for the system is that burned-out bulbs produce aspects which can be interpreted unambiguously as either the intended indication (for the main head) or as a more restrictive indication (for the orbitals—if only the central head is lit, the indication is either slow or restricting).

Colour position lights (CPLs) were first installed as a pilot on the Staten Island Railway in New York City, at the time a B&O subsidiary; they were also applied to the Chicago and Alton Railroad when the latter was under B&O control, as well as on the B&O itself. With the disappearance of the B&O into CSX they have been gradually replaced with NORAC color light signals.

Signal mounting
Lineside signals need to be mounted in proximity to the track which they control.

Post mounting
When a single track is involved, the signal is normally mounted on a post or mast which displays the arm or signal head at some height above the track, in order to allow it to be seen at a distance. The signal is normally placed on the engine driver's side of the track.

Gantry mounting

When multiple tracks are involved, or where space does not permit post mounting, other forms are found. In double track territory one may find two signals mounted side by side on a bracket which itself is mounted on a post. The left hand signal then controls the left-hand track, and the right signal the right-hand track. A gantry or signal bridge may also be used. This consists of a platform extending over the tracks; the signals are mounted on this platform over the tracks they control.

Ground mounting

In some situations or places, such as in tunnels, where there is insufficient room for a post or gantry, signals may be mounted at ground level. Such signals may be physically smaller (termed dwarf signals). Rapid transit systems commonly use only dwarf signals due to restricted space. In many systems, dwarf signals are only used to display 'restrictive' aspects such as low speed or shunt aspects, and do not normally indicate 'running' aspects.

Other
Occasionally, a signal may be mounted to a structure such as a retaining wall, bridge abutment, or overhead electrification support.

Filaments
Electric lamps for railway signals are often fitted with twin filaments, so that if one burns out, the other keeps the signal lit. A more complicated version of this, such as in the SL35 lamp, a filament changeover relay is fitted in series with the first filament, where if the first filament burns out, the relay drops and lights the second filament. This filament fail relay also activates an alarm in the signal box.

Lamp proving
When lamps fail, this can result in aspects that are less restrictive (high speed) than when the lamps are correctly lit. This is potentially dangerous.

For example, in UK practice, if a white "feather" indicator fails, the low speed feather combined with a green light, which is low speed, becomes a green light on its own, which is high speed. A lamp proving relay would detect the reduction in current when more than two lamps are not working in a failed feather indicator, and prevent the green from showing. It can also display an indication on the signaller's panel.

Due to this possibility, most signals are configured to be failsafe.

For example, a flashing aspect can be used to display a less restrictive signal. In this case, if the relay that controls the flashing fails, the signal becomes more restricting. A flashing yellow, in Canada and the United States, at least on the top or middle heads if there is more than one light, means advance clear to stop (or alternatively advance approach) which means expect the next signal to be clear but not the one after. A solid yellow means clear to stop (or alternatively approach) which means expect the next signal to be stop.

Control and operation of signals
Signals were originally controlled by levers situated at the signals, and later by levers grouped together and connected to the signal by wire cables, or pipes supported on rollers (US). Often these levers were placed in a special building, known as a signal box (UK) or interlocking tower (US), and eventually they were mechanically interlocked to prevent the display of a signal contrary to the alignment of the switch points. Automatic traffic control systems added track circuits to detect the presence of trains and alter signal aspects to reflect their presence or absence.

Cab signalling
Some locomotives are equipped to display cab signals. These can display signal indications through patterns of lights in the locomotive cab, or in simple systems merely produce an audible sound to warn the driver of a restrictive aspect. Occasionally, cab signals are used by themselves, but more commonly they are used to supplement signals placed at lineside. Cab signalling is particularly useful on high speed railways. In the absence of lineside signals, fixed markers may be provided at those places where signals would otherwise exist, to mark the limit of a movement authority.

Signalling power

Usually, signals and other equipment (such as track circuits and level crossing equipment), are powered from a low voltage supply. The specific voltage varies with the country and equipment used. The reason behind this is that the low voltage allows easy operation from storage batteries and indeed, in some parts of the world (and previously in many more locations, before the widespread adoption of electricity), batteries are the primary power source, as mains power may be unavailable at that location. In urban built-up areas, the trend is now to power signal equipment directly from mains power, with batteries only as backup.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Railway signal


text:
Signalling control

On a rail transport system, signalling control is the process by which control is exercised over train movements by way of railway signals and block systems to ensure that trains operate safely, over the correct route and to the proper timetable. Signalling control was originally exercised via a decentralised network of control points that were known by a variety of names including signal box (International and British), interlocking tower (North America) and signal cabin (some railways e.g., GCR). Currently these decentralised systems are being consolidated into wide scale signalling centres or dispatch offices. Whatever the form, signalling control provides an interface between the human signal operator and the lineside signalling equipment. The technical apparatus used to control switches (points), signals and block systems is called interlocking.

History
Originally, all signaling was done by mechanical means. Points and signals were operated locally from individual levers or handles, requiring the signalman to walk between the various pieces of equipment to set them in the required position for each train that passed. Before long, it was realized that control should be concentrated into one building, which came to be known as a signal box. The signal box provided a dry, climate-controlled space for the complex interlocking mechanics and also the signalman. The raised design of most signal boxes (which gave rise to the term "tower" in North America) also provided the signalman with a good view of the railway under his control. The first use of a signal box was by the London & Croydon Railway in 1843 to control the junction to Bricklayers Arms in London.

With the practical development of electric power, the complexity of a signal box was no longer limited by the distance a mechanical lever could work a set of points or a semaphore signal via a direct physical connection (or the space required by such connections). Power-operated switch points and signaling devices greatly expanded the territory that a single control point could operate from several hundred yards to several miles. As the technology of electric relay logic was developed, it no longer became necessary for signalmen to operate control devices with any sort of mechanical logic at all. With the jump to all electronic logic, physical presence was no longer needed and the individual control points could be consolidated to increase system efficiency.

Another advancement made possible by the replacement of mechanical control by all-electric systems was that the signalman's user interface could be enhanced to further improve productivity. The smaller size of electric toggles and push buttons put more functionality within reach of an individual signalman. Route-setting technology automated the setting of individual points and routes through busy junctions. Computerized video displays removed the physical interface altogether, replacing it with a point-and-click or touchscreen interface. Finally, the use of Automatic Route Setting removed the need for any human input at all as common train movements could be fully automated according to a schedule or other scripted logic.

Signal boxes also served as important communications hubs, connecting the disparate parts of a rail line and linking them together to allow the safe passage of trains. The first signaling systems were made possible by technology like the telegraph and block instrument that allowed adjacent signal boxes to communicate the status of a section of track. Later, the telephone put centralized dispatchers in contact with distant signal boxes, and radio even allowed direct communication with the trains themselves. The ultimate ability for data to be transmitted over long distances has proven the demise of most local control signal boxes. Signalmen next to the track are no longer needed to serve as the eyes and ears of the signaling system. Track circuits transmit train locations to distant control centers and data links allow direct manipulation of the points and signals.

While some railway systems have more signal boxes than others, most future signaling projects will result in increasing amounts of centralized control relegating the lineside signal box to niche or heritage applications.

Naming
In any node-based control system, proper identification is critical to ensuring that messages are properly received by their intended recipients. As such, signaling control points are provided with names or identifiers that minimize the likelihood of confusion during communications. Popular naming techniques include using nearby geographic references, line milepost numbers, sequence numbers, and identification codes. Geographic names can refer to a municipality or neighborhood, a nearby road or geographic feature, local landmarks, and industry that may provide the railway with traffic or railway features like yards, sidings, or junctions.

On systems where Morse code was in use it was common to assign control locations short identification codes to aid in efficient communication, although wherever signalling control locations are more numerous than mileposts, sequence numbers and codes are more likely to be employed. Entire rail systems or political areas may adopt a common naming convention. In Central Europe, for example, signalling control points were all issued regionally unique location codes based roughly on the point's location and function, while the American state of Texas sequentially numbered all interlockings for regulatory purposes.

As signaling control centers are consolidated it can become necessary to differentiate between older style boxes and newer train control centers, where signalmen may have different duties and responsibilities. Moreover, the name of the signaling center itself may not be employed operationally in preference to the name of individual signaling workstations. This is especially true when signaling centers control large amounts of territory spanning many diverse lines and geographical regions.

In most cases where the control locations are still in the field adjacent to railway tracks, the name or code of the control point is plainly labeled on the side of the signal box structure as an extra visual reminder to the train operators where they are. Moreover, wayside signals may also be equipped with identification plates that directly or indirectly indicate who controls that signal and that stretch of the line.

Control apparatus
For more information, see also Interlocking.

Lever frame
The earliest signal boxes housed mechanical lever frames. The frame was usually mounted on a beam beneath the operating floor. Interlocking was attached to the levers, which ensured that signals showed the correct indication concerning the points and were operated in the right order. Wires or rods, connected at one end to the signals and points and the other to levers in the signal box, ran alongside the railway.

In many countries, levers are painted according to their function, e.g. red for stop signals and black for points, and are usually numbered, from left to right, for identification. In most cases, a diagram of the track and signaling layout is mounted above the lever frame, showing the relevant lever numbers adjacent to the signals and points.

Hand-powered interlockings were referred to as 'Armstrongs' and hand throws in the United States.

Power frames have miniature levers and control the signals and points electrically. In some cases, the interlocking was still done mechanically, but in others, electric lever locks were used.

In a few cases, signals and points were operated pneumatically upon operation of the appropriate lever or slide.

Control panel
In a signal box with a control panel, the levers are replaced by buttons or switches, usually appropriately positioned directly onto the track diagram. These buttons or switches are interfaced with an electrical or electronic interlocking. In the UK, control panels are of the following types:

 * Individual function switch (IFS)
 * A separate button/switch is provided for each signal and each set of points. This type of panel is operated similarly to a lever frame. The signalman must move each set of points to the desired position before operating the switch or button of the signal reading over them.

 * This type of panel needs the least complex circuitry but is not suited to controlling large or busy areas.

 * One control switch (OCS)
 * A separate switch/button is provided for every signaled route. There will be as many switches/buttons per signal as there are routes (i.e. signaled destinations) from that signal. To set the desired route, the relevant switch or button is operated. All points within the route are automatically set to the required position.

 * Individual points switches are provided, but they are normally left in the central position, which allows the points to be automatically set by the action of setting a route.

 * Entrance-exit (NX)
 * This type of panel has one switch/button provided for every signal (except that some panels have separate 'entrance' and 'exit' devices). To set a route, the signalman operates the device for the 'entrance' signal, followed by the device for the 'exit' (destination) signal. All points within the route are automatically set to the required position and, provided all the points are detected by the interlocking in the correct position, the entrance signal will clear.

 * Individual points switches are provided, but they are normally left in the central position, which allows the points to be automatically set to the normal or reverse position by the action of setting a route.

Similar principles of operation as described above are applicable throughout the world.

Video display unit
Modern signal boxes tend to be provided with VDU based, or similar, control systems. These systems are less expensive to build and easier to alter than a traditional panel. In the UK, large modern signal boxes are typical of the Integrated Electronic Control Centre type, or, more recently, of the Rail Operating Centre variety. Variations of these control systems are used throughout the world.

Present day

While rare, some traditional signal boxes can still be found. Some still control mechanical points and signals, although in many cases, the lever frame has been removed or is out of use, and a control panel or VDU has been installed. Most modern countries have little, if any, mechanical signalling remaining on the rail system. Both in the UK and Ireland, however, mechanical signalling is still relatively common away from the busiest lines; in Europe, there is also a considerable amount in Germany, Poland, and the Czech Republic. Traditional signal boxes can be found on many heritage railways.

The modern control centre has largely replaced widespread signal cabins. These centres, usually located near main railway stations, control the track network electrically or electronically.

title: Signalling control


text:
Nasdaq Nordic

Nasdaq Nordic is the common name for the subsidiaries of Nasdaq, Inc. that provide financial services and operate marketplaces for securities in the Nordic and Baltic regions of Europe.

Historically, the operations were known by the company name OMX AB (Aktiebolaget Optionsmäklarna/Helsinki Stock Exchange), created in 2003 with the merger between OM AB and HEX plc. In 2015, the legal entity OMX AB was renamed Nasdaq AB, but it also operates under the name Nasdaq OMX AB. The operations have been part of Nasdaq, Inc. (formerly known as Nasdaq OMX Group) since February 2008.

On 23 August 2023, the company formed EuroCTP as a joint venture with 13 other bourses, in an effort to provide a consolidated tape for the European Union, as part of the Capital Markets Union proposed by the European Commission.

Origins
OM AB (Optionsmäklarna) was a futures exchange founded by Olof Stenhammar in the 1980s to introduce trading in standardized option contracts in Sweden. OM acquired the Stockholm Stock Exchange in 1998 and unsuccessfully attempted acquisition of the London Stock Exchange in 2001. During the dot-com bubble in the early 2000s, OM, together with investment bank Morgan Stanley Dean Witter, launched a virtual European stock exchange called Jiway. The project was not successful and was cancelled on 14 October 2002.

Acquisition of other exchanges
On 3 September 2003, the Helsinki Stock Exchange (HEX) merged with OM and the joint company became OM HEX. On 31 August 2004, the company name was changed to OMX. OMX then acquired the Copenhagen Stock Exchange in January 2005 for €164 million. On 19 September 2006, Iceland Stock Exchange owner Eignarhaldsfelagid Verdbrefathing (EV) announced it would be acquired by OMX in a deal valuing the company at 250 million SEK. The transaction was completed by the end of the year.

The company took a 10% stake in Oslo Børs Holding ASA, the owner of the Oslo Stock Exchange in October 2006. As of September 2016, Nasdaq is not a major shareholder in the Oslo Stock Exchange holding company, which following a merger is currently called Oslo Børs VPS Holding ASA. Nasdaq has, however, publicly stated its interest in eventually acquiring the Oslo Stock Exchange.

In November 2007, OMX acquired the Armenian Stock Exchange and the Central Depository of Armenia.

Expansion of offerings
In December 2005, OMX started First North, an alternative exchange for smaller companies, in Denmark. The First North exchange expanded to Stockholm in June 2006, Iceland in January 2007 and Helsinki in April 2007. The Markets Technology division of Computershare was acquired in 2006. The acquisition greatly expanded its product offerings and made its client list the largest of all trading system technology providers.

On 2 October 2006, the group launched a virtual Nordic Stock Exchange after merging the individual lists of shares traded at its three wholly owned Nordic exchanges into a combined Nordic List. Companies listed on the Iceland Stock Exchange have also since been merged into the list. OMX also launched a pan-regional benchmark index known as the OMX Nordic 40 on the same date; however, the individual exchanges also retained their own national benchmark indices.

NASDAQ takeover
On 25 May 2007, NASDAQ agreed to buy OMX for US$3.7 billion. In August, however, Borse Dubai offered US$4 billion, prompting speculation of a bidding war. On 20 September 2007, Borse Dubai agreed to stop competing to buy OMX in return for a 20% stake and 5 percent of votes in NASDAQ, as well as NASDAQ's then-28% stake in the London Stock Exchange. In a complex transaction, Borse Dubai acquired 97.2% of OMX's outstanding shares before selling them to NASDAQ. The newly merged company was renamed the NASDAQ OMX Group upon completion of the deal on 27 February 2008.

Exchanges
The following exchanges, with official market names in parentheses, are operated by Nasdaq Nordic:
 * Copenhagen Stock Exchange (Nasdaq Copenhagen)
 * Stockholm Stock Exchange (Nasdaq Stockholm)
 * Helsinki Stock Exchange (Nasdaq Helsinki)
 * Iceland Stock Exchange (Nasdaq Iceland)
 * Tallinn Stock Exchange (Nasdaq Baltic)
 * Riga Stock Exchange (Nasdaq Baltic)
 * Vilnius Stock Exchange (Nasdaq Baltic)

Divisions
The company's stock market activities are made up of three entities:
 * Nordic Market (Copenhagen, Stockholm, Helsinki, Iceland)
 * Baltic Market (Tallinn, Riga, Vilnius)
 * First North (alternative exchange)

title: Nasdaq Nordic


text:
Officine Meccaniche

Officine Meccaniche or OM was an Italian car and truck manufacturing company. It was founded in 1899 in Milan as Società Anonima Officine Meccaniche to manufacture railway rolling stock and car production began in 1918. It disappeared as such in 1975, subsumed into Iveco, but still exists as a forklift builder.

Origins
The inception of the company resulted from the merger of two companies, Grondona Comi & C and Miani Silvestri & C in 1899. Originally, OM manufactured railway stock. Car production started in 1918, using the plant of the former Brixia-Zust (Brixia-Züst), just after OM took over Zust car company of Brescia, Northern Italy. The first OM car, the Tipo S305, was derived from an old Zust model. It appeared in 1918, fitted with a 4712 cc inline four-cylinder, side-valve engine.

The OM cars era
Further models were the Tipo 465, with a 1327 cc, in 1919, joined by the Tipo 467 (1410 cc) and Tipo 469 (1496 cc) in 1921. The model names reflected the number of cylinders (4) and the bore of the engines: 65 ,. 1923 saw a new model, with an engine derived from the earlier four-cylinder models, the Tipo 665 'Superba' with a 2 L six-cylinder engine. This model was extremely successful in racing, winning top five positions in the 2 L class in 1925 and 1926 at the Le Mans but its greatest achievement was the victory in the first Mille Miglia race in 1927 where Ferdinando Minoia and Giuseppe Morandi led home an OM '1-2-3' finish at an average speed of 48.27 mph for 21 hours 4 minutes 48 seconds. Some cars were equipped with Roots superchargers, while later models were bored and stroked to 2.2 and 2.4 litres - without changing the model name, however.

In 1925 OM began to build trucks and buses, using licensed Swiss Saurer engines and other mechanical components. Ties with Saurer persisted through all of OM's history. Passenger car production began to taper off, with some sources stating that production ended in 1932, with existing stocks sold for another couple of years. In total, 7,500 OM automobiles were built in about fifteen years. After passenger car had effectively ended, OM still displayed one last model: in 1934 the OMV, also called the Alcyone made the car show circuit. Equipped with hydraulic brakes, a full synchromesh transmission, and an engine with overhead exhaust valves, it never reached production.

Fiat take-over and post-war years
OM was taken over by the Fiat Group in 1933 and the following year passenger car sales definitely ceased; OM became strictly a commercial vehicle and train parts manufacturer.

The main new product in the post-WWII era was the Leoncino (1950) a light truck in the 3.0 to 3.5 tonne range, which was an immediate success. It became the forefather of several series of heavier but structurally similar models, namely Tigrotto, Tigre, Lupetto, Cerbiatto and Daino, launched between 1957 and 1964. Bus chassis versions of several of these models were also available. After having been subsumed into Fiat, the lighter models were replaced by the OM numerical range beginning in 1967.

OM also built a heavier range of trucks, starting with the post-war Orione. This was succeeded by the Super Orione in 1955 and by the OM Titano in 1961. The latter was capable of pulling 35 tonne as a tractor or 19 tonne on the 6x4 truck chassis. Its 10310 cc, six-cylinder turbo-diesel engine produced 260 hp-metric, making it the most powerful road-going European truck in the early 1960s. The Titano was discontinued in 1968 and effectively replaced by Fiat's heavier trucks, the Fiat 619 and the Fiat 682. As with the lighter duty models, bus versions were also available of the Titano, called the "Titano P."

In the 60s and 70s the light and medium-weight OM truck ranges were sold in Switzerland as Saurer-OM or Berna-OM, in Austria as Steyr-OM, in France as Unic-OM, and in Germany as Büssing-OM.

The end of OM
In 1968 OM was definitively merged into the Fiat Group as a brand belonging to the Commercial Vehicles division, which also included Fiat and Unic.

In 1975 it was absorbed (as part of the Fiat Group) into IVECO and the OM brand disappeared from the truck and bus markets, although it still survives as an independent forklift manufacturer.

Products

 * FS Class ALn 772
 * OM X-series

title: Officine Meccaniche


text:
Cameo appearance

A cameo appearance, also called a cameo role and often shortened to just cameo, is a brief guest appearance of a well-known person or character in a work of the performing arts. These roles are generally small, many of them non-speaking ones, and are commonly either appearances in a work in which they hold some special significance (such as actors from an original movie appearing in its remake) or renowned people making uncredited appearances. Short appearances by celebrities, film directors, politicians, athletes or musicians are common. A crew member of the movie or show playing a minor role can be referred to as a cameo role as well, such as director Alfred Hitchcock who made frequent cameo appearances in his films.

Concept
Originally, in the 1920s, a "cameo role" meant "a small character part that stands out from the other minor parts". The Oxford English Dictionary connects this with the meaning "a short literary sketch or portrait", which is based on the literal meaning of "cameo", a miniature carving on a gemstone. More recently, in the late 20th century, a "cameo" has come to refer to any short appearance as a character.

Cameos are generally not credited because of their brevity, or a perceived mismatch between the celebrity's stature and the film or television series in which they are appearing. Many are publicity stunts. Others are acknowledgements of an actor's contribution to an earlier work, as in the case of many film adaptations of television series, or of remakes of earlier films. Others honour artists or celebrities known for work in a particular field, such as comic book writer Stan Lee, who made appearances in every Marvel Cinematic Universe movie up to Avengers: Endgame.

Cameos also occur in novels and other literary works. "Literary cameos" usually involve an established character from another work who makes a brief appearance to establish a shared universe setting, to make a point, or to offer homage. Balzac often employed this practice, as in his Comédie humaine. Sometimes a cameo features a historical person who "drops in" on fictional characters in a historical novel, as when Benjamin Franklin shares a beer with Phillipe Charboneau in The Bastard by John Jakes.

A cameo appearance can be made by the author of a work to put a sort of personal "signature" on a story. Vladimir Nabokov often put himself in his novels, for instance as the very minor character Vivian Darkbloom (an anagram of his name) in Lolita.

Cameos are also a tradition of the Muppets' many projects over the years.

Film directors
Alfred Hitchcock is known for his frequent cameos in his movies, as early as in his third film The Lodger (1927). In Lifeboat, as the action was restricted to the titular lifeboat, Hitchcock appeared in a newspaper ad.

Quentin Tarantino provides brief cameos or small roles in all his movies.

Likewise, Peter Jackson has made brief cameos in all of his movies, except for his first feature-length film Bad Taste in which he played a main character, as well as The Battle of the Five Armies, though a portrait of him appears in the film. For example, he played a peasant eating a carrot in The Fellowship of the Ring and The Desolation of Smaug, a warrior of Rohan in The Two Towers, and a Corsair of Umbar boatswain in The Return of the King. All four were non-speaking "blink and you miss him" appearances, although in the Extended Release version of The Return of the King, his character was given more screen time and his reprise of the carrot eating peasant in The Desolation of Smaug was featured in the foreground in reference to The Fellowship of the Ring. In addition, when he was directing Heavenly Creatures (1994), he appeared as a drunk person bumping into the main characters, and in the Frighteners, Jackson appeared as a man with piercings with his real-life son in a bouncer. Director Tim Burton briefly appears in his films. He made a short appearance as a street thug who confronts Pee-wee in the back alley in Pee-wee's Big Adventure, and a visitor at the fair in Blackpool who gets a skeleton thrown at him in Miss Peregrine's Home for Peculiar Children.

Director Martin Scorsese appears in the background of his films as a bystander or an unseen character. In Who's That Knocking at My Door (1967), he played one of the gangsters; he was a lighting crewman in After Hours and a passenger in Taxi Driver. He opened up his film The Color of Money with a monologue on the art of playing pool. In addition, he appeared with his wife and daughter as wealthy New Yorkers in Gangs of New York, and as a theatre-goer and can be heard as a movie projectionist in The Aviator. He also appeared in his 2023 work Killers of the Flower Moon, in a minor role as a radio drama narrator.

In a same way, Roman Polanski appeared as a hired hoodlum in his film Chinatown, slitting Jack Nicholson's nose with the blade of his clasp knife.

F. Gary Gray has made many appearances in the films he has directed including Friday, Set It Off, Law Abiding Citizen, and Straight Outta Compton.

Actors and writers
Directors sometimes cast well-known lead actors with whom they have worked in the past in other films. In Jane Eyre (1943), Elizabeth Taylor makes a cameo appearance as Helen Burns, Jane's friend from school who dies from a cold. Mike Todd's film Around the World in 80 Days (1956) was filled with cameo roles: John Gielgud as an English butler, Frank Sinatra playing piano in a saloon, and others. The stars in cameo roles were pictured in oval insets in posters for the film, and gave the term wide circulation outside the theatrical profession.

It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World (1963), an "epic comedy", also features cameos from nearly every popular American comedian alive at the time, including The Three Stooges, Jerry Lewis, Buster Keaton and a voice-only cameo by Selma Diamond.

Won Ton Ton, the Dog Who Saved Hollywood (1976) features cameos by dozens of actors from Hollywood's golden age.

The Player (1992) features cameos from 65 Hollywood actors.

Run for Your Wife (2012) is filled with cameos from 80 of Britain's film and TV stars from the 1960s, '70s and '80s.

Aaron Sorkin also had cameos in some works he wrote: as a bar customer speaking about the law in his debut film screenplay A Few Good Men (1992), as an advertising executive in The Social Network, and as a guest at the inauguration of President Matt Santos in the final episode of The West Wing.

Franco Nero, the actor who portrayed the Django character in the original 1966 film, appears in a bar scene of the Tarantino film Django Unchained. There, he asks Django (Jamie Foxx) to spell his name, which led to the famous promotional tagline for the film - "The 'D' is silent". Franco's character responds simply, "I know."

Many cameos featured in Maverick (1994), directed by Richard Donner. Among them, Danny Glover – Mel Gibson's co-star in the Lethal Weapon franchise also directed by Donner – appears as the lead bank robber. He and Maverick (Gibson) share a scene where they look as if they knew each other, but then shake it off. As Glover makes his escape with the money, he mutters "I'm too old for this shit", his character's catchphrase in the Lethal Weapon films. In addition, a strain of the main theme from Lethal Weapon plays in the score when Glover is revealed. Actress Margot Kidder made a cameo appearance in the same film as a robbed villager: she had previously starred as Lois Lane in Donner's Superman (1978).

Ben Stiller, Vince Vaughn, Owen Wilson, Luke Wilson and Will Ferrell have made appearances in so many of the same films (whether as lead characters or cameos) that USA Today coined the term "Frat Pack" to name the group. Actor Adam Sandler is also known for frequently casting fellow Saturday Night Live performers (including Rob Schneider and David Spade) in various roles in his films (as well as making cameo appearances of his own in theirs, most of which he co-produces). Sam Raimi frequently uses his brother Ted and Bruce Campbell in his films.

The American singer/actress Cher had a couple of cameos. She had two cameos in Will & Grace and she even had a few in the 1990s.

Actor Edward Norton appeared as himself in the satirical film The Dictator (2012) starring Sacha Baron Cohen.

The mangaka Shotaro Ishinomori made many cameos in his Kamen Rider series.

The animated series Adventures of Tintin featured its author Hergé in all the episodes.

Stephen King is famous for making short cameo appearances in almost every movie based on his novels.

An Adventure in Space and Time, a drama about how Doctor Who began, features many actors from the show's past, including two past companions in a party scene, another as a mother calling her children in for dinner and a fourth in a car park at the BBC as a guard.

In the movie adaptation of Les Miserables, Colm Wilkinson, who originated the role of Jean Valjean in the West End and on Broadway, made a cameo as the Bishop of Digne.

In the Soviet film Moscow Does Not Believe in Tears, Innokenty Smoktunovsky appeared for a minute as himself.

Other
Films based on actual events occasionally include cameo guest appearances by the people portrayed in them. In The Pursuit of Happyness, Chris Gardner made a cameo at the end. 24 Hour Party People, a film about Tony Wilson, has a cameo by the real Tony Wilson and many other notable people. In the film Apollo 13, James Lovell (the real commander of that flight) and his wife Marilyn appeared next to the actors playing them (Tom Hanks and Kathleen Quinlan respectively), and Chuck Yeager, whose story is told in the early part of the film, appears in a cameo in the airfield bar. Domino Harvey made a short appearance in the credits of Domino, while the real Erin Brockovich had a cameo as a waitress named Julia in the eponymous movie (where her role is played by the actress Julia Roberts). Sophie Wilson had a cameo as a barmaid in Micro Men, which shows her work for Acorn Computers. In a flashback sequence in Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, Raoul Duke (played by Johnny Depp) runs into the real-life Hunter S. Thompson, upon whom the character of Duke is based, leading him to remark "There I was...mother of God, there I am! Holy fuck."

Stephen Hawking in popular culture lists more than a dozen appearances of the scientist playing himself.

Maria Von Trapp made an uncredited brief cameo appearance in the film version of her life, The Sound of Music. She appeared in the background during the song "I Have Confidence" with her daughter Rosmarie and stepson Werner Von Trapp.

Tom Morello, American guitarist and musician, made an appearance in the Marvel film Iron Man (2008), in which he also participated in the soundtrack.

Elon Musk and Larry Ellison, both founders of large technology companies, were featured in cameos in Iron Man 2 (2010).

The king of Sweden, Carl XVI Gustaf, was in the children's program Mika (Mika och renen Ossian på äventyr) when Mika was in Stockholm with his reindeer.

In The Wolf of Wall Street (2013), the real Jordan Belfort appeared as an emcee to introduce Leonardo DiCaprio, who played Belfort, in the final scene.

Boxer Roberto Duran and his wife Felicidad made a cameo appearance towards the end of the film Hands of Stone, about Duran's life.

In The Big Short (film), the real investor Michael Burry appeared as an employee of his hedge fund "Scion Capital" while answering the phone saying "Doctor Burry's office".

An unusual example of a famous non-actor being given a small but speaking fictional role occurred in the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "Second Chances." Dr. Mae Jemison, an astronaut, the first Black woman in space, and a long-time fan of Star Trek, was offered the opportunity to appear on the show. She was given the role of a Starfleet crewmember and a few lines, thus becoming the first real-life astronaut to appear on Star Trek. Somewhat likewise King Abdullah II of Jordan appeared briefly in a non-speaking role the Star Trek: Voyager episode "Investigations".

title: Cameo appearance


text:
Symyx Technologies

Symyx Technologies, Inc. was a company that specialized in informatics and automation products. Symyx provided software solutions for scientific research, including Enterprise Laboratory Notebooks and products for combinatorial chemistry. The software part of the business became part of Accelrys, Inc. in 2010 and then in 2014 this company merged with Dassault Systèmes. Symyx also offered laboratory robotics systems for performing automated chemical research, which in 2010 was spun out as Freeslate, Inc.

Products
Symyx offered high-speed combinatorial technologies for the discovery of new materials. Using proprietary technologies - including instruments, software and methods - Symyx was able to generate hundreds to thousands of unique materials at a time and screen those materials rapidly and automatically for desired properties. This approach was said to deliver results hundreds to thousands of times faster than traditional research methods, at a fraction of the cost. Symyx applied this technology to revolutionize materials discovery in the life sciences, chemical, and electronics industries.

History
Founded in 1994 by Dr. Alejandro Zaffaroni and Dr. Peter G. Schultz, Symyx' conceptual basis drew from Affymax, Inc. and Affymetrix, Inc., which commercialized the use of high-speed combinatorial methods for pharmaceutical and genetic research, respectively. Dr. Eric McFarland, professor at UCSB, was the founding director. Symyx screens about a million materials a year and has produced a product pipeline with several materials that have the potential to be commercialized in the next few years. Examples of their discovery efforts include X-ray storage phosphors for radiography, polymers to speed DNA research and catalysts for the manufacture of pharmaceuticals, chemicals and plastics.

In 2004, Symyx Technologies acquired Intellichem, a software manufacturer for electronic laboratory notebooks and, in 2007 Symyx Technologies acquired MDL Information Systems (originally Molecular Design Limited, Inc.), a provider of R&D informatics in the chemistry and life sciences industries, which had been launched as a computer-aided drug design firm in January 1978. With this purchase came the purveyorship of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention-NIOSH Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances (RTECS, www.cdc.gov/niosh/rtecs), a database of basic toxicity information on household chemical substances, food additives, drugs, solvents, biocides, and chemical waste components which as of first quarter of 2012 contained ≈170,000 entries. In 2008, Symyx sold non-RTECS portions of the occupational health and safety (OHS) component of the MDL business to ChemAdvisor, Inc., of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Subsequent innovations derived from these business components included an enterprise electronic laboratory notebook (ELN) capable of supporting multiple scientific disciplines.

In 2010 Symyx spun off their laboratory robotics business as Freeslate, Inc. Freeslate developed high throughput systems for automating chemical research. In 2010, the remaining Symyx software business merged with Accelrys, with the combined company being known simply as Accelrys. In 2014, Accelrys in turn merged with Dassault Systèmes, who announced the creation of the BIOVIA brand to supply software for scientific applications.

Business model considerations
The concept of combinatory chemistry (outside of bio-tech area) was the focus of Symyx. The initial Symyx business model was to provide contract research for large chemical companies at a contract size from $0.5 Million to $200 Million. The company had initial success in gaining enough contracts to reach profitability, with small deals with few initial customers which led to large deals, such as with Exxon. Symyx then started to sell equipment.

One other key point was the company had to develop new tools and hire new people when a new project came up because the contract was in a brand new research area and required different expertise. Therefore, the research contract business was not scalable. This is seen as the reason for company failure, even though the company had over 500 patents. Other companies followed Symyx's path. Intermolecular licensed Symyx patents on electronic materials and is developing tools for the electronic materials companies.

title: Symyx Technologies


text:
LRU

LRU may refer to:

Organisations

 * Latvian Russian Union, a political party in Latvia
 * Lenoir–Rhyne University, US
 * Lithuanian Riflemen's Union, a paramilitary organisation in Lithuania
 * London Reform Union, a former campaigning group of the Progressive Party

Other uses

 * Lance-roquettes unitaire, a variant of M270 Multiple Launch Rocket System in service of French Army
 * Las Cruces International Airport (IATA code), US
 * Least recently used, a cache replacement algorithm
 * The least recently used page replacement algorithm in virtual memory management
 * Liberties and Responsibilities of Universities, a French law voted in 2007
 * Line-replaceable unit, a modular component of an airplane or other manufactured device

title: LRU


text:
Line-replaceable unit

A line-replaceable unit (LRU ), lower line-replaceable unit (LLRU), line-replaceable component (LRC), or line-replaceable item (LRI) is a modular component of an airplane, ship or spacecraft (or any other manufactured device) that is designed to be replaced quickly at an operating location (1st line). The different lines (distances) are essential for logistics planning and operation. An LRU is usually a sealed unit such as a radio or other auxiliary equipment. LRUs are typically assigned logistics control numbers (LCNs) or work unit codes (WUCs) to manage logistics operations.

LRUs can improve maintenance operations, because they can be stocked and replaced quickly from distributed nearby on-site inventories (sometimes mobile storage), restoring the mobile systems to service, while the failed (unserviceable) LRU is undergoing complicated repair and overhaul actions in other support locations (lines). Because of their modularity, LRUs also can contribute reducing system costs and increase quality, by centralizing development across different models of vehicles.

LRUs are similar in nature to shop-replaceable units (SRUs), but rather than being component functions, represent complete functional units.

Definition
While the term LRU has been in use for decades, MIL-PRF-49506, Notice 1 of 18 Jan 05, the Performance Spec for Logistics Management Information defines an LRU as:

"An LRU is an essential support item which is removed and replaced at the field level to restore the end item to an operational ready condition. Conversely, a non-LRU is a part, component, or assembly used in the repair of an LRU / LLRU, when the LRU has failed and has been removed from the end item for repair."

"An LLRU is part of an LRU, and which can be removed and replaced at the field level to restore its LRU to an operational ready condition. As an LRU is considered the 'parent', the LLRU is considered a 'child'. An LLRU can also be a child of a child--that is, an LLRU being a component of a higher-level LLRU.  However, there is no hierarchy difference between child levels; the only hierarchical separation is parent versus child."

Specifications
LRUs are designed to specifications to assure that they can be interchanged, especially if they are from different manufacturers. Usually a class of LRUs will have coordinated environmental specifications (i.e. temperature, condensation, etc.). However, each particular LRU will also have detailed specifications describing its function, tray size, tray connectors, attachment points, weight ranges, etc. It is common for LRU trays to have standardized connections for rapid mounting, cooling air, power, and grounding. The mounting hardware is often manually removable standard-screw-detent quick-release fittings. Front-mounted electrical connectors are often jacks for ring-locked cannon plugs that can be removed and replaced (R&R) without tools. Specifications also define the supporting tools necessary to remove and replace the unit. Many require no tools, or a standard-sized Frearson screwdriver. Frearson is specified for some vehicles and many marine systems because Frearson screws keep their mating screwdriver from camming out, and the same screwdriver can be used on many sizes of screws. Most LRUs also have handles, and specific requirements for their bulk and weight. LRUs typically need to be "transportable" and fit through a door or hatchway. There are also requirements for flammability, unwanted radio emissions, resistance to damage from fungus, static electricity, heat, pressure, humidity, condensation drips, vibration, radiation, and other environmental measurements.

LRUs may be designed to ARINC 700-series standards. The form factor of LRUs comply to ARINC Standards, ARINC 404 and ARINC 600. LRUs are also defined by manufacturers like Airbus and Boeing and by various military organizations. In the military, electronic LRUs are typically designed to interface according to data bus standards such as MIL-STD-1553. On the International Space Station, LRUs are referred to as Orbit Replaceable Units.

title: Line-replaceable unit


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Abacaenum

Abacaenum (Ἀβάκαινον; Ἀβάκαινα ) was an ancient city of Magna Graecia in Sicily, situated about 6.5 km from the north coast, between Tyndaris (modern Tindari) and Mylae (modern Milazzo), and 13 km from the former city.

Remains of the city have been excavated from 2005.

History
Abacaenum was a city of the Siculi and does not appear to have ever been a Greek colony, though it was influenced by Greek art and civilisation. For this reason it is considered a poleis of Magna Graecia.

Its territory originally included that of Tyndaris, which was separated from it by the elder Dionysius when he founded that city in 395 BC. Dionysius defeated the Carthaginian general Mago in the battle of Abacaenum in 393 BC. From the way in which it is mentioned in the wars of Dionysius, Agathocles, and Hieron, it is clear that it was a place of power and importance: but for a period from the time of Hieron it disappears from history, and no mention is found of it in the Verrine orations of Cicero. Its name is, however, found in Ptolemy, so that it appears to have still continued to exist in his day. Its decline was probably owing to the increasing prosperity of the neighbouring city of Tyndaris. Abacaenum was allied with Agathocles of Syracuse.

There can be little doubt that the ruins visible in the time of Tommaso Fazello, at the foot of the hill on which the modern town of Tripi is situated, were those of Abacaenum. He speaks of fragments of masonry, prostrate columns, and the vestiges of walls, indicating the site of a large city, but which had been destroyed to its foundations.

Coinage
Abacaenum is famous for its mint and its silver and copper coins that bear the classic symbols of sows, boars and acorns found in museums around the world. The acorns evidently refer to the great forests of oak which still cover the neighbouring mountains and give pasture to large herds of swine.

title: Abacaenum


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Talk:Stone Age

Semi-protected edit request on 17 November 2014
Hi Dougweller, unfortunately, the phrase has not been translated in its exactly original meaning. Therefore the phrase: "Without any doubt, they represent the product of a Culture that captured the irradiation center of absolute positive energy in the Universe." must be read, as in Italian version: "Without any doubt, they represent the product of a Culture that identified the Universe as the centre of irradiation of absolute positive energy." As for the rest of the paragraph, around "a unified culture", I think, actually, that it is a "Unified culture", which adapted in region, in the wake of the Neolithic "megalithic missionaries" suggested by V.Gordon Childe on "The Prehistory of European Society". Thanks.

151.74.32.53 (talk) 09:52, 17 November 2014 (UTC)
 * Pinging . Stickee (talk) 00:25, 18 November 2014 (UTC)
 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done: please establish a consensus for this alteration before using the template. Also, you seem to want help from a  in which I see there has been discussion above.  I'm sure that Doug would be happy to help you once a consensus has been achieved. — {{U|Technical 13}} (e • t • c) 16:55, 23 November 2014 (UTC)
 * Thanks. "Megalithic missionaries is an obsolete concept. Eg "While no professional archaeologist today thinks in terms of “megalithic missionaries’* or embraces diffusionist beliefs, most are in agreement that the remarkable phenomenon of the megalithic burial tradition rests heavily on the networks of exchange and communication that facilitated the spread of ideas." (Barry Cunliffe ). Radio-carbon dating put paid to Childe's idea. The other bit, a centre of irradiation etc still doesn't make much sense to me and looks positively New Age - what other archaeologists argur for this?. Dougweller (talk) 17:07, 23 November 2014 (UTC)

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Abductive approach to dating human activity.
Professor Lorenzo Mangani of the University of Pavia, Italy encourages the use of Abductive reasoning, especially in cases where direct evidence is lacking. In the case of early examples of stone tools and worked artifacts, finds by Sonia Harmand of Duke University, USA, have pushed back the date for 'first' use of tools by humans to over 3 Mya. Following Professor Magani's method and many examples of non-stone tools from cultures from contemporary and earlier epochs, it is clear that non-stone 'tools' and implements should be included as evidence of human activty; fibres, skins, wood, bone, leather used for implements, clothing baskets, ropes, twine, thongs, fish traps, dams, tethers, sling-shots, etc. Abductively, we can be sure that these preceded the relatively sophisticated flaked flint implements of later epochs. How far - in terms of centuries, decades or millennia, non-stone implements preceded stone and flint we cannot be sure; evidence for these, no doubt equally sophisticated, implements is lost through the organic nature of their composition. Ethnology demonstrates their continuing use and long history. Taking non-stone implements and materials into account via abductive reasoning may thus increase the probable time span conventionally accorded to human activity by at least several million years.DeQuinceyMalden (talk) 13:38, 2 March 2018 (UTC) The Abductive Structure of Scientific Creativity - 2017 Magnani, Lorenzo. www.springer.com/gb/book/9783319592558 Dangerous Mind - On the Origin of Pseudo Species (book) C.A.Malden ISBN 978-1438242637 Femina Sapiens - Origins of Sexual Psyche       (  " ) "    "     ISBN-13: 978-1541279247

2nd stone age
Is the 2nd Stone Age above or below the equator?

 * IDK.--79.77.219.61 (talk) 01:16, 21 June 2019 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 20 January 2020
The cultures of the Old Stone Age (Paleolithic Age 2 million to 8000 BCE) and the New Stone Age (Neolithic Age 8000 BCE to 3000 BCE)were quite different. 6 aspects of their cultures to consider include Food Supply, Occupations, Population/Settlement, Resources, Shetler, and finally, Technology. In the New Stone Age, these factors developed such that life became less tedious and survival rates increased.

One aspect of life during the two Stone Ages is the Food Supply. In the Old Stone Age, people did not have a stable food supply. Hunter-gatherers had to pick plants and hunt for wild animals to survive. Their jobs were tiring and inefficient. They had to move around often to find more food. In the New Stone Age, people began to farm. They domesticated animals, and got wool and milk from goats and sheep. They finally had a stable food supply and didn’t have to move around to find food. Another consideration is occupations. In the Old Stone Age, people had to find food to survive. That was mainly the only survival task that people did. In the New Stone Age, jobs developed, and people specialized in specific skills. They didn’t just search for food. Some people did the farming and tended to animals while others may have been artisans weaving cloth and making pottery, for example.

Other aspect of life include Population/Settlements and Shelter. In the Old Stone Age, people had temporary homes. They had to move around often because of their unsteady food supply. Usually groups 40 to 60 people moved together. They took shelter in caves or tents made of bones and animal hides that could be moved easily. In the New Stone Age, people learned to farm. They didn’t have to move often because now they had a reliable food source. As an outcome, people made permanent houses out of mud bricks. Stones and branches instead of temporary tents or cave shelters. The population of these settlements grew, and some were populated by at least a few thousand.

Another aspect of life is Resources. In the Old Stone Age, people only had a small variety of materials to make crafts. In the New Stone Age, people began to trade. They could get better materials from different villages with better resources. For example, a town could be situated by a river. Those inhabitants may trade shells (good for making jewelry) for other desired resources from a nearby settlement/village. Another aspect of life is Technology. In the Old Stone Age, people weren’t skilled enough to really carve stone into sharp and even pieces. In the New Stone Age, people became more skilled at carving stone and made sharper, cleaner cuts. They also eventually - near the end of the New Stone Age - started using metal, such as copper, which was sharper than stone. In the New Stone Age, they also learned how to breed plants and animals to make them more useful to humans. (This process is called domestication.) This domestication led to agriculture/farming. Also, while people in the Old Stone Age learned to control fire, people in the new Stone Age learned how to start a fire. Finally, weaving and other textile technologies developed in the New Stone Age.

In conclusion, The New and Old Stone Ages were very different. Many aspects of life improved greatly from the Old Stone Age to the New Stone Age. Food, occupations, settlement, recourses, shelter and technology advanced in such a way that survival rates increased and culture developed. People started to have more time to specialise in various areas, and could spend more time with activities not directly related to survival. Tnkrueckergreen (talk) 22:36, 20 January 2020 (UTC)
 * , could you add inline citations to reliable sources to your text? The sources would need to directly make this comparison. Please then re-open this request. – Thjarkur (talk) 23:36, 20 January 2020 (UTC)

Americas
How about the Americas? e.g. Olmecs - Francis Tyers · 01:15, 30 September 2020 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 22 March 2021 (2)
Please, someone could insert this link in the external link, it refers to the description of the dolmen of Monte Bubbonia, mentioned in the article: https://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=28073 151.0.254.136 (talk) 12:17, 22 March 2021 (UTC) 151.0.254.136 (talk) 12:39, 22 March 2021 (UTC)

 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done: I don't think that's an appropriate external link, dolmens are a very small part of this article, which deals with a lot of aspects of the stone age. Volteer1 (talk) 13:53, 22 March 2021 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 6 June 2022
"BCE" appears three times in the introduction, and the third is linked. Please link the first and de-link the third. 49.198.51.54 (talk) 00:08, 6 June 2022 (UTC)
 * Done. Dimadick (talk) 04:19, 6 June 2022 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the nomination page. —Community Tech bot (talk) 03:49, 4 July 2022 (UTC)
 * Stone Knife, Early Neolithic period, Manchurian Culture, 石刀, 新石器時代早期, 4·7 cm, IMG 5672 07.jpg

When was Stone Age made
89.241.105.33 (talk) 14:53, 17 October 2022 (UTC)

 * I believe the article gives you the answer in the first two sentences. Is this a homework question?  Tewdar   15:19, 17 October 2022 (UTC)

stone age
what is stone age? stone age is the past and it has different periods 3 different periods to be actually there is 1. Palaeolithic 2.Mesolithic 3. Neolithic 41.60.166.189 (talk) 15:35, 18 May 2023 (UTC)

Inconsistency in periods
This statement:

Main article: Lower Paleolithic "At sites dating from the Lower Paleolithic Period (about 2,500,000 to 200,000 years ago), simple pebble tools have been found in association with the remains of what may have been the earliest human ancestors."

contradicts the initial and correct dating stated at the beginning of the article:

"The Stone Age was a broad prehistoric period during which stone was widely used to make stone tools with an edge, a point, or a percussion surface. The period lasted for roughly 3.4 million years and ended between 4,000 BC and 2,000 BC, with the advent of metalworking."

Lower Stone Age has to begin with the earliest findings of stone tools in the history of mankind which is currently 3.4 m ya (and not 2.5 as stated in the section Lower Paleolithic). Spetkoff (talk) 09:03, 15 January 2024 (UTC)

 * Please check also the main article on Lower Paleolithic which states the beginning of the period correctly at 3.3 m ya: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_Paleolithic Spetkoff (talk) 09:05, 15 January 2024 (UTC)
 * Hmm, yes - but the date in the article does agree with the fairly recent and respectable-looking reference (indeed close paraphrase ?). I suspect some definitional differences are the reason, but I'll leave it for someone more expert in the area. Johnbod (talk) 12:43, 15 January 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Stone Age