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Princess Stéphanie of Belgium

Princess Stéphanie Clotilde Louise Herminie Marie Charlotte of Belgium (21 May 1864 – 23 August 1945) was a Belgian princess who became Crown Princess of Austria through marriage to Crown Prince Rudolf, heir to the throne of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Princess Stéphanie was the second daughter of King Leopold II of Belgium and Marie Henriette of Austria. She married in Vienna on 10 May 1881 Crown Prince Rudolf, son and heir of Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria. They had one child, Archduchess Elisabeth Marie. Stéphanie's marriage quickly became fragile. Rudolf, depressed and disappointed by politics, had multiple extramarital affairs, and contracted a venereal disease that he transmitted to his wife, rendering her unable to conceive again. In 1889, Rudolf and his mistress Mary Vetsera were found dead in an apparent murder-suicide pact at the imperial hunting lodge at Mayerling in the Vienna Woods.

In 1900, Stéphanie married again, to Count Elemér Lónyay de Nagy-Lónya et Vásáros-Namény, a Hungarian nobleman of lower rank; for this, she was excluded from the House of Habsburg. However, this second union was happy. After the death of her father in 1909, Stéphanie joined her older sister Louise to claim from the Belgian courts the share of the inheritance of which they both felt they had been stripped.

Until World War II, Count and Countess Lónyay (elevated to the princely rank in 1917) peacefully spent their lives at Rusovce Mansion in Slovakia. In 1935, Stéphanie published her memoirs, entitled Je devais être impératrice ("I Had to Be Empress"). In 1944, she disinherited her daughter, who had divorced to live with a socialist deputy and whom she had not seen since 1925. The arrival of the Red Army in April 1945, at the end of the war, forced Stéphanie and her husband to leave their residence and take refuge in the Pannonhalma Archabbey in Hungary. Stéphanie died of a stroke in the abbey later the same year.

Family background and birth
Stéphanie was the third child of the Duke (future King Leopold II) and Duchess of Brabant (born Archduchess Marie Henriette of Austria), an unhappy and mismatched couple. In 1853, their marriage had been arranged for exclusively political reasons by both King Leopold I and the Habsburgs without consulting the groom and bride, whose interests were almost entirely opposed: the Duke of Brabant was little interested by family life and was passionate about political and economic issues in the kingdom which he was to reign over, while Marie Henriette was a young woman versed in religion with other interests limited to horseback riding, dogs and music.

Born at the Palace of Laeken on 21 May 1864, Stéphanie received an emergency baptism on the day of her birth. The official baptism took place one month later, on 25 June, in a ceremony which lasted an hour, in the chapel of the Palace of Laeken, where she received the names Stéphanie Clotilde Louise Herminie Marie Charlotte; her first two names were in honor of her godparents, her maternal uncle Archduke Stephen of Austria, titular Palatine of Hungary) and her aunt by marriage Princess Clotilde of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. After the ceremony, a gala lunch was given with 60 people in attendance.

Stéphanie had two older siblings: Louise (born 18 February 1858), and Leopold, Count of Hainaut (born 12 June 1859). On 10 December 1865, her paternal grandfather King Leopold I, founder of the Belgian dynasty, died after a reign of 34 years. His son, Stéphanie's father, ascended to the throne under the name of Leopold II, and her brother assumed the title of Duke of Brabant as the new heir of the throne.

A family and dynastic drama
In the spring of 1868, the almost 9-year-old Leopold, Duke of Brabant and heir to the throne, suffered from a chill following a fall in the pond in the Park of Laeken. His condition deteriorated rapidly: the doctor diagnosed acute pericarditis. In the summer, he seemed to recover, but his cough persisted. The doctor recommended the removal of the uvula and performed this surgery before his young patient went to Ostend to recover. Queen Marie Henriette isolated herself in Spa to rest, while King Leopold II, held back by affairs of state, and his two daughters remained in Laeken. In August, Leopold, suffering from dropsy, was brought back to Laeken. The Queen thenceforth never left her son's bedside. After having received the last sacraments in September, the son seemed better, but his condition worsened again until he died on 22 January 1869.

In her memoirs, Stéphanie wrote: "The first event that was deeply engraved in my memory was the death of this beloved brother [...]. Although I was only four and a half years old, I still vividly remember this deliciously beautiful and tender child, his resignation during his short illness, and the poignant pain of my mother, when he exhaled in her arms". Stéphanie's childhood was therefore marked by this mourning: "From that moment on, my memories have seen my parents' married life darken. Struck in the heart by the death of her son, my mother had changed a lot: this child had been the goal of her life, he had reconciled her with the fate that had fallen to her".

At the beginning of 1871, epidemics of typhus and smallpox raged in Brussels. The Queen, without worrying about potential contagion, assisted affected families. On 10 April, Stéphanie, who was not yet seven, contracted typhus, to the dismay of her parents, who feared that a second child of theirs would die. For many weeks, the girl was unconscious, feverish and in great pain. Her relatives prepared her for death. Her father often came to see her, and her mother and the faithful Toni Schariry, a nanny of German origin hired shortly after Stéphanie's birth, wept at her bedside. The princess was saved only by the care of an unknown Ardennes doctor, whom the royal couple had consulted, who recommended cold baths. The fever decreased and in October, Stéphanie was considered to have recovered. After the recovery of their daughter, Léopold II and Marie Henriette took her and her sister to make her convalescence in Biarritz, making a stopover in Paris.

Leopold nourished the hope of having a second son and therefore resumed sexual relations with the Queen; but, after a miscarriage in March 1871, another daughter was born on 30 July 1872: Clémentine, the last child of the royal couple. Stéphanie relates about her parents: "It is sad and discouraging to think that these two beings [...] could not live better together and create a home. But unfortunately, they did not understand each other. Their paths crossed for a single instant, only to move away immediately and forever. He chose that of indifference, infidelity, she had to accept that of resignation, loneliness and pain". Leopold II thereafter lost interest in his family; he turned his attentions to the notorious creation of the Congo Free State, which was his personal fiefdom and not a Belgian colonial territory, and as such its ruthless exploitation amassed him a vast private fortune. He also rejected his family for his mistresses – having so many scandalous liaisons that he was known to his subjects as Le Roi des Belges et des Belles (“The King of the Belgians and of the Beauties”).

Instruction and education
From 1874, Stéphanie (who until then had a nanny, the Viennese Antoinette Polsterer) was placed under the direction of her sister Louise's governess, Mademoiselle Legrand. Stephanie writes: "My education began at the age of ten; I immediately understood that from that moment books and notebooks would take the place of my toys, that a more orderly life would begin". Stéphanie benefitted from schooling by teachers who provided her with various courses: French, English, German, Dutch and Hungarian for languages, while mathematics lessons, horsemanship, history, history of art, religion, botany, and rhetoric were also taught. However, the level of education of the princesses was not very high: "The programs lacked scope. In the severe decor of the study room, it was usually too rudimentary that we applied ourselves to history, geography, literature, mathematics; a preponderant place being left to the decorative arts: painting, drawing, music, as well as needlework".

If Stéphanie's instruction was somewhat rudimentary, the discipline was strict: "We got up early in the morning: in summer, at five o'clock, in winter, at six o'clock. During our toilet, the most absolute silence was required; any breach of this rule resulted in severe punishment. We had to dress and comb our hair on our own. The maid stood in the room and watched us. In order to test us, the housekeeper often made unexpected entries. [...] Our dresses were as simple as our hairstyles. Cut in the shape of a shirt, they fell without any trim, below the knee; a leather belt held them back. In order to toughen us up, the windows of our bedroom, summer and winter, remained open: we rarely heated". Louise and Stéphanie had to dust their room themselves. Sometimes they joined the King and Queen at breakfast time. At their table, adorned with flowers, were sweets that the princesses were not allowed to taste. When Stéphanie was punished, she had to kneel on dry peas or remain locked up for hours, in the dark, between double doors. Stephanie and Louise had lunch and dinner with their parents after their governess reported their behavior to the Queen. When the King entered the dining room, the princesses would rise and bow before kissing his hand which he then put on their head, without a word. Only the girls' maid Toni showed them constant affection. The feast days, Easter, Saint Nicholas Day and Christmas, were the only times when Stéphanie and her sisters were pampered.

Marriage projects
While her older sister Louise married in 1875 a wealthy cousin of their father, Prince Philipp of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, Austrian officer and friend of Rudolf, Crown Prince of Austria, Stéphanie continued her studies and willingly took care of her younger sister Clémentine because Louise's departure left a void at the Palace of Laeken.

Stéphanie made her first communion on 12 June 1876 and officially appeared for the first time at court. A few months later, Louise and her husband went to Brussels. Stéphanie found her older sister, who had turned into a "young woman admired and celebrated", very different from the young girl she had known. During the winter of 1878–1879, on her way to London, Empress Elisabeth of Austria (known as "Sisi"), mother of Crown Prince Rudolf, stopped at the court of Brussels, where the 14-year-old Stéphanie was introduced to her. Already rumors about her possible marriage were swirling in Europe. Leopold II and Marie Henriette hoped to marry their second daughter to a reigning sovereign or a crown prince. The first candidate mentioned was King Alfonso XII of Spain, but this possibility was almost immediately denied.

Stéphanie had heard of Rudolf for the first time at the end of a literature class given by her housekeeper Fanny Brossel. After reading the story of William Tell, the teacher decided to teach her pupil about the power and grandeur of the House of Habsburg and illustrated her words by showing her an engraving published in a magazine depicting the Crown Prince in hunting costume. This was how Stéphanie discovered the features of the one who would become her fiancé.

During the winter of 1879–1880, Empress Elisabeth returned to Brussels. She was persuaded by the arguments of the court of Vienna which encouraged the Crown Prince to marry young in order to quickly ensure descendants. In March 1880 Rudolf was invited to the Belgian court at the insistence of Leopold II. After meeting the 15-year-old Princess Stéphanie, he wrote to his mother that "[he had] found what [he] sought", noting that she was "pretty, good, [and] clever". However, she was not Rudolf's first choice as a potential bride: having refused Princess Mathilde of Saxony, as well as several Infantas of Portugal and Spain, he found that Stéphanie was one of the few Catholic princesses who met the criteria imposed by his father Emperor Franz Joseph I to become wife of the heir of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Under pressure from his parents to marry as soon as possible, the Crown Prince was satisfied with Stéphanie and on 5 March, he asked her parents for her hand. The reaction of Rudolf's parents was mixed – while Empress Elisabeth was deeply disappointed with the match as the Belgian monarchy dated only from 1830 and did not compare to the Habsburgs in terms of seniority, even though its royal house was a branch of the House of Wettin (one of the oldest ruling houses in Europe), Emperor Franz Joseph I was pleased. For her part, Stéphanie remembered: "In the afternoon of 5 March, my parents called me. When I made my entrance, my father stood up, came to me and said in a deep voice: "''The Crown Prince of Austria-Hungary has come here to ask for your hand. Your mother and I are all in favor of this marriage. We have chosen you to be Empress of Austria and Queen of Hungary. Go away, think about it and give us your answer tomorrow''".

Engagement and marriage
The betrothal was formalized on 7 March 1880, when Stéphanie was not yet 16 years old. Rudolf went to Brussels accompanied by an official suite of 21 people, and his current mistress. To his tutor, the Crown Prince confided, "A new life will soon begin for me and I must admit that this worries me a little".

The Crown Prince was 21 years old at the time of the engagement. Declared an adult at the age of 19, he already had his own household. In 1879 he had moved to Prague Castle and assumed command of an infantry regiment, a post he liked very much. He was friendly with Princess Louise of Belgium, who had encouraged him to marry her younger sister. In anticipation of her establishment at the Austrian court, her mother Marie Henriette had warned Stéphanie: "Avoid Louise, and if you see her, reason with her, show her a good example [...] Louise is not true. It costs nothing to lie or act. She is very frivolous". Rudolf's personality was ambiguous: Often subject to mood swings, he suddenly passed from a melancholy state to an expansive joy, and he was aware of the duality of his temperament. Very young, he became a bon vivant and indulged in morally lax behaviour. The marriage was supposed to end his affairs. Countess Marie Larisch von Moennich, niece of Empress Elisabeth, had declared about Rudolph's future fiancée: "In advance, we had pity on the poor princess who would have the honor of being chosen".

The preparations for the wedding filled King Leopold II with pride. The Austrian Emperor added 148,000 guilders to the initial dowry of 100,000 florins, plus an annual sum of 100,000 florins for the duration of the marriage. Engaged, Stéphanie was dispatched to Vienna to be taught Imperial court etiquette in preparation for her marriage, and then had to attend all official receptions and dinners until her wedding, which was scheduled for 15 February 1881; however the wedding had to be deferred because Stéphanie had not yet reached puberty, and the bride was returned home for a while.

The marriage was finally celebrated on 10 May 1881, a few days before Stéphanie's 17th birthday, at the Saint Augustine's Church in Vienna. Four thrones were arranged under a canopy for the Belgian and Austrian sovereigns, with the bride being walked down the aisle by her parents. Foreign princes (among them the future King Edward VII of the United Kingdom and his nephew, the future German Emperor Wilhelm II) and members of the imperial family attended the celebrations, alongside members of the diplomatic corps and the Knights of the Golden Fleece. The church was so crowded that the wedding procession was hampered in its progress. Stéphanie remembered, "Both of us pronounced the sacramental 'yes'. We exchanged alliances [...]. The bells of the whole city rang to announce to the inhabitants of the capital the celebration of our solemn marriage. A long, cheerful noise arose from the crowd. Military bands played the hymns of the two countries. I was the Crown Princess of Austria-Hungary!". As a part of the wedding celebrations, the Emperor bestowed Walthere Frere-Orban with the Order of Saint Stephen of Hungary and the Empress bestowed several ladies with the Order of the Starry Cross.

At the court of Vienna
After the wedding night, which Stéphanie in her private letters revealed to her sister to have been a violent event by Rudolf, already mentally unstable, the couple honeymooned at Laxenburg outside the capital. Stéphanie was soon subjected to the questioning of her new family: At the court of Vienna, she had to live most of the time with them – walks, canoeing parties, invitations and parties were almost always held with the many members of the House of Habsburg. Her mother-in-law, Empress Elisabeth, nicknamed her "the hideous dromedary"; however, Stephanie began to enjoy her new position. During an official visit to Hungary in May 1881, she was given a standing ovation and began to see the advantages of her situation.

As in any dynastic marriage where the political interest of the two sovereign houses takes precedence, the existence of romantic feelings within the couple has never been proven, but the relationship of the young spouses was based, at the beginning, on respect and a mutual attachment. The spouses gave nicknames to each other respectively: "Coco" for Rudolf, and "Coceuse" for Stéphanie. Their understanding was real; Stéphanie described Rudolf as "a model husband" and added that they understood each other admirably, which made her happy. However, Stéphanie related that Rudolf was suspicious when she accompanied him. She was not allowed to leave the palace and remained subject to strict surveillance, so she took the opportunity to devote herself to drawing or painting. From October 1881, Stéphanie replaced the Empress at official receptions. It was she who, at the request of her mother-in-law, now accompanied the Emperor and the Crown Prince on official trips and who received foreign sovereigns visiting the court. She entered the ballrooms on her father-in-law's arm and served as the hostess at official dinners. Delighted to be released from the "official duties", Empress Elisabeth withdrew from court, while Rudolf broke away from his wife to whom he became less and less warm.

In the autumn of 1881, Stéphanie thought she was pregnant, but it was a false alarm. After this disappointment, in the spring of 1883, the Crown Princess's pregnancy was confirmed, delighting the Emperor. After this announcement, the Crown Prince once again became considerate and attentive to his wife. Both Stéphanie and Rudolf were sure it would be a boy; they even spoke of the future child by calling him "Wenceslaus" (Wacław), a Czech first name reflecting the sympathies of the Crown Prince for the Slavic populations of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

On 8 August, Queen Marie Henriette visited her daughter in anticipation of her childbirth. Stéphanie did not dare talk about her marital problems with her mother. The preparations for a princely birth obeyed protocol: prayers in churches and the exhibition of the Blessed Sacrament in the churches of the imperial palaces. On 2 September in the Laxenburg castles complex, Stéphanie gave birth to a daughter, Elisabeth Marie, known as "Erzsi" (short for Erzsébet, the Hungarian form of Elisabeth). Generously, Emperor Franz Joseph I showered the young mother and her family with gifts. When the sex of the child was announced to Rudolf, he did not hide his disappointment at not having been given an heir to Austria-Hungary Empire, but he got used to his role of father and gave, in his correspondence, many details about the newborn girl. While Stéphanie blossomed in her new role of mother, this birth marked the beginning of deep marital difficulties.

Rudolf's disease and its consequences
In Prague and Vienna, the couple received many visitors and gave many dinners. Stéphanie had a high idea of her rank and strove to fully assume the role conferred on her by her title, as the Empress had fled Vienna to travel frequently through Europe. For his part, Rudolf, who disapproved of his father's policies, developed friendships among opponents of the monarchy and anonymously published his political opinions in the Neues Wiener Tagblatt, edited by his friend Moritz Szeps. At the beginning of 1886, the Crown Prince fell seriously ill. Several diagnoses included cystitis and stomach disease. These were only intended to hide the true nature of the disease which affected him – he had actually contracted a venereal disease, (possibly gonorrhea), during his extramarital affairs. Doctors, fearing syphilis, used the approaches then used to treat the latter, namely opium, cognac, morphine, as well as mercury which, taken at too high a dose, can lead to psychological consequences.

In order to take care of himself, Rudolf left to stay on the island of Lokrum, where he took Stéphanie. No one had informed the Crown Princess of the nature of the illness from which her husband was suffering. When she felt the first effects herself, doctors mentioned peritonitis. The consequences of this lie were dramatic: when the couple tried to conceive another child, Stéphanie, who was not yet 22 years old, found it that she was sterile. From that moment, feeling betrayed by her own husband, Stéphanie harbored resentment and bitterness towards Rudolf. She refused to resume her conjugal life with a husband who did not return until dawn, and disillusioned and undermined by a feeling of failure, had sunk into debauchery. Despite Rudolf's attempts to reconcile with his wife, their quarrel seemed deep. During a visit to the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria in 1887, Stéphanie fell in love with the Polish Count Artur Władysław Potocki. During the next eighteen months, she did not try to hide her affections for the Count from her husband, who continued his own liaisons.

From the spring of 1887, painful scenes were repeated between the spouses. Rudolf began to lose control of himself: suffering from deep fits of melancholy and mania he spoke in front of whoever wanted to hear him the presentiment of his imminent death. During the summer of 1888, Stéphanie noticed a disturbing change in the general condition of the Crown Prince: his increasingly angry character led him to continued public outbursts of extreme violence.

The Mayerling incident
In October 1888, Stéphanie, worried about the depressive – even suicidal – tendencies of her husband, went to the Emperor Franz Joseph I to alert him, without succeeding in convincing him. She remembers: "The Emperor greeted me cordially. I began by telling him that Rudolf was very ill and that his pathetic appearance and his dissipated behavior caused me serious concern; I begged him to make his son take a long journey so as to distract him from his grueling existence. But the Emperor interrupted me: "''It is your imagination that creates ghosts for you. Rudolf is doing very well. He looks a little tired, he is too often on the road, he exerts himself too much. He should stay more with you; but have no fear!''".

Rudolf pursued other connections, in particular with the 17-year-old Baroness Marie Vetsera from around April 1888. Stéphanie became a widow at the age of 24 when, on 30 January 1889, her husband was found dead in strange circumstances with his mistress Baroness Vetsera, both shot dead, at the Mayerling hunting lodge. The apparent suicide of the Crown Prince deeply affected Stéphanie and constituted, in the words of Irmgard Schiel, "the greatest catastrophe that can affect a woman in her married life". To Stéphanie, Rudolf had left an undated letter: "Dear Stéphanie, you are delivered from my fatal presence; be happy in your destiny. Be good to the poor little one who is the only thing left of me. [...] I calmly enter death which alone can save my good reputation. Kissing you with all my heart, your Rudolf who loves you".

Dowager Crown Princess
After Rudolf's death, Stéphanie had only one thought: to leave Vienna and the heavy atmosphere of the court. She wished to go to her parents in Brussels, but neither Leopold II nor Franz Joseph I would allow Stephanie, who had become a Dowager Crown Princess, to abandon Austria. As guardian of his 5-year-old granddaughter Elisabeth Marie, the Emperor demanded that Stéphanie remain with her child. Stéphanie had to obey and obtained permission to stay for four months at Miramare Castle, near Trieste. At the start of her widowhood, Stéphanie led a rather withdrawn life. Over the years, the separations from her daughter became more and more frequent, so a fulfilling relationship with her daughter did not last.

During this time, Stéphanie continued her romantic relationship with Count Potocki, whom she had nicknamed "Hamlet". Widowed since 1881, he was Chamberlain at the court of Vienna and a life member of the House of Lords in the Austrian Parliament. Only her sister Louise was informed of the affair. Artur Potocki remained close to Stéphanie during the dark days following Rudolf's death. However, the health of the Count, who was not yet 40, was so bad that he lost the ability to speak after surgery due to laryngeal cancer. In March 1890, Potocki died and Stéphanie once again went into a deep grieving.

At the court of Vienna, Stéphanie had to endure the coldness of Empress Elisabeth, who avoided her, and the equally distant attitude adopted by Emperor Franz Joseph I. Although she retained her title of Crown Princess, she did not retain its functions and was no longer authorized to represent the Empress. Her role was limited, and she could no longer count on the support of many friends. She traveled a lot and devoted herself to painting. Her watercolors painted in Lacroma were published as an album in 1892. In Austria, Stéphanie devoted herself to singing or went to the theater and concerts during her stays in her residences in Laxenburg and at the Hofburg.

Until 1898, Stéphanie undertook long journeys each year: Corfu, Malta, Tunis and Sicily in 1892; the Nordic countries the following year; North Africa, the Balearic Islands and Corsica in 1894; Greece and Palestine in 1895; and Russia in 1897. In March 1898, an illness forced her to give up traveling – she suffered from pneumonia and pleurisy, which forced her to remain bedridden for some time. This gave rise to fears for her life before she suddenly recovered. On 10 September 1898, Empress Elisabeth was assassinated in Geneva; even though she had never managed to get closer to her mother-in-law, Stéphanie was very affected by this unexpected death.

A marriage of inclination
Emperor Franz Joseph I and King Leopold II of Belgium cherished the plan to remarry Stéphanie with Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austria-Hungary Empire after the death of Rudolf. However, the latter harbored other marriage plans with Countess Sophie Chotek von Wognin, a lady-in-waiting of the Habsburg court.

For her part, Stéphanie planned to marry an aristocrat: Count Elemér Lónyay de Nagy-Lónya et Vásáros-Namény, a Hungarian nobleman of lower rank, of Protestant faith, and one year older than her. After studying law in Budapest, he had entered diplomatic service. In 1886, he was appointed counselor of the legation. He worked in Bucharest, then in Saint Petersburg and Brussels. In 1890, he became imperial and royal Chamberlain at the Austrian court. Promoted to embassy secretary in 1892, he worked in Saint Petersburg, Paris, London and Stuttgart. He then took advantage of a year's leave to travel to Africa and the Mediterranean countries. In 1895, he accompanied Archduke Louis Victor as a member of the imperial legation during the coronation of Tsar Nicolas II in Saint Petersburg. In 1896 he and his brother Gábor were raised to the dignity of Count. In 1897, he resigned from the foreign service and retired from the public service. In order to be able to marry Stéphanie, he converted to Catholicism.

Stéphanie did not dare to forewarn her father of her marriage plans. She chose to address herself by letter, in October 1899, to Queen Victoria who supported her. However, the King of Belgium refused to see his daughter marry a man of lower rank. Stéphanie received a negative response from Leopold II: "My father answered me in the severest and harshest terms that he refused me his consent. Queen Victoria's letter had missed its mark. He gave her, too, an extremely lively answer, in which he even hinted that she had better not interfere in matters which did not concern her". The Belgian sovereigns, offended that Stéphanie did not primarily speak to them about her matrimonial projects, severed any relationship with their daughter and forbade her to return to Belgium. Leopold II even planned to withdraw the title of Royal Highness from his second daughter, but court jurists demonstrated the impossibility of this. The King forbade his youngest daughter Clémentine to correspond with Stéphanie and threatened to abolish the annual annuity of 50,000 francs which she received, although Franz Joseph I advised him against it.

On 22 March 1900 at Miramare Castle and after eleven years of widowhood, Stéphanie married Count Elemér Lónyay de Nagy-Lónya and Vásáros-Namény. The Emperor reluctantly gave his authorization, but Stéphanie lost her rank and her imperial titles by remarrying, while her daughter Elisabeth Marie remained in Vienna in her grandfather's guardianship. The former Crown Princess's household was dissolved: all those who were part of it were dismissed, but some of them were assigned to her daughter's service. The patronages exerted by Stéphanie were withdrawn from her, and she thus received an annual pension of 100,000 guilders. Her new husband, for his part, had an annual income of 50,000 guilders.

The Austrian press, and in particular the journal Die Presse, saw in this marriage a "certain marvelous romanticism in the act which the princess poses [because] the latter closed on her the portal of the Hofburg, at the same time thoughtful and the glance full of promising images, then went south where she will soon cease to be Princess Dowager". The new spouses initially settled at the Palais Zichy in Vienna.

Family affairs
Two years after her mother's remarriage, Archduchess Elisabeth Marie (who at some point was considered as a potential bride for several princes in Europe, among them her cousin Prince Albert, heir presumptive to the throne of Belgium, and the German Crown Prince) married on 23 January 1902 Prince Otto Weriand of Windisch-Graetz, an Austrian prince born in a former Sovereign family (until the German mediatisation) and officer, despite the objections of her grandfather Emperor Franz Joseph I, who later gave his consent. A few months later, in September, while staying in London, Stéphanie learned of the death of her mother, Queen Marie Henriette, who was living withdrawn from the Belgian court. Immediately, she left for Spa to pay a last tribute to her mother. However, King Leopold II was still so furious with his daughter's unequal marriage that he forbade Stéphanie to attend the funeral service, and she was finally forced a few days later to return to London.

When King Leopold II himself died on 17 December 1909, Stéphanie had just, two days earlier, been refused a final meeting with the monarch. Her sister Louise returned to Belgium as well, and the dying sovereign also refused to see her. Stéphanie and her sisters discovered that their father had left as main beneficiary of his will his chief mistress, the French prostitute Caroline Lacroix, as well as the Royal Trust,. He also deliberately concealed property included in his estate in shell companies in Germany and France, not only to deprive his daughters of it, but also to allow his town-planning projects to continue. The Belgian state offered a financial transaction to the three princesses, who would each receive a sum of two million francs. While Stéphanie and Clémentine accepted the proposal, Louise refused it and initiated, in December 1910, a first trial against the Belgian State and her two sisters. In April 1911, Louise initiated a second lawsuit concerning the French companies created by Leopold II. In 1912, Louise and Stéphanie, who had now become her ally, were defended by Henri Jaspar and Paul-Émile Janson, and Louise persevered in her legal actions. The two princesses refused a new amicable agreement with the State, before their action was dismissed by the Court of Appeal in April 1913. However, on 22 January 1914, an agreement was concluded between Louise, the Belgian State and some of her creditors: She received, like her two sisters, a little more than five million francs from their late father's fortune.

Peaceful life in Hungary
In January 1906, Stéphanie and Elemér bought the Rusovce Mansion in Hungary (now in Slovakia) in order to establish permanent residence there. The neoclassical-style building is located in an area of over 2,400 hectares, consisting of an English-style park, planted with purple beeches, silver fir trees and multiple decorative species, which extends over both banks of the Danube. They received many guests there, including Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his morganatic wife, still ostracized by the court of Vienna, and writers, such as the pacifist Bertha von Suttner. Renovation was required for the residence, which comprised 200 rooms. Elemér exhibited his artistic collections there, including antique furniture, paintings by old and modern masters, as well as precious porcelain. Stéphanie and her husband created three gardens: a rose garden, an alpine garden, and another of Dutch inspiration. Irmgard Schiel wrote, "The princess was at the same time a lord, mistress of the house, manager of the estate, garden architect and hostess".

World War I
When Stéphanie learned of the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914, she was convinced that the death of the heir presumptive to the Austro-Hungarian throne was desired by Emperor Franz Joseph I because the deceased had dared to stand up to him. Stéphanie claimed to have warned the victims because the Emperor knew the danger that his nephew was running. Four weeks later, war broke out. With Hungary not yet undergoing many hardships, Stéphanie set up a makeshift dispensary in the Rusovce house, while Elemér accepted a management position in the Austrian Red Cross which took him to Romania and Serbia. Stéphanie worked as a nurse in her residence.

In November 1916, the health of Emperor Franz Joseph I was declining, and his family came to see him. Stéphanie left Hungary for Vienna, where the Emperor died of bronchitis and pneumonia at the age of 86 on 21 November 1916 after a reign of 68 years. Stéphanie and her daughter Elisabeth Marie attended the funeral, which took place nine days later. On this occasion, the Habsburg monarchy unfolded its full splendor for the last time. The new Emperor Charles I led the funeral procession, which included representatives of the Allied Powers, all German princes, and the members of the House of Habsburg. In the choir of St. Stephen's Cathedral, the new Emperor and his wife Empress Zita took a prominent place alongside the foreign rulers, and behind them stood their close family relatives. Stéphanie and her daughter were placed in the third row. Finally, the remains of Franz Joseph I were placed next to his wife and son in the Imperial Crypt in the center of Vienna.

The new emperor on 28 January 1917 granted the title of Hungarian Fürst (Prince) with the style of Serene Highness to Elemér. After the armistice of 11 November 1918, the Austro-Hungarian Empire ceased to exist. In March 1919, the whole imperial family had to leave Austria. However this measure did not apply to Stéphanie nor her daughter, who were excluded from the House of Habsburg following their marriages.

Between wars
Until World War II, Prince and Princess Lónyay peacefully spent their lives at Rusovce. In the years following the end of the World War I, Elisabeth Marie (who resided with her family in Schönau an der Triesting, Lower Austria) and her mother still had strong feelings for each other. This tenderness was expressed especially in their correspondence because it was difficult to travel to Rusovce. However, in 1922, Stéphanie was delighted to receive her two eldest grandsons, Franz Joseph and Ernst Weriand of Windisch-Graetz. The teenagers, however, were eager to return to their home because their grandmother's attitudes were very different from what they were used to. Stéphanie's last letter to her daughter dated from 1924, the year in which Erzsi had just obtained a divorce a mensa et thoro from her husband. The following year, Elisabeth Marie participated in her mother's silver wedding anniversary. Thereafter, mother and daughter did not see each other at all. According to her granddaughter-in-law, author Ghislaine of Windisch-Graetz (née d'Arschot Schoonhoven), Stéphanie "was confused in devotion and even bigoted; she was convinced that her daughter was possessed by the demon and she could not tolerate the immorality of her love life. As the reprobation seemed insufficient to her, she preferred to stay away, pray for her daughter and ask priests to join their prayers to hers.

In 1923, Stéphanie planned to write her memoirs. To do this, she chose to collaborate with Egon Corti, a biographer recognized in particular for his work on the historical figures of the House of Habsburg. The writer stayed in Rusovce eleven times. The collaboration was, however, abruptly interrupted in 1933 by Stéphanie, who wrote to Corti: "For the sake of the imperial family, I decided to give up publishing my memoirs in the form that had been initially planned [...]. I see myself constrained to limit myself to my own notes, as well as to my personal memories, in which your contributions and your modifications do not find their place". Corti being excluded from the literary project, Stéphanie addressed Count and Countess Gatterburg, who submitted the manuscript first to a publisher in Leipzig in 1933. The latter considered that the manuscript was not complete enough and that its publication would be detrimental to the author. Another publishing house, John Murray of London, also rejected the text received. Finally, the Koehler & Amelang house in Leipzig agreed to publish the book and have it published simultaneously in Europe and New York. The publishing contract was drawn up on 24 April 1934, but Stéphanie's procrastination postponed the publication and distribution of her memoirs to October 1935, under the original title of Ich sollte Kaiserin werden (I Was To Be Empress) in German bookstores, because the book was censored in Austria, where the police visited every bookshop in Vienna in order to seize the copies already on sale. In the book she published Rudolf's last letter to her, and proclaimed that (in her view) he and Baroness Vetsera had made a suicide pact. The work appeared in a French version in 1937 in Brussels under the title: Je devais être impératrice (I Had To Be Empress), and the same year was finally authorized to be published in Austria under the original title.

Last years and death
As long as they maintained satisfactory health, Stéphanie and Elemér traveled and met various exiled rulers: the deposed Tsar Ferdinand I of Bulgaria and the Empress Zita. They met the latter in Spain, and then in Belgium where Ferdinand had been exiled since 1930. Gradually, they withdrew to their estate where they led a more secluded existence, punctuated by religious exercises. Among their closest acquaintances figured, from 1944, their chaplain, Geza Karsai, Germanist, university professor and monk of the Pannonhalma Archabbey.

In July 1944, Stéphanie drew up her will. She disinherited her daughter, who had divorced Prince Otto of Windisch-Graetz to live with Leopold Petznek, a Social Democratic deputy from Lower Austria, and bequeathed all of her real estate to the order of the Benedictines. In return, the Benedictines were responsible for meeting all the debts of the Lónyays and managing their estates. The year 1944 brought new worries to Stéphanie and her husband because the German Army wanted to transform their residence into a military hospital for war wounded, a project which was rejected at the last minute. On the other hand, in the autumn, Edmund Veesenmayer, SS Brigadeführer, and commander of the city of Budapest, took up quarters in Rusovce accompanied by a large staff. Veesenmayer began to search all the archives in the house and confiscated documents of a historical nature, such as letters from Crown Prince Rudolf. Stéphanie and Elemér were forced to take refuge in a few rooms because the occupants had appropriated most of the castle. At the end of March 1945, the Germans, realizing that their position was threatened by the advancing Red Army, traveled further west.

On 2 April 1945, it was the Red Army, having just launched a last offensive pushing back the Germans near Lake Balaton, which reached the Rusovce mansion. During the first weeks of the Soviet occupation, the Lónyays preferred to stay at home with a few servants. However, in May, Stéphanie (suffering from heart disease) and her husband left their residence to take refuge in the Pannonhalma Archabbey, protected by the International Committee of the Red Cross. Three months later, on 23 August 1945, Stephanie died there of a stroke, aged 81. Neither her daughter nor any of her descendants were present at her funeral. She was buried in the crypt of Pannonhalma Archabbey. Elemér survived her less than a year, dying on 29 July 1946, and was buried next to her.

Aftermath
Stéphanie's only daughter, Archduchess Elisabeth Marie, finally obtained a divorce from her husband, Prince Otto Weriand of Windisch-Graetz in early 1948 and on 4 May of that year, she married her longtime partner Petznek in a registry office in Vienna. Estranged from her four children (of whom two died before her), after Leopold Petznek's death in 1956 from a heart attack, Elisabeth Marie (confined to a wheelchair due to gout) became reclusive until her death on 16 March 1963 at the Windisch-Graetz Villa in Hütteldorf, Vienna and was buried in an unmarked tomb (only recognized by the burial codification group 2, number G72) at the Hütteldorfer cemetery next to her husband; near her were buried her two sons who predeceased her, Rudolf and Ernst. Like her mother before her, she also disinherited her two surviving children: she left some 500 heirlooms, owned by the Habsburg Imperial family and inherited by her, to the Republic of Austria, and the extensive park of her Windisch-Graetz villa, in a prime Viennese residential area, was willed to the city of Vienna for the construction of a new residential complex.

From her first marriage, Elisabeth Marie had had four children:

 * Prince Franz Joseph of Windisch-Graetz (Franz Josef Marie Otto Antonius Ignatius Oktavianus; born Prague 22 March 1904 – died Nairobi 1 January 1981), married in Brussels on 3 January 1934 with Countess Ghislaine d'Arschot Schoonhoven (who wrote a biography of her mother-in-law named L'archiduchesse rouge: La vie d'Élisabeth-Marie, orpheline de Mayerling [The Red Archduchess: The Life of Elisabeth-Marie, Orphan of Mayerling] in which her grandmother-in-law Stéphanie is often mentioned). They had two children.
 * Prince Ernst of Windisch-Graetz (Ernst Weriand Maria Otto Antonius Expeditus Anselmus; born Prague 21 April 1905 – died Vienna 21 December 1952), married firstly in Vienna on 17 October 1927 (divorced 1938, annulled 1940) Ellen (Helena) Skinner, and secondly in Schwarzenbach an der Pielach, Lower Austria, on 11 May 1947 Baroness Eva von Isbary. With issue in both marriages.
 * Prince Rudolph of Windisch-Graetz (Rudolf Johann Maria Otto Joseph Anton Andreas; born Ploskovice 4 February 1907 – died Vienna 14 June 1930).
 * Princess Stephanie of Windisch-Graetz (Stephanie Eleonore Maria Elisabeth Kamilla Philomena Veronika; born Ploskovice 9 July 1909 – died at Uccle 7 September 2005), married firstly in Brussels on 22 July 1933 Count Pierre d'Alcantara di Querrieu, and secondly in Brussels on 14 November 1945 Carl Axel Björklund. With issue in both marriages.

As of 2021, Stéphanie had eight great-grandchildren, 24 great-great-grandchildren and 32 great-great-great-grandchildren.

Invention
As the New York Times noted, Stéphanie "invented a new chafing dish and spirit lamp combined, and [took] out patents in England, France, Germany, Italy, and Belgium". Her 1908 decision to take out a US patent on a chafing dish surprised the New York Times, not because of her lineage but because "throughout Europe the proficiency of Columbia’s daughters with the chafing dish is traditional…".

Titles
At her birth, as the daughter of King Leopold II, Stéphanie was titled Princess of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and Duchess in Saxony, with the predicate of Royal Highness, according to the titles of her house, and bears the unofficial title of Princess of Belgium, which will be officially regularized by Royal Decree dated 14 March 1891.

 * 21 May 1864 – 10 May 1881: Her Royal Highness Princess Stéphanie of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, Duchess in Saxony
 * 10 May 1881 – 30 January 1889: Her Imperial and Royal Highness the Crown Princess of Austria, Hungary, Bohemia and Croatia
 * 30 January 1889 – 22 March 1900: Her Imperial and Royal Highness the Dowager Crown Princess of Austria, Hungary, Bohemia and Croatia
 * 22 March 1900 – 28 January 1917: Her Royal Highness Princess Stéphanie, Countess Elemér Lónyay de Nagy-Lónya
 * 28 January 1917 – 23 August 1945: Her Royal Highness Princess Elemér Lónyay de Nagy-Lónya.

Toponymy

 * In Brussels, Place Stéphanie, created in 1840 and connecting Place Louise to Bois de la Cambre, bears the name of the Princess from 1875.
 * In Brussels, the Stéphanie Tunnel is a road tunnel of 465 mt. long, connecting Place Poelaert to Avenue Louise, construction of which was completed in 1957.
 * The steamboat Archiduchesse Stéphanie, built in 1890 by the Cockerill shipyards in Hoboken, was intended the following year for the service of the Haut-Congo flotilla.
 * The Lake Chew Bahir, also known as Lake Stéphanie, located in Ethiopia and discovered by the Austro-Hungarian explorers Sámuel Teleki and Ludwig von Höhnel in 1887–1888, was named in honor of the princess.
 * In Croatia, in the Plitvice Lakes National Park, Lake Kozjak has an ovoid islet of 1.4 hectares, called "Stephanie's islet" in memory of the princess, who visited the site shortly before 1900.

Astronomy

 * 220 Stephania is an asteroid in the main belt, discovered shortly after the marriage of the princess (19 May 1881) by Austrian astronomer Johann Palisa, who named it in her honor.

Ornithology

 * The Stephanie's astrapia is a species of passerine birds of the family of Paradisaeidae, named in honor of the princess in 1884.

Painting
Stéphanie has been represented by several painters:

 * 1880: Full-length portrait by Hans Makart.
 * 1881: Allegory of the union of Rudolf and Stéphanie by Sophia and Maria Görlich.
 * 1882: Bust portrait by Heinrich von Angeli.
 * 1883: Bust portrait by Hedwig Höna-Senft.
 * ca. 1884: Full-length portrait by Hans Canon.
 * ca. 1900: Full-length portrait by József Árpád Koppay.

Screen and stage

 * Mayerling, French film by Anatole Litvak (1936), with Yolande Laffon as Stéphanie.
 * The Secret of Mayerling, a French film by Jean Delannoy (1949), with Silvia Monfort playing the role of Stéphanie.
 * Mayerling, Franco-British film by Terence Young (1968), with Andrea Parisy as Stéphanie.
 * In the British television series Fall of Eagles (1974), Stéphanie is portrayed by Susan Tracy in the episode "Requiem for a Crown Prince".
 * Kenneth MacMillan's 1978 ballet, Mayerling - Portrayed by Wendy Ellis.
 * Kronprinz Rudolf, Austro-Franco-German-Italian TV movie by Robert Dornhelm (2006) in two parts, with Daniela Golpashin in the role of Stéphanie.
 * Frank Wildhorn's 2008 Musical, Rudolf The Mayerling Affair - Portrayed by Wietske Van Tongeren.
 * Rudolf: A Play in Two Acts by David Logan, 2011 Crown Princess Stephanie is a major role.

Phaleristics

 * Austria-Hungary
 * Ordre de la Croix étoilée autro-hongrois.jpg Dame of the Order of the Starry Cross, 1880
 * AT Order of Elizabeth BAR.png Grand Cross of the Imperial Austrian Order of Elizabeth, 1898
 * Persia
 * Order of the Lion and the Sun Ribbon Bar - Imperial Iran.svg Imperial Order of the Sun for Ladies, 2nd Class
 * undefined
 * Ordine di Santa Isabella.png Dame of the Order of Queen Saint Isabel, 21 April 1881
 * 🇪🇸 Spain
 * Order of Queen Maria Luisa (Spain) - ribbon bar.png Dame of the Order of Queen Maria Luisa, 16 May 1881
 * Russian Empire
 * Order Saint Catherine.png Grand Cross of the Imperial Order of Saint Catherine, 1897
 * Saxony
 * SAX Order of Sidonia ribbon.svg Dame of the Order of Sidonia
 * Sovereign Military Order of Malta
 * SMOM-gcs.svg Dame Grand Cross of Honour and Devotion

title: Princess Stéphanie of Belgium


text:
List of civil rights leaders

Civil rights leaders are influential figures in the promotion and implementation of political freedom and the expansion of personal civil liberties and rights. They work to protect individuals and groups from political repression and discrimination by governments and private organizations, and seek to ensure the ability of all members of society to participate in the civil and political life of the state.

List
People who motivated themselves and then led others to gain and protect these rights and liberties include:

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: List of civil rights leaders


text:
Talk:Enthalpy of vaporization

About the section "physical model for vaporization"
Please note, that the same expression for enthalpy of vaporization was already derived in the article in Russian Physical Chemistry Journal in 1983. You can see this article on http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Surface_tension_.pdf. There r is the latent heat of vaporization, σ is the surface tension. In fact, the only difference between these two expressions is use of 3 instead of π in the Russian paper.

Please, edit this section accordingly.

Water values
There are two values for water posted on this page, 40.8 kj/mol and 40.65 kj/mol. Could someone verify the correct value, or explain the differences?

Webelements says for Radium:
Enthalpy of vaporization [/kJ mol-1]: about 125 and not 37! doesn't that sound more plausible? Malbi

I think water should be included too. Andries 15:27, 31 May 2004 (UTC)

 * Yes, go ahead, please; also in the water article.--Patrick 21:15, 31 May 2004 (UTC)

 * done, although I dunno much about the subject and feel uncertain. Andries 20:42, 3 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Enthalpy and heat
I think the word "heat" should be replaced by "enthalpy". It is more suitable and more accurate.

 * I think Don Anonymous is tilting at windmills. Gene Nygaard 13:43, 23 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Definition
Heat of vaporization is a quantity that exists at conditions other than only standard pressure.--Renier Maritz 17:13, 13 October 2005 (UTC)

Title change
Physchim62 has changed the title of this article without discussion here, and despite the fact that opposition to a change from the most common English name of this quantity by changing "heat" to "enthalpy".

Physchim62 has also ignored the fact pointed out by Renier Maritz above, and has created a title of more limited scope by adding the word "standard" to the title. The article, however, remains written in the more general sense.

This name change needs to be undone. I don't have time to take care of the redirects right now, but intend to do it later unless someone else does it before I get to it. Of course, the same problem applies to heat of fusion. Gene Nygaard 14:54, 27 October 2005 (UTC)

Proportional to melting point?
Just looking at the list it seems that the heat of fusion is correlated with the melting or boiling point. Is there a theory/formula connecting the two? njh 11:20, 25 November 2005 (UTC)

Units Consistency
Wikipedia should make it's units consistent for physical properties. The pages on specific heat, heat of vaporization, and heat of fusion all have different units. That is, grams, kilograms, and moles all used which makes comparisons all the more difficult.

The units in the table of latent heat in the latent heat article are J/g. The units in the table for latent heat of vaporization kJ/kg. However the values for water are 2272 and 2260 respectively. So, according to wikipedia the latent heat of vaporization is both 2272 J/g and 2260 kJ/kg. How? The true value is 2259.36 J/g.Antinoah (talk) 02:53, 24 February 2008 (UTC)

N/A's
Some of the elements marked N/A (e.g. Actinium) and ??? (e.g., Terbium) have heats of vaporization added in these infoboxes. Why are they listed there and not here? --Geoffrey 21:21, 18 April 2006 (UTC)

Value for Hafnium not consistent
Although the difference is minor, there is a discrepency between this page and the information page of Hafnium about the enthalpy of vaporization (571 vs 575 kJ/mol). Also webelements gives a complete other value: 630 kJ/mol. I don't know which is the better value, I just noticed the difference. --Paul 14:55, 17 July 2006 (UTC)

heat is no source of energy
energy could be gotten from the mass of an atom.thus ,mass of an atom of an element is the determinant of energy content of any substance.the more an atom of an element the more the collision which then increase the kinetic energy of an atom. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 41.219.244.62 (talk) 18:16, 17 May 2008 (UTC)

Determination of the latent heat
I'm preparing a work for the university (i'm a student) about how to obtain the variation of enthalpy of vaporization of liquids like water and alcohols, if somebody thinks this interesting, i can explain three easy and cheap methods for that. Tell me what you think! --Pedvi (talk) 16:50, 12 June 2008 (UTC)

Inconsistencies and ambiguities
In the periodic table data, the definition of a mole is unclear. The diatomic gases, for example, have values that are half those one finds for the same gases on their respective pages. For hydrogen, the table gives 449.36 J/mol while the hydrogen page gives (slightly more than) twice that, 904 J/mol. (Which is the more accurate value?) Similarly, nitrogen in the periodic table shows 2.7928 kJ/mol and the nitrogen page gives 5.56 kJ/mol. Since vaporization doesn't rupture the diatomics' bonds, it seems odd to put this data in this way, but I can see the difficulty in trying to make the entire table consistent. At least it should be made prominently clear that the data in the table is for one mole of atoms, not molecules. Some data in the table clearly needs to be corrected, the value for sulfur given is dramatically low, 1.7175 kJ/mol, as compared with 45 kJ/mol on the sulfur page. I assume that the value given for phosphorus is for white phosphorus (P₄) - which should be noted since that isn't the thermodynamically stable allotrope. Gadolinist (talk) 19:14, 19 June 2009 (UTC) Why doesn't the data in this table agree with that in http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heats_of_vaporization_of_the_elements_%28data_page%29? --206.55.183.156 (talk) 12:49, 6 December 2009 (UTC)

The value for methane is inconsistent: 8.19 kJ/mol / .016042 kg/mol = 510.53 kJ/kg, but the value listed is 760 kJ/kg! where are the references? -- 99.233.186.4 (talk) 00:16, 19 May 2010 (UTC)

Why energy as function of T discontinuous?
I asked a similar question on the enthalpy of fusion talk page, but got no answer. Can someone explain why at the point of vaporization, the kinetic energy of the molecules stop increasing (assuming T ∝ KE) and only potential energy w.r.t to intermolecular forces increases?

In most classic mechanics, textbook cases, the 2 quantities change continuously, so is this some quantum effect? --UncleJoe1985 (talk) 00:48, 23 June 2009 (UTC)

 * If you have a liquid and vapor in equilibrium at the boiling point, then they are at the same temperature. Hence, as you say, T ∝ KE, and so the kinetic energies are equal. Dezaxa (talk) 05:56, 5 January 2014 (UTC)

Reference for "Enthalpy of Vaporization"
Can someone provide a reliable source to the use of the term "Enthalpy of Vaporization" over "Heat of Vapourization". I've gone through all of my thermodynamic texts and I can't find any that use this term. There may be reason for referring to the term in the body of the article, but to have the title of the article use a term that no one in the real world uses seems. . . odd. At this point, without a reliable source, this nomenclature would seem to be a personal point of view and might even be classified as original research. I am not going to get involved in an edit war, so I will not make any change.John G Eggert (talk) 13:09, 12 November 2011 (UTC)

 * The standard chemical engineering textbook (Poling et al. "The properties of liquids and gases")uses Enthalpy all the time. "Heat" is a familiar everyday word, but it is not thermodynamically precise. I'm too new here to have an opinion whether to go for precision or familiarity... AlanParkerFrance (talk) 12:19, 17 October 2012 (UTC)

Confusion between values Fusion and Vaporization
Hello. English is not my mother tongue, so be indulgent.

Some of values in table is for fusion, not for vaporization. Example for S : 1,7175 = fusion, 45 is for vaporization like write in sulfur under "Heat of vaporization". But since I'm not sure, I prefer not to correct. For exemple, i'm not sure that "enthalpy" is same that "heat". Jerome66 (talk) 13:48, 22 February 2012 (UTC)

explicitize symbol meanings and units
Reader comment: the background section is hard to follow since the symbols in the formula are not explained nor are their units given. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 137.224.252.10 (talk) 13:47, 29 May 2012 (UTC)

Inconsistent values in table of elements
By following some individual element links in the table of elements, some of the values don't match their respective elements page. Sulfur and oxygen definitely don't- it looks like sulfur somehow got connected to its enthalpy of fusion (rather than vaporization) and oxygen switches between per atom and per diatomic mole (or some other factor of two). Overall, this table could use some fact checking. Its not at all clear to me how to edit it so I don't want to take this on. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Ericksonla (talk • contribs) 13:17, 19 June 2015 (UTC)
 * And a lot of the values in the example table below are also grossly wrong. --2A02:8071:2CA0:FD00:659F:F1A6:BB3D:810D (talk) 21:47, 12 December 2019 (UTC)

Hydrogen strange in Other common substances
In the table most are compounds so mole is unambiguous. Hydrogen seems to be treated as atoms rather than the more natural/useful/consistent H2 molecules. The 460 should be doubled ? and When/why are Iron and Aluminium useful in this table ? Compare with Latent_heat - Rod57 (talk) 12:17, 29 April 2017 (UTC)

Why is the table of elements there ?
Do chemists use Enthalpy of vapourisation per atom in their calculations ? To whom/when is the enthapy of vapourisation of elements to atoms (rather than gas molecules) useful ? - Rod57 (talk) 12:28, 29 April 2017 (UTC)

Vapour deposition of various metals is used in precision manufacturing --- some semiconductor processes, some dichroic filter processes, preparation of specimens for ultramicroscopy... and Enthalpy of vaporisation also means radiant heat of condensation, which informs how much time it'll take for layers of the right depth to form at given vapor pressures, and what pressures you can use without, for instance, melting the substrate. Jcmckeown (talk) 17:52, 11 July 2017 (UTC)

Is/should this be about temperatures away from boiling/condensing
[Latent] heat of boiling can be measured at a wide range of temperatures (by varying the pressure). Is this enthalpy of vapourisation trying to deal with non-boiling situations - eg. evaporation and dew formation at non boiling temperatures ? If so, each substance has a EoV value for all pressure temperature combinations ? - Rod57 (talk) 12:36, 29 April 2017 (UTC)

Entropy of a gas proportional to its pressure?
The article states: "A correction must be made if the pressure is different from 100 kPa, as the entropy of a gas is proportional to its pressure (or, more precisely, to its fugacity)". This is incorrect - the entropy of a gas is proportional to the logarithm of the pressure (or fugacity). DrAnodos (talk) 21:27, 19 February 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Enthalpy of vaporization


text:
François Just Marie Raynouard

François Just Marie Raynouard (18 September 1761 – 27 October 1836) was a French dramatist and linguist.

Biography
Raynouard was born at Brignoles in Provence, trained for the bar, and practiced at Draguignan. In 1791 he represented the department of Var in the Legislative Assembly, but after the fall of his party, the Girondists, he went into hiding. Discovered and imprisoned in Paris, he wrote his play Caton d'Utique (1794) during his imprisonment.

In 1803 he won the Institut de France's poetry prize. Éléonore de Bavière and Les Templiers were accepted by the Comédie-Française. Les Templiers was produced in 1805, and, over the opposition of Geoffroy, was a great success. Elected to the Académie française in 1807, elected to the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres in 1816, Raynouard was admitted secrétaire perpétuel of the Académie française in 1817. From 1806 to 1814 he represented the department of Var in the Corps législatif.

Raynouard wrote other plays, one of which, Les États de Blois (acted 1810), offended Napoleon by its freedom of speech. Realizing that the public taste had changed and that Romanticism would triumph, Raynouard abandoned the stage and devoted himself to linguistic studies. His researches into Provençal were to an extent inaccurate, but his enthusiasm and perseverance opened the way for the study of the subject.

Raynouard is sometimes called the founder of Romance linguistics, although his contribution was marked by a fundamental misconception: he believed that the Romance languages were derived from a common post-Latin language, which he called le roman, and not directly from Latin, as is in fact the case. Raynouard's chief works are Choix de poésies originales des troubadours (6 vols., 1816–1821), of which the sixth volume, Grammaire comparée des langues de l'Europe latine, dans leurs rapports avec la langue des troubadours (1821), was separately published; Lexique roman ou dictionnaire de la langue des troubadours comparée avec les autres langues de l'Europe latine (6 vols., 1838–1844). He spent the last years of his life at Passy.

Raynouard was Officer of the Legion of Honour. In the 16th arrondissement of Paris, a street and a square have been named after him. In Brignoles, a monument pays tribute to him near the house he was born in, and the secondary school (lycée) and a boulevard have been named after him.

Theatre

 * Caton d’Utique, tragedy, 1794
 * Les Templiers, tragedy, premiered at the Comédie-Française le 24 floréal an XIII (14 May 1805). Read online
 * Éléonore de Bavière, tragedy, 1805
 * Les États de Blois ou la mort du duc de Guise, tragedy, 1809
 * Don Carlos, tragedy, non-presented
 * Débora, tragedy, non-presented
 * Charles Ier, tragedy, non-presented
 * Jeanne d’Arc à Orléans, tragedy, non-presented

Poetry

 * Socrate dans le temple d’Aglaure, 1803 read online
 * L'immolation des templiers

History

 * Recherches sur l’antiquité de la langue romane, 1816
 * Éléments de la grammaire de la langue romane, 1816
 * La Grammaire des troubadours, 1816
 * Des troubadours et les cours d’amour, 1817
 * Grammaire comparée des langues de l’Europe latine dans leurs rapports avec la langue des troubadours, 1821
 * Choix des poésies originales des troubadours, 6 vol., 1816–1821
 * Lexique de la langue des troubadours, 1824
 * Histoire du droit municipal en France, sous la domination romaine et sous les trois dynasties, 1829
 * Nouveau choix des poésies originales des troubadours, 1836–1844
 * Lexique roman, 6 vol., 1838–1844
 * Tome 1
 * Tome 2, A-C
 * Tome 3, D-K
 * Tome 4, L-P
 * Tome 5, Q-Z
 * Tome 6, Appendice, vocabulaire

title: François Just Marie Raynouard


text:
Pioneer Square, Seattle

Pioneer Square is a neighborhood in the southwest corner of Downtown Seattle, Washington, US. It was once the heart of the city: Seattle's founders settled there in 1852, following a brief six-month settlement at Alki Point on the far side of Elliott Bay. The early structures in the neighborhood were mostly wooden, and nearly all burned in the Great Seattle Fire of 1889. By the end of 1890, dozens of brick and stone buildings had been erected in their stead; to this day, the architectural character of the neighborhood derives from these late 19th century buildings, mostly examples of Richardsonian Romanesque.

The neighborhood takes its name from a small triangular plaza near the corner of First Avenue and Yesler Way, originally known as Pioneer Place. The Pioneer Square–Skid Road Historic District, a historic district including that plaza and several surrounding blocks, is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

Like virtually all Seattle neighborhoods, the Pioneer Square neighborhood lacks definitive borders. It is bounded roughly by Alaskan Way S. on the west, beyond which are the docks of Elliott Bay; by S. King Street on the south, beyond which is SoDo; by 5th Avenue S. on the east, beyond which is the International District; and it extends between one and two blocks north of Yesler Way, beyond which is the rest of Downtown. Because Yesler Way marks the boundary between two different plats, the street grid north of Yesler does not line up with the neighborhood's other streets (nor with the compass), so the northern border of the district zigzags along numerous streets.

In some places, the Pioneer Square–Skid Road Historic District extends beyond these borders. It includes Union Station east of 4th Avenue S., and several city blocks south of S. King Street.

Early history
The settlement's importance was guaranteed in 1852, when Henry Yesler chose the site for his lumber mill, which was located on Elliott Bay at the foot of what is now Yesler Way, right on the border between the land claimed (and soon thereafter platted) by David Swinson "Doc" Maynard (to the south) and that platted by Arthur Denny and Carson Boren.

Much of the neighborhood is on landfill: in pioneer times, the area roughly between First and Second Avenue, bounded on the south by Jackson Street, and extending north almost to Yesler Way (about two-and-a-half city blocks) was a low-lying offshore island. The mainland shore roughly followed what is now Yesler Way to about Fourth Avenue, then ran southeast, at an angle of about 45 degrees to the current shoreline. Slightly inland were steep bluffs, which were largely smoothed away by regrading in the late 19th and early 20th century.

"Below the Line"
Yesler Way, originally Mill Street, is the main east–west street through the Pioneer Square neighborhood. Immediately south of the square itself, it was the dividing line between Maynard's original claim (to the south) and Boren's (to the north). It became Deadline, the northern border of the Great Restricted District, Maynardtown, Down on the Sawdust, the Lava Beds, the Tenderloin, White Chapel, or Wappyville, (after Charles Wappenstein, after a particularly corrupt police chief. ), where low entertainment and vice were long tolerated. One of the earliest names, and one that stuck well into second half of the 20th century, was "Skid Row".

Henry Broderick, approaching his 80th birthday in 1959, wrote of the neighborhood south of Yesler, "[P]erhaps never in all history, certainly not in America, has there ever existed such a massive collection of the demimonde grouped in a restricted area." There were "parlor houses" with marquees, celebrity madames—among them Lou Graham, Lila Young, and Raw McRoberts—and piano "professors". Scrupulous in their dealings, the parlor houses were completely tolerated by the city at the time, but there were also the far more controversial "crib houses" such as the Midway, the Paris and Dreamland near the corner of Sixth Avenue South and King Street. Each had a hundred or more cubicles—"cribs"—and they were not known for any particular honesty in their dealings. The city health department conducted inspections and attempted to keep venereal disease under control, but the state of medicine at the time was not such as to give them any great chance of success. Besides the brothels there were "an ungodly mixture of dives, dumps... pawnshops, hash houses, dope parlors and... the et cetera that kept the police guessing." Box houses prospered, part theater, part bar, part brothel, as did all sorts of gambling. Police only dared enter the neighborhood in teams. Perhaps the only safe haven in the neighborhood was the saloon "Our House", which rented out safe deposit boxes.

In 1870, Father Francis Xavier Prefontaine founded Seattle's first Catholic Church, the Church of Our Lady of Good Help in the heart of this district, at Third Avenue South and Washington Street. Two decades later, Lou Graham opened the city's most famous parlor house diagonally across the street. Father Prefontaine is commemorated by a street in the neighborhood, Prefontaine Place.

Late 19th century

By the end of 1889, Seattle had become the largest city in Washington with 40,000 residents. That same year, the Great Seattle Fire resulted in the complete destruction of Pioneer Square. However, the economy was strong at the time, so Pioneer Square was quickly rebuilt. Many of the new buildings show the influence of the Romanesque Revival architectural mode, although influence of earlier Victorian modes is also widespread. Because of drainage problems new development was built at a higher level literally burying the remains of old Pioneer Square. Anticipating the planned regrade, many buildings were built with two entrances, one at the old, low level, and another higher up. Visitors can take the Seattle Underground Tour to see what remains of the old storefronts.

Just before the fire, cable car service was instituted from Pioneer Square along Yesler Way to Lake Washington and the Leschi neighborhood.

20th century

During the Klondike Gold Rush in 1897 and 1898, Seattle was a center for travel to Alaska. Thousands of so-called "stampeders" passed through Seattle making the city's merchants prosperous.

In 1899, a group of businessmen stole a Tlingit totem pole and placed it in Pioneer Place Park. When an arsonist destroyed the pole in 1938, the city sent the pieces back to the Tlingit tribe who carved a new one and gave it to Seattle (after finally getting paid for the one that was originally stolen).

In addition to the totem pole, a wrought-iron Victorian pergola designed by Julian F. Everett (Pioneer Square pergola), originally known as a comfort station and highly touted in tourism marketing, and a bust of Chief Seattle were added to the park in 1909.

1914 saw the completion of the Smith Tower, which at the time was the tallest building west of the Mississippi River. However, by that time, the heart of Downtown Seattle had moved north. The building of Second Avenue Extension in 1928-29 reconfigured the eastern portion of the neighborhood, by extending a piece of the north-of-Yesler street grid south past Yesler and "slicing into buildings in its path". The cable car line serving the area was shut down on August 10, 1940.

1960s
In the 1960s, Pioneer Square became a target of urban renewal. One proposal was to replace the buildings with parking garages to serve Downtown Seattle. In 1962, the historic Seattle Hotel was replaced with one such parking garage, commonly referred to as the "Sinking Ship" garage because of its appearance when viewed from 1st and Yesler; it stands to this day. Another proposal was to build a ring road which would have required destroying many of Pioneer Square's buildings. Many buildings were saved by the "benign neglect" of landowner Sam Israel. Although he rarely sold any of his buildings, he sold the Union Trust Building to architect Ralph Anderson, whose rehabilitation of that building set the pattern for the neighborhood's rehabilitation. In 1970, preservationists such as Bill Speidel, Victor Steinbrueck, and others succeeded in listing the neighborhood as historic district listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Later that year, Pioneer Square became a city preservation district.

1980s
Streetcar service returned to Pioneer Square on May 29, 1982, with the opening of the Waterfront Streetcar. The streetcar discontinued service on November 19, 2005, since its carbarn was razed to make room for the Olympic Sculpture Park.

21st century
In the 21st century, Pioneer Square is home to art galleries, internet companies, cafés, sports bars, nightclubs, bookstores, and a unit of the Klondike Gold Rush National Historical Park, the other unit of which is located in Skagway, Alaska.

Fallen Firefighters Memorial
Each spring since 1989, on the weekend nearest June 6, the city has celebrated the Pioneer Square Fire Festival with a parade and display of antique and modern fire apparatus, demonstrations of fire fighter skills, food and craft booths, and a party. On June 6, 1998, the anniversary of the 1889 fire, fell on a Saturday. This year the Festival took on additional meaning when the Fallen Fire Fighter Memorial was dedicated. Thanks to the work of Battalion Chief Wes Goss and his Memorial Committee the bronze sculpture was now in place. On a granite block is inscribed the name of each Seattle fire fighter who died in the line of duty.

title: Pioneer Square, Seattle


text:
Julien Louis Geoffroy

Julien Louis Geoffroy (17 August 1743 – 27 February 1814) was a French literary critic.

He was born at Rennes, and educated there and at the Collège Louis le Grand in Paris. He took orders and for some time was a mere usher, eventually becoming professor of rhetoric at the Collège des Quatre-Nations. His tragedy, Caton, was accepted at the Théâtre Français, but was never performed. On the death of Élie Fréron in 1776 the other collaborators in the Année littéraire asked Geoffroy to succeed him, and he conducted the journal until its closure in 1792.

Geoffroy was a bitter critic of Voltaire and his followers, and made for himself many enemies. An enthusiastic royalist, he published, with Fréron's brother-in-law, the abbé Thomas Royou (1741–1792), a journal, L'Ami du roi (1790–1792), which possibly did more harm than good to the king's cause by its ill-advised partisanship. During the Reign of Terror, Geoffroy hid in the neighbourhood of Paris, only returning in 1799.

An attempt to revive the Année littéraire failed, and Geoffroy undertook the position of theatre critic of the Journal des Débats. His scathing criticisms had a success of notoriety, but their popularity was ephemeral, and the publication of them (5 vols., 1819–1820) as Cours de littérature dramatique proved a failure. He was also the author of a perfunctory Commentaire on the works of Jean Racine prefixed to Lenormant's edition (1808).

title: Julien Louis Geoffroy


text:
Email address

An email address identifies an email box to which messages are delivered. While early messaging systems used a variety of formats for addressing, today, email addresses follow a set of specific rules originally standardized by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) in the 1980s, and updated by. The term email address in this article refers to just the addr-spec in Section 3.4 of RFC 5322. The RFC defines address more broadly as either a mailbox or group. A mailbox value can be either a name-addr, which contains a display-name and addr-spec, or the more common addr-spec alone.

An email address, such as john.smith@example.com, is made up from a local-part, the symbol @, and a domain, which may be a domain name or an IP address enclosed in brackets. Although the standard requires the local-part to be case-sensitive, it also urges that receiving hosts deliver messages in a case-independent manner, e.g., that the mail system in the domain example.com treat John.Smith as equivalent to john.smith; some mail systems even treat them as equivalent to johnsmith. Mail systems often limit the users' choice of name to a subset of the technically permitted characters; with the introduction of internationalized domain names, efforts are progressing to permit non-ASCII characters in email addresses.

Due to the ubiquity of email in today's world, email addresses are often used as regular usernames by many websites and services that provide a user profile or account. For example, if a user wants to login to their Xbox Live video gaming profile, they would use their Microsoft account in the form of an email address as the username ID, even though the service in this case is not email.

Message transport
An email address consists of two parts, a local-part (sometimes a user name, but not always) and a domain; if the domain is a domain name rather than an IP address then the SMTP client uses the domain name to look up the mail exchange IP address. The general format of an email address is local-part@domain, e.g. jsmith@ [ 192.168.1.2 ], jsmith@example.com. The SMTP client transmits the message to the mail exchange, which may forward it to another mail exchange until it eventually arrives at the host of the recipient's mail system.

The transmission of electronic mail from the author's computer and between mail hosts in the Internet uses the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), defined in, and extensions such as. The mailboxes may be accessed and managed by applications on personal computers, mobile devices or webmail sites, using the SMTP protocol and either the Post Office Protocol (POP) or the Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP).

When transmitting email messages, mail user agents (MUAs) and mail transfer agents (MTAs) use the domain name system (DNS) to look up a Resource Record (RR) for the recipient's domain. A mail exchanger resource record (MX record) contains the name of the recipient's mailserver. In absence of an MX record, an address record (A or AAAA) directly specifies the mail host.

The local-part of an email address has no significance for intermediate mail relay systems other than the final mailbox host. Email senders and intermediate relay systems must not assume it to be case-insensitive, since the final mailbox host may or may not treat it as such. A single mailbox may receive mail for multiple email addresses, if configured by the administrator. Conversely, a single email address may be the alias to a distribution list to many mailboxes. Email aliases, electronic mailing lists, sub-addressing, and catch-all addresses, the latter being mailboxes that receive messages regardless of the local-part, are common patterns for achieving a variety of delivery goals.

The addresses found in the header fields of an email message are not directly used by mail exchanges to deliver the message. An email message also contains a message envelope that contains the information for mail routing. While envelope and header addresses may be equal, forged email addresses (also called spoofed email addresses) are often seen in spam, phishing, and many other Internet-based scams. This has led to several initiatives which aim to make such forgeries of fraudulent emails easier to spot.

Syntax
The format of an email address is local-part@domain, where the local-part may be up to 64 octets long and the domain may have a maximum of 255 octets. The formal definitions are in RFC 5322 (sections 3.2.3 and 3.4.1) and RFC 5321 —with a more readable form given in the informational RFC 3696 (written by J. Klensin, the author of RFC 5321) and the associated errata.

An email address also may have an associated "display-name" (Display Name) for the recipient, which precedes the address specification, now surrounded by angled brackets, for example: John Smith . Email spammers and phishers will often use "Display Name spoofing" to trick their victims, by using a false Display Name, or by using a different email address as the Display Name.

Earlier forms of email addresses for other networks than the Internet included other notations, such as that required by X.400, and the UUCP bang path notation, in which the address was given in the form of a sequence of computers through which the message should be relayed. This was widely used for several years, but was superseded by the Internet standards promulgated by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).

Local-part
The local-part of the email address may be unquoted or may be enclosed in quotation marks.

If unquoted, it may use any of these ASCII characters:
 * uppercase and lowercase Latin letters  to   and   to
 * digits  to
 * printable characters
 * dot, provided that it is not the first or last character and provided also that it does not appear consecutively (e.g.,   is not allowed).

If quoted, it may contain Space, Horizontal Tab (HT), any ASCII graphic except Backslash and Quote and a quoted-pair consisting of a Backslash followed by HT, Space or any ASCII graphic; it may also be split between lines anywhere that HT or Space appears. In contrast to unquoted local-parts, the addresses,   and   are allowed.

The maximum total length of the local-part of an email address is 64 octets.

 * Space and special characters  are allowed with restrictions (they are only allowed inside a quoted string, as described in the paragraph below, and in that quoted string, any backslash or double-quote must be preceded once by a backslash);
 * Comments are allowed with parentheses at either end of the local-part; e.g.,  and   are both equivalent to.

In addition to the above ASCII characters, international characters above U+007F, encoded as UTF-8, are permitted by RFC 6531 when the EHLO specifies SMTPUTF8, though even mail systems that support SMTPUTF8 and 8BITMIME may restrict which characters to use when assigning local-parts.

A local-part is either a Dot-string or a Quoted-string; it cannot be a combination. Quoted strings and characters, however, are not commonly used. RFC 5321 also warns that "a host that expects to receive mail SHOULD avoid defining mailboxes where the Local-part requires (or uses) the Quoted-string form".

The local-part  is treated specially—it is case-insensitive, and should be forwarded to the domain email administrator. Technically all other local-parts are case-sensitive, therefore  and   specify different mailboxes; however, many organizations treat uppercase and lowercase letters as equivalent. Indeed, RFC 5321 warns that "a host that expects to receive mail SHOULD avoid defining mailboxes where ... the Local-part is case-sensitive".

Despite the wide range of special characters which are technically valid, organisations, mail services, mail servers and mail clients in practice often do not accept all of them. For example, Windows Live Hotmail only allows creation of email addresses using alphanumerics, dot, underscore and hyphen. Common advice is to avoid using some special characters to avoid the risk of rejected emails.

According to RFC 5321 2.3.11 Mailbox and Address, "the local-part MUST be interpreted and assigned semantics only by the host specified in the domain of the address". This means that no assumptions can be made about the meaning of the local-part of another mail server. It is entirely up to the configuration of the mail server.

Interpretation of the local-part is dependent on the conventions and policies implemented in the mail server. For example, case sensitivity may distinguish mailboxes differing only in capitalization of characters of the local-part, although this is not very common. For example, Gmail ignores all dots in the local-part of a @gmail.com address for the purposes of determining account identity.

Sub-addressing
Some mail services support a tag included in the local-part, such that the address is an alias to a prefix of the local-part. Typically the characters following a plus and less often the characters following a minus, so fred+bah@domain and fred+foo@domain might end up in the same inbox as fred+@domain or even as fred@domain. For example, the address joeuser+tag@example.com denotes the same delivery address as joeuser@example.com. refers to this convention as subaddressing, but it is also known as plus addressing, tagged addressing or mail extensions. This can be useful for tagging emails for sorting, and for spam control.

Addresses of this form, using various separators between the base name and the tag, are supported by several email services, including Andrew Project (plus), Runbox (plus), Gmail (plus), Rackspace (plus), Yahoo! Mail Plus (hyphen), Apple's iCloud (plus), Outlook.com (plus), Proton Mail (plus), Fastmail (plus and Subdomain Addressing), postale.io (plus), Pobox (plus), MeMail (plus), MMDF (equals), Qmail and Courier Mail Server (hyphen). Postfix and Exim allow configuring an arbitrary separator from the legal character set.

The text of the tag may be used to apply filtering, or to create single-use, or disposable email addresses.

Domain
The domain name part of an email address has to conform to strict guidelines: it must match the requirements for a hostname, a list of dot-separated DNS labels, each label being limited to a length of 63 characters and consisting of:

This rule is known as the LDH rule (letters, digits, hyphen). In addition, the domain may be an IP address literal, surrounded by square brackets, such as   or  , although this is rarely seen except in email spam. Internationalized domain names (which are encoded to comply with the requirements for a hostname) allow for presentation of non-ASCII domains. In mail systems compliant with RFC 6531 and RFC 6532 an email address may be encoded as UTF-8, both a local-part as well as a domain name.
 * Uppercase and lowercase Latin letters  to   and   to  ;
 * Digits  to , provided that top-level domain names are not all-numeric;
 * Hyphen, provided that it is not the first or last character.

Comments are allowed in the domain as well as in the local-part; for example,  and   are equivalent to.

specifies that certain domains, for example those intended for documentation and testing, should not be resolvable and that as a result mail addressed to mailboxes in them and their subdomains should be non-deliverable. Of note for e-mail are example, invalid, example.com, example.net, and example.org.

Valid email addresses

 * (case is always ignored after the @ and usually before)
 * (one-letter local-part)
 * (may be routed to  inbox depending on mail server)
 * (slashes are a printable character, and allowed)
 * (local domain name with no TLD, although ICANN highly discourages dotless email addresses )
 * (see the List of Internet top-level domains)
 * (space between the quotes)
 * (quoted double dot)
 * (bangified host route used for uucp mailers)
 * (include non-letters character AND multiple at sign, the first one being double quoted)
 * (% escaped mail route to user@example.com via example.org)
 * (local-part ending with non-alphanumeric character from the list of allowed printable characters)
 * (IP addresses are allowed instead of domains when in square brackets, but strongly discouraged)
 * (IPv6 uses a different syntax)
 * (begin with underscore different syntax)
 * (IP addresses are allowed instead of domains when in square brackets, but strongly discouraged)
 * (IPv6 uses a different syntax)
 * (begin with underscore different syntax)

Valid email addresses with SMTPUTF8

 * (emoji are only allowed with SMTPUTF8)

Invalid email addresses

 * (no @ character)
 * (only one @ is allowed outside quotation marks)
 * (none of the special characters in this local-part are allowed outside quotation marks)
 * (quoted strings must be dot separated or be the only element making up the local-part)
 * (spaces, quotes, and backslashes may only exist when within quoted strings and preceded by a backslash)
 * (even if escaped (preceded by a backslash), spaces, quotes, and backslashes must still be contained by quotes)
 * (local-part is longer than 64 characters)
 * (underscore is not allowed in domain part)

Validation and verification
Email addresses are often requested as input to website as validation of user existence. Other validation methods are available, such as cell phone number validation, postal mail validation, and fax validation.

An email address is generally recognized as having two parts joined with an at-sign (@), although technical specification detailed in RFC 822 and subsequent RFCs are more extensive.

Syntactically correct, verified email addresses do not guarantee that an email box exists. Thus many mail servers use other techniques and check the mailbox existence against relevant systems such as the Domain Name System for the domain or using callback verification to check if the mailbox exists. Callback verification is an imperfect solution, as it may be disabled to avoid a directory harvest attack, or callbacks may be reported as spam and lead to listing on a DNSBL.

Several validation techniques may be utilized to validate a user email address. For example,

 * Verification links: Email address validation is often accomplished for account creation on websites by sending an email to the user-provided email address with a special temporary hyperlink. On receipt, the user opens the link, immediately activating the account. Email addresses are also useful as means of delivering messages from a website, e.g., user messages, user actions, to the email inbox.
 * Formal and informal standards: RFC 3696 provides specific advice for validating Internet identifiers, including email addresses. Some websites instead attempt to evaluate the validity of email addresses through arbitrary standards, such as by rejecting addresses containing valid characters, such as + and /, or enforcing arbitrary length limitations. Email address internationalization provides for a much larger range of characters than many current validation algorithms allow, such as all Unicode characters above U+0080, encoded as UTF-8.
 * Algorithmic tools: Large websites, bulk mailers and spammers require efficient tools to validate email addresses. Such tools depend upon heuristic algorithms and statistical models.
 * Sender reputation: An email sender's reputation may be used to attempt to verify whether the sender is trustworthy or a potential spammer. Factors that may be incorporated into an assessment of sender reputation include the quality of past contact with or content provided by, and engagement levels of, the sender's IP address or email address.
 * Browser-based verification: HTML5 forms implemented in many browsers allow email address validation to be handled by the browser.

Some companies offer services to validate an email address, often using an application programming interface, but there is no guarantee that it will provide accurate results.

Internationalization
The IETF conducts a technical and standards working group devoted to internationalization issues of email addresses, entitled Email Address Internationalization (EAI, also known as IMA, Internationalized Mail Address). This group produced, and continues to work on additional EAI-related RFCs.

The IETF's EAI Working group published RFC 6530 "Overview and Framework for Internationalized Email", which enabled non-ASCII characters to be used in both the local-parts and domain of an email address. RFC 6530 provides for email based on the UTF-8 encoding, which permits the full repertoire of Unicode. RFC 6531 provides a mechanism for SMTP servers to negotiate transmission of the SMTPUTF8 content.

The basic EAI concepts involve exchanging mail in UTF-8. Though the original proposal included a downgrading mechanism for legacy systems, this has now been dropped. The local servers are responsible for the local-part of the address, whereas the domain would be restricted by the rules of internationalized domain names, though still transmitted in UTF-8. The mail server is also responsible for any mapping mechanism between the IMA form and any ASCII alias.

EAI enables users to have a localized address in a native language script or character set, as well as an ASCII form for communicating with legacy systems or for script-independent use. Applications that recognize internationalized domain names and mail addresses must have facilities to convert these representations.

Significant demand for such addresses is expected in China, Japan, Russia, and other markets that have large user bases in a non-Latin-based writing system.

For example, in addition to the .in top-level domain, the government of India in 2011 got approval for ".bharat", (from Bhārat Gaṇarājya), written in seven different scripts for use by Gujrati, Marathi, Bangali, Tamil, Telugu, Punjabi and Urdu speakers. Indian company XgenPlus.com claims to be the world's first EAI mailbox provider, and the Government of Rajasthan now supplies a free email account on domain राजस्थान.भारत for every citizen of the state. A leading media house Rajasthan Patrika launched their IDN domain पत्रिका.भारत with contactable email.

The example addresses below would not be handled by RFC 5322 based servers, but are permitted by RFC 6530. Servers compliant with this will be able to handle these:

 * Latin alphabet with diacritics: Pelé@example.com
 * Greek alphabet: δοκιμή@παράδειγμα.δοκιμή
 * Traditional Chinese characters: 我買@屋企.香港
 * Japanese characters: 二ノ宮@黒川.日本
 * Cyrillic characters: медведь@с-балалайкой.рф
 * Devanagari characters: संपर्क@डाटामेल.भारत

title: Email address