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Airport security

Airport security includes the techniques and methods used in an attempt to protect passengers, staff, aircraft, and airport property from malicious harm, crime, terrorism, and other threats.

Aviation security is a combination of measures and human and material resources in order to safeguard civil aviation against acts of unlawful interference. Unlawful interference could be acts of terrorism, sabotage, threat to life and property, communication of false threat, bombing, etc.

Description
Large numbers of people pass through airports every day. This presents potential targets for terrorism and other forms of crime because of the number of people located in one place. Similarly, the high concentration of people on large airliners increases the potentially high death rate with attacks on aircraft, and the ability to use a hijacked airplane as a lethal weapon may provide an alluring target for terrorism (such as during the September 11 attacks). Airport security attempts to prevent any threats or potentially dangerous situations from arising or entering the country. If airport security does succeed then the chances of any dangerous situation, illegal items or threats entering into an aircraft, country or airport are greatly reduced. As such, airport security serves several purposes: To protect the airport and country from any threatening events, to reassure the traveling public that they are safe and to protect the country and their people.

Travellers are prohibited to pass the security checkpoint with liquids, including water, that are over 100 mL. This is due to the risk of liquid explosives such as nitroglycerin which is colourless and indistinguishable from water. It is undetectable with the security X-ray which would pose great threat if brought on board.

Monte R. Belger of the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration notes "The goal of aviation security is to prevent harm to aircraft, passengers, and crew, as well as support national security and counter-terrorism policy."

Airport enforcement authority
While some countries may have an agency that protects all of their airports (such as Australia, in which the Australian Federal Police polices the airport), in other countries the protection is controlled at the state or local level. The primary personnel will vary and can include:
 * A police force hired and dedicated to the airport e.g. the Irish Airport Police Service
 * A branch (substation) of the local police department stationed at the airport
 * Members of the local police department assigned to the airport as their normal patrol area
 * Members of a country's airport protection service. E.g., US TSA
 * Police dog services for explosive detection, drug detection and other purposes

Other resources may include:
 * Security guards
 * Paramilitary forces
 * Military forces

Process and equipment

Some incidents have been the result of travelers carrying either weapons or items that could be used as weapons on board aircraft so that they can hijack the plane. In passenger security screening, travelers are screened by metal detectors and/or millimeter wave scanners. Explosive detection machines used include X-ray machines and explosives trace-detection portal machines (a.k.a. "puffer machines"). In some cases, detection of explosives can be automated using machine learning techniques. In the United States, the TSA is working on new scanning machines that are still effective searching for objects that are not allowed in the airplanes but that do not depict the passengers in a state of undress that some find embarrassing. Explosive detection machines can also be used for both carry-on and checked baggage. These detect volatile compounds given off from explosives using gas chromatography.

Computed tomography and walk-through body scanning (Thz radiation) may also be done. Artificial intelligence systems are also being used, for example for translation service on information stations around the airport and for reducing the time airplanes spend at the gate between flights (by monitoring and analyzing everything that happens after the aircraft lands). In the future, it may also be used in conjunction with CT machines and Thz radiation detectors. It may also be used for use with biometric deployment across touchpoints and of new solutions, such as risk-based screening and intelligent video analytics.

A recent development is the controversial use of backscatter X-rays to detect hidden weapons and explosives on passengers. These devices, which use Compton scattering, require that the passenger stand close to a flat panel and produce a high resolution image. A technology released in Israel in early 2008 allows passengers to pass through metal detectors without removing their shoes, a process required as walk-through gate detectors are not reliable in detecting metal in shoes or on the lower body extremities. Alternately, the passengers step fully shoed onto a device which scans in under 1.2 seconds for objects as small as a razor blade. In some countries, specially trained individuals may engage passengers in a conversation to detect threats rather than solely relying on equipment to find threats.

A single backscatter scan exposes the target to between 0.05 and 0.1 microsievert of radiation. In comparison, the exposure from a standard chest x-ray is almost 100 times higher.

While airport security measures are crucial for ensuring passenger safety, they inadvertently introduce hygiene challenges. A study at Helsinki-Vantaa airport during the 2015-2016 flu season pinpointed the plastic security screening trays, frequently used in security checks, as a significant vector for the spread of respiratory viruses. The study emphasizes the need for enhanced sanitation practices in these areas.

Generally people are screened through airport security into areas where the exit gates to the aircraft are located. These areas are often called "secure", "sterile" and airside. Passengers are discharged from airliners into the sterile area so that they usually will not have to be re-screened if disembarking from a domestic flight; however they are still subject to search at any time. Airport food outlets have started using plastic glasses and utensils as opposed to glasses made out of glass and utensils made out of metal to reduce the usefulness of such items as weapons.

In the United States non-passengers were once allowed on the concourses to meet arriving friends or relatives at their gates, but this is now greatly restricted due to the September 11 terrorist attacks. Non-passengers must obtain a gate pass to enter the secure area of the airport. The most common reasons that a non-passenger may obtain a gate pass is to assist children and the elderly as well as for attending business meetings that take place in the secure area of the airport. In the United States, at least 24 hours notice is generally required for those planning to attend a business meeting inside the secure area of the airport. Other countries, such as Australia do not restrict non-travellers from accessing the airside area, however non-travellers are typically subject to the same security scans as travellers.

Sensitive areas in airports, including airport ramps and operational spaces, are restricted from the general public. Called a SIDA (Security Identification Display Area), these spaces require special qualifications to enter. Systems can consist of physical access control gates or more passive systems that monitor people moving through restricted areas and sound an alert if a restricted area is entered.

Throughout the world, there have been a few dozen airports that have instituted a version of a "trusted traveler program". Proponents argue that security screening can be made more efficient by detecting those people who are threats and then searching them. They argue that searching trusted, verified individuals should not take the amount of time it does. Critics argue that such programs decrease security by providing an easier path to carry contraband through.

Another critical security measure used by several regional and international airports is that of fiber optic perimeter intrusion detection systems. These security systems allow airport security to locate and detect any intrusion on the airport perimeter, ensuring real-time, immediate intrusion notification that allows security personnel to assess the threat and track movement and engage necessary security procedures. This has notably been utilised at Dulles International Airport and U.S. Military JFPASS.

Notable incidents
On May 30, 1972, three members of the Japanese Red Army undertook a terrorist attack, popularly called the Lod Airport massacre, at the Lod Airport, now known as the Ben Gurion International Airport, in Lod. Firing indiscriminately with automatic firearms and throwing grenades, they managed to kill 24 people and injure 78 others before being neutralized (one of them through suicide). One of the three terrorists, Kozo Okamoto, survived the incident.

The world's first terrorist attack while in flight was Cubana Flight 455 on October 6, 1976, when the airliner flying from Barbados to Jamaica was brought down by two time bombs, killing 73 people. Evidence implicated several Central Intelligence Agency-linked anti-Castro Cuban exiles and members of the Venezuelan secret police DISIP, including Luis Posada Carriles.

The single deadliest airline catastrophe resulting from the failure of airport security to detect an onboard bomb was Air India Flight 182 in 1985, which killed 329 people.

Another onboard bomb that slipped through airport security was the one on Pan Am Flight 103 in 1988, which killed 270 people; 259 on the plane, and 11 residents of Lockerbie, Scotland.

Another notable failure was the 1994 bombing of Philippine Airlines Flight 434, which turned out to be a test run for a planned terrorist attack called Operation Bojinka. The explosion was small, killing one person, and the plane made an emergency landing. Operation Bojinka was discovered and foiled by Manila police in 1995.

The Rome and Vienna airport attacks in December 1985 were two more instances of airport security failures. The attacks left 20 people dead when gunmen threw grenades and opened fire on travelers at El Al airline ticket counters.

The September 11 attacks are the most widely recognized terrorist attacks in recent times involving air travel. On the morning of September 11, 2001, 19 members of the Islamic terrorist group Al-Qaeda took control of four airplanes on the east coast of the United States and deliberately crashed two into both World Trade Center towers in New York City and the third into the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia. A fourth plane crashed into a field near Shanksville, Pennsylvania, not reaching Washington, D.C., for its intended target, either the U.S. Capitol or the White House. The attacks resulted in the deaths of 2,996 people, including the 245 civilians, a law enforcement officer, and the 19 hijackers on board the four airplanes.

On July 5, 2002, a gunman opened fire at Los Angeles International Airport (Israel's El Al Ticket Counter). The shooter killed two people and injured four.

On August 10, 2006, security at airports in the United Kingdom, Canada, and the United States was raised significantly due to the uncovering by British authorities of a terror plot aimed at detonating liquid explosives on flights originating from these countries. This is also notable as it was the first time the U.S. Terror Alert Level ever reached "red". The incident also led to tighter restrictions on carrying liquids and gels in hand luggage in the EU, Canada, and the United States.

On May 7, 2020, Southwest Airlines Flight 1392 struck and killed a pedestrian while landing on runway 17R at Austin–Bergstrom International Airport. No injuries were reported to the 53 passengers and 5 crew aboard the aircraft. The victim, who was not a badged airport employee, was subsequently confirmed to have breached airport security in reaching the runway. The accident is under investigation.

Canada
All restrictions involving airport security are determined by Transport Canada and some are implemented by the Canadian Air Transport Security Authority (CATSA) in conjunction with the Airport Operator. Since the September 11 attacks, as well as the Air India bombing in 1985 and other incidents, airport security has tightened in Canada in order to prevent any attacks in Canadian Airspace.

CATSA uses x-ray machines to verify the contents of all carry-ons as well as metal detectors, explosive trace detection (ETD) equipment and random physical searches of passengers at the pre-board screening points. X-ray machines, CTX machines, high-resolution x-rays and ETDs are also used to scan checked bags. All checked baggage is always x-rayed at all major commercial airports.

CATSA launched its Restricted Area Identity Card (RAIC) program in January 2007. RAIC is the world's first dual biometric access control system for airports. This program replaces the old Airport Restricted Area Passes issued to airport employees after security checks by the Canadian Security Intelligence Service, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) and Transport Canada with new cards (issued after the same checks are conducted) that contain biometric information (fingerprints and iris scans) belonging to the person issued the RAIC.

While CATSA is responsible for pre-board passenger and random non-passenger screening, they contract out to third-party "service providers" such as G4S, Securitas and GardaWorld to train, manage and employ the screening officers. In addition, individual airport authorities which were privatized in the 1990s by the Canadian Government are responsible for general airport security rather than CATSA and normally contract out to private companies and in the case of large airports, pay for a small contingent of local police officers to remain on site as well.

Safety and security at Canada's airports are provided by local police forces. The RCMP once used to provide this service at most airports, but remains so only for a few today:

 * Vancouver International Airport — RCMP Richmond detachment
 * Calgary International Airport — Calgary Police Service Airport Unit (1997)
 * Edmonton International Airport — RCMP Edmonton International Airport detachment
 * Winnipeg James Armstrong Richardson International Airport — Winnipeg Police Service (1997)
 * Toronto Pearson International Airport — Peel Regional Police Airport Division (1997) with assistance from the RCMP Toronto Airport detachment
 * Ottawa Macdonald–Cartier International Airport — Ottawa Police Service Airport Policing Section (1997)
 * Montréal-Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport — Airport Unit of the Montreal Police Service with assistance from the RCMP Airport Unit
 * Halifax Stanfield International Airport — Halifax Regional Police

European Union

Regulation (EC) No 300/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council establishes common rules in the European Union to protect civil aviation against acts of unlawful interference. The regulation's provisions apply to all airports or parts of airports located in an EU country that are not used exclusively for military purposes. The provisions also apply to all operators, including air carriers, providing services at the aforementioned airports. It also applies to all entities located inside or outside airport premises providing services to airports. The standards of regulation 300/2008 are implemented by Commission Regulation (EU) 2015/1998.

The regulation no 2320/2002 from 2002 introduced the requirement to have security checks for all passenger flights, also domestic. Some EU countries had no checks for domestic flights until around 2005 (introducing full security checks took some time since terminals might need expansion).

Finland
Passenger, luggage and freight security checking and security guard duties are outsourced to contractors. General public security is the responsibility of the Finnish Police, which has an airport unit at Helsinki Airport. The airport unit has a criminal investigation, a canine and a TEPO (terrorist and bomb) squad, and a PTR (police, customs and border guard) intelligence component. Furthermore, units of the Finnish Border Guard units at airports often arrest wanted individuals or fugitives at the border, and the Finnish Customs seizes e.g. weapons, false documents or explosives in addition to wanted individuals.

France
French security has been stepped up since terrorist attacks in France in 1986. In response France established the Vigipirate program. The program uses troops to reinforce local security and increases requirements in screenings and ID checks. Since 1996 security check-points have transferred from the Police Nationale/Gendarmerie de l'Air to private companies hired by the airport authorities.

Iceland
As a member of the European Economic Area, Iceland has adopted EC regulation No 300/2008 into national law and thus complies with EU standards on airport security for all international flights. Domestic flights within Icelandic territory are however exempted from the security rules. The exemption was granted by the EEA Joint Committee citing the geographical remoteness of the country as well as its low population density and small size of aircraft used in domestic operations.

Netherlands
Airport security in the Netherlands is provided by the Koninklijke Marechaussee, Royal Military Constabulary. In addition to the Royal Military Constabulary, security services in and around airports in the Netherlands are provided by multiple Private security companies. Since early 2020, security staff at Schiphol Airport make use of CT-scans on all passenger filters, allowing passengers to keep their liquids and electronics inside of their bags as opposed to having to take them out.

Spain
Airport security in Spain is provided by police forces, as well as private security guards. The Policía Nacional provides general security as well as passport (in international airports) and documentation checking. In Catalonia and Basque Country, the Mossos d'Esquadra and the Ertzaintza, respectively, have replaced the Policía Nacional except for documentation functions. The Guardia Civil handles the security and customs checking, often aided by private security guards. Local police provide security and traffic control outside the airport building.

Security measures are controlled by the state-owned company Aena, and are bound to European Commission Regulations, as in other European Union countries.

Sweden
Airport security is handled by security guards provided by the airport itself, with police assistance if needed. The Swedish Transport Agency decides the rules for the check, based on international and European regulations. Airports are generally defined by law as "vital installations", which give protection guards extra authority, like demanding identity documents and search people's belongings. Sweden has traditionally seen itself as a low-crime country with little need for security checks. Sweden introduced security checks for international departures when international regulations demanded that around the 1970s/1980s. In September 2001, there was a decision to introduce security checks also for domestic flights. This took a few years to implement as domestic airports and terminals were not prepared with room for this. At smaller airports fire fighters can also be security guards.

United Kingdom

The Department for Transport (DfT) is the governing authority for airport security in the United Kingdom, with the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) also responsible for certain security regulatory functions. In September 2004, with the Home Office, DfT started an initiative called the "Multi Agency Threat and Risk Assessment" (MATRA), which was piloted at five of the United Kingdom's major airports — Heathrow, Birmingham, East Midlands Airport, Newcastle and Glasgow. Following successful trials, the scheme has now been rolled out across all 44 airports.

Since the September 11 attacks in New York and Washington, the United Kingdom has been assessed as a high risk country due to its support of the United States in its invasions of both Afghanistan and Iraq.

From January 7, 2008, travelers are no longer limited to a single piece of carry-on luggage at most of the UK's major airports. Currently, hand luggage is not limited by size or weight by the DfT/CAA, although most airlines do impose their own rules.

The UK trialed a controversial new method of screening passengers to further improve airport security using backscatter X-ray machines that provide a 360-degree view of a person, as well as "see" under clothes, right down to the skin and bones. They are no longer used and were replaced by millimeter wave scanners which shows any hidden items while not showing the body of the passenger.

Hong Kong
The Hong Kong International Airport is secured by the Hong Kong Police Force and Aviation Security Company (AVSECO). Within the police force, the Airport District is responsible for the safety and security of the airport region. Airport Security Units are deployed around the airport and are armed with H&K MP5 A3 sub-machine guns and Glock 17 pistols. The security of the restricted area is the responsibility of the police and AVSECO.

While the airport is under the control of the Airport Authority Hong Kong (AAHK), the security power has been delegated to the AVSECO staffs. All persons and baggages carried by them must be X-Rayed and checked at the security screening points of the AVSECO (with a few exceptions at the Tenant Restricted Area).

The Immigration Department will check incomers passport and other identities, while the Customs and Excise Department will check passengers and crews' luggage to discourage smuggling of drugs and contraband from entering Hong Kong.

India
India stepped up its airport security after the 1999 Kandahar hijacking. The Central Industrial Security Force, a paramilitary organisation, is in charge of airport security under the regulatory framework of the Bureau of Civil Aviation Security (Ministry of Civil Aviation). CISF formed an Airport Security Group to protect Indian airports. Every airport has now been given an APSU (Airport Security Unit), a trained unit to counter unlawful interference with civil aviation. Apart from the CISF, every domestic airline has a security group who looks after the aircraft security.

Terrorist threats and narcotics are the main threats in Indian airports. Another problem that some airports face is the proliferation of slums around the airport boundaries in places like Mumbai. Before boarding, additional searching of hand luggage is likely. Moreover, other than this, the CISF has many other duties in context of aviation security. The cargo security and screening is done by the Regulated Agents or airlines' and airports' own security staff who are tested and certified by the Bureau of Civil Aviation Security (BCAS), an aviation security regulator.

Israel
El Al Airlines is headquartered in Israel. The last hijacking occurred on July 23, 1968, and no plane departing Ben Gurion Airport, just outside Tel Aviv, has ever been hijacked.

It was in 1972 that terrorists from the Japanese Red Army launched an attack that led to the deaths of at least 24 people at Lod Airport. Since then, security at the airport relies on a number of fundamentals, including a heavy focus on what Raphael Ron, former director of security at Ben Gurion Airport, terms the "human factor", which may be generalized as "the inescapable fact that terrorist attacks are carried out by people who can be found and stopped by an effective security methodology."

On December 27, 1985, terrorists simultaneously attacked El Al ticket counters at the Rome, Italy and Vienna, Austria airports using machine guns and hand grenades. Nineteen civilians were killed and many wounded. In response, Israel developed further methods to stop such massacres and drastically improved security measures around Israeli airports and even promised to provide plainclothes armed guards at each foreign airport. The last successful airline-related terrorist attack was in 1986, when a security agent found a suitcase full of explosives during the initial screening process. While the bag did not make it on board, it did injure 13 after detonating in the terminal.

As part of its focus on this so-called "human factor," Israeli security officers interrogate travelers using racial profiling, singling out those who appear to be Arab based on name or physical appearance. Additionally, all passengers, even those who do not appear to be of Arab descent, are questioned as to why they are traveling to Israel, followed by several general questions about the trip in order to search for inconsistencies. Although numerous civil rights groups have demanded an end to the profiling, Israel maintains that it is both effective and unavoidable. According to Ariel Merari, an Israeli terrorism expert, "it would be foolish not to use profiling when everyone knows that most terrorists come from certain ethnic groups. They are likely to be Muslim and young, and the potential threat justifies inconveniencing a certain ethnic group.

Passengers leaving Israel are checked against a computerized list. The computers, maintained by the Israeli Ministry of Interior, are connected to the Israeli police, FBI, Canadian Security Intelligence Service (CSIS), Scotland Yard, Shin Bet, and Interpol in order to catch suspects or others leaving the country illegally.

Despite such tight security, an incident occurred on November 17, 2002, in which a man apparently slipped through airport security at Ben Gurion Airport with a pocketknife and attempted to storm the cockpit of El Al Flight 581 en route from Tel Aviv to Istanbul, Turkey. While no injuries were reported and the attacker was subdued by guards hidden among the passengers 15 minutes before the plane landed safely in Turkey, authorities did shut down Ben Gurion for some time after the attack to reassess the security situation and an investigation was opened to determine how the man, an Israeli Arab, managed to smuggle the knife past the airport security.

At a conference in May 2008, the United States Department of Homeland Security Secretary Michael Chertoff told Reuters interviewers that the United States will seek to adopt some of the Israeli security measures at domestic airports. He left his post in January 2009, a mere 6 months after this statement, which may or may not have been enough time to implement them.

On a more limited focus, American airports have been turning to the Israeli government and Israeli-run firms to help upgrade security in the post-9/11 world. Israeli officials toured Los Angeles Airport in November 2008 to re-evaluate the airport after making security upgrade recommendations in 2006. Calling Ben Gurion "the world's safest airport," Antonio Villaraigosa, mayor of Los Angeles, has implemented the Israeli review in order to bring state-of-the-art technology and other tactical measures to help secure LAX, considered to be the state's primary terrorist target and singled out by the Al Qaeda network. New Age Security Solutions, led by the former director of security at Ben Gurion and based in Washington, D.C., consults on aviation security at Boston's Logan International Airport.

Other U.S. airports to incorporate Israeli tactics and systems include Port of Oakland and the San Diego County Regional Airport Authority. "The Israelis are legendary for their security, and this is an opportunity to see firsthand what they do, how they do it and, as importantly, the theory behind it," said Steven Grossman, director of aviation at the Port of Oakland. He was so impressed with a briefing presented by the Israelis that he suggested a trip to Israel to the U.S. branch of Airports Council International in order to gain a deeper understanding of the methods employed by Israeli airport security and law enforcement.

Pakistan
In Pakistan Airports Security Force (ASF) is responsible for protecting the airports and the facilities and the planes. ASF safeguards the civil aviation industry against unlawful interference, adopting counter terrorism measures, preventing crime and maintaining law and order within the limits of airports in Pakistan.

Singapore
Security for the country's two international passenger airports comes under the purview of the Airport Police Division of the Singapore Police Force, although resources are concentrated at Singapore Changi Airport where scheduled passenger traffic dominates. Seletar Airport, which specializes in handling non-scheduled and training flights, is seen as posing less of a security issue. Since the September 11 attacks, and the naming of Changi Airport as a terrorism target by the Jemaah Islamiyah, the airport's security has been stepped up.

Roving patrol teams of two soldiers and a police officer armed with automatic weapons patrol the terminals at random. Departing passengers are checked at the entrance of the gate rather than after immigration clearance unlike Hong Kong International Airport. This security measure is easily noticed by the presence of X-ray machines and metal detectors at every gate, which is not normally seen at other airports.

Assisting the state organizations, are the security services provided by the ground handlers, namely that of the Certis CISCO, Singapore Airport Terminal Services's SATS Security Services, and the Aetos Security Management Private Limited, formed from a merger of the Changi International Airport Services's airport security unit and that of other companies to become a single island-wide auxiliary police company. These officers' duties include screening luggage and controlling movement into restricted areas.

Since 2005, an upgrade in screening technology and rising security concerns led to all luggage-screening processes being conducted behind closed doors. Plans are also in place to install over 400 cameras to monitor the airport, to discourage bomb attacks similar to the 2005 Songkhla bombings in Southern Thailand where Hat Yai International Airport was targeted. Tenders to incorporate such a system were called in late September 2005.

Since 8 May 2007, the liquid restrictions of 100 ml cap is enforced, following the 2006 transatlantic aircraft plot. Passengers are advised to check in liquids, gels and aerosols above 100 ml, failing which they will be confiscated by airport security and have to post it back to oneself. Anything that is in the security areas is allowed. In general practice, unacceptable materials are also confiscated and have to post it back to yourself (excluding nail clippers, nail files, umbrellas and racquets).

United States

Prior to the 1970s, American airports had minimal security arrangements to prevent acts of terrorism. For some flights with unassigned seating, no reservations were required, and fares were collected in the air. Federal security personnel started serving on high-risk flights in 1962 as the FAA Peace Officers Program; sky marshals began working out of the Miami field office of the United States Marshals Service in 1969. (Hijackers typically wanted to defect to Cuba, making flights from Florida common targets. ) There were insufficient numbers to protect every flight, and hijackings continued to take place. The first hijacking resulting in a fatality occurred on Eastern Air Lines Shuttle Flight 1320 in 1970. Later in 1970, sky marshall staffing was increased, and some passengers fitting a behavioral profile were screened for weapons (including with handheld metal detectors).

On November 10, 1972, a trio of hijackers threatened to fly Southern Airways Flight 49 into a nuclear reactor at Oak Ridge National Laboratory. As a direct response to this incident, the Federal Aviation Administration required all airlines to begin screening passengers and their carry-on baggage by January 5, 1973. This screening was generally contracted to private security companies. Private companies would bid on these contracts. The airline that had operational control of the departure concourse controlled by a given checkpoint would hold that contract. Although an airline would control the operation of a checkpoint, oversight authority was held by the FAA. C.F.R. Title 14 restrictions did not permit a relevant airport authority to exercise any oversight over checkpoint operations. The 1974 film, The Parallax View, shows an early airport security checkpoint in operation.

The September 11 attacks prompted even tougher regulations, such as limiting the number of and types of items passengers could carry on board aircraft and requiring increased screening for passengers who fail to present a government-issued photo ID.

The Aviation and Transportation Security Act generally required that by November 19, 2002, all passenger screening must be conducted by federal employees. As a result, passenger and baggage screening is now provided by the Transportation Security Administration (TSA), part of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security. Provisions to improve the technology for detecting explosives were included in the Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004. Often, security at category X airports, the U.S. largest and busiest as measured by volume of passenger traffic, is provided by private contractors. Because of the high volume of passenger traffic, category X airports are considered vulnerable targets for terrorism.

Following the failed 2006 liquid bomb plot, United States Homeland Security banned all liquids and gels except baby formula and prescription medicines in the name of the ticket holder in carry-on luggage on all flights and started requiring all passengers to remove their shoes for screening.

From 13 August 2006, airline passengers in the United States could take up to 3.4 USoz of non-prescription medicine, glucose gel for diabetics, solid lipstick, and baby food aboard flights. Eventually passengers were allowed to carry only 100 ml of liquid in their hand luggage, TSA standards required all non-medical liquids to be kept in a quart-sized plastic bag, with only one bag per passenger.

With the increase in security screening, some airports saw long queues for security checks. To alleviate this, airports created Premium lines for passengers traveling in First or Business Class, or those who were elite members of a particular airline's Frequent Flyer program.

The "Screening Passengers by Observation Techniques" (SPOT) program is operating at some U.S. airports.

In 2023 US DHS Science and Technology Directorate's screening-at-speed program announced that is transforming the current single line screening process into a self-screening flow similar to self-checkout at a US grocery store.

Category X Airports in the United States

 * Baltimore/Washington International Thurgood Marshall Airport
 * Boston Logan International Airport
 * Charlotte/Douglas International Airport
 * Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport
 * Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport
 * Denver International Airport
 * Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport
 * Fort Lauderdale International Airport
 * George Bush Intercontinental Airport
 * Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport
 * Harry Reid International Airport
 * Honolulu International Airport
 * John F. Kennedy International Airport
 * LaGuardia Airport
 * Los Angeles International Airport
 * Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport
 * Miami International Airport
 * Minneapolis-Saint Paul International Airport
 * Newark Liberty International Airport
 * O'Hare International Airport
 * Orlando International Airport
 * Orlando Sanford International Airport
 * Philadelphia International Airport
 * Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport
 * Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport
 * Salt Lake City International Airport
 * San Francisco International Airport
 * Seattle–Tacoma International Airport
 * Washington Dulles International Airport

title: Airport security


text:
Huedin

Huedin (Bánffyhunyad, ; Heynod; הוניוד or הוניאד) is a town in Cluj County, Transylvania, Romania.

Huedin is located at the northern edge of the Apuseni Mountains. It is surrounded by the villages of Nearșova, Domoșu, Horlacea, and others. The town administers one village, Bicălatu (Magyarbikal). Lately, Huedin has started to be known for its ecotourism initiatives.

Population
At the 2021 census, Huedin had a population of 8,069. The 2011 census data of the town's population counted 9,346 people, of which 59.32% were ethnic Romanians, 28.88% ethnic Hungarians, and 11.45% ethnic Roma.

History
The town of Huedin was founded in the Middle Ages. It is home to a 13th-century Gothic Reformed Church. From 1330 up until 1848, the landlords of the town were the Bánffy family, whence the town's Hungarian name of Bánffyhunyad. The town was part of the Kingdom of Hungary. In 1526, Huedin became part of the Principality of Transylvania and, until 1867, of the Grand Duchy of Transylvania.

The town boasts a strong historical Hungarian heritage. On September 26, 1895, Emperor Franz Joseph visited Bánffyhunyad following the end of Hungarian Army manoeuvres in Transylvania and was given an enthusiastic welcome by the townspeople, who built an arch decorated with the region's flowers and plants for the occasion. In 1910, the town's population was 5,194, of whom 90.5% spoke Hungarian. At that time, 57.5% were Calvinist, 20.7% Jewish, and 10% Roman Catholic.

After the collapse of Austria-Hungary at the end of World War I, and the declaration of the Union of Transylvania with Romania, the Romanian Army took control of Huedin in December 1918, during the Hungarian–Romanian War. The town officially became part of the territory ceded to the Kingdom of Romania in June 1920 under the terms of the Treaty of Trianon. During the interwar period, the town was the headquarters of plasa Huedin, within Cluj County. In August 1940, under the auspices of Nazi Germany, which imposed the Second Vienna Award, Hungary retook the territory of Northern Transylvania (which included Huedin) from Romania. Towards the end of World War II, however, the town was taken back from Hungarian and German troops by Romanian and Soviet forces in October 1944. After 1950, the town became the headquarters of Huedin raion within the Cluj Region. Following the administrative reform of 1968, Huedin became once more part of Cluj County.

Natives

 * Samu Balázs (1906–1981), actor
 * Dezideriu Horvath (born 1970), speed skater
 * Atilla Kiss B. (born 1963), operatic tenor
 * Zsigmond Kolozsvári (1899–1983), painter, graphic designer, and sculptor

Accessibility
The town is accessible by CFR trains from Cluj-Napoca and other cities, such as Oradea, Timișoara, Satu Mare, Brașov, Ploiești, Bucharest, and Budapest. The Huedin railway station serves the CFR Line 300, which connects Bucharest to the Hungarian border near Oradea.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Huedin


text:
Predeal

Predeal (Predeál) is a town in Brașov County, Muntenia, Romania. Predeal, a mountain resort town, is the highest town in Romania. It is located in the Prahova Valley, Muntenia at an elevation of over 1000 m. The town administers three villages: Pârâul Rece, Timișu de Jos, and Timișu de Sus. Predeal is twinned with Macugnaga, Italy.

Beginning in the 2000s, the area experienced a boom in construction, and now many wealthy families own mountain retreats in Predeal. During the 2013 European Youth Olympic Winter Festival, it hosted the cross-country skiing and snowboarding competitions.

Name
The name Predeal is derived from the Slavic word predel, which means "border".

History
The town was severely damaged during the Battle of Predeal Pass in World War I. Although the town itself was lost to the attacking Central Powers' forces, the battle ultimately resulted in a Romanian defensive victory.

Geography
Predeal is situated in the Centru development region of Romania, in the Prahova Valley, in the southern part of Brașov County. Neighboring towns include Azuga to the south, Bușteni to the southwest, Râșnov to the northwest, and the city of Brașov to the north.

The town is mountainous, with the Piatra Mare Mountains to the north, the Bucegi Mountains to the southwest, and the Postăvarul Massif to the northwest. The woods around Predeal have a rich and diversified fauna, including a high number of wild boars, European pine martens, bears, foxes, gray wolves, deer, squirrels, rabbits, badgers, and heather cocks.

Climate
Predeal has a warm summer and cold winter (with a lot of snow) humid continental climate (Dfb in the Köppen climate classification).

Tourism
The town of Predeal is a well-known tourist destination in Romania, especially in winter. It has five major ski runs, each with a difficulty grade. Most of them have snowmaking guns, and some are fitted with floodlights and ski lifts. The slopes range from 790 m (Clăbucet variantă) to 2243 m (Cocoșul).

Some of the town's tourist attractions include the 3 Brazi Chalet, The Susai Chalet, and The Poiana Secuilor Chalet. In close proximity to Predeal are several tourist destinations, including the Peleş Castle, Râșnov Citadel, Bran Castle, The Old Town of Brașov, Biserica Neagră, and the Seven Ladders Canyon.

The town has been certified as a climate resort by government decree (H.G. 226/1992) due to the strongly ionized air rich in ultraviolet radiation and the low atmospheric pressure. Because of this, Predeal is popular within the holistic healing community.

Infrastructure
The town is crossed by two national roads (DN1 and DN73A) and one national railway (Căile Ferate Române Line 300, one of the main lines in Romania). Predeal is one of the cities which will be crossed by the future Bucharest – Brașov motorway.

title: Predeal


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User:Chris scholz

I'm a newbie. Wiki rules. I'm hoping to read abunch, and maybe contribute some orginizational ideas. maybe write some history.

title: User:Chris scholz


text:
Jomsborg

Jomsborg or Jómsborg (Jomsburg) was a semi-legendary Viking stronghold at the southern coast of the Baltic Sea (medieval Wendland, modern Pomerania), that existed between the 960s and 1043. Its inhabitants were known as Jomsvikings. Jomsborg's exact location, or its existence, has not yet been established, though it is often maintained that Jomsborg was located on the eastern outlet of the Oder river. Historian Lauritz Weibull dismissed Jomsborg as a legend.

The only source that mentions a precise location of Jomsborg (53.86389°N, 14.71806°W) is the controversial Gesta Wulinensis ecclesiae pontificum that was discovered in the autumn of 2019.

Location
Jomsborg is often thought to be identical with the present-day town of Wolin (also Wollin) on the southeastern tip of the isle of Wolin in northwestern Poland, probably located at Srebrna Góra hill north of the town. In the Early Middle Ages, modern Wolin was the site of a multi-ethnic emporium (then known as Jumne or Julin). The Nordic sagas use "Jómsborg" exclusively, while medieval German histories use "Jumne" or "Julin", with the alternate names, some of which may be spelling variants, "vimne", "uimne", "Jumneta", "Juminem", "Julinum", "uineta", "Vineta" and "Vinneta".

In 1931/32, Pomeranian historian Adolf Hofmeister (1883-1956) suggested, through comparison of the events reported by the different chronicles, that all these terms describe the same place, which is at or near the modern town of Wolin. However, this is by no means universally accepted; professor and historian Steven Fanning writes: "The Trelleborg-type fortresses of Denmark have been taken to be actual examples of Jómsborg-style camps of such warriors and Wolin in Poland was believed to be the actual Jómsborg. However, all such attempts to locate Jómsborg or encampments of the Jómvikings have failed, leading many to doubt that Jómvikings ever existed outside of literature." According to Władysław Filipowiak there are several dated sources which attest to the presence of a company of armed Vikings at the end of the 10th century in Wolin, who may have been installed there as mercenaries by the Polish king Bolesław the Brave. Ruins discovered in Wolin in 2023 are being investigated as a possible site of Jomsborg.

Other theories see Jomsborg in the northwest of nearby Usedom island, on lands now submerged. The small islands in this area are remnants of a long stretch of land between Usedom and Rügen, which fell victim to storm floods in the early 14th century. Suspected locations in this area are the Veritas grounds between the petty islands of Ruden and Greifswalder Oie, and the Peenemünde shoals. While Viking Age jewelry has been found at the site, archaeological evaluation of these theories has not yet been possible.

Fortress
According to the Knytlingasaga and Fagrskinna, Jomsborg was built by the Danish king Harold Bluetooth (910-985/86) in the 960s. The Jomsvikinga Saga mentions Danish Viking Palnatoki as its founder.

In medieval records, Jomsborg is described as a fortress with a harbour. The harbour was overseen by a stone tower mounted with catapults, built on an arch spanning over the harbour entrance which could be closed by an iron gate. According to the oldest records, the harbour had space for three ships; later records give a capacity of up to 360 ships.

According to the Heimskringla, Jomsborg was destroyed in 1043 by Dano-Norwegian king Magnus the Good. The fortress was burned down, and many of the inhabitants were killed.

Jomsvikings
The Jomsborg Vikings (Jomsvikings) were composed of selected warriors who adhered to a special codex and were loyal only to their leader. Most records list as jarl of Jomsborg, Sigvald(i), son of petty king Strut-Harald of then Danish Scania. Sigvald died some time before 1010.

The Curmsun Disc and the Gesta Wulinensis ecclesiae pontificum
A golden disc bearing the name of Harald Bluetooth and Jomsborg appeared in Sweden in autumn 2014, first presented by Swedish archaeologist Sven Rosborn. The disc, also called the Curmsun Disc, is made of high gold content and has a weight of 25,23 gram. On the obverse there is a Latin inscription and on the reverse there is a Latin cross with four dots surrounded by an octagonal ridge. The inscription reads: "+ARALD CVRMSVN+REX AD TANER+SCON+JVMN+CIV ALDIN+" and translates as "Harald Gormsson king of Danes, Scania, Jomsborg, diocese of Aldinburg".

It is claimed that the disc was a part of a Viking hoard found in 1841 in the Polish village Wiejkowo near the town of Wolin by Heinrich Boldt.

Following the find of the disc, Sven Rosborn also found a text that purports to be modern Polish translation of an otherwise unknown Latin chronicle, Gesta Wulinensis ecclesiae pontificum, which in addition to providing details on the Jomsvikings and Jomsborg, attributes to Jomsborg a location near Paprotno, Poland, at 53.86389°N, 14.71806°W. Rosborn has visited the location and confirms that it matches the descriptions of Jomsborg from the various sagas and chronicles, and that various artifacts found on the surface of the location seem to match the period of time in which Jomsborg existed.

However, both the disc and the chronicle has been criticized for their unclear provenance. Archaeologist Jes Wienberg has criticized Rosborn for not allowing other scholars direct access to the finds, and that it thus is not possible to properly evaluate them. Historians Kurt Villads Jensen and Wojtek Jezierski have claimed that they are forgeries, noting that the disc has no known analogue, and that the chronicle contains several anachronisms.

Historical events

 * Harald Bluetooth died at Jomsborg in 985/86.
 * Styrbjörn the Strong of Sweden and a force of Jomsvikings departed from Jomsborg to reclaim the Swedish throne from Eric the Victorious, yet were defeated in the Battle of Fýrisvellir near Gamla Uppsala in the mid 980s, probably in 986.
 * Sweyn Forkbeard and a force of Jomsvikings departed from Jomsborg to eliminate jarl Haakon Sigurdsson of Norway, but were defeated in the Battle of Hjörungavágr (~990).
 * Olaf I of Norway and a Jomsviking contingent departed from Jomsborg for the Battle of Svolder in 999 or 1000 AD.

Related Reading

 * Eddison, E. R. (2011) Styrbiorn the Strong (University of Minnesota Press) ISBN 978-0816677559
 * Halldórsson, Ólafur (2000) Danish Kings and the Jomsvikings in the Greatest Saga of Óláfr Tryggvason (Viking Society for Northern Research) ISBN 978-0-903521-47-5
 * Hollander, Lee M. (1989)  The Saga of the Jomsvikings (University of Texas Press) ISBN 978-0-292776-23-4
 * Jones, Gwyn (2001) A History of the Vikings (2d ed.) (Oxford University Press) ISBN 978-0-192801-34-0
 * Kunkel, Otto.; Karl A. Wilde (1941) Jumne, Vineta, Jomsburg, Julin, Wollin (Stettin: Landesmuseum)
 * Schmidt, Roderich (2009) Das historische Pommern. Personen, Orte, Ereignisse (Böhlau Verlag) ISBN 978-3-412278-05-2

title: Jomsborg


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Funnel-web spider

Funnel-web spider refers to many different species of spider, particularly those that spin a web in the shape of a funnel:

 * spiders in the family Agelenidae, including
 * Hololena curta
 * funnel-web tarantulas (suborder Mygalomorphae):
 * family Atracidae, Australian funnel-web spiders, some of which produce venom dangerous to humans, including
 * Sydney funnel-web spider (Atrax robustus)
 * family Dipluridae
 * family Hexathelidae
 * family Nemesiidae
 * family Macrothelidae, sole genus Macrothele
 * family Mecicobothriidae, dwarf tarantulas or sheet funnel-web spiders
 * family Porrhothelidae, sole genus Porrhothele

title: Funnel-web spider


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Talk:USS George H.W. Bush

Callsign
First paragraph third sentence states that the USS George H. W. Bush's callsign is Avenger. That is not correct according to the info block. The callsign is NGHW. Avenger is the nickname. Not sure how to edit when there are links in the sentence or I would have fixed it. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.175.70.122 (talk) 17:41, 19 April 2022 (UTC)

CVN-77
The title should include (CVN-77), as all other US aircraft carriers include the cvn Helpfulguy101 (talk) 19:48, 10 April 2023 (UTC)

 * It should, but per Naming_conventions_(ships), it doesn't. Some of us have been trying for years to get this overturned, but it's been a huge battle that hasn't succeeded yet. BilCat (talk) 00:20, 11 April 2023 (UTC)

Bro.
why did you put genders for ships 💀 MJGTMKME123 (talk) 11:12, 3 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:USS George H.W. Bush


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Cornus

Cornus is a genus of about 30–60 species of woody plants in the family Cornaceae, commonly known as dogwoods or cornels, which can generally be distinguished by their blossoms, berries, and distinctive bark. Most are deciduous trees or shrubs, but a few species are nearly herbaceous perennial subshrubs, and some species are evergreen. Several species have small heads of inconspicuous flowers surrounded by an involucre of large, typically white petal-like bracts, while others have more open clusters of petal-bearing flowers. The various species of dogwood are native throughout much of temperate and boreal Eurasia and North America, with China, Japan, and the southeastern United States being particularly rich in native species.

Species include the common dogwood Cornus sanguinea of Eurasia, the widely cultivated flowering dogwood (Cornus florida) of eastern North America, the Pacific dogwood Cornus nuttallii of western North America, the Kousa dogwood Cornus kousa of eastern Asia, and two low-growing boreal species, the Canadian and Eurasian dwarf cornels (or bunchberries), Cornus canadensis and Cornus suecica respectively.

Depending on botanical interpretation, the dogwoods are variously divided into one to nine genera or subgenera; a broadly inclusive genus Cornus is accepted here.

Terminology
Cornus is the Latin word for the cornel tree, Cornus mas. The name cornel dates to the 1550s, via German from Middle Latin cornolium, ultimately from the diminutive cornuculum, of cornum, the Latin word for the cornel cherry. Cornus means "horn", presumably applied to the cherry after the example of κερασός, the Greek word for "cherry", which itself is of pre-Greek origin but reminiscent of κέρας, the Greek word for "horn".

The name "dog-tree" entered the English vocabulary before 1548, becoming "dogwood" by 1614. Once the name dogwood was affixed to this kind of tree, it soon acquired a secondary name as the hound's tree, while the fruits came to be known as "dogberries" or "houndberries" (the latter a name also for the berries of black nightshade, alluding to Hecate's hounds).

The name was explained, from as early as the 16th century itself, as derived from dag "skewer",  as the wood of the tree was said to have been used to make butcher's skewers. This is uncertain, as the form *dagwood was never attested. It is also possible that the tree was named for its berry, called dogberry from at least the 1550s, where the implication could be that the quality of the berry is inferior, as it were "fit for a dog".

An older name of the dogwood in English is whipple-tree, occurring in a list of trees (as whipultre) in Geoffrey Chaucer Canterbury Tales. This name is cognate with the Middle Low German wipel-bom "cornel", Dutch wepe, weype "cornel" (the wh- in Chaucer is unetymological, the word would have been Middle English wipel). The tree was so named for waving its branches, c.f. Middle Dutch wepelen "totter, waver", Frisian wepeln, German wippen.

The name whippletree, also whiffle-tree, now refers to an element of the traction of a horse-drawn cart linking the draw pole of the cart to the harnesses of the horses in file. In this sense it is first recorded in 1733. This mechanism was usually made from oak or ash (and not from dogwood), and it is unlikely that there is a connection to the name for whipple-tree for Cornus.

Description
Dogwoods have simple, untoothed leaves with the veins curving distinctively as they approach the leaf margins. Most dogwood species have opposite leaves, while a few, such as Cornus alternifolia and C. controversa, have their leaves alternate. Dogwood flowers have four parts. In many species, the flowers are borne separately in open (but often dense) clusters, while in various other species (such as the flowering dogwood), the flowers themselves are tightly clustered, lacking showy petals, but surrounded by four to six large, typically white petal-like bracts.

The fruits of all dogwood species are drupes with one or two seeds, often brightly colorful. The drupes of species in the subgenus Cornus are edible. Many are without much flavor. Cornus kousa and Cornus mas are sold commercially as edible fruit trees. The fruits of Cornus kousa have a sweet, tropical pudding like flavor in addition to hard pits. The fruits of Cornus mas are both tart and sweet when completely ripe. They have been eaten in Eastern Europe for centuries, both as food and medicine to fight colds and flus. They are very high in vitamin C. By contrast, the fruits of species in subgenus Swida are mildly toxic to people, though readily eaten by birds.

Dogwoods are used as food plants by the larvae of some species of butterflies and moths, including the emperor moth, the engrailed, the small angle shades, and the following case-bearers of the genus Coleophora: C. ahenella, C. salicivorella (recorded on Cornus canadensis), C. albiantennaella, C. cornella and C. cornivorella, with the latter three all feeding exclusively on Cornus.

Uses
Dogwoods are widely planted horticulturally, and the dense wood of the larger-stemmed species is valued for certain specialized purposes. Cutting boards and fine turnings can be made from this fine grained and beautiful wood. Over 32 different varieties of game birds, including quail, feed on the red seeds.

Horticulture
Various species of Cornus, particularly the flowering dogwood (Cornus florida), are ubiquitous in American gardens and landscaping; horticulturist Donald Wyman stated, "There is a dogwood for almost every part of the U.S. except the hottest and driest areas". In contrast, in Northwest Europe the lack of sharp winters and hot summers makes Cornus florida very shy of flowering.

Other Cornus species are stoloniferous shrubs that grow naturally in wet habitats and along waterways. Several of these are used along highways and in naturalizing landscape plantings, especially those species with bright red or bright yellow stems, particularly conspicuous in winter, such as Cornus stolonifera.

The following cultivars, of mixed or uncertain origin, have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit (confirmed 2017):
 * 'Eddie's White Wonder'
 * 'Norman Hadden'
 * 'Ormonde'
 * 'Porlock'

Fruits
The species Cornus mas is commonly cultivated in southeastern Europe for its showy, edible berries, that have the color of the carnelian gemstone. Cornelian-cherries have one seed each and are used in syrups and preserves.

Wood
Dense and fine-grained, dogwood timber has a density of 0.79 and is highly prized for making loom shuttles, tool handles, roller skates and other small items that require a very hard and strong wood. Though it is tough for woodworking, some artisans favor dogwood for small projects such as walking canes, arrow making, mountain dulcimers and fine inlays. Dogwood wood is an excellent substitute for persimmon wood in the heads of certain golf clubs ("woods"). Dogwood lumber is rare in that it is not readily available with any manufacturer and must be cut down by the person(s) wanting to use it.

Larger items have also been occasionally made of dogwood, such as the screw-in basket-style wine or fruit presses. The first kinds of laminated tennis rackets were also made from this wood, cut into thin strips.

Dogwood twigs were used by U.S. pioneers to brush their teeth. They would peel off the bark, bite the twig and then scrub their teeth.

Traditional medicine
The bark of Cornus species is rich in tannins and has been used in traditional medicine as a substitute for quinine. During the American Civil War, confederate soldiers made a tea from the bark to treat pain and fevers, and used dogwood leaves in a poultice to cover wounds.

The Japanese cornel, C. officinalis, is used in traditional Chinese medicine as shān zhū yú for several minor ailments.

Classification
The following classification recognizes a single, inclusive genus Cornus, with four subgroups and ten subgenera supported by molecular phylogeny. Geographical ranges as native plants are given below. In addition, cultivated species occasionally persist or spread from plantings beyond their native ranges, but are rarely if ever locally invasive.

Blue- or white-fruited dogwoods
Paniculate or corymbose cymes; bracts minute, nonmodified; fruits globose or subglobose, white, blue, or black:
 * Subgenus Yinquania. Leaves opposite to subopposite; fall blooming.
 * Cornus oblonga. East Asia from Pakistan through the Himalayas and China.
 * Cornus peruviana. Costa Rica and Venezuela to Bolivia.
 * Subgenus Kraniopsis. Leaves opposite; summer blooming.
 * Cornus alba (Siberian dogwood). Siberia and northern China.
 * Cornus amomum (silky dogwood). Eastern U.S. east of the Great Plains except for the Deep South.
 * Cornus asperifolia (toughleaf dogwood). Southeastern U.S.
 * Cornus austrosinensis (South China dogwood). East Asia.
 * Cornus bretschneideri (Bretschneider's dogwood). Northern China.
 * Cornus coreana (Korean dogwood). Northeast Asia.
 * Cornus drummondii (roughleaf dogwood). U.S. between the Appalachia and the Great Plains, and southern Ontario, Canada.
 * Cornus excelsa. Mexico to Honduras.
 * Cornus foemina (stiff dogwood) Southeastern and southern United States.
 * Cornus glabrata (brown dogwood or smooth dogwood). Western North America.
 * Cornus hemsleyi (Hemsley's dogwood). Southwest China.
 * Cornus koehneana (Koehne's dogwood). Southwest China.
 * Cornus macrophylla (large-leafed dogwood; ). East Asia.
 * Cornus obliqua (pale dogwood). Northeastern and central U.S., and southeastern Canada.
 * Cornus paucinervis. China.
 * Cornus racemosa (northern swamp dogwood or gray dogwood). Northeastern and central U.S., and extreme southeastern Canada.
 * Cornus rugosa (round-leaf dogwood). Northeastern and north-central U.S., and southeastern Canada.
 * Cornus sanguinea (common dogwood). Europe.
 * Cornus sericea (red osier dogwood). Northern and western North America, except Arctic regions.
 * Cornus walteri (Walter's dogwood). Central China.
 * Cornus wilsoniana (ghost dogwood). China.
 * Cornus × arnoldiana (Hybrid: C. obliqua × C. racemosa). Eastern North America.
 * Subgenus Mesomora. Leaves alternate; summer blooming.
 * Cornus alternifolia (pagoda dogwood or alternate-leaf dogwood). Eastern U.S. and southeastern Canada.
 * Cornus controversa (table dogwood). East Asia.

Cornelian cherries
Umbellate cymes; bracts modified, non-petaloid; fruits oblong, red; stone walls filled with cavities:
 * Subgenus Afrocrania. Dioecious, bracts 4.
 * Cornus volkensii. Afromontane eastern Africa.
 * Subgenus Cornus. Plants hermaphroditic, bracts 4 or 6
 * Cornus eydeana. Yunnan in China
 * Cornus mas (European cornel or Cornelian-cherry). Mediterranean.
 * Cornus officinalis (Japanese cornel). China, Japan, Korea.
 * Cornus piggae (Late Paleocene, North Dakota)
 * Cornus sessilis (blackfruit cornel). California.
 * Subgenus Sinocornus. Plants hermaphroditic, bracts 4 or 6
 * Cornus chinensis (Chinese cornel). China.

Big-bracted dogwoods
Capitular cymes:
 * Subgenus Discocrania. Bracts 4, modified, non-petaloid; fruits oblong, red.
 * Cornus disciflora. Mexico and Central America
 * Subgenus Cynoxylon. Bracts 4 or 6, large and petaloid, fruits oblong, red.
 * Cornus florida (flowering dogwood). U.S. east of the Great Plains, north to southern Ontario.
 * Cornus nuttallii (Pacific dogwood). Western North America, from British Columbia to California.
 * Subgenus Syncarpea. Bracts 4, large and petaloid, fruits red, fused into a compound multi-stoned berry.
 * Cornus capitata (Himalayan flowering dogwood). Himalaya.
 * Cornus hongkongensis (Hong Kong dogwood). Southern China, Laos, Vietnam.
 * Cornus kousa (Kousa dogwood). Japan and (as subsp. chinensis) central and northern China.
 * Cornus multinervosa. Yunnan and Sichuan provinces of China

Dwarf dogwoods
Minute corymbose cymes; bracts 4, petaloid; fruit globose, red; rhizomatous herb:
 * Subgenus Arctocrania.
 * Cornus canadensis (Canadian dwarf cornel or bunchberry) Northern North America, southward in the Appalachian and Rocky Mountains.
 * Cornus suecica (Eurasian dwarf cornel or bunchberry). Northern Eurasia, locally in extreme northeast and northwest North America.
 * Cornus × unalaschkensis (Hybrid: C. canadensis × C. suecica). Aleutian Islands (Alaska), Greenland, and Labrador and Newfoundland in Canada.

Incertae sedis (unplaced)

 * Cornus clarnensis (Middle Eocene, Central Oregon)

Horticultural hybrids
Cornus × rutgersensis (Hybrid: C. florida × C. kousa). Horticulturally developed.

Cultural references
The inflorescence of the Pacific dogwood (Cornus nuttallii) is the official flower of the province of British Columbia. The flowering dogwood (Cornus florida) and its inflorescence are the state tree and the state flower respectively for the U.S. Commonwealth of Virginia. It is also the state tree of Missouri and the state flower of North Carolina, and the state memorial tree of New Jersey. The term "dogwood winter", in colloquial use in the American Southeast, especially Appalachia, is sometimes used to describe a cold snap in spring, presumably because farmers believed it was not safe to plant their crops until after the dogwoods blossomed.

Anne Morrow Lindbergh gives a vivid description of the dogwood tree in her poem "Dogwood".

title: Cornus


text:
Information Technology Lokam

Information Technology Lokam (or IT Lokam) is a monthly computer magazine in Malayalam. It was started in 2001 by Infofriend Publications, in Kozhikode. The magazine is the first venture of the company.

In September 2005, IT Lokam inaugurated a CD edition, like its competitor, Info Kairali. The IT Lokam CD mainly contains free software programs and games, useful articles, demo and shareware programs, wallpapers, drivers, skins, etc.

title: Information Technology Lokam


text:
Scrubbird

Scrubbirds are shy, secretive, ground-dwelling birds of the family Atrichornithidae. There are just two species. The rufous scrubbird is rare and very restricted in its range, and the noisy scrubbird is so rare that until 1961 it was thought to be extinct. Both are native to Australia.

The scrubbird family is ancient and is understood to be most closely related to the lyrebirds, and probably also the bowerbirds and treecreepers. All four families originated with the great corvid radiation of the Australia-New Guinea region.

The population of the noisy scrubbird was estimated at 40 to 45 birds in 1962. Conservation efforts succeeded in increasing the population to around 400 birds by the mid-1980s, and they have subsequently been reintroduced to several sites, but remain endangered. As of 2002, the population had recovered to around 1,200 birds.

Description
Birds of both species are about the same size as a common starling (roughly 20 cm long) and cryptically coloured in drab browns and blacks. They occupy dense undergrowth—the rufous scrubbird in temperate rain forests near the Queensland-New South Wales border, the noisy scrubbird in heaths and scrubby gullies in coastal Western Australia—and are adept at scuttling mouse-like under cover to avoid notice. They run fast, but their flight is feeble.

The males' calls, however, are powerful: ringing and metallic, with a ventriloquial quality, so loud as to be heard from a long distance in heavy scrub and almost painful at close range. Females build a domed nest close to the ground and take sole responsibility for raising the young.

title: Scrubbird


text:
Surf

Surf or SURF may refer to:

Commercial products

 * Surf (detergent), a brand of laundry detergent made by Unilever

Computers and software

 * "Surfing the Web", slang for exploring the World Wide Web
 * surf (web browser), a lightweight web browser for Unix-like systems
 * Surf (video game), a 2020 video game included with Microsoft Edge
 * SURF, an acronym for "Speeded up robust features", a computer vision algorithm

Education

 * Summer Undergraduate Research Fellowship, a common summer immersion experience in higher education which supplement research activities that occur during the academic year

Music

 * Surf (Roddy Frame album), a 2002 album released by Roddy Frame
 * Surf (Donnie Trumpet & The Social Experiment album), a 2015 album by Donnie Trumpet & The Social Experiment
 * Surf music, a genre of popular music associated with surf culture
 * "Surf" (Mac Miller song), a 2020 song by Mac Miller

Places

 * Surf, California, unincorporated community in Santa Barbara County near Lompoc
 * Surf station, passenger rail station served by Amtrak's Pacific Surfliner
 * Sanford Underground Research Facility, national laboratory for experiments conducted deep underground, in South Dakota

Popular culture

 * Surf culture, the culture surrounding the sport of surfing

Ships

 * USS Surf, the name of more than one United States Navy ship

Sports

 * Surfing, a surface water sport
 * The Atlantic City Surf, a defunct professional baseball team that played in Atlantic City, New Jersey, in the United States from 1998 to 2008

Other uses

 * Surf zone, the foreshore region where approaching ocean surface waves get taller and break to form foamy/bubbly surface known as surf
 * SURF (Stanford US-Russia Forum)
 * Scottish Urban Regeneration Forum, an urban renewal body
 * Sanford Underground Research Facility, the underground laboratory
 * SURFnet, the university computing organisation in the Netherlands

title: Surf


text:
UVC

UVC may refer to:

Science and technology

 * Ultraviolet C, a subtype of ultraviolet light
 * Universal Virtual Computer, a concept in digital archiving
 * Umbilical venous catheter or umbilical vein catheter, a type of umbilical line in neonatal medicine
 * USB video device class, for connecting video cameras
 * Far Ultraviolet Camera/Spectrograph, one of the experiments deployed on the lunar surface by the Apollo 16 astronauts

Other uses

 * United Volleyball Club, a volleyball club in the Philippines.
 * Uniform Vehicle Code, a set of US traffic laws
 * Unidad de Valor Constante, a former currency created by the "Ley de Valores" of Ecuador in 1993

title: UVC


text:
User:Sidharthan

= Hello...=

I am from Kerala, a lovely state in the southern parts of India. I came into the wikipedia family because of its free and freedom nature. Currently a sysop in Malayalam Wikipedia.

Thanks...!

ml:ഉപയോക്താവ്:Sidharthan

title: User:Sidharthan


text:
PIC16x84

The PIC16C84, PIC16F84 and PIC16F84A are 8-bit microcontrollers of which the PIC16C84 was the first introduced in 1993 and hailed  as the first PIC microcontroller to feature a serial programming algorithm and EEPROM memory. It is a member of the PIC family of controllers, produced by Microchip Technology. The memory architecture makes use of bank switching. Software tools for assembler, debug and programming were only available for the Microsoft DOS and Windows operating systems.

Description
The PIC16x84 is a microcontroller in the PIC family of controllers produced by Microchip Technology (originally named " Arizona Microchip"). It was Microchip's first microcontroller that utilised "EEPROM" memory technology for the program memory. The use of "EEPROM" technology for program memory has now been disused in favour of "FLASH" memory that is considerably cheaper to manufacture, releases less toxins into the atmosphere and is much more reliable than "EEPROM". Both "EEPROM" and "FLASH" utilise similar forms of "floating gate" technologies to operate. The device features one 8-bit timer, and 13 I/O pins. The PIC16x84 became popular in many hobbyist applications because it uses a serial programming algorithm that lends itself to very simple programmers. Additionally, the PIC16C84 uses EEPROM memory, so it is easy to erase and requires no special tools to do so. The PIC16F84 and its updated version, the PIC16F84A both utilised FLASH program memory. The PIC16C84, PIC16C84A, PIC16F84 and the PIC16F84A all contain an additional 64 Bytes of EEPROM addressed from the "DATA" memory map. This additional memory is intended for use as "user data", hence the reason it can only be addressed from the "DATA" memory mapping.

F-version
The PIC16F84/PIC16F84A is an improved version of the PIC16C84, and almost completely compatible, with better program security and using flash memory instead of EEPROM memory for program memory. The PIC16F84/PIC16F84A has 68 bytes of RAM whilst the PIC16C84 has 36 bytes.

Since the two chips are so similar they are often referred to by the term PIC16x84 (x is used as a wildcard when referring to chips).

History
The PIC16C84 was introduced in 1993 and has been hailed as the first PIC microcontroller to feature a serial programming algorithm and EEPROM memory (it was preceded by the Motorola MC68HC805B6 and MC68HC805C4 along with the MC68HC11E2 with serial bootloader and EEPROM program storage released in the late 1980s). These chips lend themselves to hobby use: only a simple and cheap programmer is required to program, erase and reprogram the chip. As PIC16C84 supplies became limited due to it being discontinued, the PIC16F84 became popular as it is an almost drop-in replacement. New programming software was needed as the programming algorithm is different but the programming hardware required was the same.

Even later (1998) Microchip Technology introduced the improved PIC16F84A which allowed for faster clock speeds (up to 20 MHz), faster programming, and decreased the current draw of the chip.

The PIC16x84 microcontroller is a member of Microchip's 14-bit series (the instruction word size is 14 bits for all instructions), making the '84 a good development prototype for other similar but cheaper one-time-programmable 14-bit devices.

Recent pin-compatible variants
Microchip's product line has gone through many revisions since the 16x84 and more powerful, flexible, cheaper pin-compatible PICs have been developed.

Existing PIC 16x84 code may require some modifications for these variants, namely making sure pins with multiple functions have been set up properly.

 * PIC 16F84A - 1K program memory, 68 bytes data memory, 64 bytes EEPROM, 1× timer (listed as a comparison)
 * PIC 16F628A - 2K program memory, 224 bytes data memory, 128 bytes EEPROM, 3× timers, hardware PWM, onboard 4 MHz/37 kHz RC oscillator.
 * PIC 16F648A - Same as 16F628A with 4K program memory.
 * PIC 16F88 - Nanowatt Technology variant, 4K program memory, 368 bytes data memory, 256 bytes EEPROM, 3× timers, hardware PWM, on-board 8 MHz/37 kHz precision oscillator, 7-input 10-bit ADC, synchronous serial port supporting SPI and I²C.
 * PIC 16F1827 - Nanowatt XLP Technology variant, 4K program memory, 368 bytes data memory, 256 bytes EEPROM, 5× timers, hardware PWM, onchip 32 MHz/31 kHz precision oscillator, 12-input 10-bit ADC, 4× PLL.
 * PIC 16F1847 - Nanowatt XLP Technology variant, 8K program memory, 1024 bytes data memory, 256 bytes EEPROM, 5× timers, hardware PWM, onchip 32 MHz/31 kHz precision oscillator, 12-input 10-bit ADC, 4× PLL. 5-bit DAC.

This is an 8-bit enhanced mid-range core with 14 additional instructions and optimizations for the C Programming Language.

title: PIC16x84