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User:Sourish

You can visit my personal website at http://sourishdey.com

title: User:Sourish


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François Joseph Paul de Grasse

François Joseph Paul, Comte de Grasse, Marquis of Grasse-Tilly SMOM (13 September 1722 – 11 January 1788) was a career French officer who achieved the rank of admiral. He is best known for his command of the French fleet at the Battle of the Chesapeake in 1781 in the last year of the American Revolutionary War. It led directly to the British surrender at Yorktown and helped gain the rebels' victory.

After this action, de Grasse returned with his fleet to the Caribbean. In 1782 British Admiral Rodney decisively defeated and captured de Grasse at the Battle of the Saintes. De Grasse was widely criticised for his loss in that battle. On his return to France in 1784, he blamed his captains for the defeat. A court martial exonerated all of his captains, effectively ending his naval career.

Early life
François-Joseph de Grasse was born and raised at Bar-sur-Loup in south-eastern France, the last child of Francois de Grasse Rouville, Marquis de Grasse. He earned his title and supported his Provençal family.

Marriage and family
De Grasse married Antoinette Rosalie Accaron in 1764, and they had six children who survived to adulthood, among them his eldest son Alexandre Francois Auguste de Grasse. Auguste had a career in the French army and inherited his father's title as count in 1788. His younger brother Maxime died young in 1773. They had four sisters: Amélie Rosalie Maxime, Adélaide, Melanie Veronique Maxime, and Silvie de Grasse. Silvie married M. Francis de Pau in Charleston, South Carolina, and raised a family with him in New York City.

After his wife Antoinette died young, de Grasse married again, to Catherine Pien, widow of M. de Villeneuve. She also died before him. Thirdly, he married Marie Delphine Lazare de Cibon.

In addition, while in service in India during and after the Seven Years' War, de Grasse is believed to have fathered a mixed-race, French-Indian boy with an Indian woman in Calcutta. The boy, born about 1780, was known as Azar Le Guen. De Grasse brought the boy back to Paris with him for his education and formally adopted him, naming him George de Grasse. After his father's death, the young man went to the United States by 1799, where he settled in New York City. He worked for a time for Aaron Burr, likely meeting him through a connection of his father's. Burr gave him two lots of land in Manhattan, and George de Grasse became a naturalized citizen in 1804.

George de Grasse married well and educated his three children: his son John van Salee de Grasse was the first African American to graduate from medical school and became a respected physician in Boston; he served as a surgeon in the Union Army during the American Civil War. The eldest son, Isaiah George DeGrasse, became a Protestant Episcopal minister, and daughter Serena married George Downing, who became a renowned restaurant entrepreneur and civil rights activist.

Naval career
At the age of eleven (1734), de Grasse entered the Order of Saint John as a page of the Grand Master. He served as an ensign on the galleys in battles against the Turks and the Moors. In 1740 at the age of 17, he formally entered the French Navy.

He participated in French naval action in India during the Seven Years' War. He was intermittently stationed in Calcutta (now Kolkata), India, from the 1760s to 1781.

Following Britain's victory over the French in the Seven Years' War, de Grasse helped rebuild the French navy in the years after the Treaty of Paris (1763).

American War of Independence
In 1775, the American War of Independence broke out when American colonists rebelled against British rule. France supplied the colonists with covert aid, but remained officially neutral until 1778. The Treaty of Alliance established the Franco-American alliance, and France entered the war on behalf of the rebels and against Great Britain.

As a commander of a division, Comte de Grasse served under Louis Guillouet, comte d'Orvilliers at the First Battle of Ushant from July 23 to 27, 1778. The battle, fought off Brittany, was indecisive.

In 1779, he joined the fleet of Comte d'Estaing in the Caribbean as commander of a squadron; they were operating to counter the Royal Navy of Britain. He contributed to the capture of Grenada that year, and took part in the three actions fought by Guichen against Admiral Rodney in the Battle of Martinique. De Grasse was promoted to lieutenant-general of the Navy (equivalent to vice-admiral) in March 1781, and was successful in defeating Admiral Samuel Hood and taking Tobago.

Battle of the Chesapeake and Yorktown campaign
De Grasse responded to George Washington and Comte de Rochambeau's Expédition Particulière when they appealed for his aid in 1781, setting sail with 3,000 troops from Saint-Domingue, where the French Caribbean fleet was based. De Grasse landed the French reinforcements in Virginia. Immediately afterward he decisively defeated the British fleet in the Battle of the Chesapeake in September 1781. He drew away the British forces and blockaded the coast until Lieutenant General Charles Cornwallis surrendered at Yorktown, ensuring the independence of the new United States of America.

Battle of the Saintes
De Grasse returned his fleet to the Caribbean. He was less fortunate in 1782 and was defeated at the Battle of St. Kitts by Admiral Hood. Shortly afterward, in April 1782, Admiral de Grasse was again defeated, and taken prisoner by Admiral Rodney at the Battle of the Saintes. He initially sailed with the British fleet to Port Royal, Jamaica but after a period of only around one week was permitted to leave on the first convoy to England. Here he was landed on Southsea beach, allegedly to much applause. In August he was granted an audience with King George III and was re-presented with his own sword, surrendered to Rodney at The Saintes.

He was taken to London for a time. While there, he briefly took part in the negotiations that laid the foundations for the Peace of Paris (1783), which brought the American Revolutionary War to an end. It also realigned control of some of the Caribbean islands.

De Grasse was released to return to France, where he was strongly criticized for his defeat in the Caribbean. He published a Mémoire justificatif and demanded a court-martial. An inquiry into the events of the battle started in 1783, ending in 1784 in acquittal for most of the officers involved, including de Grasse.

Later life
De Grasse was a Commander of the Order of St. Louis and a Knight of the Order of St. John of Jerusalem. He was also a member of the American Society of the Cincinnati.

Admiral de Grasse died at Tilly (Yvelines) in 1788; his tomb is in the church of Saint-Roch in Paris.

Family trials
His grown children from his marriages all emigrated to Saint-Domingue. His eldest son, Auguste de Grasse, inherited the title of Comte de Grasse-Tilly. He was stationed in Saint-Domingue in 1789 as a naval officer, and acquired a large plantation and 200 slaves. He was joined by his stepmother and sisters. After the Royal Navy defeated the French fleet there in 1793, during the Haitian Revolution, Auguste de Grasse was among the officers who surrendered and were allowed to leave. He migrated with his family (including his four sisters, who had joined him) and settled for several years in Charleston, South Carolina. Two sisters died there of yellow fever in 1799. Silvie, the youngest, married and moved with her husband to New York City.

After returning to France in the early 1800s after Napoleon came to power, Auguste de Grasse resumed his military career, this time in the army.

In his later years, he wrote a memoir about his father and his own travels in the New World, published in 1840 as Notice biographique sur l'amiral comte de Grasse d'après les documents inédits.

Memorials and honors

 * A monument was installed to commemorate Admiral de Grasse and his sailors at the Cape Henry Memorial, Joint Expeditionary Base East, Virginia Beach, Virginia. It is maintained by the Colonial National Historical Park of the National Park Service.
 * A statue of Admiral de Grasse was installed at the riverwalk landing in Yorktown, Virginia.
 * A statue of Admiral de Grasse is in the Place de la Tour of Le Bar-sur-Loup, the French village where he was born and grew up.
 * Sometime between 1829 and 1839, Heman Allen, a former U.S. Representative and Ambassador to Chile, named the Grasse Mount estate in Burlington, Vermont after de Grasse.
 * A. Kingsley Macomber, an American resident of France since the end of World War I, commissioned a monument of Admiral de Grasse in 1931 to be placed at the Trocadero Palace in Paris.
 * The Grasse River, which flows through St. Lawrence County, New York, and the hamlet of Degrasse in the Town of Russell, New York, are named for him.
 * De Grasse was the name of two medium-sized French Line passenger ships, one built in 1924 in Scotland, and the other formally the 1956-built Bergensfjord of Norwegian America Lines, which was introduced in 1971. The first ship was famous world-wide, serving the transatlantic route; it later was used by the Allies as a troop ship in World War II.

 * The second De Grasse served the Le Havre–Southampton–West Indies service with little success, as ships were being replaced by the airlines. She was sold off in 1973.

Other vessel names
The French Navy has named two vessels in his honour:
 * An anti-aircraft cruiser (in service from 1956 to 1973).
 * A first-rank frigate of the F67 type.

The United States Navy has had three vessels named in his honour:
 * USS Comte de Grasse (DD-974), a large multi-role destroyer of the Spruance-class destroyer. (commissioned 1978, decommissioned 1998).
 * USS De Grasse (AP-164/AK-223), a Crater-class cargo ship used during World War II (1943–1946).
 * USS De Grasse (ID-1217), a patrol boat used in 1918.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: François Joseph Paul de Grasse


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User:Ism~enwiki

For some reason Wikipedia insists the first letter of my login name must be capitalized, so please use your imagination and convert it back to lowercase.

I joined Wikipedia sometime before July 2003.

I'm a software engineer. I live in New Jersey, and wherever I go, New Jersey lives in me. I have more interests than I have time for.

title: User:Ism~enwiki


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User talk:Ism~enwiki

Hi ism, welcome. FAQ's here if you're interested. :) - Hephaestos 10:33 27 Jul 2003 (UTC)

User categorization
You were listed on the Wikipedians/New Jersey page as living in or being associated with New Jersey. As part of the User categorisation project, these lists are being replaced with user categories. If you would like to add yourself to the category that is replacing the page, please visit Category:Wikipedians in New Jersey for instructions. Al 15:29, August 29, 2005 (UTC)

Proposed deletion of Robert Wunderle

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Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Ism. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Ism~enwiki that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name. If you think you might own all of the accounts with this name and this message is in error, please visit Special:MergeAccount to check and attach all of your accounts to prevent them from being renamed.

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Renamed
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title: User talk:Ism~enwiki


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Samuel Hood, 1st Viscount Hood

Samuel Hood, 1st Viscount Hood (12 December 1724 – 27 January 1816) was an admiral in the Royal Navy. As a junior officer he saw action during the War of the Austrian Succession. While in temporary command of HMS Antelope (1741), he drove a French ship ashore in Audierne Bay, and captured two privateers in 1757 during the Seven Years' War. He held senior command as Commander-in-Chief, North American Station and then as Commander-in-Chief, Leeward Islands Station, leading the British fleet to victory at Battle of the Mona Passage in April 1782 during the American Revolutionary War. He went on to be Commander-in-Chief, Portsmouth, then First Naval Lord and, after briefly returning to the Portsmouth command, became Commander-in-Chief, Mediterranean Fleet during the French Revolutionary Wars. His younger brother was Admiral Alexander Hood, 1st Viscount Bridport (1726–1814), and his first cousin once-removed was Admiral Sir Samuel Hood, 1st Baronet (1762–1814).

Childhood
The eldest son of Samuel Hood, vicar of Butleigh in Somerset and prebendary of Wells, and Mary Hoskins, daughter of Richard Hoskins, Esquire, of Beaminster, Dorset. In 1740, Captain (later Admiral) Thomas Smith was stranded in Butleigh when his carriage broke down on the way to Plymouth. The Rev Samuel Hood rescued him and gave him hospitality for the night. Samuel and his younger brother Alexander were inspired by his stories of the sea and he offered to help them in the Navy. While granting permission for Samuel and Alexander to join the Navy, the Rev Samuel Hood and his wife decided to prohibit similar service by his other sons as "they might be drowned". Their third son Arthur William became Vicar of Butleigh but died of fever in his 30s. Another son drowned in the local River Brue as a boy.

Early career
Samuel entered the Royal Navy in 1741. He served part of his time as midshipman with George Brydges Rodney in the HMS Ludlow and became a lieutenant in 1746. He had opportunities to see service in the North Sea during the War of the Austrian Succession. In 1754, he was made commander of the sloop HMS Jamaica (1744) and served in her at the North American station. In July 1756, while still on the North American station, Hood was promoted post captain, and assigned command of the sloop HMS Lively (1756), which was then under construction in England; however as Hood remained in North America he was unable to assume command of Lively. Still in North America, Hood became flag captain to Commodore Holmes in the HMS Grafton (1750).

Seven Years' War
At the outbreak of the Seven Years' War in 1756, the navy was rapidly expanded which benefited Hood. In 1757, while in temporary command of HMS Antelope (1741) (50 guns), he drove a French ship ashore in Audierne Bay, and captured two privateers. His zeal attracted the favourable notice of the Admiralty and he was appointed to a ship of his own, HMS Bideford (1756). In 1759, when captain of the HMS Vestal (1757) (32 guns), he captured the French FRENCH FRIGATE Bellone (32 guns) after a sharp action. During the war, his services were wholly in the Channel, and he was engaged under Rodney in 1759 in the Raid on Le Havre, destroying the vessels collected by the French to serve as transports in the proposed invasion of Britain.

He was appointed in Commander-in-Chief, North American Station in July 1767. He returned to England in October 1770 and commissioned the building of Catherington House in the village of Catherington in Hampshire in 1771. In 1778, he accepted a command which in the ordinary course would have terminated his active career, becoming Commissioner of the dockyard at Portsmouth and governor of the Naval Academy.

American Revolutionary War
In 1778, on the occasion of the King's visit to Portsmouth, Hood was made a baronet. The war was deeply unpopular with much of the British public and navy. Many admirals had declined to serve under Lord Sandwich, the First Lord of the Admiralty. Admiral Rodney, who then commanded in the West Indies, had complained of a lack of proper support from his subordinates, whom he accused of disaffection. The Admiralty, anxious to secure the services of trustworthy flag officers, promoted Hood to rear-admiral on 26 September 1780, and sent him to the West Indies to act as second in command under Rodney, who knew him personally. He joined Rodney in January 1781 in his flagship HMS Barfleur (1768), and remained in the West Indies or on the coast of North America until the close of the American Revolutionary War.

The expectation that he would work harmoniously with Rodney was not entirely justified. Their correspondence shows that they were not on friendly terms; but Hood always did his duty, and he was so able that no question of removing him from the station ever arose. The unfortunate turn for the British taken by the campaign of 1781 was largely due to Rodney's neglect of Hood's advice.

Battle of the Chesapeake
When Rodney decided to return to Britain for the sake of his health in the autumn of 1781, Hood was ordered to take the bulk of the fleet to the North American coast during the hurricane months. Hood joined Admiral Thomas Graves in the unsuccessful effort to relieve the army at Yorktown, when the British fleet was driven off by the French Admiral, the Comte de Grasse, at the Battle of the Chesapeake.

When he returned to the West Indies, he was for a time in independent command, as commander-in-chief of the Leeward Islands Station, owing to Rodney's absence in England. De Grasse attacked the British islands of St Kitts and Nevis with a force much superior to Hood's squadron. Hood made an unsuccessful attempt in January 1782 to save them from capture, with 22 ships to 29, and the series of bold movements by which he first turned the French out of their anchorage at Basseterre of St Kitts and then beat off their attacks, were one of the best accomplishments of any British admiral during the war.

Battle of the Saintes
On 12 April 1782 Hood took part in a British fleet under Rodney, which defeated a combined French and Spanish fleet that was planning an invasion of Jamaica. The French commander De Grasse, who had been responsible for the victory at Chesapeake, was captured and taken back to Britain as a prisoner.

Battle of the Mona Passage
Eventually Hood was ordered to chase, and with his division of 12 ships he captured 4 ships at the Mona Passage on 19 April 1782, thus completing the defeat. While serving in the Caribbean, Hood became acquainted with, and later became a mentor to, Horatio Nelson, who was a young frigate captain. Hood had been a friend of Nelson's uncle Maurice Suckling. In 1782 Hood introduced Nelson to the Duke of Clarence, the future King William IV, who was then a serving naval officer in New York.

Peace
Hood was made an Irish peer as Baron Hood of Catherington in September 1782. During the peace, he entered the British Parliament as Member for Westminster in the election of 1784 where he was a supporter of the government of William Pitt the Younger. He became Commander-in-Chief, Portsmouth in 1786, after being promoted to vice-admiral on 24 September 1787, retired from the Portsmouth Command in 1789. He was appointed to the Board of Admiralty under John Pitt, 2nd Earl of Chatham, brother of the Prime Minister, in July 1788 and became First Naval Lord in August 1789. He became Commander-in-Chief, Portsmouth again in June 1792.

Hood presided at the court-martial of some of surviving instigators of the mutiny on the Bounty, beginning on 12 September 1792. Among those on trial were crew members who were loyal to Bounty's commanding officer, William Bligh, but were forced to remain on the ship after Bligh was cast away in an open boat. Of the ten defendants, four were acquitted and the remaining six were found guilty of mutiny and sentenced to death. Three were recommended for mercy and were pardoned. The other men found guilty were hanged from the yardarm of HMS Brunswick (1790) on 29 October 1794.

Defence of Toulon
Following the outbreak of the French Revolutionary War, Hood became Commander-in-Chief, Mediterranean Fleet in February 1793. In August 1793 French royalists and other opponents of the revolution took over the city of Toulon and invited Hood, whose fleet was blockading offshore, to occupy the town. Hood, without time to request instructions from the Admiralty in London, moved swiftly to take command of the port.

Hood occupied Toulon on the invitation of the French royalists, and in co-operation with the Spaniards and Sardinians. In December of the same year, the allies, who did not work harmoniously together, were driven out, mainly by the generalship of Napoleon. Hood ordered the French fleet burned to prevent it falling back into the hands of the revolutionary government in Paris.

Corsica
Hood then turned to the occupation of Corsica, which he had been invited to take in the name of the King of Britain by Pasquale Paoli, who had been leader of the Corsican Republic before it was subjugated by the French a quarter of a century previously. The island was for a short time added to the dominions of George III, chiefly by the exertions of the fleet and the co-operation of Paoli. While the occupation of Corsica was being effected, the French at Toulon had so far recovered that they were able to send a fleet to sea. Nelson was recorded as saying that Hood was "the best Officer, take him altogether, that England has to boast of".

In October, he was recalled to England in consequence of some misunderstanding with the admiralty or the ministry, which has never been explained. Richard Freeman, in his book, The Great Edwardian Naval Feud, explains his relief from command in a quote from Lord Esher's journal. According to this journal, "... [Hood] wrote 'a very temperate letter' to the Admiralty in which he complained that he did not have enough ships to defend the Mediterranean." As a result, Hood was then recalled from the Mediterranean. He was promoted to full admiral on 12 April 1794.

Later career
Samuel Hood was created Viscount Hood of Whitley, Warwickshire in 1796 with a pension of £2000 per year for life (about £ a year in terms). In 1796, he was also appointed Governour of the Greenwich Hospital, a position which he held until his death in 1816. He served as Tory Member of Parliament for Westminster from 1784 to 1788 and from 1790 to 1796, and was Member for Reigate between 1789 and 1790. He died in Greenwich on 27 January 1816 and is buried in Greenwich Hospital Cemetery. A peerage of Great Britain was conferred on his wife, Susannah, as Baroness Hood of Catherington in 1795. Samuel Hood's titles descended to his youngest son, Henry (1753–1836).

There are several portraits of Lord Hood by Lemuel Francis Abbott in the Guildhall and in the National Portrait Gallery. He was also painted by Joshua Reynolds and Thomas Gainsborough.

Marriage and issue
In 1749 he married Susannah Linzee (1726–1806) (whose monument survives at Davenport House, Greenwich (Former Hospital Cemetery)), a daughter of Edward Linzee, Master Ropemaker at Portsmouth Dockyard, and Mayor of Portsmouth. By his wife he had issue including:
 * Henry Hood, 2nd Viscount Hood (1753–1836), son and heir.

Legacy
A biographical notice of Hood by McArthur, his secretary during the Mediterranean command, appeared in the Naval Chronicle, vol. ii. His correspondence during his command in America was published by the Navy Records Society.

In 1792, Lieutenant William Broughton, sailing with the expedition of George Vancouver to the Northwest Coast of North America, named Mount Hood in present-day Oregon, and Hood's Canal in present-day Washington, after Hood. Port Hood, Nova Scotia, is also named after him.

Two of the three ships of the Royal Navy named HMS Hood were named after him as well. One of these, the battlecruiser HMS Hood (51), was sunk by the GERMAN BATTLESHIP Bismarck in 1941 during the Second World War.

Portrayal
Hood was portrayed by David Torrence in the 1935 film Mutiny on the Bounty.

title: Samuel Hood, 1st Viscount Hood


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Luc Urbain du Bouëxic, comte de Guichen

Luc Urbain du Bouëxic, comte de Guichen (June 21, 1712, Fougères, Ille-et-Vilaine – January 13, 1790, Morlaix) was a French admiral who commanded the French fleets that fought the British at the First Battle of Ushant (1778) and the Battle of Martinique (1780) during the American War of Independence.

Biography
Guichen joined the Navy in 1730 as a Garde-Marine. He was promoted to lieutenant de vaisseau in 1746.

In 1748, Guichen fought five battles against superior British forces, while a convoy escorting from the Caribbean back to France. He was made a Knight in the Order of Saint Louis that same year.

In 1755, he participated in the abortive relief expedition to Louisbourg under Dubois de La Motte, on the 70-gun Héros. In 1775 he was appointed to the frigate Terpsichore, attached to the Escadre d'évolution. He was promoted to Captain in May 1756.

The year after, he was promoted to Chef d'Escadre.

First Battle of Ushant
After France entered the War of American Independence, Guichen was appointed to the command of the Channel fleet, which he led in the Battle of Ushant on 27 July 1778. His flagship, the 104-gun Ville de Paris, was next in line to the fleet flagship Bretagne. In March 1779, he was promoted Lieutenant Général des Armées navales, As such he commanded the French van in the Combined fleet of Orvillers and Córdoba from June to September.

Battle of Martinique
In January 1780, Guichen was sent to the West Indies with a strong squadron. On 17 April to the leeward of Martinique, Guichen's fleet met a force under Rodney, leading to the Battle of Martinique. During the engagement, both Rodney's Sandwich and Guichen's Couronne were temporarily cut off from their respective fleets and had to bear the brunt of the battle.

Two inconclusive actions followed on 15 May and 19 May 1780.

With the hurricane season approaching in July, Guichen left the West Indies and returned home, reaching Cadiz in September with a convoy of 95 merchantmen. Guichen's second-in-command, Sade de Vaudronne, died at sea as the fleet arrived.

1781 action in the Bay of Biscay
In December 1781, Guichen was tasked to carry stores and reinforcements to the West Indies. On 12 December, British Admiral Kempenfelt intercepted Guichen's squadron in the Bay of Biscay through a temporary clearance in a fog, at a moment when Guichen's warships were to leeward of the convoy, and attacked the transports at once, yielding the Second Battle of Ushant. Kempenfelt captured twenty of the transports and forced the others to retreat to port. Having failed his mission, Guichen then also returned to port. He had no opportunity to gain any counterbalancing success during the short remainder of the war, but he was present at the final relief of Gibraltar by Lord Howe.

Legacy
Guichen Bay in South Australia and the French ship Guichen of the First World War were named after him.

In 1785, Guichen was elected an international member of the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia.

title: Luc Urbain du Bouëxic, comte de Guichen


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Patrioticheskaya Pesnya

"The Patriotic Song" (Патриотическая песня, ) was the national anthem of Russia from 1991 to 2000. It was previously the regional anthem of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic from 1990 until 1991 (until 1990 it used the State Anthem of the Soviet Union), when it transformed into the Russian Federation after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Unlike most national anthems, it had no official lyrics. Although unofficial ones were written for it, they were never adopted.

Etymology
originally was not a song but a composition for piano without lyrics, written by Mikhail Glinka (1804–1857) and titled (in French) "Motif de chant national". The song has been known under its current title of "The Patriotic Song" since 1944, after Glinka's composition was arranged for orchestra by composer Mikhail Bagrinovsky under that name, popularizing it and leading it to become synonymous with Glinka's original work itself.

History

"" originally was not a song but a composition for piano without lyrics, written by Mikhail Glinka in 1833 and titled (in French) "Motif de chant national". It was often claimed that it was written by Glinka as part of a national anthem contest or with the intent of becoming a national anthem, though evidence for either claim is scant. In 1885, Glinka's manuscript was re-discovered after languishing in obscurity at the Russian National Library in St. Petersburg. In 1944 it was arranged for orchestra by composer Mikhail Bagrinovsky under the title "" and a few years later, poet Alexei Mashistov set lyrics to Bagrinovsky's arrangement of Glinka's composition for a song dedicated to the Soviet capital of Moscow, both of which helped popularize Glinka's work among the Soviet public and gave it its common contemporary moniker.

The Russian TV news program used it as its theme tune from 1984 to 1986.

In the 1990s, Boris Yeltsin chose the tune as the new state anthem of the Russian SFSR and it was officially adopted as such on 23 November 1990 by the Supreme Soviet of Russia. It remained in de facto usage through inertia by the new Russian Federation from 1991 until its official confirmation as the state's national anthem in 1993 when the Russian constitution was enacted. Also favored by the Russian Orthodox Church, the music went without lyrics for several years. In 1999, Viktor Radugin won a contest to provide suitable words for it with his poem (Сла́вься, Росси́я!). However, no lyrics and none of the entries were ever adopted.

It reportedly proved to be unpopular with the Russian public and with many politicians and public figures, because of its tune and lack of lyrics, and consequently its inability to inspire Russian athletes during international competitions.

It was replaced soon after Yeltsin's successor as President of the Russian Federation, Vladimir Putin, first took office on 7 May 2000. The federal legislature established and approved the music of the National Anthem of the Soviet Union, with newly written lyrics, in December 2000. Yeltsin criticized Putin for supporting the semi-reintroduction of the Soviet-era national anthem, although some opinion polls showed that many Russians favored this decision.

Today, the song is used by some elements of the Russian opposition as a political anthem. It is also sometimes erroneously played during sporting events involving Russia.

"Be Glorious, Russia!"
These are the unofficial lyrics to by Viktor Radugin, titled Славься, Россия!. It has been confused with the closing chorus of Glinka's opera A Life for the Tsar, possibly due to both beginning with the same word, but the two works are unrelated with the latter being derived from an old Polish folk song (though the operatic music, too, has been suggested as a candidate for a Russian national anthem).

"Above the Fatherland Majestically"
Above the Fatherland Majestically (Над Отчи́зной велича́во) by Vladimir Kalinkin, written in 1998 was another proposed set of lyrics. Performed by honored Russian artist Vladimir Detayov, the Duma was made aware of this piece's existence in April 1999. At the initiative of the Ministry of Ethnic Policy of Russia, this record was first publicly presented at the First Congress of the Assembly of Peoples of Russia. During the summer of that year, it was performed on the radio station "Radio of Russia" and the TV channel "Moskoviya", devoted to writing a text for the national anthem.

In January 2000, it was carried out in a new orchestral arrangement performed by the N.P. Osipov National Academic Orchestra of Folk Instruments and the A.V. Sveshnikov Academic Choir. Overall the song received positive reviews, although like, never attained official status.

These are the unofficial lyrics of Над Отчизной величаво!, written by V.M. Kalinkin (В. М. Калинкин).

title: Patrioticheskaya Pesnya


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Chef

A chef is a professional cook and tradesperson who is proficient in all aspects of food preparation, often focusing on a particular cuisine. The word "chef" is derived from the term chef de cuisine, the director or head of a kitchen. Chefs can receive formal training from an institution, as well as by apprenticing with an experienced chef.

There are different terms that use the word chef in their titles, and deal with specific areas of food preparation. Examples include the sous-chef, who acts as the second-in-command in a kitchen, and the chef de partie, who handles a specific area of production. The kitchen brigade system is a hierarchy found in restaurants and hotels employing extensive staff, many of which use the word "chef" in their titles. Underneath the chefs are the kitchen assistants. A chef's standard uniform includes a hat (called a toque), neckerchief, double-breasted jacket, apron and sturdy shoes (that may include steel or plastic toe-caps).

Etymology
The word "chef" is derived (and shortened) from the term chef de cuisine, the director or head of a kitchen. (The French word comes from Latin caput (head) and is cognate with English "chief"). In English, the title chef in the culinary arts originated in the haute cuisine of the 19th century. The culinary arts, among other aspects of the French language, introduced French loan words into the English language. The word is often used by itself as an honorific to address chefs by each other, apprentices, and waiting staff.

Titles

Various titles, detailed below, are given to those working in a professional kitchen and each can be considered a title for a type of chef. Many of the titles are based on the brigade de cuisine (or brigade system) documented by Auguste Escoffier, while others have a more general meaning depending on the individual kitchen.

Chef de cuisine
Other names include executive chef, chef manager, head chef, and master chef. This person is in charge of all activities related to the kitchen, which usually includes menu creation, management of kitchen staff, ordering and purchasing of inventory, controlling raw material costs and plating design. Chef de cuisine is the traditional French term from which the English word chef is derived. Head chef is often used to designate someone with the same duties as an executive chef, but there is usually someone in charge of a head chef, possibly making the larger executive decisions such as the direction of menu, the final authority in staff management decisions, and so on. This is often the case for executive chefs with multiple restaurants. Involved in checking the sensory evaluation of dishes after preparation and they are well aware of each sensory property of those specific dishes.

In the UK, the title executive chef normally applies to hotels with multiple outlets in the same hotel. Other establishments in the UK tend to use the title head chef.

Sous-chef
The sous-chef de cuisine (under-chef of the kitchen) is the second-in-command and direct assistant of the chef de cuisine or head chef. This person may be responsible for scheduling the kitchen staff or substituting when the head chef is absent. Also, the sous-chef will fill in for or assist a chef de partie (line cook) when needed. This person is accountable for the kitchen's inventory, cleanliness, organization, and the continuing training of its entire staff. A sous-chef's duties can also include carrying out the head chef's directives, conducting line checks, and overseeing the timely rotation of all food products. Smaller operations may not have a sous-chef, while larger operations may have more than one.

Chef de partie
A chef de partie, also known as a "station chef" or "line cook", is in charge of a particular area of production. In large kitchens, each chef de partie might have several cooks or assistants. In most kitchens, however, the chef de partie is the only worker in that department. Line cooks are often divided into a hierarchy of their own, starting with "first cook", then "second cook", and so on as needed.

Commis (chef)/Range chef
A commis is a basic or junior chef in larger kitchens who works under a chef de partie to learn the station's or range's responsibilities and operation. This may be a chef who has recently completed formal culinary training or is still undergoing training.

Brigade system titles
Station-chef titles which are part of the brigade system include:

Kitchen assistant

Kitchen assistants are of two types, kitchen-hands and stewards/kitchen porters. Kitchen-hands assist with basic food preparation tasks under the chef's direction. They carry out relatively unskilled tasks such as peeling potatoes and washing salad. Stewards/kitchen porters are involved in the scullery, washing up and general cleaning duties. In a smaller kitchen, these duties may be incorporated.

A communard is in charge of preparing the meal for the staff during a shift. This meal is often referred to as the staff or family meal.

The escuelerie (from 15th century French and a cognate of the English "scullery"), or the more modern plongeur or dishwasher, is the keeper of dishes, having charge of dishes and keeping the kitchen clean. A common humorous title for this role in some modern kitchens is "chef de plonge" or "head dishwasher".

Culinary education
Education is available from many culinary institutions offering diploma, associate, and bachelor's degree programs in culinary arts. Depending on the level of education, this can take one to four years. An internship is often part of the curriculum. Regardless of the education received, most professional kitchens follow the apprenticeship system, and most new cooks will start at a lower-level 2nd or 1st cook position and work their way up.

Like many skilled trades, chefs usually go through a formal apprenticeship which includes many years of on-the-job training. Culinary schools and restaurants offer these apprenticeships. Apprenticeships usually take 3 to 4 years to complete and combine classroom instruction with on-the-job training. The training period for a chef is generally four years as an apprentice. A newly qualified chef is advanced or more commonly a toquecommis-chef, consisting of first-year commis, second-year commis, and so on. The rate of pay is usually in accordance with the chefs. Like all other chefs except the executive-chef, trainees are placed in sections of the kitchen (e.g., the starter (appetizer) or entrée sections) under the guidance of a demi-chef de partie and are given relatively basic tasks. Ideally, over time, a commis will spend a certain period in each section of the kitchen to learn the basics. Unaided, a commis may work on the vegetable station of a kitchen.

The usual formal training period for a chef is two to four years in catering college. They often spend the summer in work placements. In some cases this is modified to 'day-release' courses; a chef will work full-time in a kitchen as an apprentice and then would have allocated days off to attend catering college. These courses can last between one and three years. In the UK, most chefs are trained in the workplace, with most doing a formal NVQ level 2 or 3 in the workplace.

title: Chef


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TTY

TTY may refer to:

Communications and technology

 * Teleprinter or teletypewriter (TTY), an electromechanical typewriter paired with a communication channel
 * Sometimes used more generally for any type of computer terminal
 * May also be used to refer to a virtual console in Unix-like operating systems
 * Another name for a telecommunications device for the deaf (TDD), a teleprinter designed for persons with hearing or speech difficulties
 * tty (Unix), a command found in Unix-like operating systems

Other uses

 * Tampere University of Technology (Tampereen Teknillinen Yliopisto), in Finland
 * Torque-to-yield fastener

title: TTY


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Pattern matching

In computer science, pattern matching is the act of checking a given sequence of tokens for the presence of the constituents of some pattern. In contrast to pattern recognition, the match usually has to be exact: "either it will or will not be a match." The patterns generally have the form of either sequences or tree structures. Uses of pattern matching include outputting the locations (if any) of a pattern within a token sequence, to output some component of the matched pattern, and to substitute the matching pattern with some other token sequence (i.e., search and replace).

Sequence patterns (e.g., a text string) are often described using regular expressions and matched using techniques such as backtracking.

Tree patterns are used in some programming languages as a general tool to process data based on its structure, e.g. C#, F#, Haskell, ML, Python, Ruby, Rust, Scala, Swift and the symbolic mathematics language Mathematica have special syntax for expressing tree patterns and a language construct for conditional execution and value retrieval based on it.

Often it is possible to give alternative patterns that are tried one by one, which yields a powerful conditional programming construct. Pattern matching sometimes includes support for guards.

History
Early programming languages with pattern matching constructs include COMIT (1957), SNOBOL (1962), Refal (1968) with tree-based pattern matching, Prolog (1972), St Andrews Static Language (SASL) (1976), NPL (1977), and Kent Recursive Calculator (KRC) (1981).

Many text editors support pattern matching of various kinds: the QED editor supports regular expression search, and some versions of TECO support the OR operator in searches.

Computer algebra systems generally support pattern matching on algebraic expressions.

Primitive patterns
The simplest pattern in pattern matching is an explicit value or a variable. For an example, consider a simple function definition in Haskell syntax (function parameters are not in parentheses but are separated by spaces, = is not assignment but definition):

Here, 0 is a single value pattern. Now, whenever f is given 0 as argument the pattern matches and the function returns 1. With any other argument, the matching and thus the function fail. As the syntax supports alternative patterns in function definitions, we can continue the definition extending it to take more generic arguments:

Here, the first  is a single variable pattern, which will match absolutely any argument and bind it to name n to be used in the rest of the definition. In Haskell (unlike at least Hope), patterns are tried in order so the first definition still applies in the very specific case of the input being 0, while for any other argument the function returns  with n being the argument.

The wildcard pattern (often written as ) is also simple: like a variable name, it matches any value, but does not bind the value to any name. Algorithms for matching wildcards in simple string-matching situations have been developed in a number of recursive and non-recursive varieties.

Tree patterns
More complex patterns can be built from the primitive ones of the previous section, usually in the same way as values are built by combining other values. The difference then is that with variable and wildcard parts, a pattern doesn't build into a single value, but matches a group of values that are the combination of the concrete elements and the elements that are allowed to vary within the structure of the pattern.

A tree pattern describes a part of a tree by starting with a node and specifying some branches and nodes and leaving some unspecified with a variable or wildcard pattern. It may help to think of the abstract syntax tree of a programming language and algebraic data types.

In Haskell, the following line defines an algebraic data type  that has a single data constructor   that wraps an integer and a string.

The constructor is a node in a tree and the integer and string are leaves in branches.

When we want to write functions to make  an abstract data type, we wish to write functions to interface with the data type, and thus we want to extract some data from the data type, for example, just the string or just the integer part of.

If we pass a variable that is of type Color, how can we get the data out of this variable? For example, for a function to get the integer part of, we can use a simple tree pattern and write:

As well:

The creations of these functions can be automated by Haskell's data record syntax.

This OCaml example which defines a red–black tree and a function to re-balance it after element insertion shows how to match on a more complex structure generated by a recursive data type. The compiler verifies at compile-time that the list of cases is exhaustive and none are redundant.

Filtering data with patterns
Pattern matching can be used to filter data of a certain structure. For instance, in Haskell a list comprehension could be used for this kind of filtering:

evaluates to [A 1, A 2]

Pattern matching in Mathematica
In Mathematica, the only structure that exists is the tree, which is populated by symbols. In the Haskell syntax used thus far, this could be defined as An example tree could then look like In the traditional, more suitable syntax, the symbols are written as they are and the levels of the tree are represented using, so that for instance   is a tree with a as the parent, and b and c as the children.

A pattern in Mathematica involves putting "_" at positions in that tree. For instance, the pattern

A[_]

will match elements such as A[1], A[2], or more generally A[x] where x is any entity. In this case,  is the concrete element, while   denotes the piece of tree that can be varied. A symbol prepended to  binds the match to that variable name while a symbol appended to   restricts the matches to nodes of that symbol. Note that even blanks themselves are internally represented as  for   and   for.

The Mathematica function  filters elements of the first argument that match the pattern in the second argument: evaluates to Pattern matching applies to the structure of expressions. In the example below, returns because only these elements will match the pattern  above.

In Mathematica, it is also possible to extract structures as they are created in the course of computation, regardless of how or where they appear. The function  can be used to monitor a computation, and return the elements that arise which match a pattern. For example, we can define the Fibonacci sequence as Then, we can ask the question: Given fib[3], what is the sequence of recursive Fibonacci calls? returns a structure that represents the occurrences of the pattern  in the computational structure:

Declarative programming
In symbolic programming languages, it is easy to have patterns as arguments to functions or as elements of data structures. A consequence of this is the ability to use patterns to declaratively make statements about pieces of data and to flexibly instruct functions how to operate.

For instance, the Mathematica function  can be used to make more efficient versions of the code. In the following example the details do not particularly matter; what matters is that the subexpression  instructs   that expressions of the form   can be assumed to be integers for the purposes of compilation:

Mailboxes in Erlang also work this way.

The Curry–Howard correspondence between proofs and programs relates ML-style pattern matching to case analysis and proof by exhaustion.

Pattern matching and strings
By far the most common form of pattern matching involves strings of characters. In many programming languages, a particular syntax of strings is used to represent regular expressions, which are patterns describing string characters.

However, it is possible to perform some string pattern matching within the same framework that has been discussed throughout this article.

Tree patterns for strings
In Mathematica, strings are represented as trees of root StringExpression and all the characters in order as children of the root. Thus, to match "any amount of trailing characters", a new wildcard ___ is needed in contrast to _ that would match only a single character.

In Haskell and functional programming languages in general, strings are represented as functional lists of characters. A functional list is defined as an empty list, or an element constructed on an existing list. In Haskell syntax:

The structure for a list with some elements is thus. When pattern matching, we assert that a certain piece of data is equal to a certain pattern. For example, in the function:

We assert that the first element of 's argument is called element, and the function returns this. We know that this is the first element because of the way lists are defined, a single element constructed onto a list. This single element must be the first. The empty list would not match the pattern at all, as an empty list does not have a head (the first element that is constructed).

In the example, we have no use for, so we can disregard it, and thus write the function:

The equivalent Mathematica transformation is expressed as

head[element, ]:=element

Example string patterns
In Mathematica, for instance,

StringExpression["a",_]

will match a string that has two characters and begins with "a".

The same pattern in Haskell:

Symbolic entities can be introduced to represent many different classes of relevant features of a string. For instance,

StringExpression[LetterCharacter, DigitCharacter]

will match a string that consists of a letter first, and then a number.

In Haskell, guards could be used to achieve the same matches:

The main advantage of symbolic string manipulation is that it can be completely integrated with the rest of the programming language, rather than being a separate, special purpose subunit. The entire power of the language can be leveraged to build up the patterns themselves or analyze and transform the programs that contain them.

SNOBOL
SNOBOL (StriNg Oriented and symBOlic Language) is a computer programming language developed between 1962 and 1967 at AT&T Bell Laboratories by David J. Farber, Ralph E. Griswold and Ivan P. Polonsky.

SNOBOL4 stands apart from most programming languages by having patterns as a first-class data type (i.e. a data type whose values can be manipulated in all ways permitted to any other data type in the programming language) and by providing operators for pattern concatenation and alternation. Strings generated during execution can be treated as programs and executed.

SNOBOL was quite widely taught in larger US universities in the late 1960s and early 1970s and was widely used in the 1970s and 1980s as a text manipulation language in the humanities.

Since SNOBOL's creation, newer languages such as Awk and Perl have made string manipulation by means of regular expressions fashionable. SNOBOL4 patterns, however, subsume BNF grammars, which are equivalent to context-free grammars and more powerful than regular expressions.

title: Pattern matching


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Puerto Galera

Puerto Galera, officially the Municipality of Puerto Galera (Bayan ng Puerto Galera), is a 1st class municipality in the province of Oriental Mindoro, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 41,961 people.

It is mainly accessible from the Southern Luzon gateway port of Batangas by bamboo boats (bangka) operated by local regular operators. Seaplane Operator Air Juan Aviation, Inc. flies two daily flights from Manila to Puerto Galera on their Cessna Grand Caravan Seaplanes.

History
Chinese traders possibly knew the place before the arrival of the Spaniards but there is no evidence of Chinese settlement. The place was likely also known by other Southeast Asian merchants, who would have found it convenient to load and unload trading goods. The state of Ma-i extended to the Puerto Galera area. The bay was a convenient place to shelter ships against bad weather, and a warehouse was built to store supplies and trade black rice from Muelle.

In April 1570, the Spaniards arrived in Bombon (now known as Batangas), and later sailed through the Isla Verde Passage, landed and called the place Puerto Galera (the port of Galleons). Miguel López de Legazpi became the first Spanish governor-general of the island. A garrison for soldiers was built in Muelle, and watch towers were erected in Dampalitan Point to monitor naval activity in the bay. Spaniards came to conquer for their king and chased the Muslim Moro pirates who were disrupting their trade with the Chinese and natives. The latter proved to be not only skilled warriors but also good negotiators even in the face of defeat.

In 1663, a change in the form of administration occurred in the island, the corregidor was replaced by the alcalde-mayor or provincial governor, and the capital was moved from Puerto Galera to Baco. In the seventeenth century, the relative prosperity of the city underwent a serious setback with the rise of Muslim piracy. Both pirates attacks and the mismanagement of the Spaniards resulted in driving the native population either into exile in safer places or sending them inland to comparative safety.

Geography
Puerto Galera is located at the north-westernmost part of Oriental Mindoro, and at the south-western end of the Isla Verde Passage, about 130 km south of Manila and 51 km from Calapan, the provincial capital.

Barangays
Puerto Galera is politically subdivided into 13 barangays. Each barangay consists of puroks and some have sitios.

 * Aninuan
 * Baclayan
 * Balatero
 * Dulangan
 * Palangan
 * Poblacion
 * Sabang
 * San Antonio
 * San Isidro
 * Santo Niño
 * Sinandigan
 * Tabinay
 * Villaflor

Demographics
The Philippine Statistics Authority characterizes the municipality of Puerto Galera as first class based on household income. The municipality had a population of 32,521 in the 2010 national census. The population in 2012 was estimated to be 35,188.

Economy
The traditional economy of the city used to be fishing and subsistence agriculture, but with the boom of tourism at the end of the 1970s, the service sector became more and more important and led to population and economic growth. Of the 13 villages ("barangays") in Puerto Galera, half now rely on tourism-based activities for sustenance.

In addition, Mindoro is quickly becoming one of the key places in the development of renewable energy in the Philippines. With several large wind, hydroelectric, and geothermal projects under construction, the island hoped in 2012 to be a net exporter of electricity by 2016.

Tourism
Tourism now represents the core activity of the economy of Puerto Galera, which is well known for its beaches, scuba diving and entertainment activities, including "go-go bars". The city and its beaches have also become one of the many sites of the Philippines sex tourism industry.

This coastal town has a number of pocket beaches and snorkeling and scuba diving spots. The area was designated a Man and Biosphere reserve of UNESCO in 1973 and has some of the most diverse coral reef diving in Asia. Since 2001, the marine environment has benefited from a huge reduction in the number of fishermen in the area, as they gain higher revenue from tourism activities.

Puerto Galera is included in the list of the "Club of the Most Beautiful Bays of the World", and is the only bay in the Philippines to be found on this list.

Among the beaches in Puerto Galera are Sabang Beach and White Beach, which have an active nightlife with numerous bars and restaurants. Both places are directly accessible from Batangas by bangka regular lines. On the west, where is only a local boat connection to Abra de Ilog, the planned road between the two cities has not been completed yet. On the east, the city connects by road to Calapan through the Mindoro circular road.

Diving and snorkeling
Puerto Galera, especially the Sabang area, is among the top diving destinations in the Philippines and in Asia. Diving sites are found less than five minutes from Sabang Beach. Diving activities generally focus around the areas either side of Escarceo Point. Marine life is diverse. There are over 180+ species of nudibranchs found in the area, and many species of fish can be seen. A variety of wrecks over the years can be found in addition to the one wreck of an engine of a WWII Japanese patrol boat. The major diving federations PADI, CMAS, NAUI and Technical Diving International (TDI) are represented in the area, offering courses from beginners' open water to advanced and technical diving (rebreather, trimix). Diving trips in the Verde Island Passage, at the heart of the Coral Triangle are organized from Puerto Galera. Many threatened species such as a variety of sea turtles including hawksbills, olive ridleys, and green turtles, humphead wrasses, giant groupers and giant clams are present in the Verde Island Passage.

Environment
The accelerated development of tourism jeopardizes the preservation of its delicate ecological system consumed by "overdevelopment due to a thriving but runaway free-market tourism". Currently, this appears to be the "biggest problem" of Puerto Galera. Accelerated tourist oriented development poses degradation to the environment, among which, seawater pollution brought about by improper sewage and wastewater discharges. Unless serious action is taken, with regular seawater monitoring, this situation poses a serious threat to the sustainability of various tourist activities at the beaches.

In the summer of 1998, extensive coral bleaching occurred around Medio Island, and a large section of a shallow coral reef system (referred to as the "Coral Gardens") died. Since then, the coral has regrown with a larger diversity of coral species replacing the prolific table corals. Corals in Puerto Galera were largely unaffected by the 2010 El Niño event. The local government declared the 4,828 ha of municipal waters (12,690 ha) as protected waters, giving special protection to the corals and reef fishes.

In 2006, two super typhoons damaged the shallow reefs around Escarceo Point. A major section of the faster-growing coral species growing up to a depth of 6 m was destroyed. This represented about 5% of the coral reef in the area. Extensive signs of new coral recruitment were noted in mid-2008. Acropora species (staghorn and table coral) rapidly recolonized the area so that most of the damaged coral has been replaced with new growth.

title: Puerto Galera


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Type inference

Type inference, sometimes called type reconstruction, refers to the automatic detection of the type of an expression in a formal language. These include programming languages and mathematical type systems, but also natural languages in some branches of computer science and linguistics.

Nontechnical explanation
Types in a most general view can be associated to a designated use suggesting and restricting the activities possible for an object of that type. Many nouns in language specify such uses. For instance, the word leash indicates a different use than the word line. Calling something a table indicates another designation than calling it firewood, though it might be materially the same thing. While their material properties make things usable for some purposes, they are also subject of particular designations. This is especially the case in abstract fields, namely mathematics and computer science, where the material is finally only bits or formulas.

To exclude unwanted, but materially possible uses, the concept of types is defined and applied in many variations. In mathematics, Russell's paradox sparked early versions of type theory. In programming languages, typical examples are "type errors", e.g. ordering a computer to sum values that are not numbers. While materially possible, the result would no longer be meaningful and perhaps disastrous for the overall process.

In a typing, an expression is opposed to a type. For example, $$4$$, $$2+2$$, and $$2\cdot 2$$ are all separate terms with the type $$\mathrm{nat}$$ for natural numbers. Traditionally, the expression is followed by a colon and its type, such as $$2 : \mathrm{nat}$$. This means that the value $$2$$ is of type $$\mathrm{nat}$$. This form is also used to declare new names, e.g. $$n : \mathrm{nat}$$, much like introducing a new character to a scene by the words "detective Decker".

Contrary to a story, where the designations slowly unfold, the objects in formal languages often have to be defined with their type from very beginning. Additionally, if the expressions are ambiguous, types may be needed to make the intended use explicit. For instance, the expression $$2$$ might have a type $$\mathrm{nat}$$ but could also be read as a rational or real number or even as a plain text.

As a consequence, programs or proofs can become so encumbered with types, that it is desirable to deduce them from the context. This can be possible by collecting the uses of untyped expression (including undefined names). If, for instance, a yet undefined name n is used in an expression $$n + 2$$, one could conclude, that n is at least a number. The process of deducing the type from an expression and its context is type inference.

In general not only objects, but also activities have types and may be introduced simply by their use. For a Star Trek story, such an unknown activity could be "beaming", which for sake of the story's flow is just executed and never formally introduced. Nevertheless, one can deduce its type (transport) following what happens. Additionally, both objects and activities can be constructed from their parts. In such a setting, type inference cannot only become more complex, but also more helpful, as it allows to collect a complete description of everything in a composed scene, while still being able to detect conflicting or unintended uses.

Type-checking vs. type-inference
In a typing, an expression E is opposed to a type T, formally written as E : T. Usually a typing only makes sense within some context, which is omitted here.

In this setting, the following questions are of particular interest:

 * E : T? In this case, both an expression E and a type T are given. Now, is E really a T? This scenario is known as type-checking.
 * E : _? Here, only the expression is known. If there is a way to derive a type for E, then we have accomplished type inference.
 * _ : T? The other way round. Given only a type, is there any expression for it or does the type have no values? Is there any example of a T? This is known as type inhabitation.

For the simply typed lambda calculus, all three questions are decidable. The situation is not as comfortable when more expressive types are allowed.

Types in programming languages
Types are a feature present in some strongly statically typed languages. It is often characteristic of functional programming languages in general. Some languages that include type inference include C23, C++11, C# (starting with version 3.0), Chapel, Clean, Crystal, D, F#, FreeBASIC, Go, Haskell, Java (starting with version 10), Julia, Kotlin, ML, Nim, OCaml, Opa, Q#, RPython, Rust, Scala, Swift, TypeScript, Vala, Dart, and Visual Basic (starting with version 9.0). The majority of them use a simple form of type inference; the Hindley–Milner type system can provide more complete type inference. The ability to infer types automatically makes many programming tasks easier, leaving the programmer free to omit type annotations while still permitting type checking.

In some programming languages, all values have a data type explicitly declared at compile time, limiting the values a particular expression can take on at run-time. Increasingly, just-in-time compilation blurs the distinction between run time and compile time. However, historically, if the type of a value is known only at run-time, these languages are dynamically typed. In other languages, the type of an expression is known only at compile time; these languages are statically typed. In most statically typed languages, the input and output types of functions and local variables ordinarily must be explicitly provided by type annotations. For example, in ANSI C: The signature of this function definition,, declares that   is a function that takes one argument, an integer, and returns an integer. declares that the local variable  is an integer. In a hypothetical language supporting type inference, the code might be written like this instead: This is identical to how code is written in the language Dart, except that it is subject to some added constraints as described below. It would be possible to infer the types of all the variables at compile time. In the example above, the compiler would infer that  and   have type integer since the constant   is type integer, and hence that   is a function. The variable  isn't used in a legal manner, so it wouldn't have a type.

In the imaginary language in which the last example is written, the compiler would assume that, in the absence of information to the contrary,  takes two integers and returns one integer. (This is how it works in, for example, OCaml.) From this, the type inferencer can infer that the type of  is an integer, which means   is an integer and thus the return value of   is an integer. Similarly, since  requires both of its arguments be of the same type,   must be an integer, and thus,   accepts one integer as an argument.

However, in the subsequent line, result2 is calculated by adding a decimal  with floating-point arithmetic, causing a conflict in the use of   for both integer and floating-point expressions. The correct type-inference algorithm for such a situation has been known since 1958 and has been known to be correct since 1982. It revisits the prior inferences and uses the most general type from the outset: in this case floating-point. This can however have detrimental implications, for instance using a floating-point from the outset can introduce precision issues that would have not been there with an integer type.

Frequently, however, degenerate type-inference algorithms are used that cannot backtrack and instead generate an error message in such a situation. This behavior may be preferable as type inference may not always be neutral algorithmically, as illustrated by the prior floating-point precision issue.

An algorithm of intermediate generality implicitly declares result2 as a floating-point variable, and the addition implicitly converts  to a floating point. This can be correct if the calling contexts never supply a floating point argument. Such a situation shows the difference between type inference, which does not involve type conversion, and implicit type conversion, which forces data to a different data type, often without restrictions.

Finally, a significant downside of complex type-inference algorithm is that the resulting type inference resolution is not going to be obvious to humans (notably because of the backtracking), which can be detrimental as code is primarily intended to be comprehensible to humans.

The recent emergence of just-in-time compilation allows for hybrid approaches where the type of arguments supplied by the various calling context is known at compile time, and can generate a large number of compiled versions of the same function. Each compiled version can then be optimized for a different set of types. For instance, JIT compilation allows there to be at least two compiled versions of add_one:

 * A version that accepts an integer input and uses implicit type conversion.
 * A version that accepts a floating-point number as input and uses floating point instructions throughout.

Technical description
Type inference is the ability to automatically deduce, either partially or fully, the type of an expression at compile time. The compiler is often able to infer the type of a variable or the type signature of a function, without explicit type annotations having been given. In many cases, it is possible to omit type annotations from a program completely if the type inference system is robust enough, or the program or language is simple enough.

To obtain the information required to infer the type of an expression, the compiler either gathers this information as an aggregate and subsequent reduction of the type annotations given for its subexpressions, or through an implicit understanding of the type of various atomic values (e.g. true : Bool; 42 : Integer; 3.14159 : Real; etc.). It is through recognition of the eventual reduction of expressions to implicitly typed atomic values that the compiler for a type inferring language is able to compile a program completely without type annotations.

In complex forms of higher-order programming and polymorphism, it is not always possible for the compiler to infer as much, and type annotations are occasionally necessary for disambiguation. For instance, type inference with polymorphic recursion is known to be undecidable. Furthermore, explicit type annotations can be used to optimize code by forcing the compiler to use a more specific (faster/smaller) type than it had inferred.

Some methods for type inference are based on constraint satisfaction or satisfiability modulo theories.

Example
As an example, the Haskell function  applies a function to each element of a list, and may be defined as:

Type inference on the  function proceeds as follows. is a function of two arguments, so its type is constrained to be of the form. In Haskell, the patterns  and   always match lists, so the second argument must be a list type:   for some type. Its first argument  is applied to the argument , which must have type  , corresponding with the type in the list argument, so   (  means "is of type") for some type. The return value of, finally, is a list of whatever   produces, so.

Putting the parts together leads to. Nothing is special about the type variables, so it can be relabeled as

It turns out that this is also the most general type, since no further constraints apply. As the inferred type of  is parametrically polymorphic, the type of the arguments and results of   are not inferred, but left as type variables, and so   can be applied to functions and lists of various types, as long as the actual types match in each invocation.

Hindley–Milner type inference algorithm
The algorithm first used to perform type inference is now informally termed the Hindley–Milner algorithm, although the algorithm should properly be attributed to Damas and Milner. It is also traditionally called type reconstruction. If a term is well-typed in accordance with Hindley–Milner typing rules, then the rules generate a principal typing for the term. The process of discovering this principal typing is the process of "reconstruction".

The origin of this algorithm is the type inference algorithm for the simply typed lambda calculus that was devised by Haskell Curry and Robert Feys in 1958. In 1969 J. Roger Hindley extended this work and proved that their algorithm always inferred the most general type. In 1978 Robin Milner, independently of Hindley's work, provided an equivalent algorithm, Algorithm W. In 1982 Luis Damas finally proved that Milner's algorithm is complete and extended it to support systems with polymorphic references.

Side-effects of using the most general type
By design, type inference, especially correct (backtracking) type inference will introduce use of the most general type appropriate, however this can have implications as more general types may not always be algorithmically neutral, the typical cases being:
 * floating-point being considered as a general type of integer, while floating-point will introduce precision issues
 * variant/dynamic types being considered as a general type of other types, which will introduce casting rules and comparison that could be different, for instance such types use the '+' operator for both numeric additions and string concatenations, but what operation is performed is determined dynamically rather than statically

Type inference for natural languages
Type inference algorithms have been used to analyze natural languages as well as programming languages. Type inference algorithms are also used in some grammar induction and constraint-based grammar systems for natural languages.

title: Type inference


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Richard Kempenfelt

Rear-Admiral Richard Kempenfelt (1718 – 29 August 1782) was a British rear admiral who gained a reputation as a naval innovator. He is best known for his victory against the French at the Second Battle of Ushant and for his death when HMS Royal George (1756) accidentally sank at Portsmouth the following year.

Background
He was born at Westminster, the son of Magnus Kempenfelt and his wife Ann Hunt. His father, a Swede, was a professional soldier in the British service.

Naval career
Richard Kempenfelt was commissioned a lieutenant in January 1741. He saw service in the West Indies, taking part in the capture of Portobelo during the War of Jenkins' Ear. In 1746 he returned to Britain, and from then until 1780, when he was made rear admiral, he saw active service in the East Indies with Sir George Pocock and in various quarters of the world.

In 1779 he was made Chief of Staff or Captain of the Fleet under Admiral Sir Charles Hardy on HMS Victory which was to lead a hastily assembled fleet to oppose an invasion of England set to begin with the destruction of the Portsmouth naval base by the French and Spanish Armada of 1779.

In 1781 he won the Battle of Ushant, with a vastly inferior force, defeating the French fleet under Guichen and capturing 20 ships.

Royal George
In 1782 he hoisted his flag on HMS Royal George (1756), which formed part of the fleet under Lord Howe. In August this fleet was ordered to proceed to the relief of Gibraltar, and underwent a refit at top speed at Portsmouth.

On 29 August 1782, Royal George was being heeled off Portsmouth to allow repairs to be made to the water intake for the deck wash pump, which was three feet below water level. The larboard guns had been run out and the starboard guns moved into the centre of the deck to heel over the ship until her lowest gun ports were close to the surface of the water. A supply vessel, Lark, approached Royal George on her low side to transfer a cargo of rum. According to an Admiralty report – not made public until early the next century – the larboard cannons' weight on the ship's central frame caused excessively decayed timbers to break. This caused the ship to heel to such a degree that the sea washed in at her gunports, and she soon began to ship water in her hold. A sudden breeze on the raised side of the ship forced her further over and the water rushed in. The crew were ordered to right the ship but the fallen cannon could not be moved. Within a couple of minutes she rolled on to her side and sank before any distress signal could be given. Nine hundred people were estimated to have lost their lives, for besides the crew there were a large number of tradesmen and women and children on board. About 230 people were saved, some by running up the rigging, while others were picked up by boats from other vessels. The usual assumption is that Kempenfelt was writing in his cabin when the ship sank; the cabin doors had jammed due to the ship heeling, and he perished with the rest. However, rival scenarios were reported at the time, as described in historian Hilary L. Rubinstein's book on the sinking, published in 2021. William Cowper's poem the "Loss of the Royal George" was based on the report that the admiral was trapped writing in his cabin, so that is the scenario which prevailed to the exclusion of other reports circulating at the time. Kempenfelt had effected radical alterations and improvements in the signalling system then existing in the British Navy. A painting of the loss of Royal George is in the Royal United Service Institution, London.

Kempenfelt took a great interest in evangelism. His hymns were published in Original Hymns and Poems by "Philotheorus" (Exeter, England: B. Thorn, 1777), dedicated to the Methodist John William Fletcher. It was reprinted in 1861 with a preface by Daniel Sedgwick.

Memorials
A memorial to Kempenfelt, by the sculptor John Bacon, was placed in the Chapel of St Michael Westminster Abbey in 1808.

Kempenfelt Bay on Lake Simcoe in Ontario, Canada, is named for him, and a number of warships have been named HMS Kempenfelt.

A 1768 painting of Kempenfelt, along with his fellow mariners Sir Samuel Cornish, 1st Baronet and Thomas Parry went on permanent display at Queen's House in Greenwich in Autumn 2022. The painting is by the artist Tilly Kettle and was purchased by the National Maritime Museum, with assistance from the Society for Nautical Research.

title: Richard Kempenfelt


text:
Type signature

In computer science, a type signature or type annotation defines the inputs and outputs of a function, subroutine or method. A type signature includes the number, types, and order of the function's arguments. One important use of a type signature is for function overload resolution, where one particular definition of a function to be called is selected among many overloaded forms.

C/C++
In C and C++, the type signature is declared by what is commonly known as a function prototype. In C/C++, a function declaration reflects its use; for example, a function pointer with the signature (int)(char, double) would be called as:

Erlang
In Erlang, type signatures may be optionally declared, as:

For example:

Haskell
A type signature in Haskell generally takes the following form:

Notice that the type of the result can be regarded as everything past the first supplied argument. This is a consequence of currying, which is made possible by Haskell's support for first-class functions; this function requires two inputs where one argument is supplied and the function is "curried" to produce a function for the argument not supplied. Thus, calling, where , yields a new function that can be called  to produce.

The actual type specifications can consist of an actual type, such as, or a general type variable that is used in parametric polymorphic functions, such as , or , or. So we can write something like:

Since Haskell supports higher-order functions, functions can be passed as arguments. This is written as:

This function takes in a function with type signature and returns data of type  out.

Java
In the Java virtual machine, internal type signatures are used to identify methods and classes at the level of the virtual machine code.

Example: The method is represented in bytecode as.

The signature of the main method looks like this:

And in the disassembled bytecode, it takes the form of

The method signature for the main method contains three modifiers:
 * indicates that the method can be called by any object.
 * indicates that the method is a class method.
 * indicates that the method has no return value.

Signature
A function signature consists of the function prototype. It specifies the general information about a function like the name, scope and parameters. Many programming languages use name mangling in order to pass along more semantic information from the compilers to the linkers. In addition to mangling, there is an excess of information in a function signature (stored internally to most compilers) which is not readily available, but may be accessed.

Understanding the notion of a function signature is an important concept for all computer science studies.
 * Modern object orientation techniques make use of interfaces, which are essentially templates made from function signatures.
 * C++ uses function overloading with various signatures.

The practice of multiple inheritance requires consideration of the function signatures to avoid unpredictable results. Computer science theory, and the concept of polymorphism in particular, make much use of the concept of function signature.

In the C programming language, a signature is roughly equivalent to its prototype definition.

In the ML family of programming languages, "signature" is used as a keyword referring to a construct of the module system that plays the role of an interface.

Method signature
In computer programming, especially object-oriented programming, a method is commonly identified by its unique method signature, which usually includes the method name and the number, types, and order of its parameters. A method signature is the smallest type of a method.

C/C++
In C/C++, the method signature is the method name and the number and type of its parameters, but it is possible to have a last parameter that consists of an array of values:

Manipulation of these parameters can be done by using the routines in the standard library header.

In C++, the return type can also follow the parameter list, which is referred to as a trailing return type. The difference is only syntactic; in either case, the resulting signature is identical:

C#
Similar to the syntax of C, method signatures in C# are composed of a name and the number and type of its parameters, where the last parameter may be an array of values:

Java
In Java, a method signature is composed of a name and the number, type, and order of its parameters. Return types and thrown exceptions are not considered to be a part of the method signature, nor are the names of parameters; they are ignored by the compiler for checking method uniqueness.

The method signatures help distinguish overloaded methods (methods with the same name) in a class. Return types are not included in overloading. Only method signatures should be used to distinguish overloaded methods.

For example, the following two methods have different signatures:

The following two methods both have the same signature:

Julia
In Julia, function signatures take the following form:

The types in the arguments are used for the multiple dispatch. The return type is validated when the function returns a value, and a runtime exception is raised if the type of the value does not agree with the specified type.

Abstract types are allowed and are encouraged for implementing general behavior that is common to all subtypes. The above function can therefore be rewritten as follows. In this case, the function can accept any Integer and Real subtypes accordingly.

Types are completely optional in function arguments. When unspecified, it is equivalent to using the type Any, which is the super-type of all types. It is idiomatic to specify argument types but not return type.

Objective-C
In the Objective-C programming language, method signatures for an object are declared in the interface header file. For example,

defines a method that returns a general object (an ) and takes one integer argument. Objective-C only requires a type in a signature to be explicit when the type is not ; this signature is equivalent:

Rust
In Rust, function signatures take the following form:

title: Type signature


text:
Ludwig Bölkow

Ludwig Bölkow (30 June 1912 – 25 July 2003) was one of the aeronautical pioneers of Germany.

Background
Born in Schwerin, in then north-central Germany, in 1912, Bölkow was the son of a foreman employed by Fokker, one of the leading aircraft constructors of that time.

Early career
Bölkow's first job was with Heinkel, the aircraft company, before studying aero-engineering at the Technical University in Berlin. On graduation, in 1939, he joined the project office of Messerschmitt AG in Augsburg, where he served initially as a clerk, later as a group leader for high-speed aerodynamics, especially for the Messerschmitt Me 262 and its successors. In January 1943, he was appointed head of the Messerschmitt Bf 109 development office in Vienna. A year later, Bölkow returned to the Messerschmitt project office, which had meanwhile moved to Oberammergau. There he set up a program for the development of the Messerschmitt P.1101 jet fighter.

Later career
After the war he created the Bölkow GmbH in Ottobrunn, which with time grew to the biggest aeronautics and spaceflight company, MBB (Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm). In the early 1990s it was bought by DASA.

He carried out the construction of the first German satellite, Azur, launched in 1969.

Bölkow was awarded the Ludwig-Prandtl-Ring from the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Luft- und Raumfahrt (German Society for Aeronautics and Astronautics) for "outstanding contribution in the field of aerospace engineering" in 1972. He was awarded a Gold Medal by the British Royal Aeronautical Society in 1978.

title: Ludwig Bölkow