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Talk:Swithun

CE
The Catholic Encyclopedia page linked from this article gives (as of this writing) the date of the first removal of Swithin's remains as 931. As it also says this is "more than a century" after Swithin's death (in 862) and associates the event with a bishop who died in 984, it seems likely that this is a typo. 971 is given as the correct date by other sources. --rbrwr 22:04 15 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Which is it?
Is it St. Swithin? Or St. Swithun? The article uses both spellings. Even the Talk page is inconsistent! --Micahbrwn 21:12, 19 March 2007 (UTC)

The spellings of Swithun's name are several, and reflect the inconsistent spelling conventions of the time. The "normalized" Anglo-Saxon version is generally held by modern scholars to be "Swithun," but this is no more than a convenience. Other versions in the original texts include, among others, Swiððhun, Suuiðun, Swyðun, and Suitthun. "Swithin" was the version favored in the 17th-19th centuries.

I suggest keeping the page header at "Swithun," but possibly including either a redirect from Swithin or adding a short paragraph on name variants. Hexotrope 12:24, 19 May 2007 (UTC)

More Detail, Please
There are these two paragraphs. "Of other stories connected with St Swithun the two most famous are those of the Winchester egg-woman and Queen Emma's ordeal. The former is to be found in Gotzelin's life (c. 1100), the latter in Thomas Rudborne's Historia major (15th century), a work which is also responsible for the not improbable legend that Swithun accompanied Alfred on his visit to Rome in 856."

"William of Malmesbury adds that, if Bishop Alhstan of Sherborne was Ethelwulf's minister for temporal matters, Saint Swithun was the minister for spiritual matters. The same writer recorded the bishop's prayer that his burial might be ubi et pedibus praetereuntium et stillicidiis cox alto rorantibus esset obnoxius. This expression has been taken as indicating that the well-known weather myth about St Swithun was already well-known in the 12th century. However, this is uncertain (particularly for those who need a translation)."

Why are the stories mentioned in the first paragraph not in the article? The source for each is known and given. Why make a reader go search for the source documents?

Rather than belittle readers who have little or no Latin, why not provide a translation?
 * Probably because he has little or no Latin himself, otherwise he would have quoted it correctly. I have supplied.  Incidentally, has anyone ever heard the so-called British slang term at the beginning of the "Contemporary references" section?  Unless someone can provide some evidence for it, I'm tempted to delete it.    Лудольф (talk) 13:14, 24 April 2009 (UTC)

Other than those irritations, it is a pretty good article. Thank you.
 * JimCubb (talk) 15:58, 18 December 2008 (UTC)

Headbourne Worthy
In the section Veneration: "An example is the church in Headbourne Worthy to the north of Winchester, probably not a very notable church. . . "

This is misleading. It may be the oldest church in continuous use in the UK.

In addition, it has at least one undisputed treasure of international value: the rood. http://www.astoft.co.uk/headbourneworthy.htm

Woodlandpath (talk) 18:27, 2 April 2010 (UTC)

Jane Austen
Jane Austen wrote a humorous poem about the St. Swithin's day weather-prediction custom within a few days of her death... Churchh (talk) 02:40, 14 February 2012 (UTC)

In Popular Culture
Saint Swithun's Day is mentioned in the Simpsons episode "Bart of Darkness" as part of a play Bart is writing. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 180.180.65.18 (talk) 06:32, 6 May 2012 (UTC)

Revocation of 23 May 2012
A large chunk of materiual was removed from this article on the basis that ": The paragraph starting "More probable..." had an invalid link and apparently pushed a pet theme with no basis in fact. Links should be plentiful and well-maintained. No original work, right?". This is not original work - I have certainly seen this explanation - possibly in the reference that was quoted. The link itself was probably valid when it was put in place. Since then "The Times" has hidden this artcile behind a "pay barrier", but this does not invalidate the source.

The annonymous editor who removed this material could have done better by doing some of his own research first. It took me less than three minutes to find a new reference!!!!!!!!! Martinvl (talk) 05:20, 23 May 2012 (UTC)

Inexplicably vague
I see that this problem was raised four years ago and nobody cared, but let's try again.

 * Swithun's best known miracle was his restoration on a bridge of a basket of eggs that workmen had maliciously broken. Of stories connected with Swithun the two most famous are those of the Winchester egg-woman and Queen Emma's ordeal. The former is to be found in Goscelin's Life (c. 1100), the latter in Thomas Rudborne's Historia major (15th century), a work which is also responsible for the not improbable legend that Swithun accompanied Alfred on his visit to Rome in 856.

This is not a useful paragraph. If these legends are detailed in reliable sources (Life and Historia major), why are they glanced over so briefly in the article? Alright, so there's probably not much more to say about the eggs, but who the hell is Queen Emma? What was her ordeal? I mean, it obviously refers to this, but I shouldn't have had to Google it. It should be in the article. And who's Alfred? Alfred the Great, I suppose, but according to Wikipedia, he went to Rome in 853. Why would Swithin go with him, and why is that legend so inherently plausible? I came here to learn more about St. Swithin, but this article left me more confused than I was before. DoctorKubla (talk) 09:37, 15 July 2012 (UTC)

Etymological usage
Is Saint Swithin's Day in common use as a metaphor for a generic obscure saint's holiday, or a metaphor for a very arbitrary metaphor for a fixed day that never seems to arrive. My English Anglican mother-in-law used the term this way, analogous to the way sports folks use the term Mendoza line as a marcation point for obscurity. (Is this an appropriate point of discussion here?) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Gregscott humbird (talk • contribs) 21:01, 13 September 2012 (UTC)

"In the first, Swithun signs as Swithunus presbyter regis Egberti, in the second as Swithunus diaconus, and in the third as Swithunus episcopus."

What on Earth is the point in using arcane languages and terms in a page without translating them so that readers know what they are or mean? The first title presumably means that Swithun was chaplain to King Ecgbert, the second that he was a deacon and the third a bishop. It needs someone who is certain to add to the text, but it should have been done when the sentence was put in.

Dantes Warden (talk) 12:34, 28 May 2016 (UTC)

External links modified
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Rhyme about Saint Swithun's Day
This article could have reference to the rhyme about Saint Swithun's Day - "Saint Swithun's Day, If you do rain, for forty days, it will remain, Saint Swithun's Day, If you be clear, For forty years it will be clear". Vorbee (talk) 06:37, 15 July 2019 (UTC) All right, having had a better look at this article, I see that this rhyme is in the article. Vorbee (talk) 07:52, 15 July 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Swithun


text:
Barbary Wars

The Barbary Wars were a series of two wars fought by the United States, Sweden, and the Kingdom of Sicily against the Barbary states (including Tunis, Algiers, and Tripoli) and Morocco of North Africa in the early 19th century. Sweden had been at war with the Tripolitans since 1800 and was joined by the newly independent US. The First Barbary War extended from 10 May 1801 to 10 June 1805, with the Second Barbary War lasting only three days, ending on 19 June 1815. The Barbary Wars were the first major American war fought entirely outside the New World, and in the Arab World.

The wars were largely a reaction to piracy by the Barbary states. Since the 16th century, North African pirates had captured ships and even raided European coastal areas across the Mediterranean Sea. Originally starting out with the goal of capturing individuals for the domestic North African slave trade, the focus later shifted to kidnapping for ransom. By the 19th century, pirate activity had declined, but Barbary pirates continued to demand tribute from American merchant vessels in the Mediterranean. Refusal to pay would result in the capture of American ships and goods, and often the enslavement or ransoming of crew members.

After Thomas Jefferson became president of the US in March 1801, he sent a U.S. Navy fleet to the Mediterranean to combat the Barbary pirates. The fleet bombarded numerous fortified cities in present-day Libya, Tunisia, and Algeria, ultimately extracting concessions of safe conduct from the Barbary states and ending the first war.

During the War of 1812, with the encouragement of the United Kingdom, the Barbary corsairs resumed their attacks on American vessels. Following the conclusion of the War of 1812 and America's peace with Britain, James Madison, Jefferson's successor, directed military forces against the Barbary states in the Second Barbary War. Lasting only three days, the second conflict ended the need for further tribute from the United States, granted the U.S. full shipping rights in the Mediterranean Sea, and significantly reduced incidents of piracy in the region.

Background
The Barbary corsairs were pirates and privateers who operated out of North Africa, based primarily in the ports of Tunis, Tripoli, and Algiers. This area was known in Europe as the Barbary Coast, in reference to the Berbers. The corsairs predation covered the Mediterranean, and extended south along West Africa's Atlantic, even to the eastern coast of Brazil, into the North Atlantic Ocean raiding the coasts of Ireland and western Britain, and going as far north as Iceland, but they primarily operated in the western Mediterranean. In addition to seizing ships, they engaged in razzias, raids on European coastal towns and villages, mainly in Italy, France, Spain, and Portugal, but also in England, Scotland, the Netherlands, Ireland, and as far away as Iceland. The main purpose of their attacks was to capture Europeans for the slave market in North Africa.

The Barbary states were nominally part of the Ottoman Empire, but in practice they were operating independently and the Ottoman government in Constantinople was not involved.

Attacks
Since the 1600s, the Barbary pirates had attacked British shipping along the northern coast of Africa, holding captives for ransom or enslaving them. Ransoms were generally raised by families and local church groups, including the Roman Catholic Church. The British became familiar with captivity narratives written by Barbary pirates' prisoners and slaves.

During the American Revolutionary War, the pirates attacked American ships. On December 20, 1777, Morocco's sultan Mohammed III declared that merchant ships of the new American nation would be under the protection of the sultanate and could thus enjoy safe passage into the Mediterranean and along the coast. The Moroccan-American Treaty of Friendship stands as America's oldest unbroken friendship treaty with a foreign power. In 1787, Morocco became one of the first nations to recognize the United States.

Starting in the 1780s, realizing that American vessels were no longer under the protection of the British navy, the Barbary pirates seized American ships in the Mediterranean. As the U.S. had disbanded its Continental Navy and had no seagoing military force, its government agreed in 1786 to pay tribute to stop the attacks. On March 20, 1794, at the urging of President George Washington, Congress voted to authorize the building of six heavy frigates and establish the United States Navy, in order to stop these attacks and demands for more and more money. The United States had signed treaties with all of the Barbary states after its independence was recognized between 1786 and 1794 to pay tribute in exchange for leaving American merchantmen alone, and by 1797, the United States had paid out $1.25 million or a fifth of the government's annual budget in tribute. These demands for tribute imposed a heavy financial drain and by 1799 the U.S. was in arrears of $140,000 to Algiers and some $150,000 to Tripoli. Many Americans resented these payments, arguing that the money would be better spent on a navy that would protect American ships from the attacks of the Barbary pirates, and in the 1800 United States presidential election, Thomas Jefferson won against incumbent second President John Adams in part by noting that the United States was "subjected to the spoliations of foreign cruisers" and was humiliated by paying "an enormous tribute to the petty tyrant of Algiers".

United States Mediterranean policy
After Spain concluded a peace treaty with Algiers in 1785, the Algerian corsair captains entered the waters of the Atlantic and attacked American ships, refusing to release them except for large sums of money. Two American ships, the schooner Maria, and the Dauphin were captured by Algerian pirates in July 1785 and the survivors forced into slavery, their ransom set at $60,000. A rumor that Benjamin Franklin, who was en route from France to Philadelphia about that time, had been captured by Barbary pirates, caused considerable upset in the U.S.

Thomas Jefferson, who was elected to the presidency twice, was inclined to the idea of confronting Algiers with force. He wrote in his autobiography:

"I was very unwilling that we should acquiesce in the European humiliation of paying a tribute to those lawless pirates and endeavored to form an association of the powers subject to habitual depredations from them." A proposal was made to put up a coalition of naval warships from nations at war with the Barbary states, provided that naval operations would be directed against Algerian vessels in particular, and then impose a maritime blockade on North Africa. When this proposal was presented to the concerned countries, France refused, and Spain apologized for not accepting it, because of its recent treaty with Algiers. The proposal was favored by Portugal, Malta, Naples, Venice, Denmark and Sweden. But the project failed when the US Congress objected to it for fear of its high financial costs, and more Algerian ships attacked American ships because of their lack of association with Algiers by any treaty in this period. Thus, in February 1, 1791, the US Congress was forced to allocate $40,000 to free American captives in Algiers. But two years later, it passed the "Naval Act of 1794" on the need to establish a defensive naval fleet, but stipulated in one of its articles that the project be stopped if an agreement was reached with Algiers.

During the presidency of George Washington (April 30, 1789 – 1797), and after America failed to form an American-European alliance against the Maghreb countries, the U.S. announced its desire to establish friendly relations with Algiers in February 1792, and reported this to the Dey Hassan III Pasha, like how Great Britain bought peace and security for its ships.

United States pays tribute to Algiers
When the American government began negotiating with Algiers, the Dey asked for $2,435,000 as the price for the peace contract and the ransom of the prisoners, then reduced the amount to $642,500 and $21,000 in military equipment that is presented to Algiers every year. Reconciliation took place between the two parties, and the dey pledged to work with Tunisia and Tripoli, to also sign this treaty, and peace would be achieved for America in the entire Mediterranean basin. On September 5, 1795, American negotiator Joseph Donaldson signed a peace treaty with the dey of Algiers, with 22 articles that included an upfront payment of $642,500 in specie (silver coinage) for peace, the release of American captives, expenses, and various gifts for the dey's royal court and family. America suffered another humiliation when it sent tribute carried by the large armed frigate "USS George Washington (1798)" to Algiers; Dey Mustapha Pasha forced US commodore William Bainbridge to hoist an Ottoman Algerian flag over his warship before sailing to Constantinople carrying tribute to the Ottoman sultan in 1800. As Lieutenant and consul William Eaton informed newly appointed Secretary of State John Marshall in 1800, "It is a maxim of the Barbary States, that 'The Christians who would be on good terms with them must fight well or pay well.'"

America paid to Algiers during the presidency of George Washington and his successor, John Adams (1797-1801), $1,000,000, or a fifth of the government's annual budget, in tribute.

First Barbary War (1801–1805)

The First Barbary War (1801–1805), also known as the Tripolitian War or the Barbary Coast War, was the first of two wars fought between the alliance of the United States and several European countries against the Northwest African Muslim states known collectively as the Barbary states. These were Tripoli and Algiers, quasi-independent entities nominally belonging to the Ottoman Empire, and (briefly) the independent Sultanate of Morocco. This war began during Thomas Jefferson's term when he refused to pay an amount that greatly increased when he became president. A U.S. naval fleet was sent on May 13, 1801, under the command of Commodore Richard Dale. Other notable officers in the fleet included Stephen Decatur, assigned to the frigate USS Essex (1799) and William Bainbridge in command of Essex which was attached to Commodore Richard Dale's squadron which also included USS Philadelphia (1799), USS President (1800) and USS Enterprise (1799). The ship Philadelphia was blockading Tripoli's harbor when she ran aground on an uncharted reef. Under fire from shore batteries and Tripolitan gunboats, Captain William Bainbridge tried to refloat her by casting off all of her guns and other objects that weighed it down. The ship was eventually captured and the crew taken prisoners and enslaved. To prevent this powerful warship from being used by the Barbary pirates, the ship was later destroyed by a raiding party of American Marines and soldiers and allied sailors from the armed forces of King Ferdinand of Sicily, led by Stephen Decatur.

In accordance with the treaty that was concluded Between them, on June 30, 1805, America paid Algiers $60,000 ransom for the prisoners, and agreed to continue sending gifts to the dey and replace its consul with another one, then withdrew its fleet from the Mediterranean in 1807.

Second Barbary war
When the war broke out between America and Britain in 1812, the regent on the British throne, George IV, sent a letter to Dey Haji Ali Pasha (1809-1815) confirming to him the bonds of friendship that united the two countries and declaring his country's readiness to defend Algiers against every aggressor as long as these ties remained. By that he intended to win over Algiers to Britain against America, or at least convince Algiers to adopt a position of neutrality. Thus, the countries of Europe and the United States of America failed to ally against the countries of the Islamic Maghreb and Algiers in particular, and the matter so remained until the Napoleonic Wars ended in 1815. James Madison recommended that Congress declare the "existence of a state of war between the United States and the Dey and Regency of Algiers." While Congress did not formally declare a state of war, they did pass legislation, enacted on March 3, 1815, that authorized the president to use the U.S. Navy, "as judged requisite by the President" to protect the "commerce and seamen" of the United States on the "Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean and adjoining seas." Congress also authorized the president to grant the U.S. Navy the ability to seize all vessels and goods belonging to Algiers. The legislation also authorized the president to commission privateers for the same purpose. During the reign of the Dey Omar Pasha (1815-1817), American-Algerian relations worsened when the Dey began to demand an increase in the annual tribute. The Americans went to Algiers to fight under Commodore Stephen Decatur, which culminated in the Battle off Cape Gata and the death of the famous corsair captain Raïs Hamidou. A letter to the dey followed on April 12, 1815 informing him of America's decision to enter into war against him and giving him the choice between peace and war after reminding him of the horrors of war and the advantages of peace and understanding. In the year 1816, Dey Omar answered this letter and offered America the renewal of the previous treaty concluded during the reign of Hassan Pasha (1791-1798). Madison answered him on August 21 and asked him to resume negotiations. These were renewed and ended with a peace agreement in favor of America. The dey was forced to pay $10,000 in compensation and to renounce all that America had been paying him.

Effect in United States
When the United States military efforts of the early 19th century were successful against the pirates, partisans of the Democratic-Republicans contrasted their presidents' refusals to buy off the pirates by paying tribute with the failure of the preceding Federalist administration to suppress the piracy. The Federalist Party had adopted the slogan, "Millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute," but had failed to end the attacks on merchant ships. From 1796 to 1797 French raiders seized some 316 American merchant ships flying American colors. To counter this ongoing advent three frigates, USS United States (1797), USS Constitution and USS Constellation (1797), were built to answer the call for security.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Barbary Wars


text:
Game of the Goose

The Game of the Goose, also known as the Royal Game of the Goose is one of the first board games to be commercially manufactured. It is a race game, relying only on dice throws to dictate progression of the players. The board is often arranged in the form of a spiral, with game pieces starting on the most outward part. All spaces on the game board are numbered, with some depicting an illustration of either a goose or a hazard indicating a specified action. The aim of the game is to reach the 63rd space before any of the other players, while avoiding hazards such as the Hotel, the Bridge, and Death.

The game is thought to have originated in Italy during the 15th century, being given by Francesco de Medici as a gift to King Philip of Spain. In the 17th and 18th century, the game gained immense popularity throughout Europe. The game's popularity led it to different adaptations throughout Europe and the United States. Despite numerous adaptations, the rules have largely remained the same throughout the years.

History
The game's origins are uncertain but are thought to originate from Italy and from inspiration of other spiral board games. It is claimed to be the first modern board game. According to board game historian, Adrien Seville, the earliest recorded mention of the game was in a book of sermons by the Dominican friar Gabriele da Barletta published in 1480. A version of the game was given as a gift by Grand Duke Francesco I de' Medici of Tuscany to King Philip II of Spain sometime between 1574 and 1587. Since then, it has been in production. In the 15th century, it was largely considered as a gambling game. By the 17th century the game was played across many European countries with various models of the game. At this time, it was manufactured using wood by Dutch printers. By the 19th century, the game was marketed as a children’s game.

Some connect the game with the Phaistos Disc because of its spiral shape but, as Caroline Goodfellow notes, the two games "are unlikely to have been the same". In June 1597 John Wolfe enters the game in the Stationers' Register, as "the newe and most pleasant game of the goose". Another theory links the game to the Pilgrims' Way to Santiago, or the Road to Saint James of Compostela, in Galicia. According to this hypothesis, the game was invented by the Knights Templar, who were in charge of protecting those on pilgrimage to the main holy cities: Compostela, Rome and Jerusalem.

The oldest board for Game of the Goose can be found today in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City. This board has a 15th century Italian influence concerning the design of the game but the actual construction of the board has a wood, ivory and gold influence similar to that of 16th century North India. This board follows most of the classical descriptions of the game but with a few differences concerning the hazard spaces. In 2017, another board made its way to the Paris gallery of Sylvie L’Hermite-King. This board goes back to the late 16th century to the Portuguese State of North India. Game of the Goose made its way to Asia through Portuguese ships sailing to India. Boards made in India at the time were considered to be highly treasured in Europe.

Symbolism
The game was created with the intent to symbolize the fate humans experience in life. The significance of having 63 playing squares represents the "Grand Climacteric '' signifying the crucial years of life. Nine is the ruling number of the game and this is because it is a holy number making the game have a spiritual connection. The Hazard spaces of the game also have meaning associated with them. The Bridge is thought to represent a rite of passage, the Hotel represents the earth, Death refers to a new start, the Maze represents something wrong, and the Well and Prison indicate that help is required. In Italy, geese are considered lucky symbols; however, there are many plausible theories that have been proposed to the significance of geese.

Board
Although there have been countless variants of the gameboard over time, it has managed to maintain a consistent form. The gameboard's "standard form" consists of a track with 63 consecutively numbered spaces arranged in a spiral, 13 of which are goose-spaces and 6 of which are hazard spaces. The hazard spaces include The Bridge, The Hotel, The Well, The Maze, The Prison and Death. Players begin on the outermost square of the spiral and advance inwards.

The Goose-spaces
Depicted by a drawing of a goose, landing on one allows the player to advance further by the same number of spaces they had thrown. While these spaces are considered the most favourable, landing on one can also have unintended consequences. To win the game, a player must roll a number that lands them exactly on the 63rd space. Should they overthrow, they must move backward by the amount they overstepped. Should the player land on a goose as they move backward, they must move further back by the amount they initially overstepped with the additional possibility of hitting another hazard space. The standard form of the game shows a goose on spaces 5, 9, 14, 18, 23, 27, 32, 36, 41, 45, 50, 54, 59 and on 63, the winning space.

The Bridge
Depicted by a drawing of a bridge, this space acts as a shortcut which moves the player to some other specified position. The standard form of the game shows The Bridge on space 6; landing on it moves the player to space 12.

The Hotel
Depicted by a drawing of a hotel, landing on this space requires the player to remain on the space and miss one turn. The standard form of the game shows The Hotel on space 19.

The Well
Depicted by a drawing of a well, landing on this space leaves the player stuck there until another player arrives to pull them out—that player then takes their place. The standard form of the game shows The Well on space 31.

The Maze
Depicted by a drawing of a maze, landing on this space forces the player to move backward to a specified space. The standard form of the game depicts The Maze on space 42.

The Prison
Depicted by a drawing of a prison, landing on this space leaves the player trapped there until another player arrives to release them—that player then takes their place. The standard form of the game shows The Prison on space 52.

Death
This space is the least favourable of the hazard spaces. Usually depicted by a drawing of a skeleton, landing on this space forces the player to move all the way back to the starting space. Death in the game is not considered physical, but a "death of the soul". The standard form of the game shows Death on space 58.

Equipment
A standard set of the Game of the Goose includes one gameboard, four goose-shaped pieces of different colours and two six-sided dice.

Rules
Each player begins with their token placed on the first tile. The game can be played by a minimum of two people and requires two six-sided dice. Players alternate by rolling the dice and moving their pieces by the amount given by the sum of the two dice. The player who rolls the highest on the first round goes first; however, there are special cases. If the first throw is a six and a three, the piece moves to space 26, or if the first throw is a five and a four, the piece moves to space 53. This rule was created to avoid the case in which a player throws a 9 in the first round, leading to an instant win, given that landing a goose space allows the player to advance forward by the number they had rolled, and a goose appears every nine spaces. This would lead the player to instantly reach the 63rd space.

To win the game, a player must be the first to reach the 63rd space on an exact throw. Should a player overthrow, they must move backward from the 63rd space by the amount they overthrew. Should the player subsequently land on a goose space after moving backward, they must move backward by the amount thrown, with the possibility of again landing on a goose or on a hazard space. Two players cannot exist on the same square. Should a player land on a square already occupied by an opponent, they must swap places.

There are other special spaces one must pay attention to when playing the game: if one lands on space 6 (the Bridge), the piece must move to square 12; if one lands on space 19 (the Hotel), one must miss one turn; if one lands on space 31 (the Well), one must wait until another player lands on the same square, and get your place; if one lands on space 42 (the Maze), the player goes back to space 39; if one lands on space 52 (the Prison), one must wait for someone to release you, and take your place; if one lands on space 58 (Death), one must restart the game.

In worldwide culture

 * In Jacques Offenbach's comic opera La Belle Hélène, the Greek Kings sing about and play a Game of the Goose and argue over cheating.
 * In his 1899 novel Le Testament d’un excentrique, Jules Verne uses the United States as a giant real-life Game of the Goose board, on which seven players race each other in pursuit of a $60,000,000 inheritance.
 * In Roger Martin du Gard's novel The Thibaults, Monsieur Chasle, the proprietor of a store that markets various inventions, mentions that one of his designers has created a portable jeu de l'Oie des Alliés imprinted with scenes from the Battle of the Marne, Douaumont, and other battles of World War I.
 * In Ursula Dubosarsky's novel for children, The Game of the Goose (Penguin Australia 2000), three children find an old copy of the Game of the Goose in a Salvation Army store, and have magically transforming adventures while playing it.
 * The game was the basis for a game and stunt show in Italy named Il Grande Gioco Dell'Oca (The Great Game of the Goose), as well as the near-identical Spanish version, El gran juego de la oca (same). The Spanish version ran from 1993 to 1995, and again in 1998 as El nuevo juego de la oca (The New Game of the Goose).
 * In Jacques Rivette's film, Le Pont du Nord, the game is described by the main character, Marie Lafée. The game itself provides the plot structure.

France
Educational race games based on the "Game of the Goose" are a French invention of the 17th century. The earliest known adaptation is Pierre Marriette's "Jeu Chronologique" dated 1638, with the purpose of teaching History. Successive versions taught geography, the arts of war, and heraldry, produced from expensively engraved copper plates as opposed to the provincial productions of games from woodcut blocks. These games retained the essential structure of the “Game of the Goose,” rewarding good luck and punishing bad luck. However, modifications had the purpose of attracting diverse audiences, such as children, travellers, or those interested in specific activities such as horse racing or hunting.

England
A century later, England joined the trend of educational race games with John Jeffreys’ 1759 "A Journey through Europe, or the Play of Geography," printed by Carington Bowles. The first dated game of this kind marked a significant step in the evolution of educational games to facilitate the teaching of geography in the region. All used a teetotum, rather than dice, to move players around the board and avoid association with gambling.

The 18th-century English game "Courtship and Matrimony" has a track that is 64 spaces long. However, this game has a unique rule for the Prison space at No. 55. If a player of the opposite sex lands on the same space, it simulates a "Fleet marriage," resulting in an immediate win and a division of the pot. This rule plays on the historical context of rapid marriages that took place in London's Fleet Prison.

The 19th century British variation called "The New Royal Game of the Goose" offers a distinct rule at space 57, where a depicted man with a pipe suggests a gendered activity. Any player, unless they are female, are sent back to space 47, hinting at the societal views on smoking as an exclusively masculine activity.

United States of America
Crossing the Atlantic, the "Game of the Goose" was tailored once again. In the United States, "The Mansion of Happiness" was published in 1843 as one of the first board games mass-produced in America. The adaptation was designed by Anne Abbott, a clergyman's daughter from Beverly, with the purpose of instilling ethical values based on Christian morality. It used gameplay to reflect the lively path to happiness. An introductory verse in the instructions makes this clear:

At this amusement each will find

A moral to improve the mind.

It gives to those their proper due

Who various paths of vice pursue, And shows (while vice destruction brings)

That Good from every Virtue springs.

Be virtuous then and forward press

To gain the seat of Happiness

Germany
Meanwhile, In Germany, around 1933, the “Reise durch Deutschland” (Tour of Germany) was published. At first glance, it mirrored Swiss games designed in the late 19th century to promote tourism, but its purpose was evidently more profound. The game carried a political message, reflecting on the division of Germany after the Treaty of Versailles. It featured depictions of rural workers in traditional attire and opened with a reference to the first Reichstag by Hitler.

Netherlands
A Dutch variation published in 1858 called "Sint Nicolaas," involves the initial dice throw to affect the gameplay differently based on the player's gender. An initial throw of 6 and 3 moves male players to space 25 and female players to space 26, each marked by images of a young man or woman. Conversely, an initial throw of 5 and 4 moves male players to space 51 and female players to space 53, marked with images of an older man or woman, with the implication of being past marriageable age.

Male / Female Rules
Historical variations of the “Game of the Goose” often reflect the cultural norms and gender roles of their times through the rules that differ according to the gender of the player.

title: Game of the Goose


text:
Milk & Kisses

Milk & Kisses is the eighth and final studio album by Scottish alternative rock band Cocteau Twins, issued on 15 April 1996 in the UK by Fontana Records and on 14 May 1996 in the US by Capitol Records. It proved to be their last; a meeting two years later to record a new album ended with the breakup of the band.

Background
Commenting on the inspiration for the title Milk & Kisses for the album, lead singer Elizabeth Fraser said "a friend was kind of comforting me on the phone and they were just being so sweet, really. They had empathy for what I was going through, and they said, ‘I wish I could get the poison out of you. I wish I could just take it out of you and replace it with milk and kisses.’ And I just thought that was really brilliant! It’s beautiful, isn’t it? I kept hearing it and feeling so good about it, it seemed right to use it". On the process of the recording of the album, Robin Guthrie claimed "making this record was a very joyous experience. It only took two months to record, which for us is amazing. Simon used to come into the studio in the daytime to do his thing, then I would come in at night to do mine, and then Liz would come in when neither one of us was around. We were never in the studio at the same time. This time, we really were together much of the time". Raymonde later recalled of Milk & Kisses "the brilliant thing about this album is that it all happened so fast. Robin and I would write a song and then not have to wait around forever the muse to visit Liz".

The song "Rilkean Heart" was an homage to Jeff Buckley, who was a lifelong lover of the work of poet Rainer Maria Rilke.

The Japanese edition of Milk & Kisses contained two bonus tracks ("Flock Of Soul" and "Primitive Heart"). The Hong Kong edition contained a duet version of "Serpentskirt" sung by Elizabeth Fraser with C-pop artist Faye Wong. Wong later recorded an acoustic version of "Rilkean Heart" for her 1997 album Faye Wong, on which Guthrie and Raymonde also wrote a new song, "Yu Le Chang" ("Amusement Park"), for her. In 2013, Sarah Brightman covered their song "Eperdu" on her album Dreamchaser.

Recording
The recording process for Milk and Kisses was a lot smoother and more productive than the previous recording sessions for the band's last album, Four Calendar Cafe (1993), which was recorded and released following the end of Fraser's and Guthrie's 13 year relationship. During the recording sessions for the previous album, the band tried to avoid each other, frequently spending time in the studio on separate occasions, fearing that the band would be unable to work together to complete Milk and Kisses. By 1995, the band seemed to be in a position where they were willing to work and spend time together again, and began the recording process for the album. "We worked quite closely together on this record, which we hadn’t done so much on the previous one" stated Raymonde, further claiming that "Robin and Liz had broken up and it was a complex time. But I actually think the band was in a really good place during Milk & Kisses. Some time had passed and they were both in relationships with different people. All of the rawness was gone from their relationship. Ironically, Liz left a year or so after we finished it."

An alternate Chinese version of the song “Serpentskirt” on the album was recorded by Faye Wong (Wangfei), and featuring lead singer of Cocteau Twins, Elizabeth Fraser, featuring on backing vocals. Wong also recorded a version of “Rilkean Heart", also from Milk & Kisses.

Release and performance
The album was released by Fontana Records, their second release under the label following the release of their 1993 studio album Four Calendar Cafe. The album was released during a time of pressure and fragmented relations between the band and their label, with bassist Simon Raymonde claiming that the band should "never have signed the deal", claiming that the record label worked in a very different manner than that of the band, and that the Cocteau Twins were unable to replicate previous sales and success, which appeared to be a disappointment to the record label.

Speaking during the 25th anniversary of the albums release in 2021, bassist Simon Raymonde stated "I don’t think the recordings [on Milk and Kisses] are anywhere near the best we did by any stretch of the imagination. I think the songwriting was good, but I always felt the record sounded muffled. The remastering has actually helped that, which is something I almost never say. I do have a lot of great memories of it, because as you know it turned out to be our last record.”

Critically, Milk & Kisses received generally positive reviews, with AllMusic claiming "Milk & Kisses finds the band in a comfortable rut; they've created, and now perfected, a style of music so distinctive that there seems to be little recent creative growth. The result is a beautiful, lush, but somewhat dated and unengaging sounding album that tends to wash over the listener without making any real impact. It is, however, everything that a Cocteau Twins album promises; hypnotic, dreamy, awash in ethereal voices, and delicate, liquid guitars".

Track listing
All songs written by Elizabeth Fraser, Robin Guthrie and Simon Raymonde.

 * 1) "Violaine" – 3:45
 * 2) "Serpentskirt" – 3:57
 * 3) "Tishbite" – 3:50
 * 4) "Half-Gifts" – 4:18
 * 5) "Calfskin Smack" – 4:58
 * 6) "Rilkean Heart" – 4:02
 * 7) "Ups" – 3:34
 * 8) "Eperdu" – 4:38
 * 9) "Treasure Hiding" – 4:55
 * 10) "Seekers Who Are Lovers" – 4:45

Personnel

 * Cocteau Twins – production, engineering
 * Des Ward – engineering
 * Lincoln Fong – engineering
 * Mitsuo Tate – engineering
 * Spiros Politis – photography

title: Milk & Kisses


text:
Suntory

Suntory Holdings Limited (サントリーホールディングス株式会社) (commonly referred to as simply Suntory) is a Japanese multinational brewing and distilling company group. Established in 1899, it is one of the oldest companies in the distribution of alcoholic beverages in Japan, and makes Japanese whisky.

Its business has expanded to other fields, and the company now also makes soft drinks and operates sandwich chains. With its 2014 acquisition of Beam, Inc., it has diversified internationally and become the third largest maker of distilled beverages in the world. Suntory is headquartered in Dojimahama 2-chome, Kita-ku, Osaka, Osaka Prefecture.

History
Suntory was started by Shinjirō Torii (鳥井 信治郎), who first opened his store Torii Shōten (鳥井商店) in Osaka on February 1, 1899, to sell imported wines. In 1907, the store began selling a fortified wine called Akadama Port Wine (Akadama literally meaning "red ball," a euphemism for the sun). The store became the Kotobukiya company in 1921 to further expand its business and in 1923, Torii built Japan's first malt whisky distillery Yamazaki Distillery.

Due to shortages during World War II, Kotobukiya was forced to halt its development of new products, but in 1946 it re-released Torys Whisky, which sold well in post-war Japan. In 1961, Kotobukiya launched the "Drink Torys and Go to Hawaii" campaign. At the time, a trip abroad was considered a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity. In 1963, Kotobukiya changed its name to "Suntory", taken from the name of the whisky it produces, which itself was derived from the English "Sun" (referencing "akadama") + Tory, the anglicized version of Torii's name. In the same year, Musashino Beer Factory began its production of the Suntory Beer.

On April 1, 2009, Suntory became a stockholding company named Suntory Holdings Limited (サントリーホールディングス株式会社) and established Suntory Beverage and Food Limited (サントリー食品株式会社), Suntory Products Limited (サントリープロダクツ株式会社), Suntory Wellness Limited (サントリーウェルネス株式会社), Suntory Liquors Limited (サントリー酒類株式会社), Suntory Beer & Spirits Limited (サントリービア&スピリッツ株式会社), Suntory Wine International Limited (サントリーワインインターナショナル株式会社), and Suntory Business Expert Limited (サントリービジネスエキスパート株式会社).

On July 14, 2009, Kirin announced that it was negotiating with Suntory on a merger. On February 8, 2010, it was announced that negotiations between the two were terminated.

In 2009, Suntory acquired Orangina, the orange soft drink for 300 billion yen, and Frucor energy drinks for 600 million euros. On July 2, 2013, the company debuted on the Tokyo stock exchange and raised almost US$4 billion in the process.

In September 2013, Suntory purchased the drinks division of GlaxoSmithKline. This included the brands Lucozade and Ribena, however, the deal did not include Horlicks.

In January 2014, Suntory announced an agreement to buy the largest U.S. bourbon producer, Beam Inc. (producers of Jim Beam) for US$16 billion. This deal would make Suntory the world's third largest spirits maker. The acquisition was completed in April 2014, when it was announced that the new subsidiary would be renamed Beam Suntory.

In December 2015, Beam Suntory acquired the gin maker Sipsmith.

In November 2017, Suntory and PepsiCo form a joint venture in Thailand.

In 2018, Suntory sold most of Cerebos Pacific assets, including Australian and New Zealand food business to Kraft Heinz for A$290 million. This transaction excludes Cerebos Pacific's health supplements and fresh coffee business which later integrated into Suntory Beverage & Food Asia Pte. Ltd. and Suntory Coffee Australia respectively.

In March 2023, Makiko Ono became the first woman to be appointed CEO of Suntory Beverage & Food Ltd.

In May 2024, Beam Suntory was re-branded as Suntory Global Spirits including the launch of a new website and visual identity.

Subsidiaries

 * Château Lagrange S.A.S
 * Florigene Pty Ltd
 * Frucor Suntory
 * Gold Knoll Ltd
 * Grupo Restaurante Suntory Mexico
 * Morrison Bowmore Distillers, Limited
 * Orangina
 * Pepsi Bottling Ventures LLC
 * Suntory Beverage & Food Asia Pte. Ltd.
 * Suntory Global Spirits
 * Suntory PepsiCo Vietnam Beverage Co., Ltd (joint venture with PepsiCo)
 * Subway Japan
 * Tipco F&B Co., Ltd

Joint ventures

From the early 1990s, Suntory has collaborated extensively with Melbourne biotechnology firm Florigene to genetically engineer the world's first true blue rose, a symbol often associated with the impossible or unattainable. In 1991, the team won the intense global race to isolate the gene responsible for blue flowers, and has since developed a range of genetically modified flowers expressing colors in the blue spectrum, as well as a number of other breakthroughs extending the vase life of cut flowers.

In 2003, Suntory acquired a 98.5% equity holding in Florigene. Prior to this, Florigene had been a subsidiary of global agrochemicals giant Nufarm since 1999. In July 2004, Suntory and Florigene scientists announced to the world the development of the first roses containing blue pigment, an important step toward the creation of a truly blue colored rose.

In July 2011, Suntory Beverage and Food Limited together with PT GarudaFood from Tudung Group in Indonesia have agreed to make a new firm to produce non-alcoholic drink with 51 percent and 49 percent shares respectively. It will produce Suntory Oolong Tea, Boss and Orangina.

In April 2019, Suntory partnered with Drinkripples, an Israeli-based company. As part of the collaboration Suntory will use Drinkripples' Ripple Maker machines to print branded and viral content on top of Suntory beer in Suntory certified locations and factories throughout Japan.

Brands
Suntory beverage brands include:

Soft drinks: Bikkle, Boss Coffee, C.C. Lemon, Calcium and Iron Beverage, Gini, Green DAKARA, Iyemon, Lucozade, MayTea, Mizone, Nature’s Twist, Oasis, Okky, Iced Oolong Tea, Orangina, Ribena, Schweppes, TEA+, Tennensui, V, Pepsi Special Beer: All-Free, Kin-Mugi, The Premium Malt's

Gin: Larios, Sipsmith, Roku

Liqueur: DeKuyper, Midori, Sourz

Rum: Cruzan

Tequila: El Tesoro de Don Felipe, Hornitos, Sauza, Tres Generaciones, 100 Años

Vodka: Effen, Haku, Pinnacle, Vox

Bourbon whiskey: Baker's, Basil Hayden's, Beam's Eight Star, Booker's, Jim Beam, Kessler, Knob Creek, Legent, Maker's Mark, Old Crow, Old Grand-Dad

Canadian whisky: Alberta Premium, Canadian Club

Irish whiskey: Connemara, Kilbeggan, The Tyrconnell

Japanese whisky: Chita, Hakushu, Hibiki, Kakubin, Toki, Yamazaki

Scotch whisky:

Single malt Scotch: Ardmore, Auchentoshan, Bowmore, Glen Garioch, Laphroaig

Blended Scotch whisky: Teacher's Highland Cream

Spanish whisky: DYC whisky

Wine: Akadama, Delica Maison, Château Lagrange Les Fiefs de Lagrange

Media and advertising

 * Suntory was one of the first East Asian companies to specifically employ American celebrities to market their product. One of the most notable is Sammy Davis, Jr., who appeared in a series of Suntory commercials in the early 1970s. In the late 1970s, Akira Kurosawa directed a series of commercials featuring American celebrities on the set of his film Kagemusha. One of these featured Francis Ford Coppola (an executive producer of the film), which later inspired his daughter Sofia Coppola in her writing of Lost in Translation, a film which focuses on an American actor (played by Bill Murray) filming a Suntory commercial in Tokyo for the Hibiki whisky.
 * Suntory operates two museums, the Suntory Museum of Art in Tokyo and the Suntory Museum Tempozan in Osaka, in addition to a number of cultural and social programs across Japan.
 * In the 1970s, Suntory engaged the US pop group the Carpenters to advertise its new line of soft drinks.
 * Suntory is a former sponsor of the professional match play golf tournament, played annually at Wentworth Club, near London.
 * In 2023 for Suntory's 100th year anniversary, and 20 years after the appearance of Lost in Translation, director Sofia Coppola was asked to direct the company's anniversary tribute video starring Keanu Reeves, with a mix that included scenes from her film along with footage of her father and Akira Kurosawa's Suntory Whiskey advertisement from the 1970s.

title: Suntory


text:
Talk:Don Foster, Baron Foster of Bath

Untitled
Is he entitled to the style "The Honourable"?
 * The Honourable says "In the House of Commons and other lower houses of Parliament and other legislatures, members refer to each other as honourable members etc. out of courtesy, despite the fact that they are not entitled to the style in writing", which I think is correct. In wikipedia I don't think MP's articles usually use "The Honourable". I'd say remove it. Rwendland 12:24, 2 June 2006 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Don Foster, Baron Foster of Bath


text:
Foam

Foams are materials formed by trapping pockets of gas in a liquid or solid.

A bath sponge and the head on a glass of beer are examples of foams. In most foams, the volume of gas is large, with thin films of liquid or solid separating the regions of gas. Soap foams are also known as suds.

Solid foams can be closed-cell or open-cell. In closed-cell foam, the gas forms discrete pockets, each completely surrounded by the solid material. In open-cell foam, gas pockets connect to each other. A bath sponge is an example of an open-cell foam: water easily flows through the entire structure, displacing the air. A sleeping mat is an example of a closed-cell foam: gas pockets are sealed from each other so the mat cannot soak up water.

Foams are examples of dispersed media. In general, gas is present, so it divides into gas bubbles of different sizes (i.e., the material is polydisperse)—separated by liquid regions that may form films, thinner and thinner when the liquid phase drains out of the system films. When the principal scale is small, i.e., for a very fine foam, this dispersed medium can be considered a type of colloid.

Foam can also refer to something that is analogous to foam, such as quantum foam.

Structure
A foam is, in many cases, a multi-scale system.

One scale is the bubble: material foams are typically disordered and have a variety of bubble sizes. At larger sizes, the study of idealized foams is closely linked to the mathematical problems of minimal surfaces and three-dimensional tessellations, also called honeycombs. The Weaire–Phelan structure is considered the best possible (optimal) unit cell of a perfectly ordered foam, while Plateau's laws describe how soap-films form structures in foams.

At lower scale than the bubble is the thickness of the film for metastable foams, which can be considered a network of interconnected films called lamellae. Ideally, the lamellae connect in triads and radiate 120° outward from the connection points, known as Plateau borders.

An even lower scale is the liquid–air interface at the surface of the film. Most of the time this interface is stabilized by a layer of amphiphilic structure, often made of surfactants, particles (Pickering emulsion), or more complex associations.

Mechanical properties of solid foams
Solid foams, both open-cell and closed-cell, are considered as a sub-class of cellular structures. They often have lower nodal connectivity as compared to other cellular structures like honeycombs and truss lattices, and thus, their failure mechanism is dominated by bending of members. Low nodal connectivity and the resulting failure mechanism ultimately lead to their lower mechanical strength and stiffness compared to honeycombs and truss lattices.

The strength of foams can be impacted by the density, the material used, and the arrangement of the cellular structure (open vs closed and pore isotropy). To characterize the mechanical properties of foams, compressive stress-strain curves are used to measure their strength and ability to absorb energy since this is an important factor in foam based technologies.

Elastomeric foam
For elastomeric cellular solids, as the foam is compressed, first it behaves elastically as the cell walls bend, then as the cell walls buckle there is yielding and breakdown of the material until finally the cell walls crush together and the material ruptures. This is seen in a stress-strain curve as a steep linear elastic regime, a linear regime with a shallow slope after yielding (plateau stress), and an exponentially increasing regime. The stiffness of the material can be calculated from the linear elastic regime where the modulus for open celled foams can be defined by the equation: $$\left ( \frac{E^*}{E_s} \right )_f = C_f\left ( \frac{\rho^*}{\rho_s} \right )^2$$

where $$E_s$$ is the modulus of the solid component, $$E^*$$ is the modulus of the honeycomb structure, $$C_f$$ is a constant having a value close to one, $$\rho^*$$ is the density of the honeycomb structure, and $$\rho_s$$ is the density of the solid. The elastic modulus for closed cell foams can be described similarly by:

$$\left ( \frac{E^*}{E_s} \right )_f = C_f\left ( \frac{\rho^*}{\rho_s} \right )^3$$

where the only difference is the exponent in the density dependence. However, in real materials, a closed-cell foam has more material at the cell edges which makes it more closely follow the equation for open-cell foams. The ratio of the density of the honeycomb structure compared with the solid structure has a large impact on the modulus of the material. Overall, foam strength increases with density of the cell and stiffness of the matrix material.

Energy of deformation
Another important property which can be deduced from the stress strain curve is the energy that the foam is able to absorb. The area under the curve (specified to be before rapid densification at the peak stress), represents the energy in the foam in units of energy per unit volume. The maximum energy stored by the foam prior to rupture is described by the equation:

$$\frac{W_{max}}{E_s} = 0.05\left ( \frac{\rho^*}{\rho_s} \right )^2\left [0.975-1.4 \left ( \frac{\rho^*}{\rho_s} \right ) \right]$$

This equation is derived from assuming an idealized foam with engineering approximations from experimental results. Most energy absorption occurs at the plateau stress region after the steep linear elastic regime.

Directional dependence
The isotropy of the cellular structure and the absorption of fluids can also have an impact on the mechanical properties of a foam. If there is anisotropy present, then the materials response to stress will be directionally dependent, and thus the stress-strain curve, modulus, and energy absorption will vary depending on the direction of applied force. Also, open-cell structures which have connected pores can allow water or other liquids to flow through the structure, which can also affect the rigidity and energy absorption capabilities.

Formation
Several conditions are needed to produce foam: there must be mechanical work, surface active components (surfactants) that reduce the surface tension, and the formation of foam faster than its breakdown. To create foam, work (W) is needed to increase the surface area (ΔA):

 * $$ W = \gamma \Delta A \,\!$$

where γ is the surface tension.

One of the ways foam is created is through dispersion, where a large amount of gas is mixed with a liquid. A more specific method of dispersion involves injecting a gas through a hole in a solid into a liquid. If this process is completed very slowly, then one bubble can be emitted from the orifice at a time as shown in the picture below.

One of the theories for determining the separation time is shown below; however, while this theory produces theoretical data that matches the experimental data, detachment due to capillarity is accepted as a better explanation.

The buoyancy force acts to raise the bubble, which is

 * $$ F_b = Vg(\rho_2-\rho_1)\!$$

where $$V$$ is the volume of the bubble, $$g$$ is the acceleration due to gravity, and ρ1 is the density of the gas ρ2 is the density of the liquid. The force working against the buoyancy force is the surface tension force, which is

 * $$ F_s = 2r \pi\gamma\!$$,

where γ is the surface tension, and $$r$$ is the radius of the orifice. As more air is pushed into the bubble, the buoyancy force grows quicker than the surface tension force. Thus, detachment occurs when the buoyancy force is large enough to overcome the surface tension force.
 * $$ Vg(\rho_2-\rho_1)> 2r \pi\gamma\!$$

In addition, if the bubble is treated as a sphere with a radius of $$R$$ and the volume $$V$$ is substituted in to the equation above, separation occurs at the moment when
 * $$ R^3=\frac{3r\gamma}{2g(\rho_2-\rho_1)}\!$$

Examining this phenomenon from a capillarity viewpoint for a bubble that is being formed very slowly, it can be assumed that the pressure $$p$$ inside is constant everywhere. The hydrostatic pressure in the liquid is designated by $$p_0$$. The change in pressure across the interface from gas to liquid is equal to the capillary pressure; hence,

 * $$ p-p_0=\gamma\left (\frac{1}{R_1}+\frac{1}{R_2}\right)\!$$

where R1 and R2 are the radii of curvature and are set as positive. At the stem of the bubble, R3 and R4 are the radii of curvature also treated as positive. Here the hydrostatic pressure in the liquid has to take in account z, the distance from the top to the stem of the bubble. The new hydrostatic pressure at the stem of the bubble is p0(ρ1 − ρ2)z. The hydrostatic pressure balances the capillary pressure, which is shown below:

 * $$ p-p_0-(\rho_2-\rho_1)gz=\gamma\left (\frac{1}{R_3}+\frac{1}{R_4}\right)\!$$

Finally, the difference in the top and bottom pressure equal the change in hydrostatic pressure:

 * $$ (\rho_2-\rho_1)gz=\gamma\left (\frac{1}{R_1}+\frac{1}{R_2}-\frac{1}{R_3}-\frac{1}{R_4}\right)\!$$

At the stem of the bubble, the shape of the bubble is nearly cylindrical; consequently, either R3 or R4 is large while the other radius of curvature is small. As the stem of the bubble grows in length, it becomes more unstable as one of the radius grows and the other shrinks. At a certain point, the vertical length of the stem exceeds the circumference of the stem and due to the buoyancy forces the bubble separates and the process repeats.

Stabilization
The stabilization of a foam is caused by van der Waals forces between the molecules in the foam, electrical double layers created by dipolar surfactants, and the Marangoni effect, which acts as a restoring force to the lamellae.

The Marangoni effect depends on the liquid that is foaming being impure. Generally, surfactants in the solution decrease the surface tension. The surfactants also clump together on the surface and form a layer as shown below.

For the Marangoni effect to occur, the foam must be indented as shown in the first picture. This indentation increases local surface area. Surfactants have a larger diffusion time than the bulk of the solution—so the surfactants are less concentrated in the indentation.

Also, surface stretching makes the surface tension of the indented spot greater than the surrounding area. Consequentially—since diffusion time for the surfactants is large—the Marangoni effect has time to take place. The difference in surface tension creates a gradient, which instigates fluid flow from areas of lower surface tension to areas of higher surface tension. The second picture shows the film at equilibrium after the Marangoni effect has taken place.

Curing a foam solidifies it, making it indefinitely stable at STP.

Destabilization
Witold Rybczynski and Jacques Hadamard developed an equation to calculate the velocity of bubbles that rise in foam with the assumption that the bubbles are spherical with a radius $$r$$.

 * $$ u=\frac{2gr^2}{9\eta_2}(\rho_2-\rho_1)\left (\frac{3\eta_1+3\eta_2}{3\eta_1+2\eta_2}\right)\!$$

with velocity in units of centimeters per second. ρ1 and ρ2 is the density for a gas and liquid respectively in units of g/cm3 and ῃ1 and ῃ2 is the dynamic  viscosity of the gas and liquid respectively in units of g/cm·s and g is the  acceleration of gravity in units of cm/s2.

However, since the density and viscosity of a liquid is much greater than the gas, the density and viscosity of the gas can be neglected, which yields the new equation for velocity of bubbles rising as:
 * $$ u=\frac{gr^2}{3\eta_2}(\rho_2)\!$$

However, through experiments it has been shown that a more accurate model for bubbles rising is:
 * $$ u=\frac{2gr^2}{9\eta_2}(\rho_2-\rho_1)\!$$

Deviations are due to the Marangoni effect and capillary pressure, which affect the assumption that the bubbles are spherical. For laplace pressure of a curved gas liquid interface, the two principal radii of curvature at a point are R1 and R2. With a curved interface, the pressure in one phase is greater than the pressure in another phase. The capillary pressure Pc is given by the equation of:

 * $$ P_c=\gamma\left (\frac{1}{R_1}+\frac{1}{R_2}\right)\!$$,

where $$\gamma$$ is the surface tension. The bubble shown below is a gas (phase 1) in a liquid (phase 2) and point A designates the top of the bubble while point B designates the bottom of the bubble.

At the top of the bubble at point A, the pressure in the liquid is assumed to be p0 as well as in the gas. At the bottom of the bubble at point B, the hydrostatic pressure is:
 * $$ P_B,1=p_0+g\rho_1z\!$$
 * $$ P_B,2=p_0+g\rho_2z\!$$

where ρ1 and ρ2 is the density for a gas and liquid respectively. The difference in hydrostatic pressure at the top of the bubble is 0, while the difference in hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the bubble across the interface is gz(ρ2 − ρ1). Assuming that the radii of curvature at point A are equal and denoted by RA and that the radii of curvature at point B are equal and denoted by RB, then the difference in capillary pressure between point A and point B is:

 * $$ P_c=2\gamma\left (\frac{1}{R_A}-\frac{1}{R_B}\right)\!$$

At equilibrium, the difference in capillary pressure must be balanced by the difference in hydrostatic pressure. Hence,
 * $$ gz(\rho_2-\rho_1)=2\gamma\left (\frac{1}{R_A}-\frac{1}{R_B}\right)\!$$

Since, the density of the gas is less than the density of the liquid the left hand side of the equation is always positive. Therefore, the inverse of RA must be larger than the RB. Meaning that from the top of the bubble to the bottom of the bubble the radius of curvature increases. Therefore, without neglecting gravity the bubbles cannot be spherical. In addition, as z increases, this causes the difference in RA and RB too, which means the bubble deviates more from its shape the larger it grows.

Foam destabilization occurs for several reasons. First, gravitation causes drainage of liquid to the foam base, which Rybczynski and Hadamar include in their theory; however, foam also destabilizes due to osmotic pressure causes drainage from the lamellas to the Plateau borders due to internal concentration differences in the foam, and Laplace pressure causes diffusion of gas from small to large bubbles due to pressure difference. In addition, films can break under disjoining pressure, These effects can lead to rearrangement of the foam structure at scales larger than the bubbles, which may be individual (T1 process) or collective (even of the "avalanche" type).

Experiments and characterizations
Being a multi-scale system involving many phenomena, and a versatile medium, foam can be studied using many different techniques. Considering the different scales, experimental techniques are diffraction ones, mainly light scattering techniques (DWS, see below, static and dynamic light scattering, X-rays and neutron scattering) at sub-micrometer scales, or microscopic ones. Considering the system as continuous, its bulk properties can be characterized by light transmittance but also conductimetry. The correlation between structure and bulk is evidenced more accurately by acoustics in particular. The organisation between bubbles has been studied numerically using sequential attempts of evolution of the minimum surface energy either at random (Pott's model) or deterministic way (surface evolver). The evolution with time (i.e., the dynamics) can be simulated using these models, or the bubble model (Durian), which considers the motion of individual bubbles.

Observations of the small-scale structure can be made by shining the foam with laser light or x-ray beams and measuring the reflectivity of the films between bubbles. Observations of the global structure can be done using neutron scattering.

A typical light scattering (or diffusion) optical technique, multiple light scattering coupled with vertical scanning, is the most widely used technique to monitor the dispersion state of a product, hence identifying and quantifying destabilization phenomena. It works on any concentrated dispersions without dilution, including foams. When light is sent through the sample, it is backscattered by the bubbles. The backscattering intensity is directly proportional to the size and volume fraction of the dispersed phase. Therefore, local changes in concentration (drainage, syneresis) and global changes in size (ripening, coalescence) are detected and monitored.

Liquid foams
Liquid foams can be used in fire retardant foam, such as those that are used in extinguishing fires, especially oil fires.

In some ways, leavened bread is a foam, as the yeast causes the bread to rise by producing tiny bubbles of gas in the dough. The dough has traditionally been understood as a closed-cell foam, in which the pores do not connect with each other. Cutting the dough releases the gas in the bubbles that are cut, but the gas in the rest of the dough cannot escape. When dough is allowed to rise too far, it becomes an open-cell foam, in which the gas pockets are connected. Cutting the dough or the surface otherwise breaking at that point would cause a large volume of gas to escape, and the dough would collapse. The open structure of an over-risen dough is easy to observe: instead of consisting of discrete gas bubbles, the dough consists of a gas space filled with threads of the flour-water paste. Recent research has indicated that the pore structure in bread is 99% interconnected into one large vacuole, thus the closed-cell foam of the moist dough is transformed into an open cell solid foam in the bread.

The unique property of gas-liquid foams having very high specific surface area is exploited in the chemical processes of froth flotation and foam fractionation.

Foam depopulation or foaming is a means of mass killing farm animals by spraying foam over a large area to obstruct breathing and ultimately cause suffocation. It is usually used to attempt to stop disease spread.

Solid foams
Solid foams are a class of lightweight cellular engineering materials. These foams are typically classified into two types based on their pore structure: open-cell-structured foams (also known as reticulated foams) and closed-cell foams. At high enough cell resolutions, any type can be treated as continuous or "continuum" materials and are referred to as cellular solids, with predictable mechanical properties.

Open-cell foams can be used to filter air. For example, a foam embedded with catalyst has been shown to catalytically convert formaldehyde to benign substances when formaldehyde polluted air passes through the open cell structure.

Open-cell-structured foams contain pores that are connected to each other and form an interconnected network that is relatively soft. Open-cell foams fill with whatever gas surrounds them. If filled with air, a relatively good insulator results, but, if the open cells fill with water, insulation properties would be reduced. Recent studies have put the focus on studying the properties of open-cell foams as an insulator material. Wheat gluten/TEOS bio-foams have been produced, showing similar insulator properties as for those foams obtained from oil-based resources. Foam rubber is a type of open-cell foam.

Closed-cell foams do not have interconnected pores. The closed-cell foams normally have higher compressive strength due to their structures. However, closed-cell foams are also, in general more dense, require more material, and as a consequence are more expensive to produce. The closed cells can be filled with a specialized gas to provide improved insulation. The closed-cell structure foams have higher dimensional stability, low moisture absorption coefficients, and higher strength compared to open-cell-structured foams. All types of foam are widely used as core material in sandwich-structured composite materials.

The earliest known engineering use of cellular solids is with wood, which in its dry form is a closed-cell foam composed of lignin, cellulose, and air. From the early 20th century, various types of specially manufactured solid foams came into use. The low density of these foams makes them excellent as thermal insulators and flotation devices and their lightness and compressibility make them ideal as packing materials and stuffings.

An example of the use of azodicarbonamide as a blowing agent is found in the manufacture of vinyl (PVC) and EVA-PE foams, where it plays a role in the formation of air bubbles by breaking down into gas at high temperature.

The random or "stochastic" geometry of these foams makes them good for energy absorption, as well. In the late 20th century to early 21st century, new manufacturing techniques have allowed for geometry that results in excellent strength and stiffness per weight. These new materials are typically referred to as engineered cellular solids.

Syntactic foam
A special class of closed-cell foams, known as syntactic foam, contains hollow particles embedded in a matrix material. The spheres can be made from several materials, including glass, ceramic, and polymers. The advantage of syntactic foams is that they have a very high strength-to-weight ratio, making them ideal materials for many applications, including deep-sea and space applications. One particular syntactic foam employs shape memory polymer as its matrix, enabling the foam to take on the characteristics of shape memory resins and composite materials; i.e., it has the ability to be reshaped repeatedly when heated above a certain temperature and cooled. Shape memory foams have many possible applications, such as dynamic structural support, flexible foam core, and expandable foam fill.

Integral skin foam
Integral skin foam, also known as self-skin foam, is a type of foam with a high-density skin and a low-density core. It can be formed in an open-mold process or a closed-mold process. In the open-mold process, two reactive components are mixed and poured into an open mold. The mold is then closed and the mixture is allowed to expand and cure. Examples of items produced using this process include arm rests, baby seats, shoe soles, and mattresses. The closed-mold process, more commonly known as reaction injection molding (RIM), injects the mixed components into a closed mold under high pressures.

Defoaming
Foam, in this case meaning "bubbly liquid", is also produced as an often-unwanted by-product in the manufacture of various substances. For example, foam is a serious problem in the chemical industry, especially for biochemical processes. Many biological substances, for example proteins, easily create foam on agitation or aeration. Foam is a problem because it alters the liquid flow and blocks oxygen transfer from air (thereby preventing microbial respiration in aerobic fermentation processes). For this reason, anti-foaming agents, like silicone oils, are added to prevent these problems. Chemical methods of foam control are not always desired with respect to the problems (i.e., contamination, reduction of mass transfer) they may cause especially in food and pharmaceutical industries, where the product quality is of great importance. Mechanical methods to prevent foam formation are more common than chemical ones.

Speed of sound
The acoustical property of the speed of sound through a foam is of interest when analyzing failures of hydraulic components. The analysis involves calculating total hydraulic cycles to fatigue failure. The speed of sound in a foam is determined by the mechanical properties of the gas creating the foam: oxygen, nitrogen, or combinations.

Assuming that the speed of sound is based on the liquid's fluid properties leads to errors in calculating fatigue cycles and failure of mechanical hydraulic components. Using acoustical transducers and related instrumentation that set low limits (0–50,000 Hz with roll-off) causes errors. The low roll-off during measurement of actual frequency of acoustic cycles results in miscalculation due to actual hydraulic cycles in the possible ranges of 1–1000 MHz or higher. Instrumentation systems are most revealing when cycle bandwidths exceed the actual measured cycles by a factor of 10 to 100. Associated instrumentation costs also increase by factors of 10 to 100.

Most moving hydro-mechanical components cycle at 0–50 Hz, but entrained gas bubbles resulting in a foamy condition of the associated hydraulic fluid results in actual hydraulic cycles that can exceed 1000 MHz even if the moving mechanical components do not cycle at the higher cycle frequency.

title: Foam


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Thomas Hooker

Thomas Hooker (July 5, 1586 – July 7, 1647) was a prominent English colonial leader and Congregational minister, who founded the Connecticut Colony after dissenting with Puritan leaders in Massachusetts. He was known as an outstanding speaker and an advocate of universal Christian suffrage.

Called today "the Father of Connecticut", Thomas Hooker was a towering figure in the early development of colonial New England. He was one of the great preachers of his time, an erudite writer on Christian subjects, the first minister of Cambridge, Massachusetts, and one of the first settlers and founders of both the city of Hartford and the state of Connecticut. He has been cited by many as the inspiration for the "Fundamental Orders of Connecticut", which some have described as the world's first written democratic constitution establishing a representative government. Following the Rev. Hooker's sermon in which he declared, "The foundation of authority is laid in the free consent of the people", the Fundamental Orders were adopted by the colony of Connecticut on January 14, 1639 (by New Style reckoning). While some modern historians dispute the claim that this was the first constitution in the western democratic tradition, neither the Mayflower Compact nor the Narragansett communities' agreements established any forms of government. Furthermore, former Connecticut Chief Justice Simeon E. Baldwin upheld the claim in Norris Osborn's History of Connecticut in Monographic Form, declaring that "never had a company of men deliberately met to frame a social compact for immediate use, constituting a new and independent commonwealth, with definite officers, executive and legislative, and prescribed rules and modes of government, until the first planters of Connecticut came together for their great work on January 14th, 1638–9." Drafted primarily by Roger Ludlow, it was the first compact between a government and the people to uphold the Rev. Hooker’s proclamation that the foundation of constitutional authority was with the people. Ref: Osborn, Norris Galpin, Editor, History of Connecticut in Monographic Form (States History Co., 1925); Hooker, John, An Account of the Reunion of the Descendants of Rev. Thomas Hooker (The Salem Press, 1890), p. 27; Logan, Walter Seth, Thomas Hooker, the First American Democrat (The Order of the Founders and Patriots of America, 1904), p. 19; Lutz, Donald S., Stephen L. Schechter & Richard B. Bernstein, Roots of the Republic: American Founding Documents Interpreted, p. 24; CT.gov, The Official State of Connecticut Website [ww.ct.gov/ctportal/cwp/view.asp?a=246434]; Connecticut, History of the USA http://www.usahistory.info/New-England/Connecticut.html.

Early life
Thomas Hooker was likely born in Leicestershire at "Marfield" (Marefield or possibly Markfield) or Birstall. He went to Dixie Grammar School at Market Bosworth. Family genealogist Edward Hooker linked Thomas Hooker to the Hooker family in Devon, which produced the theologian and clergyman Richard Hooker. Other Hooker genealogists, however, have traced Thomas Hooker to Leicestershire. Positive evidence linking Thomas to Leicestershire is lacking since the Marefield parish records from before 1610 were lost. Any link to the Rev. Richard is likewise lacking since the Rev. Thomas's personal papers were disposed of and his house destroyed after his death.

College
In March 1604, Hooker entered Queens' College, Cambridge as a sizar but migrated to Emmanuel College. He received his Bachelor of Arts in 1608 and his Master of Arts in 1611. In 1609 he was elected to a Dixie fellowship at Emmanuel.

Hooker was appointed to St George's Church, Esher, Surrey in 1620, where he earned a reputation as an excellent speaker. He also became noted for his pastoral care of Mrs. Joan Drake, the wife of the patron. She was a depressive whose stages of spiritual regeneration became a model for his later theological thinking. While associated with the Drake household, he married Susannah Garbrand, Mrs. Drake's woman-in-waiting (April 3, 1621) in Amersham, Mrs. Drake's birthplace.

Around 1626, Hooker became a lecturer or preacher at what was then St. Mary's parish church, Chelmsford (now Chelmsford Cathedral) and curate to its rector, John Michaelson. In 1629 Archbishop William Laud suppressed church lecturers, and Hooker retired to Little Baddow where he kept a school.

His leadership of Puritan sympathizers brought him a summons to the Court of High Commission. Forfeiting his bond, Hooker fled to Rotterdam in the Netherlands, and considered a position in the English Reformed Church, Amsterdam, as assistant to its senior pastor, the Rev. John Paget. From the Netherlands, after a clandestine trip to England to put his affairs in order, he immigrated to the Massachusetts Bay Colony aboard the Griffin.

Hooker arrived in Boston and settled in Newtown (later renamed Cambridge), where he became the pastor of the earliest established church there, known to its members as "The Church of Christ at Cambridge." His congregation, some of whom may have been members of congregations he had served in England, became known as "Mr. Hooker's Company". For a time he lived in Watertown, Massachusetts, but felt that the towns were too close together. When the General Court of Massachusetts allowed residents to split off and found new communities, his group was among the first to go.

Voting in Massachusetts was limited to freemen, individuals who had been formally admitted to their church after a detailed interrogation of their religious views and experiences. Hooker disagreed with this limitation of suffrage, putting him at odds with the influential pastor John Cotton.

Owing to his conflict with Cotton, discontented with the suppression of Puritan suffrage, and at odds with the colony leadership, Hooker and the Rev. Samuel Stone led a group of about 100 who, in 1636, founded the settlement of Hartford. It was named for Stone's birthplace, Hertford in England.

They founded the Connecticut Colony. Hooker became more active in politics in Connecticut. The General Court representing Wethersfield, Windsor and Hartford met at the end of May 1638 to frame a written constitution in order to establish a government for the commonwealth. Hooker preached the opening sermon at First Church of Hartford on May 31, declaring that "the foundation of authority is laid in the free consent of the people."

On January 14, 1639, freemen from these three settlements ratified the "Fundamental Orders of Connecticut" in what John Fiske called "the first written constitution known to history that created a government. It marked the beginnings of American democracy, of which Thomas Hooker deserves more than any other man to be called the father. The government of the United States today is in lineal descent more nearly related to that of Connecticut than to that of any of the other thirteen colonies."

In recognition of this, near Chelmsford Cathedral, Essex, England, where Hooker had been town lecturer and curate, there is a blue plaque fixed high on the wall of a narrow alleyway, opposite the south porch, that reads: "Thomas Hooker, 1586–1647, Curate at St. Mary's Church and Chelmsford Town Lecturer 1626–29. Founder of the State of Connecticut, Father of American Democracy."

Death and legacy
Hooker died during the 1647 North American influenza epidemic on July 7, at the age of 61, two days after his birthday. The location of his grave is unknown, although he is believed to be buried in Hartford's Ancient Burying Ground. A crypt was erected there; in addition a plaque on the back of the First Church refers to his burial.

Because there was no known portrait of him, in the 20th century Frances Laughlin Wadsworth used the likenesses of his descendants to sculpt the commissioned statue of Hooker that was erected in 1938 in front of Hartford's Old State House.

Views
Thomas Hooker strongly advocated extended suffrage to include Puritan worshippers, leading him and his followers to colonize Connecticut. He also promoted the concept of a government that must answer to the people, stating: "[T]hey who have the power to appoint officers and magistrates, it is in their power, also, to set the bounds and limitations of the power and place unto which they call them" through "the privilege of election, which belongs to the people according to the blessed will and law of God". Hooker argued for greater religious tolerance towards all Christian denominations.

Hooker defended the calling of synods by magistrates, and attended a convention of ministers in Boston whose purpose was to defend Congregationalism. Hooker later published A Survey of the Summed of Church-Discipline in defense of Congregationalism, and applied its principles to politics and government.

Thomas Hooker was a prominent proponent of the doctrine of preparationism, which taught that by making use of the means of grace, a "person seeking conversion might dispose himself toward receiving God's grace." He believed that much of God's favor needed to be re-earned by men. To Hooker, sin was the most crafty of enemies, defeating grace on most occasions. He disagreed with many of the predecessor theologies of Free Grace theology, preferring a more muted view on the subject. He focused on preparation for heaven and following the moralist character.

Family
Thomas Hooker came to the colonies with his second wife, Suzanne. Nothing is known of his first wife.

His son Samuel, likely born at Cambridge, Massachusetts, graduated from Harvard College in 1653. He became minister of Farmington, Connecticut, where his descendants lived for many generations. Of Rev. Samuel Hooker, Cotton Mather wrote in Magnalia Christi Americana: "Thus we have to this day among us our dead Hooker, yet living in his worthy son Samuel Hooker, an able, faithful, useful minister at Farmington, in the Colony of Connecticut."

His daughter Mary married Rev. Roger Newton, who was a founder and first minister of Farmington, Connecticut. Newton later was called as minister in Milford, Connecticut.

His grandchildren also had prominent lives. John Hooker, son of Rev. Samuel and grandson of Rev. Thomas, served as Speaker of the Connecticut Assembly, and previously as Judge of the state supreme court. James Hooker, brother of John and son of Rev. Samuel, also became a prominent political figure in Connecticut. He married the daughter of William Leete of Guilford, Connecticut, and subsequently settled there. James Hooker served as the first probate judge, and later as speaker of the Connecticut colonial assembly. Rev. Thomas's granddaughter Mary Hooker, the daughter of Rev. Samuel, married the Rev. James Pierpont. Their daughter Sarah Pierpont married the Rev. Jonathan Edwards.

Other descendants of Thomas Hooker include Henry Hooker, John Hooker, Arthur Atterbury, Charles Atterbury Mary Hooker Pierpont, William Howard Taft, Timothy Dwight V, Aaron Burr, William Gillette, William Huntington Russell, Edward H. Gillette, George Catlin, Emma Willard, J.P. Morgan, Rev. Joshua Leavitt, Roger Hooker Leavitt, Hart Leavitt, Frank Nelson Doubleday, John Turner Sargent, Thom Miller, Adonijah Rockwell and Nathan Watson. On May 16, 1890, descendants of Thomas Hooker held their first reunion at Hartford, Connecticut.

Notable Hooker descendants

 * Allen Butler Talcott, painter
 * John Butler Talcott, industrialist and founder of the New Britain Museum of American Art
 * Elon Huntington Hooker, industrialist and founder of the Hooker Electrochemical Company.

title: Thomas Hooker


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List of companies of Russia

Russia has an high income mixed economy with state ownership in strategic areas of the economy. Market reforms in the 1990s privatized much of Russian industry and agriculture, with notable exceptions to this privatization occurring in the energy and defense-related sectors. Russia's vast geography is an important determinant of its economic activity, with some sources estimating that Russia contains over 30 percent of the world's natural resources. The World Bank estimates the total value of Russia's natural resources at US$75 trillion. Russia relies on energy revenues to drive most of its growth. Russia has an abundance of petroleum, natural gas and precious metals, which make up a major share of Russia's exports. the oil-and-gas sector accounted for 16% of the GDP, 52% of federal budget revenues and over 70% of total exports.

Largest firms
State-owned enterprise

Historical rankings
1995
 * 1) RAO UES
 * 2) Gazprom
 * 3) LUKoil
 * 4) Rosugol
 * 5) Rosneft
 * 6) Norilsk Nickel
 * 7) YUKOS
 * 8) Siberian-Far Eastern Oil Company (Sidanko)
 * 9) Surgutneftegas
 * 10) AvtoVAZ
 * 11) Severstal
 * 12) Magnitogorsk Iron and Steel Works
 * 13) Novolipetsk Steel
 * 14) GAZ
 * 15) Eastern Oil Company
 * 16) Alrosa
 * 17) Nizhny Tagil Iron and Steel Works
 * 18) Tatneft
 * 19) West-Siberian Metal Plant
 * 20) Kuznetsk Iron and Steel Works

2000
 * 1) Gazprom
 * 2) LUKoil
 * 3) RAO UES
 * 4) Surgutneftegas
 * 5) Norilsk Nickel
 * 6) Bashkir Fuel Company
 * 7) YUKOS
 * 8) AvtoVAZ
 * 9) Rosneft
 * 10) Tatneft
 * 11) Tyumen
 * 12) Sibneft
 * 13) Alrosa
 * 14) Severstal
 * 15) Slavneft
 * 16) Magnitogorsk Iron and Steel Works
 * 17) Novolipetsk Steel
 * 18) GAZ
 * 19) Orenburgneft
 * 20) Siberian-Far Eastern Oil Company (Sidanco)

2005
 * 1) Gazprom
 * 2) LUKoil
 * 3) RAO UES
 * 4) Russian Railways
 * 5) YUKOS
 * 6) TNK-BP
 * 7) Surgutneftegas
 * 8) Sibneft
 * 9) Sberbank of Russia
 * 10) Norilsk Nickel
 * 11) Svyazinvest
 * 12) Severstal
 * 13) Slavneft
 * 14) Evraz Group
 * 15) AFK Sistema
 * 16) AvtoVAZ
 * 17) Rusal
 * 18) Tatneft
 * 19) Transneft
 * 20) Magnitogorsk Iron and Steel Works

2010
 * 1) Gazprom
 * 2) LUKoil
 * 3) Rosneft
 * 4) Russian Railways
 * 5) Sberbank of Russia
 * 6) TNK-BP
 * 7) AFK Sistema
 * 8) Surgutneftegaz
 * 9) Holding IDGC
 * 10) Severstal
 * 11) VTB Bank
 * 12) Tatneft
 * 13) Transneft
 * 14) Norilsk Nickel
 * 15) Evraz Group
 * 16) X5 Retail Group
 * 17) VimpelCom
 * 18) IES-Holding
 * 19) Svyazinvest
 * 20) Rusal

Notable firms
This list includes notable companies with primary headquarters located in the country. The industry and sector follow the Industry Classification Benchmark taxonomy. Organizations which have ceased operations are included and noted as defunct.

title: List of companies of Russia


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Excimer

An excimer (originally short for excited dimer) is a short-lived polyatomic molecule formed from two species that do not form a stable molecule in the ground state. In this case, formation of molecules is possible only if such atom is in an electronic excited state. Heteronuclear molecules and molecules that have more than two species are also called exciplex molecules (originally short for excited complex). Excimers are often diatomic and are composed of two atoms or molecules that would not bond if both were in the ground state. The lifetime of an excimer is very short, on the order of nanoseconds.

Formation and decay
Under the molecular orbital formalism, a typical ground-state molecule has electrons in the lowest possible energy levels. According to the Pauli principle, at most two electrons can occupy a given orbital, and if an orbital contains two electrons they must be in opposite spin states. The highest occupied molecular orbital is called the HOMO and the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital is called the LUMO; the energy gap between these two states is known as the HOMO–LUMO gap. If the molecule absorbs light whose energy is equal to this gap, an electron in the HOMO may be excited to the LUMO. This is called the molecule's excited state.

Excimers are only formed when one of the dimer components is in the excited state. When the excimer returns to the ground state, its components dissociate and often repel each other. The wavelength of an excimer's emission is longer (smaller energy) than that of the excited monomer's emission. An excimer can thus be measured by fluorescent emissions.

Because excimer formation is dependent on a bimolecular interaction, it is promoted by high monomer density. Low-density conditions produce excited monomers that decay to the ground state before they interact with an unexcited monomer to form an excimer.

Usage note
The term excimer (excited state dimer) is, strictly speaking, limited to cases in which a true dimer is formed; that is, both components of the dimer are the same molecule or atom. The term exciplex refers to the heterodimeric case; however, common usage expands excimer to cover this situation.

Examples and use
Heterodimeric diatomic complexes involving a noble gas and a halide, such as xenon chloride, are common in the construction of excimer lasers, which are excimers' most common application. These lasers take advantage of the fact that excimer components have attractive interactions in the excited state and repulsive interactions in the ground state. Emission of excimer molecules is also used as a source of spontaneous ultraviolet light (excimer lamps).

The molecule pyrene is another canonical example of an excimer that has found applications in biophysics to evaluate the distance between biomolecules.

In organic chemistry, many reactions occur through an exciplex, for example, those of simple arene compounds with alkenes. The reactions of benzene and their products depicted are a [2+2]cycloaddition to the ortho product (A), a [2+3]cycloaddition to the meta product (B) and the [2+4]cycloaddition to the para product (C) with simple alkenes such as the isomers of 2-butene. In these reactions, it is the arene that is excited.

As a general rule, the regioselectivity is in favor of the ortho adduct at the expense of the meta adduct when the amount of charge transfer taking place in the exciplex increases.

Generation techniques
It takes a noble gas atom in an excited electronic state to form an excimer molecule such as a noble gas dimer or noble gas halide. Sufficiently high energy (approximately 10 eV) is required to obtain a noble gas atom in the lowest excited electronic state, which provides the formation of an excimer molecule. The most convenient way to excite gases is by an electric discharge. That is why such excimer molecules are generated in a plasma (see excimer molecule formation).

Fluorescence quenching
Exciplexes provide one of the three dynamic mechanisms by which fluorescence is quenched. A regular exciplex has some charge-transfer (CT) character, and in the extreme case there are distinct radical ions with unpaired electrons. If the unpaired electrons can spin-pair to form a covalent bond, then the covalent bonding interaction can lower the energy of the charge transfer state. Strong CT stabilisation has been shown to lead to a conical intersection of this exciplex state with the ground state in a balance of steric effects, electrostatic interactions, stacking interactions, and relative conformations that can determine the formation and accessibility of bonded exciplexes.

As an exception to the conventional radical ion pair model, this mode of covalent bond formation is of interest to photochemistry research, as well as the many biological fields using fluorescence spectroscopy techniques. Evidence for the bonded exciplex intermediate has been given in studies of steric and Coulombic effects on the quenching rate constants and from extensive density functional theory computations that show a curve crossing between the ground state and the low-energy bonded exciplex state.

title: Excimer


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User talk:Dbscheuk

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