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Thomas Truxtun

Thomas Truxtun (or Truxton) (February 17, 1755 – May 5, 1822) was an American naval officer after the Revolutionary War, when he served as a privateer, who rose to the rank of commodore in the late eighteenth century and later served in the Quasi-War with France. He was one of the first six commanders appointed to the new U.S. Navy by President George Washington. During his naval career he commanded a number of famous U.S. naval ships, including USS Constellation (1797) and USS President (1800). Later in civilian life he became involved with politics and was also elected as a sheriff.

Six U.S. Navy warships have been named for Truxtun since 1842.

Early life and education
Truxtun was born near Hempstead, New York, on Long Island, the only son of an English country lawyer. He lost his father at a young age and was taken to Jamaica on Long Island with relatives and placed under the care of a close friend, John Troup. Having little chance for a formal education, he joined the crew of the British merchant ship Pitt at the age of 12, against his father's previous wishes for him to pursue a career in politics.

Naval service
Because of his skills, by the time he was twenty, Truxtun had garnered command of his own vessel, Andrew Caldwell. Before the Revolution he was impressed into the Royal Navy and was offered a midshipman's warrant, which he turned down.

After being wounded in action against an American privateer, he decided never to fight against his countrymen again. He then operated as a U.S. privateer during the American Revolutionary War, commanding several ships: Congress, Independence, Mars, and St. James. Truxtun was highly successful in capturing enemy ships during this period, not once suffering a defeat.

After the war he returned to the merchant marine, with a high reputation as a seaman. He was the author of a treatise on longitude and latitude, of a "System of masting a 44-gun frigate," and was an advocate for the foundation of a national navy. He remained in the marine for 12 years. In 1786 he commanded Canton, operating from Philadelphia, one of the first American ships to engage in trade with China. When the United States Navy was reconstituted in 1798 he was one of the original corps of six captains.

Quasi-War
In 1794 and the war with France looming, Truxtun was one of the first six captains appointed by President Washington in the newly formed US Navy. During the Quasi-War with France, Truxtun commanded USS Constellation (1797). For his first assignment he had previously overseen her construction in Baltimore, Maryland, with Silas Talbot. After a rank dispute with captains Dale and Talbot, Truxtun was placed in charge of the ship by President Washington. He commanded her with considerable success.

Constellation engages L'Insurgente
In the early years of the new nation, American commerce suffered much interference from other seafaring nations, and it was during this period that Truxtun gave celebrated service to the navy. First, because of constant French privateering attacks against American vessels, an American squadron commanded by Truxtun was sent to the West Indies to patrol the waters between Puerto Rico and Saint Kitts with orders to engage any French forces they found in the area. Also on board was the young and later famous John Rodgers, acting 1st Lieutenant. On 9 February 1799, while sailing independently of his squadron in his flagship Constellation, Truxtun encountered and engaged the French frigate L'Insurgente, a larger and more heavily armed vessel commanded by Captaine Barreau. After chasing the French ship through a storm, Constellation was able to force L'Insurgente into an engagement that lasted an hour and fourteen minutes. Barreau did not strike his colors until his ship was almost a complete wreck. French losses were 29 killed and 44 wounded, while Truxtun's crew only suffered one killed and two wounded. It was the first battle engagement since the Revolutionary War that an American ship had encountered an enemy ship.

Constellation engages La Vengeance
On 31 January 1800, Constellation engaged La Vengeance, a larger vessel with a broadside of 559 lb compared to Constellation's 372 lb. Constellation had sailed under Truxtun from Saint Kitts on 30 January, and encountered La Vengeance the following day. La Vengeance was bound for France under Capitaine de Vaisseau François Pitot carrying passengers and specie, and initially attempted to outrun Constellation. During the battle Constellation was partially dismasted and was forced to make her way to Jamaica. Thirty six hours after the engagement with La Vengeance, while passing the eastern end of Puerto Rico, Enterprise, commanded by Lieutenant Commander Shaw, arrived and fell in with Truxtun. After a short fall in Truxtun sent Enterprise to Philadelphia with important dispatches.

Truxtun's victory against La Vengeance made him a hero of the time; when he arrived home he was awarded a Congressional Gold Medal on 29 March 1800, becoming the eighth recipient of that body's "highest expression of national appreciation for distinguished achievements and contributions."

Command of USS President
USS President (1800) was launched on 10 April 1800 and, at the time, was considered America's fastest sailing ship. She was the last of the original six frigates launched. After the vessel was fitted out for sea duty, she set sail for Guadeloupe on 5 August with Captain Truxtun in command, relieving Stephen Decatur. She conducted routine patrols during the latter part of the Quasi-War and recaptured several American merchant ships; however, her overall service in this period was uneventful. She returned to the United States in March after a peace treaty with France was ratified on 3 February 1801.

During this period, Truxtun was involved in a dispute over rank with Richard Dale. Truxtun took command of President for a few months in 1800, then retired from the Navy and located first in Perth Amboy, New Jersey, and later in Philadelphia. He was offered command during the First Barbary War in 1801 but refused, settling firmly into retirement.

Writer
Truxtun had a thorough understanding of the art of celestial navigation and was one among few men of his day who possessed such intimate knowledge of this navigational art. He also designed the original Navy signal manual and wrote the predecessor to the Navy Regulations in use today.

Later civilian life
Truxtun ran an unsuccessful campaign for the United States House of Representatives in 1810. In 1816 he was elected sheriff of Philadelphia County, serving until 1819. He also published several books, well known at the time, covering navigation, and naval tactics.

Truxtun died in Philadelphia on 5 May 1822 and is buried at Christ Church Burial Ground. He was the grandfather of American historian Mary Henderson Eastman. as well as naval officer Edward Fitzgerald "Ned" Beale, who became a national figure in the 19th century as an explorer, frontiersman, Indian affairs superintendent, California rancher, and close friend of Kit Carson and President Ulysses S. Grant.

Legacy and honors

 * Six U.S. Navy ships have been named in Truxtun's honor.
 * The town of Truxton, New York, was named for him.
 * Truxton Street in Brooklyn, New York.
 * The village of Truxton, Missouri, was named after Thomas Truxtun.
 * Washington, D.C. once had a traffic circle, Truxton Circle, named after him. Even after its demolition, the nearby neighborhood has retained his name.
 * Truxtun, in Portsmouth, Virginia, one of the first federally funded planned communities in America, was named for him. It was built shortly after World War I for African-American workers at Norfolk Naval Shipyard.
 * Truxtun Arcade at the United States Merchant Marine Academy is named in honor of the American Merchant Mariner turned Naval Hero Thomas Truxtun.

title: Thomas Truxtun


text:
Talk:Kurt Waldheim

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was this article translated from German?
incredibly long and complicated sentences. even a Nazi deserved good editing. --142.163.194.97 (talk) 23:06, 4 September 2021 (UTC)

Presidency of Austria
This article says nothing about his actual term of presidency in Austria. I, and I'm sure other readers, would like to know more about that. He spent an entire six years as president of Austria. One presumes he did at least one thing in those years other than be the centre of a WW2-related controversy. Alan162 (talk) 22:53, 28 March 2022 (UTC)

Many Nazis, including Adolf Hitler, were Austrians ./. had been born Austrians
Fact is, Adolf Hitler has been born in Austria's Braunau am Inn.

However, when WW1 broke out, he served in the Bavarian contingent of the Imperial German armies. His whole political carreer was in Bavaria and Germany, not Austria. In 1934 after the Röhm-Putsch, Schuschnigg of Austria was liquidated by Nazi German agents, which is cited as a reason Germany didn't take part in the International Fascist Conference of 1934 in Montreux.

So unless I have overslept and missed the Nazi concept of Sippenhaft (collective punishment) having been introduced into Rule of Law systems, it definitely is a technicality when Hitler got his German passport. All his political actions - unless you take his ludicrous polemicisms in "My Struggle" at face value - were in Bavaria and Germany; he served in the Bavarian armed forces (prior to the end of WW1, the German states of the 2nd Empire had their own land forces, only the Emperor's Navy (Kaiserliche Marine) and Reichsland Elsaß-Lothringen (Imperial area of Alsace-Lorraine) were "(Imperial) German" - i.e. you could serve in many State Contingents); and - here you CAN take "My Struggle" at face value - he had nothing but disdain for Austria.

That's why it is factually wrong to say "Hitler was an Austrian". His carreer was in Germany, he was elected in Germany, he served in the German armed forces, he did time in a German gaol (Landsberg am Lech); he even staged a coup in Austria in 1934 assassinating Schuschnigg before annexing it in 1938 ("Anschluß" is not "Vereinigung"). He is a German problem.

You CAN find SOME "real" Austrian top Nazis (not as many as Bavarians or Prussians by a long shot), but for the cited example "Hitler", he "was born an Austrian", but there may have been no-one denying his Austrian roots as vehemently as Hitler, up to and including vetoing his county of origin and family honouring him after the Anschluß in 1938.

--2003:C8:4718:BE00:B3:2589:D3DD:EA4B (talk) 16:45, 2 May 2022 (UTC)

 * He was an Austrian by birth and citizenship; he was a of the German nation/ethnicity. This is what the RS's state virtually universally. 2603:6080:2103:3FA2:6CC2:1B34:86E0:EAAB (talk) 22:27, 24 December 2022 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Kurt Waldheim


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User talk:Davichito

You can post me messages here.

Hello
Hello Davichito, welcome to Wikipedia. Your article on Parques looks interesting. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian. You can learn more on the how to edit page. The naming conventions and style guide pages are also useful. There is a sandbox which you can use to experiment in. If you have any questions, see the help pages or add a question to the village pump. Angela 22:45 28 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Re: Images
Hello. I would delete the images myself, but I'm not exactly clear on the GFDL's retraction terms. Your best bet would be to list the two images on Votes for deletion. If there are no objections (I don't envision any), they'll both be deleted in a week. Hope this helps. -- Notheruser 20:24, 29 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Hi David, I have deleted them, which seemed the only fair thing to do. However, I have noted on the votes for deletion page that I have taken a copy of them as a precaution in case anyone thinks they ought to be 'undeleted'. Angela 20:38, 29 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Hi Davichito and welcome to the 'pedia! I noticed your revisions on the History of the video game article. Your input is appreciated, however I wanted to comment on your coloring of text in the article. This is not standard practice and can lead to illegibility. Also, for visitors who are not logged in, the words look like broken links. If you want to empahsize some text, use the system of quotes for different levels of emphasis (see How to edit a page). I'll revert your highlighting changes, but I just wanted to let you know that coloring of that sort is not common policy. Thanks again for your input and I hope you enjoy contributing to the 'pedia! —Frecklefoot 13:47, 30 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Kanji deletion
Why did you delete the Kanji on Isao Tomita? Are they wrong? If so, replace them with a correct one. --Menchi 22:22, Aug 1, 2003 (UTC)

Deleting images
Moved from Village pump

Does anyone know how to delete an uploaded image? --David 19:28, 29 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * You have to be a sysop to delete images. What image do you want deleted and for what reason? -- Notheruser 19:34, 29 Jul 2003 (UTC)

I want to delete Ludo.jpg and Parques.jpg because I regret having put it here. I have a website and I prefer that people download them from there.
 * I have deleted them. David is a new user who uploaded them yesterday. It only seems fair he is allowed to have them deleted. I have copies if anyone wants to vote for undeletion. Angela 20:32, 29 Jul 2003 (UTC)

I think I know what you were looking for
The template spoiler has been deleted some time ago on the grounds that it is superseded by the general disclaimer found at the bottom of every page in Wikipedia. You may want to look at the deletion discussion. --Blanchardb- Me • MyEars • MyMouth -timed 02:22, 4 May 2008 (UTC)

May 2008 Colombia earthquake
Hi. I've fixed up, added information to, and updated your article, originally at Earthquake on Colombia 2008-05-24. You may help with further editing if you wish. Also, if you wish to have it put on the main page, please add a request here, although other editors might not notice enough notability for the main page. Thanks. ~ A H  1 (TCU) 21:36, 30 May 2008 (UTC)

Parqués
I edited your article to clarify it a little. Your "See Also" section is rather large, so I may cut it down a little. You can't list every board game ever made :-P. I suggest you also have someone else look at it for anything I may have missed or something I said oddly. ¡Buena suerte con Wikipedia en inglés! Thanks for contributing! Matt White (talk) 04:17, 28 September 2008 (UTC)
 * Hello, you asked if your article is good enough for Simple English Wikipedia. After a first look on the current version,I copied it there (see simple:Parqués) - You are of course welcome to help us simplify it. I hope to see you there. :) --Eptalon (talk) 19:05, 28 September 2008 (UTC)

Hello
Thanks for the feedback. I wish I can help you, but I dont knwon the game.--$$Marlon$$30 (talk) 19:36, 5 February 2009 (UTC)

Please Delete My Old Username and Talk Page
The reason that I am coming to you for help is because I want my old stuff deleted for me permanently because I have taken on a new username and talk page known as SoapFiend. --SoapFiend (talk) 13:14, 30 July 2010 (UTC)

So, I am asking you straightforward but very politely, please, please, please delete my old questions, username and talk page and I mean in a hurry. --SoapFiend (talk) 13:14, 30 July 2010 (UTC)

 * I think they're referring to this page. I've blocked them for block evasion. —  Tivedshambo   (t/c) 13:30, 30 July 2010 (UTC)

ArbCom elections are now open!
MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 08:53, 23 November 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Davichito


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Ukawsaw Gronniosaw

Ukawsaw Gronniosaw (c. 1705 – 28 September 1775), also known as James Albert, was an enslaved African man who is considered the first published African in Britain. Gronniosaw is known for his 1772 narrative autobiography A Narrative of the Most Remarkable Particulars in the Life of James Albert Ukawsaw Gronniosaw, an African Prince, as Related by Himself, which was the first slave narrative published in England. His autobiography recounted his early life in present-day Nigeria, his enslavement, and his eventual emancipation.

Life
Gronniosaw was born in Bornu (now north-eastern Nigeria) in 1705. He said he was doted on as the grandson of the king of Zaara. At 15, he was kidnapped by a Gold Coast ivory merchant and sold to a Dutch captain for two yards of check cloth. An American bought him in Barbados, took him to New York, and resold him for £50 to "Mr. Freelandhouse, a very gracious, good Minister." Freelandhouse is presumed to be the Dutch Reformed Church minister, Theodorus Jacobus Frelinghuysen, based in New Jersey.

There, Gronniosaw was taught to read and brought up as a Christian. Gronniosaw wrote in his autobiography that he wanted to return to his family in Africa, but Frelinghuysen denied this request and told him to focus on the Christian faith. During his time with Frelinghuysen, Gronniosaw attempted suicide, distressed by his perceived failings as a Christian. When the minister died, he freed Gronniosaw in his will. Gronniosaw worked for the minister's widow and, subsequently, their orphans, but all died within four years.

Planning to go to England, where he expected to meet other pious people like the Frelinghuysens, Gronniosaw travelled to the Caribbean, where he enlisted as a cook with a privateer, and later as a soldier in the 28th Regiment of Foot to earn money for the journey. He served in Martinique and Cuba, before obtaining his discharge and sailing to England.

At first, he settled in Portsmouth, but when his landlady swindled him out of most of his savings, he was forced to seek his fortune in London. There, he married a young English widow, Betty, a weaver. She already had a child and bore him at least two more. She lost her job because of the financial depression and industrial unrest and moved to Colchester. There, they were saved from starvation by Osgood Hanbury (a Quaker lawyer and grandfather of the abolitionist Fowell Buxton), who employed Gronniosaw in building work. Moving to Norwich, Gronniosaw and his family again fell on hard times, as the building trades were largely seasonal. Once again, they were saved by the kindness of a Quaker, Henry Gurney (coincidentally, the grandfather of Fowell Buxton's wife, Hannah Gurney), who paid their rent arrears. A daughter died and was refused burial by the local clergy because she was not baptised. One minister at last offered to allow her to be buried in the churchyard, but he would not read the burial service.

After pawning all their possessions, the family moved to Kidderminster, where Betty supported them by working again as a weaver. On Christmas Day 1771, Gronniosaw had their remaining children, Mary Albert (aged six), Edward Albert (aged four), and newborn Samuel Albert, baptised in the Old Independent Meeting House in Kidderminster by Benjamin Fawcett, a Dissenting minister and associate of Selina Hastings, Countess of Huntingdon and a significant figure in Calvinistic Methodism. At around the same time, Gronniosaw received a letter and a charitable donation from Hastings herself. On 3 January 1772, he responded by thanking her for her 'favour', which arrived 'at a time of great necessity', and explained that he had just returned from 'Mrs Marlowe's' in nearby Leominster, 'were I was shewed kindness to from my Christian friends'. On 25 June 1774, Gronniosaw's fifth child, James Albert junior, was baptised again by Fawcett.

Shortly after he arrived in Kidderminster, Gronniosaw began work on his life story with the help of an amanuensis from Leominster, possibly the 'Mrs Marlowe' he had mentioned in his letter to Hastings. Gronniosaw's Narrative has been studied by scholars as a groundbreaking work by an African in English. It is the first known slave narrative published in England and received wide attention, with multiple printings and editions.

Gronniosaw's Narrative concludes with its author still living in Kidderminster, having "appear[ed] to be turn'd sixty"; for a long time, nothing was known of his later life. However, at some point during the late twentieth century, an obituary for Gronniosaw was discovered in the Chester Chronicle. The article, from 2 October 1775, reads:"On Thursday [28 September] died, in this city, aged 70, James Albert Ukawsaw Gronniosaw, an African Prince, of Zaara. He left his country in the early part of his life, with a view to acquire proper notions of the Divine Being, and of the worship due to Him. He met with many trials and embarrassments, was much afflicted and persecuted. His last moments exhibited that chearful [sic] serenity which, at such a time, is the certain effect of a thorough conviction of the great truths of Christianity. He published a narrative of his life."

The burial register for the Church of England parish church of St Oswald, Chester - a church which occupied the south transept of Chester Cathedral from 1448 to 1881 - includes an entry from 28 September 1775 for "James Albert (a Blackm[an])", giving his age as 70. Gronniosaw's grave has not been identified.

The autobiography
Gronniosaw's autobiography was produced in Kidderminster in 1772. It is entitled A Narrative of the Most remarkable Particulars in the Life of James Albert Ukawsaw Gronniosaw, an African Prince, As related by himself. The title page explains that it was "committed to paper by the elegant pen of a young LADY of the town of LEOMINSTER." It is one of the first narratives by an enslaved African in the English language, a genre related to the literature of enslaved persons who later gained freedom. Published in Bath, Somerset, in December 1772, it gives a vivid account of Gronniosaw's life, from his leaving home to his enslavement in Africa by a native king, through a period of being enslaved, to his struggles with poverty as a free man in Colchester and Kidderminster. He was attracted to this last town because it was at one time the home of Richard Baxter, a 17th-century Nonconformist minister whom Gronniosaw had learned to admire.

The preface was written by the Reverend Walter Shirley, cousin to Selina Hastings, Countess of Huntingdon, who was a patron of the Calvinist wing of Methodism. He interprets Gronniosaw's experience of enslavement and his being transported from Bornu to New York as an example of Calvinist predestination and election.

Scholar Henry Louis Gates Jr. noted that Gronniosaw's narrative differed from later slave narratives, which generally criticised slavery as an institution. In his account, Gronniosaw referred to his "white-skinned sister," said that he had been willing to leave Africa because his family believed in many deities instead of one almighty God (which he learned more about under Christianity), and suggested that he became happier as he assimilated to white English society, through clothing but mostly via language. In addition, he stated a black servant at his enslaver's house named Old Ned was the first person to inform him of the Devil, who lives in Hell and punishes the wicked. This was done to discourage the teenage Gronniosaw from using profanity. Gates has concluded that the narrative does not have an anti-slavery view, as was ubiquitous in subsequent slave narratives.

Until the discovery of the 1775 obituary and a manuscript letter written by Gronniosaw to Hastings, the Narrative was the only significant source of information for his life.

Additional sources

 * Echero, Michael. "Theologizing 'Underneath the Tree': an African topos in Ukawsaw Gronniosaw, William Blake, and William Cole". Research in African Literatures. 23.4 (Winter 1992). 51–58.
 * Harris, Jennifer. "Seeing the Light: Re-Reading James Albert Ukawsaw Gronniosaw". English Language Notes 42.4, 2005: 43–57.

title: Ukawsaw Gronniosaw


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Commodore 1540

The Commodore 1540 (also known as the VIC-1540) is the companion floppy disk drive for the VIC-20 home computer. It was introduced in 1982. It uses single-sided 5¼" floppy disks, on which it stores roughly 170 kB of data utilizing Commodore's GCR data encoding scheme.

Because of the low price of both the VIC-20 and the 1540, this combination was the first computer with a disk drive to be offered on the US market for less than $1000 USD, although the combination of the Commodore 64 and 1541 would prove more enduring. The 1540 is an "intelligent peripheral" in that it has its own MOS Technology 6502 CPU (just like its VIC-20 host) and the resident Commodore DOS on board in ROM – contrary to almost all other home computer systems of the time, where the DOS was loaded from a boot floppy and was executed on the computer's CPU.

Due to a timing conflict with the C64's video chip, the C64 doesn't work properly with the 1540. The better-known 1541 is mechanically and nearly electronically identical to the 1540 but has a revised ROM that permits it to work with the C64 by slowing the drive down slightly. However, it is possible to revert the 1541 into 1540 mode with a Commodore BASIC software command to permit better speed when used with a VIC-20.

The 1540 is relatively rare. While cheaper than most other drives of the day, it was more expensive than the VIC-20 computer itself, and the disk media was also still relatively pricey. Also, the relatively small memory of the VIC meant that the faster program loading times of the drive did not gain more than a few seconds compared to tape media. Thirdly, almost all commercial software for the VIC-20 was sold on cartridge or cassette tape media, giving low incentive to buy a floppy drive. The C64 followed close on the heels of the VIC-20, quickly discontinuing the 1540. Most 1540s still in existence were modified with a 1541 ROM so it would work with a C64. Unmodified 1540s are now considered collector's items.

The launch price in Germany was 1898 DM (approximate 970 EUR). The American version is named VIC 1540 and the German version VC 1540.

title: Commodore 1540


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Scunthorpe

Scunthorpe is an industrial town in the North Lincolnshire district of Lincolnshire, England. It is Lincolnshire's third most populous settlement, after Lincoln and Grimsby, with a population of 81,286 in 2021.

History

Scunthorpe as a town came into existence due to the exploitation of the local ironstone which began in 1859; iron production commenced in 1864, steel smelting in 1891.

Scunthorpe's population grew from 1,245 in 1851 to 11,167 in 1901 and 45,840 in 1941. The boundaries of Scunthorpe expanded to include the former villages of Bottesford, Frodingham, Crosby, Brumby and Ashby. Scunthorpe became an urban district in 1891, merged as 'Scunthorpe, Brumby and Frodingham Urban District' in 1919, and became a municipal borough in 1936. Scunthorpe was originally dominated, socially, politically and culturally, by Rowland Winn, the most significant landowner in the district. By the First World War local working class culture, drawing on trade unions and the Labour Party had emerged to challenge the Conservative Party's hegemony.

Etymology
The town appears in the Domesday Book of 1086 as Escumesthorpe, which is from the Old Norse Skumasþorp meaning "Skuma's homestead", a site which is believed to be in the town centre close to where the present-day Market Hill is located.

Geology
Scunthorpe is located close to an outcrop of high-lime-content ironstone (~25% iron average) from a seam of the Lias Group strata which dates from the Early Jurassic period and runs north–south through Lincolnshire. Ironstone was mined by open cast methods from the 1850s onwards, and by underground mining from the late 1930s. In the 1970s the steel industry in Scunthorpe transitioned to use of ores imported from outside the UK with higher iron content. Underground mining in the area ceased in 1981.

Scunthorpe was close to the epicentre (at Middle Rasen) of the 2008 Market Rasen earthquake, the second largest earthquake experienced in the British Isles, which had a magnitude of 5.2. Significant shocks were felt in Scunthorpe and the surrounding North Lincolnshire area. The main 10-second quake, which struck at 00:56 GMT on 27 February 2008, at a depth of 15.4 km, was second only to a 1984 quake, with a magnitude of 5.4, which occurred in North Wales.

Governance
Scunthorpe forms an unparished area located within the borough and unitary authority of North Lincolnshire. The town forms six of the borough's seventeen wards, namely Ashby, Brumby, Crosby & Park, Frodingham, Kingsway with Lincoln Gardens and Town. The Scunthorpe wards elect 16 of the borough's 43 councillors. As of 2018, 26 are members of the Conservative party, and 13 are members of the Labour party. The councillors form the charter trustees of the Town of Scunthorpe and they continue to elect a town mayor.

North Lincolnshire Council was based in Scunthorpe Civic Centre off Ashby Road (former A159) next to Festival Gardens. It was designed by Charles B. Pearson, Son and Partners and was completed in 1962. It was the home of Scunthorpe Borough Council until 1996. It was named Pittwood House after Edwin Pittwood, a local Labour politician, who worked in the opencast ironstone workings near Normanby Park.

Civic history
In 1889 the area was included in the Lincolnshire, Parts of Lindsey administrative county. Separate local government began in 1890 when the Scunthorpe local board of health was formed. In 1894 the local board was replaced with an urban district council. At the same time the neighbouring townships of Brumby and Frodingham were also constituted an urban district. The two urban districts were amalgamated, along with the parishes of Crosby and Ashby in 1919 to form an enlarged Scunthorpe urban district. Scunthorpe received a charter incorporating the town as a municipal borough in 1936.

Local authority boundary changes brought the town into the new county of Humberside in 1974, and a new non-metropolitan district, the Borough of Scunthorpe was formed with the same boundaries as the old municipal borough. The opening of the Humber Bridge on 24 June 1981 provided a permanent link between North and South Humberside but did not secure Humberside's future. To the relief of its many detractors, the county of Humberside (and Humberside County Council) was abolished on 1 April 1996 and succeeded by four unitary authorities.

The previous Humberside districts of Glanford and Scunthorpe, and that part of Boothferry district south of the northern boundaries of the parishes of Crowle, Eastoft, Luddington, Haldenby and Amcotts, now compose the unitary authority of North Lincolnshire. On amalgamation charter trustees were formed for Scunthorpe, and they continue to elect a town mayor.

Coat of arms
When Scunthorpe was incorporated as a borough in 1936, it also received a grant of a coat of arms from the College of Arms. These arms were transferred to the new borough council formed in 1974, and are now used by the town's charter trustees.

The green shield and golden wheatsheaf recall that the area was until recently agricultural in nature. Across the centre of the shield is a length of chain. This refers to the five villages of Crosby, Scunthorpe, Frodingham, Brumby & Ashby linking together as one. At the top of the shield are two fossils of the species Gryphaea incurva. These remains of oysters, known as the "devil's toenails", were found in the rock strata from which ironstone was quarried. The crest, on top of the helm, shows a blast furnace. This is also referred to in the Latin motto: Refulget labores nostros coelum or The heavens reflect our labours popularly attributed to the glow observed in the night sky from the steelmaking activities.

Geography
Scunthorpe lies on an escarpment of ridged land (the Lincoln Cliff) which slopes down towards the Trent. The surrounding environs are largely low-lying hills and plains. Although the town itself is heavily industrial it is surrounded by fertile farmland and wooded areas. In terms of general location it lies a mile east of the River Trent, 8 mi south of the Humber Estuary, 15 mi west of the Lincolnshire Wolds and 25 mi north of Lincoln. The town is situated at the terminus of the M181, 42 mi from Sheffield. Nearby towns and cities are Hull (18 miles northeast), Doncaster (20 miles west), Grimsby (22 miles east) and York (46 miles northwest). Scunthorpe is approximately 10 mi east of South Yorkshire and 8 mi south by south west to the East Riding of Yorkshire.

Climate
Like most of the United Kingdom, Scunthorpe has an oceanic climate (Köppen: Cfb).

Average temperatures are around 20 C in the summer, and can be as low as -2 C in the winter.

Steel industry

The Iron industry in Scunthorpe was established in the mid 19th century, following the discovery and exploitation of middle Lias ironstone east of Scunthorpe. Initially iron ore was exported to iron producers in South Yorkshire. Later, after the construction of the Trent, Ancholme and Grimsby Railway (1860s) gave rail access to the area iron production in the area rapidly expanded using local ironstone and imported coal or coke. Rapid industrial expansion in the area led directly to the development of the town of Scunthorpe, eventually incorporating several other former hamlets and villages, in a formerly sparsely populated entirely agricultural area.

From the early 1910s to the 1930s the industry consolidated, with three main ownership concerns formed – the Appleby-Frodingham Steel Company, part of the United Steel Companies; the Redbourn Iron Works, part of Richard Thomas and Company of South Wales (later Richard Thomas and Baldwins); and John Lysaght's Normanby Iron Works, part of Guest, Keen and Nettlefolds.

In 1967 all three works became part of the nationalised British Steel Corporation (BSC), leading to a period of further consolidation – from the 1970s the use of local or regional ironstone diminished, being replaced by imported ore via the Immingham Bulk Terminal. Conversion to the Linz-Donawitz process (or "basic oxygen" process) of steel making from the open hearth process took place from the late 1960s onwards and was complete by the 1990s. Both the Normanby Park and the Redbourn works closed in the early 1980s.

Following privatisation in 1988 the company, together with the rest of BSC, became part of Corus (1999), later Tata Steel Europe (2007). In 2016 the long products division of Tata Steel Europe was sold to Greybull Capital with Scunthorpe as the primary steel production site.

In May 2019, after a drop in future orders, and a breakdown in rescue talks between the government and the company's owner, Greybull, British Steel Limited entered insolvency.

Industries associated with the steelworks include metal engineering as well as a BOC plant.

Other industries

Although the historical predominance of the steel industry made Scunthorpe a virtual monotown, there are other industries in the town. These include food production, distribution and retailing. North of the town next a waste management firm, Bell Waste Control, which services the majority of industry in Scunthorpe and the surrounding areas. On the Foxhills Industrial Park, north of the A1077 northern bypass, are many distribution companies, notably a large building owned by the Nisa co-operative type mutual organisation which has its UK headquarters there. Also on the Foxhills Industrial Park is a 500,000 square foot factory occupied by Wren Kitchens, employing 350 full-time workers.

2 Sisters Food Group have a large chicken processing plant in the town. Key Country Foods produces meat products on an industrial scale. The Sauce Company produces sauces, soups and other foodstuffs for the catering and supermarket sectors. Ericsson Mobile Platforms produces printed circuit boards for the telecommunications industry. There are a number of other firms, mostly involved in manufacturing and light engineering.

In the 2001 census 19.3% of the working age population were economically inactive.

Retail
Scunthorpe has two major shopping centres, effectively a single site: the Foundry Shopping Centre and the Parishes Centre. The former was constructed in the late 1960s/early 1970s during a wholesale reconstruction of the old town; the latter was constructed in the early part of the 2000s decade on the site of the town's old bus station. There are also many well known retailers on High Street. On 6 January 2011 Marks and Spencer closed their High Street store after 80 years of trading, but a new Marks and Spencer store opened near the football ground in 2014.

However the size of the remaining retail units reflects the size of the area's population and with larger shopping facilities within reasonable travelling distance in Grimsby, Hull, Doncaster, Lincoln, Leeds and at Meadowhall, Sheffield.

The once-thriving market, mostly under cover in market halls just to the north of the Central Library, at the eastern end of the High Street, had shrunk noticeably in the last ten years, and has now moved to the new St John's Market, close to the Bus Station. The opening date was 22 March 2019.

All of the big food retailers are represented in the area. There is a Tesco Extra, and an Aldi (in the former Toys R Us unit) opposite the football ground, while Sainsbury's (formerly a Safeway) have their store on the site of the old Scunthorpe United stadium, The Old Show Ground. Morrisons have a store at the bottom of Mortal Ash Hill (known locally as "Motlash") (A18 road) at the Lakeside Retail Park, on the eastern entrance to the town, while Asda have a store on Burringham Road. In 2011 Asda opened another store in the former Netto, on Carlton Street.

On 24 October 2014 Marks and Spencer's returned to the town after almost a 4-year absence. The store is housed in a purpose-built location at the North Lincolnshire Shopping Park, beside Glanford Park. The shopping park also includes Boots, B&M Bargains, Costa Coffee and Subway.

Transport
Scunthorpe railway station is on the South TransPennine Line which has trains from Liverpool Lime Street to Cleethorpes. Scunthorpe station (SCU), has two platforms and is serviced by two train companies, TransPennine Express and Northern Trains. TransPennine Express eastbound trains to Cleethorpes call at platform 1, whilst TransPennine Express westbound services to Liverpool Lime Street and the Northern westbound stopping service to Doncaster use platform 2.

The M180 passes 5 mi south of Scunthorpe  and connects to the town via the M181 and the A1077M. Before the M180 was opened in 1979, all east–west traffic took the A18 over Keadby Bridge. Humberside Airport is a short drive to the east along the M180. The town's bus station is off Fenton Street. The bus station is predominantly used by Stagecoach in Lincolnshire that operate services within and out of the town along with Hornsby Travel. East Yorkshire operate services to Hull and Goole.

Demographics
According to the 2021 Census, Scunthorpe had a population of 81,286, while the urban area had a slightly larger population of 84,665 and this extends to the nearby village of Messingham, to the south of the town.

At the 2021 Census, the local population was recorded at 90.4% White British, followed by 6% British Asian, 1.4% Mixed-race British, 1.2% Other ethnic minorities and 0.8% Black British. This makes the town roughly 90% White and 10% BAME. According to the census, the towns religious composition was 51% of the population followed Christianity. followed by 42.1% who were non-religious and 5% of the population followed Islam. Other religions and not stated respondents were recorded at 2.9% of the population.

Scunthorpe is also home to the largest British Asian community in the county of Lincolnshire, followed by both Lincoln and Grimsby.

Culture
The North Lincolnshire Museum is on Oswald Road, near the railway station. The former church of St John the Evangelist is now the 20–21 Visual Arts Centre. The Plowright Theatre, named after Joan Plowright, is on Laneham Street (off the west end of High Street and also near the railway station). It was built in 1958 as Scunthorpe Civic Theatre. The Baths Hall, reopened in 2011, a 1,700 capacity venue also hosts visiting musical and theatrical events. The Scunthorpe Co-operative Junior Choir from Scunthorpe won the title of BBC Radio 3 Choir of the Year 2008 at the Grand Finals on 7 December 2008 at the Royal Festival Hall, London. The main choir is made up of 90 members aged between 9 and 19 years whilst also having two training choirs taking children as young as 3 years old. They have made several CDs, performed numerous concerts in the area and further afield, have been subject of documentaries and are internationally renowned as having travelled the world.

Scunthorpe was the setting of a 2012 Cultural Olympiad community opera called Cycle Song, about past steel-worker and Olympic cyclist Lal White. It was composed by Tim Sutton and the librettist was Ian McMillan. The Scunthorpe Co-operative Junior Choir, Proper Job Theatre Company and over a thousand locals participated.

Television

 * BBC Look North broadcast by the BBC from Queen's Gardens in Kingston upon Hull covering the East Riding of Yorkshire and most of Lincolnshire;
 * Calendar, broadcast by ITV Yorkshire from Leeds, West Yorkshire with a crew in Grimsby covering the local area.

Radio

 * BBC Radio Humberside is broadcast on 95.9 FM from Hull, with its coverage given to the old county of Humberside, now including the East Riding of Yorkshire and all of North and North East Lincolnshire as well as Lincolnshire at certain times. Coverage often includes broadcasts of local football team Scunthorpe United.
 * Greatest Hits Radio Lincolnshire broadcasts on 102.2 FM from Lincoln, covering the whole of Lincolnshire including the Scunthorpe area.
 * Viking FM broadcasts its breakfast show on 96.9 FM from Hull, having some of its coverage given to North Lincolnshire, which includes Scunthorpe.

Print
The local newspaper is the Scunthorpe Telegraph (formerly the Scunthorpe Evening Telegraph) with an online version at www.scunthorpetelegraph.co.uk.

Venues
Scunthorpe has a leisure centre (The Pods) next to Pittwood House, museum, galleries, craft centres, several clubs, pubs and bars, a Vue multiplex cinema adjacent to the bus station. The Baths Hall in Doncaster Road was a popular music venue, before it was closed because of the costs of bringing the building up to scratch, and dealing with industrial contamination on site. The Labour Council prevented the Baths from being demolished in 2007 and commenced a major rebuild of the venue, which has involved demolishing all but the facade of the building. The building re-opened in November 2011.

==Education ==

Primary schools
Primary schools include: Frodingham Infant School; Scunthorpe CofE Primary School; Oasis Academy Henderson Avenue; Bushfield Road Infant School; Crosby Primary School; Saint Augustine Webster Catholic Voluntary Academy; Berkeley Primary School; Oasis Academy Parkwood; Lincoln Gardens Primary School; Priory Lane Community School; St. Bernadette's Catholic Primary Voluntary Academy; Westcliffe Primary School; The Grange Primary School; Oakfield Primary School; Willoughby Road Primary Academy; Enderby Road Infant School; Leys Farm Junior School; St Peter and St Paul CofE Primary School; and Holme Valley Primary School

Secondary schools
Secondary schools within Scunthorpe include: The St Lawrence Academy; Engineering UTC Northern Lincolnshire; Outwood Academy Brumby; Outwood Academy Foxhills; Melior Community Academy; St Bede's Catholic Voluntary Academy; and Frederick Gough School

Further education
John Leggott Sixth-Form College (JLC) is on West Common Lane and North Lindsey College is close by on Kingsway (A18).

Scunthorpe's only university is UCNL, which offers undergraduate courses to approximately 1,500 students.

SEN Schools
There are three schools within this category: St Luke's Primary School; St Hugh's Special School; and Trent View College (which is yet to be inspected)

Law and order
The area is served by Humberside Police. According to Home Office data the area has crime rates higher than the national average, especially in the categories of violence against the person, sexual offences, burglary and theft of motor vehicles.

Football
The town has a former Football League club, Scunthorpe United (nicknamed "The Iron") who play at Glanford Park. For most of its existence in the professional game (since only 1950) it has been in the lower leagues of the English Football League. At the end of the 2006–07 season they won promotion to the Football League Championship as champions of League One, amassing a total of 91 points, being promoted at home to Huddersfield Town: having been top since January: despite being outsiders for a considerable amount of that time, and being promoted with 3 games to spare. This being the first time they have played at this level for 44 years. This was to last just one season as the club were relegated on 12 April 2008, with three games to spare, away to Crystal Palace. However, they returned to the Championship after one season, winning the League One playoffs in May 2009. At the end of the 2021–22 season, Scunthorpe for the first time got relegated from the Football League. A further relegation in the 2022–23 season means Scunthorpe United currently play in the National League North.

England stars Kevin Keegan and Ray Clemence both played for Scunthorpe United in the early 1970s before being signed for Liverpool, where they made their names. Former England cricket captain Ian Botham played a number of games for the club, being a resident of nearby Epworth at that time and in an attempt to keep fit during the winter months. The team mascot is called the "Scunny Bunny".

Semi-professional sides within the Town or greater town boundaries include Appleby Frodingham and Bottesford Town, Local teams play in the Scunthorpe & District Football League.

Rugby
Scunthorpe Rugby Club play in the National League 2 North, the fourth tier of the English rugby union system. Their home ground is at Heslam Park, close to Brumby on Ashby Road. Scunthorpe Barbarians play rugby league also at Heslam Park.

Motorsports
Scunthorpe also has a speedway team known as the Scunthorpe Scorpions who compete in the British Premier League, the sport's second tier in Britain.

The speedway team has been running since 2005 and won a grand slam of the Conference League trophies in both 2006 and 2007 before claiming the Premier League title in 2012, alongside this Speedway world champion Tai Woffinden was born in Scunthorpe, riding for the Scunthorpe Scorpions in his youth. It runs at the Eddie Wright Raceway, which is a mile north of the town on Normanby Road (B1430).

The Eddie Wright Raceway is also host to the sport of stock car racing, the town has featured stock car racing at two other venues in its past, 2009 saw a return to the town of the oval racing sport

 * Scunthorpe Scorpions – Premier League team
 * Scunthorpe Saints – National League (formerly Conference League) team

Athletics
The Appleby-Frodingham Athletic Club uses the 34 acre site near the Civic Centre for many types of sport. They have a clubhouse and also use Brumby Hall next-door. The site includes a 3G football pitch and an artificial Astro hockey pitch, along with several grass football pitches and an area for cricket. There is also the Scunthorpe and District Athletics Club. They train at Quibell Park Stadium, Scunthorpe's athletic track on Brumby Wood Lane named after David Quibell, the town's former Labour MP. Around the running track is a cycle track used by Polytechnic Cycle Club.

The leisure centre was on Carlton Street opposite the bus station via a footbridge. After The Pods opened this was demolished. The Scunthorpe Anchor swimming club are based at the Riddings Pool on Enderby Road next to South Leys School.

The Pods, a leisure centre near Central Park, opened in 2011 costing an estimated £21 million. Facilities include an 8 lane 25m pool and a separate shallow pool, a state of the art gym, a dance studio, a large sports hall with climbing wall, a creche and a cafe.

As part of the project, Central Park is being improved. These expensive improvements are also in their final stage. North Lincolnshire Council's website regularly show photographs and videos of how the work is progressing.

Scunthorpe has two parkruns. One in Central Park and another at Normanby Hall

American football
The Scunthorpe Alphas who were formed in 2018 play their home games at Quibell Park Stadium and for 2021 will complete in the BAFA National Leagues Division One. The town's previous American football side was the Scunthorpe Steelers who folded in 1990.

Internet obscenity filters
In 1996 there was controversy when AOL's obscenity filter (among others) refused to accept the name of the town due to its embedded word 'cunt'. Some online forums such as Ultimate Guitar forums displayed the name as Scumthorpe, while Fark would display it as Scoonthorpe. This form of censorship over-reach is known in the computing world as the Scunthorpe problem.

Notable people

 * Roy Axe, car designer for Chrysler and Rover was born in Scunthorpe
 * Darren Bett, television weather presenter
 * Ryan J. Brown, actor and screenwriter
 * Jack Burnell, Olympic open water swimmer
 * James Cobban, English educator and headmaster, as well as a prominent lay leader in the Church of England
 * Richard G. Compton, Oxford professor, was born in Scunthorpe
 * Neil Cox Manager of Scunthorpe United FC
 * Howard Devoto, singer with the Buzzcocks and Magazine
 * Kevin Doyle, actor who has appeared in Coronation Street and  Downton Abbey
 * Stephen Fretwell, singer-songwriter
 * Jeff Hall, English footballer who played as a right back for Birmingham City and England
 * Tony Jacklin, golfer, was born in Scunthorpe
 * Dave Ladley, professional darts player
 * Reece Mastin, singer and winner of 2011 X-Factor Australia, was born in Scunthorpe
 * Iain Matthews, singer with Fairport Convention
 * Rob McElnea, 500cc grand prix rider, team manager of the Virgin Mobile Yamaha team
 * Ross McLaren, actor, was born in Scunthorpe
 * Alfie Moore, comedian who was formerly a Police Officer based in Scunthorpe.
 * Graham Oates, is an English former professional footballer. He played as a midfielder.
 * John Osborne, writer. Creator of Sky 1 sitcom After Hours as well as six half-hour Radio 4 storytelling shows.
 * Dame Joan Plowright, award-winning actress, born in nearby Brigg, attended Scunthorpe Grammar School
 * David Plowright, television executive and producer
 * Jake Quickenden, former contestant on The X Factor, I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here! and Dancing on Ice
 * Martin Simpson, guitarist and singer-songwriter, was born in Scunthorpe
 * Sam Slocombe, professional football player for Notts County F.C. and formerly of local side Scunthorpe United, was born in the town
 * Liz Smith, actress
 * Andy Stevenson, footballer
 * Graham Taylor, former England manager grew up in the town.
 * Brian Tierney, published historian and medievalist
 * Alan Walker, musicologist and biographer of Franz Liszt, was born in Scunthorpe
 * Albert 'Lal' White, Olympic cycling silver medallist at the 1920 Antwerp games. Was the subject of the opera: Cycle Song.
 * Tai Woffinden, speedway world champion

Twinned municipalities

 * Clamart, France
 * Lüneburg, Germany
 * Ostrowiec Świętokrzyski, Poland

title: Scunthorpe


text:
Warren Lewis

Warren Hamilton Lewis (16 June 1895 – 9 April 1973) was an Irish historian and officer in the British Army, best known as the elder brother of writer and professor C. S. Lewis. Warren Lewis was a supply officer with the Royal Army Service Corps of the British Army during and after the First World War. After retiring in 1932 to live with his brother in Oxford, he was one of the founding members of the Inklings, an informal Oxford literary society. He wrote on French history, and served as his brother's secretary for the later years of C. S. Lewis's life.

Early life
C. S. Lewis referred to his older brother Warren ("Warnie") as "my dearest and closest friend". Their lifelong friendship was formed as the boys played together in their home on the outskirts of Belfast, Little Lea, writing and illustrating stories for their fantasy world of Boxen (a combination of India and a previous invention called Animal-Land). In 1908, their mother died from cancer and as their father mourned her, C. S. ("Jack") and Warren Lewis had only each other for comfort and support. Soon after their mother's death, Jack was sent across the North Channel to join Warren at an English boarding school named Wynyard in Watford, Hertfordshire, just northwest of London, where they suffered under a harsh, mentally ill headmaster named Robert Capron. Warren had been taken there by his mother Flora on 10 May 1905. In 1909, Warren transferred to Malvern College in Worcestershire, where his brother was also sent a few years later. Warren completed his education at Malvern in 1913.

Military service
On 10 September 1913, Warren Lewis began studying privately with William T. Kirkpatrick for four months in preparation for the entrance examination of the Royal Military College, Sandhurst. He finished 22nd of 201 candidates, winning him a prize cadetship, with which he entered the college on 4 February 1914. This gave him a reduction in the fees payable for his attendance. He passed out of the Royal Military College, after only nine months of training due to wartime need; the normal course of study was 18 months to two years. On 1 October 1914, he was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Royal Army Service Corps after only nine months of training.

He was sent to France on 4 November 1914 to serve with the 4th Company 7th Divisional Train in the British Expeditionary Force. He was made a temporary captain on 24 September 1916.

After the end of the First World War, Warren served in such postings as Belgium (1919), Aldershot (November 1919), Sierra Leone (9 March 1921 to 23 March 1922), Colchester (4 October 1922 to December 1925), Woolwich (January 1925 until April 1927), and China (two tours of duty, the first beginning on 11 April 1927 in Kowloon, in the British territory of Hong Kong, then later in Shanghai, and ending in April 1930; the second beginning on 9 October 1931 and ending on 14 December 1932). He retired on 21 December 1932 with the rank of captain, after 18 years of active service. He was granted the temporary rank of major when recalled to active service on 4 September 1939.

After World War II, he took up residence with his brother at a house named The Kilns at Headington, near Oxford, where he lived until the death of C. S. Lewis in November 1963.

Writings
Soon after his first retirement in 1932, Warren Lewis edited the Lewis family papers. During his final retirement, he began researching a topic of his lifelong interest: the history of 17th-century France. He published seven books on France during the reign of Louis XIV under the name W. H. Lewis, including The Splendid Century: Some Aspects of French Life in the Reign of Louis XIV and Levantine Adventurer: The travels and missions of the Chevalier d'Arvieux, 1653–1697. An excerpt from The Splendid Century appeared first in Essays Presented to Charles Williams, a volume edited by his brother as an informal Festschrift to benefit Williams's widow.

After C. S. Lewis died in 1963, Warren edited the first published edition of his brother's letters (1966), adding a memoir of his brother as a preface to the letters. Later editions of these letters were edited by Walter Hooper.

Before his death, Warren deposited many of the Lewis family papers in the Marion E. Wade Collection of Wheaton College, including surviving papers of C. S. Lewis and himself. In 1982, selections from Warren Lewis's diary were published under the title Brothers and Friends.

Personal life
Warren Lewis renewed his Christian faith beginning in May 1931. He was a frequent participant in weekly meetings of the Inklings and recorded comments about them in many of his diary entries. During the 1930s, the Lewis brothers undertook eight annual walking tours of as many as 50 miles (80 km), which Warren years later recalled with fondness, saying, "And jolly good fun they were too."

According to Douglas Gresham, his step-nephew, and his brother's letters to Arthur Greeves, Warren Lewis was an alcoholic.

Warren Lewis was buried in the churchyard of Holy Trinity Church, Headington, Oxford, where he is interred in his brother's grave.

Publications

 * The Lewis Papers: Memoirs of the Lewis Family. Printed privately in 1933.
 * "The Galleys of France." In Essays Presented to Charles Williams. Oxford University Press. Oxford. 1947.
 * The Splendid Century: Some Aspects of French Life in the Reign of Louis XIV. Eyre & Spottiswoode. London. 1953.
 * The Sunset of the Splendid Century: The Life and Times of Louis Auguste de Bourbon, Duc de Maine. Eyre & Spottiswoode. London. 1955.
 * Assault on Olympus: The Rise of the House of Gramont between 1604 and 1678. Andre Deutsch. London. 1958.
 * Louis XIV: An Informal Portrait. Andre Deutsch. London. 1959.
 * The Scandalous Regent: A Life of Philippe, Duc d'Orleans, and of his family. Andre Deutsch. London. 1961.
 * Levantine Adventurer: The Travels and Missions of the Chevalier d'Arvieux. Andre Deutsch. London. 1962.
 * Memoirs of the Duc de Saint-Simon. B. T. Batsford. London. 1964.
 * Letters of C. S. Lewis (as editor). Geoffrey Bles Ltd. London. 1966.

title: Warren Lewis


text:
Spoleto

Spoleto (, also, , ; Spoletum) is an ancient city in the Italian province of Perugia in east-central Umbria on a foothill of the Apennines. It is 20 km south of Trevi, 29 km north of Terni, 63 km southeast of Perugia; 212 km southeast of Florence; and 126 km north of Rome.

History
Spoleto was situated on the eastern branch of the Via Flaminia, which forked into two roads at Narni and rejoined at Forum Flaminii, near Foligno. An ancient road also ran hence to Nursia. The Ponte Sanguinario of the 1st century BC still exists. The forum lies under today's marketplace.

Located at the head of a large, broad valley, surrounded by mountains, Spoleto has long occupied a strategic geographical position. It appears to have been an important town to the original Umbri tribes, who built walls around their settlement in the 5th century BC, some of which are visible today.

The first historical mention of Spoletium is the notice of the foundation of a colony there in 241 BC; and it was still, according to Cicero "colonia latina in primis firma et illustris": a Latin colony in 95 BC. After the Battle of Lake Trasimene (217 BC), Spoletium was attacked by Hannibal, who was repulsed by the inhabitants. During the Second Punic War the city was a useful ally to Rome. It suffered greatly during the civil wars of Gaius Marius and Sulla. The latter, after his victory over Marius, confiscated the territory of Spoletium (82 BC). From this time forth it was a municipium.

Under the empire it seems to have flourished once again, but is not often mentioned in history. Martial speaks of its wine. Aemilianus, who had been proclaimed emperor by his soldiers in Moesia, was slain by them here on his way from Rome (AD 253), after a reign of three or four months. Rescripts of Constantine (326) and Julian (362) are dated from Spoleto. The foundation of the episcopal see dates from the 4th century: early martyrs of Spoleto are legends, but a letter to the bishop Caecilianus, from Pope Liberius in 354 constitutes its first historical mention. Owing to its elevated position, Spoleto was an important stronghold during the Vandal and Gothic wars; its walls were dismantled by Totila.

Under the Lombards, Spoleto became the capital of an independent duchy, the Duchy of Spoleto (from 570), and its dukes ruled a considerable part of central Italy. On 29 April 801, it was struck by a severe earthquake. Several of its dukes, mainly during the late 9th century, rose to wear the crown of that empire. Together with other fiefs, it was bequeathed to Pope Gregory VII by the powerful countess Matilda of Tuscany, but for some time struggled to maintain its independence. In 1155 it was destroyed by Frederick Barbarossa. In 1213 it was definitively occupied by Pope Gregory IX. During the absence of the papal court in Avignon, it was prey to the struggles between Guelphs and Ghibellines, until in 1354 Cardinal Albornoz brought it once more under the authority of the Papal States.

In 1809, following Napoleon's conquest of Italy, Spoleto became capital of the short-lived French department of Trasimène. It returned to Papal States control within five years of Napoleon's subsequent defeat. In 1860, after a unsuccessful defence, Spoleto was taken by the troops fighting for the unification of Italy.

Giovanni Pontano, founder of the Accademia Pontaniana of Naples, was born in the town; as was Francis Possenti, who was educated in the Jesuit school and whose father was the Papal assessor. Francis later entered the Passionists and became Saint Gabriel of Our Lady of Sorrows.

Ancient and lay buildings

 * The Roman theatre, largely rebuilt. The stage is occupied by the former church of St. Agatha, currently housing the National Archaeological Museum.
 * Ponte Sanguinario lit. 'bloody bridge', a 1st century BC Roman bridge. The name is traditionally attributed to the persecutions of Christians in the nearby amphitheatre.
 * A restored Roman house with mosaic floors, indicating it was built in the 1st century, and overlooked the forum square. An inscription by Polla to Emperor Caligula suggests the house was that of Vespasia Polla, the mother of Emperor Vespasian.
 * Roman amphitheater from the 2nd century AD. It was turned into a fortress by Totila in 545 and in the Middle Ages was used for stores and shops, while the church of San Gregorio Minore was built. The stones were later used to build the Rocca Albornoziana.
 * Palazzo Comunale (13th century).
 * Ponte delle Torri, a 13th-century aqueduct, possibly on Roman foundations: scholarly opinion is divided on whether it was first built by the Romans.
 * Rocca Albornoziana, a fortress built in 1359–1370 by the architect Matteo Gattapone of Gubbio for Cardinal Albornoz. It has six sturdy towers which form two distinct inner spaces: the Cortile delle Armi, for the troops, and the Cortile d'onore for the use of the city's governor. The latter courtyard is surrounded by a two-floor porch. The rooms include the Camera Pinta (lit. 'Painted Room') with 15th‑century frescoes. After having resisted many sieges, the Rocca was turned into a jail in 1800 and used as such until the late 20th century. After extensive renovation it was reopened as a museum in 2007.
 * Palazzo Racani-Arroni (16th century) has a worn graffito decoration attributed to Giulio Romano. The inner courtyard has a fountain.
 * Palazzo della Signoria (14th century), housing the city's museum.
 * Palazzo Vigili (15th–16th centuries) includes the Torre dell'Olio (13th century), the sole remaining medieval city tower in Spoleto.
 * Temple of Clitumnus lies between Spoleto and Trevi.

Churches

 * Duomo (Cathedral) of S. Maria Assunta: construction of the building began around 1175 and completed in 1227. The Romanesque edifice contains the tomb of Filippo Lippi, who died in Spoleto in 1469, designed by his son Filippino Lippi. The church also houses a manuscript letter by Saint Francis of Assisi.
 * San Pietro extra Moenia: a church founded in 419 to house the chains that supposedly once bound St. Peter. It was built over an ancient necropolis. It was reconstructed from the 12th to the 15th century, when a Romanesque façade was added with three doors with rose-windows, with relief decoration by local artists, portraying stories of the life of St. Peter. The church is fronted by a large staircase. In the 17th century the interior was refurbished in Baroque style, with a basilica plan with a nave, two aisles, and an elliptical dome.
 * Basilica of San Salvatore: a 4th–5th century church incorporating the cella of a Roman temple and example of Early Christian architecture. It was rebuilt by the Lombards in the 8th century. In 2011, it became a UNESCO World Heritage Site as part of a group of seven inscribed as "Longobards in Italy, Places of Power (568–774 A.D.)".
 * San Ponziano: a monastery and 12th–century Romanesque church standing outside the city's walls, dedicated to the patron saint of Spoleto. The church was modified in later centuries by Giuseppe Valadier. The crypt, however, has remained untouched, with its five small naves and small apses with cross-vault, ancient Roman spolia columns and frescoes of the 14th–15th centuries.
 * Santa Maria della Manna d'Oro: a former sanctuary built in octagonal plan facing the piazza del Duomo. Putatively erected by the town's merchants to thank the Madonna for sparing the city from plundering by the Imperial army in 1527, it is currently an exhibition hall.
 * Chiesa di San Domenico (Spoleto): a 13th century Gothic construction in white and pink stone. The interior has paintings by Giovanni Lanfranco. The crypt is a former church dedicated to St. Peter, with frescoed walls.
 * San Gregorio Maggiore: an 11th–12th century church recently restored to its original Romanesque elements. The façade has a 16th-century portico that includes the Chapel of the Innocents (14th century) with a font. The main external feature is the high belfry, finished in the 15th century. The interior has three naves with spolia columns and pillars.
 * Santi Giovanni e Paolo: a deconsecrated Romanesque church featuring, on the exterior, a 13th-century fresco portraying Madonna with Saints. The interior frescoes, from the 13th–15th centuries, include some of the most ancient representations of the martyrdom of St. Thomas Becket (painted by Alberto Sotio), and of St. Francis.
 * Basilica of Sant'Eufemia: an example of 12th-century Romanesque architecture influenced by Lombardy and Veneto. The interior has three naves with spolia columns.
 * San Paolo inter vineas: a 10th century Romanesque church with rose-window of the façade.
 * Former church and Augustinian convent of San Nicolò (1304): an example of Gothic style in Spoleto. The small church has a single nave with a polygonal apse with mullioned windows. Under the apse is the church of Santa Maria della Misericordia. There are two cloisters, the more recent one pertaining to the 15th century.
 * San Filippo Neri: Baroque construction of mid-17th century, designed by Chiesa di San Filippo Neri (Spoleto).
 * Sant'Ansano: an 18th-century church built atop more ancient buildings, including a 1st-century Roman temple and the mediaeval Crypt of St. Isaac. It has a cloister from the 16th century.
 * Santi Simone e Giuda: a 13th-century church completed in 1280 that has undergone many restorations and losses.

Culture
The Festival dei Due Mondi (lit. 'Festival of the Two Worlds') was founded in 1958. Because Spoleto was a small town, where real estate and other goods and services were at the time relatively inexpensive, and also because there are two indoor theatres, a Roman theatre and many other spaces, it was chosen by Gian Carlo Menotti as the venue for an arts festival. It is also fairly close to Rome, with good rail connections. It is an important cultural event, held annually in late June-early July.

The festival has developed into one of the most important cultural manifestations in Italy, with a three-week schedule of music, theater and dance performances. For some time it became a reference point for modern sculpture exhibits, and works of art left to the city by Alexander Calder and others are a testimony to this.

In the United States, a parallel festival — Spoleto Festival USA — held in Charleston, South Carolina was founded in 1977 with Menotti's involvement. The twinning only lasted some 15 years and, after growing disputes between the Menotti family and the Spoleto Festival USA board, in the early 1990s a separation was consummated. However, following Menotti's death in February 2007, the city administrations of Spoleto and Charleston started talks to re-unite the two festivals which would climax in Spoleto mayor Massimo Brunini's attending the opening ceremony of Spoleto Festival USA in May 2008. For a short period of time, a third parallel festival was also held in Melbourne, Australia. In 1992, the Spoleto Arts Symposium was initiated with the purpose of bringing talented people from all around the world to study in Spoleto. The program apparently ceased in 2009, to be replaced by a similar program, started by the College-Conservatory of Music (CCM) of the University of Cincinnati in 2010.

Sport
Spoleto gained its main results in sport with the local volleyball team, Olio Venturi Spoleto, who classified in the quarter finals of the Italian championship in sport.

The town's football team, A.D. Voluntas Calcio Spoleto, play in Serie D.

ASD Spoleto Rugby, is the Rugby Union club of the town. They affiliated with FIR in 2014 and they play at Serie C2.

The Stadio Communale hosted an international Rugby League match, in 2018. The Italy national team (of the Lega Italiana Rugby Football League) played against the British-Asian Rugby League Association (BARA). BARA won the match.

Twin towns – sister cities

 * 🇺🇸 Charleston, US
 * 🇩🇪 Schwetzingen, Germany
 * 🇵🇪 Cajamarca, Peru
 * 🇫🇷 Orange, France
 * 🇲🇪 Cetinje, Montenegro

Surrounding area
Various suburbs and small villages surrounding the city of Spoleto (collectively referred to as Frazioni) include: Acquaiola, Acquacastagna, Ancaiano, Azzano, Baiano, Bazzano Inferiore, Bazzano Superiore, Beroide, Camporoppolo, Campo Salese, Cerqueto, Cese, Collerisana, Collicelli, Cortaccione, Crocemaroggia, Eggi, Fogliano, Forca di Cerro, Madonna di Baiano, Maiano, Messenano, Milano, Montebiblico, Monteluco, Monte Martano, Morgnano, Morro, Ocenelli, Palazzaccio, Perchia, Petrognano, Pompagnano, Pontebari, Poreta, Protte, Rubbiano, San Brizio, San Giacomo, San Giovanni di Baiano, San Martino in Trignano, San Nicolò, San Silvestro, Santa Croce, Sant'Anastasio, Sant'Angelo in Mercole, San Venanzo, Silvignano, Somma, Strettura, Terraia, Terzo la Pieve, Terzo San Severo, Testaccio, Uncinano, Valdarena, Valle San Martino, Vallocchia, Aloha.

title: Spoleto


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Ironstone

Ironstone is a sedimentary rock, either deposited directly as a ferruginous sediment or created by chemical replacement, that contains a substantial proportion of an iron ore compound from which iron (Fe) can be smelted commercially.

Not to be confused with native or telluric iron, which is very rare and found in metallic form, the term ironstone is customarily restricted to hard, coarsely banded, non-banded, and non-cherty sedimentary rocks of post-Precambrian age. The Precambrian deposits, which have a different origin, are generally known as banded iron formations. The iron minerals comprising ironstones can consist either of oxides, i.e. limonite, hematite, and magnetite; carbonates, i.e. siderite; silicates, i.e. chamosite; or some combination of these minerals.

Description
Freshly cleaved ironstone is usually grey. The brown external appearance is due to oxidation of its surface. Ironstone, being a sedimentary rock is not always homogeneous, and can be found in a red-and-black banded form called tiger iron, sometimes used for jewelry purposes.

Sometimes ironstone hosts concretions or opal gems.

Occurrence
Ironstone occurs in a variety of forms. The various forms of ironstone include siderite nodules; deeply weathered saprolite, i.e. (laterite); and ooidal ironstone.

Ironstone as a source of iron
Ironstone, although widespread, is a limited source of iron. Historically, most British iron originated from ironstone, but it is now rarely used for this purpose because it is far too limited in quantity to be an economic source of iron ore.

Ceramics
Ironstone's oxide impurities render it useless as a component in ceramics: the "ironstone china" of Staffordshire and American manufacture, a fine, white, high-fired vitreous semi-porcelain, commonly used for heavy-duty dinner services in the 19th century, includes no ironstone in its production. Its "iron" quality is in its resistance to chipping.

In construction
The stone can be used as a building material. Examples include the parish churches at Kirby Bellars and South Croxton in Leicestershire, and Eydon Hall in Northamptonshire.

In art
Sculptures carved out of ironstone are rare. One example is Henry Moore's Head created in 1930.

title: Ironstone


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Talk:Governor-general

The Commonwealth realms governors-general
There are currently 14 governors-general representing Elizabeth II (note: the United Kingdom doesn't have a gov.-gen.) & its got me wondering. As they're all representatives of their respective monarch or if you prefer, the monarch. Are their powers & duties the same or are they different in each commonwealth realm? GoodDay (talk) 08:54, 26 July 2022 (UTC)
 * It must be the case that there are some powers and duties they all have in common, and some that they have uniquely or shared with only a few others. --  Jack of Oz   [pleasantries]  09:39, 26 July 2022 (UTC)
 * I guess my curiosity about this, springs from the question above (March 17, 2009) on this same talkapge, which concerns who appoints the Australian governor-general. Someone asked basically, was the gov.-gen. appointed by the Australian monarch or the British monarch. If one was appointed by a foreign monarch, rather then its own monarch. Does that diminish that governor-general's role, in anyway? GoodDay (talk) 12:43, 26 July 2022 (UTC)

Governors-general who were royal princes
I know that the Earl of Athlone, was a prince of Teck, as a son of the Duke of Teck. But was he a 'royal' prince? His wife was a royal princess of course, but I don't think the husband (at least back then) took their wife's status. GoodDay (talk) 01:44, 4 February 2023 (UTC)

 * You are indeed correct, but as the brother of Queen Mary I still think he warrants a place among those listed as being royal, however I do think that the term 'royal prince' should probably be changed to something like 'members of the royal family' in order to maintain accuracy. In that case, I also think Lord Mountbatten should be included on that list as Governor-General of India from 1947-1948, as he too was a member of the royal family and there's no reasons why the Earl of Athlone should be included on the list but not the Earl Mountbatten of Burma, since he was the uncle of Prince Philip and the second cousin of King George VI and was well known to have been very close to the royal family. Jedi Master Wysk (talk) 06:44, 28 January 2024 (UTC)

Clarification
Does this sentence, particulary regarding the bit after the first semi-colon, make sense?

The convention was gradually established throughout the Commonwealth that the governor-general would be a citizen of the country concerned, and would be appointed on the advice of the government of that country, with no input from the British government; governor general of Canada since 1952 and governor-general of New Zealand since 1967.

I think the bits about Canada and new Zealand are meant to say that the convention being discussed took effect then? Dinkenfunkle 10:16, 1 June 2023 (UTC)

Greek bit
Greek bit is mostly about the areas and administrations, which belongs in the section at Governorate. This article should focus on the office itself and the various office holders. — Llywelyn II   12:43, 10 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Governor-general


text:
Patolli

Patolli or patole  is one of the oldest known games in America. It was a game of strategy and luck played by commoners and nobles alike. It was reported by the conquistadors that Moctezuma Xocoyotzin often enjoyed watching his nobles play the game at court.

History
Patolli and its variants were played by a wide range of pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures and were known all over Mesoamerica: it was played by the Teotihuacanos (the builders of Teotihuacan, ca. 200 BC - 650 AD), the Toltecs (ca. 750 - 1000), the inhabitants of Chichen Itza (founded by refugee Toltec nobles, ca. 1100 - 1300), the Aztecs (who claimed Toltec descent, 1168 - 1521) and all of the people they conquered (practically all of Mesoamerica, including the Zapotecs and the Mixtecs). The ancient Mayans also played a version of patolli. Anthropologists Edward Burnett Tylor (1879, 1896) and E. Adamson Hoebel (1966) remarked on the game's apparent similarities to the South Asian game of pachisi, and a common origin for the games was once considered possible. C. J. Erasmus (1950) criticized the case for common origin as defining "similarity" so broadly as to obscure the differences, while noting that America had a variety of games in which patolli could have arisen independently. He suggested, and R. B. Lewis (1988) further argued, that the similarities reflect the constraints of the board game format.

Players
Patolli is a race game with a heavy focus on gambling. Players would meet and inspect the items each other had available to gamble. They would bet blankets, maguey plants, precious stones, gold adornments, food or, in extreme cases, their homes, family or freedom. Agreeing to play against someone was not done casually, as the winner of the game would ultimately win all of the opponent's store of offerings.

Each player must have the same number of items to bet at the beginning of the game. The typical number of items to bet is six, because each player has six markers (each time a marker successfully completes a circuit around the board, the opponent is required to hand over one of their items); although any number would be acceptable as long as each player agreed.

Once an agreement is made to play, the players prepare themselves by invoking the god of games, Xōchipilli.

Game pieces
Five (or sometimes six) black beans are used as dice. Each bean has one side marked with a hole; thus, tossing the black beans will result in some showing this white mark and others showing a blank side. Dice could also be used; the rules in this article pertain to using five beans.

The game pieces are six red and six blue pebbles; each player controlled one color as their set of game markers. Beans, kernels of maize or even pieces of jade could also be used.

The game board has 52 squares arranged in an "X" shape. The game board was traditionally painted with liquid rubber on a sheet of leather or a straw mat and decorated with colored dye, or carved into the floor or a tabletop.

Gameplay
The object of patolli is to move six game pieces to the end of a board composed of specially-marked squares. In order to complete a round, a player must get all six of their game markers from their starting queue to the ending square on the game board before the other player. The ultimate goal of the game is for a player to win all of the opponent's treasure; to do this, the players may need to play more than one round of the game.

Movement
The players take turns tossing the beans onto the game area. In order for a player to get one of their markers on the game board, one bean would have to land with its hole face up and all the others face down (getting a score of one). Once a player has done so, the player places one of their game markers from their starting queue onto the starting square of the game board.

If a player already has a marker on the game board, they can move it forward (clockwise around the "X" shape) the same number of spaces as there are holes showing from the toss. A toss showing five holes, however, allows the player to move their marker ten spaces forward. A player cannot move a marker onto a space that already has a marker (belonging to either player) on it. If the player cannot move any of their markers because they would overshoot the ending square or land on a spot occupied by another marker, they lose their turn.

Special areas
There are several specially-marked areas on the game board:
 * The four squares in the middle of the "X": Landing on an opponent's marker in this area is allowed, and if a player does so, the opponent's marker is removed from the game board and put back into the opponent's starting queue. The opponent is then required to give up one of their treasures to the landing player.
 * The two dark triangular spaces near the end of each arm of the "X": A player who lands on one of these triangular spaces must give up one of their treasures to the opponent.
 * The two squares at the end of each arm of the "X": A player who lands on one of these squares takes another turn.

Ending the round
If a player's marker reaches the ending square by exact count, the marker is removed from the board and the opponent must give up one of their treasures to the player. The round is over once one player gets all six of their markers off the board this way.

As soon as a player has won all of their opponent's treasures, the game is over and that player is the winner. If no player has won the game by the end of a round of play, the players must play another round.

In addition, if a player's toss results in all the beans standing on their sides, the game is over and the player automatically wins all the goods bet by both parties.

Macuilxochitl's role in the game
According to the Magliabechiano codex, the god of games, Macuilxochitl, was considered to be participating in the game. To represent this, there is a special area near the game board reserved for offerings to Macuilxochitl. A player must place one of their treasures into this space each time their toss results in a score of zero (no holes showing). After each round of play, the winner of the round receives all the treasure from this space as a gift from Macuilxochitl.

title: Patolli


text:
Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark

Princess Marina, Duchess of Kent (born Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark, Μαρίνα; 13 December 1906 – 27 August 1968) was a Greek princess by birth and a British princess by marriage. She was a daughter of Prince Nicholas of Greece and Denmark and Grand Duchess Elena Vladimirovna of Russia, and a granddaughter of King George I and Queen Olga of Greece. Princess Marina married Prince George, Duke of Kent, fourth son of King George V and Queen Mary, in 1934. They had three children: Prince Edward, Princess Alexandra, and Prince Michael.

Marina was widowed in 1942, when her husband was killed in a plane crash on active service. In later life she carried out many royal engagements, including the independence celebrations for Ghana and Botswana.

Early life
Princess Marina was born on 13 December 1906 in Athens, Greece, during the reign of her paternal grandfather, George I of Greece. She was the third and youngest daughter of Prince Nicholas of Greece and Denmark, and his wife Grand Duchess Elena Vladimirovna of Russia. Her father was the third son of George I of Greece and Queen Olga, while her mother was the only daughter of Grand Duke Vladimir Alexandrovich and Grand Duchess Maria Pavlovna of Russia. Her father was a grandson of Christian IX of Denmark, while her mother was a granddaughter of Emperor Alexander II of Russia.

Princess Marina had two elder sisters, Princess Olga and Princess Elizabeth. Princess Olga married Prince Paul of Yugoslavia in 1923. After the assassination of his cousin, Alexander I of Yugoslavia, Paul served as Prince Regent of Yugoslavia from 1934 to 1941. Princess Elizabeth married Carl Theodor, Count of Toeering-Jettenbach in 1934. One of their paternal uncles was Prince Andrew of Greece and Denmark, the father of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh (making Marina and her sisters Philip's first cousins).

Marina spent her early years in Greece, and lived with her parents and paternal grandparents at Tatoi Palace. Along with her sisters, she was raised to be devout and religious, which was encouraged by her grandmother, Queen Olga of Greece. Marina's family travelled outside of Greece often, especially during the summer months. Her first recorded visit to Britain was in 1910, when she was 3, after the death of her godfather, Edward VII. During that visit, she met her other godmother and future mother-in-law, Queen Mary, who treated Marina and her sisters like her own children.

The Greek royal family was forced into exile when Marina was 11, following the overthrow of the Greek monarchy. They later moved to Paris, while the Princess stayed with her extended family throughout Europe.

Wedding ceremony
In 1932, Princess Marina and Prince George (later the Duke of Kent), a second cousin through Christian IX of Denmark, met in London. Their betrothal was announced in August 1934. Prince George was created Duke of Kent on 9 October 1934. On 29 November 1934, they married at Westminster Abbey, London. The wedding was a grand affair, as it had been more than eleven years since the last royal wedding with Prince Albert, Duke of York, and Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon (later King George VI and Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother). The wedding of Prince George and Princess Marina was the first royal wedding ceremony to be broadcast by wireless, and with the use of other technology, such as microphones—the control room was located underneath the Unknown Warrior's tomb of Westminster Abbey. The service was broadcast locally and abroad to other nations, and loudspeakers allowed spectators from outside the Abbey to hear the proceedings. The wedding was followed by a Greek ceremony in the private chapel at Buckingham Palace, which was converted into an Orthodox chapel for the ceremony. The wedding was the most recent occasion on which a princess from another royal family married into the British royal family.

Married life
The Duke and Duchess set up their first home at 3 Belgrave Square, close to Buckingham Palace. She became a patroness of several organizations and charities, including the Elizabeth Garrett Anderson Hospital, the Women's Hospital Fund, and the Central School of Speech and Drama. She would continue to support these charities and institutions for the rest of her life. She became very close to her mother-in-law, Queen Mary, with whom she would usually spend time while her husband was off performing his own royal duties.

The couple had three children:

 * Prince Edward, Duke of Kent (born 9 October 1935). He married Katharine Worsley on 8 June 1961. They have three children.
 * Princess Alexandra, The Honourable Lady Ogilvy (born 25 December 1936). She married the Hon. Angus Ogilvy, son of David Ogilvy, 12th Earl of Airlie and Lady Alexandra Coke, on 24 April 1963. They have two children.
 * Prince Michael of Kent (born 4 July 1942). He married Baroness Marie Christine von Reibnitz on 30 June 1978. They have two children.

The Duke of Kent was killed on 25 August 1942, in an airplane crash at Eagle's Rock, near Dunbeath, Caithness, Scotland, while on active service with the Royal Air Force. The Duchess, according to royal biographer Hugo Vickers, was "the only war widow in Britain whose estate was forced to pay death duties".

During World War II, Marina was trained as a nurse for three months under the pseudonym "Sister Kay" and joined the civil nurse reserve.

Later life and death

After her husband's death, the Duchess of Kent continued to be an active member of the British royal family, carrying out a wide range of royal and official engagements. She was the president of the Wimbledon All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club for 26 years. She was also the president of the Royal National Lifeboat Institution from 1943 until her death and was awarded the RNLI's gold medal in 1967 to mark this contribution. One of her first cousins was Prince Philip (later the Duke of Edinburgh), who married her niece, the future Queen Elizabeth II, in 1947.

In 1947, Princess Marina visited Greece and Italy. In June 1952 the Duchess laid the foundation stone of the new St Mark's Church in Bromley, London, which had been damaged in the war.

In 1952, the Duchess also visited Sarawak (then a British Crown Colony), where she laid the foundation stone of the Cathedral of St Thomas in Kuching. She also visited the Batu Lintang camp, a Japanese internment camp during World War II which had been converted to a teacher training college, and the city of Sibu, where she opened the outpatient department of the Lau Kheng Howe Hospital.

In March 1957, when the Gold Coast achieved independence from Britain as Ghana, the Duchess of Kent was appointed to represent the Queen at the celebrations. Fifty years later, at the 50th anniversary of Ghana's independence, her son, Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, was appointed by the Queen to represent her.

Marina earned a place in the International Best Dressed List Hall of Fame in 1960 together with the Princess of Monaco, Patricia Lopez-Willshaw and Merle Oberon. In 1964, the Princess took an extensive tour of Australia and officially opened Gladesville Bridge in Sydney.

In September and October 1966, when the British Protectorates of Bechuanaland and Basutoland became the new Republic of Botswana and the Kingdom of Lesotho respectively, the Princess was appointed again to represent the Queen at both celebrations. The main public hospital in Gaborone, the new Botswana's capital, is named "Princess Marina Hospital". She was the Chancellor of the University of Kent at Canterbury from 1963 until her death.

Princess Marina, Duchess of Kent, died of a brain tumour at Kensington Palace at 11.40 am on 27 August 1968, aged 61. The funeral service for the Princess was held at St. George's Chapel on 30 August. She was buried in the Royal Burial Ground, Frogmore. Her funeral was the last royal ceremony attended by her brother-in-law, the former king Edward VIII. Her will was sealed in London after her death in 1968. Her estate was valued at £76,166 (or £940,600 in 2022 when adjusted for inflation).

Legacy
Princess Marina gave her name to many facilities, including:
 * Princess Marina College, Arborfield, Berkshire
 * Princess Marina House, a facility of the Royal Air Force Benevolent Fund at Rustington.
 * Princess Marina Hospital, Upton, Northamptonshire
 * Princess Marina Hospital, Gaborone, Botswana
 * Princess Marina Sports Complex, Rickmansworth.
 * Duchess of Kent Hospital, Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia

References in popular culture

 * The Kinks recorded "She's Bought a Hat Like Princess Marina" for their 1969 album Arthur (or the Decline and Fall of the British Empire). The song was written by Ray Davies.
 * In 2017, Clare Holman portrayed Princess Marina in the season 2 finale of The Crown.

Titles and styles
Marina was known as the Princess Marina of Greece. Upon marriage she became known as Her Royal Highness The Duchess of Kent, and was later titled Her Royal Highness The Princess Marina, Duchess of Kent.

Honours
Commonwealth
 * GCStJ: Dame Grand Cross of the Order of St. John of Jerusalem, 1935
 * CI: Companion of the Order of the Crown of India, 1937
 * GBE: Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire, 1937
 * GCVO: Dame Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order, 1948
 * Royal Family Order of King George V
 * Royal Family Order of King George VI
 * Royal Family Order of Queen Elizabeth II

Foreign
 * 🇦🇹 Grand Decoration in Gold with Sash for Services to the Republic of Austria
 * House of Romanov: Dame Grand Cordon of the Imperial Order of Saint Catherine

Honorary military appointments

 * Canada
 * 🇨🇦 Colonel-in-Chief, The Essex and Kent Scottish (1942 – 1968)

 * United Kingdom
 * Colonel-in-Chief, of The Queen's Own Royal West Kent Regiment
 * Colonel-in-Chief, of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers
 * Honorary Colonel, of the Buckinghamshire Battalion, The Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry
 * Honorary Colonel, of the Buckinghamshire Regiment, RA (Territorials)
 * Commandant, Women's Royal Naval Service (1940–1968) (Chief Commandant from 1951)

title: Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark