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Walter Jenkins

Walter Wilson Jenkins (March 23, 1918 – November 23, 1985) was an American political figure and longtime top aide to U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson. Jenkins' career ended after he was arrested and charged with "disorderly conduct" with another man in a public restroom in Washington, D.C. The incident happened weeks before the 1964 presidential election, in an era in which homosexual behavior was widely condemned.

Personal life
Jenkins was born in Jolly, Texas, and spent his childhood in Wichita Falls, Texas. There he attended Hardin Junior College and then spent two years at the University of Texas, though he did not earn a degree. In 1945, following his discharge from the Army, he converted to Roman Catholicism and married Helen Marjorie Whitehill.

Jenkins and his wife had six children, four boys and two girls. They separated in the early 1970s but never divorced.

Government career
Jenkins began working for Lyndon B. Johnson in 1939 when Johnson was serving in the U.S. House of Representatives as the member from Texas's 10th congressional district. For most of the next 25 years, Jenkins served as Johnson's top administrative assistant, following Johnson as he rose to become a Senator, Vice President under John F. Kennedy, and President.

From 1941 until 1945, Jenkins served in the United States Army during World War II. In 1951, he returned to Wichita Falls to run for the House of Representatives. Jenkins lost to Frank N. Ikard in a race marked by attacks on Jenkins because of his Roman Catholic faith.

Johnson's former aides credit Jenkins for his ability and temperament. In 1975, journalist Bill Moyers, a former Johnson aide and press secretary, wrote in Newsweek: "When they come to canonize political aides, [Jenkins] will be the first summoned, for no man ever negotiated the shark-infested waters of the Potomac with more decency or charity or came out on the other side with his integrity less shaken. If Lyndon Johnson owed everything to one human being other than Lady Bird, he owed it to Walter Jenkins." Joseph Califano wrote, "Jenkins was the nicest White House aide I ever met in any administration. He was never overbearing. It was quite remarkable."

By the 1960s, Jenkins was more Johnson's friend than employee, close to Lady Bird Johnson and involved in their family finances as well. The Johnsons celebrated Lady Bird's fifty-first birthday at a party at Jenkins' home in December 1963.

Arrest
A month before the 1964 presidential election, on October 7, District of Columbia Police arrested Jenkins in a YMCA restroom. He and another man were booked on a disorderly conduct charge, an incident described as "perhaps the most famous tearoom arrest in America." He paid a $50 fine. Rumors of the incident circulated for several days, and Republican Party operatives helped to promote it to the press. Some newspapers, including the Chicago Tribune and the Cincinnati Enquirer, refused to run the story. Journalists quickly learned that Jenkins had been arrested on a similar charge in 1959, which made it much harder to explain away as the result of overwork or, as one journalist wrote, "combat fatigue."

Finally, on October 14, a Washington Star editor called the White House for Jenkins' comment on a story it was preparing. Jenkins turned to White House lawyers Abe Fortas, the President's personal lawyer, and Clark Clifford, who unofficially was filling the role of White House Counsel. They immediately lobbied the editors of Washington's three newspapers not to run the story, which only confirmed its significance. Within hours, Clifford detailed the evidence to the President and press secretary George Reedy, who while "openly weeping," confirmed the story to reporters. Probably forewarned, Johnson told Fortas that Jenkins needed to resign.

Anticipating the charge that Jenkins might have been blackmailed, Johnson immediately ordered an FBI investigation. He knew that J. Edgar Hoover would have to clear the administration of any security problem because the FBI itself would otherwise be at fault for failing to investigate Jenkins properly years before. Hoover reported on October 22 that security had not been compromised. Johnson later said: "I couldn't have been more shocked about Walter Jenkins if I'd heard that Lady Bird had tried to kill the Pope." He also fed conspiracy theories that Jenkins had been framed. He claimed that before his arrest Jenkins had attended a cocktail party where the waiters came from the Republican National Committee, though the party was hosted by Newsweek to celebrate the opening of its new offices. The Star printed the story and UPI transmitted its version on October 14. Jenkins resigned the same day. Johnson immediately ordered a poll to determine the public's reaction to the affair and learned the next day that its effect on the voters was negligible.

The President announced that only he would contact the press about the incident, but his wife, Lady Bird Johnson, issued her own statement of support for Jenkins.

Political reactions
The incident embarrassed the administration but had little impact on the campaign in which Johnson led his opponent by large margins. One columnist wrote on October 15, "Walter Jenkins has revived and dramatized all the harsh feelings about morals, and political cliques, and the Texas gang in Washington." Yet the incident disappeared so quickly from the political scene that Theodore H. White, surveying the 1964 election campaign, assessed its impact this way: "Perhaps the most amazing of all events of the campaign of 1964 is that the nation faced the fact fully—and shrugged its shoulders." Jenkins' arrest was quickly overshadowed by international affairs: Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev was deposed on October 14, the British electorate voted Labour into power on October 15, and China successfully tested a nuclear weapon on October 16.

Johnson's Republican opponent in the 1964 presidential election, Barry Goldwater, knew Jenkins from the Senate and from serving as commanding officer of his Air Force Reserve unit, but initially denied knowing him. He did not comment on the incident while campaigning. Although it fit well with the charges he had been making about the lack of morality in Johnson's administration, those referred to Bobby Baker and Billie Sol Estes. Instead, since FBI agents had just questioned him about Jenkins, he publicly asked Hoover to explain why Jenkins had not undergone a rigorous security check before joining the White House staff.

Goldwater's campaign offices distributed bumper stickers and buttons bearing slogans such as, "LBJ –LIGHT BULB JENKINS: NO WONDER HE TURNED THE LIGHTS OUT" and "ALL THE WAY WITH LBJ, BUT DON'T GO NEAR THE YMCA". During the remainder of the campaign Goldwater occasionally alluded to the scandal. In speeches, he referred to Johnson's "curious crew who would run the country" to the knowing amusement of his audience. At the time, observers noted the difference between the way Goldwater alluded to the scandal and the way the Republican National Committee and Goldwater's running mate, William E. Miller, used it to exploit "popular fears." Goldwater later said he chose not to make the incident a campaign issue. "It was a sad time for Jenkins' wife and children, and I was not about to add to their private sorrow," he wrote in his autobiography. "Winning isn't everything. Some things, like loyalty to friends or lasting principle, are more important."

Johnson mentioned the affair in general terms while campaigning. In Pittsburgh, on October 27, he told a crowd that in government "unfortunate things" happen and people "disappoint" you. Some "make mistakes" and need to resign and there need to be impartial investigations.

Members of Congress called for an FBI investigation of the case, citing concerns that the FBI had been unaware of Jenkins' previous offense in the same Washington men's room in January 1959.

Supportive reactions
On October 15, James Reston gave some support to Johnson by confirming that "President Eisenhower was embarrassed by a comparable morals charge against one of his first appointees of his first Administration." On October 19, Drew Pearson in his "Washington Merry-go-round" column recounted the 1959 events with greater detail and named Arthur H. Vandenberg, Jr. as the Eisenhower appointee who "had homosexuality problems and could not pass a security test." Campaigning in San Diego on October 28, Johnson replied to a reporter's question about "sex deviates" in his administration that every administration had its scandals and mentioned that Eisenhower had faced a similar problem with his appointments secretary, thus confirming Pearson's outing of Vandenberg, whose departure from the Eisenhower administration had been blamed on his health.

On October 29, 1964, leading clergymen, including Dean Francis B. Sayre, Jr. of Washington National Cathedral, United Presbyterian Church Leader Eugene Carson Blake, Methodist Bishop John Wesley Lord, American Hebrew Congregations President Maurice Eisendrauth, and theologians Paul Tillich and Reinhold Niebuhr, issued a letter commenting on the Jenkins affair: "We see the Jenkins episode as a case of human weakness. If there is a security factor involved, let that be dealt with on its own terms and let it not serve chiefly as an excuse for dwelling on this one episode to cater to the prurient curiosity or to the self-righteousness of part of the public."

After the election, the American Mental Health Foundation wrote a letter to President Johnson protesting the "hysteria" surrounding the case:

"The private life and inclinations of a citizen, Government employee or not, does not necessarily have any bearing on his capacities, usefulness, and sense of responsibility in his occupation. The fact that an individual is homosexual, as has been strongly implied in the case of Mr. Jenkins, does not per se make him more unstable and more a security risk than any heterosexual person."

On November 17, Lady Bird visited Walter Jenkins and his wife Marjorie, who were preparing to move home to Texas. She reported in her diary that he had received "a barrage of mail" from acquaintances and the public that "seems so understanding." Washington columnist Joseph Alsop, like Jenkins a closeted homosexual, wrote publicly in support of Jenkins and sent him a letter of support as well.

Effect on Johnson administration
Johnson appointed Bill Moyers to succeed Walter Jenkins.

Johnson's White House Press Secretary George Reedy told an interviewer: "A great deal of the president's difficulties can be traced to the fact that Walter had to leave. ... All of history might have been different if it hadn't been for that episode." Former Attorney General Ramsey Clark said that Jenkins' resignation "deprived the president of the single most effective and trusted aide that he had. The results would be enormous when the president came into his hard times. Walter's counsel on Vietnam might have been extremely helpful."

Later years and legacy
Jenkins resigned from the Air Force Reserve in February 1965.

After leaving Washington, Jenkins returned to Texas and lived the rest of his life in Austin, where he worked as a Certified Public Accountant and management consultant and ran a construction company. He died in 1985, at the age of 67, a few months after suffering a stroke.

A made-for-television film, Vanished, loosely based on the Jenkins resignation, aired in 1971.

The Tony-award winning play, All the Way, and its television adaptation, about President Lyndon Johnson's first year in office from the Kennedy assassination on November 22, 1963, through the 1964 election on November 3, both depict the 1964 scandal involving Jenkins. In the film adaptation, Jenkins is portrayed by Todd Weeks.

Canadian playwright Steven Elliott Jackson wrote a play that stages an imaginary meeting and one-night-stand between Jenkins and civil rights activist Bayard Rustin called The Seat Next to the King. Directed by Tanisha Taitt and starring Conor Ling as Jenkins (along with Kwaku Okyere as Rustin), the play won the award for Best New Play at the 2017 Toronto Fringe Festival.

Additional material

 * Lyndon B. Johnson: The Presidential Recordings, 6 vols. (New York: Norton, 2005)

title: Walter Jenkins


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Frankie

Frankie may refer to:

People

 * Frankie (musician), indie pop musician from Los Angeles, California
 * Frankie Abernathy (1981–2007), American MTV Real World cast member
 * Frankie Adams (born 1994), Samoan New Zealand actress
 * Frankie Avalon (born 1940), American actor, singer and teen idol
 * Frankie Ballard (born 1982), American country singer-songwriter and guitarist
 * Frankie Boyle (born 1972), Scottish comedian
 * Frankie Bridge (born 1989), English singer-songwriter
 * Frankie Carle (1903–2001), American pianist and bandleader
 * Frankie Corio (born 2010), Scottish actress
 * Frankie Cosmos, American musician and singer-songwriter
 * Frankie Crosetti (1910–2002), American baseball player
 * Frankie Cutlass (born 1971), American hip-hop producer, DJ, and rapper
 * Frankie Darro (1917–1976), American actor and stuntman
 * Frankie Doom, drag performer and contestant on The Boulet Brothers' Dragula
 * Frankie Faison (born 1949), American actor
 * Frankie Ford (1939–2015), stage name of Vincent Francis Guzzo, American singer
 * Frankie Fredericks (born 1967), Namibian sprinter
 * Frankie Frisch (1898–1973), American baseball player and manager
 * Frankie Giorgi (born 1981), Australian kickboxer
 * Frankie Grande (born 1983), American producer, actor, singer, dancer, and contestant on the TV series Big Brother
 * Frankie Hi-NRG MC (born 1969), Italian rapper
 * Frankie Hough, a former Hollyoaks character
 * Frankie Howerd (1917–1992), English comedian
 * Frankie J (born 1976), stage name of Mexican American singer Francisco Javier Bautista, Jr., formerly of Kumbia Kings
 * Frankie Jonas (born 2000), American actor
 * Frankie Kennedy (1955–1994), Irish musician
 * Frankie Knuckles (1955–2014), American DJ
 * Frankie Laine (1913–2007), American singer, songwriter and actor
 * Frankie Lam (born 1967), Hong Kong actor
 * Frankie Lor, Hong Kong horse racing trainer and former jockey
 * Frankie Luvu (born 1996), American football player
 * Frankie Lymon (1942–1968), African-American rock and roll/rhythm and blues singer
 * Frankie Manning (1914–2009), American dancer
 * Frankie Miller (born 1949), English singer songwriter
 * Frankie Muniz (born 1985), American actor
 * Francisco Rodríguez (Venezuelan pitcher) (born 1982), Major League Baseball pitcher
 * Frankie Shaw (born 1986), American actress
 * Frankie Thomas (1921–2006), American actor
 * Frankie Valli (born 1934), American pop singer
 * Frankie Vaughan (1928–1999), English pop singer

Fictional characters

 * Franky (One Piece), in the anime and manga series One Piece
 * Franky, a character in the Disney game Club Penguin
 * Franky Andrade, of Yo soy Franky, a Colombian television series
 * Frankie, a great white shark in the 2004 film Shark Tale
 * Frankie Bergstein, in Grace and Frankie, an American comedy web television series
 * Frankie Cheeks, in the film Final Destination 3
 * Frankie Del Marco, in the Netflix series Grand Army
 * Frankie the Dog, an anthropomorphic dachshund and a mascot of the JumpStart educational franchise
 * Frankie Foster, a major recurring character in the American animated television series Foster's Home for Imaginary Friends
 * Frankie Gaines, of I Am Frankie, an American television series
 * Frankie Hathaway, in The Haunted Hathaways American television series
 * Frankie Heck, the matriarch of the Indiana family portrayed in the American TV show The Middle
 * Frankie McCourt, in Angela’s Ashes
 * Frankie Osborne, in the British soap opera Hollyoaks
 * Frankie Pierre, in the BBC soap opera EastEnders
 * Frankie Raye, a Fantastic Four character and a herald of Galactus in Marvel Comics
 * Frankie Stein, daughter of Frankenstein in the Monster High American fashion doll franchise
 * Frankie the Squealer, a mafia member in the animated television series The Simpsons
 * Uncle Frank/Frankie, uncle of main character Kevin in the film Home Alone
 * Uncle Frank, main character in the film Double Impact
 * Frankie and Jamie, two criminal brothers in the film American Heist

Music

 * "Frankie" (Connie Francis song), a 1959 single
 * "Frankie" (Sister Sledge song), a 1985 single
 * "Frankie and Johnny", also known as "Frankie", or "Frankie and Albert", a traditional American popular song
 * "Frankie", a song by Betty Blowtorch from Are You Man Enough?
 * "Frankie" a song by Bruce Springsteen from Tracks

Films

 * Frankie, a 1939 film released as Back Door to Heaven
 * Frankie (2005 film), a French film starring Diane Kruger
 * Frankie (Italian Roulette), a 2015 short film by Francesco Mazza
 * Frankie (2019 film), a French film

Other uses

 * Frankie (TV series), a 2013 drama series from the BBC starring Eve Myles as title character Frankie Maddox
 * Frankie (magazine), a bi-monthly Australian magazine
 * Frankie, macaw mascot of American professional wrestler Koko B. Ware
 * Frankie, a type of Mumbai street food

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Frankie


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Concentration camp

A concentration camp  is a form of internment camp for confining political prisoners or politically targeted demographics, such as members of national or minority ethnic groups, on the grounds of state security, or for exploitation or punishment. Prominent examples of historic concentration camps include the British confinement of non-combatants during the Second Boer War, the mass internment of Japanese-American citizens by the US during the Second World War, the Nazi concentration camps, which later morphed into extermination camps, and the Soviet labour camps or gulag.

History
The term concentration camp originates from the Spanish–Cuban Ten Years' War when Spanish forces detained Cuban civilians in camps in order to more easily combat guerrilla forces. Over the following decades the British during the Second Boer War and the Americans during the Philippine–American War also used concentration camps.

The term "concentration camp" and "internment camp" are used to refer to a variety of systems that greatly differ in their severity, mortality rate, and architecture; their defining characteristic is that inmates are held outside the rule of law. Extermination camps or death camps, whose primary purpose is killing, are also imprecisely referred to as "concentration camps".

The American Heritage Dictionary defines the term concentration camp as: "A camp where persons are confined, usually without hearings and typically under harsh conditions, often as a result of their membership in a group which the government has identified as dangerous or undesirable."

Although the first example of civilian internment may date as far back as the 1830s, the English term concentration camp was first used in order to refer to the reconcentration camps (Spanish:reconcentrados) which were set up by the Spanish military in Cuba during the Ten Years' War (1868–1878). The label was applied yet again to camps set up by the United States during the Philippine–American War (1899–1902). And expanded usage of the concentration camp label continued, when the British set up camps during the Second Boer War (1899–1902) in South Africa for interning Boers during the same time period. The German Empire also established concentration camps during the Herero and Namaqua genocide (1904–1907); the death rate of these camps was 45 per cent, twice that of the British camps.

The Russian Empire used forced exile and forced labour as forms of judicial punishment. Katorga, a category of punishment which was reserved for those who were convicted of the most serious crimes, had many of the features which were associated with labor-camp imprisonment. According to historian Anne Applebaum, katorga was not a common sentence; approximately 6,000 katorga convicts were serving sentences in 1906 and 28,600 in 1916. These camps served as a model for political imprisonment during the Soviet period. In the midst of the Russian Civil War, Lenin and the Bolsheviks established a "special" prison camp system, separate from its traditional prison system and under the control of the Cheka. These camps, as Lenin envisioned them, had a distinctly political purpose. These concentration camps were not identical to the Stalinist or Nazi camps, but were introduced to isolate war prisoners given the extreme historical situation following World War 1. In 1929, the distinction between criminal and political prisoners was eliminated, administration of the camps was turned over to the Joint State Political Directorate, and the camps were greatly expanded to the point that they comprised a significant portion of the Soviet economy. This Gulag system consisted of several hundred camps for most of its existence and detained some 18 million from 1929 until 1953. As part of a series of reforms during the Khrushchev Thaw, the Gulag shrank to a quarter of its former size and receded in its significance in Soviet society.

The Nazis first established concentration camps for tens of thousands of political prisoners, primarily members of the Communist Party of Germany and the Social Democratic Party of Germany, in 1933, detaining tens of thousands of prisoners. Many camps were closed following releases of prisoners at the end of the year, and the camp population would continue to dwindle through 1936; this trend would reverse in 1937, with the Nazi regime arresting tens of thousands of "anti-socials", a category that included Romani people as well as the homeless, mentally ill, and social non-conformists. Jews were increasingly targeted beginning in 1938. Following the Nazi invasion of Poland and the beginning of World War II, the camps were massively expanded and became increasingly deadly. At its peak, Nazi concentration camp system was extensive, with as many as 15,000 camps and at least 715,000 simultaneous internees. About 1.65 million people were registered prisoners in the camps, of whom about a million died during their imprisonment. The total number of casualties in these camps is difficult to determine, but the deliberate policy of extermination through labor in many of the camps was designed to ensure that the inmates would die of starvation, untreated disease and summary executions within set periods of time. In addition to the concentration camps, Nazi Germany established six extermination camps, specifically designed to kill millions of people, primarily by gassing. As a result, the term "concentration camp" is sometimes conflated with the concept of an "extermination camp" and historians debate whether the term "concentration camp" or the term "internment camp" should be used to describe other examples of civilian internment.

Also during World War II, concentration camps were established by Italian, Japanese, US, and Canadian forces.

The former label continues to see expanded use for cases post-World War II, for instance in relation to British camps in Kenya during the Mau Mau rebellion (1952–1960), and camps set up in Chile during the military dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet (1973–1990). According to the United States Department of Defense as many as 3 million Uyghurs and members of other Muslim minority groups are being held in China's re-education camps which are located in the Xinjiang region and which American news reports often label as concentration camps. The camps were established in the late 2010s under General Secretary Xi Jinping's administration.

title: Concentration camp


text:
Kissinger (disambiguation)

Henry Kissinger (1923–2023) was an American diplomat.

Kissinger may also refer to:

People

 * Bill Kissinger (1871–1929), American Major League Baseball player
 * C. Clark Kissinger (born 1940), American communist
 * Eric Kissinger (born 1986), American soccer player
 * Jessica Kissinger, American biologist and geneticist
 * Kakai Kissinger (born 1975), Kenyan human rights activist
 * Meg Kissinger, American investigative journalist
 * Nancy Kissinger (born 1934), American philanthropist and wife of Henry Kissinger

 * Kissinger Deng (born 1979), Norwegian ice sledge hockey player

Other uses

 * Kissinger, Missouri, U.S., an unincorporated community in Pike County
 * Kissinger: A Biography, a 1992 book about Henry Kissinger by Walter Isaacson
 * "Kissinger", full title "Please Note We Are No Longer Accepting Letters of Recommendation from Henry Kissinger", an episode of Law & Order: Criminal Intent, season 7
 * Kissinger Prize for exceptional contributions in transatlantic relations
 * Kissinger Associates, a New York City-based international geopolitics consultancy

title: Kissinger (disambiguation)


text:
Talk:Citroën DS

de Gaulle
In fact it seems de Gaulle favorite car was not the DS but the Stout Scarab that was given to him by US officers during the WWII. As he was really tall it was the only car he feel really comfortable in. Ericd 17:42 13 Jul 2003 (UTC)

I don't think I said "favorite car". However, this picture seems to indicate that he was in fact too tall for the DS. B-) EvanProdromou

Nice pic ! I like theses too : http://www.archivesnationales.culture.gouv.fr/chan/chan/gaulle/CHANGau3.htm

I don't said you said ;-) He really like the DS and considered it as a national pride ;-) that's one of the POV we share but I am more a fan of the Citroën 2CV it might be ideological differences :-( or it might because the DS was a mechanical nightmare :-O that made the fortune of some DS specialists while the nearly anybody could disassemble and reassemble a 2CV. The fact is that De Gaulle didn't feel comfortable in any normal car thus he love the Stout Scarab that was "a monospace before the monospaces" (and a great commercial flop). Of course an American car was not appropriate for a "Président de la République". Ericd 22:22 13 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Hmmmm... you sure are pushing that Stout Scarab, aren't you? B-) I wonder if you have one to sell.... ESP 23:00 13 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Not at all someone (not me) added a reference to the Stout Scarab at the end of the Citroën 2CV article so I made some research on it. Ericd 00:11 14 Jul 2003 (UTC)

There's a DS in Ghostbusters? David.Monniaux 08:29, 12 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * Yes a Break ! Ericd 18:19, 22 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Oooops ! The Ectomobile was Cadillac Station Wagon not a DS Break ! Ericd 10:35, 23 Apr 2005 (UTC)

I removed some of the unnecessary linking in the article (research and laboratory, for example). --16 April 2006.

One of my favorite cars ever...
I've always loved the DS/ID. When I was a kid a family I knew owned one. It was a '67. It was black and loaded with all the option's. The original owner was the French consulate in NY. It was the car DeGaul rode in when he visited NY. I thought it was so cool. Wish I'd been old enough to drive when you could still own these. I knew a few people who owned one.

Stu Pickels drove one in the Rug Rats movie. I think I saw a few in Diva. The last one I saw on the road was about five years ago in Lyon. An old Frenchman told me (in French) that it was also the first one he had seen in a long, long time. I think the last one I saw in the U.S. was at a junkyard in TX about 17 years ago. I drive a Peugeot. They're practically extinct in most parts of the U.S. now too. I can drive for months without seeing another.

On holiday in France this year I found a couple old rotting ones, even more happily I found a pristine one back home in Scotland outside a local furniture store celebrating some party. It was truly gorgeous, I had to stop, pull over, and come admire it. Even better than in photos. Talking of photos, I'll see about getting mine online...

 * Working in Skopje, Macedonia fairly recently, I was waiting at the side of the road looking like I wanted a taxi, and a DS pulled up to give me a ride. I could hardly believe it: still functioning day in, day out as a taxi. I didn't actually want a taxi, but it was pretty tempting to just get in and have a ride anyway! ;) – Kieran T  ( talk  11:27, 11 June 2006 (UTC)

Day of the Jackal clarification needed
Not clear on meaning of this reference:  The preceding text indicates the tires were shot out and the car could still drive - is the question about exactly what was visible in the film? 66.77.124.61 22:30, 4 May 2006 (UTC)

It is my understanding that the car could be driven with with only three tires. I have not seen this done however.

Gam3 19:07, 4 July 2007 (UTC)

The DS / ID has a zero angle or neutral steering geometry. This is a passive safety feature designed into the car, so if the car hits a stone or a pot hole in the road, the steering wheel will not be pulled to one side, thereby the driver retains full control of the direction of travel. This will also work if there is a flat front tire. As far as I know, it is the only car to have this feature. CitroenCX2000 (talk) 18:16, 19 June 2014 (UTC)

Headlights
I don't know the full history of the model well enough to edit this point, but it seems like the headlights aren't very well explained. There's mention of the redesign and streamlining of the front of the car, and the swivelling lights, but there's no clear explanation that the ID had the older single lights, nor that they're not the same as the exposed lights on the US model; in fact a photo of a single-light DS with added spot or fog lamps had been labelled wrongly as the US model. I've changed that in the label, but it'd be great if somebody who knows the chronology could clarify it in the article. I'll try to research it so I can do it if nobody else wants to :) – Kieran T  ( talk  11:24, 11 June 2006 (UTC)

Made changes under Design Variations - issue covered?66.77.124.61 04:11, 22 June 2006 (UTC)

 * Looks great, thanks. I've just one more question: did the ID gain the double lights? The new text seems to say so, and I'd always assumed it didn't, but I'm not sure why! – Kieran T  ( talk  10:36, 22 June 2006 (UTC)

 * Yes - both ID and DS received the same four headlight under glass treatment for model year 1968. Directional headlights were an extra cost option on the ID - if not ordered, the inner lights would be fixed. 66.229.151.43 08:29, 8 July 2006 (UTC)

Disc Brakes
Elsewhere in Wiki the Crosley Hotshot is mentioned as the first production vehicle equipped with disc brakes. Can someone help resolve this discrepancy?LorenzoB 20:44, 8 October 2006 (UTC) Go to the disc brake page in Wikipedia - it has a pretty thorough explanation of the 'who was first' issue. 66.77.124.61 19:50, 9 October 2006 (UTC)

LHM
I think the article dwells a bit too much on 'what is LHM' - good info that other articles could also reference. Interestingly the brake fluid article indicates there are exactly 3 kinds of brake fluid, none of which is LHM. 66.77.124.61 19:55, 9 October 2006 (UTC)

 * LHM isn't actually a brake fluid - it's a hydraulic fluid :) 193.77.184.32 06:31, 23 May 2007 (UTC)

SM & DS
The article implies that the SM had many interchangable parts with the DS. That is not correct. While the SM is conceptually like the DS in many respects, it is a unique model. More generally, cars from different generations don't have interchangable parts, unless those parts are very generic - you can take the battery from a 2006 Toyota Corolla and place it in a 1990 Corolla and it will probably work, but not say the exhaust manifold or the transmission.66.77.124.61 02:32, 8 November 2006 (UTC)

I don't have details, but my recollection is that parts of the suspension and the steering were interchangeable between SM and DS in the early 1970s. Certainly not "generic" components. Clearly the engine and gearbox were unrelated. Groogle 00:56, 12 February 2007 (UTC)

I recall the original citation had something to do with the SM & DS using the same parts - not interchangable parts.66.77.124.61 02:55, 9 March 2007 (UTC)

We had slid back into implying that the SM & DS are basically the same car under the skin. Not true. The SM was not a parts bin car, it was a unique model. What is true is that the SM could be considered a "new, replacement DS" completely redesigned 15 years later, but targeting a different, very small market segment. This constant recitation that the parts were the "same" is confusing to the reader and inaccurate. 76.171.244.226 (talk) 16:15, 10 May 2008 (UTC)

DS Engines duplication
The sections DS Engines and Technical Details - Drivetrain cover the same territory. Consolidate? 66.77.124.61 04:52, 2 February 2007 (UTC)

DS cylinder head on Traction engine
There's a "citation needed" against this item. I think I wrote it in the first place, and it's based on my experience: I have done this in about 1971 (required a different exhaust manifold), but I don't have any backup documentation. Any idea how to confirm that it worked? Groogle 00:54, 12 February 2007 (UTC)

The whole article reads like a brochure for the company or for collectors
I mean really, is this what an encyclopedia is for? Why do so many people have this compulsion to write marketing copy in an encyclopedia? (06:09, 17 August 2007) 24.90.17.134 (UTC)

 * Not sure what "marketing" means in terms of a 50 year old car. The DS was a milestone automobile design - the article touches on that. In fact, an "encylopedia" article that glosses over the car's impact would be false and misleading.76.168.255.29 02:15, 2 September 2007 (UTC)

 * I agree with the assertion that the article is non-encyclopedic. Large parts need editing to remove material that is subjective rather than objective. 217.155.198.139 (talk) 11:12, 2 January 2023 (UTC)

 * Examples would be helpful. MartinezMD (talk) 21:08, 2 January 2023 (UTC)

Trivia section
I wanted to see what other peoples opinions were regarding the trivia section on this page. It looks like it was merged back in after the DS in pop culture page was deleted. I really don't think the list of movie appearances is encyclopedic and it is a violation of WP:NOT and WP:TRIVIA also the consensus over at WP:CAR is to get rid of these sections as they add little actual info. Just because a DS appears in a movie doesn't mean anything it needs to be mentioned in an encyclopedia article unless it is especially significant. --Daniel J. Leivick 00:09, 6 September 2007 (UTC)

 * In that case, how about doing some editing, rather than dumping the whole thing? People enjoy these associations and connections, which are very much part of these cars' flavor.  I can't believe there is a hard rule against conveying some of that ambience in this encyclopedia. Hertz1888 00:23, 6 September 2007 (UTC)

 * The content which was in this article before the deletion of the popular culture sub-article still had ample pop-culture references. (I've restored back to that version of the section.) It becomes hard to read when it includes an excessive list of links of owner's names, and the bullet points fall foul of WP:TRIVIA if they can't be integrated into the text. And the question of what can be integrated brings me to a significant point which was made in the WikiProject Automobiles discussions (available in the archive pages) — the point of popular culture references is that they should be about things which mattered to the car, perhaps by increasing public awareness of it. If, instead, the reference matters to the film (or song, or whatever) then it belongs instead in the article for the film. – Kieran T  (' talk ') 08:40, 6 September 2007 (UTC)

I was looking forward to reading this horrible, monstrous "Trivia" section on the DS everyone is so excited about, so I took a walk through the 'History' section. Turns out there never was a "Trivia" section. There was just a list of notable film appearances, which is pefectly fine. According to WP:TRIVIA: "A selectively populated list with a narrow theme is not necessarily trivia, and can be the best way to present some types of information." 69.8.247.231 17:10, 12 September 2007 (UTC)
 * I consider it to be important to American popular culture that the title character of The Mentalist drives a DS. 75.216.235.190 (talk) 04:43, 19 February 2011 (UTC)

Unclampable
The citroen DS is unclampable, top gear tried and failed.Dalek9 (talk) 18:31, 11 November 2008 (UTC)

"Lorraine" and "Prestige"?
In addition, Chapron also produced a few coupés, non-works convertibles and special sedans (including the 'Prestige,' same wheelbase but with a with a central divider, and the 'Lorraine' notchback). I think a photo of these ought to be in the article, at least of their interiors, showing the differences.. --97.125.124.136 (talk) 02:49, 18 May 2009 (UTC)

Racing
The DS was raced in several races, including the Grand Prix Brno.

Differences between DS19, 21, 23, ... an overview table would be helpful
I came to this article because I had taken a photo of a DS in Paris and I wanted to figure out which model of the DS it was. In the article is mentioned DS 19, DS 21, DS 23, scattered around in the text. I guess these numbers indicate progressions in the design, like the headlights design. But I find it very hard to figure out exactly what the differences are between the different DS nn. A table providing an overview of the manufacturing years´for the different DS nn summarizing also the differences in design would be very helpful. From the text I cannot figure out which DS nn the car is. In the text is written that the headlights were designed to the sharklook in 1967 (obviously the version in the photo), but is that redesign coupled with an increment in the nn number? --Slaunger (talk) 06:29, 28 June 2012 (UTC)

 * Your photo shows a sharknose car (1968-1976) with push button door handles (1955-1971), so it could not have been a DS 23 (post-1972).
 * The top spec engine at the time this car was built was denoted DS 21.
 * The dashboard would be the final giveaway as to year - 1968, 1969, and 1970-on each have a unique dash.
 * While not in table format, the Design Variations and Technical Details sections do have the info I think you are looking for.
 * Note that Citroën was never religious about separating model ranges - so you could see a 1.9 liter "Pallas" in the sharknose years, even though that's combining high-spec body with low spec engine. They also made a DS 23 Comfort, which is the reverse.
 * According to John Reynolds in 'Original Citroën DS', each individual car is subtly different because the assembly workers had several parts to choose from - if the Ducellier bin was empty, bolt on a SEV Marchal part - that should work just as well.

76.168.227.117 (talk) 21:21, 14 July 2012 (UTC)

Bankruptcy (replacing the DS)
Currently, the article makes a bold assertion: "The development and launch of the CX in the wake of the 1974 oil crisis, bankrupted Citroën"

This implies that the CX literally caused the 1974 bankruptcy - if there was no CX, Citroen would not have declared bankruptcy. If that's true, that means replacing a 20 year old auto design with a modern one is a mistake. In reality, automakers plan for redesigned models all the time - they don't go bankrupt at every model changeover.

I vote to repeal and replace this section.

The 1974 bankruptcy had numerous causes: 76.168.227.117 (talk) 20:48, 14 July 2012 (UTC)
 * Citroen had been losing money for many years - as mentioned by Motor Trend in February 1972
 * Profits in the automobile industry come from building cheap cars and selling them at high prices; during the Michelin years, Citroen was following the opposite approach
 * Citroen sales were driven by small, barely profitable cars (A-Series) and large, complex-to-build cars (D-Series), with no cars at all in the huge, profitable middle of the market
 * Comotor experimental rotary engine factory produced only losses - have seen references to Comotor actually causing the bankruptcy of both Citroen and NSU
 * Fiat divesting 49% ownership of Citroen in 1973
 * Purchase of Maserati in 1968 and reinvestment in a new range of Maserati models
 * Development of the SM as if it was a fully engineered replacement for the DS, even though the DS sold 1.5 million units and the SM sold only 13,000 units
 * New Aulnay-sous-Bois factory opened in 1973
 * Oil crisis of 1973 didn't help, because it weakened demand for new cars, but just as with CX development costs, not all auto manufacturers went bankrupt as a result of the oil crisis - the company had to be pretty weak for OPEC to push them over the edge

a better intro picture
hi, i would like to suggest a better infobox photo, one where the DS stands alone. there are tons of DS photos in the commons. the photo on the left is not good for an intro illustration, but for further down in the article, because it shows the unique design in a 1961 city street context. just an idea.

Maximilian (talk) 21:02, 31 August 2012 (UTC)

Ambulance version
Did it really have a 60/30 split seat? Something doesn't add up.Whitcwa (talk) 01:28, 25 March 2013 (UTC)

Automatic transmission?
When did the automatic transmission become an option? The majority of DS cars I've seen have had manual transmissions. --75.164.236.190 (talk) 02:54, 30 December 2013 (UTC)

September 1971 - but never sold in the United States. PLawrence99cx (talk) 01:23, 21 May 2015 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 1 one external link on Citroën DS. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Attempted to fix sourcing for http://vintagecars.about.com/od/historygreatmoments/a/citroen_ds.htm

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true to let others know.

Cheers. —cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 20:02, 17 October 2015 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 1 one external link on Citroën DS. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20090213133905/http://www.bonhams.com:80/cgi-bin/public.sh/pubweb/publicSite.r?sContinent=EUR&screen=ResultsXML&iSaleNo=17043 to http://www.bonhams.com/cgi-bin/public.sh/pubweb/publicSite.r?sContinent=EUR&screen=ResultsXML&iSaleNo=17043

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true to let others know.

Cheers.—cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 13:31, 5 January 2016 (UTC)

Photo change July 2016
The photos seem to have been changed/degraded very recently. We now have unremarkable many photos of the same car, with no context. PLawrence99cx (talk) 02:22, 18 July 2016 (UTC)

Photos have mostly been fixed. Main photo is still marginal - lighting is poor, white is not the most interesting color, and low position is not most interesting look. I propose replacing it.

These all seem to meet the Wiki criteria:

,, , , ,  PLawrence99cx (talk) 02:43, 15 August 2016 (UTC)

 * I would have no hesitation in choosing the second photo (grey-beige sedan on a grassy field), as it shows the car in most correct perspective and with minimal distracting background clutter. Hertz1888 (talk) 02:58, 15 August 2016 (UTC)

Spelling: 'Break' vs 'Brake'
It's my understanding that the typical English spelling for a car with a cabin extending to the rear of the vehicle rather than ending at a trunk or tapering as a fastback, also known as an estate, is properly called a 'brake' or, more elaborately, a 'shooting-brake.' Is there any particular reason why every reference to the estate version of the DS in this article is spelled as 'Break'? 108.67.193.248 (talk) 04:18, 10 April 2020 (UTC)

 * Don't know the origin, but if you do a search on Google, you'll see it is an established term. MartinezMD (talk) 05:48, 10 April 2020 (UTC)

Spare tire
There is nothing unique about a rear-engine vehicle carrying the spare in the front so I reverted the addition - Tatra 77 that preceded the Beetle, Japanese cars like the Suzuki and Subaru 360, Renault Alpine 106, Mercedes 107, Hillman Imp, Fiat 500, etc. I can find more examples if needed, but I think the point is demonstrated. MartinezMD (talk) 18:51, 9 March 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Citroën DS


text:
Refracting telescope

A refracting telescope (also called a refractor) is a type of optical telescope that uses a lens as its objective to form an image (also referred to a dioptric telescope). The refracting telescope design was originally used in spyglasses and astronomical telescopes but is also used for long-focus camera lenses. Although large refracting telescopes were very popular in the second half of the 19th century, for most research purposes, the refracting telescope has been superseded by the reflecting telescope, which allows larger apertures. A refractor's magnification is calculated by dividing the focal length of the objective lens by that of the eyepiece.

Refracting telescopes typically have a lens at the front, then a long tube, then an eyepiece or instrumentation at the rear, where the telescope view comes to focus. Originally, telescopes had an objective of one element, but a century later, two and even three element lenses were made.

Refracting telescopes use technology that has often been applied to other optical devices, such as binoculars and zoom lenses/telephoto lens/long-focus lens.

Invention
Refractors were the earliest type of optical telescope. The first record of a refracting telescope appeared in the Netherlands about 1608, when a spectacle maker from Middelburg named Hans Lippershey unsuccessfully tried to patent one. News of the patent spread fast and Galileo Galilei, happening to be in Venice in the month of May 1609, heard of the invention, constructed a version of his own, and applied it to making astronomical discoveries.

Refracting telescope designs
All refracting telescopes use the same principles. The combination of an objective lens 1 and some type of eyepiece 2 is used to gather more light than the human eye is able to collect on its own, focus it 5, and present the viewer with a brighter, clearer, and magnified virtual image 6.

The objective in a refracting telescope refracts or bends light. This refraction causes parallel light rays to converge at a focal point; while those not parallel converge upon a focal plane. The telescope converts a bundle of parallel rays to make an angle α, with the optical axis to a second parallel bundle with angle β. The ratio β/α is called the angular magnification. It equals the ratio between the retinal image sizes obtained with and without the telescope.

Refracting telescopes can come in many different configurations to correct for image orientation and types of aberration. Because the image was formed by the bending of light, or refraction, these telescopes are called refracting telescopes or refractors.

Galilean telescope

The design Galileo Galilei used c. 1609 is commonly called a Galilean telescope. It used a convergent (plano-convex) objective lens and a divergent (plano-concave) eyepiece lens (Galileo, 1610). A Galilean telescope, because the design has no intermediary focus, results in a non-inverted, i.e, an upright image.

Galileo's most powerful telescope, with a total length of 980 mm, magnified objects about 30 times. Galileo had to work with the poor lens technology of the time, and found he had to use aperture stops to reduce the diameter of the objective lens (increase its focal ratio) to limit aberrations, so his telescope produced blurry and distorted images with a narrow field of view. Despite these flaws, the telescope was still good enough for Galileo to explore the sky. He used it to view craters on the Moon, the four largest moons of Jupiter, and the phases of Venus.

Parallel rays of light from a distant object (y) would be brought to a focus in the focal plane of the objective lens (F′ L1 / y′). The (diverging) eyepiece (L2) lens intercepts these rays and renders them parallel once more. Non-parallel rays of light from the object traveling at an angle α1 to the optical axis travel at a larger angle (α2 > α1) after they passed through the eyepiece. This leads to an increase in the apparent angular size and is responsible for the perceived magnification.

The final image (y″) is a virtual image, located at infinity and is the same way up as the object.

Keplerian telescope
The Keplerian telescope, invented by Johannes Kepler in 1611, is an improvement on Galileo's design. It uses a convex lens as the eyepiece instead of Galileo's concave one. The advantage of this arrangement is that the rays of light emerging from the eyepiece are converging. This allows for a much wider field of view and greater eye relief, but the image for the viewer is inverted. Considerably higher magnifications can be reached with this design, but, like the Galilean telescope, it still uses simple single element objective lens so needs to have a very high focal ratio to reduce aberrations (Johannes Hevelius built an unwieldy f/225 telescope with a 8 in objective and a 150 ft focal length, and even longer tubeless "aerial telescopes" were constructed). The design also allows for use of a micrometer at the focal plane (to determine the angular size and/or distance between objects observed).

Huygens built an aerial telescope for Royal Society of London with a 19 cm (7.5″) single-element lens.

Achromatic refractors
The next major step in the evolution of refracting telescopes was the invention of the achromatic lens, a lens with multiple elements that helped solve problems with chromatic aberration and allowed shorter focal lengths. It was invented in 1733 by an English barrister named Chester Moore Hall, although it was independently invented and patented by John Dollond around 1758. The design overcame the need for very long focal lengths in refracting telescopes by using an objective made of two pieces of glass with different dispersion, 'crown' and 'flint glass', to reduce chromatic and spherical aberration. Each side of each piece is ground and polished, and then the two pieces are assembled together. Achromatic lenses are corrected to bring two wavelengths (typically red and blue) into focus in the same plane.

Chester More Hall is noted as having made the first twin color corrected lens in 1730.

Dollond achromats were quite popular in the 18th century. A major appeal was they could be made shorter. However, problems with glass making meant that the glass objectives were not made more than about four inches in diameter.

In the late 19th century, the Swiss optician Pierre-Louis Guinand developed a way to make higher quality glass blanks of greater than four inches. He passed this technology to his apprentice Joseph von Fraunhofer, who further developed this technology and also developed the Fraunhofer doublet lens design. The breakthrough in glass making techniques led to the great refractors of the 19th century, that became progressively larger through the decade, eventually reaching over 1 meter by the end of that century before being superseded by silvered-glass reflecting telescopes in astronomy.

Noted lens makers of the 19th century include:

 * Alvan Clark
 * Brashear
 * Chance Brothers
 * Cauchoix
 * Fraunhofer
 * Gautier
 * Grubb
 * Henry Brothers
 * Lerebours
 * Tulley

Some famous 19th century doublet refractors are the James Lick telescope (91 cm/36 in) and the Greenwich 28 inch refractor (71 cm). An example of an older refractor is the Shuckburgh telescope (dating to the late 1700s). A famous refractor was the "Trophy Telescope", presented at the 1851 Great Exhibition in London. The era of the 'great refractors' in the 19th century saw large achromatic lenses, culminating with the largest achromatic refractor ever built, the Great Paris Exhibition Telescope of 1900.

In the Royal Observatory, Greenwich an 1838 instrument named the Sheepshanks telescope includes an objective by Cauchoix. The Sheepshanks had a 6.7 in wide lens, and was the biggest telescope at Greenwich for about twenty years.

An 1840 report from the Observatory noted of the then-new Sheepshanks telescope with the Cauchoix doublet: The power and general goodness of this telescope make it a most welcome addition to the instruments of the observatoryIn the 1900s a noted optics maker was Zeiss. An example of prime achievements of refractors, over 7 million people have been able to view through the 12-inch Zeiss refractor at Griffith Observatory since its opening in 1935; this is the most people to have viewed through any telescope.

Achromats were popular in astronomy for making star catalogs, and they required less maintenance than metal mirrors. Some famous discoveries using achromats are the planet Neptune and the Moons of Mars.

The long achromats, despite having smaller aperture than the larger reflectors, were often favoured for "prestige" observatories. In the late 18th century, every few years, a larger and longer refractor would debut.

For example, the Nice Observatory debuted with 77 cm refractor, the largest at the time, but was surpassed within only a couple of years.

Apochromatic refractors
Apochromatic refractors have objectives built with special, extra-low dispersion materials. They are designed to bring three wavelengths (typically red, green, and blue) into focus in the same plane. The residual color error (tertiary spectrum) can be an order of magnitude less than that of an achromatic lens. Such telescopes contain elements of fluorite or special, extra-low dispersion (ED) glass in the objective and produce a very crisp image that is virtually free of chromatic aberration. Due to the special materials needed in the fabrication, apochromatic refractors are usually more expensive than telescopes of other types with a comparable aperture.

In the 18th century, Dollond, a popular maker of doublet telescopes, also made a triplet, although they were not really as popular as the two element telescopes.

One of the famous triplet objectives is the Cooke triplet, noted for being able to correct the Seidal aberrations. It is recognized as one of the most important objective designs in the field of photography. The Cooke triplet can correct, with only three elements, for one wavelength, spherical aberration, coma, astigmatism, field curvature, and distortion.

Technical considerations

Refractors suffer from residual chromatic and spherical aberration. This affects shorter focal ratios more than longer ones. An achromatic refractor is likely to show considerable color fringing (generally a purple halo around bright objects); an 16 achromat has much less color fringing.

In very large apertures, there is also a problem of lens sagging, a result of gravity deforming glass. Since a lens can only be held in place by its edge, the center of a large lens sags due to gravity, distorting the images it produces. The largest practical lens size in a refracting telescope is around 1 m.

There is a further problem of glass defects, striae or small air bubbles trapped within the glass. In addition, glass is opaque to certain wavelengths, and even visible light is dimmed by reflection and absorption when it crosses the air-glass interfaces and passes through the glass itself. Most of these problems are avoided or diminished in reflecting telescopes, which can be made in far larger apertures and which have all but replaced refractors for astronomical research.

The ISS-WAC on the Voyager 1/2 used a 6 cm lens, launched into space in the late 1970s, an example of the use of refractors in space.

Applications and achievements
Refracting telescopes were noted for their use in astronomy as well as for terrestrial viewing. Many early discoveries of the Solar System were made with singlet refractors.

The use of refracting telescopic optics are ubiquitous in photography, and are also used in Earth orbit.

One of the more famous applications of the refracting telescope was when Galileo used it to discover the four largest moons of Jupiter in 1609. Furthermore, early refractors were also used several decades later to discover Titan, the largest moon of Saturn, along with three more of Saturn's moons.

In the 19th century, refracting telescopes were used for pioneering work on astrophotography and spectroscopy, and the related instrument, the heliometer, was used to calculate the distance to another star for the first time. Their modest apertures did not lead to as many discoveries and typically so small in aperture that many astronomical objects were simply not observeable until the advent of long-exposure photography, by which time the reputation and quirks of reflecting telescopes were beginning to exceed those of the refractors. Despite this, some discoveries include the Moons of Mars, a fifth Moon of Jupiter, and many double star discoveries including Sirius (the Dog star). Refactors were often used for positional astronomy, besides from the other uses in photography and terrestrial viewing.

The Galilean moons and many other moons of the solar system, were discovered with single-element objectives and aerial telescopes.
 * Singlets

Galileo Galilei's discovered the Galilean satellites of Jupiter in 1610 with a refracting telescope.

The planet Saturn's moon, Titan, was discovered on March 25, 1655, by the Dutch astronomer Christiaan Huygens.

In 1861, the brightest star in the night sky, Sirius, was found to have smaller stellar companion using the 18 and half-inch Dearborn refracting telescope.
 * Doublets

By the 18th century refractors began to have major competition from reflectors, which could be made quite large and did not normally suffer from the same inherent problem with chromatic aberration. Nevertheless, the astronomical community continued to use doublet refractors of modest aperture in comparison to modern instruments. Noted discoveries include the Moons of Mars and a fifth moon of Jupiter, Amalthea.

Asaph Hall discovered Deimos on 12 August 1877 at about 07:48 UTC and Phobos on 18 August 1877, at the US Naval Observatory in Washington, D.C., at about 09:14 GMT (contemporary sources, using the pre-1925 astronomical convention that began the day at noon, give the time of discovery as 11 August 14:40 and 17 August 16:06 Washington mean time respectively).

The telescope used for the discovery was the 26 in refractor (telescope with a lens) then located at Foggy Bottom. In 1893 the lens was remounted and put in a new dome, where it remains into the 21st century.

Jupiter's moon Amalthea was discovered on 9 September 1892, by Edward Emerson Barnard using the 36 in refractor telescope at Lick Observatory. It was discovered by direct visual observation with the doublet-lens refractor.

In 1904, one of the discoveries made using Great Refractor of Potsdam (a double telescope with two doublets) was of the interstellar medium. The astronomer Professor Hartmann determined from observations of the binary star Mintaka in Orion, that there was the element calcium in the intervening space.

 * Triplets

Planet Pluto was discovered by looking at photographs (i.e. 'plates' in astronomy vernacular) in a blink comparator taken with a refracting telescope, an astrograph with a 3 element 13-inch lens.

List of the largest refracting telescopes
Examples of some of the largest achromatic refracting telescopes, over 60 cm diameter.
 * Great Paris Exhibition Telescope of 1900 (1.25 m) – dismantled after exhibition
 * Yerkes Observatory (40 in)
 * Swedish 1-m Solar Telescope (98 cm)
 * Lick Observatory (36 in)
 * Paris Observatory Meudon Great Refractor (83 cm, + 62 cm)
 * Potsdam Great Refractor (80 cm, + 50 cm)
 * Nice Observatory (77 cm)
 * John Wall (30 in) dialyte refracting telescope - the largest refractor built by an individual, at Hanwell Community Observatory
 * 28-inch Grubb Refractor at Royal Greenwich Observatory, (71 cm) aperture lens
 * Great Refractor of Vienna Observatory, (69 cm)
 * Archenhold Observatory – the longest refracting telescope ever built (68 cm × 21 m focal length)
 * United States Naval Observatory refractor, (66 cm)
 * Newall refractor at the National Observatory of Athens (62.5 cm)
 * Lowell Observatory (24 in)

title: Refracting telescope


text:
Daylily

A daylily, day lily or ditch-lily is a flowering plant in the genus Hemerocallis, a member of the family Asphodelaceae, subfamily Hemerocallidoideae, native to Asia. Despite the common name, it is not, in fact, a lily, nor does it specifically grow in ditches. Gardening enthusiasts and horticulturists have long bred Hemerocallis species for their attractive flowers; a select few species of the genus have edible petals, while some are extremely toxic. Thousands of cultivars have been registered by the American Daylily Society, the only internationally recognized registrant according to the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP). . The plants are perennial, bulbous plants, whose common name alludes to its flowers, which typically last about a day.

Description

Hemerocallis are herbaceous clump-forming perennials growing from rhizomes, some produce spreading stolons. They have a fibrous or fibrous-tuberous root system with contractile roots. The tuberous roots are used to store nutrients and water. The arching leaves are produced from the base of the plant (basal) and lack petioles, they are strap-like, long, linear lanceolate leaves and grouped into opposite fans. The crown is the small portion between the leaves and the roots. The large showy flowers are produced on scapes. The slightly irregular shaped flowers are arranged in helicoid cymes, or produced solitarily. The scapes of some species and cultivars produce small leafy proliferations arising from the nodes or in bracts. The proliferations are clones that root when planted.

Typically Hemerocallis flowers have three similar petals and three sepals, collectively called tepals, and each have a midrib. The centermost part of the flower, called the throat, may be a different color than the more distal areas of the tepals. Each flower has six stamens joined to the perianth tube, each with a two-lobed anther. The unequal stamen filaments are curved upward with the linear-oblong anthers dorsifixed. The superior ovary is green, with three chambers and the stigma is 3-lobed or capitate. The fruit is a capsule (often erroneously called a pod since botanical pods are found in Fabaceae). The fruits may have no seeds (sterile), or many relatively large, shiny, black, roundish seeds. The flowers of most species open in early morning and wither during the following night, possibly replaced by another one on the same scape the next day. Some species are night-blooming. The haploid number of chromosomes is eleven.

Taxonomy
Despite their common name, daylilies are not true lilies (plants from the genus Lilium, family Liliaceae). Although the flowers of Hemerocallis and Lilium species have a similar shape, their growth habits, stems and leaf shapes are distinctive. Before 2009, the scientific classification of daylilies put them into the family Liliaceae. In 2009, under the APG III system, daylilies were removed from the family Liliaceae and assigned to the family Xanthorrhoeaceae, subfamily Hemerocallidoideae. Xanthorrhoeaceae was renamed in 2016 to Asphodelaceae in the APG IV system

Species

, Plants of the World Online recognized 16 species:
 * Hemerocallis citrina Baroni (syn. H. altissima Stout, H. coreana Nakai ) - China, Japan, Korea, Russian Far East
 * Hemerocallis coreana Nakai - Japan, Korea, Shandong Province in China
 * Hemerocallis darrowiana S.Y.Hu - Sakhalin Island in Russia
 * Hemerocallis dumortieri E.Morren - China, Japan, Korea
 * Hemerocallis forrestii Diels - Sichuan + Yunnan Provinces in China
 * Hemerocallis fulva (L.) L. (H. sempervirens Araki, H. sendaica Ohwi and H. aurantiaca Baker are now treated as varieties of this species) – orange daylily, tawny daylily, tiger lily, ditch lily - China, Japan, Korea; naturalized in Europe, North America, New Zealand, Indian Subcontinent; considered an invasive weed in some places
 * Hemerocallis hakuunensis Nakai (syn. H. micrantha Nakai ) - Korea; includes Hemerocallis hongdoensis M.G.Chung & S.S.Kang
 * Hemerocallis lilioasphodelus L. (syn. H. flava (L.) L. ) – lemon lily, yellow daylily - China, Mongolia, Russian Far East, Siberia, Kazakhstan; naturalized in Europe and North America
 * Hemerocallis major (Baker) M.Hotta
 * Hemerocallis middendorffii Trautv. & C.A.Mey. - China, Japan, Korea, Russian Far East
 * including H. middendorffii var. esculenta (Koidz.) Ohwi, syn. H. esculenta Koidz. – Japan; H. middendorffii var. exaltata, syn. H. exaltata Stout

 * Hemerocallis minor Mill. (syn. H. sulphurea Nakai ) - China, Mongolia, Korea, Russian Far East, Siberia
 * Hemerocallis multiflora Stout - Henan Province in China
 * Hemerocallis nana W.W.Sm. & Forrest - Yunnan Province in China
 * Hemerocallis plicata Stapf - Sichuan + Yunnan Provinces in China
 * Hemerocallis thunbergii Barr (syn. H. serotina Focke, H. vespertina Hara ) - Japan
 * Hemerocallis yezoensis H.Hara - Japan, Kuril Islands

Two hybrids are recognized:

 * Hemerocallis × exilis Satake = H. fulva var. angustifolia × H. thunbergii
 * Hemerocallis × fallaxlittoralis Konta & S.Matsumoto = H. littorea × H. thunbergii

A number of hybrid names appear in the horticultural literature but are not recognized as valid by the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families. These include:

 * H. × hybrida
 * H. × ochroleuca
 * H. × stoutiana
 * H. × traubara, H. × traubiana
 * H. × washingtonia
 * H. × yeldara, H. × yeldiana

Etymology
The name Hemerocallis comes from the Greek words ἡμέρα (hēmera) "day" and καλός (kalos) "beautiful".

Distribution and habitat
Hemerocallis species are native to Asia, primarily eastern Asia, including China, Korea, Japan and southern Siberia. This genus is popular worldwide because of the showy flowers and hardiness of many kinds. There are over 80,000 registered cultivars. Hundreds of cultivars have fragrant flowers, and more scented cultivars are appearing more frequently in northern hybridization programs. Some earlier blooming cultivars rebloom later in the season, particularly if their capsules, in which seeds are developing, are removed.

Daylilies have been found growing wild for millennia throughout China, Mongolia, northern India, Korea, and Japan. There are thousand-year-old Chinese paintings showing orange daylilies that are remarkably similar to the flowers that grace modern gardens.

Daylilies may have been first brought to Europe by traders along the silk routes from Asia. However it was not until 1753 that daylilies were given their botanic name of Hemerocallis by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus.

Daylilies were first brought to North America by early European immigrants, who packed the roots along with other treasured possessions for the journey to the New World. By the early 1800s, the plant had become naturalized, and a bright orange clump of flowers was a common sight in many homestead gardens.

The orange or tawny daylily (Hemerocallis fulva), common along roadsides in much of North America, is native to Asia. Along with the lemon lily (Hemerocallis flava), it is the foundational species for most modern cultivars.

Cultivation
As popular as daylilies were for many hundreds of years, it was not until the late 19th century that botanists and gardeners began to experiment with hybridizing the plants. Over the next hundred years, thousands of different hybrids were developed from only a few wild varieties. In fact, most modern hybrids are descended from two types of daylily. One is Hemerocallis flava—the yellow lemon lily. The other is Hemerocallis fulva, the familiar tawny-orange daylily, also known affectionately as the "ditch lily".

The daylily has been nicknamed "the perfect perennial" by gardeners, due to its brilliant colors, ability to tolerate drought and frost and to thrive in many different climate zones, and for being generally low maintenance. It is a vigorous perennial that lasts for many years in a garden, with very little care and adapts to many different soil and light conditions. Daylilies have a relatively short blooming period, depending on the type. Some will bloom in early spring while others wait until the summer or even autumn. Most daylily plants bloom for 1 through 5 weeks, although some bloom twice in one season ("rebloomers)". Daylilies are not commonly used as cut flowers for formal flower arranging, yet they make good cut flowers otherwise, as new flowers continue to open on cut stems over several days.

Cultivars
There are more than 100,000 daylily cultivars, the milestone having been achieved in 2024 Depending on the species and cultivar, daylilies grow in USDA plant hardiness zones 1 through 11, making them some of the more adaptable landscape plants. Hybridizers have developed the vast majority of cultivars within the last 100 years. The large-flowered, bright yellow Hemerocallis 'Hyperion', introduced in the 1920s, heralded a return to gardens of the once-dismissed daylily, and is still widely available in the nursery trade. Daylily breeding has been a specialty in the United States, where daylily heat- and drought-resistance made them garden standbys since the 1950s. New cultivars have sold for thousands of dollars, but many sturdy and prolific cultivars sell at reasonable prices of US$20 or less.

Hemerocallis is one of the very highly hybridized plant genera. Hybridizers register hundreds of new cultivars yearly. Hybridizers have extended the genus' color range from the yellow, orange, and pale pink of the species, through vibrant reds, purples, lavenders, greenish tones, near-black, near-white, and more. However, hybridizers have not yet been able to produce a daylily with primarily blue flowers. Flowers of some cultivars have small areas of bluish shades, particularly in the eyezones.

Other flower traits that hybridizers developed include height, scent, ruffled edges, doubling, contrasting "eyes" in the center of a bloom, fringed edges called ‘teeth’, and an illusion of glitter called "diamond dust". Sought-after improvements include rust resistance, foliage color, variegation, plant disease resistance, and the ability to form large, neat clumps. Hybridizers also seek to make cultivars cold-hardier by crossing evergreen and semi-evergreen plants with dormant varieties. In recent decades, many hybridizers have focused on breeding tetraploid plants, which tend to have sturdier scapes and tepals than diploids, as well as some flower-color traits that are not found in diploids. Until this trend took root, nearly all daylilies were diploid. "Tets," as they are called by aficionados, have 44 chromosomes, while triploids have 33 chromosomes and diploids have 22 chromosomes per individual plant. Diploid and tetraploid daylilies cannot be crossed to produce new cultivars Hemerocallis fulva 'Europa', H. fulva 'Kwanso', H. fulva 'Kwanso Variegata',  H. fulva 'Kwanso Kaempfer', H. fulva var. maculata, H. fulva var. angustifolia, and H. fulva 'Flore Pleno' are all triploids that almost never produce seeds and reproduce almost solely by underground runners (stolons) and dividing groups by gardeners. A polymerous daylily flower is one with more than three sepals and more than three petals. Although some people synonymize "polymerous" with "double", some polymerous flowers have as many as twice the normal number of sepals and petals.

Formerly daylilies were only available in yellow, pink, fulvous (bronzed), and rosy-fulvous colors, now they come in an assortment of many more color shades and tints thanks to intensive hybridization. They can now be found in nearly every color except pure blue and pure white. Those with yellow, pink, and other pastel flowers may require full sun to bring out all of their colors; darker varieties, including many of those with red and purple flowers are not colorfast in bright sun.

Awards
The highest award a cultivar can receive in the United States is the Stout Silver Medal, given in memory of Dr. Arlow Burdette Stout, who is considered to be the father of modern daylily breeding in North America. This annual award—as voted by American Hemerocallis Society Garden judges—can be given only to a cultivar that has first received the Award of Merit not less than two years previously. The 2014 winner of the Stout Silver Medal is 'Webster's Pink Wonder', hybridized by Richard Webster and introduced by R. Cobb. A complete list of Stout Silver Medal winners can be seen on the AHS website.

In the UK the following cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:-

 * 'All American Chief'
 * 'Always Afternoon'
 * 'Arctic Snow'
 * 'Asterisk'
 * 'August Frost'
 * 'Beauty to Behold'
 * 'Burning Daylight'
 * 'Cat Dancer'
 * 'Cayenne'
 * 'Cherry Eyed Pumpkin'
 * H. citrina
 * 'Condilla'
 * 'Curly Cinnamon Windmill'
 * 'Custard Candy'
 * 'Eggplant Escapade'
 * 'Elegant Candy'
 * 'Fooled Me'
 * 'Grey Witch'
 * 'Holly Dancer'
 * 'Jamaican Me Crazy'
 * 'Jellyfish Jealousy'
 * 'Julie Newmar'
 * 'Karen's Curls'
 * 'Killer'
 * 'Lady Neva'
 * 'Lime Frost'
 * 'Mahogany Magic'
 * 'Mary's Gold'
 * 'Moonlit Masquerade'
 * 'North Wind Dancer'
 * 'Old Tangiers'
 * 'Performance Anxiety'
 * ‘Pink Damask’
 * 'Primal Scream'
 * 'Radiant Moonbeam'
 * ’Red Precious’
 * 'Ruby Spider'
 * 'Running Late'
 * 'Russian Rhapsody'
 * 'Selma Longlegs'
 * 'Serena Sunburst'
 * 'Sir Modred'
 * 'Spider Man'
 * 'Stafford'
 * 'Strawberry Candy'
 * 'Tuxedo Junction'

Pests and diseases
Contarinia quinquenotata, commonly known as the daylily gall midge, is a small gray insect infesting the flower buds of Hemerocallis species causing the flower to remain closed and rot. It is a pest within the horticultural trade in several parts of the world, including Southern and Eastern Europe, the United Kingdom, Canada, and the United States.

Toxicity
Eating too many uncooked flowers of some species can cause diarrhea. Hemerocallis species are toxic to cats and ingestion may be fatal. Treatment is usually successful if started before kidney failure has developed.

Uses

Daylilies are an economically important group of plants used medicinally, as food, and as horticultural plants. They have been cultivated in East Asia starting in China for thousands of years. Hemerocallin, a root neurotoxin, has been used as poison and therapeutically as part of traditional oriental medicine. Some flowers of certain species such as Hemerocallis citrina are used in Chinese cuisine. They are sold fresh or dried in Asian markets as gum jum (金针 in Chinese; pinyin: jīn zhēn) or yellow flower vegetables (黃花菜 in Chinese; pinyin: huáng huā cài). These are used in hot and sour soup, daylily soup (金針花湯), Buddha's delight, and moo shu pork. The tubers and young leaves of H. fulva can be eaten raw or cooked. The flowers are more palatable upon cooking.

Moreover, Daylilies are among the most popular North American garden plants. Registered cultivars of Hemerocallis now exceed 38,000, including more than 13,000 named clones of H. fulva (G. Grosvenor 1999; R. M. Kitchingman 1985; R. W. Munson Jr. 1989; W. B. Zomlefer 1998).

Daylily societies

 * The American Hemerocallis Society
 * Australian Daylily Society
 * Canadian Hemerocallis Society
 * National Capital Daylily Club
 * Northern Virginia Daylily Society
 * Ontario Daylily Society
 * Region 4 of the American Hemerocallis Society
 * The British Hosta and Hemerocallis Society
 * The Metropolitan Columbus Daylily Society

title: Daylily