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Rarámuri

The Rarámuri or Tarahumara are a group of Indigenous people of the Americas living in the state of Chihuahua in Mexico. They are renowned for their long-distance running ability.

Originally inhabitants of much of Chihuahua, the Rarámuri retreated to the high sierras and canyons such as the Copper Canyon in the Sierra Madre Occidental on the arrival of Spanish colonizers in the 16th century. The area of the Sierra Madre Occidental which they now inhabit is often called the Sierra Tarahumara because of their presence.

Estimates put the Rarámuri population in 2006 at between 50,000 and 70,000 people. Most still practise a traditional lifestyle, including inhabiting natural shelters (caves or cliff overhangs). Staple crops are maize and beans; however, many of the Rarámuri still practise transhumance, raising cattle, sheep, and goats. Almost all Rarámuri migrate from one place to another during the course of a year.

The Rarámuri language belongs to the Uto-Aztecan family. Although it is in decline under pressure from Spanish, it is still widely spoken. In the Rarámuri language, the endonymic term rarámuri refers specifically to the men; women are referred to as mukí (individually), and as omugí or igómale (collectively).

History
The Rarámuri are believed to be descended from a people of the Mogollon culture. The Rarámuri repulsed and were never conquered by the Spanish conquistadors or fully converted by the Jesuit missionaries. When the Spanish arrived in the 1500s, they called these native people the "Tarahumara". By the early 17th century, the Spanish had established mines in Tarahumara territory and made some slave raids to obtain workers for the mines. Jesuit Juan Fonte established a mission, San Pablo Balleza, at the southern end of Tarahumara territory, expanding from missionary work with the Tepehuan to the south. The Tepehuan's violent resistance to Spanish incursion in the Tepehuan revolt of 1616 killed Fonte and seven other Jesuit missionaries, closing the mission for over a decade.

The discovery of the mines of Parral, Chihuahua, in 1631 increased Spanish presence in Tarahumara lands, bringing more slave raids and Jesuit missionaries. Missions were established at Las Bocas, Huejotitán, San Felipe and Satevó. In 1648, the Tarahumara waged war against the Spanish. They gathered at Fariagic and then destroyed the mission of San Francisco de Borja. Two of the leaders of this attack were captured by the Spanish and executed. Shortly afterward, the Spanish established Villa de Aguilar in the heart of the upper Tarahumara country.

From then on, the Tarahumara split into two groups. Those in the lower missions continued to move into the general Catholic population and largely lost their tribal identity. Those in the upper areas went to war under the leadership of Tepóraca and others, driving the Jesuits and Spanish settlers from the area. The Jesuits returned in the 1670s and ultimately baptized thousands of Tarahumara, but these people have retained a separate identity. Tepóraca was executed by the Spanish in 1690. From 1696 to 1698, the Tarahumara again waged war against the Spanish, but were defeated. An important 1691 Jesuit report concerned the resistance of the Tarahumara to evangelization, Historia de la tercera rebelión tarahumara.

By 1753, the Jesuits turned over the lower Tarahumara missions to secular priests, and in 1767 the Jesuits were expelled from Spanish territories. Most missions in Tarahumara country ceased to operate or were turned over to Franciscans. Despite devoted and enthusiastic efforts, the Franciscans could not match the Jesuits’ feats, and the missions declined. The Jesuits reestablished the missions in the early 20th century.

Athletic skills
The Tarahumara word for themselves, Rarámuri, means "runners on foot" or "those who run fast" in their native tongue according to some early ethnographers like Norwegian Carl Lumholtz, though this interpretation has not been fully agreed upon. With widely dispersed settlements, these people developed a tradition of long-distance running up to 200 mi in one session, over a period of two days through their homeland of rough canyon country, for inter-village communication, transportation, and hunting.

The Tarahumaras' use of huaraches, their traditional form of sandals, when running has been the subject of scientific studies and journalistic discourse. In his book, Born to Run, author Christopher McDougall argues in favor of the endurance running hypothesis and the barefoot running movement based on his time with the Tarahumara people and their running in huaraches. Tarahumara sandals has become a byword in many US minimalist running circles with many companies starting since McDougall's book popularized the style.

Their long-distance running tradition also has ceremonial and competitive aspects. Often, men kick wooden balls as they run in "foot throwing", rarajipari, competitions, and women use a stick and hoop. The foot-throwing races are relays where the balls are kicked by the runners and relayed to the next runner while teammates run ahead to the next relay point. These races can last anywhere from a few hours to a couple of days without a break.

The Tarahumara commonly hunt with bow and arrows but are also known for their ability to run down deer and wild turkeys. Anthropologist Jonathan F. Cassel describes the Tarahumaras’ hunting abilities: "the Tarahumara literally run the birds to death in what is referred to as persistence hunting. Forced into a rapid series of takeoffs, without sufficient rest periods between, the heavy-bodied bird does not have the strength to fly or run away from the Tarahumara hunter."

Religious beliefs
The Rarámuri religion is a mélange of Indigenous customs and Roman Catholicism. During the late 1600s and early 1700s, there was strong Jesuit mission activity, which was met by resistance. Later, when the Jesuit order was expelled, the Rarámuri were left free to interpret, modify, maintain or promulgate Catholic beliefs, symbols, and practices with little outside intervention.

While native religious elements have been maintained, there are Spanish Catholic ritual elements, demonstrating "a genuine integration with vital cultural interests". The beings of most importance are: God (Riosi), God's wife, who is the Christian Virgin Mary transformed, and the devil (Riablo). Riosi is thought to be the Indigenous deity Onoruame ("Great Father"), and the Virgin Mary is Iyeruame ("Great Mother"). The Indigenous counterparts of Father-Sun and Mother-Moon overlap, respectively, with these concepts of God and God's wife.

Another reported variation is that God has a wife who lives with him in heaven, along with their sons, the so-called sukristo (from Spanish Jesucristo) and their daughters, the Santi. These beings have a direct link with the physical world through Catholic iconography, crucifixes, and saints’ medallions, respectively.

Although Riablo aligns with the devil, the Rarámuri do not believe in a being that embodies Evil wholly. Instead it is tainted through its ties with the Chabochi (non-Rarámuri). The Devil is said to sometimes collaborate with God to arrange fitting punishments and can be appeased through sacrifices. In some cases, the Devil can be persuaded to act as a benevolent entity.

Some Rarámuri religious practices have the sense of konema (i.e., feeding God), the sense of returning to God a little of the much that he has given is prevalent.

Some Tarahumaras maintain a belief that the afterlife is a mirror image of the mortal world and that good deeds should be performed—not for spiritual reward—but for the improvement of life on earth.

The Rarámuri share with other Uto-Aztecan tribes a veneration of peyote.

Music
Music and dance are highly integrated into Tarahumara social life. The classical pianist Romayne Wheeler writes that "Music sanctifies the moment in the life of all the Tarahumaras," and "All of our actions have musical meaning." During the end of the year cycle, the Tarahumaras play violins which are masterfully carved but not varnished. The tunes are known as matachín pieces and are danced by dancers lavishly dressed in colorful attire resembling North African garments and accompanied by rattles (sáuraka). During Lent they play three-holed flutes of river cane, together with drums.

Clothing
Traditional Rarámuri dresses displayed at the Museo de Arte Popular in Mexico City:

Food
Staple crops of the Tarahumara are maize, beans, greens, squash, and tobacco. Chilli, potatoes, tomatoes, and sweet potatoes appear in Mexicanized regions. Corn is planted in February and March using oxen which are often loaned as not everyone owns one. Corn begins to flower in August; by November it is harvested and cooked or stored. Common corn dishes are pinole, tortillas, atole, tamales, and boiled and roasted ears. Beans are one of the Tarahumaras’ essential protein-rich foods and are usually served fried after being boiled. Tamales and beans are a common food that the Tarahumara carry with them on travels. Wheat and fruits were introduced by missionaries and are a minor source of nutrition. The fruits grown by the Tarahumara include apples, apricots, figs, and oranges.

The Tarahumaras also eat meat, but this constitutes less than 5% of their diet. Most of the meats that they consume are fish, chicken, and squirrels. On ceremonial occasions, domesticated animals such as cows, sheep, and goats are killed and eaten. The Tarahumara practice persistence hunting of deer and wild turkeys by following them at a steady pace for one or two days until the animal drops from exhaustion.

According to William Connors, a dietary researcher, their traditional diet was found to be linked to their low incidence of diseases such as Type 2 Diabetes. However, the Tarahumaras' health is transitioning in regions where processed goods have begun to replace their traditional staples.

Tesgüino and Tesgüinadas festivals
Tesgüino is a fermented drink made year round from sprouted corn. Sometimes it is also made with still-green stalks, fruits of certain cactuses, shrubs, wheat, and trees when corn is sparse. The process begins by malting the corn and spreading it in a shallow basket covered with pine needles each day for four or five days. It is kept moist until the corn sprouts by which time the starch in the corn has been converted into smaller sugars. It is then mashed and boiled for eight hours. Varied herbs are ground up and mixed with water into a paste which is then fermented overnight by fire. Then the paste is combined with the corn liquid and fermented for another three to four days. Partaking of the alcoholic beverage usually takes place soon after its preparation, as the tesgüino can spoil within 24 hours.

Gatherings for celebrations, races, and religious ceremonies often take place with tesgüinadas, a Tarahumara-style beer festival. These gatherings take place all year round, but most happen in winter, and are the social events between the neighboring Tarahumara people. Tesgüinada events include rain fiestas, harvest ceremonies, curing fiestas, Guadalupe Fiesta, Holy Week, races, and Sunday gatherings. Some of these events take place during and after communal activities, for example when neighbors help one another's families with their fields or build large structures like granaries, houses, and corrals. The harvest and rain ceremonies take place during the farming months to ensure a good crop season. These events also require either a shaman, curandero, or chanter. The job of the shaman and curandero are purely religious, as the curandero is there to diagnose and to heal the sick of the community, and chanters lead the tesgüinadas in chants and rhythms to accompany the ceremonies.

Tesgüinadas is an important aspect of Tarahumara culture as it is often the only time when men have intercourse with their wives. They act as social lubricants, as Tarahumara are very shy and private. Anthropologist John Kennedy describes the institution of tesgüinada as an important social fabric of Tarahumara culture which he calls the "tesgüino network". He also states that "the average Tarahumara spends at least 100 days per year directly concerned with tesgüino and much of this time under its influence or aftereffects."

The religious role of tesgüino is a very important aspect of tesgüinada. Before one can drink an olla of tesgüino they must dedicate it to Onorúame. During the curing ceremonies, the olla must rest in front of a cross until the ceremony is over. At age 14, a boy is allowed to drink tesgüino for the first time after a short sermon about his manly responsibilities. These rituals can sometimes last as long as 48 hours. Tesgüinadas are usually accompanied by dancing and the playing of fiddles, flutes, drums, and guitars.

Notable Rarámuri

 * Arnulfo Quimare, ultra marathoner
 * Carmelita Little Turtle, photographer
 * Daniel Ponce de León, former WBO world junior featherweight champion
 * Dr. Octavio Casillas, award-winning educator
 * Edwin Bustillos, award-winning agricultural engineer
 * Isidro Baldenegro López, community leader and activist
 * Jacob Casillas, award-winning mechanical engineer
 * María Lorena Ramírez, ultra marathoner
 * Mario Trejo, footballer
 * Rochelle Gutierrez, professor of education

Environmental factors
Logging has occurred since the end of the 1800s when the first loggers arrived. Later, the liberalization of laws in the 1990s resulted in the exhaustion of resources. In 1995, it was declared that "after hundred years of logging, only two percent (300,000 acre) of these unique forests remains", leaving one of the most biologically diverse ecosystems in North America, containing hundreds of medicinal plant, oak and pine species in danger of extinction. The Mexican Commission of Solidarity and Defense of Human Rights produced a report in 2000 noting the lack of studies by the government on how lumber production affected the ecosystem. Similarly, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) boosted foreign investment which resulted in the privatization of communal land and market-based mechanisms of environmental regulation.

In January 2017, Isidro Baldenegro López (2005 recipient of the Goldman Environmental Prize) a community leader of the Tarahumara, was shot and killed in Mexico. Baldenegro spent much of his life defending the ancient forests of the Sierra Madre region from the devastating effects of logging.

Drought has also been affecting the region for ten years and has worsened in recent years. During 2011, it was the driest year in Mexico on record, with just 12 in of rain, compared to a historical average of 21 in. The most severely hit area was the Sierra Madre region. Agricultural losses in Chihuahua are estimated at $25 million; 180,000 cattle have already died as a result of the growing lack of precipitation in the region.

Due to the lack of water, crops were destroyed and famine spread. Combined with the freezing temperatures of a cold front, living conditions have become poor for the Rarámuri. Their dependence on the environment worsens the situation, as they lack employment opportunities to generate income in non-farming activities. Moreover, increased contact with the outside world might be damaging as it creates dependency. These Indigenous people face extreme poverty, as reflected in the Mexican Human Development Index (HDI) which in the Sierra Madre is the lowest in the country: 49.1% below the national average. Alberto Herrera, the Mexican director of Amnesty International stated that the Indigenous people in his country have endured "permanent discrimination, exclusion, and marginalization."

Mining
Mining dates to 950 AD with the Toltec and Mayan civilizations. Since the Spanish conquest, thousands of tons of mercury and lead have been released in the Mexican mining belt, which stretches from Oaxaca to Sonora in the northwest. The Sierra Madre part of this belt is one of the world's most prolific gold and silver mining districts. Georgius Agricola mentioned in 1556 that mining led to deforestation, the disappearance of wildlife and watershed contamination. Large areas were deforested to exploit metal deposits. Reforms in the 1990s allowed foreign ownership and resulted in the reopening of mines and increased mining. According to the Secretaría de Economía, 204 mining companies with direct foreign investment had 310 ongoing projects in Mexico in 2006. In 2010, Mexico's mining output reached high levels: 19% of the world's silver production was extracted here, and the mining belt was the world's most productive district as it was historically. The environmental impacts are dramatic, resulting in landscape change and the spread of heavy metals.

Effect of drug violence
Drug violence, cultivation and trade in this region have affected the lifestyle of the Rarámuri, given the proximity of the people and the Sierra Madre, one of the most productive drug-growing regions on Earth. Logging is not only controlled by the Mexican government but also practiced illegally by loggers and drug lords who use the forests to grow marijuana or opium or as space for their operations. Drug cartels usually have links with logging companies that launder money earned in the drug trade. Narco-trafficking weighs heavily on the Tarahumara, as the drug lords force the farmers to grow drugs instead of their own crops. Cartels have exploited the Tarahumaras' reputation as long-distance runners by forcing them into running illegal drugs into the United States.

Forced displacement

The conditions of violence that are lived urge the Raramuri population to flee from their place of origin, often intimidated by criminal groups and extraction companies both Mexican and foreign.

Tourism
The remote terrain of the Sierra Madre has long served as a refuge for the Tarahumara. However, roads and tourism have expanded, bringing opportunities for some but problems for others. Ironically, the Rarámuri themselves seldom have sought this publicity. In the 1800s, attempts were made to build a railway. Currently, this line is used by the train Chihuahua Pacífico or El Chepe to transport tourists, lured by false representations of the area as pure and pristine, to sightseeing locales. It stops near many Tarahumara villages, attracting visitors expecting to see "primitive natives" (the legend of the Tarahumara). Along with new auto roads, railways built into the area have developed logging and tourism, which have accelerated the rate of modernization among the Rarámuri.

title: Rarámuri


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Talk:Persecution of homosexuals in Nazi Germany

Citations Missing
"The death rate of these prisoners has been estimated at 60 percent, a higher rate than those of other prisoner groups" Citation needed for this section. Where are these estimates coming from? is it from an article? records? JBurris123 (talk) 20:07, 27 January 2023 (UTC)

 * Since it's in the lead, no need to double cite and the source is included later in the article (MOS:LEADCITE) Ppt91 (talk) 20:11, 27 January 2023 (UTC)

"The death rate of these prisoners has been estimated at 60 percent, a higher rate than those of other prisoner groups." I'm still not seeing the reference and I looked for it. There's gotta be a reference that would justify this figure either/or, maybe rephrase the wording because it reads like the article is trying to say that greater numbers of homosexuals died than Jewish people. — Preceding unsigned comment added by JBurris123 (talk • contribs) 17:10, 10 February 2023 (UTC)
 * are you saying you didn't find the part of the article that supports the lead summary, or that you don't think the cited source supports the content? Either way, I don't think readers will commonly interpret the line as suggesting that "greater numbers of homosexuals died than Jewish people", as it references "rate" twice. Firefangledfeathers (talk / contribs) 17:25, 10 February 2023 (UTC)
 * Furthermore, most Jews who died in the Holocaust were never registered in a concentration camp, so this sentence would not apply to them. I don't know the exact figure for the rate of Jewish concentration camp prisoner death. Zinn, Alexander (2020b). (the cited source, p. 12) only compares with Jehovah's witnesses and political prisoners. (t · c)  buidhe  21:33, 10 February 2023 (UTC)

Human experiment revert
Hi @Buidhe regarding your revert of my edit. I am seeking additional explanation as your reasoning is unclear. The content prior to my edit incorrectly claimed that Most of the victims, non-consenting prisoners at Buchenwald, died shortly thereafter following Carl Vaernet's implants. LeVay states that at least one died and de Leeuw states that two died. You reverted this and stated "the previous content is verifiable". Is it really? Because the pages for the citations provided were not even accessible, and did not go into any detail. Both LeVay and de Leeuw provide precise figures, meetings, dates and details. Further I am not sure what you mean by "added content imo is undue considering that it was a small amount of the total who were persecuted"? The content I added clarified that castration was more common (LeVay), while the implant experiment was run on 10-17 males according to his letters with Heinrich Himmler. This detail should be included, not sure how that violates anything to do with WP:WEIGHT. Zenomonoz (talk) 08:00, 28 September 2023 (UTC)

 * This is a note to say that I've converted the citations in the recently added material to match the existing article style and fix the error that was introduced – no comment on the content either way. Best, Wham2001 (talk) 08:16, 28 September 2023 (UTC)
 * Thanks and sorry! Had I realised I was removing other citations I would've fixed that before publishing. Zenomonoz (talk) 08:19, 28 September 2023 (UTC)
 * Castration is covered elsewhere in the article, but medical experimentation per se did not affect a very large number of the 100,000 people that this article covers, so I don't think giving it more space would be WP:DUE.
 * The current content is verifiable, meaning it is stated in the cited sources. There is no requirement for sources to be freely accessible as long as you can obtain them somehow. I don't think there is any reason to assume that the source you cite is better than Whisnant. (t · c)  buidhe  14:02, 28 September 2023 (UTC)
 * So you think Wikipedia should be falsely claiming “most of the victims died shortly after”? I don’t. Based on my search in Google Books, Whisnant doesn’t even say that. Regarding figures: I can’t imagine an editor arguing we shouldn’t include figures on the number of twin experiments at Auschwitz because “their numbers are small out of the total million who died there”? As for castration, I can rework that part given it is a repeat.  Zenomonoz (talk) 21:21, 28 September 2023 (UTC)
 * We could say "most of the known victims died shortly after" per Weindling. He says that "at least seventeen" were victims of the experiment and that one died post-op and eleven more "shortly thereafter". Firefangledfeathers (talk / contribs) 21:45, 28 September 2023 (UTC)
 * disproportionately covering the most disturbing or extreme forms of persecution is a form of bias. Most of the castrations took place outside the kz system and under legal guise rather than as a "scientific" experiment
 * As Fire states, there is no contradiction in the sources. (t · c)  buidhe  00:01, 29 September 2023 (UTC)
 * I have been able to compare the sources more thoroughly. The issue is Weindling is grouping in non-homosexual men into his work, stating some homosexual, some criminal, and some neither. LeVay appears to be relying on the cases of men who were homosexual, that is why he states "at least 10 homosexuals" out of the 12 in total who were operated on. In addition, the 17 figure refers to all men in the experiment (including urinary samples), but only 12 were operated on. In the book Hidden Holocaust (1995) by Gunter Grau (the first book to investigate Vaernet thoroughly via his letters and notes), it states on p290 in the footnotes: Shielausky's figure of 13 operations is contentious. The first was performed by Vaernet on 13.9.44 on five prisoners, the second on 8.12.44 on a further seven. One of these twelve, the prisoner P, died on 21 December 1944. Weindling's claim that "Eleven more prisoners died shortly thereafter" is confusing and it's not clear how he arrives at that figure. If true, this figure still includes heterosexual sex offenders, so it probably shouldn't be used on a page about persecution of homosexuals. Regardless, it's not in any of Vaernet's notes that Grau reported on. He states nothing further is known of the prisoners (footnotes, page 289) in one of the group operated on. In summary, Weindling is lumping in non-homosexual sex offenders in there too, whilst Levay appears to have gone through and concluded at least 10 were identifiably homosexual in the camp reports.  Both LeVay and Grau only report one died from the operation. Because this is an article about persecution of homosexuals, I see no reason why we should use Weindling here. Zenomonoz (talk) 00:29, 29 September 2023 (UTC)
 * The point about the seventeen not all being homosexual is a good one. Firefangledfeathers (talk / contribs) 00:41, 29 September 2023 (UTC)
 * I've now posted a shorter version that does not specify the exact number of victims or deaths. (t · c)  buidhe  03:05, 29 September 2023 (UTC)
 * You do not have consensus to do that. This is an article about persecution of homosexuals. The version you restored refers to experimentation on non-homosexuals. The version you restored also claims "Homosexual prisoners were a preferred target of Nazi human experimentation during the last years of Nazi rule" – is that verifiable in these sources? There is little reason to hide the numbers as it turns out they really are not disputed: experiments clearly performed on homosexual men comes to "at least 10", per LeVay who read through the case reports in Grau. Simon LeVay's source is the only one with an estimate precise to homosexual men, and as this article is about persecution of homosexuals, it is the one to use. Zenomonoz (talk) 03:25, 29 September 2023 (UTC)
 * I think that Homosexual prisoners were a preferred target of Nazi human experimentation during the last years of Nazi rule is at least true at Buchenwald, per the sources and this paper by Roll. Targeting by the Nazi regime is certainly true if you include castration (which also occurred outside of camps) in this same section, which Buidhe wants to remove from here (this subsection is about concentration camps, but the whole area could have a new subtitle 'medical experimentation' and encompass both experiments in camps and castration outside). Zenomonoz (talk) 03:41, 29 September 2023 (UTC)
 * I think the double mention of castration is fine, given this subsection refers to concentration camps. Zenomonoz (talk) 03:54, 29 September 2023 (UTC)
 * I don't feel strongly about "Homosexual prisoners were a preferred target of Nazi human experimentation".
 * Including most of the castration cases in this section is not something I could agree with since that would require that these are considered as medical experimentation, which I do not believe is the case based on my research
 * I think you are wrong about consensus. Even if this article had not been through FAC, per WP:ONUS the burden of seeking consensus is on the editor(s) who want to include content.
 * Your revert also restored incorrect content, such as the invention of Vaernet's device being in 1944. (t · c)  buidhe  04:11, 29 September 2023 (UTC)
 * Did some minor tiny up, removed preferred then I have no issues. Zenomonoz (talk) 00:38, 3 October 2023 (UTC)
 * It's in the Weindling source and there's no reason to remove it. (t · c)  buidhe  00:54, 3 October 2023 (UTC)
 * You just stated "I don't feel strongly about" it. I think "Homosexual prisoners were a target of human experimentation during the last years of Nazi rule" still makes it clear they were singled out because they were homosexual. Zenomonoz (talk) 01:22, 3 October 2023 (UTC)
 * I don't like your phrasing because it adds no information to the article. Next time try reading the sources before claiming there is a verifiability issue. (t · c)  buidhe  01:34, 3 October 2023 (UTC)

Requested move 18 January 2024

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.

The result of the move request was: not moved. (closed by non-admin page mover) –  13:08, 25 January 2024 (UTC)

Persecution of homosexuals in Nazi Germany → Persecution of gay men in Nazi Germany – The title uses the term "homosexuals" which is not gender specific, whereas this article is specifically about homosexual men. We have a hatnote which says To prevent further confusion, I think we should change the title. I've also seen a lot of style guides discourage use of the term "homosexual" due to being outdated, but I'm unfamaliar with Wikipedia's stance on this.—Panamitsu (talk) 11:10, 18 January 2024 (UTC)

 * Oppose  because the sources are more likely to use homosexual. I would not oppose "homosexual men" though. However, none of the titles are quite satisfactory because (unlike the Nazi persecution of Jews or various national /ethnic groups) this persecution attacked the behavior and not the identity and notably also included pedophiles that targeted underage boys, bisexual men, straight men and boys working as prostitutes, and some trans women. (t · c)  buidhe  15:02, 18 January 2024 (UTC)
 * Oppose, since "gay" is a bit anachronistic and carries additional cultural context that is inapplicable to the men described in this article. Some of the best sources use "gay", but most use "homosexual". I would support a move to Persecution of homosexual men in Nazi Germany, as I think the improvement in precision is worth the loss of concision. Firefangledfeathers (talk / contribs) 19:02, 18 January 2024 (UTC)
 * Oppose but, as above, would support a move to Persecution of homosexual men in Nazi Germany. AirshipJungleman29 (talk) 13:12, 19 January 2024 (UTC)

The discussion above is closed. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.
 * Opppose and also oppose move to "homosexual men" per WP:CONCISE. Adding "men" is over-precise and unnecessary.  Even if the brunt of the persecutions fell mostly upon men in practice, it is their homosexuality that was the determining factor. It also implies the need for a more general parent article on "Nazi persecution of homosexuals", and I don't see why this shouldn't be the parent article. The article Lesbians in Nazi Germany is small, and can be referenced as a child article, rather than as a separate contrasting article. Walrasiad (talk) 14:17, 19 January 2024 (UTC)
 * Oppose per Buidhe and Fff. Gog the Mild (talk) 17:05, 19 January 2024 (UTC)
 * Oppose per Buidhe and Fff. - SchroCat (talk) 17:09, 19 January 2024 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Margaret Gibson (writer)

Margaret Gibson (June 4, 1948 – February 25, 2006) was a Canadian novelist and short story writer who lived in Toronto, Ontario.

Early life
Born and raised in the Toronto suburb of Scarborough, the middle child of Audrey and Dane Gibson, Margaret Gibson began writing in the early 1970s to document her struggle with mental illness. Initially diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia, she learned only during her divorce from her first husband that she had been misdiagnosed and was in fact bipolar.

She was married in the early 1970s to Stuart Gilboord, with whom she had one son, Aaron. Following her divorce from Gilboord, Gibson moved in with her longtime friend, actor and drag performer Craig Russell. Gibson and Gilboord's custody battle for Aaron was portrayed in the 1994 television film For the Love of Aaron, in which Gibson was portrayed by actress Meredith Baxter.

Writing career
Gibson published The Butterfly Ward, her debut short story collection, in 1976. The book included the story "Making It", based on her experiences living with Russell, which was later made into the feature film Outrageous! by director Richard Benner. Hollis McLaren played Liza Conners, the fictionalized version of Gibson, in that film. Benner also wrote and directed the sequel Too Outrageous! 10 years later. "Ada", another story in the collection, was the basis of a CBC Television movie directed by Claude Jutra for the drama anthology series For the Record. It was Jutra's first English-language film production. The Butterfly Ward was a winner of the City of Toronto Book Award in 1977, shared with Margaret Atwood's novel Lady Oracle.

Gibson's other short story collections include Considering Her Condition (1978), Sweet Poison (1993) and The Fear Room and Other Stories (1996). She published releasing her first and only novel Opium Dreams in 1997. Opium Dreams was a winner of the Books in Canada First Novel Award, and Gibson published her final short story collection Desert Thirst in 1998.

Later years
In later years, Gibson lived with Juris Rasa, her second husband. She died in 2006 of breast cancer at age 57.

Works about Margaret Gibson
Her friends, Stephen Jon Postal and his wife Guia Dino Postal, chronicled Gibson's teenage life in the novel Of Margaret and Madness: A Novel Inspired by True Events (ISBN 9781434332752).

In 2011, Vassar College's Powerhouse Theater produced David Solomon's play Margaret and Craig in workshop. The play was based on the writing of Craig Russell and Margaret Gibson.

title: Margaret Gibson (writer)


text:
User:EvanProdromou

I'm Evan Prodromou, a American-Canadian writer and programmer born on October 14, 1968 from Montreal, Quebec.

I am one of the founders of Wikitravel (http://wikitravel.org/en/ ), the free, complete, up-to-date and reliable world-wide travel guide inspired by Wikipedia and running the MediaWiki software.

I'm also the founder of the wikiclock, of Identi.ca, Vinismo, certifi.ca, and kei.ki. You can see more about me on my user page there or on my personal page at http://evan.prodromou.name/.

The first edit I know I did (anonymously) is here, which I guess means I've been working on Wikipedia for 10 years now. My main interest in Wikipedia is improving the overall general knowledge coverage of the work. I usually just use the Special:Randompage browser to pop around the site looking at things I didn't know I was interested in. When I see a dreaded red link for something that catches my interest, which I think I could contribute to, I pop it open and write the page.

For longer stuff, I add it to my TODO list and get to it when I can. I also have a tools page with those little bits of code and data that you seem to have to find over and over and over again.

My secret goal is to learn more. Writing a Wikipedia article about stuff I don't already know gives me a chance to expand my horizons.

Mostly my contributions so far have dealt with American history and geography, because it's stuff I know from school, and because it should really be there and it's not. I'm trying to branch out, though -- I'm really interested in documenting some of the World Heritage Sites.

I also have my own sandbox, where I start new things.

de:Benutzer:Evan fr:Utilisateur:EvanProdromou eo:Vikipediisto:Evangelo PRODROMOU

title: User:EvanProdromou


text:
Talk:Neo Geo Pocket

 * The following discussion is an archived debate of the . Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

move. — Nightst a  llion  (?) 09:42, 9 March 2006 (UTC)

Requested move

 * Talk:Neo Geo Pocket (monochrome) — Neo Geo Pocket (monochrome) → Neo Geo Pocket – One of the many moves by user Nintendude in unnecessarily dabbing pages. Neo Geo Pocket is the name of only one console and should thus be listed like so without the (monochrome) addition.  If need be a dab notice can be added to the top. Hbdragon88 03:42, 4 March 2006 (UTC) copied from the entry on the WP:RM page

 * Add *Support or *Oppose followed by an optional one-sentence explanation, then sign your opinion with ~

 * Support as the nominator of this page move. - Hbdragon88 03:42, 4 March 2006 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

Manufacturer
The manufacturer in the infobox is listed as NS; could someone clarify this so that it can be disambiguated? Thank you. User:Ceyockey ( talk to me ) 01:51, 10 July 2006 (UTC) the true manufacturer is SNK(METAL SLUG 1,2,3,4,5 Is made by SNK)

Pic
The pic on the main page looks like a NGP Color, not a regular NGP. It looks exactly like my NGPC actually. I'm going to change the picture to a silver one I have a pic of, if no one objects of course. --Thaddius 00:10, 16 July 2006 (UTC) That A good idea.

Release
This system was released in the US, I believe. And I know because I bought mine in a retail US shop, I didn't import it. There were also many games made for the US. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.225.125.4 (talk • contribs)
 * Please sign your posts with four tildes (~). Sadly, there seems to be no proof other than your words, but are you sure you didn't buy a Neo Geo Pocket Color? Because that WAS released in North America. --Thaddius 21:34, 8 November 2006 (UTC)

 * It was also released in Europe. One of my Neo Geo Pockets (b/w of course, not color) came with a multilingual manual that even included German. WindowsKiller 19:16, 17 January 2007 (UTC)

I Always wanted a Neo Geo (SNK),and looked and could only find a couple in the gaming section on eBAY

Are you saying it was released in Europe because of the multilingual manual, or because you saw it on sale in Europe? Because just because it had the multilingual manual doesn't mean SNK released or marketed it there. They might have done this for the import market. I've seen plenty of Chinese devices for example that have an English localization but no importers. Mine also has a multilingual manual, it also has FCC requirements on the machine itself but definitively was not released in the USA.

12.205.149.45 01:07, 24 March 2007 (UTC)

The article is correct, but it is confusing because it mentions it was only released in Japan and Hong Kong right after mentioning the Neo Geo Pocket Color, which of course was released in other territories. Neoalec (talk) 19:31, 25 April 2008 (UTC)

Forward compatibility
The third paragraph is a bit confusing and required a re-write. Here it is, quoted in full:

"The Neo Geo Pocket Color game library is mostly forward compatible with the Neo Geo Pocket, meaning that the majority of the newer color games can play on the Neo Geo Pocket. There are, however, notable exceptions such as Sonic the Hedgehog Pocket Adventure and SNK vs. Capcom: Match Of The Millennium, although some of these games contain mini games within them. The newer Neo Geo Pocket Color is fully backward compatible and can play all games released for the Neo Geo Pocket. "The Last Blade: Beyond the Destiny" also does not work on the Neo Geo Pocket."

I see following problems: The Neo Geo Pocket Color is mostly forward compatible with the Neo Geo Pocket. - By definition, forward compatibility would apply to the original Neo Geo Pocket [mono] and its ability to play games designed for its successor, the Neo Geo Pocket Color.

"(...) the majority of the newer color games" - When assessing the number of backward compatible games, one couldn't be more vague.

"The newer Neo Geo Pocket Color is fully backward compatible (...)" - This suggests multiple hardware revisions of the Neo Geo Pocket Color, one fully, and one less backward compatible. While minor PCB layout changes have occurred throughout the manufacturing period of the Neo Geo Pocket Color, they did not affect compatibility at all.

The bit about "notable exceptions" names mini games contained within other titles and suggests that this somehow affects the compatibility.

The whole quoted paragraph requires a complete overhaul. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Mord3n (talk • contribs) 10:46, 24 August 2011 (UTC)

Physical screen resolution
Should we assume this is the same 160x152 of the NGP Color? "Virtual" screen rez doesn't really tell us much, quite a number of tile-based consoles have a rather larger virtual playfield than is ever displayed on-screen, and the relationship between logical and physical is generally quite arbitrary. 87.114.14.230 (talk) 18:52, 11 January 2014 (UTC)

title: Talk:Neo Geo Pocket


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Richard Hakluyt

Richard Hakluyt (1553 – 23 November 1616) was an English writer. He is known for promoting the English colonization of North America through his works, notably Divers Voyages Touching the Discoverie of America (1582) and The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques and Discoveries of the English Nation (1589–1600).

Hakluyt was educated at Westminster School and Christ Church, Oxford. Between 1583 and 1588 he was chaplain and secretary to Sir Edward Stafford, English ambassador at the French court. An ordained priest, Hakluyt held important positions at Bristol Cathedral and Westminster Abbey and was personal chaplain to Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury, principal Secretary of State to Elizabeth I and James I. He was the chief promoter of a petition to James I for letters patent to colonize Virginia, which were granted to the London Company and Plymouth Company (referred to collectively as the Virginia Company) in 1606. The Hakluyt Society, which publishes scholarly editions of primary records of voyages and travels, was named after him in its 1846 formation.

Family, early life and education
Hakluyt's patrilineal ancestors were of Welsh extraction, rather than Dutch as is often suggested; they appear to have settled in Herefordshire in England around the 13th century, and, according to antiquary John Leland, took their surname from the "Forest of Cluid in Radnorland." Some of Hakluyt's ancestors established themselves at Yatton in Herefordshire, and must have ranked amongst the principal landowners of the county. A person named Hugo Hakelute, who may have been an ancestor or relative of Richard Hakluyt, was elected Member of Parliament for the borough of Yatton in 1304 or 1305, and between the 14th and 16th centuries five individuals surnamed "de Hackluit" or "Hackluit" were sheriffs of Herefordshire. A man named Walter Hakelut was knighted in the 34th year of Edward I (1305) and later killed at the Battle of Bannockburn, and in 1349 Thomas Hakeluyt was chancellor of the diocese of Hereford. Records also show that a Thomas Hakeluytt was in the wardship of Henry VIII (reigned 1509–1547) and Edward VI (reigned 1547–1553).

Richard Hakluyt, the second of four sons, was born in Eyton in Herefordshire in 1553. Hakluyt's father, also named Richard Hakluyt, was a member of the Worshipful Company of Skinners whose members dealt in skins and furs. He died in 1557 when his son was aged about five years, and his wife Margery followed soon after. Hakluyt's cousin, also named Richard Hakluyt, of the Middle Temple, became his guardian.

While a Queen's Scholar at Westminster School, Hakluyt visited his guardian, whose conversation, illustrated by "certain bookes of cosmographie, an universall mappe, and the Bible," made Hakluyt resolve to "prosecute that knowledge, and kind of literature." Entering Christ Church, Oxford, in 1570 with financial support from the Skinners' Company, "his exercises of duty first performed," he set out to read all the printed or written voyages and discoveries that he could find. He took his Bachelor of Arts (B.A.) on 19 February 1574, and shortly after taking his Master of Arts (M.A.) on 27 June 1577, began giving public lectures in geography. He was the first to show "both the old imperfectly composed and the new lately reformed mappes, globes, spheares, and other instruments of this art." Hakluyt held on to his studentship at Christ Church between 1577 and 1586, although after 1583 he was no longer resident in Oxford.

Hakluyt was ordained in 1578, the same year he began to receive a "pension" from the Worshipful Company of Clothworkers to study divinity. The pension would have lapsed in 1583, but William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley, intervened to have it extended until 1586 to aid Hakluyt's geographical research.

At the English Embassy in Paris
Hakluyt's first publication The Galileo Project errs in identifying Hakluyt's first publication as A Shorte and Briefe Narration of the Two Nauigations and Discoueries to the Northwest Partes Called Newe Fraunce (1580), a translation of Bref Récit et Succincte Narration de la Navigation Faite en MDXXXV et MDXXXVI by French navigator Jacques Cartier, which was a description of his second voyage to Canada in 1535–1536; however, the British Library's copy of this work indicates it was translated from an Italian version into English by John Florio. Hakluyt did prepare his own translation of the Italian version of the work, but only published it in the third volume of the expanded edition of The Principal Navigations, Voiages, Traffiques and Discoueries of the English Nation (1600). was one that he wrote himself, Divers Voyages Touching the Discoverie of America and the Ilands Adjacent unto the Same, Made First of all by our Englishmen and Afterwards by the Frenchmen and Britons (1582).

Hakluyt's Voyages brought him to the notice of Lord Howard of Effingham, and Sir Edward Stafford, Lord Howard's brother-in-law. At the age of 30, being acquainted with "the chiefest captaines at sea, the greatest merchants, and the best mariners of our nation," he was selected as chaplain and secretary to accompany Stafford, now English ambassador at the French court, to Paris in 1583. In accordance with the instructions of Secretary Francis Walsingham, he occupied himself chiefly in collecting information of the Spanish and French movements, and "making diligent inquirie of such things as might yield any light unto our westerne discoveries in America." Although this was his only visit to Continental Europe in his life, he was angered to hear the limitations of the English in terms of travel being discussed in Paris. The first fruits of Hakluyt's labours in Paris were embodied in his important work entitled A Particuler Discourse Concerninge the Greate Necessitie and Manifolde Commodyties That Are Like to Growe to This Realme of Englande by the Westerne Discoueries Lately Attempted, Written in the Yere 1584, which Sir Walter Raleigh commissioned him to prepare. The manuscript, lost for almost 300 years, was published for the first time in 1877. Hakluyt revisited England in 1584, and laid a copy of the Discourse before Elizabeth I (to whom it had been dedicated) together with his analysis in Latin of Aristotle's Politicks. His objective was to recommend the enterprise of establishing English plantations in the unsettled [by Europeans] region of North America, and thus gain the Queen's support for Raleigh's expedition. In May 1585 when Hakluyt was in Paris with the English Embassy, the Queen granted to him the next prebendary at Bristol Cathedral that should become vacant, to which he was admitted in 1585 or 1586 and held with other preferments till his death.

Hakluyt's other works during his time in Paris consisted mainly of translations and compilations, with his own dedications and prefaces. These latter writings, together with a few letters, are the only extant material out of which a biography of him can be framed. Hakluyt interested himself in the publication of the manuscript journal of René Goulaine de Laudonnière, L'histoire notable de la Floride située ès Indes Occidentales in Paris in 1586. The attention that the book excited in Paris encouraged Hakluyt to prepare an English translation and publish it in London under the title A Notable Historie Containing Foure Voyages Made by Certayne French Captaynes unto Florida (1587). The same year, his edition of Peter Martyr d'Anghiera's De Orbe Nouo Decades Octo saw the light at Paris. This work contains an exceedingly-rare copperplate map dedicated to Hakluyt and signed F.G. (supposed to be Francis Gualle); it is the first on which the name "Virginia" appears.

Return to England

In 1588 Hakluyt finally returned to England with Douglas Sheffield, Baroness Sheffield, after a residence in France of nearly five years. In 1589 he published the first edition of his chief work, The Principall Navigations, Voiages and Discoveries of the English Nation, using eyewitness accounts as far as possible. In the preface to this he announced the intended publication of the first terrestrial globe made in England by Emery Molyneux.

Between 1598 and 1600 appeared the final, reconstructed and greatly enlarged edition of The Principal Navigations, Voiages, Traffiques and Discoueries of the English Nation in three volumes. In the dedication of the second volume (1599) to his patron, Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury, Hakluyt strongly urged the minister as to the expediency of colonising Virginia. A few copies of this monumental work contain a map of great rarity, the first on the Mercator projection made in England according to the true principles laid down by Edward Wright. Hakluyt's great collection has been called "the Prose Epic of the modern English nation" by historian James Anthony Froude.

On 20 April 1590 Hakluyt was instituted to the clergy house of Wetheringsett-cum-Brockford, Suffolk, by Lady Stafford, who was the Dowager Baroness Sheffield. He held this position until his death, and resided in Wetheringsett through the 1590s and frequently thereafter. In 1599, he became an adviser to the newly-founded East India Company, and in 1601 he edited a translation from the Portuguese of Antonio Galvão's The Discoveries of the World.

Later life
In the late 1590s Hakluyt became the client and personal chaplain of Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury, Lord Burghley's son, who was to be Hakluyt's most fruitful patron. Hakluyt dedicated to Cecil the second (1599) and third volumes (1600) of the expanded edition of Principal Navigations and also his edition of Galvão's Discoveries (1601). Cecil, who was the principal Secretary of State to Elizabeth I and James I, rewarded him by installing him as prebendary of the Dean and Chapter of Westminster on 4 May 1602. In the following year, he was elected archdeacon of the Abbey. These religious occupations have occasioned reconsideration of the role played by spiritual concerns in Hakluyt's writings on exploration, settlement, and England's relations with its Catholic rivals.

Hakluyt was married twice, once in or about 1594 and again in 1604. In the licence of Hakluyt's second marriage dated 30 March 1604, he is described as one of the chaplains of the Savoy Hospital; this position was also conferred on him by Cecil. His will refers to chambers occupied by him there up to the time of his death, and in another official document he is styled Doctor of Divinity (D.D.).

Hakluyt was also a leading adventurer of the Charter of the Virginia Company of London as a director thereof in 1589. In 1605 he secured the prospective living of Jamestown, the intended capital of the intended colony of Virginia. When the colony was at last established in 1607, he supplied this benefice with its chaplain, Robert Hunt. In 1606 he appears as the chief promoter of the petition to James I for letters patent to colonise Virginia, which were granted on 10 April 1606. His last publication was a translation of Hernando de Soto's discoveries in Florida, entitled Virginia Richly Valued, by the Description of the Maine Land of Florida, Her Next Neighbour (1609). This work was intended to encourage the young colony of Virginia; Scottish historian William Robertson wrote of Hakluyt, "England is more indebted for its American possessions than to any man of that age."

Hakluyt prepared an English translation of Dutch jurist Hugo Grotius' Mare Liberum (1609), a treatise that sought to demonstrate that the Dutch had the right to trade freely in the East Indies, contrary to Spanish and Portuguese claims of sovereignty over the seas, in the early 17th century. Helen Thornton has suggested that the translation was commissioned by Thomas Smythe who became treasurer of the Virginia Company in 1609 and was also Governor of the East India Company. In that year, Hakluyt was a consultant to the Company when it was renewing its charter. Grotius' arguments supported England's right to trade in the Indies. The translation may also have been part of the propaganda encouraging English people to settle in Virginia. In Mare Liberum, Grotius denied that the 1493 donation by Pope Alexander VI that had divided the oceans between Spain and Portugal entitled Spain to make territorial claims to North America. Instead, he stressed the importance of occupation, which was favourable to the English as they and not the Spanish had occupied Virginia. Grotius also argued that the seas should be freely navigable by all, which was useful since the England to Virginia route crossed seas which the Portuguese claimed. However, it is not clear why Hakluyt's translation was not published in his lifetime. George Bruner Parks has theorized that publication at that time would have been inconvenient to England because after England had successfully helped Holland and Spain to negotiate the Twelve Years' Truce during the Eighty Years' War, the work would have supported English claims for free seas against Spain, but not its claims for closed seas against Holland. Hakluyt's handwritten manuscript, MS Petyt 529, in Inner Temple Library in London was eventually published as The Free Sea for the first time in 2004.

In 1591, Hakluyt inherited family property upon the death of his elder brother Thomas; a year later, upon the death of his youngest brother Edmund, he inherited additional property which derived from his uncle. In 1612 Hakluyt became a charter member of the North-west Passage Company. By the time of his death, he had amassed a small fortune out of his various emoluments and preferments, of which the last was the clergy house of Gedney, Lincolnshire, presented to him by his younger brother Oliver in 1612. Unfortunately, his wealth was squandered by his only son.

Hakluyt died on 23 November 1616, probably in London, and was buried on 26 November in Westminster Abbey; by an error in the abbey register his burial is recorded under the year 1626. A number of his manuscripts, sufficient to form a fourth volume of his collections of 1598–1600, fell into the hands of Samuel Purchas, who inserted them in an abridged form in his Pilgrimes (1625–1626). Others, consisting chiefly of notes gathered from contemporary authors, are preserved at the University of Oxford.

Hakluyt is principally remembered for his efforts in promoting and supporting the settlement of North America by the English through his writings. These works were a fertile source of material for William Shakespeare and other authors. Hakluyt also encouraged the production of geographical and historical writings by others. It was at Hakluyt's suggestion that Robert Parke translated Juan González de Mendoza's The History of the Great and Mighty Kingdom of China and the Situation Thereof (1588–1590), John Pory made his version of Leo Africanus's A Geographical Historie of Africa (1600), and P. Erondelle translated Marc Lescarbot's Nova Francia (1609).

Legacy
The Hakluyt Society was founded in 1846 for printing rare and unpublished accounts of voyages and travels, and continues to publish volumes each year.

As of 2018, a 14-volume critical edition of Hakluyt's Principal Navigations was being prepared by the Hakluyt Edition Project for Oxford University Press under the general editorship of Daniel Carey, National University of Ireland, Galway, and Claire Jowitt, University of East Anglia.

Westminster School named a house after him as recognition of achievement of an Old Westminster.

In Svalbard (Spitsbergen), the Hakluythovden headland and Hakluytodden landspit in the northwestern region of Amsterdam Island are named after Richard Hakluyt.

Authored

 * Quarto. Reprint:
 * Reprints:
 * Folio. Reprint:
 * 2 vols.
 * 3 vols.; folio. Reprints:
 * 16 vols. Full-text of this edition available as follows: Volume 1; Volume 2 (Latin); Volume 3; Volume 4; Volume 5; Volume 6; Volume 7; Volume 8; Volume 9; Volume 10; Volume 11; Volume 12; Volume 13; Volume 14.
 * 12 vols. Full-text of this edition available as follows: Volume 1; Volume 2; Volume 3; Volume 4; Volume 5; Volume 6; Volume 7; Volume 8; Volume 9; Volume 10; Volume 11; Volume 12.
 * 3 vols.; folio. Reprints:
 * 16 vols. Full-text of this edition available as follows: Volume 1; Volume 2 (Latin); Volume 3; Volume 4; Volume 5; Volume 6; Volume 7; Volume 8; Volume 9; Volume 10; Volume 11; Volume 12; Volume 13; Volume 14.
 * 12 vols. Full-text of this edition available as follows: Volume 1; Volume 2; Volume 3; Volume 4; Volume 5; Volume 6; Volume 7; Volume 8; Volume 9; Volume 10; Volume 11; Volume 12.

Edited and translated

 * [] It seems likely that this work was not by Hakluyt: see "At the English Embassy in Paris" above.
 * Quarto.
 * Octavo.
 * Quarto. Reprint:
 * Quarto.
 * Quarto.

Books

 * 2 vols.
 * 2 vols.
 * 2 vols.
 * 2 vols.
 * 2 vols.
 * 2 vols.
 * 2 vols.
 * 2 vols.
 * 2 vols.
 * 2 vols.

title: Richard Hakluyt


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Hector Boece

Hector Boece (also spelled Boyce or Boise; 1465–1536), known in Latin as Hector Boecius or Boethius, was a Scottish philosopher and historian, and the first Principal of King's College in Aberdeen, a predecessor of the University of Aberdeen.

Biography
He was born in Dundee where he attended school and was educated at the nearby University of St Andrews. Later he left to study at the University of Paris where he met Erasmus, with whom he became close friends while they were both students at the austere Collège de Montaigu, to whose reforming Master, Jan Standonck, Boece later became Secretary. By 1497 he had become a professor of philosophy at Collège de Montaigu.

In 1500, he was induced to leave Paris for Aberdeen by a generously financed offer to become the first principal of the newly established University of Aberdeen, created at the behest of James IV by William Elphinstone, Bishop of Aberdeen under the authority of a Papal bull issued by Pope Alexander VI.

From then onwards, he worked closely with Elphinstone, to set up the new university and by 1505, regular lectures were taking place at King's College. The university structure was modelled on those of Paris and of Orléans. As intended, Boece was installed as the first principal of the university and gave lectures on medicine and on divinity.

At the end of 1534, Boece became Rector of Fyvie. He died in Aberdeen two years later at the age of 71.

Works
Boece wrote and published two books, one of biography and one of history. In 1522 he published the Vitae Episcoporum Murthlacensium et Aberdonensium (Lives of the Bishops of Murthlack and Aberdeen) and in 1527 the Historia Gentis Scotorum (History of the Scottish People) to the accession of James III of Scotland. The former was the basis of a poem in Scots by Alexander Gardyne.

Reception of the Historia
The Historia is the work for which Boece is remembered, as the second scholarly history of the Scots to be written; its only real predecessor was the compendium of John Mair. It was written in a flowing and pleasing style, became popular, and led to ecclesiastical preferment and royal favour. By modern standards, it is overly patriotic, and has many inaccuracies. The historical account of Macbeth of Scotland, in particular, flattered the antecedents of Boece's patron King James IV of Scotland, and greatly maligned the real Macbeth. The work was well received at the time, both in Europe and in Scotland, after its translation from Latin into French and then in 1536 from Latin into Scots by John Bellenden. There are some interesting glimpses in the Historia of contemporary Scotland, such as the statement that the Eurasian beaver, which was soon to become extinct in Scotland, was still common around Loch Ness.

Continuations of the Historia and its influence
Boece's Historia as published terminated its coverage of history at the year 1438. In the early 1530s the scholar Giovanni Ferrerio, engaged by Robert Reid of Kinloss Abbey, wrote a continuation of Boece's history, extending it another 50 years, to the end of the reign of James III. John Lesley in his De Origine, Moribus, et Rebus Gestis Scotorum, and Robert Lindsay of Pitscottie, provided further continuations. The metrical translation into Scots by William Stewart, not published until the nineteenth century, also provided some expansion.

The chronicler Polydore Vergil made some use of Boece for his 1534 Historia Anglica. David Chalmers of Ormond in his Histoire abbregée (1572) wrote about the French, English and Scottish monarchies, relying on Boece for the Scottish account. The Historia was translated into English for Raphael Holinshed's Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland. The account in Holinshed's Chronicle was then used by William Shakespeare as the basis of his play Macbeth. George Buchanan made heavy use of Boece in his Rerum Scoticarum Historia (1582).

Boece's sources
Boece's claimed sources fell into three classes. The works of John Fordun (Chronica Gentis Scotorum) and Walter Bower (Scotichronicon) defined the tradition which he attempted to make seamless, filling the gaps in the chronicle, and applying the approach common to humanists of his period. The works of Tacitus had been rediscovered, in the 14th century, and contained material relevant to British history; and Boece was concerned to integrate it into the tradition. Finally, there was a group of sources that remain debated: material from Elphinstone, and the authors Veremundus, Cornelius Hibernicus, and John Campbell. No written record of these works survives.

Sharp criticism of the sourcing of Boece's history was voiced in the sixteenth century by Humphrey Lhuyd and John Twyne. In the eighteenth century, the historical content of the earlier parts of it was effectively dismantled by Thomas Innes.

Boece shared in the credulity of his age; the approach of Mair, who was writing in parallel at the same time, but with a different focus and with a more critical and less sweeping method, did not represent the current fashion. The charge of actually inventing his authorities, formerly brought against Boece, has been the subject of recent scholarship. One example of Boece being cleared of the charge of fabricating his work concerns the Battle of Luncarty, Luncarty, Clan Hay. He was suspected by the Scottish historian John Hill Burton of inventing that battle but, Walter Bower writing in his Scotichronicon around 1440, some 87 years before Boece first published his Scotorum Historia, refers to the battle briefly. The "John Campbell" is tentatively identified as Boece's contemporary John Campbell of Lundie (died 1562). "Veremundus", it is argued, may be a Richard Vairement of the 13th century.

title: Hector Boece


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Robert Armin

Robert Armin (c. 1568 – 1615) was an English actor, and member of the Lord Chamberlain's Men. He became the leading comedy actor with the troupe associated with William Shakespeare following the departure of Will Kempe around 1600. Also a popular comic author, he wrote a comedy, The History of the Two Maids of More-clacke, as well as Foole upon Foole, A Nest of Ninnies (1608) and The Italian Taylor and his Boy.

Armin changed the part of the clown or fool from the rustic servingman turned comedian to that of a high-comedy domestic wit.

Early life

 * "…the clown is wise because he plays the fool for money, while others have to pay for the same privilege." – Leslie Hotson in Shakespeare's Motley

Armin was one of three children born to John Armyn II of King's Lynn, a successful tailor and friend to John Lonyson, a goldsmith also of King's Lynn. His brother, John Armyn III, was a merchant tailor in London. Armin did not take up his father's craft; instead, his father apprenticed him to Lonyson in the Goldsmiths' Company in 1581. Lonyson was the Master of Works at the Royal Mint in the Tower of London, a position of great responsibility. The arrangement moved Armin to a life and a social circle quite different from what he might have expected as a Norfolk tailor. Lonyson died in 1582, and the apprenticeship was transferred to another master. According to a tale preserved in Tarlton's Jests, Armin came to the attention of the Queen's famous jester Richard Tarlton. In the course of his duties, the story contends, Armin was sent to collect money from a lodger at Tarlton's inn. Frustrated by the man's refusal to pay, Armin wrote verses in chalk on the wall; Tarlton noticed and, approving their wit, wrote an answer in which he expressed a desire to take Armin as his apprentice. Though not corroborated, this anecdote is far from the least plausible in Tarlton's Jests. Influenced by Tarlton or not, Armin already had a literary reputation before he finished his apprenticeship in 1592. In 1590, his name is affixed to the preface of a religious tract, A Brief Resolution of the Right Religion. Two years later, both Thomas Nashe (in Strange News) and Gabriel Harvey (in Pierce's Supererogation) mention him as a writer of ballads; none of his work in this vein, however, is known to have survived.

The Chandos company
At some point in the 1590s, Armin joined a company of players patronised by William Brydges, 4th Baron Chandos. With this company, about which little is known, he is presumed to have travelled from the western Midlands to East Anglia. The nature of his work for the company may be estimated from his parts in The History of the Two Maids of More-clacke. The preface to the 1609 quarto indicates that he played Blue John, a clown in the vein of Tarlton and Kempe; he also seems to have doubled in the role of Tutch, a witty fool of the type he later played in London. The late quarto is associated with a revival by the King's Revels Children, a short-lived troupe of boy players led by Nathan Field, but it was almost certainly written around 1597.

Little else is known precisely of Armin's time with Chandos's Men. A dedication to his patron's widow in 1604 suggests some personal acquaintance with the Brydges family; on the other hand, a reference in another work suggests he may have spent some time, like Kempe, as a solo performer. The pair of books Armin published around the turn of the century demonstrate a performer with an interest in his craft. Fool Upon Fool (1600, 1605; reissued in 1608 as A Nest of Ninnies), offers the wit of assorted natural fools, some of whom Armin knew personally. The same year he published Quips upon Questions, a collection of seemingly extemporaneous dialogues with his marotte, named by him Signor Truncheon. In this he demonstrates his style; instead of having a conversation with the audience, as Tarlton did, and entering into a battle of wits, he jests using multiple personas, improvised song, or by commenting on a person or event. Rather than exchanging words, he gave words freely. Armin reported in that work that on either Tuesday 25 December 1599, or Tuesday 1 January 1600, he would be travelling to Hackney to wait on his "right honourable good lord". This was possibly Baron Chandos, who may have been visiting Edward la Zouche, 11th Baron Zouche over the holidays, or more likely Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford who lived in Hackney.

The first editions of these two books were credited to "Clonnico de Curtanio Snuffe"—that is, to the "Clown of the Curtain". The 1605 edition changes "Curtain" to "Mundo" (that is, Globe); only in 1608 was he credited by name, though the earlier title pages would have sufficed to identify him for Londoners.

Another work of uncertain date (it was published in 1609) is The Italian Tailor and his Boy. A translation of a tale from Gianfrancesco Straparola, the subject matter may reflect his family background of tailors. He was a tailor's son, who paralleled in the Italian tailor's apprentice, and the ruby ring of the play's lore parallels the goldsmith apprentice.

Sutcliffe argues that Armin wrote a pamphlet published in 1599, A Pil to Purge Melancholie, on the grounds that it was published by the same press, mentions a clown with Armin's nickname, and contains verbal echoes of Two Maids of More-clacke.

Lord Chamberlain's Men
The timing of Armin's joining the Chamberlain's Men is as mysterious as its occasion. That it was connected to Kempe's departure has been generally accepted; however, the reasons for that departure are not clear. One traditional view—that the company in general or Shakespeare specifically had begun to tire of Kempe's old-fashioned clowning—is still current, though the main evidence for this view consists of Kempe's departure and the type of comic roles Shakespeare wrote after 1600. Armin played on the Globe stage by August 1600; Wiles theorizes that he may have joined the Chamberlain's Men in 1599, but continued to perform solo pieces at the Curtain; however, he may also have played with the company at the Curtain, while Kempe was still a member.

Armin is generally credited with all the "licensed fools" in the repertory of the Chamberlain's and King's Men: Touchstone in As You Like It, Feste in Twelfth Night, the Fool in King Lear, Lavatch in All's Well That Ends Well, and perhaps Thersites in Troilus and Cressida, the Porter in Macbeth, the Fool in Timon of Athens, and Autolycus in The Winter's Tale. Of these eight, Touchstone is the fool about which there is the most critical discussion. Harold Bloom describes him as "rancidly vicious," and writes that "this more intense rancidity works as a touchstone should, to prove the true gold of Rosalind's spirit". John Palmer disagrees and writes that "he must be either a true cynic or one that affects his cynicism to mask a fundamentally genial spirit". As Palmer continues, a true cynic does not belong in Arden, so the clown "must be a thoroughly good fellow at heart". Touchstone affects the front of a malcontented cynic, thus serving as proof of Rosalind's quick wit. When she confronts both Jaques and Touchstone, she exposes their silliness and prevents the fools from making Arden out to be worse than it really is.

Feste was almost certainly written for Armin, as he is a scholar, a singer, and a wit. Feste's purpose is to reveal the foolishness of those around him. Lear's fool differs from both Touchstone and Feste as well as from other clowns of his era. Touchstone and Feste are philosopher-fools; Lear's fool is the natural fool of whom Armin studied and wrote. Armin here had the opportunity to display his studies. The fool speaks the prophecy lines, which he tells—largely ignored—to Lear before disappearing from the play altogether. Lear's fool is hardly around for entertainment purposes; rather, he is present to forward the plot, remain loyal to the king, and perhaps to stall his madness.

Although Armin typically played these intelligent clown roles, it has been suggested by a few scholars that he originated the role of Iago in Othello, on the grounds that Iago sings two drinking songs (most of the songs in Shakespeare's plays from 1600 to 1610 were sung by Armin's characters) and that this was the sole play between As You Like It and Timon of Athens that has no fool or clown for Armin to play. An alternative suggestion, however, is that Iago was originally acted by John Lowin, with Armin instead taking the smaller part of Othello's servant.

In non-Shakespearean roles, he probably played Pasarello in John Marston's The Malcontent; indeed, Marston may have added the part for him when the play was produced by the King's Men. Armin appears in the cast list for Ben Jonson's The Alchemist; he may have played Drugger. He is also presumed to have been the clown in George Wilkins's The Miseries of Enforced Marriage.

He is not named in the cast list for Jonson's Catiline (1611), and other evidence suggests that he retired in 1609 or 1610. The preface to the Two Maids quarto confides, "I would have again enacted John myself, but tempora mutantur in illis, and I cannot do as I would". He was buried in late 1615.

In London, he resided in the parish of St Botolph's Aldgate; three of his children named in the parish register appear to have died before adulthood. Fellow King's Man Augustine Phillips bequeathed him twenty shillings as a "fellow"; John Davies of Hereford wrote Armin a complimentary epigram. His burial is recorded in the Registers of St Botolph's as 30 November 1615.

A new fool
Armin may have played a key role in the development of Shakespearian fools. "If any player breathed," Hotson tells us, "who could explore with Shakespeare the shadows and fitful flashes of the borderland of insanity, that player was Armin". Robert Armin explored every aspect of the clown, from the natural idiot to the philosopher-fool; from serving man to retained jester. In study, writing, and performance, Armin moved the fool from rustic zany to trained motley. His characters—those he wrote and those he acted—absurdly point out the absurdity of what is otherwise called normal. Instead of appealing to the identity of the English commoner by imitating them, he created a new fool, a high-comic jester for whom wisdom is wit and wit is wisdom. When Robert Armin replaced Kemp in the Chamberlain's Men, it was considered the "taming of the clown". Armin's new style of comedy brought into play the "world-wisely fool". This urged Shakespeare to create Feste in his Twelfth Night, who was a philosophical social insurgence. He had a place everywhere, but belonged nowhere. Ken Kesey, in an interview, summarizes Armin's ideas about the two kinds of fool: "That fool of Shakespeare's, the actor Robert Armin [a mistake for Will Kempe who is widely believed to have played Falstaff], became so popular that finally Shakespeare wrote him out of Henry IV. In a book called A Nest of Ninnies, Armin wrote about the difference between a fool artificial and a fool natural. And the way Armin defines the two is important: the character Jack Oates is a true fool natural. He never stops being a fool to save himself; he never tries to do anything but anger his master, Sir William. A fool artificial is always trying to please; he’s a lackey."

The Shakespeare Stealer
Robert Armin is a significant character in Gary Blackwood's historical fiction The Shakespeare Stealer.

Tam Lin
In the 1991 Pamela Dean novel Tam Lin, one of the major characters is Robert Armin (better known as Robin), a Classics and Theater student at a small college in the Midwestern U.S. during the early 1970s who has a surprisingly detailed knowledge of William Shakespeare's life and work.

title: Robert Armin


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Belikin

Belikin is the leading domestically produced beer brand in Belize.

Belikin is brewed by the Belize Brewing Company, Ltd. which is owned by the Bowen family. The Belize Brewing Company was established in 1969, and began brewing Belikin Beer and Belikin Stout brand name in 1971. Its tagline is "The Beer of Belize".

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Products marketed by Belikin
Belikin produces the following beers:
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 * Belikin Stout
 * Belikin Premium
 * Guinness (local brewer and distributor)
 * Lighthouse Lager

Community Impact
The parent company of Belikin, Bowen & Bowen, support community environmental preservation efforts through coastal cleanups and recycling projects.

title: Belikin