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History of anime in the United States

The history of anime in the United States began in 1961, when Magic Boy and The White Snake Enchantress, both produced by Toei Animation, became the first and second anime films to receive documented releases in the country. Anime has since found success with a growing audience in the region, with Astro Boy often being noted as the first anime to receive widespread syndication, especially in the United States. Additionally, anime's growth in popularity in the US during the 1990s, commonly referred to as the "anime boom," is credited with much of anime's enduring relevance to popular culture outside Japan.

While many anime series have originally been distributed by pirates and fansubbers in the past via bootleg releases from the late-1990s to mid-2000s, such practices have rapidly declined since the early-2010s due to the advent of legal streaming services such as Netflix, Prime Video, Hidive and Crunchyroll, which simulcast new anime series often within a few hours of their domestic release.

1980s
Basic cable provided a frequent broadcast outlet for juvenile-targeted anime during the 1980s, in particular Nickelodeon and Christian Broadcasting Network Cable (now Freeform).

In the early 1980s, CBN aired an English dub of the Christian-themed anime series Superbook and The Flying House, as well as the girls' drama series Honey Honey and an uncut, Hawaiian-dubbed version of Go Nagai's super robot series Mazinger Z (aired as part of a Japan-focused public-affairs show). In the late 1980s, after the station had been renamed The Family Channel, it would also air dubs of Wowser and Nippon Animation's World Masterpiece Theater version of Swiss Family Robinson.

Nickelodeon aired anime such as The Mysterious Cities of Gold and Belle and Sebastian, and anime also later formed a major component of the network's Nick Jr. block, including Maple Town, Adventures of the Little Koala, Noozles, Maya the Bee, The Littl' Bits, and Grimm's Fairy Tale Classics. Premium channels also aired anime on occasion: HBO broadcast numerous anime television series based on Western literature, including Gisaburō Sugii's Jack and the Beanstalk and the World Masterpiece Theater versions of Little Women and Tom Sawyer, and Osamu Tezuka's Unico features aired on the Disney Channel.

In 1981, Roger Corman's New World Pictures oversaw the production of an English dub of the first Galaxy Express movie Bonjour Galaxy Express 999, shortened the name to Galaxy Express, distributed it theatrically. The dub changed some of the original Japanese names into more recognizable American names, like changing Tetsuro to Joey and Harlock to Warlock. Corman also edited out 30 minutes of footage, and Antonia Levi, the author of "Samurai from Outer Space", said that his dub was "highly edited and too damaged to watch". Faring similarly poorly was Manson International's 1984 edit of Hayao Miyazaki's Nausicaa of the Valley of the Wind, released theatrically by New World as Warriors of the Wind; a mainstay on HBO during the mid-to-late 1980s, this edited version is said to have so displeased Miyazaki that he would insist that all future American releases of his work be unedited.

In 1983, Stern Electronics released a Dragon's Lair clone known as Cliff Hanger, which contained footage from the Lupin III films The Castle of Cagliostro and The Mystery of Mamo. As Cliff Hanger predated any proper Western release of Lupin media or Hayao Miyazaki films, and the popularization of anime in the West generally, it became notable for first exposing many Americans to anime.

In the mid-1980s, super robot and space opera anime were very popular. Series such as Voltron, The Transformers, and Robotech were successful in ratings and also commercial successes through selling merchandise. Mazinger Z fared less well, airing in syndication in 1985 in a heavily edited dubbed version (not the Toei-commissioned dub previously broadcast on CBN) titled TranZor Z. Faring even worse was the first American release of Akira Toriyama's Dragon Ball in 1989. Harmony Gold produced a partial dub of the first five TV episodes and two movies (The Curse of the Blood Rubies and The Mystical Adventure), which were edited into an 80-minute film. The dubs were syndicated across America to independent television stations such as WPSG Philly 57 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and WGPR-TV in Detroit, Michigan, but failed to find an audience.

In 1988 and 1989, the OVA series Bubblegum Crisis was one of the earliest fansubs, with AnimEigo later acquiring a license to distribute and dub the series.

In 1988, Streamline Pictures became one of the first companies dedicated solely to anime dubs, most notably dubbed versions of Twilight of the Cockroaches and three more Miyazaki films: My Neighbor Totoro and Kiki's Delivery Service, both released initially as in-flight entertainment for Japan Airlines passengers traveling from North America to Japan, and Castle in the Sky. The Totoro dub would eventually be released theatrically and commercially in the United States in 1993, and all three movies would later be redubbed by the Walt Disney Company as part of the company's deal with Studio Ghibli.

Lensman: Secret of The Lens, based on the Lensman novels by E. E. Smith, was first dubbed by Harmony Gold in 1988, and re-dubbed by Streamline Pictures in 1990; some of the voice actors voiced characters in both dubs. The Harmony Gold dub used remastered music and some music tracks came from their previous movies Robotech II: The Sentinels and Robotech The Movie: The Untold Story, while the Streamline Pictures dub used the original Japanese soundtrack.

In 1988, AnimEigo begun distributing more anime after Streamline Pictures, with the slogan "Anime in your way!". Their first anime they dubbed was Metal Skin Panic MADOX-01; renamed MADOX-01 for the UK release in 1995, it was only released on VHS in 1989, due to content not suitable for television or theatrical release. The company also dubbed the 4-episode OVA Vampire Princess Miyu that same year, which was later adapted into a 26-episode TV series by Tokyopop (and later by Maiden Japan in 1997).

In the mid- to late 1980s, anime films such as Akira, My Neighbor Totoro, Castle in the Sky, Kiki's Delivery Service, and MADOX-01 were dubbed by companies including MGM, Fox, New World Pictures, and AnimEigo. Even though these films were not very successful at the time, due in part to limited release, critical reception was positive, and Akira found a cult following. Most of these films received higher-quality dubs later on.

1990s
The 1990s was the period in which anime reached mainstream popularity in the U.S. market and the terms "anime" and "manga" became commonly known, replacing "Japanimation". Companies such as Funimation Productions, Bandai Entertainment, 4Kids Entertainment, Central Park Media, Media Blasters, Saban Entertainment, Viz Video, Pioneer LDC, and ADV Films began licensing anime in the United States.

The first anime in the US in the 1990s, Dragon Warrior (also known as Dragon Quest), created by Akira Toriyama and based on the video game series, aired in 1989 in Japan; in 1990, it was broadcast in the US by Saban. The show was unsuccessful in the US and was not released on home video. Saban later dubbed the 1990 anime Kyatto Ninden Teyandee as Samurai Pizza Cats and aired it in syndication in 1996. In 2002, Saban's rights to the show expired, after which Discotek Media obtained the rights (which it still owns today).

Viz, which was already successful with its manga translation of Rumiko Takahashi's Ranma ½, bought the rights to the anime and released it via direct-to-video starting in 1993. Ranma ½ enjoyed success in the VHS market, being the first anime title in the 1990s to have this level of success, and was one of the first titles to be recognized as an "anime". Viz also began publishing a magazine called Animerica in the 1990s, which featured manga as well as articles on Japanese culture, fashion, manga, anime, and video games; this helped spread the otaku subculture to Americans. Fansubs were also popular during this period.

In 1995, the original Dragon Ball, now assisted by Funimation and other collaborators,  finally managed to air to an American audience for one season in early morning syndication. The show was cancelled after one season due to low ratings.

Anime saw greater success among American audiences when DiC (then owned by Disney) and Funimation (with the help of Saban Entertainment and Ocean Studios) licensed Sailor Moon (1995) and Dragon Ball Z (1996) respectively, and both were televised in the U.S. through early morning syndication. Since the two anime were very successful internationally, they were purchased to capitalize on the success of Japan-influenced superhero shows like Mighty Morphin Power Rangers (the popular Americanized version of the tokusatsu series Super Sentai) and Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles.

In the summer of 1998, Cartoon Network, which had an action-themed evening block named Toonami, began airing Sailor Moon and Dragon Ball Z. Both became overwhelmingly successful with younger audiences (due to being aired in the evening hours which children were home). As a result, both series were revived, receiving new dubs with significantly less editing amid the recent inception of the TV Parental Guidelines (both were rated TV-Y7-FV). Voltron, Robotech and Ronin Warriors also enjoyed renewed success on Toonami. Toonami would continue to air anime and is credited with beginning the anime boom in the United States in the late 1990s and early 2000s.

In 1996, one of the most influential and controversial popular series was Neon Genesis Evangelion. It was released uncut on VHS by ADV Films, and Manga Entertainment released the films End of Evangelion and Evangelion: Death and Rebirth in the U.S. in 2002. Evangelion grew to have a large fan base in the United States.

In 1998, Pokémon was introduced to America, becoming a commercial success through its merchandising (trading cards, VHS, toys, video games, etc.). Digimon was introduced in 1999; although it was a success, it did not reach the same level of popularity as Pokémon.

Throughout the 1990s, Syfy (formerly Sci-Fi Channel) also aired many experimental, avant-garde, action, horror, and science fiction anime films and series during the late night and early morning hours until their removal from programming in 2011. It aired films including Ghost in the Shell, Ninja Scroll, Akira, Street Fighter II: The Animated Movie, and Urusei Yatsura 2: Beautiful Dreamer, and series such as Casshan: Robot Hunter, Record of Lodoss War, Iria: Zeiram the Animation, and Fist of the North Star. In Northern California, KTEH-TV in San Jose became well known locally for being one of the few PBS outlets to air anime, in both dubbed and subtitled versions.

In 1999, Disney's Miramax released the anime film Princess Mononoke in the U.S. theatrically. Although it was not a great success at the box office, performing much better on DVD releases, it began the relationship between Disney and Studio Ghibli to distribute the latter's films in the U.S.

2000s
In the 2000s, even after the popular series Dragon Ball Z and Sailor Moon ended their runs, Toonami still continued to air popular anime such as Mobile Suit Gundam Wing (which is credited for single-handedly popularizing the Gundam franchise in the West), Dragon Ball GT, Rurouni Kenshin,Yu Yu Hakusho, .hack, Cardcaptors, Tenchi Muyo!, Tenchi Universe (and Tenchi in Tokyo), The 08th MS Team, One Piece, Mobile Suit Gundam SEED, SD Gundam, Cyborg 009, IGPX, Bobobo-bo Bo-bobo, Outlaw Star, Hamtaro, and Naruto. Naruto was very successful on Toonami and remains one of the most popular anime titles in the U.S. In 2008, Toonami was discontinued and anime began airing exclusively on Adult Swim, the late-night counterpart to Cartoon Network.

When Adult Swim began airing on Cartoon Network in 2001, its first anime title aired was Cowboy Bebop. Cowboy Bebop was very successful and remains the longest aired anime series on Adult Swim. Adult Swim also aired series including uncut episodes of Fullmetal Alchemist, Inuyasha, Samurai Champloo, Death Note, Durarara!!, FLCL, Neon Genesis Evangelion, Case Closed, Lupin III, Code Geass, Bleach, Shin Chan, and Trigun. Adult Swim mostly airs anime under the title "Action", even though Shin Chan and Super Milk Chan are comedies. Adult Swim became so successful over the years that Turner Broadcasting split it from Cartoon Network; it is now ranked as an independent network.

Due to the popularity of Dragon Ball Z, Funimation would continue to dominate anime distribution in the United States and continued licensing several popular titles such as Fruits Basket, Black Cat, Ouran High School Host Club, Kodocha, Fullmetal Alchemist, and Tsubasa: Reservoir Chronicle, and launched its own Funimation Channel to exclusively air most of its titles. Funimation would also rescue rights to titles from defunct licensors, such as with ADV Films (which closed in 2008) and Geneon (which closed in 2007).

After the success of Pokémon in the late 1990s, 4Kids Entertainment continued to license anime titles targeted towards children, such as the Yu-Gi-Oh! franchise, Sonic X, Magical DoReMi, Mew Mew Power, Shaman King, Kirby: Right Back at Ya!, Dinosaur King, and Ultimate Muscle. However, 4Kids was met with much controversy for its heavy editing and "Americanization" of content, particularly Yu-Gi-Oh! and One Piece.

In 2002, Spirited Away was released through Disney theatrically, becoming the first anime film to be nominated for and win an Academy Award.

2010s
In 2010, Dragon Ball Z Kai premiered on Nicktoons and became a hit success for the network. Nicktoons also aired the original Dragon Ball Z films and Dragon Ball GT. Starting in March 2013, Yu-Gi-Oh! and one of its continuing series, ''Yu-Gi-Oh! Zexal'', started to air on the network. Digimon Adventure and Digimon Adventure 02 also started to air on Nicktoons starting in June 2013, and one of its continuing series, Digimon Fusion, moved to the network from Nickelodeon on October 13, 2013 after three episodes, mostly due to Nickelodeon's failed attempt at marketing the anime before it premiered on September 7.

Section23, Bandai, Viz, TV Tokyo, and Funimation have tried to limit these efforts by sending cease and desist letters or blocking content on many sites. The production of English dubs of anime has decreased in general, and many distributors, such as Sentai Filmworks, Aniplex of America, and NIS America, are switching to the subtitle-only market.

In 2012, Bandai folded its Bandai Entertainment anime licensing department in the United States. Eventually, their Sunrise studio made deals with Funimation and Sentai Filmworks to license and republish Sunrise titles formerly licensed by Bandai Entertainment. In 2012, 4Kids Entertainment filed for bankruptcy protection and sold the rights to the Yu-Gi-Oh! franchise back to Konami, with the remaining licenses going to Saban Brands.

In early 2012, Fullmetal Alchemist: The Sacred Star of Milos was released in over 100 theaters throughout North America. The Secret World of Arrietty was released theatrically in 2012, and was only a moderate box office success in the United States, despite being one of the highest-grossing films in the U.S. in 2012 (and number 50 worldwide).

In 2012, due to popular requests on Twitter, Reddit, and Facebook, the Toonami block was revived and began airing on Adult Swim, replacing Adult Swim Action. Similar to Toonami's prior Midnight Run block, it is now targeted towards a young adult demographic with little to no editing of content. On May 16, 2014, Viz Media acquired the license for the original Sailor Moon series (formerly owned by DiC and Cloverway Inc. in the 1990s and early 2000s) and the new 2014 anime series, Pretty Guardian Sailor Moon: Crystal, which it premiered on July 5. In May 2014, the Walt Disney Company acquired the broadcasting rights for the 2005 Doraemon series and began airing it on Disney XD on July 7 of that year, marking the first-ever release of the Doraemon franchise in the United States.

In December 2015, the Funimation Channel was replaced by Toku, after Funimation finished its alliance with Olympusat, being the only 24/7 television channel dedicated to broadcasting anime series and films, as well as live-action Asian films.

2020s
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, many anime works have either been delayed or canceled until further notice.

Despite this, anime consumption and appreciation in the United States has grown tremendously in the 2020s. This is largely due to the nationwide lockdown during the pandemic, and popularity of anime edits and fan discourse on the social media app TikTok. This exposed a whole new wave of American fans to Japanese anime, namely My Hero Academia, Death Note, HunterxHunter, Attack on Titan, and Haikyuu!. This newfound interest and demand for anime content has only increased among audiences, as of 2024.

In the years since 2020, there have been multiple US theatrical releases of new Japanese animated films, and even limited-time rereleases of popular movies like The End of Evangelion and a variety of Ghibli films screened nationwide during Ghiblifest.

Netflix has also adapted an expanding number of live-action series based on Japanese anime IP. Their most successful adaptions thus far have been One Piece (2024) and Alice in Borderland (2020).

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Talk:Jesus-Only doctrine

Jesus-Only is considered derogatory term by those of us that consider themselves Jesus-Name or Oneness believers. This whole article should be rewritten or redirected to Oneness Theology with "Jesus-Only" listed as a phrase only used by non-believers. -LuckyDay 12:16am 04 21 2005

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I can't but say that this appears to be extremely POV stuff. I know nothing whatsoever about the issues discussed on the page, but still that is the impression I get. -- Cimon Avaro on a pogo-stick 07:37 27 Jul 2003 (UTC)
 * I agree (I'd at least put 'purported' in front of 'heresy', but it needs more than that). - Hephaestos 07:39 27 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * I fixed it up a little bit.. Dysprosia 07:41 27 Jul 2003 (UTC)

It seems ok now. FearÉIREANN 08:29 27 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * I concur. It is fine. (for the time being) -- Cimon Avaro on a pogo-stick 08:34 27 Jul 2003 (UTC)

The position does lack foundational and historical support. Besides that, the POV of the issue was started in modern times from a particular event. In essence one person McAleister had a theory and that theory he turned into a doctrine that requires salvation. That should be noted. Anytime a theory becomes doctrine for salvation, it is either a doctrinal revision, heresy, or a new revelation

I believe that the statement "it is important to note....not in the Bible" is a biased statement, because it is essentially putting only one side of the argument. Essentially you are putting a very-much-simplified argument in favour of anti-trinitarianism. To maintain neutraility either we have to put in the counter-argument (that the words may not be there, but the concepts very much are) or, since this isn't the place for a theological discussion, we should remove the statement. Anyone who disagrees with this please say why here. DJ Clayworth 16:16, 17 Jun 2005 (UTC)

I would also suggest that we move this article to Jesus-Name doctrine, if that is what the Oneness movement calls it. We shouldn't generally use an article title that is viewed as an insult by those who hold the belief. DJ Clayworth 16:22, 17 Jun 2005 (UTC)

When I was a child, I was told by a "Jesus Only" minister that there is a clear difference between "Jesus Only" and "Oneness". He said that "Jesus Only" believes that Jesus was just a man until he was baptised. Maybe this is the reason that the oneness do not like the statement. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.179.91.27 (talk) 12:11, 9 October 2008 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Jesus-Only doctrine


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Chinese drama

Chinese drama may refer to:

 * Theatre of China
 * Chinese-language cinema:
 * Cinema of China
 * Cinema of Hong Kong
 * Cinema of Taiwan
 * Chinese literature
 * Chinese television drama

title: Chinese drama


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User talk:Joeykelly

Pages may be redirected by entering #REDIRECTJesus Only doctrine. See Jesus Only. The underscore is not necessary in links. If you have questions or doubts of any sort, do not hesitate to post them on the Village Pump, somebody will respond ASAP. Other helpful pages include: Have fun! --Jiang 07:41 27 Jul 2003 (UTC)
 * Welcome, newcomers
 * Manual of style
 * Naming conventions

Sorry... I use several different wiki engines, which apparently don't all parse wikimarkup the same way.

Joeykelly 18:00, 5 Aug 2003 (UTC)

title: User talk:Joeykelly


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Ninoy Aquino

Benigno "Ninoy" Simeon Aquino Jr.,    (, ; November 27, 1932 – August 21, 1983) was a Filipino politician who served as a senator of the Philippines (1967–1972) and governor of the province of Tarlac. Aquino was the husband of Corazon Aquino, who became the 11th president of the Philippines after his assassination, and father of Benigno Aquino III, who became the 15th president of the Philippines. Aquino, together with Gerardo Roxas and Jovito Salonga, helped form the leadership of the opposition towards then President Ferdinand Marcos. He was the significant leader who together with the intellectual leader Sen. Jose W. Diokno led the overall opposition.

Early in his Senate career, Aquino vigorously attempted to investigate the Jabidah massacre in March 1968. Shortly after the imposition of martial law in 1972, Aquino was arrested along with other members of the opposition. He was incarcerated for seven years. He has been described as Marcos' "most famous political prisoner". He founded his own party, Lakas ng Bayan and ran in the 1978 Philippine parliamentary election, but all the party's candidates lost in the election. In 1980, he was permitted by Marcos to travel to the United States for medical treatment following a heart attack. During the early 1980s he became one of the most notable critics of the Marcos regime, and enjoyed popularity across the US due to the numerous rallies he attended at the time.

As the situation in the Philippines worsened, Aquino decided to return to face Marcos and restore democracy in the country, despite numerous threats against it. He was assassinated at Manila International Airport on August 21, 1983, upon returning from his self-imposed exile. His death revitalised opposition to Marcos; it also catapulted his widow, Corazon, into the political limelight and prompted her to successfully run for a six-year term as president as a member of the United Nationalist Democratic Organization (UNIDO) party in the 1986 snap election.

Among other public structures, Manila International Airport has since been renamed Ninoy Aquino International Airport in his honor, and the anniversary of his death is a national holiday. Aquino has also been listed as a Motu Proprio human rights violations victim of the Martial Law era.

Early life and career
Benigno Simeon Aquino Jr. was born in Concepcion, Tarlac on November 27, 1932, to Benigno Aquino Sr., who was then a senator from the 3rd district and Senate majority leader, and Aurora (née Aquino) from a prosperous family of hacienderos, the original owners of Hacienda Tinang.

His grandfather, Servillano Aquino, was a general in the revolutionary army of Emilio Aguinaldo, the officially recognized first President of the Philippines.

He received his elementary education at the basic education department of De La Salle College and finished at the basic education department of Saint Joseph's College of Quezon City. He then graduated at the high school department of San Beda College. Aquino took his tertiary education at Ateneo de Manila University to obtain a Bachelor of Arts degree, but he interrupted his studies. According to one of his biographies, he considered himself to be an average student; his grade was not in the line of 90s nor did it fall into the 70s. At the age of 17, he was the youngest war correspondent to cover the Korean War for The Manila Times of Don Joaquín "Chino" Roces. Because of his journalistic feats, he received the Philippine Legion of Honor award from President Elpidio Quirino when aged 18. At 21, he became a close adviser to then Defense Secretary Ramon Magsaysay. Aquino took up law at the University of the Philippines Diliman, where he became a member of Upsilon Sigma Phi, the same fraternity as Ferdinand Marcos. He interrupted his studies again however to pursue a career in journalism. According to Máximo Soliven, Aquino "later 'explained' that he had decided to go to as many schools as possible, so that he could make as many new friends as possible." In early 1954, he was appointed by President Ramon Magsaysay, his wedding sponsor to his 1953 wedding at the Our Lady of Sorrows Church in Pasay with Corazon Cojuangco, to act as personal emissary to Luis Taruc, leader of the Hukbalahap rebel group. After four months of negotiations, he was credited for Taruc's unconditional surrender and was given a second Philippine Legion of Honor award with the degree of Commander on October 14, 1954.

He became mayor of Concepcion in 1955 at the age of 23.

Political career

Aquino gained an early familiarity with Philippine politics, as he was born into one of the Philippines' political and landholding clans. His grandfather served under President Aguinaldo, and his father held office under Presidents Quezon and Jose P. Laurel. As a consequence, Aquino was able to be elected mayor when he was 23 years old. Five years later, he was elected the nation's youngest vice governor at 27 (the record was later surpassed by Bongbong Marcos at 22 in 1980). Two years later, he became governor of Tarlac province in 1961 and then secretary-general of the Liberal Party in 1966.

In 1968, during his first year as senator, Aquino alleged that Marcos was on the road to establishing "a garrison state" by "ballooning the armed forces budget," saddling the defense establishment with "overstaying generals" and "militarizing our civilian government offices."

Aquino became known as a constant critic of the Marcos regime, as his flamboyant rhetoric had made him a darling of the media. His most polemical speech, "A Pantheon for Imelda", was delivered on February 10, 1969. He assailed the Cultural Center, the first project of First Lady Imelda Marcos as extravagant, and dubbed it "a monument to shame" and labelled its designer "a megalomaniac, with a penchant to captivate". By the end of the day, the country's broadsheets had blared that he labelled the President's wife, his cousin Paz's former ward, and a woman he had once courted, "the Philippines' Eva Peron". President Marcos is said to have been outraged and labelled Aquino "a congenital liar". The First Lady's friends angrily accused Aquino of being "ungallant". These so-called "fiscalization" tactics of Aquino quickly became his trademark in the Senate.

It was not until the Plaza Miranda bombing on August 21, 1971, that the pattern of direct confrontation between Marcos and Aquino emerged. At 9:15 pm, at the kick-off rally of the Liberal Party, the candidates formed a line on a makeshift platform and were raising their hands as the crowd applauded. The band played, a fireworks display drew all eyes, when suddenly there were two loud explosions that obviously were not part of the show. In an instant, the stage became a scene of wild carnage. The police later discovered two fragmentation grenades that had been thrown at the stage by "unknown persons". Eight people died, and 120 others were wounded, many critically.

Aquino, elected senator in 1967, was not a candidate in the 1971 midterm election hence was not in Plaza Miranda, but his absence caused some to assume that Aquino's friends in the New People's Army (NPA) tipped him off in advance. Unnamed sources accused Aquino of being involved. No one has ever been prosecuted for the attack. Many historians continue to suspect Marcos as the culprit behind the incident, as he is known to have used false flag attacks as a pretext for his declaration of martial law at that time. Historian Joseph Scalice, however, has argued that while the Marcos government was allied with the Partido Komunista ng Pilipinas (PKP) in carrying out bombings in the early 1970s, "the evidence of history now overwhelmingly suggests that the Communist Party of the Philippines, despite being allied with the Liberal Party, was responsible for this bombing, seeing it as a means of facilitating repression which they argued would hasten revolution."

Early martial law years
Marcos declared martial law on September 21, 1972, through Proclamation No. 1081 and went on air to broadcast his declaration on the midnight of September 23. Aquino and Sen. Diokno were two of the first to be arrested, and were imprisoned in Fort Bonifacio on trumped-up charges of murder, illegal possession of firearms and subversion. Aquino was tried before Military Commission No. 2, headed by Major-General Jose Syjuco and moved to the Codenamed "Alpha" Room at Fort Magsaysay in Laur, Nueva Ecija.

On April 4, 1975, Aquino announced that he was going on a hunger strike, a fast to the death to protest the injustices of his military trial. Ten days through his hunger strike, he instructed his lawyers to withdraw all the motions he had submitted to the Supreme Court. As weeks went by, he subsisted solely on salt tablets, sodium bicarbonate, amino acids and two glasses of water a day. Even as he grew weaker, suffering from chills and cramps, soldiers forcibly dragged him to the military tribunal's session. His family and hundreds of friends and supporters heard Mass nightly at the Santuario de San Jose in Greenhills, San Juan, praying for his survival. Near the end, Aquino's weight dropped from 54 to 36 kilograms. Aquino nonetheless was able to walk throughout his ordeal. On May 13, 1975, on the 40th day, his family and several priests and friends, begged him to end his fast, pointing out that even Christ fasted only for 40 days. He acquiesced, confident that he had made a symbolic gesture.

He, however, remained in prison, and the trial continued, drawn out for several years. Throughout the trial, Aquino said that the military tribunal had no authority over his and his co-accused cases. On November 25, 1977, the Military Commission found Aquino, along with NPA leaders Bernabe Buscayno (Kumander Dante) and Lt. Victor Corpus, guilty of all charges and sentenced them to death by firing squad. Marcos commuted their death sentence due to international pressure over his government's human rights record.

1978 election, bypass surgery
In 1978, from his prison cell, Aquino was allowed to run in the 1978 Philippine parliamentary election. As Ninoy's Liberal Party colleagues were boycotting the election, he formed the Lakas ng Bayan party. The party had 21 candidates for the Metro Manila area, including Ninoy himself. All of the party's candidates, including Ninoy, lost the election.

In mid-March 1980, Aquino suffered a heart attack, mostly in a solitary cell. He was transported to the Philippine Heart Center, where he suffered a second heart attack. ECG and other tests showed that he had a blocked artery. Philippine surgeons were reluctant to do a coronary bypass, because it could involve them in a controversy. In addition, Aquino refused to submit himself to Philippine doctors, fearing possible Marcos "duplicity"; he preferred to go to the United States for the procedure or return to his cell at Fort Bonifacio and die.

His request was granted and Ninoy was allowed to go to the United States for surgery, together with his entire family. This was arranged after a secret hospital visit by Imelda Marcos. This "emergency leave" was set up when Ninoy supposedly agreed to the conditions that, first, he will return, and second, he will not speak out against Marcos in the US. Ninoy was operated on by Rolando M. Solis, a Filipino American and the longest-practicing cardiologist in Dallas, Texas, where the operation took place. After the surgery, Ninoy made a quick recovery, after which he decided to renounce the agreement, saying, "a pact with the devil is no pact at all".

He, Cory and their children started a new life in Massachusetts. He continued to work on two books and gave a series of lectures while on fellowship grants from Harvard University and Massachusetts Institute of Technology. His travels across the US had become opportunities for him to deliver speeches critical of the Marcos government. Throughout his years of expatriation, Aquino was always aware that his life in the U.S. was temporary. He never stopped affirming his eventual return even as he enjoyed American hospitality and a peaceful life with his family on American soil. After spending seven years and seven months in prison, Aquino's finances were in ruins. Making up for the lost time as the family's breadwinner, he toured America; attending symposiums, lectures, and giving speeches in freedom rallies opposing the Marcos government. The most memorable was held at the Wilshire Ebell Theater in Los Angeles, California on February 15, 1981.

Planned return to the Philippines
In the first quarter of 1983, Aquino received news about the deteriorating political situation in his country and the rumored declining health of President Marcos (due to lupus). He believed that it was expedient for him to speak to Marcos and present to him his rationale for the country's return to democracy, before extremists took over and made such a change impossible. Moreover, his years of absence made his allies worry that the Filipinos might have resigned themselves to Marcos' strongman rule and that without his leadership the centrist opposition would die a natural death.

Aquino decided to go back to the Philippines, fully aware of the dangers that awaited him. Warned that he would either be imprisoned or killed, Aquino answered, "if it's my fate to die by an assassin's bullet, so be it. But I cannot be petrified by inaction, or fear of assassination, and therefore stay in the side..." His family, however, learned from a Philippine Consular official that there were orders from Ministry of Foreign Affairs not to issue any passports for them. At that time, their passports had expired and their renewal had been denied. They therefore formulated a plan for Aquino to fly alone (to attract less attention), with the rest of the family to follow him after two weeks. Despite the government's ban on issuing him a passport, Aquino acquired one with the help of Rashid Lucman, a former Mindanao legislator and founder of the Bangsamoro Liberation Front, a Moro separatist group against Marcos. It carried the alias Marcial Bonifacio (Marcial for martial law and Bonifacio for Fort Bonifacio, his erstwhile prison). He eventually obtained a legitimate passport from a sympathizer working in a Philippine consulate through the help of Roque Ablan Jr., who was then a congressman for Ilocos Norte. The Marcos government warned all international airlines that they would be denied landing rights and forced to return if they tried to fly Aquino back to the Philippines. Aquino insisted that it was his natural right as a citizen to come back to his homeland, and that no government could prevent him from doing so. He left Logan International Airport on August 13, 1983, took a circuitous route home from Boston, via Los Angeles, to Singapore. In Singapore, then-Tunku Ibrahim Ismail of Johor met Aquino upon his arrival and later brought him to Johor, Malaysia to meet with other Malaysian leaders. Once in Johor, Aquino met up with Tunku Ibrahim's father, Sultan Iskandar, who was a close friend to Aquino.

He then left for Hong Kong and on to Taipei. He had chosen Taipei as the final stopover when he learned the Philippines had severed diplomatic ties with the Republic of China (Taiwan). This made him feel more secure; the Taiwan government could pretend they were not aware of his presence. There would also be a couple of Taiwanese friends accompanying him. From Taipei, he flew to Manila on then Taiwan's flag carrier China Airlines Flight 811.

Marcos wanted Aquino to stay out of politics. However, Aquino asserted his willingness to suffer the consequences declaring, "the Filipino is worth dying for." He wished to express an earnest plea for Marcos to step down, for a peaceful regime change and a return to democratic institutions. Anticipating the worst, at an interview in his suite at the Taipei Grand Hotel, he revealed that he would be wearing a bullet-proof vest, but he also said that "it's only good for the body, but in the head there's nothing else we can do." Sensing his own doom, he told the journalists accompanying him on the flight, "You have to be very ready with your hand camera because this action can become very fast. In a matter of a three or four minutes it could be all over, you know, and [laughing] I may not be able to talk to you again after this." His last televised interview, with journalist Jim Laurie, took place on the flight just prior to his assassination.

In his last formal statement that he was not able to deliver, he said, "I have returned on my free will to join the ranks of those struggling to restore our rights and freedoms through non-violence. I seek no confrontation."

Assassination

Aquino was shot in the head after returning to the Philippines in the early afternoon on August 21, 1983. About 1,000 security personnel had been assigned by the Marcos government to ensure Aquino's safe return to his detention cell in Fort Bonifacio, but this did not prevent the assassination. Another man present at the airport tarmac, Rolando Galman, was shot dead shortly after Aquino was killed. The Marcos government falsely claimed that Galman was the trigger man in Aquino's assassination.

An investigation headed by Justice Corazon Agrava led to murder charges being filed against twenty-five military men and one civilian. They were acquitted by the Sandiganbayan on December 2, 1985, in what the Supreme Court would later describe as a "mock trial" ordered by "the authoritarian president" himself.

After Marcos' government was overthrown, another investigation found sixteen soldiers guilty. They were sentenced in 1990 by the Sandiganbayan to life in prison, a decision affirmed by the Supreme Court. Some were released over the years, the last ones in March 2009.

After the assassination, the opposition ran for the Regular Batasang Pambansa under the United Nationalist Democratic Organization (UNIDO) and the Partido Demokratiko Pilipino–Lakas ng Bayan (PDP–Laban) against the ruling Kilusang Bagong Lipunan of Ferdinand Marcos. In the wake of the massive outpouring of protest and discontent following the assassination of Aquino, the opposition performed better during the 1984 Philippine parliamentary election compared to the 1978 Philippine parliamentary election, winning 61 seats out of 183 seats, or 33% of the total number of seats.

Funeral

Hours after the assassination, Aquino's remains were autopsied at Loyola Memorial Chapels in Makati. On the following day, his remains lay in state at the Aquino household in Times Street, Quezon City for several days, with his clothes unchanged, and no effort was made to disguise a bullet wound that had disfigured his face. His remains were also transferred to the Santo Domingo Church during that period. In an interview with Aquino's mother, Aurora, she told the funeral parlor not to apply makeup nor embalm her son, to see "what they did to my son". Aquino's wife, Cory, and children Ballsy, Pinky, Viel, Noynoy, and Kris arrived in the Philippines on August 23. His remains were later brought to Tarlac on August 29 for a funeral in Concepcion and at the Hacienda Luisita Chapel. Thousands of supporters flocked to see the bloodied body of Aquino.

Aquino's remains were returned to Metro Manila for a final funeral procession on August 31. It lasted from 9 a.m., when his funeral mass was held at Santo Domingo Church, with the Cardinal Archbishop of Manila, Jaime Sin officiating, to 9 p.m., when his body was interred at the Manila Memorial Park in Parañaque. More than two million people lined the streets for the procession. Some stations like the church-sponsored Radio Veritas and DZRH were the only stations to cover the entire ceremony.

Jovito Salonga, then head of the Liberal Party, referred to Aquino as "the greatest president we never had", adding: "Ninoy was getting impatient in Boston, he felt isolated by the flow of events in the Philippines. In early 1983, Marcos was seriously ailing, the Philippine economy was just as rapidly declining, and insurgency was becoming a serious problem. Ninoy thought that by coming home he might be able to persuade Marcos to restore democracy and somehow revitalize the Liberal Party."

Historical reputation and legacy
Although Aquino was recognized as the most prominent and most dynamic politician of his generation, in the years prior to martial law he was regarded by many as being a representative of the entrenched familial elite which to this day dominates Philippine politics. Telegenic and articulate, Aquino had his share of detractors and was not known to be immune to the ambitions and excesses of the ruling political class. However, during his seven years and seven months imprisoned as a criminal, Aquino read the book Born Again by convicted Watergate conspirator Charles Colson and it inspired him to a rude awakening.

As a result, the remainder of his personal and political life had a distinct spiritual sheen. He emerged as a contemporary counterpart of Jose Rizal, who was among the most vocal proponents of the use of non-violence to combat a repressive regime at the time, following the model of Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr.

Some oppositionist students who were active in the fight against the Marcos administration recount that at the time they had originally thought of Aquino as just another "traditional politician," but began to acknowledge he was more than that when he took the risk of returning to the Philippines, and ultimately paid for his choice with his life.

Monuments and memorials

Manila International Airport (MIA), where he was assassinated, was renamed Ninoy Aquino International Airport (NAIA) in 1987. Several schools, roads, and establishments, including the Ninoy Aquino Parks and Wildlife Center, were also named after him. His image was printed on the New Design/BSP Series 500-peso note. With said series being demonetized starting 2013, his wife is now also featured along him on the New Generation Currency Series.

On February 25, 2004, President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo signed into law Republic Act No. 9256 on the 21st anniversary of his death as an annual special non-working holiday in the Philippines.

Several monuments were built in their honor. One of which is the bronze memorial at the intersection of Paseo de Roxas and Ayala Avenue in Makati. Another bronze statue stands in front of the Municipal Building of Concepcion, Tarlac. Other monuments include those at the People Power Monument in Quezon City, along his namesake avenue in Parañaque, in Tarlac City, and two others in Manila.

Aquino was also among the first to be honored at the Bantayog ng mga Bayani, a monument dedicated to those who opposed the Marcos dictatorship, alongside fellow former senators Jose W. Diokno and Lorenzo Tañada.

The Ninoy Aquino Library and Learning Resources Center, the main university library of the Polytechnic University of the Philippines, was also named in his honor.

Honors
National Honors
 * PHL_Quezon_Service_Cross_BAR.png: Quezon Service Cross - posthumous (August 21, 2004)
 * PHL Legion of Honor - Commander BAR.png: Commander of the Philippine Legion of Honor First Bronze Anahaw Leaf (1958), for serving as Presidential Assistant for the Garcia Administration,
 * PHI Legion of Honor 2003 Commander BAR.svg: Philippine Legion of Honor, Commander (Komandante) (1954) for negotiation of Luis Taruc's surrender to the Philippine Government.
 * PHI Legion of Honor 2003 Officer BAR.svg: Philippine Legion of Honor, Officer (Pinuno), 1950 for his service in reporting on the state of the Philippine troops in the Korean War
 * Order_of_the_Knights_of_Rizal_Ribbon.png: Order of the Knights of Rizal - Knight Grand Cross of Rizal. posthumous (1986)

International Honors
 * Plaque of Appreciation from South Korea for the coverage of the Korean War
 * Fellow, Harvard University for International Affairs – (1981–83)
 * Fellow, Massachusetts Institute of Technology – (1981–83)

Personal life
On October 11, 1954, he married Corazon Sumulong Cojuangco (Cory), with whom he had five children:
 * Maria Elena ("Ballsy", born August 18, 1955), married to Eldon Cruz, with sons Justin Benigno (Jiggy) and Eldon Jr. (Jonty)
 * Aurora Corazon ("Pinky", born December 27, 1957), married to Manuel Abellada, with son Miguel Gerardo (Miguel) and daughter Ana Corazon (Nina)
 * Benigno Simeon III ("Noynoy", February 8, 1960 – June 24, 2021), the 15th President of the Philippines
 * Victoria Elisa ("Viel", born October 27, 1961), married to Joseph Dee, with son Francis Joseph (Kiko), daughter Jacinta Patricia (Jia)
 * Kristina Bernadette ("Kris", born February 14, 1971), formerly married to James Yap (separated in 2010), with sons Joshua Philip Aquino Salvador (Josh) and James Aquino Yap Jr. (Bimby)

In a June 1981 interview with Pat Robertson on The 700 Club, Aquino said he was raised Catholic. According to him, his religious awakening began after reading Evangelical Christian author Charles Colson's 1976 book Born Again, during his solitary confinement under the Marcos regime.

In popular culture
Aquino was portrayed by Amado Cortez in the 1994 film Mayor Cesar Climaco. Then-Senator Raul Roco, who was part of Aquino's Senate legal staff, portrayed him for the 1997 film Ilaban mo, bayan ko: The Obet Pagdanganan story. Then-Valenzuela Mayor Bobbit Carlos portrayed him in the 2003 biographical film Chavit: Blood Son of Ilocos. His nephew, former Senator Bam Aquino, portrayed him in the documentary film The Last Journey of Ninoy. He was also prominently featured in the film A Dangerous Life. He is also portrayed by Isko Moreno and by Jerome Ponce as the young Aquino in the film Martyr or Murderer. JK Labajo also portrayed Aquino in the historical drama film Ako Si Ninoy.

On television, Aquino was portrayed by Piolo Pascual on the two-part story of "The Ninoy & Cory Aquino Story" on Maalaala Mo Kaya in 2010, in the episodes entitled Kalapati and Makinilya.

In theater, Aquino was portrayed by Conrad Ricamora in the Off-Broadway and Seattle productions of the musical Here Lies Love. Ricamora reprises his role in the 2023 Broadway transfer of the musical.

Aquino wrote a 19-stanza poem for his wife Cory Aquino while in detention in 1973, entitled "I Have Fallen in Love with the Same Woman Three Times". The poem was made into a song by singer Jose Mari Chan and is included in his 1989 album Constant Change.

title: Ninoy Aquino


text:
Etiäinen

In Finnish folklore, all places and things, and also human beings, have a haltija (a genius, guardian spirit) of their own. One such haltija is called etiäinen—an image, doppelgänger, or just an impression that goes ahead of a person, doing things the person in question later does. For example, people waiting someone at home might hear the door close, as if the one they're waiting for arrived, or even see their shadow or a silhouette, only to realize that they haven't arrived yet after all. When the person finally comes home, they would repeat the actions of their etiäinen that the people waiting witnessed earlier. Etiäinen can also refer to some kind of a feeling that something is going to happen. Sometimes it could, for example, warn of a bad year coming.

In modern Finnish, the term has detached from its shamanistic origins and refers to premonition. Unlike clairvoyance, divination, and similar practices, etiäiset (plural) are spontaneous and can't be induced. Quite the opposite, they may be unwanted and cause anxiety, like ghosts. Etiäiset may concern everyday events and aren't necessarily too dramatic, although ones related to deaths aren't uncommon either. As these phenomena are still reported today, they can be considered a living tradition, as a way to explain the psychological experience of premonition.

Possible causes
One explanation given for the detail of the apparition is that when a person is waiting for someone, their anticipation can augment everyday sounds, for example of a cat or the wind, and bring to consciousness a vivid recollection of the person. This recollection will tend to produce the feeling that the remembered person is "coming". If no one comes, the "possible etiäinen" is forgotten. The failure of this explanation is that etiäinen does not necessarily occur when you expect someone to come. It more often indicates an unexpected visitor who would otherwise come as a surprise, without phone calls or any kind of announcement beforehand.

title: Etiäinen


text:
Magnetic flux quantum

The magnetic flux, represented by the symbol $Φ$, threading some contour or loop is defined as the magnetic field $B$ multiplied by the loop area $S$, i.e. $Φ = B ⋅ S$. Both $B$ and $S$ can be arbitrary, meaning that the flux $Φ$ can be as well but increments of flux can be quantized. The wave function can be multivalued as it happens in the Aharonov–Bohm effect or quantized as in superconductors. The unit of quantization is therefore called magnetic flux quantum.

Dirac magnetic flux quantum
The first to realize the importance of the flux quantum was Dirac in his publication on monopoles The phenomenon of flux quantization was predicted first by Fritz London then within the Aharanov-Bohm effect and later discovered experimentally in superconductors.

Superconducting magnetic flux quantum
If one deals with a superconducting ring (i.e. a closed loop path in a superconductor) or a hole in a bulk superconductor, the magnetic flux threading such a hole/loop is quantized.

The (superconducting) magnetic flux quantum $Φ$ ≈ is a combination of fundamental physical constants: the Planck constant $K$ and the electron charge $Φ_{0} = h/(2e)$. Its value is, therefore, the same for any superconductor.

To understand this definition in the context of the Dirac flux quantum one shall consider that the effective quasiparticles active in a superconductors are Cooper pairs with an effective charge of 2 electrons $$q=2e$$.

The phenomenon of flux quantization was first discovered in superconductors experimentally by B. S. Deaver and W. M. Fairbank and, independently, by R. Doll and M. Näbauer, in 1961. The quantization of magnetic flux is closely related to the Little–Parks effect, but was predicted earlier by Fritz London in 1948 using a phenomenological model.

The inverse of the flux quantum, $h$, is called the Josephson constant, and is denoted $e$J. It is the constant of proportionality of the Josephson effect, relating the potential difference across a Josephson junction to the frequency of the irradiation. The Josephson effect is very widely used to provide a standard for high-precision measurements of potential difference, which (from 1990 to 2019) were related to a fixed, conventional value of the Josephson constant, denoted $1/Φ_{0}$J-90. With the 2019 redefinition of SI base units, the Josephson constant has an exact value of $K$J = $483,597.848 GHz⋅V−1$.

Derivation of the superconducting flux quantum
The following physical equations use SI units. In CGS units, a factor of $K$ would appear.

The superconducting properties in each point of the superconductor are described by the complex quantum mechanical wave function $K$ — the superconducting order parameter. As any complex function $c$ can be written as $Ψ(r, t)$, where $Ψ$ is the amplitude and $Ψ = Ψ_{0}e^{iθ}$ is the phase. Changing the phase $Ψ_{0}$ by $θ$ will not change $θ$ and, correspondingly, will not change any physical properties. However, in the superconductor of non-trivial topology, e.g. superconductor with the hole or superconducting loop/cylinder, the phase $θ$ may continuously change from some value $2πn$ to the value $Ψ$ as one goes around the hole/loop and comes to the same starting point. If this is so, then one has $n$ magnetic flux quanta trapped in the hole/loop, as shown below:

Per minimal coupling, the current density of Cooper pairs in the superconductor is: $$\mathbf J = \frac{1}{2m} \left[\left(\Psi^* (-i\hbar\nabla) \Psi - \Psi (-i\hbar\nabla) \Psi^*\right) - 2q \mathbf{A} |\Psi|^2 \right] .$$ where $$q = 2e$$ is the charge of the Cooper pair. The wave function is the Ginzburg–Landau order parameter: $$\Psi(\mathbf{r})=\sqrt{\rho(\mathbf{r})} \, e^{i\theta(\mathbf{r})}.$$

Plugged into the expression of the current, one obtains: $$\mathbf{J} = \frac{\hbar}{m} \left(\nabla{\theta}- \frac{q}{\hbar} \mathbf{A}\right)\rho.$$

Inside the body of the superconductor, the current density J is zero, and therefore $$\nabla{\theta} = \frac{q}{\hbar} \mathbf{A}.$$

Integrating around the hole/loop using Stokes' theorem and $$\nabla \times \mathbf{A} = B$$ gives: $$\Phi_B = \oint\mathbf{A}\cdot d\mathbf{l} = \frac{\hbar}{q} \oint\nabla{\theta}\cdot d\mathbf{l}.$$

Now, because the order parameter must return to the same value when the integral goes back to the same point, we have: $$\Phi_B=\frac{\hbar}{q} 2\pi = \frac{h}{2e}.$$

Due to the Meissner effect, the magnetic induction $θ_{0}$ inside the superconductor is zero. More exactly, magnetic field $θ_{0} + 2πn$ penetrates into a superconductor over a small distance called London's magnetic field penetration depth (denoted $B$ and usually ≈ 100 nm). The screening currents also flow in this $H$-layer near the surface, creating magnetization $λ_{L}$ inside the superconductor, which perfectly compensates the applied field $λ_{L}$, thus resulting in $M$ inside the superconductor.

The magnetic flux frozen in a loop/hole (plus its $H$-layer) will always be quantized. However, the value of the flux quantum is equal to $B = 0$ only when the path/trajectory around the hole described above can be chosen so that it lays in the superconducting region without screening currents, i.e. several $λ_{L}$ away from the surface. There are geometries where this condition cannot be satisfied, e.g. a loop made of very thin ($Φ_{0}$) superconducting wire or the cylinder with the similar wall thickness. In the latter case, the flux has a quantum different from $λ_{L}$.

The flux quantization is a key idea behind a SQUID, which is one of the most sensitive magnetometers available.

Flux quantization also plays an important role in the physics of type II superconductors. When such a superconductor (now without any holes) is placed in a magnetic field with the strength between the first critical field $≤ λ_{L}$ and the second critical field $Φ_{0}$, the field partially penetrates into the superconductor in a form of Abrikosov vortices. The Abrikosov vortex consists of a normal core—a cylinder of the normal (non-superconducting) phase with a diameter on the order of the $H_{c1}$, the superconducting coherence length. The normal core plays a role of a hole in the superconducting phase. The magnetic field lines pass along this normal core through the whole sample. The screening currents circulate in the $H_{c2}$-vicinity of the core and screen the rest of the superconductor from the magnetic field in the core. In total, each such Abrikosov vortex carries one quantum of magnetic flux $ξ$.

Measuring the magnetic flux
Prior to the 2019 redefinition of the SI base units, the magnetic flux quantum was measured with great precision by exploiting the Josephson effect. When coupled with the measurement of the von Klitzing constant $λ_{L}$, this provided the most accurate values of the Planck constant $Φ_{0}$ obtained until 2019. This may be counterintuitive, since $R_{K} = h/e^{2}$ is generally associated with the behaviour of microscopically small systems, whereas the quantization of magnetic flux in a superconductor and the quantum Hall effect are both emergent phenomena associated with thermodynamically large numbers of particles.

As a result of the 2019 redefinition of the SI base units, the Planck constant $h$ has a fixed value $h$ = which, together with the definitions of the second and the metre, provides the official definition of the kilogram. Furthermore, the elementary charge also has a fixed value of $h$ to define the ampere. Therefore, both the Josephson constant $h$ and the von Klitzing constant $e =$ have fixed values, and the Josephson effect along with the von Klitzing quantum Hall effect becomes the primary mise en pratique for the definition of the ampere and other electric units in the SI.

title: Magnetic flux quantum


text:
Benigno Aquino

Benigno Aquino may refer to:

 * Benigno Aquino Sr. (1894–1947), Filipino politician and speaker of the Second Philippine Republic National Assembly from 1943 to 1944
 * Benigno Aquino Jr. (1932–1983), Philippine senator, son of Benigno Sr., and former governor of Tarlac
 * Benigno Aquino III (1960–2021), Filipino politician, son of Benigno Jr., and former president of the Philippines
 * Paolo Benigno Aquino IV (born 1977), Filipino politician, nephew of Benigno Jr.

title: Benigno Aquino