text:
Talk:Swahili language

Number of users
A requester in 2023082210010407 has asked for changes, that there are 200 million speakers of this language per this refernce: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000379702. — xaosflux  Talk 13:29, 23 August 2023 (UTC)

 * I concur, that is a far more recent reference than the one cited in the article. I noticed that it was updated but changed back by @Cookiemonster1618. @Cookiemonster1618 any particular reason why? Thuralt (talk) 07:44, 5 November 2023 (UTC)
 * it was changed because it's an over estimate and Ethnologue source is being used because first off there is not a large number of second language speakers of Swahili in the DRC so it wouldn't be possible for there to be 200 million speakers of Swahili also Ethnologue estimate of second language speakers is accurate because not all the inhabitants of these countries speak swahili as a first or second language. Cookiemonster1618 (talk) 14:01, 5 November 2023 (UTC)
 * Doesn't seem likely that it's an over estimation. Tanzania alone has a population of over 61 million and 61.4% (over 37 million) of Tanzanians speak Swahili as a first language. Kenya, in 2019, had a population of over 47 million and 27.1% (over 12 million) of Kenyans speak Swahili as a first language. Uganda has approx. 34 million Swahili speakers. And this is not counting Burundi, DRC, Mozambique etc.
 * The Ethnologue source simply isn't accurate Thuralt (talk) 14:49, 5 November 2023 (UTC)
 * Uganda doesnt have 34 million speakers your estimate is not accurate in fact because you have no source to cite it. Since Ethnologue takes its data from census and other data provided by its users its more reliable. The Ethnologue estimation will be used for now. Cookiemonster1618 (talk) 16:30, 5 November 2023 (UTC)
 * According to Ethnologue Uganda has 4.3 million second language swahili speakers and only 4,340 first language speakers. So where did you get your figure of 34 million speakers of Swahili in Uganda from? Cookiemonster1618 (talk) 16:32, 5 November 2023 (UTC)
 * According to Ethnologue's source from the 2019 census there were only 111,000 first language speakers of Swahili in Kenya and 19 million second language speakers so where did you get your figure of 12 million from? Cookiemonster1618 (talk) 16:34, 5 November 2023 (UTC)
 * All figures I've cited are referenced in my reply from recent reliable sources (Kenya National Bureau of Statistics, Tanzania National Bureau of Statistics, Statistica, USAID).
 * Also, the UNESCO source cited by @Xaosflux above is recent and reliable and also gives the overall number of speakers at 200 million Thuralt (talk) 17:10, 5 November 2023 (UTC)
 * Hi Xaosflux care to weigh in? I've found this other BBC source. I'm inclined to make a good faith revert of Cookiemonster1618's edit to reflect these other more recent sources but I would prefer some level of consensus before I do. Thuralt (talk) 12:28, 18 November 2023 (UTC)
 * I'm not really interested in this topic, only was here to provide information from the VRT request in passing. — xaosflux  Talk 11:27, 19 November 2023 (UTC)
 * @Thuralt I just came across this. I seriously doubt 200,000,000 is an accurate estimate. It seems to be a maximalist claim similar to claims that English has 2 billion speakers. If you add up anyone who might have studied any amount of Swahili, maybe you get 200 million, but as an accurate estimate of L1+L2 speakers, no. The UNESCO document you've linked is not an academic study and gives no sources to document its claim as to the number of speakers, so it should not be used. Ethnologue is IMO much more reliable. Benwing (talk) 03:44, 19 November 2023 (UTC)
 * You should be aware that there's a strong impulse on the part of speakers and advocates for a given language to inflate speaker numbers. Academically-oriented sources are very important for this reason. Benwing (talk) 03:46, 19 November 2023 (UTC)
 * Benwing There are important RS sources that contradict the Ethnologue numbers. If speakers (primary and overall) from just three countries alone (see the other sources above but happy to recite) add up to 83 million (I should add that even this number is likely an underestimation since the Kenya census was conducted over four years ago and the estimates for Kenya and Tanzania are just for primary speakers alone) without including speakers from countries such as Burundi, DRC, Mozambique, Somalia etc then the >200 million number becomes likely (perhaps even evident).
 * I'll also look for more RS sources on the number of speakers in the other Eastern Africa countries and L2 speakers in Kenya and Tanzania. Thuralt (talk) 05:10, 19 November 2023 (UTC)
 * @Thuralt I don't have time to argue with someone who sounds rather biased but I will just point out you're essentially conducting OR by trying to add up the speakers from countries like Burundu, DRC, etc. where Swahili isn't widely spoken. I have been to Kenya and quite a lot of people there don't speak Swahili (Tanzania is different, everyone speaks Swahili as it's the national language, whereas de facto English functions in this role in Kenya). I also have a Ph.D. in linguistics and no axe to grind here. The UNESCO source you provided is not a reliable source for this stuff as its claim isn't backed up by any citations. You need to find an actual reliable source that says 200+ million L2 speakers (since the number of L1 speakers is ~ 15,000,000) and not try to add stuff up yourself by picking and choosing sources. Ethnologue is a reliable source that provides such an aggregate, and the fact that you have no interest in even presenting differing views in the lede about speakers but have only chosen the maximalist claim shows your bias. Benwing (talk) 08:45, 26 November 2023 (UTC)

Benwing Just stop. If you "don't want to waste your time" engaging, that's fine. And if you disagree with my point of view, that's fine too. But don't ascribe bias just because I disagree with you. You don't know me anymore than I know you. So stop.

But just in case you still do want to engage on the merits, I'm happy to have your perspective; I just don't agree with it for reasons I've stated (and referenced) above but I'll add to here; BBC, Harvard, SOAS, University of London, The East African and Citizen newspapers all quote Swahili speakers at atleast 200 million. The fact is, there is a preponderance of reliable sources that contradict the Ethnologue source, which is why I don't consider it having an accurate estimate of Swahili speakers. — Preceding unsigned comment added by User: (talk • contribs)

Hi, all. I have rewritten the section following this WP:RSN discussion, to incorporate more reliable sources and note the general range of figures, since in general when reliable sources give a range of figures we should acknowledge that and not cherry-pick a figure, particularly from one extreme of the range. -sche (talk) 01:09, 15 June 2024 (UTC)

 * Hi -sche fine with that. Seems reasonable. I, however, don't seem to understand why 150 million has been stated as the highest extremum, when the Harvard African Language Program, The SOAS (University of London) Swahili programme and BBC all quote figures starting at 200 million.
 * I should add that the BBC page indicates that it was written/updated in February 2022 and the SOAS Swahili Programme page indicates that it was written/updated in June 2023. Thuralt (talk) 02:13, 28 June 2024 (UTC)
 * The body (Swahili_language) gives the full range, "Estimates [...] vary widely, from as low as 50 million to as high as 200 million, but generally range from 60 million to 150 million." For the summary in the lead of where the estimates "generally rang[e]", I looked at where most of the higher-quality estimates fall, and what the one reference that acknowledges estimates vary gives as the range: ~60 to 150. -sche (talk) 03:10, 28 June 2024 (UTC)
 * -sche I would contend that Harvard and the University of London (maybe even the BBC) are equally credible RS sources. And also for consistency, it would seem reasonable to put the full range throughout the article instead of picking a single range from one source. Thuralt (talk) 03:28, 28 June 2024 (UTC)

Contradictory Ethnologue Numbers
First of all, the infobox for this article says the numbers are for (2019-2023), yet each source says 2024 for its date.

Secondly, the L1 number here is 5.3, while https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_languages_by_total_number_of_speakers lists 16 million for L1, yet this article combines multiple varieties of Swahili, so should be higher. Both articles give Ethnologue as their source. Please fix this contradiction. 84.78.248.230 (talk) 13:40, 22 May 2024 (UTC)

 * The figure of 16 million first language speakers is from the 26th edition for 2023, unless there's another cited source. The recent population estimates were taken from various sources and used in Ethnologue, as you might be aware that Ethnologue uses different sources and methodologies to provide speaker populations. Cookiemonster1618 (talk) 05:49, 15 June 2024 (UTC)

Swahili stories
write me a story about my friend 197.239.11.197 (talk) 20:18, 20 June 2024 (UTC)

Orthography section needs work
The orthography section currently discusses the disused Arabic orthography in far greater detail than is needed for this page. Conversely, it barely discusses the Latin orthography at all. Readers are given no indication what sounds the Latin letters represent. It's just noted that digraphs exist, but not what they are used for.--Ermenrich (talk) 20:20, 24 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Swahili language


text:
Tet

Tet or TET may refer to:

Vietnam

 * Tết or Tết Nguyên Đán, the Vietnamese new year, Lunar new year
 * Tet Offensive, a military campaign during the Vietnam War that began in 1968
 * Tet 1969

Geography

 * Têt (river) in Roussillon, France
 * Tét, a town in Hungary
 * Tét District, a district in northwestern Hungary

Character, symbol, abbreviation, or acronym

 * Tet or teth, tēth, or Ṭāʾ, a Semitic abjad character
 * , the ISO 639-2 code for Tetum
 * Equal temperament, abbreviated as 12-TET, 19-TET, and so on
 * Teacher Eligibility Test, a teachers' entrance test
 * Tet methylcytosine dioxygenase 1, or TET1, an enzyme
 * Tetrachloride
 * Tetrahedron
 * Tetralogy of Fallot

Art, entertainment, and media

 * Tet (Morris Louis painting), a 1958 painting
 * Tet, enormous tetrahedral space station from the 2013 film Oblivion
 * TET (TV channel), a Ukrainian TV channel
 * Tet, a god in the light novel No Game No Life
 * The name of Latvian telecommunications provider Lattelecom since April 2019

Other uses

 * Chingozi Airport, Tete, Mozambique, with IATA code TET
 * TET, a Finnish work practice program
 * Tet Garcia (born 1940), Governor of Bataan, The Philippines
 * Tet Wada (born 1973), Japanese-American actor
 * Trans Euro Trail, Offroad Tracks in Europe
 * TET enzymes, family of demethylating proteins

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Tet


text:
University of Southern Indiana

The University of Southern Indiana (USI) is a public university just outside of Evansville, Indiana. Founded in 1965, USI enrolls 9,750 dual credit, undergraduate, graduate and doctoral students in more than 130 areas of study. USI offers programs through the College of Liberal Arts, Romain College of Business, College of Nursing and Health Professions and the Pott College of Science, Engineering, and Education.

USI is classified among "M1 – Master's Colleges and Universities: Larger programs". It is also classified among "community-engaged" institutions.

Beginning with the 2022–2023 school year, USI athletic teams will participate in Division I of the NCAA as a member of the Ohio Valley Conference. The teams are known as the Screaming Eagles. Previously, USI participated in Division II as a member of the Great Lakes Valley Conference. The university is home to an extensive student life, with more than 140 student organizations.

History
The University of Southern Indiana began as a regional campus of Indiana State University, opening on September 15, 1965. In 1967, Southern Indiana Higher Education, Inc., (SIHE) raised nearly $1 million to acquire 1,400 acres for the Mid-America University Center. Groundbreaking was held June 22, 1968. Since September 1969, the University has occupied 330 acres, mostly donated by SIHE. The first buildings constructed were the Science Center and the Wright Administration Building. Slowly the school built facilities, as funding became available during the Indiana State University–Evansville period.

On April 16, 1985, ISU–Evansville became an autonomous four-year institution, the University of Southern Indiana. Governor Robert D. Orr, an Evansville native, signed the newly independent school's charter. Since gaining its independence, USI's growth has continued to where it is now the fastest growing comprehensive university in the state. The university established student housing, diversified the programs offered, and enrollment has more than doubled since gaining its independence. In October 2006, the university completed a master plan that provides the framework to double the size of the school and support a campus of over 20,000 students. The master plan features key planning principles to guide the university and help it create a cohesive campus as it continues to grow.

Academic units
USI offers over 70 undergraduate majors, 13 master's programs, and two doctoral programs as of the fall 2018 semester. Divisions of the University include the Romain College of Business, College of Liberal Arts, College of Nursing and Health Professions, Pott College of Science, Engineering, and Education, University Division, and Division of Outreach and Engagement. Each college is led by a dean who reports to the provost and vice president for Academic Affairs. USI employs 652 full-time faculty, lecturers, and academic administrators, and 239 part-time faculty.

The university is accredited by the Higher Learning Commission and carries several discipline-specific accreditations as well, including from the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business, the Commission on Collegiate Nursing Education, and ABET.

Southwest Indiana STEM (SwISTEM) Resource Center
The Southwest Indiana STEM Resource Center offers a free-equipment lending service to K–12 public, private, and parochial school educators as well as informal educators in a seventeen-county region in southwest Indiana. Teacher professional development as well as an extensive line-up of K–12 student outreach activities are offered throughout the calendar year.

Rankings

 * Online graduate degree nursing program was ranked 15th in the categories of Admissions Selectivity and Faculty Credentials and Training in the 2012 U.S. News & World Report rankings.
 * Students taking the Certified Management Accountant exam from the University of Southern Indiana had a pass rate of over 90% in 2018, one of only 4 schools nationally to cross this threshold.

Enrollment
Total USI enrollment is 11,033 for the 2017 fall semester, which includes students in undergraduate and graduate degree programs and 2,016 students enrolled in USI's College Achievement Program (CAP) classes in 27 high schools across Indiana. Students at USI represent 90 Indiana counties, 39 states and 70 countries. Out of state enrollment, including international students, makes up approximately 17% of the student population, and minority and international students comprise more than 14%.

More than 40,000 students have graduated since 1971.

Campus
USI's campus, located on 1400 acres (5.7 km2) of land west of Evansville, is accessed by University Parkway off of the Lloyd Expressway (IN-62). It is marked at the center by University Center East and West, which houses conference space, campus dining, offices and the campus store and by Reflection Lake to the west.

South of the University Center is the Quad, an open-air lawn flanked by David L. Rice Library (completed in 2006) and academic buildings for the College of Liberal Arts and Romain College of Business. Academic buildings for the College of Nursing and Health Professions and Pott College, as well as university administration and forum classrooms, are located north of University Center.

Historic New Harmony
USI manages programs and properties in Historic New Harmony, site of two historic communal societies of the early 19th century, the Harmony Society and the Robert Owen/William Maclure communal experiment.

Athletics
The athletic teams of USI are known as the Screaming Eagles. The university competes at the NCAA Division I level as members of the Ohio Valley Conference. USI sponsors 17 varsity intercollegiate sports. The school has won four NCAA national championships (men's basketball, 1995; baseball, 2010 and 2014; softball, 2018), finished three times as the national finalist (men's basketball, 1994 and 2004; and women's basketball 1997), and earned two third-place finishes (men's cross country, 1982; baseball, 2007). The men's and women's cross country/track teams have produced five individual national championships since 1997.

The NCAA II Softball National Championship in 2018 marked the first softball team in Indiana to win an NCAA championship. The national championship in baseball in 2010 marked the first GLVC member and university in the state of Indiana to win such a title, repeating in 2014 to become the first NCAA II program to win multiple team titles. The men's basketball NCAA II National Championship in 1995 garnered 3.9 million viewers watching them on CBS Sports.

On February 7, 2022, the university's board of trustees unanimously approved the athletics program to seek membership at the NCAA Division I level. On February 9, USI announced that it had accept an offer to become a member of the Ohio Valley Conference beginning on July 1, 2022.

USI boasts a strong academic record as well, with 228 Academic All-GLVC athletes in 2021–22 and 35 Academic All-America honors. Student athletes maintain an average GPA of 3.29 and are retained at a high percentage.

Men's sports
 * Baseball
 * Basketball
 * Cross country
 * Golf
 * Soccer
 * Tennis
 * Track and field

Women's sports
 * Basketball
 * Cross country
 * Golf
 * Soccer
 * Softball
 * Tennis
 * Track and field
 * Volleyball

Notable alumni

 * Vaneta Becker, member of the Indiana Senate.
 * Kevin Brown, baseball player.
 * Dale Carter, football player.
 * Brad Ellsworth, politician.
 * Stan Gouard, basketball player and coach.
 * Cindy Ledbetter, politician.
 * Darin Mastroianni, baseball player.
 * Wendy McNamara, politician.
 * Tim O'Brien, politician.
 * Zach Payne, politician.
 * Vince Russo, wrestler.
 * Jeff Schulz, baseball player.
 * Jamar Smith, basketball player.
 * Robert Titzer, author.
 * Duncan Bray, football player.

title: University of Southern Indiana


text:
Trouton–Noble experiment

The Trouton–Noble experiment was an attempt to detect motion of the Earth through the luminiferous aether, and was conducted in 1901–1903 by Frederick Thomas Trouton and H. R. Noble. It was based on a suggestion by George FitzGerald that a charged parallel-plate capacitor moving through the aether should orient itself perpendicular to the motion. Like the earlier Michelson–Morley experiment, Trouton and Noble obtained a null result: no motion relative to the aether could be detected. This null result was reproduced, with increasing sensitivity, by Rudolf Tomaschek (1925, 1926), Chase (1926, 1927) and Hayden in 1994. Such experimental results are now seen, consistent with special relativity, to reflect the validity of the principle of relativity and the absence of any absolute rest frame (or aether). The experiment is a test of special relativity.

The Trouton–Noble experiment is also related to thought experiments such as the "Trouton–Noble paradox," and the "right-angle lever" or "Lewis–Tolman paradox". Several solutions have been proposed to solve this kind of paradox, all of them in agreement with special relativity.

Trouton–Noble experiment
In the experiment, a suspended parallel-plate capacitor is held by a fine torsion fiber and is charged. If the aether theory were correct, the change in Maxwell's equations due to the Earth's motion through the aether would lead to a torque causing the plates to align perpendicular to the motion. This is given by:

 * $$\tau=-E'\frac{v^{2}}{c^{2}}\sin2\alpha'$$

where $$\tau$$ is the torque, $$E$$ the energy of the condenser, $$\alpha$$ the angle between the normal of the plate and the velocity.

On the other hand, the assertion of special relativity that Maxwell's equations are invariant for all frames of reference moving at constant velocities would predict no torque (a null result). Thus, unless the aether were somehow fixed relative to the Earth, the experiment is a test of which of these two descriptions is more accurate. Its null result thus confirms Lorentz invariance of special relativity.

However, while the negative experimental outcome can easily be explained in the rest frame of the device, the explanation from the viewpoint of a non-co-moving frame (concerning the question, whether the same torque should arise as in the "aether frame" described above, or whether no torque arises at all) is much more difficult and is called "Trouton–Noble paradox," which can be solved in several ways (see Solutions below).

Right-angle lever paradox
The Trouton–Noble paradox is essentially equivalent to a thought experiment called the right angle lever paradox, first discussed by Gilbert Newton Lewis and Richard Chase Tolman in 1909. Suppose a right-angle lever with endpoints abc. In its rest frame, the forces $$f_y$$ towards ba and $$f_x$$ towards bc must be equal to obtain equilibrium, thus no torque is given by the law of the lever:

 * $$\tau'=L_{0}\left(f'_{x}-f'_{y}\right)=0$$

where $$\tau$$ is the torque, and $$L_0$$ the rest length of one lever arm. However, due to length contraction, ba is longer than bc in a non-co-moving system, thus the law of the lever gives:

 * $$\tau=f_{x}\cdot L_{0}-f_{y}\cdot L_{0}\sqrt{1-\frac{v^{2}}{c^{2}}}=L_{0}\left(f_{x}-f_{y}\sqrt{1-\frac{v^{2}}{c^{2}}}\right)$$

It can be seen that the torque is not zero, which apparently would cause the lever to rotate in the non-co-moving frame. Since no rotation is observed, Lewis and Tolman thus concluded that no torque exists, therefore:

 * $$\frac{f_{x}}{f_{y}}=\sqrt{1-\frac{v^{2}}{c^{2}}}$$

However, as shown by Max von Laue (1911),

this is in contradiction with the relativistic expressions of force,

 * $$f_{x}=f'_{x},\ f_{y}=f'_{y}\cdot\sqrt{1-\frac{v^{2}}{c^{2}}}$$

which gives

 * $$\frac{f_{x}}{f_{y}}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\frac{v^{2}}{c^{2}}}}$$

When applied to the law of the lever, the following torque is produced:

 * $$\tau=-L_{0}\cdot f'_{x}\cdot\frac{v^{2}}{c^{2}}$$

Which is principally the same problem as in the Trouton–Noble paradox.

Solutions
The detailed relativistic analysis of both the Trouton–Noble paradox and the right-angle lever paradox requires care to correctly reconcile, for example, the effects seen by observers in different frames of reference, but ultimately all such theoretical descriptions are shown to give the same result. In both cases an apparent net torque on an object (when viewed from a certain frame of reference) does not result in any rotation of the object, and in both cases this is explained by correctly accounting, in the relativistic way, for the transformation of all the relevant forces, momenta and the accelerations produced by them. The early history of descriptions of this experiment is reviewed by Janssen (1995).

Laue current
The first solution of the Trouton–Noble paradox was given by Hendrik Lorentz (1904). His result is based on the assumption that the torque and momentum due to electrostatic forces are compensated by the torque and momentum due to molecular forces. However, there is no known mechanism for how a Lorentz transformation could produce such molecular forces. In addition, if two point charges are connected by a flexible string, no molecular force could produce a turning moment.

This was further elaborated by Max von Laue (1911), who gave the standard solution for these kind of paradoxes. It was based on the so-called "inertia of energy" in its general formulation by Max Planck. According to Laue, an energy current connected with a certain momentum ("Laue current") is produced in moving bodies by elastic stresses. The resulting mechanical torque in the case of the Trouton–Noble experiment amounts to:

 * $$\tau=E'\frac{v^{2}}{c^{2}}\sin2\alpha'$$

and in the right-angle lever:

 * $$\tau=L_{0}\cdot f'_{x}\cdot\frac{v^{2}}{c^{2}}$$

which exactly compensates the electromagnetic torque mentioned above, thus no rotation occurs on both cases. Or in other words: The electromagnetic torque is actually necessary for the uniform motion of a body, i.e., to hinder the body to rotate due to the mechanical torque caused by elastic stresses.

Since then, many papers appeared which elaborated on Laue's current, providing some modifications or re-interpretations, and included different variants of "hidden" momentum.

Force and acceleration
A solution without compensating forces or redefinitions of force and equilibrium was published by Richard C. Tolman and Paul Sophus Epstein in 1911.

They applied the notion of a relativistic mass that was different in the longitudinal direction and the transverse direction so that force and acceleration do not always have the same direction. The role played by the concept of force in relativity is very different from that of Newtonian mechanics. A similar conclusion was reached by Franklin (2006), using invariant mass that did not change with direction, but using the fact that the direction of relativistic acceleration is different from the direction of relativistic force.

Epstein imagined a massless rod with endpoints OM, which is mounted at point O, and a particle with rest mass m is mounted at M (see ). The rod forms the angle $$\tan\alpha'$$ with the y'-axis. Now a force $$f'$$ towards O is applied at M, and equilibrium in its rest frame is achieved when $$\tfrac{f'_{x}}{f'_{y}}=\tan\alpha'$$. As already shown above, these forces have the form in a non-co-moving frame:

 * $$f_{x}=f'_{x},\ f_{y}=f'_{y}\cdot\sqrt{1-\frac{v^{2}}{c^{2}}},\ \tan\alpha=\tan\alpha'\sqrt{1-\frac{v^{2}}{c^{2}}}$$

Thus $$\frac{f_{x}}{f_{y}}=\frac{\tan\alpha}{1-\frac{v^{2}}{c^{2}}}$$.

So the resultant force does not directly point from O to M. Does this lead to a rotation of the rod? No, because Epstein now considered the accelerations caused by the two forces. He used the concept of a relativistic mass that was different in the longitudinal direction and the transverse direction such that
 * $$m_{\rm long.}={m_0\gamma^3},\ m_{\rm tr.}=m_0\gamma,\quad

{\rm where}\quad \gamma=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\frac{v^2}{c^2}}}$$. The relativistic expressions in the case, where a mass m is accelerated by these two forces in the longitudinal and transverse direction, are
 * $$a_{x}=\frac{f_{x}}{m\gamma^{3}},\ a_{y}=\frac{f_{y}}{m\gamma}$$.

Thus $$\frac{a_{x}}{a_{y}}=\tan\alpha$$.

Franklin used the relativistic connection between force and acceleration,
 * $$\frac{d\bf p}{dt}=m\frac{d}{dt}({\bf v}\gamma)=m\gamma^3[{\bf a}+{\bf v\times(v\times a)}].$$

Using this relation between relativistic force and acceleration, it can be shown that no rotation occurs in this system. Similar considerations are also to be applied to the right-angle lever and Trouton–Noble paradox. So the paradoxes are resolved, because the two accelerations (as vectors) point to the center of gravity of the system, although the two forces do not.

title: Trouton–Noble experiment


text:
MFO

MFO may refer to:

Organisations

 * Maison Française d'Oxford, a French research institute based in Oxford, England
 * Multinational Force and Observers, an international peacekeeping force; or the related medal
 * Maschinenfabrik Oerlikon, a defunct Swiss manufacturing company, merged into Brown, Boveri & Cie in 1967
 * Mathematisches Forschungsinstitut Oberwolfach (Mathematical Research Institute of Oberwolfach), in Germany
 * MrFixitOnline, a prominent gaming site focusing on online games, notably Age of Empires II: The Age of Kings that specialized in expert strategy and high caliber tournaments, in operation from ~2000 - 2006.
 * Multi-family office, organisations which protect and grow the wealth of several families by providing full growth and philanthropic investment advice.

Entertainment

 * MFÖ, a Turkish band
 * My Family Online, a website/forum for hit BBC One sitcom, My Family

Science

 * In immunology, Multi Function Oxidase
 * Mixed-function oxidase

Other

 * MFO, IATA airport code of Manguna Airport in Papua New Guinea
 * Marine Fuel Oil

title: MFO


text:
Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel

Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel were an English rock band who formed in the early 1970s in London. Their music covered a range of styles from pop to progressive rock. Over the years, they have had five albums on the UK Albums Chart and twelve singles on the UK Singles Chart.

Career
Steve Harley grew up in London's New Cross area and attended Haberdashers' Aske's Hatcham Boys' School. His musical career began in the late 1960s when he was busking (with John Crocker aka Jean-Paul Crocker) and performing his own songs, some of which were later recorded by him and the band.

The original Cockney Rebel
After an initial stint as a music journalist, Harley hooked up with his former folk music partner, Crocker (fiddle / mandolin / guitar) in 1972 to form the original Cockney Rebel. Crocker had just finished a short stint with Trees and they advertised and auditioned drummer Stuart Elliott, bassist Paul Jeffreys, and guitarist Nick Jones. This line-up played one of the band's first gigs at the Roundhouse, Chalk Farm, London on 23 July 1973, supporting the Jeff Beck Group. Nick was soon replaced by guitarist Pete Newnham but Steve felt that the Cockney Rebel sound did not need an electric guitar and they settled on the combination of Crocker's electric violin and the Fender Rhodes piano of keyboardist Milton Reame-James to share the lead. The band was signed to EMI after playing five gigs. Their first single, "Sebastian", was an immediate success in Europe, although it failed to score in the UK Singles Chart. Their debut album, The Human Menagerie, was released in 1973. Although the album was not a commercial success, the band attracted a growing following in London.

Harley himself was much written about in the musical press, and the other members began to consider themselves regarded and treated as sidemen rather than co-equals, so there was tension in the band even as they were having a big hit with their second single, "Judy Teen". In May 1974, the British music magazine, NME reported that Cockney Rebel were to undertake their first British tour, including a show at London's Victoria Palace Theatre on 23 June. The album The Psychomodo followed. A Live at the BBC album from 1995 included material recorded during a 1974 BBC Radio 1 broadcast. Following the European single "Psychomodo", a second single from the album, "Mr. Soft", was also a hit. "Tumbling Down" was issued in America as a promotional single. By this time the problems within the band reached a head, and all the musicians, with the exception of Elliott, quit at the end of a successful UK tour, to become session musicians. The original keyboardist, Milton Reame-James, recalled in 2010 that the original band "said goodbye on the steps of Abbey Road studios and were never to meet up again". Crocker continued to write songs and perform, forming a duet with his brother. After a brief period with Be-Bop Deluxe in 1974, Reame-James and Jeffreys formed the band Chartreuse in 1976.

Regrouping
Harley's next appearance on BBC Television's Top of the Pops, under his own name, was supported by session musicians including Francis Monkman, and B. A. Robertson. The band's single "Big Big Deal" was issued in 1974 and was almost immediately withdrawn.

From then on, the band - billed as Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel - were a band in name only, being more or less a Harley solo project. In 1974, a further album, The Best Years of Our Lives, was released, produced by Alan Parsons. This included the track "Make Me Smile (Come Up and See Me)" which became a UK number one single in February 1975, and was the band's biggest selling hit. Their only No. 1, It sold over one million copies globally. Amongst the backing vocalists on the song was Tina Charles. In a television interview recorded in 2002, Harley described how the lyrics are vindictively directed at the former band members who, he felt, had abandoned him. Bill Nelson, for whose band Be-Bop Deluxe Jeffreys and Reame-James had departed, confirms this story.

One more single from the album, "Mr. Raffles (Man, It Was Mean)" made the Top 20, and the following album Timeless Flight was a top 20 success, although both singles "Black or White" and "White, White Dove" failed to chart. After 1975, Harley struggled to match the success of "Make Me Smile" and faded from fame, and Cockney Rebel eventually disbanded. The band had a surprise Top 10 in the summer of 1976 with a cover version of "Here Comes the Sun". This was followed by the Top 50 single "(I Believe) Love's a Prima Donna" and the album Love's a Prima Donna. Harley also provided vocals on the Alan Parsons Project song "The Voice" on 1977's I Robot.

Harley as solo artist
Harley released two failed solo albums in the late 1970s; 1978's Hobo with a Grin which featured the two singles "Roll the Dice" and "Someone's Coming", and 1979's The Candidate. He made a minor comeback as a solo artist in the UK Singles Chart with "Freedom's Prisoner" from the latter album. After a brief appearance in the 1980s with a song from Andrew Lloyd Webber's The Phantom of the Opera, the 1982 single "I Can't Even Touch You" was released by Harley under the band name, whilst the 1983 minor hit single "Ballerina (Prima Donna)" was also credited to the band on both sides of the vinyl release, although not on the sleeve, where Harley was solely credited. In 1986, Harley released two singles on RAK; "Irresistible" and "Heartbeat Like Thunder".

Cockney Rebel's original bassist, Paul Jeffreys, was one of those who died in the bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 in 1988. He was with his bride on their honeymoon.

Revival of the band
In 1988, Harley formed a new line-up of Cockney Rebel and began touring again in 1989. In April 1990, after the success of the 1989 "Come Back, All Is Forgiven" tour, Harley and several members of that tour's line-up reformed as Raffles United, and played four consecutive nights in a pub in Sudbury, London. These concerts were essentially used as Pop Idol style auditions for new band members, in particular a new bassist, lead guitarist, drummer, and violinist. Harley's brother, Ian Nice, who had played keyboards in 1989, remained on keyboards for both this show, and most of the band's tours in the 1990s. The band's line-up that got finalised from these shows ended up debuting on June 5, 1990, at Doncaster Dome, and consisted of Harley, Ian Nice on keyboards, Nick Pynn on violin and guitar, Robbie Gladwell on lead guitar, Paul Francis on drums, and Billy Dyer on bass guitar. As of 2022, Gladwell continues to perform this role in the band, whereas Dyer has returned sporadically when the usual bassist for the band has been ill, most notably in 2014 (depping for Lincoln Anderson), and 2021 (depping for Kuma Harada).

Harley has released several solo albums since – Yes You Can in 1992 (including the singles "Irresistible" and "Star for a Week (Dino)"), Poetic Justice in 1996, and most recently, The Quality of Mercy in 2005 (which included the singles "A Friend for Life" and "The Last Goodbye"), the first since the 1970s to be released with the Cockney Rebel name. He dubbed his touring band 'Cockney Rebel Mark III'.

Tours and new material since 2010
In 2010, Steve Harley and Cockney Rebel began touring again setting concert dates for England, Ireland, and Northern Ireland. This was done following the release of the new studio album Stranger Comes to Town. In October 2012, the remastered four-disc box-set anthology compilation album Cavaliers: An Anthology 1973–1974 was released, chronicling the recording career of the original Cockney Rebel line-up. On 24 November 2012 the band including the Orchestra of the Swan and a choir performed the band's first two albums The Human Menagerie and The Psychomodo in their entirety for the first time. A live double-CD and DVD was released in October 2013 of this performance, titled Birmingham.

In 2016, the newly reestablished Chrysalis Records, now owned by Blue Raincoat Music, announced that it had acquired the Cockney Rebel catalogue. Harley was one of the artists who appeared on the label's first release, a charity single of the Rolling Stones' "You Can't Always Get What You Want" credited to Friends of Jo Cox in tribute to Jo Cox, a Labour Party MP who had been assassinated earlier that year.

In the aftermath of the COVID-19 Pandemic, Harley's live shows resumed in August 2021. The line-up for the full rock band shows consisted of Harley, Wickens, Lascelles, Gladwell, Elliott, and Harada. The 2021 shows marked the first time this line-up toured together (having only previously played festivals in 2016), as well as Gladwell's full-time return to the band, having stood in sporadically for Paul Cuddeford on a handful of occasions between 2017 and 2020. The set-lists for the 2021 shows featured many songs that had not been played live for many years, in particular from Harley's 1992 album Yes You Can.

Acoustic tours
After the success of 1998 and 1999's respective 'Stripped To The Bare Bones' and 'Stripped Again' tours, Harley would continue to tour in an acoustic format. Firstly with Jim Cregan and a selection of other members of Cockney Rebel, depending on the exact date of the show, in 2002. This format produced 2003's Acoustic and Pure: Live album. With the exception of the 2015 reunion, which was in the full band format, Cregan would next join Harley for 2 acoustic shows in March 2020, which otherwise featured Harley performing alone. In 2003 and 2004, the 5-piece acoustic line-up that played 2004's Anytime! (A Live Set) album was put together, featuring Lascelles on percussion, Gladwell on lead guitar, Wickens on violin/guitar, and Anderson on double bass. In 2005 and 2006, this format was used in Holland and Belgium while promoting 2005's The Quality Of Mercy album, and these shows are notable for featuring significant rearrangements of some of the songs from the album, which were never played during concerts in England. These shows were played without Anderson.

Between 2010 and 2019 these concerts were revived as a 3-man line-up, with Harley alongside Wickens and Lascelles (this time on keyboards and percussion, as per his role in the full rock band shows). These shows were originally marketed as the '3-man acoustic show' before being renamed to 'Acoustic Trio' in 2016. The shows in 2010 were marketed as an 'Acoustic Set', as they were the first acoustic shows since 2004. This format was phased out in 2020 - in order to promote Harley's new album Uncovered- in favour of a revived 4-man line-up, though with David Delarre on lead guitar, and Oli Hayhurst on double bass, with Harley and Wickens reprising their roles. The COVID-19 pandemic delayed most of the shows on this tour - with only the first 9 played as planned. Two shows were however played in late-September 2020, both in the acoustic trio format, though Hayhurst accompanied the trio on the second of these shows. In addition, Harley held an online Q and A session via Zoom Videoconferencing in mid-December 2020.

Reissues and non-band activities
Two of the bigger hits appeared in UK television advertisements in the 1990s: "Make Me Smile" for Carlsberg Lager in 1995, prompting the track's return to the UK Top 40; and "Mr Soft" for Trebor Softmints between 1987 and 1994. "Make Me Smile" was used again in a 2005 advertisement for Marks & Spencer. It was also used on the soundtrack of the 1997 film The Full Monty and the 1998 glam rock film Velvet Goldmine, in the latter's case being used in the end credits.

From 1999 to 2008, Harley presented a show on BBC Radio 2 called Sounds of the 70s.

In 2006, EMI released a CD box set compilation album spanning Harley's Cockney Rebel and solo work, titled The Cockney Rebel – A Steve Harley Anthology.

On 25 July 2007, they performed in Warsaw, Poland, and on 28 July 2007 in Saint Petersburg, Russia, in both cases opening the Rolling Stones' concerts.

In 2007, the song "Make Me Smile (Come Up and See Me)" was used by the Norwegian national lottery Norsk Tipping in a popular TV commercial in Norway.

In 2018, "Make Me Smile" was used again in an advert for Viagra, the first one of its kind to air on UK television. Harley often joked at his live concerts and in interviews that his 1974 single, "Mr Soft", may have been more appropriate, given the nature of the product. In 2020, however, the contract with Pfizer ended, and changed to BMW starting in April 2021. Harley had long driven the manufacturer's 7-Series model.

Original keyboardist, Reame-James, had since joined with James Staddon, Phil Beer and Robbie Johnson to create 'Banana Rebel', who have released a CD Top Banana, available from their website.

Discography

 * Cockney Rebel
 * The Human Menagerie (1973)
 * The Psychomodo (1974)

 * Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel studio discography
 * The Best Years of Our Lives (1975)
 * Timeless Flight (1976)
 * Love's a Prima Donna (1976)
 * The Quality of Mercy (2005)

title: Steve Harley & Cockney Rebel


text:
Cantenna

A cantenna (a portmanteau blending the words can and antenna) is a homemade directional waveguide antenna, made out of an open-ended metal can.

Cantennas are typically used to increase the range (or discovery) of Wi-Fi networks.

Construction
The cylinder portion of the can may consist of metal-coated paperboard.

Although some designs are based on a Pringles potato chips can, this tube is too narrow to increase the 2.4 GHz signal by a useful amount, although at 5 GHz it would be about the right size. However, a cantenna can be made from various cans or tubes of an appropriate diameter. Some designs include a pole mount to elevate the cantenna.

At 2.4 GHz, losses can occur if the cable from the cantenna to the Wi-Fi circuitry is too long. A more efficient cantenna can be made by minimising this length or connecting the cantenna directly to the Wi-Fi circuitry.

Use
Cantennas are typically used for extending a wireless local area network (WLAN).

The tiny design makes them ideal for mobile applications such as wardriving.

Cantennas can be used to increase cell phone range, improve reception, and decrease noise.

A cantenna can be used as a satellite dish feed horn. The 5.5 GHz cantenna dimensions are almost perfect in that they make a good fit for the standard TV satellite dish. The resulting setup is a low-cost high-quality high-gain antenna. Such setups are widely used in wireless community networks for long-distance Wi-Fi links.

Cantennas may be used with other RF devices such as wireless security cameras.

title: Cantenna


text:
Croatian

Croatian may refer to:

 * Croatia
 * Croatian language
 * Croatian people
 * Croatians (demonym)

title: Croatian


text:
User:Kroum

A Bulgarian Canadian living in Toronto, I studied finance at university, presently working in the field of Internet and technology. I am generally interested in all walks of life, my particular passions being Nietzsche and existentialist philosophy in general, as well as heavy metal and jazz music. I also have substantial interest in macroeconomics, geopolitics and history.

My contributions to Wikipedia are mostly limited to topics related to Bulgaria and music; two subjects where I feel my input could be most valuable.

List of contributions
Incomplete list of articles I have created (initiated). Many thanks to all Wikipedians who have since contributed to the articles.

Automotive

 * Bård Eker
 * Jan-Åke Jonsson
 * Saab hockey stick
 * Saab XWD

Bulgaria-related

 * Astika
 * Balkan Bulgarian Airlines
 * Bencho Obreshkov
 * Bulgaria Air
 * Bulgaria Provinces
 * Bulgarian Academy of Sciences
 * Bulgarian Deposit Insurance Fund
 * Bulgarian Mint
 * Bulgarian National Bank
 * Bulgarian passport
 * Bunavad
 * Burgas Airport
 * Democrats for a Strong Bulgaria
 * Dnevnik
 * Durzhavna Sigurnost
 * Hemus Air
 * Ivan Iskrov
 * Ivan Kostov
 * Kapital
 * Krum Vassilev
 * List of companies of Bulgaria
 * Samodiva
 * Sofia Metro
 * SOFIX
 * SS. Cyril and Methodius National Library
 * UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Bulgaria
 * Union of Democratic Forces
 * Varna Airport
 * Walltopia
 * Yordan Radichkov
 * Zagorka

Music

 * Dallas Toler-Wade
 * Dave Holland
 * The Flying Hat Band
 * Glenn Tipton
 * Ian Hill
 * K.K. Downing
 * Painkiller
 * Rob Halford
 * Scott Travis
 * Tim "Ripper" Owens

title: User:Kroum


text:
Talk:Pawsner

From Votes for deletion
 * Pawsner - article on a surname. Cimon Avaro on a pogo stick 19:07 27 Jun 2003 (UTC)
 * Wiktionary. --
 * Keep - histories of prominent names are encylopedic
 * Uwe wasn't, and neither is this. Articles on the meaning and etymology of names and words belong in Wiktionary. -- Tim Starling 07:30 1 Jul 2003 (UTC)

VfD 2
Article listed on Votes for deletion Apr 29 to May 6 2004, consensus was to delete unverified content and transwiki to wiktionary. Discussion:

The relevance of this article is not clear. The mentioned writer yields 3 google hits (thereof one from Wikipedia). The rest, i.e., the explanation of the last name Pawsner, may be interesting, particularly for someone with this last name. However, I doubt the encyclopedic importance of this article. --Gauss 20:07, 29 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * Delete. Irrelevant. Vanity. Alcarillo 20:48, 29 Apr 2004 (UTC)
 * Very strange. See Talk:Pawsner. It seems this article came up on VfD nearly a year ago, and somehow survived. Delete the unverifiable writer bit, and send the rest to Wiktionary. -- Cyrius|&#9998 02:27, Apr 30, 2004 (UTC)

End discussion

title: Talk:Pawsner


text:
Shunzhi Emperor

The Shunzhi Emperor (15 March 1638 – 5 February 1661), also known by his temple name Emperor Shizu of Qing, personal name Fulin, was the second emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the first Qing emperor to rule over China proper. Upon the death of his father Hong Taiji, a committee of Manchu princes chose the 5-year-old Fulin as successor. The princes also appointed two co-regents: Dorgon, the 14th son of Nurhaci, and Jirgalang, one of Nurhaci's nephews, both of whom were members of the Qing imperial clan. In November 1644, the Shunzhi Emperor was enthroned as emperor of China in Beijing.

From 1643 to 1650, political power lay mostly in the hands of the prince regent Dorgon. Under his leadership, the Qing conquered most of the territory of the fallen Ming dynasty, chased Ming loyalist regimes deep into the southwestern provinces, and established the basis of Qing rule over China proper despite highly unpopular policies such as the "hair cutting command" of 1645, which forced all Qing male subjects to shave their forehead and braid their remaining hair into a queue resembling that of the Manchus. After Dorgon's death on the last day of 1650, the young Shunzhi Emperor started to rule personally. He tried, with mixed success, to fight corruption and to reduce the political influence of the Manchu nobility. In the 1650s, he faced a resurgence of Ming loyalist resistance, but by 1661 his armies had defeated the Qing's last enemies, Koxinga and the Prince of Gui, both of whom would succumb the following year.

The Shunzhi Emperor died at the age of 22 of smallpox, a highly contagious disease that was endemic in China, but against which the Manchus had no immunity. He was succeeded by his third son who assumed the throne as the Kangxi Emperor and went on to reign for sixty years. Because fewer documents have survived from the Shunzhi era than from later eras of the Qing dynasty, this era is a relatively little-known period of Qing history.

Historical background

In the 1580s, when China was ruled by the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), a number of Jurchen tribes lived in Manchuria. In a series of campaigns from the 1580s to the 1610s, Nurhaci (1559–1626), the leader of the Jianzhou Jurchens, unified most Jurchen tribes under his rule. One of his most important reforms was to integrate Jurchen clans under flags of four different colors—yellow, white, red, and blue—each further subdivided into two to form an encompassing social and military system known as the Eight Banners. Nurhaci gave control of these Banners to his sons and grandsons. Around 1612, Nurhaci renamed his clan Aisin Gioro ("golden Gioro" in the Manchu language), both to distinguish his family from other Gioro lines and to allude to an earlier dynasty that had been founded by Jurchens, the Jin ("golden") dynasty that had ruled northern China from 1115 to 1234. In 1616 Nurhaci formally announced the foundation of the "Later Jin" dynasty, effectively declaring his independence from the Ming. Over the next few years he wrested most major cities in Liaodong from Ming control. His string of victories ended in February 1626 at the siege of Ningyuan, where Ming commander Yuan Chonghuan defeated him with the help of recently acquired Portuguese cannon. Probably wounded during the battle, Nurhaci died a few months later.

Nurhaci's son and successor Hong Taiji (1592–1643) continued his father's state-building efforts: he concentrated power into his own hands, modeled the Later Jin's government institutions on Chinese ones, and integrated Mongol allies and surrendered Chinese troops into the Eight Banners. In 1629 he led an incursion to the outskirts of Beijing, during which he captured Chinese craftsmen who knew how to cast Portuguese cannon. In 1635 Hong Taiji renamed the Jurchens the "Manchus", and in 1636 changed the name of his polity from "Later Jin" to "Qing". After capturing the last remaining Ming cities in Liaodong, by 1643 the Qing were preparing to attack the struggling Ming dynasty, which was crumbling under the combined weight of financial bankruptcy, devastating epidemics, and large-scale bandit uprisings fed by widespread starvation.

Becoming emperor
When Hong Taiji died on 21 September 1643 without having named a successor, the fledgling Qing state faced a possibly serious crisis. Several contenders—namely Nurhaci's second and eldest surviving son Daišan, Nurhaci's fourteenth and fifteenth sons Dorgon and Dodo (both born to the same mother), and Hong Taiji's eldest son Hooge—started to vie for the throne. With his brothers Dodo and Ajige, Dorgon (31 years old) controlled the Plain and Bordered White Banners, Daišan (60) was in charge of the two Red Banners, whereas Hooge (34) had the loyalty of his father's two Yellow Banners.

The decision about who would become the new Qing emperor fell to the Deliberative Council of Princes and Ministers, which was the Manchus' main policymaking body until the emergence of the Grand Council in the 1720s. Many Manchu princes argued that Dorgon, a proven military leader, should become the new emperor, but Dorgon refused and insisted that one of Hong Taiji's sons should succeed his father. To recognize Dorgon's authority while keeping the throne in Hong Taiji's descent line, the members of the council named Hong Taiji's ninth son, Fulin, as the new emperor, but decided that Dorgon and Jirgalang (a nephew of Nurhaci who controlled the Bordered Blue Banner) would act as the five-year-old child's regents. Fulin was officially crowned emperor of the Qing dynasty on 8 October 1643; it was decided that he would reign under the era name "Shunzhi." Because the Shunzhi reign is not well documented, it constitutes a relatively little-known period of Qing history.

A quasi emperor
On 17 February 1644, Jirgalang, who was a capable military leader but looked uninterested in managing state affairs, willingly yielded control of all official matters to Dorgon. After an alleged plot by Hooge to undermine the regency was exposed on 6 May of that year, Hooge was stripped of his title of Imperial Prince and his co-conspirators were executed. Dorgon soon replaced Hooge's supporters (mostly from the Yellow Banners) with his own, thus gaining closer control of two more Banners. By early June 1644, he was in firm control of the Qing government and its military.

In early 1644, just as Dorgon and his advisors were pondering how to attack the Ming, peasant rebellions were dangerously approaching Beijing. On 24 April of that year, rebel leader Li Zicheng breached the walls of the Ming capital, pushing the Chongzhen Emperor to hang himself on a hill behind the Forbidden City. Hearing the news, Dorgon's Chinese advisors Hong Chengchou and Fan Wencheng (范文程; 1597–1666) urged the Manchu prince to seize this opportunity to present themselves as avengers of the fallen Ming and to claim the Mandate of Heaven for the Qing. The last obstacle between Dorgon and Beijing was Ming general Wu Sangui, who was garrisoned at Shanhai Pass at the eastern end of the Great Wall. Himself caught between the Manchus and Li Zicheng's forces, Wu requested Dorgon's help in ousting the bandits and restoring the Ming. When Dorgon asked Wu to work for the Qing instead, Wu had little choice but to accept. Aided by Wu Sangui's elite soldiers, who fought the rebel army for hours before Dorgon finally chose to intervene with his cavalry, the Qing won a decisive victory against Li Zicheng at the Battle of Shanhai Pass on 27 May. Li's defeated troops looted Beijing for several days until Li left the capital on 4 June with all the wealth he could carry.

Settling in the capital

After six weeks of mistreatment at the hands of rebel troops, the Beijing population sent a party of elders and officials to greet their liberators on 5 June. They were startled when, instead of meeting Wu Sangui and the Ming heir apparent, they saw Dorgon, a horseriding Manchu with his shaved forehead, present himself as the Prince Regent. In the midst of this upheaval, Dorgon installed himself in the Wuying Palace (武英殿), the only building that remained more or less intact after Li Zicheng had set fire to the palace complex on 3 June. Banner troops were ordered not to loot; their discipline made the transition to Qing rule "remarkably smooth." Yet at the same time as he claimed to have come to avenge the Ming, Dorgon ordered that all claimants to the Ming throne (including descendants of the last Ming emperor) should be executed along with their supporters.

On 7 June, just two days after entering the city, Dorgon issued special proclamations to officials around the capital, assuring them that if the local population accepted to shave their forehead, wear a queue, and surrender, the officials would be allowed to stay at their post. He had to repeal this command three weeks later after several peasant rebellions erupted around Beijing, threatening Qing control over the capital region.

Dorgon greeted the Shunzhi Emperor at the gates of Beijing on 19 October 1644. On 30 October the six-year-old monarch performed sacrifices to Heaven and Earth at the Altar of Heaven. The southern cadet branch of Confucius' descendants who held the title Wujing boshi 五經博士 and the sixty-fifth generation descendant of Confucius to hold the title Duke Yansheng in the northern branch both had their titles reconfirmed on 31 October. A formal ritual of enthronement for Fulin was held on 8 November, during which the young emperor compared Dorgon's achievements to those of the Duke of Zhou, a revered regent from antiquity. During the ceremony, Dorgon's official title was raised from "Prince Regent" to "Uncle Prince Regent" (Shufu shezheng wang 叔父攝政王), in which the Manchu term for "Uncle" (ecike) represented a rank higher than that of imperial prince. Three days later Dorgon's co-regent Jirgalang was demoted from "Prince Regent" to "Assistant Uncle Prince Regent" (Fu zheng shuwang 輔政叔王). In June 1645, Dorgon eventually decreed that all official documents should refer to him as "Imperial Uncle Prince Regent" (Huang shufu shezheng wang 皇叔父攝政王), which left him one step short of claiming the throne for himself.

One of Dorgon's first orders in the new Qing capital was to vacate the entire northern part of Beijing to give it to Bannermen, including Han Chinese Bannermen. The Yellow Banners were given the place of honor north of the palace, followed by the White Banners east, the Red Banners west, and the Blue Banners south. This distribution accorded with the order established in the Manchu homeland before the conquest and under which "each of the banners was given a fixed geographical location according to the points of the compass." Despite tax remissions and large-scale building programs designed to facilitate the transition, in 1648 many Chinese civilians still lived among the newly arrived Banner population and there was still animosity between the two groups. Agricultural land outside the capital was also marked off (quan 圈) and given to Qing troops. Former landowners now became tenants who had to pay rent to their absentee Bannermen landlords. This transition in land use caused "several decades of disruption and hardship."

In 1646, Dorgon also ordered that the civil examinations for selecting government officials be reestablished. From then on they were held regularly every three years as under the Ming. In the very first palace examination held under Qing rule in 1646, candidates, most of whom were northern Chinese, were asked how the Manchus and Han Chinese could be made to work together for a common purpose. The 1649 examination inquired about "how Manchus and Han Chinese could be unified so that their hearts were the same and they worked together without division." Under the Shunzhi Emperor's reign, the average number of graduates per session of the metropolitan examination was the highest of the Qing dynasty ("to win more Chinese support"), until 1660 when lower quotas were established.

To promote ethnic harmony, in 1648 an imperial decree formulated by Dorgon allowed Han Chinese civilians to marry women from the Manchu Banners, with the permission of the Board of Revenue if they were registered daughters of officials or commoners, or the permission of their banner company captain if they were unregistered commoners. Only later in the dynasty were these policies allowing intermarriage rescinded.

Conquest of China proper

Under the reign of Dorgon—whom historians have variously called "the mastermind of the Qing conquest" and "the principal architect of the great Manchu enterprise"—the Qing subdued almost all of China and pushed loyalist "Southern Ming" resistance into the far southwestern reaches of China. After repressing anti-Qing revolts in Hebei and Shandong in the Summer and Fall of 1644, Dorgon sent armies to root out Li Zicheng from the important city of Xi'an (Shaanxi province), where Li had reestablished his headquarters after fleeing Beijing in early June 1644. Under the pressure of Qing armies, Li was forced to leave Xi'an in February 1645, and he was killed—either by his own hand or by a peasant group that had organized for self-defense in this time of rampant banditry—in September 1645 after fleeing though several provinces.

From newly captured Xi'an, in early April 1645 the Qing mounted a campaign against the rich commercial and agricultural region of Jiangnan south of the lower Yangtze River, where in June 1644 a Ming imperial prince had established a regime loyal to the Ming. Factional bickering and numerous defections prevented the Southern Ming from mounting an efficient resistance. Several Qing armies swept south, taking the key city of Xuzhou north of the Huai River in early May 1645 and soon converging on Yangzhou, the main city on the Southern Ming's northern line of defense. Bravely defended by Shi Kefa, who refused to surrender, Yangzhou fell to Manchu artillery on 20 May after a one-week siege. Dorgon's brother Prince Dodo then ordered the slaughter of Yangzhou's entire population. As intended, this massacre terrorized other Jiangnan cities into surrendering to the Qing. Indeed, Nanjing surrendered without a fight on 16 June after its last defenders had made Dodo promise he would not hurt the population. The Qing soon captured the Ming emperor (who died in Beijing the following year) and seized Jiangnan's main cities, including Suzhou and Hangzhou; by early July 1645, the frontier between the Qing and the Southern Ming had been pushed south to the Qiantang River.

On 21 July 1645, after Jiangnan had been superficially pacified, Dorgon issued a most inopportune edict ordering all Chinese men to shave their forehead and to braid the rest of their hair into a queue identical to those of the Manchus. The punishment for non-compliance was death. This policy of symbolic submission helped the Manchus in telling friend from foe. For Han officials and literati, however, the new hairstyle was shameful and demeaning (because it breached a common Confucian directive to preserve one's body intact), whereas for common folk cutting their hair was the same as losing their virility. Because it united Chinese of all social backgrounds into resistance against Qing rule, the hair cutting command greatly hindered the Qing conquest. The defiant population of Jiading and Songjiang was massacred by former Ming general Li Chengdong (李成東; d. 1649), respectively on 24 August and 22 September. Jiangyin also held out against about 10,000 Qing troops for 83 days. When the city wall was finally breached on 9 October 1645, the Qing army led by Ming defector Liu Liangzuo (劉良佐; d. 1667) massacred the entire population, killing between 74,000 and 100,000 people. These massacres ended armed resistance against the Qing in the Lower Yangtze. A few committed loyalists became hermits, hoping that for lack of military success, their withdrawal from the world would at least symbolize their continued defiance against foreign rule.

After the fall of Nanjing, two more members of the Ming imperial household created new Southern Ming regimes: one centered in coastal Fujian around the "Longwu Emperor" Zhu Yujian, Prince of Tang—a ninth-generation descendant of Ming founder Zhu Yuanzhang—and one in Zhejiang around "Regent" Zhu Yihai, Prince of Lu. But the two loyalist groups failed to cooperate, making their chances of success even lower than they already were. In July 1646, a new Southern Campaign led by Prince Bolo sent Prince Lu's Zhejiang court into disarray and proceeded to attack the Longwu regime in Fujian. Zhu Yujian was caught and summarily executed in Tingzhou (western Fujian) on 6 October. His adoptive son Koxinga fled to the island of Taiwan with his fleet. Finally in November, the remaining centers of Ming resistance in Jiangxi province fell to the Qing.

In late 1646 two more Southern Ming monarchs emerged in the southern province of Guangzhou, reigning under the era names of Shaowu (紹武) and Yongli. Short of official costumes, the Shaowu court had to purchase robes from local theater troops. The two Ming regimes fought each other until 20 January 1647, when a small Qing force led by Li Chengdong captured Guangzhou, killed the Shaowu Emperor, and sent the Yongli court fleeing to Nanning in Guangxi. In May 1648, however, Li mutinied against the Qing, and the concurrent rebellion of another former Ming general in Jiangxi helped Yongli to retake most of south China. This resurgence of loyalist hopes was short-lived. New Qing armies managed to reconquer the central provinces of Huguang (present-day Hubei and Hunan), Jiangxi, and Guangdong in 1649 and 1650. The Yongli emperor had to flee again. Finally on 24 November 1650, Qing forces led by Shang Kexi captured Guangzhou and massacred the city's population, killing as many as 70,000 people.

Meanwhile, in October 1646, Qing armies led by Hooge (the son of Hong Taiji who had lost the succession struggle of 1643) reached Sichuan, where their mission was to destroy the kingdom of bandit leader Zhang Xianzhong. Zhang was killed in a battle against Qing forces near Xichong in central Sichuan on 1 February 1647. Also late in 1646 but further north, forces assembled by a Muslim leader known in Chinese sources as Milayin (米喇印) revolted against Qing rule in Ganzhou (Gansu). He was soon joined by another Muslim named Ding Guodong (丁國棟). Proclaiming that they wanted to restore the Ming, they occupied a number of towns in Gansu, including the provincial capital Lanzhou. These rebels' willingness to collaborate with non-Muslim Chinese suggests that they were not only driven by religion. Both Milayin and Ding Guodong were captured and killed by Meng Qiaofang (孟喬芳; 1595–1654) in 1648, and by 1650 the Muslim rebels had been crushed in campaigns that inflicted heavy casualties.

Purging Dorgon's clique

Dorgon's unexpected death on 31 December 1650 during a hunting trip triggered a period of fierce factional struggles and opened the way for deep political reforms. Because Dorgon's supporters were still influential at court, Dorgon was given an imperial funeral and was posthumously elevated to imperial status as the "Righteous Emperor" (yi huangdi 義皇帝). On the same day of mid-January 1651, however, several officers of the White Banners led by former Dorgon supporter Ubai arrested Dorgon's brother Ajige for fear he would proclaim himself as the new regent; Ubai and his officers then named themselves presidents of several Ministries and prepared to take charge of the government.

Meanwhile, Jirgalang, who had been stripped of his title of regent in 1647, gathered support among Banner officers who had been disgruntled during Dorgon's rule. In order to consolidate support for the emperor in the two Yellow Banners (which had belonged to the Qing monarch since Hong Taiji) and to gain followers in Dorgon's Plain White Banner, Jirgalang named them the "Upper Three Banners" (shang san qi 上三旗; Manchu: dergi ilan gūsa), which from then on were owned and controlled by the emperor. Oboi and Suksaha, who would become regents for the Kangxi Emperor in 1661, were among the Banner officers who gave Jirgalang their support, and Jirgalang appointed them to the Council of Deliberative Princes to reward them.

On 1 February, Jirgalang announced that the Shunzhi Emperor, who was about to turn thirteen, would now assume full imperial authority. The regency was thus officially abolished. Jirgalang then moved to the attack. In late February or early March 1651 he accused Dorgon of usurping imperial prerogatives: Dorgon was found guilty and all his posthumous honors were removed. Jirgalang continued to purge former members of Dorgon's clique and to bestow high ranks and nobility titles upon a growing number of followers in the Three Imperial Banners, so that by 1652 all of Dorgon's former supporters had been either killed or effectively removed from government.

Factional politics and the fight against corruption
On 7 April 1651, barely two months after he seized the reins of government, the Shunzhi Emperor issued an edict announcing that he would purge corruption from officialdom. This edict triggered factional conflicts among literati that would frustrate him until his death. One of his first gestures was to dismiss grand academician Feng Quan (馮銓; 1595–1672), a northern Chinese who had been impeached in 1645 but was allowed to remain in his post by Prince Regent Dorgon. The Shunzhi Emperor replaced Feng with Chen Mingxia (ca. 1601–1654), an influential southern Chinese with good connections in Jiangnan literary societies. Though later in 1651 Chen was also dismissed on charges of influence peddling, he was reinstated in his post in 1653 and soon became a close personal advisor to the sovereign. He was even allowed to draft imperial edicts just as Ming Grand Secretaries used to. Still in 1653, the Shunzhi Emperor decided to recall the disgraced Feng Quan, but instead of balancing the influence of northern and southern Chinese officials at court as the emperor had intended, Feng Quan's return only intensified factional strife. In several controversies at court in 1653 and 1654, the southerners formed one bloc opposed to the northerners and the Manchus. In April 1654, when Chen Mingxia spoke to northern official Ning Wanwo (寧完我; d. 1665) about restoring the style of dress of the Ming court, Ning immediately denounced Chen to the emperor and accused him of various crimes including bribe-taking, nepotism, factionalism, and usurping imperial prerogatives. Chen was executed by strangulation on 27 April 1654.

In November 1657, a major cheating scandal erupted during the Shuntian provincial-level examinations in Beijing. Eight candidates from Jiangnan who were also relatives of Beijing officials had bribed examiners in the hope of being ranked higher in the contest. Seven examination supervisors found guilty of receiving bribes were executed, and several hundred people were sentenced to punishments ranging from demotion to exile and confiscation of property. The scandal, which soon spread to Nanjing examination circles, uncovered the corruption and influence-peddling that was rife in the bureaucracy, and that many moralistic officials from the north attributed to the existence of southern literary clubs and to the decline of classical scholarship.

Chinese style of rule
During his short reign, the Shunzhi Emperor encouraged Han Chinese to participate in government activities and revived many Chinese-style institutions that had been either abolished or marginalized during Dorgon's regency. He discussed history, classics, and politics with grand academicians such as Chen Mingxia (see previous section) and surrounded himself with new men such as Wang Xi (王熙; 1628–1703), a young northern Chinese who was fluent in Manchu. The "Six Edicts" (Liu yu 六諭) that the Shunzhi Emperor promulgated in 1652 were the predecessors to the Kangxi Emperor's "Sacred Edicts" (1670): "bare bones of Confucian orthodoxy" that instructed the population to behave in a filial and law-abiding fashion. In another move toward Chinese-style government, the sovereign reestablished the Hanlin Academy and the Grand Secretariat in 1658. These two institutions based on Ming models further eroded the power of the Manchu elite and threatened to revive the extremes of literati politics that had plagued the late Ming, when factions coalesced around rival grand secretaries.

To counteract the power of the Imperial Household Department and the Manchu nobility, in July 1653 the Shunzhi Emperor established the Thirteen Offices (十三衙門), or Thirteen Eunuch Bureaus, which were supervised by Manchus, but manned by Chinese eunuchs rather than Manchu bondservants. Eunuchs had been kept under tight control during Dorgon's regency, but the young emperor used them to counter the influence of other power centers such as his mother the Empress Dowager and former regent Jirgalang. By the late 1650s eunuch power became formidable again: they handled key financial and political matters, offered advice on official appointments, and even composed edicts. Because eunuchs isolated the monarch from the bureaucracy, Manchu and Chinese officials feared a return to the abuses of eunuch power that had plagued the late Ming. Despite the emperor's attempt to impose strictures on eunuch activities, the Shunzhi Emperor's favorite eunuch Wu Liangfu (吳良輔; d. 1661), who had helped him defeat the Dorgon faction in the early 1650s, was caught in a corruption scandal in 1658. The fact that Wu only received a reprimand for his accepting bribes did not reassure the Manchu elite, which saw eunuch power as a degradation of Manchu power. The Thirteen Offices would be eliminated (and Wu Liangfu executed) by Oboi and the other regents of the Kangxi Emperor in March 1661 soon after the Shunzhi Emperor's death.

Frontiers, tributaries, and foreign relations

In 1646, when Qing armies led by Bolo had entered the city of Fuzhou, they had found envoys from the Ryūkyū Kingdom, Annam, and the Spanish in Manila. These tributary embassies that had come to see the now fallen Longwu Emperor of the Southern Ming were forwarded to Beijing, and eventually sent home with instructions about submitting to the Qing. The King of the Ryūkyū Islands sent his first tribute mission to the Qing in 1649, Siam in 1652, and Annam in 1661, after the last remnants of Ming resistance had been removed from Yunnan, which bordered Annam.

Also in 1646 sultan Abu al-Muhammad Haiji Khan, a Moghul prince who ruled Turfan, had sent an embassy requesting the resumption of trade with China, which had been interrupted by the fall of the Ming dynasty. The mission was sent without solicitation, but the Qing agreed to receive it, allowing it to conduct tribute trade in Beijing and Lanzhou (Gansu). But this agreement was interrupted by a Muslim rebellion that engulfed the northwest in 1646 (see the last paragraph of the "Conquest of China" section above). Tribute and trade with Hami and Turfan, which had aided the rebels, were eventually resumed in 1656. In 1655, however, the Qing court announced that tributary missions from Turfan would be accepted only once every five years.

In 1651 the young emperor invited to Beijing the Fifth Dalai Lama, the leader of the Yellow Hat Sect of Tibetan Buddhism, who, with the military help of Khoshot Mongol Gushri Khan, had recently unified religious and secular rule in Tibet. Qing emperors had been patrons of Tibetan Buddhism since at least 1621 under the reign of Nurhaci, but there were also political reasons behind the invitation. Namely, Tibet was becoming a powerful polity west of the Qing, and the Dalai Lama held influence over Mongol tribes, many of which had not submitted to the Qing. To prepare for the arrival of this "living Buddha," the Shunzhi Emperor ordered the building of the White Dagoba (baita 白塔) on an island on one of the imperial lakes northwest of the Forbidden City, at the former site of Qubilai Khan's palace. After more invitations and diplomatic exchanges to decide where the Tibetan leader would meet the Qing emperor, the Dalai Lama arrived in Beijing in January 1653. The Dalai Lama later had a scene of this visit carved in the Potala Palace in Lhasa, which he had started building in 1645.

Meanwhile, north of the Manchu homeland, adventurers Vassili Poyarkov (1643–1646) and Yerofei Khabarov (1649–1653) had started to explore the Amur River valley for Tzarist Russia. In 1653 Khabarov was recalled to Moscow and replaced by Onufriy Stepanov, who assumed command of Khabarov's Cossack troops. Stepanov went south into the Sungari River, along which he exacted "yasak" (fur tribute) from native populations such as the Daur and the Duchers, but these groups resisted because they were already paying tribute to the Shunzhi Emperor ("Shamshakan" in Russian sources). In 1654 Stepanov defeated a small Manchu force that had been despatched from Ningguta to investigate Russian advances. In 1655 another Qing commander, the Mongol Minggadari (d. 1669), defeated Stepanov's forces at fort Kumarsk on the Amur, but this was not enough to chase the Russians. In 1658, however, Manchu general Šarhūda (1599–1659) attacked Stepanov with a fleet of 40 or more ships that managed to kill or capture most Russians. This Qing victory temporarily cleared the Amur valley of Cossack bands, but Sino-Russian border conflicts would continue until 1689, when the signature of the Treaty of Nerchinsk fixed the borders between Russia and the Qing.

Continuous campaigns against the Southern Ming
Though the Qing under Dorgon's leadership had successfully pushed the Southern Ming deep into southern China, Ming loyalism was not dead yet. In early August 1652, Li Dingguo, who had served as general in Sichuan under bandit king Zhang Xianzhong (d. 1647) and was now protecting the Yongli Emperor of the Southern Ming, retook Guilin (Guangxi province) from the Qing. Within a month, most of the commanders who had been supporting the Qing in Guangxi reverted to the Ming side. Despite occasionally successful military campaigns in Huguang and Guangdong in the next two years, Li failed to retake important cities. In 1653, the Qing court put Hong Chengchou in charge of retaking the southwest. Headquartered in Changsha (in what is now Hunan province), he patiently built up his forces; only in late 1658 did well-fed and well-supplied Qing troops mount a multipronged campaign to take Guizhou and Yunnan. In late January 1659, a Qing army led by Manchu prince Doni took the capital of Yunnan, sending the Yongli Emperor fleeing into nearby Burma, which was then ruled by King Pindale Min of the Toungoo dynasty. The last sovereign of the Southern Ming stayed there until 1662, when he was captured and executed by Wu Sangui, the former Ming general whose surrender to the Manchus in April 1644 had allowed Dorgon to start the Qing conquest of China.

Zheng Chenggong ("Koxinga"), who had been adopted by the Longwu Emperor in 1646 and ennobled by Yongli in 1655, also continued to defend the cause of the Southern Ming. In 1659, just as the Shunzhi Emperor was preparing to hold a special examination to celebrate the glories of his reign and the success of the southwestern campaigns, Zheng sailed up the Yangtze River with a well-armed fleet, took several cities from Qing hands, and went so far as to threaten Nanjing. When the emperor heard of this sudden attack he is said to have slashed his throne with a sword in anger. But the siege of Nanjing was relieved and Zheng Chenggong repelled, forcing Zheng to take refuge in the southeastern coastal province of Fujian. Pressured by Qing fleets, Zheng fled to Taiwan in April 1661 but died that same summer. His descendants resisted Qing rule until 1683, when the Kangxi Emperor successfully took the island.

Personality and relationships

After Fulin came to rule on his own in 1651, his mother the Empress Dowager Zhaosheng arranged for him to marry her niece, but the young monarch deposed his new Empress in 1653. The following year Xiaozhuang arranged another imperial marriage with her Khorchin Mongol clan, this time matching her son with her own grand-niece. Though Fulin also disliked his second empress (known posthumously as Empress Xiaohuizhang), he was not allowed to demote her. She never bore him children. Starting in 1656, the Shunzhi Emperor lavished his affection on Consort Donggo, who, according to Jesuit accounts from the time, had first been the wife of another Manchu noble. She gave birth to a son (the Shunzhi Emperor's fourth) in November 1657. The emperor would have made him his heir apparent, but he died early in 1658 before he was given a name.

The Shunzhi Emperor was an open-minded emperor and relied on the advice of Johann Adam Schall von Bell, a Jesuit missionary from Cologne in the Germanic parts of the Holy Roman Empire, for guidance on matters ranging from astronomy and technology to religion and government. In late 1644, Dorgon had put Schall in charge of preparing a new calendar because his eclipse predictions had proven more reliable than those of the official astronomer. After Dorgon's death Schall developed a personal relationship with the young emperor, who called him "grandfather" (mafa in Manchu). At the height of his influence in 1656 and 1657, Schall reports that the Shunzhi Emperor often visited his house and talked to him late into the night. He was excused from prostrating himself in the presence of the emperor, was granted land to build a church in Beijing, and was even given imperial permission to adopt a son (because Fulin worried that Schall did not have an heir), but the Jesuits' hope of converting the Qing sovereign to Christianity was crushed when the Shunzhi Emperor became a devout follower of Chan Buddhism in 1657.

The emperor developed a good command of Chinese that allowed him to manage matters of state and to appreciate Chinese arts such as calligraphy and drama. One of his favorite texts was "Rhapsody of a Myriad Sorrows" (Wan chou qu 萬愁曲), by Gui Zhuang (歸莊; 1613–1673), who was a close friend of anti-Qing intellectuals Gu Yanwu and Wan Shouqi (萬壽祺; 1603–1652). "Quite passionate and attach[ing] great importance to qing (love)," he could also recite by heart long passages of the popular Romance of the Western Chamber.

Smallpox
In September 1660, Consort Donggo, the Shunzhi Emperor's favourite consort, suddenly died as a result of grief over the loss of a child. Overwhelmed with grief, the emperor fell into dejection for months, until he contracted smallpox on 2 February 1661. On 4 February 1661, officials Wang Xi (王熙, 1628–1703; the emperor's confidant) and Margi (a Manchu) were called to the emperor's bedside to record his last will. On the same day, his seven-year-old third son Xuanye was chosen to be his successor, probably because he had already survived smallpox. The emperor died on 5 February 1661 in the Forbidden City at the age of twenty-two.

The Manchus feared smallpox more than any other disease because they had no immunity to it and almost always died when they contracted it. By 1622 at the latest, they had already established an agency to investigate smallpox cases and isolate sufferers to avoid contagion. During outbreaks, royal family members were routinely sent to "smallpox avoidance centers" (bidousuo 避痘所) to protect themselves from infection. The Shunzhi Emperor was particularly fearful of the disease, because he was young and lived in a large city, near sources of contagion. Indeed, during his reign at least nine outbreaks of smallpox were recorded in Beijing, each time forcing the emperor to move to a protected area such as the "Southern Park" (Nanyuan 南苑), a hunting ground south of Beijing where Dorgon had built a "smallpox avoidance center" in the 1640s. Despite this and other precautions—such as rules forcing Chinese residents to move out of the city when they contracted smallpox—the young monarch still succumbed to that illness.

Forged last will

The emperor's last will, which was made public on the evening of 5 February, appointed four regents for his young son: Oboi, Soni, Suksaha, and Ebilun, who had all helped Jirgalang to purge the court of Dorgon's supporters after Dorgon's death on the last day of 1650. It is difficult to determine whether the Shunzhi Emperor had really named these four Manchu nobles as regents, because they and Empress Dowager Zhaosheng clearly tampered with the emperor's testament before promulgating it. The emperor's will expressed his regret about his Chinese-style ruling (his reliance on eunuchs and his favoritism toward Chinese officials), his neglect of Manchu nobles and traditions, and his headstrong devotion to his consort rather than to his mother. Though the emperor had often issued self-deprecating edicts during his reign, the policies his will rejected had been central to his government since he had assumed personal rule in the early 1650s. The will as it was formulated gave "the mantle of imperial authority" to the four regents, and served to support their pro-Manchu policies during the period known as the Oboi regency, which lasted from 1661 to 1669.

After death
Because court statements did not clearly announce the cause of the emperor's death, rumors soon started to circulate that he had not died but in fact retired to a Buddhist monastery to live anonymously as a monk, either out of grief for the death of his beloved consort, or because of a coup by the Manchu nobles his will had named as regents. These rumors seemed not so incredible because the emperor had become a fervent follower of Chan Buddhism in the late 1650s, even letting monks move into the imperial palace. Modern Chinese historians have considered the Shunzhi Emperor's possible retirement as one of the three mysterious cases of the early Qing. But much circumstantial evidence—including an account by one of these monks that the emperor's health greatly deteriorated in early February 1661 because of smallpox, and the fact that a concubine and an Imperial Bodyguard committed suicide to accompany the emperor in burial—suggests that the Shunzhi Emperor's death was not staged.

After being kept in the Forbidden City for 27 days of mourning, on 3 March 1661 the emperor's corpse was transported in a lavish procession to Jingshan 景山 (a hillock just north of the Forbidden City), after which a large amount of precious goods were burned as funeral offerings. Only two years later, in 1663, was the body transported to its final resting place. Contrary to Manchu customs at the time, which usually dictated that a deceased person should be cremated, the Shunzhi Emperor was buried. He was interred in what later came to be known as the Eastern Qing Tombs, 125 kilometers (75 miles) northeast of Beijing, one of two Qing imperial cemeteries. His tomb is part of the Xiao (孝) mausoleum complex (known in Manchu as the Hiyoošungga Munggan), which was the first mausoleum to be erected on that site.

Legacy

The fake will in which the Shunzhi Emperor had supposedly expressed regret for abandoning Manchu traditions gave authority to the nativist policies of the Kangxi Emperor's four regents. Citing the testament, Oboi and the other regents quickly abolished the Thirteen Eunuch Bureaus. Over the next few years, they enhanced the power of the Imperial Household Department, which was run by Manchus and their bondservants, eliminated the Hanlin Academy, and limited membership in the Deliberative Council of Princes and Ministers to Manchus and Mongols. The regents also adopted aggressive policies toward the Qing's Chinese subjects: they executed dozens of people and punished thousands of others in the wealthy Jiangnan region for literary dissent and tax arrears, and forced the coastal population of southeast China to move inland in order to starve the Taiwan-based Kingdom of Tungning run by descendants of Koxinga.

After the Kangxi Emperor managed to imprison Oboi in 1669, he reverted many of the regents' policies. He restored institutions his father had favored, including the Grand Secretariat, through which Chinese officials gained an important voice in government. He also defeated the rebellion of the Three Feudatories, three Chinese military commanders who had played key military roles in the Qing conquest, but had now become entrenched rulers of enormous domains in southern China. The civil war (1673–1681) tested the loyalty of the new Qing subjects, but Qing armies eventually prevailed. Once victory had become certain, a special examination for "eminent scholars of broad learning" (Boxue hongru 博學鴻儒) was held in 1679 to attract Chinese literati who had refused to serve the new dynasty. The successful candidates were assigned to compile the official history of the fallen Ming dynasty. The rebellion was defeated in 1681, the same year the Kangxi Emperor initiated the use of variolation to inoculate children of the imperial family against smallpox. When the Kingdom of Tungning finally fell in 1683, the military consolidation of the Qing regime was complete. The institutional foundation laid by Dorgon, and the Shunzhi and Kangxi emperors allowed the Qing to erect an imperial edifice of awesome proportion and to turn it into "one of the most successful imperial states the world has known." Ironically, however, the prolonged Pax Manchurica that followed the Kangxi consolidation made the Qing unprepared to face aggressive European powers with modern weaponry in the nineteenth century.

Family
Although only nineteen imperial consorts are recorded for the Shunzhi Emperor in the Aisin-Gioro genealogy made by the Imperial Clan Court, burial records show that he had at least thirty-two of them. There were two empresses in his reign, both relatives of his mother.

He had a total of fourteen children, but only four sons (Fuquan, Xuanye, Changning, and Longxi) and one daughter (Princess Gongque) lived to be old enough to marry. Unlike later Qing emperors, the names of the Shunzhi Emperor's sons did not include a generational character.

Before the Qing court moved to Beijing in 1644, Manchu women used to have personal names, but after 1644 these names "disappear from the genealogical and archival records". Imperial consorts were usually known by their titles and the name of their patrilineal clan, while imperial daughters were given a title and rank by which they then became known only after their betrothal. Although five of the Shunzhi Emperor's six daughters died in infancy or childhood, they all appear in the Aisin-Gioro genealogy.

Empress

 * Consort Jing (靜妃) of the Khorchin Borjigin clan (博爾濟吉特氏), personal name Erdeni Bumba (額爾德尼布木巴)
 * Empress Xiaohuizhang (孝惠章皇后) of the Khorchin Borjigin clan (博爾濟吉特氏; 5 November 1641 – 7 January 1718), personal name Alatan Qiqige (阿拉坦琪琪格)
 * Empress Xiaoxian (孝獻皇后) of the Donggo clan (董鄂氏; 1639 – 23 September 1660)
 * Prince Rong of the First Rank (榮親王; 12 November 1657 – 25 February 1658), fourth son

 * Empress Xiaokangzhang (孝康章皇后) of the Tunggiya clan (佟佳氏; 1638 – 20 March 1663)
 * Xuanye (玄燁), the Kangxi Emperor (康熙帝; 4 May 1654 – 20 December 1722), third son

Consort

 * Consort Dao (悼妃) of the Khorchin Borjigin clan (博爾濟吉特氏; ? – 7 April 1658)
 * Consort Zhen (貞妃) of the Donggo clan (董鄂氏; ? – 5 February 1661)
 * Consort Ke (恪妃) of the Shi clan (石氏; ? – 13 January 1668)
 * Consort Gongjing (恭靖妃) of the Hotsit Borjigin clan (博爾濟吉特氏; ? – 20 May 1689)
 * Consort Shuhui (淑惠妃) of the Khorchin Borjigin clan (博爾濟吉特氏; 1642 – 17 December 1713)
 * Consort Duanshun (端順妃) of the Abaga Borjigin clan (博爾濟吉特氏; ? – 1 August 1709)
 * Consort Ningque (寧愨妃) of the Donggo clan (董鄂氏; ? – 11 August 1694)
 * Fuquan (福全), Prince Yuxian of the First Rank (裕憲親王; 8 September 1653 – 10 August 1703), second son

Concubine

 * Mistress (格格) of the Ba clan (巴氏)
 * Niuniu (牛鈕; 13 December 1651 – 9 March 1652), first son
 * Third daughter (30 January 1654 – April/May 1658)
 * Fifth daughter (6 February 1655 – January 1661)

 * Mistress (格格) of the Chen clan (陳氏; ? – 1690)
 * First daughter (22 April 1652 – November/December 1653)
 * Changning (常寧), Prince Gong of the First Rank (恭親王; 8 December 1657 – 20 July 1703), fifth son

 * Mistress (格格) of the Yang clan (楊氏)
 * Princess Gongque of the Second Rank (和碩恭愨公主; 19 January 1654 – 26 November 1685), second daughter
 * Married Na'erdu (訥爾杜; ? – 1676) of the Manchu Gūwalgiya clan in February/March 1667
 * Fourth daughter (9 January 1655 – March/April 1661)

 * Mistress (格格) of the Nara clan (那拉氏)
 * Sixth daughter (11 November 1657 – March 1661)

 * Mistress (格格) of the Tang clan (唐氏)
 * Qishou (奇授; 3 January 1660 – 12 December 1665), sixth son

 * Mistress (格格) of the Niu clan (鈕氏)
 * Lunghi (隆禧), Prince Chunjing of the First Rank (純靖親王; 30 May 1660 – 20 August 1679), seventh son

 * Mistress (格格) of the Muktu clan (穆克圖氏)
 * Yonggan (永幹; 23 January 1661 – 15 January 1668), eighth son

In popular culture

 * Portrayed by Jung Yoon-seok in the 2013 TV series Blooded Palace: The War of Flowers.
 * Portrayed by an unknown voice actor in The Mr. Peabody & Sherman Show episode "Sherman Exchange Program" under the name "Fulin".

title: Shunzhi Emperor