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Tony Halme

Tony Christian Halme (January 6, 1963 – January 8, 2010) was a Finnish politician, athlete, author, actor, and singer. He was a member of the Finnish Parliament from 2003 to 2007 as an independent elected on the True Finns party list. Halme was also known by the pseudonym Viikinki, which he used while appearing in Gladiaattorit, a Finnish version of the TV game show Gladiators, in the 1990s.

He was also a professional wrestler best known for his appearances with Catch Wrestling Association (CWA), New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW) and World Wrestling Federation (WWF) under the ring name Ludvig Borga; a mixed martial artist and the first fighter from the Nordic countries to ever compete in the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC); and a professional boxer who held the Finnish and the American heavyweight title.

During his time in CWA, he was an accomplished main eventer, who headlined many events for the company including the company's flagship event Euro Catch Festival three times.

Early life
Tony Halme spent his childhood in Lauttasaari, Helsinki. His father left the family when Tony was six months old. His older brother – who was five years older than Tony – assumed the role of father figure. Halme only heard from his father a couple of times during his life. His mother was an alcoholic with a constant revolving door of male partners. As an adult, Halme considered his brother to be his only true friend. In the mid-1970s, Tony, his mother and brother moved to Soukka, Espoo. Halme attended kansakoulu and a oppikoulu. He later attended a Swedish-language school and studied at the electrician line at the Strömberg School of Engineering. However, he dropped out of the latter after two years. At the age of 16, Halme left his mother's home and moved in with his uncle.

Athletic from a young age, he actively participated in sports such as handball, football and ice hockey. He also began power training and weightlifting in his late teens after watching his brothers, who were on the Finnish national team. Aged 17, he had won a silver medal at the Finnish Bodybuilding Championship. He also worked a wide variety of jobs, including fishmonger, gatekeeper, glass cutter, singer, page, stuntman, TV and radio presenter, and coach. He later enlisted in the Finnish army and continued his training with the Finnish military sports team. After leaving the army, he became involved in boxing and worked as a bouncer in bars.

Halme developed a fascination with the United States after seeing Martin Scorsese’s film Taxi Driver at the age of 12. He left Finland to live in Los Angeles in the 1980s and lived there for 15 years. He resumed bodybuilding in the US also and began to take anabolic steroids regularly. He worked as a bodyguard for the music group Cheap Trick and musician Gene Simmons, and also as an actor, professional wrestler and a boxer.

Early career (1989–1990)
Halme was trained by Verne Gagne as a powerhouse professional wrestler.

Universal Wrestling Federation (1990)
He made his debut for Herb Abrams's Universal Wrestling Federation (UWF) on October 29, 1990 as The Viking. In his first match, he defeated The Patriot (wrestler)|, not to be confused with Del Wilkes, but a no name wrestler with a mask. He then went on to defeat Kevin Benjamin.

New Japan Pro-Wrestling (1990–1993)
On October 25, 1990, Halme made his debut for the Japanese promotion New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW), defeating The Soul Taker in what was billed as a "boxer vs. wrestler" match. Halme was brought in as an outsider and billed as a professional boxing champion with his matches billed as Mixed martial arts matches. He was instantly pushed as a big deal, scoring wins over the likes of Scott Norton, Vader and most notably Shinya Hashimoto on December 26, 1990. Halme was main eventing shows regularly as he was pushed as the biggest star of a crew that included the likes of Bobby Eaton, Chris Benoit, Dean Malenko, Eddy Guerrero and Fit Finlay. Despite Halme not getting over with NJPW fans, the company was doing strong business during his push.

On April 30, 1991, Halme defeated Masashi Aoyagi in a boxer versus karate match. He remained undefeated in NJPW until September 23, 1991, when he was defeated by Shinya Hashimoto in their third match against each other in front of 18,000 fans at the Yokohama Arena. While Halme's matches with Hashimoto were not considered quality matches, he has been credited with helping Hashimoto take his career to another level as the win made Hashimoto look like a "real fighter" as opposed to a professional wrestler. Halme's "boxer versus wrestler" gimmick was ended on October 18, 1991, when he was defeated by Vader.

In 1992, Halme was teamed in matches with Scott Norton, Bam Bam Bigelow and Barry Windham. He also competed in the NJPW Super Grade Tag League II teaming with Masahiro Chono, together scoring 8 points and finishing fourth overall. The tournament was won by Shinya Hashimoto and Riki Choshu. On November 22, 1992, Halme and Norton won the IWGP Tag Team Championship from The Steiner Brothers (Rick and Scott). However, the next night, Halme and Norton were forced to face each other with separate tag team partners with Halme and Ron Powers losing to Norton and TNT.

On December 14, Halme and Norton lost the IWGP Tag Team Championship to the Hell Raisers (Hawk Warrior and Power Warrior). On January 4, 1993, at Fantastic Story in Tokyo Dome (in North America aired on PPV as WCW/New Japan Supershow III), Halme was pinned by Ron Simmons. On February 16, 1993, Halme teamed up with Monsieur Rambo for the IWGP Tag Team Championship against the Hell Raisers, but lost.

Behind the scenes, Halme started having problems with Hawk Warrior and Scott Norton. It also came out that Halme had knocked out Norton in a legitimate street fight, though some claimed this was the result of a sucker punch by Halme. Fearing that Norton would be looking for retribution on Halme, NJPW officials took a secret vote on what to do with the two. Afterwards, Halme started losing matches more regularly and eventually left the promotion in June 1993. His last match took place on June 17, when he and The Barbarian lost to John Tenta and Haku.

World Wrestling Federation (1993–1994)
On Superstars aired on July 24, Halme debuted in the World Wrestling Federation (WWF) as Ludvig Borga, a heel Finn who appeared in a series of vignettes castigating Americans for their perceived deficiencies in issues such as environmental laws and their educational system. His singlet was adorned with the Finnish flag, and his entrance music was Maamme, the country's national anthem. After an initial streak of squash victories over enhancement talent, Borga defeated former Intercontinental Champion Marty Jannetty at SummerSlam.

Borga was immediately pushed to main event status as he entered a feud with the federation's top babyface, "Made in the USA" Lex Luger. On the October 30, 1993 edition of Superstars (filmed September 28), Borga ended Tatanka's undefeated streak of nearly two years, dominating him throughout their match and ultimately knocking him out with a steel chair while the referee was distracted by Mr. Fuji at ringside. In a mockery of Luger's past "Narcissist" gimmick, Borga pinned Tatanka with one finger. At Survivor Series, Borga participated in the main event, teaming up with Yokozuna, Quebecer Jacques and Crush as the "Foreign Fanatics" against "All-Americans" Lex Luger, The Undertaker and The Steiner Brothers. Borga and Luger were the final two remaining participants and Borga was eliminated by Luger after a running forearm smash. On December 14, Borga pinned Intercontinental Champion Razor Ramon at a house show, but the win was overturned and the match resumed because Razor's foot was on the bottom rope. Borga pinned Razor again after Shawn Michaels hit Razor with a title belt, but the decision was reversed and Borga disqualified.

On January 17, 1994, Halme injured his ankle in a match with Rick Steiner, forcing the WWF to cancel future plans for the Borga character that included a scheduled appearance at the 1994 Royal Rumble and a proposed WrestleMania match against Earthquake. Halme left the company soon after.

Catch Wrestling Association (1995–1997)
Halme wrestled as Ludvig Borga for Catch Wrestling Association (CWA) in 1995. On December 20, Borga won the World Heavyweight Championship, his first and only singles championship, by defeating Rambo at the 1995 Euro Catch Festival. Borga held the title for over a year, including a major title defense against August Smisl at the Euro Catch Festival in July. He then lost the title back to Rambo at Euro Catch Festival on December 21. His final match for the CWA was a boxing match against Tony Richardson, which he won by knocking out Richardson in the fourth round.

Mixed martial arts
After retiring from professional wrestling in 1997, Halme went on to fight in the RINGS and Ultimate Fighting Championship, though without appreciable success, notably a 56-second submission loss to Randy Couture at UFC XIII.

Political career
Halme entered parliament in the 2003 parliamentary elections and during his parliamentary career, Halme raised controversies. The day after the elections, Halme referred to President Tarja Halonen as a lesbian in a radio interview. Halme stated that if a lesbian can be president of Finland and he can be a member of Parliament, anything seems possible. A huge uproar ensued as much of the Finnish media treated the statement as a personal attack on Halonen; Halonen herself made no comment. Halme later apologized, stating that he was sorry that the statement had been interpreted as an insult and that he had been under the genuine impression that Halonen was a lesbian. Halme opted not to run for re-election in 2007 due to health issues.

Halme was also elected to the City Council of Helsinki in the 2004 municipal elections, but announced he would not participate in the council's activities. His term officially ended in 2008.

Personal life
Halme was divorced from his wife Katja Talus. He had a Schutzstaffel tattoo on his calf. Borga was made to put tape over the tattoo when he wrestled in the WWF.

On July 4, 2003, a handgun was fired inside Halme's apartment. No one was injured, but the gun was unlicensed. Halme was subsequently hospitalized, as he had only days before been in a boxing match and was using prescription painkillers, but his blood had additionally contained trace amounts of amphetamines, while a police search of his House of Parliament office turned up illegal steroids. Halme claimed that somebody had put the amphetamines into his drink without his knowledge. In January 2004, his trial was broadcast live on television by the MTV3 digital television channel. Halme received a four-month suspended sentence and a fine, but continued to serve as Member of Parliament. In 2006, he was convicted for driving while impaired.

In early March 2006, Halme was involuntarily committed to a mental hospital, reportedly due to delirium caused by excessive alcohol use. Earlier in 2006 he had been diagnosed with alcohol-related cirrhosis and acute pancreatitis. After spending almost the entire year of 2006 on sick leave, he went on disability pension at end of the Parliamentary term.

In December 2009, Halme told a newspaper that he was suffering from impairment of his short-term memory and had trouble remembering anything, but was still trying to write a book on his political career.

Death
On January 8, 2010, two days after his 47th birthday, Halme died from a self-inflicted gunshot wound, from an unlicensed handgun. His body was found two days later.

Other media
Halme authored five books and recorded one album called Mestarit salilla. Halme had a modest film career starring in Finnish movies Ponterosa and Kohtalon kirja, and in 1995 had small roles overseas in Die Hard with a Vengeance and Fist of the North Star. Halme was also cast in a minor role in the 1997 blockbuster film Titanic but had to withdraw due to a filming delay.

In 1993, Halme's professional wrestling persona was part of the Japanese wrestling video game Shin Nippon Pro Wrestling: Chou Senshi in Tokyo Dome for Super Famicom (Super Nintendo Entertainment System).

 * Books
 * Jumala armahtaa, minä en (1998) (Title translation: God Has Mercy, I Don't)
 * Tuomiopäivä (2001) (Title translation: The Judgment Day)
 * Viikingin voimaopas (2003) (Title translation: The Viking's strength guide)
 * Kovan päivän ilta (2003) (Title translation: A Hard Day's Night)
 * Testamentti (2010, posthumously) (Title translation: The Testament)
 * Albums
 * Mestarit salilla (Title translation: The champions at the gym) (2001)
 * Singles
 * "I Am Ironman" (1998)
 * "Viikinki" (Title translation: "The Viking") (1999)
 * "Mä oon tällainen" (Title translation: "I am like this") (2000)
 * "Painu pelle hiiteen" (Title translation: "Sod off, clown") (2001)
 * "Isätön poika" (Title translation: "The fatherless son") (2002)

Championships and accomplishments

 * Catch Wrestling Association
 * CWA World Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
 * New Japan Pro-Wrestling
 * IWGP Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Scott Norton
 * Pro Wrestling Illustrated
 * PWI ranked him #145 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 1993

title: Tony Halme


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Talking Machine

Talking Machine is an indies demo EP of Japanese rock band 9mm Parabellum Bullet. All of the songs listed appeared again on later releases.

Personnel

 * Takuro Sugawara – lead vocals, lyricist, rhythm guitar, acoustic guitar (track 6)
 * Yoshimitsu Taki – backing vocals, lead guitar
 * Kazuhiko Nakamura – bass guitar, screaming (tracks 1 and 12)
 * Chihiro Kamijo – drums

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talking Machine


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Decumaria

Decumaria, the woodvamps, is a genus of two species of flowering plants in the family Hydrangeaceae, one (D. barbara) native to the southeastern United States, and the other (D. sinensis) native to central China.

They are shrubby lianas growing to 4–10 m high through shrubs and trees, climbing by means of aerial adhesive rootlets. The leaves are variably deciduous to evergreen (with D. barbara tending to be more often deciduous, D. sinensis more evergreen), 3–10 cm long, ovate with an acute apex, and a smooth to obscurely toothed margin. The flowers are 5–10 mm diameter, white to creamy colored, fragrant, produced in dense panicles 3–8 cm broad. The fruit is a dry capsule containing several seeds.

title: Decumaria


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Deutzia

Deutzia ( or ) is a genus of about 60 species of flowering plants in the family Hydrangeaceae, native to eastern and central Asia (from the Himalayas east to Japan and the Philippines), and Central America and also Europe. By far the highest species diversity is in China, where 50 species occur.

Description
The species are shrubs ranging from 1 - 4 m in height. Most are deciduous, but a few subtropical species are evergreen. The leaves are opposite, simple, with a serrated margin. The flowers are produced in panicles or corymbs; they are white in most species, sometimes pink or reddish. The fruit is a dry capsule containing numerous small seeds. Identification of the species is very difficult, requiring often microscopic detail of the leaf hairs and seed capsule structure.

Etymology
Deutzia was named by Carl Peter Thunberg for his friend and patron, Johann van der Deutz, 18th century botanist.

Cultivation and uses
The deutzias are fairly new to gardens: the exception, D. scabra, was noticed in Japanese gardens by Engelbert Kaempfer (1712) and Carl Peter Thunberg (1784) but not actually seen in Europe till the 1830s; two-thirds of the species noted in the R.H.S. Dictionary were gathered in from the wild during the 20th century. Deutzias are commonly grown as ornamental plants for their white and pink flowers. Many cultivars and hybrids have been selected for garden use, including selections with double flowers. For example, Deutzia × lemoinei is a hybrid of D. gracilis and D. parviflora. The following cultivars and hybrids have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit: -

 * Deutzia gracilis 'Nikko'
 * Deutzia monbeigii
 * Deutzia scabra ‘Candidissima’
 * Deutzia scabra ‘Codsall Pink’
 * Deutzia setchuenensis var. corymbiflora
 * Deutzia × elegantissima 'Rosealind'
 * Deutzia × hybrida ‘Contraste’
 * Deutzia × hybrida 'Mont Rose'
 * Deutzia × hybrida 'Strawberry Fields'

The temperate deutzias are mostly hardy shrubs from East Asia where winters are dependably frozen; in milder climates, like much of England, the early-flowering species and hybrids are coaxed into premature bloom by mild spells, then spoilt by frost. Alice Coats remarks that deutzias have done better in Edinburgh, on the chilly east coast of Scotland, than in London. A solution in milder climates might be to site deutzia in the garden's most exposed, coldest microclimate, as is often done with early-flowering magnolias. Identification can be difficult, and in particular, many of the plants in cultivation sold as D. scabra are actually D. crenata (Huxley 1992). The selected hybrid white double "Pride-of-Rochester", already in cultivation in 1881, was originated by the Rochester, New York nurserymen Ellwanger and Barry.

Deutzia scabra is used by joiners in Japan to polish wood.

title: Deutzia


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Fendlera

Fendlera is a genus of shrubs in the Hydrangeaceae. They are most commonly known as fendlerbush. The name fendlerbush is also used for the closely related genus Fendlerella.

Etymology
The genus was named for Augustus Fendler in 1852.

title: Fendlera


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Suburbicarian diocese

The seven suburbicarian dioceses are Catholic dioceses located in the vicinity of Rome, whose (titular) bishops are the (now six) ordinary members of the highest-ranking order of cardinals, the cardinal bishops (to which the cardinal patriarchs were added). Pope Francis has, in addition, co-opted five cardinals of the Latin Church to join the ranks of the cardinal bishops.

Being awarded the titular title of a suburbicarian see is considered more an honor or prestige than aimed towards a functional intent.

Seven suburbicarian sees
The suburbicarian dioceses have varied slightly over time and nowadays consist of:
 * the Diocese of Ostia (since 1150 the additional see of the Dean of the College of Cardinals)
 * the Diocese of Velletri-Segni
 * the Diocese of Porto-Santa Rufina
 * the Diocese of Frascati (Tusculum)
 * the Diocese of Palestrina
 * the Diocese of Albano
 * the Diocese of Sabina-Poggio Mirteto

The see of Ostia is conferred on the Dean of the College of Cardinals in addition to the see he already had. (Until 1914, the dean received the see of Ostia and Velletri in place of the see he had earlier. The sees of Ostia and Velletri were separated in 1914.) The cardinal-dean used to be the longest-serving cardinal bishop, but is now chosen by the six cardinal bishops with the approval of the Pope.

Diocesan administration
The increasing involvement of the cardinal bishops in the administration of the papal curia resulted in a detachment from their dioceses. Therefore, some of them, in particular the cardinal-bishops of Sabina and Velletri, have for centuries had auxiliary bishops and in 1910 Pope Pius X's apostolic constitution Apostolicae Romanorum made this practice obligatory for all suburbicarian dioceses. In 1962, Pope John XXIII in his decree Suburbicarii sedis made the cardinal bishops into titular bishops and made provision for the appointment of separate residential diocesan bishops for Velletri-Segni, Porto-Santa-Rufina, Frascati, Palestrina, Albano and Sabina. For the diocese of Ostia — the titular diocese of the Dean of the College of Cardinals — no resident diocesan bishop was appointed; it is entrusted to an apostolic administrator, which is always the Cardinal Vicar of Rome. Though the diocesan bishops exercise all episcopal administrative functions, the cardinal bishops still formally take possession of their titular dioceses.

title: Suburbicarian diocese


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Il Risorgimento (newspaper)

Il Risorgimento ("The Resurgence" in English) was a liberal, nationalist newspaper founded in Turin 15 December 1847 by Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour and Cesare Balbo, who was a backbone of the "neo-Guelph" party that saw in future a rejuvenated Italy under a republican government with a papal presidency—ideas with which Cavour did not agree. The two men were soon joined by Pietro di Santa Rosa and Michelangelo Castelli, who soon assumed the position of vice-director. Publication began as a result of the relaxation of stringent press control which made the newspaper financially viable. Within weeks the paper, conceived as a weekly, was published daily, as revolutionary events, initiated by an insurgency in Palermo and demonstrations in Genoa, gained momentum. The paper was initiated to form a moderate middle-class "respectable" balance to the more radical "democratic" program of Concordia, which was initiated at the same time. The initial editorial by Cavour made the following claim: "Our aim not being of making money but of enlightening the country and of cooperating with the grand works of "Resurgence" initiated by the government".

Thus without seeming to lead, Cavour's Risorgimento offered a regimen of liberal political ideas, of constitutionalism and freedom from foreign control. From its inception, the paper advocated a constitution to be granted by Carlo Alberto of Savoy, the absolute monarch of Sardinia-Piedmont. The eventual constitution was the Statuto Albertino, which was decreed on 8 February 1848. Cavour's editorials were produced with the longer view of preparing Sardinia-Piedmont for a leading role in the coming upheavals, which came to the fore in the revolutionary events of 1848-49. As editor of the newspaper, Cavour gained a great degree of influence in Sardinian politics; in an editorial on 23 March he pressed for a war to drive the Austrians from Lombardy and Venice, where urban revolutions were under way. This proved disastrous for the kingdom with its overwhelming defeat at the Battle of Novara (1849).

Though he withdrew as editor in October 1848, Il Risorgimento paved Cavour's way towards entering the government—he was appointed prime minister to Vittorio II Emanuele in 1852, after Carlo Alberto's resignation— and a decade's career engineering Italian unification.

In May 1849 Il Risorgimento combined with the more conservative La Nazione, continuing to support government measures.

In the course of the unification of Italy, the term "risorgimento" came to be applied to the process of unification itself.

title: Il Risorgimento (newspaper)


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Fendlerella

Fendlerella is a genus of plants in the family Hydrangeaceae native to the region spanning from Colorado, USA to Northeast Mexico. It has four species.

Publication
The genus Fendlerella was first described by Amos Arthur Heller in 1898.

Species
The following species are accepted as of January 2024:
 * Fendlerella lasiopetala Standl.
 * Fendlerella mexicana Brandegee
 * Fendlerella queretarana B.L.Turner
 * Fendlerella utahensis (S.Watson) A.Heller

Etymology
The species was named for Augustus Fendler in 1898.

title: Fendlerella


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Jamesia

Jamesia is a genus of shrubs in the Hydrangeaceae, most commonly known as Jamesia, cliffbush or waxflower. It is native to interior western North America, in the U.S. states of Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming, growing in mountains at 1600–3000 m altitude.

Publication
The genus Jamesia was described by John Torrey and Asa Gray in 1840.

Species
The following species are accepted:
 * Jamesia americana
 * Jamesia tetrapetala

Description
It is a shrub growing to 1–2 m tall and to 3 m or more broad, with opposite simple leaves 3–7 cm long and 2–5 cm broad, with a serrated margin and a crinkled surface. The flowers are produced in erect terminal panicles, each flower white, 15–20 mm diameter, with five (rarely four) petals. The fruit is a dry capsule with numerous small seeds.

Etymology
The genus is named in honor of Edwin James, the botanist on Stephen Long's expedition in 1820 that explored the territory between the Platte and Arkansas Rivers. James was the first to collect this genus for botanical study.

title: Jamesia


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Philadelphus

Philadelphus (mock-orange) is a genus of about 60 species of shrubs from 3–20 ft (1–6 m) tall, native to North America, Central America, Asia and (locally) in southeast Europe.

They are named "mock-orange" in reference to their flowers, which in wild species look somewhat similar to those of oranges and lemons (Citrus) at first glance, and smell of orange flowers and jasmine (Jasminum). But Philadelphus is a basal asterid, not closely related to Jasminum (advanced asterids), and among the eudicots quite distant from Citrus (advanced rosids). An entirely misleading name for Philadelphus that is sometimes encountered is syringa; this properly refers to the lilacs, which are fairly close relatives of jasmine. The connection of the two shrubs lies in their introduction from Ottoman gardens to European ones, effected at the same time by the Holy Roman emperor's ambassador to the Sublime Porte, Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq, who returned to Vienna in 1562. The two shrubs appear together in John Gerard's Herball, as "Blew Pipe" (the lilac) and "White Pipe Tree", for the woods of both are pithy and easily hollowed out.

Philadelphus is named after an ancient Greek king of Egypt, Ptolemy II Philadelphus.

Description
Most are deciduous but a few species from the south of the genus' range are evergreen. The leaves are opposite, simple, with serrated margins, from 0.5-6 inches (1–14 cm) long. The flowers are white, with four petals and sepals, 0.5-2 inches (1–4 cm) diameter, and commonly (but not in all species) sweetly scented. The fruit is a small capsule, containing numerous small seeds. The bark is thin and flaky, finely shredding in longitudinal strips.

Ecology
Mock-oranges are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including the engrailed (Ectropis crepuscularia). A noted pathogen of the sweet mock-orange (P. coronarius) is the undescribed proteobacterium called "Pseudomonas tomato" (pv. philadelphi).

Cultivation
For a long time, Philadelphus coronarius was the only mock-orange of gardens, though some adventurous Americans grew the native P. inodorus that Mark Catesby had discovered growing on the banks of the Savannah River. It appeared in Lady Skipwith's garden lists and George Washington ordered some from Bartram in 1792. Mock-oranges are popular shrubs in parks and gardens, grown for their reliable display of late spring flowers; the scented species are particularly valued. In addition to the species, there are numerous garden origin hybrids and cultivars available, selected for doubleness and large flowers, with some compromise as to scent.

AGM cultivars
The following hybrid cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:-

 * ’Aureus’ (P. coronarius)
 * 'Beauclerk'
 * 'Belle Étoile'
 * ’Innocence’
 * 'Manteau d'Hermine'
 * 'Sybille'
 * ’Variegatus’ (P. coronarius)

In culture
Lewis' mock-orange (P. lewisii) is the state flower of Idaho.

Asia

 * Philadelphus brachybotrys (southeast China)
 * Philadelphus delavayi – Delavay's mock-orange (southwest China)
 * Philadelphus incanus (Hubei, Shaanxi)
 * Philadelphus kansuensis – Chinese evergreen mock-orange (northwest China)
 * Philadelphus laxiflorus (Gansu, Hubei, Shaanxi)
 * Philadelphus laxus Schrad. ex DC. – Japanese mock-orange (Japan; formerly P. satsumi
 * Philadelphus purpurascens (southwest China)
 * Philadelphus satsumanus – Downy Japanese mock-orange (Japan)
 * Philadelphus schrenkii – Korean mock-orange (northeast China, Korea, southeast Russia)
 * Philadelphus sericanthus (Sichuan, Hubei)
 * Philadelphus pekinensis – Beijing mock-orange (northern China)
 * Philadelphus subcanus (southwest China)
 * Philadelphus tenuifolius – Slenderleaf mock-orange (Korea, southeast Russia)
 * Philadelphus tomentosus – Fuzzy mock-orange (Himalaya)
 * Philadelphus triflorus – Himalayan mock-orange (Himalaya)

Europe

 * Philadelphus caucasicus – Caucasus mock-orange (Caucasus) – likely syn. of P. coronarius
 * Philadelphus coronarius – Sweet mock-orange, English Dogwood (southeast Europe)

North America
• Philadelphus argenteus – Silver mock-orange (California, Baja California)

• Philadelphus argyrocalyx – Silver-cup mock-orange (New Mexico)

• Philadelphus californicus – California mock-orange (California)

• Philadelphus confusus – Piper's mock-orange (California, Washington) – likely syn. of Philadelphus lewisii

• Philadelphus cordifolius – Heartleaf mock-orange (California) – likely syn. of Philadelphus lewisii

• Philadelphus coulteri – Coulter's mock-orange (northeast Mexico)

• Philadelphus crinitus – Hairy mock-orange, Trans-pecos Mock-orange (west Texas) – likely syn. of Philadelphus microphyllus

• Philadelphus ernestii – Canyon mock-orange (southwest U.S.) – likely syn. of Philadelphus texensis var. ernestii

• Philadelphus floridus – Florida mock-orange (Florida, Georgia) – likely syn. of Philadelphus inodorus

• Philadelphus gattingeri – Gattinger's mock-orange (Tennessee) – likely syn. of Philadelphus pubescens

• Philadelphus hirsutus – Streambank mock-orange (southeast US)

• Philadelphus hitchcockianus – Hitchcock's mock-orange (Texas, New Mexico)

• Philadelphus inodorus – Scentless mock-orange (US)

• Philadelphus insignis – Summer mock-orange (California, Oregon)

• Philadelphus intectus (southeast US)

• Philadelphus karwinskyanus – Mexican evergreen mock-orange (Mexico)

• Philadelphus lewisii – Lewis's mock-orange (western North America)

• Philadelphus maculatus (Hitch.) Hu – Spotted mock-orange (Arizona)

• Philadelphus madrensis – Desert mountain mock-orange (southwest US)

• Philadelphus mearnsii – Mearns' mock-orange (Texas, New Mexico)

• Philadelphus mexicanus – Mexican mock-orange (Mexico, Guatemala)

• Philadelphus microphyllus – Littleleaf mock-orange (southwest US)

• Philadelphus occidentalis – Western mock-orange (western North America)

• Philadelphus oreganus – Oregon mock-orange (Oregon)

• Philadelphus palmeri – Palmer's mock-orange (southwest US)

• Philadelphus pubescens – Hoary mock-orange (southeast US)

• Philadelphus pumilus – Dwarf mock-orange (California)

• Philadelphus serpyllifolius – Thymeleaf mock-orange (southern US, Mexico)

• Philadelphus sharpianus – Sharp's mock-orange (Tennessee, Missouri)

• Philadelphus texensis – Texas mock-orange (Texas)

• Philadelphus trichothecus – Columbian mock-orange (British Columbia, northwest US)

• Philadelphus wootonii – Wooton's mock-orange (New Mexico)

• Philadelphus zelleri – Zeller's mock-orange (Washington)

Pancontinental hybrids

 * Philadelphus × lemoinei (horticultural hybrid)
 * Philadelphus × purpureomaculatus (horticultural hybrid)
 * Philadelphus × virginalis (horticultural hybrid)

title: Philadelphus


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Jigger

Jigger may refer to:

Tools and machines

 * Jigger (bartending), used to measure out a jigger (1.5 US fluid ounces) of liquor
 * Pallet jack, used to lift and move pallets
 * Hydraulic jigger, a hydraulically powered mechanical winch
 * Ice jigger, used for setting fish nets under ice between two distant holes
 * Jigger, a machine for the shaping of clay body into flatware; see

Transportation

 * Handcar (hand-operated) or railroad speeder (motorized), a railway car mostly used for maintenance
 * Jiggermast, the aftmost mast of a four-masted sailing ship

Arts and entertainment

 * "Jigger", a work by Li Cheng (painter) (919–967)
 * Jigger, a large statue in Brownhills, West Midlands, England
 * Jigger Craigin, a character in the musical Carousel

Places

 * Jigger, Louisiana, United States, an unincorporated community
 * Jigger, a local name for the settlement of South Tunbridge in Tunbridge, Vermont, United States
 * Jigger Inn, St Andrews, Scotland, a historic pub

People

 * Jigger (nickname), a list of people
 * Jigger, a person who engages in jigging, i.e. fishing with a jig lure

Other uses

 * Tunga penetrans or chigoe flea, a tropical parasitic arthropod
 * Jigger, the inner button of a double-breasted coat or jacket
 * Jigger, an obsolete golf club that was a very low lofted iron with a shortened shaft

title: Jigger


text:
West Florida

West Florida (Florida Occidental) was a region on the northern coast of the Gulf of Mexico that underwent several boundary and sovereignty changes during its history. As its name suggests, it was formed out of the western part of former Spanish Florida (East Florida formed the eastern part, with the Apalachicola River as the border), along with lands taken from French Louisiana; Pensacola became West Florida's capital. The colony included about two thirds of what is now the Florida Panhandle, as well as parts of the modern U.S. states of Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama.

Great Britain established West and East Florida in 1763 out of land acquired from France and Spain after the Seven Years' War. As the newly acquired territory was too large to govern from one administrative center, the British divided it into two new colonies separated by the Apalachicola River. British West Florida included the part of formerly Spanish Florida, which lay west of the Apalachicola, as well as parts of formerly French Louisiana; its government was based in Pensacola. West Florida thus encompassed all territory between the Mississippi and Apalachicola Rivers, with a northern boundary which shifted several times over the subsequent years.

Both West and East Florida remained loyal to the British crown during the American Revolution, and served as havens for Tories fleeing from the Thirteen Colonies. Spain invaded West Florida and captured Pensacola in 1781, and after the war Britain ceded both Floridas to Spain. However, the lack of defined boundaries led to a series of border disputes between Spanish West Florida and the fledgling United States known as the West Florida Controversy.

Because of disagreements with the Spanish government, American and English settlers between the Mississippi and Perdido rivers declared that area as the independent Republic of West Florida in 1810. No part of that short-lived republic lay within the borders of the modern U.S. state of Florida; rather, it comprised the Florida parishes of today's Louisiana. Within months it was annexed by the United States, which claimed the region as part of the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. In 1819, the United States negotiated the purchase of the remainder of West Florida and all of East Florida in the Adams–Onís Treaty, and in 1822 both were merged into the Florida Territory.

Background
The area known as West Florida was originally claimed by Spain as part of La Florida, which included most of what is now the southeastern United States. Spain made several attempts to conquer and colonize the area, notably including Tristán de Luna's short-lived settlement in 1559, but it was not settled permanently until the 17th century, with the establishment of missions to the Apalachee. In 1698, the settlement of Pensacola was established to check French expansion into the area.

Beginning in the late 17th century, the French established settlements along the Gulf Coast and in the region as part of their colonial La Louisiane, including Mobile (1702) and Fort Toulouse (1717) in present-day Alabama and Fort Maurepas (1699) in present-day coastal Mississippi. After years of contention between France and Spain, they agreed to use the Perdido River (the modern border between Florida and Alabama) as the boundary between French Louisiana and Spanish Florida.

Before 1762, France had owned and administered the land west of the Perdido River as part of La Louisiane. The secret Treaty of Fontainebleau, concluded in 1762 but not made public until 1764, had effectively ceded to Spain all of French Louisiana west of the Mississippi River, as well as the Isle of Orleans.

However, under the treaty that had concluded the French and Indian War (Seven Years' War) in 1763, Britain obtained immediate title to all of French La Louisiane east of the Mississippi River. This included the land between the Perdido and Mississippi. Spain also ceded to Great Britain its territory of La Florida, in exchange for Cuba, which the British had captured during the war. As a result, for the next two decades, the British controlled nearly all of the coast of the Gulf of Mexico east of the Mississippi River. Most of the Spanish population left Florida at that time, and its colonial government records were relocated to Havana, Cuba.

Spain, meanwhile, failed to make good by occupancy its title to Louisiana until 1769, when it took formal possession. For six years, therefore, Louisiana as France possessed it, and as Spain received it, included none of the territory between the Mississippi and Perdido rivers, as the title to that territory had passed immediately from France to Britain in 1763.

British era
Finding this new territory too large to govern as one unit, the British divided it into two new colonies, West Florida and East Florida, separated by the Apalachicola River, as set forth in the Royal Proclamation of 1763. East Florida consisted of most of the formerly Spanish Florida, and retained the old Spanish capital of St. Augustine. West Florida comprised the land between the Mississippi and Apalachicola Rivers, including land from what had been Spanish Florida and French Louisiana, with Pensacola designated as its capital. The northern boundary was arbitrarily set at the 31st parallel north.

Many English Americans and Scotch-Irish Americans moved to the territory at this time. The Governor of West Florida in November 1763 was George Johnstone; his lieutenant governor, Montfort Browne, was a major landowner in the province who heavily promoted its development. Seven General Assemblies were convoked between 1766 and 1778.

In 1767, the British moved the northern boundary to the 32° 28′ north latitude, extending from the Yazoo to the Chattahoochee River, which included the Natchez District and the Tombigbee District. The appended area included approximately the lower halves of the present states of Mississippi and Alabama. Many new settlers arrived in the wake of the British garrison, swelling the population. In 1774 the First Continental Congress sent letters inviting West Florida to send delegates, but this proposal was declined as the inhabitants were overwhelmingly Loyalist. During the American Revolutionary War, the Governor of West Florida was Peter Chester. The commander of British forces during the war was John Campbell. The colony was attacked in 1778 by the Willing Expedition.

Spanish era
Spain entered the American Revolutionary War on the side of France, but not the Thirteen Colonies. Bernardo de Gálvez, governor of Spanish Louisiana, led a military campaign along the Gulf Coast, capturing Baton Rouge and Natchez from the British in 1779, Mobile in 1780, and Pensacola in 1781.

In the 1783 Treaty of Paris ending the war, the British agreed to a boundary between the United States and West Florida at 31° north latitude between the Mississippi and Apalachicola Rivers. However, a separate Anglo-Spanish agreement, which ceded both Florida provinces back to Spain, did not specify a northern boundary for Florida. Spain insisted that its West Florida claim extended fully to the 1767 boundary at 32° 28′, but the United States asserted that the land between 31° and 32° 28′ had always been British territory. This sparked the first West Florida Controversy. Negotiations in 1785–1786 between John Jay and Don Diego de Gardoqui failed to reach a satisfactory conclusion. The border was finally resolved in 1795 by the Treaty of San Lorenzo, in which Spain recognized the 31° parallel as the boundary.

Spain continued to maintain East and West Florida as separate colonies. When Spain acquired West Florida in 1783, the eastern British boundary was the Apalachicola River, but Spain moved it eastward to the Suwannee River in 1785. The purpose was to transfer the military post at San Marcos (now St. Mark's) and the district of Apalachee from East Florida to West Florida.

In the secret Treaty of San Ildefonso of 1800, Spain agreed to return Louisiana to France; however, the location of the boundary between Louisiana and West Florida was not explicitly specified. After France sold Louisiana to the United States in 1803, another boundary dispute erupted. The United States laid claim to the territory from the Perdido River to the Mississippi River, which the Americans believed had been a part of the old province of Louisiana when the French agreed to cede it to Spain in 1762. The Spanish insisted that they had administered that portion as the province of West Florida and that it was not part of the territory restored to France by Charles IV in 1802, as France had never given West Florida to Spain, among a list of other reasons.

Republic of West Florida

The United States and Spain held long, inconclusive negotiations on the status of West Florida. In the meantime, American settlers established a foothold in the area and resisted Spanish control. British settlers, who had remained, also resented Spanish rule, leading to a rebellion in 1810 and the establishment for 74 days of the Republic of West Florida.

In West Florida from June to September 1810, many secret meetings of those who resented Spanish rule, as well as three openly held conventions, took place in the Baton Rouge district. Out of those meetings grew the West Florida rebellion and the establishment of the independent Republic of West Florida, with its capital at St. Francisville, in present-day Louisiana, on a bluff along the Mississippi River.

Early in the morning on September 23, 1810, armed rebels stormed Fort San Carlos at Baton Rouge and killed two Spanish soldiers "in a sharp and bloody firefight that wrested control of the region from the Spanish." The rebels unfurled the flag of the new republic, a single white star on a blue field. After the successful attack, organized by Philemon Thomas, plans were made to take Mobile and Pensacola from the Spanish and incorporate the eastern part of the province into the new republic. Reuben Kemper led a small force in an attempt to capture Mobile, but the expedition ended in failure.

Support for the revolt was far from unanimous. The presence of competing pro-Spanish, pro-American, and pro-independence factions, as well as the presence of scores of foreign agents, contributed to a "virtual civil war within the Revolt as the competing factions jockeyed for position." The faction that favored the continued independence of West Florida secured the adoption of a constitution at a convention in October. The convention had earlier commissioned an army under General Philemon Thomas to march across the territory, subdue opposition to the insurrection, and seek to secure as much Spanish-held territory as possible. "Residents of the western Florida Parishes proved largely supportive of the Revolt, while the majority of the population in the eastern region of the Florida Parishes opposed the insurrection. Thomas' army violently suppressed opponents of the revolt, leaving a bitter legacy in the Tangipahoa and Tchefuncte River regions."

On November 7, 1810, Fulwar Skipwith was elected as governor, together with members of a bicameral legislature. Skipwith was inaugurated on November 29, 1810. A week later, he and many of his fellow officials still lingered at St Francisville preparing to go to Baton Rouge, where the next session of the legislature was to consider his ambitious program. The impending U.S. takeover apparently came as a surprise to Skipwith when the Mississippi Territory governor, David Holmes, and his party approached the town. Holmes persuaded all except a few leaders, including Skipwith and Philemon Thomas, the general of the West Florida troops, to acquiesce to American authority.

Skipwith complained bitterly to Holmes that, as a result of seven years of U.S. tolerance of continued Spanish occupation, the United States had abandoned its right to the country and that the West Florida people would not now submit to the American government without conditions. Skipwith and several of his unreconciled legislators then departed for the fort at Baton Rouge, rather than surrender the country unconditionally and without terms.

At Baton Rouge on December 9, 1810, Skipwith informed Holmes that he would no longer resist but could not speak for the troops in the fort. Their commander was John Ballinger, who upon the assurance of Holmes that his troops would not be harmed, agreed to surrender the fort. The Orleans Territory governor, William C. C. Claiborne and his armed forces from Fort Adams landed 2 mi above the town. Holmes reported to Claiborne that "the armed citizens ... are ready to retire from the fort and acknowledge the authority of the United States" without insisting upon any terms. Claiborne agreed to a respectful ceremony to mark the formal act of transfer. Thus, at 2:30 p.m. that afternoon, December 10, 1810, "the men within the fort marched out and stacked their arms and saluted the flag of West Florida as it was lowered for the last time, and then dispersed."

The boundaries of the Republic of West Florida included all territory south of parallel 31°N, east of the Mississippi River and north of the waterway formed by the Iberville River, Amite River, Lake Maurepas, Pass Manchac, Lake Pontchartrain, and the Rigolets. The Pearl River with its branch that flowed into the Rigolets formed the eastern boundary of the republic.

American annexation of the territory

On October 27, 1810, U.S. President James Madison proclaimed that the United States should take possession of West Florida between the Mississippi and Perdido Rivers, based on a tenuous claim that it was part of the Louisiana Purchase. (See The U.S. claim, below.) The West Florida government opposed annexation, preferring to negotiate terms to join the Union. Governor Fulwar Skipwith proclaimed that he and his men would "surround the Flag-Staff and die in its defense". William C. C. Claiborne was sent to take possession of the territory, entering the capital of St. Francisville with his forces on December 6, 1810, and Baton Rouge on December 10, 1810. Claiborne refused to recognize the legitimacy of the West Florida government, however, and Skipwith and the legislature eventually agreed to accept Madison's proclamation. Congress passed a joint resolution, approved January 15, 1811, to provide for the temporary occupation of the disputed territory and declaring that the territory should remain subject to future negotiation.

On February 12, 1812, Congress secretly authorized President James Madison to take possession of the portion of West Florida located west of the Perdido River that was not already in the possession of the United States, with authorization to use military and naval force as deemed necessary. On April 14, 1812, Congress authorized the portion of the territory west of the Pearl River to be incorporated into the state of Louisiana, which would be formally created on April 30, but it was not formally attached until the state's legislature approved it on August 4. The U.S. annexed the Mobile District of West Florida to the Mississippi Territory on May 14, 1812, although this decision was not effected with military force until nearly a year later. (See Major Gen. James Wilkinson's role.) According to one historian, "The incorporation of West Florida into the Orleans district represents the emergence of infant American imperialism by the newly constructed union. Using force, not negotiations, Claiborne and his army, with Madison's proclamation, forced Skipwith and his sympathizers to accept foreign rule."

United States claim
By the secret treaty of October 1, 1800, between France and Spain, known as the St. Ildefonso treaty, Spain returned to France in 1802 the province of Louisiana as at that time possessed by Spain, and such as it was when France last possessed it in 1769. p 48 (In contrast, Madison's 1810 proclamation alluded to the time of France's original, not last, possession.)

It is important that in the transfer of Louisiana to the United States, the identical language in Article 3 of the 1800 St. Ildefonso treaty was used. The ambiguity in this third article lent itself to the purpose of U.S. envoy James Monroe, although he had to adopt an interpretation that France had not asserted nor Spain allowed. p 83 Monroe examined each clause of the third article and interpreted the first clause as if Spain since 1783 had considered West Florida as part of Louisiana. The second clause only served to render the first clause clearer. The third clause referred to the treaties of 1783 and 1795, and was designed to safeguard the rights of the United States. This clause then simply gave effect to the others. p 84-85

According to Monroe, France never dismembered Louisiana while it was in her possession. (He regarded November 3, 1762, as the termination date of French possession, rather than 1769, when France formally delivered Louisiana to Spain.) After 1783, Spain reunited West Florida to Louisiana, Monroe held, thus completing the province as France possessed it, with the exception of those portions controlled by the United States. By a strict interpretation of the treaty, therefore, Spain might be required to cede to the United States such territory west of the Perdido as once belonged to France. p 84-85

Counters to the U.S. claim

 * 1) As part of the 1803 Louisiana Purchase treaty, France repeated verbatim Article 3 of its 1800 treaty with Spain, thus expressly subrogating the United States to the rights of France and Spain. p 288-291
 * 2) In 1800, denominated Louisiana did not include West Florida. p 288-291
 * 3) Spain, in all negotiations with France, refused to cede any part of Florida. p 288-291
 * 4) In 1801, Spain informed the Spanish governors in North America that the territory ceded to France did not include West Florida. p 87-88
 * 5) In Spanish government ordinances and treaties, the Floridas were always specified as distinct from all other Spanish possessions. p 49-50
 * 6) France's 1801 Treaty of Aranjuez with Spain stipulated the cession of Louisiana to be a "restoration", not a retrocession. p 50-52
 * 7) France never gave any part of Florida to Spain, so Spain could not give it back. p 50-52
 * 8) In the time Spain held the Floridas, they were always called the Floridas and never referred to as a portion of Louisiana. Treaties between United States and Spain also called them the Floridas. p 50-52
 * 9) In 1803, France began negotiating with Spain to acquire West and East Florida, confirming that France did not consider West Florida to have already been acquired. p 50-52
 * 10) During his negotiations with France, U.S. envoy Robert Livingston wrote nine reports to Madison in which he stated that West Florida was not in the possession of France. p 43-44
 * 11) President Jefferson asked U.S. officials in the border area for advice on the limits of Louisiana, the best informed of whom did not believe it included West Florida. p 87-88
 * 12) When Louisiana was formally delivered to the United States, the U.S. did not demand possession of West Florida. p 97-100
 * 13) In the summer of 1804, when the United States and Spain appealed to France to influence the treaty interpretation, Napoleon strongly sided with Spain. p 109-110
 * 14) In November 1804, in response to Livingston, France declared the American claim to West Florida absolutely unfounded. p 113-116
 * 15) In January 1805, the French and Spanish ambassadors jointly informed Madison that the American claim to West Florida was untenable. Madison pointed to pre-1763 maps that showed West Florida as part of the former French Louisiana territory. The French ambassador pointed out to Madison's dismay that the same applied to Tennessee and Kentucky. p 116-117
 * 16) Upon the failure of Monroe's 1804–1805 special mission, Madison was ready to abandon the American claim to West Florida altogether. p 118
 * 17) In 1805, Monroe's last proposition to Spain to obtain West Florida was absolutely rejected. p 293
 * 18) In an 1809 letter, Jefferson virtually admitted that West Florida was not a possession of the United States. p 46-47
 * 19) The U.S. title to the Louisiana territory was itself a vitiated title by virtue of the 1800 France-Spain treaty. p 26
 * 20) General Andrew Jackson personally accepted the delivery of title to West Florida from its Spanish governor on July 17, 1821.

Later history and legacy
The Spanish continued to dispute the annexation of the western parts of its West Florida colony, but their power in the region was too weak to do anything about it. They continued administering the remainder of the colony (between the Perdido and Suwannee Rivers) from the capital at Pensacola.

On February 22, 1819, Spain and the United States signed the Adams-Onís Treaty. In this treaty, Spain ceded both West and East Florida to the United States in exchange for compensation and the renunciation of American claims to Texas. Following ratification by Spain on October 24, 1820, and the United States on February 19, 1821, the treaty took effect, thereby establishing the current boundaries.

President James Monroe was authorized on March 3, 1821, to take possession of East Florida and West Florida for the United States and provide for initial governance. As a result, the U.S. military took over and governed both Floridas with Andrew Jackson serving as governor. The United States soon organized the Florida Territory on March 30, 1822, by combining East Florida and the rump West Florida east of the Perdido River and establishing a territorial government. It was then admitted to the Union as a state on March 3, 1845.

West Florida had an effect on choosing the location of Florida's current capital. At first, the Legislative Council of the Territory of Florida determined to rotate between the historic capitals of Pensacola and St. Augustine. The first legislative session was held at Pensacola on July 22, 1822; this required delegates from St. Augustine to travel 59 days by sea to attend. To get to the second session in St. Augustine, Pensacola members traveled 28 days over land. During this session, the council decided future meetings should be held at a half-way point to reduce the distance. Eventually, Tallahassee, site of an 18th-century Apalachee settlement, was selected as the midpoint between the former capitals of East and West Florida.

The portions of West Florida now located in Louisiana are known as the Florida Parishes. The Republic of West Florida Historical Museum is located in Jackson, Louisiana, run by the Republic of West Florida Historical Association. In 1991, the lineage society "The Sons & Daughters of the Province & Republic of West Florida 1763–1810" was founded for the descendants of settlers of the period. Its objective included to "collect and preserve records, documents and relics pertaining to the history and genealogy of West Florida prior to December 7, 1810." In 1993, the Louisiana State Legislature renamed Interstate 12, the full length of which is contained in the Florida Parishes, as the "Republic of West Florida Parkway".

In 1998, Leila Lee Roberts, a great-granddaughter of Fulwar Skipwith, donated the original copy of the constitution of the West Florida Republic and the supporting papers to the Louisiana State Archives in Baton Rouge. Southeastern Louisiana University in Hammond also holds an archival collection of documents from British West Florida and the Republic of West Florida, some of them dating back to 1764.

Governors
Governors under British rule:
 * George Johnstone (1763–1766)
 * Montfort Browne (acting, 1766–1769)
 * John Eliot (appointed 1767, arrived April 1769, committed suicide shortly afterward)
 * Montfort Browne (acting, 1769)
 * Elias Durnford (acting, 1769–1770)
 * Peter Chester (1770–1781)

Governors under Spanish rule:
 * Arturo O'Neill de Tyrone (May 9, 1781 – 1794)
 * Enrique White (1794–1796)
 * Francisco de Paula Gelabert (1796)
 * Vicente Folch y Juan (June 1796 – March 1811)
 * Francisco San Maxent (March 1811 – 1812)
 * Mauricio de Zúñiga (1812–1813)
 * Mateo González Manrique (1813–1815)
 * José de Soto (1815–1816)
 * Mauricio de Zúñiga (1816)
 * Francisco San Maxent (1816)
 * José Masot (1816 – May 26, 1818)
 * William King (United States military governor, May 26, 1818 – February 4, 1819)
 * José María Callava (February 4, 1819 – July 17, 1821)

title: West Florida


text:
East Florida

East Florida (Florida Oriental) was a colony of Great Britain from 1763 to 1783 and a province of the Spanish Empire from 1783 to 1821. The British gained control over Spanish Florida in 1763 as part of the Treaty of Paris that ended the Seven Years' War. Deciding that the colony was too large to administer as a single unit, British officials divided Florida into two colonies separated by the Apalachicola River: the colony of East Florida, with its capital located in St. Augustine; and West Florida, with its capital located in Pensacola. East Florida was much larger and comprised the bulk of the former Spanish colony and most of the current state of Florida. It had also been the most populated region of Spanish Florida, but before control was transferred to Britain, most residents – including virtually everyone in St. Augustine – left the territory, with most migrating to Cuba.

Britain tried to attract settlers to the two Floridas without much success. The sparsely populated colonies were invited to send representatives to the Continental Congress but chose not to do so, and they remained loyal to Great Britain during the American Revolutionary War. However, as part of the 1783 treaty in which Britain officially recognized the independence of thirteen of its former colonies as the United States, it ceded both Floridas back to Spain, which maintained them as separate colonies while moving the boundary east to the Suwannee River.

By the early 1800s, Spain had proved uninterested in and incapable of organizing or defending either of the two Floridas much beyond the two small capital cities. American settlers moved into the territory without authorization, causing conflict with the Seminoles, a new Native American culture formed by indigenous refugees from the American Southeast. During the War of 1812, the American military invaded Florida, occupying West Florida while East Florida remained in Spanish hands. American settlers in East Florida further weakened Spanish control in 1812 when a group of Americans, mostly from Georgia, calling themselves the "Patriots," declared the short-lived Republic of East Florida at Amelia Island with semi-official support from the U.S. government.

Border disputes between the United States and Seminoles in Florida continued after the war. By 1817, much of Spanish West Florida had been occupied and annexed by the United States over Spanish objections, with the land eventually becoming portions of the states of Louisiana, Alabama, and Mississippi. After a decade of intensifying border disputes and American incursions, Spain ceded both Floridas to the U.S. in the Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819. The U.S. officially took possession in 1821; in 1822, all of East Florida and the few remaining portions of West Florida were combined into a single Florida Territory with borders that closely approximated those of the current state of Florida.

British period

Under the terms of the 1763 Treaty of Paris, which ended the Seven Years' War (the French and Indian War), Spain ceded Spanish Florida to Britain. At the same time, Britain received all of French Louisiana east of the Mississippi River, with the exception of New Orleans, from France. Determining the new territory too large to administer as one unit, Britain divided its new southeastern acquisitions into two new colonies separated by the Apalachicola River: East Florida, with its capital in the old Spanish city of St. Augustine, and West Florida, with its capital at Pensacola. However, most of the Spanish population departed following the signing of the treaty, with the entirety of St. Augustine emigrating to Cuba.

The settlement of East Florida was heavily linked in London to the same interests that controlled Nova Scotia. The East Florida Society of London and the Nova Scotia Society of London had many overlapping members, and Council frequently followed their suggestions on the granting of lands to powerful merchant interests in London.

"Perhaps it is strange to think of such dissimilar geographic areas with such opposing climates as having much in common. But if one considers naval and military strategy, one can see that these areas have a common significance, especially when viewed from London by the ministry. Halifax (Nova Scotia) was the command post for both the admiral and general in charge of the American forces.... St. Augustine evoked the same strategic considerations. These posts have been described as the two centers of strength to which the British Army was withdrawn in the late 1760s."

The apportionment of lands in the new colonies fell to the same group of English and Scottish entrepreneurs and merchant interests, led chiefly by the English slave trader Richard Oswald and the British general James Grant, who would later become governor of East Florida. A list of the grantees in both Florida and Canada shows that the plums fell to a well-connected—and inter-connected—group. Lincoln's Inn barrister Levett Blackborne, grandson of Sir Richard Levett, a powerful merchant and Lord Mayor of London, came in for grants of 20000 acre in both locales, for instance. Other aristocrats, nobles, and merchants did the same.

The most powerful lubricant between the East Florida speculators and the Nova Scotia speculators was Col. Thomas Thoroton of Flintham, Nottinghamshire. Thoroton, the stepbrother of Levett Blackborne, had married an illegitimate daughter of the Duke of Rutland and often lived at Belvoir Castle, where he acted as principal agent to the Duke, who, along with his son, the Marquis of Granby, were heavily involved in overseas ventures. Thoroton frequently acted as the go-between for Richard Oswald and James Grant, particularly after those two gave up their Nova Scotia Grants to focus on East Florida, where a drumbeat of steady speculation (particularly from Dr. Andrew Turnbull and Dr. William Stork) had fanned the flames of interest in London. It was not until March 1781 that the Governor of East Florida, Patrick Tonyn, called elections for a provincial legislature.

East Florida remained loyal to Great Britain during the American Revolution. The colony became a haven for Loyalist refugees and fugitive slaves fleeing to British lines from the Southern Colonies during the American War of Independence, and several military units were established by Loyalists in East Florida.

Spain participated indirectly in the war as an ally of France and captured Pensacola from the British in 1781. In the 1783 Treaty of Paris, which ended the war, the British ceded both Floridas to Spain. The same treaty recognized the independence of the United States, directly to the north.

Racial demographics
During the period of British rule in East Florida, the black population came to outnumber the white population in the province by a ratio of 2 to 1. The ratio of blacks to whites in East Florida was lower than in British West Florida but higher than in the other southern British colonies. Those who were white in Florida generally served in the military or worked as overseers, artisans, or merchants. There were very few white yeomen farmers. White residents generally lived in or around St. Augustine with an exception being generally made for overseers and those who resided in New Smyrna. Due to the poor treatment of Minorcans in New Smyrna, some left for St. Augustine, where a large number of them lived in a section of the city known as the "Minorcan Quarter" or the "Greek Quarter".

Population and other characteristics
It is unclear what the population of East Florida was prior to the American Revolution but it is estimated to have had a population of close to 3,000, making it much larger in population than West Florida, which is believed to have had only several hundred residents. The British tried to encourage settlement in East and West Florida, thinking it would take pressure off the proclamation line that colonists in the northern British colonies wanted to move beyond. However, this plan was generally unsuccessful as many of those who got land grants did not end up settling on those lands. By 1783 the population of East Florida was about 17,000.

During the American Revolution, East Florida sided with the British and became a loyalist haven. With the end of the Revolution and the handing over of both Floridas to the Spanish, many loyalists were hesitant to leave. In the end, most of the loyalist and British residents, approximately 10,000 people, left with most of these going to the Bahamas or West Indies and some going to Nova Scotia and England. Another 4,000 people "melted away into the wilderness", with some going as far away as the Mississippi River.

A town named St. Johns Bluff or St. Johns Town was laid out in 1779 along the St. Johns River. The planned community was the first town to be established on the river. Most of those who fled to Florida settled at that town and St. Augustine. St. Johns Bluff became a port and had 300 houses in it by the spring of 1783. With the end of the British period, it was renamed as St. Vincent Ferrer before it was eventually abandoned. A settlement named Rollestown was established by Denys Rolle 30 mi southeast of St. Augustine, on the east shore of the St. Johns River, south of Deep Creek.

St. Augustine, the capital of the colony, was much smaller and less advanced than the capitals of the other Thirteen Colonies.

Slavery and economics
East Florida did not establish a formal slave code until 1782. Those who were black or of mixed race of European and African origin and could not prove they were free were considered to be slaves. During the American Revolution, many Georgians and Carolinians moved to Florida along with their slaves. The colonial government, along with slave-owners, used slaves to construct defensive fortifications. A militia act that allowed for conscripting slaves as laborers and soldiers was passed in 1781.

Goods produced and exported in East Florida included sugar, timber, indigo, rice, naval stores, and barrel staves; most of these goods came from plantations along the St. Marys and St. Johns rivers that used slave labor.

Bernard Romans wrote the first account of Spanish fishing ranchos existing along Florida's southwest coast in 1770. When the British took control of Florida, they monitored the fisherman but let them continue their activities. Governor James Grant was ordered to stop the fisherman from operating but did not enforce that order. At one point the fishing boats were suspected of being a threat to British control, but a complete review in 1767-68 found they were harmless.

Media
The East Florida Gazette was a pro-loyalist newspaper that was published weekly in St. Augustine from 1783 to 1784. It was founded by a loyalist printer, John Wells, and his brother, Dr. William Charles Wells, who had moved to St. Augustine from Charleston, South Carolina. The paper was printed "'...at the Printing-office in Treasury-lane'" Prior to the establishment of a newspaper, most news came into St. Augustine through gazettes that were published in Savannah, Georgia, and Charleston.

The Wells brothers also published two books: Nature and the Principles of Public Credit, by Samuel Gale, along with The Case of the Inhabitants of East Florida, written by John Wells himself. In 1783, another printer named David Zubly, who was a loyalist refugee from Savannah, Georgia, printed the first book in the colony, a copy of John Tobler's Almanack, at his home.

Spanish period: Florida Oriental
Under Spanish rule, the provinces of East Florida and West Florida initially remained divided by the Apalachicola River, the boundary established by the British. However, Spain moved it eastward to the Suwanee River in 1785.

Spain continued to administer East and West Florida as separate provinces. The Spanish offered favorable terms for acquiring land, which attracted many settlers from the newly formed United States. There were several territorial disputes between the U.S. and Spain, some resulting in military action, including the Patriot War in 1812 and the filibuster at Amelia Island in 1817.

An American army under Andrew Jackson invaded East Florida during the First Seminole War. Jackson's forces captured San Marcos on 7 April 1818; as well as Fort Barrancas at West Florida's capital, Pensacola, on 24 May 1818.

James Monroe's Secretary of State, John Quincy Adams, defined the American position on this issue. Adams accused Spain of breaking Pinckney's Treaty by failing to control the Seminoles. Faced with the prospect of losing control, Spain formally ceded all of its Florida territory to the U.S. under the Adams–Onís Treaty in 1819 (ratified in 1821), in exchange for the U.S. ceding its claims on Texas and the U.S. paying any claims its citizens might have against Spain, up to $5,000,000.

In 1822, the U.S. Congress organized the Florida Territory, merging East Florida and the portion of West Florida that had remained under Spanish control until 1821. In 1845, Florida was admitted as the 27th state of the United States.

Population and demographics
With the transfer of Florida to Spain, a number of former British subjects decided to stay while some Spaniards came to Florida. St. Augustine had a mix of both residents from the British period and newly arrived Spaniards. The rural areas settled by colonists were described as being "exclusively Anglo". During the Spanish period, the population of St. Augustine "hovered" at about 3,000 people, with half of its population being black slaves. There were nine Native American towns in Florida, but those towns were not counted in the 1786 census. In 1786, St. Augustine had a population of about 950 people. Three hundred of whom had some degree of African descent whether they were enslaved or not.

Economics
With the return of the Spanish, the system of plantation agriculture developed in the colony during the British period remained. Although the production levels were not as high as other British colonies, cash crops like indigo, hemp, and rum made in Spanish East Florida led to economic growth there. As a result, St. Augustine became less dependent on the royal situado (royal financial payments for support). Trade became less restrictive during the second Spanish period as the Spanish monarchies enacted reforms allowing for trade between Spanish and non-Spanish areas, which benefited St. Augustine.

St. Augustine was the largest port on the Atlantic Ocean south of Charleston. Ships would travel often to Charleston, South Carolina and Cap Français in Haiti where goods were traded and crews learned the latest news as well. East Florida became economically dependent on the United States after Spain started to align with France and declared war on the British in 1796; as a result British trade largely stopped. Charleston began to surpass Havana as St. Augustine's biggest trading partner while Savannah, Philadelphia and New York City had become trading partners with the city. East Florida exported oranges, lumber and cotton to the United States while fish, grain and foodstuffs were imported from the United States.

Spain was concerned about the Haitian Revolution, fearing that ideas of independence could be spread to their own colonies, including Florida, with Governor Quesada doing his best to follow the Spanish government's policy of prohibiting interactions with French possessions, "...forbidding the introduction of French ideas, books, citizens, or slaves originating from French possessions."

title: East Florida


text:
Apple IIc

The Apple IIc is a personal computer introduced by Apple Inc. shortly after the launch of the original Macintosh in 1984. It is essentially a compact and portable version of the Apple IIe. The IIc has a built-in floppy disk drive and a keyboard, and was often sold with its matching monitor. The c in the name stands for compact, referring to the fact it is a complete Apple II setup in a smaller notebook-sized housing. It is compatible with a wide range of Apple II software and peripherals.

The Apple IIc has rear peripheral expansion ports integrated onto the main logic board instead of the expansion slots and direct motherboard access of earlier Apple II models. Apple intended the Apple IIc to require less technical expertise to use. The Apple IIc weighs 7.5 lb. It was succeeded by the Apple IIc Plus in 1988.

History
The Apple IIc was released on April 24, 1984, during an Apple-held event called Apple II Forever. With that motto, Apple proclaimed the new machine was proof of the company's long-term commitment to the Apple II and its users, despite the recent introduction of the Macintosh. The IIc was also seen as the company's response to the new IBM PCjr, and Apple hoped to sell 400,000 by the end of 1984. While essentially an Apple IIe computer in a smaller case, it was not a successor, but rather a portable version to complement it. One Apple II machine would be sold for users who required the expandability of slots, and another for those wanting the simplicity of a plug and play machine with portability in mind.

The machine introduced Apple's Snow White design language, notable for its case styling and a modern look designed by Hartmut Esslinger which became the standard for Apple equipment and computers for nearly a decade. The Apple IIc introduced a unique off-white coloring known as "Fog", chosen to enhance the Snow White design style. The IIc and some peripherals were the only Apple products to use the "Fog" coloring. While relatively light-weight and compact in design, the Apple IIc was not a true portable in design as it lacked a built-in battery and display.

Codenames for the machine while under development included Lollie, ET, Yoda, Teddy, VLC, IIb, IIp.

Improving the IIe
Technically the Apple IIc was an Apple IIe in a smaller case, more portable and easier to use but also less expandable. The IIc used the CMOS-based 65C02 microprocessor which added 27 new instructions to the 6502, but was incompatible with programs that used deprecated illegal opcodes of the 6502. (Apple stated that the Apple IIc was compatible with 90–95% of the 10,000 software packages available for the Apple II.) The new ROM firmware allowed Applesoft BASIC to recognize lowercase characters and work better with an 80-column display, and fixed several bugs from the IIe ROM. In terms of video, the text display added 32 unique character symbols called "MouseText" which, when placed side by side, could display simple icons, windows and menus to create a graphical user interface completely out of text, similar in concept to IBM code page 437 or PETSCII's box-drawing characters. A year later, the Apple IIe would benefit from these improvements in the form of a four-chip upgrade called the Enhanced IIe.

Built-in cards and ports
The equivalent of five expansion cards were built-in and integrated into the Apple IIc motherboard: An Extended 80-Column Text Card, two Super Serial Cards, a Mouse Card, and a Disk II floppy drive controller card. This meant the Apple IIc had 128 KB RAM, 80-column text, and Double-Hi-Resolution graphics built-in and available right out of the box, unlike its older sibling, the Apple IIe. It also meant less of a need for slots, as the most popular peripheral add-on cards were already built-in, ready for devices to be plugged into the rear ports of the machine. The built-in cards were mapped to phantom slots so software from slot-based Apple II models would know where to find them (i.e. mouse to virtual slot 4, serial cards to slot 1 and 2, floppy to slot 6, and so on). The entire Apple Disk II Card, used for controlling floppy drives, had been shrunk down into a single chip called the "IWM" which stood for Integrated Woz Machine.

In the rear of the machine were its expansion ports, mostly for providing access to its built-in cards. The standard DE-9 joystick connector doubled as a mouse interface, compatible with the same mice used by the Lisa and early Macintosh computers. Two serial ports were provided primarily to support a printer and modem, and a floppy port connector supported a single external 5.25-inch drive (and later "intelligent" devices such as 3.5-inch drives and hard disks). A Video Expansion port provided rudimentary signals for add-on adapters but, alone, could not directly generate a video signal (Apple produced an LCD and an RF-modulator for this port; the latter shipped with early IIc computers). A port connector tied into an internal 12 V power converter for attaching batteries; this is where the infamous external power supply (dubbed "brick on a leash" by users) that was included plugged in. The same composite video port found on earlier Apple II models remained present; however, gone were the cassette ports and internal DIP-16 game port.

Built-in accessories and keyboard
The Apple IIc had a built-in 5.25-inch floppy drive (140 KB) along the right side of the case—the first Apple II model to include such a feature. Along the left side of the case was a dial to control the volume of the internal speaker, along with a $1/8$-inch monaural audio jack for headphones or an external speaker. A fold-out carrying handle was also used to prop up the back end of the machine when in use. This was required to provide good air circulation and make typing comfortable.

The keyboard layout mirrored that of the Apple IIe; however, the "Reset" key had been moved above the "Esc" key. Two toggle switches were also located in the same area: an "80/40"-column switch for (specially written) software to detect which text video mode to start up in, and a "Keyboard" switch to select between QWERTY and Dvorak layout—or between US and national layout on non-American machines. The keyboard itself was built into the front half of the case, much like a notebook computer, and early models had a rubber mat placed beneath the keycaps which acted as a liquid spill guard.

Reception
Although Apple predicted that it would sell 100,000 IIc computers per month, it sold an average of 100,000 per year over four years; even the unsuccessful PCjr outsold it during each computer's first year on the market. The IIe was much more popular than the IIc because of its greater expandability, but Apple almost stopped production of the IIe because of the IIc's expected popularity, causing a shortage of the former and glut of the latter. However, according to Paul Kunkel in AppleDesign, Apple sold more than 400,000 Apple IIc computers in the first year, most of the sales including the matching monitor.

While noting its lack of an internal modem and inability to use expansion cards such as the popular Z-80 SoftCard, BYTE in May 1984 described the Apple IIc as a "head-to-head [competitor] with the IBM PCjr" for novice computer users. Creative Computing agreed, stating in July 1984 that "This war will have no clear winner. Apple fans will buy the IIc, and IBM fans will buy the PCjr. I believe the Apple II will live forever", with the IIc as the "final transmutation" of the Apple II because it was about as small as a computer with a full-sized keyboard and 5 1/4" drive could be. The magazine said in December 1984 that the IIe and IIc were the best home computers with prices above $500, with the IIc better for those using word processing and business software.

Specifications

 * Microprocessor
 * 65C02 running at 1.023 MHz
 * 8-bit data bus
 * Memory
 * 128 KB RAM built-in
 * 32 KB ROM built-in (16 KB ROM in original)
 * Expandable from 128 KB to 1 MB (only through non-conventional methods in original)
 * Video
 * 40 and 80 columns text, with 24 lines
 * Low-Resolution: 40 × 48 (16 colors)
 * High-Resolution: 280 × 192 (6 colors)
 * Double-Low-Resolution: 80 × 48 (16 colors)
 * Double-High-Resolution: 560 × 192 (16 colors)
 * Audio
 * Built-in speaker; 1-bit toggling
 * User-adjustable volume (manual dial control)
 * Built-in storage
 * Slim-line internal 5.25-inch floppy drive (140 KB, single-sided)
 * Internal connectors
 * Memory Expansion Card connector (34-pin)*

* Only available on ROM 3 motherboard and higher; original IIc: NONE

 * Specialized chip controllers
 * IWM (Integrated Woz Machine) for floppy drives
 * Dual 6551 ACIA chips for serial I/O
 * External connectors
 * Joystick/Mouse (DE-9)
 * Printer, serial-1 (DIN-5)
 * Modem, serial-2 (DIN-5)
 * Video Expansion Port (D-15)
 * Floppy drive SmartPort (D-19)
 * 15-Volt DC connector input (DIN-7, male)
 * NTSC composite video output (RCA connector)
 * Audio-out ($1/8$-inch mono phone jack)

Revisions
The Apple IIc was in production from April 1984 to August 1988, and during this time accrued some minor changes. These modifications included three new ROM updates, a bug-fix correction to the original motherboard, a newly revised motherboard, and a slight cosmetic change to the external appearance of the machine. The ROM revision for a specific Apple IIc is determined by entering the Applesoft BASIC programming language and typing in the command PRINT PEEK (64447) which returns the value indicating the particular ROM version.

Original IIc (ROM version '255')
The initial ROM, installed in machines produced during the first year and a half of production, was 16 KB in size. The only device which could be connected to the disk port was (one) external 5.25-inch floppy drive; software could be booted from this external drive by typing the command PR#7. The serial port did not mask incoming linefeed characters or support the XON/XOFF protocol, unlike all later firmware revisions to come. There was no self-test diagnostic present in this ROM; holding down the key during cold boot merely cycled unusual patterns on screen which served no useful purpose or indication of the machine's health.

Serial port timing fix
The original Apple IIc motherboard (manufactured between April and November 1984) derived the timing for its two serial ports through a 74LS161 TTL logic chip. It was later found that this method's timing was 3% slower than the minimum requirement specified and caused some third-party (i.e. non-Apple) modems and printers, which operated at 1200 bits per second (baud) or faster, to function improperly. Slower serial devices operating at 300 baud or less were unaffected, as well as some faster devices which could tolerate the deviation. The solution to ensure all devices were compatible was to replace the TTL chip with a 1.8432 MHz crystal oscillator (next to capacitor C19) during manufacture. Apple would swap affected motherboards for users who could prove they had an incompatible serial device (e.g. a third-party 1200-baud modem which presented problems; not all did).

UniDisk 3.5 support (ROM version '0')
This update, introduced in November 1985, came in the form of an upgrade to the ROM firmware which doubled in size from 16 KB to 32 KB. The new ROM supported "intelligent" devices such as the Apple UniDisk 3.5-inch (800 KB) floppy drive and Smartport-based hardisks, in addition to an external 5.25-inch floppy drive. A new self-test diagnostic was provided for testing built-in RAM and other signs of logic faults. The Mini-Assembler, absent since the days of the Apple II Plus, made a return, and new Monitor "Step" and "Trace" commands were added as well. The upgraded ROM added rudimentary support for an external AppleTalk networking device which was yet to be developed. When attempting to boot virtual slot 7, users would encounter the message "APPLETALK OFFLINE". The IIc, however, had no built-in networking capabilities, and no external device was ever released. The upgrade consisted of a single chip swap (and a trivial motherboard modification), which Apple provided free only to persons who purchased a UniDisk 3.5 drive. A small sticker with an icon of a 3.5-inch floppy diskette was placed next to the existing 5.25-inch diskette icon above the floppy drive port indicating the machine had been upgraded.

Memory Expansion IIc (ROM version '3')
Introduced in September 1986 simultaneously with the Apple II GS, this model introduced a new motherboard, new keyboard and new color scheme. The original Apple IIc had no expansion options and required third-party cards (e. Legend Industries) to perform various hardware tricks. This could be done by removing the CPU and MMU chips and inserting a special board into these sockets, which then used bank switching to expand memory up to 1 Megabyte (RAM). This was similar to the function of the slots in the original Apple II, II+ as well as the auxiliary slot in the Apple IIe. The new motherboard added a 34-pin socket for plugging in memory cards directly, which allowed for the addressing of up to 1 megabyte (MB) of memory using Slinky-type memory cards. The onboard chip count was reduced from 16 memory chips (64K×1) to four (64K×4). The new firmware removed the code for the cancelled AppleTalk networking device and replaced it with support for memory cards. Bumping out the non-supported AppleTalk functionality, memory now lived in virtual slot 4, and mouse support moved to slot 7. The new keyboard no longer had the rubber anti-spill mat and offered generally more tactile and responsive keys that felt more "clicky". At the same time, the color of the keyboard, floppy drive latch, and power supply cords changed from beige to light grey, which matched the new Platinum color scheme of the Apple II GS. The case style, however, remained Snow White. Owners of the previous IIc model were entitled to a free motherboard upgrade if they purchased one of Apple's IIc memory expansion boards (they did not receive the new keyboard or the cosmetic changes).

Memory Expansion fix (ROM version '4')
In January 1988, a new ROM firmware update was issued to address bugs in the new memory-expandable IIc. Changes included better detection of installed RAM chips, correction of a problem when using the serial modem port in terminal mode, and a bug fix for keyboard buffering. The ROM upgrade was available free of charge only to owners of the memory expansion IIc. This was the final change to the Apple IIc; it would be superseded that September by the Apple IIc Plus (identified as ROM version '5').

International versions
Like the Apple IIe before it, the Apple IIc keyboard differed depending on what region of the world it was sold in. Sometimes the differences were very minor, such as extra local language characters and symbols printed on certain keycaps (e.g. French accented characters on the Canadian IIc such as "à", "é", "ç", etc., or the British Pound "£" symbol on the UK IIc) while other times the layout and shape of keys greatly differed (e.g. European IIcs). In order to access the local character set, the "Keyboard" switch above the keyboard was depressed, which would instantly switch text video from the US character set to the local set. The DVORAK keyboard layout was not available on international IIcs—the feature had been intended to switch between international keyboards; the DVORAK layout was merely added to give the switch a function on US IIcs. In some countries these localized IIcs also supported 50 Hz PAL video and the different 220/240-volt power of that region by means of a different external power supply — this was a very simple change, since the IIc had an internal 12-volt power converter. The international versions replaced any English legends printed on the case (specifically the "keyboard" toggle switch, "Power" and "Disk Use" drive-activity labels) with graphical icons that could be universally understood.

Portability enhancements
At the time of the Apple IIc's release, Apple announced an optional black and white (1-bit) LCD screen designed specifically for the machine called the Apple Flat Panel Display. While it was welcomed as a means of making the IIc more portable, it did not integrate well as a portable solution, not attaching in a secure or permanent manner and not able to fold-over face down. Instead, it sat atop the machine and connected via ribbon cable to a somewhat bulky rear port connector. Its main shortcoming was that it suffered from a very poor contrast and no backlighting, making it very difficult to view without a strong external light source. The display itself had an odd aspect ratio as well, making graphics look vertically squashed. A third-party company would later introduce a work-alike LCD screen called the C-Vue, which looked and functioned very much like Apple's product, albeit with a reportedly slight improvement in viewability. Consequently, both sold poorly and had a very short market life span, making these displays fairly uncommon (and as a result, extremely rare today).

Third parties also offered external rechargeable battery units for the Apple IIc (e.g. Prairie Power Portable System available from Roger Coats) with up to eight hours per charge or longer. Although they aided in making the machine more of a true portable, they were nonetheless bulky and heavy, and added more pieces that would have to be carried. Adapter cables were sold as well that allowed the Apple IIc to plug into an automobile's DC power cigarette lighter.

To help transport the Apple IIc and its accessory pieces around, Apple sold a nylon carrying case with shoulder strap that had a compartment for the computer, its external power supply, and the cables. It had enough room to squeeze in one of the above-mentioned LCD display units. The case was grey in color with a stitched-on Apple logo in the upper right corner.

Expansion capabilities
While the Apple IIc had many built-in features to offer, many users wanted to extend the machine's capabilities beyond what Apple provided. It proved difficult since the IIc was a closed system that initially was designed with no expansion capabilities in mind; however, many companies figured out ingenious ways of squeezing enhancements inside the tiny case. Real-time clocks, memory expansion, and coprocessors were popular, and some companies even managed to combine all three into a single add-on board. Typically, in order to add these options, key chips on the motherboard were pulled and moved onto the expansion board offering the new features, and the board was then placed into the empty sockets. While sometimes a tight squeeze, this trickery worked quite well, and most importantly of all offered users a way to expand memory—something Apple did not themselves support until the Memory Expansion IIc model was introduced.

Some companies devised a method for squeezing in an entire CPU accelerator product, by means of placing all the specialized circuitry (i.e. cache and logic) into one tall chip that outright replaced the 40-pin 65C02 microprocessor, speeding up the machine from 4–10 MHz. Notable examples are the Zip Chip and Rocket Chip.

Although the IIc lacked a SCSI or IDE interface, external hard drives were produced by third parties that connected through the floppy SmartPort as an innovative alternative connection method (e.g. ProApp, Chinook). While these specialized hard drives were relatively slow due to the nature of how data was transferred through this interface (designed primarily for floppy drives) they did allow for true mass storage. The CDrive however did mount internally and was very fast due to its direct connection to the CPU. Other innovations that used existing expansion ports led to add-on speech and music synthesis products by means of external devices that plugged into the IIc's serial ports. Three popular such devices were the Mockingboard-D, Cricket and Echo IIc. Applied Engineering offered an ever increasing and improved line of "Z-Ram" internal memory expansion boards, which also included a Z-80 CPU for Apple CP/M software capability.

General accessories
For those wishing to use the Apple IIc as a standard desktop machine, Apple sold the Monitor IIc, a 9 in monochrome CRT display with an elevated stand. The Color Monitor IIc, a 14 in color composite monitor, followed in 1985. A mouse was another popular add-on, especially since it required no interface card, unlike earlier Apples, and simply plugged directly into the back of the machine (MousePaint, a clone of MacPaint, shipped with the IIc's mouse). An external 5.25-inch floppy drive, matching the style of the IIc, was also made available. Later, 3.5-inch floppy storage became an option with the "intelligent" UniDisk 3.5 which contained its own miniature computer inside (CPU, RAM, firmware) to overcome the issue of using a high-speed floppy drive on a 1 MHz machine.

title: Apple IIc


text:
Talk:Mauno Koivisto

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Finishing up
I think the article would be pretty well off on its way to a good article if the post-presidency section would be expanded and the trest double-checked & copy-edited. Might do that in a while when I gather myself. Cheers Manelolo (talk) 20:46, 1 December 2017 (UTC)

External links modified (January 2018)
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Two Terms I / Kaksi kautta I
The resource "Two Terms I" / "Kaksi kautta I" by Koivisto himself is listed as three different references. Surely these refer to the same resource? J I P | Talk 02:33, 19 September 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Mauno Koivisto


text:
Talk:Battle of Bunker Hill

Battle result
Was there a previous consensus that the infobox result should be limited to just "See Aftermath" at all? It seems pretty obvious what the result was - a Pyrrhic British victory. It's not as if the result is in question - the British took the ground and drove the colonial forces from the Peninsular, but suffered irreplaceable casualties that prevented them from following-up on their victory. (TomRidley (talk) 22:42, 22 June 2020 (UTC))

 * Description of the result in the infobox as "See Aftermath" defers to the broad community consensus not to use such terms as "Pyrrhic" in the infobox per WP:MILMOS, noting that MILMOS explicitly defers to the template documentation. Apologies that I did not see this question earlier. Regards, Cinderella157 (talk) 01:45, 25 June 2020 (UTC)

 * "see aftermath" in this case makes sense. It was clearly a British victory, as they took the hill, and the numbers of dead weren't that different really, in that the Brits lost about 240 killed, but the US lost 120 or so. That's the sort of number you might expect from taking a fortified position, so its nothing too amazing. However British General Sir Henry clinton refers to it as a Pyrhic victory, so it appears that's how it was percieved. Deathlibrarian (talk) 00:20, 18 June 2021 (UTC)

 * Wikipedia is supposed to be factual, so Why hasn't it been changed to a "British Victory" in the article. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2A00:23EE:1580:369E:DA1E:C57A:DA10:B2D9 (talk) 00:03, 24 December 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Battle of Bunker Hill


text:
Van Allen

Van Allen may refer to:

Given name

 * Van Allen Plexico (born 1968), U.S. professor

Surname

 * George Van Allen (1890–1937), politician in Alberta, Canada
 * James Van Allen (1914–2006), American space scientist
 * John Delbert Van Allen (1850–1928), retail dry goods merchant and department store owner
 * Mark van Allen (born 1954), American musician
 * Shaun Van Allen (born 1967), former hockey player
 * Van Allen Plexico (born 1968), science fiction and fantasy author

Places

 * Van Allen Range, a mountain range in Oates Land, Antarctica
 * Van Allen Building, Clinton, Iowa, US
 * Van Allen Hall, University of Iowa
 * Van Allen House, Oakland, Bergen, New Jersey, US

Other uses

 * Van Allen radiation belt, a torus of energetic charged particles around Earth
 * Van Allen Probes, two robotic NASA spacecraft

title: Van Allen


text:
User:Randyc~enwiki

I am doing most of my work on translating to spanish.

My interests:
 * Aphorism
 * Barney Google

title: User:Randyc~enwiki