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Hawker Hunter

The Hawker Hunter is a transonic British jet-powered fighter aircraft that was developed by Hawker Aircraft for the Royal Air Force (RAF) during the late 1940s and early 1950s. It was designed to take advantage of the newly developed Rolls-Royce Avon turbojet engine and the swept wing, and was the first jet-powered aircraft produced by Hawker to be procured by the RAF. On 7 September 1953, the modified first prototype broke the world air speed record for aircraft, achieving a speed of 727.63 mph.

The single-seat Hunter was introduced to service in 1954 as a manoeuvrable day interceptor aircraft, quickly succeeding first-generation jet fighters in RAF service such as the Gloster Meteor and the de Havilland Venom. The all-weather/night fighter role was filled by the Gloster Javelin. Successively improved variants of the type were produced, adopting increasingly more capable engine models and expanding its fuel capacity amongst other modifications being implemented. Hunters were also used by two RAF display teams: the Black Arrows, who on one occasion looped a record-breaking 22 Hunters in formation, and later the Blue Diamonds, who flew 16 aircraft. The Hunter was also widely exported, serving with a total of 21 overseas air forces.

During the 1960s, following the introduction of the supersonic English Electric Lightning in the interceptor role, the Hunter transitioned to being operated as a fighter-bomber and for aerial reconnaissance missions, using dedicated variants for these purposes. Two-seat variants remained in use for training and secondary roles with the RAF and the Royal Navy until the early 1990s. Sixty years after its original introduction it was still in active service, being operated by the Lebanese Air Force until 2014.

The Hunter saw combat service in a range of conflicts with several operators, including the Suez Crisis, the Aden Emergency, the Sino-Indian War, the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, the Rhodesian Bush War, the Second Congo War, the Six-Day War, the War of Attrition and the Yom Kippur War. Overall, 1,972 Hunters were manufactured by Hawker Aircraft and its successor, Hawker Siddeley, as well as being produced under licence overseas. In British service, the Hunter was replaced in its principal roles by the Lightning, the Hawker Siddeley Harrier and the McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II.

Origins
During 1945, the Second World War came to a close and a new postwar Labour government, headed by Clement Attlee, came to power in Britain. The incoming Attlee government's initial stance on defence was that no major conflict would occur for at least a decade, and thus there would be no need to develop or to procure any new aircraft until 1957. In accordance with this policy, aside from a small number of exceptions such as what would become the Hawker Sea Hawk for the Royal Navy, the majority of Specifications issued by the Air Ministry for fighter-sized aircraft during the late 1940s were restricted to research purposes. Aviation author Derek Wood describes this policy as being: "a fatal error of judgement which was to cost Britain a complete generation of fighters and heavy bomber aircraft".

As the Cold War arose in the late 1940s, the RAF came to recognise that it would urgently require the development and procurement of fighters equipped with features such as swept wings. By this time, it had also become apparent that newly developed jet propulsion would form the future of fighter aircraft development. Many companies were quick to devise their own designs to harness this means of propulsion. Hawker Aviation's chief designer, Sydney Camm, had proposed the Hawker P.1040 for the RAF, but the demonstrator failed to interest them. Further modifications to the basic design resulted in the Hawker Sea Hawk carrier-based fighter. However, the Sea Hawk possessed a straight wing and was powered by the Rolls-Royce Nene turbojet engine, both features that rapidly became obsolete.

Seeking better performance and fulfilment of the Air Ministry Specification E.38/46, Sydney Camm designed the Hawker P.1052, which was essentially a Sea Hawk outfitted with a 35-degree swept wing. Performing its first flight in 1948, the P.1052 demonstrated good performance and conducted several carrier trials, but was ultimately determined to not warrant further development into a production aircraft. As a private venture, Hawker proceeded to convert the second P.1052 prototype into the Hawker P.1081 with swept tailplanes, a revised fuselage, and a single jet exhaust at the rear. On 19 June 1950, the P.1081 conducted its maiden flight, and was promising enough to draw interest from the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF); however, further development was stalled by difficulties with the engine's reheat. In 1951, the sole P.1081 prototype was lost in a crash.

P.1067

In 1946, the British Air Ministry issued Specification F.43/46, which sought a daytime jet-powered interceptor aircraft. Camm promptly prepared a new design for a swept-winged fighter that would be powered by the upcoming Rolls-Royce Avon turbojet. The Avon's major advantage over the earlier Nene engine, as used in the earlier Sea Hawk, was adoption of the axial compressor, which allowed for a much smaller engine diameter and provided greater thrust; this single engine gave roughly the same power as the two Rolls-Royce Derwents of the Gloster Meteors, a fighter aircraft that would be replaced by the envisioned new aircraft. In March 1948, the Air Ministry issued a revised Specification F.3/48, which demanded a speed of 629 mph (1,010 km/h) at 45,000 ft (13,700 m) and a high rate of climb, while carrying an armament of four 20 mm or two 30 mm (1.18 in) cannon (rather than the large-calibre gun demanded by earlier specifications). Initially fitted with a single air intake in the nose and a T-tail, the project rapidly evolved into the more familiar Hunter shape. The intakes were moved to the wing roots to make room for weapons and radar in the nose, and a more conventional tail arrangement was devised as a result of stability concerns.

In 1950, the outbreak of the Korean War and Britain's heavy involvement in this conflict led to a flurry of orders being issued; the need for capable modern interceptors was felt to be so pressing that the RAF was willing to consider accepting interim fighter aircraft while more capable fighters would continue to be pursued. In particular, the RAF felt that a pair of proposed fighter aircraft from Hawker Aircraft and Supermarine were of high importance and thus placed orders for these proposed fighters 'off the drawing board' in 1950. The reasoning behind these two aircraft being ordered in 1950 was intended to serve as an insurance policy in the event of either one of these projects failing to produce a viable aircraft; these two aircraft would later become known as the Supermarine Swift and the Hawker Hunter respectively.

On 20 July 1951, the P.1067 made its maiden flight, flown by Neville Duke, from RAF Boscombe Down, powered by a single 6,500 lbf (28.91 kN) Avon 103 engine. The second prototype, which was fitted with production-standard avionics, armament and a 7,550 lbf Avon 107 turbojet, first flew on 5 May 1952. As an insurance against development problems on the part of the Avon engine, Hawker modified the design to accommodate another axial turbojet, the 8,000 lbf Armstrong Siddeley Sapphire 101. Fitted with a Sapphire, the third prototype flew on 30 November 1952.

On 16 March 1953, the first production standard Hunter F.1, fitted with a single 7,600 lbf Avon 113 turbojet, made its first flight. The first 20 aircraft were, in effect, a pre-production series and featured a number of "one-off" modifications such as blown flaps and area ruled fuselage. On 7 September 1953, the sole Hunter Mk 3 (the modified first prototype, WB 188) flown by Neville Duke broke the world air speed record for jet-powered aircraft, attaining a speed of 727.63 mph over Littlehampton, West Sussex. This world record stood for less than three weeks before being broken on 25 September 1953 by the Hunter's early rival, the Supermarine Swift, flown by Michael Lithgow.

Overview
The Hunter entered service with the Royal Air Force as an interceptor aircraft. It was the first jet aircraft produced by Hawker for the RAF. From the outset it was clear that the type had exceptional performance, being the first RAF aircraft capable of effectively matching the English Electric Canberra bomber. The Hunter also set numerous aviation records, including absolute speed records. The type was also lauded for its quick turnaround time, enabled by features such as its removable gun pack and pressurised fuelling system, and for its easy handling in flight.

The definitive version of the Hunter was the FGA.9, on which the majority of export versions were based. Although the Supermarine Swift had initially been politically favoured by the British government, the Hunter proved far more successful, and had a lengthy service life with various operators, in part due to its low maintenance requirements and operating costs, while further development of the Swift programme was cancelled in 1955.

As the RAF received newer aircraft capable of supersonic speeds to perform the air interceptor role, many Hunters were modified and re-equipped for undertaking ground-attack and reconnaissance missions instead. Hunters deemed surplus to the RAF's requirements were also quickly refurbished for continued service abroad. The Hunter would be procured by a considerable number of foreign nations. In addition to former RAF aircraft, roughly half of the nearly 2,000 Hunters produced had been manufactured specifically for overseas customers. The Hunter would be in operational service with the RAF for over 30 years. As late as 1996, hundreds were still in active service with various operators across the world.

Armament and equipment
The single-seat fighter versions of the Hunter were armed with four 30 mm ADEN cannon, with 150 rounds of ammunition per gun. The cannon and ammunition boxes were contained in a single pack that could be removed from the aircraft for rapid re-arming and maintenance. Unusually, the barrels of the cannon remained in the aircraft while the pack was removed and changed. In the two-seat version, either a single 30 mm ADEN cannon was carried or, in some export versions, two, with a removable ammunition tank. Later versions of the Hunter were fitted with SNEB pods; these were 68 mm rocket projectiles in 18-round Matra pods, providing an effective strike capability against ground targets.

The Hunter featured a nose-mounted ranging radar, providing range input to the gyro gunsight for air-to-air gunnery only. Other equipment included pylon-mounted underwing external fuel tanks, a forward-facing gun camera, and large streamlined pods for collecting expended shell cases beneath the gun pack. These were nicknamed "Sabrinas", after the buxom actress of the time. Several variants were fitted with tail-mounted brake parachutes. Typically, export Hunters were equipped to be compatible with additional types of missiles, such as the AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missile and the AGM-65 Maverick air-to-surface missile.

Layout and structure
The Hunter is a conventional swept wing all-metal monoplane. The fuselage is of monocoque construction, with a removable rear section for engine maintenance. The engine is fed through triangular air intakes in the wing roots and has a single jetpipe in the rear of the fuselage. The mid-mounted wings have a leading edge sweep of 35° and slight anhedral, the tailplanes and fin are also swept. The Hunter's aerodynamic qualities were increasingly infringed upon by modifications in later production models, such as the addition of external containers to collect spent gun cartridges, underwing fuel tanks to increase range, leading edge extensions to resolve pitch control difficulties, and a large ventral air brake.

Late-production F.6s also featured an "all-moving tailplane", in which the entire tailplane pivoted to provide better transonic flight control. The elevator was retained as part of the all-moving tailplane.

The airframe of the Hunter consists of six interchangeable major sections: the forward fuselage (housing the cockpit and armament pack), center fuselage (including the integral wing roots and air duct intakes), rear fuselage, tail unit assembly, and two individually produced wings. Production was divided up so major sections could be completed individually and manufacturing of the type could be dispersed to reduce vulnerability to attack. Establishing initial full-rate production for the type was difficult, as manufacturing the Hunter required the development of 3,250 tool designs and the procurement of 40,000 fixtures, jigs, and tools.

Engine
The P.1067 first flew from RAF Boscombe Down on 20 July 1951, powered by a 6,500 lbf Rolls-Royce Avon 103 engine from an English Electric Canberra bomber. The second prototype was fitted with a 7,550 lbf Avon 107 turbojet. Hawker's third prototype was powered by an 8,000 lbf Armstrong Siddeley Sapphire 101. Production Hunters were fitted with either the Avon or the Sapphire engine.

Early on in the Hunter's service the Avon engines proved to have poor surge margins, and worryingly suffered compressor stalls when the cannon were fired, sometimes resulting in flameouts. The practice of "fuel dipping", reducing fuel flow to the engine when the cannon were fired, was a satisfactory solution. Although the Sapphire did not suffer from the flameout problems of the Avon and had better fuel economy, Sapphire-powered Hunters suffered many engine failures. The RAF elected to persevere with the Avon to simplify supply and maintenance, since the Canberra bomber used the same engine.

The RAF sought more thrust than was available from the Avon 100 series; in response Rolls-Royce developed the Avon 200 series engine. This was an almost wholly new design, equipped with a new compressor to put an end to surge problems, an annular combustion chamber, and an improved fuel control system. The resulting Avon 203 produced 10,000 lbf of thrust, and was the engine for the Hunter F.6.

Royal Air Force

The Hunter F.1 entered service with the Royal Air Force in July 1954. It was the first high-speed jet aircraft equipped with radar and fully powered flight controls to go into widespread service with the RAF. The Hunter replaced the Gloster Meteor, the Canadair Sabre, and the de Havilland Venom jet fighters in service. Initially, low internal fuel capacity restricted the Hunter's performance, giving it only a maximum flight endurance of about an hour. A fatal accident occurred on 8 February 1956, when a flight of eight Hunters was diverted to another airfield owing to adverse weather conditions. Six of the eight aircraft ran out of fuel and crashed, killing one pilot.

Another difficulty encountered during the aircraft's introduction was the occurrence of surging and stalling with the Avon engines. The F.2, which used the Armstrong-Siddeley Sapphire engine, did not suffer from this defect. Further problems occurred; ejected cannon ammunition links had a tendency to strike and damage the underside of the fuselage, and diverting the gas emitted by the cannon during firing was another necessary modification. The original split-flap airbrakes caused adverse changes in pitch trim and were quickly replaced by a single ventral airbrake. This meant, however, that the airbrake could not be used for landings.

To address the problem of range, a production Hunter F.1 was fitted with a modified wing featuring bag-type fuel tanks in the leading edge and two (or 4 on later aircraft) "wet" hardpoints for 100-gallon drop tanks. The resulting Hunter F.4 first flew on 20 October 1954, and entered service in March 1955. A distinctive Hunter feature added on the F.4 was the pair of blisters under the cockpit, which collected spent ammunition links to prevent airframe damage. Crews dubbed them "Sabrinas" after the contemporary movie star. The Sapphire-powered version of the F.4 was designated the Hunter F.5.

The RAF later received Hunters equipped with an improved Avon engine. The Avon 203 produced 10,000 lbf of thrust and was fitted to XF833, which became the first Hunter F.6. Some other revisions on the F.6 included a revised fuel tank layout, the centre fuselage tanks being replaced by new slightly smaller ones in the rear fuselage; the distinctive "dogtooth" leading edge extension (Mod 533) to alleviate the pitch-up problem; the "Mod 228" wing, with increased structural strength and four (rather than the previous two) "wet" hardpoints, finally giving the aircraft a good ferry range. The Hunter F.6 was given the company designation Hawker P.1099.

During the Suez Crisis of 1956, Hunter F.5s of No. 1 and No. 34 Squadrons based at RAF Akrotiri in Cyprus flew escort for English Electric Canberra bombers on offensive missions into Egypt. For most of the conflict the Hunters engaged in local air defence due to their lack of range.

During the Brunei Revolt in 1962, the Royal Air Force deployed Hunters and Gloster Javelins over Brunei to provide support for British ground forces; Hunters launched both dummy and real strafing runs on ground targets to intimidate and pin down rebels. In one event, several Bruneian and expatriate hostages were due to be executed by rebels. Hunter aircraft flew over Limbang while Royal Marines from 42 Commando rescued the hostages in a fierce battle. In the following years of the Borneo Confrontation, Hunters were deployed along with other RAF aircraft in Borneo and Malaya.

The Hunter F.6 was retired from its day fighter role in the RAF by 1963, being replaced by the much faster English Electric Lightning interceptor. Many F.6s were then given a new lease of life in the close air support role, converting into the Hunter FGA.9 variant. The FGA.9 saw frontline use from 1960 to 1971, alongside the closely related Hunter FR.10 tactical reconnaissance variant. The Hunters were also used by two RAF display units; the Black Arrows of No. 111 Squadron who set a record by looping and barrel rolling 22 Hunters in formation, and later the Blue Diamonds of No. 92 Squadron who flew 16 Hunters.

In Aden in May 1964, Hunter FGA.9s and FR.10s of No. 43 Squadron RAF and No. 8 Squadron RAF were used extensively during the Radfan campaign against insurgents attempting to overthrow the Federation of South Arabia. SAS forces would routinely call in air strikes that required considerable precision, and, predominantly using 3-inch high explosive rockets and 30 mm ADEN cannon, the Hunter proved an able ground-attack platform. Both squadrons continued operations with their Hunters until the UK withdrew from Aden in November 1967.

Hunters were flown by No.63, No. 234 and No. 79 Squadrons acting in training roles for foreign and Commonwealth students. These remained in service until after the Hawk T.1 entered service in the mid-1970s. Two-seat trainer versions of the Hunter, the T.7 and T.8, remained in use for training and secondary roles by the RAF and Royal Navy until the early 1990s; when the Blackburn Buccaneer retired from service. The requirement for Hunter trainers disappeared so the Buccaneer-orientated trainers were retired, leaving the RN T.8Ms to soldier on for a while longer.

Hunters were also used by the Empire Test Pilots' School at MoD Boscombe Down. The Hunter is unusual among swept wing jet aircraft in being able to be safely spun inverted. This would be demonstrated to students of the school.

Royal Danish Air Force
As early as 1953 the first Hunter flew over Denmark, when test pilot Neville Duke demonstrated the F.1 over Copenhagen Airport. During this demonstration, the pilot broke the sound barrier in a shallow dive.

Air Force officials were very impressed with the demonstration and since the Royal Danish Air Force (RDAF) were looking for a replacement for the Gloster Meteors in service at the time, the Hunter was a natural choice. Consequently, a contract for delivery of 30 F. Mk. 51 was signed on 3 July 1954. RDAF took delivery of the first two of these on 31 January 1956 and nine months later all 30 Hunters had been delivered to 724 Squadron.

Since the Hunter was a significantly different aircraft to fly, compared to older types such as the Meteor, the need for a two-seat trainer soon arose, and the RDAF took delivery of two T.Mk. 53 two-seat trainers in 1958.

In contrast to most other users of the Hunter, RDAF never converted the Hunter to the fighter-bomber role. Although some studies and experiments carried out in 1959, the project never materialised and the Hunter carried on as a day fighter until its retirement in 1974.

The last flight of the Hunter in RDAF service was carried out on 30 April 1974. The entire fleet was initially preserved at Aalborg Air Base, in the hopes of a future sale to other users. No such sale was ever carried out, but 16 F.Mk. 51s and four T-Mk.53 (two additional T.Mk. 53 had been purchased from the Netherlands in 1967) were sent back to Hawker Siddeley in December 1975. Ultimately, most Hunters were sold either to private buyers or to military museums around the world. Only one example (47-401/E-401) was reserved for museum use in Denmark and currently resides in Danmarks Flymuseum in Stauning.

Indian Air Force
In 1954, India arranged to purchase Hunters as a part of a wider arms deal with Britain, ordering 140 Hunter single-seat fighters at the same time that Pakistan announced its purchase of several North American F-86 Sabre jet fighters. The Indian Air Force (IAF) was the first to operate the Hunter T.66 trainers, placing an initial order in 1957. The more powerful engine was considered beneficial in a hot environment, allowing for greater takeoff weights. During the 1960s, Pakistan investigated the possibility of buying as many as 40 English Electric Lightnings, but Britain was unenthusiastic about the potential sales opportunity because of the damage it would do to its relations with India, which at the time was still awaiting the delivery of large numbers of ex-RAF Hunters.

By the outbreak of the Sino-Indian War in 1962, India had assembled one of the largest air forces in Asia, and the Hunter was the nation's primary and most capable interceptor. During the conflict, the Hunter demonstrated its superiority over China's Russian-sourced MiGs and gave India a strategic advantage in the air. India's aerial superiority deterred Chinese Ilyushin Il-4 bombers from attacking targets within India. In 1962, India had selected to procure its first supersonic-capable fighter, the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21; large numbers of Russian-built fighters had increasingly supplemented the ageing Hunters in the interceptor role by 1970.

The Hunter was to play a major role during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965; along with the Folland Gnat, the Hunter was India's primary air defence fighter, and regularly engaged in dogfights with the Pakistani F-86 Sabres and F-104 Starfighters. The aerial war saw both sides conducting thousands of sorties in a single month. Both sides claimed victory in the air war, Pakistan claimed to have destroyed 104 aircraft against its own losses of 19, while India claimed to have destroyed 73 enemy aircraft and lost 35 of its own. Despite the intense fighting, the conflict was effectively a stalemate.

IAF Hunters performed extensive operations during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971; India had six combat-ready squadrons of Hunters at the start of the conflict. Pakistani infantry and armoured forces attacked the Indian outpost of Longewala in an event now known as the Battle of Longewala. Six IAF Hunters stationed at Jaisalmer Air Force Base were able to halt the Pakistani advance at Longewala by conducting non-stop bombing raids. The aircraft attacked Pakistani tanks, armoured personnel carriers and gun positions and contributed to the increasingly chaotic battlefield conditions, which ultimately led to the retreat of Pakistan's ground forces. Hunters were also used for many ground-attack missions and raids inside Pakistan's borders, such as the high-profile bombing of the Attock Oil refinery to limit Pakistani fuel supplies. In the aftermath of the conflict, Pakistan claimed to have shot down a total of 32 of India's Hunters.

Due to unfavourable currency conditions and conflicting pressures on the military budget, several prospective procurements of modern aircraft such as the SEPECAT Jaguar and the British Aerospace Sea Harrier were put on hold following the 1971 war; the indigenously developed HAL HF-24 Marut had also not been as successful as hoped, thus the IAF decided to retain the ageing fleets of Hunters and English Electric Canberra bombers. After considering several foreign aircraft to replace the Hunter, including the Dassault Mirage F1, the Saab 37 Viggen, and several Soviet models, the Indian government announced its intention to procure 200 Jaguars, a large portion of which were to be assembled domestically, in October 1978. In 1996, the last of the IAF's Hunters were phased out of service, the last squadron operating Hunters later converting to the newer Sukhoi Su-30MKI.

Swedish Air Force
In the early 1950s, the Swedish Air Force saw the need for an interceptor that could reach enemy bombers at a higher altitude than the Saab J 29 Tunnan that formed the backbone of the fighter force. A contract for 120 Hawker Hunter Mk 50s (equivalent to the Mk 4) was therefore signed on 29 June 1954 and the first aircraft was delivered on 26 August 1955. The model was designated J 34 and was assigned to the F 8 and F 18 wings that defended Stockholm. The J 34 was armed with four 30 mm (1.18 in) cannon and two Sidewinders. The Swedish Air Force's aerobatic team Acro Hunters used five J 34s during the late 1950s. The J 34s were gradually replaced by supersonic Saab J 35 Draken and reassigned to less prominent air wings, F 9 in Gothenburg and F 10 in Ängelholm, during the 1960s.

A project to improve the performance of the J 34 resulted in one Hunter being fitted with a Swedish-designed afterburner in 1958. While this significantly increased the engine's thrust, there was little improvement in overall performance, so the project was shelved. The last of the J 34s was retired from service in 1969.

Swiss Air Force

In 1957, the Swiss Air Force performed an extensive evaluation of several aircraft for a prospective purchase; competitors included the North American F-86 Sabre, the Folland Gnat, and the Hawker Hunter; a pair of Hunters were loaned to the Swiss for further trials and testing. In January 1958, the government of Switzerland chose to terminate its independent fighter aircraft project, the in-development FFA P-16, instead choosing to order 100 Hunters to replace its existing fleet of de Havilland Vampire fighters. Further development of the indigenous P-16 was discontinued. This initial order for 100 single-seat Hunters consisted of 12 refurbished RAF F.6s, and 88 new-built F.58s.

Swiss Hunters were operated as interceptors, with a secondary ground-attack role; from 1963 onwards, the outboard wing pylons were modified to carry two AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missiles. In the ground-attack role, the Swiss Air Force maintained an arsenal of conventional iron bombs, a number of compatible napalm bombs were also maintained for intended use by the Hunters. In the interceptor role, the Hunters were supplemented by a surface-to-air missile (SAM) defence system also procured from the United Kingdom, based on the Bristol Bloodhound. In case of unserviceable airstrips, Swiss Air Force jets would take off from adjacent highways, using them as improvised runways.

The Patrouille Suisse flight demonstration team were prominent fliers of the Hawker Hunter for several decades. Squadron aircraft were fitted with smoke generators on the engine exhausts and, later on, were painted in a distinctive red-and-white livery. The group officially formed on 22 August 1964, and used the Hunter as its display aircraft until it was withdrawn from use in 1994, the team continued to perform flight display using newer aircraft.

The Hunter fleet endured several attempts to procure successor aircraft to the type; in the case of the Dassault Mirage III this had been due to excessive cost overruns and poor project management rather than the attributes of the Hunter itself. A second attempt to replace the Hunter resulted in a competition between the French Dassault Milan and the U.S. LTV A-7 Corsair II. Although the A-7 was eventually chosen as the winner, it would not be purchased and further 30 refurbished Hunters (22 F.58As and eight T.68 trainers) were purchased in 1974 instead.

By 1975, plans were laid to replace the Hunter in the air-to-air role with a more modern fighter aircraft, the Northrop F-5E Tiger II. The Hunter remained in a key role within the Swiss Air Force; like the RAF's Hunter fleet, the type transitioned to become the country's primary ground attack platform, replacing the Venom. While the Swiss Hunters already had more armament options than the RAF aircraft, being cleared to carry Oerlikon 80 mm rockets instead of the elderly 3-inch rockets used by the RAF, to carry bombs from both inner and outer pylons and to launch AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missiles, the change to a primary air-to-ground role resulted in the Hunter 80 upgrade, adding chaff/flare dispensers, BL755 cluster bombs and the ability to carry AGM-65 Maverick missiles.

In the 1990s, the discovery of wing cracking led to the quick retirement of all Hunter F.58As. The end of the Cold War also allowed Switzerland to retire its Hunters earlier than expected; the Hunter was completely withdrawn from Swiss service in 1994. The Swiss Air Force lost the capability to carry out air-to-ground operations when the Hunters were withdrawn from service.

Republic of Singapore Air Force

Singapore was an enthusiastic operator of the Hunter, first ordering the aircraft in 1968 during a massive expansion of the city-state's armed forces; deliveries began in 1971 and were completed by 1973. At the time, considerable international controversy was generated as Britain (and, as was later revealed, the U.S.) had refused to sell Hunters to neighbouring Malaysia, sparking fears of a regional arms race and accusations of favouritism. The Republic of Singapore Air Force (RSAF) eventually received 46 refurbished Hunters to equip two squadrons.

In the late 1970s, the Singaporean Hunter fleet was upgraded and modified by Lockheed Aircraft Services Singapore (LASS) with an additional hardpoint under the forward fuselage and another two inboard pylons (wired only for AIM-9 Sidewinders) before the main gears, bringing to a total of seven hardpoints for external stores and weapons delivery. As a result of these upgrades, they were redesignated as FGA.74S, FR.74S and T.75S. The RSAF Black Knights, Singapore Air Force's aerobatic team, flew Hunters from 1973 until 1989.

By 1991, Singapore's fleet of combat aircraft included the General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon, the Northrop F-5 Tiger II, as well as the locally modernised and upgraded ST Aerospace A-4SU Super Skyhawk; the Hunters were active but obsolete in comparison. The type was finally retired and phased out of service in 1992, with the 21 surviving airframes being sold off to an Australian warbird broker, Pacific Hunter Aviation Pty, in 1995.

Lebanese Air Force
The Lebanese Air Force operated Hawker Hunters from 1958 to 2014. One Hunter was shot down on the first day of the Six-Day War by the Israeli Air Force. They were used infrequently during the Lebanese Civil War, and eventually fell out of usage and went into storage during the 1980s.

In August 2007, the Lebanese Armed Forces planned to put its Hunters back into service following the 2007 Lebanon conflict, to deal with Fatah al-Islam militants in the Nahr el-Bared camp north of Tripoli. The programme was delayed by lack of spare parts for the aircraft, such as cartridges for the Martin-Baker ejection seats. On 12 November 2008, 50 years after its original introduction, the Lebanese Air Force returned four of its eight Hunters to service with 2nd Squadron, based at Rayak AB: one two-seater and three single-seaters. Military exercises were conducted with Hunters, such as those that took place on 12 July 2010. The Hunters were retired from service during 2014.

Africa
During the 1950s, the Royal Rhodesian Air Force was an important export customer of Britain, purchasing not only Hunters but also De Havilland Vampires and Canberra bombers. Rhodesia later deployed its Hunter FGA.9s extensively against ZANLA and ZIPRA guerrillas during the Rhodesian Bush War in the late 1960s and throughout the 1970s, occasionally engaging in cross-border raids over Zambia and Mozambique. The Zimbabwean Air Force Hunters were flown to support Laurent Kabila's loyalists during the Second Congo War, and were reported to be involved in the Mozambican Civil War. One remained in service in 2022. In Somalia, the Siad Barre regime's fleet of ageing Hunters, often piloted by former Rhodesian servicemen, carried out several bombing missions against rebel units in the late 1980s.

Belgium and the Netherlands
The Belgian Air Force received 112 Hunter F.4s between 1956 and 1957 to replace the Gloster Meteor F.8. The aircraft were built under licence in both Belgium and the Netherlands in a joint programme, some using US offshore funding. SABCA and Avions Fairey built 64 aircraft in Belgium and a further 48 were built in the Netherlands by Fokker. The Hunters were used by Nos. 1, 3 and 9 Wings but did not serve for long; the aircraft with 1 Wing were replaced in 1958 by the Avro Canada CF-100 Canuck, and most were scrapped afterwards.

The Belgian and Dutch governments subsequently ordered the improved Hunter F.6, with Nos. 1, 7 and 9 Wings of the Belgian Air Force receiving 112 Fokker-built aircraft between 1957 and 1958. Although built in the Netherlands, 29 aircraft had been assembled from kits in Belgium by SABCA and 59 by Avions Fairey, and were operated by 7 and 9 Wings. No. 9 Wing was disbanded in 1960, and by 1963 the Hunter squadrons in 7 Wing had also been disbanded. A large number of the surviving Hunters were sold to Hawker Aircraft and re-built for re-export to India and Iraq, with others to Chile, Kuwait and Lebanon.

Middle East
Between 1964 and 1975, both Britain and France delivered significant quantities of arms, including Hunters, to Iraq. The Hunters were far more effective in fighting guerrilla activity than the Russian MiG-17s then operated by Iraq. In December 1964, a dogfight took place between four Israeli Mirage fighters and four Hunters of the Royal Jordanian Air Force. Two Mirages were downed and another damaged, without damage to the Hunters. In 1967, Hunters of the Iraqi Air Force saw action after the Six-Day War between Israel and several neighbouring Arab nations. During the War of Attrition Iraqi Hunters usually operated from bases in Egypt and Syria. While flying a Hunter from Iraqi Airbase H3, Flight Lieutenant Saiful Azam, on exchange from the Pakistan Air Force, shot down three Israeli jets including a Sud Aviation Vautour and a Mirage IIICJ. Some missions were also flown by the Royal Jordanian Air Force, but most of the Jordanian Hunters were destroyed on the ground on the first day of the Six-Day War. Replacement Hunters for Jordanian service were acquired from both Britain and Saudi Arabia in the war's aftermath. These were used with considerable success in ground attacks against Syrian Army tanks during the Black September Crisis.

South America
During the 1960s and 1970s, Chile completed the acquisition of Hunters from Britain for service in the Chilean Air Force. In June 1973, the Liberian oil tanker Napier ran aground on Guamblin Island, accidentally releasing 30,000 tons of oil. After the rescue of the crew, the vessel was fired upon and set on fire by Chilean Hunters in an effort to burn the oil to avoid further environmental contamination.

During the 1973 Chilean coup d'état, some of the Hunters were used by military officers as part of the effort to successfully overthrow the democratically elected president of Chile, Salvador Allende, on 11 September 1973. On 10 September 1973, coup leaders ordered the Hunters to relocate to Talcahuano in preparation. The following morning, the aircraft were used to conduct bombing missions against Palacio de La Moneda, Allende's official residence in Santiago, and several radio stations loyal to the government. The UK had signed contracts prior to the Chilean coup d'état for delivery of a further seven Hunters, as well as performing engine overhauls and the delivery of other equipment. The government under Prime Minister James Callaghan delayed the delivery of the aircraft, along with vessels and submarines also on order; the trade unions took action to block delivery of refurbished Hunter engines at the East Kilbride plant until October 1978. The action was led by Rolls-Royce workers Bob Fulton, Robert Sommerville and John Keenan, who hid the engines in the factory. The government of Chile bestowed on 16 April 2015, its highest civilian medal, the Order Bernardo O'Higgins Medal, on the three workers for their action of solidarity. The protest is the subject of the 2018 documentary film Nae Pasaran. In 1982, after the Falklands War, a number of Hunters were air freighted to Chile as part of the arrangements for providing support for UK operations in the South Atlantic.

The purchase of Hunters by Chile may have been a factor in the decision by the Peruvian Air Force to acquire Hunters of its own. Britain was keen to sell to Peru as the decision to sell Hunters to Chile became a controversial political issue for the British government following the Chilean coup; the sale also upheld Britain's concept of regional "balancing".

Military operators

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 * Rhodesia
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Civil
A number of civil organisations operate or have operated Hunters for use as aerial targets and for threat simulation under contract with the military. Other Hunters are owned and operated for public display and demonstration:

 * Airborne Tactical Advantage Company (ATAC)
 * The American company ATAC, based at Williamsburg International Airport in Newport News, Virginia, has operated 14 former Swiss F.58s on United States government contracts, though three have since been lost in accidents.

 * Apache Aviation
 * Contracted by the French Navy, Apache is based at Istres in Provence, France, with frequent deployments to Lorient and Landivisiau in Brittany, other locations as required. Operates two single-seater and one two-seat Hunters. Operations are associated with Lortie Aviation.

 * Delta Jets
 * Operated between 1995 and 2010 from Kemble Airport near Cirencester, England with three operational Hunters. The company went into liquidation in 2010, Hunter G-FFOX (WV318) is now operated by the Hunter Flight academy.

 * Dutch Hawker Hunter Foundation
 * Operates a Hunter T.8C two-seater in RNLAF markings and a single-seat Hunter F.6A in Dutch markings, based at Leeuwarden Air Base in the Netherlands.

 * Embraer
 * Operates an ex-Chilean Air Force Hunter T.72 as a flight test chase plane.

 * Hawker Hunter Aviation
 * Based at RAF Leeming, it operates a fleet of 12 Mk 58 and three two-seaters (T.7 and T.8), as well as other aircraft to provide high speed aerial threat simulation, mission support training and trials support services.

 * Hunter Flight Academy.
 * Operates a Hunter T.7a G-FFOX (WV318) callsign "FireFox" – a two-seat Hunter in 111sqn "Black Arrows" colours and markings. The Hunter T.7a is based at North Weald Airfield in the UK.

 * Horizon Aircraft Services Ltd. (formerly Hunter Flying Ltd.)
 * Based at MOD St Athan in Wales, Horizon maintains over 15 privately owned examples of the Hunter.

 * International Test Pilots School

 * International Test Pilots School - three aircraft operating from the London International Airport, London, Ontario, Canada.

 * Lortie Aviation
 * Lortie Aviation of Canada (formerly known as Northern Lights Combat Air Support) is based in Quebec City and owns 21 Hunters (mainly ex-Swiss F.58 variants) that are leased out for military training duties. In August 2021, Lortie was successful as the only bidder to purchase five jets and the spare parts from the Lebanese Air Force, for a price expected to be around US$1m. They were believed to have not been operational since 2010.

 * Thunder City
 * Three flyable Hunters were based at Thunder City at Cape Town International Airport in South Africa. Four (of the seven) Hunters owned by Thunder City were up for auction in April 2013

 * Hangar 51
 * Following the death of Thunder City owner Beachy Head in May 2017, at the end of 2021, Jay Smith, an ex oil entrepreneur with a passion for fast jets and head of South African aircraft maintenance company Hangar 51, bought the remains of the Thunder City collection from Mike Beachy Head's estate. At least 2 of the Thunder city Hunters were included, Hunter T.2 ZU-CTN and yellow-painted T.8 ZU-AUJ. Thunder City once owned the world’s largest civil collection of ex-military jets including three English Electric Lightnings, three Blackburn Buccaneers, seven Hawker Hunters, one Aerospatiale Puma (a demonstrator of the company’s upgrade and refurbishment services), a Jet Provost and a Gloster Javelin FAW Mk.1 (RAF No. XA553, mounted as a “Gate Guard” on display at the entrance to the company premises).

Aircraft on display

 * Hunter F.1 WT612 Gate Guardian at RAF Henlow
 * Hunter F.4 at Royal Museum of the Armed Forces and Military History, Brussels, Belgium
 * Hunter F.1 at Vanguard Self Storage Staples Corner, London
 * Hunter FGA.9 XG154 on static display at RAF Museum, Hendon
 * Hunter F.1 at Caernarfon Airworld Museum, Wales
 * Hunter T.8C WV396 at Tacla Taid Transport Museum, Anglesey, Wales
 * Hunter GA.11 WV382 on static display at East Midlands Aeropark Leicestershire
 * Hunter F.6A XE627 at the Imperial War Museum Duxford, Cambridgeshire
 * Hunter FR.10 XJ714 on static display at East Midlands Aeropark Leicestershire
 * Hunter FR Mk.10 XG172 / XG168 on static display at City of Norwich Aviation Museum in Horsham St Faith, Norfolk.
 * Hunter T.7 XL565 at Bruntingthorpe Aerodrome, Leicestershire (including sections of WT745 & XL591)
 * Hunter F.6A XG225 at RAF Museum Cosford
 * Hunter T.7A XL 568 at RAF Museum Cosford
 * Hunter T.7 XL569 on static display at East Midlands Aeropark Leicestershire
 * Hunter T.8M XL580 at the Fleet Air Arm Museum, Somerset
 * Hunter F.6 on display at the National Air Force Museum of Canada in Trenton, Ontario
 * Hunter T.7 XL600 on display at the Jet Aircraft Museum, London, Ontario, Canada.
 * Hunter T.7 XL623 mounted in the town centre of Woking, Surrey
 * Hunter FGA.78 N-268 at Yorkshire Air Museum, Elvington, North Yorkshire
 * Hunter T.7 XL572 painted blue to represent the Blue Diamonds formation teams lead XL571 at Yorkshire Air Museum, Elvington, North Yorkshire
 * Hunter T.7 XL618 at Newark Air Museum, Newark-on-Trent, Nottinghamshire
 * Hunter F.1 WT651 at Newark Air Museum, Newark-on-Trent, Nottinghamshire
 * Hunter F.1 WT680 at the Anglia Motel, on the A17 West of King's Lynn in Fleet Hargate, Lincolnshire
 * Hunter F.6 XF527 gate guard at RAF Halton, Halton, Buckinghamshire
 * Hunter F-6 XF437, later FR-74S at Historical Aircraft Restoration Society, Wollongong, NSW
 * Hunter F.4 Mk 50 at Flygvapenmuseum, Linköping, Sweden
 * Hunter F.4 N-122 is in storage at the Nationaal Militair Museum, Soesterberg, The Netherlands.
 * Hunter F6 XE614 on display at Queensland Air Museum, Caloundra
 * Hunter F4 XF311 on display at Queensland Air Museum, Caloundra
 * Hunter F.4 N-144 is on display at the Nationaal Militair Museum, Soesterberg, The Netherlands.
 * Hunter F.4 N-112 is now on display at Dirgantara Mandala Museum, Yogyakarta, Indonesia.
 * Hunter F.51 401 is now on display at Danmarks Flymuseum, Stauning, Denmark
 * Hunter F.51 409 repainted as XE683 F Mk.4 on static display at City of Norwich Aviation Museum in Horsham St Faith, Norfolk.
 * Hunter F.51 410 repainted as WV395 is now on display at Aviodrome, Lelystad, The Netherlands
 * Hunter F.2 WN904 is on display at Sywell Aviation Museum
 * Hunter F.1 WT619 is on display at Montrose Air Station Heritage Centre
 * Hunter F.1 WT555 is on display within Vanguard Self Storage Staples Corner, London
 * Hunter PR.11 WT723 Gate Guardian at SCC Technology Campus (displayed), Tyseley, Birmingham
 * Hunter Mk 58 is on display at the Pima Air & Space Museum in Tucson, AZ.
 * Hunter F.6 XG164 is on display at Davidstow Airfield and Cornwall at War Museum, Davidstow, Cornwall, England, PL32 9YF
 * Hunter F.2 WN904 is on display at Sywell Aviation Museum
 * Hunter F.1 WT619 is on display at Montrose Air Station Heritage Centre
 * Hunter F.1 WT555 is on display within Vanguard Self Storage Staples Corner, London
 * Hunter PR.11 WT723 Gate Guardian at SCC Technology Campus (displayed), Tyseley, Birmingham
 * Hunter Mk 58 is on display at the Pima Air & Space Museum in Tucson, AZ.
 * Hunter F.6 XG164 is on display at Davidstow Airfield and Cornwall at War Museum, Davidstow, Cornwall, England, PL32 9YF

Accidents and incidents

 * 8 February 1956 – Hawker Hunter multiple aircraft accident after a sudden deterioration in the weather during a dogfight exercise in Norfolk, England
 * 7 June 1957 – Mid-air collision between two 111 Squadron Hunters during an aerobatic display rehearsal near RAF North Weald, Essex, England. One of the damaged Hunters involved limped as far as Stansted, where it managed to land successfully on the long runway; the other (XF525) crashed onto the Epping-Ongar railway at North Weald (the eastern end of the London Underground Central Line, which closed in 1994). The pilot was killed. The track was badly damaged by wreckage and a steam train was derailed. Three of the 20 passengers were slightly injured and the driver, Arthur Green, who operated out of Stratford Depot, was commended for his actions. Wreckage from the jet could be seen in the area for many years afterwards.
 * 5 April 1968 – Alan Pollock, a RAF pilot made an unauthorised flight through Tower Bridge in London in protest against the lack of official recognition of the 50th anniversary of the founding of the RAF
 * 22 August 2015 – A Hunter T7 (G-BXFI) crashed onto the A27 arterial road (dual carriageway) between Lancing and Shoreham-by-Sea, West Sussex, England, while taking part in the 2015 Shoreham Airshow. Eleven people on the ground were killed and several others were injured, including the pilot of the plane. Witnesses told local TV that the jet appeared to have crashed when it failed to pull out of a loop manoeuvre. The UK Air Accidents Investigation Branch concluded that the crash was caused by the pilot completing the top of the loop at too low an altitude and at too low an airspeed. The AAIB concluded that the pilot may have confused the parameters for the Hunter with the BAC Jet Provost he had recently flown, saying, "a possible error path was that the pilot recalled the wrong numbers, essentially mixing up the two aircraft." The pilot was cleared of criminal charges, though the inquest ruled that the victims had been "unlawfully killed".

title: Hawker Hunter


text:
Ministry of Public Security (China)

The Ministry of Public Security (MPS, ) is a government ministry of the People's Republic of China responsible for public and political security. It oversees more than 1.9 million of the country's law enforcement officers and as such the vast majority of the People's Police. While the MPS is a nationwide police force, conducting counterintelligence and maintaining the political security of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) remain its core functions.

Function
The ministry's functions include intelligence gathering, counterintelligence and maintaining public and political security. It has the primary authority for preventing cyberattacks and it operates the Golden Shield Project.

The ministry was established in 1949 after the CCP's victory in the Chinese Civil War as the successor to the Central Social Affairs Department and was known as Ministry of Public Security of the Central People's Government until 1954. Grand General Luo Ruiqing of the People's Liberation Army (PLA) served as its first minister. As the ministry's organization was based on Soviet and Eastern Bloc models, it was responsible for all aspects of national security; ranging from regular police work to intelligence, counterintelligence and the suppression of anti-CCP political and social sentiments. Military intelligence affairs remained with the General Staff Department, while the CCP's International Department was active in fomenting revolutionary tendencies worldwide by funneling weapons, money and resources into various pro-CCP movements.

The ministry employs a system of public security bureaus throughout the provinces, cities, municipalities and townships of China. The special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macau maintain nominally separate police forces. The ministry is headed by the minister of public security. Wang Xiaohong has been the minister in charge since June 2022.

History
The Ministry of Public Security was among the first government organs established in the PRC. It superseded the Ministry of Public Security of the CCP's Central Military Commission (CMC), a transitional body created in July 1949 by removing the security service remit from the CCP's Central Social Affairs Department (SAD). The MPS began operations on 1 November 1949, at the end of a two-week-long National Conference of Senior Public Security Cadres. Most of its initial staff of less than 500 cadres came from the (former) regional CCP North China Department of Social Affairs. At the national level, its creation signaled the formal abolition of the SAD. The ministry moved to its present location, in the heart of the one-time foreign legation quarters in Beijing, in the spring of 1950.

The MPS's Guangzhou office historically handled foreign spies such as Larry Wu-tai Chin.

With the creation of the Ministry of State Security (MSS) in July 1983, MPS lost much of its counterintelligence personnel and remit. Scholars Jichang Lulu and Filip Jirouš have argued that the establishment of the MSS "may have contributed to the illusion that the MPS is simply a law-enforcement police body, separate from intelligence agencies." According to analyst Alex Joske, "the MPS lost much of its foreign intelligence remit after the MSS's creation, but has established new units for cross-border clandestine operations since then." The MPS remains a commonly used cover by MSS officers.

Following the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, the MPS worked to counter Operation Yellowbird.

The MPS and its officers have been active abroad in Operation Fox Hunt and Operation Sky Net. The MPS under Sun Lijun had reporters from The Wall Street Journal in Hong Kong under "full operational surveillance" for their reporting of the 1Malaysia Development Berhad (1MDB) scandal.

In 2017, Europol signed a "strategic cooperation agreement" with the MPS. Starting in 2019, the MPS began replacing "domestic security" with "political security" in the names of its units. In 2020, the United States Department of Commerce added the MPS Institute of Forensic Science to the Entity List over human rights issues related to the Uyghur genocide. The institute was removed from the list in 2023 as part of an agreement during the APEC United States 2023 to combat fentanyl trafficking.

MPS has at times been involved in security diplomacy between China and other countries. For example, between 1997 and 2020, it organized 11 bilateral police diplomacy meetings with African countries. Under Xi Jinping, MPS has increased its training of police officers from other countries.

In 2022, it was reported that the MPS had established numerous overseas police service stations, which sparked investigations by law enforcement organs in multiple countries. In 2023, the United States Department of Justice stated that the MPS engages in covert "intelligence and national security operations far beyond China's borders," including "illicit, transnational repression schemes". The same year, disinformation operations known as Spamouflage or "Dragonbridge" were linked to the MPS. In the run-up to the 2024 United States elections, Spamouflage was identified as having used fake social media accounts in an attempt to amplify divisions in US society.

Organization

The MPS is organized into functional departments (see below). Subordinate to the MPS are the provincial- and municipal-level PSB's (Public Security Bureau) and sub-bureaus at the county and urban district levels. At the grassroots level, finally, there are police stations which serve as the direct point of contact between police and ordinary citizens. While public security considerations have weighed heavily at all levels of administration since the founding of the PRC, the police are perceived by some outside observers to wield progressively greater influence at lower levels of government. Provincial public security bureaus are subject to dual supervision by both local provincial governments and the central government. The ministry is also closely associated with the development of surveillance technologies used by police in China through the Third Research Institute focused on the development of AI based “smart surveillance,” and censorship technologies.

Internal departments
The internal departments of the MPS include the General Office, Supervision, Personnel & Training, Public Relations, Economic Crime Investigation, Public Order Administration, Border Control, Criminal Investigation, Exit & Entry Administration, Special Services, Cyber Security, Detention Center Management, Traffic Control, Legal Affairs, International Cooperation, Equipment & Finance, Drug Control, Counter Terrorism, Science & Technology, Information Technology, Political Security, and others.

Internal publications
The journal Public Security Construction（）was a classified serial publication for internal purposes. During the disastrous Great Leap Forward between 1958 and 1961, the circular Public Security Work Bulletin was a top-secret serial which often described China's serious food shortages, social unrest and famine directly contradicting Mao Zedong's claims of "bountiful economic fruit".

MPS also produces another journal, People's Public Security News, and a website, China Police Daily , for both internal communication and external publicity.

United front organization
The MPS' First Bureau operates a united front organization called the China Association for Friendship.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Ministry of Public Security (China)


text:
Talk:Poway, California

Cleanup
Poway is a very nice friendly city...

Well...I'm sure it was a few hundred years ago :)

As a temporary measure, I'm moving this recent major addition to this page. It appears as if this may be copied from some old historical society or Chamber of Commerce publication. In any case, it needs some editing. -Willmcw 20:37, Apr 11, 2005 (UTC)

In 1980 the year of the successful incorporation (at least one previous election in the 1970s failed), a 'history of Poway' (mostly photos of pioneers and farms) was put together for a savings and loan association, which gave it away free as a promotion. I recall the cover was brown card stock with gold leaf. The text below may be an adaptation of this publication, but my copy is in storage or lost, so I can't compare it now.

General Overview
Like many early San Diego settlements, Poway used to serve as home to a local Native American tribe, the Diegueños. Artifacts such as arrow heads, spear points, metates, grinding stones, and pottery found along the bed of Poway Creek all indicate an early Diegueño presence. Various pictographs adorn many of Poway's boulders, and modern techniques suggest that these paintings date back to the 1500s or earlier. Poway's contemporary history began in 1758, when padres from the Mission San Diego de Alcala kept cattle in the valley. The name "Paguay," one of many original spellings, appears on mission documents in 1774. The name, also written as Paguai, Paui, Pauai, Pauy, Powaii, and finally Poway, has incurred dispute as to its meaning. While one Native American linguist insists that it means “here, where the waters meet,” the consensus has traditionally translated the word as “the two little valleys.” For approximately a century Poway served as a stock range for the mission, until settlers began to come to the valley for farming purposes in the late antebellum period. Few records of this time have survived, and not until 1894 and the inception of the Poway Progress did the town's history become a thing of record. In 1887, about 800 people lived and farmed in Poway. Around the turn of the century Poway farmers had moderate success in the production and vending of fruit, grain, and dairy products. Expansion, however, failed to follow agricultural success. Though the farmers prospered, the town existed in a static state for decades, varying only slightly in population, demographic, crop selection, and the like. Poway has a creek and fertile soil, but the lack of easily available water prevented the settlement from attracting large-scale farmers and the accompanying population growth. Not until 1954 did the town establish the Poway Municipal Water District, which utilizes water from the Colorado River Aqueduct to irrigate all of Poway's 10,000 acres. When water came to the town, people did as well. In 1957, following the sewer system's completion, developers built housing tracts, and modern Poway grew from there. In 1980 Poway incorporated and officially became the City of Poway (nicknamed the City in the Country) rather than a part of San Diego. Today, according to the 2000 United States census, the town boasts a population of 48,044 residents, largely comprised of white family units. Poway no longer depends on agriculture for its primary source of income, and has instead transitioned into a residential community for those who commute to jobs in and around the downtown San Diego area.

Agriculture
Though many residents today mistake Poway for an old Western-style cowboy town, its original roots lie in agriculture. The Homestead Act of 1862 encouraged Westward migration, and accordingly many of Poway’s first white settlers came to farm. The fecund soil proved well-suited to a variety of crops, including peaches, Muscat grapes, apricots, pears, hay, and alfalfa. Some farmers captured swarms of wild bees and cultivated honey. Dairying also proved lucrative. Most families kept a cow for milk and butter, chickens for eggs and meat, and perhaps a hog as to sustain them personally whilst they farmed. Crops sold well around the San Diego area. Between the seasons of 1894 and 1896, the Poway Progress reported bits of agricultural information such as:

Muscat grapes are beginning to ripen, and the San Diego market is getting a supply of the fine article Poway always produces.

The season has been a prolific one for bees, thirty of forty stands the present season from a single captured swarm a year or two ago.

The peach is a good article, and Poway produces it to perfection. Poway pears will compare with any grown in the state.

The success of these crops depended on the annual winter rainfall, however, and so remained subject to precipitation until the establishment of the Poway Municipal Water District in 1954. With water readily available, the town’s farming interest shifted to two principal crops, avocados and citrus fruits. Ironically, despite the relative success of these ventures, Poway ceased to exist as a farming town once the water needed to make it a true agricultural haven appeared. With water came new residents, and the former farm town transformed into a locale full of small commercial businesses and modest shopping centers.

Religion
Then as now, religion mattered greatly to Poway residents. The Community Church of Poway, the town’s first church, has remained in operation since 1883. During the time of the town's inception, most Powegians practiced Methodism, and the International Order of Good Templars (IOGT) controlled most of the town. In the 1890s, church meetings on Sunday nights drew the entire community together to worship. Socials, speeches, fundraisers, bees, and graduations all took place at Good Templars hall. The congregation suffered the continual loss of members, however, due to the uncertainty of crops from year to year. Few Poway residents stayed for a long time; after perhaps five years of crops dependent on uncertain weather, many residents moved to Escondido, San Diego, or even Los Angeles, where irrigation proved more stable. The church, left with an vague base, floundered accordingly. Not until the 1960s, with the water problem truly resolved, did the church steadily grow in size. Today, Methodists, Presbyterians, and Mormons constitute the majority of Poway’s religious demographic.

Education
Poway established its school district in 1871, but did not have a schoolhouse until 1885. Turn of the century teachers conducted school in the traditional one-room style, with first through eighth graders included in one classroom. Children learned to read and write using slates, and eventually progressed to study subjects such as arithmetic, spelling, English, language (German or Latin), grammar, history, and geography. Students did not usually attend high school, and had to travel to Escondido if they wished to do so. In 1909, only three students from Poway graduated frpm high school. Women who went on to more school from there usually had teaching ambitions. Education, while compulsory and considered a worthwhile pastime, had few far-reaching applications for Poway’s farmers’ children. Enrollment in the Poway School first through eighth grades did not reach 100 until 1936.

Bias Removed
I hate to remove the "beautiful" from in front of the mention of Lake Poway in the "Modern Times" (yes, I am a Poway resident), but it did show bias. Calculusfreak 04:32, 19 July 2006 (UTC)

What the heck?!
Something is seriously wrong with this page. It's titled Poway, Poland, but the article text seems to jump back and forth between Poway, Poland and Poway, California. Can an administrator please take a look at this? I can't figure out how I should edit it. This article is COMPLETELY screwed up. (On a side (But not completely unrelated) note, how do I revert edits?). elnerdo 17:12, 1 January 2007 (UTC)

Combine the Pages
Someone should combine the Poway High School Alumni list (one page) with the Poway California (second page) Notable Natives

I think it fits fine were it is. Joeselby64 (talk) 23:37, 4 December 2009 (UTC)

Mayor Cafagna's Death
Mayor Mickey Cafagna died on Saturday due to complications from kidney cancer. As a former resident of the City in the Country, I say "Godspeed", Mr. Mayor... --Joshmaul (talk) 07:37, 14 April 2009 (UTC)

¿¿¿ 1758 ???
There's a statement near the beginning of the history section that the mission fathers were grazing their cattle in this area in 1758. That's got to be wrong, since Mission San Diego de Alcalá wasn't founded until 1769! DutchmanInDisguise (talk) 03:50, 22 October 2009 (UTC)

Railroad incident
I'm thinking the railroad incident can be summarized/shortened. This incident is about the promise of the railroad then the railroad not coming to town and the town not growing as a result. For me, it does not seem like a very important historical incident. Something that comes to town is more interesting, like the water project. Does anyone else share my same or similar thoughts? Spapet64 (talk) 07:06, 22 November 2009 (UTC)

Things to consider adding
Public Library; Performing Arts Center; Palomar College; Sister city; Media - What newspapers serve the community; Economics-Major Businesses; Annual Events; Sports (nearest stadiums); Major and Minor shopping; Restaurants; Awards earned by city; Interesting Architecture; Health and Medicine - Hospital; Aviation-nearest airports; Famous Events, if any; Points of interest; Famous Connections to Poway; Law Enforcement/Crime Rate; City size in comparison to other nearby cities or in relation to cities in the county; picture of city hall; historic US 395 sign; Military-proximity to major base; 12.234.234.130 (talk) 18:06, 7 December 2009 (UTC)

Education
I'm not so sure the Berean Bible College deserves a paragraph especially considering that it is lacks accreditation by a recognized accredidation organization. What do others think? See below, my emphasis added.

Berean Bible College Berean Bible College, is a Charismatic Christian bible college located within Living Way Church. The college claims educational accreditation through the Accrediting Commission International for Schools, Colleges and Theological Seminaries, an unrecognized accrediting organization based previously in Beebe, Arkansas now based in Sarasota, Florida.[14] The college is also recognized by the U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement's Student and Exchange Visitor Program(SEVIS) to issue I-20 foreign student visas. The college awards associate's degrees, diplomas, and bachelor's degrees. The current president of the college is Rev. Douglas Balcombe[15] and the current dean of the college is Rev. Bobby San-Miguel. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 12.234.234.130 (talk) 21:32, 16 January 2013 (UTC)

I agree with the previous concerns regarding inclusion of Berean Bible College on this page. It is not appropriate to devote this much space to a very small college. The paragraph is excessive and seems more like it was added by their marketing department. — Preceding unsigned comment added by BlkMtn (talk • contribs) 06:53, 31 December 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Poway, California


text:
Austin Currie

Joseph Austin Currie (11 October 1939 – 9 November 2021) was an Irish politician who served as a Minister of State with responsibility for Children's Rights from 1994 to 1997. He served as a Teachta Dála (TD) for the Dublin West constituency from 1989 to 2002, representing Fine Gael, and as a Member of the Parliament of Northern Ireland (MP) for East Tyrone from 1964 to 1972, representing the Nationalist Party and later the Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP).

Early life
Born in Coalisland, County Tyrone on 11 October 1939, Austin was the eldest of 11 children born to Mary (née O’Donnell) and John Currie. He was educated at the renowned St Patrick's academy, Dungannon, and graduated in politics and history from Queen's University Belfast. On 20 June 1968, he squatted at a Kinnard Park house given to a Unionist secretary during a housing protest in Caledon. All 14 houses in the new council development had been allocated to Protestants. Then a sitting MP in the home rule Parliament of Northern Ireland, Currie's protest was unanimously approved by the Nationalist Party the next day. This was one of the catalysts of the civil rights movement in Northern Ireland.

Northern Ireland
Currie became an active member in the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association. He would later speak about the effect of partition on Catholics in Northern Ireland: "Partition was used to try to cut us off from the rest of the Irish nation. Unionists did their best to stamp out our nationalism and, the educational system, to the extent it could organise it, was oriented to Britain and we were not even allowed to use names such as Séamus or Seán. When my brothers' godparents went to register their birth, they were told no such names as Séamus or Seán existed in Northern Ireland and were asked for the English equivalent."

In 1964 he was elected in a by-election as a Nationalist MP for East Tyrone in the 10th House of Commons of the Parliament of Northern Ireland, following the death of the sitting Nationalist MP, Joe Stewart. He retained he seat in both the general election to the 11th House of Commons in November 1965 and the 12th House of Commons in February 1969. This was the last election to the home rule Parliament at Stormort, before it was suspended by the UK Government in March 1972, and formally abolished in July 1973.

Co-founding the SDLP
In 1970, he was a founder of the group that established the Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP). From 1973 to 1974, Currie was elected as an SDLP member of the short-lived devolved Northern Ireland Assembly. In 1974 he became chief whip of the SDLP, and in the same year became Minister for Housing, Local Government and Planning in the power-sharing Northern Ireland Executive. The Assembly and Executive collapsed on 28 May 1974, after opposition from within the UUP and the Ulster Workers' Council strike. This led to the imposition of direct rule of Northern Ireland from London.

He contested the 1979 United Kingdom general election and 1986 by-election in the Fermanagh and South Tyrone seat, but was unsuccessful on both attempts. Currie also was elected to the Northern Ireland Assembly in 1982 for the same seat. That Assembly, which was an attempt by the UK Government to reintroduce devolved power-sharing, collapsed in 1986 without executive ministerial functions ever being transferred to it from the UK Secretary of State for Northern Ireland as no political agreement could be reached on power-sharing between the parties owing to nationalists abstentionism over the constituency boundaries used to elect members, and unionist opposition to the 1985 Anglo Irish Agreement.

Republic of Ireland
Following his decision to quit Northern Ireland politics, and relocate his family to County Kildare, Currie became actively involved in politics in the Republic. Partly due to his long-standing doubts about the commitment of politicians in the Republic to the plight of northern nationalists, he joined the Fine Gael party in 1989. He was elected as a Fine Gael TD for Dublin West at the 1989 Irish general election.

1990 Irish presidential election
In 1990 Fine Gael selected Currie as their candidate for the 1990 Irish presidential election, running against Tánaiste and Fianna Fáil TD, Brian Lenihan Sr, and Senator Mary Robinson for the Labour Party. The 1990 election was the first contested election for the Irish Presidency in 17 years. Currie received 267,902 first preference votes (approximately 17%) and was eliminated on the first count. The distribution of his votes saw Mary Robinson elected as Ireland's first female president on the second count, beating Lenihan by more than 86,000 votes.

In his 2004 autobiography All Hell will Break Loose, he wrote about his experience of running in the presidential election, and the prejudice he faced as a nationalist from Ulster in southern politics: "What annoyed, indeed angered me most was the suggestion that because I came from the North, I was not a real Irishman ... what I called the partitionist mentality ... [during the election campaign] the [then Fianna Fáil] Minister for Justice [ Ray Burke] said Fine Gael leader Alan Dukes 'had to go to Tyrone to find a candidate for the presidency' ... it was hard to take, particularly from so-called republicans".

As a TD
Following his defeat in the presidential election, Austin Currie held his Dáil seat in Dublin West at the 1992 and 1997 general elections. Following the formation of the so-called Rainbow Coalition between Fine Gael, Labour and Democratic Left, on 20 December 1994 newly appointed Taoiseach John Bruton appointed Currie as a Minister of State with responsibility for Children's Rights at the Departments of Health, Education and Justice,  becoming the first ever minister in an Irish Government with dedicated responsibility for children. He held this post until the appointment of a new Irish Government on 26 June 1997 following the 1997 Irish General Election.

At the 2002 general election Currie contested the new constituency of Dublin Mid-West, and failed to be elected. He immediately announced his retirement from electoral politics. He continued to speak and campaign for civil rights across the island of Ireland and for causes he believed in, such as justice for the families of the Disappeared during the Troubles. Currie and his wife and family were personal friends of the family of one of the Disappeared, Columba McVeigh, from Donaghmore Co Tyrone.

Personal life
Austin Currie met his wife Annita in 1961 while he was studying Modern History and Politics at Queens University Belfast, where she was also a student. They were married in January 1968 and had five children, Estelle, Caitríona, Dualta, Austin Óg and Senator Emer Currie, who is a Member of the 26th Seanad.

In the 1960s and 1970s, he and his family were the repeated targets of loyalist paramilitary attacks on their home in Co Tyrone. When the Troubles broke out in August 1969, Currie was informed by a trusted source that members of the B-Specials intended to carry out a gun attack on his home. In total there were more than thirty attacks on the Currie family home during the Troubles. In November 1972, his wife Anita suffered a brutal attack when two armed and masked men burst into her home looking to attack her husband, who happened to be away at a political speaking engagement in Co Cork that evening. Speaking about it in a TV interview two days later, Anita Currie spoke of how she was punched, cut with a blade, and kicked unconscious while lying on the floor, while her two young daughters looked on helplessly. As a result of these risks, and his growing disillusionment with the political direction the SDLP was taking, Currie quit Northern Ireland politics and relocated his family to the Republic of Ireland.

Speaking in Dáil Éireann on the impact of partition of Ireland upon the Nationalist community in Northern Ireland, Currie said in 1999: "Partition was used to try to cut us off from the rest of the Irish nation. Unionists did their best to stamp out our nationalism and, the educational system, to the extent it could organise it, was oriented to Britain and we were not even allowed to use names such as Séamus or Seán. When my brothers' godparents went to register their birth, they were told no such names as Séamus or Seán existed in Northern Ireland and were asked for the English equivalent. Many people do not realise the extent to which an alien loyalty was imposed on people. As a Member of Parliament in Stormont in the late 1960s, I tabled parliamentary questions on the number of employees of central Government, local government and its committees who were forced to take the oath of allegiance to the Queen as a precondition to getting a job. This applied even to what could be described as menial jobs such as brushing the streets, cleaning the drains or as we call them in the North cleaning out the seoch. The Unionists went to this extent to stamp out our nationalist identity."

Austin Currie resided in County Kildare. He occasionally lectured and gave talks on issues relating to The Troubles, and for causes he believed in, such as justice for the families of the Disappeared during the Troubles. Currie and his wife and family were personal friends of the family of one of the disappeared, Columba McVeigh, from Donaghmore Co Tyrone.

Following the deaths of Seamus Mallon and John Hume in January and August 2020 respectively, Austin Currie became the last surviving founder of the SDLP.

Austin Currie died on 9 November 2021 at the age of 82 at his residence in Derrymullen Co Kildare. Following an initial funeral mass in Allentown Co Kildare, his remains were transferred to his original family home in Edendork, near Dungannon Co Tyrone, where a second funeral mass was celebrated at St. Malachy's Church, Edendork. He is buried alongside his parents in the cemetery adjoining the church.

title: Austin Currie


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Canton of Schaffhausen

The canton of Schaffhausen, also canton of Schaffhouse (Kanton Schaffhausen; Chantun Schaffusa; Canton de Schaffhouse; Canton Sciaffusa), is the northernmost canton of Switzerland. The principal city and capital of the canton is Schaffhausen. The canton's territory is divided into three non-contiguous segments, where German territory reaches the Rhine. The large central part, which includes the capital, in turn separates the German exclave of Büsingen am Hochrhein from the rest of Germany.

History
Schaffhausen was a city-state in the Middle Ages; it is documented that it struck its own coins starting in 1045. It was then documented as Villa Scafhusun. Around 1049, Count Eberhard von Nellenburg founded a Benedictine monastery which led to the development of a community. This community achieved independence in 1190. In 1330, the town lost not only all its lands but also its independence to the Habsburgs. In 1415, the Habsburg Duke Frederick IV of Austria sided with the Antipope John XXIII at the Council of Constance, and was banned by the Emperor Sigismund.

As a result of the ban and Frederick's need of money, Schaffhausen was able to buy its independence from the Habsburgs in 1418. The city allied with six of the Swiss confederates in 1454 and allied with a further two (Uri and Unterwalden) in 1479. Schaffhausen became a full member of the Old Swiss Confederation in 1501.

The first railroad came to Schaffhausen in 1857. In 1944, Schaffhausen suffered from a bombing raid by United States Army Air Forces planes that accidentally strayed from Germany into neutral Switzerland.

The cantonal constitution was written in 1876 and revised in 1895. The distinctive coat of arms bears the Schaffhauser Bock (Billy Goat of Schaffhausen).

Geography
Schaffhausen is the northernmost canton of Switzerland and lies almost entirely on the right bank of the Rhine, with only part of Stein am Rhein on the left bank. It lies west of Lake Constance and has an area of 298 km2. Much of the canton is productive agricultural land, with 134.4 km2 (about 45%) of the canton used for agriculture while an additional 128.7 km2 (about 43%) is wooded. Most of the rest of the canton, 31.8 km2 (about 10%), is developed, while only 3.8 km2 (1.3%) of the canton is unproductive (rivers, lakes or mountains).

The canton's territory is divided into three non-contiguous segments where German territory reaches the Rhine. The large central part, which includes the capital Schaffhausen, in turn partially (along with territory of two neighbouring cantons) separates the German exclave of Büsingen am Hochrhein from the rest of Germany. The small exclave of Rüdlingen-Buchberg lies to the southwest, and the third part contains Ramsen and Stein am Rhein to the east. With the exception of Vor der Brugg, part of Stein am Rhein, all three segments are separated from the rest of Switzerland by the Rhine.

The canton of Schaffhausen is bordered by the Swiss cantons of Zürich and Thurgau, as well as the German districts of Waldshut, Schwarzwald-Baar-Kreis and Konstanz, Baden-Württemberg.

Most of the canton lies on a plateau dominated by the Hoher Randen. The summit of this mountain is at 912 m. The slopes of the mountain are gentle towards the south where it reaches the Rhine valley. Short and narrow valleys intersect these gentle slopes. The Klettgau is one such valley.

The Rhine Falls are the largest waterfalls in Europe and lie on the border of the cantons of Schaffhausen and Zürich.

Municipalities
There are 26 municipalities in the canton.

 * Bargen
 * Beggingen
 * Beringen
 * Buch
 * Buchberg
 * Büttenhardt
 * Dörflingen
 * Gächlingen
 * Hallau
 * Hemishofen
 * Lohn
 * Löhningen
 * Merishausen
 * Neuhausen am Rheinfall
 * Neunkirch
 * Oberhallau
 * Ramsen
 * Rüdlingen
 * Schaffhausen
 * Schleitheim
 * Siblingen
 * Stein am Rhein
 * Stetten
 * Thayngen
 * Trasadingen
 * Wilchingen

Merger

 * In 1947, the municipality Buchthalen merged into Schaffhausen.
 * In 1964, the municipality Herblingen merged into Schaffhausen.
 * In 2004, the municipality Barzheim merged into Thayngen.
 * In 2005, the municipality Osterfingen merged into Wilchingen.
 * On 1 January 2009, the municipalities Altdorf, Bibern, Hofen, and Opfertshofen merged into Thayngen.
 * In 2009, the municipality Hemmental merged into Schaffhausen.
 * In 2013, the municipality Guntmadingen merged into Beringen.

Demographics
The population of the canton (as of ) is. , the population included 16,323 foreigners, or about 21.9% of the total population. The German language and Protestant faith predominate. The majority of the population is Protestant (50%) while a large minority is Roman Catholic (24%).

Cantonal government
The legislature is the Cantonal Council (Kantonsrat) of Schaffhausen, which consists of 60 members elected proportionally every four years. Until 2008, it consisted of 80 members.

The executive branch is the Government Council (Regierungsrat), which consists of 5 members elected every four years.

Federal election results

 * FDP before 2009, FDP.The Liberals after 2009
 * "*" indicates that the party was not on the ballot in this canton.

Compulsory voting
Swiss citizens who live in the canton of Schaffhausen are required to vote in elections. Compulsory voting never existed on the national level in Switzerland. It was introduced in several cantons starting in the late 19th century. In 1974, it was abolished everywhere except in Schaffhausen. Citizens who do not vote have to pay a small fine.

Economy
Schaffhausen is a part of the Zürcher Wirtschaftsraum (Zürich economic region) and the canton's economy is well integrated with that of the wider region.

Well-regarded white Riesling wine is grown here as well as several other varieties. The main industries, however, are the production of machinery and metal goods. There is also watch making and jewellery. Minor industrial branches are textiles, leather goods, glass, cement, paper and chemicals. There is a brewery in the canton.

At Rheinau there is a hydro electrical power plant generating electricity for the canton and for export. Major electricity customers are the chemical industry in Rheinfelden and the aluminium plant at Neuhausen am Rheinfall. The city of Schaffhausen also uses much of the electricity produced at Rheinau.

Schaffhausen lies on the busy Milan-Zürich-Stuttgart rail line which is serviced by trains from both the Swiss Federal Railways and German Railways.

The largest companies are Tyco International, Tyco Electronics, SIG, Georg Fischer AG, International Watch Company and Cilag AG.

Bus
The neighboring towns of Schaffhausen and Neuhausen am Rheinfall share a municipal bus network with frequent services (see: urban buses in Schaffhausen and Neuhausen).

There are several regional bus services that link towns and villages in the canton of Schaffhausen with each other or with towns in the adjacent canton of Zürich and nearby German territory, respectively. Bus services, , , , and lines  and  (the latter two to villages in the northern part of canton of Zürich) all depart from the forecourt of Schaffhausen railway station in Schaffhausen. In addition, bus line  connects villages in the eastern part of the canton of Schaffhausen with Singen (Hohentwiel) (some courses continue to Konstanz) in Germany. Line 675 connects the villages of Rüdlingen and Buchberg in the southern part of the canton of Schaffhausen with Rafz and Henggart (both are in the canton of Zürich), respectively. Route 825 links Stein am Rhein in the eastern part of the canton of Schaffhausen with Frauenfeld, the capital of the canton of Thurgau. Lines, , , , , and  are operated by Verkehrsbetriebe Schaffhausen (vbsh), while routes , , , and  are operated by Postauto, and line   is run by Südbadenbus.

The regional bus lines are as follows (railway stations in bold letters):

Nighttime Bus
On weekends, there are night bus services operating on regional bus routes after midnight.

Train
Several train stations in the canton of Schaffhausen provide S-Bahn-style services (lines designated with an "S" followed by the route number). Schaffhausen railway station is also served by InterCity (IC) and RegioExpress (RE) trains of Swiss Federal Railways (SBB CFF FFS) and Deutsche Bahn (DB), and Interregio-Express (IRE) and IC trains of DB. Two railway stations in the eastern part of the canton, Hemishofen and Ramsen on the Etzwilen–Singen railway, are closed to regular passenger service,

Train services are as follows (as of December 2023):

Schaffhausen station

 * DB Fernverkehr / SBB CFF FFS : Zürich HB – Schaffhausen – Stuttgart Hbf (hourly service)
 * RegioExpress (SBB CFF FFS): Schaffhausen – Bülach – Zürich Oerlikon – Zürich HB (hourly service)
 * (DB Regio Baden-Württemberg): Basel Bad Bf – Schaffhausen – Friedrichshafen-Hafen (hourly service)
 * (St. Gallen S-Bahn): Schaffhausen – Stein am Rhein – Kreuzlingen – Romanshorn – St. Gallen – Wil SG (half-hourly service)
 * (Zürich S-Bahn): Schaffhausen – Bülach – Zürich HB – Uster (hourly/half-hourly service)
 * (Zürich S-Bahn): Schaffhausen – Winterthur – Zürich HB – Brugg AG (hourly service)
 * (Zürich S-Bahn): Thayngen – Schaffhausen – Winterthur – Zürich Airport – Zürich HB – Zug (hourly service)
 * (Zürich S-Bahn): Schaffhausen – Winterthur (hourly service)
 * (Schaffhausen S-Bahn): Schaffhausen – Singen (Hohentwiel) (half-hourly service)
 * (Schaffhausen S-Bahn): Schaffhausen – Erzingen (Baden) (half-hourly service)
 * (Schaffhausen S-Bahn): Schaffhausen – Jestetten (hourly service)

Herblingen and Thayngen stations

 * (Zürich S-Bahn): Thayngen – Herblingen – Schaffhausen – Winterthur – Zürich Airport – Zürich HB – Zug (hourly service)
 * (Schaffhausen S-Bahn): Singen (Hohentwiel) – Thayngen – Herblingen – Schaffhausen – (half-hourly service)

Neuhausen station

 * (Zürich S-Bahn): Schaffhausen – Neuhausen – Bülach – Zürich HB – Uster (hourly/half-hourly service)
 * (Zürich S-Bahn): Schaffhausen – Neuhausen – Winterthur – Zürich HB – Brugg AG (hourly service)
 * (Zürich S-Bahn): Thayngen – Schaffhausen – Neuhausen – Winterthur – Zürich Airport – Zürich HB – Zug (hourly service)
 * (Zürich S-Bahn): Schaffhausen – Neuhausen – Winterthur (hourly service)
 * (Schaffhausen S-Bahn): Schaffhausen – Neuhausen – Jestetten (hourly service)

Neuhausen Rheinfall station

 * (Zürich S-Bahn): Schaffhausen – Neuhausen Rheinfall – Bülach – Zürich HB – Uster (hourly/half-hourly service)
 * (Schaffhausen S-Bahn): Schaffhausen – Neuhausen Rheinfall – Jestetten (half-hourly service)

Neuhausen Badischer Bahnhof, Beringerfeld, Beringen, Neunkirch, Wilchingen-Hallau and Trasadingen stations

 * (Schaffhausen S-Bahn): Schaffhausen – Neuhausen Badischer Bahnhof – Beringerfeld – Beringen Badischer Bahnhof – Neunkirch – Wilchingen-Hallau – Trasadingen – Erzingen (Baden) (half-hourly service)

Stein am Rhein station

 * (St. Gallen S-Bahn): Schaffhausen – Stein am Rhein – Kreuzlingen – Romanshorn – St. Gallen – Wil SG (half-hourly service)
 * (Zürich S-Bahn): Stein am Rhein – Winterthur (half-hourly service)

Boat
During warmer seasons (April to October), there are regular boat trips by the Schweizerische Schifffahrtsgesellschaft Untersee und Rhein (URh) on the River Rhine (High Rhine) between Schifflände in Schaffhausen and Kreuzlingen (Lake Constance) via Stein am Rhein.

title: Canton of Schaffhausen


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Mahadev Desai

Mahadev Haribhai Desai (1 January 1892 – 15 August 1942) was an Indian independence activist, scholar and writer best remembered as Mahatma Gandhi's personal secretary. He has variously been described as "Gandhi's Boswell, a Plato to Gandhi's Socrates, as well as an Ānanda to Gandhi's Buddha".

Early life
Mahadev Desai was born in an anavil Brahmin family on 1 January 1892 in the village of Saras in Surat district of Gujarat to Haribhai Desai, a school teacher, and his wife Jamnabehn. Jamnabehn died when Desai was seven years old. In 1905, aged 13, Mahadev was married to Durgabehn. He was educated at the Surat High School and the Elphinstone College, Mumbai. Desai graduated with a BA Degree, and after earning his L.L.B in 1913 took a job as an inspector at the central co-operative bank in Bombay

Gandhi's associate
Mahadev Desai first met Gandhi in 1915 when he went to meet him to seek his advice on how best to publish his book (a Gujrati translation of John Morley's English book On Compromise). Desai joined Gandhi's Ashram in 1917 and with Durgabehn accompanied him to Champaran that year. He maintained a diary from 13 November 1917 to 14 August 1942, the day before his death, chronicling his life with Gandhi. In 1919 when the colonial government arrested Gandhi in Punjab, he named Desai his heir. Desai was for the first time arrested and sentenced to a year in prison in 1921. He was Gandhi's personal secretary for 25 years, but as Verrier Elwin wrote of him, "he was much more than that. He was in fact Home and Foreign Secretary combined. He managed everything. He made all the arrangements. He was equally at home in the office, the guest-house and the kitchen. He looked after many guests and must have saved 10 years of Gandhi's life by diverting from him unwanted visitors". Rajmohan Gandhi writes of Mahadev Desai thus: "Waking up before Gandhi in pre-dawn darkness, and going to sleep long after his Master, Desai lived Gandhi's day thrice over — first in an attempt to anticipate it, next in spending it alongside Gandhi, and finally in recording it into his diary".

Political Activism
In 1920, Motilal Nehru requisitioned the services of Mahadev Desai from Gandhi to run his newspaper, the Independent, from Allahabad. Desai created a sensation by bringing out a hand-written cyclostyled newspaper after the Independent's printing press was confiscated by the British government. Desai was sentenced to a year's rigorous imprisonment for his writings in 1921 – his first stint in prison. In prison, Desai saw that the jail authorities mistreated prisoners, frequently flogging them. His report describing the life inside an Indian jail, published in Young India and Navajivan, compelled the British authorities to bring about some drastic jail reform measures. Desai took over as editor of Navajivan in 1924 and from 1925 he began the translation into English of Gandhi's autobiography and its serial publication in the Young India. The following year he became chairman of the executive committee of the Satyagraha Ashram and won a prize from the Gujarati Sahitya Parishad for his article in Navajivan. He took part in the Bardoli Satyagraha along with Sardar Patel and wrote a history of the Satyagraha in Gujarati which he translated into English as The Story of Bardoli. For his participation in the Salt Satyagraha, he was arrested and imprisoned but following the Gandhi–Irwin Pact, he was released from jail and accompanied Gandhi to the Second round Table Conference along with Mirabehn, Devdas Gandhi and Pyarelal. He was the only person to accompany Gandhi when the latter met with King George V.

Following the collapse of the Gandhi–Irwin Pact and the deadlock at the Round Table Conference, Gandhi restarted the Civil Disobedience Movement. The colonial government, under the new Viceroy, Lord Willingdon, was determined to crush the movement and ordered a clampdown on the Indian National Congress and its activists. In 1932, Desai was arrested again and sent to prison with Gandhi and Sardar Patel. Following his release in 1933, he was re-arrested and detained in the Belgaum Jail. It was during this time in prison that he wrote Gita According to Gandhi which was posthumously published in 1946. He also played a role in organising people's movements in the princely states of Rajkot and Mysore in 1939 and was put in charge of selecting satyagrahis during the Individual Satyagraha of 1940. Desai's final prison term followed the Quit India Declaration of 8 August 1942. He was arrested on the morning of 9 August 1942 and, till his death of a massive heart-attack six days later, was interred with Gandhi at the Aga Khan Palace. Desai was 50 at the time of his death.

Writings
Mahadev Desai was an outstanding writer, at ease with Gujarati, Bengali and English. He is highly regarded as a translator and writer in Gujarati. He wrote several biographies such as Antyaj Sadhu Nand (1925), Sant Francis (1936), Vir Vallabhbhai (1928) and Be Khudai Khidmatgar (1936) which was a biography of Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan and his brother Khan Abdul Jabbar Khan.

He started translating when he was studying in college. He translated John Morley's On Compromise in Gujarati and won a thousand rupees prize of the Farbas Gujarati Sabha. Later it was published as Satyagrahni Maryada. From Bengali, he translated Saratchandra Chattopadhyaya's short stories as Tran Vartao (1923) and the novella Virajvahu (1924). He also translated Tagore's works into Gujarati such as Prachin Sahitya (1922), Chitrangada and Viday Abhishap (1925). He translated Nehru's Autobiography as Mari Jeevanktha (1936) into Gujarati from English. The English translation of Gandhi's autobiography, The Story of My Experiments with Truth, from its Gujarati original was also done by Desai.

Mahadevbhaini Dayari (1948–1997) is the 22 volume publication of Mahadev Desai's diaries. These, edited by Narhari Parikh (Volume I-VI) and Chandulal Bhagubhai Dalal (VII-XXII), provide a close look at Gandhi's life and are a valuable chronicle of the major events in Gandhi's life and in Indian independence movement.

He was also a regular contributor to Gandhi's publications Young India, Navjivan and the Harijanbandhu. Desai was among the founding members of the All India Newspaper Editors' Conference. He also frequently contributed to various nationalist Indian newspapers such as Free Press, The Bombay Chronicle, Hindustan Times, The Hindu and Amrita Bazar Patrika.

He wrote several works in English including Gandhiji in Indian Villages (1927), With Gandhiji in Ceylon (1928), The Story of Bardoli (1929), Unworthy of Vardha (1943), The Eclipse of Faith (1943), A Righteous Struggle (1951) and Gospel of Selfless Action or The Geeta According to Gandhi (1946, translation of Anasaktiyoga by Gandhi).

He was posthumously awarded the Sahitya Akademi Award in 1955 for Mahadevbhaini Dayari.

Death and legacy

Aged 50, Mahadev Desai died of a heart attack on the morning of 15 August 1942 at the Aga Khan Palace where he was interned with Gandhi. When Desai stopped breathing, Gandhi called out to him in agitation: "Mahadev! Mahadev!" When he was later asked why he had done so, Gandhi answered: "I felt that if Mahadev opened his eyes and looked at me, I would tell him to get up. He had never disobeyed me in his life. I was confident that if had he heard those words, he would have defied even death and got up". Gandhi himself washed Desai's body and he was cremated on the Palace's grounds, where his samadhi lies today.

The Indian Department of Posts published a commemorative stamp in his honour in 1983. His son Narayan Desai was also a noted Gandhian activist and writer who wrote Mahadev Desai's biography The Fire and the Rose. The Mahadev Desai Samajseva Mahavidyalaya, Gujarat Vidyapith's faculty of social sciences, arts and humanities was named in Mahadev Desai's honour.

title: Mahadev Desai