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Grand Alliance (League of Augsburg)

The Grand Alliance, sometimes erroneously referred to as its precursor the League of Augsburg, was formed on 20 December 1689. Signed by William III on behalf of the Dutch Republic and England, and Emperor Leopold I for the Habsburg Monarchy, its primary purpose was to oppose the expansionist policies of Louis XIV of France.

With the later additions of Spain and Savoy, the coalition fought the 1688 to 1697 Nine Years' War against France that ended with the Peace of Ryswick.

The Second Grand Alliance was reformed by the 1701 Treaty of The Hague prior to the War of the Spanish Succession, and dissolved in 1713 following the Peace of Utrecht.

Background
The Grand Alliance was the most significant of the coalitions formed in response to the wars of Louis XIV that began in 1667 and ended in 1714. Post-1648, French expansion was helped by the decline of Spanish power while the Peace of Westphalia formalised religious divisions within the Holy Roman Empire. This weakened the collective security previously provided by the Imperial Circles and led to a series of individual agreements, such as the 1679 Wetterau Union.

In 1672, Louis XIV launched the Franco-Dutch War, which briefly threatened to over-run the Dutch Republic, before the conflict ended with the 1678 to 1679 Treaties of Nijmegen. The high point of French influence in this period, his opponents were dismayed when Louis XIV continued his aggressive diplomatic and military policies. The 1683–1684 War of the Reunions extended French control of Alsace and during the 1683–1699 Great Turkish War, France secretly supported the Ottomans against the Austrian Habsburgs. At the same time, payments by Louis XIV to states including Bavaria, the Palatinate, Cologne and Brandenburg-Prussia, threatened Habsburg influence within the Holy Roman Empire.

This sense of threat increased when Protestant Denmark–Norway also received financial backing, while in February 1685, the accession of the Catholic James II as King of England potentially provided Louis with another ally. This was followed by the October 1685 Edict of Fontainebleau which revoked tolerance for French Huguenots, an estimated 200,000 to 400,000 of whom left France over the next five years.

Concern at these policies led Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg, to invite French exiles to settle in his territories, while he also agreed a treaty with the Dutch Republic in October 1685. The 1686 massacre of around 2,000 Vaudois Protestants reinforced fears Protestant Europe was threatened with another Counter-Reformation, this time led by Louis XIV.

Formation
With Leopold occupied by the Ottomans, in 1679 William of Orange took the lead in forming an anti-French alliance. Known as the Union of Wetterau, this coalition of Imperial German states was ostensibly set up to "preserve the peace and liberties of Europe". Since the Dutch Republic was outside the Empire, it could not formally be a member of the Union, but many of its leaders were senior Dutch officers, including the head, Prince Georg Friedrich of Waldeck. The most significant innovation was that its members funded a central 'Union' army, rather than providing individual contingents, a change that greatly enhanced its effectiveness.

The same model was used for the 1682 Laxenburg Alliance, which grouped Austria with the Upper Rhenish and Franconian Circles to defend the Rhineland, but the War of Reunions proved it could not oppose France on its own. When Philip William inherited the Palatinate in May 1685, Louis claimed half of it, based on the marriage of Elizabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate to Philippe of Orléans, creating another crisis.

Victory over the Ottomans at the Battle of Vienna in 1683 allowed Leopold to refocus on the western portions of the Empire. The League of Augsburg was formed in July 1686 by combining the Laxenburg Alliance with the Burgundian Circle, Swedish Pomerania, and Bavaria.

On 27 September 1688, French forces invaded the Rhineland and attacked Philippsburg, launching the Nine Years' War. The anti-French coalition was strengthened when the Glorious Revolution deposed James II in November 1688, and William of Orange became William III/II of England and Scotland. The Dutch Republic declared war on France in March 1689, followed by England in May.

Membership; League of Augsburg v Grand Alliance
The overlap between the various coalitions is often confusing. The Empire contained hundreds of members, each belonging to an Imperial Circle (see map), an administrative unit for collecting taxes and mutual support; the Swabian Circle alone had over 88 members. Individual states could form or join alliances, such as the 1685 agreement between Brandenburg-Prussia and the Dutch Republic, while Leopold signed the Grand Alliance as Archduke of Austria. However, only the Imperial Diet could commit the entire Empire; unlike the 1701–1714 War of the Spanish Succession, the Nine Years' War was not declared an 'Imperial' one.

A number of foreign monarchs became personally involved, because they held titles and lands within the Empire. Sweden was technically neutral, but Charles XI of Sweden was also Duke of Swedish Pomerania, a member of the Lower Saxon Circle and part of the League. The same applied to the Spanish Netherlands, a member of the Burgundian Circle, but not the Kingdom of Spain, which joined the Grand Alliance in 1690.

Lastly, some writers fail to differentiate between the Grand Alliance, i.e. England, the Dutch Republic, Spain and Austria, and the wider anti-French 'alliance,' which included German states like Bavaria, the Palatinate, etc. European diplomacy was extremely hierarchical; the Grand Alliance acknowledged the Dutch Republic and England as Leopold's equals, a status he guarded with great care. This made the later admission of Savoy a major triumph for Victor Amadeus, but Leopold refused to allow Bavaria and Brandenburg-Prussia separate representation at the Ryswick peace talks in 1697.

Provisions
The terms of the Grand Alliance were largely based on the agreements of May 1689 between the Dutch Republic and Austria and the August 1689 Anglo-Dutch 'Treaty of Friendship and Alliance.' It was finally signed on 20 December 1689, delayed by Leopold's concerns on accepting William as King of England, and the impact on English Roman Catholics.

The main provisions were to ensure restoration of the borders agreed at Westphalia in 1648, the independence of the Duchy of Lorraine and French recognition of the Protestant Succession in England. Signatories also bound themselves not to agree a separate peace; failure to keep this commitment had greatly improved the French position during negotiations over the 1678 to 1679 Treaties of Nijmegen.

What would happen when the childless Charles II of Spain died featured in many agreements of the period, including the 1670 Treaty of Dover between England and France. A secret clause now committed England and the Dutch Republic to support Leopold's claims to the Spanish throne, an undertaking that would lead to another war.

Aftermath
The main area of conflict was in the Spanish Netherlands, with the Dutch doing much of the fighting; Habsburg forces were occupied by a renewed Ottoman offensive in Southeastern Europe, while the War in Ireland absorbed resources in England and Scotland until 1692. The entry of Spain and Savoy opened new fronts in Catalonia and Northern Italy but both required support by Allied-funded German auxiliaries.

The purpose of the Grand Alliance was to resist French expansion, the legality of Louis' claims in the Palatinate being less important than their impact on the balance of power. Its creation also highlighted the obsolescence of the Imperial Circles and ultimately led to the rise of larger, more centralised states, chiefly Brandenburg-Prussia, Bavaria and Saxony. As a result, it can be seen as a significant milestone in the concept of collective security, the fundamental issue at stake in the War of the Spanish Succession.

The Nine Years' War was financially crippling for participants; the average army size increased from 25,000 in 1648 to over 100,000 by 1697, a level unsustainable for pre-industrial economies. Between 1689 and 1696, 80% of English government revenues were spent on the military, with one in seven adult males serving in the army or navy; figures were similar or worse for other combatants.

By 1693, both sides recognised a military solution was no longer possible, and France began informal peace talks with Dutch and Savoyard representatives. Louis XIV agreed a separate peace with Savoy in the August 1696 Treaty of Turin, but wider talks made little progress. Leopold demanded the restoration of all Imperial losses in the Rhineland since 1667, and an agreement on the Spanish succession. Until these issues were addressed, he held his allies to their commitment not to make a separate peace.

The Peace of Ryswick was agreed only after France agreed to return Luxembourg to Spain, and Louis set aside his personal commitment to James by recognising William as King of England and Scotland. Despite this, Leopold only signed with great reluctance in October 1697. His hesitation was arguably correct in that leaving the Spanish succession unresolved resulted in a new round of fighting in 1701. However, at the time the English in particular felt his demands simply prolonged a hugely expensive war for little benefit. Studies show English trade with Southern Europe alone declined by over 25% between 1689 and 1693, while the French capture of over 90 merchant ships at Lagos in 1693 caused massive losses for merchants in both London and Amsterdam.

These losses strengthened opposition among English Tories to spending money on European wars, rather than the Royal Navy. This had a long-lasting impact on English attitudes; in 1744, James Ralph began his chapter on the Nine Years' War as follows; 'The moment he (William) became sovereign, he made the Kingdom subservient to the Republic; in war, we had the honour to fight for the Dutch; in negotiation, to treat for the Dutch; while the Dutch had all possible encouragement to trade for us...'.

title: Grand Alliance (League of Augsburg)


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User talk:Bozidar

Hello, Bozidar, welcome to Wikipedia!

I hope you have a lot of fun here.There are lots of resources around to help guide you. be sure to check out:

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Also check out
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license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Bozidar


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Ural (river)

The Ural (Урал, ), known before 1775 as the Yaik, is a river flowing through Russia and Kazakhstan in the continental border between Europe and Asia. It originates in the southern Ural Mountains and discharges into the Caspian Sea. At 2428 km, it is the third-longest river in Europe after the Volga and the Danube, and the 18th-longest river in Asia. The Ural is conventionally considered part of the boundary between the continents of Europe and Asia.

The Ural rises near Mount Kruglaya in the Ural Mountains, flows south parallel and west of the north-flowing Tobol, through Magnitogorsk, and around the southern end of the Urals, through Orsk where it turns west for about 300 km, to Orenburg, where the river Sakmara joins. From Orenburg it continues west, passing into Kazakhstan, then turning south again at Oral, and meandering through a broad flat plain until it reaches the Caspian a few kilometers below Atyrau, where it forms a fine 'digitate' (tree-like) delta.

Etymology
The river was called Δάϊκος (Daïkos) by Ptolemy in the 2nd century AD. Yulian Kulakovsky reads this as Turkic "Jajyk" or "Яик" and on this basis identifies the Huns as Turkic speakers. However, Gerard Clauson disputes that the name could be of Turkic origin as early as the 2nd century, and instead attributes it to Sarmatian origin. Also, the version of origin from the ancient Finno-Ugric and subsequent adaptation by other language groups has not been sufficiently studied (the river originates in the alleged ancestral home of the Finno-Ugric languages). In modern Finno-Ugric, the closest surviving forms are found: "joki" (Finnish), "jogi" (Karelian), "jā" (Mansi), "ju" (Komi) – river, "jəŋk" (Khanty) – water. Also, hypothetically Finno-Ugric titles may have tributaries of the Yaik River, for example Ilek (Erzya "Ilyk" – strength) and Utva (Komi "Ytva" – spring water). In the 10th-Century work De Administrando Imperio, Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus referred to the Ural River as the "Geich." The name Яйыҡ (Yayıq) is currently used in the Bashkir language and Жайық (Zhayıq) in Kazakhstan. In later European texts it is sometimes mentioned as Rhymnus fluvius and in the Russian chronicle of 1140 as Yaik. The river was renamed Ural in the Russian language in 1775, by Catherine II of Russia.

History
In the 10th to 16th centuries, the city of Saray-Jük (or Saraichik, meaning "small Sarai") on the Ural River (now in Atyrau Province of Kazakhstan) was an important trade center on the Silk Road. In the 13th century, it became a stronghold of the Golden Horde. It was destroyed in 1395 by the army of Timur but then rebuilt to become the capital of Nogai Horde in the 15th and 16th centuries. It was finally reduced to a village in 1580 by the Ural Cossacks.

After the Russian conquest of the Ural basin in the late 16th century, the shores of the Ural became home to the Yaik Cossacks. One of their main activities was fishing for the sturgeon and related fishes (including the true sturgeon, starry sturgeon, and beluga) in the Ural River and the Caspian. A great variety of fishing techniques existed; the most famous of them was bagrenye (багренье, from bagor багор, meaning pike pole): spearing hibernating sturgeons in their underwater lairs in mid-winter. The bagrenye was allowed only on one day of the year. On the appointed day, a large number of Cossacks with pike poles were gathering on the shore; after a signal was given, they rushed on the ice, broke it with their poles, and speared and pulled the fish. Another fishing technique was constructing a weir, known as the uchug (учуг) across the river, to catch fish going upstream to spawn. Until 1918, an uchug was set up in the summer and autumn near Uralsk, so that the fish would not go upstream beyond the Cossacks' land. While the uchug weirs were also known in the Volga Delta, the bagrenye was thought to be a uniquely Ural technique.

The Ural Cossacks (known originally as the Yaik Cossacks) resented the attempts by the central government to impose rules and regulations on them, and on occasions rose in rebellions. The largest rebellion, the Pugachev's Rebellion of 1773–75, involved not only the Ural, but much of south-eastern Russia, and resulted in a loss of the government control there. After its suppression, Empress Catherine issued a decree of 15 January 1775 to rename most of the places involved in the revolt, in order to erase the memory of it. Thus the Yaik River and the city of Yaitsk were renamed to the Ural River and Uralsk, respectively, and the Yaik Cossacks became the Ural Cossacks.

On 6 April 2024, during the Snowmelt, a levee sheltering the city of Orsk broke. A flood in Orenburg sets over 10.000 houses under water. Also parts of Kazakhstan are concerned.

Geography
The river begins on the slopes of the Kruglaya Mountain of the Uraltau mountain ridge in South Ural, on the territory of the Uchalinsky District of Bashkortostan. There it has an average width of 60 to 80 m and flows as a typical mountain river. It then falls into the Yaik Swamp and after exiting it widens up to 5 km. Below Verkhneuralsk, its flow is characteristic of a flatland river; there it enters Chelyabinsk and Orenburg Oblasts. From Magnitogorsk to Orsk its banks are steep and rocky and the bottom has many rifts. After Orsk, the river abruptly turns west and flows through a 45 km long canyon in the Guberlinsk Mountains. After Uralsk, it flows from north to south, through the territory of West Kazakhstan Region and Atyrau Region of Kazakhstan. There, the river widens and has many lakes and ducts. Near the mouth, it splits into the Yaik and Zolotoy distributaries and forms vast wetlands. The Yaik distributary is shallow, with almost no trees on the shores, and is rich in fish; whereas Zolotoy is deeper and is navigable. Ural River has a spectacular tree-like (or "digitate") shape of the delta (see image). This type of delta forms naturally in the slow rivers which deliver a great deal of sediments and flow into a quiet sea. In the delta, 13.5 km from the mouth of the Zolotoy distributary lies Shalyga Island, which is 2.5 km long, with heights of 1 to 2 m and maximum widths of 0.3 km.

The tributaries, in order going upstream, are Kushum, Derkul, Chagan, Irtek, Utva, Ilek (major, left), Bolshaya Chobda, Kindel, Sakmara, Tanalyk (major, right), Salmys, Or (major, left) and Suunduk. The Kushum and Bagyrlai are distributaries.

The entire length of the Ural River is considered the Europe-Asia boundary by most authoritative sources. Rarely, the smaller, shorter Emba River is claimed as the continental boundary, but that pushes "Europe" much further into "Central Asian" Kazakhstan. The Ural River bridge in Orenburg is even labeled with permanent monuments carved with the word "Europe" on one side, "Asia" on the other. Regardless, Kazakhstan has some European territory and is at times included in European political and sports organizations.

Hydrography
The river is mostly fed by melting snow (60–70%); the contribution of precipitation is relatively minor. Most of its annual discharge (65%) occurs during the spring floods, which occur in March and April near the mouth and in late April through June upstream; 30% drain during the summer and autumn and 5% in winter. During the floods, the river widens to above 10 km near Uralsk and to several tens of kilometers near the mouth. Water level is highest in later April upstream and in May downstream. Its fluctuation is 3 to 4 m in the upper stream, 9 to 10 m in the middle of the river and about 3 m in the delta. The average water discharge is 104 m3/s near Orenburg, and 400 m3/s at the Kushum village, which is 76.5 km from the mouth. The maximum discharge is 14000 m3/s and the minimum is 1.62 m3/s. Average turbidity is 280 g/m3 at Orenburg and 290 g/m3 near Kushum. The river freezes at the source in early November and in the middle and lower reaches in late November. It opens in the lower reaches in late March and in early April in the upper reaches. The ice drift is relatively short.

The average depth is 1 to 1.5 m near the source, and it increases in the middle reaches and especially near the mouth. The density of underwater vegetation also increases from the source to the mouth, so does the richness of the fauna. The bottom in the upper stream is rocky, with pebble and sand; it changes to silt-sand and occasionally clay downstream. The basin is asymmetrical – its left side from the river is 2.1 times larger in area than the right side; however, the right side is more important for feeding the river. The density of the tributaries is 0.29 km/km2 in the right and 0.19 km/km2 in the left side of the basin. The right-side tributaries are typical mountain rivers whereas the left-side tributaries have flatland character. About 200 km from the mouth there is a dangerous spot for shipping called Kruglovskaya prorva (Кругловская прорва meaning Kruglovsk abyss). Here the river narrows and creates a strong vortex over a deep pit. The climate is continental with frequent and strong winds. Typical annual precipitation is 530 mm.

Fauna
The wetlands at and near the delta of the Ural River are especially important to migrating birds as an important stop-over along the Asian flyway. They host many endemic and endangered species, such as great white pelican, Dalmatian pelican, pygmy cormorant, cattle egret, little egret, greater flamingo, white-headed duck, ferruginous duck, Eurasian spoonbill, glossy ibis, houbara bustard, great black-headed gull, slender-billed gull, squacco heron, common crane, demoiselle crane, slender-billed curlew, black stork, red-breasted goose, lesser white-fronted goose, lesser kestrel, whooper swan, tundra swan, osprey, pallid harrier, short-toed eagle and many others. The pygmy cormorant was observed sporadically before 1999 and more regularly after that. Cattle egret is observed since 1990 between April and September (as most other migratory birds in this area), with the total population of several dozen couples. It feeds on frogs, mollusks and small fish. Upstream, there are more of the resident bird species, such as grouse, wild pigeon and partridge.

Ural River is also important for many fish species of the Caspian Sea which visit its delta and migrate upstream for spawning. In the lower reaches of the river there are 47 species from 13 families. The family Cyprinidae account for 40%, sturgeon and herring make up 11%, perch and herring 9% and salmon 4.4%. The main commercial species are sturgeon, roach, bream, perch, carp, asp and Wels catfish. The rare species include Caspian salmon, sterlet, white salmon and kutum.

In the delta of the river and nearby regions live about 48 animal species belonging to 7 orders; most common are rodents (21 species) and predators (12). Among them, Bobrinski's serotine and marbled polecat are endemic. Key species are raccoon dog, muskrat (appeared recently), European hare, house mouse, brown rat, and wild boar. Wild boars had a density of 1.2–2.5 per hectare in 2000 and are hunted commercially. Others include elk, fox, wolf, dwarf fat-tailed jerboa, great gerbil, northern mole vole and saiga antelope. The Turkmenian kulan (Equus hemionus kulan) used to live at the Ural River. It might be extinct from that region.

The reptiles are represented by bog turtles, common water snakes, rat snakes and sand lizard. Bog turtles are found in all waters. Common water snakes live on the banks of canals. Rat snakes and sand lizards are few and inhabit relatively high areas of land. Two more reptiles, Caspian whipsnake and Coluber spinalis, are extremely rare. Among amphibians common are lake frog and green frog.

With an estimated 5,000 to 10,000 species, insects exceed all other animals of the region by diversity and biomass. Terrestrial and aquatic insects make up a significant proportion of the diet of birds. Many species are parasitic on birds and transmit infection. Other dominating inhabitants of the river are protozoa, rotifers, Cladocera and copepods. Mollusks are mostly represented by gastropods and bivalves.

Industry
Water from the upper reaches of the Ural River is used to supply the prominent Magnitogorsk (Magnitogorsk Iron and Steel Works, built in the early 1930s) and Orsk-Khalilovsk metallurgical plants, and the low reaches are used for irrigation. Two reservoirs were created near Magnitogorsk, and there is a hydroelectric plant near the village of Iriklinskaya with the corresponding reservoir. Below Uralsk, there is another reservoir and the Kushumsky channel. The river is navigated up to Uralsk and there is a port in Atyrau. Fishery is well developed; the commercial fish species include sturgeon, perch, herring, bream, carp and catfish. The delta of Ural River accounts for about half of the fish catchment in Kazakhstan. Also widespread is agriculture, especially growth of melons and watermelons. The city of Atyrau is a major oil producing center of Kazakhstan.

title: Ural (river)


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Talk:Object-oriented operating system

Untitled
Let's talk about this topic again. There's a lot more to tell about oo os systems than this. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Edx.de (talk • contribs) 21:40, 13 April 2011 (UTC)

Isn't it WAY to steep to consider Win9x systems front-ends for DOS? If you had said so for Win3.x, I would have agreed, but this sounds like a little too much to me...

 * Indeed. I fixed it. The role of DOS in Win 9x is fairly obscure, but can be rougly summarised as follows:

 * There are two OSes, real mode and protected mode. The computer starts in one and then switches to the other. The real mode OS could loosely be called MS-DOS.
 * Windows APIs often call DOS APIs which in turn call Windows implementations. This is for backwards compatibility. It allows interrupt hooks.
 * From 95 to 98 to Me, features have been progressively ported from Windows 3.x era 16-bit code to 32-bit code. Backwards compatibility has been maintained.

-- Tim Starling 12:00 19 Jun 2003 (UTC)

Surely, the concept of an object-oriented OS has nothing to do with the concept of GUI widgets? I have always believed that an OS is object oriented in API design, rather than in GUI implementation.

As far as I can tell, most OSes have OO-like features in their APIs, for instance, in UNIX, everything is a file/stream; in Windows, only handles are passed around; in Darwin, the driver API is implemented in C++; in microkernels, messages are passed between processes (like invoking methods of objects); and naturally, widget-oriented GUIs are object-oriented. (Curiously, X11 isn't -- the only type of graphical object is a window, and apparently, windows don't nest)

It's much more complicated that than. And the article, which I dislike, does have a reference to common language in wide use in the early 1990s.

First of all, WIMP is a legitimate acronym, and was in common use in the late eighties. It was largely displaced by GUI. People needed a name for all of these strange new things like Digital Research's GEM and Apple's LISA and VisiCorp's VisiOn. IMHO both WIMP and GUI were deliberately conceived to be slightly derogatory; a lot of people at the time preferred command lines and didn't think this silly icon stuff would ever really take off. (In the MUMPS world the was once widespread use of the term "CHUI," pronounced "chewy," for character-based-UI... )Second... I personally hate the locutions and never understood what they were supposed to mean and thought they were marketing-speak... but there was a popular use of the word "object-oriented" to mean something... undefined. In the early nineties, it was widely asserted that OS/2's um... Presentation Manager was a "true" object-oriented operating system, in comparison to Windows (2.11, 3.0, 3.1), which were not. At the same time, there were various efforts--HP's NewWave, Wang's ClearView, etc.--to put new graphics shells on top of Windows, graphics shells which were always described as being "object-oriented." In other words, at the time, many people would have said that OS/2 was object-oriented, Windows 3.xx was not, and Windows 95 was claimed to be but wasn't. Similarly, draw-style programs such as MacDraw were widely described as "object oriented" and contrasted with paint-style programs which were said not to be. There's some kind of possible article there trying to explain what these terms apparently meant to people back then. Dpbsmith 13:13, 22 Feb 2004 (UTC)

I'm going to make notes here as a run across stuff that's relevant to what an "object-oriented OS" is supposed to be. This is difficult for me because I think it's all garbage and marketing, but, nevertheless...

http://www.os2hq.com/os2faq.htm says:

 * The OS/2 GUI, Workplace Shell, is a true object-oriented interface, meaning that the screen elements are consistent and fully take advantage of system capabilities. The Windows interfaces are not object-oriented in the strictest sense, because they fail to adequately track the files to which they are pointing, as well as other inconsistencies.

The Windows 3.x interface was, of course, a mess. There were icons that seemed to be files, but if you deleted the icon you weren't deleting the file.

I think that what you have is a second-order definition. An object-oriented application means an application that has the characteristics of applications that are coded using object-oriented programming. Possibly this arose in the Xerox PARC days? Maybe an object-oriented application is one in which the things which appear to be physical objects on the screen are, in fact, objects within the programming system?

http://www.contact.net/os2/TOUR/page1.htm says:

 * OS/2 is fully Object Oriented via SOM and the base concept of Object Orientness is that everything is built on the same code. This means that all of the objects resemble the way the other objects function too. In OS/2 this also translates into drag and drop. For examples, you know how to change the icon for a program object, you now can do it for any other objects (ie.: folders, data files, templates, etc.). Just like in real life! If you have a spread sheet data file, it is a spread sheet data file since it is defined using the data file codes, it is not a binary junk that some program will decode: a toaster is a toaster, but a better toaster is still a toaster.

Clear as mud.

http://pws.prserv.net/sgwylan/aboutos2.html says

 * The real strength of OS/2, however, is Presentation Manager (PM) and the Workplace Shell (WPS) - OS/2's object-oriented user interface. Outside OS/2, true object-oriented programming hasn't been that obvious to the end user outside, perhaps, the growing use of Java. Objects are nice in that every object of the same type exhibits some of the same behavior, and adds to that behavior. All files behave like other files; all programs behave like other programs in basic behavior.

 * This was the theory, at any rate. In practice, this has been less true than it should have been, largely because of IBM's decision not to adequately improve its development software (such as Visual Age for C++) which took advantage of OS/2's System Object Model (SOM), roughly similar to Microsoft's Common Object Model (COM) but fully CORBA-compliant. As a result, writing OS/2 programs became a much more difficult chore than writing for Windows.

I dunno, I dunno... I think IBM marketroids heard the phrase "object-oriented" and thought it sounded cool, so it became the secret ingredient, like Vitalis' V-7, that made OS/2 better than the competition. Then Microsoft had to retaliate by calling Windows 95 "object-oriented." Well, after all, they already claimed that "window classes" were object-oriented... Dpbsmith

---

Hm. User:Dpbsmith's comment explains how the original author was confused. Our question is no longer "keep or delete" but "delete or rewrite to explain that OOOS is a nonsense-term invented by marketroids to pitch a handful of OSes that are no longer in common use." 128.112.225.67 03:22, 23 Feb 2004 (UTC)

A lot of the confusion does come from marketing people, since OO is fashionable and marketing types have tried to make everything OO. I've rewritten it to really describe an OO OS and to note the distinction between what's presented to the user and a real OO OS. Not that there's no more work to be done, but at least it's no longer as silly as it was. Jamesday 20:21, 25 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Votes for Deletion

 * Object-oriented operating system - "Object-oriented operating system is an operating system that uses the concept of WIMP (Windows, Icons, Menus, Pointer...)" --- I have never seen this term before, and my (admittedly brief) searches for the term on the Internet turn up nothing but more links to this article (and articles on operating systems written in object-oriented *languages*.) AFAIK, WIMP has absolutely nothing to do with OO; this article has no basis in reality and should be nixed. jdb 06:59, 22 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * It's quite possible to have an object-oriented user interface for an OS. Of course, the Windows GUI is emphatically no such thing, and the author is utterly full of BS. Perhaps some OS/2 guru will emerge from his cave and write an article about the real concept. As to this: Delete. Dandrake 08:08, Feb 22, 2004 (UTC)
 * Agreed. The author is confused.  Delete. Josh Cherry 08:49, 22 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * Kill. The "article" mixes up OO <b>software design</b> with OS GUI shell. Humus sapiens 10:56, 22 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. The claim that it was an object-oriented OS was part of the sales pitch of Win95, but it was no such thing. That's probably the source of this. It would be possible to write a good article on this subject, but a stub would probably just attract more like this. So until someone is prepared to write the article (and it's not on my high priority list) IMO better nothing. Andrewa 12:36, 22 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep for a while in hopes someone will rewrite... list on "pages needing attention or whatever." it's much more complicated than that. The present detestable article nevertheless references real parlance that was common in the early nineties. OS/2 advocates always described Presentation Manager as "object-oriented," and many columnists agreed. Windows 3.x was said not to be. Windows 95 was said by Microsoft to be O-O, Microsoft advocates agreed, OS/2 advocates didn't. And, yes, WIMP was a legitimate acronym in wide use, gradually displaced by GUI. In other words, the current article is a mishmash of historical concepts that have been abandoned. See my more extensive comments on talk page. Dpbsmith 13:18, 22 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * KDE is far more OO than Windows... Move to Pages Needing Attention. Fennec 15:44, 22 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete: the author is confused. Wile E. Heresiarch 23:56, 22 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. I've rewritten it so it makes sense and really does describe an object-oriented operating system instead of an object-oriented user interface. Jamesday 20:16, 25 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. Just because the original article is crap doesn't mean the article always will be crap. Assuming that the first person to write an article about the United States of America wrote a completely biased and inaccurate article, would this mean that the article should be deleted? I don't believe so. I say keep in the hopes somebody will improve this. --Johnleemk 08:26, 26 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep; furthermore, mention AmigaOS's datatypes. It was a kewlness I'm ashamed not to have appreciated at the time, it's my own answer to "why bother with an OOOS", and I really wish the Unixen had it. (I'm past hoping Winduhs would catch on.) 142.177.171.132 19:58, 31 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Unix Architecture?
in the ReactOS section, part of the Windows NT section it says the "Unix Architecture", but links to Unix itself, should that be changed to https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix_architecture? — Preceding unsigned comment added by Bumblebritches57 (talk • contribs) 19:26, 4 June 2014 (UTC)

Spring?
Did I miss something,or was this not mentioned:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spring_%28operating_system%29 — Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.116.92.84 (talk) 18:36, 6 June 2014 (UTC)

title: Talk:Object-oriented operating system


text:
Yen Chia-kan

Yen Chia-kan (23 October 1905 – 24 December 1993), also known as C. K. Yen, was a Chinese chemist and Kuomintang politician. He succeeded Chiang Kai-shek as the 2nd president of the Republic of China on 5 April 1975, being sworn in on 6 April 1975, and served out the remainder of Chiang's term until 20 May 1978.

Early life
He was born in Mudu, Wu County, Jiangsu province in 1905. He came of a prestigious Suzhou family, the Yan (Yen) Family of Dongshan (東山嚴氏). He graduated from Saint John's University in Shanghai with a degree in chemistry in 1926.

Political career
In 1931, Yen began serving as a manager of the Shanghai railway administration. Yen started to work as director of the finance department of Fujian Provincial Government in 1938. During his term, he initiated a policy of land tax payment for farmers with their agricultural produce. This policy was then adopted nationwide across China and contributed significantly for the nation food supply during World War II.

When he arrived in Taiwan in October 1945, Yen was appointed transportation director for the Taiwan Provincial Government. He was later named provincial finance director. From the provincial government, Yen was subsequently elevated to chairman of the Bank of Taiwan. In this position, Yen became known as "father of the New Taiwan dollar," as the currency was introduced in June 1949, during his tenure at the bank. Yen then served as Minister of Economic Affairs, minister of finance, and Governor of Taiwan Province. He became premier on 16 December 1963.

In 1966 the National Assembly elected Yen as Vice President and re-elected him in 1972. As vice president, Yen served as the most senior government official of the Republic of China to travel abroad, as Chiang Kai-shek had stated that he would not leave Taiwan until the Chinese Civil War was resolved by unification of the Republic of China. In May 1967, Yen toured the United States, during which he met US President Lyndon B. Johnson. On the afternoon of 5 January 1973, Yen visited Washington, D.C., and met with US President Richard Nixon. In December 1974, Yen traveled throughout Central America and the Caribbean, during which he attended the inauguration of Anastasio Somoza Debayle, who was starting his second stint as President of Nicaragua.

Yen became the second President following the death of Chiang Kai-shek. During his presidency, the Kuomintang worked on the "Chang'an Project" (長安計畫), which was to design, manufacture, and test defensive missiles. On 9 July 1977, he visited Saudi Arabia, becoming the first Republic of China president to visit another country after the government moved to Taiwan. On 20 May 1978, Yen resigned and was succeeded by Chiang's son, KMT Chairman and Premier Chiang Ching-kuo.

Yen served as chairman of the Council on Chinese Cultural Renaissance during his presidency. Though he wished to resign after leaving the presidency, the organization's bylaws were amended so that Yen could retain the post. He was also chairman of the board of the National Palace Museum until 1991.

Death
Yen had been bedridden since a brain hemorrhage in 1986. He suffered a second brain hemorrhage in 1992 and died at the Taipei Veterans General Hospital on 24 December 1993 the age of 88. He was buried at the Wuchih Mountain Military Cemetery in New Taipei City.

title: Yen Chia-kan


text:
Lu Haodong

Lu Zhonggui (30 September 1868 – 7 November 1895), courtesy name Xianxiang, better known by his art name Lu Haodong, was a Chinese revolutionary who lived in the late Qing dynasty. He is best known for designing the Blue Sky with a White Sun flag that became the party flag and emblem of the Kuomintang (KMT; Chinese Nationalist Party), and the canton of the flag of the Republic of China.

Life
Lu was born in Shanghai but his ancestral home was in Xiangshan County (now is Zhongshan), Guangdong. He was a friend of Sun Yat-sen and was involved in activities targeted at overthrowing the Qing dynasty and establishing a republic in China. In 1895, Lu co-founded the Revive China Society in Hong Kong with Sun Yat-sen. In October 1895, they planned to stage an uprising in Guangzhou, but the Qing government got wind of their plan. On 26 October, Lu was preparing to escape from Guangzhou, but decided to return to their base of operations in a church in present-day Beijinglu, Yuexiu District to burn a roster containing the names of the revolutionaries and other important documents. He could not escape in time and was arrested along with other revolutionaries by the Qing government.

Lu was taken to the yamen in Nanhai County (present-day Nanhai District, Foshan, Guangdong) for interrogation by the county magistrate Li Zhengyong (李徵庸), who was acting under instructions from Tan Zhonglin (譚鍾麟), the Viceroy of Liangguang. When he refused to kneel down before Li during questioning, the magistrate said, "You are a talented young man. Why did you want to get yourself in trouble that would cost you your life? I feel sorry for you that you don't value your life." Lu replied sternly, "China is a vast country and it has the highest population in the world, but it is poor and weak because the Qing government is authoritarian and incompetent in foreign policy. My comrades and I originally planned an uprising with the aim of overthrowing the Qing government and replacing it with a new republican government. I intended to kill one or two persons like you who serve the Qing government. Now that our plan has failed, I can't kill you but you can kill me. What's there to feel sorry about?"

The American embassy in Guangzhou attempted to save Lu's life by claiming that he was a translator working at the telegraph office and was not a revolutionary. However, they could not do anything when Li Zhengyong showed them a confession written by Lu himself. Lu, Zhu Guiquan (朱貴全), Qiu Si (邱四) and other captured revolutionaries were executed on 7 November by the order of Tan Zhonglin. Sun Yat-sen called Lu "the first person in Chinese history who sacrificed his life for a democratic revolution".

Lu is credited for designing the Blue Sky with a White Sun flag that became the party flag and emblem of the Kuomintang (KMT; Chinese Nationalist Party), and the canton of the flag of the Republic of China.

title: Lu Haodong


text:
XT

XT may refer to:

Computing and electronics

 * XT Mobile Network, a Telecom New Zealand mobile network
 * IBM PC/XT, a personal computer
 * XT bus architecture
 * Crosstalk, an electrical interference caused by a wire carrying an electrical signal
 * the XT versions of Radeon graphics cards
 * XT (or XT [2] ), a video server from EVS Broadcast Equipment
 * XT XSLT, an implementation in Java of XSLT, created by James Clark
 * X Toolkit Intrinsics or X toolkit, or Xt, a library providing an object-oriented-looking API for the X Window System
 * Canon Digital Rebel XT, a digital single-lens reflex camera

Vehicles

 * Ford XT Falcon, a car produced by the Ford Motor Company in Australia between 1968 and 1969
 * Moyes XT, an Australian hang glider design
 * Subaru XT, a sports car
 * Yamaha XT 600 (and other XT versions), an enduro motorcycle

Other uses

 * XT Brewing Company, an English Microbrewery
 * XT (band), a Swedish metal band
 * Extra time, in sport
 * Cross-training, in sport
 * Air Exel (IATA airline code XT)
 * Christmas tree (oil well)
 * Bop It! XT, a 2011 electronic game

title: XT


text:
Red Harvest

Red Harvest (1929) is a novel by American writer Dashiell Hammett. The story is narrated by the Continental Op, a frequent character in Hammett's fiction, much of which is drawn from his own experiences as an operative of the Pinkerton Detective Agency (fictionalized as the Continental Detective Agency). The plot follows the Op's investigation of several murders amid a labor dispute in a corrupt Montana mining town. Some of the novel was inspired by the Anaconda Road massacre, a 1920 labor dispute in the mining town of Butte, Montana.

Time included Red Harvest in its 100 Best English-Language Novels from 1923 to 2005, noting that, in the Continental Op, Hammett "created the prototype for every sleuth who would ever be called 'hard-boiled.'" The Nobel Prize-winning author André Gide called the book "a remarkable achievement, the last word in atrocity, cynicism, and horror."

Plot
The Continental Op is called to Personville (known as "Poisonville" to the locals) by the newspaper publisher Donald Willsson, who is murdered before the Op has a chance to meet with him. The Op begins to investigate Willsson's murder and meets with Willsson's father, Elihu Willsson, a local industrialist who has found his control of the city threatened by several competing gangs. Elihu had originally invited those gangs into Personville to help him impose and then enforce the end of a labor dispute.

The Op extracts a promise and a signed letter from Elihu that pays the Continental Detective Agency, the Op's employer, $10,000 in exchange for cleaning up the city and ridding it of the gangs. After the Op quickly identifies Donald's murderer, Elihu tries to renege on the deal, but the Op will not allow him to do so. While the Op had been investigating the corrupt police chief Noonan had tried twice to have him gunned down, causing the Op to take a personal interest in the job.

In the meantime, the Op is spending time with Dinah Brand, a possible love interest of the late Donald Willsson and a moll for Max "Whisper" Thaler, a local gangster. The Op extracts information from Brand and Noonan, and increases tension in the city by leaking it to the warring parties. When the Op reveals that a bank robbery was staged by the cops and one of the gangs to discredit another gang, a gang war erupts.

The Op, disturbed by the slaughter he orchestrated, spends an evening of blackout inebriation with Brand, who finds it all amusing. He wakes the next morning to find her stabbed to death with the ice pick he had handled the previous evening. No signs of forced entry are visible, and he can't even be sure he did not do the stabbing himself during his delirium. The Op becomes a suspect sought by the police for Brand's murder, and one of his fellow operatives, Dick Foley, leaves Personville because he is uncertain of the Op's innocence.

The Op, now wanted by the police, entices Reno Starkey, a gang lieutenant, to take on the last strong rival gang led by Pete the Finn. The gangs are whittled down by pipe bombs, arson, gun fights, and corrupt cops gunning down the survivors.

The Op tracks down Starkey, the only gang leader still alive. Starkey is bleeding from four gunshot wounds, having just killed his rival Whisper Thaler. Starkey reveals that he was the one who stabbed Brand, but because she had collided with the semiconscious Op he had looked like the culprit. Starkey later succumbs to his wounds in the hospital.

The corrupt police chief Noonan and the gang leaders are all dead. The Op blackmails Elihu Willsson into calling the governor, who sends in the National Guard, declares martial law, and suspends the entire police force. Elihu Willsson gets back his town, as promised, although not in the way that he had anticipated. The Op returns to San Francisco, where the Old Man (the chief of the Continental Detective Agency's office) criticizes him.

Serial publication
Red Harvest was originally serialized in four installments in the pulp magazine Black Mask:
 * Part 1: "The Cleansing of Poisonville", Black Mask, November 1927
 * Part 2: "Crime Wanted—Male or Female", Black Mask, December 1927
 * Part 3: "Dynamite", Black Mask, January 1928
 * Part 4: "The 19th Murder", Black Mask, February 1928

Characters

 * "The Continental Op", an operative from the San Francisco branch of the Continental Detective Agency
 * Elihu Willsson, mining tycoon and "Czar of Poisonville"
 * Donald Willsson, newspaper publisher and Elihu's son
 * Mrs. Willsson, Donald's wife
 * Lewis, Donald's assistant
 * Noonan, the corrupt chief of police, whose brother Tim died two years before
 * Max Thaler, alias "Whisper," a gambler and gangster
 * Dinah Brand, Thaler's girlfriend, a tough woman with an uncanny allure to men
 * Dan Rolff, Dinah's housemate and a "lunger"
 * Lew Yard, gangster
 * Reno Starkey, lieutenant in Yard's gang
 * Pete the Finn, bootlegger
 * Hank O'Mara, member of Starkey's gang
 * Bill Quint, an organizer for the IWW
 * Robert Albury, bank teller
 * Helen Albury, Robert's younger sister
 * Charles Procter Dawn, criminal lawyer
 * Bob MacSwain, a former policeman, murderer of Tim Noonan
 * Mickey Linehan, a detective from the Continental
 * Dick Foley, a detective from the Continental
 * The Old Man, boss of the San Francisco branch of the Continental

Adaptations
Film critics David Desser and Manny Farber, among others, have noted similarities between Red Harvest and the 1961 film Yojimbo, directed by Akira Kurosawa. Other scholars, such as Donald Richie, believe the similarities are coincidental. Kurosawa said that a major source for Yojimbo was the film noir classic The Glass Key (1942), an adaptation of Hammett's 1931 novel of the same name. In Red Harvest, The Glass Key, and Yojimbo, corrupt officials and businessmen stand behind and profit from the rule of gangsters. Other films based on Yojimbo include Sergio Leone's A Fistful of Dollars and Walter Hill's Last Man Standing.

In the early 1970s, Italian director Bernardo Bertolucci considered filming an adaptation of Red Harvest and wrote a first draft infused with political themes typical of his work. A short while after, he wrote a second draft that was more faithful to Hammett's story. For the role of the Op he considered Robert Redford, Jack Nicholson (who had played a hard-boiled detective in Roman Polanski's neo-noir film Chinatown), and Clint Eastwood (who had played the Op-inspired "Man with No Name" in Sergio Leone's Dollars Trilogy). At some point, Bertolucci discussed this project with Warren Beatty in Rome. In 1982, Bertolucci moved to Los Angeles to begin production, but the project was shelved.

Donald E. Westlake wrote an unproduced screenplay adapting Red Harvest, which changed the story considerably to refocus the ending on the murder of Donald Willsson; Westlake felt that having the solution of the mystery come so early in the novel made the Op's continued involvement hard to justify.

As of 2024, Scott Frank and Megan Abbott are writing a script for Red Harvest for A24.

Film
While Akira Kurosawa stated that a major source for the plot for Yojimbo was the 1942 classic The Glass Key, an adaptation of Hammett's's 1931 novel The Glass Key, it has been noted by some critics that the overall plot of Yojimbo is closer to that of Hammett's Red Harvest.

The Coen brothers' film Blood Simple (1984) takes its title from a line in Red Harvest in which the Op tells Brand the escalating violence has affected his mental state: "This damned burg's getting me. If I don't get away soon, I'll be going blood-simple like the natives." The Coens' film Miller's Crossing (1990) employs stylistic and narrative elements of Hammett's Red Harvest, The Glass Key, and several of Hammett's shorter works.

The dialogue and plot of director Rian Johnson's debut feature, Brick, was inspired by the novels of Dashiell Hammett, particularly Red Harvest.

Literature
Science-fiction writer David Drake has said that he took the plot of his novel The Sharp End (1993) from Red Harvest.

Television
In The Aurora Teagarden Mysteries Season 1 episode 10, "A Game of Cat and Mouse", Red Harvest is quoted as is The Maltese Falcon.

title: Red Harvest


text:
Lin Sen

Lin Sen (16 March 1868 – 1 August 1943), was a Chinese politician who served as Chairman of the National Government of the Republic of China from 1931 until his death.

Early life

Born to a middle-class family in Shanggan Township (尚幹鄉), Minhou County, Fuzhou, Lin was educated by American missionaries. He later worked in the Telegram Bureau of Taipei, Taiwan in 1884. After the First Sino-Japanese War, he engaged in guerrilla activities against the Japanese occupiers. He returned to China and worked in the Shanghai customs office in 1902. He later lived in Hawaii and San Francisco.

There he was recruited by the Tongmenghui in 1905, and was an overseas organizer for the Kuomintang. During the Xinhai Revolution, he was in charge of the Jiangxi revolt. He became speaker of the senate in the National Assembly. After the failed Second Revolution against President Yuan Shikai, Lin fled with Sun Yat-sen to Japan and joined his Chinese Revolutionary Party. He was sent to the United States to raise funds from the party's local branches. In 1917, he followed Sun to Guangzhou where he continued to lead its "extraordinary session" during the Constitutional Protection Movement. When the assembly defected to the Beiyang government, he remained with Sun and later served as governor of Fujian.

Lin was a member of the right-wing Western Hills Group based in Shanghai. The group was formed in Beijing shortly after Sun's death in 1925. They called for a party congress to expel the Communists and to declare social revolution as incompatible with the Kuomintang's national revolution. The party pre-empted this faction and the ensuing congress expelled Western Hills' leaders and suspended the membership of the followers. They supported Chiang Kai-shek's purge of the communists in 1927. Lin rose to become the leader of the Western Hills faction and undertook a world tour after the demise of the Beiyang government.

As head of state
In 1931, Chairman Chiang's arrest of Hu Hanmin caused an uproar within the party and military. Lin and other high-ranking officials called for the impeachment of Chiang. The Japanese invasion of Manchuria prevented the civil war from erupting, however it did cause Chiang to resign on 15 December. Lin was appointed in his place as acting chairman and confirmed as chairman of government on 1 January 1932. He was chosen as a sign of personal respect and held few powers since the Kuomintang wanted to avoid a repeat of Chiang's rule. He never used the Presidential Palace, where Chiang continued to reside, and preferred his modest rented house near the Sun Yat-sen Mausoleum. Chiang's full influence was restored after the 1932 Battle of Shanghai as party grandees realized his necessity.

Shortly after acceding to the chairmanship, Lin Sen embarked on an extended trip that took him to the Philippines, Australia, the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany and France. He visited the Chinese diaspora and the Kuomintang party organisations in those countries. This was the first overseas visit by a serving head of state of China.

In 1934 Time magazine called him "puppet President Lin", and when there was a talk by military chief Chiang Kai-shek at a "secret conference of government leaders" of granting the President of China actual powers, it insinuated that Chiang was entertaining the thought of taking the Presidency himself, since Chiang held the actual power while Lin's position was described as "figurehead class".

Though he had little influence on public policy, Lin was highly respected by the public as an august elder statesman who was above politics. His lack of political ambition, corruption, and nepotism was an exceedingly rare trait. He lent dignity and stability to an office while other state institutions were in chaos.

A widower, Lin used his position to promote monogamy and combat concubinage which became a punishable felony in 1935. He also called for a peaceful resolution when Chiang was kidnapped during the Xi'an Incident. National unity was something he stressed as relations with Japan deteriorated further.

When the Second Sino-Japanese War entered full swing in 1937, he moved to the wartime capital of Chongqing. He legalized civilian use of guerrilla warfare, but this was merely a formality as it was already a widespread practice. He spurned all offers to defect and collaborate with the Japanese puppet government.

Death
On 10 March 1943, his car was involved in an accident. Two days later, he had a stroke while meeting the Canadian delegation. As he was in hospice, he urged the recovery of Taiwan be included in the post-war settlement; it became part of the Cairo Declaration months later. He died on 1 August at the age of 76 and a month of mourning was declared. He was the longest serving head of state in the Republic of China while it still held mainland China. The central executive committee elected Chiang as chairman of government a few hours after Lin's death. All of the powers that were denied to the chairmanship were restored for Chiang.

Lin visited Qingzhi Mountain in Lianjiang, Fuzhou, Fujian and was fascinated by it, which encouraged him to style himself "Old Man Qingzhi" in his old age. His monument, built beside Qingzhi Mountain in 1926 before his death, was damaged in the Cultural Revolution, and was restored in 1979.

Family
Lin had adopted his nephew Lin Jing (known in English as K.M. James Lin), as his son. While studying as a postgraduate student in Ohio State University, James Lin married Viola Brown, a five-and-ten-cent store clerk, although he was reported already to have two wives in China. Lin Sen objected to the marriage and the couple eventually divorced. James Lin returned to China and died in action during the Japanese invasion.

Legacy
There are roads named after Lin Sen in Taipei, Kaohsiung, Tainan, and other towns and cities in Taiwan due to his role in fighting the Japanese invasion of Taiwan and as ROC president.

In the People's Republic of China, Lin was denounced for his anti-communism and roads and places named after Lin Sen were renamed, but he was later rehabilitated after the Cultural Revolution.

title: Lin Sen


text:
William Duncan Silkworth

William Duncan Silkworth (July 22, 1873 – March 22, 1951) was an American medical doctor and specialist in the treatment of alcoholism. He was director of the Charles B. Towns Hospital for Drug and Alcohol Addictions in New York City in the 1930s, during which time William Griffith Wilson, a future co-founder of Alcoholics Anonymous (A.A.), was admitted on four occasions for alcoholism. Dr. Silkworth had a profound influence on Wilson and encouraged him to realize that alcoholism was more than just an issue of moral weakness. He introduced Wilson to the idea that alcoholism had a pathological, disease-like basis.

Birthplace
William Duncan Silkworth was born in Brooklyn on July 22, 1873, to parents William Silkworth and Isabelle Silkworth, née Duncan. William was the eldest of three siblings; he had a younger brother named Russel and a younger sister named Mabel.

Education
Silkworth attended Long Branch High School (then called Chattle High School), which was a three-year program when he began studying there. At the end of Silkworth's third year, the school authorities announced that they were converting the school to a four-year program. Aggrieved, Silkworth refused to return for a fourth year as he had already been accepted to Princeton University (then called the College of New Jersey).

Between 1892 and 1896, Silkworth obtained a bachelor's degree from Princeton University. It would take Silkworth several years to obtain a high school diploma; during which time, he was able to study at Princeton because the college authorities proved willing to overlook the fact that he technically had not graduated high school provided that he maintained excellent academic standings. Silkworth began his university studies as a pre-med student, but quickly developed an interest and began to specialize in neuropsychiatry.

Upon graduating from Princeton, Silkworth studied at Bellevue Hospital Medical College beginning in 1896 and graduating with a Medical Degree in 1899 after completing the four-year program in three years. While interning at Bellevue Hospital, Dr. Silkworth was exposed to many alcoholics and doctors with expertise on alcoholism since Bellevue was one of the only hospitals with a department specializing in the treatment of alcoholism in the United States at the time.

Marriage
Silkworth married Marie Antoinette Bennett in Manhattan on July 22, 1898. On February 27, 1909, his wife gave birth to a son who lived for only six days before dying on March 4, 1909. The couple would have no other children, though they remained married all their lives.

Treatment of alcoholism
During Dr. Silkworth's career, he is estimated to have treated more than 40,000 alcoholics and was regarded as one of the world's leading experts in the field. In 1937, Dr. Silkworth published a pair of articles in the Medical Record titled "Alcoholism as a Manifestation of Allergy" and "Reclamation of the Alcoholic" wherein he proposed a physical disease model of alcoholism and a psychotherapeutic treatment method that induced patients to admit powerlessness over their addiction and to adopt a new moral psychology. In the latter paper, Dr. Silkworth describes five case studies of patients that he had treated for alcoholism at the Towns Hospital; in Case V, Dr. Silkworth describes the successful recovery of Bill Wilson who was already in the early stages of founding the organization that would come to be known as Alcoholics Anonymous.

'The Doctor's Opinion'
During 1938 and 1939, Dr. Silkworth wrote letters in support of Alcoholics Anonymous which were included in a chapter titled "The Doctor's Opinion" in the book Alcoholics Anonymous and helped to provide the nascent organization with credibility. Crucially, he described the powerlessness of alcoholism as an obsession of the mind that compels one to drink and an allergy of the body that condemns one to go mad or die. Dr. Silkworth further observed that alcoholics could recover if they could obtain an essential psychic change brought about with the aid of a "Higher Power."

End of life
Dr. Silkworth died at Towns Hospital on March 22, 1951, after suffering a heart attack. He is buried at the Glenwood Cemetery in West Long Branch, New Jersey.

title: William Duncan Silkworth


text:
Bob Smith (doctor)

Robert Holbrook Smith (August 8, 1879 – November 16, 1950), also known as Dr. Bob, was an American physician and surgeon who founded Alcoholics Anonymous with Bill Wilson (more commonly known as Bill W.).

Family and early life
Smith was born in St. Johnsbury, Vermont, where he was raised, to Susan A. (Holbrook) and Walter Perrin Smith. His parents took him to religious services four times a week, and in response he determined he would never attend religious services when he grew up. He graduated from St Johnsbury Academy in 1898, having met his future wife Anne Robinson Ripley at a dance there.

Education, marriage, work, and alcoholism
Smith began drinking at college attending Dartmouth College in Hanover, New Hampshire. Early on he noticed that he could recover from drinking bouts quicker and easier than his classmates and that he never had headaches, which caused him to believe he was an alcoholic from the time he began drinking. Smith was a member of Kappa Kappa Kappa fraternity at Dartmouth. After graduation in 1902, he worked for three years selling hardware in Boston, Chicago, and Montreal and continued drinking heavily. He then returned to school to study medicine at the University of Michigan. By this time drinking had begun to affect him to the point where he began missing classes. His drinking caused him to leave school, but he returned and passed his examinations for his sophomore year. He transferred to Rush Medical College, but his alcoholism worsened to the point that his father was summoned to try to halt his downward trajectory. But his drinking increased and after a dismal showing during final examinations, the university required that he remain for two extra quarters and remain sober during that time as a condition of graduating.

After graduation, Smith became a hospital intern, and for two years he was able to stay busy enough to refrain from heavy drinking. He married Anne Robinson Ripley on January 25, 1915, and opened up his own office in Akron, Ohio, specializing in colorectal surgery and returned to heavy drinking. Recognizing his problem, he checked himself into more than a dozen hospitals and sanitariums in an effort to stop his drinking. He was encouraged by the passage of Prohibition in 1919, but soon discovered that the exemption for medicinal alcohol, and bootleggers, could supply more than enough to continue his excessive drinking. For the next 17 years his life revolved around how to subvert his wife's efforts to stop his drinking and obtain the alcohol he craved while trying to hold together a medical practice in order to support his family and his drinking.

Meeting Bill Wilson
In January 1933, Bob Smith attended a lecture by Frank Buchman, the founder of the Oxford Group. For the next two years Smith attended local meetings of the group in an effort to solve his alcoholism, but recovery eluded him until he met Bill Wilson on May 12, 1935. Wilson was an alcoholic who had learned how to stay sober, thus far only for some limited amounts of time, through the Oxford Group in New York, and was close to discovering long-term sobriety by helping other alcoholics. Wilson was in Akron on business that had proven unsuccessful and he was in fear of relapsing. Recognizing the danger, he made inquiries about any local alcoholics he could talk to and was referred to Smith by Henrietta Seiberling, one of the leaders of the Akron Oxford Group. After talking to Wilson, Smith stopped drinking and invited Wilson to stay at his home. He relapsed almost a month later while attending a professional convention in Atlantic City. Returning to Akron on June 9, he was given a few drinks by Wilson to avoid delirium tremens. He drank one beer the next morning to settle his nerves so he could perform an operation, which proved to be the last alcoholic drink he would ever have. The date, June 10, 1935, is celebrated as the anniversary of the founding of Alcoholics Anonymous.

Final years
Smith was called the "Prince of Twelfth Steppers" by Wilson because he helped more than 5000 alcoholics before his death. He was able to stay sober from June 10, 1935, until his death in 1950 from colon cancer. He is buried at the Mount Peace Cemetery in Akron, Ohio.

title: Bob Smith (doctor)


text:
Tibetan people

The Tibetan people are an East Asian ethnic group native to Tibet. Their current population is estimated to be around 6.7 million. In addition to the majority living in Tibet Autonomous Region of China, significant numbers of Tibetans live in the Chinese provinces of Gansu, Qinghai, Sichuan, and Yunnan, as well as in India, Nepal, and Bhutan.

The Tibetic languages belong to the Tibeto-Burman language group. The traditional or mythological explanation of the Tibetan people's origin is that they are the descendants of the human Pha Trelgen Changchup Sempa and rock ogress Ma Drag Sinmo. It is thought that most of the Tibeto-Burman speakers in southwest China, including Tibetans, are direct descendants from the ancient Qiang people.

Most Tibetans practice Tibetan Buddhism, although a significant minority observe the indigenous Bon religion. There are also smaller communities of Tibetan Muslims and Christians. Tibetan Buddhism influences Tibetan art, drama and architecture, while the harsh geography of Tibet has produced an adaptive culture of Tibetan medicine and cuisine.

Demographics
As of the 2014 Census, there are about 6 million Tibetans living in the Tibet Autonomous Region and the 10 Tibetan autonomous prefectures in the provinces of Gansu, Qinghai, Sichuan, and Yunnan. The SIL Ethnologue in 2009 documents an additional 189,000 Tibetic speakers living in India, 5,280 in Nepal and 4,800 in Bhutan. The Central Tibetan Administration's (CTA) Green Book (of the Tibetan Government in Exile) counts 145,150 Tibetans outside Tibet: a little over 100,000 in India; over 16,000 in Nepal; over 1,800 in Bhutan, and over 25,000 in other parts of the world. There are Tibetan communities in the United States, Australia, Brazil, Canada, Costa Rica, France, Mexico, Norway, Mongolia, Germany, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. In the Baltistan region of Northern Pakistan, the Balti people are a Muslim ethnicity of Tibetan descent numbering around 300,000.

There is some dispute over the current and historical number of Tibetans. The Central Tibetan Administration claims that the 5.4 million number is a decrease from 6.3 million in 1959 while the Chinese government claims that it is an increase from 2.7 million in 1954. However, the question depends on the definition and extent of "Tibet"; the region claimed by the CTA is more expansive and China more diminutive. Also, the Tibetan administration did not take a formal census of its territory in the 1950s; the numbers provided by the administration at the time were "based on informed guesswork".

In China
According to the Sixth National Population Census of the People's Republic of China (2010), there are 6,282,187 Tibetans nationwide:

There are 2,716,388 people in the Tibet Autonomous Region, 1,496,524 people in Sichuan Province, 1,375,059 people in Qinghai Province, 488,359 people in Gansu Province (mostly in Gannan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture and Bairi Tibetan Autonomous County) and 142,257 people in Yunnan Province (mostly in Diqing Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture). Tibetans account for 0.47% of the total population of the country. Tibetans account for 90.48% of the total population in Tibet Region, 24.44% of the total population of Qinghai and 1.86% of the total population in Sichuan. Of all Tibetans in China, 315,622 people live in cities, 923,177 in towns, and 5,043,388 people (80.3%) live in rural areas.

According to the Seventh Census of 2020, there are 7,060,700 Tibetans living within China. Of the resident population of the Tibet Autonomous Region, 3,204,700 were Tibetans and other ethnic minorities, of whom 3,137,900 were Tibetans, an increase of 421,500, or 15.52%, over 2010, with an average annual growth rate of 1.45%; 66,800 were other ethnic minorities, an increase of 26,300, or 64.95%, over 2010, with an average annual growth rate of 5.13%; and 6,680 were other ethnic minorities, an increase of 26,300, or 64.95%, over 2010, with an average annual growth rate of 5.13%. The average annual growth rate was 5.13%.

There are one region, ten prefectures, and two counties officially established by the government: the Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR), Qinghai Province (Haibei Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, Hainan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, Huangnan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, Guoluo Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, Yushu Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, and Haiximenggu Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture), Sichuan Province (Aba Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture, Ganz Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, and Muji Tibetan Autonomous County), Gansu Province (Gannan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture and Tianzhu Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture), and Yunnan Province (Diqing Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture).

In India
In India Tibetic people are found in the regions of Ladakh (Ladakhi and Balti), Kinnaur district in Himachal Pradesh, Spiti valley, Uttarakhand (Bhotiya), Sikkim (Bhutia), and Arunachal Pradesh (Khamba, Lhoba and Monpa people). There are also nearly 100,000 Tibetans living in exile in India since 1959, the majority of them living in Tibetan enclaves such as Dharamshala and Bylakuppe.

In 2011, the Indian government reported 150,000 Tibetan diaspora residing in India. In 2019, the number of Tibetan diaspora in India declined to 85,000.

In Nepal
Tibetans are known as Bhotiyas in Nepal, where they are majority in regions such as Upper Mustang, Dolpo, Walung region and Limi and Muchu valleys. Nepal is also home to other Tibetic people such as the Sherpa, Hyolmo and Tamang. There are also more than 10,000 Tibetan refugees in Nepal.

Language
The Tibetic languages are a cluster of mutually unintelligible Sino-Tibetan languages spoken by approximately 8 million people, primarily Tibetan, living across a wide area of East and South Asia, including the Tibetan Plateau and Baltistan, Ladakh, Nepal, Sikkim, and Bhutan. Classical Tibetan is a major regional literary language, particularly for its use in Buddhist literature. The Central Tibetan language (the dialects of Ü-Tsang, including Lhasa), Khams Tibetan, and Amdo Tibetan are generally considered to be dialects of a single language, especially since they all share the same literary language, while Dzongkha, Sikkimese, Sherpa, and Ladakhi are generally considered to be separate languages.

Ethnic origins
The ethnic roots of Tibetans can be traced back to a deep Eastern Asian lineage representing the indigenous population of the Tibetan plateau since c. 40,000 to 30,000 years ago, and arriving Neolithic farmers from the Yellow River within the last 10,000 years, and which can be associated with having introduced the Sino-Tibetan languages.

Genetics
Modern Tibetan populations are genetically most similar to other East Asian populations, especially Han Chinese, Bhutanese, and Nepalese, as well as other Sino-Tibetan-speaking populations. They show relatively more genetic affinity for modern Central Asian than modern Siberian populations. They also share some genetic affinity for South Asian groups.

Genetic studies shows that many of the Sherpa people have allele frequencies which are often found in other Tibeto-Burman regions, the strongest affinity was for Tibetan population sample studies done in the Tibet Autonomous Region. Genetically, the Sherpa cluster closest with the sampled Tibetan and Han populations. Additionally, the Sherpa and Tibetans had exhibited affinity for several Nepalese populations, with the strongest for the Rai people, followed by the Magars and the Tamang.

Haplogroups
Tibetan males predominantly belong to the paternal lineage D-M174 followed by lower amounts of O-M175. Tibetan females belong mainly to the Northeast Asian maternal haplogroups M9a1a, M9a1b, D4g2, D4i and G2ac, showing continuity with ancient middle and upper Yellow River populations.

Although "East Asian Highlanders" (associated with haplogroup D1) are closely related to East Asian lowland farmers (associated with haplogroup O), they form a divergent sister branch to them.

Autosomal DNA
Full genome studies revealed that Tibetans and other high-alltitude East Asians formed from two divergent Ancient East Eurasian lineages in Eastern Asia, specifically a lineage representing the Paleolithic population of the Tibetan Plateau, and a lineage associated with Ancient Northern East Asians. The Paleolithic Tibetan lineage was found to be distinct from other deep lineages such as Ust'-Ishim, Hoabinhian/Onge or Tianyuan, but forming a clade with them to the exclusion of other Eurasians. The Northern East Asian lineage can be represented by Neolithic Yellow River farmers, which are associated with the spread of Sino-Tibetan languages. Modern Tibetans derive up to 20% from Paleolithic Tibetans, with the remaining 80% being primarily derived from Yellow River farmers. The formation of the present-day Tibetan gene pool dates back at least 5,100 years BP. Northeastern Tibetans display additional geneflow from a Yellow River farmers-like population c. 4,700 years ago, resulting in the formation of a "Tibetan cline". Modern Tibetans display genetic continuity to ancient samples from Nepal, with their genetic diversity having been reduced compared to 'Early Ancient Tibetans' suggesting low to none geneflow from outside groups since c. 3,500 years ago. Subsequent internal geneflow resulted in "a northeastern plateau ancestry associated with the northeast cluster, a southern plateau ancestry associated with the south-southwest cluster, and a southeastern plateau ancestry associated with the southeast-central cluster".

There was limited contact with Central Asian populations, inline with historical events, evident in mutual geneflow. The expansion of the Tibetan Empire may have left genetic traces in surrounding populations.

Adaption to high-altitude environments
Genetic studies identified more than 30 genetic factors that make Tibetans' bodies well-suited for high-altitudes, including the EPAS1 gene, also referred to as the "super-athlete gene", which regulates the body's production of hemoglobin, allowing for greater efficiency in the use of oxygen. The genetic basis of Tibetan adaptations have been attributed to a mutation in the EPAS1 gene, and has become prevalent in the past 5,000 years. Ancient Tibetans carried this allele at a frequency of 25–58%, while modern Tibetans carry it at a frequency of >75%. The widespread presence of this gene may represent one of "the fastest genetic change ever observed in humans".

Recent research into the ability of Tibetans' metabolism to function normally in the oxygen-deficient atmosphere above 4400 m   shows that, although Tibetans living at high altitudes have no more oxygen in their blood than other people, they have ten times more nitric oxide and double the forearm blood flow of low-altitude dwellers. Tibetans inherited this adaptation due to selected genes associated with Denisovan admixture among Asian populations, highlighting how different environments trigger different selective pressures. Nitric oxide causes dilation of blood vessels, allowing blood to flow more freely to the extremities and aids the release of oxygen to tissues.

Mythological origins
According to Tibetan mythology, the origins of Tibetans are said to be rooted in the marriage of the monkey Pha Trelgen Changchup Sempa and rock ogress Ma Drag Sinmo.

Religion

Most Tibetans generally observe Tibetan Buddhism or a collection of native traditions known as Bön (also absorbed into mainstream Tibetan Buddhism). There is a minority Tibetan Muslim population. There is also a small Tibetan Christian population in the eastern Tibet and northwestern Yunnan of China. Also there are some Tibetan Hindus who mainly live in China, India and Nepal.

According to legend, the 28th king of Tibet, Thothori Nyantsen, dreamed of a sacred treasure falling from heaven, which contained a Buddhist sutra, mantras, and religious objects. However, because the Tibetan script had not been invented, the text could not be translated in writing and no one initially knew what was written in it. Buddhism did not take root in Tibet until the reign of Songtsän Gampo, who married two Buddhist princesses, Bhrikuti of Nepal and Wencheng of China. It then gained popularity when Padmasambhāva visited Tibet at the invitation of the 38th Tibetan king, Trisong Deutson.

Today, one can see Tibetans placing Mani stones prominently in public places. Tibetan lamas, both Buddhist and Bön, play a major role in the lives of the Tibetan people, conducting religious ceremonies and taking care of the monasteries. Pilgrims plant prayer flags over sacred grounds as a symbol of good luck.

The prayer wheel is a means of simulating the chant of a mantra by physically revolving the object several times in a clockwise direction. It is widely seen among Tibetan people. In order not to desecrate religious artifacts such as Stupas, mani stones, and Gompas, Tibetan Buddhists walk around them in a clockwise direction, although the reverse direction is true for Bön. Tibetan Buddhists chant the prayer "Om mani padme hum", while the practitioners of Bön chant "Om matri muye sale du".

Culture

Tibet is rich in culture. Tibetan festivals such as Losar, Shoton, Linka, and the Bathing Festival are deeply rooted in indigenous religion and also contain foreign influences. Each person takes part in the Bathing Festival three times: at birth, at marriage, and at death.

Art
Tibetan art is deeply religious in nature, from the exquisitely detailed statues found in Gonpas to wooden carvings and the intricate designs of the Thangka paintings. Tibetan art can be found in almost every object and every aspect of daily life.

Thangka paintings, a syncretism of Indian scroll-painting with Nepalese and Kashmiri painting, appeared in Tibet around the 8th century. Rectangular and painted on cotton or linen, they usually depict traditional motifs including religious, astrological, and theological subjects, and sometimes a mandala. To ensure that the image will not fade, organic and mineral pigments are added, and the painting is framed in colorful silk brocades.

Drama
Tibetan folk opera, known as lhamo, is a combination of dances, chants and songs. The repertoire is drawn from Buddhist stories and Tibetan history.

Tibetan opera was founded in the fourteenth century by Thang Tong Gyalpo, a lama and a bridge-builder. Gyalpo and seven girls he recruited organized the first performance to raise funds for building bridges to facilitate transportation in Tibet. The tradition continued uninterrupted for nearly seven hundred years, and performances are held on various festive occasions such as the Lingka and Shoton festival. The performance is usually a drama, held on a barren stage that combines dances, chants, and songs. Colorful masks are sometimes worn to identify a character, with red symbolizing a king and yellow indicating deities and lamas. The performance starts with a stage purification and blessings. A narrator then sings a summary of the story, and the performance begins. Another ritual blessing is conducted at the end of the play. There are also many historical myths/epics written by high lamas about the reincarnation of a "chosen one" who will do great things.

Architecture
The most unusual feature of Tibetan architecture is that many of the houses and monasteries are built on elevated, sunny sites facing the south. They are commonly made of a mixture of rocks, wood, cement and earth. Little fuel is available for heating or lighting, so flat roofs are built to conserve heat, and multiple windows are constructed to let in sunlight. Walls are usually sloped inwards at 10 degrees as a precaution against frequent earthquakes in the mountainous area. Tibetan homes and buildings are white-washed on the outside, and beautifully decorated inside.

Standing at 117 m in height and 360 m in width, the Potala Palace is considered the most important example of Tibetan architecture. Formerly the residence of the Dalai Lama, it contains over a thousand rooms within thirteen stories and houses portraits of the past Dalai Lamas and statues of the Buddha. It is divided between the outer White Palace, which serves as the administrative quarters, and the inner Red Quarters, which houses the assembly hall of the Lamas, chapels, 10,000 shrines, and a vast library of Buddhist scriptures.

Medicine
Traditional Tibetan medicine utilizes up to two thousand types of plants, forty animal species, and fifty minerals. One of the key figures in its development was the renowned 8th century physician Yuthog Yontan Gonpo, who produced the Four Medical Tantras integrating material from the medical traditions of Persia, India and China. The tantras contained a total of 156 chapters in the form of Thangkas, which tell about the archaic Tibetan medicine and the essences of medicines in other places.

Cuisine
The Cuisine of Tibet reflects the rich heritage of the country and people's adaptation to high altitude and religious culinary restrictions. The most important crop is barley. Dough made from barley flour, called tsampa, is the staple food of Tibet. This is either rolled into noodles or made into steamed dumplings called momo. Meat dishes are likely to be yak, goat or mutton, often dried or cooked into a spicy stew with potatoes. Mustard seed is cultivated in Tibet and therefore features heavily in its cuisine. Yak yogurt, butter and cheese are frequently eaten and well-prepared yogurt is considered something of a prestige item.

Clothing
Men and Women wear long thick dresses (chuba) in more traditional and rural regions. The men wear a shorter version with pants underneath. The style of the clothing varies between regions. Nomads often wear thick sheepskin versions. In more urban places like Lhasa, men and women dress in modern clothing, and many choose to wear chuba during festivals and holidays like Losar.

Literature
Tibet has national literature that has both religious, semi-spiritual and secular elements. While the religious texts are well-known, Tibet is also home to the semi-spiritual Gesar Epic, which is the longest epic in the world and is popular throughout Mongolia and Central Asia. There are secular texts such as The Dispute Between Tea and Chang (Tibetan beer) and Khache Phalu's Advice.

Marriage customs
Monogamy is common throughout Tibet. Marriages are sometimes arranged by the parents if the son or daughter has not picked their own partner by a certain age. However, polyandry is practiced in parts of Tibet. This is usually done to avoid division of property and provide financial security.

List of Tibetan states

 * Zhangzhung Kingdom (500 BC – AD 625)
 * Yarlung Dynasty (?–618) (semi-mythological)
 * Tibetan Empire (618–842)
 * Kingdom of Bumthang (7th–17th centuries)
 * Guge Kingdom (842–1630)
 * Purang Kingdom
 * Maryul (930–1500)
 * Tsongkha Kingdom (997–1099) (Amdo)
 * Phagmodrupa Dynasty (1354–1618) (Ü-Tsang)
 * Maqpon kingdom (1190–1846) (Baltistan)
 * Rinpungpa Dynasty (1435–1565) (Tsang)
 * Yabgo Dynasty (before 1500–1972) (Baltistan)
 * Tsangpa Dynasty (1565–1642) (Tsang)
 * Ganden Phodrang (1642–1959)
 * Namgyal Dynasty (1460–1842) (Ladakh)
 * Chogyal Namgyal dynasty of Sikkim (1642–1975)
 * Tibet (1912–1951)

Kingdoms of Kham

 * Nyagrong Kingdom (?–1865)
 * Kingdom of Powo (?–1928)
 * Nangcheng Kingdom (?–1928)
 * Litang Kingdom (?–1950)
 * Kingdom of Lingtsang (12th century – 1950)
 * Kingdom of Derge (15th century – 1956)
 * Hor States (Horpa)
 * Chiefdom of Bathang

Gyalrong Kingdoms

 * Kingdom of Chakla (1407–1950)
 * Chiefdom of Chuchen
 * Chiefdom of Tsanlha

title: Tibetan people


text:
Cambridge Ring (computer network)

The Cambridge Ring was an experimental local area network architecture developed at the Computer Laboratory, University of Cambridge starting in 1974 and continuing into the 1980s. It was a ring network with a theoretical limit of 255 nodes (though such a large number would have badly affected performance), around which cycled a fixed number of packets. Free packets would be "loaded" with data by a sending machine, marked as received by the destination machine, and "unloaded" on return to the sender; thus in principle, there could be as many simultaneous senders as packets.

The network ran over twin twisted-pair cabling (plus a fibre-optic section) at a raw data rate of 10 megabits/sec. There are strong similarities between the Cambridge Ring and an earlier ring network developed at Bell Labs based on a design by John R. Pierce. That network used T1 lines at bit rate of 1.544 MHz and accommodating 522 bit messages (data plus address).

People associated with the project include Andy Hopper, David Wheeler, Maurice Wilkes, and Roger Needham. A 1980 study by Peter Cowley reported several commercial implementors of elements of the network, ranging from Ferranti (producing gate arrays), Inmos (a semiconductor manufacturer), Linotype Paul, Logica VTS, MDB Systems, and Toltec Data (a design company who manufactured interface boards).

In 2002, the Computer Laboratory launched a graduate society called the Cambridge Computer Lab Ring named after the Cambridge Ring.

title: Cambridge Ring (computer network)


text: Talk:Donald Knuth

title: Talk:Donald Knuth


text:
Ishe Komborera Africa

"Ishe Komborera Africa" (Shona for: God Bless Africa), also called "Ishe Komborera Zimbabwe" (Shona for: God Bless Zimbabwe), was the Zimbabwean national anthem from 1980 to 1994. It was the country's first national anthem after gaining independence in 1980. It is a translation of 19th-century South African schoolteacher Enoch Sontonga's popular African hymn "Nkosi Sikelel' iAfrika" into Zimbabwe's native Shona and Ndebele languages.

The song was first translated into Shona in the early 20th century and was initially popular with all sections of society in Southern Rhodesia. Following Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence, it was polarized as a symbol of the Zimbabwe liberation movement. It was adopted in 1980 following Zimbabwe's independence as a show of solidarity with other African movements in countries under apartheid. It was replaced as the national anthem of Zimbabwe in 1994 by "Simudzai Mureza wedu weZimbabwe" (Shona for: Raise Our Zimbabwean Flag) as part of a move to adopt a uniquely Zimbabwean composition for use as the national anthem, but it still remains very popular in the country.

History
In the early 20th century, "Nkosi Sikielel' iAfrika" was becoming popular with black Africans. In Southern Rhodesia it was originally sung in the original Xhosa language before being translated into Shona which created "Ishe Komborera Africa". The new Shona language hymn was first performed at the start of a meeting of the Southern Rhodesia Native Association and then again four days later at the closure of the first meeting of the Bantu National Congress, which the Southern Rhodesia Native Association later became affiliated to. By the 1948 African General Strike, it had become the main political song amongst black Africans. Despite that connotation, the song was accepted by black and white Rhodesians. In 1951, at a British South African Police athletics competition, "Ishe Komborera Africa" was sung by combined black and white policemen to commemorate the first multi-racial competition in Southern Rhodesia.

Following Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence from the British Empire, the new Rhodesian authorities started to crack down on African liberation movements. One of their considerations was to ban performance of "Ishe Komborera Africa" in African schools and public performance of it often made people liable for arrest by the British South African Police. The District Commissioner for Gutu abolished the Gutu African Council after its leader opened a meeting by singing "Ishe Komborera Africa" in the District Commissioner's presence. The Commissioner also had the leader arrested but he was released without charge. Following the Southern Rhodesian general election, 1980, after Zimbabwe Rhodesia returned to British control as Southern Rhodesia, Robert Mugabe's Zimbabwe African National Union party won to become the first government of an independent Zimbabwe. After this, "Ishe Komborera Africa" was selected to replace the official "God Save the Queen" of Southern Rhodesia and "Rise, O Voices of Rhodesia" of Rhodesia as the national anthem of an independent Zimbabwe as it was a symbol of black African struggles and solidarity against apartheid systems in South Africa and South West Africa. At the Zimbabwean independence ceremony, the Union Jack was lowered to "God Save the Queen" and the new flag of Zimbabwe was raised to "Ishe Komborera Africa" in Salisbury.

Replacement
In 1994, it was deemed that Zimbabwe should change its national anthem to avoid similarities with other countries who used the tune of "Ishe Kombererra Africa". Tanzania used "Mungu ibariki Afrika", Zambia used "Stand and Sing of Zambia, Proud and Free" (to the same tune), also Ciskei and Transkei who used "Nkosi Sikielel' 'Afrika". It was also because Mugabe wanted to develop a new distinctly Zimbabwean identity with a unique national anthem. A contest was held to determine a new national anthem and "Simudzai Mureza wedu weZimbabwe" by Solomon Mutswairo was chosen. The new anthem was promoted prior to "Ishe Komborera Africa" being replaced as the official national anthem. However, there was scepticism from Christians about the need for replacing "Ishe Komborera Africa" with the belief that it was part of a plan by ZANU-PF to remove references to God from Zimbabwe's official proceedings.

The change of anthem from "Ishe Komberera Africa" was later confirmed by the Parliament of Zimbabwe in 1995 by the passage of the National Anthem of Zimbabwe Act. The act also made it a criminal offence to insult the new national anthem and also granted the President of Zimbabwe the right to make regulations controlling its use and how it was to be sung.

Legacy
Despite being replaced as the Zimbabwe national anthem, "Ishe Komborera Africa" is still popular in Zimbabwe. It is still used as a hymn within Zimbabwean churches. In 1997, following the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) voting in favour of a motion that African elephants were not endangered in some countries and thus their ivory could be exported from those countries, representatives of the African nations celebrated by singing "Ishe Komborera Africa" while conservationists cried.

"Ishe Komborera Africa" has also erroneously been played as the Zimbabwean national anthem instead of "Simudzai Mureza wedu weZimbabwe" since losing its status as Zimbabwe's national anthem. In 2004, at the Africa Cup of Nations in Tunisia, before the Zimbabwe national football team's match against Egypt, "Ishe Komborera Africa" was played instead of "Simudzai Mureza wedu weZimbabwe". In response, the Zimbabwean Information Minister, Jonathan Moyo accused it of being "a cheap attempt by the organisers to demoralise our boys". Later in the year, the same situation occurred at the African Athletics Championships in the Republic of the Congo when the Zimbabwean men's relay team won gold. The Zimbabwean team insisted the correct national anthem be played; however, as the band were unable to perform it, Lloyd Zvasiya sang it himself through a microphone.

Shona lyrics
Ngaisimudzirwe zita rayo Inzwai miteuro yedu Ishe komborera, Isu, mhuri yayo. Huya mweya Huya mweya komborera (repeat previous two lines) Huya mweya Huya mweya mutsvene Uti komborere Isu mhuri yayo.
 * Ishe komborera Africa

Ndebele lyrics
Maluphakanyisw' udumo lwayo Yizwa imithandazo yethu Nkosi sikelela, Thina, usapho lwayo. Woza Moya Woza Moya sikelela (repeat previous two lines) Woza Moya Woza Moya oyingcwele Usi sikelele Thina usapho lwayo.
 * Nkosi sikelel' iAfrica

English lyrics
Let her fame spread far and wide! Hear our prayer, May God bless us! Come, Spirit, come! Come! Holy Spirit! Come and bless us, her children!
 * God bless Africa,

title: Ishe Komborera Africa


text:
User talk:Lokigary

Hello Lokigary, welcome to Wikipedia! I hope you have a lot of fun here. There are lots of resources around to help guide you. be sure to check out: If you want add any images check out: If you need any help try:
 * Naming conventions
 * Manual of Style
 * image use policy
 * How to keep image file sizes as small as possible
 * Help
 * Village pump
 * Or ask me at my talk page User_talk:Theresa knott

Don't be afraid of making the odd mistake, there are any number of others eagerly waiting for a chance to correct it!

title: User talk:Lokigary


text:
Wikipedia:Image markup with HTML

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title: Wikipedia:Image markup with HTML