text:
East Village, Manhattan

The East Village is a neighborhood on the East Side of Lower Manhattan in New York City, United States. It is roughly defined as the area east of the Bowery and Third Avenue, between 14th Street on the north and Houston Street on the south. The East Village contains three subsections: Alphabet City, in reference to the single-letter-named avenues that are located to the east of First Avenue; Little Ukraine, near Second Avenue and 6th and 7th Streets; and the Bowery, located around the street of the same name.

Initially the location of the present-day East Village was occupied by the Lenape Native Americans, and was then divided into plantations by Dutch settlers. During the early 19th century, the East Village contained many of the city's most opulent estates. By the middle of the century, it grew to include a large immigrant population – including what was once referred to as Manhattan's Little Germany – and was considered part of the nearby Lower East Side. By the late 1960s, many artists, musicians, students and hippies began to move into the area, and the East Village was given its own identity. Since at least the 2000s, gentrification has changed the character of the neighborhood.

The East Village is part of Manhattan Community District 3, and its primary ZIP Codes are 10003 and 10009. It is patrolled by the 9th Precinct of the New York City Police Department. Unlike the West Village, the East Village is not located within Greenwich Village.

Early development

The area that is today known as the East Village was originally occupied by the Lenape Native Americans. The Lenape relocated during different seasons, moving toward the shore to fish during the summers, and moving inland to hunt and grow crops during the fall and winter. Manhattan was purchased in 1626 by Peter Minuit of the Dutch West India Company, who served as director-general of New Netherland.

The population of the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam was located primarily below the current Fulton Street, while north of it were a number of small plantations and large farms that were then called bouwerij (anglicized to "boweries"; boerderij). Around these farms were a number of enclaves of free or "half-free" Africans, which served as a buffer between the Dutch and the Native Americans. One of the largest of these was located along the modern Bowery between Prince Street and Astor Place, as well as the "only separate enclave" of this type within Manhattan. These black farmers were some of the earliest settlers of the area.

There were several "boweries" within what is now the East Village. Bowery no.2 passed through several inhabitants, before the eastern half of the land was subdivided and given to Harmen Smeeman in 1647. Peter Stuyvesant, the director-general of New Netherland, owned adjacent bowery no.1 and bought bowery no.2 in 1656 for his farm. Stuyvesant's manor, also called Bowery, was near what is now 10th Street between Second and Third Avenues. Though the manor burned down in the 1770s, his family held onto the land for over seven generations, until a descendant began selling off parcels in the early 19th century.

Bowery no. 3 was located near today's 2nd Street between Second Avenue and the modern street named Bowery. It was owned by Gerrit Hendricksen in 1646 and later given to Philip Minthorne by 1732. The Minthorne and Stuyvesant families both owned slaves on their farms. According to an 1803 deed, Stuyvesant's slaves were to be buried in a cemetery plot at St. Mark's Church in-the-Bowery. The Stuyvesants' estate later expanded to include two Georgian-style manors: the "Bowery House" to the south and "Petersfield" to the north.

Many of these farms had become wealthy country estates by the middle of the 18th century. The Stuyvesant, DeLancey, and Rutgers families would come to own most of the land on the Lower East Side, including the portions that would later become the East Village. By the late 18th century Lower Manhattan estate owners started having their lands surveyed to facilitate the future growth of Lower Manhattan into a street grid system. The Stuyvesant plot, surveyed in the 1780s or 1790s, was planned to be developed with a new grid around Stuyvesant Street, a street that ran compass west–east. This contrasted with the grid system that was ultimately laid out under the Commissioners' Plan of 1811, which is offset by 28.9 degrees clockwise. Stuyvesant Street formed the border between former boweries 1and 2, and the grid surrounding it included four north–south and nine west–east streets.

Because each landowner had done their own survey, there were different street grids that did not align with each other. Various state laws, passed in the 1790s, gave the city of New York the ability to plan out, open, and close streets. The final plan, published in 1811, resulted in the current street grid north of Houston Street – and most of the streets in the modern East Village – were conformed to this plan, except for Stuyvesant Street. The north–south avenues within the Lower East Side were finished in the 1810s, followed by the west–east streets in the 1820s.

Upscale neighborhood
The Commissioners' Plan and resulting street grid was the catalyst for the northward expansion of the city, and for a short period, the portion of the Lower East Side that is now the East Village was one of the wealthiest residential neighborhoods in the city. Bond Street between the Bowery and Broadway, just west of the East Side within present-day NoHo, was considered the most upscale street address in the city by the 1830s, with structures such as the Greek Revival-style Colonnade Row and Federal-style rowhouses. The neighborhood's prestigious nature could be attributed to several factors, including a rise in commerce and population following the Erie Canal's opening in the 1820s.

Following the grading of the streets, development of rowhouses came to the East Side and NoHo by the early 1830s. One set of Federal-style rowhouses was built in the 1830s by Thomas E. Davis on 8th Street between Second and Third Avenues. That block was renamed "St. Mark's Place" and is one of the few remaining terrace names in the East Village. In 1833 Davis and Arthur Bronson bought the entire block of 10th Street from Avenue A to Avenue B. The block was located adjacent to Tompkins Square Park, located between 7th and 10th Streets from Avenue A to Avenue B, designated the same year.

Though the park was not in the original Commissioners' Plan of 1811, part of the land from 7th to 10th Streets east of First Avenue had been set aside for a marketplace that was ultimately never built. Rowhouses up to three stories were built on the side streets by such developers as Elisha Peck and Anson Green Phelps; Ephraim H. Wentworth; and Christopher S. Hubbard and Henry H. Casey.

Mansions were also built on the East Side. One notable address was the twelve-house development called "Albion Place", located on Fourth Street between the Bowery and Second Avenue, built for Peck and Phelps in 1832–1833. Second Avenue also had its own concentration of mansions, though most residences on that avenue were row houses built by speculative land owners, including the Isaac T. Hopper House. One New York Evening Post article in 1846 said that Second Avenue was to become one of "the two great avenues for elegant residences" in Manhattan, the other being Fifth Avenue.

Two marble cemeteries were also built on the East Side: the New York City Marble Cemetery, built in 1831 on 2nd Street between First and Second Avenues, and the New York Marble Cemetery, built in 1830 within the backlots of the block to the west. Following the rapid growth of the neighborhood, Manhattan's 17th ward was split from the 11th ward in 1837. The former covered the area from Avenue B to the Bowery, while the latter covered the area from Avenue B to the East River.

19th century

By the middle of the 19th century, many of the wealthy had continued to move further northward to the Upper West Side and the Upper East Side. Some wealthy families remained, and one observer noted in the 1880s that these families "look[ed] down with disdain upon the parvenus of Fifth avenue". In general, though, the wealthy population of the neighborhood started to decline as many moved northward. Immigrants from modern-day Ireland, Germany, and Austria moved into the rowhouses and manors.

The population of Manhattan's 17th ward – which includes the western part of the East Village and Lower East Side – grew from 18,000 in 1840 to over 43,000 by 1850 and to 73,000 persons in 1860, becoming the city's most highly populated ward at that time. As a result of the Panic of 1837, the city had experienced less construction in the previous years, and so there was a dearth of units available for immigrants, resulting in the subdivision of many houses in lower Manhattan.

Another solution was brand-new "tenant houses", or tenements, within the East Side. Clusters of these buildings were constructed by the Astor family and Stephen Whitney. The developers rarely involved themselves with the daily operations of the tenements, instead subcontracting landlords (many of them immigrants or their children) to run each building. Numerous tenements were erected, typically with footprints of 25 by, before regulatory legislation was passed in the 1860s.

To address concerns about unsafe and unsanitary conditions, a second set of laws was passed in 1879, requiring each room to have windows, resulting in the creation of air shafts between each building. Subsequent tenements built to the law's specifications were referred to as Old Law Tenements. Reform movements, such as the one started by Jacob Riis's 1890 book How the Other Half Lives, continued to attempt to alleviate the problems of the area through settlement houses, such as the Henry Street Settlement, and other welfare and service agencies.

Because most of the new immigrants were German speakers, the East Village and the Lower East Side collectively became known as "Little Germany" (Kleindeutschland). The neighborhood had the third largest urban population of Germans outside of Vienna and Berlin. It was America's first foreign language neighborhood; hundreds of political, social, sports and recreational clubs were set up during this period. Numerous churches were built in the neighborhood, of which many are still extant. In addition, Little Germany also had its own library on Second Avenue, now the New York Public Library's Ottendorfer branch. However, the community started to decline after the sinking of the General Slocum on June 15, 1904, in which more than a thousand German-Americans died.

The Germans who moved out of the area were replaced by immigrants of many different nationalities. This included groups of Italians and Eastern European Jews, as well as Greeks, Hungarians, Poles, Romanians, Russians, Slovaks and Ukrainians, each of whom settled in relatively homogeneous enclaves. In How the Other Half Lives Riis wrote: "A map of the city, colored to designate nationalities, would show more stripes than on the skin of a zebra, and more colors than any rainbow."

One of the first groups to populate the former Little Germany were Yiddish-speaking Ashkenazi Jews, who first settled south of Houston Street before moving northward. The Roman Catholic Poles as well as the Protestant Hungarians would also have a significant impact in the East Side, erecting houses of worship next to each other along 7th Street at the turn of the 20th century. American-born New Yorkers would build other churches and community institutions, including the Olivet Memorial Church at 59 East 2nd Street (built 1891), the Middle Collegiate Church at 112 Second Avenue (built 1891–1892), and the Society of the Music School Settlement, now Third Street Music School Settlement, at 53–55 East 3rd Street (converted 1903–1904).

By the 1890s tenements were being designed in the ornate Queen Anne and Romanesque Revival styles. Tenements built in the later part of the decade were built in the Renaissance Revival style. At the time, the area was increasingly being identified as part of the Lower East Side.

20th century

By the 1890s and 1900s any remaining manors on Second Avenue had been demolished and replaced with tenements or apartment buildings. The New York State Tenement House Act of 1901 drastically changed the regulations to which tenement buildings had to conform. The early 20th century marked the creation of apartment houses, office buildings, and other commercial or institutional structures on Second Avenue. After the widening of Second Avenue's roadbed in the early 1910s, many of the front stoops on that road were eliminated. The symbolic demise of the old fashionable district came in 1912 when the last resident moved out of the Thomas E. Davis mansion at Second Avenue and St. Mark's Place, which The New York Times had called the "last fashionable residence" on Second Avenue. In 1916, the Slovenian community and Franciscans established the Slovenian Church of St. Cyril, which still operates.

Simultaneously with the decline of the last manors, the Yiddish Theatre District or "Yiddish Rialto" developed within the East Side. It contained many theaters and other forms of entertainment for the Jewish immigrants of the city. While most of the early Yiddish theaters were located south of Houston Street, several theater producers were considering moving north along Second Avenue by the first decades of the 20th century.

Second Avenue gained more prominence as a Yiddish theater destination in the 1910s with the opening of two theatres: the Second Avenue Theatre, which opened in 1911 at 35–37 Second Avenue, and the National Theater, which opened in 1912 at 111–117 East Houston Street. This was followed by the opening of several other theaters, such as the Louis N. Jaffe Theater and the Public Theatre in 1926 and 1927 respectively. Numerous movie houses also opened in the East Side, including six on Second Avenue. By World WarI the district's theaters hosted as many as twenty to thirty shows a night. After World WarII Yiddish theater became less popular, and by the mid-1950s few theaters were still extant in the District.

The city built First Houses on the south side of East 3rd Street between First Avenue and Avenue A, and on the west side of Avenue A between East 2nd and East 3rd Streets in 1935–1936, the first such public housing project in the United States. The neighborhood originally ended at the East River, to the east of where Avenue D was later located. In the mid-20th-century, landfill – including World WarII debris and rubble shipped from London – was used to extend the shoreline to provide foundation for the Franklin D. Roosevelt Drive.

In the mid-20th century Ukrainians created a Ukrainian enclave in the neighborhood, centered around Second Avenue and 6th and 7th Streets. The Polish enclave in the East Village persisted as well. Numerous other immigrant groups had moved out, and their former churches were sold and became Orthodox cathedrals. Latin American immigrants started to move to the East Side, settling in the eastern part of the neighborhood and creating an enclave that later came to be known as Loisaida.

The East Side's population started to decline at the start of the Great Depression in the 1930s and the implementation of the Immigration Act of 1924, and the expansion of the New York City Subway into the outer boroughs. Many old tenements, deemed to be "blighted" and unnecessary, were destroyed in the middle of the 20th century. A substantial portion of the neighborhood, including the Ukrainian enclave, was slated for demolition under the Cooper Square Urban Renewal Plan of 1956, which was to redevelop the area from Ninth to Delancey Streets from the Bowery/Third Avenue to Chrystie Street/Second Avenue with new privately owned cooperative housing.

The United Housing Foundation was selected as the sponsor for the project, and there was significant opposition to the plan, as it would have displaced thousands of people. Neither the original large-scale development nor a 1961 revised proposal were implemented and the city's government lost interest in performing such large-scale slum-clearance projects. Another redevelopment project that was completed was the Village View Houses on First Avenue between East 2nd and 6th Streets, which opened in 1964 partially on the site of the old St. Nicholas Kirche.

Initial rebranding
Until the mid-20th century the area was simply the northern part of the Lower East Side, with a similar culture of immigrant, working-class life. In the 1950s and 1960s the migration of Beatniks into the neighborhood later attracted hippies, musicians, writers, and artists who had been priced out of the rapidly gentrifying Greenwich Village. Among the first displaced Greenwich Villagers to move to the area were writers Allen Ginsberg, W. H. Auden, and Norman Mailer, who all moved to the area in 1951–1953.

A cluster of cooperative art galleries on East 10th Street (later collectively referred to as the 10th Street galleries) were opened around the same time, starting with the Tanger and the Hansa which both opened in 1952. Further change came in 1955 when the Third Avenue elevated railway above the Bowery and Third Avenue was removed. This in turn made the neighborhood more attractive to potential residents; in 1960 The New York Times reported: "This area is gradually becoming recognized as an extension of Greenwich Village... thereby extending New York's Bohemia from river to river."

The 1960 Times article stated that rental agents were increasingly referring to the area as "Village East" or "East Village". The new name was used to dissociate the area from the image of slums evoked by the Lower East Side. According to The New York Times, a 1964 guide called Earl Wilson's New York wrote: "Artists, poets and promoters of coffeehouses from Greenwich Village are trying to remelt the neighborhood under the high-sounding name of 'East Village'." Newcomers and real estate brokers popularized the new name, and the term was adopted by the popular media by the mid-1960s. A weekly newspaper with the neighborhood's new name, The East Village Other, started publication in 1966. The New York Times declared that the neighborhood "had come to be known" as the East Village in the edition of June 5, 1967.

Growth

The East Village became a center of the counterculture in New York, and was the birthplace and historical home of many artistic movements, including punk rock and the Nuyorican literary movement. Multiple former Yiddish theaters were converted for use by Off-Broadway shows: for instance, the Public Theater at 66 Second Avenue became the Phyllis Anderson Theater. Numerous buildings on East 4th Street hosted Off-Broadway and Off-Off-Broadway productions, including the Royal Playhouse, the Fourth Street Theatre, the Downtown Theatre, the La MaMa Experimental Theatre Club, and the Truck & Warehouse Theater just on the block between Bowery and Second Avenue.

By the 1970s and 1980s the city in general was in decline and nearing bankruptcy, especially after the 1975 New York City fiscal crisis. Residential buildings in the East Village suffered from high levels of neglect, as property owners did not properly maintain their buildings. The city purchased many of these buildings, but was also unable to maintain them due to a lack of funds. Following the publication of a revised Cooper Square renewal plan in 1986, some properties were given to the Cooper Square Mutual Housing Association as part of a 1991 agreement.

In spite of the deterioration of the structures within the East Village, its music and arts scenes were doing well. By the 1970s gay dance halls and punk rock clubs had started to open in the neighborhood. These included the Fillmore East Music Hall (later a gay private nightclub called The Saint), which was located in a movie theater at 105 Second Avenue. The Phyllis Anderson Theatre was converted into Second Avenue Theater, an annex of the CBGB music club, and hosted musicians and bands such as Bruce Springsteen, Patti Smith, and Talking Heads. The Pyramid Club, which opened in 1979 at 101 Avenue A, hosted musical acts such as Nirvana and Red Hot Chili Peppers, as well as drag performers such as RuPaul and Ann Magnuson. In addition, there were more than a hundred art galleries in the East Village by the mid-1980s. These included Patti Astor and Bill Stelling's Fun Gallery at 11th Street, as well as numerous galleries on 7th Street.

Decline
By 1987 the visual arts scene was in decline. Many of these art galleries relocated to more profitable neighborhoods such as SoHo, or closed altogether. The arts scene had become a victim of its own success, since the popularity of the art galleries had revived the East Village's real estate market.

One club that tried to resurrect the neighborhood's past artistic prominence was Mo Pitkins' House of Satisfaction, part-owned by comedian Jimmy Fallon before it closed in 2007. A Fordham University study, examining the decline of the East Village performance and art scene, stated that "the young, liberal culture that once found its place on the Manhattan side of the East River" has shifted in part to new neighborhoods like Williamsburg in Brooklyn. There are still some performance spaces, such as Sidewalk Cafe on 6th Street and Avenue A, where downtown acts find space to exhibit their talent, as well as the poetry clubs Bowery Poetry Club and Nuyorican Poets Café.

Gentrification, preservation, and present day
In the late 20th and early 21st centuries the East Village became gentrified as a result of real-estate price increases following the success of the arts scene. In the 1970s, rents were extremely low and the neighborhood was considered one of the least desirable places in Manhattan to live in. However, as early as 1983, the Times reported that because of the influx of artists, many longtime establishments and immigrants were being forced to leave the East Village due to rising rents. By the following year, young professionals constituted a large portion of the neighborhood's demographics. Even so, crimes remained prevalent and there were often drug deals being held openly in Tompkins Square Park.

Tensions over gentrification resulted in the 1988 Tompkins Square Park riot, which occurred following opposition to a proposed curfew that had targeted the park's homeless. The aftermath of the riot slowed down the gentrification process somewhat as real estate prices declined. By the end of the 20th century, however, real estate prices had resumed their rapid rise. About half of the East Village's stores had opened within the decade since the riot, while vacancy rates in that period had dropped from 20% to 3%, indicating that many of the longtime merchants had been pushed out.

By the early 21st century some buildings in the area were torn down and replaced by newer buildings.

Rezoning
Due to the gentrification of the neighborhood, parties including the Greenwich Village Society for Historic Preservation (GVSHP), Manhattan Community Board 3, the East Village Community Coalition, and City Councilmember Rosie Mendez, began calling for a change to the area's zoning in the first decade of the 21st century. The city first released a draft in July 2006, which concerned an area bounded by East 13th Street on the north, Third Avenue on the west, Delancey Street on the south, and Avenue D on the east. The rezoning proposal was done in response to concerns about the character and scale of some of the new buildings in the neighborhood. Despite protests and accusations of promoting gentrification and increased property values over the area's history and need for affordable housing, the rezoning was approved in 2008. Among other things, the zoning established height limits for new development throughout the affected area, modified allowable density of real estate, capped air rights transfers, eliminated the current zoning bonus for dorms and hotels, and created incentives for the creation and retention of affordable housing.

Landmark efforts

Local community groups such as the GVSHP are actively working to gain individual and district landmark designations for the East Village to preserve and protect the architectural and cultural identity of the neighborhood. In early 2011 the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) proposed two East Village historic districts: a small district along the block of 10th Street that lies north of Tompkins Square Park, and a larger district focused around lower Second Avenue. before later being expanded. In January 2012 the East 10th Street Historic District was designated by the LPC, and that October, the larger East Village/Lower East Side Historic District was also designated by the LPC.

Several notable buildings are designated as individual landmarks, some due to the GVSHP's efforts. These include:
 * The First Houses at East 3rd Street and Avenue A, the country's first public housing development, built in 1935 and designated in 1974
 * The Stuyvesant Polyclinic at 137 Second Avenue, built in 1884 and designated in 1976
 * The Christodora House, built in 1928 and listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1986
 * The Children's Aid Society's Tompkins Square Lodging House for Boys and Industrial School at 296 East 8th Street, built in 1886 and designated in 2000
 * Public School 64 at 350 East 10th Street, a French Renaissance Revival public school built in 1904–1906 by architect and school superintendent C.B.J. Snyder, designated in 2006
 * Webster Hall, a Romanesque Revival concert hall and nightclub designed in 1886, designated in 2008
 * The Children's Aid Society's Elizabeth Home for Girls at 308 East 12th Street, built in 1891–1892 and designated in 2008
 * The Wheatsworth Bakery Building, built in 1927–1928 and designated in 2008
 * The St. Nicholas of Myra Church at 288 East 10th Street, designated in 2008
 * The Van Tassell and Kearney Horse Auction Mart at 126–128 East 13th Street, a horse auction mart built in 1903–1904, designated in 2012
 * The First German Baptist Church (Town & Village Synagogue) at 334 East 14th Street, designated in 2014

Landmark efforts have included a number of losses as well. For instance, although the GVSHP and allied groups asked in 2012 that the Mary Help of Christians school, church and rectory be designated as landmarks, the site was demolished starting in 2013. In 2011, an early 19th-century Federal house at 35 Cooper Square – one of the oldest on the Bowery and in the East Village – was approved for demolition to make way for a college dorm. over requests of community groups and elected officials. Furthermore, the LPC acts on no particular schedule, leaving open indefinitely some "calendared" requests for designation. Sometimes it simply declines requests for consideration, as it did regarding an intact Italianate tenement at 143 East 13th Street. In other cases the LPC has refused the expansion of existing historic districts, as in 2016 when it declined to add 264 East 7th Street (the former home of illustrator Felicia Bond) and four neighboring rowhouses to the East Village/Lower East Side Historic District.

2015 gas explosion
On March 26, 2015, a gas explosion occurred on Second Avenue after a gas line was tapped. The explosion and resulting fire destroyed three buildings at 119, 121 and 123 Second Avenue, between East 7th Street and St. Marks Place. Two people were killed, and at least twenty-two people were injured, four critically. Three restaurants were also destroyed in the explosion. Landlord Maria Hrynenko and an unlicensed plumber and another employee were sentenced to prison time for their part in causing the explosion in New York State Supreme Court. Ms. Hrynenko allowed an illegal gas line to be constructed on her property.

Geography
Neighboring the East Village are the Lower East Side to the south, NoHo to the west, Stuyvesant Park to the northwest, and Stuyvesant Town to the northeast. The East Village contains several smaller vibrant communities, each with its own character.

Alphabet City
Alphabet City is the eastern section of the East Village that is so named because it contains avenues with single-lettered names, e.g. Avenues A, B, C, and D. It is bordered by Houston Street to the south and 14th Street to the north. Notable places within Alphabet City include Tompkins Square Park and the Nuyorican Poets Café. Alphabet City also contains St. Marks Place, the continuation of Eighth Street between Third Avenue and Avenue A. The street contains a Japanese street culture; an aged punk culture and CBGB's new store; the former location of one of New York City's only Automats; and a portion of the "Mosaic Trail", a trail of eighty mosaic-encrusted lampposts that runs from Broadway down Eighth Street to Avenue A, to Fourth Street and then back to Eighth Street.

Alphabet City was once the archetype of a dangerous New York City neighborhood. Its turn-around was cause for The New York Times to observe in 2005 that Alphabet City went "from a drug-infested no man's land to the epicenter of downtown cool". This part of the neighborhood has long been an ethnic enclave for Manhattan's German, Polish, Hispanic, and Jewish populations. Crime went up in the area in the late 20th century but then declined in the 21st, as the area became gentrified. Alphabet City's alternate name Loisaida, which is also used as the alternate name for Avenue C, is a term derived from the Latino, and especially Nuyorican, pronunciation of "Lower East Side". The term was originally coined by poet/activist Bittman "Bimbo" Rivas in his 1974 poem "Loisaida".

Bowery

The Bowery was once known for its many homeless shelters, drug rehabilitation centers and bars. The phrase "on the Bowery", which has since fallen into disuse, was a generic way to say one was down-and-out. By the 21st century the Bowery had become a boulevard with new luxury condominiums. Redevelopment of the avenue from flophouses to luxury condominiums has met resistance from long-term residents, who agree the neighborhood has improved but its unique, gritty character is disappearing. The Bowery has also become an area with a diverse artistic community. It is the location of the Bowery Poetry Club, where artists Amiri Baraka and Taylor Mead have held regular readings and performances, and until 2006 was home to the punk–rock nightclub CBGB.

Little Ukraine

Little Ukraine is an ethnic enclave in the East Village, which has served as a spiritual, political and cultural epicenter for several waves of Ukrainian Americans in New York City as far back as the late 19th century.

At the beginning of the 20th century, Ukrainian immigrants began moving into areas previously dominated by fellow Eastern European and Galician Jews, as well as the Lower East Side's German enclave. After World WarII, the Ukrainian population of the neighborhood reached 60,000, but as with the city's Little Italy, today the neighborhood consists of only a few Ukrainian stores and restaurants. Today, the East Village between Houston and 14th Street, and Third Avenue and Avenue A still houses nearly a third of New York City's Ukrainian population.

Several churches, including St. George's Catholic Church; Ukrainian restaurants and butcher shops; The Ukrainian Museum; the Shevchenko Scientific Society; and the Ukrainian Cultural Center are evidence of the impact of this culture on the area. The gallery American Painting, located on E. 6th Street during 2004–2009, presented a painting exhibition by artists Andrei Kushnir and Michele Martin Taylor titled "East Village Afternoon" depicting many of these sites.

Since the early 20th century, St. George Ukrainian Catholic Church has served as the anchor of Little Ukraine, offering daily liturgies and penances, and operating the adjoining St. George Academy, a coeducational parochial school. Starting in 1976 the church has sponsored an annual Ukrainian Heritage Festival, regularly described as one of the few remaining authentic New York City street fairs. In April 1978 the New York City Council renamed Taras Shevchenko Place, a small connecting street between East 7th and 6th Streets, after Taras Shevchenko, Ukraine's national bard.

Political representation

Politically, the East Village is in New York's 7th and 12th congressional districts. It is also in the New York State Senate's 27th and 28th districts, the New York State Assembly's 65th, 66th, and 74th districts,  and the New York City Council's 1st and 2nd districts.

Demographics
Based on data from the 2010 United States Census, the population of the East Village was 44,136, a change of 2,390 (5.4%) from the 41,746 counted in 2000. Covering an area of 250.02 acres, the neighborhood had a population density of 176.5 PD/acre. The racial makeup of the neighborhood was 65.5% (28,888) White, 3.9% (1,743) African American, 0.1% (64) Native American, 14.9% (6,560) Asian, 0% (22) Pacific Islander, 0.4% (182) from other races, and 2.8% (1,214) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino residents of any race were 12.4% (5,463) of the population.

The entirety of Community District 3, which comprises the East Village and the Lower East Side, had 171,103 inhabitants as of NYC Health's 2018 Community Health Profile, with an average life expectancy of 82.2 years. This is higher than the median life expectancy of 81.2 for all New York City neighborhoods. Most inhabitants are adults: a plurality (35%) are between the ages of 25 and 44, while 25% are between 45 and 64, and 16% are 65 or older. The ratio of youth and college-aged residents was lower, at 13% and 11%, respectively.

As of 2017, the median household income in Community District3 was US$39,584, although the median income in the East Village individually was $74,265. In 2018, an estimated 18% of East Village and Lower East Side residents lived in poverty, compared to 14% in all of Manhattan and 20% in all of New York City. One in twelve residents (8%) were unemployed, compared to 7% in Manhattan and 9% in New York City. Rent burden, or the percentage of residents who have difficulty paying their rent, is 48% in the East Village and the Lower East Side, compared to the boroughwide and citywide rates of 45% and 51%, respectively. Based on this calculation,, the East Village and the Lower East Side were considered to be gentrifying.

Hare Krishnas
On October 9, 1966, A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, founder of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness, held the first recorded outdoor chanting session of the Hare Krishna mantra outside the Indian subcontinent at Tompkins Square Park. This is considered the founding of the Hare Krishna religion in the United States, and the large tree close to the center of the Park is demarcated as a special religious site for Krishna adherents.

Cultural institutions
Preservation institution:
 * Greenwich Village Society for Historic Preservation

Gallery:
 * Tenth Street galleries

Museums:
 * Museum of Reclaimed Urban Space
 * New Museum of Contemporary Art
 * Brant Foundation Art Museum
 * The Ukrainian Museum

Movie theaters
 * Anthology Film Archives
 * City Cinema Village East
 * Landmark's Sunshine Theater
 * Two Boots Pioneer Theater
 * Village East Cinema

Music venues:
 * Bowery Ballroom – concerts and shows
 * Mercury Lounge – live music
 * Nublu Club – live music
 * The Stone – experimental music
 * Rue B – live jazz

Poetry venues:
 * Nuyorican Poets Café – music, poetry, readings, slams
 * Bowery Poetry Club – music, poetry, readings, slams
 * Poetry Project at St. Mark's Church in-the-Bowery

Health and fitness:
 * Russian & Turkish Baths, since 1892

Theaters and performance spaces:
 * Amato Opera
 * Bouwerie Lane Theatre
 * Connelly Theater – historic Off-Broadway venue
 * Danspace Project – at St. Mark's Church in-the-Bowery
 * La MaMa E.T.C. – avant-garde theater
 * Metropolitan Playhouse
 * The Ontological-Hysteric Theater at St. Mark's Church in-the-Bowery
 * The Pearl Theatre Company
 * Tompkins Square Park – Regular site of outdoor music, dance, and performance
 * Performance Space New York
 * Stomp! – long running Off-Broadway performance
 * Theater for the New City
 * Theatre for a New Audience
 * Wild Project

Neighborhood festivals

 * Mayday Festival – May 1; yearly.
 * Charlie Parker Jazz Festival – August; yearly.
 * HOWL! Festival – Summer; yearly.
 * Dance Parade – Summer; yearly.
 * Dream Up Festival – August–September; yearly.
 * Tompkins Square Halloween Dog Parade – October; yearly.

Large parks

Tompkins Square Park is a 10.5 acre public park in the Alphabet City section of the East Village. It is bounded on the north by 10th Street, on the east by Avenue B, on the south by 7th Street, and on the west by Avenue A. Tompkins Square Park contains a baseball field, basketball courts, and two playgrounds. It also contains the city's first dog run, which is a social scene unto itself. The park has been the site of numerous events and riots:
 * On January 13, 1874, a riot broke out after the New York City Police Department clashed with a demonstration involving thousands of unemployed civilians.
 * On July 25, 1877, during the Great Railroad Strike of 1877, twenty thousand people gathered in the park to hear communist orators speak. New York City police and National Guardsmen eventually charged the crowd with billy clubs, later claiming that the rally was not being held in a peaceful manner. In the wake of this "riot" the city, in conjunction with the War Department, established an official city armory program led by the 7th Regiment.
 * On August 6–7, 1988, a riot broke out between police and groups of "drug pushers, homeless people and young people known as 'skinheads'" who had largely taken over the park. The neighborhood was divided about what, if anything, should be done about it. Manhattan Community Board3 adopted a curfew for the previously 24-hour park in an attempt to bring it under control. A rally against the curfew resulted in several clashes between protesters and police.

East River Park is 57 acre and runs between the FDR Drive and the East River from Montgomery Street to East 12th Street. It was designed in the 1930s by parks commissioner Robert Moses, who wanted to ensure there was parkland along the Lower East Side shorefront. The park includes football, baseball, and soccer fields; tennis, basketball, and handball courts; a running track; and bike paths, including the East River Greenway.

Community gardens
There are reportedly more than 640 community gardens in New York City – gardens run by local collectives within the neighborhood who are responsible for the gardens' upkeep – and an estimated ten percent of those are located on the Lower East Side and the East Village alone. Development of these community gardens, often on municipally owned land, started in the early 1970s. Although many of these lots were later sold to private developers, others were taken over by the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation, which preserves the gardens under its ownership.

Open Road Park, a former cemetery and bus depot, is a garden and a playground adjacent to East Side Community High School between 11th and 12th Streets east of First Avenue.

The Avenue B and 6th Street Community Garden was known for a now-removed outdoor sculpture, the Tower of Toys, designed by artist and long-time garden groundskeeper Eddie Boros. It was a 65 ft makeshift structure made of wooden planks, from which were suspended an amalgamation of fanciful objects. The tower was a neighborhood icon, having appeared in the opening credits for the television show NYPD Blue and also appears in the musical Rent. It was also controversial: some viewed it as a masterpiece, while others as an eyesore. The tower was dismantled in May 2008 because, according to parks commissioner Adrian Benepe, it was rotting and thus a safety hazard. Its removal was seen by some as a symbol of the neighborhood's fading past.

The Toyota Children's Learning Garden at 603 East 11th Street is technically a learning garden rather than a community garden. Designed by landscape architect Michael Van Valkenburgh, the garden opened in May 2008 as part of the New York Restoration Project and is designed to teach children about plants.

La Plaza Cultural de Armando Perez is a community garden, open-air theater, and green space at 9th Street and Avenue C. Founded in 1976, the garden continues to operate, despite having been proposed for redevelopment multiple times.

Marble cemeteries

On the block bounded by Bowery, Second Avenue, and 2nd and 3rd Streets, is the oldest public cemetery in New York City not affiliated with any religion, the New York Marble Cemetery. Established in 1830, it is open the fourth Sunday of every month.

The similarly named New York City Marble Cemetery, located on 2nd Street between First Avenue and Second Avenue, is the second oldest nonsectarian cemetery in New York City. The cemetery opened in 1831. Notable people interred there include U.S. President James Monroe; Stephen Allen, mayor (1821–1824); James Lenox, whose personal library became part of the New York Public Library; Isaac Varian, mayor (1839–1841); Marinus Willet, Revolutionary War hero; and Preserved Fish, a well-known merchant.

Police and crime
East Village is patrolled by the 9th Precinct of the NYPD, located at 321 East 5th Street. The 9th Precinct ranked 58th safest out of 69 patrol areas for per-capita crime in 2010. , with a non-fatal assault rate of 42 per 100,000 people, Community District 3's rate of violent crimes per capita is less than that of the city as a whole. The incarceration rate of 449 per 100,000 people is higher than that of the city as a whole.

The 9th Precinct has a lower crime rate than in the 1990s, with crimes across all categories having decreased by 79.5% between 1990 and 2019. The precinct reported 3murders, 15 rapes, 119 robberies, 171 felony assaults, 122 burglaries, 760 grand larcenies, and 37 grand larcenies auto in 2019.

Fire safety

East Village is served by four New York City Fire Department (FDNY) fire stations:
 * Ladder Co. 3/Battalion 6 – 103 East 13th Street
 * Engine Co. 5 – 340 East 14th Street
 * Engine Co. 28/Ladder Co. 11 – 222 East 2nd Street
 * Engine Co. 33/Ladder Co. 9 – 42 Great Jones Street

Health
, preterm births and births to teenage mothers are less common in the East Village and the Lower East Side than in other places citywide. In the East Village and the Lower East Side, there were 82 preterm births per 1,000 live births (compared to 87 per 1,000 citywide), and 10.1 teenage births per 1,000 live births (compared to 19.3 per 1,000 citywide). The East Village and the Lower East Side have a low population of residents who are uninsured. In 2018 this population of uninsured residents was estimated to be 11%, slightly less than the citywide rate of 12%.

The concentration of fine particulate matter, the deadliest type of air pollutant, in the East Village and the Lower East Side is 0.0089 mg/m3, more than the city average. Twenty percent of East Village and Lower East Side residents are smokers, which is more than the city average of 14% of residents being smokers. In the East Village and the Lower East Side, 10% of residents are obese, 11% are diabetic, and 22% have high blood pressure – compared to the citywide averages of 24%, 11%, and 28% respectively. In addition, 16% of children are obese, compared to the citywide average of 20%.

Eighty-eight percent of residents eat some fruits and vegetables every day, which is about the same as the city's average of 87%. In 2018, 70% of residents described their health as "good", "very good", or "excellent", less than the city's average of 78%. For every supermarket in the East Village and the Lower East Side, there are eighteen bodegas.

The nearest major hospitals are Beth Israel Medical Center in Stuyvesant Town, as well as the Bellevue Hospital Center and NYU Langone Medical Center in Kips Bay, and NewYork-Presbyterian Lower Manhattan Hospital in the Civic Center area.

Post offices and ZIP Codes

East Village is located within two primary ZIP Codes. The area east of First Avenue including Alphabet City is part of 10009, while the area west of First Avenue is part of 10003. The United States Postal Service operates three post offices in the East Village:
 * Cooper Station – 93 Fourth Avenue
 * Peter Stuyvesant Station – 335 East 14th Street
 * Tompkins Square Station – 244 East 3rd Street

Education
East Village and the Lower East Side generally have a higher rate of college-educated residents than the rest of the city. A plurality of residents age 25 and older (48%) have a college education or higher, while 24% have less than a high school education and 28% are high school graduates or have some college education. By contrast, 64% of Manhattan residents and 43% of city residents have a college education or higher. The percentage of East Village and the Lower East Side students excelling in math rose from 61% in 2000 to 80% in 2011, and reading achievement increased from 66% to 68% during the same time period.

East Village and the Lower East Side's rate of elementary school student absenteeism is lower than the rest of New York City. In the East Village and the Lower East Side, 16% of elementary school students missed twenty or more days per school year, less than the citywide average of 20%. Additionally, 77% of high school students in the East Village and the Lower East Side graduate on time, more than the citywide average of 75%.

Schools
The New York City Department of Education operates public schools in the East Village as part of Community School District 1. District1 does not contain any zoned schools, which means that students living in District1 can apply to any school in the district, including those in the Lower East Side.

The following public elementary schools are located in the East Village and serve grades PK–5 unless otherwise indicated:

 * PS 15 Roberto Clemente
 * PS 19 Asher Levy
 * PS 34 Franklin D Roosevelt (grades PK–8)
 * PS 63 STAR Academy
 * PS 64 Robert Simon
 * PS 94 (grades K–8)
 * PS 188 The Island School (grades PK–8)
 * Earth School
 * Neighborhood School
 * The Children's Workshop School
 * The East Village Community School

The following middle and high schools are located in the East Village:
 * East Side Community High School (grades 6–12)
 * Manhattan School for Career Development (grades 9–12)
 * Tompkins Square Middle School (grades 6–8)

The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of New York operates Catholic schools in Manhattan. St. Brigid School in the East Village closed in 2019.

The following independent schools are located in the East Village:
 * The New Amsterdam School (Waldorf)

Libraries

The New York Public Library (NYPL) operates three branches near the East Village.
 * The Ottendorfer branch is located at 135 Second Avenue. The branch opened in 1884 based on a gift from Oswald Ottendorfer, who owned the New Yorker Staats-Zeitung. The Ottendorfer branch, designed in the Queen Anne and Renaissance Revival styles, is a New York City designated landmark.
 * The Tompkins Square branch is located at 331 East 10th Street. The library opened in 1887 and moved three times before relocating to its current Carnegie library structure in 1904.
 * The Hamilton Fish Park branch is located at 415 East Houston Street. It was originally built as a Carnegie library in 1909, but was torn down when Houston Street was expanded; the current one-story structure was completed in 1960.

New York University
Along with gentrification, the East Village has seen an increase in the number of buildings owned and maintained by New York University, particularly dormitories for undergraduate students, and this influx has given rise to conflict between the community and the university.

St. Ann's Church, a rusticated-stone structure with a Romanesque Revival tower on East 12th Street that dated to 1847, was sold to NYU to make way for a 26-story, 700-bed dormitory. After community protest, the university promised to protect and maintain the church's original facade; and so it did, literally, by having the facade stand alone in front of the building, now the tallest structure in the area. According to many residents, NYU's alteration and demolition of historic buildings, such as the Peter Cooper Post Office, is spoiling the physical and socio-economic landscape that makes this neighborhood so interesting and attractive.

NYU has often been at odds with residents of both the East and West Villages due to its expansive development plans; urban preservationist Jane Jacobs battled the school in the 1960s. "She spoke of how universities and hospitals often had a special kind of hubris reflected in the fact that they often thought it was OK to destroy a neighborhood to suit their needs," said Andrew Berman of the Greenwich Village Society for Historic Preservation.

Cooper Union
The Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art, founded in 1859 by entrepreneur and philanthropist Peter Cooper and located on Cooper Square, was, as of 2008, one of the most selective colleges in the world, and formerly offered tuition-free programs in engineering, art and architecture. Its Great Hall has been used for several notable speeches, such as Abraham Lincoln's Cooper Union speech, and its New Academic Building is the first in New York City to achieve LEED Platinum status.

Transportation
The nearest New York City Subway stations are Second Avenue, Astor Place , Eighth Street–New York University , and First Avenue. Phase3 of the Second Avenue Subway is planned to establish two stations on 2nd Avenue, one on 14th Street and one on Houston Street. Bus routes serving the area include the.

Media
Local news
 * East Village Feed
 * The East Villager
 * The East Village Eye
 * The Village Voice
 * The Villager

Radio
 * East Village Radio

Television
 * Obscura Antiques & Oddities, focus of Oddities

Notable residents

 * Skippy Adelman (1924–2004) – jazz photojournalist, lived at 488 East Houston, through high school
 * Ryan Adams (born 1974) – alt-country musician
 * Darren Aronofsky (born 1969) – filmmaker
 * W. H. Auden (1907–1973) – poet
 * John Franklin Bardin (1916–1981) – novelist
 * Jean-Michel Basquiat (1960–1988) – artist
 * Dana Beal (born 1947) – social and political activist.
 * Mark Bloch (born 1956) – artist
 * Jeremy Blake (1971–2007) – digital artist and painter.
 * Walter Bowart (1939–2007) – co-founder and editor of the East Village Other
 * David Bowes (born 1957) – painter
 * William S. Burroughs (1914–1997) – novelist, actor
 * Richard Brookhiser (born 1955) – author, historian
 * Chris Cain (born 1955) – bassist for the indie-rock band We Are Scientists
 * Max Cantor (1959–1991) – journalist and former actor
 * Julian Casablancas – musician
 * Ching Ho Cheng (1946–1989) – artist
 * Alexa Chung (born 1983) – model, TV presenter
 * Christian Cooper (born 1963), science writer and editor
 * David Cross (born 1964) – actor, comedian
 * Quentin Crisp (1908–1999) – writer, raconteur
 * Jackie Curtis (1947–1985) – writer, poet, actor Warhol superstar
 * Candy Darling (1944–1974) – actress, Warhol superstar
 * Tory Dent (1958–2005) – poet, art critic, and commentator on the AIDS crisis.
 * Lindsay Ellis (born 1984) – film critic, author
 * Jonathan Larson (1960–1996) – musician, composer of the musical Rent
 * Rosario Dawson (born 1979) – actress, singer and writer
 * Negin Farsad – writer, director, comedian
 * Sarah Feinberg (born 1977) – Interim President of the New York City Transit Authority, and former Administrator of the Federal Railroad Administration
 * Barbara Feinman – milliner
 * Lady Gaga – singer, songwriter
 * Sharon Gannon and David Life – yoga instructors and co-founders of Jivamukti Yoga school, which originated in the East Village
 * Allen Ginsberg – Beat Generation poet
 * Philip Glass – American composer
 * Lotti Golden – artist, songwriter, poet
 * Nan Goldin – photographer
 * Wade Guyton – painter
 * Ayun Halliday – actress and writer
 * Keith Haring – artist
 * Randy Harrison – actor
 * Matt Harvey – MLB Pitcher
 * Richard Hell – musician, author
 * Vlad Holiday – musician, songwriter
 * Abbie Hoffman – 1960s political activist
 * John Holmstrom – cartoonist and writer, Punk editor
 * Harold Hunter – skateboarder, actor
 * Sarah Hyland – actress
 * Jim Jarmusch – film director, screenwriter, actor, producer, editor and composer
 * Indian Larry (born Lawrence DeSmedt) – motorcycle builder and artist, stunt rider, and biker
 * Tom Kalin – filmmaker
 * Agim Kaba – actor, artist and director
 * Allan Katzman – co-founder and editor of the East Village Other
 * Kathy Kemp – fashion designer and entrepreneur
 * Alvin Klein (1938–2009) – theater critic for The New York Times.
 * Vashtie Kola – director
 * Greg Kotis – playwright
 * Paul Krassner – publisher of The Realist
 * Tuli Kupferberg – Beat Generation poet, and one of the original Fugs
 * Stephen Lack – actor, painter
 * Scooter LaForge – artist
 * Ronnie Landfield – painter
 * Greer Lankton – artist and dollmaker
 * Phoebe Legere – musician and artist
 * John Leguizamo (born 1960) – actor, comedian, and monologist
 * Frank London (born 1958) – composer, musician
 * Frank Lovell (1913–1998) – communist politician.
 * John Lurie (born 1952) – musician, painter, actor, producer
 * Madonna – singer/entrepreneur, in the 1980s
 * Handsome Dick Manitoba – singer, saloon owner
 * John Mateer (also known as ‘Johnny Saint Marks’) – recording artist, activist and resident of Saint Marks Place
 * Jimmy McMillan – political activist, founder of "The Rent is Too Damn High Party"
 * Butch Morris – cornetist, composer and conductor.
 * Cookie Mueller (1949–1989) – actress, model
 * Joseph Nechvatal – digital artist
 * Conor Oberst – musician
 * Claes Oldenburg – sculptor
 * Tom Otterness – sculptor
 * Ron Padgett (born 1942), poet, essayist, fiction writer and translator
 * Iggy Pop – performer, musician
 * William Pope.L (1955–2023), visual artist best known for his work in performance art
 * Adam Purple – creator of the Lower East Side "Garden of Eden"
 * Daniel Radcliffe – actor
 * Daniel Rakowitz (the East Side Cannibal) and his victim and roommate, dancer Monicka Beerle
 * Joey Ramone – musician
 * Johnny Ramone – musician
 * Bill Raymond – actor
 * Lou Reed – musician and songwriter
 * Joel Resnicoff – artist and fashion illustrator
 * James Romberger – artist
 * Mark Ronson – musician
 * Jerry Rubin – 1960s political activist
 * Arthur Russell – musician
 * Ed Sanders – New York School poet and one of the original Fugs
 * Liev Schreiber – actor
 * David Schwimmer –Friends actor, and wife, part-time photographer Zoe Buckman
 * Chloë Sevigny – actress
 * Sam Shepard – playwright, actor, author, screenwriter, and director
 * Jack Smith – filmmaker, artist
 * Kiki Smith – sculptor
 * John Spacely – actor, activist (Junkie, Sid and Nancy, Iboga therapy)
 * Regina Spektor – singer–songwriter and pianist
 * Bobby Steele – musician
 * Frank Stella – painter, maintained as studio in the East Village
 * Ellen Stewart – founder of La MaMa, E.T.C. (Experimental Theatre Club) in 1961
 * Adario Strange – writer, director
 * Michele Martin Taylor – artist
 * Henry Threadgill – musician
 * Denyse Thomasos (1964–2012), painter known for her abstract-style wall murals that conveyed themes of slavery, confinement and the story of African and Asian Diaspora
 * Johnny Thunders – (John Genzale) purveyor of LES street rock, member of NYDolls and The Heartbreakers
 * Marisa Tomei – actress
 * Rachel Trachtenburg – singer and musician
 * Marguerite Van Cook – artist, musician, writer, producer
 * Arturo Vega – punk rock graphic designer and artistic director.
 * Steven Vincent – journalist and author who was shot and killed in 2005 while reporting in Iraq.
 * David Wojnarowicz (1954–1992) – painter, photographer, writer, filmmaker, performance artist, songwriter/recording artist and AIDS activist prominent in the New York City art world.
 * Rachel Weisz – actress and wife of actor Daniel Craig.
 * Charles Wright – novelist who wrote The Messenger (1963), The Wig (1966) and Absolutely Nothing to Get Alarmed About (1973).
 * John Zorn – musician and composer

title: East Village, Manhattan


text:
Talk:International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association

Upcoming summit
2011 or something? It would be good to explain what happens in recent summits and discussions/topics so forth to learn how this organization changes. Also, anyone opposed to some archiving? Stuff from 2005 on here... Tyciol (talk) 22:59, 19 February 2009 (UTC)

Organization's name
ILGA's report ''State Sponsored Homophobia: A World Survey of State Laws Prohibiting Same-Sex Activity Between Consenting Adults (PDF), released today, gives the organization's name as the International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association with the abbreviation ILGA. Should the page be moved? Exploding Boy (talk) 05:52, 19 May 2009 (UTC)

 * This appears to be the name they are going by now according to their website... since the old article name is no longer accurate, I'll go ahead and move it if there are no objections. Wikignome0529 (talk) 23:04, 21 May 2009 (UTC)

Obviously not the first gay right organisation
Given that it was founded at a meeting of another one, why say that it was not the first? I'll delete that bit. 16:22, 17 March 2011 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Lovingboth (talk • contribs)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 2 one external links on International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20120216185112/http://www.brazilianresolution.com/4706/5137.html to http://www.brazilianresolution.com/4706/5137.html
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20041120150021/http://www.mask.org.za:80/sections/AfricaPerCountry/africaabr/inter1_news.html to http://www.mask.org.za/sections/AfricaPerCountry/africaabr/inter1_news.html

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true to let others know.

Cheers. —cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 14:34, 29 August 2015 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 5 external links on International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20131226222906/http://www.ilga-europe.org/home/news/latest/intersex_forum to http://www.ilga-europe.org/home/news/latest/intersex_forum
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20140517091424/http://ilga.org/ilga/en/article/n9NPXKR1a1 to http://ilga.org/ilga/en/article/n9NPXKR1a1
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20131204073813/http://www.ilga-europe.org/home/news/latest/intersex_forum_2013 to http://www.ilga-europe.org/home/news/latest/intersex_forum_2013
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20091030050354/http://www.ilga.org/news_results.asp?LanguageID=1&FileID=741&FileCategory=1&ZoneID=6 to http://www.ilga.org/news_results.asp?LanguageID=1&FileCategory=1&ZoneID=6&FileID=741
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20091029183428/http://www.ilga.org/news_results.asp?LanguageID=1&FileID=861&FileCategory=10&ZoneID=7 to http://www.ilga.org/news_results.asp?LanguageID=1&FileID=861&ZoneID=7&FileCategory=10

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 03:47, 15 November 2017 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 5 external links on International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20140117232941/http://ilga.org/ilga/en/article/about_ilga to http://ilga.org/ilga/en/article/about_ilga
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20110730234412/http://ilga.org/ilga/en/article/n5GebHB1PY to http://ilga.org/ilga/en/article/n5GebHB1PY
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20091029192801/http://www.ilga.org/news_results.asp?LanguageID=1&FileCategory=1&ZoneID=7&FileID=534 to http://www.ilga.org/news_results.asp?LanguageID=1&FileCategory=1&ZoneID=7&FileID=534
 * Added archive https://archive.is/20120724184820/http://trans.ilga.org/trans/welcome_to_the_ilga_trans_secretariat/news/ilga_decided_to_postpone_the_conference to http://trans.ilga.org/trans/welcome_to_the_ilga_trans_secretariat/news/ilga_decided_to_postpone_the_conference
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20110629123841/http://www.glbtq.com/social-sciences/int_lesbian_gay,2.html to http://www.glbtq.com/social-sciences/int_lesbian_gay,2.html

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 03:15, 28 November 2017 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
User:Laz~enwiki

My name is Lorena. I am a Biochemistry Ph. D. student who is interested in sciences. I took my user name from a character from Robert A. Heinlein's The Number of the Beast book (beacuse Lor was already in use!).

title: User:Laz~enwiki


text:
Talk:Bengali language

Requesting wider attention
I felt article Islamic_literature is in bit of neglect so I added my note on talk page there, requesting to take note of Talk:Islamic_literature. If possible requesting copy edit support. Suggestions for suitable reference sources at Talk:Islamic_literature is also welcome.

Posting message here too for neutrality sake

Thanks and greetings

Bookku (talk) 08:25, 21 May 2020 (UTC)

Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Aurat (word)
The terms "Aurat", "Arvad", "Avret", and "Awrath" may refer to: Women of Asian religious or cultural descent and identity.

Self nomination for AFD since article copy pasted to Draft:Aurat for incubation because IMHO current article title Aurat (word) is misleading and confusing leading to western systemic bias and stifling the article growth. Please find Detail reason at Articles for deletion/Aurat (word)

I invite project members to review current and potential sourcing and weigh in on the AfD discussion. Thanks!

Bookku (talk) 03:40, 10 June 2020 (UTC)

Requesting small help
Hello many greetings,

Requesting your proactive contribution and support in updating Draft:Aurats (word) in relation to the related languages you know well.

Thanks and warm regards

Bookku (talk) 03:19, 12 July 2020 (UTC)

Sierra Leone
While there are several sources repeating the claim that Bengali is an "honorary offcial" language of Sierra Leone, this source in the Bangladeshi newspaper The Independent explicitly debunks the myth. This means we have conflicting information from sources of an equal degree of reliabilty (newspapers). But NB, we do not have sources from offical Sierra Leone government sites which confirm the official status of Bengali in Sierra Leone. And this is the kind of source we need to back up the statement per WP:V. –Austronesier (talk) 11:01, 11 August 2020 (UTC)
 * , the edit I made included Sierra Leone under minority language status, with "honorary" written inside the parenthesis, it didn't claim Bengali as an official language. And the source you have shown doesn't really debunk the claim of honorary status. The source states However, the inhabitants of the nation do not use the Bengali language in their daily life, as it is just an honorary status for the Bengali language in Sierra Leone. Therefore, it is not true that the Bengali language is declared as an official language in Sierra Leone It just opposes the claim of official language and states Bengali doesn't have any daily use, but the claim of honorary status is re-established by your source. Za-ari-masen (talk) 09:12, 12 August 2020 (UTC)
 * The infobox has no parameter for "honorary status", it only has room for official status. Another problem comes with the sources: all news reports go back to one single source from 2002, and there simply is no other source which independently corroborates that narrative. Since it concerns Sierra Leone, Sierra Leonean sources are definitely needed here. –Austronesier (talk) 09:54, 12 August 2020 (UTC)
 * There is a parameter called "minority" in infobox which displays "Recognised minority language in". Sierra Leone was added under this parameter with "honorary" written in parenthesis. There is nothing misleading here. And I think sources from Sierra Leone are generally difficult to come by. We need to rely on the reliable sources we have so far. Za-ari-masen (talk) 10:17, 12 August 2020 (UTC)
 * I consider a chain of transmission from a single source too weak per WP:V and WP:N. Given the weakness of the information, it is definitely out of place in the infobox, which serves to give a bird's-eye view of the hard facts. As for Sierra Leonean sources, they may be hard to come by from 2002 when Sierra Leone had to recover from the scars of the civil war. But present-day Sierra Leone has a public voice (including gov't and independent press websites), so if the "honorary status" narrative was anything more than a sweet momentary rhetoric gesture of gratitude, there should be more about it than just the Daily Times report and its multiple citations in other news sites. –Austronesier (talk) 10:42, 12 August 2020 (UTC)
 * I think it is important to mention that the ruler of Sierra Leone actually said this. So this is something which is reliable. Whether or not Bengali is or is no longer the honorary language, it definitely was in 2002. UserNumber (talk) 19:11, 12 August 2020 (UTC)
 * If we accept the information (which according to the Daily Times was based on AFP) as valid, then in 2002, the president held a speech making a charming gesture towards the Bangla blue helmets for their ernormous contribution to Sierra Leone. Is this gesture sufficiently notable for inclusion in an encyclopedia? Maybe; I say no, but that's what we need a consensus for. –Austronesier (talk) 20:21, 12 August 2020 (UTC)
 * , I think you are indulging in WP:OR with your over-analysis. You can claim the information of honorary status to be false only if you can show a WP:RS that explicitly states it to be false or contradicts the information. I don't see any such source. Za-ari-masen (talk) 09:20, 13 August 2020 (UTC)
 * It is not "OR" nor an over-analysis to expect that information about an "official", "honorary" or whatever kind of language status in a given country should come from a source from the very country that is concerned. Unless you want to insinuate that the country in incapable of producing RS—and such a claim would need a good explanation. –Austronesier (talk) 15:27, 13 August 2020 (UTC)

We still should find a consensus version of the text that mentions the Sierra Leone events of 2002 in the main part of the article.

As for the recent addition of Chicago, a cross check does not confirm the "official status". Luckily, no-one can say that sources about the US are "hard to come by". The report is based this brochure by the Cook county treasurer. I can't read here that Bengali is an official languages (or any other of the 103 languages mentioned there). –Austronesier (talk) 14:17, 27 August 2020 (UTC)
 * Bengali is not an "honorary" language in Sierra Leone. It is a hoax. Have you ever wondered why no source from Sierra Leone ever supported that information? Because it is a Pakistani hoax lapped by Bangladeshi media, and eventually loved by Bangladeshi people. And that Bangladeshi media includes mostly gossip papers and portals with little respect. Aditya (talk • contribs) 09:07, 29 August 2020 (UTC)
 * Austronesier has made a compelling argument for excluding Sierra Leone from the list of countries where Bengali is an official language. Multiple earlier discussions also concluded that Bengali is not an official language of Sierra Leone: Talk:Sierra Leone, Talk:Sierra Leone/Archive 1, Talk:Sierra Leone/Archive 1.
 * Although AFP reported in 2002 that President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah named Bengali an official language of Sierra Leone during a speech at the inauguration of a road built by Bangladeshi UN peace keepers, there is no independent contemporaneous confirmation of what Kabbah said. Over the years, many second-tier newspapers have repeated the AFP story, usually around Language Movement Day, when editors need a fresh feel-good angle for their paper's annual coverage, but none has done fresh, independent reporting to substantiate that Bengali is an official language there.
 * President Kabbah may have said something like that, but there's no evidence that his office gave him the power to make it so. Furthermore, politician's rhetoric shouldn't be taken literally. President John F. Kennedy famously said "All free men, wherever they may live, are citizens of Berlin", but that is symbolic, not literal truth. There is no record of any bill passed by the Sierra Leone government to adopt Bengali as an official language, no record of any actions to implement such an adoption, no evidence that it is used within the government, nor any official government document stating that it is an official language.
 * The claim is not repeated in scholarly works or encyclopedias, and should not be repeated in this Wikipedia article. Doing so would be a disservice to our readers. It would give undue weight to what is, in the long history of the Bengali language, a trivial remark. President Kabbah's speech is more appropriately covered in United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone (UNAMSIL), where it is not trivial, but (true or not) captures the country's gratitude towards the Bangladeshi peace keepers. --Worldbruce (talk) 15:07, 27 September 2020 (UTC)

proto-Bengali and Pala
The current citation is extremely poor. This reference has no information at all about what the form of the language was. Probal Dasguta mentions here that the language in the "early" phase has not been worked out completely. Should we keep this hanging here? Chaipau (talk) 12:37, 19 February 2021 (UTC)

Indo-Aryan or Eastern Indo-Aryan as the category in introduction?
No edit war please. Some people want the mention of Indo-Aryan as it is the overarching category and contributes to the feeling of unity with the rest of India while others want to be more specific and want it to be Eastern Indo-Aryan and also because mentioning Indo-Aryan and Bengali-Assamese without mentioning the intermediate category makes the introduction look inconsistent. I have an idea. Lets keep both so everyone is happy. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 27.147.206.115 (talk) 21:47, 11 May 2021 (UTC)
 * If you have an idea, you should check first whether "everyone is happy" per disucssion. I have reverted it as lead clutter. I repeat my edit summary here:
 * We could also mention Indo-European and Indo-Iranian here. Indo-Aryan and Bengali-Assamese are sufficiently defining and also well-defined entities (unlike "Eastern IA", the scope of which is controversial).
 * To mention "Bengali-Assamese" in the opening sentence of the lead is fine, but actually not really necessary, either. –Austronesier (talk) 12:24, 12 May 2021 (UTC)
 * We don't mention Indo-European or Indo-Iranian for the same reason we are trying to put Eastern Indo-Aryan here, because that is more specific. For example we say Japan is a nation in Asia (similar to saying Bengali is an Indo-Aryan language), or better, Japan is a nation in East Asia (similar to saying Bengali is a Indo-Aryan language of the Eastern Indo-Aryan group). But we never try the reverse of being more specific by introducing more overarching categories like saying Japan is a country in Asia, which is in Eurasia, which is in the World. I do not support your logic by which you have undone my edit which was to make all sides happy :( — Preceding unsigned comment added by 27.147.206.115 (talk) 13:15, 12 May 2021 (UTC)
 * This about the opening sentence of the lede. It should be concise. For a language, one classificatory level is actually enough. Arguably, "Indo-Aryan" is the best one to give an idea where Bengali stands ("Indo-European" is to wide, and "Bengali-Assamese" is too narrow). Eastern Indo-Aryan is the least optimal choice, because, again, it is a subgroup of controversial scope. –Austronesier (talk) 13:32, 12 May 2021 (UTC)
 * I don't see how my edit, which had one extra subcategory, made much difference to the conciseness. But it sure made the intro more informative. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 27.147.206.115 (talk) 14:24, 12 May 2021 (UTC)

Confusion of terms
At the top of the "sadhu bhasha article it says: "For the Standard register of the language, known as Shuddho bhasha, see Bengali language." But here in this page, it only mentions Cholitobhasha, not Shuddho bhasha. Some clarification on that would be nice ? I also recently corrected the "Bengali dialects" page which conflated (or mistranslated) sadhu/shuddho in one place. Shahin911 (talk) 07:18, 10 July 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Bengali language


text:
Education in Albania

Education in Albania for primary, secondary, and tertiary levels are mostly supported by the state. The academic year is much similar to that as in the United States, classes starts almost in September or October and end in June or July. Albanian is the language of instruction in all public schools. The education takes place in three stages such as the primary, secondary, and pre-university education. There are about 5000 schools throughout the nation.

Elementary education is compulsory from grades 1 to 9, but most students continue at least until a secondary education. Students must pass the graduation exams at the end of the 9th grade and also at the end of the 12th grade in order to continue their education. The academic year is divided into two semesters. The school week begins on Monday and ends on Friday.

The 'School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education)' of Albania is 16 years. The nation ranks 25th out of 167 countries. In 2015, the overall literacy rate in Albania was 98.7%; the male literacy rate was 99.2% and female literacy rate was 98.3%.

The Human Rights Measurement Initiative (HRMI) finds that Albania is fulfilling only 87.4% of what it should be fulfilling for the right to education based on the country's level of income. HRMI breaks down the right to education by looking at the rights to both primary education and secondary education. While taking into consideration Albania's income level, the nation is achieving 86.3% of what should be possible based on its resources (income) for primary education and 88.5% for secondary education.

Pre-communist period
As late as 1945, the literacy rate of the country was raised to about 40%, and in late 1946 the illiteracy rate was 60%. This low percentage was principally because schools using the Albanian language had been practically very low in numbers in the country before it became officially independent in 1912. That is because Albanians didn't feel the need of a mass education in their language in the schools system due to them being mostly  employed as officials and mercenaries/soldiers in the Ottoman Empire and also  due to Albanian tribalism. However during the 2nd half of the nineteenth century, especially during certain periods in Abdul Hamid II period, the Ottoman rulers had prohibited the use of the Albanian language in schools. Ottoman Turkish was spoken in the few schools that served the Muslim population. These institutions were located mainly in cities and large towns. The schools for Orthodox Christian children were under the supervision of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople. The teachers at these schools usually were recruited from the Orthodox clergy, and the language of instruction was Greek. The first school known to use Albanian in modern times was a Franciscan seminary that opened in 1861 in Shkodër, though there are mentions of Albanian schools by Franciscans since 1638 in Pdhanë.

From about 1880 to 1910, several Albanian patriots intent on creating a sense of national consciousness founded elementary schools in a few cities and towns, mostly in the south, numbering to a dozen, but these institutions were closed by the Ottoman authorities in 1905 due to the Sultan Abdul Hamid II being scared this might have triggered an Albanian separation from the Ottoman Empire. The advent of the Young Turks movement in 1908 motivated the Albanian patriots to intensify their efforts, and in the same year a group of intellectuals met in Monastir to choose an Albanian alphabet. Books written in Albanian before 1908 had used a mixture of alphabets, consisting mostly of combinations of Latin, Greek, and Turkish-Arabic letters.

The participants in the Monastir meeting developed a unified alphabet based on Latin letters. A number of textbooks soon were written in the new alphabet, and Albanian elementary schools opened in various parts of the country. In 1909, to meet the demand for teachers able to teach in the native tongue, a normal school was established in Elbasan. But in 1910, the Young Turks, fearing the emergence of Albanian nationalism, closed all schools that used Albanian as the language of instruction.

Even after Albania became independent, schools were few in numbers. The unsettled political conditions caused by the Balkan Wars and by World War I hindered the development of a unified education system. When World War I broke out (1914), Albanian education in Albania was scarce. Apart from the Ottoman educational institutions, the local schools were mostly Greek- and a few Aromanian- speaking:

The foreign occupying powers, however, opened some schools in their respective areas of control, each power offering instruction in its own language. A few of these schools, especially the Italian and French ones, continued to function after World War I and played a significant role in introducing Western educational methods and principles. Particularly important was the National Lycée of Korçë, in which the language of instruction was French.

Soon after the establishment of a national government in 1920, which included a ministry of education, the foundation was laid for a national education system. Elementary schools were opened in the cities and some of the larger towns, and the Italian and French schools that had opened during World War I were strengthened. In the meantime, two important American schools were founded: the American Vocational School in Tirana, established by the American Junior Red Cross in 1921, and the American Agricultural School in Kavajë, sponsored by the Near East Foundation. Several future communist party and government luminaries were educated in the foreign schools: Enver Hoxha graduated from the National Lycée in 1930, and Mehmet Shehu, who would become prime minister, completed studies at the American Vocational School in 1932.

In the 1920s, the period when the foundations of the modern Albanian state were laid, considerable progress was made toward development of a genuinely Albanian education system. In 1922, with the request of the intellectuals of Shkodra, the first secular, state gymnasium was established, known as "The State Gymnasium" (Albanian: Gjimnazi i Shtetit), recently known as "28 Nëntori" Gymnasium. In 1933 the Royal Constitution was amended to make the education of citizens an exclusive right of the state. All foreign-language schools, except the American Agricultural School, were either closed or nationalised. This move was intended to stop the rapid spread of schools sponsored directly by the Italian government, especially among Roman Catholics in the north.

The nationalisation of schools was followed in 1934 by a far-reaching reorganisation of the entire education system. The new system called for compulsory elementary education from the ages of four to fourteen. It also provided for the expansion of secondary schools of various kinds; the establishment of new technical, vocational, and commercial secondary schools; and the acceleration and expansion of teacher training. The obligatory provisions of the 1934 reorganisation law were never enforced in rural areas because the peasants needed their children to work in the fields, and because of a lack of schoolhouses, teachers, and means of transportation.

The only minority schools operating in Albania before World War II were those for the Greek minority living in the district of Gjirokastër. These schools too were closed by the constitutional amendment of 1933, but Greece referred the case to the International Permanent Court of Justice, which forced Albania to reopen them.

Pre-World War II Albania had no university-level education and all advanced studies were pursued abroad. Every year the state granted a limited number of scholarships to deserving high school graduates, who otherwise could not afford to continue their education. But the largest number of university students came from well-to-do families and thus were privately financed. The great majority of the students attended Italian universities because of their proximity and because of the special relationship between the Rome and Tirana governments. The Italian government itself, following a policy of political, economic, military, and cultural penetration of the country, granted a number of scholarships to Albanian students recommended by its legation in Tirana.

Soon after the Italians occupied Albania in April 1939, the education system came under complete Italian control. Use of the Italian language was made compulsory in all secondary schools, and the fascist ideology and orientation were incorporated into the curricula. After 1941, however, when guerrilla groups began to operate against the Italian forces, the whole education system became paralysed. Secondary schools became centres of resistance and guerrilla recruitment, and many teachers and students went to the mountains to join resistance groups. By September 1943, when Italy capitulated to the Allies and German troops invaded and occupied Albania, education had come to a complete standstill.

Communist period
Upon taking power in late 1944, the communist regime gave high priority to reopening the schools and organising the whole education system to reflect communist ideology. The regime's objectives for the new school system were to wipe out illiteracy in the country as soon as possible, to struggle against "bourgeois survivals" in the country's culture, to transmit to Albanian youth the ideas and principles of communism as interpreted by the party, and finally to educate the children of all social classes on the basis of these principles. The 1946 communist constitution made it clear that the regime intended to bring all children under the control of the state. All schools were soon placed under state management. At the same time, due to the lack of specialists in many fields of knowledge, a lot of young people were sent abroad to the countries Albania had diplomatic connections with (Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Romania etc.)

The 1946 Education Reform Law provided specifically that Marxist-Leninist principles would permeate all school texts. This law also made the struggle against illiteracy a primary objective of the new school system. In September 1949, the government promulgated a law requiring all citizens between the ages of twelve and forty who could not read to attend classes in reading and writing. Courses for illiterate peasants were established by the education sections of the people's councils. The political organs of the armed forces provided parallel courses for illiterate military personnel.

In addition to providing for free seven-year obligatory elementary schooling and four-year secondary education, the 1946 law called for the establishment of a network of vocational, trade, and teacher-training schools to prepare personnel, technicians, and skilled workers for various social, cultural, and economic activities. Another education law adopted in 1948 provided for the further expansion of vocational and professional courses to train skilled and semiskilled workers and to increase the theoretical and professional knowledge of the technicians.

In the 1950s, the school system was given a thorough Soviet orientation in terms both of communist ideological propaganda and central government control. Secondary technical schools were established along the same lines. In 1951 three institutes of higher learning were founded: the Higher Pedagogic Institute, the Higher Polytechnical Institute, and the Higher Agricultural Institute, all patterned on Soviet models. Most textbooks, especially those dealing with scientific and technical matters, were Soviet translations. Courses for teacher preparation were established in which the Russian language, Soviet methods of pedagogy and psychology, and Marxist-Leninist dialectics were taught by Soviet instructors. A team of Soviet educators laid the structural, curricular, and ideological foundations of the Enver Hoxha University at Tirana (now called University of Tirana), which was established in 1957.

By 1960 the system of elementary and secondary education had evolved into an eleven-year program encompassing schools of general education and vocational and professional institutes. The schools of general education consisted of primary grades one to four, intermediate grades five to seven, and secondary grades eight to eleven. In October 1960, however, as Soviet-Albanian tensions were reaching the breaking point, the Albanian Party of Labour issued a resolution calling for the reorganisation of the whole school system. The resolution's real aim was to purge the schools of Soviet influence and rewrite the textbooks. An additional year was added to the eleven-year general education program, and the whole school system was integrated more closely with industry in order to prepare Albanian youth to replace the Soviet specialists, should the latter be withdrawn, as they eventually were in 1961.

A subsequent reform divided the education system into four general categories: preschool, general eight-year program, secondary, and higher education. The compulsory eight-year program was designed to provide pupils with the elements of ideological, political, moral, aesthetic, physical, and military education. The new system lowered the entrance age for pupils from seven to six, and no longer separated primary and intermediate schools.

Secondary education began with grade nine (usually at age fourteen), and ended with grade twelve. Secondary schools offered four-year general education programs or four-year vocational and professional programs, including industrial, agricultural, pedagogic, trade, arts, and health tracks, among others. Some programs lasted only two years.

The term of study in the institutes of higher education lasted three to five years, and tuition was also free at this level. Provision was made to expand higher education by increasing the number of full-time students, setting up new branches in places where there were no post-secondary institutes, and organising specialised courses in which those who had completed higher education would be trained to become highly qualified technical and scientific cadres. All full-time graduate students had to serve a probationary period of nine months in industrial production and three months in military training, in addition to the prescribed military training in school. There were also post-secondary Party schools, such as Lenin Higher Party School, which existed simply to promote the regime's philosophy.

Adult education was provided in the same sequence as full-time schooling for younger students, with two exceptions. First, the eight-year general education segment was noncompulsory, and was compressed into a six-year program that allowed for completion of the first four grades in two years. Second, those who wanted to proceed to higher institutes after completing secondary school had to devote one year to preparatory study instead of engaging in production work, as full-time students did.

Official statistics indicated that the regime made considerable progress in education. Illiteracy had been virtually eliminated by the late 1980s. From a total enrolment of fewer than 60,000 students at all levels in 1939, the number of people in school had grown to more than 750,000 by 1987; also, there were more than 40,000 teachers in Albania. About 47% of all students were female. The proportion of eighth-grade graduates who continued with some type of secondary education increased from 39% in 1980 to 73% in 1990, with no village reporting a figure lower than 56%.

Contemporary
A reorganisation plan was announced in 1990 that would extend the compulsory education program from eight to ten years. The following year, however, a major economic and political crisis in Albania, and the ensuing breakdown of public order, plunged the school system into chaos. Widespread vandalism and extreme shortages of textbooks and supplies had a devastating effect on school operations, prompting Italy and other countries to provide material assistance. The minister of education reported in September 1991 that nearly one-third of the 2,500 schools below the university level had been ransacked and fifteen school buildings razed. Many teachers relocated from rural to urban areas, leaving village schools understaffed and swelling the ranks of the unemployed in the cities and towns; about 2,000 teachers fled the country. The highly controlled environment that the communist regime had forced upon the educational system over the course of more than forty-six years was finally liberated set for improvement.

As in Communism, teacher discipline remains a major problem in the Albanian education system, as teachers resort to violence, while students are expected to simply memorise the assigned material. Furthermore, corruption among teachers is becoming a problem as 'envelopes' and expensive gifts are the norm when faced with important deadlines, such as entry averages, or failing the grade. However, there has been an effort to adopt the Western model whereby the student is at the centre of the education system as opposed to the current Eastern model where the teacher holds the dominant role. In the late 1990s, many schools were rebuilt or reconstructed to improve learning conditions through the Soros Open Society Foundations. Most of the improvements have happened in the larger cities, such as the capital Tirana. The latter suffers from vast overcrowding of classrooms, resulting in 2 daytime teaching shifts, while heating during the winter is a major problem. The old communist propaganda has been taken out of all school curricula and more emphasis has been put on mathematics, sciences and humanities. The school week was shortened from 6 to a 5-day week. Some of the wealthier schools have begun introducing computers, but many schools still lack basic supplies for laboratory classes.

Meanwhile, private, non-public institutions across all levels have opened up with improved teaching material, staff, and added extra curricular activities but expensive fees. Similar changes have also taken place in the post-secondary level. A number of private universities have been established in different cities of Albania, offering students possibilities of studying in different branches. E-learning programs have begun to be introduced, offering students the possibility of following online courses. However, some post-secondary private institutions have become known as simply "diploma factories", as was the case with the granting of a controversial university diploma to the son of famous Italian politician Umberto Bossi. As a result, the Albanian government has closed a dozen of such institutions in an attempt to clamp down on the phenomenon.

Between 2009 and 2013, the textbook industry was deregulated in an effort to make textbooks more affordable thus offering a wider choice to students and instructors. However, the sector became vulnerable to favouritism and the Albanian education system experienced a decline in quality. It became flooded with texts written by writers without credible credentials resulting in mediocre texts with dubious content. One of them featured a story about mixing chalk with water and drinking it to become ill and skip classes. A physics textbook required students to find the colour of a bear, which was chasing a human up a tree. Other texts made explicit use of profanity.

Since 2013, the above texts were banned and more reputable ones from Pearson and Oxford were introduced in an effort to harmonise the Albanian education system with the EU. In addition, students between grades 1 to 5 are provided with free textbooks.

In the winter of 2018-19, student protests took place in Tirana to demand better education infrastructure, slash tuition fees, and denounce favouritism, corruption, and sexual favours among teaching staff. The government accepted the demands, and student dorms at Student City in Tirana are being reconstructed as part of the University Pact between the government and public academic institutions in Albania. In recent years, foreign students mainly from Southern Italy are getting enrolled in Italian-affiliated universities in Tirana in the hope of better preparing for entrance exams in Italy's universities.

System

 * Preschool education (çerdhe or kopësht): 1–4 years
 * Primary education (9-vjeçare): 9 years (8 years prior to 2008)
 * Secondary education:
 * Regular (e mesme or gjimnaz): 3 years
 * Vocational or Technical (teknike): 2–5 years
 * Tertiary education:
 * Bachelor and master's degrees (of 3 years and 1.5–2 years respectively)
 * Quaternary education (doktoratë): 3 years

title: Education in Albania


text:
Lafontaine

Lafontaine, French for "the fountain", may refer to:

People

 * Jean de La Fontaine (1621–1695), French fabulist, one of the most widely read French poets of the 17th century
 * De Lafontaine (1655–1738), French ballerina
 * Georg Wilhelm Lafontaine (1680–1745), German painter
 * Ludolph Lafontaine (1704–1774), German painter
 * August Lafontaine (1758–1831), German writer
 * Albert Millaud (1844–1892), French journalist and playwright, who wrote under various pseudonyms, including "Lafontaine"
 * Oskar Lafontaine (born 1943), German politician

Places

 * Lafontaine, Ontario, Canada
 * Lafontaine, Quebec, Canada
 * LaFontaine, a provincial electoral district in Quebec, Canada
 * Lafontaine, Kansas, U.S.
 * La Fontaine, Indiana, U.S.

Other uses

 * Lafontaine (electoral district), a former riding in Quebec, Canada
 * Lafontaine (surname)
 * Lafontaine Bellot, governor of Plaisance, Newfoundland from 1664 to 1667
 * 5780 Lafontaine, a minor planet
 * Hotel LaFontaine, Huntington, Indiana

title: Lafontaine


text:
Grandview

Grandview or Grand View may refer to:

Buildings and institutions

 * Grand View Hotel, a hotel in the Brisbane suburb of Cleveland, Queensland, Australia
 * Grand View University, a Lutheran college in Des Moines, Iowa, US
 * Grandview High School (Colorado), a school in Aurora, Colorado, US
 * Grandview Hotel, Fairfield, a hotel in the Melbourne suburb of Fairfield, Victoria, Australia
 * Grandview Medical Center, a hospital located in Dayton, Ohio, US

Parks

 * Grand View Park, a park in the Inner Sunset District, San Francisco, California
 * Grand View Scenic Byway Park, former name for Emerald View Park, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
 * Grandview Drive, a road and park in Peoria and Peoria Heights, Illinois

Canada

 * Grandview, Alberta
 * Grandview, Manitoba
 * Grandview Municipality, Manitoba
 * Rural Municipality of Grandview, a former rural municipality in Manitoba
 * Rural Municipality of Grandview No. 349, a currently existing rural municipality in Saskatchewan
 * Grandview, Prince Edward Island, a small community in eastern Prince Edward Island
 * Grandview–Woodland, a neighbourhood in Vancouver, British Columbia

United States

 * Grand View, Idaho
 * Grandview, Illinois
 * Grandview, Indiana
 * Grandview, Iowa
 * Grandview, Missouri
 * Grand View-on-Hudson, New York, often simply called Grand View
 * Grandview, Hamilton County, Ohio
 * Grandview, Washington County, Ohio
 * Grandview, Oklahoma
 * Grandview, Texas
 * Grandview, Washington
 * Grandview, West Virginia
 * Grandview, Wisconsin, a town
 * Grand View, Wisconsin, an unincorporated community
 * Grand View Estates, Colorado
 * Grandview Heights, Ohio
 * Grand View Mountain, another name for Snake Mountain
 * Grandview Peak, a mountain in Utah
 * Grandview Plaza, Kansas, a city
 * Grandview Township (disambiguation)

Other uses

 * Grandview, the fictional town in which much of the CBS series Ghost Whisperer takes place
 * GrandView (software), an outliner software package no longer supported by Symantec
 * Grandview Triangle, highway interchange in Kansas City, Missouri

title: Grandview


text:
Louisa County

Louisa County is the name of two counties in the United States of America:
 * Louisa County, Iowa
 * Louisa County, Virginia

title: Louisa County