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Archduchess Gisela of Austria

Archduchess Gisela Louise Marie of Austria Princess of Hungary, Princess of Bohemia, Princess of Galicia and Lodomeria, Princess of Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia (12 July 1856 – 27 July 1932) was the second daughter and eldest surviving child of Emperor Franz Joseph I and Empress Elisabeth of Austria. She became a Princess of Bavaria through her marriage to her second cousin, Leopold.

The Archduchess was born on 12 July 1856, the second child of Franz Joseph I of Austria and Elisabeth in Bavaria. She was named Gisella Louise Marie; the name Gisella was taken after Queen Gisela of Hungary, wife of Stephen I, first Christian Hungarian king. Although christened Gisella, she only ever wrote her name with one L. Just like her elder sister Archduchess Sophie and her brother Crown Prince Rudolf, Gisela was raised by her paternal grandmother, Archduchess Sophie of Austria. Of a sober nature like her father, she kept a reserved attitude towards her mother. She had a very close relationship with her brother, whose suicide affected her greatly.

Her royal titles were: Archduchess of Austria; Princess of Hungary; Princess of Bohemia; Princess of Galicia and Lodomeria; Princess of Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia; Princess of Bavaria; and Countess of Habsburg...

Life
Her father collected some of the family's personal items, such as the first pair of shoes worn by each of his children. Among these keepsakes was a poem written for him by a young Gisela one Christmas; the poem was said to be the most treasured item among this collection. Archduchess Gisela was also known to paint in her later years.

Marriage and family
On 20 April 1873, at the age of 16, Gisela was married to Prince Leopold of Bavaria in Vienna. Prince Leopold was a son of Prince Regent Luitpold of Bavaria and Auguste Ferdinande of Austria: Gisela's second cousin. Leopold had initially fallen for Princess Amalie of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, whom Empress Elisabeth's younger brother Duke Maximilian Emanuel in Bavaria intended to marry. The Empress therefore arranged an encounter of Leopold and Gisela at Gödöllő Palace, and the prince knew he could not refuse her offer.

According to a letter to his mother written in 1872, Emperor Franz Josef wanted the match between his daughter and the Wittelsbach prince, as there were so few Catholic princes available at that time. It seems he felt he had to secure the only viable candidate to whom he could give Gisela (whom he called "our darling girl" during the wedding rites) with confidence. Prince Leopold received the immense dowry of a half a million guilders and soon overcame his former infatuation with Princess Amalie. Gisela's mother remained absent during the wedding celebrations. The young couple was made welcome in Munich by her husband's family and went on to live in the Palais Leopold residence in Schwabing. The Palais was renamed Giselastraße in her honor in 1873.

Issue
A year after her wedding, she gave birth to her first child and Empress Elisabeth attended the baptism. Gisela and Leopold had four children:
 * Princess Elisabeth Marie of Bavaria (1874–1957), who married Count Otto Ludwig Philipp von Seefried auf Buttenheim
 * Princess Auguste Maria of Bavaria (1875–1964), who married Joseph August, Archduke of Austria
 * Prince Georg of Bavaria (1880–1943), who married Archduchess Isabella of Austria
 * Prince Konrad of Bavaria (1883–1969), who married Princess Bona Margherita of Savoy-Genoa

Charity works and World War I
Especially after the death of her brother, Gisela was deeply involved in a variety of social and political issues and founded charities to support the poor, blind, and deaf people where she took an active role herself. During World War I she ran a military hospital in her Palais while her husband was a field marshal on the eastern front. When the Revolution broke out in 1918, the rest of her family fled the city, but Gisela remained and took part in the 1919 elections for the Weimar National Assembly where women above the age of 20 were allowed to vote for the first time.

Such was the esteem in which she was held that she was commonly known as the Good Angel from Vienna and became patron for a number of institutions, such as the Giselabahn (a train running from Salzburg to Tirol), the still active paddle steamer Gisela on the Traunsee and the Gisela Gymnasium in Munich.

Widowhood and death
Gisela and her husband celebrated their golden wedding anniversary in 1923. Her husband died in 1930; Gisela only survived him by two years. She died aged 76 in Munich on 27 July 1932, and is buried next to Prince Leopold in the Colombarium at the St.Michaelskirche, Munich.

Honours
She received the following orders:
 * Austria-Hungary:
 * Dame of the Order of the Starry Cross
 * Grand Cross of the Order of Elizabeth, 1898
 * Kingdom of Bavaria:
 * Dame of the Order of Theresa
 * Dame of the Order of Saint Elizabeth
 * Kingdom of Portugal: Dame of the Order of Saint Isabel
 * Spain: 601st Dame of the Order of Queen Maria Luisa, 29 January 1863

title: Archduchess Gisela of Austria


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Felician University

Felician University is a private Catholic university with two campuses in New Jersey, one in Lodi and one in Rutherford. It was founded as the Immaculate Conception Normal School by the Felician Sisters in 1923 and the school has changed names several times in its history, most recently in 2015 to Felician University. In 2016-17 enrollment was 1,996, with undergraduates comprising around 1,626 students; 21 percent were men and 79 percent were women.

Campuses
Located 12 mi from New York City, Felician University has two locations in Bergen County, New Jersey, in the towns of Lodi and Rutherford. These campuses are about 3 mi apart, with regular shuttle service running between them throughout the day and evening hours. The Rutherford campus also has a gymnasium and a late-night coffee shop and game room.

Facilities

 * John J. Breslin Theatre
 * Library – The Lodi campus library occupies an International Style building and houses print collections, sound recordings, and visual media in digital format. Three levels contain an information commons, reading room, book stacks, spaces for group as well as quiet study, and two computer laboratories. Its more than 115,000 books, 360 print periodicals, 20,000 online journals, 43,000 electronic books, and 80,000 microforms offer strong historical and current perspectives in support of the curriculum. The library also provides a broad selection of online resources, of which are accessible on the campus computer network, as well as off-campus with a college network ID and password. The Curriculum Materials Library and Technology Center, located in Sammartino Hall on the Rutherford campus, collects children's literature, textbooks, curriculum guides, periodicals, and other instructional materials suitable for use in the classroom. An active information literacy instruction program through library liaisons begins with the Freshmen Year Experience program.

Accreditation
The university is accredited by the Middle States Commission on Higher Education. Specialized accreditation also exists for the nursing and teaching programs:
 * Commission on Collegiate Nursing Education:
 * Nursing (CNURED) – nursing education programs at the baccalaureate degree levels	4/28/1998
 * Nursing (CNURED) – nursing education programs at the graduate degree levels	4/28/1998
 * Teacher Education Accreditation Council, Accreditation Committee
 * Baccalaureate Teacher Education Accreditation Council (BTEAC) – baccalaureate programs 6/29/2007 – pre-accredited
 * Graduate Teacher Education Accreditation Council (GTEAC) – graduate programs	6/29/2007 – pre-accredited

2015 AAUP censure
In June 2015, the American Association of University Professors (AAUP) censured Felician College for terminating the services of several faculty members without adequate explanation, adequate notice, or an opportunity for review. The AAUP Investigating Committee also noted that "the fear of faculty members to communicate with [it] or to be seen by the administration as dissenters was palpable."

Athletics
Felician University teams participate as a member of the National Collegiate Athletic Association's Division II. The Golden Falcons are a member of the Central Atlantic Collegiate Conference (CACC). Men's sports include baseball, basketball, cross country, golf and soccer, and lacrosse. Women's sports include bowling, basketball, cross country, lacrosse, soccer, softball, volleyball, and track & field.

The women's cross country team earned the institution's first women's conference championship by winning the 2022 CACC title.

Notable alumni

 * Jerry Vasto (born 1992), MLB pitcher for the Colorado Rockies

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Felician University


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Georgi–Glashow model

In particle physics, the Georgi–Glashow model is a particular Grand Unified Theory (GUT) proposed by Howard Georgi and Sheldon Glashow in 1974. In this model, the Standard Model gauge groups SU(3) × SU(2) × U(1) are combined into a single simple gauge group SU(5). The unified group SU(5) is then thought to be spontaneously broken into the Standard Model subgroup below a very high energy scale called the grand unification scale.

Since the Georgi–Glashow model combines leptons and quarks into single irreducible representations, there exist interactions which do not conserve baryon number, although they still conserve the quantum number B – L associated with the symmetry of the common representation. This yields a mechanism for proton decay, and the rate of proton decay can be predicted from the dynamics of the model. However, proton decay has not yet been observed experimentally, and the resulting lower limit on the lifetime of the proton contradicts the predictions of this model. Nevertheless, the elegance of the model has led particle physicists to use it as the foundation for more complex models which yield longer proton lifetimes, particularly SO(10) in basic and SUSY variants.

(For a more elementary introduction to how the representation theory of Lie algebras are related to particle physics, see the article Particle physics and representation theory.)

Also, this model suffers from the doublet–triplet splitting problem.

Construction

SU(5) acts on $$\mathbb{C}^5$$ and hence on its exterior algebra $$\wedge\mathbb{C}^5$$. Choosing a $$\mathbb{C}^2\oplus\mathbb{C}^3$$ splitting restricts SU(5) to $SU(5)$, yielding matrices of the form

 * $$\begin{matrix}

\phi: & U(1)\times SU(2)\times SU(3) & \longrightarrow & S(U(2)\times U(3)) \subset SU(5) \\ & (\alpha, g, h) & \longmapsto & \begin{pmatrix} \alpha^3 g & 0\\ 0 & \alpha^{-2}h \end{pmatrix}\\ \end{matrix}$$

with kernel $$\{(\alpha, \alpha^{-3} \mathrm{Id}_2, \alpha^2 \mathrm{Id}_3) | \alpha \in \mathbb C, \alpha ^6 = 1 \}\cong \mathbb Z_6$$, hence isomorphic to the Standard Model's true gauge group $$SU(3)\times SU(2)\times U(1)/\mathbb{Z}_6$$. For the zeroth power $${\textstyle\bigwedge}^0\mathbb{C}^5$$, this acts trivially to match a left-handed neutrino, $$\mathbb{C}_0\otimes\mathbb{C}\otimes\mathbb{C}$$. For the first exterior power $${\textstyle\bigwedge}^1\mathbb{C}^5 \cong \mathbb{C}^5$$, the Standard Model's group action preserves the splitting $$\mathbb{C}^5 \cong \mathbb{C}^2\oplus\mathbb{C}^3$$. The $$\mathbb{C}^2$$ transforms trivially in $1$, as a doublet in $S(U(2)×U(3))$, and under the $SU(3)$ representation of $SU(2)$ (as weak hypercharge is conventionally normalized as $Y = 1⁄2$); this matches a right-handed anti-lepton, $$\mathbb{C}_{\frac 1 2}\otimes\mathbb{C}^{2*}\otimes\mathbb{C}$$ (as $$\mathbb{C}^{2}\cong\mathbb{C}^{2*}$$ in SU(2)). The $$\mathbb{C}^3$$ transforms as a triplet in SU(3), a singlet in SU(2), and under the Y = −$1⁄3$ representation of U(1) (as $U(1)$); this matches a right-handed down quark, $$\mathbb{C}_{-\frac 1 3}\otimes\mathbb{C}\otimes\mathbb{C}^3$$.

The second power $${\textstyle\bigwedge}^2\mathbb{C}^5$$ is obtained via the formula $${\textstyle\bigwedge}^2(V\oplus W)={\textstyle\bigwedge}^2 V^2 \oplus (V\otimes W) \oplus {\textstyle\bigwedge}^2 V^2$$. As SU(5) preserves the canonical volume form of $$\mathbb{C}^5$$, Hodge duals give the upper three powers by $${\textstyle\bigwedge}^p\mathbb{C}^5\cong({\textstyle\bigwedge}^{5-p}\mathbb{C}^5)^*$$. Thus the Standard Model's representation $α^{3} = α^{6Y}$ of one generation of fermions and antifermions lies within $$\wedge\mathbb{C}^5$$.

Similar motivations apply to the Pati–Salam model, and to SO(10), E6, and other supergroups of SU(5).

Explicit Embedding of the Standard Model (SM)
Owing to its relatively simple gauge group $$ SU(5)$$, GUTs can be written in terms of vectors and matrices which allows for an intuitive understanding of the Georgi–Glashow model. The fermion sector is then composed of an anti fundamental $$\overline{\mathbf{5}}$$ and an antisymmetric $$\mathbf{10}$$. In terms of SM degrees of freedoms, this can be written as

\overline{\mathbf{5}}_F=\begin{pmatrix}d_{1}^c\\d_{2}^c\\d_{3}^c\\e\\-\nu\end{pmatrix}$$ and

\mathbf {10}_F=\begin{pmatrix} 0&u_{3}^c&-u_{2}^c&u_1&d_1\\ -u_{3}^c&0&u_{1}^c&u_2&d_2\\ u_{2}^c&-u_{1}^c&0&u_3&d_3\\ -u_1&-u_2&-u_3&0&e_R\\ -d_1&-d_2&-d_3&-e_R&0 \end{pmatrix}$$ with $$d_i$$ and $$u_i$$ the left-handed up and down type quark, $$d_i^c$$ and $$u_i^c$$ their righthanded counterparts, $$\nu$$ the neutrino, $$e$$ and $$e_R$$ the left and right-handed electron, respectively.

In addition to the fermions, we need to break $$ SU(3)\times SU_L(2)\times U_Y(1)\rightarrow SU(3)\times U_{EM}(1)$$; this is achieved in the Georgi–Glashow model via a fundamental $$\mathbf{5}$$ which contains the SM Higgs,

\mathbf{5}_H=(T_1,T_2,T_3,H^+,H^0)^T$$ with $$ H^+$$ and $$H^0$$ the charged and neutral components of the SM Higgs, respectively. Note that the $$T_i$$ are not SM particles and are thus a prediction of the Georgi–Glashow model.

The SM gauge fields can be embedded explicitly as well. For that we recall a gauge field transforms as an adjoint, and thus can be written as $$A^a_\mu T^a$$ with $$T^a$$ the $$SU(5)$$ generators. Now, if we restrict ourselves to generators with non-zero entries only in the upper $$3\times 3$$ block, in the lower $$2\times 2$$ block, or on the diagonal, we can identify
 * $$\begin{pmatrix}G^a_\mu T^a_3&0\\0&0\end{pmatrix}$$

with the $$SU(3)$$ colour gauge fields,

\begin{pmatrix}0&0\\0&\frac{\sigma^a}{2}W^a_\mu\end{pmatrix}$$ with the weak $$SU(2)$$ fields, and
 * $$ N\,B^0_\mu\operatorname{diag}\left(-1/3, -1/3, -1/3, 1/2, 1/2\right)$$

with the $$U(1)$$ hypercharge (up to some normalization $$N$$.) Using the embedding, we can explicitly check that the fermionic fields transform as they should.

This explicit embedding can be found in Ref. or in the original paper by Georgi and Glashow.

Breaking SU(5)
SU(5) breaking occurs when a scalar field (Which we will denote as $$\mathbf{24}_H$$), analogous to the Higgs field and transforming in the adjoint of SU(5), acquires a vacuum expectation value (vev) proportional to the weak hypercharge generator
 * $$\langle \mathbf{24}_H\rangle=v_{24}\operatorname{diag}\left(-1/3, -1/3, -1/3, 1/2, 1/2\right)$$.

When this occurs, SU(5) is spontaneously broken to the subgroup of SU(5) commuting with the group generated by Y.

Using the embedding from the previous section, we can explicitly check that $$SU(5)$$ is indeed equal to $$SU(3)\times SU(2)\times U(1)$$ by noting that $$[\langle \mathbf{24}_H\rangle,G_\mu]=[\langle \mathbf{24}_H\rangle,W_\mu]=[\langle \mathbf{24}_H\rangle,B_\mu]=0$$. Computation of similar commutators further shows that all other $$SU(5)$$ gauge fields acquire masses. To be precise, the unbroken subgroup is actually
 * $$[SU(3)\times SU(2)\times U(1)_Y]/\Z_6.$$

Under this unbroken subgroup, the adjoint 24 transforms as
 * $$\mathbf{24}\rightarrow (8,1)_0\oplus (1,3)_0\oplus (1,1)_0\oplus (3,2)_{-\frac{5}{6}}\oplus (\bar{3},2)_{\frac{5}{6}}$$

to yield the gauge bosons of the Standard Model plus the new X and Y bosons. See restricted representation.

The Standard Model's quarks and leptons fit neatly into representations of SU(5). Specifically, the left-handed fermions combine into 3 generations of $$\ \overline{\mathbf{5}} \oplus\mathbf{10}\oplus\mathbf{1} ~.$$ Under the unbroken subgroup these transform as
 * $$\begin{align}

\overline{\mathbf{5}} &\to (\bar{3},1)_{\tfrac{1}{3}}\oplus (1,2)_{-\tfrac{1}{2}} && \mathrm{d}^\mathsf{c} \mathsf{~ and ~} \ell \\ \mathbf{10} &\to (3,2)_{\tfrac{1}{6}}\oplus (\bar{3},1)_{-\tfrac{2}{3}}\oplus (1,1)_1 && q, \mathrm{u}^\mathsf{c} \mathsf{~ and ~} \mathrm{e}^\mathsf{c} \\ \mathbf{1} &\to (1,1)_0 && \nu^\mathsf{c} \end{align} $$ to yield precisely the left-handed fermionic content of the Standard Model where every generation $α^{−2} = α^{6Y}$$c$, $F ⊕ F*$$c$, $d$$c$, and $ν$$c$ correspond to anti-down-type quark, anti-up-type quark, anti-down-type lepton, and anti-up-type lepton, respectively. Also, $q$ and $$\ell$$ correspond to quark and lepton. Fermions transforming as 1 under SU(5) are now thought to be necessary because of the evidence for neutrino oscillations, unless a way is found to introduce an infinitesimal Majorana coupling for the left-handed neutrinos.

Since the homotopy group is
 * $$\pi_2\left(\frac{SU(5)}{[SU(3)\times SU(2)\times U(1)_Y]/\Z_6}\right)=\Z$$,

this model predicts 't Hooft–Polyakov monopoles.

Because the electromagnetic charge $u$ is a linear combination of some SU(2) generator with $$e$⁄2$, these monopoles also have quantized magnetic charges $Q$, where by magnetic, here we mean magnetic electromagnetic charges.

Minimal supersymmetric SU(5)
The minimal supersymmetric SU(5) model assigns a $$\Z_2$$ matter parity to the chiral superfields with the matter fields having odd parity and the Higgs having even parity to protect the electroweak Higgs from quadratic radiative mass corrections (the hierarchy problem). In the non-supersymmetric version the action is invariant under a similar $$\Z_2$$ symmetry because the matter fields are all fermionic and thus must appear in the action in pairs, while the Higgs fields are bosonic.

Chiral superfields
As complex representations:

Superpotential
A generic invariant renormalizable superpotential is a (complex) $$SU(5)\times\Z_2$$ invariant cubic polynomial in the superfields. It is a linear combination of the following terms:

\begin{matrix} \Phi^2    & & \Phi^A_B \Phi^B_A \\[4pt] \Phi^3    & & \Phi^A_B \Phi^B_C \Phi^C_A \\[4pt] \mathrm{H}_\mathsf{d}\ \mathrm{H}_\mathsf{u}   & & {\mathrm{H}_\mathsf{d}}_A\ {\mathrm{H}_\mathsf{u}}^A \\[4pt] \mathrm{H}_\mathsf{d}\ \Phi\ \mathrm{H}_\mathsf{u}                                & & {\mathrm{H}_\mathsf{d}}_A\ \Phi^A_B\ {\mathrm{H}_\mathsf{u}}^B \\[4pt] \mathrm{H}_\mathsf{u}\ \mathbf{10}_i \mathbf{10}_j             & & \epsilon_{ABCDE}\ {\mathrm{H}_\mathsf{u}}^A\ \mathbf{10}^{BC}_i\ \mathbf{10}^{DE}_j \\[4pt] \mathrm{H}_\mathsf{d}\ \overline{\mathbf{5}}_i \mathbf{10}_j   & & {\mathrm{H}_\mathsf{d}}_A\ \overline{\mathbf{5}}_{Bi}\ \mathbf{10}^{AB}_j \\[4pt] \mathrm{H}_\mathsf{u}\ \overline{\mathbf{5}}_i\ {\mathrm{N}^\mathsf{c}}_j           & & {\mathrm{H}_\mathsf{u}}^A\ \overline{\mathbf{5}}_{Ai}\ {\mathrm{N}^\mathsf{c}}_j \\[4pt] {\mathrm{N}^\mathsf{c}}_i\ {\mathrm{N}^\mathsf{c}}_j                                 & & {\mathrm{N}^\mathsf{c}}_i\ {\mathrm{N}^\mathsf{c}}_j \\ \end{matrix} $$

The first column is an Abbreviation of the second column (neglecting proper normalization factors), where capital indices are SU(5) indices, and $u$ and $d$ are the generation indices.

The last two rows presupposes the multiplicity of $$\ \mathrm{N}^\mathsf{c}\ $$ is not zero (i.e. that a sterile neutrino exists). The coupling $$\ \mathrm{H}_\mathsf{u}\ \mathbf{10}_i\ \mathbf{10}_j\ $$ has coefficients which are symmetric in $c$ and $1⁄2$. The coupling $$\ \mathrm{N}^\mathsf{c}_i\ \mathrm{N}^\mathsf{c}_j\ $$ has coefficients which are symmetric in $i$ and $j$. The number of sterile neutrino generations need not be three, unless the SU(5) is embedded in a higher unification scheme such as SO(10).

Vacua
The vacua correspond to the mutual zeros of the $Y$ and $Y$ terms. Let's first look at the case where the VEVs of all the chiral fields are zero except for $Φ$.

The $H$ sector

 * $$\ W = Tr \left [a\Phi^2+b\Phi^3 \right ]\ $$

The $H$ zeros corresponds to finding the stationary points of $N$ subject to the traceless constraint $$\ Tr[\Phi]=0 ~.$$ So, $$\ 2a \Phi+3b\Phi^2 = \lambda \mathbf{1}\ ,$$ where $F$ is a Lagrange multiplier.

Up to an SU(5) (unitary) transformation,

 * $$\Phi=\begin{cases}

\operatorname{diag}(0,0,0,0,0)\\ \operatorname{diag}(\frac{2a}{9b},\frac{2a}{9b},\frac{2a}{9b},\frac{2a}{9b},-\frac{8a}{9b})\\ \operatorname{diag}(\frac{4a}{3b},\frac{4a}{3b},\frac{4a}{3b},-\frac{2a}{b},-\frac{2a}{b}) \end{cases}$$

The three cases are called case I, II, and III and they break the gauge symmetry into $$\ SU(5),\ \left[SU(4) \times U(1) \right]/\Z_4\ $$ and $$\ \left[SU(3)\times SU(2) \times U(1)\right]/\Z_6$$ respectively (the stabilizer of the VEV).

In other words, there are at least three different superselection sections, which is typical for supersymmetric theories.

Only case III makes any phenomenological sense and so, we will focus on this case from now onwards.

It can be verified that this solution together with zero VEVs for all the other chiral multiplets is a zero of the F-terms and D-terms. The matter parity remains unbroken (right up to the TeV scale).

Decomposition
The gauge algebra 24 decomposes as

 * $$\begin{pmatrix}(8,1)_0\\(1,3)_0\\(1,1)_0\\(3,2)_{-\frac{5}{6}}\\(\bar{3},2)_{\frac{5}{6}}\end{pmatrix} ~.$$

This 24 is a real representation, so the last two terms need explanation. Both $$(3,2)_{-\frac{5}{6}}$$ and $$\ (\bar{3},2)_{\frac{5}{6}}\ $$ are complex representations. However, the direct sum of both representation decomposes into two irreducible real representations and we only take half of the direct sum, i.e. one of the two real irreducible copies. The first three components are left unbroken. The adjoint Higgs also has a similar decomposition, except that it is complex. The Higgs mechanism causes one real HALF of the $$\ (3,2)_{-\frac{5}{6}}\ $$ and $$\ (\bar{3},2)_{\frac{5}{6}}\ $$ of the adjoint Higgs to be absorbed. The other real half acquires a mass coming from the D-terms. And the other three components of the adjoint Higgs, $$\ (8,1)_0, (1,3)_0\ $$ and $$\ (1,1)_0\ $$ acquire GUT scale masses coming from self pairings of the superpotential, $$\ a\Phi^2 +b <\Phi>\Phi^2 ~.$$

The sterile neutrinos, if any exist, would also acquire a GUT scale Majorana mass coming from the superpotential coupling $i$$j$$i$ .

Because of matter parity, the matter representations $$\ \overline{\mathbf{5}}\ $$ and 10 remain chiral.

It is the Higgs fields 5$j$ and $$\ \overline{\mathbf{5}}_\mathrm{H}\ $$ which are interesting.

The two relevant superpotential terms here are $$\ 5_\mathrm{H}\ \bar{5}_\mathrm{H}\ $$ and $$\ \langle24 \rangle5_\mathrm{H}\ \bar{5}_\mathrm{H} ~.$$ Unless there happens to be some fine tuning, we would expect both the triplet terms and the doublet terms to pair up, leaving us with no light electroweak doublets. This is in complete disagreement with phenomenology. See doublet-triplet splitting problem for more details.

Proton Decay in SU(5)

Unification of the Standard Model via an SU(5) group has significant phenomenological implications. Most notable of these is proton decay which is present in SU(5) with and without supersymmetry. This is allowed by the new vector bosons introduced from the adjoint representation of SU(5) which also contains the gauge bosons of the Standard Model forces. Since these new gauge bosons are in (3,2)−5/6 bifundamental representations, they violated baryon and lepton number. As a result, the new operators should cause protons to decay at a rate inversely proportional to their masses. This process is called dimension 6 proton decay and is an issue for the model, since the proton is experimentally determined to have a lifetime greater than the age of the universe. This means that an SU(5) model is severely constrained by this process.

As well as these new gauge bosons, in SU(5) models, the Higgs field is usually embedded in a 5 representation of the GUT group. The caveat of this is that since the Higgs field is an SU(2) doublet, the remaining part, an SU(3) triplet, must be some new field - usually called D or T. This new scalar would be able to generate proton decay as well and, assuming the most basic Higgs vacuum alignment, would be massless so allowing the process at very high rates.

While not an issue in the Georgi–Glashow model, a supersymmeterised SU(5) model would have additional proton decay operators due to the superpartners of the Standard Model fermions. The lack of detection of proton decay (in any form) brings into question the veracity of SU(5) GUTs of all types; however, while the models are highly constrained by this result, they are not in general ruled out.

Mechanism
In the lowest-order Feynman diagram corresponding to the simplest source of proton decay in SU(5), a left-handed and a right-handed up quark annihilate yielding an X+ boson which decays to a right-handed (or left-handed) positron and a left-handed (or right-handed) anti-down quark:

 * $$\mathrm{u}_\mathsf{L} + \mathrm{u}_\mathsf{R} \to X^ + \to \mathrm{e}_\mathsf{R}^+ + \mathrm{\bar{d}}_\mathsf{L}\ ,$$

 * $$\mathrm{u}_\mathsf{L} + \mathrm{u}_\mathsf{R} \to X^+\to \mathrm{e}_\mathsf{L}^+ + \mathrm{\bar{d}}_\mathsf{R} ~.$$

This process conserves weak isospin, weak hypercharge, and color. GUTs equate anti-color with having two colors, $$\ \bar{g} \equiv rb\ ,$$ and SU(5) defines left-handed normal leptons as "white" and right-handed antileptons as "black". The first vertex only involves fermions of the $D$ representation, while the second only involves fermions in the $Φ$ (or $Φ$), demonstrating the preservation of SU(5) symmetry.

Massrelations
Since SM states are regrouped into $$SU(5)$$ representations their Yukawa matrices have the following relations:

 * $$Y_\mathrm{d} = Y_\mathrm{e}^\mathsf{T} \quad \mathsf{and} \quad Y_\mathrm{u} = Y_\mathrm{u}^\mathsf{T}$$

In particular this predicts $$m_{e,\mu\tau}\approx m_{d,s,b}$$ at energies close to the scale of unification. This is however not realized in nature.

Doublet-Triplet Splitting
As mentioned in the above section the colour triplet of the $${\mathbf{5}}$$ which contains the SM Higgs can mediate dimension 6 proton decay. Since protons seem to be quite stable such a triplet has to acquire a quite large mass in order to suppress the decay. This is however problematic. For that consider the scalar part of the Greorgi-Glashow Lagrangian:

\mathcal L \supset{\mathbf{5}}_\mathrm{H}^\dagger(a+b\mathbf{24}_\mathrm{H} ){\mathbf{5}}_\mathrm{H} \overset{SSB}{\longrightarrow} (a+2bv_{24})T^\dagger T + (a-3bv_{24})H^\dagger H=m_\mathrm{T}^2 T^\dagger T - \mu^2 H^\dagger H$$ We here have denoted the adjoint used to break $$\ SU(5)\ $$ to the SM with $$\ \mathbf{24}_H\ ,$$ $F$ is VEV by $$\ v_{24}\ $$ and $$\ {\mathbf{5}}_\mathrm{H} = (T,H)^\mathsf{T}\ $$ the defining representation. which contains the SM Higgs $$\ H\ $$ and the colour triplet $$T$$ which can induce proton decay. As mentioned, we require $$\ m_\mathrm{T} > 10^{12}\ \mathrm{GeV}\ $$ in order to sufficiently suppress proton decay. On the other hand, the $$\ \mu\ $$ is typically of order $$\ 100\ \mathrm{GeV}\ $$ in order to be consistent with observations. Looking at the above equation it becomes clear that one has to be very precise in choosing the parameters $$\ a\ $$ and $$\ b\ :$$ any two random parameters will not do, since then $$\ \mu\ $$ and $$\ m_\mathrm{T}\ $$ could be of the same order!

This is known as the doublet–triplet (DT) splitting problem: In order to be consistent we have to 'split' the 'masses' of $$\ T\ $$ and $$\ H\ ,$$ but for that we need to fine-tune $$\ a\ $$ and $$\ b ~.$$There are however some solutions to this problem (see e.g. ) which can work quite well in SUSY models.

A review of the DT splitting problem can be found in.

Neutrino masses
As the SM the original Georgi–Glashow model proposed in does not include neutrino masses. However, since neutrino oscillation has been observed such masses are required. The solutions to this problem follow the same ideas which have been applied to the SM: One on hand on can include a $$SU(5)$$ singulet which then can generate either Dirac masses or Majorana masses. As in the SM one can also implement the type-I seesaw mechanism which then generates naturally light masses.

On the other hand, on can just parametrize the ignorance about neutrinos using the dimension 5 Weinbergoperator:
 * $$\mathcal{O}_{W}=(\overline{\mathbf{5}}_F \mathbf{5}_H)\frac{Y_\nu}{\Lambda}(\overline{\mathbf{5}}_F \mathbf{5}_H)+h.c.

$$ with $$ Y_\nu$$ the $$ 3\times 3$$ Yukawa matrix required for the mixing between flavours.

title: Georgi–Glashow model


text:
Archduchess Sophie of Austria

Archduchess Sophie of Austria (5 March 1855 – 29 May 1857) was the first child of Emperor Franz Joseph I and Empress Elisabeth of Austria. She died aged two.

Life
Within two months of her marriage to Franz Joseph, Elisabeth was pregnant. On 5 March 1855, the 17-year-old Empress of Austria delivered a daughter who was christened the same day, without Elisabeth's knowledge, Sophie Friederike Dorothea Maria Josepha, after Franz Joseph's mother. On both her mother and her father's side, Sophie descended from King Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria, as her parents were first cousins. On her father's side, she descended from the last Holy Roman Emperor, Francis II. During the next year, Elisabeth delivered another daughter, Archduchess Gisela, a younger sister to Sophie. Although they were both girls and did not need to be educated for duties a monarch would be obliged to fulfill, both infants right after being baptised were taken away from Elisabeth by Archduchess Sophie (who was both Elisabeth's aunt and mother-in-law) on account of the Empress being too young to raise two children. Elisabeth later commented: She took my children from me straight away. I was only allowed to see them when Sophie [of Bavaria] gave her consent. She was always present when I went to visit the children. Eventually I could only concede to her and only seldom went up to see them No matter how long Elisabeth begged Franz Joseph to discuss the matter with his mother, her cries went unheard. Eventually, Franz Joseph did discuss the problem with his mother and Elisabeth eventually began to openly express her wishes to her mother-in-law and even took the little girls with her as she travelled.

Death
Empress Elisabeth adored Hungary and its people and proposed to her husband that they take a trip to her favourite country, perhaps even tour it. Franz Joseph accepted and they left in early spring 1857. While in Buda, both Sophie and her sister Archduchess Gisela fell ill with diarrhea and had a very high fever. 10-month-old Gisela recovered quickly. However, two-year-old Sophie died in her mother's arms at : in the evening, after eleven hours of struggling to survive, probably from dehydration due to the diarrhea or from convulsions due to the high fever. It was later theorized that Sophie died from typhus fever, but this is yet to be proven.

Aftermath
Sophie's body was brought back to Vienna and buried in the Imperial Crypt, in Ferdinand's Vault within the southwest pier.

The death of her oldest child would haunt Empress Elisabeth for her entire life. Elisabeth was held indirectly responsible for Sophie's death by her mother-in-law Archduchess Sophie (née Princess Sophie of Bavaria). She suffered a breakdown and would lock herself in her apartments for days at a time or go riding until she reached a state of exhaustion, just to avoid having to think. Sophie's death also settled who got the children. Princess Sophie indisputably took the children as soon as they were born. Elisabeth also started to neglect her surviving daughter, and their relationship was not a close one. One of Elisabeth's ladies-in-waiting, Marie Festetics, commented in her diary that the Empress did not even take the time to attend Gisela's wedding preparations. Elisabeth also behaved in a similar manner to her only son, Rudolf, Crown Prince of Austria. For the rest of her remaining days, Elisabeth would wear a bracelet with a likeness of her dead daughter and kept a portrait of her in her apartments.

title: Archduchess Sophie of Austria


text:
Felice Gimondi

Felice Gimondi (29 September 1942 – 16 August 2019) was an Italian professional racing cyclist. With his 1968 victory at the Vuelta a España, only three years after becoming a professional cyclist, Gimondi, nicknamed "The Phoenix", was the second cyclist (after Jacques Anquetil) to win all three Grand Tours of road cycling: Tour de France (1965, his first year as a pro), Giro d'Italia (1967, 1969 and 1976), and Vuelta a España (1968). He is one of only seven cyclists to have done so.

Gimondi also won three of the five Cycling monuments, winning the Giro di Lombardia twice, and finished on the podium of a grand tour twelve times.

He accomplished all of these major victories despite his career coinciding with that of Eddy Merckx.

Biography
Gimondi was born on 29 September 1942 in Sedrina in the Province of Bergamo. He was the son of a transport manager and a post mistress. In his youth, he frequently took his mother's post bicycle and later helped to deliver mail on it. In 1964, Gimondi rode the road race at the 1964 Olympic Games, where he finished in 33rd place. After winning the Tour de l'Avenir, he was signed, in 1965, as a professional to the Salvarani team. With the withdrawal of another cyclist from Salvarani's 1965 Tour de France team, Gimondi was added at the last minute and later recalled that he had to ask his mother for permission to start the race. He took the yellow jersey on stage 3, but lost the race lead later when he waited for his nominal team captain Vittorio Adorni. Adorni later dropped out, leaving Gimondi to fight out the overall victory with Raymond Poulidor, securing the Tour in the final time trial.

His early successes led to him being regarded as a successor to well-renowned fellow Italian Fausto Coppi, nicknamed campionissimo. Gimondi's career coincided for the most part with that of highly-successful Eddy Merckx. However, Gimondi was able to build up a respectable palmarès himself, even through the era of Merckx' dominance.

After winning the 1967 Giro d'Italia and the 1968 Vuelta a España, Gimondi had become the second-ever rider to have won all three Grand Tours after Jacques Anquetil. He won the Giro a further two times, first in 1969. In 1976, Gimondi was not counted among the favourites, being regarded as past his prime, but overcame a deficit on race leader Johan De Muynck in the final time trial to take his third victory in the race. His success was subsequently called the "miracle in Milan".

His other successes include four victories in the so-called "monument classics", winning Paris–Roubaix in 1966, Milan–San Remo in 1974 and the Giro di Lombardia twice (1966 and 1973). In the 1973 World Championship road race, he formed a group with Luis Ocaña and Freddy Maertens to bridge a gap to Merckx, who had attacked earlier. At the finish, he outsprinted Maertens to clinch the title. He had already placed third in 1970 and second in 1971. Gimondi also won Paris–Brussels twice, in 1966 and 1976.

He failed twice to pass doping controls, first in the 1968 Giro d'Italia and then at the 1975 Tour de France. His positive test at the 1968 Giro was for the stimulant Fencamfamin, but since the substance was not on the prohibited list at the time, he kept his third place overall at the race. At the 1975 Tour, he received a 10-minute time penalty.

A major cyclosportive event is named in his honour, the Gran Fondo Felice Gimondi, held annually around Bergamo. Since 2019, it honours all seven riders to have won all three Grand Tours.

Throughout his career and after it, Gimondi was closely associated with the bicycle manufacturer Bianchi. In the late 1980s, Gimondi was briefly directeur sportif at the Gewiss–Bianchi team. He served as manager for Bianchi's mountain-bike team for a long period of time. Between 2000 and 2001, Gimondi briefly worked as president of the team and as an advisor to Marco Pantani. At the end of the 1998 Tour de France, race organiser Jean-Marie Leblanc invited Gimondi onto the stage during the podium celebration, when Pantani became the first Italian winner of the race since he had himself won the event in 1965. In 2008, Gimondi was the president of the TX Active – Bianchi cycling team which specializes in MTB races.

In 1968, Gimondi married Tiziana Bersano, with whom he had two daughters, Norma and Federica.

Gimondi died on 16 August 2019 after suffering a heart attack while swimming on vacation in Sicily. He was 76. His funeral was held on 20 August in Paladina near Bergamo, attended by thousands of people. His long-time rival Eddy Merckx did not attend, stating that he was "too saddened" by the loss of his friend.

Major results
Source:

 * 1963
 * 1st Giro del Friuli

 * 1964
 * 1st Jersey yellow.svg Overall Tour de l'Avenir
 * 1st Stage 1

 * 1965
 * 1st Jersey yellow.svg Overall Tour de France
 * 1st Stages 3, 18 (ITT) & 22 (ITT)
 * 2nd La Flèche Wallonne
 * 3rd Overall Giro d'Italia
 * 3rd Tre Valli Varesine
 * 4th Overall Tour de Romandie

 * 1966
 * 1st Paris–Roubaix
 * 1st Giro di Lombardia
 * 1st Paris–Brussels
 * 1st Coppa Agostoni
 * 1st Coppa Placci
 * 1st GP Valsassina
 * 2nd Trofeo Matteotti
 * 2nd Critérium des As
 * 2nd Grand Prix des Nations
 * 2nd Gran Premio di Lugano
 * 2nd Boucles de l'Aulne
 * 3rd Giro di Toscana
 * 5th Overall Giro d'Italia
 * 1st Stage 20
 * 8th Tre Valli Varesine
 * 9th Overall Tour of Belgium
 * 10th Overall Tour de Romandie
 * 1st Stage 3b (ITT)
 * 10th Tour of Flanders
 * 10th La Flèche Wallonne

 * 1967
 * 1st Jersey pink.svg Overall Giro d'Italia
 * 1st Grand Prix des Nations
 * 1st Giro del Lazio
 * 1st Gran Premio di Lugano
 * 1st GP Forlì
 * 2nd Giro di Lombardia
 * 2nd Ronde de Seignelay
 * 3rd Overall Escalada a Montjuïc
 * 3rd Critérium des As
 * 3rd Coppa Bernocchi
 * 4th Road race, National Road Championships
 * 4th Tour of Flanders
 * 4th Milan–San Remo
 * 4th À travers Lausanne
 * 7th Overall Tour de France
 * 1st Stages 10 & 20
 * 10th Trofeo Laigueglia

 * 1968
 * 1st MaillotItalia.svg Road race, National Road Championships (Giro di Romagna)
 * 1st Jersey yellow.svg Overall Vuelta a España
 * 1st Stage 17 (ITT)
 * 1st Trofeo Baracchi
 * 1st Grand Prix des Nations
 * 1st Critérium des As
 * 1st Flèche Enghiennoise
 * 2nd Volta a Catalunya
 * 2nd Overall À travers Lausanne
 * 2nd Gran Premio di Lugano
 * 3rd Overall Giro d'Italia
 * 1st Stage 16 (ITT)
 * 3rd Overall Paris–Luxembourg
 * 3rd Gent–Wevelgem
 * 3rd Boucles de l'Aulne
 * 4th La Flèche Wallonne
 * 6th Road race, UCI Road World Championships
 * 7th Giro di Lombardia
 * 8th Overall Giro di Sardegna
 * 8th Trofeo Laigueglia
 * 10th Tirreno–Adriatico

 * 1969
 * 1st Jersey pink.svg Overall Giro d'Italia
 * 1st Jersey green.svg Overall Tour de Romandie
 * 1st Giro dell'Appennino
 * 2nd Overall Paris–Luxembourg
 * 1st Stage 1
 * 2nd Overall Escalada a Montjuïc
 * 1st Stage 1a
 * 2nd Tour of Flanders
 * 3rd Giro dell'Emilia
 * 4th Overall Tour de France
 * 1st Stage 12
 * 4th Paris–Roubaix
 * 4th Barcelona-Andorra
 * 7th Liège–Bastogne–Liège
 * 8th Trofeo Dicen

 * 1970
 * 1st Jersey yellow.svg Overall (TTT) Cronostaffetta
 * 1st Trofeo Matteotti
 * 2nd Overall Giro d'Italia
 * 2nd Giro di Lombardia
 * 2nd Road race, National Road Championships
 * 2nd Giro del Veneto
 * 2nd Genoa–Nice
 * 2nd Mont Faron hill climb
 * 3rd Overall Tirreno–Adriatico
 * 1st Stage 5b (ITT)
 * 3rd Overall Giro di Sardegna
 * 3rd Bronze medal blank.svg Road race, UCI Road World Championships
 * 3rd Tre Valli Varesine
 * 5th Overall À travers Lausanne
 * 8th Overall Tour de Suisse
 * 1st Stage 6
 * 9th Giro dell'Emilia
 * 9th Coppa Placci

 * 1971
 * 1st Giro del Piemonte
 * 1st Grand Prix de Wallonie
 * 1st Prologue Tour de Romandie
 * 1st Stage 2b (ITT) Cronostaffetta
 * 2nd Silver medal blank.svg Road race, UCI Road World Championships
 * 2nd Road race, National Road Championships
 * 2nd Milan–San Remo
 * 2nd Gran Premio Città di Camaiore
 * 2nd GP Industria & Artigianato di Larciano
 * 4th Coppa Placci
 * 4th Coppa Bernocchi
 * 5th Overall Volta a Catalunya
 * 7th Overall Giro d'Italia
 * 1st Stages 7 & 18
 * 8th Paris–Roubaix
 * 9th Overall Giro di Sardegna
 * 9th Liège–Bastogne–Liège
 * 9th Giro di Lombardia
 * 9th Tre Valli Varesine

 * 1972
 * 1st MaillotItalia.svg Road race, National Road Championships (Giro dell'Appennino)
 * 1st MaillotVolta.png Overall Volta a Catalunya
 * 1st Stage 5b (ITT)
 * 1st Gran Premio di Lugano
 * 2nd Overall Tour de France
 * 2nd Gent–Wevelgem
 * 2nd Giro del Piemonte
 * 2nd Trofeo Baracchi
 * 3rd Giro di Lombardia
 * 3rd Giro dell'Emilia
 * 5th Giro della Romagna
 * 6th Overall Tirreno–Adriatico
 * 8th Overall Giro d'Italia
 * 9th Giro di Toscana
 * 10th Road race, UCI Road World Championships

 * 1973
 * 1st Jersey rainbow.svg Road race, UCI World Road Championships
 * 1st Jersey yellow.svg Overall Giro di Puglia
 * 1st Stage 1
 * 1st Giro di Lombardia
 * 1st Giro del Piemonte
 * 1st Trofeo Baracchi
 * 1st Coppa Bernocchi
 * 2nd Overall Giro d'Italia
 * 1st Stage 16 (ITT)
 * 2nd Overall À travers Lausanne
 * 2nd Critérium des As
 * 3rd Milan–San Remo
 * 5th Giro della Romagna
 * 6th Overall Tour de Romandie
 * 6th Grand Prix of Aargau Canton
 * 7th Giro dell'Emilia
 * 10th Paris–Brussels

 * 1974
 * 1st Milan–San Remo
 * 1st Coppa Agostoni
 * 2nd Road race, National Road Championships
 * 2nd Overall À travers Lausanne
 * 1st Stage 1
 * 3rd Overall Giro d'Italia
 * 3rd Trofeo Laigueglia
 * 3rd Giro dell'Umbria
 * 6th Gran Premio di Lugano
 * 6th Giro di Campania
 * 7th Paris–Brussels

 * 1975
 * 1st Jersey yellow.svg Overall Cronostaffetta
 * 1st Stage 1b (ITT)
 * 2nd Giro dell'Emilia
 * 3rd Overall Giro d'Italia
 * 3rd Coppa Placci
 * 4th Overall Setmana Catalana de Ciclisme
 * 5th Overall Tirreno–Adriatico
 * 6th Overall Tour de France
 * 1st Stage 10
 * 6th Overall À travers Lausanne
 * 7th Overall Giro di Puglia
 * 7th Milano–Torino
 * 7th Gran Premio Città di Camaiore
 * 9th Coppa Sabatini

 * 1976
 * 1st Jersey pink.svg Overall Giro d'Italia
 * 1st Stage 21
 * 1st Paris–Brussels
 * 5th Giro del Lazio
 * 7th Road race, UCI Road World Championships
 * 7th Overall Tirreno–Adriatico
 * 8th Giro dell'Emilia
 * 8th Coppa Placci

 * 1977
 * 2nd Giro del Lazio
 * 4th Overall Tour de Romandie
 * 5th Overall Escalada a Montjuïc
 * 6th Giro di Toscana
 * 10th Overall Giro di Puglia

 * 1978
 * 2nd Châteauroux Classic
 * 10th Critérium des As

Grand Tour results timeline
Source:

title: Felice Gimondi


text:
Archduchess Marie Valerie of Austria

Archduchess Marie Valerie Mathilde Amalie of Austria (22 April 1868 – 6 September 1924) was the youngest child of Emperor Franz Joseph I and Empress Elisabeth of Austria. She was usually called Valerie.

On 31 July 1890, she married Archduke Franz Salvator of Austria; the marriage caused a rift between her and her siblings as their marriages had to be dynastic, while Marie Valerie's was, as Empress Elisabeth allowed, for love and desire.

Early life
Archduchess Marie Valerie was born on 22 April 1868 in Buda, Hungary to Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria and his wife, Duchess Elisabeth in Bavaria. She had an older sister, Archduchess Gisela, and an older brother, Crown Prince Rudolf. Her eldest sibling, Archduchess Sophie had already died by the time she was born. Her mother was especially attached to Valerie, who was born ten years after the imperial couple's third child, and whom Elisabeth was allowed to raise herself while her first three children were taken from her in infancy and raised by the Emperor's mother, Archduchess Sophie. Sophie herself wrote to Elisabeth's mother, Duchess Ludovika in Bavaria, "Sisi is completely absorbed by her love and care for this irresistible little angel."

She was Elisabeth's favorite child by far, and was acidly referred to by some courtiers as "die Einzige" ("the only one") because Elisabeth paid so much more attention to her than to her siblings. Valerie loved her mother, but according to her diaries, she often felt embarrassed and overwhelmed by Elisabeth's concentration on her, particularly as she was modest and practical.

Another of Valerie's nicknames was "the Hungarian child", as her birth had been a concession by Elisabeth, who disliked physical intimacy and pregnancy, in exchange for Franz Joseph's reconciliation with Hungary, her most favored part of the Empire. This process culminated in their joint coronation in Buda on 8 June 1867 as King and Queen of Hungary. Valerie was born a little over nine months later.

Elisabeth deliberately chose Hungary as her child's birthplace; no royal child had been born in Hungary for centuries. Had Valerie been a boy, she would have been named Stephen after Hungary's canonized King and patron saint. According to historian Brigitte Hamann, a boy born to the Queen of Hungary in the castle at Budapest would have raised the possibility of his someday becoming its king, separating Hungary from the Austrian empire. Due to this, there was universal relief at the Viennese court that Valerie was a girl.

Malicious rumors began to spread that Valerie was in truth the daughter of Elisabeth's friend and admirer Gyula Andrássy, the Hungarian prime minister. These persisted into Valerie's childhood, hurting her deeply. However, she physically resembled Franz Joseph more than any of her siblings, even more so as she grew older, and eventually the hearsay stopped. Due to the atmosphere they created, Valerie developed a lifelong antipathy toward anything to do with Hungary, exacerbated by Elisabeth's insistence on speaking to her only in Hungarian. She was joyful when she was given permission to speak German with her father, whom she worshipped. In addition, she spoke English, French, and Italian fluently. She loved to write plays and poems, and was a talented amateur artist who particularly enjoyed painting flowers. She was a great supporter of the Burgtheater in Vienna, and attended its productions as often as possible.

Marriage
In Bad Ischl on 31 July 1890, Valerie married her third cousin Archduke Franz Salvator. They had met in 1886 at a ball, but Valerie waited several years to be sure that her feelings toward Franz Salvator were strong enough for a successful marriage. It was hoped by many at court that she would marry someone like the Crown Prince of Saxony, the Prince Royal of Portugal or Prince Alfons of Bavaria as she courted with him. Nonetheless, Empress Elisabeth declared that Valerie would be allowed to marry even a chimney sweep if she so desired (in contrast to her other children, who both had to make dynastic marriages). Valerie chose Franz Salvator, a relatively minor prince from the Tuscan branch of the Austrian imperial family who had no great wealth to offer, and Elisabeth, as promised, supported her favorite daughter. This caused a deep rift between Valerie and her siblings for a time, but eventually Rudolf reconciled with her when Valerie and Franz became engaged on Christmas 1888. However, the relationship between Valerie and Rudolf's wife Princess Stéphanie of Belgium remained cold even after Rudolf's death.

Valerie's solemn renunciation of her rights to the Austrian throne, which was necessary for the marriage to proceed, took place on 16 July 1890 at the Hermesvilla. The young couple's festive wedding followed in the parish church of Bad Ischl on 31 July. The ceremony was conducted by the Bishop of Linz, Franz Maria Doppelbauer. Afterwards, Valerie and Franz honeymooned in Italy, Switzerland and Bavaria.

Children
Marie Valerie and Franz Salvator had 10 children:

Later life
At first, Valerie and Franz lived at the Schloss Lichtenegg. Though on 11 June 1895, the couple purchased Schloss Wallsee on the Danube River from its then owner, Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, and completely renovated it. When the renovation was finished, a ceremony marking their moving into the new palace was held on 4 September 1897. There was great celebration of the event in Wallsee due to Valerie's popularity. Even after her marriage, Marie Valerie remained in close contact with her ageing father, who greatly appreciated the informal atmosphere in his youngest daughter's family.

She was known and loved for her generous involvement in local charitable endeavors. In 1900, she became a patron of the Red Cross, for which she founded hospitals and raised considerable sums of money; she was also patron of seven other charities. During World War I she created a hospital barracks in the castle itself and helped care for the wounded. She was a devout Catholic who also spent much time supporting religious charities and was known to the people as the "Angel of Waldsee". She was also a Dame of the Star Cross Order.

Valerie was greatly affected by the suicide of her brother Rudolf on 30 January 1889, and the assassination of her mother Elisabeth in September 1898. She and her sister Gisela were a great support to their father in the aftermath of these tragedies. Together with Elisabeth's ladies-in-waiting Valerie also sorted out Elisabeth's literary legacy, her letters and correspondences. In her diary Valerie noted that her parents' relationship and alienation had only improved during the last few years of her mother's life. She also felt that taking care of her aging father, Emperor Franz Joseph, was some sort of "a trial".

While the marriage of Valerie and Franz was harmonious at first, it became less so with time. Franz had many affairs, including one with a dancer Stephanie Richter, who was later known as "Hitler's Spy Princess" for her espionage activities before and during World War II. In 1914, she gave birth to a son by him, Franz Joseph, whom he acknowledged as his while Valerie was still alive. Valerie faced these blows stoically, confiding only in her journal.

After the end of World War I, Valerie officially recognized the end of the Habsburg monarchy and signed documents renouncing all rights toward the same for herself and her descendants. The renunciation allowed her to keep her home and possessions.

Death
Valerie died in Schloss Wallsee on 6 September 1924 of lymphoma. Shortly before her death, her sister Gisela wrote in a letter, "I must add that I have seen Valerie - fully conscious, completely aware of her condition, and so devoutly accepting, even joyfully anticipating her impending departure, that I believe an unexpected recovery would actually disappoint her." She is buried in a crypt behind the high altar at the parish church in Sindelburg, Austria. Several thousand people followed her coffin to its resting place.

On 28 April 1934, ten years after Valerie's death, Franz married a second time, to Freiin (a title corresponding to "Baroness") Melanie von Riesenfels. This was a morganatic marriage; the wedding took place in Vienna. The pair had met after Valerie's death at Melanie's home, Seisenegg Palace, where she lived with her sisters Maria Anna and Johanna. After their wedding, the couple lived at Seisenegg.

Franz Salvator died on 20 April 1939 in Vienna.

The Mária Valéria bridge joining Hungarian town Esztergom and Slovak town Štúrovo (then Parkány) across the river Danube was opened in 1895. It was named after Marie Valerie.

Honours

She received the following orders:
 * Austria-Hungary:
 * Dame of the Order of the Starry Cross
 * Grand Cross of the Order of Elizabeth, 1898
 * Kingdom of Bavaria:
 * Dame of the Order of Saint Elizabeth
 * Kingdom of Portugal:
 * Dame of the Order of Saint Isabel

title: Archduchess Marie Valerie of Austria


text:
Georgian Court University

Georgian Court University (GCU or Georgian Court) is a private Roman Catholic university in Lakewood Township, New Jersey. Founded in 1908 by the Sisters of Mercy, the university has more than 1,600 undergraduates and nearly 600 graduate students.

The institution became a university in 2004 and began admitting male students in 1994 after more than 100 years as a women's college. The university is open to students of all faiths, while emphasizing its mission of Mercy, which incorporates respect, justice, integrity, compassion, and service.

The Lakewood campus (main campus) was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1978 and was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1985.

Location
The main campus was built in 1899 on the former summer estate of the millionaire George Jay Gould, son of the railroad tycoon Jay Gould. The Goulds named their home Georgian Court, probably after George or the Georgian-revival architecture.

The estate was designed by Bruce Price, a New York architect, and was one of his most important residential works. He also designed three of the campus's gardens: the Italian Gardens, the Sunken Garden, and the Formal Garden. Takeo Shiota designed the Japanese Garden. In addition to the gardens, GCU has maintained much of the original architecture and the Sister Mary Grace Burns Arboretum. The estate was designated a National Historic Landmark for its architecture and its association with the Goulds.

In March 2022, GCU announced that it had reached an agreement to sell 42 acres of mostly unused land at the edge of its campus and several administrative buildings along Lakewood Avenue to Beth Medrash Govoha for an undisclosed sum. The proceeds of the sale will be used to construct a new center for nursing and health sciences, to reimagine its Casino building (currently used as a multi-purpose office and event space) as a modern student center, to update its Mansion building (currently used for receptions ) to be used as an administration hub, and to modernize its student housing/dorm facilities.

School
The Sisters of Mercy founded Mount Saint Mary College as a liberal arts school for women in 1908, in North Plainfield, New Jersey. In 1924, the sisters purchased Georgian Court estate and moved the college there, renaming it Georgian Court College.

For more than a century, from 1908 to 2015, the institution was headed by Sisters of Mercy. The Sisters of Mercy organization continues to sponsor Georgian Court through the Conference for Mercy Higher Education.

The full transition to a coeducational institution, admitting both women and men into all academic programs, became complete at the outset of the Fall 2013 semester.

Georgian Court is the only Catholic college or university located in Central or South New Jersey. Most of its enrollment is drawn from these areas.

In 2004, university status was granted by the New Jersey Commission on Higher Education; the name was changed to Georgian Court University.

Administration and faculty
The first eight presidents (1908–2015) of the school were all Sisters of Mercy. The first male academic dean was appointed in 1967.

In 2015, Joseph R. Marbach, Ph.D., became the first permanent lay president — and the first male — to take the helm of Georgian Court University.

Academics
Georgian Court offers more than 35 undergraduate majors and 10 graduate majors through the School of Arts and Sciences, the School of Business and Digital Media, and the School of Education. In July 2021, the university formally created the Hackensack Meridian Health School of Nursing & Wellness at Georgian Court to house its undergraduate and graduate nursing programs. Georgian Court University is nondiscriminatory and welcomes people of all faiths.

Beyond classes offered on the main campus in Lakewood, Georgian Court programs are also offered at GCU at Lincroft, New Jersey (at Brookdale Community College's Northern Monmouth Campus), online and at other locations.

Athletics
The school colors are blue and gold, and the mascot is a lion. The Georgian Court University Lions have 14 sports teams that compete in the NCAA Division II.

The university is a member of the Central Atlantic Collegiate Conference (CACC).

GCU features a 67,000-square-foot Wellness Center equipped for athletic training, physical education and sports competitions. In addition, a 1,200-seat arena, athletics fields which offer synthetic turf, a six-court outdoor tennis center, and an abundance of training space offer student-athletes modern facilities and on-campus resources for their sports and recreational activities.

Women's sports include basketball, cross country, lacrosse, soccer, softball, track & field, and volleyball.

As of fall of 2013, Georgian Court added men's sports when it became fully coeducational, adding men's basketball, cross country, soccer, and track & field. Men's lacrosse was added in the spring of 2016.

"Real tennis"
One of the many historic aspects of the campus is that it houses the only "real tennis" court at an American school. It was built in the Casino building (which was a "casino" in the 19th-century sense of the term: a place for social gatherings ). Approximately forty-five real tennis courts are still in use in the world today.

title: Georgian Court University


text:
Penglai, Yantai

Penglai, formerly known as Dengzhou or Tengchow, is a district in the prefecture-level city of Yantai, Shandong Province, in the People's Republic of China. It lies on the northwest corner of the Shandong Peninsula on the southern coast of the Gulf of Bohai. Penglai is famous for its mirages out at sea, which are frequent during May and June. Formerly a county-level city under Yantai's administration, Penglai became a district in 2020.

Geography
Penglai District is entirely surrounded by other divisions of Yantai: Fushan District is to the east, Longkou City to the west, and Qixia City to the south. Its limits in geographic coordinates are 37° 25'–37° 50' N, 120° 35'–121° 09' E.

Climate
Penglai District is located in the mid-latitude region of the northern hemisphere, with a continental climate in the warm temperate monsoon zone, annual average temperature of 12.5°C, annual average daily maximum temperature of 28.8°C, annual average daily minimum temperature of -2.3°C, extreme maximum temperature of 38.8°C, extreme minimum temperature of -14.9°C, annual average precipitation of 664mm, annual average sunshine of 2826 hours, frost-free period of 206 days on average, relative humidity 65%, average annual wind speed 5.2 m/s, no floods, not affected by typhoons.

History
The Red Cliffs of the area are reputed to have been the site where the Eight Immortals set out for the land of the immortals and where Qin Shi Huang later sent off five hundred boys and five hundred girls on ships to search for them. Chinese legends held that a mystic dolphin was seen from the cliffs above and, missing it with his spear, the emperor knew that his days were numbered. The Emperor Wu of Han (Hàn Wǔdì) later also visited the area while searching for the elixir of immortality.

The old city walls incorporate guard towers of three stories (rather than the usual two) because the uncle of the first emperor of the 6th-century Sui dynasty had been prince of the area. Under the Ming, the harbor was fortified and used by the war junks of the imperial navy.

During the early years of the Manchu invasion of China, Portuguese artillerists were instructing Ming forces at Dengzhou when it was besieged by a mutinous army under Kong Youde in February 1632. Captain Gonçalo Teixeiro was killed during its sack, but the 70-year-old Jesuit linguist João Rodrigues escaped by jumping from the city walls into the sea. Kong's forces then seized the Portuguese cannon and used them to pillage the countryside before joining the Manchu invaders who eventually established China's Qing dynasty.

Following the Second Opium War, Dengzhou became the first port opened to foreigners on the Shandong Peninsula in 1858. Christian missions were quickly established. The harbor was found inadequate for the traders, however, and Zhifu (now central Yantai) was developed 30 mi away to function as Dengzhou's port.

Penglai is mentioned in the fictional stories about Judge Dee by Robert van Gulik, first mentioned in the book The Chinese Gold Murders.

In 2020, Changdao County, consisting of the Changdao Islands in the Bohai Strait, was merged into Penglai.

Administrative divisions
As of July 2020, Penglai District has 6 streets, 8 towns and 6 townships: Dengzhou Sub-district, Zijingshan Sub-district, Xingang Sub-district, Penglaiguo Sub-district, Nanwang Sub-district, Nanchangshan Sub-district, Liujiagou Town, Chaoshui Town, Daliuxing Town, Xiaomenjia Town, Daxindian Town, Muriji Town, Beigou Town, Emery Town, North Changshan Township, Daqindao Township, Heihe Township, Xiaoqindao Township, Nanhuangcheng Township, Beihuangcheng Township, the district people's government is located in Penglai Economic Development Zone, No. 169 Jinchuang Road.

Economy

 * In 2020, Penglai District achieved a gross regional product of 37.04 billion yuan, an increase of 3.3% over the previous year at comparable prices. Among them, the value added of the primary industry is 5.19 billion yuan, up 2.1%; the value added of the secondary industry is 12.20 billion yuan, up 5.7%; the value added of the tertiary industry is 19.65 billion yuan, up 1.9%. The ratio of the three industrial structures was 14.0:32.9:53.1.
 * In 2020, Penglai District realized public budget revenue of 3.402 billion yuan, up 3.1% year-on-year; public budget expenditure of 4.368 billion yuan, up 5.3%. Realize tax revenue of 3.49 billion yuan, an increase of -3.0% year-on-year.

Tourism
Penglai has been ranked by the Chinese government as a top domestic tourist destination. Its Water Fortress (水城, Shuǐchéng), a fortified harbor, is one of China's oldest military ports. It was built under the Ming in 1376 and housed a fleet of warjunks. It is now a protected historical monument being renovated at a cost of 500m RMB (more than $60m). There is a plank walk along the cliffs nearby.

More than US$25 million has also been invested into developing the Penglai Pavilion and other sites. The Penglai Pavilion is a large park of ancient buildings, palaces and temples, that have been restored and rebuilt. It has been a tourist goal for more than a thousand years, and the site features inscriptions from famous poets and calligraphers like Su Shi and Dong Qichang. Among other cultural attractions of Penglai are the Naval Museum with exhibits of ancient ships and the restored residence of the famous patriotic general Qi Jiguang. Penglai also has the largest ocean aquarium in Asia. It includes a polar area, a shark hall, a tropical rainforest, and a theater with mermaids, dolphins and sea lions. A picturesque festival takes place in January for the birthday of Tianhou, a local sea goddess.

While tourism is the mainstay of Penglai's economy, bringing more than two million tourists annually, in fact the entire center of the town around the harbour was walled off and completely razed in 2006.

Wine industry
The production of wine is the second largest industry in the province. Agriculture is first. However, in Penglai, tourism is the primary industry, and wine-making is second. The hills south of Penglai have an average elevation of 200 m, while the coastal areas are relatively flat. Most of the soil is loose, well-aerated, and rich in minerals and organic matters that enable full development of the root systems. The wineries are located mainly in the Nanwang Grape Valley and along the Yan-Peng Sightseeing Highway. The main varieties grown there, like Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Gernischt, Merlot, Riesling and Chardonnay, are all reaching 20 years of age, considered to be the golden stage for these grapes. Most of them maintain an average sugar content of above 20%. The Cabernet is especially typical, with good color and a dense fragrance.

Notable residents

 * Qi Jiguang (戚继光, 1528–1588) Ming dynasty general and national hero who fought Japanese pirates
 * Henry Luce (1898–1967) - born in Penglai, founder of TIME, Fortune, and Life.
 * Ida Pruitt (1888–1985) - born in Penglai, spoke fluent Chinese, prolific writer on China
 * Wu Peifu (吴佩孚, 1874–1939) - army general, later became one of the most powerful military rulers in China during the Warlord Era (1916–1928)
 * Meng Xuenong ( born 1949) - vice-governor and acting governor of Shanxi (as of 2007) and disgraced former Mayor of Beijing Municipality
 * Mu Xiang (慕湘,1916–1988), formerly known as Mu Xian Song, also known as Mu Song Jun, Bo Lin, Bai Lin, Bai Song; a native of the city and a major general in the Chinese People's Liberation Army.
 * Xiahou Sumin (夏侯苏民,1919–1946), formerly known as Zhang Peili, a native of Xiahou Village (formerly known as Xing Village), was a combat hero of Jiaodong.
 * Yu Xuezhong (于学忠,1890–1964), character Xiaohou, a native of Yujiazhuang Village, was a patriotic general of the Kuomintang.
 * Zhang Bolong, whose birth and death are unknown, was a famous doctor in the late Qing Dynasty, the imperial physician of the Imperial Hospital and the governor of Qiongdao in the Qing Dynasty during the Guangxu period, formerly known as Zhang Shijian, who advanced the etiology and treatment of stroke by a great step.
 * Sun Wei, male, Han nationality, was born in December 1961. He is currently the chairman and party secretary of the Hubei Provincial Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference.
 * Chi Yaoyun, male, Han nationality, born in September 1965. He is currently a member of the 20th CPC Central Commission for Discipline Inspection, a member of the Standing Committee of Fujian Provincial Committee, Secretary of the Provincial Commission for Discipline Inspection and Director of the Provincial Supervisory Commission.

Honors

 * In 2018, Penglai was reconfirmed as a national sanitary city (district) by the review.
 * In June 2020, Penglai District was selected as one of the "Top 100 Most Bookish Counties and Cities in China in 2020", and in December, Penglai District was selected as one of the "Second Batch of National Territorial Tourism Demonstration Areas", and on December 30, Penglai District was selected as one of the "advanced counties (cities and districts) in Shandong Province for the sixth session of the ideological and moral construction of minors.
 * In December 2021, the Department of Culture and Tourism of Shandong Province, the Development and Reform Commission of Shandong Province and the Department of Finance of Shandong Province awarded the title of "the first batch of provincial cultural and tourism consumption pilot counties (cities and districts)". In the same month, Penglai District was selected as the sixth batch of demonstration counties (cities and districts) in the country to take the lead in the basic realization of full mechanization of major crop production.
 * In May 2022, the Department of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of Shandong Province and the Department of Finance of Shandong Province jointly issued the Notice on the Identification of the Second Batch of Provincial Modern Agricultural Industrial Parks (Lu Fa Gui Zi [2022] No. 10), and Fushan District and Penglai District of the city were successfully identified as provincial modern agricultural industrial parks. On June 26, it was selected as the list of strong counties of cultural tourism and recreation in Shandong Province in 2021.
 * In February 2023, it was recognized as the first batch of demonstration counties (municipalities) for natural resource conservation and efficiency.

title: Penglai, Yantai


text:
Kean University

Kean University is a public university in Union, Elizabeth, and Hillside, New Jersey. It is part of New Jersey's public system of higher education and is a state-designated research university.

The university was founded in 1855 in Newark, New Jersey, as the Newark Normal School, then became New Jersey State Teachers College in 1937. In 1958, the college was relocated from Newark to Union Township, site of the Kean family's ancestral home at Liberty Hall. After its move to the historic Livingston-Kean Estate, which includes the entire Liberty Hall acreage, the historic James Townley House, and Kean Hall, which historically housed the library of United States Senator Hamilton Fish Kean and served as a political meeting place, the school became Newark State College, a comprehensive institution providing a full range of academic programs and majors. Renamed Kean College of New Jersey in 1973, the institution earned university status on September 26, 1997, becoming Kean University of New Jersey.

Kean University is the fourth-largest institution of higher education in New Jersey and is currently comprised of five colleges and the Nathan Weiss Graduate College. Kean University also hosts numerous research institutions, perhaps most prominently the New Jersey Center for Science, Technology and Mathematics, the Kean University Human Rights Institute, the Holocaust Resource Center, the Wynona Moore Lipman Ethnic Studies Center, and Liberty Hall. It has a satellite campus in Toms River, New Jersey, a campus in the Skylands Region of New Jersey and an international campus in Wenzhou, China.

Livingston, Hamilton, and the American Revolution
The building of the estate on which Kean University is situated was begun in 1760, when lawyer William Livingston, who would become New Jersey's first elected governor on August 31, 1776, and a Revolutionary War patriot and signer of the United States Constitution, bought 120 acre in then-Connecticut Farms and Elizabethtown, across the Hudson River from his New York City home, in hopes of establishing a country residence. By 1772, extensive grounds, gardens, and orchards had been developed and a 14-room Georgian-style house had been built under the supervision of Livingston. In its first year of occupancy the new house, christened Liberty Hall, was the residence of both Livingston and Alexander Hamilton. In 1773, Livingston moved to the home with his wife, Susannah French of New Brunswick, and their children, full-time.

Liberty Hall experienced damage from the Revolutionary War by both British and American forces, and the property featured prominently in the Revolutionary War's Battle of Connecticut Farms. The property was restored and Livingston continued to maintain the gardens and grounds as governor until his 1790 death. The estate passed to Livingston's son, future Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court Henry Brockholst Livingston. In 1798, the house was sold to George Belasise, Lord Bolingbroke and his wife Isabella. The new owners established an English boxwood maze that still stands today and made extensive additions to the principal outbuildings of the property, established or improved a large hot house, and developed the gardens, introducing rare shrubs and trees to the grounds, and possibly laying out the grounds west of the mansion.

In 1811, the Kean family acquired the Livingston estate when Peter Kean purchased Liberty Hall in trust for his mother Susan Livingston Kean Niemcewicz (women not being eligible to own property in their own right at the time). Susan Livingston Kean, a niece of Governor Livingston, was the widow of John Kean, a Continental Congress delegate and advocate for the ratification of the Constitution in South Carolina who served as the first cashier of the Bank of the United States. Having died from a respiratory disease that developed as a result of being held prisoner of war at sea during the Revolution, Kean died at 39 and Susan Livingston Kean remarried to Count Julian Niemcewicz, a Polish nobleman who fled Poland after fighting unsuccessfully for Polish independence from Russia but returned in the wake of Napoleon's successful campaigns. To honor her second husband Susan Kean changed the name of Liberty Hall to Ursino, the name of Niemcewicz's Polish estate.

Peter Kean, the only son of Susan and John Kean, who married Sarah Sabina Morris, a granddaughter of Lewis Morris, the first royal governor of New Jersey, and served as colonel of the Fourth Regiment of New Jersey and an escort of Lafayette on his tour of New Jersey predeceased his mother. His son, John Kean II, inherited Liberty Hall. John Kean II, who served on the staff of Governor Pennington with the rank of colonel, was an original stockholder of the Camden and Amboy Railroad, served as the first president of the Elizabeth and Somerville Railroad, as a vice president of the Central Railroad of New Jersey, as president of the National Bank of New Jersey, as president of the Elizabethtown Gaslight Company (later known as Elizabethtown Gas Company) and Elizabethtown Water Company lived at Liberty Hall for 60 years and made the most dramatically significant changes to the house and property in its history, transforming the house into a 50-room Victorian Italianate structure.

Another John Kean, son of John Kean II and Lucinetta Halsted Kean ("Lucy Kean"), inherited the estate after their deaths. John Kean served in the United States House of Representatives from 1883 to 1885, and again from 1887 to 1889, and in the United States Senate from 1899 to 1911. Senator Kean lived at Liberty Hall when not in Washington, D.C., and held annual New Year's receptions for his political supporters at the estate. After the death of Senator John Kean the house passed to his nephew, Captain John Kean, a National Guard cavalryman and president of the National State Bank, the Elizabethtown Water Company, and the Elizabethtown Consolidated Gas Company. Captain John Kean was the son of Katharine Winthrop Kean and United States Senator Hamilton Fish Kean whose library was housed at Kean Hall, a building constructed for that specific purpose in 1912. A frequent political meeting place in the first years of its life, Kean Hall now houses the undergraduate admissions office and administrative offices including the Presidential Suite and the conference room for the Kean University Board of Trustees. Captain John Kean's wife, Mary Alice Barney Kean, an historian and preservationist, was the last resident of Liberty Hall and was responsible for much of its preservation.

Historic non-residents associated with Liberty Hall
Liberty Hall has had many distinguished visitors, including Martha Washington, who stayed at Liberty Hall during her husband's inauguration and President George Washington who visited his wife there not long after his swearing-in in New York City. Supreme Court Chief Justice John Jay was married to Governor Livingston's daughter, Sarah, at Liberty Hall. Other guests included Lewis Morris, Lafayette, Elias Boudinot, and several presidents after Washington, including Ulysses S. Grant, William Howard Taft, Herbert Hoover, Gerald Ford, George H. W. Bush, and Bill Clinton.

Newark Normal School
Kean University was founded in April 1855 in Newark, New Jersey as the Newark Normal School, a Saturday morning school initially established for the exclusive purpose of being a teacher-education college for the educators of the city of Newark. The university was founded by Stephen Congar, Newark's Superintendent of Schools, who founded the Newark Normal School with the goal of ensuring the continued improvement of the city's schools through quality teaching. The academy was designed to improve the skills of teachers whom Congar correctly viewed as lacking in formal training. Newark Normal School was the first Normal School created in New Jersey, and one of the earliest in the nation, with an inaugural class of 85 students, mostly women and primarily Newark High School alumni.

Most of the college's first students were white, middle class, Protestants. Classes continued during the Civil War, but the numbers of men enrolled declined as young men joined the Union Army. Following the Union victory in the war, increasing numbers of Catholics, largely the children of immigrants, began to enroll beginning the school's theme of a diverse student body that would continue to evolve over the next 150 years; by 1911 the children of immigrants exceeded thirty percent of the student body; since that time, Kean University has become one of the nation's most diverse schools. In 1863 the Normal School students became formally required to teach in Newark Public Schools after graduation. In 1879 the Normal School program was extended to one year, and in 1888 to two years. The first classes of the Normal School met at Newark High School, then located on Washington and Linden Streets in Newark. In 1878, the Normal School moved to the Market Street School for about two decades before moving back to Newark High School in 1899. In 1898 the curriculum of the college was radically revised in an effort to have teachers "professionalized" and enhance the status of the institution.

New Jersey State Normal School
In 1913 the state took control of the college and the School was renamed the New Jersey State Normal School at Newark. The school moved to a new building at Fourth Street and Belleville Avenue (later Broadway Avenue) that year. In 1917, during World War I, the Normal School faculty and students worked in war-related fundraising and relief efforts.

In the following decade the normal school raised its standards further, as evidenced by a 1925 announcement that "students who are deficient in spelling...will be dropped from the school" and by the 1928 extension of the normal school program to three years. The Great Depression brought challenges for the school as enrollment and the overall number of teachers hired in New Jersey declined sharply. In 1934 a great milestone was reached when the normal school became a four-year college and the State Board of Education authorized it School to grant a bachelor's degrees, a Bachelor of Science in education.

New Jersey State Teachers College
In 1937 the college was renamed the New Jersey State Teachers College at Newark and remained in the Broadway building until 1958, when it moved to the current Union Township, New Jersey campus.

Impact of World War II
World War II brought sweeping changes to the college with some 300 students serving in the armed forces and seven Newark State students losing their lives on active duty. During the war, President Roy L. Shaffer pledged to keep the college "rolling" as part of the "moral and intellectual defense" of the nation.

The accelerating changes during World War II altered the nature of the college as its students, faculty, and curriculum became more diverse, the campus underwent physical changes, and the student body changed dramatically. One young veteran, writing home from occupied Germany, predicted that the college would see a lot more men's faces after the war, which turned out to be very accurate; the education benefits offered under the GI Bill of Rights drove men to apply at unprecedented levels, including more African-American students.

As the post-war Baby Boom generated a large demand for new teachers, the college found itself broadening in the face of student desires for a broader curriculum that quickly expanded to encompass the liberal arts and sciences, the professions, and graduate education. While the college maintained a focus on educating teachers it was quickly developing itself into a comprehensive institution. By the early 1950s, post-war growth had severely strained the college's facilities, causing a need for a new campus.

Newark State College
The purchase of the Kean Estate in Union Township, then called the "Green Lane Farm", allowed for a new campus in 1958 at the site of the Kean family's ancestral home at Liberty Hall. The following year, in 1959, the institution changed its name to Newark State College, completing its transformation from a college of education to a comprehensive institute of higher education.

President Eugene Wilkins retired in 1969, following the successful transition of the college from Newark to Union, and the successful inaugural years of Newark State College. Wilkins was succeeded by Nathan Weiss, for whom the Nathan Weiss Graduate College is named. Weiss was committed to wide access to higher education, especially for first-generation college students, while fostering vastly expanded new programs in the sciences, health cares, business, and academic and administrative computing. Weiss led the school to its status as a multi-purpose institution.

Kean College of New Jersey
In 1973, Newark State College was renamed Kean College of New Jersey for the Kean family, whose members include Congressman Robert Winthrop Kean, U.S. Congressman and U.S. Senator John Kean of New Jersey, former New Jersey Governor and 9/11 Commission chairman Thomas Kean, U.S. Senator Hamilton Fish Kean, Julia Kean, the wife of U.S. Secretary of State and New York Governor Hamilton Fish, First Lady of the United States Anna Symmes Harrison, New Jersey State Senator and United States Senate nominee Thomas Kean Jr., and John Kean of South Carolina, a delegate to the Continental Congress.

Elsa Gomez became the first female president of Kean College in 1989 and served until 1994. By the 1990s the student body of Kean College was among the most diverse in New Jersey. The academic quality of the institution improved towards the end of the 20th century as more members of the faculty, in rapidly escalating numbers, pursued teaching innovations, original scholarship and research, and external grants and funding. By the time Kean College of New Jersey became a university in 1997, under President Ronald L. Applbaum, the institution had achieved a higher level of academic and public recognition.

Kean University
Becoming Kean University of New Jersey on September 26, 1997, Kean soon added the Nathan Weiss Graduate College. In 2003, Dawood Farahi was elected president of Kean University by the unanimous vote of the board of trustees.

Kean University has grown to become the third largest institution of higher education in the State of New Jersey, after Rutgers University and Montclair State University. In recent years, besides its campuses in Union and Hillside, New Jersey, the university has recently completed additional expansions to Toms River, New Jersey, which houses an Ocean County satellite campus, as well as the People's Republic of China. In 2006, the university announced that it was seeking approval from the Chinese and U.S. educational governing bodies to be the first American university to open an extensive University campus on Chinese soil. The new campus is located in Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, one of the richest, fastest growing Chinese provinces. The Chinese campus has a growing student body.

In 2009, the administration unveiled a major reorganization plan touted as the "first step" in privatizing the university. Faculty reacted negatively to the plan, including a 2010 vote of "no confidence." One year later, the university's president, Dawood Farahi came under scrutiny from the Kean Federation of Teachers leadership who accused him of multiple errors on his resumes.

After hiring an independent law firm to review Farahi's resume, the Board of Trustees of Kean University voted 7-4 with one abstention to retain him as president of the university. The following year, in April 2012, the NCAA accused the university of "major violations" and placed all of its sports teams on probation. This turmoil attracted the attention of the university's regional accreditor who initially demanded answers from the university in 2011 and briefly placed the university on probation in 2012.

On May 11, 2020, Lamont Repollet, Ed.D., was selected as the 18th president of Kean University by the Kean University Board of Trustees.

Colleges and schools
Kean University offers 50+ undergraduate programs, 70+ doctoral, master's and certificate programs, and 23 online programs in its six colleges:

 * The College of Business and Public Management
 * The College of Education
 * The College of Liberal Arts
 * The Dorothy and George Hennings College of Science, Mathematics and Technology
 * Michael Graves College, Architecture and Design
 * The College of Health Professions and Human Services

Dual-degree programs
Kean University offers dual-degree programs with several universities, including Rutgers University, Fairleigh Dickinson University, and Howard University.

Research institutions
Kean hosts research institutions including the Kean University Holocaust Resource Center, the New Jersey Center for Science, Technology and Mathematics (NJ STEM), the Kean University Human Rights Institute, and the Liberty Hall Museum National Historic Landmark.

Main Campus
Kean's Main Campus (121.5 acre) is located in Union, New Jersey and contains most of the university's buildings and institutions. All resident students reside on the Main Campus.

Liberty Hall Campus
The Liberty Hall Campus (28.5 acre) is also in Union Township, across Morris Avenue from the main campus.

East Campus
The East Campus (35.4 acre) is located in Hillside, New Jersey in the former Pingry School campus. It hosts Nathan Weiss East Campus, as well as additional athletic fields, the East Campus Gym, Jacqueline Towns Court, Enlow Recital Hall, the College of Health Professions and Human Services, a self-serve cafe, the President's House, and the Ruth Horowitz Alumni House. Several NBA teams have practiced at Jacqueline Towns Court, including the Minnesota Timberwolves, Milwaukee Bucks, and more.

Kean Ocean
A campus in Toms River, New Jersey, called Kean Ocean is currently in operation and is temporarily housed at Ocean County College until the new campus is built. The new building is called the Gateway building which opened in December 2012.

Kean Skylands
The Skylands Campus is the newest addition of the Kean University expansions. It is located in the Oak Ridge section of Jefferson, New Jersey, an hour's drive from the main campus.

Wenzhou-Kean University
Kean University began construction on a campus in Wenzhou, in Zhejiang Province, China in 2007 and was formally established on March 31, 2014. Wenzhou-Kean University (WKU) is China's first and only full-scale American-style university, but the plans became caught up in red tape in the Beijing government. In 2012, the issues were resolved and Kean officials traveled to China to break ground on this joint venture. In 2016, the first students from Wenzhou-Kean University graduated.

The campus sits on 500 acres and has won several rewards for its integration of American and Chinese layout and architecture. Classes are in English and over 120 degree programs are offered. Students of Kean USA have the option to spend up to a year studying at WKU for no additional tuition cost with compensated airfare. In 2023, the campus student population was 4,500 students and is on track to have 7,000 students on campus by 2025.

Athletics
The university's athletic teams are known as the Cougars and the school colors are Kean Blue and light blue. Kean competes at the NCAA Division III level in 14 sports as a member of the New Jersey Athletic Conference (NJAC) for most sports while men's volleyball competes as a member of the Continental Volleyball Conference (CVC) and men's lacrosse competes in the Coastal Lacrosse Conference (CLC).

On May 29, 2007, Kean University won their first Division III College World Series, winning the national title in baseball. In 2011, the NCAA alleged that the university had committed several violations of NCAA rules. Consequently, the university instituted a self-imposed ban on post-season play for Fall 2011 for the men's soccer, women's soccer, and women's volleyball teams.

In April 2012, the NCAA concluded that "major violations" had occurred, and that all 13 varsity athletic teams would be on probation until April 2016, that the women's basketball team would be banned from post-season play in 2013. The NCAA also mandated that all records for the 2010-11 women's basketball team be vacated.

Men's sports

 * Baseball
 * Basketball
 * Cross Country
 * Football
 * Golf
 * Lacrosse
 * Outdoor Track & Field
 * Soccer
 * Volleyball

Women's sports

 * Basketball
 * Cross Country
 * Field Hockey
 * Lacrosse
 * Soccer
 * Softball
 * Swimming
 * Tennis
 * Track and Field
 * Volleyball

Co-ed sports

 * eSports

Intramurals

 * Basketball
 * Dodgeball
 * Kickball
 * flag football
 * Soccer
 * Volleyball

Kean Alumni Stadium
Located on the main campus, Kean Alumni Stadium is a multipurpose athletic facility that serves as home for the university's football, field hockey, men's and women's soccer, men's and women's lacrosse, and men's and women's track and field teams. With NYC and NJ being selected as the host city for the 2026 FIFA World Cup, Alumni Stadium and other Kean facilities will be used as practice and training facilities.

Harwood Arena
The Harwood Arena opened in 2006. It features a basketball court, indoor track, and bleacher seating for 3,200.

Greek life
There are several fraternities and sororities available to students.

Student Government Association
The Student Government Association of Kean University is the full-time undergraduate governing body of Kean University. This student government provides programs for students to address student concerns about the university. They also provide funding to over 300 recognized student groups.

Clubs
In addition to athletics, Kean University has a variety of clubs and organizations, all ran by students. There is a club for everyone, and if one does not already exist, students are encouraged to create their own through the Center for Leadership and Service. Kean University already offers over 300 recognized student groups.

Premier Stages
Kean is the home of Premiere Stages, a professional theatre company that works with Kean students in the production of its plays. Its Premiere Play Festival is an annual new play competition. Kean Stage brings the performing arts to students and the community. The Jazz & Roots Music Festival launched in 2021 on the Lawn at Enlow Hall.

The Galleries at Kean University
Kean also offers a variety of art galleries across campus. Galleries are open to the public and mostly have free admission. The Galleries showcase student work, globally recognized artists, and organized collections from National Geographic, the American Museum of Natural History, and more. The galleries are located on Kean USA's Main Campus and Liberty Hall Campus.

Demographics
Kean University is a census-designated place (CDP) covering the residential population of Kean University's Main, Liberty Hall, and East campuses in Hillside Township and Union Township in Union County.

It first appeared as a CDP in the 2020 census, and reported a population of 1,522. The CDP population consists of those resident at the time of the census and will differ from the population of the student body.

title: Kean University


text:
Blunderbuss

The blunderbuss is a 17th- to mid-19th-century firearm with a short, large caliber barrel which is commonly flared at the muzzle, to help aid in the loading of shot and other projectiles of relevant quantity or caliber. The blunderbuss is commonly considered to be an early predecessor of the modern shotgun, with similar military usage. It was effective only at short range, lacking accuracy at long distances. A blunderbuss in handgun form was called a dragon, and it is from this that the term dragoon evolved.

Etymology

The term "blunderbuss" is of Dutch origin, from the Dutch word donderbus, which is a combination of donder, meaning "thunder", and bus, meaning "container, tin" (Middle Dutch: busse, box, jar, from Latin buxus, box tree).

The transition from donder to blunder is thought by some to be deliberate; the term blunder was originally used in a transitive sense, synonymous with to confuse, and this is thought to describe the stunningly loud report of the large-bore, short-barreled blunderbuss. The term dragon is taken from the fact that early versions were decorated with a carving in the form of a mythic dragon's head around the muzzle; the muzzle blast would then give the impression of a fire-breathing dragon.

Design and use

The flared muzzle is the defining feature of the blunderbuss, differentiating it from large caliber carbines; the distinction between the blunderbuss and the musketoon is less distinct, as musketoons were also used to fire shot, and some had flared barrels. The muzzle (and often the bore) was flared with the intent not only to increase the spread of the shot, but also to funnel powder and shot into the weapon, making it easier to reload on horseback or on a moving carriage; modern experiments corroborated the dramatic improvement in shot spread, going from a 21 in diameter from a straight barrel to an average of 38 in spread at 10 yd.

Blunderbusses were typically short, with barrels under 2 ft in length, at a time when a typical musket barrel was over 3 ft long. One source, describing arms from the early to middle 17th century, lists the barrel length of a wheel lock dragon at around 11 in, compared to a 16 in length for a blunderbuss.

The blunderbuss could be considered an early type of shotgun and served in many similar roles. Though some old accounts may list the blunderbuss as being loaded with various scrap iron, rocks, or wood, which might well result in damage to the bore of the gun, it was typically loaded with a number of lead balls smaller than the bore diameter. Barrels were made of steel or brass.

The blunderbuss, and especially the dragon, was typically issued to troops such as cavalry, who needed a lightweight, easily handled firearm. The dragon became so associated with cavalry and mounted infantry that the term dragoon became synonymous with mounted infantry. In addition to the cavalry, the blunderbuss found a use for other duties in which the shotgun-like qualities were desirable, such as for guarding prisoners or defending a mail coach, and its use for urban combat was also recognized. Blunderbusses were also commonly carried by officers on naval warships, by privateers and by pirates for use in close-quarters boarding actions. The Portuguese Marines used it widely in the 17th century. Many types of ammunition, including gravel and sand, could be shot in a pinch, but most of the time they were shot using traditional lead balls.

The blunderbuss used by the British Royal Mail during the period of 1788–1816 was a flintlock with a 14 in long flared brass barrel, brass trigger guard, and an iron trigger and lock. A typical British mail coach would have a single postal employee on board, armed with a blunderbuss and a pair of pistols to guard the mail from highwaymen. One 18th century coaching blunderbuss in another British collection had a brass barrel 17 in long, flaring to 2 in at the muzzle; it was also provided with a spring-loaded bayonet, which was held along the barrel by a catch and would spring forward into place when released. Spring-loaded bayonet blunderbusses were also used by the Nottingham City Police after its formation around 1840.

While the blunderbuss is often associated with the Plymouth Colony Pilgrims of 1620, evidence suggests that the blunderbuss was relatively scarce in the American colonies. After the Battle of Lexington in 1775, British General Thomas Gage occupied Boston, Massachusetts, and upon negotiating with the town committee, Gage agreed to let the inhabitants of Boston leave town with their families and effects if they surrendered all arms. While most of the residents of Boston stayed, those who left under the agreement surrendered 1,778 long arms, 634 pistols, 273 bayonets, and only 38 blunderbusses. The blunderbuss did still have its civilian applications, however; the Lewis and Clark Expedition carried a number of blunderbusses, some of which were mounted and used as small swivel guns on the pirogues.

Crude tripwire activated blunderbusses, known as alarm guns, spring guns and cemetery guns, were set up in graveyards and country estates to scare away poachers and resurrection men, and to alert the gamekeeper or sexton to their presence.

By the middle of the 19th century, the blunderbuss was replaced for military use by the carbine, but still found use by civilians as a defensive firearm.

title: Blunderbuss