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Princeps

Princeps (plural: principes) is a Latin word meaning "first in time or order; the first, foremost, chief, the most eminent, distinguished, or noble; the first person". As a title, princeps originated in the Roman Republic wherein the leading member of the Senate was designated princeps senatus. It is primarily associated with the Roman emperors as an unofficial title first adopted by Augustus ((r. 27 BC – AD 14)) in 23 BC. Its use in this context continued until the regime of Diocletian (r. 284 – 305 AD) at the end of the third century. He preferred the title of dominus, meaning "lord" or "master". As a result, the Roman Empire from Augustus to Diocletian is termed the "principate" (principatus). Other historians define the reign of Augustus to Severus Alexander (r. 222 – 235) as the Principate, and the period afterwards as the "Autocracy".

The medieval title "Prince" is a derivative of princeps.

Roman military
Princeps was also used as the second part of various other military titles, such as Decurio princeps, Signifer princeps (among the standard-bearers). See also Principalis (as in Optio principalis): NCO.
 * See Principes (legionary heavy infantry soldier)
 * centurio(n) in command of a unit or administrative office.
 * Princeps ordinarius vexillationis: centurion in command of a vexillatio (detachment).
 * Princeps peregrinorum ("commander of the foreigners"): centurion in charge of troops in the castra peregrina (military base at Rome for personnel seconded from the provincial armies)
 * Princeps prior: Centurion commanding a manipulus (unit of two centuries) of principes (legionary heavy infantry).
 * Princeps posterior: deputy to the Princeps prior
 * Princeps praetorii : centurion attached to headquarters.

Roman administration
Princeps is also the (official) short version of Princeps officii, the chief of an officium (the office staff of a Roman dignitary).

Roman Emperor
Princeps civitatis ("First Citizen") was an official title of a Roman Emperor, as the title determining the leader in Ancient Rome at the beginning of the Roman Empire. It created the principate Roman imperial system.

This usage of "princeps" derived from the position of Princeps senatus, the "first among equals" of the Senate. The princeps senatus (plural principes senatus) was the first member by precedence of the Roman Senate, and his opinion would usually be asked first in senatorial debates.

It was first given as a special title to Caesar Augustus in 27 BC, who saw that use of the titles rex (king) or dictator would create resentment amongst senators and other influential men, who had earlier demonstrated their disapproval by supporting the assassination of Julius Caesar. While Augustus had political and military supremacy, he needed the assistance of his fellow Romans to manage the Empire. In his Res Gestae, Augustus claims auctoritas for the princeps (himself).

Various official titles were associated with the Roman Emperor. These titles included imperator, Augustus, Caesar, and later dominus (lord) and basileus (the Greek word for "sovereign"). The word Emperor is derived from the Roman title "imperator", which was a very high, but not exclusive, military title until Augustus began to use it as his praenomen.

The Emperor Diocletian (284–305), the father of the Tetrarchy, was the first to stop referring to himself as "princeps" altogether, calling himself "dominus" (lord, master), thus dropping the pretense that emperor was not truly a monarchical office. The period when the emperors that called themselves princeps ruled—from Augustus to Diocletian—is called "the Principate".

Ancient Rome knew another kind of "princely" principes too, like "princeps iuventutis" ("the first amongst the young"), which in the early empire was frequently bestowed on eligible successors to the emperor, especially from his family. It was first given to Augustus' maternal grandsons Gaius and Lucius.

Nobiliary legacy
"Princeps" is the root and Latin rendering of modern words as the English title and generic term prince (see that article, also for various equivalents in other languages), as the Byzantine version of Roman law was the basis for the legal terminology developed in feudal (and later absolutist) Europe.

Non-Roman meaning
Princeps has been used in various scientific names, including the following:

 * Princeps, a former genus of swallowtail butterflies now treated as a subgenus of Papilio
 * Accipiter princeps, the New Britain goshawk
 * Actenoides princeps, the scaly-breasted kingfisher
 * Cattleya walkeriana var. princeps, a synonym for Cattleya walkeriana, an orchid species
 * Emberiza flaviventris princeps, a subspecies of golden-breasted bunting found in Angola and Namibia
 * Grallaria guatimalensis princeps, a subspecies of scaled antpitta found in Costa Rica and Panama
 * Heterohyrax brucei princeps, a subspecies of yellow-spotted rock hyrax
 * Melionyx princeps, the long-bearded melidectes
 * Morphnarchus princeps, the barred hawk
 * Triplofusus princeps, a tropical sea snail.
 * Passerculus sandwichensis princeps, the Ipswich sparrow (a subspecies of Savannah sparrow)
 * Ploceus princeps, the Príncipe weaver
 * Psittacus timneh princeps, the Príncipe subspecies of Timneh parrot

Fiction

 * The Star Trek episode "Bread and Circuses" takes place on Magna Roma, an alternate Earth where the Roman Empire never fell. In this episode, the leader of Magna Roman society (Merikus, played by William Smithers) is referred to as First Citizen of his empire.
 * In the Foundation series by Isaac Asimov, First Citizen is the title taken by the Mule and his successors in their position as leader of the Union of Worlds. Asimov had previously used the title "First Citizen of the State" for Korell's authoritarian ruler Commdor in the original Foundation novel.
 * Princeps is the name of a dog that Brother Priad meets in the Warhammer 40,000 book Brothers of the Snake.
 * Princeps is the title for the captain of a Titan, a massive humanoid war machine in the tabletop wargame Warhammer 40,000.
 * In the book series Codex Alera by Jim Butcher, Princeps is the title given to the crown prince of the empire of Alera. It is also used in the title of the fifth book in the series, Princeps' Fury.
 * In the Star Trek: Infinity's Prism book Seeds of Dissent by James Swallow, "Princeps" is the title for "Commander" Julian Bashir of the warship Defiance, which exists in an alternate universe from the more familiar 24th Century envisioned in the television series Star Trek: Deep Space Nine.
 * In the book The Three-Body Problem by Cixin Liu, "Princeps" is the title of the leader of the Trisolaran civilization.
 * In the book The Magic Mountain by Thomas Mann, "Princeps Scholasticorum" is the title Settembrini uses to introduce Naphta.
 * In the actual-play series Dimension 20: A Starstruck Oddysey by Dropout, Princeps Zortch is a non-binary member of Rubian V's royalty.

title: Princeps


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University of Bologna

The University of Bologna (Alma Mater Studiorum – Università di Bologna, abbreviated Unibo) is a public research university in Bologna, Italy. Founded in 1088 by an organised guild of students (studiorum), it is the oldest university in continuous operation in the world, and the first degree-awarding institution of higher learning. At its foundation, the word universitas was first coined. The university's emblem carries the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum ("Nourishing mother of studies"), the date A.D. 1088. With over 90,000 students, the University of Bologna is one of the largest universities in Europe.

The university saw the first woman to earn a university degree and teach at a university, Bettisia Gozzadini, and the first woman to earn both a doctorate in science and a salaried position as a university professor, Laura Bassi. The University of Bologna has had a central role in the sciences during the medieval age and the Italian renaissance, where it housed and educated Nicholas Copernicus as well as numerous other renaissance mathematicians. It has educated a wide range of notable alumni, amongst them a large number of Italian scientists, prime ministers, supreme court judges, and priests.

The University of Bologna has campuses in Cesena, Forlì, Ravenna and Rimini as well as branch centres abroad in Buenos Aires, New York, Brussels, and Shanghai. It houses the fully funded boarding college Collegio Superiore di Bologna, the Bologna School of Advanced Studies, the botanical gardens of Bologna, a large number of museums, libraries and archeological collections, as well as the Bologna University Press.

History
The date of the University of Bologna's founding is uncertain. The university was granted a charter (Authentica habita) by Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa in 1158, but in the 19th century, a committee of historians led by Giosuè Carducci traced the founding of the university back to 1088, which would make it the oldest continuously operating university in the world. However, the development of the institution at Bologna into a university was a gradual process. Paul Grendler writes that "it is not likely that enough instruction and organization existed to merit the term university before the 1150s, and it might not have happened before the 1180s."

The university arose around mutual aid societies (known as universitates scholarium) of foreign students called "nations" (as they were grouped by nationality) for protection against city laws which imposed collective punishment on foreigners for the crimes and debts of their countrymen. These students then hired scholars from the city's pre-existing lay and ecclesiastical schools to teach them subjects such as liberal arts, notarial law, theology, and ars dictaminis (scrivenery). The lectures were given in informal schools called scholae. In time the various universitates scholarium decided to form a larger association, or Studium—thus, the university. The Studium grew to have a strong position of collective bargaining with the city, since by then it derived significant revenue through visiting foreign students, who would depart if they were not well treated. The foreign students in Bologna received greater rights, and collective punishment was ended. There was also collective bargaining with the scholars who served as professors at the university. By the initiation or threat of a student strike, the students could enforce their demands as to the content of courses and the pay professors would receive. University professors were hired, fired, and had their pay determined by an elected council of two representatives from every student "nation" which governed the institution, with the most important decisions requiring a majority vote from all the students to ratify. The professors could also be fined if they failed to finish classes on time, or complete course material by the end of the semester. A student committee, the "Denouncers of Professors", kept tabs on them and reported any misbehavior. Professors themselves were not powerless, however, forming collegia doctorum (professors’ committees) in each faculty, and securing the rights to set examination fees and degree requirements. Eventually, the city ended this arrangement, paying professors from tax revenues and making it a chartered public university.

The university is historically notable for its teaching of canon and civil law; indeed, it was set up in large part with the aim of studying the Digest, a central text in Roman law, which had been rediscovered in Italy in 1070, and the university was central in the development of medieval Roman law. Until modern times, the only degree granted at that university was the doctorate.

Bettisia Gozzadini earned a law degree in 1237, being one of the first women in history to obtain a university degree. She taught law from her own home for two years, and in 1239 she taught at the university, becoming the first woman in history to teach at a university.

In 1477, when Pope Sixtus IV issued a papal bull, authorizing the creation of Uppsala University in Sweden, the bull specified that the new university would have the same freedoms and privileges as the University of Bologna—a highly desirable situation for the Swedish scholars. This included the right of Uppsala to establish the four traditional faculties of theology, law (Canon Law and Roman law), medicine, and philosophy, and to award the bachelor's, master's, licentiate, and doctoral degrees.

Laura Bassi was born into a prosperous family of Bologna and was privately educated from the age of five. Bassi's education and intellect was noticed by Prospero Lorenzini Lambertini, who became the Archbishop of Bologna in 1731 (later Pope Benedict XIV). Lambertini became the official patron of Bassi. He arranged for a public debate between Bassi and four professors from the University of Bologna on 17 April 1732. In 1732, Bassi, aged twenty, publicly defended her forty-nine theses on Philosophica Studia at the Sala degli Anziani of the Palazzo Pubblico. The University of Bologna awarded her a doctorate degree on 12 May. She became the first woman to receive a doctorate in science, and the second woman in the world to earn a philosophy doctorate after Elena Cornaro Piscopia in 1678, fifty-four years prior. She was by then popularly known as Bolognese Minerva. On 29 October 1732, the Senate and the University of Bologna granted Bassi's candidature, and in December she was appointed professor of natural philosophy to teach physics. She became the first salaried woman lecturer in the world, thus beginning her academic career. She was also the first woman member of any scientific establishment, when she was elected to the Academy of Sciences of the Institute of Bologna in 1732. Bassi became the most important populariser of Newtonian mechanics in Italy.

In 1971, the Graecist Benedetto Marzullo in company with Umberto Eco, Renato Barilli, Adelio Ferrero. instituted within the Faculty of Letters and Arts the DAMS (acronym of discipline delle arti, della musica e dello spettacolo, "Dicipline of Arts, Musics and Performance"). It was the first degree course of this type to be opened in Italy. Between December 26, 1982, and November 29, 1983, there occurred the DAMS murders (in Italian: Delitti del DAMS), dealing with four victims who were students or professors of the DAMS: Angelo Fabbri (a brilliant student of Umberto Eco), Liviana Rossi, the dancer Francesca Alinovi (who was stabbed for 47 times), and Leonarda Polvani.

Organization
Higher education processes are being harmonised across the European Community. Nowadays the university offers 101 different "Laurea" or "Laurea breve" first-level degrees (three years of courses), followed by 108 "Laurea specialistica" or "Laurea magistrale" second-level degrees (two years). However 11 other courses have maintained the previous rules of "Laurea specialistica a ciclo unico" or "Laurea magistrale a ciclo unico", with only one cycle of study of five years, except for medicine and dentistry, which require six years of courses. After the "Laurea" one may attain first-level Master (one-year diploma, similar to a postgraduate diploma). After second-level degrees are attained, one may proceed to second-level Master, specialisation schools (residency) or research doctorates (PhD).

The 11 Schools (which replace the existing 23 faculties) are:
 * School of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine
 * School of Economics, Management and Statistics
 * School of Engineering and Architecture
 * School of Foreign Languages and Literature, Interpreting and Translation
 * School of Law
 * School of Arts, Humanities, and Cultural Heritage
 * School of Medicine and Surgery
 * School of Pharmacy, Biotechnologies and Sport Sciences
 * School of Political Sciences
 * School of Psychology and Education Sciences
 * School of Sciences

The university is structured in 33 departments (66 until 2012), organized by homogeneous research domains that integrate activities related to one or more faculty. A new department of Latin history was added in 2015.

The 33 departments are:
 * Architecture - DA
 * Cultural Heritage - DBC
 * Chemistry "Giacomo Ciamician" - CHIM
 * Industrial Chemistry "Toso Montanari" - CHIMIND
 * Arts - DARvipem
 * Pharmacy and Biotechnology - FaBiT
 * Classical Philology and Italian Studies - FICLIT
 * Philosophy and Communication Studies - FILCOM
 * Physics and Astronomy - DIFA
 * Computer Science and Engineering - DISI
 * Civil, Chemical, Environmental, and Materials Engineering - DICAM
 * Electrical, Electronic, and Information Engineering "Guglielmo Marconi" - DEI
 * Industrial Engineering - DIN
 * Interpreting and Translation - DIT
 * Modern Languages, Literatures, and Cultures - LILEC
 * Mathematics - MAT
 * Experimental Medicine, Diagnostic Medicine and Specialty Medicine - DIMES
 * Psychology - PSI
 * Agricultural Sciences - DipSA
 * Management - DiSA
 * Biological, Geological, and Environmental Sciences - BiGeA
 * Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences - DIBINEM
 * Education Studies "Giovanni Maria Bertin" - EDU
 * Agricultural and Food Sciences - DISTAL
 * Economics - DSE
 * Legal Studies - DSG
 * Medical and Surgical Sciences - DIMEC
 * Veterinary Medical Sciences - DIMEVET
 * Department for Life Quality Studies - QUVI
 * Political and Social Sciences - SPS
 * Statistical Sciences "Paolo Fortunati" - STAT
 * Sociology and Business Law - SDE
 * History and Cultures - DiSCi

Il Mulino
In the early 1950s, some students of the University of Bologna were among the founders of the review "il Mulino". On 25 April 1951 the first issue of the review was published in Bologna. In a short time, "il Mulino" became one of the most interesting reference points in Italy for the political and cultural debate and established important editorial relationships in Italy and abroad. Editorial activities evolved along with the review. In 1954, the il Mulino publishing house (It. Società editrice il Mulino) was founded, which today represents one of the most relevant Italian publishers. In addition to this were initiated research projects (focusing mostly on the educational institutions and the political system in Italy), that eventually led, in 1964, to the establishment of the Istituto Carlo Cattaneo.

Collegio Superiore
The Collegio Superiore is an excellence institution inside the University of Bologna, aimed at promoting students' merit through dedicated learning programmes.

The institution was founded in 1998 as Collegio d'Eccellenza. Together with the Institute for Advanced Study it is part of the Institute for Higher Study.

The Collegio Superiore offers an additional educational path to students enrolled in a degree programme at the University of Bologna, providing specialized courses as part of an interdisciplinary framework.

All students of the Collegio Superiore are granted a full-ride scholarship and additional benefits such as the assistance of a personal tutor and free accommodation at the Residence for Higher Study. In order to remain members of the Collegio Superiore students are required to maintain high marks in both their degree programme and the additional courses.

Beatrice Fraboni, professor of Physics of Matter, has been head of Collegio Superiore since 2019.

Alumni

 * Adone Zoli, former Prime Minister of Italy.
 * Cardinal Alberto Bolognetti
 * Pope Alexander VI
 * Álvaro de Figueroa, former Prime Minister of Spain.
 * Anna M. Borghi, Italian cognitive psychologist
 * Augusto Righi, pioneer in the study of electromagnetism
 * Carlo Goldoni, Italian playwright
 * Carlo Rovelli, Italian theoretical physicist
 * Carlo Severini
 * Saint Charles Borromeo, archbishop of Milan
 * Corrado Gini, Italian statistician, demographer and sociologist who developed the Gini coefficient/ratio.
 * Dante Alighieri, Italian poet, writer and philosopher
 * Daria de Pretis, Italian jurist, Constitutional Judge of the Constitutional Court of Italy.
 * Diego Della Valle, chairman of the Italian leather goods company Tod's
 * Enzo Ferrari, Italian racing driver, engineer and entrepreneur
 * Erasmus of Rotterdam
 * Fabrizio Zilibotti, Italian economist and Professor of International and Development Economics at Yale University.
 * Fawziya Abikar Nur, Minister for Health and Social Care - Somalia.
 * Filip Ivanović, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Montenegro.
 * Gabriele Paleotti
 * Gasparo Tagliacozzi, pioneer of plastic and reconstructive surgery
 * Giacomo Matteotti
 * Giovanni Pascoli
 * Pope Gregory XIII (Ugo Boncompagni);
 * Pope Gregory XV
 * Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro, Italian mathematician and the inventor of tensor calculus.
 * Guglielmo Marconi, Italian inventor and radio pioneer
 * Henry of Susa (Hostiensis);
 * Pope Innocent IX
 * Irnerius, founder of the School of Glossators
 * Joaquín Chapaprieta, former Prime Minister of Spain.
 * Juan Fernando López Aguilar, former Minister of Justice - Spain.
 * Julius Caesar Aranzi, the pioneer human anatomists and surgeons.
 * Laura Bassi, the world's first woman to earn a university chair in a scientific field of studies
 * Lazzaro Spallanzani, Italian priest, biologist and physiologist
 * Leon Battista Alberti;
 * Luigi Galvani;
 * Manuel Olivencia, lawyer and academic;
 * Mauro Moretti, former CEO and general manager of Leonardo S.p.A.
 * Marcello Malpighi;
 * Michelangelo Antonioni;
 * Nicolaus Copernicus, formulator of the heliocentric universal model;
 * Cardinal Paolo Burali d'Arezzo;
 * Paracelsus, founder of the discipline of toxicology;
 * Patrizio Bianchi, Minister of Public Education in the Draghi Cabinet
 * Petrarch;
 * Pico della Mirandola;
 * Pier Luigi Nervi, Italian Structural engineer and architect of UNESCO Headquarters Paris (1950).
 * Pier Paolo Pasolini;
 * Pierluigi Collina, Chairman of the FIFA referees committee
 * Piero Gnudi, Minister of Tourism and Sports in the Monti cabinet.
 * Pietro Mengoli;
 * Remo Gaspari, Minister of Relationships with the Parliament and Minister of Public Function in the Bettino Craxi and Giulio Andreotti Cabinet.
 * Stefano Domenicali, CEO of Formula One Group, former CEO of Italian sports car manufacturer Automobili Lamborghini S.p.A. and Team Principal of Formula One team Scuderia Ferrari.
 * Archbishop Thomas Becket;
 * Tommaso Perelli, Italian astronomer
 * Torquato Tasso;
 * Ulisse Aldrovandi;
 * Umberto Eco, Italian semiotician, philosopher and writer
 * Mihalj Šilobod Bolšić (1724–1787), Catholic priest, mathematician, writer, and musical theorist primarily known for writing the first Croatian arithmetic textbook Arithmatika Horvatzka (published in Zagreb, 1758)

Faculty and staff
Notable former faculty include:

 * 11th century
 * Irnerius
 * 12th century
 * Bulgarus
 * Gratian
 * Martinus Gosia
 * Patriarch Heraclius of Jerusalem
 * William of Tyre
 * 13th century
 * Benvenutus Scotivoli
 * Bettisia Gozzadini
 * Guido Guinizelli
 * Henry of Susa (Hostiensis)
 * Paul, Dominican martyr
 * Sylvester Gozzolini
 * William of Saliceto
 * 14th century
 * Manuel Chrysoloras
 * Giovanni de' Marignolli
 * Francesco Petrarca (also known as Petrarch)
 * Coluccio Salutati
 * 15th century
 * Leon Battista Alberti
 * Nicolaus Copernicus
 * Lippo Bartolomeo Dardi
 * Yuriy Drohobych (also known as Georgius de Drohobycz)
 * Giovanni Pico della Mirandola
 * 16th century
 * Ulisse Aldrovandi
 * Giovanni Antonio Magini
 * Camillo Baldi
 * Girolamo Cardano
 * Ignazio Danti
 * Giovanni Della Casa
 * Girolamo Maggi
 * Virgilio Malvezzi
 * Paracelsus
 * 17th century
 * Giovanni Cassini
 * Niall Ó Glacáin
 * Marcello Malpighi
 * Pietro Mengoli
 * Lodovico Scapinelli
 * 18th century
 * Laura Bassi
 * Luigi Galvani
 * Maria Gaetana Agnesi
 * Carlo Goldoni
 * 19th century
 * Augusto Righi
 * Giacomo Ciamician
 * Giosuè Carducci
 * Giovanni Pascoli
 * Pellegrino Rossi
 * Francesco Selmi
 * 20th century
 * Umberto Eco
 * Beppo Levi
 * Guglielmo Marconi
 * Pier Paolo Pasolini
 * Maria Matilde Principi
 * Romano Prodi
 * 21st century
 * Hamida Barmaki
 * Özalp Babaoğlu
 * Gabriella Campadelli-Fiume
 * Pier Cesare Bori
 * Augusto Barbera
 * Gualtiero Calboli
 * Ivano Dionigi
 * Luciano Floridi

Rankings and reputation
The 2024 QS World University Rankings ranked the University of Bologna 154th in the world as well as 73rd (1st in Italy, 18th in Europe) with specific reference to academic reputation. In another measurement by the same organization, it was positioned among the world's top 100 universities for graduate employability.

In the 2024 Times Higher Education World University Rankings, it claimed the 155th place globally. In the 2023 THE Impact Rankings, which measure the universities' commitment to sustainable development in compliance with the UN 2030 Agenda, Bologna took 5th place in Europe and 23rd in the world.

Furthermore, Bologna topped Italy's 2023 list of large public universities (> 40,000 students), produced by the Italian Center for Social Investment Studies, for the 14th year in a row.

Points of interest

 * Orto Botanico dell'Università di Bologna

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: University of Bologna


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Tapaculo

The tapaculos {{IPAc-en|%|t|{|p|@|"|k|u:|l|oU|z|,_|%|t|A:|p|A:|-}} or tapacolos  are a family, Rhinocryptidae, of small suboscine passerine birds, found mainly in  South America and with the highest diversity in the Andean regions. Three species (Chocó, Tacarcuna, and the silvery-fronted) are found in southern Central America.

Description
Tapaculos are small to medium-sized birds, with a total length ranging from 10–24 cm (4–9½ in). These are terrestrial species that fly only poorly on their short wings. They have strong legs, well-suited to their habitat of grassland or forest undergrowth. The tail is cocked and pointed towards the head, and the name tapaculo probably derives from Spanish for loincloth. Another possible explanation is that it originates from the Chilean name for the white-throated tapaculo, simply tapaculo, which is an onomatopoeic reference to its commonly heard song.

While the majority of the family are small blackish or brown birds there are some larger and more colourful species. All tapaculos are skulking birds that frequently stay low in dense vegetation, even the larger, colorful species, and this renders them difficult to see. They are best located and – in the case of Scytalopus spp. – identified by their vocalisations.

They feed on insects, seeds and other soft plant material with their pointed bills, and will scratch on the ground like a pheasant. Most species lay two or three white eggs in a covered location, whether it be a burrow, a hole in a tree, or a domed nest.

Status and conservation
Some species have highly localized distributions and, being poor fliers, they easily become isolated in small populations. BirdLife International currently (2007) consider one species vulnerable (Scytalopus panamensis), three species endangered (S. iraiensis, S. rodriguezi and S. robbinsi), and two species critically endangered (Eleoscytalopus psychopompus and Merulaxis stresemanni). The two critically endangered species are restricted to Atlantic forest of eastern Brazil, and were only recently rediscovered after several years without any records.

Taxonomy
The tapaculos were traditionally placed in a distinct family Rhinocryptidae; more recent research  indicates that according to analysis of mt and nDNA sequence data, the tapaculos might be better merged into the Formicariidae as tribe Rhinocryptini, as they are closer to the antthrushes than either is to the true antpittas.

An alternative family name Pteroptochidae, has been used historically.

The phylogenetic tree shown below is based on a large-scale genetic study of the suboscines by Michael Harvey and collaborators that was published in 2020. The species numbers are from the list maintained by the International Ornithologists' Union (IOC).

The species-limits within the genus Scytalopus have historically been difficult to determine. The birds are highly cryptic, and identification using visual features often is impossible. Vocal and biochemical data is typically needed to clarify the taxonomic status of the various populations. Several new species have been described in recent years (e.g. S. whitneyi and S. frankeae from Peru). The Brazilian taxa are similarly complex with several recently described species and considerable confusion surrounding the use of the scientific name Scytalopus speluncae.

Additionally, still undescribed species are known to exist, while some species as currently defined actually may include several species (e.g. the southern population of the large-footed tapaculo may represent a yet undescribed species). The confusing situation is perhaps best illustrated by the fact that only ten species were recognized in this genus in 1970, while the figure now is more than four times as high.

title: Tapaculo


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Model

A model is an informative representation of an object, person or system. The term originally denoted the plans of a building in late 16th-century English, and derived via French and Italian ultimately from Latin modulus, a measure.

Models can be divided into physical models (e.g. a ship model or a fashion model) and abstract models (e.g. a set of mathematical equations describing the workings of the atmosphere for the purpose of weather forecasting). Abstract or conceptual models are central to philosophy of science.

In scholarly research and applied science, a model should not be confused with a theory: while a model seeks only to represent reality with the purpose of better understanding or predicting the world, a theory is more ambitious in that it claims to be an explanation of reality.

Model in specific contexts
As a noun, model has specific meanings in certain fields, derived from its original meaning of "structural design or layout":
 * Model (art), a person posing for an artist, e.g. a 15th-century criminal representing the biblical Judas in Leonardo da Vinci's painting The Last Supper
 * Model (person), a person who serves as a template for others to copy, as in a role model, often in the context of advertising commercial products; e.g. the first fashion model, Marie Vernet Worth in 1853, wife of designer Charles Frederick Worth.

 * Model (product), a particular design of a product as displayed in a catalogue or show room (e.g. Ford Model T, an early car model)
 * Model (organism) a non-human species that is studied to understand biological phenomena in other organisms, e.g. a guinea pig starved of vitamin C to study scurvy, an experiment that would be immoral to conduct on a person
 * Model (mimicry), a species that is mimicked by another species
 * Model (logic), a structure (a set of items, such as natural numbers 1, 2, 3,..., along with mathematical operations such as addition and multiplication, and relations, such as $$<$$) that satisfies a given system of axioms (basic truisms), i.e. that satisfies the statements of a given theory
 * Model (CGI), a mathematical representation of any surface of an object in three dimensions via specialized software
 * Model (MVC), the information-representing internal component of a software, as distinct from its user interface

Physical model

A physical model (most commonly referred to simply as a model but in this context distinguished from a conceptual model) is a smaller or larger physical representation of an object, person or system. The object being modelled may be small (e.g., an atom) or large (e.g., the Solar System) or life-size (e.g., a fashion model displaying clothes for similarly-built potential customers).

The geometry of the model and the object it represents are often similar in the sense that one is a rescaling of the other. However, in many cases the similarity is only approximate or even intentionally distorted. Sometimes the distortion is systematic, e.g., a fixed scale horizontally and a larger fixed scale vertically when modelling topography to enhance a region's mountains.

An architectural model permits visualization of internal relationships within the structure or external relationships of the structure to the environment. Another use is as a toy.

Instrumented physical models are an effective way of investigating fluid flows for engineering design. Physical models are often coupled with computational fluid dynamics models to optimize the design of equipment and processes. This includes external flow such as around buildings, vehicles, people, or hydraulic structures. Wind tunnel and water tunnel testing is often used for these design efforts. Instrumented physical models can also examine internal flows, for the design of ductwork systems, pollution control equipment, food processing machines, and mixing vessels. Transparent flow models are used in this case to observe the detailed flow phenomenon. These models are scaled in terms of both geometry and important forces, for example, using Froude number or Reynolds number scaling (see Similitude). In the pre-computer era, the UK economy was modelled with the hydraulic model MONIAC, to predict for example the effect of tax rises on employment.

Conceptual model
A conceptual model is a theoretical representation of a system, e.g. a set of mathematical equations attempting to describe the workings of the atmosphere for the purpose of weather forecasting. It consists of concepts used to help understand or simulate a subject the model represents.

Abstract or conceptual models are central to philosophy of science, as almost every scientific theory effectively embeds some kind of model of the physical or human sphere. In some sense, a physical model "is always the reification of some conceptual model; the conceptual model is conceived ahead as the blueprint of the physical one", which is then constructed as conceived. Thus, the term refers to models that are formed after a conceptualization or generalization process.

Examples

 * Conceptual model (computer science), an agreed representation of entities and their relationships, to assist in developing software
 * Economic model, a theoretical construct representing economic processes
 * Language model a probabilistic model of a natural language, used for speech recognition, language generation, and information retrieval
 * Large language models are artificial neural networks used for generative artificial intelligence (AI), e.g. ChatGPT
 * Mathematical model, a description of a system using mathematical concepts and language
 * Statistical model, a mathematical model that usually specifies the relationship between one or more random variables and other non-random variables
 * Model (CGI), a mathematical representation of any surface of an object in three dimensions via specialized software
 * Medical model, a proposed "set of procedures in which all doctors are trained"
 * Mental model, in psychology, an internal representation of external reality
 * Model (logic), a set along with a collection of finitary operations, and relations that are defined on it, satisfying a given collection of axioms
 * Model (MVC), information-representing component of a software, distinct from the user interface (the "view"), both linked by the "controller" component, in the context of the model–view–controller software design
 * Model act, a law drafted centrally to be disseminated and proposed for enactment in multiple independent legislatures
 * Standard model (disambiguation)

Properties of models, according to general model theory
According to Herbert Stachowiak, a model is characterized by at least three properties:

 * 1. Mapping
 * A model always is a model of something—it is an image or representation of some natural or artificial, existing or imagined original, where this original itself could be a model.

 * 2. Reduction
 * In general, a model will not include all attributes that describe the original but only those that appear relevant to the model's creator or user.

 * 3. Pragmatism
 * A model does not relate unambiguously to its original. It is intended to work as a replacement for the original
 * a) for certain subjects (for whom?)
 * b) within a certain time range (when?)
 * c) restricted to certain conceptual or physical actions (what for?).

For example, a street map is a model of the actual streets in a city (mapping), showing the course of the streets while leaving out, say, traffic signs and road markings (reduction), made for pedestrians and vehicle drivers for the purpose of finding one's way in the city (pragmatism).

Additional properties have been proposed, like extension and distortion as well as validity. The American philosopher Michael Weisberg differentiates between concrete and mathematical models and proposes computer simulations (computational models) as their own class of models.

title: Model