text:
CBM

CBM may refer to:

Businesses and corporations

 * Cambrex Corporation (NYSE: CBM)
 * CBM (AM), a radio station in Montreal now known as CBME-FM
 * CBM-FM, a radio station in Montreal
 * CBM TV, a scrapped Freeview channel
 * Central Bank of Myanmar
 * Chesapeake Bay Magazine, a monthly publication focusing on boating, leisure, and lifestyle in the mid-Atlantic region
 * Christian Blind Mission, a charity working to help people with disabilities
 * Commodore International, originally "Commodore Business Machines, Inc." (CBM)
 * Congo-Balolo Mission (CBM), a defunct British Baptist missionary society that was active in the Belgian Congo
 * Mesoamerican Biological Corridor (Corredor Biológico Mesoamericano), a multinational agreement and project for the conservation of biodiversity

Science and technology

 * Bromochloromethane, a halomethane
 * Captive bubble method, an instrumental surface analysis
 * Carbohydrate-binding module
 * Ceramic building material, an umbrella term used in archaeology to refer to all building materials made from baked clay
 * Coalbed methane a form of CMM, coal mine methane
 * Cognitive bias modification, a set of procedures used in psychology that aim to change biases in cognitive processes
 * Common berthing mechanism, a structure in the International Space Station
 * Computer-Based Math, a math education reform movement
 * Condition-based maintenance, maintenance when needed
 * Condition based monitoring, see Condition monitoring (CM)
 * Conduction Band Minimum, lowest energy of the electrons in the conduction band of a (semiconducting) solid, see band gap
 * Cosmic microwave background, "relic radiation" from the Big Bang

Other

 * Canadian Baptist Mission
 * Certified Broadcast Meteorologist, an American Meteorological Society certification
 * Certified Business Manager
 * College of Business Management, one of the constituent colleges of the Institute of Business Management in Karachi, Pakistan
 * Community-based monitoring, a form of public oversight
 * Community beat manager, a police officer in the Lancashire Constabulary who is responsible for a particular ward area of a town
 * Component business model
 * Confidence-building measures
 * Contra body movement in ballroom dancing
 * Covered business method patent
 * Curriculum-based measurement, an assessment method to track student progress in basic skills (i.e., reading, writing, and arithmetic)
 * Columbus Air Force Base, which has the IATA and FAA LID CBM

title: CBM


text:
Stéphanie Félicité, comtesse de Genlis

Caroline-Stéphanie-Félicité, Madame de Genlis (25 January 1746 – 31 December 1830) was a French writer of the late 18th and early 19th century, known for her novels and theories of children's education. She is now best remembered for her journals and the historical perspective they provide on her life and times.

Life
Caroline-Stéphanie-Félicité du Crest de Saint-Aubin was born on 25 April 1746 at Champcéry near Autun, in the Saône-et-Loire region. Her parents were Pierre César du Crest (1711-1763), later Marquis de Saint Aubin, and Marie Françoise Félicité Mauget de Mézières (1717-1790).

Her father's debts forced him to sell their home in 1757 and move to Paris. She and her mother spent interludes at the estates of Charles Guillaume Le Normant d'Étiolles and Alexandre Le Riche de La Poupelinière, where she was taught dancing by a ballet master of the Comédie-Française and singing by Ferdinando Pellegrini. She also learned to play the harp, a skill which later in Paris she used to support them. Pierre César was captured by the English while returning from Santo Domingo in 1760 and one of his fellow prisoners was Charles-Alexis Brûlart, Comte de Genlis (1737–1793), whom he introduced to his daughter after their release. After Pierre died in 1763, his sister married de Genlis at midnight on 8 November 1763; as a younger son, his title 'Comte' was complimentary and she was always known as Madame de Genlis.

In 1782 she published her first epistolary novel Adèle et Thèodore written while on holiday in Lusignano in Liguria. Its basic theme is education, where she takes a position unlike Rousseau in Emile. For her the condition of women depends on the education that is imparted to take the role that belongs to her in society, while for Jean-Jacques Rousseau the sphere of female action is restricted to the domestic sphere and therefore their education remains limited; for Genlis, education represents a step forward for her emancipation but on the other hand she submits first to the will of her mother and then of her husband. The success of this novel was due to the fact that she is the first woman to be gouverneur of princes of royal blood.

Since Charles-Alexis' own parents were dead, they went to live with his godfather, the Marquis de Puisieux and had three children; Caroline (1765-1786), Pulchérie (1767-1847) and Casimir (1768-1773). It is possible that she also had one or more secret offspring; as Talleyrand later wrote: "In spite of the strictness which she preached and the morality which she professed in her writing, one always meets in her later novels something of the easiness of her earlier morals; one always finds in them love affairs and illegitimate children."

She died in Paris on 31 December 1830 and was buried in Père Lachaise Cemetery.

Career

Her relative, Madame de Montesson (1738-1806), was also known for her beauty and intelligence, later becoming a playwright. She married the duc d'Orléans in 1773, although barred from using the title 'Duchess of Orléans.' With her support, Stéphanie-Félicité became lady-in-waiting to Louise Marie Adélaïde de Bourbon, wife of the Duke's son Philippe d'Orléans, Duke of Chartres, and with her husband joined the Duke's entourage in the Palais-Royal in early 1772, drawing a stipend of 10,000 livres.

She began an affair with Chartres almost immediately, their love letters being published in 1904 by Gaston Maugras as L’idylle d’un gouverneur. As Talleyrand noted, "The Duc de Chartres found her charming, told her this, and was quickly listened to, for Madame de Genlis, to avoid the scandal of coquetry, always yielded easily." Although their affair was short-lived, in 1777 he appointed her governess to his daughters, who were joined by two 'adopted' English girls, Stephanie Caroline Anne Syms or "Pamela" and Hermine Syms. This was in line with her theory of educating her pupils with children of different nationalities to better learn foreign languages; the household already contained English and Italian servants. Although it has often been suggested Pamela was the product of her relationship with Chartres, this has been challenged by recent scholarship. In 1781, Chartres took the then unusual step of putting her in charge of his sons' education, which led to the resignation of their existing tutors; she and Charles-Alexis formally separated the following year.

For her husband's amusement, Madame de Montesson set up their own theatre, for which she and Madame de Genlis wrote plays, the parts being taken by their children. Audiences numbered as many as 500 aristocrats and writers, including Diderot and D'Alembert. This developed her approach to education, later set out in Théâtre d'éducation (4 vols., 1779–1780), a collection of short comedies for young people, Les Annales de la vertu (2 vols., 1781) and Adèle et Théodore (3 vols., 1782). Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve claims she anticipated many modern methods of teaching; history was taught using magic lantern slides and her pupils learnt botany from a botanist during their walks.

In 1785, Chartres succeeded as duc d'Orléans; her brother Charles-Louis Ducrest became his secretary. When the French Revolution began in 1789, both he and Charles-Alexis joined the Girondins faction and were executed in 1793 with many of their political colleagues. Stéphanie-Félicité and her pupil Mademoiselle d'Orléans took refuge in Switzerland, before moving to Berlin in 1794. Considered too liberal by Frederick William II, she was forced to live in Hamburg but returned when his son succeeded him in 1797.

After Napoleon came to power in 1799, she returned to France. Her aunt was a close friend of Napoleon's wife Joséphine de Beauharnais and this connection resulted in her being given rooms at the Arsenal and a small pension. Her best known romance Mademoiselle de Clermont was published in 1802, along with a number of other novels. Her government pension was discontinued after the 1814 Bourbon Restoration; her former pupil Louis Philippe gave her a small pension but she relied on the income from her writing.

Her later years were occupied with literary quarrels, notably those arising from her 1822 publication Diners du Baron d'Holbach, which attacked what she viewed as 'the intolerance, fanaticism, and eccentricities of the philosophes of the 18th century.' She survived long enough to see her former pupil, Louis Philippe, become king in 1830. The vast majority of her works are now little read but provide interesting historical background, especially Mémoires inédits sur le XVIII' siècle, published in 1825.

Legacy
In Britain, she was best known for her children's works, which many welcomed as they presented many of Rousseau's methods, while attacking his principles. They also avoided libertinism and Roman Catholicism, concepts often associated with the French by the British, who appreciated her innovative educational methods, particularly her morality plays. According to Magdi Wahba, another reason for her popularity was the belief she was as moral as the Baronne d'Almane in Adèle et Théodore. They discovered this was not the case when she fled to London in 1791 but while she lost the esteem of some, including Frances Burney, it had little effect on her book sales.

Jane Austen was familiar with her works, although she returned the novel 'Alphonsine' to the Lending Library, claiming it "did not do. We were disgusted in twenty pages, as, independent of a bad translation, it has indelicacies which disgrace a pen hitherto so pure". However, in Emma her heroine suggests her governess would raise her own daughter the better for having practised upon her, "like La Baronne d'Almane on La Countesse d'Ostalis in Madame de Genlis' Adelaide and Theodore". Modern critics claim other themes addressed by Genlis appear in both Emma and Northanger Abbey. Austen continued to read (and lend out) her works however, complaining in 1816 for example that she couldn't "read Olimpe et Theophile without being in a rage. It is really too bad! – Not allowing them to be happy together when they are married." Austen's nieces Anna and Caroline also drew inspiration for their own writings from Madame de Genlis.

British women writers of the late eighteenth century were particularly inspired by Genlis's novel of education Adèle et Théodore, which Anna Letitia Barbauld compared to Rousseau's Emile as a type of "preceptive fiction." Anna Barbauld admired Genlis's "system of education, the whole of which is given in action" with "infinite ingenuity in the various illustrative incidents." Clara Reeve described Genlis's educational program as "the most perfect of any" in Plans of Education (1794), an epistolary work loosely based on Genlis's novel. Adelaide O'Keeffe's Dudley(1819) was modeled directly after Genlis's work, and other texts such as Anna Letitia Barbauld and John Aikin's Evenings at Home were inspired by Genlis's Tales of the Castle, a "spin-off" of Adèle et Théodore. As Donelle Ruwe notes, Genlis's emphasis on the mother as a powerful educating heroine was inspirational, but so too were her books' demonstrations of how to create homemade literacy objects such as flash cards and other teaching aids.

In literature
Félicité de Genlis appears as a character in the works of Honoré de Balzac (Illusions perdues) and Victor Hugo (Les Misérables), among others. She is also mentioned in War and Peace by Leo Tolstoy, Our Village by Mary Russell Mitford, Oblomov by Ivan Goncharov, humourist story M-me Genlis's spirit by Nikolai Leskov, The Angel in the House by Coventry Patmore, The Rector of Justin by Louis Auchincloss, Nausea by Jean-Paul Sartre, Emma by Jane Austen, and A Place of Greater Safety by Hilary Mantel.

Selected works
Madame de Genlis was a prodigious author. As Saint-Beuve observed in one of his Causeries de Lundi, "if the inkstand had not existed, she would have invented it."

 * Genlis, Stéphanie Félicité du Crest de Saint Aubin, Madame de GENLIS (1746-1830) Correspondance en grande partie inédite adressée par Madame de Genlis à M. Anatole de Montesquiou (1788-1878), officier d'ordonnance de l'Empereur et aide de camp. L'ensemble des lettres, au nombre de 520 environ, couvre la période 1810 à 1830, mais surtout les années 1825 et 1826. L'année 1826 représente une correspondance presque journalière comme novembre et décembre 1825. Cette correspondance est parfois très intime, Madame de Genlis appelle d'ailleurs M. de Montesquiou : "Mon cher Anatole", elle est aussi très en relation avec les idées et les choses du temps. Elle parle beaucoup de magnétisme, de religion, d'éducation bien sûr mais aussi de personnages tels que Voltaire, Talma ou Madame Récamier. Chaque lettre est généralement signée et comporte une à deux pages in-4 avec adresse. On trouve dans l'année 1820 un petit manuscrit de 30 pages intitulé "Cantique des fleurs" fait pour Pulchérie, sa fille(1830). La correspondance d’Anatole de Montesquiou à Madame de Genlis est, elle, conservée aux Archives Nationales.
 * [Genlis], Théâtre à l'usage des jeunes personnes, ou Théâtre de l'éducation, I, Paris: Lambert et Baudoin, 1779; II, III, IV, Paris, 1780; 2v, Paris, 1781 Paris? 1782; Suisse: Libraires associés, 1781, 2v; Paris, 1826, Paris, 1829, 5v; London, 1781; 3v, London, 1783; London, 1787
 * Genlis, Theatre of Education, tr., 3v, London: T. Cadell, 1783
 * [Genlis], Théâtre de Société, Paris/Suisse: Libraires associés, 1780; 2v, 1781; 1782
 * Genlis, Les Annales de la vertu, ou Cours d'histoire à l'usage des jeunes personnes, I, Paris: Lambert et Baudoin, 1781, 2v, Paris, 1782
 * [Genlis], Adèle et Théodore, Paris: Lambert et Baudouin, 1782, 3v; 1804
 * [Genlis], Adèle et Théodore, ou, Lettres sur l'éducation; Contenant tous les principes relatifs aux trois différents plans d'Education, des Princes, des jeunes Personnes, & des Hommes, Maestricht: Dufour et Roux, Imprimeurs-Libraires associés, 1782, 3v
 * Genlis, Adèle and Théodore, London: Cadell, 1788
 * Genlis, Adèle et Théodore, Paris: Crapelet, 1801, 2nd ed.
 * Genlis, Essais sur l'education des hommes, et particulièrement des princes par les femmes, pour servir de supplément aux Lettres sur l'Education, Paris, 1782
 * Genlis?, Deux réputations, attaque contre les philosophes, Paris?, 1784
 * Genlis, Le club des dames, ou le retour de Descartes, comédie en un acte en prose, Paris, 1784
 * Genlis, Les Veillées du château, ou Cours de morale à l'usage des enfants, 2v, Paris: Lambert, 1784
 * Genlis, Tales of the Castle, London, 1785 (Princeton PQ 1985 G5xV413 1785)
 * Genlis, Tales of the Castle, tr., Thomas Holcroft, 4th ed., 5v, London: Robinson, 1793 (NYPL *ZAN) "The Solitary Family of Normandy [Forges]; The Two Reputations; Daphnis and Panrose; The Palace of Truth"
 * Genlis, Contes moraux, Paris: Libraires associés, 1785 (@ Gallica)
 * Genlis, Sacred dramas, London, 1786 (from Old Testament)
 * Genlis, Pièces tirées de l'Ecriture Sainte par Mme de G., Genève, 1787 (from Old Testament)
 * Genlis, La religion considérée comme l'unique base du bonheur et de la véritable philosophie, Paris: Imprimerie polytype, 1787; Paris, 1787; Paris, 1790
 * Genlis, The child of nature (play), London, 1788
 * Genlis, Discours sur l'éducation de Monsieur le Dauphin, Paris: Onfroy, 1790
 * Genlis, Discours sur l'éducation publique du peuple, Paris, 1791
 * Genlis, Discours sur le luxe et l'hospitalité, Paris, 1791
 * Genlis, Discours sur la suppression des couvens de religieuses et l'éducation publique des femmes, Paris, 1791
 * Genlis, Leçons d'une gouvernante à ses élèves, ou Fragmens d'un journal qui a été fait pour l'éducation des enfans de Monsieur d'Orléans, Paris: Onfroy, 1791, 2v
 * Genlis, Lessons of a Governess, London: Robinson, 1792 (Princeton LB 575 G4 A6)
 * Genlis, Les chevaliers du cygne, ou la cour de Charlemagne, 3v, Hamburg: Fauche, 1795; Paris, 1818
 * Genlis, The castle of truth, a moral tale, Philadelphia, 1795
 * Genlis, Précis de la conduite de Madame de Genlis depuis la Révolution..., Hamburg: Hoffmann, 1796 *ZAN-T3340 Reel 36 No. 239
 * Genlis, Epître à l'asile que j'aurai, suivie de deux fables, du chant d'une jeune sauvage, de l'épître à Henriette Sercey et des réflexions d'un ami des talens et des arts, par Mme de Genlis, Hambourg, 1796
 * Genlis, The Knights of the Swan, tr., Beresford, 2v, Dublin: Wogan etc., 1797
 * Genlis, Discours moraux et politiques sur divers sujets, et particulièrement sur l'éducation, 1797
 * Genlis, Tales from the castle, London, 1798; Brattleborough, 1813
 * Genlis, Les petits émigrés, ou Correspondance de quelques enfans: ouvrage fait pour servir à l'éducation de la jeunesse, Paris & Hamburg, 1798; 7e ed., Paris: Lecointe et Durey, 1825, 2v (@ Gallica)
 * Genlis, Réflexions d'un ami des talens et des arts, Paris, an VII, 1798
 * Genlis, Manuel du voyageur, ou recueil de dialogues, de lettres, etc., 2v, Berlin, 1798, 1799; in English, Paris, 1810
 * Genlis, Manuel du voyageur ou Recueil de dialogues, de lettres, etc. ; suivi d'un Itinéraire raisonné à l'usage des françois en Allemagne et des allemands en France / par Madame de Genlis ; avec la trad. allemande par S. H. Catel. http://gallica.bnf.fr/scripts/ConsultationTout.exe?E=3D0&O=3DN102658
 * Genlis, Les Voeux téméraires ou l'enthousiasme, 2v, Hambourg: Pierre Chateauneuf, 1798, 1799
 * Genlis, Herbier moral ou receuil des fables nouvelles et autres pièces fugitives, 2v, Hambourg: Pierre Chateauneuf, 1799; Paris, 1800
 * Genlis, Le petit La Bruyère, Hambourg: Fauche, 1799; Paris: Maradan, 1801
 * Genlis, Les Mères rivales, ou la calomnie, 3v, Berlin: T. de la Garde, 1800; Paris, 1801; Paris: Maradan, 1819
 * Genlis, La Bruyère the Less: or, Characters and manners of the children of the present age, Dublin, 1801
 * Genlis, Nouvelle méthode d'enseignement pour la première jeunesse, Paris: Maradan, 1801
 * Genlis, Nouvelles heures à l'usage des enfants, Paris: Maradan, 1801
 * Genlis, Projet d'une école rurale pour l'éducation des filles, Paris, 1801
 * Genlis, Contes, Bibliothèque des romans, Paris: Maradan, 1801
 * Genlis, Mademoiselle de Clermont, Nouvelle historique, Paris: Maradan, An 10-1802; Paris, 1827, 1844, 1880, 1892
 * Genlis, Mademoiselle de Clermont, Nouvelle historique, ed., Béatrice Didier, Paris: Regine Deforges, 1977
 * Genlis, Nouveaux Contes moraux et Nouvelles historiques, 3v, Paris: Maradan, 1802; 1815–19
 * Genlis, La Philosophie chrétienne, ou extraits tirés des ouvrages de Mme de Genlis terminés par plusieurs chapitres nouveaux (par Demonceaux), Paris, 1802
 * Genlis, Nouvelles, Mercure, XIV, 1803
 * Genlis, L'Epouse impertinente par air, suivie du Mari corrupteur et de La femme philosophe, Paris: Maradan, 1804
 * Genlis, Les souvenirs de Félicie L., Paris: Maradan, 1804; Firmin-Didot, 1882
 * Genlis, La duchesse de la Vallière, 2v, Paris: Maradan, 1804; 10e ed., 2v, Paris: Maradan, 1818; Paris, 1889, 1983
 * Genlis, Réflexions sur la miséricorde de Dieu par Mme de la Vallière suivies de quelques lettres de la même..., Paris: Maradan, 1804
 * Genlis, Nouvelles, Paris, 1804
 * Genlis, Leçons, ou traité élémentaire de dessein..., Leipzig: J.C. Hinrichs, 1805 (Princeton)
 * Genlis, Les Monuments religieux, ou description critique et détaillée des monuments religieux, tableaux, statues, qui se trouvent actuellement en Europe..., Paris: Maradan, 1805
 * Genlis, Etude du coeur humain, d'après Barbier, Paris: Maradan, An XIII 1805
 * Genlis, Le Comte de Corke ou la séduction sans artifice, suivie de six nouvelles, 2v, Paris: Maradan, 1805, 1819
 * Genlis, Le duc de Lauzun, Paris, repr., London: H. Colburn, 1805 (Princeton)
 * Genlis, L'Etude du coeur humain, suivi des cinq premières semaines d'un journal écrit sur les Pyrénées, Paris, 1805
 * Genlis, Madame de Maintenon, pour servir de suite à l'histoire de Mlle de La Vallière, Paris: Maradan, 1806
 * Genlis, Alphonsine, ou La tendresse maternelle, Paris: Maradan, 1806
 * Genlis, Esprit de Mme de Genlis (par Demonceaux), Paris, 1806
 * Genlis, Suite des souvenirs de Félicie (etc.), Paris: Maradan, 1807
 * Genlis, Le siège de La Rochelle ou le Malheur de la conscience, Paris: Nicolle, 1807; : Maradan, 1818 (as opera, with Inchbald, Drury Lane, 1835
 * Genlis, Bélisaire, Paris: Maradan, 1808; London, 1808; Baltimore, 1810
 * Genlis, Sainclair, ou la victime des sciences et des arts, Paris: Maradan, 1808; London: Colburn, 1808; NY, 1813
 * Genlis, The Affecting History of the Duchess of C, (from Adèle et Théodore, v2) NY: Borradaile, 1823; Poughkeepsie, 1809; NY: Duyckinck, 1814
 * Genlis, Alphonse, ou Le fils naturel, Paris: Maradan, 1809
 * Genlis, Arabesques mythologiques, ou Les attributs de toutes les divinités de la fable, 2v, Paris: Barrois, 1810
 * Genlis, La botanique historique et littéraire, Paris: Maradan, 1810
 * Genlis, La Maison rustique pour servir à l'éducation de la jeunesse: ou, Retour en France d'une famille émigrée, 3v, Paris, 1810
 * Genlis, The traveller's companion; containing dialogues and models of letters... In six languages..., Paris: Barrois, 1810
 * Genlis, De l'influence des femmes sur la littérature française comme protectrices des Lettres ou comme auteurs: Précis de l'histoire des femmes françaises les plus célèbres, Paris: Maradan, 1811
 * Genlis, Observations critiques pour servir à l'histoire de la littérature française du XIXe siècle ou Réponse de Mme de Genlis à Messieurs T. et M. et sur les critiques de son dernier ouvrage..., Paris: Maradan, 1811
 * Genlis, Examen critique de l'ouvrage intitulé: Biographie universelle, Paris: Maradan, 1811
 * Genlis, Suite de l'examen critique de l'ouvrage intitulé: Biographie universelle, Paris: Maradan, 1812
 * Genlis, Les bergères de Madian, ou La jeunesse de Moïse, Poème en prose, Paris: Galignani, 1812; Maradan, 1821
 * Genlis, Mademoiselle de Lafayette ou le siècle de Louis XIII, 2v, Paris: Maradan, 1813
 * Genlis, La Feuille des gens du Monde ou le Journal imaginaire, Paris: Eymery, 1813
 * Genlis, Sainclair, or the victim to the arts and sciences, NY, 1813
 * Genlis, Les hermites du Marais Pontins, Paris: Maradan, 1814
 * Genlis, Histoire de Henri le Grand, 2v, Paris: Maradan, 1815
 * Genlis, Les dimanches, ou journal de la jeunesse, Paris, 1dec1815-15fev1817
 * Genlis, Jeanne de France: Nouvelle historique, 2v, Paris: Maradan, 1816
 * Genlis, Le journal de la jeunesse, Paris, 1816
 * Genlis, La religion considérée comme l'unique base du bonheur et de la véritable philosophie, nouvelle (4e) ed., augmentée de quelques notes, Paris: Maradan, 1816
 * Genlis, Les Bat(t)uécas, 2v, Paris: Maradan, 1816
 * Genlis, Les tableaux de M. le comte de Forbin, ou la mort de Pline l'Ancien et Inès de Castro, Paris: Maradan, 1817 (Ines de Castro, Paris, 1826, 1985 ISBN 2715805535)
 * Genlis, Inès de Castro, Toulouse: Ombres, coll. "Petite bibliotheque Ombres", 1995, 160 p
 * Genlis, Zuma, ou la découverte du quinquina, Paris: Maradan, 1817
 * Genlis, Abrégé des Mémoires du marquis de Dangeau, Paris, 1817, 4v
 * Genlis, Dictionnaire critique et raisonné des étiquettes de la cour, des usages du monde, des amusements, des modes, des moeurs, etc... depuis la mort de Louis XIII jusqu'à nos jours, Paris: Mongie, 1818
 * Genlis, Les voyages poétiques d'Eugène et d'Antonine, Paris: Maradan, 1818
 * Genlis, Almanach de la jeunesse en vers et en prose, Paris: Giroux, 1819
 * Genlis, Alphonsine, ou La tendresse maternelle, Paris: Maradan, 1819
 * Genlis, Les parvenus ou les aventures de Julien Delmours, 3v, Paris: C. Baecker, 1819; Lecointe et Durey, 1824
 * Genlis, Pétrarque et Laure, 2v, Paris: Ladvocat, 1819; 3e ed., Paris: 1825
 * Genlis, ed., Rousseau, Emile, 3v, Paris: Maradan, 1820, 3v
 * Genlis, Petrarch and Laura, London, 1820, 2v in one
 * Genlis, Petrarch and Laura, translated from the French, Sir Richard Phillips & Co 1820.
 * Genlis, Catéchisme critique et moral de l'abbé Flévier de Reval (Feller), 2v, Paris, 1820
 * Genlis, L'Intrépide, nos 1-9, Paris, 1820
 * Genlis, ed., Voltaire, Le Siècle de Louis XIV, 3v, Paris?, 1820
 * Genlis, Palmyre et Flaminie, ou, Le Secret, 2e ed., 2v, Paris: Maradan, 1821
 * Genlis, Prières ou Manuel de piété proposé à tous les fidèles et particulièrement aux maisons d'Education, Paris: Maradan, 1821
 * Genlis, Six nouvelles morales et religieuses, Paris: Janet, nd (1821)
 * Genlis, Isaac, comédie en deux actes, Paris, 1821
 * Genlis, Les jeux champêtres des Enfants: Contes de fées, Paris: Marc, nd (1821)
 * Genlis, Les dîners du baron d'Holbach, Paris: Trouvé, 1822
 * Genlis, Les veillées de la chaumière, Paris: Lecointe, 1823
 * Genlis, Mémoires de la marquise de Bonchamps sur la Vendée, Paris, 1823
 * Genlis, Les Prisonniers, contenant six nouvelles..., Paris: Bertrand, 1824
 * Genlis, De l'emploi du temps, Paris: Bertrand, 1824
 * Genlis, Les Athées conséquents ou Mémoires du commandeur de Linanges, Paris: Trouvé, 1824
 * Genlis, "Notice sur Carmontel" in Proverbes et comédies posthumes de Carmontel, Paris: Ladvocat, 1825
 * Genlis, Mémoires inédits, 10v, Paris: Ladvocat, 1825-28 *ZAN-T3340 Reel 130-31 No. 853
 * Genlis, Théresina ou l'Enfant de la Providence, Paris: Ladvocat, 1826
 * Genlis, Le La Bruyère des domestiques, 2v, Paris: Thiercelin, 1828
 * Genlis, Le dernier voyage de Nelgis ou Mémoires d'un vieillard, Paris: Roux, 1828
 * Genlis, Eugène and Lolotte, a tale for children, Boston, 1828
 * Genlis, Etrennes politiques pour 1828. Lettre au duc d'Orléans, Paris, 1828
 * Genlis, Les Soupers de la Maréchale de Luxembourg, 2e ed., Paris: Roux, 1828, 3v
 * Genlis, Manuel de la jeune femme: Guide complet de la maîtresse de maison, Paris: Béchet, 1829
 * Genlis, Athénaïs, ou le chateau de Coppet en 1807, Paris, 1832
 * Genlis, Lettres de Madame de Genlis à son fils adoptif, in Minerva, Paris, 1903
 * Genlis, Madame de Genlis et la Grande-Duchesse Elisa, Paris: Paul, 1912
 * Genlis, Mémoires, Paris: Barba, 18??
 * Genlis, Mémoires de Madame de Genlis (en un volume), Paris: Firmin-Didot, 1878
 * Genlis, The Unpublished correspondence of Mme de Genlis and Margaret Chinnery and related documents in the Chinnery family papers, Oxford: Voltaire Foundation, SVEC 2003:02), ed., Denise Yim.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Stéphanie Félicité, comtesse de Genlis


text:
Madame de Montesson

Charlotte-Jeanne Béraud de La Haye de Riou (4 October 1738 – 6 February 1806) was a mistress to Louis Philippe d'Orléans, Duke of Orléans, and ultimately, his wife; however, Louis XV would not allow her to become the Duchess. She wrote and acted in several plays. She is known simply as Madame de Montesson.

Life
Charlotte-Jeanne Béraud de La Haye de Riou was born in Paris of an old Breton family.

On 11 October 1757, she married the seventy-year-old widower Jean Baptiste, Marquis of Montesson, who died in 1769. Her beauty and intelligence attracted the attention of the widowed Louis Philippe d'Orléans, the fat (his wife Louise Henriette de Bourbon had died in 1759), whom she secretly married in 1773 with the authorisation of Louis XV of France. After her marriage to the Duke of Orléans, a member of the royal family and a Prince du Sang, her low rank did not allow her the title of Duchess of Orléans.

For her husband's amusement and her own, she set up a little theater and wrote several plays, in the acting of which she herself took part.

She was arrested on 20 April 1793 (1 floréal an II of the Republican calendar) during the Terror, and first imprisoned in the La Force prison in Paris. She was released on 28 September 1794 (after the fall of Maximilien Robespierre), befriended Joséphine de Beauharnais, and was a prominent figure at the beginning of the empire.

Works
The best edition of her works appeared under the title of Œuvres anonymes in 1782–1785. See Charles Collé, Journal (1868); the Memoirs of St Simon, Madame de Genlis, the duchesse d'Abrantes and Mme de Levis; G Strenger, "La Société de la marquise de Montesson," in the Nouvelle revue (1902); J Turquan, Madame de Montesson douairière d'Orléans (Paris, 1904); and G. Capon and R Yves-Plessis, Les Théâtres clandestins du xviii' siècle (1904).

title: Madame de Montesson


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Piper PA-23

The Piper PA-23, named Apache and later Aztec, is an American four- to six-seat twin-engined light aircraft aimed at the general aviation market. The United States Navy and military forces in other countries also used it in small numbers. Originally designed as the Twin Stinson in the 1950s by the Stinson Aircraft Company, Piper Aircraft manufactured the Apache and a more powerful version, the Aztec, in the United States from the 1950s to the 1980s.

Design and development
The PA-23 was the first twin-engined Piper aircraft, and was developed from a proposed "Twin Stinson" design, inherited when Piper bought the Stinson Division of the Consolidated Vultee Aircraft Corporation. The prototype PA-23 was a four-seat, low-wing, all-metal monoplane with a twin tail, powered by two 125 hp Lycoming O-290-D piston engines; it first flew on March 2, 1952. The aircraft performed badly, so it was redesigned with a single vertical stabilizer and an all-metal rear fuselage and more powerful 150 hp Lycoming O-320-A engines.

Apache
(ICAO code: PA23)

Two new prototypes of the redesigned aircraft, now named Apache, were built in 1953 and entered production in 1954; 1,231 were built. In 1958, the Apache 160 was produced by upgrading the engines to 160 hp (119 kW); 816 were built. The Apache 160 was superseded in 1962 by the Aztec-derived Apache 235. With a 1962 price of $45,000, the Apache 235 featured the Aztec's 235 hp (175 kW) engines and swept tail surfaces (119 built).

Aztec
(ICAO code: PA27) In 1959, Piper produced an upgraded version with 250 hp (186 kW) Lycoming O-540 engines and a swept vertical tail as the PA-23-250, and named it Aztec. The first models came in a five-seat configuration. In 1961, a longer-nosed variant, the Aztec B, entered production. Later Aztecs were equipped with Lycoming IO-540 fuel-injected engines and six-seat capacity, and remained in production until 1982. Turbocharged versions of the later models could fly at higher altitudes.

The United States Navy acquired 20 Aztecs, designating them UO-1, which changed to U-11A when unified designations were adopted in 1962.

In 1974, Piper produced a single experimental PA-41P Pressurized Aztec concept. This concept was short-lived, however, as the aspects of the Aztec that made it so popular for its spacious interior and ability to haul large loads did not lend themselves well to supporting the sealed pressure vessel required for a pressurized aircraft. The project was scrapped, and the one pressurized Aztec produced, N9941P, was donated to Mississippi State University, where it was used for testing purposes. In 2000, N9941P was donated to the Piper Aviation Museum in Lock Haven, Pennsylvania, on the condition that it never be flown again. It is now there on display.

Apache

 * PA-23 Twin-Stinson
 * Original designation of the Piper PA-23 Apache

 * PA-23 Apache
 * Initial production version, 2047 built (including the Apache E, G and H)

 * PA-23-150 Apache B
 * 1955 variant with minor changes

 * PA-23-150 Apache C
 * 1956 variant with minor changes

 * PA-23-150 Apache D
 * 1957 variant with minor changes

 * PA-23-160 Apache E
 * PA-23 powered by two 160 hp O-320-B engines

 * PA-23-160 Apache G
 * PA-23 with longer internal cabin and extra window

 * PA-23-160 Apache H
 * Apache G with O-320-B2B engines and minor changes

 * PA-23-235 Apache 235
 * Apache with five seats and 235 hp O-540 engines, 118 built

 * Seguin Geronimo
 * Apache with a series of modifications to the engines, nose, and tail

Aztec

 * Apache G with modified rear fuselage, new fin and rudder and 250hp Lycoming O-540-A1D engines, 4811 built (including subvariants)
 * Apache G with modified rear fuselage, new fin and rudder and 250hp Lycoming O-540-A1D engines, 4811 built (including subvariants)

 * PA-23-250 Aztec B
 * 1962-1964. Aztec with longer nose for a baggage compartment; six seats, new instrument panel and changes to systems.

 * PA-23-250 Aztec C and Aztec C Turbo
 * 1964-1968. Aztec B with either IO-540-C4B5 engines or turbocharged TIO-540-C1A as an option, also modified engine nacelles and modified landing gear.

 * PA-23-250 Aztec D and Aztec D Turbo
 * 1969-1970. Aztec C with revised instrument panel and controls.

 * PA-23-250 Aztec E and Aztec E Turbo
 * 1971-1975. Aztec D with longer pointed nose and a single-piece windshield.

 * PA-23-250 Aztec F and Aztec F Turbo
 * 1976-1981. Aztec E with improved systems and cambered wingtips and tailplane tip extensions.

 * U-11A
 * United States Navy designation formerly UO-1.

 * UO-1
 * United States Navy designation for PA-23-250 Aztec with additional equipment; 20 delivered, later re-designated U-11A.

 * PA-41P Pressurized Aztec
 * Pressurized Aztec concept, one built.

Military operators

 * 🇦🇴 Angola
 * Public Force of Costa Rica
 * Fuezas Aéreas Ejército de Cuba
 * Guatemalan Air Force
 * Honduran Air Force
 * Haitian Air Force
 * Nicaraguan Air Force
 * Spanish Air Force
 * Escuadrón 912
 * Escuadrilla de Enlace 905
 * Paraguayan Air Force
 * Grupo Aéreo de Transporte Especial/GATE
 * Air Operations Element, Papua New Guinea Defence Force - former operator
 * United States Navy
 * 🇺🇾 Uruguay
 * Uruguayan Air Force
 * Haitian Air Force
 * Nicaraguan Air Force
 * Spanish Air Force
 * Escuadrón 912
 * Escuadrilla de Enlace 905
 * Paraguayan Air Force
 * Grupo Aéreo de Transporte Especial/GATE
 * Air Operations Element, Papua New Guinea Defence Force - former operator
 * United States Navy
 * 🇺🇾 Uruguay
 * Uruguayan Air Force
 * Grupo Aéreo de Transporte Especial/GATE
 * Air Operations Element, Papua New Guinea Defence Force - former operator
 * United States Navy
 * 🇺🇾 Uruguay
 * Uruguayan Air Force
 * United States Navy
 * 🇺🇾 Uruguay
 * Uruguayan Air Force
 * Uruguayan Air Force

Accidents and incidents

 * On 21 March 1964, a Piper PA-23-160 Apache (G-ASHC) crashed on its approach to the Aintree racecourse, near Liverpool, England, killing all 5 on board. The flight had taken off from Luton Airport and included broadcaster Nancy Spain, who was covering the Grand National, and her friend Joan Werner Laurie, who was learning to fly. The CAA accident report stated that passenger interference could not be ruled out as a cause of the accident.
 * On 18 July 1967, Aztec C PP-ETT was hit by a Lockheed T-33 of the Brazilian Air Force near Mondubim, Brazil, killing former Brazilian President Humberto de Alencar Castelo Branco.
 * On 18 April 1974, Aztec G-AYDE collided with Court Line Flight 95, a BAC One-Eleven, at London Luton Airport after the pilot of the Aztec entered the active runway without clearance. He was killed and his passenger was injured. All 91 people on board the One-Eleven successfully evacuated after the takeoff was aborted.
 * On 29 November 1975, retired Formula One racing driver and Embassy Hill team owner Graham Hill was piloting a Piper PA-23-250 Turbo Aztec D, marked as N6645Y, from Circuit Paul Ricard, France, to London, United Kingdom. His passengers were Embassy Hill race driver Tony Brise, team manager Ray Brimble, designer Andy Smallman, and mechanics Terry Richards and Tony Alcock. While on approach to land at Elstree Airfield, Hertfordshire, shortly before 10 pm, the aircraft hit trees on a golf course at Arkley, Hertfordshire in thick fog. The ensuing crash and explosion killed everyone on board.
 * On 15 April 1978, Hollywood stunt flyer Frank Tallman was ferrying a Piper Aztec from Santa Monica Airport, California, to Phoenix, Arizona under visual flight rules when he continued the flight into deteriorating weather, a lowering ceiling, and rain. He struck the side of Santiago Peak in the Santa Ana Mountains near Trabuco Canyon at cruise altitude, dying in the ensuing crash.

title: Piper PA-23


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Robert F. Kennedy Bridge

The Robert F. Kennedy Bridge (RFK Bridge; also known by its previous name, the Triborough Bridge) is a complex of bridges and elevated expressway viaducts in New York City. The bridges link the boroughs of Manhattan, Queens, and the Bronx. The viaducts cross Randalls and Wards Islands, previously two islands and now joined by landfill.

The RFK Bridge, a toll bridge, carries Interstate 278 (I-278) as well as the unsigned highway New York State Route 900G. It connects with the FDR Drive and the Harlem River Drive in Manhattan, the Bruckner Expressway (I-278) and the Major Deegan Expressway (Interstate 87) in the Bronx, and the Grand Central Parkway (I-278) and Astoria Boulevard in Queens. The three primary bridges of the RFK Bridge complex are:

 * The vertical-lift bridge over the Harlem River, the largest in the world, connecting Manhattan Island to Randalls Island (all within Manhattan)
 * The truss bridge over Bronx Kill, connecting Randalls Island to the Bronx
 * The suspension bridge over Hell Gate (a strait of the East River), connecting Wards Island to Astoria in Queens

These three bridges are connected by an elevated highway viaduct across Randalls and Wards Islands and 14 mi of support roads. The viaduct includes a smaller span across the former site of Little Hell Gate, which separated Randalls and Wards Islands. Also part of the complex is a grade-separated T-interchange on Randalls Island, which sorted out traffic in a way that ensured that drivers paid a toll at only one bank of tollbooths. The tollbooths have since been removed, and all tolls are collected electronically at the approaches to each bridge.

The bridge complex was designed by Allston Dana with the collaboration of Othmar Ammann and architect Aymar Embury II, and has been called "not a bridge so much as a traffic machine, the largest ever built". The American Society of Civil Engineers designated the Triborough Bridge Project as a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark in 1986. The bridge is owned and operated by MTA Bridges and Tunnels (formally the Triborough Bridge and Tunnel Authority, or TBTA), an affiliate of the Metropolitan Transportation Authority.

Description
The RFK Bridge is made of four segments. The three primary spans traverse the East River to Queens; the Harlem River to Manhattan; and Bronx Kill to the Bronx, while the fourth is a T-shaped approach viaduct that leads to an interchange plaza between the three primary spans on Randalls Island. The Queens arm of the viaduct formerly crossed Little Hell Gate, a creek located between Randalls Island to the north and Wards Island to the south. Excluding elevated ramps, the segments are a total of 17,710 ft long, with a 13,560 ft span between the Bronx and Queens, and a 4,150 ft span between Manhattan and the interchange plaza. In total, the bridge contains 17.5 mi of roadway, including elevated ramps.

The bridge was primarily designed by chief engineer Othmar H. Ammann and architect Aymar Embury II. Wharton Green served as the Public Works Administration (PWA)'s resident engineer for the project.

East River suspension bridge (I-278)
The East River span, a suspension bridge across the Hell Gate of the East River, connects Queens with Wards Island. It carries eight lanes of Interstate 278, four in each direction, as well as a sidewalk on the northeastern side. The span connects to Grand Central Parkway, and indirectly to the Brooklyn–Queens Expressway (I-278), in Astoria, Queens. Originally it connected to the intersection of 25th Avenue and 31st Street; the former was later renamed Hoyt Avenue. The suspension span was designed by chief engineer Othmar Ammann. The span was originally designed to be double-decked, with eight lanes on each deck. When the construction of the Triborough Bridge was paused in 1932 due to lack of funding, the suspension span was downsized to a single deck. There are Warren trusses on each side of the span, which stiffen the deck.

The center span between the two suspension towers is 1,380 ft long, and the side spans between the suspension towers and the anchorages are each 700 ft long. The total length of the bridge is 2,780 ft, and the deck is 98 ft wide. The columns under the Wards Island approach roadway were originally placed atop 400,000 steel ball bearings, allowing the roadway to move sideways by up to 13.25 in in either direction.

At mean high water, the towers are 315 ft tall, and there is 143 ft of clearance under the middle of the main span. The suspension towers were originally designed by Arthur I. Perry. Each tower was supposed to have two ornate arches at the top, similar to the Brooklyn Bridge, and was to have been supported by four legs: two on the outside and two in the center. A 1932 article described that each tower would be made of 5,000 tons of material, including 3,680 tons of steel. The final design of the suspension towers, by Ammann, consists of comparatively simple cross bracing supported by two legs. The tops of each tower contain cast iron saddles in the Art Deco style, over which the bridge's main cables run. These are topped by 30 ft decorative lanterns with red aircraft warning lights.

The span is supported by two main cables, which suspend the deck and are held up by the suspension towers. Each cable is 20 in in diameter and contains 10,800 mi of individual wires. Each main cable is composed of 37 strands of 248 wires, for a total of 9,176 wires in each cable. The wires are fastened together by "strand shoes", placed at regular intervals. At the Wards Island and Astoria ends of the suspension span, there are two anchorages that hold the main cables. The anchorages contain a combined 133,500 tons of concrete. There are also bents atop each anchorage, which conceal the ends of each main cable.

Harlem River lift bridge (NY 900G)
The Harlem River span is a lift bridge that connects Manhattan with Randalls Island, designed by chief engineer Ammann. It carries six lanes of New York State Route 900G (NY 900G), an unsigned reference route, as well as two sidewalks, one on each side. The span connects to FDR Drive and Harlem River Drive, as well as the intersection of Second Avenue and East 125th Street, in East Harlem, Manhattan. At the time of its completion, the Harlem River lift bridge had the largest deck of any lift bridge in the world, with a surface area of 20,000 sqft. To lighten the deck, it was made of asphalt paved onto steel girders, rather than of concrete.

The movable span is 310 ft long and 92 ft wide. The side spans between the movable span and the approach viaducts are each 195 ft long. The total length of the bridge is 700 ft. The towers are 210 ft above mean high water. Each of the lift towers is supported by two clusters of four columns, which supports the bridge deck. A curved truss at the top of each pair of column clusters forms an arch directly underneath the deck.

The lift span is 55 ft above mean high water in the "closed" position, but can be raised to 135 ft. The movable section is suspended by a total of 96 wire ropes, which are wrapped around pulleys with 15 ft diameters. These pulleys, in turn, are powered by four motors that can operate at 200 hp.

Exit list
NY 900G is officially maintained as a north–south route, despite its largely east-west progression.

Bronx Kill crossing (I-278)

The Bronx Kill span is a truss bridge that connects the Bronx with Randalls Island. It carries eight lanes of I-278, as well as two sidewalks, one on each side. The span connects to Major Deegan Expressway (I-87) and the Bruckner Expressway (I-278) in Mott Haven, Bronx. It originally connected to the intersection of East 134th Street and Cypress Avenue, a site now occupied by the interchange between I-87 and I-278. The truss span was designed by consulting engineers Ash-Howard-Needles and Tammen.

The Bronx Kill span contains three main truss crossings, which are fixed spans because the Bronx Kill is not used by regular boat traffic. The main truss span across the Bronx Kill is 383 ft long, while the approaches are a combined 1,217 ft. The total length of the bridge is 1,600 ft. The truss span is 55 ft above mean high water.

Interchange plaza and approach viaducts
The three spans of the RFK Bridge intersect at a grade-separated T-interchange on Randalls Island. The span to Manhattan intersects perpendicularly with the I-278 viaduct between the Bronx and Queens spans. Although I-278 is signed as a west-east highway, the orientation of I-278 on the bridge is closer to a north-south alignment, with the southbound roadway carrying westbound traffic, and the northbound roadway carrying eastbound traffic. Two circular ramps carry traffic to and from eastbound I-278 and the RFK lift bridge to Manhattan. Randalls and Wards Islands are accessed via exits and entrances to and from westbound I-278; to and from the westbound lift bridge viaduct; to eastbound I-278; and from the eastbound lift bridge viaduct. Eastbound traffic on I-278 accesses the island by first exiting onto the lift bridge viaduct.

The interchange plaza originally contained two tollbooths: one for traffic traveling to and from Manhattan, and one for traffic traveling on I-278 between the Bronx and Queens. The tollbooths were arranged so vehicles only paid one toll upon entering Randalls and Wards Islands, and there was no charge to exit the island. The elevated toll plazas had a surface area of about 9 acre and were supported by 1,700 columns, all hidden behind a concrete retaining wall. In 2017, the MTA started collecting all tolls electronically at the approaches to each bridge, and the tollbooths were removed from the toll plazas on the RFK Bridge and all other MTA Bridges and Tunnels crossings.

The Robert Moses Administration Building, a two-story Art Deco structure designed by Embury, served as the headquarters of the TBTA (now the MTA's Bridges and Tunnels division). The building was next to the Manhattan span's plaza, to which it was connected. In 1969, the Manhattan span's toll plaza was relocated west and the I-278 toll plaza was relocated south, and both toll plazas were expanded more than threefold. This required the destruction of the building's original towers. A room was built in 1966 to store Moses's models and blueprints of planned roads and crossings, but they were relocated to the MTA's headquarters at 2 Broadway in the 1980s. The building was renamed after Moses in 1989.

The interchange plaza connects with the over-water spans via a three-legged concrete viaduct that has a total length of more than 2.5 mi. The segments of the viaduct rest atop steel girders, which in turn are placed perpendicularly between concrete piers spaced 60 to 140 ft apart. Each pier is supported by a set of three octagonal columns. The viaduct is mostly eight lanes wide, except at the former locations of the toll plazas, where it widens. The viaduct once traversed Little Hell Gate, a small creek that formerly separated Randalls Island to the north and Wards Island to the south; the waterway has since been filled in. The viaduct rose 62 ft above the mean high water of Little Hell Gate.

Initial plans
Edward A. Byrne, chief engineer of the New York City Department of Plant and Structures, first announced plans for connecting Manhattan, Queens and the Bronx in 1916. The next year, the Harlem Boards of Trade and Commerce and the Harlem Luncheon Association announced their support for such a bridge, which was proposed to cost $10 million. The "Tri-Borough Bridge", as it was called, would connect 125th Street in Manhattan, St. Ann's Avenue in the Bronx, and an as-yet-undetermined location in Queens. It would parallel the Hell Gate Bridge, a railroad bridge connecting Queens and the Bronx via Randalls and Wards Islands. Plans for the Tri-Borough Bridge were bolstered by the 1919 closure of a ferry between Yorkville in Manhattan and Astoria in Queens.

A bill to construct the bridge was proposed in the New York State Legislature in 1920. Gustav Lindenthal, who had designed the Hell Gate Bridge, criticized the Tri-Borough plan as "uncalled for", as the new Tri-Borough Bridge would parallel the existing Hell Gate Bridge. He stated that the Hell Gate Bridge could be retrofitted with an upper deck for vehicular and pedestrian use. Queens borough president Maurice K. Connolly also opposed the bridge, arguing that there was no need to construct a span between Queens and the Bronx due to low demand. Connolly also said that a bridge between Queens and Manhattan needed to be built further downstream, closer to the Queensboro Bridge, which at the time was the only bridge between the two boroughs.

The Port of New York Authority included the proposed Tri-Borough Bridge in a report to the New York state legislature in 1921. The following year, the planned bridge was also included in a "transit plan" published by Mayor John Francis Hylan, who called for the construction of the Tri-Borough Bridge as part of the city-operated Independent Subway System (see ). In March 1923, a vote was held on whether to allocate money to perform surveys and test borings, as well as create structural plans for the Tri-Borough Bridge. The borough presidents of Manhattan and the Bronx voted for the allocation of the funds, while the presidents of Queens and Staten Island agreed with Hylan, who preferred the construction of the new subway system instead of the Tri-Borough Bridge. The bridge allocation was ultimately not approved. Another attempt at obtaining funds was declined in 1924, although there was a possibility that the bridge could be built based on assessment plans that were being procured.

Funding
The Tri-Borough Bridge project finally received funding in June 1925, when the city appropriated $50,000 for surveys, test borings and structural plans. Work started on a tentative design for the bridge. By December 1926, the $50,000 allotment had been spent on bores. Around the same time, the proposal to convert the Hell Gate Bridge resurfaced. Albert Goldman, the Commissioner of Plant and Structures, had finished a tentative report for the Tri-Borough Bridge by that time; however, it was not immediately submitted to the New York City Board of Estimate as a result of a reorganization of the city's proposed budget. Goldman finally published the report in March 1927, stating that the bridge was estimated to cost $24.6 million. He explained that the Hell Gate Bridge only had enough space for five lanes of roadway, so a new bridge would have to be constructed parallel to it.

Though two mayoral committees endorsed the Tri-Borough plan, as did several merchants' associations, construction was delayed for a year because of a lack of funds. The Board of Estimate did approve $150,000 in May 1927 for preliminary borings and soundings. That September, a group of entrepreneurs proposed to fund the bridge privately. Under this plan, the bridge would be set up as a toll bridge, and ownership would be transferred to the city once the bridge was paid for. In August 1928, Mayor Jimmy Walker received a similar proposal from the Long Island Board of Commerce to build the Tri-Borough Bridge using $32 million of private capital. The Queens Chamber of Commerce also favored setting up tolls on the bridge to pay for its construction. Yet another plan called for financing the bridge using proceeds from a bond issue, which would also pay for the proposed Queens–Midtown Tunnel.

The Tri-Borough Bridge was being planned in conjunction with the Brooklyn–Queens Expressway, which would create a continuous highway between the Bronx and Brooklyn with a southward extension over The Narrows to Staten Island. In January 1929, New York City aldermanic president Joseph V. McKee endorsed the bridge, saying there was enough funding to begin one of four proposed bridges on the expressway's route. The newly elected borough president of Queens, George U. Harvey, also endorsed the bridge, as did Brooklyn Chamber of Commerce leader George Vincent McLaughlin. Trade groups petitioned Mayor Walker to take up the bridge's construction. By the end of the month, Walker acquiesced, and he had included both the Tri-Borough Bridge and a tunnel under the Narrows in his 10-year traffic program. The preliminary borings were completed by late February 1929. The results of the preliminary borings showed that the bedrock in the ground underneath the proposed bridge was sufficient to support the spans' foundations.

In early March, the Board of Estimate voted to start construction on the bridge and on the Narrows tunnel once funding was obtained. The same month, the board allocated $3 million toward the bridge's construction. Separately, the Board of Estimate voted to create an authority to impose toll charges on both crossings. In April 1929, the New York state legislature voted to approve the Tri-Borough Bridge as well as a prison on Rikers Island before adjourning for the fiscal year. The same month, New York state governor Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the bill to approve the relocation of about 700 beds in Wards Island's mental hospital, which were in the way of the proposed bridge's suspension span to Queens. The New York state legislature later approved a bill that provided for the relocation of the Queens span's Wards Island end, 1100 ft to the west, thereby preserving hospital buildings from demolition.

Finalization of plans
The bridge was ultimately planned to cost $24 million and was planned to start construction in August 1929. By July, the groundbreaking was scheduled for September. The preliminary Triborough Bridge proposal comprised four bridges: a suspension span across the East River to Queens; a truss span across Bronx Kill to the Bronx; a fixed span across the Harlem River to Manhattan; and a steel arch viaduct across the no-longer-extant Little Hell Gate between Randalls and Wards Islands.

In August 1929, plans for the bridge were submitted to the United States Department of War for approval to ensure that the proposed Tri-Borough Bridge would not block any maritime navigation routes. Railroad and shipping groups objected that the proposed Harlem River span, with a height of 50 ft above mean high water, was too short for most ships, and suggested building a 135 ft suspension span over the Harlem River instead. Because of complaints about maritime navigational clearance, the Department of War approved an increase in the Harlem River fixed bridge's height to 55 ft, as well as an increase in the length of the Hell Gate suspension bridge's main span from 1100 to 1380 ft.

Initial construction
The scale of the Triborough Bridge project, including its approaches, was such that hundreds of large apartment buildings were demolished to make way for it. The structure used concrete from factories "from Maine to the Mississippi", and steel from 50 mills in Pennsylvania. To make the formwork for pouring the concrete, a forest's worth of trees on the Pacific Coast was cut down. Robert Caro, the author of a biography on Long Island State Parks commissioner and Triborough Bridge and Tunnel Authority chairman Robert Moses, wrote about the project:"Triborough was not a bridge so much as a traffic machine, the largest ever built. The amount of human energy expended in its construction gives some idea of its immensity: more than five thousand men would be working at the site, and these men would only be putting into place the materials furnished by the labor of many times five thousand men; before the Triborough Bridge was completed, its construction would have generated more than 31,000,000 man-hours of work in 134 cities in twenty states."

First contracts
The Board of Estimate approved the first contracts for the Triborough Bridge in early October 1929, specifically for the construction bridge piers on Randalls and Wards Islands and in Queens. This allowed for the start of construction on the Triborough Bridge's suspension span to Queens. A groundbreaking ceremony was held in Astoria Park, Queens, on October 25, 1929, just a day after Black Thursday, which started the Great Depression. Mayor Walker turned over the first spadeful of dirt for the bridge in front of 10,000 visitors. After the groundbreaking ceremony, further construction was delayed because the company originally contracted to build the piers, the Albert A. Volk Company, refused to carry out the contract. In early December, the contract for the piers was reassigned to the McMullen Company. Meanwhile, the Board was condemning the land in the path of the bridge's approaches. However, this process was also postponed because homeowners wanted to sell their property to the city at exceedingly high prices.

The War Department gave its approval to the Bronx Kills, East River, and Little Hell Gate spans in late April 1930, after construction was already underway on the Queens suspension span across the East River. A week later, the War Department also approved the Harlem River span, with another amendment: the span was now a movable lift bridge, which could be raised to allow maritime traffic to pass. Shortly afterward, a special mayoral committee sanctioned a $5 million expenditure for the Triborough project, and in July 1930, a $5 million bond issue to fund the Triborough Bridge's construction was passed.

Plans for an expressway to connect to the bridge's Queens end were also filed in July 1930. This later became the Brooklyn Queens Expressway, which was connected to the bridge via the Grand Central Parkway. There were also proposals for an expressway to connect to the Bronx end of the bridge along Southern Boulevard. Robert Moses, the Long Island state parks commissioner, wanted to expand Grand Central Parkway from its western terminus at the time, Union Turnpike in Kew Gardens, Queens, northwest to the proposed bridge. The Brooklyn-Queens Expressway proposal, which would create a highway from the Queens end of the bridge to Queens Boulevard in Woodside, Queens, was also considered.

A contract to build the suspension anchorage on Wards Island was awarded in January 1931. At the time, progress on the bridge approaches was proceeding rapidly, and it was expected that the entire Triborough Bridge complex would be completed in 1934. By August 1931, it was reported that the Wards Island anchorage was 33% completed, and that the corresponding anchorage on the Queens side was 15% completed. Work on drainage dikes, as well as contracts for bridge approach piers, were also progressing. A report the next month indicated that the overall project was 6% completed, and that another $2.45 million in contracts was planned to be awarded over the following year. In October, contracts for constructing the bridge piers were advertised. By December 1931, the project was 15% completed, and the city was accepting designs for the Queens span's suspension towers. The granite foundations in the water near each bank of the East River, which would support the suspension towers, were completed in early or mid-1932. At the time, there were no funds to build six additional piers on Randalls Island and one in Little Hell Gate, nor were there funds to build the suspension towers themselves.

Funding issues
The Great Depression severely impacted the city's ability to finance the Triborough Bridge's construction. City comptroller Charles W. Berry had stated in February 1930 that the city was in sound financial condition, even though other large cities were nearing bankruptcy. However, the New York City government was running out of money by that July. The Triborough project's outlook soon began to look bleak. Chief engineer Othmar Ammann was enlisted to help guide the project, but the combination of Tammany Hall graft, the stock market crash, and the Great Depression which followed it, brought the project to a virtual halt. Investors shied away from purchasing the municipal bonds needed to fund it.

By early 1932, the Triborough Bridge project was in danger of cancellation. As part of $213 million in cuts to the city's budget, Berry wanted to halt construction on the span in order to avoid a $43.7 million budget shortage by the end of that year. With no new contracts being awarded, the chief engineer of the Department of Plant and Structures, Edward A. Byrne, warned in March 1932 that construction on the Triborough Bridge would have to be halted. Though Queens borough president Harvey objected to the impending postponement of the bridge's construction, the project was still included in the $213 million worth of budget cuts. Following this, Goldman submitted a proposal to fund the planning stages for the remaining portions of construction, so that work could resume immediately once sufficient funding was available.

In August 1932, Senator Robert F. Wagner announced that he would ask for a $26 million loan from the federal government, namely President Herbert Hoover's Reconstruction Finance Corporation, so there could be funds for the construction of both the Triborough Bridge and Queens-Midtown Tunnel. Queens borough president Harvey also went to the RFC to ask for funding for the bridge. Soon after, the RFC moved to prepare the loan for the Triborough Bridge project. However, when Mayor Walker resigned suddenly in September 1932, his successor Joseph V. McKee refused to seek RFC or other federal aid for the two projects, stating, "If we go to Washington for funds to complete the Triborough Bridge [...] where would we draw the line?" Governor Al Smith agreed, saying that such requests were unnecessary because the bridge could pay for itself. Harvey continued to push for federal funding for the Triborough Bridge, prioritizing its completion over other projects such as the development of Jamaica Bay in southern Queens. Civic groups also advocated for the city to apply for RFC funding.

In February 1933, a nine-person committee, appointed by Lehman and chaired by Moses, applied to the RFC for a $150 million loan for projects in New York state, including the Triborough Bridge. However, although the RFC favored a loan for the Triborough project, the new mayor, John P. O'Brien, banned the RFC from giving loans to the city. Instead, O'Brien wanted to create a bridge authority to sell bonds to pay for the construction of the Triborough Bridge as well as for the Queens-Midtown Tunnel. Robert Moses was also pushing the state legislature to create an authority to fund, build, and operate the Triborough Bridge. A bill to create the Triborough Bridge Authority (TBA) passed quickly through both houses of the state legislature, and was signed by Governor Herbert H. Lehman that April. The bill included a provision that the authority could sell up to $35 million in bonds and fund the remainder of construction through bridge tolls. George Gordon Battle, a Tammany Hall attorney, was appointed as chairman of the new authority, and three commissioners were appointed.

Shortly after the TBA bill was signed, the War Department extended its deadline for the Triborough Bridge's completion by three years, to April 28, 1936. Lehman also signed bills to clear land for a bridge approach in the Bronx, and he promised to resume construction of the bridge. That May, the TBA asked the RFC for a $35 million loan to pay for the bridge. The RFC ultimately agreed in August to grant $44.2 million, to be composed of a loan of $37 million, as well as a $7.2 million subsidy. However, the loan would only be given under a condition that 18,000 workers be hired first, so the city's Board of Estimate voted to hire 18,000 workers to work on the Triborough project. The funds for the Triborough Bridge, as well as for the Lincoln Tunnel from Manhattan to New Jersey, were ready by the beginning of September.

Construction resumes

The city purchased land in the path of the Triborough Bridge in September 1933, and construction on the Triborough Bridge resumed that November. By January 1934, contracts were being prepared for the completion of the suspension span and the construction of the other three spans; one of these contracts included the construction of the bridge's piers. That February, the TBA contemplated condensing the Queens span's 16-lane, double-deck roadway into an 8-lane, single deck road, as well as simplify the suspension towers' designs, to save $5 million. According to the agency, it would take 40 years for the bridge to reach a level of traffic where all sixteen lanes were needed. In April, a new plan was approved that would reduce the bridge's cost from $51 million to $42 million. Chief engineer Ammann had decided to collapse the original design's two-deck roadway into one, requiring lighter towers and lighter piers. The steel company constructing the towers challenged the TBA's decision in an appellate court, but the court ruled in favor of the TBA.

1934 progress
By January 1934, the TBA was in turmoil: one of the TBA's commissioners had resigned, and New York City Mayor Fiorello H. La Guardia was trying another TBA commissioner, John Stratton O'Leary, for corruption. The TBA's general counsel also resigned. As a result, Public Works Administration (PWA) administrator Harold L. Ickes refused to distribute more of the RFC grant until the existing funds could be accounted for. Ickes also warned that he would cancel the RFC grant if the political disputes regarding the TBA were not cleared up. After O'Leary was removed, La Guardia appointed Moses to fill O'Leary's position, and Ickes also promised to give $1.5 million toward the bridge's construction, which the city received that March. Moses became the chairman of the TBA in April 1934, after a series of interim chairmen had held the post. Moses, who also had positions in the state and city governments, sought to expedite the project, awarding a contract in May for the construction of an approach highway to the Queens span.

A contract to clear land in the bridge's right-of-way was awarded in April 1934, and work began that month. Over 300 buildings had to be destroyed. Families living in the path of the bridge's approaches protested the eviction notices given to them. The Harlem Market on First Avenue, which stood in the way of the Manhattan approach, was to be relocated to the Bronx Terminal Market. The construction of the Triborough Bridge across Little Hell Gate also required the demolition of hospital buildings on Randalls and Wards Islands. The New York City Department of Hospitals applied for funds to build the Seaview Hospital on Staten Island, which would house the hospital facilities displaced by the Triborough Bridge. Homes in Astoria and wooden docks were also demolished to make way for the bridge.

Moses continued to advocate for new roads and parkways to connect with the bridge as part of an interconnected parkway system. The complex of roads included the Grand Central Parkway and Astoria Boulevard in Queens; 125th Street, the East River Drive (now the FDR Drive), and Harlem River Drive in Manhattan; and Whitlock Avenue and Eastern Boulevard (now Bruckner Expressway) in the Bronx. The first of those roads, the Grand Central Parkway, was planned to start construction in early 1934. That July, the Department of War approved the Bronx Kill span as a fixed truss span, since the Bronx Kill was not a navigable waterway; the span could be replaced with a lift bridge if needed. The same month, the city approved the first segment of the East River Drive, leading from the intersection of York Avenue and 92nd Street to the Triborough Bridge approach at 125th Street. The bridge approach on the Bronx side was also finalized, running along Southern and Eastern boulevards, with a future extension to Pelham Bay Park in the northeastern Bronx.

Civic groups advocated for an approach highway from the West Bronx, and Bronx borough president James J. Lyons tried to block the Board of Estimate from approving the Manhattan approach highway until a West Bronx approach was also provided for. Despite this, in October 1934, the Board of Estimate approved the East River Drive approach while rejecting the West Bronx approach. While reformers embraced Moses's plans to expand the parkway system, state and city officials were overwhelmed by their scale, and slow to move to provide financing for the vast system. Partial funding came from interest-bearing bonds issued by the Triborough Bridge Authority, to be secured by future toll revenue.

1935 progress
Financing disputes with the PWA involved complex political infighting. The disputes peaked in January 1935, when Ickes passed a rule that effectively prohibited PWA funding for the TBA unless Moses resigned the post of either TBA chairman or New York City Parks Commissioner. This came as a result of Moses's criticism that New Deal funding programs like the PWA were too slow to disburse funds. Moses refused to resign in spite of Ickes's persistence, and Ickes threatened to withhold salaries for TBA workers as well. Though La Guardia was supportive of Moses, even petitioning Roosevelt for help, he was willing to replace the TBA chairman if it resulted in funding for the bridge. In mid-March, Ickes suddenly backed down on his ultimatum; not only was Moses allowed to keep both of his positions, but the PWA also resumed its payments to the TBA. La Guardia re-appointed Moses to the TBA the same year.

Meanwhile, in February 1935, the TBA awarded a contract to construct the piers for the Harlem River lift structure. Despite an impending lack of funds due to the dispute between Moses and Ickes, the TBA announced its intent to open bids for bridge steelwork. By March, the suspension towers for the East River span to Queens were nearing completion, and support piers on Randalls and Wards Islands had progressed substantially. After the Moses–Ickes dispute had subsided, the TBA started advertising for bids to build the steel roadways of the Randalls and Wards Islands viaducts, as well as the East River suspension span. Less than a week afterward, the first temporary wires were strung between the two towers of the suspension span. The wires in the main cables were laid by machines that traveled along these temporary wires. A contract for the Harlem River lift span's steel superstructure was awarded that May, followed by a contract for the Bronx Kill truss span's structure the following month.

The spinning of the main span's suspension cables was finished in July 1935. By that time, half of the $41 million federal grant had been spent on construction, and the bridge was expected to open the following year. The bridge was expected to relieve traffic on nearby highways, and, with the upcoming 1939 New York World's Fair being held in Queens, would also provide a new route to the fairground at Flushing Meadows–Corona Park. The construction of the Bronx approach was delayed after the city's corporation council found that the approach could not be built using federal funds. By October 1935, the Queens approach and the Randalls and Wards Islands viaduct was nearly complete. Vertical suspender cables had been hung from the main cables of the Queens suspension span, and the steel slabs to support the span's roadway deck were being erected. The concrete piers supporting Bronx span were still being constructed, and the site of the Manhattan span was marked only by its foundations. The deck of the Queens suspension span was completed the following month. The work was dangerous, as some workers fell off the scaffolding that had been erected to allow them to build the suspension span, while others died due to lead poisoning. In November 1935, a controversy emerged over the fact that the Triborough Bridge would use steel imported from Nazi Germany, rather than American producers. Although American steel producers objected to the contract, the PWA approved of it anyway, because the German steel contract was cheaper than any of the bids presented by American producers. Moses also approved of the decision because it would save money, and the TBA said that federal regulations had forced the agency to turn to a German manufacturer. La Guardia blocked the deal, writing that "the only commodity we can get from Hitlerland [Germany] is hatred, and we don't want any in our country", and Ickes also banned the use of imported materials on PWA projects. The TBA then re-awarded the contract to the Jones and Laughlin Steel Company.

1936 progress
By February 1936, the TBA had awarded contracts for paving the Bronx Kill and East River spans, as well as for constructing several administrative buildings for the TBA near the bridge. Lyons continued to object to Moses's plans for the bridge's Bronx approach. Moses wanted to speed up construction on the Triborough Bridge so that it would meet a deadline of July 11, 1936. He objected to Ickes's decision, in March 1936, to decentralize control of PWA resident engineers, who would report to state PWA bosses instead of directly to the PWA's main office in Washington, D.C. Moses believed that the PWA boss for New York, Arthur S. Tuttle, was indecisive. In return, Ickes assured Moses of Tuttle's full cooperation.

The 300-by-84-foot superstructure of the Harlem River lift span was assembled in Weehawken, New Jersey. It was floated northward to the Triborough Bridge site in April 1936. Early the next month, the 200-ton main lift span was hoisted into place above the Harlem River in a process that took sixteen minutes. In addition, the city gave the New York City Omnibus Corporation a temporary permit to operate bus routes on the Triborough Bridge, connecting the bus stops at each of the bridge's ends, during the summer months. Moses appealed to Ickes to increase the construction workers' workweeks from 30 to 40 hours so the bridge would be able to open on time, but was initially rejected. A 40-hour workweek was approved that June. As late as the day before the bridge's opening on July 11, workers were still putting finishing touches on the bridge and surrounding highways.

A byproduct of the Triborough project was the creation of parks and playgrounds in the lands underneath the bridges and approaches. The largest of these parks was Randall's Island Park, located on Wards and Randalls Islands. The park on Randalls Island was approved in February 1935 and included an Olympic-sized running track called Downing Stadium, work on which began in mid-1935; the stadium was incomplete at the time of the bridge's opening. The plan included infilling a strait, Little Hell Gate, between the two islands. Smaller parks were also built in Astoria and Manhattan.

When the Triborough Bridge was finished, it was the largest PWA project in the eastern U.S., having cost $60.3 million (equivalent to $ billion in ) according to final TBA figures. Based on expenditures, the PWA had originally estimated the bridge's cost to be as high as $64 million. In either case, the Triborough Bridge was one of the largest public works projects of the Great Depression, more expensive than the Hoover Dam. Of this, $16 million came from the city and $9 million directly from the PWA. The latter also purchased $35 million worth of TBA bonds, which were eventually bought back and resold to the public. The PWA had finished giving out the $35 million loan by February 1937, and the Reconstruction Finance Corporation had sold the last of the TBA's funds that July. Additional income came from toll collection: the toll was initially set at 25 cents per passenger car, with lower rates for motorcycles and higher rates for commercial vehicles.

Opening
The toll rates for the bridge were decided upon in March 1936. By May, the opening ceremonies for both the Triborough Bridge and the Downing Stadium were scheduled for July 11. The dedication was scheduled to occur on the Manhattan lift span, prompting objections from both Bronx and Queens officials. Due to the previous conflicts between President Roosevelt and Robert Moses, the attendance of the former was not certain until two weeks before the ceremony. PWA administrator Ickes's attendance was finalized only four days beforehand.

The completed structure, described by The New York Times as a "Y-shaped sky highway", was dedicated on Saturday, July 11, 1936, along with Downing Stadium. The ceremony for the Triborough Bridge was held at the interchange plaza, and was attended by Roosevelt, La Guardia, Lehman, Ickes, and Postmaster General James A. Farley, who all gave speeches. Robert Moses acted as the master of ceremonies. The ceremonies were broadcast nationwide via radio, and a parade was also held on 125th Street in Manhattan to celebrate the bridge's opening. Queens residents, excluded from the official ceremony, hosted an unofficial gathering in Astoria. The Triborough Bridge opened to the general public at 1:30 p.m., and by that midnight an estimated 200,000 people had visited the bridge. The bridge saw 40,000 vehicles on its first full day, July 12, and about 1,000 vehicles an hour on July 13, its first full weekdays. The TBA recorded 242,000 total vehicles in the bridge's first week, 953,100 during the first month, and 2.7 million in its first three months.

After the bridge's opening, one Queens civic group predicted that the bridge would increase real-estate values in Queens and on Long Island at large. The ferry between Yorkville, Manhattan, and Astoria, Queens, was made redundant by the new Triborough Bridge, and the city had closed the ferry by the end of July 1936. Traffic on the Queensboro Bridge, the only other vehicular bridge that connected Manhattan and Queens, declined after the Triborough Bridge opened, though not by as much as city officials had anticipated. In 1937, the first full year of the bridge's operation, it generated $2.85 million (equivalent to $ million in ) in revenue from 11.18 million vehicles. This was far more than the 8 million vehicles that TBA officials had originally anticipated. The American Institute of Steel Construction declared the Triborough Bridge the "most beautiful" steel bridge constructed during 1936. Newsday, writing retrospectively in 1994, said: "More than any other structure, the Triborough unified the boroughs of New York City."

Highway construction

When the bridge opened, none of the spans had direct connections to the greater system of highways in New York City. In Queens, the Grand Central Parkway extension to the Triborough Bridge was nearly completed at the time of the bridge's opening. The Manhattan span was planned to connect to the East River Drive (now the FDR Drive), the first segments of which were still under construction. The section of the East River Drive from the bridge south to 92nd Street opened that October. Originally, there was no direct access from the Queens span to Wards Island, but in November 1937, Moses announced the construction of a ramp from the Queens span that would lead down to the island. The next year, a lawsuit was filed by two Wards Islands landowners, who alleged that the Triborough Bridge had been built on portions of their land. They each received nominal damages of $1.

The Bronx span ended in local traffic at the no-longer extant intersection of 135th Street and Cypress Avenue. The first of two approach highways in the Bronx was approved late in 1936 and was partially funded by the PWA. Consisting of ramps to the intersection of 138th Street and Grand Concourse, this highway opened in April 1939 and later became part of the Major Deegan Expressway (Interstate 87). Another approach highway in the Bronx, the present Bruckner Boulevard, was approved in 1938 and extended eastward to the Bruckner Interchange. Both Bronx approach roads were completed in time for the 1939 New York World's Fair, which was held in Queens.

Moses continued expanding the system of highways in the mid-20th century, including arteries that led to the Triborough Bridge, namely the Brooklyn-Queens Expressway in Queens and the Bruckner Expressway in the Bronx. Both highways became part of I-278, as did the Queens and Bronx spans of the Triborough Bridge, by the 1960s. In the 1950s, there were also plans for a highway to be constructed between the Triborough Bridge's Manhattan span and a never-built 125th Street Hudson River bridge, which would have allowed direct highway access to the New Jersey Turnpike.

Bridge traffic and modifications
The Triborough Bridge Authority was headquartered in an administration building adjacent to the Manhattan span's toll plaza, where by 1940, it controlled the operation of all toll bridges located entirely within New York City. Though the Bronx–Whitestone Bridge between the Bronx and Queens opened in April 1939, the Triborough Bridge did not see any initial decline in traffic, likely because both spans were heavily used during the World's Fair. Soon after, vehicle rationing caused by the onset of World War II resulted in a decline in traffic at crossings operated by the TBA including the Triborough Bridge. Still, by 1940, the Triborough Bridge was the most profitable crossing operated by the TBA. The New York Times, describing the bridge as "generally recognized as a monument to engineering ingenuity", attributed the bridge's popularity to the design of its three spans. In 1941, one of the lift span's original gates was removed after a motorist damaged it.

Traffic decreased significantly during the war, declining to 5.1 million vehicles in 1943, though traffic counts again increased afterward. The TBA became the Triborough Bridge and Tunnel Authority (TBTA) in 1946, though TBTA operations continued to be managed from the Triborough Bridge. The bridge was repainted for the first time in September 1946 for $600,000. The bridge recorded over 100 million total vehicles in its first decade of operation. By 1951, the bridge accommodated 29.4 million vehicles a year, more than any other toll road in the U.S.; the TBTA claimed in early 1952 that the bridge was the busiest toll road in the world.

Late 1960s to 1990s
In 1968, the Triborough Bridge received its first major renovation in its 31-year history. Seven tollbooths were added, three at the Manhattan span's toll plaza and four at the Queens/Bronx spans' toll plaza, and several ramps were widened at a cost of $20 million. The project also added a direct ramp from the Manhattan span to the southbound lanes of Second Avenue in East Harlem. The TBTA administration building was also expanded during this project. Traffic from the Manhattan span was temporarily diverted during this project.

At some point in the 20th century, a sign on the bridge informed travelers, "In event of attack, drive off bridge"; according to New York Times columnist William Safire, the "somewhat macabre sign" must have "drawn a wry smile from millions of motorists". The TBTA replaced the movable toll gates across all of its toll booths in 1989, including those at the Triborough Bridge. By that year, pieces of concrete were falling off the bridge, prompting concerns about deterioration. By the early 1990s, the bridge accommodated about 160,000 daily vehicles, and the TBTA employed 140 toll collectors there. During that decade, the TBTA discovered high concentrations of lead under the bridge's Queens approaches, prompting the agency to remove the lead. The TBTA also rearranged the lanes at the bridge's toll plazas in 1992. The Triborough Bridge remained the TBTA's busiest facility in the 1990s, with over 200,000 daily vehicles.

In 1997, more renovations of the bridge were announced. The project consisted of three phases. The first phase involved renovating the Queens span and approach ramps, as well as replacing the suspender cables; work on the Queens span's anchorage began in February 1997. On the Queens side, an exit ramp from westbound I-278 to 31st Street necessitated the destruction of the entrance to the southern sidewalk. The second phase involved renovating the Bronx span and approach ramps. The third phase involved renovating the Manhattan span and approach ramps. By early 1999, there were more than 500 potholes on the bridge, requiring workers to use 22.5 ST of concrete and 65 ST of asphalt to repave the deck. Work on replacing the Queens span's suspender cables and adding an orthotropic deck to the Queens suspension span started in 2000. The replacement of the deck was estimated to cost $125 million.

2000s to present
In January 2008, then-governor Eliot Spitzer proposed renaming the bridge after former U.S. senator Robert F. Kennedy, who had been assassinated during a 1968 presidential bid. Though the Kennedy family supported the renaming, there were initial doubts over whether local residents would use the new name. The New York State Legislature approved the bill that June, and the Triborough Bridge was officially renamed after Kennedy on November 19, 2008. The MTA announced further renovations to the Triborough Bridge in 2008; the work included the replacement of the roadways at the toll plazas, as well as the rehabilitation of various ramps and the construction of a new service building. The same year, the MTA awarded contracts to renovate the Queens span's anchorages.

In 2015, the MTA started two reconstruction projects on different parts of the bridge as part of a $1 billion, 15-year program to renovate the bridge complex. The MTA commenced construction on a $213 million rehabilitation of the 1930s-era toll plaza between the Queens and Bronx spans, which included a rebuilding of the roadway and the supporting structure underneath. The new toll plaza structure was completed in 2019. Cashless tolling was implemented on June 15, 2017, allowing drivers to pay tolls electronically via E-ZPass or Toll-by-Mail without having to stop at any tollbooths. Shortly afterward, the tollbooths were demolished.

A ramp from the Manhattan span to the northbound Harlem River Drive was being built for $68.3 million, and was to be finished by December 2017; this was delayed pending the reconstruction of the Harlem River Drive viaduct around the area. In February 2020, the northbound Harlem River Drive ramp's completion was tentatively announced for 2021, though the ramp ultimately opened in November 2020. The project was expected to cost $72.6 million and involved designing a new overpass to fit between the Harlem River Drive's two existing roadways. The Harlem River lift span was also rehabilitated prior to 2020.

Usage
The toll revenues from the RFK Bridge pay for a portion of the public transit funding for the New York City Transit Authority and the commuter railroads. The bridge had annual average daily traffic of 164,116 in 2014. For that year, the bridge saw annual toll-paying traffic rise by 2.9% to 59.9 million, generating $393.6 million in revenue at an average toll of $6.57.

Pedestrian and bicycle sidewalks
The bridge has sidewalks on all three spans where the TBTA officially requires bicyclists to walk their bicycles across due to safety concerns. However, the signs stating this requirement have been usually ignored by bicyclists, and the New York City Government has recommended that the TBTA should reassess this kind of bicycling ban. Stairs on the 2 km Queens span impede access by disabled people, and only the northern sidewalk on that span is open to traffic; the Queens end of the southern sidewalk was demolished in the early 2000s. The two sidewalks of the Bronx span are connected to one long and winding ramp at the Randalls Island end, though another pedestrian bridge between Randalls Island and the neighborhood of Port Morris, Bronx, opened to the east of the RFK Bridge in November 2015.

Public transportation
The RFK Bridge carries the bus routes operated by MTA New York City Transit, as well as several express bus routes operated by the MTA Bus Company:. The M35 travels from Manhattan to Randalls and Wards Islands (with the X80 also operating during special events), while the M60 SBS runs between Manhattan and Queens, and the MTA Bus express routes travel between Manhattan and the Bronx. The M60 has used the bridge since the early 1990s.

In the 1920s, John F. Hylan proposed building the Triborough Bridge as part of his planned Independent Subway System. The proposal entailed extending the New York City Subway's BMT Astoria Line along the same route the Triborough now follows. It would have created a crosstown subway line along 125th Street, as well as a new subway line in the Bronx under St. Ann's Avenue.

Tolls
, drivers pay $11.19 per car or $4.71 per motorcycle for tolls by mail/non-NYCSC E-Z Pass. E-ZPass users with transponders issued by the New York E‑ZPass Customer Service Center pay $6.94 per car or $3.02 per motorcycle. Mid-Tier NYCSC E-Z Pass users pay $8.36 per car or $3.57 per motorcycle. All E-ZPass users with transponders not issued by the New York E-ZPass CSC will be required to pay Toll-by-mail rates.

When the Triborough Bridge opened, it had a combined 22 tollbooths spread across two toll plazas. Motorists were first able to pay with E‑ZPass in lanes for automatic coin machines at the toll plazas on August 21, 1996; in contrast to other MTA Bridges & Tunnels facilities where E-ZPass lanes were interspersed with cash only lanes, all of the E-ZPass lanes at either of the Triborough Bridge's toll plazas were grouped together. The implementation of E-ZPass allowed each toll lane to accommodate 900 vehicles an hour, compared with the 250 to 400 vehicles that the old toll lanes could accommodate.

Open-road cashless tolling began on June 15, 2017. The tollbooths were dismantled, and drivers are no longer able to pay cash at the bridge. Instead, there are cameras mounted onto new overhead gantries manufactured by TransCore near where the booths were formerly located. A vehicle without an E-ZPass has a picture taken of its license plate and a bill for the toll is mailed to its owner. For E-ZPass users, sensors detect their transponders wirelessly.

title: Robert F. Kennedy Bridge


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Ellora-Jain-cave
Dear KRS, I am a Prof. in Architectureand I am currently redacting a book titled “History of Interior Design and Furniture” and it will be published in Turkish edition. I would like to use your image from https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ellora-Jain-cave.jpg. At the end of the book, the name of the beholder of the image is noted in ‘Picture Credits.’ Do you prefer us to use your nick name in Wikipedia, or we can use your proper name if you prefer. Best regards, Mustafa Demirkan mustafaemindemirkan@gmail.com Serhatakbak (talk) 12:58, 7 June 2017 (UTC)

title: User talk:KRS


text:
John Stevens (drummer)

John William Stevens (10 June 1940 – 13 September 1994) was an English drummer, and a founding member of the Spontaneous Music Ensemble.

Biography
Stevens was born in Brentford, Middlesex, England, the son of a tap dancer. He listened to jazz as a child but was more interested in drawing and painting, through which he expressed himself throughout his life. He studied at the Ealing Art College and then started work in a design studio, but left at 19 to join the Royal Air Force. He studied the drums at the Royal Air Force School of Music in Uxbridge, and while there met Trevor Watts and Paul Rutherford, two musicians who became close collaborators.

In the mid-1960s, Stevens began to play in London jazz groups with Tubby Hayes and Ronnie Scott, and in 1965 he led a quartet. He moved away from mainstream jazz when he heard free jazz from the U.S. by musicians like Ornette Coleman and Albert Ayler. In 1966, he formed the Spontaneous Music Ensemble (SME) with Watts and Rutherford. The band moved into the Little Theatre Club at Garrick Yard, St Martin's Lane, London. In 1967, their first album, Challenge, was released. Stevens then became interested in the music of Anton Webern, and the SME began to play quiet music. Stevens also became interested in non-Western music.

Stevens also devised a number of basic starting points for improvisation. These were not "compositions" as such, but rather a means of getting improvisational activity started, which could then go off in any direction. One of these was the so-called "Click Piece" which essentially asked for each player to repeatedly play a note as short as possible.

Stevens played alongside a large number of prominent free improvisors in the SME, including Derek Bailey, Peter Kowald, Julie Tippetts and Robert Calvert, but from the mid-1970s, the make-up of the SME began to settle down to a regular group of Stevens, Nigel Coombes on violin, and Roger Smith on guitar. During the mid-1970s Stevens played regularly with guitarist and songwriter John Martyn as part of a trio that included bassist Danny Thompson. This line up can be heard on Martyn's 1976 recording Live at Leeds.

From 1983, Stevens was involved with Community Music, an organisation through which he took his form of music making to youth clubs, mental health institutions, the Lewisham Academy of Music, and other unusual places. Notes taken during these sessions were later turned into a book for the Open University called Search and Reflect (1985). In the late 70s and early 1980s, John was a regular performer at the Bracknell Jazz Festival.

Stevens ran or helped to organise groups that were more jazz or jazz-rock based, such as Splinters, the John Stevens Dance Orchestra, Away, Freebop, Folkus, Fast Colour, PRS, and the John Stevens Quintet and Quartet. He contributed to Trevor Watts's group Amalgam, Frode Gjerstad's Detail, and collaborated with Bobby Bradford on several occasions.

SME played for its last time in 1994, when it included John Butcher. Stevens died later that year, from a heart attack, aged 54.

Discography

 * John Stevens Spontaneous Music Ensemble (Marmalade, 1969)
 * John Stevens' Away (Vertigo, 1975)
 * Somewhere in Between (Vertigo, 1976)
 * Touching On (View, 1977)
 * Chemistry (Vinyl, 1977)
 * The Longest Night Vol. 1 with Evan Parker (Ogun, 1977)
 * No Fear with Trevor Watts, Barry Guy (Spotlite, 1978)
 * The Longest Night Vol. 2 with Evan Parker (Ogun, 1978)
 * Ah! (Vinyl, 1978)
 * Endgame with Barry Guy, Howard Riley, Trevor Watts (Japo, 1979)
 * Application Interaction and... (Spotlite, 1979)
 * Integration (Red, 1979)
 * 4,4,4 with Evan Parker, Paul Rutherford, Barry Guy (View, 1980)
 * Conversation Piece Part 1 & 2 with Gordon Beck, Alan Holdsworth (View, 1980)
 * Bobby Bradford with John Stevens and the Spontaneous Music Ensemble Volume One (Nessa, 1980)
 * Bobby Bradford with John Stevens and the Spontaneous Music Ensemble Volume Two (Nessa, 1981)
 * Freebop (Affinity, 1982)
 * Re Touch with Alan Holdsworth, Jeff Young, Barry Guy, Ron Mathewson (View, 1983)
 * Backwards and Forwards, Forwards and Backwards with Frode Gjerstad, Johnny Dyani (Impetus, 1983)
 * The Life of Riley (Affinity, 1984)
 * Radebe They Shoot to Kill with Dudu Pukwana (Affinity, 1987)
 * Playing with Derek Bailey (Incus, 1993)
 * This That with Dick Heckstall-Smith, Jack Bruce (Atonal, 1994)
 * Mutual Benefit (Konnex, 1994)
 * New Cool (The Jazz Label, 1994)
 * A Luta Continua (Konnex, 1994)
 * One Time with Kent Carter, Derek Bailey (Incus, 1995)
 * Seven Improvisations with Gary Smith (1995)
 * Bird in Widnes with Dick Heckstall-Smith (Konnex, 1995)
 * Sunshine with Frode Gjerstad (Impetus, 1996)
 * Dynamics of the Impromptu with Derek Bailey (Entropy Stereo, 1999)
 * Hello Goodbye with Frode Gjerstad, Derek Bailey (Emanem, 2001)
 * Organic with Howard Riley, Barry Guy (Jazzprint, 2002)
 * Live at the Plough (Ayler, 2003)
 * Keep on Playing with Frode Gjerstad (FMR, 2005)
 * Propensity with Allan Holdsworth, Danny Thompson (Art of Life, 2009)

With the Spontaneous Music Ensemble
 * Quintessence (Emanem, 1974 [1986])

title: John Stevens (drummer)