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Charles Brockden Brown

Charles Brockden Brown (January 17, 1771 – February 22, 1810) was an American novelist, historian, and editor of the Early National period.

Brown is regarded by some scholars as the most important American novelist before James Fenimore Cooper. Although Brown was not the first American novelist, as some early criticism claimed, the breadth and complexity of his achievement as a writer in multiple genres (novels, short stories, essays and periodical writings, poetry, historiography, and reviews) makes him a crucial figure in literature of the early republic. His best-known works include Wieland and Edgar Huntly, both of which display his characteristic interest in Gothic themes. He has been referred to as the "Father of the American Novel."

Early life
Brown was born on January 17, 1771, the fourth of five brothers and six surviving siblings in a Philadelphia Quaker merchant family. His father Elijah Brown, originally from Chester County, Pennsylvania, just southwest of Philadelphia, had a variable career primarily as a land-conveyancer or real estate agent. The two oldest brothers, Joseph and James, and youngest brother Elijah, Jr., were import-export merchants and bought shares in re-export ventures as early as the 1780s. Brown became a reluctant partner of their short-lived family firm, James Brown & Co., from late 1800 to the firm's dissolution in 1806. The third brother, Armitt, was a clerk in the early 1790s for the Treasury Department and at the Bank of Pennsylvania (for a time Armitt was a clerk with Alexander Hamilton), and later participated in the brothers' import-export firm. The family's mercantile background and experiences in the global trade and trade conflicts of the Revolutionary era are relevant to Brown's writings insofar as he often explored issues connected to the period's culture of commerce and the role that commerce plays in the historical transition from 18th-century civic republicanism to 19th-century laissez-faire liberalism and capitalism.

Brown's family intended for him to become a lawyer. After six years in Philadelphia at the law office of Alexander Wilcocks, he ended his law studies in 1793. He became part of a group of young, New York-based intellectuals who helped begin his literary career. The New York group included a number of young male professionals who called themselves the Friendly Club (including Dr. Elihu Hubbard Smith, Brown's closest friend during this period, and William Dunlap), along with female friends and relatives who were interested in companionship and cultural-political conversation.

During most of the 1790s, Brown developed his literary ambitions in projects that often remained incomplete (for example the so-called "Henrietta Letters," transcribed in the Clark biography) and frequently used his correspondence with friends as a laboratory for narrative experiments. His first publications appeared during the late 1780s (e.g. "The Rhapsodist" essay series from 1789), but he published little during this period. By 1798, however, these formative years gave way to a period of novel-writing during which Brown published his best known work. These novels and the rest of Brown's career were informed by the progressive ideas he used and developed from the period's British radical-democratic writers, most notably Mary Wollstonecraft, William Godwin, Thomas Holcroft, and Robert Bage. Brown was influenced by these writers and in turn exerted an influence on them and their younger students, for example, in Godwin's later novels, or in the work of Percy Bysshe Shelley and Mary Shelley, who reread Brown as she wrote her novels Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus (1818) and The Last Man (1826). The former was, according to his friend Peacock, heavily influenced in ‘the formation of his character’ from the depicted characters in Brown's novels.

Novels
Between 1798 and late 1801, Brown published the Wollstonecraftian-feminist dialog Alcuin (1798) and seven subsequent novels. An additional novel was written, but was lost by a series of mishaps and never saw publication.

In addition to his novels, Brown also worked as an editor. Along with his friends in New York, he published and wrote many short articles and reviews for The Monthly Magazine and American Review from April 1799 to December 1800, as well as its short-lived successor, The American Review and Literary Journal (1801–1802). Finally, besides these two New York periodicals, Brown also published numerous pieces of fiction, including the only surviving fragment of his first novel Sky-Walk, in the Philadelphia-based Weekly Magazine of Original Essays, Fugitive Pieces, and Interesting Intelligence (1798–1799).

Brown's novels are often characterized simply as Gothic fiction, although the model he develops is far from the Gothic romance mode of writers such as Ann Radcliffe. Brown's novels combine several Revolutionary-era fiction subgenres with other types of late-Enlightenment scientific and medical knowledge. Most notably, they develop the British radical-democratic models of Wollstonecraft, Godwin, and Holcroft and combine these with elements of German "Schauerromantik" Gothic from Friedrich Schiller, the enlightened sentimental fictions of Jean-Jacques Rousseau or Laurence Sterne, women's domestic novels by writers such as Fanny Burney or Hannah Webster Foster, and other genres such as the captivity narrative. Brown builds plots around particular motifs such as sleepwalking and religious mania, drawing on Enlightenment-era medical writings by people such as Erasmus Darwin.

Of the seven novels extant, the first four to be published in book form (Wieland, Ormond, Edgar Huntly, and Arthur Mervyn) have received the lion's share of commentary and attention. Because of their sensational violence, dramatic intensity, and intellectual complexity, these four novels are often referred to as the "Gothic" or "Godwinian" novels. Stephen Calvert, which appeared only in serialized form and in the posthumous 1815 biography, remained little-read until the end of the 20th century, but is notable as the first U.S. novel to thematize same-sex sexuality. Clara Howard and Jane Talbot have been regarded sometimes as relatively conventional works distinct from the earlier novels because they have classic epistolary form and concern domestic issues that seem very different from the violence and sensationalism of the first four novels. Recent scholarship (since the 1980s), however, has largely revised this view and emphasizes the continuities and overall coherence of all seven novels understood as a loosely unified ensemble.

The history-fiction nexus
Brown articulates a well-defined technique and plan for his novel-writing in essays such as "Walstein's School of History" (1799) and "The Difference Between History and Romance" (1800). In these essays, he explains that his novels combine fiction and history to place ordinary individuals (like his novelistic protagonists Arthur Mervyn or Edgar Huntly) into situations of historical stress (like the Yellow Fever epidemic of 1793 or settler-Indian violence on the Pennsylvania frontier after the Walking Purchase) in such a way as educate his audience about virtuous behaviors and the historical causes and conditions of individual actions. In short, Brown uses his Wollstonecraftian-Godwinian models to develop political fiction that is intended to educate his readers and to take part in the ideological and cultural debates of his period. Brown's lifelong support for feminism, for example, originates both from his Quaker background, and from his commitment to the late-Enlightenment ideals of the Revolutionary era.

While crucial aspects of Brown's overall orientation and novelistic method are adapted from the British Wollstonecraftian-Godwinian writers, it is important to note that he was no mere imitator of his sources, but an independent thinker who advanced and refined their ideas and techniques as he adopted them. Brown shares with the British radical-democrats an emphasis on sociocultural determinism and on the use of literature as a medium for spreading progressive ideas. In addition, he shares with Godwin, in particular, the project of combining historical and fictional modes into a distinctive and progressive narrative style designed to stimulate social awareness and action. But he advances their models, for example, by placing a new emphasis on the culture and contradictions of economic liberalism and the world of commerce, focusing on a crucial topic that his British novelistic sources minimized, but which would grow exponentially in importance throughout the post-Revolutionary era. It is also significant that Brown examines issues associated with personal identity (race, gender and sexuality, etc.) in ways that the British radical-democratic novelists did not, primarily by associating them with larger issues of social and economic power in the new liberal order that was emerging at the turn of the 19th century. As Brown indicates in the "Walstein's School of History" essay, two primary topics of drama of his novelistic plots are "sex" (or gender relations) and "property" (or economic relations).

Later life and writings
After 1801 Brown continued to publish prolifically. He authored several important political pamphlets arguing for the acquisition of the Louisiana Territory and against the Embargo Act of 1807. He edited and was primary contributor to two more magazines: The Literary Magazine and American Register (1803–1806), a miscellany on cultural and other topics (from geography and medicine to history and aesthetics) and The American Register and General Repository of History, Politics, and Science (1807–09). The latter is notable for the book-length "Annals of Europe and America," Brown's contemporary historical narrative of Napoleonic geopolitics. Brown continued to write fiction and experiment with other literary genres during this period, notably in the Historical Sketches, a group of historical fictions that were written between 1803 and 1807 but published only posthumously. These late experimental narratives show Brown exploring the interface of fiction and history at the end of the Revolutionary era, at a moment that both follows the great Enlightenment historians (e.g., David Hume, William Robertson, Edward Gibbon) and prefigures the emergence of the 19th-century historical romance form in writers like Walter Scott or James Fenimore Cooper. He also published miscellaneous pieces in other Philadelphia newspapers and magazines of the 19th century including the Aurora and, in 1809, the Port-Folio.

In addition to these pamphlets, magazines, and historical narratives, it is notable that Brown maintained his contacts with reformist and progressive individuals and institutions in 19th-century Philadelphia. Although it was never completed, Brown planned from 1803 to 1806, with close friend Thomas Pym Cope, to publish a "History of Slavery" using the records of the Pennsylvania Abolition Society. Benjamin Rush recommended Brown in 1803 as an ideal author for a history of penal reform in Philadelphia. Brown maintained a well-informed interest in these sorts of reformist institutions and since the early 1790s had regularly visited new, pioneering hospitals and prisons (such as Philadelphia's Walnut Street Prison or Pennsylvania Hospital) with friends from his New York circle. In addition, he contracted to publish a major introduction to geography during his last years, but the manuscript is now lost. Politically, Brown has been an enigma, but more recent scholarship considers Brown as having, for instance, few or no associations with a Federalist political agenda and instead divorcing himself from the ideology of America as an exemplary nation, and desiring "political justice" on both sides of the Atlantic.

Brown died of tuberculosis in Philadelphia on February 22, 1810, at the age of 39. He was interred at the Arch Street Friends Meeting House Burial Ground in Philadelphia. A cenotaph was placed in his honor at Laurel Hill Cemetery in Philadelphia.

Reception history and critical reputation
Although Brown's writings did not achieve immediate commercial success, he was republished in both the U.S. and England throughout the Romantic era and developed a widespread and influential reputation as a "writer's writer." New editions of his works were published and reviewed widely in North America and England during the 1820s, for example, when Brown's novels were also published in combined editions with those of Schiller and Mary Shelley. His novels were the first American novels translated into other European languages: Ormond was published in German (where it was attributed to Godwin) in 1803, and a French version of Wieland appeared in 1808. An abridged version of William Dunlap's posthumous 1815 biography of him was also reprinted in England in 1822. The most important group of writers influenced by Brown during this period was the Godwin-Shelley circle mentioned above, but Brown was read and recommended by many other major British writers of this era, notably William Hazlitt, Thomas Love Peacock, John Keats, and Walter Scott. Among American writers, John Neal, Margaret Fuller, Edgar Allan Poe, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, and John Greenleaf Whittier were notable in regarding Brown as a particularly influential and significant predecessor. Philadelphia novelist and journalist George Lippard included a dedication to Brown in his 1845 bestseller The Quaker City, or The Monks of Monk Hall.

Brown was less widely read at the end of the 19th century, when prevailing Realist and Naturalist literary styles obscured most fiction of Brown's era. Literary-critical scholarship revived interest when American Studies scholars like Vernon Louis Parrington and Fred Lewis Pattee examined his works in the 1920s and subsequent decades. Between the 1950s and the 1970s, scholarly biographies and monographs began to appear on Brown. Major scholars such as Leslie Fiedler, who discussed Brown in his landmark study Love and Death in the American Novel (1960), helped repopularize his work, although scholarly emphasis in the mid and late 20th century emphasized Brown's novels, largely ignoring his voluminous periodical writings, pamphlets, and historical narratives.

The contemporary era of interest in Brown begins with the publication of a modern scholarly edition of Brown's novels, the six-volume Kent State "Bicentennial Edition" that was organized by Sydney J. Krause and S. W. Reid and appeared from 1977 to 1987. During the same period, new but still incomplete attempts to publish a selection of non-novelistic writings were initiated by German scholar Alfred Weber. Since the 1980s, new scholarship on both Brown and the early national period, accompanied by new mass market editions of Brown's novels and increasing efforts to understand Brown's entire career, has transformed the understanding of Brown's writing and its place in American cultural history. Brown was regarded as a somewhat secondary novelist by scholars in the Cold War era who focused on normative aesthetic criteria and tended to ignore the wide scope of his writings, and their referential impact, but more recent and historically oriented scholarship has established Brown as a leading writer and intellectual of the late Enlightenment and early Republic. At the beginning of the 21st century, Brown is widely acknowledged as a key figure in American literary history whose writings provide insight into the major ideological, intellectual, and artistic struggles and transformations of the Atlantic revolutionary era, even if not as aesthetically rewarding as core works of the traditional American literary canon. Joyce Carol Oates calls Brown "the first American novelist of substance". A Charles Brockden Brown Society, founded in 2000, has regular conferences on the work of Brown and his contemporaries.

In 2009, The Library of America selected Brown's short story "Somnambulism: A Fragment" for inclusion in its two-century retrospective of American Fantastic Tales, edited by Peter Straub. The Library also published Wieland, Arthur Mervyn and Edgar Huntly as "Three Gothic Novels" in a separate volume (first published in 1998), edited by Sydney J. Krause. The Library also included Brown's poem, "Monody, On the death of Gen. George Washington", in its volume of American poetry of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

The Charles Brockden Brown Electronic Archive and Scholarly Edition contains up-to-date scholarship on Brown's life and writing as does The Oxford Handbook of Charles Brockden Brown (2019).

Brown's novels

 * Sky-Walk; or, The Man Unknown to Himself (completed by March 1798 and partially typeset, but subsequently lost and never published)
 * Wieland; or, the Transformation (September 1798)
 * Ormond; or, the Secret Witness (January 1799)
 * a) Arthur Mervyn; or, Memoirs of the Year 1793 (May 1799)
 * Edgar Huntly; or, Memoirs of a Sleep-Walker (August 1799)
 * Memoirs of Stephen Calvert (serialized from June 1799 to June 1800)
 * b) Arthur Mervyn; or, Memoirs of the Year 1793, Second Part (September 1800)
 * Clara Howard; In a Series of Letters (June 1801)
 * Jane Talbot; A Novel (December 1801)
 * Memoirs of Carwin the Biloquist (1803-1805, unfinished)

title: Charles Brockden Brown


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Christopher Anstey

Christopher Anstey (31 October 1724 – 3 August 1805) was an English poet who also wrote in Latin. After a period managing his family's estates, he moved permanently to Bath and died after a long public life there. His poem, The New Bath Guide, brought him to fame and began an easy satirical fashion that was influential throughout the second half of the 18th century. Later he wrote An Electoral Ball, another burlesque of Bath society that allowed him to develop and update certain themes in his earlier work. Among his Latin writing were translations and summaries based on both these poems; he was also joint author of one of the earliest Latin translations of Gray's Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard, which went through several editions both in England and abroad.

Life
Anstey was the third child and only son of the Rev. Dr. Christopher Anstey, the rector of Brinkley in Cambridgeshire, and his wife Mary Thompson, born on 31 October 1724 in Trumpington. He was educated at Eton College and King's College, Cambridge, where he distinguished himself for his Latin verses. He became a fellow of his college in 1745 but the degree of M.A. was withheld from him in 1749 owing to his defiance of the university authorities and the offence caused by an address that is said to have begun "Doctors without doctrine, artless masters of arts, and bachelors more worthy of the rod than the laurel..." He joined the Middle Temple in 1746, but was not called to the bar.

In 1754, having succeeded to the prosperous family estates (including Anstey Hall in Trumpington), Anstey withdrew from the university. Two years later, he married Ann Calvert (1732–1812), daughter of Felix Calvert and the sister of his friend John Calvert of Albury Hall, Hertfordshire. For a considerable time Anstey lived the life of a country squire, cultivating letters as well as his estates, but publishing little of any note for many years. His family grew to include thirteen children, eight of whom survived him.

Following a period of depression aggravated by ill health after the death of a beloved sister in 1760, Anstey was advised to take the waters at the fashionable spa of Bath. Impressed by the place, he returned annually and decided to settle there permanently in 1770, his home being at No. 4 Royal Crescent for the next thirty-five years. In 1766, he achieved fame following the publication of The New Bath Guide: or Memoirs of the B__n__r__d Family in a series of Poetical Epistles, which went through some twenty editions before 1800. The work was enthusiastically praised for its gently satirical humour by such literary figures as Horace Walpole and Thomas Gray.

Later Anstey composed a work in the same vein, An Election Ball, in Poetical Letters from Mr Inkle at Bath to his Wife at Gloucester, published in 1776. The theme had been suggested to him at the literary gatherings of the Batheaston Literary Circle which he had been attending and to the last of whose regular anthologies he contributed. Other suggested themes occasioned published works of some length, but the connection did his reputation more damage than otherwise and was ended with the death of the coterie's patroness, Anna, Lady Miller, in 1781. In the years that followed, he thought of collecting his poems for general publication but the project was only finally completed by his son John in 1808.

Although Anstey declared himself uninterested in public office, he had served as High Sheriff of Cambridgeshire and Huntingdonshire for 1770–71, on the eve of his move to Bath. Once there, he busied himself in various philanthropic ventures, such as supporting the scheme for the support of the poor on behalf of which the Batheaston Circle's Poetical Amusements were sold. In addition he served between 1781 and 1795 on the board of governors of Bath Hospital, for whom he wrote effective fund-raising poems. Later he supported the work of Hannah More, in whose series of Cheap Repository Tracts appeared his long ballad, "The Farmer's Daughter, a poetical tale" (1795). His final Latin poem, the Alcaic stanzas addressed to Edward Jenner on his work on inoculation (1803), demonstrated the persistence of his humanitarian interests.

Anstey's normally strong constitution gave way early in 1805. He died on 3 August, and was buried at St. Swithin's Church in Walcot, Bath. Later a white marble memorial tablet was placed in the Poets' Corner of Westminster Abbey.

In Latin
Poetry in Latin makes up only a quarter of Anstey's published output, but his poetical career both began and ended with it. His first major work was a translation undertaken in collaboration with his friend William Hayward Roberts, also a Fellow at King's College at the time, and published anonymously in 1762. This was Eligia Scripta in Coemeterio Rustico Latine reddita, a version of Thomas Gray's already celebrated "Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard" of 1751, on which they worked in consultation with the author himself.

Commenting on the draft sent him, Gray remarked that "Every language has its idiom, not only of words and phrases, but of customs and manners, which cannot be represented in the tongue of another nation, especially of a nation so distant in time and place, without constraint and difficulty; of this sort, in the present instance, are the curfew bell, the Gothic Church, with its monuments, organs and anthems, the texts of Scripture, &c. There are certain images, which, though drawn from common nature, and every where obvious, yet strike us as foreign to the turn and genius of Latin verse; the beetle that flies in the evening, to a Roman, I guess, would have appeared too mean an object for poetry." And further on he enquires, "Might not the English characters here be romanized? Virgil is just as good as Milton, and Cæsar as Cromwell."

Gray's stance was traditionalist and did not take account of the way Vincent Bourne's poems had already demonstrated how Latin could be adapted to express contemporary reality. Preferring the latter's approach, for the most part, Anstey's version tries to remain faithful to Gray's text and certainly retains the historical English names rather than making Roman substitutes. It was published anonymously in 1762 and was later to appear in the 1768 and 1775 Irish editions of Gray's poems, along with an Italian and two other Latin versions of the Elegy. In 1778 there appeared an emended translation in which the introductory lines were signed C. A. et W. H. R. This was subsequently reprinted in Venice in 1794 and from there made its way into Alessandro Torri's multilingual anthology of translations of the Elegy, published in Verona in 1817.

In later years Anstey went on to translate himself. First there was his version of "Letter XIV" from The New Bath Guide, that was only included in the posthumous collected edition of his work. This was a 'humorous and whimsical' tour de force with both internal and end-rhymes, exactly fitting the spirit of the original. Secondly, there was the résumé of the themes in his later The Election Ball in a 1777 Latin epistle to its would-be illustrator Coplestone Warre Bampfylde, of which an English adaptation, 'translated and addressed to the ladies', appeared separately in the same year. Anstey's other translation during that time was of the fables of John Gay, undertaken originally for the guidance of his sons, whom he was preparing for entrance into Eton. This was published anonymously in a badly edited state, then subsequently revised for a new edition in 1798. However, reviewers complained of its rigid metres and 'diffusion extended into weakness' as being badly fitted to the sprightly octosyllabics of Gay's original. It had too much of the schoolroom about it.

In English
Anstey was principally known for his long epistolary poem, The New Bath Guide. He never quite recaptured the success of that work, which was continuously in print throughout his lifetime, although he returned to humorous depiction of the same Bath types in such works as An Election Ball and "The Decayed Macaroni". Finding little to admire in such sequels, Horace Walpole judged that Anstey "ought to have shot himself the moment he had finished the Bath Guide", but others since have seen more to respect.

Gray described the Guide as having "a new and original kind of humour", although in terms of the Classical models of his time it could be described as satire on the good-natured Horatian model. The alternative sharp Juvenilian style of the recently deceased satirist Charles Churchill was not for him. Indeed, in an unfinished poem preserved by his son, he had declared himself

Instead he made his subject matter the familiar follies of the landed squirearchy in a poem that, "while it includes a number of particular and topical Bath references to give the flavour of the place and time, has sufficient scope and is written from enough of a detached viewpoint to make its critique of manners and morals of enduring application." The work's eventual frontispiece clarifies Anstey’s good-natured aim. Pictured there is a procession of the fashionable headed by a monkey and a Momus clown with, in leash, the fashionable crowd they lead by the nose.

Commenting on the appearance of the Guide, published far away in Cambridge on the other side of the country by an unknown author, his son later marvelled that "It was hardly possible that a work of this description...could have made its appearance under circumstances of greater disadvantage." The title was an added hindrance at first, since the third edition of the official city guide, now titled The New Bath Guide or useful pocket companion, had been published in 1765, the year before Anstey's work. Though it provided a useful point of reference to readers, repeated editions of the pocket companion, 'corrected and much enlarged', continued to sow confusion for as long as the two books continued to appear.

The Guide relates the misadventures of the three naïve children of a Northern squire, as reported by them over the course of fifteen letters to friends and parents, and incidentally give a comic picture of life in the spa. In a far departure from the Augustan manner common until then, the style is colloquial and written in loose anapaestic tetrameters, later to be characterised as the "Anstey measure" or "Bath-guide verse".

The inventiveness of the rhymes and the puns on the ridiculous names given to the characters adds further humour here.

Such naming, an aspect of the work which was widely admired, derives from theatrical practice at the time and gives a clue to the person's character, but in the case of the main protagonists there is added irony too. Their Blunderhead surname not only sums up the various meanings of the word 'blunder' in their behaviour but has the overtones of stupidity contained in the colloquial 'dunderhead' as well. This is further emphasised in the son's first name, Simkin, which is a dialect expression denoting a simpleton. The behaviour of his sister Prudence, on the other hand, is at variance with her name. She most imprudently allows herself to be seduced by a Methodist imposter with the expressive name of Roger, the slang meaning of which is sexual intercourse, while in dialect it refers to a tricky person.

The broad 18th century humour of the Guide inevitably met with criticism in some quarters. While the parodies and allusions to Milton, Dryden and the Classical authors were well received, the perversion of Methodist terminology in Prudence's account of her seduction at least caused controversy. To dispel some of this, the second edition contained an epilogue which added considerably to the book's length but light-heartedly tried to meet some of the objections. Nevertheless, a comment at the start of the more prudish 19th century concerning "those violations of decency which disgust us in the New Bath Guide" indicates that they were not forgotten. When Anstey returned to a burlesque of Bath society a decade later in An Electoral Ball, it allowed him to embroider on some of his earlier themes. Thus Simkin's shocked account of female hairdressing in "Letter XII" of the Guide was expanded to outright farce in An Election Ball and had an immediate effect. In Samuel Hoare's conversation piece portrait of him (see above), his daughter is shown trying to draw his attention to the extravagant doll in her hand, in reality the kind of lay figure sent from Paris to guide dressmakers in the latest styles. Though she seems to distract him from composition, she is also serving as muse, for the doll's fantastic hairstyle is just such as, judging from the pattern of lines on his manuscript, Anstey went on to describe in the poem: "To a cap like a bat / (Which was once my cravat) / Part gracefully patted and pinn'd is, / Part stuck upon gauze/ Resembles mackaws/ And all the fine birds of the Indies."

It was this episode too, featuring Madge Inkle as she confects a hair ornament from the purloined tail feathers of the rooster, that Anstey's friend Coplestone Warre Bampfylde chose as the first scene to illustrate in An Election Ball. Arriving too late for inclusion in the revised edition of 1776, they were first used instead in the Latin epistle that Anstey addressed to Bampfylde, including mention of all the scenes the artist had chosen to picture.

18th century
Anstey was an innovator in more ways than one. He was the first to make tourism a poetic subject since the pilgrimage depicted by Thomas Chaucer in his Canterbury Tales. The epistolary mode which Anstey chose for his characters allowed their different voices to be distinguished in the same way as Chaucer's were through their narratives. But at the same time, the relaxed anapaestic measure united within it the work's impressionistic diversity.

Added evidence of the way that Anstey's social comedy had captured the general imagination is given by the large number of imitations that followed its publication. They were of several kinds, however, and at first were directly dependent on The New Bath Guide for their context, the earliest being the complimentary Poetical Epistles to the author of the New Bath Guide (London, 1767). It was followed by a youthful imitation of Anstey's manner by Richard Brinsley Sheridan, first published in The Bath Chronicle as a satirical account of the opening ball at the New Assembly Rooms in 1771. The convoluted title of this occasional piece was "The Ridotto of Bath, a Panegyrick written by a Gentleman, resident in that City: Being an Epistle from Timothy Screw, Under Server to Messrs Kuhf and Fitzwater, to his brother Henry, Waiter at Almack's" and was dependent on Anstey's work in several particulars. Another close imitation was The Register of Folly, or characters and incidents at Bath, containing twelve poetical epistles 'by an invalid' (London 1773).

Anstey's An Election Ball (1776) and its reporting in three letters is not only an imitation of his own manner in the New Bath Guide but takes further Sheridan's later ballroom satire. Created initially for the amusement of the Batheaston set, it also flattered the town in general by its use of local references. Much later there came another derivative reference to the Guide itself in John Williams' A Postscript to the New Bath Guide by Anthony Pasquin (1790).

But other health resorts than Bath were coming into vogue, and to these Anstey's manner began to be applied by other authors, one of the earliest being the Tunbridge Epistles from Lady Margaret to the Countess of B, mentioned in The Monthly Review for May 1767. Although the majority of such works lacked the charm of novelty, and often attracted scornful reviews, George Dallas at least made his name with an exotic adaptation. This was The India Guide, or Journal of a Voyage to the East Indies in the Year 1780: In a Poetical Epistle to Her Mother by Emily Brittle (Calcutta 1785), which he dedicated to Anstey.

As the new fad of sea-bathing replaced the hot springs at Bath, the pseudonymous Anthony Pasquin now found the success that eluded him with his Postscript to the New Bath Guide by bringing Anstey’s title up to date with The new Brighton guide, or companion for young ladies and gentlemen to all the watering-places in Great Britain: with notes, historical, moral, and personal (1796). It immediately became a best-seller, but in succeeding editions the main emphasis was redirected to satire of the Prince Regent, who had favoured Brighton as a resort. With that came an alteration of the poem's title to The New Brighton Guide; Involving a Complete, Authentic, and Honourable Solution of the Recent Mysteries of Carlton House that promised "Momentous Alterations and Additions". The work consisted of a series of epistles – moral, sentimental, serious and didactic – between the Royal Pavilion and the Regent’s associated London residences.

In the following year an anonymous work featured the alternative health resort of Ramsgate in The Sea-Side, a Poem, in Familiar Epistles from Mr Simkin Slenderwit Summerising at Ramsgate, to His Dear Mother in Town (1797). Richard Scrafton Sharpe (c. 1780 -1852) chose a nearby town for his imitation, The Margate new guide; or memoirs of five families out of six Who, in Town discontent with a good Situation, Make Margate the Place of their Summer Migration (1799). It too deployed Anstey's almost obligatory jogtrot rhythm in what a contemporary review summed up as "ten letters, humorously describing in lively verse the usual diversions of that place and the company who resort to it." Another reviewer, however, found it poorer by comparison with The New Bath Guide.

Several more authors had rushed in where Anstey had feared to tread and adapted his style, and even his characters, to political themes. They include Ralph Broome's The Letters of Simkin the Second, poetic recorder of all the proceedings upon the trial of Warren Hastings (London 1789); followed by The New Parliamentary Register in a series of poetical epistles (1791), which was dedicated to Anstey and featured Simkin as a newly elected Member of Parliament.

19th century
The trend of adaptations of Anstey’s manner to other themes extended into the nineteenth century. In the political sphere there was George Watson-Taylor's The Cross-Bath Guide, being the Correspondence of a Respectable Family upon the subject of a late unexpected Dispensation of Honours (1815), although a reviewer found that "the imitation is not quite the equal, in point of wit, to the original" model by Anstey. There were also surveys of newly developing resort towns: by Barbara Hofland in A Season in Harrogate, in a series of poetical epistles by Benjamin Blunderhead Esquire to his mother in Derbyshire (1812) and by William Henry Halpin in The Cheltenham Mailbag: or letters from Gloucestershire, edited by Peter Quince the Younger (1820).

Meanwhile Bath was again becoming fashionable as a spa town, a development underlined by the arrival of Queen Charlotte in 1817, leading a royal party. The place had been newly celebrated already in John Cam Hobhouse's The Wonders of a Week in Bath in a doggerel address in 1811. That poem was followed a few years later by two linked works: Rough Sketches of Bath by Q in the Corner (Bath 1817), described by a later critic as "little else than clever imitations of Anstey", and by Epistles from Bath, or Q’s letters to his Yorkshire relations (1817). Though these were published anonymously at the time, Thomas Haynes Bayly eventually identified himself as "Q" (and his target as Anstey) in a "Pastoral Duet between Robert Montgomery and Thomas Haynes Bayly", published in Fraser's Magazine:
 * I sang about Bath till I bothered them really,
 * And eclipsed was Kit Anstey by Thomas Haynes Bayly.

Imitative works were now being extended into series as their authors sought to outdo their predecessors. A further anonymous collection of letters in Anstey measure appeared as A Summer in Bath in 1822, but quoting Bayly at the start by way of "Advertisement". However, Thomas Moore's The Fudge Family in Paris (1818) marked an original departure and provided a more successful model for satirical imitation. Moore's work brought Anstey's manner up to date and widened its scope. Four family members visit the completely different setting of Paris after the Bourbon restoration. Their various characters and points of view are reflected in more varied verse measures, in which the anapaestics of the family’s younger generation contrast with the iambics of their elders, and the politics treated are those that followed the Congress of Vienna. Just as important for the more straight-laced audience of the time, the love interest provided by Biddy Fudge and her suitor replaces with farcical social satire the coarseness once deplored in Anstey's treatment of Prudence Blunderhead. Later imitations were to transfer relatives of the Fudge family to the Scottish and American capitals and to Ireland (1822). Then a French Fudge turns the tables by visiting the English capital and describing life there to his exiled relative in France.

At the decade's end, an inhabitant of Bath, refusing to be dazzled by the recent tourist preference for capital cities, called the strayed brood of imitators to heel with Eight Letters from Bath by the Fidget Family (Bath, 1830) in impeccable Anstey measure. Nor was it until 1835 that the harassed and impecunious Moore could himself get round, much too late, to writing his own sequel, The Fudges in England. That too was set, according to its preface, in "a well-known fashionable watering place". But though the work sold well, the critical response was muted. "Mr Moore’s poetical rabies is incurable" commented the reviewer of The Dublin University Magazine. A modern judgment, comparing Moore's original work and its sequel, finds that while "in the first Fudge saga, the influence of Anstey is less evident", the story line of the second is much more derivative. In any case, writers seem to have decided by now that enough was enough and no further imitations of Anstey followed.

20th century
A later tribute came from John Betjeman in 1973. As a trustee of the Bath Preservation Trust since the 1940s, he protested the depredations of philistine developers in "The Newest Bath Guide", quoting from and addressing Anstey. Its final couplet demonstrates how much Betjeman was indebted to him for his own art of satirical rhyming:
 * Goodbye to old Bath! We who loved you are sorry
 * They're carting you off by developer's lorry.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Christopher Anstey


text:
Charles Tufts

Charles Tufts (July 16, 1781 – December 24, 1876) was an American businessman and philanthropist.

Biography
Tufts was born in Medford, Massachusetts, the son of Abigail and Daniel Tufts. He was a descendant of Peter Tufts, an early colonist who came to America from England circa 1637. He received a common-school education. He made a fortune through his brickmaking factory, and inherited a large amount of land. Tufts donated 20 acres of land in Medford, Massachusetts, for what was to be named Tufts University. In time, Charles Tufts donated another 80 acres, bringing the campus area to 100 acres. He married Hannah Robinson in 1821, but had no children.

He died in Somerville, Massachusetts, which is also home to part of the Tufts University campus, and was buried in Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge.

Legacy

 * Tufts University
 * The World War II Liberty Ship SS Charles Tufts was named in his honor and built in Portland, Oregon in 1944.

title: Charles Tufts


text:
Thomas Ellwood

Thomas Ellwood (October 1639 – 1 March 1714) was an English religious writer. He is remembered for his relationship with poet John Milton, and some of his writing has proved durable as well.

Life
Ellwood was born in the village of Crowell, Oxfordshire, the son of a rural squire, Walter Ellwood, by his wife, Elizabeth Potman. From 1642 to 1646 the family lived in London. He was educated at Lord Williams's School in Thame.

Ellwood became a Quaker after visiting Isaac Penington and his family at Chalfont St. Peter in Buckinghamshire. Penington's wife, Mary, widow of Sir William Springett, had known the Ellwoods while they lived in London. On a second visit in December 1659, when Thomas attended a Quaker meeting at a neighbouring farmhouse and made the acquaintance of Edward Burrough and James Nayler. Burrough's preaching impressed Ellwood, and after attending a second meeting at High Wycombe he joined the new sect and adopted their modes of dress and speech. His father resented his son's conversion, thrashed him for wearing his hat in his presence, and kept him confined in the house through the winter of 1660. Neither blows nor persuasion could induce Ellwood to renounce his new sentiments, to take off his hat before his parents, or to address them with other pronouns than "thou" and "thee." At Easter, the Peningtons managed to move him to Chalfont St. Peter, where he stayed till Whitsuntide. He attended meetings with great assiduity.

In 1660 Ellwood was divinely inspired, according to his own account, to write and print an attack on the established clergy entitled An Alarm to the Priests. He later visited London and met George Fox the younger. About November 1660 Ellwood invited a Quaker from Oxford named Thomas Loe to attend a meeting at Crowell. Loe was at the time in prison in Oxford Castle, and Ellwood's letter fell into the hands of Lord Falkland, lord-lieutenant of the county. A party of horse was sent to arrest him: he was taken before two justices of the peace at Weston, refused to take the oaths of allegiance and supremacy, and was imprisoned for some months at Oxford in the house of the city marshal, a linendraper in High Street named Galloway. His father secured his release and tried to keep him from Quaker meetings.

In April 1661 the elder Ellwood and his two daughters left Crowell to live in London; Thomas Ellwood then sold the beasts on the Crowell farm at his father's directions and dismissed the servants. For a time he lived in complete solitude. He often visited Aylesbury gaol, where many of his Quaker friends were in prison. At a Quaker meeting held at Penington's house he was, for a second time, arrested, but was soon discharged. For no apparent reason he was immediately afterwards arrested as a rogue and vagabond by the watch at Beaconsfield while walking home from Chalfont St. Peters, but was released after one night's detention.

Early in 1662 Ellwood was attacked by smallpox, and on his recovery went to London to study. His friend Penington consulted Dr. Paget, who arranged that he should read with the poet John Milton, now completely blind. Ellwood lodged in Aldersgate nearby Milton's house, and read in Latin to him. After six-week Ellwood fell ill, went to Wycombe to recuperate, and returned in October 1662. That month he was arrested again, and was committed to Newgate Prison in December. His plea of illegal detention was over-ruled. He was moved to Bridewell, and released in January. Then till 1669 Ellwood resided with the Peningtons as Latin tutor to their young children, and he managed their estates in Kent and Sussex. He agreed to the sale of Crowell by his father, and acquired some ready money.

In June 1665 Ellwood hired a cottage for Milton at Chalfont St. Giles, where the poet lived during the Great Plague. On 1 July he was arrested while attending a funeral at Amersham, and spent a month in Aylesbury gaol. On his discharge he paid Milton a visit, and was lent the manuscript of Paradise Lost; Ellwood asked "what hast thou to say of Paradise Found"? When Ellwood called on Milton in London in the autumn, he was shown Paradise Regained. Pennington was in prison at Aylesbury for nine months during 1665 and 1666; his household was broken up, and Ellwood stayed with his pupils at Aylesbury, Bristol, and Amersham. From 13 March 1685-6 till 25 June Ellwood was himself imprisoned once again at Wycombe for attending a meeting at Hedgerley, Buckinghamshire.

Ellwood married Mary Ellis in 1669 and lived in Coleshill, Hertfordshire. His close friendship with William Penn and George Fox made him an influential figure in the Quaker movement: Penn married his friend Gulielma Pennington. In 1668 he lent assistance to George Fox in his attempt to crush John Perrot, leader of a body of Quaker dissenters who insisted on wearing their hats during worship, and he travelled with Fox through the west of England on an organising expedition. In 1670 he was present at the debate at High Wycombe between Jeremy Ives, a Baptist, and William Penn. When the Conventicle Act became law in July 1670, and the Quakers were at the mercy of corrupt informers, Ellwood against two named Aris and Lacy for perjury. In 1674 he was engaged in a controversy with Thomas Hicks, a Baptist, who had written against Quakerism. He also wrote much against tithes from 1678 onwards, and attacked William Rogers, who in 1682 ignored the authority of Penn and Fox, and denied their right to control the Quaker community.

Ellwood's account of his own life stopped in July 1683, when he was protesting against the injustice of treating Quaker meetings as riotous assemblies. He had just been threatened with prosecution for seditious libel because he had warned the constables to beware of informers. This was in the wake of the Rye House Plot, and his work A Caution to Constables had brought attention to him.

His father died about 1684 at Holton, and Ellwood was charged by his enemies with absenting himself from his funeral. But he behaved dutifully, according to his own account, to the last. He lived in retirement at Amersham for the greater part of his remaining years, writing constantly against internal divisions in the Quaker ranks, and denouncing in 1684 the heresy of George Keith. In 1690 he edited the journal of his friend, George Fox, and was long engaged on a history of the Old Testament. In 1707 and 1708 distraints were levied on him for the non-payment of tithes. His wife died in April 1708, and he himself died 1 March 1714, at his house, Hunger Hill, Amersham. Both were buried in the Friends' burying-place at New Jordan, Chalfont St. Giles.

Works
Ellwood was the author of several polemical works in defence of the Quaker position, of which Forgery no Christianity (1674), The Foundation of Tithes Shaken (1678) and two tracts attacking Thomas Hicks deserve mention. His Sacred Histories of the Old and New Testaments appeared in 1705 and 1709. He also published some volumes of poems, among them his best-known work, Davideis (1712), a poem in five books about the life of King David. His autobiography, The History of the Life of Thomas Ellwood: written by his own hand, published posthumously, is a valuable historical document. It has been in print almost continuously since 1714.

title: Thomas Ellwood


text:
Lathyrus

Lathyrus is a genus of flowering plants in the legume family Fabaceae, and contains approximately 160 species. Commonly known as peavines or vetchlings, they are native to temperate areas, with a breakdown of 52 species in Europe, 30 species in North America, 78 in Asia, 24 in tropical East Africa, and 24 in temperate South America. There are annual and perennial species which may be climbing or bushy. This genus has numerous sections, including Orobus, which was once a separate genus. The genus has numerous synonyms, including Pisum, the ancient Latin name for the pea.

Uses
Several species are grown for food, including the pea (Lathyrus oleraceus), Indian pea (L. sativus), and the red pea (L. cicera), and less commonly cyprus-vetch (L. ochrus) and Spanish vetchling (L. clymenum). The tuberous pea (L. tuberosus) is grown as a root vegetable for its starchy edible tuber. The seeds of some Lathyrus species contain the toxic amino acid oxalyldiaminopropionic acid and if eaten in large quantities can cause lathyrism, a serious disease.

Many species are cultivated as garden plants. The genus includes the garden sweet pea (Lathyrus odoratus) and the perennial everlasting pea (Lathyrus latifolius). Flowers on these cultivated species may be rose, red, maroon, pink, white, yellow, purple or blue, and some are bicolored. They are also grown for their fragrance. Cultivated species are susceptible to fungal infections including downy and powdery mildew.

Species
181 species are currently accepted.

 * Lathyrus acutifolius Vogel
 * Lathyrus alamutensis Mozaff., Ahavazi & Charkhch.
 * Lathyrus alpestris (Waldst. & Kit.) Kit.
 * Lathyrus amphicarpos L.
 * Lathyrus angulatus L. – angled pea
 * Lathyrus anhuiensis Y.J.Zhu & R.X.Meng
 * Lathyrus annuus L. – red fodder pea
 * Lathyrus apenninus F.Conti
 * Lathyrus aphaca L. – yellow pea
 * Lathyrus armenus (Boiss. & A.Huet) Čelak.
 * Lathyrus articulatus L.
 * Lathyrus atropatanus (Grossh.) Širj.
 * Lathyrus aureus (G.Lodd. ex Drapiez) D.Brândză – golden pea
 * Lathyrus basalticus Rech.f.
 * Lathyrus bauhini P.A.Genty
 * Lathyrus belinensis Maxted & Goyder
 * Lathyrus berteroanus Colla
 * Lathyrus biflorus T.W.Nelson & J.P.Nelson – twoflower pea
 * Lathyrus bijugus Boiss. & Noë – drypark pea
 * Lathyrus binatus Pančić
 * Lathyrus bitlisicus Peşmen & Güner
 * Lathyrus blepharicarpos Boiss. – ciliate vetchling
 * Lathyrus boissieri Širj.
 * Lathyrus brachycalyx Rydb. – Bonneville pea
 * Lathyrus brachyodon Murb.
 * Lathyrus brachypterus Čelak.
 * Lathyrus brownii Eastw.
 * Lathyrus cabrerianus Burkart
 * Lathyrus campestris Phil.
 * Lathyrus cassius Boiss.
 * Lathyrus caudatus C.F.Wei & H.P.Tsui
 * Lathyrus chloranthus Boiss. & Balansa
 * Lathyrus chrysanthus Boiss.
 * Lathyrus cicera L. – red pea
 * Lathyrus ciliatidentatus Czefr.
 * Lathyrus cilicicus Hayek & Siehe
 * Lathyrus ciliolatus Sam. ex Rech.f.
 * Lathyrus cirpicii Güneş
 * Lathyrus cirrhosus Ser.
 * Lathyrus clymenum L. – Spanish vetchling
 * Lathyrus colchicus Lipsky
 * Lathyrus crassipes Gillies ex Hook. & Arn. – arvejilla
 * Lathyrus cyaneus (Steven) K.Koch
 * Lathyrus czeczottianus Bässler
 * Lathyrus davidii Hance
 * Lathyrus decaphyllus Pursh – prairie vetchling
 * Lathyrus delnorticus C.L.Hitchc. – Del Norte pea
 * Lathyrus dielsianus Harms
 * Lathyrus digitatus (M.Bieb.) Fiori
 * Lathyrus elegans Vogel
 * Lathyrus elongatus (Bornm.) Širj.
 * Lathyrus emodi (Wall. ex Fritsch) Fritsch ex T.Durand & B.D.Jacks.
 * Lathyrus eucosmus Butters & H.St.John – seemly vetchling, bush vetchling
 * Lathyrus filiformis (Lam.) J.Gay
 * Lathyrus fissus Ball
 * Lathyrus formosus (Steven) Kenicer – Vavilovia
 * Lathyrus frolovii Fisch. ex Rupr.
 * Lathyrus fulvus (Sm.) Kosterin
 * Lathyrus glandulosus Broich
 * Lathyrus gloeosperma Warb. & Eig
 * Lathyrus gmelinii (Fisch. ex Ser.) Fritsch
 * Lathyrus golanensis O.Cohen & Plitmann
 * Lathyrus gorgoni Parl.
 * Lathyrus graminifolius (S.Watson) T.G.White – grassleaf pea
 * Lathyrus grandiflorus Sm. – twoflower everlasting pea
 * Lathyrus grimesii Barneby – Grimes' pea
 * Lathyrus hallersteinii Baumg.
 * Lathyrus hasslerianus Burkart
 * Lathyrus heterophyllus L. – Norfolk everlasting pea
 * Lathyrus hierosolymitanus Boiss.
 * Lathyrus hirsutus L. – hairy vetchling
 * Lathyrus hirticarpus Mattatia & Heyn
 * Lathyrus hitchcockianus Barneby & Reveal – Bullfrog Mountain pea
 * Lathyrus holochlorus (Piper) C.L.Hitchc. – thinleaf pea
 * Lathyrus hookeri G.Don
 * Lathyrus humilis (Ser.) Fisch. ex Spreng.
 * Lathyrus hygrophilus Taub.
 * Lathyrus inconspicuus L.
 * Lathyrus incurvus (Roth) Willd.
 * Lathyrus japonicus Willd. – sea pea, beach pea
 * Lathyrus jepsonii Greene – delta tule pea
 * Lathyrus karsianus P.H.Davis
 * Lathyrus ketzkhovelii Avazneli
 * Lathyrus komarovii Ohwi
 * Lathyrus krylovii Serg.
 * Lathyrus laetivirens Greene ex Rydb. – aspen pea
 * Lathyrus laevigatus (Waldst. & Kit.) Gren.
 * Lathyrus lanszwertii Kellogg – Nevada pea
 * Lathyrus lanszwertii var. aridus (Piper) Jeps.
 * Lathyrus lanszwertii var. arizonicus (Britton) S.L.Welsh
 * Lathyrus lanszwertii var. bijugatus (T.G.White) Broich – drypark pea
 * Lathyrus lanszwertii var. lanszwertii
 * Lathyrus lanszwertii var. pallescens Barneby
 * Lathyrus latifolius L. – everlasting pea, perennial pea
 * Lathyrus laxiflorus (Desf.) Kuntze
 * Lathyrus lentiformis Plitmann
 * Lathyrus leptophyllus M.Bieb.
 * Lathyrus libani Fritsch – Lebanon vetchling
 * Lathyrus linearifolius Vogel
 * Lathyrus linifolius (Reichard) Bässler – bitter vetch, heath pea
 * Lathyrus littoralis (Nutt.) Endl. ex Walp. – silky beach pea
 * Lathyrus lomanus I.M.Johnst.
 * Lathyrus lycicus Boiss. & Heldr.
 * Lathyrus macropus Gillies ex Hook. & Arn.
 * Lathyrus macrostachys Vogel
 * Lathyrus magellanicus Lam.
 * Lathyrus marmoratus Boiss. & Balansa
 * Lathyrus meridensis Pittier
 * Lathyrus miniatus M.Bieb. ex Steven
 * Lathyrus mulkak Lipsky
 * Lathyrus multiceps Clos
 * Lathyrus multijugus (Ledeb.) Czefr.
 * Lathyrus nervosus Lam. – Lord Anson's blue pea
 * Lathyrus neurolobus Boiss. & Heldr.
 * Lathyrus nevadensis S.Watson – Sierra pea
 * Lathyrus niger (L.) Bernh. – black pea
 * Lathyrus nigrivalvis Burkart
 * Lathyrus nissolia L. – grass vetchling
 * Lathyrus nitens Vogel
 * Lathyrus nivalis Hand.-Mazz.
 * Lathyrus numidicus Batt.
 * Lathyrus ochroleucus Hook. – cream pea
 * Lathyrus ochrus (L.) DC. – Cyprus-vetch
 * Lathyrus odoratus L. – sweet pea
 * Lathyrus oleraceus Lam. – pea
 * Lathyrus pallescens (M.Bieb.) K.Koch
 * Lathyrus palustris L. – marsh pea
 * Lathyrus pancicii (Jurišić) Adamović
 * Lathyrus pannonicus (Jacq.) Garcke
 * Lathyrus paraguariensis Hassl.
 * Lathyrus paranensis Burkart
 * Lathyrus parodii Burkart
 * Lathyrus pauciflorus Fernald – fewflower pea
 * Lathyrus pisiformis L.
 * Lathyrus polyphyllus Nutt. – leafy pea
 * Lathyrus pratensis L. – meadow vetchling
 * Lathyrus pseudocicera Pamp.
 * Lathyrus pubescens Hook. & Arn.
 * Lathyrus pusillus Elliott – tiny pea, singletary vetchling
 * Lathyrus pygmaeus Gomb.
 * Lathyrus quinquenervius (Miq.) Litv.
 * Lathyrus rigidus T.G.White – stiff pea
 * Lathyrus roseus Small
 * Lathyrus rotundifolius Willd.
 * Lathyrus satdaghensis P.H.Davis
 * Lathyrus sativus L. – Indian pea, white pea, chickling vetch
 * Lathyrus saxatilis (Vent.) Vis.
 * Lathyrus sericeus Lam.
 * Lathyrus setifolius L.
 * Lathyrus spathulatus Čelak.
 * Lathyrus speciosus G.Don
 * Lathyrus sphaericus Retz. – grass pea
 * Lathyrus splendens Kellogg – pride of California
 * Lathyrus stenolobus Boiss.
 * Lathyrus stenophyllus Boiss. & Heldr.
 * Lathyrus subandinus Phil.
 * Lathyrus subulatus Lam.
 * Lathyrus sulphureus W.H.Brewer ex A.Gray – snub pea
 * Lathyrus sylvestris L. – flat pea
 * Lathyrus tauricola P.H.Davis
 * Lathyrus tefennicus Genç & Sahin
 * Lathyrus tingitanus L. – Tangier pea
 * Lathyrus torreyi A.Gray – Torrey's peavine
 * Lathyrus × tournefortii (Lapeyr.) A.W.Hill
 * Lathyrus trachycarpus (Boiss.) Boiss.
 * Lathyrus tracyi Bradshaw
 * Lathyrus transsylvanicus (Spreng.) Rchb.f.
 * Lathyrus tremolsianus Pau
 * Lathyrus tropicalandinus Burkart
 * Lathyrus tuberosus L. – tuberous pea
 * Lathyrus tukhtensis Czeczott
 * Lathyrus undulatus Boiss. – wavy pea
 * Lathyrus vaniotii H.Lév. – Korean mountain vetchling
 * Lathyrus venetus (Mill.) Wohlf.
 * Lathyrus venosus Muhl. ex Willd. – veiny pea, bushy vetchling
 * Lathyrus vernus (L.) Bernh. – spring pea
 * Lathyrus vestitus Nutt. – Pacific pea
 * Lathyrus vinealis Boiss. & Noë
 * Lathyrus vivantii P.Monts.
 * Lathyrus whitei Kupicha
 * Lathyrus woronowii Bornm.
 * Lathyrus zalaghensis Andr.

Ecology
Lathyrus species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species, including the grey chi (Antitype chi) and the latticed heath (Chiasmia clathrata), both recorded on meadow vetchling (Lathyrus pratensis), and Chionodes braunella. Lathyrus growth abundance and size both decrease in response to increased temperatures in montane meadows.

title: Lathyrus


text:
David Mallet (writer)

David Mallet (or Malloch) (c. 1705–1765) was a Scottish poet and dramatist.

He was educated at the University of Edinburgh, and went to London in 1723 to work as a private tutor. There he became friendly with Alexander Pope, James Thomson, and other literary figures including Henry St John, Viscount Bolingbroke.

His best-known work was written in the same year: William and Margaret, adapted from a traditional ballad. In 1740, he collaborated with Thomson on a masque, Alfred, which was the vehicle for "Rule, Britannia!". His other plays and poetry (e.g. Amyntor and Theodora), popular at the time, are largely forgotten, but Bolingbroke's writings were edited and published by Mallet in 1754.

Life
Mallet was probably the second son of James Malloch of Dunruchan, a well-to-do tenant farmer on Lord Drummond's Perthshire estate, a Roman Catholic, and a member of the outlawed Clan MacGregor. The household suffered during the Jacobite Rebellion of 1715. Mallet gave his age as 28 in 1733, and was therefore born about 1705. He seems to have been educated at the parish school of Crieff under John Ker.

In 1717 Mallet was acting as janitor in Edinburgh High School. In 1720 he became resident tutor to the sons of Mr. Home of Dreghorn; he held the post till 1723, studied at the same time at the University of Edinburgh (1721–2, 1722–3), and formed a friendship with a fellow student, James Thomson the poet, a future collaborator. In July 1723 he accepted the post of tutor to the sons of the Duke of Montrose. Leaving the university without a degree, he went in August to London, and then to the duke's seat at Shawford, near Winchester. He lived with the family until 1731, mainly in London and Shawford. In 1726 he received the honorary degree of M.A. from the University of Aberdeen, ostensibly for an English poem in imitation of Ker's Donaides. Early in 1727 he made a continental tour with his pupils. Towards the end of 1731 he left the Montrose family, and went to Gosfield in Essex, to act as tutor to the stepson of John Knight, to whose wife, formerly Mrs. Newsham, he had been recommended by Alexander Pope.

On 2 November 1733 Mallet, with his pupil, matriculated at St. Mary Hall, Oxford, where he resided fairly regularly till 27 September 1734. On 5 March 1735 he received, at his request, the degree of M.A. from the University of Edinburgh, and on the 15th of that month he graduated B.A., and on 6 April M.A. of the University of Oxford. He was again abroad in 1735.

Mallet came into favour with the opposition, and was appointed, 27 May 1742, under-secretary to the Prince of Wales. In 1745 he made a tour in Holland.

Mallet was rewarded in 1763 by Lord Bute, to whom he had given fulsome praise, with the post of inspector of exchequer-book in the outports of London, a sinecure which he held till his death. In the autumn of the following year he joined his wife Lucy in Paris, but ill health compelled him to return to London. He died on Sunday, 21 April 1765 and was buried on 27 April in St. George's cemetery, South Audley Street.

Works
Mallet published a Pastoral in the Edinburgh Miscellany in 1720; and during his college days produced a number of short pieces, including an imitation of John Milton entitled The Transfiguration, first published in the Edinburgh Magazine in 1793. Shortly before his engagement with the Montrose family he composed the ballad of William and Margaret which was published first anonymously in black letter, and then in 1724, in Allan Ramsay's Tea-Table Miscellany, and Aaron Hill's Plain Dealer No. 36. Further poems followed, mostly written for John Ker; and in February 1725 he wrote verses on Mira, the Clio of his friend Thomson. For Thomson's poem on Winter, published in March 1726, he wrote a dedication to Sir Spencer Compton, and some verses for the second edition He had himself written, early in 1725, a poem on the same subject, which was praised by Thomson; and on his return from the continent he prepared for the press The Excursion, in two books, which he had written in 1726.

On 22 February 1731 Mallet produced his tragedy of Eurydice at Drury Lane, with a prologue and epilogue by Aaron Hill. It was acted about thirteen times, and was revived in 1759. Mallet showed his appreciation for Pope with his poem on Verbal Criticism (1733), in which he ridiculed Lewis Theobald.

Mallet made more of a reputation with the tragedy of Mustapha, produced at Drury Lane on 13 Feb. 1738–9. The prologue was by Thomson, and the play was dedicated to Frederick, Prince of Wales: like Thomson's Edward and Eleonora, but less openly, it was directed against the king and Sir Robert Walpole. With James Quin as Solyman, it ran for fourteen nights. In 1740 Mallet published a short Life of Bacon; shortly afterwards Mallet and Thomson were commanded by the Prince to write the masque of Alfred, to celebrate both the birthday of the Princess Augusta and the anniversary of George I's accession. It was played in the gardens of Cliefden, before the Prince and Princess of Wales, on Friday, 1 August 1740, with Quin, Christiana Horton, and Kitty Clive in the leading parts.

Sarah Churchill, Duchess of Marlborough left in 1744 the sum of £1,000 to Mallet and Richard Glover, to write a life of her husband; and Mallet, on Glover's refusal, undertook the work. He only did some research. He published, in May 1747, 'Amyntor and Theodora, or the Hermit.'

Mallet and Thomson had, through George Lyttelton, 1st Baron Lyttelton, support from the Prince of Wales, but then lost it as Lyttelton fell from favour. Mallet then found the patronage of Bolingbroke, and prepared a new edition of the Patriot King, published in 1749; in it he attacked the memory of Pope for having clandestinely edited and printed the work in 1738. There was a short pamphlet war with Pope's friends. He then edited Bolingbroke's works, 5 vols. in March 1754. Samuel Johnson remarked on this enterprise that Bolingbroke had "spent his life in charging a gun against Christianity", and "left half-a-crown to a hungry Scotchman to draw the trigger after his death".

In 1751, three years after the death of Thomson, Mallet published a new version of the masque of 1740. The adaptation was major, with new scenes and songs added. It was acted at Drury Lane on 23 February 1751, with David Garrick in the title rôle. The masque of Britannia, an appeal to patriotic sentiment on the eve of an outbreak of war with France, followed in 1755. It was produced at Drury Lane on 9 May, when Garrick spoke the prologue as a drunken sailor.

On 19 January 1763 Mallet's Elvira was acted at the same venue during the "half-price riots". Garrick took the part of Don Pedro, the last original character in which he was seen; but it provoked a pamphlet of Critical Strictures by James Boswell and two fellow Scots. In the intervening years Mallet had written lesser works, including the ballad of Edwin and Emma (1760), and a partisan indictment by a "Plain Man" against Admiral Byng in 1757. An extract from his The tragedy of Bowes appears in The Bishoprick Garland 1834 by Cuthbert Sharp.

title: David Mallet (writer)


text:
Eurasian lynx

The Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) is one of the four extant species within the medium-sized wild cat genus Lynx. It is widely distributed from Northern, Central and Eastern Europe to Central Asia and Siberia, the Tibetan Plateau and the Himalayas. It inhabits temperate and boreal forests up to an elevation of 5500 m. Despite its wide distribution, it is threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation, poaching and depletion of prey.

Taxonomy
Felis lynx was the scientific name used in 1758 by Carl Linnaeus in his work Systema Naturae. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the following Eurasian lynx subspecies were proposed:

The following were also proposed, but are not considered valid taxa:
 * Altai lynx (L. l. wardi) Lydekker, 1904
 * Baikal lynx (L. l. kozlovi) Fetisov, 1950
 * Amur lynx (L. l. stroganovi) Heptner, 1969
 * Sardinian lynx (L. l. sardiniae) Mola, 1908

Characteristics
The Eurasian lynx has a relatively short, reddish or brown coat that is marked with black spots; their number and pattern are highly variable. The underparts, neck and chin are whitish. The fur is more brightly coloured with more numerous spots in animals living at the southern end of its range. In winter, it is much thicker and varies from silver-grey to greyish brown. Some animals have dark brown stripes on the forehead and back. It has powerful, relatively long legs, with large webbed and furred paws that act like snowshoes. It also has a short "bobbed" tail with an all-black tip, black tufts of hair on its ears, and a long grey-and-white ruff.

It is the largest of the four lynx species, ranging in body length from 76 – in males; 73 – in females; and standing 55 - 75 cm at the shoulder. The tail is 11 – long, constituting a total length of up to 130 cm in the largest males. Weights of both sexes in Russia range from 12 to 32 kg, but more than 30 kg is attained very rarely and is possibly exaggerated. A Eurasian lynx from the Altai Mountains weighed 35 kg. Those inhabiting Fennoscandia and westwards are considerably smaller, with a range of just 7 –, though individuals in the Carpathian Mountains may rival those in the Altai in size.

Distribution and habitat
The Eurasian lynx inhabits rugged country providing plenty of hideouts and stalking opportunities. Depending on the locality, this may include rocky-steppe, mixed forest-steppe, boreal forest, and montane forest ecosystems. In the more mountainous parts of its range, Eurasian lynx descends to the lowlands in winter, following prey species and avoiding deep snow. Despite its adaptations for moving in snow, it finds loose, deep snow difficult to deal with and cannot survive in areas with snow depths exceeding 100 cm. It tends to be less common where the grey wolf (Canis lupus) is abundant, and wolves have been reported to attack and even eat lynx.

Europe
The Eurasian lynx was once widespread throughout most of continental Europe. By the early 19th century, it was persecuted to local extinction in western and southern European lowlands, but survived only in mountainous areas and Scandinavian forests. By the 1950s, it had become extinct in most of Western and Central Europe, where only scattered and isolated populations exist today.

Fennoscandia
The Eurasian lynx was close to extinction in Scandinavia in the 1930s. Since the 1950s, the population slowly recovered and forms three subpopulations in northern, central and southern Scandinavia. In Norway, the Eurasian lynx was subjected to an official bounty between 1846 and 1980 and could be hunted without license. In 1994, a compensation scheme for livestock killed by lynx was introduced. By 1996, the lynx population was estimated to comprise 410 Individuals, decreased to less than 260 individuals in 2004 and increased since 2005 to about 452 mature individuals by 2008.

In Sweden, the lynx population was estimated at 1,400 individuals in 2006 and 1,250 in 2011. Hunting is controlled by government agencies. In Finland, about 2,200–2,300 individuals were present according to a 2009 estimate. The lynx population in Finland has been increasing every year since 1991, and is estimated to be nowadays larger than ever before. Limited hunting is permitted. In 2009 the Finnish Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry gave a permit for hunting of 340 lynx individuals.

Western Europe
In Great Britain, subfossil remains of Eurasian lynx have been dated to the early Middle Ages, and the 7th or 8th century Welsh poem Dinogad's Smock likely makes reference to the presence of lynx in Cumbria. It is possible that other Medieval and Modern era references to "wild cats" and "cats of the mountain", as late as the 18th century, actually refer to Eurasian lynx and not the Scottish wildcat as is commonly assumed. It has been proposed to reintroduce the lynx to the Scottish Highlands and Kielder Forest in Northumberland.

A large lynx that hunted deer and livestock, sometimes called "tiger" and "deer's wolf" (llobu/lobo cerval), was also reported in Green Spain until the 19th century. These accounts were traditionally regarded as references to Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus), a smaller endemic species of the Iberian Peninsula. However, genetic testing of remains showed that the Eurasian and Iberian lynx coexisted into recent times in the Iberian Peninsula with little overlap, the Eurasian lynx being present in temperate broadleaf and mixed forests and the Iberian lynx in Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub. The Eurasian lynx of Spain was a unique, extinct lineage more related to the Carpathian and Baltic subspecies. It was genetically impoverished already in pre-Roman times, possibly because of founder effect, which made it even more vulnerable to human persecution. The government of Asturias studied the feasibility of Eurasian lynx reintroduction in 2019. In the Catalonian Pyrenees, the last Eurasian lynx was killed in the 1930s, though unconfirmed sightings continued until the 1990s. The Síndic d'Aran planned a reintroduction in 2016 but canceled it due to the opposition of hunters and livestock farmers.

In Germany, the Eurasian lynx was exterminated in 1850. It was reintroduced to the Bavarian Forest and the Harz in the 1990s; other areas were populated by lynxes migrating from France and the Czech Republic. In 2002, the first birth of wild lynx on German territory was announced, following a litter from a pair of lynx in the Harz National Park. Small populations exist also in Saxon Switzerland, Palatinate Forest, and Fichtel Mountains. Eurasian lynx also migrated to Austria, where they had also been exterminated. An episode of the PBS television series Nature featured the return of the lynx to Austria's Kalkalpen National Park after a 150-year absence. A higher proportion is killed by humans than by infectious diseases.

In Switzerland, the Eurasian lynx was exterminated in the early 20th century, with the last confirmed sighting around Simplon pass in 1904. From 1971 on, Carpathian lynx were reintroduced in the Alps and the Jura Mountains. Since then, the population has grown slowly but steadily. In 2019, around 250 lynx were reportedly living in Switzerland, roughly a third of them in the Jura Mountains, and the rest roaming the Alps and Pre-Alps.

The Eurasian lynx was exterminated in the French Alps in the early 20th century. Following reintroduction of lynx in the Swiss Jura Mountains in the 1970s, lynxes were recorded again in the French Alps and Jura from the late 1970s onwards.

In Italy, it recolonised the Italian Alps since the 1980s, also from reintroduced populations in Switzerland, Austria and Slovenia. By 2010, the Alpine lynx population comprised about 120–150 individuals ranging over 27800 km2 in six sub-areas.

In the Netherlands, lynxes have been sighted sporadically since 1985 in the country's southern part. Since 2020, the presence of lynxes has been confirmed by camera trapping in the Ardennes region in southern Belgium, proving the presence of the species following more than 25 years of unconfirmed sightings in the region.

Central and Eastern Europe

 * Balkan peninsula: The Balkan lynx subspecies is found in Croatia, Montenegro, Albania, Kosovo, North Macedonia, Bulgaria and possibly Greece. They can be found in remote mountainous regions of the Balkans, with the largest numbers in remote hills of western North Macedonia, eastern Albania and northern Albania. The Balkan lynx is considered a national symbol of North Macedonia, and it is depicted on the reverse of the Macedonian 5 denars coin, issued in 1993. The name of Lynkestis, a Macedonian tribe, is translated as "Land of the Lynx". It has been on the brink of extinction for nearly 100 years. Numbers are estimated to be around 100, and the decline is due to illegal poaching.
 * Carpathian Mountains: About 2,800 Eurasian lynx live in the mountain range, split between the Czech Republic, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Ukraine and Hungary. It is the largest contiguous Eurasian lynx population west of the Russian border.
 * Dinaric Alps and Julian Alps: Slovenia, Croatia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina are home to approx. 130–200 lynx. The Eurasian lynx had been considered extinct in these countries since the beginning of the 20th century. However, a successful reintroduction project was carried out in Slovenia in 1973, when three female and three male lynx from Slovakia were released in the Kočevski Rog forest. Today, lynx are present in the Dinaric forests of the south and southeastern part of Slovenia and in the Croatian regions of Gorski kotar and Velebit, spanning the Dinaric Alps and over the Dinara Mountains into western Bosnia and Herzegovina. The lynx has been also spotted in the Julian Alps and elsewhere in western Slovenia, but the A1 motorway presents a significant hindrance to the development of the population there. Croatia's Plitvice Lakes National Park is home to several pairs of the lynx. In the three countries, the Eurasian lynx is listed as an endangered species and protected by law. Realistic population estimates are 40 lynx in Slovenia, 40–60 in Croatia, and more than 50 in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Croatian massif Risnjak in Risnjak National Park got its name from the Croatian word for the lynx, ris.
 * Belarus: the most recent data from the national parks, reserves, and hunting grounds demonstrate the number of lynxes in Belarus to be in the range of 550 to 600 animals.
 * Bulgaria: the animal was declared extinct in Bulgaria in 1985, but sightings continued well into the 1990s. In 2006 an audio recording of a lynx mating call was made in the Strandzha mountain range in the southeast. Two years later an ear-marked individual was accidentally shot near Belogradchik in the northwest, and a few months later a mounted trap camera caught a glimpse of another individual. Further camera records followed in Osogovo and Strandzha, confirming that the species has returned to the country. A thorough examination on the subject is yet to be made available.
 * Czech Republic: In Bohemia, the Eurasian lynx was exterminated in the 19th century (1830–1890) and in Moravia probably at the turn of the 20th century. After 1945, migration from Slovakia created a small and unstable population in Moravia. In the 1980s, almost 20 specimens were imported from Slovakia and reintroduced in the Šumava area. In early 2006, the population of lynx in the Czech Republic was estimated at 65–105 individuals. Hunting is prohibited, but the lynx is often threatened by poachers.
 * Estonia: There are 900 individuals in Estonia according to a 2001 estimate. Although 180 lynx were legally hunted in Estonia in 2010, the country still has the highest known density of the species in Europe.
 * Hungary: The population is estimated at 10-12 animals, in the northern mountain ranges of the country close to Slovakia.
 * Latvia: According to a 2005 estimate, about 700 animals inhabit areas in Courland and Vidzeme.
 * Lithuania: The population is estimated at 80–100 animals.
 * Poland: In its Environment and Environmental Protection Section, the 2011 Central Statistical Office Report puts the number of Eurasian lynxes observed in the wild in Poland as of 2010 at approximately 285. There are two major populations of lynxes in Poland, one in the northeastern part of the country (most notably in the Białowieża Forest) and the other in the southeastern part in the Carpathian Mountains. Since the 1980s, lynxes have also been spotted in the region of Roztocze, Solska Forest, Polesie Lubelskie, and Karkonosze Mountains, though they still remain rare in those areas. A successfully reintroduced population of lynxes has also been living in the Kampinos National Park since the 1990s.
 * Slovakia: the Eurasian lynx inhabits deciduous, coniferous and mixed forests at elevations of 180 - 1592 m, mostly in national parks and other protected areas; its presence has been positively confirmed in more than half of Slovak territory (2012). In terms of absolute numbers though in Štiavnica Mountains and Veľká Fatra National Park, surveys during 2011 to 2014 revealed that less than 30 individuals were present in these protected areas, with anthropic disturbances, poaching and insufficient counting methods used by forestry cited as the main causes of the unreliable population figures.
 * Romania: over 2,000 Eurasian lynx live in Romania, including most of the Carpathian population. However, some experts consider these official population numbers to be overestimated. Limited hunting is permitted but the population is stable.
 * Russia:, the Russian lynx population was estimated as comprising 22,510 individuals, of which about 9,000 were found in European Russia. The populations were assessed as stable in some regions, but decreasing in others.
 * Ukraine: The Eurasian lynx is native to forested areas of the country. Before the 19th century it was common also in the forest steppe zone. Nowadays, the most significant populations remain in the Carpathian mountains and across the forests of Polesia. The population is estimated as 80–90 animals for the Polesia region and 350–400 for the forests of the Carpathians.

Anatolia and Caucasus
In the Anatolian part of Turkey, the Eurasian lynx is present in the Lesser Caucasus, Kaçkar Mountains and Artvin Province. In Ciglikara Nature Reserve located in the Taurus Mountains, 15 individuals were identified. More than 50 individuals were identified and monitored at a forest-steppe mixed ecosystem in northwestern Anatolia by camera traps, genetic material and radiotelemetry between 2009 and 2019. In Kars Province, a breeding population occurs in Sarıkamış-Allahuekber Mountains National Park. The Eurasian lynx and grey wolf can occur sympatrically, as they occupy different trophic niches.

Central Asia
In Central Asia, it is native to Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan and the Chinese provinces of Xinjiang, Gansu, Qinghai, Sichuan, Shaanxi, and to the northern slopes of Iran's Alborz Mountains and Mongolia.

In northern Pakistan, the Eurasian lynx was recorded at elevations of 1067 - 5000 m in Chitral District. In India: Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh and most other Himalayan states.

In Nepal, a Eurasian lynx was sighted in the western Dhaulagiri massif in 1975. It is also present above elevations of 3800 m in Humla, Mustang and Dolpa Districts.

East Asia
Fossils of the Eurasian or a closely related Lynx species from the Late Pleistocene era and onward were excavated at various locations in the Japanese archipelago. Since no archaeological evidence after the Yayoi period was found, it was probably eradicated during the Jōmon period.

Behavior
Although they may hunt during the day when food is scarce, the Eurasian lynx is mainly nocturnal or crepuscular, and spends the day sleeping in dense thickets or other places of concealment. It lives solitarily as an adult. The hunting area of Eurasian lynx can be anything from 20 to 450 km2, depending on the local availability of prey. Males tend to hunt over much larger areas than females, which tend to occupy exclusive, rather than overlapping, hunting ranges. The Eurasian lynx can travel up to 20 km during one night, although about half this distance is more typical. They patrol regularly throughout all parts of their hunting range, using scent marks to indicate their presence to other individuals. As with other cats, its scent marks may consist of faeces, urine, or scrape marks, with the former often being left in prominent locations along the boundary of the hunting territory. Eurasian lynx makes a range of vocalizations, but is generally silent outside of the breeding season. They have been observed to mew, hiss, growl, and purr, and, like domestic cats, will "chatter" at prey that is just out of reach. Mating calls are much louder, consisting of deep growls in the male, and loud "meow-like" sounds in the female. Eurasian lynx are secretive, and because the sounds they make are very quiet and seldom heard, their presence in an area may go unnoticed for years. Remnants of prey or tracks on snow are usually observed long before the animal is seen.

Diet and hunting
The Eurasian lynx is an ambush predator but also hunts by stalking, sneaking and jumping on prey using both vision and hearing. When snow conditions make this harder, it may be forced to switch to larger prey. It often climbs onto high rocks or fallen trees to scan the surrounding area. It is a powerful predator that has killed adult deer weighing at least 150 kg.

Eurasian lynx in Europe prey largely on small to fairly large sized mammals and birds. Among the recorded prey items for the species are hares, rabbits, marmots, squirrels, dormice, muskrats, martens, grouse, red foxes, wild boar, chamois, young moose, European roe deer, red deer, reindeer and other ungulates. In keeping with its larger size, the Eurasian lynx is the only lynx species to preferentially take ungulates. Although taking on larger prey presents a risk to the Eurasian lynx, the bounty provided by killing them can outweigh the risks. The Eurasian lynx thus prefers fairly large ungulate prey, especially during winter, when small prey is less abundant. Where common, roe deer appear to be the preferred prey species for the Eurasian lynx.

In Estonia, a typical adult lynx kills about 60 roe deer a year; in the years when the roe deer population plummets, the lynx switch to beavers, hares, foxes, raccoon dogs, and birds. Even where roe deer are quite uncommon, the deer are still quantitatively the favored prey species, though in summer smaller prey and occasional domestic sheep are eaten more regularly. In parts of Finland, introduced white-tailed deer are eaten regularly. In some areas in Poland and Austria, red deer is the preferred prey, and in Switzerland, chamois is locally favored. Eurasian lynx also feeds on carrion when available. Adult lynx require 1.1 to 2 kg of meat per day, and may take several days to fully consume some of their larger prey.

In the Mediterranean mixed forest-steppe and subalpine ecosystems of Anatolia the main and most preferred prey of the Eurasian lynx is European hare, forming 79% to 99% of prey biomass eaten. Although the lynx is in sympatry with wild ungulates, such as wild goat, chamois, red deer and wild boar in these ecosystems, ungulate biomass in lynx diet does not exceed 10%. In ten other study sites in the Black Sea region of northern Anatolia where roe deer can occur in high densities, lynx occurrence is positively correlated with European hare occurrence rather than roe deer. Lynx in Anatolia also has physiological requirements and morphological adjustments similar to other lagomorph specialists, with a daily prey intake of about 900 g. It is therefore classified as lagomorph specialist. Diet studies in central Asia and Yakutia also indicate a diet mainly composed of lagomorphs and ungulate prey contributes in low amounts to lynx diet. Eurasian lynx scat found in Dolpa District in the Nepal Himalayas contained remains of woolly hare (Lepus oiostolus), pika (Ochotona sp.), mountain voles (Alticola sp.), Himalayan marmot (Marmota himalayana) and domestic goat (Capra hircus).

Reproduction

The mating season of the Eurasian lynx lasts from January to April. The female typically comes into oestrus only once during this period, lasting from four to seven days. If the first litter is lost, a second period of oestrus is common. It does not appear to be able to control its reproductive behaviour based on prey availability. Gestation lasts from 67 to 74 days. Pregnant females construct dens in secluded locations, often protected by overhanging branches or tree roots. The den is lined with feathers, deer hair, and dry grass to provide bedding for the young. At birth, Eurasian lynx kittens weigh 240 to 430 g and open their eyes after ten to twelve days. They initially have plain, greyish-brown fur, attaining the full adult colouration around eleven weeks of age. They begin to take solid food at six to seven weeks, when they begin to leave the den, but are not fully weaned for five or six months. The den is abandoned two to three months after the kittens are born, but the young typically remain with their mother until they are around ten months of age. Eurasian lynx reach sexual maturity at two or three years, and have lived for twenty one years in captivity. Females usually have two kittens; litters with more than three kittens are rare.

Predator dynamics
The primary predators of the lynx are the gray wolf and, in the northern part of its range, the wolverine. In Russian forests, gray wolves kill and eat lynx that fail to escape into trees, as evidenced by examination of wolf and lynx trackways in the Central Forest Nature Reserve, and of lynx hair and bones found in wolf stomach contents in the Belovezh Forest. The lynx saves itself from its enemies by quickly climbing a tree or down the edge of a cliff or ravine; it usually lives near a 'stronghold' place and eats its food in a high tree or on an inaccessible ledge. Lynx populations decrease when wolves appear in an area, such as observed in the Pritelsk region of the Altai Mountains, and lynx are likely to take smaller prey where wolves are active. In eastern Slovakia, after an increase of wolves after World War II, lynx were observed to move out.

However, there is also a reported instance of a male lynx having expelled an adult and apparently healthy male wolf in Belarus in a fight. After the incident, the wolf vanished from the record, suggesting that it might have succumbed to the wounds sustained during the fight. Moreover, recent population dynamics and a high mortality rate among wolf cubs in the Naliboki forest might be connected to an increasing lynx population. All in all, this suggests that, at least locally, lynx may dominate wolves, since no signs for predation of wolves on lynx was found. In the Pechora-Ilych Nature Reserve in Russia, wolverine predation and consumption of lynx has been documented, and in the Altai Mountains, the lynx actively avoids wolverines.

The gray wolf, wolverine, as well as the red fox and the eagle owl, are also competitors with the Eurasian lynx for prey, notably in the taiga regions of Russia. In years of low hare populations, the competition becomes especially fierce; the lynx is at a disadvantage as its competitors are able to capture additional, larger prey animals, and more efficiently. This competition may be especially severe in the northern parts of the lynx's range, where lynx populations are vastly outnumbered by red fox and even by wolverine. The presence of other large carnivores is one factor limiting their population.

In two ecosystems of Anatolia, cannibalism was common, and fellow lynx were found to form 5% to 8% of prey biomass in their diets. Claws and bones analysed showed that sub-adult lynx were the victims of cannibalism during the mating and spring seasons. Lynx were not found in the sympatrically occurring wolves' diets. On the contrary, lynx themselves were the predators of red fox, pine marten, domestic and feral cats and dogs, and golden jackal remains have also been found in lynx fecal samples, possibly the result of carrion consumption. Occasionally, in areas such as Manchuria and the Amur River, it may be possible the Amur leopard targets lynx; in the same geographic region, Siberian tigers have also preyed on lynxes, as evidenced by examination of tiger stomach contents. In Sweden, out of 33 deaths of lynx of a population being observed, one was probably killed by a wolverine. Lynx compete for food with the predators described above, and also with the red fox, eagle owls, golden eagles, wild boar (which scavenge from lynx kills), and in the southern part of its range, the snow leopard and leopard as well. Brown bears, although not (so far as is known) a predator of Eurasian lynx, are in some areas a semi-habitual usurpers of ungulate kills by lynxes, not infrequently before the cat has had a chance to consume its kill itself.

Conservation
The Eurasian lynx is included on CITES Appendix II and listed as a protected species in the Berne Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats, Appendix III. Hunting lynx is illegal in many range countries, with the exception of Estonia, Latvia, Russia, Armenia and Iraq. Since 2005, the Norwegian government sets national population goals, while a committee of representatives from county assemblies decide on hunting quotas.

title: Eurasian lynx