text:
Norwegian Wood (This Bird Has Flown)

"Norwegian Wood (This Bird Has Flown)", otherwise known as simply "Norwegian Wood", is a song by the English rock band the Beatles from their 1965 album Rubber Soul. It was written mainly by John Lennon, with lyrical contributions from Paul McCartney, and credited to the Lennon–McCartney songwriting partnership. Influenced by the introspective lyrics of Bob Dylan, the song is considered a milestone in the Beatles' development as songwriters. The track features a sitar part, played by lead guitarist George Harrison, that marked the first appearance of the Indian string instrument on a Western rock recording. The song was a number 1 hit in Australia when released on a single there in 1966, coupled with "Nowhere Man".

Lennon wrote the song as a veiled account of an extramarital affair he had in London. When recording the track, Harrison was asked by Lennon to add a sitar part to the song. Harrison had become interested in the instrument's exotic sound while on the set of the Beatles' film Help!, in early 1965. "Norwegian Wood" was influential in the development of raga rock and psychedelic rock during the mid-1960s. The song also helped elevate Ravi Shankar and Indian classical music to mainstream popularity in the West. Many other rock and pop artists, including the Byrds, the Rolling Stones and Donovan, began integrating elements of the genre into their musical approach. "Norwegian Wood" is also recognised as a key work in the early evolution of world music.

Rolling Stone magazine ranked "Norwegian Wood" number 83 on its 2004 list of "The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time".

Background and composition
The song's lyrics are about an extramarital affair that John Lennon was involved in, as hinted in the opening couplet: "I once had a girl, or should I say, she once had me." Although Lennon never revealed with whom he had the affair, writer Philip Norman speculates that it was either Lennon's close friend and journalist Maureen Cleave or Sonny Freeman. Paul McCartney explained that the term "Norwegian Wood" was an ironic reference to the cheap pine wall panelling then in vogue in London. McCartney commented on the final verse of the song: "In our world the guy had to have some sort of revenge. It could have meant I lit a fire to keep myself warm, and wasn't the decor of her house wonderful? But it didn't, it meant I burned the fucking place down as an act of revenge, and then we left it there and went into the instrumental."

According to Lennon in 1970, "Norwegian Wood" was his creation, with McCartney assisting on the middle eight. In 1980, Lennon changed his claim, saying it was "my song completely". Since Lennon's death, however, McCartney has contended that Lennon brought the opening couplet to one of their joint songwriting sessions, and that they finished the song together, with the middle eight and the title (and the "fire") being among McCartney's contributions. McCartney's statement about the level of his involvement was one of the controversial claims he made in his 1997 authorised biography, Many Years from Now.

Regardless, Lennon began writing the song in January 1965, while on holiday with his wife, Cynthia, and record producer George Martin at St. Moritz in the Swiss Alps. Over the following days, Lennon expanded on an acoustic arrangement of the song, which was written in a Dylanesque time signature, and showed it to Martin while he recovered from a skiing injury. In his book The Songs of Lennon: The Beatle Years, author John Stevens describes "Norwegian Wood" as a turning point in folk-style ballads, writing that "Lennon moves quickly from one lyrical image to another, leaving it up to the listener's imagination to complete the picture". He also said the song marked a pivotal moment in Lennon's use of surreal lyrics, following on from the songs "Ask Me Why" and "There's a Place".

Sitar and Indian influence
Between 5 and 6 April 1965, while filming the second Beatles film, Help!, at Twickenham Film Studios, George Harrison first encountered a sitar, the Indian string instrument that would be a prominent feature in "Norwegian Wood". It was one of several instruments being played by a group of Indian musicians in a scene set in an Indian restaurant.

"Norwegian Wood" was not the first Western pop song in which an Indian influence was evident: the raga-like drone was found in the Beatles' "Ticket to Ride", as well as in the Kinks' song "See My Friends". The Yardbirds also created a similar sound with a distorted electric guitar on "Heart Full of Soul". Barry Fantoni, a friend of Ray Davies of the Kinks, said that the Beatles first got the idea to use Indian instrumentation when Fantoni played them "See My Friends". According to author Ian MacDonald, however, while the Kinks' single most likely influenced the Beatles, Davies could well have been influenced by "Ticket to Ride" when recording "See My Friends".

Rather than the Kinks or the Yardbirds, Harrison attributed his growing interest in Indian sounds to people mentioning the name of Indian sitarist Ravi Shankar to him, culminating in a discussion he had with David Crosby of the Byrds. The discussion took place in Los Angeles on 25 August, during the Beatles' 1965 American tour. Once back in London, Harrison followed Crosby's suggestion by seeking out Shankar's recordings, and he also purchased a cheap sitar, from the Indiacraft store on Oxford Street. Ringo Starr later cited Harrison's use of sitar on "Norwegian Wood" as an example of the Beatles' eagerness to incorporate new sounds in 1965, saying: "you could walk in with an elephant, as long as it was going to make a musical note."

Recording
The Beatles recorded an early version of "Norwegian Wood" during the first day of sessions for their album Rubber Soul, on 12 October 1965. The session took place at EMI Studios in London, with Martin producing. Titled "This Bird Has Flown", the song was extensively rehearsed by the group, who then taped the rhythm track in a single take, featuring two 12-string acoustic guitars, bass, and a faint sound of cymbals. At Lennon's behest, Harrison added his sitar part, with the take emphasising the drone quality of the instrument more so than the remake that was eventually released. The sound of the sitar proved difficult to capture, according to sound engineer Norman Smith, who recalled problems with "a lot of nasty peaks and a very complex wave form". He declined to use a limiter, which would have fixed the technical problem with distortion, but would have affected the sound.

Lennon overdubbed a lead vocal, which he double tracked at the end of each line in the verses. This version exhibited a less folk-orientated sound, relative to the recording issued on Rubber Soul, instead highlighting laboured vocals and an unusual sitar conclusion. The band were unsatisfied with the recording, however, and decided to return to the song later in the sessions. This discarded version of "Norwegian Wood" was first released on the 1996 compilation album Anthology 2.

On 21 October, the Beatles recorded three new takes, including the master. The group experimented with the arrangement, with the second take introducing a double-tracked sitar opening that complemented Lennon's acoustic melody. Though the group completely reshaped "Norwegian Wood", it was far from the album version. Harrison's sitar playing is still at the forefront, alongside heavy drumbeats. The take was not considered suitable for overdubbing, so the band scrapped it, and re-evaluated the arrangement. By the third take, the song was called "Norwegian Wood", and the group changed the key from D major to E major. The Beatles skipped the rhythm section on this take, and decided to jump directly to the master take. In all, the rhythm section accommodates the acoustics, and the band thought the musical style was an improvement over earlier run-throughs. Therefore, the sitar is an accompaniment, consequently affecting the droning sound evident in past takes. Looking back on the recording sessions in the 1990s, Harrison explained his inclusion of the sitar to be "quite spontaneous from what I remember", adding, "We miked it up and put it on and it just seemed to hit the spot".

Release and reception
"Norwegian Wood" was released on Rubber Soul on 3 December 1965. The song marked the first example of a rock band playing a sitar or any Indian instrument on one of their recordings. It was also issued on a single with "Nowhere Man" in Australia and was a number 1 hit there in May 1966. The two songs were listed together, as a double A-side, during the single's two weeks at number 1. In the United Kingdom, the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) awarded the song a silver certification for sales and streams exceeding 200,000 units in 2021.

Writing for AllMusic, music historian Richie Unterberger describes "Norwegian Wood" as possessing "more than enough ambiguity and ingenious innuendo to satisfy even a Dylan fan" while demonstrating to the Beatles' audience how "the group had sure come a long way since 'She Loves You' just two years back." Unterberger concludes his review by commenting: "The power of the track is greatly enhanced by McCartney's sympathetic high harmonies on the bridge, and its exoticism confirmed by George Harrison's twanging sitar riffs". A reviewer for Rolling Stone magazine noted "Norwegian Wood" and "Think for Yourself" as documents of the Beatles' increasing awareness and creativity in the studio. Scott Plagenhoef of Pitchfork considers the song to be one of the most self-evident Lennon pieces on Rubber Soul to exemplify his maturity as a songwriter, and praises the composition as "an economical and ambiguous story-song highlighted by Harrison's first dabbling with the Indian sitar".

In his book on the Rubber Soul era, subtitled The Enduring Beauty of Rubber Soul, John Kruth refers to "Norwegian Wood" as a "striking from the first listen" kind of tune that "transported Beatles fans north to the pristine forests of Scandinavia". Music critic Kenneth Womack admires how the song "reinterprets a familiar theme, in this case the loss of 'love' (well represented in earlier songs such as 'Don't Bother Me' and 'Misery'), providing listeners with security yet challenging those inclined to acknowledge the standard treatment".

Musical influence and legacy
Although droning guitars had been used previously to mimic the qualities of the sitar, "Norwegian Wood" is generally credited as sparking a musical craze for the sound of the novel instrument in the mid-1960s. The song is often identified as the first example of raga rock, while the trend it initiated led to the arrival of Indian rock and formed the essence of psychedelic rock. "Norwegian Wood" is also recognised as an important piece of what is typically called "world music", and it was a major step towards incorporating non-Western musical influences into Western popular music. The composition, coupled with advice given by Harrison, sparked the interest of Rolling Stones multi-instrumentalist Brian Jones, who soon integrated the sitar into "Paint It Black", another landmark song in the development of raga and Indian rock. Other pieces exemplifying the rapid growth of interest in Indian music by contemporary Western musicians include Donovan's "Sunshine Superman", the Yardbirds' "Shapes of Things" and the Byrds' "Eight Miles High", among others.

According to author Jonathan Gould, the impact of "Norwegian Wood" "transformed" Ravi Shankar's career, and the Indian sitarist later wrote of first being aware of a "great sitar explosion" in popular music during the spring of 1966, when he was performing a series of concerts in the UK. Harrison developed a fascination for Indian culture and mysticism, introducing it to the other Beatles. In June 1966, Harrison met Shankar in London and became a student under the master sitarist. Having added the sitar accompaniment to "Norwegian Wood", Harrison expanded upon his initial effort by writing "Love You To", which showcased his immersion in Indian music, and presented an authentic representation of a non-Western music form in a rock song. Before the recording sessions for Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, Harrison made a pilgrimage to Bombay, India with his wife Pattie, where he continued his studies with Shankar and was introduced to the teachings of several yogis. Harrison contributed "Within You Without You" to Sgt. Pepper, featuring himself as the only performing Beatle together with uncredited musicians playing dilruba, swarmandal and tabla, alongside a string section. For the remainder of his career, he evolved his understanding of Indian musicianship, particularly in his slide guitar playing.

In 2006, Mojo placed "Norwegian Wood" at number 19 in the magazine's list of "The 101 Greatest Beatles Songs", as compiled by a panel of music critics and musicians. In their commentary on the song, Roy Harper and John Cale both identified the track as an influence on their musical careers during the 1960s. Harper wrote: "We all knew that they were good ... What you weren't prepared for was Rubber Soul. They were writing with a deeper resonance, in another time zone ... I was envious and inspired at the same moment. They'd come onto my turf, got there before me, and they were kings of it, overnight. We'd all been outflanked. The best song on the record was one of the shortest, Norwegian Wood. Tears came to my eyes, I wished I'd written it. The music was sublimely different. George's sitar was a well-placed act of fusion and the song was full of Lennon wit. After a few times on the turntable, you realised that the goal posts had been moved, forever, and you really wanted to hear the next record – now."

Cale recalled that Rubber Soul was an inspiration to him and Lou Reed as they developed their band the Velvet Underground. He described the song's mood as "very acid ... what you remember in a flashback is a sound, how your senses were bombarded", adding: "I don't think anybody got that sound or that closeted feeling as well as The Beatles did on Norwegian Wood." In his book The Beatles Through Headphones, Ted Montgomery comments: "Perhaps no other song in rock and roll history captures a feel and nuance more succinctly and powerfully in 2:05 than 'Norwegian Wood'."

According to Cobain's manager Danny Goldberg in his 2008 memoir Bumping into Geniuses, Cobain "played the Beatles song 'Norwegian Wood' over and over, hour after hour" while writing the song All Apologies.

The song has been covered by numerous artists, including Waylon Jennings, Tangerine Dream, Cilla Black, Hank Williams Jr, Cornershop, The Fiery Furnaces, Rahul Dev Burman, Buddy Rich, P.M. Dawn and Heather Nova. The Chemical Brothers sampled "Norwegian Wood" in their 1997 song "The Private Psychedelic Reel". In 1968, Alan Copeland won the Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Performance by a Chorus for a medley of "Norwegian Wood" and the theme from Mission: Impossible.

Personnel
Personnel per Walter Everett

 * John Lennon – double-tracked vocals, acoustic guitar
 * Paul McCartney – bass guitar, harmony vocals
 * George Harrison – 12-string acoustic guitar, double-tracked sitar
 * Ringo Starr – tambourine, bass drum, maracas, finger cymbals

title: Norwegian Wood (This Bird Has Flown)


text:
Ruthenians

Ruthenian and Ruthene are exonyms of Latin origin, formerly used in Eastern and Central Europe as common ethnonyms for East Slavs, particularly during the late medieval and early modern periods. The Latin term Rutheni was used in medieval sources to describe all Eastern Slavs of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, as an exonym for people of the former Kievan Rus', thus including ancestors of the modern Belarusians, Rusyns and Ukrainians. The use of Ruthenian and related exonyms continued through the early modern period, developing several distinctive meanings, both in terms of their regional scopes and additional religious connotations (such as affiliation with the Ruthenian Greek Catholic Church).

In medieval sources, the Latin term Rutheni was commonly applied to East Slavs in general, thus encompassing all endonyms and their various forms (русіны; русини). By opting for the use of exonymic terms, authors who wrote in Latin were relieved from the need to be specific in their applications of those terms, and the same quality of Ruthenian exonyms is often recognized in modern, mainly Western authors, particularly those who prefer to use exonyms (foreign in origin) over endonyms.

During the early modern period, the exonym Ruthenian was most frequently applied to the East Slavic population of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, an area encompassing territories of modern Belarus and Ukraine from the 15th up to the 18th centuries. In the former Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, the same term (Ruthenen) was employed up to 1918 as an official exonym for the entire Ukrainian population within the borders of the Monarchy.

History
Ruteni, a misnomer that was also the name of an extinct and unrelated Celtic tribe in Ancient Gaul, was used in reference to Rus' in the Annales Augustani of 1089. An alternative early modern Latinisation, Rucenus (plural Ruceni) was, according to Boris Unbegaun, derived from Rusyn. Baron Herberstein, describing the land of Russia, inhabited by the Rutheni who call themselves Russi, claimed that the first of the governors who rule Russia is the Grand Duke of Moscow, the second is the Grand Duke of Lithuania and the third is the King of Poland. According to professor John-Paul Himka from the University of Alberta the word Rutheni did not include the modern Russians, who were known as Moscovitae throughout Western Europe. Vasili III of Russia, who ruled the Grand Duchy of Moscow in the 16th century, was known in European Latin sources as Rhuteni Imperator. Jacques Margeret in his book "Estat de l'empire de Russie, et grande duché de Moscovie" of 1607 explained that the name "Muscovites" for the population of Tsardom (Empire) of Russia is an error. During conversations, they called themselves rusaki (which is a colloquial term for Russians) and only the citizens of the capital called themself "Muscovites". Margeret considered that this error is worse than calling all the French "Parisians". Professor David Frick from the Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute has also found in Vilnius the documents from 1655, which demonstrate that Moscovitae were also known in Lithuania as Rutheni. The 16th century Portuguese poet Luís Vaz de Camões in his Os Lusíadas" (Canto III, 11) clearly writes "...Entre este mar e o Tánais vive estranha Gente: Rutenos, Moscos e Livónios, Sármatas outro tempo..." differentiating between Ruthenians and Muscovites. Ruthenians of different regions in 1836:

1, 2. Galician Ruthenians;

3. Carpathian Ruthenians;

4, 5. Podolian Ruthenians.After the partition of Poland, the term Ruthenian referred exclusively to people of the Rusyn- and Ukrainian-speaking areas of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, especially in the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, Bukovina, and Transcarpathia. At the request of Mykhailo Levytsky, in 1843, the term Ruthenian became the official name for the Rusyns and Ukrainians within the Austrian Empire. For example, Ivan Franko and Stepan Bandera in their passports were identified as Ruthenians (Rusini). By 1900, more and more Ruthenians began to call themselves with the self-designated name Ukrainians. With the emergence of Ukrainian nationalism during the mid-19th century, use of "Ruthenian" and cognate terms declined among Ukrainians and fell out of use in Eastern and Central Ukraine. Most people in the western region of Ukraine followed suit later in the 19th century. During the early 20th century, the name Ukrajins'ka mova ("Ukrainian language") became accepted by much of the Ukrainian-speaking literary class in the Austro-Hungarian Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria.

Following the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918, new states emerged and dissolved; borders changed frequently. After several years, the Rusyn and Ukrainian speaking areas of eastern Austria-Hungary found themselves divided between the Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Romania.

When commenting on the partition of Czechoslovakia by Nazi Germany in March 1939, US diplomat George Kennan noted, "To those who inquire whether these peasants are Russians or Ukrainians, there is only one answer. They are Neither. They are simply Ruthenians." Dr. Paul R. Magocsi emphasizes that modern Ruthenians have "the sense of a nationality distinct from Ukrainians" and often associate Ukrainians with Soviets or Communists.

After the expansion of Soviet Ukraine following World War II, several groups who had not previously considered themselves Ukrainians were merged into the Ukrainian identity.

Ruthenian terminology in Poland
In the interbellum period of the 20th century, the term rusyn (Ruthenian) was also applied to people from the Kresy Wschodnie (the eastern borderlands) in the Second Polish Republic, and included Ukrainians, Rusyns, and Lemkos, or alternatively, members of the Uniate or Greek Catholic Churches. In Galicia, the Polish government actively replaced all references to "Ukrainians" with the old word rusini ("Ruthenians").

The Polish census of 1921 considered Ukrainians no other than Ruthenians, meanwhile Belarusians have already become a separate nation, which in Polish is literally translated as "White Ruthenians" (Białorusini). However the Polish census of 1931 counted Belarusian, Ukrainian, and Rusyn as separate language categories, and the census results were substantially different from before. According to Rusyn-American historian Paul Robert Magocsi, Polish government policy in the 1930s pursued a strategy of tribalization, regarding various ethnographic groups—i.e., Lemkos, Boykos, and Hutsuls, as well as Old Ruthenians and Russophiles—as different from other Ukrainians and offered instructions in Lemko vernacular in state schools set up in the westernmost Lemko Region.

The Polish census of 1931 listed "Belarusian", "Rusyn" and "Ukrainian" (białoruski, ruski, ukraiński, respectively) as separate languages.

Carpatho-Ruthenian ethnonyms
By the end of the 19th century, another set of terms came into use in several western languages, combining regional Carpathian with Ruthenian designations, and thus producing composite terms such as: Carpatho-Ruthenes or Carpatho-Ruthenians. Those terms also acquired several meanings, depending on the shifting geographical scopes of the term Carpathian Ruthenia. Those meanings were also spanning from wider uses as designations for all East Slavs of the Carpathian region, to narrower uses, focusing on those local groups of East Slavs who did not accept a modern Ukrainian identity, but rather opted to keep their traditional Rusyn identity. The designations Rusyn and Carpatho-Rusyn were banned in the Soviet Union by the end of World War II in June 1945. Ruthenians who identified under the Rusyn ethnonym and considered themselves to be a national and linguistic group separate from Ukrainians and Belarusians were relegated to the Carpathian diaspora and formally functioned among the large immigrant communities in the United States. A cross-European revival took place only with the collapse of communist rule in 1989. This has resulted in political conflict and accusations of intrigue against Rusyn activists, including criminal charges. The Rusyn minority is well represented in Slovakia. The single category of people who listed their ethnicity as Rusyn was created in the 1920s; however, no generally accepted standardised Rusyn language existed.

"After World War II, following the practice in the Soviet Union, Ruthenian ethnicity was disallowed. This Soviet policy maintained that the Ruthenians and their language were part of the Ukrainian ethnic group and language. At the same time, the Greek Catholic church was banned and replaced with the Eastern Orthodox church under the Russian Patriarch, in an atmosphere which repressed all religions. Thus, in Slovakia, the former Ruthenians were technically free to register as any ethnicity but Ruthenian."

The government of Slovakia has proclaimed Rusyns (Rusíni) to be a distinct national minority (1991) and recognised Rusyn language as a distinct language (1995).

Speculative theories

Since the 19th century, several speculative theories emerged regarding the origin and nature of medieval and early modern uses of Ruthenian terms as designations for East Slavs. Some of those theories were focused on a very specific source, a memorial plate from 1521, that was placed in the catacombe Chapel of St Maximus in Petersfriedhof, the burial site of St Peter's Abbey in Salzburg (modern Austria). The plate contains Latin inscription that mentions Italian ruler Odoacer (476–493) as king of "Rhutenes" or "Rhutenians" (Rex Rhvtenorvm), and narrates a story about the martyrdom of St Maximus during an invasion of several peoples into Noricum in 477. Due to the very late date (1521) and several anachronistic elements, the content of that plate is considered as legendary.

In spite of that, some authors (mainly non-scholars) employed that plate as a "source" for several theories that were trying to connect Odoacer with ancient Celtic Ruthenes from Gaul, thus also providing an apparent bridge towards later medieval authors who labeled East Slavs as Ruthenes or Ruthenians. On those bases, an entire strain of speculative theories was created, regarding the alleged connection between ancient Gallic Ruthenes and later East Slavic "Ruthenians". As noted by professor Paul R. Magocsi, those theories should be regarded as "inventive tales" of "creative" writers.

Geography
From the 9th century, Kievan Rus' – now part of the modern states of Ukraine, Belarus and Russia – was known in Western Europe by a variety of names derived from Rus'. From the 12th century, the land of Rus' was usually known in Western Europe by the Latinised name Ruthenia.

Language
The Ruthenian language (Ruthenian: рускаꙗ мова, рускїй ѧзыкъ) was an exonymic linguonym for a closely related group of East Slavic linguistic varieties, particularly those spoken from the 15th to 18th centuries in the East Slavic regions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. By the end of the 18th century, they gradually diverged into regional variants, which subsequently developed into the modern Belarusian (White Ruthenian), Ukrainian (Ruthenian), and Rusyn (Carpathian Ruthenian) languages.

Religions
With the baptism of Volodymyr began a long history of the dominance of Eastern Orthodoxy in Ruthenia. The Rus' accepted Christianity in its Byzantine form at the same time as the Poles accepted it in its Latin form, Lithuanians largely remained pagan to the late Middle Ages before their nobility embraced the Latin form upon the political union with the Poles. The eastward expansion of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania had been facilitated by amicable treaties and inter-marriages of the nobility when faced with the external threat of the Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'. By the end of the 12th century, Europe was generally divided into two large areas: Western Europe with dominance of Catholicism, and Eastern Europe with Orthodox and Byzantine influences. The border between them was roughly marked by the Bug River. This placed the area now known as Belarus in a unique position where these two influences mixed and interfered.

The first Latin Church diocese in White Ruthenia was established in Turaŭ between 1008 and 1013. Catholicism was a traditionally dominant religion of Belarusian nobility (the szlachta) and of a large part of the population of western and northwestern parts of Belarus. Before the 14th century, the Eastern Orthodox Church was dominant in White Ruthenia. The Union of Krewo in 1385 broke this monopoly and made Catholicism the religion of the ruling class.

Jogaila, then ruler of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, ordered the whole population of Lithuania to convert to Catholicism. One and a half years after the Union of Krewo, the Wilno (Vilnius) episcopate was created which received a lot of land from the Lithuanian dukes. By the mid-16th century Catholicism became strong in Lithuania and bordering with it north-west parts of White Ruthenia, but the Orthodox church was still dominant.

In the 14th century, Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos sanctioned the creation of two additional metropolitan sees: the Metropolis of Halych (1303) and the Metropolis of Lithuania (1317).

Metropolitan Roman (1355–1362) of Lithuania and Metropolitan Alexius of Kiev both claimed the see. Both metropolitans travelled to Constantinople to make their appeals in person. In 1356, their cases were heard by a Patriarchal Synod. The Holy Synod confirmed that Alexis was the Metropolitan of Kiev while Roman was also confirmed in his see at Novogorodek. In 1361, the two sees were formally divided. Shortly afterwards, in the winter of 1361/62, Roman died. From 1362 to 1371, the vacant see of Lithuania–Halych was administered by Alexius. By that point, the Lithuanian metropolis was effectively dissolved.

Following the signing of the Council of Florence, Metropolitan Isidore of Kiev returned to Moscow in 1441 as a Ruthenian cardinal. He was arrested by the Grand Duke of Moscow and accused of apostasy. The Grand Duke deposed Isidore and in 1448 installed own candidate as Metropolitan of Kyiv — Jonah. This was carried out without the approval of Patriarch Gregory III of Constantinople. When Isidore died in 1458, he was succeeded as metropolitan in the Patriarchate of Constantinople by Gregory the Bulgarian. Gregory's canonical territory was the western part of the traditional Kievan Rus' lands — the states of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland. The episcopal seat was in the city of Navahrudak which is today located in Belarus. It was later moved to Vilnius — the capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. A parallel succession to the title ensued between Moscow and Vilnius. The Metropolitans of Kiev are the predecessors of the Patriarch of Moscow and all Rus' that was formed in the 16th century.

The Ruthenian Uniate Church was created in 1595–1596 by those clergy of the Eastern Orthodox churches who subscribed to the Union of Brest. In the process, they switched their allegiances and jurisdiction from the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople to the Holy See. It had a single metropolitan territory — the Metropolis of Kiev, Galicia and all Ruthenia. The formation of the church led to a high degree of confrontation among Ruthenians, such as the murder of the hierarch Josaphat Kuntsevych in 1623. Opponents of the union called church members "Uniates", although Catholic documents no longer use the term due to its perceived negative overtones. In 1620, these dissenters erected their own metropolis — the "Metropolis of Kyev, Galicia and all Ruthenia".

In the 16th century, a crisis began in Christianity: the Protestant Reformation began in Catholicism and a period of heresy began in an Orthodox area. From the mid-16th century Protestant ideas began spreading in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The first Protestant Church in Belarus was created in Brest by Mikołaj "the Black" Radziwiłł. Protestantism did not survive due to the Counter-Reformation in Poland.

Both the Catholic Church in the Commonwealth and the Ruthenian Church underwent a period of decay. The Ruthenian Church was the church of a people without statehood. The Poles considered the Ruthenians a conquered people. Over time, the Lithuanian military and political ascendancy did away with the Ruthenian autonomies. The disadvantageous political status of the Ruthenian people also affected the status of their church and undermined her capacity for reform and renewal. Furthermore, they could not expect support from the Mother Church in Constantinople or from their co-religionists in Moscow. Thus, the Ruthenian church was in a weaker position than the Catholic Church in the Commonwealth.

Until 1666, when Patriarch Nikon was deposed by the tsar, the Russian Orthodox Church had been independent of the State. In 1721, the first Russian Emperor, Peter I, abolished completely the patriarchate and effectively made the church a department of the government, ruled by the Most Holy Synod composed of senior bishops and lay bureaucrats appointed by the emperor himself. Over time, Imperial Russia would style itself a protector and patron of all Orthodox Christians, especially those within the Ottoman Empire.

Domination of tsarist-ruled Ukraine by the Russian Empire (from 1721) eventually led to the decline of Uniate Catholicism (officially founded in 1596) in the Ukrainian lands under Tsarist control.

Music and Dance
Musical scores titled "Baletto Ruteno" or "Horea Rutenia", meaning Ruthenian Ballet can be found in European collections during the Lithuanian and Polish rule of Ruthenia, such as the Gdańsk lute tablature of 1640.

Notable Ruthenian people

 * Konstanty Ostrogski (c. 1460–1530), a Ruthenian prince and magnate of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and later a Grand Hetman of Lithuania
 * Roxelana (c. 1504-1558), also known as Haseki Hürrem Sultan, wife of Suleiman the Magnificent
 * Meletius Smotrytsky (c. 1577–1633), an archbishop of Polotsk, writer, religious and pedagogical activist of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and Ruthenian linguist
 * Bohdan Khmelnytsky (c.  1595–1657), a Ruthenian nobleman, military commander of Zaporozhian Cossacks, leader of the Khmelnytsky Uprising and founding father of the Cossack Hetmanate
 * Ivan Mazepa (c. 1639–1709), the Hetman of the Cossack Hetmanate, patron of arts
 * Petro Doroshenko (c.  1595–1657), a Cossack political and military leader, Hetman of Right-bank Ukraine (1665–1672)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Ruthenians


text:
Goole

Goole is a port town and civil parish on the River Ouse in the East Riding of Yorkshire, England. The town's historic county is the West Riding of Yorkshire.

According to the 2021 UK census, Goole parish had a population of 21,952, It is 16 mi north-east of Doncaster, 19 mi south of York and 29 mi west of Hull.

The town has the United Kingdom's furthest inland port, being about 50 miles from the North Sea. It is capable of handling nearly 2 million tonnes of cargo per year, making it one of the most important ports on England's east coast.

Goole is twinned with Złotów in Poland. Goole was informally twinned with Gibraltar in the 1960s; at that time, Gibraltar Court was named in Goole and Goole Court was named in Gibraltar.

Etymology
Goole is first attested in 1306, as Gull Lewth (where lewth means 'barn', from Old Norse hlaða), and then 1362 as Gulle in Houke' (referring to the nearby, and then more significant, village of Hook). The name is first attested in its shorter, modern form, from the 1530s. It comes from the Middle English word goule (or an Old English ancestor), meaning 'a channel made by a stream'. The word has sometimes been taken to imply that Goole is named after an open sewer, but there is no strong basis for this. There were no sewers in the area in that etymological period but there were many land drains because of the flat terrain: c.f.: "gully".

Background
The Dutch civil engineer Cornelius Vermuyden diverted the River Don northwards to the River Ouse in 1626–1629 in order to drain the marshland of Hatfield Chase at the behest of King Charles I. It made the new lower Don – known as the Dutch River – navigable for barges so that coal from the South Yorkshire Coalfield could be transported to the new confluence for transfer to seagoing vessels. There the engineers built a new wooden bridge – rebuilt in iron in the 1890s and now known as the Dutch River Bridge – to the east of which a new village called 'Goole' formed.

Development

In the 1820s the Aire and Calder Navigation company proposed development of a new canal to transport coal from the existing broad canal from Knottingley in the northern sector of the coalfield in 1826. Once it reached Goole the company proposed development of a new floating dock capable of handling larger sea-going vessels. Chief engineer Thomas Hamond Bartholomew was instructed to build the canal, docks and an associated company town to house both the dock workers and visiting seamen. Bartholomew commissioned civil engineer and builder Sir Edward Banks company to construct part of the canal and the eight transshipment docks and to lay out the associated new town to the west of the existing wooden bridge. The Banks Arms Hotel on Aire Street – today known as the Lowther Hotel – was in 1824 the first building constructed in what was known as New Goole; The Macintosh Arms public house on the same street took its name from engineer Hugh Macintosh.

When Goole port opened on 20 July 1826 it was a new community of about 450 people. Now it is a town with about 18,000 inhabitants. William Hamond Bartholomew succeeded his father T. H. Bartholomew in 1853 and in 1863 introduced the Tom Pudding system of compartment boats, which could carry around 40 LT of coal. On reaching the docks the barges were lifted by large hoists, from which they could be discharged direct into seagoing ships, a system so successful that it competed against rail until 1985.

Education
Goole has several primary schools as well as Goole High School, run by Delta group, and a special needs school, Riverside School, that caters for 2–19 year olds. There are further education colleges in Selby, York, Scunthorpe, and Bishop Burton. Goole College was closed in 2021 and is now being used as a temporary Gym while Goole Leisure Centre is redeveloped.

Transport
The Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway built a line from Pontefract and Wakefield in 1848 and the North Eastern Railway connected the port with Doncaster and Hull in 1870. The prosperity from the coal and general cargo trade with the West Riding industrial area continued for 150 years after the opening of the canal.

Today Goole railway station is at the junction of the Hull and Doncaster Branch and the Pontefract Line. Services are provided to Hull Paragon Interchange, Doncaster, Sheffield, Leeds and the commuter stations in between.

Goole is south of the M62 linking it with Kingston upon Hull in the east and Leeds and the West Yorkshire urban belt in the west. To the north the A63 road via Howden provides local access to the A19 road to Selby and York. The M18 runs west of the town, connecting it with South Yorkshire, the South and the Midlands. Bus services to surrounding towns and villages are provided by East Yorkshire Motor Services, Stagecoach in Hull and Arriva Yorkshire.

Governance
Before the reform of local government in 1974, brought about by the Local Government Act 1972, Goole was in the West Riding of Yorkshire. It was then placed in the Boothferry district of the county of Humberside until that was abolished in 1996. Since 1996 Goole has been in the East Riding of Yorkshire. It is represented by four councillors on the East Riding of Yorkshire Council.

Goole is in the parliamentary constituency of Goole and Pocklington, which has been represented in the House of Commons since 2024 by David Davis, a Conservative.

Landmarks
Goole's most prominent landmarks are its twin water towers, nicknamed 'salt' and 'pepper'. The new white water-tower was the largest in Europe at the time of construction. In the winter months Goole's gas holder on Anderson Road is visible across the north of the town. Many of the hoists and cranes on the dockside can be seen across the town. The steeple of Goole Parish Church is tall enough to be seen across the town. The townscape is made up mostly of utility and industrial structures. There is a clock tower in the main shopping district of the town, originally built in 1927 but later moved a few meters to the middle of a new roundabout with the road surface on the site of the former open-air marketplace. West Park is an Edwardian park in the town.

Economy
Goole has a modestly sized town centre with many high street shops, independent retailers and public houses. The main shopping area is Wesley Square, off Boothferry Road (which has been pedestrianised around the main shopping area). There is a modern retail development in the town centre, a leisure centre next to the docks and the Goole and District Hospital, to the north of the town. A theatre and cinema, 'Junction', opened in 2009.

Industry
Glass is produced in Goole, which is also the centre of an agricultural district. The town's former large employer was a clothing manufacture for the big multiples, but it closed in the late 2000s.

Goole's industrial park, Capitol Park / Goole36, has attracted two large employers: Guardian Industries, which built a glass-manufacturing plant, and Tesco, which built a distribution centre. The arrival of these employers resulted in the creation of hundreds of new jobs.

A new Morrisons store opened in Goole on 2 August 2010, on land previously occupied by Timms Mill on Boothferry Road.

A new railway rolling stock factory was built at the Capitol Park / Goole36 location opening in 2024. The plant, owned and operated by Siemens Mobility, is currently building the new tube trains for the Piccadilly line in London.

A new Metsä Tissue toilet roll factory was announced 21 September 2023, to be built over the next decade at the new Goole site within the Humber Freeport, which allows companies to import goods tariff-free. When completed it will have a capacity to produce 240,000 tonne of tissue paper using fresh wood fibres grown in Nordic forests.

Docks

Three locks keep the water in 37 acre of floating docks at a constant depth of 6 m by preventing the level from rising and falling with the tides in the River Ouse. Once ships are within the complex, eight docks provide a total quayside of 3 mi. Beside the docks are transit sheds where cargo is stored, many of them equipped with overhead cranes. Unlike many ports, every one of the eight docks has been in full commercial operation since its construction in the period from 1826 to 1912.

For most of its life, the port was most associated with the shipment of coal and associated cargoes, including the importation of pit props. With the demise of mining, the former Timber Pond became a marina, trading under the name Goole Boathouse. It has berths for 150 boats.

After a period of decline, commodities were replaced by containers, the export of steel and the import of timber from north-eastern Europe. Today, the Port of Goole has regular cargo liner services to Norway, Sweden, Finland, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Spain, Morocco and South Africa and a transshipment route to Europort, Rotterdam.

Sport
Goole Town Cricket Club supports local cricket teams. Of its three teams, the first team plays in the club cricket York & District Senior League. A new clubhouse was constructed in 1996 providing facilities and a bar.

Rugby Union is played close to the cricket club at Westfield Banks, sharing facilities with Goole Tennis Club and Goole Viking Striders running club. Goole RUFC currently fields two teams, the first team playing in Yorkshire Division Two.

Goole Tennis Centre is a nine-court tennis club on the Westfield Banks site.

Goole has two football teams – Goole A.F.C. and Goole United A.F.C. They currently play in the Northern Premier League Division One South and the Humber Premier League Division One respectively. They both play at the Victoria Pleasure Grounds on Marcus Street. The nearest professional teams are Selby Town, Rotherham United, Doncaster Rovers, Grimsby Town, Hull City, Leeds United, Barnsley, Scunthorpe United, Sheffield Wednesday, Sheffield United and York City.

Goole used to have two golf clubs. The early course, founded in 1900, was at Rawcliffe Park. The later course was at Airmyn Park from 1911 to the Second World War. Currently Goole's nearest golf clubs are the Boothferry Golf Club in Spaldington and Drax Golf Club in Drax.

Media
Television signals are received from either the Emley Moor or Belmont TV transmitters.

Local radio stations are BBC Radio Humberside, Nation Radio East Yorkshire, Greatest Hits Radio Yorkshire, Capital Yorkshire and Radio Medica is a not-for-profit radio station broadcast from the Goole And District Hospital.

The town is served by a weekly tabloid newspaper, The Goole Times, published since 1853 and sold in Goole and neighbouring parts of the East Riding of Yorkshire.

The town is referenced by the play An Inspector Calls, where the main character is named after the town of Goole

Notable people

 * Nigel Adams, former Member of Parliament for Selby and Ainsty, born in Goole Hospital
 * John Billington, stage actor (1828–1904), born in Goole.
 * Gavin Bryars, composer and double bassist, born in Goole
 * Roy Clarke, comedy writer, lives in Goole
 * Betty, Hazel and Julie Dunderdale, who performed professionally as The Dale Sisters, a vocal trio that had limited chart success in the early 1960s
 * Nicky Featherstone, professional footballer for Hartlepool United F.C., born in Goole
 * Anne Greaves (1889–1971) was the first woman to become a member of the Institute of Quarrying and created artificial stone through her quarrying company
 * Adi Vines, bassist for the band Swervedriver, born in Goole
 * Sandra's Wedding, a four-piece alternative rock band from Goole
 * Brady Hood, writer and director born in Goole. Brady won his first award in 2017 for the short film “Sweet Maddie Stone”. Brady went on to direct in the hit show “Top Boy”.

title: Goole


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User talk:Istabraq

Edits at Germany
In your last change on Germany, you wrote "1:1 translations of «Bundestag» and «Bundesrat» don't work. «Federal Assembly» is the body that elects the head of state in Germany.", and changed the (working) links to Federal Assembly of Germany and Federal Council of Germany to the (broken) "Upper Chamber of Parliament" and "Lower Chamber of Parliament", respectively. I have reverted that edit, and let me explain why.

 * 1) The older links worked, the new ones don't.
 * 2) Upper house and Lower house are incorrect names for the two. "Upper" and "lower" only makes sense, if at all, in systems like Britain, where you have a House of Lords and a House of Commons. What makes the Bundesrat more "upper" than the Bundestag?
 * 3) It is even very dubious if Germany has a bicameral system at all. The majority of literature on German state theory (of which I had to read plenty in University) says it doesn't; I have listed the major points on the Federal Council of Germany page.

Now, I agree that the translations aren't perfect. I'd rather use the German terms of Bundestag and Bundesrat for the articles, but that is in conflict with Wiki policy that states English names should be used wherever possible. But your change makes this worse, really. djmutex 18:08 7 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * 1) Sorry, it wasn't my intention to create broken links. However, maintaining the links should only be a minor problem.
 * 2) "Upper" and "Lower" is often used as a distinction when a country has more than one chamber of parliament. This certainly doesn't apply only to Westminster. It's the usual wording for the system in Japan, Italy, Switzerland and many more.
 * 3) In this context "Upper" and "Lower" are not used to create any form of superiority or precedence of one to the other.
 * 4) I don't want to discuss whether or not Germany has a bicameral system, although a number of points can be raised in favour of this notion given the powers of the «Bundesrat» to influence legislation.
 * 5) The Swiss federal government is also called «Bundesrat». Do you have a "hard" translation for that too?

Copied this over to Talk:Politics of Germany; discussion continued there. djmutex 07:48 8 Jul 2003 (UTC)

ArbCom elections are now open!
MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 08:53, 23 November 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Istabraq


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Dariusz Michalczewski

Dariusz Tomasz Michalczewski (born 5 May 1968) is a Polish-German professional boxer who competed from 1991 to 2005. He held multiple world championships in two weight classes, including the WBA, IBF, WBO and lineal light heavyweight titles between 1994 and 2003, and the WBO junior-heavyweight title from 1994 to 1995. Michalczewski is regarded by many as the greatest light-heavyweight boxer of all time.

Early life and amateur career
He was born in 1968 in Gdańsk to father Bogusław Michalczewski, a radio technician working for the Polish State Railways and mother Maria, an accountant. In his youth, before turning to boxing, he initially practiced wrestling and football.

Michalczewski came up through Poland's state-run sports program as a boy and had a successful amateur career. He achieved an amateur record of 139–11–2 (89 KO). Highlights of his amateur career include:

 * 1986 – European Junior Semi-Finalist in middleweight division, defeating Fabrice Tiozzo but losing to Ray Close
 * 1990 – German National Champion in light heavyweight division
 * 1991 – European Champion in light heavyweight division

Defection to Germany
On 24 April 1988, while competing beyond the Iron Curtain in West Germany for the Polish national team, Michalczewski defected from the amateur team to stay in West Germany. Becoming a citizen of the now united Germany in 1991 and turning professional the same year, he was soon signed by Universum Box-Promotion, one of the leading boxing promoters in Europe. His aggressive style earned him the nickname "Tiger".

Professional career
Michalczewski turned professional in September 1991. He won the German International light-heavyweight title early on 13 February 1993, a title for foreign-born fighters based in Germany. He then won the IBF Intercontinental title on 22 May 1993.

Two-weight world champion
On 10 September 1994, Michalczewski, at 23-0 (18 KOs), captured the WBO light-heavyweight title with a 12-round decision over defending champion Leeonzer Barber at Sporthalle, Alsterdorf, Hamburg, Germany. Between then and March 2003, Michalczewski made 23 successful defenses of his WBO title against 20 different boxers, and picked up three other belts along the way. Three months after beating Barber, he won the WBO cruiserweight title with a tenth-round knockout of Nestor Giovannini. However, he soon gave up that title to continue campaigning as a light-heavyweight.

In 1996, Universum Box-Promotion's conditioning coach Fritz Sdunek became head coach and replaced Chuck Talhami as Michalczewski's trainer, which resulted in a marked improvement in Michalczewski's performances.

Hill vs Michalczewski unification
On 13 June 1997, he defeated Virgil Hill over 12 rounds to add Hill's WBA, IBF and Lineal light-heavyweight titles to his own. However, Michalczewski soon lost both alphabet titles; Scandalously, the WBA immediately stripped him for displaying its belt along with that of the WBO. Michalczewski was then forced to relinquish the IBF title when he was unable to defend the title in a court-ordered defense against mandatory challenger William Guthrie within a little over a month after the bout with Hill.

After beating Hill, Michalczewski knocked out 14 consecutive opponents, all in defense of his Lineal/WBO titles. In 1998, he defeated Drake Thadzi, in 1999, he defeated Montel Griffin, and in 2000, he defeated Graciano Rocchigiani.

Going for Marciano's record
Michalczewski had a perfect record of 48-0 when he faced Julio César González of Mexico in defense of his title on 18 October 2003. Coming into the fight, he was within one victory of tying Rocky Marciano's record of 49 wins with no losses. A win also would have put him just one victory short of Joe Louis' all-time record for successful defenses at any weight class. However, as when Larry Holmes went for the same record against Michael Spinks, the now 35-year-old Michalczewski was unable to pull it off. He lost a split decision to the 27-year-old Gonzalez at the Color Line Arena in Hamburg, and his career record dropped to 48–1.

Despite the loss, he still holds the record for the most consecutive successful world title defenses at light-heavyweight.

Final fight
In October 2004, it was announced that Michalczewski would come out of retirement to box France's Fabrice Tiozzo for the WBA light heavyweight title on 26 February 2005 in Hamburg. Michalczewski was stopped in six round, then he announced his retirement in May 2005.

Michalczewski was to come out of retirement to fight German boxing icon but suspected cheat Sven Ottke in Germany in May 2008, but the bout never materialized.

In popular culture

 * Tiger Energy Drink is named after the famous boxer. His picture and text "Recommended by Dariusz 'Tiger' Michalczewski" appears on the cans and bottles.
 * Dariusz Michalczewski struck a friendship with performer Mark Wahlberg, known at the time by his stage name Marky Mark of the formation Marky Mark and the Funky Bunch. In 1995, Marky Mark released a track called "No Mercy" about his friend Dariusz Michalczewski, including excerpts in Polish from Dariusz, who also appears in the video clip shot by Frank Papenbroock. "No Mercy" appears in the album The Remix Album by Prince Ital Joe and Marky Mark, although this particular track is a solo effort by Marky Mark.
 * In 2006, a documentary was made by Pawel Kocambasi alias P.M.Starost. The 60-minute documentary entitled "Tiger" took part in Filmfest München and won the award for the Best Documentary at the Biberacher Filmfestspiele.

Social involvement
In 2003 Dariusz Michalczewski established foundation "Równe Szanse" (equal chances) which was aimed at supporting initiatives for youth from dysfunctional families. Since 2014 he supports the social campaign for civil union and the right for adoption by homosexual couples.

title: Dariusz Michalczewski


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Jacqueline de Jong

Jacqueline Beatrice de Jong (3 February 1939 – 29 June 2024) was a Dutch painter, sculptor, and graphic artist.

Early life and escape (1939–1957)
De Jong was born in the Dutch town of Enschede, where her father, Hans, owned a lace and stocking factory. She grew up in Hengelo, with her Jewish parents. Faced with the German invasion of the Netherlands, they went into hiding. After an abortive escape attempt to England, her father Hans remained in Amsterdam while her mother, Alice de Jong-Weil and she made for Switzerland, accompanied by the Dutch painter Max van Dam. At the border they were captured by the French police, but just as they were about to be deported to the Drancy internment camp, they were rescued by the resistance, who helped them over the border. When they returned to the Netherlands following the war, Jacqueline could not speak Dutch. From 1947 on she went to school in Hengelo and Enschede (at the Gemeentelijk Lyceum).

Early career (1957–1990)
In 1957 de Jong went to Paris and was employed in the boutique at Christian Dior in the meantime studying French and drama. After leaving for London spring 1958 studying drama at the Guildhall School of Music and Drama, she returned to Amsterdam September 1958 – 1961 and was employed by the Stedelijk Museum, the home of Modern Art there. She visited London in 1959 where she met Danish painter Asger Jorn, the founder of the CoBrA group, They became companions. He was forty-five years old, compared to her twenty years.

She joined the Situationist International in 1960, and started to participate in conferences and the Central committee. After the expulsion of Constant Nieuwenhuys and his group, she became the Dutch Section of the organization. She did not accept the way the German section, also known as Gruppe SPUR, had been expelled and resigned. The cleft between the Debordists and the Second Situationist International grew, however she refused to join either faction, instead stating that people should act as situationists. Between 1962 and 1968 she edited and published The Situationist Times involving Gaston Bachelard, Roberto Matta, Wifredo Lam and Jacques Prévert in this project. In 1968 she was in Paris, printing and distributing revolutionary posters.

From starting her activities as a painter, sculptor and graphic artist, she keeps on exhibiting all over Europe and the U.S.A. She created wall paintings for the Amsterdam town hall and a separate installation for the Nederlandse Bank.

In 1970 she left Asger Jorn and moved to Amsterdam with Hans Brinkman later on a gallery owner and organiser of exhibitions and international Fairs. They divorced in 1989.

Later career and legacy (1990 until death)
In 1990 de Jong became the companion of lawyer Thomas H. Weyland (Tom 1931–2009). From 1995 Tom Weyland was on the editorial board of the International Journal of Cultural Property (De Gruyter Berlin- New York). They got married in 1998 in Airopolie (Greece). They gave several lectures on 'intellectual right, copyright, détournement and modification' in the Netherlands and U.K. In 1996 they bought their property in Bourbonnais, France, where she had her vegetable garden and grew potatoes, which became Art ("Potato language," Van Abbe Museum Eindhoven, invited by Jennifer Tee, 2003; "Baked Potatoes," Albisola, Italy, invited by Roberto Ohrt, 2006; and the Golden and Platina jewellery, "Pommes de Jong" 2008–2011). Together with Tom she established The Weyland de Jong Foundation early 2009. The main aim is to support avant-garde artists of all disciplines, architects and art-scientists having reached the age of 50 and over. Weyland died in May 2009.

In 2003, a retrospective exhibition of her work was shown at the Cobra Museum for Contemporary Art in Amstelveen, the Netherlands and at the KunstCentret Silkeborg Bad Denmark, whereas a monography was published, Undercover in de Kunst/in Art (Edition Ludion), in Belgium.

In 2012, an exhibition of her work took place in Stockholm (Moderna Museet, 25 February – 8 April 2012). Her Archive was purchased by Beinecke Rare Book & Manuscript Library, Yale University, USA ('The de Jong Papers') in 2011, where she also gave a lecture (7 May, May 2012).

In 2012 (9–25 May), an exhibition of her work was organized at Boo-Hooray in New York, under the title "Jacqueline de Jong: The Situationist Times 1962-1967”, including publications, photography, ephemera and manuscripts related to de Jong’s publication The Situationist Times, celebrating the 50th anniversary of its first issue, after which five other issues appeared in the following years (till 1967).

In 2019 she received the French AWARE prize for her career and oeuvre, while a retrospective exhibition of her work, Pinball Wizard, was on show at the Stedelijk Museum in Amsterdam.

De Jong died of liver cancer in Amsterdam, on 29 June 2024, at the age of 85.

title: Jacqueline de Jong


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Cecil Foster

Cecil Foster (born September 26, 1954) is a Canadian novelist, essayist, journalist, Public intellectual and scholar. He is Chairman of the Department of Transnational Studies at the University of Buffalo.

Early life and education
Foster was born in Bridgetown, Barbados on 26 September 1954 to Fred and Doris Goddard. When Foster was two years old, his parents migrated to Britain, leaving their children with relatives. The family was extremely poor; Foster remembers a childhood where there was rarely enough to eat.

Foster attended Harrison College, a prestigious high school in Barbados. He immigrated to Canada in 1978. Foster completed his PhD at York University in 2002.

Career
Foster began working for the Caribbean News Agency in Bridgetown as the senior reporter and editor (1975–77), and the Barbados Advocate News as the reporter and columnist (1977–79), Foster emigrated to Canada in 1979. He went on to work for the Toronto Star as a reporter (1979–82). Foster then began working for The Contrast as an editor (1979–82), Transportation Business Management as an editor (1982–83), The Globe and Mail as a reporter (1983–89), The Financial Post as a senior editor (1989), and also served as special adviser to Ontario's Ministry of Culture, through the mid-1990s. His most recent book, Where Race Does Not Matter (2004), explores the potential of multiculturalism in Canada. It also expands on some of his earlier work that deals with issues of race in his own life as well as in the history of Canada. He is well known for exploring race through immigration, and empowers this culture and beliefs through "Blacks in Action". Foster continues to bring his own personal experiences, and real-life issues to the work that he continues to produce. Island Wings: A Memoir (1998) was written as an autobiography of his own life, and is often referred to as more informative, rather than entertainment. Foster completed his PhD, a phenomenological exploration of the concept of Blackness in Canada, at York University in 2003. His philosophical influences include Hegel, Marx, Alexandre Kojève, Will Kymlicka, Charles Taylor, and former Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau.

Foster taught sociology at the University of Guelph in Ontario, Canada.

He is a well-regarded novelist. Foster served as a judge for the 2015 Scotiabank Giller Prize. He won the Writers' Trust of Canada's Gordon Montador Award in 1997 for his book A Place Called Heaven for the Best Canadian Book on Contemporary Social Issues, the novel “Sleep On, Beloved” was shortlisted for the Ontario Trillium Book Prize, and “Blackness and Modernity: The Colour of Humanity and the Quest for Freedom” (McGill-Queen’s UP 2007), won the 2008 John Porter Tradition of Excellence Book Award by the Canadian Sociology Association.

In 2019 he published the non-fiction book They Called Me George: The Untold Story of Black Train Porters and the Birth of Modern Canada, a study of the history of Black Canadian train porters. Writer Suzette Mayr consulted the book as part of her research for her Giller Prize-winning 2022 novel The Sleeping Car Porter.

Books

 * No Man in the House - 1991 ISBN 0-345-38899-2
 * Distorted mirror: Canada’s Racist Face - 1991 ISBN 0-006-37751-3
 * Caribana, the Greatest Celebration - 1995 (about Caribana)
 * Sleep On, Beloved - 1995
 * A Place Called Heaven: The Meaning of Being Black in Canada - 1996
 * Slammin' Tar - 1998
 * Island Wings: A Memoir - 1998
 * Dry Bones Memories - 2001
 * Where Race Does Not Matter: The New Spirit of Modernity - 2004
 * Blackness and Modernity: The Colour of Humanity and the Quest for Freedom - 2007
 * Genuine Multiculturalism: The Tragedy and Comedy of Diversity - 2013 ISBN 0-773-54256-6
 * Independence - 2014
 * They Called Me George: The Untold Story of Black Train Porters and the Birth of Modern Canada - 2019

title: Cecil Foster


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Kittilä

Kittilä (Gihttel, Kittâl, Kihttel) is a municipality of Finland and a popular holiday resort.

It is located in northern Finland north of the Arctic Circle within the Lapland region. The municipality has a population of 0 and covers an area of undefined km2 of which undefined km2 is water. The population density is undefined PD/km2.

Kittilä is famous for being the location of the lowest recorded temperature in Finnish history: -51.5 °C, measured in January 1999 in Pokka. The "midnight sun" is above the horizon from 29 May to 16 July, and the period with continuous daylight lasts a bit longer, polar night from 14 December to 29 December.

Climate
Kittilä has a subarctic climate (Dfc) as a result of its northerly location and being far inland, which renders strong seasonal shifts. The sun does not set between 30 May and 15 July (47 days), and white nights lasts from early May to early August. The period that the sun does not rise lasts from 14 December to 29 December (16 days), the exact boundaries depending on local topography. Although winter temperatures are cold they are still less severe than in similar locations elsewhere in the world due to some Gulf Stream influence. In summer temperatures generally are moderate, although warm days are possible. On 28 January 1999, Pokka, Kittilä recorded the official lowest temperature in Finland, -51.5 °C (-60.7 °F). On the same day, a temperature of -56.5 °C (-69.7 °F) was recorded in Pokka, Kittilä. However, this temperature is not considered an official record due to being recorded at a decommissioned weather station.

Economy

In the 1980s and 1990s, Kittilä had a tourism boom. The village of Lainio became a hotbed for tourism innovation and included the planned construction of glass-roofed cabins for viewing of the aurora and luxury accommodations built around Neitokainen, a Finland-shaped lake. The Iriadamant eco-cult made a deal with a tourism company to act as an attraction in exchange for land and provisions.

The ski resort Levi is situated in the village of Sirkka, Kittilä on Levi Fell (in Finnish "Levitunturi") (elevation 531 metres (1742 feet)). The resort hosts a slalom event early each season on the Alpine World Cup circuit and offers both downhill and cross-country skiing to the public, as well as snow shoeing, including to the next nearest fell, Kätkätunturi, located west of Levitunturi. Kätkätunturi is 504.6 m high and 7 km long.

On 5 June 2006, it was announced that a Canadian mining corporation Agnico-Eagle Mines will start a new gold mine in Kittilä. Once completed, it will be the biggest gold mine in Europe. Experts say that the deposits hold at least three million ounces of gold, by current market price worth 1.8 billion U.S. dollars. The mine is expected to produce an average of 150,000 ounces of gold annually for at least 13 years.

Transportation
Kittilä Airport is served by Finnair and Norwegian Air. TUI Airways also serves the airport from various UK bases as part of their programme of ski flights, as well as Christmas specials and flights in support of the When You Wish Upon A Star children's foundation. The Lufthansa group also has flights between Germany and Kittilä.

Notable residents

 * Kalervo Palsa, artist
 * Arto Paasilinna, novelist, born in Kittilä
 * Reidar Särestöniemi, artist

title: Kittilä


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Aurore (grape)

Aurore (also known as Seibel 5279) is a white complex hybrid grape variety produced by Albert Seibel and used for wine production mostly in the United States and Canada. Over a long lifetime Seibel produced many complex hybrid crosses (known as Seibel grapes) of Vitis vinifera to American grapes. It is a cross of Seibel 788 (which is Sicilien × Clairette Dorée Ganzin) and Seibel 29 (a crossing of Munson and an unidentified Vitis vinifera).

The fruit of Aurore ripens early in the season between late August and early September. Although the vine is resistant of many mildew diseases, is productive and vigorous; the fruit suffers susceptibility from bunch rot and bird attack. Aurore is planted where growing seasons are short like the Northern United States, Canada and the United Kingdom but is also planted in more temperate climates to extend the harvest season.

Aurore may be used as a table or wine grape. It tends not to be used as a table grape due to unsuitability for shipping and is generally used for bulk wine production for blending with wines made Vitis labrusca grape varieties. It is also used to a lesser extent to make fruity and sparkling wines though the wines tend to have neutral flavor and slight "foxy" character typical of many hybrids.

History
Aurore was created by the French viticulturist Albert Seibel, working from grapes varieties grown at his nursery and vineyard in Aubenas, Ardèche in the Rhône Valley. Seibel named the variety after Aurora, the Roman goddess of the dawn who according to legend would announce the arrival of the sun every morning. The name Aurora, itself, is derived from the Latin word for dawn and is today still used as a synonym for Aurore.

The grape was originally bred to be a table grape variety but fell out of favor for table grape growers due to how quickly the freshly picked grapes spoiled and the tendency of berries to fall off the stem in transit.

Aurore was first introduced to the United States, via Ellis Island, in the 1940s and from New York spread throughout the country. Soon it was the most widely planted non-Vitis labrusca grape variety in New York but since the 1970s its numbers have declined as growers began planting more Vitis vinifera and other hybrid varieties.

The first plantings of Aurore in Canada were planted in 1946.

Pedigree
Aurore is known as a "complex hybrid", meaning that within its lineage are grape varieties from a number of species in the Vitis genus--including Vitis vinifera, Vitis rupestris and Vitis lincecumii. The two parent varieties of Aurore, Seibel 788 & Seibel 29, were also Seibel grapes with complex pedigrees themselves.

Seibel 788 was a crossing of the two hybrid varieties Sicilien and Clairette Dorée Ganzin. Sicilien is a crossing of two Vitis vinifera varieties, Bicane and Pascal blanc, while Clairette Dorée Ganzin was an interspecific crossing produced by French grape breeder Victor Ganzin. The two parents of Clairette Dorée Ganzin were the Vitis vinifera variety Bourboulenc and the hybrid Ganzin 60 (itself a cross of Aramon noir and a Vitis rupestris variety).

Seibel 29 is a crossing of an unknown Vitis vinifera variety and the Munson hybrid grape (also known as Jaeger 70) that was created by the Missouri viticulturist Hermann Jaeger. Munson is a crossing of a Vitis lincecumii and Vitis rupestris vine.

Viticulture
While classified as a white grape varieties and only used to produce white wines, clusters of Aurore blanc often will have a pink tinge to them (similar to Pinot gris and Gewürztraminer though not as dark as those two varieties can be). Aurore is known to be a very vigorous and productive vine, capable of producing high yields and expansive foliage if not kept in check with winter pruning and summer leaf-pulling. It is a very early ripening variety, coming to full ripeness even before varieties such as Chasselas in cold climates.

The variety is moderately winter-hardy, able to sustain winter freezes down to -20 F. While Aurore has good resistance to downy mildew, the variety is very susceptible to the viticultural hazards of Eutypa dieback, powdery mildew, black rot and botrytis bunch rot. The smooth leaves of the vine also makes it susceptible to angular leaf scorch as well as infestation from the invasive Japanese beetle. Growers practicing organic viticulture will often use diatomaceous earth as a dusting spray to help deter the beetle but this method is only effective if the dust comes into direct contact with the beetle and gets easily washed off by rains.

Aurore berries can be very thin skinned and prone to splitting if rainfall happens too close to harvest. Very mature berries also have a tendency of falling off the stem.

Wine regions
While Aurore originated in France and in the early 20th century had around 288 hectares (712 acres) planted in the northeastern reaches of the country and in the southwest, today it is hardly found in France. Outside France it is found in several states in the United States (most notably the cool-climate states of Minnesota, New York, New Hampshire and Nebraska). In 2009, wine producers in New York crushed 3,530 tons of the Aurore for both blended and varietal white wine. In New Hampshire, Jewell Towne Vineyards is noted for producing an Aurore varietal.

Other states in the US with plantings of Aurore include: Connecticut, Indiana, Kansas, Massachusetts, Michigan (in the Leelanau Peninsula AVA), Missouri, New Mexico, Ohio (in the Lake Erie AVA), Pennsylvania, Washington (in the Puget Sound AVA), West Virginia and Wisconsin.

In Canada, Aurore was once widely planted throughout British Columbia but since the 1980s have seen its number of plantings drop drastically along with other hybrid varieties as producers in regions such as the Okanagan Valley transition away from hybrid varieties to international varieties such as Pinot noir and Chardonnay. In Ontario, between 2007 and 2012 around 200 tons of Aurore in total was crushed in the province as the numbers of plantings there also decline. In Québec, producers such as Domaine des Côtes d'Ardoise are still producing varietal examples of Aurore.

Styles
Aurore is used to produce a wide range of both blended and varietal white wine styles at a variety of sweetness levels from dry to off-dry. Some producers also use the grape to make sparkling wine. While the grape does not travel well for commercial table grape production, it can be a favorite eating grape for home gardeners due to its soft, juicy flesh.

According to Master of Wine Jancis Robinson, Aurore tends to produce light-bodied floral wines that are relatively neutral in flavor but often exhibit the characteristic "foxy" note typical of many hybrids. This "foxy" aroma note tends to be more pronounced from examples produced in the eastern United States than in the west. Very ripe examples of Aurore also tend to exhibit more "foxy" flavors.

Synonyms and confusion with other grapes
Over the years Aurore has been known under a variety of synonyms including Aurora, Feri Szőlő, Finánc Szőlő, Redei, S-5279, and Seibel 5279.

Aurore is often confused with a South American table grape known as Aurora that was produced at the Instituto Agronomico de Campinas in Brazil. This confusion stems in part to Aurore's history of being originally bred to be a table grape itself and Aurora being one of the known synonyms for the Seibel wine grape.

title: Aurore (grape)


text:
Zeroth law of thermodynamics

The zeroth law of thermodynamics is one of the four principal laws of thermodynamics. It provides an independent definition of temperature without reference to entropy, which is defined in the second law. The law was established by Ralph H. Fowler in the 1930s, long after the first, second, and third laws had been widely recognized.

The zeroth law states that if two thermodynamic systems are both in thermal equilibrium with a third system, then the two systems are in thermal equilibrium with each other.

Two systems are said to be in thermal equilibrium if they are linked by a wall permeable only to heat, and they do not change over time.

Another formulation by Maxwell is "All heat is of the same kind". Another statement of the law is "All diathermal walls are equivalent".

The zeroth law is important for the mathematical formulation of thermodynamics. It makes the relation of thermal equilibrium between systems an equivalence relation, which can represent equality of some quantity associated with each system. A quantity that is the same for two systems, if they can be placed in thermal equilibrium with each other, is a scale of temperature. The zeroth law is needed for the definition of such scales, and justifies the use of practical thermometers.

Equivalence relation
A thermodynamic system is by definition in its own state of internal thermodynamic equilibrium, that is to say, there is no change in its observable state (i.e. macrostate) over time and no flows occur in it. One precise statement of the zeroth law is that the relation of thermal equilibrium is an equivalence relation on pairs of thermodynamic systems. In other words, the set of all systems each in its own state of internal thermodynamic equilibrium may be divided into subsets in which every system belongs to one and only one subset, and is in thermal equilibrium with every other member of that subset, and is not in thermal equilibrium with a member of any other subset. This means that a unique "tag" can be assigned to every system, and if the "tags" of two systems are the same, they are in thermal equilibrium with each other, and if different, they are not. This property is used to justify the use of empirical temperature as a tagging system. Empirical temperature provides further relations of thermally equilibrated systems, such as order and continuity with regard to "hotness" or "coldness", but these are not implied by the standard statement of the zeroth law.

If it is defined that a thermodynamic system is in thermal equilibrium with itself (i.e., thermal equilibrium is reflexive), then the zeroth law may be stated as follows: If a body C, be in thermal equilibrium with two other bodies, A and B, then A and B are in thermal equilibrium with one another.

This statement asserts that thermal equilibrium is a left-Euclidean relation between thermodynamic systems. If we also define that every thermodynamic system is in thermal equilibrium with itself, then thermal equilibrium is also a reflexive relation. Binary relations that are both reflexive and Euclidean are equivalence relations. Thus, again implicitly assuming reflexivity, the zeroth law is therefore often expressed as a right-Euclidean statement: If two systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third system, then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other.

One consequence of an equivalence relationship is that the equilibrium relationship is symmetric: If A is in thermal equilibrium with B, then B is in thermal equilibrium with A. Thus, the two systems are in thermal equilibrium with each other, or they are in mutual equilibrium. Another consequence of equivalence is that thermal equilibrium is described as a transitive relation: If A is in thermal equilibrium with B and if B is in thermal equilibrium with C, then A is in thermal equilibrium with C. A reflexive, transitive relation does not guarantee an equivalence relationship. For the above statement to be true, both reflexivity and symmetry must be implicitly assumed.

It is the Euclidean relationships which apply directly to thermometry. An ideal thermometer is a thermometer which does not measurably change the state of the system it is measuring. Assuming that the unchanging reading of an ideal thermometer is a valid tagging system for the equivalence classes of a set of equilibrated thermodynamic systems, then the systems are in thermal equilibrium, if a thermometer gives the same reading for each system. If the system are thermally connected, no subsequent change in the state of either one can occur. If the readings are different, then thermally connecting the two systems causes a change in the states of both systems. The zeroth law provides no information regarding this final reading.

Foundation of temperature
Nowadays, there are two nearly separate concepts of temperature, the thermodynamic concept, and that of the kinetic theory of gases and other materials.

The zeroth law belongs to the thermodynamic concept, but this is no longer the primary international definition of temperature. The current primary international definition of temperature is in terms of the kinetic energy of freely moving microscopic particles such as molecules, related to temperature through the Boltzmann constant $$k_{\mathrm B}$$. The present article is about the thermodynamic concept, not about the kinetic theory concept.

The zeroth law establishes thermal equilibrium as an equivalence relationship. An equivalence relationship on a set (such as the set of all systems each in its own state of internal thermodynamic equilibrium) divides that set into a collection of distinct subsets ("disjoint subsets") where any member of the set is a member of one and only one such subset. In the case of the zeroth law, these subsets consist of systems which are in mutual equilibrium. This partitioning allows any member of the subset to be uniquely "tagged" with a label identifying the subset to which it belongs. Although the labeling may be quite arbitrary, temperature is just such a labeling process which uses the real number system for tagging. The zeroth law justifies the use of suitable thermodynamic systems as thermometers to provide such a labeling, which yield any number of possible empirical temperature scales, and justifies the use of the second law of thermodynamics to provide an absolute, or thermodynamic temperature scale. Such temperature scales bring additional continuity and ordering (i.e., "hot" and "cold") properties to the concept of temperature.

In the space of thermodynamic parameters, zones of constant temperature form a surface, that provides a natural order of nearby surfaces. One may therefore construct a global temperature function that provides a continuous ordering of states. The dimensionality of a surface of constant temperature is one less than the number of thermodynamic parameters, thus, for an ideal gas described with three thermodynamic parameters P, V and N, it is a two-dimensional surface.

For example, if two systems of ideal gases are in joint thermodynamic equilibrium across an immovable diathermal wall, then $P_{1}V_{1}⁄N_{1}$ = $P_{2}V_{2}⁄N_{2}$ where Pi is the pressure in the ith system, Vi is the volume, and Ni is the amount (in moles, or simply the number of atoms) of gas.

The surface $PV⁄N$ = constant defines surfaces of equal thermodynamic temperature, and one may label defining T so that $PV⁄N$ = RT, where R is some constant. These systems can now be used as a thermometer to calibrate other systems. Such systems are known as "ideal gas thermometers".

In a sense, focused on the zeroth law, there is only one kind of diathermal wall or one kind of heat, as expressed by Maxwell's dictum that "All heat is of the same kind". But in another sense, heat is transferred in different ranks, as expressed by Sommerfeld's dictum "Thermodynamics investigates the conditions that govern the transformation of heat into work. It teaches us to recognize temperature as the measure of the work-value of heat. Heat of higher temperature is richer, is capable of doing more work. Work may be regarded as heat of an infinitely high temperature, as unconditionally available heat." This is why temperature is the particular variable indicated by the zeroth law's statement of equivalence.

Dependence on the existence of walls permeable only to heat
In Carathéodory's (1909) theory, it is postulated that there exist walls "permeable only to heat", though heat is not explicitly defined in that paper. This postulate is a physical postulate of existence. It does not say that there is only one kind of heat. This paper of Carathéodory states as proviso 4 of its account of such walls: "Whenever each of the systems S1 and S2 is made to reach equilibrium with a third system S3 under identical conditions, systems S1 and S2 are in mutual equilibrium".

It is the function of this statement in the paper, not there labeled as the zeroth law, to provide not only for the existence of transfer of energy other than by work or transfer of matter, but further to provide that such transfer is unique in the sense that there is only one kind of such wall, and one kind of such transfer. This is signaled in the postulate of this paper of Carathéodory that precisely one non-deformation variable is needed to complete the specification of a thermodynamic state, beyond the necessary deformation variables, which are not restricted in number. It is therefore not exactly clear what Carathéodory means when in the introduction of this paper he writes It is possible to develop the whole theory without assuming the existence of heat, that is of a quantity that is of a different nature from the normal mechanical quantities.

It is the opinion of Lieb and Yngvason (1999) that the derivation from statistical mechanics of the law of entropy increase is a goal that has so far eluded the deepest thinkers. Thus the idea remains open to consideration that the existence of heat and temperature are needed as coherent primitive concepts for thermodynamics, as expressed, for example, by Maxwell and Planck. On the other hand, Planck (1926) clarified how the second law can be stated without reference to heat or temperature, by referring to the irreversible and universal nature of friction in natural thermodynamic processes.

History
Writing long before the term "zeroth law" was coined, in 1871 Maxwell discussed at some length ideas which he summarized by the words "All heat is of the same kind". Modern theorists sometimes express this idea by postulating the existence of a unique one-dimensional hotness manifold, into which every proper temperature scale has a monotonic mapping. This may be expressed by the statement that there is only one kind of temperature, regardless of the variety of scales in which it is expressed. Another modern expression of this idea is that "All diathermal walls are equivalent". This might also be expressed by saying that there is precisely one kind of non-mechanical, non-matter-transferring contact equilibrium between thermodynamic systems.

According to Sommerfeld, Fowler coined the term zeroth law of thermodynamics while discussing the 1935 text by Meghnad Saha and B.N. Srivastava.

They write on page 1 that "every physical quantity must be measurable in numerical terms". They presume that temperature is a physical quantity and then deduce the statement "If a body $A$ is in temperature equilibrium with two bodies $B$ and $C$, then $B$ and $C$ themselves are in temperature equilibrium with each other". Then they italicize a self-standing paragraph, as if to state their basic postulate: Any of the physical properties of $A$ which change with the application of heat may be observed and utilised for the measurement of temperature. They do not themselves here use the phrase "zeroth law of thermodynamics". There are very many statements of these same physical ideas in the physics literature long before this text, in very similar language. What was new here was just the label zeroth law of thermodynamics.

Fowler & Guggenheim (1936/1965) wrote of the zeroth law as follows: ... we introduce the postulate: If two assemblies are each in thermal equilibrium with a third assembly, they are in thermal equilibrium with each other.

They then proposed that ... it may be shown to follow that the condition for thermal equilibrium between several assemblies is the equality of a certain single-valued function of the thermodynamic states of the assemblies, which may be called the temperature $t$, any one of the assemblies being used as a "thermometer" reading the temperature $t$ on a suitable scale. This postulate of the "Existence of temperature" could with advantage be known as the zeroth law of thermodynamics. The first sentence of this present article is a version of this statement. It is not explicitly evident in the existence statement of Fowler and Guggenheim that temperature refers to a unique attribute of a state of a system, such as is expressed in the idea of the hotness manifold. Also their statement refers explicitly to statistical mechanical assemblies, not explicitly to macroscopic thermodynamically defined systems.

title: Zeroth law of thermodynamics


text:
Baco noir

Baco noir (pronounced BA-koh NWAHR) is a hybrid red wine grape variety produced by Francois Baco from a cross of Vitis vinifera var. Folle blanche, a French wine grape, and an unknown variety of Vitis riparia indigenous to North America.

Regions
In 1951 the variety was brought to the cooler viticulture regions of North America, such as British Columbia, Ontario, Nova Scotia, New York, Michigan, Mississippi, Wisconsin, Pennsylvania and Oregon. In 1955 the variety was brought back to Canada, where the "George" clonal variety is commonly used. Baco noir was the target of a vine-pull program in Canada in the early 1980s, which means that there are few older plots of this variety left in Canada.

Oregon's first Baco Noir vines were imported by Philippe Girardet in 1971 for his winery located in the Umpqua Valley.

This variety is also grown in certain parts of Colorado as vineyard area expands beyond the traditional AVA's of Colorado and across the Front Range.

title: Baco noir


text:
Prill

A prill is a small aggregate or globule of a material, most often a dry sphere, formed from a melted liquid through spray crystallization. Prilled is a term used in mining and manufacturing to refer to a product that has been pelletized. ANFO explosive typically comprises ammonium nitrate prills mixed with #2 fuel oil. The pellets are a neater, simpler form for handling, with reduced dust.

The material to be prilled must be in a solid state at room temperature and a low-viscosity liquid when melted. Prills are formed by allowing drops of the melted prill substance to congeal or freeze in mid-air after being dripped from the top of a tall prilling tower. Certain agrochemicals such as urea are often supplied in prilled form. Fertilizers (ammonium nitrate, urea, NPK fertilizer) and some detergent powders are commonly manufactured as prills. However prilling of ammonium nitrate and urea has in recent years been replaced by fluid bed granulation as this gives strong and more abrasion-resistant granules.

Melted material may also be atomized and then allowed to form smaller prills that are useful in cosmetics, food, and animal feed.

title: Prill


text:
Talk:Herbicide

Archived discussions
Talk:Herbicide/Archive2022

First herbicide was not 2,4-D
"The first widely used herbicide was 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, often abbreviated 2,4-D. It was developed by a British team during World War II and first saw widespread production and use in the late 1940s. ..."

No. First herbicides used were probably salts (rock salt, sea salt, potassium salts) more than 2000 years ago (just think about the biblical mentioning of rendering fields sterile by salting the soil, or the same that Romans did around Cartago after its defeat). First technical chemicals, used as herbicides were copper and iron sulfates, sulfuric acid and most importantly, chlorates (sodium, potassium, magnesium chlorates). These were used from the mid 19th century onwards. In early 20th century, petroleum- and tar-derived herbicides, such as creosote oil, the inorganic potassium cyanate (still used in some regions mainly as a defoliant) and first synthetic organic compounds (notably 2,4-dinitrophenol and 2,4-dinitrocresole) went in use. 2,4-D and related compounds were first synthetic selective herbicides.--84.163.98.9 17:06, 16 October 2007 (UTC)

 * It may have taken 16 years, but hopefully this is better dealt with now. The literature does seem to make a distinction between generally toxic compounds (which kill everything) and those which specifically affect plants. SmartSE (talk) 15:15, 14 December 2023 (UTC)

Undue tag - benefits of herbicides
This article has been tagged since 2015 with the reason: This article does not discuss the benefits of herbicides and focuses on risks. Herbicides have been universally used in agriculture because of their enormous benefits to society but you wouldn't know that by reading this article. I am inclined to agree with this since the article still does not discuss any of the benefits of herbicides in terms of increased yield, food security, decreased costs etc. To fix this, we first need to find some suitable sources though. This is one possibility, but it is US-centric and the authors are pesticide industry advocates, which some may object to. Ideally we'd find a source which is itself more balanced and covers a worldwide viewpoint. SmartSE (talk) 14:14, 14 December 2023 (UTC)

 * Another related but important omission is describing the problems that weeds cause. Herbicides and Plant Physiology has data showing yield losses > 90 %: Available via WP:TWL. SmartSE (talk) 15:10, 14 December 2023 (UTC)
 * I'm inclined to disagree on the negative slant in the article; there's certainly room to talk about the benefits conferred by the development of herbicides, but the article isn't overly negative. I removed the templates reflecting that the viewpoint was skewed towards risk, did a pass over a lot of the prose, and added some references; if you think it's still lacking then feel free to add the template again, but it seems neutral to me. Recon  rabbit  20:04, 27 December 2023 (UTC)

Split proposal
Much of this article is about herbicide resistance. The intended topic of this article is herbicides, not resistance to them. Herbicide resistance is a large topic, so it deserves its own article.--Smokefoot (talk) 19:22, 30 December 2023 (UTC)

 * Resistance generally is pretty integrated into pesticide articles and their use (e.g., avoiding/slowing down resistance), and I don't know if the ideal underlying material is really that large needing split. It probably does need a prune to be more generalized though about resistance rather than listing off specific examples though. Specific cases of resistance would instead go to the species or active ingredient article. Related to the talk section below, it might be best to work on the article rewrite over time and then reassess the resistance section. KoA (talk) 17:59, 9 January 2024 (UTC)
 * I support the split since herbicide resistance is such an important problem with countless sources pertaining to herbicide resistance specifically. Given the sheer number of sources specifically focusing on herbicide resistance, it makes sense to have a page specifically about herbicide resistance.
 * Herbicide resistance has also provided insights into evolution, and is also a major area of research in crop science with attempts to produce herbicide resistant crops. Overall it is its own subject with many reasons it is important and a wealth of references to draw from. PerytonMango (talk) 00:02, 12 February 2024 (UTC)
 * Pesticide resistance already exists to cover those broader subjects. If there's truly something that's more at the overview level that doesn't really belong here, that would be the best article to work on. KoA (talk) 22:46, 13 February 2024 (UTC)
 * I'm just going to leave things alone. Thank everyone for the input. --Smokefoot (talk) 16:02, 5 March 2024 (UTC)

Reworking terminology section
I have started to rewrite the terminology section here: User:Smartse/hcide. The current version is muddled, omits contact/systemic and large chunks of it are a copyright violation of the Vats source. My intention is to define contact/systemic, pre-em/post-em, selective/unselective and residual and include some examples of each. Just dropping a note here since I noticed has already made some of the same changes I was planning! SmartSE (talk) 19:50, 2 January 2024 (UTC)
 * It might be worthwhile to work in the Mechanism of Action section as part of Classification (as a header, rather than a section on its own). Seems like some, but not all, of the bullet point headers are paraphrased from Table 1 in the Vats source, but the descriptors of such are unique (though I haven't checked every one of the sources in that section - the terminology in this area is harder to grasp than the rest of the article). Recon  rabbit  20:08, 2 January 2024 (UTC)

 * I had been thinking about that but was thinking not to given the extensive section, but I guess that there is no harm in having a sentence saying that the MoA is another way that they are classified which is then explained further on in more detail. SmartSE (talk) 22:34, 2 January 2024 (UTC)

 * Go for it! Comments:

 * One small suggestion is to minimizing sustainability since that consideration is probably secondary to the users. We will have a separate section on sustainability and all that jazz.  Of course, a key aspect of sustainability is selectivity.
 * It would also be nice to find sources on the benefits of herbicides: increases in crop yields (from 2,4-D and its successors) and decreases in disease (from DDT etc).
 * Another interest is in finding ways that herbicides are classified according to mode of action, which is the basis of their selectivity (vs other plants, vs animals).
 * I am wondering about the semi-long table of individual herbicides. It is incomplete and possibly haphazard.  Possibly a list of herbicides should or could be a self-standing article.
 * If you have some access to beyond paywalls, these two articles are powerful: Ullmann's Encyclopedia entries on "Weed Control" (DOI: 10.1002/14356007.a28_165) and "Individual Herbicides" (DOI: 10.1002/14356007.o28_o01).
 * Finally, you can see that I have proposed to split out most of the "pesticide resistance" into its own article. That topic is big.--Smokefoot (talk) 20:37, 2 January 2024 (UTC)
 * A bit short on time for awhile otherwise I'd be helping more, but removing the long list of herbicides makes sense. There's already a list article linked where all that could go instead.
 * What would make more sense though is to only go as far down as site of action/herbicide group. in place of that.
 * There's probably a bit I could dig up later on benefits, especially when it comes to newer herbicides from the human health perspective, improved soil management, etc. associated with herbicide resistant crops. KoA (talk) 06:21, 3 January 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Herbicide