text:
1986 in Afghanistan

The following lists events that happened during 1986 in Afghanistan.

Incumbents

 * General Secretary of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan: Babrak Karmal (until 4 May), Mohammad Najibullah (starting 4 May)
 * Chairman of the Revolutionary Council: Babrak Karmal (until 24 November), Haji Mohammad Chamkani (starting 24 November)
 * Chairman of the Council of Ministers: Sultan Ali Keshtmand

Events
Soviet general secretary Mikhail Gorbachev announces that soviet troops will be withdrawn from Afghanistan by the end of 1988. The withdrawal of troops begins on October 15. Gorbachev's offer is made from Siberia and is part of a much wider Soviet initiative in Asia. The withdrawal brings sharp reactions: the U.S. dismisses it as "inadequate" and suggests it is no more than a normal rotation of troops; Afghan resistance groups reject it as a "bluff," while Pakistan sees it as a small but positive move. Strategic analysts say the withdrawal has no military significance since three of the six units are air-defense regiments and the Afghan resistance has no air capability. The regiments constitute only a little over 6% of an estimated 120,000 Soviet troops in Afghanistan. The war continues unabated, with many clashes between Soviet-backed Afghan troops and the resistance. Claims of success are made by both sides, but they are impossible to verify. A number of major offensives are launched during the year. Toward the end of 1986, the resistance fighters begin to receive more and better weapons from the outside world - particularly from the United States, the United Kingdom, and China - via Pakistan, the most important of these being shoulder-fired ground-to-air missiles. The Soviet and Afghan air forces then begin to suffer considerable casualties.

February 1986
A report by the U.S. State Department states that the war has resulted in "one of the greatest mass migrations in history" and that Kabul's population has more than doubled to two million. "More than five million have been uprooted, nearly four million of them becoming refugees abroad ... In large areas of the countryside where resistance is active, wartime conditions and longstanding animosities among competing tribal groups have led to multiple taxation, arbitrary detention, and outright banditry." The resistance shoots down several military aircraft in Herat province; the reported death toll is 200.

April 1986
700 resistance fighters are killed in Paktia province.

May, July, and August 1986
Karmal resigns as general secretary of the PDPA, retaining the less important position of Chairman of the Revolutionary Council. The resignation is officially attributed to reasons of health - he has made no public appearance since March 30 and is reported to have been in the U.S.S.R. for medical treatment. It is widely thought, however, that the Soviet leadership is dissatisfied with his performance and wants to create a broader power base. His successor, new general secretary Mohammad Najibullah, was formerly head of Khad, the country's secret police, and more recently took charge of security.

Government troops clash with resistance soldiers in Badakhshan province, leaving 200 Soviet-Afghan soldiers and "dozens" of resistance soldiers dead. Also in July 120 government troops died during an ambush on a military convoy in Zabol province.

A massive explosion destroys an ammunition dump in the headquarters of the Afghan Army's 8th Division near Kabul, reportedly killing up to 100 people.

For the fifth consecutive year, UN-sponsored talks are held in Geneva between Afghanistan and Pakistan with the object of ending the military presence in Kabul. None of the meetings produce any concrete results, though differences between the two countries have narrowed since the talks began in 1982. Discussions continue through diplomatic channels, and in December a UN spokesman announces that agreement has been reached on the monitoring of Soviet troop withdrawals. The remaining stumbling block is the timetable for a total withdrawal, with Pakistan insisting that this should take place as soon as technically feasible.

September 1986
A national reconciliation campaign is approved by the Politburo, including a unilateral six-month cease-fire to begin on January 15, 1987, but it meets with little response inside Afghanistan and is rejected by resistance leaders in Pakistan.

November 1986
A UN human rights report reports that 10,000 to 12,000 Afghan civilians have been killed in the previous nine months by Soviet and Afghan government forces, and that children have been killed by the indiscriminate use of explosives disguised as toys. The "continuation of the military solution," the report says, "will lead to a situation approaching genocide." The same month the UN General Assembly passes a resolution, by a vote of 122 to 20, calling for a negotiated settlement to the war. Karmal resigns from the largely ceremonial post of Chairman of the Revolutionary Council. He is succeeded on November 24 by Haji Mohammad Chamkani, formerly first vice-chairman and a non-PDPA member.

December 1986
An extraordinary plenum of the PDPA Central Committee approves a policy of national reconciliation, involving negotiations with opposition groups, and the proposed formation of a coalition government of national unity. A cabinet reshuffle sees the elevation of Najibullah supporters Abdul Wakil and Mohammad Rafi to the posts of foreign minister and defense minister, respectively. Najibullah visits the U.S.S.R. to discuss prospects for ending the conflict in Afghanistan.

title: 1986 in Afghanistan


text:
1981 in Afghanistan

The following lists events that happened during 1981 in Afghanistan.

The stalemate in the Afghan crisis continues throughout the year. Babrak Karmal's government rejects negotiations except on its own terms, and the Soviets show no desire to withdraw or reduce their military presence. Rebel resistance against the Soviet presence intensifies throughout the country, despite all-out efforts by the 85,000-strong Soviet force and the Afghan Army to curb it. There are reports of widespread fighting between the Mujahideen (Islamic guerrillas) and the security forces in vast areas stretching from Kandahar in the south to Badakhshan on the Soviet border. The presence of rebels brings reprisals from the Soviet forces, and helicopter gunship and artillery attacks devastate several villages. Although there are no official estimates, Soviet casualties are also believed to be heavy. Although Pakistan denies the allegation, there is said to be evidence of a regular arms flow to the Mujahideen inside Afghanistan from across the border. During this year, the country and the USSR made a trade agreement for 1981 to 1985. Afghanistan shall provide the USSR with food, natural gas and raw materials while the USSR will provide machinery and industrial materials.

Incumbents

 * General Secretary of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan: Babrak Karmal
 * Chairman of the Revolutionary Council: Babrak Karmal
 * Chairman of the Council of Ministers: Babrak Karmal (until 11 June), Sultan Ali Keshtmand (starting 11 June)

February 1981
Karmal visits Moscow, where he signs a series of agreements, mainly economic, with Soviet leaders. The Afghan economy is moving further and further into the orbit of the Soviet bloc, which takes most of its exports in return for food grains and consumer goods.

March 1981
According to UN statistics, 1.7 million Afghans have so far fled to Pakistan and some 400,000 to Iran in order to escape the strife in their country.

June 1981
General Secretary Karmal gives up the post of prime minister; he is succeeded in that position on June 11 by Sultan Ali Keshtmand, another trusted member of the Parcham faction of the PDPA. Keshtmand is also put in direct charge of the National Patriotic Front, set up in December 1980 with the intention of rallying the people behind Karmal's Marxist revolutionary government.

August 25, 1981
Karmal announces a new set of proposals for negotiations with Pakistan and Iran, either separately or together; this is a slight departure from proposals he made in May and in December 1980. The democratic revolutionary government of Afghanistan, he says, will be prepared to hold tripartite talks with Pakistan and Iran under the aegis of UN Secretary-General Kurt Waldheim or his representative. The government wants a political settlement that would ensure "a full and reliable end to armed and other interference from outside into Afghanistan's internal affairs, and the creation of conditions under which such interference would be excluded in future." The Soviet troops could withdraw if such international guarantees were given and implemented. Iran, itself going through a period of internal chaos, reacts negatively to the Kabul proposal, while Pakistan at first considers it "flexible" and later rejects it. Pakistan maintains its earlier stand that any direct negotiation with a representative of the Karmal government would amount to recognition of the regime, contrary to the ruling of the Islamic Conference.

September 1981
During the General Assembly session, UN Secretary-General Waldheim and Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, UN special representative for Afghanistan, have separate discussions with the Afghan Foreign Minister Shah Mohammad Dost and Pakistan's Foreign Minister Agha Shahi. Efforts to bring the two parties together with or without the presence of a UN representative do not succeed, though it is agreed that Pérez de Cuéllar will continue his mediation efforts. The New York meetings are a consequence of a November 1980 General Assembly resolution that called for withdrawal of foreign troops from Afghanistan and appealed to all parties to create conditions for a political solution.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: 1981 in Afghanistan


text:
Increase Mather

Increase Mather (June 21, 1639 Old Style – August 23, 1723 Old Style) was a New England Puritan clergyman in the Massachusetts Bay Colony and president of Harvard College for twenty years (1681–1701). He was influential in the administration of the colony during a time that coincided with the notorious Salem witch trials.

Early life
The New England Mathers originally came from the parish of Winwick near Liverpool, in Lancashire, England. Increase Mather was born in Dorchester, Massachusetts Bay Colony, on June 21, 1639, to the Rev. Richard Mather and Kathrine Holt Mather, following their participation in the Great Migration from England due to their nonconformity to the Church of England.

The stated reason for his first name was "…the never-to-be-forgotten increase, of every sort, wherewith God favoured the country about the time of his nativity." The name "Increase" is a literal translation of the Hebrew "Yosëf" (Joseph). He was the youngest of six brothers, the others being Samuel, Nathaniel, Eleazar, Joseph, and Timothy. The first three of these also became ministers.

Education
In 1651, Mather was admitted to Harvard College, where he roomed with and studied under Robert Massey. When he graduated in 1656, aged 17, with a Bachelor of Arts, he began to train for the ministry, and gave his first sermon on his 18th birthday. He quickly left Massachusetts and went to Ireland, where he studied at Trinity College, Dublin, for a Master of Arts. During his time at Trinity College he was licensed as a Commonwealth Minister by Oliver Cromwell to the joint charge of St Tida's Church (Ballyscullion), and St Swithan's Church (Magherafelt). He graduated in 1658, and worked as a chaplain attached to a garrison in the Channel Islands from 1659 to 1661 with a short stint at a church in Gloucester in 1660.

After Cromwell's death in 1658, Mather felt less secure in his post in the Channel Islands due to Charles II's return to the throne. He resigned the position in 1660 and sailed for Boston in 1661. Harvard later awarded Mather the first honorary degree in the New World; he became a Doctor of Sacred Theology in 1692.

Massachusetts
In 1661, with the advent of the English Restoration and resurgence of Anglicanism, Increase returned to Massachusetts where he married Maria Cotton. She was his step-sister by virtue of his father's marriage to Sarah Hankredge, widow of John Cotton and mother of Maria. Maria gave birth to Cotton Mather in 1663. In 1676, Increase published A Brief History of the War with the Indians in New-England, a contemporary account of King Philip's War.

He was ordained as minister of the North Church. He held this post until he died.

Harvard College
In his autobiography, Increase Mather writes that he was President of Harvard from 1681 until 1701, but due to charter and organizational changes, his official title varied. On June 11, 1685, he was made Acting President and on July 23, 1686, he was appointed Rector. On June 27, 1692, he finished writing the new college charter and became president. On September 5, 1692, while the Salem trials were still ongoing, Increase Mather was awarded a doctorate of divinity, the first doctorate issued at Harvard, and the last for 79 years.

He was rarely present on campus or in the town, especially during his term of Rector, as he was out of the Colony for all but two years of his term in that office. Despite his absences he did make some changes: re-implementation of Greek and Hebrew instruction, replacement of classical Roman authors with Biblical and Christian authors in ethics classes, enactment of requirements that students attend classes regularly, live and eat on campus, and that seniors not haze other students.

Politics
While politics and Puritan religion were closely related during Increase's lifetime, his first direct involvement with politics occurred as a result of James II of England's manipulation of the New England governments. In 1686, James revoked the Charter of Massachusetts in the process of creating the Dominion of New England.

The Dominion was headed by Edmund Andros, who not only disliked puritanism and was haughty, but ruled as a near-absolute dictator: Town meetings were outlawed, leaving the Dominion without consent of the governed, marriage was removed from the clergy, and the Old South Church was temporarily appropriated for Anglican services.

The 1687 Declaration of Indulgence, prohibiting discrimination against Catholics, saw staunch opposition from the Puritan establishment. When Mather successfully roused opposition to revocation of the charter, he was nearly framed for treason. He traveled to London (eluding spies out to catch him) to petition the King. While engaged in petitioning he published pieces to build popular support for his positions, such as A Narrative of the Miseries of New-England, By Reason of an Arbitrary Government Erected there Under Sir Edmund Andros (1688) and A Brief Relation for the Confirmation of Charter Privileges (1691).

He attempted to restore the old charter and obtain a royal charter for Harvard; however, he abandoned that course and changed his petitions, favoring a new charter not lacking any of the rights previously granted. Following the Glorious Revolution and subsequent overthrow of Andros, a new charter was granted to the colony. The 1692 charter was a major departure from its predecessor, granting sweeping home rule, establishing an elective legislature, enfranchising all freeholders (previously only men admitted to a congregation could vote), and uniting the Massachusetts Bay Colony and Plymouth Colony. Following Andros' deposition and arrest, he had William Phips appointed as Royal Governor and they returned to Massachusetts, arriving on May 14, 1692. Following his return, the administration of Harvard grew increasingly insistent that he reside nearer to the institution. Not wanting to leave his Second Church, he did not do so, and eventually resigned the Presidency.

Salem witch trials
In 1681, the same year he became president of Harvard (and when his son Cotton Mather was only eighteen years old), Increase Mather began work on a manuscript that was to be a collection of "illustrious providences" and he solicited contributions from the other Puritan ministers. This work demonstrated a belated interest in witchcraft relative to the European continent, where witch trials had gone into a steep decline after reaching "peak intensity during the century 1570–1670" but this reflected a similar belated interest among a certain milieu in London around the same time. Increase Mather's book Remarkable Providences was published in 1684 and forwards a doctrinal belief in the real power of witchcraft. One of the more curious aspects of the book is that while it cites numerous Reformation theologians (Luther, Beza, Melancthon) and many well-known writers on witchcraft including Dominican inquisitor Heinrich Kramer (author of the notorious witch-hunting manual Malleus Maleficarum), it does not cite John Calvin.

In November 1692, he published Cases of Conscience Concerning Evil Spirits which defended the judges and trials, but also expressed words of caution, perhaps due to public pressure. In the postscript, included with the initial first edition of the book, he mentions his own attendance at the trial of George Burroughs and his agreement with the capital judgment against him. George Burroughs had been a fellow minister who seems to have substituted at the pulpit for Increase Mather on at least one occasion. Like his work from 1684, this 1692 work also cites Malleus Maleficarum.

Notwithstanding this, his reputation was not improved afterwards or for posterity due to his association with the trials as well as his subsequent refusal, for whatever reasons, to denounce them. He was also briefly mentioned in a thorough treatment of his son Cotton by Robert Calef in his comprehensive book of the Salem Trials and their aftermath, More Wonders of the Invisible World (referred to as More Wonders of the Spiritual World by the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition). Increase Mather was said to have burned Calef's book in Harvard Yard.

Later life and death
In 1715, following the death of his wife Maria the previous year, he married Ann Cotton, widow of his nephew John.

Mather owned a slave named Spaniard.

On September 27, 1722, he fainted and was thereafter bedridden. In August 1723 he suffered bladder failure and died three weeks later on August 23, 1723, in Boston, aged 84. He was buried in Copp's Hill Burying Ground.

Before his death, he took lodging at the retreat of Mineral Spring Pond to recover from his illness and drink from the famous healing waters of the springs from Spring Pond.

Beliefs
Throughout his life Mather was a staunch Puritan, opposing anything openly contradictory to, mutually exclusive with, or potentially "distracting" from, his religious beliefs. He supported suppression of intoxication, unnecessary effort on Sundays and ostentatious clothing. He was initially opposed to the Half-Way Covenant but later supported it. He firmly believed in the direct appearance of God's disfavor in everyday life, e.g. the weather, political situations, attacks by Native Americans, fires and floods, etc.

He was strenuous in attempting to keep people to his idea of morality, making strong use of jeremiads to try to prevent indifference and especially to try to get government officials to enforce public morality. During his tenure at Harvard he regularly stamped out any relaxation of Puritan strictness, such as latitudinarianism, which had flourished during his overseas absence.

Following his acceptance of the Covenant, Solomon Stoddard and others attempted to further liberalize Puritanism by baptism of children who had nonmember parents and admittance of all but the openly immoral to services. To try to stop this, Mather had a synod called to outlaw similar measures. A declaration was adopted, but never made binding.

In popular culture
In John Neal's 1828 novel Rachel Dyer, Increase Mather appears at the end of Martha Corey's witchcraft trial to announce the guilty verdict and give a speech. He is also played by Stephen Lang in the 2014 TV series Salem. Increase Mather also appears in Act of Oblivion (2022) by Robert Harris.

Portraiture
A portrait of Increase Mather hangs in the Middle Common Room of Mansfield College, Oxford.

title: Increase Mather


text:
1976 in Afghanistan

The following lists events that happened during 1976 in Afghanistan.

President Daud Khan pursues schemes of economic development and agricultural improvements with substantial aid from China, the U.S.S.R., Iran, and Kuwait, partly in the form of long-term loans and partly in technical aid.

Incumbents

 * President: Mohammed Daoud Khan

Events

 * Afghanistan and the Soviet Union signed a 5-year trade agreement to improve Soviet-Afghan by 50% in 1980.
 * Henry Kissinger visits Afghanistan. He was the last US Secretary of State to visit the country until 2002 which is when Colin Powell visited the country.

March 1976

 * Afghanistan launches its 7 year development plan

April 1976
Floods and earthquakes devastate the provinces of Herat, Helmand, and Kandahar. Pakistan sends a message of sympathy and contributes substantially to relief operations, indicating a marked relaxation of the previously mounting tension between the two countries, largely due to persuasion by Pres. Nikolai Podgorny of the Soviet Union and the Shah of Iran. By mutual consent, both countries refrain from hostile propaganda.

June 7–11, 1976
Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto of Pakistan visits Kabul. There, both countries undertake to follow principles of respect for territorial integrity and noninterference in internal affairs set forth by the 1955 Bandung Conference of Asian and African nations.

August 20–24, 1976
Daud Khan pays a return visit to Islamabad. He and Bhutto reach tentative agreement on a solution to the Pashtunistan problem.

End of November 1976
An attempted coup, instigated by discontented retired officers and led by a retired general, Mir Ahmad Shah, is discovered and some 50 persons are arrested.

title: 1976 in Afghanistan


text:
User talk:LordAlberstein

Hello

Greetings! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. If you have questions or doubts of any sort, do not hesitate to post them on the Village Pump, somebody will respond ASAP. Other helpful pages include: Have fun! --Jiang 18:17 20 Jul 2003 (UTC)
 * Welcome, newcomers
 * How does one edit a page
 * Manual of style
 * Naming conventions

title: User talk:LordAlberstein


text:
Melchor Cano

Melchor Cano (1509? – 30 September 1560) was a Spanish Scholastic theologian. Cano's most important theological work was his posthumously published De locis theologicis (Salamanca, 1563), a major contribution to the New Scholasticism of the Salamanca school.

Clerical life
Melchor Cano was born in Tarancón (New Castile); in 1523 he entered the Dominican order in Salamanca, where he was taught by Francisco de Vitoria. He taught at Valladolid (1534–43) and Alcalá (1543–6) before succeeding Vitoria as professor of theology at Salamanca. Cano was a man of deep learning and originality. His only rival was Bartolomé Carranza, also a Dominican and afterwards archbishop of Toledo. At the university the schools were divided between the partisans of the two professors; Cano pursued his rival with relentless virulence, and took part in the condemnation for heresy of his brother-friar. He attended the Council of Trent and participated in the debates on the eucharist and on penance (which dealt with the issue of indulgences). In 1552 Cano was appointed bishop of the Canary Islands at the behest of Jesuits who wanted him out of Spain because of his opposition to their Order; there was unease in Rome about the appointment, and the following year Cano renounced the see.

Consultatio theologica
His personal influence with King Philip II of Spain soon brought about his recall, and he was made provincial of his order in Castile. In 1556 he wrote his famous Consultatio theologica, in which he advised the king to resist the temporal encroachments of the papacy and, as absolute monarch, to defend his rights by bringing about a radical change in the administration of ecclesiastical revenues, thus making Spain less dependent on Rome. With this in his mind Pope Paul IV styled him "a son of perdition." In 1557 Cano was elected Dominican provincial of Castile, but the Vatican declined to confirm the appointment; he was again elected in 1559, and after an initial refusal the Vatican acquiesced in the appointment.

De Locis theologicis
The reputation of Cano rests on a posthumous work, De Locis theologicis (Salamanca, 1562), unrivalled in its own line. In this, a genuine work of the Renaissance, Cano tried to free dogmatic theology from the vain subtleties of the schools; by clearing away the puerilities of the later scholastic theologians, to bring religion back to first principles; and, by giving rules, method, co-ordination and system, to build up a scientific treatment of theology. In discussing the credibility of sources, he was one of the first to inquire into the principles of the credibility of historical documents. He argues that if all serious historians agree about a fact, then we should believe it, even if it is unlikely. Otherwise "It would be as if the Mediterranean peoples were to deny the existence of the ocean ... or if, indeed, we should mock at him who speaks of elephants."

title: Melchor Cano


text:
Sambhaji

Sambhaji (Sambhaji Bhonsle, ; c.14 May 1657 – 11 March 1689), also known as Shambhuraje, was the second Chhatrapati of the Maratha Kingdom, ruling from 1681 to 1689. He was the eldest son of Shivaji, the founder of the Maratha Kingdom. Sambhaji's rule was largely shaped by the ongoing wars between the Marathas and the Mughal Empire, as well as other neighbouring powers such as the Abyssinians of Janjira, Wadiyars of Mysore and the Portuguese Empire in Goa. After Sambhaji's execution by Aurangzeb, his brother Rajaram I succeeded him as the next Chhatrapati and continued the Mughal–Maratha Wars.

Early life
Sambhaji was born at Purandar fort to the Maratha Emperor Shivaji, and his first wife, Saibai, who died when he was two years old. He was then raised by his paternal grandmother Jijabai. At the age of nine, Sambhaji was sent to live with Raja Jai Singh I of Amber as a political hostage to ensure compliance of the Treaty of Purandar that Shivaji had signed with the Mughals on 11 June 1665. As a result of the treaty, Sambhaji became a Mughal mansabdar. He and his father Shivaji attended the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb's court at Agra on 12 May 1666. Aurangzeb put both of them under house arrest but they escaped on 22 July 1666. However, the two sides reconciled and had cordial relations during the period 1666–1670. During the period between 1666 and 1668, Aurangzeb initially refused but later officially recognized the title of Raja that Shivaji assumed, on behalf of the Mughal Empire, after being pressed by Prince Mu'azzam. Aurangzeb looked upon the friendship of Prince Muazzam and Shivaji and Sambhaji with great suspicion. By mediation of Muazzam, Sambhaji was also restored to the Mughal mansabdar rank of 5,000 cavalry. Shivaji then sent Sambhaji with general Prataprao Gujar to take service under Prince Mu'azzam who was the Mughal viceroy at Aurangabad with Diler Khan as his deputy. Sambhaji visited prince Muazzam at Aurangabad on 4 November 1667 and was then granted rights to territory in Berar on the pretext of revenue collection. After a short stay, Sambhaji returned to Rajgad while representative Maratha officers continued to stay in Aurangabad. In this period, the Marathas under Sambhaji fought alongside the Mughals under Muazzam against the Sultanate of Bijapur.

Marriage
Sambhaji was married to Jivubai in a marriage of political alliance and as per Maratha custom, she took the name Yesubai. Jivubai was the daughter of Pilaji Shirke, who had entered Shivaji's service following the defeat of Deshmukh Suryaji Surve who was his previous liege. This marriage thus gave Shivaji the access of the region of Konkan coastal belt. Yesubai had two children, daughter Bhavani Bai and then a son named Shahu I, who later became the Chhatrapati of the Maratha empire.

Arrest and defection to the Mughals
Sambhaji's behaviour, including alleged irresponsibility and addiction to sensual pleasures, led Shivaji to imprison his son at Panhala fort in 1678 to curb his behaviour. Sambhaji escaped from the fort with his wife and rejoined Diler Khan in December 1678 for a year. After Shivaji returned from his South campaign( Dakshin digvijay), he stationed Sambhaji at Sajjangad, hoping to improve latters attitude. Sambhaji although reverred the Math and their practices, was not adept to follow that disciplined routine. A liason was already established between Sambhaji and Diler Khan, now the sole incharge of Mughal affairs in south(DAKHAN). On 13 Dec 1678, Sambhaji took with him a small retinue and left Sajjangad with an aim of reaching Pedgaon, the Mughal cantonment .Sambhajiraje came to Mahuli. There he bade farewell to his servants on the confluence of Krishna and Venna. Diler khan sent Ikhlas Khan Miyana and Ghairat Khan with four-thousand strong force to receive Sambhajiraje. These two Khans met Sambhajiraje around four kos towards Supa’s south, around Morgaon.From there, Sambhajiraje went to Kurkumbh. Diler Khan had reached there especially for him. But then returned home when he learnt of a plan by Diler Khan, the Mughal viceroy of Deccan, to arrest him and send him to Delhi. Upon returning home, Sambhaji was put under surveillance at Panhala.

Accession
When Shivaji died on 5 April 1680, Sambhaji was still held captive at Panhala fort. At that time, Soyrabai, Shivaji's ambitious widow and Sambhaji's step-mother, along with influential courtiers such as Annaji Datto and other ministers conspired against Sambhaji, to prevent him from succeeding the throne. In a rush, they installed Soyrabai's son, and Sambhaji's half-brother, Rajaram, then aged ten, on the throne on 21 April 1680. Upon hearing this news, Sambhaji plotted his escape and took possession of the Panhala fort on 27 April after killing the fort commander. On 18 June, he acquired control of Raigad Fort. Sambhaji formally ascended the throne on 20 July 1680. Rajaram, his wife Janki Bai and mother Soyarabai were imprisoned. Soon after, when there was another conspiracy attempt against Sambhaji with the help of Prince Akbar, Aurangzeb's fourth son, some of Soyarabai's kinsmen from the Mohite clan and some of Shivaji's ministers such as Annaji Datto were executed on charges of conspiracy.

Military expeditions and conflicts
Shortly, following Sambhaji's accession, he began his military campaigns against neighboring states. Sambhaji's attack on Burhanpur, and granting refuge to prince Akbar, Aurangzeb's fugitive son compelled the latter to move south with the Mughal army.

Attack on Burhanpur
Bahadur Khan was in charge of the fort of Burhanpur who later entrusted Kakar Khan with the same. Kakar was performing the duty of collecting jizya tax from the Hindu citizens of Burhanpur. The Jizya was collected and stored at the Burhanpur fort. Sambhaji plundered and ravaged Burhanpur in 1680. His forces completely routed the Mughal garrison and punitively executed captives. The Marathas then looted the city and set its ports ablaze. Sambhaji then withdrew into Baglana, evading the forces of Mughal commander Khan Jahan Bahadur.

Mughal Empire
In 1681, Aurangzeb's fourth son Akbar left the Mughal court along with a few Muslim Mansabdar supporters and joined Muslim rebels in the Deccan. Aurangzeb in response moved his court south to Aurangabad and took over command of the Deccan campaign. The rebels were defeated and Akbar fled south to seek refuge with Sambhaji. Sambhaji's ministers including Annaji Datto, and other ministers took this opportunity and conspired again to enthrone Rajaram again. They signed a treasonable letter against Sambhaji in which they promised to join Akbar, to whom the letter was sent. Akbar gave this letter to Sambhaji. Enraged, Sambhaji executed the conspirators on charges of treason.

For five years, Akbar stayed with Sambhaji, hoping that the latter would lend him men and money to strike and seize the Mughal throne for himself. Unfortunately for Sambhaji, giving asylum to Akbar did not bear fruit. Eventually, Sambhaji helped Akbar flee to Persia. On the other hand, Aurangzeb after coming to Deccan never returned to his capital in the north.

Siege of Ramsej (1682)
In 1682, the Mughals laid siege to the Maratha fort of Ramsej, but after five months of failed attempts, including planting explosive mines and building wooden towers to gain the walls, the Mughal siege failed.

Aurangzeb tried attacking the Maratha Empire from all directions. He intended to use the Mughal numerical superiority to his advantage. Sambhaji had prepared well for the invasions and the Maratha forces promptly engaged the numerically strong Mughal army in several small battles using guerilla warfare tactics. However, Sambhaji and his generals attacked and defeated the Mughal generals whenever they got an opportunity to lure the Mughal generals into decisive battles in the Maratha stronghold territories. Sambhaji had devised a strategy of minimising the losses on his side. If there used to be an opportunity, then the Maratha army attacked decisively, however, if the Mughals were too strong in numbers then the Marathas used to retreat. This proved to be a very effective strategy as Aurangzeb's generals were not able to capture the Maratha territories for a period of three years.

Mughal invasions of Konkan (1684)
Aurangzeb then decided to attack the Maratha capital Raigad Fort directly from the North and the South directions. He made a pincer attempt to surround the Maratha Capital that led to Mughal invasions of Konkan (1684). The Mughals were badly defeated due to the Maratha strategy and the harsh climate of the region. These failures forced Aurangzeb to look away from the Maratha Empire and search for success against the Qutb Shahi dynasty and Adil Shahi dynasty. Under Sambhaji (1680–89) the Marathas ranged up and down western India.

Siddis of Janjira
The Marathas under Shivaji came into conflict with the Siddis, Muslims of Abyssinian descent settled in India, over the control of the Konkan coast. Shivaji was able to reduce their presence to the fortified island of Janjira. Sambhaji continued the Maratha campaign against them, while at that time the Siddis formed an alliance with the Mughals. At the start of 1682, a Maratha army later joined by Sambhaji personally, attacked the island for thirty days, doing heavy damage but failing to breach its defenses. Sambhaji then attempted a ruse, sending a party of his people to the Siddis, claiming to be defectors. They were allowed into the fort and planned to detonate the gunpowder magazine during a coming Maratha attack. However, one of the female defectors became involved with a Siddi man and he uncovered the plot, and the infiltrators were executed. The Maratha then attempted to build a stone causeway from the shore to the island, but were interrupted halfway through when the Mughal army moved to menace Raigad. Sambhaji returned to counter them and his remaining troops were unable to overcome the Janjira garrison and the Siddi fleet protecting it.

Portuguese and English
Having failed to take Janjira in 1682, Sambhaji sent a commander to seize the Portuguese coastal fort of Anjadiva instead. The Marathas seized the fort, seeking to turn it into a naval base, but in April 1682 were ejected from the fort by a detachment of 200 Portuguese. This incident led to a larger conflict between the two regional powers.

The Portuguese colony of Goa at that time provided supplies to the Mughals, allowed them to use the Portuguese ports in India and pass through their territory. In order to deny this support to the Mughals, Sambhaji undertook a campaign against Portuguese Goa in late 1683, storming the colony and taking its forts. The situation for the colonists became so dire that the Portuguese viceroy, Francisco de Távora, conde de Alvor went with his remaining supporters to the cathedral where the crypt of Saint Francis Xavier was kept, where they prayed for deliverance. The viceroy had the casket opened and gave the saint's body his baton, royal credentials and a letter asking the saint's support. Sambhaji's Goa campaign was checked by the arrival of the Mughal army and navy in January 1684, forcing him to withdraw.

Meanwhile, in 1684 Sambhaji signed a defensive treaty with the English at Bombay, realising his need for English arms and gunpowder, particularly as their lack of artillery and explosives impeded the Maratha's ability to lay siege to fortifications. Thus reinforced, Sambhaji proceeded to take Pratapgad and a series of forts along the Ghats.

Mysore
Much like his father Shivaji's Karnataka campaign, Sambhaji attempted in 1681 to invade Mysore, then a southern principality ruled by Wodeyar Chikkadevaraja. Sambhaji's large army was repelled, as had happened to Shivaji in 1675. Chikkadevraja later made treaties and rendered tribute to the Maratha kingdom during the conflicts of 1682–1686. Chikkadevraja however began to draw close to the Mughal Emperor and ceased to follow his treaties with the Marathas. In response, Sambhaji invaded Mysore in 1686, accompanied by his Brahmin friend and poet Kavi Kalash.

Capture and execution

In the 1687 Battle of Wai, the key Maratha commander Hambirrao Mohite was killed and troops began to desert the Maratha armies. Sambhaji and 25 of his advisors were captured by the Mughal forces of Ganoji Shirke and Muqarrab Khan in a skirmish at Sangameshwar in February 1689. Sambhaji's positions were spied upon by the officials close to him, who conveyed this information to Muqarrab Khan.

A contemporary French Governor of Pondicherry from the same period mentions the "Close Brahmans" were the culprits.François Martin, the first French Governor General of Pondicherry had mentioned in his diary the culprits of Sambhaji Maharaj's capture. Martin's diary says that the close Brahmins betrayed Sambhaji Maharaj, hence Sambhaji was captured by Mughal army, thereafter the whole south India was in a major chaos at the time. Accounts of Sambhaji's confrontation with the Mughal ruler and following torture, execution and disposal of his body, vary widely depending on the source, though generally all agree that he was tortured and executed on the emperor's orders.The captured Sambhaji and Kavi Kalash were taken to the fort of Bahadurgad at Pedgaon in-present-day Ahmednagar district, where Aurangzeb humiliated them by parading them wearing clown's clothes and they were subjected to insults by Mughal soldiers.

Accounts vary as to the reasons for what came next: Mughal accounts state that Sambhaji was asked to surrender his forts, treasures and names of Mughal collaborators with the Marathas and that he sealed his fate by insulting both the emperor and the Islamic prophet Muhammad during interrogation and was executed for having killed Muslims. The ulema of the Mughal Empire sentenced Sambhaji to death on-allegations of the atrocities his troops perpetrated against Muslims-in Burhanpur, including plunder, killing, dishonour and torture.

Maratha accounts instead state that he was ordered to bow before Aurangzeb and convert to Islam and it was his refusal to do so, by saying that he would accept Islam en the day Aurangzeb presented him his daughter's hand, that led to his death. By doing so, he earned the title of "Dharmaveer" ("protector of dharma").

Aurangzeb ordered the execution of Sambhaji and Kavi Kalash. They were tortured and blinded and were executed by beheading on 11 March 1689 at Tulapur on the banks of the Bhima river near Pune.

Other accounts state that Sambhaji challenged Aurangzeb in open court and refused to convert to Islam. Dennis Kincaid writes, "He (Sambhaji) was ordered by the Emperor to embrace Islam. He refused and was made to run the gauntlet of the whole Imperial army. Tattered and bleeding he was brought before the Emperor and repeated his refusal. His tongue was torn and again the question was put. He called for writing material and wrote 'Not even if the emperor bribed me with his daughter!" So then he was put to death by torture".

Some accounts state that Sambhaji's body was cut into pieces and thrown into the river or that the body or portions were recaptured and cremated at the confluence of the rivers at Tulapur. Other accounts state that Sambhaji's remains were fed to the dogs.

Governance
Sambhaji inherited the governance system created by Shivaji. He continued with most of his father's policies. The administration of the state was managed by Sambhaji with the help of Chandogamatya and the council of eight ministers. According to P. S. Joshi, Sambhaji was a good administrator who gave impartial justice to his subjects.

Measures against drought
Maharashtra witnessed severe drought during the reign of Sambhaji (1684–88). Sambhaji had to take several administrative measures to tackle the situation. Sambhaji continued Shivaji's policies by helping poor farmers. Shankar Narayan Joshi has stated that his approach against famine was very constructive and he provided solutions to many complicated problems. His policies of water storage, irrigation and developing crop patterns exhibited his progressive policies.

Sambhaji provided grain seeds, exemptions in taxes, oxen for agricultural work and agricultural tools to the farmers in the drought situation. All these measures were implemented sincerely during the drought period.

Encouragement to agricultural activities
Sambhaji encouraged the agricultural activity in the Maratha state. Agriculture was the backbone of the rural Maratha economy. He encouraged people to cultivate more and more land. The government of Sambhaji gave promises of safety to the Marathas who gained independence from the Mughals and asked them to carry out their previous work of cultivation in their territories. It also called back the people who had absconded because of their inability to pay taxes and asked them to carry on their previous work of cultivation.

Sambhaji in his letter of 3 June 1684 addressed to Hari Shivdev (Subhedar and Karkun of Tarf Chaul), directed his Peshwa Nilkantha Moreshwar to bring the agricultural land of the villages confiscated by the government under cultivation which otherwise would have remained uncultivated. He also asked Hari Shivdev to distribute fifty khandis of grain which were being sent to him from Sagargad, among the cultivators.

Sambhaji tried to increase the income (revenue) from these agricultural activities. He also made efforts to cultivate more wasted or barren lands.

Religious policy
P. S. Joshi states that Sambhaji, his ministers and officers took interest in supporting the cultural and religious activity in the state. They honoured and encouraged learning by granting land, grains and money to scholars.

Innovations
Sambhaji used many innovations during his campaigns, one such innovation was when he made jackets from leather for his soldiers to ensure protection from lethal arrows fired by the Mysore army during his campaign against Mysore which was highly successful, as, after the initial defeat of the Maratha army due to the poisonous arrows, the Maratha army was able to negate the arrows and achieved victory by using these leather jackets.

Literary contributions
Sambhaji was sophisticated, educated and well-versed in a few languages besides Marathi. Keshav Pandit was employed for Sambhaji's education. Keshav Pandit, alias Keshav Bhatta of Shringarpur, was an erudite scholar in the Nitishastra and Sanskrit language and literature. He seemed to have deeper knowledge of the different forms of Sanskrit literature, Hindu jurisprudence and the Puranas. He also seems to have made Sambhaji familiar with the famous works of different sciences and music written by ancient scholars in the Sanskrit language. Keshav Pandit composed Dandaniti on Maratha jurisprudence and also composed the Sanskrit biography of Sambhaji's brother titled 'Shri Rajaramacharitra' detailing his early campaigns and escape to Jinji.

Sambhaji composed several books during his lifetime. The most notable is Budhbhushanam written in Marathi and Sanskrit, and three other books, Nayikabhed, Saatsatak, Nakhshikha which are written in Hindustani language. In Budhbhushanam, Sambhaji wrote poetry on politics. In the book, Sambhaji writes about dos and don'ts for a king and discusses military tactics. The first few shlokas are praises for Shahaji (his grandfather) and his father Shivaji. In Budhbhushan, Sambhaji considers Shahji to be the incarnation of Indra and Shivaji to be the incarnation of Vishnu that saved the earth and restored righteousness. Kavindra Paramanand Govind Newaskar of Poladpur composed Anupurana, a partially-completed Sanskrit biography on the life of Chhatrapati Sambhaji upto the birth of Shahu I as a sequel to his father's Sanskrit biography Shivabharata. Hari Kavi, also known as Bhanubhatta composed Haihayendra Charitra as well as its commentary, Shambu Vilasika on the orders of Sambhaji. Hari Kavi also authored Subhashitaharavalli and composed the Sanskrit biography Shambhuraja Charitra on Sambhaji's life and romance in 1684.

Succession
The Maratha Kingdom was put into disarray by Sambhaji's death and his younger half-brother Rajaram I assumed the throne. Rajaram shifted the Maratha capital far south to Jinji, while Maratha guerrilla fighters under Santaji Ghorpade and Dhanaji Jadhav continued to harass the Mughal army. A few days after Sambhaji's death, the capital Raigad Fort fell to the Mughals. Sambhaji's widow, Yesubai, son, Shahu and Shivaji's widow, Sakvarbai were captured; Sakvarbai died in Mughal captivity. Shahu, who was seven years of age when captured, remained prisoner of the Mughals for 18 years from February 1689 until Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb's death in 1707. Shahu was then set free by Emperor Muhammad Azam Shah, son of Aurangzeb. After his release, Shahu had to fight a brief succession war with his aunt Tarabai, Rajaram's widow who claimed the throne for her own son, Shivaji II. The Mughals kept Yesubai captive to ensure that Shahu adhered to the terms of his release. She was released in 1719 when the Marathas became strong under Shahu and Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath.

In popular culture
Many films and television shows based on Sambhaji's life have been produced in India. These include:
 * Chhatrapati Sambhaji (1925) by Narayanrao D. Sarpotdar
 * Chhatrapati Sambhaji (1934) by Parshwanath Yeshwant Altekar
 * Swarajya Rakshak Sambhaji – TV Series (2017–2020)
 * Chhatrapati Sambhaji (2024) by Rakesh Subesingh Dulgaj.
 * Shivrayancha Chhava (2024) by Digpal Lanjekar
 * Chhava (2024) by Laxman Utekar

title: Sambhaji


text:
User talk:Jessel

Greetings! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. If you have questions or doubts of any sort, do not hesitate to post them on the Village Pump, somebody will respond ASAP. Other helpful pages include: Have fun! --Jiang 18:16 20 Jul 2003 (UTC)
 * Welcome, newcomers
 * How does one edit a page
 * Manual of style
 * Naming conventions

Image copywrites
Hi! Thanks for uploading Image:Otec cc schematic.jpg, Image:Otec cc t-s dia.jpg, Image:Otec oc schematic.jpg, and Image:Otec oc t-s dia.jpg. I notice they currently don't have image copyright tags. Could you add one to let us know their copyright status? (You can use if you release it under the GFDL, or  if you claim fair use, etc.) If you don't know what any of this means, just let me know where you got the images and I'll tag them for you. Thanks so much, Edwinstearns 18:18, 9 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Wikipedia:Indian wikipedians' notice board
Hi. I would like you to be an active member of Indian wikipedians' notice board. utcursch 07:28, Dec 29, 2004 (UTC)

Weber-Fechner law
I'm not sure your page move is in keeping with the usual style conventions on Wikipedia, which usually use a hyphen with no spaces (Hertzsprung-Russel diagram and many many others). It should probably be moved back. -- Curps 22:50, 27 September 2005 (UTC)

Image Tagging Image:Class-e.jpg
Thanks for uploading Image:Class-e.jpg. I notice the 'image' page currently doesn't specify who created the content, so the copyright status is therefore unclear. If you have not created this media yourself then you need to argue that we have the right to use the media on Wikipedia (see copyright tagging below). If you have not created the media yourself then you should also specify where you found it, i.e., in most cases link to the website where you got it, and the terms of use for content from that page.

If the media also doesn't have a copyright tag then you must also add one. If you created/took the picture, audio, or video then you can use GFDL-self to release it under the GFDL. If you believe the media qualifies as fair use, please read fair use, and then use a tag such as or one of the other tags listed at Image copyright tags. See Image copyright tags for the full list of copyright tags that you can use.

If you have uploaded other media, please check that you have specified their source and copyright tagged them, too. You can find a list of 'image' pages you have edited by clicking on the "my contributions" link (it is located at the very top of any Wikipedia page when you are logged in), and then selecting "Image" from the dropdown box. Note that any unsourced and untagged images will be deleted one week after they have been uploaded, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. Thank you. Shyam ( T / C ) 10:02, 8 March 2006 (UTC)

 * What software did you use to draw this image? — Omegatron 03:55, 30 March 2006 (UTC)

Image:Otec oc t-s dia.jpg
Hi, you marked this as licensed under the GFDL, but you neglected to state the source so that we can verify its license. If you created the image yourself, please say so and use GFDL-self instead. For more details, please see Image description page. Thanks.  howch e  ng   {chat} 17:33, 17 March 2006 (UTC)

Image copyright problem with Image:Class-e.jpg
Thank you for uploading Image:Class-e.jpg. However, it currently is missing information on its copyright status. Wikipedia takes copyright very seriously. It may be deleted soon, unless we can determine the license and the source of the image. If you know this information, then you can add a copyright tag to the image description page.

If you have any questions, please feel free to ask them at the media copyright questions page. Thanks again for your cooperation. —Remember the dot (t) 18:56, 21 February 2007 (UTC)

File:Otec oc t-s dia.jpg missing description details
Dear uploader: The media file you uploaded as File:Otec oc t-s dia.jpg is missing a description and/or other details on its image description page. If possible, please add this information. This will help other editors to make better use of the image, and it will be more informative for readers.

If you have any questions please see Help:Image page. Thank you. Sfan00 IMG (talk) 14:15, 13 July 2009 (UTC)

 * It would also be highly advised to note which paper or textbook this chart is

modelled after. Sfan00 IMG (talk) 14:15, 13 July 2009 (UTC)

Possibly unfree File:Otec oc t-s dia.jpg
A file that you uploaded or altered, File:Otec oc t-s dia.jpg, has been listed at Possibly unfree files because its copyright status is unclear or disputed. If the file's copyright status cannot be verified, it may be deleted. You may find more information on the file description page. You are welcome to add comments to its entry at if you are interested in it not being deleted. Thank you. -- Kelly hi! 21:37, 7 January 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jessel


text:
Thought disorder

A thought disorder (TD) is a disturbance in cognition which affects language, thought and communication. Psychiatric and psychological glossaries in 2015 and 2017 identified thought disorders as encompassing poverty of ideas, neologisms, paralogia (a reasoning disorder characterized by expression of illogical or delusional thoughts), word salad, and delusions—all disturbances of thought content and form. Two specific terms have been suggested—content thought disorder (CTD) and formal thought disorder (FTD). CTD has been defined as a thought disturbance characterized by multiple fragmented delusions, and the term thought disorder is often used to refer to an FTD: a disruption of the form (or structure) of thought. Also known as disorganized thinking, FTD results in disorganized speech and is recognized as a major feature of schizophrenia and other psychoses (including mood disorders, dementia, mania, and neurological diseases). Disorganized speech leads to an inference of disorganized thought. Thought disorders include derailment, pressured speech, poverty of speech, tangentiality, verbigeration, and thought blocking. One of the first known cases of thought disorders, or specifically OCD as it is known today, was in 1691. John Moore, who was a bishop, had a speech in front of Queen Mary II, about "religious melancholy."

Formal thought disorder affects the form (rather than of the content) of thought. Unlike hallucinations and delusions, it is an observable, objective sign of psychosis. FTD is a common core symptom of a psychotic disorder, and may be seen as a marker of severity and as an indicator of prognosis. It reflects a cluster of cognitive, linguistic, and affective disturbances that have generated research interest in the fields of cognitive neuroscience, neurolinguistics, and psychiatry.

Eugen Bleuler, who named schizophrenia, said that TD was its defining characteristic. Disturbances of thinking and speech, such as clanging or echolalia, may also be present in Tourette syndrome; other symptoms may be found in delirium. A clinical difference exists between these two groups. Patients with psychoses are less likely to show awareness or concern about disordered thinking, and those with other disorders are aware and concerned about not being able to think clearly.

Content thought disorder
Content thought disorder is a thought disturbance in which a person experiences multiple, fragmented delusions, typically a feature of schizophrenia and some other mental disorders which include obsessive-compulsive disorder and mania. At the core of thought content disorder are abnormal beliefs and convictions (after taking the person's culture and background into consideration) ranging from overvalued ideas to fixed delusions. These beliefs and delusions are typically non-specific diagnostically, even if some delusions are more prevalent in one disorder than another.

Neurotypical thought—consisting of awareness, concerns, beliefs, preoccupations, wishes, fantasies, imagination, and concepts—can be illogical, and can contain contradictory beliefs and prejudices or biases. Individuals vary considerably, and a person's thinking may also shift from time to time.

Content thought disorder is not limited to delusions. Other possible abnormalities include suicidal, violent, and homicidal ideas and:
 * Preoccupation: centering thought on a particular idea in association with a strong affection
 * Obsession: a persistent thought, idea, or image which is intrusive or inappropriate, and distressing or upsetting
 * Compulsive behavior: the need to perform an act persistently and repetitively (without it necessarily leading to a reward or pleasure) to reduce distress
 * Magical thinking: belief that one's thoughts alone can bring about effects in the world, or that thinking something corresponds with doing that thing
 * Overvalued ideas: false or exaggerated belief held with conviction, but without delusional intensity
 * Phobias: irrational fears of objects or circumstances

In psychosis, delusions are the most common thought content disorder. A delusion is a firm, fixed belief based on inadequate grounds, not amenable to rational argument or evidence to the contrary, which is out of sync with a person's regional, cultural, or educational background. Delusions are common in people with mania, depression, schizoaffective disorder, delirium, dementia, substance use disorders, schizophrenia, and delusional disorders. Common examples in a mental status examination include the following:
 * Erotomania: belief that someone is in love with oneself
 * Grandiose delusions: belief that one is the greatest, strongest, fastest, richest, or the most intelligent person ever
 * Persecutory delusion: belief that the person, or someone to whom the person is close, is being malevolently treated in some way
 * Ideas and delusions of reference: belief that insignificant remarks, coincidental events, or innocuous objects in one's environment have personal meaning or significance
 * Thought broadcasting: belief that others can hear (or are aware of) one's thoughts
 * Thought insertion: belief that one's thoughts are not one's own, but belong to someone else and have been inserted into one's mind
 * Thought withdrawal: belief that thoughts have been "taken out" of one's mind, and one has no power over this
 * Influence: belief that other people (or external agents) are covertly exerting power over oneself
 * Outside control: belief that outside forces are controlling one's thoughts, feelings, and actions
 * Infidelity: belief that a partner is cheating on oneself
 * Somatic: belief that one has a disease or medical condition
 * Nihilistic: belief that the mind, the body, the world at large, or parts thereof no longer exist

Formal thought disorder
Formal thought disorder (FTD) is also known as disorganized speech. Evidence of disorganized thinking, it is a hallmark feature of schizophrenia. FTD, a disorder of the form (rather than content) of thought, encompasses hallucinations and delusions and is an observable sign of psychosis. A common, core symptom of psychosis, it may be seen as a marker of severity and a predictor of prognosis. FTD reflects a cluster of cognitive, linguistic, and affective disturbances which has generated research interest from the fields of cognitive neuroscience, neurolinguistics, and psychiatry.

It can be subdivided into clusters of positive and negative symptoms and objective (rather than subjective) symptoms. On the scale of positive and negative symptoms, they have been grouped into positive formal thought disorder (posFTD) and negative formal thought disorder (negFTD). Positive subtypes were pressure of speech, tangentiality, derailment, incoherence, and illogicality; negative subtypes were poverty of speech and poverty of content. The two groups were posited to be at either end of a spectrum of normal speech, but later studies showed them to be poorly correlated. A comprehensive measure of FTD is the Thought and Language Disorder (TALD) Scale. The Kiddie Formal Thought Disorder Rating Scale (K-FTDS) can be used to assess the presence of formal thought disorder in children and their childhood. Although it is very extensive and time-consuming, its results are in great detail and reliable.

Nancy Andreasen preferred to identify TDs as thought-language-communication disorders (TLC disorders). Up to seven domains of FTD have been described on the Thought, Language, Communication (TLC) Scale, with most of the variance accounted for by two or three domains. Some TLC disorders are more suggestive of severe disorder, and are listed with the first 11 items.

Diagnoses
The DSM V categorizes FTD as "a psychotic symptom, manifested as bizarre speech and communication." FTD may include incoherence, peculiar words, disconnected ideas, or a lack of unprompted content expected from normal speech. Clinical psychologists typically assess FTD by initiating an exploratory conversation with patients and observing the patient's verbal responses.

FTD is often used to establish a diagnosis of schizophrenia; in cross-sectional studies, 27 to 80 percent of patients with schizophrenia present with FTD. A hallmark feature of schizophrenia, it is also widespread amongst other psychiatric disorders; up to 60 percent of those with schizoaffective disorder and 53 percent of those with clinical depression demonstrate FTD, suggesting that it is not exclusive to schizophrenia. About six percent of healthy subjects exhibit a mild form of FTD.

The characteristics of FTD vary amongst disorders. A number of studies indicate that FTD in mania is marked by irrelevant intrusions and pronounced combinatory thinking, usually with a playfulness and flippancy absent from patients with schizophrenia. The FTD present in patients with schizophrenia was characterized by disorganization, neologism, and fluid thinking, and confusion with word-finding difficulty.

There is limited data on the longitudinal course of FTD. The most comprehensive longitudinal study of FTD by 2023 found a distinction in the longitudinal course of thought-disorder symptoms between schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders. The study also found an association between pre-index assessments of social, work and educational functioning and the longitudinal course of FTD.

Possible causes
Several theories have been developed to explain the causes of formal thought disorder. It has been proposed that FTD relates to neurocognition via semantic memory. Semantic network impairment in people with schizophrenia—measured by the difference between fluency (e.g. the number of animals' names produced in 60 seconds) and phonological fluency (e.g. the number of words beginning with "F" produced in 60 seconds)—predicts the severity of formal thought disorder, suggesting that verbal information (through semantic priming) is unavailable. Other hypotheses include working memory deficit (being confused about what has already been said in a conversation) and attentional focus.

FTD in schizophrenia has been found to be associated with structural and functional abnormalities in the language network, where structural studies have found bilateral grey matter deficits; deficits in the bilateral inferior frontal gyrus, bilateral inferior parietal lobule and bilateral superior temporal gyrus are FTD correlates. Other studies did not find an association between FTD and structural aberrations of the language network, however, and regions not included in the language network have been associated with FTD. Future research is needed to clarify whether there is an association with FTD in schizophrenia and neural abnormalities in the language network.

Transmitter systems which might cause FTD have also been investigated. Studies have found that glutamate dysfunction, due to a rarefaction of glutamatergic synapses in the superior temporal gyrus in patients with schizophrenia, is a major cause of positive FTD.

The heritability of FTD has been demonstrated in a number of family and twin studies. Imaging genetics studies, using a semantic verbal-fluency task performed by the participants during functional MRI scanning, revealed that alleles linked to glutamatergic transmission contribute to functional aberrations in typical language-related brain areas. FTD is not solely genetically determined, however; environmental influences, such as allusive thinking in parents during childhood, and environmental risk factors for schizophrenia (including childhood abuse, migration, social isolation, and cannabis use) also contribute to the pathophysiology of FTD.

The origins of FTD have been theorised from a social-learning perspective. Singer and Wynne said that familial communication patterns play a key role in shaping the development of FTD; dysfunctional social interactions undermine a child's development of cohesive, stable mental representations of the world, increasing their risk of developing FTD.

Treatments
Antipsychotic medication is often used to treat FTD. Although the vast majority of studies of the efficacy of antipsychotic treatment do not report effects on syndromes or symptoms, six older studies report the effects of antipsychotic treatment on FTD. These studies and clinical experience indicate that antipsychotics are often an effective treatment for patients with positive or negative FTD, but not all patients respond to them.

Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) is another treatment for FTD, but its effectiveness has not been well-studied. Large randomised controlled trials evaluating the effectiveness of CBT for treating psychosis often exclude individuals with severe FTD because it reduces the therapeutic alliance required by the therapy. However, provisional evidence suggests that FTD may not preclude the effectiveness of CBT. Kircher and colleagues have suggested that the following methods should be used in CBT for patients with FTD:
 * Practise structuring, summarising, and feedback methods
 * Repeat and clarify the core issues and main emotions that the patient is trying to communicate
 * Gently encourage patients to clarify what they are trying to communicate
 * Ask patients to clearly state their communication goal
 * Ask patients to slow down and explain how one point leads to another
 * Help patients identify the links between ideas
 * Identify the main affect linked to the thought disorder
 * Normalise problems with thinking

Signs and symptoms
Language abnormalities exist in the general population, and do not necessarily indicate a condition. They can occur in schizophrenia and other disorders (such as mania or depression), or in anyone who may be tired or stressed. To distinguish thought disorder, patterns of speech, severity of symptoms, their frequency, and any resulting functional impairment can be considered.

Symptoms of TD include derailment, pressured speech, poverty of speech, tangentiality, and thought blocking. FTD is a hallmark feature of schizophrenia, but is also associated with other conditions (including mood disorders, dementia, mania, and neurological diseases). Impaired attention, poor memory, and difficulty formulating abstract concepts may also reflect TD, and can be observed and assessed with mental-status tests such as serial sevens or memory tests.

Types
Thirty symptoms (or features) of TD have been described, including:
 * Alogia: A poverty of speech in amount or content, it is classified as a negative symptom of schizophrenia. When further classifying symptoms, poverty of speech content (little meaningful content with a normal amount of speech) is a disorganization symptom. Under SANS, thought blocking is considered a part of alogia, and so is increased latency in response.
 * Thought blocking (also known as deprivation of thought and obstructive thought): An abrupt stop in the middle of a train of thought which may not be able to be continued.
 * Circumstantial speech (also known as circumstantial thinking): An inability to answer a question without excessive, unnecessary detail. This differs from tangential thinking in that the person does eventually return to the original point. A patient may answer the question "How have you been sleeping lately?" with "Oh, I go to bed early, so I can get plenty of rest. I like to listen to music or read before bed. Right now I'm reading a good mystery. Maybe I'll write a mystery someday. But it isn't helping, reading I mean. I have been getting only 2 or 3 hours of sleep at night."
 * Clanging: An instance where ideas are related only by similar or rhyming sounds rather than actual meaning. This may be heard as excessive rhyming or alliteration ("Many moldy mushrooms merge out of the mildewy mud on Mondays", or "I heard the bell. Well, hell, then I fell"). It is most commonly seen in the manic phase of bipolar disorder, although it is also often observed in patients with schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder.
 * Derailment (also known as loose association and knight's move thinking): Thought frequently moves from one idea to another which is obliquely related or unrelated, often appearing in speech but also in writing ("The next day when I'd be going out you know, I took control, like uh, I put bleach on my hair in California"),
 * Distractible speech: In mid-speech, the subject is changed in response to a nearby stimulus ("Then I left San Francisco and moved to ... Where did you get that tie?")
 * Echolalia: Echoing of another's speech, once or in repetition. It may involve repeating only the last few words (or the last word) of another person's sentences, and is common on the autism spectrum and in Tourette syndrome.
 * Evasion: The next logical idea in a sequence is replaced with another idea closely (but not accurately or appropriately) related to it; also known as paralogia and perverted logic.
 * Flight of ideas: A form of FTD marked by abrupt leaps from one topic to another, possibly with discernible links between successive ideas, perhaps governed by similarities between subjects or by rhyming, puns, wordplay, or innocuous environmental stimuli (such as the sound of birds chirping). It is most characteristic of the manic phase of bipolar disorder.
 * Illogicality: Conclusions are reached which do not follow logically (non sequiturs or faulty inferences). "Do you think this will fit in the box?" is answered with, "Well of course; it's brown, isn't it?"
 * Incoherence (word salad): Speech which is unintelligible because the individual words are real, but the manner in which they are strung together results in gibberish. The question "Why do people comb their hair?" elicits a response like "Because it makes a twirl in life, my box is broken help me blue elephant. Isn't lettuce brave? I like electrons, hello please!"
 * Neologisms: Completely new words (or phrases) whose origins and meanings are usually unrecognizable ("I got so angry I picked up a dish and threw it at the geshinker"). They may also involve elisions of two words which are similar in meaning or sound. Although neologisms may refer to words formed incorrectly whose origins are understandable (such as "headshoe" for "hat"), these can be more clearly referred to as word approximations.
 * Overinclusion: The failure to eliminate ineffective, inappropriate, irrelevant, extraneous details associated with a particular stimulus.
 * Perseveration: Persistent repetition of words or ideas, even when another person tries to change the subject. ("It's great to be here in Nevada, Nevada, Nevada, Nevada, Nevada.") It may also involve repeatedly giving the same answer to different questions ("Is your name Mary?" "Yes."  "Are you in the hospital?"  "Yes."  "Are you a table?"  "Yes"). Perseveration can include palilalia and logoclonia, and may indicate an organic brain disease such as Parkinson's disease.
 * Phonemic paraphasia: Mispronunciation; syllables out of sequence ("I slipped on the lice and broke my arm").
 * Pressured speech: Rapid speech without pauses, which is difficult to interrupt.
 * Referential thinking: Viewing innocuous stimuli as having a specific meaning for the self ("What's the time?" "It's 7 o'clock. That's my problem").
 * Semantic paraphasia: Substitution of inappropriate words ("I slipped on the coat, on the ice I mean, and broke my book").
 * Stilted speech: Speech characterized by words or phrases which are flowery, excessive, and pompous ("The attorney comported himself indecorously").
 * Tangential speech: Wandering from the topic and never returning to it, or providing requested information ("Where are you from?" "My dog is from England. They have good fish and chips there. Fish breathe through gills").
 * Verbigeration: Meaningless, stereotyped repetition of words or phrases which replace understandable speech; seen in schizophrenia.

Terminology
Psychiatric and psychological glossaries in 2015 and 2017 defined thought disorder' as disturbed thinking or cognition which affects communication, language, or thought content including poverty of ideas, neologisms, paralogia, word salad, and delusions (disturbances of thought content and form), and suggested the more-specific terms content thought disorder (CTD) and formal thought disorder (FTD). CTD was defined as a TD characterized by multiple fragmented delusions, and FTD was defined as a disturbance in the form or structure of thinking. The 2013 DSM-5 only used the term FTD, primarily as a synonym for disorganized thinking and speech. This contrasts with the 1992 ICD-10 (which only used the word "thought disorder", always accompanied with "delusion" and "hallucination") and a 2002 medical dictionary which generally defined thought disorders similarly to the psychiatric glossaries and used the word in other entries as the ICD-10 did.

A 2017 psychiatric text describing thought disorder as a "disorganization syndrome" in the context of schizophrenia: "'Thought disorder' here refers to disorganization of the form of thought and not content. An older use of the term 'thought disorder' included the phenomena of delusions and sometimes hallucinations, but this is confusing and ignores the clear differences in the relationships between symptoms that have become apparent over the past 30 years. Delusions and hallucinations should be identified as psychotic symptoms, and thought disorder should be taken to mean formal thought disorders or a disorder of verbal cognition." The text said that some clinicians use the term "formal thought disorder" broadly, referring to abnormalities in thought form with psychotic cognitive signs or symptoms, and studies of cognition and subsyndromes in schizophrenia may refer to FTD as conceptual disorganization or disorganization factor.

Some disagree: "Unfortunately, 'thought disorder' is often involved rather loosely to refer to both FTD and delusional content. For the sake of clarity, the unqualified use of the phrase 'thought disorder' should be discarded from psychiatric communication. Even the designation 'formal thought disorder' covers too wide a territory. It should always be made clear whether one is referring to derailment or loose associations, flight of ideas, or circumstantiality."

Course, diagnosis, and prognosis
It was believed that TD occurred only in schizophrenia, but later findings indicate that it may occur in other psychiatric conditions (including mania) and in people without mental illness. Not all people with schizophrenia have a TD; the condition is not specific to the disease.

When defining thought-disorder subtypes and classifying them as positive or negative symptoms, Nancy Andreasen found that different subtypes of TD occur at different frequencies in those with mania, depression, and schizophrenia. People with mania have pressured speech as the most prominent symptom, and have rates of derailment, tangentiality, and incoherence as prominent as in those with schizophrenia. They are likelier to have pressured speech, distractibility, and circumstantiality.

People with schizophrenia have more negative TD, including poverty of speech and poverty of content of speech, but also have relatively high rates of some positive TD. Derailment, loss of goal, poverty of content of speech, tangentiality and illogicality are particularly characteristic of schizophrenia. People with depression have relatively-fewer TDs; the most prominent are poverty of speech, poverty of content of speech, and circumstantiality. Andreasen noted the diagnostic usefulness of dividing the symptoms into subtypes; negative TDs without full affective symptoms suggest schizophrenia.

She also cited the prognostic value of negative-positive-symptom divisions. In manic patients, most TDs resolve six months after evaluation; this suggests that TDs in mania, although as severe as in schizophrenia, tend to improve. In people with schizophrenia, however, negative TDs remain after six months and sometimes worsen; positive TDs somewhat improve. A negative TD is a good predictor of some outcomes; patients with prominent negative TDs are worse in social functioning six months later. More prominent negative symptoms generally suggest a worse outcome; however, some people may do well, respond to medication, and have normal brain function. Positive symptoms vary similarly.

A prominent TD at illness onset suggests a worse prognosis, including: TD which is unresponsive to treatment predicts a worse illness course. In schizophrenia, TD severity tends to be more stable than hallucinations and delusions. Prominent TDs are more unlikely to diminish in middle age, compared with positive symptoms. Less-severe TD may occur during the prodromal and residual periods of schizophrenia. Treatment for thought disorder may include psychotherapy, such as cognitive behavior therapy (CBT), and psychotropic medications.
 * illness begins earlier
 * increased risk of hospitalization
 * decreased functional outcomes
 * increased disability rates
 * increased inappropriate social behaviors

The DSM-5 includes delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thought process (formal thought disorder), and disorganized or abnormal motor behavior (including catatonia) as key symptoms of psychosis. Schizophrenia-spectrum disorders such as schizoaffective disorder and schizophreniform disorder typically consist of prominent hallucinations, delusions and FTD; the latter presents as severely disorganized, bizarre, and catatonic behavior. Psychotic disorders due to medical conditions and substance use typically consist of delusions and hallucinations. The rarer delusional disorder and shared psychotic disorder typically present with persistent delusions. FTDs are commonly found in schizophrenia and mood disorders, with poverty of speech content more common in schizophrenia.

Psychoses such as schizophrenia and bipolar mania are distinguishable from malingering, when an individual fakes illness for other gains, by clinical presentations; malingerers feign thought content with no irregularities in form such as derailment or looseness of association. Negative symptoms, including alogia, may be absent, and chronic thought disorder is typically distressing.

Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) whose diagnosis requires the onset of symptoms before three years of age can be distinguished from early-onset schizophrenia; schizophrenia under age 10 is extremely rare, and ASD patients do not display FTDs. However, it has been suggested that individuals with ASD display language disturbances like those found in schizophrenia; a 2008 study found that children and adolescents with ASD showed significantly more illogical thinking and loose associations than control subjects. The illogical thinking was related to cognitive functioning and executive control; the loose associations were related to communication symptoms and parent reports of stress and anxiety.

Rorschach tests have been useful for assessing TD in disturbed patients. A series of inkblots are shown, and patient responses are analyzed to determine disturbances of thought. The nature of the assessment offers insight into the cognitive processes of another, and how they respond to equivocal stimuli. Hermann Rorschach developed this test to diagnose schizophrenia after realizing that people with schizophrenia gave drastically different interpretations of Klecksographie inkblots from others whose thought processes were considered normal, and it has become one of the most widely used assessment tools for diagnosing TDs.

The Thought Disorder Index (TDI), also known as the Delta Index, was developed to help further determine the severity of TD in verbal responses. TDI scores are primarily derived from verbally-expressed interpretations of the Rorschach test, but TDI can also be used with other verbal samples (including the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale). TDI has a twenty-three-category scoring index; each category scores the level of severity on a scale from 0 to 1, with .25 being mild and 1.00 being most severe (0.25, 0.50, 0.75, 1.00).

Criticism
TD has been criticized as being based on circular or incoherent definitions. Symptoms of TD are inferred from disordered speech, based on the assumption that disordered speech arises from disordered thought. Although TD is typically associated with psychosis, similar phenomena can appear in different disorders and leading to misdiagnosis.

A criticism related to the separation of symptoms of schizophrenia into negative or positive symptoms, including TD, is that it oversimplifies the complexity of TD and its relationship to other positive symptoms. Factor analysis has found that negative symptoms tend to correlate with one another, but positive symptoms tend to separate into two groups. The three clusters became known as negative symptoms, psychotic symptoms, and disorganization symptoms. Alogia, a TD traditionally classified as a negative symptom, can be separated into two types: poverty of speech content (a disorganization symptom) and poverty of speech, response latency, and thought blocking (negative symptoms). Positive-negative-symptom diametrics, however, may enable a more accurate characterization of schizophrenia.

title: Thought disorder