text:
Talk:Common starling

Pictures
Poor picture layout at present, but I expect that the entry will expand a improved it eventually. But then, it's not much of a picture. These things are everywhere, so I'll doubtless get a better one to replace it with before too long.

Also, should this species be entered as Common Starling? My texts all list it that way. Tannin 10:33 1 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * Most modern American bird books I see call it the European Starling. I don't know which name is more common in the bird's native homeland, but I'm guessing that European Starling is the most common name in the United States. --Evice 21:10, 15 February 2007 (UTC)

Another picture is available at Image:Common-Starling.jpg RedWolf 23:23, Dec 23, 2004 (UTC)

Something I have always wondered at...
Hi,

I live in New York City and despite this I have a keen interest in wildlife. Starlings are fairly common around here and as I read up on them I came to a question: If the UK is losing its starling population, and the U.S. has too many, then why not round up a large amount of them and send them back to where they came from? I am no expert, but I imagine there are other European countries that might want them as well.

--MK 06:17, 31 December 2005 (UTC)shadowcat60

drug manufacturer who wanted every bird found in Shakespeare
'European starlings have a way of appearing in unexpected places — the United States, for example, where they are not native but owe their origin to a brief reference in Shakespeare’s “Henry IV, Part 1.” In 1890, a drug manufacturer who wanted every bird found in Shakespeare to live in America released 60 starlings in Central Park. After spending a few years nesting modestly under the eaves of the American Museum of Natural History, they went from a poetic fancy to a menacing majority; there are now upward of 200 million birds across North America, where they thrive at the expense of other cavity nesters like bluebirds and woodpeckers, eat an abundance of grain — as well as harmful insects — and occasionally bring down airplanes.' Flight Patterns, By JONATHAN ROSEN, NYT April 22, 2007 -69.87.200.81 14:14, 22 April 2007 (UTC)

How they take over.
My dad told me about how the Starlings are taking over and threatening local bird populations. He said that they lay an egg in another bird's nest. The mother bird takes care of it until it hatches. The baby bird drives out/kills the other babies, but the mother bird continues to take care of the starling. There's probably a name for this technique. I think it should be included (by someone who can explain it easily). (sorry I don't know how to sign posts) KannD86 01:50, 10 May 2007 (UTC)kannd86 9:47pm May 8, 2007
 * unfortunately the above refers to the Common Cuckoo not the starling. jimfbleak 05:26, 10 May 2007 (UTC)
 * If you live in North America, your dad was probably talking about the Brown-headed Cowbird, another dark bird that is a brood parasite. MeegsC | Talk 08:01, 18 July 2007 (UTC)

--71.101.189.25 (talk) 18:10, 10 November 2008 (UTC)a.s--71.101.189.25 (talk) 18:10, 10 November 2008 (UTC) I agree with meegsC. Also Starlings dont affect crop populations adversly they only eat harmfull insects you blackbirds do it starlings get blamed for it trust me ive had pet ones they dont eat many plants they eat a huge ariety of insects

Omnivorous
I think that the comment that Starlings are omnivorous is not accurate enough. Starlings may eat everything at some point in time but they seem to prefer insects to anything else...many a time I have watched Starlings completely ignore starchy food-sources to focus exclusively on protein-rich insect foods! Is there any way we could expand this comment to be more accurate? For example, shouldn't this page contain enough information to discuss how Starlings' diet differs from other "omnivorous" birds such as, say, the common grackle? Cazort (talk) 13:44, 12 January 2008 (UTC)

Having tried unsuccessfully to trap the starlings in ourarea, I concur with Cazort, although of course this is OR. My observations over nearly 40 years suggest that starlings are omnivorous most of the time. However, when they are parents and feeding young, they bring them exclusively insects, as said above. Old_Wombat (talk) 13:45, 29 September 2011 (UTC)

Vocalizations
This page desperately needs a vocalizations section! There's hardly anything said about these on this page, and it's one of the most interesting and important aspects of this species, and relates to virtually all the different sections, and has been studied extensively. Cazort (talk) 13:44, 12 January 2008 (UTC)

 * Agreed. Pity that my inlaws aren't in the area of Kentucky that is currently infested with a large flock, else I'd have them get some call samples for the article.Wzrd1 (talk) 00:32, 28 January 2012 (UTC)

Starlings as pets/Picture
I have a pet starling but whenever I add something on them being pets it get deleted I might be wording it incorectly. So could someone create it a good site is www.starlingtalk.com. Also I think I could supply a good picture. Also there talking abilities (better than African Greys) isnt realy talked about. --71.101.199.250 (talk) 16:34, 2 February 2009 (UTC)

 * You need to have proper references for what you add, otherwise it's WP:OR jimfbleak (talk) 17:34, 2 February 2009 (UTC)

Taking in a Juvinile European Starling
A starling had been going in our garage, then i got it out. It turned out to be very nice, and it really likes me. here are some tips. Try to make a connection Be KIND carry it around, show it to ppl. eventually take it in a pet. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 108.13.37.186 (talk) 04:25, 11 July 2010 (UTC)

 * Or wring its neck, blanch it and pull the feathers, then cook it for a snack. This is an encyclopedia article, not a place to post tips on how to harbor and capture an invasive species. That said, if you wish to record audio of the bird calls and upload them, they'd be welcome for the article.Wzrd1 (talk) 00:31, 28 January 2012 (UTC)

Starlicide
THere is now a starling-specific poison, described in Wiki here: Starlicide. Isn't that worth a link from this page? 58.167.64.35 (talk) 12:20, 23 September 2012 (UTC)

FA push comments

 * I've rewritten "in culture" as proper referenced prose, I'm sure we can add to it later
 * I have a list of 15 more parasites, I'll add at least some later
 * Subspecies rewritten, but some problems
 * The para about Fair Isle and Hebridean starlings is not in Vaurie or Freare, may be in Svensson or the CD-rom, but I don't have these. I'll search BB.
 * Svensson needs page numbers, although it could be replaced unless it's the source for the above.
 * I'm also inclined to replace the CD-rom ref unless you have this item.

 Jimfbleak -  talk to me?  08:51, 30 December 2012 (UTC)
 * I assume we are using British English, this being a largely European bird? My spellchecker points out American spellings and I intend to alter these words as I come across them.
 * What about capitalisation? Should Starling be capitalised wherever it occurs? Cwmhiraeth (talk) 13:27, 30 December 2012 (UTC)
 * Yes, definitely BE, it's not native to NAm. My inclination would be to lc "starling", but I don't know whether that's MoS, normal practice or whatever. I suppose that as long as we are consistent, it doesn't much matter.  Jimfbleak -  talk to me?  14:10, 30 December 2012 (UTC)
 * My inclination is lower case "starling" too. It's WikiProject Birds which states "The common name of a species is always capitalised to differentiate it from more general terms. The phrase "in Australia there are many Common Starlings" indicates a large number of Sturnus vulgaris. In contrast, the phrase "in Australia there are many common starlings" indicates several different types of starling." Shall we conform to this handy rule, specially set out for starlings? Cwmhiraeth (talk) 15:25, 30 December 2012 (UTC)

 * One book which is at my uni library is Introduced Birds of the World by John A. Long - this book is terrific in cataloguing what has been introduced where and when comprehensively. I'll try and re-borrow this next time I am nearby (would have been tomorrow but no work as it is a holiday :)) Casliber (talk · contribs) 23:35, 30 December 2012 (UTC)

 * I'd make the introductions a subsection of distribution and habitat. Casliber (talk · contribs) 23:36, 30 December 2012 (UTC)

Have you thought about adding something about the Common Starling when kept as a pet? See http://www.starlingtalk.com/petstarlings.htm and http://www.starlingcentral.net/petstarlings.htm, http://www.starlings.info/ , etc... --Kurt Shaped Box (talk) 01:43, 31 December 2012 (UTC)

 * @Cwmhiraeth, lol, sounds excellent to me. I assume you got the pdf, let me know if any problems
 * @Casliber, the book sounds good, I've got a book on naturalised birds but only for Britain. The suggested reorganisation of introductions makes sense to me, subject to Cwmhiraeth's agreement
 * I agree. Cwmhiraeth (talk) 11:02, 1 January 2013 (UTC)
 * @Kurt, we are still building the article, so apart from adding parasites, we haven't really checked yet what else is needed. The current "In culture" text largely concerns tame birds and would lead naturally into pets assuming that we can find FA standard sources (haven't checked yours yet). Currently we are still trying to sort out the existing material, but I'm sure there's enough out there to justify the addition.  Jimfbleak -  talk to me?  07:42, 31 December 2012 (UTC)
 * And a happy new year to all  Jimfbleak -  talk to me?  11:37, 31 December 2012 (UTC)
 * Under "parasites" I've also included a couple of diseases that affect starlings. They have also been implicated in the US in spreading diseases to farm animals, my feeling is that is best left under the Introductions. What about histoplasmosis, currently under parasites, could be in NAm though?  Jimfbleak -  talk to me?  14:17, 31 December 2012 (UTC)
 * There are currently several dating methods used in the article for the retrieval of information. I favour "Retrieved 2012-12-30." which is what results from using cite web "accessed=2012-12-30". Any views? There is quite a bit of work needed on the referencing. By the way, the subspecies table is good but on my screen the 2 subspecies images push the table down so there is a large area of blank space to the left of the images. Cwmhiraeth (talk) 11:02, 1 January 2013 (UTC)
 * So far I've not added any new web refs (I think) so I'm happy to go with you on that. Of the sections I've been working on, "Predators and parasites" is fully reffed, doesn't need much more text, "In culture" is fully reffed but needs expansion, "Taxonomy" probably has enough text. If we can't source the Fair Isle bit, we will have to dump it, at which stage I'll replace the two contentious refs.
 * I'm not seeing what you are seeing with the table. When we have a proper lead, it will push it down anyway. We need to rationalise the images at some stage, so why not remove the offending images for now, or set up a temporary gallery until the text is nearly complete and we can position them better?  Jimfbleak -  talk to me?  15:04, 1 January 2013 (UTC)
 * I find I had changed the size of the text on my screen and now that I have returned it to its original size, the images no longer cause a problem. I received the pdf file, thank you.Cwmhiraeth (talk) 18:00, 1 January 2013 (UTC)
 * I've reffed the Fair Isle stuff now, and removed the Svennson and CD-ROM refs. This leaves a couple of other sentences unreffed, but it's straightforward stuff that can doubtless be sourced to one or other of the Feare sources when we get that far. Speaking of which, the pdf mentions introductions to Fiji and Jamaica. A couple of other organisational thoughts
 * Are you OK to follow Casliber's suggestion of making introductions a subsection of Distribution and habitat, seems to make sense?
 * Yes
 * I'm inclined to put predation by humans under status, as an (unimportant) threat, but it could go under Predators. What do you think?
 * Do what you like. Are humans predators of starlings?
 * It's clear that for various reasons there are control programmes on some populations. My thinking is that it would be neater to group these altogether under Status (subsection?) especially as not all the affected areas are introductions (Azores at least). Otherwise it will look bitty with the various programmes spread through the text.
 * Let's try it. We can always change it later if we choose.
 *  Jimfbleak -  talk to me?  11:08, 2 January 2013 (UTC)
 * In the last paragraph of Predators and parasites it mentions  Histoplasma capsulatum. My more neutral source states "Although health risks from birds are often exaggerated, large populations of roosting starlings may present risks of disease to people nearby. The most serious health risks are from disease organisms growing in accumulations of starling droppings, feathers, and debris under a roost. This is most likely to occur if roosts have been active for years." I think this fungal pathogen is not choosy about what species of bird droppings provides its growth medium and would leave out the article's libellous statement entirely.
 * Well, it's reffed to Feare, so hardly a biased source. I think it's a particular problem with the starling because not only does it form huge roosts, but does so in urban areas. If you think I've expressed it badly, please tweak as you think fit. I'm a bit wary about not mentioning it, since an American reviewer might well query its absence  Jimfbleak -  talk to me?  13:32, 2 January 2013 (UTC)
 * I have added an extra paragraph to the North America section but you are welcome to remove it if you think it inappropriate. Cwmhiraeth (talk) 12:01, 2 January 2013 (UTC).
 * Looks OK to me <b style="font-family:chiller; color:red;"> Jimfbleak - </b> talk to me?  13:32, 2 January 2013 (UTC)
 * I'll make the structural changes above, and try to produce something coherent on controls <b style="font-family:chiller; color:red;"> Jimfbleak - </b> talk to me?  13:32, 2 January 2013 (UTC)
 * Do you have a view on commas? I don't care for the second comma, called an Oxford comma I believe, in such a phrase as "...A, B, and C." but am prepared to adopt it if you prefer it. Cwmhiraeth (talk) 13:34, 9 January 2013 (UTC)
 * I don't like it either. FYI, I've moved the US and WA control stuff to the new section, rewritten WA control since prev sources dead, will check US too. We need a bit on the benefits and problems of starlings, any thoughts where it should go? <b style="font-family:chiller; color:red;"> Jimfbleak - </b> talk to me?  15:33, 9 January 2013 (UTC)
 * I've taken out the pov from problems, also taken out unverified or unverifiable problems, will replace those I can find sources for. Population of birds in US is 140 million or 150 million (both RS sourced) choose one or put 140–150 with both refs? <b style="font-family:chiller; color:red;"> Jimfbleak - </b> talk to me?  13:49, 10 January 2013 (UTC)

Section break for ease of editing
I have added some statistics from BirdLife International. I cannot believe that this source was not previously used but I cannot find it among the list of references. Can I use the range map to derive the residency/migratory status of different populations? Cwmhiraeth (talk) 07:40, 12 January 2013 (UTC)
 * there's a fair bit of overlap with the IUCN source, so that's probably why. Did you notice this link on the BirdLife page, Don't know if it's useful. I can't see why you can't use the map for migration, the Western Palaearctic part (i.e. most of it) is virtually identical to that in Birds of the Western Palaearctic anyway. I read something about some NAm birds establishing migration patterns (like some Canada Geese here), not sure if it was in the pdf I sent you, I'll check later. <b style="font-family:chiller; color:red;"> Jimfbleak - </b> talk to me?  08:08, 12 January 2013 (UTC)
 * The figure of 140-150 million birds you mentioned ifor North America is half my total population of 310 million! All these figures are estimates and are made at different dates and it is unsurprising that there are inconsistencies. The 310 million figure is referenced to (Rich et al. 2004), a source I think we have not currently got. There is further information on this page. I saw the page you mention above, but all the figures are at least 10 years out of date. Cwmhiraeth (talk) 09:42, 12 January 2013 (UTC)
 * I propose that we move the "Distribution and habitat" section to immediately before "Status". Cwmhiraeth (talk) 07:36, 14 January 2013 (UTC)
 * Fine with me <b style="font-family:chiller; color:red;"> Jimfbleak - </b> talk to me?  10:26, 14 January 2013 (UTC)

Content
How are we doing in terms of content? There's far more stuff out there than we can use (at least a dozen more parasites), although there are some notable gaps — very little myth/legend except the Mabinogion. I'm happy in terms of content with the sections I've been working on, unless you spot anything important that should go in, but I've scarcely looked at Description or any of the Behaviour sections. We should be able to source anything that we need to, either from Freare, JSTOR (I've got one of the free accounts) or elsewhere.

 * I have the Introduced birds of the world book by John A. Long now - in North America it gives dates of when it reached particular states in its advancement across the continent. I am happy to add this if you both are not worried that that is going into too much detail. Casliber (talk · contribs) 12:56, 18 January 2013 (UTC)
 * You're welcome! Some more specific information on the bird's advance across America would be good. We have not yet discussed content much but have been going about improving the article piecemeal. Culture/myth/legend is not my favourite pastime but I did add a bit about Mozart! Cwmhiraeth (talk) 14:43, 18 January 2013 (UTC)
 * @Cas, I think that's fine as long as it a selection and not every state. I imagine something like "reached Florida in ... California in ... Washington in ..." would fit the bill, but I'll leave that to your discretion. <b style="font-family:chiller; color:red;"> Jimfbleak - </b> talk to me?  16:02, 18 January 2013 (UTC)
 * @Cwmhiraeth, yes, it needed that to give a bit more substance to that section. I'm surprise in a way that there isn't more starling legend, given the bucketfuls for ravens, robins and wrens, but my searches keep taking me back back to Branwen <b style="font-family:chiller; color:red;"> Jimfbleak - </b> talk to me?  16:02, 18 January 2013 (UTC)

Images
I've removed some repetitive or low quality images, added a mite and a tune, removed forced image sizes and right-aligned for now. feel free to revert anything you don't like. There's room for more images, nice if they are not all starlings (: <b style="font-family:chiller; color:red;"> Jimfbleak - </b> talk to me?  14:10, 19 January 2013 (UTC)
 * I've added "upright" to the two subspecies image parameters and they now look better on my screen. Cwmhiraeth (talk) 06:34, 20 January 2013 (UTC)

 * Could we have another image under taxonomy instead of duplicating the taxobox one? Plenty of unused photos tom go around, so it feels like a waste. FunkMonk (talk) 13:17, 3 May 2015 (UTC)

Introductions
Did the birds arriving by ship in South America do so by accident or by intent? ie, did they travel there of their own accord or were they introduced? Cwmhiraeth (talk) 06:34, 20 January 2013 (UTC)
 * That's a good question. I've added a source which says "introduced", which deals with that specific issue, but I'm not sure if the sources actually always distinguish between deliberate introduction (like the US) and ship-borne self-introduction. The sources aren't always clear either. One made the obviously incorrect claim that starlings colonised Florida from the Bahamas, contradicting all other sources, and there is some vagueness about Jamaica. The birds arrived by ship, but some sources call this an introduction, others natural colonisation.

 * The article is massively overlinked, but no point running the script until we are nearly finished. We do need to decide at some stage whether to link countries or not. My preference is to follow FAC practice and not link, but I don't much mind either way <b style="font-family:chiller; color:red;"> Jimfbleak - </b> talk to me?  08:09, 20 January 2013 (UTC)
 * The trouble with linking place names is to know what limits to set. Faeroe Islands, Merseyside, Northern Ireland, Bahamas, Low Countries, Iberian Peninsula ... etc. All or none? Cwmhiraeth (talk) 12:07, 20 January 2013 (UTC)
 * My normal practice is not to link countries or continents, but to link everything else. I've sometimes deviated from that for articles like Brazza's Martin, where the countries are all unfamiliar to Brits and Yanks, so I'm not a purist. In your list, I'd link all but Bahamas, which is a sovereign country. As long as we do the same, I don't think it matters. We have to link items that aren't countries or continents, so the only issue is whether to link those too (comments at FAC go both ways) <b style="font-family:chiller; color:red;"> Jimfbleak  - </b> talk to me?  13:57, 21 January 2013 (UTC)

Formatting references
In the small number of FACs that I have been involved in, great emphasis seems to be placed on correctly formatted references. I have just been reformatting references from different sections including Predators and Parasites. I had thought I was dealing with "prehistoric" references but I now realise that you are creating references in a format that I had been told not to use. In particular, I was told that the use of "coauthors" was deprecated and should be replaced by "last1, first1, last2, first2" etc. I also noticed you were not adding dois, jstor etc. Perhaps you intended to do it later? Cwmhiraeth (talk) 11:10, 21 January 2013 (UTC)
 * I wondered what was going on. All I can say is that I've used the coauthor parameter for 40+ FACs, and no one has ever commented on that usage. It's important that the references look consistent, but afaik the only prohibition is mixing cite/citation template sets. It's perfectly acceptable not to use templates at all, but that makes errors and inconsistencies more likely. If you look at the first text here, you'll see why I prefer the simpler method. However, it's not a big deal, so just let me know if you want me to use your preferred style in future. I think the references looks identical either way.
 * doi — if I see a doi on the page I'm consulting, I put it in, otherwise I wait until I'm pretty well finished and run the citation bot to add any relevant doi, pmid or whatever.
 * I have to admit I'm not sure how the jstor parameter works. Do I just put jstor = followed by the whole of the url from the jstor page? I'm not sure the bot does this.
 * I had a run through the refs and cited texts myself yesterday, I think that they are consistently formatted, but I was going to ask you to take a look anyway, so you have anticipated that request. One pair of eyes is rarely sufficient to make it Nikkimaria-proof
 * I think I said that I'd be on holiday soon, that will be for three weeks from 30th, snow at Heathrow permitting.
 * Apropos of nothing, five waxwings in the very snowy garden today!

<b style="font-family:chiller; color:red;"> Jimfbleak - </b> talk to me?  13:48, 21 January 2013 (UTC)
 * I didn't know there was a clever bot that could add dois etc. As for the other thing, if someone says that something should be done one way rather than another, I usually accept it because I know I am relatively inexperienced and they are likely to be right. I will carry on looking at the refs in detail.
 * How nice to see waxwings. I saw a gathering of hundreds of starlings today, the biggest "murmuration" I had seen all winter. And I had a near miss when driving and glancing sidewards at a flock of about 100 geese. Bird watching and driving don't really mix. Cwmhiraeth (talk) 18:19, 21 January 2013 (UTC)
 * Tell me about it! Yet I can't resist a peek. I've churned up "Status" a bit. One of the references was to Holloway's book which lacked a page range, and I guess neither of us is likely to have. It's a bird history of Britain, so the text was very UK-centric. I've also made it more chronological, but it still needs some work I think <b style="font-family:chiller; color:red;"> Jimfbleak - </b> talk to me?  18:36, 21 January 2013 (UTC)

The author for [36] should perhaps read differently - Hawkins, P, Morton, DB, Cameron, D, Cuthill, I, Francis, R, Freire, R, Gosler, A, Healy, S, Hudson, A, Inglis, I, Kirkwood, J, Lawton, M, Monaghan, P, Sherwin, C, and Townsend, P. See http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/9338/ and http://www.bristol.ac.uk/biology/research/behaviour/centre/publications.html Shyamal (talk) 14:02, 29 January 2013 (UTC)
 * Thank you for that suggestion. Having input all the 16 author names into the template, I see it has substituted "et al" for the last 8! Cwmhiraeth (talk) 15:36, 29 January 2013 (UTC)
 * I was about to say that your labour was not entirely wasted because it might help users of Zotero or other bibliographic tools - and then discovered that support for these scholarly tools has just been knocked out... Shyamal (talk) 03:24, 30 January 2013 (UTC)
 * I don't think coauthors = has a limit, see first text here (: <b style="font-family:chiller; color:red;"> Jimfbleak  - </b> talk to me?  07:06, 30 January 2013 (UTC)

Iris colour differences between the sexes
http://blx1.bto.org/pdf/ringmigration/22_4/smith.pdf mentions that there is an iris colour difference which separated the sexes in about 98% of studied cases. The article however does not describe the specific colour difference though, perhaps it is available in the references mentioned (not available to me) Shyamal (talk) 06:54, 28 January 2013 (UTC)
 * thanks for that, I can access the BB paper (fwiw, all except the last few years of BB are free to read on line anyway) <b style="font-family:chiller; color:red;"> Jimfbleak - </b> talk to me?  14:50, 28 January 2013 (UTC)

Pokemon
Maybe in the Science and culture section you can add that there are two fictional "species" of Pokemon: Starly and Staravia, named "Starling Pokemon".--MJ for U (talk) 18:01, 4 March 2013 (UTC)

List of the world's 100 worst invasive species
The Common Starling has been included in the IUCN List of the world's 100 worst invasive species. Possibly something worth mentioning in this article's Benefits and problems section? -- Arjuno (talk 14:42, 25 April 2013 (UTC)
 * We went to quite a lot of trouble to get a semblance of balance to this section, but perhaps it could go at the end of the second para of the section. Since this is an FA, you will need a proper ref as well as the wikilink <b style="font-family:chiller; color:red;"> Jimfbleak - </b> talk to me?  14:57, 25 April 2013 (UTC)
 * Done -- Arjuno (talk 15:32, 25 April 2013 (UTC)

File:Toulouse - Sturnus vulgaris - 2012-02-26 - 3.jpg to appear as POTD
Hello! This is a note to let the editors of this article know that File:Toulouse - Sturnus vulgaris - 2012-02-26 - 3.jpg will be appearing as picture of the day on April 17, 2015. You can view and edit the POTD blurb at Template:POTD/2015-04-17. If this article needs any attention or maintenance, it would be preferable if that could be done before its appearance on the Main Page. Thanks! — Crisco 1492 (talk) 01:19, 30 March 2015 (UTC)

TFAR
Today's featured article/requests/Common starling, --Gerda Arendt (talk) 12:31, 25 April 2015 (UTC)

Cleanliness of nest
The breeding section states that after 6 days the adults cease removing droppings. This seems to be incompatible with the statement at the end of the paragraph that "the nest is kept clean and the chicks' faecal sacs are removed by the adults." I'm confused. Are the faecal sacs only removed for the first 6 days? If so then the faecal sacs need to be mentioned earlier. Aa77zz (talk) 21:11, 12 May 2015 (UTC)
 * I don't know about starlings but in some species once the chicks are old enough they dump over the side of the nest and the parent's don't need to remove the faecal sac. Stub Mandrel (talk) 18:33, 24 July 2016 (UTC)

mentioning central america in section about north amerca
Why do people keep reverting the sentence mentioning central america. I changed it to north american border because its confusing to mention central america in a section about north america. If you want to mention central america write a seperate article or make it clear that you mean the border if its under north america. It is misleading. 209.6.197.188 (talk) 02:39, 19 May 2015 (UTC)

 * I've reverted your good faith edit. The continent of North America includes all of central America and the Caribbean, although many Americans like to think it's only the English speaking bits that count <b style="font-family:chiller;color:red">Jimfbleak</b> - talk to me?  04:56, 19 May 2015 (UTC)

How to align images?
I am a new editor. The suggestion is the images under subspecies is in one column, how can you align the images horizontally, so that the images don't take up so much space. I am sure this is an easy fix, just that I don't really know, — Preceding unsigned comment added by Leohay (talk • contribs) 00:28, 28 May 2015 (UTC)

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Name?
Isn't the official name, as standardized by the AOU and ABA, European Starling?Aythya affinis (talk) 14:55, 12 November 2021 (UTC)
 * Wikipedia policy is not to put much stock in "official" names, instead using names that are in common usage. For birds, article titles mostly are standardised to the IOC bird list (which uses Common Starling) although there are plenty of exceptions. For this species, the English name "European Starling" is mostly used in North America whereas "Common Starling" is used in Australia, New Zealand and Europe. On a quick search I'm not totally sure what name is used in South Africa or by English-speakers in South America. So long story short either name is acceptable on Wikipedia and there is no particular reason to change from the existing "Common Starling" for this article title.Somatochlora (talk) 17:22, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

Distribution map innaccurate?
The map seems to indicate distribution for breeding population (Northern hemisphere). Internet sources tell that non-breeding distribution extends to coasts in Northern China, occasionally Japan, in the east, and further south. 87.94.136.64 (talk) 16:35, 19 March 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Common starling


text:
Gerhard (cartoonist)

Gerhard is the professional name of a Canadian artist known for the elaborately detailed background illustrations in the comics series Cerebus the Aardvark.

Biography
Gerhard was born on April 14, 1959, in Edmonton. His association with Dave Sim's Cerebus began with issue #65 (August 1984), and continued through its conclusion in issue #300, in March, 2004. The series was written by Dave Sim, who also drew the foreground figures, and had worked on the self-published series largely solo for the first 64 issues. Gerhard jokingly described his job saying that he "draws tables and chairs behind an aardvark". He is also fond of photography and sailing. Later issues of the comic book have covers based on his scenic photos.

Three years after finishing his work on Cerebus, Gerhard ended his professional and personal relationship with Dave Sim. Subsequently, Sim has been in the process of purchasing Gerhard's share of Aardvark-Vanaheim.

Although most associated with Cerebus, Gerhard has produced works for other publications, although mostly with Sim. In September 1994, however, he worked with Stephen R. Bissette on the cover to Bissette's Tyrant #1, and coloured Sim's back cover for Oni Press' Free Speeches #1 (August 1998).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Gerhard (cartoonist)


text:
Musk duck

The musk duck (Biziura lobata) is a highly aquatic, stiff-tailed duck native to southern Australia. It is the only living member of the genus Biziura. An extinct relative, the New Zealand musk duck or de Lautour's duck (B. delautouri), once occurred on New Zealand, but is only known from prehistoric subfossil bones. It was about 8% longer than the living species, with a particularly large head.

This animal derives its common name from the peculiar musky odour it emanates during the breeding season. Musk ducks are moderately common through the Murray-Darling and Cooper Creek basins, and in the wetter, fertile areas in the south of the continent: the southwest corner of Western Australia, Victoria, and Tasmania.

Description
Adult males are 60 to 70 cm long and have a distinctive large, leathery lobe underneath the bill; females are 47 to 55 cm long and unadorned. Their drab dark grey-brown, slightly pin-striped plumage is inconspicuous and does not differ between the sexes. This species weighs an average of 2398 g in males and 1551 g in females, with the smallest females weighing only 993 g and the largest males weighing up to 3170 g. On average, they are the second-heaviest diving duck in the world after the common eider, with male musk ducks actually being slightly heavier than male common eiders, but female eiders being rather larger than female musk ducks due to that species' lesser size sexual dimorphism. Musk ducks float very low in the water, almost like a cormorant, and the large, webbed feet are well back on the body. The ducklings are covered in dark brown down.

In its native range, the fanned tail is distinctive, allowing to distinguish this species from the freckled duck (Stictonetta naevosa) which has similar size, colouration, and habits. The blue-billed duck (Oxyura australis) has a similarly shaped tail, but the main colour of its males in breeding plumage is a much richer chestnut brown. Females and males in nonbreeding plumage are very similar, however, and if one is not intimately familiar with the slight differences in behaviour, they cannot be told apart from female musk ducks at a distance. Male musk ducks in the breeding season are usually unmistakable due to the large bill lobe.

Systematics
The relationships of this peculiar species are quite enigmatic. It is traditionally included with the stiff-tailed duck subfamily Oxyurinae, but appears to be only distantly related to the genus Oxyura, and its peculiar apomorphies make it difficult to place. Its relationship with the equally strange pink-eared ducks (Malacorhynchus) is unresolved, but seems to be quite close, and it seems to be part of an ancient Gondwanan radiation of Anatidae. As such, it is fairly closely related to the stiff-tailed ducks proper, but it seems not quite as closely related as formerly believed, with many similarities due to convergent evolution.

Ecology and status
This species prefers deep, still lakes and wetlands with areas of both open water and reed beds. They seldom emerge from the water and are awkward on dry land. They rarely fly: take off is made with difficulty, and landing is a clumsy, low-angled affair with no attempt to lower the feet. However, at need musk ducks fly swiftly and for long distances, with rapid, shallow wing beats.

In the water, musk ducks display an effortless agility, twisting and turning on the surface with both feet and tail. In general, musk ducks remain in the water all day long, alternately loafing and feeding energetically, though they sometimes emerge to sit on a log or on dry land for a while. They stay on the water at night, sleeping well out from land with the head tucked into the body or under a wing.

Musk ducks are very much at home below the surface, slipping under head-first with barely a ripple, and staying submerged for as long as a minute at a time, often resurfacing only for a few moments before diving again. They dive to escape predators or unwanted company, and to search for food, typically in fairly deep water. They can descend to at least 6 m (about 20 ft). The primary diet items are water beetles, yabbies, freshwater snails and shellfish, and the like, supplemented with a variety of aquatic plants and a few fish.

When not breeding, adults are generally solitary. Adult males hold and defend territories, excluding other males and quite often females, too. Younger birds – juveniles and unmated adults – form flocks on larger bodies of water at some times of year. It is not known at what age they reach sexual maturity in the wild, but it may take several years. They are a long-lived species and are still capable of breeding when 20 years old or more.

Reproduction
The musk duck breeding season varies with rainfall and water levels, but is typically between July and January, with the greatest number of clutches laid in September or October, the austral spring. Despite a number of more general studies, little is known about musk duck breeding. During breeding season, they give off the musky odour from which the species derives its common name. Also, in the season males advertise themselves loudly with a repetitive sequence of sounds: first, a ker-plonk splash made with the feet on the surface of the water; then two soft, sharp cuc cuc calls; then a loud whistle and a deep grunt. This sequence can be started at any time of day or night, with or without an associated visual display, and repeated every 4 or 5 seconds for as long as half an hour at a time. Although male musk ducks have a large leathery lobe below the bill and this swells during the breeding season, it is not connected to the vocal cavities and appears to be purely for visual purposes.

Mating is thought to be promiscuous, quite possibly on a lek system like that of the kākāpō (a very large, flightless parrot found only in New Zealand), but this remains uncertain. The male plays no part in building the nest or raising the young.

Females select a secluded location for nesting, usually in tall reeds well away from land and protected by deep water, or under the cover of overhanging shrubbery, but sometimes in a range of innovative places, such as on a stump, in a hollow log, or even under an upturned boat. The nest is a simple platform of trampled plant material with a slight cup, lined with fine plant matter and, after the eggs are laid, plenty of down. She seems to be unable to carry nest material and must rely on whatever is within reach. With the nest complete, she pulls reeds down from overhead to make a canopy, hiding it from view. When leaving the nest to feed, she slips quietly into the water and submerges, not surfacing until she is well away from it.

Clutch size is unknown: as many as 10 eggs have been counted in a nest, but it seems likely that this is the result of dump nesting: three or four eggs are considered more likely. In most cases, only one duckling survives, sometimes two. They are able to swim and dive within a few days, after which they probably leave the nest. Young stay close to the mother for several months at least, sometimes riding on her back to begin with. They can peck at food items on the surface and dive a little while still quite small, but the mother continues to provide the bulk of their food until they are almost full-grown.

Conservation status
Musk ducks are sometimes shot by hunters, but are little prized, not being considered good eating. Wholesale clearing and draining of wetlands has impacted on their numbers, as has the widespread rise in Australian water salinity levels, but the species is not presently considered to be in danger.

1987 speech mimicry tape rediscovered
In September 2021, reports circulated about a rediscovered tape that originally was recorded in 1987 of a musk duck named Ripper at Tidbinbilla Nature Reserve in the Australian Capital Territory, who appeared to be the first duck recorded to mimic human speech. Reportedly, the recording demonstrates the duck saying "you bloody fool", possibly repeating a catchphrase from one of the caretakers of the reserve. Although other bird species are capable of mimicking human speech, no other duck species is reported to have that capability.

Subspecies
The musk duck has two recognized subspecies. Biziura lobata menziesi, commonly referred to as the eastern musk duck, has a range from South Australia extending to the southern reaches of Queensland, through most of New South Wales and Victoria, and finally reaching as far south as Tasmania. The other subspecies is Biziura lobata lobata, commonly referred to as the western musk duck. Its range is the south-west of Western Australia.

title: Musk duck


text:
Stairs

Stairs are a structure designed to bridge a large vertical distance between lower and higher levels by dividing it into smaller vertical distances. This is achieved as a diagonal series of horizontal platforms called steps which enable passage to the other level by stepping from one to another step in turn. Steps are very typically rectangular. Stairs may be straight, round, or may consist of two or more straight pieces connected at angles.

Types of stairs include staircases (also called stairways) and escalators. Some alternatives to stairs are elevators (also called lifts), stairlifts, inclined moving walkways, ladders, and ramps. A stairwell is a vertical shaft or opening that contains a staircase. A flight (of stairs) is an inclined part of a staircase consisting of steps (and their lateral supports if supports are separate from steps).

History
This is an excerpt from Staircase.

The concept of stairs is believed to be 8000 years old, and are one of the oldest structures in architectural history. The oldest example of spiral stairs dates back to the 400s BC. Medieval architecture saw experimentation with many different shapes, and the Renaissance even more so with varied designs.

Components and terms
A stair, or a stairstep, is one step in a flight of stairs. In buildings, stairs is a term applied to a complete flight of steps between two floors. A stair flight is a run of stairs or steps between landings. A staircase or stairway is one or more flights of stairs leading from one floor to another, and includes landings, newel posts, handrails, balustrades and additional parts. A stairwell is a compartment extending vertically through a building in which stairs are placed. A stair hall is the stairs, landings, hallways, or other portions of the public hall through which it is necessary to pass when going from the entrance floor to the other floors of a building. Box stairs are stairs built between walls, usually with no support except the wall strings.

Stairs may be in a "straight run", leading from one floor to another without a turn or change in direction. Stairs may change direction, commonly by two straight flights connected at a 90° angle landing. Stairs may also return onto themselves with 180° angle landings at each end of straight flights forming a vertical stairway commonly used in multistory and highrise buildings. Many variations of geometrical stairs may be formed of circular, elliptical and irregular constructions.

Stairs may be a required component of egress (exit) paths from structures and buildings. Stairs are also provided for convenience to access floors, roofs, levels, and walking surfaces not accessible by other means.

"Stairway" is also a common metaphor for achievement or loss of a position in the society, or as a metaphor of hierarchy (e.g. Jacob's Ladder, Battleship Potemkin).

Steps
Each step is composed of a tread and a riser. Some treads may include a nosing.
 * Tread: The part of the stairway that is stepped on. It is constructed to the same specifications (thickness) as any other flooring. The tread "depth" is measured from the back of one tread to the back of the next. The "width" is measured from one side to the other.
 * Riser: The near-vertical element in a set of stairs, forming the space between one step and the next. It is sometimes slightly inclined from the vertical so that its top is closer than its base to the person climbing the stairs. If a physical riser is not present, the design is described as "open riser".
 * Nosing: An edge part of the tread that protrudes over the riser beneath. If it is present, this means that, measured horizontally, the total "run" length of the stairs is not simply the sum of the tread lengths, as the treads overlap each other. Many building codes require stair nosings for commercial, industrial, or municipal stairs. They provide additional length to the tread without changing the pitch of the stairs.
 * Starting or feature tread: Where stairs are open on one or both sides, the first step above the lower floor or landing may be wider than the other steps and rounded. When the starting step is rounded, the balusters typically are arranged in a true spiral around the circumference of the rounded portion, and the handrail has a flat spiral called a "volute" that connects the tops of the balusters. Besides the cosmetic appeal, starting steps allow the balusters to form a wider, more stable base for the end of the handrail. Handrails that simply end at a post at the foot of the stairs can be less sturdy, even with a thick post. A double-ended feature tread can be used when both sides of the stairs are open. There are a number of different styles and uses of feature tread.
 * Stringer board, stringer, or sometimes just string: The structural member that supports the treads and risers in standard staircases. There are typically three stringers, one on either side and one in the center, with more added as necessary for wider spans. Side stringers are sometimes dadoed to receive risers and treads for increased support. Stringers on open-sided stairs are called "cut stringers".
 * Tread rise: The distance from the top of one tread to the top of the next tread.
 * Total rise: The distance the flight of stairs raises vertically between two finished floor levels.
 * Winders: Winders are steps that are narrower on one side than the other. They are used to change the direction of the stairs without landings. A series of winders form a circular or helical stairway. When three steps are used to turn a 90° corner, the middle step is called a kite winder as a kite-shaped quadrilateral.
 * Trim: Various moldings are used to decorate and in some instances support stairway elements. Scotia or quarter-round are typically placed beneath the nosing to support its overhang.
 * Curtail step: A decorative step at the bottom of a staircase that usually houses the volute and volute newel turning for a continuous handrail. The curtail tread will follow the flow of the volute.

Handrails
The balustrade is the system of railings and balusters that prevents people from falling over the edge.
 * Banister, railing, or handrail: The angled member for handholding, as distinguished from the vertical balusters which hold it up for stairs that are open on one side. Railings are often present on both sides of stairs, but can sometimes be only on one side or absent altogether. On wide staircases, there can be one or more railings between the two sides. The term "banister" is sometimes used to mean just the handrail, sometimes the handrail and the balusters, or sometimes just the balusters.
 * Volute: A handrail end element for the bullnose step that curves inward like a spiral. A volute is said to be right or left-handed depending on which side of the stairs the handrail is as one faces up the stairs.
 * Turnout: Instead of a complete spiral volute, a turnout deviates from the normal handrail center line away from the flight to give a wider opening as one enters the staircase, The turnout is usually set over a newel post to give added stability to the handrail.
 * Gooseneck: The vertical handrail that joins a sloped handrail to a higher handrail on the balcony or landing is a gooseneck.
 * Rosette: Where the handrail ends in the wall and a half-newel is not used, it may be trimmed by a rosette.
 * Easings: Wall handrails are mounted directly onto the wall with wall brackets. At the bottom of the stairs, such railings flare to a horizontal railing and this horizontal portion is called a "starting easing". At the top of the stairs, the horizontal portion of the railing is called an "over easing".
 * Core rail: Wood handrails often have a metal core to provide extra strength and stiffness, especially when the rail has to curve against the grain of the wood. The archaic term for the metal core is "core rail".
 * Baluster: A term for the vertical posts that hold up the handrail. Sometimes simply called guards or spindles. Treads often require two balusters. The second baluster is closer to the riser and is taller than the first. The extra height in the second baluster is typically in the middle between decorative elements on the baluster. That way the bottom decorative elements are aligned with the tread and the top elements are aligned with the railing angle.
 * Newel: A large baluster or post used to anchor the handrail. Since it is a structural element, it extends below the floor and subfloor to the bottom of the floor joists and is bolted right to the floor joist. A half-newel may be used where a railing ends in the wall. Visually, it looks like half the newel is embedded in the wall. For open landings, a newel may extend below the landing for a decorative newel drop.
 * Finial: A decorative cap to the top of a newel post, particularly at the end of the balustrade.
 * Baserail, or shoerail: For systems where the baluster does not start at the treads, they go to a baserail. This allows for identical balusters, avoiding the second baluster problem.
 * Fillet: A decorative filler piece on the floor between balusters on a balcony railing.

Handrails may be continuous (sometimes called over-the-post) or post-to-post (or more accurately newel-to-newel). For continuous handrails on long balconies, there may be multiple newels and tandem caps to cover the newels. At corners, there are quarter-turn caps. For post-to-post systems, the newels project above the handrails.

Another, more classical, form of handrailing that is still in use is the tangent method. A variant of the cylindric method of layout, it allows for continuous climbing and twisting rails and easings. It was defined from principles set down by architect Peter Nicholson in the 18th century.

Other terms

 * Flight: Any uninterrupted series of steps between floors or levels.
 * Landing, or platform: A landing is the area of a floor near the top or bottom step of a stair. An intermediate landing is a small platform that is built as part of stairs between main floor levels and is typically used to allow the stairs to change directions, or to allow the user a rest. A half landing, or half-pace, is where a 180° change in direction is made, and a quarter landing is where a 90° change in direction is made (on an intermediate landing). As intermediate landings consume floor space, they can be expensive to build. However, changing the direction of the stairs allows stairs to fit where they would not otherwise, or provides privacy to the upper level as visitors downstairs cannot simply look up the stairs to the upper level due to the change in direction. The word 'landing' is also commonly used for a general corridor in any of the floors above the ground floor of a building, even if that corridor is located well away from a staircase.
 * Apron: This is a wooden fascia board used to cover up trimmers and joists exposed by stairwell openings. The apron may be moulded or plain, and is intended to give the staircase a cleaner look by cloaking the side view.
 * Balcony: For stairs with an open concept upper floor or landing, the upper floor is functionally a balcony. For a straight flight of stairs, the balcony may be long enough to require multiple newels to support the length of railing.
 * Floating stairs: A flight of stairs is said to be "floating" if there is nothing underneath. The risers are typically missing as well to emphasize the open effect, and create a functional feature suspended in midair. There may be only one stringer or the stringers otherwise minimized. Where building codes allow, there may not even be handrails.
 * Mobile safety steps: Can be used as temporary, safe replacements for many types of stairs
 * Runner: Carpeting that runs down the middle of the stairs. Runners may be directly stapled or nailed to the stairs, or may be secured by a specialized bar, known as a stair rod, that holds the carpet in place where the tread meets the riser.
 * Spandrel: If there is not another flight of stairs immediately underneath, the triangular space underneath the stairs is called a "spandrel". It is frequently used as a closet.
 * Staircase: This term is often reserved for the stairs themselves: the steps, railings and landings; though often it is used interchangeably with "stairs" and "stairway". In the UK, however, the term "staircase" denotes what in the US is called "stairway", but usually includes the casing – the walls, banisters and underside of the stairs or roof above.
 * Stairway: This primarily American term is often reserved for the entire stairwell and staircase in combination; though often it is used interchangeably with "stairs" and "staircase".
 * Stairwell: The spatial opening, usually a vertical shaft, containing an indoor stairway; by extension, it is often used to include the stairs it contains.
 * Staircase tower: A tower attached to, or incorporated into, a building that contains stairs linking the various floors.

Dimensions
The dimensions of a stair, in particular the rise height and going of the steps, should remain the same along the stairs.

The following stair dimensions are important:
 * The rise height or rise of each step is measured from the top of one tread to the next. It is not the physical height of the riser; the latter excludes the thickness of the tread. A person using the stairs would move this distance vertically for each step taken.
 * The tread depth of a step is measured from the edge of the nosing to the vertical riser; if the steps have no nosing, it is the same as the going; otherwise it is the going plus the extent of one nosing.
 * The going of a step is measured from the edge of the nosing to the edge of nosing in plan view. A person using the stairs would move this distance forward with each step they take.
 * To avoid confusion, the number of steps in a set of stairs is always the number of risers, not the number of treads.
 * The total run or total going of the stairs is the horizontal distance from the first riser to the last riser. It is often not simply the sum of the individual tread lengths due to the nosing overlapping between treads. If there are N steps, the total run equals N-1 times the going: the tread of the first step is part of a landing.
 * The total rise of the stairs is the height between floors (or landings) that the flight of stairs is spanning. If there are N steps, the total rise equals N times the rise of each step.
 * The slope or pitch of the stairs is the ratio between the rise and the going (not the tread depth, due to the nosing). It is sometimes called the rake of the stairs. The pitch line is the imaginary line along the tip of the nosing of the treads. In the UK, stair pitch is the angle the pitch line makes with the horizontal, measured in degrees. The value of the slope, as a ratio, is then the tangent of the pitch angle.
 * Headroom is the height above the nosing of a tread to the ceiling above it.
 * Walkline – for curved stairs, the inner radius of the curve may result in very narrow treads. The "walkline" is the imaginary line some distance away from the inner edge on which people are expected to walk. The building code will specify the distance. Building codes will then specify the minimum tread size at the walkline.

Forms
Stairs can take a large number of forms, combining straight runs, winders, and landings.

The simplest form is the straight flight of stairs, with neither winders nor landings. These types of stairs were commonly used in traditional homes, as they are relatively easy to build and only need to be connected at the top and bottom. However, many modern architects may not choose straight flights of stairs because:
 * the upstairs is directly visible from the bottom of a straight flight of stairs
 * it is potentially more dangerous in that a fall is not interrupted until the bottom of the stairs
 * a straight flight requires enough straight length for the entire run of the stairs

Another form of a straight staircase is the "space saver staircase", also known as "paddle stairs" or "alternating tread staircases". These designs can be used for a steeper rise, but they can only be used in certain circumstances, and must comply with regulations.

However, a basic straight flight of stairs is easier to design and construct than one with landings or winders. The rhythm of stepping is not interrupted in a straight run, which may offset an increased fall risk by helping to prevent a misstep in the first place. However, many long straight runs of stairs will require landings or winders to comply with safety standards in building regulations.

Straight stairs can have a mid-landing incorporated, but it is probably more common to see stairs that use a landing or winder to produce a bend in the stairs. A straight flight with a mid-landing will require a lot of straight length, and may be more commonly found in large commercial buildings. L-shaped stairways have one landing and usually a change in direction by 90°. U-shaped stairs may employ a single wider landing for a change in direction of 180°, or two landings for two changes in direction of 90° each. A Z-shaped staircase incorporates two opposite 90° turns, creating a shape similar to that of the letter "Z" if seen from above. The use of landings and a possible change of direction have the following effects:
 * The upstairs is not directly visible from the bottom of the stairs, which can provide more privacy for the upper floor
 * A fall can be halted at the landing point, reducing the total distance and potential injury
 * Though the landings consume more total floor space, there is no requirement for a single lengthy run, allowing more flexible floorplan designs
 * For larger stairs, particularly in exterior applications, a landing can provide a place for pedestrians to rest their legs

Other forms include stairs with winders that curve or bend at an acute angle, three flights of stairs that join at a landing to form a T-shape, and stairs with balconies and complex designs.

A "mono string" staircase is a term used for a staircase with treads arranged along a single steel beam. A "double string" staircase has two steel beams, one on either side, and treads spanning between.

Terminology
The term "helical stair" has many synonyms: "The helical stair is also called the spiral stair, winding stair, circular stair, elliptical stair, oval stair, geometric stair, vis, vice, vis de Saint Gilles, St. Gilles screw, belfry stair, turret stair, caracole, turnpike, cochlea, cockle, corkscrew, and ascensorium. Helical is possibly the least poetic but also the most accurate generic title."

The term "spiral" has a more narrow definition in a mathematical context, as a curve which lies in a single plane and moves towards or away from a central point, with a continuously changing radius. The mathematical term for the 3-dimensional curve traced where the locus progresses at a fixed radius from a fixed line while moving in a circular motion around it is a "helix". Since the very purpose of a stairway is to change elevation, it is inherently a 3-dimensional path.

Loose everyday usage conflates the terms helical and spiral, but the vast majority of circular stairs are actually helical. True spiral staircases would be nonfunctional flat structures, although functional hybrid helical spiral staircases can be constructed. This article attempts to preferentially use the terms "helix" and "helical" to describe circular stairways more clearly and precisely, while reserving the term "spiral" for a curve restricted to a flat plane.

Helical stairs, sometimes referred to in architectural descriptions as vice, wind around a newel (also called the "central pole"). The presence or absence of a central pole or newel does not affect the overall terminology applied to the design of the structure. In Scottish architecture, helical stairs are commonly known as a turnpike stair.

Helical stairs typically have a handrail along the outer periphery only, and on the inner side may have just a central pole. A "squared helical" stair fills a square stairwell and expands the steps and railing to a square, resulting in unequal steps (wider and longer where they extend into a corner of the square). A "pure helix" fills a circular stairwell, and has multiple steps and handrail elements which are identical and positioned screw-symmetrically.

Helical stairs have a handedness or chirality, analogous to the handedness of screw threads, either right-handed or left-handed helical shapes. Ascending a right-handed helix rises counter-clockwise, while ascending a left-handed helix rises clockwise (both as viewed from above).

Geometry
A fundamental advantage of helical stairs is that they can be very compact, fitting into very narrow spaces and occupying a small footprint. For this reason, they can often be found in ships and submarines, industrial installations, small loft apartments, and other locations where floorspace is scarce. However, this compactness can come at the expense of requiring great craftsmanship and care to produce a safe and effective structure. By contrast, grand helical stairs occupying wide sweeps of space can also be built, to showcase luxurious funding and elegant taste. Architects have used the twisting curvilinear shape as an embellishment, either within or outside of their buildings.

Helical stairs have the disadvantage of being very steep if they are tight (small radius) or are otherwise not supported by a center column. The cylindrical spaces they occupy can have a narrow or wide diameter:
 * The wider the helix, the more steps can be accommodated per revolution around the central axis. Therefore, if the helix is large in diameter, due to having a central support column that is strong (and large in diameter) with a special handrail that helps to distribute the load, each step may be longer and therefore the rise between each step may be smaller (equal to that of regular steps). Otherwise, the circumference of the circle at the walk line will be so small that it will be impossible to maintain a normal tread depth and a normal rise height without compromising headroom before reaching the upper floor.
 * A small-diameter helix can still have wider treads near the central axis, by making the treads "dance". The narrow end of each tapering wedge-shaped tread is widened, and installed to overlap the adjacent treads above and below.
 * To maintain headroom, some helical stairs with a very short diameter must also have a very high rise for each step. These are typically cases where the stairwell must be a small diameter to fit a narrow space, or must not have any center support by design, or may not have any perimeter support. A tight helical stair with a central pole is very space efficient in the use of floor footprint. However, this type of stairway must be used carefully, to avoid an injurious fall.

"Open well" helical or circular stairs designed by architects often do not have a central pole, but there usually is a handrail at both sides of the treads. These designs have the advantage of a more uniform tread depth when compared to a narrow helical staircase. Such stairs may also be built around an elliptical or oval footprint, or even a triangular or pentagonal core. Lacking a central pole, an open well staircase is supported at its outer periphery, or in some cases may be a completely self-supporting and free-standing structure.

An example of perimeter support is the Vatican stairwell or the Gothic stairwell. The latter stairwell is tight because of its location where the diameter must be small. Many helices, however, have sufficient width for normal-size treads (8 in) by being supported by any combination of a center pole, perimeter supports attaching to or beneath the treads, and a helical handrail. In this manner, the treads may be wide enough to accommodate low rises. In self-supporting stairs, the helix needs to be steep to allow the weight to distribute safely down the structure in the most vertical manner possible. Helical steps with center columns or perimeter support do not have this limitation. Building codes may limit the use of helical stairs to small areas or secondary usage, if their treads are not sufficiently wide or have risers taller than 9.5 in.

Double helix staircases are possible, with two independent helical stairs in the same vertical space, allowing one person to ascend and another to descend without ever meeting, if they choose different helices. For examples, the Pozzo di San Patrizio allows one-way traffic so that laden and unladen mules can ascend and descend without obstruction, while Château de Chambord, Château de Blois, and the Crédit Lyonnais headquarters ensure separation for social purposes.

Emergency exit stairways, though built with landings and straight runs of stairs, are often functionally double helices, with two separate stairs intertwined and occupying the same floor footprint. This is often in compliance with legal safety requirements to have two independent fire escape paths.

Helical stairs can be characterized by the number of turns that are made. A "quarter-turn" stair deposits the person facing 90° from the starting orientation. Likewise, there are half-turn, three-quarters-turn and full-turn stairs. A continuous helix may make many turns depending on the height. Very tall multi-turn helical staircases are usually found in old stone towers within fortifications, churches, and in lighthouses. Winders may be used in combination with straight stairs to turn the direction of the stairs. This allows for a large number of permutations in designs.

Historic uses
The earliest known helical staircases appear in Temple A in the Greek colony Selinunte, Sicily, to both sides of the cella. The temple was constructed around 480–470 BCE.

When used in Roman architecture, helical stairs were generally restricted to elite luxury structures. They were then adopted into Christian ecclesiastic architecture. During the Renaissance and Baroque periods, increasingly spectacular helical stairways were devised, first deleting walled enclosures, and then deleting a central post to leave an open well. Modern designs have trended towards minimalism, culminating in helical stairs made largely of transparent glass, or consisting only of stair treads with minimal visible support.

There is a common misconception that helical staircases in castles rose in a clockwise direction, to hinder right-handed attackers. While clockwise helical staircases are more common in castles than anti-clockwise, they were even more common in medieval structures without a military role, such as religious buildings. Studies of helical stairs in castles have concluded that "the role and position of spirals in castles ... had a much stronger domestic and status role than a military function" and that "there are sufficient examples of anticlockwise stairs in Britain and France in [the 11th and 12th centuries] to indicate that the choice must have depended both on physical convenience and architectural practicalities and there was no military ideology that demanded clockwise staircases in the cause of fighting efficiency or advantage".

Developments in manufacturing and design have also led to the introduction of kit form helical stairs. Modular, standardized steps and handrails can be bolted together to form a complete unit. These stairs can be made out of steel, timber, concrete, or a combination of materials.

Alternating tread stairs
Where there is insufficient space for the full run length of normal stairs, "alternating tread stairs" may be used (other names are "paddle stairs", "zig-zag stairs", or "double-riser stairs"). Alternating tread stairs can be designed to allow for a safe forward-facing descent of very steep stairs (however, designs with recessed treads or footholds do not have this feature). The treads are designed such that they alternate between treads for each foot: one step is wide on the left side; the next step is wide on the right side. There is insufficient space on the narrow portion of the step for the other foot to stand, hence the person must always use the correct foot on the correct step. The slope of alternating tread stairs can be as high as 65° as opposed to standard stairs, which are almost always less than 45°.

An advantage of alternating tread stairs is that people can descend while facing forward, in the direction of travel. The only other alternative in such short spaces would be a ladder, which requires a backward-facing descent. Alternating tread stairs may not be safe for small children, the elderly, or the physically challenged. Building codes typically classify them as ladders, and will only allow them where ladders are allowed, usually basement or attic utility or storage areas infrequently accessed.

The block model in the image illustrates the space efficiency gained by an alternating tread stair. The alternating stairs (3) requires one unit of space per step: the same as the half-width stairs (2), and half as much as the full-width stairs (1). Thus, the horizontal distance between steps is in this case reduced by a factor of two, reducing the size of each step. The horizontal distance between steps is reduced by a factor less than two if for construction reasons there are narrow "unused" step extensions.

These stairs often (including this example) illustrate the mathematical principle of glide plane symmetry: the mirror image with respect to the vertical center plane corresponds to a shift by one step.

Alternating tread stairs are sometimes referred to as "witches stairs", in the supposed belief that they were created during an earlier era as an attempt to repel witches who were thought to be unable to climb such stairs. Such a fanciful origin of the term has since been disproved, with experts finding no mention in any historical literature of stairs that were believed to prevent access by witches.

Alternating tread stairs have been in use since at least 1888. Today, the design is used in some loft apartments to access bedrooms or storage spaces.

Emergency exit stairs
Local building codes often dictate the number of emergency exits required for a building of a given size, including specifying a minimum number of stairwells. For any building bigger than a private house, modern codes invariably specify at least two sets of stairs, completely isolated from each other so that if one becomes impassable due to smoke or flames, the other remains usable.

The traditional way to satisfy this requirement was to construct two separate stairwell stacks, each occupying its own footprint within each floorplate. Each stairwell is internally configured into an arrangement often called a "U-return" or "return" design. The two stairwells may be constructed next to each other, separated by a fireproof partition, or optionally the two stairwells may be located at some distance from each other within the floorplan. These traditional arrangements have the advantage of being easily understood by building occupants and occasional visitors.

Some architects save floor footprint space while still meeting the exit requirement, by housing two stairwells in a "double helix" or "scissors stairs" configuration whereby two stairwells occupy the same floor footprint, but are intertwined while being separated by fireproof partitions along their entire run. However, this design deposits anybody descending the stack into alternating locations on each successive floor, and this can be very disorienting. Some building codes recommend using a color-coded stripe and signage to distinguish otherwise identical-looking stairwells from each other, and to make following a quick exit path easier.

Ergonomics and building code requirements
Ergonomically and for safety reasons, stairs must have certain dimensions so that people can comfortably use them. Building codes typically specify certain clearances so that the stairs are not too steep or narrow.

Nicolas-François Blondel in the last volume of his Cours d'architecture (1675–1683) was the first known person to establish the ergonomic relationship of tread and riser dimensions. He specified that 2 × riser + tread = step length.

It is estimated that a noticeable misstep occurs once in 7,398 uses and a minor accident on a flight of stairs occurs once in 63,000 uses. Stairs can be a hazardous obstacle for some, so some people choose to live in residences without stairs so that they are protected from injury.

Stairs are not suitable for wheelchairs and other vehicles. A stairlift is a mechanical device for lifting wheelchairs up and down stairs. For sufficiently wide stairs, a rail is mounted to the treads of the stairs, or attached to the wall. A chair is attached to the rail and the person on the chair is lifted as the chair moves along the rail.

UK requirements
(overview of Approved document K – Stairs, Ladders and Ramps)

The 2013 edition "approved document K" categorises stairs as private, utility and general access

When considering stairs for private dwellings, all the specified measurements are in millimetres.

Building regulations are required for stairs used where the difference of level is greater than 600

Steepness of stairs – rise and going

Any rise between 150 and 220 used with any going between 220 and 300

Maximum rise 220 and minimum going 220 remembering that the maximum pitch of private stairs is 42°. The normal relationship between dimensions of the rise and going is that twice the rise plus the going (2R + G) should be between 550 and 700

Construction of steps

Steps should have level treads, they may have open risers but if so treads should overlap at least 16mm. Domestic private stairs are likely to be used by children under 5 years old so the handrail ballister spacing should be constructed so that a 100mm diameter sphere cannot pass through the opening in the risers in order to prevent children from sticking their heads through them and potentially getting stuck.

Headroom

A headroom of 2000mm is adequate. Special considerations can be made for loft conversions.

Width of flights

No recommendations are given for stair widths.

Length of flights

The approved document refers to 16 risers (steps) for utility stairs and 12 for general access. There is no requirement for private stairs. In practice there will be fewer than 16 steps as 16 x 220 gives over 3500 total rise (storey height) which is way above that in a domestic situation.

Landings

Level, unobstructed landings should be provided at the top and bottom of every flight. The width and length being at least that of the width of the stairs and can include part of the floor. A door may swing across the landing at the bottom of the flight but must leave a clear space of at least 400 across the whole landing

Tapered steps

There are special rules for stairs with tapered steps as shown in the image Example of Winder Stairs above

Alternate tread stairs can be provide in space saving situations

Guarding

Flights and landings must be guarded at the sides where the drop is more than 600mm. As domestic private stairs are likely to be used by children under 5 the guarding must be constructed so that a 100mm diameter sphere cannot pass through any opening or constructed so that children will not be able to climb the guarding. The height for internal private stairs should be at least 900 mm and be able to withstand a horizontal force of 0.36|kN/m|.

US requirements
American building codes, while varying from State to State and County to County, generally specify the following parameters:
 * Minimum tread length, typically 9 in excluding the nosing for private residences. Some building codes also specify a minimum riser height, often 5 in.
 * Riser-Tread formula: Sometimes the stair parameters will be something like riser plus tread equals 17 - 18 in; another formula is 2 times riser + tread equals 24.6 in, the length of a stride. Thus a 7 in rise and a 10.6 in tread exactly meets this code. If only a 2 in rise is used then a 20.6 in tread is required. This is based on the principle that a low rise is more like walking up a gentle incline and so the natural swing of the leg will be longer.
 * Low rise stairs are very expensive in terms of the space consumed. Such low rise stairs were built into the Winchester Mystery House to accommodate the infirmities of the owner, Sarah Winchester, before the invention of the elevator. These stairways, called "Easy Risers" consist of five flights wrapped into a multi-turn arrangement with a total width equal to more than four times the individual flight width and a depth roughly equal to one flight's run plus this width. The flights have varying numbers of steps.
 * Slope: A value for the rise-to-tread ratio of 17/29 ˜ 0.59 is considered optimal; this corresponds to a pitch angle of about 30°.
 * Variance on riser height and tread depth between steps on the same flight should be very low. Building codes require variances no larger than 0.1875 in between depth of adjacent treads or the height of adjacent risers; within a flight, the tolerance between the largest and smallest riser or between the largest and smallest tread can not exceed 0.375 in. The reason is that on a continuous flight of stairs, people get used to a regular step and may trip if there is a step that is different, especially at night. The general rule is that all steps on the same flight must be identical. Hence, stairs are typically custom made to fit the particular floor to floor height and horizontal space available. Special care must be taken on the first and last risers. Stairs must be supported directly by the subfloor. If thick flooring (e.g. thick hardwood planks) are added on top of the subfloor, it will cover part of the first riser, reducing the effective height of the first step. Likewise at the top step, if the top riser simply reaches the subfloor and thick flooring is added, the last rise at the top may be higher than the last riser. The first and last riser heights of the rough stairs are modified to adjust for the addition of the finished floor.
 * Maximum nosing protrusion, typically 1.25 in to prevent people from tripping on the nosing.
 * Height of the handrail. This is typically between 34 and 38 in, measured to the nose of the tread. The minimum height of the handrail for landings may be different and is typically 36 in.
 * Handrail diameter. The size has to be comfortable for grasping and is typically between 1.25 and 2.675 in.
 * Maximum space between the balusters of the handrail. This is typically 4 in.
 * Openings (if they exist) between the bottom rail and treads are typically no bigger than 6 in.
 * Headroom: At least 83 in.
 * Maximum vertical height between floors or landings. This allows people to rest and limits the height of a fall.
 * Mandate handrails if there is more than a certain number of steps (typically 2 risers).
 * Minimum width of the stairway, with and without handrails.
 * Not allow doors to swing over steps; the arc of doors must be completely on the landing/floor.
 * A stairwell may be designated as an area of refuge as well as a fire escape route, due to its fire-resistance rated design and fresh air supply.
 * The American Disabilities Act and other accessibility standards by state, such as Architectural Barriers Texas Accessibility Standards (TAS), do not allow open risers on accessible or egress stairs.

Stairs in art and architecture
Religious shrines and memorial structures are often approached via stairs, sometimes numbering hundreds or thousands of steps. Many Neoclassical buildings feature prominent wide stairs ascending to an elevated platform or plinth where the main entrance is located. In recent years, increasing concerns about accessibility have encouraged architects to retrofit discreet lower-level public entrances or elevators to ease wheelchair access.

Large open-well helical stairs have been used as a central feature in public buildings from the Renaissance until modern times. A 21st-century version is the helical glass-enclosed, glass-treaded stairways at the center of several flagship Apple Stores.

Vessel is an artistic structure and visitor attraction which was built as part of the Hudson Yards Redevelopment Project in Manhattan, New York City. Built to plans by the British designer Thomas Heatherwick, the elaborate honeycomb-like structure rises 16 stories and consists of 154 flights of stairs, 2,500 steps, and 80 landings for visitors to explore.

Stairs may also be a fanciful physical construct such as the "stairs that go nowhere" located at the Winchester Mystery House. The Penrose stairs, devised by Lionel and Roger Penrose, are a famous impossible object. The image distorts perspective in such a manner that the stairs appear to be never-ending, a physical impossibility. The image was adopted by M. C. Escher in his iconic lithograph Ascending and Descending.

Notable sets of stairs

 * The longest stairway is listed by Guinness Book of Records as the service stairway for the Niesenbahn funicular railway near Spiez, Switzerland, with 11,674 steps and a height of 1669 m. The stairs are usually employee-only, but there is a public run called Niesenlauf once a year.
 * Mount Girnar, one of the holiest of sacred places for Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist followers, and also for some Muslims, is located in Junagadh district in the Indian state of Gujarat in Saurashtrian peninsula. At a height of 1100 metres, with five summits, each adorned with several sacred places, it is accessed on foot by soaring close to 10,000 steps along a rugged terrain and deciduous forest that is also the last home for Asiatic lions. It is the longest completely stone-made stairway in the world.
 * Alipiri, India, is one of two ways to reach the Sri Venkateswara Swami Vaari Temple, Tirumala from Tirupati on foot, and it was until recently the only one in modern times. The temple is the richest Hindu temple in the world in terms of donations received and wealth and is visited by about 50,000 to 100,000 pilgrims per day (30 to 40 million people annually on average), while on special occasions and festivals like the annual Brahmotsavam, the number of pilgrims shoots up to 500,000, making it the most-visited holy place in the world. Srivari Mettu, about 20 km away, is the original one that was renovated and brought back to use in 2008. Alipiri is the longer route with more than 3550 steps, Srivari Mettu is shorter with 2388 steps.
 * A flight of 7,200 steps (including inner temple Steps), with 6,293 Official Mountain Walkway Steps, leads up the East Peak of Mount Tai in China.
 * The Haiku Stairs, on the island of Oahu, Hawaii, are approximately 4,000 steps which climb nearly 1/2 mi. Originally used to access long wire radio antennas which were strung high above the Haiku Valley, between Honolulu and Kaneohe, they are closed to hikers.
 * The Flørli stairs, in Lysefjorden, Norway, have 4,444 wooden steps that climb from sea level to 740 m. It is a maintenance stairway for the water pipeline to the old Flørli hydro plant. The hydro plant is now closed down, and the stairs are open to the public. The stairway is claimed to be the longest wooden stairway in the world.
 * The longest stone stairs in Japan are the 3,333-step stairs of the Shakain temple in Yatsushiro, Kumamoto. The second ones, Mount Haguro stone stairs, have 2,446 steps in Tsuruoka, Yamagata.
 * The CN Tower's staircase reaches the main deck level after 1,776 steps and the Sky Pod above after 2,579 steps; it is the tallest metal staircase on Earth.
 * The Gemonian stairs were infamous as a place of execution during the early Roman Empire, especially during the period postdating Tiberius.
 * The World Trade Center Survivors' Staircase is the last visible structure above ground level at the World Trade Center site. It was originally two outdoor flights of granite-clad stairs and an escalator that connected Vesey Street to the World Trade Center's Austin J. Tobin Plaza. During the September 11, 2001, attacks, the stairs served as an escape route for hundreds of evacuees from 5 World Trade Center, a 9-floor building adjacent to the 110-story towers. Stairwell A was the lone stairway left intact after the second plane hit the South Tower of the World Trade Center during the September 11 attacks. It was believed to have remained intact until the South Tower collapsed at 9:59 am. 14 people were able to escape the floors located at the impact zone (including one man who saw the plane coming at him), and 4 people from the floors above the impact zone.  Numerous 911 operators who received calls from individuals inside the South Tower were not well informed of the situation as it rapidly unfolded in the South Tower.  Many operators told callers not to descend the tower on their own, even though it is now believed that Stairwell A was most likely passable at and above the point of impact.
 * In London, England, a notable staircase is that to the Monument to the Great Fire of London, more commonly known simply as "the Monument". This is a column in the City of London, near the northern end of London Bridge, which commemorates the Great Fire of London. The top of the Monument is reached by a narrow winding staircase of 311 steps. Constructed between 1671 and 1677, it is the tallest isolated stone column in the world.
 * The Spanish Steps in Rome are a monument of late Italian Baroque architecture connecting the Piazza di Spagna with the Trinità dei Monti up the side of the Pincian Hill. Designed by Francesco De Sanctis and constructed 1723–1725, the 135 steps form a wide vista looking down toward the Tiber. The steps are adorned with garden terraces blooming with azaleas and have been widely celebrated in cultural work.
 * The Loretto Chapel in Santa Fe, New Mexico is well known for its helix-shaped staircase, which has been nicknamed "Miraculous Stair". It has been the subject of legend and rumor, and the circumstances surrounding its construction and its builder are considered miraculous by the Sisters of Loretto and many visitors.
 * The El Toro 20, a twenty-step set of stairs in Lake Forest, California, was well known among skateboarders, BMXers, and inline skaters as a popular and challenging skate spot. The first skateboarder to do an ollie down it was Don Nguyen. The staircase was demolished in 2019.
 * The Grand Staircase of the Titanic was one of the most recognizable features of the British transatlantic ocean liner that sank on her maiden voyage in 1912 after a collision with an iceberg.
 * Decorated stair risers were used extensively in the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, to form the pedestal to small devotional stupas. They were usually adorned with friezes, fantastic animals and decorations. A flight of stairs with decorated stair risers from the Chakhil-i-Ghoundi Stupa has been almost fully restored and can now be seen at the Guimet Museum in Paris. Archaeological research by the Italian IsMEO at the Butkara Stupa suggests that small decorative stairs were adjoined to Buddhist stupas at the time of the Indo-Greek Kingdom, and that they were decorated with Buddhist scenes.

title: Stairs


text:
Hepcats

Hepcats is a comic book series self-published in the 1990s by cartoonist Martin Wagner. It deals with the lives of four college students, rendered as anthropomorphic animals (humanoid bodies, but animal heads), and is inspired by Wagner's own college experiences.

Publication history
The series began as a comic strip in The Daily Texan, the student newspaper of the University of Texas at Austin, in 1987. Each installment was typically four panels (but with frequent variation), usually with a comedic gag at the end, but with ongoing storylines.

In 1989, inspired by cartoonists such as Dave Sim who were successfully self-publishing their comics, Wagner began publishing Hepcats as a black-and-white comic book series, under his own Double Diamond Press imprint. In this format, the series took on the highly detailed pen-and-ink artwork that would become one of its distinguishing features. Wagner immediately began experimenting with page layouts, including turning the pages sideways, using a double-page spread for each layout for Issue #2. Issue #3 began what was intended to be an 18-part graphic novel entitled Snowblind. Critics have frequently cited Sim's Cerebus the Aardvark as an artistic influence on this material.

Though critically acclaimed, with a cult following, the series was not a financial success, and this led to an erratic publishing schedule that frustrated readers. In comments written later, in the summer of 1996, Wagner cited poor sales, his weak business skills, and his 1991 divorce as the causes of a financial "hole" he was struggling to get out of. Despite Wagner's increasing prominence as one of several acclaimed self-publishers of the period - along with Jeff Smith (Bone), Colleen Doran (A Distant Soil), James A. Owen (Starchild), and Sim (Cerebus) - the series stalled after Issue #12 in 1994. Collections of the Daily Texan strips and of the first volume of Snowblind were released, but Wagner said those sales were not enough to make continuation of the series financially viable.

In 1996 Wagner signed a deal with Antarctic Press to republish the series to date, along with new issues. Antarctic republished the original 12 issues from 1996 to 1998; a color "#0" issue was released to launch this reprint series, but it was the last new material published. Wagner claimed to have finished Issue #13, but in a 1999 interview in Beau Yarbrough's "Comics Wire" at Comic Book Resources, he stated that the "pitiful" advance orders for that issue had led him to look for another way to make a living. Shortly after the cancellation of these orders, however, Antarctic employee Matthew High stated that these orders were in line with the publisher's expectations and that Wagner had never turned in any art for #13. Wagner left the comics industry in 1998.

In 2006, Wagner announced that he would be finishing the Snowblind storyline as a webcomic. By the end of 2010 he admitted to regretting that announcement, as he was busy with paying work and the series was not high on his leisure-time priorities list. In 2008, to tide fans over while waiting for Snowblind to appear, he began work on an 8-page mini-comic unrelated to the Snowblind storyline. The minicomic was also not completed, updates ceasing after page 5, also because of work commitments.

Collected volumes

 * Yo: The First Hepcats Book (1988; collection of Daily Texan strips—cover spoofs sleeve of Peter Gabriel's album So)
 * The Collegiate Hepcats (1993; complete collection of all Daily Texan strips, plus Hepcats #1 and some pre-Hepcats work from the University of Houston paper)
 * Snowblind, Part One (1995; collecting Hepcats #3–10, first half of unfinished Snowblind graphic novel)

Not reprinted in any of these collections are #2 (the sideways issue, reprinted in a "Special Edition" in 1994), and Issues #11 (a 42-page story with a black on dark-gray cover, a dramatic turning point in the story) and #12 (the final issue to see print).

title: Hepcats


text:
Biziura

Biziura is a genus of stiff-tailed ducks endemic to Australasia and containing one living and one subfossil species.

Species

 * †B. delautouri Forbes, 1892 – New Zealand musk duck – previously endemic to New Zealand, and occurring on both North and South Islands, but now extinct.

title: Biziura