text:
Port Arthur, Tasmania

Port Arthur is a town and former convict settlement on the Tasman Peninsula, in Tasmania, Australia. It is located approximately 97 km southeast of the state capital, Hobart.

The site forms part of the Australian Convict Sites, a World Heritage property consisting of 11 remnant penal sites originally built within the British Empire during the 18th and 19th centuries on fertile Australian coastal strips. Collectively, these sites, including Port Arthur, are described by UNESCO as "... the best surviving examples of large-scale convict transportation and the colonial expansion of European powers through the presence and labour of convicts."

In 1996, the town was the scene of the Port Arthur massacre, the worst instance of mass murder in post-colonial Australian history.

History
Port Arthur was named after George Arthur, the lieutenant governor of Van Diemen's Land. The settlement started as a timber station in 1830, but it is best known for being a penal colony.

Penal colony
From 1833 until 1877, Port Arthur was the destination for those deemed the most hardened of convicted British criminals, those who were secondary offenders having reoffended after their arrival in Australia. Rebellious personalities from other convict stations were also sent there. In addition, Port Arthur had some of the strictest security measures of the British penal system.

Treatment of prisoners
Port Arthur was one example of the "Separate Prison Typology" (sometimes known as the model prison), which emerged from Jeremy Bentham's theories and his panopticon. The prison was completed in 1853, but then extended in 1855. The layout of the prison was fairly symmetrical. It was a cross shape with exercise yards at each corner. The prisoner wings were each connected to the surveillance core of the prison, as well as the chapel in the centre hall. From this surveillance hub, each wing could be clearly seen, although individual cells could not. This is how the Separate Prison at Port Arthur differed from the original theory of the panopticon.

The Separate Prison System also signaled a shift from physical punishment to psychological punishment. The hard corporal punishment, such as whippings, used in other penal stations was thought to only serve to harden criminals, and did nothing to turn them from their immoral ways. For example, food was used to reward well-behaved prisoners and as punishment for troublemakers. As a reward, a prisoner could receive larger amounts of food or even luxury items such as tea, sugar, and tobacco. As punishment, the prisoners would receive the bare minimum of bread and water. Under this system of punishment, the "Silent System" was implemented in the building. Here, prisoners were hooded and made to stay silent; this was supposed to allow time for the prisoner to reflect upon the actions which had brought him there. Many of the prisoners in the Separate Prison developed mental illness from the lack of light and sound. This was an unintended outcome, although the asylum was built right next to the Separate Prison. In many ways, Port Arthur was the model for many of the penal reform movements, despite the shipping, housing, and slave-labour use of convicts being as harsh, or worse, than other stations around the nation.

Activities of prisoners
Port Arthur was also the destination for juvenile convicts, receiving many boys, some as young as nine. The boys were separated from the main convict population and kept on Point Puer, the British Empire's second boys' prison. Like the adults, the boys were used in hard labour such as stone cutting and construction. One of the buildings constructed was one of Australia's first nondenominational churches, built in a gothic style. Attendance of the weekly Sunday service was compulsory for the prison population. Critics of the new system noted that this and other measures seemed to have negligible impact on reformation.

The archaeology found in Port Arthur shows that people living there participated in the mundane, material necessities of life. Not only did the people living there help prepare food, but they also participated in recreational activities such as smoking and hunting. Archaeological excavation of the Port Arthur workshops complex is overseen by the Port Arthur Historic Site Management Authority (PAHSMA). These workshops, situated on the original waterfront since 1830, housed the trades-focussed activities undertaken at the penal station including shoemakers, blacksmiths, tailors, turners and wheelwrights. A journal of the ongoing excavation and conservation work at Port Arthur is documented online by Dr Richard Tuffin.

A number of ongoing archaeology and historical research projects at Port Arthur include interactive webmapping of convict offences by the University of New England as part of their Convict Landscapes project, and the Founders and Survivors project to digitise Tasmania's past. The Landscapes of Production and Punishment: the Tasman Peninsula 1830-77 project funded by the Australian Research Council, in partnership with the Port Arthur Historic Site Management Authority, continues to examine the convict system from the perspective of convicts as workers. GIS mapping of location and offence data compiled by Dr Richard Tuffin uses the buildings, work sites, products and life outcomes to understand the convicts’ lives and labours whilst under sentence.

Geography

The peninsula on which Port Arthur is located is a naturally secure site by being surrounded by water (rumoured by the administration to be shark-infested). The 30-m-wide isthmus of Eaglehawk Neck that was the only connection to the mainland was fenced and guarded by soldiers, traps, and dogs.

Shore-based and ship-based whaling was banned in the area to prevent convicts trying to escape in the boats. Officers at Port Arthur sometimes set out in their own boats and attempted to catch whales. This may have been more for sport than as a commercial activity.

Smooth Island in Norfolk Bay was most likely used to grow fresh vegetables for the Port Arthur penal settlement.

Radcliffe Creek drains the immediate area of Port Arthur into Carnarvon Bay.

Transport
Contact between visiting seamen and prisoners was barred. Ships had to check in their sails and oars upon landing to prevent any escapes. However, many attempts were made, and some were successful. Boats were seized and rowed or sailed long distances to freedom.

Port Arthur was the birthplace of rail transport in Australia. In 1836, a tramway was established between Taranna and a jetty in Long Bay, north of Port Arthur. The sole propulsion was convicts. One of the last remaining sections of the tramway can be viewed at the Federation Chocolate Factory at Taranna.

Reputation and perception
Port Arthur was sold as an inescapable prison, much like the later Alcatraz Island in the United States. Some prisoners were not discouraged by this, and tried to escape. Martin Cash successfully escaped along with two others.

Despite its reputation as a pioneering institution for the new, enlightened view of imprisonment, Port Arthur was still in reality as harsh and brutal as other penal settlements. Some critics might even suggest that its use of psychological punishment, compounded with no hope of escape, made it one of the worst. Some tales suggest that prisoners committed murder (an offence punishable by death) just to escape the desolation of life at the camp. The Isle of the Dead was the destination for all who died inside the prison camps. Of the 1,646 graves recorded to exist there, only 180, those of prison staff and military personnel, are marked. The prison closed in 1877.

Tourism development
Before Port Arthur was abandoned as a prison in 1877, some people saw the potential tourist attraction. David Burn, who visited the prison in 1842, was awed by the peninsula's beauty and believed that many would come to visit it. This opinion was not shared by all. For example, Anthony Trollope in 1872 declared that no man desired to see the "strange ruins" of Port Arthur.

After the prison closed, much of the property was put up for auction. However, most of the property was not sold until 1889. By this time, the area had become increasingly popular and the prison buildings were in decay. As the Hobart Mercury proclaimed, "the buildings themselves are fast going to decay, and in a few years will attract nobody; for they will be ruins without anything to make them worthy of respect, or even remembrance. " The Model Prison was purchased by Anglican church minister and politician Joseph Woollnough, who operated tours and donated the proceeds to the church.

The decay was seen as something positive, as the Tasmanian population wished to distance themselves from the dark image of Port Arthur. Those who bought Port Arthur property began tearing down the buildings, the destruction was furthered by the fires of 1895 and 1897, which destroyed the old prison house, and earth tremors. In place of the Prison Port Arthur, the town of Carnarvon was born. The town was named after the British Secretary of State and the population was said to be "refined and intellectual". The town brought in many visitors as they encouraged boating, fishing, and shooting in the natural beauty of the peninsula. They again wished to remove the negative connotation attached to the area.

Despite this wish, the haunting stories of Port Arthur prisoners and circulating ghost stories brought popularity to the remaining prison ruins. This was helped by the popular novels For the Term of His Natural Life (1874) by Marcus Clarke and The Broad Arrow (1859) by Caroline Leakey, which concerned themselves about convicts in Port Arthur. In 1927, tourism had grown to the point where the area's name was reverted to Port Arthur. In 1916, the Scenery Preservation Board (SPB) was established to take the management of Port Arthur out of the hands of the locals. By the 1970s, the National Parks and Wildlife Service began managing the site.

In 1979, funding was received to preserve the site as a tourist destination, due to its historical significance. The "working" elements of the Port Arthur community, such as the post office and municipal offices, were moved to nearby Nubeena. Several sandstone structures, built by convicts working under hard labour conditions, were cleaned of ivy overgrowth and restored to a condition similar to their appearance in the 19th century. Buildings include the "Model Prison", the Guard Tower, the Church, and the remnants of the main penitentiary. The buildings are surrounded by lush, green parkland. The graves on the Isle of the Dead also attract visitors.

Point Puer, across the harbour from the main settlement, was the site of the first boys' reformatory in the British Empire. Boys sent there were given some basic education, and taught trade skills.

Conservation management
Since 1987, the site has been managed by the Port Arthur Historic Site Management Authority, with conservation works funded by the Tasmanian government and the admission fees paid by visitors. Volunteer groups have been working at the building sites of Point Puer to help researchers gain a better understanding of the history of the boys' prison.

The World Heritage Committee of UNESCO inscribed the Port Arthur Historic Site and the Coal Mines Historic Site onto the World Heritage Register on 31 July 2010, as part of the Australian Convict Sites World Heritage property. Port Arthur is one of Australia's most visited historical sites, receiving over 250,000 visitors each year.

Massacre
On 28 April 1996, the Port Arthur historic site was the location of a massacre. Martin Bryant murdered 35 people and wounded 23 more before being captured by the Special Operations Group. The killing spree led to a national restriction on high capacity semiautomatic shotguns and rifles. The 28-year-old perpetrator was subsequently convicted and is currently serving 35 life sentences plus 1,035 years without parole in the psychiatric wing of Risdon Prison in Hobart, Tasmania.

Notable people

 * Simon Alexander Fraser (1845–1934), Australian bagpiper, stock rider, and whip-maker

title: Port Arthur, Tasmania


text:
Talk:Blekinge

Skåneland, i.e. the see of Lund, was most certainly never a part of Götaland in any way comparable to the real parts of Götaland. In the article Skåneland it's stated usually considered as a part of Götaland. Johan Magnus

Ronneby and Sölvesborg were originally granted Danish, not Swedish city privileges. Ronneby lost its privileges and regained its city status later. Andres 12:24, 1 January 2007 (UTC)

Blekinge as an originally Swedish region
This is not true, since Blekinge was part of an old, Danish kingdom consisting of Skåne, Halland, Bornholm, and Blekinge, before the Danes even invaded Jutland. Fede-lasse (talk) 20:49, 11 February 2010 (UTC)

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External links modified
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license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Blekinge


text:
Talk:Halland

Skåneland, i.e. the see of Lund, was most certainly never a part of Götaland in any way comparable to the real parts of Götaland. In the article Skåneland it's stated usually considered as a part of Götaland. Johan Magnus

Is "Hallandia" the best name for this article? It looks like pseudo-Latin. I would have thought "Halland" to be the more naturally English way of referring to this region. -- Picapica 21:37, 10 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * As this is a matter of common policy, perhaps you should discuss it at Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Swedish provinces (the question has already been taken up there, and shortly at Talk:Provinces of Sweden as well). For my part, I think the latinized names are an acceptable compromise, as it upholds consistency with the few provinces that obviously should be referred to by their latinized names, because they are most common by far in English (Scania and Laponia are the ones I immediately come to think of). -- Jao 10:06, Sep 11, 2004 (UTC)

External links modified
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Etymology
What's the etymology of the name Halland? This article says nothing about it. A series of Google searches weren't much better, except to clarify that the -land part of Halland does indeed mean "land." How did Halland come to get its name? Is there a different Old Norse version of the name? - Gilgamesh (talk) 15:14, 7 July 2021 (UTC)
 * The Swedish article has it. --SergeWoodzing (talk) 11:46, 9 July 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Halland


text:
Zonguldak Province

Zonguldak Province is a province along the western Black Sea coast region of Turkey. Its area is 3,342 km2, and its population is 588,510 (2022). Its adjacent provinces are Düzce to the southwest, Bolu to the south, Karabük to the southeast, and Bartın to the east. The capital is Zonguldak. Its Governor is Osman Hacıbektaşoğlu.

Districts
Zonguldak province is divided into 8 districts (capital district in bold):
 * Alaplı
 * Çaycuma
 * Devrek
 * Ereğli
 * Gökçebey
 * Kilimli
 * Kozlu
 * Zonguldak

Coal
The discovery of coal in the Ereğli (Heraclea) region (known today as the Zonguldak basin) dates back to the reign of Sultan Mahmud II, and its extraction to Sultan Abdulmejid I's reign.

The first specimen of Turkish coal was brought from Ereğli to Istanbul in 1822, but nothing was done for exploration and exploitation of this coal. However, in 1829, another specimen of coal was brought to Istanbul by Uzun (Long) Mehmet, a sailor and native of the village of Kestaneci, near Ereğli. This time attention was given to the discovery and the sailor received a reward of a life pension, but before he could benefit from this reward he was murdered.

The first miners requested and delivered from the Austrian Government are the Austrian Croats known to have been employed in the Ereğli Coal Mines. The correspondence between Istanbul and the embassy in Vienna show that coal production in the Ereğli Basin predates the March 1837 request by 18 months and that production started around September 1835.

An investigation of Hazine-i Hassa (Ottoman Imperial Treasury Department) records in the Ottoman archives shows that regular mining activities in the Ereğli Basin started in February 1841. This is confirmed by a newspaper article published in the 14 February 1841 issue of Ceride-i Havadis.

Ereğli Coal Company, chartered by six partners (Ahmed Fethi Pasha, Rıza Pasha, Safveti Pasha, Tahir Bey Efendi, Izzet Pasha and Mustafa Efendi), excavated the coal in the Ereğli Coal Basin, initially under the auspices of Darphane-i Amire and later transferred to Hazine-i Hassa when the latter was established in 1849.

Coal mining today

 * Current coal mining/extraction zones of Zonguldak province/region
 * Armutçuk (Ereğli), Kozlu (Kozlu), Üzülmez (Zonguldak), Çaydamar (Zonguldak), Baştarla (Zonguldak), Kilimli (Kilimli), Karadon (Kilimli-Çatalağzı), Gelik (Çatalağzı), Amasra (Amasra, Bartın Province)

 * Coal washing/treatment plants: Zonguldak and Çatalağzı Coal Treatment Plants.
 * Coal transport (delivery and import)
 * Ports: Zonguldak Sea Port (transport to Ereğli and Istanbul direction), Amasra Port, Ereğli Port
 * Other usable port for mine transport: Bartın Port (coal, cement etc.)
 * Railway: Zonguldak-Ankara Railway (transport to Karabük and Ankara direction)
 * Thermic power plants: Çatalağzı Thermoelectric Power Plant units (use coal powder), in Işıkveren ward.
 * Iron-steel plants:Ereğli (Erdemir) Iron and Steel Works, Karabük (Kardemir, Karabük province) Iron and Steel Works.

Mining disasters
Several mining disasters have occurred in the Zonguldak mines:
 * 1992: A gas explosion killed 270 workers. This was Turkey’s worst mining disaster.
 * 2008: In a mine collapse, one miner died.
 * 2010: In the 2010 Zonguldak mine disaster, an explosion in the state-operated Karadon mine, at least 28 miners were killed.

title: Zonguldak Province


text:
Muğla Province

Muğla Province is a province and metropolitan municipality of Turkey, at the country's south-western corner, on the Aegean Sea. Its area is 12,654 km2, and its population is 1,048,185 (2022). Its seat is Muğla, about 20 km inland, while some of Turkey's largest holiday resorts, such as Bodrum, Ölüdeniz, Marmaris and Fethiye, are on the coast in Muğla.

Etymology
The original name of Muğla is open to debate. Various sources refer to the city as Mogola, Mobella or Mobolia.

Geography
At 1,100 km, Muğla's coastline is the longest among the Provinces of Turkey and longer than many countries' coastlines, (even without taking any small islands into account). Important is the Datça Peninsula. As well as the sea, Muğla has two large lakes, Lake Bafa in the district of Milas and Lake Köyceğiz. The landscape consists of pot-shaped small plains surrounded by mountains, formed by depressions in the Neogene. These include the plain of the city of Muğla itself, Yeşilyurt, Ula, Gülağzı, Yerkesik, Akkaya, and Yenice). Until the recent building of highways, transport from these plains to either the coast or inland was quite arduous, and thus each locality remained an isolated culture of its own. Contact with the outside world was through one of the three difficult passes: northwest to Milas, north to the Menderes plain through Gökbel, or northeast to Tavas.

The economy of Muğla relies mainly on tourism (on the coast), and agriculture, forestry and marble quarries inland.

Agriculture in Muğla is rich and varied; the province is one of Turkey's largest producers of honey, pine-forest honey in particular and citrus fruits are grown in Ortaca, Fethiye, Dalaman and Dalyan.

The province is the second center of marble industry in Turkey after Afyonkarahisar in terms of quantity, variety and quality. Other mineral exploitation includes coal-mining in Yatağan and chrome in Fethiye. Other industry in the province includes the SEKA paper mill in Dalaman, However Muğla is by no means an industrialised province.

Environment
Despite court decisions upheld by the ECHR,, Yatağan, Yeniköy and Kemerköy coal-fired power stations continue to pollute.

Transportation

The following are aspects about transportation in Muğla province:

 * There are two airports in Dalaman and Milas-Bodrum, serving domestic and international flights and catering to the tourism industry.
 * There are yacht marinas in Bodrum, Marmaris, Fethiye and Güllük.
 * There are many privately run bus connections to İzmir, Antalya, Ankara, Istanbul and other major cities in Turkey from Muğla and directly from the coastal resorts.

History
In ancient times in Anatolia, the region between the Menderes (Meander) and Dalaman (Indus) rivers in the south was called Caria. The inhabitants were Carians and Leleges. In his Iliad, Homer describes the Carians as natives of Anatolia, defending their country against Greeks in joint campaigns in collaboration with the Trojans.

A major city of ancient Caria, Muğla is known to have been occupied by raiding parties of Egyptians, Assyrians and Scythians, until eventually the area was settled by Ancient Greek colonists. The Greeks inhabited this coast for a long time building prominent cities, such as Knidos (at the end of the Datça Peninsula) and Bodrum (Halicarnassos), as well as many smaller towns along the coast, on the Bodrum Peninsula and inland, including in the district of Fethiye the cities of Telmessos, Xanthos, Patara and Tlos. Eventually the coast was conquered by Persians who were in turn removed by Alexander the Great, bringing an end to the satrapy of Caria.

In 1261, Menteshe Bey, founder of the Beylik (principality) that carried his name, with its capital in Milas and nearby Beçin, established his rule over the region of Muğla as well. The beys of Menteshe held the city until 1390 and this, the first Turkish state in the region, achieved a high level of cultural development, its buildings remaining to this day. The province also became a significant naval power, trading with the Aegean Islands, Crete and as far as Venice and Egypt. Turkish settlement during the Menteshe period usually took place through migrations along the Kütahya-Tavas axis.

In 1390, Muğla was taken over by the Ottoman Empire. However, just twelve years later, Tamerlane and his forces defeated the Ottomans in the Battle of Ankara, and returned control of the region to its former rulers, the Menteshe Beys, as he did for other Anatolian beyliks. Muğla was brought back under Ottoman control by Sultan Mehmed II the Conqueror, in 1451. One of the most important events in the area during the Ottoman period was the well-recorded campaign of Suleiman the Magnificent against Rhodes, which was launched from Marmaris.

Archaeology
With this long history Muğla is rich in ancient ruins, with over 100 excavated sites including the UNESCO World Heritage Site of Letoon, near Fethiye.

In 2018, archaeologists unearthed a 2,300-year-old rock sepulchre of an ancient Greek boxer called Diagoras of Rhodes on a hill in the Turgut village, Muğla province, Marmaris. This unusual pyramid tomb was considered to belong to a holy person by the local people. The shrine, used as a pilgrimage by locals until the 1970s, also has the potential to be the only pyramid grave in Turkey. Excavation team also discovered an inscription with these words: “I will be vigilant at the very top so as to ensure that no coward can come and destroy this grave".

In July 2021, archaeologists led by Abuzer Kızıl have announced the discovery of two 2,500-year-old marble statues and an inscription during excavations at the Temple of Zeus Lepsynos in Euromus. According to Abuzer Kızıl, one of the statues was naked while other was wearing armor made of leather and a short skirt. Both of the statues were depicted with a lion in their hands.

Notable people
The following are notable residents of Muğla province:
 * Herodotus of Halicarnassos, historian
 * Turgut Reis, seaman
 * Basil Zaharoff, arms dealer born in Muğla
 * Osman Hamdi Bey, painter, had his summer residence in Yatağan
 * Şükrü Kaya, Minister of the Interior under Atatürk, born in İstanköy
 * Mustafa Muğlalı, Turkish War of Independence general
 * Yunus Nadi Abalıoğlu, founder of Cumhuriyet newspaper and key supporter of Atatürk, from Fethiye
 * Zihni Derin, agriculturalist responsible for planting tea in the Eastern Black Sea region, from Muğla
 * Necati Çiller, father of Prime Minister Tansu Çiller, governor of Istanbul in the 1950s, from Milas
 * Cevat Şakir Kabaağaçlı, writer of The "Fisherman of Halicarnasoss" and his student Şadan Gökovalı
 * Nail Çakırhan, architect of the Akyaka Çakırhan houses and winner of the Aga Khan Award for Architecture
 * Janet Akyüz Mattei amateur astronomer and president of the American Association of Variable Star Observers (AAVSO), of Bodrum.
 * Zeki Müren, singer and fixture of the Bodrum nightclub scene for many years
 * Poet Can Yücel is buried in Datça, his home in his final years
 * Former president Kenan Evren lived in Marmaris after he retired until his death.

Districts
• Bodrum

• Dalaman

• Datça

• Fethiye

• Kavaklıdere

• Köyceğiz

• Marmaris

• Menteşe

• Milas

• Ortaca

• Seydikemer

• Ula

• Yatağan

Politics
The Republican People's Party (CHP), Turkey's principal center-left party has a traditionally strong presence across the political landscape of Muğla Province, closely followed by the traditional center-right represented by the Democrat Party (DP) in Turkey's politics, with the incumbent Justice and Development Party (AKP) having less support.

title: Muğla Province


text: Talk:IMAX

title: Talk:IMAX


text:
Talk:Tufted puffin

Sides?
Why "The yellow tufts ... on the side of the head." and not "sides of the head"? Is it because it's referring to the back side and not the lateral sides? --Menchi 01:35 12 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Toward GA
Nice article with promise and a great opportunity to adorn with cool pics. cheers, Casliber (talk · contribs) 10:34, 10 January 2008 (UTC)

OK then:

 * I'd expand the courting bit and explain skypointing, strutting, and billing

 * colour and dimensions of egg. extra points for descibing whether new born are naked and hairless etc.

 * Under Puffins and man, any sanctuaries where they can be seen for tourism, like Grand Manan Island in Bay of Fundy for normal puffins which I saw years ago.

 * Any other local folklore or legends (or even names) would be really cool too. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Casliber (talk • contribs) 10:36, 10 January 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:Tufted puffin


text:
Herschel

Herschel or Herschell may refer to:

People

 * Herschel (name), various people

Places

 * Herschel, Eastern Cape, South Africa
 * Herschel, Saskatchewan
 * Herschel, Yukon
 * Herschel Bay, Canada
 * Herschel Heights, Alexander Island, Antarctica
 * Herschel Island, Canada
 * Herschel Island (Chile), an island of the Hermite Islands archipelago
 * Mount Herschel, Antarctica
 * Cape Sterneck, Antarctica

Astronomy

 * Herschel (crater), various craters in the solar system
 * 2000 Herschel, an asteroid
 * 35P/Herschel–Rigollet, a comet
 * Herschel Catalogue (disambiguation), various astronomical catalogues of nebulae
 * Herschel Medal, awarded by the UK Royal Astronomical Society
 * Herschel Museum of Astronomy, in Bath, United Kingdom
 * Herschel Space Observatory, operated by the European Space Agency
 * Herschel wedge, an optical prism used in solar observation
 * Herschel's Garnet Star, a red supergiant star
 * William Herschel Telescope, in the Canary Islands
 * Telescopium Herschelii, a constellation
 * Uranus, for a time known as Herschel

Other uses

 * Allan Herschell Company, which specialized in amusement park rides
 * Herschel–Bulkley fluid, a generalized model of a non-Newtonian fluid
 * Herschel baronets, of the United Kingdom
 * Herschel Girls' School, a private day and boarding school in Cape Town
 * Herschel Grammar School, in Slough, Berkshire, England
 * Herschel graph, a bipartite undirected graph
 * Herschel Greer Stadium, in Nashville, Tennessee
 * Herschel the sea lion, predatory seals in Seattle
 * Herschel Walker trade, the largest player trade in the history of the National Football League
 * Herschel Supply Co., Canadian backpack manufacturer
 * USNS Hershel "Woody" Williams (T-ESB-4), sister ship of USNS Lewis B. Puller (T-ESB-3), a mobile landing platform
 * Herschel, a specific heptomino and methuselah (cellular automaton) in Conway’s Game of Life
 * Herschel, a a 1926 boat of the Mackenzie River watershed

title: Herschel


text:
X-ray machine

An X-ray machine is a device that uses X-rays for a variety of applications including medicine, X-ray fluorescence, electronic assembly inspection, and measurement of material thickness in manufacturing operations. In medical applications, X-ray machines are used by radiographers to acquire x-ray images of the internal structures (e.g., bones) of living organisms, and also in sterilization.

Structure

An X-ray generator generally contains an X-ray tube to produce the X-rays. Possibly, radioisotopes can also be used to generate X-rays.

An X-ray tube is a simple vacuum tube that contains a cathode, which directs a stream of electrons into a vacuum, and an anode, which collects the electrons and is made of tungsten to evacuate the heat generated by the collision. When the electrons collide with the target, about 1% of the resulting energy is emitted as X-rays, with the remaining 99% released as heat. Due to the high energy of the electrons that reach relativistic speeds, the target is usually made of tungsten even if other material can be used particularly in XRF applications.

An X-ray generator also needs to contain a cooling system to cool the anode; many X-ray generators use water or oil recirculating systems.

Medical imaging
In medical imaging applications, an X-ray machine has a control console that is used by a radiologic technologist to select X-ray techniques suitable for the specific exam, a power supply that creates and produces the desired kVp (peak kilovoltage), mA (milliamperes, sometimes referred to as mAs which is actually mA multiplied by the desired exposure length) for the X-ray tube, and the X-ray tube itself.

History
The discovery of X-rays came from experimenting with Crookes tubes, an early experimental electrical discharge tube invented by English physicist William Crookes around 1869–1875. In 1895, Wilhelm Röntgen discovered X-rays emanating from Crookes tubes and the many uses for X-rays were immediately apparent. One of the first X-ray photographs was made of the hand of Röntgen's wife. The image displayed both her wedding ring and bones. On January 18, 1896 an X-ray machine was formally displayed by Henry Louis Smith. A fully functioning unit was introduced to the public at the 1904 World's Fair by Clarence Dally. The technology developed quickly: In 1909 Mónico Sánchez Moreno had produced the first portable medical device and during World War I Marie Curie led the development of X-ray machines mounted in "radiological cars" to provide mobile X-ray services for military field hospitals.

In the 1940s and 1950s, X-ray machines were used in stores to help sell footwear. These were known as Shoe-fitting fluoroscopes. However, as the harmful effects of X-ray radiation were properly considered, they finally fell out of use. Shoe-fitting use of the device was first banned by the state of Pennsylvania in 1957. (They were more a clever marketing tool to attract customers, rather than a fitting aid.) Together with Robert J. Van de Graaff, John G. Trump developed one of the first million-volt X-ray generators.

Overview
An X-ray imaging system consists of a generator control console where the operator selects desired techniques to obtain a quality readable image(kVp, mA and exposure time), an x-ray generator which controls the x-ray tube current, x-ray tube kilovoltage and x-ray emitting exposure time, an X-ray tube that converts the kilovoltage and mA into actual x-rays and an image detection system which can be either a film (analog technology) or a digital capture system and a PACS.

Applications
X-ray machines are used in health care for visualising bone structures, during surgeries (especially orthopedic) to assist surgeons in reattaching broken bones with screws or structural plates, assisting cardiologists in locating blocked arteries and guiding stent placements or performing angioplasties and for other dense tissues such as tumours. Non-medicinal applications include security and material analysis.

Medicine
The main fields in which x-ray machines are used in medicine are radiography, radiotherapy, and fluoroscopic-type procedures. Radiography is generally used for fast, highly penetrating images, and is usually used in areas with a high bone content but can also be used to look for tumors such as with mammography imaging. Some forms of radiography include: In fluoroscopy, imaging of the digestive tract is done with the help of a radiocontrast agent such as barium sulfate, which is opaque to X-rays.
 * orthopantomogram — a panoramic x-ray of the jaw showing all the teeth at once
 * mammography — x-rays of breast tissue
 * tomography — x-ray imaging in sections

Radiotherapy — the use of x-ray radiation to treat malignant and benign cancer cells, a non-imaging application

Fluoroscopy is used in cases where real-time visualization is necessary (and is most commonly encountered in everyday life at airport security). Some medical applications of fluoroscopy include: X-rays are highly penetrating, ionizing radiation, therefore X-ray machines are used to take pictures of dense tissues such as bones and teeth. This is because bones absorb the radiation more than the less dense soft tissue. X-rays from a source pass through the body and onto a photographic cassette. Areas where radiation is absorbed show up as lighter shades of grey (closer to white). This can be used to diagnose broken or fractured bones.
 * angiography — used to examine blood vessels in real time along with the placement of stents and other procedures to repair blocked arteries.
 * barium enema — a procedure used to examine problems of the colon and lower gastrointestinal tract
 * barium swallow — similar to a barium enema, but used to examine the upper gastrointestinal tract
 * biopsy — the removal of tissue for examination
 * Pain Management - used to visually see and guide needles for administering/injecting pain medications, steroids or pain blocking medications throughout the spinal region.
 * Orthopedic procedures - used to guide placement and removal of bone structure reinforcement plates, rods and fastening hardware used to aide the healing process and alignment of bone structures healing properly together.

In 2012, European Commission of Radiation Protection set leakage radiation limit from X-ray generators such as X-ray tubes and CT machines as one mGy/hour at one metre distance from the machine.

Security
X-ray machines are used to screen objects non-invasively. Luggage at airports and student baggage at some schools are examined for possible weapons, including bombs. Prices of these Luggage X-rays vary from $50,000 to $300,000. The main parts of an X-ray Baggage Inspection System are the generator used to generate x-rays, the detector to detect radiation after passing through the baggage, signal processor unit (usually a PC) to process the incoming signal from the detector, and a conveyor system for moving baggage into the system. Portable pulsed X-ray Battery Powered X-ray Generator used in Security as shown in the figure provides EOD responders safer analysis of any possible target hazard.

Operation
When baggage is placed on the conveyor, it is moved into the machine by the operator. There is an infrared transmitter and receiver assembly to detect the baggage when it enters the tunnel. This assembly gives the signal to switch on the generator and signal processing system. The signal processing system processes incoming signals from the detector and reproduce an image based upon the type of material and material density inside the baggage. This image is then sent to the display unit.

Color classification
The colour of the image displayed depends upon the material and material density : organic material such as paper, clothes and most explosives are displayed in orange. Mixed materials such as aluminum are displayed in green. Inorganic materials such as copper are displayed in blue and non-penetrable items are displayed in black (some machines display this as a yellowish green or red). The darkness of the color depends upon the density or thickness of the material.

The material density determination is achieved by two-layer detector. The layers of the detector pixels are separated with a strip of metal. The metal absorbs soft rays, letting the shorter, more penetrating wavelengths through to the bottom layer of detectors, turning the detector to a crude two-band spectrometer.

Advances in X-ray technology
A film of carbon nanotubes (as a cathode) that emits electrons at room temperature when exposed to an electrical field has been fashioned into an X-ray device. An array of these emitters can be placed around a target item to be scanned and the images from each emitter can be assembled by computer software to provide a 3-dimensional image of the target in a fraction of the time it takes using a conventional X-ray device. The system also allows rapid, precise control, enabling prospective physiological gated imaging.

Engineers at the University of Missouri (MU), Columbia, have invented a compact source of x-rays and other forms of radiation. The radiation source is the size of a stick of gum and could be used to create portable x-ray scanners. A prototype handheld x-ray scanner using the source could be manufactured in as soon as three years.

title: X-ray machine


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