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Tangier

Tangier (طنجة,, ) or Tangiers is a city in northwestern Morocco, on the coasts of the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. The city is the capital of the Tanger-Tetouan-Al Hoceima region, as well as the Tangier-Assilah Prefecture of Morocco.

Many civilisations and cultures have influenced the history of Tangier, starting from before the 10th centuryBCE. Starting as a strategic Phoenician town and trading centre, Tangier has been a nexus for many cultures. In 1923, it became an international zone managed by colonial powers and became a destination for many European and American diplomats, spies, bohemians, writers and businessmen. That status came to an end with Moroccan independence, in phases between 1956 and 1960.

By the early 21st century, Tangier was undergoing rapid development and modernisation. Projects include tourism projects along the bay, a modern business district called Tangier City Centre, an airport terminal, and a football stadium. Tangier's economy is set to benefit greatly from the Tanger-Med port.

Names
The Carthaginian name of the city is variously recorded as,  (𐤕𐤍𐤂𐤀),  (𐤕𐤉𐤍𐤂𐤀), and  (𐤕𐤕𐤂𐤀); these appear in Greek and Roman sources as Tenga, Tinga, Titga, &c. The old Berber name was Tingi (ⵜⵉⵏⴳⵉ), which Ruiz connects to Berber tingis, meaning "marsh". The Greeks later claimed that Tingís (Τιγγίς) had been named for Tinjis, a daughter of the titan Atlas, who was supposed to support the vault of heaven nearby. Latin Tingis then developed into Portuguese Tânger, Spanish Tánger, and French Tanger, which entered English as Tangier and Tangiers. The Arabic and modern Berber name of the town is Ṭanjah (طَنجة, ⵟⴰⵏⴵⴰ).

Moroccan historian Ahmed Toufiq considers that the name "Tingi" has the same etymology as Tinghir, and is composed of "Tin", which is a feminine particle that could be translated as "owner" or "she who has", and "gi" which may have originally been "ig", meaning "high location". This corresponds to the popular Moroccan phrase Tanja l-ɛalya (Tangier the High), which may be a remnant echo of the original meaning, as well as a reference to the high location of Tangier. A similar construction can be found in the name of Tinmel, the first capital of the Almohads, which is composed of "Tin", and "Amlel" meaning "at foot of the mountain" or "at a low location".

Tangier was formally known as Colonia Julia Tingi ("The Julian Colony of Tingis") following its elevation to colony status during the Roman Empire. The nicknames "Bride of the North" and "Door of Africa" reference its position in far northwestern Africa near the Strait of Gibraltar.

Ancient

Tangier was founded as a Phoenician colony, possibly as early as the 10th centuryBCE and almost certainly by the 8th centuryBCE. The majority of Berber tombs around Tangier had Punic jewelry by the 6th centuryBCE, speaking to abundant trade by that time. The Carthaginians developed it as an important port of their empire by the 5th centuryBCE. It was probably involved with the expeditions of Hanno the Navigator along the West African coast. The city long preserved its Phoenician traditions, issuing bronze coins under the Mauretanian kings with Punic script. Under the Romans other coins were issued, bearing Augustus and Agrippa's heads and Latin script obverse but an image of the Canaanite god Baal reverse. Some editions of Procopius place his Punic stelae in Tingis rather than Tigisis; in either case, however, their existence is highly dubious.

The Greeks knew this town as Tingis and, with some modification, record the Berber legends of its founding. Supposedly Tinjis, daughter of Atlas and widow of Antaeus, slept with Hercules and bore him the son Syphax. After Tinjis' death, Syphax then founded the port and named it in her honour. The gigantic skeleton and tomb of Antaeus were tourist attractions for ancient visitors. The Caves of Hercules, where he supposedly rested on Cape Spartel during his labors, remain one today.

Tingis came under the control of the Roman ally Mauretania during the Punic Wars. Q. Sertorius, in his war against Sulla's regime in Rome, took and held Tingis for a number of years in the 70sBCE. It was subsequently returned to the Mauretanians but established as a republican free city during the reign of BocchusIII in 38BCE.

Tingis received certain municipal privileges under Augustus and became a Roman colony under Claudius, who made it the provincial capital of Mauretania Tingitana. Under Diocletian's 291 reforms, it became the seat of a count (comes) and Tingitana's governor (praeses). At the same time, the province itself shrank to little more than the ports along the coast and, owing to the Great Persecution, Tingis was also the scene of the martyrdoms by beheading of SaintsMarcellus and Cassian in 298. Tingis remained the largest settlement in its province in the 4th century and was greatly developed.

Medieval
Probably invited by Count Boniface, who feared war with the empress dowager, tens of thousands of Vandals under Gaiseric crossed into North Africa in 429 CE and occupied Tingis and Mauretania as far east as Calama. When Boniface learned that he and the empress had been manipulated against each other by Aetius, he attempted to compel the Vandals to return to Spain but was instead defeated at Calama in 431. The Vandals lost control of Tingis and the rest of Mauretania in various Berber uprisings.

Tingis was reconquered by Belisarius, the general of the Byzantine emperor JustinianI, in 533 as part of the Vandalic War. The new provincial administration was moved, however, to the more defensible base at Septem (present-day Ceuta). Byzantine control probably yielded to pressure from Visigoth Spain around 618.

Count Julian of Ceuta supposedly led the last defences of Tangier against the Muslim invasion of North Africa. Medieval romance made his betrayal of Christendom a personal vendetta against the Visigoth king Roderic over the honour of his daughter, but Tangier at least fell to a siege by the forces of Musa bin Nusayr sometime between 707 and 711. While he moved south through central Morocco, he had his deputy at Tangier Tariq ibn Zayid, Musa's mawla launch the beginning of the Muslim invasion of Spain. Uqba ibn Nafi was frequently but erroneously credited with Tangier's conquest by medieval historians, but only owing to Musa's later commission at the hands of Al-Walid I.

Under the Umayyads, Tangier served as the capital of the Moroccan district (Maghreb al-Aqsa or al-Udwa) of the province of Africa (Ifriqiya). The conquest of the Maghreb and Spain had, however, been undertaken principally as raids for slaves and plunder and the caliphate's leadership continued to treat all Berbers as pagans or slaves for tax purposes, even after their wholesale conversion to Islam. In the area around Tangier, these hateful taxes were mostly paid in female slaves or in tender lambskins obtained by beating the ewes to induce premature birth. Governor Yazid was murdered by Berber guards whom he had tattooed as slaves in c. 720, and in the 730s similar treatment from Governor Ubayd Allah and al-Muradi, his deputy at Tangier, provoked the Berber Revolt. Inspired by the egalitarian Kharijite heresy, Barghawata and others under Maysara al-Matghari seized Tangier in the summer of 740. In the Battle of the Nobles on the city's outskirts a few months later, Maysara's replacement Khalid ibn Hamid massacred the cream of Arab nobility in North Africa. An enraged Caliph Hisham ordered an attack from a second army "whose beginning is where they are and whose end is where I am," but this army was defeated at Bagdoura the next year. The Barghawata were concentrated further south on the Atlantic coast, and area around Tangier fell into chaos until 785.

The Shia Arab refugee Idris arrived at Tangier before moving further south, marrying into local tribes around Moulay Idriss and assembling an army that, among its other conquests, took Tangier c. 790. During the division of the sultanate that occurred on the death of IdrisII, Tangier fell to his son Qasim in 829. It was soon taken by Qasim's brother Umar, who ruled it until his death in 835. Umar's son Ali became sultan (r.874–883), as did Qasim's son Yahya after him (r.880–904), but they governed from Fez.

The Fatimid caliph Abdullah al-Madhi began interfering in Morocco in the early 10th century, prompting the Umayyad emir of Cordova to proclaim himself caliph and to begin supporting proxies against his rivals. He helped the Maghrawa Berbers overrun Melilla in 927, Ceuta in 931, and Tangier in 949. Tangier's governor was subsequently named chief over Cordova's Moroccan possessions and allies. Ali ibn Hammud, named Cordova's governor for Ceuta in 1013, took advantage of the realm's civil wars to conquer Tangier and Málaga before overrunning Cordova itself and proclaiming himself caliph in 1016. His Barghawata ally Rizḳ Allāh was then permitted to rule from Tangier with general autonomy.

Yusuf ibn Tashfin captured Tangier for the Almoravids in 1077. It fell to Abd al-Mumin's Almohads in the 1147 and then flourished under his dynasty, with its port highly active.

Like Ceuta, Tangier did not initially acknowledge the Marinids after the fall of the Almohads. Instead, the local chief Yusuf ibn Muhammad pledged himself to the Hafsids in Tunisia and then to the Abbasids in the east before being killed in 665 (late 1266 or early 1267). Abu Yusuf Yaqub compelled Tangier's allegiance with a three months' siege in 1274.

The next century was an obscure time of rebellions and difficulties for the city. During this time, the traveler Ibn Battuta was born in Tangier in 1304, leaving home at 20 for the hajj. Piracy from Tangier and Salé began to harass shipping in the strait and North Atlantic in the late 14thcentury. A partial plan of the late medieval kasbah was found in a Portuguese document now held by the Military Archives of Sweden in Stockholm.

Early modern
When the Portuguese started their colonial expansion by taking Ceuta in retribution for its piracy in 1415, Tangier was always a major goal. They failed to capture it in 1437, 1458, and 1464, but occupied it unopposed on 28 August 1471 after its garrison fled upon learning of the conquest of Asilah. As in Ceuta, they converted its chief mosque into the town's cathedral church; it was further embellished by several restorations during the town's occupation. In addition to the cathedral, the Portuguese raised European-style houses and Franciscan and Dominican chapels and monasteries. The Wattasids assaulted Tangier in 1508, 1511, and 1515 but without success. In the 17th century, it passed with the rest of Portugal's domains into Spanish control as part of the personal union of the crowns but maintained its Portuguese garrison and administration.

Iberian rule lasted until 1661, when it was given to England's King CharlesII as part of the dowry of the Portuguese infanta Catherine of Braganza. A squadron under the admiral and ambassador Edward Montagu arrived in November. English Tangier, fully occupied in January 1662, was praised by Charles as "a jewell of immense value in the royal diadem" despite the departing Portuguese taking away everything they could, even—according to the official report—"the very fflowers, the Windowes and the Dores". Tangier received a garrison and a charter which made it equal to other English towns, but the religious orders were expropriated, the Portuguese residents nearly entirely left, and the town's Jews were driven out owing to fears concerning their loyalty. Meanwhile, the Tangier Regiment were almost constantly under attack by locals who considered themselves mujahideen fighting a holy war. Their principal leader was Khadir Ghaïlan (known to the English as "Gayland" or "Guyland") of the Banu Gurfat, whom the Earl of Peterborough attempted to buy off. Ultimately, the truce lasted only for part of 1663 and 1664; on May 4 of the latter year, the Earl of Teviot and around 470 members of the garrison were killed in an ambush beside Jew's Hill. Lord Belasyse happened to secure a longer-lasting treaty in 1666: Khadir Ghaïlan hoped to support a pretender against the new Alawid sultan Al-Rashid and things subsequently went so badly for him that he was obliged to abide by its terms until his death in 1673.

The English took advantage of the respite to improve greatly the Portuguese defences. They also planned to improve the harbour by building a mole, which would have allowed it to play the same role that Gibraltar later played in British naval strategy. Incompetence, waste and outright fraud and embezzlement caused costs to swell; among those enriched was Samuel Pepys. The mole cost £340,000 and reached 1436 ft long before its destruction. Although funding was found for the fortifications, the garrison's pay was delayed until in December 1677 it was 2$1/4$ years in arrears; Governor Fairborne dealt with the ensuing mutiny by seizing one of the soldier's muskets and killing him with it on the spot.

A determined siege by Sultan Moulay Ismail of Morocco between 1678 and 1680 was unsuccessful, but longstanding exasperation with the colony's finances and the difficulties caused by the siege pushed Parliament to write off the effort in 1680. At the time, Tangier's population consisted of only about 700 apart from the thousand-man garrison; Governor Kirke estimated 400 of them had suffered gonorrhea from the same "mighty pretty" sex worker. Forces under Lord Dartmouth (including Samuel Pepys) methodically destroyed the town and its port facilities for five months prior to Morocco's occupation of the city on 7 February 1684.

Ali ibn Abdallah and his son Ahmed ibn Ali served in turn as the town's governors until 1743, repopulating it with populace from the surrounding countryside. They were powerful enough to oppose Sultan Abdallah through his various reigns, giving support and asylum to his various rivals within and without the royal family.

The Spanish attacked the city in 1790 but the city grew until, by 1810, its population reached 5,000.

Internationalisation

From the 18th century, Tangier served as Morocco's diplomatic headquarters. The United States dedicated its first consulate in Tangier during the George Washington's tenure as president. In 1821, the Legation Building in Tangier became the first piece of property acquired abroad by the U.S. government—a gift to the U.S. from Sultan Moulay Suliman.

In 1828, Great Britain blockaded the port in retaliation for piracy. As part of its ongoing conquest of neighbouring Algeria, France declared war over Moroccan tolerance of Abd el-Kader; Tangier was bombarded by a French fleet under the Prince of Joinville on 6 August 1844. What little of its fortifications were damaged were later repaired by English engineers, but French victory at Isly near the disputed border ended the conflict on French terms.

Italian revolutionary hero Giuseppe Garibaldi lived in exile at Tangier in late 1849 and the first half of 1850, following the fall of the revolutionary Roman Republic.

Tangier's geographic location made it a centre of European diplomatic and commercial rivalry in Morocco in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. By the 1870s, it was the site of every foreign embassy and consul in Morocco but only held about 400 foreign residents out of a total population of around 20,000. The city increasingly came under French influence, and it was here in 1905 that Kaiser WilhelmII triggered an international crisis that almost led to war between his country and France by pronouncing himself in favour of Morocco's continued independence, with an eye to its future acquisition by the German Empire. The Algeciras Conference which ended the standoff left Tangier's police training and customs collections in international hands but Britain's strong support of its "Entente Cordiale" with France ended German hopes concerning Morocco.

Improved harbour facilities were completed in 1907, with an inner and outer mole. In 1905 the first Moroccan newspaper, Lisan al-Maghrib ("The Voice of Morocco"), was established in Tangiers on the order of Sultan Abdelaziz, partly with the aim of counteracting the views expressed by al-Sa'adah, an Arabic newspaper established in 1904 or 1905 by the French embassy in the city. The newspaper was founded and managed on behalf of the government by two Lebanese journalists, Faraj and Artur Numur. It later became more notorious for publishing reformist ideas and views critical of the sultan. In the years leading up to the First World War, Tangier had a population of about 40,000, about half Muslim, a quarter Jewish, and a quarter European Christians. Of the Europeans, about three-quarters were Spanish artisans and labourers.

In 1912, the Treaty of Fes established the French protectorate over most of Morocco and Spanish rule in the country's far south and north, but left Tangier's status for further determination. Hubert Lyautey persuaded the last Sultan of independent Morocco, Abdelhafid, to abdicate in exchange for the receipt of a massive pension. Abdelhafid planned to live in Tangier where he used part of his pension to build an opulent mansion west of the old city, the Abdelhafid Palace, completed in 1914. The complex was later purchased by Italian interests and is now also known as the "Palace of Italian Institutions" (palais des institutions italiennes). The standard-gauge Franco-Spanish Tangier–Fez Railway (Compagnie Franco-Espagnole du Tanger–Fès) was constructed from 1919 to 1927.

The Tangier International Zone was created under the joint administration of France, Spain and the United Kingdom by an international convention signed in Paris on 18 December 1923. Ratifications were exchanged in Paris on 14 May 1924, and the convention was registered in League of Nations Treaty Series on 13 September 1924. It was amended by a protocol of July 1928 to elevate the status of Italy, an idea put forth by Sir Austen Chamberlain of Great Britain. The European powers' creation of the statute of Tangier promoted the formation of a cosmopolitan society where Muslims, Christians, and Jews lived together with reciprocal respect and tolerance. A town where men and women, with many different political and ideological tendencies, found refuge, including Spaniards from the right or from the left, Jews fleeing Nazi Germany and Moroccan dissidents. With very liberal economic and fiscal laws, Tangier became - in an international environment full of restrictions, prohibitions and monopolies - a tax haven with absolute freedom of trade. The International Zone of Tangier had a 373 km2 area and, by the mid-1930s, a population of about 50,000 inhabitants: 30,000 Muslims; 12,000 Jews; and 8,000-odd Europeans, with a decreasing proportion of working-class Spaniards.

Spanish troops occupied Tangier on 14 June 1940, the same day Paris fell to the Germans. Despite calls by Spanish nationalists to annex "Tánger español", the Franco regime publicly considered the occupation a temporary wartime measure. A diplomatic dispute between Britain and Spain over the latter's abolition of the city's international institutions in November 1940 led to a further guarantee of British rights and a Spanish promise not to fortify the area. The territory was restored to its pre-war status on October 11, 1945.

Moroccan independence
The Tangier International Zone played an important role in the campaign for Moroccan independence. Because of its legal status as an international zone, activists were able to meet in Tangier, relatively protected from the French and Spanish authorities. In 1951, the National Front was created in Tangier, a pact between Morocco's four nationalist parties to coordinate their campaign to achieve Moroccan independence.

In July 1952 the protecting powers met at Rabat to discuss the International Zone's future, agreeing to abolish it. Tangier joined with the rest of Morocco following the restoration of full sovereignty in 1956. At the time of the handover, Tangier had a population of around 40,000 Muslims; 31,000 Christians; and 15,000 Jews.

Geography

Central Tangier lies about 14 mi east of Cape Spartel, the southern half of the Strait of Gibraltar. It nestles between two hills at the northwest end of the Bay of Tangier, which historically formed the best natural harbour anywhere on the Moroccan coast before the increasing size of ships required anchorage to be made further and further from shore. The shape of the gradually-rising underlying terrain creates the effect of the city as an amphitheatre, with the commercial district in the middle. The western hill (La Montagne) is the site of the city's citadel or kasbah. The eastern hill forms Cape Malabata, sometimes proposed as the point for a strait crossing. (Years of studies have, however, made no real progress thus far.)

The Marshan is a plateau about 1300 yd long spreading west of downtown along the sea.

Climate
Tangier has a mediterranean climate (Köppen Csa) with heavier rainfall than most parts of North Africa and nearby areas on the Iberian Peninsula owing to its exposed location. The prevailing winds blow from the sea and have kept the site generally healthy even in earlier times with much poorer sanitation. The summers are relatively hot and sunny and the winters are wet and mild. Frost is rare, although a new low of −4.2 °C was recorded in January 2005.

Subdivisions
The current prefecture is divided administratively into the following:

Economy
Tangier is Morocco's second most important industrial centre after Casablanca. The industrial sectors are diversified: textile, chemical, mechanical, metallurgical and naval. Currently, the city has four industrial parks of which two have the status of free economic zone (see Tangier Free Zone).

Tangier's economy relies heavily on tourism. In the 1960s and '70s, Tangier formed part of the hippie trail. It became less popular and tourist attractions became run-down as cheap flights made central Moroccan cities like Marrakesh more accessible to European tourists; crime rose and a somewhat dangerous reputation drove more tourists away. Since 2010, however, King MohammedVI has made a point of restoring the city's shipping and tourist facilities and improving its industrial base. Among other improvements, the beach was cleaned and lined with new cafes and clubs; the new commercial port means cruise ships no longer unload beside cargo containers.

Seaside resorts have been increasing with projects funded by foreign investments. Real estate and construction companies have been investing heavily in tourist infrastructures. A bay delimiting the city centre extends for more than 7 km. The years 2007 and 2008 were particularly important for the city because of the completion of large construction projects; these include the Tangier-Mediterranean port ("Tanger-Med") and its industrial parks, a 45,000-seat sports stadium, an expanded business district, and renovated tourist infrastructure.

Tanger-Med, a new port 40 km outside Tangier proper, began construction in 2004 and became functional in 2007. Its site plays a key role in connecting maritime regions, as it is in a very critical position on the Strait of Gibraltar, which passes between Europe and Africa. The makeup of the new port is 85% transhipment 15% for domestic import and export activities. The port is distinguished by its size, infrastructure, and efficiency in managing the flow of ships. Tanger-Med has linked Morocco to Europe's freight industry. It has also helped connect Morocco to countries in the Mediterranean, Africa, and America. The port has allowed Tangier to become a more globalised city with new international opportunities that will help facilitate economic growth. The construction and operation of the port aimed to create 120,000 new jobs, 20,000 at the port and 100,000 resulting from growing economic activity.

Agriculture in the area of Tangier is tertiary and mainly cereal. The city is chiefly famed for tangerines, a kind of mandarin orange hybrid first grown in the orchards then once south of the medina, but it was never commonly exported. As early as 1900, local consumption had already outstripped supply and required imports from Tetuan and elsewhere. Mass farming of tangerines instead began in Florida in the United States, where the first tree was introduced at Palatka by a Major Atway sometime before 1843.

Artisanal trade in the medina ("Old City") specialises mainly in leather working, handicrafts made from wood and silver, traditional clothing, and Moroccan-style shoes.

The city has grown quickly due to rural exodus from other smaller cities and villages. The 2014 population is more than three-times larger than 32 years ago (850.000 inhabitants in 2014 vs. 250,000 in 1982). This phenomenon has resulted in the appearance of peripheral suburban districts, mainly inhabited by poor people, that often lack sufficient infrastructure.

In 2023 Tangier hosted the Connect route development forum.

Notable landmarks
The old town is still surrounded by the remains of what was once more than 2000 yd of stone rampart. Most of it dates to the town's Portuguese occupation, with restoration work later undertaken at different times. Three major bastions were the Irish Tower (Bordj al-Naʿam), York Castle (Bordj dar al-Barud), and the Bordj al-Salam.

 * Medina (old city)
 * Kasbah Palace, former residence of the governors of Tangier, built on the site of the former English Upper Castle, now Museum of Mediterranean Cultures
 * Kasbah Mosque
 * Purported tomb of Ibn Battuta
 * Petit Socco, central square of the lower (southern) section of the medina
 * Rue Es-Siaghine leading to the Petit Socco
 * Dar Niaba
 * Church of the Immaculate Conception
 * Grand Mosque of Tangier
 * Hotel Continental
 * Beit Yehuda Synagogue
 * Avraham Toledano Synagogue
 * Former American Legation
 * Fondation Lorin
 * Musée de Carmen-Macein
 * Extra-muros downtown
 * Lalla Abla Mosque on the port
 * Grand Socco, former marketplace and central city square outside the old city walls
 * Mendoubia palace, now a museum of Moroccan resistance against colonialism, and its surrounding park on former cemeteries
 * Sidi Bou Abib Mosque
 * St Andrew's Church
 * Museum of Contemporary Art in the former British Consulate
 * Roman Catholic Cathedral of Tangier
 * Abdelhafid Palace
 * Mohammed V Mosque
 * French Consulate General at the start of Boulevard Pasteur
 * Moroccan Debt Administration building, now tourist office
 * Gran Teatro Cervantes
 * French Church of Tangier
 * New Palace of Arts and Cultures, is an architectural masterpiece that will play a central role in the 2024 International Jazz Day celebration.
 * Marshan neighbourhood
 * Mendoub's Residence
 * Marshan Palace, Tangier
 * Stade de Marchan
 * Café Hafa
 * Further outskirts
 * Cape Malabata
 * Plaza de Toros, Tangier's bullring
 * Charf Hill
 * Fondation pour la photographie Tanger
 * Perdicaris Park
 * Cape Spartel
 * Caves of Hercules

Transport
Railway lines connect Tanger-Ville railway station with Rabat, Casablanca and Marrakesh in the south, and with Fes and Oujda in the east. The service is operated by ONCF. In November 2018 Africa's first high-speed train, the Kenitra–Tangier high-speed rail line, was inaugurated, linking Tangier to Casablanca in 2 hours, 10 minutes. By 2020 improvements between Casablanca and Kenitra are planned to further reduce the journey to 1 hour and 30 minutes.

The Rabat–Tangier expressway connects Tangier to Fes via Rabat 250 km, and Settat via Casablanca 330 km and Tanger-Med port. The Ibn Batouta International Airport (formerly known as Tangier-Boukhalef) is 15 km south-west of the city centre.

The new Tanger-Med port is managed by the Danish firm A. P. Moller–Maersk Group and will free up the old port for tourist and recreational development.

Tangier's Ibn Batouta International Airport and the rail tunnel will serve as the gateway to the Moroccan Riviera, the littoral area between Tangier and Oujda. Traditionally, the northern coast was a rural stronghold, with some of the best beaches on the Mediterranean. It is slated for rapid urban development. The Ibn Batouta International Airport has been modernised to accommodate more flights. The biggest airline at the airport is Royal Air Maroc.

Education
Tangier offers four types of education systems: Arabic, French, Spanish and English. Each offers classes starting from pre-Kindergarten up to the 12th grade, as for German in the three last years of high school. The Baccalauréat, or high school diploma are the diplomas offered after clearing the 12 grades.

Many universities are inside and outside the city. Universities like the Institut Supérieur International de Tourisme (ISIT), which grants diplomas, offer courses ranging from business administration to hotel management. The institute is one of the most prestigious tourism schools in the country. Other colleges such as the École Nationale de Commerce et de Gestion (ENCG-T) is among the biggest business schools in the country as well as École Nationale des Sciences appliquées (ENSA-T), a rising engineering school for applied sciences. University known as Abdelmaled Essaadi holding many what they mainly known as faculties; Law, Economics and Social sciences (FSJEST) and the FST of Technical Sciences. and the most attended Institut of ISTA of the OFPPT.

Primary education
There are more than a hundred Moroccan primary schools, dispersed across the city. Private and public schools, they offer education in Arabic, French and some school English until the 5th grade. Mathematics, Arts, Science Activities and nonreligious modules are commonly taught in the primary school.

International primary institutions

 * American School of Tangier
 * École Adrien Berchet (French primary school)
 * Groupe scolaire Le Détroit (French school)
 * Colegio Ramón y Cajal (Spanish primary school)
 * English College of Tangier

International high schools

 * American School of Tangier
 * Lycée Regnault de Tanger (French high school)
 * Groupe scolaire Le Détroit (French school)
 * Instituto Español Severo Ochoa (Spanish high school)
 * English College of Tangier
 * Mohammed Fatih Turkish School of Tangier
 * Tangier Anglo Moroccan School

Culture

"Never in my life have I observed anything more bizarre than the first sight of Tangier. It is a tale out of the Thousand and One Nights... A prodigious mix of races and costumes...This whole world moves about with an activity that seems feverish."

When Count de Mornay traveled to Morocco in 1832 to establish a treaty supportive of the recent French annexation of Algeria, he took along the Romantic painter Eugène Delacroix. Delacroix not only reveled in the orientalism of the place; he also took it as a new and living model for his works on classical antiquity: "The Greeks and Romans are here at my door, in the Arabs who wrap themselves in a white blanket and look like Cato or Brutus..." He sketched and painted watercolours continuously, writing at the time "I am like a man in a dream, seeing things he fears will vanish from him." He returned to his sketches and memories of North Africa for the rest of his career, with 80 oil paintings like The Fanatics of Tangier and Women of Algiers becoming legendary and influential on artists such as Van Gogh, Gauguin, and Picasso. They were particularly struck by the quality of the light: to Cézanne, "All this luminous colour... seems... that it enters the eye like a glass of wine running into your gullet and it makes you drunk straight away". Tangier subsequently became an obligatory stop for artists seeking to experience the colours and light he spoke of for themselves—with varying results. Matisse made several sojourns in Tangier, always staying at the Grand Hotel Villa de France. "I have found landscapes in Morocco," he claimed, "exactly as they are described in Delacroix's paintings." His students in turn had their own; the Californian artist Richard Diebenkorn was directly influenced by the haunting colours and rhythmic patterns of Matisse's Morocco paintings.

The multicultural placement of Muslim, Christian and Jewish communities and the foreign immigrants attracted writer George Orwell, writer and composer Paul Bowles, playwright Tennessee Williams, the beat writers William S. Burroughs, Allen Ginsberg and Jack Kerouac, the painter Brion Gysin and the music group the Rolling Stones, who all lived in or visited Tangier during different periods of the 20th century.

In the 1940s and until 1956 when the city was an International Zone, the city served as a playground for eccentric millionaires, a meeting place for secret agents and a variety of crooks and a mecca for speculators and gamblers, an Eldorado for the fun-loving "Haute Volée". During the Second World War the Office of Strategic Services operated out of Tangier for various operations in North Africa.

Around the same time, a circle of writers emerged which was to have a profound and lasting literary influence. This included Paul Bowles, who lived and wrote for over half a century in the city, Tennessee Williams and Jean Genet as well as Mohamed Choukri (one of North Africa's most controversial and widely read authors), Abdeslam Boulaich, Larbi Layachi, Mohammed Mrabet and Ahmed Yacoubi. Among the best known works from this period is Choukri's For Bread Alone. Originally written in Classical Arabic, the English edition was the result of close collaboration with Bowles (who worked with Choukri to provide the translation and supplied the introduction). Tennessee Williams described it as "a true document of human desperation, shattering in its impact." Independently, William S. Burroughs lived in Tangier for four years and wrote Naked Lunch, whose locale of Interzone is an allusion to the city.

After several years of gradual disentanglement from Spanish and French colonial control, Morocco reintegrated the city of Tangier at the signing of the Tangier Protocol on 29 October 1956. Tangier remains a very popular tourist destination for cruise ships and day visitors from Spain and Gibraltar.

Language
Most of the inhabitants of Tangier speak a very distinctive variety of Moroccan Arabic which differs from other Darija counterparts. The difference resides in pronunciation, tempo, grammar and a unique vocabulary. Arabic is used in government documentation and on road signs together with French. French is taught in primary schools and high schools and used in universities and large businesses. Spanish is well understood and spoken fluently, mainly exclusively by Tangierian locals. English, on the other hand, has been and still is used in tourist sectors.

The autochthonous population of Tangier has been declining drastically since the mid-2000s, as many locals, especially those from the younger generations, have moved to nearby Spain. While the industrial sector is expanding constantly, the internal immigration from the south to north is increasing rapidly. As a consequence, the Tangierian dialect is losing its distinctiveness or is being altered (in a recent study, social media has been depicted as one of these factors).

Nowadays, the Tangierian dialect is less prominent in public places, with the southern Darija dialect being more common in the area, to the extent that some observers question if Tangier retains its identity as it was before.

Religion
Due to its Christian past before the Muslim conquest, it remains a titular see of the Roman Catholic Church. Originally, the city was part of the larger Roman province of Mauretania Caesariensis, which included much of North Africa. Later the area was subdivided, with the eastern part keeping the former name and the newer part receiving the name of Mauretania Tingitana. It is not known exactly at what period there may have been an episcopal see at Tangier in ancient times, but in the Middle Ages Tangier was used as a titular see (i.e., an honorific fiction for the appointment of curial and auxiliary bishops), placing it in Mauretania Tingitana. For the historical reasons given above, one official list of the Roman Curia places the see in Mauretania Caesarea.

Towards the end of the 3rd century, Tangier was the scene of the martyrdoms of St.Marcellus, mentioned in the Roman Martyrology on 30 October, and of St.Cassian, mentioned on 3 December.

Under the Portuguese, the diocese of Tangier was a suffragan of Lisbon but, in 1570, it was united with the diocese of Ceuta. Six Bishops of Tangier from this period are known, the first—who did not reside in his see—in 1468. During the era of the French and Spanish protectorates over Morocco, Tangier was the residence of the Prefect Apostolic of Morocco, the mission having been founded on 28 November 1630 and entrusted to the Friars Minor. At the time, it had a Catholic church, several chapels, schools and a hospital. The Prefecture Apostolic was raised to the status of Vicariate Apostolic of Morocco on 14 April 1908. On 14 November 1956, it became the Archdiocese of Tangier. The city also has the Anglican church of Saint Andrew. Since independence in 1956, the European population has decreased substantially. In the years leading up to the First World War, European Christians formed almost a quarter the population of Tangier. The city also is still home to a small community of Moroccan Christians, as well as a small group of foreign Roman Catholic and Protestant residents.

Jews have a long history in Tangier. In the years leading up to the First World War, Jews formed almost a quarter the population of Tangier. According to the World Jewish Congress there were only 150 Moroccan Jews remaining in Tangier.

Sport
Tangierians regard football as the primary entertainment when it comes to sport-material. There are several football fields around the city. Tangier would have been one of the host cities for the 2015 Africa Cup of Nations football tournament, which would be played at the new Ibn Batouta Stadium and in other cities across Morocco, until Morocco was banned from participating the Africa Cup of Nations due to their denial. Instead Tangier will host matches for the 2025 edition after Guinea withdraw from hosting. It could also host matches for the 2030 FIFA World Cup.

Basketball comes the second most practised sport in Tangier. The city is known for their local teams IRT, Ajax Tanger, Juventus Tangier and so on.

National Cricket Stadium is the only top-class cricket stadium in Morocco. Stadium hosted its first International Tournament from 12 to 21 August 2002. Pakistan, South Africa and Sri Lanka competed in a 50-overs one day triangular series. The International Cricket Council has granted international status to the Tangier Cricket Stadium, official approval that will allow it to become North Africa's first international cricket venue.

Museums
The Museum of the American Legation, whose building was granted to the United States in 1821 by the Sultan Moulay Suliman served as a consulate of the United States and a later legation, as well as a high traffic post for the intelligence agents of the Second World War and a Peace Corps training facility. Today, its courtyards and narrow corridors serve as an elaborate museum that demonstrates relations between the United States and Morocco and the Moroccan heritage, including a wing dedicated to Paul Bowles, where you can see the documents and photographs of the writer donated to the museum by the gallerist and friend of the writer Gloria Kirby in 2010.

Fondation Lorin (Musée de la Fondation Lorin) opened in 1930 in a former synagogue. In addition to art, there are newspapers, photographs and posters on display.

Espionage
Tangier has been reputed as a safe house for international spying activities. Its position during the Cold War and during other spying periods of the 19th and 20th centuries is legendary.

Tangier acquired the reputation of a spying and smuggling centre and attracted foreign capital due to political neutrality and commercial liberty at that time. It was via a British bank in Tangier that the Bank of England in 1943 for the first time obtained samples of the high-quality forged British currency produced by the Nazis in "Operation Bernhard".

The city has also been a subject for many spy fiction books and films.

Notable people

 * Ibn Battuta (1304–1378), Moroccan scholar and traveler who went on a worldwide quest.
 * Roger Elliott (c. 1665–1714), first British Governor of Gibraltar
 * Alexander Spotswood (1676–1740), American Lieutenant-Colonel and Lieutenant Governor of Virginia.
 * Ion Hanford Perdicaris (1840–1925), Greek-American author, lawyer and painter; he became the unofficial head of Tangier's foreign community
 * Alexandre Rey Colaço (1854–1928), Portuguese pianist
 * Walter Burton Harris (1866–1933), journalist, writer, traveller and socialite
 * Heinz Tietjen (1881–1967), German music composer
 * Abdullah al-Ghumari (1910–1993), Muslim cleric, scholar of hadith, jurist and theologian
 * Paul Bowles (1910–1999), American writer, composer and ethnomusicologist
 * William S. Burroughs (1914–1997), Beat Generation writer, wrote Naked Lunch during the 1950s in Tangier.
 * Abderrahmane Youssoufi (1924–2020), former Prime Minister of Morocco
 * Ahmed Yacoubi (1928–1985), international painter and storyteller
 * Samuel Toledano (1929–1996), Spanish-Jewish prominent leader of the Jewish community in Spain
 * Claude-Jean Philippe (1933–2016), French film critic
 * Emmanuel Hocquard (1940–2019), French poet
 * Jean-Luc Mélenchon (born 1951), French politician, currently MEP
 * Ralph Benmergui (born 1955), Canadian TV and radio host at the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation
 * Helena Maleno (born 1970), human rights defender, journalist and writer
 * Karim Debbagh (born 1972), Moroccan film producer
 * Yasser Harrak (born c. 1975), writer and human rights activist.
 * Sanaa Hamri (born 1977), Moroccan music video director.
 * Ali Boussaboun (born 1979), former international footballer with 12 caps for Morocco
 * Zakaria Ramhani (born 1983), visual artist

Twin towns – sister cities
Tangier is twinned with:

 * 🇪🇸 Algeciras, Spain
 * 🇹🇳 Bizerte, Tunisia
 * 🇪🇸 Cádiz, Spain
 * Da Nang, Vietnam
 * Faro, Portugal
 * 🇧🇪 Liège, Belgium
 * 🇫🇷 Metz, France
 * 🇫🇷 Puteaux, France
 * 🇷🇪 Saint-Denis, Réunion, France
 * 🇧🇪 Saint-Josse-ten-Noode, Belgium
 * 🇨🇱 Santiago, Chile
 * Sétif, Algeria

 * 🇧🇷 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

General bibliography

 * Elbl, Martin Malcolm (2021), "A Tale of Two Breakwaters: Modelling Portuguese and English Works in the Port of Tangier Bathymetric Space — 1500s–1683" Portuguese Studies Review, vol. No. 29, pp. 55–136.
 * Haller, Dieter (2021). Tangier/Gibraltar: A Tale of One City—An Ethnography. Bielefeld: Transcript.
 * Elbl, Martin Malcolm (2021), "A Tale of Two Breakwaters: Modelling Portuguese and English Works in the Port of Tangier Bathymetric Space — 1500s–1683" Portuguese Studies Review, vol. No. 29, pp. 55–136.
 * Haller, Dieter (2021). Tangier/Gibraltar: A Tale of One City—An Ethnography. Bielefeld: Transcript.
 * Elbl, Martin Malcolm (2021), "A Tale of Two Breakwaters: Modelling Portuguese and English Works in the Port of Tangier Bathymetric Space — 1500s–1683" Portuguese Studies Review, vol. No. 29, pp. 55–136.
 * Haller, Dieter (2021). Tangier/Gibraltar: A Tale of One City—An Ethnography. Bielefeld: Transcript.
 * Elbl, Martin Malcolm (2021), "A Tale of Two Breakwaters: Modelling Portuguese and English Works in the Port of Tangier Bathymetric Space — 1500s–1683" Portuguese Studies Review, vol. No. 29, pp. 55–136.
 * Haller, Dieter (2021). Tangier/Gibraltar: A Tale of One City—An Ethnography. Bielefeld: Transcript.
 * Elbl, Martin Malcolm (2021), "A Tale of Two Breakwaters: Modelling Portuguese and English Works in the Port of Tangier Bathymetric Space — 1500s–1683" Portuguese Studies Review, vol. No. 29, pp. 55–136.
 * Haller, Dieter (2021). Tangier/Gibraltar: A Tale of One City—An Ethnography. Bielefeld: Transcript.
 * Elbl, Martin Malcolm (2021), "A Tale of Two Breakwaters: Modelling Portuguese and English Works in the Port of Tangier Bathymetric Space — 1500s–1683" Portuguese Studies Review, vol. No. 29, pp. 55–136.
 * Haller, Dieter (2021). Tangier/Gibraltar: A Tale of One City—An Ethnography. Bielefeld: Transcript.
 * Elbl, Martin Malcolm (2021), "A Tale of Two Breakwaters: Modelling Portuguese and English Works in the Port of Tangier Bathymetric Space — 1500s–1683" Portuguese Studies Review, vol. No. 29, pp. 55–136.
 * Haller, Dieter (2021). Tangier/Gibraltar: A Tale of One City—An Ethnography. Bielefeld: Transcript.
 * Haller, Dieter (2021). Tangier/Gibraltar: A Tale of One City—An Ethnography. Bielefeld: Transcript.
 * Haller, Dieter (2021). Tangier/Gibraltar: A Tale of One City—An Ethnography. Bielefeld: Transcript.
 * Haller, Dieter (2021). Tangier/Gibraltar: A Tale of One City—An Ethnography. Bielefeld: Transcript.
 * Haller, Dieter (2021). Tangier/Gibraltar: A Tale of One City—An Ethnography. Bielefeld: Transcript.

title: Tangier


text:
Angular bone

The angular is a large bone in the lower jaw (mandible) of amphibians and reptiles (birds included), which is connected to all other lower jaw bones: the dentary (which is the entire lower jaw in mammals), the splenial, the suprangular, and the articular. It is homologous to the tympanic bone in mammals, due to the incorporation of several jaw bones into the mammalian middle ear early in mammal evolution.

In therapsids (mammal ancestors and their kin), the lower jaw is made up of the dentary (the mandible in mammals) and a group of smaller "postdentary" bones near the jaw joint. As the dentary increased in size over million of years, two of these postdentary bones, the articular and angular, became increasingly reduced and the dentary eventually made direct contact with the upper jaw. These postdentary bones, even before their articular function was lost, probably transmitted sound vibrations to the stapes and, in some therapsids, a bent plate that might have supported a membrane capable of detecting vibrations developed on the angular. Eventually, it developed into the ectotympanic ring which supports the tympanic membrane in the ears of modern mammals.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Angular bone


text:
Talk:Cate Tiernan

Untitled
Copied from an anonymous (195.93.48.9) contribution to the personal page of the apparently non-existent Wikipedia user User:Bloodwitch:

 * Hi, i think Cate Tienan is that best. Her books have inspired me so much and in a way helped me.A first, i thought reading was boring, but i was looking in a book store once, when i came across book of shadows. The front cover looked interesting, so i picked it up and read that back. I decided to but the book. When i got home i couldn't put the book down, i finished it in two days. At the time i didn't know that book of shadows was the first of a siers of book, but when i did find out i was ovewr the moon!

 * The thing i like about Cate tiernan is the way she ends her books. She leaves you hanging there wanting to read more. If you have read her books you will know what i am talking about. Another thing i like about her books, is that her books are not just aboutwitchcraft, but they are also about a normal tennage love life and life at home. At the end of each of her books they always leave me wondering what it would be like to be a blood witch.

 * I heard that Full Circle would be that last book annd that made me very upset, also living in engaland i have to wait longer for the books to comeout. Next year i plan to go to america and get the hole of the series of books as i am not very good at waiting for things(according to my mum!) cate tiernan e considerada a melhor altora de livros bom em minha opiniao

 * I never thought reading could be so fun. Once when i had finished reading i thought i had just finished watching a flim. I think Cate Tiernan should make her siries of book into a flim and that might get more people to read the books.

 * I don't think there is any one quite like Cate Tiernan. Keep up the good work!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

That's not NPOV, of course, so don't include it verbatim in the article... --FvdP 23:29, 4 Aug 2003 (UTC)

this is a cool book

Image of Cate Tiernan
If possible, can a better picture of Tiernan be put up since the current one is very unclear.--Spaztic ming 17:02, 29 May 2006 (UTC)

Change Article Title?
The title of this article is a pseudonym -- I have found the woman's real name, and have rewritten the article on that basis. At this point, I would think the article should be retitled with her real name, and the pseudonym redirected to it -- but as a relative Wikipedia neophyte, I'm not sure how to do that without screwing it up. So I've just added the new information I found, and I leave it to a more experienced editor to retitle the article and do a redirect for "Cate Tiernan" -- if that is indeed what should be done.DoctorJoeE (talk) 06:13, 1 July 2010 (UTC)

 * I don't think so. She's most well known as Cate Tiernan, and it's sort of an unwritten rule that that's how people with pseudonyms should be listed. 66.30.63.155 (talk) 02:35, 14 July 2010 (UTC)

 * Sounds reasonable - that's why I didn't change it: I couldn't find any guidelines in either direction. (And because I didn't know how...)DoctorJoeE (talk) 04:09, 14 July 2010 (UTC)

 * So should the two links to Gabrielle Charbonnet be redirected or changed? BTW, an article from 2008 says that the four Maximum Ride books which had been published then have "an uncredited co-writer, Gabrielle Charbonnet". Thanks in advance! --Kletta (talk) 06:34, 4 December 2010 (UTC)

Possible COI
To user Gcharbonnet: Welcome to Wikipedia.

I noticed your edits to this article, and given your user name, I thought it at least possible that you might be Gabrielle Charbonnet. If I am wrong, please disregard this message and accept my apology for the intrusion. If I am correct, please read on.

Wikipedia Conflict of Interest guidelines, WP:COI for short, address the issues surrounding individuals/organizations editing articles about themselves. Please read that entire policy. Anyone associated with either Cate Tiernan or her books must abide by WP:COI in this article. Simply put, this means that you cannot make changes yourself; you need to request them on this Talk Page for review and (likely) incorporation.

Per the guidelines, please post a formal Declaration of Interest here, if you plan to contribute further.

Also, please take the time to read WP:Welcome to Wikipedia and WP:Five pillars, and help improve this article with reliable third-party verifiable sources. Thanks! DoctorJoeE (talk) 05:03, 7 December 2010 (UTC)

External links modified
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External links modified
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title: Talk:Cate Tiernan


text:
Soft tissue

Soft tissue connects and surrounds or supports internal organs and bones, and includes muscle, tendons, ligaments, fat, fibrous tissue, lymph and blood vessels, fasciae, and synovial membranes. Soft tissue is tissue in the body that is not hardened by the processes of ossification or calcification such as bones and teeth.

It is sometimes defined by what it is not – such as "nonepithelial, extraskeletal mesenchyme exclusive of the reticuloendothelial system and glia".

Composition
The characteristic substances inside the extracellular matrix of soft tissue are the collagen, elastin and ground substance. Normally the soft tissue is very hydrated because of the ground substance. The fibroblasts are the most common cell responsible for the production of soft tissues' fibers and ground substance. Variations of fibroblasts, like chondroblasts, may also produce these substances.

Mechanical characteristics
At small strains, elastin confers stiffness to the tissue and stores most of the strain energy. The collagen fibers are comparatively inextensible and are usually loose (wavy, crimped). With increasing tissue deformation the collagen is gradually stretched in the direction of deformation. When taut, these fibers produce a strong growth in tissue stiffness. The composite behavior is analogous to a nylon stocking, whose rubber band does the role of elastin as the nylon does the role of collagen. In soft tissues, the collagen limits the deformation and protects the tissues from injury.

Human soft tissue is highly deformable, and its mechanical properties vary significantly from one person to another. Impact testing results showed that the stiffness and the damping resistance of a test subject's tissue are correlated with the mass, velocity, and size of the striking object. Such properties may be useful for forensics investigation when contusions were induced. When a solid object impacts a human soft tissue, the energy of the impact will be absorbed by the tissues to reduce the effect of the impact or the pain level; subjects with more soft tissue thickness tended to absorb the impacts with less aversion.

Soft tissues have the potential to undergo large deformations and still return to the initial configuration when unloaded, i.e. they are hyperelastic materials, and their stress-strain curve is nonlinear. The soft tissues are also viscoelastic, incompressible and usually anisotropic. Some viscoelastic properties observable in soft tissues are: relaxation, creep and hysteresis. In order to describe the mechanical response of soft tissues, several methods have been used. These methods include: hyperelastic macroscopic models based on strain energy, mathematical fits where nonlinear constitutive equations are used, and structurally based models where the response of a linear elastic material is modified by its geometric characteristics.

Pseudoelasticity
Even though soft tissues have viscoelastic properties, i.e. stress as function of strain rate, it can be approximated by a hyperelastic model after precondition to a load pattern. After some cycles of loading and unloading the material, the mechanical response becomes independent of strain rate.
 * $$\mathbf{S}=\mathbf{S}(\mathbf{E},\dot{\mathbf{E}}) \quad\rightarrow\quad \mathbf{S}=\mathbf{S}(\mathbf{E})$$

Despite the independence of strain rate, preconditioned soft tissues still present hysteresis, so the mechanical response can be modeled as hyperelastic with different material constants at loading and unloading. By this method the elasticity theory is used to model an inelastic material. Fung has called this model as pseudoelastic to point out that the material is not truly elastic.

Residual stress
In physiological state soft tissues usually present residual stress that may be released when the tissue is excised. Physiologists and histologists must be aware of this fact to avoid mistakes when analyzing excised tissues. This retraction usually causes a visual artifact.

Fung-elastic material
Fung developed a constitutive equation for preconditioned soft tissues which is
 * $$W = \frac{1}{2}\left[q + c\left( e^Q -1 \right) \right]$$

with
 * $$q=a_{ijkl}E_{ij}E_{kl} \qquad Q=b_{ijkl}E_{ij}E_{kl}$$

quadratic forms of Green-Lagrange strains $$E_{ij}$$ and $$a_{ijkl}$$, $$b_{ijkl}$$ and $$c$$ material constants. $$W$$ is the strain energy function per volume unit, which is the mechanical strain energy for a given temperature.

Isotropic simplification
The Fung-model, simplified with isotropic hypothesis (same mechanical properties in all directions). This written in respect of the principal stretches ($$\lambda_i$$):
 * $$W = \frac{1}{2}\left[a(\lambda_1^2 + \lambda_2^2 + \lambda_3^2 - 3) + b\left( e^{c(\lambda_1^2 + \lambda_2^2 + \lambda_3^2 - 3)} -1 \right) \right]$$ ,

where a, b and c are constants.

Simplification for small and big stretches
For small strains, the exponential term is very small, thus negligible.
 * $$W = \frac{1}{2}a_{ijkl}E_{ij}E_{kl}$$

On the other hand, the linear term is negligible when the analysis rely only on big strains.
 * $$W = \frac{1}{2}c\left( e^{b_{ijkl}E_{ij}E_{kl}} -1 \right)$$

Gent-elastic material

 * $$W = - \frac{\mu J_m}{2} \ln \left(1 - \left( \frac{\lambda_1^2 + \lambda_2^2 + \lambda_3^2 - 3}{J_m} \right) \right)$$

where $$\mu > 0$$ is the shear modulus for infinitesimal strains and $$J_m > 0$$ is a stiffening parameter, associated with limiting chain extensibility. This constitutive model cannot be stretched in uni-axial tension beyond a maximal stretch $$J_m$$, which is the positive root of

 * $$\lambda_m^2 + 2\lambda_m - J_m - 3 = 1 $$

Remodeling and growth
Soft tissues have the potential to grow and remodel reacting to chemical and mechanical long term changes. The rate the fibroblasts produce tropocollagen is proportional to these stimuli. Diseases, injuries and changes in the level of mechanical load may induce remodeling. An example of this phenomenon is the thickening of farmer's hands. The remodeling of connective tissues is well known in bones by the Wolff's law (bone remodeling). Mechanobiology is the science that study the relation between stress and growth at cellular level.

Growth and remodeling have a major role in the cause of some common soft tissue diseases, like arterial stenosis and aneurisms and any soft tissue fibrosis. Other instance of tissue remodeling is the thickening of the cardiac muscle in response to the growth of blood pressure detected by the arterial wall.

Imaging techniques
There are certain issues that have to be kept in mind when choosing an imaging technique for visualizing soft tissue extracellular matrix (ECM) components. The accuracy of the image analysis relies on the properties and the quality of the raw data and, therefore, the choice of the imaging technique must be based upon issues such as:
 * 1) Having an optimal resolution for the components of interest;
 * 2) Achieving high contrast of those components;
 * 3) Keeping the artifact count low;
 * 4) Having the option of volume data acquisition;
 * 5) Keeping the data volume low;
 * 6) Establishing an easy and reproducible setup for tissue analysis.

The collagen fibers are approximately 1-2 μm thick. Thus, the resolution of the imaging technique needs to be approximately 0.5 μm. Some techniques allow the direct acquisition of volume data while other need the slicing of the specimen. In both cases, the volume that is extracted must be able to follow the fiber bundles across the volume. High contrast makes segmentation easier, especially when color information is available. In addition, the need for fixation must also be addressed. It has been shown that soft tissue fixation in formalin causes shrinkage, altering the structure of the original tissue. Some typical values of contraction for different fixation are: formalin (5% - 10%), alcohol (10%), bouin (<5%).

Imaging methods used in ECM visualization and their properties.

Clinical significance
Soft tissue disorders are medical conditions affecting soft tissue. Soft tissue injuries are some of the most chronically painful and difficult conditions to treat because it is very difficult to see what is going on under the skin with the soft connective tissues, fascia, joints, muscles and tendons.

Musculoskeletal specialists, manual therapists, neuromuscular physiologists and neurologists specialize in treating injuries and ailments in the soft tissue areas of the body. These specialized clinicians often develop innovative ways to manipulate the soft tissue to speed natural healing and relieve the mysterious pain that often accompanies soft tissue injuries. This area of expertise has become known as soft tissue therapy and is rapidly expanding as technology continues to improve the ability of these specialists to identify problem areas.

A promising new method of treating wounds and soft tissue injuries is via platelet-derived growth factor.

There is a close overlap between the term "soft tissue disorder" and rheumatism. Sometimes the term "soft tissue rheumatic disorders" is used to describe these conditions.

Soft tissue sarcomas are many types of cancer that can develop in the soft tissues.

title: Soft tissue


text:
Gary Ridgway

Gary Leon Ridgway (born February 18, 1949) is an American serial killer known as the Green River Killer. He was initially convicted of 48 separate murders committed between the early 1980s and late 1990s. As part of his plea bargain, another conviction was added, bringing the total number of convictions to 49, making him the second-most prolific serial killer in United States history according to confirmed murders.

Most of Ridgway's victims were alleged to be sex workers and other women in vulnerable circumstances, including underage runaways. Before his identity was known, the media gave him his nickname after the first five victims were found in the Green River. He strangled his victims, usually by hand but sometimes using ligatures. After strangling them, he would dump their bodies in forested and overgrown areas in King County, often returning to the bodies to engage in acts of necrophilia.

Ridgway had been a suspect in the murders since 1982; however, investigators were unable to link him to the murders at that time. Later advances in DNA profiling allowed investigators to definitively link Ridgway to the murders, and he was arrested on November 30, 2001, as he was leaving the Kenworth truck factory where he worked in Renton, Washington. As part of a plea bargain wherein he agreed to disclose the locations of still-missing women, he was spared the death penalty and received a sentence of life imprisonment without the possibility of parole.

Early life
Gary Leon Ridgway was born on February 18, 1949, in Salt Lake City, Utah, the second of Mary and Thomas Ridgway's three sons. His home life was somewhat troubled; relatives have described his mother as domineering and have said that, while young, he witnessed more than one violent argument between his parents. His father was a bus driver who would often complain about the presence of sex workers.

Ridgway had a bed-wetting problem until he was 13, and his mother would forcefully wash his genitals after every episode. He would later tell defense psychologists that, as an adolescent, he had conflicting feelings of anger and sexual attraction toward his mother, and fantasized about killing her.

Ridgway is dyslexic, and was held back a year in high school. When he was 16, he stabbed a six-year-old boy who survived the attack. Ridgway had led the boy into the woods and then stabbed him through the ribs into his liver.

Ridgway's IQ was recorded as being in the "low eighties".

Adult life
Ridgway graduated from Tyee High School in 1969 and married his 19-year-old high school girlfriend, Claudia Kraig. He joined the United States Navy and was sent to Vietnam, where he served on board a supply ship and saw combat. During his time in the military, Ridgway had frequent sexual intercourse with sex workers and contracted gonorrhea; although angered by this, he continued this activity without protection. The marriage ended within a year.

When questioned about Ridgway after his arrest, friends and family described him as friendly but strange. His first two marriages resulted in divorce because of infidelities by both partners. His second wife, Marcia Winslow, claimed that he had placed her in a chokehold. He became religious during his second marriage, proselytizing door-to-door, reading the Bible aloud at work and at home, and insisting that his wife follow the strict teachings of their pastor. Ridgway would also frequently cry after sermons or reading the Bible. Despite his beliefs, Ridgway continued to solicit the services of sex workers and wanted his wife to participate in sex in public and inappropriate places, sometimes even in areas where his victims' bodies were later discovered.

According to women in his life, Ridgway had an insatiable sexual appetite. His three ex-wives and several ex-girlfriends reported that he demanded sex from them several times a day. Often, he would want to have sex in a public area or in the woods. Ridgway himself admitted to having a fixation with sex workers, with whom he had a love/hate relationship. He frequently complained about their presence in his neighborhood, but he also took advantage of their services regularly. In a statement read at his plea hearing, Gary Ridgway said he hated prostitutes and didn't want to pay them for sex. Some have speculated that Ridgway was torn between his lusts and his staunch religious beliefs.

With his second wife Marcia, Ridgway had a son.

Murders

Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Ridgway is believed to have murdered at least 71 teenage girls and women near Seattle and Tacoma, Washington. In court statements, Ridgway later reported that he had killed so many that he lost count. A majority of the murders occurred between 1982 and 1984. The victims were believed to be either sex workers or runaways, whom he picked up along Pacific Highway South. Ridgway sometimes showed the women a picture of his son, to trick them into trusting him. They would engage in sexual activity, and after minutes of intercourse from behind, Ridgway would wrap his forearm around the front of their necks and use the other arm to pull back as tightly as he could, strangling them. He killed most victims in his home, his truck, or a secluded area. Most of their bodies were dumped in wooded areas around the Green River, Seattle–Tacoma International Airport, and other "dump sites" within South King County.

There were also two confirmed and another two suspected victims found in the Portland, Oregon, area. The bodies were often left in clusters, sometimes posed, usually nude. He would sometimes return to the victims' bodies and engage in necrophilia with their bodies. Ridgway later explained that he did not find necrophilia more sexually satisfying, but having sex with the deceased reduced his need to obtain a living victim and thus limited his exposure to being caught. Ridgway occasionally contaminated the dump sites with gum, cigarettes, and written materials belonging to others, and he even transported a few victims' remains across state lines into Oregon, to confuse the police.

1982–1984: First known victims
The body of Ridgway's first known victim was found in July 1982. A unique kind of spray paint was found on clothing wrapped around the victim's neck, but the paint was not tested for 20 years. If it had been tested at the time, it would have been easier to link the murder to Ridgway. After four more victims were found, the King County Sheriff's Office formed the Green River Task Force to investigate the murders. Task force members included Robert Keppel and Dave Reichert, who periodically interviewed incarcerated serial killer Ted Bundy in 1984. Bundy offered his opinions on the psychology, motivations, and behavior of the killer. He suggested that the killer was revisiting the dump sites to have sex with his victims, which turned out to be true, and if police found a fresh grave, they should stake it out and wait for him to come back. Also contributing to the investigation was FBI Special Agent John E. Douglas, who developed a profile of the suspect.

Ridgway was arrested in 1982 and 2001 on charges related to prostitution. He became a suspect in the Green River killings in 1983, when 18-year-old Marie Malvar disappeared. Her boyfriend and her pimp later found a truck in front of Ridgway's house which they thought was the same one she had boarded the day she went missing. Ridgway was interviewed in conjunction with that event, and police received several other tips that mentioned him. In 1984, he passed a polygraph test.

1985–2001: Marriage with Judith Mawson, arrest for murder
Around 1985, Ridgway began dating Judith Mawson, who became his third wife in 1988. Mawson claimed in a 2010 television interview that when she moved into his house while they were dating, there was no carpet. Detectives later told her he had probably wrapped a body in the carpet. In the same interview, she described how he would leave for work early in the morning some days, ostensibly for the overtime pay. Mawson speculated that he must have committed some of the murders while supposedly working these early morning shifts. She claimed that she had not suspected Ridgway's crimes before she was contacted by authorities in 1987, and had not even heard of the Green River Killer before that time because she did not watch the news. Ridgway said that while he was in the relationship with Mawson, his kill rate went down and that he truly loved her. Of his 49 known victims, only three were killed after he married Mawson. Mawson told a local television reporter, "I feel I have saved lives ... by being his wife and making him happy."

On April 7, 1987, police took hair and saliva samples from Ridgway. The samples collected in 1987 were later subjected to DNA profiling, providing the evidence for his arrest warrant. On November 30, 2001, he was at the Kenworth truck factory, where he worked as a spray painter, when police arrived to arrest him. Ridgway was arrested on suspicion of murdering four women nearly 20 years earlier after first being identified as a potential suspect, when DNA evidence conclusively linked semen left in the victims to the saliva swab taken by the police. The four victims named in the original indictment were Marcia Chapman, Opal Mills, Cynthia Hinds, and Carol Ann Christensen. Three more victims—Wendy Coffield, Debra Bonner, and Debra Estes—were added to the indictment after a forensic scientist identified microscopic spray paint spheres as a specific brand and composition of paint used at the Kenworth factory during the specific time frame when these victims were killed.

Plea bargain, confessions, sentencing
Early in August 2003, Seattle television news reported that Ridgway had been moved from a maximum security cell at King County Jail to an Airway Heights Minimum-Medium Security Level Tank. Other news reports stated that his lawyers, led by Anthony Savage, were closing a plea bargain that would spare him the death penalty in return for his confession to a number of the Green River murders.

On November 5, 2003, Ridgway entered a guilty plea to 48 charges of aggravated first degree murder as part of a plea bargain, agreed to in June, that would spare him execution in exchange for his cooperation in locating the remains of his victims and providing other details. In his statement accompanying his guilty plea, Ridgway explained that he had killed all of his victims inside King County, Washington, and that he had transported and dumped the remains of the two women near Portland to confuse the police.

Deputy prosecutor Jeffrey Baird noted in court that the deal contained "the names of 41 victims who would not be the subject of State v. Ridgway if it were not for the plea agreement." King County Prosecuting Attorney Norm Maleng explained his decision to make the deal:

"We could have gone forward with seven counts, but that is all we could have ever hoped to solve. At the end of that trial, whatever the outcome, there would have been lingering doubts about the rest of these crimes. This agreement was the avenue to the truth. And in the end, the search for the truth is still why we have a criminal justice system ... Gary Ridgway does not deserve our mercy. He does not deserve to live. The mercy provided by today's resolution is directed not at Ridgway, but toward the families who have suffered so much ..." On December 18, 2003, King County Superior Court Judge Richard A. Jones sentenced Ridgway to 48 life sentences without the possibility of parole to be served consecutively. He was also sentenced to an additional 10 years for tampering with evidence for each of the 48 victims, adding 480 years to his 48 life sentences. Later he was given another life sentence after the remains of his 49th victim were found.

Ridgway led prosecutors to three bodies in 2003. On August 16 of that year, the remains of a 16-year-old girl found near Enumclaw, Washington, 40 feet from State Route 410, were pronounced as belonging to Pammy Annette Avent, who had been believed to be a victim of the Green River Killer. The remains of Marie Malvar and April Buttram were found in September 2003.

On November 23, 2005, the Associated Press reported that a weekend hiker found the skull of one of the 48 women Ridgway admitted murdering in his 2003 plea bargain with King County prosecutors. The skull of another victim, Tracy Winston, who was 19 when she disappeared from Northgate Mall on September 12, 1983, was found on November 20, 2005, by a man hiking in a wooded area near Highway 18 near Issaquah, southeast of Seattle. This was the find that led to Ridgway's 49th life sentence. In 2023, remains formerly known as Bones 17 discovered in 1985 were identified as belonging to murder victim Lori Anne Razpotnik, who had disappeared from Seattle in 1982.

Ridgway confessed to more confirmed murders than any other American serial killer. Over a period of five months of police and prosecutor interviews, he confessed to 48 murders—42 of which were on the police's list of probable Green River Killer victims. On February 9, 2004, county prosecutors began to release the videotaped records of Ridgway's confessions. In one taped interview, he initially told investigators that he was responsible for the deaths of 65 women. In another taped interview with Reichert on December 31, 2003, Ridgway claimed to have murdered 71 victims and confessed to having had sex with them before killing them, a detail which he did not reveal until after his sentencing.

In his confession, he acknowledged that he targeted prostitutes because they were "easy to pick up" and that he "hated most of them." He confessed that he had sex with his victims' bodies after he murdered them, but claimed he began burying the later victims so that he could resist the urge to commit necrophilia.

Incarceration
Ridgway was placed in solitary confinement at Washington State Penitentiary in Walla Walla in January 2004. On May 14, 2015, he was transferred to the USP Florence High, a high-security federal prison east of Cañon City, Colorado. In September 2015, after a public outcry and discussions with Governor Jay Inslee, Corrections Secretary Bernie Warner announced that Ridgway would be transferred back to Washington to be "easily accessible" for open murder investigations. Ridgway was returned by chartered plane to Washington State Penitentiary in Walla Walla from USP Florence High, on October 24, 2015.

Victims
Before Ridgway's confession, authorities had attributed 49 murders to the Green River Killer. Ridgway confessed to murdering at least 71 victims. Ridgway's victims were not of any specific race or ethnicity; rather, they were all financially poor, and except for three of them, were all younger women and girls between the ages of 14 and 26 whom he found in vulnerable circumstances, often working as prostitutes or having run away from home.

Confirmed killings
At the time of Ridgway's December 18, 2003, sentencing, authorities had been able to find at least 48 sets of remains, including victims not originally attributed to the Green River Killer. Ridgway was sentenced for the deaths of each of these 48 victims, with a plea agreement that he would "plead guilty to any and all future cases (in King County) where his confession could be corroborated by reliable evidence."

 * Before Ridgway's confession, authorities had not attributed to the Green River Killer the deaths of victims Rule, Barczak, Hayes, Reeves, Yellowrobe, and Jane Doe B-20.
 * Ridgway's confession and directions led police search crews to find the bodies of Avent, Buttram, and Malvar in August and September 2003.
 * On December 21, 2010, hikers near the West Valley Highway in Auburn, Washington, found a skull in the vicinity of where Marie Malvar's remains had been found in 2003. The skull was identified as belonging to Rebecca "Becky" Marrero, who was last seen leaving the Western Six Motel at South 168th Street and Pacific Highway South on December 3, 1982. The King County Prosecutor confirmed that Ridgway would be formally charged with her murder on February 11, 2011. On February 18, 2011, he entered a guilty plea in the murder of Rebecca Marrero, adding a 49th life sentence to his existing 48. Ridgway confessed to murdering Marrero in his original plea bargain, but due to insufficient evidence, the charges could not be filed. Therefore, there is no change in his current incarceration status.
 * The remains of Tracy Winston were found, without a skull, in Kent's Cottonwood Grove Park in March 1986. Winston's skull was found in November, 2005 near Tiger Mountain, miles away from the discovery site of the rest of her body. Police assume someone carried it to the location.
 * Sandra Denise Major was not identified until June 2012. A family member asked the King County Sheriff to investigate after seeing a TV movie about Ridgway. DNA confirmed Major's identity.
 * Wendy Stephens, previously known as "Jane Doe B-10", was previously unidentified. Ridgway claimed that she was a white female in her early 20s and possibly had brown hair. Examination of the remains suggested that she was actually between 12 and 18, most likely around 15. She was later confirmed to be 14 years old. Analysis of the victim's skeleton indicated she was probably left-handed, and she had at one point in her life had skull fracture to the left temple that later healed.
 * Jane Doe B-17 was discovered on January 2, 1986; remains that had been found in another area February 18, 1984, were later matched to this victim. In 2003, Ridgway claimed responsibility for her death. In December 2023, DNA testing at Parabon NanoLabs identified the victim as Lori Anne Razpotnik, who had run away from home in 1982 at age 15.
 * Jane Doe B-20 was discovered in August 2003. Because the remains were partial, her face could not be reconstructed and her race could not be determined, but she was estimated to have been between 13 and 24 years old at the time of her death. She was estimated to have been murdered between 1970 and 1993, but she was believed to have been murdered during the first decade of Ridgway's murder spree. In January 2024, DNA testing identified the victim as Tammie Liles. A separate set of remains from Liles had been found in Oregon in 1985 and identified in 1988 from dental records.

Task force victims list
Ridgway is suspected of—but not charged with—murdering the remaining six victims of the original list attributed to the Green River Killer. In each case, either Ridgway did not confess to the victim's death, or authorities have not been able to corroborate their suspicion with reliable evidence.

 * Ridgway denied killing Amina Agisheff. Agisheff does not fit the profile of any of the victims of the Green River Killer considering her age, and she was not a sex worker or a teenage runaway.
 * Although he has never been charged with her murder, during police interrogations in 2003, Ridgway did confess to killing Kasee Ann Lee (née: Woods). He stated that he strangled Lee in 1982 and left her body near a drive-in theatre off of the Sea-Tac Strip. Law enforcement officials have been unable to locate Lee's remains at the dumpsite that Ridgway indicated.
 * Evidence exists to suggest that Ridgway murdered Kelly Kay McGinniss. Shortly before her disappearance, McGinniss was questioned by a Port of Seattle police officer while "dating" Ridgway near the SeaTac Strip. Furthermore, during the summer of 2003, Ridgway led authorities to the bodies of several of his victims. One of those bodies, later identified as that of April Buttram, was initially identified by Ridgway as being that of McGinniss. According to Ridgway, he often confused McGinniss with Buttram because of their similar physiques.
 * Ridgway is a suspect in the death of Angela Marie Girdner. Her remains were discovered within a mile of the bodies of known victims Shirley Sherrill, Denise Bush, and Tammie Liles. Girdner remained unidentified until October 2009.

Suspected
Ridgway has been considered a suspect in the disappearances/murders of several other women not attributed at the time to the Green River Killer. No charges have been filed.

 * An unidentified black female, possibly bearing the first name Michelle, was a possible victim of Ridgway. She has never been located or identified.
 * Cora McGuirk was the mother of NBA player Martell Webster. McGuirk disappeared when her son was four years old.
 * Ridgway was long suspected for the 1987 murder of Rose Marie Kurran, a 16-year-old addict and prostitute, but was recently ruled out as a suspect.

In artwork

 * In 2004, Phil Hansen created and displayed artwork depicting Gary Ridgway's face, composed of 11,792 portraits of the 48 victims.

In documentaries and films (fiction and non-fiction)

 * The 1984 documentary Murder, No Apparent Motive, about serial killers and FBI Profilers, mentioned that the (then-ongoing) Green River Killer's murders were one of the latest examples of serial murders that go on in America without any apparent motives.
 * Unsolved Mysteries Season 8, Episode 15 (1996), a Green River Killer segment focused on long-time Green River Killer suspect William Stevens. The episode features interviews with Stevens' living family members. Stevens died of pancreatic cancer in 1991 at the age of 40.
 * The ninth episode of the 2010 American documentary show Who the (Bleep) Did I Marry? features his story and his third wife's side of it.
 * The Riverman is based on the true story of Ted Bundy assisting investigators trying to identify and catch the Green River Killer. It is based on the book of the same name by Robert D. Keppel.
 * The direct-to-DVD movie Green River Killer was released in 2005.
 * A 2006 episode of the TV series Crimes That Shook the World focuses on Gary Ridgway (played by Frank Violi).
 * In 2008, the Lifetime Movie Network aired The Capture of the Green River Killer, a TV movie loosely based on his crimes. John Pielmeier portrays Ridgway. In 2014, they aired a documentary called My Uncle is the Green River Killer which featured Ridgway family members.
 * The Court TV (now TruTV) television series Mugshots released an episode on Ridgway titled Gary Ridgway The Green River Killer, aired in 2013.
 * In 2005, A&E series Cold Case Files aired an episode called "Obsession: Dave Reichert and the Green River Killer". (Season 5, Episode 1)
 * On June 2, 2017, HLN (Headline News) premiered the true crime series Beyond Reasonable Doubt with the episode The Green River Killer. The one-hour episode reports on the advanced trace evidence that directly link tiny paint particles from the victims' clothing to Ridgway.
 * Bundy and The Green River Killer a 2019 horror film by Andrew Jones, starring Jared Nelson as Gary Ridgway.
 * On February 17, 2020, Investigation Discovery premiered a two-hour special titled The Green River Killer: Mind of a Monster featuring Ridgway.
 * Catching Killers, which included an episode about the Green River Case was released on Netflix on Thursday November 4, 2021. It revolves around the decade-long hunt for the murderer of several women around the Green River area – which was finally solved after a huge breakthrough in crime scene science.

In print (non-fiction)

 * Search for the Green River Killer by Carlton Smith and Tom Guillen (March 5, 1991)
 * The Riverman: Ted Bundy and I Hunt for the Green River Killer by Robert D. Keppel (November 27, 1995)
 * The Green River Killer by the King County Journal Staff (November 23, 2003)
 * Chasing the Devil by Sheriff David Reichert (July 28, 2004)
 * Green River, Running Red by true-crime author and former police officer Ann Rule (September 27, 2005)
 * Serial Killers: Issues Explored Through Green River Murders by Tomas Guillen (January 14, 2006)
 * Green River Serial Killer: Biography of an Unsuspecting Wife by Pennie Morehead, telling the story of his third wife and her struggles with the truth (April 1, 2007)
 * Case of the Green River Killer by Diane Yancey (April 27, 2007)
 * Defending Gary: Unraveling the Mind of the Green River Killer by Mark Prothero with help from Carlton Smith (May 25, 2007)
 * Green River Killer: A True Detective Story, a 2011 graphic novel by Jeff Jensen and Jonathan Case. Jensen's father was Tom Jensen, one of the detectives who worked on the case for 20 years.
 * The Thirty-Ninth Victim by Arleen Williams, sister of Maureen Sue Feeney (April 6, 2008)

In print (fiction)

 * The Green River murders are discussed in the Jodi Picoult novel House Rules (ISBN 978-0743296441).
 * The novel River by Roderick Thorp is subtitled "A Novel of the Green River Killings" (ISBN 044990704X).
 * Discussed in Stephenie Meyer's third Twilight book, Eclipse, when there are murders in Seattle (ISBN 978-0316027656).

In music

 * The grunge band Green River was named in reference to the murders. As well, the title track of their 1985 debut EP Come On Down discusses the murders from Ridgway's point of view.
 * The 1998 song "I Wanna Know What Love Is" by Kathleen Hanna references the murders through the broader lens of police brutality.
 * The 2002 song "Deep Red Bells" by Neko Case was inspired by her own life growing up as a teenager near the metropolis during the time of the murders.
 * The industrial / power electronics project called Deathpile made an album about the Green River Killer in 2003 titled "G.R.".
 * The 2001 album, "Master of Brutality" by Japanese doom metal band Church of Misery also featured a song, "Green River" inspired by the murders.

In television (fiction)

 * In a May 2013 interview, Veena Sud stated her inspiration for The Killing season 3 (2013) came from Streetwise, Mary Ellen Mark's book of photographs about teenaged runaways in Seattle that was made into an eponymous 1984 documentary. One of the street kids Mark documented in that and later books, 21-year-old Roberta Joseph Hayes, fell victim to the Green River Killer (Gary Ridgway). Sud said she was "very fascinated" with Ridgway, the serial killer of numerous women and girls near Seattle and Tacoma, Washington in the 1980s and 1990s.

title: Gary Ridgway


text:
Talk:Ring theory

comment by Tarquin

 * Euclidean domain => Principal ideal domain => unique factorization domain => integral domain => Commutative ring.

Is the above a hierarchy of inclusion? If so, use the subset symbol. -- Tarquin

 * It's inclusion, but it doesn't make much sense to use subset symbol, because there aren't any standard "symbols" for "the class of all Euclidean domains", e.g., unless you want to make up several just for this article. Writing "Euclidean domain contained in PID contained in UFD, etc." is misleading, because it makes it sound like a ED is set-theoretically contained in a PID, contained in a UFD, not the same. Revolver 02:08, 11 Jun 2004 (UTC)

''A ring is called commutative if its multiplication is commutative. The theory of commutative rings resembles the theory of numbers in several respects, and various definitions for commutative rings are designed to recover properties known from the integers. Commutative rings are also important in algebraic geometry''

 * Except that the ring article contradicts this and requires commutativity, which adds credence to my belief that this shouldn't be required in the definition. Revolver 02:08, 11 Jun 2004 (UTC)
 * No, multiplication in rings is not generally required to be commutative. I double-checked this in Herstein's Topics in Algebra as a sanity check. Isomorphic 02:19, 11 Jun 2004 (UTC)
 * I was wrong, the ring article doesn't require it, it requires unity. My fault. (Although I disagree with unity requirement, as well, that's another matter.) Actually, I just disagree with these universal wikipedia definitions (rather than article by article basis).
 * There are important examples of rings that do not have a identity. Regardless, and identity can always be formally adjoined by using the adjoint of the forgetful functor from the category of rings with unity to the category of rings.

There is inconsistency with the definition of "Ring" in the main article about rings. As far as I know a ring is assumed to have an identity unless stated otherwise and not the other way around. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 192.115.21.171 (talk) 11:28, 29 May 2009 (UTC)

Vote for new external link
Here is my site with ring theory example problems. Someone please put this link in the external links section if you think it's helpful and relevant. Tbsmith

http://www.exampleproblems.com/wiki/index.php/Abstract_Algebra#Rings

Patent nonsense
Sorry for exaggerating in my edit comment -- the patent nonsense was only in Wikipedia for a little over a day before I reverted it. (I misread the date.) I find it embarrassing, though, that someone who trusts Wikipedia asked me for an explanation of it.—GraemeMcRaetalk 04:48, 21 January 2006 (UTC)

Could use an example
I don't know much about ring theory, other than that it keeps popping up on wikipedia everywhere... Could someone give some examples of rings and the 2 binary operators?

 * The integers Z, the rational numbers Q, the real numbers R the complex numbers C all under their ordinary addition and multiplication. Square matrix rings over any of these previous examples are also rings with matrix addition and multiplication. Try to chase some of the links on the ring theory page to arrive at more specific pages: they are likely to have other concrete examples. Rschwieb (talk) 15:25, 14 November 2011 (UTC)

Too Many Math Articles In Wikipedia Suck
The first two sentences are awful. Repeating the idea that ring theory is the study of rings. Very informative - not. Too much premature jargon. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 86.27.193.180 (talk) 23:54, 17 December 2011 (UTC)

sorting out ring theory and ring (mathematics)
Discussion started (and will proceed) at Talk:Ring_(mathematics) Rschwieb (talk) 15:47, 7 February 2013 (UTC)

need a definition
What is the definition (or what are the axioms) of a ring? Are they clearly stated in this article? I couldn't find them in a quick review. If they are there, please excuse me for asking. However, I think the first section after the intro / lede should say something like, "A ring is a set with two binary operators (typically called "addition" and "multiplication"), satisfying the following: ... ." I think the article might be easier to read and understand if this kind of definition appeared early in the article. Someone with a ring theory book handy should be able to provide this with a reference. Unfortunately, I don't have such handy. Thanks, DavidMCEddy (talk) 03:46, 2 March 2016 (UTC)
 * There's a separate article at ring (mathematics). However, there's been discussion on whether ring (mathematics) and ring theory should be merged, see e.g. Talk:Ring (mathematics)/Archive 4 and Talk:Ring (mathematics)/Archive 3. – Tobias Bergemann (talk) 10:48, 2 March 2016 (UTC)

Table of Ring/Group properties
I added a table near the top of this article, giving a summary of the principal ring-like and group-like structures, and the distinctions between them. I think this table is a very valuable summary which should appear somewhere prominent on Wikipedia.

I chose the Ring theory article, as a ring is the most "advanced" mathematical concept in this table. I think this is an appropriate place to draw the line, because the various other specialisations of rings are, well, more specialised.

Other possibilities include Algebraic structure - however, there, the table risks becoming bloated by a complete taxonomy of all algebraic structures. That may be useful in itself, but rings and groups are very important and basic concepts that occur again and again, and they have an associated set of terminology (which is rather confusing, particularly to nonmathematicians who are unused to memorising large amounts of terminology).

User:D.Lazard reverted my contribution, simply saying "This does not belongs to this article". I think this was contrary to Revert_only_when_necessary. I am disappointed that apparently D. Lazard didn't even consider where else this table ought to go.

I am going to revert D. Lazard's revert. I would like to ask D.Lazard to please discuss the matter here instead of simply reverting my change again. Ijackson (talk) —Preceding undated comment added 18:27, 16 May 2017 (UTC)

 * It seems to me it might more usefully appear either later in a number of pages in this field or as a page of its own, prominently wikilinked from here and others. As a side note, it's also a bit afflicted with Caps Disease. Pinkbeast (talk) 19:03, 16 May 2017 (UTC)
 * Again, this content is not about ring theory, but about algebraic structures. Moreover, we have already a template algebraic structures, which contains in a more compact presentation the list of related structure. Therefore I'll replace this table by this template. D.Lazard (talk) 08:27, 17 May 2017 (UTC)
 * The template algebraic structures does not contain the same information. It is just a list of various structures and does not state the critical properties which distinguish them.  Also, as I have explained, there is good reason to focus this information only on the structures culminating in fields.  The template has too many structures and too little information about each.Ijackson (talk)
 * Where do you think it should go specifically? Should we make a template out of it?  I think it could usefully appear in the article Group_theory too, at least, and maybe in some of the specific articles.  It's a big bulky to make into an infobox and I don't see how to shrink it without losing its usefulness.  As for "caps disease", feel free to fix.Ijackson (talk)  —Preceding undated comment added 14:27, 17 May 2017 (UTC)
 * Please sign your posts with four tildes ( ~ ) instead of three.
 * IMO, your table belongs to Algebraic structure. For including it there, I suggests to remove the heading "Examples" as well as the headings of its subsections, and to make sections from the bold texts such as "simple structures", "group-like structures, "ring-like structures", ... This would allows adding some text explaining that this is a classification by the number of operations and their arity, and also adding tables, like yours for clarifying the relations between structures. When this would be done, one could also modify the template algebraic structures for linking phrases such as "ring-like structures" to the corresponding section of Algebraic structure. This would make the information that you want to add easily accessible from each article about a specific structure. D.Lazard (talk) 16:23, 17 May 2017 (UTC)

 * I think D.Lazard's assessment is correct. The table is a bit of an off-topic intruder in the body of the article, especially as the first paragraph. This is already a good justification to the rollback. Secondarily (just my opinion, that is) it is not a very good table. It seems to suggest that the two notations of addition and multiplication have something to do with the definition of these structures, but that isn't true. It's also half-empty, for whatever reason. Frankly, nothing like this appears in any mathematics textbook. It makes more sense to have structures split apart by number of operations (and I believe that others have successfully contributed such charts.) I do recognize what it is, however. I've drawn many such pictures while learning my way around new disciplines. And I understand it's nice to share such things, but quite often they are not suitable for a wiki math article: they tend to be shaped/organized according to the note-taker's personal ideas. Rschwieb (talk) 16:47, 18 May 2017 (UTC)

Examples are needed
the word "example" appears no more than three times in this article, yet examples of rings are what makes ring theory important. 西米露喜欢橙子 (talk) 21:33, 4 November 2023 (UTC)

 * The right place for examples of rings is in Ring (mathematics), an article linked to in the first sentence of this article. This article contains many examples that are not always called "examples", especially when they are sufficiently important to be the subject of a specific section. D.Lazard (talk) 11:01, 5 November 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Ring theory