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Upington Airport

Upington Airport is an airport located in Upington, Northern Cape, South Africa. At 4900 m, runway 17/35 is one of the longest runways in the world. The high elevation of the airport, extremely high summer temperatures and the fact that it was designed for the Boeing 747 necessitated the extreme length of the main runway.

History
With the fall of the Portuguese regime in Angola, South African Airways lost its landing rights in Luanda. In addition to restrictions to overflying African states, there was concern that the country would lose its landing rights at the Ivory Coast and Ilha do Sal (Cape Verde).

Upington Airport's runway was built to accommodate a Boeing 747 with a full load of passengers, cargo and fuel, so that it could take off for Europe without having to stop along the way. Upington was chosen because of its strategic position, availability of land and comparatively lower height above sea level than Johannesburg.

Upington Airport was opened in 1968 as Pierre van Ryneveld Airport. In 1974, a corrugated iron fire station was erected but this structure was converted into administrative offices for airport management and other administrative staff in 1996 and the fire station was relocated.

From August 1976 to December 1982, South African Airways made use of Upington as a refuelling station for two weekly scheduled Boeing 747 flights to London and Zürich.

, Upington Airport was to be developed into a major cargo hub that will serve sub-Saharan Africa directly from South Africa's Northern Cape Province.

As well as improvements to the airport itself, ACSA will be preparing land around the airport for development to support the inevitable boost to the local economy.

As of 2009, planning was also under way at Upington Airport to construct a facility for the long-term parking of mothballed (decommissioned) aircraft.

Non-scheduled services
Upington Airport serves as an international cargo hub. Most flights are non-scheduled chartered flights operating in the months of November to January to export grapes from the region directly to Europe and other countries. As much as 1,000,000 tonnes of grapes are exported every year.

Many major car manufacturers bring their cars and commercial vehicles to Upington to test them in the hot dry and sunny conditions, when there is winter in Europe. These cars and test teams are flown into and out of Upington Airport using chartered planes. Cars used the N14 between Pofadder and Kakamas. The road has a speed limit of 250 km/h for authorized vehicles

Airport services and capacity
Services at Upington Airport include:
 * One terminal building (combined arrival and departure hall)
 * Information desk
 * Conference room accommodating up to 12 persons
 * Five different car rental companies
 * Public parking for up to 58 cars
 * Basic first aid facilities

Statistics for the 2007 financial year at Upington Airport:
 * 19,961 departing passengers
 * 3,694 arriving air traffic movements
 * Current consolidated capacity: 40,000 passengers
 * Aircraft parking bays: 20

Flying services include:
 * Control tower (frequency 121.30)
 * Apron services (frequency 122.65)
 * Refuelling service by Engen Aviation providing Avgas and Jet-A1
 * General aviation area including parking
 * VOR and RNAV instrument approach procedure for runway 35
 * Runway centreline lights, end lights, edge lights and PAPI for runways 01/19 and 17/35
 * Runway 08/26 only to be used for taxi purposes at night and during IMC
 * Fire and rescue services (CAT 5), upgrade-able to CAT 8 with 7 days prior notice
 * Upington Weather Office
 * The airport has cargo services to and from Leipzig with AirBridge Cargo(Boeing 747-8F)

title: Upington Airport


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Udug

The udug, later known in Akkadian as the utukku, were an ambiguous class of demons from ancient Mesopotamian mythology. They were different from the dingir (Anu-nna-Ki and Igigi) and they were generally malicious, even if a member of demons (Pazuzu) was willing to clash both with other demons and with the gods, even if he is described as a presence hostile to humans. The word is generally ambiguous and is sometimes used to refer to demons as a whole rather than a specific kind of demon. No visual representations of the udug have yet been identified, but descriptions of it ascribe to it features often given to other ancient Mesopotamian demons: a dark shadow, absence of light surrounding it, poison, and a deafening voice. The surviving ancient Mesopotamian texts giving instructions for exorcizing the evil udug are known as the Udug Hul texts. These texts emphasize the evil udug's role in causing disease and the exorcist's role in curing the disease.

Appearance
Only a few descriptions of the udug are known and, according to Gina Konstantopoulos, no pictorial or visual representations of them have ever been identified. According to Tally Ornan, however, some Mesopotamian cylinder seals show a figure carrying a scepter alongside the benevolent guard demoness Lama, which may be identified as the udug. F. A. M. Wiggerman has argued that images of Lama and the udug were frequently used to guard doorways.

In a bilingual incantation written in both Sumerian and Akkadian, the god Asalluḫi describes the "evil udug" to his father Enki: O my father, the evil udug [udug hul], its appearance is malignant and its stature towering, Although it is not a god (dingir) its clamour is great and its radiance [melam] immense, It is dark, its shadow is pitch black and there is no light within its body, It always hides, taking refuge, [it] does not stand proudly, Its claws drip with bile, it leaves poison in its wake, Its belt is not released, his arms enclose, It fills the target of his anger with tears, in all lands, [its] battle cry cannot be restrained.

This description mostly glosses over what the udug actually looks like, instead focusing more on its fearsome supernatural abilities. All the characteristics ascribed to the "evil udug" here are common features that are frequently attributed to all different kinds of ancient Mesopotamian demons: a dark shadow, absence of light surrounding it, poison, and a deafening voice. Other descriptions of the udug are not consistent with this one and often contradict it. Konstantopoulos notes that "the udug is defined by what it is not: the demon is nameless and formless, even in its early appearances." An incantation from the Old Babylonian Period (c. 1830 – c.  1531 BC) defines the udug as "the one who, from the beginning, was not called by name... the one who never appeared with a form." One of the udug could be Hanbi. In Sumerian and Akkadian mythology (and Mesopotamian mythology in general) Hanbi or Hanpa (more commonly known in western text) was the god of evil, god of all evil forces and the father of Pazuzu. Aside from his relationship with Pazuzu, very little is known of this figure.

Members
Mimma Lemnu (term referred to both a spell and a shadow demon connected to witches)

Hanbi (personification of evil, lord of all the demonic forces UDUG)

Ardat Lili (shadow demon with features of women, dogs and scorpio, children's devourer)

Vardat Lilitu (Vampire shadow demon, predator of children, initially disconnected by the Dingir in the first myths)

Alu Lilu (shadow demon without face)

Pazuzu (shadow demon at the head of all the evil spirits of the air)

Mukil res lemutti (Demone Shadow Intagion of misfortune and capable of possessing individuals making them involve as animals trapped)

Namtar(infectious shadow demon, ally with Dingir Ereshkigal, having the task of keeping the demon mimma lemnu chained in the underworld)

Ti'u (Demone Shadow Provocative headache, ally with the Dingir)

Akhkhazu (Demone Shadow of Pestilenze, ally with the Dingir Lamashtu)

Kilili (shadow demome connected to the owls, ally of the Dingir Inanna)

Labasu (Shadow demon present in the text of Nusku's exorcism)

Abyzou (Demone Shadow responsible for spontaneous abortions and childhood diseases)

Identity
Of all Mesopotamian demons, the udug is the least clearly defined. The word originally did not connote whether the demon in question was good or evil. In one of the two Gudea cylinders, King Gudea of Lagash (ruled c. 2144–2124 BCE) asks a goddess to send a "good udug" to protect him and a lama to guide him. Surviving ancient Mesopotamian texts giving instructions for performing exorcisms frequently invoke the "good udug" to provide protection or other aid as the exorcism is being performed. Mesopotamian magical texts, however, also mention a specific "evil udug" as well as plural "udugs", who are also referred to as evil. The phrase for "evil udug" is Udug Hul in Sumerian and Utukkū Lemnutū in Akkadian. The evil udug is often a vector for physical and mental illnesses.

The word udug by itself without a qualifier usually connotes the evil udug. Exorcism texts sometimes invoke the "good udug" against the "evil udug". A text from the Old Babylonian Period (c. 1830 – c.  1531 BCE) requests, "May the evil udug and the evil galla stand aside. May the good udug and good galla be present." Sometimes the word udug does not even refer to a specific demon, but rather functions as an umbrella term for all the different demons in Mesopotamian demonology. On account of the udug's capacity for both good and ill, Graham Cunningham argues that "the term daimon seems preferable" over the term "demon", which is the one normally used to describe it.

Udug hul incantations
The canon of exorcism of the evil udug is known as udug-ḫul, the Akkadian expansion of which (known in Akkadian as utukkū lemnūtu) is in sixteen tablets. The tradition of Udug Hul incantations spans the entirety of ancient Mesopotamian history; they are among the earliest texts known written in Sumerian in the third millennium BCE, as well as among the last Mesopotamian texts of late antiquity, written in cuneiform with Greek transliterations. The udug-ḫul incantations were originally unilingual and written in Sumerian, but these earliest versions were later converted into bilingual texts written in both Sumerian and Akkadian. They were also expanded with additions written only in Akkadian with no Sumerian precursors. The udug-ḫul incantations emphasize the role of the evil udug as the cause of sickness and focus primarily on attempting to drive out the evil udug to cure the illness. They frequently contain references to Mesopotamian mythology, such as the myth of Inanna's Descent into the Underworld.

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title: Udug


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Francis Hutchinson

Francis Hutchinson (2 January 1660 – 1739) was a British minister in Bury St Edmunds when he wrote a famous book debunking witchcraft prosecutions and subsequently was made Bishop of Down and Connor in Ireland.

Education
Hutchinson was born in Carsington, Wirksworth, Derbyshire, the second son of Mary and Edward Hutchinson or Hitchinson (a family of the lesser landed gentry). He was taught history by his uncle, Francis Tallents, a Puritan clergyman, before beginning his studies at Katharine Hall, Cambridgein 1678. Hutchinson graduated B.A. in 1681 and M.A. in 1684, a year after he was ordained by the bishop of London and was appointed Lecturer at the rectory of Widdington, Essex. This living represented the lowest rung of the career ladder of the Church of England and Hutchinson remained there until appointed vicar of Hoxne, Suffolk in early 1690 by local Whig magnate, William Maynard. Hutchinson received a D.D. from Cambridge in 1698.

Bury St Edmunds and An Historical Essay Concerning Witchcraft
Sometime before 1692, Hutchinson became a minister and perpetual curate at St. James parish in Bury St Edmunds and this may have led to an interest in researching the infamous trials that had occurred there. In 1700, a skeptical book about the 1692 Salem witch trials by Robert Calef was printed in London and in his own book Hutchinson praises and recommends Calef's work, providing the name of the bookseller in London. Calef had emigrated to Boston from the town of Stanstead, only eleven miles south of Bury. By 1706, Hutchinson was passing around a draft of a book that would come to be called An Historical Essay Concerning Witchcraft but was discouraged by influential friends from publishing. In 1712, Hutchinson experienced the local trial of Jane Wenham firsthand and again considered publishing, but again demurred. "Writing about witchcraft is a tricky business," as Ian Bostridge notes regarding Hutchinson's process. A few years later a book appeared by Richard Boulton which Hutchinson detested, and this seem to have finally galled him into publishing his book in 1718. It was a lengthy work carefully and patiently deconstructing and dissecting witch-hunting and the witchcraft prosecutions in East Anglia and other parts of England, as well as New England, and "applied a consciously rational approach to the phenomenon." Historian Wallace Notestein, writing in 1911, ends a similar survey in 1718 "because that year marked the publication of Francis Hutchinson's notable attack." Notestein calls it "epoch-making" and writes, "Hutchinson levelled a final and deadly blow at the dying superstition." Ian Bostridge suggests Hutchinson's delays in publishing the work "indicates how contentious the subject was, within the elite circles in which Hutchinson moved." Bostridge does not diminish the importance of Hutchinson's book, but presents the vote to repeal of the Witchcraft Act in 1735 as politically complex event and not a foregone conclusion.

Ireland
In early 1721, Hutchinson was consecrated bishop of Down and Conner and took up residence in Lisburn, in modern-day Northern Ireland. He died in 1739, aged 79, and was buried in Portglenone Parish Church, County Antrim.

Works

 * An Historical Essay Concerning Witchcraft (1718) and a subsequent edition (1720).

Note that while the second edition has a larger type, generous spacing, an illustration, and advertisements, it seems to add no more content from Hutchinson, but omits one essay from the 1718 edition ("A Defence of the Compassionate Address to Papists").

title: Francis Hutchinson


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Jean Bodin

Jean Bodin (c. 1530 – 1596) was a French jurist and political philosopher, member of the Parlement of Paris and professor of law in Toulouse. Bodin lived during the aftermath of the Protestant Reformation and wrote against the background of religious conflict in France. He seemed to be a nominal Catholic throughout his life but was critical of papal authority over governments and there was evidence he may have converted to Protestantism during his time in Geneva. Known for his theory of sovereignty, he favoured the strong central control of a national monarchy as an antidote to factional strife.

Towards the end of his life he wrote a dialogue among different religions, including representatives of Judaism, Islam and natural theology in which all agreed to coexist in concord, but was not published. He was also an influential writer on demonology as his later years were spent during the peak of the early modern witch trials.

Life
Bodin was successively a friar, academic, professional lawyer, and political adviser. An excursion as a politician having proved a failure, he lived out his life as a provincial magistrate.

Early life
Bodin was born near Angers, possibly the son of a master tailor, into a modestly prosperous middle-class background. He received a decent education, apparently in the Carmelite monastery of Angers, where he became a novice friar. Some claims made about his early life remain obscure. There is some evidence of a visit to Geneva in 1547–48 in which he became involved in a heresy trial. The records of this episode, however, are murky and may refer to another person.

Paris and Toulouse
He obtained release from his vows in 1549 and went to Paris. He studied at the university, but also at the humanist-oriented Collège des Quatre Langues (now the Collège de France); he was for two years a student under Guillaume Prévost, a little-known magister in philosophy. His education was not only influenced by an orthodox Scholastic approach but was also apparently in contact with Ramist philosophy (the thought of Petrus Ramus).

Later, in the 1550s, he studied Roman law at the University of Toulouse, under Arnaud du Ferrier, and taught there. His special subject at that time seems to have been comparative jurisprudence. Subsequently, he worked on a Latin translation of Oppian of Apamea, under the continuing patronage of Gabriel Bouvery, Bishop of Angers. Bodin had a plan for a school on humanist principles in Toulouse, but failed to raise local support. He left in 1560.

The Wars of Religion and the politiques
From 1561, he was licensed as an attorney of the Parlement of Paris. His religious convictions on the outbreak of the Wars of Religion in 1562 cannot be determined, but he affirmed formally his Catholic faith, taking an oath that year along with other members of the Parlement. He continued to pursue his interests in legal and political theory in Paris, publishing significant works on historiography and economics.

Bodin became a member of the discussion circles around the Prince François d'Alençon (or d'Anjou from 1576). He was the intelligent and ambitious youngest son of Henry II, and was in line for the throne in 1574, with the death of his brother Charles IX. He withdrew his claim, however, in favor of his older brother Henry III, who had recently returned from his abortive effort to reign as the King of Poland. Alençon was a leader of the politiques faction of political pragmatists.

Under Henry III
After the failure of Prince François' hopes to ascend the throne, Bodin transferred his allegiance to the new king Henry III. In practical politics, however, he lost the king's favor in 1576–7, as delegate of the Third Estate at the Estates-General at Blois, and leader in his Estate of the February 1577 moves to prevent a new war against the Huguenots. He attempted to exert a moderating influence on the Catholic party, and also tried restrict the passage of supplemental taxation for the king. Bodin then retired from political life; he had married in February 1576. His wife, Françoise Trouillart, was the widow of Claude Bayard, and sister of Nicolas Trouillart who died in 1587; both were royal attorneys in the Provost of Laon and attorneys in the Bailiwick of Vermandois, and Bodin took over the charges.

Bodin was in touch with William Wade in Paris, Lord Burghley's contact, at the time (1576) of publication of the Six livres. He later accompanied Prince François, by then Duke of Anjou, to England in 1581, in his second attempt to woo Elizabeth I of England. On this visit, Bodin saw the English Parliament. He brushed off a request to secure better treatment for English Catholics, to the dismay of Robert Persons, given that Edmund Campion was in prison at the time. Bodin saw some of Campion's trial, he is said also to have witnessed Campion's execution in December 1581, making the hanging the occasion for a public letter against the use of force in matters of religion. Bodin became a correspondent of Francis Walsingham; and Michel de Castelnau passed on to Mary, Queen of Scots a prophecy supposed to be Bodin's, on the death of Elizabeth, at the time of the Babington Plot.

Prince François became Duke of Brabant in 1582, however, and embarked on an adventurer's campaign to expand his territory. The disapproving Bodin accompanied him, and was trapped in the Prince's disastrous raid on Antwerp that ended the attempt, followed shortly by the Prince's death in 1584.

Last years
In the wars that followed the death of Henry III (1589), the Catholic League attempted to prevent the succession of the Protestant Henry of Navarre by placing another king on the throne. Bodin initially gave support to the powerful League; he felt it inevitable that they would score a quick victory.

He died, in Laon, during one of the many plague epidemics of the time.

Books
Bodin generally wrote in French, with later Latin translations. Several of the works have been seen as influenced by Ramism, at least in terms of structure.

Bodin wrote in turn books on history, economics, politics, demonology, and natural philosophy; and also left a (later notorious) work in manuscript on religion (see under "Religious tolerance"). A modern edition of Bodin's works was begun in 1951 as Oeuvres philosophiques de Jean Bodin by, but only one volume appeared.

Methodus ad facilem historiarum cognitionem
In France, Bodin was noted as a historian for his Methodus ad facilem historiarum cognitionem (1566) (Method for the easy knowledge of history). He wrote, "Of history, that is, the true narration of things, there are three kinds: human, natural and divine". This book was one of the most significant contributions to the ars historica of the period, and distinctively put an emphasis on the role of political knowledge in interpreting historical writings. He pointed out that the knowledge of historical legal systems could be useful for contemporary legislation.

The Methodus was a successful and influential manual on the writing of technical history. It answered by means of detailed historiographical advice the skeptical line on the possibility of historical knowledge advanced by Francesco Patrizzi. It also expanded the view of historical "data" found in earlier humanists, with the immediacy of its concerns for the social side of human life.

Bodin rejected the biblical Four Monarchies model, taking an unpopular position at the time, as well as the classical theory of a Golden Age for its naiveté. He also dropped much of the rhetorical apparatus of the humanists.

Economic thought: the Reply to Malestroit
The Réponse de J. Bodin aux paradoxes de M. de Malestroit (1568) was a tract, provoked by theories of Jean de Malestroit, in which Bodin offered one of the earliest scholarly analyses of the phenomenon of inflation, unknown prior to the 16th century. The background to discussion in the 1560s was that by 1550 an increase in the money supply in Western Europe had brought general benefits. But there had also been appreciable inflation. Silver arriving via Spain from the South American mine of Potosí, together with other sources of silver and gold, from other new sources, was causing monetary change.

Bodin was after Martín de Azpilicueta, who had alluded to the issue in 1556 (something noticed also by Gómara in his unpublished Annals), an early observer that the rise in prices was due in large part to the influx of precious metals. Analysing the phenomenon, amongst other factors he pointed to the relationship between the amount of goods and the amount of money in circulation. The debates of the time laid the foundation for the "quantity theory of money". Bodin mentioned other factors: population increase, trade, the possibility of economic migration, and consumption that he saw as profligate.

The Theatrum
The Theatrum Universae Naturae is Bodin's statement of natural philosophy. It contains many particular and even idiosyncratic personal views, for instance that eclipses are related to political events. It argued against the certainty of the astronomical theory of stellar parallax, and the terrestrial origin of the "comet of 1573" (i.e., the supernova SN 1572). This work shows major Ramist influences. Consideration of the orderly majesty of God leads to encyclopedism about the universe and an analogue of a memory system.

Problems of Bodin became attached to some Renaissance editions of Aristotelian problemata in natural philosophy. Further, Damian Siffert compiled a Problemata Bodini, which was based on the Theatrum.

=== Les Six livres de la République       ===

Bodin's best-known work was "The Six Books of the Republic" (Les Six livres de la République), written in 1576. The discussion regarding the best form of government which took place in those years around the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre (1572) gave the inspiration. Bodin's, classical, definition of sovereignty is: "la puissance absolue et perpetuelle d'une République" (the absolute and perpetual power of a Republic). His main ideas about sovereignty are found in chapter VIII and X of Book I, including his statement "The sovereign Prince is accountable only to God".

The Six livres were an immediate success and were frequently reprinted. A revised and expanded Latin translation by the author appeared in 1586. With this work, Bodin became one of the founders of the pragmatic inter-confessional group known as the politiques, who ultimately succeeded in ending the Wars of Religion under King Henry IV, with the Edict of Nantes (1598). Against the monarchomachs who were assailing kingship in his time, such as Theodore Beza and François Hotman Bodin succeeded in writing a fundamental and influential treatise of social and political theory. In its reasoning against all types of mixed constitution and resistance theory, it was an effective counter-attack against the monarchomach position invoking "popular sovereignty".

The structure of the earlier books has been described as Ramist in structure. Book VI contains astrological and numerological reasoning. Bodin invoked Pythagoras in discussing justice and in Book IV used ideas related to the Utopia of Thomas More. The use of language derived from or replacing Niccolò Machiavelli's città (Latin civitas) as political unit (French cité or ville) is thoughtful; Bodin introduced republic (French république, Latin respublica) as a term for matters of public law (the contemporary English rendering was commonweal(th)). Bodin, although he referred to Tacitus, was not writing here in the tradition of classical republicanism. The Ottoman Empire is analysed as a "seigneurial monarchy". The Republic of Venice is not accepted in the terms of Gasparo Contarini: it is called an aristocratic constitution, not a mixed one, with a concentric structure, and its apparent stability was not attributable to the form of government.

The ideas in the Six livres on the importance of climate in the shaping of a people's character were also influential, finding a prominent place in the work of Giovanni Botero (1544–1617) and later in Baron de Montesquieu's (1689–1755) climatic determinism. Based on the assumption that a country's climate shapes the character of its population, and hence to a large extent the most suitable form of government, Bodin postulated that a hereditary monarchy would be the ideal regime for a temperate nation such as France. This power should be "sovereign", i.e., not be subject to any other branch, though to some extent limited by institutions like the high courts (Parlement) and representative assemblies (États). Above all, the monarch is "responsible only to God", that is, must stand above confessional factions.

The work soon became widely known. Gaspar de Anastro made a Spanish translation in 1590. Richard Knolles put together an English translation (1606); this was based on the 1586 Latin version, but in places follows other versions. It appeared under the title The Six Bookes of a Common-weale.

De la démonomanie des sorciers

Bodin's major work on sorcery and the witchcraft persecutions was "Of the Demon-mania of the Sorcerers" (De la démonomanie des sorciers), first issued in 1580, with ten editions published by 1604. In it he elaborates the influential concept of "pact witchcraft" based on a deal with the Devil and the belief that the evil spirit would use a strategy to impose doubt on judges to look upon magicians as madmen and hypochondriacs deserving of compassion rather than chastisement.

The book relates histories of sorcerers, but does not mention Faust and his pact. It gave a report of a 1552 public exorcism in Paris, and of the case of Magdalena de la Cruz of Cordova, an abbess who had confessed to sexual relations with the Devil over three decades. Bodin cited Pierre Marner on werewolf accounts from Savoie. He denounced the works of Cornelius Agrippa, and the perceived traffic in "sorceries" carried out along the Spanish Road, running along eastern France for much of its length.

He wrote in extreme terms about procedures in sorcery trials, opposing the normal safeguards of justice. This advocacy of relaxation was aimed directly at the existing standards laid down by the Parlement of Paris (physical or written evidence, confessions not obtained by torture, unimpeachable witnesses). He asserted that not even one witch could be erroneously condemned if the correct procedures were followed, because rumours concerning sorcerers were almost always true. Bodin's attitude has been called a populationist strategy typical of mercantilism.

The book was influential in the debate over witchcraft; it was translated into German by Johann Fischart (1581), and in the same year into Latin by François Du Jon as De magorum dæmonomania libri IV. It was quoted by Jean de Léry, writing about the Tupinamba people of what is now Brazil.

One surviving copy of the text, located in the University of Southern California's Special Collections Library, is a rare presentation copy signed by Bodin himself, and is one of only two known surviving texts that feature such an inscription by the author. The USC Démonomanie dedication is to a C.L. Varroni, thought to be a legal colleague of Bodin's.

Law and politics
Bodin became well known for his analysis of sovereignty, which he took to be indivisible, and to involve full legislative powers (though with qualifications and caveats). With François Hotman (1524–1590) and François Baudouin (1520–1573), on the other hand, Bodin also supported the force of customary law, seeing Roman law alone as inadequate.

He hedged the absolutist nature of his theory of sovereignty, which was an analytical concept; if later his ideas were used in a different, normative fashion, that was not overtly the reason in Bodin. Sovereignty could be looked at as a "bundle of attributes"; in that light the legislative role took centre stage, and other "marks of sovereignty" could be discussed further, as separate issues. He was a politique in theory, which was the moderate position of the period in French politics; but drew the conclusion that only passive resistance to authority was justified.

Bodin's work on political theory saw the introduction of the modern concept of "state" but was in the fact on the cusp of usage (with that of Corasius), with the older meaning of a monarch "maintaining his state" not having dropped away. Public office belonged to the commonwealth, and its holders had a personal responsibility for their actions. Politics is autonomous, and the sovereign is subject to divine and natural law, but not to any church; the obligation is to secure justice and religious worship in the state.

Bodin studied the balance of liberty and authority. He had no doctrine of separation of powers and argued in a traditional way about royal prerogative and its proper, limited sphere. His doctrine was one of balance as harmony, with numerous qualifications; as such it could be used in different manners, and was. The key was that the central point of power should be above faction. Rose sees Bodin's politics as ultimately theocratic, and misunderstood by the absolutists who followed him.

Where Aristotle argued for six types of state, Bodin allowed only monarchy, aristocracy and democracy. He advocated, however, distinguishing the form of state (constitution) from the form of government (administration). Bodin had a low opinion of democracy.

Families were the basic unit and model for the state; on the other hand John Milton found in Bodin an ally on the topic of divorce. Respect for individual liberty and possessions were the hallmark of the orderly state, a view Bodin shared with Hotman and George Buchanan. He argued against slavery.

In matters of law and politics, Bodin saw religion as a social prop, encouraging respect for law and governance.

On change and progress
He praised printing as outshining any achievement of the ancients. The idea that the Protestant Reformation was driven by economic and political forces is attributed to him. He is identified as the first person to realize the rapid rate of change of early modern Europe.

In physics, he is credited as the first modern writer to use the concept of physical laws to define change, but his idea of nature included the action of spirits. In politics, he adhered to the ideas of his time in considering a political revolution in the nature of an astronomical cycle: a changement (French) or simply a change (as translated 1606) in English; from Polybius Bodin took the idea of anacyclosis, or cyclic change of constitution. Bodin's theory was that governments had begun as monarchical, had then been democratic, before becoming aristocratic.

Public position
In 1576, Bodin was engaged in French politics, and then argued against the use of compulsion in matters of religion, if unsuccessfully. Wars, he considered, should be subject to statecraft, and matters of religion did not touch the state.

Bodin argued that a state might contain several religions; this was a very unusual position for his time, if shared by Michel de l'Hôpital and William the Silent. It was attacked by Pedro de Rivadeneira and Juan de Mariana, from the conventional opposing position of a state obligation to root out religious dissent. He argued in the Six livres that the Trial of the Knights Templar was an example of unjustified persecution, similar to that of the Jews and medieval fraternities.

Private position in the Colloquium
In 1588, Bodin completed in manuscript a Latin work Colloquium heptaplomeres de rerum sublimium arcanis abditis (Colloquium of the Seven about Secrets of the Sublime). It is a conversation about the nature of truth between seven educated men, each with a distinct religious or philosophical orientation - a natural philosopher, a Calvinist, a Muslim, a Roman Catholic, a Lutheran, a Jew, and a skeptic. Because of this work, Bodin is often identified as one of the first proponents of religious tolerance in the western world. Truth, in Bodin's view, commanded universal agreement; and the Abrahamic religions agreed on the Old Testament (Tanakh). Vera religio (true religion) would command loyalty to the point of death; his conception of it was influenced by Philo and Maimonides. His views on free will are also bound up with his studies in Jewish philosophy. Some modern scholars have contested his authorship of the text. The "Colloquium of the Seven regarding the hidden secrets of the sublime things" offers a peaceful discussion with seven representatives of various religions and worldviews, who in the end agree on the fundamental underlying similarity of their beliefs.

Bodin's theory, as based in considerations of harmony, resembles that of Sebastian Castellio. He has been seen as a scriptural relativist, and deist, with Montaigne and Pierre Charron; also in the group of learned Christian Hebraists with John Selden, Carlo Giuseppe Imbonati, and Gerhard Vossius. By reputation, at least, Bodin was cited as an unbeliever, deist or atheist by Christian writers who associated him with perceived free-thinking and sceptical tradition of Machiavelli and Pietro Pomponazzi, Lucilio Vanini, Thomas Hobbes and Baruch Spinoza: Pierre-Daniel Huet, Nathaniel Falck, Claude-François Houtteville. Pierre Bayle attributed to Bodin a maxim about the intellectual consequences of the non-existence of God (a precursor of Voltaire's, but based on a traditional commonplace of French thinkers). Wilhelm Dilthey later wrote that the protagonists in the Colloquium anticipate those of Gotthold Ephraim Lessing's Nathan der Weise.

The Colloquium was one of the major and most popular manuscripts in clandestine circulation in the early modern period, with more than 100 copies catalogued. it had an extensive covert circulation, after coming into intellectual fashion. The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica states "It is curious that Leibniz, who originally regarded the Colloquium as the work of a professed enemy of Christianity, subsequently described it as a most valuable production". Its dissemination increased after 1700, even if its content was by then dated. It was interpreted in the 18th century as containing arguments for natural religion, as if the views expressed by Toralba (the proponent of natural religion) were Bodin's; wrongly, according to Rose, whose reconstruction of Bodin's religious views is a long way from belief in a detached deity. Grotius had a manuscript. Gottfried Leibniz, who criticized the Colloquium to Jacob Thomasius and Hermann Conring, some years later did editorial work on the manuscript. Henry Oldenburg wanted to copy it, for transmission to John Milton and possibly John Dury, or for some other connection in 1659. In 1662 Conring was seeking a copy for a princely library. It was not to be published in full until 1857, by Ludwig Noack, from manuscripts collected by Heinrich Christian von Seckenberg.

Personal religious convictions
Bodin was influenced by philosophic Judaism to believe in the annihilation of the wicked 'post exacta supplicia'.

19th-century author Eliphas Levi esteemed Bodin as a student of Jewish esoterism: "The Kabalist Bodin who has been considered erroneously of a feeble and superstitious mind, had no other motive in writing his Demonomania than that of warning people against dangerous incredulity. Initiated by the study of the Kabalah into the true secrets of Magic, he trembled at the danger to which society was exposed by the abandonment of this power to the wickedness of men."

Cultural and universal history and geography
Bodin was a polymath, concerned with universal history which he approached as a jurist. He belonged to an identifiable French school of antiquarian and cultural history, with Lancelot Voisin de La Popelinière, Louis Le Caron, Louis Le Roy, Étienne Pasquier and Nicolas Vignier.

Bodin's theory of the "Frankish Gauls", proposing a non-German genealogy for France, was still being reviled by Leibniz in the 18th century. Bodin argued that frank actually meant "free" in the Gallic language and, based on Caesar, he said the Gauls had crossed the Rhine to escape the Roman yoke, and so were called Franks, and the country of France derived its name from them (who were originally Gauls). Leon Poliakov discussed this in The Aryan Myth:

"Etymological speculation and childish word games of this kind have been rife in western history ever since the Fathers of the Church, but it was the humanists of the Renaissance who first utilized them in the service of a new born chauvinism. It may be remarked, furthermore, that Bodin's theory attributes to the Frankish Gauls certain virtues which were unknown to the enslaved Gauls."

Historical disciples included Jacques Auguste de Thou and William Camden. The genre thus founded, drawing social conclusions, identified itself as "civil history", and was influenced particularly by Polybius. The Methodus has been called the first book to advance "a theory of universal history based on a purely secular study of the growth of civilisation". Bodin's secular attitude to history therefore goes some way to explain his perceived relationship to Machiavelli. While Bodin's common ground with Machiavelli is not so large, and indeed Bodin opposed the Godless vision of the world in Machiavelli, they are often enough paired, for example by A. C. Crombie as philosophical historians with contemporary concerns; Crombie also links Bodin with Francis Bacon, as rational and critical historians. Both Bodin and Machiavelli treat religion as situated historically.

Bodin drew largely on Johann Boemus, and also classical authors, as well as accounts from Leo Africanus and Francisco Álvares. He showed little interest, however, in the New World. In terms of theories of cultural diffusion he influenced Nathanael Carpenter, and many subsequently, with his "south-eastern origin" theory of the transmission from peoples of the Middle East to Greece and Rome (and hence to Northern Europe). Another follower was Peter Heylyn in his Microcosmus (1621). In anthropology Bodin showed indications of polygenism as theory of human origins. In clearer terms, on the other hand, he believed that mankind was unifying, the drivers being trade, and the indications of the respublica mundana (world commonwealth) and international law as developing. This was within a scheme of Vaticinium Eliae or three periods of 2000 years for universal history, to which he had little commitment, though indicating its connection with the three climate regions and their predominance.

The "south-eastern" theory depended for its explanation on Bodin's climate theory and astrology: it was given in the Methodus, and developed in Book VI of the Six Livres. He made an identification of peoples and geographical sectors with planetary influences, in Book V of the Six Livres. His astrological theory is combined with the Hippocratic tradition; but not in the conventional way of Ptolemy. It has been suggested that he took them from a follower of Cardano, Auger Ferrier.

Reception
Bodin's conception of sovereignty was widely adopted in Europe. In a form simplified and adapted by others, such as the French jurists Charles Loyseau (1564–1627) and Cardin Le Bret (1558–1655), it played an important role in the development of absolutism.

In France
Influentially, Bodin defended an orderly Gallican monarchy against Huguenots, and any external interference. These general ideas became political orthodoxy, in the reign of Henry IV of France, tending to the beginnings of absolutism. Bodin had numerous followers as political theorist, including Pierre Grégoire, in whom with François Grimaudet legislative authority starts to become closer to the divine right of kings, and William Barclay. Pierre Charron in La Sagesse of 1601 uses the idea of state from Bodin but with fewer limitations on royal power; Charron in this work argued for a secular neo-stoicism, putting together ideas of Montaigne and Lipsius with those of Bodin. Charles Loyseau in the years 1608-10 published absolutist works with the emphasis on orderliness in society, going much beyond Bodin's writing of thirty years earlier, a trend that continued into the 17th century.

As a demonologist, his work was taken to be authoritative and based on experience as witch-hunting practitioner. As historian, he was prominently cited by Nicolas Lenglet Du Fresnoy in his 1713 Methode pour etudier l'Histoire. Montesquieu read Bodin closely; the modern sociology hinted at in Bodin, arising from the relationship between the state apparatus on the one hand, and society on the other, is developed in Montesquieu.

In Germany
Bodin's rejection of the Four Monarchies model was unpopular, given the German investment in the Holy Roman Emperor as fourth monarch, the attitude of Johannes Sleidanus. The need to accommodate the existing structure of the Empire with Bodin as theorist of sovereignty led to a controversy running over nearly half a century; starting with Henning Arnisaeus, it continued unresolved to 1626 and the time of Christopher Besoldus. He drew a line under it, by adopting the concept of composite polyarchy, which held sway subsequently. Leibniz rejected Bodin's view of sovereignty, stating that it might amount only to territorial control, and the consequence drawn by writers in Bodin's tradition that federalism was chimeric.

In England
Generally, the English took great interest in the French Wars of Religion; their literature came into commonplace use in English political debate, and Amyas Paulet made immediate efforts to find the Six livres for Edward Dyer. Shortly Bodin's works were known in England: to Philip Sidney, Walter Ralegh, and to Gabriel Harvey who reported they were fashionable in Oxford. His ideas on inflation were familiar by 1581. Somerville makes the point that not all those who discussed sovereignty in England at this period necessarily took their views from Bodin: the ideas were in the air at the time, and some such as Hadrian à Saravia and Christopher Lever had their own reasoning to similar conclusions. Richard Hooker had access to the works, but doesn't reference them. John Donne cited Bodin in his Biathanatos.

Bodin's view of parallelism of French and English monarchies was accepted by Ralegh. Roger Twysden dissented: in his view, the English monarchy had never fitted Bodin's definition of sovereignty. Richard Beacon in Solon His Follie (1594), directed towards English colonisation in Ireland, used text derived from the Six livres, as well as much theory from Machiavelli; he also argued, against Bodin, that France was a mixed monarchy. Bodin influenced the controversial definitions of John Cowell, in his 1607 book The Interpreter, that caused a furore in Parliament during 1610. Edward Coke took from Bodin on sovereignty; and like him opposed the concept of mixed monarchy.

While Bodin's ideas on authority fitted with the theory of divine right of kings, his main concern was not with the choice of the sovereign. But that meant they could cut both ways, being cited by parliamentarians as well as royalists. Henry Parker in 1642 asserted the sovereignty of Parliament by Bodinian reasoning. James Whitelocke used Bodin's thought in discussing the King-in-Parliament. The royalist Robert Filmer borrowed largely from Bodin for the argument of his Patriarcha. John Locke in arguing decades later against Filmer in Two Treatises of Government didn't go behind his work to attack Bodin; but his ally James Tyrrell did, as did Algernon Sidney. Another royalist user of Bodin was Michael Hudson. John Milton used Bodin's theory in defending his anti-democratic plan for a Grand Council, after Oliver Cromwell's death.

Sir John Eliot summarized work of Arnisaeus as critic of Bodin, and wrote in the Tower of London following Bodin that a lawful king, as opposed to a tyrant, "will not do what he may do", in his De iure majestatis. Robert Bruce Cotton quoted Bodin on the value of money; Robert Burton on politics in the Anatomy of Melancholy.

Richard Knolles in the introduction to his 1606 translation commended the book as written by a man experienced in public affairs. William Loe complained, in preaching to Parliament in 1621, that Bodin with Lipsius and Machiavelli was too much studied, to the neglect of Scripture. Richard Baxter on the other hand regarded the reading of Bodin, Hugo Grotius and Francisco Suárez as a suitable training in politics, for lawyers.

Bodin's views on witchcraft were taken up in England by the witch-hunter Brian Darcy in the early 1580s, who argued for burning rather than hanging as a method of execution, and followed some of Bodin's suggestions in interrogating Ursula Kemp. They were also radically opposed by Reginald Scott in his sceptical work Discoverie of Witchcraft (1584). Later Francis Hutchinson was his detractor, criticising his methodology.

In Italy
In Italy Bodin was seen as a secular historian like Machiavelli. At the time of the Venetian Interdict, Venetians agreed with the legislative definition of sovereignty. In particular Paolo Sarpi argued that Venice's limited size in territorial terms was not the relevant point for the actions it could undertake on its own authority.

Later Giambattista Vico was to take Bodin's cultural history approach noticeably further.

The Papacy
Works of Bodin were soon placed on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum for various reasons, including discussion of Fortune (against free will), and reason of state. The Methodus went on the Index in 1590; Robert Bellarmine as censor found it of some merit in its learning, but the author to be a heretic or atheist, critical of the papacy and much too sympathetic to Charles Du Moulin in particular. Other works followed in 1593. All his work was placed on the Index in 1628; the prohibition on the Theatrum continued into the 20th century. Venetian theologians were described as followers of Machiavelli and Bodin by Giovanni Amato.

Bellarmine's Tractatus de potestate summi pontificis in temporalibus reiterated, against Bodin's sovereignty theory, an indirect form of the traditional papal deposing power to release subjects from the duty of obedience to tyrants. Jakob Keller, in an apologetical work on behalf of limited justifications for tyrannicide, treated Bodin as a serious opponent on the argument that subjects can only resist a tyrant passively, with views on the Empire that were offensive.

In Spain
In 1583, Bodin was placed on the Quiroga Index. Against tyrannicide, Bodin's thought was out of step of conventional thinking in Spain at the time. It was recognized, in an unpublished dialogue imagined between Bodin and a jurist of Castile, that the government of Spain was harder than that of France, the other major European power, because of the more complex structure of the kingdom.

Bodin's view of witchcraft was hardly known in Spain until the 18th century.

title: Jean Bodin


text:
In-band on-channel

In-band on-channel (IBOC) is a hybrid method of transmitting digital radio and analog radio broadcast signals simultaneously on the same frequency. The name refers to the new digital signals being broadcast in the same AM or FM band (in-band), and associated with an existing radio channel (on-channel). By utilizing additional digital subcarriers or sidebands, digital information is multiplexed on existing signals, thus avoiding re-allocation of the broadcast bands.

IBOC relies on unused areas of the existing spectrum to send its signals. This is particularly useful in North America style FM, where channels are widely spaced at 200 kHz but use only about 50 kHz of that bandwidth for the audio signal. In most countries, FM channel spacing may be as close as 100 kHz, and on AM it is only 10 kHz. While these all offer some room for additional digital broadcasts, most attention on IBOC is in the FM band in North American systems; in Europe and many other countries, entirely new bands were allocated for all-digital systems.

Digital radio standards generally allow multiple program channels to be multiplexed into a single digital stream. In North American FM, this normally allows two or three high-fidelity signals combined in one channel, or one high-fidelity signal plus several additional channels at medium-fidelity levels that are much higher quality than AM. For even greater capacity, some existing subcarriers can be taken off the air to provide additional bandwidth in the modulation baseband. On FM for instance, this might mean removing stereo from the analog signal, relying on the digital signal to provide stereo where desired, thus making room for another digital channel. Due to the reduced bandwidth in AM, IBOC is incompatible with analog stereo, although that is rarely implemented, and additional channels are limited to highly compressed voice such as traffic and weather.

Eventually, stations can go from digital/analog-hybrid mode to all-digital, by eliminating the baseband monophonic audio.

FM methods
On FM there are three methods of IBOC broadcasting in use, primarily in the United States.

HD Radio Broadcasting
The first, and only, digital technology approved for use on AM and FM broadcast frequencies by the Federal Communications Commission in the United States, is the proprietary HD Radio system developed by iBiquity Digital Corporation, which transmits energy beyond the allotted ±100 kHz FM channel. This creates potential interference issues with adjacent channels. This is the most widely used system, with approximately 1,560 stations transmitting HD radio in the US, plus over 800 new multicast channels (as of Jan 2010). There is a one-time license fee to iBiquity Digital, for the use of its intellectual property, as well as costs for new equipment which range from $50,000 to $100,000 US (2010) per station.

FMeXtra
The other system is FMeXtra by Digital Radio Express, which instead uses subcarriers within the existing signal. This system was introduced more recently. The FMeXtra is compatible with HD Radio in hybrid mode, but not in all-digital mode, and with RBDS. The stereo subcarrier can be removed to make more space available for FMeXtra in the modulation baseband. However, the system is not compatible with other existing 67–92 kHz subcarriers which have mostly fallen into disuse. The system is far less expensive and less complicated to implement, needing only to be plugged into the existing exciter, and requiring no licensing fees. FMeXtra has generally all the user features of HD Radio, including multicast capability, the ability to broadcast several different audio programs simultaneously. It uses the aacPlus (HE-AAC) codec.

FMeXtra can restrict listening with conditional access and encryption.

DRM
Digital Radio Mondiale allows for simultaneous transmission of multiple data streams alongside an audio signal. The DRM mode for VHF provides bandwidths from between 35 kbit/s to 185 kbit/s and up to four simultaneous data streams, allowing 5.1 surround DVD quality audio to be broadcast alongside other multimedia content - images, video or HTML content are typical examples.

While it is not backwards compatible with existing FM receiver equipment, with broadcasts digitally encoded using HE-AAC or xHE-AAC, this ability to operate within the internationally agreed FM spectrum of 88-108 MHz makes DRM a viable candidate for future adoption when countries begin to eliminate their analog broadcasts.

HD Radio Broadcasting
iBiquity also created a mediumwave HD Radio system for AM, which is the only system approved by the Federal Communications Commission for digital AM broadcasting in the United States. The HD Radio system employs use of injected digital sidebands above and below the audible portion of the analog audio on the primary carrier. This system also phase modulates the carrier in quadrature and injects more digital information on this phase-modulated portion of the carrier. It is based on the principle of AM stereo where it puts a digital signal where the C-QUAM system would put the analog stereo decoding information.

DRM
Digital Radio Mondiale has had much more success in creating an AM system, and one that could be much less expensive to implement than any proprietary HD Radio system, although it requires new frequency. It is the only one to have been accepted mediumwave but also shortwave (and possibly longwave) by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) for use in regions I and III, but not yet in region II, the Americas. The HD Radio system has also been approved by International Telecommunication Union.

CAM-D
CAM-D is yet another method, though it is more of an extension of the current system. Developed by AM stereo pioneer Leonard R. Kahn, It encodes the treble on very small digital sidebands which do not cause interference to adjacent channels, and mixes it back with the analog baseband. Unlike the other two, it is not intended to be capable of multichannel, opting for quality over quantity. Unlike the HD system iBiquity calls "hybrid digital" the CAM-D system truly is a direct hybrid of both analog and digital. Some engineers believe that CAM-D may be compatible with analog AM stereo with the right engineering.

Critics of CAM-D point to several drawbacks:
 * 1) being primarily analog, the system will be just as subject to artificial interference and noise as the current AM system
 * 2) there are virtually no receivers available for the system and at present, no major manufacturer has announced even the intention to begin production of them; and
 * 3) the cost of retrofitting with CAM-D is more than that of simply buying a new, HD-ready solid state transmitter.

IBOC Versus DAB
While the United Kingdom and many other countries have chosen the Eureka 147 standard of digital audio broadcasting (DAB) for creating a digital radio service, the United States has selected IBOC technology for its digital AM and FM stations. The band commonly used for terrestrial DAB is part of VHF band III, which does not suffer from L-band's significant line-of-sight problems. However, it is not available in North America since that span is occupied by TV channels 7 to 13 and the amateur radio 1.25 meter (222 MHz) band. The stations currently occupying that spectrum did not wish to give up their space, since VHF offers several benefits over UHF: relatively lower power, long distance propagation (up to 100 miles (160 km) with a rooftop antenna), and a longer wavelength that is more robust and less affected by interference. In Canada, the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) is continuing to follow the analog standard, so the channels remain unavailable there as well. HD Radio testing has been authorized in Canada, as well as other countries around the world.

There was also concern that AM and FM stations' branding, using their current frequencies, would be lost to new channel numbers, though virtual channels such as on digital television would eliminate this. Also, several competing stations would have to share a transmitter that multiplexes them all into one ensemble with the same coverage area (though many FM stations are already diplexed in large cities such as New York). A further concern to FM station operators was that AM stations could suddenly be in competition with the same high audio quality, although FM would still have the advantage of higher data rates (300 kbit/s versus 60 kbit/s in the HD Radio standard) due to greater bandwidth (100 kHz versus 10 kHz).

The most significant advantage for IBOC is its relative ease of implementation. Existing analog radios are not rendered obsolete and the consumer and industry may transition to digital at a rational pace. In addition, the technology infrastructure is in place: most major broadcast equipment manufacturers are implementing IBOC technology and 60+ receiver manufacturers are selling IBOC reception devices. In the UK, Denmark, Norway and Switzerland, which are the leading countries with regard to implementing DAB, the first-generation MPEG-1 Audio Layer II (MP2) codec stereo radio stations on DAB have a lower sound-quality than FM, prompting a number of complaints. The typical bandwidth for DAB programs is only 128 kbit/s using the first generation CODEC, the less-robust MP2 standard which requires at least double that rate to be considered near-CD quality.

An updated version of the Eureka-147 standard called DAB+ has been implemented. Using the more efficient high quality MPEG-4 CODEC HE-AAC v2, this compression method allows the DAB+ system to carry more channels or have better sound quality at the same bit rate as the original DAB system. It is the DAB+ implementation which will be under consideration for new station designs and not the earlier DAB scheme using the MUSICAM CODEC. The DAB+ system was coordinated and developed by the World DAB Forum, formed in 1997 from the old organization. It gives the Eureka-147 system a similar quality per bit rate as the IBOC system and hence (arguably) a better sound quality than FM.

Challenges
AM IBOC in the United States still faces some serious technological challenges, including nighttime interference with other stations. iBiquity initially used an audio compression system known as PAC (also used at a higher bitrate in Sirius satellite radio, see Digital Audio Radio Service), but in August 2003 a switch to HDC (based-upon ACC) was made to rectify these problems. HDC has been customized for IBOC, and it is also likely that the patent rights and royalties for every transmitter and receiver can be retained longer by creating a more proprietary system. Digital Radio Mondiale is also developing an IBOC system, likely to be used worldwide with AM shortwave radio, and possibly with broadcast AM and FM. Neither of those have been approved yet for ITU region 2 (the Americas). The system, however, unlike HD Radio, does not permit the existing analog signal and the digital signal to live together in the same channel. DRM requires an additional channel to maintain both signals.

Both AM and FM IBOC signals cause interference to adjacent-channel stations, but not within the station's interference-free protected contours designated by the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC). It has led to derogatory terms such as IBAC (In-band adjacent-channel) and IBUZ (since the interference sounds like a buzz.) The range of a station on an HD Radio receiver is somewhat less than its analog signal. In June 2008, a group of US broadcasters and equipment manufacturers requested that the U.S. FCC increase the permissible FM IBOC power from 1% (currently) to a maximum of 10% of the analog power. On January 29, 2010, the FCC approved the request. In addition, tropospheric ducting and e-skip can reduce the range of the digital signal, as well as the analog.

IBOC digital radios using iBiquity's standard are being marketed under the brand "HD Radio" to highlight the purported quality of reception. As of June 2008, over 60 different receiver models have been made, and stations have received blanket (no longer individual and experimental) authorization from the U.S. FCC to transmit in a multiplexed multichannel mode on FM. Originally, the use of HD Radio transmission on AM was limited to daytime only, and not allowed at night due to potential problems with skywave radio propagation. The FCC lifted this restriction in early 2007. DRM, however, is being used across Europe on shortwave, which is entirely AM skywave, without issue. With the proper receiver, many of those stations can be heard in North America as well, sans the analog signal.

Argentina
HD Radio technology was tested in 2004 with initial trials in Buenos Aires. Further testing of the technology began in early 2007.

Bangladesh
Government broadcaster BETAR began broadcasting HD Radio on their 100.0 MHz frequency on 9 November 2016 from their Agargaon site in Dhaka. The transmission uses a 10 kW GatesAir system. The 100.0 MHz carries programs from BBC World Service amongst others. HD 1, 2, 3 and 4 are configured. A second transmission will also have HD radio added on 88.8 MHz from the same site.

Bosnia
Trial and tests of HD Radio technology began in Sarajevo in March 2007.

Brazil
HD Radio and DRM trials in Brazil started in the mid 2000s. No regular HD Radio or DRM transmissions are allowed in Brazil as the digital radio standard in that country is not yet defined. One or two year experimental licenses were given to some Broadcasters. A joint study by the government (Ministry of Communications and ANATEL) and the National Metrology Institute (Inmetro) was done and the Digital Radio Consultative Council concluded that HD Radio and DRM do not meet the same analog transmission coverage with 20db less power. New trials are expected to occur before any decision about the Brazilian Digital Radio standard. Brazil is considering for adoption Digital Radio Mondiale or HD Radio.

Canada
After having L-band DAB for several years, the Canadian Radio-Television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) and Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) have also looked at the use of HD Radio, given its gradual progress in the neighbouring U.S. The CBC began HD Radio testing in September 2006, focusing on transmissions from Toronto and Peterborough, Ontario.

The CRTC has since revised its policy on digital radio to allow HD Radio operations. Use of HD Radio is now widespread in dense urban markets like Toronto, Vancouver and Ottawa, with some use on the AM band as well.

Czech Republic
Initial testing of the HD Radio system commenced in Prague in February 2007.

China
In China, Hunan Broadcasting Company started FMeXtra transmissions in Changsha in April 2007, and plans to put others throughout the Hunan province. SARFT (State Administration for Radio, Film and Television) is currently testing HD Radio in Beijing in contemplation for acceptance in that country.

Colombia
Caracol Radio began testing of the HD Radio technology in both the AM and FM bands in early 2008.

El Salvador
El Salvador will be choosing HD Radio as its digital radio standard.

Europe
In September 2007 the European HD Radio Alliance (EHDRA) was formed by broadcasters and other interested groups to promote the adoption of HD Radio technology by European broadcasters, regulators and standards organizations.

France
France began broadcasting an HD Radio signal in March 2006 and plans to multicast two or more channels. The radio stations that use IBOC HD in France are SIRTI and NRJ Group. The owner of the transmitter is Towercast. The frequency of IBOC HD radio is 88.2 MHz. In May 2006, The Towercast group added a single channel of digital audio on 93.9 MHz.

Germany
Radio Regenbogen began HD Radio operations on 102.8 MHz in Heidelberg on December 3, 2007 pursuant to government testing authority.

Indonesia
Forum Radio Jaringan Indonesia had tested IBOC HD transmission from March 2006 to May 2006. The IBOC HD station in Jakarta was Delta FM (99.1 MHz). In April 2006, Radio Sangkakala (in Surabaya), the first AM HD radio station in Asia, went on the air on 1062 kHz.

Jamaica
Radio Jamaica began operating full-time with both HD Radio AM and FM signals in the city of Kingston in 2008.

Mexico
All Mexican radio stations within 320 km of the U.S. border are allowed to transmit their programs on the AM and FM bands utilizing HD Radio technology. Approximately six Mexican AM and FM stations are already operating with HD Radio technology along Mexico’s border area with the US. Grupo Imagen commenced HD Radio transmissions on XHDL-FM and XEDA-FM as well as Instituto Mexicano de la Radio on XHIMR-FM, XHIMER-FM and XHOF-FM in Mexico City in June 2012.

New Zealand
HD Radio transmission in Auckland, New Zealand was started on October 19, 2005. The frequency of IBOC HD radio is 106.1 MHz. The transmitter is located at Skytower. Following successful testing, the Radio Broadcasters Association (RBA) initiated a comprehensive trial of HD Radio technology in December 2006. The aim of the trial was to assess the coverage potential of the HD Radio system and to make a recommendation on the suitability of the technology for adoption.

Philippines
The first HD Radio station in the Philippines began broadcasting on November 9, 2005. The Philippines National Telecommunications Commission finalized its rules for FM digital radio operations on November 11, 2007.

Poland
An HD Radio trial began in Warsaw in 2006 in order to demonstrate the technology to local radio stations.

Puerto Rico
WPRM FM is the first station in San Juan, Puerto Rico (part of the US) to adopt HD Radio, in April 2005. WRTU in San Juan has also commenced broadcasting in HD Radio technology in 2007.

Switzerland
FM testing sponsored by Radio Sunshine and Ruoss AG began in Lucerne in April 2006. HD Radio operations in Switzerland continue and are spotlighted each year during “HD Radio Days”, an annual gathering in Lucerne of European broadcasters and manufacturers for the purpose of discussing the rollout of the technology in Europe.

Radio Sunshine has now switched to DAB+ due to the high penetration of DAB+ and lack of interest in HD Radio. DAB+ penetration in Switzerland has now reached 99.5% as of 2018.

Thailand
HD Radio transmission in Thailand was started in April 2006. Radio of Thailand had created a public IBOC HD radio network targeting mass transit commuters in Thailand's capital of Bangkok. To receive the broadcasts, more than 10,000 HD Radio receivers were installed in buses.

Ukraine
The first FM HD Radio broadcasts in Kyiv went on the air in October 2006 on two FM stations operated by the First Ukrainian Radio Group.

Vietnam
Voice of Vietnam (VOV) commenced AM and FM HD Radio transmissions in Hanoi in June, 2008 including multicasting, in anticipation of making HD Radio technology a standard.

United States
As of June 2008, more than 1,700 HD Radio stations were broadcasting 2,432 HD Radio channels. HD Radio technology is the only digital technology approved by the FCC for digital AM and FM broadcasting in the US. Over 60 different HD Radio receivers are on sale in over 12,000 stores nationwide, including Apple, Best Buy, Target, and Wal-Mart.

As of May 2007, FMeXtra is on several dozen stations. Several hundred stations belonging to the Idea Bank consortium will also have FMeXtra installed.

title: In-band on-channel