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Broad-faced potoroo

The broad-faced potoroo (Potorous platyops) is an extinct potoroid marsupial that was found in southwestern Australia. The first specimen was collected in 1839, and described by John Gould in 1844. Only a small number of specimens have been collected since. The last live capture was in 1875. Subfossil remains indicate that it had an extensive distribution around the semiarid coastal districts of Southwest Australia.

The habitat of the broad-faced potoroo is almost entirely unknown, but unlike its relatives, such as the long-nosed potoroo Potorous tridactylus and long-footed Potorous longipes, they do not seem to have lived in dense understories in forests. Preserved specimens indicate that it was smaller than other potoroos at around 300 mm (1 ft) long with a 180-mm tail. Their weight is estimated at 800 g. Their coat was grizzled with yellowish hairs above and greyish white below. Their body was similar in shape to that of other potoroids. Their ears were small and rounded, muzzle fairly short, and cheeks notably puffy.

Taxonomy
The first description was published by John Gould, using a specimen obtained by his collector John Gilbert at "Walyema Swamps near Northam, Western Australia". Gilbert visited this inland region while collecting around the recently established Swan River Colony. The site he referred to was determined to be Lake Walyormouring.

The single specimen forwarded to Gould was presented to the Linnean Society of London, and the partial skull and skin of a female was deposited in the British Museum of Natural History. There were few collected after Gould's initial description. There was one animal collected by James Drummond and recorded in a letter in the 1840s, the collector George Masters prepared four specimens in the 1860s, presumably when he made a large collection of taxa at Mordup. The last collection of living Potorous platyops was in 1874, collected by William Webb and are now held at the Macleay Museum in Sydney.

Curator and collector Hedley H. Finlayson described the remains of a potoroine animal found in a South Australian cave, which were similar to the Potorous platyops. However, the bones were retrieved from a site far from where the Potorous platyops was thought to be found, as well as the teeth being different from previously collections specimens. He ended up naming it as a new species, Potorous morgani. The specimen was later identified as a Potorous platyops. The skull that was studied and was held at a South Australian museum, amongst a deposit of multiple taxa from Kelly's Hill Caves, which was collected by A.M. Morgan. The specific epithet morgani refers to the collector. Finlayson's 1934 description recognised a close similarity to this species. When he obtained more specimens, which were collected at the same cave system on Kangaroo Island by Edith May, he obtained a second partial skull. Comparison of the dentition and other morphological characteristics was limited to works published by G. R. Waterhouse (1846), Oldfield Thomas (1888) and B. Arthur Bensley (1903) whose descriptions of P. platyops are recorded at the BMNH.

Common names include broad-faced potoroo and a name from the Nyungar language, moda, which was recorded by Gilbert and noted in Gould's 1844 description as mor-da, and mort or moort by other ecologists writing shortly after its extinction. The name was obtained through an interview with Nyungar peoples at King George Sound by Gilbert. Early records show that it was also named the broad-faced rat kangaroo.

Description
The broad-faced potoroo is a member of the genus Potorous. It is described as having a relatively broad skull and shorter muzzle. The species is presumed to have become extinct sometime after the last recorded capture of the animal in 1875, and sometime before 1905.

The colour of the pelage is greyish brown at the upper-side. Straw-yellow hairs are interspersed through the fur to give a streaked effect. The underside and the flanks are pale grey. The head and body are about 305 millimetres in length, while the tail is about 178 mm long. Their hind feet are about 54 mm in length and their weight is approximately 800 grams. Their noses are short and blunt, which is an unusual characteristic among potorines and is usually associated with species such as the rufous bettong (Aepyprymnus rufescens) and the desert rat-kangaroo (Caloprymnus campestris).

Ecology
The behaviour of the species has not been recorded, and nothing is known of its diet. The scant record of its habitat includes those provided by John Gilbert's informants, one of whom said, "All I could glean of its habits was that it was killed in a thicket surrounding one of the salt lagoons in the interior".

An assessment of documents prior to the 20th century concluded the only ecological change to affect the population were anecdotal reports of a "disease", similar to one that had resulted in the sudden absence of similar species. A synthesis combining other historical evidence proposes what may have been an epizootic during the 1890s that precipitated their extinction. No historical evidence could be found to link the conclusion of South African collector Guy C. Shortridge, writing in 1910, that ecological changes such as bushfire and the introduction of cats were directly linked to the species' decline.

Guy Shortridge searched extensively for this species on his collecting expedition near Bremer Bay, finding Potorous gilbertii skulls at caves near Margaret River, but could only provide the historical details of this species provided to him in his 1910 report. The information he reported—assumed to be from Nyungar informants—was that the species became extinct in 1905, were similar to the quokka in range and habits, and had been commonly found and often captured in large quantities. The remains were examined the following year, along with the remains of a dibbler, which was found along with the P. gilbertii remains in a deposit beneath a moving dune system. Another set of bones were found in an midden beneath a large peppermint (Agonis flexuosa), which was assumed to be the feeding roost of a predatory bird such as an owl. This site, near Hunter River, was partly preserved by a sand dune and included species introduced after the colonisation of Australia, possibly placing the date of these remains within recent history. Sub-fossil remains identified as P. platyops were also found in a survey of deposits on the Eyre Peninsula, accumulations that may have been middens of pre-colonial peoples of the region.

Distribution
The few records of live specimens are restricted to Southwest Australia. The species could have already been near-extinct when Gilbert obtained his specimen, and no specific localities are known with any certainty. Sub-fossil remains indicate a wide distribution range, extending from the southern to the western regions of Australia, including Nullarbor Plain, and perhaps as far north as the Northwest Cape region. Remains have also been found on Kangaroo Island.

Some evidence indicates that P. platyops, like the desert-dwelling rat-kangaroo (Caloprymnus campestris), was already in decline when the invasive European rabbit became established in the species' former range.

title: Broad-faced potoroo


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Tokyo Bay

Tokyo Bay (東京湾) is a bay located in the southern Kantō region of Japan spanning the coasts of Tokyo, Kanagawa Prefecture, and Chiba Prefecture. Tokyo Bay is connected to the Pacific Ocean by the Uraga Channel. The Tokyo Bay region is the most populous and the largest industrialized area in Japan.

Names
In ancient times, the Japanese knew Tokyo Bay as the uchi-umi (内海). By the Azuchi–Momoyama period (1568–1600) the area had become known as Edo Bay (江戸湾) after the city of Edo. The bay took its present name in modern times, after the Imperial court moved to Edo and renamed the city Tokyo in 1868.

Geography
Tokyo Bay juts prominently into the Kantō Plain. It is surrounded by the Bōsō Peninsula in Chiba Prefecture to the east and the Miura Peninsula in Kanagawa Prefecture to the west. The shore of Tokyo Bay consists of a diluvial plateau and is subject to rapid marine erosion. Sediments on the shore of the bay make for a smooth, continuous shoreline.

Boundaries

In a narrow sense, Tokyo Bay is the area north of the straight line from Cape Kannon on the west of Miura Peninsula to Cape Futtsu on the east Bōsō Peninsula. This area covers about 922 km2 in 2012, reclamation projects continue to slowly shrink the bay.

In a broader sense, Tokyo Bay includes the Uraga Channel. By this definition the bay opens from an area north of the straight line from Cape Tsurugisaki on the east of Miura Peninsula to Cape Sunosaki on the west of the Boso Peninsula. This area covers about 1100 km2. The area of Tokyo Bay combined with the Uraga Channel covers 1500 km2.

Depth
The shoal between Cape Futtsu in Chiba Prefecture and Cape Honmaku in Yokohama is known as Nakanose, and has a depth of 20 m. North of this area the bay has a depth of 40 m and an uncomplicated underwater topography. Areas south of Nakanose are significantly deeper moving towards the Pacific Ocean.

Islands
The only natural island in Tokyo Bay is Sarushima (0.055 km2) at Yokosuka, Kanagawa Prefecture. Sarushima was one of the locations fortified with coastal artillery during the Bakumatsu period and was subsequently incorporated into the Tokyo Bay Fortress during the Meiji period. The Imperial Japanese Navy maintained a degaussing station on the island until the end of World War II. The island is now uninhabited and is a marine park.

Many artificial islands were built as naval fortifications in the Meiji and Taishō periods. After World War II these islands were converted to residential or recreational use. Odaiba, also known as Daiba, was one of six artificial islands constructed in 1853 as a fortification to protect the Tokugawa shogunate at Edo, and was known as the Shinagawa Daiba. After World War II Odaiba was incorporated into Tokyo and redeveloped for commercial and recreational use. Before World War II, Yumenoshima was planned as an airfield (one of the largest in the world at the time), but after the US military expansion of Haneda Airport following World War II, the plan of the airfield fell through. The island briefly opened as a public beach before being repurposed and used as a landfill between 1957 and 1967 to dispose of the large quantities of garbage from the Tokyo Metropolitan Area. The reclaimed land now hosts Yumenoshima Park with numerous recreational facilities. Hakkei Island (0.24 km2), formerly Landfill Number 14, was constructed in 1985 and is home to Yokohama Hakkeijima Sea Paradise. Other artificial islands include Heiwa, Katsushima, Shōwa, Keihin, and Higashiōgi islands.

Rivers
Numerous rivers empty into Tokyo Bay, and all provide water for residential and industrial areas along the bay. The Tama and Sumida rivers empty into the bay at Tokyo. The Edo River empties into Tokyo Bay between Tokyo and Chiba Prefecture. The Obitsu and Yōrō rivers empty into the bay in Chiba Prefecture.

Land reclamation
Land reclamation has been carried out along the coast of Tokyo Bay since the Meiji period. Areas along the shore with a depth of less than 5 m are simplest to carry out landfill, and sand from the floor of Tokyo Bay is used for these projects. The topography of the shoreline of Tokyo Bay differs greatly from that of the pre-modern period due to ongoing land reclamation projects. Tokyo Bay includes about 249 km2 of reclaimed land area in 2012. Aggregate household waste production is enormous in Greater Tokyo, there is little room for traditional garbage disposal sites; waste is rigorously sorted at the household, much of it is turned into ash and further recycled into bay landfill.

Bridges
The Tokyo Bay Aqua-Line bridge-tunnel crosses Tokyo Bay between Kawasaki and Kisarazu; Tokyo-Wan Ferry also crosses the bay toward the Uraga Channel between Kurihama (in Yokosuka) and Kanaya (in Futtsu on the Chiba side).

Fishing
Tokyo Bay was a historical center of the fishing industry, a source of shellfish, and other aquaculture. These industries decreased with the industrialization of the Tokyo Bay region early in the 20th century, and almost completely ceased with the construction of the Keihin and Keiyō industrial zones directly after World War II.

Ports
A number of Japan's most important ports are located in Tokyo Bay. The Port of Yokohama, the Port of Chiba, the Port of Tokyo, the Port of Kawasaki, the Port of Yokosuka, the Port of Kisarazu, rank not only as the busiest ports in Japan, but also in the Asia-Pacific Region.

Industrial zones
Industrial zones on Tokyo Bay were developed as early as the Meiji era (1868–1912). The Keihin Industrial Zone was built on reclaimed land in Kanagawa Prefecture to the west of Tokyo. This was expanded to the Keiyō Industrial Zone in Chiba Prefecture along the north and east coasts of Tokyo Bay after World War II. The development of the two zones has resulted in the largest industrialized area in Japan. The large-scale industrial zones of the coastal Tokyo region have caused significant air and water pollution.

Military facilities
The Port of Yokosuka contains the naval bases of the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force and the United States Forces Japan.

Perry Expedition
Tokyo Bay was the venue for the Perry Expedition, which involved two separate trips from 1853 to 1854 between the United States and Japan by Commodore Matthew Perry (1794–1858). Perry sailed on his four "Black Ships" into Edo Bay on July 8, 1853, and began negotiations with the Tokugawa shogunate that led to a peace and trade treaty between the United States and Japan in 1854.

World War II
The Japanese Instrument of Surrender at the end of World War II was signed on September 2, 1945, on board USS Missouri (BB-63), which was anchored at 35° 21′ 17″ N 139° 45′ 36″ E. A flag from one of Commodore Perry's ships was flown in from the Naval Academy Museum and displayed at the ceremony.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Tokyo Bay


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Talk:Not Waving but Drowning

Untitled comment
This is not encyclopedic--when we remove the opinion about its quality(NPOV), we're left with nothing but that it's a poem by Smith. This needs substance, or to be deleted.Vicki Rosenzweig 00:16 12 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Could a note be added about the poem's influence on the Morrissey song 'Lifeguard Sleeping, Girl Drowning'? Or would it be more appropriate to add a note to the song's page about this poem? Ezy Rider (talk) 15:59, 30 October 2008 (UTC)
 * The atricle itself is about a notable poem, but the majority of the text is not notable. Perhaps we should consider removing the majority of the references by musical bands and whatnot, as they have little to do with the poem but attempt to derive notability from it.Mrathel (talk) 21:49, 12 December 2008 (UTC)

Musical References
The Musical References is a list of connective trivia, and needs to be removed. Mrathel (talk) 19:01, 19 February 2009 (UTC)
 * I am going to remove the Musical References section as none of the information directly relates to the poem itself and is more or less connective trivia. I am sorry if this steps on any toes, but the bulk of an article about a poem needs to focus on the poem, not every single time it is used as a title for a song. If any of the references can be considered as an adaptation of the same poem, they might go into a section of the poem's influence on literature and art, but that would have to include the poem itself, not a single line of a different piece of work. Mrathel (talk) 22:07, 30 April 2009 (UTC)

The poem
It is meaningless to discuss this work here without reproducing it in full, since it is discussed in such detail. I contend that this fully complies with Wikipedia's fair-use policy in that it does not in any way compromise the rights of the copyright holder to profit from this usage, in that any commercial exploitation of this poem will inevitably be accompanied by other, lesser-known works by Stevie Smith, and that is to the benefit of her estate as far as royalties are concerned. In that sense, we do not trespass upon those ancillary rights. I go further, and say that unless we reproduce this poem here, the reader has no internal frame of reference from which the article as a whole can be read or assessed. Rodhull andemu  01:20, 20 March 2010 (UTC)

Erin McKean
Why is she redlinked? Have I done something wrong?

Oh, its working now.

The Drawing
re: "The image that Smith attached to the poem shows the form of a girl from the waist up with her wet hair hanging over her face." -- the only images i've seen associated with this poem are a drawing of a girl (not "the form of a girl") from the neck (not the waist) up -- and tho the hair is a little unkempt i wouldn't have guessed it was "wet" -- can anyone confirm, or throw light? -- (unfortunately the link claiming to show the pic requires RealPlayer, no longer the media player of choice) -- Oniscoid (talk) 15:25, 21 July 2011 (UTC)

Trivia
I've removed a lot of unnecessary stuff from the final section, which had again become a repository for trivial mentions as highlighted in the above comments from February 2009. I've kept a couple of entries which appear to directly relate to the poem, but tagged them as unsourced. Hopefully fans of the artistes in question can come up with some interviews or similar to replace the tags. ~dom Kaos~ (talk) 11:38, 13 April 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Not Waving but Drowning


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George Ward Hunt

George Ward Hunt (30 July 1825 – 29 July 1877) was a British statesman of the Conservative Party who was Chancellor of the Exchequer and First Lord of the Admiralty in the first and second ministries of Benjamin Disraeli.

Early life
Hunt was born at Buckhurst Park at Winkfield in Berkshire, the eldest son of the Rev. George Hunt of Winkfield, and his wife Emma Gardiner, daughter of Samuel Gardiner of Coombe Lodge, Oxfordshire. His father was rector of Barningham and then Boughton. He was educated at Eton College. He matriculated at Christ Church, Oxford in 1844. As an undergraduate, he went on vacation reading parties with Arthur Hugh Clough: in 1845 at Grasmere, in 1846 at Castleton of Braemar and in 1847 at Drumnadrochit on Loch Ness. In Clough's poem The Bothie of Toper-na-fuosich, he is identified with the outsize character Hobbes. Hobbes dances in a kilt, and Hunt painted a self-portrait of himself wearing one.

Hunt graduated B.A. in 1848, and M.A. in 1851; on 21 November of that year he was called to the bar at the Inner Temple.

Political career
Hunt entered the House of Commons in 1857 as Member of Parliament for Northamptonshire North, at the end of the year, having made several unsuccessful attempts previously. He was a Secretary to the Treasury from 1866 to 1868, in the ministry of the 14th Earl of Derby. Regarded as "sensible but dull", according to Derby's biographer Hawkins, he was then appointed to the Exchequer when Disraeli took office.

There is a Westminster tradition that, on leaving Downing Street for the House of Commons on Budget Day, the Chancellor of the Exchequer shows the assembled crowd the ministerial red box containing the Budget speech, by holding it aloft. When Hunt presented his one and only Budget speech, he kept the House of Commons waiting, and it is supposed that he had left the speech behind. When he spoke, the Budget presentation was the shortest recorded.

Hunt was appointed to the Admiralty for Disraeli's second ministry, serving from 1874 until his death from gout in 1877. Although he was considered competent at finance, his turn at the Admiralty was, for a long time, not much admired. That attitude has, however, been revised. Canada's Ward Hunt Island was named for him. It is off Ellesmere Island, and of interest for the Ward Hunt Ice Shelf observed in 1876 by Pelham Aldrich.

Hunt died at Bad Homburg, Germany, in July 1877, on the eve of his 52nd birthday. His wife died in 1894.

Family
Hunt married Alice, daughter of the Right Reverend Robert Eden, Bishop of Moray, Ross and Caithness, in 1857. They had five sons and five daughters, including Sir Allen Thomas Hunt, an Admiral in the Royal Navy.

Hunt's residence was Wadenhoe House in Northamptonshire.

title: George Ward Hunt


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Skirrid Fawr

Skirrid Fawr (Ysgyryd Fawr, ), often referred to as just the Skirrid, is an easterly outlier of the Black Mountains in Wales. It forms the easternmost part of the Brecon Beacons National Park. The smaller hill of Ysgyryd Fach or "Little Skirrid" (270 m) lies about 2+1/2 mi south.

It is 486 m high and lies just to the north-east of Abergavenny, Monmouthshire, about 10 mi from the English border. The Beacons Way passes along the ridge.

Geology
The distinctive shape of this Old Red Sandstone hill comprises a long ridge oriented nearly north–south, with a jagged western side resulting from ice age landslips. The upper slopes of the hill are composed of Devonian age sandstones assigned to the Senni Formation (formerly known as the "Senni Beds"). These overlie weaker mudstones of the St Maughans Formation - a situation which has contributed to the instability of the hill's steep flanks, resulting in a very large landslip at the northern end of the mountain, although the British Geological Survey map of the area (Abergavenny sheet) shows the landslide extending along the whole of the west side of the mountain. There are numerous other landslips of a similar nature on the nearby hills, although that on the Skirrid is perhaps the most well known owing to its visibility from several directions. Some of the landslide areas contain numerous jumbled blocks of sandstone, one of which is known as the "Devil's Table". The ridge is very similar in its rocky edge to that found on the Black Hill to the north in Herefordshire.

Cultural associations
The Welsh name Ysgyryd meaning 'split' or 'shattered' and Fawr meaning 'great' describes the hill's shape. There is a rich mythology attached to the mountain, including a distinctive stone known as the Devil's Table. According to legend, part of the mountain is said to have been broken off at the moment of the crucifixion of Jesus. There was a local tradition that earth from the Skirrid was holy and especially fertile, and it was taken away to be scattered on fields elsewhere, on coffins, and in the foundations of churches. Pilgrimages were made, especially on Michaelmas Eve, to the summit.

History
In older literature the spelling Skyrrid is sometimes encountered and the mountain is also referred to locally as the Holy Mountain or Sacred Hill. The ruins of an Iron Age hill fort and a mediæval chapel, dedicated to St. Michael, lie at the summit. Rudolf Hess used to walk here when he was held prisoner at nearby Maindiff Court during the early 1940s. North of the mountain at Llanvihangel Crucorney, The Skirrid Inn claims to be one of the oldest pubs in Wales.

Ownership and access
Ysgyryd Fawr has belonged to the National Trust since 1939. The summit offers views of the Sugar Loaf to the west, and Blorenge to the south, and the ridge is easily accessed on foot from the car park beside the B4521 Ross Road shown on the Ordnance Survey maps. The ascent is steep initially through woods, but gradual thereafter as open ground is reached, and a fine walk along the spine of the mountain to the highest point at the north end of the mountain at the trig point and chapel; allow two hours for the completion and return in good weather. A rough path follows the perimeter of the hill at a much lower level, and can be used as a circular route.

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Talk:Islamic dietary laws

R.E are lizards halal
They are not 46.22.24.203 (talk) 23:40, 16 June 2022 (UTC)

"Permitted method of slaughter"
This paragraph repeats information previously mentioned. Should it be removed completely?  Tigerboy1966  07:34, 6 November 2022 (UTC)

 * I've done a bit of restructuring and merged the sections on slaughter. Iskandar323 (talk) 08:42, 6 November 2022 (UTC)

Benefits
The first line in this section mentions a statement (The halal way of slaughter has been considered to be healthier and more hygienic.[citation needed] ) which is stated as a fact. However there is no evidence provided for such nor is there any citation. As such I recommend that this sentence should be removed as it is more in line with opinion rather than any fact as no evidence of such is provided. 154.20.10.104 (talk) 18:54, 2 May 2023 (UTC)

hunt
"Animals hunted by trained birds and animals" Is it "Animals hunted by trained (birds and animals)", which could be rephrased as "Animals hunted by trained animals e.g. birds" OR Is it "Animals hunted by (trained birds) and animals", which could be rephrased as "Animals hunted by other animals e.g. trained birds" 36.93.37.154 (talk) 04:47, 7 February 2024 (UTC)

Kya coldrinks peena harram hai
Thankyou 45.118.166.102 (talk) 10:12, 17 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Islamic dietary laws


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Taiwanese Americans

Taiwanese Americans are an ethnic group in the United States consisting of Americans with full or partial ancestry from Taiwan, including American-born citizens descended from Taiwanese migrants.

As of the 2010 U.S. Census, 49% of Taiwanese Americans lived in the state of California. New York and Texas have the second and third largest Taiwanese American populations, respectively. Notable Taiwanese Americans include Joy Burke, Elaine Chao, Steve Chen, Andrew Cherng, Michael Chang, Yuan Chang, David Ho, James C. Ho, Tony Hsieh, Jensen Huang, Min H. Kao, Justin Lin, Jeremy Lin, Lisa Su, Katherine Tai, William Wang, Nymphia Wind, Constance Wu, Michelle Wu, Andrew Yang, and Jerry Yang.

Immigration history
Taiwanese immigration to the United States was limited in the years before World War II, due to Japanese rule as well as the Immigration Act of 1924, which completely barred immigration from Asia. Prior to the 1950s, emigration from Taiwan (ROC) (then called Formosa), was negligible, but a small number of students came to the United States until 1965. After the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, which loosened restrictions and gave preference to skilled workers, many came as students and stayed, partly due to better economic conditions in the U.S. and due to a repressive political climate back home.

In 1949, the Chinese Communist Party took control of mainland China, and 2 million refugees, predominantly from the Republic of China (ROC) Nationalist government, military, and business community, fled to Taiwan. From 1949 up until 1979, the United States recognized the Kuomintang-led ROC as the sole legitimate government of China. As a result, immigration from Taiwan was counted under within the same quota for both mainland China and Taiwan. However, because the People's Republic of China (PRC) banned emigration to the United States until 1977, the quota for immigrants from China was almost exclusively filled by immigrants from Taiwan. In 1979, the United States broke diplomatic relations with the ROC, while the Taiwan Relations Act gave Taiwan a separate immigration quota from that of the PRC.

Before the late 1960s, immigrants from Taiwan to the United States tended to be "mainland Chinese" who had immigrated to Taiwan with the Kuomintang (KMT) after the fall of mainland China to the Communists. Later immigrants tended to increasingly be Taiwanese benshengren, or Han Taiwanese whose ancestors had already lived in Taiwan before 1949. Taiwanese immigration to the United States began to subside in the early-1980s due to improving economic and political conditions in Taiwan.

Education
Chinese culture places a high value on education, and many Taiwanese Americans are very highly educated and hold advanced degrees from numerous prestigious universities around the United States. Several distinguished academics, including Nobel Prize winners, are Taiwanese Americans.

Financial and socioeconomic opportunities offered by the United States have lifted many Taiwanese Americans out of poverty, joining the ranks of the America's middle and upper middle class. Estimates indicate that a disproportionate percentage of Taiwanese students attend elite universities despite constituting less than 0.5% of the U.S. population. Taiwanese Americans have the highest education attainment level in the United States, surpassing any other ethnic group in the country, according to U.S Census Bureau data released in 2010. According to the 2010 Labor Statistics from U.S. Census Bureau, 73.6% of all Taiwanese Americans have attained a bachelor's degree or higher. (Compared to 28.2% nationally and 49.9% for all Asian American groups). 80.0% of Taiwanese American men attained a bachelor's degree and 68.3% of Taiwanese American women attained a bachelor's degree. 39.1% of all Taiwanese in the United States possess a master's, doctorate or other professional degree, nearly four times the national average.

Employment
Many Taiwanese Americans work as white collar professionals, many of whom are highly educated, salaried professionals whose work is largely self-directed in management, professional and related occupations such as engineering, medicine, investment banking, law, and academia. 66.2% of Taiwanese Americans work in many white collar professions compared to 35.9% for the general American population and 48.1% for Asian Americans. 71.3% of Taiwanese men and 60.4% of Taiwanese women work in management, professional, and related occupations. They also hold some of the lowest unemployment rates in the nation with a figure of 4.3% compared to a national rate of 6.9%. Some of the prominent technology companies in the United States have been founded by Taiwanese Americans such as Min Kao (co-founder of Garmin), Jerry Yang (co-founder of Yahoo), Steve Chen (co-founder of YouTube), Jen-Hsun Huang (co-founder of Nvidia), William Wang (founder of Vizio), Greg Tseng (co-founder of Tagged) and James Chu (founder of Viewsonic).

Economics
According to the 2009 U.S. Census, Taiwanese American men had one of "the highest year-round, full-time median earnings" with a figure of $76,587, while Taiwanese American women had a median income of $51,307. Taiwanese Americans have one of the lowest poverty rates in the US, with a poverty rate of 9.5% compared to 11.3% for the general American population.

Settlement
Many Taiwanese immigrants have not settled in the old Chinatowns because they do not speak Cantonese. Instead, they have generally immigrated directly to American suburbia and as a result, new suburban Taiwanese communities were formed. For example, in the late 1970s and early 1980s, Taiwanese emigrants were instrumental in the development of Monterey Park, California in Los Angeles - resulting in the moniker of "Little Taipei" - as well as Flushing, Queens, which generally reflected new investments and capital flowing from Taiwan into newer Taiwanese enclaves instead of traditional Chinatowns.

While Monterey Park is no longer the largest Taiwanese community in Los Angeles today, Flushing remains the main Taiwanese cultural, commercial, and political center in New York City. In Los Angeles County, California, newer communities such as Rowland Heights, Hacienda Heights, Arcadia, San Marino, Diamond Bar, Walnut, San Gabriel, Temple City, are similar to "Little Taipei." However, many annual Taiwanese cultural events (especially during Taiwanese Heritage Week) are still held in Monterey Park. As an attempt to duplicate the Taiwanese success of Monterey Park in Houston, Texas, Taiwanese immigrant entrepreneurs established what is now widely considered as Houston's new Chinatown on Bellaire Boulevard in the mid-1980s. A number of Taiwanese American businesses and organizations still operate and flourish in this part of Houston.

The prestige and performance of particular school districts, as well as access to careers in high-tech firms, have played a significant part in influencing the settlement patterns of Taiwanese Americans. Areas with high concentrations of Taiwanese immigrants include the San Gabriel Valley (Greater Los Angeles), Santa Clara Valley (Cupertino, San Jose), East Bay (Dublin, Pleasanton, El Cerrito, Oakland), Los Angeles/Orange County border communities (Cerritos/Artesia), and Irvine in Central Orange County. Outside of California, there are also major Taiwanese concentrations in Flushing, Long Island City, and Forest Hills, all within Queens; Nassau County on Long Island; Jersey City and Hoboken in nearby New Jersey; Rockville, Maryland (northwest of Washington, D.C.); Sugar Land, Texas (near Houston), Plano, Texas (near Dallas); Bellevue, Washington (and adjacent areas) (part of the Greater Seattle Area's "Eastside" communities) and Chandler, Arizona. Additionally, the northeastern suburbs of the Atlanta, Georgia area has also received a significant influx of Taiwanese immigrant residents.

From the middle of the 1980s to the 1990s, large numbers of affluent Taiwanese Americans began moving out to upscale neighborhoods such as Cupertino, San Mateo, Palo Alto, Fremont, Newark, and Pleasanton in the Bay Area; San Marino, Arcadia, South Pasadena, and Temple City in Western San Gabriel Valley; Hacienda Heights, Rowland Heights, Walnut, and Diamond Bar in Eastern San Gabriel Valley; with immigrants from the People's Republic of China and Cantonese and Teochew (mostly from Vietnam) taking their place in Monterey Park, as well as Alhambra. Starting in the 2000s, highly educated Nassau County on Long Island east of New York City, as well as suburbs in northern and central New Jersey, have received a large influx of Taiwanese immigrants.

Suburbs of Albuquerque also have a moderately sized Taiwanese population.

Similarly, for the past 10 years, Taiwanese have been immigrating to upscale neighborhoods in Los Angeles and Orange County such as Cerritos and Irvine respectively. Cerritos is located in Los Angeles County but borders Orange County and has a large diversity of Asian immigrants. Irvine has a very large Taiwanese population. The Irvine Chinese School, which serves mostly the American-born children of Taiwanese immigrants, is one of the largest Chinese-language schools in the Orange County area.

Taiwanese-oriented strip malls and shopping complexes are typically complete with supermarkets and restaurants. In addition, shops offering imported Taiwanese goods allow for young Taiwanese expatriates in the United States to keep up with the current trends and popular culture of Taiwan. Taiwanese Americans have also brought with them Taiwanese cuisine to the communities they have settled, which, possibly excluding bubble tea, is not generally well known or served outside these aforementioned Taiwanese immigrant enclaves.

U.S. metropolitan areas with large Taiwanese American populations
The list of metropolitan area with a Taiwanese American population of at least 4,000,.

Politics
Taiwanese Americans have also gradually increased their political engagement in the public sphere of the U.S. in recent years.

Notable examples include:

 * Stephanie Chang (member of the Michigan Senate)
 * Elaine Chao (United States Secretary of Labor in the George W. Bush Administration, and Secretary of Transportation in the Donald Trump Administration)
 * Raymond Chen (United States Circuit Judge on the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit)
 * Lanhee Chen (2022 California State Controller candidate and policy director and chief policy adviser to the 2012 Mitt Romney presidential campaign).
 * John Chiang (California State Controller)
 * David Chiu (City Attorney of San Francisco and former member of the California State Assembly)
 * Shing-Fu Hsueh (Mayor of West Windsor, New Jersey)
 * Ted Lieu (member of the United States House of Representatives, representing California's 33rd congressional district.)
 * Goodwin Liu (Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of California)
 * Jessie K. Liu (former United States Attorney for the District of Columbia)
 * John Liu (former Comptroller of New York City)
 * Grace Meng (member of the United States House of Representatives, representing New York's 6th congressional district in the New York City borough of Queens, elected in 2008)
 * Yuh-Line Niou (member of the New York State Assembly, representing the 65th District in Lower Manhattan, elected in November 2016)
 * David Wu (former U.S. Representative, 1st Taiwan born Congressman)
 * Sherman Wu (civil rights activist and scientist)
 * Michelle Wu (Mayor of Boston, elected 2021, former member of the Boston City Council).
 * Katherine Tai (United States Trade Representative)
 * Andrew Yang (Mayoral candidate in the 2021 New York City Democratic primary, presidential candidate in the 2020 Democratic primary, and founder of Venture for America)
 * Yiaway Yeh (former Mayor of Palo Alto, California)

First generation immigrants and later generations
First and second generation immigrants from Taiwan usually share a common language, Mandarin. However, many also speak Taiwanese Hokkien, and to a lesser extent, Hakka. Many first-generation immigrants educated before 1945 speak Japanese as their second native language. As with most immigrants to the United States, linguistic fluency in the heritage language quickly disappears in the second generation. Immigrants whose families are from the Taipei metropolitan area usually speak Mandarin as their primary language. There are many first-generation Taiwanese immigrants of full Hakka heritage who speak all three languages. Some Taiwanese Americans of mixed Hoklo and Hakka Heritage speak only Mandarin as their primary language.

Organizations
Organizations geared towards Taiwanese Americans include the Formosan Association for Public Affairs (FAPA), North America Taiwanese Professors Association (NATPA), Taiwanese American Citizens League (TACL), Taiwanese American Professionals (TAP) and Intercollegiate Taiwanese American Students Association (ITASA). In addition, most cities with concentrations of Taiwanese Americans have a Taiwanese association or Taiwan Center.

The first Taiwanese church in North America, the Winfield Reformed Church in Woodside, Queens, in New York City, was established in 1969.

In 1986, Chaotian Temple from Taiwan has also established a branch temple known as Ma-Tsu Temple in San Francisco Chinatown with the support of Taiwanese American community.

Media
Taiwanese Americans also run several of North America's major Chinese-language newspapers, such as the World Journal based in Queens; and the Chicago Chinese News. However, these influential and highly circulated newspapers are not geared solely to Taiwanese immigrants, but also serve a broader Chinese-speaking immigrant readership. Pacific Journal is a weekly Taiwanese-run newspaper that is geared more exclusively toward Taiwanese readers.

Due to the significant Taiwanese American community, Taiwanese media dominates the Chinese-language airwaves in the United States. Cable and satellite television of Taiwan-based media keeps Taiwanese Americans abreast of news developments and programming in Taiwan. For example, satellite stations ETTV America and CTI cater to Mandarin-speaking Taiwanese immigrants.

Taiwanese nationality and residency
In the 1960s, many Taiwanese Americans chose to make America their permanent home and had children in the U.S. Most sought refuge from the numerous arrests and executions during the White Terror era of the KMT, the political party which had dictatorially ruled the country. By the late 1970s, improving economic conditions in Taiwan slowed the rate of immigration. During the 1990s, political liberalization in Taiwan encouraged many who had left Taiwan for political reasons to return.

Although the oath of naturalization of the United States contains a statement renouncing "allegiance and fidelity" to other countries, the Republic of China (the formal name of Taiwan) does not recognize this renunciation as sufficient for the termination of ROC nationality, and requires a person who wishes to renounce ROC nationality to take another oath before an ROC consular officer. All renunciations are subject to approval from the Ministry of the Interior, and the Ministry may deny a person's application under Taiwanese law. Without formal renunciation, the ROC government considers its emigrants with American citizenship to continue to be nationals of the ROC. Acquiring US citizenship has no effect on the holder's status as a national of ROC, which makes Taiwan-born Americans still eligible to vote in the ROC elections, provided that their household registration is still intact in Taiwan.

Unlike their Taiwan-born parents, the American-born second generation do not have household registration in Taiwan at birth, making them nationals without household registration (NWOHRs), despite the fact that they are also ROC nationals under Taiwanese law. In contrast with those with household registration in Taiwan, NWOHRs cannot receive a Taiwanese National Identification Card, do not have right of abode in Taiwan, and are subject to immigration control while in Taiwan. They are, however, eligible for a Taiwan passport. It is possible for NWOHRs to be registered as nationals with household registration (NWHRs) if they meet the requirements listed under the Immigration Act of Taiwan.

Connection to politics of Taiwan and cultural ties
Some Taiwanese Americans play an active role in the politics and culture of Taiwan, aided in large part by recognition of dual citizenship. The identity politics of Taiwan also influences at least first generation Taiwanese Americans. Many government officials, including presidents Tsai Ing-wen, Ma Ying-jeou, and Lee Teng-hui, have received graduate degrees in the United States. The United States was also a major destination for anti-KMT figures such as Peng Ming-min and Chai Trong-rong, where they were politically exiled. Others, including Nobel Prize laureate Yuan T. Lee were educated in the United States.

The close connection between Taiwan and the United States has led to some interesting political dynamics. From time to time, the issue of loyalty to Taiwan is raised – for example, in 2008, during his successful Presidential campaign, the fact that Ma Ying-Jeou has sisters and a daughter who are American citizens was criticized. Prominent party chairman James Soong has been criticized for having extensive property holdings in the United States and for the fact that his children are American citizens. Several legislators and government officials in the KMT have been controversially alleged to have permanent U.S. residency status or U.S. citizenship without renouncement while serving in public office. Similarly, loyalty was raised as an issue in the feud between Li Ao and Yuan T. Lee, whose children are also American citizens. This issue is partly one of socio-economic status as Taiwanese with extensive connections within the United States are considered wealthier and more privileged than the average Taiwanese.

However, this issue has not become a large part of Taiwanese political discourse, largely because links with the United States are so extensive on both sides of the political spectrum that no one can use this issue to gain a significant political advantage. Both the pan-Blue coalition and pan-Green coalition rely on Taiwanese Americans for votes. In the 2004 ROC Presidential Election, both coalitions campaigned extensively in the United States. An estimated 10,000 Taiwanese Americans traveled to Taiwan to vote in the election. In the 2020 Taiwanese presidential election, tens of thousands of Taiwanese Americans traveled to Taiwan to vote in the election.

While dual citizens are banned from high political office, there has not been a significant movement within Taiwan to ban dual citizenship in general. Taiwan's Supreme Court has ruled that all citizens, dual or singular, are entitled to the same rights. US natural born citizens were included in the decision.

title: Taiwanese Americans


text:
The Franklin Mint

The Franklin Mint is a private mint founded by Joseph Segel in 1964 in Wawa, Pennsylvania. The building is in Middletown Township.

The brand name was previously owned by Sequential Brands Group headquartered in New York City. It is currently owned by Retail Ecommerce Ventures (REV). The Franklin Mint sells coins, medals, jewelry, die-cast vehicles, dolls, sculpture and other collectibles.

History
For five decades The Franklin Mint produced and mass-marketed collectibles. Its product line began with manufacturing and marketing privately minted gold and silver commemorative rounds and medallions.

In the 1970s and 1980s, Franklin Mint expanded operations to legal tender coins, producing a combination of bullion and non-bullion proof and uncirculated coin sets of both small and large denominations for a number of countries, particularly Panama and various island states. One of its best numismatic sellers was the "Coin Sets of all Nations" series which included stamps and postmarks of the respective nation on each set.

Besides coins, other offerings included dolls, plates, knives, LP record sets, and die-cast vehicles. Often emphasized in these media were influential historical figures or famous actors. Wildlife scenes were also a common feature. Many of these items were sold through magazine and television advertisements over the years.

The Franklin Library
The Franklin Library produced public domain classic books from its founding in 1973 until its closing in 2000. Its books were designed and bound by The Sloves Organization, Ltd. The Franklin Library published several book series including The Great Books of the Western World and The Hundred Greatest Books of All Time.

Vehicle models
In 1983, after Warner Communications had purchased The Franklin Mint, the company entered the diecast vehicle market, starting with the 1935 Mercedes Benz 500K Roadster. Usually the cars were labeled as Franklin Mint Precision Models. In the following years, Franklin Mint produced more than 600 different issues of motorcycles, trucks, and tractors besides automobiles. In 1998, the mint started producing models of Duesenberg Coupé Simone, a fictitious luxury car allegedly made by Duesenberg in the late 1930s.

Additionally The Franklin Mint began manufacturing diecast aircraft. They produced a large number of World War II 1:48 scale planes including the B-17 Flying Fortress, PBY Catalina, P-51 Mustang, and Focke-Wulf Fw 190.

Changes in ownership

In 1980, Warner Communications purchased The Franklin Mint for about $225 million. The combination was short-lived: Warner sold The Franklin Mint in 1985 to American Protection Industries Inc. (API) for $167.5 million. However, Warner retained Eastern Mountain Sports, a retailer that The Franklin Mint had acquired in the 1970s, as well as The Franklin Mint Center, which it leased back to API. API was renamed Roll International in 1993. During the early 2000s, Roll International wound down much of the Franklin Mint business. On August 31, 2006, Roll International Corp sold the remaining assets of The Franklin Mint to a group including private equity investors led by M. Moshe Malamud, David Salzman, and Steven J. Sisskind, who have extensive experience in the art, collectibles, media, entertainment and direct marketing industries. The Franklin Mint brand was purchased in November 2013 by Sequential Brands Group. It was later acquired by Retail Ecommerce Ventures (REV) in July 2020, a holding company that was founded by former NASA scientist Alex Mehr and his business partner, serial entrepreneur Tai Lopez.

Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Fund vs Franklin Mint
Following the death of Diana, Princess of Wales, the Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Fund was granted intellectual property rights over her image. In 1998, after refusing the Franklin Mint an official license to produce Diana merchandise, the fund sued the company, accusing it of illegally selling Diana dolls, plates and jewelry. In California, where the initial case was tried, a suit to preserve the right of publicity may be filed on behalf of a dead person, but only if that person is a Californian. The Memorial Fund therefore filed the lawsuit on behalf of the estate, and upon losing the case, was countersued by Franklin Mint in 2003. In November 2004, the case was settled out of court with the Diana Memorial Fund agreeing to pay £13.5 million to charitable causes on which both sides agreed. In addition to this, the Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Fund had spent a total of close to £4 million in costs and fees relating to this litigation, and as a result froze grants allocated to a number of charities.

Use in popular culture
In the Ben Folds Five song "Battle of Who Could Care Less", singer Ben Folds proposes taking an idea of "pewter portraits of General Apathy and Major Boredom" "to the Franklin fucking Mint".

title: The Franklin Mint


text:
Talk:Ö

Pronunciation hidden
I've hidden the description of how to pronounce the sound. My reason for doing so is most of all that the character is used in several languages, and I believe it's wrong to assume that the pronounciation is similar in all non-English languages (also when it is similar in some). I'm also convinced that an article designated for vowel-sounds would be a better place. A link to such an article would surely be the best. :-)

 * I think many people expect to find information about what kind of sound a letter represents in this kind of article. I agree that the pronounciation may be different in different languages, but this is exactly the kind of information I would like to find here. Besides, many of the other "letter articles" contain this type of information. (But I agree that the the articles you suggest above are desirable too!) kandre 22:08, 30 Nov 2003 (UTC)

I do also feel awkward about the notes on being an umlaut and on alphabetization, which I actually feel would fit much better in the articles on the different alphabets. Johan Magnus

 * I have pricipally the same kind of objections to this as above. kandre 22:08, 30 Nov 2003 (UTC)

There ought to be examples of the pronunciation of Ö in different words and languages, namely German.

...Which renders this page useless.
I came to this article (as I suspect many do) specifically to get some idea of how to pronounce this weird symbol. You're being way too persnickety in deliberately withholding information until you've got it worked out how to deliver it. Give the pronounciation information, specify what language it's appropriate for, or provide a link to another Wp page that offers that information. Crippling the functionality of the page until you've figured out how to frame the information is a dreadful solution. CC. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 216.15.121.46 (talk) 23:41, 29 May 2008 (UTC)

 * I agree that the page is missing critical information. Perhaps a section named "pronunciation" is needed.  Nik ol ai h ☎📖 00:56, 27 February 2023 (UTC)
 * RIP ŞPL 49.237.202.241 (talk) 19:27, 9 August 2023 (UTC)
 * i concur 2600:4040:7FAB:1200:C1A6:D92B:99B7:9EBC (talk) 22:17, 23 November 2023 (UTC)

Eläinkoe
"Eläinkoe" does not mean "vivisection" in finnish. Vivisection has its own (loan)word, "vivisektio". It's not like vivisection is synonymous with animal testing, and even if it were, IMO synonyms aren't a good thing to have in an article concerning linguistics. I'm going to go ahead and change it to "animal test" for these reasons. 88.112.2.159 17:36, 18 May 2006 (UTC)

Encoding
It is said that «Unicode theoretically provides a solution» to separate umlaut "o" and “real” "ö". Well, it does not: Unicode encodes characters, and these two concepts are a single character.

(Mixing letters and phonemes is an error not even amateur linguists do anymore. It is like saying that spanish "j", which sounds [x], and italian "j", which sounds [y], are therefore different characters and should be encoded differently.)

If a mention to "oͤ" (U+0364 : COMBINING LATIN SMALL LETTER E over an "o") is intended, then better say it simply.

Turkish?
Anyone knowledgeable enough to add some info about the Turkish version of the letter? MonsterOfTheLake 18:01, 25 July 2006 (UTC)

O-dieresis
I find the following phrasing very questionable:

O with diaeresis occurs in several languages which use diaereses. In these languages the letter represents a normal O, and the pronunciation does not change. Historically some writers have used it in English words such as zoölogy and coöperate.

If the pronunciation "did not change", there would be no need for a diacritic. And what on earth is a "normal O", anyway? In a language like English, where every vowel has so many possible phonetic values?!... FilipeS 11:14, 7 February 2007 (UTC)

Isn't "zoölogy" a misspelling? AFAIK a diaeresis means that the vowel belongs to a different syllable than the previous one. Therefore coöperative is correct, because it means co-operative, but zoölogy is not, because it means zoo-logy, not zo-ology. Do the editors think a diaeresis must be written on every vowel that follows another similar vowel? J I P | Talk 14:38, 11 June 2011 (UTC)

 * I'm late to the party here by a decade, but, for the record, "zoology" is indeed pronounced zoh-ology. (Or zu-ology, but that's still two different syllables.) Dingolover6969 (talk) 01:57, 24 April 2022 (UTC)

Typesetting in TeX
I'm fairly certain that this character is typeset in TeX as \"o and it ought to be added to the typography section, but I'm not sure if it's the same character so can someone confirm? Shreevatsa (talk) 00:10, 5 November 2008 (UTC)
 * confunsingly, \"o does indeed create o-diaeresis in LaTeX. But I (as native german speaker) would always write o umlaut with dots instead of ". Indeed, I can't remember ever having seen a fontset using o umlaut with ".So while stictly speaking it is no o umlaut, everyone will recognise it as one Noleti (talk) 12:32, 8 November 2008 (UTC)
 * Am I correct in assuming that "o-diaresis" is the same as "o-umlaut"? Note that just because TeX uses \" as a crude way of representing the diacritic/accent doesn't mean anything about what it will look like; it is just the limitation of what plain ASCII characters are available (the " is the only character that looks even vaguely like "two horizontal dots"). If you are sure that the character this article is about is indeed o-with-an-umlaut, then we can add \"o to the article, because I'm sure \" is an umlaut. :-) [There are other diacritics that look like ", but TeX has different ways of inputting them: e.g. the Double acute accent is input with a \H, as in Erd\H{o}s.] Shreevatsa (talk) 14:36, 8 November 2008 (UTC)

The Metal-Ö
Still missing the reference to Motörhead :-) —Preceding unsigned comment added by 141.113.86.94 (talk) 10:33, 30 June 2009 (UTC)

Cracks me up
I was searching this out because I was curious about how the Umlaut was sounded, and seeing this page, it positively cracks me up how utterly useless it is to anyone who doesn't already know everything presented here. I'm sure there's lots of good information... but it's presented in such a pretentious way that if you don't already know all of this, you wont learn anything from this page. I'm not saying you should change a thing... I don't care...  but take this advice the next time you're making an edit on wikipedia. When REGULAR people (i.e. people who don't know the internet is a series of tubes) complain about how useless Wikipedia is, this is one of the major tropes they're talking about. You're all thinking "what... should we dumb down everything for the morons?"...  and the answer is of course not...  but when someone needs a firm understanding of a subject to understand the wikipedia page ABOUT THE SUBJECT, something is wrong. As is the case with this page. Well done. Bravo. I'm about to be dismissed as a moron who "just doesn't get it", which simply reinforces my entire point. It would be like having a wikipedia page for the color red... and saying "it's sort of like crimson, burgundy, and scarlet", without explaining what those colors look like. Utterly pointless. 207.154.101.184 (talk) 13:25, 22 February 2010 (UTC)
 * Your personal ignorance should have no bearing on the presentation of the subject. Wikipedia is a compilation of knowledge that is intended to be as thorough as possible; it is not "ABC's for the Mentally Impaired". If you cannot understand basic linguistic terminology then try picking up a book and learning it. BodvarBjarki (talk) 15:18, 22 March 2010 (UTC)
 * The masses are a bunch of fools & assholes, neither of which provide a knothole's grundle worth of scat...
 * Yet, perhaps the entertainment value, on nights like 2nite,..
 * Cheers Buttheads🤠 2600:4040:7FAB:1200:C1A6:D92B:99B7:9EBC (talk) 22:23, 23 November 2023 (UTC)
 * Bwa... hahaha! 🤣 2600:4040:7FAB:1200:C1A6:D92B:99B7:9EBC (talk) 22:18, 23 November 2023 (UTC)

Mentioned Icelandic.
In Icelandic, Ö comes last in the alphabet and is pronounced similar to swedish Ö. Icelandic was not mentioned in this article, so I went ahead and did so.

Hafsteinn, an Icelander — Preceding unsigned comment added by 212.30.222.172 (talk) 20:19, 15 July 2011 (UTC)

The letter Ö cannot be written as "oe"
Where does this information come from? There is no reference link or other source, just this statement. However, as a Scandinavian whose name contains an 'ö', I know for a fact that my name is legally transliterated using "oe". In fact, I would personally consider this more correct than using 'o', since 'ö' is absolutely not an 'o' with random dots attached—it's a distinct character. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 50.141.110.200 (talk) 20:24, 24 April 2016 (UTC)

 * It depends on source and target language, and whether or not the 'ö' or 'Ö' may be seen as an Umlaut. Indeed, except in all caps writing, 'Ö' must be transliterated as 'Oe' and not 'OE', except in Dutch. So, this topic needs a lot of expansion. -- Purodha Blissenbach (talk) 02:45, 25 April 2016 (UTC)

Codes for computing

 * Keyboard entry

The Unicode code point for ö is U+00F6. Ö is U+00D6. It can also be created by compositing the character U+0308 "COMBINING DIAERESIS" with an "o" or "O". Though rarely used, as of version 3.2.0, Unicode also provides "COMBINING LATIN SMALL LETTER E" at U+0364 which can produce the older umlaut typography, oͤ.

In TeX, Ö and ö are produced using \"{O} and \"{o} respectively.

I've removed the above text/tables per WP:NOTMANUAL. —Sangdeboeuf (talk) 09:41, 4 March 2018 (UTC)

Norwegian
As far as I know, the Norwegian alphabet doesn't have the letter ö but ø, however it is still included here as if it had. Τέσσερα (talk) 08:27, 1 December 2018 (UTC)
 * No, it isn′t. The article says that in Norwegian it´s the umlauted form of o. Your change saying that ö in Swedish is the umlated form of o was incorrect, but I admit that I can’t be sure if an umlated o is used in Norwegian. Sjö (talk) 13:39, 1 December 2018 (UTC)

"Öö" listed at Redirects for discussion
An editor has identified a potential problem with the redirect Öö and has thus listed it for discussion. This discussion will occur at Redirects for discussion/Log/2022 August 10 until a consensus is reached, and readers of this page are welcome to contribute to the discussion. Steel1943 (talk) 14:36, 10 August 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Ö


text:
Police box

A police box is a public telephone kiosk or callbox for the use of members of the police, or for members of the public to contact the police. It was used in some countries, most widely in the United Kingdom throughout the 20th century from the early 1920s. Unlike an ordinary callbox, its telephone was located behind a hinged door so it could be used from the outside by anyone, and the interior of the box was, in effect, a miniature police station for use by police officers to read and fill in reports, take meal breaks and even temporarily hold detainees until the arrival of transport.

The typical British police box contained a telephone linked directly to the local police station, allowing patrolling officers to keep in contact with the station, reporting anything unusual or requesting help if necessary. A light on top of the box would flash to alert an officer that they were requested to contact the station. Police boxes were usually blue, with the most notable exception being Glasgow, where they were red until the late 1960s. In addition to a telephone, they contained equipment such as an incident book, a fire extinguisher and a first aid kit. Labelled a "British icon" by the Plymouth Herald, the blue Metropolitan Police boxes, designed by Gilbert Mackenzie Trench in 1929, became Britain's most recognisable police boxes. The blue police box is associated with the science fiction television programme Doctor Who, in which The Doctor's time machine, a TARDIS, is disguised as a British police box.

United Kingdom

The first public police telephones in Britain appeared in Glasgow in 1891. These tall, hexagonal, cast-iron boxes were painted red and had large gas lanterns fixed to the roof, as well as a mechanism which enabled the central police station to light the lanterns as signals to police officers in the vicinity to call the station for instructions. As with Chicago's boxes, the original intent was that trusted members of the public would be allowed access to the telephone in case of emergency using a special key that was registered to them, which would remain trapped in the lock until released by a master key carried by a policeman. A newer, rectangular type of cast-iron police box was introduced in Glasgow in 1912, but with the signal light now powered by electricity rather than gas, and access to the telephone now restricted solely to the police.

Rectangular, wooden, garden shed style police boxes were introduced in Sunderland in 1923 by Chief Constable Frederick J. Crawley, and then in Newcastle in 1925 when he took over as Chief Constable there. Crawley was arguably the first proponent (at least in Britain) of the concept of the police box as a miniature police station rather than just a communications point, including unrestricted access to the telephone by the general public for contacting police, ambulance, and fire services. His well-publicised success with these boxes, and the revised policing methods they allowed, soon led to the adoption of similar police box systems in many of the larger cities in the north of England, including Manchester and Sheffield.

The Metropolitan Police (Met) introduced police boxes throughout London between 1928 and 1937, and the design that later became the most well-known was created by the Met's own surveyor and architect, Gilbert Mackenzie Trench, in 1929. Between 1929 and 1938 around 1,000 examples of the Mackenzie Trench police box were installed. They measured 9 ft tall, and 4 ft wide.

History
Initially, two competing prototype designs were installed on the newly built Becontree Estate in December 1928, with the winning builder being contracted to erect 43 boxes made of wood with concrete roofs in the final Trench pattern as part of experimental installations in the Richmond and Wood Green sub-divisions, which were completed in December 1929 and January 1930 respectively. Their success resulted in the widespread adoption of the system throughout Greater London over the next eight years using newer models of the Mackenzie Trench design now made completely of concrete for increased durability, save the doors, which were still made of teak. Constables complained that the concrete boxes were extremely cold and damp compared to their wooden predecessors, so provisions were made for more powerful heaters. For use by officers, the interiors of the boxes normally contained a stool, a table with drawer, a brush and duster, a fire extinguisher, a first aid kit, and a small electric heater. Like the 19th and early 20th century Glaswegian boxes, the London police boxes had a light at the top of each box, which would flash as a signal to police officers indicating that they should contact the station.

By 1953, there were 685 police boxes on the streets of Greater London, with an additional 72 smaller police posts, also designed by Trench, used in the inner divisions where there was no space for the larger kiosks. Between 1923 and 1960 the police box and/or post system had been adopted by most of the provincial police forces throughout Great Britain. The design and construction of the police boxes used in each system were at the discretion of each individual force, and consequently varied a great deal from location to location, but the police pillars/posts were usually one of three successive models provided by the General Post Office (GPO).

Police boxes continued to play an important role in police work until the late 1960s to early 1970s, when they were phased out following the introduction of personal radios. As the main functions of the boxes were superseded by the rise of portable telecommunications devices like the walkie-talkie and the near universal access by the public to telephones and the 999 emergency number, very few police boxes remain in Britain today. Some have been converted into High Street coffee bars. These are common in Edinburgh, though the city also has dozens that remain untouched — most in various states of disrepair. Edinburgh's boxes are relatively large, and are of a rectangular plan, with a design by Ebenezer James MacRae, who was inspired by the city's abundance of neoclassical architecture. At their peak there were 86 scattered around the city. In 2012, Lothian and Borders Police sold a further 22, leaving them owning 20.

Beginning in 1933, a slightly simplified version of the Met's police box design was also used by the City of Glasgow Police when its old cast-iron police boxes were replaced by an expanded Crawley type of integrated police box system. This was done as part of the restructuring of the force brought about by Percy Sillitoe after he was appointed Chief Constable at the end of 1931. Like the cast-iron boxes before them, the new concrete boxes continued to be painted red until the popularity of Doctor Who prompted a change to blue in the late 1960s.

In 1994, Strathclyde Police decided to scrap the remaining Glasgow police boxes. However, owing to the intervention of the Civil Defence & Emergency Service Preservation Trust and the Glasgow Building Preservation Trust, some police boxes were retained and remain today as part of Glasgow's architectural heritage. At least five remain—on Great Western Road (at the junction with Queen Margaret Drive and Byres Road); Buchanan Street (at the corner of Royal Bank Place); Wilson Street (at the intersection of Glassford Street, completely restored); one on Sauchiehall street at the junction with West Nile Street and one near the corner of Cathedral Square (at the corner of Castle Street, also restored). There was also a red police box preserved in the Glasgow Museum of Transport but this was returned to the Civil Defence Trust after Glasgow City Council decided it did not fit in with the new Transport Museum. The police boxes in Glasgow on Great Western Road, Cathedral Square, and Buchanan Street are currently under licence to a Glasgow-based coffee outlet. , only the Great Western Road and Buchanan Street boxes have been transformed to dispense beverages, and restrictions are enforced by the Civil Defence & Emergency Service Preservation Trust to prevent the exterior of the boxes from being modified beyond the trademarked design.

The Civil Defence & Emergency Service Preservation Trust now manages 11 of the UK's last Gilbert Mackenzie Trench police boxes on behalf of a private collector. Another blue police box of this style is preserved at the National Tramway Museum, Crich, Derbyshire. One of the trust's boxes stands outside the Kent Police Museum in Chatham, Kent, and another at Grampian Transport Museum. An original MacKenzie Trench box exists outside of the Metropolitan Police College (Peel Centre) at Hendon.

In the City of London, there are eight non-functioning police "call posts" still in place which are Grade II listed buildings. The City of London Police versions were cast iron rectangular posts, as the streets are too narrow for full sized boxes. One compartment contained the telephone and another locked compartment held a first aid kit. Fifty posts were installed in the "Square Mile" from 1907; they were in use until 1988.

On Thursday 18 April 1996, a new police box based on the Mackenzie Trench design was unveiled outside the Earl's Court tube station in London, equipped with CCTV cameras and a telephone to contact police. The telephone ceased to function in April 2000 when London's telephone numbers were changed, but the box remained, despite the fact that funding for its upkeep and maintenance had long since been exhausted. In March 2005, the Metropolitan Police resumed funding the refurbishment and maintenance of the box.

Glasgow introduced a new design of police boxes in 2005. The new boxes are not booths but rather computerized kiosks that connect the caller to a police CCTV control room operator. They stand 10 feet in height with a chrome finish and act as 24-hour information points, with three screens providing information on crime prevention, police force recruitment and tourist information.

Manchester also has Help Points similar to those in Glasgow, which contain a siren that is activated upon the emergency button being pressed; this also causes CCTV cameras nearby to focus on the Help Point.

Liverpool has structures similar to police boxes, known as police Help Points, which are essentially an intercom box with a push button mounted below a CCTV camera on a post with a direct line to the police.

Boscombe in Bournemouth opened its own old-style police box in April 2014 in a bid to tackle crime in the area. The box contains a yellow phone for when it is not staffed by police, along with security cameras and a defibrillator.

City of London launched in February 2021 a competition to bring a back a new and updated police box to its streets. Whether if these new boxes will have any similarity to the old London police boxes remains to be seen.

In Doctor Who
The BBC science-fiction television series Doctor Who features a time machine, the TARDIS, disguised as a Mackenzie Trench-style police box. In the show, although a TARDIS is normally capable of disguising itself to blend in with its surroundings, the ship's "chameleon circuit" broke down in England in 1963, and left the TARDIS seen most often in the show stuck as a police box, except for a brief period in one adventure seen in 1985. Doctor Who was originally broadcast from 1963 to 1989; as police boxes were phased out in the 1970s, over time the image of the blue police box became associated as much with Doctor Who as with the police. In 1996, the BBC applied for a trademark to use the blue police box design in merchandising associated with Doctor Who. In 1998, the Metropolitan Police filed an objection to the trademark claim, maintaining that they owned the rights to the police box image. In 2002, the Patent Office ruled in favour of the BBC, arguing that there was no evidence that the Metropolitan Police—or any other police force—had ever registered the image as a trademark. In addition, the BBC had been selling merchandise based on the image for over three decades without complaint by the police. The series was revived in 2005, and the police box continues to feature prominently in almost every episode.

Although the dimensions and colour of the TARDIS used in the series have changed many times, none of the BBC props has been a faithful replica of the original MacKenzie Trench model. This has been explained within the context of the show that chameleon circuits tend to display a bit of "drift" if left in the same setting for too long, and in any case the circuit of the Doctor's TARDIS is malfunctioning. This was acknowledged in the episode "Twice Upon a Time" which had the Twelfth Doctor meet the First Doctor, and had the original incarnation and Bill Potts point out the visible differences between the modern and original TARDISes.

United States
The first police telephone was installed in Albany, New York in 1877, one year after Alexander Graham Bell patented the telephone. Call boxes for use by both police and trusted members of the public were first installed in Chicago in 1880, initially housed in kiosks to protect the inner signal boxes from the weather and to limit access to them so as to discourage false alarms. In 1883, Washington, D.C. installed its own system; Detroit installed police call boxes in 1884, and in 1885, Boston followed suit. These were direct line telephones usually placed inside a metal box on a post which could often be accessed by a key or breaking a glass panel. In Chicago, the telephones were restricted to police use, but the boxes also contained a dial mechanism which members of the public could use to signal different types of alarms via telegraph: there were 11 signals, including "Police Wagon Required", "Thieves", "Forgers", "Murder", "Accident", "Fire" and "Drunkard".

title: Police box


text:
William Cullen

William Cullen (15 April 1710 – 5 February 1790) was a Scottish physician, chemist and agriculturalist, and professor at the Edinburgh Medical School. Cullen was a central figure in the Scottish Enlightenment: He was David Hume's physician, and was friends with Joseph Black, Henry Home, Adam Ferguson, John Millar, and Adam Smith, among others.

He was President of the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow (1746–47), President of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh (1773–1775) and First Physician to the King in Scotland (1773–1790). He also assisted in obtaining a royal charter for the Philosophical Society of Edinburgh, resulting in the formation of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1783.

Cullen was a beloved teacher, and many of his students became influential figures. He kept in contact with many of his students, including Benjamin Rush, a central figure in the founding of the United States of America; John Morgan, who founded the first medical school in the American colonies, the Medical School at the College of Philadelphia; William Withering, the discoverer of digitalis; Sir Gilbert Blane, medical reformer of the Royal Navy; and John Coakley Lettsom, the philanthropist and founder of the Medical Society of London.

Cullen's student and later rival John Brown developed the medical system known as Brunonianism, which conflicted with Cullen's. The competition between the two systems had knock-on effects in how patients were treated worldwide, especially in Italy and Germany, during the end of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth century.

Cullen was also an author. He published a number of medical textbooks, mostly for the use of his students, though they were popular in Europe and the American colonies. His best known work was First Lines of the Practice of Physic, which was published in a series of editions between 1777 and 1784, and inventing the basis of modern refrigeration.

Early life
Cullen was born in Hamilton, Lanarkshire. His father William was a lawyer retained by the Duke of Hamilton as factor, and his mother was Elizabeth Roberton of Whistlebury. He studied at the Old Grammar School of Hamilton (renamed in 1848 The Hamilton Academy), then, in 1726, began a General Studies arts course at the University of Glasgow. He began his medical training as apprentice to John Paisley, a Glasgow apothecary surgeon, then spent 1729 as surgeon on a merchant vessel trading between London and the Antilles in the West Indies.

After two years as assistant apothecary to Mr Murray of Henrietta Street, London, he returned to Scotland in 1732 to establish himself in general medical practice in the parish of Shotts, Lanarkshire. Also serving the town of Hamilton he had cured the Duke of Hamilton who thereafter became his patron.

From 1734 to 1736 he studied medicine at the University of Edinburgh, where he became interested in chemistry, and was one of the founders of the Royal Medical Society in his first year of study.

In 1736 he began medical practice in Hamilton, where he rapidly acquired a high reputation. He also continued his study of the natural sciences, especially of chemistry. From 1737 to 1740 William Hunter was his resident pupil, and at one time they proposed to enter into partnership. In 1740 Cullen was awarded the degree of MD from Glasgow University. In 1741, he married and started his family. He became ordinary medical attendant to James Douglas, 5th Duke of Hamilton (1703–43), his family, and his livestock. In 1744, following the Duke's death, the Cullens moved to Glasgow.

In Glasgow he gave extramural lectures for the university, on physiology, botany, materia medica, and chemistry. His great abilities, enthusiasm, and use of practical demonstrations for instruction, made him a successful and highly popular teacher, attracting large classes. At the same time he also maintained a medical practice. In 1747, Cullen was awarded Britain's first independent lectureship in Chemistry and was elected President of the Faculty of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow. In 1748 while in Glasgow, Cullen invented the basis for modern refrigeration, although is not credited with a usable application. In 1751 he was appointed Professor of the Practice of Medicine, although he continued to lecture on chemistry.

Edinburgh
In 1755 he was enticed by Lord Kames to become Professor of Chemistry and Medicine at the University of Edinburgh in place of Prof Andrew Plummer. It was in Edinburgh, in 1756, that he gave the first documented public demonstration of artificial refrigeration. Cullen used a pump to create a partial vacuum over a container of diethyl ether, which then boiled, absorbing heat from the surroundings. This created a small amount of ice, but the process found no commercial application.

From 1757 he delivered lectures on clinical medicine in the Edinburgh Royal Infirmary. On the death of Charles Alston in 1760, Cullen at the request of the students undertook to finish his course of lectures on materia medica; he delivered an entirely new course, notes of which were published in an unauthorised edition in 1771, but which he re-wrote and issued as A Treatise on Materia Medica in 1789.

On the death of Robert Whytt, the professor of the institutes of medicine, in 1766, Cullen accepted the chair, at the same time resigning that of chemistry. In the same year, he had been an unsuccessful candidate for the professorship of the practice of physic (medicine), but subsequently an arrangement was made between him and John Gregory, the successful candidate, by which they both agreed to deliver alternate courses on the theory and practice of medicine. This arrangement continued until the sudden death of Gregory in 1773. Cullen was then appointed sole professor of the practice of physic, and he continued in this office until a few months before his death.

In Edinburgh, Cullen lived off South Grays Close on the Royal Mile close to the old Scottish mint. He had a country residence at Ormiston Hill in Kirknewton, West Lothian.

In 1783 Cullen (together with his sons) was a co-founder of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.

On 8 January 1790 he was presented with a silver platter costing 50 guineas by the Lord Provost, Thomas Elder and the city baillies, for his long service in the university.

He died in his home in the old mint in Edinburgh on 5 February 1790, but is buried in the churchyard at Kirkliston. His son Robert lies with him.

Influence
Cullen taught many students who would go on to influential careers in British science. Indeed, a large number of the doctors who taught in Edinburgh's medical school from the 1790s to 1810s had studied with him, including the chemist Joseph Black, the anatomist Alexander Monro Secundus, and the naturalist John Walker. Cullen's emphasis on the practical benefits of chemistry made his ideas popular amongst farmers, industrialists, naturalists and doctors alike. His influence on these fields was felt through the writings of his students, particularly in the books of John Anderson, the 'Aberdeen Agricola', and the lectures given by Joseph Black and John Walker from the 1770s to 1790s.

By studying the symptoms of diseases, Cullen classified diseases into different classes. One class of diseases was called "neuroses."

Medical practice
In the 18th century, there were three primary professions in medicine: physicians, surgeons, and apothecaries, although the barriers among them were starting to become blurred. William Cullen practiced as all three. Because medical practitioners were not as established as they are now, patients generally took advice from a myriad of sources, including personal experience, books, and several consultations. Furthermore, because the diagnostic tools were not as advanced, patient history was the primary and most important information for the physicians to diagnose their patients. There were no strict government regulations in place for physicians, surgeons, and apothecaries. As a result, to become successful in the medical marketplace depended more on social skills than on medical expertise, similar to other forms of businesses. Cullen was one of the more successful physicians because of his shrewdness in handling difficult patients. Teaching at the University and seeing patients at the Edinburgh Infirmary as charity also helped Cullen become more famous.

Many of Cullen's consultations were done through written letters sent by patients from Scottish cities and towns. Cullen managed his consultations with great efficiency; he usually read the letters early in the morning and his secretary-amanuensis would record and mail back his responses. He then went around Edinburgh to visit patients. This form of epistolary consultations was often limited by the literacy and socioeconomic status of the patients. Patients who would write letters to Cullen were usually in the upper and middle class. Besides letters from patients, he also consulted physicians, often students he had taught. Based on how his letters were written, Cullen was most likely a "tactful and compassionate practitioner." Like many physicians in his time, Cullen would often prescribe therapeutics "to support the patient's endangered constitution and assist the body's natural healing tendencies." This is because medical practitioners at the time mostly believed that diseases and illnesses were unique to different patients depending on their constitutions.

Medical teaching
According to Rocca, Cullen was known for systemizing and promoting medical knowledge rather than producing original research. Despite the lack of original work, some believed that Cullen's attempt to organize existing knowledge was actually a sign of his "practical sagacity" as a practitioner. He was a lecturer for more than forty years. In order to understand Cullen's medical teaching at the time, it is important to understand Cullen's conception of "system" as he taught it in his classes. Cullen described a system as "an organised body of opinions on particular topics in the medical curriculum." He also referred to system as the principles in his book First Lines of the Practice of Physic. There were many possible reasons behind Cullen's emphasis of the system of medicine. In the 18th century, a period of Scottish Enlightenment, there were competing theories about the mechanisms of the human body and the causes of diseases proposed by different professors, who competed for students' teaching fees. Thus, having an underlying system of medical knowledge was a practical way to organize the knowledge coherently for the students.

Like many prominent medical figures in the 18th century, William Cullen took a great interest in the nervous system. He defined the nervous system as an "animated machine" whose main function is to "perform a variety of motions," communicate and interact with "external bodies." Cullen believed that the nervous system was composed of four elements: the medullary substance, consisting of the brain and the spinal cord, the membranous nerves, the sensory nerves, and the muscular fibers.

Cullen's understanding of the nervous system was also influenced by his contemporaries, one of whom was Albrecht von Haller (1708–1777). Haller proposed that tissues, including muscles, were characterized by "irritability" (or contractility), while nerves were characterized by "sensibility" (or feeling). Using Haller's characterization, Cullen defined disease "as an excess or deficiency of sensibility." However, Cullen interpreted sensibility as "muscle mobility and vigour" and diseases were caused by the imbalance of irritability and sensibility. Based on this definition of disease, his therapeutics "either stimulated or sedated the nervous system." He categorized diseases into four main classes: pyrexiae, neuroses, cachexiae, and locales. Within the classes were nineteen orders and 132 genera. The four orders of neuroses were comata, adynamiae, spasmi and vesaniae. Comata was defined as "a diminution of voluntary motion, with sleep, or a deprivation of the senses." Adynamiae is defined as "a diminution of the involuntary motions, whether vital or natural." Spasmi was defined as "irregular motions of the muscles or muscular fibers." Vesaniae was defined as "disorders of the judgement without any pyrexia or coma."

Cullen's emphasis on the importance of the nervous system was driven by the understanding that the nervous system controls the human body and therefore, "all diseases may, in some sense, be called affections of the nervous system, because, in almost every disease, the nerves are more or less hurt." Although Cullen's nosology did not last very long, Cullen's influential teachings on medical knowledge and his attempt to systematize and generalize medical knowledge were integral parts of 18th century Scottish Enlightenment.

Family
In 1741 he married Anne (or Anna) Johnstone (died at the mint in 1786). He was father to the judge Robert Cullen, Lord Cullen and to the physician Henry Cullen. Cullen's eldest son Robert became a Scottish judge in 1796 under the title of Lord Cullen later Baron Cullen, and was known for his powers of mimicry.

Publications
Because of the wide popularity of Cullen's work, many of his publications were translated into a multitude of languages across Europe. Cullen's most popular and successful work was his medical textbook First Lines of the Practice of Physic, published in two volumes in 1777 and expanded with each edition until it reached four volumes in its final edition (1784).

His first book-length publication was Synopsis Nosologiae Methodicae (1769), Cullen's very influential nosology, or classification of diseases. His next publication was also a medical textbook, and it dealt with the Institutions of medicine, i.e. medical theory. Its full title was ''Institutions of Medicine. Part I. Physiology'' (1772) because it focused on physiology, which was traditionally only one part of the Institutions (pathology and therapeutics were also essential parts of medical theory). It went through two more editions (1777 & 1785).

Work on his magnum opus, First Lines of Practice of Physic, occupied much of his time in the 1770s and 1780s, but he did manage one final publication. This was his two volume A Treatise of the Materia Medica (1789), which was highly valued by other medical practitioners throughout Europe.

Thus, the following works, with their dates of publication (including multiple editions), comprise the majority of Cullen's oeuvre:

 * Synopsis Nosologiae Methodicae (1769; 1771; 1780; 1785)
 * Lectures on the Materia medica. 2nd Ed. Dublin : Whitestone, 1781. Digital edition of the University and State Library Düsseldorf.
 * Cours de Matière médicale. Paris, 1788. Digital edition of the University and State Library Düsseldorf.
 * Institutions of Medicine. Part I. Physiology (1772; 1777; 1785)
 * First Lines of the Practice of Physic (1777; 1778; 1781; 1784; 1793 (vol. 1; vol. 2))
 * A Treatise of the Materia Medica (1789)
 * Traité de Matière médicale translated by Édouard François Marie Bosquillon. Published: vol. 1 – 3. Pavie : Sauveur, 1791. Digital edition of the University and State Library Düsseldorf.
 * Trattato di Materia medica. Involved: Dalladecima, Angelo. 2. Ed. Erschienen: Bd. 1 – 6. Padova : Bettinelli, 1798. Digital edition of the University and State Library Düsseldorf.

Cullen also published a few, shorter works (e.g. "A Letter to Lord Cathcart" in 1776), which have not been included in this list.

Basic biographical sources

 * Thomson, John. An Account of the Life, Lectures and Writings of William Cullen, M.D. Volume 1. William Blackwood & T. Cadell, 1832.
 * Thomson, John; Thomson, William; Craigie, David. An Account of the Life, Lectures and Writings of William Cullen, M.D. Volume 2. William Blackwood & Sons, 1859. This book, in conjunction with its predecessor (see previous reference), is the standard biography of William Cullen's life and thought.
 * Doig, A., Ferguson, J. P. S., Milne, I. A., and Passmore, R (Editors). William Cullen and the Eighteenth Century Medical World. Edinburgh University Press, 1993. This collection of edited essays is the most recent, full-length work on the life and thought of William Cullen. It was the result of an exhibition and symposium at the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh in 1990 to commemorate the bicentenary of Cullen's death.
 * Eddy, M. D. 'Dr. William Cullen, M.D., (1710–1790)', New Dictionary of Scientific Biography, Noretta Koertge (ed.), (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2007).
 * Eddy, M. D. 'Dr. William Cullen, M.D., (1710–1790)', New Dictionary of Scientific Biography, Noretta Koertge (ed.), (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2007).

William Cullen and chemistry

 * Donovan, Arthur L. Philosophical Chemistry in the Scottish Enlightenment: The Doctrines and Discoveries of William Cullen and Joseph Black. Edinburgh: University Press, 1975.
 * J V Golinski, "Utility and Audience in Eighteenth-Century Chemistry: Case Studies of William Cullen and Joseph Priestley," The British Journal for the History of Science (1988): 1–31.
 * Eddy, M. D. The Language of Mineralogy: John Walker, Chemistry and the Edinburgh Medical School, 1750–1800 (Aldershot: 2008).
 * Eddy, M. D. "The Aberdeen Agricola: Chemical Principles and Practice in James Aderson's Georgics and Geology", in L. Principe (Ed.), New Narratives in Eighteenth-Century Chemistry (Dordrecht: Springer, 2007).
 * Eddy, M. D. "The Aberdeen Agricola: Chemical Principles and Practice in James Aderson's Georgics and Geology", in L. Principe (Ed.), New Narratives in Eighteenth-Century Chemistry (Dordrecht: Springer, 2007).

title: William Cullen


text:
Juglandaceae

The Juglandaceae are a plant family known as the walnut family. They are trees, or sometimes shrubs, in the order Fagales. Members of this family are native to the Americas, Eurasia, and Southeast Asia.

The nine or ten genera in the family have a total of around 50 species, and include the commercially important nut-producing trees walnut (Juglans), pecan (Carya illinoinensis), and hickory (Carya). The Persian walnut, Juglans regia, is one of the major nut crops of the world. Walnut, hickory, and gaulin are also valuable timber trees while pecan wood is also valued as cooking fuel.

Description
Members of the walnut family have large, aromatic leaves that are usually alternate, but opposite in Alfaroa and Oreomunnea. The leaves are pinnately compound or ternate, and usually 20–100 cm long. The trees are wind-pollinated, and the flowers are usually arranged in catkins.

The fruits of the Juglandaceae are often confused with drupes but are accessory fruit because the outer covering of the fruit is technically an involucre and thus not morphologically part of the carpel; this means it cannot be a drupe but is instead a drupe-like nut.

Taxonomy
The known living genera are grouped into subfamilies, tribes, and subtribes as follows:

 * Subfamily Rhoipteleoideae Reveal
 * Rhoiptelea Diels & Hand.-Mazz. 1932
 * Subfamily Engelhardioideae Iljinskaya 1990
 * Alfaroa Standl. 1927 —gaulin
 * Engelhardia Lesch. ex Blume 1825–1826 —cheo
 * Oreomunnea Oerst. 1856
 * Subfamily Juglandoideae Eaton 1836
 * Tribe Platycaryeae Nakai 1933
 * Platycarya Siebold & Zucc. 1843
 * Tribe Juglandeae Rchb. 1832
 * Subtribe Caryinae D.E. Stone & P. S. Manos 2001
 * Carya Nutt. 1818 —hickory and pecan
 * Annamocarya A.Chev. 1941 (sometimes included in Carya)
 * Subtribe Juglandinae D.E. Stone & P. S. Manos 2001
 * Cyclocarya Iljinsk 1953 —wheel wingnut
 * Juglans L. 1753 —walnut
 * Pterocarya Kunth 1824 —wingnut

Systematics
Modern molecular phylogenetics suggest the following relationships:

title: Juglandaceae


text:
Juglandales

Juglandales is an order of flowering plants. This order was recognised in several systems (e.g. Engler system and Wettstein system). The Cronquist system placed the order in the subclass Hamamelidae, as comprising the families Juglandaceae and Rhoipteleaceae, the latter consisting of only a single species.

In the APG II system these two families are united into family Juglandaceae (with the split into two families being optional), and the family is placed in the order Fagales.

title: Juglandales