text:
Talk:Finnish euro coins

Untitled
"...the 12 stars of the EU...". The EU has 15 countries (and stars.) Perhaps this should refer to the monetary union, rather than the EU itself? - Molinari 01:02 3 Jul 2003 (UTC)

There are twelve stars. The idea that the number of stars on the flag corresponds to the number of countries in the union is a myth believed by those unable to count. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Trilobite (talk • contribs) 13:39, 19 July 2004 (UTC)

Contradiction with €2 commemorative coins
See Talk:€2 commemorative coins --ChoChoPK (球球PK) (talk | contrib) 05:51, 17 March 2007 (UTC)

Amended design info
Beginning this year (2007), Finland has produced an amended design to conform to new regulations set forth by the European Central Bank and the European Council.

This amended design and some other relevent info and references are now in the article.

—Theeuro 05:43, 9 April 2007 (UTC)

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1 and 2 cent coins
Are there really millions of Finnish 1- and 2-cent coins minted that never come into circulation? This seems hard to believe. Are there that many collectors in Europe buying them? --Roentgenium111 (talk) 18:22, 16 February 2010 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Finnish euro coins


text:
Talk:First Crusade

Byzantine-Seljuk map mistakes
1025 and 1081 should be swapped, and did they still hold southern Italy by 1081? Compoteleon (talk) 22:40, 2 February 2024 (UTC)
 * The Byzantines? The Catepanate of Italy fell in 1071. Dimadick (talk) 16:13, 3 February 2024 (UTC)

Capitalization
We're very irregular about capitalizing the word "Crusader" in this and other articles on the Crusades. 2600:1702:6D0:5160:1CC8:15C3:9DD1:387B (talk) 18:41, 19 February 2024 (UTC)

England and the First Crusade
There were some English that participated in the First Crusade, but the Kingdom of England was not one of the belligerents. If you read Christopher Tyerman's book England and the Crusades, you will realize that. On page 15, he states "...English involvement in the First Crusade was minimal and peripheral." The fact that an English fleet provided some supplies at Antioch does not make them a combatant. Asbridge's work on the First Crusade has exactly one reference to England, and that's the supply at Antioch. Please amend your edit. Dr. Grampinator (talk) 22:13, 28 February 2024 (UTC)

 * I agree that English participation in the First crusade was more limited and peripheral however that doesn't change the fact that the Kingdom participated. If you question the participation of the Kingdom of England on this basis, then you could also have to for many of the other listed belligerents. And I again refer to the following: :https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Crusade#/media/File:Origin_of_the_First_Crusaders.jpg
 * and :https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_forces_of_the_First_Crusade
 * both of which reference direct participation from the Kingdom of England.
 * Anvib (talk) 23:29, 28 February 2024 (UTC)
 * I agree. There's not rationale for many of them. The Republic of Genoa did not even exist when the First Crusade started. On the Eastern side, Armenia and the Marionites were not participants, but the Byzantine empire was. As to the Crusaders, maybe the Christian forces of the First Crusade should be the guide. (Full disclosure: I wrote that article back in 2017.) I support a major-league scrub. Dr. Grampinator (talk) 00:33, 29 February 2024 (UTC)
 * "The fact that an English fleet provided some supplies at Antioch" There is a more obvious connection to England than that. One of the leaders of this crusade was Robert Curthose, Duke of Normandy. He was the brother and (at the time) heir of William II of England. Dimadick (talk) 13:58, 29 February 2024 (UTC)
 * Read my comment above. The experts on the subject say no. Do you have a source that says the Kingdom of England participated in the First Crusade? Dr. Grampinator (talk) 17:25, 29 February 2024 (UTC)
 * You have got to love WP pedantry :-). The belligerents section is fundamentally flawed and it would be better to delete it entirely. In Feudal society it is probably wrong to say that a particular polity engaged, as opposed to particular leaders and their affinity. For example the kingdom of France is on the list along with a subordinate list of supposed territories even though it wasn't to come into existence for roughly a century and although some are vassals of the King of the Franks it would be wrong to say the were part of the Kingdom of France. Norfolkbigfish (talk) 17:57, 29 February 2024 (UTC)
 * Tell me about it. I would be just as happy to have Western Europe and Byzantine Empire on the left and the Seljuks and Fatimids on the right. No further breakdown. The Commanders and Leaders is OK, but could be improved. Just list them. As it is right now, the value-added is minimal. Dr. Grampinator (talk) 19:19, 29 February 2024 (UTC)
 * Agree entirely :-) Norfolkbigfish (talk) 08:29, 1 March 2024 (UTC)

Three columns for the Belligerents infobox?
Having followed the discussion above on England I started to wonder whether it would not make sense to split the section on Belligerents in three: Crusaders & Byzantium, Seljuk Turks and the Fatimids.

The reasoning is as follows. As the article states in the beginning, one crucial reason was the Seljuk conquests in the Middle East which then led emperor Alexios to ask for military aid in 1095. At this time, Jerusalem had been for around 20 years under Turkmen and then Seljuk turbulent rule (see Atsiz massacre of 1077, street fights in 1093 under Sökmen,...) which created difficulties for the visiting pilgrims. Thus, the Franks set of to liberate the lands fallen into Seljuk hands and then march on Jerusalem and not to make war on all Muslims. Already at Nicea in March 1097, emperor Alexios suggested the crusaders sent ambassadors to the Fatimid caliph because of the shared interest to maintain the Turkish threat (let's remember that Atsiz had tried to invade Egypt in 1076 and that the Seljuks portrayed themselves as strict Sunnites and fighters against the Shiite Fatimids). The embassy of the Fatimid caliph then met the crusaders at the siege of Antioch in February 1098 and it could be that they even fought in the battle of the lake of Antioch on February 9 (see Albert of Aachen: https://books.google.es/books?id=29ivdUpWBj8C, page 237 (chapter iii, 62)). Though it is not certain and most of the sources are written with hindsight after Jerusalem had fallen, it seems that when they left in March 1097, some kind of arrangement had been made, possibly even an alliance. Stephen of Blois writes that the Fatimids had "established peace and concord with us". Ibn Zafir writes al-Afdal, the Armenian Fatimid vezier said that it was better that the Franks occupy the Syrian ports "so that they could prevent the spread of the influence of the Turks on the lands of Egypt" (note that many coastal places were independent or under Turkish hand such as Antioch or Tripolis and see for the quote the Carolina Hillenbrand pp. 44-47). Hillenbrand and others suggest further that there might have been a plan to divide Seljuk lands and that al-Afdal would have liked to have a buffer state between him and the Seljuks.

With the Crusaders binding the Seljuk attention in northern Syria, the Fatimids were then able to go to war against the southern Seljuk towns and reconquer Jerusalem in August 1098. The Frankish ambassadors celebrated Easter 1099 in the reconquered Jerusalem together with the Fatimids. The break with the Fatimids came only in April 1099 when the diplomatic discussions before Arqa broke down, likely also influenced by the breakdown of the alliance between (most of) the crusaders and Alexios. Even then did the crusaders only went straight after Jerusalem, not conquering any further places on their way. Moreover, the Fatimids did not join the Turks in an alliance to expel the crusaders but this joining of arms happened several decades later (under Nur ad-Din? unfortunately I am not well-read on when they actually joined arms).

One option could be to include the Fatimids on both columns and give an entrance date into the conflict (like Russia here in the infobox on the Seven Years' War) but I think this still gives a wrong impression as if the Fatimids and the Crusaders or the Seljuks and Fatimids were united.

Therefore, I think these events could be best reflected by having three columns with the crusading forces (maybe we could use here the Wiki pages on the armies of each crusader lord?) & Byzantium in the first, the Seljuk forces in the second and the Fatimids in the third. This shows better the existing division and complexity in the Middle East and will also give the readers the incentive to see the conflict as more than just Christians vs. Muslims.

What do you think?

PS: Here some sources on the topic: Asbridge, Thomas S.(2007). Knowing thy Enemy: Latin Relations with Islam at the Time of the First Crusade in Knighthoods of Christ Essays on the History of the Crusades and the Knights Templar, Presented to Malcolm Barber, pp. 17-25 https://www.google.com/books/edition/Knighthoods_of_Christ/mgskDwAAQBAJ France, John (1994). Victory in the East, pp. 325-327 https://archive.org/details/victoryineast00john/page/324/mode/2up Hillenbrand, Caroline (2000). The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives, pp. 44-47 https://books.google.com/books?id=UalnoF5MBHMC Köhler, Markus (2013). Alliances and Treaties between Frankish and Muslim Rulers in the Middle East, especially pp.44-54 https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/14644/1/Kohler%20alliances%2C%20published%20version%20prelim%20and%20ch.%201.pdf PontiffSulivahn (talk) 16:52, 2 March 2024 (UTC)

 * I don't object to this per se, but think it might be a little too esoteric for this article. The text doesn't really support this and I think adding this material to the article would just confuse things. I suggest a seperate article discussing the complex relations among all the parties. Dr. Grampinator (talk) 20:57, 2 March 2024 (UTC)
 * @PontiffSulivahn makes a good point, that the InfoBox as it currently stands is factually inaccurate. Currently it implies the Seljuks and Fatimids were allied, which is clearly untrue. I would go further, it implies a dualist Muslim v Christian contest. This lacks nuance. The Byzantines were not, by definition, either on crusade or part of the crusade. There may have been some common interest in Anatolia, a desire for restituition of Antioch and logistical support but this was in Byzantine interests; their respective objectives were different and many Crusaders were enimies of the Empire.
 * As such the box needs an edit, and I would suggest four columns rather than 3, or it needs deleting. Norfolkbigfish (talk) 08:52, 3 March 2024 (UTC)
 * Good point, the dualist view is far to simplified, especially as this article is about the First Crusade and not about Crusader involvement in the Holy Land in general where it could be considered.
 * I think with respect to Byzantium the more recent view is to emphasise their role in bringing the crusade to be and the close collaboration they maintained throughout the campaign up to the split at Arqa.
 * Any suggestions on how to proceed?
 * @Dr. Grampinator, which text specifically do you have in mind?
 * Also, if you do not mind I will change as a start the list of belligerent Western Europe to the different crusader armies. Neither was Western Europe involved in this as a whole nor as a "state entity". Happy to discuss it though. PontiffSulivahn (talk) 18:13, 8 March 2024 (UTC)
 * I'm thinking that the entire upper part of the Infobox can go. But then the right side should have three bold titles: Seljuks of Rum, Seljuk Empire, Fatimid Dynasty. The same basic information is conveyed. Dr. Grampinator (talk) 19:06, 8 March 2024 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:First Crusade


text:
Talk:List of fictional feral children

Untitled
Shasta shifts the Fishboy pic out to the left on larger monitors, like so:

shasta shasta shasta fishboy    shasta fishboy    shasta fishboy fishboy

I suppose if they were all resized, that might take care of it, or realigned somehow. Koyaanis Qatsi 01:03 3 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * I've noticed a few problems with images and text wrapping on Wikipedia, especially when there's more than one image on a page. The Shasta cover is a bit disproportionate to the other images anyway, so I'll probably replace it with a smaller one, probably by this weekend, and we'll see if that fixes it. Lee M 02:10 10 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * PS I didn't spot your message for a week? Oh, dear. Well, I may be slow but I get there in the end. (There's probably a filthy joke in there somewhere....)

I'm currently researching some other feral children novels that I've heard about, and once I have sufficient information I should be able to do a significant expansion of the article. - Lee M 01:43, 4 Sep 2003 (UTC)

MARCH 2005: This article has grown a bit haphazardly and could probably do with some judicious reorganising, if anyone feels up to the job. Lee M 14:03, 4 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Hogwarts and Romulus and Remus
Remus, is killed by his brother Romulus in the mythology of the founding of Rome. There is no mention of Hogwarts or of any other Harry Potter fiction. Facts now corrected in the article, but really, how did it get in there in the first place? Please perform facts checks people.

Mowgli
I cut the following from the article, with reference to Rudyard Kipling's Mowgli:
 * He might be seen as a metaphor for the British Raj - a member of a "superior" race whose destiny is to rule the "inferior" races; a jungle version of the white man's burden.

As this is unreferenced, it appears to be original research, but it's also not borne out by the text. Mowgli is of native stock and not white. At one point in the stories he is adopted by local villagers, where an attempt is made to impose a traditional child's role on him. As an adult he is an employee of the British Raj in a job that would naturally be handed out to natives. The "final" Mowgli story, In the Rukh, where his final situation is employed, married, and with children, was actually the first to be written, so was the end envisioned for the character all through The Jungle Books. TCC (talk) (contribs) 23:11, 15 March 2006 (UTC)
 * This is a bit of a belated reply, but I didn't mean to imply that Mowgli was actually white. However, it seems to me from Kipling's comparison between Mowgli and some of the other Indians in "In the Rukh" that Kipling considered Mowgli to be "white on the inside". Lee M 15:17, 9 February 2007 (UTC)

The Thing
I would add The Thing from Gormenghast, but my copy is in a different country ATM. Hairy Dude 22:26, 31 May 2006 (UTC)

The Ones who Walk Away from Omelas
I don't believe the neglected child from Omelas really counts as feral in the sense it's generally used in this article. Of course, Le Guin's child was a fairly blatant political metaphor for all of the starving and abused human beings in this world who are kept poor so that others can remain rich. Lee M 15:17, 9 February 2007 (UTC)

Pyrenee, and Some Possible Additions
I think saying that Pyrenee may not be published in America because it has a nude child is violating Wikipedia standards. It's a criticism of culture in the Americas that has nothing to do with Feral Children in Mythology. This year in America Alan Moore's Lost Girls was published which depicts sexually explicit versions of popular late 19th and early 20th century childrens books. Wendy Darlings story features characters as young as 12 involved in sexual experimentation. On another note; I feel that the character San from the animated film Princess Mononoke should definetly be listed. Possibly The Wild Boys from the William S. Burroughs Novel of the same name; although because it is about a society boys who have developed their own culture I don't know if that will qualify as feral.
 * If it said that american position was immoral, sad, unfortunate or fotunate, moral, virtuous, it would have been a violation of WP:NPOV. Ironically, your choice of example (pornographic book? sexual experimentation? WTF?) only served to restate the american stance on nudity. --Cubbi 17:29, 18 September 2007 (UTC)

Not Mentioned Yet
A feral boy, Donnie, from the American cartoon, The Wild Thornberrys. --Joe Webster 14:01, 21 October 2007 (UTC)

And : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Nature_%28film%29

Where's the mythology part?
Three lines at the beginning just to mention Enkidu and Romulus and Remus? Seems very little to me to be mentioned in the title. Nazroon (talk) 21:44, 19 November 2007 (UTC)

Hayy Ibn Yaqzan
A model example of a feral human in medieval literature. Just added it. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.22.217.228 (talk) 20:45, 16 December 2007 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:Fishboy-sm.png
Image:Fishboy-sm.png is being used on this article. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in this Wikipedia article constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use.

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— Save_Us _ 229  00:28, 4 January 2008 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:Pyrenee-sm.jpg
Image:Pyrenee-sm.jpg is being used on this article. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in this Wikipedia article constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use.

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— Save_Us _ 229  00:43, 4 January 2008 (UTC)

Romulus and Remus weren't feral children, nor were they "raised" by a she-wolf. A wolf nursed the babies and kept them safe for a short time before a shepherd found them. They're no more feral children than Moses. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 216.228.75.168 (talk) 15:07, 23 February 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:List of fictional feral children


text:
Nag's Head, London

Nag's Head is a locality within the Holloway area of the London Borough of Islington.

Toponymy
The area is named after the Nag's Head public house. The pub, also previously called the Mustang Diner and O'Neills, closed in 2004; the original early Victorian building is in use today as a gambling establishment.

Governance
Nag's Head Town Centre, a shopping arcade between Morrisons and Selby's, is governed by the Nag's Head Town Centre Management Group.

Geography
The name refers to the junction of Holloway Road (the A1) with Seven Sisters Road, where the Nag's Head pub stood, and also to the surrounding area, particularly the stretch of Holloway Road between the former pub and its junction with Camden Road.

Economy
The area is identified in the London Plan as one of 35 major centres in Greater London. The shopping and entertainment area includes the Nag's Head Market (behind Holloway Road on the northwest corner of Hertslet Road) and the Nag's Head Shopping Centre. It hosts a James Selby department store.

In 1975, McDonalds chose Nags Head to open their second restaurant in the UK, (the first being in Woolwich) situated at the former Burtons Mensware store in Seven Sisters Road.

title: Nag's Head, London


text:
Tillamook County Creamery Association

The Tillamook County Creamery Association (TCCA) is a farmer-owned dairy cooperative headquartered in Tillamook County, Oregon, United States. The association manufactures and sells dairy products under the "Tillamook" brand name. Its main facility is the Tillamook Creamery, located two miles north of the city of Tillamook on U.S. Route 101.

The 48th largest dairy processor in North America, Tillamook posted $1 billion in sales in 2021, the trade magazine Dairy Foods reports. TCCA employs nearly 900 people in Oregon and is the largest employer in Tillamook County. The brand is strongest in the West but sells in all 50 states. It routinely wins awards from the American Cheese Society and other groups.

The co-operative includes nearly 60 dairy farms, mostly within Tillamook County. The cooperative markets a number of processed dairy products including cheese, ice cream, butter, sour cream, and yogurt, some of which is manufactured by the cooperative itself and other products which are produced under licensing agreements with various partner companies. Their most notable product is Tillamook cheese, including the most popular cheese: Tillamook Cheddar. In March 2010, Tillamook's Medium Cheddar cheese won the gold medal in the 2010 World Cheese Championship Cheese Contest hosted by the Wisconsin Cheese Makers Association in Madison, Wisconsin. The cheese scored 99.6 out of 100 points possible, beating 59 other entries.

History
The Tillamook Valley was ideal for dairy cattle in the mid-19th century, but transporting the milk and butter over the mountains surrounding the valley was a problem. In 1854, several farmers from the county built a schooner named the Morning Star to transport butter to Portland, Oregon; the schooner is now featured as part of the co-op's logo, and a replica (constructed in 1992 by master shipwright Richard Miles of Aberdeen, WA) is on display at The Tillamook Cheese Factory. Peter McIntosh and T. S. Townsend established the county's first cheese factory in 1894. The association was founded by ten independent creameries in 1909. TCCA hired an ad agency and began campaigning in 1917 in Los Angeles, San Francisco and Portland.

Under secretary-manager George R. Lawson (CEO- 1944-1950), the cooperative began producing rindless cheese in 1946 and bottled milk the following year. In 1949, partnering with four independent plants and with financing arranged through First National Bank, the Tillamook Cheese Factory north of Tillamook was built. The enlarged facility included a storage plant and traffic department.

A second cheese-making facility, Columbia River Processing, Inc., was built in Boardman, Oregon, in September 2001. Its production capacity doubled TCCA’s cheesemaking capabilities.

In 2009, Tillamook County Creamery Association celebrated 100 years in business.

Tillamook Creamery

The Tillamook Cheese Factory, located at 4165 U.S. 101 North in Tillamook, Oregon, is the Tillamook County Creamery Association's original cheese production facility. The Tillamook Cheese Factory also has a visitor center, the Tillamook Creamery, and hosts over 1.3 million tourists each year. Visitors can learn about the cheesemaking process, cheese packaging process, and the ice cream-making process from a viewing gallery over the main production floor. Tours are self-guided and self-paced, and are augmented by video presentations and interactive kiosks.

Tours inside the actual cheese processing area of the plant were discontinued in 1967 due to health and safety regulations. A new visitors center was opened in June 2018 with 38,500 sqft of exhibit and viewing space. The center also includes a dining area and gift store.

The Tillamook Cheese Factory produces more than 170,000 pounds of cheese each day and packages approximately one million pounds of cheese on-site each week. The factory warehouse has the capacity to age 50 million pounds of cheese at once. The cooperative also operates the aforementioned cheesemaking facilities in Boardman, Oregon and contracts some of its packaging and distribution to Marathon Cheese in Mountain Home, Idaho and Great Lakes Cheese in Salt Lake City.

Marketing
Tillamook had a "Loaf Love Tour" featuring customized Volkswagen "Baby Loaf" busses that sample cheese at grocery stores and community events. Tillamook commercials on television include its "Food Loves Tillamook" campaign, "Dairy Done Right" campaign, and "Goodbye Big Food, Hello Real Food" campaign. Tillamook sponsored the Grilled Cheese Invitational in 2010 and 2011.

Controversy
TCCA bought the cheese cooperative in Bandon, Oregon, in 2000. After buying the Bandon Cheese factory and its brand name, Tillamook's lawyers warned several South Coast businesses with "Bandon" in their names that they might need to make a "content change" to avoid confusion with the cheese. This controversy made international news, particularly in 400-year-old Bandon, Ireland, where residents have milked cows for generations.

The cooperative ran into additional controversy in 2004 with its attempted enforcement of the Tillamook Cheese and Bandon Cheese trademarks against local businesses such as Tillamook Country Smoker, a purveyor of jerky and smoked meats for over 30 years. The creamery tried to stop the meat company from using the name "Tillamook". In that 2004 case, a federal judge ruled that Tillamook Country Smoker could register its name as a trademark, but that Tillamook Country Smoker could not use or register the Tillamook Jerky mark.

The move that garnered Tillamook the most nationwide attention, though, came in 2005 after a slew of consumer inquiries about dairies' use of a genetically engineered bovine growth hormone designed to boost milk production. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration had said milk products derived from cows injected with the hormone were safe, but consumer worries about potential cancer risks persisted. Over objections from some member farmers and from biotechnology giant Monsanto, which manufactured the hormone, Tillamook County Creamery Association voted to require all of its dairy suppliers to phase out its use. Tillamook was one of the first big national dairy brands to make such a decision.

In early 2018, a large "mega-dairy" near Boardman, Oregon, producing milk for Tillamook, was fined and ultimately sued by the state of Oregon for repeated violations of its wastewater permit. The mega-dairy, Oregon's second-largest, was approved by state regulators for 30,000 cows in early 2017, despite opposition from local and national environmental and animal welfare groups, as well as small-farm advocates. Shortly after state regulators sued the facility, Tillamook stated that it had terminated its contract, but continued to purchase milk from the operation.

title: Tillamook County Creamery Association


text:
Talk:Sopranist

Sopranite?
Where is the term "sopranite" used? Is it distinct from sopranist or sopranista in any way? John Holly 03:43, 25 July 2007 (UTC)

Misc
Who in the world uses this term? What are these "special vocal techniques"? --Camembert

Hello!! There are plenty of sopranists around, including me. I can hit into the whistle register: F#6. 4.247.60.216 19:12, 14 January 2007 (UTC)Vinny

 * Musicians do. As a sopranist (not professional, yet - in training), I've looked into terms and theory behind this. Though in Israel, where I'm being trained, the term is "soprano male", English musicians use "Sopranist" and Europeans tend to use "Sopranista". Nearly all pages on the internet that discuss classification of vocal types use this term - thought most non-musician folk are not familiar with it, it being kinda rare. --John1987

 * On reading your comment, my first thought was that "sopranistas" were probably leading high-pitched rebellions in Latin America.... But according to this page on voice ranges, "sopranista" was at least used as part of a classification of castrati (sopranistas, mezzo-sopranistas and altistas). It would be nice to know how people called this today (presumably with testicles?) differ from countertenors. -- Someone else 01:23 3 Jul 2003 (UTC)

There certainly are people (men) who can sing very high up into the soprano range. Some of these effectively have some abnormality, possibly genetic, possibly hormonal or both, and there may be other reasons for some. Some are considered as endocrinological castrati - so that although they haven't been physically castrated, their makeup is such that the overall effect is very similar. Others are claimed to be normal, but employ unusual vocal techniques. I have no idea what sort of vocal techniques these might actually be, but firstly I should point out that really singing is not all that "natural", and secondly that there is clear evidence that many of us can produce a remarkable range of sounds if we put our minds to it - examples being provided by the throat singers of Tuva (Mongolia etc.) I think it is at least plausible that there are people who are able to cultivate and exploit unusual techniques in order to achieve successful renditions of pieces in the highest registers.

 * There aren't a lot of male sopranos out there, but the (very few, admittedly) that I've met or talk to don't suffer from any physical abnormality. The two that I've met have baritone chest voices, like me (I'm actually a bass-baritone) and others I've heard of tend to be tenors or baritones (for instance, the first known sopranist - Aris Christofellis). Our training is like that of all singers - it's just that our range is that of a female soprano, our passagios are those of female sopranos and our tessitura is that of a soprano. --John1987

 * I second John's explanation, although I figured it out mostly by myself: baritone chest voice, but the passagio and tessitura matching that of a female soprano. Many sopranist's will tell you that they are drawn to (because it "feels right", that is, tessitura) singing at their high pitch, even if they feel awkward about it until they hit upon a role model.  --Rick  — Preceding unsigned comment added by 83.161.146.46 (talk) 21:27, 8 June 2014 (UTC)

I have heard one of the sopranistas in the list - Radu Marian, and he certainly was able to go stratospheric, though he does not have a very strong voice at the top, but it is generally very clear. He apparently is considered to be an endocrinological castrato, so I have yet to hear anyone who would use the claimed unusual vocal techniques - though his performances were certainly unusual.

The term is used, but since there are very few people who are able to sing in this range, only occasionally. The Male Soprano Page listed has details of more of them. -- David Martland 21:48, 10 Aug 2003 (UTC)

 * Not occasionally. Sopranist would not be comfortable singing Alto roles as their tessitura is well above those (also, sopranists, like sopranos, are not comfortable going below middle C which prevents them from effectively singing Alto parts). There are those who are basically very high mezzos, like Philippe Jaroussky, who can reach only B below soprano C, and is more comfortable singing mezzo parts and even high alto parts). --John1987

According to the Male Soprano page, a sopranist may use falsetto to sing above the normal male range. However, in both the Sopranist page and the Counter Tenor page here on Wikipedia it is implied that a sopranist does not use falsetto whereas a counter tenor does. I don't think that's correct-- perhaps there is no strict difference between a sopranist and a counter tenor, but "soparnist" is a more general category than "counter tenor"?--anon.

That is absolutely correct though, counter-tenor uses falsetto, and a sopranista does not.

 * (This response is also to the paragraph above the one above this one) This is not "absolutely" correct. There are sopranists who do not employ any sort of falsetto, just like there are counter-tenors who do not employ any falsetto. In fact, most baritone-based counter-tenors do not employ falsetto as they already possess a different one. This is easily provable when a sopranist actually does use a falsetto. To give a personal example, my range in head voice (ie. contra) is currently F#2 to F#6. If I use chest voice (i.e. baritone), my falsetto begins only at B2. The notes F#2 to A#2 are either my lowest head voice or my highest chest voice and sound very differently when using either. My chest voice falsetto range is B2 to one octave above, and also sounds kind of dreadful. Other sopranists use a sort of falsetto in their middle range (from middle C to C above) and above that, the "high range", is pure head voice. --John1987

That is nonsense - both male sopranists (not endocrinological castratos) and countertenors use the 'falsetto' voice. One just happens to be higher than the other. Roydosan 13:36 2 May 2006 (UTC)

 * See my comment above. What you say is, as far as I know (and I believe I know a bit), simply not true. --John1987

Well I happen to know a bit too, if you want to argue about it like that, and you are talking nonsense. Roydosan 14:56, 31 October 2006 (UTC)

 * Since when is "if you don't agree with me you're talking nonsense" a valid argument? Anyway, I'm not going to wank with you. To the point, there is no formal study of the sopranist voice - the literature simply states that countertenors can be altos, mezzos and sopranos. Some countertenors, such as Jochen Kowalski, do not employ any falsetto due to having natural head voices. Some sopranist (I want to write "most" but I'm not sure) do as well. The test is easy to employ: if a sopranist can use his chest voice to go to falsetto, than his soprano is natural head voice, because it is immediately apparent that his falsetto is weak and unsingable and has a range whose highest note is not even the highest of an alto (normally A4 or C5). Sopranist with natural headvoices can also descend to chest voice in contra, much like a proper soprano can do, down to C3 (though C3-C4 is "soundless" range, with no color or resonance). This unsigned comment was left at 13:41, 15 November 2006 by John1987

Well where is your argument? Come up with some references or citations to prove your case. Roydosan 12:35, 4 January 2007 (UTC)

"Sopranistas are very rare, and do not have the power of voice which a castrato would have had." = Why so?
 * True castrati had the range of a soprano with the power of a male voice. RasputinAXP   c  14:31, 2 May 2006 (UTC)

 * This is a very doubtful claim which is not worthy of being mentioned in wikipedia. There is no proof of that since the last castrato died over 60 years before the first sopranist became known, and no person heard them both and was able to professionally compare. Recordings of Moreschi demonstrate a very weak and seemingly unprofessional voice (Michael Maniaci's is much thicker and stronger, in comparison), but that may be because he was well after his prime at the time of the recording. --John1987

 * The recording of Moreschi is hampered by the primitive technology used to record it. Consequently, it is not possible to compare its merits, or otherwise, with contemprary voices. Roydosan 14:56, 31 October 2006 (UTC)

Side comment - I'm very sorry if all my personal comments are not acceptible. I've grown quite attached to this article, for obvious reasons :) --John1987

I suggest this article be merged with countertenor. Sopranisti are a type of countertenor (i.e. falsetists), not a separate vocal type. Corrado7mari 10:05, 24 April 2007 (UTC)
 * Oppose Countertenor and Sopranist are different vocal ranges and should have their own articles. --ukexpat 19:32, 27 June 2007 (UTC)

Sopranist missing from article
About 1990 or so, I saw a lute song recital by Steven Rickards at Florida State University. He mentioned that there was only one singer calling himself a "sopranist" and he was a Chinese (?) singer on the West Coast, maybe in Chanticleer. This singer isn't mentioned in this article and I couldn't find anything online but did I remember correctly and is this singer still performing? Badagnani 08:55, 26 April 2007 (UTC)

I think you mean Randall Wong--77.233.64.197 (talk) 01:43, 26 March 2008 (UTC)

Factual accuracy of article
I have some problems with this article. First, it has no sources. Second, there seems to be some bad info. I have fixed some points in the lead but I am not an expert on the technique section so I am leaving it alone. However, I do have some concerns. First the article asserts that countertenors have a naturally stronger falsetto than other singers. It is my understanding that most male classical singers could become countertenors if they wanted to train that part of their voice. I myself am an opera singer and have had teachers try to take me that route. Obviously possessing a naturally strong voice is a part of anyone becoming a professional singer but I think the article is trying to assert something about countertenors that just isn't true. I think the article should say that most men with naturally strong modal registers can develop the falsetto register to become countertenors. Second, it's my understanding that the technical side of the countertenor voice is not equivalent to female singers by virtue of the length and mass of the vocal chords and the difference in the vibratory pattern of the vocal folds. This results in different passagios or lifts (although some may overlap) and also unique problems to the countertenor voice like mutational chink etc. Also, in terms of tessitura, the article asserts a similarity with sopranos. That is not exactly true. Most of the high castrati parts are still cast as women even when countertenors are available just because the tessitura lies too high. That is why Maniacci is making such a big splash, because he can perform castrati roles sopranists can't. Sopranists may be able to hit the notes, but tessitura also takes into account vocal comfort and stamina and it just isn't healthy (or pleasing to the ear for that matter) for sopranists to do roles with very high tessituras. Also the article asserts that countertenors have to train harder. I think that is rather a difficult thing to prove considering that most opera singers practice four or more hours a day seven days a week for years and years before they even get to sing minor roles in operas. Also, I am not so sure about the accuracy of classification among countertenors.Nrswanson (talk) 22:01, 1 April 2008 (UTC)

Philippe Jaroussky and Max Emanuel Cenčić
I added these two singers to Sopranist before spotting this recent edit summary ] stating ''Philippe Jaroussky and Max Emanuel Cencic aren't sopranists. They're mezzo-soprano countertenors, The former admitted to this in an interview. The latter was a sopranist for a time, but he eventually chose to retrain his voice to a mezzo-soprano.'' This statement seems somewhat at odds with both their Wikipedia pages. Cenčić's page includes a section titled Post-Sängerknaben Career as a Male Soprano (implying that, historically, he has indeed been a male soprano). The lead of Jaroussky's page states that he is "is a French sopranist countertenor." —81.151.194.238 (talk) 12:15, 29 December 2012 (UTC)
 * The term "sopranist" in the lead of Jaroussky's article is not supported in the body of the article and should be removed. That Cenčić sang as a sopranist from 1992 until 1997 makes him an unsuitable example in the list of present day notable sopranists. I suggest you follow the previous editor's advice and revert your edit. -- Michael Bednarek (talk) 13:23, 29 December 2012 (UTC)
 * Ok, done - "sopranist" removed from the Jaroussky lead too. —81.151.194.238 (talk) 13:37, 29 December 2012 (UTC)

Voice change
Like a girl 106.208.224.175 (talk) 11:20, 29 March 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Sopranist


text:
Sailor Saturn

Sailor Saturn (セーラーサターン) is a fictional supporting character in the Sailor Moon manga, the 1992–1997 anime series created by Naoko Takeuchi and the 2014–2023 reboot that more closely follows the manga. Her spirit resides deep within twelve-year-old Hotaru Tomoe (土萠 ほたる), a frail middle schoolgirl who is her lookalike reincarnation, which makes Sailor Saturn her alter ego; entirely apart from how the other nine Sailor Guardians are reborn and their human identities entirely separate. She is the tenth and last of the Sailor Guardians of the long gone Moon Kingdom to be introduced, possessing immensely strong dark powers associated with silence and ruin, nothingness and the void, destruction and death, annihilation and rebirth that made her a potential threat as she can wipe out a planet and even an entire Star System or reset its evolution. Her deathly powers are necessary for rejuvenation and re-creation to follow by Sailor Moon's mighty powers of healing and rejuvenation with powerful moonlight from the Silver Crystal.

Profile
Prior to the main events of Sailor Moon, when Hotaru was eight years old, she lived with her parents in Tokyo's Sankakusu District when a freak storm occurred causing a fire that killed her mother Keiko and left her on the verge of death herself. Later admitting that she was meant to die at the time, Hotaru's life was unnaturally prolonged by both the actions of her father Souichi Tomoe turning her into a cyborg and being made a host to the Daimon Mistress 9 whose presence caused Hotaru's body to suffer seizures with only the Tairon Crystal appearing to reduce the pain, only seen in Sailor Moon Crystal's thirteen-episode third season. Wearing clothes to conceal her altered body, unaware of Mistress 9's existence prior, Hotaru was friendless before meeting her best friend, Chibiusa.

By the time she realized Mistress 9's existence, she loses her body to the Daimon as she steals Chibiusa's Silver Crystal to fully regain her strength. Hotaru is also revealed to be the reincarnation of Sailor Saturn who was responsible for destroying the last remnants of the fallen Moon Kingdom Silver Millenium so it can begin anew of Earth. This fact and her power made her feared by the Outer Guardians as they initially intended to kill Hotaru and seal her soul before she could awaken and destroy Earth. But Hotaru, seemingly destroyed when Mistress 9 ripped herself out of the human's body, ended up awakening as Sailor Saturn when Pharaoh 90 appeared and Sailor Moon appeared to have died in a gambit. Though Saturn intended to destroy Earth along with Pharaoh 90, she stays her hand upon seeing Sailor Moon alive and deemed destroying Earth so it to be renewed for the new Silver Millenium not needed. She then drives Pharaoh 90 to his domain while sacrificing herself to ensure he remains trapped, though Sailor Moon's restoration brings Hotaru back to Earth as an infant. With her father dead, Hotaru becomes the adopted daughter of Haruka Tenoh, Michiru Kaioh and Setsuna Meioh as the four of them reside at an Empire Victorian House.

In the first anime, Hotaru's story is mostly the same except that she was not modified into a cyborg and Mistress 9 had a stronger influence that played a role in her being ostracized by her classmates. Her father also survived the Death Busters' defeat and was allowed to raise her until Setsuna asks for her help in the first part of Sailor Moon Sailor Stars.

Hotaru's age fluctuates during the series; she is first introduced as a twelve-year-old, is reborn as an infant due to Sailor Saturn's spirit forever within her, quickly develops into a young four or five-year-old child around then reaches her proper chronological age after a metaphysical epiphany with Sailor Saturn herself appearing before her to "wake up." When not transformed, her body retains the smaller height of a five-year-old; the exact same height she gained since being reborn.

In the musicals, Professor Souichi Tomoe is only present in a few stages, though Sailor Saturn appears in every musical from the third on. In musicals where Tomoe is absent, Hotaru is presented as being in the care of Haruka and Michiru. During Last Dracul Jokyoku, Hotaru is presented in the care of Professor Tomoe, knowing of the existence of the Sailor Soldiers, yet not awakening as Sailor Saturn until halfway through the musical.

Naoko Takeuchi, the series creator, describes her as delicate, quiet, precocious, and expressionless.

Aspects and Forms
As a character with special powers, ever evolving transformations and a long lifetime virtually spanning between the Silver Millennium era and the 30th century, Hotaru gains multiple aspects and aliases from both her separate personalities (until Mistress 9 is fully expelled) as the series progresses.

In the original anime's fifth and final season, her Eternal form is never seen neither is her transformation sequence into her Super Sailor form.

Sailor Saturn
Sailor Saturn wears a dark blue-violet uniform with a pale maroon bow in the front of her chest with a silver crystalline brooch and in the back of her miniskirt. The initial version of this uniform has petal-shaped sleeves, a windrose brooch and choker with the same kind of windrose, bellflower-shaped white gloves, and knee-high, lace up boots. She is given various specific titles, including Guardian of Silence, Guardian of Destruction, and Guardian of Ruin and Rebirth.

Sailor Saturn carries the Silence Glaive, which she may use to bring about the destruction of a world or worlds with a single swing. She also has the ability to heal minor wounds in both her civilian and Guardian forms, having healed Chibiusa when she was attacked by a Daimon, through the process weakens her which was more detrimental while she had Mistress 9 in her body.

In her past life, Sailor Saturn lived far from Silver Millennium and only appears during a crisis with the Three Talismans of her fellow Outer Guardians serving as keys to summon her once the items were brought together. Because of their distance from Silver Millennium and each other, Saturn and the Outer Guardians were not intended to rebirth. But as Hotaru theorized, the events caused by the Death Busters played a key role in her awakening when she was originally meant to die and the Outer Guardians allowed to live normal lives. Sailor Saturn gains additional powers as the series progresses, and at key points her uniform changes to reflect this. The first change takes place in Act 44 of the manga, when she obtains the Saturn Crystal and her outfit becomes similar to that of Super Sailor Moon. She is not given a new title. A similar event takes place in Episode 168 of the anime, and she is given the name Super Sailor Saturn. A third form appears in Act 49 of the manga, unnamed but analogous to Eternal Sailor Moon (sans wings). In the official visual book for Sailor Moon Eternal, this form was named "Eternal Sailor Saturn".

Princess Saturn
According to the manga, on Silver Millennium, Sailor Saturn was also the princess of her home planet. She was among those given the duty of protecting the Solar System from outside invasion. As Princess Saturn, she dwelt in Titan Castle and wore a purple gown—she appears in this form in the original manga and in supplementary art. Unlike the other Sailor Guardians, it is stated that Saturn did not awaken on Silver Millennium until after it was destroyed so Princess Saturn's exact status during that time is unclear.

Mistress 9
During the third story arc of the manga and the anime adaptations, Hotaru's body was possessed by a parasitic Daimon known as Mistress 9 since she was four years old, whereas the Sailor Guardian of Death and Rebirth had inhabited Hotaru since birth. Mistress 9 eventually took over Hotaru's body and distorted it into an adult-like form, eventually destroying it when Mistress 9 is ripped out of her host's body. In the first anime, retaining her sense and defying the extraterrestrial parasite, like in the manga and its 2014-2023 reboot, Hotaru fully awakened, as one with Sailor Saturn herself, and ultimately destroyed Mistress 9's persona at the cost of her physical self.

A vision of the solitary Sailor Guardian of Space-Time of the Outer Solar System had told Chibiusa of how Mistress 9 was expelled with the help of Sailor Moon, thus enabling Hotaru to live her life anew with Sailor Saturn's vital essence still within her until the renowned Sailor Guardian of Ruin and Rebirth's full powers of death and destruction, annihilation and silence, would be needed once again for an additional crisis.

Mysterious Girl
In the musical Yume Senshi - Ai - Eien ni... and its revision, Yume Senshi - Ai - Eien ni... Saturn Fukkatsu Hen!, Hotaru takes the alias of a nameless girl while under the control of the Dead Moon Circus, who beat and ridicule her. Her memories are seemingly erased and she is given the powers to enter and alter people's dreams. Only Sailors Uranus, Neptune and Pluto realize who she really is. In the original musical, it is only implied that she is Hotaru, and it is stated but not shown that she is Sailor Saturn. Her actual awakening as Saturn is also ambiguous, while implied, it's not shown and she is simply shown as a normal girl at the end of the musical. In the revision, her identity as Hotaru is stated plainly, and she awakens on-stage as Saturn, after being saved by the other Sailor Guardians and appears transformed moments later.

Kon
In all four of the Kaguya Island musicals, Hotaru is possessed by a spirit named Kon, who speaks through Hotaru to the other Sailor Guardians. When Hotaru awakens she has no memory of what happened while Kon possessed her body. Kon is the remnant of stars destroyed by Dark Plasman and the comet Coatl. In the first two of these musicals, she gives her power to Sailor Moon in the final battle to allow her to transform into Eternal Sailor Moon. Kon was given the song "Hitosuji no Hikari no Kokoro" in her appearances.

Special powers and items
While several Sailor Guardians have unusual powers as civilians, Hotaru's are numerous and varied in both her civilian and ever evolving Sailor forms. Some of these are portrayed only in the third story arc, such as her past life existing as a secondary personality that unconsciously transmits visions to the other Sailor Guardians of incoming disasters that would lead to her eventual awakening. Prior to her awakening, Hotaru displayed the ability to involuntarily create force-fields and energy beams whenever in danger and heal minor flesh wounds. Her possession by Mistress 9 also revealed her ability to exist as a disembodied spirit as long as her physical self is intact.

Due to the destructive nature of her powers, Hotaru would be reborn as an infant immediately upon fulfilling her task as Sailor Saturn in an event that ends with her demise. The infant Hotaru would later grow to her former within a matter of days should she need to reawaken, with a visitation by the soul of her past life completing the process.

Sailor Uranus, Sailor Neptune, and Sailor Pluto gained their second transformation when Hotaru gives them their Sailor Crystals while she regained her original twelve-year-old body upon reconnecting with her past memories and bonding with Sailor Saturn herself. In the anime, Hotaru is still an infant when Sailor Saturn's mighty power floods Sailors' Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto, upgrading them and herself to their evolved Super forms. In both versions, Hotaru has visions of coming events, especially of danger, and can project these visions to other people. When she is a young girl, she creates a small projection of the galaxy which hovers in the air in her room, simulating astronomical history at high speed. However, it is only in the manga that Haruka stays with her while she reproduces these events to help keep her increasingly powerful abilities in check.

Hotaru's transformation into Sailor Saturn is very rare indeed. The transformation sequence into her standard Sailor form is never shown in the main series, although one of the video games included a shortened transformation sequence, which she initiated by raising her hand in the air (like the other Sailor Soldiers) and shouting "Saturn Planet Power, Make up!". In the manga she eventually gains her Saturn Crystal and does transform in front of the other Soldiers, evoking ''Saturn Crystal Power! Make Up!''. In the anime, although she does upgrade to Super Sailor Saturn, the command Saturn Crystal Power is never mentioned and her transformation is again not shown on-screen.

Sailor Saturn's powers are mostly based on Roman mythology, in which Saturn is the god of the harvest. In Western astrology, the planet Saturn is known as "the Greater Malefic", "the Old Taskmaster" and "the Grim Reaper." Calling herself a "harbinger of death", referred by others as the Forbidden Guardian, Saturn's primary role is execute total annihilation and is normally summoned as a final resort when all hope is lost. Such an example is Saturn wiping out what remained of Silver Millennium after Metaria destroyed most of it, which made the Outer Guardians greatly fear her as they did not fully understand her purpose at the time. Saturn's signature weapon is her Silence Glaive, which is referenced by Sailor Neptune as the "scythe of the Goddess of Death,". This is made apparent as a single swing of the Silence Glaive is enough to destroy an entire world. The Roman god Saturn is often depicted carrying a scythe or sickle, which became symbolic of harvesting human souls at the end of their lifespan.

When first awakened during the Mugen Academy incident, a result of Sailor Moon's apparent demise, Saturn's first act was deeming Earth beyond salvation while fatally weakening Master Pharaoh 90 with her "Death Reborn Revolution." The kanji used with this maneuver translate to "Death World Revolution" (死世界変革), with the intended pronunciation given in furigana. But when Sailor Moon remerges alive and unharmed, Saturn renounces her intent of destroying Earth and deliberately allows herself to be sealed away in Master Pharaoh 90's dimension while he is escaping. In the original anime's third season, Saturn will die from using the attack, only to be saved by Super Sailor Moon at the last moment as she obliterated Pharaoh 90 from existence with incredibly powerful bursts of purple destructive energy.

When Sailor Saturn returns near the end of the fourth story arc (which actually overflows into the beginning of the fifth season), a couple more attacks are introduced. She defends herself and her allies with Silence Wall (不動城壁), a dome of dark energy that deflects attacks, and attacks with Silence Glaive Surprise (沈黙鎌奇襲). In the anime this attack is used against Nehellenia; seeing no other way to defeat her, Saturn intends to bring down her Glaive and destroy everything and everyone, but before she manages to strike the ground Sailor Chibi Moon throws herself at Saturn to stop her from completing the action and sacrificing her life, nevertheless, the Glaive releases massively destructive power that destroys most of Queen Nehellenia's palace.

In the manga and Crystal series, the Death Busters use a power source called the Taioron Crystal which is the life source of their home world. One fragment somehow ended up in the possession of Hotaru's late mother, Keiko Tomoe, with Professor Tomoe giving the item to Hotaru in order to ease her seizures while nourishing Mistress 9 until the Daimon stole Chibiusa's Legendary Silver Crystal of the thirtieth century. The Saturn Crystal is her Sailor Crystal and the source of all her power, which becomes especially important in the fourth and fifth sagas.

Development
In the original character sketches, Takeuchi drew Sailor Saturn with a brown staff rather than her Silence Glaive. Her Sailor Uniform was also different with purple sleeves rather than white, there was no windrose on her chest, and the third band on her gloves was sheer with a point. Her choker also differed from the final version having a gold 6-pointed star rather than the present choker.

The kanji of Hotaru's surname translate as "earth" (土) and "sprouting" (萠). The former comes from the name of her planet in Japanese, Dosei (土星). Her given name is in hiragana hotaru (ほたる) and so its meaning is not inherent, but the word itself means "firefly" (蛍), and this meaning is used at least once as a pun. Fireflies are associated with spirits of the dead in Japanese mythology, referring to her status as the Soldier of death and rebirth.

Actresses
In the Japanese anime series, Hotaru has been voiced by Yūko Minaguchi. In the third season of Sailor Moon Crystal, she is voiced by Yukiyo Fujii. In English, Hotaru is voiced by Jen Gould for the Cloverway Inc. adaptation, and by Christine Marie Cabanos in the Viz Media adaptations.

In the stage musicals, Hotaru has been played by ten actresses: Keiko Takeda, Chihiro Imai, Asami Sanpei, Mao Mita, Mario Tomioka, Ayami Kakiuchi, Ruria Nakamura, Yui Iizuka, Eriko Funakoshi, Karin Takahashi and Mirai.

Reception and influence
The official Sailor Moon popularity polls listed Hotaru Tomoe and Sailor Saturn as separate characters. In 1994, with fifty-one choices, Sailor Saturn was the third most popular character and Hotaru was the fourth. In early 1996, with fifty one choices, Saturn was the sixth most popular character, and Hotaru was the seventh.

It has been suggested that moe comes from a contraction of her last name, but this is considered a false etymology.

Tsubame Sanjou of Rurouni Kenshin had her final design based on Hotaru.

title: Sailor Saturn


text:
Antonio Negri

Antonio Negri (1 August 1933 – 16 December 2023) was an Italian political philosopher known as one of the most prominent theorists of autonomism, as well as for his co-authorship of Empire with Michael Hardt. Born in Padua, Italy, Negri became a professor of political philosophy at the University of Padua, where he taught state and constitutional theory. Negri founded the Potere Operaio (Worker Power) group in 1969 and was a leading member of Autonomia Operaia, and published highly influential books, including Empire and Multitude: War and Democracy in the Age of Empire, urging "revolutionary consciousness."

Negri was accused in the late 1970s of being the mastermind of the left-wing urban guerrilla organization Red Brigades (Brigate Rosse or BR), which was involved in the May 1978 kidnapping and murder of former Italian prime minister Aldo Moro. On 7 April 1979, Negri was arrested and charged with a number of crimes including the Moro murder. Most charges were quickly dropped, but in 1984, having fled to France, he was sentenced in absentia to 30 years in prison. He was given an additional four years on the charge of being "morally responsible" for the violence of political activists in the 1960s and 1970s. The question of Negri's involvement with left-wing extremism is a controversial subject. He was indicted on a number of charges, including "association and insurrection against the state" (a charge which was later dropped), and sentenced for involvement in two murders.

Negri fled to France where, protected by the Mitterrand doctrine, he taught at the Paris VIII (Vincennes) and the Collège international de philosophie, along with Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault, and Gilles Deleuze. In 1997, after a plea-bargain that reduced his prison time from 30 to 13 years, he returned to Italy to serve the end of his sentence. Many of his most influential books were published while he was behind bars. After his release he lived in Venice and Paris with his partner, the French philosopher Judith Revel. He was the father of film director Anna Negri.

Early years
Antonio Negri was born in Padua, in the Northeastern Italian region of Veneto, in 1933. His father was an active communist militant from the city of Bologna (in the Northeastern Italian region of Emilia-Romagna), and although he died when Negri was two years old, his political engagement made Negri familiar with Marxism from an early age, while his mother was a teacher from the town of Poggio Rusco (in the province of Mantua, Lombardy). He began his career as a militant in the 1950s with the activist Roman Catholic youth organization Gioventú Italiana di Azione Cattolica (GIAC). Negri became a communist in 1953–54 when he worked at a kibbutz in Israel for a year. The kibbutz was organised according to ideas of Zionist socialism and all the members were Jewish communists. He joined the Italian Socialist Party in 1956 and remained a member until 1963, while at the same time becoming more and more engaged throughout the late 1950s and early 1960s in Marxist movements.

Negri studied philosophy and was hired as a professor at the University of Padua, soon after receiving his doctorate in 1956. There. he taught dottrina dello Stato ("state doctrine"), an Italian field similar to the philosophy of law, covering state and constitutional theory. In the early 1960s, Negri joined the editorial group of Quaderni Rossi, a journal that represented the intellectual rebirth of Marxism in Italy outside the realm of the Communist party. In 1969, together with Oreste Scalzone and Franco Piperno, Negri was one of the founders of the group Potere Operaio (Workers' Power) and the operaismo (lit. 'workerism') movement.

Arrest and flight
On 16 March 1978, Aldo Moro, the party leader of Christian Democracy and the former Italian prime minister, was kidnapped in Rome by the Red Brigades. Forty-five days after the kidnapping and nine days before Moro's death, the Red Brigades called his family and informed Moro's wife of his impending death. The conversation was recorded and later broadcast. While a number of people who knew Negri at the time identified him as the probable author of the call, the caller was later revealed to be Valerio Morucci.

On 7 April 1979 Negri and other activists were charged with kidnapping, assassination and insurrection. Padova's Public Prosecutor Pietro Calogero accused them of being involved in the political wing of the Red Brigades, and thus behind left-wing terrorism in Italy. Negri was charged with a number of offences, including leadership of the Red Brigades, masterminding the 1978 kidnapping and murder of the President of the Christian Democratic Party Aldo Moro, and plotting to overthrow the government. At the time, Negri was a political science professor at the University of Padua and visiting lecturer at Paris' École Normale Supérieure. The Italian public was shocked that an academic could be involved in such events.

A year later a leader of the BR, having decided to cooperate with the prosecution, testified that Negri "had nothing to do with the Red Brigades." The charge of 'armed insurrection against the State' against Negri was dropped and he consequently did not receive the 30-year plus life sentence requested by the prosecutor, but did receivet 30 years for being the instigator of political activist Carlo Saronio's murder and having 'morally concurred' with the murder of Andrea Lombardini, a carabiniere, during a failed bank robbery.

Some of his peers found little fault with Negri's activities. Michel Foucault commented, "Isn't he in jail simply for being an intellectual?" French philosophers Félix Guattari and Gilles Deleuze also signed in November 1977 L'Appel des intellectuels français contre la répression en Italie (The Call of French Intellectuals Against Repression in Italy) in protest against Negri's imprisonment and Italian anti-terrorism legislation. On the other hand in the late 1980s Italian President Francesco Cossiga described Antonio Negri as "a psychopath" who "poisoned the minds of an entire generation of Italy's youth."

In 1983, four years after his arrest and while he was still in prison awaiting trial, Negri was elected to the Italian legislature as a member for the Radical Party. He was freed from prison claiming parliamentary immunity and was released, fleeing to France with the help of Félix Guattari and Amnesty International. His release was later revoked when the Chamber of Deputies voted to strip him of his immunity. Negri remained in exile in France for the next 14 years, where he was protected from extradition by the "Mitterrand doctrine".

In France, Negri began teaching at the Paris VIII (Vincennes), and also at the Collège international de philosophie founded by Jacques Derrida. Although the conditions of his residence in France prevented him from engaging in political activities, he wrote prolifically and was active in a broad coalition of left-wing intellectuals. In 1997, he returned to Italy to serve out his sentence hoping to raise awareness of the status of hundreds of other political exiles from Italy. His sentence was commuted and he was released from prison in 2003, having written some of his most influential works while behind bars.

Political thought and writing
Negri was one of the central theorists of autonomist Marxism,   and was a prominent philosopher within libertarian socialism, communism, and Marxism. He also wrote various works on imperialism, radical democracy, and political praxis.

Labor of Dionysus: A Critique of the State-Form (1994)
Written together with Michael Hardt, the authors ask themselves in this book, "How is it, then, that labour, with all its life-affirming potential, has become the means of capitalist discipline, exploitation, and domination in modern society?" The authors expose and pursue this paradox through a systematic analysis of the role of labour in the processes of capitalist production and in the establishment of capitalist legal and social institutions. Critiquing liberal and socialist notions of labor and institutional reform from a radical democratic perspective, Hardt and Negri challenge the state-form itself.

Insurgencies: Constituent Power and the Modern State (1999)
This book, written solely by Negri, "explores the drama of modern revolutions-from Machiavelli's Florence and Harrington's England to the American, French, and Russian revolutions-and puts forward a new notion of how power and action must be understood if we are to achieve a radically democratic future."

Empire (2000)
In general, the book theorizes an ongoing transition from a "modern" phenomenon of imperialism, centered around individual nation-states, to an emergent postmodern construct created among ruling powers which the authors call "Empire", with different forms of warfare: "According to Hardt and Negri's Empire, the rise of Empire is the end of national conflict, the 'enemy' now, whoever he is, can no longer be ideological or national. The enemy now must be understood as a kind of criminal, as someone who represents a threat not to a political system or a nation but to the law. This is the enemy as a terrorist ... In the 'new order that envelops the entire space of ... civilization', where conflict between nations has been made irrelevant, the 'enemy' is simultaneously 'banalized' (reduced to an object of routine police repression) and absolutized (like the Enemy, an absolute threat to the ethical order' )."

Empire elaborates a variety of ideas surrounding constitutions, global war, and class. Hence, the Empire is constituted by a monarchy (the United States and the G8, and international organizations such as NATO, the International Monetary Fund or the World Trade Organization), an oligarchy (the multinational corporations and other nation-states) and a democracy (the various non-government organizations and the United Nations). Part of the book's analysis deals with "imagin [ing] resistance", but "the point of Empire is that it, too, is "total" and that resistance to it can only take the form of negation – "the will to be against". The Empire is total, but economic inequality persists, and as all identities are wiped out and replaced with a universal one, the identity of the poor persists.

Multitude: War and Democracy in the Age of Empire (2004)
Multitude addresses these issues and picks up the thread where Empire leaves off. In order to do so, Hardt and Negri argue, one must first analyze the present configuration of war and its contradictions. This analysis is performed in the first chapter, after which chapters two and three focus on multitude and democracy, respectively. Multitude is not so much a sequel as it is a reiteration from a new point of view in a new, relatively accessible style that is distinct from the predominantly academic prose style of Empire. Multitude remains, the authors insist, despite its ubiquitous subject matter and its almost casual tone, a book of philosophy which aims to shape a conceptual ground for a political process of democratization rather than present an answer to the question 'what to do?' or offer a programme for concrete action.

Commonwealth (2009)
In 2009 Negri completed the book Commonwealth, the final in a trilogy that began in 2000 with Empire and continued with Multitude in 2004, co-authored with Michael Hardt. In this book, the authors introduce the concept of "the republic of property": "What is central for our purposes here is that the concept of property and the defence of property remain the foundation of every modern political constitution. This is the sense in which the republic, from the great bourgeois revolutions to today, is a republic of property". Part 2 of the book deals with the relationship between modernity and anti-modernity and proposes "altermodernity". Altermodernity "involves not only insertion in the long history of antimodern struggles but also rupture with any fixed dialectic between modern sovereignty and antimodern resistance. In the passage from antimodernity to altermodernity, just as tradition and identity are transformed, so too resistance takes on a new meaning, dedicated now to the constitution of alternatives. The freedom that forms the base of resistance, as we explained earlier, comes to the fore and constitutes an event to announce a new political project."

For Alex Callinicos in a review "What is newest in Commonwealth is its take on the fashionable idea of the common. Hardt and Negri mean by this not merely the natural resources that capital seeks to appropriate, but also "the languages we create, the social practices we establish, the modes of sociality that define our relationships", which are both the means and the result of biopolitical production. Communism, they argue, is defined by the common, just as capitalism is by the private and socialism (which they identify in effect with statism) with the public." For David Harvey Negri and Hardt "in the search of an altermodernity – something that is outside the dialectical opposition between modernity and anti-modernity – they need a means of escape. The choice between capitalism and socialism, they suggest, is all wrong. We need to identify something entirely different, communism – working within a different set of dimensions." Harvey also notes that "Revolutionary thought, Hardt and Negri argue, must find a way to contest capitalism and 'the republic of property.' It 'should not shun identity politics but instead must work through it and learn from it,' because it is the 'primary vehicle for struggle within and against the republic of property since identity itself is based on property and sovereignty.'" In the same exchange in Artforum between Harvey and Micheal Hardt and Antonio Negri, Hardt and Negri attempt to correct Harvey in a concept that is important within the argument of Commonwealth. As such, they state that "We instead define the concept of singularity, contrasting it to the figure of the individual on the one hand and forms of identity on the other, by focusing on three aspects of its relationship to multiplicity: Singularity refers externally to a multiplicity of others; is internally divided or multiple; and constitutes a multiplicity over time – that is, a process of becoming."

After Commonwealth, he wrote multiple notable articles on the Arab Spring and Occupy movements along with other social issues.

Occupy movements of 2011–2012 and Declaration
In May 2012 Negri self-published (with Michael Hardt) an electronic pamphlet on the occupy and encampment movements of 2011–2012 called Declaration that argues the movement explores new forms of democracy. The introduction was published at Jacobin under the title "Take Up the Baton". He also published an article with Hardt in Foreign Affairs in October 2011 stating "The Encampment in Lower Manhattan Speaks to a Failure of Representation."

Assembly and essay collections (2013–2023)
In 2013, Negri published Spinoza: Politics and Postmodernity, a collections of essays on Spinoza and his contemporary relevance to philosophy and political theory, translated into English by William McCuaig.

In 2017, Negri and Michael Hardt published Assembly. The book provides a series of reflections on the nature of contemporary capitalism and social movements, drawing together the concepts and ideas explored previously in their Empire 'trilogy' such as the common, the multitude, and globalisation. It also introduces a new political concept of 'assembly', which draws on Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari's concept of an 'assemblage' (French: agencements) as a way of thinking about mass movements and the role of constituent power. It also provides analyses of events that occurred in the years since Commonwealth was published in 2009, such as the rise of right-wing populism, Occupy Wall Street, the automation of work, and the digital economy. It continues their reflections on the character and goals of leaderless movements, and especially focuses on the ways in which these movements can seek to self-organise in radically democratic and egalitarian ways. They propose that instead of the usual model of leadership and movement in which leadership serves to articulate the long-term and 'large scale' programme of the multitude, this relationship should instead be inverted: leadership instead comes to serve specific, tactical, and short-term ends (such as the organisation of specific moblisations, protests, direct action, strikes, etc.), while the multitude (or collective) serves to "articulate the long-term goals and objectives" to which the leadership must submit and facilitate.

The book received generally positive reviews. Writing for Critical Inquiry, Kyle Perry argues that the central claim of the book is that "advocates for a truly democratic world must no longer refuse the demands of leading, strategizing, decision making, and institution building that can otherwise remain variously secondary, absent, or anathema amid left, liberatory, and progressive causes." It also rejects as a false binary the idea that liberal-democratic institutions should either be occupied or destroyed; instead, "The better move is to get creative about inventing new, effective, and crucially 'nonsovereign' institutions. Such institutions are not meant to 'rule over us' but to 'foster continuity and organization" and to "help organize our practices, manage our relationships, and together make decisions'." Writing for the Los Angeles Review of Books, Terence Renaud argues that "Given how much the political terrain has changed since Empire appeared in 2000, much of Hardt and Negri's project appears dead. It has said all that it's going to say. Even so, the authors do an excellent job of highlighting the internal challenges that a resurgent left will face. Every new left risks degenerating into sectarian conflict, heavy-handed leadership, and complacency about its own righteousness. Hardt and Negri insist on a self-critical and internally democratic left that never ceases to call its own assumptions into question. In order to transform society, the left must first transform itself."

Between 2016 and 2019, Negri published a three-volume collection of essays written in various years, but translated, collected and published together in English in these volumes. The first volume was titled Marx and Foucault, and published on 16 December 2016. In this first volume, Negri aims to show "how the thinking of Marx and Foucault were brought together to create an original theoretical synthesis – particularly in the context of Italy from May '68 onwards." The second volume was titled From the Factory to the Metropolis, and was published in February 2018. This second volume turns towards an analysis of the passage from the traditional proletarian 'mass worker' of industrial capitalism (especially as found in Marx's writing) to the contemporary 'socialised worker', as well as of the modern 'metropolis', which Negri describes as "a space of antagonisms between forms of life produced, on the one hand, by finance capital (the capital that operates around rents), and on the other by the 'cognitive proletariat'. The central question is then how 'the common' of the latter can be mobilised for the destruction of capitalism." The third and final volume of this 'trilogy' was titled Spinoza: Then and Now, which was published in February 2020. In this third volume, Negri "examines how Spinoza's thought constitutes a radical break with past ideas and an essential tool for envisaging a form of politics beyond capitalism."

On 29 October 2021, Negri published the first volume of a new trilogy of books. This first volume is titled Marx in Movement: Operaismo in Context, and seeks to provide an account and examination of the history of Italian Autonomist (or 'Autonomist Marxist') thought, particularly in terms of Negri's theoretical development of the concept of the 'social worker' as an attempt to update Marxism in light of the changes since the factory-based industrial labour of Marx's time.

Personal life and death
Negri married Paola Meo in 1962. They had two children (Anna and Francesco) and later divorced. He has another daughter, Nina Negri, from a separate relationship. He met the philosopher Judith Revel in 1996; they married in 2016.

Negri died in Paris on 16 December 2023, at the age of 90.

In collaboration with Michael Hardt

 * Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri, Labor of Dionysus: A Critique of the State-Form. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1994. ISBN 0816620865
 * Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri, Empire. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2000. ISBN 0674006712
 * Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri, Multitude: War and Democracy in the Age of Empire, New York: Penguin Press, 2004. ISBN 0143035592
 * Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri, Commonwealth, Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2009. ISBN 978-0-674-03511-9
 * Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri, Declaration, 2012.
 * Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri, Assembly. Translated by Ed Emery. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018. ISBN 9780190677961

Online articles

 * Multitudes quarterly journal (in French)
 * Archives of the journal Futur Antérieur (in French)
 * English translations of recent articles by Antonio Negri from Generation Online
 * Hardt & Negri (2002), "Marx's Mole is Dead" in Eurozine
 * Between "Historic Compromise" and Terrorism: Reviewing the experience of Italy in the 1970s Le Monde Diplomatique, August–September 1998
 * "Towards an Ontological Definition of Multitude" Article published in the French journal Multitudes.
 * Extract from Negri and Hardt's Empire at Marxists.org
 * "Take Up the Baton."

Interviews
Transcendence, Spirituality, Practices, Immanence: A Conversation with Antonio Negri by Judith Revel, Rethinking Marxism, 28(3–4), 470–478, (2016). https://doi.org/10.1080/08935696.2016.1243627

 * From Sociological to Ontological Inquiry: An Interview with Antonio Negri by Max Henninger, Italian Culture, Volume 23, 2005, pp. 153-166 (Article) Published by Michigan State University Press DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/itc.2006.0013
 * Workerist Marxism: Interview with Antonio Negri, Crisis and Critique, Vol2, Issue2.
 * Antonio Negri and Danilo Zolo, Empire and the multitude: A dialogue on the new order of globalization, Radical Philosophy 120, Jul/Aug 2003.
 * “The Revolution Will Not Be an Explosion Somewhere Down the Road”: An Interview with Antonio Negri, Grey Room (2010) (41): 6–23, MIT Press. https://doi.org/10.1162/GREY_a_00010
 * The Paris Commune: Antonio Negri, by Niccolò Cuppini, as part of the Planetary Commune project, Autonomies, April 8, 2021.

Films

 * Marx Reloaded, Arte, April 2011.
 * Antonio Negri: A Revolt that Never Ends, ZDF/Arte, 52 min., 2004.

title: Antonio Negri