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National Do Not Call Registry

The National Do Not Call Registry is a database maintained by the United States federal government, listing the telephone numbers of individuals and families who have requested that telemarketers not contact them. Certain callers are required by federal law to respect this request. Separate laws and regulations apply to robocalls in the United States.

The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) opened the National Do Not Call Registry in order to comply with the Do-Not-Call Implementation Act of 2003 (, was, and codified at et seq.), sponsored by Representatives Billy Tauzin and John Dingell and signed into law by President George W. Bush on March 11, 2003. The law established the FTC's National Do Not Call Registry in order to facilitate compliance with the Telephone Consumer Protection Act of 1991. A guide by FTC addresses a number of cases.

Registration for the Do-Not-Call list began on June 27, 2003, and enforcement started on October 1, 2003. Since January 1, 2005, telemarketers covered by the registry have up to 31 days (initially the period was 90 days) from the date a number is registered to cease calling that number. Originally, phone numbers remained on the registry for a period of five years, but are now permanent because of the Do-Not-Call Improvement Act of 2007, effective February 2008.

Consumers may add landline or cellular numbers to the registry, but FCC regulations prohibit telemarketers from calling a cellular phone number with an automatic dialer under almost all circumstances. In 2005, a rumor began circulating via e-mail that cell phone providers were planning on making their number directories available to telemarketers. The FTC responded by clarifying that cell phones cannot legally be called by telemarketers. Similarly, fax numbers do not need to be included in the registry due to existing federal laws and regulations that prohibit the sending of unsolicited faxes.

If a person does not want to register a number on the national registry, they can still prohibit individual telemarketers from calling by asking the caller to put the called number on the company's do-not-call list.

Legal challenges
The do-not-call list was slated to take effect on October 1, 2003, but two federal district court decisions almost delayed it. One from Oklahoma was overcome by special legislation giving the FTC specific jurisdiction over the matter. The other from Colorado revolved around questions of regulation of commercial speech and threatened to delay implementation of the list. However, President Bush signed a bill authorizing the no-call list to go ahead in September 2003. Finally, the United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit on February 17, 2004, upheld the constitutionality of the law.

Exceptions
Placing one's number on the National Do Not Call Registry will stop some, but not all, unsolicited calls. The following are exceptions granted by existing laws and regulations—and these types of organizations can register with donotcall.gov and can purchase telephone lists from the Do Not Call Registry
 * The registry only applies to personal calls, not to business lines or business to business calls.
 * A person may still receive calls from political organizations.
 * The organization Citizens for Civil Discourse has lobbied Congress to close this exception by developing a National Political Do Not Call Registry where voters can register their phone numbers and ask politicians to take the "Do Not Contact Pledge". Its database is not backed by the force of law and as of November 2008, only 3 politicians running for office signed the pledge.
 * A person may still receive calls from not-for-profit organizations.
 * A person may still receive calls from those conducting surveys.
 * A person may still receive calls from a company up to 31 days after submitting an application or inquiry to that company, unless the company is specifically asked not to call.
 * A person may still receive calls from bill collectors (either primary creditors or collection agencies). These callers are, however, regulated by other laws, such as the Fair Debt Collection Practices Act, which limits them to calling during "reasonable hours". Some creditors may not call debtors who file for bankruptcy protection.

Loopholes
Some attempts have been made by telemarketers to skirt the do-not-call list rules. An example is the Dove Foundation, which places "survey" calls and then requests permission for a follow-up call. The follow-up call is conducted by a for-profit company attempting to sell products. This operation resulted in a restraining order in Missouri in March 2006.

Enforcement
Complaints concerning telemarketing calls to homes and personal cell phones can be made to the Federal Communications Commission and the Federal Trade Commission.

The Federal Communications Commission has created rules implementing the National Do-Not-Call Implementation Act. These rules are codified at the Code of Federal Regulations, title 47, Section 64.1200. The rules should be consulted in order to determine whether a particular incident violated the rules and can result in enforcement.

In order to create an actionable complaint pursuant to FCC rules, an individual with a home phone or a personal cell phone is required to specify details of the infraction to the FCC. Typically this includes facts such as when the call occurred, the phone number called, the calling organization, the goods or services being marketed, and whether the caller has any exemption status. Details of these rules can be found on the FCC's complaint form.

Many journalists and victims of fraudulent calls and Do-Not-Call violations have extensively documented ongoing and widespread inaction and lack of enforcement by the FTC.

In May 2014 Sprint Corporation was fined a record $7.5 million for failing to honor requests by consumers to opt out of receiving telemarketing calls and texts. The fine followed an investigation that had begun in 2012. "We expect companies to respect the privacy of consumers who have opted out of marketing calls," Travis LeBlanc, acting chief of the FCC's enforcement bureau, said at the time. "When a consumer tells a company to stop calling or texting with promotional pitches, that request must be honored. Today's settlement leaves no question that protecting consumer privacy is a top enforcement priority."

Do-Not-Call Improvement Act of 2007
On February 15, 2008, U.S. President George W. Bush signed into law as, the Do-Not-Call Improvement Act of 2007. Two major changes were enacted through this law:

 * While originally required to renew their phone numbers every five years, consumers need now only register once to maintain their phone numbers on the Do Not Call Registry.
 * The frequency with which the FTC must purge the registry of disconnected and reassigned numbers has also been increased to several times a month. However, the Do-Not-Call Improvement Act prohibits removing numbers from the do-not-call registry unless the number is invalid, disconnected, reassigned, or the individual to whom the number is assigned so requests.

Results
According to the 2009 Economic Report of the President, prepared by the Council of Economic Advisers, The program has proved quite popular: as of 2007, according to one survey, 72 percent of Americans had registered on the list, and 77 percent of those say that it made a large difference in the number of telemarketing calls that they receive (another 14 percent report a small reduction in calls). Another survey, conducted less than a year after the Do Not Call list was implemented, found that people who registered for the list saw a reduction in telemarketing calls from an average of 30 calls per month to an average of 6 per month.

title: National Do Not Call Registry


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Jeffrey

Jeffrey may refer to:
 * Jeffrey (name), including a list of people with the name
 * Jeffrey's, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada
 * Jeffrey City, Wyoming, United States
 * Jeffrey Street, Sydney, Australia
 * Jeffreys Bay, Western Cape, South Africa

Art and entertainment

 * Jeffrey (play), a 1992 off-Broadway play by Paul Rudnick
 * Jeffrey (1995 film), a 1995 film by Paul Rudnick, based on Rudnick's play of the same name
 * Jeffrey (2016 film), a 2016 Dominican Republic documentary film
 * Jeffrey's sketch, a sketch on American TV show Saturday Night Live
 * Nurse Jeffrey, a spin-off miniseries from the American medical drama series House, MD

People with the surname

 * Alexander Jeffrey (1806–1874), Scottish solicitor and historian
 * Carol Jeffrey (1898–1998), English psychotherapist, writer
 * Charles Jeffrey (footballer) (died 1915), Scottish footballer
 * E. C. Jeffrey (1866–1952), Canadian-American botanist
 * Grant Jeffrey (1948–2012), Canadian writer
 * Hester C. Jeffrey (1842–1934), American activist, suffragist and community organizer
 * Richard Jeffrey (1926–2002), American philosopher, logician, and probability theorist
 * Robin Jeffrey (active from 1967), Canadian academic
 * Tom Jeffrey (born 1938), Australian film and television director and producer

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Jeffrey


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James Shields (politician, born 1806)

James Shields (May 10, 1806 – June 1, 1879) was an Irish American politician and United States Army officer, who is the only person in U.S. history to serve as a Senator for three different states, and one of only two to represent multiple states in the U.S. Senate. A member of the Democratic Party, Shields represented Illinois from 1849 to 1855, in the 31st, 32nd, and 33rd Congresses, Minnesota from 1858 to 1859, in the 35th Congress, and Missouri in 1879, in the 45th Congress.

Born and initially educated in Ireland, Shields emigrated to the Americas in 1826. He was briefly a sailor, and spent time in Quebec, before settling in Kaskaskia, Illinois, where he studied and practiced law. In 1836, he was elected to the Illinois House of Representatives, and later as State Auditor. His work as auditor was criticized by a young Abraham Lincoln, who (with his then fiancée, Mary Todd) published a series of inflammatory pseudonymous letters in a local paper. Shields challenged Lincoln to a duel, and the two nearly fought on September 22, 1842, before making peace, and eventually becoming friends.

In 1845, Shields was appointed to the Illinois Supreme Court, from which he resigned to become Commissioner of the U.S. United States General Land Office. At the outbreak of the Mexican–American War, he left the Land Office to take an appointment as brigadier general of volunteers. He served with distinction and was twice wounded. In 1848, Shields was appointed to and confirmed by the Senate as the first governor of the Oregon Territory, which he declined. After serving as Senator from Illinois, he moved to Minnesota and founded the town of Shieldsville there. He was then elected as Senator from Minnesota. He served in the American Civil War, and at the Battle of Kernstown, his troops inflicted the only tactical defeat of Stonewall Jackson in the war. Shields resigned his commission shortly thereafter. After moving multiple times, Shields settled in Missouri and served again for three months in the Senate. He died in 1879 and represents Illinois in the National Statuary Hall.

Early life and career
Shields was born in Altmore, County Tyrone, Ireland, to parents, Charles Shiells/O`Shiells/Shields and Anne McDonnell, the first of three children. As his father died when Shields was six, his uncle, also named James Shields and also born in Ireland, played a large role in his life. The elder Shields was a professor of Greek and Latin, and served as a Congressman from Ohio.

The younger Shields obtained early schooling at a hedge school near his home, later at a school run by a clergyman from Maynooth College, and subsequently his uncle. He was educated in military science, fencing, and the French language by a veteran of the Napoleonic Wars, of which there were many in Ireland at the time. Shields attempted to emigrate to the United States in 1822, but failed when his ship was driven aground off the coast of Scotland, leaving him one of only either three or four survivors. He successfully made it to America around 1826, although his uncle whom he had sailed to meet had died.

Shields took a job as a sailor, becoming a purser on a merchant ship. However, after a time, an accident left Shields disabled, and in the hospital with both legs broken for three months. After the accident, he volunteered and fought in the Second Seminole War, reaching the rank of lieutenant.

He spent some time in Quebec, founding a fencing school. Eventually, Shields settled in Kaskaskia, Randolph County, Illinois, where he studied and began practicing law in 1832, supplementing his income by teaching French. He served as a member of the Illinois House of Representatives, beginning in 1836, and in 1839 was elected as state auditor. As auditor, Shields was involved in correcting the state's finances following the Panic of 1837. This was done, at times, through practices that proved unpopular.

Duel with Abraham Lincoln
Shields almost fought a duel on September 22, 1842, with Abraham Lincoln, then a young lawyer in Springfield, Illinois. Lincoln had published an inflammatory letter in a local newspaper, the Sangamo Journal, that attacked Shields, impersonating a local farmer, and taking the pseudonym of Aunt Becca, or simply Rebecca. At the time, there was great controversy over the use of paper money, or that of gold and silver for the paying of public debts. The Illinois State Bank had been forced to close, and Shields as state auditor had become the target of resentment among members of the Whig Party, and more so given the upcoming 1842 elections. Lincoln's future wife and then fiancée, Mary Todd, helped to revise the letter, and she and a close friend Julia Jayne, continued writing to the paper without Lincoln's knowledge.

"Rebecca" as she was, denounced Shields in the paper as a "fool as well as a liar," and scandalously described him at a party among a group of women:

"If I was deaf and blind I could tell him by the smell ... All the galls about town were there, and all the handsome widows, and married women, finickin about, trying to look like galls, tied as tight in the middle, and puffed out at both ends like bundles of fodder that hadn't been stacked yet, wanted stackin pretty bad ... He was paying his money to this one and that one and tother one, and sufferin great loss because it wasn' silver instead of State paper ... [quoting Shields] 'Dear girls, it is distressing, but I cannot marry you all. Too well I know how much you suffer, but do, do remember, it is not my fault that I am so handsome and so interesting.'"

The publications caused "intense excitement" in Springfield, and Shields, taking great offense at being publicly ridiculed, demanded satisfaction, as well as the true identity of the author, then known only to the editor of the paper. Lincoln took responsibility for the articles and accepted the challenge. Shields confronted Lincoln, demanded a full retraction, and the incident escalated to the two men picking seconds,  and meeting on an island located between Missouri and Illinois called Bloody Island to participate in a duel. Lincoln, as the one challenged, chose the weapons for the duel, and selected the cavalry broadsword, as Shields was an excellent marksman, and because Lincoln stood 6 ft to Shields' 5 ft.

At least two accounts have John J. Hardin and R. W. English intervening and convincing the two to cease hostilities. Others have them resolving their differences without incident, whether through threats on the part of Lincoln, or through apology and explanation from him. However, all accounts agree that they left the island without following through with the duel. Thereafter, Shields and Lincoln became and remained good friends.

Subsequent career
Shields was appointed as an Illinois Supreme Court justice on February 18, 1845, to take the seat vacated by Stephen A. Douglas. His term was relatively unremarkable, and he soon resigned to become Commissioner of the U.S. General Land Office. While at the Land Office, Shields spent much effort boring, testing, surveying and examining land in Iowa, as he planned to establish a colony for Irish immigrants there. He resigned from the position to assume command as a brigadier general following the outbreak of the Mexican–American War.

Mexican–American War
On July 1, 1846, Shields was commissioned a brigadier general of volunteers to fight in the Mexican–American War. He served under Zachary Taylor, then also a brigadier general, and later under Brigadier General John E. Wool and Major General Winfield Scott.

In 1846, Shields left for war with two brigades under his command. In February 1847, when Tampico was abandoned, his men assumed control of the city. He commanded the 3rd Brigade, Volunteer Division, at the battles of Vera Cruz and Cerro Gordo, where he was severely wounded by grapeshot, and spent nine weeks recuperating. He returned to fight in a single day, at both the battles of Contreras and Churubusco. His command that day was criticized as clumsy by some, and praised as skillful by others. He required reinforcements to overcome strong enemy resistance, but his brigade took over 800 prisoners.

Shields was again wounded, receiving a fractured arm in the Battle of Chapultepec, after his horse was shot out from underneath him, and he continued fighting on foot, and leading his troops with sword. He remained on the field until the conclusion of the battle, but was then forced to spend several months recuperating, where he remained until after the final battles of the war.

Shields returned to America, where he was mustered out and his brigade disbanded on July 28, 1848. Shields returned to his law practice in Illinois. He was brevetted to major general, and received two honorary swords from the states South Carolina and Illinois.

Senator from Illinois
Following the war, on August 14, 1848, he was nominated by President Polk, and confirmed by the United States Senate to serve as governor of Oregon Territory, which had been created that same day. However, he declined the position and Joseph Lane was nominated and became the first governor of the new territory.

Shields declined the governorship to run for the Senate from Illinois. He won, but the election was voided by on the grounds that he had not been a U.S. citizen for the nine years required by the United States Constitution; having been naturalized October 21, 1840, and elected on January 13, 1849. He therefore resigned from the Senate on March 14, returned to Illinois, campaigned once again for the seat he had resigned, and won a special election held by the governor in December (after nine years had passed), in order to replace himself as senator.

As senator, he opposed slavery, and supported land grants to agricultural colleges, to railroads, to soldiers, and to settlers under a homestead act.

Shields published the 1854 book, A History of Illinois, from its Commencement as a State in 1818 to 1847, originally written by Illinois Governor Thomas Ford. According to the foreword by Shields, Ford gave him the manuscript on his death bed, so that Shields might publish it, and use the proceeds to benefit Ford's then orphaned children. In 1854, a military company in Chicago was named "The Shields Guards" in his honor. The Guards would come to make up companies I and K in the 23rd Illinois Volunteer Infantry Regiment.

Senator from Minnesota
In 1855, Shields was defeated for re-election in Illinois in a three way runoff between himself, Lincoln, and Lyman Trumbull, with Trumbull eventually winning the seat after several ballots. Shields then moved to Minnesota, to inspect lands he had been awarded there in return for his military service. He arranged for Irish immigrants to move from the East Coast to Minnesota, settling in Rice and Le Sueur counties. Shields himself founded Shieldsville, Minnesota, and was also involved in the early settlement of Faribault, Minnesota. In 1857, Native Americans massacred settlers in Spirit Lake, Iowa. Shields led a group of about 100 people from Minnesota to fight the tribes; however, by the time he arrived, the tribes had been beaten by troops under the control of Judson Bishop.

When Minnesota achieved statehood in 1858, and the legislature convened in December, Shields was put forward as a compromise candidate for U.S. Senator along with Henry Mower Rice. The two drew straws to determine who would serve out the longer and shorter terms. Shields drew the short straw and thus served until only March 1859, losing his 1859 re-election bid to Morton S. Wilkinson.

American Civil War
Shields then moved to California, and married Mary Carr in 1861. He was engaged in a mining venture in Mexico, and it was there that Shields was when he was appointed as brigadier general of volunteers from that state following the outbreak of the American Civil War, succeeding the late Frederick W. Lander. He commanded the 2nd Division of the V Corps, Army of the Potomac (subsequently part of the Army of the Shenandoah), during the Valley Campaign of 1862.

Shields was wounded at the Battle of Kernstown on March 22, 1862, but his troops inflicted the only tactical defeat of General Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson during the campaign (or the war). The day after Kernstown, he was promoted to major general, but the promotion was withdrawn, reconsidered, and then finally rejected. Largely a result of his promotion being rejected, Shields resigned from the army. Shields was informally offered command of the Army of the Potomac by Abraham Lincoln. Shields declined owing to a poor relationship with Secretary of War Edwin Stanton.

Senator from Missouri
In 1863, Shields moved to San Francisco, where he would serve as the state railroad commissioner, and then to the Mississippi Valley, and to Wisconsin. In 1866 he settled in Carrollton, Missouri, which remained his home, and where he tended to his farm, lectured, and continued public involvement until his death 13 years later.

He ran for Congress unwillingly in 1868, and, in a contested election, lost. The result was disputed, and Congress awarded a year's salary to Shields. A member of Congress, Benjamin Butler, proposed him as Doorkeeper of the United States House of Representatives in 1876, but Shields, viewing it as an indignity, declined. Shields was involved in fundraising to provide aid to the yellow fever stricken Southern US. He served as member of the Missouri State House of Representatives, and as railroad commissioner was involved in establishing the State Railroad Commission. In 1879, he was elected to fill the seat left vacant by the death of Senator Lewis V. Bogy. He served only three months and declined to run for re-election, but this made Shields the only person to have ever served as senator from three different states.

Death and legacy
Shields died unexpectedly in Ottumwa, Iowa, on June 1, 1879, while on a lecture tour, after reportedly complaining of chest pains. His body was transferred to Carrollton, Missouri by train, where a funeral was held at the local Catholic church, and his body escorted to St. Mary's Cemetery by two companies of the Nineteenth Infantry, the Craig Rifles, and a twenty-piece brass band. His grave remained unmarked for 30 years, until the local government and the U.S. Congress funded a granite and bronze monument there in his honor.

Shields was not a wealthy man in later life, and upon his death the most valuable possessions he had to leave his family were his ceremonial swords, given to him following the end of the Mexican–American War. After his death, Mary Shields remained in Carrollton, with their daughter and two sons, until eventually moving to New York to live with their son Daniel.

A bronze statue of Shields was given by the State of Illinois in 1893, to the U.S. Capitol, and represents the state in the National Statuary Hall. The statue was sculpted by Leonard Volk, and dedicated in December 1893. A statue of Shields stands in front of the Carroll County Courthouse in Carrollton, Missouri. Dedicated on November 12, 1910, newspapers reported "hundreds of visitors from several states" that were present at the unveiling. Congress allocated $5,000 for the monument. A third statue stands on the grounds of the state capitol in Saint Paul, Minnesota, dedicated in 1914.

Derek Warfield wrote a song named The Ballad of General Shields about him.

title: James Shields (politician, born 1806)


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Indian English

Indian English (IE) is a group of English dialects spoken in the Republic of India and among the Indian diaspora. English is used by the Government of India for communication, and is enshrined in the Constitution of India. English is also an official language in seven states and seven union territories of India, and the additional official language in seven other states and one union territory. Furthermore, English is the sole official language of the Judiciary of India, unless the state governor or legislature mandates the use of a regional language, or if the President of India has given approval for the use of regional languages in courts.

Before the dissolution of the British Empire on the Indian subcontinent, the term Indian English broadly referred to South Asian English, also known as British Indian English.

Status
After gaining independence from the British Raj in 1947, English remained an official language of the new Dominion of India and later the Republic of India. After the partition of India, Pakistani English and Bangladeshi English were considered separate from Indian English.

Today, only a few hundred thousand Indians, or less than 0.1% of the total population, speak English as their first language,   and around 30% of the Indian population can speak English to some extent.

According to the 2001 Census, 12.18% of Indians knew English at that time. Of those, approximately 200,000 reported that it was their first language, 86 million reported that it was their second, and 39 million reported that it was their third.

According to the 2005 India Human Development Survey, of 41,554 surveyed, households reported that 72% of men (29,918) spoke no English, 28% of them (11,635) spoke at least some English, and 5% of them (2,077, roughly 17.9% of those who spoke at least some English) spoke fluent English. Among women, 83% (34,489) spoke no English, 17% (7,064) spoke at least some English, and 3% (1,246, roughly 17.6% of those who spoke at least some English) spoke English fluently. According to statistics from the District Information System for Education (DISE) of the National University of Educational Planning and Administration under the Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India, enrollment in English-medium schools increased by 50% between 2008–09 and 2013–14. The number of English-medium school students in India increased from over 15 million in 2008–09 to 29 million by 2013–14.

According to the 2011 Census, 129 million Indians (10.6%) spoke English. 259,678 (0.02%) Indians spoke English as their first language. It concluded that approximately 83 million Indians (6.8%) reported English as their second language, and 46 million (3.8%) reported it as their third language, making English the second-most spoken language in India.

India ranks 52 out of 111 countries in the 2022 EF English Proficiency Index published by the EF Education First. The index gives the country a score of 496 indicating "moderate proficiency". India ranks 6th out of 24 Asian countries included in the index.

As a multilingual country, English is the lingua franca among different regions of India. Writing for The New York Times, journalist Manu Joseph stated in 2011 that, due to the prominence and usage of the language and the desire for English-language education, "English is the de facto national language of India. It is a bitter truth." In his book, In Search of Indian English: History, Politics and Indigenisation, Ranjan Kumar Auddy shows that the history of the rise of Indian nationalism and the history of the emergence of Indian English are deeply inter-related.

Court language
Under the Indian Constitution, English is the language of India's Supreme Court and of all the high courts of India. However, as allowed by the Constitution, Hindi is also used in courts in Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Rajasthan by virtue of special presidential approval. As of 2018, the high courts of Punjab and Haryana were also awaiting presidential approval to use Hindi alongside English, and the Madras High Court has been taking steps to use Tamil alongside English.

Names
The first occurrence of the term Indian English dates from 1696, though the term did not become common until the 19th century. In the colonial era, the most common terms in use were Anglo-Indian English, or simply Anglo-Indian, both dating from 1860. Other less common terms in use were Indo-Anglian (dating from 1897) and Indo-English (1912). An item of Anglo-Indian English was known as an Anglo-Indianism from 1851.

In the modern era, a range of colloquial portmanteau words for Indian English have been used. The earliest of these is Indlish (recorded from 1962), and others include Indiglish (1974), Indenglish (1979), Indglish (1984), Indish (1984), Inglish (1985) and Indianlish (2007).

Features
Indian English generally uses the Indian numbering system. Idiomatic forms derived from Indian literary languages and vernaculars have been absorbed into Indian English. Nevertheless, there remains general homogeneity in phonetics, vocabulary, and phraseology among various dialects of Indian English.

Formal written publications in English in India tend to use lakh/crore for Indian currency and Western numbering for foreign currencies like dollars and pounds, although lakh and crore are also used to refer to other large numbers such as population sizes. These terms are not used by other English-speakers, who have to learn what they mean in order to read Indian English news articles.

British India
The English language established a foothold on the Indian subcontinent with the granting of the East India Company charter by Queen Elizabeth I in 1600 and the subsequent establishment of trading ports in coastal cities such as Surat, Mumbai (called Bombay before 1995), Chennai (called Madras before 1996), and Kolkata (called Calcutta before 2001).

English-language public instruction began in the subcontinent in the 1830s during the rule of the British East India Company. In 1835, English replaced Persian as the official language of the East India Company. Lord Macaulay played a major role in introducing English and Western concepts into educational institutions in British-India. He supported the replacement of Persian by English as the official language, the use of English as the medium of instruction in all schools, and the training of English-speaking Indians as teachers. Throughout the 1840s and 1850s, primary, middle, and high schools were opened in many districts of British India, with most high schools offering English language instruction in some subjects. In 1857, just before the end of East India Company rule, universities that were modeled on the University of London and used English as the medium of instruction were established in Bombay, Calcutta and Madras. During the British Raj (1858 to 1947), English-language penetration increased throughout the subcontinent. This was driven in part by the gradually increasing hiring of Indians in the civil services. At the time of Indian independence in 1947, English was the only functional lingua franca in the region.

Republic of India
After the independence and Partition of British India, Modern Standard Hindi was declared the first official language in the new Indian Republic, and attempts were made to declare Hindi the sole national language. Due to protests from Tamil Nadu and other non-Hindi-speaking states, it was decided to temporarily retain English for official purposes until at least 1965. By the end of this period, however, opposition from non-Hindi states was still too strong to have Hindi declared the sole language. With this in mind, the English Language Amendment Bill declared English to be an associate language "until such time as all non-Hindi States had agreed to its being dropped." This has not yet occurred, and English is still widely used. For instance, it is the only reliable means of day-to-day communication between the central government and the non-Hindi states.

The view of the English language among many Indians has changed over time. It used to be associated primarily with colonialism; it is now primarily associated with economic progress, and English continues to be an official language of India.

While there is an assumption that English is readily available in India, studies show that its usage is actually restricted to the elite, because of inadequate education to large parts of the Indian population. The use of outdated teaching methods and the poor grasp of English exhibited by the authors of many guidebooks disadvantage students who rely on these books, giving India only a moderate proficiency in English.

In addition, many features of Indian English were imported into Bhutan due to the dominance of Indian-style education and teachers in the country after it withdrew from its isolation in the 1960s.

Hinglish and other hybrid languages
The term Hinglish is a portmanteau of the languages English and Hindi. This typically refers to the macaronic hybrid use of Hindustani and English. It is often the growing preferred language of the urban and semi-urban educated Indian youth, as well as the Indian diaspora abroad. The Hindi film industry, more popularly known as Bollywood, incorporates considerable amounts of Hinglish as well. Many internet platforms and voice commands on Google also recognise Hinglish. When Hindi–Urdu is viewed as a single language called Hindustani, the portmanteaus Hinglish and Urdish mean the same code-mixed tongue, where the former term is used predominantly in modern India and the latter term predominantly in Pakistan.

Other macaronic hybrids such as Minglish (Marathi and English), Banglish (Bengali and English), Manglish (Malayalam and English), Kanglish (Kannada and English), Tenglish (Telugu and English), and Tanglish or Tamglish (Tamil and English) exist in South India.

Vowels
In general, Indian English has fewer peculiarities in its vowel sounds than the consonants, especially as spoken by native speakers of languages like Hindi, the vowel phoneme system having some similarities with that of English. Among the distinctive features of the vowel-sounds employed by some Indian English speakers:

The following are some variations in Indian English resulting from not distinguishing a few vowels:
 * North Indians, especially a minority of English students and teachers along with some people in various professions like telephone customer service agents, often speak with a non-rhotic accent. Examples of this include flower pronounced as, never as , water as , etc. Some South Indians, however, like native Telugu speakers speak with a rhotic accent, but the final becomes an , and an alveolar tap  is used for /r/, resulting in water and never as  or  and  respectively.
 * Features characteristic of North American English, such as rhoticity and r-coloured vowels, have been gaining influence on Indian English in recent years as cultural and economic ties increase between India and the United States.
 * Many North Indians have an intonation pattern similar to Hiberno-English, which perhaps results from a similar pattern used while speaking Hindi.
 * Indian English speakers do not necessarily make a clear distinction between and  unlike Received Pronunciation (RP), i.e. they may have the cot-caught merger, with the target vowel ranging between either option.
 * Diphthong is pronounced as
 * Diphthong is pronounced as
 * Diphthong is pronounced as
 * may be more front or central
 * can be more mid central or open-mid
 * may be lower
 * may be more central, especially before /l/.
 * Most Indians have the trap–bath split of Received Pronunciation, affecting words such as class, staff and last (, and  respectively). Though the trap-bath split is prevalent in Indian English, it varies greatly. Many younger Indians who read and listen to American English do not have this split.  Similar to Australian English, variability is especially present when the split occurs before nasal clusters in words such as dance, Francis, and answer.
 * Most Indians do not have the hoarse-horse merger.
 * Pronunciation of ranging from  to
 * Pronunciation of and  as
 * Pronunciation of ranging from  to

Consonants
The following are the characteristics of dialect of Indian English most similar to RP:

The following are the variations in Indian English: The following are variations in Indian English due to language contact with Indian languages:
 * The voiceless plosives are always unaspirated in Indian English, (aspirated in cultivated form) whereas in RP, General American and most other English accents they are aspirated in word-initial or stressed syllables. Thus "pin" is pronounced  in Indian English but  in most other dialects. In native Indo-Aryan languages, a predominant language family in India, the distinction between aspirated and unaspirated plosives is phonemic, and the English stops are equated with the unaspirated rather than the aspirated phonemes of the local languages. The same is true of the voiceless postalveolar affricate . The local unvoiced aspirated plosives are instead equated with English fricatives, namely  and.
 * The alveolar stops English, are often retroflex , , especially in the north of India. In Indian languages, there are two entirely distinct sets of coronal plosives: one dental and the other retroflex. Native speakers of Indian languages prefer to pronounce the English alveolar plosives sound as more retroflex than dental, and the use of retroflex consonants is a common feature of Indian English. In the Devanagari script of Hindi, all alveolar plosives of English are transcribed as their retroflex counterparts. One good reason for this is that unlike most other native Indian languages, Hindi does not have true retroflex plosives (Tiwari, [1955] 2001). The so-called retroflexes in Hindi are actually articulated as apical post-alveolar plosives, sometimes even with a tendency to come down to the alveolar region. So a Hindi speaker normally cannot distinguish the difference between their own apical post-alveolar plosives and English's alveolar plosives. Languages such as Tamil have true retroflex plosives, however, wherein the articulation is done with the tongue curved upwards and backwards at the roof of the mouth. This also causes (in parts of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar) the  preceding alveolar  to allophonically change to  ($⟨stop⟩$,  → ). Mostly in north India, some speakers allophonically further change the voiced retroflex plosives to voiced retroflex flap , and the nasal  to a nasalised retroflex flap.
 * Most major native languages of India lack the dental fricatives and  (spelled with th), although [ð] occurs variably in Dravidian languages Tamil. Usually, the aspirated voiceless dental plosive  is substituted for  in the north (it would be unaspirated in the south) and the unaspirated voiced dental plosive, or possibly the aspirated version , is substituted for . For example, "thin" would be realised as  instead of  for North Indian speakers, whereas it would be pronounced unaspirated in the south.
 * The English of Delhi often has yod-dropping after coronals, unlike RP.
 * The rhotic consonant /r/ is pronounced by most speakers as an alveolar tap, but may also be pronounced as a retroflex flap or alveolar trill  based on the influence by the native phonology, or an alveolar approximant  like in most varieties of English.
 * Pronunciations vary between rhotic and non-rhotic; with pronunciations leaning towards native phonology being generally rhotic, and others being non-rhotic.
 * In recent years, rhoticity has been increasing. Generally, American English is seen as having a large influence on the English language in India recently.
 * Many Indians with rhotic accents prefer to pronounce words with as, such as $⟨flower⟩$ as  and $⟨our⟩$ as , as opposed to  and  in more non-rhotic varieties. Speakers with rhotic accents, especially some south Indians, may also pronounce word-final  as , resulting in water and never as  and  respectively.
 * Most Indian languages do not differentiate between (voiced labiodental fricative) and  (voiced labiovelar approximant). Instead, many Indians use a frictionless labiodental approximant  for words with either sound, possibly in free variation with  and/or  depending upon region. Thus, wet and vet are often homophones.
 * South Indians tend to curl the tongue (retroflex accentuation) less for and.
 * Sometimes, Indian speakers interchange and, especially when plurals are being formed, unlike speakers of other varieties of English, who use  for the pluralisation of words ending in a voiceless consonant,  for words ending in a voiced consonant or vowel, and  for words ending in a sibilant.
 * In case of the postalveolar affricates, native languages like Hindi have corresponding affricates articulated from the palatal region, rather than postalveolar, and they have more of a stop component than fricative; this is reflected in their English.
 * Syllabic, and  are usually replaced by the VC clusters ,  and  (as in button ), or if a high vowel precedes, by  (as in little ). Syllable nuclei in words with the spelling er/re (a schwa in RP and an r-coloured schwa in GA) are also replaced by VC clusters. e.g., metre,  →.
 * Indian English uses clear in all instances like Irish English whereas other varieties use clear  in syllable-initial positions and dark l  (velarised-L) in coda and syllabic positions.
 * Most Indian languages (except Assamese, Marathi and Tamil) lack the voiced alveolar fricative . A significant portion of Indians thus, even though their native languages do have its nearest equivalent: the unvoiced, often use the voiced palatal affricate (or postalveolar) . This makes words such as $⟨zero⟩$ and $⟨rosy⟩$ sound as and  (the latter, especially in the North). This replacement is equally true for Persian and Arabic loanwords into Hindi. The probable reason is the confusion created by the use of the Devanagari grapheme $⟨ज⟩$ (for /dʒ/) with a dot beneath it to represent  (as $⟨ज़⟩$). A similar thing happens in other Indian languages like Bengali, with the letters for  (except Indian varieties of Nepali where $⟨ज⟩$ represents //) usually being used to represent . This is common among people without formal English education. In Telugu,  and  are allophones in some cases, so the words such as fridge  become.
 * In Assamese, and  are pronounced as ; and  and  are pronounced as . Retroflex and dental consonants are not present and only alveolar consonants are used unlike other Indian languages. Similar to Bengali,  is pronounced as  and  in Assamese. For example; change is pronounced as, vote is pronounced as  and English is pronounced as.
 * Again, in Assamese and Bhojpuri, all instances of are spoken like, a phenomenon that is also apparent in their English. Exactly the opposite is seen for many Bengalis.
 * Inability to pronounce certain (especially word-initial) consonant clusters by people of rural backgrounds, as with some Spanish-speakers. This is usually dealt with by epenthesis. e.g., $⟨school⟩$.
 * Many Indians with lower exposure to English also may pronounce as an aspirated voiceless bilabial plosive . Again in Hindi Devanagari the loaned  from Persian and Arabic is written by putting a dot beneath the grapheme for native  $⟨फ⟩$: $⟨फ़⟩$. This substitution is rarer than that for, and in fact in many Hindi  is used by native speakers instead of , or the two are used interchangeably.
 * Many speakers of Indian English do not use the voiced postalveolar fricative . Some Indians use or  instead, e.g. $⟨treasure⟩$, and in some south Indian variants, with  as in $⟨shore⟩$, e.g. $⟨treasure⟩$.

Spelling pronunciation
A number of distinctive features of Indian English are due to "the vagaries of English spelling". Most Indian languages, unlike English, have a nearly phonetic spelling, so the spelling of a word is a highly reliable guide to its modern pronunciation. Indians' tendency to pronounce English phonetically as well can cause divergence from British English. This phenomenon is known as spelling pronunciation.
 * In words where the digraph $⟨gh⟩$ represents a voiced velar plosive in other accents, some Indian English speakers supply a murmured version, for example $⟨ghost⟩$ . No other accent of English admits this voiced aspiration.
 * Similarly, especially with Hindi speakers, the digraph $⟨wh⟩$ may be aspirated as or, resulting in realisations such as $⟨which⟩$ , found in no other English accent (although some Scottish accents come close). This is somewhat similar to the traditional distinction between $⟨wh⟩$ and $⟨w⟩$ present in English, however, wherein the former is , whilst the latter is.
 * In unstressed syllables, which speakers of American English would realise as a schwa, speakers of Indian English would use the spelling vowel, making $⟨sanity⟩$ sound as instead of . This trait is also present in other South Asian dialects (Pakistani and Sri Lankan English), and common for many second-language European speakers of English.
 * The word "of" is usually pronounced with a instead of a  as in most other accents.
 * Use of instead of  for the "-ed" ending of the past tense after voiceless consonants, for example "developed" may be  instead of RP.
 * Use of instead of  for the $⟨-s⟩$ ending of the plural after voiced consonants, for example $⟨dogs⟩$ may be  instead of.
 * Pronunciation of $⟨house⟩$ as in both the noun and the verb, instead of  as a noun and  as a verb.
 * Silent letters may be pronounced. For example, 'salmon' is usually pronounced with a distinct.

Supra-segmental features
English is a stress-timed language. Both syllable stress and word stress (where only certain words in a sentence or phrase are stressed) are important features of Received Pronunciation. Indian native languages are actually syllable-timed languages, like French. Indian-English speakers usually speak with a syllabic rhythm. Further, in some Indian languages, stress is associated with a low pitch, whereas in most English dialects, stressed syllables are generally pronounced with a higher pitch. Thus, when some Indian speakers speak, they appear to put the stress accents at the wrong syllables, or accentuate all the syllables of a long English word. Certain Indian accents possess a "sing-song" quality, a feature seen in a few English dialects of Britain, such as Scouse and Welsh English.

Numbering system
The Indian numbering system is preferred for digit grouping. When written in words, or when spoken, numbers less than 100,000 are expressed just as they are in Standard English. Numbers including and beyond 100,000 are expressed in a subset of the Indian numbering system. Thus, the following scale is used: Larger numbers are generally expressed as multiples of the above (for example, one lakh crores for one trillion).

Vocabulary
Indian English includes many political, sociological, and administrative terms, such as dharna, hartal, eve-teasing, vote bank, swaraj, swadeshi, scheduled caste, scheduled tribe, and NRI. It incorporates some Anglo-Indian words such as tiffin, hill station, gymkhana, along with slang.

Indian English, like some other World Englishes, is notable for its treatment of English mass and count nouns. Words that are treated as mass nouns in native forms of English, such as evidence, equipment, or training, are frequently treated as count nouns in Indian English.

Some examples of words and phrases unique to, or chiefly used in, standard written Indian English include:

 * academics (noun) (also Canadian and American English): Academic pursuits in contrast to technical or practical work.
 * e.g. "For 14 years he immersed himself in academics and was a fine achiever." (The Hindu (Madras), 6 December 1991 27/2)
 * all is well: Nothing to be concerned about, everything is fine.
 * avail (verb): Take advantage of an opportunity or resource.
 * ayye, aiye (interjection) (South India): ew.
 * ayyo, aiyo (interjection) (South India): oh no, yikes.
 * brinjal (noun): An eggplant/aubergine
 * bus stand (noun): A bus station (British English)
 * capsicum (noun) (also Australian English): A bell pepper
 * e.g. "He is allergic to capsicum."
 * chain-snatching (verb): To snatch a gold chain (or sometimes silver chain) from someone and run away, usually perpetrated by two or more criminals on a motorbike/moped/scooter.
 * e.g. "Women are avoiding wearing gold chains due to the concerning rise in number of chain-snatching cases in many parts of the city."
 * cinema (noun): A movie or film
 * cinema hall (noun): A cinema or movie theatre
 * e.g. "Cinema halls in Uttar Pradesh will soon display the newly-unveiled logo for Kumbh Mela, right after the national anthem is played" (The Times of India, 3 January 2018)
 * communalism: The creation of hatred between different religions and ethnicities which cause communal violence between them. The term is usually used to describe the hatred spread by religious leaders and politicians which cause Hindu–Muslim riots.
 * desi: South Asian, Indian.
 * do the needful: To do that which is necessary or required, with the respectful implication that the other party is trusted to understand what needs doing without being given detailed instructions.
 * e.g. "When asked if the UP government could reduce Value Added Tax (VAT) on petro-products to bring down prices, the CM said that the state government was aware of the situation and will do the needful." (2018 The Pioneer)
 * English-knowing (adjective): Of a person or group of people that uses or speaks English.
 * e.g. "The official and Service atmosphere ... set the tone for almost all Indian middle-class life, especially the English-knowing intelligentsia." (Toward Freedom vii. 40, J. Nehru, 1941)
 * even: Added at end of sentence.
 * e.g. "He didn't call even" meaning "He didn't even call" and not or "Even he didn't call".
 * footpath (noun) (also Australian English, British English, Hiberno-English): a sidewalk (American English).
 * e.g. "Pedestrian trips account for a quarter to a third of all trips in many Indian cities, yet, footpaths are designed as an afterthought to vehicles and commercial establishments." (The Hindu, 29 November 2019)
 * foreign-returned (adjective): Of a person or group of people who has returned home after living abroad for a while
 * freeship (noun): A studentship or scholarship.
 * e.g. "Two permanent freeships, each tenable for one year and one of which is for the second and the other for the third year class." (The Medical Reporter (Calcutta) 57/1, 1 February 1893)
 * e.g. "Private institutions can only develop if they are allowed to charge reasonable fees, while also providing need based freeships and scholarships for a certain percentage of students." (The Economic Times (Nexis), 12 October 2006)
 * hartal (noun): A strike, protest.
 * highway (noun): A motorway (British English), freeway (American English)
 * hotel (noun): A restaurant or café.
 * e.g. "A group of four friends had gone to have dinner at a roadside hotel." (Statesman (Calcutta), 10 February 1999 (Midweek section) 4/3)
 * is it so: Oh really?
 * it will be:.
 * e.g. Q: "How much is this?" A: "It will be two hundred and seventy rupee."
 * kindly adjust: Used to acknowledge and apologize for something that causes problems or difficulties and ask people to accept and adapt to the situation, or used to apologize for causing inconvenience.
 * e.g. "The store will be closed this afternoon due to staffing shortages. Kindly adjust."
 * e.g.: When asking someone to move along so you can sit down. "I would like to sit down, sir. Kindly adjust."
 * lady finger/lady's finger (noun): okra
 * matrimonial (noun): Advertisements in a newspaper for the purpose of finding a marriageable partner.
 * e.g. "When I have a job I'll have to begin a whole new search for my better half ... Back to the newspaper matrimonials on Sundays." (Statesman (Calcutta), 10 February 1999 (Midweek section) 4/3)
 * na (interjection) (North India): "isn't it?"
 * e.g. "That place is quite far na?"
 * office boy: Usually a person employed to do less important and menial jobs in a business office (such as a messenger, copier maintenance, Chaiwala, etc.). Often resides or spends their working time in a special service space in the office, behind the front desk or in the pantry.
 * out of station: used for saying that someone is away. This phrase has its origins in the posting of army officers to particular "stations" during the days of the East India Company.
 * pass(ing) out (phrase): Graduate from school/college or complete a course at an institution.
 * e.g. "I passed out of college in 2007."
 * e.g. "I passed out of my school aged 17."
 * petrol pump / petrol bunk (used in some parts of south India; noun): A petrol station (British English), gas station (American English)
 * prepone (verb): To bring (something) forward to an earlier date or time.
 * e.g. "The meeting has been preponed due to a change in the schedule."
 * pressperson (noun, frequently as a single word): A newspaper journalist, a reporter, a member of the press.
 * e.g. "The Prime Minister greeted the presspersons with a 'namaskar' [customary Hindu greeting] and a broad smile." (The Hindu (Nexis), 20 June 2001)
 * ragging (noun): bullying, fagging
 * redressal (noun): Redress
 * e.g. "There is an urgent need for setting up an independent authority for redressal of telecom consumer complaints." (Statesman (India) (Nexis), 2 April 1998)
 * e.g. "Where does he go for the redressal of his genuine grievances?" (Sunday Times of India, 15 September 2002 8/4)
 * revert (verb): To report back with information.
 * e.g. "Please revert with the required documentation."
 * right:.
 * road junction/circle (noun): a crossroad (British English), intersection (American English)
 * talaq, talaq, talaq – A form of divorce practiced in the Indian Muslim community for many generations. Triple talaq in India.
 * the same: previously mentioned, the above.
 * e.g. "Read out the para and copy down the same."
 * tiffin: lunch, snack.
 * upgradation (noun): The enhancement or upgrading of status, value or level of something.
 * e.g. "Our Company lays great stress on technical training and knowledge upgradation." (Business India, 8 September 1986 153/1 (advert))
 * votebank: A bloc of voters from a single community or a group of communities who always back a certain candidate or political party for bribes and/or employment favours given by the particular party.

Spelling
Spelling practices in Indian English generally follow the British style, e.g., using travelling, litre, practise (as a verb), anaesthesia, fulfil, catalogue and colour, rather than the American style.

Dictionaries
The most famous dictionary of Indian English is Yule and Brunell's Hobson-Jobson, originally published in 1886 with an expanded edition edited by William Crooke in 1903, widely available in reprint since the 1960s.

Numerous other dictionaries ostensibly covering Indian English, though for the most part being merely collections of administratively-useful words from local languages, include (chronologically): Rousseau A Dictionary of Words used in the East Indies (1804), Wilkins Glossary to the Fifth Report (1813), Stocqueler The Oriental Interpreter and Treasury of East Indian Knowledge (1844), Elliot A Supplement to the Glossary of Indian Terms: A-J (1845), Brown The Zillah Dictionary in the Roman Character (1852), Carnegy Kutcherry Technicalities (1853) and its second edition Kachahri Technicalities (1877), Wilson Glossary of Judicial and Revenue Terms (1855), Giles A Glossary of Reference, on Subjects connected with the Far East (1878), Whitworth Anglo-Indian Dictionary (1885), Temple A Glossary of Indian Terms relating to Religion, Customs, Government, Land (1897), and Crooke Things India: Being Discursive Notes on Various Subjects connected with India (1906).

The first dictionary of Indian English to be published after independence was Hawkins Common Indian Words in English (1984). Other efforts include (chronologically): Lewis Sahibs, Nabobs and Boxwallahs (1991), Muthiah Words in Indian English (1991), Sengupta's Indian English supplement to the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary (1996) and Hankin Hanklyn-Janklin  (2003). Nihalani et al. Indian and British English: A Handbook of Usage and Pronunciation (2004) delineates how Indian English differs from British English for a large number of specific lexical items. The Macmillan publishing company also produced a range of synchronic general dictionaries for the Indian market, such as the Macmillan Comprehensive Dictionary (2006).

The most recent dictionary is Carls A Dictionary of Indian English, with a Supplement on Word-formation Patterns (2017).

title: Indian English


text:
Slovenska Bistrica

Slovenska Bistrica (Windisch-Feistritz) is a town south of Maribor in eastern Slovenia. It is the seat of the Municipality of Slovenska Bistrica, one of the largest municipalities in Slovenia. The area is part of the traditional region of Styria. The town is included in the Drava Statistical Region.

History
The town was established in the 13th century on the trade road between Maribor and Celje, and was granted market rights in 1313. It was originally called just "Bistrica", a common toponym for rapid-flowing streams and rivers in South Slavic languages; the present name of Slovenska Bistrica (Windisch-Feistritz) first appears in records dating from 1565.

Before 1918, the town had a German-speaking majority (in the last Austrian census of 1910, 57.7% of the inhabitants declared German as their language of daily communication), while the surrounding countryside was almost exclusively Slovene-speaking.

Demographics
The town has a population of 8,016 (in 2018). Many locals commute to Maribor for work, less than an hour's drive away.

Landmarks
The town offers several interesting sights, including Bistrica Castle, churches, a Roman road, and the Ancient Roman fort of Ančnik. It serves as a starting point for hiking excursions to nearby Mount Boč.

Parish church
The parish church in the settlement is dedicated to Saint Bartholomew (sveti Jernej) and belongs to the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Maribor. It is first mentioned in written documents dating to 1240, but was greatly rebuilt and extended in the Baroque style in the 18th century. The belfry dates to the 19th century. Two other larger churches in the town are dedicated to Our Lady of the Seven Sorrows and Saint Joseph. They date to the 15th and 18th centuries.

Notable people
Notable people that were born or lived in Slovenska Bistrica include the following:
 * Herta Haas (1914–2010), one of the wives of Josip Broz Tito
 * Urska Zigart (born 1996), professional cyclist.
 * Kaja Korošec (born 2001), international footballer

title: Slovenska Bistrica


text:
Mere

Mere may refer to:

Places

 * Mere, Belgium, a village in East Flanders
 * Mere, Cheshire, England
 * Mere, Wiltshire, England

People

 * Mere Broughton (1938–2016), New Zealand Māori language activist and unionist
 * Mere Smith, American television script-writer and story editor
 * Ain-Ervin Mere (1903–1969), Estonian war criminal

Other uses

 * Mere (lake), a type of body of water, often broad in relation to its depth
 * Mere (weapon), a Māori war club
 * Mere (album), an album by Norwegian rock band deLillos
 * Mère, honorary title given to female French cooks
 * MERE, a brand of Russian discount supermarket chain Svetofor

title: Mere


text:
Thomas D. Schall

Thomas David Schall (June 4, 1878 – December 22, 1935) was an American lawyer and politician. He served in both the United States House of Representatives and the United States Senate from Minnesota. He was initially elected and then re-elected as a Progressive but later joined the Republican Party.

Schall was born in Reed City, Michigan, and moved with his family to Campbell, Minnesota, in 1884. He initially attended Hamline University, but graduated from the University of Minnesota in 1902, followed by William Mitchell College of Law (then the St. Paul College of Law) in 1904. Three years later, he was blinded by an electrical shock from a cigar lighter.

Schall was elected to the House of Representatives in 1914 and served from March 4, 1915, to March 3, 1925, in the 64th, 65th, 66th, 67th, and 68th congresses. As he was legally blind, he was granted, by House vote, a full-time page to assist him with his work.

After losing the Republican primary for a special election to the Senate in 1923, Schall was elected to the Senate in 1924, defeating Magnus Johnson with 46% of the vote. He served from March 4, 1925, until his death, in the 69th, 70th, 71st, 72nd, and 73rd congresses. Johnson would challenge Schall's election, leading the blind Senator to infamously label him "a marionette who kicked and waved his hands and opened his mouth according to the tension of the string." He had a tough re-election campaign in 1930, facing strong candidates from both the Democratic and Farmer Labor parties, and eventually won with 37% of the vote with the support of the NAACP owing to support of the Dyer Anti-Lynching Bill.

Long noted as a vitriolic and personal campaigner, Schall would emerge as a leading opponent of the New Deal, going so far as to compare Franklin D. Roosevelt to Satan and claim his reform program was communistic in nature. Going further, Schall would accuse Eleanor Roosevelt of corruption and liken President Roosevelt to Mussolini and Hitler, while at the same time accusing him of plotting "the destruction of all private industry."

Schall was struck by a hit and run driver while walking across the Washington-Baltimore Boulevard, now known as Bladensburg Road, in Cottage City, Maryland, on December 19, 1935. He died in Washington three days later, becoming one of the few United States Senators or Congressmen to die in a road crash while in office. He is buried in Lakewood Cemetery in Minneapolis.

title: Thomas D. Schall


text:
Fluorescent tag

In molecular biology and biotechnology, a fluorescent tag, also known as a fluorescent label or fluorescent probe, is a molecule that is attached chemically to aid in the detection of a biomolecule such as a protein, antibody, or amino acid. Generally, fluorescent tagging, or labeling, uses a reactive derivative of a fluorescent molecule known as a fluorophore. The fluorophore selectively binds to a specific region or functional group on the target molecule and can be attached chemically or biologically. Various labeling techniques such as enzymatic labeling, protein labeling, and genetic labeling are widely utilized. Ethidium bromide, fluorescein and green fluorescent protein are common tags. The most commonly labelled molecules are antibodies, proteins, amino acids and peptides which are then used as specific probes for detection of a particular target.

History
The development of methods to detect and identify biomolecules has been motivated by the ability to improve the study of molecular structure and interactions. Before the advent of fluorescent labeling, radioisotopes were used to detect and identify molecular compounds. Since then, safer methods have been developed that involve the use of fluorescent dyes or fluorescent proteins as tags or probes as a means to label and identify biomolecules. Although fluorescent tagging in this regard has only been recently utilized, the discovery of fluorescence has been around for a much longer time.

Sir George Stokes developed the Stokes Law of Fluorescence in 1852 which states that the wavelength of fluorescence emission is greater than that of the exciting radiation. Richard Meyer then termed fluorophore in 1897 to describe a chemical group associated with fluorescence. Since then, Fluorescein was created as a fluorescent dye by Adolph von Baeyer in 1871 and the method of staining was developed and utilized with the development of fluorescence microscopy in 1911.

Ethidium bromide and variants were developed in the 1950s, and in 1994, fluorescent proteins or FPs were introduced. Green fluorescent protein or GFP was discovered by Osamu Shimomura in the 1960s and was developed as a tracer molecule by Douglas Prasher in 1987. FPs led to a breakthrough of live cell imaging with the ability to selectively tag genetic protein regions and observe protein functions and mechanisms. For this breakthrough, Shimomura was awarded the Nobel Prize in 2008.

New methods for tracking biomolecules have been developed including the use of colorimetric biosensors, photochromic compounds, biomaterials, and electrochemical sensors. Fluorescent labeling is also a common method in which applications have expanded to enzymatic labeling, chemical labeling, protein labeling, and genetic labeling.

Methods for tracking biomolecules
There are currently several labeling methods for tracking biomolecules. Some of the methods include the following.

Isotope markers
Common species that isotope markers are used for include proteins. In this case, amino acids with stable isotopes of either carbon, nitrogen, or hydrogen are incorporated into polypeptide sequences. These polypeptides are then put through mass spectrometry. Because of the exact defined change that these isotopes incur on the peptides, it is possible to tell through the spectrometry graph which peptides contained the isotopes. By doing so, one can extract the protein of interest from several others in a group. Isotopic compounds play an important role as photochromes, described below.

Colorimetric biosensors
Biosensors are attached to a substance of interest. Normally, this substance would not be able to absorb light, but with the attached biosensor, light can be absorbed and emitted on a spectrophotometer. Additionally, biosensors that are fluorescent can be viewed with the naked eye. Some fluorescent biosensors also have the ability to change color in changing environments (ex: from blue to red). A researcher would be able to inspect and get data about the surrounding environment based on what color he or she could see visibly from the biosensor-molecule hybrid species.

Colorimetric assays are normally used to determine how much concentration of one species there is relative to another.

Photochromic compounds
Photochromic compounds have the ability to switch between a range or variety of colors. Their ability to display different colors lies in how they absorb light. Different isomeric manifestations of the molecule absorbs different wavelengths of light, so that each isomeric species can display a different color based on its absorption. These include photoswitchable compounds, which are proteins that can switch from a non-fluorescent state to that of a fluorescent one given a certain environment.

The most common organic molecule to be used as a photochrome is diarylethene. Other examples of photoswitchable proteins include PADRON-C, rs-FastLIME-s and bs-DRONPA-s, which can be used in plant and mammalian cells alike to watch cells move into different environments.

Biomaterials
Fluorescent biomaterials are a possible way of using external factors to observe a pathway more visibly. The method involves fluorescently labeling peptide molecules that would alter an organism's natural pathway. When this peptide is inserted into the organism's cell, it can induce a different reaction. This method can be used, for example to treat a patient and then visibly see the treatment's outcome.

Electrochemical sensors
Electrochemical sensors can be used for label-free sensing of biomolecules. They detect changes and measure current between a probed metal electrode and an electrolyte containing the target analyte. A known potential to the electrode is then applied from a feedback current and the resulting current can be measured. For example, one technique using electrochemical sensing includes slowly raising the voltage causing chemical species at the electrode to be oxidized or reduced. Cell current vs voltage is plotted which can ultimately identify the quantity of chemical species consumed or produced at the electrode. Fluorescent tags can be used in conjunction with electrochemical sensors for ease of detection in a biological system.

Fluorescent labels

Of the various methods of labeling biomolecules, fluorescent labels are advantageous in that they are highly sensitive even at low concentration and non-destructive to the target molecule folding and function.

Green fluorescent protein is a naturally occurring fluorescent protein from the jellyfish Aequorea victoria that is widely used to tag proteins of interest. GFP emits a photon in the green region of the light spectrum when excited by the absorption of light. The chromophore consists of an oxidized tripeptide -Ser^65-Tyr^66-Gly^67 located within a β barrel. GFP catalyzes the oxidation and only requires molecular oxygen. GFP has been modified by changing the wavelength of light absorbed to include other colors of fluorescence. YFP or yellow fluorescent protein, BFP or blue fluorescent protein, and CFP or cyan fluorescent protein are examples of GFP variants. These variants are produced by the genetic engineering of the GFP gene.

Synthetic fluorescent probes can also be used as fluorescent labels. Advantages of these labels include a smaller size with more variety in color. They can be used to tag proteins of interest more selectively by various methods including chemical recognition-based labeling, such as utilizing metal-chelating peptide tags, and biological recognition-based labeling utilizing enzymatic reactions. However, despite their wide array of excitation and emission wavelengths as well as better stability, synthetic probes tend to be toxic to the cell and so are not generally used in cell imaging studies.

Fluorescent labels can be hybridized to mRNA to help visualize interaction and activity, such as mRNA localization. An antisense strand labeled with the fluorescent probe is attached to a single mRNA strand, and can then be viewed during cell development to see the movement of mRNA within the cell.

Fluorogenic labels
A fluorogen is a ligand (fluorogenic ligand) which is not itself fluorescent, but when it is bound by a specific protein or RNA structure becomes fluorescent.

For instance, FAST is a variant of photoactive yellow protein which was engineered to bind chemical mimics of the GFP tripeptide chromophore. Likewise, the spinach aptamer is an engineered RNA sequence which can bind GFP chromophore chemical mimics, thereby conferring conditional and reversible fluorescence on RNA molecules containing the sequence.

Use of tags in fluorescent labeling

Fluorescent labeling is known for its non-destructive nature and high sensitivity. This has made it one of the most widely used methods for labeling and tracking biomolecules. Several techniques of fluorescent labeling can be utilized depending on the nature of the target.

Enzymatic labeling
In enzymatic labeling, a DNA construct is first formed, using a gene and the DNA of a fluorescent protein. After transcription, a hybrid RNA + fluorescent is formed. The object of interest is attached to an enzyme that can recognize this hybrid DNA. Usually fluorescein is used as the fluorophore.

Chemical labeling
Chemical labeling or the use of chemical tags utilizes the interaction between a small molecule and a specific genetic amino acid sequence. Chemical labeling is sometimes used as an alternative for GFP. Synthetic proteins that function as fluorescent probes are smaller than GFP's, and therefore can function as probes in a wider variety of situations. Moreover, they offer a wider range of colors and photochemical properties. With recent advancements in chemical labeling, Chemical tags are preferred over fluorescent proteins due to the architectural and size limitations of the fluorescent protein's characteristic β-barrel. Alterations of fluorescent proteins would lead to loss of fluorescent properties.

Protein labeling
Protein labeling use a short tag to minimize disruption of protein folding and function. Transition metals are used to link specific residues in the tags to site-specific targets such as the N-termini, C-termini, or internal sites within the protein. Examples of tags used for protein labeling include biarsenical tags, Histidine tags, and FLAG tags.

Genetic labeling
Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), is an example of a genetic labeling technique that utilizes probes that are specific for chromosomal sites along the length of a chromosome, also known as chromosome painting. Multiple fluorescent dyes that each have a distinct excitation and emission wavelength are bound to a probe which is then hybridized to chromosomes. A fluorescence microscope can detect the dyes present and send it to a computer that can reveal the karyotype of a cell. This technique allows abnormalities such as deletions and duplications to be revealed.

Cell imaging
Chemical tags have been tailored for imaging technologies more so than fluorescent proteins because chemical tags can localize photosensitizers closer to the target proteins. Proteins can then be labeled and detected with imaging such as super-resolution microscopy, Ca2+-imaging, pH sensing, hydrogen peroxide detection, chromophore assisted light inactivation, and multi-photon light microscopy. In vivo imaging studies in live animals have been performed for the first time with the use of a monomeric protein derived from the bacterial haloalkane dehalogenase known as the Halo-tag. The Halo-tag covalently links to its ligand and allows for better expression of soluble proteins.

Advantages
Although fluorescent dyes may not have the same sensitivity as radioactive probes, they are able to show real-time activity of molecules in action. Moreover, radiation and appropriate handling is no longer a concern.

With the development of fluorescent tagging, fluorescence microscopy has allowed the visualization of specific proteins in both fixed and live cell images. Localization of specific proteins has led to important concepts in cellular biology such as the functions of distinct groups of proteins in cellular membranes and organelles. In live cell imaging, fluorescent tags enable movements of proteins and their interactions to be monitored.

Latest advances in methods involving fluorescent tags have led to the visualization of mRNA and its localization within various organisms. Live cell imaging of RNA can be achieved by introducing synthesized RNA that is chemically coupled with a fluorescent tag into living cells by microinjection. This technique was used to show how the oskar mRNA in the Drosophila embryo localizes to the posterior region of the oocyte.

title: Fluorescent tag


text:
1859 in music

Events

 * January 14 – Hans von Bülow interrupts a performance of Franz Liszt's Die Ideale at the Berlin Singakademie to ask for hostile elements in the audience to be silent.
 * January 22 – The First Piano Concerto of Johannes Brahms is given its first public performance in Hanover.
 * February 8 – Count Michael Wielhorsky invites musical associates to his home in an attempt to revive the Symphonic Society; this indirectly results in the formation of the Russian Musical Society, under the patronage of Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna and her protégé, Anton Rubinstein.
 * March 4 – Charter of the French Opera House, New Orleans, which opens on December 1 of the same year with a gala performance of Rossini's William Tell.
 * March 11 – Giuseppe Verdi announces his retirement to friends at a dinner party.
 * March 12 – The Prelude to Act 1 of Tristan und Isolde receives its first public performance at the Sophieninselsaal in Prague, in a charity concert in aid of poor medical students, conducted by Hans von Bülow, who provided his own concert ending for the occasion.
 * April 3 – Richard Wagner takes up residence in Lucerne, Switzerland.
 * April 4 – Bryant's Minstrels premiere the minstrel song "Dixie" (probably written by Dan Emmett) at Mechanics' Hall in New York City as part of their blackface show.
 * April 4 – Tannhäuser is performed at the Stadt Theater in New York City under the musical direction of Carl Bergmann. It is the first performance of a Wagner opera in the United States.
 * May 6 – At the first concert of the Victoria Philharmonic Society, its future conductor John Bayley is a soloist on both clarinet and violin.
 * July 1 – A monument to George Frideric Handel (by Hermann Heidel) is unveiled in his birthplace, Halle; Franz Liszt is among those present.
 * October 23 – Richard Wagner and an ailing Hector Berlioz meet in Paris and make up their differences.
 * December 19 – César Franck inaugurates the new organ at the basilia of Sainte-Clotilde, Paris, an instrument built by Aristide Cavaillé-Coll.
 * Alexander Borodin begins a period of chemical research at Heidelberg, working on benzene derivatives.
 * Alberto Mazzucato becomes musical director of La Scala opera house.
 * Richard Wagner finishes his opera Tristan und Isolde. The Prelude to Act 1 receives its first public performance on March 2.

Published popular music

 * "Darling little blue eyed Nell" w. B. E. Woolf m. Frederick Buckley
 * "I’m on My Journey Home" Sarah Lancaster
 * "Thou Art the Queen of My Song" Stephen Foster
 * In 1859, John Freeman Young published the English translation of Silent Night that is most frequently sung today.
 * "Upidee", arranged by H. G. Spaulding

Classical music

 * Charles-Valentin Alkan – Concerto for Solo Piano
 * Mily Balakirev – Overture to King Lear
 * Hector Berlioz
 * arrangement of Plaisir d’amour, H.134
 * Hymne pour la consécration du nouveau tabernacle, H 135
 * Johannes Brahms
 * Piano Concerto No. 1
 * Serenade No. 2 in A
 * Psalm 13, Op.27
 * Max Bruch
 * Piano Trio, Op.5
 * String Quartet No. 1 in C minor, Op. 9
 * Felix Draeseke – Helges Treue
 * Jules Egghard – Méditation d'une jeune fille, Op.41
 * Edvard Grieg
 * 23 Little Piano Pieces, EG 104
 * Siehst du das Meer, for voice and piano
 * Fromental Halévy – Italie (cantata)
 * Friedrich Hegar – Violin Sonata in C minor
 * Stephen Heller – 2 Valses, Op.93
 * Theodor Kirchner – 16 Preludes, Op.9
 * Franz Liszt
 * Totentanz
 * first version of Psalm 23
 * Prelude after a theme from Weinen, Klagen, Sorgen, Zagen for piano
 * Deux Épisodes d'apres le Faust de Lenau (orchestral arrangement)
 * Festgesang, S.26
 * Te Deum II for chorus, organ, brass and percussion, S. 27
 * Künstlerfestzug zur Schillerfeier 1859, S.114
 * Giacomo Meyerbeer – Le revenant du vieux château de Bade, ballade
 * Stanisław Moniuszko – Śpiewnik domowy No.5
 * Michał Kleofas Ogiński – 6 Polonaises
 * Joachim Raff – 6 Morceaux, Op.85
 * Stanislas Verroust
 * Solo de concert No.4, Op.77
 * Solo de concert No.5, Op.78
 * Solo de concert No.6, Op.79

Opera

 * César Cui – The Mandarin's Son
 * Félicien David – Herculanum, premiered March 4 in Paris
 * Léo Delibes – L'Omelette à la Follembuche
 * Charles Gounod – Faust first performed March 19 in Paris. Libretto by Jules Barbier and Michel Carré, based on a work by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.
 * Giacomo Meyerbeer – Le pardon de Ploërmel
 * Giuseppe Verdi – Un ballo in maschera, premiered February 17 in Rome.

Musical theater

 * Jacques Offenbach
 * Geneviève de Brabant, original version. Premiered November 19 in Paris.
 * Les vivandières de la grande armée

Births

 * January 26 – W. O. Forsyth, pianist and composer (died 1937)
 * February 1 – Victor Herbert, cellist, conductor and composer (died 1924)
 * March 8
 * Karl Eduard Goepfart, composer (died 1942)
 * Otto Taubmann, composer (died 1929)
 * April 3 – Reginald de Koven, US composer (died 1920)
 * April 5 – Wilhelm Harteveld, composer (died 1927)
 * April 11 – Basil Harwood, organist and composer (died 1949)
 * May 13
 * August Enna, composer (died 1939)
 * Cora S. Briggs, organist and composer (died 1935)
 * June 22 – Frank Heino Damrosch, founder of Institute of Music (died 1937)
 * June 27 – Mildred J. Hill, composer of "Happy Birthday to You" (died 1916)
 * July 11 – Alfred Maria Willner, composer (died 1929)
 * July 15 – Carlo Munier, musician (died 1911)
 * July 21 – Charles H. Taylor, lyricist (died 1907)
 * September 21 – Otto Lohse, conductor and composer (died 1925)
 * September 24 – Julius Klengel, cellist, composer (died 1933)
 * October 14 – Camille Chevillard, conductor and composer (died 1923)
 * October 20 – Guglielmo Zuelli, opera composer (died 1941)
 * October 26 – Arthur Friedheim, Russian-born pianist
 * November 15 – Joseph Vidal, composer (died 1924)
 * November 17 – Gerhard Rosenkrone Schjelderup, composer (died 1933)
 * November 19 – Mikhail Ippolitov-Ivanov, conductor and composer (died 1935)
 * November 22 – Cecil Sharp, folk music revivalist (died 1924)
 * November 30 – Sergei Lyapunov, pianist and composer (died 1924)
 * December 21 – Max Fiedler, conductor and composer (died 1939)
 * December 23 – Adrian Ross, English lyricist (died 1933)
 * December 24 – Roman Statkowski, composer (died 1925)
 * December 27 – William Henry Hadow, musicologist (died 1937)
 * December 30 – Josef Bohuslav Foerster, composer (died 1951)

Deaths

 * January 7 – Peter Ferdinand Funck, violinist and composer (born 1788)
 * January 13 – Francisco José Debali, composer (born 1791)
 * January 20 – Bettina von Arnim, composer (born 1785)
 * February 6 – Jane Stirling, pianist and friend of Frédéric Chopin (born 1804; ovarian cyst)
 * February 26 – Ferdinand Lukas Schubert, composer (born 1794)
 * March 14 – Nicola Tacchinardi, cellist and operatic tenor (born 1772)
 * March 30 – Philippe Musard, composer (born 1792)
 * April 14 – Ignaz Bösendorfer, piano manufacturer (born 1796)
 * July 23 – Marceline Desbordes-Valmore, actress, singer and poet (born 1786)
 * July 29
 * Léon-Lévy Brunswick, librettist (born 1805)
 * Auguste Mathieu Panseron, composer and singing teacher (born 1796)
 * August 18 – Antonio D'Antoni, opera composer and conductor (born 1801)
 * August 28 – Edward Holmes, musicologist, music critic, pianist and music educator (born 1797)
 * October 16 – John Fane, 11th Earl of Westmorland, soldier, politician, diplomat and musician (born 1784)
 * October 22 – Louis Spohr, violinist, conductor and composer (born 1784)
 * November 7 – Carl Gottlieb Reißiger, Kapellmeister and composer (born 1798)
 * December 13 – Daniel Liszt, son of Franz Liszt and Countess Marie d'Agoult (born 1839; tuberculosis)
 * December 31 – Luigi Ricci, composer (born 1805)
 * Date unknown – Lewis Henry Lavenu, conductor, composer and impresario (born 1818)

title: 1859 in music


text:
1858 in music

Events

 * January 2 – Sigismond Thalberg is given a farewell concert by the Academy of Music, New York.
 * January 14 – While on their way to the Paris Opéra, Napoleon III of France and Empress Eugénie are attacked by a would-be assassin. The emperor proceeds to attend the performance.
 * January 25 – The "Wedding March" by Felix Mendelssohn is played at the marriage of Queen Victoria's daughter "Vicky" (Victoria, Princess Royal) to Prince Friedrich of Prussia in St James's Palace, London, leading to its becoming popular wedding music.
 * January 30 – Hallé Orchestra founded by Charles Hallé in Manchester, England.
 * February 20 – Giacomo Meyerbeer pays Mathilde Heine 4,500 francs not to publish four poems by her late husband Heinrich Heine.
 * April 7 – Richard Wagner's affair with Mathilde Wesendonck is discovered by her husband; he leaves Zurich shortly afterwards.
 * May 15 - The Royal Italian Opera opens in Covent Garden, London with a performance of Meyerbeer's Les Huguenots.
 * June 17 – Modest Musorgsky resigns from the Preobrazhensky Regiment to take up music full-time.
 * September 7 – Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom opens Leeds Town Hall; the celebratory concert marks the first Leeds Festival.
 * September 16 – Jules Massenet gives his first piano recital.
 * October 6 – Edvard Grieg enters Leipzig Conservatory, having had his talent recognised by Ole Bull.
 * October 21 – Jacques Offenbach's operetta Orpheus in the Underworld, featuring music associated with the can-can, is first performed, at the Théâtre des Bouffes Parisiens in Paris.
 * Camille Saint-Saëns succeeds Louis James Alfred Lefébure-Wély as organist of La Madeleine, Paris.
 * Arthur Sullivan goes to Leipzig to study music.
 * The Wiener Singverein is formed as a choir in its modern form in Vienna.
 * The Harvard Glee Club is founded at Harvard University in the United States.
 * Hector Berlioz completes the score for his opera Les Troyens.

Published popular music

 * "The Infernal Gallop" ("The Can-Can"), music by Jacques Offenbach (from his operetta, Orphée Aux Enfers)
 * "Warblings at Eve" m. Henry Brinley Richards

Classical music

 * Johannes Brahms — Piano Concerto No. 1
 * Charles Dancla
 * Le mélodiste, Op.86
 * 6 Airs variés, Series I, Op.89
 * Louise Farrenc – Piano Etudes, Op.41
 * Camille Saint-Saëns —
 * Piano Concerto No.1
 * Violin Concerto No. 2
 * Jean-Baptiste Singelée – Duo concertant, Op.55
 * Johann Strauss II —
 * Tritsch-Tratsch-Polka
 * Champagner-Polka

Opera

 * Peter Cornelius — Der Barbier von Bagdad
 * Charles Gounod – Le médecin malgré lui, CG 3, premiered January 15 in Paris
 * Giovanni Pacini — Il saltimbanco
 * Jean-Baptiste Weckerlin – La laitière de Trianon, premiered December 18 in Paris

Musical theatre

 * Orphée Aux Enfers, operetta by Jacques Offenbach, Paris production opened at the Théâtre des Bouffes Parisiens on October 21 and ran for 228 performances

Births

 * January 3 – Richard Franck, composer (died 1938)
 * January 6 — Ben Davies, operatic tenor (died 1943)
 * February 24 — Arnold Dolmetsch, musical instrument maker (died 1940)
 * March 30 — DeWolf Hopper, US actor and singer (died 1935)
 * April 22 — Ethel Smyth, composer (died 1944)
 * April 25 – Auguste Chapuis, composer (died 1933)
 * May 22 — Charles Kjerulf, composer (died 1919)
 * July 16 — Eugène Ysaÿe, composer (died 1931)
 * July 21 — Chauncey Olcott, singer and songwriter (died 1932)
 * August — Guy d'Hardelot, pianist and composer
 * August 1 — Hans Rott, composer (died 1884)
 * August 9 — Isidore de Lara, composer (died 1935)
 * September 13 – Catharinus Elling, composer (died 1942)
 * September 15 – Jenö Hubay, composer (died 1937)
 * October 12 – Alice Charbonnet-Kellermann, piano composer (died 1914)
 * November 9 – John Stromberg, composer (died 1902)
 * November 11 — Alessandro Moreschi, castrato singer (died 1922)
 * December 22 — Giacomo Puccini, composer (died 1924)

Deaths

 * January 5 — Joseph Radetzky von Radetz, military leader and subject of the Radetzky March by Johann Strauss I (b. 1766)
 * January 23 — Luigi Lablache, operatic bass (b. 1794)
 * April — Bernard Sarrette, founder of the Paris Conservatoire (b. 1765)
 * April 8 — Anton Diabelli, publisher and composer (b. 1781)
 * April 16 — Johann Baptist Cramer, pianist and composer (b. 1771)
 * June 3 — Julius Reubke, pianist and composer (b. 1834)
 * August 24 — Francis Edward Bache, composer (b. 1833)
 * September 8 – Jacopo Foroni, composer (born 1825)
 * September 15 — Thomas Adams, organist and composer (b. 1785)
 * October 31 — Karl Thomas Mozart, musician, son of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (b. 1784)
 * November 15 — Johanna Kinkel, composer (b. 1810)
 * December 27 — Alexandre Pierre François Boëly, pianist, organist and composer (b. 1785)

title: 1858 in music


text:
1857 in music

Events

 * January 7 – Franz Liszt's Piano Concerto No. 2 receives its first public performance. Hans von Bronsart is the pianist with Liszt conducting, in Weimar.
 * January 21 – Giacomo Meyerbeer conducts a work by Mikhail Glinka, at a concert in Berlin attended by the composer. Glinka catches a cold and dies a few weeks later, aged 52; autopsy results are inconclusive.
 * January 27 – Franz Liszt's Sonata in B minor (Liszt) is given its first public performance by Hans von Bülow in Berlin.
 * February 7 – Louis Gottschalk leaves New York to begin a concert tour of Cuba.
 * March 14 – Stephen Foster sells all his copyrights to his music publisher for $1,872.28.
 * April 28 – Richard Wagner moves into Green Hill at Zürich, a villa owned by Otto Wesendonck.
 * July 4 – Georges Bizet wins the Prix de Rome.
 * August 27 – Joseph Joachim writes to Franz Liszt, ending their professional relationship.
 * October 8 – Irish opera diva Catherine Hayes marries her manager, William Avery Bushnell, in San Francisco; he dies less than a year later.
 * November 12 – 73-year-old Louis Spohr is forced into retirement from his post at the Hesse-Kassel court.
 * Gioacchino Rossini begins Péchés de vieillesse.
 * Hans von Bülow marries Cosima Liszt daughter of Franz Liszt. They had two daughters.

Published popular music

 * "Le beau Monde (Fashionable Society)" m. Johann Strauss II
 * "Does He Love Me?" w. Annie Chambers Bradford m. F. W. Smith
 * "Jingle Bells w.m. James Pierpont originally published as "One Horse Open Sleigh"
 * "Lorena" w. Reverend Henry D. L. Webster m. Joseph Philbrick Webster
 * "Annie Lisle" w.m. H. S. Thompson

Classical music

 * Charles-Valentin Alkan
 * Sonate de Concert in E, Op. 47 for cello and piano
 * Douze études dans tous les tons mineurs Op. 39 for piano
 * Woldemar Bargiel – Ouvertüre zu einem Trauerspiel, Op.18
 * Georges Bizet – Herminie (cantata)
 * Adolphe Blanc
 * String Quintet No.3, Op.21
 * String Quintet No.4, Op.22
 * Trio in B♭ major for piano, violin (or clarinet) and cello, Op.23
 * Johannes Brahms
 * Serenade No 1, Op. 11
 * Eleven Variations on an Original Theme, in D major Opus 21 No.1
 * Hans von Bülow – 5 Lieder, Op.5
 * Louise Farrenc – Trio no.4 for Flute, Cello, and Piano, Op.45
 * Wilhelm Kalliwoda – Scherzo, Op.4
 * Franz Liszt
 * Dante Symphony
 * Hunnenschlacht (premiered on 29 December)
 * Die Ideale (premiered on 5 September)
 * Giacomo Meyerbeer – Près de toi
 * Modest Mussorgsky – Souvenir d'Enfance
 * Joachim Raff
 * Ode to Spring: Concert Piece in G major, Op. 76, for piano and orchestra
 * String Quartet No. 2 in A major; Op. 90
 * Napoléon Henri Reber – Symphony No.4, Op.33
 * Julius Reubke – The 94th Psalm
 * Camille Saint-Saëns - Tarantelle in A minor for Flute, Clarinet and Orchestra
 * Bedřich Smetana – Piano Trio in G minor, Op. 15 (revised version – original finished 1855)
 * Johann Strauss Jr.
 * Strelna-Terrassen-Quadrille, Op.185
 * La Berceuse Quadrille, Op.194

Opera

 * François Bazin – Maître Pathelin
 * Karel Miry – Karel V (opera in 5 acts, libretto by Hippoliet van Peene, premiered on January 29 in Ghent)
 * Jacques Offenbach – Croquefer, premiered February 12 in Paris
 * Ambroise Thomas – Le Carnaval de Venise
 * Giuseppe Verdi
 * Simon Boccanegra, premiered March 12 in Venice
 * Aroldo, premiered August 16 in Rimini

Births

 * January 5 – David Bispham, opera singer (died 1921)
 * January 17 – Wilhelm Kienzl, Austrian composer (died 1941)
 * January 22 – Marie Krysińska, musician and composer (died 1908)
 * February 28 – Gustave Kerker, German-born composer (died 1923)
 * March 3 – Alfred Bruneau, French composer (died 1934)
 * March 4
 * Gustav Kobbé, American music critic and author (died 1918)
 * Henry W. Petrie, American songwriter (died 1925)
 * April 21 – Paul Dresser, American composer (died 1906)
 * April 23 – Ruggiero Leoncavallo, Italian opera composer (died 1919)
 * April 29 – František Ondříček, Czech violinist and composer (died 1922)
 * May 2 – Frederic Cliffe, English composer (died 1931)
 * May 9 – Luigi Illica, Italian librettist for Puccini, Catalani, Giordano and others (died 1919)
 * May 12 – Lillian Nordica, American opera singer (died 1914)
 * June 2 – Edward Elgar, English composer (died 1934)
 * June 5 – Árpád Doppler, Hungarian-German composer (died 1927)
 * June 12 – Achille Simonetti, violinist (died 1928)
 * July 8 – Rudolf Dellinger, composer (died 1910)
 * July 16 – Bolesław Domaniewski, pianist (died 1925)
 * August 8 – Cécile Chaminade, French composer (died 1944)
 * August 18 – Eusebius Mandyczewski, publisher and musician (died 1929)
 * September 8 – Olga Björkegren, Swedish opera singer (died 1950)
 * October 12 – Paul Lange, German musician, teacher, orchestra and choir leader (died 1919)
 * November 5 – Joseph Tabrar, English music hall songwriter (d. 1931)
 * November 14 – Rosalind Ellicott, English composer (died 1924)
 * December 14 – Frederic Lillebridge, pianist (died 1934)
 * December 18 – Rosa Newmarch, née Jeaffreson, English musicologist (died 1940)
 * December 27 – Charles Manners, né Southcote Mansergh, English operatic bass and opera company manager (died 1935)
 * December 30 – Sylvio Lazzari, Italian composer and conductor (died 1944)
 * date unknown – Thomas Adams, organist (died 1918)

Deaths

 * January 19 – Franz Limmer, conductor and composer (b. 1808)
 * February 3 – Johann Gottlieb Kotte, musician (born 1797)
 * February 14 – Johannes Bernardus van Bree, violinist, conductor and composer (born 1801)
 * February 15 – Mikhail Glinka, composer (b. 1804)
 * March 1 – Benjamin Cross, organist, singer, conductor and composer (b. 1786)
 * April – Alessandro Curmi, pianist and composer (b. 1801)
 * June 28 – Joseph Fischhof, pianist, composer and music teacher (born 1804)
 * July 15 – Carl Czerny, pianist and composer (b. 1791)
 * July 16 – Pierre-Jean de Béranger, songwriter (b. 1780)
 * August 1 – Emilie Zumsteeg, pianist and songwriter (b. 1796)
 * September 18 – Karol Kurpiński, composer (born 1785)
 * October 20 – John Diamond, dancer (born 1823)
 * October 21 – Ananias Davisson, singing teacher and printer of shape note books (b. 1780)
 * November 7 – Charles Zeuner, organist (born 1795)
 * December 11 – Castil-Blaze, music critic, musicologist and composer (b. 1784)
 * probable – Ferdinand Prévôt, operatic baritone (born c.1800)

title: 1857 in music


text:
1856 in music

Events

 * January – Evan James and his son James James write the words and music of Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau, which later becomes the Welsh national anthem.
 * January 6 – Charles Gounod is awarded the Légion d'Honneur.
 * January 27 – In recognition of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's 100th birthday, Franz Liszt conducts a concert of his music in Vienna.
 * March 23 – Richard Wagner completes the score of Die Walküre.
 * March 24 – The Théâtre de la Monnaie opens in Brussels.
 * May 15 – Following his discovery of the philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer and his growing interest in Buddhist philosophy, Wagner drafts a brief summary of a proposed Buddhist opera, called Die Sieger (The Victors). At about the same time he changes the ending of the Ring cycle, and changes the titles of Der junge Siegfried and Siegfried’s Tod to Siegfried and Götterdämmerung respectively.
 * May 28 – Mikhail Glinka relocates to Berlin.
 * July 4 – 14-year-old Arthur Sullivan wins the Mendelssohn Scholarship, enabling him to study at the Royal Academy of Music.
 * July 28 – Clara Schumann and Johannes Brahms begin their vigil outside the bedroom of the dying Robert Schumann.
 * December 1 – Bedřich Smetana opens his new music school in Göteborg.
 * Foundation of the Teatro de la zarzuela by Francisco Asenjo Barbieri.
 * In St Petersburg, Russia, Mily Balakirev (the leader) meets César Cui, as the first two Russian composers of The Mighty Five. In October, Mussorgsky meets Alexander Borodin while both men serve at a military hospital in Saint Petersburg.
 * The words of the "Himno Nacional de El Salvador" are written by General Juan José Cañas; it becomes the National Anthem of El Salvador in 1953.

Published popular music

 * Stephen Foster – "Gentle Annie"
 * Benjamin Hanby – "Darling Nelly Gray"

Classical music

 * Franz Abt – 3 Lieder, Op.137
 * Mily Balakirev
 * Piano Concerto No. 1 in F-sharp minor, Op. 1 (in one movement)
 * Fandango-Etude
 * Scherzo No.1
 * Alexandre-Pierre-François Boëly – 12 Pièces pour orgue, Op.18
 * William B. Bradbury – Esther, the Beautiful Queen (oratorio)
 * Johannes Brahms – Prelude and Fugue, WoO 9
 * Anton Bruckner
 * Ave Maria, WAB 5
 * Psalm 146, WAB 37
 * Klavierstück, WAB 119
 * Antonín Dvořák – Polka Pomnenka
 * Louis Gottschalk – Grande Valse poétique concertante for voice and piano
 * Charles Gounod – Laudate Dominum [CG 105]
 * Miska Hauser – Ballad (Dedicated to Lady MacDonnell of South Australia)
 * Ignaz Lachner – Piano Trio No.2, Op.45
 * Ernst Pauer – Quintet for Piano and Winds, Op.44
 * Camille Saint-Saëns – Symphony in F major "Urbs Roma"
 * Robert Schumann – 2 Endenicher Choräle
 * William Vincent Wallace – "The Winds that Waft My Sighs to Thee"

Opera

 * Alexander Dargomyzhsky – Rusalka
 * Aimé Maillart – Les Dragons de Villars
 * Giovanni Pacini – Margherita Pusterla

Musical theater

 * Hiawatha. Broadway production opened at Wallack's Lyceum Theatre on December 25 and ran for 24 performances.
 * Novelty (Music: Thomas Baker). Broadway production opened at Laura Keene's Variety House on February 22.

Births

 * January 6 – Giuseppe Martucci, composer (d. 1909)
 * January 9 – Stevan Mokranjac, composer (d. 1914)
 * January 11
 * Christian Sinding, composer (d. 1941)
 * Francisco D'Andrade, opera singer (d. 1921)
 * March 20 – Josef Wagner, military bandmaster and composer (d.1908)
 * May 3 – Max Alvary, Wagnerian tenor (d. 1898)
 * May 20 – Helen Hopekirk, composer (died 1945)
 * May 26 – George Templeton Strong, composer and artist (d. 1948)
 * May 31 – F. W. Meacham, composer (died 1909)
 * circa July 29 – Felix Mottl, conductor (died 1911)
 * September 3 – Selma Ek, soprano (d. 1941)
 * October 22 – Eduard Schütt, composer (died 1933)
 * November 25 – Sergey Taneyev, composer (died 1915)
 * December 2 – Robert Kajanus, conductor and composer (d. 1933)
 * December 20 – Ferdinand Avenarius, poet and lyricist, relative of Richard Wagner (d. 1923)

Deaths

 * January 6 – Nicolas-Charles Bochsa, harpist (born 1789)
 * January 17 – Thomas Attwood Walmisley, composer and organist (d. 1814)
 * January 28 – Helmina von Chézy, librettist (born 1783)
 * May 3 – Adolphe Adam, French composer (d. 1803)
 * June 3 – Stephen Jenks, song writer (born 1772)
 * July 20 – Anna Nielsen, mezzo-soprano (d. 1803)
 * July 29 – Robert Schumann, composer (d. 1810)
 * August 5 – Robert Lucas de Pearsall, composer (d. 1795)
 * August 8 – Lucia Elizabeth Vestris, actress and singer (d. 1797)
 * August 21 – Peter Josef von Lindpaintner, conductor and composer (d. 1791)
 * October 14 – Johann Kaspar Mertz, guitarist and composer (d. 1806)
 * November 23 – Giovanni Morandi, composer (d. 1777)
 * December 31 – Domenico Crivelli, music teacher
 * date unknown – Ashutosh Deb, Hindu musician and composer

title: 1856 in music