text:
Talk:Politics of Bulgaria

Untitled
The text below, was removed from the now deletd 'Bulgaria political landscape' article, which was deleted due to it's POV content. However if anyone wishes to NPOV this text and add it to the Politics of Bulgaria article, Please do so G-Man 19:13 2 Jul 2003 (UTC)

"Depending on the attitudes and spirits of the assessor, Bulgarian political landscape can be seen as a fascinating story of continued intrigue; as a disjointed sequence of poorly planned and mostly reactionary events; as a passive-aggressive battle for establishment and the ability to be heard; as a desperate struggle for power; as an example of climbing to the top not by being worthy but making competitors look even worse; or as a struggle for offices that, by and in themselves, are much more important than the opportunity to serve people, which is offered to those who take the office. This is not to say that Bulgaria did not give birth to political leaders with noble intentions, appropriate focus, significant intelligence, impressive education, and a good taste for political combat. Nevertheless, these positive elements are persistently overshadowed by a never-ending chain of misalliances on the background of shaky platforms, unfulfilled promises, mistrustful handshakes, and public deceitfulness. The end of the communist era brought opportunity to the land full of anticipation, anger, suppressed desire to speak and to be heard, concealed insults, instability, uncertainty, strife, and disillusionment. The taste of practiced human rights and pronounced freedoms sprouted a wave of political activity, as powerful, as difficult to control, and as full of potential destruction as a tsunami. In 12 years (June 1990 through June 2001), the country saw five (5) presidential elections, which translates to six different governments and the average time of two (2) years of ?governmental survival?. The life of a Bulgarian political party is a strange combination of leapfrogging and musical chairs. Even the task of identifying participants in Bulgarian politics is practically impossible. No two reputable sources offer consistent (and therefore reliable) information and any information that appears trustworthy may be outdated by the time it is presented to the public. Further complicating this environment is the game of namesakes used to despoil political victors or potential victors of their rightful votes by intentionally confusing often illiterate or poorly educated population. For example, a voter may not realize that National Union for Tzar Simeon II that collected 1.7% of votes in the last Parliamentary elections (June 2001) has nothing to do with National Movement Simeon II (NMSS or NMS2), which emerged as a winner of the elections with 42.7% of votes. The approach, ?If is sounds like NMS2, looks like NMS2, and reads like NMS2, it is NMS2?, does not work in Bulgarian politics. The inability (regardless of the causes and motifs) of the leading Bulgarian political parties to establish a reasonably stable and structured political landscape and the continued realignment and reshaping of political coalitions result in the environment where minority parties accumulate unjustifiably high power potential, exert significant political influence, and assert controlling presence in the National Assembly. As such, MRF acts as a winning token in the struggle of NMS2 against combined forces of unlikely bed partners, UDF and BSP. The Bulgarian political world of shifting sand prohibits development of strong and committed political followings. Only one party, MRF, running on the ticket of struggle for freedom of expression and veiled anger common for previously suppressed minority populations, did not experience material attrition in membership during the last 15 years. An average voter cannot help but be confused in the political theater of continuously changing cast, stage directors, authors of librettos, language of playbills, light technicians, critics and statisticians, box office personnel, and ushers. Not surprising, poll turnouts are steadily dwindling, with an almost insignificant exception in 2001. When one realizes that a country with less than 8,000,000 residents has approximately 240 political parties, one pauses in awe and disbelief. Somewhat better understanding of the membership, platform, and ?reason for living? of many of these parties leaves disbelief undisturbed but changes awe to an ironic grin. It is quite clear that Bulgaria must step of its current road of political disaster and must develop a political course that would assure much greater stability, predictability, and public support. It is not clear what this course should be and whether the country is ripe to commit to another monumental change."

Prime Minister title
I changed the title of the Prime minister to the correct Minister-Chairman (министър-председател). The title given in the previous version Chairman of the Counsil of Ministers was a direct translation of the title of the Prime Minister of Russia and formerly the USSR. It has never been used in Bulgaria; there is no such term in Bulgaria's constitution.Gazibara 21:45, 22 April 2007 (UTC)

Rate of freedom
Why is the Freedom House rating cited in the very first sentence? Is this an objective enough rating? Is it important enough and worthy of inclusion as such? What of the ratings of Bulgaria by other think tanks or institutes? -The Gnome (talk) 07:20, 25 November 2007 (UTC)

Important notice
The government section of the "Outline of Bulgaria" needs to be checked, corrected, and completed -- especially the subsections for the government branches.

When the country outlines were created, temporary data (that matched most of the countries but not all) was used to speed up the process. Those countries for which the temporary data does not match must be replaced with the correct information.

Please check that this country's outline is not in error.

If you have any questions or comments, please contact The Transhumanist.

Thank you.

Matching colours
It would add to clarity of the article if the colours representing the parties in various graphs matched. Ie the DPS are Prussian Blue in the table showing numbers of votes for the entire country and violet in the map showing geographical distribution. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 194.236.40.162 (talk) 15:43, 21 January 2013 (UTC)

Article needs update
Information in the article is outdated at some places with as good as 1 year (for example: "The current government resigned on 20th of February 2013.") — Preceding unsigned comment added by Rbaleksandar (talk • contribs) 22:38, 28 January 2014 (UTC)

External links modified
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Elections section needs update
The elections section is outdated, there have been four elections since the results published here including a presidential election. 81.98.163.44 (talk) 15:49, 25 October 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Politics of Bulgaria


text:
Millom

Millom is a town and civil parish on the north shore of the estuary of the River Duddon in southernmost Cumberland, Cumbria, England. It is situated just outside the Lake District National Park, about 6 mi north of Barrow-in-Furness (23 mi by road) and 26 mi south of Whitehaven.

Millom was constructed as a new town, beginning in 1866 and subsumed the village of Holborn Hill. Built around ironworks, the town grew to a size of over 10,000 people by the 1960s, but has struggled since the works were closed in 1968. Culturally, Millom is notable as the birthplace of poet Norman Nicholson, and for its historical links with rugby league.

The name is Cumbrian dialect for "At the mills".

History
Millom is mentioned in the Domesday Book of 1086 as one of the townships forming the Manor of Hougun which had been held by Tostig Godwinson, Earl of Northumbria.

Millom Castle is a grade I listed building and scheduled ancient monument which by 1739 was in dilapidated condition.

In 1251 a market charter was granted by King Henry III of England to John de Huddleston, Lord of Millom.

Millom is the most southerly town in the historic county of Cumberland.

The Whitehaven & Furness Junction Railway opened a station in 1850 known as 'Holborn Hill Halt' until Millom new town was built in 1866. It was taken over by the Furness Railway in 1866.

A map of 1862 shows that all that existed was a small hamlet by the name of Holborn Hill on the northwest side of the railway line. It had a railway station, inn and a tile and brickworks. By 1899 a small town had grown up here, with terraced streets on either side of the railway, a public library, police station, banks, hotels, school, market square and allotments.

In the intervening years, the Hodbarrow iron mines began extracting haematite from deposits between the village of Holborn Hill and the seashore at Hodbarrow. The first shafts were sunk in the 1850s, by 1881 there were seven pits operated by the Hodbarrow Mining Company. Millom & Askam Iron Company built Millom Ironworks and the first furnaces were completed in 1866. The opening of the ironworks led to the building of Millom newtown. The Hodbarrow Outer Barrier (seawall) was completed in 1905 to protect the mines from the sea. It took five years to construct at a cost of almost £600,000. The Hodbarrow Mines and Millom Ironworks were closed in 1968. The town's population of 10,997 in 1967 fell to 7,101 by the 1971 census.

In 1877 the expanding town needed more water and Whicham Beck was dammed at Baystone Bank (54.261226,-3.274237) to form Baystone Bank Reservoir. The reservoir remained in use until about 1996. It was drained in 2011, the dam removed and the valley returned to its original form. This work was carried out by water network company United Utilities.

During the Second World War an airfield, RAF Millom, was developed on flat coastal land at Haverigg. This was an advanced flying training station, mainly for Observers and also Air Gunners. Aircraft stationed there were firstly the Blackburn Botha and Fairey Battle, then the more popular and successful Avro Anson. Post-war this became the site of HM Prison Haverigg.

Throughout its history, the town has struggled with socio-economic problems, especially after the Industrial Revolution, thus being infamously called by the Mayor of Copeland, 'a place of despair'.

Governance
Millom is within the Copeland UK Parliamentary constituency, Trudy Harrison is the Member of parliament.

Before Brexit, it was part of the North West England European Parliamentary Constituency.

For local government purposes, it is in the Cumberland unitary authority.

Millom also has a parish council, Millom Town Council. The parish had a population of 7,829 in 2011 and is divided into four wards: Holborn Hill, Newtown North, Newtown South and Haverigg.

The latest round of proposals in the Sixth Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies would place Millom in the Barrow and Furness constituency as part of boundary changes to abolish the Copeland and Workington constituencies.

The Old Town Hall was completed in 1879.

Economy
Millom's economy is now mainly based around retail, services and tourism. It is a relatively low wage area, with a lot of people employed in skilled trades such as building, painting and decorating. Many also work in the service sector in hotels, pubs and shops within the nearby Lake District National Park. Higher wage centres are Barrow-in-Furness to the south and Sellafield to the north-west with commuting each way on the road or via the railway.

The prison at Haverigg, 2 mi away is a large employer.

Millom was granted the status of a Fairtrade town in 2004.

Culture and community
Millom Palladium, is a theatre, bar and full multi-functional venue. Completed in 1911, it has stood on the site for over 100 years. This building and entertainments venue is home to Millom Amateur Operatic Society (MAOS) founded in 1909 and is currently an ongoing project run and managed by a registered charity and group of volunteers with hopes to re-instate the cinema facility within the building.

The Beggar's Theatre is a multi-function arts base with several activities, performing-arts based, for local talent and provides a venue for touring theatres, stand-up comedians etc.

Norman Nicholson Society
The Norman Nicholson Society promotes and explores the work of the town's most famous son, the writer Norman Nicholson, who spent his whole life in the town.

Landmarks
St. George's Church stands within the town on a small hill and with its steeple is the biggest landmark of the town being visible from quite a distance.

The area's bigger landmark is the significant hill of Black Combe standing 1,970 ft above sea level. It forms a grand panoramic viewing platform of the south-west Lake District area and offers a view of England, Scotland, Ireland and Wales on a clear day.

Millom Discovery Centre (previously known as 'Millom Folk Museum' and 'Millom Heritage Museum And Visitor Centre') presents a snapshot of past times in Millom, paying particular attention to the historical development of the area brought about by the significant iron ore mining and iron works.

Millom Rock Park is situated high on the north rim of the nearby Ghyll Scaur Quarry in the parish of Millom Without. A viewpoint in the Rock Park permits views into the working quarry and overlooks the processing machinery. There is an avenue of 15 large rock specimens with detailed interpretation panels.

There are two nature reserves near the town, both of which are located on the Duddon Estuary; an internationally important area for wildlife and designated a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI). Hodbarrow Nature Reserve is owned by the RSPB and is located to the south of the town, which in October 2005, saw the unveiling of its new public aid, with logos produced by local artists Stuart Edwards and Holly Parminter. Millom Iron Works Local Nature Reserve is located to the east of the town. Both reserves are important for tern species and a number of wading birds and waterfowl. Hodbarrow is renowned for large numbers of wildfowl during the winter. Various birds of prey can be seen hunting on both reserves throughout the year.

In 1866 the Hodbarrow Mining Company built a lighthouse on Hodbarrow Point to guide ships to its dock. When the company built a seawall in 1905 to protect its mineworkings, it established a new lighthouse on the wall and abandoned the old one. Both structures still stand. In 2004 the newer lighthouse (which had itself been abandoned in 1949) was refurbished as part of a local community initiative. At the time a new solar-powered light was placed in the lantern which used to operate at night, but by 2016 it was no longer functioning.

RAF Millom Museum closed in 2010.

Transport
Millom is served by Millom railway station on the Cumbrian Coast Line.

The A5093 road goes through the town and is itself a loop off of the A595. The town council supports the building of a road bridge across the Duddon estuary between Millom and the Furness peninsula.

Media
Local news and television programmes are provided by BBC North West and ITV Granada. Television signals are received from the Winter Hill and the local relay TV transmitters.

Local radio stations are BBC Radio Cumbria on 96.1 FM, Heart North West on 96.9 FM and CandoFM 106.3 FM, a community based station.

The town is served by the local newspaper, North West Evening Mail.

Education
Millom School is a secondary school and sixth form, it includes the adult education centre, an all-weather sports pitch and the "Melvyn Bragg Drama Studio" which was opened in 2005. At one time it had a swimming pool however this was demolished by Cumbria County Council.

There are a number of other schools in the town including;
 * Millom Infants School,
 * The Nursery,
 * St James' Catholic Primary School,
 * Black Combe Junior School, which was built in the early 1970s; its first headmaster, Frank Eccles, died 1 January 2013 aged 89.

Health
Primary health care is provided at the town's community hospital. It also provides some clinics, physiotherapy, podiatry and has a small x-ray facility. The inpatients occupy one ward spanning a six- (now five-) bed bay, a four-bed bay, twin and single rooms. The hospital does not offer A+E service nor any other 'drop-in' healthcare services. The nearest A+E (Accident and Emergency) service is at Furness General Hospital 23 mi away by road at Barrow-in-Furness.

Religious sites
Millom's original parish church is Holy Trinity, a grade I listed building dating to the 12th century. In 1877 the growth of the town required the building of another church and architects Paley and Austin were commissioned to build St George's, a Grade II Listed building. There are also Roman Catholic, Baptist and Methodist churches and a community church. Jehovah's Witnesses also have a Kingdom Hall in the town.

Sport
Millom Recreation Centre comprises a large sports hall and a small multi-gym and caters for a wide range of different sports. Millom has a Crown green bowling club, tennis and cricket are also played in the town.

Millom Rugby League Club is the oldest existing amateur rugby league club in the world having been founded in 1873.

Millom has a Rugby Union club which was formed in 1873, making it one of the oldest rugby clubs in England.

Notable people

 * John A. Agnew, British-American political geographer.
 * Professor John T Andrews, (Born in Millom 1937, educated Millom School, played for the U-19 English Schools Rugby team in 1955 and 1956) University of Colorado Boulder, Fellow American Geophysical Union, Fellow American Association Science. Penrose Medal 2016 Geological Society of America.
 * Norman Nicholson, poet and author, whose work was published by T. S. Eliot at Faber and Faber, spent his entire life in Millom. He is commemorated by a blue plaque.
 * Jimmy Settle, English international footballer, was born in Millom in 1874.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Millom


text:
Electric Ballroom

The Electric Ballroom is a 1,500-capacity performance venue (primarily for rock bands) and indoor market located at 184 Camden High Street in Camden Town, London, England.

History
The Electric Ballroom started as an Irish ballroom in the 1930s, renamed as Electric Ballroom in the summer of 1978 and owned by Bill Fuller, up until his death in 2008, aged 91. It hosts various events.

Venue
The two-storey building has two dance floors and four bars. The ground floor has a stage and full concert facilities, with a capacity of 1,500.

Stand Up Central (formerly known as Russell Howard's Stand Up Central) is a British stand-up comedy television show in front of a live audience at the Electric Ballroom.

MTV Brand New for (2011-2018) is a showcase at Electric Ballroom.

The Electric Ballroom was a roller disco for a brief period from the late 1970s to the early 1980s. By 1990, the building had an indoor market on weekends with about fifty stalls, selling a variety of fashion-, lifestyle- and music-related goods. The market closed at short notice in 2015, resulting in unemployment for many staff and traders.

The Friday club night is Sin City, playing rock and alternative genres. The Friday club was formerly goth night Full Tilt. On Saturday, "Shake" plays mostly pop and dance from the 1970s, 1980s onwards, as well as modern hip hop and R&B.

The Electric Ballroom is the London home for PROGRESS Wrestling, holding events on a regular basis since March 2014.

On 15 April 2018, the People's Vote campaign was started there.

Camden Town tube station
Transport for London proposed to demolish the Electric Ballroom in order to allow the redevelopment of the Camden Town Underground station, but the planning application for the redevelopment was rejected by Camden London Borough Council in 2004. A revised proposal from Transport for London in 2005 to demolish the whole block including the Ballroom, Buck Street Market and the Dr Martens store was rejected by Deputy Prime Minister John Prescott. In 2007 the government declared the Electric Ballroom a dilapidated building, a new argument which allows planning for the extension of the Camden Town tube station to be restarted. A public consultation ended on 22 February 2007. Details, the adoption statement and the adopted planning brief for the Camden Town Underground Station site are on the Camden Council website.

title: Electric Ballroom


text:
Tamworth Castle

Tamworth Castle, a Grade I listed building, is a Norman castle overlooking the mouth of the River Anker into the Tame in the town of Tamworth in Staffordshire, England. Before boundary changes in 1889, however, the castle was within the edge of Warwickshire while most of the town belonged to Staffordshire.

The site served as a residence of the Mercian kings in Anglo Saxon times, but fell into disuse during the Viking invasions. Refortified by the Normans and later enlarged, the building is today one of the best preserved motte-and-bailey castles in England.

History
When Tamworth became the chief residence of Offa, ruler of the expanding Mercian kingdom, he built a palace there from which various charters were issued sedens in palatio regali in Tamoworthige, the first dating from 781. Little trace of its former glory survived the Viking attack in 874 that left the town "for nearly forty years a mass of blackened ruins". Then in 913 Tamworth was rebuilt by Æthelflæd, Lady of the Mercians, who newly fortified the town with an earthen burh. This, however, did little to defend the place when it was again sacked by the Danes in 943.

Over the following centuries there is no more mention of Tamworth as a royal residence, although a mint there struck coins for later Anglo-Saxon kings and eventually for the new Norman monarch, William the Conqueror. The place was then granted to William's steward, Robert Despenser, who built a wooden castle during the 1080s in the typical Norman motte and bailey fashion. Occupying the south western part of the earlier burh, this was the forerunner of the present building.

When Robert died childless, the castle passed to his nieces, one of whom, Matilida, married Robert Marmion. The Marmion family, hereditary champions of the Dukes of Normandy and then of the new Kings of England, held the castle for six generations from c.1100 to 1294. It was during their occupancy that the castle began to be remodelled in stone, although on one occasion it was also in danger of being demolished altogether. Robert Marmion, 3rd Baron Marmion of Tamworth, deserted King John in 1215 during the turmoil of his reign. As a consequence, the king ordered Robert's son Geoffrey to be imprisoned, all of Robert's lands to be confiscated and Tamworth Castle to be demolished. But the fabric had only been partially destroyed by the time of John's death the following year, when Robert's sons were able to regain their father's lands.

The last male of the family to own the castle was Philip Marmion. Since he had no legitimate sons, the castle passed on his death (c.1291) to his daughter and, after she died without an heir in 1294, to her niece Joan. As she was the wife of Sir Alexander Freville, Joan's descendants initiated the next dynasty of owners who held the castle until 1423. The male line then came to an end with Baldwin de Freville, whose son died a minor, and the castle passed to the eldest daughter, Elizabeth, and her husband, Thomas Ferrers of Groby.

Numerous additions were made to the castle over the centuries, especially in the Jacobean period, from which time the arms of the Ferrers family and those with whom they intermarried came to dominate the interior. The shell keep contains a 12th-century gate tower and later residential accommodation in an H plan comprising a 13th-century three-storey north range, and a 17th-century Jacobean three-storey south range linked by an oak timbered Great Hall of the 15th century. A notable exterior feature surviving from early times is the herring-bone pattern of masonry laid diagonally at the base of the causeway up to the gate tower.

The modern period
Originally entry to the castle grounds was by a gateway (little of which now remains) fronting onto the town's market-place. In his itinerary of Britain (1539/43), John Leland found the outworks “cleane decayed and the Wall fallen downe”, although on the mound there remained “a great round Tower of Stone, wherein Mr [Humphrey] Ferrers dwelleth, and now repaireth it.”

However adapted as a residence, the castle's defences had been built with the conditions of mediaeval warfare in mind. During the English Civil War, it was captured by Parliamentary forces on 25 June 1643 after only a two-day siege and was garrisoned by them. In July 1645 the garrison comprised ten officers and 77 soldiers under the command of the military governor, Waldyve Willington. Owing to this use, the castle therefore escaped the slighting ordered for so many others at that period.

After 1668 the castle passed to the relatives of the Ferrers, initially the Shirleys of Chartley and then in 1715 to the Comptons when Elizabeth Ferrers married the 5th Earl of Northampton. During their period of ownership, the castle again fell into disrepair but after the Ferrers grandniece, Charlotte Compton, had married George Townshend of Raynham, it was again refurbished. Following his death in 1811, the castle was acquired by an auctioneer, John Robbins in 1814, although he did not move in until 1821: ownership reverted to the Townshend family on his death.

The moat on the town side had fallen into disuse and from the 15th century onwards parts of it were leased to the houses on that side of Market Street. In 1810 a new gatehouse was built at the foot of the Holloway, where the road ran south along the Lady Bridge. From it a carriageway wound up through the grounds to the castle's entrance. The castle mill was sited further along the Anker, where it was depicted in J. M. W. Turner’s panoramic watercolour of the castle from the south-east (1832). Also included there is the Lady Bridge to the left and the square tower of St Editha’s Church on the right.

The castle had earlier made a brief appearance in Walter Scott’s narrative poem Marmion: A Tale of Flodden Field (1808). Set in Tudor times, its anachronistic anti-hero is proclaimed at the banquet in the first canto as “Lord of Fontenaye…Of Tamworth tower and town”, although the barony of Marmion had by then been extinct for more than two centuries.

Finally in 1891 the Marquess Townshend put the castle up for sale by auction and it was purchased by its present owners, Tamworth Corporation (now Tamworth Borough Council), for £3,000 in 1897 to mark Queen Victoria's diamond jubilee. It was then opened to the public by the Earl of Dartmouth as a museum in 1899.

Royal visitors
Royal visitors after the Norman Conquest:
 * King Henry I, sometime between 1109 and 1115
 * King Henry II, 1158, accompanied by Thomas Becket
 * King Henry III, 1257
 * King Edward II, 1325
 * King Edward III, 1330
 * King James I, 1619, accompanied by his son Prince Charles.

title: Tamworth Castle


text:
Common merganser

The common merganser (North American) or goosander (Eurasian) (Mergus merganser) is a large sea duck of rivers and lakes in forested areas of Europe, Asia, and North America. The common merganser eats mainly fish. It nests in holes in trees.

Taxonomy
The first formal description of the common merganser was by Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the 10th edition of his Systema Naturae. He introduced the current binomial name Mergus merganser. The genus name is a Latin word used by Pliny and other Roman authors to refer to an unspecified waterbird, and merganser is derived from mergus and anser, Latin for "goose". In 1843 John James Audubon used the name "Buff-breasted Merganser" in addition to "goosander" in his book The Birds of America.

The three subspecies differ in only minor detail:

Description
It is 58 - 72 cm long with a 78 - 97 cm wingspan and a weight of 0.9 –; males average slightly larger than females, but with some overlap. Like other species in the genus Mergus, it has a crest of longer head feathers, but these usually lie smoothly rounded behind the head, not normally forming an erect crest. Adult males in breeding plumage are easily distinguished, the body white with a variable salmon-pink tinge, the head black with an iridescent green gloss, the rump and tail grey, and the wings largely white on the inner half, black on the outer half. Females and males in "eclipse" (non-breeding plumage, July to October) are largely grey, with a reddish-brown head, white chin, and white secondary feathers on the wing. Juveniles (both sexes) are similar to adult females but also show a short black-edged white stripe between the eye and bill. The bill and legs are red to brownish-red, brightest on adult males, dullest on juveniles.

Feeding
Like the other mergansers, these piscivorous ducks have serrated edges to their bills to help them grip their prey, so they are often known as "sawbills". In addition to fish, they take a wide range of other aquatic prey, such as molluscs, crustaceans, worms, insect larvae, and amphibians; more rarely, small mammals and birds may be taken. As in other birds with the character, the salmon-pink tinge shown variably by males is probably diet-related, obtained from the carotenoid pigments present in some crustaceans and fish. When not diving for food, they are usually seen swimming on the water surface, or resting on rocks in midstream or hidden among riverbank vegetation, or (in winter) on the edge of floating ice.

Habits
In most places, the common merganser is as much a frequenter of salt water as fresh water. In larger streams and rivers, they float down with the stream for a few miles, and either fly back again or more commonly fish their way back, diving incessantly the whole way. In smaller streams, they are present in pairs or smaller groups, and they float down, twisting round and round in the rapids, or fishing vigorously in a deep pool near the foot of a waterfall or rapid. When floating leisurely, they position themselves in water similar to ducks, but they also swim deep in water like cormorants, especially when swimming upstream. They often sit on a rock in the middle of the water, similar to cormorants, often half-opening their wings to the sun. To rise from water, they flap along the surface for many yards. Once they are airborne, their flight is strong and rapid. They often fish in a group forming a semicircle and driving the fish into shallow water, where they are captured easily. Their ordinary voice is a low, harsh croak, but during the breeding season, males in display, as well as young, make a plaintive, soft whistle. Generally, they are wary, and one or more birds stay on sentry duty to warn the flock of approaching danger. When disturbed, they often disgorge food before moving. Though they move clumsily on land, they resort to running when pressed, assuming a very upright position similar to penguins, and falling and stumbling frequently.

Breeding
Nesting is normally in a tree cavity, so it requires mature forest as its breeding habitat; they also readily use large nest boxes where provided, requiring an entrance hole 15 cm in diameter. In places devoid of trees (like Central Asian mountains), they use holes in cliffs and steep, high banks, sometimes at considerable distances from the water. The female lays 6–17 (most often 8–12) white to yellowish eggs, and raises one brood in a season. The ducklings are taken by their mother on her back to rivers or lakes immediately after hatching, where they feed on freshwater invertebrates and small fish fry, fledging when 60–70 days old. The young are sexually mature at the age of two years. Common mergansers are known to form crèches, with single females having been observed with over 70 ducklings at one time.

Movements
The species is a partial migrant, with birds moving away from areas where rivers and major lakes freeze in the winter, but resident where waters remain open. Eastern North American birds move south in small groups to the United States wherever ice-free conditions exist on lakes and rivers; on the milder Pacific coast, they are permanent residents. Scandinavian and Russian birds also migrate southwards, but western European birds, and a few in Japan, are largely resident. In some populations, the males also show distinct moult migration, leaving the breeding areas as soon as the young hatch to spend the summer (June to September) elsewhere. Notably, most of the western European male population migrates north to estuaries in Finnmark in northern Norway (principally Tanafjord) to moult, leaving the females to care for the ducklings. Much smaller numbers of males also use estuaries in eastern Scotland as a moulting area.

Status and conservation
Overall, the species is not threatened, though illegal persecution by game-fishing interests is a problem in some areas. In February 2020, a rare common merganser sighting was documented in Central Park, New York; the bird was in obvious distress, with its beak being trapped by a piece of debris.

Within western Europe, a marked southward spread has occurred from Scandinavia in the breeding range since about 1850, colonising Scotland in 1871, England in 1941, and also a strong increase in the population in the Alps. They are very scarce in Ireland, with regular breeding confined to a few pairs in County Wicklow.

The goosander is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds applies.

title: Common merganser


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Order of precedence in China

The orders of precedence in China is the ranking of political leaders in China for the purposes of event protocol and to arrange the ordering of names in official news bulletins, both written and televised. It is also sometimes used to assess perceived level of political power. Although there is no formally published ranking, there is usually an established convention and protocol, and the relative positions of Chinese political figures can usually be deduced from the order in meetings and especially by the time and order in which figures are covered by the official media. Since 1982, the General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party has been the highest-ranking official in the People's Republic of China (PRC).

Depending on the person and the time period, the hierarchy will vary accordingly. Since the 1980s, Chinese political positions have become increasingly institutionalized. However, part of the power Chinese leaders carry still derives from who they are, rather than what position they hold.

Individuals can hold multiple top leadership titles but also be unable to claim to be the de facto head as was the case with Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party Hua Guofeng, when "paramount leader" Deng Xiaoping was present. The traditional ranking system was based upon the hierarchical line of the Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party. The names on this list includes all those officially considered "Party and State Leaders".

Applications of protocol
The Order of Precedence has gradually become normalized as the institutions of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the People's Republic became more established and stable. Internal publications and official media adhere to strict ranking protocol when reporting news items or public announcements that involve multiple leaders. Similarly, the order is strictly adhered to when seating leaders at official meetings and functions.

Often, state media news programs, such as Xinwen Lianbo, overlook the actual importance of the story attached to each leader. Rather the news order is determined by political ranking alone. For instance, if a higher-ranked leader is chairing a routine meeting, while a lower-ranked leader is visiting an earthquake disaster zone, the routine meeting will take precedence over the disaster in the order that they are reported.

Protocol ordering of leaders is perhaps most visible at large gatherings of party and state leaders, such as Party Congresses, National People's Congresses, the funeral or memorial service of former leaders, or major anniversary celebrations.

The current order of precedence applies to party, state, and military leaders. It generally follows an order set out by the institutions to which these leaders belong; further ranking of individual leaders are applied within each of the institutions. Where an individual belongs to numerous party and state institutions, they are usually only mentioned on first instance for their highest-ranking post. Since China is a single-party communist state, the General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party is generally considered to hold the highest position in the political system.

Order of institutions
The organs of the party, state, and military, have a generally applied rank order, as follows:
 * 1) Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party
 * 2) Politburo
 * 3) Standing Committee of the Politburo
 * 4) Central Secretariat
 * 5) Highest state power and legislative organ: National People's Congress (NPC)
 * 6) Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (NPCSC)
 * 7) Presidency (as a state organ)
 * 8) Highest executive organ: State Council
 * 9) Top-level united front organisation:
 * National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC)
 * 1) Highest military organ: Central Military Commission (CMC), "one institution bearing two names":
 * 2) The CMC of the Chinese Communist Party
 * 3) The CMC of the People's Republic of China
 * 4) Highest supervisory organs (two institutions sharing one office):
 * 5) Central Commission for Discipline Inspection (CCDI)
 * 6) National Supervisory Commission of the People's Republic of China (NSC)
 * 7) Highest judicial organs:
 * 8) Supreme People's Court (SPC)
 * 9) Supreme People's Procuratorate (SPP)

Order of names in official news

 * 1) Current members of the CCP Politburo Standing Committee, normally including:
 * 2) General Secretary of the CCP Central Committee
 * 3) President of the People's Republic of China
 * 4) Premier of the State Council
 * 5) Chairperson of the NPC Standing Committee
 * 6) Chairperson of the CPPCC National Committee
 * 7) Chairman of the Central Military Commission
 * 8) Other members of the Politburo Standing Committee, normally including:
 * 9) * First Secretary of the CCP Central Secretariat
 * 10) * Secretary of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection
 * 11) * First-ranked Vice Premier of the State Council
 * 12) Vice President
 * 13) Other current members of the Politburo, normally including:
 * 14) * Vice Premiers of the State Council
 * 15) * Vice Chairmen of the Central Military Commission
 * 16) Former General Secretary of the CCP Central Committee
 * 17) Former members of the Central Politburo Standing Committee
 * 18) Current Members of the CCP Central Secretariat
 * 19) Vice Chairpersons of the NPC Standing Committee
 * 20) State Councilors
 * 21) Director of the National Supervisory Commission
 * 22) President of the Supreme People's Court
 * 23) Prosecutor General of the Supreme People's Procuratorate
 * 24) Vice Chairpersons of the CPPCC National Committee, at the bottom of the list of the current national-level "Leaders of the Party and the State" (党和国家领导人)
 * 25) Retired "Leaders of the Party and the State", except former members of the Politburo Standing Committee, ranked by the highest office they held, repeating the same order above.
 * 26) Central Military Commission members except chairpersons and vice chairpersons are not considered national-level "Leaders of the Party and State" but merely leaders of the People's Liberation Army, and generally listed separately by protocol.
 * 27) Current CMC members (except chairmen and vice-chairmen)
 * 28) Former CMC members (except chairmen and vice-chairmen)
 * 29) Provincial-ministerial level officials

Order of seats
State Council]]
 * 1) Current General Secretary of the CCP Central Committee
 * 2) Former General Secretary of the CCP Central Committee
 * 3) Current members of the CCP Politburo Standing Committee except General Secretary, normally including:
 * 4) President of the People's Republic of China
 * 5) Premier of the State Council
 * 6) Chairperson of the NPC Standing Committee
 * 7) Chairperson of the CPPCC National Committee
 * 8) Chairman of the Central Military Commission
 * 9) Other members of the Politburo Standing Committee, normally including:
 * 10) * First-ranked Secretary of the CCP Central Secretariat
 * 11) * Secretary of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection
 * 12) * First-ranked [[Vice Premier of the People's Republic of China|Vice Premier of the
 * 1) Vice President
 * 2) Former members of the Politburo Standing Committee
 * 3) Other current members of the Politburo, normally including:
 * 4) * Vice Premiers of the State Council
 * 5) * Vice Chairmen of the Central Military Commission
 * 6) Current Members of the CCP Central Secretariat
 * 7) Vice Chairpersons of the National People's Congress Standing Committee
 * 8) State Councilors
 * 9) Director of the National Supervisory Commission
 * 10) President of the Supreme People's Court
 * 11) Prosecutors General of the Supreme People's Procuratorate
 * 12) Vice Chairpersons of the CPPCC National Committee, at the bottom of the list of the current national-level "Leaders of the Party and the State" (党和国家领导人)
 * 13) Retired "Leaders of the Party and the State", except former members of the Politburo Standing Committee, ranked by the highest office they held, repeating the same order above.
 * 14) Central Military Commission members except chairpersons and vice-chairpersons are not considered national-level "Leaders of the Party and State" but merely leaders of the People's Liberation Army.
 * 15) Current CMC members (except chairmen and vice-chairmen)
 * 16) Former CMC members (except chairmen and vice-chairmen)
 * 17) Provincial-ministerial level officials

NB:
 * The ranking of a Vice President of the PRC is normally based on whether he is a current or former Politburo Standing Committee member or other member of the Politburo. Press coverage of the March 2018 National People's Congress ranked the new Vice President Wang Qishan immediately after the Standing Committee, from which he recently retired.

National Leaders
National leaders are ranked based on the offices they hold, their seniority, or sometimes simply their perceived personal prestige. During the Mao years, ranking of leaders was fairly arbitrary. For instance, during the Cultural Revolution, Mao himself dictated the exact protocol sequence depending on who was held in favour at the time.

Since 1982, rankings gradually stabilized and more consistent patterns could be observed. For instance, the General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party always ranked first in the protocol sequence. This is despite the fact that some General Secretaries were not the pre-eminent political leaders. For example, General Secretaries Hu Yaobang and Zhao Ziyang (both ranked first) were, in practice, subordinate to "paramount leader" Deng Xiaoping, who was ranked behind them in protocol. Deng at the time served as Chairman of the Central Military Commission and was ranked second overall in the leadership hierarchy.

The President is a largely ceremonial post, but it is typically ranked immediately after the General Secretary and before other offices of the state. When the President and General Secretary are two different people (prior to 1993, and in brief interregnums in 2003 and 2013), the President is ranked second to the General Secretary. Between 1982 and 1987, the President ranked after the Premier.

After the President, the Chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress, the Premier, and the Chairman of the National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference follow; this ordering seems to supersede the Standing Committee order when officeholders are not themselves part of the Standing Committee, although typically since 1993 the heads of the "four national bodies" are concurrently members of the Standing Committee. Between 1997 and 2002, NPC Chair Li Peng was ranked second. During the same period, the Premier, Zhu Rongji, as head of government, was ranked third. The Chairman of the National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was ranked fourth. This ordering remained consistent between 2002 and 2012, when NPC Chair Wu Bangguo ranked above Premier Wen Jiabao. However, in 2013, this ordering changed. The Premier, Li Keqiang, was ranked 2nd, immediately after the General Secretary, and in front of the NPC Chairman Zhang Dejiang.

The Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, colloquially called the Zhengzhiju Changweihui in Chinese, is the apex of political power in China. Its members (Zhengzhiju Changwei) are strictly ranked. The heads of the four national bodies typically occupy the top four ranking spots of the Standing Committee. The other members of the Standing Committee are ranked immediately after them. The rankings of the remaining Standing Committee members are determined by a combination of the offices they hold and their seniority. For example, Li Changchun served as a Standing Committee member with no strictly defined office between 2002 and 2012; between 2002 and 2007, he was ranked eighth in protocol sequence, but in 2007, having now served one term on the body, his rank rose to fifth, immediately after CPPCC chair Jia Qinglin and in front of putative successor and executive secretary of the Secretariat Xi Jinping.

The current ranking of the Politburo Standing Committee is as follows:

Vice president
Between 2018 and 2023, Vice President Wang Qishan, himself a former member of the Politburo Standing Committee, has been placed in front of the other members of the Politburo and in front of former leaders, and immediately after the sitting Politburo Standing Committee members. After Wang Qishan retired in 2023, his successor Han Zheng, is also a former member of the Politburo Standing Committee, which placed Hanin the same rank as Wang.

Other members of the CCP Politburo
From its early history, the Politburo was theoretically a "leadership collective", with equal status accorded to each of its members. In practice, the Politburo Standing Committee members have elevated status within the body and are considered its most important and powerful members. When a new Politburo member list is first announced, or when the Politburo membership is being reported independently of other bodies, it is ordered by "the number of strokes in the surname character", a traditional method of 'alphabetization' of Chinese names; in these cases, all Politburo members, including PSC members, are named in this sequence. Unlike the PSC, Politburo members are not ranked based on presumed level of power. When it comes to seating protocol and official announcements about the Politburo in conjunction with other party and state bodies, the Politburo Standing Committee members are announced first, before the rest of the Politburo members.

The members of the Politburo Standing Committee are also Politburo members; since they are already named above, they are omitted from this list
 * Ma Xingrui, party secretary of Xinjiang
 * Wang Yi, director of the Office of the Central Foreign Affairs Commission
 * Yin Li, party secretary of Beijing
 * Shi Taifeng, head of the United Front Work Department
 * Liu Guozhong, vice premier of the State Council
 * Li Ganjie, head of the Organization Department
 * Li Shulei, head of the Publicity Department
 * Li Hongzhong, first-ranked vice chairman of the National People's Congress Standing Committee
 * He Weidong, vice chairman of the Central Military Commission
 * He Lifeng, vice premier of the State Council
 * Zhang Youxia, vice chairman of the Central Military Commission
 * Zhang Guoqing, vice premier of the State Council
 * Chen Wenqing, secretary of the Central Political and Legal Affairs Commission
 * Chen Jining, party secretary of Shanghai
 * Chen Min'er, party secretary of Tianjin
 * Yuan Jiajun, party secretary of Chongqing
 * Huang Kunming, party secretary of Guangdong

Living former members of the Politburo Standing Committee
Immediately following the 16th Party Congress, Jiang Zemin was ranked 2nd overall on the leadership protocol hierarchy, immediately after Hu Jintao. At the conclusion of the 18th Party Congress, when Hu Jintao retired as General Secretary, Jiang was ranked 2nd overall, after Xi Jinping, and Hu Jintao was ranked 3rd, after Jiang. Since 2013, judging mostly based on the official obituary notices of various deceased party officials, Hu seems to have progressively moved "lower" on the protocol strata, first below all current members of the Politburo Standing Committee, and as of 2014, behind all members of the sitting Politburo.

At major functions, Jiang and Hu sat immediately next to Xi Jinping, visually giving them prominence over the other Politburo Standing Committee members on television footage. However, in the official bulletins of the functions, the names of Jiang and Hu were announced after all sitting members of the Politburo. This convention was used at the National Day banquet held on September 30, 2014, the 2015 China Victory Day Parade atop Tiananmen Gate, the opening session of the 19th Party Congress in October 2017, the military parade at 70th anniversary of the People's Republic of China in October 2019, 100th Anniversary of the Chinese Communist Party in July 2021, the opening session of the 20th Party Congress in October 2022, and Jiang Zemin's funeral in December 2022.

Former Politburo Standing Committee members who were not "in good standing" in official party evaluations are not included in this list; this includes those ousted from positions of power but not formally expelled from the party. For instance, Zhao Ziyang and Hua Guofeng were typically omitted from this list when they were alive. Zhou Yongkang, who was convicted on corruption charges in 2015, was also removed from this list. Hu Qili is omitted from this list.

Secretaries of the CCP Secretariat

 * Cai Qi (included earlier in the order of precedence as a member of the Politburo Standing Committee)
 * Shi Taifeng (included earlier in the order of precedence as a member of the Politburo)
 * Li Ganjie (included earlier in the order of precedence as a member of the Politburo)
 * Li Shulei (included earlier in the order of precedence as a member of the Politburo)
 * Chen Wenqing (included earlier in the order of precedence as a member of the Politburo)
 * Liu Jinguo
 * Wang Xiaohong

Vice Chairpersons of the National People's Congress Standing Committee

 * Li Hongzhong (included earlier in the order of precedence as a member of the Politburo)
 * Wang Dongming
 * Xiao Jie
 * Zheng Jianbang
 * Ding Zhongli
 * Hao Mingjin
 * Cai Dafeng
 * He Wei
 * Wu Weihua
 * Tie Ning
 * Peng Qinghua
 * Zhang Qingwei
 * Losang Jamcan
 * Shohrat Zakir

State Councilors, Supervisory Chief, and Judiciary Chiefs

 * State Councilors (in order of rank)
 * Li Shangfu
 * Wang Xiaohong (included earlier in the order of precedence as a secretary of the Secretariat)
 * Wu Zhenglong
 * Shen Yiqin
 * Qin Gang
 * Director of the National Supervisory Commission (Liu Jinguo) (included earlier in the order of precedence as a secretary of the Secretariat)
 * Chief Justice of the Supreme People's Court (Zhang Jun)
 * Prosecutor General of the Supreme People's Procuratorate (Ying Yong)

Vice Chairpersons of the CPPCC National Committee
In the following order:
 * Shi Taifeng (included earlier in the order of precedence as a member of the Politburo)
 * Hu Chunhua
 * Shen Yueyue
 * Wang Yong
 * Zhou Qiang
 * Pagbalha Geleg Namgyai
 * Edmund Ho
 * Leung Chun-ying
 * Bagatur
 * Su Hui
 * Shao Hong
 * Gao Yunlong
 * Chen Wu
 * Mu Hong
 * Xian Hui
 * Wang Dongfeng
 * Jiang Xinzhi
 * Jiang Zuojun
 * He Baoxiang
 * Wang Guangqian
 * Qin Boyong
 * Zhu Yongxin
 * Yang Zhen

Members of the Central Military Commission

 * Li Shangfu (included earlier in the order of precedence as a state councilor)
 * Liu Zhenli
 * Miao Hua
 * Zhang Shengmin

Former national leaders
Each year, state media releases a list of "old comrades" that the current cohort of leaders would pay their respects to during the days leading up to Chinese New Year. These leaders are strictly ranked based on the hierarchy of their positions during their last term in office. In general, these rankings follow the rules as set out below:
 * Those who held paramount leadership
 * Those who held top leadership posts over one of the four major state or party organs - that is, the head of the Central Committee, National People's Congress, State Council, and CPPCC National Committee.
 * Other former members of the Politburo Standing Committee
 * Those who held Politburo membership
 * Those who held Secretariat membership
 * Those who served as Vice-Chairs of the National People's Congress
 * Those who served as Vice-Premiers or State Councilors (and not otherwise members of the Politburo)
 * Those who served as President of the Supreme People's Court or Supreme People's Procuratorate
 * Those who served as vice-chairpersons of the CPPCC National Committee

In general, if leaders are of equal rank on all accounts, those who belong to an earlier cohort are ranked prior to those of later cohorts; leaders are ranked by the last substantive position they held. For example, Li Tieying is ranked among the vice-chairmen of the National People's Congress, and not among the Politburo members, even though he would have qualified for higher ranking among Politburo members - he retired while holding the post NPC vice-chair. Similarly, Hu Qili was a former member of the Politburo Standing Committee, but he was demoted following the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 and the last position he held prior to retirement was one of the Vice-Chairs of the CPPCC, hence he is ranked among CPPCC Vice-Chairs in protocol sequence.

Rankings below the National Leadership
Within the People's Republic of China, there is a statutory "National Civil Service Rankings System" to determine ranking of officials below the minister-level, stretching from the very important positions (Provincial Party Secretaries, for instance) to the lowest positions (for example, someone who is responsible for a township office). Their relative ranking determines their annual salary, living stipends, entitlement to official residences and vehicles, pensions, benefits, and so forth. Provincial leaders do not enjoy an elevated protocol rank in their own province of jurisdiction. Rather they must still be placed behind all national leaders listed above.

For the purposes of protocol rankings, the heads of national ministries technically hold the same rank as provincial governors. Therefore, they do not qualify as "national leaders". Departmental heads of the CCP, and ministers of the State Council are both called bùzhǎng (部长; literally "Head of Department"). However, many Communist Party Department heads, such as heads of the Organization and Propaganda departments, almost always hold seats on the Politburo, and thus are ranked as "national leaders". Ministers of central government departments rarely hold Politburo seats. When all else is equal, the party department heads rank above state department heads; for example, the head of the International Liaison Department of the Chinese Communist Party will always rank ahead of the Minister of Foreign Affairs if they appear in the same function. In a similar vein, the provincial Party Secretary will always rank above the provincial Governor.

The hierarchy of party vs. state positions is strictly adhered to for official protocol, demonstrating the 'vanguard' status of the Communist Party in Chinese politics. Generally, party positions are treated with more prestige than state positions of an equal level, but technically the official civil service privileges are the same for party and state officials of the same administrative level.

Local Party Committee rankings
A Party Committee is the de facto highest ruling council of any given jurisdiction in the PRC, except for the Special Administrative Regions of Hong Kong and Macau.

In provincial, municipal, and other local-level protocol rankings, the four main institutions generally follow the ranking of:
 * 1) Party Secretary
 * 2) Chief of Government (Governor in Provinces or Mayor in Directly Governed Cities, usually a Deputy Secretary)
 * 3) Chairman of the People's Congress
 * 4) Chairman of the regional People's Political Consultative Conference

Provincial party standing committees are powerful bodies whose membership is vetted directly by the Organization Department of the Chinese Communist Party based on the nomenklatura system. The members of these bodies are generally ranked by date of accession to sub-provincial rank, although in practice there appears to be some variation to this rule.

title: Order of precedence in China


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André-Louis Debierne

André-Louis Debierne (14 July 1874 – 31 August 1949) was a French chemist. He is often considered the discoverer of the element actinium, though H. W. Kirby disputed this in 1971 and gave credit instead to German chemist Friedrich Oskar Giesel.

Biography
Debierne studied at the elite École supérieure de physique et de chimie industrielles de la ville de Paris (ESPCI ParisTech).

He was a student of Charles Friedel, was a close friend of Pierre and Marie Curie and was associated with their work. In 1899, he discovered the radioactive element actinium, as a result of continuing the work with pitchblende that the Curies had initiated.

After the death of Pierre Curie in 1906, Debierne helped Marie Curie carry on and worked with her in teaching and research.

In 1911, he and Marie Curie prepared radium in metallic form in visible amounts. They did not keep it metallic, however. Having demonstrated the metal's existence as a matter of scientific curiosity, they reconverted it into compounds with which they might continue their researches.

title: André-Louis Debierne


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Tom Thumb

Tom Thumb is a character of English folklore. The History of Tom Thumb was published in 1621 and was the first fairy tale printed in English. Tom is no bigger than his father's thumb, and his adventures include being swallowed by a cow, tangling with giants, and becoming a favourite of King Arthur. The earliest allusions to Tom occur in various 16th-century works such as Reginald Scot's Discovery of Witchcraft (1584), where Tom is cited as one of the supernatural folk employed by servant maids to frighten children. Tattershall in Lincolnshire, England, reputedly has the home and grave of Tom Thumb.

Aside from his own tales, Tom figures in Henry Fielding's 1730 play Tom Thumb, a companion piece to his The Author's Farce. It was expanded into a single 1731 piece titled The Tragedy of Tragedies, or the History of Tom Thumb the Great.

In the mid-18th century, books began to be published specifically for children (some with their authorship attributed to "Tommy Thumb"), and by the mid-19th century, Tom was a fixture of the nursery library. The tale took on moral overtones and some writers, such as Charlotte Mary Yonge, cleansed questionable passages. Dinah Mulock, however, refrained from scrubbing the tale of its vulgarities. Tom Thumb's story has been adapted into several films.

History

Tom Thumb may have been a real person born around 1519, as there is a grave purporting to be his. It is set into the floor adjacent to the font of the main chapel in Holy Trinity Church at Tattershall, Lincolnshire, UK. The inscription reads: "T. THUMB, Aged 101 Died 1620". The grave measures just 16" (40 cm) in length.

The earliest surviving text is a 40-page booklet printed in London for Thomas Langley in 1621 entitled The History of Tom Thumbe, the Little, for his small stature surnamed, King Arthur's Dwarfe: whose Life and adventures containe many strange and wonderfull accidents, published for the delight of merry Time-spenders. The author is presumed to be Londoner Richard Johnson (1579–1659?) because his initials appear on the last page. The only known copy is in the Morgan Library & Museum, New York.

Tom was already a traditional folk character when the booklet was printed, and it is likely that printed materials circulated prior to Johnson's. It is not known how much Johnson contributed to Tom's character or his adventures. William Fulke referred to Tom in 1579 in Heskins Parleament Repealed, and Thomas Nashe referred to him in 1592 in his prose satire on the vices of the age Pierce Penniless, His Supplication to the Divell. Reginald Scot listed Tom in his Discoverie of Witchcraft (1584) as one of the creatures used by servant maids to frighten children, along with witches, dwarfs, elves, fairies, giants, and other supernatural folk.

Tom was mentioned by James Field in Coryat's Crudities (1611): "Tom Thumbe is dumbe, until the pudding creepe, in which he was intomb'd, then out doth peepe." The incident of the pudding was the most popular in connection with the character. It is alluded to in Ben Jonson's masque of the Fortunate Isles: "Thomas Thumb in a pudding fat, with Doctor Rat."

Richard Johnson's History may have been in circulation as early as this date because the title page woodblock in the 1621 edition shows great wear. Johnson himself makes it clear in the preface that Tom was long known by "old and young... Bachelors and Maids... and Shepheard and the young Plow boy".

The tale belongs to the swallow cycle. Tom is swallowed by a cow, a giant, a fish, and by a miller and a salmon in some extensions to Johnson's tale. In this respect, the tale shows little imaginative development. Tom is delivered from such predicaments rather crudely, but editors of later dates found ways to make his deliverance more seemly and he rarely passed beyond the mouth.

Tom's tale was reprinted countless times in Britain, and was being sold in America as early as 1686. A metrical version was published in 1630 entitled Tom Thumbe, His Life and Death: Wherein is declared many Maruailous Acts of Manhood, full of wonder, and strange merriments: Which little Knight liued in King Arthurs time, and famous in the Court of Great Brittaine. The book was reprinted many times, and two more parts were added to the first around 1700. The three parts were reprinted many times.

In 1711, William Wagstaffe published A Comment upon The History of Tom Thumbe. In 1730, English dramatist Henry Fielding used Tom Thumb as the central figure of a play by that name, which he rewrote in 1731 as the farce The Tragedy of Tragedies, or the History of Tom Thumb the Great. The play is filled with 18th-century political and literary satire and is intended as a parody of heroic tragedies. The title of "The Great" may be intended as a reference to politician Sir Robert Walpole who was often called "The Great."

Henry Fielding's tragedy Tom Thumb was the basis for an opera constructed by Kane O'Hara. Fielding's Tom is cast as a mighty warrior and a conqueror of giants, despite his stature, as well as the object of desire for many of the ladies at court. The plot is largely concerned with the various love triangles amongst the characters, who include Princess Huncamunca, giantess Glumdalca, and Queen Dollalolla (Arthur's wife in this version). Matters are complicated when Arthur awards Tom the hand of Huncamunca in marriage which results in Dollalolla and the jealous Grizzle seeking revenge. Eventually, Tom dies when swallowed by a cow, but his ghost returns. At the conclusion, Tom's ghost is killed by Grizzle and most of the cast kill each other in duels or take their own lives in grief.

Fielding's play was later adapted into a spoof on opera conventions called The Opera of Operas; or Tom Thumb the Great by playwrights Eliza Haywood and William Hatchett. This version includes a happy ending in which Tom is spat back out by the cow and the others are resurrected by Merlin's magic. This is considered to be a satirical comment on the unlikely and tacked-on nature of many happy endings in literature and drama.

In the mid-18th century, books began appearing specifically for children, and Tom was cited as the author of titles such as Tommy Thumb's Song Book (1744) and Tommy Thumb's Little Story Book (c. 1760). In 1791, Joseph Ritson remarked that Tom's popularity was known far and wide: "Every city, town, village, shop, stall, man, woman, and child, in the kingdom, can bear witness to it."

Tom's story was originally intended for adults, but it was relegated to the nursery by the mid-19th century. Vulgar episodes were sanitized, and moralizing colored the tale. In Charlotte Mary Yonge's 1856 adaptation, Tom resists his natural urges to play impish pranks, renounces his ties to Fairyland, and pronounces himself a Christian. As Mordred's rebellion wears on in the last days of Arthur's reign, Tom refuses to return to Fairyland, preferring to die as an honorable Christian.

In 1863, Dinah Maria Craik Mulock refused to cleanse the tale's questionable passages and let the story speak for itself. She adds material, and Tom has adventures that again involve being swallowed by a miller and a salmon, being imprisoned in a mousetrap, angering King Thunston and his queen, and finally dying from the poisonous breath of a spider. Tom's tale has since been adapted to all sorts of children's books with new material added and existing material reworked, but his mischievous nature and his bravery remain undiminished.

Plot
Richard Johnson's The History of Tom Thumbe of 1621 tells that in the days of King Arthur, old Thomas of the Mountain, a plowman and a member of the King's Council, wants nothing more than a son, even if he is no bigger than his thumb. He sends his wife to consult with Merlin. In three months' time, she gives birth to the diminutive Tom Thumb. The "Queene of Fayres" and her attendants act as midwives. She provides Tom with an oak leaf hat, a shirt of cobweb, a doublet of thistledown, stockings of apple rind, and shoes of mouse's skin.

Tom cheats at games with other boys and because of his many tricks, the boys will not associate with him. Tom retaliates by using magic to hang his mother's pots and glasses from a sunbeam. When his fellows try the same, their pots and glasses fall and are broken. Thereafter, Tom stays home under his mother's supervision. At Christmas, she makes puddings, but Tom falls into the batter and is boiled into one of them. When a tinker comes begging, Tom's mother inadvertently gives him the pudding containing her son.

His mother thereafter keeps a closer watch upon him. One day, he accompanies her to the field to milk the cows. He sits under a thistle, but a red cow swallows him. The cow is given a laxative and Tom passes from her in a "cow pat". He is taken home and cleaned. Another day, he accompanies his father for the seed sowing and rides in the horse's ear. Tom is set down in the field to play the scarecrow, but a raven carries him away. His parents search for him, but are unable to find him. The raven drops Tom at the castle of a giant. The cruel giant swallows the tiny boy like a pill. Tom thrashes about so much in the giant's stomach that he is vomited into the sea. There, he is eaten once more by a fish which is caught for King Arthur's supper. The cook is astonished to see the little man emerge from the fish. Tom then becomes King Arthur's Dwarf.

Tom becomes a favorite at King Arthur's royal court, especially among the ladies. There is revelry; Tom joins the jousting and dances in the palm of a Maid of Honour. He goes home briefly to see his parents, taking some money from the treasury with the king's permission, then returns to court. The Queene of Fayres finds him asleep on a rose and leaves him several gifts: an enchanted hat of knowledge, a ring of invisibility, a shape-changing girdle, and shoes to take him anywhere in a moment.

Tom falls seriously ill when a lady blows her nose, but is cured by the physician to King Twaddell of the Pygmies. He takes a ride in his walnut shell coach and meets Garagantua. Each boasts of his many powers. When Garagantua threatens to harm Tom, he is cast under an enchantment and Tom hurries home to safety. King Arthur listens with amazement to Tom's many adventures.

Richard Johnson's 1621 narrative ends here, but he promised his readers a sequel that has never been found, if published at all. In 1630, a metrical version in three parts was published that continues Tom's adventures.

Later narratives
Other versions paint a different picture to Tom's end. Dinah Mulock continued the tale and noted that Tom exhausted himself with jousting but recovered in Fairyland. When he returned to Arthur's court, he accidentally landed in a bowl of the king's frumenty. Tom enrages the cook and is threatened with beheading. He seeks refuge in the mouth of a passing slack-jawed miller. Sensing tiny voices and movements within him, the man believes he is possessed. He yawns and Tom emerges, but the Miller is so angry he tosses Tom into a river where he is swallowed by a salmon. The fish is caught, taken to the King's kitchen, and Tom is found and kept in a mousetrap until King Arthur forgives him.

The court goes hunting and Tom joins them upon his steed, a mouse. A cat catches the mouse and Tom is injured. He is carried to Fairyland where he recovers and dwells for several years. When he returns to court, King Thunston now reigns. Charmed by the little man, the king gives Tom a tiny coach pulled by six mice. This makes the queen jealous as she received no such gifts and she frames Tom with being insolent to her. Tom attempts to escape on a passing butterfly, but is caught and imprisoned in a mousetrap. He is freed by a curious cat and once more wins back the favor of King Thunston. Sadly, he does not live to enjoy it as he is killed by a spider's bite. Tom is laid to rest beneath rosebush and a marble monument is raised to his memory with the epitaph:

 * Here lies Tom Thumb, King Arthur’s knight,
 * Who died by a spider’s cruel bite.
 * He was well known in Arthur’s court,
 * Where he afforded gallant sport;
 * He rode at tilt and tournament,
 * And on a mouse a-hunting went;
 * Alive he fill’d the court with mirth
 * His death to sorrow soon gave birth.
 * Wipe, wipe your eyes, and shake your head
 * And cry, ‘Alas! Tom Thumb is dead.

Adaptations
Tom Thumb is the subject of several films.

Animated shorts

 * In 1936, a short ComiColor Cartoons, directed by Ub Iwerks was released,
 * in 1940 an Merrie Melodies short called Tom Thumb in Trouble. was released by Chuck Jones

Live-action

 * In 1958, George Pal directed a live action musical, tom thumb (rendered in lowercase to denote the character's small size) starring Russ Tamblyn, based on the Brothers Grimm's story Thumbling.
 * Also in 1958, although not released in the U.S. until 1967 in a dubbed version, a Mexican version of Tom Thumb (originally titled Pulgarcito) was made based loosely on Charles Perrault's "Le petit Poucet".
 * In 2001, a French film titled Le petit poucet was released that was directed by Olivier Dahan and starred Nils Hugon, Catherine Deneuve and Raphaël Fuchs-Willig

Feature Animation

 * A darker, modernized film version using stop motion animation called The Secret Adventures of Tom Thumb was released in 1993
 * Tom Thumb Meets Thumbelina and the 2002 direct-to-DVD animated movie, The Adventures of Tom Thumb and Thumbelina brought together the two most famous tiny people of literature, with Tom voiced by Elijah Wood.

Literature

 * Text stories and later comic strips based on the Tom Thumb character appeared in the anthology comic The Beano from the first issue in 1938 until the late fifties.

Similar tales and characters
There are many thumb-sized characters around the world: Le petit poucet (France), Der kleine Däumling (Germany), Tommelise (Denmark), Little One Inch/Issun-bōshi (Japan), Si Kelingking (Indonesia), Thumbikin (Norway), Garbancito and Pulgarcito (Spain), Pollicino (Italy), Piñoncito (Chile), Липунюшка (Lipunyushka or No-Bigger-Than-A-Finger) (Russia), Palčić (Serbia), Patufet (Catalonia), The Hazel-nut Child (Bukovina), Klein Duimpje and Pinkeltje (Netherlands), Hüvelyk Matyi (Hungary), Ko Ko Nga Latt Ma (Myanmar), দেড় আঙ্গুলে (Dēṛa āṅgulē) (Bengal), Sprīdītis (Latvia) and others.

title: Tom Thumb


text:
Charles Stratton

Charles Stratton may refer to:

 * Charles C. Stratton (1796–1859), governor of New Jersey, 1845–1848
 * General Tom Thumb (Charles Sherwood Stratton, 1838–1883), circus performer for P. T. Barnum
 * Charlie Stratton, film director

title: Charles Stratton


text:
Geographical pricing

Geographical pricing, in marketing, is the practice of modifying a basic list price based on the geographical location of the buyer. It is intended to reflect the costs of shipping to different locations. There are several ways to apply the cost of shipping to the prices.

FOB origin
With FOB (Free on Board) origin (or FOB plant) pricing, the shipping cost from the factory or warehouse is paid by the purchaser. Ownership of the goods is transferred to the buyer as soon as it is placed aboard a common carrier. Typically the choice of carrier is made by the buyer. FOB pricing is utilized by larger businesses capable of arranging their own logistics and marketing intermediaries.

With a variation of the FOB pricing called FOB origin-freight allowed or freight absorbed, the terms allow buyers to subtract all or part of the cost of transportation from their bills. This amounts to a price discount, and is used as a market expansion tactic by the companies with high fixed costs.

Uniform delivered pricing
Uniform delivered pricing is the opposite of the FOB origin pricing, as the same price is quoted to all customers. The transportation costs are averaged across all buyers, and the nearby customers are in effect subsidizing the faraway ones (paying more for the delivery than it costs the seller, the difference is called the phantom freight). This approach resembles the fees for the first-class mail service, thus uniform pricing has another name, postage stamp pricing.

Zone pricing
Zone pricing (also zonal pricing) is a variant of the uniform pricing: the prices are the same within a "zone" (a geographical slice of the market), prices increase with the costs of shipping and reflect the average delivery cost inside the zone. This is the approach taken, for example, by the parcel delivery services. The zone pricing reduces the phantom freight, yet keeps the pricing structure relatively simple, thus making it easier for the seller to compete in a faraway market.

The definition of zones is sometimes done by drawing concentric circles on a map with the plant or warehouse at the center and each circle defining the boundary of a price zone. Instead of using circles, irregularly shaped price boundaries can be drawn that reflect geography, population density, transportation infrastructure, and shipping cost. (The term "zone pricing" can also refer to the practice of setting prices that reflect local competitive conditions, i.e., the market forces of supply and demand, rather than actual cost of transportation.)

Gasoline
Gasoline marketers find it profitable to map out zones by determining what price the local market can bear and charging the gas station owners different wholesale prices depending on the zone.

Zone pricing, as practiced in the gasoline industry in the United States, is the pricing of gasoline based on a complex and secret weighting of factors, such as the number of competing stations, number of vehicles, average traffic flow, population density, and geographic characteristics.

Many businesspeople and economists state that gasoline zone pricing merely reflects the costs of doing business in a complex and volatile marketplace. Critics contend that industry monopoly and the ability to control not only industry-owned "corporate" stations, but locally owned or franchise stations, make zone pricing into an excuse to raise gasoline prices virtually at will. Oil industry representatives contend that while they set wholesale and dealer tank wagon prices, individual dealers are free to see whatever prices they wish and that this practice in itself causes widespread price variations outside industry control.

Basing-point pricing
With basing-point pricing, certain locations are designated as basing points. The quoted price includes the freight fees from the basing point closest to the customer (not necessarily being the place the product is actually shipped from). The well-known example was the "Pittsburgh-plus" scheme, where all steel deliveries in the US were priced as if the shipment originated in Pittsburgh, even as the steel manufacturing moved away from Pittsburgh. The basing-point pricing is unpopular with the buyers.

title: Geographical pricing


text:
A. K. Dewdney

Alexander Keewatin Dewdney (August 5, 1941 – March 9, 2024) was a Canadian mathematician, computer scientist, author, filmmaker, and conspiracy theorist. Dewdney was the son of Canadian artist and author Selwyn Dewdney and art therapist Irene Dewdney, and brother of poet Christopher Dewdney.

Personal life
Dewdney was born in London, Ontario on August 5, 1941, and died there on March 9, 2024, at the age of 82.

Art and fiction
In his student days, Dewdney made a number of influential experimental films, including Malanga, on the poet Gerald Malanga, Four Girls, Scissors, and his most ambitious film, the pre-structural Maltese Cross Movement. Margaret Atwood wrote that a poetry scrapbook by Dewdney, based on the Maltese Cross Movement film, "raises scrapbooking to an art".

The Academy Film Archive has preserved two of Dewdney's films: The Maltese Cross Movement in 2009 and Wildwood Flower in 2011.

Dewdney wrote two novels, The Planiverse (about an imaginary two-dimensional world) and Hungry Hollow: The Story of a Natural Place. Dewdney lived in London, Ontario where he held the position of Professor Emeritus at the University of Western Ontario.

Computing, mathematics, and science
Dewdney wrote a number of books on mathematics, computing, and bad science. He also founded and edited a magazine on recreational programming called Algorithm between 1989 and 1993.

Dewdney followed Martin Gardner and Douglas Hofstadter in authoring Scientific American magazine's recreational mathematics column, renamed to "Computer Recreations", then "Mathematical Recreations", from 1984 to 1991. He published more than 10 books on scientific possibilities and puzzles. Dewdney was a co-inventor of programming game Core War.

Beginning in the nineties, Dewdney worked on biology, both as a field ecologist and as a mathematical biologist, contributing a solution to the problem of determining the underlying dynamics of species abundance in natural communities.

Conspiracy theories
Dewdney was a member of the 9/11 truth movement, and theorized that the planes used in the September 11 attacks had been emptied of passengers and were flown by remote control. He based these claims in part on a series of experiments (one with funding from Japan's TV Asahi) that, he claimed, showed that cell phones do not work on airplanes, from which he concluded that the phone calls received from hijacked passengers during the attacks must have been faked.

Works

 * The Planiverse: Computer Contact with a Two-Dimensional World (1984). ISBN 0-387-98916-1.
 * The Armchair Universe: An Exploration of Computer Worlds (1988). ISBN 0-7167-1939-8. (collection of "Mathematical Recreations" columns)
 * The Magic Machine: A Handbook of Computer Sorcery (1990). ISBN 0-7167-2144-9. (collection of "Mathematical Recreations" columns)
 * The New Turing Omnibus: Sixty-Six Excursions in Computer Science (1993). ISBN 0-8050-7166-0.
 * The Tinkertoy Computer and Other Machinations (1993). ISBN 0-7167-2491-X. (collection of "Mathematical Recreations" columns)
 * Introductory Computer Science: Bits of Theory, Bytes of Practice (1996). ISBN 0-7167-8286-3.
 * 200% of Nothing: An Eye Opening Tour Through the Twists and Turns of Math Abuse and Innumeracy (1996). ISBN 0-471-14574-2.
 * Yes, We Have No Neutrons: An Eye-Opening Tour through the Twists and Turns of Bad Science (1997). ISBN 0-471-29586-8.
 * Hungry Hollow: The Story of a Natural Place (1998). ISBN 0-387-98415-1.
 * A Mathematical Mystery Tour: Discovering the Truth and Beauty of the Cosmos (2001). ISBN 0-471-40734-8.
 * Beyond Reason: Eight Great Problems that Reveal the Limits of Science (2004). ISBN 0-471-01398-6.

title: A. K. Dewdney