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Denis of Portugal

Denis (Dionysius, Dinis or Diniz, ; 9 October 1261 – 7 January 1325), called the Farmer King (Rei Lavrador) and the Poet King (Rei Poeta), was King of Portugal. The eldest son of Afonso III of Portugal by his second wife, Beatrice of Castile, and grandson of Afonso II of Portugal, Denis succeeded his father in 1279. He was married to Elizabeth of Aragon, who was later canonised as a saint of the Roman Catholic Church.

Denis ruled Portugal for over 46 years. He worked to reorganise his country's economy and gave an impetus to Portuguese agriculture. He ordered the planting of a large pine forest (that still exists today) near Leiria to prevent the soil degradation that threatened the region and to serve as a source of raw materials for the construction of the royal ships. He was also known for his poetry, which constitutes an important contribution to the development of Portuguese as a literary language.

Reign
In 1290, Denis began to pursue the systematic centralisation of royal power by imposing judicial reforms, decreeing Portuguese "the official language of legal and judicial proceedings", creating the first university in Portugal, and ridding the military orders in the country of foreign influences. His policies encouraged economic development with the creation of numerous towns and trade fairs. He advanced the interests of the Portuguese merchants, and set up by mutual agreement a fund called the Bolsa de Comércio, the first documented form of marine insurance in Europe, approved on 10 May 1293. Always concerned with development of the country's infrastructure, he encouraged the discovery and exploitation of sulphur, silver, tin and iron mines and organised the export of excess production of agricultural crops, salt, and salted fish to England, Flanders, and France.

Denis signed the first Portuguese commercial agreement with England in 1308, and secured a contract in 1317 for the services of the Genoese merchant sailor Manuel Pessanha (Portuguese form of the Italian "Pezagno") as hereditary admiral of his fleet, with the understanding that Pessanha and his successors should provide twenty Genoese captains to command the king's galleys, thus effectively founding the Portuguese Navy.

In 1289 Denis had signed the Concordat of Forty Articles with Pope Nicholas IV, swearing to protect the Church's interests in Portugal. When Pope Clement V allowed the annihilation of the Knights Templar throughout most of Europe on charges of heresy, Denis created in 1319 a Portuguese military order, the Order of Christ, for those knights who survived the purge. The new order was designed to be a continuation of the Order of the Temple. Denis negotiated with Clement's successor, John XXII, for recognition of the new order and its right to inherit the Templar assets and property.

Cultural pursuits
During Denis' reign, Lisbon became one of Europe's centres of culture and learning. The first university in Portugal, then called the Estudo Geral (General Study), was founded with his signing of the document Scientiae thesaurus mirabilis in Leiria on 3 March 1290. Lectures in the arts, civil law, canon law, and medicine were given, and on 15 February 1309, the king granted the university a charter, the Magna Charta Privilegiorum. The university was moved between Lisbon and Coimbra several times, and finally installed permanently in Coimbra in 1537 by order of King John III.

As a devotee of the arts and sciences, Denis studied literature and wrote several books on topics ranging from government administration to hunting, science and poetry, as well as ordering the translation of many literary works into Galician-Portuguese (Portuguese had not yet fully evolved into a distinct language), among them the works attributed to his grandfather Alfonso X. He patronised troubadours, and wrote lyric poetry in the troubadour tradition himself. His best-known work is the Cantigas de Amigo, a collection of love songs as well as satirical songs, which contributed to the development of troubador poetry in the Iberian Peninsula. All told, 137 of the songs attributed to him, in the three main genres of Galician-Portuguese lyric, are preserved in the two early 16th-century manuscripts, the Cancioneiro da Biblioteca Nacional and the Cancioneiro da Vaticana. A spectacular find in 1990 by American scholar Harvey Sharrer brought to light the Pergaminho Sharrer, which contains, albeit in fragmentary form, seven cantigas d'amor by King Denis with musical notation. These poems are found in the same order in the two previously known codices.

King Denis was fond of hunting and in 1294 was hunting around Beja, when a bear attacked him and his horse, bringing them to the ground. It is said that he attacked the beast single-handedly and killed him with a dagger. To commemorate the incident, the king had a live bear captured and taken to his palace of Fuellas for the amusement of the gentlemen and ladies of his court.

Administration
As heir-apparent to the throne, Denis was summoned by his father Afonso III to share governmental responsibilities. The country was again in conflict with the Catholic Church at the time, Afonso having been excommunicated in 1277, and only being absolved in 1279 when he acceded to Rome's demands on his deathbed. Consequently, the church was favorably inclined to reach an agreement with the new monarch upon his accession to the throne.

In 1284, however, Denis emulated the example of his grandfather and father, and launched a new series of inquiries to investigate the expropriation of royal property; this was to the detriment of the church. The next year he took further steps against ecclesiastical power when he promulgated amortisation laws. These prohibited the church and religious orders from buying lands, and required that they sell or forfeit any they had purchased since the start of his reign. Several years later he issued another decree forbidding them to inherit the estates of recruits to the orders.

In 1288, Denis managed to persuade Pope Nicholas IV to issue a papal bull that separated the Order of Santiago in Portugal from that in Castile, to which it had been subordinate. With the extinction of the Knights Templar, he was able to transfer their assets in the country to the Order of Christ, specially created for this purpose.

Denis was essentially an administrator and not a warrior king. He went to war with the kingdom of Castile in 1295, relinquishing the villages of Serpa and Moura. In 1297, he signed the Treaty of Alcañices with Castile, which defined the current borders between the two Iberian countries, and reaffirmed Portugal's possession of the Algarve. The treaty also established an alliance of friendship and mutual defense, leading to a peace of 40 years between the two nations.

Denis pursued his father's policies on legislation and centralisation of power, and promulgated the nucleus of a Portuguese civil and criminal law code, protecting the lower classes from abuse and extortion. These edicts survived in the Livro das Leis e Posturas (Book of Laws and Postures), and the Ordenações Afonsinas (Afonsine Ordinances), proclaimed during the reign of Afonso V. These are not legislative "codes" as we understand them today, but rather compilations of laws and customary municipal law, as amended and restated by the Portuguese crown.

As king, Denis travelled around the country to resolve various problems. He ordered the construction of numerous castles, created new towns, and granted the privileges due cities to several others. He declared in 1290 that 'the language of the people' was to become the language of the state, and officially known as Portuguese. Denis also decreed that Portuguese replace Latin as the language of the law courts in his kingdom. His wife Elizabeth donated much of the large income generated by her lands and properties to charities, inspiring Denis to help improve the life of the poor and found several social institutions.

The frequent procedural issues that arose when he issued his decrees increasingly occupied Denis in his quest to frame the common law as being within the scope of the crown's jurisdiction, and in exercising royal power in the realm. The restrictions he placed on the actions of alvazis (local council officials), judges, as well as proctors and advocates in the courts, show that a merely nominal power of the monarchy over all the inhabitants of the kingdom, as was typical in the Middle Ages, was not compatible with his effort to assert a royal prerogative to scrutinise legal procedures or moralise on the exercise of justice. The appointment of magistrates clearly marks the start of the process of the crown claiming territorial jurisdiction, thus expanding the royal domain, along with the growing importance of Lisbon as the nation's de facto capital. The preference for Lisbon as a venue of the royal court was accentuated during Denis's long reign. There was as yet no official capital of the country, but Lisbon's location, as well as its advanced urban, economic and commercial development, made the city the most viable choice for a national centre of administration.

Its geographical situation between the ancient divisions of the country, i.e., the north and the south, enhanced Lisbon's status as the most practical centre for an emergent united Portuguese nation, the south now receiving as much royal attention as the north and becoming the residence of the monarchy. Their different characters created a realm where the two regions complemented each other. The great manors were closer together in the north, and the vast dominions conquered from the Muslims in the south, as well as the large areas of unclaimed land there, expanded the domain of the crown, and much of the territory of the extreme south came under the control of the military orders.

Denis promoted development of the rural infrastructure, earning the nickname of "the Farmer" (o Lavrador). He redistributed land, founded agricultural schools to improve farming techniques, and took a personal interest in the expansion of exports. He set up regular markets in a number of towns and regulated their activities. One of his principal achievements was to protect agricultural lands from advancing coastal sands by ordering the planting of a pine forest near Leiria, which also provided a source of raw materials for construction of a naval fleet. This forest, known as the Pinhal de Leiria (Leiria Pinewood), still exists, and is an important conservation area.

Later years and death
The latter part of Denis' generally peaceful reign was nevertheless marked by internal conflicts. The contenders were his two sons: Afonso, the legitimate heir, and Afonso Sanches, his bastard son, who quarreled frequently among themselves for royal favour. At the time of Denis' death in 1325, he had placed Portugal on an equal footing with the other Iberian Kingdoms.

Afonso, born in Lisbon, was the rightful heir to the Portuguese throne. However, he was not Denis' favourite son, the old king preferring Afonso Sanches, his illegitimate son by Aldonça Rodrigues Talha. The notorious rivalry between the half brothers led to civil war several times. Elizabeth would serve as intermediary between her husband and Afonso during the civil war of 1322–1324.

Infante Afonso greatly resented the king, whom he accused of favouring Afonso Sanches. Denis had little popular support in the war because of the many privileges he had granted to the nobles in the last years of his reign, while the Infante had the support of the county's cities; these circumstances were rooted in the longstanding conflict between the upper and lower classes of Portuguese society. Repulsed to the town of Alenquer, which supported the Infante, Denis was prevented from killing his son through the intervention of the Queen. As legend holds, in 1323, Elizabeth, mounted on a mule, positioned herself between the opposing armies on the field of the Battle of Alvalade in order to prevent the combat. Peace returned in 1324 when Afonso Sanches was sent into exile and the Infante swore loyalty to the king.

King Denis died on 7 January 1325 at Santarém, and was buried in the Monastery of Saint Denis in Odivelas, near Lisbon. Afonso then became king, whereupon he exiled his rival to Castile, and stripped him of all the lands and fiefdoms bestowed by their father. From Castile, Afonso Sanches orchestrated a series of attempts to usurp the crown. After he failed several times to mount an invasion of Portugal, the brothers signed a peace treaty, arranged by Afonso IV's mother Queen Elizabeth.

Appraisal of reign
Bearing in mind the many centuries that separate Denis from the present, an impression of his personality can be gathered from the historical record: he was determined, even obstinate, in his attempts to systematically centralise the government and consolidate royal power. For example, he launched general inquiries (Inquirições gerais) at a remarkably accelerated pace to investigate land ownership and identify cases where abuses were committed.

Denis revealed early on his ability as an effective strategist in the pursuit of his goals, and as an innovator of proactive legislative policy. With the benefit of hindsight, it is clear that his administrative decisions were not made randomly or without consideration of his ideal of a well-governed nation. The wide range of his policies is indicated by a few examples: the concomitant creation of new towns and trade fairs, the fortification of the country's borders and the increasing dependence of the military orders on the royal power. He was recognized as an intelligent, perceptive ruler with demonstrated success, both by contemporaries and by later historians.

Denis was not lacking in political skill. Being adroit in negotiation and a student of human nature, he knew how to go about "opposing and appeasing alternately the secular and the ecclesiastical manorial interests. He confiscated the properties of the clergy, but made the concordat [of 1289] with the Portuguese bishops; he restricted the comedoria (victuals) rights of the monasteries, but replaced those rights with a fixed annual sum of money. His actions were sufficiently [statesmanlike, and his political position was strong] enough, for him to secure the confiscation laws and check the erosion of the state patrimony". As administration of the royal properties became more efficient and he became richer, Denis gained fame for his wealth, even being mentioned in Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy, where he was called Dionysus Agricola, and described among those condemned by the Eagle, in the Sixth Sphere, though the exact reason for this condemnation is unknown.

Nevertheless, Denis is described in contemporary chronicles as a wise and able ruler. Although most of the legislative work of his reign focused on procedural juridical issues, the purpose of much of this new legislation was to avoid excessive delays and court costs and to prevent abuse by attorneys and prosecutors. The personal determination that allowed Denis to achieve so much in the political realm could sometimes harden into obstinacy and arrogance. He was described occasionally as cruel, especially in family relations, shown for example in the way he dealt with his legitimate son and rightful heir, Afonso (never his favourite), and his wife, Elizabeth, to whom he turned over the children born of his infidelities, leaving her the responsibility of their care and education.

An inescapable figure in the history of the Iberian Peninsula in the 13th and the beginning of the 14th centuries, Denis was first called "father of his country" (Pai da Pátria) by the historian Duarte Nunes de Leão in 1600.

Physical description
The historical sources of King Denis's time, as well as later authors, failed to provide any detailed physical description of the monarch. The information known comes from an accidental opening of his tomb during a restoration in 1938. It was discovered that the legend of a figure of towering height was not an accurate one as he was only about 1.65 m tall. Denis made his will when he was 61 and died at age 63. He apparently enjoyed excellent health throughout his life, as he traveled frequently, got involved in wars from an early age and at age 60 still hunted. He died with complete dentition, a rarity for the time, something that even today continues to be fairly unusual.

A distinctive feature of his physiognomy revealed by examination of the body was that his hair and beard were auburn. This is a curious fact, as he was the first of the Portuguese royal line up to that time to have that hair color. This genetic trait could have been passed on the maternal side, as his uncle Ferdinand, called "La Cerda", or "the bristly one", had red hair as well. Denis may have inherited the trait from Henry II of England, who was his ancestor on both the paternal and maternal sides, or even possibly from his maternal great-grandmother Elisabeth of Hohenstaufen, granddaughter of the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa ("barbarossa" means "red beard" in Italian).

Opening of the tomb
In 2016, the tomb of the king was opened for the first time since 1938. Initially a restoration work, the tomb became the subject of research. A physiognomic report of the king is expected to be published in the future. Among other artefacts, the king's sword was retrieved from the tomb; it was found to be in a good state of preservation, except that the point had broken off.

Marriage and descendants
Denis' only wife was Isabel or Elizabeth of Aragon, daughter of Peter III of Aragon and Constance of Sicily. They married in 1282 and had a son and a daughter. Like other monarchs of the time, he had several illegitimate children as well.

title: Denis of Portugal


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Edward, King of Portugal

Edward (Duarte ; 31 October 1391 – 9 September 1438), also called Edward the Philosopher King (Duarte o Rei-Filósofo) or the Eloquent (o Eloquente), was the King of Portugal from 1433 until his death. He was born in Viseu, the son of John I of Portugal and his wife, Philippa of Lancaster. Edward was the oldest member of the "Illustrious Generation" of accomplished royal children who contributed to the development of Portuguese civilization during the 15th century.

Early life
Edward was the second born male legitimate son of King John I. He became the heir to the throne after his brother Afonso died in 1400, aged 10.

Before he ascended to the throne, Edward always followed his father in the affairs of the kingdom. He was knighted in 1415 after the Portuguese capture of the city of Ceuta in North Africa, across from Gibraltar. He became king in 1433, when his father died of the plague.

As king, Edward soon showed interest in building internal political consensus. During his short reign of five years, he called the Portuguese Cortes (the national assembly) no less than five times to discuss the political affairs of his kingdom. He also followed the politics of his father concerning the maritime exploration of Africa. He encouraged and financed his famous brother, Henry the Navigator, who initiated many expeditions on the west coast of Africa. An expedition of Gil Eanes in 1434 first rounded Cape Bojador on the northwestern coast of Africa, leading the way for further exploration southward along the African coast.

Colonial affairs
The colony at Ceuta rapidly became a drain on the Portuguese treasury, and it was realised that without the city of Tangier, possession of Ceuta was worthless. After Ceuta was captured by the Portuguese, the camel caravans that were part of the overland trade routes began to use Tangier as their new destination. This deprived Ceuta of the materials and goods that made it an attractive market and a vibrant trading locale, and it became an isolated community.

In 1437, Edward's brothers Henry and Ferdinand persuaded him to launch an attack on the Marinid sultanate of Morocco. The expedition was not unanimously supported and was undertaken against the advice of the Pope. Infante Peter, Duke of Coimbra, and the Infante John were both against the initiative; they preferred to avoid conflict with the Marinid Sultan. Their instincts proved to be justified. The resulting Battle of Tangier, led by Henry, was a debacle. Failing to take the city in a series of assaults, the Portuguese siege camp was soon itself surrounded and starved into submission by a Moroccan relief army. In the resulting treaty, Henry promised to deliver Ceuta back to the Marinids in return for allowing the Portuguese army to depart unmolested. Ferdinand, the youngest brother of Edward, was handed over to the Marinids as a hostage for the final handover of the city.

Late life
The debacle at Tangier dominated the final year of Edward's life. Peter and John urged him to fulfill the treaty, yield Ceuta and secure Ferdinand's release, whereas Henry (who had signed the treaty) urged him to renege on it. Caught in indecision, Edward assembled the Portuguese Cortes at Leiria in early 1438 for consultation. The Cortes refused to ratify the treaty, preferring to hang on to Ceuta and requesting that Edward find some other means of obtaining Ferdinand's release.

Edward died late that summer, in Tomar, of the plague, like his father and mother (and her mother) before him. Popular lore suggested he died of heartbreak over the fate of his hapless brother; Ferdinand would remain in captivity in Fez until his own death in 1443.

Legacy
Edward's premature death provoked a political crisis in Portugal. Leaving only a young son, Afonso, to inherit the throne, it was generally assumed that Edward's brothers would take over the regency of the realm. But Edward's will appointed his unpopular foreign wife, Eleanor of Aragon, as regent. A popular uprising followed, in which the burghers of the realm, assembled by John of Reguengos, acclaimed Peter of Coimbra as regent. But the nobles backed Eleanor's claim, and threatened civil war. The regency crisis was defused by a complicated and tense power-sharing arrangement between Eleanor and Peter.

Another less political side of Edward's personality is related to culture. A reflective and scholarly infante, he wrote the treatises O Leal Conselheiro (The Loyal Counsellor) and Livro Da Ensinança De Bem Cavalgar Toda Sela ("Book of Teachings on Riding Well on Every Saddle") as well as several poems. He was in the process of revising the Portuguese law code when he died.

Marriages and descendants
Edward married Eleanor of Aragon, a daughter of Ferdinand I of Aragon and Eleanor of Alburquerque, in 1428.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Edward, King of Portugal


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Talk:Raymond Fraser

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I removed the content listed below, it seems to come from http://www.blackmosspress.com/2FraserRaymond.html. SimonP 15:56 27 Jun 2003 (UTC)

RAYMOND FRASER is a native of Chatham NB and now lives in Fredericton. He is the author of five books of fiction, two biographies and five books of poetry. One of Canada's foremost writers, his work has been called irreverent, moving, insightful, disturbing, powerful and outrageously funny. He has contributed to a large number of magazines, including Canadian Forum, Canadian Fiction Magazine, Journal of Canadian Fiction, Matrix, Fiddlehead, Antigonish Review, West Coast Review and Queen's Quarterly. His fiction and poetry have been broadcast by CBC radio and TV and represented in anthologies such as Stories of the Maritimes, Toronto Short Stories, Stories of Quebec, New American & Canadian Poetry, The Maple Laugh Forever and The Maritime Experience.

He has served as an editor of the literary periodicals Tom-Tom, Pottersfield Portfolio and Intercourse, and was a founding member of The Montreal Story Tellers Performance Group which initiated the public reading of fiction in Canada.

His novel THE BANNONBRIDGE MUSICIANS was runner-up for the Governor General's Award. His most recent book is COSTA BLANCA, a collection of short fiction(Black Moss Press, 2001). A new novel, IN A CLOUD OF DUST AND SMOKE, will be published by Black Moss in the fall of 2003.

WHAT'S BEEN SAID:

"Raymond Fraser's booming Maritime vigour and directness seem, with subtle undertows of psychological configuration, like a roaring tide battering the literary shore. His narrative ancestors are not only the old salts of every Maritime tavern or watering-hole, but also the more commemorated figures of Mark Twain and Hugh Garner." -- Keith Garebian, "The Montreal Story Tellers" (Vehicule Press)

THE BLACK HORSE TAVERN "A highly original voice that is occasionaly sad, sometimes very comic. A real pleasure to read." (Alan Dawe, Vancouver Sun)

"Raymond Fraser happens to be one of the liveliest and most entertaining writers in the country." (Alden Nowlan, Telegraph Journal)

"The best writer to come belling out of the Maritimes in decades." (Farley Mowat, Author)

THE STRUGGLE OUTSIDE "An almost surrealistic account... it represents the best in contemporary satire. Outrageously funny." (BEST SELLERS, New York)

"Literally one of the best books I've ever read. I split a gut from cover to cover An overlooked masterpiece." (Bernell MacDonald, Author, "Birds of Passage," etc.)

"Ezuberant, comic... a satiric edge freqently bordering on Absurdist Fantasy." (Linda Sandler, Saturday Night)

THE BANNONBRIDGE MUSICIANS (Nominated for Governor General's Award) "It's well-written, it's touching, it's full of life, and it's funny." (Andre Vigneult, CBC Radio)

"A rollicking story, well told." (William French, Globe & Mail)

THE FIGHTING FISHERMAN: THE LIFE OF YVON DURELLE "An authentic Canadian tragic hero... Superb!" (Tim Burke, Montreal Gazette)

TODD MATCHETT: CONFESSIONS OF A YOUNG CRIMINAL "A fine book, written in clear, clean prose. Insightful and compelling." (Philip Lee, New Brunswick Reader)

RUM RIVER "Comic and horrifying." (Heather Sanderson, Canadian Literature)

"Perceptive, magnetic and laced with humour." (Anne Ingram, The Gleaner)

"As with all Raymond Fraser's books, almost impossible to put down." (Brian Jeffrey Street, Author, "The Parachute Ward," etc.)

COSTA BLANCA "Entertaining and provocative." (Michael O. Nowlan, The Gleaner)

"A first-rate collection, well-written and unfailingly entertaining. In its way every bit as good as his RUM RIVER." (Marc Plourde, Author & Translator)

I'VE LAUGHED AND SUNG (Poems) "Unfailingly interesting and impossible to put down once I started. The poems have wit and a perfectly authentic consistency—a subtle play against a constant background bass of despair or cosmic absurdity. Wonderful stuff!" (Louis Dudek, Poet & Critic)

"I read the book from cover to cover—I found the verses so delightful I could not put it down until I finished. The everyday subjects and events the poems deal with ring so true." (T.C. "Tommy" Douglas)

title: Talk:Raymond Fraser


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Sebastian, King of Portugal

Sebastian (Sebastião I ; 20 January 1554 – 4 August 1578) was King of Portugal from 11 June 1557 to 4 August 1578 and the penultimate Portuguese monarch of the House of Aviz.

He was the son of João Manuel, Prince of Portugal, and his wife, Joanna of Austria. He was the grandson of King John III of Portugal and Catherine of Austria, Queen of Portugal. He disappeared (presumably killed in action) in the battle of Alcácer Quibir, against the Saadians of Morocco. Sebastian I is often referred to as the Desired (o Desejado) or the Hidden (o Encoberto), as the Portuguese people longed for his return to end the decline of Portugal that began after his death. He is considered to be the Portuguese example of the King asleep in mountain legend as Portuguese tradition states his return, in a foggy dawn, in Portugal's greatest hour of need.

Early life
Sebastian was born shortly after eight in the morning of 20 January 1554 (the feast of Saint Sebastian), and he was given the saint's name in commemoration. The name Sebastian was highly unusual for members of any European royal family at the time.

Accession as a minor
Sebastian was born heir apparent to the throne of Portugal, since his birth occurred two weeks after the death of his father. Soon after his birth, his mother Joanna of Spain left her infant son to serve as regent of Spain for her father, Emperor Charles V. After his abdication in 1556, she served in the same capacity for her brother Philip II of Spain. Joanna remained in Spain until her death in 1573, never to see her son again.

Sebastian succeeded to the throne at the age of three, on the death of his paternal grandfather King John III. Since he was still a child, a regency was necessary. It was handled first by his paternal grandmother, Catherine of Austria, and then by his great-uncle, Cardinal Henry of Évora. This period saw the continued Portuguese colonial expansion in Brazil, Angola, Mozambique, and Malacca, as well as the annexation of Macau in 1557.

Sebastian was a bright and lively boy. Contemporaries described him as fearless due to his great physical strength. Tall, slim, and blond, he was brought up by his grandmother Catherine. She was a domineering woman who exercised firm control over her grandson. Obedient as a child, he became obstinate and impulsive in later life.

Education
The young king grew up under the guidance and heavy influence of the Jesuits. Aleixo de Meneses, a military man of solid reputation and former tutor and guardian of Prince John, was appointed tutor to Sebastian. Other teachers included the priest Luís Gonçalves da Câmara and his assistant, the priest Amador Rebelo.

His upbringing made Sebastian extremely devout. He carried a copy of Thomas Aquinas on a belt at his waist and was constantly accompanied by two clerics of the Theatine Order who were intent on preserving the king's innocence. As a child, Sebastian reportedly would react to visitors by running off into hiding with the monks until the visitors had gone.

Marriage plans
Sebastian died young and did not marry. However, he was involved in some proposed marriage alliances. In particular, the Queen dowager of France, Catherine de' Medici, nurtured a plan for a long time to marry her youngest daughter, Margaret of Valois, to Sebastian, a plan which was supported by Sebastian's maternal uncle, King Philip II of Spain, on occasion.

Sebastian himself, however, put an end to that plan, declaring that he was unimpressed by the mild suppression of the Huguenot Protestants in France, and that he would not bind himself to the House of Valois until he had seen how the situation would develop. Later, he agreed — being persuaded by emissaries of the Pope — to marry Margaret in order to prevent her from marrying the Huguenot Henry of Navarre; by that time, however, the French king and his mother were already intent on Margaret marrying Henry. Sebastian's proposal was rejected, and Margaret married Henry in 1572.

Sebastian was also offered his cousin Elisabeth of Austria, the daughter of Emperor Maximilian II (Maximilian was Charles V's nephew.). Sebastian himself made a proposal in 1577 to his first cousin Isabella Clara Eugenia, daughter of his maternal uncle Philip II of Spain.

Later reign

During Sebastian's short personal reign, he strengthened ties with the Holy Roman Empire, England and France through diplomatic efforts. He also restructured much of the administrative, judicial and military life in his kingdom. In 1568, Sebastian created scholarships to assist students who wished to study medicine or pharmacy at the University of Coimbra.

That same year he rewarded indigenous Brazilians in Brazil who helped in the fight against the French. The chief of the Temiminós Tribe, Arariboia, was given lands near the Bay of Guanabara. In 1569, Sebastian ordered Duarte Nunes de Leão to compile all the laws and legal documents of the kingdom in a collection of Leis Extravagantes known as the Código Sebastiânico (Sebastian's code).

During the great plague of Lisbon in 1569, Sebastian sent for doctors from Seville to help the Portuguese doctors fight the plague. He created two hospitals in Lisbon to take care of those afflicted with the disease.

In his concern for the widows and orphans of those killed by the plague, he created several Recolhimentos (shelters) known as the Recolhimento de Santa Marta (shelter of Santa Marta) and the Recolhimento dos Meninos (shelter of the children) and provided wet nurses to take care of the babies.

Legal reforms
Sebastian created laws for the military, the Lei das Armas, that would become a military organization model. Goa was attacked by a pan-Asian alliance in 1570 during the War of the League of the Indies, but the Portuguese were successful in repulsing the assault. Also in 1570, Sebastian ordered that the Brazilian Indians should not be used as slaves and ordered the release of those held in captivity.

In 1572, the poet Luís de Camões presented his masterpiece Os Lusíadas and dedicated a poem to Sebastian that won him a royal pension. In 1573, he commissioned the construction of the Royal Basilica in Castro Verde as a tribute to the Battle of Ourique. In 1575 with the Carta de Lei de Almeirim, the king established a system of measures for solid and liquid products and also defined the role of public servants. The Celeiros Comuns (Communal Granaries) were inaugurated in 1576 on Sebastian's orders. These were lending institutions intended to help to poor farmers when farm production decreased, giving credit, lending seeds and commodities to the needy. They were allowed to pay back their debts with farm products when they recovered from losses.

The mathematician and cosmographer Pedro Nunes was appointed by Sebastian as a cosmography teacher for sea pilots. It was during Sebastian's reign that Nunes wrote his Petri Nonii Salaciensis Opera.

In 1577, Sebastian's ordinance Da nova ordem do juízo, sobre o abreviar das demandas, e execução dellas decreased the time for handling legal actions, regulated the action of lawyers, scribes and other court officials, and created fines for delays.

Last projects
After attaining his majority in 1568, Sebastian dreamed of a great crusade against the kingdom of Morocco, where over the preceding generation several Portuguese way stations on the route to India had been lost.

A Moroccan succession struggle gave him the opportunity, when Abu Abdallah Mohammed II Saadi lost his throne in 1576 and fled to Portugal. After arriving, he asked for King Sebastian's assistance in defeating his Turkish-backed uncle and rival, Abu Marwan Abd al-Malik I Saadi.

During the Christmastide of 1577, Sebastian met with his uncle King Philip II of Spain at Guadalupe. Philip refused to be party to the crusade as he was negotiating a truce with the Ottoman Empire, though he promised a contingent of Spanish volunteers.

Despite his lack of a son and heir, King Sebastian embarked on his crusade in 1578. The Portuguese army of 17,000 men, including a significant number of foreign mercenaries hired from the Holy Roman Empire, the Netherlands, Spain, and the Italian States, and almost all of the country's nobility, sailed at the beginning of June from Lisbon. They visited Cádiz, where they expected to find Spanish volunteers who failed to appear, then crossed into Morocco.

Disappearance and probable death in battle
At Arzila, Sebastian joined his ally Abu Abdullah Mohammed II, who had around 6,000 Moorish soldiers and, against the advice of his commanders, marched into the interior. At the Battle of Alcácer Quibir (Battle of the Three Kings), the Portuguese army was routed by Abd Al-Malik at the head of more than 60,000 men.

Sebastian was almost certainly killed in battle. He was last seen riding headlong into the enemy lines. Whether his body was ever found is uncertain, but Philip II of Spain claimed to have received his remains from Morocco and buried them in the Jerónimos Monastery in Belém, Lisbon, after he ascended to the Portuguese throne in 1580. The body could not be identified as Sebastian's, however, which left some people unconvinced of his death. Sebastian was succeeded as king by his great-uncle Henry, brother of his grandfather, King John III.

Legend and legacy
Throughout the centuries, the personality and legacy of Sebastian caused a multitude of appreciations to be produced, negative or positive, though seldom indifferent. Timothy Coates wrote that: "...he was an immature and headstrong youth. His insistence on continuing the reconquista (the Christian reconquest of Iberia from its Islamic rulers) into Morocco led not only to his death but ultimately to the end of the House of Aviz." Anthony R. Disney, one of the foremost recent scholars of Portuguese history in English commented on the other hand that: "Sebastião was one of the most extraordinary monarchs that Portugal ever produced. Ascending the throne in an atmosphere of great emotion, he was widely acclaimed as the answer to his subjects’ prayers and a prince who would save his country’s independence. Two decades later, he achieved precisely the opposite, dying heroically but unnecessarily on the distant North African battlefield of Al-Ksar al-Kabir on 4 August 1578, leaving no heir to succeed him. [...] He was in many ways conscientious about the duties of kingship, enacted much legislation and showed considerable compassion for the poor."

Pretenders
After the defeat at Alcácer Quibir, many efforts were made to ransom imprisoned Portuguese soldiers in Morocco. Several soldiers returned to Portugal, which led many Portuguese to believe Sebastian had survived the battle and would return to claim his throne. This led to Sebastianism, the belief that Sebastian could return at any moment. Politically, there was a belief that Philip was not the rightful heir to the throne. Subsequently, imposter pretenders appeared in Portugal and Castile who fraudulently claimed to be the king. During the time of the Iberian Union, between 1580 and 1640, four different pretenders claimed to be the returned King Sebastian, including Gabriel de Espinosa. The last of these pretenders, who was in fact an Italian, was hanged in 1619, while another was obtained by the Spanish from Venice, tried, found guilty and hanged in 1603.

In the long term, many myths and legends about Sebastian appeared, the principal one being that he was a great Portuguese patriot, the "sleeping king" who would return to help Portugal in its darkest hour (similar to the Britons' King Arthur, the German Frederick Barbarossa or the Byzantine Constantine XI Palaeologus).

He came to be known by symbolic names: O Encoberto (The Shrouded One) who would return on a foggy morning to save Portugal, or as O Desejado (The Desired One). These legends were vigorously promoted through the massive circulation of popular rhymes (trovas) written by António Gonçalves de Bandarra. Even as late as the 19th century, "Sebastianist" peasants in the town of Canudos in the Brazilian sertão believed that the king would return to help them in their rebellion against the "godless" Brazilian republic.

Sebastian's life was dramatised in 1843 in the opera Dom Sébastien by the Italian composer Gaetano Donizetti. Belgian playwright Paul Dresse also dramatised his life in the 1975 play Sébastien de Portugal ou le Capitaine de Dieu. The legend of Sebastian's disappearance and alleged return is the basis for the popular song "A Lenda d'El Rei D. Sebastião" ("The Legend of King Sebastian") by the Portuguese band Quarteto 1111 (1968).

In Morocco
Though defeated in battle, Sebastians reputation in Morocco remained a positive one for centuries, as a symbol of a high ideal of chivalry. While on an archeological journey through the Spanish Protectorate in Morocco in 1923, the renown Portuguese archeologist, heraldist, and geneologist Afonso de Dornellas was informed by the minister of finance El Hach Abd Selam Ben El Arbi Benuna that "there were Portuguese here of such breadth that for many leagues in distance they were spoken of with respect and admiration by the Arabs. If there were ancestors of mine with names recorded in history as worthy warriors it's because they fought those Portuguese" and that "for a king to leave his greatness, his life of luxury, of glamour and to embark en masse with his people to fight here for their faith" had set a high example at a time when Morocco had just reunifed after a long period of violent internal conflict over petty disputes, though Benuna was surprised to learn that the Portuguese are unsure whether the bones in Belém are his. At Asilah, the governor Baxa Xerife Sid Mustafa Ben Raisun who received Dornellas commission stated that "this is where Sebastian landed, the great king of the Portuguese and whom we still esteem today as though he was the best of our kings".

title: Sebastian, King of Portugal


text:
Talk:Royal Albert Hall

older comments
from a duplicate article:

 * "Now they know how many holes it takes to fill the Albert Hall..." The Beatles, I Heard the News
 * The Albert Hall is considered Britain's parish hall. It was named after Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha the Prince Consort, husband of Queen Victoria (perhaps now we should say first husband now?) who the building was built to honour. A number of performers have performed here. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Tarquin (talk • contribs) 16:02, 27 June 2003 (UTC)

 * What's an "adam keep-fit display"? --Wetman 15:15, 29 March 2006 (UTC)

Inscription above the external frieze
I don't believe that the word "amid" appears on the Hall. My suspicion is that a contribtor has plagiarised the text from the Victorian London website http://www.victorianlondon.org/buildings/alberthall.htm and in doing so has perpetuated an OCR scanning error (or deliberate mistake) from that site.

Surely the first part of that quotation comes from the King James Version of 1 Chronicles 29:

29:11 Thine, O LORD is the greatness, and the power, and the glory, and the victory, and the majesty: for all that is in the heaven and in the earth is thine; thine is the kingdom, O LORD, and thou art exalted as head above all.

And if we can find a source other than Victorian London (or a contributor with a good pair of field glassses?) presumably the article should give the full text of the other inscription; which is some variant on...

"This Hall was erected for the advancement of the arts and sciences, and for the works of industry of all nations, in fulfilment of the intentions of Albert, Prince Consort. The site was purchased by the proceeds of the great Exhibition of the year 1851. The first stone of the Hall was laid by Her Majesty Queen Victoria, on the 20th day of May, 1867, and it was opened by Her Majesty the Queen on the 29th day of March, in the year 1871." --Lang rabbie 01:16, 11 July 2006 (UTC)

Beatles Concert at Albert Hall
I noticed that, while this page does reference the line from "A Day in the Life", it does not mention the Beatles concert at the Albert Hall in its concert list. This needs to be fixed, especially because of the importance of the Beatles as a band and the fact that they made reference to the hall in a very influential song. This refrence is very hard to understand if you do not know that the Beatles played a concert there. --I Am The Walrus 02:37, 12 September 2006 (UTC)
 * i am agreing this is very important. 70.153.208.164 (talk) 23:42, 23 December 2009 (UTC)

Name
Twice today the full name of the hall has been truncated. I appreciate that it's not in common use, but that really is the full name so there needs to be good reason for removing it. I also severly trimmed the info on guided tours as Wikipedia is not a travel guide. David Underdown 12:19, 19 July 2007 (UTC)

Arts venue
It may originally have been conceived as a general arts venue, but is it not almost solely now a music venue? Gustav von Humpelschmumpel (talk) 10:21, 29 February 2008 (UTC)
 * There are usually also a few sports events there each year, and the Institute of Directors (I think) has it's AGM there, it's used for Imperial College graduations and so on, and Hawking gave a sell-out lecture there in the late 90s. It's full name is still the Royal Albert Hall of the Arts and Sciences so I think that really should stay in the lead (just as we always give a person's full names, even if they don't use them).  David Underdown (talk) 11:09, 29 February 2008 (UTC)
 * OK, I'll accept it has other uses than music but I think we should stick with the most commonly used name. I checked on the RAH website and I couldn't find the full name still listed. Gustav von Humpelschmumpel (talk) 11:47, 29 February 2008 (UTC)
 * I've got the hsitory that was published two or three years ago, and I'm sure it's mentioend in there. One day I'll get round to using that as a source for a complete re-write - the hall deserves better than the current article.  David Underdown (talk) 12:20, 29 February 2008 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:AlbertHall.jpg
Thanks for uploading or contributing to Image:AlbertHall.jpg. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is not a suitable explanation or rationale as to why each specific use in Wikipedia constitutes fair use. Please go to the image description page and edit it to include a fair use rationale.

If you have uploaded other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on those pages too. You can find a list of 'image' pages you have edited by clicking on the "my contributions" link (it is located at the very top of any Wikipedia page when you are logged in), and then selecting "Image" from the dropdown box. Note that any non-free media lacking such an explanation will be deleted one week after they have been uploaded, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you. Papa November (talk) 23:50, 16 May 2008 (UTC)

Recognisable the world over
How exactly do you judge this. I live in the UK and know the Royal Albert Hall but you can not claim it to be one of 'the most treasured and distinctive buildings' because it would only be along with hundreds of others, I could say this about Christ's Church, Oxford or the Tate or the National Gallery etc etc. Has some survey found this information? I'm not saying it isn't distinctive or treasured, I just don't see the revelance. I may not have argued this very strongly but I thought I should mention it, in case any one more eloquent agrees. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 129.11.198.174 (talk) 19:23, 11 January 2009 (UTC)

While it is certainly a unique and impressive structure, I would not have been able to recognize it prior to reading this article. Neither could the handful of my fellow, poor ignorant souls that I tested with the image. Perhaps because we are from another part of the world. I'm deleting the statement. I'm not going to add a request for citations, and I pessimistically expect a zealous revert. Please don't take it as an attack against your national heritage. 74.2.191.66 (talk) 20:59, 14 November 2011 (UTC)Robert

USE section entries
"Dylan actually did close his European tour on 26 and 27 May and of that year; these were his last concerts before Dylan got into a motorcycle accident and became a recluse for a brief period of time".

Might these sentences be improved? For example: "actually did close". Does this mean "closed his European tour at the Royal Albert Hall"? If not then what is the relevance to The Royal Albert Hall?

The style of English could be simplified in the second sentence "got into", could be replaced with "had".

The information about the motorcycle accident has a full entry in the Bob Dylan Wikipedia article. The following paragraph about Creedence Clearwater Revival is covered in the Wikipedia article on that group.

Do either of these paragraphs merit inclusion in the Wikipedia entry for the Royal Albert Hall? Would a reference to the relevant articles where they are recorded be sufficient?Braeburn8 (talk) 23:59, 4 August 2009 (UTC)

 * Really the whole section needs drastic pruning, most of the entries aern't referenced, and while it may be significant for the artist themselves that they performed at the Albert Hall, the vast majority listed don't actually seem that significant in terms of th hisotry of the hall. I've thought for a while that we should list the major recurring events, and events taht are included in published hitories of the hall, most of the rest should go.  David Underdown (talk) 09:22, 5 August 2009 (UTC)

 * This section is now getting completely out of hand, and is far too large in its relative importance to the article subject. Is every singer or band that's ever played the hall eventually going to be listed? I propose that the section is scrapped completely.  ♦ Jongleur100 ♦  talk 15:51, 19 September 2010 (UTC)

 * Agree. There is nothing to either confirm that these acts played or, more importantly, that the appearance was in some way notable. Scrap it.--Egghead06 (talk) 15:58, 19 September 2010 (UTC)

 * No objectors in three days so I'm removing it.  ♦ Jongleur100 ♦  talk 10:48, 22 September 2010 (UTC)

Prommers??
The article currently states: "Proms concertgoers, particularly those who stand, are sometimes described as "Promenaders", but are most commonly referred to as "Prommers".[14]" A single reference to book is given, but the text cited does not claim that "Prommers" is more commonly used, it merely makes use of the term (once).

A quick Google search shows that '"Promenaders" "Albert Hall"' gets twice as many hits as '"Prommers" "Albert Hall"'. This backs up my own experience that they are more commonly referred to as "Promenaders". The claim that they are most commonly referred to as "Prommers" seems extremely POV, and the reference does not support it.

Unless anyone puts forward any valid arguments for the term, I'm going to modify it to remove the "most commonly referred to" section. 86.7.21.237 (talk) 13:19, 30 November 2009 (UTC)

listing all concerts
i am reading this and wondering why this is haveing so many concrets listed. this aritcle is about the bulding and not about all this groups. i am taking out sections explaineing all about the groups and each concert everyone has. this information is maybe intersting but is beter for aritcle of each group or may be in List of famous concerts in royal albert Hall. not here please. 70.153.208.164 (talk) 23:41, 23 December 2009 (UTC)

Size of the Albert Hall
Hello,

I amm doing my usual wikignoming and something that crops up from time to time, as I am sure you are aware, is the "size of the Albert Hall". Rightly you have the linear dimensions but not the volume. I have asked the same at WP:CONVERT and Talk:List of unusual units of measurement and the frmer, for which I am peripatetic, so far suggested the latter, but I ask here simply because it is kkinda annoying, encylopaedically, if someone lists something as twice the size of the albert hall or enough water to filll the albert hall in an hour etc. The albert hall obviously being a standard unit of measure

Its volume by secondary source is thus:: "According to official figures provided by the Royal Albert Hall's management the horse's mouth itself { the volume of the auditorium is between 3 and 3.5 million cubic feet, so that's between about 85,000 and 99,000 cubic metres." I appreciate this is a somewhat jocular style, but so is the whole book as you may imagine, and I think stands if there is no better. I am also having a go at some of the other units there, since many can be sourced if someone bothered (which I intend to) otherwise it is just hearsay and OR.

I am an inclusionist so am not standing on OR etc etc but I know I can source many of these where no source is there now, and the "size of the albert hall" usually means its volume, not its linear dimensions which are there precisely in the article, and so thi really is by way of a courtesy to say if it is an "unusual" unit of measure, and I am sure that word was chosen very carefullly, it woould be handy to know what an albert hallsworth is.

BTW I think it is a magnificent building and I have had many good proms nights there.

My best wishesSi Trew (talk) 01:18, 24 January 2010 (UTC)

 * There is also a curiously precise figure of 3,060,000 cubic square feet at various sources, for which I have been unable to find an original source. --Lang rabbie 23:18, 25 January 2010 (UTC)
 * On the Westminster council planning application, I found the total volume of the building listed as 170000.00000000m3. I'm not sure why so many 0 after the point. You can check it out yourself on;
 * http://idoxpa.westminster.gov.uk/online-applications/applicationDetails.do?activeTab=documents&keyVal=M35B91RPZ5000
 * anc click the Application Form PDF, Page 4/6 Section 10 Demolition. KlickingKarl (talk) 15:13, 4 May 2013 (UTC)
 * I've just found an additional planning application that states volume as approx. 38,612m3.KlickingKarl (talk) 16:00, 4 May 2013 (UTC)

Incorrect Pictures
The "First Ever Performance" and Postcard pictures appear to be irrelevant to their captions, and are nothing to do with the Hall at all. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 91.104.232.212 (talk) 02:12, 16 July 2010 (UTC)

Westminster
I've been rubbing my eyes and trying (but failing) to convince myself that the OS 1:25000 map does not show the Royal Albert Hall (along with the RGS, Royal College of Music and much of Imperial College) lying within the City of Westminster, not the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea. If I am correct this seems to have gone unnoticed by Wikipedians editing this article, South Kensington, Albertopolis, etc. Can someone else have a look and confirm this please? Pterre (talk) 10:17, 9 September 2011 (UTC)
 * I have been bold and corrected it. Pterre (talk) 08:40, 10 September 2011 (UTC)
 * Pretty sure that is correct as shown towards the bottom of the 4th page of the history PDF from the RAH website says Westminster City Council approved the closure of the road surrounding the hall during renovation work. http://www.royalalberthall.com/uploadedFiles/About_The_Hall/assets/History_of_the_Royal_Albert_Hall.pdf KlickingKarl (talk) 23:13, 30 September 2011 (UTC)

Event notability
I think there needs to be some clarity on what events should be added. The Hall has been open since 1871, 141 years. There are now over 350 events a year. There have been probably nearly/over? 50,000 events in its history. There doesn't seem to be much value in listing events. People seem to add events by artists or groups of those that they have an interest in. This means eventually we would have a list a mile long, as different strokes for different folks goes. I have been developing the regular events section as I feel this is of more value for the article. Perhaps an article should be made for events at the RAH, but again, I don't think lists have much encyclopaedic value. Any comments? KlickingKarl (talk) 01:22, 30 April 2012 (UTC)

 * Seem to remember clearing this out a year or so back when it acted as an excuse for anyone to list their favourite band if they had appeared in the RAH. Think they need to be notable appearances with references otherwise they become trivia and fancruft.--Egghead06 (talk) 08:42, 30 April 2012 (UTC)

 * Now partially cleaned out again, and it should be reduced further, to a textual description of the variety of events over the hall's history, with some significant examples. Kablammo (talk) 00:15, 30 March 2013 (UTC)
 * This problem has slowly reappeared over the last decade and this article is now full of random "X performed here in 19/20xx" paragraphs again without much notability, sometimes duplicated in multiple sections. I've removed a few in recent months but I'm looking to rewrite and slim down listings to just the most notable and major events in the building's history quite soon. BillyH 19:43, 12 January 2024 (UTC)

"150,000 different events"
The events section claims that the hall has hosted over 150,000 since its opening. Working at one event a day this would take it 410 years, so I find this unlikely unless there have been some days where it has hosted several thousand 'events'. Is someone able to make this any clearer? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 86.141.217.175 (talk) 07:54, 21 March 2013 (UTC)

 * I know that currently in the run up to Christmas each year it hosts 3 shows a day over the weekends in the main auditorium. It also has possibly weekly Elgar Room events that run concurrently with main auditorium shows. During regular runs of many shows, such as Cirque du Soleil, it has 3 or 4 days a week (over a month long run) when there are two shows a day. There are also Classical Coffee mornings in the Cafe Consort. From the Royal Albert Hall website "Today more than 350 events are staged each year...Outside the main auditorium, there are free Friday lunchtime concerts and Sunday brunch performances of world music and jazz in the Hall's Café Consort and occasional concerts by cutting edge new talent in the Hall's hush series presented in the Elgar Room. A series of exhibitions of photographs and children's work is presented in the Hall's ground floor corridor. The Hall continues to fulfil its commitment to promoting science primarily through its Learning & Participation programme for school children and by occasional public lectures." http://www.royalalberthall.com/about/arts-and-sciences/default.aspx

 * I think if it counts exhibitions, concerts in the restaurants and elgar room it has hosted a lot of events over 143 years, however not 150,000. If there were 350 events a year for the past 143 years that would be 50,050 events. That doesn't include any of the extras, so it's possible that number could be as high as 100,000, maybe even 150,000. We could do with some facts on this. KlickingKarl (talk) 00:23, 18 April 2013 (UTC)

File:Royal Albert Hall, London - Nov 2012.jpg
Hello! This is a note to let the editors of this article know that File:Royal Albert Hall, London - Nov 2012.jpg will be appearing as picture of the day on April 20, 2014. You can view and edit the POTD blurb at Template:POTD/2014-04-20. If this article needs any attention or maintenance, it would be preferable if that could be done before its appearance on the Main Page. Thanks! — Crisco 1492 (talk) 00:41, 5 April 2014 (UTC)

Didn't the tiles on the Albert Hall get over cleaned?
"Q&A" exchange from the Guardian pages. I though that they might be relevant to the RA Hall:

[Janek123] Didn't the tiles on the Albert Hall get over cleaned?

[retiredarch] As I understand it, the RAH was in a very poor state in the 1970s and by the time work could start on cleaning, repairing the exterior and stopping the rain getting in, the Tories had control of the GLC.

The Tory run GLC of the late 1970s was all about cutting costs, downsizing and selling off anything and everything (they were one of the first to start selling council housing).

I was told by a former GLC architectural employee, that the Tories did not want to spend fees on expert consultants to advise and oversee the work on the RAH - they wanted to make some sort of political statement and get it done on the cheap. The work was apparently delegated to an inappropriate unqualified character who had no idea what they were doing.

The terracotta tiles and brickwork on the RAH were cleaned by sand blasting because it was the cheapest and quickest method. Unfortunately, it also removed the surface glaze from the terracotta and exposed the core of the tiles. The building should have been cleaned using low pressure water trickling over the surface - a slow and expensive process.

To save a few pounds, the Tory GLC administration succeeded in vandalising one of their most prized assets.

5.80.70.154 (talk) 09:59, 10 March 2016 (UTC)

Statue of Albert in front of the building
In the photos, I see there is a large statue of Albert in front of the building with 2 seated women on the pedestal. The article does not mention this, only the different nearby Albert Memorial. This American, for one, would like to know more about it. --rogerd (talk) 04:02, 6 March 2017 (UTC)

 * Did you mean this statue? https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Memorial#Allegorical_sculptures KlickingKarl (talk) 00:51, 21 June 2023 (UTC)

Some info
Smash Hits Poll Winners Party 1988. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 184.91.203.113 (talk) 19:09, 29 December 2018 (UTC)

nothing on the ban of rock acts?
It didn't last more than 8 months or so, but still, should be in the article. one RS: https://www.royalalberthall.com/about-the-hall/news/2016/january/8-july-1971-mott-the-hoople-and-the-royal-albert-halls-rock-and-roll-ban/ 50.111.55.131 (talk) 14:31, 18 June 2020 (UTC)

/* Description */ Surface area
What is it? kencf0618 (talk) 05:45, 18 September 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Royal Albert Hall


text:
Bethlehem of Galilee

Bethlehem of Galilee (בֵּית לֶחֶם הַגְּלִילִית, Beit Lehem HaGlilit; lit. "the Galilean Bethlehem") or Bethlehem-in-the-Galilee is a moshav in northern Israel. Located in the Galilee near Kiryat Tivon, around 10 kilometres north-west of Nazareth and 30 kilometres east of Haifa, it falls under the jurisdiction of the Jezreel Valley Regional Council. As of it had a population of.

The modern moshav is located at the site of the ancient Israelite settlement known as Bethlehem of Zebulun or Betlehem Zoria(h). Due to its proximity to Nazareth, one historian believes that it is the Bethlehem where Jesus of Nazareth was born. Aviram Oshri, a senior archaeologist with the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA), supports this claim, but other researchers at the same institution reject it. The town existed as a Christian settlement in the classic era and was populated during the Middle Ages. It was reestablished as a German Templer Colony in Palestine in the 19th century and turned into a Jewish moshav in 1948.

History
To distinguish the city from the city of Bethlehem near Jerusalem, it was originally known as Bethlehem of Zebulun, whilst the town near Jerusalem was called "Bethlehem of Judea". In the Jerusalem Talmud it is referred to as Beth Lehem Zoria, as it was part of the kingdom of Tyre (Ṣūr) at the time. According to the Book of Judges, one of the so-called "Minor Judges" of early settlement Israel, Ibzan, came from Bethlehem and was buried there. The Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges suggests that the Bethlehem referred to in this passage is Bethlehem of Galilee "rather than the more famous Bethlehem in the Tribe of Judah".

Until the late 19th century, and even the 1921 visit by Gustav Dalman, the impressive remains of a church and a synagogue could be seen there. Archaeologist Ariel Berman discovered a chalk vessel industry from the Early Roman period as well as a huge wine press. This shows that it was a prosperous city, which is used as an argument in favour of identifying today's Bethlehem-in-the-Galilee with biblical Bethlehem of Zebulon.

Due to its proximity to Nazareth, one historian believes that it is the Bethlehem where Jesus was born. Aviram Oshri, a senior archaeologist with the IAA, supports this claim, although others at this institution reject it.

Remains of large Byzantine-period buildings as well as pottery (4th–5th century) from the same period have been found here, together with walls and objects from the Umayyad, Abbasid (eighth century CE)  and  Mamluk periods (14th–15th centuries).

Arab village
In 1517, the village was included in the Ottoman Empire, and in the 1596 tax-records it appeared as Bayt Lahm, located  in the Nahiya of Tabariyya of the Liwa of Safad. The population was 27 households and two bachelors, all Muslim. They paid a tax rate of 25% on agricultural products, which included wheat, barley, cotton, vegetable and fruit gardens, occasional revenues, goats and beehives; a total of 1200 Akçe.

In 1859, the British consul Rogers stated that the population was 110, and the tillage at sixteen feddans.

In 1875 Victor Guérin visited and noted that Bethlehem was a small village, which had succeeded a town of the same name. He further noted the ruins of two buildings; one, completely destroyed, had been constructed of good cut stones; the entrance was at the south façade. He thought, from its orientation north and south, that it was a synagogue. The other building, which lay east and west, may have been a Christian church. On its site were seen a few shafts, four of which were still in situ and half covered up.

In 1882, the Palestine Exploration Fund's Survey of Western Palestine described it as "The ancient Bethlehem of Zebulon. A village principally built of adobe on high ground in the border of the wooded country. The nearest water is in Wady el Melek, on the north (Ras el 'Ain), and at the springs near Muwarah on the south."

A population list from about 1887 showed that Kh. Beit Lahm had about 55 inhabitants, all Muslims.

Templer village
In 1906 Templers from the German Colony in Haifa established a colony in Galilee,  naming it for the ancient city.

British Mandate period
In the 1922 census of Palestine conducted by the British authorities, Bait Lam had a population of 224; 111 Christians and 113 Muslims. Of the Christians, 95 were Protestant and 16 were Greek Catholics (Melkites). This had increased slightly by the 1931 census to a population of 235; 135 Muslim, 99 Christians and 1 Jew, in a total of 51 inhabited houses.

In 1932 the Nazi Party gained its first two members in Palestine; Karl Ruff and Walter Aberle from the Templer colony in Haifa. In the course of the 1930s, Bethlehemites also joined the party, indicating the fading affinity to the Templers' original ideals. By August 1939, 17% of all German Christians in Palestine were members of the Nazi Party. After the Nazi takeover in Germany, all international schools of German language subsidized or fully financed by government funds were obliged to employ teachers aligned to the Nazi Party. In 1933, Templer functionaries appealed to Paul von Hindenburg and the Foreign Office not to use swastika symbols for German institutions in Palestine and voiced opposition to the boycott of German Jewish shops. Later, this opposition subsided. On 20 August 1939 the German government called on German Christians in Palestine to join the Wehrmacht and 350 men enlisted.

After the start of World War II, all Germans in Palestine were declared enemy aliens. The British authorities sent them to Sarona, Bethlehem (Galilee), Waldheim (today's Allonei Abba) and Wilhelma. In summer 1941, 665 German internees, mostly young families with children, were deported to Australia, leaving those who were too old or sick. In December 1941 and in the course of 1942 another 400 German internees, mostly wives and children of men who had enlisted in the Wehrmacht, were released - via Turkey - to Germany for the purpose of family reunification.

In the 1945 statistics the population of Beit Lam consisted of 370 people; 210 Muslims and 160 Christians, and the total land area was 7,526 dunams according to an official land and population survey. 6 dunams of land were designated for citrus and bananas, 278 dunams for plantations and irrigable land, 4,796 for cereals, while 51 dunams were built-up areas.

In 1945 the Italian and Hungarian internees were released but the Britons refused to repatriate the remaining German internees to the British zone in Germany. In 1947, they were allowed to emigrate to Australia.

Israel
On 17 April 1948 the Haganah captured the village, and it was subsequently depopulated. By 14 May 1948, when Israel declared independence, only 50 Templers remained in the country. It was resettled by Jewish farmers, becoming a moshav. Much of the original Templer architecture survives, and is similar in style to the homes built by the Templers in other parts of the country, such as Sarona in Tel Aviv, Wilhelma (today Bnei Atarot) and the German colonies of Haifa and Jerusalem.

In recent years, tourism has replaced agriculture as the main economic branch. A dairy, an herb farm, restaurants and country-style accommodation are among the tourist-oriented businesses in the village today.

title: Bethlehem of Galilee


text:
Talk:Sebastian, King of Portugal

Death
Almost certainly killed or executed??

Killed in battle, or subsequently executed. It's very late at night over here. As far as I can tell, Sebastian isn't around these days Seriously though, thanks for pointing it out. I've amended it, and it looks better now (in my opinion). My articles really are open to editing, so please feel free to contradict or amend if you have some info I've missed or mistaken. Simon Who are you? A professional historian? I doubt it. You need to get up to date on Sebastian. Your sources are out of date.

names
While it may be okay to use Sebastian instead of Sebastião and Philip II instead of Filipe II, the other names should either all be in the English form or in the Portuguese and Spanish form. I have corrected some of them, but not all. Perhaps someone else will be willing to take the time to do this.

Geneology chart
Thank you for including the familial chart showing the structure of parents, grandparents, and great grandparents. While I grasped what was being said in the article relating to this, the chart really helped to visually clarify. I found it very complimentary to this great article.

Wow, so his parents were genetically siblings both having the same four grandparents. His failure to produce children was probably a blessing to the Throne of Portugal. Cosnahang (talk) 12:50, 4 August 2009 (UTC)

Not necessarily. All he had to do was marry a woman unrelated to him. —Preceding unsigned

Sexual abuse?
"He contracted gonorrhea at age ten, most likely through sexual abuse by his tutor and confessor, the Jesuit Padre Luís Gonçalves da Câmara, a malady that tormented him throughout his short life." I don't know why this article is using Harold B. Johnson's book as the final word about King Sebastian! Other historians think that the King contracted a veneral disease as a result of his sexual iniciation with a female prostitute! Maybe this was a traumatic experience for the King and he afterwards didn't want contact with women. I think his strict religious education gave the King the idea that sex and women were a danger, were the Devil, etc. Also Sebastian didn't want to marry because he though he had a important mission on Earth: to fight the Arabs for God and Portugal's glory - another consequence of his education. And I just don't buy that story about hipersexuality!

You appear unable to spell hypersexuality and initiation and there were no "Arabs" in Morocco, all of which cast doubt on how educated you are or are not. What are your qualifications to make these assertions?

I'm educated enough that I will not send you to the "special place" you deserve. And I can ask you the same question: what are your qualifications to think Harold B. Johnson is right? In fact HBJ is not an authority on Portuguese history, but in Latin America history!

Johnson is an authority in both Brazilian and Portuguese history. Read his book entitled Camponeses e Colonizadores published in Lisbon in 2002 and you will see his extensive research in Portuguese history.

 * I certanly never had read the "sexual abuse"theory before and take issue of it being flaunted al over the article only based on the contested works of a non-specialist. --JGuerreiro 02:46, 7 February 2007 (UTC)

The abuse allegations by a certain US historian (who also makes similar unsubstantiated allegations against Henry the Navigator) don't make sense - violating the monarch's person would be an act of HIGH TREASON. The culprit (if such a crime did occur) would have been tortured and executed, no matter who the culprit was, under some false pretext to protect the King's privacy. There is just NO WAY the abuser would have been allowed to get away with his crime! Regarding the King's disease, we'll never know the truth about what his disease really was, since 16th century medical diagnoses were far from accurate, and the corpse of the King is not there for anyone to perform forensic investigation. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 195.23.28.34 (talk) 10:31, 23 May 2012 (UTC) Both Lima Cruz and Johnson say his "illness" began when he was nine years old, not ten. Two more references would be useful. 1. The review/article written by Johnson and published in the Portuguese Studies Review of the recent biography by Maria Augusta Lima Cruz. It is in volume 18:2 (2011), pp. 153-169. He answers Lima Cruz's attempt to refute his thesis in her recent bio of Sebastian. 2. The recent book entitled "Retratos Ignorados de D. Sebastiao," published in Lisbon in 2008 where there appears a painting of Sebastian presently in the Uffizi Gallery in Florence. In this painting he has a red blotch and other lesions on his right cheek completely consistent with the dermatological effects of untreated chronic gonorrhea. This painting was unknown to Portuguese biographers of Sebastian and also to Johnson until this year. It provides clear visual proof of his infection. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.63.202.17 (talk) 02:43, 6 October 2012 (UTC)
 * Johnson is a liar. This is the Uffizi painting of Sebastian - http://catalogo.uffizi.it/it/29/ricerca/detailiccd/1180956/ There are no lesions or blotches. Johnson's work has been discredited repeatedly by contemporary records of the era. Best to ignore him completely. Same as the other homosexual historian, Bruquetas de Castro - he also makes claims of homosexuality for Peter I of Portugal without evidence.

hypersexual nonsense
Sebastian was NOT hypersexual, he was HOMOSEXUAL. If you read Johnson's detailed account of the matter this is very clear. And as for what other historians think, I would like to have a citation of any of them who think he contracted gonorrhea from a woman. Please cite source. In fact at age ten when he contracted the disease he had virtually no contact with women other than with his grandmother Catherine, and she obviously did NOT have gonorrhea. In fact Johnson's study has never been refuted by any historian. If it has, please cite the refutation. I don't think the prior contributor has even read Johnson's book.

Johnson's study has never been refuted by any historian because it can't be taken as serious!Read this book: MACHADO, J. T. Montalvão, Causas de morte dos reis portugueses, Lisboa, 1974.

Johnson´s research has nothing to do with the way Sebastian died. He died in battle in Africa. He did not die from his gonorrhea. You seem very confused. By the way, Johnson´s book has been highly praised in Portugal. See: http://www.terranovacomunicacao.com.br/refacamahistoria.htm. Read Section II.

The confusion is yours: Montalvão's book also talks about the King diseases and not only his death! Johnson´s book has been highly praised in Portugal? You just found only ONE site (it's that your idea of "highly praised"?) and it is BRAZILIAN (are you confused?)! And here you have another refutation: "Existem ainda muitas especulações sobre as verdadeiras razões que levaram D. Sebastião a não ter deixado sucessores. A tese que vigora refere que este rei seria estéril. Contudo, há quem que não partilhe dessa ideia, como o médico e historiador Mário Saraiva: «O mal do jovem rei foi o de os físicos e cirurgiões terem caído no erro comum na época de confundir a sua inofensiva e passageira espermatorreia com uma uretrite, e terem-lhe originado esta com práticas pseudocurativas»"

What nonsense. If you read Johnson, and I see you have not, you will see the silly previous ideas about his disease all properly refuted. Montalvão's outdated book was published during the SALAZAR regime when the truth about Sebastian could not be told. The best biographer of Sebastian, Veloso, reached the conclusion that he had a sexually transmitted disease in 1933, but he didn't want to get into how he got it. 1933 was the beginning of the Salazar regime, the Estado Novo, censorship, etc., and after that the truth could not be told about Sebastian. He was described as having gonorrhea by the French ambassador at his court who found out in order to inform Catherine de Medici who had doubts about his marrying one of her daughters. You seem so naive that you believe now outdated historians working in fear of the Salazar dictatorship to those who have not been censored. The website is written by PORTUGUESE historians whether it is Brazilian or not. Are you so naive or do you adore the previous dictatorship so much that you cannot accept new research about Sebastian? Really, what a disgrace. Mario Saraiva was a reactionary bigot and frustrated monarchist who could not possibly accept the idea that a Portuguese king had a sexual disease. He had a medical degree from Coimbra in 1936 which means he knew almost nothing about medicine, medical teaching at Coimbra in the 30s being decades behind the times and virtually worthless. His idea that Sebastian had wet dreams and nothing more is beyond stupid. Sebastian had penile fluxes from age ten to his death. And contemporary sources, cited by Johnson, make it clear he could not have had wet dreams, since they began only at 12 years of age or later. Why do you try to refute Johnson without even reading him? How silly can you be? By the way, Mario Saraiva never practiced much medicine; rather he spent most of his career trying to restore the Portuguese monarchy. A worthless and laughable source. Just the kind for you. One thing more. The number one Portuguese historian today, A H de Oliveira Marques, calls Sebastian a homosexual in his work. So you, whoever you are, think YOU know better?

One final note since you seem to know so little. Neither Mário Saraiva nor Machado are listed in the very comprehensive Dicionário de História do Estado Novo although it lists almost all important historians and writers. So they were regarded as too insignificant to be included. What do you think of that?

 * My take in this subject is the same than the above. But let me say that it could be nice if we all behave like gentlemanwhile discussing this... This page has been the target for vandalism for some reason. I say we tone the Johnson findings a bit down. --JGuerreiro 02:51, 7 February 2007 (UTC)

 * What proofs are that Sebastian was abused? The text says "most likely through sexual abuse by his tutor and confessor". Isn't it an assured fact? The tutor must have been caught in the act, but by whom? Even today thousands of people are falsely accused of child abuse, it is even easier when the person is dead. So what are the proofs? Is it possible that he had a Non-gonococcal urethritis or someting else? Isn't it necessary to do tests to have a correct diagnosis or they are no longer necessary?

 * I agree with the original criticism. The section on Sebatian's sexuality was a POV mess. I have removed the most blatant nonsense. FilipeS (talk) 19:14, 28 November 2007 (UTC)

Tutor
Aleixo de Meneses the "aio" of Sebastian was the person incharge of taking care of the prince and  of his education. Luís Gonçalves da Câmara was the teacher of the prince. I translated "aio" as tutor and left Luís Gonçalves as teacher which was what he was.

The article is written by someone who is not up to date on the historiography of Sebastian. It ignores his most recent biographer, Maria Augusta Lima Cruz, and the critique of her bio in the Portuguese Studies Review, vol. 18:2 (2011), pp. 163-169. As often is the case, Wikipedia articles are not written by authorities but amateurs. People as a result often don't trust it. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.63.202.17 (talk) 23:02, 29 April 2012 (UTC)

Sexuality
Francisco Manuel de Melo does not mention Sebastian and he was a moralist that was born 30 years after the disapearence of Sebastian. His critics are a result of, maybe, something he heard. Although I tried to add more information to what was written I think it has nothing to do with the sexuality of king Sebastian and should be deleted.

Naming grandmothers in intro
The intro of an article shouldn't be a mini genealogy. It is to provide immediate context. In this case, what is the useful context - where does this person fit within the royal families of Iberia. We name his parents, we indicate he was grandson of two kings. Is anybody really going to understand this person's relevance by knowing his maternal grandmother was Isabella of wherever? If they are interested, they can follow links, or just look at the genealogical table in the same article, rather than having this formulaic "His paternal grandparents were . . .", there just to be there. Agricolae (talk) 22:46, 5 July 2011 (UTC)

Tomb - Where's the body?
I visited the Monastery of the Jeronimos this weekend. The guide told our group that King Sebastian's tomb is empty because his body was never found. But I've read on this site that King Felipe of Spain put a body in the tomb that he claimed was Sebastian's. So which is correct? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 195.23.28.34 (talk) 10:40, 23 May 2012 (UTC)

 * Phillip of Spain put a body in the tomb to try to put an end to the cult (Sebastianism) that maintained that he would return at some future date to reclaim the throne. Whether this was really Sebastian's body has never been definitely determined. However, Lima Cruz claims Sebastian's body was delivered to agents of Phillip in Ceuta in late 1578 where it remained until August of 1582 when it was transferred to Lisbon and reburied in the Jeronimos monastery.
 * This article, astonishingly, does not list in its bibliography the two principal biographies of Sebastian. One is the classic of Queiroz Velloso of 1935 and the other one by Maria Augusta Lima Cruz published in 2006. Both are only in Portuguese which might explain their omission, the writers unable to read the language.  — Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.63.202.17 (talk) 03:06, 6 October 2012 (UTC)

Citation
There is no one citation on this article.--The Emperor's New Spy (talk) 00:17, 26 July 2012 (UTC)
 * I am trying to give you the citation you need for the horoscope reference. It is to Harold Johnson, "Um horoscopio feito por ocasiao do nascimento de D. Sebastiao (1554-1578)" in Harold Johnson, Camponeses e Colonizadores (Lisbon: Ed. Estampa, 2002), pp. 142-166. (He publishes the horoscope and an analysis of it). — Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.63.202.17 (talk) 17:56, 8 February 2013 (UTC)

Image overload
There are too many images. It is getting difficult to read.

Info box image
There’s a dispute over the info box image. There are three images that are coming up. The first is the cropped portrait by Alonso Sánchez Coello which was the previous image that was changed by Consuela9890. The second is the portrait by Cristóvão de Morais proposed by Consuela9890. And the third which I think would be the best is the same portrait by Alonso Sánchez Coello but isn’t cropped. I think the first option doesn’t look good because it’s cropped and a bit blurry. The second image proposed by Consuela9890 is a bit dark and there’s already quite a few portraits of Sebastian around that same age that look very similar already in the article. I think an image that is of him older right before he died in Morocco would be best and would show readers what he probably looked like when he died and that would the be the third image. I’m going to change it back to the cropped image which was there a few months mind you I don’t like the cropped image I just think its fair to change it back to the original image and then decide whether to keep the original image (option 1) or to change image to either option 2 or 3.

Orson12345 (talk) 03:15, 19 February 2022 (UTC)
 * My preference is the Alonso Sánchez Coello portrait (cropped or full) because it's an official portrait of him as an adult. The Morais portrait gives the false impression that Sebastian died as a child.

title: Talk:Sebastian, King of Portugal


text:
Henry, King of Portugal

Henry (Henrique ; 31 January 1512 – 31 January 1580), dubbed the Chaste (o Casto) and the Cardinal-King (o Cardeal-Rei), was king of Portugal and an inquisitor and cardinal of the Catholic Church, who ruled Portugal between 1578 and 1580. As a clergyman, he was bound to celibacy, and as such, had no children to succeed him, and thus put an end to the reigning House of Aviz. His death led to the Portuguese succession crisis of 1580 and ultimately to the 60-year Iberian Union that saw Portugal share a monarch with Habsburg Spain. The next independent monarch of Portugal would be John IV, who restored the throne after 60 years of Spanish rule.

Life
Born in Lisbon, Henry was the fifth son of King Manuel I of Portugal and Maria of Aragon.

Cardinal
As the younger brother of King John III of Portugal and a younger son in the Royal Family, Henry was not expected to succeed to the Portuguese throne. Early in his life, Henry took Holy Orders to promote Portuguese interests within the Catholic Church, then dominated by Spain. He rose rapidly through the Church hierarchy, becoming in quick succession Archbishop of Braga, Archbishop of Évora, and Grand Inquisitor before being made a cardinal on 16 December 1545, with the title of Santi Quattro Coronati. From 1564 to 1570 he was Archbishop of Lisbon. Henry, more than anyone, endeavoured to bring the Jesuits to Portugal to encourage their activity in the colonial empire.

Reign
Henry served as regent for his great-nephew King Sebastian, replacing his sister-in-law and Sebastian's grandmother Queen dowager Catherine, following her resignation from the role in 1562. King Sebastian died without an heir in the disastrous Battle of Alcácer Quibir that took place in 1578, and the elderly cardinal was proclaimed king soon after. Henry sought to be released from his ecclesiastical vows so he could take a bride and pursue the continuation of the Aviz dynasty, but Pope Gregory XIII, not wanting to antagonize Philip II of Spain, did not grant him that release.

Death and succession
The Cardinal-King died in the Royal Palace of Almeirim, on his 68th birthday, without having appointed a successor, leaving only a regency to care for the kingdom. One of the closest dynastic claimants was King Philip II of Spain who, in June 1580, sent the Duke of Alba to claim Portugal by force. Lisbon soon fell, and Philip was elected king of Portugal at the Portuguese Cortes of Tomar in 1581— on the condition that the kingdom and its overseas territories would retain their autonomy.

title: Henry, King of Portugal


text:
User talk:Mnementh

Hello Mnementh, welcome to Wikipedia!

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title: User talk:Mnementh