text:
John Cassavetes

John Nicholas Cassavetes (December 9, 1929 – February 3, 1989) was a Greek-American filmmaker and actor. He began as an actor in film and television before helping to pioneer modern American independent cinema as a writer and director, often producing and distributing his films with his own money. He received nominations for three Academy Awards, two BAFTA Awards, four Golden Globe Awards, and an Emmy Award.

After studying at the American Academy of Dramatic Arts, Cassavetes started his career in television acting in numerous network dramas. From 1959 to 1960 he played the title role in the NBC detective series Johnny Staccato. He then acted in notable films such as Martin Ritt's film noir Edge of the City (1957), Roman Polanski's horror film Rosemary's Baby (1968) and Elaine May's crime drama Mikey and Nicky (1976). He earned an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor nomination for his performance in the Robert Aldrich war film The Dirty Dozen (1967).

As a director, Cassavetes became known for a string of critically acclaimed independent films including Shadows (1959), Faces (1968), Husbands (1970), A Woman Under the Influence (1974), Opening Night (1977), and Love Streams (1984). His films employed an actor-centered approach which prioritized raw character relationships and "small feelings" while rejecting traditional Hollywood storytelling, method acting, and stylization. His films became associated with an improvisational aesthetic and a cinéma vérité feel. He received Academy Award nominations for Best Original Screenplay (Faces) and Best Director (A Woman Under the Influence).

He frequently collaborated with American actress Gena Rowlands (to whom he was married from 1954 until his death in 1989) and friends Peter Falk, Ben Gazzara, and Seymour Cassel. Many of his films were shot and edited in his and Rowlands' own Los Angeles home. He and Rowlands had a son named Nick and two daughters named Alexandra and Zoe, all of whom followed them into acting and filmmaking.

Early life and education
John Nicholas Cassavetes was born in New York City on December 9, 1929, the son of Greek-American actress Katherine Cassavetes (née Demetre), who was later featured in some of his films, and Greek immigrant Nicholas John Cassavetes. His early years were spent with his family in Greece; when he returned to New York at the age of seven, he spoke no English. He was then raised on Long Island, where he attended Paul D. Schreiber Senior High School (then known as Port Washington High School) from 1945 to 1947 and participated in Port Weekly (the school paper), Red Domino (interclass play), football, and the Port Light (yearbook).

Cassavetes attended Blair Academy in New Jersey and spent a semester at Champlain College in Burlington, VT, but was expelled due to his failing grades. He spent a few weeks hitchhiking to Florida and then transferred to the American Academy of Dramatic Arts, encouraged by recently enrolled friends who told him the school was "packed with girls". He graduated in 1950 and met his future wife Gena Rowlands at her audition to enter the Academy in 1953. They were married four months later in 1954. He continued acting in the theater, took small parts in films, and began working on television in anthology series such as Alcoa Theatre.

Acting workshop
By 1956, Cassavetes had begun teaching an alternative to method acting in his own workshop—co-founded with friend Burt Lane in New York City—in which performance would be based on character creation, rather than backstory or narrative requirements. Cassavetes particularly scorned Lee Strasberg's Method-based Actors Studio, believing that the Method was "more a form of psychotherapy than of acting" which resulted in sentimental cliches and self-indulgent emotion. In contrast to the Actors Studio's "moody, broody anguish", the Cassavetes-Lane approach held that acting should be an expression of creative joy and exuberance, with emphasis put on the character's creation of "masks" in the process of interacting with other characters.

Shortly after opening the workshop, Cassavetes was invited to audition at the Actors Studio, and he and Lane devised a prank: they claimed to be performing a scene from a recent stage production but in fact improvised a performance on the spot, fooling an impressed Strasberg. Cassavetes then fabricated a story about his financial troubles, prompting Strasberg to offer him a full scholarship to the Studio; Cassavetes immediately rejected it, feeling that Strasberg did not know anything about acting if he had been so easily fooled by the two ruses.

An improvisation exercise in the workshop inspired the idea for his writing and directorial debut, Shadows (1959; first version 1957). Cassavetes raised the funds for the production from friends and family, as well as listeners to Jean Shepherd's late-night radio talk-show Night People. His stated purpose was to make a film about modest-income “little people”, unlike Hollywood studio productions, which focused on stories about wealthy people. Cassavetes was unable to gain American distribution of Shadows, but it won the Critics Award at the Venice Film Festival. European distributors later released the movie in the United States as an import. Although the box-office returns of Shadows in the United States were slight, it did gain attention from the Hollywood studios.

Television and acting jobs
Cassavetes played bit-parts in B pictures and in television serials, until gaining notoriety in 1955 as a vicious killer in The Night Holds Terror, and as a juvenile delinquent in the live TV drama Crime in the Streets. Cassavetes would repeat this performance credited as an “introducing” lead in the 1956 film version, which also included another future director, Mark Rydell, as his gang mate. His first starring role in a feature film was Edge of the City (1957), which co-starred Sidney Poitier. He was briefly under contract to Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and co-starred with Robert Taylor in the western Saddle the Wind, written by Rod Serling. In the late 1950s, Cassavetes guest-starred in Beverly Garland's groundbreaking crime drama, Decoy, about a New York City woman police undercover detective. Thereafter, he played Johnny Staccato, the title character in a television series about a jazz pianist who also worked as a private detective. In total he directed five episodes of the series, which also features a guest appearance by his wife Gena Rowlands. It was broadcast on NBC between September 1959 and March 1960, and then acquired by ABC; although critically acclaimed, the series was cancelled in September 1960. Cassavetes would appear on the NBC interview program, Here's Hollywood.

1960s
In 1961 Cassavetes signed a seven-year deal with Paramount. Cassavetes directed two movies for Hollywood in the early 1960s: Too Late Blues (1961); A Child Is Waiting (1963) starring Burt Lancaster and Judy Garland. He starred in the CBS western series Rawhide in the episode Incident Near Gloomy River (1961). In the 1963–1964 season he was cast in the ABC medical drama about psychiatry, Breaking Point. In 1964, he again co-starred with his wife, this time in an episode of The Alfred Hitchcock Hour anthology program, and in 1965, he appeared on ABC's western series, The Legend of Jesse James. In the same year, he also guest-starred in the World War II series Combat!, in the episode "S.I.W.", and as the insane nuclear scientist Everett Lang in Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea, season 2, episode "The Peacemaker". With payment for his work on television, as well as a handful of film acting jobs, he was able to relocate to California and to make his subsequent films independent of any studio, as Shadows had been made. The films in which he acted with this intention include Don Siegel's The Killers (1964), the motorcycle gang movie Devil's Angels (1967), The Dirty Dozen (1967), for which he was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor, the Guy Woodhouse lead originally intended for Robert Redford in Roman Polanski's Rosemary's Baby (1968), and The Fury (1978). Cassavetes portrayed the murderer in a 1972 episode of the TV crime series Columbo, titled "Étude in Black". Cassavetes and series star Peter Falk had previously starred together in the 1969 mob action thriller Machine Gun McCain.

Faces (1968) was the second film to be both directed and independently financed by Cassavetes. The film starred his wife Gena Rowlands—whom he had married during his struggling actor days—John Marley, Seymour Cassel and Val Avery, as well as several first-time actors, such as lead actress Lynn Carlin and industry fringies like Vince Barbi. It depicts the slow disintegration of a contemporary marriage. The film reportedly took three years to make, and was made largely in the Cassavetes home. Faces was nominated for three Academy Awards: Best Original Screenplay, Best Supporting Actor, and Best Supporting Actress. Around this time, Cassavetes formed "Faces International" as a distribution company to handle all of his films.

1970s
In 1970, Cassavetes directed and acted in Husbands, with actors Peter Falk and Ben Gazzara. They played a trio of married men on a spree in New York and London after the funeral of one of their best friends. Cassavetes stated that this was a personal film for him; his elder brother had died at the age of 30.

Minnie and Moskowitz (1971), about two unlikely lovers, featured Rowlands and Cassel. A Woman Under the Influence (1974) stars Rowlands as an increasingly troubled housewife. Rowlands received an Academy Award nomination for Best Actress, while Cassavetes was nominated for Best Director. In The Killing of a Chinese Bookie (1976), Gazzara plays a small-time strip-club owner with an out-of-control gambling habit, pressured by mobsters to commit a murder to pay off his debt.

In Opening Night (1977), Rowlands plays the lead alongside Cassavetes; the film also stars Gazzara and Joan Blondell. Rowlands portrays an aging film star named Myrtle Gordon, who is working in the theater and suffering a personal crisis. Alone and unloved by her colleagues, afraid of aging and always removed from others due to her stardom, she succumbs to alcohol and hallucinations after witnessing a young fan accidentally die. Ultimately, Gordon fights through it all, delivering the performance of her life in a play. Rowlands won the Silver Bear for Best Actress at the 28th Berlin International Film Festival for her performance.

1980s
Cassavetes directed the film Gloria (1980), featuring Rowlands as a Mob moll who tries to protect an orphan boy whom the Mob wants to kill, which earned her another Best Actress nomination. In 1982, Cassavetes starred in Paul Mazursky's Tempest, which co-starred Rowlands, Susan Sarandon, Molly Ringwald, Raúl Juliá and Vittorio Gassman.

Cassavetes penned the stage play Knives, the earliest version of which he allowed to be published in the 1978 premiere issue of On Stage, the quarterly magazine of the American Community Theatre Association, a division of the American Theatre Association. The play was produced and directed as one of his Three Plays of Love and Hate at Hollywood, California's Center Theater in 1981. The trio of plays included versions of Canadian playwright Ted Allan's The Third Day Comes and Love Streams, the latter of which served as the blueprint for Cassavetes' 1984 film of the same name.

Cassavetes made the Cannon Films-financed Love Streams (1984), which featured him as an aging playboy who suffers the overbearing affection of his recently divorced sister. It was entered into the 34th Berlin International Film Festival where it won the Golden Bear. The film is often considered Cassavetes' "last film" in that it brought together many aspects of his previous films. He despised the film Big Trouble (1986), which he took over during filming from Andrew Bergman, who wrote the original screenplay. Cassavetes came to refer to the film as "The aptly titled 'Big Trouble,'" since the studio vetoed many of his decisions for the film and eventually edited most of it in a way with which Cassavetes disagreed.

In January 1987, Cassavetes was facing health problems, but he wrote the three-act play Woman of Mystery and brought it to the stage in May and June at the Court Theatre, Los Angeles.

Cassavetes worked during the last year of his life to produce a last film that was to be titled She's Delovely. He was in talks with Sean Penn to star, though legal and financial hurdles proved insurmountable and the project was forgotten about until after Cassavetes' death, when his son Nick finally directed it as She's So Lovely (1997).

Filmmaking style
Cassavetes spent the majority of his directing career working 'off the grid' and in a communal atmosphere "unfettered by the commercial concerns of Hollywood." This was in part because few Hollywood executives were interested in Cassavetes' raw studies of human behavior. His films aim to capture "small feelings" often repressed by Hollywood filmmaking, emphasizing intimate character examination and relationships rather than plot, backstory, or stylization. He often presented difficult characters whose behaviors were not easily understood, rejecting simplistic psychological or narrative explanations for their actions. Cassavetes also disregarded the "impressionistic cinematography, linear editing, and star-centred scene making" fashionable in Hollywood and art films. Instead, he worked to create a comfortable and informal environment where actors could freely experiment with their performances and go beyond acting clichés or "programmed behaviors."

Cassavetes also rejected the dominance of the director's singular vision, instead believing each character must be the actor's "individual creation" and refusing to explain the characters to his actors in any significant detail. He claimed that "stylistic unity drains the humanity out of a text [...] The stories of many different and potentially inarticulate people are more interesting than a contrived narrative that exists only in one articulate man's imagination." Cassavetes also said that he strove "to put [actors] in a position where they may make asses of themselves without feeling they're revealing things that will eventually be used against them." He frequently filmed scenes in long, uninterrupted takes, explaining that:"The drama of the scenes comes naturally from the real passage of time lived by the actors [...] The camera isn't content to just follow the characters' words and actions. I focus in on specific gestures and mannerisms. It's from focusing on these little things—the moods, silences, pauses, or anxious moments—that the form arises."

The manner in which Cassavetes employed improvisation is frequently misunderstood: with the exception of the original version of Shadows, his films were tightly scripted. However, he allowed actors to interpret characters in their own way, and often rewrote scripts based on the results of rehearsals and performances. He explained that "I believe in improvising on the basis of the written word and not on undisciplined creativity."

Cassavetes said: "The hardest thing for a film-maker, or a person like me, is to find people … who really want to do something … They've got to work on a project that's theirs."

Cassavetes worked with jazz musicians Charles Mingus and Shafi Hadi to provide the score for Shadows. Mingus's friend, Diane Dorr-Dorynek, described Cassavetes' approach to film-making in jazz terms: The script formed the skeleton around which the actors might change or ad lib lines according to their response to the situation at the moment, so that each performance was slightly different. A jazz musician works in this way, using a given musical skeleton and creating out of it, building a musical whole related to a particular moment by listening to and interacting with his fellow musicians. Jazz musicians working with actors could conceivably provide audiences with some of the most moving and alive theater they have ever experienced.

When asked by André S. Labarthe during the making of Faces whether he had the desire to make a musical film, Cassavetes responded he wanted to make only one musical, Dostoyevsky's Crime and Punishment. Cassavetes was passionate about a wide range of music, from jazz to classical to rock, saying "I like all music. It makes you feel like living. Silence is death."

Cassavetes worked with composer Bo Harwood from 1970 to 1984 on six films in several different capacities, even though Harwood had initially only signed on to do "a little editing" for Husbands, and "a little sound editing" for Minnie and Moskowitz. Harwood composed poignant music for Cassavetes' following three films, and was also credited as "Sound" for two of them. During these projects Harwood wrote several songs, some with Cassavetes contributing lyrics and rudimentary tunes. During his work with Cassavetes, Harwood claimed the notoriously unpredictable director preferred to use the "scratch track" version of his compositions, rather than to let Harwood refine and re-record them with an orchestra. Some of these scratch tracks were recorded in Cassavetes' office, with piano or guitar, as demos, and then eventually ended up in the final film. While this matched the raw, unpolished feel that marks most of Cassavetes' films, Harwood was sometimes surprised and embarrassed.

The relationship between Harwood and Cassavetes ended amicably. When asked by documentarian Michael Ventura during the making of Cassavetes' last film Love Streams, what he had learned from working with Cassavetes, Harwood replied: "I learned a lot through John. I've done a lot of editing for him. Picture editing, sound editing, music editing, shot sound, composed score, and I've learned a lot about integrity ... I think you know what I mean. You know, thirty years from now, I can say I rode with Billy the Kid."

Marriage
Cassavetes was married to American actress Gena Rowlands from 1954 until his death in 1989. Many of his films were shot and edited in his and Rowlands' own Los Angeles home. He and Rowlands had a son named Nick and two daughters named Alexandra and Zoe, all of whom followed them into acting and filmmaking.

Death
A long-time alcoholic, Cassavetes died in Los Angeles from complications of cirrhosis of the liver at the age of 59 on February 3, 1989. He is buried at Westwood Village Memorial Park cemetery in Los Angeles.

At the time of his death, Cassavetes had amassed a collection of more than 40 unproduced screenplays, as well as a novel, Husbands. He also left three unproduced plays: Sweet Talk, Entrances and Exits, and Begin the Beguine, the last of which, in German translation, was co-produced by Needcompany of Belgium and Burgtheater of Vienna, and premiered on stage at Vienna's Akademietheater in 2014.

Legacy and reception
Cassavetes is the subject of several biographies. Cassavetes on Cassavetes is a collection of interviews collected or conducted by Boston University film scholar Ray Carney, in which the filmmaker recalled his experiences, influences and outlook on the film industry. In the 2005 Hollywood issue of Vanity Fair, one article features a tribute to Cassavetes by three members of his stock company, Rowlands, Gazzara, and Falk.

Many of Cassavetes' films are owned by Faces Distribution, a company overseen by Gena Rowlands and Julian Schlossberg, distributed by Jumer Films (Schlossberg's own company), with additional sales and distribution by Janus Films. In September 2004, The Criterion Collection produced a Region 1 DVD box set of his five independent films: Shadows, Faces, A Woman Under the Influence, The Killing of a Chinese Bookie and Opening Night. Also featured in the set is a documentary about the life and works of Cassavetes, A Constant Forge, a booklet featuring critical assessments of the director's work and tributes by old friends. Criterion released a Blu-ray version of the set in October 2013. In 2005, a box set of the same films was released in Region 2 by Optimum Releasing. The Optimum DVD of Shadows has a voice-over commentary by Seymour Cassel. Then, in 2014, the Faces/Jumer library became the property of Shout! Factory, which acquired the films' holding parent company, Westchester Films.

Cassavetes' son Nick followed in his father's footsteps as an actor and director, adapting the She's Delovely screenplay his father had written into the 1997 film She's So Lovely, which starred Sean Penn, as John Cassavetes had wanted. Alexandra Cassavetes directed the documentary Z Channel: A Magnificent Obsession in 2004, and in 2006 served as 2nd Unit Director on her brother Nick's film, Alpha Dog. Cassavetes' younger daughter Zoe wrote and directed the 2007 film Broken English, featuring Rowlands and Parker Posey.

The New Yorker wrote that Cassavetes "may be the most influential American director of the last half century"—this in announcing that all the films he directed, plus others he acted in, were being screened in a retrospective tribute at the Brooklyn Academy of Music throughout July 2013. AllMovie called Cassavetes "an iconoclastic maverick".

The Independent Spirit Awards named one of their categories after Cassavetes, the Independent Spirit John Cassavetes Award. A one-person show about John Cassavetes titled Independent premiered at Essential Theatre in Atlanta in August 2017. The play was written by John D. Babcock III and starred actor Dan Triandiflou as Cassavetes. The song "What's Yr Take on Cassavetes?" by the band Le Tigre is about John Cassavetes and questions whether he can be considered a feminist. The song "Cassavetes" by the band Fugazi parallels John Cassavetes' independence from the film industry with the band's own independence from the record industry. In concert, singer Guy Picciotto introduced it as "a song about making your own road."

Filmography
As director

Awards and nominations
As a filmmaker, he was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay for Faces (1968) and the Academy Award for Best Director for A Woman Under the Influence (1974). The Independent Spirit Awards named the John Cassavetes Award in his honor.

title: John Cassavetes


text:
Asian golden cat

The Asian golden cat (Catopuma temminckii) is a medium-sized wild cat native to the northeastern Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia and China. It has been listed as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List since 2008, and is threatened by poaching and habitat destruction, since Southeast Asian forests are undergoing the world's fastest regional deforestation.

The Asian golden cat's scientific name honours Coenraad Jacob Temminck. It is also called Temminck's cat and Asiatic golden cat.

Taxonomy
Felis temmincki was the scientific name used in 1827 by Nicholas Aylward Vigors and Thomas Horsfield who described a reddish brown cat skin from Sumatra. Felis moormensis proposed by Brian Houghton Hodgson in 1831 was a young male cat caught alive by Moormi hunters in Nepal. Felis tristis proposed by Alphonse Milne-Edwards in 1872 was a spotted Asian golden cat from China.

It was subordinated to the genus Catopuma proposed by Nikolai Severtzov in 1853. Two subspecies are recognised as valid since 2017:
 * C. t. temminckii occurs in Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula
 * C. t. moormensis occurs from Nepal eastwards to Southeast Asia

Phylogeny
Phylogenetic analysis of the nuclear DNA in tissue samples from all Felidae species revealed that the evolutionary radiation of the Felidae began in Asia in the Miocene around. Analysis of mitochondrial DNA of all Felidae species indicates a radiation at around. The Asian golden cat forms an evolutionary lineage together with the bay cat (C. badia) and the marbled cat (Pardofelis marmorata), which diverged from a common ancestor between, based on analysis of their nuclear DNA. Analysis of their mitochondrial DNA indicates a genetic divergence from their common ancestor between. Both models agree that the marbled cat is the first species of this lineage that diverged, while the Asian golden cat and the bay cat diverged from each other about

The following cladogram shows the phylogenetic relationships of the Asian golden cat:

Characteristics
The Asian golden cat is a medium-sized cat with a head-to-body length of 66 - 105 cm, with a 40 - 57 cm long tail, and is 56 cm tall at the shoulder. In weight, it ranges from 9 to 16 kg, which is about two or three times that of a domestic cat (Felis catus).

The Asian golden cat is polymorphic in colour. Golden, reddish brown and buff brown individuals were recorded in northeastern India and Bhutan. Reddish brown morphs were recorded in Sumatra. Melanistic individuals were recorded in the eastern Himalayas, and in Sumatra. A spotted Asian golden cat with large rosettes on shoulders, flanks and hips was described for the first time based on a specimen from China in 1872. This morph was recorded in China, Bhutan and in West Bengal's Buxa Tiger Reserve.

Distribution and habitat
The Asian golden cat ranges from eastern Nepal, northeastern India and Bhutan to Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, southern China, Malaysia and Sumatra. It prefers forest habitats interspersed with rocky areas and inhabits dry deciduous, subtropical evergreen and tropical rainforests.

Since an individual was caught alive in 1831 in Nepal, the country was thought to be the westernmost part of the Asian golden cat's range. In the 21st century, it was photographed in the country in May 2009 in Makalu Barun National Park, at an elevation of 2517 m. In February 2019, it was also recorded in Gaurishankar Conservation Area at an elevation of 2540 m.

In India, Asian golden cats were recorded in:
 * temperate and subalpine forest in Sikkim's Khangchendzonga National Park up to an elevation of 3960 m;
 * wet hill forest of Buxa Tiger Reserve for the first time in February 2018 at elevations of 1025 and 1355 m;
 * open grasslands of Assam's Manas National Park;
 * the Khasi hills of Meghalaya;
 * Mizoram's Dampa Tiger Reserve;
 * Arunachal Pradesh's Talley Valley Wildlife Sanctuary, Pakke Tiger Reserve, Eaglenest Wildlife Sanctuary and Singchung-Bugun Village Community Reserve.

In Bhutan's Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park, it was recorded by camera traps at an elevation of 3738 m.

In northern Myanmar, it was recorded in Hkakaborazi National Park. In 2015, it was recorded for the first time in the hill forests of Karen State.

In Laos, it also inhabits bamboo regrowth, scrub and degraded forest from the Mekong plains to at least 1100 m.

In China, it was recorded in protected areas in the Qinling and Minshan Mountains between 2004 and 2009.

Results of surveys in Sumatra indicated that it is more common than sympatric small cats, suggesting that it is more numerous than thought before the turn of the 21st century. It has been recorded in Kerinci Seblat Gunung Leuser and Bukit Barisan Selatan National Parks.

Behaviour and ecology
Asian golden cats are territorial and solitary. Previous observations suggested that they are primarily nocturnal, but a field study on two radio-collared specimens revealed arrhythmic activity patterns dominated by crepuscular and diurnal activity peaks, with much less activity late at night. In the study, the male's territory was 47.7 km2 in size and increased by more than 15% during the rainy season. The female's territory was 32.6 km2 in size. Both cats traveled between only 55 m to more than 9 km in a day, and were more active in July than in March. Asian golden cats recorded in northeast India were active during the day with activity peaks around noon.

Asian golden cats can climb trees when necessary. They hunt birds, hares, rodents, reptiles, and small ungulates such as muntjacs and young sambar deer. They are capable of bringing down prey much larger than themselves, such as domestic water buffalo calves. In the mountains of Sikkim, Asian golden cats reportedly prey on ghoral.

Captive Asian golden cats kill small prey with the nape bite typical of cats. They also pluck birds larger than pigeons before beginning to feed. Their vocalizations include hissing, spitting, meowing, purring, growling, and gurgling. Other methods of communication observed in captive Asian golden cats include scent marking, urine spraying, raking trees and logs with claws, and rubbing of the head against various objects – much like a domestic cat.

Reproduction
Not much is known about the reproductive behavior of this rather elusive cat in the wild. Most of what is known has been learned from cats in captivity. Female Asian golden cats are sexually mature between 18 and 24 months, while males mature at 24 months. Females come into estrus every 39 days, at which time they leave markings and seek contact with the male by adopting receptive postures. During intercourse, the male will seize the skin of the neck of the female with his teeth. After a gestation period of 78 to 80 days, the female gives birth in a sheltered place to a litter of one to three kittens. The kittens weigh 220 to 250 g at birth, but triple in size over the first eight weeks of life. They are born already possessing the adult coat pattern and open their eyes after six to twelve days. In captivity, they live for up to twenty years.

Threats
The Asian golden cat inhabits some of the fastest developing countries in the world, where it is increasingly threatened by habitat destruction following deforestation, along with a declining ungulate prey base. In Sumatra, it has been reported killed in revenge for preying on poultry. In Southeast Asia and China, it is threatened by poaching for the illegal wildlife trade. This trade has the greatest potential to do maximum harm in minimal time.

Illegal wildlife trade
Asian golden cats are poached mainly for their fur. In Myanmar, 111 body parts from at least 110 individuals were observed in four markets surveyed between 1991 and 2006. Numbers were significantly greater than those of non-threatened species. Among the observed skins was one with rosettes. Three of the surveyed markets are situated on international borders with China and Thailand and cater to international buyers, although the Asian golden cat is completely protected under the country's national legislation. Effective implementation and enforcement of CITES is considered inadequate.

Conservation
Pardofelis temminckii is included in CITES Appendix I and fully protected over most of its range. Hunting is prohibited in Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand and Vietnam. Hunting is regulated in Laos. No information about protection status is available from Cambodia. In Bhutan, it is protected only within the boundaries of protected areas.

In captivity
, there were 20 Asian golden cats in eight European zoos participating in the European Endangered Species Programme. The pair in the German Wuppertal Zoo successfully bred in 2007, and in July 2008, two siblings were born and mother-reared. In 2008, a female kitten was also born in the French Parc des Félins. The species is also kept in the Singapore Zoo.

In culture
In China, the Asian golden cat is thought to be a kind of leopard and is known as "rock cat" or "yellow leopard". Different colour phases have different names; those with black fur are called "inky leopards", and those with spotted coats are called "sesame leopards".

In some regions of Thailand, the Asian golden cat is called Seua fai (เสือไฟ; "fire tiger"). According to a regional legend, the burning of an Asian golden cat's fur drives tigers away. Eating the flesh is believed to have the same effect. The Karen people believe that carrying a single hair of the cat is sufficient. Many indigenous people believe the cat to be fierce, but in captivity it has been known to be docile and tranquil. In the south, it is called Kang kude (คางคูด) and believed to be a fierce animal that can hurt or eat livestock and larger animals such as elephants.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Asian golden cat


text:
Faces (disambiguation)

Faces are the front areas of heads.

Faces may also refer to:

Computing and Internet

 * Faces (video game), a 1990 computer game
 * Faces (online community), an online community of women interested in digital media
 * JavaServer Faces, a Java-based Web application framework for interfaces
 * faces for Unix, the continuation of vismon

Film and television

 * Faces (1934 film), a British drama film
 * Faces (1968 film), a film by John Cassavetes
 * "Faces" (Star Trek: Voyager), an episode of Star Trek: Voyager
 * "Faces", an episode of The Good Doctor

Music

 * Faces (band), a British rock band active in the early 1970s
 * Faces (festival), a music festival in Raseborg, Finland since 1998

Albums

 * Faces (Clarke-Boland Big Band album) (1969)
 * Faces (Gábor Szabó album) (1977)
 * Faces (Earth, Wind & Fire album) (1980)
 * Faces (John Berry album) (1996)
 * Faces (Chris Caffery album) (2005)
 * Faces (Mt. Helium album) (2008)
 * Faces (EP), by Residual Kid (2012)
 * Faces (mixtape), by Mac Miller (2014)
 * Faces (Irma album) (2014)
 * Faces (David Lyttle album) (2015)

Songs

 * "Faces" (Nik Kershaw song) (1984)
 * "Faces", by Night Ranger from 7 Wishes (1985)
 * "Faces" (Run-D.M.C. song) (1991)
 * "Faces" (2 Unlimited song) (1993)
 * "Faces", by Cat Power from Myra Lee (1996)
 * "Faces" (Candyland and Shoffy song) (2016)
 * "Faces", by Gavin James (2019)
 * "Faces", by Scary Kids Scaring Kids from their eponymous album (2007)
 * "Faces", by Young Thug from Punk (2021)

title: Faces (disambiguation)


text:
Talk:Faces (disambiguation)

Graph theory faces?
I came to this disambiguation page looking for information on faces from Graph Theory. Do you think there is enough information (e.g. here) to warrant another Faces page for this? --Culix 01:00, 24 October 2006 (UTC)
 * Ahh, I see that the glossary page is intended to be a summary of all terms. I will put a link on the Faces disambiguation page that points to the glossary once we get the glossary organized.--Culix 08:31, 7 December 2006 (UTC)

Requested move

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: consensus to move the page, per the discussion below. However, I would invite the supporters here to be more clear about their rationales for supporting future requests. Dekimasu よ! 20:59, 8 November 2014 (UTC)

Faces → Faces (disambiguation) – Per WP:PLURALPT, the clear primary topic of "Faces" in terms of historical importance is the singular, Face; move this page and redirect "Faces" to "Face". bd2412 T 16:06, 28 October 2014 (UTC)
 * Support Gregkaye ✍ ♪  19:54, 28 October 2014 (UTC)
 * Support. Clear primary topic. -- Necrothesp (talk) 14:52, 29 October 2014 (UTC)
 * Oppose this one. A quick look at the disambiguation page shows there are well over a dozen uses of "Faces", some of which are relatively notable. Per WP:PLURALPT, there is no primary topic here for "Faces" - the current dab page works best for our readers searching for one of the many topics with that title. Dohn joe (talk) 18:52, 29 October 2014 (UTC)
 * Support: I commonly encounter faces in everyday life. They nearly always seem to be a plural form of a face. —BarrelProof (talk) 16:38, 30 October 2014 (UTC)
 * Support primary topic is clear, that's all there is to say. —innotata 06:25, 6 November 2014 (UTC)
 * Support. Honestly, this seems to be a clearer primary topic than even Face itself. Red Slash 01:11, 7 November 2014 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page or in a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

title: Talk:Faces (disambiguation)


text:
Shechem

Shechem (שְׁכֶם; Samaritan Hebrew: ࠔࠬࠥࠊࠝࠌ, romanized:), also spelled Sichem (Συχέμ) was an ancient city in the southern Levant. Mentioned as a Canaanite city in the Amarna Letters, it later appears in the Hebrew Bible as the first capital of the Kingdom of Israel following the split of the United Monarchy. According to, it was located in the tribal territorial allotment of the tribe of Ephraim. Shechem declined after the fall of the northern Kingdom of Israel. The city later regained its importance as a prominent Samaritan center during the Hellenistic period.

Traditionally associated with the city of Nablus, Shechem is now identified with the nearby site of Tell Balata in the Balata al-Balad suburb of the West Bank.

Geographical position
Shechem's position is indicated in the Hebrew Bible: it lay north of Bethel and Shiloh, on the high road going from Jerusalem to the northern districts (Judges xxi, 19), at a short distance from Michmethath (Joshua 17:7) and of Dothain (Genesis 37:12–17); it was in the hill-country of Ephraim (Joshua 20:7; 21:21; 1 Kings 12:25; 1 Chronicles 6:67; 7:28), immediately below Mount Gerizim (Judges 9:6–7). These indications are substantiated by Josephus, who says that the city lay between Mount Ebal and Mount Gerizim, and by the Madaba map, which places its Sykhem between one of its two sets of "Tour Gobel" (Ebal) and the "Tour Garizin" (Garizim). The site of Shechem in patristic sources is almost invariably identified with, or located close to, the town of Flavia Neapolis (Nablus).

History
Shechem was a very ancient commercial center due to its position in the middle of vital trade routes through the region. A very old "Way of the Patriarchs" trade route runs in the north–south direction.

Chalcolithic
The oldest settlement in Shechem goes back to about five thousand years ago, during the Chalcolithic period (3500-3000 BCE). At that time agriculture was already practiced.

Early Bronze
Subsequently, during the Early Bronze Age, activity seems to have moved to the nearby area of Khirbet Makhneh el-Fauqa. Some publications claim that Shechem is mentioned in the third-millennium Ebla tablets, but this has been denied by competent archaeologists.

Middle Bronze
The first substantial building activity at Shechem (Strata XXII-XXI) dates from the Middle Bronze Age IIA (c. 1900 BCE). It became a very substantial Canaanite settlement, and was attacked by Egypt, as mentioned in the Sebek-khu Stele, an Egyptian stele of a noble at the court of Senusret III (c. 1880–1840 BCE). Fortifications were made in the MB IIB (XX-XIX).

Late Bronze

In the Amarna Letters of about 1350 BCE, Šakmu (i.e., Shechem) was the center of a kingdom carved out by Labaya (or Labayu), a Canaanite warlord who recruited mercenaries from among the Habiru. Labaya was the author of three Amarna letters (EA 252, EA 253, and EA 254), and his name appears in 11 of the other 382 letters, referred to 28 times, with the basic topic of the letter, being Labaya himself, and his relationship with the rebelling, countryside Habiru.

Shechem may be identical to the Sakama mentioned in an account dated to the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt (around 1200 BCE). (See Papyrus Anastasi I.)

Iron Age
During the Babylonian Captivity (606 to 536 BCE), those Judahites who remained in the land of Israel reestablished the altar at Shechem to keep the Israelite worship system going when access to the Temple in Jerusalem was cut off.

Classical antiquity
During the Hellenistic and Roman periods, Shechem was the main settlement of the Samaritans, whose religious center stood on Mount Gerizim, just outside the town. In 6 CE, Shechem was annexed to the Roman Province of Judea. Of the Samaritans of Sichem not a few rose up in arms on Mt. Gerizim at the time of the Galilean rebellion (67 CE), which was part of the First Jewish–Roman War. The city was very likely destroyed by Sextus Vettulenus Cerialis, during that war.

In 72 CE, a new city, Flavia Neapolis, was built by Vespasian 2 km to the west of the old one. This city's name was eventually corrupted to the modern Nablus. Josephus, writing in about 90 CE (Jewish Antiquities 4.8.44), placed the city between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal. Elsewhere he refers to it as Neapolis.

In Emperor Hadrian's reign, the temple on Mt. Gerizim was restored and dedicated to Jupiter.

Like Shechem, Neapolis had a very early Christian community, including the early saint Justin Martyr; we hear even of bishops of Neapolis. On several occasions the Christians suffered greatly at the hands of the Samaritans. In 474 the emperor, to avenge what Christians considered an unjust attack by the Samaritans, deprived the latter of Mt. Gerizim and gave it to the Christians, who built on it a church dedicated to the Blessed Virgin.

Later history
The city of Nablus was Islamicized in the Abbasid and Ottoman periods. In 1903 near Nablus, a German party of archaeologists led by Dr. Hermann Thiersch stumbled upon the site called Tell Balata and now identified as ancient Shechem. Nablus is still referred to as Shechem by Israeli Hebrew speakers, even though the original site of Shechem lies east of the modern-day city.

Hebrew Bible (Old Testament)
Shechem first appears in the Hebrew Bible in Genesis 12:6–8, which says that Abraham reached the "great tree of Moreh" at Shechem and offered sacrifice nearby. Genesis, Deuteronomy, Joshua and Judges hallow Shechem over all other cities of the land of Israel. According to Genesis (12:6–7) Abram "built an altar to the Lord who had appeared to him… and had given that land to his descendants" at Shechem. The Bible states that on this occasion, God confirmed the covenant he had first made with Abraham in Harran, regarding the possession of the land of Canaan. In Jewish tradition, the old name was understood in terms of the Hebrew word shékém – "shoulder, saddle", corresponding to the mountainous configuration of the place.

On a later sojourn, two sons of Jacob, Simeon and Levi, avenged their sister Dinah's abduction and rape by "Shechem the son of Hamor the Hivite, the prince of the land" of Shechem. Shimon and Levi said to the Shechemites that, if "every male among you is circumcised, then we will give our daughters to you and take your daughters to ourselves." Once the Shechemites agree to the mass circumcision, however, Jacob's sons repay them by killing all of the city's male inhabitants.

Following the settlement of the Israelites in Canaan after their Exodus from Egypt, according to the biblical narrative, Joshua assembled the Israelites at Shechem and asked them to choose between serving the God of Abraham who had delivered them from Egypt, or the false gods which their ancestors had served on the other side of the Euphrates River, or the gods of the Amorites in whose land they now lived. The people chose to serve the God of the Bible, a decision which Joshua recorded in the Book of the Law of God, and he then erected a memorial stone "under the oak that was by" in Shechem. The oak is associated with the Oak of Moreh where Abram had set up camp during his travels in this area.

Shechem and its surrounding lands were given as a Levitical city to the Kohathites.

Owing to its central position, no less than to the presence in the neighborhood of places hallowed by the memory of Abraham (Genesis 12:6, 7; 34:5), Jacob's Well (Genesis 33:18–19; 34:2, etc.), and Joseph's tomb (Joshua 24:32), the city was destined to play an important part in the history of Israel. Jerubbaal (Gideon), whose home was at Ophrah, visited Shechem, and his concubine who lived there was mother of his son Abimelech (Judges 8:31). She came from one of the leading Shechemite families who were influential with the "Lords of Shechem" (Judges 9:1–3, wording of the New Revised Standard Version and New American Bible Revised Edition).

After Gideon's death, Abimelech was made king (Judges 9:1–45). Jotham, the youngest son of Gideon, made an allegorical speech on Mount Gerizim in which he warned the people of Shechem about Abimelech's future tyranny (Judges 9:7–20). When the city rose in rebellion three years later, Abimelech took it, utterly destroyed it, and burnt the temple of Baal-berith where the people had fled for safety. The city was rebuilt in the 10th century BC and was probably the capital of Ephraim (1 Kings 4). Shechem was the place appointed, after Solomon's death, for the meeting of the people of Israel and the investiture of his son Rehoboam as king; the meeting ended in the secession of the ten northern tribes, and Shechem, fortified by Jeroboam, became the capital of the new kingdom (1 Kings 12:1; 14:17; 2 Chronicles 10:1).

After the kings of Israel moved, first to Tirzah and later on to Samaria, Shechem lost its importance, and we do not hear of it until after the fall of Jerusalem (587 BC; ). The events connected with the restoration were to bring it again into prominence. When, on his second visit to Jerusalem, Nehemiah expelled the grandson of the high priest Eliashib (probably the Manasse of Josephus, Antiquities, XI, vii, viii) and with him the many Jews, priests and laymen, who sided with the rebel, these betook themselves to Shechem; a schismatic temple was then erected on Mount Garizim and thus Shechem became the "holy city" of the Samaritans. The latter, who were left unmolested while the orthodox Jews were chafing under the heavy hand of Antiochus IV (Antiquities, XII, v, 5, see also Antinomianism in the Books of the Maccabees) and welcomed with open arms every renegade who came to them from Jerusalem (Antiq., XI, viii, 7), fell about 128 BC before John Hyrcanus, and their temple was destroyed (Antiquities, XIII, ix, 1).

The Book of Judith, which is considered scripture to the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and other Christian churches is set in a city called "Bethulia". Because there is no Bethulia, it is widely assumed that this is a pseudonym for another city. The most common theory is that the city of Bethulia is really Shechem, based on the geography described in the book. The Jewish Encyclopedia went as far as to state that Shechem is the only city to meet all the requirements for Bethulia's location, and stated: "The identity of Bethulia with Shechem is thus beyond all question".

New Testament
Shechem is mentioned in The Book of Acts (Acts 7, ).

It is not known whether the Samaritan city of Sychar (Συχαρ, Sykhar) in the Gospel of John ( refers to Shechem or to another nearby village: "So he came to a Samaritan city called Sychar, near the plot of ground that Jacob had given to his son Joseph."

John 4 mentions one of the women of Sychar going to Jacob's Well. Some scholars believe the location of Sychar is at the foot of Mount Ebal, but other scholars disagree because the proposed location is 1 km from Jacob's Well, which they think is not close enough for the women of Sychar to have fetched their water there. Based on John 4:15, these scholars have argued that Shechem is the Samaritan city of Sychar described in the Gospel of John.

Some of the inhabitants of Sychar were "Samaritans" who believed in Jesus when he tarried two days in the neighborhood. Sychar and/or Shechem city must have been visited by the Apostles on their way from Samaria to Jerusalem .(

Distinguish from

 * Sichem is an old spelling for Zichem, a Flemish municipality which was named after the biblical Sichem; it is now merged into Scherpenheuvel-Zichem.
 * Sekem is an anthroposophical and Islamic foundation and farming village centered on principles for biodynamic agriculture in Egypt; this name refers to Shechem, and to the Ancient Egyptian hieroglyph pronounced 'Sekem' meaning 'vitality' or 'life'.

title: Shechem


text:
George Ticknor

George Ticknor (August 1, 1791 – January 26, 1871) was an American academician and Hispanist, specializing in the subject areas of languages and literature. He is known for his scholarly work on the history and criticism of Spanish literature.

Early life and education
Ticknor was born on August 1, 1791, in Boston, Massachusetts. He received his early education from his father, Elisha Ticknor, former headmaster of the Franklin Grammar School, a grocer, and a founder of the Massachusetts Mutual Fire Insurance Company, the system of free primary schools in Boston, and the first New England savings bank, Provident Institution for Savings.

In 1805, George entered the junior class at Dartmouth College, where he graduated in 1807. During the next three years he studied Latin and Greek with Rev. Dr John Sylvester John Gardiner, rector of Trinity Church, Boston, and a pupil of Dr Samuel Parr. In 1810, Ticknor began the study of law, and he was admitted to the bar in 1813.

Career
Ticknor opened an office in Boston, but practiced for only one year, satisfying himself that his vocation, or at least his taste, lay in the direction of letters rather than of law. His father helped finance his studies, and Ticknor traveled to Europe in 1815, studying for nearly two years at the University of Göttingen. He attended the lectures of the university and devoted himself to philological studies, especially to the ancient classics. After that, he remained two years longer in Europe, chiefly on the continent, spending most of his time in the capitals of France, Spain and Portugal, where he conducted critical studies of the national literatures.

In 1817, while still in Europe, Ticknor was selected as Smith professor of French and Spanish languages and literature (a chair founded in 1816), and professor of belles-lettres at Harvard University. In 1819 he returned to the United States, bringing with him a valuable library. He continued to add to this, and in time, it became one of the largest private collections in the country. For the rarity and importance of the books, it was unsurpassed, in some of its departments. His collection of Spanish literature was considered to rival the best private ones in Europe, and his library was also particularly strong in Portuguese literature. Ticknor was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1821.

During his professorship Ticknor advocated the creation of departments, the grouping of students in divisions according to proficiency, and the establishment of the elective system. He also reorganized his department. He suggested improvements in the system of discipline, influenced by his studies of German universities. He greatly extended the range of intellectual culture among the students at the university, where literary instruction had been confined to the classics. He gave long, elaborate courses of lectures on French and Spanish literature. He also entered into a critical analysis of such writers as Dante, Goethe, Milton, and Shakespeare. His lectures were attended by people from outside the college, who were attracted by their interest and by Ticknor's reputation as a speaker known for his diction and delivery. In 1828, he was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society.

Ticknor moved into half of the home built by Thomas Amory at the corner of Beacon and Park Streets in 1829; it became known as the Amory-Ticknor House. In 1835 he resigned his chair after holding it for 15 years, and returned to Europe. In 1836, he was succeeded in the professorship at Harvard by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. While in Europe, in June 1836, Ticknor recorded a frank interview with Austrian chancellor Klemens von Metternich.

After his return to Europe, Ticknor devoted himself to the chief work of his life, the history and criticism of Spanish literature. It was not fully treated even in Europe, where there was no adequate study of the literature as a whole in Spanish. Both Friedrich Bouterwek and Jean Charles Leonard de Sismondi had worked with limited or secondhand resources. Ticknor developed in his college lectures the scheme of his more permanent work, which he published as the History of Spanish Literature (New York and London, 3 volumes, 1849). The book addresses Spanish civilization and manners as well as its literature. The History is considered exhaustive in scholarship, and direct in style. It gives many illustrative passages from representative works, and copious bibliographical references.

It was soon translated into Spanish (1851–1857) by Pascual de Gayangos y Arce and Enrique de Vedia; into French by Magnabal; and German by Nikolaus Heinrich Julius and Ferdinand Wolf. The second American edition appeared in 1854; the third, corrected and enlarged, in 1863; the fourth, containing the author's last revision, in 1872, under the supervision of George Stillman Hillard; and the sixth in 1888.

Ticknor had succeeded his father as a member of the Primary School Board in 1822, and held this position until 1825. He was a trustee of the Boston Athenaeum from 1823 to 1832, and was vice-president in 1833. In addition, he served as a director (1827–1835) and vice-president (1841–1862) of the Massachusetts Hospital Life Insurance Company, and a trustee of the Massachusetts General Hospital (1826–1830) and of the Boston Provident Institution for Savings (1838–1850), the bank that his father had helped to found.

He was especially active in the establishment of the Boston Public Library (1852), and served on its board from 1852 to 1866 and as its president in 1865. He spent fifteen months abroad from 1856 to 1857 at his own expense to collect books for the library, and gave the library both money and books. He helped establish the free circulating department. He left his collection of Spanish and Portuguese books and manuscripts to the Boston Public Library, after the manuscripts were famously turned down by Harvard University.

Family
Spouse: Anna (Eliot) Ticknor.

 * Anna Eliot Ticknor
 * George Haven Ticknor, died during his childhood at age 5
 * Susan Perkins Ticknor, died in infancy
 * Eliza Sullivan (Ticknor) Dexter (1833–1880)

Works by Ticknor

 * History of Spanish Literature. v.1 (6th ed.); v.2 (4th ed.)
 * 6th ed. (via Internet Archive): v.1, v.2, v.3 + index
 * Life, Letters, and Journals of George Ticknor. v.1 (1876 ed.); v.2 (1877 ed.). Ed. by George Stillman Hillard

Ticknor's minor works include, besides occasional reviews and papers:
 * Syllabus of a Course of Lectures on the History and Criticism of Spanish Literature (1823)
 * Outline of the Principal Events in the Life of General Lafayette (1825)
 * Remarks on Changes Lately Proposed or Adopted in Harvard University (1825)
 * The Remains of Nathan Appleton Haven, with a Memoir of his Life (1827)
 * Remarks on the Life and Writings of Daniel Webster (1831)
 * Lecture on the Best Methods of Teaching the Living Languages, delivered, in 1832, before the American Institute of Education
 * Life of William Hickling Prescott (1864).

Works about Ticknor

 * Charles Henry Hart. Memoir of George Ticknor, Historian of Spanish Literature. Collins Printer, 1871
 * "George Ticknor" in: Edwin Percy Whipple, Cyrus Augustus Bartol. Recollections of eminent men: with other papers. Boston: Ticknor and Company, 1886; p. 244+
 * Sheila Heti. Ticknor, Fictionalized account of the relationship between George Ticknor and William H. Prescott. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2006

title: George Ticknor


text:
Samuel Parr

Samuel Parr (26 January 1747 – 6 March 1825), was an English schoolmaster, writer, minister and Doctor of Law. He was known in his time for political writing, and (flatteringly) as "the Whig Johnson", though his reputation has lasted less well than Samuel Johnson's, and the resemblances were at a superficial level; Parr was no prose stylist, even if he was an influential literary figure. A prolific correspondent, he kept up with many of his pupils, and involved himself widely in intellectual and political life.

Early life and education
Parr was born at Harrow on the Hill to Samuel Parr, a surgeon, and his wife Ann. Samuel was a determined and educated man who taught his only son Latin grammar at the age of four. At Easter 1752 Parr was sent to Harrow School as a free scholar, and when he left in the spring 1761, he began to assist his father in his medical practice. His father tried to direct Samuel towards a medical career. Stubbornly, Parr repeatedly turned down offers to extend his medical knowledge. In early November 1762, Parr's mother died. Less than a year later, his father married again, this time to Margaret Coxe, much to the displeasure of his son, who was sixteen at the time.

Samuel was eventually allowed to swap medicine for divinity. To this end, Parr entered the University of Cambridge, perhaps as a sizar as his stepmother had suggested or perhaps not. In 1765 he was admitted to Emmanuel College, Cambridge, where, as he wrote later, his "tutors were eminently able, and to me uniformly kind". On 23 January 1766, only a few months into his 14-month stay at Cambridge, Parr's father died at the age of 54. Even with financial support from Harrow, money now became a problem, and Parr, unable to continue his studies without going into debt, was forced to leave Cambridge. Because of Cambridge's rules regarding bachelorships in divinity, he could claim one after ten years practising and would not have to be a member of the university to do so.

Teaching career
Needing both funds and intellectual stimulus, he decided to return to Harrow. From February 1767 to the close of 1771 he served under Robert Carey Sumner (by that time a personal friend) as head assistant at Harrow, where he had Richard Brinsley Sheridan among his pupils and enjoyed an income of about £100 p.a., consisting of £50 salary and about the same amount in fees from private pupils. When the headmaster died in September 1771, Parr immediately applied for the position, but was not selected. Harrow demanded every applicant had a Master of Arts degree; an honorary one was swiftly granted to him from Cambridge, where all of his previous teachers spoke highly of him.

He was ordained deacon by Richard Terrick, Bishop of London, on Christmas Eve 1769, and for a short time he served curacies at the nearby parishes of Willesden and Kingsbury. Parr obtained a licence from the bishop, on 14 October 1771, and he opened a school at Stanmore. Perhaps hastened from need of a female superintendent at the school, he married Jane Marsingale the next month. Despite his taking between 20 and 40 pupils from Harrow with him, the school failed after five years, mainly because it could not compete with the extensive interests of Harrow. During his time there, however, he successfully introduced various curriculum developments, particularly the teaching of English and its grammar (as opposed to purely Latin), on which topic he published his Introduction to English Grammar, which appeared in 1765.

In 1776 he was elected to the post of head master of Colchester Royal Grammar School, and moved his family to the town during the spring of 1777. He repaired the buildings that had fallen into decay and he took a house near it for the reception of private boarders. In recognition of his achievements there, a school house was named after him in 1908. Though his stay at the school was short – he left after only twelve or fourteen months, having quarrelled with the trustees – he made two friendships he would keep for life: that of Thomas Twining, curate of Fordham, and of the Rev. Dr. Nathaniel Forster,  rector of All Saints near Colchester. He was also ordained priest on 15 March 1775 by Bishop Lowth, another supporter of the teaching of English in schools. At the request of his friend Dr Forster, he entered upon the cures of the Hythe and the Trinity Church in Colchester.

On 1 August 1778, at a full court of mayoralty, Parr was elected master of the grammar school of Norwich and early in the following year moved to the city to start work. Though money remained a concern of Parr's, he did manage to find happiness at Norwich, surrounded, as he was, by a group of committed academics. Shortly afterwards he became curate to the Reverend William Tapps, serving the churches of St. George's Colgate and St Saviour's. Parr, turning his attention to obtaining a doctorate and with one in divinity not forthcoming, swapped his studies to law. The degree of LL.D. was duly conferred on him by the University of Cambridge in 1781.

Retirement
Towards the close of 1785, he decided to leave Norwich – principally because his post as headmaster did not pay well but required a great deal of his time. In addition, in 1780, he was presented to the small rectory of Asterby in Lincolnshire, and three years later the vicarage of Hatton near Warwick. The first of these was worth £36 a year; the latter, however, around £100. He duly then resigned the former in favour of his curate at Hatton. These posts gave him both better pay and more free time with which to tutor privately and derive more income from those endeavours.

In late 1788, the installation of the Prince of Wales as regent almost saw Parr become the bishop of Gloucester. William Pitt the Younger had been in power on the authority of George III, but, as the King's health worsened, parliament came close (by a matter of weeks) to instating the Prince of Wales as regent. Prinny, as he was known, was a supporter of Charles James Fox, who was in turn a friend of Parr's; it was likely, therefore, that if the prince had come into power as regent, he would have chosen Fox to be the prime minister; Fox in turn who would have nominated Parr as Bishop of Gloucester. Unfortunately for Parr, the King's health improved, and the Regency Bill never passed. The Whigs did grant him a £300 annuity, however, which he needed at times during his retirement.

In 1789 he exchanged the benefice in Hatton for Wadenhoe, Northamptonshire, stipulating to be allowed to reside, as assistant curate, in the parsonage of Hatton, where he took a limited number of pupils. Here he spent the rest of his days, enjoying his excellent library, described by Henry George Bohn in Bibliotheca Parriana (1827). His friends Richard Porson and Edmund Henry Barker passed many months in his company.

In later years Parr was prone to bad colds and from two he developed erysipelas. The first he eventually recovered from; the second he did not. He bore a long illness with patience and piety, and died at Hatton parsonage on 6 March 1825. His library was auctioned by R. H. Evans in London on 29 May (and two following days) and 31 October (and seven following days); a copy of the sale catalogue for the first part is held at Cambridge University Library (shelfmark Munby.c.132(8)).

Political and personal views
Even amid the terrors of the French Revolution, Parr adhered to Whiggism, and his correspondence included every man of eminence, either literary or political, who adopted the same creed. He was an adamant support of Charles James Fox, and vehemently disliked William Pitt the Younger.

In private life, his model was Johnson. He succeeded in copying Johnson's uncouthness and pompous manner, but had neither his humour nor his real authority. He was famous as a writer of epitaphs and wrote inscriptions for the tombs of Burke, Charles Burney, Johnson, Fox and Gibbon.

As for Parr's religious views: My principles, I am sure, will never endanger the church [of England] – my studies, I hope, are such as do not disgrace it – and my actions, I can say with confidence, have ever tended to preserve it from open, and what I conceive to be unjust attacks.

Writings
Parr's writings fill several volumes, but all may be seen as beneath the reputation which he acquired through the variety of his knowledge and dogmatism of his conversation. The chief of them are his Characters of Charles James Fox (1809) and his edited reprint of Tracts of Warburton and a Warburtonian, which caused controversy; in his critique of Warburton, he focused on the worst written by William Warburton and Richard Hurd, which probably did not deserve to be reprinted, even if they were deliberately being suppressed by their authors. His Latin preface to The Three Treatises of Bellendenus should also not be forgotten, regarded, as it was, as a great work of modern Latin.

John Johnstone lists approximately 1500 of Parr's correspondents, including two members of the royal family, four archbishops and a vast selection of dukes, marquesses, earls, viscounts, lords, knights, judges and members of parliament.

In Parr 1813 he wrote the Latin inscription on King Richard's Well at the presumed site of the Battle of Bosworth, Shenton.

Memoirs
There are two memoirs of his life, one by William Field (1828), the other, with his works and his letters, by John Johnstone (1828); and Edmund Henry Barker published in 1828–1829 two volumes of Parriana, a confused mass of information on Parr and his friends. An essay on his life, Dr. Samuel Parr: or, Whiggism in its relations to literature, is included in Thomas de Quincey's works, vol. v., and a little volume of the Aphorisms, Opinions and Reflections of the late Dr Parr appeared in 1826.

title: Samuel Parr


text:
Talk:Dead letter office

Worldwide view
What about dead letter offices in other countries? These should be mentioned and discussed. --Daniel C. Boyer 18:43 20 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * This article is very US centric. Almost as if the USA is the only country to use such a service. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 58.166.3.111 (talk • contribs) 06:45, 22 August 2006  (UTC)

 * In Australia, "dead letters" are any undeliverable items that have no return address on the outside of the envelope. In each delivery centre, one or two postal workers are authorised to open such letters and discern their origin. If a sender can be identified the letter will be returned, regardless of value. If not, the material is destroyed. Any property of value is stored and sold from time to time. It is illegal to send money in the Post in the US. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 203.59.11.215 (talk) 08:19, 25 December 2006 (UTC).
 * "It is illegal to send money through the post in the US"? Uh, no it's not.  --MicahBrwn (talk) 06:09, 15 January 2009 (UTC)

 * In the UK there is the 'National Returned Letter Centre', see here. Gaz (talk?) 22:20, 8 August 2007 (UTC)

Could anyone write some sentences in the beginning part? The article starts the description only on the United States Postal Service, although it also describes on the dead letter offices in other countries (in short). --Kazov (talk) 02:15, 29 August 2014 (UTC)

Misleading?
The USPS article states:
 * or is sent to one of three Mail Recovery Centers in the United States (formerly known as Dead Letter Offices, originated by Benjamin Franklin in the 1770s) where it receives more intense scrutiny, including being opened to determine if any of the contents are a clue. If no valid address can be determined, the items are held for 90 days in case of inquiry by the customer; and if they are not claimed then they are destroyed.

I would assume this is the most likely case. However this article seems to suggest mail sent here is automatically auctioned and not even kept for 90 days. But it seems more likely mail sent here, regardless of value is opened and attempts made to identify the owner or intended receivee from the content. Obviously if it's just a letter say or something of little value, it would be difficult to identify unless there is something obvious and little further attempt I suspect is made beyond the 90 days but it still might be possible. I would assume nowdays it's even more difficult to identify mail from the content then before. Given that urbanisation of modern life, even if the letter mentions it's destination and a few names, there would still be little hope in most cases. However I would guess that in the past, if the letter identified the location, it could easily have been a small rural location e.g. with a few thousand people. With a few names, it would probably be possibly to identify the intended receivee or at least likely candidates... Nil Einne 19:45, 9 August 2006 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 1 one external link on Dead letter office. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20090509190637/https://www.usps.com/strategicplanning/cs06/chp2_005.html to http://www.usps.com/strategicplanning/cs06/chp2_005.html

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true or failed to let others know (documentation at ).

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 18:43, 8 November 2016 (UTC)

Merger proposal
I propose to merge Dead letter mail into Dead letter office. Addedentry (talk) 12:03, 20 January 2019 (UTC)
 * Please see discussion at Why not merge this with Dead Letter Office? Bus stop (talk) 13:59, 31 March 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Dead letter office


text:
Talk:Regions of Finland

Numbering
In Mozilla (version 1.1) I am seeing the numbers of the regions in the list off by one, with Lapland being marked as "2", not "1". In IE, the numbering is correct. I wonder if it can be fixed. Nyh 10:22, 24 Aug 2004 (UTC)

I'am running Mozilla 1.7.2 and it looks ok for me. -- Jniemenmaa 07:58, 25 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Name of maakunta
There is some variation in the English names of Finnish regions. The list that I got from Kielitoimisto in August 2001 is slightly different from the one given here:

Uusimaa Varsinais-Suomi Itä-Uusimaa Satakunta Kanta-Häme Pirkanmaa Päijät-Häme Kymenlaakso South Karelia Etelä-Savo Pohjois-Savo North Karelia Central Finland South Ostrobothnia Ostrobothnia Central Osrobothnia North Ostrobothnia Kainuu Lapland Åland

Mikko Silvonen 19:47 20 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * Hmm. I got the list(s) from the Maakuntien Liitot webpage.
 * For the reference, this is what I could find on the kielitoimisto website, was it this you ment?
 * Muutamaa sovinnaisnimeä lukuun ottamatta maakuntien nimet kirjoitetaan vieraskielisiin teksteihin suomeksi. Poikkeuksena on Ahvenanmaa, joka on paikallisen kielen mukaan Åland. Sovinnaisnimiä ovat kuhunkin kieleen vakiintuneet omat kansalliset muodot ulkomaiden paikannimistä. Tällaisia nimiä ovat esim. englannin kielessä Karelia (Karjala), Ostrobothnia (Pohjanmaa) ja Lapland (Lappi).
 * -- Jniemenmaa 08:58 23 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Could I put in a request that Varsinais-Suomi remains as Varsinais-Suomi? I ask because I've just come across a research paper which translates Varsinais-Suomi as Finland Proper. I was so surprised that I checked Wikipedia and found that this seems to be the translation that many people use. Now I'm not trying to be like King Canute and try to hold the tide back, but can we look at what "Finland Proper" means to the average English speaker - it means the main part of Finland, possibly excluding the more exotic bits. (Would Lapland be part of Finland Proper?) My own country (Scotland) has lots of place-names that would look equally ridiculous if literally translated. Please let's stick with Varsinais-Suomi. - m. Malcolmrutter (talk) 16:03, 30 May 2011 (UTC)

Finnish translations
Which grammatical form to use?

Grammatical forms used in explanatory translations are often confusing. Which grammatical form should be used for these annotations to be instructive? In some languages—such as Finnish—words may change their appearance dramatically when inflected. Does an English or Int'l reader appreciate that (the) areas are alueet (nominative plural) in Finnish while some areas are muutama alueita (partitive plural)? I'd like to suggest to consistently use the basic grammatical form when translating terms into other languages: nominative singular for nouns, infinitive (I) for verbs.

The introductory sentence of this Provinces of Finland-article reads "The state of Finland consists of 6 provinces". In the English sentence, "provinces" is an accusative plural—I'd say. The explanatory Finnish term läänit is in nominative plural. The accusative case is without correspondence in Finnish. Is it then justified to choose the next closest case from the germanic point of view?

What if the whole sentence would be translated into Finnish? Then lääni—this is the basic, i.e. nominative singular, form—would have to take on partitive singular: lääniä. How does an English speaker figure any sense out of this?

As positive example I'd like to refer to the third paragraph of the very same article: "Formerly there was a division to state local districts". As the corresponding term for districts, the authors give kihlakunta, the singular form rather than the plural kihlakunnat. Another example: the Regions of Finland-article starts with "The state of Finland is divided into 20 regions (maakunta)". Here, too, nominativ singular is used rather than e.g. the nominativ plural maakunnat.

I'm pretty sure information content would improve if we'd keep grammatical forms of references to other languages simple and consistently applied transparent principles. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Johannes.Frech (talk • contribs) 09:54, 8 December 2009 (UTC)

Which maakunta in which alue?
We have to make this clear somehow, perhaps in the table. – Kaihsu (talk) 15:28, 22 February 2011 (UTC)

Agreed, was just reading this article and thought it was odd that this information was displayed anywhere. An additional column to the table will probably do fine. – Micropot (talk) 00:59, 7 August 2011 (UTC)

First-level administrative divisions in Europe?
There is this template at bottom: "First-level administrative divisions in Europe". I'm not sure, but my impression is that after the provinces were abolished there are no official higher-level administrative regions (higher than municipality). 82.141.64.59 (talk) 06:10, 27 October 2012 (UTC)
 * They are the first-level division after the provinces were abolished in 2010. See ISO 3166-2:FI. Regions of Finland are cooperative organisations between Finnish municipalities and not hold that much power. Provinces were administrative organs of the state, regions are not. The new Regional State Administrative Agencies are not subdivisions, just agencies. --Pudeo' 18:41, 17 February 2013 (UTC)

 * There you said it: "Regions of Finland are cooperative organisations between Finnish municipalities", rather than administrative divisions. And administrative division article has this: "established for the purpose of government", which these are not. 85.217.34.67 (talk) 17:45, 25 April 2013 (UTC)

And this proves that the municipalities are actually the highest-level administrative divisions in Finland. At least until maakuntauudistus (~county reform) might come to exist. 193.64.36.165 (talk) 18:30, 30 May 2019 (UTC)

ely-keskus
Something needs to be said about these. – Kaihsu (talk) 21:26, 30 December 2014 (UTC)

Name not English??
Where do the names come from? Why are there DIFFERENT names for the places in ENGLISH in the English wikipedia when there are official English names, which are widely used? Why does wikipedia mention these names with NO SOURCES and no explanation? I think especially about the Tavastias - it is seems like using Danzig - as it was an old name why not? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 88.115.204.102 (talk) 02:04, 24 March 2020 (UTC)

 * I believe those "Tavastia", "Finland Proper" etc. names were invented translations by the original creator of English Wikipedia articles for those regions. Unfortunately those names were left on Wikipedia for years so some other websites picked them up from Wikipedia in the meantime. Anssi~enwiki (talk) 11:41, 29 May 2022 (UTC)

Requested move 20 May 2022

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.

The result of the move request was: moved. (closed by non-admin page mover) Vpab15 (talk) 09:55, 29 May 2022 (UTC)

Counties of Finland → Regions of Finland – There was some confusion about the full scope of the recent administrative reform that came into effect last year and its effects on the English nomenclature. The previous government's reform plan would have transfered the health and social services to the already existing regions and renaming them counties. However the current government's reform that ended up going through left the existing regions (maakunta/landskap) intact while establish new Wellbeing services counties (hyvinvointialue/välfärdsområde), the borders of which are based on those of the regions'. For example Statistics Finland treats the two as separate classifications, https://www2.stat.fi/en/luokitukset/maakunta/ https://www2.stat.fi/en/luokitukset/hyvinvointialue/ Given that there's already a page for the Wellbeing services counties, which also discusses the elected county councils, the name of this page should be reverted back to Regions of Finland. Fenn-O-maniC (talk) 09:17, 20 May 2022 (UTC) The discussion above is closed. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.
 * Support. No one calls them "counties" in Finland. They are called regions. Historically Finland also used to consist of provinces (Finnish: lääni) but this system was abolished years ago, nowadays it is just regions which are in turn divided into municipalities. J I P  | Talk 13:35, 20 May 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Regions of Finland


text:
Henry George Bohn

Henry George Bohn (4 January 1796 – 22 August 1884) was a British publisher. He is principally remembered for the Bohn's Libraries which he inaugurated. These were begun in 1846, targeted the mass market, and comprised editions of standard works and translations, dealing with history, science, classics, theology and archaeology.

Biography
Bohn was born in London. He was the son of a German bookbinder who had settled in England. In 1831 he began his career as a dealer in rare books and remainders. In 1841 he issued his "Guinea" Catalogue of books, a monumental work containing 23,208 items. Bohn was noted for his book auction sales: one held in 1848 lasted four days, the catalogue comprising twenty folio pages. Printed on this catalogue was the information: "Dinner at 2 o'clock, dessert at 4, tea at 5, and supper at 10."

In 1846, he also started publishing The British florist : or lady's journal of horticulture, which had 6 volumes with illustrations and plates (coloured).

The name of Bohn is principally remembered by the important Bohn's Libraries which he inaugurated: these were begun in 1846 and comprised editions of standard works and translations, dealing with history, science, classics, theology and archaeology, consisting in all of 766 volumes. His authors included Julia Corner who created educational books about India and China for him in the 1850s.

The reasons for the success of Bohn's Libraries may have included their marketing to a general mass readership with volumes selling at low prices, their "lack of literary pretensions", and their "policy of a widespread, but restrained expurgation".

One of Bohn's most useful and laborious undertakings was his revision (6 vols. 1864) of The Bibliographer's Manual of English Literature (1834) of W. T. Lowndes. The plan includes bibliographical and critical notices, particulars of prices, etc., and a considerable addition to the original work.

It had been one of Bohn's ambitions to found a great publishing house, but, finding that his sons had no taste for the trade, he sold his Bohn's Libraries in 1864 to Messrs. Bell and Daldy, afterwards G. Bell & Sons. At that time the Bohn's Libraries included more than 600 titles. In subsequent years, he disposed of all his copyrights and business properties, finally realizing £73,000 overall.

Bohn was a man of wide culture and many interests. He himself made considerable contributions to his Libraries, he collected pictures, china and ivories, and was a famous rose-grower.

He died at Twickenham and was buried at West Norwood Cemetery.

Works
Among his own works were:
 * The Origin and Progress of Printing (1857)
 * Biography and Bibliography of Shakespeare (1863)
 * Dictionary of Quotations (1867)
 * Handbook of Proverbs
 * Handbook of Games
 * Guide to the Knowledge of Pottery and Porcelain

Besides his edition of Lowndes' Bibliographer's Manual, he developed an edition of Addison's works.

title: Henry George Bohn


text:
William Thomas Lowndes

William Thomas Lowndes (c. 1798 – 31 July 1843), English bibliographer, was born about 1798, the son of a London bookseller.

His principal work, The Bibliographer’s Manual of English Literature—the first systematic work of the kind—was published in four volumes in 1834. It took Lowndes fourteen years to compile, but, despite its merits, brought him neither fame nor money. "For years Lowndes was the national British bibliography." It is regarded as a "bibliographical classic" although "pleasurably more scattershot than systematic."

Lowndes, reduced to poverty, subsequently became cataloguer to Henry George Bohn, the bookseller and publisher. In 1839 he published the first parts of The British Librarian, designed to supplement his early manual, but owing to failing health did not complete the work.

title: William Thomas Lowndes


text: User talk:80.58.9.107

title: User talk:80.58.9.107


text:
Friedrich Bouterwek

Friedrich Ludewig Bouterwek (15 April 1766 – 9 August 1828) was a German philosopher and critic, born to a mining director at Oker, Electorate of Saxony; today a district of Goslar in Lower Saxony.

Life
Bouterwek studied law and philology under Christian Gottlob Heyne and Johann Georg Heinrich Feder at the University of Göttingen.

After he had finished his studies he was appointed to the Hanover Appellate Court, whilst, backed by Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleim, he also gave his debut as an author under the pen name Ferdinand Adrianow in the Göttinger Musenalmanach published by Gottfried August Bürger. He returned to Göttingen as a lecturer in history, from 1790, however, he became a disciple of Immanuel Kant and published Aphorismen nach Kants Lehre vorgelegt (1793) [Aphorismen, den Freunden der Vernunftkritik nach Kantischer Lehre vorgelegt (1793).]. In 1802 he became professor ordinarius of philosophy at Göttingen, where he remained till his death.

As a philosopher, he is interesting for his criticism of the theory of the "thing-in-itself" (Ding-an-sich, noumenon). For the pure reason, as described in the Kritik, the "thing-in-itself" can be only an inconceivable "something-in-general"; any statement about it involves the predication of Reality, Unity and Plurality, which belong not to the absolute thing but to phenomena. On the other hand, the subject is known by the fact of will, and the object by that of resistance; the cognizance of willing is the assertion of absolute reality in the domain of relative knowledge. This doctrine has since been described as absolute Virtualism.

Following this train of thought, Bouterwek left the Kantian position through his opposition to its formalism. In later life he inclined to the views of Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi, whose letters to him (published at Göttingen, 1868) shed much light on the development of his thought.

Bouterwek died at Göttingen, Kingdom of Saxony.

Work
His chief philosophical works are: In these works he dissociated himself from the Kantian school. His chief critical work was the Geschichte der neuern Poesie und Beredsamkeit (Göttingen, 12 vols., 1801–1819), of which the history of Spanish literature has been published separately in French, Spanish and English. The Geschichte is a work of wide learning and generally sound criticism, but it is not of equal merit throughout. He also wrote three novels, Paulus Septimus (Halle, 1795), Graf Donamar (Göttingen, 1791) and Ramiro (Leipzig, 1804), and published a collection of poems (Göttingen, 1802).
 * Ideen zu einer allgemeinen Apodiktik (Göttingen and Halle, 1799)
 * Aesthetik (Leipzig, 1806; Göttingen, 1815 and 1824)
 * Lehrbuch des philos. Vorkenntnisse (Göttingen, 1810 and 1820)
 * Lehrbuch der philos Wissenschaften (Göttingen, 1813 and 1820).

title: Friedrich Bouterwek