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Fire hydrant

A fire hydrant, fireplug, or firecock (archaic) or "Johnny Pump" is a connection point by which firefighters can tap into a water supply. It is a component of active fire protection. Underground fire hydrants have been used in Europe and Asia since at least the 18th century. Above-ground pillar-type hydrants are a 19th-century invention.

Operation
The user attaches a hose to the fire hydrant, then opens a valve on the hydrant to provide a powerful flow of water, on the order of 350 kPa; this pressure varies according to region and depends on various factors (including the size and location of the attached water main). This user can attach this hose to a fire engine, which can use a powerful pump to boost the water pressure and possibly split it into multiple streams. One may connect the hose with a threaded connection, instantaneous "quick connector" or a Storz connector.

A user should take care not to open or close a fire hydrant too quickly, as this can cause a water hammer, which can damage nearby pipes and equipment. The water inside a charged hose line causes it to be very heavy and high water pressure causes it to be stiff and unable to make a tight turn while pressurized. When a fire hydrant is unobstructed, this is not a problem, as there is enough room to adequately position the hose.

Most fire hydrant valves are not designed to throttle the water flow; they are designed to be operated full-on or full-off. The valving arrangement of most dry-barrel hydrants is for the drain valve to be open at anything other than full operation. Usage at partial-opening can consequently result in considerable flow directly into the soil surrounding the hydrant, which, over time, can cause severe scouring. Gate or butterfly valves can be installed directly onto the hydrant orifices to control individual outputs and allow for changing equipment connections without turning off the flow to other orifices. These valves can be up to 12 in in diameter to accommodate the large central "steamer" orifices on many US hydrants. It is good practice to install valves on all orifices before using a hydrant as the protective caps are unreliable and can cause major injury if they fail.

New firefighters are often trained extensively on fire hydrants in the fire academy to be quick and safe while connecting the fire engine to the fire hydrant (usually within 1 minute). Time is often critical as other firefighters will be waiting for the water supply. When operating a hydrant, a firefighter typically wears appropriate personal protective equipment, such as gloves and a helmet with face shield worn. High-pressure water coursing through a potentially aging and corroding hydrant could cause a failure, injuring the firefighter operating the hydrant or bystanders.

In most jurisdictions it is illegal to park a car within a certain distance of a fire hydrant. In North America, the distances are commonly 3 to 5 m, often indicated by yellow or red paint on the curb. The rationale behind these laws is that hydrants need to be visible and accessible in an emergency. In the event that a car is illegally parked next to a fire hydrant when firefighters need access to it, firefighters are legally allowed to break the car's windows to run the hose through it, while the car owner receives a parking citation.

Street pooling
In 1896, during a terrible heatwave in New York City, the Commissioner of Public Works ordered the opening of the fire hydrants to provide relief to the population. Today some US communities provide low flow sprinkler heads to enable residents to use the hydrants to cool off during hot weather, while gaining some control on water usage. Sometimes those simply seeking to play in the water remove the caps and open the valve, providing residents a place to play and cool off in summer.

Preventing misuse
To prevent casual use or misuse, the hydrant requires special tools to be opened, usually a large wrench with a pentagonal socket. Vandals sometimes cause monetary loss by wasting water when they open hydrants. Such vandalism can also reduce municipal water pressure and impair firefighters' efforts to extinguish fires. Most fire hydrants in Australia are protected by a silver-coloured cover with a red top, secured to the ground with bolts to protect the hydrant from vandalism and unauthorized use. The cover must be removed before use.

In most areas of the United States, contractors who need temporary water may purchase permits to use hydrants. The permit will generally require a hydrant meter, a gate valve and sometimes a clapper valve (if not designed into the hydrant already) to prevent backflow into the hydrant. Additionally, residents who wish to use the hydrant to fill their in-ground swimming pool are commonly permitted to do so, provided they pay for the water and agree to allow firefighters to draft from their pool in the case of an emergency.

Municipal services, such as street sweepers and tank trucks, may also be allowed to use hydrants to fill their water tanks. Often sewer maintenance trucks need water to flush out sewerage lines, and fill their tanks on site from a hydrant. If necessary, the municipal workers will record the amount of water they used, or use a meter.

Fire hydrants may be used to supply water to riot control vehicles. These vehicles use a high-pressure water cannon to discourage rioting.

Since fire hydrants are one of the most accessible parts of a water distribution system, they are often used for attaching pressure gauges or loggers or monitor system water pressure. Automatic flushing devices are often attached to hydrants to maintain chlorination levels in areas of low usage. Hydrants are also used as an easy above-ground access point by leak detection devices to locate leaks from the sound they make.

Construction
Depending on the country, hydrants can be above or below ground. In countries including Japan, the UK, Ukraine, Russia or Spain hydrants are accessible under a heavy metal cover. In other countries, such as the US, and many parts of China, an accessible part of the hydrant is above ground. It can also be mounted in an exterior wall of a building.

In areas subject to freezing temperatures, at most only a portion of the hydrant is above ground. The valve is located below the frost line and connected by a riser to the above-ground portion. A valve rod extends from the valve up through a seal at the top of the hydrant, where it can be operated with the proper wrench. This design is known as a "dry barrel" hydrant, in that the barrel, or vertical body of the hydrant, is normally dry. A drain valve underground opens when the water valve is completely closed; this allows all water to drain from the hydrant body to prevent the hydrant from freezing.

In warm areas, above-ground hydrants may be used with one or more valves in the above-ground portion. Unlike with cold-weather hydrants, it is possible to turn the water supply on and off to each port. This style is known as a "wet barrel" hydrant.

Both wet- and dry-barrel hydrants typically have multiple outlets. Wet barrel hydrant outlets are typically individually controlled, while a single stem operates all the outlets of a dry barrel hydrant simultaneously. Thus, wet barrel hydrants allow single outlets to be opened, requiring somewhat more effort, but simultaneously allowing more flexibility.

A typical US dry-barrel hydrant has two smaller outlets and one larger outlet. The larger outlet is often a Storz connection if the local fire department has standardized on hose using Storz fittings for large diameter supply line. The larger outlet is known as a "steamer" connection, because they were once used to supply steam powered water pumps, and a hydrant with such an outlet may be called a "steamer hydrant", although this usage is becoming archaic. Likewise, an older hydrant without a steamer connection may be called a "village hydrant."

Appearance
Above ground hydrants are coloured for purely practical criteria or more aesthetic reasons. In the United States, the AWWA and NFPA recommend hydrants be colored chrome yellow for rapid identification apart from the bonnet and nozzle caps which should be coded according to their available flow. Class AA hydrants (>1500 gpm) should have their nozzle caps and bonnet colored light blue, Class A hydrants (1000–1499 gpm) green, Class B hydrants (500–999 gpm) orange, Class C hydrants (0–499 gpm) red, and inoperable or end-of-system (risking water hammer) black. This aids arriving firefighters in determining how much water is available and whether to call for additional resources, or find another hydrant.

Other codings can be and frequently are used, some of greater complexity, incorporating pressure information, others more simplistic. In Ottawa, Ontario, hydrant colors communicate different messages to firefighters; for example, if the inside of the hydrant is corroded so much that the interior diameter is too narrow for good pressure, it will be painted in a specific scheme to indicate to firefighters to move on to the next one. In many localities, a white or purple top indicates that the hydrant provides non-potable water. Where artistic and/or aesthetic considerations are paramount, hydrants can be extremely varied, or more subdued. In both instances this is usually at the cost of reduced practicality.

In Germany, the Netherlands, Spain, the UK, and many other countries, most hydrants are located below ground and are reached by a riser, which provides the connections for the hoses. The covers can also be artistically designed.

Signage
In the United Kingdom and Ireland, hydrants are located in the ground. Yellow "H" hydrant signs indicate the location of the hydrants, and are similar to the blue signs in Finland. Mounted on a small post or nearby wall etc., the two numbers indicate the diameter of the water main (top number) and the distance from the sign (lower number). Modern signs show these measurements in millimetres and metres, whereas older signs use inches and feet. Because the orders of magnitude are so different (6 inches versus 150 mm) there is no ambiguity whichever measuring system is used.

In areas of the United States without winter snow cover, blue reflectors embedded in the street are used to allow rapid identification of hydrants at night. In areas with snow cover, tall signs or flags are used so that hydrants can be found even if covered with snow. In rural areas tall narrow posts painted with visible colours such as red are attached to the hydrants to allow them to be found during heavy snowfall periods. The tops of the fire hydrants indicate available flow in gallons per minute; the color helps make a more accurate choice of what hydrants will be utilized to supply water to the fire scene.

 * Blue: 1500 USgal/min or more; very good flow
 * Green: 1000 - 1499 USgal/min; good for residential areas
 * Orange: 500 –; marginally adequate
 * Red: below 500 USgal/min; inadequate

The hydrant bodies are also color-coded.

These markings and colours are prescribed in NFPA 291: Recommended Practice for Water Flow Testing and Marking of Hydrants. but most municipal water authorities do not actually follow these guidelines.
 * Chrome Yellow: Municipal System
 * Red: Private System
 * Violet: Non-potable supply

In Australia, hydrant signage varies, with several types displayed across the country. Most Australian hydrants are underground, being of a ballcock system (spring hydrant type), and a separate standpipe with a central plunger is used to open the valve. Consequently, hydrant signage is essential, because of their concealed nature.
 * Painted markers – Usually a white or yellow (sometimes reflective paint) triangle or arrow painted on the road, pointing towards the side of the road the hydrant will be found on. These are most common in old areas, or on new roads where more advanced signs have not been installed. These are almost always coupled with a secondary form of signage.
 * Hydrant Marker Plates – Found on power poles, fences, or street-signs, these are a comprehensive and effective system of identification. The plate consists of several codes; H (Potable water Hydrant), RH (Recycled/Non Potable), P (Pathway, where the hydrant cover can be found), R (Roadway). The plate is vertically oriented, around 8 cm wide, and 15 cm high. It usually faces in the direction of the hydrant. Found on this plate, from top to bottom, are the following features:
 * The codes listed above, Potable/Non-potable at the top, Path/Roadway on the bottom of the plate.
 * Below this, a number giving the distance to the hydrant (in meters), then a second number below that giving the size (in millimeters) of the water main.
 * A black line across the center of the plate indicates the hydrant is found on the opposite side of the road to which the plate is affixed.
 * Plates for recycled water have a purple background, as well as the RH code, normal potable hydrants are white, with the H code.
 * Road markers or Cat's eyes – Almost exclusively blue, these are placed on one side or the other of the centre line of the road, to indicate on which side of the road the hydrant lies. They are visible for several hundred meters at night in heavy rain, further in clear conditions.

In Germany the hydrant marker plates follow the style of other marker plates pointing to underground installations. Fire hydrant marker plates have a red border. Other water hydrants may have a blue border. A gas hydrant would have a yellow background instead of a white one for fire hydrants. All of them have large central T with the installation identification on top of it – an "H" or older "UH" is located in the ground, a "OH" is above ground, followed by the pipe inner diameter in millimeters (with a small 80 mm in residential areas). The numbers around the T allow to locate the installation in reference to the plate's location – the number left of the T is in meter left of the sign, the number right of the T is in meter right of the sign, and number below the T tells the distance in meter in front of the sign, where a negative number would point to a place behind the sign. The distance numbers are always given with a comma decimeter precision. If it is not a common fire hydrant type then another identification may be used, for example "300 m³" would point to a cistern usable to pump water from.

In East Asia (China, Japan and South Korea) and former Socialist countries of Eastern Europe, there are two types of fire hydrants, of which one is on the public ground and the other inside a building. The ones inside a building are installed on a wall. They are big, rectangular boxes that also provide alarms (sirens), a fire extinguisher and, at certain times, emergency kits.

Inspection and maintenance
In most areas, fire hydrants require annual inspections and maintenance; they normally only have a one-year warranty, but some have 5- or even 10-year warranties, although the longer warranty does not remove the need for periodic inspections or maintenance. These inspections are generally performed by the local municipalities or fire departments but they often do not inspect hydrants that are identified as private. Private hydrants are usually located on larger properties to adequately protect large buildings in case of a fire and in order to comply with the fire code. Such hydrants have met the requirements of insurance underwriters and are often referred to as UL/FM hydrants. Some companies are contracted out to inspect private fire hydrants unless the municipality has undertaken that task.

Some fire hydrant manufacturers recommend lubricating the head mechanism and restoring the head gaskets and O-rings annually in order that the fire hydrant perform the service expected of them, while others have incorporated proprietary features to provide long-term lubrication of the hydrant's operating mechanism. In any case, periodic inspection of lubricants is recommended. Lubrication is generally done with a food-grade non-petroleum lubricant to avoid contamination of the distribution system.

Occasionally a stone or foreign object will mar the seat gasket. In this case, most hydrants have a special seat wrench that allows removal of the seat to replace the gasket or other broken parts without removing the hydrant from the ground. Hydrant extensions are also available for raising a hydrant if the grade around the hydrant changes. Without extending the height, the wrenches to remove caps would not clear and the break flanges for traffic models would not be located correctly in case they were hit. Hydrant repair kits are also available to repair sacrificial parts designed to break when hit by a vehicle.

Many departments use the hydrants for flushing out water line sediments. When doing so, they often use a hydrant diffuser, a device that diffuses the water so that it does not damage property and is less dangerous to bystanders than a solid stream. Some diffusers also dechlorinate the water to avoid ground contamination. Hydrants are also sometimes used as entry or exit points for pipe cleaning pigs.

In 2011, Code for America developed an "Adopt a Hydrant" website, which enables volunteers to sign up to shovel out fire hydrants after snowstorms. As of 2014, the system has been implemented in Boston; Providence, Rhode Island; Anchorage, Alaska; and Chicago.

Non-pressurized (dry) hydrants
In rural areas where municipal water systems are not available, dry hydrants are used to supply water for fighting fires. A dry hydrant is analogous to a standpipe. A dry hydrant is usually an unpressurized, permanently installed pipe that has one end below the water level of a lake or pond. This end usually has a strainer to prevent debris or wildlife, such as fish, from entering the pipe. The other end is above ground and has a hard sleeve connector.

When needed, a pumper fire engine will pump from the lake or pond by drafting water. This is done by vacuuming the air out of the dry hydrant, hard sleeve, and the fire engine pump with a primer. Because lower pressure now exists at the pump intake, atmospheric pressure on the water and the weight of the water forces water into the above-water portion of the dry hydrant, into the hard sleeve, and finally into the pump. This water can then be pumped by the engine's centrifugal pump.

Other types

 * Water wells are also sometimes classified as fire hydrants if they can supply enough water volume and pressure.
 * Standpipes are connections for firehoses within a building and serve the same purpose inside larger structures as fire hydrants do outdoors. Standpipes may be "dry" or "wet" (permanently filled with water); a dry standpipe requires an external source of water such as firefighting equipment.

History
Before piped mains supplies, water for firefighting had to be kept in buckets and cauldrons ready for use by 'bucket-brigades' or brought with a horse-drawn fire-pump. From the 16th century, as wooden mains water systems were installed, firefighters would dig down to the pipes and drill a hole for water to fill a “wet well” for the buckets or pumps. This had to be filled and plugged afterwards, hence the common US term for a hydrant, 'fireplug'. A marker would be left to indicate where a 'plug' had already been drilled to enable firefighters to find ready-drilled holes. Later wooden systems had pre-drilled holes and plugs.

When cast-iron pipes replaced the wood, permanent underground access points were included for the fire fighters. Some countries provide access covers to these points, while others attach fixed above-ground hydrants – the first cast iron ones were patented in 1801 by Frederick Graff, then chief-engineer of the Philadelphia Water Works. Invention since then has targeted problems such as tampering, freezing, connection, reliability etc.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Fire hydrant


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Charles Henri Hector, Count of Estaing

Jean Baptiste Charles Henri Hector, Count of Estaing (24 November 1729 – 28 April 1794) was a French general and admiral. He began his service as a soldier in the War of the Austrian Succession, briefly spending time as a prisoner of war of the British during the Seven Years' War. Naval exploits during the latter war prompted him to change branches of service, and he transferred to the French Navy.

Following France's entry into the American War of Independence in 1778, d'Estaing led a fleet to aid the American rebels. He participated in a failed Franco-American siege of Newport, Rhode Island, in 1778, and the equally unsuccessful 1779 Siege of Savannah. He did have success in the Caribbean before returning to France in 1780. His difficulties working with American counterparts are cited among the reasons these operations in North America failed.

Although d'Estaing sympathized with revolutionaries during the French Revolution, he held a personal loyalty to the French royal family. Because of this he came under suspicion, and was executed by guillotine in the Reign of Terror.

Early years
He was born on 24 November 1729 at the Château de Ravel in Auvergne to Charles-François, the Marquis de Saillant and Marie-Henriette Colbert de Maulevrier, a descendant of Jean-Baptiste Colbert. His father was a lieutenant general in the French Army from a family with a long history of service to the French crown. The young d'Estaing was educated alongside Louis, the Dauphin (father of the future Louis XVI), who was born at about the same time. D'Estaing thus became close friends with the Dauphin and served in his retinue.

In May 1738 at the age of 9 he was nominally enrolled in the musketeers, as his aristocratic family chose military over civil service for him. He rose through the ranks, eventually joining the Regiment de Rouergue (fr.) as a lieutenant in 1746. That same year he married Marie-Sophie, granddaughter of the celebrated Marshal Château-Renault. His regiment was called to serve in the War of the Austrian Succession. D'Estaing served as aide-de-camp to Marshal Saxe throughout the Flanders campaigns of 1746–48. During these years he was promoted to colonel in command of Regiment de Rouergue, and was wounded at the 1748 Siege of Maastricht.

Following the war King Louis XV embarked on a program to modernize his army on the successful model of Frederick the Great's Prussian army. D'Estaing became one of the leading reformers. After a few years, the Regiment de Rouergue was viewed "as a model of the infantry". Seeking to gain experience in diplomacy, d'Estaing accompanied the French ambassador to England for a time.

Seven Years' War in India
When hostilities broke out between the British and French colonies in North America, d'Estaing considered joining the forces of Louis-Joseph de Montcalm that sailed in 1755, but his family dissuaded him from doing so. When an expedition to the East Indies was organized, he applied to participate without consulting his family. His participation was ensured when he was offered a back-dated promotion to brigadier-general, provided he could transfer command of his regiment to someone else, which he did. In early January 1757, shortly before embarking, d'Estaing was awarded the Order of Saint Louis.

Lally's campaigns
After a lengthy journey, the fleet of the comte d'Aché, carrying the expeditionary forces whose land commander was the count de Lally, arrived off British-occupied Cuddalore in southern India on 28 April 1758. Lally disembarked his troops, established a blockade around the town, and then traveled to Pondicherry to organize the delivery of siege equipment. On 4 May French forces occupied the town and partially blockaded Fort St. David. The siege equipment was delayed in its arrival, but the garrison was eventually compelled to surrender after 17 days of siege operations. D'Estaing commanded Lally's left, overseeing the approaches and placing of batteries. He continued to serve under Lally in his campaigns against the British in southern India. He opposed Lally's decision to lift the siege of Tanjore (the only one in Lally's war council to do so) following the British seizure of Karikal. When Lally began to besiege Madras in December 1758, d'Estaing's division was positioned in the center of the French line. When the British made a sortie against that sector, d'Estaing advanced alone to reconnoiter their movements. He was surrounded by British troops, unhorsed, and twice wounded by bayonet before surrendering.

D'Estaing was taken into Madras, where he was confined by the order of Governor George Pigot. Pigot offered to release him on parole, but d'Estaing refused, preferring instead to be exchanged so that he could resume fighting. The arrival of a British fleet off Madras in February 1759 convinced d'Estaing to accept the offer of parole, which was conditioned on his not fighting against the British in the East Indies. In May 1759 he sailed for Île-de-France (present-day Mauritius).

French East India Company service
While d'Estaing was at Île-de-France, word arrived of a prisoner exchange agreement between France and Britain. D'Estaing, however, was excluded from this agreement because he had been paroled before its date. While requests were forwarded to India to negotiate his inclusion in the cartel, d'Estaing decided to enter the service of the French East India Company, leading a naval expedition to gather resources for Île-de-France. D'Estaing thought he would finesse his parole status by declaring himself to be a "spectator" in case the force came into conflict with the British or their allies, and permitted his second in command to lead such operations.

In command of a two-vessel company fleet (the 50-gun Condé and the frigate l'Expédition), d'Estaing sailed for the Persian Gulf in September 1759. From an Arab convoy captured at the end of the month, he learnt of a British ship at Muscat. In a daring commando operation, 50 of Condé men entered the well-fortified harbour and boarded the ship, taking it without resistance. In their haste to depart, the men cut lines necessary for towing the ship, and alarm was eventually raised in the port. A swarm of small boats was driven off by precision fire from Condé, allowing a new line to be attached to the prize so that she could be towed out of the harbour. D'Estaing then destroyed the British factory at Bandar-Abbas, before sailing for Sumatra. While en route he detached his accumulated prize ships, sending them to Île-de-France. D'Estaing's success was notable: in three months he had acquired significant prizes at the expense of only five casualties (28 men died of smallpox).

After a slow crossing (retarded by calms and contrary winds), d'Estaing's fleet reached the coast of Sumatra in early February 1760. There he captured the British factory at Natal, which he eventually turned over to the Dutch. He sailed for the British outpost at Tappanooly (present-day Tapanuli in the Indonesian Province of North Sumatra). Its commander put up stiff resistance, fleeing into the hills when it was clear the French would be victorious. D'Estaing consequently decided to destroy the fortifications rather than hunt down the British. He next sailed for Padang, a major Dutch settlement, where he supplemented his forces with local recruits and resupplied.

He sailed for Bencoolen (now Bengkulu, the capital of the Indonesian province of Bengkulu), the main British settlement on Sumatra. The town was defended by Fort Marlborough and a garrison of 500 Europeans and local sepoys, with the potential to raise over 1,000 additional Malay militia. Although these forces were alerted to the French arrival by a ship that d'Estaing chased into the harbour, the first broadside directed at the fort panicked its defenders, who fled into the surrounding jungle. D'Estaing spent a day in pursuit of some of these troops. He used Fort Marlborough as a base to subdue the remaining lesser British settlements on the west side of Sumatra. He returned to Île-de-France ten months after his departure.

Ordered back to France, d'Estaing boarded a westbound company ship. Just off the French coast the ship was captured by British patrols. He was imprisoned at Plymouth, charged with violating his parole, before being granted limited freedom from a house in London. He was able to successfully defend himself against the charges, and was allowed to return to France. Upon his arrival, d'Estaing was commissioned as field marshal, the reward for his service in the East Indies.

Governor of the Leeward Islands
In the early months of 1762 France made preparations for a major expedition against Portuguese territories in South America. Promoted to lieutenant general of the army on July 25, 1762, d'Estaing was also given the rank of chef d'escadre (rear admiral) in the French Navy in recognition for his exploits, a rank lesser than that he held in the army. In order to clarify his command role in the expedition, the king formally removed him from the army and gave him the rank of lieutenant general in the navy. The expedition was called off when preliminary peace terms were agreed.

In 1764 King Louis appointed d'Estaing governor general of the French Leeward Islands, a post he held until 1766. Based principally in Saint-Domingue (present-day Haiti), he recruited French colonists known as Acadians to settle there. They had been deported from the French colony of Acadia in present-day Canada by the British during the war, as they had refused to take loyalty oaths to Britain. These efforts were largely unsuccessful, as many Acadian immigrants died of tropical disease. Others sought to resettle elsewhere because of the hot climate and poor land.

Home service
D'Estaing returned to France in 1767. At this time he had to deal with the formal separation from his wife, which they had agreed to in writing in 1756, before his departure for India. The division of their properties was somewhat contentious, leading to court proceedings and appeals that ultimately failed to divide their estates.

In 1772 d'Estaing was appointed naval inspector and governor at Brest, the country's principal Atlantic naval station. In 1777 he was promoted to vice admiral of the Asian and American seas (vice-amiral des mers d'Asie et d'Amérique).

American War of Independence
At the entry of France into the American War of Independence in 1778, D'Estaing left Toulon in command of a fleet of twelve ships of the line and four frigates. He intended to assist the American colonies against Great Britain. He sailed on 13 April, and, between the 11th and the 22nd of July, blockaded the smaller British fleet of Lord Howe at Sandy Hook, New Jersey, off the southern entrance to New York Harbour. He did not enter the harbour because his largest ships were believed to be unable to clear the bar at its mouth.

Newport
In cooperation with the American generals, d'Estaing planned an attack on Newport, Rhode Island, preparatory to which he compelled the British to destroy some war vessels that were in the harbor. Before the concerted attack could take place, he put to sea against the British fleet, which was under Admiral Howe. Owing to a violent storm, which arose suddenly and compelled the two fleets to separate before engaging in battle, many of his vessels were so shattered that he found it necessary to put into Boston for repairs. He sailed for the West Indies on 4 November.

West Indies
He arrived in the West Indies in December 1778, shortly after the British began operations to capture St. Lucia. He sailed in an attempt to relieve the place, but he was defeated in both land and naval efforts to prevent its capture.

In June 1779, with his fleet reinforced by arrival of ten ships of the line commanded by Comte de Grasse, he took advantage of the temporary absence of his British opponent, Admiral John Byron, to take action against nearby British possessions. He first detached forces that captured St. Vincent on 18 June, and then set sail with his entire fleet, intending to capture Barbados. When he was unable to make progress against the prevailing westerly trade winds, he turned his sights on Grenada. On 2 July he arrived off the island, which his forces took by storm two days later.

Admiral Byron had been alerted to the capture of St. Vincent, and was sailing with a force to retake it when he learned that d'Estaing was at Grenada. He changed course, making all sail for Grenada, and arrived there early on 6 July. Although d'Estaing had been alerted to Byron's progress, and his fleet outnumbered Byron's, he still scrambled to embark soldiers and sail away from the island. Byron, unaware that d'Estaing had been reinforced, ordered a general chase, which resulted in a somewhat disorganized battle. D'Estaing refused to press his numerical advantage, and both fleets ended up retiring to their bases for repairs. In August, d'Estaing sailed for Savannah, Georgia, to join forces with the Americans who wanted to recapture the British-held city.

Siege of Savannah

The siege consisted of a joint Franco-American attempt to retake Savannah from 16 September 1779 to 18 October 1779, with d'Estaing in overall command of the combined forces. After weeks of fruitless bombardment, on 9 October 1779, a major assault against the British siege works failed. During the attack, d'Estaing was twice wounded. When the assault failed, d'Estaing lifted the siege. British forces remained in control of coastal Georgia until they withdrew near the end of the war.

Return to France
D'Estaing returned to France in 1780 on crutches. He fell into disfavour at the court, and was strongly criticised by his subordinates. Friends of Benjamin Franklin, then minister in France, jokingly suggested that the French court at Versailles should provide America with the names of other gifted admirals.

In 1781 France sent a fleet under Admiral de Grasse, along with an expeditionary force to reinforce the Americans in Virginia. Admiral de Grasse defeated the British in the Battle of the Chesapeake, holding a blockade against their forces and contributing to the surrender of the British army at Yorktown in 1781.

Three years later, d'Estaing was placed at the head of the Franco-Spanish fleet assembled before Cádiz. The peace between the US, Great Britain and France was signed, and no operations took place.

On September 28, 1784, Governor John Houstoun of Georgia granted four 5000-acre tracts of vacant land in Franklin County, Georgia to d'Estaing and his heirs.

After the American war, d'Estaing turned his attention to politics. He was made a grandee of Spain. In 1787, he was elected to the Assembly of Notables. When the French Revolution broke out, he supported the revolutionary cause. In 1789, he was appointed as commanding general of the Versailles National Guard, and in 1792 he was promoted to admiral's rank by the National Assembly. While supporting liberal reforms, he stayed loyal to the royal family. In the 1793 trial of Marie Antoinette, during the Reign of Terror, he testified in her favour. On this account, and because of certain friendly letters which had passed between him and the queen, he was himself brought to trial, charged with being a reactionary. He was sent to the guillotine on 28 April 1794. Before his execution, d'Estaing wrote, "After my head falls off, send it to the English, they will pay a good deal for it!" Both his wife Marie-Sophie Rousselot and his only child had died before him.

In his moments of leisure, d'Estaing wrote a poem, Le Rêve (1755), a tragedy Les Thermopyles (1789), and a book on the colonies.

title: Charles Henri Hector, Count of Estaing


text:
William Monson (Royal Navy officer)

Vice-Admiral Sir William Monson (1569 – February 1643) was an English admiral and politician who sat in the House of Commons in 1601.

Life
Monson was the third son of Sir John Monson of South Carlton, Lincolnshire. He matriculated at Balliol College, Oxford, on 2 May 1581 at the age of 14.

Career
Monson ran away to sea in 1585, being then according to his own account sixteen. His first services were in a privateer in an action with a Spanish ship in the Bay of Biscay, of which he gives an account in his Naval Tracts. In the Armada year he served as Lieutenant of the "Charles," a small ship of the Queen's. There being at that time no regular naval service, Monson is next found serving with the adventurous Earl of Cumberland (1558–1605), whom he followed as a young twenty old as second in command of the Azores Voyage of 1589. His success there led him to join Cumberland's other ventures in 1591 and 1593. The voyage in 1592 however was the most spectacular and led to the capture of the rich carrack Madre de Deus. After this, in another venture Monson was taken prisoner by the Spaniards in a recaptured prize after an engagement off Berlengas Islands, and was for a time detained at Lisbon in captivity. He was awarded MA at Oxford on 9 July 1594 and was also a student of Gray's Inn in 1594. His cruises must have brought him some profit, for in 1595 he was able to marry. The Earl offended him by showing favour to another follower, and Monson turned elsewhere. In the expedition to Cádiz in 1596, he commanded the Due Repulse and was also knighted there. From this time until the conclusion of the war with Spain he was in constant employment. In 1602 he commanded the last squadron fitted out in the reign of Queen Elizabeth by defeating a Spanish and Portuguese fleet at Sesimbra Bay near Lisbon capturing a rich large carrack. He also took prisoner the same man who captured Monson at Berlengas nearly ten years earlier.

Monson was elected Member of Parliament for Malmesbury in 1601. In 1604 he was appointed Admiral of the Narrow Seas, the equivalent of the Channel Fleet of modern times. Like several Jacobean courtiers and officials, Mansell received gifts of money from Spanish diplomats between 1604 and 1625. In 1613, the diplomat Sir John Digby was surprised to discover records of these payments. According to the historian Garrett Mattingly, in exchange for his Spansh pension he willingly provided the Spanish Ambassador with information on the latest strength of the English Navy, or the movements of Dutch and English ships in the Narrow Seas.

In 1614 he was sent to the coasts of Scotland and Ireland to repress the pirates who then swarmed on the coast. Monson claimed to have extirpated these pests, but it is certain that they were numerous a generation later. After 1614 he saw no further active service till 1635. In 1635 he went to sea as vice-admiral of the fleet fitted out by King Charles I with the first ship money. He spent the last years of his life in writing his Tracts.

Monson died in February 1643 and was buried at St Martin in the Fields.

Legacy
His claim to be remembered is not based on his services as a naval officer, though they were undoubtedly honourable, but on his Tracts. These treatises consist in part of historical narratives, and in part of argumentative proposals for the reform of abuses, or the development of the naval resources of the country. They form by far the best account by a contemporary of the naval life and transactions of the reign of Elizabeth I and the beginning of the reign of King James. Monson takes care to do himself full justice, but he is not unfair to his contemporaries. His style is thoroughly modern, and has hardly a trace of the poetry of the Elizabethans. He was the first naval officer in the modern sense of the word, a gentleman by birth and education who was trained to the sea, and not simply a soldier put in to fight, with a sailing master to handle the ship for him, or a tarpaulin who was a sailor only. The one authority for the life of Sir William Monson is his own Tracts, but a very good account of him is included by Southey in his Lives of the Admirals, vol. v. The Tracts were first printed in the third volume of Churchill's Voyages, but they have been edited for the Navy Record Society by Mr Oppenheim.

Family
Monson's elder brother, Sir Thomas Monson (1564–1641), was one of James I's favourites, and was made a baronet in 1611. He held a position of trust at the Tower of London, a circumstance which led to his arrest as one of the participators in the murder of Sir Thomas Overbury. He was, however, soon released. His eldest son was Sir John Monson, Bart. (1600–1683), a member of parliament under Charles I, and another son was Sir William Monson (c. 1607–1678), who was created an Irish peer as Viscount Monson of Castlemaine in 1628. Having been a member of the court which tried Charles I the viscount was deprived of his honours and was sentenced to imprisonment for life in 1661. Sir John Monson's descendant, another Sir John Monson, Bart. (1693–1748), was created Baron Monson in 1728. His youngest son was George Monson (1730–1776), who served with the English troops in India from 1758 to 1763. The baron's eldest son was John, the 2nd baron (1727–1774), whose son William Monson (1760–1807) served in the Mahratta War under General Lake. William's only son William John (1796–1862) became 6th Baron Monson in succession to his cousin Frederick John, the 5th baron, in October 1841. His son William John, the 7th baron (1829–1898), was created Viscount Oxenbridge in 1886. When he died without sons in 1898 the viscounty became extinct, but the barony descended to his brother Debonnaire John (1830–1900), whose son Augustus Debonnaire John (b. 1868) became 9th Baron Monson in 1900. Another of Viscount Oxenbridge's brothers was Sir Edmund John Monson, Bart. (b. 1834), who, after filling many other diplomatic appointments, was British ambassador in Paris from 1896 to 1904.

title: William Monson (Royal Navy officer)


text: Talk:Data Protection Directive

title: Talk:Data Protection Directive


text:
Truncated cube

In geometry, the truncated cube, or truncated hexahedron, is an Archimedean solid. It has 14 regular faces (6 octagonal and 8 triangular), 36 edges, and 24 vertices.

If the truncated cube has unit edge length, its dual triakis octahedron has edges of lengths 2 and 2 + √2.

Area and volume
The area A and the volume V of a truncated cube of edge length a are:
 * $$\begin{align}

A &= 2\left(6+6\sqrt{2}+\sqrt{3}\right)a^2 &&\approx 32.434\,6644a^2 \\ V &= \frac{21+14\sqrt{2}}{3}a^3 &&\approx 13.599\,6633a^3. \end{align}$$

Orthogonal projections
The truncated cube has five special orthogonal projections, centered, on a vertex, on two types of edges, and two types of faces: triangles, and octagons. The last two correspond to the B2 and A2 Coxeter planes.

Spherical tiling
The truncated cube can also be represented as a spherical tiling, and projected onto the plane via a stereographic projection. This projection is conformal, preserving angles but not areas or lengths. Straight lines on the sphere are projected as circular arcs on the plane.

Cartesian coordinates
Cartesian coordinates for the vertices of a truncated hexahedron centered at the origin with edge length 2ξ are all the permutations of

 * (±ξ, ±1, ±1),

where ξ = √2 − 1.

The parameter ξ can be varied between ±1. A value of 1 produces a cube, 0 produces a cuboctahedron, and negative values produces self-intersecting octagrammic faces.
 * Truncated_cube_sequence.png

If the self-intersected portions of the octagrams are removed, leaving squares, and truncating the triangles into hexagons, truncated octahedra are produced, and the sequence ends with the central squares being reduced to a point, and creating an octahedron.

Dissection
The truncated cube can be dissected into a central cube, with six square cupolae around each of the cube's faces, and 8 regular tetrahedra in the corners. This dissection can also be seen within the runcic cubic honeycomb, with cube, tetrahedron, and rhombicuboctahedron cells.

This dissection can be used to create a Stewart toroid with all regular faces by removing two square cupolae and the central cube. This excavated cube has 16 triangles, 12 squares, and 4 octagons.
 * Excavated_truncated_cube.png

Vertex arrangement
It shares the vertex arrangement with three nonconvex uniform polyhedra:

Related polyhedra
The truncated cube is related to other polyhedra and tilings in symmetry.

The truncated cube is one of a family of uniform polyhedra related to the cube and regular octahedron.

Symmetry mutations
This polyhedron is topologically related as a part of sequence of uniform truncated polyhedra with vertex configurations (3.2n.2n), and [n,3] Coxeter group symmetry, and a series of polyhedra and tilings n.8.8.

Alternated truncation
Truncating alternating vertices of the cube gives the chamfered tetrahedron, i.e. the edge truncation of the tetrahedron.

The truncated triangular trapezohedron is another polyhedron which can be formed from cube edge truncation.

Related polytopes
The truncated cube, is second in a sequence of truncated hypercubes:

Truncated cubical graph
In the mathematical field of graph theory, a truncated cubical graph is the graph of vertices and edges of the truncated cube, one of the Archimedean solids. It has 24 vertices and 36 edges, and is a cubic Archimedean graph.

title: Truncated cube


text:
George Pocock

Admiral Sir George Pocock or Pococke, KB (6 March 1706 – 3 April 1792) was a British officer of the Royal Navy.

Family
Pocock was born in Thames Ditton in Surrey, the son of Thomas Pocock, a chaplain in the Royal Navy. His great grandfather was Rev. Dr. Laurence Pocock, Rector of Brightwalton in Berkshire, and his ancestors had long been resident at adjoining Chieveley in the same county.

Early career
George Pocock entered the navy in 1718, serving aboard HMS Superb (1710) under the patronage of his maternal uncle, Captain Streynsham Master (1682–1724). He became lieutenant in April 1725 and commander in 1733. In 1738 he was promoted to post-captain and granted command of the 20-gun HMS Aldborough (1727). After serving in the West Indies he was sent to join the Commander-in-Chief, East Indies, Rear-Admiral Charles Watson, in 1754 as captain of the 58-gun HMS Cumberland (1710). Watson's squadron co-operated with Clive in the conquest of Bengal. In 1755 Pocock became rear-admiral, and was promoted to vice-admiral in 1756.

Command of British naval forces in Indian waters
On the death of Watson in 1757 Pocock took the command of the naval forces in the East Indies. In 1758 he was joined by Commodore Charles Steevens (d. 1761), but the reinforcement only raised the squadron to seven small line-of-battle ships. War being now in progress between France and England the French sent a naval force from their islands in the Indian Ocean into the Bay of Bengal to the assistance of Pondicherry. To intercept the arrival of these reinforcements for the enemy now became the object of Pocock. The French force was indeed of less intrinsic strength than his own. Comte D'Aché who commanded it had to make up his line by including several Indiamen which were only armed merchant ships. Yet the number of the French was superior and Pocock was required by the practice of his time to fight by the old official fighting instructions. He had to bring his ships into action in a line with the enemy, and to preserve his formation while the engagement lasted. All Pocock's encounters with D'Aché were indecisive. The first battle, on 29 April 1758, failed to prevent the Frenchmen from reaching Pondicherry. After a second and more severe engagement on 3 August, the French admiral returned to Mauritius, and when the monsoon set in Pocock went round to Bombay. He was back early in spring, relieving the Siege of Madras, but the French admiral did not return to the Bay of Bengal until September. Again Pocock was unable to prevent his opponent from reaching Pondicherry, and a well-contested battle between them on 10 September 1759 proved again indecisive. The French government was nearly bankrupt, and D'Aché could get no stores for his squadron. He was compelled to return to the islands, and the British were left in possession of the Coromandel and Malabar Coasts. Pocock went home in 1760, and in 1761 was made a Knight of the Bath and admiral.

Later career
In 1762 he was appointed to the command of the naval forces in the combined expedition which took Havana. The siege, which began on 7 June and lasted until 13 August, was rendered deadly by the climate. The final victory was largely attributable to the vigorous and intelligent aid which Pocock gave to the troops. His share in the prize money was no less than £122,697. On his return to England Pocock is said to have been disappointed because another officer, Sir Charles Saunders, was chosen in preference to himself as a member of the Admiralty Board, and to have resigned in consequence. It is certain that he resigned his commission in 1766. His memorial in Westminster Abbey, a statue of Britannia holding a thunderbolt, is by John Bacon and was erected in 1796.

In 1763 Pocock married Sophia Dent (1733–1767), the widow of his friend Commodore Digby Dent, daughter of George Francis Drake of Madras and step-daughter of George Morton Pitt who had inherited Pitt's house at Twickenham now known as Orleans House. Their son George (1765-1840) who married Charlotte Mary, daughter of Edward Long (historian), was created a baronet and their daughter Sophia (died 1811) married John 4th Earl Powlett.

title: George Pocock


text:
Edinburgh Airport

Edinburgh Airport is an international airport located in the Ingliston area of Edinburgh, Scotland. It was the busiest airport in Scotland in 2019, handling over 14.7 million passengers. It was also the sixth-busiest airport in the United Kingdom by total passengers in 2019. It is located 5 NM west of the city centre, just off the M8 and M9 motorways. It is owned by Vinci SA (50.01% share ownership) and Global Infrastructure Partners (49.99% share ownership).

Early years

Turnhouse Aerodrome was the northernmost British air defence base in World War I used by the Royal Flying Corps. The small base opened in 1916 and it was used to house the 603 (City of Edinburgh) Squadron from 1925, which consisted of DH 9As, Westland Wapitis, Hawker Harts, and Hawker Hind light bombers. All the aircraft used a grass airstrip.

In 1918 the Royal Air Force was formed and the airfield was named RAF Turnhouse and ownership was transferred to the Air Ministry.

When the Second World War broke out, RAF Fighter Command took control over the airfield and a runway of 3900 ft was paved to handle the Supermarine Spitfire. During the Battle of Britain, 3, 65, and 141 Squadrons were present at the airbase.

Post Second World War
When the war ended the airfield remained under military control. It was officially opened for commercial traffic on 19 May 1947. The first commercial flight to use the airport was a British European Airways service from London (Northolt) to Shetland, with Edinburgh and Aberdeen being intermediate stopping points. The aircraft was an 18-seat Douglas C47.

In 1952, the runway was extended to 6000 ft to handle the Vampire FB5s operated by the resident 603 Squadron, and an aircraft arresting barrier net was installed to protect traffic on the adjacent A9 road. The net remained in place until the early 1970s and was used to stop one of the Ferranti Flying Unit Buccaneers which had overrun the runway. A further use was in 1970 when a Meteor TT20, operated by the RN Fleet Requirement Unit, overran the runway and ended up in the net. In 1956, a new passenger terminal was built to provide an improved commercial service; five years later it was extended. After the disbandment of the 603 Squadron in March 1957, the Air Ministry transferred ownership to the Ministry of Aviation in 1960 to offer improved commercial service to the airport. Flying was temporarily diverted to East Fortune, which had its runway extended to accommodate the airliners of the period.

BAA ownership 1971 to 2012
The British Airports Authority (BAA) took over ownership of the airport on 1 April 1971 at a time when the original terminal building was running at about eight times its design capacity. Immediate improvements to the terminal were cosmetic, such as extra seating and TV monitors for flight information, and it took two years for plans to be proposed for a completely new terminal and runway redesign. Public consultation on planning started in November 1971 and ended in February 1972. The initial stages of the redevelopment began in June 1973; they included a diversion of the River Almond. Work on the new terminal building, designed by Sir Robert Matthew, started in March 1975, and the building was officially opened by Queen Elizabeth II on 27 May 1977, opening to the public two days later.

Although the original main runway 13/31 (which is now 12/30) served the airport well, its alignment (NW-SE) had the disadvantage of suffering from severe crosswinds, and the other two minor runways were very short and could not be readily extended, so movements were transferred to a new runway (07/25, which has since become 06/24) in an addition completely outside the original airfield boundary. This runway, completed in 1977, is 2556 m in length, and was able to take all modern airliners including Concorde. A new terminal was built alongside the runway to cater for the additional traffic. The old terminal and hangars were converted into a cargo centre.

International service from Edinburgh began in 1962 with direct service to Dublin, but for many years international flights were charter and private only. This started to change during the late 1970s, with direct services to continental Europe (Amsterdam, 1975). By the mid-1980s direct routes included Paris, Düsseldorf, Brussels, Frankfurt and Copenhagen, but direct transatlantic flights were not yet possible as Glasgow-Prestwick was the only "designated gateway" in Scotland under the US-UK Bermuda II Agreement. By the time BAA had been privatised in 1987, Edinburgh Airport handled over 1.8 million passengers each year; compared to the 681,000 passengers handled in 1971 when BAA first took control of the airport.

RAF Turnhouse was operational near the passenger terminal of the airport for all of the post-war period but was finally closed in 1997.

Since the original terminal upgrade in 1977, there have been major reconstructions, including extensions of the two passenger terminal aprons and a major expansion of car parking facilities, including a multi-storey car park in 2004. In 2005, a new 57 m air traffic control tower was completed for £10m. An extension to the terminal called the South East Pier opened in September 2006. This extension initially added six gates on a new pier to the southeast of the original building. A further four gates were added to the South East Pier at the end of 2008.

On 19 October 2011, BAA Limited announced its intention to sell the airport, following a decision by the UK's Competition Commission requiring BAA to sell either Glasgow Airport or Edinburgh Airport. BAA announced on 23 April 2012 that it had sold Edinburgh Airport to Global Infrastructure Partners (GIP) for a price of £807.2 million, equivalent to £ million in.

GIP ownership
In 2013, a further extension to the passenger terminal was announced, taking the terminal building up to the Edinburgh Airport tram stop. The Edinburgh Trams opening in May 2014 created the first rail connection to Edinburgh Airport. Whilst the number of passengers has increased, the number of flights decreased in 2014 due to planes operating at a higher capacity. Passenger traffic at Edinburgh Airport reached a record level in 2015 with over 11.1 million passengers and over 109,000 aircraft movements. The terminal building is currently being expanded with an investment of £40m. A new £25m expansion project involving the construction of a new 6,000 m2 building, housing a security hall and retail areas, is also currently underway at the airport. On 23 February 2016, Ryanair announced a growth of 20% in passenger numbers, bringing the airline's annual passenger capacity at Edinburgh Airport to 2.5 million. This was coupled with the news of six new services to Ryanair's winter schedule from Edinburgh and more services on its popular European destinations. In February 2016, consultancy firm Biggar Economics announced that Edinburgh Airport contributes almost £1 billion annually to the Scottish economy. As part of the expansion works, Runway 12/30 was officially withdrawn from use on 29 March 2018.

VINCI acquisition
On 17 April 2024, Vinci SA announced that it had reached an agreement with GIP to acquire a 50.01% shareholding of the airport for £1.27 billion, with GIP retaining 49.99%. The transaction was concluded on 25 June 2024.

Passenger
The following airlines operate regular scheduled and cargo flights to and from Edinburgh:

Bus
Several operators provide bus services from the airport:

 * Bright Bus Airport Express - provides a service from the airport to central Edinburgh.
 * Ember - provides a service from the airport to Dundee.
 * Lothian Buses - provides services from the airport and Edinburgh.
 * Scottish Citylink provides services from the airport to Glasgow, North Lanarkshire, Stirling & West Lothian.
 * Stagecoach East Scotland - provides a service from the airport to Fife.
 * Xplore Dundee - provides a service from the airport to Dundee.

Road
The airport lies on the A8 road, and can be reached by the M8 motorway and the M9 motorway. The airport can also be reached from the M90 motorway via the Queensferry Crossing.

Train
The airport has no dedicated railway station. However, it is served by the nearby Edinburgh Gateway station, which serves as an interchange with Edinburgh Trams services to the airport. The tram line also connects the airport to the nearby Edinburgh Park railway station.

A more expensive Edinburgh Airport Rail Link project to provide a direct heavy rail link was cancelled in 2007 due to increasing costs.

Tram
The airport is served by Edinburgh Trams, a light rail link.

The line from the airport travels eastwards through the western suburbs and the city centre of Edinburgh before heading north onto Leith eventually terminating at Newhaven.

Accidents and incidents
On 20 July 1970, a Hawker Siddeley HS-125-3B (G-AXPS) operated by the Imperial Tobacco Company crashed on takeoff from Turnhouse on an empty positioning flight to Newcastle. The aircraft was a total loss and whilst the pilot was uninjured, the copilot was declared dead on arrival at the hospital. The probable cause of the crash was thought to be the application of an incorrect rudder following a simulated engine failure on take-off. The reason for this application of an incorrect rudder has not been determined.

A De Havilland Moth Minor (G-AFOZ) crashed at Turnhouse during a low-level display on 3 May 1975. One of the two occupants died in the hospital the following day.

On 27 February 2001, a Loganair Shorts 360 (G-BNMT) operating a Royal Mail flight to Belfast, crashed into the Firth of Forth shortly after taking off from Edinburgh at 1730 GMT. Both crew members were killed, but there were no passengers on board. A fatal accident inquiry later blamed a buildup of slush in the aircraft's engines before the crash. A protective covering had not been fitted to the engine intakes while the aircraft was parked at Edinburgh for several hours in heavy snow.

title: Edinburgh Airport


text:
Lamphun province

Lamphun (ลำพูน, ; Northern Thai: หละปูน, ) is one of Thailand's seventy-six provinces (changwat), and lies in upper northern Thailand. Neighboring provinces are (from north clockwise) Chiang Mai, Lampang, and Tak.

Geography
Lamphun is in the Ping River valley. It is surrounded by mountain chains, with the Thanon Thong Chai Range in the west and the Khun Tan Range in the east of the province. It is some 670 kilometres north of Bangkok and 26 kilometres south of Chiang Mai. The total forest area is 2,588 km2 or 57.8 percent of the provincial area. Lamphun is regarded as the smallest province of northern region of Thailand.

National parks
There are a total of three national parks, two of which are in region 16 (Chiang Mai) and one, Doi Chong, which lies in region 13 (Lampang branch) of Thailand's protected areas.
 * Mae Ping National Park, 1004 km2
 * Mae Takrai National Park, 354 km2
 * Doi Chong National Park, 336 km2

Wildlife sanctuaries
There are two wildlife sanctuaries located in region 16 (Chiang Mai) of Thailand's protected areas.
 * Omkoi Wildlife Sanctuary, 1224 km2
 * Doi Phu Muang Wildlife Sanctuary, 687 km2

History
Under its old name of Haripunchai, Lamphun was the northernmost city of the Mon kingdom of the Dvaravati period, and also the last to fall to the Thai. In the late-12th century it came under siege from the Khmer, but did not fall. However, in 1281 King Mengrai of Lan Na finally seized the city, and made it part of his kingdom. After Burmese expansion in the 16th century, Lamphun was under Burmese rule for two centuries. In the 18th century, with the rise of Thonburi and Bangkok against Burmese rule, local leaders from Lampang agreed to be their allies. Lamphun was finally freed from the Burmese and ruled by relatives of Lampang's leader, gaining vassal status from Bangkok. Eventually, after the administrative reform of Bangkok government in the late-19th century, Lamphun became, as a province, a part of Siam.

Symbols
The provincial seal shows the temple Wat Phra That Haripunchai, which was already the main temple of the city Lamphun during Mon times. The gold-covered chedi is said to contain a relic of Buddha.

The provincial flower is the Flame of the Forest (Butea monosperma), and the provincial tree is the Rain Tree (Samanea saman).

Transport

 * Air: Lamphun is served by Lamphun Airport.
 * Rail: Lamphun's main station is Lamphun Railway Station.

Foods

 * Kaeng khae, a spicy curry consisting mainly of vegetables with chicken, frog, fish or snails.
 * Kuaitiao lamyai, stewed pork noodles soup with dried longan, originated in Lamphun.

Provincial government
The province is divided into eight districts (amphoes). These are further divided into 51 subdistricts (tambons) and 551 villages (mubans). • # Mueang Lamphun

• # Mae Tha

• # Ban Hong

• # Li

• # Thung Hua Chang

• # Pa Sang

• # Ban Thi

• # Wiang Nong Long For national elections the province is divided into three constituencies. Constituency 1 covers the Mueang District except Tambon Makhuea Chae; Constituency 2 the districts Pa Sang, Mae Tha, and Tambon Makhuea Chae of Mueang District; and Constituency 3 the districts Ban Hong, Thung Hua Chang, and Li.

Local government
As of 26 November 2019 there are: one Lamphun Provincial Administration Organisation (ongkan borihan suan changwat) and 40 municipal (thesaban) areas in the province. Lamphun has town (thesaban mueang) status. Further there are 39 subdistrict municipalities (thesaban tambon). The non-municipal areas are administered by 17 Subdistrict Administrative Organisations - SAO (ongkan borihan suan tambon).

Human achievement index 2022
Since 2003, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in Thailand has tracked progress on human development at sub-national level using the Human achievement index (HAI), a composite index covering all the eight key areas of human development. National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB) has taken over this task since 2017.

title: Lamphun province


text:
Talk:Outline of dance

tango
I would suggest to make two tango topics (and consequently split up the tango page.) Argentine tango and ballroom tango are two worlds that barely ever touch. As that page is currently under some development, it might be wise to wait a while before splitting it up, though. Any opinions? Kosebamse 17:28 27 Jul 2003 (UTC)

While this may sound facetious it isn't meant that way. Exotic dancing is a dance form that I believe deserves an entry in its own right - I have not added it, however, as it does not have (unlike most, if not all, of the others) discrete moves with technical names and thus cannot be specifically choreographed. It is, however, quite easy to distinguish it from other dance forms and it is stylistically unique. Melody 04:30, 24 Aug 2003 (UTC)

I added some references to western couple dancing in the Ballroom section as it seemed the most appropriate location. I realize that these types of dances are not naturally associated with "competitive" ballroom dancing, but then I felt that the section could easily enough include this type or style of couples dancing.

Dan 13:32, 16. september 2003

bibliography?
how about a dance bibliography ? Ohka- 11:51, 31 May 2004 (UTC)
 * It would be good, but it better be annotated and classified, otherwise it will be useless. By the way, articles about books are perfectly valid in wikipedia. Mikkalai 04:51, 1 Jun 2004 (UTC)

content
the very top of the article says:

''These should be the most basic topics in the field--topics about which we'd like to have articles soon. Please see the most basic encyclopedia article topics for general instructions on constructing this list.''

Ohka, I really suggest you to read more about rules of wikipedia. You boldly started lots of edits, and I am afraid you are not always careful. I hate reverting editions of a good contributor. Mikkalai 03:00, 1 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * you miss understand, or i should have explained more, the biblography would be a point of refernce for people making dance entires that all could draw on, to add to entries as further reading - see my user page for example. - a common resourse would save time. books tend to last longer than urls and have nmore detailed and specfic infromation . please excuse my spelling mistakes i have dyslexia, the mix of edits a part of a larger plan and although i work on several pages at the same time they are linked / related Ohka- 03:27, 1 Jun 2004 (UTC)
 * Sorry, it is you who misunderstood me. I was not referring to your question. I started a new section, explaining my reversal of your added items. .... Ot the other hand, I look briefly in the lists of the basic tolics of other subjects and see that they don't really hold the agreement to stick to the basic issues. So probably I was wrong. You might want to think of this again and possibly add your changes back, if you decide them basic enough. Please don't forget there is a list of (supposedly) ALL dance topics, so Dance basic topics should be the roots, the core of hierarchies of dance topics. Mikkalai 04:48, 1 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Why is this in the Wikipedia: namespace?
I don't understand. Why is this not in the main namespace? Lupin|talk|popups 21:27, 15 September 2005 (UTC)

Ballet
Ballet is one of my favourite types of dance. It is also one of my favourite things to do. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 216.210.109.243 (talk) 22:53, 26 March 2007 (UTC).

Integrated/mixed ability dance
See my question here here

Cheers

Matt (talk) 02:18, 18 March 2008 (UTC)

Major rename proposal of certain "lists" to "outlines"
See Village pump (proposals).

The Transhumanist 01:27, 12 June 2008 (UTC)

Rename proposal for this page and all the pages of the set this page belongs to
See the proposal at the Village pump

The Transhumanist 09:13, 4 July 2008 (UTC)

Guidelines for outlines
Guidelines for the development of outlines are being drafted at Outlines.

Your input and feedback is welcomed and encouraged.

The Transhumanist 00:31, 24 May 2009 (UTC)

The "History of" section needs links!
Please add some relevant links to the history section.

Links can be found in the "History of" article for this subject, in the "History of" category for this subject, or in the corresponding navigation templates. Or you could search for topics on Google - most topics turn blue when added to Wikipedia as internal links.

The Transhumanist 00:31, 24 May 2009 (UTC)

Straw poll and discussion concerning what outlines should be called
A discussion is underway that may affect the name of this article.

See: Wikipedia talk:Outlines

The Transhumanist 04:33, 20 October 2009 (UTC)

Merger proposal
In Articles for deletion/Index of dance articles the result was Keep and not Delete. However, the alternative Merge was also preliminary discussed. Following on on that, I propose to Index of dance articles merge into Outline of dance.
 * Index of dance articles is a list of no obvious added value over Outline of dance or just Category:Dance.
 * Although Index of dance articles has many links that are not in the outline article, I don't think it is worth preserving them. The index article seems almost like a random selection from the Category:Dance and its subcategories. Almost like it was once just a personal user list of articles. There are no obvious inclusion criteria, no obvious reason of what the articles have with each other in common separate from Dance.
 * The outline article in contrast contains only main dance topics and references, not just apparently random topics like Academy Award for Best Dance Direction, Hip hop dance and Open position.
 * If the inclusion criteria would be Dance than all articles from the Category:Dance and its subcategories would potentially need to be included which would make it an extremely big list with no clear purpose. Dance is just a too broad category to capture in one list article.
 * The guide function is already provided by Outline of dance. That article is intended to provide readers with a cohesive, comprehensive page that covers the many topical aspects of dance.

Concluding: I'd like to propose a merge by just making a redirect without using any data from Index of dance articles. LazyStarryNights (talk) 19:58, 12 August 2013 (UTC)
 * Oppose - Outline of dance is a topical overview in outline format, whereas Index of dance articles functions as a index list article that can be made more comprehensive, as indexes typically function. Expand the Index of dance articles instead (which I have begun to perform). Northamerica1000(talk) 09:27, 23 August 2013 (UTC)
 * I do understand the function of alphabetical indexes for example in books, but to my understanding of Wikipedia that function is already fulfilled by things like categories and keyword search. I also am aware of Lists articles in Wikipedia, some alphabetical, some sorted by other criteria, some as a sort-able list. Often in table form providing information per entry. But I do not usually encounter a plain alphabetical list on such broadly defined topic. Do I miss something in my understanding? As for your expansion efforts: curious to your inclusion criteria and results. Do you have something in mind with a narrower definition than Category:Dance?. LazyStarryNights (talk) 15:24, 23 August 2013 (UTC)
 * , I think there is an argument for merger here, but in another direction. This article is a redundancy on Dance, and any material worth preserving should be moved there.   Discussion on a central topic is more or less universally handled on the "parent" article for that topic, which is meant to function as the "outline" page by default (sans that awkward additional wording in the article title.  This article is a significant divergence from core policy on how topics are established as notable and organized on Wikipedia.  But the index article is as well; you are quite correct that the purpose and format to which that article is being bent are now largely meant to be handled by categories and other embedded elements, though index articles do continue to exist and there is no absolute consensus on their appropriateness.  We also have list articles under rare circumstances, but usually to just list article entries on a one-dimensional criteria (list of sovereign states, list of North American newspapers, ect.) not as indexes for multifaceted topics with their own internal hierarchies -- those are meant to be delineated and discussed in a verifiable fashion in the prose and linking of parent and dependent articles and, as mentioned, by categories and other such tools.   As it happens, Dance is already being overhauled (which is what brought me here, so I will try to incorporate a reasonable amount of the content here into that article (where it belongs anyway) and then consider proposing deletion here.   The index is a more complex case in that members of WP:WikiProject Dance have been discussing cleaning up/augmenting the categories for dance for ages, and though there has been some headway this last year, there's a ways to go before I feel comfortable proposing deletion of the content in the index outright.  Even then, it's likely to be an uphill battle to establish consensus on that point,  though I dare say these indexes tend to be in conflict with general organizational policy.  In any event, I don't want to propose the index's deletion until we can demonstrate it is completely redundant.  S n o w  let's rap 02:44, 18 July 2015 (UTC)

Quick explanation of Wikipedia outlines
"Outline" is short for "hierarchical outline". There are two types of outlines: sentence outlines (like those you made in school to plan a paper), and topic outlines (like the topical synopses that professors hand out at the beginning of a college course). Outlines on Wikipedia are primarily topic outlines that serve 2 main purposes: they provide taxonomical classification of subjects showing what topics belong to a subject and how they are related to each other (via their placement in the tree structure), and as subject-based tables of contents linked to topics in the encyclopedia. The hierarchy is maintained through the use of heading levels and indented bullets. See Outlines for a more in-depth explanation. The Transhumanist 00:05, 9 August 2015 (UTC)

title: Talk:Outline of dance