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Ethnic joke

An ethnic joke is a remark aiming at humor relating to an ethnic, racial or cultural group, often referring to an ethnic stereotype of the group in question for its punchline.

Perceptions of ethnic jokes are ambivalent. Christie Davies gives examples that, while many find them racist and offensive, for some people jokes poking fun at one's own ethnicity may be considered acceptable. He points out that ethnic jokes are often found funny exactly for the same reason they sound racist for others; it happens when they play on negative ethnic stereotypes. Davies maintains that ethnic jokes reinforce ethnic stereotypes and sometimes lead to calls for violence. The perceived damage to the ethnic group can be of great concern as when the ethnic Polish jokes became so common in the 1970s, the Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs approached the U.S. State Department to complain.

Academic theories of ethnic humor
The predominant and most widely known theory of ethnic humor attempts to discover social regularities in the anecdote traditions of different countries by contextually describing jokes. Christie Davies, author of this theory, has posed the main arguments in his article Ethnic Jokes, Moral Values and Social Boundaries, published in 1982. His approach is based on Victor Raskin's (1985) Semantic Script Theory of Humor, or to be more precise, on the arguments connected with ethnic humor on binary oppositions. While Raskin merely describes the main binary oppositions providing examples (mostly from Jewish humor), Davies explores the situations where the scripts apply; for example, he has discovered that the most common opposition, stupid/clever, is applied under particular circumstances in the social reality of two ethnic groups concerned.

Davies in his monograph published in 1990 has surmised that "Jokes in every country (or reasonably homogeneous cultural and linguistic domain) have certain targets for stupidity jokes – people who dwell on the edge of that nation or domain and who are perceived as culturally ambiguous by the dominant people of the center. In addition, they will likely be rustic people or immigrants in search of unskilled and low-prestige manual work. They are to a great extent similar to the joke-tellers themselves, share the same cultural background or even speak a similar or identical language." According to Davies, ethnic jokes are centered on the three main themes of stupidity, canniness and sexual behavior.

Davies is featured in the 2010 documentary film, Polack, exploring the source of the Polish joke.

L Perry Curtis, in examining ethnic humour aimed at the Irish in Victorian England, describes the descent that the ethnic joke and the accompanying stereotype can undergo as the target that they are aimed at descends into depictions of violent behaviour: "My curiosity of 'Paddy's' transformation in comic art from a rather primitive, rustic, or simple-minded peasant to a degenerate man... bent on murder or outrage."

According to Samuel Schmidt, ethnic jokes can also be a form of social resistance, and so they are addressed by the joke-tellers against those whom they see as the aggressors, like the multiple jokes published in Mexico about Americans (also called gringos there).

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Man o' War

Man o' War (March 29, 1917 – November 1, 1947) was an American Thoroughbred racehorse who is widely regarded as one of the greatest racehorses of all time. Several sports publications, including The Blood-Horse, Sports Illustrated, and the Associated Press, voted Man o' War as the best American racehorse of the 20th century. During his racing career, just after World War I, Man o' War won 20 of 21 races and $249,465 in purses. He was the unofficial 1920 American horse of the year and was honored with Babe Ruth as the outstanding athlete of the year by The New York Times. He was inducted into the National Museum of Racing and Hall of Fame in 1957. On March 29, 2017, the museum opened a special exhibit in his honor, "Man o' War at 100".

In 1919, Man o' War won 9 of 10 starts, including the Hopeful Stakes and Belmont Futurity, then the most important races for two-year-old horses in the United States. His only loss came at Saratoga Race Course, later nicknamed the Graveyard of Champions, where he lost by a neck to a colt fittingly named Upset.

Man o' War was not entered in the 1920 Kentucky Derby because his owner, Samuel Riddle, did not believe in racing at the distance of 10 furlong so early in a young horse's career. Instead, Man o' War made his three-year-old debut in the Preakness Stakes where he defeated Upset by $1 1/2$ lengths. Man o' War later won the Belmont Stakes by 20 lengths while setting a world record. Throughout the summer and fall, he continued to dominate his fellow three-year-olds, setting multiple records while conceding large amounts of weight to his rivals. The only time he faced older horses was in the final race of his career in a match race against Sir Barton, who had won what would later be known as the American Triple Crown in 1919. Man o' War won easily by seven lengths in the first horserace to be filmed in its entirety.

Riddle originally intended to race Man o' War in 1921 but decided against it because Man o' War would have been assigned record weights in the handicap format used in almost all races for older horses at the time. Instead, Man o' War was retired to stud, where he became a leading sire whose multiple champions included Triple Crown winner War Admiral. He was the grandsire of Seabiscuit and his sire line continues today through horses such as In Reality, Tiznow, Da' Tara and Tourist. Also successful as a broodmare sire, Man o' War is found in almost all modern American pedigrees.

Background
Man o' War was a chestnut horse with a white star and stripe on his forehead. He was foaled at Nursery Stud near Lexington, Kentucky. He was bred by August Belmont Jr., whose father's accomplishments were recognized through the naming of the Belmont Stakes in 1867. Belmont Jr. was an equally notable horseman who served as the chairman of The Jockey Club from 1895 until his death in 1924. Belmont Park was named in the family's honor when it opened in 1905.

Man o' War was sired by Fair Play, a multiple stakes winner who finished second in the 1908 Belmont Stakes to the undefeated Colin. Man o' War was the second foal out of Mahubah, a lightly raced mare by English Triple Crown Champion Rock Sand. Not long after the colt was foaled on March 29, 1917, Belmont Jr. joined the United States Army at age 65 to serve in France during World War I. While he was overseas, his wife named the foal "Man o' War" in honor of her husband. Originally, the Belmonts intended to race Man o' War themselves. However, in the summer of 1918 with the ongoing war effort, they decided to liquidate their racing stable. At the Saratoga yearling sale, Man o' War was sold at a final bid of $5,000 to Samuel D. Riddle, who brought him to his Glen Riddle Farm near Berlin, Maryland. The underbidder at the auction was Robert L. Gerry, Sr., who is reported to have said to his wife, "Forty-five hundred is enough to spend for any yearling." Two years later in 1920, Riddle declined an offer of $400,000 for the horse.

At maturity, Man o' War stood, with prominent withers and a high croup, but was sometimes faulted for a dipped back that grew more pronounced with age. He had virtually flawless legs and solid bone, traits he passed on to his offspring. He had a slightly Roman nose and notably high head carriage. His nickname was "Big Red", though his coat had tinges of yellow and gold. An energetic, spirited horse, he is often pictured standing very still and gazing off into the distance, described as the "look of eagles". His stride was measured at 28 feet and, to this day, is believed to still be the longest of all time.

Racing career
Man o' War was the odds-on favorite in every start of his career and justified that faith even in his sole defeat. He typically won in front-running fashion and was only closely pushed in two of his starts. He won the Belmont Stakes by twenty lengths and the Lawrence Realization by a hundred lengths. He set record times in both of those races plus many more at distances ranging from 6 to(-). In many of his starts, he won under heavy restraint and often conceded his rivals large amounts of weight. He retired as the then-leading money-earner in American history.

Developing this talent was not easy for trainer Louis Feustel due to Man o' War's occasionally wild temperament. In his early days, Man o' War would routinely dump his exercise riders, once getting free for over 15 minutes after a morning workout. "He fought like a tiger," Riddle later recalled. "He screamed with rage and fought us so hard that it took several days before he could be handled with safety." Feustel brought the colt along slowly and gradually settled him into a regular routine. Man o' War developed a strong bond with his groom Frank Loftus, who taught the horse to fetch and to carry his hat. Oranges were Man o' War's favorite treat.

1919: Two-year-old season
Man o' War made his debut at Belmont Park on June 6, 1919, in a maiden race over 5 furlong. At the time, horses had to race clockwise at Belmont Park rather than counter-clockwise like all the other American tracks of the day, so horses had to learn to race in both directions. This practice ended in 1922 after Man o' War retired. Man o' War won his first race by six lengths, then just three days later was entered in the Keene Memorial Stakes at a distance of 5+1/2 furlong on a muddy track at Belmont Park. At this point in his career, Man o' War had not yet learned how to start quickly but soon settled into fourth place. With an eighth of a mile remaining, jockey Johnny Loftus urged Man o' War to run and the horse responded by pulling away from his rivals to win by three lengths. Twelve days later, Man o' War followed up with another win in the Youthful Stakes at Jamaica Race Course. Two days after that, he swept to victory in the Hudson Stakes at Aqueduct to record his fourth win in just 18 days. Less than two weeks later, he returned to win the Tremont Stakes at Aqueduct on July 5.

He was then shipped upstate for the summer meet at Saratoga Race Course where the competition would be much fiercer. He made his first appearance there in the United States Hotel Stakes on August 2. Despite getting a bad start and carrying 130 pounds, Man o' War won easily by two lengths in his first meeting with a well-regarded colt named Upset. His next start was the Sanford Memorial Stakes on August 13, where he went off as the odds-on favorite with Upset as the third betting choice. This race is notorious in racing history as Man o' War's only defeat, playing a part in developing Saratoga's reputation as the "Graveyard of Champions". In the early 1900s, there were no starting gates. Horses circled around and then lined up behind a piece of webbing known as the barrier and were sent away when it was raised. In the Sanford, most sources state that Man o' War was still circling with his back to the starting line when the barrier was raised (though some accounts say he was turned only slightly sideways). What is undisputed is that Man o' War had a terrible start, which The New York Times attributed to the absence of the regular starting official. The start was delayed for several minutes as other colts repeatedly broke through the barrier and the starter finally released the field when only the horses near the rail were ready. As a result, Man o' War found himself far behind the other starters. Loftus then put Man o' War in a bad position, getting boxed in by other horses then checked by tiring horses. Despite this, Man o' War came close to winning, losing by about a neck while conceding 15 pounds to Upset.

It is sometimes erroneously thought that Upset's unexpected win popularized a new phrase in sports (meaning an underdog beating the favorite) – in fact, the term "upset" was already in use to describe such a situation for decades. The two horses faced off five times during their racing careers, with Man o' War beating Upset four times.

The loss only enhanced Man o' War's reputation. J.L. Dempsey of The Daily Racing Form wrote, "Without attempting to detract from the merits of [Upset's] performance, Man o' War proved himself in the running unquestionably the best. It was Upset's advantage at the start, coupled with 15 pounds weight concession, a perfect ride he received from Knapp and his success in saving ground on the stretch turn that brought his triumph over Man o' War. Had the race been a sixteenth farther the finish would have been reversed."

Man o' War gained his revenge with a victory in the Grand Union Hotel Stakes on August 23, beating Upset by two lengths with Blazes in third. After the race, Loftus stated that Man o' War was the best horse he had ever ridden, and that his ride had been responsible for the loss in the Sanford. While carrying 130 pounds, Man o' War tied the stakes record of 1:12 2/5 for 6 furlong that had been set by Garbage while carrying only 107 lb.

Just 7 days later, Man o' War entered the Hopeful Stakes, whose purse of $30,000 made it one of the richest prizes in racing at the time. He faced only eight rivals, a small field at the time for such a prestigious race. Heavy rain started to fall as the field headed to the starting post and Man o' War broke through the barrier several times, delaying the race by twelve minutes. Despite this, he won with "ridiculous ease" by six lengths.

Man o' War then returned to Belmont Park for the Futurity Stakes on September 14. The Futurity had a purse of $5,000 added, meaning the prize money was increased by nomination and entry fees. Because the Futurity was one of the preeminent races of the day, the added money was large enough to increase the winners share of the purse to $26,650. Man o' War briefly dueled for the lead with a well-regarded sprinter named Dominique then opened up a commanding lead. Turning into the stretch, John P. Grier swept into second with an all-out drive but failed to make up any ground on Man o' War, who had not been urged at any point in the race. Man o' War won by three lengths while carrying 127 pounds, 10 pounds more than John P. Grier. Journalists, horsemen and fans agreed that Man o' War had to be considered as one of the greatest American horses of his age, and compared him favorably to the unbeaten Colin. Man o' War completed his two-year-old campaign with nine wins from ten starts and earnings of $82,275. He was named the American Champion Two-Year-Old Colt of 1919. He was rated at 136 pounds by handicapper C.C. Ridley of the Daily Racing Form, 16 pounds ahead of the second-ranked colt, Blazes.

1920: Three-year-old season
In 1920, Johnny Loftus was denied a renewal of his jockey's license by The Jockey Club, a development that was rumored to be related to Man o' War's defeat in the Sanford. He was replaced as Man o' War's rider by Clarence Kummer. Over the winter, Man o' War had grown to high and filled out to about 1150 lb with a 72 in girth.

Riddle decided early on to restrict Man o' War to races within his own age division, in large part because the most valuable races in the country were restricted to three-year-olds. He decided not to enter Man o' War in the Kentucky Derby because it was run only a few days before his preferred target, the Preakness Stakes, which was held close to the Riddle farm where Man o' War had spent the winter. Riddle also did not like racing in Kentucky and believed it was too early in the year for a young horse to go a mile and a quarter. Thus, Man o' War did not have a chance to complete what would later be known as the U.S. Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing, consisting of the Kentucky Derby, Preakness and Belmont Stakes. The previous year, Sir Barton had won the three races, which gained in prestige and importance 10 years later when Gallant Fox accomplished the same feat under a great deal of media attention.

Instead, Man o' War made his three-year-old debut on May 18 in the Preakness Stakes, then run at a distance of $1 1/8$ miles. Despite the long layoff and never having raced beyond 6 furlong, he went off as the 4-5 favorite in a field of nine horses that included his old rival Upset, who had finished second in the Derby. Man o' War broke alertly and took the lead within the first 10 yards, then established a two length lead down the backstretch while under restraint. As they rounded the final turn, Upset started to close ground so Kummer loosened his grip. Man o' War responded by again pulling away, completing the opening mile in what would have been a new Pimlico track record of 1:38$3/5$. Eased in the final furlong, Man o' War won by $1 1/2$ lengths over Upset in a final time of 1:51$3/5$.

The horse was then returned to his home base at Belmont Park where a crowd of 25,000 turned out to watch him in the Withers Stakes on May 29. He was sent off at "generous" odds of 1–7 against only two rivals: Wildair, winner of the Metropolitan Handicap who was at odds of 6–1, and the overmatched David Harum at 30–1. Man o' War again seized the early lead, completing the first quarter-mile in :$23 3/5$ while tugging at the bit. When Wildair tried to close ground around the turn, Kummer briefly released his hold and Man o' War opened up his lead again. Eased in the final sixteenth of a mile, Man o' War still won by two lengths while setting an American race record of 1:35$4/5$ for the mile. Man o' War's next start was on June 12 in the Belmont Stakes, then run at a distance of $2/5$ miles. The race would establish Man o' War as one of the all-time greats with an "almost unbelievably brilliant performance" before a crowd of 25,000. At odds of 1-20, he faced only one rival, the well-regarded colt Donnaconna. Man o' War led from the start and Kummer let him run freely at the top of the stretch, allowing Man o' War to draw away by 20 lengths. Although eased in the final furlong, Man o' War set a world record of 2:14$1 3/8$, beating the previous standard set in England by over two seconds and beating Sir Barton's American record by over three seconds. This time stood as the American record until 1961 when Wise Ship ran the distance in 2:14 flat on a turf course. It still stood as the American dirt record until 1991.

Just ten days later, Man o' War returned in the Stuyvesant Handicap which he won easily against only one rival. His odds of 1 to 100 were believed to be the lowest ever offered in an American horserace.

His next start in the Dwyer Stakes on July 10 proved far more demanding. The colt John P. Grier, who had challenged Man o' War in the Belmont Futurity at age two, had matured into the second-best three-year-old in the country. Under the conditions of the Dwyer, Man o' War was assigned 126 pounds while John P. Grier carried only 108. The two colts scared away all rivals, turning the Dwyer into a match race. They raced side by side down the backstretch, with Man o' War on the rail blocking John P. Grier from the view of the spectators. The two horses ran the race as a sprint, completing the first three-quarters of a mile in 1:09 2/5 – an American record. As they entered the turn, Man o' War started to open up an advantage but John P. Grier rallied and got back on even terms. They completed the mile together in a time of 1:35 3/5, breaking Man o' War's American record set in the Withers. John P. Grier made another surge and for a moment the spectators believed that he would win the race. Kummer then hit Man o' War with the whip and Man o' War made a final surge, opening up a lead of two lengths in the final fifty yards. The final time was 1:49 1/5, a new world record for $1/5$ miles.

Man o' War was then shipped to Saratoga and was entered in the Miller Stakes on August 7. There was a then-record crowd of 35,000, many of whom gathered in the saddling area where Man o' War was surrounded by twelve Pinkerton guards. His jockey for the race was Earl Sande, replacing an injured Kummer. As expected, Man o' War took the early lead and was unchallenged in a six-length victory. He had been tightly restrained, but even so, his time of 1:56 3/5 for the distance of $1 1/8$ miles was just $1 3/16$ seconds off the track record. "I never felt anything like that horse in my life," said Sande after the race. "He strides farther than anything I ever rode and does it so handily that you would not think he was running at all."

His connections had a brief scare when Man o' War exhibited signs of lameness after a workout on August 17, but he quickly recovered. On August 21, he entered the Travers Stakes where he faced his two strongest rivals: Upset for the fifth and last time, and John P. Grier for the third time. A record crowd overflowed the grandstand and stretched all the way down the rail and track apron. As a result, Saratoga management opened up the infield and 5,000 people moved across the track to line the inner rail.

Man o' War's jockey for the race was Andy Schuttinger as Kummer was still recovering from injury and Sande was not available. After the start, John P. Grier tried to match strides with Man o' War but could not keep up. After establishing a clear lead by the first turn, Schuttinger took hold of Man o' War for the rest of the race. Upset made a late run to move into second but Man o' War still won by three lengths. Despite not being extended, Man o' War completed the distance of $3/5$ miles in 2:01 4/5, equaling the track record set earlier in the year by Sir Barton. This record stood until 1941. It is possible the time was also a world record, as the existing record time of 2:00 flat credited to Whisk Broom II in 1913 was disputed.

Riddle contemplated entering Man o' War against older horses for the first time in the $5,000 Saratoga Gold Cup, but ultimately chose to enter the $15,000 Lawrence Realization Stakes against three-year-olds instead. When his only rival scratched from the race, it nearly became a walkover until Mrs. Riddle's niece, Sarah Jeffords, entered Hoodwink. To compensate for the lack of competition, Riddle announced that Man o' War would be allowed to show his speed. Man o' War was reunited with regular jockey Kummer, after being ridden by Sande and Schuttinger while Kummer recovered from an injury. Kummer neither restrained the horse nor urged him on at any point in the race. Running as he pleased, Man o' War won by slightly more than a quarter-mile – the official margin was 100 lengths – while setting a new world record of 2:40 4/5 for a mile and five-eighths. This broke the existing world record set in England by $1 1/4$ seconds and lowered the American record by over four seconds. This world record stood until 1956, when it was broken by Man o' War's great-grandson Swaps.

The performance drew superlatives from the racing community. Turf writer B.K. Beckwith later called it "the most astounding display of arrogant annihilation", adding, "[Man o' War] was like a big red sheet of flame running before a prairie wind". The New York Times commented, "at Belmont Park yesterday [Man o' War] gave what was undoubtedly the greatest exhibition of speed over a considerable distance of ground ever witnessed anywhere."

Man o' War's next start was the Jockey Club Gold Cup on September 12, the first time he entered a race open to older horses. The race organizers tried to lure Sir Barton into entering by promising to increase the purse from $15,000 to $25,000 if he did so, but Sir Barton needed more time to recover from his last race. It was also speculated that Sir Barton's owner was holding out for an even higher purse for a match race with Man o' War. The connections of Exterminator, another future Hall of Famer, were also considering the race but ultimately bypassed it because, under the weight-for-age conditions of the Gold Cup, he would have had to concede Man o' War five pounds. As it was, Man o' War faced only one competitor and won under tight restraint by fifteen lengths. Although declared a hollow victory by The New York Times, Man o' War still set an American record for $1 3/5$ miles of 2:28 4/5, breaking the existing mark by 4/5 seconds.

Man o' War next entered the Potomac Handicap at Havre de Grace Racetrack in Maryland on September 18. Man o' War was assigned 138 pounds, conceding from 24 to 34 pounds to his rivals, which included Kentucky Derby winner Paul Jones. Man o' War faced an early challenge from Blazes then turned back a late run by Wildair to win by $1 1/2$ lengths while breaking the track record by $1 1/2$ seconds. Although Man o' War was not seriously challenged, the high weight and a poorly maintained racing surface took a toll: Man o' War came out of the race with a swollen tendon on his right foreleg.

The final start of Man o' War's career came in Windsor, Ontario, Canada, in the Kenilworth Park Gold Cup on October 12. The event was so highly anticipated that it became the first horserace to be filmed in its entirety, with the resulting footage later shown in movie theaters across the country. The race was originally intended to be a face-off between the three great horses of the time: Man o' War, Sir Barton and Exterminator. However, the owners of Sir Barton and Man o' War agreed to a distance of $1/5$ miles, which was too short for Exterminator to run his best, and agreed to a weight-for-age format, under which the older Exterminator would concede weight to Man o' War. Therefore, Exterminator was not entered, and in fact, raced that same day on a different track.

Now essentially a match race, the advantage shifted to Man o' War, whose front-running style allowed him to dictate the pace. Man o' War was almost flat-footed at the break but quickly gathered speed to draw clear of Sir Barton in the first furlong. Kummer then slowed the pace while maintaining a two-length lead down the backstretch. On the final turn, Man o' War put in a brief spurt and quickly opened the lead to five lengths. Kummer again pulled him in and Man o' War maintained a steady pace to the wire to win by seven lengths in a "ridiculously easy" fashion. Although the time of 2:03 was well off the American record shared by Man o' War and Sir Barton, it still broke the track record by over six seconds. Man o' War's share of the purse made him the highest-earning horse in American history. The gold trophy presented in the winner's circle, designed by Tiffany & Co, was later donated by Mrs. Riddle to Saratoga and is now used as the trophy for the Travers Stakes.

There were no formal awards for American Horse of the Year at the time but Man o' War was informally acknowledged as such in a retroactive poll of turf writers. In its summary of the sporting year, The New York Times stated, "A superman (Babe Ruth) and a superhorse – these were sport's greatest contributions to the history of the year about to close. Some might rate the superhorse, Man o' War, as the outstanding figure of the two, for he has passed on from the field of competition and has left a story of achievement which may never be surpassed."

Over his two-year career, Man o' War won 20 of 21 races, setting three world records, two American records, and three track records.

Weight carrying
At the time, there were few weight-for-age races in the United States. The majority of races were run under handicap conditions, with better horses being assigned higher weights in an attempt to equalize the chances of the other horses in the field. As one writer put it, "the one certain thing about racing is that weight will eventually stop the greatest of racers and bring them down to equal terms with horses of much less quality." As a two-year-old, Man o' War carried 130 lb in six races; few racehorses have ever carried that much at any age. As a three-year-old, he carried as much as 138 lb in races, conceding as much as 34 lb to other horses. Had he raced at age four, the handicappers would have started him at 140 pounds, increasing the amount each time he won until such time as Man o' War either lost or was injured. For this reason, Riddle decided to retire him at the end of his three-year-old campaign.

Stud record
After his undefeated season as a three-year-old, Man o' War was retired to stud in Lexington, originally at Elizabeth Daingerfield's Hinata Farm. In May 1922, he was moved to Faraway Farm, a property on Huffman Mill Pike outside of Lexington that had been jointly purchased by Riddle, his wife's niece Sarah Jeffords and her husband, Walter. This land, including the stallion barn, is now part of Mt. Brilliant Farm. In late 1936 or early 1937, the Riddle horses were moved to an adjacent property, also called Faraway Farm, where Man o' War spent his final years. This portion of Faraway is now called Man o' War Farm. During his lifetime, over 500,000 people signed the guest book at Faraway Farm and as many as 1.5 million are estimated to have visited him there. His longtime groom, Will Harbut, would lead the stallion out on display and proudly proclaim his charge's many accomplishments. Man o' War and Harbut were featured together on the cover of the Saturday Evening Post in 1941. This photograph inspired a popular collectors' plate, "Forever Friends", by equine artist Fred Stone.

Man o' War was the leading sire in North America of 1926 and was runner-up in 1928, 1929 and 1937. The Jockey Club credits him with 62 stakes winners from 381 named foals. Riddle restricted Man o' War's book to about 25 mares a year, most of which were owned by him or his friends and family. Though many breeding experts believe that Riddle did not breed the stallion to enough good mares (especially after the first five seasons), he still sired many leading horses. Man o' War's first crop included three horses who were considered champions: American Flag (Belmont Stakes), Florence Nightingale (Coaching Club American Oaks) and Maid at War (Alabama Stakes). His second crop was highlighted by Crusader, who won the Belmont Stakes in 1926 and was largely accepted as the best racehorse of 1926. Among Man o' War's other famous offspring were 1929 Kentucky Derby winner Clyde Van Dusen, Battleship (who won the 1938 English Grand National steeplechase), and War Admiral, the 1937 Triple Crown winner and the second official Horse of the Year. Another of his offspring, Hard Tack, sired Seabiscuit, who was Horse of the Year in 1938.

Man o' War's most successful sons at stud were War Admiral and War Relic, and War Relic's branch of the male line survives today. Tiznow, Tourist, Da' Tara, In Reality, Desert Vixen, Honour and Glory, Bal a Bali, Skywalker and Bertrando are all sire-line descendants of Man o' War. His line is also still active in Europe through classic winner Known Fact and his champion son Warning.

Man o' War's influence in modern pedigrees is magnified by the success of his daughters as broodmares. Although Man o' War never led the broodmare sire list, he was the runner-up ten times and finished in the top ten 22 times. Female line descendants from Man o' War include Eight Thirty, Stymie, Nijinsky, Sword Dancer, Pavot, Riverman, Jim French, Sir Ivor and Kelso. War Admiral was also a leading broodmare sire, especially when crossed with the influential mare La Troienne and his name can be found in many modern pedigrees through such horses as Seattle Slew, Buckpasser and Dr. Fager. American Flag also contributed to Man o' War's modern influence as he was the sire of the second dam of Raise A Native, who is an almost "omnipresent name in American pedigrees". Some modern breeders design matings to concentrate the influence of Man o' War through deep inbreeding. For example, he appears 23 times in the bloodline of American Pharoah, the 2015 Triple Crown winner.

Death
Man o' War was retired from stud in 1943 after suffering a heart attack. He died on November 1, 1947, at age 30 of another apparent heart attack, a short time after Harbut died. His funeral was broadcast live on NBC Radio. Kentucky horseman Ira Drymon said, "He touched the imagination of men and they saw different things in him. But one thing they will all remember was that he brought exaltation into their hearts." An editorial in The New York Times stated: "'No other horse ever won such fame as Man o' War. None was more beautiful, with lovelier lines of grace and power. None was more beloved by an admiring and faithful public. Few have lived so long. The American scene seems a little vacant with Man o' War gone to the Elysian Fields where all good horses go.'"

Man o' War was embalmed and buried in a casket lined with Riddle's black-and-gold racing silks. He was originally interred at Faraway Farm, but in the early 1970s, he was re-interred at a new burial site at the Kentucky Horse Park, where his grave is marked with a statue by American sculptor Herbert Haseltine.

Legacy
Man o' War was inducted into the National Museum of Racing and Hall of Fame in 1957. In 1959, the Man o' War Stakes was created in his honor. In The Blood-Horse magazine 1999 ranking of the top 100 U.S. Thoroughbred champions of the 20th Century, Man o' War was ranked No. 1. He was also ranked No. 1 by the Associated Press as the greatest horse of the 20th century in a separate poll. He was also ranked No. 1 greatest horse in racing history by Sports Illustrated (panel of 7) in 1992. ESPN ranked Man o' War as number 84 on their list of the top North American athletes of the 20th century, compiled for the SportsCentury documentary series. He was one of three racehorses on their list, along with Secretariat (34th) and Citation (97th).

There is a roadside historical marker at the location of his birthplace in Lexington (Nursery Stud), though the site has since been redeveloped. The stallion barn at Faraway Farm where he spent most of his life was renovated in the early 2000s - it is now part of Mt. Brilliant Farm. His stall door was loaned to the National Museum of Racing and Hall of Fame in Saratoga as part a special exhibit, "Man o' War at 100", that opened on March 29, 2017.

Glen Riddle Farm in Maryland was home to Man o' War during the off seasons of his racing career. The land was redeveloped in the early 2000s as GlenRiddle, a gated community with two golf courses, one of which is named in Man o' War's honor. The barn in which Man o' War stayed was converted into the golf clubhouse. In the 1950s, the Riddle estate sold the property Riddle had owned in Glen Riddle, Pennsylvania, which became the Riddlewood housing development. One of the roads in Riddlewood is named Man o' War Drive, another is War Admiral Lane. Man o' War Boulevard, a major arterial that circles to the south of Lexington, is also named in the horse's honor. Central of Georgia Railway once ran a Man o' War passenger train between Atlanta and Columbus.

In books and film
He has been the subject of several biographies. The first, titled Big Red, was by C. W. Anderson and was published in 1943. Man o' War, by Page Cooper and Roger Treat, was published in 1950, and is a classic of its kind. Walter Farley, author of The Black Stallion series, also wrote a slightly fictional biography of Man o' War in 1962. In 2000, Edward L. Bowen wrote a biography called Man o' War: Thoroughbred Legends from Eclipse Press. In 2006, Dorothy Ours wrote a new, extensively sourced biography titled Man o' War: A Legend Like Lightning. Man o' War is also featured in several books on Thoroughbred breeding, including Avalyn Hunter's American Classic Pedigrees (1914–2002).

In 1925, Man o' War was seen in the film Kentucky Pride which was directed by John Ford.

Cultural references
In Sterling A. Brown's poem about Kentucky and an African American in pre-Civil Rights America, "Kentucky Blues" from Southern Road, a reference is made to Man o' War. The poem discusses Thoroughbred horses and other characteristics attributed to the state.

According to Joey DeMaio, the heavy metal band Manowar was named after the horse.

In the 1970 motion picture M*A*S*H, the character Trapper John makes the apocryphal claim that a necropsy performed upon Man o' War following his death revealed that he was a homosexual horse, despite his prolific breeding history.

The song "Action Man" by the band Widespread Panic tells the story of Man o' War. The song references his Sire and Dam, Fair Play and Mahubah, as well as his offspring War Admiral.

Sire line tree

 * Man o' War
 * Annapolis
 * Mercator
 * American Flag
 * Gusto
 * Gun Boat
 * Crusader
 * Crossbow II
 * Royal Crusader
 * Mars
 * Scapa Flow
 * Clyde Van Dusen
 * Hard Tack
 * Seabiscuit
 * Sea Sovereign
 * Sea Swallow
 * Battleship
 * Floating Isle
 * Navigate
 * War Battle
 * Tide Rips
 * Navy Gun
 * Sea Legs
 * Eolus
 * Cap-A-Pie
 * Mighty Mo
 * Shipboard
 * Fleet Flag
 * Blockade
 * Ship Executive
 * Tsukitomo
 * War Admiral
 * Blue Peter
 * Mr Busher
 * Cold Command
 * Navy Page
 * Admiral Vee
 * Great War
 * War Relic
 * Relic
 * Buisson Ardent
 * Roan Rocket
 * El Relicario
 * UN Prince
 * Mystic II
 * Babamist
 * Bewley's Hill
 * Freeman's Hill
 * Olden Times
 * Roving Boy
 * Pericles
 * Pieces of Eight
 * Battlefield
 * Intent
 * Intentionally
 * In Reality
 * Tentam
 * Group Plan
 * Missile

Pedigree
Man o' War's grandsire Hastings was purchased by August Belmont Jr. as a two-year-old and won the Belmont Stakes for him in 1896. Hastings had a notoriously vicious temperament that he tended to pass on to his offspring in varying degrees. The mare Fairy Gold, a stakes-winning daughter of Epsom Derby winner Bend Or, was imported by Belmont to America and bred to Hastings in 1904. The resulting foal was Fair Play, who was one of the best racehorses of his year and even better as a stallion, leading the American sire list three times (1920, 1924 and 1927). Fair Play inherited a difficult temperament from Hastings, and his disposition was completely soured after an unsuccessful period spent racing in England. In addition to Man o' War, he also sired Hall of Famer Discovery.

Belmont Jr. also bred the mare Mahubah, who raced only five times with one win. She was the daughter of Rock Sand, who was imported by Belmont to the United States after winning the English Triple Crown. Mahubah produced five foals, all of them by Fair Play, including Man o' War and stakes winner My Play. Mahubah is also the fourth dam of American Triple Crown winner Assault.

An asterisk before a horse's name means the horse was imported to the United States.

Through his sire, Man o' War is a descendant of the first English Triple Crown champion, West Australian. This male line traces to the Godolphin Arabian (Man o' War is 14 generations removed from the Godolphin Arabian).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Man o' War


text:
Pragmaticism

"Pragmaticism" is a term used by Charles Sanders Peirce for his pragmatic philosophy starting in 1905, in order to distance himself and it from pragmatism, the original name, which had been used in a manner he did not approve of in the "literary journals". Peirce in 1905 announced his coinage "pragmaticism", saying that it was "ugly enough to be safe from kidnappers" (Collected Papers (CP) 5.414). Today, outside of philosophy, "pragmatism" is often taken to refer to a compromise of aims or principles, even a ruthless search for mercenary advantage. Peirce gave other or more specific reasons for the distinction in a surviving draft letter that year and in later writings. Peirce's pragmatism, that is, pragmaticism, differed in Peirce's view from other pragmatisms by its commitments to the spirit of strict logic, the immutability of truth, the reality of infinity, and the difference between (1) actively willing to control thought, to doubt, to weigh reasons, and (2) willing not to exert the will, willing to believe. In his view his pragmatism is, strictly speaking, not itself a whole philosophy, but instead a general method for the clarification of ideas. He first publicly formulated his pragmatism as an aspect of scientific logic along with principles of statistics and modes of inference in his "Illustrations of the Logic of Science" series of articles in 1877-8.

Pragmatic maxim
Whether one chooses to call it "pragmatism" or "pragmaticism"—and Peirce himself was not always consistent about it even after the notorious renaming—his conception of pragmatic philosophy is based on one or another version of the so-called "pragmatic maxim". Here is one of his more emphatic statements of it:

"Pragmaticism was originally enounced in the form of a maxim, as follows: Consider what effects, that might conceivably have practical bearings, you conceive the objects of your conception to have. Then, your conception of those effects is the whole of your conception of the object (CP 5.438)."

In the 1909 Century Dictionary Supplement, the entry for pragmaticism by John Dewey was

"pragmaticism (prag-mat′i-sizm), n.  [pragmatic + ism.] A special and limited form of pragmatism, in which the pragmatism is restricted to the determining of the meaning of concepts (particularly of philosophic concepts) by consideration of the experimental differences in the conduct of life which would conceivably result from the affirmation or denial of the meaning in question. He [the writer] framed the theory that a conception, that is, the rational purport of a word or other expression, lies exclusively in its conceivable bearing upon the conduct of life. . . . To serve the precise purpose of expressing the original definition, he begs to announce the birth of the word 'pragmaticism.'     C. S. Peirce, in The Monist, April, 1905, p. 166."

Pragmatism's origin
Pragmatism as a philosophical movement originated in 1872 in discussions in The Metaphysical Club among Peirce, William James, Chauncey Wright, John Fiske, Francis Ellingwood Abbot, and lawyers Nicholas St. John Green and Joseph Bangs Warner (1848–1923). The first use in print of the name pragmatism appears to have been in 1898 by James, who credited Peirce with having coined the name during the early 1870s. As Brent (B:86) points out, in a letter November 10, 1900 (CP 8:253) to James, Peirce wrote: "Now, however, I have a particular occasion to write. Baldwin, arrived at J in his dictionary, suddenly calls on me to do the rest of the logic, in the utmost haste, and various questions of terminology come up. Who originated the term pragmatism, I or you? Where did it first appear in print? What do you understand by it?"

to which James replied (CP 8:253 footnote 8) on a post card dated November 26, 1900, Widener Library (Cambridge, Massachusetts) VB2a: "You invented 'pragmatism' for which I gave you full credit in a lecture entitled 'Philosophical conceptions and practical results' of which I sent you 2 (unacknowledged) copies a couple of years ago."

As Brent also points out (B:88), Peirce — or as Peirce scholars recently say, Dewey (see above) — in the 1909 Century Dictionary Supplement definition of pragmatism (Wikisource), wrote: "In an article for "The Monist" for 1905, Mr. Peirce says that he "has used it continually in philosophical conversation since, perhaps, the mid-seventies." The term was publicly introduced in print by Professor William James in 1898 in an address upon "Philosophical Conceptions and Practical Realities," in which authorship of the term and of the method is credited to Mr. Peirce."

James, William (1898), "Philosophical Conceptions and Practical Results", delivered before the Philosophical Union of the University of California at Berkeley, August 26, 1898, and first printed in the University Chronicle 1, September 1898, pp. 287-310. Internet Archive Eprint. On p. 290:: "I refer to Mr. Charles S. Peirce, with whose very existence as a philosopher I dare say many of you are unacquainted. He is one of the most original of contemporary thinkers; and the principle of practicalism or pragmatism, as he called it, when I first heard him enunciate it at Cambridge in the early 70s is the clue or compass by following which I find myself more and more confirmed in believing we may keep our feet upon the proper trail."

James credited Peirce again the 1901-1902 Gifford Lectures that were published as The Varieties of Religious Experience (p. 444), and then in the 1906 lectures that were published in 1907 as Pragmatism: A New Name for Some Old Ways of Thinking, see Lecture 2, fourth paragraph.

James, among others, regarded Peirce's 1877-8 "Illustrations of the Logic of Science" series, especially "How to Make Our Ideas Clear" (1878) as pragmatism's foundation. Peirce (CP 5.11-12), like James saw pragmatism as embodying familiar attitudes, in philosophy and elsewhere, elaborated into a new deliberate method of thinking and resolving dilemmas. Peirce differed from James and the early John Dewey, in some of their tangential enthusiasms, in being decidedly more rationalistic and realistic, in several senses of those terms, throughout the preponderance of his own philosophical moods.

In a 1906 manuscript, Peirce wrote that, in the Metaphysical Club decades earlier, Nicholas St. John Green"often urged the importance of applying Bain's definition of belief, as 'that upon which a man is prepared to act.' From this definition, pragmatism is scarce more than a corollary; so that I am disposed to think of him as the grandfather of pragmatism." James and Peirce, inspired by crucial links among belief, conduct, and disposition, agreed with Green. John Shook has said, "Chauncey Wright also deserves considerable credit, for as both Peirce and James recall, it was Wright who demanded a phenomenalist and fallibilist empiricism as a vital alternative to rationalistic speculation."

Pragmatism is regarded as a distinctively American philosophy. As advocated by James, John Dewey, F. C. S. Schiller, George Herbert Mead, and others, it has proved durable and popular. But Peirce did not seize on this fact to enhance his reputation, and even coined the word "pragmaticism" to distinguish his philosophical position.

Clarification of ideas in inquiry
Pragmatism starts with the idea that belief is that upon which one is prepared to act. Peirce's pragmatism is about conceptions of objects. His pragmatism is a method for fruitfully sorting out conceptual confusions caused, for example, by distinctions that make (sometimes needful) formal yet not practical differences. It equates any conception of an object with a conception of that object's effects to a general extent of those conceived effects' conceivable implications for informed practice. Those conceivable practical implications are the conception's meaning. The meaning is the consequent form of conduct or practice that would be implied by accepting the conception as true. Peirce's pragmaticism, in the strict sense, is about the conceptual elucidation of conceptions into such meanings — about how to make our ideas clear. Making them true, in the sense of proving and bearing them out in fruitful practice, goes beyond that. A conception's truth is its correspondence to the real, to that which would be found by investigation taken far enough. A conception's actual confirmation (if it occurs) is neither its meaning nor its truth per se, but an actual upshot.

In "How to Make Our Ideas Clear", Peirce discusses three grades of clearness of conception:
 * 1. Clearness of a conception familiar and readily used even if unanalyzed and undeveloped.
 * 2. Clearness of a conception in virtue of clearness of its definition's parts, in virtue of which logicians called an idea distinct, that is, clarified by analysis of just what elements make the given idea applicable. Elsewhere, echoing Kant, Peirce calls such a definition "nominal" (CP 5.553).
 * 3. Clearness in virtue of clearness of conceivable practical implications of the object's effects as conceived of, such as can lead to fruitful reasoning, especially on difficult problems. Here he introduces that which he later called the pragmatic maxim.

By way of example of how to clarify conceptions, he addressed conceptions about truth and the real as questions of the presuppositions of reasoning in general. To reason is to presuppose (and at least to hope), as a principle of the reasoner's self-regulation, that the truth is independent of our vagaries of opinion and is discoverable. In clearness's second grade (the "nominal" grade), he defines truth as the correspondence of a sign (in particular, a proposition) to its object, and the real as the object (be it a possibility or quality, or an actuality or brute fact, or a necessity or norm or law) to which a true sign corresponds, such that truth and the real are independent of that which you or I or any actual, definite community of inquirers think. After that needful but confined step, next in clearness's third grade (the pragmatic, practice-oriented grade) he defines truth — not as actual consensus, such that to inquire would be to poll the experts — but as that which would be reached, sooner or later but still inevitably, by research taken far enough, such that the real does depend on that ideal final opinion—a dependence to which he appeals in theoretical arguments elsewhere, for instance for the long-run validity of the rule of induction. (Peirce held that one cannot have absolute theoretical assurance of having actually reached the truth, and later said that the confession of inaccuracy and one-sidedness is an essential ingredient of a true abstract statement. ) Peirce argues that even to argue against the independence and discoverability of truth and the real is to presuppose that there is, about that very question under argument, a truth with just such independence and discoverability. For more on Peirce's theory of truth, see the Peirce section in Pragmatic theory of truth. Peirce's discussions and definitions of truth have influenced several epistemic truth theorists and been used as foil for deflationary and correspondence theories of truth.

Peirce said that a conception's meaning consists in "all general modes of rational conduct" implied by "acceptance" of the conception—that is, if one were to accept, first of all, the conception as true, then what could one conceive to be consequent general modes of rational conduct by all who accept the conception as true?—the whole of such consequent general modes is the whole meaning. His pragmatism, since a conception is general, does not equate a conception's meaning, its intellectual purport, with any definite set of actual consequences or upshots corroborating or undermining the conception or its worth, nor does it equate its meaning, much less its truth (if it is true), with the conceived or actual benefit or cost of the conception itself, like a meme (or, say, propaganda), outside the perspective of its being true in what it purports. If it is true, its truth is not transitory but instead immutable and independent of actual trends of opinion. His pragmatism also bears no resemblance to "vulgar" pragmatism, which misleadingly connotes a ruthless and Machiavellian search for mercenary or political advantage. Rather, Peirce's pragmatic maxim is the heart of his pragmatism as a method of experimentational mental reflection arriving at conceptions in terms of conceivable confirmatory and disconfirmatory circumstances—a method hospitable to the generation of explanatory hypotheses, and conducive to the employment and improvement of verification to test the truth of putative knowledge.

Peirce's pragmatism, as method and theory of definitions and the clearness of ideas, is a department within his theory of inquiry, which he variously called "Methodeutic" and "Philosophical or Speculative Rhetoric". He applied his pragmatism as a method throughout his work.

Peirce called his pragmatism "the logic of abduction", that is, the logic of inference to explanatory hypotheses. As a method conducive to hypotheses as well as predictions and testing, pragmatism leads beyond the usual duo of foundational alternatives, namely:

 * Deduction from self-evident truths, or rationalism;

 * Induction from experiential phenomena, or empiricism.

His approach is distinct from foundationalism, empiricist or otherwise, as well as from coherentism, by the following three dimensions:

 * Active process of theory generation, with no prior assurance of truth;

 * Subsequent application of the contingent theory in order to clarify its logical and practical implications;

 * Testing and evaluation of the provisional theory's utility for the anticipation of future experience, and that in dual senses of the word: prediction and control. Peirce's appreciation of these three dimensions serves to flesh out a physiognomy of inquiry far more solid than the flatter image of inductive generalization simpliciter, which is merely the relabeling of phenomenological patterns. Peirce's pragmatism was the first time the scientific method was proposed as an epistemology for philosophical questions.

A theory that proves itself more successful than its rivals in predicting and controlling our world is said to be nearer the truth. This is an operational notion of truth employed by scientists.

In "The Fixation of Belief", Peirce characterized inquiry in general not as the pursuit of truth per se but as the struggle to settle disturbances or conflicts of belief, irritating, inhibitory doubts, belief being that on which one is willing to act. That let Peirce frame scientific inquiry not only as a special kind of inquiry in a broader spectrum, but also, like inquiry generally, as based on actual doubts, not mere verbal doubts (such as hyperbolic doubt), which he held to be fruitless, and it let him also frame it, by the same stroke, as requiring that proof rest on propositions free from actual doubt, rather than on ultimate and absolutely indubitable propositions. He outlined four methods, ordered from least to most successful in achieving a secure fixation of belief:
 * 1) The method of tenacity (policy of sticking to initial belief) — which brings comforts and decisiveness, but leads to trying to ignore contrary information and others' views, as if truth were intrinsically private, not public. The method goes against the social impulse and easily falters since one may well fail to avoid noticing when another's opinion is as good as one's own initial opinion. Its successes can be brilliant but tend to be transitory.
 * 2) The method of authority — which overcomes disagreements but sometimes brutally. Its successes can be majestic and long-lasting, but it cannot regulate people thoroughly enough to suppress doubts indefinitely, especially when people learn about other societies present and past.
 * 3) The method of the a priori — which promotes conformity less brutally but fosters opinions as something like tastes, arising in conversation and comparisons of perspectives in terms of "what is agreeable to reason." Thereby it depends on fashion in paradigms and goes in circles over time. It is more intellectual and respectable but, like the first two methods, sustains accidental and capricious beliefs, destining some minds to doubt it.
 * 4) The method of science — the only one whereby inquiry can, by its own account, go wrong (fallibilism), and purposely tests itself and criticizes, corrects, and improves itself.

Peirce held that, in practical affairs, slow and stumbling ratiocination is often dangerously inferior to instinct and traditional sentiment, and that the scientific method is best suited to theoretical research, which in turn should not be bound to the other methods and to practical ends; reason's "first rule" is that, in order to learn, one must desire to learn and, as a corollary, must not block the way of inquiry. What recommends the scientific method of inquiry above all others is that it is deliberately designed to arrive, eventually, at the ultimately most secure beliefs, upon which the most successful practices can eventually be based. Starting from the idea that people seek not truth per se but instead to subdue irritating, inhibitory doubt, Peirce shows how, through the struggle, some can come to submit to truth, seek as truth the guidance of potential practice correctly to its given goal, and wed themselves to the scientific method.

Pragmaticism's name
It is sometimes stated that James' and other philosophers' use of the word pragmatism so dismayed Peirce that he renamed his own variant pragmaticism. Susan Haack has disagreed, pointing out the context in which Peirce publicly introduced the latter term in 1905. Haack's excerpt of Peirce begins below at the words "But at present ...," and continues with some ellipses. The fuller excerpt below supports her case further: "[The] word "pragmatism" has gained general recognition in a generalised sense that seems to argue power of growth and vitality. The famed psychologist, James, first took it up, seeing that his "radical empiricism" substantially answered to the writer's definition of pragmatism, albeit with a certain difference in the point of view. Next, the admirably clear and brilliant thinker, Mr. Ferdinand C. S. Schiller, casting about for a more attractive name for the "anthropomorphism" of his Riddle of the Sphinx, lit, in that most remarkable paper of his on Axioms as Postulates, upon the same designation "pragmatism," which in its original sense was in generic agreement with his own doctrine, for which he has since found the more appropriate specification "humanism," while he still retains "pragmatism" in a somewhat wider sense. So far all went happily. But at present, the word begins to be met with occasionally in the literary journals, where it gets abused in the merciless way that words have to expect when they fall into literary clutches. Sometimes the manners of the British have effloresced in scolding at the word as ill-chosen, —ill-chosen, that is, to express some meaning that it was rather designed to exclude. So then, the writer, finding his bantling "pragmatism" so promoted, feels that it is time to kiss his child good-by and relinquish it to its higher destiny; while to serve the precise purpose of expressing the original definition, he begs to announce the birth of the word "pragmaticism", which is ugly enough to be safe from kidnappers."

Then, in a surviving draft letter to Calderoni, dated by the CP editors as circa that same year 1905, Peirce said regarding his above-quoted discussion: "In the April number of the Monist I proposed that the word 'pragmatism' should hereafter be used somewhat loosely to signify affiliation with Schiller, James, Dewey, Royce, and the rest of us, while the particular doctrine which I invented the word to denote, which is your first kind of pragmatism, should be called 'pragmaticism.' The extra syllable will indicate the narrower meaning."

Indeed in the Monist article Peirce had said that the coinage "pragmaticism" was intended "to serve the precise purpose of expressing the original definition". Of course this does not mean that Peirce regarded his fellow pragmatist philosophers as word-kidnappers. To the contrary he had said, regarding James's and Schiller's uses of the word "pragmatism": "So far, all went happily." So it would seem that Peirce intended the coinage "pragmaticism" for two distinguishable purposes: (1) protection from literary journals and word-kidnappers, and (2) reference strictly to his own form of pragmatism, as opposed even to other pragmatisms that had not moved him to the new name. In the letter to Calderoni, Peirce did not reject all significant affiliation with fellow pragmatists, and instead said "the rest of us". Nor did he reject all such affiliation in later discussions.

However, in the following year 1906, in a manuscript "A Sketch of Logical Critics", Peirce wrote: "I have always fathered my pragmati ci sm (as I have called it since James and Schiller made the word [pragmatism] imply "the will to believe," the mutability of truth, the soundness of Zeno's refutation of motion, and pluralism generally), upon Kant, Berkeley, and Leibniz. ..."

(Peirce proceeded to criticize J. S. Mill but acknowledged probable aid from Mill's Examination.)

Then, in 1908, in his article "A Neglected Argument for the Reality of God", mentioning both James and the journalist, pragmatist, and literary author Giovanni Papini, Peirce wrote: "In 1871, in a Metaphysical Club in Cambridge, Mass., I used to preach this principle as a sort of logical gospel, representing the unformulated method followed by Berkeley, and in conversation about it I called it 'Pragmatism.' In December 1877 and January 1878 I set forth the doctrine in the Popular Science Monthly, and the two parts of my essay were printed in French in the Revue Philosophique, volumes vi. and vii. Of course, the doctrine attracted no particular attention, for, as I had remarked in my opening sentence, very few people care for logic. But in 1897 Professor James remodelled the matter, and transmogrified it into a doctrine of philosophy, some parts of which I highly approved, while other and more prominent parts I regarded, and still regard, as opposed to sound logic. About the time Professor Papini discovered, to the delight of the Pragmatist school, that this doctrine was incapable of definition, which would certainly seem to distinguish it from every other doctrine in whatever branch of science, I was coming to the conclusion that my poor little maxim should be called by another name; and accordingly, in April 1905, I renamed it Pragmaticism."

Peirce proceeded in "A Neglected Argument" to express both deep satisfaction and deep dismay with his fellow pragmatists. He singled F. C. S. Schiller out by name and was vague about which among the others he most particularly referred to. Peirce wrote "It seems to me a pity they should allow a philosophy so instinct with life to become infected with seeds of death. ... "

There has been some controversy over Peirce's relation to other pragmatists over the years and over the question of what is owed to Peirce, with visible crests in titles such as literary essayist Edward Dahlberg's "Cutpurse Philosopher" about James, in which Dahlberg claimed that Peirce had "tombstone reticences" about making accusations, and Kenneth Laine Ketner's and Walker Percy's A Thief of Peirce, in which Percy described himself as "a thief of Peirce" (page 130). Meanwhile, Schiller, James's wife Alice, and James's son Henry James III believed that James had a habit of overstating his intellectual debts to others such as Peirce.

In another manuscript "A Sketch of Logical Critic" dated by the CP editors as 1911, Peirce discussed one of Zeno's paradoxes, that of Achilles and the Tortoise, in terms of James's and others' difficulties with it. Peirce therein expressed regret at having used a "contemptuous" manner about such difficulties in his 1903 Harvard lectures on pragmatism (which James had arranged), and said of James, who had died in August 1910: "Nobody has a better right to testify to the morality of his attitude toward his own thoughts than I, who knew and loved him for forty-nine or fifty years. But owing to his almost unexampled incapacity for mathematical thought, combined with intense hatred for logic — probably for its pedantry, its insistence on minute exactitude — the gêne of its barbarous formulations, etc. rendered him an easy victim to Zeno and the Achilles. ... ", called James "about as perfect a lover of truth as it is possible for a man to be. ... " and said: "In speaking, then, of William James as I do, I am saying the most that I could of any man's intellectual morality; and with him this was but one of a whole diadem of virtues."

References and further reading

 * Peirce, C. S. (1877–1878), "Illustrations of the Logic of Science" (series), Popular Science Monthly vols. 12–13. (Includes "The Fixation of Belief" and "How to Make Our Ideas Clear".)
 * Peirce, C. S.; James, William; Baldwin, James Mark; and Seth, James (1902), "Pragmatic (1) and (2) Pragmatism" in Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, v. 2, James Mark Baldwin, ed., MacMillan, New York and London, pp. 321–323.
 * Peirce, C. S. (1905), "What Pragmatism Is", The Monist, vol. XV, no. 2, pp. 161–181, The Open Court Publishing Co., Chicago, IL, April 1905, for the Hegeler Institute. Reprinted in Collected Papers (CP) v. 5, paragraphs 411–437 and Charles S. Peirce: Selected Writings 180–202. Arisbe Eprint.
 * Peirce, C. S. (1905), "Issues of Pragmaticism", The Monist, vol. XV, no. 4, pp. 481–499, The Open Court Publishing Co., Chicago, IL, October 1905, for the Hegeler Institute. Reprinted in CP v. 5, paragraphs 438–463 and Charles S. Peirce: Selected Writings 203–226. Google Books (with a few botched pages) Eprint. Internet Archive Eprint.
 * Peirce, C. S. (1906), "Prolegomena To an Apology For Pragmaticism", The Monist, vol. XVI, no. 4, pp. 492–546, The Open Court Publishing Co., Chicago, IL, October 1906, for the Hegeler Institute. Reprinted in CP v. 4, paragraphs 530–572 and Peirce on Signs: Writings on Semiotic 249–252. Eprint.
 * Peirce, C. S. (1908), "A Neglected Argument for the Reality of God", published in part, Hibbert Journal vol. 7, pp. 90–112. Reprinted including one or another unpublished part in CP v. 6, paragraphs 452–485, Charles S. Peirce: Selected Writings 358–379, Essential Peirce v. 2, 434–450, and Peirce on Signs: Writings on Semiotic 260–278. Eprint.
 * Peirce collections
 * Peirce, C.S. (1931–35, 1958), Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce, vols. 1–6, 1931–35, Charles Hartshorne and Paul Weiss, eds., vols. 7–8, 1958, Arthur W. Burks, ed., Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. In print from HUP and online via InteLex.
 * Peirce, C.S (1976), The New Elements of Mathematics by Charles S. Peirce, 4 volumes in 5, Carolyn Eisele, ed., Mouton Publishers, The Hague, Netherlands, 1976. Humanities Press, Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey. Out of print.
 * Peirce, C.S. (1981–), Writings of Charles S. Peirce, A Chronological Edition, vols. 1–6 & 8, of a projected 30, Peirce Edition Project, eds., Indiana University Press, Bloomington and Indianapolis, Indiana. In print from IUP and online (first six volumes) via InteLex.
 * Peirce, C.S. (1992), Pragmatism as a Principle and Method of Right Thinking: The 1903 Harvard "Lectures on Pragmatism", Patricia Ann Turisi, ed., State University of New York Press, Albany, NY, 1997. In print from SUNY. A study edition of Peirce's lecture manuscripts, including unused drafts, which had been previously published in abridged form.
 * Peirce, C.S. (1992, 1998), The Essential Peirce, Selected Philosophical Writings, Volume 1 (1867–1893), 1992, Nathan Houser and Christian Kloesel, eds., and Volume 2 (1893–1913) including the 1903 lectures on pragmatism, 1998, Peirce Edition Project, eds., Bloomington and Indianapolis, Indiana: Indiana University Press. In print from IUP.
 * Other
 * Apel, Karl-Otto (1981), Charles S. Peirce: From Pragmatism to Pragmaticism, 288 pages, University of Massachusetts Press, hardcover (October 1981) (ISBN 978-0870231773, ISBN 0-87023-177-4), reprinted, Humanities Press Intl (August 1995), paperback (ISBN 978-0391038950, ISBN 0-391-03895-8).
 * Atkin, Albert (2006), "C.S. Peirce's Pragmatism" in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Eprint
 * Dewey, John (1916), "The Pragmatism of Peirce" in The Journal of Philosophy, Psychology, and Scientific Methods, v. 13, n. 26, December, 709–715. Google Books eprint, but much of p. 714 is missing. Reprinted or adapted in Peirce, C. S., Chance, Love, and Logic: Philosophical Essays, Morris Raphael Cohen, ed., 1923, still in print.
 * Fisch, Max, (1986), Peirce, Semeiotic, and Pragmatism, Ketner, Kenneth Laine, and Kloesel, Christian J. W., eds., Indiana University Press: catalog page, Bloomington, IN, 1986, 480 pages, cloth (ISBN 978-0-253-34317-8, ISBN 0-253-34317-8).
 * Hookway, Christopher (2000, 2003), Truth, Rationality, and Pragmatism: Themes from Peirce, Oxford University Press, USA, 328 pages, hardcover (ISBN 978-0198238362, ISBN 0-19-823836-3), new edition 2003: O.U.P. catalog page, 328 pages, paperback (ISBN 978-0199256587, ISBN 0-19-925658-6).
 * Lane, Robert (2007), "Peirce's Modal Shift: From Set Theory to Pragmaticism", Journal of the History of Philosophy, v. 45, n. 4, Oct. 2007.
 * Misak, Cheryl J. (1991), Truth and the End of Inquiry : A Peircean Account of Truth, Oxford University Press (catalog page), Oxford, UK; 2004 paperback 232 pages (ISBN 978-0-19-927059-0).
 * Nubiola, Jaime (1996), "C. S. Peirce: Pragmatism and Logicism", Philosophia Scientiae I/2, 121-130. Eprint.
 * Shook, John R., and Margolis, Joseph, eds. (2006), A Companion to Pragmatism, Blackwell (now Wiley), Malden, MA, 431 pages, hardcover (ISBN 978-1405116213, ISBN 1-4051-1621-8) Blackwell catalog page.
 * Skagestad, Peter (1981), The Road of Inquiry, Charles Peirce's Pragmatic Realism, Columbia University Press: catalog page, New York, NY, 261 pages, cloth (ISBN 0-231-05004-6)

title: Pragmaticism


text:
Apples to Apples

Apples to Apples is a party game originally published by Out of the Box Publishing Inc., and now by Mattel. Players start with a hand of seven "red apple" cards, which feature nouns. A player is selected to be the first judge, and that judge plays a "green apple" card, which features an adjective. The round is won by playing the "red apple" card that the judge determines to be the best match for the "green apple" card. The role of the judge rotates, and the number of rounds is determined by the number of players. The game is designed for four to ten players and played for 30–75 minutes.

Apples to Apples was chosen by Mensa International in 1999 as a "Mensa Select" prizewinner, an award given to five games each year. It was also named "Party Game of the Year" in the December 1999 issue of Games magazine and received the National Parenting Center's seal of approval in May 1999. The popularity of the game led to an increased interest in similar card-matching/answer-judging party games. On September 8, 2007, Out of the Box Publishing sold the rights for Apples to Apples to Mattel.

Game versions
The original boxed set contained:

 * One hundred eight green cards (green apples), each of which has an adjective printed on one side.
 * Three hundred twenty-four red cards (red apples), each of which has a noun printed on one side.
 * A tray for holding the cards.

Four expansion sets were available, adding 72 extra green apple cards and 216 additional red apple cards each. In 2002, Expansion Set 3 won the Origins Award for Best Card Game Expansion or Supplement of 2001. As of 2005[update], the original set and its expansions have been retired and replaced by a Party Box with the combined contents of the basic set and its first two expansions, and Party Box Expansion 1 set with the combined contents of the third and fourth expansions, and a Party Box Expansion 2, which contains new cards. Apples to Apples Junior, for ages nine and up, Apples to Apples Kids, for ages seven and up, and a variety of themed editions were also developed. Mattel has continued to update card sets and packaging and add themed editions.

Reception
In 2019, Apples to Apples was inducted into the Origins Award Hall of Fame.

Reviews

 * Family Games: The 100 Best
 * That's a Good Game: Games Like Apples to Apples

title: Apples to Apples


text:
Jesus (1979 film)

JESUS (also known as The Jesus Film) is a 1979 American Biblical drama film directed by Peter Sykes and John Krish, and produced by John Heyman. In Jesus, the life of Jesus Christ is depicted, primarily using the Gospel of Luke as the main basis for the story. A voice-over narration is featured sporadically throughout the film, providing background information on characters and events.

Shot on location in Israel, the film was financed primarily by Campus Crusade for Christ with a budget of $6 million, and was released without production or cast credits, as producer John Heyman declared that the creators of this picture were “simply being translators” of the New Testament's Gospel of Luke, “so nobody will know who produced or directed the film.” The end of the film states that the Good News Bible (Today's English Version) was used during filming, and instead of telling a parallel story or embellishing the Biblical account like other Biblical films, the filmmakers chose to adhere to the Gospel of Luke as closely as possible.

JESUS is often described as the most-watched motion picture of all time, in addition to being the most translated film of all time.

Plot
During the days of Emperor Augustus and King Herod the Great, Mary is visited by the angel Gabriel who tells her that she will give birth to Jesus, the Son of God. Later, Mary visits Elizabeth, the mother of John the Baptist, who tells her that she is the most blessed of women and that her child is blessed.

When the Romans hold a census, Mary travels with her husband Joseph to his hometown of Bethlehem to register. There, Jesus is born in a manger. A week later, Mary and Joseph travel to Jerusalem to present Jesus at the Temple. There, they are greeted by Simeon, who blesses Jesus as the Christ. At the age of twelve, Jesus becomes separated from his parents during a Passover trip to Jerusalem. When Mary asks about his whereabouts, Jesus tells them that he was in His Father's house. Years later, during the reign of Emperor Tiberius and King Herod Antipas, John the Baptist baptizes Jesus in the Jordan River and the Holy Spirit descends upon Jesus.

Jesus is subsequently tempted in the wilderness by Satan but withstands the Devil's trials. Travelling to Capernaum, Jesus recruits the disciples Peter, James, and John after helping them to find a large haul of fish. During his preaching ministry, Jesus resurrects the daughter of Jairus. Jesus then recruits twelve apostles from among His disciples including Matthew and Judas Iscariot. Jesus' followers also include several women including Mary Magdalene, Joanna, and Susanna.

The film covers several of Jesus' teachings and messages including the parable of the Pharisee and the tax collector, the Beatitudes, the Golden Rule, loving your enemy, and the Parable of the Sower. While visiting the home of the Pharisee Simon, a sinful woman anoints Jesus' feet, prompting Jesus to forgive her sins. Jesus and his disciples later travel across the Sea of Galilee where he calms the storm. At Gerasa, Jesus exorcises a demon-possessed man and the demons enter a herd of swine. At Bethsaida, Jesus feeds five thousand with five loaves and two pieces of fish. Later, Jesus and his disciples travel up a mountain where Jesus encounters the prophets Moses and Elijah and is transfigured.

As Jesus' preaching and healing ministry grows, he reaches out to the sinners and outcasts including prostitutes and tax collectors, earning the ire of the Pharisees and religious teachers. Jesus also befriends the tax collector Zaccheus, convincing him to repay people he has extorted. While preaching the Parable of the Good Samaritan, Jesus befriends a little girl and tells his disciples not to forbid the little children from coming to Him. Jesus draws the attention of the Pharisees, Jewish religious leaders, and Romans after he drives the merchants out of the Temple. In Jerusalem, Jesus teaches the Parable of the Tenants and to pay taxes to Caesar. At the Last Supper, Jesus warns his disciples of his impending betrayal and death. Judas conspires with the religious leaders to betray Jesus.

At the Garden of Gethsemane, Jesus is betrayed by Judas and captured by the Jewish authorities. Peter denies knowing Jesus three times before the cock crows. The following day, Jesus is condemned by the religious leaders. He is then brought before Pontius Pilate, who sends him to Herod. While Pilate exonerates Jesus of wrongdoing, the religious leaders and crowd demand Jesus' death. After being scourged, Jesus is forced to carry his cross through the streets. When he collapses from exhaustion, Simon of Cyrene is obliged to carry his cross. At Golgotha, Jesus is crucified besides two robbers, one of whom recognizes him as the Messiah. Following Jesus' death at noon, the sky is plunged into darkness and the curtain of the Temple is ripped through the middle. Joseph of Arimathea buries Jesus in a tomb. Jesus rises from the dead on the third day. Before ascending back to Heaven, Jesus tells his disciples that all power and authority has been given to Him and commands them to go and make disciples of all nations.

Development
Bill Bright, founder of the Campus Crusade for Christ, spent a lot of his early career in Los Angeles trying to convert Hollywood celebrities, and he aspired to make a compelling film about the life of Christ. In 1976, British Jewish producer John Heyman approached Bright to fund his Genesis Project to put the entire Bible on film and to obtain financing for his feature-length film on Jesus. After meeting Heyman, Bright asked then campus ministry director Paul Eshleman to consult with the filmmaker.

Eshleman was pleased with Heyman's short film on the first two chapters of the Gospel of Luke and convinced Bright to endorse the project despite objections from other Campus Crusade leaders who objected to a non-Christian making a film about the Bible. Most of the film's dialogue comes from Luke, which was chosen after Heyman sought advice from clergy and scholars. On his motivation about the Jesus film, Heyman said: "I believed the best-selling book in the world would sell a lot of 8-millimeter and 16-millimeter films." Instead of creating a parallel story for the film or embellishing the biblical account, as is the case with other biblical films such as The Ten Commandments or The Greatest Story Ever Told, the filmmakers chose to adhere as closely as possible to the Gospel of Luke.

After failing to canvass funding from Hollywood studios, the Jesus film would be financed primarily by Campus Crusade supporters Bunker and Caroline Hunt for a sum of $6 million. Almost every line spoken by Jesus in the film is quoted directly from the gospel of Luke, with over 450 leaders and scholars who had reassessed the script for biblical accuracy. Historical accuracy also was assured by implementing clothing, pottery and other props made with 1st century techniques to depict a 2,000-year-old Galilean culture.

Filming
Brian Deacon, a Shakespearean actor, was cast as Jesus for his "ethnically correct" olive complexion. In addition to 45 main actors, who were mainly Israelis, another 5,000 extras were involved in the filming. The filmmakers cast Yemenite Jews as background extras because, according to Eshleman, "their facial features have changed the least over 2,000 years." Filming began late November 1979 on location in Tiberias, Israel, which continued for 31 weeks throughout the country, including the cities of Tel Aviv and Jerusalem. During the production, Heyman revealed that the filmmakers "were required to re-film three days' work," because they "had shown eucalyptus trees in a variety of shots," when, "Eucalyptus trees were introduced to Palestine very much later".

Deacon grew his hair and beard during production, but Heyman had decided for Deacon to wear a wig, and as well as a prosthetic nose so that he had a Mediterranean look. Eshleman, who was on location during much of the principal photography, revealed in the DVD's audio commentary that Deacon was so committed to the film and its message that he read several Bible translations a day in order to make certain that he properly presented Christ's teachings. Because Deacon developed pneumonia during principal photography, doubles were used in certain scenes. Deacon's dialogue mostly comprises full-length passages of scripture, and he is scarcely depicted doing anything other than making miracles and uttering speeches.

Eshleman revealed that Niko Nitai (Simon Peter) became a believer during shooting. As for special effects, the film features puffs of smoke and transparent halos to indicate miracles and angel figures, and a hissing snake and a deep voiceover represent Satan. Heyman's original cut of the Jesus film ran for more than four hours. However, in consultation with Bright and Eshleman, he edited a shorter version for Campus Crusade. Just after filming, Heyman was not satisfied with the accent of the Israeli cast members and decided that they all should be dubbed over by English voice actors using the Received Pronunciation accent.

Release
Jesus was theatrically released by Warner Bros. in the United States in 330 venues principally in the South and West, which delineated a rare instance of a major studio releasing an "overtly religious picture". To promote the film, Eshleman worked with both evangelical and Catholic churches to arrange group trips and discounts. Four million viewers reportedly watched the Jesus film in late 1980–81. However, though popular with Christian audiences, it failed to attract mainstream viewers. It was not financially successful, and left John Heyman's Genesis Project US$4 million in debt.

In Australia, it was released on April 3, 1981; in Portugal on April 9, 1981; in Sweden on November 1, 1985; in Finland on March 14, 1986; in Hungary on 13 December 1990; and in Czechoslovakia in 1991. Nonetheless, the film has been presented in 229 nations, being screened in dozens of large cities to the smallest villages in a lot of different countries.

Lawsuit
Warner Bros. received backlash for distributing simultaneously with Monty Python's Life of Brian (1979), another studio release stigmatised by some religious leaders for its satirical characterisation of events surrounding Jesus Christ, although the studio considered the coinciding releases as "'something for everybody'". Yet the Jesus producers evaluated whether to take legal action against the studio for a conflict of interest.

Ratings and classifications
Despite scenes involving crucifixion and flagellation, Jesus received a G rating by the Motion Picture Association of America and, likewise in Australia, received the same classification from the Australian Classification Board. In the United Kingdom, however, it was granted a PG by the British Board of Film Classification for "mild violence and horror".

Later versions
To make the film more relevant for younger viewers, new footage for The Story of Jesus for Children was shot in 1999. Being less violent than the original, it was interwoven into an edit of the original film and released in 2000. In 2001, a new opening sequence depicting the creation of humans, the expulsion from Eden, Abraham's blocked sacrifice of his son, and the prophesies of Isaiah was filmed to show, as Paul Eshleman states in the audio commentary, how Jesus' life fits into the span of history. In 2002, a special edition of Jesus commemorating the September 11 attacks (83 minutes) was distributed in the VHS format. It contains introductions by New York City firefighters and police officers.
 * 1999-2002

An edited DVD edition was also packaged with JESUS: Fact or Fiction?, produced in 2003 by Inspirational Films. This features a section called the "Journey of Spiritual Discovery". Biblical scholars, historians, philosophers, authors, and ministers answer specific questions relating to God, Jesus, Christianity, the archaeological, scientific and historical accuracy of the Bible, and testimony from many Christians. Viewers can browse the numerous topics individually or they can watch the film and, when prompted by a "discovery glass" icon, can access relevant comments. Once finished, the viewer is returned to the scene they were watching.
 * 2003

The version was promoted to Muslims of Iraq during the hardships of the Iraqi War, where its website featured a banner advert that said "Send videocassettes of 'JESUS' to Iraq". The 2003 version premiered in a politically unstable and fundamentally Islamic region in northern Egypt. Documentarian Deep Sehgal filmed the screening as part of a six-month project.

To celebrate the 35th anniversary, a digitally remastered, high definition DVD and Blu-ray version was released in April 2014, with its 173,000 frames being retouched and re-colored. Featuring a new score by John Bisharat and Dolby Digital 5.1 sound, all voices were dubbed over by unknown British voice actors, though Brian Deacon reprised the voiceover for Jesus. With a runtime of 128 minutes, the remastered version includes several bonus featurettes: "The Making of The Jesus Film", "The Impact of the Jesus Film", and "Historical Notes".
 * 2014

On the remaster, The Jesus Film Project executive director Erick Schenkel states: "We believe this new remastered version will give audiences an accurate picture of who Jesus is and why individuals around the world have chosen to follow Him, shown with production values they have come to expect."

Reception
While praising its "meticulous attention to authenticity", critics maligned Jesus for being "painfully monotonous" and "little more than an illustrated gospel, with nothing in the way of historical and social context." The Los Angeles Times called it a "...dull Sunday-School treatment of the life of Christ, meticulously but unimaginatively culled from Luke 3-24."

Despite Bright's endorsement, Heyman's relationship with his former Campus Crusade collaborators deteriorated due to his perception that the latter overlooked his contributions. Heyman also objected to Campus Crusade making multiple different versions. When Campus Crusade produced The Story of Jesus for Children, which included new footage, Heyman sued Crusade on the grounds that the new version damaged his reputation. Though the dispute was settled by the parties out of court, relations between Heyman and Campus Crusade remained poor.

Regarding the foreign reception, Seghal said "The events we witnessed were often bewildering," he says. "But what struck us most was the utter normality of those who were willing to risk their lives for Christ." After the film's reels were sent to remote settlements in Africa, Asia and Latin America, they returned with reports of audiences being in tears during screening with others instantly converting. In Phaphamani, a small village in South Africa with no electricity, the film was screened on a projector which attracted over 350 people, who had probably never watched a motion picture in their life. According to distributor Brian Helstrom, "You could see them physically jump back at the sight of the serpent tempting Jesus. When soldiers whip Jesus, you could hear grown adults crying."

Statistics
Project leaders state that as of May 2020 it has been viewed over 8.1 billion times by over 4 billion people, making it overwhelmingly the most watched movie of all time. This claim, however, has detractors such as Evangelical leader Vinay Samuel, former executive director of the International Fellowship of Evangelical Mission Theologians, who claimed: "These numbers are, to say the least, not gathered in a social-scientific way", and "They have no way of knowing this". However, according to the Jesus Film Project, a research firm calculated the known viewings of the film from 1979 to 2015 as greater than 7.3 billion.

It is officially accredited by The Guinness Book of World Records as the "Most Translated Film" in history, having been translated and available for download in 1,977 languages as of May 2022, with many others in process.

Regarding the film's popularity, Schenkel said that foreigners and non-believers "saw Jesus speaking their language, they understood that Jesus saw them and loved them... And so we saw movements of people coming to Christ in every one of these people groups." Furthermore, he said, "[In t]hirty-five years, there have [been] 6 billion viewings of the film and over 200 million people have indicated they wanted to become followers of Jesus after seeing the film. So the reach is just more than we could have asked and it really has been a privilege to see how God has used this tool."

In agreement with his missionary agenda, Bright created the Jesus Video Project (JVP) in 1981, which not only spread Jesus to global evangelical activities, but also began on a goal to distribute a copy to every U.S. household. Based on the distribution rate by 2005, JVP did not expect to reach countrywide status until 2040 or later. As of August 2018, over 8 billion viewers were reported through in-person film showings, online platforms and apps, though these reports are likely vastly overinflated.

International versions
In 1980, Bright created the Jesus Film Project organization with the goal of accurately translating Jesus into other languages and showing them around the world. The first translation was done for the Tagalog-speaking people of the Philippines. One of the group's first projects, they ordered for the broadcast of a Hindi version in Indian television. The organization works with thousands of missionaries around the world to show the film, sometimes to audiences who have never seen a motion picture. The Mandarin Chinese version of the film is widely distributed in China by the government-linked China Christian Council's Amity Foundation in Nanjing, both on VCDs and DVD.

Distribution in the United States has included direct mail campaigns sponsored by churches to deliver a copy of the film to every address in select ZIP codes across the country, with more than 4.8 million copies sent to Ohio and Texas alone. In 2004, the organization made the film available for viewing on its website in over 300 languages. Both Jesus and The Story of Jesus for Children are available in DVD and VHS formats. Audio dramatizations in a number of languages are also available. It is the only film that has been dubbed into more than 1000 languages of the world. As of now, more than 1600 languages spoken all over the world have the Jesus film, including in all major international languages. Also in 2004, 300 employees at an office in Orlando, FL translated the film into languages such as Kwanyama, spoken in Angola and Namibia, and as well as the seven varieties of Quechua, a tongue of Quechua people in the Andes.

Regarding its worldwide spread and translations, Eshleman states, "People ask 'Why do you go to those far away places?' It's because those people haven't had a chance. That's all we want to do - to give them a chance to hear the message of Christ in an understandable language near where they live." John Meyer, one of the team members who has helped distributing and translating the film, has said, "I'm willing to lay down my life for Jesus, should it come to that," he told the documentary maker Sehgal. "So if there's a recording in a war-torn country, I'm more than willing to go. Or anywhere else, to be honest."

Incidentally, American aid workers in Afghanistan, who hadn't been working for the Jesus Film Project, were arrested by the Taliban in 2001 for screening the film to a family there. They were ultimately rescued by US Marines, and president George W. Bush welcomed them back to America, saying: "It's been an uplifting experience to talk to these courageous souls".

In the Philippines, the film is traditionally aired every Holy Week yearly (except in 2020 and in 2021, when the film was aired on GTV) on GMA Network, since it premiered on March 29, 2018 and is dubbed in Filipino, along with its children's counterpart, The Story of Jesus for Children.

title: Jesus (1979 film)


text:
Hammer DeRoburt

Hammer DeRoburt  (25 September 1922 – 15 July 1992) was the first President of the Republic of Nauru, and ruled the country for most of its first twenty years of independence.

Background and early career
DeRoburt was born in Nauru on 25 September 1922. He was the son of DeRoburt and Eidumunang; his maternal grandfather Daimon was the island's head chief from 1920 to 1930. He also had Banaban heritage, as his grandmother was from the island. DeRoburt was a member of the Iruwa tribe. He was raised in Boe District. After being educated on Nauru, he attended the Gordon Institute of Technology in Geelong, Australia. After returning to Nauru, he started working as a teacher.

During the Japanese occupation of Nauru he was deported to Truk by the Japanese, along with most of the Nauruan population. When he returned to Nauru in 1946 he started working at the Department of Education. He decided to stand in the first elections to the Local Government Council in 1951, and although he gained enough support to be nominated as a candidate in the Boe constituency, he was disqualified due to irregularities in his nomination. Local residents and European residents protested without success, whilst a petition to the 1953 Visiting Mission from the United Nations was also overlooked.

In 1955 elections he stood again in the Boe constituency and was elected to the Council. In 1956, the Council elected him the last Head Chief of Nauru.

Presidency of post-independence Nauru

DeRoburt led the country to independence on 31 January 1968 and was president for most of the period until 17 August 1989. In December 1976, younger politicians gained a majority and installed Bernard Dowiyogo as president, but DeRoburt returned to power in May 1978. He was also out of office for two short periods in September and December 1986.

In his final term, DeRoburt's government filed a case against Australia in the International Court of Justice for not rehabilitating mined-out areas of the island. His last public appearance was in the ICJ hearing in November 1991.

Personal
He was given an honorary knighthood by Queen Elizabeth II in 1982.

DeRoburt is credited with popularising Australian rules football to Nauru, which became the national sport.

He died in Melbourne in 1992 from diabetes mellitus. He was given a state funeral, and buried in Boe Cemetery.

title: Hammer DeRoburt


text:
Mandean

Mandean or Mandaean may refer to:

 * Mandaeism, a Gnostic religion
 * Mandaeans, the ethnoreligious group who follow the Gnostic religion
 * Mandean, the language family in West Africa known as the Mande languages

title: Mandean


text:
Harlem (disambiguation)

Harlem is a neighborhood in Upper Manhattan, New York City, United States.

Harlem also may refer to:

Other places in the United States

 * Harlem, Florida
 * Harlem, Georgia
 * Harlem, Illinois
 * Harlem, Montana
 * Harlem, Ohio
 * Harlem, Pennsylvania
 * Harlem River, a tidal strait east of Manhattan Island

Music

 * Harlem (band), an American garage rock band
 * Harlem Spartans, or Harlem, a British hip hop collective
 * Harlem (album), by Shawn Amos, 2011
 * Harlem (Ellington), a 1951 symphonic jazz composition
 * "Harlem" (New Politics song), 2013
 * "Harlem", a song by Bill Withers, 1971
 * "Harlem", a song by DJ Kay Slay from the 2004 album The Streetsweeper, Vol. 2

Other uses in arts and entertainment

 * Harlem (film), a 1943 Italian sports crime film
 * "Harlem" (poem), a 1951 poem by Langston Hughes
 * Harlem (TV series), a 2021 American comedy
 * Harlem: A Melodrama of Negro Life in Harlem, a 1929 play by Wallace Thurman and William Jourdan Rapp
 * Harlem, a one-issue publication by the Niggerati
 * "Harlem" (Street Level Hero)

People

 * Gro Harlem Brundtland (Gro Brundtland, born Gro Harlem, 1939), Norwegian former prime minister
 * Harlem Désir (born 1959), French politician
 * Harlem Yu (born), Taiwanese singer-songwriter

Other uses

 * Harlem (horse) (foaled 2012), a British racehorse
 * Club Harlem, a former nightclub in Atlantic City, New Jersey, United States of America

title: Harlem (disambiguation)


text:
Roast beef

Roast beef is a dish of beef that is roasted, generally served as the main dish of a meal. In the Anglosphere, roast beef is one of the meats often served at Sunday lunch or dinner. Yorkshire pudding is a standard side dish. Sliced roast beef is also sold as a cold cut, and used as a sandwich filling. Leftover roast beef may be minced and made into hash.

Roast beef is a characteristic national dish of England and holds cultural meaning for the English dating back to the 1731 ballad "The Roast Beef of Old England". The dish is so synonymous with England and its cooking methods from the 18th century that a French nickname for the English is "les Rosbifs".

Culinary arts
The beef on weck sandwich is a tradition in western New York dating back to the early 1800s. Roast beef is sometimes served with horseradish or horseradish sauce. In Denmark, it is mostly used in open sandwiches, called smørrebrød.

Roast beef sandwich
The roast beef sandwich commonly comprises bread, cold roast beef, lettuce, tomatoes, and mustard. Cheese, horseradish, fresh/powdered chili pepper, and red onion are sometimes added.

title: Roast beef