text:
Talk:Ghetto house

Definition
Hey pretty correct! I ll use this definition for my personal use. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 212.198.0.93 (talk) 09:43, 12 July 2003

Name
the more popular name for it would be juke music or juk. I live in Chicago by the way:)

not sure where the name came from but if i know that it came from house music hence: Jacking=Juking — Preceding unsigned comment added by 206.69.160.42 (talk) 11:45, 18 November 2005

 * Jukebox ? 惑乱 分からん 10:32, 4 August 2006 (UTC)

Footwork
Hey by the way I would not consider Swamp 81 a footwork-label. they only released the "footcrab" ep by addison groove aka headhunter. They used to be known as an ultra-deep dubstep label, releasing kryptic minds and the like. just because they bring out two footwork tracks it doesn't make them a footwork label. also since footwork has gained that much media attention in the last few months i would not consider it an untouched genre anymore. -- 93.128.7.49 (talk) 20:13, 14 January 2011 (UTC)

Pictures of Chicago
They seem a bit unnecessary to me. 128.243.236.10 (talk) 17:40, 14 November 2012 (UTC)

Juke/Footwork need their own article(s)
I would argue that Juke and Footwork need their own article(s), or that this article needs to be renamed. Juke/Footwork is starting to break into the mainstream and is almost never referred to as being a sub-genre of or part of Ghetto House. They definitely have their own defined sounds and should be documented accordingly. While I would argue that I have enough knowledge to contribute to such an article, I'm not an experienced enough wiki user to go about creating it. Is there anyone else who agrees? 82.21.164.134 (talk) 21:03, 27 September 2013 (UTC)
 * The way WP notability works, the J/F section here would have to have enough reliable sources to support its own article, and ghetto house is hurting enough for sources as it is. Let's focus on getting the information in this article actually sourced and reputable and before we talk about splitting them. czar  ♔  21:59, 27 September 2013 (UTC)

I agree with the first poster. The current Juke/Footwork scene is in no way connected to Ghetto House, and having it filed under that heading is thus incorrect. Now that the UK/Japan has latched onto Footwork, it needs to be represented as a proper genre. And i should know, i DJ/produce/run a Footwork/Juke record label :-) 82.40.141.76 (talk) 02:29, 6 January 2014 (UTC)

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Ghetto house vs. Gangsta house
Hi I appreciate your note that gangsta house and g house are different genres. But I am curious why you did not edit out g house altogether from being related to Chicago house. There are no cultural or etymology connections between the tech house variant and Chicago's ghetto house. Quintessential Ghetto House tracks like Jody Finch's "Jack Your Big Booty" date back to 1986, while g house is a new term that is not tied to anyone from that culture. Not that you were the one that added this information, but just letting you know that it goes deeper than your edit. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Ghostwhip (talk • contribs) 04:24, 19 April 2021 (UTC)

 * @, yeah, I'm also convinced it's two different genres. However, based on the history of edits, there already has been an arguing with edit war on the subject, and given that ghetto house is incorrectly called g-house in some sources. And because some of such disagreeing users could bring G-house back on day, I've decided as a compromise to leave it that way, clearly stating that it is a misnomer. So it goes deeper than your edit as well :) Solidest (talk) 10:00, 19 April 2021 (UTC)

 * @ 2 different genres? Seriously? If you do know as I have said before, it has kinda changed since it’s origins, but still adhere has the Hip Hop and House elements. Tech house is another example, so would you call what Tech house now is 2 different genres? or would you call it “D-Tech house” for “Deep Tech House”? StokenDank (talk) 14:37, 1 May 2021 (UTC)
 * The 2010s gangsta house has nothing to do with the 2010s ghetto house (that is almost just the same as 1990s one), these are completely different genres, that share different origins. If ghetto came after hip hop/electro scene and mostly exist on higher bpms with signature 4/4 line, then gangsta house rather came after deep tech fusion and sounding closer to Brazillian bass on lower bpms. Although gangsta house sometimes crosses with ghetto house - that's where confusion coming from (as well as from a long-existing erroneous article on wikipedia). But if you open the most popular sets of what is called g-house on youtube or wherever - they simply have nothing to do with the original ghetto house. But I also think that 'g-house' can be applied to both genres, even if it causes further misunderstanding. It's just already being used like this. But calling genres the same because they share the same origins (do you mean Chicago house? or hip hop elements that can be traced to 5+ house subgenres?) is just wrong. Unless you have a superficial understanding, and if it's so, just check ghetto house list vs. gangsta house list Solidest (talk) 15:34, 1 May 2021 (UTC)
 * If you type up G-House there is still videos that show older artists, it’s because, like Tech House, it comes up with the newer artists than the old ones. As I said too, the genre has changed over time. Tech House now sounds different to how it sounded 2 decades ago, as does Ghetto House. G-House still stands to me and with my recourses as a name for Ghetto House. I’m talking about both Chicago house and Hip Hop elements, I have came across some G-House artists which have that Chicago House sound, other times it’s less evident to other hits, but the Hip Hop elements are clearly there. G-House came in at 2015 and “Gangsta House” only came in around as of around 2019 which is later when it came around and the sound somewhat changed abit if you can hear from that timeline. There is a genre called ‘Funk carioca’, it’s a South American genre and ‘Sambass’ in could’ve came from there. But do you hear any origins from Tech House still being used or heard? If so how and where? Did it change in time? Btw, I have a good understanding, which is why I am telling you this here. If you would like an example, I can send one StokenDank (talk) 11:31, 16 May 2021 (UTC)

“G-House” discussion
I have tried to write on Solidest’s talk page but it got removed, so I’m going to write here. Ghostwhip here thinks G-House is ‘not the same genre’ I beg to differ, when the Tech House scene came around, it started in Detroit and later became distinctively different, and like Ghetto House, it changed over time, if Ghostwhip here can say ‘There are no sources of Chicago guys mentioning g house or gangster house.’… Okay Ghostwhip, show me the Detroit guys mentioning the ‘Deep Tech, D-Tech’? Genre if you have one. I do have sources here that do mention ‘G-House’ being ‘Ghetto House’ but again Ghostwhip had to remove it, because to my guess he thinks he’s playing “Mr. Right”. Why I say they are the same and why “G-House” is just another name for Ghetto House is because the genre takes on the same characteristics as Ghetto House does, “the "4-to-the-floor" kick drum or beat-skipping kick drums, along with Roland 808 and 909 synthesized tom-tom sounds, the use of analogue synths, and short, slightly dirty sounding (both sonically and lyrically) vocals samples, often repeated in various ways.”, as it is written,

Here are my sources:

1. https://www.insomniac.com/music/dr-fresch-bijou-bring-the-ghetto-house-vibes-on-revelation-for-insomniac-records/

2. https://kulturehub.com/julius-jetson-sanity-interview/

3. https://theelectrichawk.com/bijou-and-dr-fresch-get-back/

4. https://edm.com/music-releases/nukid-respect-prescription-records

5. https://www.internationaldjmag.com/sirus-hood.html

6. https://dancingastronaut.com/2018/05/ghastly-dr-fresch-join-forces-rise/

Number 1 & 6 says “Future Ghetto” and “Future Ghetto House” so it could also be another term. StokenDank (talk) 11:02, 16 May 2021 (UTC)

Response: why this appears as cultural appropriation
Stokendank by listing unreliable blog sources from the disconnected scene you are missing the point. People are also trying to remove "Chicago" from the introduction, which countless sources refer to here. Let me lay it on you. I have worked with ghetto house guys from Chicago over the years, I have cleared samples, I have released records with them, I am myself on a record with Parris Mitchell. I am closer to the scene than the unknown blog writers you are referencing. But you wouldn't know any of this because you are in a disconnected scene (really not trying to put myself into this, but you have forced my hand). Nobody in the ghetto house scene refers to their music as g house that I am aware of, and this seemed to be confirmed when I posted this publicly (e.g., DJ Flint "what the fu*k is gangter house"). And yet, yall think this is OK, and are trying to edit Chicago culture and the city itself out. Let me break down all the ways in which this wrong..

Why it is disconnected:

Stokendank main point is that g house and ghetto house take the same sonic characteristics, so let's start there. To everyone reading this I encourage you to listen to a ghetto house track on Dance Mania, or new ghetto house inspired music like Disco Nihilist, Vin Sol, etc and compare that to say Dr Fresch who he cites three times. How on earth does trappy-EDM festival-brostep-tech house stuff sound anything like ghetto house? But this is really the tip of the iceberg. Some of the documentaries listed here spell it out pretty well, for instance, 25 Year of Ghetto House: From Jack to Juke. Ghetto house is a cultural affair that goes beyond just the music. It is unlikely the g house producers Stokendank cites have ever known any jack/juke/footworkers, they probably don't even own a single Dance Mania record. Yes they--like everyone else--would be familiar with TR-909 sounds that are loaded by default into Ableton, but actually I am yet to hear a TR909 sound, and they probably don't know what an RZ-1 or DR660, DR880, etc is, let alone use said gear (shall I list tracks ghetto house tracks that used such machines?).

Meanwhile, outlets like Clone continue to sell a lot of ghetto house records, and certainly do not make the mistake of confusing the two terms as they understand the difference between appropriation and appreciation. In fact, there are lots of artists today that actually sound like ghetto house (e.g., DJ Haus, Disco Nihilist, DJ Boneyard, Vin Sol, Strip Steve, etc.,), unlike the g house music Stokendank cited. And yet, these newer artists that make that ghetto house sound today would typically say that their music is "ghetto house inspired," because they show respect for it. Just because there is a mainstream-industry dominant culture that uses the term "g house," does not mean it is connected, let alone the successor of ghetto house. As they are removing Chicago altogether from the introduction, I am not sure what the intentions are here.

Here's a direct quote from Dr Fresch from an interview that was cited here, who appears to be Stokendank main source as he cites him in three of his sources.

"Now, it’s called gangster house. Originally, it was called ghetto house, started with DJ Assault and some of the guys from the ’90s. It was faster, almost like juke. So, I heard DJ Assault when I was in high school in 2005."

For starters, DJ Assault is from Detroit and is a quintessential ghettotech artist that even DJ'd on Detroit's New Dance Show in the show's later days. As important as he is, he had nothing to do with the birth of ghetto house that happened years before he released his first record. In other words, the very guys that are causing this confusion are not well-educated on the matter. How are you going to cite these guys over authorities on the matter like Ray Barney, Waxmaster, etc., who lay out the process of branching off from house music some 20+ years ago and were involved in this process? Moreover, yall know there are still ghetto house producers producing this music in Chicago, what gives them the right to tell them what their music is called?

In another interview Dr Fresch lists his favourite eras as the blog house scene in 2008, and the grunge metal scene in 1994--which is interesting as 1994 was the time when ghetto house music really took off in Chicago. And yet, he is supposed to be the key authority and on this matter and the embodiment of what has become of ghetto house?

"Now it's called gangster house?" No, now there are terms like g house / gangster house that came out of the mainstream EDM scene, but ghetto house is still ghetto house, and remains underground and tied to Chicago culture as it has always been. Just because cultural appropriation has happened before does not mean it is OK and that it should continue. Even though I am probably a lot closer to Chicago culture than Stokendank is, I don't pretend I am in this culture, let alone attempt to usurp the culture for my own gains. There is a difference between music appreciation and appropriation and taking a culture into one's own without permission is the dictionary definition of cultural appropriation.

These g house guys can do their thing, and they should, they can even create their own wikipedia page, but should not conflate it, let alone usurp it, with the lineage of culture that branched off and developed from house independently before some of them were born. It didn't come from ghetto house just because a white suburban producer once listened to a ghettotech artist and incorrectly thought that was ghetto house. And just because there are hip-hop and house elements does not mean the two are interchangeable--again it ignores decades of cultural development that occurred in a separate community. Still, it is easy to see the misnomer, as other contributors have already mentioned. The scenes are clearly separate. Are you going to tell footwork producers who were raised on ghetto house that the umbrella term for what they do is now encompassed in something called g house which is dominated by white industry guys they have never heard of? Are you going to tell DJ Slugo that the music he is making today is called something else because a blogger from a completely separate festival scene in Arizona says so? I am not going to comment on Stokendank "d tech" example, cause I have never heard of that, I'll stick to what I know. But cultural appropriation, or what Derrick Carter referred to as "cultural smudging," happens all the time.

Definitions:

Here's where the term ghetto house come from, obviously these definitions can't be carried over to the g house artists Stokendank cites, for the same reasons why the term g house doesn't work as being from Chicago, which is probably why they are trying to edit Chicago out:

“it’s sorta like house music, but it’s more in the raw of what we see every day” – Waxmaster

“it was tracks by guys who lived in the ghetto, so they [the stores] would call in and say ‘give me some of those ghetto tracks.’” – Ray Barney

Current definition of Cultural Appropriation on Wikipedia: "Cultural appropriation is the adoption of an element or elements of one culture or identity by members of another culture or identity. This can be controversial when members of a dominant culture appropriate from minority cultures."

"Cultural appropriation refers to the taking of intellectual property, traditional knowledge, cultural expressions, or artifacts without permission."

The problem with citing blogs:

Blog writers are not experts and they are falling victim to reiterating this misnomer through its cyclical use. Are these blog writers Stokendank cited authorities on the matter? Have they written anything about this topic outside of the article or interview at hand? Do they have credentials? Gavin Mueller who I cited is a well-respected cultural studies professor, has peer-reviewed doi articles and whose name is cited often, e.g., on Wu Tang Clan Wikipedia. When not listing primary sources we can at least engage in some form of academic integrity. I believe the article Stokendank cites regarding Sirus Hood reflects this discussion. The artist never claimed to be g house directly, this was done by the writer of the music blog. This stuff happens all the time, and is further driven by the fact that g house appears as an abbreviation for ghetto house.

The Daft Punk example: Appropriation VS Appreciation:

Maybe we should revisit the Daft Punk / Dance Mania connection for the sake of historicization. Daft Punk's "Teachers," lists all their influences over a track that was inspired by Waxmaster's "Ghetto Shout Outs." They shouted out their influences or "teachers," which included DJ Deeon, Paul Johnson, DJ Milton, Waxmaster and other guys from Dance Mania on the track. This is fine because it is appreciation, not appropriation. Daft Punk never even referred to themselves as ghetto house, just influenced by it. See the difference? Even though they became mainstream and had the industry behind them they were able to engage with their influences in a respectful manner.

Overall, if it can be proven that ghetto house artists say that ghetto house is now called g house and came from ghetto house, then it is not appropriation. But that needs to be proved from an excerpt not from the dominant culture. As far as I can tell, it looks like appropriation until this can be achieved.

This is bigger than just a name. This is a synthetic editing of one culture into another. And yes, I realize this is likely too far gone to be fixed. But here it is for the record. The culture vultures have landed again.

Credible sources that back up what I am saying here:

1. Howard, Karen. "Equity in Music Education: Cultural Appropriation Versus Cultural Appreciation—Understanding the Difference." Sage https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0027432119892926?journalCode=mejc

2. Mueller, Gavin. "Ghettotech and Ghetto House." https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-1002256635 (peer reviewed / academic DOI, not a random EDM music blog, Mueller lists the distinct cultural differences between Detroit's Ghettotech and Chicago's Ghetto House.

3. "Ghetto Tracks: Ghetto House Documentary." https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xUJl5__NDkA&t=7s (Chock full of interviews / primary sources from ghetto house producers 1998, includes etymology link from Ray Barney)

4. "From Jack to Juke: 25 Years of Ghetto House" https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8ZEnF15fLNM (Primary sources illustrating the deeper cultural connections in the music, including dance, call and response, etc that is unique to Chicago). Note that this is newish and doesn't mention any of the artists you mentioned or the term g house, gangsta house, etc. If g house came from ghetto house, why wouldn't this be mentioned in a documentary that interviews 50+ authorities on the matter? Wouldn't g house already being establishing itself in the context of this release, rather than the development from ghetto house going in the exact opposite direction? — Preceding unsigned comment added by Ghostwhip (talk • contribs) 09:29, 18 May 2021 (UTC)

5. Cliff, Aimee. "Derrick Carter Speaks On The “Cultural Smudging” Of House Music." http://www.thefader.com/2014/12/24/derrick-carter-on-the-cultural-smudging-of-house

6. McDonnell, John. "Scene and heard: The Ghetto House Revival." https://www.theguardian.com/music/musicblog/2008/nov/03/scene-heard-ghetto-house-revival. (Provides background context of misuse of genre identification as it relates to ghetto house. In comparison to today's discussion, this doesn't seem as heated.)

Ghostwhip (talk) 01:59, 19 May 2021 (UTC)

 Cultural Appropriation

“Listing unreliable blog sources from the disconnected scene you are missing the point. People are also trying to remove "Chicago" from the introduction, which countless sources refer to here.” - Most if not all are sources from websites and articles with pages characterizing on about G-House and Ghetto House.

“I have worked with ghetto house guys from Chicago over the years, I have cleared samples, I have released records with them, I am myself on a record with Parris Mitchell. I am closer to the scene than the unknown blog writers you are referencing.“ - this here is not a source of material but “Original Research”.

“to be confirmed when I posted this publicly (e.g., DJ Flint "what the fu*k is gangter house")” - Do you have a source for this claim or is this original research too?

 Connection

Dance Mania closed in 1999, but yes it is still a good source, the thing is though is the sound of “Ghetto House” had changed over the years and “G-House” came up which mostly refers to “Ghetto House” setup and characteristics unlike “Bass House” and the now confused ‘in-between’ or interchangeable term “Gangsta House” which came later. An example like Brothers Dreamers - Dirty Killer (Original Mix)”, “Dr. Fresch & BIJOU - Get Back”, “Malaa - Fade” are great examples of G-House. Cajmere - It's Time for the Percolator is characteristically alike of that in time signature and beat format.

“How on earth does trappy-EDM festival-brostep-tech house stuff sound anything like ghetto house?” - Yes, it has some late trap music characteristics, Electronic Dance Music (EDM) is the overall genre of music when Ghetto House too is under and Hip Hop which is part of it’s origins which includes trap as a Hip Hop subgenre, Hip Hop is not only a genre of music but too a culture in itself, Brostep is hardly even a genre that’s in it and is barely listenable and not part of the characteristics of the genre because it is more Dubstep sounding but with a more higher sounding pitch, G-House and Ghetto House in this case have more a lower sounding pitch and Yes, the Tech House characteristics which have later crossed into the sound. “25 Year of Ghetto House: From Jack to Juke” is more referring to going from Chicago ‘Jackin House’ to then the genre ‘Juke House’, which is a subgenre of Ghetto House which most of the artists you are talking about have sources to “Juke House” and partially Ghetto House, but more Juke, besides Juke House does take up most of the Ghetto House article.

“Stokendank cites have ever known any jack/juke/footworkers” - because they’re subgenres of Ghetto House?

“they probably don't even own a single Dance Mania record.” - I see you have to disparage and quickly point a finger at someone, I have listened to Dance Mania records before but it sounds as if you like to point out I haven’t which gives you a further boost to boast about.

“In fact, there are lots of artists today that actually sound like ghetto house (e.g., DJ Haus, Disco Nihilist, DJ Boneyard, Vin Sol, Strip Steve, etc.,), unlike the g house music Stokendank cited.” - Prossibly they’re still working on the original wave of the genre perhaps and it would be good to source them too.

“And yet, these newer artists that make that ghetto house sound today would typically say that their music is "ghetto house inspired," because they show respect for it.” - True, I do have respect for the originators, but you’re sure too they’re not “Juke House” artists?

“Now, it’s called gangster house.” - I never said it was and it became a later interchangeable term that some got confused with “Bass House”

“Ghetto house, and remains underground and tied to Chicago culture as it has always been.” - It always has been and always will to you? Ofcourse it is in Chicago culture, but knowing that the Culture in Chicago has changed overtime as does the sound.

“Even though I am probably a lot closer to Chicago culture than Stokendank is” - again disparaging someone.

I like how you have to add references to quotes, like Daft Punk, even though these artists don’t play Ghetto House or G-House but you place them in anyway but I respect that.

Since most of the “Juke House” subgenre is mostly to what you are referring to, maybe it should have it’s own page with more artists there, after all it does sound like you’re here to more captivated in removing sources outright than checking to see how it could or couldn’t work out, after all somewhere down the line someone from Chicago could’ve thought “What can I do to make it sound… different” and it then fused with the sound of some tech house to create another wave for the Ghetto House genre after all the origins are the same, Electronic Dance Music (EDM) and Hip Hop, which another too add trap is a hip hop genre even though EDM trap split from it, Footwork later too had changed in sound but you didn’t get into that which I’m astounded because it had took on later the sound of trap snares and kicks.

Here’s a source you should look at Ghostwhip:

What Happened To Tech House? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=74wlkDluLN0

StokenDank (talk) 05:38, 18 July 2021 (UTC)

 Response to Response Cultural Appropriation  As I said, I realize this is an uphill battle, cultural appropriation will continue to happen. In my opinion this discussion speaks for itself and is pointless to respond to again. Congrats to Stokendank for upholding cultural appropriation, removing the history of Chicago from this distinct and entrenched cultural phenomenon, usurping this culture away from Chicago and Black people to feed a cultureless, white-washed industry, somehow dictated by blog writers that are not versed in cultural studies or the history of the music. The power dynamics between people with money, power and influence over those that are without it is clearly on display. It is one thing to do this unknowingly, but it is another to be hand-fed the academic discourse on the matter (see doi sources listed above) and go on to follow course regardless. For the record he/she/g house artist(?) is still yet to cite a single academic source or directly disprove that this is not cultural appropriation, claiming instead that it doesn't matter if people from Chicago approve of this hijacking. Now excuse me while I listen to Underground Resistance on repeat.Ghostwhip (talk) 20:27, 30 July 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Ghetto house


text:
Francolin

Francolins are birds in the tribe Gallini that traditionally have been placed in the genus Francolinus, but now commonly are divided into multiple genera.

As previously defined, they were paraphyletic as the genus Pternistis, which was previously included in Francolinus, is more closely related to Old World quails than it is to the other francolins. Beginning in 2004, various ornithologists have recommended that it would be clearer to use "spurfowl" for all members of the genus Pternistis and restrict the use of "francolin" to the other species presently or formerly classified in Francolinus. When Pternistis is excluded, the francolins form a monophyletic clade that is a sister group to a clade comprising the junglefowl (Gallus) and the bamboo partridges (Bambusicola); together, these clades compose the tribe Gallini.

Although formerly classified in the partridge subfamily Perdicinae, this classification is no longer supported, and they are now classified in the subfamily Pavoninae.

Francolins are terrestrial (though not flightless) birds that feed on insects, vegetable matter and seeds. Most of the members have a hooked upper beak, well-suited for digging at the bases of grass tussocks and rootballs. They have wide tails with fourteen rectrix feathers. Most species exhibit spurs on the tarsi.

Distribution
Of the approximately 17 extant species, the natural range of five (composing the genus Francolinus and Ortygornis) are restricted to Asia, while the remaining genera are restricted to Africa. Several species have been introduced to other parts of the world, notably Hawaii.

Twelve of the species which occur in Africa are found in the subcontinental region of southern Africa; of these, seven occur in varying proportions within the political boundaries of Namibia and Zambia. Six southern African francolins are considered endemic to the subcontinent, of which three are found in Namibia and Zambia (the Hartlaub's, red-billed and Orange River francolins.

The Cape spurfowl, endemic to the Cape Province of South Africa, occurs marginally in southern Namibia and southwestern Zambia. A fossil francolin, Francolinus capeki, has been described from Late Pliocene deposits of Hungary; the contemporary fossil galliforms "Francolinus" minor and ''"F." subfrancolinus are now placed in Palaeocryptonyx''.

Taxonomy
Until the early 1990s, major authorities placed all francolins in the genus Francolinus. In 1992 it was suggested that this treatment was problematic, and the francolins should be split into four genera: Francolinus for the Asian species, and the African species divided into Peliperdix, Scleroptila and Pternistis. The crested francolin and Nahan's francolin were considered possibly quite distinct, but still maintained in Peliperdix and Pternistis respectively. Based on further evidence, the crested francolin was moved to the monotypic genus Dendroperdix in 1998, and the Nahan's francolin was moved to Ptilopachus in 2006. Though some still maintain all these in Francolinus, the split into multiple genera is becoming more widespread. In 2021, two species in Francolinus (the grey and swamp francolins) along with the crested francolin were moved into the genus Ortygornis, while three species from Peliperdix (the coqui, white-throated, and Schlegel's francolins) were moved into the new genus Campocolinus. Pternistis was moved to the tribe Coturnicini and, as with Nahan's "francolin", is no longer considered a francolin.

When split, the English name "francolin" is generally restricted to the members of the genera Francolinus, Ortygornis, Campocolinus, Peliperdix and Scleroptila, while the name "spurfowl" is used for Pternistis ("spurfowl" is also used for Galloperdix of the Indian subcontinent). As the Nahan's "francolin" is related to the stone partridge rather than the true francolins and spurfowl, its name is sometimes modified to Nahan's partridge.

In addition to the major changes proposed at genus level, the species level taxonomy among several francolins/spurfowl is disputed. For example, the distribution of the Orange River francolin (Scleroptila levaillantoides) is highly disjunct, leading some authorities to split the northern taxa (from Kenya and northwards) into a separate species, the acacia/Archer's francolin (S. gutturalis, with subspecies lorti), while maintaining the southern taxa (from Angola and southwards) in the Orange River francolin. Most authorities treat the Elgon francolin (S. psilolaema elgonensis) as a subspecies of the moorland francolin,   but others have suggested it is a species (S. elgonensis), a subspecies of the Shelley's francolin, or even a hybrid between the moorland and red-winged francolins.

Species
With a paraphyletic classification, the genus Pternistis in the tribe Coturnicini is also considered a francolin; due to the resulting paraphyly, this classification is no longer supported and has been recommended against.
 * Peliperdix:
 * Latham's francolin, Peliperdix lathami
 * Ortygornis:
 * Crested francolin, Ortygornis sephaena
 * Grey francolin, Ortygornis pondicerianus
 * Swamp francolin, Ortygornis gularis
 * Francolinus:
 * Black francolin, Francolinus francolinus
 * Painted francolin, Francolinus pictus
 * Chinese francolin, Francolinus pintadeanus
 * Campocolinus:
 * Coqui francolin, Campocolinus coqui
 * White-throated francolin, Campocolinus albogularis
 * Schlegel's francolin, Campocolinus schlegelii
 * Scleroptila:
 * Ring-necked francolin, Scleroptila streptophora
 * Red-winged francolin, Scleroptila levaillantii
 * Finsch's francolin, Scleroptila finschi
 * Moorland francolin, Scleroptila psilolaema
 * Grey-winged francolin, Scleroptila afra
 * Orange River francolin, Scleroptila gutturalis
 * Shelley's francolin, Scleroptila shelleyi

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Francolin


text:
John W. McCormack

John William McCormack (December 21, 1891 – November 22, 1980) was an American politician from Boston, Massachusetts. McCormack served in the United States Army during World War I, and afterwards in the Massachusetts State Senate before winning election to the United States House of Representatives.

McCormack advanced through the leadership ranks to become majority leader before being chosen as the 45th speaker of the House. He served as speaker from 1962 until his 1971 retirement.

McCormack's congressional career was highlighted by his support for the New Deal measures undertaken to combat the Great Depression, U.S. involvement in World War II, and support for the Great Society programs of the 1960s, including civil rights, education, and health care for the elderly. A staunch anti-communist, McCormack supported U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War. His support for the war and the seniority system in Congress caused increasing numbers of younger members to challenge his leadership; McCormack survived a 1969 contest with Mo Udall for the Speakership. He did not run for reelection to his House seat in 1970, and retired to his home in Boston. He later resided at a Dedham nursing home, where he died in 1980.

At 42 years and 58 days, as of 2022 McCormack's service in the U.S. House ranks 18th in terms of uninterrupted time. He is the longest-serving member of the U.S. House in Massachusetts history.

Early life
McCormack was born in Boston on December 21, 1891. He was the son of Joseph H. McCormack, a hod carrier and native of Prince Edward Island, Canada, and his wife Mary Ellen (née O'Brien) McCormack of Boston (1861–1913). He said he was one of 12 children, several of whom died as children or young adults. In fact, Mary Ellen McCormack carried eight children to term, and six lived long enough to be counted in the census or included in other records. John McCormack's older siblings Patrick (d. 1911), Catherine (d. 1906), and James (d. 1906) died at ages 24, 19 and 17, respectively. His brother Edward ("Knocko") died in Boston in 1963 at age 67. McCormack's brother Donald died in Texas in 1966 at the age of 65. McCormack also had a half brother named Harry from his father's first marriage; Harry died on Prince Edward Island at age 18 in 1902.

McCormack said for most of his life that his father died when McCormack was 13; other sources indicate that his father actually left the family and moved to Waldoboro, Maine, where he worked in the local granite quarries. He died in 1929, and was buried in a pauper's grave at Waldoboro Rural Cemetery.

McCormack attended the John Andrew Grammar School through the eighth grade. He then left school to help support his family, initially working for $3 a week (about $95 in 2021) as an errand boy for a brokerage firm. McCormack and his brothers also managed a large newspaper delivery route for $11 a week (about $347 in 2021). He later left the brokerage for the office of attorney William T. Way, where he received a 50-cent a week increase. He began to study law with Way, passed the Massachusetts bar exam at age 21, and was admitted to the bar despite not having gone to high school or college. He was also an active member of the Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks.

Start of political career
As a young man, McCormack began his involvement in politics by making campaign speeches on behalf of local Democratic candidates. In May 1917, McCormack was elected to serve as a member of the Massachusetts Constitutional Convention, representing the 11th Suffolk District of the Massachusetts House of Representatives.

World War I
In June 1918, McCormack enlisted in the United States Army for World War I, and was initially posted to Camp Devens, Massachusetts, as a member of the 14th Company of the 151st Depot Brigade. After completing his initial training, McCormack was assigned to the Infantry Replacement Center at Camp Lee, Virginia, to receive officer training. McCormack advanced through the ranks from private to sergeant major, and was attending Officer Training School at Camp Lee when the Armistice occurred. He was discharged in late November, following the end of the war.

Continued political career
After the war McCormack practiced law and resumed his political career. He soon entered the state legislature, representing the 11th Suffolk District in the House from 1920 to 1922 and serving in the Senate from 1923 to 1926, including holding the leadership position of Democratic floor leader in 1925 and 1926. In 1926 he made an unsuccessful primary election run against incumbent Congressman James A. Gallivan. McCormack made a favorable impression in a losing cause, leaving him well positioned for a future race. He resumed practicing law, and built a successful career as a trial attorney, which enabled him to enjoy an income that reached $30,000 a year (approximately $400,000 in 2016).

McCormack was selected as a delegate to every state Democratic convention from 1920 until his retirement. In addition, he was a delegate to the Democratic National Conventions of 1932, 1940, 1944, and 1948.

Congressional career
McCormack's opportunity to run for Congress again came after Gallivan died in 1928. That November McCormack won both the special election to complete Gallivan's term in the U.S. House as well as the general election for a full term. He was reelected 20 times, initially from the 12th District, and from the re-numbered 9th after 1963. McCormack usually won reelection without difficulty, and he served in the House from November 6, 1928, to January 3, 1971 (the 70th to 91st Congresses). He did not run for reelection in 1970.

Early years in Congress
At the beginning of his House career, McCormack served on the Committee on Territories, In his second term, Speaker John Nance Garner appointed McCormack to the powerful Ways and Means Committee, and he served there until 1941.

McCormack maintained a consistently liberal voting record throughout his Congressional career, including support for the New Deal. In 1934, he served as chairman of the Special Committee on Un-American Activities, known as the McCormack-Dickstein Committee, which investigated Communist and Nazi propaganda and recruitment efforts in the United States prior to World War II.

Ascension to House leadership
When Sam Rayburn became Speaker in 1940, he backed McCormack for majority leader, a key factor in McCormack's victory over Clifton A. Woodrum. For the next 21 years, McCormack was the second-ranking Democrat in the House; he served as majority leader with Rayburn as Speaker when Democrats had the majority (1939–1947, 1951–1953, 1955–1961), and as minority whip with Rayburn as minority leader when the Republicans controlled the House (1947–1949, 1953–1955).

Always staunch in his opposition to both Communism and Fascism, he played a key role in extending the military draft, just before the attack on Pearl Harbor, when isolationist sentiment and opposition to U.S. involvement in World War II were still strong.

He was chairman of the Select Committee on Astronautics and Space Exploration in the 85th Congress (1957 to 1959). In that role, he introduced and secured passage of the bill that created the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).

McCormack voted in favor of the Civil Rights Act of 1957, and voted in favor of the initial House resolution for the Civil Rights Act of 1960 on March 24, 1960, but did not vote on the Senate amendment to the bill on April 21, 1960.

Speaker of the House

After Rayburn's death in November 1961, McCormack acted as Speaker until winning election to the post in early 1962; he served from January 1962 until retiring from the House in 1971. McCormack's nine years as Speaker were dominated by House passage of Great Society legislation during the administration of Lyndon B. Johnson, including laws to expand civil rights, access to public education, and health care for the elderly.

McCormack was the first Catholic to be elected Speaker, and some critics complained that his religion sometimes showed in his leadership qualities. As an example, during the 1961 debate on federal aid to schools, McCormack insisted that church schools should be included, and the bill died because of disagreement over this issue. In 1963, McCormack changed his position, and oversaw passage of an aid bill devoted primarily to public schools. The latter part of McCormack's tenure increasingly focused on the debate over the Vietnam War, which he supported. McCormack's demeanor changed during these years and he reminded some observers of a kindly elder relative attempting to provide wisdom and guidance to unruly younger family members. According to House members, McCormack's strength was his personal consideration of members, which inspired them to return his affection and sparked a desire to work with him. His weakness was that the seniority system created entrenched committee chairmen who wielded great power in the House, but could not be controlled by the Speaker. As Speaker, McCormack pursued a national agenda; he was proud of fighting for passage of farm bills, though he said he did not have "more than five flower pots in my whole district."

Between the assassination of President John F. Kennedy on November 22, 1963, and the swearing-in of Hubert Humphrey as Vice President on January 20, 1965, McCormack was first in the line of succession, thus he received Secret Service protection.

In January 1969, Arizona congressman Morris Udall attempted to unseat McCormack as Speaker. In 1970, the political attacks increased and several congressmen urged McCormack to step down because of his age. Jerome R. Waldie of California asked a party caucus to declare a lack of confidence in his leadership, which it refused to do. McCormack decided not to run for reelection to the House in early 1970, but kept his decision secret until he announced it publicly in May. McCormack was succeeded as Representative in 1971 by Louise Day Hicks, and as Speaker by Carl Albert.

Retirement and death
McCormack lived in retirement in Boston. He died of pneumonia in a Dedham nursing home on November 22, 1980. He was buried at Saint Joseph Cemetery in West Roxbury, Massachusetts.

Legacy
In 1983, the University of Massachusetts Boston established the John W. McCormack Institute of Public Affairs. In 1985, the university dedicated John W. McCormack Hall, which was named in McCormack's honor. In 2003, the McCormack Institute was expanded into a graduate school. In 2010, the school expanded its mission again, and it was renamed the McCormack Graduate School of Policy and Global Studies. The McCormack Graduate School's mission currently includes training in social justice, government accountability and transparency, and strengthening democratic institutions.

The John W. McCormack Post Office and Courthouse in Boston was built in the early 1930s, and was renamed in McCormack's honor. It was designated a Boston landmark by the city Landmarks Commission in 1998, and in 2011 it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

John W. McCormack Middle School in Dorchester was also named for him.

A Massachusetts state government office building at Ashburton Place in Boston is also named for McCormack.

Family
In 1920, McCormack married Marguerite Harriet Joyce (usually known as Harriet or M. Harriet); she was seven years older than McCormack and pursuing a career as an opera singer, a vocation she gave up after their wedding.

The McCormacks had no children.

While Congress was in session, they lived at the Washington Hotel.

Stories about McCormack's devotion to his wife became legendary; his friends and colleagues claimed that they always had dinner together, no matter how late McCormack worked, and that they never spent a night apart.

McCormack and his wife were devout Roman Catholics, and he was a Knight of Columbus; both were honored by the Vatican in recognition of their work on behalf of the church.

Harriet McCormack died at age 87 in December 1971, following a long hospitalization. For more than a year, McCormack had spent every night in an adjoining hospital room.

Edward J. McCormack Jr., the son of McCormack's brother Edward ("Knocko"), served as Massachusetts Attorney General from 1958 to 1963. He was an unsuccessful candidate for the Democratic nomination for United States Senator in 1962, and the unsuccessful Democratic nominee for Governor of Massachusetts in the 1966 election.

title: John W. McCormack


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Lake Maracaibo

Lake Maracaibo (Lago de Maracaibo) is a brackish lake located in northwestern Venezuela, between the states of Zulia, Trujillo, and Mérida. Hydrologically, it is a semi-enclosed bay off the coast of the Gulf of Venezuela. Lake Maracaibo is commonly considered a lake, though due to its current geological characteristics, it should not be considered as such. With a surface area of 13512 km2, it is the largest lake in South America and one of the oldest on Earth, having formed disputably as a lake 36 million years ago in the Andes Mountains.

The lake is connected to the Gulf of Venezuela to the north by a narrow spit. It is fed by numerous rivers, the biggest being the Catatumbo River. The fault in the northern section has collapsed and is rich in oil and gas resources. It is Venezuela's main oil producing area and an important fishing and agricultural producing area. Eutrophication caused by oil pollution is a major environmental problem facing the lagoon. The area around the lagoon is inhabited by a quarter of the country's population and is also the place with the most frequent lightning on earth. The famous Catatumbo lightning can illuminate nighttime navigation.

Geology
Lake Maracaibo is located within the eponymous basin and is one of the oldest lakes on earth. It was formed 36 million years ago when the faults collapsed when the Andes were uplifted in the late Eocene. In the geological history, sea water and fresh water have alternated many times, and have flooded the area. At the end of the last glacial period, the sea level rose, connecting Lake Maracaibo directly with the Atlantic Ocean, and the lighter fresh water floated on the heavier salt water, causing nutrients to be deposited on the bottom of the lake, resulting in the accumulation of more than a five kilometer thick deposit of sediment on the bedrock.

In the Pliocene, the depression of today's Lake Maracaibo reached what would be practically its current form. The numerous rivers that flow into the lake have been defining its banks, especially those that form the southern delta of the lake, where the Escalante, Catatumbo and Santa Ana rivers converge.

Lake Maracaibo is located in the Maracaibo lowland in the faulted basin between the Perija Mountains and the Merida Mountains of the Eastern Cordillera Mountains in northwestern Venezuela. The lake is in the shape of a vase. It is 210 kilometers long from north to south, 121 kilometers wide from east to west, covers an area of 13,512 square kilometers, the deepest is 35 meters, the shore length is about 1000 kilometers, and the volume is about 280 cubic kilometers. The largest river entering the lake, the Catatumbo River, enters the lake from west to east, providing 57% of the water entering the lake. In addition to the influence of the prevailing wind, the lake water circulates counterclockwise. There are also the Santa Ana River, Chama River, Motatán River, Escalante River, and about fifty other rivers which drain into it.

Lake Maracaibo is deep in the south and shallow in the north. The northern half of the lake, which looks like a bottleneck, is 55 kilometers long. The southeastern edge of the lake basin with a flat bottom is steep and the northwestern edge is gentle. It is slightly salty due to the influence of tides, and the overall salinity is between 1.5 and 3.8%. The Catatumbo River forms a bird-foot-shaped delta in the southwest of the lake basin, and the surface lake water in the delta has a salinity of only 0.13%. However, the intrusion of seawater from the mouth of the lake makes the salinity of the bottom lake water higher, reaching 0.2-0.3%. The north is connected with the Gulf of Venezuela, and the spit at the mouth of the lake extends for about 26 kilometers.

Climate
The annual average temperature of the lake area is 28 °C, the precipitation is more in the south and less in the north, and the average annual rainfall in the south is 1400 mm. The mountain wind from the Andes at night contacts the warm and humid air on the lake surface, forming an average of 297 mm per year. The meteorological phenomenon known as Catatumbo lightning takes place in southern part of the lake, characterized by a continuous series of lightnings that are almost continuous and silent. This makes Lake Maracaibo the place with the most frequent lightning on earth. There are about 233 lightning strikes per square kilometer in a year on average. The nocturnal thunderstorms occur on average about 297 days per year. At its peak in September, the lake area can experience up to 280 lightning strikes per hour, approximately 28 lightning strikes per minute, lasting up to 9 hours, and is capable of illuminating nighttime navigation.

History
The aboriginal Añú people who lived on the banks of the lake refer to it as Coquivacoa. The tribes of Wayuu, Caquetíos, and Quiriquires also lived in the area. When Italian navigator Amerigo Vespucci and Spanish explorer Alonso de Ojeda's fleet sailed here on August 24, 1499 (the first time Europeans entered this area), the stilt houses in which the Añú lived in reminded Vespucci of the Italian city of Venice, so he named the region Veneziola (Venezuela in Spanish), or "Little Venice". Spain made two attempts to establish settlements around the lake in 1529 and 1569, but it was not until 1574 that the city of Maracaibo was successfully established. The Privateer Henry Morgan raided settlements on the lake in the Spring of 1669 and defeated a Spanish squadron sent to intercept him. On July 24, 1823, Venezuela won the famous Battle of Lake Maracaibo on the lake during the Venezuelan War of Independence.

The original depth of the lake mouth, which was only more than 4 meters deep, was increased to 8 meters after dredging in the 1930s, and the 3-kilometer-long stone breakwater was further increased to 11 meters after its completion in 1957, allowing ocean-going tankers to enter the lake, At the same time, the northern part, which was originally fresh water, became brackish. The 8,678-meter General Rafael Urdaneta Bridge over the lake connecting Maracaibo and Santa Rita was completed in 1962.

Industry
Lake Maracaibo is rich in oil and gas resources and is known as the "oil lake". The first Spaniards who arrived used tar seeping from the lake to fill ship cracks. The Maracaibo oil field was discovered in 1914, the first oil well was constructed in 1917, and large-scale exploitation began in 1922. The oil fields are concentrated in the northeast and northwest of the lake, and the oil-producing layers are mainly Tertiary sandstone and Cretaceous limestone, with a hydrocarbon-bearing area of 1,300 square kilometers, mainly concentrated in the coastal waters 105 kilometers long and 32 kilometers wide in the east of the lake.

Maracaibo on the northwest coast is the capital of Zulia State, the second largest city in Venezuela and an important oil export port in the world. The lake area is also an important fishing and agricultural production area in Venezuela, supporting more than 20,000 fishermen, many of whom live in colorful traditional stilt houses built with iron sheets on the lake. The main crops on the south bank of the lake are bananas, peanuts, cocoa, coconut, sugar cane and coffee, the western shore of the lake developed dairy industry.

Lake Maracaibo and the Catatumbo River are the main traffic lines for the transportation of commodities in the nearby area, and the city of Maracaibo is the transshipment center of coffee produced in the Andes. The waterway can pass through large sea-going ships and oil tankers, exporting crude oil and agricultural and livestock products from the Andean mountains and lakes. The Lake District is home to a quarter of Venezuela's population, and with the influx of farmers from the nearby Andes, the population of the Lake District increased from about 300,000 in 1936 to over 3.62 million in 2007.

Nature
Lake Maracaibo possesses highly oxygenated waters which makes it rich in algae, and in turn fishes, making it very biologically diverse. It is home to clams, blue crabs, shrimps and other aquatic products, and is also home to two endangered aquatic mammals, the West Indian manatee and the Amazon river dolphin. About 145 species of fish inhabit the lake, including many endemic species such as the Maracaibo half-hooked catfish (Hypostomus maracaiboensis), the Maracaibo hairy catfish (Trichomycterus maracaiboensis), the Maracaibo Lake Lamont catfish (Lamontichthys maracaibero), Lake Maracaibo tetra (Bryconamericus motatanensis), and Maracaibo wolf anchovies (Lycengraulis limnichthys) living in surface waters.

The lake has been drilled about 14,000 times, and more than 15,000 miles of oil and gas pipelines criss-cross the lake floor, but most of these pipelines are half a century old, with oil leaking from many aging underwater pipes. Before the 1950s, the lake water could still be used directly for domestic use, but then due to the intrusion of tidal salt water caused by the widening of the lake mouth channel, the salinity of the northern lake area increased by about 1,000%, and the south also increased by 300-500%.

Contamination
In lakeside towns such as the city of Maracaibo, the lake water is contaminated with E. coli from feces, oil pollution, and eutrophication caused by agricultural sewage discharged into the lake, as well as domestic and industrial wastewater, resulting in the blooms of duckweed and green algae. The presence of large amounts of duckweed blocks the passage of sunlight, significantly affecting biological cycles, preventing the development of native algae and plant species. Additionally, duckweed residues accumulate at the bottom, generating a layer of organic elements that produces large amounts of ammonium, methane and other compounds whose saturation causes eutrophication of the waters.

In the spring of 2004, heavy rains fell in the Lake Maracaibo basin, causing a large influx of fresh water into the lake. This caused nutrients originally deposited on the bottom of the lake to float to the surface of the lake, which in turn allowed the duckweed to rapidly multiply and triggered a bloom that lasted for up to eight months. The blooms were noted in June to have covered 18% of the lake, and the local government had to begin spending about $2 million per month on cleanup work.

Numerous oil spills, at least partly attributed to deficient maintenance, and the indiscriminate discharge of sewage without prior treatment, have significantly deteriorated the water quality, to the point that in some parts of the Zulia area, the water presents levels of contamination that are very dangerous for health.

Within the existing polluting activities, the mining of mineral coal has started more recently, which further contaminates the basin with pollutants.

Likewise, the so-called cañadas, which are random drainage courses, drag large amounts of garbage from the human settlements that are in their path to the lake. In addition to this, residential waste such as plastic bags and bottles are also added. These pollutants all eventually get carried into the lake.

Islands
There are many islands in the lake. Some primarily consist of sedimentary rock, such as the Zapata, Pescadores, and San Carlos islands (which is geographically a peninsula), while others like Toad have tectonic origins. The majority of the islands are located in the area of the Tablazo Bay and forms the Almirante Padilla municipality. The islands of Burro, Providencia, Hijacal, Pájaros, and the artificial islands are located at the neck of the lake and belong to other municipalities.

Natural islands of Lake Maracaibo:

 * San Carlos Island (Peninsula)
 * Zapara Island
 * Toas Island
 * Providence Island (Venezuela)
 * Pescadores Island
 * Los Pájaros Island
 * Burro Island
 * Hicacal Island

Artificial islands of Lake Maracaibo:

 * Dorada Island - Residential complex in the Coquivacoa Parish of the city of Maracaibo.
 * La Salina Island - Island created for the filling of oil tankers in the city of Cabimas. The only island in the sack of the lake.

Bridge
The 8678 m long General Rafael Urdaneta Bridge connects the western and eastern coast of the lake together. It held the record for being the longest cable-stayed concrete bridge in the world at the time of its inauguration in 1962. Located in the southern part of the Strait of Maracaibo, it is a vehicles-only bridge that accommodates both directions of traffic, while its height allows for the passage of vessels up to 45 meters in height.

title: Lake Maracaibo


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Joseph W. Martin Jr.

Joseph William Martin Jr. (November 3, 1884 – March 6, 1968) was an American Republican politician who served as the 44th speaker of the United States House of Representatives from 1947 to 1949 and 1953 to 1955. He represented a House district centered on his hometown of North Attleborough, Massachusetts, from 1925 to 1967 and was the leader of House Republicans from 1939 until 1959, when he was ousted from leadership after the party's disastrous losses in the 1958 elections. He was the only Republican to serve as Speaker in a sixty-four year period from 1931 to 1995. He was a "compassionate conservative" who opposed the New Deal and supported the conservative coalition of Republicans and southern Democrats.

Early in his career, Martin worked as a newspaper editor and served in both houses of the Massachusetts General Court. He won election to the United States House of Representatives in 1924. He was elected House Minority Leader after the 1938 elections. He also served as Chairman of the Republican National Committee from 1940 to 1942 at the behest of Wendell Willkie, the 1940 Republican presidential nominee. Martin presided over five Republican National Conventions and frequently became involved in presidential politics. He urged General Douglas MacArthur to seek the 1952 Republican presidential nomination, and supporters of Robert A. Taft accused Martin of favoring Dwight D. Eisenhower in Martin's role as chairman of the contentious 1952 Republican National Convention. After Eisenhower won the 1952 election, Martin supported Eisenhower's internationalist foreign policy.

Martin lost his position as Republican leader after the party lost seats in the 1958 elections. He was succeeded by his more conservative deputy, Charles A. Halleck. Martin continued to serve in Congress until his defeat in the 1966 Republican primary by Margaret Heckler. Martin died in Hollywood, Florida, in 1968.

Martin was a Zionist who supported the recognition of the state of Israel.

Background
Joseph Martin was born in North Attleborough, Massachusetts, the son of Catherine (née Keating) and Joseph William Martin, a blacksmith. Keating was born in Ireland in 1862, immigrated from Dublin to New York City in 1878, and settled in Newark, New Jersey, where she met Martin Sr., and they married on July 2, 1882; because Martin was a Presbyterian, the union required a matrimonial dispensation, but because Martin Sr. was a Presbyterian, it was relatively easy to obtain. Martin Jr. graduated from North Attleborough High School, where he played shortstop on the school baseball team. He also played semi-professional ball in an intercity league, from which he earned ten dollars per game.

Career

Martin served in the Massachusetts House of Representatives (1912–1914), Massachusetts Senate (1914–1917) and the United States House of Representatives (1925–1967). He was a presidential elector in 1920.

Martin was the Chairman of the Republican National Committee from 1940 to 1942, having been recruited to that position by presidential nominee Wendell Willkie, whose nomination came as a complete surprise to political pro Martin. During the New Deal, he stood out as a major opponent of Franklin D. Roosevelt's policies and opposed his internationalist outlook on foreign affairs. However, he supported a few New Deal measures, such as the establishment of the minimum wage.

During the 1940 presidential campaign, Martin achieved a measure of notoriety as one-third of President Roosevelt's famous denunciation of "Martin, Barton and Fish." The other two were fellow GOP House members Bruce Fairchild Barton and Hamilton Fish III.

Martin won re-election in 1946 against the social justice activist Martha Sharp. During his campaign, he called the 41-year-old woman a "little girl".

After 1952, Martin joined the moderate wing of the Republican Party and supported Dwight D. Eisenhower's internationalist outlook (through support of foreign aid), endorsed federal aid for school construction, and backed Lyndon B. Johnson's Economic Opportunity Act of 1964.

In 1960, McGraw-Hill published My First Fifty Years in Politics, by Joe Martin as told to Robert J. Donovan, a lively and detailed account of Martin's role in American politics over half-a-century. Martin was the longtime publisher of The Evening Chronicle newspaper in North Attleborough. After his death it merged with a nearby rival and became The Sun Chronicle newspaper.

Leadership

Martin was elected House Minority Leader following Republican gains in the 1938 elections. He served as Speaker of the House of Representatives for two terms, separated in time: from 1947 to 1949, and from 1953 to 1955. The terms represented two Republican short-term majorities in the House, and Martin's two terms were bookended by Sam Rayburn, the Texas Democrat and mentor of Lyndon Johnson with whom Martin enjoyed a warm personal relationship.

Probably the most controversial moment of Martin's congressional career came in April 1951, when he read on the floor of Congress a letter he had received from General Douglas MacArthur, who was commanding US troops fighting in the Korean War. President Harry S Truman had decided on peace negotiations as the best way out of the grinding conflict. MacArthur's letter, written in response to one from Martin asking for the general's views on Truman's policy, was scathingly critical of the president.

Martin had hoped that disclosing the letter's contents would bolster MacArthur's case. Instead, it ignited a political firestorm and demands for his removal. Six days after Martin read the letter on the House floor, Truman dismissed MacArthur.

Despite the unintended outcome, Martin and MacArthur remained friends. Martin invited the general to deliver what became known popularly as the "Old Soldiers Never Die" speech before a joint meeting of Congress following his dismissal. In 1952, Martin urged MacArthur to seek the Republican presidential nomination. MacArthur, however, favored U.S. Senator Robert A. Taft, of Ohio, who lost the nomination to Willkie in 1940, to Dewey in 1948, and to Eisenhower in 1952. Eisenhower then defeated Governor Adlai E. Stevenson II of Illinois.

In his capacity as leader of the House Republicans, Martin presided over the Republican National Convention on five occasions between 1940 and 1956. In 1940, he was instrumental in the choice of Senate Minority Leader Charles L. McNary of Oregon as Wendell Willkie's running mate. Martin's most controversial role was at the 1952 Republican National Convention, when several of his rulings were seen as tilting the nomination to Eisenhower over Taft.

In preparation for the 1952 elections, Martin traveled to Hot Springs, Arkansas, for a regional Republican meeting called by the state party chairman Osro Cobb, a former member of the Arkansas House of Representatives, to unveil a potential strategy to make the party competitive in the American South. "We came away from the meeting more determined and better prepared to advance the two-party system in the South," recalled Cobb in his memoirs, as the Republicans won at the presidential level that year in Tennessee, Texas, Florida, and Virginia.

Martin was in the Speaker's chair presiding over the House on March 1, 1954, when four Puerto Rican independence activists opened fire on the House, wounding five Representatives. Martin declared the House in recess as he sought cover behind a marble pillar on the rostrum. Martin would be the last Republican to serve as Speaker of the House until the election of Newt Gingrich of Georgia 40 years later. Martin remained the leader of the House Republicans until 1958, when the party experienced heavy losses in that year's elections. In the aftermath, Martin was ousted from the leadership by his deputy, Charles A. Halleck.

Despite the defeat, Martin chose to remain as a backbench member of the House. Eight years later, in 1966, he was ousted from his seat in the Republican primary by a more liberal Republican, Margaret Heckler, who was 46 years his junior. He was also one of seven Speakers to serve more than one non-consecutive term and the second Republican to do so. Martin voted in favor of the Civil Rights Acts of 1957, 1960,  and 1964,  as well as the 24th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. Martin voted in favor of the House amendment to the Voting Rights Act of 1965 on July 9, 1965, but did not vote on the joint conference committee report on August 3, 1965. Martin voted in favor of the initial House resolution for the Civil Rights Act of 1968 on August 16, 1967, but voted against the Senate amendment to the bill on April 10, 1968.

A lifelong bachelor, Martin never married.

Martin died in Hollywood, Florida, on March 6, 1968.

Legacy

Today in his hometown of North Attleborough, the Joseph W. Martin Jr. Elementary School bears his name, as does the Joseph W. Martin Institute for Law and Society which houses his personal archives. The Martin Institute is located at Stonehill College in North Easton, Massachusetts.

In 2007, the North Attleborough High School Alumni Association established the Joseph W. Martin Jr. Distinguished Alumni Award to recognize the outstanding professional and civic achievements of the men and women who are former students of North Attleborough High School.

title: Joseph W. Martin Jr.


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Tip O'Neill

Thomas Phillip "Tip" O'Neill Jr. (December 9, 1912 – January 5, 1994) was an American Democratic Party politician from Massachusetts who served as the 47th speaker of the United States House of Representatives from 1977 to 1987, the third-longest tenure in history and the longest uninterrupted tenure. He represented northern Boston in the House from 1953 to 1987.

Born in North Cambridge, Massachusetts, O'Neill began campaigning at a young age by volunteering for Al Smith's campaign in the 1928 presidential election. After graduating from Boston College, he won election to the Massachusetts House of Representatives, where he became a strong advocate of Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal policies. He became Speaker of the Massachusetts House in 1949 and won election to the United States House of Representatives in 1952 to succeed John F. Kennedy.

In the U.S. House, O'Neill became a protégé of fellow Boston Representative John William McCormack. O'Neill broke with President Lyndon B. Johnson on the Vietnam War in 1967 and called for Richard Nixon's resignation in light of the Watergate scandal. He quickly moved up the leadership ranks in the 1970s, becoming House Majority Whip in 1971, House Majority Leader in 1973, and Speaker of the House in 1977. With the election of President Jimmy Carter, O'Neill hoped to establish a universal health care system and a guaranteed jobs program. However, relations between Carter and Congress deteriorated, and Carter lost re-election in the 1980 presidential election to Ronald Reagan, a conservative Republican. O'Neill became a leading opponent of President Reagan's conservative domestic policies, but O'Neill and Reagan found common ground in foreign policy, fostering the Anglo-Irish Agreement and implementing the Reagan Doctrine (despite considerable opposition to Reagan's support for the Contras in Nicaragua) in the Soviet–Afghan War.

O'Neill retired from Congress in 1987 but remained active in public life. He published a best-selling autobiography and appeared in several commercials and other media. He died of cardiac arrest in 1994.

Early life and education
O'Neill was the third of three children born to Thomas Phillip O'Neill and Rose Ann (née Tolan) O'Neill in the Irish middle-class area of North Cambridge, Massachusetts, known at the time as "Old Dublin." His mother died when he was nine months old, and he was raised largely by a French-Canadian housekeeper until his father remarried when he was eight. O'Neill Sr. started out as a bricklayer, and later won a seat on the Cambridge City Council and was appointed Superintendent of Sewers. During his childhood, O'Neill received the nickname "Tip" after the Canadian baseball player James "Tip" O'Neill. He was educated in Roman Catholic schools, graduating in 1931 from the now defunct St. John High School in Cambridge, where he was captain of the basketball team; he was a lifelong parishioner at the school's affiliated parish church St. John the Evangelist Church. From there he went to Boston College, from which he graduated in 1936.

Entry into politics
O'Neill first became active in politics at 15, campaigning for Al Smith in his 1928 presidential campaign. Four years later, he helped campaign for Franklin D. Roosevelt. As a senior at Boston College, O'Neill ran for a seat on the Cambridge City Council, but lost; his first race and only electoral defeat. The campaign taught him the lesson that became his best-known quote: "All politics is local."

After graduating in 1936, O'Neill was elected at the age of 24 to the Massachusetts House of Representatives, aided by tough economic times among his constituents; the experience made him a strong advocate of the New Deal policies of Roosevelt, which were just then coming to an end. His biographer John Aloysius Farrell said his background in Depression-era working-class Boston, and his interpretation of his Catholic faith, led O'Neill to view the role of government as intervening to cure social ailments. O'Neill was "an absolute, unrepentant, unreconstructed New Deal Democrat," Farrell wrote.

In 1949, he became the first Democratic Speaker of the Massachusetts House of Representatives in its history. He remained in that post until 1952, when he ran for the United States House of Representatives from his home district.

U.S. House of Representatives

O'Neill was elected to the congressional seat vacated by Senator-elect John F. Kennedy in 1952. He would be reelected 16 more times, never facing serious opposition. His district, centered around the northern half of Boston, was originally numbered as the 11th District, but became the 8th District in 1963.

During his second term in the House, O'Neill was selected to the House Rules Committee where he proved a crucial asset for the Democratic leadership, particularly his mentor, fellow Boston congressman and later Speaker, John William McCormack. O'Neill voted in favor of the Civil Rights Acts of 1957, 1960,  1964,  and 1968,  as well as the 24th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. O'Neill voted against the Alaska Statehood Act but in favor of the Hawaii Admission Act.

After wrestling with the issues surrounding the Vietnam War, in 1967 O'Neill broke with President Lyndon B. Johnson and came out in opposition to America's involvement. O'Neill wrote in his autobiography that he also became convinced that the conflict in Vietnam was a civil war and that US involvement was morally wrong. While the decision cost O'Neill some support among older voters in his home district, he benefited from new support among students and faculty members at the many colleges and universities there. In the House of Representatives itself, O'Neill picked up the trust and support of younger House members who shared his antiwar views, and they became important friends who contributed to O'Neill's rise through the ranks in the House.

In 1971, O'Neill was appointed Majority Whip in the House, the number three position for the Democratic Party in the House. Two years later, in 1973, he was elected House Majority Leader, following the disappearance of a small plane carrying Majority Leader Hale Boggs and Congressman Nick Begich in Alaska. As Majority Leader, O'Neill was the most prominent Democrat in the House to call for the impeachment of President Richard M. Nixon in light of the Watergate scandal.

Speaker of the House

As a result of the Tongsun Park influence-peddling scandal, House Speaker Carl Albert retired from Congress and O'Neill was elected speaker in 1977, the same year that Jimmy Carter became president.

Nursing home scandal
Tongsun Park had not directly paid O'Neill, although Park's parties in his honor and a new scandal involving a nursing home in which O'Neill had invested $5,000 as a small-business loan in violation of federal law raised questions of impropriety, but did not prevent his reelection.

Carter administration
With substantial majorities in both houses of Congress and control of the White House, O'Neill hoped that Democrats would be able to implement their legislation, including universal health care and guaranteed jobs programs. However, the Democrats lacked party discipline, and while the Carter administration and O'Neill started out strong with the passage of ethics and energy packages in 1977, there were major stumbles. Troubles began with Carter's threats to veto a water-projects bill, a pet project of many members of Congress. O'Neill and other Democratic leaders were also upset by Carter's appointments of a number of his fellow Georgians, whom O'Neill considered arrogant and parochial, to federal offices and White House staff.

O'Neill was also dismayed by Carter's frugal behavior in cutting executive staff and reducing the scale of White House entertainment. Carter even ended the practice of serving hard liquor at the White House to guests as a cost cutting measure. As Carter's term began in early 1977, Democratic leaders on Capitol Hill were invited to the White House for a breakfast where Carter served them sugar cookies and coffee. O'Neill, a man of expansive appetite expecting the traditional eggs and sausage, said, "Mr. President... you know, we won the election." Carter was a reform-minded executive who often clashed with O'Neill on legislation. O'Neill wanted to reward loyal Democrats with projects at a time when Carter wanted to reduce government spending. A continually weakening economy and the Iran hostage crisis made prospects bleak for Carter and the Democrats in the 1980 congressional and presidential elections.

Reagan administration
O'Neill was a leading opponent of the Reagan administration's domestic and defense policies. Following the 1980 election, with the U.S. Senate controlled by Republicans, O'Neill became the leader of the congressional opposition. O'Neill even went as far as calling Ronald Reagan "the most ignorant man who had ever occupied the White House," "Herbert Hoover with a smile" and "a cheerleader for selfishness." He also said that Reagan's policies meant that his presidency was "one big Christmas party for the rich." Privately, O'Neill and Reagan were always on cordial terms, or, as Reagan wrote in his memoirs, they were friends "after 6 p.m.". In that same memoir, when questioned by Reagan regarding a personal attack against the president that had made the paper, O'Neill explained that "before 6 p.m. it's all politics". Reagan once compared O'Neill to the classic arcade game Pac-Man in a speech, saying that he was "a round thing that gobbles up money." He also once joked he had received a valentine card from O'Neill: "I knew it was from Tip, because the heart was bleeding."

However, O'Neill gave tacit approval to Democratic congressman Charlie Wilson to implement the Reagan Doctrine in the Soviet-Afghan war. Wilson's position on the appropriations committees, and his close relations with CIA officer Gust Avrakotos, allowed him to steer billions of dollars to the Mujahideen through the CIA and Zia ul-Haq's ISI.

There was some contention about constitutional order of succession, which involved O'Neill, when Reagan was shot in March 1981. Secretary of State Alexander Haig famously said that he was "in control here" in response to a question as to who was in charge (with the president under anesthesia and Vice President George Bush traveling), but it was later pointed out that O'Neill was next in line after Bush. Reagan was only unconscious for a few hours, and no formal invocation of the line of succession took place.

Northern Ireland
One of O'Neill's accomplishments as speaker involved Northern Ireland. O'Neill worked with fellow Irish-American politicians New York governor Hugh Carey, Senator Edward Kennedy, and Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan to craft a peace accord between the warring factions. Beginning with the "Saint Patrick's Day declaration" in 1977, denouncing violence in Northern Ireland and culminating with the Irish aid package upon the signing of the Anglo-Irish Agreement in 1985, the "Four Horsemen", as they were called, convinced both Carter and Reagan to press the British government on the subject. In 1981, O'Neill also created the Friends of Ireland with Kennedy and Moynihan, an organization to promote peace in Northern Ireland.

O'Neill was made an honorary Irish citizen (an honor granting legally full citizenship) by the Republic of Ireland in 1986.

Post-speakership

After retiring from Congress in 1987, O'Neill published his autobiography, Man of the House. Though it had a mixed reception by critics it became a national best-seller. The book also helped turn him into a national icon, and O'Neill starred in a number of commercials, including those for Trump Shuttle, Commodore Computers, Quality International Budget Hotels and for Miller Lite, in which he appeared with Bob Uecker. Critics, however, noted some inaccuracies with his book such as his views of the Grenada invasion conflicting with his public opinions of the time, David Powers questioning that John F. Kennedy's aide Kenneth O'Donnell allegedly heard more shots during his assassination in a conversation with O'Neill, and Senator Barbara Mikulski saying that "Tip has his memoirs mixed up," regarding opposition towards O'Neill endorsing Geraldine Ferraro in the 1984 vice presidential election. In 1987, O'Neill received the Freedom Medal.

On November 18, 1991, O'Neill was presented with the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President George H. W. Bush.

In retirement, O'Neill, who suffered from colon cancer, made public service advertisements about cancer in which he joined athletes and movie stars in talking candidly about having the disease.

In popular culture
O'Neill was referenced as an example of physical humor in the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "The Outrageous Okona" when a holographic comedian names O'Neill and posits that him wearing a dress would qualify as funny. This is the result of the android Data trying to gain a comprehension of comedy, a talent that he does not possess.

O'Neill's emergence as a cultural figure was not restricted to commercials. Four years before his retirement, he had a cameo role in the February 17, 1983, episode of Cheers entitled "No Contest," which featured him ducking into the bar to escape Diane Chambers, who had pestered him on the street about his political ideals. The show, which was ranked 60th in the Nielsen ratings at that time, jumped 20 places the following week. He appeared in an episode of the NBC sitcom Silver Spoons, which featured him delivering a mock press conference praising recurring character Freddy Lippincottleman's efforts on behalf of the homeless. O'Neill also made a brief appearance in the 1993 film Dave as himself, assessing the work of the fictional American president in the movie. He also voiced narration for a segment of the Ken Burns series Baseball in which O'Neill, a lifelong Red Sox fan, read The Boston Globe from the day the Red Sox won the 1918 World Series.

In the comic strip Shoe, the character Sen. Batson D. Belfry is modeled after O'Neill.

Personal life
O'Neill resided on 26 Russell Street in North Cambridge, although he had lived as a child around the corner on Orchard St. He had a vacation home on Woodland Rd. near Bank Street Beach in Harwich Port, Massachusetts. His wife was Mildred "Millie" Anne Miller (1914–2003). They had five children. His oldest son and namesake, Thomas P. O'Neill III, a former lieutenant governor of Massachusetts, works in public relations in Boston. Another son, Christopher, is a Washington lawyer. His third son, Michael, is deceased. Daughter Susan has a business in Washington, D.C., and the other daughter, Rosemary (died July 20, 2022) was a political officer for the State Department.

In 1980, O'Neill was awarded the Laetare Medal by the University of Notre Dame, considered the most prestigious award for American Catholics.

He is the grandfather of actor Thomas Philip O'Neill IV.

Death and legacy

O'Neill died from cardiac arrest at Brigham and Women's Hospital in Boston on January 5, 1994, at the age of 81. President Bill Clinton paid tribute to him, saying, "Tip O'Neill was the nation's most prominent, powerful and loyal champion of working people... He loved politics and government because he saw that politics and government could make a difference in people's lives. And he loved people most of all." Millie died in 2003 and is buried near her husband, at Mount Pleasant Cemetery in Harwich Port, Massachusetts.

The Thomas P. O'Neill Jr. Tunnel, built through downtown Boston as part of the Big Dig to carry Interstate 93 under Boston, was named after him. Other structures named after him include a House Office Building, the O'Neill Branch of the Cambridge Public Library (including an outdoor mural ), the Thomas P. O'Neill Jr. Federal Building in Boston, a federal office building in Washington, D.C., a golf course in Cambridge, and the main library (and the plaza in front of it) at his alma mater, Boston College.

On June 22, 2008, the play According to Tip debuted in Watertown, Massachusetts, produced by the New Repertory Theatre. The one-man biographical play, written by longtime Boston sportswriter Dick Flavin, features O'Neill telling stories of his life, from his childhood to after his retirement in politics. Tony Award winner Ken Howard played the title role in the premiere production.

In December 2012, the John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum hosted a forum to celebrate the centennial of O'Neill's birth. O'Neill himself contributed several oral history interviews to its archives chronicling his work for the Democratic party and friendship with President Kennedy.

title: Tip O'Neill


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Culture of Moldova

The culture of Moldova is unique and influenced by the Romanian origins of its majority population, as well as the Slavic and minority Gagauz populations. The traditional Latin origins of Romanian culture reach back to the 2nd century, the period of Roman colonization in Dacia.

During the centuries following the Roman withdrawal in 271, the population of the region was influenced by contact with the Byzantine Empire, Slavic peoples, Hungarian people, and later by the Ottoman Turks. Slavic migration into the region began in the 6th century and continued gradually through the early 19th century. A heavy Polish influence occurred from the 14th through 16th centuries, when the Principality of Moldova was connected to Poland by a trade route and was briefly a vassal of the Kingdom of Poland. Since the 18th century, several waves of Poles emigrated to the land which constitutes the majority of modern Moldova. Beginning in the 19th century, a strong Western European (particularly French) influence came to be evident in literature and the arts. The resulting melting pot has produced a rich cultural tradition. Although foreign contact was an inevitable consequence of the region's geographical location, their influence only served to enhance a vital and resilient popular culture. Despite the many foreign influences on Moldovan culture, the country's traditional Romanian roots remain strong.

The population of what once was the Principality of Moldavia (1359–1859) had come to identify itself widely as "Moldovan" by the 14th century, but continued to maintain close cultural links with other Romanian groups. After 1812, the eastern Moldovans, those inhabiting Bessarabia and Transnistria, were also influenced by Slavic culture during the periods of 1812–1917, and during 1940–1989 they were influenced by Russia.

The geographical area that is now modern Moldova was formed under the conditions of contacts with the East Slavic population, and later under the rule of the Ottoman Empire. In 1812, the territory of modern Moldova was liberated from Ottoman rule and incorporated into the Bessarabian province of the Russian Empire, which had a great influence on the development of the culture of the region. After the October Revolution in 1918, Romania annexed the nation for 22 years, and the Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was formed on the left bank of the Dniester, as a result of which culture developed under a stronger Russian influence under Soviet administrative control, as well as by ethnic Russian or Russian-speaking immigration.

By 1918, Bessarabia was one of the least developed, and least educated European regions of the Russian Empire. In 1930, Moldova's literacy rate was 40%, while Romania itself had a 38% literacy rate according to the 1930 Romanian census. Especially low was the literacy rate for women, less than 10% in 1918, to just under 50% in 1940. Although Soviet authorities promoted education, the region's cultural ties with Romania were slowly eroded due to administrative policies. With many ethnic Romanian intellectuals, either fleeing, being killed after 1940, or being deported both during and after World War II, Bessarabia's cultural and educational situation changed drastically and became more Russified.

After the 1960s, Soviet authorities developed urban cultural and scientific institutions that were subsequently filled with Russians, and diverse ethnic groups from across the Soviet Union. Much of the urban culture came from Moscow, while the primarily rural ethnic Romanian population was allowed to express itself in folklore and folk art.

Folk culture
Although the folk arts flourished, similarities with Romanian culture were hidden. Music and dance, particularly encouraged by Soviet authorities, were made into a showcase, but were subtly changed to hide their Romanian origins. For example, the national folk costume, in which the traditional Romanian moccasin (opinca) was replaced by the Russian boot.

Moldova's traditional folk culture is very rich. The ancient folk ballads, such as "Mioriţa" and "Meşterul Manole", play a central role in this traditional culture. Folk traditions, including ceramics and weaving, continue to be practiced in rural areas. The folk culture tradition is promoted at the national level and is represented by, among other groups, the folk choir, Doina.

Literary culture
The first books, religious texts, of the Principality of Moldavia appeared in the mid-17th century. Prominent figures in Moldavia's cultural development include Dosoftei, Grigore Ureche, Miron Costin, metropolitan of Kiev Petru Movilă, scholars Nicolae Milescu-Spãtaru, Dimitrie Cantemir (1673–1723), and Ion Neculce, Gavriil Bănulescu-Bodoni, Alexandru Donici, Constantin Stamati, Costache Negruzzi, historian and philologist Bogdan P. Hasdeu (1836–1907), author Ion Creangă (1837–1889), and poet Mihai Eminescu (1850–1889).

Varlaam published the first books. Dosoftei founded numerous schools and published a lot. Cantemir wrote the first thorough geographical, ethnographical, and economic description of Moldavia in Descriptio Moldaviae (Berlin, c. 1714).

Modern writers include Vladimir Beşleagă, Nicolae Dabija, Ion Druţă, Victor Teleucă,Victor Ciobanu and Grigore Vieru. In 1991, a total of 520 books were published in Moldova, of which 402 were in Romanian, 108 in Russian, eight in Gagauz, and two in Bulgarian.

In the early 1990s, Moldova had twelve professional theaters. All performed in Romanian, except the A.P. Chekhov Russian Drama Theater in Chişinău, and the Russian Drama and Comedy Theater in Tiraspol, both of which performed solely in Russian, and the Licurici Republic Puppet Theater, in Chişinău, which performed in both Romanian and Russian. Members of ethnic minorities manage a number of folklore groups and amateur theaters throughout the country.

Cuisine

Moldovan cuisine consists mainly of traditional European foods, such as beef, pork, potatoes, cabbage, cheese, and a variety of cereal grains. Popular alcoholic beverages are divin (Moldovan brandy), beer, and local wine.

Very popular dishes include manti (a type of dumpling filled with meat and vegetables, which is wrapped in a dough wrapper, and served with a spicy sour cream), ciorbă (a sour soup consisting of meat and vegetables, served with sauerkraut, polenta, or rice), pelmeni (another type of dumpling, filled with meat and onions, but sometimes mushrooms, turnips, and sauerkraut are added), borscht (made with beets, tomatoes, and other vegetables to form a stew), and sarma (a dish made with stuffed cabbage rolls, accompanied by sauerkraut and mămăligă).

Other common foods in Moldova include grilled meats, other grains, dairy products, and mămăligă (a type of polenta made with cornmeal, and mashed into a porridge).

title: Culture of Moldova