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Karađorđe

Đorđe Petrović  (Ђорђе Петровић; 14 November 1762 – 25 July 1817), known by the sobriquet Karađorđe (Карађорђе), was a Serbian revolutionary who led the struggle for his country's independence from the Ottoman Empire during the First Serbian Uprising. He held the title of Grand Vožd of Serbia from 15 February 1804 to 21 September 1813.

Born into an impoverished family in the Šumadija region of Ottoman Serbia, Karađorđe distinguished himself during the Austro-Turkish War of 1788–1791 as a member of the Serbian Free Corps, a militia of Habsburg and Ottoman Serbs, armed and trained by the Austrians. Fearing retribution following the Austrians' and Serb rebels' defeat in 1791, he and his family fled to the Austrian Empire, where they lived until 1794, when a general amnesty was declared. Karađorđe subsequently returned to Šumadija and became a livestock merchant. In 1796, the rogue governor of the Sanjak of Vidin, Osman Pazvantoğlu, invaded the Pashalik of Belgrade, and Karađorđe fought alongside the Ottomans to quash the incursion.

In early 1804, following a massacre of Serb chieftains by renegade Ottoman janissaries known as Dahis, the Serbs of the Pashalik rebelled. Karađorđe was unanimously elected to lead the uprising against the Dahis at an assembly of surviving chiefs in February 1804. Within six months, most of the Dahi leaders had been captured and executed by Karađorđe's forces, and by 1805, the final remnants of Dahi resistance had been crushed. Karađorđe and his followers demanded far-reaching autonomy, which Sultan Selim III interpreted as but the first step towards complete independence. Selim promptly declared jihad against the rebels and ordered an army to march into the Pashalik. The Ottomans suffered a string of defeats at the hands of Karađorđe's forces. By 1806, the rebels had captured all the major towns in the Pashalik, including Belgrade and Smederevo, and expelled their Muslim inhabitants. Burdened by the demands of the Russo-Turkish War of 1806–1812, Selim offered the Serbs extensive autonomy. However, Karađorđe refused in light of Russia's avowal to aid the rebels should they continue fighting.

Frequent infighting, together with Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812, weakened the rebels, and the Ottomans were able to reverse many of their gains. Karađorđe was forced to flee Serbia in October 1813 and Belgrade fell later that month, bringing the First Serbian Uprising to a close. He and his followers sought refuge in the Austrian Empire, but were arrested and detained. Despite Ottoman requests for extradition, the Austrians handed Karađorđe over to the Russians, who offered him refuge in Bessarabia. There, he joined the Greek secret society known as Filiki Eteria, which planned to launch a pan-Balkan uprising against the Ottomans. Karađorđe returned to Serbia in secret in July 1817, but was killed shortly thereafter by agents of Miloš Obrenović, a rival rebel leader, who was concerned that Karađorđe's reappearance would cause the Ottomans to renege on the concessions they had agreed to following the Second Serbian Uprising of 1815. Karađorđe is considered the founder of the House of Karađorđević, which ruled Serbia in several intervals during the 19th and 20th centuries. His murder resulted in a violent, decades-long feud between his descendants and those of Obrenović, with the Serbian throne changing hands several times.

Origins
Đorđe Petrović was born into an impoverished family in the village of Viševac, in the Šumadija region of Ottoman Serbia, on 14 November 1768. He was the oldest of his parents' five children. His father, Petar Jovanović, was a highwayman (or hajduk) in his youth, but had since become a peasant farmer. His mother, Marica ( Živković), was a homemaker. Petrović's surname was derived from his father's given name, in line with contemporary Serbian naming conventions. Like most of his contemporaries, Petrović was illiterate. His family celebrated the feast day of Saint Clement. They are said to have been descended from the Vasojevići tribe of Montenegro's Lim River valley. His ancestors are thought to have migrated from Montenegro to Šumadija in the late 1730s or early 1740s. Petrović's childhood was strenuous and difficult. His parents were forced to move around often in search of a livelihood. His father worked as a day labourer and servant for a sipahi (spahija), an Ottoman cavalryman. Petrović himself spent his adolescence working as a shepherd. In 1785, he married Jelena Jovanović, daughter of Nikola Jovanović, Obor-knez of Jasenica, whose family hailed from the village of Masloševo. The couple had seven children, six of whom reached adulthood.

Petrović worked for several landlords across Šumadija until 1787, when he and his family left the region and settled in the Austrian Empire, fearing persecution at the hands of the Ottoman janissaries. It is said that as they were preparing to cross the Danube into Austria, Petrović's father began to have second thoughts about leaving Šumadija. Knowing that the entire family would be put in jeopardy if his father stayed behind, Petrović either took his father's life or arranged for someone to kill him instead.

Early military exploits
Following the outbreak of the Austro-Turkish War of 1788–1791, Petrović joined the Serbian Free Corps (Serbische Freikorps), and took part in fighting the Ottomans in western Serbia. The Free Corps was a volunteer militia made up of both Ottoman and Habsburg Serbs that was armed and trained by the Austrians. It was led by a Habsburg Serb officer, Major Mihailo Mihaljević. Petrović's participation in the war brought him invaluable military experience, as well as insight into the Austrians' military techniques. He distinguished himself in combat and was decorated for bravery, reaching the rank of sergeant (Wachtmeister). In this capacity, he was given command over a squad of 25 men.

The Austrians and Serb rebels briefly succeeded in liberating a strip of land east and south of Belgrade, which in Serbian historiography came to be known as Koča's Frontier (Kočina Krajina), after one of the senior rebel leaders, Koča Anđelković. In 1791, the Austrians and Ottomans signed the Treaty of Sistova. The Austrians agreed to return all the territory that they and the Serbs had captured south of the Danube in exchange for minor territorial concessions in northern Bosnia, effectively abandoning the Serbs and leaving them to resist the Ottomans on their own. The rebels were crushed by 1792 and most of their leaders executed. Unwilling to surrender, Petrović became a hajduk and briefly fought the Ottomans as an outlaw. He and his family once again sought refuge in the Austrian Empire, this time finding sanctuary in the Krušedol Monastery, at the foot of Fruška Gora, where Petrović worked as a forester.

In 1793, Hadji Mustafa Pasha was appointed governor of the Pashalik of Belgrade. He declared a general amnesty for former rebels and announced that Muslims would no longer serve as tax-collectors in areas where Christians formed a majority of the population. These changes were part of a plan devised by Sultan Selim aimed at improving relations with the Pashalik's Christian population. Sensing that it was safe, Petrović returned to Šumadija in 1794, together with his family. He settled in Topola, where he became a livestock merchant and traded with the Austrians. His business dealings led him to establish connections with many Habsburg Serbs. In 1796, Osman Pazvantoğlu, the renegade governor of the Sanjak of Vidin, who had rejected the authority of the Sublime Porte, launched an invasion of the Pashalik of Belgrade. Overwhelmed, Mustafa Pasha formed a Serbian national militia to help stop the incursion. Petrović joined the militia and became a boluk-bashi (Buljukbaša), leading a company of 100 men.

In return for their service, the Serbs of the Pashalik were granted a number of privileges. They were allowed to bear arms and raise autonomous military units. After the Serb militias joined the war on Mustafa Pasha's side, Pazvantoğlu suffered a string of defeats. He retreated to Vidin, which was subsequently besieged. The war against Pazvantoğlu marked the first time that Petrović distinguished himself in the eyes of the Ottomans, who bestowed him with the sobriquet "Black George" (Karađorđe; Kara Yorgi), partly because of his dark hair and partly because of his sinister reputation. Karađorđe's service in the Serbian militia resulted in him becoming well acquainted with Ottoman military doctrine.

Revolt against the Dahis
In 1798, Napoleon invaded Egypt, forcing the Porte to redeploy thousands of regulars from the Balkans in order to resist the French. The janissaries in the Pashalik of Belgrade, known as Dahis (Dahije), who had been expelled from the region on Selim's orders nearly a decade earlier, were pardoned and allowed to return to Belgrade on the condition that they obey Mustafa Pasha. The détente between the aging governor and the Dahis did not last long. In 1801, Mustafa Pasha was killed by a Dahi assassin.

The power vacuum caused by Mustafa Pasha's murder resulted in a period of infighting between the Dahis that would last until 1802. By this time, four senior Dahi commanders emerged triumphant and agreed to share power within the Pashalik. The Serbs were stripped of the privileges that they had been granted under Mustafa Pasha. Dahi bands roamed the countryside, killing peasants, looting property and setting homes on fire. Thousands of villagers were displaced and forced to flee into the mountains, where over the next several years, the able-bodied men formed ad hoc guerrilla bands.

In mid-July 1803, Karađorđe obtained arms and munitions from Habsburg Serb merchants in Zemun. Later that month, he dispatched couriers through Šumadija calling for a meeting of Serbian notables to devise a strategy for resisting the Dahis. The flow of arms from the Austrian Empire into the Pashalik, combined with their inability to crush the guerrillas in the countryside, made the Dahi leadership increasingly uneasy. In January and February 1804, the Dahis launched a pre-emptive assault against the Pashalik's Serbian chieftains (known as knezovi, or "princes"), killing between 70 and 150 of them. The killings outraged the Serbian rayah, the Pashalik's tax-paying lower class. By this time, Karađorđe was a well known and well respected figure in Šumadija. He narrowly escaped being killed in the two-month massacre, which came to be known as the Slaughter of the Knezes (Seča knezova). Upon killing the chieftains, the Dahis impaled their severed heads on wooden stakes and put them on public display.

On Candlemas, 14 February 1804, the surviving chieftains assembled in the village of Orašac, near Aranđelovac, to decide on a course of action. They agreed to launch a rebellion against the Dahis and Karađorđe was elected without opposition to lead it. It is said that he twice refused to lead the uprising, arguing that his violent temper would make him unsuitable for the role. Karađorđe's initial refusal only reinforced the chieftains' convictions that he was the only suitable candidate, and eventually, he agreed to lead the rebels. This event marked the beginning of the First Serbian Uprising, the opening phase of what would come to be known as the Serbian Revolution.

By the start of the revolt, the Pashalik of Belgrade had a population of about 400,000, 10 percent of which was Muslim. Its Serb population was roughly 250,000. At first, the rebels numbered around 30,000 men. In this initial stage, they were joined by a significant amount of the Pashalik's Muslim population, whom the rebels dubbed the "Good Turks". Karađorđe and his followers appealed to Sultan Selim for assistance against the Dahis, who had since rejected the authority of the Porte. Austria sent weapons and supplies to the rebels, while Russia lobbied on their behalf, encouraging the Porte to grant the Serbs further autonomy following the Dahis' removal. In May, Selim ordered a 7,000-strong army under of the command of Bekir Pasha, the governor of Bosnia, to march into the Pashalik. The Serbs welcomed Bekir Pasha and his men as liberators, and the Dahis were soon defeated through the joint efforts of Bekir Pasha's army and the rebels. By late August, the most prominent Dahi leaders had been captured by Karađorđe's men, beheaded, and their severed heads sent to the Sultan as trophies.

The Dahis resisted for another year before they were completely defeated. Karađorđe and his followers then demanded that Serbia be granted autonomous status similar to that enjoyed by neighbouring Wallachia. Selim suspected that Karađorđe's demands for autonomy were but the first step towards complete independence. He responded by declaring a jihad against the rebels. Hafiz Pasha, the Ottoman governor of Niš, was then ordered to march into Šumadija and destroy Karađorđe's army.

Initial successes
The rebels first clashed with Ottoman regulars at the Battle of Ivankovac in August 1805, scoring a decisive victory. Belgrade was soon besieged by about 16,000 rebel fighters. The rebel leaders used anti-Muslim rhetoric to mobilize the peasantry, calling upon them to rise up and drive the Ottomans "across the blue sea". In order to further galvanize the population, Karađorđe appealed to memories of the Battle of Kosovo of June 1389, which paved the way for the Ottoman conquest of Serbia and the rest of the western Balkans, declaring that Serbia's defeat in the battle needed to be avenged. He sought to further cement his authority by harkening back to symbols of Medieval Serbia, such as the relics of Stefan the First-Crowned, and placing old heraldic symbols on flags and seals to establish continuity between the Serbian Empire and himself. Portraits of Dušan the Mighty, the founder of the Serbian Empire, are said to have hung from the walls of the rebels' headquarters.

Karađorđe was feared by enemies and allies alike because of his volatile temper. He considered executions to be the only way in which military infractions could be rectified, and according to the military historian Brendon A. Rehm, personally killed 125 people. In 1806, he ordered that his brother Marinko be hanged. According to one account, Marinko had been accused of raping a peasant girl. Another suggests that he had been attempting to seduce young women whose husbands were away at the front. Whatever the case, Karađorđe entertained senior rebel leaders in his home while his brother's lifeless body dangled from the front gate—a warning to others to refrain from the behaviour in which Marinko had been engaging. Muslims, combatants and non-combatants alike, were killed unremittingly, as illustrated in this contemporary account describing the capture of the village of Čučuge, near Ub, in April 1806:

"In their flight the Turks threw away their arms and clothing in order to run the better, but to no purpose. The Serbs caught up with them and killed them, some with swords, some with knives and some with daggers, while others had their brains beaten out with cudgels and staves. They say that over 2,800 Turks perished and only those got away who had good horses. When our army mustered again at the camp at Ub, I saw that many of our soldiers had blood-stained swords ... and their gun-butts also were smashed and broken; they were laden with every sort of spoil."

Serbs who neglected to join the uprising were brutalized in equal measure. Males who could not produce an adequate excuse for why they were not fighting were killed and their houses torched. While most of the rebels were Serbs, the Pashalik's Romani (Gypsy) residents, the majority of whom were Muslim, also fought on the rebel side. Some Albanians also pledged allegiance to Karađorđe and fought on his behalf.

In 1806, the rebels twice dispatched the diplomat Petar Ičko to Constantinople to negotiate with the Porte. The two parties eventually reached an understanding, which came to be known as Ičko's Peace, in which the Ottomans agreed to grant the rebels extensive autonomy. Due to the Balkans' poor communications and transport infrastructure, it took several months for news of the Porte's offer to reach the rebels. In August 1806, the rebels defeated the Ottomans at the Battle of Mišar. Later that month, they scored another victory at the Battle of Deligrad. Smederevo was captured in November and made the capital of Karađorđe's revolutionary state. Belgrade, with the exception of its imposing fortress, fell in early December. The outbreak of the Russo-Ottoman War that month, compounded by Russia's avowal to provide extensive materiel and financial support to the rebels should they continue fighting, convinced Karađorđe not to accept anything short of complete independence. He promptly refused to accept the terms of the agreement negotiated by Ičko.

In March 1807, Karađorđe issued a promise to Suleiman Pasha, the Governor of Belgrade, that he and his garrison would be granted safe passage if they vacated the city's besieged fortress. When Suleiman and his garrison emerged from the fortress, they were ambushed. Adult men were killed on the spot, women and girls were forcibly converted to Orthodox Christianity and made to marry their captors, and young children were placed in the care of Orthodox Christian families. One contemporary account suggests that as many as 3,000 non-Christians – mostly Muslims, but also Jews – were forced to convert to Orthodox Christianity. Jews that resisted conversion were either killed or expelled. Belgrade's mosques were either destroyed or turned into churches.

Losses mount
As the revolution progressed, rebel strength peaked at around 50,000 fighters. Despite their initial successes, the rebel leaders were seldom on good terms, and constant infighting plagued their camp. In the western part of the country, Jakov Nenadović was the principal figure. In the east, Milenko Stojković and Petar Dobrnjac held sway. The latter two opposed Karađorđe's attempts to create a centralized state, fearing that this would result in their own power being diminished. Others, such as Nenadović, complained that Karađorđe was becoming too authoritarian. Nenadović suggested that the rebels establish a central council to rein in Karađorđe's power and write a constitution based on the rule of law. Karađorđe balked at the possibility. "It's easy for this sovereign law of yours to rule in a warm room, behind this table", he responded, "but let us see tomorrow, when the Turks strike, who will meet them and beat them."

In May 1809, the rebels captured Sjenica. They repulsed an Ottoman attack on the village of Suvodol in early June, and seized Novi Pazar later that month, but failed to take its fortress. Minor clashes also took place in the north of Kosovo. Lacking numbers and adequate military training, the rebels failed to establish a corridor to Montenegro and gain access to the Adriatic Sea, which Karađorđe had described as one of his key aims. The rebels experienced further setbacks in Niš, where 3,000 were surrounded at Čegar Hill in May–June 1809. Knowing that he and his men would be impaled if captured, rebel commander Stevan Sinđelić fired at his entrenchment's gun powder magazine, setting off a massive explosion that killed him and everyone else in the vicinity. On the site of the battle, the Ottoman commander Hurshid Pasha built a stone tower with the skulls of Sinđelić and his fighters embedded in its walls as a warning to others who wished to rebel.

The fall of Čegar allowed the Ottomans to establish a land corridor extending along the Morava River valley from Niš to the Danube. Their advance was brought to a halt after the Russians crossed the Danube in September 1809 and attacked the Ottomans in northern Bulgaria, offering the rebels temporary respite. The rebels soon recaptured all the land they had lost but were exhausted by the fighting. Henceforth, they were continuously on the defensive. The rebel leaders quarrelled amongst themselves, blaming each other for the recent defeats. Karađorđe blamed the Russians for not intervening earlier on the rebels' behalf. He subsequently wrote Napoleon seeking military assistance, and in 1810, dispatched an emissary to France. Nothing came of these requests, as the French did not believe that the rebels had the military capacity to dislodge the Ottomans from the Balkans. As his battlefield setbacks mounted, Karađorđe's behaviour became more volatile. In late 1809, he shot and wounded one of his commanders, Petar Jokić (1770-1852), for making a poor military decision in the vicinity of Ćuprija.

In 1810, Dobrnjac mutinied against Karađorđe and nearly succeeded in dislodging him. He was joined in his revolt by Milenko Stojković. In June 1810, Russian troops entered Serbia for a second time, distributing weapons and supplies to Karađorđe and his followers. Field Marshal Mikhail Kutuzov took part in planning joint actions against both the Ottomans and the mutineers. By the following year, Dobrnjac and Stojković were defeated. Karađorđe attempted to placate the mutineers. In January 1811, he established the People's Governing Council (Praviteljstvujušči Sovjet), a cabinet consisting of members who supported Karađorđe as well as those who opposed him. It consisted of twelve members, one for each of the nahije (districts) of rebel Serbia. Karađorđe appointed Stojković as the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Nenadović as the Minister of the Interior, and Dobrnjac as the Minister of Justice. Also inducted into Karađorđe's cabinet were Mladen Milovanović, as the Minister of War; Dositej Obradović, as the Minister of Education; and Sima Marković, as the Minister of Finance. Dobrnjac and Stojković refused to accept the posts that were offered to them, fearing that their acceptance would legitimize Karađorđe and undermine their own position. Karađorđe accused them of insubordination and exiled them to Wallachia, replacing them with loyalists. The Governing Council soon recognized Karađorđe as Serbia's hereditary leader and pledged allegiance to his "lawful heirs".

Defeat
In mid-1812, Russia and the Ottoman Empire signed the Treaty of Bucharest, bringing the Russo-Ottoman War to a close. For his efforts, Karađorđe received the Order of Saint Anna from the Russians. The Governing Council scrambled to take an oath of loyalty to Russia in the hope that this would garner them further protection, to no avail. The Russian Emperor, Alexander, was aware of Napoleon's plans to invade Russia and desperately sought to return as many Russian soldiers as possible in order to repel the attack. As part of the Treaty of Bucharest, the Russians and Ottomans agreed that Serbian fortifications built after 1804 were to be destroyed, while cities and forts from which the Ottomans had been expelled over the course of the uprising were to be reoccupied and garrisoned by Ottoman troops. In exchange, the Ottomans agreed to declare a general amnesty for former rebels, as well as to grant the Serbs of the Pashalik of Belgrade some degree of autonomy. As part of the agreement, the Russians agreed to withdraw their forces from Serbia, as well as from Wallachia and Moldavia. The Russians encouraged Karađorđe and his followers to negotiate directly with the Porte regarding the minutiae of the handover of cities and fortifications to the Ottomans. Trepidation filled the rebel camp once it became clear that there was nothing to prevent the Ottomans from exacting reprisals against the Pashalik's Serb population after the Russians withdrew. Karađorđe thus refused to abide by the terms of the Treaty of Bucharest and fighting continued.

Deprived of foreign assistance, the rebels were quickly routed by the Ottomans, whose units were manned primarily by Albanians and Bosnian Muslims. In early October, Karađorđe fled to the Austrian Empire. He was joined by around 100,000 other Serbs fleeing the Ottoman advance, including 50,000 from Belgrade and its environs alone. Belgrade fell later that month. The city's fall marked the end of the First Serbian Uprising. The Ottomans singled out men and boys over the age of 15 for execution, and sold women and children into slavery. Torture was used extensively and executions were particularly brutal. "Men were roasted alive, hanged by their feet over smoking straw until they asphyxiated, castrated, crushed with stones, and bastinadoed," one eyewitness wrote. "Their women and children were raped and sometimes taken by force to harems. Outside Stambul Gate in Belgrade, there were always on view the corpses of impaled Serbs being gnawed by packs of dogs." Another account relays how infants and toddlers were boiled alive. In one day alone, 1,800 women and children were sold into slavery at a Belgrade market. Churches across the city were destroyed and mosques that had been converted into churches following the city's capture in 1806 were returned to their original use. Others were deliberately torched by the Ottomans for the purpose of inflicting suffering on the city's inhabitants. In one instance, several dozen Serb refugees seeking shelter in a mosque were burned alive inside.

In late October 1813, Hurshid Pasha declared a general amnesty for the rebels that had survived, though Karađorđe and some senior Orthodox clerics were specifically exempted. Many rebel leaders agreed to lay down their arms, the most notable of these being Miloš Obrenović, the rebel commander in Užice. A large number of Serb refugees subsequently returned to their homes, as did many of the Muslims that had been displaced in the fighting.

Exile, return to Serbia and assassination
Upon crossing the Danube, Karađorđe and his followers were arrested by the Austrian authorities. They were initially detained at the Petrovaradin Fortress in Novi Sad and later transferred to a prison in Graz. The Ottomans demanded that Karađorđe and the other rebel leaders be extradited to face punishment. The Austrians refused and instead turned them over to the Russians. Karađorđe spent a year in Austrian custody before being allowed to go to Russia. Like many of the other rebel leaders, he settled in Bessarabia. He attempted to adjust to civilian life, commissioning a portrait of himself by the painter Vladimir Borovikovsky. In April 1815, Obrenović orchestrated another anti-Ottoman rebellion in Serbia, which came to be known as the Second Serbian Uprising. Unlike Karađorđe's revolt, the Second Serbian Uprising ended relatively quickly and resulted in a rebel victory. In November 1815, the Ottomans accepted Obrenović's demands for wide-ranging autonomy. The terms that they agreed to were identical to those rejected by Karađorđe in 1807.

The Russians prohibited Karađorđe from returning to the Balkans to take part in the Second Serbian Uprising. Karađorđe objected and traveled to Saint Petersburg to plead his case, but was arrested and detained. Upon his release, he joined the Filiki Eteria, a Greek nationalist secret society that intended to launch a pan-Balkan uprising against the Ottomans. The Filiki Eteria promised Karađorđe a position of military leadership in the planned uprising and offered to smuggle him into the Pashalik of Belgrade. Karađorđe secretly entered the Pashalik on 24 July 1817, crossing the Danube together with his servant, Naum Krnar. He then contacted his kum, Vujica Vulićević, who offered him an abode in the oak forest of Radovanje Grove, near Velika Plana. Unbeknownst to Karađorđe, Vulićević was on Obrenović's payroll. After escorting Karađorđe and his servant to a tent in the forest, Vulićević informed Obrenović of Karađorđe's whereabouts through a courier. Shortly thereafter, he received a letter from Obrenović telling him that Karađorde was to be killed. Vulićević enlisted one of his close confidantes, Nikola Novaković, to take Karađorđe's life. The following morning, just before sunrise, Novaković snuck into Karađorđe's tent and axed him to death while he slept. He then went to the riverside and shot Krnar with a rifle as he was gathering water. Karađorđe's lifeless body was beheaded. His severed head was taken to Belgrade and presented to Marashli Ali Pasha, who had been appointed the governor of the Pashalik two years prior. Ali Pasha had the head flayed, stuffed and sent to the Sultan himself.

Obrenović feared that Karađorđe's return would prompt the Ottomans to renege on the agreement reached by the Porte and Obrenović's followers in November 1815. By extension, Karađorđe's murder precluded the Serbs of the Pashalik from taking part in the Balkan-wide rebellion that the Filiki Eteria had been planning. In Constantinople, Karađorđe's head was impaled on a stake and left on public display for a week. His body was buried on Serbian soil, but his skull ended up in the hands of a Constantinople museum. It was stolen some years later and buried in Greece.

Legacy

Karađorđe's descendants adopted the surname Karađorđević in his honour. His murder resulted in a violent, decades-long feud between his descendants and those of Obrenović, with the Serbian throne changing hands several times. The feud came to an abrupt end in June 1903, when rebellious Royal Serbian Army officers killed the Obrenović king, Alexander, and his wife, Queen Draga, thereby rendering the Obrenović line extinct. Karađorđe's grandson, Peter Karađorđević, then ascended the throne.

In order to tie himself to his grandfather's legacy, Peter commissioned a bronze crown cast from a piece of Karađorđe's first cannon. In addition, the Order of Karađorđe's Star was introduced as Serbia's highest state decoration. The first feature-length film to emerge from Serbia and the Balkans, whose plot revolves around Karađorđe and his actions before, during and after the First Serbian Uprising, was released in 1911. Work soon began on the construction of the Church of Saint George, a Karađorđević dynasty mausoleum at Oplenac, near Topola. In 1913, a monument to Karađorđe was unveiled at Kalemegdan Park. During the Austro-Hungarian occupation of Serbia, the monument was torn down by the Austro-Hungarian Army and destroyed.

In November 1918, Peter ascended the throne of the newly established Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, which was later renamed Yugoslavia. Karađorđe's head was repatriated from Greece in 1923 and reunited with the rest of his body. His remains were buried in a white marble sarcophagus within the church in 1930. The Karađorđević dynasty ruled Yugoslavia until 1941, when its members were forced into exile by Germany's invasion and occupation of the country. The monarchy was abolished by Josip Broz Tito's communist government in 1945.

Misha Glenny, a journalist specializing in the Balkans, believes that the First Serbian Uprising "marked the beginning of modern history on the Balkan peninsula." The uprising kindled the flame of ethno-religious nationalism among the Christians of Southeastern Europe and inspired the subsequent Greek War of Independence. Karađorđe's struggle against the Ottomans also had an important influence on the Bosnian Muslim revolutionary Husein Gradaščević, who instigated the Great Bosnian Uprising. Karađorđe is viewed in a negative light by some modern Bosniaks. In 2011, the chief Mufti of the Islamic Community of Serbia, Muamer Zukorlić, filed a petition to rename a street in Sjenica named after Karađorđe. Zukorlić alleged that Karađorđe and his followers had indiscriminately targeted the town's residents in 1809, a notion disputed by Serbian historians. The historian Ivo Banac surmises that "there would be no Bosnian Muslims today" had Karađorđe extended his uprising west of the Drina.

Karađorđe's exploits were popularized across Europe by the linguist and folklorist Vuk Karadžić, who recorded and published the ballads of the blind gusle player and epic poet Filip Višnjić, many of which pertained to the First Serbian Uprising. Karađorđe is referenced in a number of works of 19th-century fiction. While he was still alive, the Hungarian dramatist wrote a stage play about him, titled Black George, which premiered in August 1812. Several years later, the Russian poet Alexander Pushkin penned a ballad about Karađorđe titled The Song of George the Black. The Irish poet George Croly also wrote a ballad about him. Karađorđe is mentioned in Honoré de Balzac's 1842 novel A Start in Life, as the grandfather of one of the book's main characters. The Montenegrin prince-bishop and poet Petar II Petrović-Njegoš dedicated his 1847 epic poem The Mountain Wreath to "the ashes of the Father of Serbia", a reference to Karađorđe. The surname Karamazov, used in the Russian writer Fyodor Dostoyevsky's 1880 novel The Brothers Karamazov, is believed to have partially been inspired by Karađorđe, whose exploits popularized the use of the prefix "kara" to mean "black" within Russia.

Karađorđe's likeness was featured on the obverse of five-million dinar banknotes issued by the National Bank of Yugoslavia in 1993 and 1994. The anniversary of the First Serbian Uprising's commencement, 15 February, is celebrated annually in Serbia as Statehood Day. A monument to Karađorđe stands in front of Belgrade's Church of Saint Sava, within the eponymous Karađorđe's Park.

title: Karađorđe


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Talk:Music

Superior pitch resolution
has an image of the human brain with a description that includes the phrase "superior pitch resolution". Nowhere else in that section, nor in its surrounding sections, do we discuss pitch in any way. This is not a problem per se, but without any context it is unclear to readers such as myself what exactly "superior pitch resolution" is. Perhaps a simple solution is to link the words "superior pitch" to absolute pitch? Assuming that's what it refers to, of course. --62.166.252.25 (talk) 10:40, 23 March 2024 (UTC)

First sentence
@Aza24, I'm not quite sure how I've strayed from the sources.

What I started with: [...] the arrangement of sound to create some combination of form, harmony, melody, rhythm, or otherwise expressive content.

My attempt: [...] the arrangement of sound for expressive purposes, often characterised as encompassing aspects of form, harmony, melody, and rhythm.

OED: the art of combining vocal or instrumental sounds in a harmonious or expressive way.

AHD: The art of arranging sounds in time so as to produce a continuous, unified, and evocative composition, as through melody, harmony, rhythm, and timbre.

Britannica: art concerned with combining vocal or instrumental sounds for beauty of form or emotional expression, usually according to cultural standards of rhythm, melody, and, in most Western music, harmony.

If anything, I thought I was aligning it more closely with the sources. Remsense 诉  09:12, 3 June 2024 (UTC)

 * Well the important thing here is not setting out any false universals. Your definition starts with explicitly saying that music is “for expressive purposes” which is not inherent in any of the definitions (it’s merely one of the possibilities: “beauty of form or emotional expression”; “harmonious or expressive” etc.)
 * I also feel like “encompassing aspects of” doesn’t clearly portray music as being able to have some but not others of these attributes (whereas “some combination of” is more direct).
 * That was my thought process at least. Your other lead changes seem worthwhile (and of course, the second and third lead paragraph probably still warrants a complete rewrite when this article is better fleshed out), but I’m a bit hesitant here.  Aza24  (talk)   17:15, 3 June 2024 (UTC)
 * To me, AHD is totally equivalent when it says so as to produce a continuous, unified, and evocative composition. How about merely expressive arrangement of sound? Remsense  诉  17:20, 3 June 2024 (UTC)
 * I'm still hesitant. Putting any adjective before "arrangement" seems to be taking a stance. "Expression" is a loaded term within music, usually signifying a personal connection (see Musical expression). There are plenty of music traditions where including this would be a stretch; postmodern music, electronic music, propoganda music etc. I'm sure I sound unreasonably picky, but Wikipedia's general music articles already have a very classical lean, and it would be best to play it safe here, I think.  Aza24  (talk)   18:34, 6 June 2024 (UTC)
 * I see what you mean. Remsense  诉  06:09, 7 June 2024 (UTC)
 * I see what you mean. Remsense  诉  06:09, 7 June 2024 (UTC)

Streaming services
Hello. I have noticed, that on this article isn't mentioned on section about medias of streaming services, such as Spotify, Deezer, Apple music. Those are important in this age. Cassa342 (talk) 20:00, 12 June 2024 (UTC)

Music
What is music.what does music does to human why is music listen while studying reading etc 27.34.65.42 (talk) 01:18, 25 June 2024 (UTC)

 * The "Philosophy of music" article looks like what you are looking for. Contribute your best (talk) 14:24, 3 July 2024 (UTC)

Errors/Omissions in Lead
Second paragraph: In the sentence "The techniques of making music are often transmitted from as part of a cultural tradition," the word "from" is extraneous. In the sentence "Music is played in public and private contexts, highlighted at events such as festivals and concerts for various different types of ensembles," the word "different" is redundant.

Third paragraph: The sentence beginning, "The music industry includes" omits composers and instrument makers, but includes "accessories." UnvoicedConsonant (talk) 12:26, 8 July 2024 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Music


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Talk:Roadkill

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title: Talk:Roadkill


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Bloom's taxonomy

Bloom's taxonomy is a set of three hierarchical models used for classification of educational learning objectives into levels of complexity and specificity. The three lists cover the learning objectives in cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains. The cognitive domain list has been the primary focus of most traditional education and is frequently used to structure curriculum learning objectives, assessments and activities.

The models were named after Benjamin Bloom, who chaired the committee of educators that devised the taxonomy. He also edited the first volume of the standard text, Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classification of Educational Goals.

History
The publication of Taxonomy of Educational Objectives followed a series of conferences from 1949 to 1953, which were designed to improve communication between educators on the design of curricula and examinations.

The first volume of the taxonomy, Handbook I: Cognitive was published in 1956, and in 1964 the second volume Handbook II: Affective was published. A revised version of the taxonomy for the cognitive domain was created in 2001.

Cognitive domain (knowledge-based)
In the 1956 original version of the taxonomy, the cognitive domain is broken into the six levels of objectives listed below. In the 2001 revised edition of Bloom's taxonomy, the levels have slightly different names and their order is revised: Remember, Understand, Apply, Analyze, Evaluate, and Create (rather than Synthesize).

Affective domain (emotion-based)
Skills in the affective domain describe the way people react emotionally and their ability to feel other living things' pain or joy. Affective objectives typically target the awareness and growth in attitudes, emotion, and feelings.

There are five levels in the affective domain moving through the lowest-order processes to the highest.

Psychomotor domain (action-based)
Skills in the psychomotor domain describe the ability to physically manipulate a tool or instrument like a hand or a hammer. Psychomotor objectives usually focus on change or development in behavior or skills.

Bloom and his colleagues never created subcategories for skills in the psychomotor domain, but since then other educators have created their own psychomotor taxonomies. Simpson (1972) proposed a taxonomy of seven levels.

Definition of knowledge
In the appendix to Handbook I, there is a definition of knowledge which serves as the apex for an alternative, summary classification of the educational goals. This is significant as the taxonomy has been called upon significantly in other fields such as knowledge management, potentially out of context. "Knowledge, as defined here, involves the recall of specifics and universals, the recall of methods and processes, or the recall of a pattern, structure, or setting."

The taxonomy is set out as follows:
 * 1.00 Knowledge
 * 1.10 Knowledge of specifics
 * 1.11 Knowledge of terminology
 * 1.12 Knowledge of specific facts
 * 1.20 Knowledge of ways and means of dealing with specifics
 * 1.21 Knowledge of conventions
 * 1.22 Knowledge of trends and sequences
 * 1.23 Knowledge of classifications and categories
 * 1.24 Knowledge of criteria
 * 1.25 Knowledge of methodology
 * 1.30 Knowledge of the universals and abstractions in a field
 * 1.31 Knowledge of principles and generalizations
 * 1.32 Knowledge of theories and structures

Criticism of the taxonomy
As pointed out on the publication of the second volume, the classification was not a properly constructed taxonomy, as it lacked a systematic rationale of construction.

This was subsequently acknowledged in the discussion of the original taxonomy in its 2001 revision, and the taxonomy was reestablished on more systematic lines.

Some critiques of the taxonomy's cognitive domain admit the existence of these six categories but question the existence of a sequential, hierarchical link. Often, educators view the taxonomy as a hierarchy and may mistakenly dismiss the lowest levels as unworthy of teaching. The learning of the lower levels enables the building of skills in the higher levels of the taxonomy, and in some fields, the most important skills are in the lower levels (such as identification of species of plants and animals in the field of natural history). Instructional scaffolding of higher-level skills from lower-level skills is an application of Vygotskian constructivism.

Some consider the three lowest levels as hierarchically ordered, but the three higher levels as parallel. Others say that it is sometimes better to move to application before introducing concepts, the goal being to create a problem-based learning environment where the real world context comes first and the theory second, to promote the student's grasp of the phenomenon, concept, or event.

The distinction between the categories can be seen as artificial since any given cognitive task may entail a number of processes. It could even be argued that any attempt to nicely categorize cognitive processes into clean, cut-and-dried classifications undermines the holistic, highly connective and interrelated nature of cognition. This is a criticism that can be directed at taxonomies of mental processes in general.

The taxonomy is widely implemented as a hierarchy of verbs, designed to be used when writing learning outcomes, but a 2020 analysis showed that these verb lists showed no consistency between educational institutions, and thus learning outcomes that were mapped to one level of the hierarchy at one educational institution could be mapped to different levels at another institution.

Implications
Bloom's taxonomy serves as the backbone of many teaching philosophies, in particular, those that lean more towards skills rather than content. These educators view content as a vessel for teaching skills. The emphasis on higher-order thinking inherent in such philosophies is based on the top levels of the taxonomy including application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Bloom's taxonomy can be used as a teaching tool to help balance evaluative and assessment-based questions in assignments, texts, and class engagements to ensure that all orders of thinking are exercised in students' learning, including aspects of information searching.

Connections between disciplines
Bloom's taxonomy (and the revised taxonomy) continues to be a source of inspiration for educational philosophy and for developing new teaching strategies. The skill development that takes place at higher orders of thinking interacts well with a developing global focus on multiple literacies and modalities in learning and the emerging field of integrated disciplines. The ability to interface with and create media would draw upon skills from both higher order thinking skills (analysis, creation, and evaluation) and lower order thinking skills (knowledge, comprehension, and application).

Visual interpretations
Bloom's original taxonomy may not have included verbs or visual representations, but subsequent contributions to the idea have portrayed the ideas visually for researchers, teachers and students.

title: Bloom's taxonomy


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Presidential Unit Citation

A Presidential Unit Citation is a unit citation awarded by the president of a state.

Specific awards include:
 * Presidential Unit Citation (United States), awarded for actions on or after December 7, 1941, World War II
 * Presidential Unit Citation (South Korea), awarded to South Korean military and foreign military for defense of the Republic of Korea
 * Philippine Republic Presidential Unit Citation, awarded to U.S. military and Philippine military for actions during and after World War II
 * Vietnam Presidential Unit Citation, August 15, 1950, considered obsolete since South Vietnam no longer exists

title: Presidential Unit Citation


text:
RFA Sir Bedivere

RFA Sir Bedivere (L3004) was a Landing Ship Logistic of the Round Table class. She saw service in the Falklands War, the Persian Gulf and Sierra Leone. In 2009, she was commissioned into the Brazilian Navy and renamed NDCC Almirante Saboia (G-25), where she saw service in Haiti.

Background
The ship was originally built for army service, and was taken over by the Royal Fleet Auxiliary in 1970. Round Table class ships were exclusively manned by Hong Kong Chinese sailors from their introduction in 1963 until 1989, when Sir Lancelot was the last RFA to be crewed in this way.

She was commissioned in 1967 and saw extensive service in many of Britain's naval operations since. Her home port was Marchwood, Hampshire, which is a major military port.

Falklands War
Sir Bedivere first saw combat in the Falklands War of 1982, when along with all of the Royal Navy's other amphibious ships, she was sent to recapture the Falkland Islands from an Argentine occupation force. At the start of the war, the ship was at Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, but started back to Marchwood immediately. After loading at Marchwood, she left for Ascension Island where she picked up the sappers of 11 Field Squadron Royal Engineers. The ship suffered slight damage on 24 May whilst lying in San Carlos Water, when an Argentine Skyhawk dropped a bomb that glanced off the ship. The sappers disembarked for Port San Carlos on the evening of 25 May.

On 16 November 1982, she returned from the Falklands with the bodies of 64 members of the British Forces (52 soldiers, 11 Royal Marines, and a Chinese laundryman) whose families had wanted their remains returned.

1983-2007
The ship deployed to the Persian Gulf in 1991 in support of Operation Granby.

In 1994, the ship was modernised in a service life extension programme to give it an extra 15 years. The ship was lengthened by 12 metres, had its superstructure altered to a more modern design, the engines were replaced, and the ship's bow thrusters were changed for more powerful models.

After returning to service in 1998, the ship was sent to Sierra Leone in 2000 when the U.K. intervened there. The ship operated as the command vessel for British and American mine countermeasures ships during Operation Telic in 2003.

Sir Bedivere left the U.K. in September 2002 for the Mediterranean and operation Argonaut in 2002.She was then diverted to the Persian Gulf accompanied by four British minesweepers. After minesweeping operations were complete, the vessel operated as a troop support ship for the Royal Marines. The ship returned to the U.K. on 29 May 2003, carrying the boats and men of 539 Assault Squadron Royal Marines.

In 2006, Sir Bedivere returned from Sierra Leone and its part in Operation Vela.

Decommissioning
Although originally intended to be used until 2011, Sir Bedivere was decommissioned on 18 February 2008.

Brazilian Navy
In December 2008, Sir Bedivere was sold to Brazil, joining her sister ship RFA Sir Galahad. Sir Bedivere was handed over to the Brazilian Navy on 21 May 2009, after a major refit by A&P Group at the Company's ship repair facility in Falmouth, Cornwall. She was commissioned into service with the Brazilian Navy, and renamed Navio de Desembarque de Carros de Combate (Landing Ship, Tank) NDCC Almirante Saboia (G-25), after Almirante de esquadra Henrique Sabóia, minister of the Navy from 1985 to 1990 under the José Sarney administration. Admiral Saboia's widow and other members of the family were present at the handover ceremony.

As Almirante Saboia, she undertook several voyages between Port-au-Prince and Rio de Janeiro in support of Brazilian Army and Marine Corps troops in United Nations service during MINUSTAH. In 12 January 2010, she joined the task force that took part in the Brazilian Navy's ASPIRANTEX yearly training exercise, which included the frigates Niterói, Constituição and Independência, the tanker Almirante Gastão Motta, as well as the submarines Tupi and Tikuna, sailing under the command of Contra-Almirante César Sidonio Daiha Moreira de Souza. During the course of ASPIRANTEX 2010, Almirante Saboia visited the ports of Salvador, Recife, Cabedelo and Natal. However, she was requisitioned after the earthquake, leaving Rio de Janeiro on 1 February with 700 tons of supplies, including both humanitarian aid as well as military supplies for the Brazilian MINUSTAH contingent. She arrived on 17 February, spending the next 30 days in the Caribbean country.

She later took part in the Haiti XIV commission between 21 May and 2 August 2012, carrying 260 tons of Marine Corps and Army supplies to MINUSTAH, and returning to Rio with roughly 300 tons of damaged vehicles and equipment for maintenance.

title: RFA Sir Bedivere


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Cookware and bakeware

Cookware and bakeware is food preparation equipment, such as cooking pots, pans, baking sheets etc. used in kitchens. Cookware is used on a stove or range cooktop, while bakeware is used in an oven. Some utensils are considered both cookware and bakeware.

There is a great variety of cookware and bakeware in shape, material, and inside surface. Some materials conduct heat well; some retain heat well. Some surfaces are non-stick; some require seasoning.

Some pots and their lids have handles or knobs made of low thermal conductance materials such as bakelite, plastic or wood, which make them easy to pick up without oven gloves.

A good cooking pot design has an "overcook edge" which is what the lid lies on. The lid has a dripping edge that prevents condensation fluid from dripping off when handling the lid (taking it off and holding it 45°) or putting it down.

History
The history of cooking vessels before the development of pottery is minimal due to the limited archaeological evidence. The earliest pottery vessels, dating from $19,600 BP$, were discovered in Xianrendong Cave, Jiangxi, China. The pottery may have been used as cookware, manufactured by hunter-gatherers. Harvard University archaeologist Ofer Bar-Yosef reported that "When you look at the pots, you can see that they were in a fire." It is also possible to extrapolate likely developments based on methods used by latter peoples. Among the first of the techniques believed to be used by Stone Age civilizations were improvements to basic roasting. In addition to exposing food to direct heat from either an open fire or hot embers, it is possible to cover the food with clay or large leaves before roasting to preserve moisture in the cooked result. Examples of similar techniques are still in use in many modern cuisines.

Of greater difficulty was finding a method to boil water. For people without access to natural heated water sources, such as hot springs, heated stones ("pot boilers") could be placed in a water-filled vessel to raise its temperature (for example, a leaf-lined pit or the stomach from animals killed by hunters). In many locations the shells of turtles or large mollusks provided a source for waterproof cooking vessels. Bamboo tubes sealed at the end with clay provided a usable container in Asia, while the inhabitants of the Tehuacan Valley began carving large stone bowls that were permanently set into a hearth as early as 7,000 BC.

According to Frank Hamilton Cushing, Native American cooking baskets used by the Zuni (Zuñi) developed from mesh casings woven to stabilize gourd water vessels. He reported witnessing cooking basket use by Havasupai in 1881. Roasting baskets covered with clay would be filled with wood coals and the product to be roasted. When the thus-fired clay separated from the basket, it would become a usable clay roasting pan in itself. This indicates a steady progression from use of woven gourd casings to waterproof cooking baskets to pottery. Other than in many other cultures, Native Americans used and still use the heat source inside the cookware. Cooking baskets are filled with hot stones and roasting pans with wood coals. Native Americans would form a basket from large leaves to boil water, according to historian and novelist Louis L'Amour. As long as the flames did not reach above the level of water in the basket, the leaves would not burn through.

The development of pottery allowed for the creation of fireproof cooking vessels in a variety of shapes and sizes. Coating the earthenware with some type of plant gum, and later glazes, converted the porous container into a waterproof vessel. The earthenware cookware could then be suspended over a fire through use of a tripod or other apparatus, or even be placed directly into a low fire or coal bed as in the case of the pipkin. Ceramics conduct heat poorly, however, so ceramic pots must cook over relatively low heats and over long periods of time. However, most ceramic pots will crack if used on the stovetop, and are only intended for the oven.

The development of bronze and iron metalworking skills allowed for cookware made from metal to be manufactured, although adoption of the new cookware was slow due to the much higher cost. After the development of metal cookware there was little new development in cookware, with the standard Medieval kitchen utilizing a cauldron and a shallow earthenware pan for most cooking tasks, with a spit employed for roasting.

By the 17th century, it was common for a Western kitchen to contain a number of skillets, baking pans, a kettle and several pots, along with a variety of pot hooks and trivets. Brass or copper vessels were common in Asia and Europe, whilst iron pots were common in the American colonies. Improvements in metallurgy during the 19th and 20th centuries allowed for pots and pans from metals such as steel, stainless steel and aluminium to be economically produced.

At the 1968 Miss America protest, protestors symbolically threw a number of feminine products into a "Freedom Trash Can", which included pots and pans.

Metal
Metal pots are made from a narrow range of metals because pots and pans need to conduct heat well, but also need to be chemically unreactive so that they do not alter the flavor of the food. Most materials that are conductive enough to heat evenly are too reactive to use in food preparation. In some cases (copper pots, for example), a pot may be made out of a more reactive metal, and then tinned or clad with another. While metal pots take heat very well, they usually react poorly to rapid cooling, such as being plunged into water while hot, this will usually warp the piece over time.

Aluminium

Aluminium is a lightweight metal with very good thermal conductivity. It is resistant to many forms of corrosion. Aluminium is commonly available in sheet, cast, or anodized forms, and may be physically combined with other metals (see below).

Sheet aluminium is spun or stamped into form. Due to the softness of the metal, it may be alloyed with magnesium, copper, or bronze to increase its strength. Sheet aluminium is commonly used for baking sheets, pie plates, and cake or muffin pans. Deep or shallow pots may be formed from sheet aluminium.

Cast aluminium can produce a thicker product than sheet aluminium, and is appropriate for irregular shapes and thicknesses. Due to the microscopic pores caused by the casting process, cast aluminium has a lower thermal conductivity than sheet aluminium. It is also more expensive. Accordingly, cast aluminium cookware has become less common. It is used, for example, to make Dutch ovens lightweight and bundt pans heavy duty, and used in ladles and handles and woks to keep the sides at a lower temperature than the center.

Anodized aluminium has had the naturally occurring layer of aluminium oxide thickened by an electrolytic process to create a surface that is hard and non-reactive. It is used for sauté pans, stockpots, roasters, and Dutch ovens.

Uncoated and un-anodized aluminium can react with acidic foods to change the taste of the food. Sauces containing egg yolks, or vegetables such as asparagus or artichokes may cause oxidation of non-anodized aluminium.

Aluminium exposure has been suggested as a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease. The Alzheimer's Association states that "studies have failed to confirm any role for aluminum in causing Alzheimer's." The link remains controversial.

Copper
Copper provides the highest thermal conductivity among non-noble metals and is therefore fast heating with unparalleled heat distribution (see: Copper in heat exchangers). Pots and pans are cold-formed from copper sheets of various thicknesses, with those in excess of 2.5 mm considered commercial (or extra-fort) grade. Between 1 mm and 2.5 mm wall thickness is considered utility (fort) grade, with thicknesses below 1.5 mm often requiring tube beading or edge rolling for reinforcement. Less than 1mm wall thickness is generally considered decorative, with exception made for the case of .75–1 mm planished copper, which is hardened by hammering and therefore expresses performance and strength characteristic of thicker material.

Copper thickness of less than .25 mm is, in the case of cookware, referred to as foil and must be formed to a more structurally rigid metal to produce a serviceable vessel. Such applications of copper are purely aesthetic and do not materially contribute to cookware performance.

Copper is reactive with acidic foods which can result in corrosion, the byproducts of which can foment copper toxicity. In certain circumstances, however, unlined copper is recommended and safe, for instance in the preparation of meringue, where copper ions prompt proteins to denature (unfold) and enable stronger protein bonds across the sulfur contained in egg whites. Unlined copper is also used in the making of preserves, jams and jellies. Copper does not store ("bank") heat, and so thermal flows reverse almost immediately upon removal from heat. This allows precise control of consistency and texture while cooking sugar and pectin-thickened preparations. Alone, fruit acid would be sufficient to cause leaching of copper byproducts, but naturally occurring fruit sugars and added preserving sugars buffer copper reactivity. Unlined pans have thereby been used safely in such applications for centuries.

Lining copper pots and pans prevents copper from contact with acidic foods. The most popular lining types are tin, stainless steel, nickel and silver.

The use of tin dates back many centuries and is the original lining for copper cookware. Although the patent for canning in sheet tin was secured in 1810 in England, legendary French chef Auguste Escoffier experimented with a solution for provisioning the French army while in the field by adapting the tin lining techniques used for his cookware to more robust steel containers (then only lately introduced for canning) which protected the cans from corrosion and soldiers from lead solder and botulism poisoning.

Tin linings sufficiently robust for cooking are wiped onto copper by hand, producing a .35–45-mm-thick lining. Decorative copper cookware, i.e., a pot or pan less than 1 mm thick and therefore unsuited to cooking, will often be electroplate lined with tin. Should a wiped tin lining be damaged or wear out the cookware can be re-tinned, usually for much less cost than the purchase price of the pan. Tin presents a smooth crystalline structure and is therefore relatively non-stick in cooking applications. As a relatively soft metal abrasive cleansers or cleaning techniques can accelerate wear of tin linings. Wood, silicone or plastic implements are to preferred over harder stainless steel types.

For a period following the Second World War, copper cookware was electroplated with a nickel lining. Nickel is harder and more thermally efficient than tin, with a higher melting point. Despite its hardness, it wore out as fast as tin, as the plating was 20 microns thick or less, as nickel tends to plate somewhat irregularly, and requires milling to produce an even cooking surface. Nickel is also stickier than tin or silver. Copper cookware with aged or damaged nickel linings can be retinned, or possibly replating with nickel, although this is no longer widely available. Nickel linings began to fall out of favor in the 1980s owing to the isolation of nickel as an allergen.

Silver is also applied to copper by means of electroplating, and provides an interior finish that is at once smooth, more durable than either tin or nickel, relatively non-stick and extremely thermally efficient. Copper and silver bond extremely well owing to their shared high electro-conductivity. Lining thickness varies widely by maker, but averages between 7 and 10 microns. The disadvantages of silver are expense and the tendency of sulfurous foods, especially brassicas, to discolor. Worn silver linings on copper cookware can be restored by stripping and re-electroplating.

Copper cookware lined with a thin layer of stainless steel is available from most modern European manufacturers. Stainless steel is 25 times less thermally conductive than copper, and is sometimes critiqued for compromising the efficacy of the copper with which it is bonded. Among the advantages of stainless steel are its durability and corrosion resistance, and although relatively sticky and subject to food residue adhesions, stainless steel is tolerant of most abrasive cleaning techniques and metal implements. Stainless steel forms a pan's structural element when bonded to copper and is irreparable in the event of wear or damage.

Using modern metal bonding techniques, such as cladding, copper is frequently incorporated into cookware constructed of primarily dissimilar metal, such as stainless steel, often as an enclosed diffusion layer (see coated and composite cookware below).

Cast iron

Cast-iron cookware is slow to heat, but once at temperature provides even heating. Cast iron can also withstand very high temperatures, making cast iron pans ideal for searing. Being a reactive material, cast iron can have chemical reactions with high acid foods such as wine or tomatoes. In addition, some foods (such as spinach) cooked on bare cast iron will turn black.

Cast iron is a somewhat brittle, porous material that rusts easily. As a result, it should not be dropped or heated unevenly and it typically requires seasoning before use. Seasoning creates a thin layer of oxidized fat over the iron that coats and protects the surface from corrosion, and prevents sticking.

Enameled cast-iron cookware was developed in the 1920s. In 1934, the French company Cousances designed the enameled cast iron Doufeu to reduce excessive evaporation and scorching in cast iron Dutch ovens. Modeled on old braising pans in which glowing charcoal was heaped on the lids (to mimic two-fire ovens), the Doufeu has a deep recess in its lid which instead is filled with ice cubes. This keeps the lid at a lower temperature than the pot bottom. Further, little notches on the inside of the lid allow the moisture to collect and drop back into the food during the cooking. Although the Doufeu (literally, "gentlefire") can be used in an oven (without the ice, as a casserole pan), it is chiefly designed for stove top use. Enameled cast-iron cookware, unlike uncoated cast-iron, is minimally reactive thus can be used with acidic food.

Stainless steel

Stainless steel is an iron alloy containing a minimum of 11.5% chromium. Blends containing 18% chromium with either 8% nickel, called 18/8, or with 10% nickel, called 18/10, are commonly used for kitchen cookware. Stainless steel's virtues are resistance to corrosion, non-reactivity with either alkaline or acidic foods, and resistance to scratching and denting. Stainless steel's drawbacks for cooking use include its relatively poor thermal conductivity. Since the material does not adequately spread the heat itself, stainless steel cookware is generally made as a cladding of stainless steel on both sides of an aluminum or copper core to conduct the heat across all sides, thereby reducing "hot spots", or with a disk of copper or aluminum on just the base to conduct the heat across the base, with possible "hot spots" at the sides. Typical 18/10 stainless steel also has a relatively low magnetic permeability, making it incompatible with induction cooktops. Recent developments have allowed the production of ferromagnetic 18/10 alloys with a higher permeability. In so-called "tri-ply" cookware, the central aluminum layer is paramagnetic, and the interior 18/10 layer may also, but the exterior layer at the base must be ferromagnetic to be compatible with induction cooktops. Stainless steel does not require seasoning to protect the surface from rust, but may be seasoned to provide a non-stick surface.

Carbon steel

Carbon-steel cookware can be rolled or hammered into relatively thin sheets of dense material, which provides robust strength and improved heat distribution. Carbon steel accommodates high, dry heat for such operations as dry searing. Carbon steel does not conduct heat efficiently, but this may be an advantage for larger vessels, such as woks and paella pans, where one portion of the pan is intentionally kept at a different temperature than the rest. Like cast iron, carbon steel must be seasoned before use, usually by rubbing a fat or oil on the cooking surface and heating the cookware on the stovetop or in the oven. With proper use and care, seasoning oils polymerize on carbon steel to form a low-tack surface, well-suited to browning, Maillard reactions and easy release of fried foods. Carbon steel will easily rust if not seasoned and should be stored seasoned to avoid rusting. Carbon steel is traditionally used for crêpe and fry pans, as well as woks.

Clad aluminium or copper
Cladding is a technique for fabricating pans with a layer of efficient heat conducting material, such as copper or aluminum, covered on the cooking surface by a non-reactive material such as stainless steel, and often covered on the exterior aspect of the pan ("dual-clad") as well. Some pans feature a copper or aluminum interface layer that extends over the entire pan rather than just a heat-distributing disk on the base. Generally, the thicker the interface layer, especially in the base of the pan, the more improved the heat distribution. Claims of thermal efficiency improvements are, however, controversial, owing in particular to the limiting and heat-banking effect of stainless steel on thermal flows.

Aluminum is typically clad on both the inside and the exterior pan surfaces, providing both a stainless cooking surface and a stainless surface to contact the cooktop. Copper of various thicknesses is often clad on its interior surface only, leaving the more attractive copper exposed on the outside of the pan (see Copper above).

Some cookware use a dual-clad process, with a thin stainless layer on the cooking surface, a thick core of aluminum to provide structure and improved heat diffusion, and a foil layer of copper on the exterior to provide the "look" of a copper pot at a lower price.

Enamel
Enameled cast iron cooking vessels are made of cast iron covered with a porcelain surface. This creates a piece that has the heat distribution and retention properties of cast iron combined with a non-reactive, low-stick surface.

The enamel over steel technique creates a piece that has the heat distribution of carbon steel and a non-reactive, low-stick surface. Such pots are much lighter than most other pots of similar size, are cheaper to make than stainless steel pots, and do not have the rust and reactivity issues of cast iron or carbon steel. Enamel over steel is ideal for large stockpots and for other large pans used mostly for water-based cooking. Because of its light weight and easy cleanup, enamel over steel is also popular for cookware used while camping.

Seasoning

Seasoning is the process of treating the surface of a cooking vessel with a dry, hard, smooth, hydrophobic coating formed from polymerized fat or oil. When seasoned surfaces are used for cookery in conjunction with oil or fat a stick-resistant effect is produced.

Some form of post-manufacturing treatment or end-user seasoning is mandatory on cast-iron cookware, which rusts rapidly when heated in the presence of available oxygen, notably from water, even small quantities such as drippings from dry meat. Food tends to stick to unseasoned iron and carbon steel cookware, both of which are seasoned for this reason as well.

Other cookware surfaces such as stainless steel or cast aluminium do not require as much protection from corrosion but seasoning is still very often employed by professional chefs to avoid sticking.

Seasoning of other cookware surfaces is generally discouraged. Non-stick enamels often crack under heat stress, and non-stick polymers (such as Teflon) degrade at high heat so neither type of surface should be seasoned.

PTFE non-stick

Steel or aluminum cooking pans can be coated with a substance such as polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE, often referred to with the genericized trademark Teflon) in order to minimize food sticking to the pan surface. There are advantages and disadvantages to such a coating. Coated pans are easier to clean than most non-coated pans, and require little or no additional oil or fat to prevent sticking, a property that helps to produce lower fat food. On the other hand, some sticking is required to cause sucs to form, so a non-stick pan cannot be used where a pan sauce is desired. Non-stick coatings tend to degrade over time and are susceptible to damage. Using metal implements, harsh scouring pads, or chemical abrasives can damage or destroy cooking surface.

Non-stick pans must not be overheated. The coating is stable at normal cooking temperatures, even at the smoke point of most oils. However, if a non-stick pan is heated while empty its temperature may quickly exceed 260 C, above which the non-stick coating may begin to deteriorate, changing color and losing its non-stick properties.

Non-metallic cookware
Non-metallic cookware can be used in both conventional and microwave ovens. Non-metallic cookware typically can not be used on the stovetop, with the exception of glass-ceramic cookware. Rigid non metallic cookware tends to shatter on sudden cooling or uneven heating, although low expansion materials such as borosilicate glass and glass-ceramics have significant immunity.

Pottery
Pottery has been used to make cookware from before dated history. Pots and pans made with this material are durable (some could last a lifetime or more) and are inert and non-reactive. Heat is also conducted evenly in this material. They can be used for both cooking in a fire pit surrounded with coals and for baking in the oven.

Ceramics
Glazed ceramics, such as porcelain, provide a nonstick cooking surface. Historically some glazes used on ceramic articles contained levels of lead, which can possess health risks; although this is not a concern with the vast majority of modern ware. Some pottery can be placed on fire directly.

Glass
Borosilicate glass is safe at oven temperatures. The clear glass also allows for the food to be seen during the cooking process. However, it cannot be used on a stovetop, as it cannot cope with stovetop temperatures.

Glass-ceramic
Glass ceramic is used to make products such as Corningware and Pyroflam, which have many of the best properties of both glass and ceramic cookware. While Pyrex can shatter if taken between extremes of temperature too rapidly, glass-ceramics can be taken directly from deep freeze to the stove top. Their very low coefficient of thermal expansion makes them less prone to thermal shock.

Stone
A natural stone can be used to diffuse heat for indirect grilling or baking, as in a baking stone or pizza stone, or the French pierrade.

Silicone
Silicone bakeware is light, flexible and able to withstand sustained temperatures of 220 °C (428 °F). It melts around 500 °C (930 °F), depending upon the fillers used. Its flexibility is advantageous in removing baked goods from the pan. This rubbery material should not be confused with the silicone resin used to make hard, shatterproof children's dishware, which is not suitable for baking.

Types of cookware and bakeware
The size and shape of a cooking vessel is typically determined by how it will be used. Intention, application, technique and configuration also have a bearing on whether a cooking vessel is referred to as a pot or a pan. Generally within the classic batterie de cuisine a vessel designated "pot" is round, has "ear" handles in diametric opposition, with a relatively high height to cooking surface ratio, and is intended for liquid cooking such as stewing, stocking, brewing or boiling. Vessels with a long handle or ear handles, a relatively low height to cooking surface ratio, used for frying, searing, reductions, braising and oven work take the designation "pan". Additionally, while pots are round, pans may be round, oval, squared, or irregularly shaped.

Cookware

 * Braising pans and roasting pans (also known as "braisers", "roasters" or rondeau pans) are large, wide and shallow, to provide space to cook a roast (chicken, beef or pork). They typically have two loop or tab handles, and may have a cover. Roasters are usually made of heavy-gauge metal so that they may be used safely on a cooktop following roasting in an oven. Unlike most other cooking vessels, roasters are usually rectangular or oval. There is no sharp boundary between braisers and roasters – the same pan, with or without a cover, can be used for both functions. In Europe, clay roasters remain popular because they allows roasting without adding grease or liquids. This helps preserve flavor and nutrients. Having to soak the pot in water for 15 minutes before use is a notable drawback.
 * Casserole pots (for making casseroles) resemble roasters and Dutch ovens, and many recipes can be used interchangeably between them. Depending on their material, casseroles can be used in ovens or on stovetops. Casseroles are often made of metal, but are popular in glazed ceramic or other vitreous material as well.
 * Dilipots are long thin pots created to sanitize with boiling water.
 * Dutch ovens are heavy, relatively deep pots with heavy lids, designed to re-create oven conditions on stovetops or campfires. They can be used for stews, braised meats, soups and a large variety of other dishes that benefit from low-heat, slow cooking. Dutch ovens are typically made from cast iron or natural clay and are sized by volume.
 * A wonder pot, an Israeli invention, acts as a Dutch oven but is made of aluminium. It consists of three parts: an aluminium pot shaped like a Bundt pan, a hooded cover perforated with venting holes, and a thick, round, metal disc with a centre hole that is placed between the wonder pot and the flame to disperse heat.
 * Frying pans, frypans or skillets provide a large flat heating surface and shallow, sloped sides, and are best for pan frying. Frypans with shallow, rolling slopes are sometimes called omelette pans. Grill pans are frypans that are ribbed, to let fat drain away from the food being cooked. Frypans and grill pans are generally sized by diameter (20–30 cm).
 * Spiders are skillets with three thin legs to keep them above an open fire. Ordinary flat-bottomed skillets are also sometimes called spiders, though the term has fallen out of general use.
 * Griddles are flat plates of metal used for frying, grilling and making pan breads such as pancakes, injera, tortillas, chapatis and crepes. Traditional iron griddles are circular, with a semicircular hoop fixed to opposite edges of the plate and rising above it to form a central handle. Rectangular griddles that cover two stove burners are now also common, as are griddles that have a ribbed area that can be used like a grill pan. Some have multiple square metal grooves enabling the contents to have a defined pattern, similar to a waffle maker. Like frypans, round griddles are generally measured by diameter (20–30 cm).
 * In Scotland, griddles are referred to as girdles. In some Spanish-speaking countries, a similar pan is referred to as a comal. Crepe pans are similar to griddles, but are usually smaller, and made of a thinner metal.
 * Both griddles and frypans can be found in electric versions. These may be permanently attached to a heat source, similar to a hot plate.
 * Saucepans are round, vertical-walled vessels used for simmering or boiling. Saucepans generally have one long handle. Larger pans of similar shape with two ear handles are sometimes called "sauce-pots" or "soup pots" (3–12 litres). Saucepans and saucepots are denominated by volume (usually 1–8 L). While saucepots often resemble Dutch ovens in shape, they are generally lighter. Very small saucepans used for heating milk are referred to as "milk pans" - such saucepans usually have a lip for pouring heated milk.
 * A variation on the saucepan with sloping sides is called a "Windsor", "evasee" or "fait-tout", and is used for evaporative reducing. Saucepans with rounded sides are called "sauciers" which also provide more efficient evaporation and generate a return wave when shaken. Both flared saucepan variations tend to dry or cake preparations on their walls, and are less suited to starch-thickened sauces than standard saucepans.
 * Sauté pans, used for sautéing, have a large surface-area and relatively low sides to permit rapid evaporation and to allow the cook to toss the food. The word sauté comes from the French verb sauter, meaning "to jump". Sauté pans often have straight vertical sides, but may also have flared or rounded sides.
 * Stockpots are large pots with sides at least as tall as their diameters. This allows stock to simmer for extended periods of time without major reducing. Stockpots are typically measured in volume (6-36 L). Stock pots come in a large variety of sizes to meet any need from cooking for a family to preparing food for a banquet. A specific type of stockpot exists for lobsters, and Hispanic cultures use an all-metal stockpot, usually called a caldero, to cook rice.
 * Woks are wide, roughly bowl-shaped vessels, with one or two handles at or near the rim. This shape allows a small pool of cooking oil in the centre of the wok to be heated to a high temperature using relatively little fuel, while the outer areas of the wok are used to keep food warm after it has been fried in the oil. In the Western world, woks are typically used only for stir-frying, but they can be used for anything from steaming to deep frying.

Bakeware
Bakeware is designed for use in the oven (for baking), and encompasses a variety of different styles of baking pans as cake pans, pie pans, and bread pans.

 * Cake tins (or cake pans in the US) include square pans, round pans, and speciality pans such as angel food cake pans and springform pans often used for baking cheesecake. Another type of cake pan is a muffin tin, which can hold multiple smaller cakes.
 * Sheet pans, cookie sheets, and Swiss roll tins are bakeware with large flat bottoms.
 * Pie pans are flat-bottomed flare-sided tins specifically designed for baking pies.

List of cookware and bakeware

 * Comal (cookware)
 * Cookie sheet
 * Double boiler
 * Doufeu
 * Dutch oven
 * Food processor
 * Griddle (also called tava or tawa)
 * Karahi
 * Kazan
 * Kettle
 * Pans
 * Baking pan
 * Chip pan
 * Crepe pan (also called a tava)
 * Frying pan
 * Roasting pan
 * Saucepan (described in current article)
 * Sauté pan
 * Sheet pan
 * Splayed Sauté pan
 * Springform pan
 * Tube pan (types include angel food cake pan and Bundt cake [Kugelhopf] pan)
 * Pots
 * Beanpot
 * Cooking pot
 * Stockpot
 * Wonder Pot
 * Pressure cooker
 * Ramekin
 * Roasting rack
 * Saucier (described in current article)
 * Soufflé dish
 * Tajine
 * Wok

title: Cookware and bakeware


text:
Princess Victoria

Princess Victoria or Princess Viktoria may refer to:

British royalty

 * Victoria of the United Kingdom (disambiguation), various princesses
 * Queen Victoria (1819–1901; (r. 1837 – 1901)), born Princess Alexandrina Victoria of Kent

Continental European royalty

 * Duchess Maria Anna Victoria of Bavaria (1660–1690), later Dauphine Victoire of France as the wife of Louis, Grand Dauphin
 * Infanta Mariana Victoria of Spain (1718–1781), Queen of Portugal as the wife of Joseph I
 * Princess Victoire of France (1733–1799), daughter of Louis XV of France
 * Infanta Mariana Victoria of Portugal (1768–1788), daughter of Maria I and Peter III of Portugal
 * Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, (1786–1861), mother of Queen Victoria
 * Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (1822–1857), wife of Prince Louis of Orléans, Duke of Nemours
 * Victoria, Princess Royal (1840–1901), eldest daughter of Queen Victoria and Empress of Germany and Queen of Prussia as the wife of Frederick III
 * Princess Augusta Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein (1858–1921), Empress of Germany and Queen of Prussia as the wife of Wilhelm II
 * Princess Victoria of Baden (1862–1930), queen consort of Gustav V of Sweden
 * Princess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhine (1863–1950), wife of Prince Louis of Battenberg; later Victoria Mountbatten, Marchioness of Milford Haven
 * Princess Viktoria of Prussia (1866–1929), second daughter of Victoria, Princess Royal and Frederick III of Germany
 * Princess Victoria Mary of Teck (1867–1953), wife of George V of the United Kingdom
 * Princess Helena Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein (1870–1948), daughter of Princess Helena of the United Kingdom
 * Princess Victoria Melita of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (1876–1936), daughter of Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha; later Grand Duchess Victoria Feodorovna of Russia
 * Princess Victoria Adelaide of Schleswig-Holstein (1885–1970), daughter of Karoline Mathilde of Schleswig Holstein and Frederick Ferdinand, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein and Duchess of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha as the wife of Charles Edward
 * Princess Alexandra Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg (1887–1957), daughter of Karoline Mathilde of Schleswig-Holstein and Frederick Ferdinand, Duke of Schleswig–Holstein
 * Princess Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg (1887–1969), Queen of Spain as the wife of Alfonso XIII
 * Princess Victoria Margaret of Prussia (1890–1923), daughter of Prince Frederick Leopold of Prussia
 * Princess Victoria Louise of Prussia (1892–1980), daughter of Augusta Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein and Wilhelm II of Germany; married Ernst August, Duke of Brunswick and head of the House of Hanover
 * Princess Viktoria Cäcilie of Hesse-Philippsthal-Barchfeld (1914–1998), daughter of Chlodwig, Landgrave of Hesse-Philippsthal-Barchfeld
 * Victoria, Crown Princess of Sweden (born 1977), heiress apparent of Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden
 * Princess Viktória de Bourbon de Parme (born 1982), wife of Prince Jaime de Bourbon de Parme
 * Princess Victoria Romanovna (born 1982), wife of Grand Duke George Mikhailovich of Russia

Hawaiian royalty

 * Princess Victoria Kamamalu Kaahumanu IV of the Hawaiian Islands (1838–1866), heiress apparent during the reign of Kamehameha V
 * Princess Victoria Kaiulani of the Hawaiian Islands (1875–1899), heiress apparent during Queen Liliuokalani's reign

Other

 * Princess Victoria (wrestler) (Vickie Otis), retired wrestler
 * Princess Victoria "Tori" of Meribella (Victoria Bethany Evangeline Renee), character from 2012 film Barbie: The Princess & the Popstar
 * Princess Victoria of Alteon ("Robina the Hood"), character from the online game AdventureQuest Worlds
 * Princess Victoria (public house), a pub in Shepherd's Bush, London, England
 * MV Princess Victoria (1939), a ship which was launched in 1939 commissioned as HMS Princess Victoria and sunk in 1940
 * MV Princess Victoria (1946), a ferry which was launched in 1947 and sank in 1953

title: Princess Victoria


text:
Talk:Princess Victoria/Archive 1

Used to redirect to the talk page of one of the English "Princess Victoria"s

See Also: talk at talk:Victoria of the United Kingdom (disambiguation), related to talk on this page.

requested merger
Since in this page there are other than British Victorias, a separate disambig page is needed for British princesses names Victoria. At the moment, it is located at Princess Victoria of the United Kingdom. Arrigo 01:39, 18 September 2005 (UTC)

No, not necessarily. The number of Princesses Victoria is not so large as to make a single disambiguation list unmanageable. You also have the problem of Princesses whose nationality changed during their lifetime. PatGallacher 01:49, 18 September 2005 (UTC)

 * Inclined to agree with PG, this doesn't look massively oversized to me by any means, "hierarchical disambiguation" would be more of a navigational nuisance than benefit. Alai 03:16, 18 September 2005 (UTC)

At this page, there is also a real big bunch of others than British princesses (and it may grow even bigger). IMO we need a disambig page for those approx four women who were Victorias of the United Kingdom, i.e British princesses named Victoria. Several of our articles (up to four) are named or may be named Victoria of the United Kingdom due to our NC. In order to avoid a disambig note (listing so many) in the beginning of articles, a separate page is needed. But that page should not be an overflow, and we know that all the world's princesses Victorias will be an overflow which defeats the purpose of having a navigational aid for those who seek British Victorias. I oppose merger between this page (currently at Princess Victoria, the general list) and British Victoria page. Arrigo 18:19, 19 September 2005 (UTC)

rename as List page?
This page begins to be quite long. AND, already some of the individuals (while legitimately known as Princess Victoria and as such, readers deserve to have also them listed somewhere) are IMO not notable enough to have an own article. (Witness: there are already some very stub articles created because of link having appeared on this page.) I wouldn't want to encourage creation of bunches of biographical stubs of obscure royals. IMO they just deserve a mention in a list so that readers may distinguish between similarly-named royals who customarily happen to share same first names. Would a LIST be a better choice than disambig page? Arrigo 21:46, 19 September 2005 (UTC)
 * This is a dab page, so follows the dab rules. If you want a list, just copy-paste the content to, for instance, List of Princesses Victoria or whatever seems more suited, or is best to what you want to do. Anyway, the little sentences after the names are only intended to give that bit of extra info that is needed to recognise the person you want to read an article about. Most of these are now too circumstantial, and don't help all that well recognition-wise. So I'll hack in the content of this dab page pretty soon. If you think it enough I give you 24 hours to copy-paste the content of this page to a list, to further expand, before I continue the reducing of length of this page. --Francis Schonken 22:41, 19 September 2005 (UTC)

Urgh. I do not believe in cut-and-paste moves, but with your permission, I'll however make a cut-and-pasted list... Particularly as it presumably is the only way to save information before your grinded axe. Phew. Arrigo 23:04, 19 September 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Princess Victoria/Archive 1


text:
Talk:Aimo Cajander

Untitled
The following gibberish is removed:

 * Aimo Kaarlo Cajander was born in Uusikaupunki 4 April 1879. Parents: headmaster Karl Alexander Cajander and Anna Matilda, own family Allenius. Secondary school graduate 1896, fil.doctor 1903, discharge degree from forest college 1906 of Evo assistant of the botanic museum of the University of Helsinki 1901-06, similar leader of the forest college of Evo 1907-08, teacher of the forestry of the University of Helsinki 1908-11, professor of Metsänhoitotiede 1911-34, similar chief director of the Forest and Park Service 1918-27 and director general 1934-43. Prime Minister 1922, 1924 and 1937-39. Member of Parliament 1929-33, chairman of the progress party of Kansallinen 1933-43. Spouse Laina Elisabeth Cederberg 1906-43.

 * Aimo Kaarlo (A. K). Interest of Cajander in the natural sciences and its beginning got for the taking care of the culture in Finnish already from the birthplace. The teacher's and headmaster's of natural sciences from Uusikaupunki boy qualified as a ##Master of Arts## as his 1901 main subjects, a botany. Cajander went to the expedition after having completed to collect material to Siberia for its doctoral thesis. The doctoral thesis which processes the vegetation of northern Eurasia was published 1903. Already the same year he was named as the docent of the botany of the University of Helsinki. Cajander continued its studies also in the forest college of Evo and qualified as a forester, 1906. At the same time he made study trips to Central Europe and prepared the plan of the establishing of the forest scientific test institution in Finland. A. K Cajander was appointed as the professor of the silviculture, 1911.

 * To his guidance from forest care developed branch of science. Cajanderi merkittävimpänä as the scientific research result will be held so called. developing of the forest type theory. The theory is based there, that plants between as a result of the competition, to the similar habitats develop similar population. To this base mist is spoken for example. the cowberry or the blueberry type forest. The type theory of Cajanderi for the benefit of the is being used, yet also today forestry measures mouth iteltaessa . In addition to the professorship, he tended from the year 1918 beginning the office of the forestry commision director general. From the professorship Cajander abandoned just year 1934, when he was named then to established forestry commision director general office.

 * To the politics forest researcher A. K. Cajander came year 1922, whereby president Ståhlberg asked him as being official government prime minister. He had not been earlier participated active to the politics, although also concerns Kokoomuspuolueesee. Second time Ståhlberg invited to the cajande official government leadership in January 1924. As being Cajanderi short-lived government's task came until the matter there, until to country was got again parliamentary government.

 * Cajander joined year 1927 as being national Edistyspuoluee member. In this property he was selected 1928 as being mainland government Minister of defence. To the parliament 1929 Cajander was selected 1929. When Kyösti Rock was year 1937 selected as being republic president,he asked as the advancement party chairman operated Cajanderia to form broad-based majority government. Cajanderi also to be successful collect government, which frame formed parliament's two largest party - social democrats and rural union. As being Cajanderi prime minister role formed government and especially its arbitration of the power men - Väinö Field and Juho Niukkase - points of view.

 * A. K. Cajander's skill indicates, that government remained together always until the winter war ignition,. As the outside politician Cajander had idealist, which doesn't believed yet in August 1939, that Soviet union really would attack against Finnish,. Partly for this reason the army of the finnish was forced to the fight inadequately as equipped.

 * In the nation mouth partly from the civil accessory comprised of uniform also you get nickname "model Cajander ". On the winter war ignition day the government of the cajande asked and got separation. After the this, Cajander receded away the state peak politics. He died brusquely in the parliament January 1943.

-- Ruhrjung 22:28 4 Jul 2003 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Aimo Cajander


text:
Talk:Wizengamot

Redirects deleted
Some robots, and humans, seem to be deleting the 32 misspellings of this name and redirecting directly to either Wizengamot or Witanagamot. If anyone is doing that, please stop and explain why you think it's necessary! Then I can explain why I think you're wrong. Thanks! :o) Neuralwarp (talk) 17:07, 11 August 2009 (UTC)

 * I really don't know what you mean about "32 misspellings" -- my only guess is that you're indicating there are 33 ways to spell the parliamentary meaning (and I don't know what your basis is for that; the article mentions, I believe, a total of 2 spellings), and this is one of the 32 wrong ways. It seems much more likely to me that this term would be used to refer to the topic that is spelled only this way, than that it would be used to mean one of 32 ways to misspell another topic. If it is legitimately reasonable that someone would search for "Wizengamot" intending to find the parliamentary topic, then it would make more sense to place a WP:HATNOTE on the article for the other meaning (and I will be happy to place such a hatnote if you affirm that this is the case). Propaniac (talk) 02:37, 16 May 2010 (UTC)

 * "Parliamentary meaning"? Both the Wizengamot and Witanagamot are parliamentary. The two words are very similar, and liable to misspelling. There are 5 possible points of difference, each of which has two options, so that's 32 possibilities. I think there are 2 correct forms of "Witenagamot" and 1 correct form of "Wizengamot", but IMHO any of the 32 spellings is likely to be an intended reference to either of the articles. It seems most sensible to refer all the variations to a disambiguation page, and that's what I did. The complete list is -

 * Wi(z|t)(a|e)n[a]g(a|e)m(o|u)t.

 * Hope that clarifies what I'm trying to do. What's a Hatnote? Neuralwarp (talk) 14:34, 17 May 2010 (UTC)

Merger with Ministry entry?
I feel that all the various authorities that are part of the Ministry of magic should be described in the article for the ministry. Alternatively all departments / divisions / offices should have their own entry. My preference goes for a single article. I propose a merger. Please feel free to discuss. Lag 20:36, 29 April 2006 (UTC)

 * OPPOSE: This is a disambiguation page, so it cannot be merged either with the Wizengamot entry on the Ministry of Magic article, nor with the Witanagamot (Parliament) article. Neuralwarp (talk) 17:04, 11 August 2009 (UTC)

Origin
Is Wizengamot based on witenagemot? The name at least, if not the concept (I'm not very familiar with the Harry Potter books). I don't know if it's important if it is, but I thought I'd ask. -- Adam Bishop

 * Looks about right. Good stuff -- Jim Regan 22:41 4 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Pronunciation
The article statesWizengamot is pronounced [] in the audio CDs. Which CDs would that be? Is that Jim Dale or Stephen Fry? Alternatively do they pronounce it the same? —Phil | Talk 15:31, 31 October 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Wizengamot