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Talk:Diesel cycle

Can anybody add links to see images of internal structure and working of diesel cycle and diesel engine ???. An image is more usefull than 1.000 words. Thanks in advance.

If the diesel cycle is "ideally suited" to aviation, why have I never heard of a modern aircraft using it?

 * Two reasons, First until recently there were no new engines certified for aviation use and almost all engines at the end of WW2 was Otto engines. Secondly, a Diesel engine is heawier than an Otto engine so the lower fuel consumption only works if total weight of engine and fuel is lower for the length of flight, which means fairly long flights. There was about a 50/50 split at the beginning of WW2 with Germans leaning more towards Diesel.
 * Today there are new Diesel engines certified (I think) and also new Otto engines, thank good. The fuel burn of the engines certified 10 years ago was horrible, about doubble that of an new car engine of the same power. Seniorsag 18:42, 27 February 2007 (UTC)

Some of the facts need to be checked out on this article. The Diesel cycle is MORE efficent than the Otto cycle. What kind of retards are writing this stuff.

 * Don't know if it is "ideally suited", but diesel engines are indeed used in aviation today. Mostly as replacement engines, but new planes can be fitted with a diesel, too. For examples, see: [], [],[],[],[]. SGJ 11:02, 26 September 2005 (UTC)

Is this article really needed as a seperate piece to Diesel engine? It dupliates many of the facts of that other article. The other article is much more comprehensive and clearer. Perhaps merge the two? Kcordina 13:48, 7 December 2005 (UTC)

Not entirely wrong, just needs formatting
TOP DEAD CENTRE  withstand increased pressure, and temperatures. Cast iron is cheap, compared to aluminum, or newer (but not widely used either) magnesium alloys. It weighs alot. So in order to have a workable diesel for an aircraft, it has to be constructed out of specific, high strength, high temperature strength, and low weight alloys. This is prohibitively expensive.

I wouldn't call whoever wrote this a retard. The diesel cycle IS more efficient than the Otto cycle, but only when the engine is scaled down from its maximum rated power. I have a 90 hp Otto cycle engine in my car. When I need 45 hp, for say freeway travel, it does not use 1/2 of the gasoline that it would when it is producing 90 hp. It is more around 3/4. Otto engines do not scale their power well, because they always need a minimum amount of fuel so that it does not pre-combust. Diesel cycle engines can inject as little fuel as they want, since they use 'knock' to ingnite the fuel anyway. So they can scale their power alot more efficiently.

 * A little bit of information: The reason Diesel engins are of lower power than Otto engines in the same car is that if a Diesel engine runs for a long time at low power the temperature drops so low that there is a lot of soot produced in the cylinder and that can case engine sizing.

 * In Sweden with cold weather when lorrydrivers stop for a snooze with idling engine it is quite common that the engine is wrecked. (quite common means often enough to be a small problem, not as big as the driver falling asleep driving but still) Seniorsag 18:24, 27 February 2007 (UTC)

Is "Knock" the correct term to use?
Is Knock the corrert term to use in regards to a diesel engine? I'd consider it more of a preignition type of event, but since there are no sparkplugs it isn't really the best term. In a diesel engine the compression, at roughly TDC, of the air and fuel ignites the fuel-air charge, if this were to happen in a gasoline engine it would be considered preignition. Knock is when unburned fuel-air mixture ignites after the piston is moving downward and the pressure wave slams into it.

 * Knock is the term for when the combustion goes from a flamefront (Explosion) to detonation ( usully caused by pressure but sometimes by heat radiation).
 * Explosion = flamefront burning, ie less than soundspeed propagation of flamefront. (Black powder)
 * Detonation = flamefront propagates at orfaster than soundspeed giving a shockwawe. (TNT)
 * shockwawe from detonation has a higher breaking force than the same pressure rise from explosion. Seniorsag 18:31, 27 February 2007 (UTC)

Knock
Knock is the sound, detonation is the process. In detonation some fraction of the fuel/air mixture goes off at once almost instantaneously. Detonation may or may not be audible. In a gas engine, normal combustion takes something on the order of a millisecond, which is much, much slower. Tobyw 14:01, 8 March 2006 (UTC)

24.224.214.173

DIESEL ENGINES DON'T HAVE 'KNOCK'
Simply because the fuel is only injected at the point where it's supposed to burn. Hot air alone doesn't ignite. cbraga 18:43, 27 December 2005 (UTC)

Oh yes they do
Diesel engines "knock" when fuel is injected before there is enough heat to ignite it. Fuel/air accumulates in the chamber until there is enough heat for ignition, then the mixture present explodes, rather than burning progressively as in normal combustion. My recollection is that fuel is injected over 20 degrees or more of crankshaft rotation (for engines using mechanical pumps - pump pistons having roughly sinusoidal motion). Fuel delivery rates are probably due to the need to limit pressures and temperature plus the physical limits of pumping the fuel into the CC. It seems that the stereotypical diesel knock is due to the engines being timed for maximum efficiency. I once timed a replacement pump way too retarded and the engine, which started with great difficulty, was as silent as a gas engine, but smoked terribly due to unburned fuel. A cloud the size of a house, as I recall! Engines with dirty injectors can also knock more than normal due to the larger droplets of fuel being harder to ignite initially, then going off later when there is enough heat and turbulence. Modern diesels are transitioning to electronically controlled injection which doesn't have the pressure and timing limitations of mechanical pumps. They are almost silent, and more odorless.

There are fascinating high speed movies of the gasoline combustion process done in the 1950's which show various forms of preignition and detonation. I think they are on the site for the man who pioneered ultra-high high speed photography - you know the ones, bullets going through apples, milk splashes, and so forth. Can't recall his name right now. Tobyw 13:36, 8 March 2006 (UTC)

Otto/Diesel cycle and diesel engine page errors
There are serious factual and conceptual errors on the following pages:

-Otto Cycle

-Diesel Cycle

-Diesel Engine ( I will add statements to the discussion there)

The Otto and Diesel cycles describe idealized thermodynamic air-standard cycles. The details of the real-world application of these cycles in internal combustion piston engines are discussed, but the theoretical ideal processes - particularly with regard to the heat release profile, the main trait that differentiates the otto and diesel cycles - are not described.

A quick peak at a thermodynamics textbook (I'm currently looking at Van Wylen and Sonntag, "Fundamentals of Classical Thermodynamics," 3rd ed.) reveals the following:

-Otto and Diesel cycles do not specify 2 or 4 stroke. The heat rejection at the end of both cycles is simply understood (on a P-V diagram) to take place at constant volume, i.e. any exhaust and intake process is assumed to require zero work and therefore does not need to be described in detail in the theoretical heat rejection step.

-Both (ideal) cycles include adiabatic compression and expansion; real piston engines proceed via polytropic compression/expansion, involving some heat transfer in each step.

-The theoretical ideal Otto cycle specifies constant-volume heat addition at TDC. In a real gasoline engine, it's not truly constant volume, but it's pretty close.

-The theoretical ideal diesel cycle specifies constant-pressure heat addition, beginning at TDC and proceeding through the early portion of the expansion stroke. In real diesel engines, combustion starts before TDC and is mostly complete soon after TDC.

-for a given compression ratio and heat addition, yes, the ideal Otto cycle theoretically is more efficient than the ideal Diesel cycle. In reality, a diesel engine has a much higher compression ratio than a gasoline spark-ignited engine; even theory will show this produces higher efficiency. A gasoline engine is also throttled, so that at part-load, the intake stroke requires a non-neglible amount of work, reducing efficiency. A diesel also always operates with a lean mixture, which keeps peak combustion temps down, reducing heat loss to the cylinder and head, and so will be more efficient, even at comparable power outputs.

 * Oh Yes! should: BUT since when there is some unused air you can get more ower by injecting to much fuel to compleatly use the air it is quite common that the driver (probably) removes the stop on the injection pump so it can overinject. Result a smoking engine and plenty of unused fuel giving bad economy. The one paying usually tries to satop it and in some countries it is illegal but it happens even so.
 * Also, awhen injecting fuel you at first have wey rich mixture (100%) and it goes to lean during evaporation and combustion. that is also the reason that you can run a diesel engine at low power and high efficiency since there is autoignition and the fuel passes trough carburated.  Seniorsag 18:05, 27 February 2007 (UTC)

-In a gasoline SI engine, knock is indeed influenced by A/F ratio, but knock is not what limits it. With late timing and/or lower compression ratio, the A/F/ ratio can be lowered - but the mixture must always be rich enough to sustain a continuous flame front throughout the entire combustion chamber. The "lean limit" of an engine describes an arbitrary point at which there are an unacceptable number of misfires and partial combustion events. WIth careful attention to mixture preparation and spark plug properties, gasoline engines have been run with very low cycle-to-cycle variability at A/F ratios as high as 22.

-Combustion is incomplete in both gasoline and diesel engines, but not to any significant degree. In a healthy gasoline or diesel engine, the combustion efficiency is typically in excess of 98 percent (see Heywood, "Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals," F3.9). It is misleading to differentiate the diesel and gasoline engines on this basis, and is probably not appropriate to include this information on a page that is supposed to be primarily describing the idealized thermodynamic cycle.

Joe Frickin Friday 13:58, 27 January 2006 (UTC)

Headline text
EYE ON IT

i have read your(joe's)explanation for diesel cycle and diesel engines. but its written that "in diesel cycle fuel burns at a much faster rate than in otto cycle" now what's that? from where has the fuel ignition come in? As these cycles are graphical so everything concerned should be clarified according to the graphs. in the article a term "otto cycle engines" and "diesel cycle engine" has been mentioned what's this? do they mean real engines? one thingmore is it true that diesel engines inject fuel in hot compressed air so proper fuel combustion takes place? is the fuel consumption more efficient that in SI engines? you said that sometimes in diesel engines fuel is injected earlier, so it gets collectes in hte chember and then knocking ocuurs. when does it really happen?(is it that it only happenes due to wrong injection time of the pump or when its timing has been disturbed).

AMAN(Mechanical Engineer)

Basic error..
Quote that the Otto cycle generates more power than a diesel cycle because ir revs faster - this is correct. It is not correct therefore to say that less fuel has to be carried. Diesel engines are inherently more efficient as they extract more heat from the combusted fuel due to a higher compression ratio - a diesel cycle will therefore require less fuel than a petrol engine for a given amount of work delivered.

The Diesel Cycle is not more efficient.
"Diesel engines are inherently more efficient as they extract more heat from the combusted fuel due to a higher compression ratio - - a diesel cycle will therefore require less fuel than a petrol engine for a given amount of work delivered."

Again, we are seeing the confusion of terminology. "Diesel engine" and "Diesel cycle" are two different things. A real Diesel engine is more efficient than a real gasoline, spark-ignited engine due to higher compression ratio and other real-world issues such as throttling and heat rejection. the Diesel cycle is an idealized air-standard thermodynamic cycle, and for a given compression ratio and power output is less efficient than the Otto cycle. The difference between the two idealized cycles is in the heat addition: for the Diesel cycle the heat addition is assumed to take place at constant pressure (a model of the slow combustion in a real Diesel engine), and for the Otto cycle the heat addition is assumed to take place at constant volume (a model of the relatively rapid combustion in a pre-mixed spark-ignited engine).

For full-load operation, a real Diesel engine operated at a reduced compression ratio (on a very high cetane # fuel) will in fact have lower efficiency than a real spark-ignited engine operated at that same compression ratio using a high-octane fuel (such as methanol).

The article badly needs a rewrite to remove its focus from real Diesel engines and place it on the ideal thermodynamic cycle.

Joe Frickin Friday 16:00, 28 February 2006 (UTC)

True for full load, but diesel engine really wins on partial load since it can rum idling on almost no fuel. Otto engine needs a carburetted mixture to burn. Otto engine can only lower power output by 1: Lover operating speed. 2: Leaning out fuel mixture until it burns badly (with rising proportion of unburnt fuel). 3: (Usual method in cars) Choking inflow of air, giving rise to loss of power in the choking and lower efficiency trough lower working pressure. Seniorsag 13:19, 20 January 2007 (UTC)

Efficiency
Some typical and maximum efficiency levels would be useful. Tobyw 12:36, 8 March 2006 (UTC)

An Ideal Diesel Cycle would be isobaric, meaning it would have a constant pressure at the end of the compression stroke before the heat addition process (combustion). However in real systems, the pressure is not really constant, just as during the compression stroke the process is not isentropic. However, during diesel engine analysis many times it is assumed isobaric, in order to resemble a thermodynamically ideal cycle. (Andres Duarte- Aerospace Engineering Student - University of Florida)

Dubious assertion re constant pressure
"constant pressure"? I don't think so. Paul Beardsell 14:06, 28 September 2006 (UTC)

 * This is a theoretical cycle. In this model, while the fuel is burning the pressure is constant. Read the above comments. But, I think it was poor wording that made you make this dubious assertaion claim so I removed it after trying to reword. If you disagree with the wording, please just change it. If you disagree with the centeral claim, please add a comment below. 70.17.92.51 20:23, 24 January 2007 (UTC)

comment on the two previous sections
According to the original patent and Rudolf Diesels ideas the COMBUSTION should be under constant pressure, IE inject the fuel at such a rate that the pressure remained constant.

Practice is not quite such BUT the semi-constant pressure means that you avoid the pressure spike in Otto engines and can thus use higher average pressure during the working stroke. The high pressure also means that usually the fuel autoignites so you have copmpleate combustion even at very low fuel/air ratios at low power. Seniorsag 18:15, 27 February 2007 (UTC)

New graph!
I've converted the graph to SVG (vector graphics) but I'm not sure it's ok. I am not sure the two curves to be arcs... while they are on the new version. Could someone please validate it? Thank you.

Note the new vector graphics scales better with resolution. Also, I've opted for a dark yellow / orange-ish color rather than pure yellow.

Unluckly, Wiki's SVG renderer (or my browser's I dont know) does not seem to support correct arrows at the end of the axis...

—The preceding unsigned comment was added by MaxDZ8 (talk • contribs) 13:05, 11 April 2007 (UTC).

This graph is excellent, the only problem is that it should be pressure (P) over specific volume (v) for that shape of diesel cycle. Specific volume is denoted by a small v, and means volume/weight e.g. m3/kg. Lkleinjans 13:15, 21 May 2007 (UTC)

Ok, I'll change all the 'V' to 'v'. It looked uppercase in the actual version. Anyway, I compared the curvatures and I observed a difference wrt the "original" on the page. Should I correct this as well or it's just ok anyway? The "new" version uses two circles, the previous one didn't use two circles. One is, the other is ... some kind of curve I'm not sure about.

 MaxDZ8 talk  20:33, 21 May 2007 (UTC)

(Uploaded new version to the commons,  MaxDZ8 talk  17:40, 22 May 2007 (UTC))

(Uploaded new version to the commons. Special thanks to Lkleinjans for the feedback!)  MaxDZ8 talk  17:20, 23 May 2007 (UTC)

Reason for hiding text
Could I ask why so much text is hidden (only visible in edit mode) within the article? Shouldn't it just be removed or shown? Lkleinjans 16:04, 3 June 2007 (UTC)

Cut off ratio
Is the cut of ratio V3/V2? Can someone verify this? Lkleinjans 10:05, 6 June 2007 (UTC) Answer:- If your compression process on the p-V diagram( 'p' on x-axis) is represented by process 1-2 then definitely the cut off ratio is v3/v2.... — Preceding unsigned comment added by 115.242.110.194 (talk) 16:39, 13 August 2014 (UTC)

Pressure
Everyone knows that diesels are more efficient because the pressure ratio is higher. Is it worth noting specifically that the T3 is higher than the Otto cycle (due to ideal gas law based upon higher pressure ratio)? Most people know Diesels run colder. As far as I can tell, this is somewhat of a misconception. The actual thermodynamic cycle is hotter in a diesel. Coolant temperature may be lower due to more efficient cooling system (required to keep engine block colder due higher loads and lower material strength at high temperatures) and more efficient use of the fuel. Is this correct?

Also, is it worth noting here that intercoolers are in inefficient process (because heat is rejected to the atmosphere), but their loss is made up for due to an increase in power density of the engine?

Is it worth putting in some actual pressure and temperature values (such as those listed on Diesel_engine) to give the reader some real world numbers to put in perspective?

Metric america (talk) 05:09, 19 January 2009 (UTC)

Octane rating of diesel
I remove the claim that diesel allows higher compression ratio because it doesn't self-ignite as easily. That's backwards--diesel is designed to self ignite easily and would have a very low octane rating. (http://www.madsci.org/posts/archives/2000-10/973012182.Ch.r.html). The diesel engine doesn't have knock problems because the fuel isn't injected until it's time. I'd explain more about that in the article but it belongs in the engine article not here.Ccrrccrr 02:00, 19 October 2007 (UTC)

 * Yeah, Octane rating is irrelevant in Diesels. The fuel is injected directly into the cylinder during the power stroke and self ignites near instantly. The fuel is supposed to self ignite and burn off as quickly as possible while being injected into the cylinder.--129.69.25.217 (talk) 18:01, 15 January 2008 (UTC)

A friend of mine told me there's a quality measure involving the easyness to self-ignite. Just the opposite of the Octane. I don't remember how this is called (Detanes?), maybe it's worth a quick note.  MaxDZ8 talk  08:57, 16 January 2008 (UTC)

Cetane rating is what you are looking for. Some should link it from this article, and maybe the engine article too.Ccrrccrr (talk) 13:34, 16 January 2008 (UTC)

Section General information is unnecessary
The section General information provides no relevant information on this topic and is misleading, because of that it could be deleted with no harm. Llewelyn MT (talk) 18:33, 14 April 2008 (UTC)

??? diesel engine properties ???
???""The piston is already moving down by the time combustion begins. !!! [citation needed] Fuel injection can be limited to a short part, or continue to near the bottom of the power stroke  !!! [citation needed]. If combustion is incomplete when the piston reaches the bottom of its stroke, smoke is generated and fuel is wasted. [vague] [citation needed]

Diesel engines are nevertheless more efficient than Otto cycle engines overall, but only during partial load with fuel cut-off at part of the power stroke. !!!  [citation needed]""  ???

anybody agrees with the above?

Wdl1961 (talk) 02:51, 23 January 2009 (UTC)

Upper case and lower case
Why does the article say, that pressure is symbolized by upper-case P and specific volume by lower-case v, while on the picture it is vice versa? Which is right? Or does it mean that the letter-case does not matter? Thanks. Jan.Kamenicek (talk) 09:26, 6 September 2009 (UTC)

The Diesel cycle article is plain wrong
The article starts “The Diesel cycle is the thermodynamic cycle which approximates the pressure and volume of the combustion chamber of the Diesel engine, invented by Rudolph Diesel in 1897.” This statement is plain wrong.

The “Diesel Cycle” as described has no useful correspondence with any real “Diesel Engine”. Of course, real engines never correspond exactly with these theoretical thermodynamic models. However, the Otto Cycle p/v diagram is generally accepted as a usefully good explanation of a petrol (gasoline) engine.

If there is a real engine that corresponds to the “Diesel Cycle” p/v diagram, its nothing like any real diesel engine. In fact the theoretical p/v diagram that best matches a Diesel Engine is exactly the same overall shape as the Otto Cycle p/v diagram. What is different in the diagrams are only the typical values in the p-axis.

How do I justify these assertions? First, the mechanics of a 4-stroke petrol engine and a 4-stroke diesel engine are geometrically similar (in fact when Volkswagen introduced their first diesel in the 1970’s, they just adapted their 1600 cc petrol engine, mainly by increasing the compression ratio and of course fitting fuel injection). Second, consider the process of the combustion of the fuel. In both engines it happens around about (but not exactly) the point where the piston is near the top of the cylinder (TDC). Around this point the piston is moving relatively slowly, and therefore the volume contained within the cylinder is changing relatively slowly. In both cases (whether or not “knock” occurs) the burning of the fuel is fast compared with the speed of piston or volume change. What is different, and the nub of Rudolf Diesel’s invention, is the ignition of the fuel. In a petrol engine the fuel/air is mixed before it is fully compressed and though the temperature of the mixture increases as it is compressed, the compression ratio is such that it does not reach the temperature where the fuel ignites spontaneously. In contrast, in a diesel engine the air without fuel is compressed to such a pressure, and hence temperature, that as soon as the fuel is injected, it ignites and burns. In both cases the burning adds heat to the gaseous mixture and it being confined to a nearly fixed volume, dictates that it’s pressure increases. This is an isometric process as correctly stated for the “Otto Cycle”. Putting it another way, there is no mechanical feature of a normal diesel engine that corresponds with a isometric heat addition, or the horizontal red line between points 2 and 3 on the diagram.

So where has this “Diesel Cycle” as described come from if it has nothing to do with the engines?

Martinharryking (talk) 18:19, 20 January 2010 (UTC)

 * This article (and petrol is worse) as it doesn't clearly state the significant difference in an understandable manner. Ask around, how many people (mechanics included) can actually state this and get it right?
 * However your point here is simply wrong. The Diesel engine is an engine with a Diesel cycle. By definition, and by practice too. The curves aren't as square-cornered as those idealised Carnots in the textbooks, but it is the fundamental difference: constant volume during combustion (i.e. Otto cycle, from a short "explosion") vs constant pressure (i.e. Diesel, from sustained injection of fuel and a longer burn). If you look at a UK military vehicle engine of the 1960s (the great era of multifuel piston engines) you'll see a mixture of fuels, sparks, injection and scavenging or supercharging, but it's this fundamental difference of continued burning whilst the piston is already moving downwards to expand the combustion volume (and thus approximating the Diesel cycle's constnat pressure cycle) that distinguishes them. Andy Dingley (talk) 18:59, 20 January 2010 (UTC)

Try looking at e.g. http://www.scipub.org/fulltext/ajas/ajas55540-547.pdf figures 6, 7, and 8 show combustion chamber pressures peaking at 70-80 bar around TDC. Given typical diesel compression ratios of the order of 20:1 to point 2 in the p/v diagram how do you account for these if its not point 3 being more like Otto than "Diesel Cycle". Martinharryking (talk) 20:16, 20 January 2010 (UTC)

 * "there is no mechanical feature of a normal diesel engine that corresponds with a isometric heat addition, or the horizontal red line between points 2 and 3 on the diagram."
 * There is. It's fuel injection, past the point of ignition.
 * You seem to be advocating here a renaming of "Diesel engine" as "compression ignition engine". Now that's not a bad point, diesel engines usually are (that's why I noted the '60s multi-fuels) and also what a "diesel engine" has become is certainly more fluid than rigid adherence to the same cycles followed by the original slow-speed heavy-oil engines familiar to Rudolf Diesel himself. However this article is on the Diesel cycle, and that surely hasn't changed.
 * By all means clarify the relationship (in the diesel engine article) between the Diesel cycle, the early Diesel oil engines, and the later high-speed diesel engines - the article certainly needs clarification. As to your point, which we might state in a manner so that we can both agree it, "Modern high-speed diesel engines approximate the Otto cycle", then not only would I not argue too much, but there's even precedent for just that statement from the uber-reference of the lot, Ricardo:
 * "Modern developments in high-speed Diesel engines have led to a wide departure from the slow-speed and a much closer approach to the petrol engine, not only in mechanical design but also as regards the thermodynamic cycle on which they operate. That is to say, the idea of working on a constant-pressure cycle, never strictly adhered to even in the slow-speed engine, has in the high-speed engine gone entirely by the board, and instead a cycle is used which more nearly resembles the constant-volume cycle of the petrol engine."
 * That said though, that's applicable to the high-speed diesel engine (i.e., everything mobile or post-war). It's not true of Diesel's original heavy oil engines, nor is it true of this article, on the Diesel cycle. Andy Dingley (talk) 22:01, 20 January 2010 (UTC)
 * That said though, that's applicable to the high-speed diesel engine (i.e., everything mobile or post-war). It's not true of Diesel's original heavy oil engines, nor is it true of this article, on the Diesel cycle. Andy Dingley (talk) 22:01, 20 January 2010 (UTC)

 * The original diesel with air injection is more like the theoretical model with a more controlled combustion.  It is educational and  is not perfect.Wdl1961 (talk) 23:03, 20 January 2010 (UTC)
 * I don't understand that either. Air blast injection is one thing, but it doesn't (AFAIK) affect the shape of the cycle by a noticeable amount? Andy Dingley (talk) 00:20, 23 January 2010 (UTC)

 * So what's to do?
 * Yes, there's a lack of clarity here. How about we do something like this:

 * Diesel cycle is unchanged. It's right. Not commonly used, but the cycle isn't wrong.
 * diesel engine becomes a BOLD redirect to the canonical article under Compression ignition engine.
 * Compression ignition engine becomes the main article, moved from the old diesel engine. It expands to describe "high-speed diesel engines"
 * Homogeneous charge compression ignition (where the Compression ignition engine redir points at the moment) expands to describe Ackroyd cycle, hot bulb engines etc.
 * Heavy oil engine tries to cover early diesel engines, when they really approximated the Diesel cycle
 * Thoughts? Andy Dingley (talk) 00:29, 23 January 2010 (UTC)
 * Separately, we then make two stroke engine and four stroke engine as lightweight as possible, splitting most of their content into four articles: 2 petrol, 2 diesel, 4 petrol, 4 diesel.
 * I have no idea how to handle the politics of petrol engine vs. gasoline engine. Also Otto engine should probably move most Otto content to Otto cycle, and the bulk of the small detail to the relevant engine article. 00:29, 23 January 2010 (UTC)

PV curves are wrong surely?
Hi. I can't see why between points 2 and 3, there is no rise in pressure. Surely the whole point is to release heat energy to increase pressure, which will then drop during the power stroke, and then continue to drop through the exhaust stroke. The PV graph on the 4 Stroke page, looks more realistic.PJHB (talk) 09:19, 13 June 2018 (UTC)

 * It's a Diesel cycle. That should have been explained in the article and although correct to state this, the article might not be making it as clear as necessary.
 * This is the Diesel cycle, not the cycle used by diesel engines. It's idealised, so has sharp corners and level lines which the practical cycle might not. Also the modern high-speed diesel engine (since 1930) deliberately uses a different cycle, more of a combined cycle between Otto and Diesel.
 * The theoretical, and original, Diesel cycle uses combustion at constant pressure. I don't like the diagram  here, the section 2–3 should be longer and cover a wider range of volumes. Achieving such a thing in practice is (of course) harder, and typically the section  2–3 is only constant pressure for part of it, then starts to fall away slightly. If you can find a copy of the (rare and hugely expensive) Ricardo's 1922 The Internal Combustion Engine. Vol I: Slow-Speed Engines (1st ed.), there's the best discussion of this you'll find in English.
 * Diesel followed on from the gas engine and the Otto engine. He knew that the gas engine (without compression) was limited in efficiency, both thermodynamically and in power-to-weight. He also knew that the Otto engine (the rapid, constant-volume combustion engine) would be the choice for lightweight engines on cars, but that it needed a complex petrol fuel in order to permit such a rapid combustion in a controlled fashion. Diesel wanted to invent an efficient engine as a generating set (etc.) for factories and ships, running on a cheap slow-burning fuel.  His decision was to burn this fuel at a constant pressure, thus simplifying the combustion chemistry.  This slow burn would take place whilst the piston was travelling down the cylinder and expanding the volume, and the rate of combustion would be controlled by the precisely controlled rate of fuel injection, into an excess of air, such that the pressure remained constant.  Any drop in pressure from expansion would (ideally) be compensated for exactly by the combustion of more fuel. Point 3 (and how late in the cycle it can be) is limited by the piston expansion after this that is still required to have an efficient isentropic expansion before reach point 4, thus leaving the exhaust gases with minimal residual energy.  As I said, the diagram might be clearer (and more realistic) if the distance from 2–3 was increased. There is no separate "ignition phase" and "power stroke" on a diesel, they happen simultaneously. Andy Dingley (talk) 09:40, 13 June 2018 (UTC)
 * Some past discussion at User_talk:Yiba Andy Dingley (talk) 11:16, 13 June 2018 (UTC)
 * I am new to trying to help on an article. I have read many of the comments here.  I have a few  things to say.  To me, the article on the Diesel cycle is in a terrible state.  It might be better to start over with something different.  The Diesel cycle is of tremendous historical importance.  My understanding is that Diesel made engine design into a science.  That said, currently, there are no real engines that use the Diesel cycle.  Diesel engines follow the principles of the dual cycle--which is a "marriage" of two concepts--the Otto cycle (heat at constant volume) and the Diesel cycle (heat at constant pressure).
 * As I said, I am very new at this. I think there is a need for a clear discussion on the thermodynamic cycles of internal combustion engines. ErnsDesk (talk) 02:06, 10 December 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Diesel cycle


text:
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title: BBC Radio 5


text:
Australo-Papuan babbler

The Pomatostomidae (Australo-Papuan or Australasian babblers, also known as pseudo-babblers) are small to medium-sized birds endemic to Australia-New Guinea. For many years, the Australo-Papuan babblers were classified, rather uncertainly, with the Old World babblers (Timaliidae), on the grounds of similar appearance and habits. More recent research, however, indicates that they are too basal to belong the Passerida – let alone the Sylvioidea where the Old World babblers are placed – and they are now classed as a separate family close to the Orthonychidae (logrunners). Five species in two genus are currently recognised, although the red-breasted subspecies rubeculus of the grey-crowned babbler may prove to be a separate species.

Description
The Australo-Papuan babblers are medium-sized terrestrial birds with sombre plumage and long decurved bills. They range in size from 17 – in length and 30 - 85 g in weight. The wings are short and round, and the tail is long and often held fanned which makes it look broad as well. The feet and legs are strong and adapted to a terrestrial existence. There is no sexual dimorphism in the plumage, which is composed of brown, russet and grey colours, with all but the Papuan babbler having striking white markings on the face and throat. The plumage of juvenile birds is similar to that of adults.

Behaviour and ecology
All five species are ground-feeding omnivores and highly social. Babblers live in family groups and small flocks of up to about 20 individuals and forage communally, calling loudly to one another all day long. They feed principally on insects and other invertebrates, but will also take seeds, fruits and small vertebrates. Most food is obtained on the ground, although they will also forage in low bushes; the grey-crowned babbler and Papuan babbler feed more extensively in vegetation than the other species. The long bill is used to probe and overturn large objects. They will also hold objects with one foot and hammer them with the bill in order to extract food.

Breeding
Australo-Papuan babblers are monogamous breeders which defend territories. The breeding pair will be aided in breeding by a number of helpers from its group. This is similar to the cooperative breeding system used by the fish species Neolamprologus pulcher with the difference being that N. pulcher are polygynous instead of monogamous. A number of groups may have more than one breeding pair. Extra male helpers aid the male in his responsibilities whereas the females aid the main breeding female in hers. They have an extended breeding season. Australo-Papuan babblers construct large nests for communal roosting, and these nests may be used for breeding, or new nests may be constructed. There may be a large number of nests used by the group in a small area. When the female is breeding she alone uses the breeding nest. Construction, both of roosting and breeding nests, is undertaken by all birds in the group. Between one and six eggs are laid (the number and range varies by species) and are usually incubated by the breeding female alone (although a helper female may aid occasionally). The breeding male and other helper males feed the breeding female during incubation. Incubation lasts between 19–25 days. The female broods the chicks until they are able to thermoregulate, and the chicks fledge after 16–23 days. After leaving the nest, the chicks will continue to be fed by the adults for a number of months.

title: Australo-Papuan babbler


text:
Sapphism

Sapphism is an umbrella term for any woman attracted to women or in a relationship with another woman, regardless of their sexual orientations, and encompassing the romantic love between women.

The term is inclusive of individuals who are lesbian, bisexual, pansexual, aromantic, asexual, or queer. There are also sapphic people who are non-binary or genderqueer.

Etymology
The term has been used since the 1890s. It derives from Sappho, a Greek poetess whose verses mainly focused on love between women and her own homosexual passions. She was born on the Greek island Lesbos, which also inspired the term lesbianism.

Sappho's work is one of the few ancient references to sapphic love. Her poetry, significant in quality, is a rare example of female sexuality separated from reproduction in history.

Use
The term sapphic encompasses the experiences of lesbians and bisexual women, for example, among other plurisexual and multiromantic individuals. Asexual and aromantic women who are attracted to a woman are also sapphic.

Some sapphic individuals may be non-binary or genderqueer, using the term more broadly. There are also equivalent terms for relationships between men (Achillean, named in reference of Achilles and Patroclus, or Vincian, referencing sexuality of Leonardo da Vinci), between a man and a woman (duaric), and involving at least one non-binary person (diamoric or enbian).

Sapphic is also used in LGBT literature for works involving at least one relationship between women, regardless if they are lesbian or not.

title: Sapphism


text:
Veturi

Veturi Sundararama Murthy (29 January 1936 – 22 May 2010), known mononymously by his surname Veturi, was an Indian poet, lyricist and journalist who is popular for writing Telugu songs. His career in Telugu cinema spanned more than four decades.

Early life
Veturi was born to Chandrasekhar Sastry and Kamalamba in Pedakallepalli, near Challapalli, Krishna into a Telugu Brahmin family. Veturi was a nephew of the Telugu Research Scholar Veturi Prabhakara Sastri. His grandfather Veturi Sundara Sastry was also a poet.

Education
Veturi completed his schooling in Diviseema, Jaggayyapeta, near Vijayawada in Krishna district, and SSLC in his grandmother's village. Later, Veturi went to Chennai for his intermediate studies and came back to Vijayawada where he completed his degree at S.R.R. Government College. He was a student of the legendary Viswanatha Satyanarayana at this college.

Career as a journalist
Veturi joined Andhra Prabha as a journalist in 1952, after his education. He learned the basics of editing a news article from his senior at Andhra Prabha, Narla Venkateswara Rao, whom he considers his first teacher. In 1959, he joined a weekly called Andhra Patrika, where Bapu and Mullapudi Venkata Ramana were his colleagues. He was the in-charge of the Cinema section at Andhra Patrika. He also worked for the Andhra Pradesh Congress Committee's official daily newspaper, called Andhra Janata, as an editor.

In 1962, he became the first and only Telugu journalist to interview the then Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, who came to inaugurate the Srisailam Hydroelectricity project. He covered the speeches of national leaders like Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan. In 1964, he worked as an assembly reporter.

His articles are said to be very catchy and witty. For instance, he referred to the meeting of MLAs in Hotel Dwaraka, near the Andhra Pradesh State Assembly as "Adigo Dwaraka - Ivigo Alamandalu" ("This is Dwaraka and here are the cattle") (అదిగో ద్వారక). His writing style caught the attention of the film industry due to his use of traditional poetic rules related to alliteration and rhyme for describing current affairs.

Entry into films
Veturi had contacts with the Telugu film industry during his days as a journalist. He used to meet veteran lyric writer Dasarathi often. Legendary director V. Nagayya offered him a role in his film, Naa Illu (1953). However, two days before the shooting began, Veturi decided not to act as he felt that he was not fit for acting, and wrote a letter of apology to Nagayya for rejecting his offer. N. T. Rama Rao, has invited him to join the film industry as a lyricist. In 1974, he wrote his first song, "Bharatanaari Charitamu" (భారతనారి చరితము), in the form of Harikatha, for O Seeta Katha (1974) under the direction of K. Viswanath.

1970s
In 1978, K Viswanath's Siri Siri Muvva proved his prowess in expressing diverse emotions with poetry. In 1977, actor Sr. N.T.R's Adavi Ramudu showcased Veturi's talent for penning inspirational and romantic lyrics. The album was an instant hit among various audiences. Acharya Aatreya, the leading lyricist in those days, was known to take days for writing a song. Veturi became the first choice for directors and producers too because of his ability to write a song to the director's taste in a few minutes. He went on to pen more than 5,000 songs in his career. He wrote more mass numbers for movies like Vetagadu and Driver Ramudu, and classics for movies like Sankarabharanam and Sagara Sangamam. In particular, Sankarabharanam stood as a landmark in the Telugu film industry.

1980s
After the surge of his popularity during the 1970s, he went on to work with a variety of directors and actors in the 1980s. He wrote classics for directors like Singeetam Srinivasa Rao, Dasari Narayana Rao, Bapu, Jandhyala, Vamsy and mass numbers for directors like Raghavendra Rao, A. Kodandarami Reddy, Vijaya Bapineedu. He delivered a number of hits for senior actors like Sr. N.T.R, Akkineni Nageswara Rao, Ghattamaneni Krishna, Shobhan Babu, Krishnam Raju and upcoming stars like Chiranjeevi, Nandamuri Balakrishna, Nagarjuna, Daggubati Venkatesh. This golden period in his career saw memorable albums like Saptapadi, Subhodayam, Subhalekha, Sagara Sangamam, Meghasandesam, Mudda Mandaram, Malle Pandiri, Nalugu Stambhalata, Rendu Jalla Seeta, Amarajeevi, Sreevariki Prema Lekha, Ananda Bhairavi, Srivari Sobhanam, Mogudu Pellalu, Chantabbai, Sitaara, Anveshana, Alapana, Mayuri, Amavasya Chandrudu, Janaki Ramudu and Geetaanjali.

1990s
During the late 1980s, Veturi's mass numbers garnered a lot of response from the public resulting in directors demanding more and more of them. However, Veturi still maintained his balance between classics and mass-numbers with movies like Jagadeka Veerudu Atiloka Sundari, Sarigamalu, Sitaramayya Gaari Manavaralu, Matru Devo Bhava, and Mechanic Alludu. Veturi was given the opportunity to dub many Tamil, Malayalam and Hindi movies. Some of his dubbed albums, for instance Iruvar and Devaraagam, received wide acclaim.

2000s
During this period, Veturi created classics like Gangotri and Swarabhishekam. His association with young directors like Sekhar Kammula and Gunasekhar produced some memorable albums, like Anand, Godavari, Varudu, Arjun, Premishte (Dubbed version of Kaadhal) and Leader.

Awards and honors
Veturi received several national and regional awards for his contributions to literature and films. He has been conferred an honorary Doctorate in the 23rd convocation of Acharya Nagarjuna University. In 2007, he received the Jandhyala Memorial Award.

National Awards
He got the National Film Award for Best Lyrics for the song "Ralipoye Puvva" (రాలిపోయె పువ్వా) in the film Matrudevobhava, making him the second Telugu film lyricist to achieve the distinction after the revolutionary poet, Sri Sri. In 2006, he declared that he would return the National Award if Telugu is not given the status of Classical Language by the Government of India. In 2008, the Government of India declared Telugu as a classical language.

Filmfare Awards
He received filmfare award for the song, Uppongele Godavari (ఉప్పొంగెలే గోదావరి) in the 2006 movie, Godavari. In 2008, he received the Filmfare Lifetime Achievement Award.

Nandi Awards
He received the Nandi award for best lyrics, from the Government of Andhra Pradesh, six times. They are listed here.

Manaswini Awards
He received two Manaswini awards.
 * 1) Song: Venuvai vachchaanu (వేణువై వచ్చాను), Movie: Matrudevobhava, Year: 1993.
 * 2) Song: Aakaashaana suryudundadu (ఆకాశాన సూర్యుడుండడు), Movie: Sundarakanda, Year: 1992.

Filmography
He wrote thousands of songs as a lyricist for many successful Telugu films. He has also acted in very few films in cameo roles. He acted as a fake swamiji in a film, which succeeded in producing good comedy. He also penned Dialogues along with writer Jandhyala for the movie Siri Siri Muvva.

1970s

 * O Seeta Katha (1974) (lyrics: Bhaaratanaarii Charitamu (Harikatha))
 * Adavi Ramudu (1977) (lyrics: Krushi Vunte Manushulu Rushulautaru)
 * Pantulamma (1977) (lyrics: Maanasa Veenaa Madhu Geetam)
 * Siri Siri Muvva (1978) (lyrics: Andaaniki Andam, Eavari Kevaru Ee Lokamlo, Gajje Gallumantuntae, Jhummandhi Nadam Sayyandi Padam, Maa Voori Devudamma, Odupunna Pilupu, Raa Digi Raa Divi Ninchi)
 * Gorintaku (1979) (lyrics: Komma Kommako Sannayi)
 * Sankarabharanam (1979) (lyrics: Sankara Nadasareena Para)

1980s

 * Saptapadi (1981)
 * Manchu Pallaki (1982) (lyrics)
 * Subhalekha (1982) (lyrics: Raagaala Pallakilo Koyilamma Raaledu Eevela Endukammaa?)
 * Khaidi (1983)
 * Manthri Gari Viyyankudu (1983) (lyrics: Manasa Sirasa née namame padeda ee vela, Coconut manaku dosti okate asti raa, jabaru dasti cheste nasti raa, Chi chi po papa oppulakumma , Koluvainade urki korivayinade maa kobbarikayala subbarayude , Emanani née cheli padudane , Sala sala nanu kavinchanela )
 * Meghasandesham (1983) (lyrics: Aakaasa Desaana Aashada Masaana)
 * Mundadugu (1983)
 * Sagara Sangamam (1983)
 * Sitaara (1983)
 * Rustum (1984)
 * Agni Parvatam (1985) (lyrics: Agni Parvatam, Ee Gaalilo)
 * Anveshana (1985) (writer: Edalo Laya, Keeravani, Ekanta Vela, Ilalo Kalise)
 * Chantabbai (1986)
 * Padamati Sandhya Ragam (1986)
 * Pratighatana (1986) (lyrics: Ee Duryodhana Dussaasana Durvineeta Lokamlo)
 * Aakhari Poratam (1988) (lyrics: Tella Cheeraku, Eppudu Eppudu)
 * Marana Mrudangam (1988)
 * August 15 Raatri (1988) (lyrics)
 * Geetaanjali (1989) (lyrics: Jallanta Kavvinta Kaavaalile, Nandikonda Vaagullona, Jagada Jagada Jagadam, Om Namah Nayana Shrutulaku, O Paapaa Laalii!, Aamani Paadave Haayigaa)

1990s

 * Jagadeka Veerudu Athiloka Sundari (1990) (lyrics: Abba Nee Teeyani Debba, dhinakkuta chamakkuro, mana bhaaratamlo, amdalalo ahomahodayam, jai chiranjiiva, jagadekaveera, priyatama nanu palakrinchu pranayama, yamaho ni yama yama andam)
 * Chanti (1991) (lyrics: Pavuraniki Panjaraniki, idi tailam petti, jabiliki vennalaki puttina punnamile, o prema na prema, ennenno andalu)
 * Gang Leader (1991) (lyrics: paalabugga, vayasu vayasu)
 * Nirnayam (1991) (lyrics: Mila Mila Merisenu Tara)
 * Dharma Kshetram (1992) (lyrics: Koramenu Komalam Sora Shobanam and more songs from this film)
 * President Gari Pellam (1992) (lyrics: Nuvvu Malle Teega, Paruvala Kodi, Manduri Ambothu, Aa Oddu Ee Oddu, Umma Kavali, Kandirrega Nadumu Daani)
 * Sundarakanda (1992) (lyrics: AakaaSaana SuuryuDunDaDu SandevELakE, kokilamma kotha pata paadindi, sundarakaamdaku sandade sandadi, inka inka, ulikipadaku, arey mava illaliki)
 * Govinda Govinda (1993) (lyrics: O Naveena, andama anduma, indira mandira sundara taara, premante idena)
 * Matru Devo Bhava (1993) (lyrics: Raalipoye Puvva Neeku Raagalenduke, venuvai vachanu bhuvananiki, kanniti kaluvalu, raagam anuragam)
 * Mechanic Alludu (1993)
 * Super Police (1994)
 * Ramudochhadu (1996) (lyrics: Maa Palle Repallanta, Gumma Gumma Muddu Gumma, Vareva, Guvva Koose Puvvu Poose, srumgaara kaavyaala)
 * Iddaru(1997)
 * Annamayya(1997)
 * Ravoyi Chandamama (1999) (lyrics: Nanda Nandana, Jagadajam Jawani, Swapna Venuvedo, Mallepuvva, Leta Leta, Love to Live, Jhummani Jhummani)
 * Adbhutam (1999) (lyrics: lyrics Nityam ekanta kshaname adiga)
 * Chudalani Unadhi(1998) "Yamaha Nagari" Lyrics

2000s

 * Badri (2000) (writer: Vevela Mainala Ganam Chali Pidugullo)
 * Annayya (2000) (writer: Himaseemallo, Gusagusale, Vaana vallappa)
 * sakhi (2000, Dubbed version) (lyrics: sakhiya celiya, alai pongera kanna, kaay love chedugudu, kalalai poyenu na premalu, snehituda snehituda, September maasam September maasam, ede ede vayyari varudu)
 * Bava Nachadu (2001) (lyrics: Akka Bava Nachada)
 * Mrigaraju (2001) (writer: Ramaiah Paadaletti, Satamanamannadile, Yelaley Yelalamma)
 * Indra (2002) (writer: Ammadu Appachi)
 * Tagore (2003) (writer: Manmadha Manmadha)
 * Simhadri (2003)
 * Anand (2004) (writer: Vacche Vacche, Yamunatheeram, Nuvvena, Charumati I Love You, Telisi Telisi, Yedalogaanam)
 * Arjun (2004) (lyrics: Madhura Madhura Meenakshi)
 * Arya (2004)
 * Yuva (2004, Dubbed version)
 * Premisthe (2004, Dubbed version)
 * Chatrapati (2005)
 * Ghajini (2005 film) (lyrics: Rangola Ola, Oku Maru Kalisina)
 * Godavari (2006) (lyrics: Uppongele Godavari)
 * Sainikudu (2006)
 * Madhumasam (2007)
 * Happy Days (2007)
 * Dashavataram (2008, Dubbed version)
 * Kantri (2008) (lyrics: Vayasunamy)
 * Sundarakanda (2008) (lyricist)
 * Malli Malli (2009) (lyricist)
 * Bendu Apparao R.M.P (2009)
 * Varudu (2010) (lyrics: All songs)
 * Leader (2010)
 * Simha (2010) (lyrics: Kanulara Chudhamu)
 * Villain (2010) (dubbed version of Raavanan)
 * Badrinath (2011) (lyrics: omkareshwari)
 * Surya S/o Krishnan (2008) (dubbed version of Vaaranam Aayiram)
 * Abhi(2011)("lyrics: Vangathota malupu kada")
 * Bus Stop (2012) ("Lyrics: "Rekkalocchina Prema" and "Pattuko Pattuko")

Sirikaakolanu Chinnadi
This book was originally a "musical play" telecasted on the All India Radio. The story describes the culture and people during the time of the king Krishna Deva Raya through the story of a Devadasi. The original play has music by the great music director Pendyala Nageswara Rao. One can see the beauty of the Telugu language in this book. Veturi was introduced to the director K. Viswanath through this book and later their combination was a big hit. N.T.Rama Rao was so impressed by the story of this book that he wanted to make it as a movie. It is believed that there were some discussions on the script but the movie was never produced.

Kommako Kommako Sannaayi
A book titled komma kommakO sannAyi was published by "Veturi Sahitii Samiti". This book contains 27 articles written by Veturi celebrating his association with some famous personalities in the Telugu film industry. It also contains descriptions of some of his songs. The personalities covered include the following:
 * 1) Music directors: Pendyala Nageswara Rao, S. Rajeswara Rao, K. V. Mahadevan, Adi Narayana Rao, Ramesh Naidu, Rajan – Nagendra, Chakravarty, Ilayaraja, MM Keeravaani & A.R.Rahman
 * 2) Singers: S._P._Balasubrahmanyam
 * 3) Lyricists: Daita Gopalam, Samudrala (Sr), Atreya, Dasarathi,
 * 4) Actors: Nagayya, Jagayya, N. T. Rama Rao & Relangi
 * 5) Directors and producers: Nagi Reddy, Jandhyala, Bapu – Ramana

Many of these articles were originally published in a Telugu magazine called Haasam. Veturi's prowess in the Telugu language & literature and his vast knowledge of Carnatic music can be seen in this book. Veturi often quotes many of his own lyrics in this book and those examples offer a glimpse of his genius. In particular, his explanation of the song Swararaaga gangaa pravaahamE (Movie: Sarigamalu) is a masterpiece.

Personal life
Veturi was married to Seeta Maha Lakshmi and has three sons: Ravi Prakash, Chandrasekhar and Nanda Kishore.

Controversies
In March 2010, Veturi openly criticized the Film Nagar Cooperative Society officials for not handing over the 1000 sq.yard land that was allotted to him about 28 years ago. He alleged that several juniors and ineligible people were given plots ahead of him. He was allegedly offered a double bedroom flat for 1.5 million.

After his death, noted singer Mano and senior actor Vijay Chandar demanded the government to give the land to his family.

Death
Veturi died of a pulmonary hemorrhage at a private hospital in Hyderabad on 22 May 2010, aged 74, at about 9:30 p.m. local time. He was admitted to the hospital two days earlier and was kept in the Intensive Care Unit (ICU) there as his health was deteriorating.

K. Viswanath, who introduced Veturi to the film industry, stated that "his works would please even the gods". Director Sekhar Kammula, who worked with him to deliver some critically acclaimed songs, wrote a four-page article in the daily Sakshi describing Veturi's death as his "personal loss".

Legacy
Appaji Ambarisha Darbha, a creative digital-media professional turned actor made a font with the name "Veturi" which was inaugurated by Telugu lyricist Sirivennela Seetharama Sastry in 2018.

title: Veturi


text:
Testicular torsion

Testicular torsion occurs when the spermatic cord (from which the testicle is suspended) twists, cutting off the blood supply to the testicle. The most common symptom in children is sudden, severe testicular pain. The testicle may be higher than usual in the scrotum and vomiting may occur. In newborns, pain is often absent and instead the scrotum may become discolored or the testicle may disappear from its usual place.

Most of those affected have no obvious prior underlying health problems. Testicular tumor or prior trauma may increase risk. Other risk factors include a congenital malformation known as a "bell-clapper deformity" wherein the testis is inadequately attached to the scrotum allowing it to move more freely and thus potentially twist. Cold temperatures may also be a risk factor. The diagnosis should usually be made based on the presenting symptoms, but requires timely diagnosis and treatment to avoid testicular loss. An ultrasound can be useful when the diagnosis is unclear.

Treatment is by physically untwisting the testicle, if possible, followed by surgery. Pain can be treated with opioids. Outcome depends on time to correction. If successfully treated within six hours onset, it is often good. However, if delayed for 12 or more hours the testicle is typically not salvageable. About 40% of people require removal of the testicle.

It is most common just after birth and during puberty. It occurs in about 1 in 4,000 to 1 in 25,000 males under 25 years of age each year. Of children with testicular pain of rapid onset, testicular torsion is the cause of about 10% of cases. Complications may include an inability to have children. The condition was first described in 1840 by Louis Delasiauve.

Signs and symptoms
Testicular torsion usually presents with severe testicular pain or pain in the groin and lower abdomen. Pain generally begins suddenly and typically involves only one side. There is often associated nausea and vomiting. The testicle may lie higher in the scrotum due to twisting and subsequent shortening of the spermatic cord or may be positioned in a horizontal orientation. Mild warmth and redness of the overlying area may be present. Elevation of the testicle may worsen the pain. Urinary symptoms, such as pain or increased frequency of urination are also typically absent. Symptom onset often follows physical activity or trauma to the testes or scrotum. Children with testicular torsion may awaken with testicular or abdominal pain in the middle of the night or in the morning. There may be a history of previous, similar episodes of scrotal pain due to prior transient testicular torsion with spontaneous resolution.

Complications

 * Testicular infarction: Testicular damage occurs as a consequence of decreased blood flow, and therefore decreased oxygen and nutrient supply, to the testicle. If the testicle is not viable during surgical exploration, it must be removed to prevent further necrosis, or tissue death.
 * Infertility: The impact of testicular torsion on long-term fertility is not yet fully understood. However, testicular torsion may cause abnormal sperm function on semen analysis, although these abnormalities are more likely to be found in adolescents and in adults. Torsion does not seem to affect long-term sperm function in neonates. The cause of abnormal sperm function is thought to be due to the following mechanisms:
 * Immunological theory, also known as "sympathetic orchidopathia": It is thought that following injury to the testicle, the body's immune system is activated to clean up damaged cells. In the process, it creates anti-testicular cell antibodies, or proteins that cross the injured blood-testis barrier and damage both the affected and contralateral testicles.
 * Abnormalities in microcirculation within the testicle
 * Reperfusion injury: This type of injury is seen in tissues that have been deprived of blood supply for a prolonged period.
 * Gangrene, or a type of tissue damage caused by lack of blood supply, of the testis.
 * Sepsis, in extremely rare cases (0.03%), if not treated for a long period of time, it could lead to sepsis and cause severe life-threatening infections and injuries through the blood and organs, which could lead to death.
 * Recurrence of torsion may occur even after surgical fixation, although this is very unlikely.
 * Psychological impact of losing a testicle.

Risk factors
Most of those affected with testicular torsion have no prior underlying health problems or predisposing conditions. However, there are certain factors that may increase risk of testicular torsion. A larger testicle either due to normal variation or testicular tumor increases the risk of torsion. Similarly, the presence of a mass or malignancy involving the spermatic cord can also predispose to torsion.

Age is also an important risk factor for torsion. Torsion most commonly occurs either in the newborn or just before or during puberty. Testicular torsion often occurs before or during puberty, prior to complete testicular descent. Epididymitis is more commonly a postpubertal condition.

Several congenital anatomic malformations or variations in the testicle or the surrounding structures may allow for increased scrotal rotation and increase the risk of testicular torsion. A congenital malformation of the processus vaginalis known as "bell-clapper deformity" accounts for 90% of all cases. In this condition, rather than the testes attaching posteriorly to the inner lining of the scrotum by the mesorchium, the mesorchium terminates early and the testis is free floating in the tunica vaginalis. Other anatomic risk factors include horizontal lie of the testicle or a spermatic cord with a long intrascrotal portion. Cryptorchidisim is also a risk factor for torsion with some studies proposing a 10-fold higher risk. Testicular torsion may also be caused by trauma to the scrotum or exercise (in particular, bicycle riding); however, only about 4–8% of cases are the result of trauma. There is thought to be a possible genetic basis for predisposition to torsion, based on multiple published reports of familial testicular torsion. There is controversy whether cold weather months are associated with an increased risk.

Pathophysiology
Testicular torsion occurs when there is mechanical twisting of the spermatic cord, which suspends the testicle within the scrotum and contains the testicular artery and vein. Twisting of the cord reduces or eliminates blood flow to the testicle. The degree of arterial and venous obstruction depends on the duration and severity of the torsion event. Typically, venous blood flow is compromised first. The increase in venous pressure subsequently causes decreased arterial blood flow, leading to decreased oxygen supply to the testicle, and if untreated, testicular infarction.

It is also believed that torsion occurring during fetal development can lead to so-called neonatal torsion or vanishing testis, and is one of the causes of an infant being born with monorchism (one testicle).

Intermittent testicular torsion
Intermittent testicular torsion (ITT) is a less serious but chronic variant of torsion. It is characterized by intermittent scrotal or testicular pain, followed by eventual spontaneous detorsion and resolution of pain. Nausea and vomiting may also occur. Though less pressing, such individuals are at significant risk of complete torsion and possible subsequent orchiectomy and the recommended treatment is elective bilateral orchiopexy. Ninety-seven percent of patients who undergo such surgery experience complete relief from their symptoms.

Extravaginal testicular torsion
Torsion occurring outside of the tunica vaginalis, when the testis and gubernaculum can rotate freely, is termed an extravaginal testicular torsion. This type occurs exclusively in newborns, however, newborns can be affected by other testicular torsion variants as well. Neonates experiencing such a torsion typically present with painless scrotal swelling, discoloration, and a firm, painless mass in the scrotum. Such testes are usually necrotic from birth and must be removed surgically. The exact cause of or specific risk factors for extravaginal torsion in this population remain unclear.

Intravaginal testicular torsion
Intravaginal testicular torsion occurs when the testicle rotates on the spermatic cord within the tunica vaginalis. This variant more commonly occurs in older children and adults. The "bell-clapper deformity," in which there is inappropriately high attachment of the tunica vaginalis over the spermatic cord and failure of the normal posterior attachment of the testicle to the inner scrotum, which allows the testicle to move freely within the tunica vaginalis and predisposes to intravaginal testicular torsion.

Torsion of the testicular appendix
The testicular appendix is located in the upper pole of the testicle. It is an embryonic remnant that has no known function, but is at risk for torsion events. This type of torsion is the most common cause of acute scrotal pain in boys ages 7–14. Its appearance is similar to that of testicular torsion but the onset of pain is typically more gradual. Palpation reveals a small firm nodule on the upper portion of the testis which displays a characteristic "blue dot sign". This is the appendix of the testis which has become discolored and is noticeably blue through the skin. Unlike other torsions, however, the cremasteric reflex is still active. Typical treatment involves the use of over-the-counter analgesics and the condition resolves within 2–3 days.

Torsion of the undescended testicle
The undescended testis is at increased risk of testicular torsion. The mechanism for torsion in the undescended testicle is not fully understood, though it may be due to abnormal contractions of the cremaster muscle, which covers the testicle and spermatic cord and is responsible for raising and lowering the testicle to regulate scrotal temperature. The undescended testicle is also at higher risk for testicular tumor, which due to the increased weight and size compared to a healthy testicle can predispose to torsion.

Diagnosis
The diagnosis should generally be made based on the presenting symptoms. An ultrasound can be useful when the diagnosis is unclear. However, imaging should not delay surgical intervention as complications develop with prolonged ischemia. Immediate surgery is recommended regardless of imaging findings if there is a high degree of suspicion based on history and physical examination.

Given the treatment implications of testicular torsion, it is important to distinguish testicular torsion from other causes of testicular pain, such as epididymitis, which can present similarly. While both conditions can cause testicular pain, the pain of epididymitis is typically localized to the epididymis at the rear pole of the testicle. Epididymitis may also be characterized by discoloration and swelling of the testis, and fever. The cremasteric reflex in epididymitis is usually present. Testicular torsion, or more probably impending testicular infarction, can also produce a low-grade fever. There is often an absent or decreased cremasteric reflex.

Clinical exam
The absence of the cremasteric reflex in an acutely painful testicle is most indicative of testicular torsion (the twisting of the spermatic cord of the testicle makes reflexive responses all but impossible). The cremasteric reflex normally causes elevation of the testicle by stroking the inner thigh. Absence is especially common in children, but its presence does not exclude a diagnosis of testicular torsion.

On physical examination, the testis can be swollen, tender, high-riding, and with an abnormal transverse lie.

Prehn's sign, a classic physical exam finding, has not been reliable in distinguishing torsion from other causes of testicular pain such as epididymitis. The individual will not usually have a fever, though nausea is common.

Imaging
A doppler ultrasound scan of the scrotum can identify the absence of blood flow in the twisted testicle and is nearly 90% accurate in diagnosis. It can also help distinguish torsion from epididymitis.

Radionuclide scanning (scintigraphy) of the scrotum is the most accurate imaging technique, but it is not routinely available, particularly with the urgency that might be required. The agent of choice for this purpose is technetium-99m pertechnetate. Initially it provides a radionuclide angiogram, followed by a static image after the radionuclide has perfused the tissue. In the healthy patient, initial images show symmetric flow to the testes, and delayed images show uniformly symmetric activity. In testicular torsion, the images may show heterogenous activity within the affected testicle.

Treatment
Testicular torsion is a surgical emergency that requires immediate intervention to restore the flow of blood to the testicle. If treated either manually or surgically within six hours, there is a high chance (approximately 90%) of saving the testicle. At 12 hours the rate decreases to 50%; at 24 hours it drops to 10%, and after 24 hours the ability to save the testicle approaches 0, although salvage of the testicle has been reported beyond 24 hours. About 40% of cases result in loss of the testicle.

With prompt diagnosis and treatment the testicle can often be saved. Typically, when a torsion takes place, the surface of the testicle has rotated towards the midline of the body. Non-surgical correction can sometimes be accomplished by manually rotating the testicle in the opposite direction (i.e., outward, towards the thigh); if this is initially unsuccessful, a forced manual rotation in the other direction may correct the problem. The success rate of manual detorsion is not known with confidence.

When salvage of the testicle is accomplished, long-term testicular damage is common. Testicular size is often diminished, and injury to the unaffected testicle is common. The effect of a torsion event on long-term fertility is not fully understood.

A repeat doppler ultrasound scan may confirm restoration of blood flow to the testicle following manual detorsion. However, surgical exploration is often performed in order to assess the health and viability of the testicle. An orchiopexy is performed to both the affected and unaffected testicles in order to prevent recurrence. If the testis is not viable, it is removed (orchiectomy).

Epidemiology
Torsion is most frequent among adolescents with about 65% of cases presenting between 12 and 18 years of age. It is the most common cause of rapid onset testicular pain and swelling in people under 18 years old. It occurs in about 1 in 4,000 to 1 per 25,000 males per year before 25 years of age;  but it can occur at any age, including infancy.

title: Testicular torsion


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Johanna Rosaly

Raquel Johanna Rosaly Guillermety (born January 13, 1947) is a Puerto Rican actress, singer, and television host.

Early years
Johanna Rosaly was born in Santurce, a district of San Juan. In 1956 at the age of eight, she started taking acting lessons with Argentinians Luis A. Negro and Elba Mania, and dancing lessons with Beatriz Trujillo. In 1957, she made her acting debut as a child, on stage, at Teatro Tapia, in Old San Juan, in Mientras los Niños Juegan (While the Children Play). That same year, she made her debut on television, with Channel 2's children's production of Los Amigos de Pinocho (Pinocho's Friends) as well as in the film Con Los Pies Descalzos (an Osvaldo Agüero production, starring the Catalan actor Ricardo Palmerola).

Teenage years
Rosaly started taking singing lessons when she became a teenager. Then, she participated on stage in Spanish zarzuelas such as “El Caserío”, and “Black el Payaso”; operettas, such as “La duquesa del Bal Tabarin”, and musicals performed in English, such as “My Fair Lady”, “The Sound of Music” and “I Do, I Do”.

In 1966, already in her early years in college, she made her TV debut in the telenovela El Retrato de Angela, broadcast by Telemundo. In this soap opera, she played a mute girl.

Singing career
During the late 1970s and early 80s, Johanna Rosaly had a short but notable career as a singer. In 1978 she signed with the Venezuelan Velvet Records label, and began touring all over Latin America, to promote her two albums under that label and following the popularity of the soap operas she had starred in. In 1980 she would sign with CBS International label, now Sony Discos, and recorded two more albums for them, doing shows in many US cities with high Hispanic populations.

Television acting career
Rosaly performed in 15 soap operas altogether from 1966 - 1980. However, the leading roles she is mostly remembered for were, 1973's El Hijo de Angela María, alongside Rolando Barral, Mona Marti, Ángela Meyer, and Lucy Boscana, among others. This performance led her to carry out the same leading role, Marisela Perdomo, in the film based on the telenovela, in Mexico, opposite Iranian-Mexican actress Irán Eory. Her crossover as a singer/actress was in 1978's Cristina Bazán, opposite José Luis Rodríguez "El Puma", and alongside Alba Nydia Díaz, Esther Sandoval, and Adamari López, at the early age of 6, among others.

In 1979 Johanna Rosaly left Telemundo (WKAQ-TV)for WAPA-TV, where she performed she starred in the 1980 soap operas: “Vida”,Amame, opposite Dominican-Mexican Andrés García, and “El Amor Nuestro de Cada Día”, opposite Venezuelan Jean Carlo Simancas. For each one she sang the musical theme, namely “Yo Soy Un Barco” (composed by [[Lou Briel), “Amándote” and “El Amor Nuestro de Cada Día”, respectively. "Amándote" (Loving You), respectively.

Anchor woman & TV host
As the 1980s came about, Rosaly made a short parenthesis in her acting career, working as an executive in WAPA-TV, and shortly moved to Telemundo again, becoming first a Cultural and Arts News reporter for Telenoticias, and eventually in 1982 an anchor woman and host in the talk-show, En Vivo a las Cinco,. She also starred in the five-hours-long game show Super Sábados, which for several years was aired via satellite to many Hispanic enclaves in the US. In 1993, Johanna Rosaly joined WIPR-TV channel 6, Puerto Rico's Government TV channel, hosting several shows, such as Mucho Gusto, “Cultura Viva” and “¿Y Cómo Fue”.

Films
In 1989, she performed alongside Tommy Muñiz in the motion picture film Lo que le Pasó a Santiago, produced and directed by Jacobo Morales, which was nominated for an Oscar as the best foreign film. In 1993 she performed in, Shortcut to Paradise, and in 1994's Linda Sara, alongside Chayanne and Dayanara Torres. Other film credits include “Dios Los Cría II”, “El Bailao de Julia y Berto”, “Con los Pies Descalzos”, “Jugando en Serio” and “Force of Nature”.

Recent years
Since the 1990s, she has devoted herself mostly to the stage, to critical acclaim for works such as Master Class, “Punto y Coma” (W;t), “Buenas Noches, Mamá (“‘Night, Mother”, “Relaciones Peligrosas” (Liaisons Dangereuses), among many others. Altogether, she has performed in over 100 plays during her very long acting career.

In 2010, she made her debut on the New York stage, in Sabina y Lucrecia. Rosaly and New York-based actress Eva Cristina Vásquez starred in this play by Alberto Adellach, " a tale of two very different mentally ill women who escape an asylum."

Rosaly played "Mrs. Warren" in the San Juan revival of La profesión de la Sra. Warren, as part of the International Festival of the Puerto Rican Culture Institute.

Personal life
On January 11, 2008, Rosaly married José Manuel Saldaña, the former president of the University of Puerto Rico. The couple announced their separation in June 2011.

During the 2018 California wildfires, Rosaly was at the residence of her son, film director José Gilberto Molinari, and her daughter in law as well as her two-month old grandchild in Agoura Hills. She escaped the Woolsey Fire with her family by taking refuge in a hotel. Molinari's house only suffered minor damages. A day later, close to the hotel the Rocky Fire started, however, it was soon controlled and the family did not have to flee for a second time.

Honors
She has received multiple honors, among them, the Puerto Rican Culture Institute (ICP), dedicated their 1997 International Theater Festival to her, honoring her more than 40 years as an actress.

title: Johanna Rosaly


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title: Wikipedia:Main Page/Temp6


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Subbuteo

Subbuteo is a tabletop football game in which players simulate association football by flicking miniature players with their fingers. The name is derived from the Neo-Latin scientific name Falco subbuteo (a bird of prey commonly known as the Eurasian hobby), after a trademark was not granted to its creator Peter Adolph (1916–1994) to call the game "Hobby".

While most closely associated with the football game, versions of Subbuteo based on other team sports such as cricket, both codes of rugby and hockey have also been produced.

History

Subbuteo was invented by Peter Adolph (1916–1994), who was demobbed from the Royal Air Force after the end of World War II. Searching for a new business opportunity he turned his attention to creating a new table-top football game. He adapted his game from Newfooty, a table football game that had been invented in 1929 by William Lane Keeling of Liverpool. He made numerous improvements, including changing the heavy lead bases under the model players to lighter materials, using for his prototype a button from his mother's coat and a washer.

In August 1946 Peter Adolph filed an outline patent application for the game, which was not finalised until May 1947. The August 1946 edition of The Boy's Own Paper first announced Subbuteo's availability and offered to send details, but sets were not available until March 1947. According to rumours, after the early adverts, orders started to pour in as Adolph set about converting his patent idea into a deliverable product.

The first Subbuteo sets, known as the Assembly Outfits, consisted of goals made of wire with paper nets, a cellulose acetate ball, cardboard playing figures in two basic kits (red shirts with white shorts, and blue shirts with white shorts) and bases made from buttons weighed down with lead washers. The story is that Peter found one of his mother's coat buttons and used Woolworth buttons for the early set bases. No pitch was provided: instead, the purchaser was given instructions on how to mark out (with chalk, provided) a playing area on to a blanket (an old army blanket was recommended). The first sets were eventually available in March 1947, several months after the original advertisement appeared. The first figures were made of flat cardboard cut out of a long strip. Later these card players came in press-out strips before being replaced with two-dimensional celluloid figures, known to collectors as "flats".

Early production of Subbuteo was centred in Langton Green, near Tunbridge Wells in Kent. Following the advent of the OO scale players the player figures were individually hand painted by local outworkers in their own homes.

In its early years, Subbuteo had a fierce rivalry with Newfooty. In the run-up to Christmas 1961, Adolph introduced a three-dimensional handpainted plastic figure into the range. After several design modifications, this figure evolved by 1967 into the classic "heavyweight" figure pictured. Newfooty ceased trading in 1961 after a failed television advertising campaign but its demise is thought to be linked to the launch of the moulded Subbuteo players. There were several further evolutions of figure design. In 1978 the "zombie" figure was introduced to facilitate the machine painting of figures. After much negative feedback, the zombie figure was replaced in 1980 by the "lightweight" figure that continued until the 1990s when Hasbro acquired Waddingtons Games, which owned Subbuteo.

After Hasbro bought Waddington Games in 1994, Subbuteo sales declined from about 150,000 sets per year to 3,000 in 2002 and just 500 sets in 2003, when production was stopped.

Hasbro relaunched Subbuteo in 2005 with flat photorealistic card-style figures on bases, rather than three-dimensional figures. The relaunch was not a success and was again discontinued.

In 2012, Hasbro licensed Subbuteo to Eleven Force and it returned to the shops with a new style of three-dimensional rubber figures, launching Subbuteo into its eighth decade of production. Subbuteo also made other things for the collector, such as stands to create a stadium, cups, crowds, policemen and much more.

In 2020, Hasbro awarded the licence to Longshore, although Eleven Force remained Subbuteo's Spanish distributor. It was reported that Hasbro had been unhappy with Elevenforce's lack of interest in markets outside Spain. In May 2020, Subbuteo World, a long-term UK seller of Subbuteo, announced it was advising Longshore, and that there would be new teams, a Subbuteo VAR set, and new fences.

Subbuteo is a registered trademark of Hasbro Inc.

Gameplay

Playing Subbuteo is a physical simulation of association football, involving dexterity and skill in flicking the playing figures, which stand on weighted bases, across the tabletop pitch towards the ball.

Hundreds of team kits and accessories are available, almost all representing real teams, with the exception of comic book team Melchester Rovers. Along with major teams such as Chelsea, Manchester City, and Real Madrid, unpainted models are also available. There are also many additional accessories, such as new balls and goals, special figures for free kicks and throw-ins, stands and crowd, linesmen, ball-boys, streakers and policemen, floodlights and TV cameras.

The rules are designed to correspond closely with those of association football, albeit with some simplifications and alterations. Players maintain possession as long as the figure they flick makes contact with the ball and the ball does not subsequently hit an opposing figure, although the same figure cannot be used for more than three consecutive flicks. Shots at goal can be taken only once the ball is over the 'shooting line', a line parallel to and equidistant between the goal line and half-way line. The goalkeeper figures are attached to, and manoeuvered with, a rod that fits underneath the back of the goal. The offside law is in effect, but only pertaining to figures that are forward of the opposing team's shooting line (as opposed to the half-way line, as in actual football).

Subbuteo World Cup
There is a Subbuteo World Cup competition.

FISTF
International Sports Table Football (FISTF) was founded on 16 June 1992 in Hamburg (Germany).

Merging:

FISTF lays down the playing rules of Table Football.
 * European Tablesoccer (Football) Federation (ETF 1963-1993)
 * Federation of International Subbuteo Associations (FISA 1979-1996).
 * European Tablesoccer Federation (ETF)
 * Federation of International Subbuteo Associations (FISA)

Video game
A digital version was released by Goliath Games in 1990 for the Amiga, Atari ST, MS-DOS, Amstrad CPC, Commodore 64, and ZX Spectrum. CU Amiga gave the game a rating of 95% and said "Goliath have managed to distill the essential elements of the original game and transfer them across to the Amiga."

title: Subbuteo


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User:CalRis25

Fields of interest: Astronomy

title: User:CalRis25


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Northern Samar

Northern Samar (Amihanan Samar/Norte san Samar; Hilagang Samar ), officially the Province of Northern Samar, is a province in the Philippines located in the Eastern Visayas region. Its capital is Catarman and is located at the northern portion of the island of Samar. Bordering the province to the south are the provinces of Samar and Eastern Samar. To the northwest, across the San Bernardino Strait is Sorsogon; to the east is the Philippine Sea of the Pacific Ocean and to the west is Samar Sea.

Spanish colonial era
Historian William Henry Scott wrote that a "Samar datu by the name of Iberein was rowed out to a Spanish vessel anchored in his harbor in 1543 by oarsmen collared in gold; while wearing on his own person earrings and chains." In the local epic called siday entitled Bingi of Lawan as written in the article of Scott, Lawan is a prosperous Lakanate in Samar particularly the northernmost part. Datu Hadi Iberein came from the Lakanate of Lawan

In 1614, the Jesuits established a mission residence in Palapag among the Ibabao populace. These missionaries stayed until the late 17th century when they were expelled from the Philippines in 1768 and were replaced by the Franciscans.

As the San Bernardino Strait was along the route of the Spanish galleons plying between Manila and Acapulco, Mexico, a royal port was established in Palapag where the richly laden Manila Galleons were protected from unfavorable winds and troubled seas.

In the early years of the 16th century, shipbuilders were drafted from Palapag to the Cavite shipyards for the construction of galleons and vessels for the conservation of defense of the island. It was also at this time that these recruits ignited the Sumoroy insurrection, which signaled a general uprising against Spain in the Visayas and Mindanao. The insurrection simultaneously flared northward to Albay and southward to the northern coasts of Mindanao and then Cebu. It took over a year before the Spaniards were able to subdue the rebellion.

American invasion era
Later in 1898, when the Americans landed on the beach of Catarman, they organized a revolutionary army led by General Vicente Lukban who fought the invaders armed with cannons and rifles with only bolos and paltiks. Although defeated, they, however, continued to harass the Americans through guerrilla warfare.

Japanese occupation era
During World War II, the people of Northern Samar organized a platoon of volunteers supported by voluntary contributions. The contingent became a part of the Philippine National Guard in Manila. The province also helped the government by purchasing a considerable amount of bonds floated to finance the National Commission for Independence, then organized by Manuel L. Quezon after a coalition of the Nacionalista and Democrata parties were formed.

Philippine independence
Congressmen Eladio T. Balite (1st Dist. Samar), Fernando R. Veloso (2nd Dist. Samar), and Felipe J. Abrigo (3rd Dist. Samar), authored Republic Act 4221 which was approved by Congress in 1963. The law, ratified in a plebiscite on June 19, 1965, divided Samar into three: Northern Samar, Eastern Samar and (Western) Samar. The first provincial officials of Northern Samar were elected on November 14, 1967, and on January 1, 1968, they officially assumed office.

Geography
Northern Samar covers a total area of 3,692.93 km2 occupying the northern section of Samar Island in the Eastern Visayas region. The province is bounded by north by the San Bernardino Strait, on the east by the Pacific Ocean, on the west by the Samar Sea, on the southwest by Samar and on the southeast by Eastern Samar. It ranks thirty-seventh (37th) in size among the 80 provinces of the Philippines and accounts for practically 1.2 percent of the total land area of the country. About 52 percent of the total land area is covered by forest and 42 percent is classified as alienable and disposable.

The province is composed largely of low and extremely rugged hills and small lowland areas. It also has small and discontinuous areas along the coasts and its rivers are usually accompanied by alluvial plains and valleys. The province is endowed with relatively rich and fertile soil that most crops can grow on it.

Topography
Northern Samar has a very rugged terrain with restricted pocket plains and valleys. River valleys are low-lying and are often interrupted by hills, while the remaining portion is rolling, hilly, and mountainous. The interior of the mainland consists of highly dissected hills and mountain peaks. Low-lying hills are found between the coastal plains of Palapag, the river valley of Gamay, and Catubig Valley. There are lagoons and lakes (Cinco Forest), and falls near Catubig named Pinipisikan (citation tourism) too.

Climate
Northern Samar falls under the intermediate type climate, which has no distinct dry and wet seasons. The rainiest months are October to January, while the driest is the month of May.

Administrative divisions
Northern Samar is divided into three major geographical areas, namely: Balicuatro area, Central area, and Pacific area including Catubig Valley – the province's rice granary. It comprises 24 towns or municipalities with 569 registered barangays. The province is divided into two legislative districts, the first district, covering the Balicuatro and most part of the Central Area, and the second district, covering the some part of the Central Area, the Pacific Area and the Catubig Valley.

Provincial capital

Demographics
The population of Northern Samar in the 2020 census was 639,186 people, with a density of undefined PD/km2.

The people of Northern Samar were previously called Ibabaonon or Lequios. They are predominantly Waray-Waray or Waray, the people of Eastern Visayas or Samar-Leyte region. To distinguish themselves from the Westehanon (people from Samar) and Estehanon (from Eastern Samar) when Samar Island was split into three provinces in 1965, and the Leyteños (the people from the Leyte Island), they now call themselves as Ninorte Samarenyo or Nortehanon. They are primarily speaking in Waray-Waray which is the main lingua franca of the province.

Bicolano and Masbateño inhabitants coming from respective neighboring provinces of Sorsogon and Masbate are also common at Northern Samar.

Languages
The majority of the people in the province speak the Ninorte Samarnon variation of Waray-Waray. About 4.5 percent of the population, especially in the island towns, speak Cebuano, particularly in the island town of San Antonio. Inabaknon, a unique language said to be one of the most preserved languages to date, is the native tongue of the populace in the island town of Capul.

Ninorte Samarnon usually is further subclassified into Balicuatro, Central and Pacific speakers.

Tagalog and English are also widely used and understood in Northern Samar.

Catholicism
The communities of this province are predominantly Catholic (80%).

Others
Other religious groups are Members Church of God International (MCGI), Iglesia ni Cristo, Philippine Independent Church (Iglesia Filipina Independiente), Seventh-day Adventists, Jehovah's Witnesses, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and other Christian sects. A small number of population are Muslim.

Socio-demographic situation
Northern Samar is classified as a second class province, according to the Philippine Statistics Authority, the data gathered from the Department of Finance Department Order No.23-08 (Effective July 29, 2008).

Catarman is the capital town of the province where most political and economic activities take place. It is the seat of administration and the center of trade and commerce as well as industry.

The province is considered a very rural area with 65% of its people residing in the countryside.

Tourism
Northern Samar has several tourism potentials that remain undiscovered by tourists. Some of these include old churches, waterfalls, rivers, caves, virgin forests, and beaches.

Among the last frontiers in the country, its rugged coastline of limestone cliffs along the Pacific Ocean is a historical landmark. During the Spanish colonial era, Samar island was the first Philippine landfall seen by the Manila galleons as they approached the end of their long voyage from Acapulco.

Entering the waters of the Philippine archipelago, the galleons called at the fortified island of Capul off Samar, offered thanks for a safe crossing at the Jesuit church, and then negotiated the rough waters of the narrow San Bernardino Strait toward Manila, their final destination.

Capul also became the last stop on Philippine soil of the departing galleons before the long, often treacherous trans-Pacific voyage to Acapulco in Mexico.

Governor

 * Edwin C. Ongchuan (NUP)

Vice Governor

 * Clarence E. Dato (NUP)

Congressional districts

 * 1st district: Paul R. Daza (NUP)
 * 2nd district: Harris M. Ongchuan (NUP)

List of former governors

 * Irene Balite (1967–1971)
 * Edilberto A. del Valle (1971–1980)
 * Reynaldo A. del Valle (1980–1986)
 * Justiniano M. Singzon (1986–1988)
 * Harlin Abayon (1988–1998)
 * Madeleine M. Ong (1998–2001)
 * Raul A. Daza (2001–2010)
 * Paul R. Daza (2010–2013)
 * Jose L. Ong, Jr. (2013–2019)

Official provincial seal
The Coat of Arms of Samar represents the political, geographical description, historical, economic, and social representation and allegorical ideas of the province. The letters N and S represent Northern Samar. The map of Northern Samar represents the geography and 24 municipalities of the province, including the five island towns. The galleon represents the Spanish conquistadors that reached the land of the Ibabao to preach the gospel of Christianity, spread the Creed of Roman Catholicism and introduce civil governance thru the Royal Port of Palapag in 1640. Mount Bubuya (Palapag Mesa) represents the highest mountain range in Palapag, where Agustin Sumuroy and his men retreated to and encamped after killing Fr. Miguel Balberan, thus starting the Sumuroy Rebellion. The rice field, abaca, timber, and coconut are all economic representations.

The following are the allegorical ideas of the province: Blue, the color is symbolic of vast marine and aquatic resources, a source of livelihood for the fisher folks of the coastal towns. Tangerine represents the cheerfulness, high spirits, and optimism of the people of the province. Yellow represents golden harvest, and abundance of resources. White symbolizes transparency in governance. The torch is meant to illuminate the province and set it afire with quality education, a primary thrust of the provincial government. Rope ties the emblems together in a circular shape, it represents equality in rights and justice, and unity for peace and development.

Notable people

 * Agustin Sumuroy (better known as Juan Sumuroy), a Filipino hero from Palapag, Northern Samar and Waray leader of the Sumuroy Rebellion, a rebellion of native Filipinos against colonial Spanish forces that occurred in the eastern Visayas in 1649–1650.
 * Samuel Martires, a Filipino lawyer, Associate Justice of Sandiganbayan from 2005 to 2017, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines and incumbent Ombudsman of the Philippines, is from Palapag, Northern Samar.
 * Angel Aquino, Filipino fashion model, TV host, and FAMAS and Gawad Urian Award-nominated film and TV actress
 * Errol "Budoy" Marabiles, Filipino reggae musician, songwriter and TV host; vocalist of the reggae band Junior Kilat
 * Pooh, Filipino actor, comedian, impersonator, singer, and TV host.
 * Aloy Adlawan, multi-awarded Filipino filmmaker, writer, producer, director, and composer

title: Northern Samar