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Karelian language

Karelian (karjala, karjalan kieli; ; kariela, karielan kieli) is a Finnic language spoken mainly in the Russian Republic of Karelia. Linguistically, Karelian is closely related to the Finnish dialects spoken in eastern Finland, and some Finnish linguists have even classified Karelian as a dialect of Finnish, though in the modern day it is widely considered a separate language. Karelian is not to be confused with the Southeastern dialects of Finnish, sometimes referred to as karjalaismurteet ("Karelian dialects") in Finland. In the Russian 2020–2021 census, around 9,000 people spoke Karelian natively, but around 14,000 said to be able to speak the language. There are around 11,000 speakers of Karelian in Finland.

There is no single standard Karelian language, so the Karelian language is a group of two supradialects. The two supradialects are Karelian Proper (which comprises Northern Karelian and South Karelian (including the Tver enclave dialects)) and Olonets Karelian (Livvi Karelian). Ludic Karelian also appears in writing. All variants are written with the Latin-based Karelian alphabet, though the Cyrillic script has been used in the past. Each writer writes in Karelian according to their own dialectal form.

Based upon toponymic and historical evidence, a form of Karelian was also spoken among the extinct Bjarmians in the 15th century.

Classification
Karelian is a Finnic language from the Uralic language family, and is closely related to Finnish. Finnish and Karelian have common ancestry in the Proto-Karelian language spoken in the coast of Lake Ladoga in the Iron Age, and Karelian forms a dialect continuum with the Eastern dialects of Finnish. Earlier, some Finnish linguists classified Karelian as a dialect of Finnish, sometimes known in older Finnish literature as Raja-Karjalan murteet ('Border Karelian dialects'), but today Karelian is seen as a distinct language. Besides Karelian and Finnish, the Finnic subgroup also includes Estonian and some minority languages spoken around the Baltic Sea.

Usage
Karelian is a language in danger of extinction, with 45% of speakers being over 65 years old and with around 1% of speakers being under 15 years of age. The language is also not known or used at all by a majority of the people in the Republic of Karelia, with around 43% of people using the language.

Geographic distribution
In Russia, Karelian is spoken by about 13,880 people (2020), mainly in the Republic of Karelia, although notable Karelian-speaking communities can also be found in the Tver region (Tver Oblast) northwest of Moscow. Previously, it was estimated that there were 5,000 speakers in Finland, mainly belonging to the older generations, but more recent estimates have put the number of people with even slight knowledge of the language at 30,000. Due to post-World War II mobility and internal migration, Karelians now live scattered throughout Finland, and Karelian is no longer spoken as a local community language.

Official status
In the Republic of Karelia, Karelian has official status as a minority language, and since the late 1990s there have been moves to pass special language legislation, which would give Karelian an official status on par with Russian. Karelians in Tver Oblast have a national-cultural autonomy which guarantees the use of the Karelian language in schools and mass media. In Finland, Karelian has official status as a non-regional national minority language within the framework of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.

Supradialects and dialects
The Karelian language has two main varieties, which can be considered as supradialects or separate languages: Karelian Proper, which comprises Northern Karelian and South Karelian (including the Tver enclave dialects); and Olonets Karelian. These varieties constitute a continuum of dialects, the ends of which are no longer mutually intelligible. Varieties can be further divided into individual dialects:

 * Karelian
 * Karelian Proper
 * North Karelian (spoken in the parishes of Jyskyjärvi, Kieretti, Kiestinki, Kontokki, Oulanka, Paanajärvi, Pistojärvi, Suomussalmi, Uhtua, Usmana, Vitsataipale and Vuokkiniemi)
 * South Karelian (spoken in the parishes of Ilomantsi, Impilahti, Korpiselkä, Mäntyselkä, Paatene, Porajärvi, Repola, Rukajärvi, Suikujärvi, Suistamo, Suojärvi and Tunkua; and additionally in the enclaves of Tver, Tikhvin and Valdai)
 * Tver Karelian
 * Dorža dialect
 * Maksuatiha dialect
 * Ruameška dialect
 * Tolmattšu dialect
 * Vesjegonsk (Vessi) dialect
 * Olonets Karelian or Livvi (spoken in the parishes of Kotkatjärvi, Munjärvi, Nekkula-Riipuškala, Salmi, Säämäjärvi, Tulemajärvi, Vieljärvi and Vitele)

The Ludic language, spoken along the easternmost edge of Karelian Republic, is in the Russian research tradition counted as a third main dialect of Karelian, though Ludic shows strong relationship also to Veps, and it is today also considered a separate language.

Monophthongs
Like Finnish, the Karelian language has 8 phonemic vowel qualities, totalling 11 vowel phonemes when vowel length is considered: Only the close vowels,  and  may occur long. The original Proto-Finnic long mid and open vowels have been diphthongized: *ee, *öö, *oo > (as also in Finnish); *aa, *ää >  (as also in Savonian dialects of Finnish).

Diphthongs
North Karelian and Olonets Karelian have 21 diphthongs:

Triphthongs
In addition to the diphthongs North Karelian has a variety of triphthongs:

Olonets Karelian has only the triphthongs ieu, iey, iäy, uau, uou and yöy.

Consonants
There are 20 non-palatalized consonants in Karelian:

Some palatalized consonants exist: /lʲ nʲ sʲ tʲ/ in Karelian Proper (North), /dʲ lʲ nʲ rʲ sʲ tʲ/ (/zʲ/ also exists, but only in loanwords) in Olonets Karelian, /dʲ lʲ nʲ rʲ sʲ tʲ zʲ/ in Ludic and Tver Karelian. Palatalized labials are also present in some loanwords: North Karelian b'urokratti 'bureaucrat', Livvi b'urokruattu 'bureaucrat', kip'atku 'boiling water', sv'oklu 'beet', Tver Karelian kip'atka 'boiling water', s'v'okla 'beet' (from Russian бюрократ, кипяток, свёкла).

Olonets, Ludic, and Tver Karelian also have the voiced affricate //, represented in writing by the digraph.

Alphabet
Karelian is today written using a Latin alphabet consisting of 29 characters. It extends the ISO basic Latin alphabet with the additional letters Č, Š, Ž, Ä, Ö and ' and excludes the letters Q, W and X. This unified alphabet is used to write all Karelian varieties including Tver Karelian. The very few texts that were published in Karelian from medieval times through the 19th century used the Cyrillic alphabet. With the establishment of the Soviet Union, Finnish, written with the Latin alphabet, became official. However, from 1938 to 1940 Karelian written in Cyrillic replaced Finnish as an official language of the Karelian ASSR (see "History" below).

Example from Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Cyrillic Karelian script, transliteration and translation:

Cyrillic:

''Каи рахвас роиттахeс вäллиннÿ да тазаарвозинну омас арвос да оигeвуксис. Ёгахизeлe хeис он аннeтту миeли да оматундо да хeил вäлтäмäттäх пидäÿ олла кeскeнäх, куи вeллил''.

Latin:

Kai rahvas roittahes vällinny da taza-arvozinnu omas arvos da oigevuksis. Jogahizele heis on annettu mieli da omatundo da heil vältämättäh pidäy olla keskenäh, kui vellil.

Translation:

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

Orthography
Karelian is written with orthography similar to Finnish orthography. However, some features of the Karelian language and thus orthography are different from Finnish:
 * The Karelian system of sibilants is extensive; in Finnish, there is only one:.
 * Phonemic voicing occurs.
 * Karelian retains palatalization, usually denoted with an apostrophe (e.g. d'uuri)
 * The letter 'ü' may replace 'y' in some texts.
 * The letter 'c' denotes, although 'ts' is used also. 'c' is more likely in Russian loan words.

/c/ and /č/ have length levels, which is not found in standard Finnish. For example, in Kalevala, Lönnrot's orthography metsä : metsän hides the fact that the pronunciation of the original material is actually, with palatalization of the affricate. The exact details depend on the dialect, though. See Yleiskielen ts:n murrevastineet.

Karelian actually uses as a voiced alveolar fricative. (In Finnish, z is a foreign spelling for .) The plosives, and  may be voiced. (In most Finnish dialects, they are not differentiated from the unvoiced, , and . Furthermore, in Karelian except North Karelian, voiced consonants occur also in native words, not just in loans as in standard Finnish.)

The sounds represented by č, š and ž are native to Karelian, but not Finnish. Speakers of Finnish do not distinguish and  from, nor  from  (medial) or  (initial). For example, the native Karelian words kiza, šoma, liedžu and seičemen are kisa, soma, lietsu and seitsemän in standard Finnish.

Prehistory
As all other Finnic languages, Karelian descends from Proto-Finnic, which in turn ultimately descends from Proto-Uralic. The most recent ancestor of the Karelian dialects is the language variety spoken in the 9th century at the western shores of Lake Ladoga, known as Old Karelian (Finnish: muinaiskarjala).

Karelian is usually considered a part of the Eastern Finnic subgroup. It has been proposed that Late Proto-Finnic evolved into three dialects: Northern dialect, spoken in western Finland; Southern dialect, spoken in the area of modern-day Estonia and northern Latvia, and Eastern dialect, spoken in the regions east of the Southern dialect. In the 6th century, Eastern dialect arrived at the western shores of Lake Ladoga, and in the 9th century, Northern dialect reached the same region. These two dialects blended together and formed Old Karelian.

Medieval period
By the end of the 13th century, speakers of Old Karelian had reached the Savo region in eastern Finland, increasingly mixing with population from western Finland. In 1323 Karelia was divided between Sweden and Novgorod according to the Treaty of Nöteborg, which started to slowly separate descendants of the Proto-Karelian language from each other. In the areas occupied by Sweden, Old Karelian started to develop into dialects of Finnish: Savonian dialects and Southeastern dialects.

Birch bark letter no. 292 is the oldest known document in any Finnic language. The document is dated to the beginning of the 13th century. It was found in 1957 by a Soviet expedition, led by Artemiy Artsikhovskiy in the Nerev excavation on the left coast side of Novgorod. The language used in the document is thought to be an archaic form of the language spoken in Olonets Karelia, a dialect of the Karelian language. A later manuscript, no. 403 (second half of the 14th century), apparently belonging to a tax collector, includes a short glossary of Karelian words and their translations.

In the regions ruled by Novgorod, the protolanguage started to evolve into Karelian language. In 1617 Novgorod lost parts of Karelia to Sweden in the Treaty of Stolbovo, which led the Karelian-speaking population of the occupied areas to flee from their homes. This gave rise to the Karelian speaking population in the Tver and Valday regions.

19th century
In the 19th century, a few books were published in Karelian using the Cyrillic script, notably A Translation of some Prayers and a Shortened Catechism into North Karelian and Olonets (Aunus) dialects in 1804, and the gospel of St. Matthew in South Karelian Tver dialect, in 1820. Karelian literature in 19th century Russia remained limited to a few primers, songbooks and leaflets.

Soviet period
In 1921, the first all-Karelian congress under the Soviet regime debated whether Finnish or Karelian should be the official language (next to Russian) of the new "Karelian Labour Commune" (Karjalan Työkommuuni, Карялан тыöкоммууни in Cyrillic Karelian), which two years later would become the Karelian ASSR. Finnish communists as well as ethnic Finns from North America, who came to live in Soviet Karelia, dominated the political discourse, as they were in general far better educated than local Karelians. They favored the use of Finnish, which had just been through an 80-year period of standardization based on a variety of dialects across Finland — and the Finns saw Karelian simply as additional Finnish dialects. In the end Finnish was established as the official "local" language.

An intense program of Finnicization, but called "Karelianization", began and Finnish-language schools were established across Soviet Karelia. Newspapers, literary journals were established and Russian literature was translated into Finnish, while much literature from Soviet Karelia in Finnish was published.

While this was happening in Soviet Karelia, in 1931–33, a Karelian literary language using the Latin alphabet was standardized for the Tver Karelian community of about 127,000 people, hundreds of kilometers to the south.

Between 1935 and 1938 the Finnish-dominated leadership of Soviet Karelia including leader Edvard Gylling, was removed from power, killed or sent to concentration camps. The Finnish language was branded a language of the bourgeois Finnish society in Finland proper, and was later regarded as a "fascist" language of the Finnish enemy.

From early 1938 to April 1940, the Soviet authorities ceased publication in Finnish, all Finnish-language schools were closed and the children were prohibited from speaking Finnish even during recess. The Soviet government replaced Finnish in the Karelian ASSR with Karelian written in the Cyrillic alphabet.

A new form of standardized Karelian was hurriedly introduced in 1938, written in Cyrillic, with only nine grammatical cases, and with a very large and increasing number of words taken directly from Russian but with Karelian grammatical endings. During this period about 200 titles were published, including educational materials, children's books, readers, Party and public affairs documents, the literary journal Karelia. The newspaper Karjalan Sanomat was written in this new Karelian Cyrillic, rather than in Finnish. Karelians who did not speak Russian could not understand this new official language due to the amount of Russian words, for example, the phrase "Which party led the revolution" in this form of Karelian was given as "Миттўйне партиуя руководи революциюа?" where the word for party, led, and revolution are all Russian words with Karelian grammatical endings, whereas the Finnish equivalent words have completely different roots: "Mikä puolue johti vallankumousta?"

After the Winter War, in April 1940, political considerations changed again. The USSR established the Karelo-Finnish SSR with the idea that Finland proper would eventually be annexed to the USSR as part of that Republic. Finnish, written in the Latin alphabet, was once again made the official "local" language of Soviet Karelia, alongside Russian.

In the 1980s, publishing began again in various adaptations of the Latin alphabet for Olonets Karelian and the White Sea and Tver dialects of Karelian Proper.

Recent events
Since the 1990s the Union of Karelian people started to organize various projects to popularize the Karelian language in Karelia and Finland.

In 2007 a standard alphabet was adopted to write all dialects (Tver Karelian adopted it in 2017).

In 2008, Joensuu University launched Finland's first Karelian language professorship, in order to save the language. A year later, Finland's first Karelian language nest (pre-school immersion group) was established in the town of Nurmes.

Croatian singer Jurica Popović colaborated with Tilna Tolvaneen on lyrics for his 1999 song "H.O.T. Hold On To Your Tradition", which are partly in Karelian.

Media in Karelian

 * Oma Mua is published in Olonets Karelian.
 * Vienan Karjala is published in North Karelian dialect.
 * Karielan Šana is published in Tver Karelian dialect.
 * Karjal Žurnualu – A monthly Karelian-language journal published by Karjalan Kielen Seura in Finland.
 * Yle Uudizet karjalakse – News articles and a weekly radio news program in Karelian are published by the Finnish Broadcasting Company.

North Karelian (White Sea Karelian)
A sample from the book Luemma vienankarjalaksi:
 * Vanhat ihmiset šanottih, jotta joučen on ihmiseštä tullun. Jouččenet aina ollah parittain. Kun yksi ammuttanneh, ni toini pitälti itköy toistah. Vain joučen oli pyhä lintu. Šitä ei nikonša ruohittu ampuo, šiitä tulou riähkä. Jouččenet tullah meilä kevyällä ta šykšyllä tuaš lähetäh jälelläh šuvipuoleh. Hyö lennetäh šuurissa parviloissa. Šilloin kun hyö lähettih, ni še oli merkki, jotta talvi on läššä.

 * (Translation: Old people used to say that the swan is born of man. Swans are always paired up. When one is shot, the other weeps for it for a long time. Yet the swan is a sacred bird. Nobody ever dared to shoot them, for that was a sin. Swans come to us in the spring and in the autumn they leave again for the south. They fly in large flocks. When they left, it was a sign that winter was near.)

Sample 1
Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:
 * Kai rahvas roittahes vällinny da taza-arvozinnu omas arvos da oigevuksis. Jogahizele heis on annettu mieli da omatundo da heil vältämättäh pidäy olla keskenäh, kui vellil.

 * (English version: All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. )

Sample 2
A sample from the book Karjalan kielen harjoituskogomus III–IV luokku Livvin murdehel. Note the older alphabet:

!|Olonets Karelian !| !|Standard Finnish !| !|English translation
 * Karjalas on čoma luondo. Korgiet koivut,
 * Karjalassa on kaunis luonto. Korkeat koivut,
 * There is beautiful nature in Karelia. Tall birches,
 * vihandat kuuzet da pedäjät čomendetah meččiä.
 * vihannat kuuset ja petäjät koristavat metsiä.
 * green spruces and Scots pines decorate the forests.
 * Joga kohtaine on täüzi muarjua da siendü.
 * Joka paikka on täynnä marjaa ja sientä.
 * Every place is full of berries and mushrooms.
 * Kehtua vai kerätä! Järvet da jovetgi ollah kalakkahat:
 * Kehtaa vain kerätä! Järvet ja joetkin ovat kalaisat:
 * If only one picked them! The lakes and rivers, too, are full of fish:
 * ongo haugii, lahnua, säüniä, matikkua, kuhua, siigua.
 * on haukia, lahnoja, säyneitä, madetta, kuhaa, siikaa.
 * there is pike, carp bream, ide, burbot, zander, whitefish.
 * Ota ongiruagu da juokse järvele!
 * Ota onkivapa ja juokse järvelle!
 * Take a fishing rod and run to the lake!
 * }
 * Kehtua vai kerätä! Järvet da jovetgi ollah kalakkahat:
 * Kehtaa vain kerätä! Järvet ja joetkin ovat kalaisat:
 * If only one picked them! The lakes and rivers, too, are full of fish:
 * ongo haugii, lahnua, säüniä, matikkua, kuhua, siigua.
 * on haukia, lahnoja, säyneitä, madetta, kuhaa, siikaa.
 * there is pike, carp bream, ide, burbot, zander, whitefish.
 * Ota ongiruagu da juokse järvele!
 * Ota onkivapa ja juokse järvelle!
 * Take a fishing rod and run to the lake!
 * }
 * there is pike, carp bream, ide, burbot, zander, whitefish.
 * Ota ongiruagu da juokse järvele!
 * Ota onkivapa ja juokse järvelle!
 * Take a fishing rod and run to the lake!
 * }
 * Take a fishing rod and run to the lake!
 * }
 * }

Tver Karelian

A sample from the book Armaš šana:
 * Puasinkoi on pieni karielan külä Tverin mualla. Šielä on nel'l'äkümmendä taluo. Šeizov külä joven rannalla. Jogi virduav hil'l'ah, žentän händä šanotah Tihvinča. Ümbäri on ülen šoma mua. – Tuatto šaneli: ammuin, monda šadua vuotta ennen, šinne tuldih Pohjois-Karielašta karielan rahvaš. Hüö leikkattih mečän i šeizatettih tämän külän. I nüt vielä küläššä šeizotah kojit, kumbazet on luaittu vanhašta mečäštä.

 * (Translation: Puasinkoi is a small Karelian village in the Tver region. There are forty houses. The village lies by a river. The river flows slowly—that's why it's called Tihvinitša. The surrounding region is very beautiful.—(My) father told (me): once, many hundreds of years ago, Karelians from North-Karelia came there. They cut down the forest and founded this village. And even now, there are houses in the village, which have been built from the trees of the old forest.)

title: Karelian language


text:
Quintus Fufius Calenus

Quintus Fufius Calenus (died 40 BC) was a Roman Republican politician and general. When Fufius was plebeian tribune in 61 BC he was an ally of Publius Clodius Pulcher during the Bona Dea affair. During his praetorship in 59 BC he supported Julius Caesar who was then consul. Fufius later served under Caesar at the close of the Gallic Wars and during the civil war that followed. For his services he was made consul in 47 BC. After Caesar's death in 44 BC, he supported Mark Antony against Cicero during the ensuing conflict in the senate. As an ally of Antony governing Cisalpine Gaul, he died of illness in 40 BC on the cusp of intervening in the Perusine War.

Tribunate and praetorship
Friedrich Münzer, writing in the Realencyclopädie, argued that the fact that he had an adult son in 47 BC indicates that he entered Roman political life during the years of Cinna's dominatio and that his career stalled during and after Sulla's civil war. Hailing from a family that had some place in Roman politics – Cicero paints his father as having had some influence – Fufius was a homo novus from a gens that had never before held the consulship.

He was plebeian tribune in 61 BC and secured the amendment of a senatorial bill constituting a tribunal to try Publius Clodius Pulcher for profaning the rites of the Bona Dea: the initial bill had a jury appointed by the urban praetor. After a series of political disputes with Quintus Hortensius, Calenus secured a revote in the senate on a divided motion: one to approve the creation of a special tribunal and a second to secure the appointment of jurors by regular order. Armed with a senatorial decree to create a tribunal with a normal jury composition, he passed enabling legislation, leading to Clodius' trial on terms more favourable thereto.

In 59 BC, Calenus was praetor and supported Caesar during the latter's consulship that same year. According to Cassius Dio, he passed legislation to ensure that the three jury panels of the quaestiones perpetuae (senators, equestrians, and tribuni aerarii) reported their votes separately. However, T R S Broughton also notes that juror votes were already reported separately during the trial of Catiline in 65 BC, meaning that Fufius' law may have had little impact.

After his praetorship little is known of his activities. He was present in Rome in 3–4 April 56 BC, however, as a witness at the trial of Marcus Caelius Rufus. He is also documented at Rome in 52 BC, where in the aftermath of the murder of Clodius by Titus Annius Milo, he moved division of Hortensius' original motion to try Milo in the regular courts under expedited procedure into two parts: expedited procedure and use of the regular courts. This allowed the second part, relating to the regular courts, to be vetoed by two tribunes, Sallust and Titus Plancus Bursa. This paved the way for Milo to be tried in a special tribunal under the lex Pompeia de vi. Asconius, in his commentaries, notes how Fufius both in 61 and 52, by parliamentary procedure outmanoeuvred Hortensius.

Service under Caesar and the triumvirs
The next year, Fufius served under Caesar in Gaul as a legate, taking part in clean-up operations against Uxellodunum. At the outbreak of Caesar's civil war, he joined Caesar and fought in the campaign against the Pompeians in Spain and Massilia. Tasked with bringing reinforcements to Greece after accompanying Caesar there, Fufius was repulsed first by Bibulus' fleet and then unable to land after finding all such sites occupied. Some time later he and Mark Antony found themselves able to land, reinforcing Caesar. Commanding a detachment of troops, Fufius secured the surrender of Delphi, Thebes, and Piraeus without resistance; Athens and Megara were invested but quickly surrendered after news of Pompey's defeat at Pharsalus. When Caesar followed Pompey to Egypt and became embroiled in the Alexandrian war, Fufius remained in Greece to secure the territory and send reinforcements to Egypt.

For these services, Fufius was awarded the consulship in 47 BC on the dictator's return to Italy. Elections had been irregularly postponed until September and the electoral comitia returned Fufius and Publius Vatinius as consules ordinarii. After Caesar's assassination in 44 BC and the ensuing military crisis between the senate and Antony, Fufius urged envoys be sent to Antony, earning Cicero's ire in the Fifth Philippic. Dio places an invective speech against Cicero in Fufius' mouth, which according to Münzer may reflect historical events. Regardless, the senatorial envoys to Antony were unsuccessful and after the death of the consuls at battles of Forum Gallorum and Mutina, Antony was able to consolidate his position among the Caesarian commanders in Gaul and northern Italy. During the proscriptions that followed the senate's defeat in the war, the lex Titia, and the creation of the Second Triumvirate, Fufius interceded to save the life of Marcus Terentius Varro.

Opinions differ as to Calenus' political position in the aftermath of Caesar's death. Per Anna Miączewska, most of the ancient sources paint him as a "sensible and agreeable politician who supported peace" during the Mutina crisis. But it is not clear when he started supporting Antony's position during the crisis or the extent of his support. Most scholars believe Fufius was and early supporter of and instrumental in consolidating support behind Antony in the aftermath of the assassination. It is not clear, however, to what extent that Fufius' attempts to keep the peace by supporting negotiation rather than aggressive action against Antony, as Cicero desired, were part of a conspiracy with Antony.

During the ensuing war against the tyrannicides, Antony placed Fufius in command of two legions to defend Italy. In 41 BC he assumed a governorship of Transalpine Gaul and Hispania Citerior at the head of 11 legions. During the Perusine War, he wanted to intervene with his forces in favour of Lucius Antonius (Mark Antony's brother) against Octavian, but before he could set out he died of illness in 40 BC. His homonymous son handed over the legions to Octavian.

Family
Fufius had two children, a daughter called Fufia who was the wife of Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus (consul in 43 BC) and a homonymous son. It is possible that the Lucius Calenus noted in Cicero's Verrines was the brother of this Fufius.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Quintus Fufius Calenus


text:
Veps language

Veps, also known as Vepsian (Veps: vepsän kelʹ, vepsän keli, or vepsä), is a Finnic language from the Uralic language family, that is spoken by Vepsians. The language is written in the Latin script, and is closely related to Finnish and Karelian.

According to Soviet statistics, 12,500 people were self-designated ethnic Veps at the end of 1989. There were 5,900 self-designated ethnic Veps in 2010, and around 3,600 native speakers.

According to the location of the people, the language is divided into three main dialects: Northern Veps (at Lake Onega to the south of Petrozavodsk, to the north of the river Svir, including the former Veps National Volost), Central Veps (in the east of the Leningrad Oblast and northwest of the Vologda Oblast), and Southern Veps (in the Leningrad Oblast). The Northern dialect seems the most distinct of the three; however, it is still mutually intelligible for speakers of the other two dialects. Speakers of the Northern dialect call themselves "Ludi" (lüdikad), or lüdilaižed.

In Russia, more than 350 children learn the Veps language in a total of five national schools.

Classification and history

Veps is the easternmost surviving member of the Finnic languages. Having developed in relative isolation, the language lacks several features found in its relatives, such as consonant gradation and the length contrast in consonants. Original vowel length has mostly been lost as well (with the exception of Northern Veps, which retains ii and uu). At the same time, it retains a number of archaic features.

The closest relative of Veps is Ludic, connecting Veps to the wider Finnic dialect continuum.

Veps also shows some characteristic innovations such as the vocalization of original syllable-final*l, and the expansion of the local case system.

Distribution
According to Ethnologue there were 3,160 speakers of Veps in 2010, located in the Republic of Karelia and in the Leningrad and Vologda Oblasts.

Dialects
Veps shows substantial dialectal variation, affecting both phonetics and grammatical features. Three main dialect areas can be distinguished, the northern, central and southern dialects.

Northern
Northern Veps is spoken in the Republic of Karelia along the coast of Lake Onega south of Petrozavodsk. It is also spoken in a few small villages in Leningrad Oblast. Villages speaking Northern Veps include Shyoltozero, Rybreka, and Kvartsitny, as well as the city of Petrozavodsk itself.

Characteristics of Northern Veps are:
 * Diphthongs are either preserved in their historical form (koume), or the first component is raised (jaug [jɑʊ̯g] > dʹoug).
 * Combinations of vowel + l are usually preserved (talʹv [tɑlʲv], velg, sild, silʹm [silʲm], olda, sülʹg' [sylʲgʲ], pölvaz [ˡpølvaz]), rarely vocalized to diphthongs: al > au, el, il, ül [yl], öl [øl]> üu [yw] and ol > uu [uː].
 * l, n, r are always palatalized before e in a non-initial syllable.
 * Word-final consonants are not palatalized after i, in for example the past indicative, the conditional and some case forms.
 * Long close vowels are retained, with *üü [yː] often diphthongized to üu (*püü > püu, contrast Southern and Central Veps pü).
 * j is fortified to dʹ [dʲ] word-initially, and medially after consonants (jaug > dʹoug [dʲoʊ̯gː], jogi > dʹogi [dʲogi], järv > dʹärv dʲærv], agj > agdʹ).
 * The last consonant of the stem is lengthened in the third-person singular present indicative (küzub > küzzub, tapab > tappab), and stem-final e becomes o (lugeb > luggob).
 * Only traces of vowel harmony are retained.

Central
Central Veps dialects are rather distinct from each other compared to Northern and Southern Veps, which are relatively homogeneous. They are spoken around a long line stretching from Tervenichey in the Lodeinopolsky District of Leningrad Oblast to near Lake Beloye. The largest locality speaking Central Veps dialects is Vinnitsy.

Characteristics of Central Veps are:
 * Diphthongs are usually modified (sain > seinʹ, söi > süi).
 * Combinations of vowel + l are vocalized to diphthongs in Kuya and Pondala (Belozersk), and usually preserved elsewhere (edel, silʹm, sülʹkta, völ).
 * al and el are vocalized to ou or uu (el may also become üu) in the adessive and ablative case forms (talvel > touvuu or touvüu, mägelpäi > mäguupei).
 * Word-final consonants are palatalized after i (mänid > mänidʹ, mänižin > mänižinʹ).
 * In Kuya village, the vowel in the allative ending depends on the preceding stem vowel. After i the ending is -le (kanoile), after a it is -la (kalala) and after other vowels it is -lo (lebulo).
 * j is preserved in most dialects, mostly in the west (jono, agj). j is fortified to dʹ in Kuya (dʹono, agdʹ). It is fortified to gʹ in Pondala, Voylahta, Nemzha, and Shimozero (gʹono, aggʹ).
 * Final obstruent devoicing in Kuya Veps (sanub > sanup, vellesed > velleset).
 * Unrounding of ü and ö in a few villages (pühä > pihä, pökoi > pekoi).
 * ä > e in Shimozero (päiv > pei(v)).
 * Vowel harmony is weakly preserved, most prominently in the eastern and south-western areas.

Southern
Southern Veps is spoken in the Boksitogorsky District of Leningrad Oblast, including the villages of Radogoshcha and Sidorovo, Boksitogorsky District.

Characteristics of Southern Veps are:
 * Diphthongs are monophthongized to long vowels, especially in non-initial syllables (pertišpäi > pertišpää, heboine > heboone).
 * Combinations of vowel + l are usually preserved.
 * al and el are vocalized to aa and oo in the adessive and ablative case forms (talʹvel > talʹvoo, kezal > kezaa).
 * l and n are palatalized before e in non-initial syllables when followed by a case ending or person-and-number ending. r is not palatalized.
 * Word-final consonants are palatalized after i, in for example the past indicative, the conditional and some case forms.
 * j is preserved (jogi, jüged).
 * Unrounding of front rounded vowels, ü > i (pühä > pihä) and ö > e.
 * The ending -i of the third-person singular past indicative is usually dropped, leaving palatalization of the preceding consonant (pästi > pästʹ, väti > vätʹ, kolkati > kolkatʹ).
 * Vowel harmony is preserved well (höblötädä, pörüdä, södä).

Palatalization
In general, palatalizable consonants are palatalized allophonically before a front vowel. However, palatalized consonants also occur in other environments, especially in word-final position or in word-final clusters.

There are some cases where the front vowel is preceded by a non-palatalized consonant. In native Finnic vocabulary, this occurs where inflectional endings beginning with are attached to words with a stem ending in a non-palatalized consonant. The consonant is not palatalized by in this case, but remains non-palatalized by analogy with the other inflected forms. The vowel is backed to  in this case, as in Russian, making it unclear whether the palatalization is a consequence of the front vowel, or the backing is the result of the lack of palatalization. Either analysis is possible.

Compare:
 * norʹ ("young"), genitive singular noren, partitive plural norid
 * nor ("rope"), genitive singular noran, partitive plural norid  (or )

Russian loanwords have also introduced instances of non-palatalized consonants followed by, which are much more frequent in that language.

The phoneme can also in some cases be preceded by non-palatalized consonants, for example in the allative ending -le.

Vowels
The status of is marginal; it occurs as an allophone of  after a non-palatalized consonant. See above under "Palatalization" for more information. It does not occur in the first syllable of a word.

Vowel harmony
Like many other Finnic languages, Veps has vowel harmony but in a much more limited form. Words are split into back-vowel and front-vowel words based on which vowels they contain:

 * Back vowels:, and
 * Front vowels:, and

However, the front vowels can only occur in the first two syllables of a word. In a third or later syllable, and also sometimes in the second syllable, they are converted to the corresponding back vowel. Thus, vowel harmony only applies (inconsistently) in the second syllable, and has been lost elsewhere. It is not applied for inflectional endings except in a few exceptional cases, but is retained more frequently in derivational endings.

For example:
 * korged ("high", back-vowel harmony), genitive singular korktan, derived noun korktuz '  ("height"); compare Finnish korkean, korkeus.
 * pimed ("dark", back-vowel harmony), genitive singular pimedan, derived noun pimeduz '  ("darkness"); compare Finnish pimeän, pimeys.
 * hüvä ("good", front-vowel harmony), illative singular hüväha, derived noun hüvüz '  ("goodness"); compare Finnish hyvään, hyvyys.
 * päiv ("day", front-vowel harmony), genitive singular päivän, illative singular päivhan; compare Finnish päivän, päivään.
 * pä ("head", back-vowel harmony), illative singular päha; compare Finnish päähän.
 * keza ("summer", back-vowel harmony); compare Finnish kesä.
 * vävu ("son-in-law", back-vowel harmony); compare Finnish vävy.
 * üldüda ("to rise", front-vowel harmony in second syllable, back-vowel in third); compare Finnish yltyä.
 * küzuda ("to ask", back-vowel harmony); compare Finnish kysyä.

Orthography
The modern Vepsian alphabet is a Latin alphabet. It consists of a total of twenty-nine characters: twenty-two are from the basic modern Latin alphabet, six are derived from basic Latin letters by the addition of diacritical marks, and the final character is the apostrophe, which signifies palatalization of the preceding sound.

Veps orthography is largely phonemic, and represents each phoneme with one letter. Palatalized consonants are single phonemes, and thus the combination of a letter and a following apostrophe is a single combined letter for this purpose. The following table shows the correspondences between letters and phonemes:

Palatalization of consonants before front vowels is not indicated in the orthography, so plain consonant letters can represent both types of consonant depending on what vowel follows. For the following letters $⟨i⟩$ and $⟨e⟩$, this is ambiguous, however: they can be preceded by both types of consonants, as noted above in the phonology section. Whether a consonant before the letter $⟨i⟩$ or $⟨e⟩$ is palatalized or not cannot be determined from the orthography and must be learned for each word.

Grammar
Like other Finnic languages, Veps is an agglutinating language. The preservation of the Proto-Finnic weak-grade consonants *d and *g in all positions, along with the loss of consonant gradation, has made Veps morphology relatively simple compared to the other Finnic languages. There are fewer inflectional classes, and inflections of nominals and verbs alike can be predicted from only a few basic principal parts.

Nouns
Veps has twenty-three grammatical cases, more than any other Finnic language. It preserves the basic set of Finnic cases shared by most Finnic languages, including the six locative cases, but several more cases have been added that generally have no counterpart in the others.

Notes:
 * 1) "V" indicates a copy of whatever vowel the genitive singular stem ends with, replacing a i, ä, ö, ü with e, a, o, u. For example, for the illative singular: mecan > mecha, noren > norehe, pöudon > pöudho, pän > päha. Note that the stem-final vowel itself can disappear in these forms, but the rule applies the same.
 * 2) In endings beginning with s or z or a group of consonants containing s or z, this changes to š/ž if the last preceding vowel is i. This always occurs in the plural forms.
 * 3) The partitive, allative, terminative II, additive II and prolative singular cases have longer endings that are used with a few frequently-used pronouns, ken "who" and mi "what".

Principal parts
Nouns have four principal parts, from which all other noun forms can be derived by replacing the endings:
 * Nominative singular: Forms no other forms.
 * Partitive singular: Forms the prolative singular. Can usually be formed from the genitive singular by replacing -n with -d, but some words have an unpredictable form with -t and a different stem.
 * Genitive singular: When -n is removed, forms all remaining singular forms, and the nominative and accusative plural. It is often unpredictable due to historical apocope.
 * Illative singular: Forms the illative, terminative I and additive I singular. The illative singular is predictably formed from the genitive singular stem, so it's not a principal part as such.
 * Partitive plural: When -d is removed, forms all remaining plural forms.

The illative singular stem is the same as the genitive singular stem, except that the final vowel is dropped in some cases. The vowel is retained if at least one of these is the case, and dropped otherwise:
 * 1) The final vowel is a diphthong.
 * 2) The nominative singular is of the form "consonant-vowel-consonant-vowel".
 * 3) The genitive singular has 1 or 3 syllables.
 * 4) There is contraction of a syllable in the genitive singular stem (compared to the nominative stem), e.g. nom sg vauged > gen sg vauktan (contraction -ged > -kt-), nom sg lambaz > gen sg lambhan (contraction -az > -h-).
 * 5) The final consonants of genitive singular stem are ll or lʹlʹ.

Thus:

If the genitive singular stem has h before the final vowel, then the ending -ze (-že after i) is used, and the vowel is never dropped:

Endings
Veps has innovated a special reflexive conjugation, which may have middle voice or passive voice semantics. The endings are as follows:

Infinitives:
 * First infinitive in -da or -ta (reflexive: add -s).
 * Second infinitive in -de- or -te- with inessive or instructive case endings.
 * Third infinitive in -ma- with inessive, illative, elative, adessive or abessive case endings.

Participles:
 * Present active participle in -i (stem -ja-). This is the same suffix as is used for agent nouns.
 * Past active participle in -nu (stem -nude-).
 * Past passive participle in -dud or -tud.

The original Finnic present active participle is falling out of use, and is preserved only for a few verbs, as -b (stem -ba-).

Pronouns
The personal pronouns are of Finno-Ugric origin:

Language example
Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:
 * Kaik mehed sünduba joudajin i kohtaižin, ühtejiččin ičeze arvokahudes i oiktusiš. Heile om anttud melʹ i huiktusentund i heile tariž kožuda toine toiženke kut velʹlʹkundad.

 * (English version: All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood).

title: Veps language


text:
Cold Comfort Farm

Cold Comfort Farm is a comic novel by English author Stella Gibbons, published in 1932. It parodies the romanticised, sometimes doom-laden accounts of rural life popular at the time, by writers such as Mary Webb.

Plot summary
Following the death of her parents, the book's heroine, Flora Poste, finds she is possessed "of every art and grace save that of earning her own living". She decides to take advantage of the fact that "no limits are set, either by society or one's own conscience, to the amount one may impose on one's relatives", and settles on visiting her distant relatives at the isolated Cold Comfort Farm in the fictional village of Howling in Sussex. The inhabitants of the farm – Aunt Ada Doom, the Starkadders, and their extended family and workers – feel obliged to take her in to atone for an unspecified wrong once done to her father.

As is typical in a certain genre of romantic 19th-century and early 20th-century literature, each of the farm's inhabitants has some long-festering emotional problem caused by ignorance, hatred, or fear, and the farm is badly run. Flora, being a level-headed, urban woman in the dandy tradition, determines that she must apply modern common sense to their problems and help them adapt to the 20th century – bringing metropolitan values into the sticks.

Inspirations
As parody of the "loam and lovechild" genre, Cold Comfort Farm alludes specifically to a number of novels both in the past and contemporarily in vogue when Gibbons was writing. According to Faye Hammill's "Cold Comfort Farm, D. H. Lawrence, and English Literary Culture Between the Wars", the works of Sheila Kaye-Smith and Mary Webb are the chief influence: she considered that the farm is modelled on Dormer House in Webb's The House in Dormer Forest, and Aunt Ada Doom on Mrs. Velindre in the same book. The farm-obsessed Reuben's original is in Kaye-Smith's Sussex Gorse, and the Quivering Brethren on the Colgate Brethren in Kaye-Smith's Susan Spray. Others see John Cowper Powys's rural mysticism as a further target, as featured in his Wessex novel Wolf Solent (1929): "He felt as if he enjoyed at that hour some primitive life-feeling that was identical with what those pollarded elms felt."

The speech of the Sussex characters is a parody of rural dialects (in particular Sussex and West Country accents – another parody of novelists who use phonics to portray various accents and dialects) and is sprinkled with fake but authentic-sounding local vocabulary such as mollocking (Seth's favourite activity, undefined but invariably resulting in the pregnancy of a local maid), sukebind (a weed whose flowering in the Spring symbolises the quickening of sexual urges in man and beast; the word is presumably formed by analogy to 'woodbine' (honeysuckle) and bindweed) and clettering (an impractical method used by Adam for washing dishes, which involves scraping them with a dry twig or clettering stick). Her portrayal of libidinous Meyerburg, "Mr Mybug", may have been aimed at Hampstead intellectuals (particularly Freudians and admirers of D. H. Lawrence), but has also been seen as antisemitic in its description of his physiognomy and nameplay.

Responses and influence
Sheila Kaye-Smith, often said to be one of the rural writers parodied by Gibbons in Cold Comfort Farm, arguably gets her own back with a tongue-in-cheek reference to Cold Comfort Farm within a subplot of A Valiant Woman (1939), set in a rapidly modernising village. The upper-middle-class teenager Lucia turns from writing charming rural poems to a great Urban Proletarian Novel: "… all about people who aren't married going to bed in a Manchester slum and talking about the Means Test." Her philistine grandmother is dismayed: she prefers "cosy" rural novels, and knows Lucia is ignorant of proletarian life:

"That silly child! Did she really think she could write a novel? Well, of course, modern novels might encourage her to think so.  There was nothing written nowadays worth reading.  The book on her knee was called Cold Comfort Farm and had been written by a young woman who was said to be very clever and had won an important literary prize.  But she couldn't get on with it at all.  It was about life on a farm, but the girl obviously knew nothing about country life.  To anyone who, like herself, had always lived in the country, the whole thing was too ridiculous and impossible for words."

Elizabeth Janeway responded to the lush ruralism of Laurie Lee's memoir Cider with Rosie by suggesting an astringent counterblast might be found by "looking for an old copy of Stella Gibbons's Cold Comfort Farm".

Characters
In order of appearance:

In London:
 * Flora Poste: the heroine, a nineteen-year-old from London whose parents have recently died
 * Mary Smiling: a widow, Flora's friend in London
 * Charles Fairford: Flora's cousin in London, studying to become a parson

In Howling village Sussex:
 * Judith Starkadder: Flora's cousin, wife of Amos, with an unhealthy preoccupation for her own son Seth
 * Seth Starkadder: younger son of Amos and Judith, handsome and over-sexed, with a passion for the movies
 * Ada Doom: Judith's mother, a reclusive, miserly widow, owner of the farm, who constantly complains of having seen "something nasty in the woodshed" when she was a girl
 * Adam Lambsbreath: 90-year-old farm hand, obsessed with his cows and with Elfine
 * Mark Dolour: farm hand, father of Nancy
 * Amos Starkadder: Judith's husband and hellfire preacher at the Church of the Quivering Brethren ("Ye're all damned!")
 * Amos's half-cousins: Mica, married to Susan; Urk, who expects to marry Elfine and is devoted to water-voles; Ezra, married to Jane; Caraway, married to Lettie; Harkaway
 * Amos's half-brothers: Luke, married to Prue; Mark, divorced from Susan and married to Phoebe
 * Reuben Starkadder: Amos's heir, jealous of anyone who might stand between him and his inheritance of the farm
 * Meriam Beetle: hired girl and mother of Seth's four children
 * Mrs Beetle: Meriam's mother, cleaning lady, rather more sensible than the Starkadders
 * Elfine: an intellectual, nature-loving girl of the Starkadder family, who is besotted with the local squire Richard Hawk-Monitor of Hautcouture (pronounced "Howchiker") Hall
 * Mrs Murther: landlady of The Condemn'd Man public house
 * Mr Meyerburg (whom Flora thinks of as "Mr Mybug"): a writer who pursues Flora and insists that she only refuses him because she is sexually repressed; he is working on a thesis that the works of the Brontë sisters were written by their brother Branwell Brontë
 * Claud Hart-Harris: urbane friend of Flora's whom she summons to accompany her, Seth and Elfine to a ball at Hautcouture Hall
 * Mrs Hawk-Monitor: initially far from being pleased at her son's choice of bride
 * Rennett: unwanted daughter of Susan and Mark
 * Dr Müdel: psychoanalyst
 * Mr Neck: film producer

Animals at Cold Comfort Farm:
 * Graceless, Aimless, Feckless, and Pointless: the farm's cows and Adam Lambsbreath's chief charge
 * Viper: the horse, who pulls the trap which is the farm's main transportation
 * Big Business: the bull, who spends most of his time inside the barn

Futurism
Although the book was published in 1932, the setting is an unspecified near future, shortly after the "Anglo-Nicaraguan wars of 1946". It refers to future social and demographic changes, such as the changing neighbourhoods of London: Mayfair has become a slum and Lambeth is fashionable.

The book contains technological developments that Gibbons thought might have been invented by then, such as TV phones and air-taxis, so the novel has been compared to science fiction.

Prequel and Sequel

 * Christmas at Cold Comfort Farm (actually a collection of short stories, of which Christmas was the first) was published in 1940. It is a prequel of sorts, set before Flora's arrival at the farm, and is a parody of a typical family Christmas.

 * Conference at Cold Comfort Farm, a sequel, was published in 1949 to mixed reviews.

Adaptations
Cold Comfort Farm has been adapted several times, including twice by BBC television.

 * In 1968 a television serial was made, dramatised by David Turner in three 45 minute episodes. It starred Alastair Sim as Amos, Fay Compton as Aunt Ada, Sarah Badel as Flora Poste, Rosalie Crutchley as Judith, Brian Blessed as Reuben and Peter Egan as Seth. Joan Bakewell was the narrator. This BBC adaptation was released on VHS but as of April 2014 is no longer available commercially.

 * In 1981, the BBC produced a four-part radio adaptation by Elizabeth Proud, who also narrated. Patricia Gallimore played Flora, and Miriam Margolyes played Mrs. Beetle. In January 1983, a 2-part sequel, There Have Always Been Starkadders at Cold Comfort Farm, set several years later and based on Conference at Cold Comfort Farm, when Flora is married with several children, was broadcast, with Patricia Gallimore again playing Flora.

 * In 1995, a television film was produced that was generally well received by critics. Janet Maslin in The New York Times wrote that this screen version "gets it exactly right". The film starred Kate Beckinsale as Flora, Joanna Lumley as her friend and mentor Mary Smiling, Rufus Sewell as Seth, Ian McKellen as Amos Starkadder, Eileen Atkins as Judith, Stephen Fry as Mybug, and Angela Thorne as Mrs Hawk-Monitor. Freddie Jones, who had played both Urk and Dr Mudel in the 1968 version, appeared as Adam Lambsbreath, while Miriam Margolyes again played Mrs. Beetle. The 1995 version was produced by BBC Films and Thames International, and was directed by John Schlesinger, from a script by novelist Malcolm Bradbury. It was filmed on location at Brightling, East Sussex. In 1996 and 1997, this version also had a brief theatrical run in North America, Australia and some European countries. Schlesinger reportedly used his own money to enlarge the 16mm BBC version of the film to 35mm, which was turned down by several US distributors before being distributed by Gramercy Pictures. As of April 2014, the film is still available on DVD in both the US and UK.

Other uses of title
The book inspired Mellon family heiress Cordelia Scaife May to name her home "Cold Comfort", and to name her philanthropic foundation Colcom Foundation.

Critical reception
BBC News included Cold Comfort Farm on its list of the 100 most influential novels.

title: Cold Comfort Farm


text:
The Chaos Engine

The Chaos Engine is a top-down run and gun video game developed by The Bitmap Brothers and published by Renegade Software in March 1993. The game is set in a steampunk Victorian age in which one or two players must battle the hostile creations of the eponymous Chaos Engine across four landscapes and ultimately defeat it and its deranged inventor.

It was first released for the Amiga, with a version available for AGA Amigas, and later ported to MS-DOS, the Super Nintendo Entertainment System, Atari ST, Amiga CD32, RISC OS and Mega Drive. In the Super NES and Mega Drive versions, the Preacher character was renamed as the Scientist and redesigned to remove his clerical collar. The US versions of these two ports were retitled Soldiers of Fortune. A sequel to the game, The Chaos Engine 2, was released in 1996.

Plot
The setting is a steampunk Victorian era England. A time traveller on a reconnaissance mission from the distant future became stranded in the England of the late 1800s, and his technology came into the hands of the Royal Society, led by Baron Fortesque (based upon Charles Babbage), a grand inventor. Fortesque then retro engineered many of the futuristic contraptions, creating an entirely different, alternate timeline.

Baron Fortesque then succeeded in his greatest creation yet: the Chaos Engine, which was able to experiment with matter and the very nature of space and time. Unfortunately for the rest of the proud kingdom, the Engine then proceeded to become sentient, captured and assimilated its creator, and began to change the countryside for the worse. Vile monsters and destructive automata appeared everywhere, and even prehistoric beasts were resurrected. Telegram wires connecting Britain to the European mainland are cut, and any ship attempting to enter a British port is attacked. The British Royal Family, members of Parliament and a large number of refugees manage to escape across the sea, bringing with them many tales of horror. The British Empire is left in tatters, and the world in economic and political chaos. That lures a number of mercenaries on a potentially-rewarding quest to infiltrate the quarantined Britain, find the root of the problem, and swiftly bring a full stop to it.

At the end of the cellars in the hall of machines, the player characters face the Chaos Engine itself in a last battle. Upon its destruction, the narrator of the game is revealed to be the baron himself, trapped within the machine and studded with implants.

The introductory sequence is displayed in text on the screen on the floppy disk Amiga versions, but a slightly modified version is narrated with a voiceover on the Amiga CD32 version, together with some scene-setting animations.

Characters
Players choose two adventurers from a group of six to take on the task of defeating the mad Baron Fortesque and the Chaos Engine itself. The playable characters have various qualities that affect gameplay, such as speed and combat ability. The players are provided with a certain amount of money to start the game and must hire the chosen characters at their set prices.

In one-player mode, the computer artificial intelligence controls the second player, so that one never has to fight the chaos alone. Control of characters cannot be swapped once chosen. It is possible to play with only one character, by starting a two-player game and letting the enemies kill the second character.

Navvie and Thug
The Navvie and Thug are the strongest and most expensive of the group. They have the highest health and most destructive specials but are slower than the other characters. The Navvie uses a bazooka, which fires straight ahead and does heavy damage; the Thug uses a shotgun, which is less powerful than the bazooka but fires many shots in a wide angle.

Brigand and Mercenary
The Brigand and Mercenary are the all-rounded characters and have a mid-range price. Though they are slightly weaker than the Navvie and Thug, they have access to more specials and can move faster. The Brigand uses a rifle, which works the same as the Navvie's bazooka but is not as powerful. The Mercenary uses a Gatling gun that operates similarly to the Thug's shotgun, but with a different pattern.

Gentleman and Preacher/Scientist
The Gentleman and Preacher are the least expensive, with the highest movement speed and widest selection of specials; however, they have the lowest health. The Gentleman uses a flame pistol, while the Preacher carries a laser. Their shots are weaker than those of the other characters, but can pass through enemies after hitting them.

For the North American release, the Preacher character was redesigned slightly and renamed as the Scientist because the game's North American publishers felt that a priest killing people was offensive.

Gameplay

The players must travel through four worlds consisting of four levels each, picking up power-ups, gold and keys to pass through the various puzzles and mazes. A number of "nodes" must be activated via weapon fire (or special power) to open the final doors at the end of each level. At the end of every second level, the players has a chance to spend their collected riches to upgrade their weapons, increase the number of hit points of their character, purchase new items and improve other character attributes.

Development
Developers included Steve Cargill, Simon Knight, Dan Malone, Eric Mathews and Mike Montgomery. Joi composed the title theme and Richard Joseph composed all other in-game music.

The game was inspired by William Gibson and Bruce Sterling's novel, The Difference Engine, and its basic plot and stylistics are both based on the novel.

The game's coder developed the partner AI by observing play-testing of the game, then coding the AI according to his observations of the player's behaviors.

The game was later ported to consoles. In order to fit the soundtrack into the Super NES's audio memory, which is much smaller than the Amiga's, Joseph both used standard compression methods and put all the note data and drivers in the console's main memory, reserving the audio memory for samples.

Beta version
An early version of the game was previewed on the British TV show Gamesmaster, and some screenshots were featured in Amiga magazines of the time. The early version was reportedly "running on an Amiga 3000" and featured simultaneous three player action.

Reception
Electronic Gaming Monthly gave the Super NES version a 6.8 out of 10, summarizing it as "A decent overhead shooting game in the spirit of Technoclash and Gauntlet." They gave the Genesis version a 6.4. GamePro remarked of the Genesis version that "Overhead-view gunfighting has never played better", citing the heavy challenge, solid controls, and use of teamwork. They criticized the sprites as overly small, but also noted that the sharp artwork ensures that it is still easy to make out what is happening on screen.

Reviewing the computer version, Computer Game Review's Tasos Kaiafas wrote, "For the price, this a must-buy if you like two-player arcade shooters, especially since another one for the PC may not come along for awhile." In 1995, Total! ranked The Chaos Engine 68th on their Top 100 SNES Games summarizing: "Sort of Jules Vern meets Arnie. This is a great cooperative challenge and very stylish with it."

Remake
A remastered version of the game of The Chaos Engine, essentially a widescreen port of the Amiga AGA version (named AA version in the title screen) with the original intro and music intact, was developed by Abstraction Games and released for Windows, Mac and Linux on August 29, 2013. The game retains all gameplay features, the audio and the graphics of the original.

The remastered version adds the option to play a remote two-player game through Steam. There is also a global high score list, and two optional graphics effects: a softening filter to alleviate the low-resolution pixelated graphics and a bloom effect on selected parts of the game graphics.

title: The Chaos Engine


text:
Richard Joseph

Richard Joseph (23 April 1953 – 4 March 2007) was an English computer game composer, musician and sound specialist. He had a career spanning 20 years starting in the early days of gaming on the C64 and the Amiga and onto succeeding formats.

Biography
Prior to working in games Richard Joseph had a fleeting career in the music industry working with artists such as Trevor Horn and Hugh Padgham. He released one solo single on EMI and was part of the group CMU which released two albums (although Joseph was only involved with the second, Space Cabaret) on Transatlantic before evolving into jazz funk band Shakatak.

Joseph was noted in game audio for bringing "real" voice actors into a game for the first time (Mega Lo Mania), the earliest use of interactive music (Chaos Engine), working with established recording artists (Betty Boo on Magic Pockets, Captain Sensible on Sensible Soccer, Brian May on Rise of the Robots and John Foxx on Gods and Speedball 2), and featuring vocals in title tunes, which was revolutionary for the time.

In the late 1980s and early 1990s, he produced soundtracks for development teams Sensible Software and the Bitmap Brothers. He is also credited with the soundtrack to the C64 version of the hit Defender of the Crown.

He then went on to set up Audio Interactive at Pinewood Studios and, along with composer James Hannigan, helped Electronic Arts to win the BAFTA Award for best audio in 2000 for Theme Park World. From 1990 onwards Joseph was a frequent musical collaborator with Jon Hare with whom he co-wrote and arranged all of Sensible Software's best known musical tracks including the soundtrack for Cannon Fodder the GBC version of which was also nominated for a BAFTA in 2000, and is still the only small-format soundtrack to be recognised by BAFTA to this day. In 1995 Hare and Joseph embarked upon an epic 32 track soundtrack for the multimedia product Sex 'n' Drugs 'n' Rock 'n' Roll, signed to Warner Interactive, however in 1998 Warner bowed out of the games market and their Magnum Opus was only ever released as a limited edition audio CD.

After working as Audio Director on Republic: The Revolution and Evil Genius for Elixir Studios (music composed by James Hannigan), both winning BAFTA nominations for Hannigan's scores, Joseph moved to France where he ran SoundTropez, a company offering next-technology soundtracks.

Joseph came from an entertainment family. Brother Eddy is a BAFTA-winning sound supervisor, working on films such as Harry Potter and James Bond. Brother Pat is a director of The Mill which won an Oscar for Gladiator. Nephew Alex is a foley supervisor. His father Teddy (1918–2006) was a production executive working on, amongst many others, films by John Schlesinger and Alfred Hitchcock.

After being diagnosed with lung cancer, he died on 4 March 2007 aged 53 years. Wacky Races: Mad Motors is dedicated to him.

Works
• 3 Ninjas Kick Back (1994)

• Action Man: Jungle Storm (2000)

• Action Man: Raid on Island X (1999)

• Apache (1995)

• Ball Breakers (2000)

• Barbarian: The Ultimate Warrior (1987)

• Barbarian II: The Dungeon of Drax (1988)

• Brutal Sports Football (1993)

• Cadaver (1990)

• Cannon Fodder (1993)

• Cannon Fodder 2 (1994)

• Cauldron II: The Pumpkin Strikes Back (1986)

• Colony Wars: Red Sun (2000)

• Creatures 2 (1998)

• Cyber Empires (1992)

• Daughter of Serpents (1992)

• Demoniak (1991)

• Diggers (1993)

• Diggers 2: Extractors (1995)

• Evil Genius (2004)

• Flight of the Amazon Queen (1995)

• Global Effect (1992)

• Glover (1998)

• Gods (1991)

• International 3D Tennis (1990)

• James Pond (1990)

• James Pond 2 (1991)

• James Pond 3 (1993)

• Knightmare (1991)

• Lego Loco (1998)

• Lego Stunt Rally (2000)

• Lure of the Temptress (1992)

• Magic Pockets (1991)

• Mega Lo Mania (1991)

• Moonshine Racers (1991)

• Moonstone: A Hard Days Knight (1991)

• Mr Blobby (1994)

• Myth: History in the Making (1992)

• NBA ShootOut '97 (1997)

• Putty (1992)

• Putty Squad (1994)

• Republic: The Revolution (2003)

• Rimrunner (1988)

• Rise of the Robots (1994)

• Rome: Pathway to Power (1992)

• Sensible Golf (1994)

• Sensible Soccer '98 (1998)

• Sensible Soccer 2006 (2006)

• Sensible Soccer: European Champions (1992)

• Sensible World of Soccer (1994)

• Shoot-'Em-Up Construction Kit (1987)

• Silverload (1995)

• Speedball 2: Brutal Deluxe (1990)

• Stifflip & Co. (1987)

• Stormball (1991)

• Street Racer (1997)

• Super Troll Islands (1994)

• The Adventures of Robin Hood (1991)

• The Aquatic Games (1992)

• The Chaos Engine (1993)

• The Chaos Engine 2 (1996)

• The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion (2006)

• The Sacred Armour of Antiriad (1986)

• Theme Park Inc (2001)

• Theme Park World (1999)

• Time Trax (1994)

• Voodoo Nightmare (1990)

• Wicked (1989)

• Wizkid (1992)

• Worlds of Legend: Son of the Empire (1993)

Profiles

 * Richard Joseph at MobyGames
 * Richard Joseph at OverClocked ReMix
 * Richard Joseph at CVGM
 * Richard Joseph at CVGM

Articles and interviews

 * C64.COM audio interviews
 * Remix64 interview
 * Idlethumbs interview
 * Gamespot interview
 * Gamemusic article

title: Richard Joseph


text:
Item

Item may refer to:

Organizations

 * Instituto del Tercer Mundo (ITeM), the Third World Institute
 * ITEM club, an economic forecasting group based in the United Kingdom

Newspapers

 * The Item, an American independent, morning newspaper published in Sumter, South Carolina
 * The Huntsville Item, an American seven-day morning daily newspaper published in Huntsville, Texas
 * Picayune Item, an American five-day daily newspaper published in Picayune, Mississippi

Music

 * Item (EP), first release by the band Onetwo
 * "Item", a 2023 song by Stray Kids from 5-Star

Other uses

 * Item (gaming), objects in a video game collected by the player character to increase the score or progress through the story
 * Digital Item, the basic unit of transaction in the MPEG-21 framework
 * Item number, musical performance in Indian cinema
 * Item (TV series), a 2019 South Korean television series
 * ITEM, a group in the light novel and anime franchise A Certain Magical Index

title: Item


text:
Joseph Hill (musician)

Joseph Hill (22 January 1949 – 19 August 2006) was the lead singer and songwriter for the roots reggae group Culture, most famous for their 1977 hit "Two Sevens Clash", but also well known for their "International Herb" single. Hill recorded twenty-two albums.

Early life and career
Joseph Hill was born in 1949 in Linstead, a town in Saint Catherine Parish in the southeast of Jamaica. He was raised in a Christian family and began singing in church at the age of six. Within two years he was making his own musical instruments. After leaving home he came into contact with Rastafarians and adopted the faith.

He began his career in the late 1960s as a percussionist, recording with the Studio One house band the Soul Defenders. He also worked as a sound system deejay, and began performing as a backing vocalist, leading to his singles "Behold the Land" and "Take Me Girl" in the early 1970s. In the early 70s Hill performed with two groups that included future reggae star Glen Washington: C35 Incorporated and Stepping Stone. He performed regularly on the hotel circuit, but had his greatest success with the group Culture.

Culture
Hill formed Culture in 1976, and had early success with the prophetic "Two Sevens Clash", predicting apocalypse on 7 July 1977. The record was hugely popular on the emerging punk rock scene in England, heavily influencing The Clash, John Lydon and Public Image.

During the 1970s the group had a string of highly successful singles for producers Joe Gibbs and Sonia Pottinger including the song "Two Sevens Clash" which made its mark on both Jamaica and the United Kingdom. It was named by Rolling Stone magazine in 2002 as one of the "50 Coolest Records", the only single artist reggae album to make the list. The group also had a hit with "Stop Fussing and Fighting", a song that addressed the chaotic political climate of the late 1970s and the attempt on Bob Marley's life.

Joseph Hill and Culture developed a reputation as a performing group after a performance at the One Love Peace Concert in 1978, and was soon regularly touring the United States, Europe and Africa. In recent years the group continued to perform at least one hundred concerts each year, with Hill's wife Pauline as road manager. Hill was a presence on stage: part DJ as he directed his band to reconfigure songs on stage and part teacher as he commented on Jamaican history and current political issues. In his lyrics, Hill often explored how the legacy of slavery continued to have an influence on Jamaican citizens.

Hill had received a number of honours; an induction into the Jamaican Reggae Walk of Fame and a 2005 Independence Award presented by the Prime Minister of Jamaica. In 2005 he received the Culture Shock Bronze Medal in recognition of his contribution to Jamaican music.

As a member of the Rastafari movement, Joseph Hill was a worshipper of emperor Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia. Indeed, Hill's honorific/nickname, "Keeper of Zion Gate" reflects his position as one of reggae's and Rastafari's greatest voices.

Death
Joseph Hill died on a tour bus just after entering Berlin on 19 August 2006. At his funeral in September 2006, Hill was eulogised by, amongst others, Jamaican Prime Minister Portia Simpson Miller who recognised his contributions to Jamaican culture.

His son Kenyatta subsequently took over his role in Culture.

Singles

 * "Behold the Land" (1972), Coxsone
 * "Take Me Girl" (197?)
 * "African King 2"
 * "Disobedient Children"
 * "The Rastaman"
 * "Cousin Rude Boy"
 * "Crack in a New York" (1987)
 * "Police Man" (2005)
 * Raw Truth EP (2006), Ababa Janhoy – featuring Big Youth and Daddy Rings

title: Joseph Hill (musician)


text:
Murder of Gregory Glenn Biggs

On October 26, 2001, twenty-five-year-old nursing assistant Chante Jawan Mallard murdered 37-year-old Gregory Glenn Biggs, a homeless man, with her automobile, in Fort Worth, Texas, United States. The force of the crash lodged Biggs into the windshield. Mallard then drove home and left the man lodged in the windshield of her car, parked in her garage. He died two to three days later, according to police. Mallard was convicted and sentenced to 50 years imprisonment for murder, but will be eligible for parole in 2027.

Victim
Gregory Glenn Biggs, born August 16, 1964. Although he lived with mental health problems all his adult life, he took care of his son and held a job in construction as a mason. At the moment of the events, Biggs was living in a state of homelessness, but was "on an upswing", according to his mother.

Murder
Chante Jawan Mallard (born June 22, 1976) is a woman from Fort Worth, Texas. On October 26, 2001, Mallard's Chevrolet Cavalier struck Biggs, a pedestrian. At the time, Mallard was believed to have been driving while intoxicated by a combination of marijuana, ecstasy and alcohol.

Mallard then drove home, leaving the injured Biggs stuck in her windshield, and parked her car in her garage. After the accident, Mallard did not notify the police nor did she get Biggs any medical attention, even though she was a nursing assistant at the time. Occasionally, she would return to the garage to check on his status. Biggs died several hours later. Afterwards, Mallard called a male friend, Clete Jackson, for assistance. Mallard, Jackson and Jackson's cousin Herbert Tyrone Cleveland took the body to a park and left it there, even going so far as to set fire to part of the car in an attempt to disguise the evidence. The three were later each convicted on charges of tampering with evidence for this action.

Mallard became a suspect after she was reported talking and laughing about the incident at a party some four months after the events. "I hit this white man", Mallard allegedly told acquaintance Maranda Daniel, while laughing.

Trial
Mallard's trial commenced on June 23, 2003. During the trial, Tarrant County medical examiner Nizam Peerwani testified that, had Mallard taken Biggs to a hospital, he would have recovered from his injuries. Other experts testified that they agreed that Biggs would have survived. "There's not a member of the Fort Worth Fire Department that could not have saved Mr. Biggs's life", testified fire captain Jim Sowder. Mallard was convicted of murder in June 2003, with the 50-year murder sentence and 10-year tampering sentence to run concurrently. She will be eligible for parole in 2027.

Aftermath
A wrongful death lawsuit filed by Biggs's son, Brandon, was settled out of court. He later chose to forgive Mallard and the others involved in his father's murder. "I want to extend my forgiveness to Chante Mallard and let her know that the Mallard family is in my prayers", he said in 2003. In response, convicted murderers from around the country raised $10,000 as a college scholarship and had it presented at a ceremony to Brandon, who at the time was a 20-year-old pastoral ministry sophomore at Southwestern Assemblies of God University in Waxahachie, Texas.

Since finishing his sentence, Clete Denel Jackson, who was imprisoned for helping move Biggs's body, has been in and out of prison on firearms- and drug-related charges. He was set to be released again in late November 2017. Mallard's relationship with Jackson and Cleveland remains unclear. Jackson's lawyer described his client and Mallard as linked romantically, yet relatives of Jackson and Cleveland claim they had never heard of Mallard.

Media adaptations

 * Stuck, a 2007 black comedy thriller film directed by Stuart Gordon and starring Mena Suvari and Stephen Rea.
 * An episode of Law & Order ("Darwinian", aired January 7, 2004)
 * The story inspired events in the second season of Fargo, in which Peggy Blumquist (Kirsten Dunst) hits Rye Gerhardt (Kieran Culkin) and drives back home with him stuck through the windshield.
 * This story also inspired a scene in the third season of the Fox procedural drama 9-1-1 when Stella (Stephanie Lemelin) hits a homeless man after crashing into him with her car. The man is also lodged in the windshield of her car by the impact. Stella suffers a head injury in the crash and drives around town with the man still stuck in her windshield for nearly two days before firefighter Evan Buckley (Oliver Stark) stops her. Unlike the real-life incident, the man on the show survives his injuries after being rushed to the hospital.

title: Murder of Gregory Glenn Biggs


text:
Talk:Teletext

External links modified
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MOS:ENGVAR
Per MOS:CONSISTENCY, with  I've just changed a few spellings of "analogue" to "analog". Both were used in the article, but it seems to be consistent with "color" as I am assuming a preference for U.S. spelling.

That being said, the article has perhaps greater "ties" to the U.K. per MOS:TIES, so perhaps these should be changed to use British English. 89.147.70.16 (talk) 09:02, 14 December 2018 (UTC)

UK BBC text news service
The article includes this sentence:

The BBC maintains a Red Button service on digital TV which includes access to the latest text news; that text news service is accessible on the BBC News Channel and during BBC One newscasts.

But on Freeview the text news service is available on all BBC TV and radio channels (except the Red Button channel) all the time. (I think that sometimes pressing the red button immediately changes the channel to the BBC Red Button channel instead of showing the text page, in which case you need to press the "Text" button instead.)

Uses
There should be a section explaining the types of content available. --Error (talk) 18:56, 2 November 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Teletext


text:
The Boomtown Rats

The Boomtown Rats are an Irish new wave band originally formed in Dublin in 1975. Between 1977 and 1985, they had a series of Irish and UK hits including "Like Clockwork", "Rat Trap", "I Don't Like Mondays" and "Banana Republic". The original line-up comprised six musicians; five from Dún Laoghaire in County Dublin; Gerry Cott (rhythm guitar), Simon Crowe (drums), Johnnie Fingers (keyboards), Bob Geldof (vocals) and Garry Roberts (lead guitar), plus Fingers' cousin Pete Briquette (bass). The Boomtown Rats broke up in 1986, but reformed in 2013, without Fingers or Cott. Garry Roberts died in 2022. The band's fame and notability have been overshadowed by the charity work of frontman Bob Geldof, a former journalist with the New Musical Express.

Beginnings
The band was formed in 1975 with five of the six members who came from Dún Laoghaire, while Pete Briquette was originally from Ballyjamesduff, County Cavan, Ireland. Geldof initially managed the band but took over the lead vocals from Garry Roberts. Initially known as The Nightlife Thugs, the group changed their name to The Boomtown Rats, which Geldof had taken from the name of Woody Guthrie's boyhood gang, which is mentioned in Guthrie's autobiography Bound for Glory.

In the summer of 1976, the group played their first UK gig before moving to London where they signed with Ensign Records later that year. Their first single, "Lookin' After No. 1", released in August 1977 after a year of touring, including a support slot with Tom Petty. It reached the Top 40 of the UK Singles Chart at No. 11. Their first album The Boomtown Rats was released the following month and included another single, "Mary of the 4th Form" reached No. 15 in December. Music journalist Martin C. Strong commented, "Geldof's moody charisma helped to give the band a distinct identity".

Mainstream success
The band together with producer Mutt Lange embarked on recording their next album, A Tonic for the Troops (1978). In May, the first single "She's So Modern" reached No. 12 in UK charts. A headlining tour around the UK culminates in a show filmed at the Hammersmith Odeon. The second single "Like Clockwork" reached the UK Top Ten at No. 6 in July. The album was released shortly after, while in early November, the third single "Rat Trap" became the first rock song by an Irish band to reach No. 1 in the UK. In addition, "Rat Trap" was also the first new wave song to claim the number one spot. The US version of the album (with a slightly different selection of tracks) came out the next year on Columbia Records.

The band returned to the recording studio with Lange to produce a follow-up in 1979, while they embarked on a US tour in support of the album with moderate success. The single "I Don't Like Mondays" was released in July, also reached No. 1 in the UK. The song was written in response to a school shooting in California, and became a worldwide Top Ten hit, except for the United States. It was the band's only song to reach the US Billboard Hot 100 and was included in the band's third album, The Fine Art of Surfacing released in November of that year. The album also contained "Diamond Smiles" and their next Top 10 hit in the UK, "Someone's Looking at You".

In December 1980 "Banana Republic" was released, which was their last Top 10 hit, reaching No. 3. and in the following year the Boomtown Rats' next studio album Mondo Bongo produced by Tony Visconti appeared. A second single 'Elephant's Graveyard (Guilty)' charted at 26 while the title track appears in the US without much success. During the subsequent tour, Gerry Cott decided to depart the band that continues as a quintet. In December 1981 the single 'Never In A Million Years' stalled at No. 62 in the UK charts.

The band's fifth album, V Deep, again produced by Visconti, was released in February 1982. A second single from the album "House on Fire" made number 24 in the UK Singles Chart. A third, 'Charmed Lives' failed to chart however. In the US, the album was initially rejected by their American label, which instead issued a four-song EP called The Boomtown Rats, featuring four selections from V Deep. The full album was eventually issued in the US in late 1982. The same year Geldof appeared in the film Pink Floyd - The Wall directed by Alan Parker.

A follow-up album entitled In The Long Grass was recorded in 1983, but was initially rejected by the group's label. By 1984, the band was touring universities after becoming unable to fund the "guarantee" required to book mainstream concert halls. In The Long Grass was finally issued in the UK in May 1984, but failed to chart. Two singles, "Tonight" and "Drag Me Down", were taken from the album; these reached the lower rungs of the UK Singles Chart, but two further singles, "Dave" and "A Hold of Me", failed to register.

The Boomtown Rats' involvement with Band Aid (on which they all played) raised their profile again, and in January 1985, a revised version of In the Long Grass was finally released in the US. The album made the US charts at No. 188, but the associated singles failed to make an impact on the charts or on the radio. The band subsequently performed at Live Aid's charity performance.

"Dave", a single from the original release of In the Long Grass was re-recorded as "Rain" for the US market. The song was about the band's saxophone player and school friend David McHale, who had suffered a breakdown after his girlfriend was found dead in a public toilet next to an empty heroin bag.

Break up
After Live Aid, the band was on hiatus while Geldof focused on the Band Aid Trust. The band's final performance came at Self Aid, a May 1986 concert at the RDS in Dublin, to raise awareness of unemployment in Ireland. Their rendition of "Joey's on the Street Again" was 12 minutes long, with an extended bridge, during which time Geldof ran among the crowd. It also included a rendition of Woody Guthrie's song "Greenback Dollar", which provided circularity and closure. Following this performance, Geldof addressed the crowd, saying, "It's been a great ten years; rest in peace". The band then performed "Looking After No.1".

Following the band's break-up, Geldof launched a solo career with Pete Briquette continuing to work alongside him.

Garry Roberts co-wrote songs for Kirsty MacColl before leaving the music business and going on to become a successful salesman of financial services. Roberts later presented his Guitar Workshop to schools, encouraging pupils to play the instrument and emphasising the contribution of the blues to modern rock and pop music.

Fingers became a successful record producer in Japan, as well as being part of the Japanese band Greengate. Simon Crowe was in the West Country-based Celtic instrumental band Jiggerypipery and has also run a clock making business.

In 2005, the band's albums were all remastered and re-released and a 'Best Of' compilation was released, along with two DVDs. Briquette mixed the live DVD and Francesco Cameli mixed the extra tracks for the re-release of the Boomtown Rats albums at Sphere Studios in London.

The Rats
In 2008, Garry Roberts and Simon Crowe, who had continued playing together in The Fab Four, with Alan Perman (ex Herman's Hermits) and Bob Doyle (who once auditioned unsuccessfully for E.L.O.), and The Velcro Flies, with Steve (Dusty) Hill and Gavin Petrie, got together as "The Rats", playing their favourite Boomtown Rats songs, with two guitars, bass and drums. The band was initially fronted by Peter Barton, who since the early 1980s has played with several resurrected acts, including The Animals, The Hollies and Lieutenant Pigeon. Barton was replaced on lead vocals and bass by Bob Bradbury, who was the founder and main songwriter in Hello. Darren Beale, formerly of The Caves, played lead guitar. Saxophone player Andy Hamilton, who toured and recorded with The Boomtown Rats, including at Live Aid, played as a guest at some gigs.

Gerry Cott and Johnnie Fingers were invited to join the band when circumstances allowed. Cott attended The Rats' second gig (at The 100 Club on Oxford Street, London). Fingers, meanwhile, worked for the Fuji Rock Festival in Japan, but planned to join the band on stage when he was in the UK.

On 21 June 2009, Geldof, Roberts, and Briquette got together in Dublin to play "Dave", at a party to celebrate the life of Boomtown Rats' close friend and saxophone player, "Doctor" Dave MacHale, who had died of cancer in Frankfurt.

On 20 September 2011, Gerry Cott guested with Geldof's band at The Cadogan Hall, London. They played three Boomtown Rats songs prior to the encores. Cott returned to the stage for the final encore playing on two Geldof solo songs.

The Boomtown Rats reform
Bob Geldof, Gary Roberts, Pete Briquette, and Simon Crowe reunited as The Boomtown Rats in 2013, joined by Alan Dunn (longtime member of Geldof's band) on keyboards and Darren Beale (who played with Roberts & Crowe in The Rats) on guitar. Bob Geldof said, "Playing again with the Rats and doing those great songs again will be exciting afresh. We were an amazing band and I just feel it's the right time to re-Rat, to go back to Boomtown for a visit." In June 2013, it was announced that the band would be embarking on a UK and Ireland tour supported by a new compilation album, Back to Boomtown: Classic Rats Hits. The group performed at the Brentwood Festival in 2016, where Geldof attracted controversy for criticising the audience. In April 2017, the band returned to the studio to record new material for their first studio album since In the Long Grass in 1984. In March 2020, they released a new album, Citizens of Boomtown, and a lead single, "Trash Glam Baby".

Members
Current with
 * Bob Geldof – lead vocals, guitar, harmonica (1975–1986, 2013–present)
 * Pete Briquette – bass, keyboards, backing vocals (1975–1986, 2013–present)
 * Simon Crowe – drums, percussion, backing vocals (1975–1986, 2013–present)
 * Alan Dunn – piano, keyboards, backing vocals (2013–present)
 * Darren Beale – guitar, keyboards, backing vocals (2013–present)

Former
 * Garry Roberts – lead guitar, backing vocals (1975–1986, 2013–2022; his death)
 * Johnnie Fingers – keyboards, piano, backing vocals (1975–1986)
 * Gerry Cott – rhythm guitar (1975–1981)

Timeline

Studio albums

 * The Boomtown Rats (1977)
 * A Tonic for the Troops (1978)
 * The Fine Art of Surfacing (1979)
 * Mondo Bongo (1981)
 * V Deep (1982)
 * In the Long Grass (1984)
 * Citizens of Boomtown (2020)

UK Top 40 singles

 * "Lookin' After No. 1" (1977) No. 11
 * "Mary of the 4th Form" (1977) No. 15
 * "She's So Modern" (1978) No. 12
 * "Like Clockwork" (1978) No. 6
 * "Rat Trap" (1978) No. 1
 * "I Don't Like Mondays" (1979) No. 1
 * "Diamond Smiles" (1979) No. 13
 * "Someone's Looking at You" (1980) No. 4
 * "Banana Republic" (1980) No. 3
 * "The Elephant's Graveyard (Guilty)" (1981) No. 26
 * "House on Fire" (1982) No. 24
 * "I Don't Like Mondays" (CD single re-issue) (1994) No. 38

title: The Boomtown Rats


text:
Functional

Functional may refer to:
 * Movements in architecture:
 * Functionalism (architecture)
 * Form follows function
 * Functional group, combination of atoms within molecules
 * Medical conditions without currently visible organic basis:
 * Functional symptom
 * Functional disorder
 * Functional classification for roads
 * Functional organization
 * Functional training

In mathematics

 * Functional (mathematics), a term applied to certain scalar-valued functions in mathematics and computer science
 * Functional analysis
 * Linear functional, a type of functional often simply called a functional in the context of functional analysis
 * Higher-order function, also called a functional, a function that takes other functions as arguments

In computer science, software engineering

 * "Functional" (noun) may be used as a synonym for Higher-order function
 * functional (C++), a header file in the C++ Standard Library
 * Functional design, a paradigm used to simplify the design of hardware and software devices
 * Functional model, a structured representation of functions, activities or processes in systems and software engineering
 * Functional programming, a programming paradigm based on mathematical functions rather than changes in variable states
 * In an ontology (information science), "functional" is a property or relation that can only hold a single value for a given individual

title: Functional