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Caterham Cars

Caterham Cars Ltd. is a British manufacturer of specialist lightweight sports cars established in Caterham, England, with their headquarters in Dartford, England. Their current model, the Caterham 7 (or Seven), originally launched in 1973, is a direct evolution of the Series 3 Lotus Seven designed by Colin Chapman. In the 1990s the company made the Caterham 21, a two-seater soft top alternative to the MG F and Lotus Elise, (which both sold many more units). A track-only car, the SP/300.R, a joint project with Lola was released for customer testing in 2010 and was scheduled for release in 2013.

Caterham was an independent company until their acquisition by Team Lotus in 2011, leading to the formation of Caterham Group. In 2021, Caterham Cars was acquired by VT Holdings, Japanese importer for the Caterham Seven since 2009.

Lotus origins
Colin Chapman's Lotus Cars launched the Series 1 Lotus Seven in 1957. The car was immediately embraced by enthusiasts as a low-cost, lightweight sports car and successful race car. Revised Series 2, Series 3 and Series 4 versions were subsequently launched in 1960, 1968 and 1970 respectively.

Caterham Cars had been a major Lotus 7 dealer during the 1960s, and its founder, Graham Nearn, purchased the rights to continue manufacture of the Seven design from Chapman in 1973, after Lotus announced its intention to discontinue the model. Caterham initially restarted manufacture of the Lotus Seven Series 4; however, when this proved unpopular, production switched to a Series 3 model in 1974.

In 1974, under the name of Seven Cars Limited, Caterham built 20 production cars with chassis numbers 1 to 20 and one prototype, with chassis number 0 (CS3 3550 – CS3 3570). Of the 21 cars produced in the first year, all were fitted with the Ford Lotus Twin Cam 1557cc engine, with the exception of chassis number 7 which, intended for racing, was fitted with a 1962cc twin cam engine sourced from Alfa Romeo.

The Lotus/Caterham 7 is widely regarded by car enthusiasts and the media as one of the signature sports cars of the 20th century. With 2007 marking the 50th year of continuous production, the Seven still enjoys strong support and success in clubman-style racing.

Since 2006 Caterham Cars has been run by an ex-Lotus management team led by Ansar Ali (CEO) and Mark Edwards (COO). In June 2012 Ansar Ali announced he was to leave Caterham Cars and Graham Mcdonald (the company's former CFO) became the new CEO.

Construction
As with its Lotus Seven precursors, Caterhams are constructed of aluminium sheet attached to a tubular steel chassis. Nose cone and wings are either GRP or carbon fibre depending on specification. All Sevens are front-engined with rear-wheel drive and two seats. Their extremely high performance is achieved through light weight (less than 500 kg on some versions) rather than particularly powerful engines. As well as a lightweight chassis and bodywork, Caterham Sevens achieve their very low mass through their lack of comfort and safety oriented features such as a fixed roof, doors, radio, air-conditioning, airbags, traction/stability control, ABS, satellite navigation or cruise control. As a result, the Seven is somewhat limited in its practicality for everyday usage and is instead recognised by driving enthusiasts for its focus on driving enjoyment, making it an ideal track/race car or 'Sunday' car.

Kit format
Chapman and Lotus helped to pioneer the British kit car industry. The Lotus Seven was offered in kit form to allow buyers to avoid new car tax in the UK. Subsequently, Caterham continued offering cars in 'complete knock down' (CKD) kit form as the tradition of hand building your own Seven was well established amongst enthusiasts. Today, all Caterham Sevens are still offered in kit form in the UK except the CSR (Series 6) model. Modern Caterham kits differ from the majority of kit cars as all parts are supplied ready to assemble, not requiring a donor car, fabrication or any special skills.

International

Although the Seven has always been popular with enthusiasts outside of the UK marketplace, export of the Seven to other markets has increasingly been limited by homologation, safety and emissions regulations in the modern era. As a result, the chassis/engine combinations, specifications, pricing and kit-form availability vary widely between countries.

In the past in the United States Caterhams were sold as kits only, lacking some modern safety features required of manufacturers, but which are not required for individually assembled vehicles. Buyers could either choose to construct the cars themselves or pay their regional dealers or local builders to assemble them. Typically the engine and transmission are sourced separately as a unit – often from Caterham – but all other components (including frame, suspension, differential, driveshaft, interior, wiring and instruments) were provided in kit form.

In the UK, the vehicles can be obtained as kits or entirely assembled by Caterham and registered for the road under IVA (Individual Vehicle Approval) regulations. In the '60s, the original Lotus Seven was sold only in kit form in both the UK and the US, in order to evade the very high taxes on complete new cars that were not assessed on automobile parts.

United States
As of 2014, however, Caterham has named Superformance their official distributor in the United States. International demand has increased dramatically in part due to the addition of a F1 Race team and the changes in Caterham's structure focusing on the distribution of the Seven worldwide. Caterham has since introduced a new model line up and focused on their production and production times to better suit their new international market, making their partnership with Superformance possible. Sevens will be shipped to the US in part-built form and sold as rolling chassis via Superformance's nationwide dealer network for customers to then complete the build personally or through the Superformance dealership. The initial US line-up includes several Caterham Sevens: 280, 360, 480, and the 620R.

Location
Until 1987 the offices, factory and showroom of Caterham Cars were located in the town of Caterham, Surrey.

In 1987, the production and administration of the company moved to a new factory in Dartford, Kent.

Caterham Cars retained a Caterham South showroom and servicing facility in the town of Caterham adjacent to the railway station until February 2013. The Caterham dealership closed after the premises were sold for development and the showroom relocated to temporary facilities in Crawley. Additionally the Caterham Midlands showroom operates outside Leicester.

In 2012 elements of Caterham Cars moved into a new facility in Leafield, Oxfordshire, where it is expected the new models of cars to be produced in the future will be developed and built. This new facility was formerly used by the Arrows F1 team and the Super Aguri F1 team. The Leafield site also accommodated the Caterham F1 team, which moved from its original base in Hingham, Norfolk and competed in Formula One between the 2012 and 2014 seasons.

Caterham 21

In 1994 Caterham produced a model called the '21'. Mechanically the 21 was very similar to the 7, using a modified 7 spaceframe chassis with a new GRP roadster-style body, including a wrap-around windscreen and fold-away fabric hood (convertible top) manufactured by Oxted Trimming Company.

The 21 benefited from a considerably stiffer setup than a 7, due to the work on the chassis and having a full body. Comfort was introduced in the same minimalist style as the 7, adding just enough to make it a proper roadster without adding too much weight.

Caterham, however, underestimated the effort involved in creating a completely new car and took far too long from its inception to deliver the first customer cars, seeing many people who had placed deposits defect to the Lotus Elise and other vehicles. Early ones were used as "prototypes", leaving customers to help iron out some of the foibles of the new car.

The 21 never sold particularly well, with only 48 ever made. It had moderate racing success in the Belcar 24-hour series in Europe and is credited with helping Caterham develop the widetrack setup used in SVs (amongst other developments) and the CSR's sweeping interior is reminiscent of the original 21 design.

Caterham SP/300.R
The SP/300.R is a new track-only model designed by Caterham alongside Lola Cars. The SP/300.R is a limited edition with limited production to 25 per annum.

Chassis variants
In 2010 Caterham offered three different chassis variants in the UK.

Series 3 (S3)
The most popular variant retains the dimensions and layout of the Lotus 7 Series 3.

Series 5 (SV)
Caterham introduced this variant in 2000 to accommodate larger drivers (space is restricted in the S3 for drivers over 6 ft tall.) Although visually very similar to the S3, the SV is longer, taller and wider and has significantly more space for taller and broader drivers with the added benefits of more luggage space, a larger fuel tank and more stability. The SV chassis is 25 kg heavier than the S3.

CSR (Series 6)
The CSR was launched in 2005 following extensive research and development by Caterham with the objective of creating an improved Seven. The CSR is based on the larger dimensions of the SV but with a substantially revised and stiffer chassis, inboard 'pushrod' front suspensions, fully independent rear suspension, improved aerodynamics, potent Cosworth engines and a new 'integrated' dashboard layout.

Classic
The most basic version of the 7 was traditionally offered with a 'live' rear axle but now comes with De Dion tube rear suspension found in other models of the same range. This trim level strips away all non-essential equipment and comforts.

 * Classic trim is available on S3/SV chassis
 * Engines: 1.4-litre K-Series (105 bhp) or 1.6-litre K-Series (120 bhp).

Roadsport
Roadsport is the trim level intended for general usage, different weather conditions and touring. The spec includes a full windscreen and weather equipment to increase practicality. A large range of performance options are available. The Roadsport dates back to 1996 when it was called the Superlight R, in 1998 a much softer version came out called the Seven Clubsport 1.8. The range continued to be developed in the years as a great alternative to someone who wanted a little bit more than a Classic, but less than a Superlight.

 * Classic trim is available on S3/SV chassis
 * Engines: 1.6-litre Ford Sigma (120,125 or 150 bhp) or 2.0-litre Ford Duratec (175 bhp).

Roadsport A
Roadsport A cars are ex-Academy cars, with no engine upgrades. However a number of performance upgrades such removing the windscreens and lights, widetrack front suspension and uprated dampers are allowed, as is professional team support. RSA races at the same events as RSB, but has longer 30-minute races.

Roadsport B
Roadsport B is largely for drivers that have come through the previous season's Academy. Some minor modifications are permitted to the car, including fitting a rear anti-roll bar and sticky Avon CR500 tyres. Technical support is still provided by the factory, and professional team support is not permitted. RSB has 20-minute races at 7 or 8 'double-header' meetings over the course of the season, usually all in the UK.

Superlight
The Superlight is intended for track and fast road usage. Superlight spec includes performance options such as carbon bodywork and a close ratio 6-speed gearbox. A wind deflector in place of the windscreen makes a helmet more or less mandatory. The Superlight R400 uses a 2.0 litre Ford Duratec engine tuned to 210 bhp. The R400 name indicates the car's 400 bhp-per-tonne power-to-weight ratio.

 * Superlight trim is available on S3/SV chassis
 * Engines: 1.6-litre Ford Sigma (150 bhp) or 2.0-litre Ford Duratec (175 bhp, 210 bhp or 263 bhp).

Superlight R300
The Superlight R300 was introduced for 2009, designed to bridge the gap between RSA and the existing Superlight R400 class. It is expected to be popular with experienced RSA racers wanting to move on to the next level in speed.

Superlight R400
The Superlight R400 series is Caterham Motorsport's premier British championship. The R400 is a 220 bhp Cosworth powered dedicated race car with a Quaife six-speed sequential gearbox replacing the standard Caterham unit used in the R300. As with all series above Academy, it runs on Avon CR500 tyres. 2009 Champion Dan Denis, Matt Blyth Racing

Superlight R500
The Superlight R500 series is the latest of Caterham Motorsport's Superlight series of RSA Racing cars. Powered by a 2.0-litre Ford Duratec engine producing maximum horsepower (bhp/rpm) of 263 bhp @ 8500rpm and maximum torque (lb.ft/rpm) of 177 lb.ft @ 7200rpm. With a weight of 506 kg (516 kg) and a sequential gearbox, it is capable of 0–60 mph in 2.88 seconds and a power-to-weight ratio of 520 bhp-per-tonne. Advertised top speed 150 mph. The R500 has been made Top Gear car of the year 2008. In another appearance earlier in the series, it placed fifth on the Power Lap board with a 1:17.9. This time beat the €1,100,000 (£899,000/$1,550,000), 1001 hp Bugatti Veyron.

Superlight R600
In October 2012 a supercharged model for a race-series above the R300-class was released, including slick tyres and a sequential gearbox.

Superlight 620R
In September 2013 Caterham made a car called the 620R. It was based on the R500, but was supercharged. This increased the power output to 315 PS at 7,700 rpm and the torque to 219 lbft at 7,350 rpm. It also reduced the 0–60 mph time to 2.79 seconds. It has a power-weight ratio of 568 bhp-per-tonne and a top speed of 155 mph.

CSR
The CSR chassis comes in two basic trims which mirror those of the S3/SV cars. The 'basic' CSR has a road and touring oriented spec with full windscreen and weather equipment. This is available as the CSR200 (200 bhp) or CSR260 (260 bhp). The CSR Superlight (also 260 bhp) is the current Caterham performance flagship strips away the windscreen, integrated dash and other comfort-oriented components for maximum performance, with specialist 'Dynamic dampers' added to improve its already phenomenal grip. The 'basic' CSR set an unofficial time of 1.17.4 on the BBC Top Gear test track at Dunsfold, placing it ahead of many of the world's most expensive performance cars.

 * Engines: 2.3-litre Ford Duratec tuned by Cosworth (200 bhp or 260 bhp)

RS Performance RST-V8 engine
The 'Caterham Levante', built by RS Performance Engine Developments Ltd. (RS=Russell Savory), is a mostly-carbon-fibre bodied Caterham, with Kevlar seats, combined with an "over 500bhp" 2.4-litre, 40-valve supercharged V8 and a reduced body weight of 520 kg, boasts almost 1000 bhp per tonne (initial announced specifications were 550 bhp and 530 kg, but the RS website specifies "in excess of 500bhp," and 520 kg or 530 kg; the math may or may not achieve "over 1000 bhp per tonne"). The eight cars, costing £115,000, sold out and only eight will be produced to celebrate more than 50 years in production. Two days' of mandatory "driver training" are included in the price of the car.

Kit build
All of the 2008 model line-up is available as a 'CKD' complete kit for build by the owner, with the exception of CSR models.

Engines

Historically, engines have been supplied by Ford, specifically Ford Kent engines or Cosworth-derived race-prepared BDA/R units, enlarged to 1.7 litres and generating 150–170 bhp. In the early '90s, Caterham started using powerplants from other sources, with the least expensive models using 1.4-litre K series engines from MG Rover for the base model, and Vauxhall engines including full race versions of the 16 valve 2.0XE "red top" as fitted to 1990 Vauxhall Works Touring Cars. Rover engines span a power output of 110–250 bhp in the R500 Evolution, Vauxhall engines 165 bhp to 320 bhp in some factory built versions of the car. A 250 bhp Caterham JPE (Jonathan Palmer Evolution) briefly held the world record for production car 0–60 mph times (at 3.4 seconds) until it was bettered by the $1.2M McLaren F1 (Nowadays, you can buy one for about 18-20 million dollars).

The many aftermarket tuning companies for these cars have also offered the Ford Zetec, Honda Fireblade, Honda Blackbird, Suzuki Hayabusa and even the Mazda Rotary engine. Since 2017, several cars have been built with the direct injection turbo Ford Ecoboost 1.6.litre version of this engine which with a hybrid turbo provides more horsepower than Caterham's own supercharged Duratec, and more torque than any factory car including the V8 Levante.

In 2001, Caterham designated MG Rover the sole engine supplier for factory-built Sevens, with Ford Zetec, Honda Fireblade, Yamaha R1 and Suzuki Hayabusa engines still available for kit assembly. The Rover engines were based on the K series and carried the 'Xpower' branding. However, the partnership evidently came to an end with the collapse of MG Rover, with the 2005 model introducing a Ford Duratec engine.

Typical powerplant output ranges from 140 bhp to over 300 bhp, depending on specifications and modifications.

The gearbox is either the classic Ford T9 five-speed or Caterham's own six-speed box. The T9 is cheap and durable, but has gear ratios meant for a much heavier car. The six-speed gearbox is expensive and had early 'teething' problems, but its ratios are considered the perfect match for the Seven. Independent companies such as Quaife do offer replacement gear kits for the T9 as well as sequential boxes for those with a racing fever and the need for a more robust transmission.

The most extreme engine/chassis combination available from the factory as of 2013 was the 620r with the 310bhp / 297Nm engine, bringing the car's 610 kg from zero to 60 mi/h in 2.79 seconds. The previous model also held a production car world record for zero to 100 mi/h back to zero at 10.73 seconds (faster than many modern family saloons can reach 60), set on 27 April 2004.

Formula One
For the 2012 season, Team Lotus was officially renamed Caterham F1 Team. The team continued to compete under this name in the 2013 and 2014 seasons, before financial problems caused it to fold.

GP2 Series
Between 2012 and 2014, Caterham raced in the GP2 series, under the guise Caterham Racing, which was rebranded from the Caterham Air Asia team that raced in the 2011 season.

The team raced under the same Green and Yellow livery as the Formula 1 team.

Caterham Racing was used by the company to act as a feeder team towards developing racing drivers for the Caterham F1 Team, until the company had to cease operations in both series.

Initially based in Hingham, the team had moved to the Leafield Technical Centre alongside the Caterham F1 team in August 2012, where they remained until both teams were terminated in 2014.

Caterham Motorsport Ladder
The Caterham Motorsport Ladder is a progression through the various Caterham Cars championships, starting with the Caterham Academy, and moving through ultimately to their most prestigious European events. The championships which form the ladder are:

Caterham Academy
In 1995 the Caterham Academy, a novices-only format, was introduced in the UK as the Caterham Scholarship. For a starting price of £24,995 (2017), entrants get a modified Roadsport kit (a factory-built option is available for extra cost) with a sealed Ford Sigma engine and 5-speed gearbox. Having completed the ARDS (racing) licence qualification, the season then consists of a car-control day, a test day, and the season starts with two sprints, and five circuit races.

Since 2000, the popularity of the Academy has led to Caterham providing two parallel Academy championships (Group 1 & Group 2), each resulting in an Academy champion at the end of the year. Approximately 1000 racing drivers have been created through the Caterham Academy.

Karting
At the Autosport International 2012 Caterham announced that it would be creating a karting series starting in 2013. It was stated that the aim of this karting series was to make it easier for people to enter motorsports by providing a cheap karting series in which they could start off.

title: Caterham Cars


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Mark Dayton

Mark Brandt Dayton (born January 26, 1947) is an American politician who served as the 40th governor of Minnesota from 2011 to 2019. He served as a United States Senator representing Minnesota from 2001 to 2007 and as Minnesota State Auditor from 1991 to 1995. He is a member of the Minnesota Democratic–Farmer–Labor Party (DFL), which affiliates with the national Democratic Party.

A native of Minnesota, Dayton is the great-grandson of businessman George Dayton, the founder of Dayton's, a department store that later became the Target Corporation. He embarked on a career in teaching and social work in New York City and Boston after graduating from Yale University in 1969. During the 1970s, he served as a legislative aide to U.S. Senator Walter Mondale and Minnesota Governor Rudy Perpich. In 1978, Dayton was appointed the Minnesota Economic Development Commissioner and married Alida Rockefeller Messinger, a member of the Rockefeller family.

Dayton ran for the U.S. Senate in 1982 against Republican Party incumbent David Durenberger. He defeated former U.S. senator Eugene McCarthy in the Democratic primary, and the general election became one of the most expensive in state history. Dayton campaigned as a populist in opposition to Reaganomics and famously promised "to close tax loopholes for the rich and the corporations—and if you think that includes the Daytons, you're right." Durenberger won the election, and Dayton returned to the Perpich administration until his election as Minnesota State Auditor in 1990.

In 1998, Dayton ran for governor, losing the Democratic nomination to Hubert Humphrey III. In 2000, he was elected to the U.S. Senate, defeating Republican incumbent Rod Grams. As senator, Dayton voted against the authorization for Iraq War, and became the first senator to introduce legislation creating a cabinet-level United States Department of Peace. In 2006, he chose not to seek reelection, citing his disillusionment with Washington, D.C., and fundraising.

In 2010, Dayton defeated Republican Tom Emmer to become governor of Minnesota despite national success for the Republican Party, including in the Minnesota legislature. He won a second term in 2014 over Republican opponent Jeff Johnson and opted not to run for a third term in 2018. His major legislative initiatives during his governorship include the legalization of same-sex marriage and the construction of U.S. Bank Stadium.

Early life, education, and career
Dayton was born on January 26, 1947, in Minneapolis and is the eldest of Gwendolen May (Brandt) and Bruce Bliss Dayton's four children. He is a great-grandson of businessman George Dayton, the founder of the Dayton's department store chain. His father, Bruce Dayton, served as the chairman and CEO of Dayton Hudson Corporation, the company that later became the Target Corporation. Bruce Dayton also founded the B. Dalton bookstore chain in 1966.

Mark Dayton was raised in Long Lake, Minnesota and graduated from the Blake School in Minneapolis, where he was an all-state ice-hockey goaltender as a senior.

Dayton attended Yale University, where he played varsity hockey until an accident on the ice. During his time at Yale, he joined the Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity (alongside future President George W. Bush) and received his B.A. in psychology in 1969. After college, Dayton worked as teacher in the Lower East Side of New York City from 1969 to 1971, and then as the chief financial officer of a social service agency in Boston from 1971 to 1975. He married his first wife, Alida Rockefeller, in 1978.

Early political career and U.S. Senate
Dayton first became politically active in the 1960s. He protested the Vietnam War in April 1970 at one of Minnesota's major antiwar protests against Honeywell, where he was maced by police. Dayton's father served on the Honeywell board of directors and the two had a strained relationship after the incident.

From 1975 to 1976 he was a legislative aide to Senator Walter Mondale, until Mondale's election as Vice President of the United States. From 1977 to 1978, Dayton served as an aide to Minnesota Governor Rudy Perpich. In 1978, Perpich appointed Dayton to head the Department of Economic Development and then the Department of Energy and Economic Development.

Dayton first ran for the U.S. Senate in 1982, challenging Republican incumbent David Durenberger. After losing the election to Durenberger, Dayton returned to the Perpich administration until his election as Minnesota State Auditor in 1990; he served in that position until 1995.

In 1998, Dayton ran for governor, losing the DFL nomination to Hubert Humphrey III. He received 18% of the vote, finishing fourth in the DFL primary. Humphrey lost the general election to the Reform Party nominee, Jesse Ventura.

In 2000, Dayton was elected to the U.S. Senate, defeating Republican incumbent Rod Grams, 49% to 43%.

Elections
Dayton first ran for the U.S. Senate in 1982, challenging Republican incumbent David Durenberger and former U.S. senator Eugene McCarthy in the DFL primary. McCarthy's reputation was harmed by his endorsement of Republican Ronald Reagan in the 1980 presidential election; Dayton defeated him with over 69% of the vote. The general election was one of the most expensive in state history. Dayton campaigned as a populist in opposition to Reaganomics and famously promised "to close tax loopholes for the rich and the corporations—and if you think that includes the Daytons, you're right." Durenberger, who was considered a moderate but had supported Reagan's tax cuts, won the election, 52% to 46%.

Dayton ran for the Senate again in 2000. He won the DFL nomination with 41% of the vote in a six-candidate field, and defeated Republican incumbent Rod Grams in the general election, 49% to 43%. Dayton self-financed his campaign with $12 million.

Tenure
As senator, Dayton voted against the authorization for Iraq War, and was the first senator to introduce legislation creating a cabinet-level United States Department of Peace.

While in the Senate, Dayton donated his salary to fund bus trips for seniors to buy cheaper prescription drugs in Canada. He generally voted with his fellow Democrats.

On February 9, 2005, he announced that he would not run for reelection, saying, "Everything I've worked for, and everything I believe in, depends upon this Senate seat remaining in the Democratic caucus in 2007. I do not believe that I am the best candidate to lead the DFL Party to victory next year." He also cited his dislike of fundraising and political campaigns. Dayton was succeeded in the Senate by Amy Klobuchar, another DFL member.

On September 22, 2005, the 44th anniversary of the day President John F. Kennedy signed the Peace Corps into law, Dayton became the first U.S. senator to introduce legislation creating a cabinet-level Department of Peace. At the same time, Representative Dennis Kucinich introduced similar legislation in the House.

In April 2006, Time magazine rated Dayton one of America's "Five Worst Senators", calling him "The Blunderer" for such "erratic behavior" as his temporary closure of his office in 2004 because of an unspecified terrorist threat, his complaints about "limited power in a chamber where authority derives from seniority", and a February 2005 comment that the Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota, was "worth a hell of a lot more than the whole state of South Dakota", a remark he later apologized for. News reports of a Dayton question-and-answer session quoted him giving himself an F grade for his time in the Senate. Largely based on his Washington behavior, The New Republic dubbed Dayton's subsequent run for state-level elected office "Eeyore For Governor."

In September 2006, Dayton requested a review of the Rogers, Minnesota, tornado to determine whether the National Weather Service had acted properly and the victims' deaths were unavoidable.

Committee assignments

 * Committee on Armed Services
 * Subcommittee on Airland
 * Subcommittee on Readiness and Management Support
 * Subcommittee on Strategic Forces
 * Committee on Agriculture, Nutrition and Forestry
 * Subcommittee on Commodities, Markets, Trade and Risk Management
 * Subcommittee on Conservation, Forestry and Natural Resources
 * Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs
 * Subcommittee on Federal Financial Management, Government Information and International Security
 * Subcommittee on Oversight of Government Management, the Federal Workforce and the District of Columbia
 * Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations
 * Committee on Rules and Administration
 * Joint Committee on Printing

Office of Senator Mark Dayton v. Brad Hanson
The 2003 lawsuit Office of Senator Mark Dayton v. Brad Hanson involved an accusation of wrongful termination by Brad Hanson, who worked as State Office Manager for Dayton, and who was fired shortly after taking medical leave for a heart problem. Hanson sued under the Congressional Accountability Act of 1995, claiming that Dayton had discriminated against him because of a perceived disability. Dayton argued that he was immunized from suit by the speech or debate clause of the United States Constitution. Dayton claimed that Hanson's duties were directly related to Dayton's legislative functions, and that the decision to fire him could not be challenged. The District Court denied the motion, and the case went all the way to the Supreme Court of the United States, where oral arguments were heard on April 24, 2007. The Supreme Court ruled 8–0 that it lacked jurisdiction to hear the appeal and dismissed the case, declining to grant certiorari. Dayton reached a settlement with Hanson in 2009, shortly after Dayton became a candidate for governor.

Elections
On January 16, 2009, Dayton announced his candidacy for Governor of Minnesota. In a crowded Democratic field of challengers, Dayton chose to bypass the state caucuses and convention in favor of the primary election. He stated he made that decision because the primary election is a more democratic method of choosing a candidate. He relied on personal funds for his campaign. On May 24, 2010, he announced State Senator Yvonne Prettner Solon of Duluth as his running mate for lieutenant governor. On August 10, 2010, Dayton defeated the DFL-endorsed Margaret Anderson Kelliher in the primary election by 1,500 votes, 41.33% to 39.75%, in what was called a "remarkable political comeback". He was later endorsed by the Minnesota DFL to earn his party's nomination for governor.

At the close of balloting in the general election on November 2, 2010, Dayton led his Republican opponent, Tom Emmer, by just under 9,000 votes. The margin of victory was small enough to trigger an automatic recount under state law. Analysts generally thought it unlikely that Dayton's lead would be overturned. During the hand recount of ballots, Emmer failed to find enough questionable ballots to overturn Dayton's lead. Emmer conceded the election on December 8, 2010. Minnesota Independence Party candidate Tom Horner received 11.9% of the vote, and it has been suggested that Horner cost Emmer the election by splitting the vote.

Ahead of the 2014 gubernatorial election, Lieutenant Governor Prettner Solon chose to retire. Dayton replaced her with longtime political staffer Tina Smith, who had been Dayton's chief of staff. Dayton defeated Republican nominee Jeff Johnson, 50.1% to 44.5%, the first time since 1994 that the winning Minnesota gubernatorial candidate received a majority of the vote.

Tenure
Dayton took the oath of office to become governor on January 3, 2011. Taking office a few weeks before his 64th birthday, he was the oldest person ever inaugurated as governor in Minnesota history. Former Vice President and Senator Walter Mondale served as Master of Ceremony at the inauguration. The first DFLer to serve as governor in 20 years, Dayton succeeded Republican Governor Tim Pawlenty. On January 5, Dayton signed two executive orders allowing the Minnesota Departments of Commerce and Health to apply for federal health-care grants and providing $1.2 billion in federal funds for an Early Option in a statewide Medicaid Opt-In program. These executive orders reversed the previous administration's ban on federal funding for the state health-care system. In March 2011, Dayton signed a law increasing penalties on those who injure or kill police dogs.

On July 1, 2011, the Minnesota government went into a shutdown as a result of an impasse during budget negotiations between Dayton and the Republican-led legislature. On July 20, Dayton and the legislature reached an agreement, ending the shutdown.

Dayton led an effort to have a new stadium constructed for the Minnesota Vikings. In May 2011, after efforts to have the stadium financed by Hennepin County failed, Ramsey County officials announced they had reached an agreement with the Vikings to be the team's local partner for a new stadium, subject to approval by the Minnesota Legislature and to approval of a sales tax by the Ramsey County Board. Dayton was reluctant to go along with the team's Arden Hills proposal because it would cost $1.1 billion, including an additional $131 million for road improvements, and later tried to have the stadium built on the site of the farmers' market near Linden Avenue in downtown Minneapolis. On March 1, 2012, plans to build the stadium in either Arden Hills or at the Linden Avenue site were abandoned after Dayton announced an agreement for a new stadium to be built on the site of the Metrodome, pending approval by the state legislature and the Minneapolis City Council. In May 2012, the proposal to build the stadium on the Metrodome site was passed by the Minnesota Legislature and was signed into law by Dayton. On May 25, the proposal was officially finalized after receiving the Minneapolis City Council's approval.

In 2012, Dayton commemorated the 150th anniversary of the Dakota War of 1862 with a call for reconciliation, and repudiation of former governor Alexander Ramsey's position. Flags were flown at half mast for a "Day of Remembrance and Reconciliation in Minnesota".

In the legislative session that ended in May 2013, Dayton pushed for and won a $2.1 billion tax increase, mostly on the wealthy and cigarettes. He also signed a bill legalizing gay marriage in Minnesota, created free, statewide, all-day kindergarten, and financed expansions of the Mayo Clinic, 3M, and the Mall of America. In the spring 2014 session, Dayton came under fire from supporters and foes alike for opposing the legalization of medical marijuana, which polls showed 65% of Minnesotans supported. One supporter, the mother of a child with severe epilepsy, alleged Dayton told her in a meeting that he would not legalize the drug but she could buy it illegally instead. Dayton denied saying that. On April 2, Marijuana Policy Project began airing an ad across the state attacking Dayton's opposition to medical marijuana legalization, featuring a St. Paul mother and her child whose severe seizures could be cured by medical marijuana.

On December 6, 2017, Politico reported that Dayton was expected to appoint Lieutenant Governor Tina Smith to Al Franken's Senate seat if Franken resigned amid multiple sexual misconduct allegations against him. Franken resigned on January 2, 2018, and Dayton then appointed Smith to the seat.

Political positions
As of 2010, Dayton received 100% ratings from the AFL–CIO, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, the National Abortion and Reproductive Rights Action League, and Americans for Democratic Action. He received a 79% rating from the League of Conservation Voters for his support of green energy as of 2010. In 2005, Dayton scored a 9% rating from the Small Business & Entrepreneurship Council.

Healthcare
Dayton supports health-care coverage for all Americans, with increased state and federal spending on health care. He supports a progressive tax to decrease state and federal deficits. To create jobs, he proposed a state stimulus package as part of his gubernatorial platform. Dayton supports increased funding for K–12 schools, with increased teachers' salaries and decreased class size.

In July 2000, Dayton answered an election questionnaire saying he would expand Medicare prescription-drug coverage. He favors keeping Social Security intact, opposing its privatization. He received a 90% rating from the Alliance for Retired Americans.

Medical marijuana
Until 2013, Dayton opposed the legalization of medical cannabis and drug policy reform, adopting the same position as his Republican predecessor Tim Pawlenty. The Marijuana Policy Project called Dayton "no more favorable" to drug policy reform than the last Republican governor. When Dayton posed a $2 million study on medical marijuana with the Mayo Clinic instead of signing a bill to legalize medical marijuana, advocates "bashed" Dayton for not allowing suffering patients to have access to the drug. City Pages reported that the Governor could lose the vote of the many supporters of medical marijuana, 65% of Minnesotans, to the 3/5 of Republican candidates for governor in 2014 who "strike a more liberal tone on marijuana reform" than the Democratic incumbent.

Same-sex marriage
With Senator Joe Lieberman and Representative Barney Frank, Dayton introduced legislation to the Governmental Affairs Committee to extend domestic partners of federal employees all benefits available and obligations imposed upon a spouse of an employee. Dayton voted against a constitutional ban of same-sex marriage in June 2006, and supported civil marriage equality in his gubernatorial platform. On May 14, 2013, Governor Dayton signed into law a bill passed by the Minnesota House and Senate to legalize same-sex marriage in the state.

Iraq War
In October 2002, Dayton voted against the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq. He followed up three years later by introducing Senate Bill 1756 to create a cabinet-level Department of Peace a week after Dennis Kucinich introduced a similar bill in the House. The bill never emerged from the Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs.

Personal life
Dayton was born into one of Minnesota's most famous families. His father built the family business into a retail empire.

Dayton found his political calling while studying pre-med at Yale University, after his political hero, Robert F. Kennedy, was assassinated. Dayton soon began his career in public service. In the 1970s, his political activism earned him a spot as the only Minnesotan on Nixon's "enemies list", a fact he cited in future campaign speeches. In a 1982 race, Dayton called his wealth his "original sin" and promised to close tax loopholes for corporations and the rich.

Dayton has been married three times. In 1978, he married Alida Ferry Rockefeller, at the Rockefeller home in Tarrytown, New York. Alida is the youngest sister of U.S. Senator John Davison "Jay" Rockefeller IV. Together they had two sons, Eric and Andrew. They divorced in 1986.

Despite his wealth, Dayton lives modestly. He is a recovering alcoholic and has been treated for mild depression. He revealed this information on his own initiative, saying he felt "people have the right to know."

In December 2012, Dayton underwent vertebral fusion surgery at the Mayo Clinic to treat his spinal stenosis. On June 25, 2013, he had to cancel an appearance due to a muscle tear. In January 2016, Dayton fainted while speaking at a campaign event in Woodbury, Minnesota. He was hospitalized overnight. A year later, he collapsed while giving the State of the State address to the Minnesota legislature. After a check by emergency medical services, he was reported to be in fine condition and was sent home that evening. The next day he announced that he had been diagnosed with prostate cancer a week earlier.

On October 8, 2019, the University of Minnesota's Center for Integrative Leadership announced that Dayton had joined the center as an Executive Leadership Fellow for the 2019–2020 academic year.

In December 2020, Dayton married former congressional intern and campaign staffer Ana Orke. He first met her at a 2005 political fundraiser when he was in the U.S. Senate.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Mark Dayton


text:
Virginia Apgar

Virginia Apgar (June 7, 1909 – August 7, 1974) was an American physician, obstetrical anesthesiologist and medical researcher, best known as the inventor of the Apgar score, a way to quickly assess the health of a newborn child immediately after birth in order to combat infant mortality. In 1952, she developed the 10-point Apgar score to assist physicians and nurses in assessing the status of newborns. Given at one minute and five minutes after birth, the Apgar test measures a child's breathing, skin color, reflexes, motion, and heart rate. A friend said, "She probably did more than any other physician to bring the problem of birth defects out of back rooms." She was a leader in the fields of anesthesiology and teratology, and introduced obstetrical considerations to the established field of neonatology.

Early life and education
The youngest of three children, Apgar was born and raised in Westfield, New Jersey, the daughter of Helen May (Clarke) and Charles Emory Apgar. Her father was a business executive and amateur astronomer whose amateur radio work exposed an espionage ring during World War I. Her older brother died early from tuberculosis, and her other brother had a chronic illness. She graduated from Westfield High School in 1925, knowing that she wanted to be a doctor from a young age.

Apgar graduated from Mount Holyoke College in 1929, where she studied zoology with minors in physiology and chemistry. In 1933, she graduated fourth in her class from Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons (P&S) and completed a residency in surgery at P&S in 1937.

She was discouraged by Allen Whipple, the chairman of surgery at Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center, from continuing her career as a surgeon because he had seen many women attempt to be successful surgeons and ultimately fail. He instead encouraged her to practice anesthesiology because he felt that advancements in anesthesia were needed to further advance surgery and felt that she had the "energy and ability" to make a significant contribution. Deciding to continue her career in anesthesiology, she trained for six months under Ralph Waters at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, where he had established the first anesthesiology department in the United States. In a 1937 photograph of Waters and his residents, she is the only woman among Waters and fifteen other men. She then studied for a further six months under Emery Rovenstine in New York at Bellevue Hospital. She received a certification as an anesthesiologist in 1937, and returned to P&S in 1938 as director of the newly formed division of anesthesia. She later received a master's degree in public health at Johns Hopkins School of Hygiene and Public Health, graduating in 1959.

Work and research
Apgar was the first woman to head a specialty division at Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center (now NewYork–Presbyterian Hospital) and Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons. In conjunction with Allen Whipple, she started P&S's anesthesia division. She was placed in charge of the division's administrative duties and was also tasked with co-ordinating the staffing of the division and its work throughout the hospital. Throughout much of the 1940s, she was an administrator, teacher, recruiter, coordinator and practicing physician. It was often difficult to find residents for the program, as advances in the medical field had only recently elevated the practice of anesthesia to anesthesiology, a fully-fledged medical specialty. New anesthesiologists also faced scrutiny from other physicians, specifically surgeons, who were not used to having an anesthesia-specialized MD in the operating room. These difficulties led to issues in gaining funding and support for the division. With America's entrance into World War II in 1941, many medical professionals enlisted in the military to help the war effort, which created a serious staffing problem for domestic hospitals, Apgar's division included.

When the war ended in 1945, interest in anesthesiology was renewed in returning physicians, and the staffing problem for Apgar's division was quickly resolved. The specialty's growing popularity and Apgar's development of its residency program prompted P&S to establish it as an official department in 1949. Due to her lack of research (because of her focus on clinical work), Apgar was not made the head of the department as was expected and the job was given to her colleague, Emmanuel Papper. Apgar was given a faculty position at P&S.

Obstetrics
In 1949, Apgar became the first woman to become a full professor at P&S, where she remained until 1959. During this time, she also did clinical and research work at the affiliated Sloane Hospital for Women, still a division of NewYork–Presbyterian Hospital. In 1953, she introduced the first test, called the Apgar score, to assess the health of newborn babies.

Between the 1930s and the 1950s, the United States infant mortality rate decreased, but the number of infant deaths within the first 24 hours after birth remained constant. Apgar noticed this trend and began to investigate methods for decreasing the infant mortality rate specifically within the first 24 hours of the infant's life. As an obstetric anesthesiologist, Apgar was able to document trends that could distinguish healthy infants from infants in trouble.

This investigation led to a standardized scoring system used to assess a newborn's health after birth, with the result referred to as the newborn's "Apgar score". Each newborn is given a score of 0, 1 or 2 (a score of 2 meaning the newborn is in optimal condition, 0 being in distress) in each of the following categories: heart rate, respiration, color, muscle tone and reflex irritability. Compiled scores for each newborn can range between 0 and 10, with 10 being the best possible condition for a newborn. The scores were to be given to a newborn one minute after birth, and additional scores could be given in five-minute increments to guide treatment if the newborn's condition did not sufficiently improve. By the 1960s, many hospitals in the United States were using the Apgar score consistently. In the 21st century, the score continues to be used to provide an accepted and convenient method for reporting the status of the newborn infant immediately after birth.

In 1959, Apgar left Columbia and earned a Master of Public Health degree from the Johns Hopkins School of Hygiene and Public Health. From 1959 until her death in 1974, Apgar worked for the March of Dimes Foundation, serving as vice president for medical affairs and directing its research program to prevent and treat birth defects.

As gestational age is directly related to an infant's Apgar score, Apgar was one of the first at the March of Dimes to bring attention to the problem of premature birth, now one of the March of Dimes' top priorities. During this time, she wrote and lectured extensively, writing articles in popular magazines as well as research work. In 1967, Apgar became vice president and director of basic research at The National Foundation-March of Dimes.

During the rubella pandemic of 1964–65, Apgar became an advocate for universal vaccination to prevent mother-to-child transmission of rubella. Rubella can cause serious congenital disorders if a woman becomes infected while pregnant. Between 1964 and 1965, the United States had an estimated 12.5 million rubella cases, which led to 11,000 miscarriages or therapeutic abortions and 20,000 cases of congenital rubella syndrome. These led to 2,100 deaths in infancy, 12,000 cases of deafness, 3,580 cases of blindness due to cataracts and/or microphthalmia and 1,800 cases of intellectual disability. In New York City alone, congenital rubella affected 1% of all babies born at that time.

Apgar also promoted effective use of Rh testing, which can identify women who are at risk for transmission of maternal antibodies across the placenta where they may subsequently bind with and destroy fetal red blood cells, resulting in fetal hydrops or even miscarriage.

Apgar traveled thousands of miles each year to speak to widely varied audiences about the importance of early detection of birth defects and the need for more research in this area. She proved an excellent ambassador for the National Foundation, and the annual income of that organization more than doubled during her tenure there. She also served the National Foundation as Director of Basic Medical Research (1967–1968) and vice-president for Medical Affairs (1971–1974). Her concerns for the welfare of children and families were combined with her talent for teaching in the 1972 book Is My Baby All Right?, written with Joan Beck.

Apgar was also a lecturer (1965–1971) and then clinical professor (1971–1974) of pediatrics at Cornell University School of Medicine, where she taught teratology (the study of birth defects). She was the first to hold a faculty position in this new area of pediatrics. In 1973, she was appointed a lecturer in medical genetics at the Johns Hopkins School of Public Health.

Apgar published over sixty scientific articles and numerous shorter essays for newspapers and magazines during her career, along with her book, Is My Baby All Right?. She received many awards, including honorary doctorates from the Woman's Medical College of Pennsylvania (1964) and Mount Holyoke College (1965), the Elizabeth Blackwell Award from the American Medical Women's Association (1966), the Distinguished Service Award from the American Society of Anesthesiologists (1966), the Alumni Gold Medal for Distinguished Achievement from Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons (1973) and the Ralph M. Waters Award from the American Society of Anesthesiologists (1973). In 1973 she was also elected Woman of the Year in Science by the Ladies Home Journal.

Apgar was equally at home speaking to teens as she was to the movers and shakers of society. She spoke at March of Dimes Youth Conferences about teen pregnancy and congenital disorders at a time when these topics were considered taboo.

Personal life
Throughout her career, Apgar maintained that "women are liberated from the time they leave the womb" and that being female had not imposed significant limitations on her medical career. She avoided women's organizations and causes, for the most part. Though she sometimes privately expressed her frustration with sex inequalities (especially in the matter of salaries), she worked around these by consistently pushing into new fields where there was room to exercise her considerable energy and abilities.

Music was an integral part of family life, with frequent family music sessions. Apgar played the violin and her brother played piano and organ. She traveled with her violin, often playing in amateur chamber quartets wherever she happened to be. During the 1950s, a friend introduced her to instrument-making, and together they made two violins, a viola and a cello. She was an enthusiastic gardener and enjoyed fly-fishing, golfing and stamp collecting. In her fifties, Apgar started taking flying lessons, stating that her goal was to someday fly under New York's George Washington Bridge.

Death
Apgar never married or had children and died of cirrhosis on August 7, 1974, at Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center. She is buried at Fairview Cemetery in Westfield.

Legacy
Apgar has continued to earn posthumous recognition for her contributions and achievements. In 1994, she was honored by the United States Postal Service with a 20¢ Great Americans series postage stamp. In November 1995, she was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame in Seneca Falls, New York. In 1999, she was designated a Women's History Month Honoree by the National Women's History Project. On June 7, 2018, Google celebrated Apgar's 109th birthday with a Google Doodle.

Honors and awards

 * Honorary doctorate, Women's Medical College of Pennsylvania (1964)
 * Honorary doctorate, Mount Holyoke College (1965)
 * Distinguished Service Award from the American Society of Anesthesiologists (1966)
 * Elizabeth Blackwell Award, from the American Women's Medical Association (1966)
 * Honorary doctorate, New Jersey College of Medicine and Dentistry (1967)
 * Alumni Gold Medal for Distinguished Achievement, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons (1973)
 * Ralph M. Waters Award, American Society of Anesthesiologists (1973)
 * Woman of the Year in Science, Ladies Home Journal (1973)
 * Fellow of the New York Academy of Medicine, the American Public Health Association, and the New York Academy of Sciences.
 * Inductee into the New Jersey Hall of Fame (2020)

title: Virginia Apgar


text:
Queue area

Queue areas are places in which people queue (first-come, first-served) for goods or services. Such a group of people is known as a queue (British usage) or line (American usage), and the people are said to be waiting or standing in a queue or in line, respectively. (In the New York City area, the phrase on line is often used in place of in line.) Occasionally, both the British and American terms are combined to form the term "queue line".

Examples include checking out groceries or other goods that have been collected in a self service shop, in a shop without self-service, at an ATM, at a ticket desk, a city bus, or in a taxi stand.

Queueing is a phenomenon in a number of fields, and has been extensively analysed in the study of queueing theory. In economics, queueing is seen as one way to ration scarce goods and services.

History
The first written description of people standing in line is found in an 1837 book, The French Revolution: A History by Thomas Carlyle. Carlyle described what he thought was a strange sight: people standing in an orderly line to buy bread from bakers around Paris.

Typical applications
Queues can be found in railway stations to book tickets, at bus stops for boarding and at temples.

Queues are generally found at transportation terminals where security screenings are conducted.

Large stores and supermarkets may have dozens of separate queues, but this can cause frustration, as different lines tend to be handled at different speeds; some people are served quickly, while others may wait for longer periods of time. Sometimes two people who are together split up and each waits in a different line; once it is determined which line is faster, the one in the slower line joins the other. Another arrangement is for everyone to wait in a single line; a person leaves the line each time a service point opens up. This is a common setup in banks and post offices.

Organized queue areas are commonly found at amusement parks. Each ride can accommodate a fixed number of guests that can be served at any given time (which is referred to as the ride’s operational capacity), so there has to be some control over additional guests who are waiting. This led to the development of formalized queue areas—areas in which the lines of people waiting to board the rides are organized by railings, and may be given shelter from the elements with a roof over their heads, inside a climate-controlled building or with fans and misting devices. In some amusement parks – Disney theme parks being a prime example – queue areas can be elaborately decorated, with holding areas fostering anticipation, thus shortening the perceived wait for people in the queue by giving them something interesting to look at as they wait, or the perception that they have arrived at the threshold of the attraction.

Design
When designing queues, planners attempt to make the wait as pleasant and as simple as possible. They employ several strategies to achieve this, including:
 * Expanding the capacity of the queue, thus allowing more patrons to have a place. This can be achieved by:
 * Increasing the width of the lanes within the queue
 * Increasing the length of the queue, sometimes by designing the line in a zig-zag shape that holds a large number of guests in a smaller area. This is used often at amusement parks.  Notable rides have a large area of this kind of line to hold as many people as possible in line.  Portions of the line can be sectioned off and bypassed by guests if the queue is not crowded.
 * In-line entertainment can be added. This is popular at amusement parks like Walt Disney World, which uses video screens and other visuals to keep people in the queue area occupied.
 * Secondary queue areas for patrons with special tickets, like the FastPass system used at Disney parks, or the Q-bot as used in Legoland Windsor.

Psychology
People experience "occupied" time as shorter than "unoccupied" time, and generally overestimate the amount of time waited by around 36%.

The technique of giving people an activity to distract them from a wait has been used to reduce complaints of delays at:
 * Baggage claim in the Houston, Texas airport, by moving the arrival gates further away so passengers spend more time walking than standing around waiting
 * Elevators, by adding mirrors so people can groom themselves or watch other people
 * Retail checkout, by placing small items for purchase so customers can continue shopping while waiting

Other techniques to reduce queueing anxiety include:
 * Hiding the length of a line by wrapping it around a corner.
 * Having only one line, so there is no anxiety about which line to choose and a greater sense of fairness. Even though the average wait over time is the same, customers tend to notice lines that are moving faster than they are compared to other lines moving more slowly.
 * Putting up signs that deliberately overestimate the wait time, to always exceed customer expectations.

Cutting in line, also known as queue-jumping, can generate a strong negative response, depending on the local cultural norms.

Virtual

Physical queueing is sometimes replaced by virtual queueing. In a waiting room there may be a system whereby the queuer asks and remembers where their place is in the queue, or reports to a desk and signs in, or takes a ticket with a number from a machine. These queues typically are found at doctors' offices, hospitals, town halls, social security offices, labor exchanges, the Department of Motor Vehicles, the immigration departments, free internet access in the state or council libraries, banks or post offices and call centres. Especially in the United Kingdom, tickets are taken to form a virtual queue at delicatessens and children's shoe shops. In some countries such as Sweden, virtual queues are also common in shops and railway stations. A display sometimes shows the number that was last called for service.

Restaurants have come to employ virtual queueing techniques with the availability of application-specific pagers, which alert those waiting that they should report to the host to be seated. Another option used at restaurants is to assign customers a confirmed return time, basically a reservation issued on arrival.

Virtual queueing apps are available that allow the customers to view the virtual queue status of a business and they can take virtual queue numbers remotely. The app can be used to get updates of the virtual queue status that the customer is in.

Alternate activities
A substitute or alternative activity may be provided for people to participate in while waiting to be called, which reduces the perceived waiting time and the probability that the customer will abort their visit. For example, a busy restaurant might seat waiting customers a bar. An outdoor attraction with long virtual queues might have a side marquee selling merchandise or food. The alternate activity may provide the organisation with an opportunity to generate additional revenue from the waiting customers.

Mobile
All of the above methods, however, suffer from the same drawback: the person arrives at the location only to find out that they need to wait. Recently, queues at DMVs, colleges, restaurants, healthcare institutions, government offices and elsewhere have begun to be replaced by mobile queues or queue-ahead, whereby the person queuing uses their phone, the internet, a kiosk or another method to enter a virtual queue, optionally prior to arrival, is free to roam during the wait, and then gets paged at their mobile phone when their turn approaches. This has the advantage of allowing users to find out the wait forecast and get in the queue before arriving, roaming freely and then timing their arrival to the availability of service. This has been shown to extend the patience of those in the queue and reduce no-shows.

title: Queue area


text:
Monolingual learner's dictionary

A monolingual learner's dictionary (MLD) is designed to meet the reference needs of people learning a foreign language. MLDs are based on the premise that language-learners should progress from a bilingual dictionary to a monolingual one as they become more proficient in their target language, but that general-purpose dictionaries (aimed at native speakers) are inappropriate for their needs. Dictionaries for learners include information on grammar, usage, common errors, collocation, and pragmatics, which is largely missing from standard dictionaries, because native speakers tend to know these aspects of language intuitively. And while the definitions in standard dictionaries are often written in difficult language, those in an MLD use a simple and accessible defining vocabulary.

History of English language MLDs
The first English MLD, published in 1935, was the New Method English Dictionary by Michael West and James Endicott, a small dictionary using a restricted defining vocabulary of just 1490 words. Since the end of World War Two, global sales of the MLD have run into the tens of millions, reflecting the boom in the English language teaching industry.

Probably the best-known English monolingual dictionary for advanced learners is the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, now in its tenth edition. It was originally published in Japan in 1942 as The Idiomatic and Syntactic Dictionary of English, written by A. S. Hornby and two collaborators. It was subsequently republished as A Learner's Dictionary of Current English in 1948, before acquiring its current name.

Other publishers gradually entered the market. The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English was published in 1978, and its most striking feature was the use of a restricted defining vocabulary, which is now a standard feature of learners' dictionaries. There are currently six major MLDs for advanced learners. In addition to the Oxford and Longman dictionaries, these are: All of these dictionaries are available in hard copy and online.
 * Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary, first published in 1987
 * Cambridge International Dictionary of English, 1995, now published as the Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary
 * Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners, 2002
 * Merriam-Webster's Advanced Learner's English Dictionary, 2008

Since the 1980s, the English MLD has, arguably, been the most innovative area in the field of lexicography, in terms of both the way dictionaries are written and the aspects of language which dictionaries describe, in particular the use of software in combination with text corpora to:
 * generate language description - a radical innovation which was introduced by the COBUILD project in the 1980s
 * automate the dictionary-making process
 * identify collocations

MLDs were among the first dictionaries to appear on CD-ROM, with the Longman Interactive English Dictionary leading the way in 1993. More recently the six MLDs listed above have become available in free online versions.

MLDs have been the subject of research into how people use dictionaries, as well as the subject of scholarly work. A standard book on the subject is Cowie 1999.

Online dictionaries
The Internet offers a range of online dictionary resources. Some, like the Open Dictionary of English, are explicitly designed as learner's dictionaries, and may even include built-in, adaptive tutoring.

title: Monolingual learner's dictionary


text:
Apgar

Apgar is the surname of:

 * Charles E. Apgar (1865–1950), American amateur radio operator
 * James K. Apgar (1862–1940), American politician
 * Jean Apgar (born 1936), American biochemist
 * Kristina Apgar (born 1985), American television actress
 * Mahlon Apgar IV (born 1941), American expert on housing, infrastructure, and real estate
 * Virginia Apgar (1909–1974), American physician, developer of the Apgar score
 * William C. Apgar, American economist

title: Apgar


text:
Projection

Projection, projections or projective may refer to:

Physics

 * Projection (physics), the action/process of light, heat, or sound reflecting from a surface to another in a different direction
 * The display of images by a projector

Optics, graphics, and cartography

 * Map projection, reducing the surface of a three-dimensional planet to a flat map
 * Graphical projection, the production of a two-dimensional image of a three-dimensional object

Chemistry

 * Fischer projection, a two-dimensional representation of a three-dimensional organic molecule
 * Haworth projection, a way of writing a structural formula to represent the cyclic structure of monosaccharides
 * Natta projection, a way to depict molecules with complete stereochemistry in two dimensions in a skeletal formula
 * Newman projection, a visual representation of a chemical bond from front to back

Mathematics

 * Projection (mathematics), any of several different types of geometrical mappings
 * Projection (linear algebra), a linear transformation $P$ from a vector space to itself such that $P^{2} = P$
 * Projection (set theory), one of two closely related types of functions or operations in set theory
 * Projection (measure theory), use of a projection map in measure theory
 * 3D projection, any method of mapping three-dimensional points to a two-dimensional plane
 * Vector projection, orthogonal projection of a vector onto a straight line
 * Projection (relational algebra), a type of unary operation in relational algebra
 * Projective geometry, the study of geometric properties that are invariant with respect to projective transformations
 * Projective module, a generalization of a free module
 * Projective object, a further generalization, in category theory
 * Projection method (fluid dynamics), means of numerically solving time-dependent incompressible fluid-flow problems

Biology

 * Projection areas, areas of the brain where sensory processing occurs
 * Projection fiber, in neuroscience, white matter fibers that connect the cortex to the lower parts of the brain or the spinal cord

Linguistics

 * Projection (linguistics), grammatical trait inheritance from a head to a phrasal category
 * Projection principle in syntax
 * Projection of presuppositions in linguistics

Arts and entertainment

 * "Projections" (Star Trek: Voyager), an episode of the television series Star Trek: Voyager
 * Projections (The Blues Project album), 1966
 * Projections (John Handy album), 1968
 * Projections (film), 2013 Croatian film

Other uses

 * Projection (alchemy), process in Alchemy
 * Projections (journal), an interdisciplinary academic journal related to cinema and visual media
 * Power projection, the capacity of a state to implement policy by means of force, or the threat thereof
 * Psychological projection, or "Freudian projection", a defense mechanism in which one attributes to others one's own unacceptable or unwanted attributes, thoughts, or emotions
 * Social projection, a cognitive bias that leads people to believe others are similar to themselves
 * Forecasting, making predictions of the future based on past and present data
 * Population projection, in the field of demography, an estimate of a future population

title: Projection


text:
Rhumb line

In navigation, a rhumb line, rhumb, or loxodrome is an arc crossing all meridians of longitude at the same angle, that is, a path with constant bearing as measured relative to true north.

Introduction
The effect of following a rhumb line course on the surface of a globe was first discussed by the Portuguese mathematician Pedro Nunes in 1537, in his Treatise in Defense of the Marine Chart, with further mathematical development by Thomas Harriot in the 1590s.

A rhumb line can be contrasted with a great circle, which is the path of shortest distance between two points on the surface of a sphere. On a great circle, the bearing to the destination point does not remain constant. If one were to drive a car along a great circle one would hold the steering wheel fixed, but to follow a rhumb line one would have to turn the wheel, turning it more sharply as the poles are approached. In other words, a great circle is locally "straight" with zero geodesic curvature, whereas a rhumb line has non-zero geodesic curvature.

Meridians of longitude and parallels of latitude provide special cases of the rhumb line, where their angles of intersection are respectively 0° and 90°. On a north–south passage the rhumb line course coincides with a great circle, as it does on an east–west passage along the equator.

On a Mercator projection map, any rhumb line is a straight line; a rhumb line can be drawn on such a map between any two points on Earth without going off the edge of the map. But theoretically a loxodrome can extend beyond the right edge of the map, where it then continues at the left edge with the same slope (assuming that the map covers exactly 360 degrees of longitude).

Rhumb lines which cut meridians at oblique angles are loxodromic curves which spiral towards the poles. On a Mercator projection the north and south poles occur at infinity and are therefore never shown. However the full loxodrome on an infinitely high map would consist of infinitely many line segments between the two edges. On a stereographic projection map, a loxodrome is an equiangular spiral whose center is the north or south pole.

All loxodromes spiral from one pole to the other. Near the poles, they are close to being logarithmic spirals (which they are exactly on a stereographic projection, see below), so they wind around each pole an infinite number of times but reach the pole in a finite distance. The pole-to-pole length of a loxodrome (assuming a perfect sphere) is the length of the meridian divided by the cosine of the bearing away from true north. Loxodromes are not defined at the poles.

Etymology and historical description
The word loxodrome comes from Ancient Greek λοξός loxós: "oblique" + δρόμος drómos: "running" (from δραμεῖν drameîn: "to run"). The word rhumb may come from Spanish or Portuguese rumbo/rumo ("course" or "direction") and Greek ῥόμβος rhómbos, from rhémbein.

The 1878 edition of The Globe Encyclopaedia of Universal Information describes a loxodrome line as:

"Loxodrom′ic Line is a curve which cuts every member of a system of lines of curvature of a given surface at the same angle. A ship sailing towards the same point of the compass describes such a line which cuts all the meridians at the same angle. In Mercator's Projection (q.v.) the Loxodromic lines are evidently straight."

A misunderstanding could arise because the term "rhumb" had no precise meaning when it came into use. It applied equally well to the windrose lines as it did to loxodromes because the term only applied "locally" and only meant whatever a sailor did in order to sail with constant bearing, with all the imprecision that that implies. Therefore, "rhumb" was applicable to the straight lines on portolans when portolans were in use, as well as always applicable to straight lines on Mercator charts. For short distances portolan "rhumbs" do not meaningfully differ from Mercator rhumbs, but these days "rhumb" is synonymous with the mathematically precise "loxodrome" because it has been made synonymous retrospectively.

As Leo Bagrow states: "the word ('Rhumbline') is wrongly applied to the sea-charts of this period, since a loxodrome gives an accurate course only when the chart is drawn on a suitable projection. Cartometric investigation has revealed that no projection was used in the early charts, for which we therefore retain the name 'portolan'."

Mathematical description
For a sphere of radius 1, the azimuthal angle $λ$, the polar angle $−π⁄2 ≤ φ ≤ π⁄2$ (defined here to correspond to latitude), and Cartesian unit vectors $i$, $j$, and $k$ can be used to write the radius vector $r$ as

 * $$\mathbf{r}(\lambda,\varphi) = (\cos{\lambda} \cdot \cos{\varphi}) \mathbf{i} + (\sin{\lambda} \cdot \cos{\varphi})  \mathbf{j} + (\sin{\varphi}) \mathbf{k} \, .$$

Orthogonal unit vectors in the azimuthal and polar directions of the sphere can be written

 * $$\begin{align}

\boldsymbol{\hat\lambda}(\lambda,\varphi) &= \sec{\varphi} \frac{\partial\mathbf{r}}{\partial\lambda} = (-\sin{\lambda}) \mathbf{i} + (\cos{\lambda}) \mathbf{j} \,, \\[8pt] \boldsymbol{\hat\varphi}(\lambda,\varphi) &= \frac{\partial\mathbf{r}}{\partial\varphi} = (-\cos{\lambda} \cdot \sin{\varphi}) \mathbf{i} + (-\sin{\lambda} \cdot \sin{\varphi}) \mathbf{j} + (\cos{\varphi}) \mathbf{k} \, , \end{align}$$

which have the scalar products

 * $$\boldsymbol{\hat\lambda} \cdot \boldsymbol{\hat\varphi} = \boldsymbol{\hat\lambda} \cdot \mathbf{r} = \boldsymbol{\hat\varphi} \cdot \mathbf{r} = 0 \, .$$

$λ̂$ for constant $φ$ traces out a parallel of latitude, while $φ̂$ for constant $λ$ traces out a meridian of longitude, and together they generate a plane tangent to the sphere.

The unit vector
 * $$\mathbf{\boldsymbol{\hat\beta}}(\lambda,\varphi) = (\sin{\beta}) \boldsymbol{\hat\lambda} + (\cos{\beta}) \boldsymbol{\hat\varphi}$$

has a constant angle $β$ with the unit vector $φ̂$ for any $λ$ and $φ$, since their scalar product is

 * $$\boldsymbol{\hat\beta} \cdot \boldsymbol{\hat\varphi} = \cos{\beta} \, .$$

A loxodrome is defined as a curve on the sphere that has a constant angle $β$ with all meridians of longitude, and therefore must be parallel to the unit vector $β̂$. As a result, a differential length $ds$ along the loxodrome will produce a differential displacement

 * $$\begin{align}

d\mathbf{r} &= \boldsymbol{\hat\beta} \, ds \\[8px] \frac{\partial\mathbf{r}}{\partial\lambda} \, d\lambda + \frac{\partial\mathbf{r}}{\partial\varphi} \, d\varphi &= \bigl((\sin{\beta}) \, \boldsymbol{\hat\lambda} + (\cos{\beta}) \, \boldsymbol{\hat\varphi}\bigr) ds \\[8px] (\cos{\varphi}) \, d\lambda \, \boldsymbol{\hat\lambda} + d\varphi \, \boldsymbol{\hat\varphi} &= (\sin{\beta}) \, ds \, \boldsymbol{\hat\lambda} + (\cos{\beta}) \, ds \, \boldsymbol{\hat\varphi} \\[8px] ds &= \frac{\cos{\varphi} }{\sin{\beta}} \, d\lambda = \frac{d\varphi}{\cos{\beta}} \\[8px] \frac{d\lambda}{d\varphi} &= \tan{\beta} \cdot \sec{\varphi} \\[8px] \lambda(\varphi\,|\,\beta,\lambda_0,\varphi_0) &= \tan\beta \cdot \big( \operatorname{gd}^{-1}\varphi - \operatorname{gd}^{-1}\varphi_0 \big) + \lambda_0 \\[8px] \varphi(\lambda\,|\,\beta,\lambda_0,\varphi_0) &= \operatorname{gd} \big((\lambda - \lambda_0) \cot\beta + \operatorname{gd}^{-1}\varphi_0\big) \end{align}$$

where $$\operatorname{gd}$$ and $$\operatorname{gd}^{-1}$$ are the Gudermannian function and its inverse, $$\operatorname{gd}\psi = \arctan(\sinh\psi),$$ $$\operatorname{gd}^{-1}\varphi = \operatorname{arsinh}(\tan\varphi),$$ and $$\operatorname{arsinh}$$ is the inverse hyperbolic sine.

With this relationship between $λ$ and $φ$, the radius vector becomes a parametric function of one variable, tracing out the loxodrome on the sphere:

 * $$\mathbf{r}(\lambda\,|\,\beta,\lambda_0,\varphi_0) = \big(\cos{\lambda} \cdot \operatorname{sech} \psi \big) \mathbf{i} +

\big(\sin{\lambda} \cdot \operatorname{sech}\psi\big) \mathbf{j} + \big(\tanh\psi\big) \mathbf{k} \, ,$$

where

 * $$\psi \equiv (\lambda - \lambda_0) \cot\beta + \operatorname{gd}^{-1}\varphi_0 = \operatorname{gd}^{-1}\varphi$$

is the isometric latitude.

In the Rhumb line, as the latitude tends to the poles, $φ → ±π⁄2$, $sin φ → ±1$, the isometric latitude $arsinh(tan φ) → ± ∞$, and longitude $λ$ increases without bound, circling the sphere ever so fast in a spiral towards the pole, while tending to a finite total arc length Δ$s$ given by
 * $$\Delta s = R \, \big|(\pm\pi/2 - \varphi_0) \cdot \sec \beta\big|$$

Connection to the Mercator projection
Let $λ$ be the longitude of a point on the sphere, and $φ$ its latitude. Then, if we define the map coordinates of the Mercator projection as
 * $$\begin{align}

x &= \lambda - \lambda_0 \,, \\ y &= \operatorname{gd}^{-1}\varphi = \operatorname{arsinh}(\tan\varphi)\, , \end{align}$$ a loxodrome with constant bearing $β$ from true north will be a straight line, since (using the expression in the previous section)
 * $$y = m x$$

with a slope
 * $$m=\cot\beta\,.$$

Finding the loxodromes between two given points can be done graphically on a Mercator map, or by solving a nonlinear system of two equations in the two unknowns $m = cot β$ and $λ_{0}$. There are infinitely many solutions; the shortest one is that which covers the actual longitude difference, i.e. does not make extra revolutions, and does not go "the wrong way around".

The distance between two points $Δs$, measured along a loxodrome, is simply the absolute value of the secant of the bearing (azimuth) times the north–south distance (except for circles of latitude for which the distance becomes infinite):

 * $$\Delta s = R \, \big|(\varphi - \varphi_0)\cdot \sec \beta \big|$$

where $R$ is one of the earth average radii.

Application
Its use in navigation is directly linked to the style, or projection of certain navigational maps. A rhumb line appears as a straight line on a Mercator projection map.

The name is derived from Old French or Spanish respectively: "rumb" or "rumbo", a line on the chart which intersects all meridians at the same angle. On a plane surface this would be the shortest distance between two points. Over the Earth's surface at low latitudes or over short distances it can be used for plotting the course of a vehicle, aircraft or ship. Over longer distances and/or at higher latitudes the great circle route is significantly shorter than the rhumb line between the same two points. However the inconvenience of having to continuously change bearings while travelling a great circle route makes rhumb line navigation appealing in certain instances.

The point can be illustrated with an east–west passage over 90 degrees of longitude along the equator, for which the great circle and rhumb line distances are the same, at 5400 nmi. At 20 degrees north the great circle distance is 4997 nmi while the rhumb line distance is 5074 nmi, about 1.5% further. But at 60 degrees north the great circle distance is 2485 nmi while the rhumb line is 2700 nmi, a difference of 8.5%. A more extreme case is the air route between New York City and Hong Kong, for which the rhumb line path is 9700 nmi. The great circle route over the North Pole is 7000 nmi, or $5 1/2$ hours less flying time at a typical cruising speed.

Some old maps in the Mercator projection have grids composed of lines of latitude and longitude but also show rhumb lines which are oriented directly towards north, at a right angle from the north, or at some angle from the north which is some simple rational fraction of a right angle. These rhumb lines would be drawn so that they would converge at certain points of the map: lines going in every direction would converge at each of these points. See compass rose. Such maps would necessarily have been in the Mercator projection therefore not all old maps would have been capable of showing rhumb line markings.

The radial lines on a compass rose are also called rhumbs. The expression "sailing on a rhumb" was used in the 16th–19th centuries to indicate a particular compass heading.

Early navigators in the time before the invention of the marine chronometer used rhumb line courses on long ocean passages, because the ship's latitude could be established accurately by sightings of the Sun or stars but there was no accurate way to determine the longitude. The ship would sail north or south until the latitude of the destination was reached, and the ship would then sail east or west along the rhumb line (actually a parallel, which is a special case of the rhumb line), maintaining a constant latitude and recording regular estimates of the distance sailed until evidence of land was sighted.

On the Riemann sphere
The surface of the Earth can be understood mathematically as a Riemann sphere, that is, as a projection of the sphere to the complex plane. In this case, loxodromes can be understood as certain classes of Möbius transformations.

Spheroid
The formulation above can be easily extended to a spheroid. The course of the rhumb line is found merely by using the ellipsoidal isometric latitude. In formulas above on this page, substitute the conformal latitude on the ellipsoid for the latitude on the sphere. Similarly, distances are found by multiplying the ellipsoidal meridian arc length by the secant of the azimuth.

title: Rhumb line