text:
Talk:Former administrative divisions of Romania

Untitled

 * Note: Ilfov county is DISTINCT from Bucharest - each have their own prefectură. Bucharest is a special administrative division, whilst Ilfov is a proper county. (IulianU)
 * But according to this:
 * https://orastie.info.ro/legi/lege_351.htm
 * Buftea is not the capital (resedinta de judet) of Ilfov.

Could someone expand the history section? Users with access to JSTOR could use "The volatile administrative map of Rumania".

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 2 external links on Former administrative divisions of Romania. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20140523230804/http://www.romanialibera.ro/dosar/a129846-cum-va-arata-harta-romaniei.html to http://www.romanialibera.ro/dosar/a129846-cum-va-arata-harta-romaniei.html
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20100421045240/http://www.gandul.info/politica/reorganizare-teritoriala-marca-udmr-15-euroregiuni-15-parlamente-955641 to http://www.gandul.info/politica/reorganizare-teritoriala-marca-udmr-15-euroregiuni-15-parlamente-955641

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 02:28, 3 January 2017 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 2 external links on Former administrative divisions of Romania. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20110720210114/http://www.valcea.insse.ro/main.php?lang=fr&pageid=509 to http://www.valcea.insse.ro/main.php?lang=fr&pageid=509
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20070928063604/http://www.infopolitic.ro/imagini/documente/1133864495_Constitutia%20RPR%201952.pdf to http://www.infopolitic.ro/imagini/documente/1133864495_Constitutia%20RPR%201952.pdf

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 04:58, 4 October 2017 (UTC)


text:
Michael Albert

Michael Albert (born April 8, 1947) is an American economist, speaker, writer, and political critic. Since the late 1970s, he has published books, articles, and other contributions on a wide array of subjects. He has also set up his own media outfits, magazines, and podcasts. He is known for helping to develop the socioeconomic theory of participatory economics.

Biography
Albert was born in New York City and grew up in New Rochelle, New York. In 1965, Albert was studying physics at MIT. He objected to the US military's funding of the university. This, along with the civil rights movement, led Albert to become politically active. He became a member of Students for a Democratic Society and opposed the Vietnam War. He was expelled from MIT, in January 1970, for disruptive behaviour, although he claimed the charges were 'cooked-up'.

Albert founded South End Press in 1977 along with Lydia Sargent and Juliet Schor, among others.

In 1987, Albert founded Zeta Magazine with Sargent. The magazine focused on libertarian and anarchist socialist thought. It was renamed Z Magazine in 1989.

In 1990–91, Albert and Robin Hahnel worked on outlining their ideas around participatory economics. They published Looking Forward and The Political Economy of Participatory Economics, with the later including an economic model of the system. Doug Brown, writing in the Journal of Economic Issues said their alternative to markets was novel, but mainly of academic interest.

By 1995, the organisation Z Magazine had branched out providing online content and media training. Along with the magazine the ventures are collectively known as Z Communications.

In 2003, Parecon: Life After Capitalism was published further outlining participatory economics in a more accessible, less academic format. The book was translated into 20 languages. Reviewing the book Paul Ormerod felt Albert's criticisms of capitalism were unfounded. Albert spoke at the World Social Forum in the same year. He spoke at European Social Forum in 2004.

Albert was a founding member of the International Organization for a Participatory Society, in 2012.

Sean Michael Wilson created a comic book based on Albert and his ideas in 2013.

Beliefs
Albert identifies himself as a market abolitionist and believes markets should be replaced with participatory economics.

Criticism
In 2006, David Schweickart wrote a detailed critique of participatory economics called Nonsense on Stilts: Michael Albert's Parecon. He claimed three fundamental features of the economic system are flawed.

Co-authored

 * Unorthodox Marxism, with R. Hahnel (1978)
 * Socialism Today and Tomorrow, with R. Hahnel (1981)
 * Marxism and Socialist Theory, with R. Hahnel (1981)
 * Liberating Theory, with Holly Sklar, Lydia Sargent, Mel King, Robin Hahnel, Noam Chomsky and Leslie Cagan (1986)
 * Talking about a Revolution: Interviews with Michael Albert, Noam Chomsky, Barbara Ehrenreich, Bell Hooks, Peter Kwong, Winona LaDuke, Manning Marable, Urvashi Vaid, Howard Zinn (1998)
 * Quiet Revolution in Welfare Economics, with R. Hahnel (1990) Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691604510
 * Looking Forward: Participatory Economics for the Twenty First Century, with R. Hahnel (1990)
 * The Political Economy of Participatory Economics, with R. Hahnel (1991) Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691003849

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Michael Albert


text:
List of villages depopulated during the Arab–Israeli conflict

Below is a list of villages depopulated or destroyed during the Arab–Israeli conflict.

Arab villages
A number of these villages, those in the Jezreel Valley, were inhabited by tenants of land which was sold by a variety of owners, some local and others absentee landlord families, such as the Karkabi, Tueini, Farah and Khuri families and Sursock family of Lebanon. In some cases land was sold directly by local fellahim (peasant owners). The sale of land to Jewish organizations meant that tenant farmers were displaced.

List of Palestinian villages from which tenant farmers were uprooted before 1948, with the cause of the uprooting (i.e., sale by landlord or some other cause) given along with the name of Jewish settlements on newly acquired land (in parentheses) can be seen below.

Safed district
 * al-Mutila, 1896 (Metula) Land, 12,800 dunams, sold under Ottoman law by landlord, a Christian from Sidon named Jabur Bey, to Baron de Rothschild's chief officer Joshua Ossovetski. Druze villagers displaced.
 * Difna, 1939 (Dafna)
 * al-Manara, unknown date (Manara) 2538 dunams of land purchased by the Jewish National Fund from the landlord, Asa'ad Bey Khuri of Beirut.
 * Najmat as-Subah, unknown date (Ayelet HaShahar)

Acre district
 * Ja'atoun, unknown date (Ga'aton)
 * Khirbat Jiddin, 1946, other sources says 1948 (Yehiam)

Tiberias district
 * Um al-Junah, unknown date (Degania Bet)
 * Malhamiyah, 1902 According to Edward Said, the Jewish farming village of Menahemia) was established in 1902 on land purchased by the Jewish Colonization Association in 1901; 3,000 dunams were purchased directly from local fellahim, 700 dunhams from local landlords, and over 60,000 dunams from landlords in Beirut; the Sursuq, Tuenis, and Mudawwar families. The Arab tenant farmers were evicted by Ottoman authorities.
 * Sha’arah, beginning of the 20th century (Omer Sha’ara, today Shadmot Dvora)
 * Sarona, 1910 (Sharona)
 * Sarjuna, unknown date (Shorshim, today HaZor'im)
 * Yammah, 1901 (Yavniel)

Nazareth district Beisan district Haifa district
 * Jabata, 1926 (Gvat)
 * Khunaifis, 1926 (Sarid)
 * Ganigar, Jinjar, Jenjar, Junjar, 1922, Ginegar,
 * Rab an-Nasrah, unknown date (Mazra)
 * Tal al-’Adas, unknown date (Tel Adashim)
 * al-'Afoulah, 1925 (Afula)
 * al-Foulah, 1910 (Merhavia)
 * Mashah, 1902 (Kfar Tavor)
 * Samouniyah, unknown date (Shimron nature reserve, Timrat)
 * Umm Kubei, unknown date
 * Khirbat Bayt Ilfa, unknown date (Beit Alpha)
 * Shatah, unknown date (Beit HaShita)
 * Tall al-Fir, 1922 (none)
 * Jaloud, 1922 (Ein Harod)
 * Zarra'a, Jewish National Fund bought the land in the 1930s, Tirat Tzvi established on the site in 1938
 * Jisr Majami
 * Jadroun, 1925 (Kfar Bialik)
 * Kurdani, unknown date (Afek)
 * Kafr Ata, 1925 (Kfar Ata – today Kiryat Ata)
 * al-Majdal, 1925 (none)
 * al-Harbaj, 1924 (Kfar Hasidim)
 * al-Harithiyah, 1924 (Sha'ar HaAmakim)
 * Tab’oun, unknown date (Tivon, today Kiryat Tivon)
 * Qusqous, unknown date (Alonim)
 * Jida, 1925 (Ramat Yishai)
 * Tal ash-Shamam, 1925 (Kfar Yehoshua)
 * Qamoun, 1925 (Yokneam)
 * Ja’ara, unknown date (Ein HaShofet)
 * Um ad-Dafouf, unknown date (Dalia)
 * Um at-Tout, unknown date (none)
 * Shifiyah, unknown date (Meir Shfeya)
 * Zamarin (Zikhron Ya'akov), 1948 – Following Jewish settlement in 1882, Arabs continued to live and work in the community alongside Jews.
 * Um al-’Alaq, unknown date, (Ramat HaNadiv)
 * ash-Shounah, unknown date (none), maybe identical to Khirbat al-Shuna destroyed in 1948
 * Zarghaniyah, unknown date (Binyamina)
 * al-Buraij, unknown date (Binyamina)
 * Natalah, unknown date (No data)
 * Nazlah, unknown date (none)
 * Safsaf, unknown date (none)
 * Hadidun, unknown date (none)
 * Karkour, unknown date (Ein Shemer, Gan HaShomron, Karkur, Tel Shalom)
 * Bidous, unknown date (Maanit)
 * Shaikh Hilw, unknown date (Nahliel, now part from Hadera)
 * Zardarah, unknown date (Gan Shmuel)
 * Baika, unknown date (Hadera)
 * al-Marah, 1903 (Givat Ada)
 * ’Aabiyah, 1929 (Pardes Hanna)
 * Sheikh Bureik Sold during the early 1920s, by the Sursuk family to the Jewish National Fund. The Arab tenants were evicted and in 1925 an agricultural settlement also named Sheikh Abreik was established there by the Hapoel HaMizrachi, a Zionist political party.

Tulkarm district
 * Shaikh Muhammad, unknown date (Elyashiv)

Jerusalem district
 * Beit Jimal

Ramla district
 * Kafr Wariyah, unknown date (Kfar Uria)
 * Jindas (Ginaton)

1929 Palestine riots
During the 1929 Palestine riots:

 * Bat Yam
 * Be'er Tuvia
 * Giv'on HaHadashah
 * Hartuv

 * Kfar Uria
 * Kiryat Ata
 * Motza
 * Ramat Rachel
 * Hebron

1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine
During the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine:

 * Kfar Shiloah
 * Silwan Jewish population removed by the Kehillah Welfare Bureau and later the British authorities during the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine
 * Kfar Etzion
 * Hebron

Arab villages
Palestinian Arab residents were expelled from hundreds of towns and villages by the Israel Defense Forces, or fled in fear as the Israeli army advanced. Around 400 Arab towns and villages were depopulated.

Jewish villages
The main Jewish areas depopulated in 1948 were the Jewish Quarter of the Old City of Jerusalem and the Gush Etzion. Approximately 30-40km2 of land was owned by Jews in the areas which became the West Bank and Gaza Strip (approximately 6,000km2); some of this land was uninhabited.

 * In areas that became the West Bank
 * North Jerusalem bloc (Atarot and Neve Yaakov)
 * Dead Sea block (Kalia and Beit HaArava)
 * Jewish Quarter (Jerusalem)
 * Gush Etzion bloc near Jerusalem (Ein Tzurim, Kfar Etzion, Masuot Yitzhak, Revadim)

 * In areas that became Gaza Strip (All-Palestine protectorate):
 * Kfar Darom (resettled but evacuated as part of the Israeli disengagement from Gaza in 2005)

 * Israel-Syria border
 * Hauran

 * In Transjordan
 * Tel Or

Many of these areas were repopulated after the Six-Day War.

West Bank
Three Arab villages, Bayt Nuba, Imwas and Yalo, located in the Latrun Corridor were destroyed on the orders of Yitzhak Rabin due to the corridor's strategic location and route to Jerusalem and because of the residents' alleged aiding of Egyptian commandos in their attack on the city of Lod. The residents of the three villages were offered compensation but were not allowed to return.

Hebron/Bethlehem area
 * Surit
 * Beit Awwa
 * Beit Mirsem
 * Shuyoukh

Jordan Valley
 * al-Jiftlik (depopulated but soon repopulated)
 * Agarith
 * Huseirat

Jerusalem area
 * Nabi Samwil

In the Negev/Sinai Desert
 * Auja al-Hafir – A demilitarized zone

Golan Heights
Over 100,000 Golan Heights residents were evacuated from about 25 villages whether on orders of the Syrian government or through fear of an attack by the Israeli Defense Forces and expulsion after the ceasefire. During the following months, more than a hundred Syrian villages were destroyed by Israel.

Israeli settlements
Israeli settlements in the Sinai Peninsula were evacuated as a result of the 1979 Egypt–Israel peace treaty.
 * Avshalom
 * Dikla
 * Netiv HaAsara, Sinai
 * Ofira
 * Pri'el
 * Sufa
 * Talmei Yosef
 * Yamit

Israel's unilateral disengagement plan
As a part of Israel's unilateral disengagement plan, 21 civilian Israeli settlements were forcibly evacuated, as well as an area in the northern West Bank containing four Israeli villages. The residential buildings were razed by Israel but public structures were left intact. The religious structures not removed by Israel were later destroyed by Palestinians.

Since 2005
On 5 November 2020, Israeli bulldozers demolished most of the village of Khirbet Humsa al-Fawqa and forced 73 of its Palestinian residents, including 41 children to leave in what was the largest demolition in years. On 4 February 2021, Israel razed for the second time because of what it claimed was an illegal settlement next to a military firing range. On 7 July 2021, it was demolished by Israel again for at least the third time.

In May 2023, the Israeli army destroyed the village of Ein Samiya, forcibly expelling 170 people.


text:
Levante UD

Levante Unión Deportiva, S.A.D. is a Spanish football club in Valencia, in the namesake autonomous community.

Founded on 9 September 1909, Levante play in the Segunda División, holding home games at Ciutat de València Stadium.

Early years (1909–1935)
Levante UD was formerly registered as Levante Football Club on 9 September 1909 (celebrating its 100th anniversary on 9 September 2009). Thus Levante is the most senior football club in Valencia, with rival team Valencia CF not being formed until 1919.

Levante shares its name with the eastern region of the Iberian Peninsula, with Spain's east coast, the coast over which the sun rises (levantar in Spanish), with the Levant wind that comes from the east, and with the Levante beach in La Malvarrosa where Levante Football Club played some of its earliest fixtures.

Levante's earliest games were played at La Platjeta, near the docks on a plot of land owned by a perfume entrepreneur. Its next ground was also near the port area, and the club gradually became associated with the working class. In 1919, the side played Valencia CF for the first time, losing 0–1; the game marked the inauguration of the recently built ground at Algirós. In 1928, Levante FC won its first trophy, the Valencian Championship.

1909 also saw the birth of Gimnástico Football Club, which originally played at Patronato de la Juventud Obrera, being then named Gimnástico-Patronato. In 1919, Gimnástico became the champion of the Campeonato de Valencia, beating CD Castellón in two leg finals; the next year, the club had become Real Gimnástico Football Club, after being granted royal patronage by Alfonso XIII, and they reached the final of Campeonato Regional de Levante, but lost to Club Deportivo Aguileño. In 1931, with the founding of the Second Spanish Republic, the club dropped the Real from its name.

In 1934–35, both Levante and Gimnástico debuted in the second division, when the league was expanded from 10 teams to 24. In 1935, Levante won the Campeonato Levante-Sur, a competition that featured teams from Valencia, Murcia and Andalusia, and subsequently reached the semi-finals of the Spanish Cup, consecutively beating Valencia and Barcelona before losing to eventual runners-up Sabadell.

During the civil war: Copa de la España Libre (1937)
During the Spanish Civil War, Levante and Gimnástico played in the Mediterranean League, finishing fifth and sixth respectively. Teams from this league also competed in the Copa de la España Libre ("Free Spain Cup"). It was originally intended that the top four teams from the league would enter the cup, but Barcelona opted to tour Mexico and the United States, and as a result, Levante took its place. The first round of the competition was a mini-league with the top two teams, Levante and Valencia, qualifying for the final. On 18 July 1937, Levante defeated its city rivals 1–0 at the Montjuïc.

Merging: Gimnástico and Levante (1939)
During the Civil War, Levante's ground was destroyed, but the club's squad remained intact. In contrast, Gimnástico had a ground, Estadio de Vallejo, but had lost most of their players. As a result, in 1939 Levante FC and Gimnástico FC merged into Levante Unión Deportiva. Levante UD can thus trace its origin back to at least 1909 through both Levante FC and Gimnástico FC. The merged club was at first named Unión Deportiva Levante-Gimnástico, then changed it a few years later to Levante Unión Deportiva. The current club colours date from this era: the blaugrana, blue-garnet, home colours were originally those of Gimnástico FC, while the black and white away kit were the colours of Levante FC. Levante UD also inherited from Gimnástico FC their nickname, Granota, the Frogs.

La Liga: relegations and promotions (1963–present)
Levante had to wait until the 1960s to make its La Liga debut. In 1963, the club finished runner-up in Group II of the second division, defeating Deportivo de La Coruña 4–2 on aggregate in the promotion play-offs. During the first top flight season, it managed to win both games against Valencia, and also achieved a 5–1 home win against Barcelona in the 1964–65 campaign, but was relegated nonetheless after losing in the playoffs against Málaga. It spent most of the following two decades in the second and third divisions; the Segunda División B would not be created until 1977.

In the early 1980s, Dutch superstar Johan Cruyff played half a season for the club, retiring three years later. After winning 2003–04's second division, Levante returned to the top level but survived only one season. Finishing third in 2005–06, it returned for two additional campaigns, the decisive match in the 2006–07 season being a 4–2 home win against Valencia courtesy of Riga Mustapha (two goals), Salva and Laurent Courtois.

Levante's financial status worsened, however, and there were reports that the players had only received approximately one-fifth of their contractual payments. News reports stated that the club had incurred a debt of over €18 million in payments due to its players. The team plummeted down the standings, and it was confirmed with several matches to go that the club would be playing in the second division in 2008–09. The players protested at their lack of payments at one point, refusing to move for several seconds after the opening whistle against Deportivo and later announcing that they would strike during the season-ending game at Real Madrid. The threat was withdrawn when league officials announced that a benefit game would be played between a Levante XI and a Primera División XI, with all receipts going to pay the Levante players' wages.

On 13 June 2010, Levante returned to La Liga after a 3–1 home win against already relegated Castellón, making its final round 0–4 defeat at Real Betis irrelevant. Under the manager who led the team back to the top flight, Luis García Plaza, Levante finally retained its top division status in the 2010–11 season. At one point in the league's second round of matches, Levante was third in the table behind Barcelona and Real Madrid, after losing just once (against Real Madrid) in 12 games. On 26 October 2011, during round nine of the season, Levante defeated Real Sociedad 3–2 to move top of the first division table for the first time in the club's history, with 23 points. In the process, it recorded seven straight wins after drawing its first two games. The club eventually finished sixth after defeating Athletic Bilbao 3–0 at home in its last match, thus qualifying for the UEFA Europa League for the first time in its history. There, they made it to the last 16 before a 2–0 extra-time loss to Russia's FC Rubin Kazan. In the 2015–16 season, Levante was relegated after defeat by Málaga and finished last. The club was promoted back to the top league in 2016–17, winning the Segunda División title. In the 2017–18 season, the club secured safety in the league and on 13 May, beat the champions Barcelona 5–4 (having led 5–1 early in the second half), with Emmanuel Boateng scoring his first ever career hat-trick. This win ended Barcelona's hopes of achieving an unbeaten season.

In the 2021–22 season, Levante was relegated after being defeated 0–6 by Real Madrid, ending their five years in the top tier.

Season to season

 * 16 seasons in La Liga
 * 41 seasons in Segunda División
 * 12 seasons in Segunda División B
 * 16 seasons in Tercera División
 * 1 season in Categorías Regionales

Notable former players
Note: this list includes players that have appeared in at least 100 league games and/or have reached international status.

 * 🇩🇿 Abdelkader Ghezzal
 * 🇩🇿 Nabil Ghilas
 * 🇦🇷 Pablo Cavallero
 * 🇦🇷 Gustavo Reggi
 * 🇦🇺 Mitchell Langerak
 * 🇦🇹 Andreas Ivanschitz
 * 🇧🇷 Sávio
 * 🇧🇷 Wanderley
 * 🇧🇷 Zé Maria
 * 🇧🇬 Vladimir Manchev
 * 🇨🇲 Daniel N'Gom Kome
 * 🇨🇲 Lauren
 * 🇨🇲 Albert Meyong
 * 🇨🇻 Valdo
 * 🇨🇻 José Veiga
 * 🇨🇱 Carlos Caszely
 * 🇨🇴 Edwin Congo
 * 🇨🇴 Jefferson Lerma
 * 🇨🇮 Félix Ettien
 * 🇨🇮 Arouna Koné
 * 🇨🇷 Keylor Navas
 * 🇭🇷 Tomislav Erceg
 * 🇪🇨 Felipe Caicedo
 * 🇪🇨 Jefferson Montero
 * 🇬🇶 Sergio Barila
 * 🇬🇶 Juvenal
 * 🇬🇶 Yago
 * 🇫🇷 Frédéric Déhu
 * 🇫🇷 Olivier Kapo
 * 🇫🇷 Péguy Luyindula
 * 🇫🇷 Laurent Robert
 * Shota Arveladze
 * 🇬🇭 Emmanuel Boateng
 * 🇬🇭 Riga Mustapha
 * 🇬🇷 Theofanis Gekas
 * 🇬🇷 Nikolaos Karabelas
 * 🇬🇷 Loukas Vyntra
 * 🇮🇪 Ian Harte
 * 🇮🇹 Damiano Tommasi
 * 🇮🇹 Giuseppe Rossi
 * 🇲🇰 Enis Bardhi
 * 🇲🇱 Mohamed Sissoko
 * 🇲🇦 Issam El Adoua
 * 🇲🇦 Nabil El Zhar
 * 🇲🇦 Zouhair Feddal
 * 🇲🇦 Moha
 * 🇲🇿 Simão Mate
 * 🇳🇱 Johan Cruyff
 * 🇳🇱 Faas Wilkes
 * 🇳🇬 Obafemi Martins
 * 🇵🇱 Dariusz Dudka
 * 🇵🇹 Duda
 * 🇸🇦 Fahad Al-Muwallad
 * 🇷🇸 Vladan Kujović
 * 🇸🇳 Baba Diawara
 * 🇸🇳 Pape Diop
 * 🇸🇳 Rémi Gomis
 * 🇸🇳 Sylvain N'Diaye
 * 🇪🇸 Alexis
 * 🇪🇸 Salva Ballesta
 * 🇪🇸 Sergio Ballesteros
 * 🇪🇸 Claudio Barragán
 * 🇪🇸 Antonio Calpe
 * 🇪🇸 Diego Camacho
 * 🇪🇸 José Campaña
 * 🇪🇸 Víctor Casadesús
 * 🇪🇸 Ángel Cuéllar
 * 🇪🇸 Asier del Horno
 * 🇪🇸 Iñaki Descarga
 * 🇪🇸 Ernesto Domínguez
 * 🇪🇸 Javier Farinós
 * 🇪🇸 Rubén García
 * 🇪🇸 Sergio García
 * 🇪🇸 Fernando Giner
 * 🇪🇸 Sergio González
 * 🇪🇸 Jason
 * 🇪🇸 Jofre
 * 🇪🇸 Juanfran
 * 🇪🇸 Juanlu
 * 🇪🇸 Vicente Latorre
 * 🇪🇸 Pedro López
 * 🇪🇸 José Francisco Molina
 * 🇪🇸 Nando
 * 🇪🇸 David Navarro
 * 🇪🇸 Miguel Pallardó
 * 🇪🇸 Sergio Postigo
 * 🇪🇸 Alberto Rivera
 * 🇪🇸 Gaspar Rubio
 * 🇪🇸 Rubén Suárez
 * 🇪🇸 Vicente Rodríguez
 * 🇸🇪 Johan Mjällby
 * 🇨🇭 Fabio Celestini
 * 🇹🇷 Enes Ünal
 * 🇺🇸 Shaquell Moore
 * 🇺🇾 Gustavo Munúa
 * 🇺🇾 Héctor Núñez
 * 🇺🇾 Tabaré Silva
 * 🇺🇾 Cristhian Stuani
 * 🇻🇪 Emilio Rentería
 * Predrag Mijatović

Coaches

 * 🇪🇸 Josep Escolà (1955–56)
 * 🇪🇸 Enrique Orizaola (1964–65)
 * 🇪🇸 Mundo (1971)
 * 🇪🇸 José Juncosa (1972–73)
 * Héctor Núñez (1973–74)
 * Ferdinand Daučík (1974–75)
 * Dagoberto Moll (1975–76)
 * 🇪🇸 Pachín (1979–81)
 * 🇪🇸 Joaquim Rifé (1981)
 * Todor Veselinović (1981)
 * 🇪🇸 Vicente Piquer (1981)
 * 🇪🇸 Pachín (1984–85)
 * 🇪🇸 Quique Hernández (1987)
 * 🇪🇸 Pachín (1987–88)
 * 🇭🇺 Antal Dunai (1990)
 * 🇪🇸 José Antonio Irulegui (1990–91)
 * 🇪🇸 Luis Costa (1992)
 * 🇪🇸 José Enrique Díaz (1993–94)
 * 🇪🇸 Jordi Gonzalvo (1994)
 * 🇪🇸 Juande Ramos (1994–95)
 * 🇪🇸 Mané (1996–97)
 * 🇪🇸 José Enrique Díaz (1997)
 * 🇪🇸 Jesús Aranguren (1998)
 * 🇪🇸 Pepe Balaguer (1998–2000)
 * 🇪🇸 José Carlos Granero (2000–01)
 * 🇪🇸 Pepe Balaguer (2001–2002)
 * 🇪🇸 Carlos García Cantarero (2002–03)
 * 🇪🇸 Manuel Preciado (2003–04)
 * 🇩🇪 Bernd Schuster (2004–05)
 * 🇪🇸 José Luis Oltra (2005)
 * 🇪🇸 Mané (2005–06)
 * 🇪🇸 Juan Ramón López Caro (2006–07)
 * 🇪🇸 Abel Resino (2007)
 * 🇮🇹 Gianni De Biasi (2007–08)
 * 🇪🇸 José Ángel Moreno (2008)
 * 🇪🇸 Luis García (2008–11)
 * 🇪🇸 Juan Ignacio Martínez (2011–13)
 * 🇪🇸 Joaquín Caparrós (2013–14)
 * 🇪🇸 José Luis Mendilibar (2014)
 * 🇪🇸 Lucas Alcaraz (2014–15)
 * 🇪🇸 Rubi (2015–16)
 * 🇪🇸 Juan Muñiz (2016–18)
 * 🇪🇸 Paco López (2018–21)
 * 🇪🇸 Javier Pereira (2021)
 * 🇮🇹 Alessio Lisci (2021–22)
 * 🇹🇳 Mehdi Nafti (2022)
 * 🇪🇸 Javier Calleja (2022–2024)
 * 🇪🇸 Felipe Miñambres (2024)
 * 🇪🇸 Julián Calero (2024–)

National competitions

 * Copa de la España Libre
 * Winners (1): 1937
 * Segunda División
 * Winners (2): 2003–04, 2016–17
 * Segunda División B
 * Winners (5) - joint record: 1978–79, 1988–89, 1994–95, 1995–96, 1998–99
 * Tercera División
 * Winners (7): 1931–32, 1943–44, 1945–46, 1953–54, 1955–56, 1972–73, 1975–76

Regional competitions

 * Campeonato de Valencia
 * Winners: 1927–28
 * Campeonato Levante-Sur
 * Winners: 1934–35

Friendly tournaments

 * Trofeo Costa de Valencia
 * Winners: 1972, 1974, 1977
 * Trofeo Comunidad Valenciana
 * Winners: 1986
 * Trofeo Ciutat de València
 * Winners: 1995
 * Trofeo Ciudad de Valencia
 * Winners: 1997
 * Trofeo de la Generalitat Valenciana
 * Winners: 2000

Stadium
Estadi Ciutat de València was opened on 9 September 1969, with capacity for 25,354 spectators. The pitch measures 107 by 69 meters.

Due to the 2019–20 season's late finish because of the COVID-19 pandemic, and renovation work at their stadium, Levante concluded the campaign behind closed doors at the Estadi Olímpic Camilo Cano in La Nucia, Province of Alicante.

Rivals
Levante contest the Derbi Valenciano, also known as the Derbi del Turia or Derbi Valentino, with local rivals Valencia. The fixture has been played 38 times competitively, with Valencia winning 21 times to Levante's 8.

title: Levante UD


text:
Talk:Perfect fourth

Removed discussion

 * What language is all this nonsense?? Please translate into English. 66.245.64.45 17:35, 5 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * I've taken the liberty of removing the first anon's comments because they were offensive, irrelevant, in Swedish, and for all I know libellous. —Blotwell 05:09, 8 August 2005 (UTC)

Perfect third?
I've long thot (and read in a book called "Temperament") that 4:3 was the ratio of a perfect third: B to the F+ below it (248Hz to 186Hz), but there doesn't seem to be a page about the perfect third.

 * If the book called it that it made an error. The just interval F# to B (4:3) is a perfect fourth. The only diatonic thirds are major (5:4) and minor (6:5).--Glenn L (talk) 02:22, 17 August 2009 (UTC)

Assonant or consonant
I wonder if by "consonant", some authors mean "assonant". Only recently have I gotten the impression that these were synonyms. Brewhaha@edmc.net 06:57, 16 February 2007 (UTC)

 * Not sure how: assonance is literary term. --Jubilee♫ clipman  01:36, 8 December 2009 (UTC)

 * The short answer is "no". Perfect fourth is a musical term, see consonance and dissonance. Hyacinth (talk) 23:31, 8 December 2009 (UTC)

Please alter...
..."Specifically, it is considered consonant when heard in its most common position as detailed above; but dissonant when built upon a chord's root." Suppose we have 2 chords with identical notes, only the note that we consider the root is different. How does which note we consider the root affect the sound of the interval?? Georgia guy 16:38, 3 September 2006 (UTC)
 * You're right - it should have been the bass note, not the root. I've fixed it. (Mark - 03 September 2006)

Fact or Fict
User "Keenan Pepper" has asked for a citation regarding this edit. I'm not sure what that entails even after reading the Wiki page on citations. Is it enough to find a web site that confirms it independently? If so, this one does: http://www.ars-nova.com/cpmanual/dissonance.htm But I don't know who they are and whether their confirmation carries enough weight. Obviously if it was Groves there would be no argument. Anyway, what they say about the perfect fourth is: "The perfect fourth is unique among the intervals in that it is treated sometimes as a dissonance and sometimes as a consonance. When formed with the bass it is normally considered dissonant. There is a special case called the 'consonant fourth'". (Mark - 3 September 2006)

 * Interesting. I'm looking to arrange three melodies into one. It seems to me that if the first and last chords are either interesting or major, then the middle might work out nicely. Brewhaha@edmc.net 06:57, 16 February 2007 (UTC)

 * By the Wiki page on citations, do you mean Citation or Citing sources? I don't think the former would do you much good, but you should definitely read the latter. A manual for computer software (which is what is) is better than nothing, I guess, but I was thinking more along the lines of a music theory textbook or a scholarly paper by a music theorist. —Keenan Pepper 05:41, 4 September 2006 (UTC)

 * The web page cited might be scholarly, and I don't think paper is necessarily more authoritative than the web can be.

 * No - I don't have any sources to hand that are more authoritative than that one that deal with that specific point, and I only found that one via a Google search after you asked for a citation. I read the "citing sources" article after clicking on your "citation needed" link and I see there's a multitude of ways to do it. I'm not sure which is most appropriate. If you think that source is worthy enough, would you mind citing it for me? Then I'll know how to do it next time. If you think it's not authoritative enough, then just revert my edit (bearing in mind that the article was in error as pointed out by user "Georgia Guy"). Thanks (Mark - 4 September 2006)
 * I found a paper that seems more appropriate. Citing sources is easy: just put . I like to use templates like Cite journal and Cite book because I can't remember the correct punctuation, but they're not required. —Keenan Pepper 04:17, 5 September 2006 (UTC)
 * Thanks, Keenan. (Mark - 05 September 2006)

It is of course nice to hav some of both widely circulated materials and web pages for references. Keep in mind that trivia abounds in music, so finding paper for some things might be rather tricky. You might need to use the web, first. Brewhaha@edmc.net 06:57, 16 February 2007 (UTC)

The PDF link at the bottom doesn't work anymore (Thomas - 08 August 2008)

Why does the search for Diatessaron go directly to the religious page when it is primarily a musical term?
Why does the search for Diatessaron go directly to the religious page when it is primarily a musical term?

Before I searched Wikipedia, I had never seen the religious usage before. And that isn't what I was looking for.

The religious term is not the primary definition of Diatessaron, the musical one is. The term was first used several centuries before Christ, as a musical term, in pre-Christian classical ancient Greece.

The result page should show the different meanings in a disambiguation page. It is not helpful to direct people automatically to a secondary meaning (secondary both semantically and historically).

If anyone knows how to do this it is a good idea to fix this up and will prevent other people searching for music-historical information from being misdirected to a page about religion.

thanks —Preceding unsigned comment added by 58.175.172.24 (talk) 00:05, 26 February 2009 (UTC)

 * It's called archaic. It primarily was a musical term that has been replaced. Hyacinth (talk) 10:24, 10 January 2011 (UTC)

Additional citations
Where, why, and how does this article need additional citations? Hyacinth (talk) 21:06, 16 August 2009 (UTC)
 * Needed now... (see below) --Jubilee♫ clipman 22:47, 7 December 2009 (UTC)
 * Many unreferenced claims and paragraphs constituting Original Research are now marked individually.—Jerome Kohl (talk) 23:47, 10 September 2010 (UTC)
 * Such as? Hyacinth (talk) 10:23, 10 January 2011 (UTC)
 * Such as most of the first half of the section titled "Short history of the fourth", which is bristling with "citation needed" tags.—Jerome Kohl (talk) 17:17, 10 January 2011 (UTC)
 * Sorry, misread or misinterpreted. Hyacinth (talk) 01:08, 13 February 2012 (UTC)

Tag removed. Hyacinth (talk) 01:08, 13 February 2012 (UTC)

Added from quartal and quintal harmony
Much of the stuff over there was clearly better here so I've moved it and tidied up a little. Please don't move it back: this stuff has little relevence to quartal harmony. Refs needed and expansion of C20th stuff. --Jubilee♫ clipman 22:44, 7 December 2009 (UTC)

What makes a perfect interval perfect?
Looking at this sentence "The term perfect identifies this interval as belonging to the group of perfect intervals, so called because they are neither major nor minor (unlike thirds, which are either minor or major) but perfect", it seems to me this is just like saying that grass is green because it's neither red nor blue. In fact, we do know why grass is green, but I've never seen a definition of what makes an interval major, minor or perfect. Is there a simple definition? Mandolamus (talk) 23:48, 3 May 2013 (UTC)

Interlanguage link(s)
I've added Quarte_(musique) to the page as the only way I know of getting an interlanguage link to the equivalent article(-part) in the French Wikipedia to appear. I'm aware that this way of doing things has been superseded by some far more whizzy procedure. The trouble is: I don't know what it is! Can anyone point me to an idiot's guide explaining how I should be doing this? TIA -- Picapica (talk) 19:41, 4 May 2016 (UTC)

What is the complement of an interval?
The article states that the complement of a perfect fifth has a ratio of 3:4. But it doesn't say what that means, nor is the word "complement" found anywhere in the article Interval (music). What does it mean? -lethe talk [ +] 22:04, 17 November 2020 (UTC)
 * As I understand it, the complement of an interval is "the rest of an octave." In other words, stacking an interval and its complement make an octave. Another pair of complementary intervals is a third and a sixth, for example G4 to B4 and B4 to G5. Just plain Bill (talk) 22:39, 17 November 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Perfect fourth


text:
Pendolino

Pendolino (from Italian pendolo "pendulum", and -ino, a diminutive suffix) is an Italian family of high-speed tilting trains (and non-tilting) used in Italy, Spain, Germany, Poland, Portugal, Slovenia, Finland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia (Czech railways are operating) the UK, the US, Switzerland, China, and Greece. It was also used in Russia from December 12, 2010 until March 26, 2022. Based on the design of the Italian ETR 401 (itself utilising technologies developed for the British Rail APT-E), it was further developed and manufactured by Fiat Ferroviaria, which was taken over by Alstom in 2000.

The idea of a tilting train became popular in the 1960s and 1970s, when various rail operators, impressed by the high-speed rail services being introduced in France and Japan, wondered how they could similarly speed up travel without building a dedicated parallel rail network (as those two countries were doing). By tilting, the train could go around curves designed for slower trains at higher speeds without causing undue discomfort to passengers.

Italy
In Italy, various possibilities were explored (including one early design for fixed carriages with tilting seats). A number of prototypes were built and tested, including an automotrice (self-propelled) derived from ALn 668 diesel car and provided with tilting seats. The first working prototype using a tilting carbody was ETR Y 0160, an electrically powered car launched by Fiat in 1969. This was the first to be christened Pendolino.

It led to the construction of a whole EMU in 1975, the ETR 401, built in two units by FIAT. One was put into public service on 2 July 1976 on the Rome-Ancona (later extended to Rimini) line, operated by Italian State Railways. Between Roma and Ancona (km. 295) the train took 2 hours and 50 minutes while the ordinary trains took 3 hours and 30 minutes. The train had four cars and was mostly considered a travelling laboratory for the new technology. The second unit was adapted for service to the broad gauge Renfe Spanish lines. In 1982, FS retired the ETR 401 from service, due to high maintenance cost, and FIAT transformed it in a train-laboratory, to test the parts for the successor of the ETR 401, ETR 450. After 1988, the trainset went around Europe to demonstrate the greatness of the tilting revolutionary technology and between 1994 and 2001 it was utilised as a charter train. In 2001 the ETR 401 was put aside in Ancona and since 2013, to celebrate the 25th anniversary of the first official pendolino service, it has been partly restored.

On 29 May 1988, the ETR 450 became the first pendolino to enter in a high-speed regular service in the world. The project of the new train was similar to its predecessor, utilising many electronic parts, such as the chopper and the automatic gear. Characterized by a nine-car configuration, the 15 ETR 450 trainsets could run the Rome-Milan line in under four hours, at speeds up to 250 km/h, with a comfort level same as the best TEE's cars at the speed of 180 - 200 km/h. Passenger numbers increased from 220,000 in 1988 to 2.2million in 1993.

In 1994, the next generation, the ETR 460, styled by Giorgetto Giugiaro, began service. Though plagued by technical teething problems, the ETR 460 introduced several innovations, such as more powerful AC asynchronous motors. Further, the pistons actuating the anti-tilting action were placed in the bogie instead of on the carbody sides: this permitted the reorganisation of the vestibules and passenger compartment areas, improving comfort. The bogie-to-body connection is extremely simple and easy to make, with clear advantages for maintenance. ETR 460 keeps axle load to an extremely low level (14.5ton/axle) to allow the train to negotiate curves up to 35% faster than conventional intercity trains (loco plus coaches). The body, which exploits large aluminium extrusion technology, has substantial modularity and allows for extremely low axle weight, whilst fully respecting the highest safety standards, and allows the best exploitation of the space with different loading gauges.

Fiat Ferroviaria built only ten ETR 460 trainsets. Improved versions include nine ETR 470 built for the Italo-Swiss Cisalpino company and 15 ETR 480 / 485 used by Trenitalia under AC lines such as those in France and Switzerland. A total of 34 EMUs of the ETR 460/470/480 - 485 series were built.

Fiat Ferroviaria was sold to Alstom in 2000. The development of the Pendolino technology continued in Alstom's Italian factories and the next generation, the New Pendolino, was delivered to Trenitalia and Cisalpino, as the ETR 600 and the ETR 610, from 2006.

Spain
Even before the first Pendolino EMU was built in Italy, in 1972, Fiat and Renfe signed an agreement for cooperation in tilting-train development. The first fruit of the cooperation was the equipment of a Renfe Class 432 EMU with the active tilting suspension in September 1972. After successful tests, Spanish trainmaker CAF and Fiat built a prototype similar to the ETR 401, which was delivered in 1976 as Renfe Class 443, nicknamed Platanito (Little banana) for its yellow livery. The four-car train had a commercial top speed of 180 km/h and achieved a then speed record for Spain of 206 km/h on 6 May 1987. However, the train remained a unique specimen, as Renfe favoured the entirely domestic Talgo Pendular, a tilting train with passive suspension introduced in 1980. After revenue service in 1979–1982, the train was used for charter and test runs.

Two decades later, to speed up services along its Madrid-Valencia conventional line, Renfe ordered ten Pendolini in 1996. The trains, based on the ETR 460 and ETR 470, were delivered by a joint consortium of Fiat Ferroviaria and GEC-Alsthom from 1998 as Renfe Class 490. The three-car trains are suited for 220 km/h on Renfe's conventional lines electrified with 3 kV DC. The Class 490 took up the new Madrid-Valencia Alaris services in 1999. With growing demand, the capacity of the Class 490 was no longer sufficient, and from February 2008, the trains were transferred to the Corredor Mediterráneo line between Valencia and Barcelona. For medium-distance services along its high-speed lines, Renfe ordered a non-tilting variant of the Pendolino, based on the ETR 480, in 2001. The 20 four-car trains with a service top speed of 250 km/h were built jointly by Alstom and CAF and delivered as the Renfe Class 104. Renfe deployed them for the new Avant services along the Madrid–Seville high-speed rail line, starting 29 December 2004.

Renfe ordered another 30 non-tilting medium-distance high-speed trains from Alstom/CAF in a follow-on order, which was later reduced to 13 units. However, these trains are based on the New Pendolino design. The first train of the new class designated Renfe Class 114 was presented in autumn 2008. Most of them are used in services along the Madrid–Valladolid high-speed line.

Germany

The West German federal railways DB experimented with tilting technology in the 1970s, but abandoned it. Then in 1987, DB commissioned a study on whether electrification or purchasing diesel tilting trains would be the better option for the Nuremberg-Hof line, and decided for the latter. In 1988, DB ordered ten tilting DMUs, and another ten in 1990. All 20 trains of the new DB Class 610 were delivered in 1992. The two-car trains with a top speed of 160 km/h were produced by a consortium of five German companies and Fiat Ferroviaria. Fiat supplied the bogies, the hydraulic tilting suspension, and the other parts of the tilting technology, thus the trains could be called Pendolino (a Fiat trademarked brand name).

Deutsche Bahn ordered more regional and express tilting DMUs with other technology (class 611 and class 612: Adtranz/Bombardier, ICE TD/class 605: Siemens ). However, for the 230 km/h electric ICE T trains ordered in 1994 for service on conventional lines, Pendolino technology was chosen again. Fiat (Alstom) supplied the bogies and tilting technology for the 32 seven-car class 411 and 11 five-car class 415 express trains that entered service from 1999. In 2002, DB placed another order for slightly modified class 411 trains, Alstom Ferroviaria was again supplier of bogies and tilt technology when the 28 trains were delivered from 2004 to 2006.

Switzerland
Since the failure of Cisalpino, a joint venture between the Italian Trenitalia and the Swiss Federal Railways (SBB), the Pendolinos used for transalpine transport between Switzerland and Italy, on the Gotthard and Lötschberg axis routes, were split between Trenitalia (five ETR 470 and seven ETR 610) and SBB (four ETR 470 and seven ETR 610). The low reliability of the timetable and of the ETR 470 has led SBB and Trenitalia to always have a reserve train ready at each terminus of the Milan-Zürich route.

In 2012, SBB ordered eight new ETR 610 with delivery in 2015 to be operated on the routes Milan - Geneva and Milan - Zürich.

Finland

The Finnish model, the class Sm3, is based on the ETR 460 but was adapted to the specific requirements of VR Group (formerly the Finnish State Railways) and to the cold climatic conditions. The first two units were assembled in 1995 by Rautaruukki-Transtech. A total of sixteen additional units were purchased from Alstom and shipped to Finland between 2000 and 2006. Sm3 trains operate from Helsinki to the cities of Turku, Tampere, Jyväskylä, Oulu, Kouvola, Joensuu and Vaasa.

The trains are composed of six carriages. Four cars are fitted with two asynchronous three-phase AC motors (one for each bogie); two are unpowered but are fitted with pantographs. One of these coaches is a restaurant carriage. The motors deliver a continuous power of 4000 kW and propel the train at a maximum speed of 220 km/h.

The Sm3 has received a lot of bad publicity in Finland for its reliability issues, mostly caused by technical problems in cold weather with the tilting system and couplers. VR has tried to mitigate the problem by coupling trains only at termini instead of intermediate stations and switching the tilting system off during winter. The trains were expected to receive significant maintenance between 2012 and 2014, to improve reliability of couplers and the tilting system.

Portugal
In Portugal the Pendolino is named Alfa Pendular and is operated by the Portuguese state railway company CP. It connects the cities of Guimarães, Braga, Porto, Aveiro, Coimbra, Santarém, Lisbon, Albufeira and Faro, among others, and has a top speed of 220 km/h. The bogies had to be redesigned for operation on Portugal's broad gauge track, and the trains were assembled by Adtranz Portugal at the Amadora plant (former Sorefame). Main contractor was Fiat Ferroviaria later acquired by Alstom with two main subcontractors Adtranz and Siemens that was responsible for the traction and train control.

Ten six-car train sets were produced between 1998 and 2001, with commercial operation from early 1999. Based on the ETR 460 the Portuguese Pendolino differs mainly from its predecessor from the carbody width that takes advantage of the Iberian gauge.

Slovenia

Slovenian Railways ordered three Pendolino tilting trains for its main lines. The three-car trains, delivered as SŽ series 310, were derived from the ETR 460. The series 310 can reach a maximum speed of 200 km/h, but in revenue service on the Slovenian railway network, the maximum it reaches is 160 km/h between Maribor and Pragersko stations, as well as between Grobelno and Celje stations.

Since 24 September 2000, the series 310 runs the InterCitySlovenija (ICS) service, linking the major cities of Slovenia in one line: Ljubljana, Zidani Most, Celje and Maribor, with a frequent service that acts as a high-speed shuttle. Until April 2008, once per day the route from Maribor to Ljubljana was extended as international train to Venice via Monfalcone serving Trieste.

Train offers 1st and 2nd class and on-board bar. 1st Class offers leather seats in 1-2 configuration, 220 V Power Outlet (all seats), Wi-Fi, electric blind, recline (By moving lower part forward you may recline by 15"), every seat has a table which can be extended to (100 cm x 80 cm) for business meetings or eating, air conditioning outlet, reading light and wider seats (20 cm). 2nd Class offers plush seats in 2-2 configuration, 220 V power outlet (Some seats), Wi-Fi, electric blinds, foot rest (most seats), most have a tray table and some have a conference table which can extend to (100 cm x 80 cm) for working or eating, air conditioning outlet and a reading light.

United Kingdom

In 1999, 53 Class 390 Pendolinos were ordered by Virgin Trains West Coast to operate services on the West Coast Main Line in the United Kingdom. All were built by Alstom with the body shells built at its Savigliano factory in Italy and fitted out at its former Metro-Cammell factory in Washwood Heath in Birmingham, England.

Owing to cutbacks by Railtrack to the West Coast Main Line upgrade to provide in-cab signalling, these are limited in service to 125 mph operation rather than their 140 mph design speed.

In 2008, the Department for Transport announced that 31 of the existing nine-car sets would be lengthened to 11 cars to increase capacity. Four new 11-car sets were also to be built. The longer units required major infrastructure changes to allow stations and depots to accommodate the 11-car units. With the closure of the Washwood Heath works, the additional vehicles were manufactured at Savigliano. The first new sets were built with 11 cars and delivered in December 2010. The lengthening project was completed in December 2012.

In the early 1980s, British Rail had planned to bring tilting train technology to the same line with the Class 370 Advanced Passenger Train project. Technical problems caused by pressure to launch the service early and lack of the political will to provide sufficient funding to overcome them forced the abandonment of this early attempt, although much of the technology was used to design and build Pendolino trains.

On 23 February 2007, a Virgin Trains Pendolino train derailed in the Grayrigg rail crash, Virgin chairman Richard Branson credited the robust construction of the Pendolino with saving lives in the crash. Although only some carriages were damaged, the damage was beyond economical repair and the set was written off.

All remaining 56 sets passed to Avanti West Coast with the West Coast Partnership franchise in December 2019.

Czech Republic

In 1995 consortium consisting of ČKD, MSV Studénka, FIAT Ferroviaria and Siemens won tender for the construction of ten tilting trains for the Czech Railways ČD, intended for international service Berlin - Prague - Vienna. After ČKD bankruptcy in 2000, Alstom (as the new owner of FIAT Ferroviaria) took over whole order, reducing number of sets to seven and raising total price, while provided an improved version of ETR 470, equipped to work on, and 3,000VDC, thus suitable to operate in Germany, Austria, Slovakia and the Czech Republic. The first set was delivered in 2004 as Pendolino ČD 680. While testing between Brno and Břeclav on 18 November 2004, the Pendolino reached a speed of 237 km/h and created a new Czech railway speed record.

During the testing period, the train had problems with the Czech signalling system. The problems were said to be solved and the trains entered regular service in December 2005 between Prague and Ostrava. As of late January 2006, all five Czech Pendolino trains in service suffered from software and functional problems, which were later fixed, but the trains still did not receive permission to operate abroad. In December 2006, the trains were given permission to operate in Slovakia and Austria, but as of 2010 permission for Germany has not yet been granted.

A Czech Pendolino train appeared in the 2006 James Bond film Casino Royale and in Timur Bekmambetov's 2008 film Wanted starring Angelina Jolie.

Slovakia
Czech Railways ČD has been operating Pendolino as an international train between the Czech Republic and Slovakia for many years. At first it started operating trains from Prague to Bratislava in December 2005 and later also trains from Prague to Košice in December 2014. The connection to Bratislava ended in 2015.

Poland
Polish state railways PKP ordered 14 Pendolinos in 1998, but the order was cancelled in 2000 due to a shortage of funds.

In 2010, Alstom won a PKP Intercity tender for high-speed trains with an offer of 20 New Pendolino trains. Similarly to the CRH5, these are non-tilting. Like the ČD class 680, the Pendolinos are equipped to operate on 15kV 16·7 Hz and 25kV 50 Hz as well as 3kVDC for operation in Poland, and have the train control systems needed to operate in Germany, Austria and the Czech Republic. However, certification for international operation is not seen as a priority, as the trains are restricted to domestic services for an initial ten years under the terms of a grant from the EU Cohesion Fund which covered 22% of the project cost.

On 30 May 2011 the Polish state railways PKP signed an agreement with Alstom for 20 Pendolinos ETR 610 for delivery in 2014. The first Pendolino was delivered on 12 August 2013. Each seven-car Class ED250 trainset has seats for 57 first class and 345 second class passengers, with a buffet/bar and three four-seat business or family compartments. The Pendolinos were to operate on the high-speed CMK Central Rail Line from Kraków/Katowice to Warsaw, and on the routes from Gdynia to Warsaw and from Wrocław to Warsaw.

High speed tests using the new Pendolino ED250 on the CMK Central Rail Line began in November 2013. On the first day of tests, 16 November, the Pendolino reached 242 km/h. On 17 November 2013, a new speed record for Polish railways was set at km 184.000 of Polish Line No. 4 when Pendolino ED250 reached a speed of 291 km/h, breaking the 19-year record of 250.1 km/h. On 24 November 2013, the final day of tests on the CMK Central Rail Line the Pendolino reached 293 km/h.

The contract between the Polish operator PKP Intercity and Alstom called for the first eight Pendolino ED250 trainsets to be delivered on 6 May 2014, tested ('homologated') for operation at 250 km/h using ETCS L2 signalling. The tests had not been performed by May, and PKP announced that Alstom had failed to meet the contract terms and would be charged penalties as of 6 May. Alstom responded that homologation in Poland at 250 km/h using ETCS L2 was impossible, since ETCS L2 was not operational anywhere in Poland, and the Central Rail Line (Poland) where the first ED250 Pendolino had reached 293 km/h in testing was equipped with ETCS Level 1, not Level 2. On 26 June 2014, a compromise was reached between PKP and Alstom under which the Pendolinos would be delivered under a two-stage homologation, first homologated for operation using ETCS Level 1 and eventually to be homologated for ETCS Level 2. The Pendolinos were put in service on 14 December 2014.

In addition to the Central Rail Line from Warsaw to Kraków and Katowice, and from Warsaw to Wrocław, the Pendolinos also operate on the 350 km route from Warsaw to Gdańsk and Gdynia on the Baltic Sea. In 2011-2015 the Warsaw-Gdańsk-Gdynia route underwent a major upgrading costing $3billion, partly funded by the European Investment Bank, including track replacement, realignment of curves and relocation of sections of track to allow speeds up to 200 km/h, and modernization of stations. Installation of ETCS L2 was under way in 2016. When Pendolino services started on 14 December 2014 the previous Warsaw–Gdańsk rail travel time of 4-1/2 to 6hours was reduced to 2hours 58minutes by Pendolino, and reduced further to 2hours 39minutes in December 2015.

Introduction of the fast, modern Pendolinos in December 2014, had a major effect on rail ridership in Poland. In the first five months of 2015, Warsaw–Kraków rail ridership rose by 50 percent. In May 2015 alone, Warsaw–Kraków ridership was 70 percent higher than a year earlier.

After the initial delays Polish Pendolinos were upgraded to provide the access to wireless internet. As of September 2021, all 19 trainsets actually operating have got the equipment installed.

China

China Railway High-speed (CRH) purchased technologies from Alstom to assemble 60 sets of high speed EMU trains, which have been named CRH5 and are based on the New Pendolino trains. The CRH5 are non-tilting trains. Thirty additional sets were ordered in 2009 and 20 additional sets was ordered in 2010 to complete the current fleet operating on China's northern and eastern lines.

United States
In August 2016, Amtrak and Alstom unveiled the new Avelia Liberty that will take passengers between Washington, D.C., and Boston as part of a Northeast Corridor rehabilitation project starting in 2021, replacing the aged Acela Express. The train has safety features that comply with Federal Railroad Administration standards, along with greater comfort, more capacity, built in Wi-Fi, Tiltronix, and with speeds up to 180 mph.

Greece

In 2019, Greek railway operator company TrainOSE, a subsidiary of Italian company Ferrovie dello Stato Italiane, purchased 5 ETR 470 high-speed trains, previously used on Frecciabianca railway services in Italy, to be deployed on the Athens-Thessaloniki high-speed railway. The trains originally had 3 kV DC equipment, which was replaced by 25 kV 50 Hz equipment, to match Greek railway standards and were fitted with ETCS onboard equipment. The first unit arrived in Greece in January 2021. Express passenger services started in early 2022 on the Athens-Thessaloniki mainline.

Russia

Karelian Trains, a 50-50 joint venture between Finnish VR and Russian Railways, operated four 1522 mm gauge seven-car Pendolinos for use on 220 km/h Saint Petersburg–Helsinki services. Branded Allegro (Аллегро). Service started on December 12, 2010, reducing travel time between the cities from five and a half hours to three and a half hours at first and later to three hours. The bogies are specially constructed to allow for 220 km/h speed both at the Finnish gauge and the Russian gauge.

The service between Helsinki, Finland, and St. Petersburg, Russia, was suspended on March 27, 2022, as per VR's announcement that operating a connection between Russia and Finland no longer served a purpose due to the Russo-Ukrainian conflict.

On December 14, 2023, the Finnish VR announced that it had acquired ownership of the Allegro equipment from Karelian Trains and will move the Allegro trains to domestic service away from serving cross-border connections between Finland and Russia. This marked the end of the use of Pendolino trains in Russia. According to VR's assessment, the former Allegro trains will enter service on domestic Finnish routes approximately in 2025 after undergoing repairs.

Cancelled orders
In 1998, CFR of Romania announced its intent to order two Pendolinos by the end of the year, and wanted to sign another agreement about the local production of 19 more units under a license agreement the next year. However, these plans were not followed up.

In 2002, ZSSK of Slovakia considered purchasing four Pendolinos, in close cooperation with ČD of the Czech Republic. The trains were to run as ZSSK class 650. This project was given up in 2004 for lack of funds.

The Ukrainian Railways announced its intent to buy seven Pendolinos for the UEFA Euro 2012 in 2008, but failed to secure the financing later on. Consequentially, in 2011, ten South Korean-built HRCS2 trains were later purchased by Ukraine.

title: Pendolino


text:
ZNetwork

ZNetwork, formerly known as Z Communications, is a left-wing activist-oriented media group founded in 1986 by Michael Albert and Lydia Sargent. It is, in broad terms, ideologically libertarian socialist, anti-capitalist, and heavily influenced by participatory economics, although much of its content is focused on critical commentary of foreign affairs. Its publications include Z Magazine, ZNet, and Z Video. Since early November 2022, they have all been regrouped under the name ZNetwork.

History
Zeta Magazine was founded by Michael Albert and Lydia Sargent in 1987, both of whom had previously co-founded South End Press. It was renamed Z Magazine in 1989.

Founded in 1994, Z Media Institute provides classes and other sessions in how to start and produce alternative media, how to better understand media, and how to develop organising skills. The institute has hosted Stephen Shalom presentations on parpolity a number of times.

Founded in 1995, ZNet (also known as ZNet, ZNetwork and Z Communications) is a website with contributors that include Noam Chomsky, Eduardo Galeano, Boris Kagarlitsky, Edward Said, Chris Spannos and Kevin Zeese. John Pilger has described it as one of the best news sources online. Rene Milan of the Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies called the site a rich source of information about participism.

Publications and authors
Z Magazine is published in print and on-line monthly. Contributors to the magazine have included Patrick Bond Noam Chomsky,, Ward Churchill, Alexander Cockburn, Edward S. Herman, bell hooks, Mike Kuhlenbeck, Staughton Lynd, John Ross, Juliet Schor, Holly Sklar, Cornel West, Kevin Zeese and  Howard Zinn. Articles written by Chomsky have been republished in the New Statesman.

Criticism
In a 2005 interview with Joshua Frank, Ward Churchill discussed issues he had with Z Magazine. Churchill claimed an article he worked on was not published for two years and was misattributed. He also felt Albert and Sargent had greater influence than others involved with the publication.

In 2012, George Monbiot criticized the site's defence of the book The Politics of Genocide by Edward S. Herman and David Peterson, which he said had been called a work of genocide denial by scholars he had consulted such as Martin Shaw.

title: ZNetwork


text:
Game tree

In the context of combinatorial game theory, which typically studies sequential games with perfect information, a game tree is a graph representing all possible game states within such a game. Such games include well-known ones such as chess, checkers, Go, and tic-tac-toe. This can be used to measure the complexity of a game, as it represents all the possible ways a game can pan out. Due to the large game trees of complex games such as chess, algorithms that are designed to play this class of games will use partial game trees, which makes computation feasible on modern computers. Various methods exist to solve game trees. If a complete game tree can be generated, a deterministic algorithm, such as backward induction or retrograde analysis can be used. Randomized algorithms and minmax algorithms such as MCTS can be used in cases where a complete game tree is not feasible.

Understanding the game tree
To better understand the game tree, it can be thought of as a technique for analyzing adversarial games, which determine the actions that player takes to win the game. In game theory, a game tree is a directed graph whose nodes are positions in a game (e.g., the arrangement of the pieces in a board game) and whose edges are moves (e.g., to move pieces from one position on a board to another).

The complete game tree for a game is the game tree starting at the initial position and containing all possible moves from each position; the complete tree is the same tree as that obtained from the extensive-form game representation. To be more specific, the complete game is a norm for the game in game theory. Which can clearly express many important aspects. For example, the sequence of actions that stakeholders may take, their choices at each decision point, information about actions taken by other stakeholders when each stakeholder makes a decision, and the benefits of all possible game results.

The diagram shows the first two levels, or plies, in the game tree for tic-tac-toe. The rotations and reflections of positions are equivalent, so the first player has three choices of move: in the center, at the edge, or in the corner. The second player has two choices for the reply if the first player played in the center, otherwise five choices. And so on.

The number of leaf nodes in the complete game tree is the number of possible different ways the game can be played. For example, the game tree for tic-tac-toe has 255,168 leaf nodes.

Game trees are important in artificial intelligence because one way to pick the best move in a game is to search the game tree using any of numerous tree search algorithms, combined with minimax-like rules to prune the tree. The game tree for tic-tac-toe is easily searchable, but the complete game trees for larger games like chess are much too large to search. Instead, a chess-playing program searches a partial game tree: typically as many plies from the current position as it can search in the time available. Except for the case of "pathological" game trees (which seem to be quite rare in practice), increasing the search depth (i.e., the number of plies searched) generally improves the chance of picking the best move.

Two-person games can also be represented as and-or trees. For the first player to win a game, there must exist a winning move for all moves of the second player. This is represented in the and-or tree by using disjunction to represent the first player's alternative moves and using conjunction to represent all of the second player's moves.

Deterministic algorithm version

With a complete game tree, it is possible to "solve" the game – that is to say, find a sequence of moves that either the first or second player can follow that will guarantee the best possible outcome for that player (usually a win or a tie). The deterministic algorithm (which is generally called backward induction or retrograde analysis) can be described recursively as follows.

 * 1) Color the final ply of the game tree so that all wins for player 1 are colored one way (Blue in the diagram), all wins for player 2 are colored another way (Red in the diagram), and all ties are colored a third way (Grey in the diagram).
 * 2) Look at the next ply up. If there exists a node colored opposite as the current player, color this node for that player as well.  If all immediately lower nodes are colored for the same player, color this node for the same player as well.  Otherwise, color this node a tie.
 * 3) Repeat for each ply, moving upwards, until all nodes are colored. The color of the root node will determine the nature of the game.

The diagram shows a game tree for an arbitrary game, colored using the above algorithm.

It is usually possible to solve a game (in this technical sense of "solve") using only a subset of the game tree, since in many games a move need not be analyzed if there is another move that is better for the same player (for example alpha-beta pruning can be used in many deterministic games).

Any subtree that can be used to solve the game is known as a decision tree, and the sizes of decision trees of various shapes are used as measures of game complexity.

Randomized algorithms version
Randomized algorithms can be used in solving game trees. There are two main advantages in this type of implementation: speed and practicality. Whereas a deterministic version of solving game trees can be done in $Ο(n)$, the following randomized algorithm has an expected run time of $θ(n^{0.792})$ if every node in the game tree has degree 2. Moreover, it is practical because randomized algorithms are capable of "foiling an enemy", meaning an opponent cannot beat the system of game trees by knowing the algorithm used to solve the game tree because the order of solving is random.

The following is an implementation of randomized game tree solution algorithm:

The algorithm makes use of the idea of "short-circuiting": if the root node is considered an "OR" operator, then once one True is found, the root is classified as True; conversely, if the root node is considered an "AND" operator then once one False is found, the root is classified as False.

title: Game tree


text: User:Taeateh

title: User:Taeateh


text:
User talk:Taeateh

X

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Xxxxxx. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Xxxxxx~enwiki that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name. If you think you might own all of the accounts with this name and this message is in error, please visit Special:MergeAccount to check and attach all of your accounts to prevent them from being renamed.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 03:28, 20 March 2015 (UTC)

Proposed deletion of Psychic workers

The article Psychic workers has been proposed for deletion because of the following concern: "no such thing/.the refs are totally unreliable"

While all constructive contributions to Wikipedia are appreciated, pages may be deleted for any of several reasons.

You may prevent the proposed deletion by removing the notice, but please explain why in your edit summary or on the article's talk page.

Please consider improving the page to address the issues raised. Removing will stop the proposed deletion process, but other deletion processes exist. In particular, the speedy deletion process can result in deletion without discussion, and articles for deletion allows discussion to reach consensus for deletion.  DGG ( talk ) 09:20, 3 February 2018 (UTC)

Alexander Kan moved to draftspace
An article you recently created, Alexander Kan, does not have enough sources and citations as written to remain published. It needs more citations from reliable, independent sources. (?) Information that can't be referenced should be removed (verifiability is of central importance on Wikipedia). I've moved your draft to draftspace (with a prefix of " " before the article title) where you can incubate the article with minimal disruption. When you feel the article meets Wikipedia's general notability guideline and thus is ready for mainspace, please click on the "Submit your draft for review!" button at the top of the page. KartikeyaS (talk ) 08:47, 24 March 2020 (UTC)

Speedy deletion nomination of Katya Kan

A tag has been placed on Katya Kan requesting that it be speedily deleted from Wikipedia. This has been done under section A7 of the criteria for speedy deletion, because the article appears to be about a real person or group of people that does not credibly indicate how or why the subject is important or significant: that is, why an article about that subject should be included in an encyclopedia. Under the criteria for speedy deletion, such articles may be deleted at any time. Please read more about what is generally accepted as notable.

If you think this page should not be deleted for this reason, you may contest the nomination by visiting the page and clicking the button labelled "Contest this speedy deletion". This will give you the opportunity to explain why you believe the page should not be deleted. However, be aware that once a page is tagged for speedy deletion, it may be deleted without delay. Please do not remove the speedy deletion tag from the page yourself, but do not hesitate to add information in line with Wikipedia's policies and guidelines. If the page is deleted, and you wish to retrieve the deleted material for future reference or improvement, then please contact the. KartikeyaS (talk ) 08:48, 24 March 2020 (UTC)

Speedy deletion nomination of Katya Kan

A tag has been placed on Katya Kan requesting that it be speedily deleted from Wikipedia. This has been done under section A7 of the criteria for speedy deletion, because the article appears to be about a real person or group of people that does not credibly indicate how or why the subject is important or significant: that is, why an article about that subject should be included in an encyclopedia. Under the criteria for speedy deletion, such articles may be deleted at any time. Please read more about what is generally accepted as notable.

If you think this page should not be deleted for this reason, you may contest the nomination by visiting the page and clicking the button labelled "Contest this speedy deletion". This will give you the opportunity to explain why you believe the page should not be deleted. However, be aware that once a page is tagged for speedy deletion, it may be deleted without delay. Please do not remove the speedy deletion tag from the page yourself, but do not hesitate to add information in line with Wikipedia's policies and guidelines. If the page is deleted, and you wish to retrieve the deleted material for future reference or improvement, then please contact the. Kart2409 (talk) 05:40, 25 March 2020 (UTC)

Your draft article, Draft:Alexander Kan

Hello, Taeateh. It has been over six months since you last edited the Articles for Creation submission or Draft page you started, "Alexander Kan".

In accordance with our policy that Wikipedia is not for the indefinite hosting of material deemed unsuitable for the encyclopedia mainspace, the draft has been nominated for deletion. If you plan on working on it further, or editing it to address the issues raised if it was declined, simply and remove the, , or  code.

If your submission has already been deleted by the time you get there, and you wish to retrieve it, you can request its undeletion by following the instructions at this link. An administrator will, in most cases, restore the submission so you can continue to work on it.

Thank you for your submission to Wikipedia! UnitedStatesian (talk) 16:13, 30 November 2020 (UTC)

Your draft article, Draft:Alexander Kan

Hello, Taeateh. It has been over six months since you last edited the Articles for Creation submission or Draft page you started, "Alexander Kan".

In accordance with our policy that Wikipedia is not for the indefinite hosting of material deemed unsuitable for the encyclopedia mainspace, the draft has been deleted. If you plan on working on it further and you wish to retrieve it, you can request its undeletion. An administrator will, in most cases, restore the submission so you can continue to work on it.

Thanks for your submission to Wikipedia, and happy editing. Liz Read! Talk! 16:20, 30 May 2021 (UTC)

title: User talk:Taeateh


text:
Astronomical seeing

In astronomy, seeing is the degradation of the image of an astronomical object due to turbulence in the atmosphere of Earth that may become visible as blurring, twinkling or variable distortion. The origin of this effect is rapidly changing variations of the optical refractive index along the light path from the object to the detector. Seeing is a major limitation to the angular resolution in astronomical observations with telescopes that would otherwise be limited through diffraction by the size of the telescope aperture. Today, many large scientific ground-based optical telescopes include adaptive optics to overcome seeing.

The strength of seeing is often characterized by the angular diameter of the long-exposure image of a star (seeing disk) or by the Fried parameter r0. The diameter of the seeing disk is the full width at half maximum of its optical intensity. An exposure time of several tens of milliseconds can be considered long in this context. The Fried parameter describes the size of an imaginary telescope aperture for which the diffraction limited angular resolution is equal to the resolution limited by seeing. Both the size of the seeing disc and the Fried parameter depend on the optical wavelength, but it is common to specify them for 500 nanometers. A seeing disk smaller than 0.4 arcseconds or a Fried parameter larger than 30 centimeters can be considered excellent seeing. The best conditions are typically found at high-altitude observatories on small islands, such as those at Mauna Kea or La Palma.

Effects

Astronomical seeing has several effects:
 * 1) It causes the images of point sources (such as stars), which in the absence of atmospheric turbulence would be steady Airy patterns produced by diffraction, to break up into speckle patterns, which change very rapidly with time (the resulting speckled images can be processed using speckle imaging)
 * 2) Long exposure images of these changing speckle patterns result in a blurred image of the point source, called a seeing disc
 * 3) The brightness of stars appears to fluctuate in a process known as scintillation or twinkling
 * 4) Atmospheric seeing causes the fringes in an astronomical interferometer to move rapidly
 * 5) The distribution of atmospheric seeing through the atmosphere (the CN2 profile described below) causes the image quality in adaptive optics systems to degrade the further you look from the location of reference star

The effects of atmospheric seeing were indirectly responsible for the belief that there were canals on Mars. In viewing a bright object such as Mars, occasionally a still patch of air will come in front of the planet, resulting in a brief moment of clarity. Before the use of charge-coupled devices, there was no way of recording the image of the planet in the brief moment other than having the observer remember the image and draw it later. This had the effect of having the image of the planet be dependent on the observer's memory and preconceptions which led the belief that Mars had linear features.

The effects of atmospheric seeing are qualitatively similar throughout the visible and near infrared wavebands. At large telescopes the long exposure image resolution is generally slightly higher at longer wavelengths, and the timescale (t0 - see below) for the changes in the dancing speckle patterns is substantially lower.

Measures
There are three common descriptions of the astronomical seeing conditions at an observatory:
 * The full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the seeing disc
 * r0 (the size of a typical "lump" of uniform air within the turbulent atmosphere ) and t0 (the time-scale over which the changes in the turbulence become significant)
 * The CN2 profile

These are described in the sub-sections below:

The full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the seeing disc
Without an atmosphere, a small star would have an apparent size, an "Airy disk", in a telescope image determined by diffraction and would be inversely proportional to the diameter of the telescope. However, when light enters the Earth's atmosphere, the different temperature layers and different wind speeds distort the light waves, leading to distortions in the image of a star. The effects of the atmosphere can be modeled as rotating cells of air moving turbulently. At most observatories, the turbulence is only significant on scales larger than r0 (see below—the seeing parameter r0 is 10–20 cm at visible wavelengths under the best conditions) and this limits the resolution of telescopes to be about the same as given by a space-based 10–20 cm telescope.

The distortion changes at a high rate, typically more frequently than 100 times a second. In a typical astronomical image of a star with an exposure time of seconds or even minutes, the different distortions average out as a filled disc called the "seeing disc". The diameter of the seeing disk, most often defined as the full width at half maximum (FWHM), is a measure of the astronomical seeing conditions.

It follows from this definition that seeing is always a variable quantity, different from place to place, from night to night, and even variable on a scale of minutes. Astronomers often talk about "good" nights with a low average seeing disc diameter, and "bad" nights where the seeing diameter was so high that all observations were worthless.

The FWHM of the seeing disc (or just "seeing") is usually measured in arcseconds, abbreviated with the symbol (″). A 1.0″ seeing is a good one for average astronomical sites. The seeing of an urban environment is usually much worse. Good seeing nights tend to be clear, cold nights without wind gusts. Warm air rises (convection), degrading the seeing, as do wind and clouds. At the best high-altitude mountaintop observatories, the wind brings in stable air which has not previously been in contact with the ground, sometimes providing seeing as good as 0.4".

r0 and t0
The astronomical seeing conditions at an observatory can be conveniently described by the parameters r0 and t0.

For telescopes with diameters smaller than r0, the resolution of long-exposure images is determined primarily by diffraction and the size of the Airy pattern and thus is inversely proportional to the telescope diameter.

For telescopes with diameters larger than r0, the image resolution is determined primarily by the atmosphere and is independent of telescope diameter, remaining constant at the value given by a telescope of diameter equal to r0. r0 also corresponds to the length-scale over which the turbulence becomes significant (10–20 cm at visible wavelengths at good observatories), and t0 corresponds to the time-scale over which the changes in the turbulence become significant. r0 determines the spacing of the actuators needed in an adaptive optics system, and t0 determines the correction speed required to compensate for the effects of the atmosphere.

The parameters r0 and t0 vary with the wavelength used for the astronomical imaging, allowing slightly higher resolution imaging at longer wavelengths using large telescopes.

The seeing parameter r0 is often known as the Fried parameter, named after David L. Fried. The atmospheric time constant t0 is often referred to as the Greenwood time constant, after Darryl Greenwood.

Mathematical description of r0 and t0

Mathematical models can give an accurate model of the effects of astronomical seeing on images taken through ground-based telescopes. Three simulated short-exposure images are shown at the right through three different telescope diameters (as negative images to highlight the fainter features more clearly—a common astronomical convention). The telescope diameters are quoted in terms of the Fried parameter $$r_{0}$$ (defined below). $$r_{0}$$ is a commonly used measurement of the astronomical seeing at observatories. At visible wavelengths, $$r_{0}$$ varies from 20 cm at the best locations to 5 cm at typical sea-level sites.

In reality, the pattern of blobs (speckles) in the images changes very rapidly, so that long-exposure photographs would just show a single large blurred blob in the center for each telescope diameter. The diameter (FWHM) of the large blurred blob in long-exposure images is called the seeing disc diameter, and is independent of the telescope diameter used (as long as adaptive optics correction is not applied).

It is first useful to give a brief overview of the basic theory of optical propagation through the atmosphere. In the standard classical theory, light is treated as an oscillation in a field $$\psi$$. For monochromatic plane waves arriving from a distant point source with wave-vector $$\mathbf{k}$$: $$ \psi_{0} \left(\mathbf{r},t\right) = A_{u} e^{i\left (\phi_{u} + 2\pi\nu t + \mathbf{k}\cdot\mathbf{r} \right )} $$ where $$\psi_{0}$$ is the complex field at position $$\mathbf{r}$$ and time $$t$$, with real and imaginary parts corresponding to the electric and magnetic field components, $$\phi_{u}$$ represents a phase offset, $$\nu$$ is the frequency of the light determined by $\nu = \frac{1}{\pi} c\left | \mathbf{k} \right | $, and $$A_{u}$$ is the amplitude of the light.

The photon flux in this case is proportional to the square of the amplitude $$A_{u}$$, and the optical phase corresponds to the complex argument of $$\psi_{0}$$. As wavefronts pass through the Earth's atmosphere they may be perturbed by refractive index variations in the atmosphere. The diagram at the top-right of this page shows schematically a turbulent layer in the Earth's atmosphere perturbing planar wavefronts before they enter a telescope. The perturbed wavefront $$\psi_{p}$$ may be related at any given instant to the original planar wavefront $$\psi_{0}\left(\mathbf{r}\right)$$ in the following way: $$ \psi_{p} \left(\mathbf{r}\right) = \left ( \chi_{a} \left(\mathbf{r}\right) e^{i\phi_{a} \left(\mathbf{r}\right)}\right ) \psi_{0} \left(\mathbf{r}\right) $$ where $$\chi_{a} \left(\mathbf{r}\right)$$ represents the fractional change in wavefront amplitude and $$\phi_{a} \left(\mathbf{r}\right)$$ is the change in wavefront phase introduced by the atmosphere. It is important to emphasise that $$\chi_{a} \left(\mathbf{r}\right)$$ and $$\phi_{a} \left(\mathbf{r}\right)$$ describe the effect of the Earth's atmosphere, and the timescales for any changes in these functions will be set by the speed of refractive index fluctuations in the atmosphere.

The Kolmogorov model of turbulence
A description of the nature of the wavefront perturbations introduced by the atmosphere is provided by the Kolmogorov model developed by Tatarski, based partly on the studies of turbulence by the Russian mathematician Andrey Kolmogorov. This model is supported by a variety of experimental measurements and is widely used in simulations of astronomical imaging. The model assumes that the wavefront perturbations are brought about by variations in the refractive index of the atmosphere. These refractive index variations lead directly to phase fluctuations described by $$\phi_{a} \left(\mathbf{r}\right)$$, but any amplitude fluctuations are only brought about as a second-order effect while the perturbed wavefronts propagate from the perturbing atmospheric layer to the telescope. For all reasonable models of the Earth's atmosphere at optical and infrared wavelengths the instantaneous imaging performance is dominated by the phase fluctuations $$\phi_{a} \left(\mathbf{r}\right)$$. The amplitude fluctuations described by $$\chi_{a} \left(\mathbf{r}\right)$$ have negligible effect on the structure of the images seen in the focus of a large telescope.

For simplicity, the phase fluctuations in Tatarski's model are often assumed to have a Gaussian random distribution with the following second-order structure function: $$ D_{\phi_{a}}\left(\mathbf{\rho} \right) = \left \langle \left | \phi_{a} \left ( \mathbf{r} \right ) - \phi_{a} \left ( \mathbf{r} + \mathbf{\rho} \right ) \right | ^{2} \right \rangle _{\mathbf{r}} $$ where $$D_{\phi_{a}} \left ({\mathbf{\rho}} \right )$$ is the atmospherically induced variance between the phase at two parts of the wavefront separated by a distance $$\boldsymbol{\rho}$$ in the aperture plane, and $$\langle\cdot\rangle$$ represents the ensemble average.

For the Gaussian random approximation, the structure function of Tatarski (1961) can be described in terms of a single parameter $$r_{0}$$: $$ D_{\phi_{a}} \left ({\mathbf{\rho}} \right ) = 6.88 \left ( \frac{\left | \mathbf{\rho} \right |}{r_{0}} \right ) ^{5/3} $$ $$r_{0}$$ indicates the strength of the phase fluctuations as it corresponds to the diameter of a circular telescope aperture at which atmospheric phase perturbations begin to seriously limit the image resolution. Typical $$r_{0}$$ values for I band (900 nm wavelength) observations at good sites are 20–40 cm. $$r_{0}$$ also corresponds to the aperture diameter for which the variance $$\sigma ^{2}$$ of the wavefront phase averaged over the aperture comes approximately to unity: $$\sigma ^{2}=1.0299 \left ( \frac{d}{r_{0}} \right )^{5/3}$$

This equation represents a commonly used definition for $$r_{0}$$, a parameter frequently used to describe the atmospheric conditions at astronomical observatories.

$$r_{0}$$ can be determined from a measured CN2 profile (described below) as follows: $$r_{0}=\left ( 16.7\lambda^{-2}( \cos \gamma )^{-1}\int_{0}^{\infty} C_{N}^{2}(h) dh \right )^{-3/5}$$ where the turbulence strength $$C_{N}^{2}(h)$$ varies as a function of height $$h$$ above the telescope, and $$\gamma$$ is the angular distance of the astronomical source from the zenith (from directly overhead).

If turbulent evolution is assumed to occur on slow timescales, then the timescale t0 is simply proportional to r0 divided by the mean wind speed.

The refractive index fluctuations caused by Gaussian random turbulence can be simulated using the following algorithm: $$\phi_a (\mathbf{r})=\mbox{Re}[\mbox{FT}[R(\mathbf{k})K(\mathbf{k})]]$$ where $$\phi_a(\mathbf{r})$$ is the optical phase error introduced by atmospheric turbulence, R (k) is a two-dimensional square array of independent random complex numbers which have a Gaussian distribution about zero and white noise spectrum, K (k) is the (real) Fourier amplitude expected from the Kolmogorov (or Von Karman) spectrum, Re[] represents taking the real part, and FT[] represents a discrete Fourier transform of the resulting two-dimensional square array (typically an FFT).

Turbulent intermittency
The assumption that the phase fluctuations in Tatarski's model have a Gaussian random distribution is usually unrealistic. In reality, turbulence exhibits intermittency.

These fluctuations in the turbulence strength can be straightforwardly simulated as follows: $$\phi_a (\mathbf{r})=\operatorname{Re}[\mbox{FT}[(R(\mathbf{k})\otimes I(\mathbf{k}))K(\mathbf{k})]]$$ where $I(k)$ is a two-dimensional array which represents the spectrum of intermittency, with the same dimensions as $R(k)$, and where $$ \otimes $$ represents convolution. The intermittency is described in terms of fluctuations in the turbulence strength $$C_n^2$$. It can be seen that the equation for the Gaussian random case above is just the special case from this equation with: $$I (k) = \delta (|k|)$$ where $$\delta$$ is the Dirac delta function.

The $C2 n$ profile
A more thorough description of the astronomical seeing at an observatory is given by producing a profile of the turbulence strength as a function of altitude, called a $$C_n^2$$ profile. $$C_n^2$$ profiles are generally performed when deciding on the type of adaptive optics system which will be needed at a particular telescope, or in deciding whether or not a particular location would be a good site for setting up a new astronomical observatory. Typically, several methods are used simultaneously for measuring the $$C_n^2$$ profile and then compared. Some of the most common methods include:
 * 1) SCIDAR (imaging the shadow patterns in the scintillation of starlight)
 * 2) LOLAS (a small-aperture variant of SCIDAR designed for low-altitude profiling)
 * 3) SLODAR
 * 4) MASS
 * 5) MooSci (11-channel lunar scintillometer for ground level profiling)
 * 6) RADAR mapping of turbulence
 * 7) Balloon-borne thermometers to measure how quickly the air temperature is fluctuating with time due to turbulence
 * 8) V2 Precision Data Collection Hub (PDCH) with differential temperature sensors use to measure atmospheric turbulence

There are also mathematical functions describing the $$C_n^2$$ profile. Some are empirical fits from measured data and others attempt to incorporate elements of theory. One common model for continental land masses is known as Hufnagel-Valley after two workers in this subject.

Mitigation

The first answer to this problem was speckle imaging, which allowed bright objects with simple morphology to be observed with diffraction-limited angular resolution. Later came space telescopes, such as NASA's Hubble Space Telescope, working outside the atmosphere and thus not having any seeing problems and allowing observations of faint targets for the first time (although with poorer resolution than speckle observations of bright sources from ground-based telescopes because of Hubble's smaller telescope diameter). The highest resolution visible and infrared images currently come from imaging optical interferometers such as the Navy Prototype Optical Interferometer or Cambridge Optical Aperture Synthesis Telescope, but those can only be used on very bright stars.

Starting in the 1990s, many telescopes have developed adaptive optics systems that partially solve the seeing problem. The best systems so far built, such as SPHERE on the ESO VLT and GPI on the Gemini telescope, achieve a Strehl ratio of 90% at a wavelength of 2.2 micrometers, but only within a very small region of the sky at a time. A wider field of view can be obtained by using multiple deformable mirrors conjugated to several atmospheric heights and measuring the vertical structure of the turbulence, in a technique known as Multiconjugate Adaptive Optics.

Another cheaper technique, lucky imaging, has had good results on smaller telescopes. This idea dates back to pre-war naked-eye observations of moments of good seeing, which were followed by observations of the planets on cine film after World War II. The technique relies on the fact that every so often the effects of the atmosphere will be negligible, and hence by recording large numbers of images in real-time, a 'lucky' excellent image can be picked out. This happens more often when the number of r0-size patches over the telescope pupil is not too large, and the technique consequently breaks down for very large telescopes. It can nonetheless outperform adaptive optics in some cases and is accessible to amateurs. It does require very much longer observation times than adaptive optics for imaging faint targets, and is limited in its maximum resolution.

title: Astronomical seeing