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Joseph Brodsky

Iosif Aleksandrovich Brodsky (Иосиф Александрович Бродский ; 24 May 1940 – 28 January 1996) was a Russian and American poet and essayist. Born in Leningrad (now Saint Petersburg) in the Soviet Union, Brodsky ran afoul of Soviet authorities and was expelled ("strongly advised" to emigrate) from the Soviet Union in 1972, settling in the United States with the help of W. H. Auden and other supporters. He taught thereafter at Mount Holyoke College, and at universities including Yale, Columbia, Cambridge, and Michigan. Brodsky was awarded the 1987 Nobel Prize in Literature "for an all-embracing authorship, imbued with clarity of thought and poetic intensity". He was appointed United States Poet Laureate in 1991.

According to Professor Andrey Ranchin of Moscow State University, "Brodsky is the only modern Russian poet whose body of work has already been awarded the honorary title of a canonized classic... Brodsky's literary canonization is an exceptional phenomenon. No other contemporary Russian writer has been honored as the hero of such a number of memoir texts; no other has had so many conferences devoted to them." Daniel Murphy, in his seminal text Christianity and Modern European Literature, includes Brodsky among the most influential Christian poets of the 20th century, along with T. S. Eliot, Osip Mandelstam, Anna Akhmatova (Brodsky's mentor for a time), and W. H. Auden (who sponsored Brodsky's cause in the United States). Irene Steckler was the first to categorically state that Brodsky was "unquestionably a Christian poet". Before that, in July 1972, following his exile, Brodsky himself, in an interview, said: "While I am related to the Old Testament perhaps by ancestry, and certainly the spirit of justice, I consider myself a Christian. Not a good one but I try to be." The contemporary Russian poet and fellow-Acmeist, Viktor Krivulin, said that "Brodsky always felt his Jewishness as a religious thing, despite the fact that, when all is said and done, he's a Christian poet."

Early years
Brodsky was born into a Russian Jewish family in Leningrad (now Saint Petersburg). A descendant of a prominent and ancient rabbinic family, Schorr (Shor) his direct male-line ancestor was Joseph ben Isaac Bekhor Shor. His father, Aleksandr Brodsky, was a professional photographer in the Soviet Navy, and his mother, Maria Volpert Brodskaya, a professional interpreter whose work often helped to support the family. They lived in communal apartments, in poverty, marginalized by their Jewish status. In early childhood, Brodsky survived the Siege of Leningrad where he and his parents nearly died of starvation; one aunt did die of hunger. He later developed various health problems caused by the siege. Brodsky commented that many of his teachers were anti-Jewish and that he felt like a dissident from an early age. He noted "I began to despise Lenin, even when I was in the first grade, not so much because of his political philosophy or practice ... but because of his omnipresent images."

As a young student, Brodsky was "an unruly child" known for his misbehavior during classes. At fifteen, Brodsky left school and tried to enter the School of Submariners without success. He went on to work as a milling machine operator. Later, having decided to become a physician, he worked at the morgue at the Kresty Prison, cutting and sewing bodies. He subsequently held a variety of jobs in hospitals, in a ship's boiler room, and on geological expeditions. At the same time, Brodsky engaged in a program of self-education. He learned Polish so he could translate the works of Polish poets such as Czesław Miłosz, and English so that he could translate John Donne. On the way, he acquired a deep interest in classical philosophy, religion, mythology, and English and American poetry.

Early career
In 1955, Brodsky began writing his own poetry and producing literary translations. He circulated them in secret, and some were published by the underground journal, Sintaksis (Syntax, Си́нтаксис). His writings were apolitical. By 1958 he was already well known in literary circles for his poems "The Jewish cemetery near Leningrad" and "Pilgrims". Asked when he first felt called to poetry, he recollected, "In 1959, in Yakutsk, when walking in that terrible city, I went into a bookstore. I snagged a copy of poems by Baratynsky. I had nothing to read. So I read that book and finally understood what I had to do in life. Or got very excited, at least. So in a way, Evgeny Abramovich Baratynsky is sort of responsible." His friend, Ludmila Shtern (Людмила Яковлевна Штерн, Ljudmíla Jákovlevna Štern), recalled working with Brodsky on an irrigation project in his "geological period" (working as a geologist's assistant): "We bounced around the Leningrad Province examining kilometers of canals, checking their embankments, which looked terrible. They were falling down, coming apart, had all sorts of strange things growing in them... It was during these trips, however, that I was privileged to hear the poems "The Hills" and "You Will Gallop in the Dark". Brodsky read them aloud to me between two train cars as we were going towards Tikhvin." In 1960, the young Brodsky met Anna Akhmatova, one of the leading poets of the silver age. She encouraged his work, and became his mentor. In 1962, in Leningrad, Anna Akhmatova introduced him to the artist Marina Basmanova, a young painter from an established artistic family who was drawing Akhmatova's portrait. The two started a relationship; however, Brodsky's then close friend and fellow poet, Dmitri Bobyshev, was in love with Basmanova. As Bobyshev began to pursue the woman, immediately, the authorities began to pursue Brodsky; Bobyshev was widely held responsible for denouncing him. Brodsky dedicated much love poetry to Marina Basmanova:

Denunciation
In 1963, Brodsky's poetry was denounced by a Leningrad newspaper as "pornographic and anti-Soviet". His papers were confiscated, he was interrogated, twice put in a mental institution and then arrested. He was charged with social parasitism by the Soviet authorities in a trial in 1964, finding that his series of odd jobs and role as a poet were not a sufficient contribution to society. They called him "a pseudo-poet in velveteen trousers" who failed to fulfill his "constitutional duty to work honestly for the good of the motherland". The trial judge asked, "Who has recognized you as a poet? Who has enrolled you in the ranks of poets?" – "No one", Brodsky replied, "Who enrolled me in the ranks of the human race?"

For his "parasitism" Brodsky was sentenced to five years hard labor and served 18 months on a farm in the village of Norenskaya, in the Archangelsk region, 350 miles from Leningrad. He rented his own small cottage, and although it was without plumbing or central heating, having one's own, private space was taken to be a great luxury at the time. Basmanova, Bobyshev, and Brodsky's mother, among others, visited. He wrote on his typewriter, chopped wood, hauled manure, and at night read his anthologies of English and American poetry, including a lot of W. H. Auden and Robert Frost. Brodsky's close friend and biographer Lev Loseff writes that while his confinement in the mental hospital and the trial were miserable experiences, the 18 months in the Arctic were among the best times of Brodsky's life. Brodsky's mentor, Anna Akhmatova, laughed at the KGB's shortsightedness. "What a biography they're fashioning for our red-haired friend!", she said. "It's as if he'd hired them to do it on purpose."

Brodsky's sentence was commuted in 1965 after protests by prominent Soviet and foreign cultural figures, including Evgeny Evtushenko, Dmitri Shostakovich, and Jean-Paul Sartre as well as Akhmatova. Brodsky became a cause célèbre in the West also, when a secret transcription of trial minutes was smuggled out of the country, making him a symbol of artistic resistance in a totalitarian society, much like his mentor, Akhmatova.

His son, Andrei, was born on 8 October 1967, and Basmanova broke off the relationship. Andrei was registered under Basmanova's surname because Brodsky did not want his son to suffer from the political attacks that he endured. Marina Basmanova was threatened by the Soviet authorities, which prevented her from marrying Brodsky or joining him when he was exiled from the country. After the birth of their son, Brodsky continued to dedicate love poetry to Basmanova. In 1989, Brodsky wrote his last poem to "M.B.", describing himself remembering their life in Leningrad:

Brodsky returned to Leningrad in December 1965 and continued to write over the next seven years, many of his works being translated into German, French, and English and published abroad. Verses and Poems was published by Inter-Language Literary Associates in Washington in 1965, Elegy to John Donne and Other Poems was published in London in 1967 by Longmans Green, and A Stop in the Desert was issued in 1970 by Chekhov Publishing in New York. Only four of his poems were published in Leningrad anthologies in 1966 and 1967, most of his work appearing outside the Soviet Union or circulated in secret (samizdat) until 1987. Persecuted for his poetry and his Jewish heritage, he was denied permission to travel. In 1972, while Brodsky was being considered for exile, the authorities consulted mental health expert Andrei Snezhnevsky, a key proponent of the notorious pseudo-medical diagnosis of "paranoid reformist delusion". This political tool allowed the state to lock up dissenters in psychiatric institutions indefinitely. Without examining him personally, Snezhnevsky diagnosed Brodsky as having "sluggishly progressing schizophrenia", concluding that he was "not a valuable person at all and may be let go". In 1971, Brodsky was invited twice to emigrate to Israel. When called to the Ministry of the Interior in 1972 and asked why he had not accepted, he stated that he wished to stay in the country. Within ten days officials broke into his apartment, took his papers, and on 4 June 1972, put him on a plane for Vienna, Austria. He never returned to Russia and never saw Basmanova again. Brodsky later wrote "The Last Judgement is the Last Judgement, but a human being who spent his life in Russia, has to be, without any hesitation, placed into Paradise."

In Austria, he met Carl Ray Proffer and Auden, who facilitated Brodsky's transit to the United States and proved influential to Brodsky's career. Proffer, of the University of Michigan and one of the co-founders of Ardis Publishers, became Brodsky's Russian publisher from this point on. Recalling his landing in Vienna, Brodsky commented:

"I knew I was leaving my country for good, but for where, I had no idea whatsoever. One thing which was quite clear was that I didn't want to go to Israel... I never even believed that they'd allow me to go. I never believed they would put me on a plane, and when they did I didn't know whether the plane would go east or west... I didn't want to be hounded by what was left of the Soviet Security Service in England. So I came to the States."

Although the poet was invited back after the fall of the Soviet Union, Brodsky never returned to his country.

United States
After a short stay in Vienna, Brodsky settled in Ann Arbor, with the help of poets Auden and Proffer, and became poet-in-residence at the University of Michigan for a year. Brodsky went on to become a visiting professor at Queens College (1973–74), Smith College, Columbia University, and Cambridge University, later returning to the University of Michigan (1974–80). He was the Andrew Mellon Professor of Literature and Five College Professor of Literature at Mount Holyoke College, brought there by poet and historian Peter Viereck. In 1978, Brodsky was awarded an honorary degree of Doctor of Letters at Yale University, and on 23 May 1979, he was inducted as a member of the American Academy and Institute of Arts and Letters. He moved to New York's Greenwich Village in 1980 and in 1981 received the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation "genius" award. He was also a recipient of The International Center in New York Award of Excellence. In 1986, his collection of essays, Less Than One, won the National Book Critics Award for Criticism and he was given an honorary doctorate of literature from Oxford University.

In 1987, he won the Nobel Prize for Literature, the fifth Russian-born writer to do so. In an interview he was asked: "You are an American citizen who is receiving the Prize for Russian-language poetry. Who are you, an American or a Russian?" "I'm Jewish; a Russian poet, an English essayist – and, of course, an American citizen", he responded. The academy stated that they had awarded the prize for his "all-embracing authorship, imbued with clarity of thought and poetic intensity". It also called his writing "rich and intensely vital", characterized by "great breadth in time and space". It was "a big step for me, a small step for mankind", he joked. The prize coincided with the first legal publication in Russia of Brodsky's poetry as an exilé.

In 1991, Brodsky became Poet Laureate of the United States. The Librarian of Congress said that Brodsky had "the open-ended interest of American life that immigrants have. This is a reminder that so much of American creativity is from people not born in America." His inauguration address was printed in Poetry Review. Brodsky held an honorary degree from the University of Silesia in Poland and was an honorary member of the International Academy of Science. In 1995, Gleb Uspensky, a senior editor at the Russian publishing house, Vagrius, asked Brodsky to return to Russia for a tour, but he could not agree. For the last ten years of his life, Brodsky was under considerable pressure from those that regarded him as a "fortune maker". He was a greatly honored professor, was on first name terms with the heads of many large publishing houses and connected to the significant figures of American literary life. His friend Ludmila Shtern wrote that many Russian intellectuals in both Russia and America assumed his influence was unlimited, that a nod from him could secure them a book contract, a teaching post or a grant, that it was in his gift to assure a glittering career. A helping hand or a rejection of a petition for help could create a storm in Russian literary circles, which Shtern suggests became very personal at times. His position as a lauded émigré and Nobel Prize winner won him enemies and stoked resentment, the politics of which, she writes, made him feel "deathly tired" of it all toward the end.

In 1990, while teaching literature in France, Brodsky married a young student, Maria Sozzani, who has a Russian-Italian background; they had one daughter, Anna Brodsky, born in 1993.

Marina Basmanova lived in fear of the Soviet authorities until the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991; only after this was their son Andrei Basmanov allowed to join his father in New York. In the 1990s, Brodsky invited Andrei to visit him in New York for three months and they maintained a father-son relationship until Brodsky's death. Andrei married in the 1990s and had three children, all of whom were recognized and supported by Brodsky as his grandchildren; Marina Basmanova, Andrei, and Brodsky's grandchildren all live in Saint Petersburg, Russia. Andrei gave readings of his father's poetry in a documentary about Brodsky. The film contains Brodsky's poems dedicated to Marina Basmanova and written between 1961 and 1982.

Brodsky died of a heart attack aged 55, at his apartment in Brooklyn Heights, a neighborhood of Brooklyn, a borough of New York City, on 28 January 1996. He had open-heart surgery in 1979 and later two bypass operations, remaining in frail health following that time. He was buried in a non-Catholic section of the San Michele cemetery in Venice, Italy, also the resting place of Ezra Pound and Igor Stravinsky. In 1997, a plaque was placed on his former house in St. Petersburg, with his portrait in relief and the words "In this house from 1940 to 1972 lived the great Russian poet, Iosif Aleksandrovich Brodsky". Brodsky's close friend, the Nobel laureate Derek Walcott, memorialized him in his collection The Prodigal, in 2004.

Work
Brodsky is perhaps most known for his poetry collections, A Part of Speech (1977) and To Urania (1988), and the essay collection, Less Than One (1986), which won the National Book Critics Circle Award. Other notable works include the play, Marbles (1989), and Watermark (1992), a prose meditation on Venice. Throughout his career he wrote in Russian and English, self-translating and working with eminent poet-translators.

Themes and forms
In his introduction to Brodsky's Selected Poems (New York and Harmondsworth, 1973), W. H. Auden described Brodsky as a traditionalist lyric poet fascinated by "encounters with nature, ... reflections upon the human condition, death, and the meaning of existence". He drew on wide-ranging themes, from Mexican and Caribbean literature to Roman poetry, mixing "the physical and the metaphysical, place and ideas about place, now and the past and the future". Critic Dinah Birch suggests that Brodsky's " first volume of poetry in English, Joseph Brodsky: Selected Poems (1973), shows that although his strength was a distinctive kind of dry, meditative soliloquy, he was immensely versatile and technically accomplished in a number of forms."

To Urania: Selected Poems 1965–1985 collected translations of older work with new work written during his American exile and reflect on themes of memory, home, and loss. His two essay collections consist of critical studies of such poets as Osip Mandelshtam, W.H. Auden, Thomas Hardy, Rainer Maria Rilke and Robert Frost, sketches of his own life, and those of contemporaries such as Akhmatova, Nadezhda Mandelshtam, and Stephen Spender.

A recurring theme in Brodsky's writing is the relationship between the poet and society. In particular, Brodsky emphasized the power of literature to affect its audience positively and to develop the language and culture in which it is situated. He suggested that the Western literary tradition was in part responsible for the world having overcome the catastrophes of the twentieth century, such as Nazism, Communism, and two World Wars. During his term as Poet Laureate, Brodsky promoted the idea of bringing the Anglo-American poetic heritage to a wider American audience by distributing free poetry anthologies to the public through a government-sponsored program. Librarian of Congress James Billington wrote:

"Joseph had difficulty understanding why poetry did not draw the large audiences in the United States that it did in Russia. He was proud of becoming an American citizen in 1977 (the Soviets having made him stateless upon his expulsion in 1972) and valued the freedoms that life in the United States provided. But he regarded poetry as 'language's highest degree of maturity', and wanted everyone to be susceptible to it. As Poet Laureate, he suggested that inexpensive anthologies of the best American poets be made available in hotels and airports, hospitals and supermarkets. He thought that people who are restless or fearful or lonely or weary might pick up poetry and discover unexpectedly that others had experienced these emotions before and had used them to celebrate life rather than escape from it. Joseph's idea was picked up, and thousands of such books have in fact been placed where people may come across them out of need or curiosity."

This passion for promoting the seriousness and importance of poetry comes through in Brodsky's opening remarks as the U.S. Poet Laureate in October 1991. He said, "By failing to read or listen to poets, society dooms itself to inferior modes of articulation, those of the politician, the salesman or the charlatan. ... In other words, it forfeits its own evolutionary potential. For what distinguishes us from the rest of the animal kingdom is precisely the gift of speech. ... Poetry is not a form of entertainment and in a certain sense not even a form of art, but it is our anthropological, genetic goal, our evolutionary, linguistic beacon." This sentiment is echoed throughout his work. In interview with Sven Birkerts in 1979, Brodsky reflected:

"In the works of the better poets you get the sensation that they're not talking to people any more, or to some seraphical creature. What they're doing is simply talking back to the language itself, as beauty, sensuality, wisdom, irony, those aspects of language of which the poet is a clear mirror. Poetry is not an art or a branch of art, it's something more. If what distinguishes us from other species is speech, then poetry, which is the supreme linguistic operation, is our anthropological, indeed genetic, goal. Anyone who regards poetry as an entertainment, as 'a read', commits an anthropological crime, in the first place, against himself."

Influences
Librarian of Congress Dr James Billington, wrote:

"He was the favored protégé of the great lady of Petersburg, Anna Akhmatova, and to hear him read her poems in Russian in the Library of Congress was an experience to make one's hair stand on end even if one did not understand the Russian language. Joseph Brodsky was the embodiment of the hopes not only of Anna Akhmatova, the last of the great Petersburg poets from the beginning of the century, but also Nadezhda Mandelstam, the widow of another great martyred poet Osip Mandelstam. Both of them saw Joseph as part of the guiding light that might some day lead Russia back to her own deep roots."

Brodsky also was deeply influenced by the English metaphysical poets from John Donne to Auden. Many works were dedicated to other writers such as Tomas Venclova, Octavio Paz, Robert Lowell, Derek Walcott, and Benedetta Craveri.

Brodsky's work is seen to have been vitally enhanced by the work of renowned translators. A Part of Speech (New York and Oxford, 1980), his second major collection in English, includes translations by Anthony Hecht, Howard Moss, Derek Walcott, and Richard Wilbur. Critic and poet Henri Cole notes that Brodsky's "own translations have been criticized for turgidness, lacking a native sense of musicality."

After the Russian annexation of Crimea in 2014, Brodsky's controversial poem On the Independence of Ukraine (Russian: На независимость Украины) from the early 1990s (which he did not publish but publicly recited) was repeatedly picked up by state-affiliated Russian media and declared Poem of the Year. The Estate of Joseph Brodsky was subsequently prosecuting some websites publishing the poem, demanding its removal.

Awards and honors

 * 1978 – Honorary degree of Doctor of Letters, Yale University
 * 1979 – Fellowship of American Academy and Institute of Arts and Letters
 * 1981 – John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation award
 * 1986 – Honorary doctorate of literature from Oxford University
 * The International Center in New York's Award of Excellence
 * 1986 – National Book Critics Award for Criticism, for Less Than One (essay collection)
 * 1987 – Nobel Prize
 * 1989 – Honorary doctorate from the University of Essex
 * 1989 – Honorary degree from Dartmouth College
 * 1991 – honorary doctorate from the Faculty of Humanities at Uppsala University, Sweden
 * 1991 – United States Poet Laureate
 * 1991 – Struga Poetry Evenings Golden Wreath Award
 * 1993 – Honorary degree from the University of Silesia in Poland
 * Honorary member of the International Academy of Science, Munich

Poetry collections

 * 1967: Elegy for John Donne and Other Poems, selected, translated, and introduced by Nicholas William Bethell, London: Longman
 * 1968: Velka elegie, Paris: Edice Svedectvi
 * 1972: Poems, Ann Arbor, Michigan: Ardis
 * 1973: Selected Poems, translated from the Russian by George L. Kline. New York: Harper & Row
 * 1977: A Part of Speech
 * 1977: Poems and Translations, Keele: University of Keele
 * 1980: A Part of Speech, New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux
 * 1981: Verses on the Winter Campaign 1980, translation by Alan Myers.–London: Anvil Press
 * 1988: To Urania: Selected Poems, 1965–1985, New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux
 * 1995: On Grief and Reason: Essays, New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux
 * 1996: So Forth: Poems, New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux
 * 1999: Discovery, New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux
 * 2000: Collected Poems in English, 1972–1999, edited by Ann Kjellberg, New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux
 * 2001: Nativity Poems, translated by Melissa Green–New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux
 * 2020: Selected Poems, 1968-1996, edited by Ann Kjellberg, New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux

Essay and interview collections

 * 1986: Less Than One: Selected Essays, New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux. (Winner of the National Book Critics Circle Award)
 * 1992: Watermark, Noonday Press; New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, reflecting the writer's love affair with Venice, where he stayed at least 20 times.
 * 1995: On Grief and Reason: Essays. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
 * 2003: Joseph Brodsky: Conversations, edited by Cynthia L. Haven. Jackson, Miss.: University Press of Mississippi Literary Conversations Series.

Plays

 * 1989: Marbles : a Play in Three Acts, translated by Alan Myers with Joseph Brodsky.–New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux
 * 1991: Democracy! in Granta 30 New Europe, translated by Alan Myers and Joseph Brodsky.

In film

 * 2008 – A Room And A Half (Полторы комнаты или сентиментальное путешествие на родину, Poltory komnaty ili sentimental'noe puteshestvie na rodinu), feature film directed by Andrei Khrzhanovsky; a fictionalized account of Brodsky's life.
 * 2015 – Brodsky is not a Poet (Бродский не поэт, Brodskiy ne poet), documentary film by Ilia Belov on Brodsky's stay in the States.
 * 2018 – Dovlatov (Довлатов), biographical film about writer Sergei Dovlatov (who was Joseph Brodsky's friend) directed by Aleksei German-junior; film is set in 1971 in Leningrad shortly before Brodsky's emigration and Brodsky plays an important role.

In music
The 2011 contemporary classical album Troika includes Eskender Bekmambetov's critically acclaimed, song cycle "there ...", set to five of Joseph's Brodsky's Russian-language poems and his own translations of the poems into English. Victoria Poleva wrote Summer music (2008), a chamber cantata based on the verses by Brodsky for violin solo, children choir and Strings and Ars moriendi (1983–2012), 22 monologues about death for soprano and piano (two monologues based on the verses by Brodsky ("Song" and "Empty circle").

Collections in Russian

 * 1965: Stikhotvoreniia i poemy, Washington, D.C. : Inter-Language Literary Associates
 * 1970: Ostanovka v pustyne, New York: Izdatel'stvo imeni Chekhova (Rev. ed. Ann Arbor, Mich.: Ardis, 1989)
 * 1977: Chast' rechi: Stikhotvoreniia 1972–76, Ann Arbor, Mich.: Ardis
 * 1977: Konets prekrasnoi epokhi : stikhotvoreniia 1964–71, Ann Arbor, Mich.: Ardis
 * 1977: V Anglii, Ann Arbor, Mich.: Ardis
 * 1982: Rimskie elegii, New York: Russica
 * 1983: Novye stansy k Avguste : stikhi k M.B., 1962–1982, Ann Arbor, Mich.: Ardis
 * 1984: Mramor, Ann Arbor, Mich.: Ardis
 * 1984: Uraniia : Novaia kniga stikhov, Ann Arbor, Mich.: Ardis
 * 1989: Ostanovka v pustyne, revised edition, Ann Arbor, Mich.: Ardis, 1989 (original edition: New York: Izdatel'stvo imeni Chekhova, 1970)
 * 1990: Nazidanie : stikhi 1962–1989, Leningrad : Smart
 * 1990: Chast' rechi : Izbrannye stikhi 1962–1989, Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia literatura
 * 1990: Osennii krik iastreba : Stikhotvoreniia 1962–1989, Leningrad: KTP LO IMA Press
 * 1990: Primechaniia paporotnika, Bromma, Sweden : Hylaea
 * 1991: Ballada o malen'kom buksire, Leningrad: Detskaia literatura
 * 1991: Kholmy : Bol'shie stikhotvoreniia i poemy, Saint Petersburg: LP VTPO "Kinotsentr"
 * 1991: Stikhotvoreniia, Tallinn: Eesti Raamat
 * 1992: Naberezhnaia neistselimykh: Trinadtsat' essei, Moscow: Slovo
 * 1992: Rozhdestvenskie stikhi, Moscow: Nezavisimaia gazeta (revised edition in 1996)
 * 1992–1995: Sochineniia, Saint Petersburg: Pushkinskii fond, 1992–1995, four volumes
 * 1992: Vspominaia Akhmatovu / Joseph Brodsky, Solomon Volkov, Moscow: Nezavisimaia gazeta
 * 1992: Forma vremeni : stikhotvoreniia, esse, p'esy, Minsk: Eridan, two volumes
 * 1993: Kappadokiia.–Saint Petersburg
 * 1994: Persian Arrow/Persidskaia strela, with etchings by Edik Steinberg.–Verona: * Edizione d'Arte Gibralfaro & ECM
 * 1995: Peresechennaia mestnost ': Puteshestviia s kommentariiami, Moscow: Nezavisimaia gazeta
 * 1995: V okrestnostiakh Atlantidy : Novye stikhotvoreniia, Saint Petersburg: Pushkinskii fond
 * 1996: Peizazh s navodneniem, compiled by Aleksandr Sumerkin.–Dana Point, Cal.: Ardis
 * 1996: Rozhdestvenskie stikhi, Moscow: Nezavisimaia gazeta, revised edition of a work originally published in 1992
 * 1997: Brodskii o Tsvetaevoi, Moscow: Nezavisimaia gazeta
 * 1998: Pis'mo Goratsiiu, Moscow: Nash dom
 * 1996 and after: Sochineniia, Saint Petersburg: Pushkinskii fond, eight volumes
 * 1999: Gorbunov i Gorchakov, Saint Petersburg: Pushkinskii fond
 * 1999: Predstavlenie : novoe literaturnoe obozrenie, Moscow
 * 2000: Ostanovka v pustyne, Saint Petersburg: Pushkinskii fond
 * 2000: Chast' rechi, Saint Petersburg: Pushkinskii fond
 * 2000: Konets prekrasnoi epokhi, Saint Petersburg: Pushkinskii fond
 * 2000: Novye stansy k Avguste, Saint Petersburg: Pushkinskii fond
 * 2000: Uraniia, Saint Petersburg: Pushkinskii fond
 * 2000: Peizazh s navodneniem, Saint Petersburg: Pushkinskii fond
 * 2000: Bol'shaia kniga interv'iu, Moscow: Zakharov
 * 2001: Novaia Odisseia : Pamiati Iosifa Brodskogo, Moscow: Staroe literaturnoe obozrenie
 * 2001: Peremena imperii : Stikhotvoreniia 1960–1996, Moscow: Nezavisimaia gazeta
 * 2001: Vtoroi vek posle nashei ery : dramaturgija Iosifa Brodskogo, Saint Petersburg: Zvezda

General sources

 * Loseff, Lev (2010) Joseph Brodsky: a Literary Life, Yale University Press (New Haven, CT)
 * Speh, Alice J (1996) The Poet as Traveler: Joseph Brodsky in Mexico and Rome, Peter Lang (New York, NY)
 * Volkov, Solomon (1998) Conversations with Joseph Brodsky: A Poet's Journey Through the 20th Century, translated by Marian Schwartz, The Free Press, (New York, NY)
 * Volkov, Solomon (1998) Conversations with Joseph Brodsky: A Poet's Journey Through the 20th Century, translated by Marian Schwartz, The Free Press, (New York, NY)

title: Joseph Brodsky


text:
No Code

No Code is the fourth studio album by the American rock band Pearl Jam, released on August 27, 1996, through Epic Records. Following a troubled tour for its previous album, Vitalogy (1994), in which Pearl Jam engaged in a much-publicized boycott of Ticketmaster, the band went into the studio to record its follow-up. The music on the record was more diverse than what the band had done on previous releases, incorporating elements of garage rock and worldbeat.

Although No Code debuted at number one on the Billboard 200, making it Pearl Jam's third consecutive number one album, it left a large section of the band's fanbase unsatisfied and quickly fell down the charts. Critical reviews were also mixed, with praise to the musical variety but criticism to the album's inconsistency. The album became the first Pearl Jam album to not reach multi-platinum status, receiving a single platinum certification by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in the United States.

Recording
For its fourth album, Pearl Jam again worked with producer Brendan O'Brien, with whom they had worked on predecessors Vs. (1993) and Vitalogy (1994). No Code was the band's first album with drummer Jack Irons, who had joined the band as Vitalogy was being completed. Following the summer U.S. leg of the band's Vitalogy Tour, the band began work on No Code at the Chicago Recording Company studios in Chicago for a week in July 1995 during the infamous Chicago heat wave. During a break in a string of make-up dates for the 1995 tour the band went into the studio for a week-long session in New Orleans, Louisiana, where the band recorded "Off He Goes". The rest of the recording took place in the first half of 1996 in Seattle at Studio Litho, which is owned by guitarist Stone Gossard. The album was then mixed by O'Brien at his mixing facility at Southern Tracks in Atlanta.

The sessions for the album began with strife and tension. Bassist Jeff Ament was not made aware that the band was recording until three days into the sessions, and said that he "wasn't super involved with that record on any level". Guitarist Mike McCready said, "I'm sure Jeff was pissed, but it was more about separating, because if we played all together nothing would get done. We'd all just get pissed off at each other." At one point Ament even walked out of the recording sessions, and considered quitting the band due to lead vocalist Eddie Vedder's control of the creation process. Due to Pearl Jam balancing recording and touring, Irons commented that the band was "more on-the-fly during the making of No Code, and some good things happened out of that, but we were also really tired. It was difficult to tour and play these shows that were two or three hours long and then force ourselves to produce something in a studio."

McCready said that a lot of the songs were developed out of jam sessions, and said "I think we kind of rushed it a little bit." Ament said that the band members would bring in fragments of songs, and it would take hours before Vedder could have music to which he could add vocals. He added that "Ed's typically the guy who finishes off the songs...But by the end of No Code, he was so burnt, it was so much work for him." The band's mood had gotten better by the time the album was finished, and the bandmembers gave credit for this to Irons. Regarding Irons, O'Brien stated that "everybody was on their best musical behavior around him." McCready said that Irons urged the band members to discuss their problems, and called him "a big spiritual influence, if not the biggest." Vedder said, "Making No Code was all about gaining perspective." Commenting upon the sessions as a whole, O'Brien said, "It was really a transitional record. We had a good time making it."

Outtakes
Two outtakes from the recording sessions ended up as B-sides, "Black, Red, Yellow" on the "Hail, Hail" single, and "Dead Man", which was originally intended for the film Dead Man Walking, on "Off He Goes". Both songs were included on the 2003 Lost Dogs collection of rarities, along with four other tracks from the No Code sessions, two of which ended up on compilations – "Leaving Here", which appeared on Home Alive, and "Gremmie Out of Control", featured on Music for Our Mother Ocean Vol. 1. The other rejected songs were "All Night" and "Don't Gimme No Lip". "Olympic Platinum", written by the album's mixer Nick DiDia around the time of the 1996 Summer Olympics, was recorded by the band and released on its 1996 fan club Christmas single.

Music and lyrics
While Vitalogy had shifted away from the earlier albums' accessible compositions and polished production, No Code represented a deliberate break from Ten's stadium sound, favoring experimental ballads and noisy garage rock songs. It stood out with its emphasis on subtle harmony ("Off He Goes"), Eastern influences ("Who You Are"), and spoken word ("I'm Open"). Irons lends a tribal drum sound on the songs "Who You Are" and "In My Tree". Irons stated, "To turn my drum music into a song is pretty challenging, but the guys have been really supportive of me doing it, and we've worked some things into a few songs." Vedder said, "We realized that we had an opportunity to experiment." David Browne of Entertainment Weekly stated that "No Code displays a wider range of moods and instrumentation than on any previous Pearl Jam album."

The lyrical themes on the album deal with issues of spirituality, morality, and self-examination. Vedder said, "I think there's a little self-examination in those songs, something that a lot of my friends are going through too, as they approach 30." Ament said, "In some ways, it's like the band's story. It's about growing up." The lyrics of "Hail, Hail" refer to two people in a troubled relationship struggling to hold it together. Vedder has said that he wrote the song "Off He Goes" about himself and how he is a "shit friend", adding, "I'll show up and everything's great and then all of the sudden I'm outta there..." "Lukin" is about the "pretty intense stalker problem" Vedder faced during the mid-1990s. "Around the Bend" was written by Vedder as a lullaby that Irons could sing to his son.

The lyrics to "Smile" are taken from a note that Dennis Flemion of The Frogs hid inside Vedder's notebook while he was onstage performing. The words used in the note are taken from the Frogs songs "This Is How I Feel" and "Now I Wanna Be Dead". Flemion is given credit in the vinyl, but the credit is absent from the CD version. The lyrics to "Red Mosquito" were inspired by the events surrounding Pearl Jam's June 24, 1995, concert at San Francisco's Golden Gate Park, which happened on the same day Vedder was hospitalized due to food poisoning. Vedder only made it through seven songs and the band was forced to cancel the remaining dates of the short tour that it was on. For the first time on a Pearl Jam album, a band member other than Vedder contributed lyrics, with Gossard writing the lyrics to "Mankind". Gossard also sang lead vocals on the track.

Packaging and title
The album package consists of 156 Polaroid photos that unfold into a 2×2 square. The Polaroid photos are seemingly random. One of the photos featured on the front cover is the eyeball of Dennis Rodman, former Chicago Bulls player and friend of the band, while another photo is of Vedder's foot after he had been stung by a stingray. The pictures, when viewed from afar, blend to form the No Code triangle/eyeball logo that is the theme throughout the album. Later pressings of the CD featured a 1x4 format packaging, losing the hidden message effect. The CD and vinyl came with lyrics printed on the back of replica Polaroids. Only nine Polaroids came in a set, (with a catalog number Suffix of 'C' 'O' 'D' or 'E')leaving one to have to obtain another set to accumulate all thirteen songs.

When discussing the album's title, Vedder said "it's called No Code because it's full of code. It's misinformation." In medical terminology, a "no code" order is a medical order to withhold CPR on a patient. It is also known as a "do not resuscitate" order. In another interview, Vedder said that "if the record is a complete failure you've kind of owned up to it in a subliminal way. No Code was the same thing. For me, No Code meant 'Do Not Resuscitate'."

Tour
Pearl Jam promoted the album with tours in North America and Europe in the fall of 1996. The short tour of North America focused on the East Coast of the United States. As with Vitalogy, very little touring was done in the United States to promote No Code because of the band's refusal to play in Ticketmaster's venues. The band chose to use alternate ticketing companies for the shows. A European tour followed in the fall of 1996, of which the band's November 3, 1996, show in Berlin, Germany at Deutschlandhalle was broadcast on many radio stations worldwide.

During the North American tour fans complained about the difficulty in obtaining tickets and the use of non-Ticketmaster venues, which were judged to be remote and impersonal. Gossard stated that there was "a lot of stress associated with trying to tour at that time" and that "it was growing more and more difficult to be excited about being part of the band." He added, "Ticketmaster, as monopolistic as it may be, is very efficient so we weren't playing the venues we wanted to play."

On October 17, 2014, at the iWireless Center in Moline, Illinois, during the Lightning Bolt Tour, Pearl Jam played the entire album in order as part of their set.

Commercial performance
No Code sold 366,500 copies in its first week of release, topping the Billboard 200, but falling short of analysts' predictions of at least 535,000 copies. This was significantly less than what the band's previous two albums sold in their respective first weeks of release. It was, however, the seventh biggest-selling debut of what was a slow year for the industry. It stayed at number one for two weeks, and was Pearl Jam's last album to debut at number one on the album chart until Backspacer was released in 2009. By its sixth week, the album had sold 790,000 copies. No Code was certified platinum by the RIAA, but was the band's first album to not reach multi-platinum status. As of 2013, the album has sold 1.7 million copies in the United States according to Nielsen SoundScan.

Three singles were released from No Code. The lead single "Who You Are" peaked at number 31 on the Billboard Hot 100, and reached number one on the Modern Rock charts and number five on the Mainstream Rock charts. Neither of the album's other singles, "Hail, Hail" and "Off He Goes", charted on the Hot 100, but both placed on the Mainstream Rock and Modern Rock charts, as did album track "Red Mosquito".

"Present Tense" reached No. 1 on iTunes' Top 40 US Rock Songs chart on May 18, 2020, after being featured in the ending of the ESPN documentary series The Last Dance.

Critical response
Upon its release, No Code received a mixed to positive critical reception. Rolling Stone staff writer David Fricke gave No Code four out of five stars, saying that the album "is abrupt in its mood swings almost to the point of vertigo." He praised the album as "the kind of impulsive, quixotic, provocative ruckus that has become rare in a modern-rock mainstream" and added that "No Code basically means no rule books, no limits and, above all, no fear." Q gave the album four out of five stars. The review said that the album "constantly adds unexpected and fascinating details....A solid attraction amid intriguing oddities is the powerful array of guitar sounds." Critic Robert Christgau described the album as "slowly winning a heartwarming battle against constitutional melancholia." AllMusic staff writer Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave the album three and a half out of five stars, saying, "While a bit too incoherent, No Code is Pearl Jam's richest and most rewarding album to date as well as their most human." NME gave No Code a seven out of ten. In the review, it is stated that "Vedder is still preoccupied with his own mortality, but now he appears more quasi-mystical than miserable....for all its relative placidity, No Code is still a difficult beast."

Referring to the songs on the album, Jon Pareles of The New York Times said "about half are worth the effort." He observed that "too often, [Vedder] falls into American culture's Disney syndrome, idealizing childhood innocence above all." David Browne of Entertainment Weekly gave the album a C, saying that while No Code "cracks open their sound", it "becomes a collection of fragments that don't add up to much of anything, except a portrait of a musically disjointed band." On the change in mood compared with the band's previous releases, he said that "the album leaves you with the vaguely unsettling feeling that Pearl Jam without pain are like a pretzel without salt, or Seattle without rain." Ryan Schreiber of Pitchfork stated that "there's a ton of filler here. In fact, it's almost all filler." Time reviewer Christopher John Farley said that the album "makes it sound as if they're having a midlife crisis." Farley added that "too few of the songs on the Pearl Jam CD explore the musical possibilities they suggest in any kind of definitive or provocative manner."

Personnel
Pearl Jam
 * Eddie Vedder – lead vocals, guitar, harmonica, electric sitar, Polaroids; credited as "Jerome Turner" for layout, concept of No Code
 * Jeff Ament – bass guitar, vocals, guitar on "Smile", Chapman, Polaroids, black-and-white photography
 * Stone Gossard – guitar, vocals, piano, lead vocals on "Mankind"
 * Mike McCready – guitar, piano on "Sometimes", Polaroids
 * Jack Irons – drums, percussion

Production
 * Barry Ament, Chris McGann – Polaroids, layout
 * Matt Bayles, Caram Costanzo, Jeff Lane – assistant engineering
 * Dr. Paul J. Bubak, A. Fields – Polaroids
 * Nick DiDia – mixing, recording
 * Bob Ludwig – mastering
 * Lance Mercer – Polaroids, black-and-white photography
 * Brendan O'Brien – production, mixing, piano
 * Pearl Jam – production

Singles

 * I Despite charting, "Red Mosquito" was never released as a single.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: No Code


text:
Yield (album)

Yield is the fifth studio album by American rock band Pearl Jam, released on February 3, 1998. Following a short promotional tour for its previous album, No Code (1996), Pearl Jam recorded Yield throughout 1997 at Studio Litho and Studio X in Seattle, Washington. The album was hailed as a return to the band's early, straightforward rock sound, and marked a more collaborative effort from the band as opposed to relying heavily on frontman Eddie Vedder to compose the song lyrics from the past four studio albums.

Yield received positive reviews and debuted at number two on the Billboard 200. While like No Code, the album soon began dropping down the charts, Yield eventually outsold its predecessor. The band did more promotion for the album compared to No Code, including a return to full-scale touring and the release of a music video for the song "Do the Evolution". The record has been certified platinum by the RIAA in the United States. The album is Pearl Jam's last release with drummer Jack Irons, who left the band during the album's promotional tour. He was replaced with Soundgarden drummer Matt Cameron.

Recording
For its fifth album, Pearl Jam again worked with producer Brendan O'Brien, whom the band had worked with on its previous three records. Yield was recorded throughout 1997 in Seattle, Washington at Studio X and Studio Litho, the latter of which is owned by guitarist Stone Gossard. The album was then mixed by O'Brien at his mixing facility at Southern Tracks in Atlanta, Georgia. The album would be the last collaboration with O'Brien for several years, until he was brought on board in 2008 to remix the band's debut album Ten and produce 2009's Backspacer.

Compared with Vitalogy and No Code, Yield represented more of a team effort among all members of the group. Lead vocalist Eddie Vedder had made the final decisions for Vitalogy and No Code; however, at the end of the No Code recording sessions, Vedder suggested to bassist Jeff Ament that it would be better for the other members to write and bring in more complete songs so Vedder would be under less pressure to finish the songs. Ament said that "everybody took that to heart," and O'Brien added that most of the songs came to the studio finished. Ament also said that Vedder's reaction to the rest of the band's new material kept "everybody energized about their place in the band." Vedder worked with the other band members on their own material before work was started on his. Guitarist Mike McCready noticed a change in Vedder's attitude during the recording of Yield, stating, "I used to be afraid of him and not want to confront him on things ... We talk more now, and hang out ... He seems very, very centered now."

Vedder said that the band was able to "team up" and have a "partnership" while the album was being recorded. The band spent a large amount of time rehearsing the songs to get the best takes possible. Gossard commented that there was more "contouring" and "honing" of demo material than on previous records. Regarding the recording sessions, drummer Jack Irons said, "We didn't put any time limit on it. It was like, 'When this record's done, we call it a record.' We took out time to come up with ideal sounds and feel for every song, so that each had its own identity. We would cut a track and go back and listen to it and openly discuss it." Ament stated that "Yield was a superfun record to make. And so much of it was Ed kind of sitting back." He added that "everybody really got a little bit of their say on the record...because of that, everybody feels like they're an integral part of the band." The band discussed the album's production on the documentary Single Video Theory.

In a June 1997 interview, Vedder said the band had "just about finished" recording the album. However, Gossard would spend the next period of time focusing on his side project Brad, who had just released their second Epic Records album Interiors late that same month. No work on Yield occurred during July 1997, with the band commencing recording in August. In October 1997, it was confirmed that the album was completed, with a rumored Christmas release date.

Music and lyrics
Overall, Yield resembles the straightforward rock approach of the band's early work. Gossard said "The songs were a little bit more structured. I don't know if it was poppier, but it seemed more professional." O'Brien noted that during the Yield sessions, the band made a conscious effort to create more accessible songs. Tom Sinclair of Entertainment Weekly stated that the band has "turned in an intermittently affecting album that veers between fiery garage rock and rootsy, acoustic-based ruminations. Perhaps mindful of their position as the last alt-rock ambassadors with any degree of clout, they've come up with their most cohesive album since their 1991 debut, Ten." "Given to Fly", the album's first single, was noted for its similarity to Led Zeppelin's "Going to California" from the 1971 album, Led Zeppelin IV.

Lyrically, Yield continued with the more contemplative type of writing found on No Code. Vedder said that while "in the past we got really angry and we cried out against many things in our songs," he considered that when "you become an adult you have to express your energy in a different way, more calm." This led to songs that, while not eschewing "the bad side of life", ended up "facing it from a more positive point of view, looking for a way to solve it. In the past we said: what a shit, this stinks, that sucks, everything sucks... Now it's time to say: stop, let's look for a solution, let's be positive." Several songs on the album were inspired by literary works, including Mikhail Bulgakov's novel The Master and Margarita ("Pilate"), Daniel Quinn's novel Ishmael ("Do the Evolution"), and the writings of Charles Bukowski ("In Hiding"). Gossard wrote the lyrics for the songs "No Way" and "All Those Yesterdays", and Ament, making his first lyrical contributions to a Pearl Jam album, wrote the lyrics for "Pilate" and "Low Light". Ament said, "[to] watch Eddie put his heart into singing lyrics that I wrote was an experience I can't put into words."

Gossard said "No Way" expresses the idea that people just need to live "and quit trying to prove something". According to Vedder, "Given to Fly" is about "rising above anybody's comments about what you do and still giving your love away", "Do the Evolution" is about "someone who's drunk with technology, who thinks they're the controlling living being on this planet", "MFC" takes place in a car and is about "getting the fuck out of a problem", and "In Hiding" is about "taking a fast from life". Ament said that "Pilate" concerned a question he was asking himself, dealing with a recurring dream Ament had with being old sitting with his dog on the porch, while "Low Light" was the answer, and that it deals with "a kind of gratefulness at finding that place of calm and peace at my center and getting a glimpse of the person I could choose to be."

Packaging and title
The album's cover art shows an empty road underneath a bright blue sky with a yield sign on the right-hand side of the road. The front cover art image was taken from a photograph of Montana Highway 200 between Lincoln and Great Falls, Montana, while the inside cover depicts the yield sign in the middle of the ocean. The cover of the cassette version mirrored the image. A yield sign is hidden in every picture of the liner notes booklet. At the 1999 Grammy Awards, Yield received a nomination for Best Recording Package. Ament said that the cover came from the idea on "how cool to have a yield sign where there's nothing to yield to", and the place was a road on the way to his Montana home which he considered perfect for the photo.

The album title is rooted in the idea of "yielding to nature", a theme central to Daniel Quinn's novel Ishmael. The band members read the book while working on the album. Regarding the title, McCready said, "I think the title Yield has to do with maybe being more comfortable within ourselves, with this band....we're all a little bit older and a little more relaxed and maybe just kind of yielding to those anxieties and not trying to fight it so much...That's what it kind of feels to me – yielding, letting something else happen and going with it." Vedder said, "Let's say that hypothetically speaking, the title does mean something...You can fight so much, and then you have to think, 'What are the real battles?' 'What's really important?' You get to a certain point, and it's really hard to remember what music is and to remember what drives you."

The indie rock band BOAT parodied the album's cover art, among several others, on its 2011 release Dress Like Your Idols.

Pearl Jam themselves also parodied the album’s cover art on their 2023 Record Store Day release, Give Way, a live album recorded during their March 5, 1998, Melbourne, Australia concert, which features an Australian Give Way sign on its cover instead of a Yield one.

Commercial performance
Yield was released on February 3, 1998, on CD, vinyl, cassette and MiniDisc. Epic promoted the album more than No Code, with marketing vice-president Steve Barnett claiming it was the first time since debut album Ten that the label "had the lead time to do the job right". The album leaked on the internet in December 1997 as Syracuse, New York radio station WKRL-FM played an advance copy of the record, leading fans who taped the broadcast to release the tracks online. Two singles were released from Yield. The lead single "Given to Fly" entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number 21, reached number three on the Modern Rock charts, and spent a total of six weeks at number one on the Mainstream Rock charts. The album's other commercially released single, "Wishlist", charted on the Hot 100 at number 47. Album tracks "In Hiding" and "Do the Evolution" also charted on the rock charts. The band hired comic book artist Todd McFarlane to create an animated video for "Do the Evolution". It was the band's first music video since 1992. At the 1999 Grammy Awards, "Do the Evolution" received a nomination for Best Hard Rock Performance and its music video received a nomination for Best Music Video, Short Form.

Yield sold 358,000 copies during its first week of release, and debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 album chart. It was held off the top spot by the Titanic soundtrack. Yield became Pearl Jam's first album not to peak at number one on the Billboard charts since Ten in 1991. However, Yield has been certified platinum by the RIAA, and eventually outsold its predecessor No Code with 1.9 million copies in the United States as of 2008 according to Nielsen SoundScan.

Critical reception
Yield received generally favourable reviews from music critics. Rolling Stone staff writer Rob Sheffield wrote that while "before, the band's best songs were the change-of-pace ballads", Yield "marks the first time Pearl Jam have managed to sustain that mood for a whole album." He added that "Vedder is singing more frankly than ever about his life as an adult," and that the album "shows that Pearl Jam have made the most out of growing up in public." Spin's RJ Smith said that Pearl Jam had "come back with an album full of gracefully ambivalent anthems. All commodities should be this unstable, and have this much blood pumping through them." In his review for The Village Voice, critic Robert Christgau said, "Like nobody less than Nirvana... they voice the arena-rock agon more vulnerably and articulately than any Englishman standing. Rarely if ever has a Jesus complex seemed so modest." Jon Pareles of The New York Times stated that the band "applies its introspection to spiritual possibilities and its guitars to chomping, snarling, exuberant riffs." He said "the songs sound bolder and more confident, even when they invoke private crises." Tom Sinclair of Entertainment Weekly said that "the overall tone is less pretentious than in the past, reflecting a looser, even marginally whimsical, worldview." Holly Bailey of Pitchfork called it "the most lyrically powerful album Pearl Jam have ever produced", and stated that "Yield proves that Pearl Jam, and even rock music, is still alive and kicking." Edna Gundersen of USA Today found that the album reasserts Pearl Jam as "the only grunge force to outlive that genre, expand musical boundaries and still embody the original spirit of rock 'n' roll". NME's Simon Williams praised its musical diversity, remarking that the band "stomp across their bluesy roots, careering through various styles and pop-mongous strops."

However, AllMusic staff writer Stephen Thomas Erlewine was more critical, finding that the division of Yield "into rock and ballad sides" only "emphasizes the relative lack of exceptional material". Writing for Select in March 1998, Eddy Lawrence concluded that Yield is an abandonment of the "anthemic qualities" present in Pearl Jam's previous work, claiming, in relation to the band's grunge roots, that the album "makes you realise how '60s fans felt watching the first generation of rock heroes die". He went on to state that "Yield's retroisms represent no leap forward for the band as a whole, and the oft-times mildly diverting tunes are, ironically, less challenging than their strong-willed early output."

Tour
Pearl Jam promoted the album with tours in Oceania and North America in 1998. Both were met with financial success, and the Australian shows in Melbourne sold out in just 17 minutes. After finishing the Australian concerts, Irons left the band due to dissatisfaction with touring. Pearl Jam's sound engineer Brett Eliason stated, "We went and did Hawaii and Australia with Jack. When we came back, Jack wasn't in a position to carry on. He made that decision more or less by himself. He can be a really great drummer but he had difficulty on tour putting out the energy for the length of shows they were doing. I don't know if he thought they'd put things on hold for him." He was replaced on an initially temporary basis with former Soundgarden drummer Matt Cameron. Cameron said, "I got a phone call out of the blue, from Mr. Ed Ved, Stoney and Kelly. I was ambushed. It was really short notice. He called and said 'hey what are you doing this summer?'" Cameron learned over 80 songs in two weeks. Regarding his entrance, Cameron stated that "The guys made me feel real welcome and it wasn't a struggle to get it musically, but my style was a little bit different, I think, than what they were used to. And they've been through so many different drummers, I don't even know if they knew what they wanted. So, I just kind of played the way I played and then eventually we kind of figured out what worked best for the band."

Pearl Jam's summer tour of North America marked the band's return to full-scale touring and the use of Ticketmaster, to which the band had previously protested. Pearl Jam once again began using it in order to "better accommodate concertgoers". The band still kept Ticketmaster venues at a minimum, stadiums in particular as manager Kelly Curtis joked that unlike U2, "the band doesn't have a lemon". The first leg of the tour focused on the West Coast of the United States and the Midwest, and then the band moved to the East Coast for the tour's second leg. and after it was completed the band released its first live album, Live on Two Legs, which featured select performances from the tour. McCready stated that the band released the live album due to the strength of Pearl Jam's shows on the tour.

On October 20, 2014, at the BMO Harris Bradley Center in Milwaukee, during the Lightning Bolt Tour, Pearl Jam played the entire album in order as part of their set.

Track listing

 * Notes

Outtakes
The album's singles featured two B-sides from the Yield recording sessions that were not included on the album: "Leatherman", about the eponymous 19th century vagabond was a B-side on the "Given to Fly" single, and "U" was featured on the "Wishlist" single, being later re-recorded for the 2003 Lost Dogs collection of rarities. "Whale Song", sung by Irons, was also recorded during the Yield sessions and was eventually included on the 1999 Music for Our Mother Ocean, Vol. 3 compilation as well as Lost Dogs. "Happy When I'm Crying" was recorded around this time and was released on the band's 1997 fan club Christmas single.

Personnel

 * Eddie Vedder – lead vocals, rhythm guitar
 * Jeff Ament – bass guitar, backing vocals, photography, layout
 * Stone Gossard – rhythm guitar, backing vocals, bass and lead guitar on 'Do the Evolution'; credited as "Carpenter Newton" for album concept
 * Mike McCready – lead guitar
 * Jack Irons – drums, percussion, vocals on track 8

Production

 * Barry Ament, George Estrada, Coby Schultz – layout
 * Matt Bayles – sound engineering (at Studio Litho), additional engineering
 * Nick DiDia – mixing on "Push Me, Pull Me", recording
 * Jerry Gay, Greg Montijo – photography
 * Sam Hofstedt at Studio X, Ryan Williams at Southern Tracks – sound engineering
 * Rodney Mills' Masterhouse – mastering
 * Brendan O'Brien – production, mixing
 * P. – Jeff Ament glacier photo
 * Pearl Jam – production

title: Yield (album)


text:
Elizabeth City County, Virginia

Elizabeth City County was a county in southeastern Virginia from 1634 until 1952 when it was merged into the city of Hampton. Originally created in 1634 as Elizabeth River Shire, it was one of eight shires created in the Virginia Colony by order of the King Charles I. In 1636, it was subdivided, and the portion north of the harbor of Hampton Roads became known as Elizabeth City Shire. It was renamed Elizabeth City County a short time later.

Elizabeth City was originally named Kikotan (also spelled Kecoughtan and Kikowtan), presumably a word for the Native Americans living there when the English arrived in 1607. They were friendly to the English, but Sir Thomas Gates either worried about safety (including potential attack by the Spaniards and the Dutch) or coveted their corn fields after the "starving time" of the 1609–10 winter. The English seized their land while the men were out hunting, and for some reason, the natives never attacked the settlement in response.

The shire and county were named for Elizabeth of Bohemia, daughter of King James I, sister of Princes Henry and Charles.

The town of Hampton, established in 1680, became the largest city in Elizabeth City County, and was the county seat. Hampton became an independent city in 1908, though it remained the seat of Elizabeth City County and continued to share many services with the county. In 1952, Elizabeth City County and the only incorporated town in the county, Phoebus, merged with and into Hampton. This merger was the first in a series of municipal consolidations in Hampton Roads that resulted in most of the area being split into independent cities. With few exceptions, modern-day Hampton encompasses nearly all of what was Elizabeth City County.

The main exceptions are portions of Elizabeth City County that are now part of Newport News. At the time of the Peninsula Extension of the Chesapeake & Ohio Railway, part of the western portion of the county became part of Warwick County. This enabled the entire southern end of the extension to be in Warwick County. The City of Newport News was formed out of this portion of Warwick County, and in January 1927 the Elizabeth City County town of Kecoughtan was also annexed into the City of Newport News.

Since English settlers occupied the former Indian village of Kecoughtan in 1610, and the town at Jamestown was abandoned in 1699, the city of Hampton now claims to be the oldest continuously settled English-speaking city in North America.

Notable people

 * Mary Cary Ambler (1732–1781), early American diarist, daughter of Colonel Wilson Cary, owner of the Ceelys on the James plantation in Elizabeth City County, Virginia

Major communities in Elizabeth City County

 * Buckroe Beach
 * Fox Hill
 * Kecoughtan
 * Langley Field
 * Plum Tree Point
 * Phoebus
 * Hampton (before it became an independent city)
 * Wythe
 * Aberdeen Gardens
 * Pine Chapel Village

title: Elizabeth City County, Virginia


text:
Thorax

The thorax (: thoraces or thoraxes) or chest is a part of the anatomy of mammals and other tetrapod animals located between the neck and the abdomen. In insects, crustaceans, and the extinct trilobites, the thorax is one of the three main divisions of the creature's body, each of which is in turn composed of multiple segments.

The human thorax includes the thoracic cavity and the thoracic wall. It contains organs including the heart, lungs, and thymus gland, as well as muscles and various other internal structures. Many diseases may affect the chest, and one of the most common symptoms is chest pain.

Etymology
The word thorax comes from the Greek θώραξ thṓrax "breastplate, cuirass, corslet" via thorax.

Structure
In humans and other hominids, the thorax is the chest region of the body between the neck and the abdomen, along with its internal organs and other contents. It is mostly protected and supported by the rib cage, spine, and shoulder girdle.

Contents
The contents of the thorax include the heart and lungs (and the thymus gland); the major and minor pectoral muscles, trapezius muscles, and neck muscle; and internal structures such as the diaphragm, the esophagus, the trachea, and a part of the sternum known as the xiphoid process. Arteries and veins are also contained – (aorta, superior vena cava, inferior vena cava and the pulmonary artery); bones (the shoulder socket containing the upper part of the humerus, the scapula, sternum, thoracic portion of the spine, collarbone, and the rib cage and floating ribs).

External structures are the skin and nipples.

The chest
In the human body, the region of the thorax between the neck and diaphragm in the front of the body is called the chest. The corresponding area in an animal can also be referred to as the chest.

The shape of the chest does not correspond to that part of the thoracic skeleton that encloses the heart and lungs. All the breadth of the shoulders is due to the shoulder girdle, and contains the axillae and the heads of the humeri. In the middle line the suprasternal notch is seen above, while about three fingers' breadth below it a transverse ridge can be felt, which is known as the sternal angle and this marks the junction between the manubrium and body of the sternum. Level with this line the second ribs join the sternum, and when these are found the lower ribs can often be counted. At the lower part of the sternum, where the seventh or last true ribs join it, the ensiform cartilage begins, and above this there is often a depression known as the pit of the stomach.

Bones
The bones of the thorax, called the "thoracic skeleton" is a component of the axial skeleton.

It consists of the ribs and sternum. The ribs of the thorax are numbered in ascending order from 1–12. 11 and 12 are known as floating ribs because they have no anterior attachment point in particular the cartilage attached to the sternum, as 1 through 7 are, and therefore are termed "floating". Whereas ribs 8 through 10 are termed false ribs as their costal cartilage articulates with the costal cartilage of the rib above. The thorax bones also have the main function of protecting the heart, lungs, and major blood vessels in the thorax area, such as the aorta.

Anatomical landmarks
The anatomy of the chest can also be described through the use of anatomical landmarks. The nipple in the male is situated in front of the fourth rib or a little below; vertically it lies a little external to a line drawn down from the middle of the clavicle; in the female it is not so constant. A little below it the lower limit of the great pectoral muscle is seen running upward and outward to the axilla; in the female this is obscured by the breast, which extends from the second to the sixth rib vertically and from the edge of the sternum to the mid-axillary line laterally. The female nipple is surrounded for half an inch by a more or less pigmented disc, the areola. The apex of a normal heart is in the fifth left intercostal space, three and a half inches from the mid-line.

Clinical significance

Different types of diseases or conditions that affect the chest include pleurisy, flail chest, atelectasis, and the most common condition, chest pain. These conditions can be hereditary or caused by birth defects or trauma. Any condition that lowers the ability to either breathe deeply or to cough is considered a chest disease or condition.

Injury
Injury to the chest (also referred to as chest trauma, thoracic injury, or thoracic trauma) results in up to $1⁄4$ of all deaths due to trauma in the United States.

The major pathophysiologies encountered in blunt chest trauma involve derangements in the flow of air, blood, or both in combination. Sepsis due to leakage of alimentary tract contents, as in esophageal perforations, also must be considered. Blunt trauma commonly results in chest wall injuries (e.g., rib fractures). The pain associated with these injuries can make breathing difficult, and this may compromise ventilation. Direct lung injuries, such as pulmonary contusions (see the image below), are frequently associated with major chest trauma and may impair ventilation by a similar mechanism.

Pain
Chest pain can be the result of multiple issues, including respiratory problems, digestive issues, and musculoskeletal complications. The pain can trigger cardiac issues as well. Not all pain that is felt is associated with the heart, but it should not be taken lightly either. Symptoms can be different depending on the cause of the pain. While cardiac issues cause feelings of sudden pressure in the chest or a crushing pain in the back, neck, and arms, pain that is felt due to noncardiac issues gives a burning feeling along the digestive tract or pain when deep breaths are attempted. Different people feel pains differently for the same condition. Only a patient truly knows if the symptoms are mild or serious.

Chest pain may be a symptom of myocardial infarctions ('heart attack'). If this condition is present in the body, discomfort will be felt in the chest that is similar to a heavy weight placed on the body. Sweating, shortness of breath, lightheadedness, and irregular heartbeat may also be experienced. If a heart attack occurs, the bulk of the damage is caused during the first six hours, so getting the proper treatment as quickly as possible is important. Some people, especially those who are elderly or have diabetes, may not have typical chest pain but may have many of the other symptoms of a heart attack. It is important that these patients and their caregivers have a good understanding of heart attack symptoms.

Non-cardiac causes of chest pain
Just like with a heart attack, not all chest pain is caused by conditions involving the heart. Chest wall pain can be experienced after an increase in activity. Persons who add exercise to their daily routine generally feel this type of pain at the beginning. It is important to monitor the pain to ensure that it is not a sign of something more serious. Pain can also be experienced in persons who have an upper respiratory infection. This virus is also accompanied by a fever and cough. Shingles is another viral infection that can give symptoms of chest or rib pain before a rash develops. Injuries to the rib cage or sternum is also a common cause of chest pain. It is generally felt when deep breaths are taken or during a cough.

Atelectasis
Another non-cardiac cause of chest pain is atelectasis. It is a condition that occurs when a portion of the lung collapses from being airless. When bronchial tubes are blocked, this condition develops and causes patients to feel shortness of breath. The most common cause of atelectasis is when a bronchi that extends from the windpipe is blocked and traps air. The blockage may be caused by something inside the bronchus, such as a plug of mucus, a tumour, or an inhaled foreign object such as a coin, piece of food, or a toy. It is possible for something outside of the bronchus to cause the blockage.

Pneumothorax
Pneumothorax is the condition where air or gas can build up in the pleural space. It can occur without a known cause or as the result of a lung disease or acute lung injury. The size of the pneumothorax changes as air or gas builds up, so a medical procedure can release the pressure with a needle. If it is untreated, blood flow can be interrupted and cause a drop in blood pressure known as tension pneumothorax. It is possible for smaller cases to clear up on their own. Symptoms of this condition are often felt only on one side of the lung or as a shortness of breath.

In tetrapods
In mammals, the thorax is the region of the body formed by the sternum, the thoracic vertebrae, and the ribs. It extends from the neck to the diaphragm, and does not include the upper limbs. The heart and the lungs reside in the thoracic cavity, as well as many blood vessels. The inner organs are protected by the rib cage and the sternum. Thoracic vertebrae are also distinguished in birds, but not in reptiles.

In arthropods
In insects, crustaceans, and the extinct trilobites, the thorax is one of the three main divisions of the creature's body, each of which is in turn composed of multiple segments. It is the area where the wings and legs attach in insects, or an area of multiple articulating plates in trilobites. In most insects, the thorax itself is composed of three segments; the prothorax, the mesothorax, and the metathorax. In extant insects, the prothorax never has wings, though legs are always present in adults; wings (when present) are restricted to at least the mesothorax, and typically also the metathorax, though the wings may be reduced or modified on either or both segments. In the apocritan Hymenoptera, the first abdominal segment is fused to the metathorax, where it forms a structure known as the propodeum. Accordingly, in these insects, the functional thorax is composed of four segments, and is therefore typically called the mesosoma to distinguish it from the "thorax" of other insects.

Each thoracic segment in an insect is further subdivided into various parts, the most significant of which are the dorsal portion (the notum), the lateral portion (the pleuron; one on each side), and the ventral portion (the sternum). In some insects, each of these parts is composed of one to several independent exoskeletal plates with membrane between them (called sclerites), though in many cases the sclerites are fused to various degrees.

title: Thorax


text:
Live on Two Legs

Live on Two Legs is the first major live album by the American alternative rock band Pearl Jam, released on November 24, 1998, through Epic Records. The album has been certified platinum by the RIAA in the United States.

Overview
Live on Two Legs consists of live performances of songs from different shows of the band's summer 1998 North American tour. Guitarist Mike McCready stated that the band released the live album due to the strength of Pearl Jam's shows on the tour. It debuted at number fifteen on the Billboard 200 album chart. Live on Two Legs has been certified platinum by the RIAA.

"Daughter" features vocalist Eddie Vedder singing lyrics to Neil Young's "Rockin' in the Free World" (as the band continues a quiet jam to "Daughter") along with lyrics to Pearl Jam's own "W.M.A." towards the end of the song. The album also contains Pearl Jam's rendition of Young's song "Fuckin' Up".

AllMusic staff writer Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave the album three out of five stars. He said that "Pearl Jam still sounds good, but they lack the wild energy that distinguished their early years. Professionalism has its good points, however, and it's true that Live on Two Legs is eminently listenable, thanks in no small part to a fine track selection...Live on Two Legs is a souvenir, a thank you to fans who have stood by throughout the years, and on those terms, it's successful." Entertainment Weekly reviewer David Browne gave the album an A−. He said, "Despite the band's continuing self-importance and fuzzy-around-the-edges arrangements, this set of uptight anthems ("Corduroy", "Better Man", "Go") packs a post-grunge wallop."

Track listing
Information taken from various sources.
 * 1) "Corduroy" (Eddie Vedder, Dave Abbruzzese, Jeff Ament, Stone Gossard, Mike McCready) – 5:05
 * June 29, United Center (Chicago)
 * 1) "Given to Fly" (McCready, Vedder) – 3:53
 * July 14, The Forum (Inglewood, California)
 * 1) "Hail, Hail" (Gossard, Ament, McCready, Vedder) – 3:43
 * July 16, ARCO Arena (Sacramento, California)
 * 1) "Daughter"/"Rockin' in the Free World"/"W.M.A." (Gossard, Vedder, Abbruzzese, Ament, McCready)/(Neil Young) – 6:47
 * September 19, Constitution Hall (Washington, D.C.)
 * 1) "Elderly Woman Behind the Counter in a Small Town" (Vedder, Abbruzzese, Ament, Gossard, McCready) – 3:49
 * September 23, Coral Sky Amphitheatre (West Palm Beach, Florida)
 * 1) "Untitled" (Vedder) – 2:02
 * September 18, Merriweather Post Pavilion (Columbia, Maryland)
 * 1) "MFC" (Vedder) – 2:28
 * June 27, Alpine Valley Music Theatre (East Troy, Wisconsin)
 * 1) "Go" (Abbruzzese, Vedder, Ament, Gossard, McCready) – 2:41
 * September 8, Continental Airlines Arena (East Rutherford, New Jersey)
 * 1) "Red Mosquito" (Ament, Gossard, Jack Irons, McCready, Vedder) – 4:02
 * August 29, Blockbuster Music Entertainment Centre (Camden, New Jersey)
 * 1) "Even Flow" (Gossard, Vedder) – 5:17
 * mixed from August 25 and August 31 performances at Star Lake Amphitheatre (Burgettstown, Pennsylvania) and Hardee's Walnut Creek Amphitheatre (Raleigh, North Carolina), respectively
 * 1) "Off He Goes" (Vedder) – 5:42
 * July 14, The Forum (Inglewood, California)
 * 1) "Nothingman" (Ament, Vedder) – 4:38
 * July 3, Sandstone Amphitheater (Bonner Springs, Kansas)
 * 1) "Do the Evolution" (Gossard, Vedder) – 3:45
 * July 13, The Forum (Inglewood, California)
 * 1) "Better Man" (Vedder) – 4:06
 * June 24, Rushmore Civic Center Arena (Rapid City, South Dakota)
 * 1) "Black" (Gossard, Vedder) – 6:55
 * September 7, GTE Virginia Beach Amphitheater (Virginia Beach, Virginia)
 * 1) "Fuckin' Up" (Young) – 6:17
 * September 15, Great Woods (Mansfield, Massachusetts)

Personnel

 * Pearl Jam
 * Jeff Ament – bass guitar, layout, black and white portraits
 * Matt Cameron – drums
 * Stone Gossard – rhythm guitar, lead guitar, vocals
 * Mike McCready – lead guitar, rhythm guitar
 * Eddie Vedder – vocals, guitar; credited as "Jerome Turner" for layout

 * Production
 * Barry Ament – layout, poster art
 * Ames – layout
 * Mark Atherton – layout, poster art
 * John Burton, Sam Hofstedt – assistant engineering
 * Kristin Callahan, Lance Mercer – color photos
 * Vito Costarella, Hatch Show Prints, Ward Sutton, Nate Williams – poster art
 * Brett Eliason – recording and mixing
 * George Estrada – layout, poster art
 * Joe Gastwirt – mastering
 * Coby Schultz – layout, poster art

title: Live on Two Legs


text:
Negative mass

In theoretical physics, negative mass is a hypothetical type of exotic matter whose mass is of opposite sign to the mass of normal matter, e.g. −1 kg. Such matter would violate one or more energy conditions and exhibit strange properties such as the oppositely oriented acceleration for an applied force orientation. It is used in certain speculative hypothetical technologies such as time travel to the past and future, construction of traversable artificial wormholes, which may also allow for time travel, Krasnikov tubes, the Alcubierre drive, and potentially other types of faster-than-light warp drives. Currently, the closest known real representative of such exotic matter is a region of negative pressure density produced by the Casimir effect.

In cosmology
In December 2018, astrophysicist Jamie Farnes from the University of Oxford proposed a "dark fluid" theory, related, in part, to notions of gravitationally repulsive negative masses, presented earlier by Albert Einstein, that may help better understand, in a testable manner, the considerable amounts of unknown dark matter and dark energy in the cosmos.

In general relativity
Negative mass is any region of space in which for some observers the mass density is measured to be negative. This may occur due to a region of space in which the sum of the three normal stress components (pressure on each of three axes) of the Einstein stress–energy tensor is larger in magnitude than the mass density. All of these are violations of one or another variant of the positive energy condition of Einstein's general theory of relativity; however, the positive energy condition is not a required condition for the mathematical consistency of the theory.

Inertial versus gravitational mass
In considering negative mass, it is important to consider which of these concepts of mass are negative. Ever since Newton first formulated his theory of gravity, there have been at least three conceptually distinct quantities called mass: The law of conservation of momentum requires that active and passive gravitational mass be identical. Einstein's equivalence principle postulates that inertial mass must equal passive gravitational mass, and all experimental evidence to date has found these are, indeed, always the same.
 * inertial mass – the mass m that appears in Newton's second law of motion, F = m a
 * "active" gravitational mass – the mass that produces a gravitational field that other masses respond to
 * "passive" gravitational mass – the mass that responds to an external gravitational field by accelerating.

In most analyses of negative mass, it is assumed that the equivalence principle and conservation of momentum continue to apply without using any matter in the process, and therefore all three forms of mass are still the same, leading to the study of "negative mass". But the equivalence principle is simply an observational fact, and is not necessarily valid. If such a distinction is made, a "negative mass" can be of three kinds: whether the inertial mass is negative, the gravitational mass, or both.

In his 4th-prize essay for the 1951 Gravity Research Foundation competition, Joaquin Mazdak Luttinger considered the possibility of negative mass and how it would behave under gravitational and other forces.

In 1957, following Luttinger's idea, Hermann Bondi suggested in a paper in Reviews of Modern Physics that mass might be negative as well as positive. He pointed out that this does not entail a logical contradiction, as long as all three forms of mass are negative, but that the assumption of negative mass involves some counter-intuitive form of motion. For example, an object with negative inertial mass would be expected to accelerate in the opposite direction to that in which it was pushed (non-gravitationally).

There have been several other analyses of negative mass, such as the studies conducted by R. M. Price, though none addressed the question of what kind of energy and momentum would be necessary to describe non-singular negative mass. Indeed, the Schwarzschild solution for negative mass parameter has a naked singularity at a fixed spatial position. The question that immediately comes up is, would it not be possible to smooth out the singularity with some kind of negative mass density. The answer is yes, but not with energy and momentum that satisfies the dominant energy condition. This is because if the energy and momentum satisfies the dominant energy condition within a spacetime that is asymptotically flat, which would be the case of smoothing out the singular negative mass Schwarzschild solution, then it must satisfy the positive energy theorem, i.e. its ADM mass must be positive, which is of course not the case. However, it was noticed by Belletête and Paranjape that since the positive energy theorem does not apply to asymptotic de Sitter spacetime, it would actually be possible to smooth out, with energy–momentum that does satisfy the dominant energy condition, the singularity of the corresponding exact solution of negative mass Schwarzschild–de Sitter, which is the singular, exact solution of Einstein's equations with cosmological constant. In a subsequent article, Mbarek and Paranjape showed that it is in fact possible to obtain the required deformation through the introduction of the energy–momentum of a perfect fluid.

Runaway motion
Although no particles are known to have negative mass, physicists (primarily Hermann Bondi in 1957, William B. Bonnor in 1964 and 1989, then Robert L. Forward ) have been able to describe some of the anticipated properties such particles may have. Assuming that all three concepts of mass are equivalent according to the equivalence principle, the gravitational interactions between masses of arbitrary sign can be explored, based on the Newtonian approximation of the Einstein field equations. The interaction laws are then:

 * Positive mass attracts both other positive masses and negative masses.
 * Negative mass repels both other negative masses and positive masses.

For two positive masses, nothing changes and there is a gravitational pull on each other causing an attraction. Two negative masses would repel because of their negative inertial masses. For different signs however, there is a push that repels the positive mass from the negative mass, and a pull that attracts the negative mass towards the positive one at the same time.

Hence Bondi pointed out that two objects of equal and opposite mass would produce a constant acceleration of the system towards the positive-mass object, an effect called "runaway motion" by Bonnor who disregarded its physical existence, stating:

Such a couple of objects would accelerate without limit (except a relativistic one); however, the total mass, momentum and energy of the system would remain zero. This behavior is completely inconsistent with a common-sense approach and the expected behavior of "normal" matter. Thomas Gold even hinted that the runaway linear motion could be used in a perpetual motion machine if converted to circular motion:

But Forward showed that the phenomenon is mathematically consistent and introduces no violation of conservation laws. If the masses are equal in magnitude but opposite in sign, then the momentum of the system remains zero if they both travel together and accelerate together, no matter what their speed:

 * $$p_\mathrm{sys} = mv + (-m)v = \big(m+(-m)\big)v = 0\times v = 0.$$

And equivalently for the kinetic energy:

 * $$E_\mathrm{k,sys} = \tfrac12 mv^2 + \tfrac12(-m)v^2 = \tfrac12\big(m+(-m)\big)v^2 = \tfrac12(0)v^2 = 0$$

However, this is perhaps not exactly valid if the energy in the gravitational field is taken into account.

Forward extended Bondi's analysis to additional cases, and showed that even if the two masses $m^{(−)}$ and $m^{(+)}$ are not the same, the conservation laws remain unbroken. This is true even when relativistic effects are considered, so long as inertial mass, not rest mass, is equal to gravitational mass.

This behaviour can produce bizarre results: for instance, a gas containing a mixture of positive and negative matter particles will have the positive matter portion increase in temperature without bound. However, the negative matter portion gains negative temperature at the same rate, again balancing out. Geoffrey A. Landis pointed out other implications of Forward's analysis, including noting that although negative mass particles would repel each other gravitationally, the electrostatic force would be attractive for like charges and repulsive for opposite charges.

Forward used the properties of negative-mass matter to create the concept of diametric drive, a design for spacecraft propulsion using negative mass that requires no energy input and no reaction mass to achieve arbitrarily high acceleration.

Forward also coined a term, "nullification", to describe what happens when ordinary matter and negative matter meet: they are expected to be able to cancel out or nullify each other's existence. An interaction between equal quantities of positive mass matter (hence of positive energy $E = mc^{2}$) and negative mass matter (of negative energy $−E = −mc^{2}$) would release no energy, but because the only configuration of such particles that has zero momentum (both particles moving with the same velocity in the same direction) does not produce a collision, such interactions would leave a surplus of momentum.

Arrow of time and energy inversion
In general relativity, the universe is described as a Riemannian manifold associated to a metric tensor solution of Einstein's field equations. In such a framework, the runaway motion forbids the existence of negative matter.

Some bimetric theories of the universe propose that two parallel universes with an opposite arrow of time may exist instead of one, linked together by the Big Bang and interacting only through gravitation. The universe is then described as a manifold associated to two Riemannian metrics (one with positive mass matter and the other with negative mass matter). According to group theory, the matter of the conjugated metric would appear to the matter of the other metric as having opposite mass and arrow of time (though its proper time would remain positive). The coupled metrics have their own geodesics and are solutions of two coupled field equations.

The negative matter of the coupled metric, interacting with the matter of the other metric via gravity, could be an alternative candidate for the explanation of dark matter, dark energy, cosmic inflation and an accelerating universe.

Gravitational interaction of antimatter
The gravitational interaction of antimatter with matter has been observed by physicists. As was the consensus among physicists previously, it was experimentally confirmed that gravity attracts both matter and antimatter at the same rate within experimental error.

Bubble chamber experiments provide further evidence that antiparticles have the same inertial mass as their normal counterparts. In these experiments, the chamber is subjected to a constant magnetic field that causes charged particles to travel in helical paths, the radius and direction of which correspond to the ratio of electric charge to inertial mass. Particle–antiparticle pairs are seen to travel in helices with opposite directions but identical radii, implying that the ratios differ only in sign; but this does not indicate whether it is the charge or the inertial mass that is inverted. However, particle–antiparticle pairs are observed to electrically attract one another. This behavior implies that both have positive inertial mass and opposite charges; if the reverse were true, then the particle with positive inertial mass would be repelled from its antiparticle partner.

In quantum mechanics
In 1928, Paul Dirac's theory of elementary particles, now part of the Standard Model, already included negative solutions. The Standard Model is a generalization of quantum electrodynamics (QED) and negative mass is already built into the theory.

Morris, Thorne and Yurtsever pointed out that the quantum mechanics of the Casimir effect can be used to produce a locally mass-negative region of space–time. In this article, and subsequent work by others, they showed that negative matter could be used to stabilize a wormhole. Cramer et al. argue that such wormholes might have been created in the early universe, stabilized by negative-mass loops of cosmic string. Stephen Hawking has argued that negative energy is a necessary condition for the creation of a closed timelike curve by manipulation of gravitational fields within a finite region of space; this implies, for example, that a finite Tipler cylinder cannot be used as a time machine.

Schrödinger equation
For energy eigenstates of the Schrödinger equation, the wavefunction is wavelike wherever the particle's energy is greater than the local potential, and exponential-like (evanescent) wherever it is less. Naively, this would imply kinetic energy is negative in evanescent regions (to cancel the local potential). However, kinetic energy is an operator in quantum mechanics, and its expectation value is always positive, summing with the expectation value of the potential energy to yield the energy eigenvalue.

For wavefunctions of particles with zero rest mass (such as photons), this means that any evanescent portions of the wavefunction would be associated with a local negative mass–energy. However, the Schrödinger equation does not apply to massless particles; instead the Klein–Gordon equation is required.

In theory of vibrations and metamaterials
The mechanical model giving rise to the negative effective mass effect is depicted in Figure 1. A core with mass $$m_2$$ is connected internally through the spring with constant $$k_2$$ to a shell with mass $$m_1$$. The system is subjected to the external sinusoidal force $$F(t)=F_{0} \sin\omega t$$. If we solve the equations of motion for the masses $$m_1$$ and $$m_2$$ and replace the entire system with a single effective mass $$m_{\text{eff}}$$ we obtain: $$m_{\text{eff}}=m_{1}+{{m_2\omega_0^2}\over{\omega_0^2-\omega^2}},$$ where $$\omega_0=\sqrt{k_2 \over m_2}$$. When the frequency $$\omega$$ approaches $$\omega_0$$ from above the effective mass $$m_{\text{eff}}$$ will be negative.

The negative effective mass (density) becomes also possible based on the electro-mechanical coupling exploiting plasma oscillations of a free electron gas (see Figure 2). The negative mass appears as a result of vibration of a metallic particle with a frequency of $$\omega$$ which is close the frequency of the plasma oscillations of the electron gas $$m_2$$ relatively to the ionic lattice $$m_1$$. The plasma oscillations are represented with the elastic spring $$k_2=\omega_p^2m_2$$, where $$\omega_p$$ is the plasma frequency. Thus, the metallic particle vibrated with the external frequency ω is described by the effective mass

 * $$m_{\text{eff}}=m_1+{{m_2\omega_p^2}\over{\omega_p^2-\omega^2}}$$,

which is negative when the frequency ω approaches $$\omega_p$$ from above. Metamaterials exploiting the effect of the negative mass in the vicinity of the plasma frequency were reported.

title: Negative mass