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User talk:F Campbell

Hi, and welcome to Wikipedia! Here's some useful tips:

 * The help page and FAQ will probably answer a lot of questions you have about how Wikipedia works, but if you can't find the answer there, ask a question on the village pump.

 * The utilities page has all kinds of other Wikipedia-related information, including naming conventions and a manual of style. Don't let all this intimidate you, though; be bold in updating pages!

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Have fun! I hope to see you around the art pages some more. -- Merphant 03:48, 7 Aug 2003 (UTC)

title: User talk:F Campbell


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Epiphanius of Salamis

Epiphanius of Salamis (Ἐπιφάνιος; c. 310–320 – 403) was the bishop of Salamis, Cyprus, at the end of the 4th century. He is considered a saint and a Church Father by both the Eastern Orthodox and Catholic Churches. He gained a reputation as a strong defender of orthodoxy. He is best known for composing the Panarion, a compendium of eighty heresies, which included also pagan religions and philosophical systems. There has been much controversy over how many of the quotations attributed to him by the Byzantine Iconoclasts were actually by him. Regardless of this he was clearly strongly against some contemporary uses of images in the church.

Life
Epiphanius was either born into a Romaniote Christian family or became a Christian in his youth. Either way, he was a Romaniote Jew who was born in the small settlement of Besanduk, near Eleutheropolis (modern-day Beit Guvrin in Israel), and lived as a monk in Egypt, where he was educated and came into contact with Valentinian groups. He returned to Roman Palestine around 333, when he was still a young man, and he founded a monastery at Ad nearby, which is often mentioned in the polemics of Jerome with Rufinus and John, Bishop of Jerusalem. He was ordained a priest, and lived and studied as superior of the monastery in Ad that he founded for thirty years and gained much skill and knowledge in that position. In that position he gained the ability to speak in several tongues, including Hebrew, Syriac, Egyptian, Greek, and Latin, and was called by Jerome on that account Pentaglossos ("Five tongued").

His reputation for learning prompted his nomination and consecration as Bishop of Salamis, Cyprus, in 365 or 367, a post which he held until his death. He was also the Metropolitan of the Church of Cyprus. He served as bishop for nearly forty years, as well as travelled widely to combat differing beliefs. He was present at a synod in Antioch (376) where the Trinitarian questions were debated against the heresy of Apollinarianism. He upheld the position of Bishop Paulinus, who had the support of Rome, over that of Meletius of Antioch, who was supported by the Eastern Churches. In 382 he was present at the Council of Rome, again upholding the cause of Paulinus.

Origenist controversy and death
During a visit to Palestine in 394 or 395, while preaching in Jerusalem, he attacked Origen's followers and urged the Bishop of Jerusalem, John II, to condemn his writings. He urged John to be careful of the "offence" of images in the churches. He noted that when travelling in Palestine he went into a church to pray and saw a curtain with an image of Christ or a saint which he tore down. He told Bishop John that such images were "opposed ... to our religion" (see below). This event sowed the seeds of conflict which erupted in the dispute between Rufinus and John against Jerome and Epiphanius. Epiphanius fuelled this conflict by ordaining a priest for Jerome's monastery at Bethlehem, thus trespassing on John's jurisdiction. This dispute continued during the 390s, in particular in the literary works by Rufinus and Jerome attacking one another. In 399, the dispute took on another dimension, when the Bishop of Alexandria, Theophilus, who had initially supported John, changed his views and started persecuting Origenist monks in Egypt. As a result of this persecution, four of these monks, the so-called Tall Brothers, fled to Palestine, and then travelled to Constantinople, seeking support and spreading the controversy. John Chrysostom, Bishop of Constantinople, gave the monks shelter. Bishop Theophilus of Alexandria saw his chance to use this event to bring down his enemy Chrysostom: in 402 he summoned a council in Constantinople, and invited those supportive of his anti-Origenist views. Epiphanius, by this time nearly 80, was one of those summoned, and began the journey to Constantinople. However, when he realised he was being used as a tool by Theophilus against Chrysostom, who had given refuge to the monks persecuted by Theophilus and who were appealing to the emperor, Epiphanius started back to Salamis, only to die on the way home in 403.

The curtain incident
Letter LI in Jerome's letters gives Jerome's Latin translation, made at Epiphanius' request, of his letter, originally in Greek from c. 394, "From Epiphanius, Bishop of Salamis, in Cyprus, to John, Bishop of Jerusalem" (see previous section for wider context). The final section covers the often quoted incident of the curtain, which unlike other passages attributed to Epiphanius and quoted by the Iconoclasts, is accepted as authentic by modern scholars: 9. Moreover, I have heard that certain persons have this grievance against me: When I accompanied you to the holy place called Bethel, there to join you in celebrating the Collect, after the use of the Church, I came to a villa called Anablatha and, as I was passing, saw a lamp burning there. Asking what place it was, and learning it to be a church, I went in to pray, and found there a curtain hanging on the doors of the said church, dyed and embroidered. It bore an image either of Christ or of one of the saints; I do not rightly remember whose the image was. Seeing this, and being loth that an image of a man should be hung up in Christ’s church contrary to the teaching of the Scriptures, I tore it asunder and advised the custodians of the place to use it as a winding sheet for some poor person. They, however, murmured, and said that if I made up my mind to tear it, it was only fair that I should give them another curtain in its place. As soon as I heard this, I promised that I would give one, and said that I would send it at once. Since then there has been some little delay, due to the fact that I have been seeking a curtain of the best quality to give to them instead of the former one, and thought it right to send to Cyprus for one. I have now sent the best that I could find, and I beg that you will order the presbyter of the place to take the curtain which I have sent from the hands of the Reader, and that you will afterwards give directions that curtains of the other sort—opposed as they are to our religion—shall not be hung up in any church of Christ. A man of your uprightness should be careful to remove an occasion of offence unworthy alike of the Church of Christ and of those Christians who are committed to your charge. Beware of Palladius of Galatia—a man once dear to me, but who now sorely needs God's pity—for he preaches and teaches the heresy of Origen; and see to it that he does not seduce any of those who are intrusted to your keeping into the perverse ways of his erroneous doctrine. I pray that you may fare well in the Lord.

Panarion
His best-known book is the Panarion (from Latin panarium, "bread basket" < panis, "bread"), also known as Adversus Haereses, "Against Heresies", presented as a book of antidotes for those bitten by the serpent of heresy. Written between 374 and 377, it forms a handbook for dealing with the arguments of heretics. It lists, and refutes, 80 heresies, some of which are not described in any other surviving documents from the time. Epiphanius begins with the 'four mothers' of pre-Christian heresy – 'barbarism', 'Scythism', 'Hellenism' and 'Judaism' – and then addresses the 16 pre-Christian heresies that have flowed from them: four philosophical schools (Stoics, Platonists, Pythagoreans and Epicureans), and 12 Jewish sects. There then follows an interlude, telling of the Incarnation of the Word. After this, Epiphanius embarks on his account of the 60 Christian heresies, from assorted gnostics to the various trinitarian heresies of the fourth century, closing with the Collyridians and Messalians.

While Epiphanius often let his zeal come before facts – he admits on one occasion that he writes against the Origenists-based only on hearsay (Panarion, Epiphanius 71) – the Panarion is a valuable source of information on the Christian Church of the fourth century. It is also an important source regarding the early Jewish gospels such as the Gospel according to the Hebrews circulating among the Ebionites and the Nazarenes, as well as the followers of Cerinthus and Merinthus.

One unique feature of the Panarion is in the way that Epiphanius compares the various heretics to different poisonous beasts, going so far as to describe in detail the animal's characteristics, how it produces its poison, and how to protect oneself from the animal's bite or poison. For example, he describes his enemy Origen as "a toad noisy from too much moisture which keeps croaking louder and louder." He compares the Gnostics to a particularly dreaded snake "with no fangs." The Ebionites, a Christian sect that followed Jewish law, were described by Epiphanius as "a monstrosity with many shapes, who practically formed the snake-like shape of the mythical many-headed Hydra in himself." In all, Epiphanius describes fifty animals, usually one per sect.

Another feature of the Panarion is the access its earlier sections provide to lost works, notably Justin Martyr's work on heresies, the Greek of Irenaeus' Against Heresies, and Hippolytus' Syntagma. The Panarion was first translated into English in 1987 and 1990.

Other works
His earliest known work is the Ancoratus (the well anchored man), which includes arguments against Arianism and the teachings of Origen. Aside from the polemics by which he is known, Epiphanius wrote a work of biblical antiquarianism, called, for one of its sections, On Weights and Measures (περὶ μέτρων καὶ στάθμων). It was composed in Constantinople for a Persian priest, in 392, and survives in Syriac, Armenian, and Georgian translations (this last is found in Shatberd ms 1141 along with Physiologus and De Gemmis). The first section discusses the canon of the Old Testament and its versions, the second of measures and weights, and the third, the geography of Palestine. The texts appear not to have been given a polish but consist of rough notes and sketches, as Allen A. Shaw, a modern commentator, concluded; nevertheless Epiphanius' work on metrology was important in the history of measurement.

Another work, On the Twelve Gems (De Gemmis), survives in a number of fragments, the most complete of which is the Georgian. The letter written by Epiphanius to John, Bishop of Jerusalem, in 394 and preserved in Jerome's translation, is discussed above. The collection of homilies traditionally ascribed to a "Saint Epiphanius, bishop" are dated in the late fifth or sixth century and are not connected with Epiphanius of Salamis by modern scholars.

Such was Epiphanius's reputation for learning that the Physiologus, the principal source of medieval bestiaries, came to be widely falsely attributed to him.

Works

 * The Panarion of Epiphanius of Salamis, Book I (Sects 1–46) Frank Williams, translator, 1987 (E.J. Brill, Leiden) ISBN 90-04-07926-2
 * The Panarion of Epiphanius of Salamis, Book II and III (Sects 47–80, De Fide) Frank Williams, translator, 1993 (E.J. Brill, Leiden) ISBN 90-04-09898-4
 * The Panarion of St. Epiphanius, Bishop of Salamis Philip R. Amidon, translator, 1990 (Oxford University Press, New York) (This translation contains selections rather than the full work.) ISBN 0-19-506291-4
 * Epiphanius' Treatise on Weights and Measures: The Syriac Version, James Elmer Dean, ed, 1935. (Chicago) [English translation of On Weights and Measures; available at Epiphanius of Salamis, Weights and Measures (1935) pp.11-83. English translation]
 * Epiphanius de Gemmis: the Old Georgian Version and the Fragments of the Armenian Version. ed. Robert Pierpont Blake; de Vis, H. (1934). London: Christophers.
 * Epiphanius von Salamis, Über die zwölf Steine im hohepriesterlichen Brustschild (De duodecim gemmis rationalis). Nach dem Codex Vaticanus Borgianus Armenus 31 herausgegeben und übersetzt by Felix Albrecht and Arthur Manukyan (Gorgias Eastern Christian Studies 37), 2014 (Gorgias Press: Piscataway) ISBN 978-1-4632-0279-8 (German edition).
 * Anacephalaiosis (originally thought to be the work of Epihanius of Salamis, although this opinion is now disputed).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Epiphanius of Salamis


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Philip II

Philip II may refer to:

 * Philip II of Macedon (382–336 BC)
 * Philip II (emperor) (238–249), Roman emperor
 * Philip II, Prince of Taranto (1329–1374)
 * Philip II, Duke of Burgundy (1342–1404)
 * Philip II, Duke of Savoy (1438–1497)
 * Philip II of France (1165–1223)
 * Philip II of Navarre (1293–1322)
 * Philip II, Metropolitan of Moscow (1507–1569)
 * Philip II of Spain (1527–1598)
 * Philip II, Margrave of Baden-Baden (1559–1588)
 * Philip II of Portugal (1578–1621)
 * Philip II, Count of Schaumburg-Lippe (1723–1787)
 * Philip II Philoromaeus (65–64 BC)

Other uses

 * Philip II (hospital), in the Republic of North Macedonia
 * Walls of Philip II, the City Walls built by Philip II of Spain in Madrid

title: Philip II


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René Maurice Fréchet

René Maurice Fréchet (2 September 1878 – 4 June 1973) was a French mathematician. He made major contributions to general topology and was the first to define metric spaces. He also made several important contributions to the field of statistics and probability, as well as calculus. His dissertation opened the entire field of functionals on metric spaces and introduced the notion of compactness. Independently of Riesz, he discovered the representation theorem in the space of Lebesgue square integrable functions. He is often referred to as the founder of the theory of abstract spaces.

Early life
He was born to a Protestant family in Maligny to Jacques and Zoé Fréchet. At the time of his birth, his father was a director of a Protestant orphanage in Maligny and was later in his youth appointed a head of a Protestant school. However, the newly established Third Republic was not sympathetic to religious education and so laws were enacted requiring all education to be secular. As a result, his father lost his job. To generate some income his mother set up a boarding house for foreigners in Paris. His father was able later to obtain another teaching position within the secular system – it was not a job of a headship, however, and the family could not expect as high standards as they might have otherwise.

Maurice attended the secondary school Lycée Buffon in Paris where he was taught mathematics by Jacques Hadamard. Hadamard recognised the potential of young Maurice and decided to tutor him on an individual basis. After Hadamard moved to the University of Bordeaux in 1894, Hadamard continuously wrote to Fréchet, setting him mathematical problems and harshly criticising his errors. Much later Fréchet admitted that the problems caused him to live in a continual fear of not being able to solve some of them, even though he was very grateful for the special relationship with Hadamard he was privileged to enjoy.

After completing high-school Fréchet was required to enroll in military service. This is the time when he was deciding whether to study mathematics or physics – he chose mathematics out of dislike of the chemistry classes he would have had to take otherwise. Thus in 1900 he enrolled to École Normale Supérieure to study mathematics.

He started publishing quite early, having published four papers in 1903. He also published some of his early papers with the American Mathematical Society due to his contact with American mathematicians in Paris—particularly Edwin Wilson.

Middle life
Fréchet served at many different institutions during his academic career. From 1907 to 1908 he served as a professor of mathematics at the Lycée in Besançon, then moved in 1908 to the Lycée in Nantes to stay there for a year. After that he served at the University of Poitiers between 1910 and 1919.

He married in 1908 to Suzanne Carrive (1881–1945) and had four children: Hélène, Henri, Denise and Alain.

First World War
Fréchet was planning to spend a year in the United States at the University of Illinois, but his plan was disrupted when the First World War broke out in 1914. He was mobilised on 4 August the same year. Because of his diverse language skills, gained when his mother ran the establishment for foreigners, he served as an interpreter for the British Army. However, this was not a safe job; he spent two and a half years very near to or at the front. French egalitarian ideals caused many academics to be mobilised. They served in the trenches and many of them were lost during the war. It is remarkable that during his service in the war, he still managed to produce cutting edge mathematical papers frequently, despite having little time to devote to mathematics.

After the war
After the end of the war, Fréchet was chosen to go to Strasbourg to help with the reestablishment of the university. He served as a professor of higher analysis and Director of the Mathematics Institute. Despite being burdened with administrative work, he was again able to produce a large amount of high-quality research.

In 1928 Fréchet decided to move back to Paris, thanks to encouragement from Borel, who was then chair in the Calculus of Probabilities and Mathematical Physics at the Sorbonne. Fréchet briefly held a position of lecturer at the Sorbonne's Rockefeller Foundation and from 1928 was a Professor (without a chair). Fréchet was promoted to tenured Chair of General Mathematics in 1933 and to Chair of Differential and Integral Calculus in 1935. In 1941 Fréchet succeeded Borel as chair in the Calculus of Probabilities and Mathematical Physics, a position Fréchet held until he retired in 1949. From 1928 to 1935 Fréchet was also put in charge of lectures at the École Normale Supérieure; in this latter capacity Fréchet was able to direct a significant number of young mathematicians toward research in probability, including Doeblin, Fortet, Loève, and Jean Ville.

Despite his major achievements, Fréchet was not overly appreciated in France. As an illustration, while being nominated numerous times, he was not elected a member of the Académie des sciences until the age of 78. In 1929 he became foreign member of the Polish Academy of Arts and Sciences and in 1950 foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.

Fréchet was an Esperantist, publishing some papers and articles in that constructed language. He also served as president of the Internacia Scienca Asocio Esperantista ("International Scientific Esperantist Association") from 1950 to 1953.

Main works
His first major work was his outstanding 1906 PhD thesis Sur quelques points du calcul fonctionnel, on the calculus of functionals. Here Fréchet introduced the concept of a metric space, although the name is due to Hausdorff. Fréchet's level of abstraction is similar to that in group theory, proving theorems within a carefully chosen axiomatic system that can then be applied to a large array of particular cases.

Here is a list of his most important works, in chronological order:
 * ''Sur les opérations linéaires I-III, 1904–1907 (On linear operators)
 * Les Espaces abstraits, 1928 (Abstract spaces)
 * Recherches théoriques modernes sur la théorie des probabilités, 1937–1938 (Modern theoretical research in the theory of probability)
 * Les Probabilités associées à un système d'événements compatibles et dépendants, 1939–1943 (Probabilities Associated with a System of Compatible and Dependent Events)
 * Pages choisies d'analyse générale, 1953 (Selected Pages of General Analysis)
 * Les Mathématiques et le concret, 1955 (Mathematics and the concrete)

Fréchet also developed ideas from the article Deux types fondamentaux de distribution statistique (1938; an English translation The Two Fundamental Types of Statistical Distribution) of Czech geographer, demographer and statistician Jaromír Korčák.

Fréchet is sometimes credited with the introduction of what is now known as the Cramér–Rao bound, but Fréchet's 1940s lecture notes on the topic appear to have been lost.

Family
In 1908 he married Suzanne Carrive.

title: René Maurice Fréchet


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Music of Venezuela

Several styles of the traditional music of Venezuela, such as salsa and merengue, are common to its Caribbean neighbors. Perhaps the most typical Venezuelan music is joropo, a rural form which originated in the llanos, or plains.

Joropo
Joropo was developed by creative artists such as Juan Vicente Torrealba, Ignacio Figueredo, Augusto Bracca, Genaro Prieto, Eneas Perdomo and Angel Custodio Loyola, who helped to popularize the music throughout the country. Since then a slick, contemporary form of pop-llanera has developed which has earned the scorn of some purists who perceive it as stale and watered-down. Some singers, such as Adilia Castillo, Lorenzo Herrera, Simon Diaz, Mario Suarez, Edith Salcedo, Magdalena Sanchez, Rafael Montaño, Reyna Lucero, Vidal Colmenares, Armando Martinez, Cristina Maica, José Catire Carpio, Cristobal Jimenez, Juan de los Santos Contreras (El Carrao de Palmarito) and Reynaldo Armas have maintained a huge following over the years. In a similar vein, there is also neo-folklore, which takes traditional music and arranges it in an electronic style.

Folk
Another very popular music in Venezuela is the Gaita Zuliana. This genre originated from the region of Zulia State and is very popular during the Christmas season. The gaita united to the Aguinaldo, conforms the national representation of the Venezuelan Christmas. In the east, the malagueña, punto and galerón accompanies the velorios de cruz de mayo, (religious tradition, that is celebrated on 3 May in honor to the Christian cross). In the Venezuelan Andes, the Venezuelan bambuco is a local variation of the bambuco. Other forms include polo and the Venezuelan waltz. The Quinteto Contrapunto, founded by Rafael Suárez and Aida Navarro, was a celebrated Venezuelan vocal quintet which reached nationwide and international celebrity in the early 1960s, and was very active for about a decade.

Other forms of Venezuelan folk music are tensively recorded and researched due to the work of Caracas-based Fundación Bigott. African-derived percussion (including multiple rhythms, such as sangueo, fulia, parranda and tamborera) is perhaps the best documented musical form. Fundacion Bigott has also produced groups such Un Solo Pueblo, Huracán de Fuego and Grupo Madera. These more experimental fusion artists combine rumba, Latin jazz, joropo, salsa, Venezuelan traditional chants and other forms of Latin American music.Then there is also the genre commonly known as "Onda Nueva" (New Wave), which is a combination of joropo and jazz music, with influences from the Brazilian Bossa Nova. The genre was introduced by Aldemaro Romero with a special contribution by famed drummer and timpanist Frank Hernandez, nicknamed "El Pavo" (The Turkey (Venezuelan slang for “the youth”)) by employing a very peculiar drum beat. The term was coined by jazz analyst Jacques Braunstein after having been shown a copy of Romero's earliest composition called "Araguita", (originally to be used as jingle material), which Braunstein described as "something of a new wave". Onda Nueva music was heralded as the Venezuelan Bossa Nova with a very particular seal.

Caribbean
Venezuelan calypso music (including Calypso de El Callao), imported from Trinidad in the 1880s by immigrants arriving during a gold rush, has its own distinctive rhythms and lyrical style. Another imported genre is Cuban-American salsa, which has produced several domestic superstars, including Oscar D'Leon. Dominican merengue, Cuban and Colombian Latin pop acts such as Billo's Caracas Boys, the Porfi Jiménez Orchestra and Los Melódicos.

Pop and rock
Pop and rock music are very popular too, and several bands have had considerable success over the years. Venezuelan pop musicians such as Guillermo Davila, Ricardo Montaner, Kiara, Karina, Los Chamos, Urbanda, Uff, José Luis Rodríguez "El Puma", Yordano, Franco DeVita, and Ilan Chester have gained popularity in other Latin American countries. On the other hand, same history for many well-known bands like Devendra Banhart (Naturalismo), Aditus (band) Resistencia, Los Amigos Invisibles (Acid Jazz), Arkangel founded by Paul Gilmann and Freddy Marshall, Malanga, Desorden Publico (Ska/Pop), King Chango (Ska/Latin American music), Culto oculto (Experimental/Rock), Caramelos de Cianuro (Pop/Rock), Mikel Erentxun (Pop/Rock), Candy 66, Tan Frío El Verano, La Vida Bohème and the now extinct but influential groups Sentimiento Muerto (Post-punk), Zapato 3 (Pop/Rock), and Dermis Tatú (Rock).

Electronic music
In the late 1960s and early 1970s a few Venezuelan artists began experimenting with sounds, using emerging electronic equipment that was being produced. Artists like Vytas Brenner and Grupo C.I.M. used Moog style synthesizers and effects to embrace the shift in new sounds. Alfredo del Mónaco, who founded the Venezuelan branch of ISCM, is considered the pioneer in electronic music in Venezuela having released Estudio electrónico I para cinta in 1968. Jose Enrique Sarabia also known as "Chelique," who was already internationally known for producing songs since the late 50s like "Ansiedad," helped by other gifted musicians, recorded and released a record in 1971 through a private press titled: 4 Fases del Cuatro - Música Venezolana desarrollada Electrónicamente por Chelique Sarabia (4 Phases of Four - Venezuelan Music Electronically Developed by Chelique Sarabia). In 1973, when exclusivity of the private contract ended, Chelique commercially released the record under a different title: Revolución "Electrónica" en Música Venezolana (Electronic Revolution in Venezuelan Music). Revolución "Electrónica" en Música Venezolana is notable for being one of the earliest electronic records in Venezuela and is considered a trailblazing album for electronic music in Latin America.

In the late 1990s a very strong electronic music movement spread through the country. Several big multimedia festivals took place, such as "Caracas No Duerme," "AX," "Petaquire," and "Mare Nostrum." These events combined music with the video and performance art of Venezuelan artists such as Luis Poleo, Frank Wow, and Sony. The main bands/DJ's of this era are Ojo Fatuo, DJ Oddo and DJ Wyz.

From 2000 until present, a lot of Venezuelan artists have made a strong movement into different underground music styles. The most significant ones are: Arca (experimental/industrial) Masseratti 2lts (downtempo), La Vida Boheme (post-punk), Lmca (Electronic/Synthpop/post-punk/experimental), Viniloversus (indie rock), KP-9000 (trip hop), Cardopusher (breakcore), Nuuro (IDM), Patafunk (Tropical/funk), FamasLoop (trip hop/electronica), Todosantos (nu rave/indietronica), Jimmy Flamante (breakbeat), Las Americas (shoegazing), Dondi (drum and bass/downtempo), Retrovértigo (post-rock), Lis (instrumental rock), Tercer Cuarto (alternative metal), Panasuyo (neo-folklore), Pacheko (dubstep), Dame Pa' Matala (reggaeton/hip hop) and Los Javelin (surf rock/rockabilly) AC/Boy (Techno)

Classical music
Venezuela has also produced classical composers such as: Reynaldo Hahn, Teresa Carreño (who was also a world-renowned pianist), Antonio Lauro, Víctor Varela, Antonio Estevez, Evencio Castellanos, Modesta Bor, Prudencio Esaa, Moisés Moleiro, Sylvia Constantinidis, Gustavo Dudamel, Ilyich Rivas, Alfredo Rugeles and Eduardo Marturet (who are primarily international conductors), Federico Ruiz (who also works with other genres) and Vicente Emilio Sojo (known for his contributions to Venezuelan musicology and music education). Roberto Ruscitti followed in their footsteps.Venezuela also houses a national network of public conservatories and music schools; there are also private music schools and institutions. Institutes of higher learning that specialize in music or have a music department include Universidad de las Artes, whose music department is the former Instituto Universitario de Estudios Musicales; Universidad Central de Venezuela, which gives diplomas in music performance and postgraduate degrees in musicology, including doctorates; Universidad Simón Bolívar, whose music department awards Master of Music degrees in several areas including composition, conducting, and music education; and Universidad de los Andes. Prominent composers and musicians who have taught, founded, or studied in these institutions include Alberto Grau, Isabel Aretz, María Guinand (who was one of the founders of the Master of Music program of Universidad Simón Bolívar), Diana Arismendi, Ricardo Teruel, Inocente Carreño, Adina Izarra, Marianela Arocha, Maurice Hasson, Pedro Eustache, David Ascanio, Josefina Benedetti, Alfredo del Monaco, Alfredo Rugeles, Humberto Bruni Lamanna, Abraham Abreu, Aldo Abreu, Aquiles Baez, Pablo Gil, Carlos Duarte and Sylvia Constantinidis.

Venezuela also has El Sistema, a publicly financed voluntary sector music education program for impoversished children, founded by José Antonio Abreu in 1975. Prominent musicians who have graduated from El Sistema include Gustavo Dudamel, director of Los Angeles Philharmonic, Rodolfo Saglimbeni, Principal Conductor of the National Symphony Orchestra of Chile, José Luis Gomez, director of the Tucson Symphony Orchestra, Rafael Payare, director of the San Diego Symphony, Glenn Garrido, director of the Houston Latin American Philharmonic, Diego Matheuz, Ilych Rivas, Domingo Hindoyan, and double bassist Edicson Ruiz, who, at age 17, became the youngest member of the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra. The Simón Bolívar Symphony Orchestra runs under the auspices of El Sistema. Other Venezuelan symphony orchestras include the Venezuela Symphony Orchestra, Maracaibo Symphony Orchestra, Municipal Symphony Orchestra and Mérida State Symphony Orchestra.

Composers
Juana Maria de la Concepcion, commonly referred to as Conny Méndez, born 11 April 1898 in Caracas, was a composer, singer, writer, caricaturist and actress who produced more than 40 compositions, such as: Yo soy venezolana, Chucho y Ceferina, La Negrita Marisol, Venezuela Habla Cantando, and many others.

Rubén Cedeño, composer of folk and children's music of Venezuela, he appears in the Venezuelan music encyclopedia. Singer, composer, investigator, painter and writer.

His most recognized works are: The Aguinaldo Que Navidad part of the Venezuelan Christmas repertoire and interpreted by the mezzo-soprano Morella Muñoz, Cantata infantil Simón Bolívar, Misa de mi Tierra among others. It was National Prize of popular music of the INAVI with his valse Nora. The hymn Hail to the Statue of Liberty, received the congratulation of President Ronald Reagan.

Antonio Lauro composed a large body of classical guitar works, adapting traditional Venezuelan waltz and folk songs for the instrument.

Gustavo Matamoros is a renowned Venezuelan composer dedicated to the experimentation with sound and its relationship with the human mind and culture. He has worked mainly with contemporary techniques such as electroacoustics, mixed media, performance, installations, radiophony and multimedia spectacles. He resides in the US. The work of composer, arranger and musical producer Jesús "Chuchito" Sanoja is considered an important part of the Venezuelan cultural patrimony.

Notable musicians and groups
Other Venezuelan performers of note are Jorge Aguilar (singer), Chino y Nacho, Franco de Vita, Alirio Diaz, Ruben Riera, Hernán Gamboa, Gualberto Ibarreto, Enrique Hidalgo, Rudy Regalado, Jesus Sanoja, Otmaro Ruiz, Vytas Brenner, Yordano, Juan Carlos Salazar, Huáscar Barradas, Billo Frómeta, Homero Parra, Gerry Weil, Soledad Bravo, Marlene (Venezuelan singer), María Teresa Chacín, Luis Gómez-Imbert, Luis Mariano Rivera, Maurice Hasson, Luis Laguna, Arca, Graciela, Italo Pizzolante, Cecilia Todd, Lilia Vera, Renato Capriles, Alí Primera, José Luis Rodríguez, Graciela Naranjo, Mario Carniello, Aaron Rafael Serfaty, Frank Quintero, Henry Martínez, Pedro Eustache and Alberto Naranjo, as well as the groups Serenata Guayanesa, Dimensión Latina, Los Cuñaos, Los Cañoneros, Guaco, Fantasmas de Caribe, Mango, Grupo Madera, Percujazz Ensamble, Ensamble Gurrufio, Lloviznando Cantos, Los Chamos and El Trabuco Venezolano, among others.

title: Music of Venezuela


text:
Hausdorff

Hausdorff may refer to:

 * A Hausdorff space, when used as an adjective, as in "the real line is Hausdorff"
 * Felix Hausdorff (1868–1942), the German mathematician after whom Hausdorff spaces are named
 * Hausdorff dimension, a measure theoretic concept of dimension
 * Hausdorff distance or Hausdorff metric, which measures how far two compact non-empty subsets of a metric space are from each other
 * Hausdorff density
 * Hausdorff maximal principle
 * Hausdorff measure
 * Hausdorff moment problem
 * Hausdorff paradox

title: Hausdorff


text:
Symphony No. 4 (Beethoven)

The Symphony No. 4 in B♭ major, Op. 60, is the fourth-published symphony by Ludwig van Beethoven. It was composed in 1806 and premiered in March 1807 at a private concert in Vienna at the town house of Prince Lobkowitz. The first public performance was at the Burgtheater in Vienna in April 1808.

The symphony is in four movements. It is predominantly genial in tone, and has tended to be overshadowed by the weightier Beethoven symphonies that preceded and followed it – the Third Symphony (Eroica) and the Fifth. Although later composers including Berlioz, Mendelssohn and Schumann greatly admired the work it has not become as widely known among the music-loving public as the Eroica, the Fifth and other Beethoven symphonies.

Background
Beethoven spent the summer of 1806 at the country estate of his patron, Prince Lichnowsky, in Silesia. In September Beethoven and the Prince visited the house of one of the latter's friends, Count Franz von Oppersdorff, in nearby Oberglogau. The Count maintained a private orchestra, and the composer was honoured with a performance of his Second Symphony, written four years earlier. After this, Oppersdorff offered the composer a substantial sum to write a new symphony for him.

Beethoven had been working on what later became his Fifth Symphony, and his first intention may have been to complete it in fulfilment of the Count's commission. There are several theories about why, if so, he did not do this. According to George Grove, economic necessity obliged Beethoven to offer the Fifth (together with the Pastoral) jointly to Prince Lobkowitz and Count Razumovsky. Other commentators suggest that the Fourth was essentially complete before Oppersdorff's commission, or that the composer may not yet have felt ready to press on with "the radical and emotionally demanding Fifth", or that the count's evident liking for the more Haydnesque world of the Second Symphony prompted another work in similar vein.

The work is dedicated to "the Silesian nobleman Count Franz von Oppersdorff". Although Oppersdorff had paid for exclusive rights to the work for its first six months, his orchestra did not give the first performance. The symphony was premiered in March 1807 at a private concert in Vienna at the town house of Prince Lobkowitz, another of Beethoven's patrons. The first public performance was at the Burgtheater in Vienna in April 1808. The orchestral parts were published in March 1809, but the full score was not printed until 1821. The manuscript, which was for a time owned by Felix Mendelssohn, is now in the Berlin State Library and can be seen online.

Instrumentation
The symphony is scored for flute, 2 oboes, 2 clarinets in B♭, 2 bassoons, 2 horns in B♭ and E♭, 2 trumpets in B♭ and E♭, timpani and strings. It typically takes between 30 and 35 minutes to perform.

Analysis
In general the symphony is sunny and cheerful, with light instrumentation that for some listeners recalls the symphonies of Joseph Haydn, with whom Beethoven had studied a decade before. In a commentary on the symphony Grove comments that Haydn – who was still alive when the new symphony was first performed – might have found the work too strong for his taste. The Fourth Symphony contrasts with Beethoven's style in the previous Third Symphony (Eroica), and has sometimes been overshadowed by its massive predecessor and its fiery successor, the Fifth Symphony.

I. Adagio – Allegro vivace
The first movement is in time. Like those of the first, second, and seventh of Beethoven's nine symphonies, it has a slow introduction. Leonard Bernstein described it as a "mysterious introduction which hovers around minor modes, tip-toeing its tenuous weight through ambiguous unrelated keys and so reluctant to settle down into its final B♭ major." It begins in B♭ minor with a low B♭, played pizzicato and pianissimo by the strings, followed by a long-held chord in the wind, during which the strings move slowly in the minor. The quiet introduction is thirty-eight bars long, and is followed by a fortissimo repetition of the chord of F, leading into the allegro vivace first subject of the main, sonata form part of the movement, described by Grove as "gaiety itself, and most original gaiety": The second subject is, in the words of Donald Tovey, "a conversation between the bassoon, the oboe, and the flute." The development section takes the tonality towards the remote key of B major before returning to the tonic B♭, and the recapitulation and coda follow the conventional classical form.

II. Adagio
The second movement, in time (E♭ major), is a slow rondo. The rhythmic figure of the opening theme persists throughout, and underpins, the whole movement: Tovey calls the first episode (or second subject) "a still more subtle melody": The main theme returns in an elaborate variation, followed by a middle episode and the reappearance of the varied main theme, now played by the flute. A regular recapitulation is followed by a coda that makes a final allusion to the main theme, and the timpani bring the movement to an end with the last appearance of the rhythmic theme with which the movement began.

III. Scherzo-trio: Allegro vivace
The movement, in and B♭ major, is headed Menuetto in most printed scores, though not in Beethoven's original manuscript. It is marked "Allegro vivace", and was originally to have been "allegro molto e vivace", but Beethoven deleted the "molto" in the autograph score. His metronome marking is dotted minim = 100, at which brisk speed a traditional minuet would be impossible. Haydn had earlier wished that "someone would show us how to make a new minuet", and in this symphony, as in the First, Beethoven "forsook the spirit of the minuet of his predecessors, increased its speed, broke through its formal and antiquated mould, and out of a mere dance-tune produced a Scherzo". (Grove). In the Fourth Symphony (and later, in the Seventh) Beethoven further departed from the traditional minuet-trio-minuet form by repeating the trio after the second rendition of the scherzo section, and then bringing the scherzo back for a third hearing. The final repetition of the scherzo is abridged, and in the coda the two horns "blow the whole movement away" (Tovey).

IV. Allegro ma non troppo
The last movement is in time in B♭ major. The tempo marking is Allegro ma non troppo; this, like that of the third movement, is an afterthought on Beethoven's part: the original tempo indication in the autograph score is an unqualified "allegro". The composer added (in red chalk) "ma non troppo" – i.e. but not too much so. The movement is in a playful style that the composer called aufgeknöpft (unbuttoned). After some 340 bars of what Grove describes as a perpetuum mobile, Beethoven concludes the symphony with the Haydnesque device of playing the main theme at half speed, interrupted by pauses, before a final fortissimo flourish.

Reception
As usual by this stage of the composer's career, the symphony divided opinion among those who heard early performances. In 1809 Carl Maria von Weber, never an admirer of Beethoven, wrote:
 * First a slow movement full of short disjointed unconnected ideas, at the rate of three or four notes per quarter of an hour; then a mysterious roll of the drum and passage of the violas, seasoned with the proper quantity of pauses and ritardandos; and to end all a furious finale, in which the only requisite is that there should be no ideas for the hearer to make out, but plenty of transitions from one key to another – on to the new note at once! never mind modulating! – above all things, throw rules to the winds, for they only hamper a genius.

Other critics were less hostile, praising the composer's "richness of ideas, bold originality and fullness of power" though finding the Fourth and the works premiered alongside it "rough diamonds". Beethoven's biographer Anton Schindler later recalled the Fourth as being a great success from the outset, although later scholars have expressed reservations about his reliability.

When Beethoven's younger contemporary Hector Berlioz heard the symphony he wrote that the slow movement was the work of the Archangel Michael, and not that of a human. Nonetheless, by the time Berlioz was writing musical criticism, the Fourth was already less often played than other Beethoven symphonies. Robert Schumann is said to have called the Fourth Symphony "a slender Greek maiden between two Norse giants", and it was an important influence on his First Symphony. Mendelssohn loved the Fourth, and programmed it when he was conductor of the Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra. But their enthusiasm was not shared by the wider musical public. As early as 1831 a British critic noted that the Fourth was the "least frequently brought forward" of the first six, though, in his view "not inferior to any". In 1838 the French impresario Louis-Désiré Véron called the Fourth sublime and regretted that in Paris it was not merely neglected but denigrated. In 1896 Grove commented that the work had "met with scant notice in some of the most prominent works on Beethoven".

In the 20th century, writers continued to contrast the Fourth with the Eroica and the Fifth. In a study of the Fourth written in 2012 Mark Ferraguto quotes a 1994 description of the work as "a rich, verdant valley of yin expressiveness … poised between the two staggering yang peaks of the Third and the Fifth".

According to the musicologist Robert Greenberg of the San Francisco Conservatory of Music:
 * If any of Beethoven's contemporaries had written this symphony, it would be considered that composer's masterwork, and that composer would be remembered forever for this symphony, and this symphony would be played – often – as an example of that composer's great work. As it is, for Beethoven, it is a work in search of an audience. It's the least known and least appreciated of the nine.

Recordings
The symphony has been recorded, in the studio and in concert performances, more than a hundred times. Early recordings were mostly issued as single sets, sometimes coupled with another Beethoven symphony, such as the Second. More recently, recordings of the Fourth have often been issued as part of complete cycles of the Beethoven symphonies.

Monaural recordings, made in the era of 78 rpm discs or mono LPs, include a 1933 set with Felix Weingartner conducting the London Philharmonic Orchestra, a 1939 version by the BBC Symphony Orchestra conducted by Arturo Toscanini, recordings from the 1940s conducted by Willem Mengelberg, Serge Koussevitzky and Sir Thomas Beecham, and from the early 1950s under Georg Solti (1951) and Wilhelm Furtwängler (1952).

Recordings from the stereo LP era of the mid-1950s to the 1970s include those conducted by Otto Klemperer (1957), Pierre Monteux (1959), Herbert von Karajan (1963) and Hans Schmidt-Isserstedt (1966).

The late 1950s and early 1960s saw the first recordings based on recent musicological ideas of authentic early-19th-century performance practice: Hermann Scherchen (1958) and René Leibowitz (1961) conducted sets of the symphonies attempting to follow Beethoven's metronome markings, which up to then had been widely regarded as impossibly fast. These pioneering efforts were followed in later decades by recordings of performances in what was currently regarded as authentic style, often played by specialist ensembles on old instruments, or replicas of them, playing at about a semitone below modern concert pitch. Among conductors of such versions of the Fourth Symphony have been Christopher Hogwood (1986), Roger Norrington (1988), Frans Brüggen (1991) and John Eliot Gardiner (1994).

More recently some conductors of modern symphony or chamber orchestras have recorded the Fourth (along with other Beethoven symphonies), drawing to a greater or lesser degree on the practices of the specialist groups. Among these are Nikolaus Harnoncourt (1992), and Sir Charles Mackerras (2007). In a survey of all available recordings in 2015 for BBC Radio 3 the top recommended version was in this category: the Zurich Tonhalle Orchestra, conducted by David Zinman. Among conductors of more traditional recordings have been Leonard Bernstein (1980), Claudio Abbado (2000) and Bernard Haitink (2006).

title: Symphony No. 4 (Beethoven)


text:
Talk:Open hardware

Is the IBM PC compatible an example of open hardware?
 * Well, no. Usually the electronic logic of any particular part of a PC is terribly proprietary, patented or copyrighted as much as the provider can manage. Open hardware actually places the logic design into the public domain, written in a specialized computer languages such as Verilog.  See the OpenCores. User:Ray Van De Walker

I suggest create a Wikimedia project for free (open) hardware.

Open Graphics Project?
If you check out opengraphics.org, you will see an example of a symbiosis between open source software, and (temporarily) closed hardware (with fully open interface specs). This is different from fully open hardware, where the internal design of the hardware is open from the start, but it's a bridge between fully supporting open source and being able to have temporarily proprietary control over the hardware for the sake of a transitional business model. I post this in the comments section, because, being the leader of the Open Graphics Project, I am unlikely to be able to present a totally unbiased perspective.

Move discussion in progress
There is a move discussion in progress on Talk:Open-source hardware which affects this page. Please participate on that page and not in this talk page section. Thank you. —RMCD bot 21:47, 2 March 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Open hardware


text:
Prince Wilhelm

Prince Wilhelm may refer to:
 * Prince Wilhelm of Prussia (1783–1851)
 * Prince William of Hesse (1787–1867)
 * Wilhelm, Prince of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Freudenberg (1817–1887)
 * Wilhelm, Prince of Hohenzollern (1864–1927)
 * William of Albania (1876–1945)
 * Wilhelm, German Crown Prince (1882–1951)
 * Prince Wilhelm, Duke of Södermanland (1884–1965)
 * Prince Wilhelm of Prussia (1906-1940)

title: Prince Wilhelm


text:
Triple Entente

The Triple Entente (from French entente meaning "friendship, understanding, agreement") describes the informal understanding between the Russian Empire, the French Third Republic, and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. It was built upon the Franco-Russian Alliance of 1894, the Entente Cordiale of 1904 between France and Britain, and the Anglo-Russian Entente of 1907. It formed a powerful counterweight to the Triple Alliance of the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and the Kingdom of Italy. The Triple Entente, unlike the Triple Alliance or the Franco-Russian Alliance itself, was not an alliance of mutual defence.

The Franco-Japanese Treaty of 1907 was a key part of building a coalition as France took the lead in creating alliances with Japan, Russia, and (informally) with Britain. Japan wanted to raise a loan in Paris, so France made the loan contingent on a Russo-Japanese agreement and a Japanese guarantee for France's strategically vulnerable possessions in Indochina. Britain encouraged the Russo-Japanese rapprochement. Thus was built the Triple Entente coalition that fought World War I.

At the start of World War I in 1914, all three Triple Entente members entered it as Allied Powers against the Central Powers: Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria. On September 4, 1914, the Triple Entente issued a declaration undertaking not to conclude a separate peace and only to demand terms of peace agreed among the three parties. Historians continue to debate the importance of the alliance system as one of the causes of World War I.

Alliance system
During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, Prussia and its allies defeated the Second French Empire, resulting in the establishment of the Third Republic. In the Treaty of Frankfurt, Prussia forced France to cede Alsace-Lorraine to the new German Empire, souring subsequent relations. France, worried about the escalating military development of Germany, began building up its own war industries and army to deter German aggression.

Russia had previously been a member of the League of the Three Emperors, an alliance in 1873 with Austria-Hungary and Germany. The alliance was part of German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck's plan to isolate France diplomatically; he feared that France's revanchist aspirations might lead it to attempt to regain its 1871 losses stemming from the Franco-Prussian War. The alliance also served to oppose such socialist movements as the First International, which the conservative rulers found unsettling. However, the League faced great difficulty with the growing tensions between Russia and Austria-Hungary, mainly over the Balkans, where the rise of nationalism and the continued decline of the Ottoman Empire made many former Ottoman provinces struggle for independence. To counter Russian and French interests in Europe, the Dual alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary was concluded in October 1879 and with Italy in May 1882. The situation in the Balkans, especially in the wake of the 1885 Serbo-Bulgarian War and the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, which made Russia feel cheated of its gains made in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877/78, prevented the League from being renewed in 1887. In an attempt to stop Russia from allying with France, Bismarck signed the secret Reinsurance Treaty with Russia in 1887. This treaty assured that both parties would remain neutral if war broke out. The growing rapprochement between Russia and France and Bismarck's exclusion of Russia from the German financial market in 1887 prevented the treaty from being renewed in 1890, ending the alliance between Germany and Russia. After the forced resignation of Bismarck in 1890, the young Kaiser Wilhelm set out on his imperialist course of Weltpolitik ("world politics") to increase the empire's influence in and control over the world.

Franco-Russian Alliance
Russia had by far the largest manpower reserves of all the six European powers, but it was also the most backward economically. Russia shared France's worries about Germany. Additionally, the Russians feared that the Ottomans, who had received assistance from the British under Admiral Limpus, et al., the French, and the Germans to reorganize and modernize the Ottoman armed forces, would come to control the Dardanelles, a vital trade artery that carried two-fifths of Russia's exports.

There was also Russia's recent rivalry with Austria-Hungary over the spheres of influence in the Balkans and after the Reinsurance Treaty was not renewed in 1890, Russian leaders grew alarmed at the country's diplomatic isolation and joined the Franco-Russian Alliance in 1894.

France developed a strong bond with Russia by ratifying the Franco-Russian Alliance, which was designed to create a strong counter to the Triple Alliance. France's main concerns were to protect against an attack from Germany and to regain Alsace-Lorraine.

Entente cordiale
In the last decade of the nineteenth century, Britain continued its policy of "splendid isolation", with its primary focus on defending its massive overseas empire. However, by the early 1900s, the German threat had increased dramatically, and Britain thought it was in need of allies. London made overtures to Berlin which were not reciprocated, so London turned to Paris and St. Petersburg instead.

In 1904, Britain and France signed a series of agreements, the Entente cordiale, mostly aimed toward resolving colonial disputes. That heralded the end of British splendid isolation. France and Britain had signed five separate agreements regarding spheres of influence in North Africa in 1904, the Entente cordiale. The Tangier Crisis later encouraged co-operation between the two countries from their mutual fear of apparent German expansionism.

Naval race with Germany
Britain, traditionally having control of the seas, by 1909 saw the German navy as a serious threat to its Royal Navy. Britain was well ahead in terms of Dreadnought technology and responded with a major building program. They built a Royal Navy that Germany could never rival. The British sent war minister Lord Haldane to Berlin in February 1912 to reduce friction stemming from the Anglo-German naval arms race. The mission was a failure because the Germans attempted to link a "naval holiday" with a British promise to remain neutral if Germany should become engaged in a war where "Germany could not be said to be the aggressor." Zara Steiner says, "It would have meant abandoning the whole system of ententes which had been so carefully nurtured during the past six years. There was no German concession to counter the fear of German aggression." Essentially, the British reserved the right to join whatever country was attacking Germany even if Germany did not start the conflict, dooming the talks to failure. According to German historian Dirk Bönker, "To be sure, the [naval] race was decided early on; political leaders and diplomats learned to bracket it as an issue, and it did not cause the decision for war in 1914. But the naval competition nonetheless created an atmosphere of mutual hostility and distrust, which circumscribed the space for peaceful diplomacy and public recognition of shared interests, and helped to pave the twisted road to war in Europe."

Not an alliance
The Entente, unlike the Triple Alliance and the Franco-Russian Alliance, was not an alliance of mutual defense and so Britain was free to make its own foreign policy decisions in 1914. As British Foreign Office Official Eyre Crowe minuted, "The fundamental fact, of course, is that the Entente is not an alliance. For purposes of ultimate emergencies, it may be found to have no substance at all. For the Entente is nothing more than a frame of mind, a view of general policy which is shared by the governments of two countries, but which may be, or become, so vague as to lose all content".

Anglo-Russian Convention
Russia had also recently lost the humiliating Russo-Japanese War, a cause of the Russian Revolution of 1905, and the apparent transformation into a constitutional monarchy. Although it was perceived as useless during the war with Japan, the alliance was valuable in the European theatre to counteract the threat of the Triple Alliance. Tomaszewski describes the evolution of the triple entente relationship from the Russian standpoint during the period 1908 to 1914 as a progression from a shaky set of understandings that withstood various crises and emerged as a fully-fledged alliance after the outbreak of World War I.

In 1907, the Anglo-Russian Entente was agreed, which attempted to resolve a series of long-running disputes over Persia, Afghanistan and Tibet and end their rivalry in Central Asia, nicknamed The Great Game. and helped to address British fears about the Baghdad Railway, which would help German expansion in the Near East.

The entente in operation
The coming into being of the entente did not necessarily fix a permanent division into two opposing power blocs. The situation remained flexible. The alignment of the Russian Empire with Europe's two largest power centres was controversial on both sides. Many Russian conservatives distrusted the secular French and recalled British past diplomatic manoeuvres to block Russian influence in the Near East. In turn, prominent French and British journalists, academics, and parliamentarians found the reactionary tsarist regime distasteful. Mistrust persisted even during wartime, with British and French politicians expressing relief when Tsar Nicholas II abdicated and was replaced by the Russian Provisional Government after the February Revolution in 1917. An offer of political asylum for the Romanovs was even withdrawn by the British king for fear of popular reaction. Also, France never brought up the subject of asylum with the deposed tsar.

title: Triple Entente


text:
Symphony No. 4

Symphony No. 4 may refer to:

 * Symphony No. 4 (Abel) (Op. 1, WK 4) by Carl Friedrich Abel
 * Symphony No. 4 (Aho) by Kalevi Aho (1972–3)
 * Symphony No. 4 (Alwyn) by William Alwyn, 1959
 * Symphony No. 4 (Arnold) by Malcolm Arnold, 1960
 * Symphony No. 4 (Atterberg) in G minor, Op. 14 by Kurt Atterberg, 1917-8 (later revised?)
 * Symphony No. 4 (Berkeley) by Lennox Berkeley (1977–78)
 * Symphony No. 4 (Bax) by Arnold Bax, 1930
 * Symphony No. 4 (Beethoven) in B-flat major (Op. 60) by Ludwig van Beethoven, 1807
 * Symphony No. 4 (Berwald) in E flat (Sinfonie naïve) by Franz Berwald, 1845
 * Symphony No. 4 (Brahms) in E minor (Op. 98) by Johannes Brahms, 1885
 * Symphony No. 4 (Brian) (Das Siegeslied) by Havergal Brian, 1932–33
 * Symphony No. 4 (Bruckner) in E-flat major (Romantic) by Anton Bruckner, 1874
 * Symphony No. 4 (Cartellieri) by Antonio Casimir Cartellieri
 * Symphony No. 4 (Chávez) (Sinfonía romántica) by Carlos Chávez, 1953
 * Symphony No. 4 (Ching) in G minor (Souvenir des Ming), by Jeffrey Ching, 2002
 * Symphony No. 4 (Creston) (Op. 52) by Paul Creston, 1951
 * Symphony No. 4 (Davies) by Peter Maxwell Davies, 1989
 * Symphony No. 4 (Diamond) by David Diamond, 1945
 * Symphony No. 4 (Draeseke) in E minor (WoO 38, Symphonia Comica) by Felix Draeseke, 1912
 * Symphony No. 4 (Dvořák) in D minor (Op. 13, B. 41) by Antonín Dvořák, 1874
 * Symphony No. 4 (Enescu) in E minor, by George Enescu 1928–34, unfinished, completed by and Pascal Bentoiu 1996
 * Symphony No. 4 (Ficher) (Op. 60) by Jacobo Ficher, 1946
 * Symphony No. 4 (Glass) (Heroes) by Philip Glass, 1996
 * Symphony No. 4 (Glazunov) in E flat major (Op. 48) by Alexander Glazunov, 1893
 * Symphony No. 4 (Guarnieri) (Brasília) by Camargo Guarnieri, 1963
 * Symphony No. 4 (Hanson) (Op. 34, Requiem) by Howard Hanson, 1943
 * Symphony No. 4 (Harbison) by John Harbison, 2004
 * Symphony No. 4 (Hartmann) for string orchestra, by Karl Amadeus Hartmann, 1946–47
 * Symphony No. 4 (Haydn) in D major (Hoboken I/4) by Joseph Haydn, 1757–61
 * Symphony No. 4 (Michael Haydn) in B-flat major (Perger 51, Sherman 4, MH 62) by Michael Haydn, 1763
 * Symphony No. 4 (Henze) by Hans Werner Henze, 1955
 * Symphony No. 4 (Hill) in C minor (The Pursuit of Happiness), by Alfred Hill, 1954–55
 * Symphony No. 4 (Honegger) by Arthur Honegger, 1946
 * Symphony No. 4 (Hovhaness) (Op. 165) by Alan Hovhaness, 1957
 * Symphony No. 4 (Ives) (S. 4, K. 1A4) by Charles Ives, 1910–24
 * Symphony No. 4 (Karetnikov) (Op. 17) by Nikolai Karetnikov, 1963
 * Symphony No. 4 (Kernis) by Aaron Jay Kernis, 2018
 * Symphony No. 4 (Lutosławski) by Witold Lutosławski, 1988–92
 * Symphony No. 4 (MacMillan) by James MacMillan, 2015
 * Symphony No. 4 (Magnard) in C-sharp minor (Op. 21) by Albéric Magnard, 1913
 * Symphony No. 4 (Mahler) in G major, by Gustav Mahler, 1899–1900
 * Symphony No. 4 (Martins) (Buddha Dharma) by Vasco Martins, 2001
 * Symphony No. 4 (Martinů) (H. 305) by Bohuslav Martinů, 1945
 * Symphony No. 4 (Melartin) (Op. 80, Summer Symphony) by Erkki Melartin, 1912
 * Symphony No. 4 (Mendelssohn) in A major (Op. 90, Italian) by Felix Mendelssohn, 1833
 * Symphony No. 4 (Mennin) ("The Cycle") by Peter Mennin, 1947–48
 * Symphony No. 4 (Milhaud) (Op. 281), by Darius Milhaud, 1947
 * Symphony No. 4 (Mozart) in D major (K. 19) by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, 1765
 * Symphony No. 4 (Natra) by Sergiu Natra
 * Symphony No. 4 (Nielsen) (Op. 29, FS 76, The Inextinguishable) by Carl Nielsen, 1916
 * Symphony No. 4 (Panufnik) (Sinfonia Concertante) by Andrzej Panufnik, 1973
 * Symphony No. 4 (Pärt) (Los Angeles) by Arvo Pärt, 2008
 * Symphony No. 4 (Penderecki) (Adagio) by Krzysztof Penderecki, 1989
 * Symphony No. 4 (Piston) by Walter Piston, 1950
 * Symphony No. 4 (Prieto) (Martín y Soler) by Claudio Prieto, 2006
 * Symphony No. 4 (Prokofiev) (Op. 47/112) by Sergei Prokofiev, 1929 and 1947
 * Symphony No. 4 (Raff) in G minor (Op. 167) by Joachim Raff, 1871
 * Symphony No. 4 (Rautavaara) (Arabescata) by Einojuhani Rautavaara, 1962
 * Symphony No. 4 (Rochberg), by George Rochberg, 1976
 * Symphony No. 4 (Rouse) by Christopher Rouse, 2013
 * Symphony No. 4 (Rubbra) (Op. 53) by Edmund Rubbra, 1942
 * Symphony No. 4 (Sallinen) (Op. 49) by Aulis Sallinen, 1978–79
 * Symphony No. 4 (Schnittke) by Alfred Schnittke, 1983
 * Symphony No. 4 (Schubert) in C minor (D. 417, Tragic) by Franz Schubert, 1816
 * Symphony No. 4 (Schuman) by William Schuman, 1942
 * Symphony No. 4 (Schumann) in D minor (Op. 120) by Robert Schumann, 1841
 * Symphony No. 4 (Scriabin) (Op. 54, The Poem of Ecstasy) by Alexander Scriabin, 1905–08
 * Symphony No. 4 (Sessions) by Roger Sessions, 1958
 * Symphony No. 4 (Shostakovich) in C minor (Op. 43) by Dmitri Shostakovich, 1935–36
 * Symphony No. 4 (Sibelius) in A minor (Op. 63) by Jean Sibelius, 1910–11
 * Symphony No. 4 (Simpson) in E flat by Robert Simpson, 1970–72
 * Symphony No. 4 (Szymanowski) (Op. 60, Symphonie concertante) by Karol Szymanowski, 1932
 * Symphony No. 4 (Tansman) in C-sharp minor by Alexander Tansman, 1936–39
 * Symphony No. 4 (Tchaikovsky) in F minor (Op. 36) by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, 1877–78
 * Symphony No. 4 (Tippett) by Michael Tippett, 1977
 * Symphony No. 4 (Ustvolskaya) (Prayer) by Galina Ustvolskaya, 1985–87
 * Symphony No. 4 (Vaughan Williams) in F minor by Ralph Vaughan Williams, 1935
 * Symphony No. 4 (Villa-Lobos) (A victória) by Heitor Villa-Lobos, 1919
 * Symphony No. 4 (Weinberg) in A minor, Op. 61 by Mieczysław Weinberg, 1957 (rev. 1961?)
 * Symphony No. 4 (Williamson) (Jubilee) by Malcolm Williamson, 1977

title: Symphony No. 4


text:
Wei (state)

Wei (Old Chinese: *) was one of the seven major states during the Warring States period of ancient China. It was created from the three-way Partition of Jin, together with Han and Zhao. Its territory lay between the states of Qin and Qi and included parts of modern-day Henan, Hebei, Shanxi, and Shandong. After its capital was moved from Anyi to Daliang (present-day Kaifeng) during the reign of King Hui, Wei was also called Liang.

Foundation
Surviving sources trace the ruling house of Wei to the Zhou royalty: Gao, Duke of Bi (畢公高), was a son of King Wen of Zhou. His descendants took their surname, Bi, from his fief. After the destruction of Bi, Bi Wan (畢萬) escaped to Jin, where he became a courtier of Duke Xian's, accompanying his personal carriage. After a successful military expedition, Bi Wan was granted Wei, from which his own descendants then founded the house of Wei.

Spring and Autumn period
Jin's political structure was drastically changed after the slaughter of its ruling dynasty during and after the Li Ji Unrest. Afterwards, "Jin ha[d] no princely house" (晉無公卿) and its political power diffused into extended relations of the ruling family, including the Wei. In the last years of the Spring and Autumn period, the founders of Wei, Zhao, and Han joined to attack and kill the dominant house of Zhi (知) in 453 BCE, resulting in the partition of Jin. King Weilie of Zhou finally legitimized the situation in 403 BCE, when he elevated the three houses' heads to the rank of marquess.

Warring States Period
The state reached its apogee during the reigns of its first two rulers, Marquess Wen of Wei and Marquess Wu of Wei. The third ruler, King Hui of Wei, declared himself an independent sovereign and concentrated on economic developments, including irrigation projects at the Yellow River. Hui felt that Qin in the west was weak and their land a barren waste. He focused on conquering the well-settled eastern lands which were richer in known resources. However, a series of battles including the battle of Maling in 341 BCE checked Wei's ambitions while Qin's expansion went largely unimpeded, boosting its economy and military strength.

Early strengthening of the state of Wei resulted from adoption of Legalist reforms proposed by Li Kui (, c. 459 – c. 395 BCE).

Defeat
Wei eventually lost the western Hexi (河西) region, a strategic area of pastoral land on the west bank of the Yellow River between the border of modern-day Shanxi and Shaanxi, to Qin. Thereafter, it remained continuously at war with Qin, requiring the capital to be moved from Anyi to Daliang. Wei surrendered to Qin in 225 BCE, after the Qin general Wang Ben diverted the Yellow River into Daliang, destroying the capital in a flood.

Rulers

 * 1) Marquess Wen of Wei, personal name Si (斯) or Du (都), (445–396 BCE)
 * 2) Marquess Wu of Wei, personal name Ji (擊), son of Marquess Wen, (396–370 BCE)
 * 3) King Hui of Wei, personal name Ying (罃), son of Marquess Wu, (370–319 BCE)
 * 4) King Xiang of Wei (魏襄王), personal name Si (嗣) or He (赫), son of King Hui, (319–296 BCE)
 * 5) King Zhao of Wei (魏昭王), personal name Chi (遫), son of King Xiang, (296–277 BCE)
 * 6) King Anxi of Wei (魏安釐王),personal name Yu (圉), son of King Zhao, (277–243 BCE)
 * 7) King Jingmin of Wei (魏景湣王), personal name Zeng (增) or Wu (午), son of King Anxi, (243–228 BCE)
 * 8) King Jia, (魏王假), personal name Jia (假), son of King Jingmin, (228–225 BCE)

According to Sima Qian's Records of the Grand Historian written in the first centuryBCE, the list of rulers is slightly different: King Hui died in 335BCE and was succeeded by his son King Xiang in 334BCE. King Xiang died in 319BCE and was succeeded by his son King Ai (哀王), who died in 296BCE and was succeeded by his son King Zhao. However, the majority of scholars and commentators believe that King Ai, whose personal name is not recorded, never existed. It seems that Sima Qian assigned the second part of the reign of King Hui (starting in 334BCE, on which date Marquess Hui probably proclaimed himself King) to his son King Xiang and added King Ai to fill in the gap between 319 and 296BCE. On the other hand, a minority of scholars believe King Ai did indeed exist.

Notable people

 * Li Kui, a Legalist philosopher and chancellor
 * Yue Yang, ancestor of Yue Yi and prime minister of Zhongshan
 * Pang Juan, a successful general who was defeated by Lord Mengchang of Qi and Sun Bin at the battle of Maling

Chinese legend
According to the Records of the Warring States, a king of Wei had a lover named Lord Longyang, with whom he enjoyed fishing. One day, Longyang began to weep. When questioned, Longyang said he saw his own future in how he had treated a fish. Happy to have the catch at first, Longyang had wanted to throw it back when he caught a better fish. He wept, "I am also a previously-caught fish! I will also be thrown back!" To show his fidelity to Longyang, the king declared that, "Anyone who dares to speak of other beauties will be executed along with his entire family".

Chinese astronomy
In traditional Chinese astronomy, Wei is represented by one star in the "Twelve States" asterism of the "Girl" lunar mansion of the "Black Turtle" symbol and other star in the "Left Wall" of the "Heavenly Market" enclosure. Sources differ, however, in whether those two stars are (respectively) 33 Capricorni and Delta Herculis or whether they are Chi Capricorni and Phi Capricorni.

title: Wei (state)


text:
Mallika Sarabhai

Mallika Sarabhai is an activist and Indian classical dancer and actress from Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India. Daughter of a classical dancer Mrinalini Sarabhai and space scientist Vikram Sarabhai, Mallika is an accomplished Kuchipudi and Bharatanatyam dancer and performer who has specialized in using the arts for social change and transformation.

Early life and education
Mallika Sarabhai was born in Ahmedabad to Vikram Sarabhai and Mrinalini Sarabhai. She graduated from the St. Xavier's College, Ahmedabad with a degree in Economics. She then completed her MBA from IIM Ahmedabad in 1974 and Doctorate in Organisational Behaviour from the Gujarat University in 1976. She is a noted choreographer and dancer and has also acted in a few Hindi, Malayalam, Gujarati and international films.

Career
She started to learn dancing when she was young and started her film career in the parallel cinema when she was 15. Mallika played the role of Draupadi in the Peter Brook's play The Mahabharata. Mallika has won many accolades during her long career, the Golden Star Award is one of them, which she won for the Best Dance Soloist, Theatre De Champs Elysees, Paris 1977. As well as a dancer, Sarabhai is a social activist. She manages the Darpana Academy of Performing Arts located at Ahmedabad, a centre for the arts and for the use of arts as a language for behaviour change.

Performance
She acted in the Hindi movie titled Himalay Se Ooncha that was released in 1975. The movie which had Sunil Dutt as the hero, did not do very well at the box office. In 1986 she acted in the Basu Chatterji directed movie titled Sheesha opposite super star Mithun Chakraborty.

In 1989 she performed hard-hitting solo theatrical works, Shakti: The Power of Women. Her performance Sita's Daughters has toured the world and been performed over 500 times in three languages. After that, she directed and acted in numerous productions reflecting current issues and awareness among people. Amongst them is An Idea Named Meera; In Search of the Goddess and SvaKranti: The Revolution Within.

Mallika Sarabhai also wrote the script for the play 'Unsuni' based on Harsh Mander's book 'Unheard Voices' to raise awareness amongst children in elite schools and colleges to the real issues facing India's marginalized. The play went around 120 schools and colleges. Arvind Gaur later directed it as a play, with the same name. Darpana Academy has launched the people awareness movement through its production Unsuni which travels all over India.

In 2009 Mallika Sarabhai acted in an Indian adaptation Bertolt Brecht's of The Good Person of Szechwan (Ahmedabadki Aurat Bhali-Ramkali) directed by Arvind Gaur in 34th Vikram Sarabhai International Art Festival.

In the year 2012, Mallika co-directed 'Women with Broken Wings,' an international production with filmmaker Yadavan Chandran and Swiss pianist Elizabeth Sombart, an ode to the millions of women who have been the victims of violence. In 2014 she recreated, with Yadavan Chandran, Kadak Badshaahi, a multimedia production on the 603-year-old history of the city of Ahmedabad. The performance ran for an unprecedented 33 full nights in Darpana's venue, Natarani.

Television
Mallika has also used film and television for social change, especially for women's empowerment and environmental consciousness. Through Darpana Communications, she has been responsible for the production of three thousand hours of TV broadcast programming, all of which has been shown through Doordarshan, Gujarati. The programming uses the most popular genres of TV. She has anchored many shows on STAR TV and Doordarshan as well as the first NACO series on HIV, Talk Positive; the science series Turning Point; Vaividhyotsav, the culture quiz and Srishti: The Environment Quiz.

Writing
Mallika first started writing when she produced and performed Shakti: The Power of Women. Since then she has scripted her shows, TV serials for ISROs educational TV in Madhya Pradesh, film scripts and more new contemporary lyrics for Bharatanatyam. She has been a columnist for Times of India, Vanitha, The Week, DivyaBhaskar, Hans and DNA.

Her recent memoir is title, In Free Fall, My Experiments With Living. She recently appeared on a podcast, The Literary City with Ramjee Chandran to talk about the memoir.

Politics
On 19 March 2009, Mallika Sarabhai announced her candidature against the Bharatiya Janata Party's prime ministerial candidate L K Advani for the Gandhinagar Lok Sabha seat, as an independent candidate in the 2009 general election. She had several offers from the Congress to contest elections, the first being in 1984 from Rajiv Gandhi, but did not join any political party as she believed that all parties are corrupt. She eventually lost to L K Advani by a huge margin and forfeited her election deposit in the process.

She protested against Gujarat Chief Minister, Narendra Modi during Sadbhavna Mission in September 2011. She accused Narendra Modi of scuttling the petition filed in Supreme court by her on the 2002 Gujarat violence. She joined the Aam Aadmi Party on 8 January 2014.

Personal life
Mallika met Bipin Shah in 1982 and married him. They have two children, a son, Revanta and a daughter Anahita. They divorced in 1989. Bipin and Mallika co-founded Mapin Publishing in 1984 and continue to run it together. The loss of her mother, classical dancer Mrinalini Sarabhai, in 2016, left her bereft; yoga, dance, Transcendental Meditation (TM) and Non-Violent Communication (NVC) were some of the ways that she coped.

She is the cousin of Indian politician and member of the Communist Party of India (Marxist) Subhashini Ali, daughter of her mother’s sister Captain Lakshmi Sehgal (née Dr. Lakshmi Swaminathan) and Colonel Prem Sehgal. Her brother is environmental educator and director of Centre for Environment Education (CEE) Kartikeya Sarabhai.

Honour

 * Government of Gujarat awarded her with 'Gaurav Puraskar' for the contribution in the field of drama and dance.
 * She received the Padma Bhushan by government of India.
 * The French Government awarded her with a knight's rank in the Order of Academic Palms in 2005 for her contribution in the field of drama and dance.

title: Mallika Sarabhai


text:
USS

USS may refer to:

Arts, entertainment, and media

 * Ubiquitous Synergy Seeker, a Canadian band
 * Universal Studios Singapore, a theme park in Singapore

Businesses and organizations

 * Union of Sovereign States, the planned successor to the Soviet Union
 * Union Switch & Signal, a supplier of railroad switching equipment
 * Union Syndicale Suisse, the Swiss Trade Union Confederation
 * United Seamen's Service, a non-profit, federally chartered organization founded in 1942
 * United State of Saurashtra, a separate, western State within the Union of India from 1948 until 1956
 * United States Senate, the upper chamber of the United States Congress
 * U.S. Steel Corporation
 * USA Swimming, formerly United States Swimming, the national governing body for competitive swimming in the US
 * Universities Superannuation Scheme, a pension scheme in the United Kingdom
 * United Peasant Party (Ujedinjena seljačka stranka), a political party in Serbia

Computing

 * Unformatted System Services, the mechanism within VTAM to format a session's logmode and application. An equivalent facility in TN3270 also specifies a logon screen.
 * UNIX System Services, a component of z/OS that provides Unix compatibility
 * Upload Speed Sense, a method of regulating a host's upload bandwidth in the eMule client

Health care

 * Ultrasound scan, a scientific and medical imaging technique (usually refers to medical ultrasound)
 * Upshaw–Schulman syndrome, the recessively inherited form of thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura
 * Universal Spinal System, an implantable device (instrumentation) system for correcting scoliosis

Schools

 * University of Southern Somalia
 * Uxbridge Secondary School, a high school in Uxbridge, Ontario, Canada

Other uses

 * United States Ship, typically as a ship prefix in the United States Navy (includes submarines)
 * United States Standard, an older standard of screw thread
 * In the fictional Star Trek universe, either United Space Ship or United Star Ship

title: USS


text:
Talk:Cell biology

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 20 August 2019 and 6 December 2019. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): HudaN.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 18:46, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 17 August 2020 and 2 December 2020. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): CNArmstrong.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 18:46, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 23 August 2021 and 10 December 2021. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Wentabdul 2021, Lchirumamill2021.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 18:46, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article is or was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): EricaKessell.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 17:03, 16 January 2022 (UTC)

Electron Micrograph
What value is this image? It doesn't even say what part of the cell it is... — Preceding unsigned comment added by 128.189.251.90 (talk) 23:44, 24 November 2011 (UTC)

Where
Where can I get information regarding cell sensitivity, pressure tolerance, atmospheric changes, clumping, and shearing issues? Particularly regarding using mesenchymal cells in angiogenesis.

What is the relationship between cell abd qi?

Are there any objections to moving this to cellular biology; "cell biology" is grammatically incorrect -- both terms are used in academia. Lirath Q. Pynnor

 * Yes, please don't change it. Perhaps it is grammatically incorrect, but cell biology is the most widely used terminology.  Most journals and reference works use cell biology in their title (The Journal of Cell Biology, Nature Cell Biology, Dictionary of Cell Biology), and most depts and academic organizations use cell biology (International Federation for Cell Biology, American Society of Cell Biology), and amongst other biologists, cell biology is the most widely used term in everyday conversation, when referring to the discipline.   Finally it wins on  the Google Test, hands-down:   2,200,000 ("cell biology") to 323,000 ("cellular biology"). --Lexor 10:30, 2 Jan 2004 (UTC)

Is there a difference between Cytology and Cell biology? These are two separate articles. --romanm (talk) 22:33, 2 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * I have same question. Let's redirect cytology to cell biology! --Metju12 18:34, 2 May 2005 (UTC)

I look in my schools science textbook and it says "Cell Biology". Most common day papers will use 'Cell Biology' — Preceding unsigned comment added by 75.155.137.83 (talk) 00:49, 1 October 2013 (UTC)

Expand
This needs some serious fleshing out. Let's try to integrate some of those "see also" terms. Isopropyl 15:14, 9 June 2006 (UTC)

Movement of Items within/outside of cell

 * It might be helpful to include some kind of flowchart for the "movement" section. It really helps us intro to biology students. 24.251.84.221 19:50, 18 October 2007 (UTC)

Embryology
would sympathtic editors consider a positive vote here? Slrubenstein  |  Talk 15:26, 23 August 2006 (UTC)

Cell physiology
We have a fairly worthless article at Cell physiology. Should that be a redir here, somewhere else, or should it be filed in the appropriate wikiproject's "things to fix" list? -- Finlay McWalter | Talk 12:20, 4 November 2006 (UTC)

External Link
The following link is to a site with interactive blogs on Harvard undergrad class lectures. This particular one is essentially the main intro class to science classes at Harvard, and covers topics ranging from chemistry to molecular and cellular biology. I found this page extremely helpful when I was taking the class and I think that the posted lecture notes are pretty interesting for anyone remotely interested in the topic.

 * http://www.thefinalclub.org/blogs/fall2006/LifeSciences1a/public/

Anyone can read and contribute to the commentary of the texts on the site. If you read through a lecture or two and agree, I'd encourage someone with more Wikipedia clout than myself to post on the actual chemistry and/or mcb pages. Let me know what you all think. I'd love to hear your thoughts.

Bbrasky100 (talk) 17:36, 19 June 2008 (UTC)Bill

This article is unsalvageable
Many of the statements made in this entry are factually inaccurate, vague, or over generalized. "Most proteins are synthesized by ribosomes in the rough endoplasmic reticulum (rER)" is not only factually inaccurate, it uses most which is not a quantifiable value. Organization of the article is very poor. Topics are mentioned at random with no clear structure; many aren't related other than that they take place within a cell. If this is supposed to be an article on the study of Cell Biology, why is there a discussion of protein synthesis? Studying proteins synthesis is a topic covered within the study of cell biology, but so is cellular signaling, cell cycle, etc.

There is far too much opinion in this article as well. For example, the second paragraph, which starts "Knowing the components of cells and how cells work is fundamental to all biological sciences..." whether or not it is a true statement is opinion. An ethologist studying primate behavior may not need to fundamentally understand the workings of cells. It would obviously be hoped that they have a good degree of understanding as the cell is the basic unit of life, but in their day to day work, it is unlikely that it would come into play.

This article is beyond needing only referencing to improve it. It needs to be more carefully thought out and written with a sense for what it is supposed to be conveying and why. If it is to be an article on the scientific study of the cell, then it should explain that discipline and only reference other topics, such as protein synthesis, linking to a separate article that carefully covers that topic.

Am0210 (talk) 01:08, 6 January 2014 (UTC)

 * Maybe you can salvage the unsalvageable. Start small but be bold. SchreiberBike talk 04:07, 6 January 2014 (UTC)

 * I have enough knowledge to know that there are many problems with this article, but not enough to do the topic justice with trying to rewrite it.

 * It's pretty dire, isn't it. I mean what is the point of the list of possible careers? Perhaps needs someone to sit down with the introductory chapter to Alberts et al. Molecular Biology of the Cell / Lodish et al. and give a precy of those?

Article Content
I find that there is not enough sources cited to support the information provided in this article; the information seems to be more of opinion, and not necessarily factual data that is supported. Additionally I do not understand why the movement of proteins has been made the main topic of discussion, when the article should provide information about the study of molecular cell biology. It could be a sub-topic about process that occurs in the cell, but it should not be the first main thing to be discussed. Discussing the structures of cells such as eukaryotic or prokaryotic cells before diving into more specific information could possibly help to improve the site. Other topics that could also improve on the information given would be: elaborating on the types of cells, similarity, function, and metabolic pathways that the cell undergoes. I find the article a bit lacking with not enough about the cell being discussed, and the sub-topic of process in the cell can be filled with references to energy production, DNA synthesis, and so on that entails actual processes that the cell undergoes. I just believe that there is much more that can be added to the page as more is learnt about the cell everyday. SBlai005 (talk) 20:20, 27 October 2015 (UTC) SBlai005

Some of the facts in the article are missing sources and should be added. Also, within each section, the same source is used multiple times, so to avoid bias, it is better to gather information about that specific sub topic from multiple sources and then cite them all. Additional sources that are reliable and more closely related to the topic could be used. HudaN (talk) 02:19, 30 August 2019 (UTC)

Guidance
Hi All, I am working on improving the information provided on the Cell Biology page for my Cell Biology class. I do not want to make a wrong turn or post, so I would like your feedback and suggestions on what I may be able yo do during my edits. I am currently working on the first part of the introduction and before I post on the actual page I would like to copy my suggestion of what should be posted here. Below you can see what I have started with and please be free to tell me what else you think would be wise to add.

Cell Biology Cell biology (formerly cytology, from the Greek κυτος, kytos, which means "vessel"), and otherwise known as molecular or cellular biology, is a branch of biology that studies the different structures and functions of the cell, and focuses mainly on the idea that the cell is the basic unit of life. Cell biology explains the the structure, organization of organelles, physiological properties, metabolic processes, signaling pathways, life cycle, and interaction of the cell with the environment. This done both on the microscopic and molecular level as it encompasses prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Knowing the components of cells and how cells work is fundamental to all biological sciences. Therefore, research in cell biology is closely related to genetics, biochemistry, molecular biology, immunology, and developmental biology. SBlai005 (talk) 04:41, 10 November 2015 (UTC)SBlai005

Assessment comment
Substituted at 11:07, 29 April 2016 (UTC)

Possible Edits
First paragraph of Chemical and Molecular Environment, author could add that prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and that a eukaryotic cells contain a nucleus. This is one of the best identification tools to those who know very little about cell biology or those who are in introductory classes and are trying to find broad areas of difference between the two cell types. In the organelles category, could add Nucleolus to the category, creating a hyperlink to a Wikipedia page that details the role of the nucleolus. Removing the final statement of this category would not take anything away from the article as this statement has no citation and gives no additional information. EricaKessell (talk) 03:26, 1 October 2016 (UTC)

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Copyright problem removed
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Editing
Hello! I am editing this Wiki page as an assignment for my class. As I was working on the paper I realized that there are a lot of inaccuracies and repetitive information. I think since "Cell Biology" is the study of cells, this article should mainly focus on the history of cell biology and the techniques used to study cells. All other information on cells could be found on the "cell" page of Wiki and should therefore just be linked rather than repeated. HudaN (talk) 15:21, 18 October 2019 (UTC)

 * Hello and welcome. Cell biology studies the functions of the cell. So limiting this article to "history and techniques" is not appropriate. Sure there will be some overlap with the Cell (biology) article, but while that one focuses on descriptions, this one should focus on functions. I think it is appropriate to reduce the two "structure" sections, link them to their parent article, and expand on the "processes" or physiology. Rowan Forest (talk) 15:26, 18 October 2019 (UTC)

Biology
Iam studying in class 9 th 39.33.80.63 (talk) 12:01, 21 March 2022 (UTC)

biology
Human system of universal world living thing provides..... to the continues of the so many years ago of living animal... 2409:408C:2D05:D732:D582:69C6:1080:242C (talk) 09:03, 22 February 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Cell biology


text:
Daliang

Daliang may refer to:

 * Daliang (大梁), the capital of Wei (state), located near modern Kaifeng, Henan, China
 * Daliang, a former name of Kaifeng
 * Daliang Mountains, a mountain range in southwest China between Sichuan and Yunnan
 * Daliang Subdistrict, in Shunde District, Foshan, Guangdong, China
 * Daliang Township (大两乡), a township in Wangcang County, Sichuan, China
 * Daliang, Guangxi (大良), a town in Rong'an County, Guangxi, China
 * Daliang, Tianjin (大良), a town in Wuqing District, Tianjin, China

title: Daliang


text:
King Hui of Wei

King Hui of Wei (400–319 BC), originally called Marquis Hui of Wei, and after 344, King Hui of Liang was the third ruler of the state of Wei during the Warring States period, ruling from approximately 369–319 BC. He was a grandson of Marquess Wen of Wei, the founder of the state, and a son of Marquess Wu of Wei. He was succeeded by his son, King Xiang of Wei.

He came to the throne after a war of succession during which his state was nearly partitioned by Zhao and Han. For his wars and eventual defeat by Qi and Qin in 340, see Warring States period.

He is notable for four policies:
 * 1) In 361, he moved the capital from Anyi to Daliang to get it out of the reach of Qin. Anyi was on the plateau south of the Fen River not far from where the Fen River and Wei River join the Yellow River. Daliang was to the far southeast of the state near the border with Song. Thereafter, the state was briefly called Liang.
 * 2) in 362–359, he made exchanges of territory with Zhao to the north and Han to the south. This gave Wei more rational borders, secured the new capital and gave Wei more control over trade routes.
 * 3) In 361–355, he held several face-to-face meetings with the rulers of the neighboring states.
 * 4) In 344, he promoted himself from Marquis (hou), calling himself "King Hui of Liang".

He also conducted several dialogues with the renowned Confucian Mencius.

title: King Hui of Wei


text:
Keynote (presentation software)

Keynote is a presentation software application developed as a part of the iWork productivity suite by Apple Inc. Version 10 of Keynote for Mac, the latest major update, was released in March 2020. On January 27, 2010, Apple announced a new version of Keynote for iPad with an all-new touch interface. It is now also available for the iPhone to download from the App Store.

History
Keynote began as a computer program for Apple CEO Steve Jobs to use in creating the presentations for Macworld Conference and Expo and other Apple keynote events. Before using Keynote, Jobs had used Concurrence, from Lighthouse Design, a similar product which ran on the NeXTSTEP and OPENSTEP platforms.

The program was first sold publicly as Keynote 1.0 in 2003, competing against existing presentation software, most notably Microsoft PowerPoint.

In 2005, Apple began selling Keynote 2.0 in conjunction with Pages, a new word processing and page layout application, in a software package called iWork. At the Macworld Conference & Expo 2006, Apple released iWork '06 with updated versions of Keynote 3.0 and Pages 2.0. In addition to official HD compatibility, Keynote 3 added new features, including group scaling, 3D charts, multi-column text boxes, auto bullets in any text field, image adjustments, and free-form masking tools. In addition, Keynote features three-dimensional transitions, such as a rotating cube or a simple flip of the slide.

In the fall of 2007, Apple released Keynote 4.0 in iWork '08, along with Pages 3.0 and the new Numbers spreadsheet application.

On October 23, 2013, Apple redesigned Keynote with version 6.0, and made it free for anyone with a new iOS device or a recently purchased Mac.

A version of Keynote for visionOS was released on February 2, 2024, alongside the launch of the Apple Vision Pro. The app is largely based upon the iPadOS version of the program, and is currently the only component of the iWork suite to offer a native visionOS app.

Features

 * Themes that allow the user to keep consistency in colors and fonts throughout the presentation, including charts, graphs, and tables.
 * OpenGL-powered 3D slide transitions and builds that resemble rolling cubes or flipping pages, or dissolving transitions that fade one slide into the next.
 * Dual monitor support: the presenter can show the presentation on a screen and still see the desktop or notes from their laptop or presenter screen.
 * Exports to: PDF, QuickTime, JPEG, TIFF, PNG, HTML (with JPEG images) and PowerPoint. Keynote also uses .key (presentation files) and .kth (theme files) bundles based on XML.
 * Supports all QuickTime video formats (including MPEG-2 and DV) in slideshows.
 * Version 3 brings export to iDVD with clickability.
 * Compatibility with Apple Remote and the Keynote remote application for iPhone, iPad, and iPod Touch.

Keynote Remote
Keynote Remote was an iOS application that controlled Keynote presentations from an iPhone, iPod Touch or iPad over a Wi-Fi network or Bluetooth connection and was released through the App Store. With the release of Keynote for iOS, the app was integrated into the new Keynote application and the stand-alone app was withdrawn.

title: Keynote (presentation software)


text:
USO (disambiguation)

USO most often refers to the United Service Organizations, a nonprofit that provides services to United States service members and families.

USO may also refer to:

People and characters

 * USO (rapper) (born 1981), Danish rapper
 * The Usos, wrestling tag team
 * Üso Ewin, a character from the anime series Mobile Suit Victory Gundam

Places

 * USO, Udaipur Solar Observatory, in Rajasthan, India

Groups, organizations, companies

 * USO, Unión Sindical Obrera, a Spanish trade union
 * United States Oil Fund, NYSE Arca symbol

Music

 * Uso (song), a single by Japanese rock and visual kei band SID (2009)

Other uses

 * USO, Unidentified submerged object
 * USO, Unilateral salpingo-oopherectomy, removal of an ovary and a fallopian tube
 * USO, Universal service obligation, to provide services to every resident of a country
 * SS U.S.O., a WWII U.S. Navy Liberty ship

title: USO (disambiguation)


text:
User:Dan Mazurowski

Biography
I was born at a young age in a small Michigan town. I excelled at gibberish, drooling, and waving my arms spasmodically. These are talents that have stayed with me over the years. I've picked up a few new interests along the way, and gotten a bit bigger, but that's pretty much the sum of it.

I am fanatically interested in video games of all sorts - classic systems, modern machines, handhelds, arcade cabinets, and the industry as a whole.

title: User:Dan Mazurowski