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Umm al-Faraj

Umm al-Faraj (أم الفرج, known to the Crusaders as La Fierge), was a Palestinian village, depopulated in 1948.

Location
The village was situated on a flat spot in the Acre plain, 10.5 km northeast of Acre.

History
Archaeological remains from the Roman and Byzantine eras have been found here.

Sugar Moulds found here indicate that sugar productions started in the 11th century, under the Fatimid era.

Crusader/Mamluk era
The village was known to the Crusaders as Le Fierge, and belonged to the fief of Casal Imbert. In 1253 King Henry granted the whole estate of Casal Imbert, including Le Fierge, to John of Ibelin. Shortly after, in 1256, John of Ibelin leased Az-Zeeb and all its depending villages (including Le Fierge) to the Teutonic Order for 10 years. In 1261, Az-Zeeb, together with Le Fierge and Le Quiebre, were sold to the Teutonic Order, in return for an annual sum for as long as Acre was in Christian hands. In 1283 it was still a part of the Crusader states, as it was mentioned as part of their domain in the hudna between the Crusaders based in Acre and the Mamluk sultan Qalawun.

According to al-Maqrizi, it had come under Mamluk rule in 1291, when it was mentioned under the name of Farah  when  sultan al-Ashraf Khalil allocated the village's income to a Waqf in Cairo.

Sugar production continued here during the Crusader and Mamluk eras.

Ottoman era
Incorporated into the Ottoman Empire in 1517 with all of Palestine, it appeared in the 1596 tax registers as Farja, being in the Akka Nahiya (Subdistrict of Acre), part of the Safad Sanjak (District of Safed), with a population of 24 households and 13 bachelors, all Muslim. The villagers paid a fixed tax rate of 20% on agricultural products, including wheat, barley, summer crops, cotton, goats and beehives,  in addition to "occasional revenues" and a water mill; a total of  1,576 akçe. Half of the revenues were given to a waqf. Sugar production continued here to the beginning of the seventeenth century CE.

In 1799, the village was called El Fargi on the map of Pierre Jacotin. An inscription in marble, built into the wall above the gate of the village mosque, dates this building to 1254 H, (1838-39 C.E.).

In May 1875, the French explorer Victor Guérin visited the village. He described it as being surrounded by "delightful" gardens, irrigated  with water from Nahr al-Mafshukh. Many houses were built with great care, and some had old pieces of stone built into them. He further noted that "the location of an old demolished church is still to a certain extent recognisable", and that all the 200 villagers were Muslim. In 1881, the PEF's Survey of Western Palestine described it as being built of stone and with a population of 200. The villagers planted fig, olive, mulberry and pomegranate trees.

A population list from about 1887 showed Um el Ferj to have  about 690 inhabitants, all Muslims.

British Mandate era
In the 1922 census of Palestine conducted by the British Mandate authorities Umm al Faraj had a population of 322, all Muslims,  increasing in the 1931 census to 415, 2 Christians and 413 Muslims,  in  a total of 94 houses. The older houses in the village were built close together and formed a circle, while the homes build after 1936 were scattered among the orchards. The population of Umm al-Faraj lived by agriculture.

In the 1945 statistics, the population of Umm al-Faraj was 800, all Muslims, with a total land area of  825 dunams. In 1944/45 a total of 745 dunam was used for citrus and bananas, 18 dunam were used for cereals, 42 dunam were irrigated or used for orchards,  while 15 dunams were built-up (urban) areas.

1948 War and aftermath
During the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, Umm al-Faraj was assaulted by Israel's Carmeli Brigade in the second stage of Operation Ben'Ami. The operational order, issued 19 May 1948, was to "attack with the aim of conquest, the killing of adult males, destruction and torching." The assault came on the 20–21 May 1948, when Carmeli forces attacked Umm al-Faraj together with Kabri, al Tell and Nahar, and then "demolished them," according to Morris.

Following the war the area was incorporated into the State of Israel. The moshav of Ben Ami was established in 1949, in part on village land.

The Palestinian historian Walid Khalidi described the village remains in 1992:  "Only the stone mosque remains. It is shut and stands in a state of decay amid tall wild grass. Many trees that might predate the village's destruction can be seen. The nearby lands are cultivated; a banana grove belongs to the Ben Ammi settlement."

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Umm al-Faraj


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HAL

HAL may refer to:

Aviation

 * Halali Airport (IATA airport code: HAL) Halali, Oshikoto, Namibia
 * Hawaiian Airlines (ICAO airline code: HAL)
 * HAL Airport, Bangalore, India
 * Hindustan Aeronautics Limited an Indian aerospace manufacturer of fighter aircraft and helicopters

Businesses

 * HAL Allergy, a Dutch pharmaceutical company
 * HAL Computer Systems, a defunct computer manufacturer
 * HAL Laboratory, a Japanese video game developer
 * Halliburton's New York Stock Exchange ticker symbol
 * Hamburg America Line, a shipping company
 * Hindustan Aeronautics Limited, an Indian aerospace manufacturer of fighter aircraft and helicopters
 * Hindustan Antibiotics Limited, an Indian public sector pharmaceutical manufacturer
 * Holland America Line, a cruise ship operator
 * HAL FM, or CHNS-FM, a classic rock station in Halifax, Nova Scotia

Computing

 * Hardware abstraction layer, a layer of software that hides hardware differences from higher level programs
 * HAL (software), an implementation of a hardware abstraction layer for Unix-like systems
 * HAL/S, the computer language used to program the Space Shuttle's computers
 * HAL, a Lotus Development Corporation product released in 1986
 * Hackers at Large, a Dutch hackers and security conference
 * Hypertext Application Language, a standard convention for defining hypermedia such as links to external resources within JSON or XML code

Entertainment

 * HAL 9000, a fictional computer in the Space Odyssey series
 * Hal (Japanese band), a Japanese pop band
 * Hal (Irish band), an Irish rock band
 * H.A.L. (G.I. Joe), a fictional weapon in the G.I. Joe universe

Other

 * HAL (automobile), a car built in Cleveland 1916-1918
 * HAL (gene), which encodes the enzyme histidine ammonia-lyase
 * HAL (open archive) (Hyper Articles en Ligne), a French online research open archive
 * Hybrid Assistive Limb, a powered exoskeleton suit
 * Het Amsterdams Lyceum, a Dutch secondary school
 * Hindustan Aeronautics Limited SC, a football club in Bangalore, India
 * Hyperspace Analogue to Language, a semantic memory model
 * Hyundai A-League, an Australian professional association football league

title: HAL


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C. F. W. Walther

Carl Ferdinand Wilhelm Walther (October 25, 1811 – May 7, 1887) was a German-American Lutheran minister. He was the first president of the Lutheran Church – Missouri Synod (LCMS) and its most influential theologian. He is commemorated by that church on its Calendar of Saints on May 7. He has been described as a man who gave up his homeland for the freedom to speak freely, to believe freely, and to live freely, by emigrating from Germany to the United States.

Early life and education
C. F. W. Walther was born a pastor's son in Langenchursdorf in the Kingdom of Saxony (part of modern-day Germany). Out of a strong religious commitment, he immigrated to the United States in 1838, initially as a follower of Martin Stephan. On September 21, 1841, he married Emilie Buenger. They had six children. He started two important publications, and was author of many books and periodical articles. He was also the head pastor of the four Saxon Lutheran congregations (called the Gesammtgemeinde) in St. Louis (Trinity, Holy Cross, Immanuel, and Zion). In August 1855, Walther turned down an honorary doctorate from the University of Göttingen, but in 1877 he accepted a Doctor of Theology (Th.D.) degree from Capital University in Columbus, Ohio. He died in St. Louis on May 7, 1887, and was buried at Concordia Cemetery, where a mausoleum was later built in his honor.

Ferdinand, as he was called by his family, was first educated by his father. At the age of eight, he attended school in Hohenstein for two years. He then entered "Latein Schule" ("Latin school", a college preparatory school) in Schneeberg, from which he graduated in September 1829.

One month later he enrolled in the University of Leipzig to begin his study of theology and joined his older brother Otto Hermann, who was enrolled in the same university. During his college years in Leipzig he contracted a near-fatal lung disease and had to interrupt his studies for six months. While ill and recuperating, he assiduously read the works of Martin Luther and became convinced that Luther's theology clearly taught the doctrines of Holy Scripture. He also began believing in the importance of a firm confessional position.

In 1833, Walther took his first exam at the university. This examination allowed him to accept a position as a private tutor for a family in the town of Kahla. The experience of two years' tutoring qualified him to take his second examination in Leipzig and graduate. On January 15, 1837, he was ordained to the Lutheran clergy and became a pastor in the town of Bräunsdorf in Saxony. As part of his pastoral duties, he taught religion classes in the local school. He soon, however, found himself at odds with the rationalistic government of the Kingdom of Saxony because he believed that it had departed from the faith and practice of historic Lutheranism and promoted false doctrine. The lack of orthodoxy also caused many other conservative Lutherans to oppose the Saxon government's liberal religious policies.

Exodus from Saxony
Walther and several hundred of the other dissenters came together under the leadership of a pastor holding similar views—Martin Stephan from Dresden. In November 1838, under Stephan's direction, 800 Saxon immigrants ("Stephanites") left on five ships for America in what is known as the Saxon Lutheran Migration, hoping for the freedom to practice their religious beliefs. The settlers arrived in New Orleans on January 5, 1839. The group settled both in St. Louis, Missouri, and to the south along the Mississippi River in Perry County, Missouri.

Controversy over Bishop Stephan
Soon after the immigrants were settled in the new homeland, their leader and self-proclaimed "bishop of the new settlement", Martin Stephan, was accused of financial and sexual misconduct (charges he had also faced in Saxony) and was expelled from the settlement. His departure left Walther as one of leading clergymen remaining.

The Altenburg Debate
After the fall of Stephan, the group of immigrants was deeply disturbed and unsure whether they were still a Lutheran congregation after having left the authorities and church hierarchy in Germany behind. Walther, who was originally called to be the pastor of a dual parish in the Perry County settlements of Dresden and Johannisberg, struggled over the questions that the laity and other pastors were also asking. In April 1841, soon after his brother Otto Herman, who was pastor of the congregation in St. Louis, had died, a public debate was held between Walther and attorney Marbach, one of the lay leaders of the settlers, in what is known as the "Altenburg Debate". Walther convinced Marbach and most of the other colonists that they could validly consider themselves to be a church. He then accepted the call to his brother's congregation in St. Louis, Trinity Lutheran Church, and served that congregation from May 1841 until his death.

Walther's ministry
During his forty years of work in the LCMS, Walther held several key positions. A log cabin college, which Walther helped to found, opened in December 1839 in Altenburg and eventually developed into Concordia Seminary in St. Louis. Walther became its first president and held that position for the remainder of his life.

On April 26, 1847, the Lutheran Church – Missouri Synod was founded. Walther served as its first president, a position he held from 1847 to 1850 and again from 1864 to 1878. In 1861, he also became president of the synod's "practical" seminary (today's Concordia Theological Seminary) while it was co-located with Concordia Seminary for several years.

He also founded and edited several Lutheran periodicals, including Der Lutheraner and Lehre und Wehre. He wrote a number of theological books. Perhaps his best known work is The Proper Distinction Between Law and Gospel, which is a transcription of a series of evening lectures he gave at the seminary. He is also the author of the text and tune of the hymn "He's Risen, He's Risen" (Erstanden, erstanden ist Jesus Christ) found in the hymnals of the LCMS and other Lutheran bodies.

Walther vigorously opposed the theologies of non-Lutheran denominations in America and the influence of the major secular philosophies and movements on Lutheran thought and practice, and defended the doctrinal and cultural heritage of the Lutheran Church.

Sermons
Several of C. F. W. Walther's sermons have been preserved and translated into English by E. Myers and are available online.

Walther film
In 2011, in honor of the 200th anniversary of Walther's birth, Concordia Seminary, St. Louis, Missouri, produced a video series ("Walther") which followed the life of Dr. Walther, including the history of the Lutheran Church – Missouri Synod. Concordia Seminary distributed the videos to LCMS congregations in October 2011. A study guide and Bible study materials also accompanied each segment of the video.

title: C. F. W. Walther


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Cruise control

Cruise control (also known as speed control, cruise command, autocruise, or tempomat) is a system that automatically controls the speed of an automobile. The system is a servomechanism that takes over the car's throttle to maintain a steady speed set by the driver.

History

Speed control existed in early automobiles such as the Wilson-Pilcher in the early 1900s. They had a lever on the steering column that could be used to set the speed to be maintained by the engine. In 1908, the Peerless included a governor to keep the speed of the engine through an extra throttle lever on the steering wheel. Peerless successfully used a flyball governor. They advertised their system as being able to "maintain speed whether uphill or down."

A governor was used by James Watt and Matthew Boulton in 1788 to control steam engines, but the use of governors dates at least back to the 17th century. On an engine, the governor uses centrifugal force to adjust the throttle position to adapt the engine's speed to different loads (e.g., when going up a hill).

Modern cruise control (also known as a speedostat or tempomat) was invented in 1948 by the blind inventor and mechanical engineer Ralph Teetor. He came up with the idea due to being frustrated by his driver's habit of speeding up and slowing down as he talked.

A more significant factor in developing cruise control was the 35 mph speed limit imposed in the United States during World War II to reduce gasoline use and tire wear. A mechanism controlled by the driver provided resistance to further pressure on the accelerator pedal when the vehicle reached the desired speed. Teetor's idea of a dashboard speed selector with a mechanism connected to the driveshaft and a device able to push against the gas pedal was patented in 1950. He added a speed lock capability that maintained the car's speed until the driver tapped the brake pedal or turned off the system.

A 1955 U.S. patent for a "constant speed regulator" was filed in 1950 by M-Sgt Frank J. Riley. He conceived the device while driving on the Pennsylvania Turnpike and installed his invention in his car in 1948.

Another inventor named Harold Exline, working independently of Riley, also invented a type of cruise control that he first installed on his car and friends' cars. Exline filed a U.S. patent for a "vacuum powered throttle control with electrically controlled air valve" in 1951, which was granted in 1956. Despite these patents, Riley, Exline, and subsequent patent holders were not able to collect royalties for any cruise control inventions.

The first car with Teetor's "speedostat" system was the 1958 Chrysler Imperial (called "auto-pilot"), using a speed control dial on the dashboard. This system calculated ground speed from the rotating speedometer cable and used a bi-directional screw-drive electric motor to vary the throttle position as needed. Cadillac soon renamed and marketed the device as "cruise control."

In 1965, American Motors Corporation (AMC) introduced a low-priced automatic speed control for its large-sized cars with automatic transmissions. The AMC "cruise command" unit was actuated through a push-button on the dashboard once the car's desired speed was reached. The throttle position was automatically adjusted by a vacuum control that opened and closed the throttle based on input from the speedometer cable rather than through an adjustable control on the dashboard. The unit would shut off anytime the brakes were applied.

Daniel Aaron Wisner invented an "automotive electronic cruise control" in 1968 as an engineer for RCA's Industrial and Automation Systems Division in Plymouth, Michigan. His invention is described in two patents filed that year (US patents 3570622 and 3511329), with the second introducing digital memory, and was the first electronic device that controlled a car.

Due to the 1973 oil crisis and rising fuel prices, the device became more popular in the U.S. "Cruise control can save gas by avoiding surges that expel fuel" while driving at steady speeds. In 1974, AMC, GM, and Chrysler priced the option at $60 to $70, while Ford charged $103.

In the late 1980s, an integrated circuit for Wisner's design for electronic cruise control was finally commercially developed by Motorola as the MC14460 Automotive Speed Control Processor in CMOS. The advantage of electronic speed control over its mechanical predecessor was that it could be integrated with electronic accident avoidance and engine management systems.

Operation

The driver must manually bring the vehicle up to speed and use a button to set the cruise control to the current speed.

The cruise control takes its speed signal from a rotating driveshaft, speedometer cable, wheel speed sensor from the engine's RPM, or internal speed pulses produced electronically by the vehicle. Most systems do not allow the use of the cruise control below a certain speed - typically around 25 or 30 mph. The vehicle will maintain the desired speed by pulling the throttle cable with a solenoid, a vacuum-driven servomechanism, or by using the electronic systems built into the vehicle (fully electronic) if it uses a 'drive-by-wire' system.

All cruise control systems must have the capability to be turned off explicitly and automatically when the driver depresses the brake pedal and often also the clutch. Cruise control systems frequently include a memory feature to resume the set speed after braking and a coast feature to reduce the set speed without braking. When the cruise control is engaged, the throttle can still accelerate the car, but once the pedal is released, it will slow down the vehicle until it reaches the previously set speed.

On the latest vehicles fitted with electronic throttle control, cruise control can be integrated into the vehicle's engine management system. Modern "adaptive" systems include the ability to automatically reduce speed when the distance to a car in front, or the speed limit, decreases.

The cruise control systems of some vehicles incorporate a "speed limiter" function, which will not allow the vehicle to accelerate beyond a preset maximum; this can usually be overridden by fully depressing the accelerator pedal. Most systems will prevent the vehicle from increasing engine speed to accelerate beyond the chosen speed. However, they will not apply the brakes in the event of overspeeding downhill, nor stop the car from going faster than the selected speed even with the engine just idling.

Cruise control is less flexible on vehicles with a manual transmission because depressing the clutch pedal and shifting gears usually disengages the cruise control. The "resume" feature has to be used each time after selecting the new gear and releasing the clutch. Therefore, cruise control is most beneficial at motorway/highway speeds when top gear is used virtually all the time. The speed limiter function, however, does not have this problem.

Advantages and disadvantages
Some advantages of cruise control include:

 * It is helpful for long drives along highways and sparsely populated roads by reducing driver fatigue and improving comfort by allowing positioning changes more safely.
 * Some drivers use it to avoid speeding, particularly those who may unconsciously increase speed during a long highway journey.
 * Increased fuel efficiency

However, when misused, cruise control can lead to accidents due to several factors, such as:

 * hazardous weather conditions. The U.S. state of Michigan warns against using cruise control if the road has ice or snow. When a car skids with cruise control enabled, the vehicle will keep accelerating, increasing the chance of losing control. If the vehicle is sliding on ice, the driver should not brake or accelerate, but just let the vehicle slow down on its own.
 * speeding around curves that require slowing down
 * rough or loose terrain that could negatively affect the cruise control controls
 * Encourages drivers to pay less attention to driving, increasing the risk of an accident
 * Risk of SUA (Sudden Unintended Acceleration) and possible accidents. Drivers with feet at rest lose spatial perception and may hit the accelerator instead of the brake pedal in a sudden emergency.

Adaptive cruise control

Some modern vehicles have adaptive cruise control (ACC) systems, a general term meaning improved cruise control. Dynamic set speed systems use the GPS position of speed limit signs from a database. Many systems also incorporate cameras, lasers, and millimeter-wave radar equipment to determine how close a vehicle is to others or other objects on the roadway.

The technologies can be set to maintain a distance from vehicles in front of the car; the system will automatically slow down based on the vehicles in front or continue to keep the set speed. Some systems cannot detect completely stationary cars or pedestrians, so the driver must always pay attention. Automatic braking systems use either a single or a combination of sensors (radar, lidar, and camera) to allow the vehicle to keep pace with the car it is following, slow when closing in on the vehicle in front, and accelerate to the preset speed when traffic allows. Some systems also feature forward collision warning systems, which warn the driver if a vehicle in front—given the speed of both vehicles—gets too close within the preset headway or braking distance.

Vehicles with adaptive cruise control are considered a Level 1 autonomous car, as defined by SAE International.

title: Cruise control


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Nazca

Nazca (sometimes spelled Nasca; Naska) is a city and system of valleys on the southern coast of Peru. The city of Nazca is the largest in the Nazca Province. The name is derived from the Nazca culture, which flourished in the area between 100 BC and AD 800. This culture was responsible for the Nazca Lines and the ceremonial city of Cahuachi. They also constructed additional underground aqueducts, named puquios, in a regional system that still functions today. The first puquios are believed to have been built by the preceding Paracas culture.

Nazca is the capital of the Nazca Province located in the Ica District of the Ica Region of Peru.

Earthquake
On November 12, 1996, at 11:59 a.m. local time (16:59 GMT) there was an earthquake of magnitude 7.5 with its epicenter at 7.7 km into the sea. The earthquake almost completely destroyed the city of Nazca and its surroundings. Due to its occurrence during the day, there were only 14 fatalities. However, 1,500 people were injured and around 100,000 were left homeless. Within 12 years Nazca has been almost completely rebuilt.

Since 1997, Nazca has been the location of a major Canadian gold mining operation. The indigenous people at the time did not own the rights to their traditional communal lands. As a result, they were forcibly displaced. Since then, they have sought to legalize their ancient ownership of land and fixed property.

Climate
Nazca is one of the most arid regions in the world, with an average annual precipitation of 4 millimeters. Nazca's weather is controlled by the Humboldt Current, which carries water from Antarctica up the west coast of South America.

This cold ocean water cools the air and limits the accumulation of moisture within clouds; as a result, though clouds and fog are able to form, there is little rain.

Nazca's temperatures range from 10 to 32 °C with an average daily high of 21 °C. Summer months from November to March are dry, sunny, and hot. During the winter from June to August, fog from the coast rolls over the hills to keep temperatures in the moderate range; however, the intense sun makes daylight hours seem hotter than they are.

History
There are two versions of the Spanish foundation. According to the writings of chroniclers, the city was founded on October 28, 1548, commissioned by Pedro de la Gasca, peacemaker by Alonso de Mendoza. The other version states that it was founded in 1591 by the Viceroy García Hurtado de Mendoza, 5th Marquis of Cañete.

During the Spanish colonial period, Nazca was known for viticulture, producing wine and grape brandy (aguardiente de la uva). Today this is commonly called pisco, after the famous port of the same name. Locally, the brandy is known as Nasca. These products were widely distributed throughout the viceroyalty of Peru and beyond.

The largest of the Nazca vineyards were located in the rich Ingenio Valley, and were property of the Society of Jesus, Jesuit missionaries and priests. The hacienda San Joseph de la Nasca, located in the upper part of the middle Ingenio Valley, was owned by the Jesuit College of Cuzco. San Francisco Xavier de la Nasca, in the lower part of the middle valley, was owned by the Jesuit College of San Pablo in Lima. Both of these estates used numerous workers who were enslaved persons of sub-Saharan African descent. In addition to producing wines and brandies, both estates had substantial infrastructure for producing the ceramic storage jars, known as botijas, in which the wine and brandy was transported.

Today, the towns of San Javier and San José are known for the ruins of the large 18th-century baroque churches built during the Jesuit administration of these estates. In 1767, following the expulsion of the Society of Jesus by King Charles III of Spain, the Crown confiscated and administered these properties as royal estates.

Nazca Patriots received the Liberating Expedition of General Don Jose de San Martin on October 14, 1820, after they escaped from the Battle of Nasca. Two days earlier, on October 12, General Juan Antonio Álvarez de Arenales, from Ica, was sent to the South in pursuit of the royal troops of Colonel Manuel Quimper fleeing from Ica. The second commander and chief of staff of the Division de la Sierra, was Argentine Lieutenant Colonel Manuel Rojas Argerich. He commanded 250 men: 110 infantry and 140 cavalry.

The town of Nasca was established on August 29, 1821. On July 2, 1855, it was elevated to a district and then it became a province on January 23, 1941.

Nasca, as the name is spelled in the 21st century, still has a dry climate. Before and during the time of the Inca, it had a formidable system of hydraulic engineering. The water was accessed through filtration galleries from underground branches, called aqueducts. The openings to the system were called puquios. More than three dozen continue to operate, to irrigate farmland and provide domestic needs.

Nazca lines
The Nazca culture is famous for its desert line drawings, the product of complex construction projects carried out by a hierarchical society from 500 BC to AD 500. Contrary to the popular belief that the lines and figures can be seen only from an aircraft, they are also visible from the surrounding foothills and other high places. There are innumerable formations of both animals and geometric designs.

Local tour companies sell flights (sobrevueltos) over 12 main figures, the most famous of which are the hummingbird, the condor, and the monkey. The spiral tail of the monkey inspired the spiral in the "P" of the Perú logo, which is also found on its currency. UNESCO declared the Nazca Lines a World Heritage Site in 1994.

Airport
Nazca has a small airport, the Maria Reiche Neuman Airport, used mainly for touristic flights over the Nazca lines. It was named for a woman who did much to study the Nazca lines and bring them to international attention as products of pre-Hispanic man.

Notable people

 * Martina Portocarrero (1949-2022), folk singer, cultural researcher, politician

title: Nazca


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Operation Hiram

Operation Hiram was a military operation conducted by the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. It was led by General Moshe Carmel, and aimed at capturing the Upper Galilee region from the Arab Liberation Army (ALA) forces led by Fawzi al-Qawuqji and a Syrian battalion. The operation, which lasted 60 hours (29–31 October), was marked by heavy fighting between Arabs and Jews, and ended just before the ceasefire with the neighboring Arab countries went into effect.

As a result of the operation, the Upper Galilee, originally slated by the United Nations partition plan to be part of an Arab state, would be controlled by the newly formed state of Israel, and more than 50,000 new Palestinian refugees were expelled from their homes.

Overview
On 18 July, the second truce of the conflict went into effect. On 26 September 1948, David Ben-Gurion told his cabinet that if fighting should be renewed in the north, then the Galilee would become "clean" [naki] and "empty" [reik] of Arabs, and implied that he had been assured of this by his generals. Before dawn on 22 October ALA violated the truce when it stormed the IDF hilltop position of Sheikh Abd, overlooking kibbutz Manara from the north. During 24–25 October, ALA troops regularly sniped at Manara and at traffic along the main road. Fawzi al-Qawuqji demanded that Israel evacuate neighboring kibbutz Yiftah and thin out its forces in Manara. Israel, in turn, demanded the ALA’s withdrawal from the captured positions and, after a "no" from Qawuqji, informed the United Nations that it felt free to do as it pleased.

The operation was launched on the night of 28–29 October 1948, fielding four IDF brigades, the Seventh, Carmeli Brigade, Golani, and the Oded Brigade. The operational order was "to destroy the enemy in the central Galilee "pocket", to occupy the whole of the Galilee and to establish the defense line on the country´s northern border." On 29 October, Yosef Weitz, learning about the start of the operation, sent Yigael Yadin a note urging that the army should expel the "refugees" from the newly conquered areas.

The Ground offensive was preceded by bombing raids targeting Tarshiha, Jish and Sa'sa from 22 October, using Boeing B-17 Flying Fortresses and Douglas C-47 Skytrains (converted for bombing role). The heaviest night of bombing was 29/30 October when 13 missions dropped 21 tons of bombs on the seven villages. The bombardment of Tarshiha triggered the mass flight after 24 of the inhabitants were killed and approximately 60 were buried under rubble.

The initial thrust was carried out by the Seventh Brigade advancing from Safad. The Seventh Brigade occupied Qaddita on 29 October, Meirun and then Safsaf and Jish. In the 79th Battalion's report, the battles for Safsaf and Jish were described as "difficult" and "cruel" (achzari). One IDF report said "150–200" Arabs, "including a number of civilians" died in the battle for Jish. Other accounts report that 200 bodies were found around Jish and 80 at Meirum.

From Jish, the 72nd and 79th battalions then turned west to take Sa'sa. After taking Sa'sa the Israeli forces then turned northwest taking Kfar Birem, Saliha and by the afternoon of 30 October were at al Malikiya.

Simultaneously, the Golani Brigade engaged in diversionary tactics in the direction of the village of Illaboun. The Carmeli Brigade, which was assigned to counter attacks from Syria and Lebanon, crossed the border into Lebanon, captured 15 villages, and reached the Litani River. General Carmel had received direct permission from Prime Minister Ben Gurion to enter Lebanon, but only as far as the river. In the final hours of the offensive Carmel's second-in-command, General Makleff, met Ben Gurion in Tiberias and requested permission to advance and occupy Beirut which he claimed could be reached in twelve hours. Fearing international condemnation Ben Gurion refused.

Ceasefire was scheduled to commence at 11:00 hours, 31 October 1948. The same day, at 7:30 in the morning, Major General Moshe Carmel ordered his brigades and district commanders "to continue the clearing operations inside the Galilee". In a cable dated 10:00 hours the same day Carmel ordered his brigades and district commanders: "Do all in your power for a quick and immediate clearing [tihur] of the conquered areas of all the hostile elements in line with the orders that have been issued[.] The inhabitants of the areas conquered should be assisted to leave." This order was apparently issued after Carmel had met with Ben-Gurion the same day. On 31 October and 1 November 1948 the Hula massacre took place at the Lebanese village of Hula (Hule). The village had been captured on 24 October by the Carmeli Brigade without any resistance at all. Between 35 and 58 captured men were reportedly shot down in a house which was later blown up on top of them.

At the end of this lightning attack, Israeli forces reached the Hiram Junction, north of Safed. The siege of Manara was lifted, Qawuqji's army fled to Lebanon, and the roads crossing the Upper Galilee were secured. With the Galilee under Israeli control, the IDF established a defensive line along the Litani before withdrawing to the Lebanese border under the terms of the 1949 Armistice Agreements.

The Israeli Air Force bombings caused considerable damage to the villages in the area. Ilan Pappe gives the example of the four villages: Rama, Suhmata, Malkiyya and Kfar Bir'im. He states that out of the four 'the only village to remain intact was Rama. The other three were occupied and destroyed'. Very few villagers were allowed to stay in their homes and many were imprisoned or expelled to Lebanon and elsewhere. Ilan Pappe claims that the 'Hebrew noun tihur (cleansing) assumed new meanings' during this time period. He argues that although 'it still described, as before, the total expulsion and destruction of a village, it could now also represent other activities, such as selective search and expulsion operations'.

One Israeli estimate gives a total of 400 Arabs killed during the offensive and 550 taken prisoner.

The name is a reference to Hiram I, the Biblical king of Tyre. He was instrumental in the construction of the First Temple of Jerusalem.

Massacres
According to Morris, the atrocities committed during Operation Hiram clearly embarrassed the IDF and Israeli officials who were soon forced to respond to Arab and United Nations charges in various forums. The main official Israeli response was a flat or qualified denial that atrocities had taken place.

Brigades participating in Operation Hiram

 * Carmeli Brigade
 * Golani Brigade
 * Sheva' Brigade
 * Oded Brigade

title: Operation Hiram


text:
Saint-Exupéry

Saint-Exupéry may refer to:

People

 * Antoine de Saint-Exupéry, aviation pioneer and writer, author of The Little Prince
 * Consuelo de Saint-Exupéry, writer, artist, and wife of Antoine de Saint-Exupéry
 * Marie-Madeleine de Saint-Exupéry (1897–1927), writer, sister of Antoine de Saint-Exupéry
 * Simone de Saint-Exupéry (1898–1978), writer, sister of Antoine de Saint-Exupéry
 * Saint Exuperius, early fifth-century bishop of Toulouse

Other

 * 2578 Saint-Exupéry, asteroid named in honour of Antoine de Saint-Exupéry
 * Aguja Saint Exupery, mountain in Patagonia, Argentina, named in honour of Antoine de Saint-Exupéry
 * Château Malescot St. Exupéry, Bordeaux wine producer archaically named simply St.-Exupéry
 * Lyon-Saint Exupéry Airport (formerly Satolas), Lyon, France, named in honour of Antoine de Saint-Exupéry
 * Gare de Lyon Saint-Exupéry (formerly Gare de Satolas), the high-speed railway station located at the airport
 * Saint-Exupéry, Gironde, commune of the Gironde département, in France
 * A novel about Antoine de Saint-Exupéry by Alyson Richman
 * ex-Saint Exupéry, alternative name for the Firebird Stradivarius

title: Saint-Exupéry


text:
Étienne Brûlé

Étienne Brûlé (c. 1592 – c. June 1633) was the first European explorer to journey beyond the St. Lawrence River into what is now known as Canada. He spent much of his early adult life among the Hurons, and mastered their language and learned their culture. Brûlé became an interpreter and guide for Samuel de Champlain, who later sent Brûlé on a number of exploratory missions, among which he is thought to have preceded Champlain to the Great Lakes, reuniting with him upon Champlain's first arrival at Lake Huron. Among his many travels were explorations of Georgian Bay and Lake Huron, as well as the Humber and Ottawa Rivers. Champlain agreed to send Brûlé, at his own request, as an interpreter to live among the Onontchataron, an Algonquin people, in 1610. In 1629, during the Anglo-French War, he escaped after being captured by the Seneca tribe. Brûlé was killed by the Bear tribe of the Huron people, who believed he had betrayed them to the Seneca.

Early life in France
Brûlé, the son of Spire Bruslé and Marguerite Guérin, was born c. 1592 in Champigny-sur-Marne southeast of Paris. Brûlé's exact date of birth is unknown since the Champigny-sur-Marne parish registers for 1590–1600 have been lost. He came to Canada in 1608 when he was 16 years old. Brûlé has not left any recollection or description of his early life, his time among the Indigenous peoples, or of his explorations. His life, therefore, has only been viewed through the works of others, including Champlain, Gabriel Sagard, and Jean de Brébeuf.

Life in New France
Champlain wrote of a youth who had been living in New France since 1608, and whom many believe to have been young Brûlé. In June 1610, Brûlé told Champlain that he wished to go and live with the Algonquins and learn their language as well as better understand their customs and habits. Champlain made the arrangement to do so and in return, the chief Iroquet (an Algonquin leader of the Petite nation who wintered his people near Huronia), requested that Champlain take Savignon, a young Huron, with him to teach him the customs and habits of the French. Champlain instructed Brûlé to learn the Huron language, explore the country, establish good relations with all First Nations, and report back in one year's time with all that he had learned. On 13 June 1611, Champlain returned to visit Brûlé, who astonishingly had done all that Champlain had asked of him. Brûlé was dressed as though he was one of the indigenous people and was extremely pleased with the way he was treated and all that he had learned. Champlain requested that Brûlé continue to live among the Indigenous peoples so that he could fully master everything, and Brûlé agreed.

For four years, Champlain had had no connection or communication with Brûlé who, it is thought, was then the first European to see Great Lakes. In 1615, they met again at Huronia. There, Brûlé informed Champlain of his adventures and explorations through North America. Brûlé explained that he was joined by another French interpreter by the name of Grenolle. He reported that they had traveled along the north shore of what they called la mer douce (the calm sea), now known as Lake Huron, and went as far as the great rapids of Sault Ste. Marie where Lake Superior enters Lake Huron.

In 1615, Brûlé asked permission from Champlain to join 12 Huron warriors on their mission to see a nation referred to as Carantouan (who may or may not have been the Andaste Susquehannock people), allies of the Hurons, to ask them for their support during an expedition Champlain was planning. Champlain ordered the party to travel west of the Seneca country because they needed to arrive there quickly and the only way to do so was by crossing over enemy territory. This proved to be dangerous but semi-successful for Brûlé did reach Carantouan; however, he arrived at the meeting place Champlain chose two days too late to assist Champlain and the Hurons, who had been defeated by the Iroquois.

Brûlé probably visited four of the five Great Lakes — Lake Huron, Lake Superior, Lake Erie, Lake Ontario—and may have also seen Lake Michigan. Brûlé was more than likely the first white European to complete these expeditions across North America. In these expeditions he visited places such as the Ottawa River, Mattawa River, Lake Nipissing, and the French River to Georgian Bay. From Georgian Bay, Brûlé was able to cut into Lake Huron. He paddled up the St. Marys River and portaged into Lake Superior. He journeyed through Lake Simcoe and portaged through what is now Toronto to Lake Ontario. From Lake Ontario Brûlé was able to travel in Upstate New York and explore Pennsylvania and cross down the Susquehanna River to Chesapeake Bay. It is also said that it is very probable that Brûlé was one of the first Europeans to stand along the shores of Lake Erie and Lake Michigan. He had spent months visiting indigenous peoples that lived along Lake Erie between the Niagara and Detroit Rivers, but because he left no writings of his own, almost nothing identifiable is known about the tribes he visited, many of which would be obliterated a few decades later in the Beaver Wars (in contrast, Joseph de La Roche Daillon, who conducted a missionary journey among the tribes of Western New York in 1627, kept meticulous notes of his journeys; it is de La Roche's writings that serve as the primary history of pre-Beaver Wars native occupation of Western New York).

Champlain and the Jesuits often spoke out against Brûlé's adoption of Huron customs, as well as his association with the fur traders, who were beyond the control of the colonial government. Brûlé returned to Quebec in 1618, but Champlain advised him to continue his explorations among the Hurons. Brûlé was later confined in Quebec for a year, where he taught the Jesuits the natives' language. In 1626 Brûlé returned to France, where he worked as a merchant, and in 1626 or 1627 he married Alizon Coiffier. In April 1628, Brûlé and his French fleet were captured by the British off Anticosti Island and Brûlé was brought to London before being released and returned to New France where, "pledging support to the Kirkes, he resumed his life among the Wendat and his trading activities."

In 1629, Brûlé betrayed the colony of New France. David Kirke and his brothers, English merchants of Huguenot extraction, paid 100 pistoles to Brûlé and three of his companions to pilot their ships up the St. Lawrence river and "undoubtedly gave information as to the desperate state of Quebec's garrison" that emboldened the Kirkes to attack it. In his last accounts, Samuel Champlain "accused Brûlé of treason because the latter agreed to do business with the Kirke brothers when they took Quebec for England in 1629." After 1629, Brûlé continued to live with the Natives, acting as an interpreter in their dealings with the French traders.

Death
In 1633, Brûlé died at Toanché, on the Penetanguishene peninsula, however the actual events surrounding his death remain unclear. The rumours of his death first reached Quebec through second and third party accounts largely by the Algonquins, who at the time, were believed to be in a trading dispute with the Hurons.

One theory is that he was captured by the Seneca Iroquois in battle. Though he managed to escape, when he returned to his home among the Hurons, they did not believe his story. Suspecting him of trading with the Senecas,they stabbed Brûlé to death—his body dismembered and eaten by the villagers. However, contrary to this theory, there is no ethnographic evidence that the Hurons practiced cannibalism. Additionally, Jean de Brébeuf, who arrived in the region shortly after Brûlé's death, described his murder as treacherous, but made no mention of cannibalism. One explanation is that the Hurons were misinterpreted—using the term eaten to describe that Brûlé was thrown from his high position. In this sense, eaten had previously been used by Hurons to describe deposed chieftains.

Brûlé's murder also appears to have been controversial among the Huron people. In the immediate aftermath of his death, Toanché was abandoned and subsequently Wenrio and Ihonatiria were founded—suggesting a schism formed in the clan between those that supported Brûlé's murder and those that didn't.

To further complicate the matter, Father Le Jeune wrote in his 1633 journal in Jesuit Relations that on the last day of June, 1633 he met a French Interpreter among an envoy of Hurons who lived with them for many years. It is unknown who else Le Jeune could be referring to other than Brûlé, despite conflicting reports that Brûlé was already dead.

title: Étienne Brûlé


text:
Barton Springs salamander

The Barton Springs salamander (Eurycea sosorum) is an endangered lungless salamander. It is endemic to Texas, United States. It was first found in Barton Springs in Austin, but is now also known from other localities in the nearby Travis and Hays Counties. Barton Springs is located within Zilker Park which is situated in the Edwards Aquifer in Austin, Texas. Eliza Springs, located within Barton Springs, has one of the largest populations of Barton Springs salamanders.

Habitat
The Barton Springs salamander prefers clear water and are typically found near openings of springs. These salamanders can also be found under rocks or gravel, within aquatic vegetation, and algae. Barton Springs salamanders can live in water depths ranging from 0.1 to 5 m. The springs in which these salamanders inhabit flow year-round and retain a constant temperature of around 20 C.

Description
Barton Springs salamanders grow to approximately 2.5 in in total length and have mottled coloration varying from darkish purple to light yellow on their dorsal side. The variation in coloring is largely due to the presence or lack of melanophores, iridophores, and pigment gaps. The ventral side of the salamander is either a cream or translucent color which allows stomach contents and the presence of eggs to be visible. The ventral side of the tail has a yellow-orange stripe that extends from the cloaca to the end of the tail. They have a fairly small head with reduced eyes and a slender body with elongated limbs that indicate it occupies a semi-subterranean lifestyle. On either side of the salamander are three red gills with four fingers on the forelimbs and five toes on the hindlimbs. The Barton Springs salamander is an ectothermic species and displays bilateral symmetry.

Reproduction
Barton Springs salamanders are dioecious, and females can hold up to 40 eggs at a time. The eggs are about 1.5 mm in diameter, surrounded by a jelly-like layer, and are deposited in a cluster on various substrates year-round. In captivity, Barton Springs salamanders display a tail-straddling walk during reproduction. Spermatophores deposited by males on substrate are stored by the female in a spermatheca. The fertilization of their eggs is consistent with most salamanders, which utilize internal fertilization in which sperm are released onto the eggs as they pass through the female reproductive tract.

Environmental impact
Amphibian species worldwide have been in decline due to climate change including but not limited to: increased UV radiation, change in precipitation, and various pathogen outbreaks (chytrid fungus which causes Chytridiomycosis ). However, habitat destruction, degradation, and pollution on a local scale have resulted mainly from land and urbanization near the Barton Creek watershed. Due to the species having a small population and the degradation of its habitat, the Barton Springs salamander is vulnerable to extinction. In addition, aquatic vegetation has been shown to be a critical component to the salamander's habitat; their numbers dropped precipitously after the removal of much of the vegetation from Barton Springs and have recovered after habitat restoration programs were implemented. These changes, in turn, affect, among others, water quality/quantity and biological community composition of rivers and water systems in the surrounding environment. The Texas Water Commission has also indicated that the Barton Springs aquifer is the most vulnerable to pollution within the state of Texas. The wide effects of contamination and degradation on these water systems make analyzing their specific sources difficult since the interactions of factors and overlapping effects may occur. Nonetheless, it is important to study these consequences so that future impact on this and other species may be reduced.

Oxygen absorption
Dissolved oxygen (DO) is required at specific levels to maintain healthy aquatic life. To do this, "national ambient water quality criteria" have been set by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and measurements have been made since 1969, albeit inconsistently. Hypoxia, a state of reduced oxygen, may hinder embryonic and fetal development as well as decrease oxygen consumption in adults. Apart from prenatal developments, physiological responses may also arise from a lack of oxygen. Some of the known responses include "Increases in heart rate and buccal pumping, behavioral hypothermia, and gill hypertrophy".

Since this species is an obligate aquatic neotene that retains its gills through its adult life, it must absorb oxygen through its gills or skin. However, the method in which it performs this absorption has yet to be determined. One study found that when presented with a low DO level, this salamander increases its body movement. They theorized two explanations for this reaction:
 * 1) low and high DO levels may be found relatively close, therefore movement will allow this species to migrate to a higher DO environment,
 * 2) the physical movement causes a decrease between boundary layers adjacent to skin and gills, which allows for greater flow of oxygen.

Diet and behavior
Much of the Barton Springs salamander's life history remains unknown at this time. These salamanders are neotenic and strictly an aquatic species. This species of salamanders typically inhabits surface waters but are also suited to live in subterranean waters when conditions are not suitable at the surface. Barton Springs salamanders utilize innate predator recognition and are opportunistic feeders. It appears that they feed primarily on small aquatic crustaceans and planarian flatworms (Dugesia sp.), but can supplement their diet with other items, such as earthworms, snails, leeches, and insect larvae.

Etymology
The species epithet (sosorum) is an acronym for "Save Our Springs Ordinance" (of the City of Austin) although it is widely if erroneously believed to refer to SOS Alliance, a local preservation group combined with a Latin genitive plural ending.

Conservation status
Despite inhabiting an urban area, E. sosorum was not described until 1993. It was put on the federal List of Threatened and Endangered Species in 1997 and was last assessed in 2004 by the IUCN Red List. Under the IUCN Red List, the Barton Springs salamander is listed as vulnerable while in federally and within the state of Texas the species is considered endangered. The salamander's listing prevented the City of Austin from cleaning the Barton Springs Pool as it had for 70 years—with bleach. As a result, the City of Austin applied for and was issued an Incidental Take Permit under Section 10(a)(1)(b) of the Endangered Species Act by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in 1998. The permit has a term of 15 years and allows incidental taking of salamanders during pool cleaning and maintenance. In addition, various conservation measures have been developed under the "Barton Springs Salamander Conservation and Agreement Strategy" which was signed in August 1996. A captive breeding program was also developed for this species as a way to increase the size of the current population. As a mitigation measure, the City offered to direct 10% of revenue generated through pool entry fees into a conservation fund that is used for research and habitat enhancement. Looking forward, the city of Austin has created an advisory team that will continue to review pool maintenance procedures in the salamander's habitat and conduct monthly surveys to assess population size.

title: Barton Springs salamander


text:
Arkansas River

The Arkansas River is a major tributary of the Mississippi River. It generally flows to the east and southeast as it traverses the U.S. states of Colorado, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Arkansas. The river's source basin lies in Colorado, specifically the Arkansas River Valley. The headwaters derive from the snowpack in the Sawatch and Mosquito mountain ranges. It flows east into Kansas and finally through Oklahoma and Arkansas, where it meets the Mississippi River.

At 1469 mi, it is the sixth-longest river in the United States, the second-longest tributary in the Mississippi–Missouri system, and the 45th longest river in the world. Its origin is in the Rocky Mountains in Lake County, Colorado, near Leadville. In 1859, placer gold discovered in the Leadville area brought thousands seeking to strike it rich, but the easily recovered placer gold was quickly exhausted. The Arkansas River's mouth is at Napoleon, Arkansas, and its drainage basin covers nearly 170000 sqmi. Its volume is much smaller than the Missouri and Ohio rivers, with a mean discharge of about 40000 cuft/s.

The Arkansas from its headwaters to the 100th meridian west formed part of the U.S.–Mexico border from the Adams–Onís Treaty (in force 1821) until the Texas Annexation or Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.

Pronunciations
Name pronunciation varies by state. Generally, the river is pronounced  in Kansas, but   in Colorado, Oklahoma and Arkansas.

Course changes
The path of the Arkansas River has changed over time. Sediments from the river found in a palaeochannel next to Nolan, a site in the Tensas Basin, show that part of the river's meander belt flowed through up to 3200 BCE. While it was previously thought that this relict channel was active at the same time as another relict of the Mississippi River's meander belt, it has been shown that this channel of the Arkansas was inactive approximately 400 years before the Mississippi channel was active.

Hydrography
The Arkansas has three distinct sections in its long path through central North America. At its headwaters beginning near Leadville, Colorado, the Arkansas runs as a steep fast-flowing mountain river through the Rockies in its narrow valley, dropping 4600 ft in 120 mi. This section supports extensive whitewater rafting, including The Numbers (near Granite, Colorado), Brown's Canyon, and the Royal Gorge.

At Cañon City, Colorado, the Arkansas River valley widens and flattens markedly. Just west of Pueblo, Colorado, the river enters the Great Plains. Through the rest of Colorado, Kansas, and much of Oklahoma, it is a typical Great Plains riverway, with wide, shallow banks subject to seasonal flooding and periods of dwindling flow. Tributaries include the Cimarron and the Salt Fork Arkansas rivers.

In eastern Oklahoma, the river begins to widen further into a more contained consistent channel. To maintain more reliable flow rates, a series of dams and large reservoir lakes have been built on the Arkansas and its intersecting tributaries, including the Canadian, Verdigris, Neosho (Grand), Illinois, and Poteau rivers. These locks and dams enable the river to be navigable by barges and large river craft downriver of Muskogee, Oklahoma, where the McClellan-Kerr Arkansas River Navigation System joins the Verdigris River.

Into western Arkansas, the river path works between the encroaching Boston and Ouachita mountains, including many isolated, flat-topped mesas, buttes, or monadnocks such as Mount Nebo, Petit Jean Mountain, and Mount Magazine, the highest point in the state. The river valley expands as it encounters much flatter land beginning just west of Little Rock, Arkansas. It continues eastward across the plains and forests of eastern Arkansas until it flows into the Mississippi River near Napoleon, Arkansas.

Water flow in the Arkansas River (as measured in central Kansas) has dropped from approximately 248 cuft/s average from 1944–1963 to 53 cuft/s average from 1984–2003, largely because of the pumping of groundwater for irrigation in eastern Colorado and western Kansas.

Important cities along the Arkansas River include Canon City, Pueblo, La Junta, and Lamar, Colorado; Garden City, Dodge City, Hutchinson, and Wichita, Kansas; Tulsa, Oklahoma; and Fort Smith and Little Rock, Arkansas.

The May 2002 I-40 bridge disaster took place on I-40's crossing of Kerr Reservoir on the Arkansas River near Webbers Falls, Oklahoma.

Allocation problems
Since 1902, Kansas has claimed that Colorado takes too much of the river's water; it has filed numerous lawsuits over this issue in the U.S. Supreme Court that continue to this day, generally under the name of Kansas v. Colorado. The problems over the possession and use of Arkansas River water by Colorado and Kansas led to the creation of an interstate compact or agreement between the two states. While Congress approved the Arkansas River Compact in 1949, the compact did not stop further disputes by the two states over water rights to the river.

The Kansas–Oklahoma Arkansas River Basin Compact was created in 1965 to promote mutual consideration and equity over water use in the basin shared by those states. The Kansas–Oklahoma Arkansas River Commission was established, charged with administering the compact and reducing pollution. The compact was approved and implemented by both states in 1970 and has been in force since then.

Riverway commerce
The McClellan–Kerr Arkansas River Navigation System begins at the Tulsa Port of Catoosa on the Verdigris River, enters the Arkansas River near Muskogee, and runs via an extensive lock and dam system to the Mississippi River. Through Oklahoma and Arkansas, dams which artificially deepen and widen the river to sustain commercial barge traffic and recreational use give the river the appearance of a series of reservoirs.

The McClellan–Kerr Arkansas River Navigation System diverts from the Arkansas River 2.5 mi upstream of the Wilbur D. Mills Dam to avoid the long winding route which the lower Arkansas River follows. This circuitous portion of the Arkansas River between the Wilbur D. Mills Dam and the Mississippi River was historically bypassed by river vessels. Early steamboats instead followed a network of rivers—known as the Arkansas Post Canal—which flowed north of the lower Arkansas River and followed a shorter and more direct route to the Mississippi River. When the McClellan–Kerr Arkansas River Navigation System was constructed between 1963 and 1970, the Arkansas Post Canal was significantly improved, while the lower Arkansas River continued to be bypassed by commercial vessels.

In history
Many nations of Native Americans lived near, or along, the 1,450-mile (2,334-km) stretch of the Arkansas River for thousands of years. The first Europeans to see the river were members of the Spanish Coronado expedition on June 29, 1541. Also in the 1540s, Hernando de Soto discovered the junction of the Arkansas with the Mississippi. The Spanish originally called the river Napeste. "The name "Arkansas" was first applied by French Father Jacques Marquette, who called the river Akansa in his journal of 1673. The Joliet-Marquette expedition travelled the Mississippi River from Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin toward the Gulf of Mexico, but turned back at the mouth of the Arkansas River. By that time, they had encountered Native Americans carrying European trinkets and feared confrontation with Spanish conquistadors.

Jean-Baptiste Bénard de la Harpe, a French trader, explorer, and nobleman had led an expedition into what is now Oklahoma in 1718–19. His original objective was to establish a trading post near the present city of Texarkana, Arkansas, but he extended his trip overland as far north as the Arkansas River (which he designated as the Alcansas). The explorer wrote that he and nine other men, including three Caddo guides and 22 horses loaded with trade goods, had come to a native settlement overlooking the river, where there were about 6,000 natives, who gave the strangers a warm welcome. La Harpe's party was honored with the calumet ceremony and spent ten days at this location.

In 1988, evidence of a native village was discovered along the Arkansas River 13 miles south of present-day Tulsa, Oklahoma. By then, the site was known as the Lasley Vore Site.

French traders and trappers who had opened up trade with Indian tribes in Canada and the areas around the Great Lakes began exploring the Mississippi and some of its northern tributaries. They soon learned that the birchbark canoes, which had served them so well on the northern waterways, were too light for use on southern rivers such as the Arkansas. They turned to making and using dugout canoes, which they called pirogues, made by hollowing out the trunks of cottonwood trees. Cottonwoods are plentiful along the streams of the southwest and grow to large sizes. The wood is soft and easily worked with the crude tools carried by both the French and Indians. The pirogues were sturdier and could be more useful for navigating the sandbars and snags of the Southern waterways.

In 1819, the Adams–Onís Treaty set the Arkansas as part of the frontier between the United States and Spanish Mexico. This continued until the United States annexed Texas after the Mexican–American War, in 1846. The treaty was made shortly after the "Old Settler" Cherokee were pushed out of Texas and moved near what became known as Webbers Falls on the Arkansas River. They planned to reunite with the Cherokee who had moved there on the Trail of Tears in 1839. That area, then part of Arkansas Territory, would become Indian Territory and later Oklahoma. This area had long been the traditional territory of the Osage. They resisted the new Native Americans moving in with armed conflict. The US encouraged a peace treaty made in 1828 but the territory issue was still unresolved by the time thousands of additional Cherokee refugees moved to the area during the Trail of Tears.

By the time Fort Smith was established in 1817, larger capacity watercraft became available to transport goods up and down the Arkansas. These included flatboats (bateaus) and keelboats. Along with the pirogues, they transported piles of deer, bear, otter, beaver, and buffalo skins up and down the river. Agricultural products such as corn, rice, dried peaches, beans, peanuts, snakeroot, sarsaparilla, and ginseng had grown in economic importance.

On March 31, 1820, the Comet became the first steamboat to successfully navigate part of the Arkansas River, reaching a place called Arkansas Post, about 60 miles above the confluence of the Arkansas and the Mississippi rivers. In mid-April 1822, the Robert Thompson, towing a keelboat, was the first steamboat to navigate the Arkansas as far as Fort Smith. For five years, Fort Smith was known as the head of navigation for steamboats on the river. It lost the title to Fort Gibson in April 1832, when three steamboats, Velocipede, Scioto, and Catawba, all arrived at Fort Gibson later that month.

Later, the Santa Fe Trail followed the Arkansas through much of Kansas, picking it up near Great Bend and continuing through to La Junta, Colorado. Some users elected to take the challenging Cimarron Cutoff starting at Cimarron, Kansas.

American Civil War
During the American Civil War, each side tried to prevent the other from using the Arkansas River and its tributaries as a route for moving reinforcements. Initially, the Union Army abandoned its forts in the Indian Territory, including Fort Gibson and Fort Smith, to maximize its strength for campaigns elsewhere. The Confederate Army sent troops from Texas to support its Native American allies. Union troops returned to the area later in the war, after defeating the Confederates at the Battle of Pea Ridge and the Battle of Fort Smith. They began recovering the position it had previously abandoned, most notably Fort Gibson and reopened the Arkansas River as a supply route. In September 1864, a body of Confederate irregulars led by General Stand Watie (Cherokee) successfully ambushed a Union supply ship bound for Fort Gibson. The vessel was destroyed, and a part of its cargo was looted by the Confederates.

Post Civil War
By 1890, water from the Arkansas River was being used to irrigate more than 20000 acres of farmland in Kansas. By 1910, irrigation projects in Colorado had caused the river to stop flowing in July and August.

Flooding in 1927 severely damaged or destroyed nearly every levee downstream of Fort Smith, and led to the development of the Arkansas River Flood Control Association. It also resulted in the Federal government assigning responsibility for flood control and navigation on the Arkansas River to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACOE).

Angling
The headwaters of the Arkansas River in central Colorado have been known for exceptional trout fishing, particularly fly fishing, since the 19th century, when greenback cutthroat trout dominated the river. Today, brown trout dominate the river, which also contains rainbow trout. Trout Unlimited considers the Arkansas one of the top 100 trout streams in America, a reputation the river has had since the 1950s. From Leadville to Pueblo, the Arkansas River is serviced by numerous fly shops and guides operating in Buena Vista, Salida, Cañon City, and Pueblo. Colorado Parks and Wildlife provides regular online fishing reports for the river.

A fish kill occurred on December 29, 2010, in which an estimated 100,000 freshwater drum lined the Arkansas River bank. An investigation, conducted by the Arkansas Game and Fish Commission, found the dead fish "... cover 17 mi of the river from the Ozark Lock and Dam downstream to River Mile 240, directly south of Hartman, Arkansas." Tests later indicated the likely cause of the kill was gas bubble trauma caused by opening the spillways on the Ozark Dam.

title: Arkansas River


text:
Talk:Arkansas River

2003
I've got two sources (including 1911 EB) that say the Arkansas is 2000 miles long, and one (Ark River coalition) saying it's 1450. That's 550 miles of river in discrepancy. I'm suspicious that flood control work in the 20th century has shortened the river, but I'm not sure that would account for it. Any ideas for definitive numbers? -- ESP 18:54 14 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * My 1997 almanac says 1459, gives source as Lake County, Colorado, and atlas confirms it coming from a Turquoise Lake in the mountains near Leadville, Colorado. 2,000 is likely either confusion, or adding in Mississippi length, or length in km garbled. Stan 20:57 14 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Pronunciation of Arkansas River (True or False)
True or false: This river's name is more commonly pronounced as "R Kansas" than as "Arkansas". 66.32.145.196 01:04, 11 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * American Heritage Dictionary lists both pronunciations for "Arkansas River," but lists the "Arkansaw" pronunciation first, which means that they believe it is the more frequent pronunciation. Dpbsmith 01:48, 11 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * However, there is one Internet site that says that "R Kansas" is the proper pronunciation of the river. 66.245.11.49 23:46, 11 May 2004 (UTC)

I am a recent resident of Garden City Kansas, through which this river once flowed. The proper pronunciation of the river is indeed "Arkansaw" but in most of Kansas it is commonly referred to as the "R Kansas" River for the play on words (i.e. Our Kansas River). - user nonbonumest

Since the river got its name from its Arkansas end (it came from the French name of the Quapaw tribe, whose ancestral home was near Arkansas Post), "Arkansaw" is its correct pronunciation. (The Arkansas legislature made that the official pronunciation of the state's name in 1881.) However, "Arkansas" in Arkansas City, Kansas is properly pronounced "R Kansas" due to local usage there; as many Arkansas localities have unusual pronunciations (see Lafayette & Nevada Counties and El Dorado, all three pronounced differently from their respective namesakes), we can certainly respect Kansas' preference there. --RBBrittain 08:04, 21 November 2006 (UTC) (resident of Arkansas)

 * According the George R. Stewart, in his classic book on placenames Names on the Land, the river got its name not from the "French name of the Quapaw" so much as the Algonqiuan and Illiniwek guides who gave the French the name "Arkansea" for a village and the tribe located near the mouth of the Arkansas River. The French soon spelled it "Arkansa", then pluralized it as "Arkansas" (as they did with Illinois and Kansas).  As for pronunciation, Stewart describes that at length.  For a long time, at least through the creation of "Arkansaw Territory" (1819), the French-style pronunciation (approximately), with the final -s silent, was the norm.  In the middle 1800s the spelling was in flux between Arkansaw and Arkansas, with Arkansas eventually winning out.  Soon, among those who could read (a minority in Arkansas at the time), there developed the feeling that pronunciation should follow the spelling, and some people began to call the state "ar-KAN-sas".  There was even a time, in the 1840s, when the two senators from the state differed and were introduced in Congress as "the senator from Arkansaw and the senator from Ar-KAN-sas.  Confusion over which way to pronounce it spread, especially given things like the obvious pronunciation of the adjective "Arkansan".  Finally the state legislature officially ruled the pronunciation to be Arkansaw-- the only state with an official pronunciation.  However, just as the people of the state of Arkansas were unyielding in their pronunciation of both the state and the river, so too were the people of Kansas, through which the river flows for a great length.  Given the half-century or more of uncertainty and multiple pronunciations of even the state of Arkansas, not formally resolved until the 1880s (and note the official pronunciation is of the state, not the river), I would argue that there is no official or proper pronunciation of the Arkansas River-- although my understanding is that few people outside Kansas pronounce it AR-kansas.  Nonetheless, I think it is going too far to say there is a "proper" pronunciation.   ...I can give some more of the nitty-gritty detatils of the pronunciation story from Stewart's book if anyone cares to hear.  He devotes a whole chapter to it (called "Change the name of Arkansas--Never!"). Pfly 09:41, 21 November 2006 (UTC)

 * I know it's pron. "R-Kansas by at least one Wichita radio station, and here in N.C. Kansas (Concordia) my 12th grade Government teacher referred to it as that. I may be un-patriotic, but I consider it "Arkansaw".  I've never said it aloud, though... Smarkflea (talk) 04:43, 14 February 2010 (UTC)

I've lived in Colorado for 30+ years & I've never heard anyone pronounce it R-Kansas here. Suggest changing this: "Many people in some states, including Kansas and Colorado, pronounce it /ɑrˈkænzəs/ ar-kan-zəs," to this: Many people in Kansas pronounce it /ɑrˈkænzəs/ ar-kan-zəs. Bradrh (talk) 14:33, 2 June 2014 (UTC)

 * Agreed with Bradrh above; no one I've talked to from Colorado has ever heard the R-Kansas pronunciation, and Kansas I've talked to indicate that it's rare and limited to the elderly. I've put a Dubious-Discuss tag on this supposed pronunciation and found a source that indicates, second-hand, that Coloradans don't use the R-Kansas pronunciation: In 2002, the Tampa Bay Times, referring to a Denver Post article that I couldn't find, says Coloradans pronounce the river like the state. Riverhugger (talk) 16:48, 20 August 2022 (UTC)
 * The older replies here seem like a lot of OR. Since your tagging two months ago, no one has disagreed. So I'm boldly taking it out. If someone disagrees, they can speak up and/or revert. Dgndenver (talk) 13:37, 19 October 2022 (UTC)

Modern 21st Century Pronunciations
This is the true prevailing practice: Paul 08:39, 26 January 2007 (UTC)
 * Arkansaw in the state of Arkansas.
 * R Kansas in the state of Kansas, indeed a play on words: "Our Kansas".
 * In Colorado and Oklahoma, either one is fine -- no one cares.

 * Only in or about Kansas is it pronounced "Kansas." Nowhere in Oklahoma have I ever heard it referred to as anything other than "Arkansas" (pronounced like the state).  Oklahoma City and Tulsa media pronounce it like the state. Nsu2112 (talk) 09:12, 23 February 2024 (UTC)

Discontinuity of the Watercourse
In much of Western Kansas the Arkansas River is actually now a dry riverbed, due to large scale irrigation. I know that the river currently is dry (year round) at least from west of Lakin, Kansas east past Dodge City, but I suspect that it is dry for some distance past that both to the east and west, but to what distance I am unsure. If anyone knows anything in greater detail about this it might be useful to include in the article. - user nonbonumest

I am also curious about this. Sometimes it seems to be filled to the banks but has also been dry for years on end throughout Kansas. Can anyone explain why this is? --Junky 20:43, 2 August 2006 (UTC)

 * Having lived in Dodge City and Lamar for over 30 years with family in the area. I can speak to the flow in the Dodge City area. The river seems to re-emerge between Fort Dodge and Ford. As for the amount of water above ground in Dodge City, this has been directly proportional to the amount being released by the dam just northwest of Lamar, Colorado. The only time I have witnessed in my lifetime a significant amount of water in Dodge City is when the flood gates have been opened at that dam. 2600:8803:7582:C00:80F8:4C9C:DB54:EC0 (talk) 01:19, 13 May 2023 (UTC)

The answer is fairly easy...the amount of water flowing through (or lack thereof) a particular section of the river is mostly due to the amount of rainfall (or lack thereof) flowing through its drainage basin. This is further adjusted by (as previously noted) the amount of water that is removed from the river for irrigation and other purposes as well as the lesser effects of evaporation. Rainy periods not only mean that there is more water to drain in the river, it also means there is less demand for irrigation (as the croplands will have received abundant water through natural rainfall). The flipside is that when it is drier in the basin, the amount of water flowing into the river is less (the supply) and the demand for irrigation spikes up because the croplands are dry. This is a double-edged sword in that extremely wet years mean lots of water and little irrigation and mean that the river floods easily but extremely dry years mean there is little water supplied and it is basically completely drained due to the demands of farmers. While this is not ideal, keep in mind that the Arkansas basin is the "breadbasket of America" and one of just a handful of breadbaskets of the world. The ecological demands on the river are extreme, but they prevent famines and wars. If irrigation was limited or not allowed, it would produce a large dropoff in the world's crop production (principally grain) and drive up prices worldwide. These price affects would first affect the world's poorest countries as the rich countries would simply pay the high prices in order to get food. This would likely lead to great famines in the third world countries and would create an environment conducive to wars, genocides, and all manner of other man-made horrors....so the answer is not really that simple after all, I guess.

Delisted GA
There are no references. slambo 10:36, 24 October 2005 (UTC)

Re*Cycling Arkansas River and Kaw River's Earth Science
Blue is the Kansas River not the Arkansas river basin which this discussion refers to. Green is the Arkansas river basin.

Also see: MentroshipART of Peace (Eco-Futures Forum) WikkaWiki's logo from the project's website. RJBurkhart 01:16, 24 January 2006 (UTC)

Port of Catoosa (aka) TulsaPort
Claremore, Oklahoma Green Country (Oklahoma) Tulsa, Oklahoma RJBurkhart 00:31, 3 January 2006 (UTC)
 *  Wikipedia: Port of Catoosa includes these articles:

Adapt Kansas Water Office (KWO) KELP Resources
Debra Baker - KWO Basin Planner - 1-888-526-9283 or 785-296-3185 ... The Upper Arkansas River Corridor Study is a Kansas Water Plan project ... Susan Stover coordinates the project work at the KWO. ... Continue survey of fishes in the Arkansas River of SW Kansas. ... KDWP = Kansas Department of Wildlife & Parks KWO = Kansas Water Office ... The Kansas Water Office (KWO) administrates the provisions of the Kansas Weather ... promoting the orderly development of the water in the Arkansas River ... Kansas Environmental Leadership Program Ch. 2 ... (KWO, FS 37, 2002). The Upper Arkansas River Basin. Streams in this basin are the Arkansas River ... This site has publications and other information about alternative farming ... RJBurkhart 18:14, 3 January 2006 (UTC)
 * Lower Arkansas Basin: The Arkansas River flows generally southeast across the basin. ...
 * UARC Agency Cooperation:
 * Research Summary:
 * USGS -Monthly Water History:
 * KELP Class 6:2005 River Orienteering / Community Stewardship (RO/CS)
 * (PDF) KELP Module 3:
 * Kansas Center for Sustainable Agriculture and Alternative Crops:

i4CQuest-Keywords :: Arkansas Basin KWO Map Topo
Where possible, the streamflow trends were aggregated into KWO basin averages and ... On the map, click on a gaging station in a basin to open a new browser ...
 * KGS Open File Report 2003-55C:

This summary is based on all the map data being set in a Universal Transverse Mercator ... Total Riparian Land Use Bank Miles by KWO Planning Basin. Basin ...
 * KGS Open File Report 2003-55E:

Data maps & linksArkansas River data - John Martin/Ark River operations. Missouri River data and links. Republican River data. Topographic maps are available on the internet ...
 * Water Resources:

About Equus BedsDRAINAGE BASIN--Hydrologic unit consisting of a part of the surface of the ... TOPOGRAPHIC MAP--A map that shows natural human-made features of an area ...
 * Equus Beds Information Resource:

and the Kansas Water Office (KWO), with funding ... Health and Environment, and the Lower Arkansas Basin Advisory Committee ... western GMD2 south of the Arkansas River ...
 * Equus Beds--KGS Open File Report 2000-30:

Through the use of the available GIS themes (wetlands, hydro, topo, and photo) ... The Kansas Water Office (KWO) is working with the Kansas Alliance for ... RJBurkhart 03:29, 4 January 2006 (UTC)
 * ASWM Abstract:

January 2006 edits
Why should this article be in the Category:Human geography and the Category:Biogeography, and not every other river in the world? Like say the Amazon River or the Yukon River? The text of the article makes no mention of either of the topics. I'd revert the edits, but the user who added them (User:RJBurkhart) seems to revert them right back... so I don't know. -- Malepheasant 08:26, 24 January 2006 (UTC)

 * Since 1999, the Kansas Water Office (KWO) with Kansas Department of Health & Environment (KDHE) have "championed" community stewardship efforts to preserve & protect water quality via multiple river orienteering programs like Friend of the Kaw and bioneering interdisciplinary K-State Extension initiatives.

 * This multi-agency effort focuses on engaging community stakeholders in civic social responsibiltiy for water resources. Hence, biogeography & human geography categories seem appropriate.

 * KELP Kansas Environmental Leadership Program
 * Kansas Public Health: Community Workbench
 * Kansas Community Pride RJBurkhart 22:53, 27 January 2006 (UTC)

Prairie Passage in Kansas Flyways

 * Also, National Audubon Society, among various external links, was added to the "see also" list, but the National Audobon Society article makes no mention of the Arkansas River; and this article makes no mention (apart from the "see also" list to which it was added) of the National Audobon Society; so I don't know what one has to do with the other. -- Malepheasant 10:29, 24 January 2006 (UTC)

 * Our Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) seeks to protect waterfowl habitats & the National Audubon Society helps participants promote flyway corridor birding maps ...

 * Prairie Passage in Kansas ( Adopt-a-Habitat )
 * Citizen science via Great Backyard Bird Count
 * National Audubon Society RJBurkhart 22:59, 27 January 2006 (UTC)

The fourth longest in the US?
The article for the Rio Grande makes the same claim to fame, to be the fourth longest river in the US. So which is it? Rio Grande is longer, right? Steve G 07:22, 13 August 2006 (UTC)

 * That article now refers to it as the third. CopaceticThought (talk) 09:31, 12 February 2008 (UTC)

Added rewritten Angling Section
The Angling section was recently deleted with the following edit summary: Removed section: only source was self-published, and Wikipedia is not a tourist guide. The section has been re-written to include significant additional sources to include the "self-published" source whose author is extensively referenced and quoted in other sources. The comment about the Tourist Guide may be correct but not relevant to the subject of the section. Angling on the Arkansas is a significant and historical recreational use of the river well supported by verifiable sources. The fact that "tourists" may fly fish the river is irrelevant. Indeed if all the "activity" related content for geographic and destination related articles (ie. Yellowstone, Disneyland, etc.) were removed because "tourists" participated in those activities, WP would be a sad place.--Mike Cline (talk) 15:30, 28 October 2008 (UTC)

River Assessment
Quality C: because it only has citations in the lead and in one other paragraph.--ClemRutter (talk) 20:27, 16 July 2009 (UTC)

Navigation Head/Teminus of the Arkansas River
The article states that the Arkansas River is navigable to Muskogee, Oklahoma via the McClellan-Kerr system, however, the McClellan-Kerr article states that the river is navigable until the Tulsa area (actually Catoosa, a suburb or Tulsa) through the McClellan-Kerr system and the navigation head is at the Catoosa port. I'm fairly sure that the article is in error, but, if the navigation through Catoosa is conditional on hydrological conditions, this needs to be clarified. From what I can gather, however, the Catoosa port is always navigable (extreme conditions aside). —Preceding unsigned comment added by 74.93.147.197 (talk) 16:02, 4 May 2011 (UTC)

 * I know this is a really old comment, but just to clarify in case someone else stumbles upon it: the Arkansas is only navigable to Muskogee. The McClellan-Kerr System diverges along the Verdigris from that point to the Port of Catoosa. JFMorse (talk) 19:16, 24 July 2023 (UTC)

"little more than a series of reservoirs"
Calling 445 miles of the Arkansas River "little more than a series of reservoirs" is extreme (and uncited). Water freely and continuously flows unimpeded, from one supposed "reservoir" to the next. The locks complement the navigation channels kept dredged along the course of the riverbed. In, the lock only spans one-fourth of the width of the river, and spans a tiny proportion of the twenty miles of the length of the river which lies between this and the next dam. Catsmoke (talk) 03:20, 29 June 2016 (UTC)

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Arkansas River Valley
In the first paragraph of this article, it says, "The river's source basin lies in the western United States in Colorado, specifically the Arkansas River Valley..." and there's a hyperlink for Arkansas River Valley. But clicking on that link sends you to a page about a valley in Arkansas, at the bottom of the river's course, not at the headwaters. So this is a factual error that needs to be fixed. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 209.203.168.162 (talk) 17:17, 29 December 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Arkansas River


text:
Abbeville (disambiguation)

Abbeville is a city in northern France.

Abbeville may also refer to:

France

 * Abbeville-Saint-Lucien, Oise
 * Abbéville-la-Rivière, Essonne
 * Abbéville-lès-Conflans, Meurthe-et-Moselle

Ireland

 * Abbeville, Dublin, a country house
 * Abbeville, County Tipperary (townland), a townland
 * Abbeville, Tipperary, a country house

United States

 * Abbeville, Alabama, a city
 * Abbeville, Georgia, a city
 * Abbeville, Louisiana, a small city
 * Abbeville, Mississippi, a town
 * Abbeville (Lancaster, Pennsylvania), a historic home
 * Abbeville, South Carolina, a city

United Kingdom

 * Abbeville Village, a residential neighbourhood in London

title: Abbeville (disambiguation)


text:
Darial Gorge

The Darial Gorge is a river gorge on the border between Russia and Georgia. It is at the east base of Mount Kazbek, south of present-day Vladikavkaz. The gorge was carved by the river Terek, and is approximately 13 km long. The steep granite walls of the gorge can be as much as 1800 m tall in some places. The Georgian Military Road runs through the gorge.

In history
The Darial originates from Dar-i Alān (در الان) meaning "Gate of the Alans" in Persian. The Alans held the lands north of the pass in the first centuries AD. It has been fortified in ancient times by the Romans and Persians; the fortification was variously known as the Iberian Gates or the Caucasian Gates. It was also frequently mistakenly referred to as the Caspian Gates in classical literature. The pass is mentioned in the Georgian annals under the names of Darialani; Strabo calls it Porta Caucasica and Porta Cumana; Ptolemy, Fortes Sarmatica; it was sometimes known as Porta Caucasica and Portae Caspiae (a name bestowed also on the "gate" or pass beside the Caspian Sea at Derbent); and the Tatars call it Darioly.

Josephus wrote that Alexander the Great built iron gates at an unspecified pass which some Latin and Greek authors identified with Darial.

Darial Pass fell into Sassanid hands in 252–253, when the Sassanid Empire conquered and annexed Iberia. The control of the Darial Pass switched to the Western Turkic Kaganate in 628, when Tong Yabgu Kagan signed a treaty with Iberia, transferring over to the Kaganate the control of all its cities and fortresses, and establishing free trade. Control of Darial Pass switched to the Arab Rashidun Caliphate in 644. Afterwards, it was controlled by the Kingdom of Georgia. There was a battle point between the Ilkhanate and the Golden Horde, then indirectly controlled by Safavids and Qajar state, until it was captured by Russian Empire after annexation of Kingdom of Georgia in 1801–1830. It remained a strategic Russian forepost under Russian control until the dismemberment of the Soviet Union.

Importance
The Darial Pass was historically important as one of only two crossings of the Caucasus mountain range, the other being the Derbent Pass. As a result, Darial Gorge has been fortified since at least 150 BC.

As the main border crossing between Georgia and Russia, it has been the site of Russians fleeing conscription for the Russo-Ukrainian War.

title: Darial Gorge


text:
Pat

Pat or PAT may refer to:

Science and technology

 * Photographic Activity Test, an ISO standard test
 * Portable appliance testing, an electrical safety test
 * Powder-actuated tool, a type of nail gun

Computing

 * PAT (model checker) (Process Analysis Toolkit)
 * Page attribute table, in x86 and x86-64 memory caching
 * Performance acceleration technology, an Intel memory performance technology
 * Port address translation, a type of network address translation
 * Program Association Table, in an MPEG transport stream
 * Personal access token, a password alternative

Medicine and biology

 * Paddington alcohol test, for alcohol-related problems
 * Paroxysmal atrial tachycardia, an episode of arrhythmia that begins and ends abruptly
 * Peripheral Arterial Tone, a noninvasive measure

 * Phosphinothricin acetyltransferase, an enzyme
 * Photoacoustic tomography, by an ultrasound scan
 * Picture arrangement test
 * Process analytical technology, in pharmaceutical manufacturing
 * Pseudotropine acyltransferase, an enzyme
 * Putrescine aminotransferase, an enzyme

Places

 * Pat, Hungary, a village
 * Patince (Hungarian: Pat), a village in Slovakia
 * Pat, Iran, a village in Iran
 * Pat, Jerusalem, a neighborhood in Israel
 * Pat River, Thailand
 * Port Arthur, Texas, US

People

 * Patricia, a female given name
 * Patrick (given name), a male given name
 * Narcisse Théophile Patouillard (1854–1926) (standard botanical abbreviation "Pat."), French pharmacist and mycologist
 * Jenny Pat (1981–2014), Hong Kong-born, Chinese-Canadian international art dealer, visual artist, and television personality

Arts, entertainment and media

 * P.A.T. Network, a Bolivian TV channel operated by the company Periodistas Asociados de Televisión; See Justa Canaviri
 * "Pat" (album), 1957 studio album by Pat Boone

Fictional characters

 * Pat (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland), a gardener
 * Pat (Saturday Night Live), an androgynous character
 * Postman Pat, a British children's TV character
 * Pat, from the Czech series Pat & Mat
 * Pat the Dog, a character from the TV show of the same name
 * Pat, AKA Lucky's Dad, a character from the Australian cartoon Bluey
 * Pat, a character who is Jake the Dog’s daughter-in-law and Kim Kil Whan‘s wife in the animated series Adventure Time

Organisations

 * Pakistan Awami Tehrik, a political party
 * Polish Telegraphic Agency, the official news agency of Poland between 1918 and 1991
 * Port Authority of Thailand
 * Professional Association of Teachers, the former name of the UK trade union Voice

Transportation

 * Patricroft railway station (National Rail station code), England
 * Patterson railway station, Melbourne
 * Port Authority Transit, former name of the Port Authority of Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, US
 * Jay Prakash Narayan Airport (IATA airport code), Patna, India

Other uses

 * Pat, a form of physical intimacy
 * Pat silk, a type of silk
 * Point after touchdown, in American football
 * Prodotto agroalimentare tradizionale, an Italian grade of Protected Geographical Status
 * Profit After Tax
 * Pat hand, in the card game of poker

title: Pat


text:
Auschwitz (disambiguation)

The Auschwitz concentration camp was a complex of over 40 concentration and extermination camps built and operated by Nazi Germany in occupied Poland during World War II and the Holocaust.

Auschwitz may also refer to:

Places

 * Oświęcim (German: Auschwitz), a Polish town after which the concentration camp was named
 * Duchy of Oświęcim, a historical division of Silesia

Arts, entertainment and media

 * Auschwitz (film), 2011
 * Auschwitz: The Nazis and 'The Final Solution', a 2005 TV documentary
 * "Auschwitz" (song), a 1966 song by Francesco Guccini, performed by Equipe 84
 * Auschwitz: A Doctor's Eyewitness Account, a 1961 book by Miklos Nyiszli

title: Auschwitz (disambiguation)