text:
Birmingham International railway station

Birmingham International is a railway station known by code "BHI" in the Metropolitan Borough of Solihull in the West Midlands of England, just east of Birmingham. It is on the Rugby–Birmingham–Stafford line 14 km east of Birmingham New Street railway station. BHI serves Birmingham Airport, the National Exhibition Centre, the Resorts World Arena, and Resorts World Birmingham.

History
The station was designed by the architect Ray Moorcroft and opened on 26 January 1976; it has regular train services to many parts of the country. It was named Birmingham International after the adjacent airport, which had at the time that name but is today called simply Birmingham Airport. A large space under the overbridge next to the southbound platforms suggests an allowance for future station expansion.

In 2016, it was proposed to rename it to Birmingham Airport & NEC, due to the airport's name change and the near presence of the National Exhibition Centre.

Services
The station is managed by Avanti West Coast and is also served by CrossCountry, Transport for Wales and West Midlands Trains. It has five platforms, consisting of two islands and one side platform numbered 1–5 from south to north.

The basic Monday to Saturday off-peak service in trains per hour (tph) is as follows:

Avanti West Coast:

 * 2tph to Euston (1 calling at Rugby, Milton Keynes Central and Watford Junction). All services call at Coventry.
 * 2tph to Birmingham New Street
 * 1tph extends northbound to Preston via Wolverhampton and Wigan North Western.
 * 2 trains per day (tpd) run further to Blackpool North only, with 1 train every 2 hours running to Edinburgh Waverley (6tpd) and 4 trains per day (tpd) running to Glasgow Central. Services to Scotland run via Carlisle.

At peak times some Avanti West Coast services to/from London Euston start and terminate here.

CrossCountry:
 * 1tph to Manchester Piccadilly via Stoke-on-Trent and Macclesfield
 * 1tph to Bournemouth, via Coventry and Reading

Transport for Wales Rail:
 * 1 tph to Shrewsbury, of which:
 * 1 tp2h continues to Aberystwyth and Pwllheli, after dividing at Machynlleth
 * 1 tp2h continues to Holyhead via Wrexham General and Chester. One service in the evening runs to each of Llandudno (Monday to Friday only) and Manchester Piccadilly via Warrington Bank Quay. One Saturday evening service terminates at Crewe, with the last two Chester-bound services on Sundays running via Crewe.

West Midlands Trains:
 * 4 tph to Birmingham New Street, of which:
 * 2 trains call at Birmingham New Street only, under the London Northwestern Railway brand
 * 2 trains start here and call at Marston Green, Lea Hall and Stechford (1tph calls additionally at Adderley Park) before continuing to Rugeley Trent Valley via Walsall, under the West Midlands Railway brand
 * 2 tph to Euston, via Northampton, also calling at Hampton-in-Arden, Berkswell, Tile Hill, Canley, Coventry, Rugby, Long Buckby, Wolverton, Milton Keynes Central, Bletchley and Leighton Buzzard (1tph calls additionally at Watford Junction), under the London Northwestern Railway brand.

Connection to Birmingham Airport

A maglev service ran from the airport terminal to the station from 1984 until 1995. The train "flew" at an altitude of 15 mm over a track 620 m in length. It operated for nearly 11 years, but was scrapped because spare parts for the system were no longer available. It was temporarily replaced by a bus.

The chosen replacement system, the Doppelmayr Cable Car Cable Liner Shuttle, was announced in late 2000 and construction started in 2001. The Interchange was opened in March 2003. The system was originally known as SkyRail but in 2004 it was renamed AirRail Link.

The airport can also be reached via a dedicated fast bus service from Coleshill Parkway station, on the Birmingham to Peterborough Line.

Connection to the National Exhibition Centre
Undercover walkways, escalators and travelators connect the NEC buildings to the station and to the Air-Rail Link which, in turn, connects to Birmingham Airport.

Birmingham Interchange
A new Birmingham Interchange is to be built on the other side of the M42 motorway from the station to link it with the proposed High Speed 2 rail line. The new interchange would be connected to the station by an automated people mover, as well as to the airport and National Exhibition centre; the AirRail Link people mover already operates between Birmingham International station and the airport.


text:
Constantine IX Monomachos

Constantine IX Monomachos (Κωνσταντῖνος Μονομάχος; c. 980 /c.  1000 – 11 January 1055) reigned as Byzantine emperor from June 1042 to January 1055. Empress Zoë Porphyrogenita chose him as a husband and co-emperor in 1042, although he had been exiled for conspiring against her previous husband, Emperor Michael IV the Paphlagonian. The couple shared the throne with Zoë's sister Theodora Porphyrogenita. Zoë died in 1050, and Constantine continued his collaboration with Theodora until his own death five years later.

Constantine waged wars against groups which included the Kievan Rus', the Pechenegs and, in the East, the rising Seljuq Turks. Despite the varying success of these campaigns, the Byzantine Empire largely retained the borders established after the conquests of Basil II ((r. 976 – 1025)), even expanding eastwards when Constantine annexed the wealthy Armenian kingdom of Ani. Constantine accordingly may be considered the last effective emperor during the Macedonian Renaissance.

In 1054, a year before Constantine's death, the Great Schism between the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches took place, culminating in Pope Leo IX excommunicating the Patriarch Michael Keroularios. Constantine, aware of the political and religious consequences of such a disunion, made unsuccessful efforts to prevent the breach.

Early life
Constantine Monomachos was the son of Theodosios Monomachos, an important bureaucrat under Basil II and Constantine VIII, of the famous and noble Monomachos family. His mother and her name are unknown. Constantine was born around 980 or 1000 in Antioch. At some point Constantine's father Theodosios had been suspected of conspiracy, and his son's career suffered accordingly. Constantine's position improved after he married his second wife, sometimes called Helena or Pulcheria, a daughter of Basil Skleros, and niece of Emperor Romanos III Argyros. Catching the eye of Empress Zoë Porphyrogenita, he was exiled to Mytilene on the island of Lesbos by her second husband, Emperor Michael IV.

The death of Michael IV and the overthrow of Michael V in 1042 led to Constantine being recalled from his place of exile and appointed as a judge in Greece. However, before he could commence his appointment, Constantine was summoned to Constantinople, where the fragile working relationship between Michael V's successors, Empresses Zoë and Theodora Porphyrogenita, was breaking down. After two months of increasing acrimony between the two, Zoë decided to search for a new husband, thereby hoping to prevent her sister from increasing her popularity and authority. After her first preference displayed contempt for the empress and her second died under mysterious circumstances, Zoë remembered the handsome and urbane Constantine. The pair were married on 11 June, without the participation of Patriarch Alexius of Constantinople, who refused to officiate over a third marriage (for both spouses). Constantine was crowned on the following day.

Reign

Constantine continued the purge instituted by Zoë and Theodora, removing the relatives of Michael V from the court. The new emperor was pleasure-loving and prone to violent outbursts on suspicion of conspiracy. He was heavily influenced by his controversial wife or mistress, Maria Skleraina, a relative of his second wife, and Maria's family. Constantine had another mistress, an "Alan princess", Gurandukht, likely the daughter of George I.

In August 1042 Constantine relieved the general George Maniakes from his command in Italy, and Maniakes rebelled, declaring himself emperor in September. He transferred his troops into the Balkans and was about to defeat Constantine's army in battle, when he was wounded and died on the field, ending the crisis in 1043.

Immediately after the victory, Constantine was attacked by a fleet from Kievan Rus'; it is "incontrovertible that a Rus' detachment took part in the Maniakes rebellion". They too were defeated, with the help of Greek fire. As part of the peace negotiations Constantine married his daughter, Anastasia (by his second wife or Maria Skleraina), to the future Prince Vsevolod I of Kiev, the son of his opponent Yaroslav I the Wise. Constantine's family name Monomachos ("one who fights alone") was inherited by Vsevolod and Anastasia's son, Vladimir II Monomakh.

Constantine IX's preferential treatment of Maria Skleraina in the early part of his reign led to rumors that she was planning to murder Zoë and Theodora. This led to a popular uprising by the citizens of Constantinople in 1044, which came dangerously close to harming Constantine as he participated in a religious procession. The mob was only quieted by the appearance at a balcony of Zoë and Theodora, who reassured the people that they were not in any danger of assassination. In 1045 Constantine annexed the Armenian kingdom of Ani, but this expansion merely exposed the empire to new enemies. In 1046 the Byzantines came into contact for the first time with the Seljuk Turks. They met in battle in Armenia in 1048 and settled a truce the following year. Even if the Seljuk rulers were willing to abide by the treaty, their unruly Turcoman allies showed much less restraint. The Byzantine forces would suffer a cataclysmic defeat at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071. Constantine began persecuting the Armenian Church, trying to force it into union with the Orthodox Church. In 1046, he refounded the University of Constantinople by creating the Departments of Law and Philosophy. In 1047 Constantine was faced by the rebellion of his nephew Leo Tornikios, who gathered supporters in Adrianople and was proclaimed emperor by the army. Tornikios was forced to retreat, failed in another siege, and was captured during his flight. The revolt had weakened Byzantine defenses in the Balkans, and in 1048 the area was raided by the Pechenegs, who continued to plunder it for the next five years. The emperor's efforts to contain the enemy through diplomacy merely exacerbated the situation, as rival Pecheneg leaders clashed on Byzantine ground, and Pecheneg settlers were allowed to live in compact settlement in the Balkans, making it difficult to suppress their rebellion.

Constantine seems to have taken recourse to the pronoia system, a sort of Byzantine feudal contract in which tracts of land (or the tax revenue from it) were granted to particular individuals in exchange for contributing to and maintaining military forces. Constantine could be wasteful with the imperial treasury. On one occasion he is said to have sent an Arab leader 500,000 gold coins, over two tons of gold.

In 1054 the centuries-old differences between the Eastern and Western churches led to their final separation. Legates from Pope Leo IX excommunicated the Patriarch of Constantinople Michael Keroularios when Keroularios would not agree to adopt western church practices, and in return Keroularios excommunicated the legates. This sabotaged Constantine's attempts to ally with the Pope against the Normans, who had taken advantage of the disappearance of Maniakes to take over Southern Italy. Constantine tried to intervene, but he fell ill and died on 11 January of the following year. He was persuaded by his councillors, chiefly the logothetes tou dromou John, to ignore the rights of the elderly Theodora, daughter of Constantine VIII, and to pass the throne to the doux of Bulgaria, Nikephoros Proteuon. However, Theodora was recalled from her retirement and named empress.

Architecture and art
The literary circle at the court of Constantine IX included the philosopher and historian Michael Psellos, whose Chronographia records the history of Constantine's reign. Psellos left a physical description of Constantine in his Chronographia: he was "ruddy as the sun, but all his breast, and down to his feet... [were] colored the purest white all over, with exquisite accuracy. When he was in his prime, before his limbs lost their virility, anyone who cared to look at him closely would surely have likened his head to the sun in its glory, so radiant was it, and his hair to the rays of the sun, while in the rest of his body he would have seen the purest and most translucent crystal."

Immediately upon ascending to the throne in 1042, Constantine IX set about restoring the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, which had been substantially destroyed in 1009 by Caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah. Byzantine Emperor Romanos III had secured the right to undertake such a restoration in a treaty with al-Hakim's son al-Zahir, but it was Constantine who finally set the project in motion, funding the reconstruction of the Church and other Christian establishments in the Holy Land.

Appearance and personality
Constantine was said to rival Achilles and Nireus in terms of beauty. He was described by Michael Psellos as "a marvel of beauty that Nature brought into being in the person of this man, so justly proportioned, so harmoniously fashioned, that there was no one in our time to compare to him". Psellos described "the symmetry of the emperor's body, his perfect analogies, his ruddy hair which shone like rays of sunlight, [and] his white body which appeared like clear and translucent crystal".

In addition to his beauty, Constantine was praised for his justice and wisdom, the latter being displayed through his patronage of philosophy and rhetoric, as well as his legislation. Indeed, during his reign there was a "rennaisance" of interest in ancient Greek philosophy. His personality has been described as good-natured; he was easily amused and loved to laugh. He charmed practically everyone who knew him, especially Zoe whom he enthralled immediately. Constantine spent money without restraints and liked to make several luxurious gifts to his associates. For example, he gave to the Church many objects of great value, including precious sacred vessels, "that surpassed by far all the others as to dimensions, beauty and price". Constantine also showed clemency and mercy, even in cases of treason.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Constantine IX Monomachos


text:
Chalmers Automobile

The Chalmers Motor Company was an American automobile manufacturer headquartered in Detroit, Michigan. Founded in 1908 by Hugh Chalmers, the company was known for producing high-end vehicles. Chalmers automobiles gained recognition for their toughness, durability, and engineering receiving particular praise for their performance in touring events. The company reached its peak in 1911, becoming the eighth-largest auto producer in the United States. Despite initial success, the company faced challenges with increasing competition in the auto industry, and sales began to decline in the following years. In 1923, Chalmers Motor Company merged with Maxwell Motor, ultimately forming the basis for the Chrysler Corporation.

Origin
Hugh Chalmers started working at National Cash Register Company in Dayton, Ohio, at age 14 and eventually became vice president. In 1907, car-maker Roy Chapin at Thomas-Detroit began to make offers to Hugh Chalmers to take over the company. Roy Chapin was concerned about the Thomas-Detroit's reliance on the company's sales network. Chapin persuaded Chalmers to become president of Thomas-Detroit and build a solid independent sales force. Hugh Chalmers purchased ER Thomas's interests in the Thomas-Detroit company.

Chalmers convinced NCR salesman Joseph Fields to join him in Detroit to set up dealerships across the U.S. In 1907 or 1909, Chalmers built a factory on Jefferson Avenue in Detroit which would survive until 1991 under Chrysler while the headquarters was in Highland Park, Michigan.

The stockholders voted to rename the company the Chalmers-Detroit Motor Company on June 15, 1908, and later the Chalmers Motor Company on January 26, 1910.

The first car was the Chalmers 30 in 1908. Sales of 3,047 automobiles resulted in revenues of $4,754,929 and profits of $1,015,823 for the year ending June 30, 1909, although the paid-in capital stock was just $300,000.

In the early years of the Chalmers automobile brand, specifically in 1909 and 1910, the company produced a model called the Chalmers Detroit. Production during these two years was not high, and it was not until 1911 that the Chalmers car was officially introduced. The Chalmers Detroit cars were known for their toughness and durability, and they won 69 major competitions during their production period. One of the notable competitions won by the Chalmers Detroit was the Indiana Cup, and another was the 1910 Glidden tour, where a Model 30 car achieved victory. These early Chalmers cars, particularly the Model 30 and Model 40, were praised for their engineering and performance, and they continue to be regarded as some of the best cars for touring events. Notably, the Model T Ford, which was produced from 1908 to 1927, used the same oil in both its crankcase and transmission case, a design that did not cause any bearing problems and was similar to that of the Chalmers Detroit.

Hudson Motor Car Company
Roscoe Jackson and Howard Dunham, two of Howard Coffin's employees at Oldsmobile, built a new lightweight car, the Model 20, intended to sell for under $1,000. Still, Chapin and Coffin could not persuade Hugh Chalmers to join the project. Chalmers Motors' early success was due primarily due to Roy Chapin as Treasurer and general manager, and Howard Coffin as Chief Engineer.

On October 28, 1908, Chapin, Coffin, and others formed the Hudson Motor Car Company to pursue their desires to build a smaller car. Roscoe Jackson was married to the niece of Detroit department store mogul Joseph L. Hudson. Hudson invested $90,000 in the endeavor and gave the company his name. Hugh Chalmers was also a prominent investor in Hudson.

In 1909–10, Hugh Chalmers and his partners sold their shares in Hudson to Chapin, and Chapin sold his stake in Chalmers Motors to Hugh Chalmers. Hudson built a factory across the street from the Chalmers plant to be close to suppliers and the railroad.

In December 1909, the Chalmers and Hudson companies parted ways. Chapin's concerns about the Chalmers firm's future were well-founded; over the next decade, the Hudson company prospered while the Chalmers company faltered.

Peak sales
Chalmers's best year was 1911 when it became the number eight auto producer in the U.S. The high point in sales was in 1911 when Chalmers sold 6,250 cars. Chalmers shareholders also did well. Preferred stock dividends paid out 7% per year and the common stock paid 2.5% annually.

Beginning in 1912, sales of Chalmers fell. Hugh Chalmers created Saxon Motors in 1913. From 1908 until 1913, the Chalmers Model 30's design remained unchanged, even as its price climbed past $2,000 per unit. Despite this, Chalmers was the ninth-largest vehicle manufacturer in the United States in 1910, with 6,350 cars sold.

By 1915 the auto-business was changing and became more competitive. The Chalmers survival was always at risk with over 250 automakers in the U.S.

Before World War I, the automobile economy was booming, but sales of Chalmers' cars were declining.

In 1915, the Chalmers Motor Company produced 9,833 automobiles before being renamed the Chalmers Motor Car Corporation. Hugh Chalmers was a superb salesman, but once Roy Chapin and his partners defected to Hudson, he could not attract and retain skilled, active engineers and manufacturing employees.

In November 1915, Chalmers presented his 1916 models to his dealers and sold 13,000 automobiles worth $22 million in less than an hour.

By the end of 1915, the company had over $8 million in real estate and machinery and employed between 7,000 and 8,000 people. According to one publication, Chalmers earned more than $1 million in 1915.

Because it was a low-volume, high-cost manufacturer, the Chalmers Motor Company struggled to stay afloat. In 1910–1914, the company produced about 6,200 vehicles per year, then boosted production to 9,833 units in 1915 and 21,408 cars in 1916.

In 1916, Chalmers set up a Canadian factory in Walkerville (Windsor), Ontario. At first, engines were manufactured by three outside suppliers, but Chalmers brought later engine manufacturing in-house. An advantage of the new Chalmers plant was its self-sufficiency.

The plant had a foundry to make engines, transmissions, axles, nuts, and bolts Chalmers wanted to make as many parts in-house and only bought specialized parts like sparkplugs and tires from outside suppliers.

Hugh Chalmers proposed in May 1916 that the corporation boost production to 60,000 automobiles per year while lowering prices or raising prices while lowering output. The actual results attained in 1916 demonstrate the company's issues. In the first half of the year, the Chalmers factory increased production, and the sales department supplied automobiles to dealers regardless of demand. As a result, a year's worth of cars was on hand at Chalmers distributors in Dallas and Omaha. Nevertheless, Hugh Chalmers was obliged to reduce production from 15,659 automobiles in the first half of 1916 to only 5,749 in the second. As a result, Chalmers remained a struggling automotive manufacturer with extra plant capacity from 1910 to 1917.

The company's finances improved in mid-1916 with better engine performance and improved body design, and the company moved from 14th to 12th place, but by late 1916 the company was close to bankruptcy.

Merger with Maxwell Motors
Beginning September 1, 1917, the Maxwell Motor Company bailed Chalmers by leasing its plants for five years. Maxwell received $3 million in operating capital from the Chalmers Motor Company, issuing $3.15 million in mortgage bonds.

When the U.S. entered World War 1, demand weakened for the Chalmers while the Maxwell cars were outselling them. In 1917, Chalmers agreed to make Maxwell cars in the Chalmers' Jefferson Avenue plant while Maxwell would sell Chalmers cars through their dealer network.

Maxwell decided to keep the Chalmers car in production to preserve its good name and reputation. Maxwell also committed to pay the interest on the mortgage bonds and to contribute half of the net profits made on all autos produced in the Chalmers factories to the Chalmers firm. Hugh Chalmers moved up and out to become chairman of the board, and Walter E. Flanders, already president of the Maxwell Motor Company, became president of Chalmers. From 1917 until 1922, the Maxwell and Chalmers corporations shared the same managers, but the companies did not fully merge until 1922. Maxwell built the Chalmers line of automobiles until 1923.

Hugh Chalmers left for Washington, D.C., to work with the National Automobile Chamber of Commerce (NACC) as one of the "dollar a-year-men". During 1917, following the April United States Declaration of War against Germany, Maxwell Motor Co took over Chalmers' operations to make cars and trucks for the U.S. Government. Chalmers merged with the Maxwell automobile Company in 1922.

When Hugh Chalmers returned to Detroit in 1919, both companies now had financial problems, and in mid-1920, the bank creditors formed a reorganization committee. In 1920, Walter P. Chrysler joined the Maxwell automobile company and faced numerous challenges, one of which was the unsuccessful merger with Chalmers. Subsequently, due to mechanical issues that had negatively impacted Maxwell's reputation, the company revamped and rebranded the vehicle as the "Good Maxwell".

In late November 1921, Chalmers reduced prices for all models, and production was down to about 20 cars a day while Maxwell was selling more than 100 vehicles a day. Walter P. Chrysler reorganized the company and finally merged them into Chrysler in 1923.

Chase National Bank at that time had recruited the help of Walter P. Chrysler to rescue Willys Overland Company and Chalmers. Chalmers and Maxwell sued each other for millions of dollars. The Chalmers-Maxwell reorganization committee found that the lease agreement was too loose and poorly constructed.

Chrysler's financial and management overhaul of Maxwell in 1920–1922 was hindered by delays in Maxwell's takeover of Chalmers, which began in 1917. The convoluted strands of the Maxwell-Chalmers relationship are difficult to summarize. The original lease became increasingly unfavorable for Maxwell's shareholders as Chalmers' fortunes dropped after 1917 and Maxwell's performance improved. Maxwell was losing money on the Chalmers brand while splitting revenues from the more profitable Maxwell automobile with Chalmers investors. Both company' investors agreed to alter the original lease and merge the two companies. Still, the merger was delayed due to opposition by some Chalmers stockholders and threats of lawsuits.

Maxwell and Chalmers were hurt by a lack of material and rising costs after the war.

Walter Chrysler had the difficult task of reviving both Maxwell and Chalmers. In 1920, Chalmers' sales (almost 10,000 automobiles) were about a third of Maxwell's (34,000 cars), but by 1921, when Maxwell's sales had dropped to 16,000, Chalmers had only sold about 3,000 vehicles. As a result, Chalmers produced only 3,978 automobiles in 1922, a dismal performance compared to Maxwell's robust sales of 48,883 cars. In 1921, Maxwell stopped producing cars in the Chalmers plant.

For the calendar year 1922, Maxwell had a profit of $2,018,266; however, Chalmers' losses for the year ($1,325,524) decreased Maxwell's net profit to barely $700,000. A U.S. District Court judgment issued November 3, 1922, settled a lawsuit launched by the Fisk Rubber Company against Chalmers, ending the long-running feud between the Chalmers and Maxwell investors.

The court declared the Chalmers company bankrupt and ordered its assets to be auctioned off. On December 7, 1922, the Maxwell Motor Corporation purchased the Chalmers property for $1,987,600, completing a takeover that began in 1917.

The last Chalmers branded car was probably produced in January 1924. The old Chalmers plant started to produce Chryslers in 1924, but Chrysler produced Maxwell cars until 1925.

"Forty"
The 1908 Model C "Forty" was similar to the Thomas-Detroit C "Forty" from the previous year, which was very similar to the vehicle designed by Howard Coffin, the 1906 Olds Model "A".

The engines were manufactured by other companies such as Westinghouse Machine Company, American, British Manufacturing Company, and Continental. In 1911 Chalmers started building most of its engines. The "Forty" engine's small radiator led to overheating.

The 40 Touring or Roadster sold for US$2750 while the 40 Torpedo sold for US$3000. This was less than American's lowest-price Model, which sold for US$4250.

"30" and "36"
The "30" remained more or less the same, but the "36" (introduced in 1912) had a longer stroke and higher horsepower four-cylinder engine.

Nickel plate replaced the brass in cars as it was easier to maintain, and Gray & Davis electric headlights replaced the gas headlights. Chalmers produced only one truck type in its history and called it the Model 14 Delivery.

The Model "36" has a 4-speed transmission. The foot brake is combined with the clutch pedal, so it releases the clutch when pushed halfway.

The 30 Touring and the 30 Roadster sold for US$1500, when the Oldsmobile Runabout was priced at US$650, the Cole 30 sold for US$1500, and the Oakland 40 went for US$1600. The 30 Coupe at US$2400 was nearer the Enger 40 car at US$2400.

"Six", "Light-6" and "Master Six"
The first 6-cylinder was introduced in 1912 and called the Model 12 "Six". The company added a "Master Six" in September 1913 and "Light Six" at a New York show in January 1914. George Dunham developed the six cylinders. The "Light Six" and "Master Six" have a redesigned engine, clutch, and dashboard.

The "Six" Model Series Models 12 and 18 had overhead intake valves and a Rayfield carburetor. As a high-end car, the Six came with an engine-driven tire pump and a compressed air starting system.

Master Six Model 24
Important improvements made their appearance in the Model 24. The Model 24, 7 passenger car, weighed 5475 pounds.

Engine
Model 24 was the first Chalmer's engine to use a long-stroke T-head, and the company claimed that it could not be stalled as it used a chain that ran with the engine that would restart the machine when it was about to stall. The exhausts were on the right, the intakes on the left, and the enclosed valve functioning elements contributed to the motor's silent operation.

The motor was brand new, and it came with T-head cylinders, an electric starter, a new forced-feed oiling system, and enclosed valve parts. The engine and the gearset were still one unit. One set of disks in the multiple-disk clutch featured cork inserts. The torsion rods were redesigned, and the rear springs were lowered. For the first time in a Chalmers model, the steering wheel was shifted to the left side, with the levers in the center. Also for the first time, the gasoline tank was carried in the back and fed by a pressure feed. The spare rims or wheels are kept in the back of the vehicle. It had a slightly smaller motor, a 2-inch larger wheelbase, and was $225 less in roadster and four and five-passenger models; $325 less in six-passenger models; $100 less as a limousine; and $50 more as a coupe when compared to the 1913 six. In addition, on the 1913 model, the new Chalmers-Entz combined electric starting and lighting system replaced the air starting method, and a single bosch ignition replaced the prior dual types ignition.

The cylinders in groups of three were castings with water-jacket spaces around the cylinders and around the valve seats and partly surrounding the valve stem guides. The jacket heads were built into the water heater or return pipe to the radiator as one piece and in the head of the combustion chamber was a 2 3/8-inch threaded plug which when removed gave access to the entire combustion chamber for carbon removal without removing the cylinder castings. The water entered each cylinder group's rear face, which was the hottest section.The cylinder had a bore of 4 inches and stroke of 5.5 inches which gave an S.A.E. rating of 38.4 horsepower, a piston displacement of 414.7 cubic inches, and a stroke-bore ratio of 1.333 to 1.

The 24 was part of a trend toward long-stroke engines with smaller piston displacements, which provided more economy and more horsepower per unit of piston displacement. In addition, the connecting rods, which were produced of nickel steel instead of open hearth in 1913, were 40 percent lighter and had a narrower section.

Even though the pistons were longer than the previous year's model, which was necessary by the longer strokes employed, they were lighter. In addition, they were higher-quality castings with four-section rings. Each slot had a complete outside ring, but inside it was a sequence of arc-shaped segments creating an inner ring. Each segment was forced externally by a small leaf spring, which was employed to keep the outer ring from pressing against the cylinder wall unevenly. The constant pressure obtained by this construction of piston ring results in good compression being maintained for a longer period than was possible with the older type. The 40 percent carbon crankshaft had curved cheeks that helped to move the weight into the middle of the shaft axis and provide optimum rotational balance. Three bronze plain bearings supported the shaft with a babbitt alloy liner.

Intake and exhaust valves were made of tungsten steel, which was also used in racing automobiles, helped prevent pitting. Both valve sets have a 7/16-inch lift and 85-pound pressure springs and are 2 1/8 inches in diameter. A new oiling system used a gear pump in the crankcase sump that fed oil to a large-diameter pipe that went from end to end and within the crankcase. Three branches led to the crankshaft bearings from this conduit.

Instead of flowing into the sump, the overflow oil from these bearings was sent out the opposite end of the bearing, where it entered through a short pipe and dropped into little trays integral with the sides of the crankcase base, where it flowed into the oil troughs beneath the connecting rods. The scoops on the connecting rods dipped into these troughs. The final overflow from the troughs was recirculated in the sump. On the left side of the crankcase, in the web between the front and rear legs, an upgraded form of accessible oil strainer was installed. Timing gears were oiled directly from the front bearing's overflow via a short pipe that poured the oil onto the crankshaft's pinion.

Clutch Oiled from Motor
The multiple-disk clutch was improved by inserting cork inserts in one set of disks and operating the entire clutch in oil. A torque rod upgrade supported the clutch at the forward end by a curved leaf vanadium steel spring, saving 25 pounds in weight over the previous model.

Chassis
The model 24 chassis came with a single wheelbase length and seven interchangeable body designs, all of which were held in place by eight small stamped brackets on the outside of the frame side members, four on each side. This mounting was created to decrease body squeaks and to make demounting easier. The steering components on the front axle had a twofold tilt. The knuckle pins pointed slightly outward and there was a backward inclination of 1.5 to 2 degrees. The frame was 1/16 inch thicker and heavier than before. The side members were lowered in front of the back axle but not inswept at the dash. The front springs were 39 inches long with 2-inch leaves. The three-quarter rears were put beneath the axle not because it provided lower body suspension, but because it provided approximately double the spring movement radius. The top leaf was 52 inches long with 2 /14-inch leaves and was made of vanadium steel.

Chalmers-Entz Starting System
The Chalmers-Entz combination electric motor and generator was introduced in the Model 24 to crank the gasoline engine while also charging the storage battery. Instead of being mounted alongside the motor, the motor-generator was housed under the right front seat and was powered by a short propeller shaft that extended forward to the near rim of the flywheel and carried a small sprocket that was driven by a silent chain from a large sprocket on the flywheel. The generator was made in the Chalmers factory and was an 18-volt system. The complete unit was about 230 pounds in weight, 100 pounds for the motor-generator, 100 pounds for the battery, and 30 for the driving parts and attaching brackets.

Body
As it converged into the cowl, the hood was expanded and heightened. The hood transition into the body was made easier by turning off the dash lights and replacing them with a combination headlight that featured two bulbs, one for headlights and the other for dash lights, located above the lens exits.

Price and options
The roadster, four and five-passenger bodies were priced at $2,175, the six-passenger at $2,275, the coupe at $2,850, and the limousine at $3,680. In addition, $80 was fitted with McCue wire wheels. A $75 package that featured a Kellog tire pump, an extra rim casing, tube, and tire cover was also available. Mohair top, rain vision windshield, demountable rims, speedometer, rear tire carrier with spare rim, electric horn, electric starter, and electric lighting were all on the normal list. Brewster green, grey, and meteor blue were the standard colors for open cars. Closed automobiles were only available in the color valentine coach blue.

Model 26
The Model 26-A came with a smaller engine and better performance being a lighter car.

Model 32 "Six-40"
The Model 32-A "Six-40" was the company's first overhead camshaft engine.

The engine was a Weidely Motor Company with its overhead camshaft (OHC) design. When comparing these later OHC Chalmers power plants to the T head or L head engines of the pre-World War I period, their specifications cannot be ignored. The Chalmers' two-roller-bearing-crankshaft F-head engine of 1910 had been a surprising performer, with a streamlined intake manifold feeding the cylinders via extremely large intake valves located in the head. The exhaust side valves were in a pocket, leaving a lot of room in the cylinder head for the inlets. In 1915, Chalmers made a great step forward with the incorporation of a full-overhead-camshaft Weidley engine, which pioneered the idea of driving the overhead-camshaft from the middle of the crankshaft instead of from the front or the rear. The model 6-40 had a bore and stroke of 3.125 and 5 inches, respectively, and camshaft rigidity was obtained by using a 2.25-inch diameter. The location of the camshaft drive in the center made it necessary to have four main bearings instead of the usual three. Tubular connecting rods were also used, which was a very advanced idea for its day.

"Six-30"/ "Y"
The "Six-30" consisted of Models 35-A ("5-15" for 5 passenger and 115-inch wheelbase), 35-B (or "7-22" for 7-passenger body and 122-inch wheelbase), 35-C, and 35-D. The car's balanced crankshaft and a new Morse silent timing chain gave it a reputation for a quiet and smooth ride. Later designs introduced a lower silhouette, one-piece windshield, and even disc wheels.

To overcome the poor fuel available at the time, the "Hot Spot" and "Ram's Horn" were introduced in 1918 to improve engine performance. The "Six-30" came in a wide variety of body styles and wheelbases to seat between 2 and 7 passengers.

"Hot Spot" and "Ram's Horn" innovation
Chalmers introduced two mechanical devices in 1917 to overcome lower gasoline volatility. The "Hot Spot" and "Ram's Horn" warmed up the air-fuel mixture.

Four wheel brakes
In late 1923 customers could purchase the Model Y with an optional hydraulic four-wheel brake system for $75 based on hydraulics that had been initially developed for Lockheed.

Lucile Sedan
The couturière, costumier, journalist, and pundit, Lucy Duff-Gordon lent her name to advertising for brassieres, perfume, shoes, and other luxury apparel and beauty items. In 1916 she signed a contract to design interiors for limousines and town cars for the 1917 Chalmers Model 35-B. The design was an attempt to improve sales by marketing a more luxurious design. The Town car had no protection for the driver and the sedan had removable door posts to create a look of an open hard top. Duff-Gordon had little other interest in the exterior and focused on improved interior materials such as a mahogany dash and finer cloth.

Racing
Chalmers marketed the company's visibility by hiring professional drivers and entering races. In the first two years, they won 89 first place wins, 32-second-place trophies, 21 third-place victories in road races, and hill-climbing events, and reliability contests. The best known as the Vanderbilt Cup in 1909 and the Glidden Trophy in 1910.

The Chalmers "30" won more motoring contests in proportion to the number entered than any other car regardless of price. It was never defeated in any race by any car in the same power and price class. The Chalmers won 89 firsts, 32 seconds, and 21 thirds in two years of races.

A Chalmers won the 1909 and 1910 Glidden Tour. Other wins included the Vanderbilt Cup Races (1909), Crown Point Races, Candler Trophy Races, and Pikes Peak hill climb.

Chalmers racing records
1909 Indiana Trophy Race Chalmers "30" was first, winning the Indiana Trophy on the Crown Point-Lowell circuit-232.74 miles at an average time of 51.5 miles per hour.

Santa Monica, California Chalmers "30" won first in 200-mile race, averaging 55.5 miles per hour. National Light Stock Car Event Chalmers "30" won first place and the Merrimac Valley trophy in Lowell, Massachusetts-127.2 miles at an average time of 52 miles per hour. Atlanta Georgia Speedway In November 1909, two Chalmers "30s" won every event in their class. Both cars averaged a mile for every minute they were on track during the week of racing. They won first and second place and the Candler trophy in a 100-mile race. For the week. the Chalmers' tally was five firsts, 11 seconds, and eight-thirds-the best average showing made.

1909 Vanderbilt Race

Chalmers "30" won first in the race for Massapequa trophy-126 miles in 129 minutes without a single stop. This is the world's speed record for cars of this type and has not been beaten since.

Denver-Mexico City In May 1909, a Chalmers "30" made the trip a pathfinder for the "Flag to Flag" tour. This was the first car to make the trip on its power from the Rio Grande to Mexico City, running 2400 miles in 24 running days. At the Fairmount Park, Philadelphia, a Chalmers "Forty" defeated one 90 horsepower, four 70 horsepower, and seven 60 horsepower cars. It was bested by only one car, a 90 horsepower of more than twice the price, and only four minutes. The "Forty" was awarded the Consistency Prize because it did not stop a single time during the 200-mile race.

A Chalmers won the Portland Rose Festival Race Wemme trophy and first place by a Chalmers "Forty" running 103 miles in 104 minutes.

A Chalmers won the Minneapolis Tribune Trophy in 1908, 1909 and 1910.

Chalmers produced six 1917 cars for racing. The engine had 55 horsepower, revved to 2600 rpm.

Chalmers Award (1911–1914)
Before the 1910 season, Hugh Chalmers announced he would present a Chalmers Model 30 automobile to the player with the highest batting average in Major League Baseball at the end of the season.

The 1910 race for best average in the American League was between the Detroit Tigers' Ty Cobb and Nap Lajoie of the Cleveland Indians. Cobb had a .004 lead on Nap Lajoie for the American League batting title. Cobb won the title and the car. American League President Ban Johnson said a recalculation showed that Cobb had won the race but Chalmers ended up awarding cars to both players. Cobb enjoyed driving the car so much that he later requested a more streamlined racing vehicle from the company. Cobb was once assaulted by a gang of thieves in the streets of Detroit while riding in the Chalmers automobile. The approximate price of the car was around $1,500, and it was powered by an Inline 4 engine that produced 30 horsepower, featuring a 3-speed manual transmission

In 1911, Chalmers created the Chalmers Award. A committee of baseball writers was to convene after the season to determine the "most important and useful player to the club and the league". Since the award was not as effective at advertising as Chalmers had hoped, it was discontinued after 1914.

External sources

 * 1915 Chalmers Model 32B video
 * 1914 Chalmers video
 * 1910 Chalmers in Fairbank museum video

title: Chalmers Automobile


text:
Carthage College

Carthage College is a private college affiliated with the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America and located in Kenosha, Wisconsin. It enrolls 2,667 students.

Carthage awards bachelor's degrees with majors in more than 40 subject areas and master's degrees in three areas. Carthage has 150 faculty. It is an affiliate of the Wisconsin Space Grant Consortium.

History
Carthage College was founded in Hillsboro, Illinois, by Lutheran pioneers in education, and chartered by the Illinois General Assembly on January 22, 1847. Originally known as The Literary and Theological Institute of the Lutheran Church in the Far West, its name was soon shortened to Lutheran College and known locally as Hillsboro College. With a two-person faculty and 79 students, Hillsboro promised "a course of study designed to be thorough and practical, and to embrace all the branches of learning, usually pursued in the best academies and colleges".

In 1852, the college moved to Springfield, Illinois, and was renamed Illinois State University, not to be confused with the institution in Normal, Illinois under the same name. During this period Abraham Lincoln served briefly on the board of trustees from 1860 to 1861, while his son Robert Todd Lincoln was a student in Illinois State University's preparatory academy from 1853 to 1859. Illinois State University's enrollment dwindled during the Civil War and closed in 1868. In 1870, several faculty reestablished the college in the rural west-central city of Carthage, Illinois, where the college acquired its current name, Carthage College.

The Great Depression and World War II lowered enrollment to 131 students in 1943, but enrollment increased again after the war as a result of the G.I. Bill.

After years of financial challenges, shifts in Lutheran synodical support, and searches for a suitable location, Carthage's board of trustees voted unanimously in 1957 to open a campus in Kenosha, Wisconsin. The lakeshore campus was dedicated on October 14, 1962.

By 1962, the college launched an era of growth. The next decade brought a period of continuous expansion. Enrollment increased fivefold, endowment tripled, and physical assets increased 600 percent. In fall 1995, Carthage enrolled 1,527 full-time students, setting a new record. Since 2001, the college has invested more than $130 million in new construction, major renovations, and technological acquisition.

Expansion
In 2001, the Hedberg Library opened its doors, adjoining the H. F. Johnson Center for the Fine Arts. The library won Wisconsin Library of the Year in 2004. The library also won the Highsmith Award in 2007 for Family Fun Night, a program for community members that encourages learning for children from 2 to 13. The former Ruthrauff Library was renovated into the A. W. Clausen Center for World Business, opening in 2004.

The Tarble Athletic and Recreation Center opened in 2001, and the former Physical Education Center was rebuilt and renamed the Tarble Arena, opening in 2009.

In fall 2011, a new student union opened on the site of the former W. F. Seidemann Natatorium. It houses a new press box, new bleachers, a new and larger bookstore, new dining options, a campus "living room", a new dining room, a 200-seat theatre, an art gallery, and a gaming area. In April 2012 the student center was formally dedicated and named the Campbell Student Union in honor of retiring President F. Gregory Campbell and his wife, Barbara, for their 25 years of service to Carthage. President Campbell retired in August 2012.

The Oaks, a new student residence village overlooking Lake Michigan, opened in 2012, containing six villas with semi-private suites and a media lounge on each floor.

In fall 2015, a new science center opened in the newly renovated David A. Straz Jr. Center for the Natural and Social Sciences. Originally built in 1962, the former Science Hall was renovated and renamed in honor of David A. Straz, Jr., in 1995. The latest $45 million expansion added a new planetarium, twelve new science labs, new classrooms, faculty offices, and student gathering and exhibition spaces.

In fall 2018, the newest residence hall, The Tower, was opened. The Tower provides students with apartment-style suites with personal bathrooms, as well as media lounges on each floor and communal kitchens on every other floor. The new building also presented students with the Terrace, a new studying space with televisions, laptop bars, and a functioning fireplace.

Presidents
Carthage has had 23 presidents since its founding:

 * Francis Springer — 1847–1855
 * Simeon W. Harkey — 1855–1857 (1)
 * William M. Reynolds — 1858–1862
 * Simeon W. Harkey — 1862–1866 (2)
 * David Loy Tressler — 1873–1880
 * J. A. Kunkelman — 1881–1883
 * J. S. Detweiler — 1883–1884
 * E.F. Bartholomew — 1884–1888
 * Holmes Dysinger — 1888–1895
 * John M. Ruthrauff — 1895–1900
 * Frederick L. Sigmund — 1900–1909
 * Harvey D. Hoover — 1909–1926
 * N. J. Gould Wickey — 1926–1929
 * Jacob Diehl — 1929–1933
 * Rudolph G. Schulz — 1935–1943
 * Erland Nelson — 1943–1949
 * Morris Wee — 1950–1951
 * Ruth Wick — 1951–1952
 * Harold H. Lentz — 1952–1976
 * Erno J. Dahl — 1977–1986
 * Alan R. Anderson — 1986–1987
 * F. Gregory Campbell — 1987–2012
 * Gregory S. Woodward — 2012–2017
 * John R. Swallow — 2017–present

Academics
Carthage offers a Bachelor of Arts in more than 40 areas of study and the Bachelor of Science in Nursing. Carthage also partners with master's level institutions to offer dual-degree programs in engineering, occupational therapy, chiropractic, and pharmacy. Its most popular undergraduate majors, by number out of 585 graduates in 2022, were:
 * Registered Nursing/Registered Nurse (59)
 * Marketing/Marketing Management (51)
 * Business Administration and Management (49)
 * Psychology (40)
 * Exercise Science and Kinesiology (34)
 * Biology/Biological Sciences (31)
 * Criminal Justice/Law Enforcement Administration (29)

The academic calendar spans two 14-week semesters, separated by a month-long January term. The college has been accredited by the Higher Learning Commission since 1916. Carthage also offers three master's degree programs in education, business design and innovation, and music theatre vocal pedagogy.

Tuition reset
Undergraduate tuition for the 2019–2020 academic year was $45,100 (excluding books, personal expenditures, and health insurance). On September 17, 2019, the college announced that it was resetting the sticker price of tuition for the 2020–21 academic year by 30% to $31,500. The college made this decision in an effort to make its pricing more transparent and to attract students that may have been deterred by the high listed tuition.

Admissions
In fall 2016, Carthage had enrollment of 2,818 undergraduate students and 112 graduate students. The student body is 55 percent female and 45 percent male. 70% of applicants are accepted for admission.

Western Heritage
All Carthage students were required to take Western Heritage, a year-long course sequence in which they read, discussed, and wrote about major Western texts. The reading list included works by Plato, Homer, Shakespeare, Thomas Jefferson, and W. E. B. DuBois, in addition to the Bible. In the 2020–2021 school year, this was replaced with Intellectual Foundations, which has the same purpose but includes more texts written by non-white authors.

Senior thesis
All students must complete a senior thesis. This capstone project can take the form of a research project, music recital, art exhibit, or some other original demonstration of scholarship or creativity.

January term
During January Term, known on campus as "J-Term", participating students select one class and attend it daily. In addition to on-campus courses, many students travel with faculty on study tours in either January or the summer months. Destinations in 2016 included Cuba, Nicaragua, and World War II battle sites in Europe. All students must complete two J-Term courses, including one during their freshman year.

Rankings
Carthage College was tied for 33 out of 127 in Regional Universities Midwest in the U.S. News & World Report rankings of Best Colleges in 2022-23.

The Institute for International Education placed Carthage no. 4 among baccalaureate institutions for student participation in short-term study abroad in 2013–2014.

In The Princeton Review's 2016 rankings, Carthage was among 159 schools listed as a Best Midwestern College.

From 2008 through 2016, 17 students from the college won Fulbright fellowships. In 2016, the college was named a top Fulbright producer.

Faculty
The college has a student-to-faculty ratio of 13 to 1. In fall 2016, the college employed 160 full-time professors and 162 part-time faculty members. In the summer of 2020, the college announced a plan to reduce "total full-time faculty by 10 to 20 percent. That reduction would include a mix of tenured and contract faculty." It is to be effected via a "reorganization" affecting ten departments, including Biology, Classics, English, Modern Languages, Music, Philosophy and Great Ideas, Physics and Astronomy, Political Science, Religion, and Sociology and Criminal Justice. In fall 2021, the college employed 142 full-time professors and 145 part-time faculty members.

Carthage in Chicago
In 2014, the college launched the Carthage in Chicago program. Participating students spend a semester in Chicago, securing an internship or pursuing a major academic project while living and taking classes in the city. Housing and classroom space are located at HI-Chicago.

The Old Main Bell
For decades, the Old Main Bell sat in the tower at the top of Old Main, the first building on the campus in Carthage, Illinois. After athletic victories, students would race down Evergreen Walk to ring the bell. When Carthage moved from Illinois to Wisconsin in the 1960s, the Tau Sigma Chi fraternity helped move the victory bell to Kenosha. In 2004, the victory bell found a new home in the scoreboard on Art Keller Field.

Kissing Rock
Kissing Rock has been a part of Carthage since 1913. Dennis Swaney and other members of the Class of 1913 found the 2 ½-ton chunk of granite in a farmer's field and moved the stone to the campus. Stationed prominently at the entrance to Evergreen Walk, the rock quickly became part of Carthage life. One tradition recounts that any woman sitting on the rock was obligated to kiss the man who found her there and countless marriage proposals have been made and accepted near it. Members of the Beta Phi Epsilon fraternity moved Kissing Rock to the Kenosha campus in the mid-1960s. It now sits facing Lake Michigan between Lentz and Tarble Halls.

Today, Kissing Rock is a multifaceted symbol of the Carthage spirit. Students paint the Rock to promote their organizations and causes, publicize upcoming events, and celebrate. Kissing Rock has served as a memorial to beloved alumni, an expression of protest against injustice, a tribute after 9/11, and more.

Christmas Festival
The Christmas Festival has been a part of Carthage's holiday season since 1974. Every year at the start of December, Carthage hosts a musical celebration of the birth of Christ for the community. The event highlights student vocal and instrumental ensembles, as well as performances by students in Carthage's Theatre Department.

Athletics
Carthage athletic teams are the Firebirds. The college is a member of the Division III level of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), primarily competing in the College Conference of Illinois and Wisconsin (CCIW) since the 1961–62 academic year; which they were a member on a previous stint from 1946–47 to 1951–52. The Firebirds previously competed in the Illinois Intercollegiate Athletic Conference from 1912–13 to 1940–41.

In men's volleyball, Carthage became a founding member of the single-sport Continental Volleyball Conference (CVC) in 2011. In 2014, the CVC amicably split along regional lines, with Carthage and the CVC's other Midwestern members forming the Midwest Collegiate Volleyball League. The team then moved into the CCIW once the conference began sponsoring men's volleyball in 2020.

In women's water polo, Carthage is a member of the single-sport Collegiate Water Polo Association Division III Conference since the team's inception in 2010.

Carthage competes in 28 intercollegiate varsity sports: Men's sports include baseball, basketball, cross country, football, golf, lacrosse, soccer, swimming & diving, tennis, track & field, volleyball and wrestling; while women's sports include basketball, bowling, cross country, golf, lacrosse, soccer, softball, swimming & diving, tennis, track & field, volleyball, water polo and wrestling. In the spring of 2021, Carthage announced the creation of an e-sports team as a varsity sport.

Over a third of Carthage students are involved in varsity intercollegiate athletics, and another third participate in the many intramural and club sports offered. Club sports include men's bowling, and co-ed curling and ice hockey.

Volleyball
The men's volleyball team went undefeated in the 2021 spring season and went on to win the school's first Division III National Championship. They repeated as champions in 2022, becoming the first sport to win back-to-back national championships at the college. They have been invited on several occasions, finishing 2nd in their very first year.

Baseball
The men's baseball team averaged over 35 wins per season from 1990 to 2010, with an overall record of 702–237. They have been invited to the NCAA Division III World Series several times, finishing third in 2009.

Since 1990, Carthage has claimed eight outright CCIW divisional titles, one divisional-title tie, nine conference crowns, 16 NCAA regional berths, including nine-straight from 1992 to 2000, six regional titles, third-place finishes in both the 1993 and 1994 NCAA Division III baseball championships and fourth place in both 1995 and 1997. For his efforts, Coach Augie Schmidt has been named American Baseball Coaches Association/Diamond Sports NCAA Division III Central Regional "Coach Of The Year" nine times (1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997, 2002, 2003, 2007 and 2009), won the ABCA/Louisville Slugger Conference Award seven times from 1993 to 1999, and has been named CCIW "Baseball Coach of the Year" on 10 occasions (1989, 1990, 1992, 1993, 1995, 1999, 2002, 2003, 2007 and 2009).

Football

 * See List of Carthage Firebirds head football coaches

In 2004, Carthage's football team set a school record for most wins in a season, going 11–2. That season was also the first time the Red Men made the NCAA Division III playoffs since the school joined the NCAA in 1976. The team was coached by Tim Rucks. Carthage went on to win their first two games of the playoffs defeating Alma College and Wooster College. The Red Men then lost to Mount Union College. The Red Men finished the 2004 season ranked 5th in the nation.

Mike Yeager served as the head coach beginning with the 2012 season and concluding in 2017. Dustin Hass has taken over the role since 2018.

Nickname
In 2005, the NCAA ruled that Carthage, along with several other colleges, would be ineligible to host NCAA-sanctioned playoffs and tournaments because their nickname, "Redmen", was perceived as an offensive reference to Native Americans. A decision was made to rename the Carthage men's teams the "Red Men". This is in accordance with the circa 1920 origin of the name—the team's red uniform jersey—while removing any possible controversial connotations. In conjunction with the rearticulation of the name, a new logo for the team replaced the traditional feathered Carthage C. It includes a torch, a shield, and a C.

In 2020, the Carthage Board of Trustees and Athletics voted unanimously to retire the Red Men/Lady Reds nickname and mascot "Torchie" from athletics. The teams will compete as Carthage Athletics for the 2020–2021 academic year with a new name and mascot approved and announced prior to the 2021–2022 academic year. On February 19, 2021, the Carthage Board of Trustees, along with President Swallow, voted to change the nickname to the Firebirds, and the new nickname was immediately adopted for all sports. At the Homecoming Football Game in October 2021, the Carthage team unveiled their new mascot, named "Ember".

Notable alumni

 * George A. Anderson – U.S. Representative from Illinois
 * J. Arthur Baird – athlete and coach
 * Alden W. Clausen – former President of the World Bank
 * Caroline Bartlett Crane – American Unitarian minister, suffragist, civic reformer, educator and journalist
 * Tony D'Souza – novelist
 * Scott C. Fergus – Wisconsin State Representative
 * Daniel L. Gard – U.S. Navy admiral
 * Steve Hanson – NFL player for the Louisville Colonels and Kansas City Blues/Cowboys
 * John Hay - journalist, White House senior aide, and U.S. Secretary of State
 * David Holliday – Broadway, film, and television actor
 * Alie "Muffy" Israel – track and field sprinter
 * James L. Jelinek, 8th Episcopal Bishop of Minnesota
 * Jim Jodat – NFL player for the Los Angeles Rams, Seattle Seahawks, and San Diego Chargers
 * Susan Lee Johnson – historian and professor
 * William George Juergens – United States federal judge
 * Laura Kaeppeler – 2012 Miss America Winner
 * Rick Kehr – NFL player for the Washington Redskins
 * Jon Kukla – author and historian
 * Scott M. Ladd – Iowa Supreme Court justice
 * David J. Lepak – Wisconsin State Representative
 * Paul Miller – MLB player
 * Fernando Sanford – founding faculty member and physics professor at Stanford University
 * Marie Sarantakis – author
 * Ross H. Trower – Chief of Chaplains of the U.S. Navy
 * Adam Walker – NFL player for the Minnesota Vikings
 * A. Gilbert Wright – zoologist

Notable faculty

 * Thomas Carr, paleontologist
 * Alice L. Kibbe, biologist
 * Perry Kivolowitz, computer science
 * Augie Schmidt, baseball head coach

title: Carthage College


text:
Talk:List of cities by country

Can someone explain how this page is not completely obsoleted by List of cities, which is also arranged by country? -- Timwi 22:52 26 Jun 2003 (UTC)

What's the criteria for listing a city here? Should there be a fixed number per country? --Dori 01:34, 23 Sep 2003 (UTC)

No idea what the criteria for a city is, and why this list even appears - it's inconsistent with the individual countries. I vote it's replaced by a list of links to the individual countries lists. As to what goes in those... who knows? --Greenman 15 October 2003

title: Talk:List of cities by country


text:
1995 Governor General's Awards

The 1995 Governor General's Literary Awards were presented by Roméo LeBlanc, Governor General of Canada on November 14 at the Winter Garden Theatre in Toronto. Each winner received a cheque for $10,000 and a copy of their books specially bound by master bookbinder Pierre Ouvard.

title: 1995 Governor General's Awards


text:
Andronikos IV Palaiologos

Andronikos IV Palaiologos or Andronicus IV Palaeologus (11 April 1348 – 25/28 June 1385 ) was the eldest son of Byzantine Emperor John V Palaiologos. Appointed co-emperor from 1352, he had a troubled relationship with his father: he launched a failed rebellion in 1373, usurped the throne in 1376–1379, and remained engaged in a bitter struggle with John V until his death in 1385. This civil war depleted Byzantium's scarce resources and greatly facilitated the Ottoman conquest of the Balkans, most notably through the cession of Gallipoli by Andronikos. He was also the father of John VII.

Life
Born on 11 April 1348, Andronikos IV Palaiologos was the eldest son of Emperor John V Palaiologos by his wife Helena Kantakouzene. In 1352 he was already associated as co-emperor with his father, and when John V left for Italy in 1369 to affirm his submission to the Pope, John left Andronikos behind in Constantinople as regent, while his younger son Manuel II Palaiologos was sent to govern Thessalonica.

During his stay in Italy, John attempted to settle his accounts with the Republic of Venice; this included not only John's own loans, but also the loan of 30,000 ducats (and the associated interest) that his mother, Anna, had taken during the Byzantine civil war of 1341–1347, with the Byzantine crown jewels as collateral. John went in person to Venice, but he lacked the funds to pay off the loans, or even to secure a ship for his voyage home. As a result, he proposed to cede to the Venetians the island of Tenedos, strategically located at the entrance of the Dardanelles, in exchange for further funds and six warships. The Venetians accepted, but when news reached Constantinople, Andronikos IV, likely urged by the Genoese, Venice's commercial rivals, refused to honour his father's agreement. This left John stranded in Venice, effectively as a captive debtor of the Republic; when he suggested that funds be raised to secure his release by selling precious objects from the churches, Andronikos again refused, claiming that this was impious. In the end, it was only the intervention of Manuel, who went from Thessalonica to Venice in person, that secured John's release. It was not until October 1371 that the emperor returned to Constantinople.

Andronikos IV rebelled when the Ottoman sultan Murad I forced John V into vassalage in 1373. On 6 May, Andronikos IV fled Constantinople and allied with Murad's son Savcı Bey, who was rebelling against his own father. Both rebellions failed and Andronikos was imprisoned and blinded on 30 May, albeit only in one eye. His brother Manuel replaced him as heir.

Reign
In July 1376, the Genoese helped Andronikos to escape from prison, whence he went straight to Sultan Murad I, and agreed to return Gallipoli in return for his support. Gallipoli had been retaken by the Byzantines ten years before, with the assistance of Amadeus VI, Count of Savoy; this strategically important bridgehead greatly improved the sultan's ability to attack Europe. The sultan duly provided a mixed force of cavalry and infantry and with these, Andronikos was able to take control of Constantinople. Here he was able to capture and imprison both John V and his son Manuel.

However, he made the mistake of favouring the Genoese too highly by awarding them Tenedos. The governor there refused to hand it over, and passed it on to Venice. In the same year, 18 October 1377, he was crowned emperor and also crowned his young son John VII as co-emperor. However, in 1379 John and Manuel escaped to Sultan Murad, and with the assistance of the Venetians, overthrew Andronikos later in the year. The Venetians restored John V to the throne, and Manuel II. Andronikos fled to Galata, staying there until May 1381, when he was once again made co-emperor and heir to the throne despite his earlier treachery. Andronikos IV was also given the approaches to Constantinople with the city of Selymbria (Silivri) as his personal domain.

In 1385, he rebelled again, but died soon after, on 25 or 28 June, at Selymbria. He was buried in the Pantokrator Monastery in Constantinople.

Family
In 1356, Andronikos IV married Keratsa of Bulgaria, a daughter of Emperor Ivan Alexander of Bulgaria. The couple had one son, John VII Palaiologos.

title: Andronikos IV Palaiologos


text:
Paige automobile

Paige was a Detroit, United States-based automobile company, selling luxury cars between 1908 and 1927.

History

Paige first began producing automobiles in 1908. The company's first car was a two-seat model powered by a 2.2-liter three-cylinder, two-stroke engine. This model continued until 1910, when a four-stroke, four-cylinder engine design took over. In 1911, the company's namesake was shortened to Paige. A six-cylinder model was added to the range in 1914. Four-cylinder models were dropped in 1916, leaving a choice of 3.7- or 4.9-liter sixes. Another name change occurred in 1919, when models fitted with a Duesenberg engine were known as Paige-Linwood, and models fitted with a Continental engine were listed as Paige-Larchmont. A straight-eight engine was added to the sixes in 1927.

On January 21, 1921, a Paige 6-66 broke an American stock car speed record by covering a mile in 35.01 seconds at a speed of 102.8 miles per hour.

The most notable Paige produced was the 1922-1926 Daytona, a 3-seat sports roadster with a 6-cylinder engine. The vehicle was a traditional coupe, with the novel third seat extending from the side of the car over the near side running board. Paige advertised the Daytona as being "The most beautiful car in America."

Paige also produced less-expensive range of cars between 1923 and 1926. These were sold as Jewetts and were named for the Paige company president H. M. Jewett. For 1927, the Jewett name changed to Junior Paige.

Graham ownership
The Graham Brothers bought the company on June 10, 1927. Joseph Graham became the new president, his brothers Robert and Ray serving as vice-president and secretary-treasurer, respectively. The three, together with their father, also became directors of the company. The corporate name soon changed to Graham-Paige Motors Corporation. The market agreed, and automobile production rose from 21,881 in 1927 to 73,195 for the following year, when the cars became known as Graham-Paiges.

When the second series of 1930 cars was released (bringing out two series for a model year was widely practiced at the time), the name for the product (but not for the corporate name) changed to just Graham.

title: Paige automobile


text:
Talk:Battle of Hemmingstedt

Likely translation mistake
"Virgin" is most likely a translation of the German word "Jungfer", which can have different meanings, with the literal translation indeed being virgin, but in a broader sense actually describes an unmarried woman. the equivalent term in English would be "damsel". (If this specific damsel was actually a virgin would be very hard to tell indeed). — Preceding unsigned comment added by 91.89.137.53 (talk) 11:08, 14 May 2023 (UTC)

Expansion
Note: I am somewhat new here and probably do not understand the conventions too well, feel free to correct me on those things. Apparently there is a similar page https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schlacht_bei_Hemmingstedt from the German wikipedia, I think that this article may be able to be expanded and maybe corrected (they mention 12.000 men on the Kalmar side), if anyone is fluent enough in German. Just a note since I ran into this during research for worldbuilding.

JavaScriptCoder (talk) 02:51, 16 October 2018 (UTC)

Wording
Deleted the word 'pompous' - this is someone's opinion and not fact. Let's stick to the facts. --

I fear the depicturing of "Denmark" as representative for the Bad Guys, and the German peasants as the Good Guys is not only an oversimplification, but a dangerous relict from the times when Nationalism was used as a support for military conquests.

[Your fears are exaggerated. The peasants throughout Europe were engaged in struggle against the feudal system.]

At the moment I haven't checked sufficiently credible sources, but I would suggest that a fair share of the mercenaries actually were Germans (and not Dutch). Further I changed the denotion of the aggressors from "the Danish army" and similar constructs to "the Ducal army". As far as I've learned, the conquest was a result of the Emperor's entfeofment of Dithmarschen to the Dukes of Holstein (or possibly only one of them). In other words: It was primarily an aggression by the "German" Dutchy of Holstein on behalf of the Holy Roman Empire of German Nation.

 * Indeed the "Grote Garde" was not Dutch - it only was formed in the area of the Netherlands and fought there for some time, but it came from the remnants of Albrechts army and was in its core German - though it had soldiers from all over Europe. I swapped the entry to "Landsknechts", which fits perfect here. For a more detailed history of that unit and its way through Frisia read Ubbo Emmius ASchudak (talk) 23:35, 2 September 2017 (UTC)

It's of course true that one of the two dukes at the time also was king of Denmark (and briefly acknoledged as King of the Kalmar Union), but I wonder if this isn't stressed far too much in German Nationalist history-writing - particularly from the times before Schleswig and Holstein was conquered by Prussia in 1864.

-- Ruhrjung 23:10 26 Jun 2003 (UTC)

 * Dear Ruhrjung, I've already answered on the Dithmarschen talk page, that it has never been my intention to depict Danish as "Bad Guys" and Germans as "Good Guys". Did you see this paragraph:

 * Many details about the battle were made up later in order to heroize the defenders. In 1900 a pompous monument to the defenders was raised. The cult reached its peak in the Nazi era, when local party members misused the names of the battle participants for their propaganda. Today there is a more neutral museum at the site commemorating the battle.

 * That was added by me as well. I regard myself as sensitive to neo-fascist or nationalist descriptions, and you will hardly find them in my articles. If at all, I may have depicted the "little peasants" as GOOD and the "powerful knights" as BAD (what would be POV as well, but I hope, you note the difference). Anyhow, the article as it reads now, includes not any reference to Denmark, what is in contradiction to all sources you can find on the internet. If you write Duke Johann  and Duke Friedrich , it appears to me, that you want to avoid the mention of Denmark at any price. This is at least as unfortunate as the former version of the article. All this happened more than 500 years ago, so it should be possible to call a spade a spade. So I hope, that it will be possible to find a compromise version between yours and mine. And please be a bit more careful with accusing someone of certain intentions - I could take offence. -- Cordyph 07:54 27 Jun 2003 (UTC)

We are quite obviously pursuing the same interest, namely calling a spade a spade. And the spade here, i.e. the spade I wish to see called, is that the version I learned in school was actually and factually wrong. You have of course no reason to take personal offence. No more than I have had reason to take personal offence those times I've discovered that French and German history writing was different, and that my French collegues and friends were equally believing in what they'd learned as I was.

If virtually a whole nation has learned a factually wrong version, it has of course nothing with neo-fashism to do. As you know, there is an aspect of Nazi usage of historicism to it, but I propose that it might mainly echoe the historical myth-construction of the period between the Napoleonic Wars and 1848. For the reference to all sources on the internet, please remember that I believe both you and me read German and English sources much more accurately than Scandinavian (altough I've studied Swedish and thereby read Danish relatively well, it goes neccessarily slow, ...and accuracy is deficient). Furthermore, as German is a much larger and more widely spread language than Danish it's no surprise if English sources rather build on German than on Danish. The critical question is of course not the number of www-sources repeating a factoid, but what corresponds to the factual reality.

I truly believe that we agree much more than you yet have realized. And I blame myself for my repeated mistake to make you feel personally criticized. (Of course I'd seen the paragraph quoted above. It's quite to my liking.)

There are a couple of questions which I feel to have been mislead on by the version I originally learned in school some 20 years ago:
 * The relation between Denmark and Schleswig-Holstein in the 15th century. I've later learned that Denmark seemed to be more influenced by Schleswig-Holstein, than the other way around. Please remember that a Holsteinian dynasty has remained on Denmark's throne since 1448, but that the kingdom was elective, not hereditary, until the 1660s, or something like that.
 * The longlasting conflict between the Hanseatic towns (chiefly Lübeck) and agrarian territories ruled by German nobility, as for instance the Duchy of Schleswig (after 1376) and the County of Holstein (Duchy after 1474).
 * The German Emperor's role. (I'd originally the impression that a Duke of Holstein contributed in the Battle of Hemmingstedt in his capacity as a vassal of the King of Denmark. I've now learned that both Dukes of Holstein led the battle in their capacity as vassals of the German Emperor - and this either after the Emperor's consent or on his initiative. Of course I don't deny or try to hide that one of the Dukes at that time also was king of Denmark and king of the Kalmar Union, which made it easier to call knights to the expedition, but I think it shouldn't be overemphasized. In particular I question why he is to be denoted as King of Denmark when he at the time also was King of Norway and briefly King of Sweden.)
 * The relation between the two Dukes, the younger and the elder. I'd initially the impression that the elder, who at the time also was King outside of the Empire, had taken the initiative. Later I learned it's believed the younger Duke Friedrich had had to persuade the elder Duke Johannes/King Hans.
 * The nationality of the aggressive army. Not that nationality for militaries played any comparable role in the 15th century, but I was brought the false impression that it somehow was wild barbarians from the North, in the succession of the Vikings, who attacked the brave German peasantry. Also this turned out to be entirely false.
 * The annexation of Dithmarschen to Denmark, which as far as I understand in no way can be argued to have taken place before 1848. Dithmarschen was factually annexed to Holstein, parts of which (or whole of which) from time to time was in personal union with Denmark - until 1864.

I hope I hereby have made it somewhat understandable why I belive the leaders of the expedition better are to be denoted Dukes of Holstein with their names spelled in German, which I not yet can see as "at least as unfortunate as the former version of the article." I've worded the corresponding text in the article on Dithmarschen accordingly:

 * In 1500 the greatest of these battles took place, the Battle of Hemmingstedt, where the peasants defeated the largely outnumbering army of Holstein and the Kalmar Union (as one of the two co-Dukes of Holstein also was the King of Denmark). It was not until 1559, that the peasants had to give up their autonomy.

 * The conquerors divided Dithmarschen in two parts: The south became a part of Holstein in personal union with Denmark, the north came in the possession of the other Duke of Holstein. From 1773 all of Holstein was united in personal union with Denmark and remained so until 1864, when Schleswig-Holstein was annexed by Prussia.

Of course I'm prepared to consider other arguments and points of views.

Best regards! -- Ruhrjung 10:18 27 Jun 2003 (UTC)

 * I don't think that "a whole nation has learned a wrong version". Actually, this is a local event, which is almost unknown in most parts of Germany. It is comprehensively described on the official Dithmarschen website, and maybe I was not careful enough and adopted too much of their wording. I just wanted to point out, that it was never intended by me to write about "brave German peasantry" and "barbarians from the North" or similar bullshit. Of course, if someone can interpret the text like this, there might have been something wrong with the text.
 * Anyhow, I will leave your version untouched now. Your argumentation is coherent, and obviously you did much more research on the topic than me. This discussion would have been much quieter and shorter, if I wouldn't have been under the impression, that I must defend myself against reproaches of writing articles in a revanchist way. But maybe, I was misinterpreting you and overreacting.
 * Take care! -- Cordyph 11:01 27 Jun 2003 (UTC)

Or rather: I wasn't following basic Wikipedia rules on tact and courteousy. :-( -- Ruhrjung 11:50 27 Jun 2003 (UTC)

Poor Phrasing
Does this line sound really poor to anyone else: These men were a well-armed and well-organized militia, not the desperate, badly armed rabble associated with the term "peasant army". Auto98uk (talk) 02:35, 4 March 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Battle of Hemmingstedt


text:
Jizi

Jizi, Qizi, or Kizi (Gija or Kija in Korean) was a semi-legendary Chinese sage who is said to have ruled Gija Joseon in the 11th century BCE. Early Chinese documents like the Book of Documents and the Bamboo Annals described him as a virtuous relative of the last king of the Shang dynasty who was punished for remonstrating with the king. After Shang was overthrown by Zhou in the 1040s BCE, he allegedly gave political advice to King Wu, the first Zhou king. Chinese texts from the Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE) onwards claimed that King Wu enfeoffed Jizi as ruler of Chaoxian (朝鮮, pronounced "Joseon" in Korean). According to the Book of Han (1st century CE), Jizi brought agriculture, sericulture, and many other facets of Chinese civilization to Joseon. His family name was Zi/Ja (子) and given name was Xuyu/Suyu (胥餘/서여 xūyú/seoyeo, or 須臾/수유 xūyú/suyu).

Gija (the Korean pronunciation of "Jizi") may have been the object of a state cult in sixth-century Goguryeo, and a mausoleum to him was established in Goryeo in 1102, but the first extant Korean text to mention Gija was the Samguk Sagi (1145). Starting in the late thirteenth century, Gija was fully integrated into Korean history, being described as a successor to the descendants of Dangun in the state of Old Joseon. Following the spread of Neo-Confucianism in Korea in the fourteenth century, scholars of the Joseon dynasty (est. 1392) promoted Gija as a culture hero alongside Dangun.

However, with the development of radiocarbon dating and newly found excavations, modern Korean historians started to question the legitimacy of his enfeoffment as ruler of Gojoseon. Shin Chaeho (1880–1936) was the first to question the extent of Gija's cultural contributions and many followed as Gija's historical claims did not align with archeological evidence found during the time of his supposed rule. Additionally, post-war Korean scholars in both North and South Korea have strongly criticized the story of Gija's migration to Korea in the eleventh century BCE, claiming that his involvement in the history of Korea was widely exaggerated.

In recent times, both North and South Korea, and their respective historians do not officially recognize Jizi and his supposed accomplishments, making China the only nation that still supports his claims.

Pre-Qin sources
The earliest known mention of Jizi is in the "Mingyi" 明夷 hexagram of the Book of Change. According to other ancient Chinese texts like the Book of Documents, the Analects, and the Bamboo Annals, Jizi was a relative of King Zhou, the last ruler of the Shang dynasty, and one of the three wise men of Shang, along with Weizi (微子) and Bi Gan. Many identify him as Grand Tutor of the king. Jizi was either imprisoned or enslaved for remonstrating against King Zhou's misrule. (One later version states that he pretended to be mad after Bigan had been killed by King Zhou.) After Shang was overthrown by the Zhou dynasty in the mid eleventh century BC, Jizi was released by King Wu, to whom he gave advice on how to rule the new polity.

These texts mention neither Joseon nor Jizi's descendants; they simply describe Jizi as a virtuous man who was trusted by King Wu of Zhou after having been mistreated by the last Shang king.

Han and later texts
The first texts that make an explicit connection between Jizi and Joseon date from the second century BC, under the Han dynasty. The earliest known source stating that Jizi went to Joseon is the Shangshu dazhuan (尚書大傳), a commentary on the Book of Documents attributed to Fu Sheng of the second century BC. In that account, King Wu enfeoffed Jizi as the ruler of Joseon and Jizi became the subject of King Wu. In a similar story recorded in Sima Qian's Records of the Grand Historian (or Shiji, compiled between 109 and 91 BC), Jizi was enfeoffed by King Wu but did not become his subject. Sima Qian did not mention Jizi in his section on contemporary Joseon (i.e. northwestern Korea), where Wei Man's kingdom had flourished since about 194 BC until it was conquered by the Han dynasty in 108 BC. Thus the location of Joseon as in these earlier sources is not clear. Among other Han dynasty sources, the Han shi waizhuan mentions to Jizi but not his migration to Joseon.

The "Monograph on Geography" (Dili zhi 地理志) of the Book of Han (1st century AD) claims that Jizi had taught the people of Joseon agriculture, sericulture, and weaving, as well as proper ceremony. Jae-hoon Shim interprets the following sentence in that section of the Hanshu as claiming that Jizi also introduced the law of "Eight Prohibitions" (犯禁八條) in Joseon. The Records of Three Kingdoms (first published in the early fifth century) claims that the descendants of Jizi reigned as kings of Joseon for forty generations until they were overthrown by Wei Man, a man from the state of Yan, in 194 BC.

According to his commentary to the Shiji, Du Yu (first half of the 3rd century) states that the tomb of Jizi was located in Meng Prefecture of the State of Liang (modern-day Henan). This suggests that the story of Jizi's association with Joseon was not necessarily prevailing although the narrative seen in the Hanshu later became common.

As historian Jae-hoon Shim concludes, only during the Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD) did Jizi begin to be associated with Joseon, and only after the Han were his descendants identified as the Joseon royal family.

Ancient Korean accounts
The first extant Korean text to mention Gija (the Korean pronunciation of Jizi) was Kim Busik's Samguk Sagi (completed in 1145), which claimed that Gija had been enfeoffed in Haedong (海東: Korea) by the Zhou court, but commented that this account was uncertain because of the brevity of the sources. Only in the thirteenth century did Korean texts start to integrate Gija more fully into Korean history. The Samguk Yusa (1281) explained that after being enfeoffed by King Wu of Zhou, Gija replaced Dangun's descendants as the ruler of Joseon, whereas Jewang Ungi (1287) identified Dangun and Gija as the first rulers of former and latter Joseon respectively. Most premodern Korean historians after that accepted that Gija had replaced another indigenous power (represented by Dangun) in Old Joseon.

In 1102, during the Goryeo dynasty, King Sukjong built a mausoleum to Gija in a place near Pyongyang that had been identified as Gija's tomb. Sadang for gija called gijasa (箕子祠) was also built in Pyongyang. The mausoleum was rebuilt in 1324 and was repaired in 1355, but the cult of Gija spread most widely after the establishment of the Joseon dynasty in 1392. Because Joseon's state ideology was Neo-Confucianism borrowed from China, Joseon intellectuals promoted Gija as a culture hero who had raised Korean civilization to the same level as China.

From the second half of the sixteenth century to the eighteenth century, Joseon scholars published a number of books on Gija. In 1580, Yun Dusu (尹斗壽) collated all available material on him and published his research as the Gijaji (箕子志; "Record of Gija"). On the same year, eminent scholar Yi I used Yun's book to compile the Gija Silgi (箕子實記), or True Account of Gija. Yi praised Gija for introducing agriculture, sericulture, decorum, the well-field system, and the Eight Prohibitions. Though he emphasized Gija's independence from King Wu of Zhou, Yi believed that Gija's teachings helped Korea to reach the same level of civilization as China. The cult of Gija also continued as temples which worshiped gija portraits called gijayeongjeon (箕子影殿), were built in the 18th century in South Pyongan Province.

Although Korean scholars became more critical of Gija's role in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, this account of Gija as the "bearer of civilization from China" became widely accepted, so much that by the late Joseon, the worship of Gija "had become an integral part of Korean cultural identity." Some Korean clans claim to be direct descendants of Gija himself.

Twentieth century accounts
In the beginning of the twentieth century, Korean historians started to doubt the authenticity of his supposed influence. Shin Chaeho (1880–1936), a Korean independence nationalistic activist historian during the Japanese occupation, was the first to question the extent of Gija's contributions. In an essay titled Doksa Sillon ("New Reading of History"; 1908), he argued that Korean history was revolved around Dangun, the legendary founder of the state of Gojoseon. Shin dismissed Gija's contributions due to his foreign origin. Shin also argued that Gija had become a vassal of the kings of Buyeo and was only given control of a small territory.

Other historians such as Choe Nam-seon (1890–1957) and Lee Byeong-do (1896–1989) started to notice discrepancies between pre-Qin Chinese records of Jizi/Gija, and later accounts (both Chinese and Korean) of his role in Joseon. In 1973, archeologist Kim Cheong-bae (金貞培) denied Chinese influence on Korea because no ancient Chinese bronzes had been found on the peninsula.

In addition, Ri Chirin, a leading North Korean historian of ancient Korea, argued that the Gija legend had been forged in Han times when the Chinese started to occupy part of Joseon. Most North Korean scholars have followed Ri in doubting the authenticity of Gija's migration to Joseon.

Modern Korean accounts
Modern Korean scholars also deny the existence of Gija's involvement in Gija Joseon for various reasons. They point to the Bamboo Annals and the Confucian Analects, which were among the first works to mention Gija, but do not mention his migration to Gojoseon. However, some Gija enthusiasts suggest that Gija Joseon may have coexisted with Dangun, and that Gija Joseon was established at the western end of Gojoseon. This claim is mostly denied by modern Korean historians.

In addition, detractors of the Gija Joseon theory also point out that the cultural artifacts found in the region do not appear to have Chinese origins. An example of such an artifact is found in a Gojoseon mandolin-shaped bronze dagger. Its shape and bronze composition are different from similar artifacts found in China being described as "The detachable handle is a key feature for distinguishing Liaoning daggers from other Chinese daggers, which were typically produced in one piece."

Currently, Korean historians (from both nations) reject the previously held belief of Gija's involvement in Korea and thus many high school textbooks applied these recent studies reevaluating Gija and his influence with him now only being mentioned in a foot note. Additionally, the 7th edition of the Korean textbooks do not mention Jizi/Gija, making China the only nation to officially support the preceding theory.

title: Jizi


text:
Williamina Fleming

Williamina Paton Stevens Fleming (15 May 1857 – 21 May 1911) was a Scottish astronomer. She was a single mother hired by the director of the Harvard College Observatory to help in the photographic classification of stellar spectra. She helped develop a common designation system for stars and cataloged more than ten thousand stars, 59 gaseous nebulae, over 310 variable stars, and 10 novae and other astronomical phenomena. Among several career achievements that advanced astronomy, Fleming is noted for her discovery of the Horsehead Nebula in 1888.

Early life
Williamina Paton Stevens was born in Dundee, Scotland, at 86 Nethergate, on 15 May 1857 to Mary Walker and Robert Stevens, a carver and gilder. She was one of six children. Her younger sister, Johanna Stevens, would also later work at Harvard College Observatory. Starting at the age of fourteen, she went to work as a pupil-teacher. In 1877, she married James Orr Fleming, an accountant and widower, also of Dundee. The couple had one son, Edward P. Fleming.

Career
In 1878, she and her husband emigrated to Boston, Massachusetts, US, when she was 21. After her husband abandoned her and her young son, she worked as a maid in the home of Professor Edward Charles Pickering, the director of the Harvard College Observatory (HCO). Pickering's wife Elizabeth recommended Williamina as having talents beyond custodial and maternal arts, and in 1879, Pickering hired Fleming to conduct part-time administrative work at the observatory.

In 1881, Pickering formally invited Fleming to join the HCO and taught her how to analyze stellar spectra. She became one of the founding members of the Harvard Computers, an all-women cadre of human computers hired by Pickering to compute mathematical classifications and edit the observatory's publications.

Henry Draper Catalogue, 1886
In 1886, Mary Anna Draper, the wealthy widow of astronomer Henry Draper, started the Henry Draper Memorial to fund the HCO's research. In response, the HCO began work on the first Henry Draper Catalogue, a long-term project to obtain the optical spectra of as many stars as possible and to index and classify stars by spectra.

Fleming was placed in charge of the Draper Catalogue project. A disagreement soon developed regarding classifying the stars. The analysis had been started by Nettie Farrar, but she left a few months later to be married. Antonia Maury advocated for a complex classification scheme. Fleming, however, wanted a much more simple, straightforward approach.

The latest Harvard College Observatory images contained photographed spectra of stars that extended into the ultraviolet range, which allowed much more accurate classifications than recording spectra by hand through an instrument at night. Fleming devised a system for classifying stars according to the relative amount of hydrogen observed in their spectra, known as the Pickering-Fleming system. Stars showing hydrogen as the most abundant element were classified A; those of hydrogen as the second-most abundant element, B; and so on.

Later, her colleague Annie Jump Cannon reordered the classification system based on the surface temperature of stars, resulting in the Harvard spectral classification, which is still in use today.

In 1890, the HCO published the first Henry Draper Catalogue due to years of work by their female computer team, a catalog with more than 10,000 stars classified according to their spectrum. Fleming did the majority of these classifications. Fleming also made it possible to go back and compare recorded plates by organizing thousands of photographs by telescope along with other identifying factors. In 1898, she was appointed Curator of Astronomical Photographs at Harvard, the first woman to hold the position.

At the 1893 World's Fair in Chicago, Fleming openly advocated for other women in the sciences in her talk "A Field for Woman's Work in Astronomy", where she openly promoted hiring female assistants in astronomy. Her speech suggested she agreed with the prevailing idea that women were inferior but felt that, if given more significant opportunities, they would be able to become equals; in other words, the sex differences in this regard were more culturally constructed than biologically grounded.

Notable discoveries
During her career, Fleming discovered a total of 59 gaseous nebulae, over 310 variable stars, and 10 novae.

Most notably, in 1888, Fleming discovered the Horsehead Nebula on a telescope-photogrammetry plate made by astronomer W. H. Pickering, brother of E.C. Pickering. She described the bright nebula (later known as IC 434) as having "a semicircular indentation 5 minutes in diameter 30 minutes south of Zeta Orionis". Subsequent professional publications neglected to give credit to Fleming for the discovery. The first Dreyer Index Catalogue omitted Fleming's name from the list of contributors, having then discovered sky objects at Harvard, attributing the entire work merely to "Pickering". However, by the time the second Dreyer Index Catalogue was published in 1908, Fleming and her female colleagues at the HCO were sufficiently well-known and received proper credit for their discoveries.

Fleming is also credited with the discovery of the first white dwarf:

"The first person who knew of the existence of white dwarfs was Mrs. Fleming; the next two, an hour or two later, Professor E. C. Pickering and I. With characteristic generosity, Pickering had volunteered to have the spectra of the stars which I had observed for parallax looked up on the Harvard plates. All those of faint absolute magnitude turned out to be of class G or later. Moved with curiosity I asked him about the companion of 40 Eridani. Characteristically, again, he telephoned to Mrs. Fleming who reported within an hour or so, that it was of Class A."

- Henry Norris Russell

In 1910, Fleming published her discovery of white dwarf stars. Her other notable publications include A Photographic Study of Variable Stars (1907), a list of 222 variable stars she had discovered; and Spectra and Photographic Magnitudes of Stars in Standard Regions (1911).

She became a US citizen in 1907.

She died of pneumonia in Boston on 21 May 1911, aged 54.

Honors

 * Member of the Astronomical and Astrophysical Society of America and the Astronomical Society of France
 * Honorary member of the Royal Astronomical Society of London in 1906, the first American woman to be elected
 * Guadalupe Almendaro Medal by the for her discovery of new stars
 * Honorary fellow in astronomy of Wellesley College

Legacy
The women of the Harvard Computers were famous during their lifetimes but were largely forgotten in the following century. In 2015, Lindsay Smith Zrull, curator of Harvard's Plate Stacks collection, was working to catalog and digitize the astronomical plates for Digital Access to a Sky Century @ Harvard (DASCH)and discovered about 118 boxes, each containing 20 to 30 notebooks, from women computers and early Harvard astronomers. Smith Zrull realized that the 2,500+ volumes were outside the scope of her work with DASCH but wanted to see the material preserved and made accessible. Smith Zrull contacted librarians at the Harvard–Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics.
 * The Fleming lunar crater was jointly named after her and (not closely related) Alexander Fleming
 * The asteroid 5747 Williamina is named after her.
 * Kathryn Lasky published a book in 2021 about Fleming illustrated by Julianna Swaney called "She Caught the Light: Williamina Stevens Fleming: Astronomer" aimed at young people.

In response, the Wolbach Library launched Project PHaEDRA (Preserving Harvard's Early Data and Research in Astronomy). Daina Bouquin, Wolbach's Head Librarian, explained that the objective is to enable full-text search of the research: "If you search for Williamina Fleming, you're not going to just find a mention of her in a publication where she wasn't the author of her work. You're going to find her work."

In July 2017, the Wolbach Library at the Center for Astrophysics | Harvard & Smithsonian unveiled a display showcasing Fleming's work, including the log book containing the Horsehead Nebula discovery. The library has dozens of volumes of Fleming's work in its PHaEDRA collection.

, about 200 of over 2,500 volumes had been transcribed. The task is expected to take years to complete fully. Some of the notebooks are listed via the Smithsonian Digital Volunteers Web site, which encourages volunteers to transcribe them.

title: Williamina Fleming