text:
Container ship

A container ship (also called boxship or spelled containership) is a cargo ship that carries all of its load in truck-size intermodal containers, in a technique called containerization. Container ships are a common means of commercial intermodal freight transport and now carry most seagoing non-bulk cargo.

Container ship capacity is measured in twenty-foot equivalent units (TEU). Typical loads are a mix of 20-foot (1-TEU) and 40-foot (2-TEU) ISO-standard containers, with the latter predominant.

Today, about 90% of non-bulk cargo worldwide is transported by container ships, the largest of which, from 2023 onward, can carry over 24,000 TEU.

History

There are two main types of dry cargo: bulk cargo and break bulk cargo. Bulk cargoes, like grain or coal, are transported unpackaged in the hull of the ship, generally in large volume. Break-bulk cargoes, in contrast, are transported in packages, and are generally manufactured goods.

Before the advent of containerization in the 1950s, break-bulk items required manual loading, lashing, unlashing and unloading from the ship one piece at a time. This stevedoring process became more efficient by grouping cargo into containers, 1000 to 3000 cuft of cargo, or up to about 64000 lb, is moved at once and each container is secured to the ship once in a standardized way. Containerization has increased the efficiency of moving traditional break-bulk cargoes significantly, reducing shipping time by 84% and costs by 35%. In 2001, more than 90% of world trade in non-bulk goods was transported in ISO containers. In 2009, almost one quarter of the world's dry cargo was shipped by container, an estimated 125 million TEU or 1.19 billion tonnes worth of cargo.

The first ships designed to carry standardized load units were used in the late 18th century in England. In 1766 James Brindley designed the box boat "Starvationer" with 10 wooden containers, to transport coal from Worsley Delph to Manchester via the Bridgewater Canal. Before the Second World War, the first container ships were used to carry the baggage of the luxury passenger train from London to Paris (Southern Railway's Golden Arrow / La Flèche d'Or). These containers were loaded in London or Paris, and carried to ports of Dover or Calais on flat cars. In February 1931, the first container ship in the world was launched; the Autocarrier, owned by Southern Railway UK. It had 21 slots for containers of Southern Railway.

The earliest container ships after the Second World War were converted oil tankers, built up from surplus T2 tankers after World War II. In 1951, the first purpose-built container vessels began operating in Denmark, and between Seattle and Alaska. The first commercially successful container ship was SS Ideal X, a T2 tanker, owned by Malcom McLean, which carried 58 metal containers between Newark, New Jersey and Houston, Texas, on its first voyage. In 1955, McLean built his company, McLean Trucking into one of the United States' biggest freighter fleets. In 1955, he purchased the small Pan Atlantic Steamship Company from Waterman Steamship and adapted its ships to carry cargo in large uniform metal containers. On April 26, 1956, the first of these rebuilt container vessels, Ideal X, left the Port Newark in New Jersey and a new revolution in modern shipping resulted.

In the 1950s, a new standardized steel Intermodal container based on specifications from the United States Department of Defense began to revolutionize freight transportation.

The White Pass & Yukon Route railway acquired the world's first purpose built container ship, the Clifford J. Rogers, built in 1955, and introduced containers to its railway in 1956.

MV Kooringa was the world's first fully cellular, purpose-built container ship. and was built by Australian company Associated Steamships, a partnership formed by the 1964 merger of the Adelaide Steamship Company with McIlwraith, McEacharn & Co, then commissioned in May 1964.

Container ships were designed to accommodate intermodal transport of goods, and eliminated requirements for the individual hatches, holds and other dividers of traditional cargo ships. The hull of a typical container ship is similar to an airport hangar, or a huge warehouse, which is divided into individual holding cells, using vertical guide rails. The ship's cells are designed to hold cargo containers, which are typically constructed of steel, though sometimes of aluminum, fiberglass or plywood, and designed for intermodal transfers between ship and train, truck or semi-trailer. Shipping containers are categorized by type, size and function.

Today, about 90% of non-bulk cargo worldwide is transported by container by about 50,000 container ships. Modern container ships can carry over 24,000 TEU. The largest container ships measure about 400 m in length, and carry loads equal to the cargo-carrying capacity of sixteen to seventeen pre-World War II freighter ships.

Architecture
There are several key points in the design of modern container ships. The hull, similar to that of bulk carriers and general cargo ships, is built around a strong keel. Into this frame is set one or more below-deck cargo holds, numerous tanks, and the engine room. The holds are topped by hatch covers, onto which more containers can be stacked. Many container ships have cargo cranes installed on them, and some have specialized systems for securing containers on board.

The hull of a modern cargo ship is a complex arrangement of steel plates and strengthening beams. Resembling ribs, and fastened at right angles to the keel, are the ship's frames. The ship's main deck, the metal platework that covers the top of the hull framework, is supported by beams that are attached to the tops of the frames and run the full breadth of the ship. The beams not only support the deck, but along with the deck, frames, and transverse bulkheads, strengthen and reinforce the shell. Another feature of recent hulls is a set of double-bottom tanks, which provide a second watertight shell that runs most of the length of a ship. The double-bottoms generally hold liquids such as fuel oil, ballast water or fresh water.

A ship's engine room houses its main engines and auxiliary machinery such as the fresh water and sewage systems, electrical generators, fire pumps, and air conditioners. In most new ships, the engine room is located in the aft portion.

Size categories
Container ships are distinguished into 7 major size categories: small feeder, feeder, feedermax, Panamax, Post-Panamax, Neopanamax and ultra-large. As of December 2012, there were 161 container ships in the VLCS class (Very Large Container Ships, more than 10,000 TEU), and 51 ports in the world can accommodate them.

The size of a Panamax vessel is limited by the original Panama canal's lock chambers, which can accommodate ships with a beam of up to 32.31 m, a length overall of up to 294.13 m, and a draft of up to 12.04 m. The Post-Panamax category has historically been used to describe ships with a moulded breadth over 32.31 m, however the Panama Canal expansion project has caused some changes in terminology. The Neopanamax category is based on the maximum vessel size that is able to transit a new third set of locks, which opened in June 2016. The third set of locks were built to accommodate a container ship with a length overall of 366 m, a maximum beam (width) of 49 m, and tropical fresh-water draft of 15.2 m. Such a vessel, called Neopanamax class, is wide enough to carry 19 columns of containers, can have a total capacity of approximately 12,000 TEU and is comparable in size to a capesize bulk carrier or a Suezmax tanker.

Container ships under 3,000 TEU are generally called feeder ships or feeders. They are small ships that typically operate between smaller container ports. Some feeders collect their cargo from small ports, drop it off at large ports for transshipment on larger ships, and distribute containers from the large port to smaller regional ports. This size of vessel is the most likely to carry cargo cranes on board.

Cargo cranes

A major characteristic of a container ship is whether it has cranes installed for handling its cargo. Those that have cargo cranes are called geared and those that do not are called ungeared or gearless. The earliest purpose-built container ships in the 1970s were all gearless. Since then, the percentage of geared newbuilds has fluctuated widely, but has been decreasing overall, with only 7.5% of the container ship capacity in 2009 being equipped with cranes.

While geared container ships are more flexible in that they can visit ports that are not equipped with pierside container cranes, they suffer from several drawbacks. To begin with, geared ships will cost more to purchase than a gearless ship. Geared ships also incur greater recurring expenses, such as maintenance and fuel costs. The United Nations Council on Trade and Development characterizes geared ships as a "niche market only appropriate for those ports where low cargo volumes do not justify investment in port cranes or where the public sector does not have the financial resources for such investment".

Instead of the rotary cranes, some geared ships have gantry cranes installed. These cranes, specialized for container work, are able to roll forward and aft on rails. In addition to the additional capital expense and maintenance costs, these cranes generally load and discharge containers much more slowly than their shoreside counterparts.

The introduction and improvement of shoreside container cranes have been a key to the success of the container ship. The first crane that was specifically designed for container work was built in California's Port of Alameda in 1959. By the 1980s, shoreside gantry cranes were capable of moving containers on a 3-minute-cycle, or up to 400 tons per hour. In March 2010, at Port Klang in Malaysia, a new world record was set when 734 container moves were made in a single hour. The record was achieved using 9 cranes to simultaneously load and unload MV CSCL Pusan, a ship with a capacity of 9,600 TEU.

Vessels in the 1,500–2,499 TEU range are the most likely size class to have cranes, with more than 60% of this category being geared ships. Slightly less than a third of the very smallest ships (from 100–499 TEU) are geared, and almost no ships with a capacity of over 4,000 TEU are geared.

Cargo holds
Efficiency has always been key in the design of container ships. While containers may be carried on conventional break-bulk ships, cargo holds for dedicated container ships are specially constructed to speed loading and unloading, and to efficiently keep containers secure while at sea. A key aspect of container ship specialization is the design of the hatches, the openings from the main deck to the cargo holds. The hatch openings stretch the entire breadth of the cargo holds, and are surrounded by a raised steel structure known as the hatch coaming. On top of the hatch coamings are the hatch covers. Until the 1950s, hatches were typically secured with wooden boards and tarpaulins held down with battens. Today, some hatch covers can be solid metal plates that are lifted on and off the ship by cranes, while others are articulated mechanisms that are opened and closed using powerful hydraulic rams.

Another key component of dedicated container-ship design is the use of cell guides. Cell guides are strong vertical structures constructed of metal installed into a ship's cargo holds. These structures guide containers into well-defined rows during loading and provide some support for containers against the ship's rolling at sea. So fundamental to container ship design are cell guides that organizations such as the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development use their presence to distinguish dedicated container ships from general break-bulk cargo ships.

A system of three dimensions is used in cargo plans to describe the position of a container aboard the ship. The first coordinate is the bay, which starts at the front of the ship and increases aft. The second coordinate is the row. Rows on the starboard side are given odd numbers and those on the port side are given even numbers. The rows nearest the centerline are given low numbers, and the numbers increase for slots further from the centerline. The third coordinate is the tier, with the first tier at the bottom of the cargo holds, the second tier on top of that, and so forth.

Container ships typically take 20 foot and 40 foot containers. Some ships can take 45 footers above deck. A few ships (APL since 2007, Carrier53 since 2022 ) can carry 53 foot containers. 40 foot containers are the primary container size, making up about 90% of all container shipping and since container shipping moves 90% of the world's freight, over 80% of the world's freight moves via 40 foot containers.

Lashing systems

Numerous systems are used to secure containers aboard ships, depending on factors such as the type of ship, the type of container, and the location of the container. Stowage inside the holds of fully cellular (FC) ships is simplest, typically using simple metal forms called container guides, locating cones, and anti-rack spacers to lock the containers together. Above-decks, without the extra support of the cell guides, more complicated equipment is used. Three types of systems are currently in wide use: lashing systems, locking systems, and buttress systems. Lashing systems secure containers to the ship using devices made from wire rope, rigid rods, or chains and devices to tension the lashings, such as turnbuckles. The effectiveness of lashings is increased by securing containers to each other, either by simple metal forms (such as stacking cones) or more complicated devices such as twist-lock stackers. A typical twist-lock is inserted into the casting hole of one container and rotated to hold it in place, then another container is lowered on top of it. The two containers are locked together by twisting the device's handle. A typical twist-lock is constructed of forged steel and ductile iron and has a shear strength of 48 tonnes.

The buttress system, used on some large container ships, uses a system of large towers attached to the ship at both ends of each cargo hold. As the ship is loaded, a rigid, removable stacking frame is added, structurally securing each tier of containers together.

Bridge
Container ships have typically had a single bridge and accommodation unit towards the rear, but to reconcile demand for larger container capacity with SOLAS visibility requirements, several new designs have been developed. , some large container ships are being developed with the bridge further forward, separate from the exhaust stack. Some smaller container ships working in European ports and rivers have liftable wheelhouses, which can be lowered to pass under low bridges.

Fleet characteristics
, container ships made up 13.3% of the world's fleet in terms of deadweight tonnage. The world's total of container ship deadweight tonnage has increased from in 1980 to  in 2010. The combined deadweight tonnage of container ships and general cargo ships, which also often carry containers, represents 21.8% of the world's fleet.

, the average age of container ships worldwide was 10.6 years, making them the youngest general vessel type, followed by bulk carriers at 16.6 years, oil tankers at 17 years, general cargo ships at 24.6 years, and others at 25.3 years.

Most of the world's carrying capacity in fully cellular container ships is in the liner service, where ships trade on scheduled routes. As of January 2010, the top 20 liner companies controlled 67.5% of the world's fully cellular container capacity, with 2,673 vessels of an average capacity of 3,774 TEU. The remaining 6,862 fully cellular ships have an average capacity of 709 TEU each.

The vast majority of the capacity of fully cellular container ships used in the liner trade is owned by German shipowners, with approximately 75% owned by Hamburg brokers. It is a common practice for the large container lines to supplement their own ships with chartered-in ships, for example in 2009, 48.9% of the tonnage of the top 20 liner companies was chartered-in in this manner.

Flag states
International law requires that every merchant ship be registered in a country, called its flag state. A ship's flag state exercises regulatory control over the vessel and is required to inspect it regularly, certify the ship's equipment and crew, and issue safety and pollution prevention documents. , the United States Bureau of Transportation Statistics count 2,837 container ships of or greater worldwide. Panama was the world's largest flag state for container ships, with 541 of the vessels in its registry. Seven other flag states had more than 100 registered container ships: Liberia (415), Germany (248), Singapore (177), Cyprus (139), the Marshall Islands (118) and the United Kingdom (104). The Panamanian, Liberian, and Marshallese flags are open registries and considered by the International Transport Workers' Federation to be flags of convenience. By way of comparison, traditional maritime nations such as the United States and Japan only had 75 and 11 registered container ships, respectively.

Vessel purchases

In recent years, oversupply of container ship capacity has caused prices for new and used ships to fall. From 2008 to 2009, new container ship prices dropped by 19–33%, while prices for 10-year-old container ships dropped by 47–69%. In March 2010, the average price for a geared 500-TEU container ship was $10 million, while gearless ships of 6,500 and 12,000 TEU averaged prices of $74 million and $105 million respectively. At the same time, secondhand prices for 10-year-old geared container ships of 500-, 2,500-, and 3,500-TEU capacity averaged prices of $4 million, $15 million, and $18 million respectively.

In 2009, 11,669,000 gross tons of newly built container ships were delivered. Over 85% of this new capacity was built in the Republic of Korea, China, and Japan, with Korea accounting for over 57% of the world's total alone. New container ships accounted for 15% of the total new tonnage that year, behind bulk carriers at 28.9% and oil tankers at 22.6%.

Scrapping
Most ships are removed from the fleet through a process known as scrapping. Scrapping is rare for ships under 18 years old and common for those over 40 years in age. Ship-owners and buyers negotiate scrap prices based on factors such as the ship's empty weight (called light ton displacement or LTD) and prices in the scrap metal market. Scrapping rates are volatile, the price per light ton displacement has swung from a high of $650 per LTD in mid-2008 to $200 per LTD in early 2009, before building to $400 per LTD in March 2010. , over 96% of the world's scrapping activity takes place in China, India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan.

The global economic downturn of 2008–2009 resulted in more ships than usual being sold for scrap. In 2009, 364,300 TEU worth of container ship capacity was scrapped, up from 99,900 TEU in 2008. Container ships accounted for 22.6% of the total gross tonnage of ships scrapped that year. Despite the surge, the capacity removed from the fleet only accounted for 3% of the world's container ship capacity. The average age of container ships scrapped in 2009 was 27.0 years.

Largest ships
Economies of scale have dictated an upward trend in the size of container ships in order to reduce expenses. However, there are certain limitations to the size of container ships. Primarily, these are the availability of sufficiently large main engines and the availability of a sufficient number of ports and terminals prepared and equipped to handle ultra-large container ships. Furthermore, the permissible maximum ship dimensions in some of the world's main waterways could present an upper limit in terms of vessel growth. This primarily concerns the Suez Canal and the Singapore Strait.

In 2008 the South Korean shipbuilder STX announced plans to construct a container ship capable of carrying, and with a proposed length of 450 m and a beam of 60 m. If constructed, the container ship would become the largest seagoing vessel in the world.

Since even very large container ships are vessels with relatively low draft compared to large tankers and bulk carriers, there is still considerable room for vessel growth. Compared to today's largest container ships, Maersk Line's Emma Mærsk-type series, a  container ship would only be moderately larger in terms of exterior dimensions. According to a 2011 estimate, an ultra-large container ship of would measure 440 x, compared to 397.71 × for the Emma Mærsk class. It would have an estimated deadweight of circa 220,000 tons. While such a vessel might be near the upper limit for a Suez Canal passage, the so-called Malaccamax concept (for Straits of Malacca) does not apply for container ships, since the Malacca and Singapore Straits' draft limit of about 21 m is still above that of any conceivable container ship design. In 2011, Maersk announced plans to build a new "Triple E" family of container ships with a capacity of 18,000 TEU, with an emphasis on lower fuel consumption. In the present market situation, main engines will not be as much of a limiting factor for vessel growth either. The steadily rising expense of fuel oil in the early 2010s had prompted most container lines to adapt a slower, more economical voyage speed of about 21 knots, compared to earlier top speeds of 25 or more knots. Subsequently, newly built container ships can be fitted with a smaller main engine. Engine types fitted to today's ships of are thus sufficiently large to propel future vessels of  or more. Maersk Line, the world's largest container shipping line, nevertheless opted for twin engines (two smaller engines working two separate propellers), when ordering a series of ten 18,000 TEU vessels from Daewoo Shipbuilding in February 2011. The ships were delivered between 2013 and 2014. In 2016, some experts believed that the current largest container ships are at the optimum size, and could not economically be larger, as port facilities would be too expensive, port handling too time consuming, the number of suitable ports too low, and insurance cost too high.

In March 2017 the first ship with an official capacity over 20,000 TEUs was christened at Samsung Heavy Industries. MOL Triumph has a capacity of 20,150 TEUs. Samsung Heavy Industries was expected to deliver several ships of over 20,000 TEUs in 2017, and has orders for at least ten vessels in that size range for OOCL and MOL.

The world's largest container ship, MSC Irina, was delivered March 9, 2023 by builder Yangzi Xinfu Shipbuilding to the Mediterranean Shipping Company (MSC), with a capacity of 24,346 TEUs. Measuring 399.99 metres in length and 61.3 metres in beam, the ship is one of four ordered from the builder in 2020, and exceeded MSC's 24,116 TEU MSC Tessa, which had been delivered that same day by the China State Shipbuilding Corporation (CSSC). In April, MSC Irina sister ship MSC Loreto, with an equal capacity of 24,346 TEU was received by MSC.

On June 2, 2023 Ocean Network Express took delivery of the ONE Innovation with a capacity of 24,136 TEUs. ONE Innovation is one of six new Megamax vessels ordered by Ocean Network Express in December of 2020 to be built by a consortium of Imabari Shipbuilding and Japan Marine United.

Freight market
The act of hiring a ship to carry cargo is called chartering. Outside special bulk cargo markets, ships are hired by three types of charter agreements: the voyage charter, the time charter, and the bareboat charter. In a voyage charter, the charterer rents the vessel from the loading port to the discharge port. In a time charter, the vessel is hired for a set period of time, to perform voyages as the charterer directs. In a bareboat charter, the charterer acts as the ship's operator and manager, taking on responsibilities such as providing the crew and maintaining the vessel. The completed chartering contract is known as a charter party.

The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development [UNCTAD], tracks in its 2010 Review of Maritime Trade two aspects of container shipping prices: The first one is a chartering price, specifically the price to time-charter a 1 TEU slot for 14 tonnes of cargo on a container ship. The other is the freight rate; or comprehensive daily cost to deliver one-TEU worth of cargo on a given route. As a result of the late-2000s recession, both indicators showed sharp drops during 2008–2009, and have shown signs of stabilization since 2010.

UNCTAD uses the Hamburg Shipbrokers' Association (formally the Vereinigung Hamburger Schiffsmakler und Schiffsagenten e. V. or VHSS for short) as its main industry source for container ship freight prices. The VHSS maintains a few indices of container ship charter prices. The oldest, which dates back to 1998, is called the Hamburg Index. This index considers time-charters on fully cellular container ships controlled by Hamburg brokers. It is limited to charters of 3 months or more, and presented as the average daily cost in U.S. dollars for a one-TEU slot with a weight of 14 tonnes. The Hamburg Index data is divided into ten categories based primarily on vessel carrying capacity. Two additional categories exist for small vessels of under 500 TEU that carry their own cargo cranes. In 2007, VHSS started another index, the New ConTex which tracks similar data obtained from an international group of shipbrokers.

The Hamburg Index shows some clear trends in recent chartering markets. First, rates were generally increasing from 2000 to 2005. From 2005 to 2008, rates slowly decreased, and in mid-2008 began a "dramatic decline" of approximately 75%, which lasted until rates stabilized in April 2009. Rates have ranged from $2.70 to $35.40 in this period, with prices generally lower on larger ships. The most resilient sized vessel in this time period were those from 200 to 300 TEU, a fact that the United Nations Council on Trade and Development attributes to lack of competition in this sector. Overall, in 2010, these rates rebounded somewhat, but remained at approximately half of their 2008 values. As of 2011, the index shows signs of recovery for container shipping, and combined with increases in global capacity, indicates a positive outlook for the sector in the near future.

UNCTAD also tracks container freight rates. Freight rates are expressed as the total price in U.S. dollars for a shipper to transport one TEU worth of cargo along a given route. Data is given for the three main container liner routes: U.S.-Asia, U.S.-Europe, and Europe-Asia. Prices are typically different between the two legs of a voyage, for example the Asia-U.S. rates have been significantly higher than the return U.S.-Asia rates in recent years. Generally, from the fourth quarter of 2008 through the third quarter of 2009, both the volume of container cargo and freight rates have dropped sharply. In 2009, the freight rates on the U.S.–Europe route were sturdiest, while the Asia-U.S. route fell the most.

Liner companies responded to their overcapacity in several ways. For example, in early 2009, some container lines dropped their freight rates to zero on the Asia-Europe route, charging shippers only a surcharge to cover operating costs. They decreased their overcapacity by lowering the ships' speed (a strategy called "slow steaming") and by laying up ships. Slow steaming increased the length of the Europe-Asia routes to a record high of over 40 days. Another strategy used by some companies was to manipulate the market by publishing notices of rate increases in the press, and when "a notice had been issued by one carrier, other carriers followed suit".

The Trans-Siberian Railroad (TSR) has recently become a more viable alternative to container ships on the Asia-Europe route. This railroad can typically deliver containers in 1/3 to 1/2 of the time of a sea voyage, and in late 2009 announced a 20% reduction in its container shipping rates. With its 2009 rate schedule, the TSR will transport a forty-foot container to Poland from Yokohama for $2,820, or from Pusan for $2,154.

Shipping industry alliances
In an effort to control costs and maximize capacity utilization on ever-larger ships, vessel sharing agreements, co-operative agreements, and slot-exchanges have become a growing feature of the maritime container shipping industry. As of March 2015, 16 of the world's largest container shipping lines had consolidated their routes and services accounting for 95 percent of container cargo volumes moving in the dominant east-west trade routes. Carriers remain operationally independent, as they are forbidden by antitrust regulators in multiple jurisdictions from colluding on freight rates or capacity. Similarities can be drawn with airline alliances.

In July 2016 the European Commission reported that it had raised concerns with 14 container shipping carriers regarding their practice of announcing General Rate Increases (GRIs) in a coordinated manner, which potentially conflicted with the EU and EEA rules on concerted practices which could distort competition (Article 101 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union). The shipping companies announced a series of commitments aiming to address the Commission's concerns, which for its part the Commission accepted as "legally binding" for the period from 2016 to 2019. General Rate Increases continue to be published in the industry either annually or sixth-monthly.

Container ports

Container traffic through a port is often tracked in terms of twenty foot equivalent units or TEU of throughput. , the Port of Shanghai was the world's busiest container port, with 43,303,000 TEU handled.

That year, seven of the busiest ten container ports were in the People's Republic of China, with Shanghai in 1st place, Ningbo 3rd, Shenzhen 4th, Guangzhou 5th, Qingdao 7th, Hong Kong 8th and Tianjin 9th.

Rounding out the top ten ports were Singapore at 2nd, Busan in South Korea at 6th and Rotterdam in the Netherlands in the 10th position.

In total, the busiest twenty container ports handled 220,905,805 TEU in 2009, almost half of the world's total estimated container traffic that year of 465,597,537 TEU.

Losses and safety problems
It has been estimated that container ships lose between 2,000 and 10,000 containers at sea each year, costing $370 million. A survey for the six years 2008 through 2013 estimates average losses of individual containers overboard at 546 per year, and average total losses including catastrophic events such as vessel sinkings or groundings at 1,679 per year More recently, a survey conducted by the WSC from 2008–2019, saw an average of 1,382 shipping containers lost at sea. However, in the 3-year period from 2017–2019, that number was nearly halved, down to an average of 779 containers lost annually. Most go overboard on the open sea during storms but there are some examples of whole ships being lost with their cargo. One major shipping accident occurred in 2013 when the MOL Comfort sank with 4,293 containers onboard in the Indian Ocean. When containers are dropped, they immediately become an environmental threat – termed "marine debris". Once in the ocean, they fill with water and sink if the contents cannot hold air. Rough waters smash the container, sinking it quickly.

As container ships get larger and stacking becomes higher, the threat of containers toppling into the sea during a storm increases. This results from a phenomenon called "parametric rolling," by which a ship can roll 30-40 degrees during rough seas creating a powerful torque on a 10-high stack of containers which can easily snap lashings and locks of the stack, resulting in losses into the sea.

Safety and security

title: Container ship


text:
Suva (insurer)

The Suva, headquartered in Lucerne, is the Swiss National Accident Insurance Fund. It is a public-sector insurer and leading provider of health care coverage for employees in case of accidents in Switzerland.

Name
The name is the abbreviation of Schweizerische Unfallversicherungsanstalt (German for Swiss National Accident Insurance Fund, in French Caisse nationale suisse d'assurance en cas d'accidents or CNA; in Italian Istituto nazionale svizzero di assicurazione contro gli infortuni).

History
It was founded 1912 and its active since 1918. For a long time, it held a monopoly for compulsory coverage for employees in high-risk professions. Its surplus income is distributed to insureds in the form of premium reductions.

Its three missions are prevention, insurance and rehabilitation. About half of people working in Switzerland are insurance by the Suva in case of accidents (128,000 companies and 2,000,000 people insured).

Unemployed people are insured against accidents by the Suva. Since 2005, the Swiss Armed Forces are also insured against accidents by the Suva.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Suva (insurer)


text:
Thomas Churchyard

Thomas Churchyard (c. 1523 – 1604) was an English author and soldier. He is chiefly remembered for a series of autobiographical or semi-autobiographical verse collections, including Churchyardes Chippes (1575); Churchyard's Choise (1579); Churchyardes Charge (1580); The Worthines of Wales (1587); Churchyard's Challenge (1593); and Churchyards Charitie (1595).

Early life
Thomas Churchyard was born at Shrewsbury in c. 1529, the son of a farmer. He received a good education, and, having speedily dissipated at court the money with which his father provided him, he entered the household of Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey. There he remained for twenty years, learning something of the art of poetry from his patron; some of the poems he contributed later (1555) to Nicholas Grimald's and Richard Tottel's collection, Songes and Sonettes (known more often as Tottel's Miscellany), may well date from this early period.

Career
In 1541 Churchyard began his career as a soldier of fortune, being, he said, "pressed into the service". He fought his way through nearly every campaign in Scotland and the Low Countries for thirty years. He served under the emperor Charles V in Flanders in 1542, returning to England after the Peace of Crépy (1544).

In the Scottish campaign of 1547 he was present at the barren victory of Pinkie, and in the next year was taken prisoner at Saint Monance, but aided by his persuasive tongue he escaped to the English garrison at Lauder, where he was once more besieged, only returning to England on the conclusion of peace in 1550.

In the same year he went to Ireland to serve the lord deputy of Ireland, Sir Anthony St Leger, who had been sent to pacify the country. Here Churchyard enriched himself, at the expense of the Irish; but in 1552 he was in England again, trying vainly to secure a fortune by marriage with a rich widow. After this failure he departed once more to the wars to the Siege of Metz (1552), and "trailed a pike" in the emperor's army, until he joined the forces under William Grey, 13th Baron Grey de Wilton, with whom he says he served eight years. Grey was in charge of the fortress of Guînes, which was besieged by the duke of Guise in 1558.

Churchyard arranged the terms of surrender, and was sent with his chief to Paris as a prisoner. He was not released at the Peace of Cateau Cambrésis for lack of money to pay his ransom, but he was finally set free on giving his bond for the amount, an engagement which he repudiated as soon as he was safely in England. He is not to be identified with the "T.C." who wrote for the Mirror for Magistrates (ed. 1559), "How the Lord Mowbray ... was banished ... and after died miserablie in exile", which is the work of Thomas Chaloner; but "Shore's Wife", his most popular poem, appeared in the 1563 edition of the same work, and to that of 1587 he contributed the "Tragedie of Thomas Wolsey". These are plain compositions in the seven-lined Chaucerian stanza.

Repeated petitions to the Queen for assistance produced at first fair words, and then no answer at all. He therefore returned to active service under Lord Grey, who was in command of an English army sent in 1560 to help the Scottish rebels at the Siege of Leith, and in 1564 he served in Ireland under Sir Henry Sidney. The religious disturbances in the Netherlands attracted him to Antwerp, where, as the agent of William of Orange, he allowed the insurgents to place him at their head, and was able to save much property from destruction. This action made him so hated by the mob that he had to fly for his life in the disguise of a priest. In the next year he was sent by the earl of Oxford to serve definitely under the prince of Orange. After a year's service he obtained leave to return to England, and after many adventures and narrow escapes in a journey through hostile territory he embarked for Guernsey, and thence for England. His patron, Lord Oxford, disowned him, and the poet, whose health was failing, retired to Bath. He appears to have made a very unhappy marriage at this time, and returned to the Low Countries. Falling into the hands of the Spaniards he was recognized as having had a hand in the Antwerp disturbance, and was under sentence to be executed as a spy when he was saved by the intervention of a noble lady. This experience did not deter him from joining in the defence of Zutphen in 1572, but this was his last campaign, and the troubles of the remaining years of his life were chiefly domestic.

Later life
Churchyard was employed to devise a pageant for the Queen's reception at Bristol in 1574, and again at Norwich in 1578. He had published in 1575 The Firste parte of Churchyarde's Chippes, the modest title which he gives to his works. No second part appeared, but there was a much enlarged edition in 1578. A passage in Churchyarde's Choise (1579) gave offence to Elizabeth, and the author fled to Scotland, where he remained for three years. He was only restored to favour about 1584, and in 1593 he received a small pension from the Queen.

On Good Friday, 8 April 1580, Churchyard (then aged nearly 60) published a short account of the earthquake which had struck London and much of England only two days earlier. The pamphlet, ''A Warning to the Wyse, a Feare to the Fond, a Bridle to the Lewde, and a Glasse to the Good; written of the late Earthquake chanced in London and other places, 6 April 1580, for the Glory of God and benefit of men, that warely can walk, and wisely judge. Set forth in verse and prose, by Thomas Churchyard, gentleman'' provides the earliest accounts of the 1580 Dover Straits earthquake.

Dispute with Thomas Camel
In Churchyards Challenge (1593) the author refers to his broadside ballad, Davie Dicars dreame (c. 1551–1552), which he says was written against by one Thomas Camel whom Churchyard then "openly confuted". Their argument came to involve not only Churchyard and Camel but also William Waterman, Geoffrey Chappell, and Richard Beard. All their various contributions were collected and reprinted in The Contention bettwyxte Churchyeard and Camell, upon David Dycers Dreame in 1560. A short and seemingly alliterative poem in the manner of Piers Plowman, Davie Dicar brought Churchyard into trouble with the privy council, but he was supported by Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset and dismissed with a reprimand.

Carried out in broadside ballads, the Churchyard-Camel debate was concerned with the relative merit of the plain style in native English literary tradition and the proper literary use of the English language itself. In a verse dedication to John Stow's Pithy Pleasaunt and Profitable Workes (1568), Churchyard defended the native tradition, grounding it in "Peers plowman . . . full plaine" and Chaucer. Churchyard mocked Camel's classical, Latinate sophistication, and Camel attacked Churchyard's churlish words and "uncouth speeche". This public controversy resembled the old medieval practice of flyting—a staged, collaborative battle of the wits that was also, in this case, an occasion for the public discussion of moral issues, education, religion, and politics. It was also a means of commercial self-promotion on the part of writers and printers.

Perhaps inspired by Robert Crowley's 1550 publication of Piers Plowman, Davy Dycar (i.e., Davy the ditcher or digger) is a character drawn from a line at the end of Passus 6 in the B-text and the end of Passus 9 in the C-text where it is prophesied that "Dawe the dyker" will die of starvation because of the corruption of landlords and clergy. ("Dawe", written or printed as "Davve", could be read as "Davy" or "Davie".) This is the concluding event in a list of disasters caused by corrupt elites, a part of Piers Plowman that was appreciated by some English Protestants in the mid-sixteenth century. (Notably, the Davy Digger lines were copied into a manuscript of political prophecies compiled around 1553–1554.) Churchyard turns Davy into a Piers-like truth-teller and prophet of a millennial kingdom of justice:

William Waterman added to the debate with his Westerne Wyll, calling explicit attention to Davy's roots:

Reputation
The affectionate esteem with which Churchyard was regarded by the younger Elizabethan writers is expressed by Thomas Nashe, who says (Foure Letters Confuted) that Churchyard's aged muse might well be "grandmother to our grandiloquentest poets at this present". Francis Meres (Palladis Tamia, 1598) mentions him in conjunction with many great names among "the most passionate, among us, to bewail and bemoan the perplexities of love". Spenser, in "Colin Clout's Come Home Again", calls him with a spice of raillery "old Palaemon" who "sung so long until quite hoarse he grew".

His writings, with the exception of his contributions to the Mirror for Magistrates, are chiefly autobiographical in character or deal with the wars in which he had a share. They are very rare and have never been completely reprinted. Churchyard lived right through Elizabeth's reign, and was buried in St. Margaret's, Westminster, on 4 April 1604. It was said he was taken ill in the presence of Anne of Denmark's ladies in waiting and carried away in a faint a fortnight before his death.

Works
The extant works of Churchyard, exclusive of commendatory and occasional verses, include:
 * A lamentable and pitifull Description of the wofull warres in Flanders (1578)
 * A Prayse, and Reporte of Maister MartyneFrobishers Voyage to Meta Incognita (A Name Given by a Mightie and most Great Personage) in Which Praise and Report is Written Divers Discourses Never Published by any Man as Yet (1578)
 * A general rehearsall of warres, called Churchyard's Choise (1579), really a completion of the Chippes, and containing, like it, a number of detached pieces
 * A light Bondel of livelie Discourses, called Churchyardes Charge (1580)
 * A Warning to the Wyse, an immediate account of England's 1580 earthquake (1580)
 * The Worthines of Wales (1587), a valuable antiquarian work in prose and verse, anticipating Michael Drayton
 * Churchyard's Challenge (1593)
 * A Musicall Consort of Heavenly harmonic, called Churchyards Charitie (1595)
 * A True Discourse Historicall, of the succeeding Governors in the Netherlands (1602)

title: Thomas Churchyard


text:
Francis Meres

Francis Meres (1565/1566 – 29 January 1647) was an English churchman and author. His 1598 commonplace book includes the first critical account of poems and plays by Shakespeare.

Career
Francis Meres was born in 1565 at Kirton Meres in the parish of Kirton, Lincolnshire. He was educated at Pembroke College, Cambridge, where he received a BA in 1587 and an MA in 1591. Two years later he was incorporated an MA of Oxford. His relative, John Meres, was high sheriff of Lincolnshire in 1596, and apparently helped him in the early part of his career. In 1602 he became rector of Wing, Rutland, where he also ran a school. Both his son Francis and his grandson Edward received their BA and MA from Cambridge and became rectors.

Meres is especially known for his Palladis Tamia, Wits Treasury (1598), a commonplace book that is important as a source on the Elizabethan poets, and more particularly as the first critical account of the poems and early plays of William Shakespeare. Its list of Shakespeare's plays contributed to establishing their chronology.

The Palladis Tamia also contained moral and critical reflections borrowed from various sources, and embraced sections on books, on philosophy, on music and painting, and a "Comparative Discourse of our English poets with the Greeke, Latin, and Italian poets." This chapter enumerates the English poets from Chaucer to Meres's own day, and in each case a comparison with some classical author is instituted.

A sermon entitled Gods Arithmeticke (1597) and two translations from the Spanish of Luís de Granada entitled Granada's Devotion and The Sinners' Guide (1598) complete Meres's list of works.

Marriage and issue
Meres had a wife, Mary (1576/1577–1631), whose maiden name is unknown. They had a son, Francis, born in 1607. In Shakespeare's Sonnets (1904), Charlotte Stopes stated that Meres was the brother-in-law of John Florio, but investigations by George Greenwood suggest Stopes erred in that claim.

Meres died in 1647 and was buried in the parish Church of St Peter and St Paul, Wing, Rutland.

title: Francis Meres


text:
Theorbo

The theorbo is a plucked string instrument of the lute family, with an extended neck that houses the second pegbox. Like a lute, a theorbo has a curved-back sound box with a flat top, typically with one or three sound holes decorated with rosettes. As with the lute, the player plucks or strums the strings with the right hand while "fretting" (pressing down) the strings with the left hand.

The theorbo is related to the liuto attiorbato, the French théorbe des pièces, the archlute, the German baroque lute, and the angélique (or angelica). A theorbo differs from a regular lute in its so-called re-entrant tuning in which the first two strings are tuned an octave lower. The theorbo was used during the Baroque music era (1600–1750) to play basso continuo accompaniment parts (as part of the basso continuo group, which often included harpsichord, pipe organ and bass instruments), and also as a solo instrument. It has a range similar to that of cello.

Origin and development
Theorbos were developed during the late sixteenth century in Italy, inspired by the demand for extended bass range instruments for use in the then-newly developed musical style of opera developed by the Florentine Camerata and new musical works utilising basso continuo, such as Giulio Caccini's two collections, Le nuove musiche (1602 and 1614). For his 1607 opera L'Orfeo, Claudio Monteverdi lists duoi (two) chitaroni among the instruments required for performing the work. Musicians originally used large bass lutes (c. 80+ cm string length) and a higher re-entrant tuning, but soon created neck extensions with secondary pegboxes to accommodate extra open (i.e. unfretted) longer bass strings, called diapasons or bourdons, for improvements in tonal clarity and an increased range of available notes.

Although the words chitarrone and tiorba were both used to describe the instrument, they have different organological and etymological origins; chitarrone being in Italian an augmentation of (and literally meaning large) chitarra – Italian for guitar. The round-backed chitarra was still in use, often referred to as chitarra Italiana to distinguish it from chitarra alla spagnola in its new flat-backed Spanish incarnation. The etymology of tiorba is still obscure; it is hypothesized the origin may be in Slavic or Turkish torba, meaning 'bag' or 'turban'.

According to Athanasius Kircher, tiorba was a nickname in the Neapolitan language for a grinding board used by perfumers for grinding essences and herbs. It is possible the appearance of this new large instrument (particularly in a crowded ensemble) resulted in jokes and a humour induced reference with popular local knowledge becoming lost over time and place. Robert Spencer has noted the confusion the two names were already leading to in 1600: Chitarone, ò Tiorba che si dica (chitarrone, or theorbo as it is called). By the mid-17th century, it would appear that tiorba had taken preference – reflected in modern practice, helping to distinguish the theorbo now from very different instruments like the chitarrone moderno or guitarrón. Similar adaptations to smaller lutes (c. 55+ cm string length) also produced the arciliuto (archlute), liuto attiorbato, and tiorbino, which were differently tuned instruments to accommodate a new repertoire of small ensemble or solo works. In the performance of basso continuo, theorbos were often paired with a small pipe organ.

The most prominent early composers and players in Italy were Giovanni Girolamo Kapsperger and Alessandro Piccinini. Giuliano Paratico was another early Italian chitarrone player. Little solo music survives from England, but William Lawes and others used theorbos in chamber ensembles and opera orchestras. In France, theorbos were appreciated and used in orchestral or chamber music until the second half of the 18th century (Nicolas Hotman, Robert de Visée). Court orchestras in Vienna, Bayreuth and Berlin still employed theorbo players after 1750 (Ernst Gottlieb Baron, Francesco Conti). Solo music for the theorbo is notated in tablature, a form of music notation in which the frets and strings which a player must press down are printed on a series of parallel lines which represent the strings on the fretboard.

Tuning and strings
The tuning of large theorbos is characterized by the octave displacement, or "re-entrant tuning", of the two uppermost strings. Piccinini and Michael Praetorius mention the occasional use of metal strings (brass and steel, as opposed to gut strings). The Laute mit Abzügen: oder Testudo Theorbata that appears in Syntagma Musicum by Praetorius, has doubled strings (courses) passing over the bridge and attached to the base of the instrument – different to his Paduanische Theorba (opposite in the same illustration which seems to have single strings). The Lang Romanische Theorba: Chitarron also appears to have single strings attached to the bridge. The string "courses", unlike those of a Renaissance lute or archlute, were often single, although double stringing was also used. Typically, theorbos have 14 courses, though some used 15 or even 19 courses (Kapsberger).

This is theorbo tuning in A. Modern theorbo players usually play 14-course (string) instruments (lowest course is G). Some players have used a theorbo tuned a whole step lower in G. Most of the solo repertoire is in the A tuning. The "re-entrant tuning" created new possibilities for voice leading and inspired a new right-hand technique with just thumb, index and middle fingers to arpeggiate chords, which Piccinini likened to the sound of a harp. The bass tessitura (range) and re-entrant stringing mean that in order to keep the figured bass "realisation" (the improvised playing of chords) above the bass instruments when accompanying basso continuo, the bassline must sometimes be played an octave lower (Kapsberger). In the French treatises, chords in which a lower note sounds after the bass were also used when the bass goes high. The English theorbo had just the first string at the lower octave (Thomas Mace).

Italy
The theorbo was developed in Italy, and so has a rich legacy in Italian music as both a solo and continuo instrument. Caccini comments in Le nuove musiche (1602) that the theorbo is perfectly suited for accompanying the voice as it can give a very full support without being obscured by the vocalist, indicating the beginning of an Italian tradition of monodic songs accompanied by theorbo. Italians called the theorbo's diapasons its “special excellence”. Italians viewed the theorbo as an easier alternative to the lute since the general attractiveness of its sound quality can cover over indifferent playing and lazy voice leading.

England
The Italian theorbo first came to England at the beginning of the seventeenth century, but an alternate design based on the English two-headed lute, designed by Jaques Gaultier, soon became more popular. English theorbos were generally tuned in G and double strung throughout, with only the first course in reentrant tuning. Theorbos tuned in G were much better suited to flat keys, and so many English songs or consort pieces that involved theorbo were written in flat keys that would be very difficult to play on a theorbo in A. By the eighteenth century, the theorbo had fallen out of fashion in England due to its large size and low pitch. It was replaced by the archlute.

France
The first mention of a theorbo in France was in 1637, and by the 1660s it had replaced the 10-course lute as the most popular accompanying instrument. The theorbo was a very important continuo instrument in the French court and multiple French theorbo continuo tutors (method books) were published by Delair (1690), Campion (1716 and 1730), Bartolotti (1669), Fleury (1660), and Grenerin (1670). French theorbos had up to eight stopped strings and were often somewhat smaller and quieter than Italian theorbos. They were a standard scale length of 76 cm, which made them smaller than Italian instruments, which ranged from 85–95 cm.

Germany
German theorbos would also today be called swan-necked Baroque lutes; seventeenth-century German theorbists played single-strung instruments in the Italian tuning transposed down a whole step, but eighteenth-century players switched to double-strung instruments in the “d-minor” tuning used in French and German Baroque lute music so as to not have to rethink their chord shapes when playing theorbo. These instruments came to be referred to as theorbo-lutes. Baron remarks that “the lute, because of its delicacy, serves well in trios or other chamber music with few participants. The theorbo, because of its power, serves best in groups of thirty to forty musicians, as in churches and operas.” Theorbo-lutes would likely have been used alongside Italian theorbos and archlutes in continuo settings due to the presence of Italian musicians in German courts and also for the purpose of using instruments that were appropriate for whatever key the music was in.

Ukraine, Poland and Russia
The theorbo came to Ukraine ca. 1700 and it was upgraded with treble strings (known as prystrunky). This instrument was called a torban. The Torban was manufactured and used mainly in Ukraine, but also occasionally encountered in neighbouring Poland and Russia.

Technique
The theorbo is played much like the lute, with the left hand pressing down on the fingerboard to vary the resonating length of the strings (thus playing different notes and making chords, basslines and melodies playable) while the right fingertips pluck the strings. The most significant differences between theorbo and lute technique are that theorbo is played with the right thumb outside the hand, as opposed to Renaissance lute which is played with the thumb under the hand. Additionally, the right hand thumb is entirely responsible for playing the bass diapasons and rarely comes up onto the top courses. Most theorbists play with the flesh of their fingers on the right hand, although there is some historical precedent from Piccinini, Mace, and Weiss to use nails. Fingernails can be more effective on a theorbo than on a lute due to its single-strung courses, and the use of nails is most often suggested in the context of ensemble playing where tone quality becomes subservient to volume.

Solo repertoire
The theorbo's solo Baroque repertoire came almost exclusively from Italy and France, with the exception of some English music written for the English theorbo, until the 21st century. The most effective and idiomatic music for the theorbo takes advantage of its two unique qualities: the diapasons and the reentrant tuning. Campanella passages that allow scale passages to ring across multiple strings in a harp-like fashion are particularly common and are a highly effective tool for the skilled theorbist/composer.

Italy: Kapsberger, Piccinini, Castaldi

 * Toccatas - free, rhapsodic, harmonically adventurous. Piccinini's are more harmonically tight while Kapsberger often breaks voice-leading rules in order to achieve the desired effect
 * Dances - Correntes, Gagliardas, continuing in the tradition of Italian lute dances dating back to Dalza
 * Variations - highly sophisticated and challenging variations on often very simple themes

France: de Visee, Bartolotti, Hurel, le Moyne

 * Dance suites - the vast majority of French theorbo music consists of dance suites in the order of unmeasured prelude, allemande, courante, saraband, gigue (with variations)
 * Transcriptions - French theorbists often transcribed pieces from opera composers such as Lully or keyboard composers such as Couperin to perform as solo pieces

A few modern composers have begun to write new music for the theorbo; significant works have been composed by Roman Turovsky, David Loeb, Bruno Helstroffer, Thomas Bocklenberg, and Stephen Goss, who has written the only concerto for theorbo.

Continuo
The theorbo's primary use was as a continuo instrument. However, due to its layout as a plucked instrument and its reentrant tuning, following strict voice leading parameters could sometimes be difficult or even impossible. Thus, a style of continuo unique to the theorbo was developed that incorporated these factors:

 * Breaking voice leading rules to capitalize on voicings that better express the instrument's natural sonority. The integrity of the true bass line is maintained through the use of creative arpeggiation that masks improper inversions.
 * Frequent transposition of the bass line down an octave in order to play on the diapasons.
 * Use of thinner textures; due to the theorbo's strong projection and rich resonance, a three or even two voice accompaniment will often be just as effective as a standard four-voice accompaniment on a harpsichord. Additionally, playing more than a two-voice realization can become impossible with quick-moving bass lines.
 * Frequent restriking of chords to make up for the instrument's quick decay.

Thus, the preservation of the bass line and the sound of the instrument are of the highest priority when used as a continuo instrument. Breaking voice leading rules becomes necessary in order to preserve the bass line and bring out the unique tones of the theorbo.

The theorbo is labelled by Praetorius as both a fundamental and an ornamental continuo instrument, meaning it is capable of supporting an ensemble as a primary bass instrument while also fleshing out the harmony and adding color to the ensemble by means of chord realizations.

Composers

 * Giovanni Girolamo Kapsperger (c. 1580–17 January 1651)
 * Alessandro Piccinini (30 December 1566–c. 1638)
 * Angelo Michele Bartolotti (died before 1682)
 * Bellerofonte Castaldi (1580–27 September 1649)
 * Robert de Visée (c. 1655–1732/1733)
 * Charles Hurel (died 1692)
 * Scott Fields (born 1955)
 * Stephen Goss (born 2 February 1964)
 * Roman Turovsky (born 1961)

Contemporary players

 * Xavier Diaz-Latorre (born 1968)
 * Eduardo Egüez (born 1959)
 * Yasunori Imamura (born 19 October 1953)
 * Jakob Lindberg (born 16 October 1952)
 * Rolf Lislevand (born 30 December 1961)
 * Robert MacKillop (born 1959)
 * Massimo Marchese (born 31 August 1965)
 * Andreas Martin (born 1963)
 * Nigel North (born 5 June 1954)
 * Paul O'Dette (born 2 February 1954)
 * Christina Pluhar (born 1965)
 * Lynda Sayce
 * Richard Stone (born 1960)
 * Stephen Stubbs (born 1951)
 * Matthew Wadsworth (born 1974)

title: Theorbo


text:
Edward Arber

Edward Arber (4 December 1836 – 23 November 1912 ) was an English scholar, writer, and editor.

Background and professional work
Arber was born in London. From 1854 he 1878 he worked as a clerk in the Admiralty, and began evening classes at King's College London in 1858. In 1870 his address was No. 5 Queen Square, in Bloomsbury.

From 1878 to 1881 he studied English literature, under Henry Morley, at University College London; and from 1881 to 1894 he was professor of English at Mason College (which later became Birmingham University). From 1894 he lived in London as emeritus professor, being also a fellow of King's College London. In 1905 he received the honorary degree of D. Litt. from the University of Oxford. He married Marion Murray in 1869, and had two sons, one of whom, E. A. N. Arber, became demonstrator in palaeobotany at the University of Cambridge.

Scholarly edits
As a scholarly editor, Arber made notable contributions to English literature. His name is associated particularly with the English Reprints series (1868–1871), by which an accurate text of the works of many English authors, formerly only accessible in more expensive editions, was placed within reach of the general public. Among the thirty volumes of the series were Stephen Gosson's School of Abuse, Roger Ascham's Toxophilus, Tottel's Miscellany, and Robert Naunton's Fragmenta Regalia. It was followed by the "English Scholar's Library" (16 volumes) which included the Works (1884) of Captain John Smith, governor of Virginia, and the Poems (1882) of Richard Barnfield.

Anthologies and bibliographies
In his eight volume English Garner (1877–1890) Arber collected rare old tracts and poems, "ingatherings from our history and literature". Between 1899 and 1901 he issued the ten volume British Anthologies set:
 * 1) The Dunbar Anthology
 * 2) The Surrey and Wyatt Anthology
 * 3) The Spenser Anthology
 * 4) The Shakespeare Anthology
 * 5) The Jonson Anthology
 * 6) The Milton Anthology
 * 7) The Dryden Anthology
 * 8) The Pope Anthology
 * 9) The Goldsmith Anthology
 * 10) The Cowper Anthology

During and after the first World War, T.S. Eliot used to recommend The Shakespeare Anthology for students of his University Extension classes on Elizabethan Literature in London. In 1907 Arber began a series called A Christian Library. He was the sole editor of two vast English bibliographies: A Transcript of the Registers of the Stationers' Company, 1553–1640 (1875–1894), and The Term Catalogues, 1668–1709/11.

title: Edward Arber


text:
Alpine folk music

Alpine folk music (Alpenländische Volksmusik; German's Volksmusik means "people's music" or as a Germanic connotative translation, "folk's music" ) is the common umbrella designation of a number of related styles of traditional folk music in the Alpine regions of Slovenia, Northern Croatia, Germany, Austria, Switzerland and South Tyrol (Italy).

It tends to be dialect-heavy and invokes local and regional lifestyles, cultures and traditions, particularly, those of the Alpine farmers and peasants.

Originally transmitted by oral tradition, the oldest historical records like the Appenzell Kuhreihen by Georg Rhau (1488–1548) date back to the 16th century. Alpine folk is characterized by improvisation and variation, uncomplicated major key melodies and simple harmonies. Typical instruments range from alpenhorns to hackbretts, zithers and acoustic guitars, and even violas and harmonicas. Harmonized singing is frequent, but other pieces may require yodeling, while instrumental arrangements are particularly frequent for fast dances or brass pieces.

Alpine folk continues to be performed by many local ensembles and bands throughout the European Alps and should not be confused with Volkstümliche Musik, which is largely to be found in broadcasting media and on ancillary merchandise. Since the 1970s, artists of a Neue Volksmusik genre, such as Werner Pirchner or Biermösl Blosn, attempt to combine traditional styles with jazz, folk, electronic music, rock et al. as a kind of world music. Popular proponents include Hubert von Goisern, Attwenger and Christine Lauterburg.

title: Alpine folk music


text:
Talk:Sudetes

Untitled
Is it correct to count Zittau as a part of the sudetes? It seems wrong to me.

The pronunciation guide looks ugly. And I said that having being the maker of that look 2 months ago. Should we just remove it? --Menchi 11:55 6 Jul 2003 (UTC)

I've converted to IPA, which I think looks less ugly. But how do you pronounce Sudetes (a form 'v enot come across before - I've always thought of it as the Sudeten mountains? rossb 19:27, 26 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Shouldn't it be (at least in Czech) [sudεtI]? I do not think Czech has [e]. --Jirka6 04:56, 9 January 2007 (UTC)

Proposal to move to Sudeten
Have never heard of the Sudetes, and looking at the internet it seems to be primarily a term in scientific use. In general English Sudeten mountains is a much more recognisable term, used by the Polish and Czech tourist boards among others.--Stonemad GB 15:55, 31 July 2006 (UTC)
 * I agree that "Sudetes" is a rather recherché name, even if it is found in scientific (geological, orological, etc.) texts, and that in the language of general descriptions and historical accounts, guides for visitors, etc. the "borrowed" German and/or Czech/Polish names are much more frequently encountered in English – suitably adopted to English phonetics, of course (I don't think it's necessary BTW to give IPA transcriptions of the echt German/Czech/Polish pronunciations in the article). I've therefore been bold enough to make changes along these lines to the introductory paragraph which may render a wholesale "page move" unnecessary. -- Picapica (talk) 16:55, 6 December 2012 (UTC)

Sudetes and Sudetayle
On the Sudetes, I never heard of it. But, it appears everywhere in the Internet, including Columbia Encyclopedia. Mostly you get the Wikipedia material repeated dozens of times. Finally, I found a French site and realized with a shock that there is a grave accent over the first e, which makes it French. So, I put that in.

Perhaps the French explains the inscrutable Sudetayle, which as far as I can search out (and I have a printed text), does not appear in Ptolemy. In fact there is only one reference in Ptolemy, so I took the liberty of putting it in.

As far as the etymology is concerned, it looks pretty dubious, but it might be. The *seu- root (swine) is obviously meant, but where the wild and the mountains come from remains blank to me. Anyone care to elucidate? If you look up boar, you never find *seu- to mean that. *seu- has more to do with reproduction. I'd say, keep trying, but I'm not going to tamper with it.Botteville 15:59, 12 August 2005 (UTC)

Etymology
A better etymology perhaps is from Latin sudis, plural sudes, "spines", which can be used of spiny fish or spiny terrain. That would be very interesting: a Latin etymology for a name which was obviously borrowed from Greek (so the first line of this paragraph). Is there a reliable source for the statement that this etymology may be the best one? Fransvannes (talk) 14:34, 28 July 2008 (UTC)

Controversy about name
I'm polish and I never felt that "Sudety" sounds Nazi. I don't think any of polish inhabitants feels this way - reason is that almost all are newcomers, which came after world war II. Sudetes are huge - this maybe reason that names of individual ranges are used. I think that would be the same as not referring to Tatra as Carpathians. It's just too general. Situation may be different for Czech people which were there during Nazi occupation. Jarosław Komar (talk) 21:14, 30 March 2010 (UTC)

There were not many Czechs in the Sudeten area. It was inhabited by Germans until their expulsion in 1945/46. Therefore the name "Sudeten Germans"--92.229.245.179 (talk) 18:26, 25 August 2014 (UTC)--92.229.245.179 (talk) 18:26, 25 August 2014 (UTC)

I agree, the name "Sudety" is used widely here in Poland.62.203.242.209 (talk) 11:01, 26 January 2012 (UTC)
 * I removed it. Such nonsensical informations are typical for enwikipedia. I remember very serious discussion on Wrocław. Part of enwikipedians stated that Wrocław is not in Silesia. --Piotr967 (talk) 21:40, 20 July 2013 (UTC)

Suggestion about external links
Im strongly suggest to add external link: http://www.sudeckiehoryzonty.com.pl/ The tourist non profit portal about Polish and Czech area of Sudetes, full of movies and unique articles. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Ricz1980 (talk • contribs) 22:42, 24 March 2014 (UTC)

Bilingual names
The German towns may be in a bilingual region, but they are only known by their German names in English and for the topic of the Sudetes as a nature region, their Upper Sorbian names are irrelevant. Also only towns with 10,000 and more inhabitants are included, no reason to add Sebnitz. FromCzech (talk) 10:01, 19 February 2023 (UTC)

 * I'll just clarify that bilingual names are against WP:MLN. Upper Sorbian are listed on the pages of individual town, they are not needed here.
 * Bystrzyca Kłodzka was left there by mistake and should be deleted as well. The other towns are a complete list of cities with more than 10,000 inhabitants and it is an objective criterion, revert specifying the criteria in the beginning of the section without justification in the Edit summary is incomprehensible.
 * Upper Sorbian name in the lead is also redundant, see MOS:LEADLANG. Due to the fact that it is not the official language of any of the states where the Sudetes are located, it should not be in the lead. FromCzech (talk) 13:45, 19 February 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Sudetes


text:
User talk:Agent Jones

Hey Agent Jones, the Guru link should be Guru_(dragonball) like the rest of those style links, please don't change them. Each character counts as a link name.. including spaces which are converted to _'s.. so "Guru_(dragonball)" and "Guru_(Dragon Ball)" point at seperate pages. Usually (in UNIX like filesystems at least, which a lot of the Internet inherited from since it was created on UNIX [note the forward slashes ;-]) uppercase and lowercase letters (a and A for example) are also considered different characters and thus "Foo" and "foo" will point to different locations. A. Smith 11:57 6 Jul 2003 (UTC) z Greetings and salutations Agent Smith, sorry about my changes to the Guru_(dragonball) link, I understand the signifigance of "dragonball" per say "Dragon Ball" and I'm glad you fixed it before I did. As you may already know I have had a stab at the "Bardock" link from our conversation earlier last week, hope you'll be pleased and I'm looking forward to seeing the respective DB movie. I also implemented "Oozaru" and I am going to try to finish "Uubu".

Hello there, welcome to the 'pedia! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. If you need pointers on how we title pages visit Naming conventions or how to format them visit our manual of style. If you have any other questions about the project then check out Help or add a question to the Village pump. Cheers! --maveric149

Hi, just so you're aware, I'm converting the one-line stubs Android 16 etc to redirects, since they just refer back to the Dragonball article anyway, jimfbleak 16:14, 5 Aug 2003 (UTC)

Guru (Dragon Ball)
Hello, this is a message from an automated bot. A tag has been placed on Guru (Dragon Ball), by another Wikipedia user, requesting that it be speedily deleted from Wikipedia. The tag claims that it should be speedily deleted because Guru (Dragon Ball) fits the criteria for speedy deletion for the following reason: this page is a redirect to a deleted page To contest the tagging and request that administrators wait before possibly deleting Guru (Dragon Ball), please affix the template  to the page, and put a note on its talk page. If the article has already been deleted, see the advice and instructions at WP:WMD. Please note, this bot is only informing you of the nomination for speedy deletion, it did not nominate Guru (Dragon Ball) itself. Feel free to leave a message on the bot operator's talk page if you have any questions about this or any problems with this bot. --Android Mouse Bot 2 18:44, 1 June 2007 (UTC)

Proposed deletion of Namekian
A proposed deletion template has been added to the article Namekian, suggesting that it be deleted according to the proposed deletion process. All contributions are appreciated, but this article may not satisfy Wikipedia's criteria for inclusion, and the deletion notice should explain why (see also "What Wikipedia is not" and Wikipedia's deletion policy). You may prevent the proposed deletion by removing the  notice, but please explain why you disagree with the proposed deletion in your edit summary or on its talk page.

Please consider improving the article to address the issues raised because even though removing the deletion notice will prevent deletion through the proposed deletion process, the article may still be deleted if it matches any of the speedy deletion criteria or it can be sent to Articles for Deletion, where it may be deleted if consensus to delete is reached. Judgesurreal777 (talk) 15:22, 17 August 2008 (UTC)

AfD nomination of Namekian
I have nominated Namekian, an article you created, for deletion. I do not feel that this article satisfies Wikipedia's criteria for inclusion, and have explained why at Articles for deletion/Namekian. Your opinions on the matter are welcome at that same discussion page; also, you are welcome to edit the article to address these concerns. Thank you for your time. Do you want to opt out of receiving this notice? Judgesurreal777 (talk) 15:27, 17 August 2008 (UTC)

AfD nomination of Oozaru
I have nominated Oozaru, an article that you created, for deletion. I do not think that this article satisfies Wikipedia's criteria for inclusion, and have explained why at Articles for deletion/Oozaru&. Your opinions on the matter are welcome at that same discussion page; also, you are welcome to edit the article to address these concerns. Thank you for your time. Judgesurreal777 (talk) 22:23, 8 November 2008 (UTC)

"Oozaru" listed at Redirects for discussion
A discussion is taking place to address the redirect Oozaru. The discussion will occur at Redirects for discussion/Log/2021 February 20 until a consensus is reached, and anyone, including you, is welcome to contribute to the discussion. -- Tavix ( talk ) 21:11, 20 February 2021 (UTC)

title: User talk:Agent Jones


text:
Katzbalger

A Katzbalger is a short  arming sword, used in early modern Europe notable for its sturdy build and a distinctive s-shaped or figure-8 shaped guard. Measuring 70-80 cm long and weighing 0.8-1.5 kg, it was the signature blade of the Landsknecht.

Overview
The katzbalger is a side-arm, often used by pikemen, archers, and crossbowmen as a last resort if the enemy were to draw too close for bows or pikes to be effective.

Mostly a cutting sword, the rounded tips on many examples are ill-suited to thrusting, while the flat, broad blades are specialized for cutting. As with other similar cutting-centric arming swords, it can still be used for thrusting, though it is only likely to do damage to unarmored targets.

As with many sword varieties, variations exist within the type and katzbalger-style hilts can be found paired with slimmer and more thrust-oriented blades.

The large, characteristic guard helps to block and parry other cutting attacks. However, its openings leave the hands vulnerable to thrusting attacks.

Terminology
There are several different explanations about the origin of the name Katzbalger: one is that it comes from the custom of carrying a sword without a scabbard, held only by a cat's skin (German word Katze means "cat", while Balg means the skin (fur) of an animal.

Another theory is that the word derives from balgen (brawling), and refers to intense, close-quarter combat like fights between feral cats. The most common translation is "cat-gutter", with an allusion to cat fight.

title: Katzbalger


text:
Minor (linear algebra)

In linear algebra, a minor of a matrix A is the determinant of some smaller square matrix, cut down from A by removing one or more of its rows and columns. Minors obtained by removing just one row and one column from square matrices (first minors) are required for calculating matrix cofactors, which in turn are useful for computing both the determinant and inverse of square matrices. The requirement that the square matrix be smaller than the original matrix is often omitted in the definition.

First minors
If A is a square matrix, then the minor of the entry in the i th row and j th column (also called the (i, j) minor, or a first minor ) is the determinant of the submatrix formed by deleting the i th row and j th column. This number is often denoted Mi,j. The (i, j) cofactor is obtained by multiplying the minor by $$(-1)^{i+j}$$.

To illustrate these definitions, consider the following 3 by 3 matrix,

 * $$\begin{bmatrix}

1 & 4 & 7 \\ 3 & 0 & 5 \\ -1 & 9 & 11 \\ \end{bmatrix}$$

To compute the minor M2,3 and the cofactor C2,3, we find the determinant of the above matrix with row 2 and column 3 removed.

 * $$ M_{2,3} = \det \begin{bmatrix}

1   & 4    & \Box \\ \Box & \Box & \Box \\ -1  & 9    & \Box \\ \end{bmatrix}= \det \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 4 \\ -1 & 9 \\ \end{bmatrix} = 9-(-4) = 13$$

So the cofactor of the (2,3) entry is

 * $$\ C_{2,3} = (-1)^{2+3}(M_{2,3}) = -13.$$

General definition
Let A be an m × n matrix and k an integer with 0 < k ≤ m, and k ≤ n. A k × k minor of A, also called minor determinant of order k of A or, if m = n, (n−k)th minor determinant of A (the word "determinant" is often omitted, and the word "degree" is sometimes used instead of "order") is the determinant of a k × k matrix obtained from A by deleting m−k rows and n−k columns. Sometimes the term is used to refer to the k × k matrix obtained from A as above (by deleting m−k rows and n−k columns), but this matrix should be referred to as a (square) submatrix of A, leaving the term "minor" to refer to the determinant of this matrix. For a matrix A as above, there are a total of ${m \choose k} \cdot {n \choose k}$ minors of size k × k. The minor of order zero is often defined to be 1. For a square matrix, the zeroth minor is just the determinant of the matrix.

Let $$1 \le i_1 < i_2 < \cdots < i_k \le m$$ and $$1 \le j_1 < j_2 < \cdots < j_k \le n$$ be ordered sequences (in natural order, as it is always assumed when talking about minors unless otherwise stated) of indexes, call them I and J, respectively. The minor $\det \left( (A_{i_p, j_q})_{p,q = 1, \ldots, k} \right)$ corresponding to these choices of indexes is denoted $$\det_{I,J} A$$ or $$\det A_{I, J}$$ or $$[A]_{I,J}$$ or $$M_{I,J}$$ or $$M_{i_1, i_2, \ldots, i_k, j_1, j_2, \ldots, j_k}$$ or $$M_{(i),(j)}$$ (where the $$(i)$$ denotes the sequence of indexes I, etc.), depending on the source. Also, there are two types of denotations in use in literature: by the minor associated to ordered sequences of indexes I and J, some authors mean the determinant of the matrix that is formed as above, by taking the elements of the original matrix from the rows whose indexes are in I and columns whose indexes are in J, whereas some other authors mean by a minor associated to I and J the determinant of the matrix formed from the original matrix by deleting the rows in I and columns in J. Which notation is used should always be checked from the source in question. In this article, we use the inclusive definition of choosing the elements from rows of I and columns of J. The exceptional case is the case of the first minor or the (i, j)-minor described above; in that case, the exclusive meaning $M_{i,j} = \det \left( \left( A_{p,q} \right)_{p \neq i, q \neq j} \right)$ is standard everywhere in the literature and is used in this article also.

Complement
The complement, Bijk...,pqr..., of a minor, Mijk...,pqr..., of a square matrix, A, is formed by the determinant of the matrix A from which all the rows (ijk...) and columns (pqr...) associated with Mijk...,pqr... have been removed. The complement of the first minor of an element aij is merely that element.

Cofactor expansion of the determinant
The cofactors feature prominently in Laplace's formula for the expansion of determinants, which is a method of computing larger determinants in terms of smaller ones. Given an n × n matrix $$A = (a_{ij})$$, the determinant of A, denoted det(A), can be written as the sum of the cofactors of any row or column of the matrix multiplied by the entries that generated them. In other words, defining $$C_{ij} = (-1)^{i+j} M_{ij}$$ then the cofactor expansion along the j th column gives:

 * $$\ \det(\mathbf A) = a_{1j}C_{1j} + a_{2j}C_{2j} + a_{3j}C_{3j} + \cdots + a_{nj}C_{nj} = \sum_{i=1}^{n} a_{ij} C_{ij} = \sum_{i=1}^{n} a_{ij}(-1)^{i+j} M_{ij} $$

The cofactor expansion along the i th row gives:

 * $$\ \det(\mathbf A) = a_{i1}C_{i1} + a_{i2}C_{i2} + a_{i3}C_{i3} + \cdots + a_{in}C_{in} = \sum_{j=1}^{n} a_{ij} C_{ij} =\sum_{j=1}^{n} a_{ij} (-1)^{i+j} M_{ij} $$

Inverse of a matrix
One can write down the inverse of an invertible matrix by computing its cofactors by using Cramer's rule, as follows. The matrix formed by all of the cofactors of a square matrix A is called the cofactor matrix (also called the matrix of cofactors or, sometimes, comatrix):

 * $$\mathbf C=\begin{bmatrix}

C_{11} & C_{12} & \cdots &   C_{1n}   \\ C_{21} & C_{22} & \cdots &   C_{2n}   \\ \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\ C_{n1} & C_{n2} & \cdots &  C_{nn} \end{bmatrix} $$

Then the inverse of A is the transpose of the cofactor matrix times the reciprocal of the determinant of A:

 * $$\mathbf A^{-1} = \frac{1}{\operatorname{det}(\mathbf A)} \mathbf C^\mathsf{T}.$$

The transpose of the cofactor matrix is called the adjugate matrix (also called the classical adjoint) of A.

The above formula can be generalized as follows: Let $$1 \le i_1 < i_2 < \ldots < i_k \le n$$ and $$1 \le j_1 < j_2 < \ldots < j_k \le n$$ be ordered sequences (in natural order) of indexes (here A is an n × n matrix). Then

 * $$[\mathbf A^{-1}]_{I,J} = \pm\frac{[\mathbf A]_{J',I'}}{\det \mathbf A},$$

where I′, J′ denote the ordered sequences of indices (the indices are in natural order of magnitude, as above) complementary to I, J, so that every index 1, ..., n appears exactly once in either I or I′, but not in both (similarly for the J and J′) and $$[\mathbf A]_{I,J}$$ denotes the determinant of the submatrix of A formed by choosing the rows of the index set I and columns of index set J. Also, $$[\mathbf A]_{I,J} = \det \left( (A_{i_p, j_q})_{p,q = 1, \ldots, k} \right)$$. A simple proof can be given using wedge product. Indeed,

 * $$[\mathbf A^{-1}]_{I,J}(e_1\wedge\ldots \wedge e_n) = \pm(\mathbf A^{-1}e_{j_1})\wedge \ldots \wedge(\mathbf A^{-1}e_{j_k})\wedge e_{i'_1}\wedge\ldots \wedge e_{i'_{n-k}}, $$

where $$e_1, \ldots, e_n$$ are the basis vectors. Acting by A on both sides, one gets

 * $$[\mathbf A^{-1}]_{I,J}\det \mathbf A (e_1\wedge\ldots \wedge e_n) = \pm (e_{j_1})\wedge \ldots \wedge(e_{j_k})\wedge (\mathbf A e_{i'_1})\wedge\ldots \wedge (\mathbf A e_{i'_{n-k}})=\pm [\mathbf A]_{J',I'}(e_1\wedge\ldots \wedge e_n). $$

The sign can be worked out to be $$(-1)^{ \sum_{s=1}^{k} i_s - \sum_{s=1}^{k} j_s}$$, so the sign is determined by the sums of elements in I and J.

Other applications
Given an m × n matrix with real entries (or entries from any other field) and rank r, then there exists at least one non-zero r × r minor, while all larger minors are zero.

We will use the following notation for minors: if A is an m × n matrix, I is a subset of {1,...,m} with k elements, and J is a subset of {1,...,n} with k elements, then we write [A]I,J for the k × k minor of A that corresponds to the rows with index in I and the columns with index in J.
 * If I = J, then [A]I,J is called a principal minor.
 * If the matrix that corresponds to a principal minor is a square upper-left submatrix of the larger matrix (i.e., it consists of matrix elements in rows and columns from 1 to k, also known as a leading principal submatrix), then the principal minor is called a leading principal minor (of order k) or corner (principal) minor (of order k). For an n × n square matrix, there are n leading principal minors.
 * A basic minor of a matrix is the determinant of a square submatrix that is of maximal size with nonzero determinant.
 * For Hermitian matrices, the leading principal minors can be used to test for positive definiteness and the principal minors can be used to test for positive semidefiniteness. See Sylvester's criterion for more details.

Both the formula for ordinary matrix multiplication and the Cauchy–Binet formula for the determinant of the product of two matrices are special cases of the following general statement about the minors of a product of two matrices. Suppose that A is an m × n matrix, B is an n × p matrix, I is a subset of {1,...,m} with k elements and J is a subset of {1,...,p} with k elements. Then
 * $$[\mathbf{AB}]_{I,J} = \sum_{K} [\mathbf{A}]_{I,K} [\mathbf{B}]_{K,J}\,$$

where the sum extends over all subsets K of {1,...,n} with k elements. This formula is a straightforward extension of the Cauchy–Binet formula.

Multilinear algebra approach
A more systematic, algebraic treatment of minors is given in multilinear algebra, using the wedge product: the k-minors of a matrix are the entries in the kth exterior power map.

If the columns of a matrix are wedged together k at a time, the k × k minors appear as the components of the resulting k-vectors. For example, the 2 × 2 minors of the matrix
 * $$\begin{pmatrix}

1 & 4 \\ 3 & \!\!-1 \\ 2 & 1 \\ \end{pmatrix}$$ are −13 (from the first two rows), −7 (from the first and last row), and 5 (from the last two rows). Now consider the wedge product
 * $$(\mathbf{e}_1 + 3\mathbf{e}_2 +2\mathbf{e}_3)\wedge(4\mathbf{e}_1-\mathbf{e}_2+\mathbf{e}_3)$$

where the two expressions correspond to the two columns of our matrix. Using the properties of the wedge product, namely that it is bilinear and alternating,
 * $$\mathbf{e}_i\wedge \mathbf{e}_i = 0,$$

and antisymmetric,
 * $$\mathbf{e}_i\wedge \mathbf{e}_j = - \mathbf{e}_j\wedge \mathbf{e}_i,$$

we can simplify this expression to
 * $$ -13 \mathbf{e}_1\wedge \mathbf{e}_2 -7 \mathbf{e}_1\wedge \mathbf{e}_3 +5 \mathbf{e}_2\wedge \mathbf{e}_3$$

where the coefficients agree with the minors computed earlier.

A remark about different notation
In some books, instead of cofactor the term adjunct is used. Moreover, it is denoted as Aij and defined in the same way as cofactor:
 * $$\mathbf{A}_{ij} = (-1)^{i+j} \mathbf{M}_{ij}$$

Using this notation the inverse matrix is written this way:
 * $$\mathbf{M}^{-1} = \frac{1}{\det(M)}\begin{bmatrix}

A_{11} & A_{21} & \cdots &   A_{n1}   \\ A_{12} & A_{22} & \cdots &   A_{n2}   \\ \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\ A_{1n} & A_{2n} & \cdots &  A_{nn} \end{bmatrix} $$

Keep in mind that adjunct is not adjugate or adjoint. In modern terminology, the "adjoint" of a matrix most often refers to the corresponding adjoint operator.

title: Minor (linear algebra)