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Wikipedia:Subpages

Except in the main namespace (article namespace), where the subpage feature has been disabled in the English Wikipedia, subpages are pages separated with a "/" (a slash) from their 'parent' page.

Making a new  link  that begins with a / (slash) is the common way to start a subpage. The page to which this link points is considered "subordinate" to its host page, and is titled and linked as  Parentpage/Subpage . It is possible to create a subpage of a subpage (or a sub-subpage). At the top of each subpage or sub-subpage, you can find a backlink (a.k.a. breadcrumb) to the higher levels of the page.

Allowed uses
Avoid additional incoming and outward links that would make it appear as if this "/Temp" page is part of the encyclopedia: that is, in the case the Copyvio template is used, only this template, applied in article namespace, can link to the "/Temp" article from article or "main" namespace. See Disallowed uses below for further recommendations on how to avoid creating the impression a "/Temp" page is an encyclopedia page. Other common variants are  Talk:Example Article/Draft  and  Talk:Example Article/Sandbox . Such temp pages are also sometimes used for template and Wikipedia-namespace development.
 * 1) Test pages, following the rules of the sandbox.
 * 2) User subpages—making extra pages within your own user namespace, e.g.  User:Example/Draft of article  or  User:Example/About me .
 * 3) WikiProject subpages—for project-specific templates, discussion, or guidelines pages.
 * 4) Portal subpages—for Portal-specific templates and content.
 * 5) Dividing up Wikipedia process pages (e.g., Articles for deletion) which would otherwise get too big to be easily used.
 * 6) Documentation subpages for templates.
 * 7) Talk page archiving—both article Talk and User_talk pages are typically archived by moving discussion to numbered subpages.  This allows the discussion to still be searchable, rather than requiring a hunt through the page history.
 * 8) Talk page adjuncts, such as an article's /to do list or the /Comments pages used for Good Article review. A particularly long and complicated ArticleHistory may also be put on an /ArticleHistory transclude page.
 * 9) Temporary subpages in Talk namespace, usually formatted  Talk:Example Article/Temp  or  [[Talk:Example Article/Dumping ground ]], for example the kind of "/Temp" pages that can be created from Template:Copyvio, which allow editors to begin creating an entirely new article from scratch while the copyright violation is being resolved.

Disallowed uses

 * 1) Writing a content fork to avoid NPOV.
 * 2) Writing drafts of major article revisions, e.g.,  Example Article/Temp  in the main namespace, as you can get there accidentally using Special:Random—write these in the talk namespace, e.g.  Talk:Example Article/Temp . See Workpages for detail. Also, avoid incoming and outward links regarding such "Talk:.../Temp" page that might create the impression this is an encyclopedia page before it is, e.g.:
 * 3) * surround "category" links by "nowiki" tags, so that the temp page doesn't show up in a non-project category as if it were an article, example:   . The "nowiki" tags should be removed only when the "temp" content is moved to its place in article namespace. (This is an outward link example.) Another solution: put a colon before word "Category", for example, write Category:Shamanism instead of  . In this case, it will be still linkable, but it will prevent the subpage from appearing on category pages.
 * 4) * don't create navigational templates that make it appear as if this temp page is part of a series of encyclopedia articles, for example, don't do this: "... | John I of Doeland | John II of Doeland | John III of Doeland | ..." . (this is an incoming link example).
 * 5) * Draft pages mistakenly created in the main namespace should be moved as appropriate, or deleted if they are inactive and redundant to the main article.
 * 6) Using subpages for permanent content that is meant to be part of the encyclopedia.
 * 7) Pasting copies of copyrighted reliable sources to "share" with other editors.  Copyright violations are not permitted on any page in Wikipedia.

Using subpages

 * To create a user subpage, see.
 * To delete a user subpage, see.
 * To link subpages, see.
 * To use variables associated with subpages, see.

Finding subpages
The "All pages with prefix" report from Special:PrefixIndex shows subpages.
 * Select "Page information" from Tools (in the sidebar). Then select the link about "subpages".
 * Or navigate to Special:PrefixIndex/fullpagename/  by way of the search box.  For example,  Special:PrefixIndex/wp: manual of style/  or  Special:PrefixIndex/wp: Manual of Style/.
 * Or visit the Special:PrefixIndex page, and run the report from there. One way to get there is through Special:SpecialPages in Tools (in the sidebar).
 * Or to save a click you can add a Subpages link to your version of Tools.

The "Search" report from Special:Search similarly uses a prefix search parameter to show subpages. For example:.

Comparing the two:
 * Both reports can run with any number of initial characters as the "prefix" of the pagename, so excluding the final slash / character only adds the one pagename.
 * Only the "All pages with prefix" report shows subpages that are redirects. (The prefix search parameter does not find redirects.)
 * Only the "Search" report is not case sensitive. (Prefix is not case sensitive, PrefixIndex is.)
 * Both reports accept namespace aliases in the fullpagename.
 * From a content point of view, rather than from a page name point of view, both reports require separate runs for each redirect.

To keep an active display of subpages, see list subpages. To keep a link to an "All pages..." report, use subpages or [ [Special:PrefixIndex]]. To keep a link to a "Search" report, use a search link.

Outside of a single page name, there is no direct method for finding subpages. Standard subpagenames are searchable using the intitle parameter. There are.

Wikipedia namespaces that do not have sub-pages
The MediaWiki software (which runs Wikipedia) supports selectively allowing or disallowing the creation of subpages in various namespaces.

The following namespaces in English Wikipedia do not have the subpage feature:
 * Main
 * This namespace (which is where articles reside) does not have this feature turned on because strictly hierarchical organisation of articles is discouraged, and other distinctions are better made by placing pages in other namespaces (e.g. discussions go in "Talk:", and templates in "Template:").
 * File: Unnecessary, and hierarchy among files is bad.
 * MediaWiki

However, the corresponding talk namespaces for the above spaces do allow subpages.

All other namespaces allow subpages. You can create a subpage simply by linking to the name of the subpage, prefixed with a slash (e.g. /Archive ).

Slashes in article titles
Some topics have a slash in the name, and should be named accordingly—e.g. OS/2 or Providence/Stoughton Line. Care should be taken with the corresponding talk pages, though, as subpages are enabled in talk space—for example, Talk:OS/2 is treated by the software as a subpage of Talk:OS.

History of subpages
Subpages were originally used on Wikipedia to differentiate between subjects to create topical hierarchies of articles, but this proved unworkable because articles tend to belong in more than one hierarchy. The present system of disambiguation was adopted instead, and the [ Wikipedia:Do not use subpages] policy had to be rigorously enforced and retroactively applied. Since 2004, the category system has supported hierarchical organization while still allowing an article to belong to multiple categories.

The subpage titles that became redirects when mainspace subpages were moved, are to be left alone, in case there are any existing links on external pages pointing to them.

In Meta

 * Accidental linking and hard-wired category schemes
 * Case against subpages
 * Get rid of subpages entirely
 * Mysterious wikipedia user subpages
 * Why I am suspicious of subpages
 * Why I am suspicious of subpages

In Wikipedia

 * Workpage
 * Help:Userspace draft
 * Subpages to be moved
 * Userfication
 * Naming conventions (long lists)
 * Editors are not mindreaders—Essay encouraging editors to create articles first in user space.
 * Articles with slashes in title
 * Do not use subpages, a guideline from 2004 when subpages in article space were possible

title: Wikipedia:Subpages


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Benzophenone

Benzophenone is a naturally occurring organic compound with the formula (C6H5)2CO, generally abbreviated Ph2CO. Benzophenone has been found in some fungi, fruits and plants, including grapes. It is a white solid with a low melting point and rose-like odor that is soluble in organic solvents. Benzophenone is the simplest diaromatic ketone. It is a widely used building block in organic chemistry, being the parent diarylketone.

History
Carl Graebe of the University of Königsberg, in an early literature report from 1874, described working with benzophenone.

Uses
Benzophenone can be used as a photo initiator in ultraviolet (UV)-curing applications such as inks, imaging, and clear coatings in the printing industry. Benzophenone prevents UV light from damaging scents and colors in products such as perfumes and soaps.

Benzophenone can also be added to plastic packaging as a UV blocker to prevent photo-degradation of the packaging polymers or its contents. Its use allows manufacturers to package the product in clear glass or plastic (such as a PETE water bottle). Without it, opaque or dark packaging would be required.

In biological applications, benzophenones have been used extensively as photophysical probes to identify and map peptide–protein interactions.

Benzophenone is used as an additive in flavorings or perfumes for "sweet-woody-geranium-like notes."

Synthesis
Benzophenone is produced by the copper-catalyzed oxidation of diphenylmethane with air.

A laboratory route involves the reaction of benzene with carbon tetrachloride followed by hydrolysis of the resulting diphenyldichloromethane. It can also be prepared by Friedel–Crafts acylation of benzene with benzoyl chloride in the presence of a Lewis acid (e.g. aluminium chloride) catalyst: since benzoyl chloride can itself be produced by the reaction of benzene with phosgene the first synthesis proceeded directly from those materials.

Another route of synthesis is through a palladium(II)/oxometalate catalyst. This converts an alcohol to a ketone with two groups on each side.

Another, less well-known reaction to produce benzophenone is the pyrolysis of anhydrous calcium benzoate.

Organic chemistry
Benzophenone is a common photosensitizer in photochemistry. It crosses from the S1 state into the triplet state with nearly 100% yield. The resulting diradical will abstract a hydrogen atom from a suitable hydrogen donor to form a ketyl radical.

Benzophenone radical anion

Alkali metals reduce benzophenone to the deeply blue colored radical anion, diphenylketyl:
 * M + Ph2CO → M+Ph2CO•−

Generally sodium is used as the alkali metal. Sodium-benzophenone ketyl is used in the purification of organic solvents, particularly ethers, because it reacts with water and oxygen to give non-volatile products. Adsorbents such as alumina, silica gel, and especially molecular sieves are superior and far safer. The sodium-benzophenone method is common since it gives a visual indication that water, oxygen, and peroxides are absent from the solvent. Large scale purification may be more economical using devices which utilize adsorbents such as the aforementioned alumina or molecular sieves. The ketyl is soluble in the organic solvent being dried, which leads to faster purification. In comparison, sodium is insoluble, and its heterogeneous reaction is much slower. When excess alkali metal is present a second reduction may occur, resulting in a color transformation from deep blue to purple:
 * M +  M+Ph2CO•−   →   (M+)2(Ph2CO)2−

Commercially significant derivatives and analogues
There are over 300 natural benzophenones, with great structural diversity and biological activities. They are being investigated as potential sources of new drugs. Substituted benzophenones such as oxybenzone and dioxybenzone are used in many sunscreens. The use of benzophenone-derivatives which structurally resemble a strong photosensitizer has been criticized (see sunscreen controversy).

Michler's ketone has dimethylamino substituents at each para position. The high-strength polymer PEEK is prepared from derivatives of benzophenone.

2-Amino-5-chlorobenzophenone is used in the synthesis of benzodiazepines.

Safety
It is considered "essentially nontoxic." Benzophenone is however banned as a food additive by the US Food and Drug Administration, despite the FDA's continuing stance that this chemical does not pose a risk to public health under the conditions of its intended use. Benzophenone derivatives are known to be pharmacologically active. From a molecular chemistry point of view interaction of benzophenone with B-DNA has been demonstrated experimentally. The interaction with DNA and the successive photo-induced energy transfer is at the base of the benzophenone activity as a DNA photosensitizer and may explain part of its therapeutic potentialities.

In 2014, benzophenones were named Contact Allergen of the Year by the American Contact Dermatitis Society.

Benzophenone is an endocrine disruptor capable of binding to the pregnane X receptor.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Benzophenone


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Clarke Abel

Clarke Abel (5 September 1780 – 24 November 1826) was a British surgeon and naturalist.

He accompanied Lord Amherst on his mission to China in 1816-17 as the embassy's chief medical officer and naturalist, on the recommendation of Sir Joseph Banks. The mission was Britain's second unsuccessful attempt to establish diplomatic relations with China and involved travelling to the Beijing and the famous botanical gardens of Fa Tee (Huadi) near Canton (Fangcun District). While in China, Abel collected specimens and seeds of the plant that carries his name, Abelia chinensis, described by Banks' botanical secretary Robert Brown, "with friendly partiality". However a shipwreck and an attack by pirates on the way back to his home in Britain caused him to lose all of his specimens. Abel's Narrative of a Journey in the Interior of China, 1818, gives a detailed account of the collection's misfortunes. However, he had left some specimens with Sir George Staunton at Canton, who was kind enough to return them to him; living specimens of the Chinese Abelia that we know today were introduced by Robert Fortune in 1844.

In March 1819 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. He was also a member of the Geological Society.

Abel was the first Western scientist to report the presence of the orangutan on the island of Sumatra; the Sumatran Orangutan Pongo abelii Lesson 1827 is named for him. He went on to become the surgeon-in-chief to Lord Amherst when the earl was appointed Governor-general of India. Abel died at Cawnpore, India, 24 November 1826, aged 46.

Abel was also the first scientist to describe the Chiru or Tibetan Antelope, in 1826. It is the only member of the genus Pantholops.

In 1919, botanist Takenoshin Nakai published Abeliophyllum, which is a genus of shrubs from Korea, in the olive family, Oleaceae. It was named in Clarke Abel's honour. Then in 2010, Landrein published Diabelia, which is a genus of shrubs from China and Korea, in the Caprifoliaceae family.

title: Clarke Abel


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Golden hour (medicine)

In emergency medicine, the golden hour is the period of time immediately after a traumatic injury during which there is the highest likelihood that prompt medical and surgical treatment will prevent death. While initially defined as an hour, the exact time period depends on the nature of the injury and can be more than or less than this duration. It is well established that the person's chances of survival are greatest if they receive care within a short period of time after a severe injury; however, there is no evidence to suggest that survival rates drop off after 60 minutes. Some have come to use the term to refer to the core principle of rapid intervention in trauma cases, rather than the narrow meaning of a critical one-hour time period.

General concept
Cases of severe trauma, especially internal bleeding, require surgical intervention. Complications such as shock may occur if the person is not managed appropriately and expeditiously. It therefore becomes a priority to transport people with severe trauma as fast as possible to specialists, most often found at a hospital trauma center, for treatment. Because some injuries can cause people to deteriorate extremely rapidly, the lag time between injury and treatment should ideally be kept to a bare minimum; this has come to be specified as no more than 60 minutes, after which time the survival rate for people who have sustained trauma is alleged to fall off dramatically.

The recommended amount of time for emergency medical services is less than 10 minutes at the location of the trauma before transporting.

Origins of the term
R Adams Cowley is credited with promoting this concept, first in his capacity as a military surgeon and later as head of the University of Maryland Shock Trauma Center. The concept of the "Golden Hour" may have been derived from the French military's World War I data. The R Adams Cowley Shock Trauma Center section of the University of Maryland Medical Center's website quotes Cowley as saying, "There is a golden hour between life and death. If you are critically injured you have less than 60 minutes to survive. You might not die right then; it may be three days or two weeks later — but something has happened in your body that is irreparable."

Controversy
While most medical professionals agree that delays in definitive care are undesirable as they may lead to significant increases in morbidity and mortality, research casts doubt on the validity of the golden hour as it appears to lack a scientific basis. Bryan Bledsoe, a physician and outspoken critic of the golden hour and other controversial medical topics, such as critical incident stress management, has said that the peer-reviewed medical literature does not demonstrate any "magical time" for saving critical patients. There are different critical periods for different injuries.

title: Golden hour (medicine)


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Luzifer

Luzifer may refer to:

 * the German noun for Lucifer
 * Luzifer (restaurant chain), a German restaurant chain
 * Luzifer (film), a 2021 Austrian horror film
 * a pseudonym for Lu Märten (1879-1970), German writer and activist

title: Luzifer


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Catalytic converter

A catalytic converter is an exhaust emission control device which converts toxic gases and pollutants in exhaust gas from an internal combustion engine into less-toxic pollutants by catalyzing a redox reaction. Catalytic converters are usually used with internal combustion engines fueled by gasoline or diesel, including lean-burn engines, and sometimes on kerosene heaters and stoves.

The first widespread introduction of catalytic converters was in the United States automobile market. To comply with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's stricter regulation of exhaust emissions, most gasoline-powered vehicles starting with the 1975 model year are equipped with catalytic converters. These "two-way" converters combine oxygen with carbon monoxide (CO) and unburned hydrocarbons (HC) to produce carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O). Although two-way converters on gasoline engines were rendered obsolete in 1981 by "three-way" converters that also reduce oxides of nitrogen, they are still used on lean-burn engines to oxidize particulate matter and hydrocarbon emissions (including diesel engines, which typically use lean combustion), as three-way-converters require fuel-rich or stoichiometric combustion to successfully reduce.

Although catalytic converters are most commonly applied to exhaust systems in automobiles, they are also used on electrical generators, forklifts, mining equipment, trucks, buses, locomotives, motorcycles, and on ships. They are even used on some wood stoves to control emissions. This is usually in response to government regulation, either through environmental regulation or through health and safety regulations.

History
Catalytic converter prototypes were first designed in France at the end of the 19th century, when only a few thousand "oil cars" were on the roads; these prototypes had inert clay-based materials coated with platinum, rhodium, and palladium and sealed into a double metallic cylinder. A few decades later, a catalytic converter was patented by Eugene Houdry, a French mechanical engineer. Houdry was an expert in catalytic oil refining, having invented the catalytic cracking process that all modern refining is based on today. Houdry moved to the United States in 1930 to live near the refineries in the Philadelphia area and develop his catalytic refining process. When the results of early studies of smog in Los Angeles were published, Houdry became concerned about the role of smokestack exhaust and automobile exhaust in air pollution and founded a company called Oxy-Catalyst. Houdry first developed catalytic converters for smokestacks, called "cats" for short, and later developed catalytic converters for warehouse forklifts that used low grade, unleaded gasoline. In the mid-1950s, he began research to develop catalytic converters for gasoline engines used on cars and was awarded United States Patent 2,742,437 for his work.

Catalytic converters were further developed by a series of engineers including Carl D. Keith, John J. Mooney, Antonio Eleazar, and Phillip Messina at Engelhard Corporation, creating the first production catalytic converter in 1973.

The first widespread introduction of catalytic converters was in the United States automobile market. To comply with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's new exhaust emissions regulations, most gasoline-powered vehicles manufactured from 1975 onwards are equipped with catalytic converters. Early catalytic converters were "two-way", combining oxygen with carbon monoxide (CO) and unburned hydrocarbons (HC, chemical compounds in fuel of the form CmHn) to produce carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O). These stringent emission control regulations also resulted in the removal of the antiknock agent tetraethyl lead from automotive gasoline, to reduce lead in the air. Lead and its compounds are catalyst poisons and foul catalytic converters by coating the catalyst's surface. Requiring the removal of lead allowed the use of catalytic converters to meet the other emission standards in the regulations. To lower harmful emissions, a twin-catalyst system was developed in the 1970s  this added a separate (rhodium/platinum) catalyst which reduced  ahead of the air pump, after which a two-way catalytic converter (palladium/platinum) removed HC and CO. This cumbersome and expensive system was soon made redundant, after it was noted that under some conditions the initial catalyst also removed HC and CO. This led to the development of the three-way catalyst, made possible by electronics and engine management developments.

William C. Pfefferle developed a catalytic combustor for gas turbines in the early 1970s, allowing combustion without significant formation of nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide. Four-way catalytic converters have also been developed which also remove particulates from engine exhaust; since most of these particulates are unburned hydrocarbons, they can be burned to convert them into carbon dioxide.

Construction

The catalytic converter's construction is as follows:

 * 1) The catalyst support or substrate. For automotive catalytic converters, the core is usually a ceramic monolith that has a honeycomb structure (commonly square, not hexagonal). (Prior to the mid 1980s, the catalyst material was deposited on a packed bed of alumina pellets in early GM applications.) Metallic foil monoliths made of Kanthal (FeCrAl) are used in applications where particularly high heat resistance is required. The substrate is structured to produce a large surface area. The cordierite ceramic substrate used in most catalytic converters was invented by Rodney Bagley, Irwin Lachman, and Ronald Lewis at Corning Glass, for which they were inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 2002.
 * 2) The washcoat. A washcoat is a carrier for the catalytic materials and is used to disperse the materials over a large surface area. Aluminum oxide, titanium dioxide, silicon dioxide e.g. colloidal silica or a mixture of silica and alumina can be used. The catalytic materials are suspended in the washcoat prior to applying to the core. Washcoat materials are selected to form a rough, irregular surface, which increases the surface area compared to the smooth surface of the bare substrate.
 * 3) Ceria or ceria-zirconia. These oxides are mainly added as oxygen storage promoters.
 * 4) The catalyst itself is most often a mix of precious metals, mostly from the platinum group. Platinum is the most active catalyst and is widely used, but is not suitable for all applications because of unwanted additional reactions and historically high cost. Palladium and rhodium are two other precious metals used, though as of February 2023, platinum has become the least expensive of the platinum group metals. Rhodium is used as a reduction catalyst, palladium is used as an oxidation catalyst, and platinum is used both for reduction and oxidation. Cerium, iron, manganese, and nickel are also used, although each has limitations. Nickel is not legal for use in the European Union because of its reaction with carbon monoxide into toxic nickel tetracarbonyl. Copper can be used in most countries, with a notable exception in Japan.

Upon failure, a catalytic converter can be recycled into scrap. The precious metals inside the converter, including platinum, palladium, and rhodium, are extracted.

Placement of catalytic converters
Catalytic converters require a temperature of 400 C to operate effectively. Therefore, they are placed as close to the engine as possible, or one or more smaller catalytic converters (known as "pre-cats") are placed immediately after the exhaust manifold.

Two-way
A 2-way (or "oxidation", sometimes called an "oxi-cat") catalytic converter has two simultaneous tasks:
 * 1) Oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide: 2CO + O2 → 2CO2
 * 2) Oxidation of hydrocarbons (unburnt and partially burned fuel) to carbon dioxide and water: CxH2x+2 + [(3x+1)/2]O2 → xCO2 + (x+1)H2O (a combustion reaction)

This type of catalytic converter is widely used on diesel engines to reduce hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions. They were also used on gasoline engines in American and Canadian-market automobiles until 1981. Because of their inability to control oxides of nitrogen, manufacturers briefly installed twin catalyst systems, with an reducing, rhodium/platinum catalyst ahead of the air pump, which led to the development of the three-way converter. The oxi-cat also continued to be used on certain, lower-cost cars in some markets such as Europe, where emissions were not universally regulated until the 2000 introduction of the Euro 3 emissions standard.

Three-way
Three-way catalytic converters have the additional advantage of controlling the emission of nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) (both together abbreviated with NOx and not to be confused with nitrous oxide (N2O)). NOx species are precursors to acid rain and smog.

Since 1981, "three-way" (oxidation-reduction) catalytic converters have been used in vehicle emission control systems in the United States and Canada; many other countries have also adopted stringent vehicle emission regulations that in effect require three-way converters on gasoline-powered vehicles. The reduction and oxidation catalysts are typically contained in a common housing; however, in some instances, they may be housed separately. A three-way catalytic converter has three simultaneous tasks:

Reduction of nitrogen oxides to nitrogen (N2) Oxidation of carbon, hydrocarbons, and carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide These three reactions occur most efficiently when the catalytic converter receives exhaust from an engine running slightly above the stoichiometric point. For gasoline combustion, this ratio is between 14.6 and 14.8 parts air to one part fuel, by weight. The ratio for autogas (or liquefied petroleum gas LPG), natural gas, and ethanol fuels can vary significantly for each, notably so with oxygenated or alcohol based fuels, with e85 requiring approximately 34% more fuel, requiring modified fuel system tuning and components when using those fuels. Engines fitted with regulated 3-way catalytic converters are equipped with a computerized closed-loop feedback fuel injection system using one or more oxygen sensors (also known as Lambda Sonds or sensors). Other variants combined three-way converters with carburetors equipped with feedback mixture control were used. An unregulated three-way converter features the same chemical processes but without the oxygen sensor, which meant higher emissions, particularly under partial loads. These were low-cost solutions, typically used for retrofitting to older cars or for smaller, cheaper cars.
 * $$\text{C}+2\text{NO}_{2}\,\rightarrow\,\text{CO}_{2}+2\text{NO}$$
 * $$\text{CO}+\text{NO}\,\rightarrow\,\text{CO}_{2}+\frac{1}{2}\text{N}_{2}$$
 * $$2\text{CO}+\text{NO}_{2}\,\rightarrow\,2\text{CO}_{2}+\frac{1}{2}\text{N}_{2}$$
 * $$\text{H}_{2}+\text{NO}\,\rightarrow\,\text{H}_{2}\text{O}+\frac{1}{2}\text{N}_{2}$$
 * $$\text{C}+\text{O}_{2}\,\rightarrow\,\text{CO}_{2}$$
 * $$\text{CO}+\frac{1}{2}\text{O}_{2}\,\rightarrow\,\text{CO}_{2}$$
 * $$a\,\text{C}_{x}\text{H}_{y}+b\,\text{O}_{2}\,\rightarrow\,c\,\text{CO}_{2}+d\,\text{H}_{2}\text{O}\qquad a,\,b,\,c,\,d,\,x,\,y\in\mathbb{Z}$$

Three-way converters are effective when the engine is operated within a narrow band of airfuel ratios near the stoichiometric point. Total conversion efficiency falls very rapidly when the engine is operated outside of this band. Slightly lean of stoichiometric, the exhaust gases from the engine contain excess oxygen, the production of by the engine increases, and the efficiency of the catalyst at reducing  falls off rapidly. However, the conversion of HC and CO is very efficient due to the available oxygen, oxidizing to H2O and CO2. Slightly rich of stoichiometric, the production of CO and unburnt HC by the engine starts to increase dramatically, available oxygen decreases, and the efficiency of the catalyst for oxidizing CO and HC decreases significantly, especially as stored oxygen becomes depleted. However, the efficiency of the catalyst at reducing is good, and the production of  by the engine decreases. To maintain catalyst efficiency, the airfuel ratio must stay close to stoichiometric and not remain rich or lean for too long.

Closed-loop engine control systems are used for effective operation of three-way catalytic converters because of this continuous rich-lean balance required for effective reduction and HC+CO oxidation. The control system allows the catalyst to release oxygen during slightly rich operating conditions, which oxidizes CO and HC under conditions that also favor the reduction of NOx. Before the stored oxygen is depleted, the control system shifts the airfuel ratio to become slightly lean, improving HC and CO oxidation while storing additional oxygen in the catalyst material, at a small penalty in reduction efficiency. Then the airfuel mixture is brought back to slightly rich, at a small penalty in CO and HC oxidation efficiency, and the cycle repeats. Efficiency is improved when this oscillation around the stoichiometric point is small and carefully controlled.

Closed-loop control under light to moderate load is accomplished by using one or more oxygen sensors in the exhaust system. When oxygen is detected by the sensor, the airfuel ratio is lean of stoichiometric, and when oxygen is not detected, it is rich. The control system adjusts the rate of fuel being injected into the engine based on this signal to keep the airfuel ratio near the stoichiometric point in order to maximize the catalyst conversion efficiency. The control algorithm is also affected by the time delay between the adjustment of the fuel flow rate and the sensing of the changed airfuel ratio by the sensor, as well as the sigmoidal response of the oxygen sensors. Typical control systems are designed to rapidly sweep the airfuel ratio such that it oscillates slightly around the stoichiometric point, staying near the optimal efficiency point while managing the levels of stored oxygen and unburnt HC.

Closed loop control is often not used during high load/maximum power operation, when an increase in emissions is permitted and a rich mixture is commanded to increase power and prevent exhaust gas temperature from exceeding design limits. This presents a challenge for control system and catalyst design. During such operations, large amounts of unburnt HC are produced by the engine, well beyond the capacity of the catalyst to release oxygen. The surface of the catalyst quickly becomes saturated with HC. When returning to lower power output and leaner airfuel ratios, the control system must prevent excessive oxygen from reaching the catalyst too quickly, as this will rapidly burn the HC in the already hot catalyst, potentially exceeding the design temperature limit of the catalyst. Excessive catalyst temperature can prematurely age the catalyst, reducing its efficiency before reaching its design lifetime. Excessive catalyst temperature can also be caused by cylinder misfire, which continuously flows unburnt HC combined with oxygen to the hot catalyst, burning in the catalyst and increasing its temperature.

Unwanted reactions
Unwanted reactions result in the formation of hydrogen sulfide and ammonia, which poison catalysts. Nickel or manganese is sometimes added to the washcoat to limit hydrogen-sulfide emissions. Sulfur-free or low-sulfur fuels eliminate or minimize problems with hydrogen sulfide.

Diesel engines
For compression-ignition (i.e., diesel) engines, the most commonly used catalytic converter is the diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC). DOCs contain palladium and/or platinum supported on alumina. This catalyst converts particulate matter (PM), hydrocarbons, and carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide and water. These converters often operate at 90 percent efficiency, virtually eliminating diesel odor and helping reduce visible particulates. These catalysts are ineffective for, so emissions from diesel engines are controlled by exhaust gas recirculation (EGR).

In 2010, most light-duty diesel manufacturers in the U.S. added catalytic systems to their vehicles to meet federal emissions requirements. Two techniques have been developed for the catalytic reduction of emissions under lean exhaust conditions, selective catalytic reduction (SCR) and the  adsorber.

Instead of precious metal-containing absorbers, most manufacturers selected base-metal SCR systems that use a reagent such as ammonia to reduce the  into nitrogen and water. Ammonia is supplied to the catalyst system by the injection of urea into the exhaust, which then undergoes thermal decomposition and hydrolysis into ammonia. The urea solution is also referred to as diesel exhaust fluid (DEF).

Diesel exhaust contains relatively high levels of particulate matter. Catalytic converters remove only 20–40% of PM so particulates are cleaned up by a soot trap or diesel particulate filter (DPF). In the U.S., all on-road light, medium, and heavy-duty diesel-powered vehicles built after 1 January 2007, are subject to diesel particulate emission limits, and so are equipped with a 2-way catalytic converter and a diesel particulate filter. As long as the engine was manufactured before 1 January 2007, the vehicle is not required to have the DPF system. This led to an inventory runup by engine manufacturers in late 2006 so they could continue selling pre-DPF vehicles well into 2007.

Lean-burn spark-ignition engines
For lean-burn spark-ignition engines, an oxidation catalyst is used in the same manner as in a diesel engine. Emissions from lean burn spark ignition engines are very similar to emissions from a diesel compression ignition engine.

Installation
Many vehicles have a close-coupled catalytic converter located near the engine's exhaust manifold. The converter heats up quickly, due to its exposure to the very hot exhaust gases, enabling it to reduce undesirable emissions during the engine warm-up period. This is achieved by burning off the excess hydrocarbons which result from the extra-rich mixture required for a cold start.

When catalytic converters were first introduced, most vehicles used carburetors that provided a relatively rich air-fuel ratio. Oxygen (O2) levels in the exhaust stream were therefore generally insufficient for the catalytic reaction to occur efficiently. Most designs of the time therefore included secondary air injection, which injected air into the exhaust stream. This increased the available oxygen, allowing the catalyst to function as intended.

Some three-way catalytic converter systems have air injection systems with the air injected between the first ( reduction) and second (HC and CO oxidation) stages of the converter. As in two-way converters, this injected air provides oxygen for the oxidation reactions. An upstream air injection point, ahead of the catalytic converter, is also sometimes present to provide additional oxygen only during the engine warm up period. This causes unburned fuel to ignite in the exhaust tract, thereby preventing it reaching the catalytic converter at all. This technique reduces the engine runtime needed for the catalytic converter to reach its "light-off" or operating temperature.

Most newer vehicles have electronic fuel injection systems, and do not require air injection systems in their exhausts. Instead, they provide a precisely controlled air-fuel mixture that quickly and continually cycles between lean and rich combustion. Oxygen sensors monitor the exhaust oxygen content before and after the catalytic converter, and the engine control unit uses this information to adjust the fuel injection so as to prevent the first ( reduction) catalyst from becoming oxygen-loaded, while simultaneously ensuring the second (HC and CO oxidation) catalyst is sufficiently oxygen-saturated.

Damage
Catalyst poisoning occurs when the catalytic converter is exposed to exhaust containing substances that coat the working surfaces, so that they cannot contact and react with the exhaust. The most notable contaminant is lead, so vehicles equipped with catalytic converters can run only on unleaded fuel. Other common catalyst poisons include sulfur, manganese (originating primarily from the gasoline additive MMT), and silicon, which can enter the exhaust stream if the engine has a leak that allows coolant into the combustion chamber. Phosphorus is another catalyst contaminant. Although phosphorus is no longer used in gasoline, it (and zinc, another low-level catalyst contaminant) was widely used in engine oil antiwear additives such as zinc dithiophosphate (ZDDP). Beginning in 2004, a limit of phosphorus concentration in engine oils was adopted in the API SM and ILSAC GF-4 specifications.

Depending on the contaminant, catalyst poisoning can sometimes be reversed by running the engine under a very heavy load for an extended period of time. The increased exhaust temperature can sometimes vaporize or sublimate the contaminant, removing it from the catalytic surface. However, removal of lead deposits in this manner is usually not possible because of lead's high boiling point.

Any condition that causes abnormally high levels of unburned hydrocarbons (raw or partially burnt fuel or oils) to reach the converter will tend to significantly elevate its temperature, bringing the risk of a meltdown of the substrate and resultant catalytic deactivation and severe exhaust restriction. These conditions include failure of the upstream components of the exhaust system (manifold/header assembly and associated clamps susceptible to rust/corrosion and/or fatigue e.g. the exhaust manifold splintering after repeated heat cycling), ignition system e.g. coil packs and/or primary ignition components (e.g. distributor cap, wires, ignition coil and spark plugs) and/or damaged fuel system components (fuel injectors, fuel pressure regulator, and associated sensors). Oil and/or coolant leaks, perhaps caused by a head gasket leak, can also cause high unburned hydrocarbons.

Regulations
Emissions regulations vary considerably from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. Most automobile spark-ignition engines in North America have been fitted with catalytic converters since 1975,  and the technology used in non-automotive applications is generally based on automotive technology. In many jurisdictions, it is illegal to remove or disable a catalytic converter for any reason other than its direct and immediate replacement. Nevertheless, some vehicle owners remove or "gut" the catalytic converter on their vehicle. In such cases, the converter may be replaced by a welded-in section of ordinary pipe or a flanged "test pipe", ostensibly meant to check if the converter is clogged by comparing how the engine runs with and without the converter. This facilitates temporary reinstallation of the converter in order to pass an emission test.

In the United States, it is a violation of Section 203(a)(3)(A) of the 1990 amended Clean Air Act for a vehicle repair shop to remove a converter from a vehicle, or cause a converter to be removed from a vehicle, except in order to replace it with another converter, and Section 203(a)(3)(B) makes it illegal for any person to sell or to install any part that would bypass, defeat, or render inoperative any emission control system, device, or design element. Vehicles without functioning catalytic converters generally fail emission inspections. The automotive aftermarket supplies high-flow converters for vehicles with upgraded engines, or whose owners prefer an exhaust system with larger-than-stock capacity.

Catalytic converters have been mandatory on all new gasoline cars sold in the European Union and the United Kingdom since January 1, 1993 in order to comply with the Euro 1 emission standards.

Effect on exhaust flow
Faulty catalytic converters as well as undamaged early types of converters can restrict the flow of exhaust, which negatively affects vehicle performance and fuel economy. Modern catalytic converters do not significantly restrict exhaust flow. A 2006 test on a 1999 Honda Civic, for example, showed that removing the stock catalytic converter netted only a 3% increase in maximum horsepower; a new metallic core converter only cost the car 1% horsepower, compared to no converter.

Dangers
Carburetors on pre-1981 vehicles without feedback fuel-air mixture control could easily provide too much fuel to the engine, which could cause the catalytic converter to overheat and potentially ignite flammable materials under the car.

Warm-up period
Vehicles fitted with catalytic converters emit most of their total pollution during the first five minutes of engine operation; for example, before the catalytic converter has warmed up sufficiently to be fully effective.

In the early 2000s it became common to place the catalyst converter right next to the exhaust manifold, close to the engine, for much quicker warm-up. In 1995, Alpina introduced an electrically heated catalyst. Called "E-KAT", it was used in Alpina's B12 5,7 E-KAT based on the BMW 750i. Heating coils inside the catalytic converter assemblies are electrified just after the engine is started, bringing the catalyst up to operating temperature very quickly to qualify the vehicle for low emission vehicle (LEV) designation. BMW later introduced the same heated catalyst, developed jointly by Emitec, Alpina, and BMW, in its 750i in 1999.

Some vehicles contain a pre-cat, a small catalytic converter upstream of the main catalytic converter which heats up faster on vehicle start up, reducing the emissions associated with cold starts. A pre-cat is most commonly used by an auto manufacturer when trying to attain the Ultra Low Emissions Vehicle (ULEV) rating, such as on the Toyota MR2 Roadster.

Environmental effect
Catalytic converters have proven to be reliable and effective in reducing noxious tailpipe emissions. However, they also have some shortcomings in use, and also adverse environmental effects in production:
 * An engine equipped with a three-way catalyst must run at the stoichiometric point, which means more fuel is consumed than in a lean-burn engine. This means approximately 10% more CO2 emissions from the vehicle.
 * Catalytic converter production requires palladium or platinum; part of the world supply of these precious metals is produced near Norilsk, Russia, where the industry (among others) has caused Norilsk to be added to Time magazine's list of most-polluted places.
 * The extreme heat of the converters themselves can cause wildfires, especially in dry areas.

Theft
Because of the external location and the use of valuable precious metals including platinum, palladium and rhodium, catalytic converters are a target for thieves. The problem is especially common among late-model pickup trucks and truck-based SUVs, because of their high ground clearance and easily removed bolt-on catalytic converters. Welded-on converters are also at risk of theft, as they can be easily cut off. The Toyota Prius catalytic converters are also targets for thieves. The catalytic converters of hybrids need more of the precious metals to work properly compared to conventional internal combustion vehicles because they do not get as hot as those installed on conventional vehicles, since the combustion engines of hybrids only run part of the time.

Pipecutters are often used to quietly remove the converter but other tools such as a portable reciprocating saw can damage other components of the car, such as the alternator, wiring or fuel lines, with potentially dangerous consequences.

In 2023, bipartisan legislation to combat catalytic converter theft was introduced in the U.S. Senate. The Preventing Auto Recycling Thefts Act (PART Act) would mandate catalytic converters in new vehicles to come with traceable identification numbers. Additionally, the legislation would make catalytic converter theft a federal criminal offense.

Statistics
Rising metal prices in the U.S. during the 2000s commodities boom led to a significant increase in converter theft. A catalytic converter can cost more than $1,000 to replace, more if the vehicle is damaged during the theft. Apart from damaging other systems of the vehicle, theft can also cause death and injury to thieves.

Thefts of catalytic converters rose over tenfold in the United States from the late 2010s to early 2020s, driven presumably by the rise in the price of precious metals contained within the converters. Study findings reveal an average price elasticity of 1.98, which means that a 10 percent increase in the price of metal leads to an approximate 20 percent increase in thefts. According to the National Insurance Crime Bureau, there were 1,298 reported cases of catalytic converter theft in 2018, which increased to 14,433 in 2020. In 2022, it was reported that the number of catalytic converter thefts in the United States sharply rose to 153,000 total thefts for the year.

From 2019 to 2020, thieves in the United Kingdom were targeting older-model hybrid cars (such as Toyota's hybrids) which have more precious metals than newer vehicles—sometimes worth more than the value of the car—leading to scarcity and long delays in replacing them.

In 2021 a trend emerged in the Democratic Republic of the Congo where catalytic converters were alleged to be stolen for use in illicit street drug production. The drug, a powder known as "bombé," was said to be a mixture of powdered pills/vitamins and pulverized honeycomb structures of catalytic converters. In 2023, however, a study of various samples of the drug concluded that its alleged origin from catalytic exhausts was found to be unsubstantiated.

Diagnostics
Various jurisdictions now require on-board diagnostics to monitor the function and condition of the emissions-control system, including the catalytic converter. Vehicles equipped with OBD-II diagnostic systems are designed to alert the driver to a misfire condition by means of illuminating the "check engine" light on the dashboard, or flashing it if the current misfire conditions are severe enough to potentially damage the catalytic converter.

On-board diagnostic systems take several forms.

Temperature sensors are used for two purposes. The first is as a warning system, typically on two-way catalytic converters such as are still sometimes used on LPG forklifts. The function of the sensor is to warn of catalytic converter temperature above the safe limit of 750 C. Modern catalytic-converter designs are not as susceptible to temperature damage and can withstand sustained temperatures of 900 C. Temperature sensors are also used to monitor catalyst functioning: usually two sensors will be fitted, with one before the catalyst and one after to monitor the temperature rise over the catalytic-converter core.

The oxygen sensor is the basis of the closed-loop control system on a spark-ignited rich-burn engine; however, it is also used for diagnostics. In vehicles with OBD II, a second oxygen sensor is fitted after the catalytic converter to monitor the O2 levels. The O2 levels are monitored to see the efficiency of the burn process. The on-board computer makes comparisons between the readings of the two sensors. The readings are taken by voltage measurements. If both sensors show the same output or the rear O2 is "switching", the computer recognizes that the catalytic converter either is not functioning or has been removed, and will operate a malfunction indicator lamp and affect engine performance. Simple "oxygen sensor simulators" have been developed to circumvent this problem by simulating the change across the catalytic converter with plans and pre-assembled devices available on the Internet. Although these are not legal for on-road use, they have been used with mixed results. Similar devices apply an offset to the sensor signals, allowing the engine to run a more fuel-economical lean burn that may, however, damage the engine or the catalytic converter.

sensors are extremely expensive and are in general used only when a compression-ignition engine is fitted with a selective catalytic-reduction (SCR) converter, or a absorber in a feedback system. When fitted to an SCR system, there may be one or two sensors. When one sensor is fitted it will be pre-catalyst; when two are fitted, the second one will be post-catalyst. They are used for the same reasons and in the same manner as an oxygen sensor; the only difference is the substance being monitored.

title: Catalytic converter


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Religious philosophy

Religious philosophy is philosophical thinking that is influenced and directed as a consequence of teachings from a particular religion. It can be done objectively, but it may also be done as a persuasion tool by believers in that faith. Religious philosophy is concerned with the nature of religion, theories of salvation, and conceptions of god, gods, and/or the divine.

Due to the historical development of religions, many religions share commonalities concerning their philosophies. These philosophies are often considered to be universal and include beliefs about concepts such as the afterlife, souls, and miracles.

Philosophical commonalities
Religious faith and philosophical reflection are connected to one another. Religious tradition influences the philosophical thinking and beliefs of followers of that religion.

Many philosophical commonalities have arisen among religions due to their core historical foundations. For example, Abrahamic religions, which encompass Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Baha'i Faith, Yezidi, Druze, Samaritan, and Rastafari, share philosophical commonalities, although they differ in their presentation of these philosophical concepts through their respective religious texts.

There are also philosophical concepts and reasoning in religious teachings that were conceived independently from one another, but are still similar and reflect analogous ideas. For example, the argument and reasoning for the existence of an omniscient god or multiple gods can be found in several religions, including Christianity, Islam, and Hinduism. Another example includes the philosophical concept of free will, which is present in monotheistic religions as well as polytheistic religions.

Intuitive religious philosophy
Many religious concepts are considered to be 'cross-culturally ubiquitous' as they are 'cognitively natural'. They are considered to be intuitive, meaning that they arise without much direction, instruction, or coaching in the early stages of our intellectual development and do not necessarily arise from cultural influence. Such religious concepts include beliefs concerning 'afterlife, souls, supernatural agents, and miraculous events'.

Reflective religious philosophy
Some religious concepts require deliberate teaching to ensure the transmission of their ideas and beliefs to others. These beliefs are categorised as reflective and are often stored in a linguistic format that allows for ease of transmission. Reflective philosophies are thought to contribute significantly to the continuation of cultural and religious beliefs. Such religious philosophies include karma, divine immanent justice, or providence, and also encompass theological concepts such as Trinity in Christianity or Brahman in Hinduism.

God
Religious philosophy is predominantly concerned with the conceptions of god, gods, and/or the divine.

Ontological arguments
Ontological arguments are arguments based on reason with the conclusion that God exists. There are many notable contributors to the development of various ontological arguments.

In the 11th century C.E., Saint Anselm of Canterbury (1033–1109) reasoned in his work Proslogion about the existence of God in an ontological argument based on the idea that there is a 'being than which no greater can be conceived'.

Thomas Aquinas (c. 1225–1274) extracted components of philosophical teaching relevant to Christianity, using philosophy as a means to demonstrate God's existence. In his work Summa Theologica, Aquinas presents five arguments for the existence of God, known as 'quinque viae' or 'five ways'. In the 17th century, René Descartes (1596–1650) proposed similar arguments to those of Saint Anselm of Canterbury. For example, in his work Fifth Meditation, he provides an ontological argument based on the reasoning that if we are able to conceive the idea of a supremely perfect being (i.e., that we have an idea of a supremely perfect being), then, he claims, we are able to reach the conclusion that there exists a supremely perfect being. Two versions of Descartes' ontological argument exist:
 * Version A:
 * 1) Whatever I clearly and distinctly perceive to be contained in the idea of something is true of that thing.
 * 2) I clearly and distinctly perceive that necessary existence is contained in the idea of God.
 * 3) Therefore, God exists.

 * Version B:
 * 1) I have an idea of a supremely perfect being, i.e. a being having all perfections.
 * 2) Necessary existence is perfection.
 * 3) Therefore, a supremely perfect being exists.

In the 18th century, Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716) further developed Descartes ontological argument by attempting to satisfy a shortcoming in Descartes' proposal, which did not address the coherence of a supremely perfect being. Leibniz reasoned that perfections are compatible as they are unable to be analysed, and therefore are able to exist in a single entity, thereby validating Descartes argument.

More recently, individuals such as Kurt Gödel, Charles Hartshorne, Norman Malcolm, and Alvin Plantinga have proposed ontological arguments, many of which elaborate on or are connected to older ontological arguments presented by individuals such as St. Anselm, Descartes, and Leibniz. For example, Kurt Godel (1905–1978) used modal logic to elaborate and clarify Leibniz's version of Saint Anselm of Canterbury's ontological proof of the existence of God, known as Godel's Ontological Proof.

Concept of God
An individual's perception of the concept of God influences their coping style. There are four main religiously affiliated coping mechanisms, as follows:
 * 1) Self-directing style: the individual does not involve God directly and instead individually adopts a problem-solving method.
 * 2) Deferring style: the individual submits their issue and the required problem-solving to God.
 * 3) Collaborative style: both the individual and God are involved in the problem-solving process.
 * 4) Surrender style: the individual works collaboratively with God in the problem-solving process but values God's direction above their own.

Impacts
Religious philosophy influences many aspects of an individual's conception and outlook on life. For example, empirical studies concentrating on the philosophical concept of spirituality at or near the end of life, conducted in India, found that individuals who follow Indian philosophical concepts are influenced by these concepts in their 'perception of spirituality'.

Considerations concerning medical care, death, diet, and pregnancy differ among followers of various religions due to their respective philosophies.

Medical care
An individual's religious philosophy is important in the consideration of their medical care and medical decisions, and taking that into account improves the quality of their medical treatment. Particularly in the case of palliative care, understanding different religious philosophical foundations allows for the proper spiritual care to be obtained by the patient. Religious philosophy is also a necessary consideration in the psychotherapeutic treatment of psychiatric disorders. Consideration of organ donation post-death is related to an individual's religious philosophy.

Islamic philosophy
Islamic philosophies forbid the violation of the human body, however simultaneously place importance on selflessness; "And whoever saves one - it is as if he had saved mankind entirely. (Quran 5:32)"

Organ donation is generally endorsed, through the principle that necessity overrides prohibition known as al-darurat tubih al-mahzurat. Objections to organ donation in Islamic religion is mainly originated on cultural foundations rather than religious philosophical ones, with their altruistic principle allowing for exceptions in regard to medical intervention, for example; involving porcine bone grafts and pork insulin. Formal decisions have been made regarding organ donation in association with Islamic teachings, for example, the UK Muslim Law Council in 1996 issued a Ijtihad (religious ruling) that defined organ transplantation within the scope of the Islamic following, and Islamic Jurisprudence Assembly Council in Saudi Arabia in 1988 approving organ donation, with similar formal decisions made in Egypt, Iran, and Pakistan.

Islamic jurisprudence does not condone or allow for an individual to die voluntarily. Islamic philosophies indicate that life is a divine, sacred gift, with Allah deciding how long each individual will live. The moment of death, known as ajal, cannot be hastened by any form of passive or active voluntary intervention (e.g. in the form of euthanasia) as this is completely under the control of Allah. Only Allah has the absolute authority and ability to give life as well as take it away. Islamic philosophies emphasise that life does not belong to the human, but to Allah. Although the Qur'an states "Nor take life – which Allah has made sacred – except for just cause" (Quran 17:33), hadith literature indicates that despite intolerable pain and suffering, euthanasia is not condoned. For example, according to Sahih Muslim, in the Battle of Hunayn a Muslim warrior committed suicide due to the pain of his wound however Muhammad declared that this act negated his courage and service to God and doomed him to Hell.

Christian philosophy
Christian philosophies generally endorse organ donation although reasoning and opinion differ amongst sects. Christian theologians reference the Bible in regard to organ donation, particularly; Heal the sick, cleanse the lepers, raise the dead, cast out devils: Freely you have received, freely give. (Matthew 10:8)

Greater love hath no man than this, that he lay down his life for his friends. (John 15:13) Most Christian scholar sanction organ transplantation as it is deemed an act of selflessness, with the Catholic and Protestant Church endorsing organ donation in a joint declaration in 1990, promoting the action as an act of Christian love.

Jewish philosophy
Jewish philosophies hold great importance on the intact burial of the deceased persons due to halakhic foundations. However, much like Islam, altruism in the form of saving a life, known as pikuach nefesh in Jewish law, overrides all other commandments and prohibition; "Whoever destroys a soul, it is considered as if he destroyed an entire world. And whoever saves a life, it is considered as if he saved an entire world. (Babylonian Talmud, tractate Sanhedrin 37a)"

Organ donation is endorsed by most Jewish scholars.

Euthanasia
Consideration of euthanasia is influenced by an individual's religious philosophy. Much of the opposition towards legislation of euthanasia is due to religious beliefs. Individuals who express a belief in God as an entity who controls destiny were more opposed to legalisation of euthanasia and physician assisted suicide. For example, religions such as Christian Science, Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Hinduism, Islam, Jehovah's Witness, Seventh-day Adventist generally do not allow for or practice euthanasia.

Abortion
Many religions hold philosophical value toward life of all forms and are thus completely against abortion. However abortion is tolerated in specific cases, such as rape or when the mother's life is in danger.

Hindu philosophy
Hindu philosophies prohibit abortion, in line with dharmasastras. Hindu philosophy regarding conception involve the belief that both physical and spiritual qualities, like an individual's past karma, exist and enter the human embryo from the moment of conception.

Buddhist philosophy
In Buddhist philosophies, much like Hindu philosophies, there is a morally negative view towards abortion in accordance to the Five Precepts. However, the intention behind an action is an important consideration, and therefore many Buddhists accept the idea of abortion if under the pretence of good intention.

Jewish philosophy
(See also Judaism and abortion) Jewish philosophies in Rabbinical works generally condemn abortion, foeticide, or infanticide as it is viewed as an immoral action on human life. However, 'abortion appears as an option for Jewish women from the earliest sources of the Bible and Mishnaic commentary', where the Talmud indicates that a mother's life is prioritised if her life or wellbeing is put at risk by the child, thereby permitting abortion. Jewish laws do not condone abortion in scenarios involving rape or incest.

Taoist philosophy
Taoist philosophy expresses a desire to find and maintain a balance between populations and their resources. Therefore, due to these philosophies, population management were of national interests observed in China's 'one child' policy. However, abortion is not encouraged as it would 'corrupt the body and would wrongly negate the body's capacity to give life'.

Diet
Many religions follow dietary habits. For example, a vegetarian diet is adhered to by individuals who follow Buddhism, Hinduism, Seventh-day Adventist. The emphasis on sanctity of all life in the ethical doctrine known as ahimsa (non-injury to living beings) in Buddhist and Hindu philosophies encompass human as well as animal life, and influence this vegetarian tradition, with modern influence including the concept of reincarnation.

Fasting of various forms (exclusion of specific foods or food groups, or exclusion of food for certain periods of time) are undertaken by individuals who follow philosophies of Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Eastern Orthodox, Islam, Roman Catholicism.

Some religions require for food to be invoked in God's name. For example, in Islam, meat must be from properly slaughtered 'clean' animals, known as halal, although it is forbidden to consume scavenger animals. The religious philosophical purpose behind Islamic dietary laws derived from the commandments of Allah (Quran and Sunnah of Muhammad) is the concept of purity, where Muslims consume what is considered pure and clean to be pure both in a physical and spiritual sense. Another example includes Jewish Kosher laws, where individuals must observe kosher food laws derived from Torah and Mishnah religious scripture texts.

title: Religious philosophy


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User talk:Tres~enwiki

The point of Wikipedia is that you don't have to E-mail anyone to work together collaboratively. So I didn't E-mail you.

Thank you for your contributions.

Before you go starting a new entry, please go around and make sure that someone else hasn't started a parallel thread under different names.

For example, I just found your listing for emergency room and ER. I had to combine and fix someone else's casualty department (UK and Australian usage), create a disambiguation page for ER, then go through and fix "The Golden Hour" to Golden Hour and link in appropriately.

That said, THANK YOU for your contribution to Wikipedia and hope to hear more from you. clarka

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Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Tres. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Tres~enwiki that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name. If you think you might own all of the accounts with this name and this message is in error, please visit Special:MergeAccount to check and attach all of your accounts to prevent them from being renamed.

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title: User talk:Tres~enwiki


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EMS

Ems or EMS may refer to:

Places and rivers

 * Domat/Ems, a Swiss municipality in the canton of Grisons
 * Ems (river) (Eems), a river in northwestern Germany and northeastern Netherlands that discharges in the Dollart Bay
 * Ems (Eder), a river of Hesse, Germany, a tributary of the Eder
 * River Ems (Chichester Harbour), an English river with its mouth at Emsworth, Hampshire
 * Bad Ems, a German town in Rhineland-Palatinate, until 1913 named Ems

Businesses

 * Eastern Mountain Sports, an outdoor retailer
 * Eitzen Maritime Services, a Norwegian company
 * Electronic Music Studios, a manufacturer of synthesizers
 * Elektromreža Srbije, a Serbian electric utility company
 * Event Marketing Solutions, a UK-based provider of vehicle-based marketing roadshows
 * Ems-Chemie, Swiss chemical company
 * EMS (pharmaceuticals), a Brazilian pharmaceutical company
 * EMS Recordings, a 1949–1952 American experimental-music record label
 * EMS Technologies, an American company

Organizations

 * Edinburgh Mathematical Society
 * Environmental Media Services, an American nonprofit organization
 * European Monetary System, a former European monetary cooperation
 * European Mathematical Society

United States

 * Eagleview Middle School, El Paso County, Colorado
 * Eastern Middle School, Montgomery County, Maryland
 * Elwood Middle School, New York
 * Penn State College of Earth and Mineral Sciences (commonly referred to as EMS), part of Penn State University, University Park, Pennsylvania
 * Eastern Mennonite School, Harrisonburg, Virginia
 * Eastern Mennonite Seminary, Harrisonburg, Virginia

Elsewhere

 * Earl Marriott Secondary School, Surrey, British Columbia, Canada
 * English Martyrs School and Sixth Form College, Hartlepool, County Durham, England
 * Exeter Mathematics School, Exeter, Devon, England
 * EM Strasbourg Business School, Strasbourg, France

Physics, chemistry, and biology

 * Electromagnetic suspension, a method to suspend an object
 * Electromagnetic spectrum, is the range of all possible electromagnetic radiation
 * Ethyl methanesulfonate (or methanesulfonic acid ethyl ester), a mutagen
 * European macroseismic scale, a scale used when measuring earthquakes intensity
 * Environmental Mutagen Society

Computer and engineering

 * Electronics manufacturing services, a type of company
 * Electronic meeting system, a collaborative computer software
 * Element management system, software to monitor and control network elements (devices) in telecommunications
 * Emergency Management Services, a part of MS-Windows
 * Energy management software, software to monitor and optimize energy consumption in buildings or communities
 * Energy management system, a system to control, monitor, and optimize the generation and flow of Electric Power
 * Engine management system, see engine control unit
 * Enhanced Messaging Service, an extension to Short Message Service (SMS) for mobile phone
 * Expanded Memory Specification, a memory specification for x86 PCs supported by DOS etc.
 * Enterprise messaging system, a middleware system for sending messages between two or more clients
 * Execution management system, a trading system with a user interface for market data, indicators and order entry

Medical and veterinary

 * Emergency medical services, a service providing out-of-hospital acute care and transport
 * Emergency Hospital Service, also known as the Emergency Medical Service, which provided centralised state-run medical care in World War II Britain
 * Eosinophilia–myalgia syndrome, a neurological condition
 * Electrical muscle stimulation, a type of medical therapy, also referred to as Electro Myo-Stimulation, a technique used in sports training and rehabilitation
 * Equine metabolic syndrome, a horse disease

Other science and technology

 * Earthen manure storage, structures for the storage of liquid livestock manure
 * Environmental management system, part of a management system of an organization similar to a quality management system
 * Engine monitoring system, data logging, display and alerting device, a simpler form of an aircraft engine-indicating and crew-alerting system
 * Expected mean squares, in statistics

Other uses

 * Ems (ship), an 1893 British iron sailing ship
 * Express Mail Service, an international express postal service offered by members of the Universal Postal Union
 * Experimental Music Studios, computer music center at the University of Illinois
 * E. M. S. Namboodiripad (1909–1998), Indian communist leader
 * A US Navy hull classification symbol: Expeditionary medical ship (EMS)

title: EMS


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List of aquaria by country

This is a list of aquaria (public aquariums). For dolphinariums, see List of dolphinariums. For zoos, see List of zoos. For a list of defunct zoos and aquariums, see List of former zoos and aquariums.

Aquariums are facilities where animals are confined within tanks and displayed to the public, and in which they may also be bred. Such facilities include public aquariums, oceanariums, marine mammal parks, and dolphinariums.

According to Vancouver Aquarium there are over 200 aquaria worldwide.

Egypt

 * Hurghada Grand Aquarium

Morocco

 * Morocco Mall Aquarium - Casablanca

Namibia

 * National Marine Aquarium of Namibia - Swakopmund

Réunion

 * Kélonia - Saint-Leu, Réunion

South Africa

 * Two Oceans Aquarium - Cape Town
 * UShaka Marine World - Durban

China

 * Beijing Underwater World - Beijing (1998)
 * Changfeng Ocean World (Sea Life Shanghai) - Shanghai (1999)
 * Chimelong Ocean Kingdom - Hengqin, Zhuhai (2014)
 * Cube Aquarium - Chengdu (2015)
 * Hangzhou Polar Ocean Park - Hangzhou (2008)
 * Hefei Oceanarium - Hefei (future)
 * Nanjing Underwater World - Nanjing (1996)
 * Polar Ocean World - Qingdao (2006)
 * Polar World - Dalian (2002)
 * Qingdao Underwater World and Qingdao Aquarium (1932) - Shandong
 * Shanghai Ocean Aquarium - Shanghai (2002)
 * Sun Asia Ocean World - Dalian (1994)

Hong Kong

 * Ocean Park - Nam Long Shan, Hong Kong (1977)

India

 * List of aquaria in India

Indonesia

 * Sea World Ancol - Jakarta
 * Jakarta Aquarium - Jakarta
 * Pangandaran Integrated Aquarium and Marine Research Institute - Pangandaran
 * BX OceaLife - Tangerang

Iran

 * Anzali Aquarium - Gilan Province
 * Isfahan Aquarium - Isfahan Province
 * Kish Aquarium - Kish island
 * Tehran Aquarium - Jajrood, Tehran Province

Israel

 * Coral World Underwater Observatory
 * Israel aquarium

Japan

 * List of aquaria in Japan

Kuwait

 * Kuwait Scientific Center - Salmiyah, Kuwait City

Malaysia

 * Aquaria KLCC - Kuala Lumpur
 * Sea Life Malaysia - Legoland Malaysia Resort
 * The Green Connection - Kota Kinabalu, Sabah
 * Underwater World Langkawi - Cenang Beach, Langkawi Island

Pakistan

 * Clifton Fish Aquarium, Karachi

Philippines

 * Cebu Ocean Park - South Road Properties, Cebu City
 * Mactan Island Aquarium - Maribago, Lapu-Lapu
 * Malabon Zoo and Aquarium - Governor Pascual Street, Potrero, Malabon
 * Manila Ocean Park - Ermita, Manila
 * Ocean Adventure - Subic, Zambales

Saudi Arabia

 * Fakieh Aquarium - Jeddah (2013)

Singapore

 * Marine Life Park - Sentosa
 * River Safari

South Korea

 * Aqua planet aquarium
 * Aqua Planet 63 - Seoul
 * Aqua Planet Ilsan - Goyang
 * Aqua Planet Jeju - Jejudo
 * Aqua Planet Yeosu - Yeosu
 * Busan Aquarium - Busan
 * Alamalu Aquarium - Sacheon-si
 * COEX Aquarium - Seoul
 * Lotte World Aquarium - Seoul
 * Daegu Aquarium - Daegu
 * Daejeon Aquaworld - Daejeon

Sri Lanka

 * Water World - Kelaniya

Taiwan

 * National Museum of Marine Biology and Aquarium - Taiwan
 * Penghu Aquarium - Penghu
 * Yehliu Ocean World - New Taipei City
 * Farglory Ocean Park - Hualien County
 * Taoyuan Aquarium Xpark - Taoyuan, Taiwan

Thailand

 * Aquaria Phuket - Central Phuket, Phuket
 * Bangkok Aquarium - Department of Fisheries, Chatuchak, Bangkok
 * Bueng Boraphet Aquarium - Bueng Boraphet, Mueang Nakhon Sawan, Nakhon Sawan
 * Bueng Chawak Aquarium - Doem Bang Nang Buat, Suphanburi
 * Chaloem Phra Kiat Aquarium (Phichit) - Bueng Si Fai, Mueang Phichit, Phichit
 * Chaloem Phra Kiat Aquarium (Chanthaburi) - Tha Mai, Chanthaburi
 * Chiang Mai Zoo Aquarium - Chiang Mai Zoo, Chiang Mai
 * Institute of Marine Science of Burapha University - Burapha University, Bang Saen, Chonburi
 * Nong Khai Aquarium - Mueang Nong Khai, Nong Khai
 * Pa Sak Jolasid Dam Aquarium - Pa Sak Jolasid Dam, Phatthana Nikhom, Lop Buri
 * Phuket Aquarium - Phuket Zoo, Phuket
 * Rajamangala Trang Aquarium - Rajamangala University of Technology Srivijaya, Trang Campus, Pak Meng, Trang
 * Rayong Aquarium - Mueang Rayong, Rayong
 * Samut Sakhon Aquarium - Mueang Samut Sakhon, Samut Sakhon
 * Sea Life Bangkok Ocean World - Siam Paragon, Pathum Wan (Siam), Bangkok
 * Sisaket Aquarium - Mueang Si Sa Ket, Si Sa Ket
 * Underwater World Pattaya - Pattaya, Chonburi
 * Wang Pla Freshwater Aquarium of Bangsai Arts and Crafts Centre - Bang Sai Arts and Crafts Centre, Bang Sai, Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya

United Arab Emirates

 * Dubai Aquarium and Underwater Zoo - Dubai
 * The Lost Chambers - Dubai
 * Sharjah Aquarium - Sharjah

Vietnam

 * Times City Vinpearl Aquarium
 * Tri Nguyen Aquarium, Nha Trang
 * Tuan Chau Aquarium, Ha Long Bay
 * Vinpearl Underwater World, Nha Trang

Austria

 * Haus des Meeres - Vienna

Belgium

 * Aquatopia - Antwerp
 * Aquarium at the Antwerp Zoo - Antwerp
 * Dubuisson Aquarium - Liège
 * Sea Life Centre - Blankenberge

Bulgaria

 * Varna Aquarium

Croatia

 * Akvarij Crikvenica (Aquarium Crikvenica) - Crikvenica
 * Akvarij Dubrovnik, Instituta za more i priobalje (Dubrovnik Aquarium, Institute for Marine and Coastal Research) - Dubrovnik
 * Slatkovodni akvarij Aquatika Karlovac (Freshwater Aquarium Aquatika Karlovac) - Karlovac
 * Aquarium Pula (Aquarium Pula) - Pula

Cyprus

 * Ocean Aquarium - Famagusta

Czech Republic

 * Mořský svět - Prague
 * Obří akvárium - Hradec Králové
 * Rajské ostrovy - Děčín

Denmark

 * AQUA Akvarium & Dyrepark - Silkeborg
 * Fisheries and Maritime Museum - Esbjerg
 * Fjord & Bælt - Kerteminde
 * Kattegatcentret - Grenå
 * National Aquarium Denmark, Den Blå Planet (formerly Denmark's Aquarium) - Kastrup
 * Nordsøen Oceanarium - Hirtshals
 * Øresundsakvariet - Helsingør

Finland

 * Maretarium - Kotka
 * Sea Life Helsinki, near the Linnanmäki Amusement Park - Helsinki
 * Särkänniemi Aquarium - Tampere

France

 * See also, and

 * Aquarium de La Rochelle - La Rochelle (2001)
 * Aquarium de Paris - Cinéaqua - Paris (opened in 1867 as "Aquarium du Trocadéro", closed in 1985, re-opened as "Cinéaqua" in 2006)
 * Grand Aquarium de Touraine - between Amboise and Tours, on the southern bank of the river Loire
 * Aquarium de Lyon - Lyon
 * Aquarium du Musée de Zoologie - Nancy (1970)
 * Aquarium Mare Nostrum Montpellier - Montpellier (2007)
 * L'Aquashow - Audierne (2000)
 * Centre de la Mer et des Eaux (closed 2010) - Paris
 * Citadel of Besançon - Besançon
 * Dorée Tropical Aquarium (Aquarium tropical de la Porte Dorée) - in Palais de la Porte Dorée, Paris (1931)
 * La Cité de la mer - Cherbourg (2002)
 * Great Aquarium Saint-Malo (1996)
 * Le Musée de la mer - Biarritz (1933)
 * Nausicaä Centre National de la Mer (French National Sea Experience Centre) - Boulogne-sur-Mer (1991)
 * Océanopolis - Brest (1990)
 * Océarium - Le Croisic (1992)
 * Sea Life Centre Paris - Marne la Vallée (2001)
 * Seaquarium Le Grau du Roi - Petite Camargue (1989)

Germany

 * Aquarium Berlin at the Berlin Zoological Garden - Berlin
 * Aquazoo Löbbecke Museum - Düsseldorf
 * Ozeaneum - Stralsund
 * Sea Life Centre Berlin - Berlin
 * Sea Life Centre Dresden - Dresden
 * Sea Life Centre Hanover - Hanover
 * Sea Life Centre Königswinter - Königswinter
 * Sea Life Centre Konstanz - Konstanz
 * Sea Life Centre Munich - Munich
 * Sea Life Centre Nürnberg - Nürnberg
 * Sea Life Centre Oberhausen - Oberhausen
 * Sea Life Centre Speyer - Speyer
 * Sea Life Centre Timmendorfer Strand - Timmendorfer Strand
 * Tropen-Aquarium Hagenbeck at the Tierpark Hagenbeck - Hamburg

Greece

 * Aquaworld Aquarium - Hersonissos, Crete
 * Cretaquarium - Crete
 * Aquarium of Rhodes (hydrological station rhodes)

Hungary

 * Tropicarium - Óceanárium - Budapest

Ireland

 * List of zoos and aquariums in Ireland

Italy

 * Alghero Aquarium - Alghero
 * Acquario di Cala Gonone - Cala Gonone
 * Aquarium of Cattolica, Cattolica
 * Aquarium of Genoa - Genoa
 * Aquarium of Leghorn - Leghorn
 * Civic Aquarium of Milan - Milan
 * Sea Life Gardaland, Gardaland, Lake Garda
 * Stazione Zoologica di Napoli - Naples

Lithuania

 * Lithuanian Sea Museum, Klaipėda

Luxembourg

 * Wasserbillig Aquarium - Wasserbillig

Malta

 * Malta National Aquarium - Malta

Monaco

 * Oceanographic Museum and Aquarium - Monaco-Ville

The Netherlands

 * Aqua Zoo Friesland - Leeuwarden
 * Burgers Zoo - Arnhem
 * Diergaarde Blijdorp (Oceanium) - Rotterdam
 * Dolfinarium Harderwijk - Harderwijk
 * Sea Life Centre - Scheveningen

Norway

 * Atlanterhavsparken - Ålesund
 * Bergen Aquarium - Bergen
 * Polaria - Tromsø
 * Risør Aquarium - Risør

Poland

 * Aquarium and Natural History Museum in Kraków - Kraków
 * Aquarium in Kraków Zoo - Kraków
 * Aquarium in Łódź - Łódź
 * Aquarium in Warsaw Zoo - Warsaw
 * Aquarium in Wroclaw Zoo - Wrocław
 * Gdynia Aquarium - Gdynia
 * Seal Sanctuary in Hel - Hel

Portugal

 * Aquário Vasco da Gama - Algés
 * Mora Freshwater Aquarium/Fluviário de Mora - Mora, Portugal, Alentejo (100 km east of Lisbon), opened 2007
 * Lisbon Oceanarium - Lisbon
 * Sea Life Porto - Porto

Romania

 * Constanța Aquarium - Constanţa (1958)
 * Acvariu Zoo Timișoara - Timișoara
 * Danube Delta's Aquarium - Tulcea

Russia

 * Akuliy Rif - Eisk (2007)
 * Gelendzhik Oceanarium - Gelendzhik (2007)
 * Moscow Oceanarium - Moscow (2015)
 * Murmansk Oceanarium (ru) - Murmansk (1991)
 * Oceanarium in Saint Petersburg (ru) - Saint Petersburg (2006)
 * Primorsky Oceanarium (ru) - Vladivostok (2016)
 * Sochi Discovery World (ru) - Sochi (2009)
 * Vladivostok Oceanarium (ru) - Vladivostok (1991)
 * Voronezh Oceanarium (ru) - Voronezh (2011)

Slovenia

 * Akvarij - terarij Maribor - Maribor
 * Akvarij Piran - Piran

Spain

 * Aquarium Barcelona - Barcelona
 * Aquarium Donostia-San Sebastián - San Sebastián
 * Aquarium Finisterrae - A Coruña
 * Aquarium Gijón - Gijón
 * Aquarium Poema del Mar - Las Palmas
 * Aquarium Seville - Seville
 * Aquopolis La Pineda
 * Barcelona Zoo - Barcelona
 * Cosmocaixa- Barcelona
 * L'Oceanogràfic at the Ciutat de les Arts i les Ciències - Valencia
 * Palma Aquarium - Palma de Mallorca
 * River Aquarium - Zaragoza
 * Sea Life Benalmádena - Benalmádena, Málaga
 * Zoo Aquarium de Madrid - Madrid

Sweden

 * Skansen Aquarium - Stockholm
 * Universeum - Gothenburg
 * Havets Hus - Lysekil
 * Tropicarium Kolmården - Kolmården Wildlife Park
 * Malmö Museum Aquarium - Malmö

Turkey

 * Antalya Aquarium - Antalya
 * Sea World (Deniz Dünyası) - Ankara
 * Aqua Vega - Ankara
 * Eti Underwater World (Eti Sualtı Dünyası) - Eskişehir
 * İstanbul Aquarium - Istanbul
 * Sea Life İstanbul (formerly TurkuaZoo) - Istanbul
 * ViaSea Aquarium - Istanbul
 * Emaar Aquarium & Underwater Zoo - Istanbul
 * Aqua Diyarbakır - Diyarbakır
 * Funtastic Aquarium İzmir - İzmir

Ukraine

 * Kyiv's Oceanarium Morskaya Skazka - Kyiv
 * Nemo Public Aquarium - Odesa, Kharkiv, Donetsk

United Kingdom

 * List of zoological gardens and aquariums in United Kingdom

The Bahamas

 * The Dig at Atlantis Paradise Island - Atlantis Paradise Island, Nassau

Bermuda

 * Bermuda Aquarium, Museum and Zoo

Canada

 * List of aquaria in Canada

Cuba

 * Baconao Park
 * Freshwater Public Aquarium, Havana

French Antilles

 * Aquarium de la Guadeloupe - Gosier, Guadeloupe

Mexico

 * Acuario Inbursa - Mexico City
 * Acuario Mazatlán - Mazatlán
 * Acuario Michín - Puebla City
 * Acuario Michin Guadalajara - Guadalajara
 * Acuario de Veracruz - Veracruz
 * Acuario del Zoológico de Guadalajara - Guadalajara

United States

 * List of aquaria in the United States

Australia

 * List of aquaria in Australia

Guam

 * Underwater World - Tumon

New Caledonia

 * Aquarium des Lagons - Nouméa

New Zealand

 * Kelly Tarlton's Sea Life Aquarium - Auckland
 * Marineland - Napier
 * National Aquarium of New Zealand - Napier
 * Southern Encounter Aquarium and Kiwi House - Christchurch

Palau

 * Palau International Coral Reef Center - Koror

Argentina

 * Mar del Plata Aquarium
 * Mundo Marino

Brazil

 * Oceanic Aquarium
 * Acqua Mundo
 * Aquário de São Paulo
 * Aquario de Ubatuba
 * Aquário Municipal de Santos
 * Aquário de Natal
 * Aquário da Paraíba
 * Oceanário de Aracajú
 * Aquário de Bonito
 * Aquário de Justino Malheiros
 * Aquário de Aparecida do Norte
 * Aquário de Guarapari
 * Aquário de Peruíbe
 * Aquário do Rio São Francisco
 * Aquário do Zoo de Baurú
 * Aquário do Zoo do Rio de Janeiro
 * Aquário Municipal de Campinas
 * Aquário Municipal de Iacanga
 * Aquário Municipal de Piracicaba
 * Mundo das Águas
 * AquaRio
 * Aquario Marinho de Paranaguá
 * Aquário Municipal de Rômulo Martinelli

Colombia

 * Rodadero Sea Aquarium and Museum

Venezuela

 * Valencia's Aquarium (Acuario de Valencia)

title: List of aquaria by country


text:
Huntsman spider

Huntsman spiders, members of the family Sparassidae (formerly Heteropodidae), are known by this name because of their speed and mode of hunting. They are also called giant crab spiders because of their size and appearance. Larger species sometimes are referred to as wood spiders, because of their preference for woody places (forests, mine shafts, woodpiles, wooden shacks). In southern Africa the genus Palystes are known as rain spiders or lizard-eating spiders. Commonly, they are confused with baboon spiders from the Mygalomorphae infraorder, which are not closely related.

More than a thousand Sparassidae species occur in most warm temperate to tropical regions of the world, including much of Australia, Africa, Asia, the Mediterranean Basin, and the Americas.

Several species of huntsman spider can use an unusual form of locomotion. The wheel spider (Carparachne aureoflava) from the Namib uses a cartwheeling motion which gives it its name, while Cebrennus rechenbergi uses a handspring motion.

Description
Sparassids are eight-eyed spiders. The eyes appear in two largely forward-facing rows of four on the anterior aspect of the prosoma. Many species grow very large – in Laos, male giant huntsman spiders (Heteropoda maxima) attain a legspan of 25–30 cm. People unfamiliar with spider taxonomy commonly confuse large species with tarantulas, but huntsman spiders can generally be identified by their legs, which, rather than being jointed vertically relative to the body, are twisted in such a way that in some attitudes the legs extend forward in a crab-like fashion. It is also commonly confused for a brown recluse spider, due to their shared coloring. However, brown recluse venom is significantly dangerous to humans, while that of the huntsman spider is less so.

On their upper surfaces the main colours of huntsman spiders are inconspicuous shades of brown or grey, but many species have undersides more or less aposematically marked in black-and-white. Their legs bear fairly prominent spines, but the rest of their bodies are smoothly furry. They tend to live under rocks, bark and similar shelters, but human encounters are common in sheds, garages and other infrequently-disturbed places. The banded huntsman (Holconia) is large, grey to brown with striped bands on its legs. The badge huntsman (Neosparassus) is larger still, brown and hairy. The tropical or brown huntsman (Heteropoda) is also large and hairy, with mottled brown, white and black markings. The eyesight of these spiders is not as good as that of the Salticidae (jumping spiders). Nevertheless, their vision is quite sufficient to detect approaching humans or other large animals from some distance.

Identification
They can be distinguished from other spider families by their appearance, as other spiders similar to them are smaller in size. They are often confused for tarantulas due to their hairy nature, but can easily be distinguished by their laterigrade legs, similar to those of crabs. Members of this family are also typically less bulky than tarantulas. They possess two claws, as is the case for most spiders that actively hunt their prey. If this is not enough to fully identify them, they also possess eight eyes divided into two regular rows.

Size, venom, and aggression
On average, a huntsman spider's leg-span can reach up to 15 cm, while their bodies measure about 1.8 cm long. Like most spiders, Sparassidae use venom to immobilize prey.

There have been reports of members of various genera such as Palystes, Neosparassus and several others inflicting severe bites on humans. The effects vary, including local swelling and pain, nausea, headache, vomiting, irregular pulse rate, and heart palpitations, indicating some systemic neurological toxin effects, especially when the bites were severe or repeated. However, the formal study of spider bites is fraught with complications, including unpredictable infections, dry bites, shock, nocebo effects, and even bite misdiagnosis by medical professionals and specimen misidentification by the general public.

It is not always clear what provokes Sparassidae to attack and bite humans and animals, but it is known that female members of this family will aggressively defend their egg-sacs and young against perceived threats. Bites from sparassids usually do not require hospital treatment.

Sound production in mating rituals
Males of the huntsman spider Heteropoda venatoria have recently been found to deliberately make a substrate-borne sound when they detect a chemical (pheromone) left by a nearby female of their species. The males anchor themselves firmly to the surface onto which they have crawled and then use their legs to transmit vibrations from their bodies to the surface. Most of the sound emitted is produced by strong vibrations of the abdomen. The characteristic frequency of vibration and the pattern of bursts of sound identify them to females of their species, who will approach if they are interested in mating. This sound can often be heard as a rhythmic ticking, somewhat like a quartz clock, which fades in and out and can be heard by human ears in a relatively quiet environment.

Genera

, the World Spider Catalog accepted the following genera:

 * Adcatomus Karsch, 1880 — Venezuela, Peru
 * Anaptomecus Simon, 1903 — Central America, South America
 * Anchonastus Simon, 1898 — Cameroon, Congo
 * Arandisa Lawrence, 1938 — Namibia
 * Barylestis Simon, 1910 — Africa, Asia, Europe
 * Beregama Hirst, 1990 — Australia, Papua New Guinea
 * Berlandia Lessert, 1921 — East Africa
 * Bhutaniella Jäger, 2000 — Asia
 * Borniella Grall & Jäger, 2022 — Borneo
 * Caayguara Rheims, 2010 — Brazil
 * Carparachne Lawrence, 1962 — Namibia
 * Cebrennus Simon, 1880 — Africa, Asia, Malta
 * Cerbalus Simon, 1897 — Israel, Jordan, Egypt
 * Chrosioderma Simon, 1897 — Madagascar
 * Clastes Walckenaer, 1837 — Indonesia, Papua New Guinea
 * Curicaberis Rheims, 2015 — North America, Central America, Brazil
 * Damastes Simon, 1880 — Madagascar, Mozambique, Seychelles
 * Decaphora Franganillo, 1931 — North America, Caribbean, Central America, Colombia
 * Deelemanikara Jäger, 2021 — Madagascar
 * Defectrix Petrunkevitch, 1925 — Panama
 * Delena Walckenaer, 1837 — Australia, New Zealand
 * Dermochrosia Mello-Leitão, 1940 — Brazil
 * Diminutella Rheims & Alayón, 2018 — Cuba
 * Eusparassus Simon, 1903 — Asia, Africa, Europe, Peru
 * Exopalystes Hogg, 1914 — Papua New Guinea
 * Extraordinarius Rheims, 2019 — Brazil
 * Geminia Thorell, 1897 — Myanmar
 * Gnathopalystes Rainbow, 1899 — Asia, Oceania
 * Guadana Rheims, 2010 — Brazil, Peru, Ecuador
 * Heteropoda Latreille, 1804 — Oceania, Asia, South America, Greece
 * Holconia Thorell, 1877 — Australia
 * Irileka Hirst, 1998 — Australia
 * Isopeda L. Koch, 1875 — Australia, Philippines, Papua New Guinea
 * Isopedella Hirst, 1990 — Australia, Papua New Guinea, Indonesia
 * Keilira Hirst, 1989 — Australia
 * Leucorchestris Lawrence, 1962 — Angola, Namibia
 * Macrinus Simon, 1887 — South America, Tobago, United States
 * Martensopoda Jäger, 2006 — India
 * May Jäger & Krehenwinkel, 2015 — Namibia, South Africa
 * Megaloremmius Simon, 1903 — Madagascar
 * Menarik Grall & Jäger, 2022 — Borneo
 * Meri Rheims & Jäger, 2022 — South America
 * Micrommata Latreille, 1804 — Spain, Africa, Asia
 * Micropoda Grall & Jäger, 2022 — Papua New Guinea
 * Microrchestris Lawrence, 1962 — Namibia
 * Neosparassus Hogg, 1903 — Australia
 * Neostasina Rheims & Alayón, 2016 — Caribbean
 * Nolavia Kammerer, 2006 — Brazil
 * Nungara Pinto & Rheims, 2016 — Brazil, Ecuador
 * Olios Walckenaer, 1837 — Asia, South America, Oceania, Africa, Central America, North America, Caribbean
 * Orchestrella Lawrence, 1965 — Namibia
 * Origes Simon, 1897 — Argentina, Peru, Ecuador
 * Paenula Simon, 1897 — Ecuador
 * Palystella Lawrence, 1928 — Namibia
 * Palystes L. Koch, 1875 — Africa, India, Australia
 * Panaretella Lawrence, 1937 — South Africa
 * Pandercetes L. Koch, 1875 — Asia, Oceania
 * Parapalystes Croeser, 1996 — South Africa
 * Pediana Simon, 1880 — Indonesia, Australia
 * Platnickopoda Jäger, 2020 — East Africa
 * Pleorotus Simon, 1898 — Seychelles
 * Polybetes Simon, 1897 — South America
 * Prusias O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1892 — Brazil, Mexico, Panama
 * Prychia L. Koch, 1875 — Papua New Guinea, Fiji, Philippines
 * Pseudomicrommata Järvi, 1914 — Africa
 * Pseudopoda Jäger, 2000 — Asia
 * Quemedice Mello-Leitão, 1942 — Brazil, Argentina
 * Remmius Simon, 1897 — Africa
 * Rhacocnemis Simon, 1897 — Seychelles
 * Rhitymna Simon, 1897 — Asia, Africa
 * Sadala Simon, 1880 — South America
 * Sagellula Strand, 1942 — Japan, China
 * Sarotesius Pocock, 1898 — East Africa
 * Sinopoda Jäger, 1999 — Asia
 * Sivalicus Dyal, 1957 — India
 * Sparianthina Banks, 1929 — South America, Tobago, Central America
 * Sparianthis Simon, 1880 — Colombia
 * Spariolenus Simon, 1880 — Asia
 * Staianus Simon, 1889 — Madagascar
 * Stasina Simon, 1877 — South America, Gabon, Asia, Cuba
 * Stasinoides Berland, 1922 — Ethiopia
 * Stipax Simon, 1898 — Seychelles
 * Strandiellum Kolosváry, 1934 — Papua New Guinea
 * Thelcticopis Karsch, 1884 — Asia, Oceania, Africa
 * Thomasettia Hirst, 1911 — Seychelles
 * Thunberga Jäger, 2020 — Madagascar
 * Tibellomma Simon, 1903 — Venezuela
 * Tiomaniella Grall & Jäger, 2022 — Malaysia
 * Tychicus Simon, 1880 — Philippines, Papua New Guinea, Indonesia
 * Typostola Simon, 1897 — Australia, Papua New Guinea
 * Uaiuara Rheims, 2013 — Panama, South America
 * Vindullus Simon, 1880 — South America, Guatemala
 * Yiinthi Davies, 1994 — Australia, Papua New Guinea
 * Zachria L. Koch, 1875 — Australia

Distribution and habitat
Members of the Sparassidae are native to tropical and warm temperate regions worldwide. A few species are native to colder climates, like the green huntsman spider (Micrommata virescens) which is native to Northern and Central Europe. Some tropical species like Heteropoda venatoria (Cane huntsman) and Delena cancerides (Social huntsman) have been accidentally introduced to many subtropical parts of the world, including New Zealand (which has no native sparassid species).

As adults, huntsman spiders do not build webs, but hunt and forage for food: their diet consists primarily of insects and other invertebrates, and occasionally small skinks and geckos. They live in the crevices of tree bark, but will frequently wander into homes and vehicles. They are able to travel extremely quickly, often using a springing jump while running, and walk on walls and even on ceilings. They also tend to exhibit a "cling" reflex if picked up, making them difficult to shake off and much more likely to bite. The females are fierce defenders of their egg sacs and young. They will generally make a threat display if provoked, and if the warning is ignored they may attack and bite. The egg sacs differ fairly widely among the various genera. For example, in Heteropoda spp. egg sacs are carried underneath the female's body, while in other species like Palystes and Pseudomicrommata spp., females generally attach egg sacs to vegetation.

title: Huntsman spider