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George Kuchar

George Kuchar (August 31, 1942 – September 6, 2011) was an American underground film director and video artist, known for his "low-fi" aesthetic.

Early life and career
Kuchar trained as a commercial artist at the School of Industrial Art, now known as the High School of Art and Design, a vocational school in New York City. He graduated in 1960 and drew weather maps for a local news show. During this period, he and his twin brother Mike Kuchar were making 8mm movies, which were showcased in the then-burgeoning underground film scene alongside films by Andy Warhol, Kenneth Anger, and Stan Brakhage. Ken Jacobs brought attention of their work to Jonas Mekas, who championed their work in the Village Voice and elsewhere.

After being laid off from a commercial art job in New York City, Kuchar was offered a teaching job in the film department of the San Francisco Art Institute, where he taught from 1971 until early 2011.

In San Francisco, Kuchar became involved with underground comics via his neighbors Art Spiegelman and Bill Griffith. They both wound up in his movies and George wound up in their publications.

Films
George Kuchar directed over 200 films and videos (including over 15 with his twin brother Mike), many of them short films by students in his courses at the San Francisco Art Institute. In the Critics' Poll of the 100 best films of the 20th century, appearing originally in The Village Voice (4 January 2000), Hold Me While I'm Naked was ranked 52nd.

I, An Actress, a 1977 film featuring a screen test of student actress Barbera Lapsley, was selected by the National Film Registry in 2011.

His film work influenced the No Wave Cinema movement during the late 70s-early 80s.

Video diaries
After leaving New York City for San Francisco, Kuchar prolifically produced video diaries, the true quantity of which remains unknown. Varying in duration from five to ninety minutes, Kuchar's video diaries inflect his everyday life with familiar themes of Kuchar's oeuvre such as appetite, voluptuousness, the hilarity of bathos, campy appropriation, flatulence, the weather, urination, friendship, love, and the artificiality of cinema itself. The most well known of Kuchar's video diaries are his Weather Diary Series that chronicle Kuchar's annual pilgrimages to El Reno, Oklahoma, to observe tornadoes. In response to changes in media technology, Kuchar's video diaries increasingly applied the tactics of camp appropriation to the stuff of the digital age. Kuchar's later video diaries made use of consumer grade digital effects to generate something like postmodern psychedelia. His entire output of video work is archived at the Video Data Bank. Electronic Arts Intermix has a selection of titles.

Kuchar's video work has clearly influenced the contemporary queer performance/video artists Ryan Trecartin and Felix Bernstein.

Painting
Kuchar's paintings often reflect the same themes as his film and video works while also sharing their fauvist-like color scheme. According to Eileen Myles, Kuchar was used to working in boxes and found that painting and video didn't feel all that different. Kuchar's paintings were exhibited intermittently throughout his career, most recently at the Casey Kaplan Gallery in Manhattan and in 2012 at MoMA PS1 as a part of Kuchar's posthumous retrospective: Pagan Rhapsodies.

Portrait George and Mike Kuchar (1977) by Rosa von Praunheim.

It Came from Kuchar, a documentary film of the life of George and Mike Kuchar by Jennifer Kroot, premiered at the South by Southwest film festival on 14 March 2009.

In 1997, the Kuchar brothers collaborated on a book Reflections from a Cinematic Cesspool, a memoir discussing four decades of filmmaking with an introduction by director John Waters.

Death
George Kuchar died on 6 September 2011 in San Francisco, just past his 69th birthday on August 31, of complications related to prostate cancer. He was remembered by The New York Times as "a filmmaker whose campy yet ardent low-budget movies inspired underground directors like John Waters and David Lynch in the 1960s, and helped kindle the do-it-yourself moviemaking aesthetic now ubiquitous on YouTube."

Filmography

 * The Wet Destruction of the Atlantic Empire (1954)
 * Screwball (1957)
 * The Naked and the Nude (1957)
 * The Slasher (1958)
 * The Thief and the Stripper (1959)
 * A Tub Named Desire (1960)
 * I Was a Teenage Rumpot (1960)
 * Pussy on a Hot Tin Roof (1961)
 * Born of the Wind (1961)
 * A Woman Distressed (1962)
 * A Town Called Tempest (1962)
 * Night of the Bomb (1962)
 * Lust for Ectsasy (1963)
 * The Confessions of Babette (1963)
 * Tootsies in Autumn (1963)
 * Anita Needs Me (1963)
 * The Lovers of Eternity (1963)
 * Corruption of the Damned (1965)
 * Hold Me While I'm Naked (1966)
 * Leisure (1966)
 * Mosholu Holiday (1966)
 * Color Me Shameless (1967)
 * Eclipse of the Sun Virgin (1967)
 * The Lady from Sands Point (1967)
 * Knocturne (1968)
 * Unstrap Me (1968)
 * House of the White People (1968)
 * Encyclopedia of the Blessed (1968)
 * The Mammal Palace (1969)
 * Pagan Rhapsody (1970)
 * Portrait of Ramona (1971)
 * The Sunshine Sisters (1972)
 * The Devil's Cleavage (1973)
 * Thundercrack! (1975) (screenplay)
 * Back To Nature (1976)
 * A Reason to Live (1976)
 * La Casa De Chorizo (1977)
 * KY Kapers (1977)
 * Wild Night in El Reno (1977)
 * Forever and Always (1978)
 * Mongreloid (1978)
 * Blips (1979)
 * Aqueerius (1980)
 * The Nocturnal Immaculation (1980)
 * Yolando (1980)
 * Cattle Mutilations (1983)
 * Mom (1983)
 * Untitled Musical (1984)
 * The X-People (1984)
 * ''Ascension of the Demonoids (1985)

Produced at the San Francisco Art Institute:
 * Destination Damnation (1972)
 * Carnal Bipeds (1973)
 * I Married a Heathen (1974)
 * The Desperate and the Deep (1975)
 * I, an Actress (1977)
 * The Asphalt Ribbon (1977)
 * One Night a Week (1978)
 * Prescrition [sic] in Blue (1978)
 * The Power of the Press (1979)
 * Remember Tomorrow (1979)
 * Symphony for a Sinner (1979)
 * How to Chose [sic] a Wife (1980)
 * The Woman and the Dress (1980)
 * Ochokpug (1980)
 * Boulevard Kishka (1981)
 * The Oneers (1982)
 * Ms. Hyde (1983)
 * Club Vatican (1984)
 * The Legend of Thelma White (1985)
 * Motel Capri (1986)
 * La Noche D'Amour (1986)
 * PRC Musical (1986)
 * Insanitorium (1987)
 * Summer of No Return (1988)
 * La Verbotene Voyage (1989)
 * A Fatal Desire (2004)
 * The Crypt of Frankenstein (2008)
 * Orphans of the Cosmos (2008)
 * Zombies of Zanzibar (2010)
 * Lingo of the Lost (2010)

Videography

 * Studio 8 (1985)
 * Video Album (1985)
 * Weather Diary 1 (1986)
 * Greetings from Boulder (1986)
 * Video Album 2 (1986)
 * Last Hello (1986)
 * Video Album 3 (1986)
 * Rainy Season (1987)
 * Weather Diary 2 (1987)
 * Caged Culture (1987)
 * Creeping Crimson (1987)
 * Cult of the Cubicles (1987)
 * Muffled Darkness (1987)
 * Video Album 5: The Thursday People (1987)
 * We, the Normal (1987)
 * Xmas 1987 New Years (1987)
 * Calling Dr. Petrov (1987)
 * East By Southwest (1987)
 * The Desert Within (1987)
 * 1980 Seven (1987)
 * Weather Diary 3 (1988)
 * Weather Diary 4 (1988)
 * The Celluloids (1988)
 * L.A. Screening Workshop (1988)
 * Low Light Life (1988)
 * Mecca of the Frigid (1988)
 * Precious Products (1988)
 * Return to the House of Pain (1988)
 * Evangelust (1988)
 * The Hurt that Fades (1988)
 * Motivation of the Carcasoids (1988)
 * Terror By Twilight (1988)
 * Orbits of Fear (1988)
 * Fill Thy Crack with Whiteness (1989)
 * Migration of the Blubberoids (1989)
 * Precious Products (1989)
 * Weather Diary 5 (1989)
 * The Deafening Goo (1989)
 * Love Me True (1989)
 * Hefner's Heifers (1989)
 * Say Yes to No (1989)
 * 500 Millibars to Ecstasy (1989)
 * Chili Line Stops Here (1989)
 * The Plucking of the Succulents (1989)
 * Point 'n Shoot (1989)
 * Pictures at an Exhibitionist's (1989)
 * Vile Cargo (1989)
 * The Web of Dr. Satan (1989)
 * Wet Dreams (1989)
 * Secrets of the Shadow World (1988-1989)
 * Letter from New York (1990)
 * Weather Diary 6 (1990)
 * Kiss of the Veggie Vixen (1990)
 * Rocky Interlude (1990)
 * Edible Atrocities (1990)
 * Snap 'n Snatch (1990)
 * Curse of the Kurva (1990)
 * Munchkins of the Melody Manor (1990)
 * Passage to Wetness (1990)
 * Saga of Magda (1990)
 * Tempest in a Tea Room (1990)
 * The Warming of the Hell House (1990)
 * Winter Hostilities (1991)
 * Gastronomic Getaway (1991)
 * Snake Goddess (1991)
 * Foto Spread (1991)
 * The Fall of the House of Yasmin (1991)
 * Artists in Residence (1991)
 * Scarlet Droppings (1991)
 * Weather Watch (1991)
 * Indian Summer (1991)
 * Come Forth, Julyowa (1991)
 * The Holiday Xmas Video of 1991 (1991)
 * The Redhead from Riverside Terrace (1991)
 * Going Nowhere (1992)
 * Interior Vacuum (1992)
 * Sherman Acres (1992)
 * George Kuchar Goes to Work with Today's Youth (1992)
 * Big Ones Hurt (1992)
 * Pilgrimage (1992)
 * Chat 'n 'Chew (1992)
 * Demonatrix of Kebrine Castle (1992)
 * Impaction of the Igneous (1992)
 * Indigo Blues (1992)
 * Award (1992)
 * Ann Arbor (1992)
 * The Shame of Lela La Suere (1992)
 *  Video Wallpaper Series (1992)
 * Graffiti Junction (1993)
 * The Tower of the Astro-Cyclops (1994)
 * Andy's House of Gary (1993)
 * ID Came from Inner Space (1993)
 * Dial A Kvetch (1993)
 * Bayou of the Blue Behemoth (1993)
 * Glacier Park Video Views (1993)
 * Melody for Maria (1993)
 * Story of Ruthy (1993)
 * Sunbelt Serenade, Part 1: Oklahoma (1993)
 * Sunbelt Serenade, Part 2: Los Angeles (1993)
 * Isleton (1992)
 * Trinity (1993)
 * Kitchenetiquette (1993)
 * The Tower of the Astro-Cyclops (1994)
 * Sunbelt Serenade, Part 3: Arizona (1994)
 * The Gifted Goon (1994)
 * Going Hollywood (1994)
 * Cellar Sinema (1994)
 * Dingleberry Jingles (1994)
 * Jungle Jezebel (1994)
 * Sins of Bunny Luv (1994)
 * Baldies of Burgermeister Bungalow (1994)
 * The Cage of Nicholas (1994)
 * Chow Down on Cheney Street (1994)
 * Felines of Castle Frauline (1994)
 * Rancho Roulette (1994)
 * Holidaze, 1994 (1994)
 * Route 666 (1994)
 * Tales of the Twilight Typist (1994)
 * Urchins of Ungawa (1994)
 * Nirvana of the Nebbishites (1994)
 * Woman of the 90's (1995)
 * Portraiture in Black (1995)
 * The Confessions of Nina Noir (1995)
 * Society Slut (1995)
 * The Unclean (1995)
 * Slippage in the Garden of Udon (1995)
 * Omewenne (1995)
 * Cocktail Crooners (1997)
 * Curmudgeon on the Campus (1997)
 * Oasis of the Pharaohs (1997)
 * The Exiled Files of Eddie Gray (1997)
 * The Inmate (1997)
 * Chigger Country (1999)
 * Culinary Linkage (1999)
 * Trilogy of the Titans (1999)

title: George Kuchar


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Transcendental extension

In mathematics, a transcendental extension $$L/K$$ is a field extension such that there exists an element in the field $$L$$ that is transcendental over the field $$K$$; that is, an element that is not a root of any univariate polynomial with coefficients in $$K$$. In other words, a transcendental extension is a field extension that is not algebraic. For example, $$\mathbb{C}$$ and $$\mathbb{R}$$ are both transcendental extensions of $$\mathbb{Q}.$$

A transcendence basis of a field extension $$L/K$$ (or a transcendence basis of $$L$$ over $$K$$) is a maximal algebraically independent subset of $$L$$ over $$K.$$ Transcendence bases share many properties with bases of vector spaces. In particular, all transcendence bases of a field extension have the same cardinality, called the transcendence degree of the extension. Thus, a field extension is a transcendental extension if and only if its transcendence degree is nonzero.

Transcendental extensions are widely used in algebraic geometry. For example, the dimension of an algebraic variety is the transcendence degree of its function field. Also, global function fields are transcendental extensions of degree one of a finite field, and play in number theory in positive characteristic a role that is very similar to the role of algebraic number fields in characteristic zero.

Transcendence basis
Zorn's lemma shows there exists a maximal linearly independent subset of a vector space (i.e., a basis). A similar argument with Zorn's lemma shows that, given a field extension L / K, there exists a maximal algebraically independent subset of L over K. It is then called a transcendence basis. By maximality, an algebraically independent subset S of L over K is a transcendence basis if and only if L is an algebraic extension of K(S), the field obtained by adjoining the elements of S to K.

The exchange lemma (a version for algebraically independent sets ) implies that if S and S '  are transcendence bases, then S and S '  have the same cardinality. Then the common cardinality of transcendence bases is called the transcendence degree of L over K and is denoted as $$\operatorname{tr.deg.}_K L$$ or $$\operatorname{tr.deg.}(L/K)$$. There is thus an analogy: a transcendence basis and transcendence degree, on the one hand, and a basis and dimension on the other hand. This analogy can be made more formal, by observing that linear independence in vector spaces and algebraic independence in field extensions both form examples of finitary matroids (pregeometries). Any finitary matroid has a basis, and all bases have the same cardinality.

If G is a generating set of L (i.e., L = K(G)), then a transcendence basis for L can be taken as a subset of G. In particular, $$\operatorname{tr.deg.}_K L \le $$ the minimum cardinality of generating sets of L over K. In particular, a finitely generated field extension admits a finite transcendence basis.

If no field K is specified, the transcendence degree of a field L is its degree relative to some fixed base field; for example, the prime field of the same characteristic, or K, if L is an algebraic function field over K.

The field extension L / K is purely transcendental if there is a subset S of L that is algebraically independent over K and such that L = K(S).

A separating transcendence basis of L / K is a transcendence basis S such that L is a separable algebraic extension over K(S). A field extension L / K is said to be separably generated if it admits a separating transcendence basis. If a field extension is finitely generated and it is also separably generated, then each generating set of the field extension contains a separating transcendence basis. Over a perfect field, every finitely generated field extension is separably generated; i.e., it admits a finite separating transcendence basis.

Examples

 * An extension is algebraic if and only if its transcendence degree is 0; the empty set serves as a transcendence basis here.
 * The field of rational functions in n variables K(x1,...,xn) (i.e. the field of fractions of the polynomial ring K[x1,...,xn]) is a purely transcendental extension with transcendence degree n over K; we can for example take {x1,...,xn} as a transcendence base.
 * More generally, the transcendence degree of the function field L of an n-dimensional algebraic variety over a ground field K is n.
 * Q(√2, e) has transcendence degree 1 over Q because √2 is algebraic while e is transcendental.
 * The transcendence degree of C or R over Q is the cardinality of the continuum. (Since Q is countable, the field Q(S) will have the same cardinality as S for any infinite set S, and any algebraic extension of Q(S) will have the same cardinality again.)
 * The transcendence degree of Q(e, π) over Q is either 1 or 2; the precise answer is unknown because it is not known whether e and π are algebraically independent.
 * If S is a compact Riemann surface, the field C(S) of meromorphic functions on S has transcendence degree 1 over C.

Facts
If M / L and L / K are field extensions, then

 * trdeg(M / K) = trdeg(M / L) + trdeg(L / K)

This is proven by showing that a transcendence basis of M / K can be obtained by taking the union of a transcendence basis of M / L and one of L / K.

If the set S is algebraically independent over K, then the field K(S) is isomorphic to the field of rational functions over K in a set of variables of the same cardinality as S. Each such rational function is a fraction of two polynomials in finitely many of those variables, with coefficients in K.

Two algebraically closed fields are isomorphic if and only if they have the same characteristic and the same transcendence degree over their prime field.

The transcendence degree of an integral domain
Let $$A \subseteq B$$ be integral domains. If $$Q(A)$$ and $$Q(B)$$ denote the fields of fractions of $A$ and $B$, then the transcendence degree of $B$ over $A$ is defined as the transcendence degree of the field extension $$Q(B)/Q(A).$$

The Noether normalization lemma implies that if $R$ is an integral domain that is a finitely generated algebra over a field $k$, then the Krull dimension of $R$ is the transcendence degree of $R$ over $k$.

This has the following geometric interpretation: if $X$ is an affine algebraic variety over a field $k$, the Krull dimension of its coordinate ring equals the transcendence degree of its function field, and this defines the dimension of $X$. It follows that, if $X$ is not an affine variety, its dimension (defined as the transcendence degree of its function field) can also be defined locally as the Krull dimension of the coordinate ring of the restriction of the variety to an open affine subset.

Relations to differentials
Let $$K/k$$ be a finitely generated field extension. Then
 * $$\dim_k \Omega_{K/k} \ge \operatorname{trdeg}(k/ K).$$

where $$\Omega_{K/k}$$ denotes the module of Kahler differentials. Also, in the above, the equality holds if and only if K is separably generated over k (meaning it admits a separating transcendence basis).

Applications
Transcendence bases are useful for proving various existence statements about field homomorphisms. Here is an example: Given an algebraically closed field L, a subfield K and a field automorphism f of K, there exists a field automorphism of L which extends f (i.e. whose restriction to K is f). For the proof, one starts with a transcendence basis S of L / K. The elements of K(S) are just quotients of polynomials in elements of S with coefficients in K; therefore the automorphism f can be extended to one of K(S) by sending every element of S to itself. The field L is the algebraic closure of K(S) and algebraic closures are unique up to isomorphism; this means that the automorphism can be further extended from K(S) to L.

As another application, we show that there are (many) proper subfields of the complex number field C which are (as fields) isomorphic to C. For the proof, take a transcendence basis S of C / Q. S is an infinite (even uncountable) set, so there exist (many) maps f: S → S which are injective but not surjective. Any such map can be extended to a field homomorphism Q(S) → Q(S) which is not surjective. Such a field homomorphism can in turn be extended to the algebraic closure C, and the resulting field homomorphisms C → C are not surjective.

The transcendence degree can give an intuitive understanding of the size of a field. For instance, a theorem due to Siegel states that if X is a compact, connected, complex manifold of dimension n and K(X) denotes the field of (globally defined) meromorphic functions on it, then trdegC(K(X)) ≤ n.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Transcendental extension


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Guilhermina Suggia

Guilhermina Augusta Xavier de Medim Suggia Carteado Mena, known as Guilhermina Suggia, (27 June 1885 – 30 July 1950) was a Portuguese cellist. She studied in Paris, France, with Pablo Casals, and built an international reputation. She spent many years living in the United Kingdom, where she was particularly celebrated. She retired in 1939, but emerged from retirement to give concerts in Britain. Her last was in 1949, the year before her death.

Suggia bequeathed her instrument to be sold to fund the Suggia Gift, an important British scholarship for young cellists.

Biography
Suggia was born in Porto to a family of Portuguese and Italian descent. Her father was a competent musician and taught her musical theory and cello. Such was her progress that by the age of 12 she was appointed principal cellist of the local orchestra, the Orpheon Portuense. In 1904, under the patronage of Queen Maria Amélia of Portugal, she went to study at Leipzig under Julius Klengel. Although Klengel was a professor at the Leipzig Conservatoire, Suggia did not enroll there but rather took private lessons from him

Within a year Suggia was asked to appear as a soloist with the Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra under its conductor, Arthur Nikisch. From 1906 to 1912 she lived and worked in Paris with the cellist Pablo Casals. It was generally believed, incorrectly, that the two were married, and Suggia was sometimes billed as "Mme P. Casals-Suggia". She began to tour internationally, building her reputation. She and Casals were rated as "the world's leading cellists". Casals was close friends with composer Donald Tovey, who wrote his Sonata for two cellos for the pair. On visiting the couple to present the work in 1912, an unknown event occurred between Suggia and Tovey which caused strain on the relationship between Suggia and Casals, and the friendship between Tovey and Casals. After they separated, Suggia retained her admiration for Casals, describing him as pre-eminent among living cellists. In 1914 she formed a trio with the violinist Jelly d'Arányi and the pianist Fanny Davies.

During the period of her residence in Britain during the 1920s and 1930s, she was a frequent visitor to Lindisfarne Castle in northern England, where a cello now rests in the Music Room in commemoration of her time spent there. Her "Montagnana" cello rests in Conservatório de Música do Porto, her home-town in Portugal.

Edward Hudson, the founder of the British magazine Country Life is said to have been infatuated by Guilhermina. He was briefly engaged to her and bought her the aforementioned Montagnana cello and which she is shown playing in the portrait by Augustus John referred to below. In 1927, Suggia married Jose Mena, an X-ray specialist. During World War II, Suggia and her husband returned to Portugal, where she lived in retirement. She visited Britain after the war, giving performances of the Elgar Cello Concerto in aid of charity. She gave her last concerts at the Edinburgh Festival in 1949 and in Bournemouth later the same year.

Suggia died of cancer in Porto at the age of 65, a year after the death of her husband.

Recordings
Suggia made a small number of gramophone recordings. They include Haydn's D major Concerto with John Barbirolli and Saint-Saëns's A minor Concerto with Lawrence Collingwood. They were reissued on compact disc in 1989 (EMI EH761083-1). A compilation CD was released in 2004 with performances of Haydn, Max Bruch and Lalo (Dutton CDBP9748).

Legacy
Suggia bequeathed her Stradivarius cello to the Royal Academy of Music in London, to be sold to fund a scholarship for young cellists. The Suggia Gift, established in 1955, has since 1995 been administered by the Musicians' Benevolent Fund. The first holder was Derek Simpson, and other winners include Rohan de Saram (1955), Jacqueline du Pré (1956–1961), Robert Cohen (1967–1971), Hafliði Hallgrímsson, Steven Isserlis, Raphael Wallfisch and Julian Lloyd Webber. In 2010 it was announced that the 2011 Suggia Gift would be run in association with the 2011 International Guilhermina Suggia Festival, held in her native city.

The large auditorium at Casa da Música in Porto is named Sala Suggia in her honour.

TAP Portugal, national airline, named one of its airplanes, an Airbus A319, after her.

Probably the most famous image of Suggia is the oil portrait by the Welsh artist Augustus John, whose daughter Amaryllis Fleming later became a well-known cellist herself. This picture was commissioned initially by Edward Hudson (see above) and begun in 1920 but not finished till 1923. It was shown at the Carnegie Institute in Pittsburgh in 1924, bought by an American but later returned to England and presented to the Tate Gallery. The painting measures 186 X 165 cm. The Manchester Guardian wrote of this work that it "will serve to remind future generations that here was a musician who matched the nobility of her art with that of her presence on the concert platform." Photographs of Suggia by Alvin Langdon Coburn are held in the George Eastman House Still Photograph Archive and a photographic portrait by Bertram Park is in the National Portrait Gallery in London.

title: Guilhermina Suggia


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Talk:Abuse defense

Possible POV
This page certainly has some POV -- it's almost exclusively Dershowitz's views on the subject. He's a pretty bright guy and a good legal scholar, but this article is far more critical than it ought to be. I've got finals in a few weeks, so I can't fix it for a while. Patrick R (talk) 06:09, 20 March 2013 (UTC)

This page seems to me to have some POV in it - maybe a lawyer or law student could review the way it is written? -Aion 21:43, 3 Aug 2003 (UTC)

US-only
This article describes only the US law. Is there something similar in other countries? Lotygolas Ozols (talk) 20:05, 20 April 2011 (UTC)

 * The sources I looked at all seem to describe it only within the context of the United States. If you can find stuff about the abuse defense being used in other countries, I would encourage you to add it to the article. --Cryptic C62 · Talk 20:45, 20 April 2011 (UTC)
 * I would have done this without encouragement. However it is quite possible it is called differently elsewhere, so that google search by a layman like me is useless. (It does require a certain domein expertise even to use proper search terms.) Lotygolas Ozols (talk) 21:19, 20 April 2011 (UTC)

In the rest of anglo-law I think it's usually called battered women syndrome and the battered women's defence. Patrick R (talk) 06:06, 20 March 2013 (UTC)

Defense vs excuse
I added a bit of hair splitting: the latter term is a synonym with a critical, even derogatory flair. Lotygolas Ozols (talk) 22:12, 20 April 2011 (UTC)

title: Talk:Abuse defense


text:
User talk:Sidharthan

Hello Sidharthan, welcome to Wikipedia. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian.

I changed the name of the It lokam page you created to Information Technology Lokam as it is usually best to use the full name in titles. The old title will redirect you straight to the new page.

You can learn more on the how to edit page. The naming conventions and style guide pages are also useful. There is a sandbox which you can use to experiment in. If you have any questions, see the help pages or add a question to the village pump. Angela 21:44, 3 Aug 2003 (UTC)

Some interesting links
Hi! I thought you'd be interested in these India related links.

Cheerios! -- thunderboltza.k.a.D e epu _ Joseph 11:41, 13 May 2006 (UTC)

Jamline’s Fusion Physiotherapy
The article Jamline’s Fusion Physiotherapy has been speedily deleted from Wikipedia. This has been done under the criteria for speedy deletion, because the article seems to be blatant advertising which only promotes a company, product, group or service and which would need to be fundamentally rewritten in order to become an encyclopedia article. Please read the general criteria for speedy deletion, particularly item 11, as well as the guidelines on spam. Feel free to leave a note on my talk page if you have any questions about this. NawlinWiki 11:38, 7 September 2007 (UTC)

AfD nomination of Sandeep Unnikrishnan
I have nominated Sandeep Unnikrishnan, an article that you created, for deletion. I do not think that this article satisfies Wikipedia's criteria for inclusion, and have explained why at Articles for deletion/Sandeep Unnikrishnan. Your opinions on the matter are welcome at that same discussion page; also, you are welcome to edit the article to address these concerns. Thank you for your time. Fiddle Faddle (talk) 17:33, 28 November 2008 (UTC)

 * I hope you understand that I have not nominated this out of any disrespect for the officer who died, nor for you as the creator of the article. Fiddle Faddle (talk) 17:41, 28 November 2008 (UTC)
 * Thanks for your message on my talk page. I think we have to ensure that the only biographical pages created as a result of this set of atrocities are those where verifiable notability exists.  We may not create a memorial, however tempting it may appear to do so sometimes, but we may create a lasting record of notable people.  Fiddle Faddle (talk) 18:06, 28 November 2008 (UTC)

AfD nomination of Sandeep Unnikrishnan
I have nominated Sandeep Unnikrishnan, an article that you created, for deletion. I do not think that this article satisfies Wikipedia's criteria for inclusion, and have explained why at Articles for deletion/Sandeep Unnikrishnan&. Your opinions on the matter are welcome at that same discussion page; also, you are welcome to edit the article to address these concerns. Thank you for your time.  Gtstricky Talk or C 16:02, 1 December 2008 (UTC)

File permission problem with File:Achuthanandan.jpg
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title: User talk:Sidharthan


text:
Talk:Covenant-breaker

August 2003
Last edit totally became an apologetic for the larger group which proves apoint I guess as to the hardness of maintain a neutral point of view, So brought back Zoe's corrections as more neutral and non apologetic for either side and also gives in 3 paragraphs the definitions of Covenant Breaking that have existed, instead of a huge volumne defending the practice. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 66.219.219.117 (talk • contribs)

 * I can see the problem of neutrality you might have had on this. I've edited some other pages to tweak the presentation.  It is probably useful to mention that the main group don't consider Ruth White and such covenant breakers because of their dissidence, per-se, but that they challenge the authenticity of the transfer of authority to Abd'ul-Baha.  It's not only advancing a "false claim", but opposing a "true claim".  But dissidence itself is a bit more fuzzy.  In the modern context, dissidence and disobedience largely subjects one to administrative sanction, since Covenant Breaking is very specific.  I wouldn't change the presentation, since it's quoted from elsewhere, but a suppliamentary note would be good.

 * Also, though I don't know how one would write this, there are some who have been "disenrolled" but who are not considered covenant breakers, because it was clear to the Universal House of Justice that they had not understood the covenant upon becoming Baha'is, and their opposition to the head of the faith was out of an ignorance of the meaning of the covenant. Baha'is are not encouraged to hang out with them, because they are, essentially, antagonistic.  However, they are not required to shun them, as per the Will and Testament of Abd'ul-Baha. --ChristianEdwardGruber

 * you're doing absolutely fine there :) As long as you're not talking out of your arse (and you appear to know your stuff so you're not) just edit what you think needs changing, and someone will read over it to make any tweaks. Welcome to Wikipedia -- Tomhab 09:32, 3 Jun 2005 (UTC)

The "Larger Baha'i Group"?
It seems inappropriate to refer to "the larger Baha'i group". The term implies that there is some degree of parity in numbers between the Baha'i community that recognises the Universal House of Justice and the Orthodox Baha'is who recognise personal successors to the Guardian instead. The former are numbered in millions while the latter seem to be numbered at most in hundreds. The former are in general universally recognised and represented while the latter appear to be limited to a few localities. Simply on the basis of numbers, it does not make sense to refer to the "larger Baha'i group" or the "main group". Unless and until the numbers are of the same order of magnitude, it would seem most appropriate to refer to those who follow the Universal House of Justice as simply the "Baha'i Community". Keeping numbers in context, groups such as the Orthodox Baha'is would then be presented as peripheral to the Baha'i Community, whatever the veracity of the respective claims. As this point would have repercussions through the various Baha'i-related articles, I prefer to read the opinions of other contributors before making changes to this--and maybe other--articles. --202.75.179.10 1 July 2005 12:51 (UTC)
 * Sorry, that was from me. --Occamy 4 July 2005 18:27 (UTC)

 * Do you think "Haifan group" would be more appropriate terminology? In an NPOV article about something as contentious as covenant-breaking, it is surely even more important than ever NOT to write the article from the assumption that one of the contending groups is correct and the others are wrong.  PaulHammond 11:43, August 2, 2005 (UTC)
 * To call it the "haifan group" is as ridiculous as calling catholics the "italian group" Peter Deer (talk) 15:32, 15 January 2008 (UTC)

Accuracy
Accuracy of statements about succession in the Will and Testament: The Will and Testament of Abdu'l-Baha states that the successors of the Guardian should be his lineal descendents, not any of Baha'u'llah's descendents. This critical distinction indicates clearly that no further Guardians can be appointed and the article should be edited accordingly. 70.22.11.40 03:29, 14 December 2006 (UTC)

 * That's not correct. The Will says: "then must he, (the Guardian of the Cause of God) choose another branch to succeed him."(p 12)

 * Branch refers to male descendants of Baha'u'llah. This is clearly defined in the writings. Cuñado  [[image:Bahai star.svg|20px]] -  Talk  04:31, 14 December 2006 (UTC)
 * While in the Will and Testament it does indicate that the first born son of the Guardian is his natural successor, it similarly states that if he does not manifest "the secret essence of his sire" as well as "manifest in himself detachment from all worldly things, must be the essence of purity, must show in himself the fear of God, knowledge, wisdom and learning" and does not have the assent of the nine elected from and by the Hands of the Cause, then another Ghusn must be chosen who meets the qualifications. (see page 10 of the Will and Testament in this regard.) On Remey's claims, even if everything regarding his supposed implied appointment and his alleged implied adoption were sound and true he did not have the approval of the majority vote of the selected Hands of the Cause. On the contrary, the custodians were such elected persons, of which Remey was one, and their unanimous conclusion was that Shoghi Effendi had not appointed a successor and that that there were no Aghsan left alive who had not been expelled as covenant-breakers, and thus there was no way that in accordance with the Will and Testament that Shoghi Effendi could have appointed a successor. Peter Deer (talk) 15:30, 15 January 2008 (UTC)

Proposed neutral lead
In order to remain neutral on this subject, one must try to think like a non-Bahá'í, expressing only the necessary and leaving out our own natural pro-Bahá'í biases (a phrase which seems to be an oxymnoron...). Thinking thusly, I edited what had been written before and came up with:

 * A Covenant-breaker is a person who has been expelled from the Bahá'í Faith for disunifying actions in open opposition to the laws and leadership of the Faith. The determination of Covenant-breaking and the authority to declare a Bahá'í a Covenant-breaker resides solely with the head of the Bahá'í Faith, which, since 1963, is the elected nine-member Universal House of Justice, the international governing body of the Bahá'í Faith. Bahá'ís are expected to avoid all association with Covenant-breakers, even with members of one's own family.

Suggestions for any needed ref cites? Questions? Comments? Great thoughts? (aka consultation...) GWFrog (talk) 17:48, 29 September 2014 (UTC)

The lead is simply dishonest: Excommunication among Baháʼís is rare and not used for transgressions of community standards, intellectual dissent, or conversion to other religions.[2][4] Instead, it is the most severe punishment, reserved for suppressing organized dissent that threatens the unity of believers.[5]. It's well documented that Shoghi Effendi declared multiple individuals as covenant breakers, and in each case the reason was for more petty than those listed here, e.g. people marrying against his wishes, travelling against his wishes, having certain parents or lineage, etc. Drcombo (talk) 22:26, 19 June 2022 (UTC)

Lead rework 2017
I'd like to improve the lead and get the notice removed. I've tried to expand it a little and get it to summarize important points below. I feel none of the points need citations because they are clearly cited when they are addressed in more depth, and my understanding of policy allows statements in lead to go uncited if this is the case. Thoughts? penultimate_supper (talk) 23:36, 18 September 2017 (UTC)
 * Pretty good effort IMO; your additions add some much-needed context. dragfyre_ ʞןɐʇ c 13:40, 19 September 2017 (UTC)

Adding Joel Marangella's book to "Further reading" section
I would like to add this book https://www.worldcat.org/title/brief-history-of-the-violation-of-the-covenant-of-bahaullah-at-the-world-center-of-the-bahai-faith-following-the-passing-of-the-first-guardian-of-the-bahai-faith/oclc/852532044 to the article. Please suggest where should I add this?Serv181920 (talk) 14:29, 13 November 2020 (UTC)

avoid unnecessary association
I think the original version was actually more neutral. Cuñado ☼ - Talk  17:45, 21 December 2020 (UTC)

 * Hi, There are many quotations that explicitly say that association with covenant-breakers is forbidden. So, i believe the current version is accurate. However, if you wish to add that "Baháʼís are expected to avoid unnecessary association", please add it somewhere in the next paragraphs.Serv181920 (talk) 07:52, 22 December 2020 (UTC)

covenant breaking
,, , I have edited the page: -“''Baha’is consider covenant breaking as a contagious disease hence they maintain a safe distance from covenant breakers and are relatively unaware about existence of other groups except their names. To be fair with these groups, they do not consider themselves as covenant breakers but see the Haifa Baha’is as real covenant Breakers. They believe that it is a ploy of Haifa Baha’is to keep them ignorant of the actual fact hence a scientific study of both the groups are required so as to be appreciated by both the groups”''. This is taken directly from Johnson’s book. xiv The above paragraph is perfectly neutral because Guardian and UHJ both have a right to declare a covenant breaker.Cunado says it is non neutal. Havent my edit mentions both the groups.Jammu58 (talk) 11:24, 14 January 2021 (UTC)

 * Hi, some part of what you want to add from Johnson's book is already there in the article, except that "Covenant-breaking is believed by the mainstream Baha'is as a contagious disease."Serv181920 (talk) 16:49, 15 January 2021 (UTC)

 * Is the statement that “The Universal House of Justice has the sole authority to declare a person a Covenant-breaker,” is a NPOV case?. Isn't Guardian have also a right to declare a person as covenant breaker? I feel my paragraph is a NPOV case and it should appear in the second lead paragraph against what is already present.Jammu58 (talk) 08:36, 24 January 2021 (UTC)

Why are you removing this Cuñado?
Shoghi Effendi applied the following terms to covenant-breakers, dissidents, apostates and opponents:

"Diabolical, ambitious, malevolent, deluded, ‘shameless apostate’, brazen, infamous, insidious, ‘vile whisperer’, Antichrist, ‘the living embodiment of wickedness, cupidity and deceit’, blasphemous, unspeakably repugnant, perfidious, unquenchable animosity, arrogant, treacherous, despicable, ‘blind, uncontrollable animosity’, ‘the most shameless, vicious, relentless apostate’, ‘the incarnation of Satan’, ‘fiendish ingenuity and guile’, infernal, nefarious, defectors, betrayers."

Udo Shaefer also mentions these titles in his book on the Introduction of Baha'i Law:

...they who "sow the seeds of doubt in the hearts of men" and promote "discord" and bring about "division." 'Abdu'l-Baha calls them "mischief-makers" who are "seeking leadership." Because they do not declare their evil intentions openly but instead "they secretly sow the seeds of suspicion" — "sweet in words, ... but at heart a deadly poison" — they are also referred to as "hypocrites" (al-munafiqun).

https://bahai-library.com/pdf/s/schaefer_introduction_bahai_law.pdf

Serv181920 (talk) 10:26, 25 April 2021 (UTC)

 * I fail to see how it adds to the article. Show me an independent reliable source discussing Baha'i Covenant-breaking that gives that list in a 3-page summary of the issue. Cuñado ☼ - Talk  01:33, 26 April 2021 (UTC)

 * How it adds to the book of Udo Schaefer? Why would Schaefer bring the quoted part into his book? This gives a good summary of what Baha'i leaders and Baha'is think of the Covenant-breakers.Serv181920 (talk) 11:33, 2 May 2021 (UTC)

 * It is pretty obscure to quote a paragraph of words Shoghi Effendi used. The burden of good editing is on you. I spend a lot of time cleaning up messes. In the right context, some of those phrases he used would go in the article text to give examples of how they are portrayed. Maybe someone has already selected a few examples, but the article should be written as a summary of the issue, not pulling in any-and-all material that is picked from a large book to push a POV. Cuñado ☼ - Talk  20:05, 2 May 2021 (UTC)

 * This paragraph represents a concise summary, curating the hateful and divisive rhetoric of Shoghi Effendi on the topic of covenant breakers. Cunado is not the authority here and mustn't be permitted to whitewash Baha'i articles based on his personal beliefs.  This is a valid secondary source and adds greatly to the article for the general (non-biased) reader.  It must be reintroduced.  Drcombo (talk) 22:19, 19 June 2022 (UTC)

And Cuñado why have you been violating WP:EDIT
According to WP:EDIT "Improve pages wherever you can, and do not worry about leaving them imperfect. Preserve the value that others add, even if they "did it wrong" (try to fix it rather than delete it)."

You have removed so much, Why?

Serv181920 (talk) 11:03, 25 April 2021 (UTC)

 * Long quotes of primary sources pulled together out of context to push a POV? I'm here to build an encyclopedia by improving articles. Cuñado ☼ - Talk  01:33, 26 April 2021 (UTC)

 * You are vandalizing them. You can surely improve them with your ability but I feel you don't want to. Because as a Baha'i you don't like it. "There is no doubt that in a thousand passages in the sacred writings of Bahá'u'lláh the breakers of the Covenant have been execrated." - Abdul Baha ( https://bahai-library.com/writings/shoghieffendi/gpb/251-255.html)Serv181920 (talk) 11:36, 2 May 2021 (UTC)

Dear, you are very well aware of the fact that Second Guardian of the Baha'i Faith Charles Mason Remey and his followers-the Orthodox Baha'is are regarded covenant breaker by Mainstream Baha'is (Also known as Haifan/Hetrodox/sans-guardian Bahais). Hence kindly put factual information and do not in general terms call us (The Orthodox Baha'is) a Covenant Breaker.Asad29591 (talk) 04:10, 24 September 2021 (UTC)
 * You are pushing a pov that is not only not mainstream but fringe and unsupported. Cuñado's edits have been in good faith to the goals and policies of wikipedia. Smkolins (talk) 11:52, 24 September 2021 (UTC)

Dear removing disrespecting and nonfactual content shouldn't be termed as POV pushing. What I have put, I have supporting reference for the same. I shall add that. #Orthodox Baha'is deserve to be respected and not be labelled as covenant breakers (a term given to them by mainstream/haifan bahais).Asad29591 (talk) 03:02, 6 October 2021 (UTC)
 * The only basis for inclusion in wikipedia is what reliable sources present. Even saying mainstream suggests there is a alternative group. The legal status and membership numbers of the host of Baha'i organizations and institutions is beyond "mainstream". No other group has hardly a presence in reliable sources save to say they once existed as groups and now hardly number more than a handful of which no organization, no institution, is to be found save in unreliable sources. Smkolins (talk) 10:26, 6 October 2021 (UTC)

Dear, the very first point that i want to make here is that the reference which has been put against the statement is from Moojan Momen who belongs to the Heterodox/Mainstream Baha'i faith and it is obvious that since he belongs to that group, his view will be against the other Baha'i sects like Orthodox Baha'i Faith. The statement is not neutral and it also disrespects the second Guardian of the Baha'i Faith as well as his followers.

Secondly the reference which I had put is from a reliable secondary source. Now since it is not in favor of the sect that does not believe in continuation of Guardianship, it is being called unreliable.

Thirdly, you are saying that mainstream suggests an alternative group. So yes Baha'i Faith is divided into different sects and there are enough evidence for the same which one should not shy away from. There are evidences of their existence, their texts, their writings and the justifications that they provide like in the case of Orthodox Baha'i Faith.

As i have requested as well in the past, I request you to not treat Wikipedia as a personal blog or website. Before you edit to reverts you should check or seek justifications and not go against the policies of Wikipedia. #Respect the policy of Wikipedia.Asad29591 (talk) 13:56, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

 * , as I have mentioned on your talk page 3 times, and numerous article talk pages, read and apply WP:WEIGHT. Cuñado ☼ - Talk  15:23, 27 October 2021 (UTC)

Dear, the information that you are putting is completely biased and promoting POV of Mainstream Baha'i sect. So I would request you to kindly not be biased and put correct information. We both are here to make the articles better and not to spoil it.Asad29591 (talk) 03:42, 3 November 2021 (UTC)

Dear, you had reverted my edit stating I am removing correctly cited material. So I apologize for the same however I hope when I put a correctly cited matter, the same will not reverted by you or Cunado. Because the fact still stays the same that the matter you and cunado are putting is biased and promoting POV of Mainstream/Hethrodox Baha'i sect. I have made a small addition to the same and hope that the same will not be reverted. Lets work together to improve the page and make it not only factual but also truthful.--Asad29591 (talk) 03:52, 3 November 2021 (UTC)

Names of Covenant-breakers that can be added to the article.
Covenant Breakers: in the East, the West, and at the World Center. In the East: In the West: And at the World Center:
 * 1) 'Abdu'l-Husayn Avarih (1853-1953): Native of Taft, clergyman, outstanding teacher, opium user, called to Haifa, fame in West, agitation in Egypt, expulsion, asks for income, he requested for reinstatement but did not repent, alliance with external enemies, shunned, bankrupt, his books;  '..sordid and treacherous mind...' '...most shameless, vicious, relentless apostate...'
 * 2) Faydu'llah Subhi: secretary to Master, followed Avarih, repented from the Faith to Ayatu'llah Burujirdi.
 * 3) Fa'iq: American, in Egypt, founded 'Scientific Society'.
 * 4) Falah: in Iskandarun, '...pride, obstinacy and insatiable ambition...'
 * 5) Hasan-i-Niku: teacher of the Faith in India, followed Avarih, three books against the Faith, ignored by the believers.
 * 1) Ahmad Sohrab (1888-1958): sent to America by the Master to serve Mirza Abu'l-Fadl, secretary and interpreter of the Master, rebelled, formed 'The New History Society' and 'Caravan of East and West', attempted to penetrate American Baha'i community, joined the old Covenant breakers, press conference in Haifa and Tel Aviv, wife and daughter faithful, changed their names.
 * 2) Dr. Amin Fareed: nephew of Munirih Khanum, son of Mirza Asadu'llah who transported the remains of the Bab to Akka, Interpreter of Abdu'l-Baha in West, MD from U. of Chicago sponsored by the Master, stole 'Abdu'l-Baha's seal and collected funds fraudulently, broke the Covenant, was expelled by 'Abdu'l-Baha, '...ungovernable cupidity...'
 * 3) Mrs. Lewis Stuyvesant (Julie) Chanler: supported Ahmad Sohrab, petitioned President of Israel for property rights of Covenant breakers, representing 'free Baha'is'!
 * 4) Mrs. Ruth White: challenged authenticity of the Will, petitioned US Postmaster General, her husband repented but could not remain faithful.
 * 5) Dr. Herrigel: founder member of German Baha'i Community, followed Mrs. White
 * 6) Dyre in Washington; and Fernald in Chicago;
 * 1) Mirza Muhammad-'Ali (?-1937): The Greater Branch, son of Baha'u'llah, arch-breaker of the Covenant.
 * 2) Mirza Badi'u'llah (?-1950): youngest son of Baha'u'llah,
 * 3) Majdu'd-Din (?-1955): son of a faithful brother of Baha'u'llah (Mirza Musa, Aqay-i-Kalim), '...incarnation of Satan...'
 * 4) Shu'a'u'llah (?-1950): son of Mirza Muhammad-Ali,
 * 5) Musa (?-1950): son of Mirza Muhammad-Ali,
 * 6) Haji Siyyid 'Ali Afnan: son of Haji Mirza Siyyid Hasan Afnan-i-Kabir, brother of the wife of the Bab, one of the greatest enemies of 'Abdu'l-Baha
 * 7) Nayyir Afnan (?-1952), greatest enemy of Shoghi Effendi, son of Haji Siyyid 'Ali Afnan
 * 8) Ruhangiz Rabbani: eldest sister of Shoghi Effendi, married Nayyir Afnan, arranged infiltration of Covenant breaking families into the family of 'Abdu'l-Baha by marriage
 * 9) Mehrangiz Rabbani (Shoghi Effendi's younger sister), Hasan Afnan and Faydi Afnan, all expelled in Oct. 1941
 * 10) Ruhi Afnan (secretary of the Guardian), Fu'ad Afnan, and Thurayya Afnan, children of Tuba Khanum, daughter of 'Abdu'l-Baha, expelled in Nov. 1941
 * 11) Munib Shahid, son of Ruha Khanum, daughter of 'Abdul-Baha, expelled Nov. 1944.
 * 12) Husayn Rabbani: younger brother and secretary of the Guardian, expelled April, 1945.
 * 13) Riaz Rabbani: youngest brother of Shoghi Effendi, expelled Dec. 1951

Source: https://web.archive.org/web/20140221112645/http://www.bci.org/bahaistudies/courses/shoghi.htm Serv181920 (talk) 11:30, 2 May 2021 (UTC)

 * Rather than repeat this on several pages, I suggest you agree to the name change at Baha'i divisions and make that the place to consolidate this information, then leave this page and Baha'u'llah's family dedicated to their subjects. Cuñado ☼ - Talk  20:01, 2 May 2021 (UTC)
 * We are not repeating anything. Even if we are, I guess, there is no problem if relevant information is repeated on few pages. Serv181920 (talk) 17:29, 9 May 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Covenant-breaker


text:
National Secular Society

The National Secular Society (NSS) is a British campaigning organisation that promotes secularism and the separation of church and state. It holds that no one should gain advantage or disadvantage because of their religion or lack of it. It was founded by Charles Bradlaugh in 1866.

Objectives
The NSS, whose motto is "Challenging religious privilege", campaigns for a secular state where there is no established state religion; where religion plays no role in state-funded education, does not interfere with the judicial process nor does it restrict freedom of expression; where the state does not intervene in matters of religious doctrine nor does it promote or fund religious activities, guaranteeing every citizen's freedom to believe, not to believe or to change religion.

Although the organisation was explicitly created for those who reject the supernatural, the NSS does not campaign to eradicate or prohibit religion, arguing that freedom of religion, as well as freedom from religion, is a human right and that state sponsorship of selected religions encroaches upon that right. It holds that belief should be a private matter for the home or place of worship and does not belong in the public sphere. In seeking to represent the interests and viewpoints of atheists, the NSS is often critical of what it sees as the damaging effects of religion.

History
The National Secular Society was founded in 1866 with Charles Bradlaugh as president and Charles Watts as secretary. There were a number of secularist groups around the UK and they joined up to coordinate and strengthen their campaigns. The word secularism was coined by George Holyoake in 1851. The NSS's principles asserted that "this is the only life we have, and that we should work for its improvement".

In 1877 Bradlaugh and Annie Besant were prosecuted for publishing a book containing birth control information, The Fruits of Philosophy by the American doctor Charles Knowlton. They were convicted, but acquitted on appeal. The issue of contraception divided secularists and a breakaway group, the British Secular Union, was formed. It closed after a few years.

Bradlaugh's struggle to enter Parliament became an important moment in the development of nineteenth-century secularism. He was elected for Northampton in 1880. He believed he had the right to affirm rather than swear on the Bible, but when refused, said he would take the oath. He was told that since he did not believe in the Bible he could not swear on it. For six years he struggled to overcome this problem, by legal and electoral methods. In 1886 a new government allowed him to be sworn in. He later brought about a change giving all MPs the right to affirm. He was a very active MP on behalf of the poor, the Irish and Indian independence.

Bradlaugh, who died in 1891, was succeeded as president by G. W. Foote, editor of The Freethinker. Foote noted that the death of Bradlaugh brought the "heroic period" of freethought to an end, and he never succeeded in galvanising NSS members as Bradlaugh had done. Foote's successor was Chapman Cohen (president from 1915 to 1949), a prolific pamphleteer and author of books on religion and philosophy for a popular audience. In the first half of the twentieth century the NSS campaigned against the BBC's religious broadcasting policy, for disestablishment and for secular education.

Notable presidents in the second half of the twentieth century were David Tribe and Barbara Smoker, who did much to increase the use of the media to put across secularist views. In the twenty-first century, the NSS continues as an organisation campaigning in the UK and EU against what it regards as religious privilege in public life.

Organisation
The NSS is incorporated as a UK Company Limited by Guarantee, no. 01418145. The Society's income in the year 2006–2007 was £232,149, as quoted in the Accounts submitted to the authorities at Companies House. It receives no funding from the government or outside bodies: its campaigning is wholly supported by membership subscriptions and donations. Membership numbers are not included on the NSS website, although an article in The Daily Telegraph on 13 February 2012 stated that the society had about 7,000 members.

Education and faith schools
Education is one of the NSS's prime concerns, and it continues to campaign against public funding of faith schools. It holds that morality, ethics and citizenship should be taught outside a religious framework. It also opposes the teaching of creationism, or intelligent design as an alternative to mainstream science. In addition, it is against the appointment of teachers and support staff according to religious criteria, as part of a more general campaign against exemptions from anti-discrimination legislation for religious bodies. The Society has successfully campaigned for the legal right of older pupils to opt themselves out of religious assemblies at school.

The Society argues that children of families of no-faith and "the wrong faith" are being increasingly discriminated against in admission procedures, because of the high number of religious schools. Together with City Technology Colleges (which also have admissions privileges), the Society would like to see these schools become community schools, although it accepts the need for a transition period to achieve this goal. The NSS has drawn attention to recent statistical research supporting its claims of discrimination in faith schools, based on selection of pupils from wealthier families. Specifically, religious schools take in 10% fewer poor pupils than are representative of the local area. However, both representatives from the Church of England and a separate Parent Association denied the existence or evidence of selection to their own schools being based on social background, and a spokesman for the Centre of Economics has indicated that the bias in social background may stem from those more likely to apply to a religious school, not the selection process.

The NSS has claimed that faith schools exacerbate religious, ethnic and cultural divisions, by separating children from those of other faiths and cultural backgrounds. In 2010, the NSS instigated a judicial review to test the legality of prayers being part of the official business of Council meetings, as it believes politics and religion should be kept separate.

Other campaigns
The NSS has campaigned on a number of other issues. These include the successful abolition of the blasphemy law in the United Kingdom; removal of the 26 bishops from the House of Lords; exemption of religious organisations from discrimination and equality laws; withdrawal of state funding of chaplains in prisons, hospitals and armed services; the end of tax exemption for churches; and stopping public funding of religious broadcasting (the NSS has long argued, for example, that Thought for the Day is religious propaganda broadcast by the BBC at licence-payers' expense).

Further campaigns are concerned with the conscientious objections by doctors and pharmacists to refuse to administer certain procedures or treatments; the religious exemption from laws requiring stunning of animals before slaughter and for the labelling of meat produced without stunning (much of it is currently sold to the general public unlabelled, both in shops and in restaurants); and the reform of the Scouts movement to remove references to God from their promise.

The NSS is frequently invited to submit consultation documents to Government and major UK organisations. For example, it has written about faith-based welfare; doctors' conscientious objections; the prosecution of racist and religious crimes; the census; organ donation; and equality issues.

It co-sponsored the launch of the Council of Ex-Muslims of Britain and a conference for International Women's Day – Women's Rights, the Veil and Islamic and Religious Laws.

As well as its activities in the UK, the NSS has been active in Europe and at the UN, often as a representative for the International Humanist and Ethical Union (IHEU). Most notable have been interventions at the Council of Europe and the European Parliament.

At a Council of Europe conference in San Marino, its interventions caused the closing communiqué to be changed to require consultation on inter-cultural matters, giving much more emphasis to civil society, as opposed to religious bodies. In Strasbourg, the NSS argued against what it saw as undue religious influence on the Council of Europe. Close links have been maintained with the politicians and secretariat.

The NSS started assisting Roy Brown on the UN Human Rights Council in Geneva, and continues on a broader front, raising awareness of its problems with a growing list of international bodies.

In the European Parliament (EP), the NSS is involved with the Separation of Religion & Politics Working Group, and attended the launch of the Brussels Declaration. The organisation's president, Keith Porteous Wood, also spoke at a meeting in the EP sponsored by Catholics for Choice on Religion & Politics in the New Europe, and made a representation in a debate to the EP President about an invitation to the Pope to address the EP. The Society continues to be consulted by politicians seeking information or proposals. Wood spoke about problems with the United Nations Human Rights Commission at a UDHR 60th Anniversary Conference in Brussels, and at the Libre Penseé Conference at the Senate in Paris.

On 2 December 2011, the NSS and an atheist councillor took Bideford Town Council to the High Court over prayers held during council meetings. The High Court ruled on 10 February 2012 that the town council was not acting lawfully, as under Section 111 of the Local Government Act 1972 councils could not do anything they were not specifically permitted to do by the act. As prayers were not mentioned by the act, they could not be held as a formal part of the meeting. However, the judge tempered this ruling by rejecting Councillor Bone's argument that his human rights had been breached, stating that prayers could be held as long as councillors were not summoned to attend and they did not appear as an item on the agenda. Mr Justice Ouseley declared that the fact that atheists might feel uncomfortable during prayers was not a reason for them to be granted the protection of the state under human rights law, which had been the argument of the NSS's counsel. At the time of the case, the 1972 act was being superseded by the Localism Act 2011, which gave councils a general power of competence 'to do anything individuals may generally do.' In light of the ruling, the law was brought into force ahead of schedule in February 2012, and its general power of competence was asserted to have restored the ability of councils to hold prayers as part of the meeting should the majority of them wish to do so. To remove any remaining confusion, in March 2015 the Local Government (Religious etc. Observances) Act 2015 was granted Royal Assent, explicitly restoring the right of councils to hold prayers as a formal part of meetings should they wish.

The NSS has campaigned against the practice of some local authorities in granting parking concessions to churchgoers. In 2011, the NSS announced its intention to take forward a legal challenge against Woking Borough Council, which allowed those attending services in churches close to the town centre to claim a refund of their parking charges. The policy was retained following a review, but the council indicated the scheme could be extended to members of all religious communities or voluntary organisations on a case-by-case basis. Some councillors were critical of the challenge and the amount spent on defending the policy, with one councillor referring to the National Secular Society as 'bullying and intolerant.'

In February 2019, the NSS released a 48-page report titled ''For the Public Benefit? The case of removing 'the advancement of religion' as a charitable purpose''. It argues that the advancement of religion should not be 'regarded as an inherent public good', and charities should be required to 'demonstrate a tangible, secular public benefit under one of the other charitable purpose headings'.

Secularist of the Year award

Each year, the NSS holds the Secularist of the Year award ceremony at which the Irwin Prize of £5,000 is presented. Nominations for the Secularist of the Year are made by members of the National Secular Society; the winner is chosen by the Officers of the Society, along with Michael Irwin, who has donated the funds which underpin the award. Previous prize winners include former Liberal Democrat Member of Parliament (MP) Evan Harris, Lord Avebury, Sophie in 't Veld MEP and Peter Tatchell.

Presidents

 * Charles Bradlaugh (1866–1890) (A. Trevelyan held the Presidency, 1871–1872)
 * GW Foote (1890–died 17 October 1915)
 * Chapman Cohen (1915–1949)
 * R.H. Rosetti (1949–died 2 December 1951)
 * F.A. Ridley (18 December 1951 – 1963)
 * David Tribe (1963 – June 1971)
 * Ethel Venton (June 1971 – 1972)
 * Barbara Smoker (1972 −1996)
 * Daniel O'Hara (1996–1997)
 * Denis Cobell (1997–2006)
 * Terry Sanderson (2006–2017)
 * Keith Porteous Wood (2017–)

Secretaries

 * 1866: Charles Watts
 * 1876: George Standring
 * 1877: Robert Forder
 * 1892: Edith Vance
 * 1927: John Seibert
 * 1951: P. V. Morris
 * 1955: Colin McCall
 * 1963: William McIlroy
 * 1970: Martin Page
 * 1972: William McIlroy
 * 1977: Jim Herrick
 * 1979: Terry Mullins
 * 1996: Keith Porteous Wood (executive director)
 * 2017: Stephen Evans (chief executive officer)

title: National Secular Society


text:
Karl von Abel

Karl von Abel (September 17, 1788 – September 3, 1859) was a Bavarian statesman.

Born in Wetzlar, Abel was the son of a procurator at the superior Court of Justice. He studied law in Gießen from 1806-1809, and became a civil servant of Bavaria in 1810.

In 1817 he was appointed city and police commissar in Bamberg, in 1819, Governmental Councillor in Munich, and in 1827 promoted to Senior Legal Secretary. In the Diet of 1831 he gave a speech in favour of freedom of the press and against censorship.

In the following year, Abel was assigned by King Ludwig I to be a part of the delegation accompanying the young King Otto to Greece. He joined with Georg Ludwig von Maurer in opposing the head of the delegation, Count Josef Ludwig von Armansperg, who he felt was too susceptible to the wishes of the English diplomats. However, the count was able to mobilise his supporters in Munich and have Abel and Maurer unseated from the delegation. Abel once again became Legal Secretary in the Ministry of the Interior. He married Friederike von Rinecker in 1836, a very religious woman, who had much influence on him.

On 1 November 1837, Abel became Privy Councillor in place of Ludwig, Fürst von Wallerstein and began to lead the Ministry of the Interior. At this time, the Cologne Troubles excited the masses on religious and political levels. Soon enough the Ministry under Abel proved to be strictly Catholic, following the traditions of Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria. The status of the clergy was raised and large sums were spent for religious issues. This was followed by several edicts, for example prescribing that Protestant soldiers must also genuflect during a Catholic service. The formation of Evangelic communities and the execution of their services was made complicated and restricted and strict censorship applied to all opposing movements.

In other issues Abel showed his absolutist and ultramontane position. He authorized an edict disallowing the use of all modern terms, which try to foist the principle of classes with a representative one. As an example, the term of Ministry of the State was forbidden as the king must unite all power in himself. Several affronts against his precursor Wallerstein resulted in a duel which he lost.

Wallerstein lead the opposition forming mainly in the newly acquired provinces of the kingdom against the paternalism of the Ministry. In the Diet of 1846 he openly fought the existing system. Abel could not avert the claims that he had broken the principle of parity, and that the Christian party was in contact with radical elements. For this the King lost his trust in Abel, and removed him as Ministry of Culture and Education.

Abel was dismissed from power on 17 February 1847 when he and the other ministers opposed the naturalisation of the Kings' young lady Lola Montez. Afterwards, he had not only to suffer the disgrace of the king he had served for a long time, but was also repudiated by the members of his own party. He was appointed as envoy to the Kingdom of Sardinia, but refused to take the charge until the reign of Maximilian II of Bavaria. In 1848 Abel was voted into the Second Chamber of the Bavarian Parliament, where his former administration was attacked from all sides.

Abel was recalled as envoy in 1850 and retired from the political life. Until his death in 1859 he lived on his tenure Stamsried manor in Upper Palatinate.

He died in Munich.

title: Karl von Abel


text:
John Campbell, 9th Duke of Argyll

John George Edward Henry Douglas Sutherland Campbell, 9th Duke of Argyll (6 August 1845 – 2 May 1914), usually better known by the courtesy title Marquess of Lorne, by which he was known between 1847 and 1900, was a British nobleman who was Governor General of Canada from 1878 to 1883. He was the husband of Princess Louise, fourth daughter of Queen Victoria. He was the first president of "Rangers Football Club", thanks to his Argyll ties to the original founders of the football club.

Background and career
Campbell was born in London, the eldest son of George, Marquess of Lorne and the former Lady Elizabeth Sutherland-Leveson-Gower, daughter of the 2nd Duke of Sutherland, and was styled Earl of Campbell from birth. In 1847, when he was 21 months old, his father succeeded as 8th Duke of Argyll and he assumed the courtesy title Marquess of Lorne, which he bore until he was 54. He was educated at Edinburgh Academy, Eton College, St Andrews and at Trinity College, Cambridge, as well as at the National Art Training School.

For ten years before coming to Canada, Lorne travelled throughout North and Central America, writing travel literature and poetry. In the UK, he represented, from 1868, the constituency of Argyllshire as a Liberal Member of Parliament in the House of Commons. He made little impression there, however; the London World referred to Lorne as "a non-entity in the House of Commons, and a non-entity without." A.C. Benson, who edited Queen Victoria's letters and spent time in the company of the royals, gave him the same epithet.

He was appointed Lieutenant-Colonel Commandant of the part-time 1st Argyll and Bute Artillery Volunteers on 13 July 1866. He gave up the position in the 1880s, but was appointed the unit's Honorary Colonel on 18 July 1900.

Lord Lorne married Queen Victoria's fourth daughter, Princess Louise, on 21 March 1871. This was the first time a legitimate daughter of the sovereign had married a subject of the Crown since 1515, when Charles Brandon, the first Duke of Suffolk, married Mary Tudor. The pair shared a common love of the arts, but the marriage was childless and unhappy, and they spent much time apart. Lorne formed close friendships with men, including Lord Ronald Gower, Morton Fullerton and the Count de Mauny, who were known to be homosexual or bisexual, which fuelled rumours in London society that he shared their predisposition. No conclusive evidence has been found to settle this issue either way.

Governor General of Canada

When Lord Lorne's appointment was announced, there was great excitement throughout Canada. For the first time, Rideau Hall would have a royal resident. The Canadian Prime Minister relaxed his busy campaign schedule to prepare for her arrival and to organise a special carriage and corps of guards to protect the Princess. An author wrote in 1880 that "the appointment was hailed with satisfaction in all parts of the Dominion, and the new Governor General entered upon his term of office with the hearts of the people strongly prepossessed [sic] in his favour."

However, Campbell and his wife were initially not received well by the Canadian press, which complained about the imposition of royalty on the country's hitherto un-regal society, a position that was only exacerbated by mishaps and misunderstandings. The worries of a rigid court at the Queen's Canadian residence turned out to be unfounded; the couple were more relaxed than their predecessors, as demonstrated at the many ice skating and tobogganing parties, balls, dinners, and other state occasions hosted by the Marquess and Marchioness.

At age 33, Lord Lorne was Canada's youngest governor general and he became the first representative of Queen Victoria to have been born during the latter's reign but he was not too young to handle the marginal demands of his post. He and Princess Louise made many lasting contributions to Canadian society, especially in the arts and sciences. They encouraged the establishment of the Royal Society of Canada, the Royal Canadian Academy of Arts, and the National Gallery of Canada, even selecting some of its first paintings. Campbell was involved in the completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway and other projects, such as a hospital for British Columbia.

Throughout his term of office, Lorne was intensely interested in Canada and Canadians. He travelled throughout the country, encouraging the establishment of numerous institutions, and met with First Nations and other Canadians from all walks of life. At Rideau Hall, he and Princess Louise hosted many social functions, including numerous ice skating and tobogganing parties as well as balls, dinners and state occasions. His small collection of First Nations artefacts was purchased by the British Museum in 1887.

After Canada
Princess Louise returned to England in 1881 and Lord Lorne followed two years later in 1883, when his book, Memories of Canada and Scotland, was published.

In 1907, strenuous efforts were taken by officials to ensure that Lorne's name was not dragged into the investigation of the theft of the Irish Crown Jewels. This was due to the fact that his closest friend was Lord Ronald Gower, who while innocent, was associated with several of the circle who were implicated in it.

Lorne was Governor and Constable of Windsor Castle from 1892 to 1914 and he sat as MP for Manchester South from 1895 until the death of his father on 24 April 1900, when he succeeded as 9th and 2nd Duke of Argyll. He and Princess Louise lived at Kensington Palace until his death from pneumonia in 1914. He is buried at Kilmun Parish Church.

Orders and decorations

 * KG: Knight Companion of the Most Noble Order of the Garter, 1911
 * KT: Knight of the Most Ancient and Most Noble Order of the Thistle, 1871
 * GCMG: Knight Grand Cross of the Most Distinguished Order of St Michael and St George, 14 September 1878
 * GCVO: Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order, 2 February 1901
 * 🇳🇴 Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Norwegian Order of Saint Olav, with Collar, 13 November 1906

Civil and military appointments

 * PC: Sworn in as a member of Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council, 17 March 1875
 * LL.D (honorary), University of Cambridge, May 1902
 * Honorary Colonel of the 1st Argyll and Bute Artillery Volunteers, 18 July 1900
 * Honorary Colonel of the 5th Volunteer Battalion, Princess Louise's (Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders), 20 September 1902

Places named after him

 * Lorne Building, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
 * Port Lorne, Nova Scotia, Canada
 * Lorne, Nova Scotia
 * Rural Municipality of Lorne, Manitoba, Canada
 * West Lorne, Ontario, Canada
 * Lorne, Victoria, Australia
 * Lorne Street, Oswestry, Shropshire, UK
 * Lorne Avenue, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
 * Lorne Avenue, Trenton, Ontario, Canada
 * Lorne Street, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
 * Lorne Avenue, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
 * Marquis Downs, former horse racing track in Saskatoon, Canada (located on Lorne Avenue)
 * Lorne Street, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
 * Lorne Street, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada
 * Marquis of Lorne Trail, section of Highway 22X, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
 * Lorne Park and Lorne Park Estates, in Mississauga, Ontario (by Sarah Jane Earls, descendant of Sir John Mourach, second Marquis of Lorne)
 * Rural Municipality of Argyle, Manitoba, Canada
 * Lorne, New Brunswick

Organizations named after him

 * The Lorne Scots (Peel, Dufferin and Halton Regiment), infantry regiment of the Canadian Army.

title: John Campbell, 9th Duke of Argyll


text:
Giovanni Francesco Abela

Giovanni Francesco Abela (1582–1655) was a Maltese noble who in the early 17th century wrote an important work on Malta, Della Descrittione di Malta isola nel Mare Siciliano: con le sue antichità, ed altre notizie, "description of Malta, island in the Sicilian sea, with its antiquities, and other information".

Early life
Abela was born in Valletta to Marco Abela and Benarda Vella whose great great grandfather was Barone di Pietra Lunga and whose ancestors ruled Malta on more than one occasion and were part of the royal family of Spain.

Works
Malta illustrated is still an important source of first-hand information on a number of subjects of Melitensia, such as folklore, placenames, the Maltese language, history of Malta and archaeology. His description of the Maltese Islands was translated into Latin by G.A. Seinero in 1725, Latin being the universal language of science and culture of that time. This translation was incorporated in Johann Georg Graevius Thesaurus antiquitatum et historiarum Italiae. He became Auditor of Grand Master Antoine de Paule, Chaplain and finally Vice Chancellor of the Knights Hospitaller. He is also remembered as the promoter of the first Notarial Archives for Malta.

Gian Francesco Abela visited archaeological sites on the islands and made some valuable observations. He appears to have been the first to note that the ancient temple of Hercules was to be identified with the remains on the hill at Tas-Silġ rather than those of Borġ in-Nadur. At Tas-Silġ he observed foundations and courses of stones ‘ben lavorate e messe insieme,’ and in support of his identification he recorded the discovery of ‘medaglie, pezzi di statue d’idoletti, e d’altre cose, minimi avanzi di quella vana gentilità e falsa religione, quivi ritrovate sotto il Magistero del Principe Wignacourt, mentre alcuni nell’istesso luogo cavando, scioccamente pensavano far acquisto di ricco tesoro.’

In the early 17th century Abela converted his house at Marsa to a historical museum, the first in Malta. Many of its artefacts are now stored in Malta's National Museum of Archaeology.

Burial place
He is buried in the Chapel of Our Lady of Philermos (today the Chapel of the Blessed Sacrament) in Saint John's Co-Cathedral in Valletta. The Junior College in Msida is named after Abela.

title: Giovanni Francesco Abela