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Al-Nawawi

Yahya ibn Sharaf al-Nawawi (يحيى بن شرف النووي; (631A.H-676A.H) (October 1230–21 December 1277) was a Sunni Shafi'ite jurist and hadith scholar. Al-Nawawi died at the relatively early age of 45. Despite this, he authored numerous and lengthy works ranging from hadith, to theology, biography, and jurisprudence that are still read to this day. Al-Nawawi, along with Abu al-Qasim al-Rafi'i, are leading jurists of the earlier classical age, known by the Shafi'i school as the Two Shaykhs (al-Shaykhayn).

Background
He was born at Nawa near Damascus, Syria. As with Arabic and other Semitic languages, the last part of his name refers to his hometown.

Yasin bin Yusuf Marakashi, says: "I saw Imam Nawawi at Nawa when he was a youth of ten years of age. Other boys of his age used to force him to play with them, but Imam Nawawi would always avoid the play and would remain busy with the recitation of the Noble Qur'an. When they tried to domineer and insisted on his joining their games, he bewailed and expressed his no concern over their foolish action. On observing his sagacity and profundity, a special love and affection developed in my heart for young Nawawi. I approached his teacher and urged him to take exceptional care of this lad as he was to become a great religious scholar. His teacher asked whether I was a soothsayer or an astrologer. I told him I am neither soothsayer nor an astrologer but Allah caused me to utter these words." His teacher conveyed this incident to Imam's father and in keeping in view the learning quest of his son, decided to dedicate the life of his son for the service and promotion of the cause of Islam.

Life as a scholar
He studied in Damascus from the age of 18 and after making the pilgrimage in 1253, he settled there as a private scholar.

Notable teachers
During his stay at Damascus, he studied from more than twenty teachers who were regarded as masters and authority of their subject field and disciplines they taught. An-Nawawi studied Hadith, Islamic Jurisprudence, its principles, syntax and Etymology. His teachers included Abu Ibrahim Ishaq bin Ahmad AI-Maghribi, Abu Muhammad Abdur-Rahman bin Ibrahim Al-Fazari, Radiyuddin Abu Ishaq Ibrahim bin Abu Hafs Umar bin Mudar Al-Mudari, Abu Ishaq Ibrahim bin Isa Al-Muradi, Abul-Baqa Khalid bin Yusuf An-Nablusi, Abul-Abbas Ahmad bin Salim Al-Misri, Abu Abdullah Al-Jiyani, Abul-Fath Umar bin Bandar, Abu Muhammad At-Tanukhi, Sharafuddin Abdul-Aziz bin Muhammad Al-Ansari, Abul-Faraj Abdur-Rahman bin Muhammad bin Ahmad Al-Maqdisi, and Abul-Fada'il Sallar bin Al-Hasan Al Arbali among others.

Creed
He did ta'wil on some of the Qur'an verses and ahadith on the attributes of Allah. He states in his commentary of a hadith that:"This is one of the 'hadiths of the attributes,' about which scholars have two positions. The first is to have faith in it without discussing its meaning, while believing of Allah Most High that 'there is nothing whatsoever like unto Him' (Qur'an 42:11), and that He is exalted above having any of the attributes of His creatures. The second is to figuratively explain it in a fitting way, scholars who hold this position adducing that the point of the hadith was to test the slave girl: Was she a monotheist, who affirmed that the Creator, the Disposer, the Doer, is Allah alone and that He is the one called upon when a person making supplication (du'a) faces the sky--just as those performing the prayer (salat) face the Kaaba, since the sky is the qibla of those who supplicate, as the Kaaba is the qibla of those who perform the prayer--or was she a worshipper of the idols which they placed in front of themselves? So when she said, In the sky, it was plain that she was not an idol worshiper."

Relationship with the Mamluk Sultanate
Al-Nawawi drew the ire of Mamluk Sultan Rukn al-Din Baybars twice. Once, at a time when the people of Damascus sought relief from a heavy tax burden after a years-long drought, Al-Nawawi wrote that if Baybars did not stop taxing its residents abusively then Allah will tax his misdeed in the afterlife. This prompted Baybars to threaten to expel him from Damascus. To this, he responded:"'As for myself, threats do not harm me or mean anything to me. They will not keep me from advising the ruler, for I believe that this is obligatory upon me and others.'"

The second time Al-Nawawi addressed Sultan Baybars was when he wanted the ulama to issue a fatwa that decreed that the waqf be collected solely for the ruler, despite originally being meant for the people. In effect, Al-Nawawi scolded him, urging him to fear Allah and rein in his greed, which the Sultan accepted. Some people asked Baybars why he did not imprison Al-Nawawi in retaliation, to which Baybars replied that whenever he thought of locking up Al-Nawawi, a fear flowed through his heart. In both encounters, Baybars abided by Al-Nawawi's counsel.

Death and legacy
He died at Nawa at the relatively young age of 45. An-Nawawi's lasting legacy is his contribution to hadith literature through his momentous works Forty Hadiths and Riyadh as-Saaliheen. This made him respected in all madhabs, despite him being of Shafi'i jurisprudence. According to Al-Dhahabi, Imam Nawawi's concentration and absorption in academic love gained proverbial fame. He had devoted all his time for learning and scholarship. Other than reading and writing, he spent his time contemplating on the interacted and complex issues and in finding their solutions. Ulama's praise him for 3 characteristics:

 * 1) His level of scholarship. Writing more than 40 pages daily from age 18-45. Studying continuously for 12 hours and then teaching for another 12 hours at age 18-20 in Damascus.
 * 2) His asceticism. Not marrying in fear of faltering his wife's right, lack of love for dunya, constant worshipping of Allah, constant zikr.
 * 3) His keenness in enjoining good and forbidding evil. As done with Sultan al-Baibars.

Destruction of tomb
In 2015, during the ongoing Syrian Civil War, his tomb was demolished by rebels linked to Al Nusra.

Works
During his life of 45 years he wrote "at least fifty books" on Islamic studies and other topics. Some scholar counted pages he written and calculated that he wrote 40+ pages daily from age 18 till his death. Some his writings is still reached vastly as no author has superseded him in those writing. These include:
 * Al Minhaj bi Sharh Sahih Muslim (شرح صحيح مسلم), making use of others before him, and is considered one of the best commentaries on Sahih Muslim. It is available online.
 * Riyadh as-Saaliheen (رياض الصالحين); collection of hadith on ethics, manners, conduct, popular in the Muslim world.
 * al-Majmu' sharh al-Muhadhab (المجموع شرح المهذب), is a comprehensive manual of Islamic law according to the Shafi'i school has been edited with French translation by van den Bergh, 2 vols., Batavia (1882–1884), and published at Cairo (1888).
 * Minhaj al-Talibin (منهاج الطالبين وعمدة المفتين في فقه الإمام الشافعي), a classical manual on Islamic Law according to Shafi'i fiqh.
 * Tahdhib al-Asma wa'l-Lughat (تهذيب الأسماء), edited as the Biographical Dictionary of Illustrious Men chiefly at the Beginning of Islam (Arabic) by F. Wüstenfeld (Göttingen, 1842–1847).
 * Taqrib al-Taisir (التقريب والتيسير لمعرفة سنن البشير النذير), an introduction to the study of hadith, it is an extension of Ibn al-Salah's Muqaddimah, was published at Cairo, 1890, with Suyuti's commentary "Tadrib al-Rawi". It has been in part translated into French by W. Marçais in the Journal asiatique, series ix., vols. 16–18 (1900–1901).
 * al-Arbaʿīn al-Nawawiyya (الأربعون النووية) - 'Forty Hadiths,' collection of forty-two fundamental traditions, frequently published along with numerous commentaries.
 * Ma Tamas ilayhi hajat al-Qari li Saheeh al-Bukhaari (ما تمس إليه حاجة القاري لصـحيح البـخاري)
 * Tahrir al-Tanbih (تحرير التنبيه)
 * Kitab al-Adhkar (الأذكار المنتخبة من كلام سيد الأبرار); collection of supplications of prophet Muhammad.
 * al-Tibyan fi adab Hamalat al-Quran (التبيان في آداب حملة القرآن)
 * Adab al-fatwa wa al-Mufti wa al-Mustafti (آداب الفتوى والمفتي والمستفتي)
 * al-Tarkhis fi al-Qiyam (الترخيص بالقيام لذوي الفضل والمزية من أهل الإسلام)
 * Manasik (متن الإيضاح في المناسك) on Hajj rituals.
 * al-Hatt ala al-Mantiq (الحت على المنطق) - 'The Insistence upon Logic,' written to address epistemological and historical criticisms of logic
 * Sharh Sunan Abu Dawood
 * Sharh Sahih al-Bukhari
 * Mukhtasar at-Tirmidhi
 * Tabaqat ash-Shafi'iyah
 * Rawdhat al-Talibeen
 * Bustan al-`arifin
 * Al-Maqasid

Recent English language editions

 * Bustan al-ʿarifin (The Garden of Gnostics), Translated by Aisha Bewley

Minhaj al-Talibin

 * Minhaj et talibin: A Manual of Muhammadan Law; According To The School of Shafi, Law Publishing Co (1977) ASIN B0006D2W9I
 * Minhaj et talibin: A Manual of Muhammadan Law; According To The School of Shafi, Navrang (1992) ISBN 81-7013-097-2
 * Minhaj Et Talibin: A Manual of Muhammadan Law, Adam Publishers (2005) ISBN 81-7435-249-X

The Forty Hadith

 * Al-Nawawi Forty Hadiths and Commentary; Translated by Arabic Virtual Translation Center; (2010) ISBN 978-1-4563-6735-0
 * Ibn-Daqiq's Commentary on the Nawawi Forty Hadiths; Translated by Arabic Virtual Translation Center; (2011) ISBN 1-4565-8325-5
 * The Compendium of Knowledge and Wisdom; Translation of Jami' Uloom wal-Hikam by Ibn Rajab al-Hanbali translated by Abdassamad Clarke, Turath Publishing (2007) ISBN 0-9547380-2-0
 * Al-Nawawi's Forty Hadith, Translated by Ezzeddin Ibrahim, Islamic Texts Society; New edition (1997) ISBN 0-946621-65-9
 * The Forty Hadith of al-Imam al-Nawawi, Abul-Qasim Publishing House (1999) ISBN 9960-792-76-5
 * The Complete Forty Hadith, Ta-Ha Publishers (2000) ISBN 1-84200-013-6
 * The Arba'een 40 Ahadith of Imam Nawawi with Commentary, Darul Ishaat
 * Commentary on the Forty Hadith of Al-Nawawi (3 Vols.), by Jamaal Al-Din M. Zarabozo, Al-Basheer (1999) ISBN 1-891540-04-1

Riyad al-Salihin

 * Gardens of the righteous: Riyadh as-Salihin of Imam Nawawi, Rowman and Littlefield (1975) ISBN 0-87471-650-0
 * Riyad-us-Salihin: Garden of the Righteous, Dar Al-Kotob Al-Ilmiyah
 * Riyadh-us-Saliheen (Vol. 1&2 in One Book) (Arabic-English) Dar Ahya Us-Sunnah Al Nabawiya

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Gerald Lampert Award

The Gerald Lampert Memorial Award is an annual literary award presented by the League of Canadian Poets to the best volume of poetry published by a first-time poet. It is presented in honour of poetry promoter Gerald Lampert. Each winner receives an honorarium of $1000.

In its earliest years, the award was not necessarily limited to poetry, but was presented to the year's best first book by a Canadian writer in either poetry or prose.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Gerald Lampert Award


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Psophia

Psophia is a genus of birds restricted to the humid forests of the Amazon and Guiana Shield in South America. It is the only genus in the family Psophiidae. Birds in the genus are commonly known as trumpeters, due to the trumpeting or cackling threat call of the males. The three species resemble slightly taller, longer-legged chickens in size and appearance; they measure 45 to 52 cm long and weigh 1 to 1.5 kg. They are rotund birds with long, flexible necks and legs, downward-curving bills and a “hunched” appearance. Their heads are small, but their eyes are relatively large, making them look inquisitive and "good-natured". The plumage is soft, resembling fur or velvet on the head and neck. It is mostly black, with purple, green, or bronze iridescence, particularly on the wing coverts and the lower neck. In the best-known taxa, the secondary and tertial flight feathers are white, grey, or greenish-black and hairlike, falling over the lower back, which is the same colour. These colours give the three generally accepted species their names.

Taxonomy and systematics
The genus Psophia was introduced in 1758 by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus, in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae, as containing a single species, the grey-winged trumpeter (Psophia crepitans). The genus name is from the Ancient Greek psophos meaning "noise".

The genus' taxonomy is far from settled; anywhere from three to six species (with varying numbers of subspecies) are recognized by different taxonomic systems.

The International Ornithological Committee's treatment is the most conservative. They recognize three species, two of which have three subspecies:

 * Grey-winged trumpeter, Psophia crepitans
 * P. c. crepitans
 * P. c. napensis
 * P. c. ochroptera
 * Pale-winged trumpeter, Psophia leucoptera
 * Dark-winged trumpeter, Psophia viridis
 * P. v. viridis
 * P. v. dextralis
 * P. v. obscura

The Clements taxonomy splits P. v. dextralis and adds English names to the subspecies:

 * Gray-winged trumpeter, Psophia crepitans
 * P. c. crepitans (gray-winged)
 * P. c. napensis (Napo)
 * P. c. ochroptera (ochre-winged)
 * Pale-winged trumpeter, Psophia leucoptera
 * Dark-winged trumpeter, Psophia viridis
 * P. v. viridis (green-backed)
 * P. v. dextralis (dusky-backed)
 * P. v. interjecta (Xingu)
 * P. v. obscura (black-backed)

BirdLife International's Handbook of the Birds of the World (HBW) recognizes six species:

 * Grey-winged trumpeter, Psophia crepitans
 * P. c. crepitans
 * P. c. napensis
 * Ochre-winged trumpeter, Psophia ochroptera
 * White-winged trumpeter, Psophia leucoptera
 * Green-winged trumpeter, Psophia viridis
 * Olive-winged trumpeter, Psophia dextralis
 * P. d. dextralis
 * P. d. interjecta
 * Black-winged trumpeter, Psophia obscura

Traditionally, only three species of trumpeters have been recognised. A 2008 review, of the morphology of the dark-winged trumpeter, resulted in the recommendation that it be divided into three species. A 2010 review of the phylogeny and biogeography of all members of the family resulted in a suggested total of eight species—two in the grey-winged trumpeter complex, two in the pale-winged trumpeter complex, and four in the dark-winged trumpeter complex.

Behaviour and ecology
Trumpeters fly weakly but run fast; they can easily outrun dogs. They are also capable of swimming across rivers. They spend most of the day in noisy flocks, sometimes numbering more than 100, on the forest floor. They feed on fallen fruit (particularly fruit knocked down by monkeys). They also eat a small amount of arthropods, including ants and flies, and even some reptiles and amphibians. At night they fly with difficulty into trees to roost 6 to 9 m above the ground.

Trumpeters nest in a hole in a tree or in the crown of a palm tree. They lay 2 to 5 eggs with rough, white shells, averaging about 76 g. In the pale-winged trumpeter and the grey-winged trumpeter, groups of adults care for a single clutch.

Relationship with humans
Trumpeters are often used as "guard dogs" because they call loudly when alarmed, become tame easily, and are believed to be adept at killing snakes. One source states their skill at hunting snakes as a fact, and the nineteenth-century botanist Richard Spruce gave an account of the friendliness and snake-killing prowess of a tame grey-winged trumpeter. For these reasons, Spruce recommended that England import trumpeters to India. However, another source says this prowess is "reputed".

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Talk:Regensburg

Music
Some time ago I saw a volksmusik programme on one of the German television channels.

It was of people singing in various picturesque settings in Regensburg.

One female singer sang a song walking around the grounds of what may have been a Bishop's palace and there was a rather nice statue of a man (a medieval bishop?) feeding two geese.

Is anyone familiar with this please? Is there a story associated with the statue?

If so, it might make a good addition to the page and, if possible, may be worthy of an illustration.

Songwriter 15:33 6 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Hi!

I live in Regensburg, however I'm not familiar with such a statue. Are sure the film was taken on location in Regensburg?? (Michael.chlistalla 22:22, 4 Mar 2004 (UTC))

There is such a statue at Regensburg in the 'Bischofshof' (bishop's court) right behind the cathedral. The notable thing about the statue is that when looking at it from the one side, it pictures a bishop feeding geese, but when looking at the back of the statue, one can see that the bishop is really a fox in disguise that already has a dead goose in his jaws.

I do not know the official story behind it, but I was told that the statue expresses people's unhappiness with the exploitation of the common folk by the bishop.

Hi, I've been a city guide in Regensburg. The statue referres to a story called the "Gänsepredigt" (geese sermon). It's about a fox that wanted to hunt geese, but they allways escaped, so he used a trick - he disguised as a preacer and started preaching to the geese until they fell asleep, so he could catch one of them. This tale should warn people against false preachers. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 77.8.27.44 (talk) 22:29, 29 September 2009 (UTC)

Hi, it didn't originally involve the bishops; but Fox/ Friar imagery is an widespread medieval satire against mendicant Friars - the Friars were often depicted as Foxes who would lure their congregations to hell with their persuasive patter. The rear shows their true nature: seizing the geese. The imagery is found in a lot of medieval marginalia, and in a lot of medieval Church woodcarvings - particularly 15th Century Misericords. Note - the Friar is also fat (on the offerings of the poor) - think of Robin Hood's Friar Tuck. It's definitely a warning about false teaching.

Sugar factory
Odd, why isn't the sugar factory mentioned in the "Economy" section? When I lived there (15 years ago) its smokestack dominated the region. http://www.suedzucker.de/unternehmen/standorte/regensburg/ NeilFraser 18:08, 15 March 2006 (UTC)

 * Answer: It has closed. I was just there. NeilFraser (talk) 21:27, 2 October 2009 (UTC)

Translation request
Lol improve it by translating from latin ? Just translate the german site. What a horrible idear. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 84.56.117.238 (talk) 17:40, 11 June 2006

Ratisbon
It seems a bit wrong to say that the English name was "formerly Ratisbon", - that was the French name, which the English borrowed. I'm not sure the best way to clarify. john k 22:14, 13 August 2006 (UTC)
 * Well, formerly English used the French name, now it uses the German name. Actually, there are rather a lot of German cities for which English formerly used the French name: Aix-la-Chapelle for Aachen, Mayence for Mainz, Trèves for Trier, etc. For Cologne we still do use the French name. Angr 12:08, 1 October 2006 (UTC)

The article is not very clever on that: a name similar to "Ratisbon" would have been used not just in English and French but in Latin as well (widely used in church and scholarly circles before the Victorian period). Arguably, it is nearly as anachronistic to call pre-19th century Ratisbon "Regensburg" as it would be to call 6th-century Constantinople "Istanbul". The article would do better to set a sensible cut-off date and use "Ratisbon" consistently for the early period. Deipnosophista (talk) 20:15, 21 October 2015 (UTC)
 * In any case, it surely makes little sense to put 'English: Ratisbon' at the top of the article without further qualification, since no native English-speaker in this day and age would call it that, or have any idea where it is - I'm fairly well-read, and I didn't know either. For all intents and purposes the place has been known in English as 'Regensburg' for all of my life, and I'm 64. I'm aware of the 1684 'Truce of Ratisbon', but always wondered where it had been signed - it would never have occurred to me that it was a German city, but the name doesn't suggest any other specific language either. I wouldn't even be sure how to pronounce it: RAT-is-bon? Rat-IS-bon (like Lisbon)? Rat-is-BON? None of the above? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 213.127.210.95 (talk) 16:38 & :40, 6 June 2016
 * (In addition to templating w/ Template:unsigned2ip, i have presumed to guess at the colleague's markup intentions: in this context, what ":" produces seems likely to be the formatting effect desired by a user beginning the line " :". --Jerzy•t 18:45, 22 December 2016 (UTC)
 * This thread seems not quite to have reached a conclusion, but at any rate there is nobody here saying that we should say Ratisbon is the English form, so I will assume consensus on that at least, and change this in the article. --Doric Loon (talk) 12:06, 9 July 2017 (UTC)

Agree at this late date it is inaccurate to say Ratisbon is the English form. English has used Regensburg for a long time. It may have overlapped with Ratisbon as late as the 19th century or even into the 20th, but it's still archaic. User Angr in 2006 was correct to note English formerly used many French names for locations in Germany, and has dropped all but one or perhaps a few. Cologne would also be my only example in mind for one we still use. 18th century treaties are full of Ratisbon and Aix-la-Chapelle, but after that not so much. Speculation- this habit declined with the slowly declining dominance of French as the language of European diplomacy and international elite culture and the decline of the French orientation of English elites [which was quite strong even with centuries of war] in the 19th century. There would also have been a corresponding decline in the French cultural influence over western and southern Germany with the advent of romanticism and German nationalism and the experience of the Napoleonic wars, a period in which German elites started to abandon some Gallicisms they had used themselves, and in which British elites sympathized with the Germans. Broadly speaking, political and cultural change driving changes in ancient usages. One thing it was probably not, from the British point of view, was a deliberate decision to adopt indigenous names for the sake of it. It would be interesting to see evidence of any shift in usage in German literary sources- this would perhaps be made difficult because if there is such, it could reflect a decision to Germanize the name or just the fact that the writers were now writing in their native language rather than in French, so using a German form rather than the French one. Random noter (talk) 18:21, 11 August 2018 (UTC)

Pope Benedict XVI residency
It says that Pope Benedict XVI has never been a resident of Regensburg while he taught theology at the University of Regensburg from 1969 to 1977. It's totally non-sense because if he taught there for 8 years, it means he actually lived there. Therefore, I suggest that this part of the article be revised.136.183.231.42 01:10, 7 December 2006 (UTC)Shady19

 * He probably commuted. This site claims he lived in Pentling, where he still owns a house. Chl 04:13, 11 December 2006 (UTC)

Yes, but Pentling is a suburb of Regensburg. The people there do have slight separatist tendencies, but the fact remains that it is built up all the way out. You can walk from Pentling to the university in 10 minutes. Locally, Pentling is now being referred to as Popeville! --Doric Loon 17:03, 11 December 2006 (UTC)

 * Pentling is in Regensburg Landkreis. However this article is about the city itself, and not the Landkreis which is here Regensburg (district) so I think it is correct to say here that he did not live in Regensburg. Thehalfone 16:23, 8 August 2007 (UTC)

I am from Pentling and yes, he lifed here and still owns a house here. Pentling is pretty close to Regensburg and the University. Still Pentling is a small village of its own with its own administration/major. The 10 minutes walk to the University is a huge exageration by the way. 84.57.120.254 (talk) —Preceding comment was added at 16:01, 30 April 2008 (UTC)

Schweinfurt-Regensburg mission
I need some help here regarding the Schweinfurt-Regensburg mission. The factory/factories must have been outside town, as the site for the raid sugests heavy damage, while the site for Regensburg, the town, says that it escaped the war more or less unscathed. I'm way out of my field here. Can someone give a location for the factories relative to the town center and elaborate on Regensburg during the war. Other than the link I just added, there is no mention.4.249.186.40 01:54, 25 September 2007 (UTC).

The Messerschmitt Factories were located about 5km west of the towncentre, often reffered to the big cathedral. They were surrounded by lots of houses and situated 1.5km to a big hospital (Barmherzige Brüder - "Mercyful Brothers"). So one can say, it is a full load of luck for the town itself, that it hasnt been damaged during the airraid. Thus, you can even today find some craters in the direction the raid has been done. For example, in the near woods of the suburb Prüfening, which are now often used for some mountainbiking fun. Outside the town were numerous trenches and positions of the SS, mostly very young boys and very old men, standing their orders to defend the city. The US Army fired from the opposite side of the donau river, high in the hills of the "Vogelsang" (near the Village Sinzing) to the positions in the walls and hills in the outskirt "Prüfening" and "Pentling". My Grandmother told me, that she was taken by a teacher with all her schoolfellows outside the town to camp and sleep near a barn because they feared another airraid these days. A few hundred meters behind the barn she said, were trenches full with by artillery fire humilated corpses of german soldiers...The city was later overhanded without a single battle to the allied troops. That was mainly arranged by three citizens, one of them was a priest. Sadly, the allies still didnt have the city under full control so the 3 "traitors" where the very next day publicely executed at the "Dachau-Platz" by a few remaining fanatics. The Messerschmitt areal has been for about 50 years completely closed down for the public (a low wood has grown over it, which was fenced) and for rebuilding-actions because of the danger of unexploded bombs. In the last fiftteen years, the area has been cleared and is now covered with buildings like a bank, a school and several houses. If you look at the citymap, for example under http://stadtplan.regensburg.de/stadtplan.html, head to the west of the city. Between the railroad and the donau river is the "Siemens-Osram-Infineon"-Complex. This complex and the nearby "Lilienthalstrasse" and the "Prüfeningstrasse" merely sourround the Messerschmitt-Areal. The "Donaupark" is the area of the former Messerschmitt Airfield. At the local Work-Education-School ("Matthäus Runtinger Berufschule") is a small monument for the over 150 young pupils of that school, who have died in the bombingraid (together with lots of war prisoners). Today, still a lot of streets in Regensburg are named after flying aces of WorldWar1 or 2 or after aircraft-ingenieurs. For example: Udetstrasse, Lillienthalstrasse, Richthofenstrasse, Boelkestrasse, Immelmanstrasse, Heinkelstrasse, Charles Lindbergh Strasse or Messerschmittstrasse, to name a few.
 * Thanks for this excellent write-up. I wish you had provided your name so I could thank you by name. I used to live in the area and would have appreciated that info when I was there. I guess I just have to go back to visit one of my favorite cities. 155.213.224.59 (talk) 14:40, 24 June 2015 (UTC)

Coat of arms
Why does Regensburg get twice as many keys as Bremen? Sca (talk) 15:32, 20 May 2008 (UTC)
 * The keys are the symbols of Saint Peter, patron of both the city of Regensburg and its cathedral. The same holds for the Coat of arms of Bremen, but according to de:Simon Petrus, in the late Middle Ages Petrus was often depicted with two keys rather than one, symbolising both worldly and heavenly power. In this sense one might say, the difference means that Regensburg's coat of arms is younger than Bremen's. See also Keys of Heaven. --FordPrefect42 (talk) 18:20, 15 May 2009 (UTC)

Text needing translation
I just removed this text from the lead, which was added by an IP: "Fyn deetsk, Regensburg bedøjkdiþ "Rainstborough" op engelsk, wæra da numma yberghesætte betwixt den sproakken." I'm not sure what language this is in - it doesn't look like any I recognise. Can anyone provide a translation? Robofish (talk) 16:56, 15 May 2009 (UTC)
 * It appears to be boarisch, but I can't translate it. 155.213.224.59 (talk) 14:45, 24 June 2015 (UTC)

Austro-Bavarian name???
Shouldn't the Austro-Bavarian name "Rengschburg" be removed and replaced by a IPA transcription? Austro-Bavarian does not have a codified spelling and the transliteration "Rengschburg" really only works for German readers. WRatzka (talk) 23:45, 4 January 2010 (UTC)

Name
When was the town first named "Regensburg" ? --Lysytalk 15:46, 1 March 2010 (UTC)

 * Regensburg derived from Castra Regina, which dates to c 170AD (German wiki page for Regensburg). The local Celts then called the city Radasbona, which is the other name for the city. 155.213.224.59 (talk) 14:48, 24 June 2015 (UTC)

Radasbona
As far as I know the name Radasbona first appears in Arebo of Freising's "Vita et passio Sancti Haimhrammi Martyris" which was written in the 8th century. How can it be proofed that the name is in fact Celtic and predates the Roman names? It's never mentioned in Roman sources, they called it Regino or Castra Regina. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 141.13.248.42 (talk) 18:18, 25 June 2010 (UTC)

OTTI
I suggest more info about OTTI. --Hamiltha (talk) 09:50, 19 July 2010 (UTC)

Flag
Why isn't the flag of Regensburg in the infobox? It is commons: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_Regensburg.png 82.141.127.112 (talk) 10:48, 23 December 2011 (UTC)

Politics section ==

For what it is worth: I came to read on Regensburg due to a job offer and greatly missed a section on the political landscape of the town, election results, etc- Thanks for you hard work and cheers, wikipedians. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 212.50.133.234 (talk) 09:10, 17 June 2013 (UTC)

Changes since 20th march
Hi,

as i edited the article over the last 2-3 days and being no mother tongue, I would be gratefull if somebody could read through the text for language reasons, and improve it as well.

By the way: no worries about the culture section, i will fill in some facts over the next days.

thanks, Chris — Preceding unsigned comment added by 91.41.137.182 (talk) 12:22, 26 March 2015 (UTC)

I miss the rokokochurch Alte Kapelle. Basilica minor. --2003:D3:F12:EA41:51A1:BB59:7FBC:3F8 (talk) 08:24, 4 April 2021 (UTC)

Removed image
I have removed from the Regensburg article because I strongly believe it has been incorrectly named as being of Joseph Hanisch (cathedral organist) when there is no evidence to support this assertion. I have also removed the illustration from the article on Hanisch. My concerns are outlined in the image's Discussion page on Wikimedia. I would like to be proved wrong, but believe the sensible approach is to not use the image until such time as some explanation or further evidence is forthcoming from the page creator, or elsewhere. Nick Moyes (talk) 00:00, 27 September 2017 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 5 external links on Regensburg. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20060613083419/http://beeradvocate.com/news/stories_read/668 to http://beeradvocate.com/news/stories_read/668
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20150924072901/http://www.physik.uni-regensburg.de/forschung/wegscheider/gebhardt_files/skripten/EuropaeischeWetterlagen.Hagner.pdf to http://www.physik.uni-regensburg.de/forschung/wegscheider/gebhardt_files/skripten/EuropaeischeWetterlagen.Hagner.pdf
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20080207145806/http://www.aberdeencity.gov.uk/acci/web/includes/template/ShowFAQ.asp?qid=8962 to http://www.aberdeencity.gov.uk/acci/web/includes/template/ShowFAQ.asp?qid=8962
 * Added archive https://archive.is/20131004135322/http://www.cncd.fr/frontoffice/bdd-region.asp?action=getRegion&id=3 to http://www.cncd.fr/frontoffice/bdd-region.asp?action=getRegion&id=3
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20101002113809/http://www.regensburg-entdecken.de/ to http://www.regensburg-entdecken.de/

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Demographics
The table for foreign population does not even add up as given here;

Nation	Population (2018) Romania	2,530 Bulgaria	1,765 Turkey	1,570 Iraq	1,350 Kosovo	1,210 Total :	27,865

Those numbers add up to 8,425, a lot less than 27,865.

Anyone have better numbers that add up ready to hand? Random noter (talk) 18:23, 11 August 2018 (UTC)

Move
move the page with a strange and wrong argument. I contradict clearly to this move which is by the way completely inconsistent to all other city names. Timeshifter, please revert your edit immediately. thanks! --Nillurcheier (talk) 09:32, 23 September 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Regensburg


text:
Ignác Goldziher

Ignác (Yitzhaq Yehuda) Goldziher (22 June 1850 – 13 November 1921), often credited as Ignaz Goldziher, was a Hungarian scholar of Islam. Alongside Joseph Schacht and G.H.A. Juynboll, he is considered one of the pioneers of the modern academic study of hadith.

Biography
Born in Székesfehérvár of German Jewish heritage, he was educated at the universities of Budapest, Berlin, Leipzig and Leiden with the support of József Eötvös, Hungarian minister of culture. He became privatdozent at Budapest in 1872. In the next year, under the auspices of the Hungarian government, he began a journey through Syria, Palestine and Egypt, and took the opportunity of attending lectures of Muslim sheiks in the mosque of al-Azhar in Cairo. In 1888 he wrote his main studies of Islam which attributed several traditions of Muhammad to a later period. Goldziher was denied a teaching post at Budapest University until he was 44. He represented the Hungarian government and the Academy of Sciences at numerous international congresses. He received the large gold medal at the Stockholm Oriental Congress in 1889. He became a member of several Hungarian and other learned societies, and was appointed secretary of the Jewish community in Budapest. He was made Litt.D. of Cambridge (1904) and LL.D. of Aberdeen (1906). Goldziher died in Budapest.

Religious views
Goldziher kept a personal record of his reflections, travel records and daily records. This journal was later published in his German mother tongue as Tagebuch. The following quotation from Goldziher's published journal provides insight into his feelings about Islam.

 * Ich lebte mich denn auch während dieser Wochen so sehr in den mohammedanischen Geist ein, dass ich zuletzt innerlich überzeugt wurde, ich sei selbst Mohammedaner und klug herausfand, dass dies die einzige Religion sei, welche selbst in ihrer doktrinär-offiziellen Gestaltung und Formulirung philosophische Köpfe befriedigen könne. Mein Ideal war es, das Judenthum zu ähnlicher rationeller Stufe zu erheben. Der Islam, so lehrte mich meine Erfahrung, sei die einzige Religion, in welcher Aberglaube und heidnische Rudimente nicht durch den Rationalismus, sondern durch die orthodoxe Lehre verpönt werden. (p. 59)

 * i.e., "In those weeks, I truly entered into the spirit of Islam to such an extent that ultimately I became inwardly convinced that I myself was a Muslim, and judiciously discovered that this was the only religion which, even in its doctrinal and official formulation, can satisfy philosophic minds. My ideal was to elevate Judaism to a similar rational level. Islam, as my experience taught me, is the only religion, in which superstitious and heathen ingredients are not frowned upon by rationalism, but by orthodox doctrine."

Sander Gilman, in commenting on this passage, writes that, 'the Islam he discovered becomes the model for a new spirit of Judaism at the close of the nineteenth century.’ In Cairo, Goldziher even prayed as a Muslim: "In the midst of the thousands of the pious, I rubbed my forehead against the floor of the mosque. Never in my life was I more devout, more truly devout, than on that exalted Friday."

Despite his love for Islam, Goldziher remained a devout Jew all his life. This bond to the Mosaic faith was unusual for a man seeking an academic career in Europe in the late 19th century. He turned down several academic appointments outside of Hungary and struggled to understand his faith while transcending conventional piety and patriotism. This fact is significant in understanding his work. He saw Islam through the eyes of someone who refused to assimilate into contemporary European culture. In fact, despite his fondness for Islam, he had little affection, if not outright scorn, for European Christianity.

Judaism and Zionism
Goldziher viewed Zionism as an ethno-nationalist sentiment and a distinctly separate ideology from the religion of Judaism or what makes one a Jew, stating: "Jewishness is a religious term and not an ethnographical one. As regards to my nationality I am a Transdanubian, and by religion a Jew. When I headed for Hungary from Jerusalem I felt I was coming home."

Islamic studies
In 1890, Ignaz Goldziher published his work Muhammedanische Studien, inaugurating what Fred Donner has called the "traditional-critical approach" to the studies of early Islam and Islamic texts. In this work, Goldziher became the first academic in the West to understand the corpus of hadith texts within the purview of the conflicting political, religious, and social interests that was faced by the Islamic community in the initial centuries of its existence. Goldziher argued, against prior views about the authenticity of the corpus, that these hadith were creations of later periods and that their origins often reflect the later types of interests by the community. The novelty of Goldziher's analysis, compared to earlier Muslim efforts that attempted to delineate between historical and ahistorical hadith, was that Goldziher's analysis were limited to hadith that had previously been considered authentic or historical in traditional Islamic narrative. Thus, Goldziher "inaugurated the critical study" of the hadith's authenticity and concluded that "the great majority of traditions from the Prophet are documents not of the time to which they claim to belong" but created "during the first centuries of Islam," i.e. were fraudulent. This included hadith "accepted even in the most rigorously critical Muslim collections", which meant that "the meticulous isnads which supported them were utterly fictitious" (R. Stephen Humphreys). Instead, Goldziher argued in his book Muslim Studies, hadith were the product of "debates and arguments within the emerging [Islamic] religion and society ... projected back into the time of the Prophet" and were a means of putting "support for one party or another ... into the mouth of the prophet" (in the words of G.R. Hawting). Tied to this, and Goldziher's observation of the massive scale on which hadith were forged, was his observation that each position in every political and doctrinal controversy could be paired with numerous supporting hadiths, each equipped with an isnad. Goldziher also observed replete anachronism in the hadith literature, including in:"reports supporting the legitimacy of dynasties; traditions addressing how believers should respond to ungodly rulers; hadith supporting particular positions in theological controversies; reports giving voice to local patriotism; reports praising the merits of particular localities, tribes or families; apocalyptic prophecies of conquests and rebellions; and hadith praising the descendants of ʿAlī or, conversely, seeking to limit Alid legitimacy."As for isnads, Goldziher viewed them as a secondary attempt at justifying the traditions that particular actors cited during their controversies. The only relevant factor in evaluating the provenance and credibility of a hadith was its matn (content), and not its isnad.

He was a strong believer in the view that Islamic law owes its origins to Roman law but in the opinion of Patricia Crone his arguments here are "uncharacteristically weak".

Islamic studies
Goldziher's influence was a result of his careful investigation of pre-Islamic and Islamic law, tradition, religion and poetry, in connection with which he published a large number of treatises, review articles and essays contributed to the collections of the Hungarian Academy. Goldziher's own analyses were limited to and sampled from legal and theological hadith, but his approach was extended into other categories of texts in the ensuing years, including Quran commentary, sira literature, and more, especially by Henri Lammens and Leone Caetani in the immediate years following his major work. Another effect of his work has been to shift the conversation away from the study of the type of history that can be reconstructed from these types of sources, which Goldziher thought was very little, and into what they tell us about how Muhammad was represented in the second and third centuries of the Islamic era in literary sources. Some have sought to counter or refute Goldziher, such as by arguing for a larger role in the written transmission of hadith from early periods (such as by the Turkish scholar Fuad Sezgin, and among others like Azami and Abbott), although this approach has not found much traction amongst other scholars. Broadly, Goldziher's contention that hadith tell us little about the 7th century or the life of Muhammad has been widely accepted.

Along with Joseph Schacht (1902-1969), who expanded on his work, Goldziher is thought to have authored one of the "two influential and founding works" of Islamic studies or "Orientalist" studies (Goldziher's being Muslim Studies) according to Mohammed Salem Al-Shehri.

Edward Said
Goldziher's works have taken on a renewed importance in recent times owing to Edward Said's book Orientalism. Said himself was to reprove his work's defect for failing to pay sufficient attention to scholars like Goldziher. Of five major German orientalists, he remarked that four of them, despite their profound erudition, were hostile to Islam. Goldziher's work was an exception in that he appreciated 'Islam's tolerance towards other religions', though this was undermined by his dislike of anthropomorphism in Mohammad's thought, and what Said calls 'Islam's too exterior theology and jurisprudence'.

Works

 * Tagebuch, ed. Alexander Scheiber. Leiden: Brill, 1978. ISBN 90-04-05449-9
 * Zur Literaturgeschichte der Shi'a (1874)
 * Beiträge zur Geschichte der Sprachgelehrsamkeit bei den Arabern. Vienna, 1871–1873.
 * Der Mythos bei den Hebräern und seine geschichtliche Entwickelung. Leipzig, 1876; or, "Mythology among the Hebrews," Eng. trans., R Martineau, London, 1877.
 * Muhammedanische Studien. Halle, 1889–1890, 2 vols. ISBN 0-202-30778-6
 * English translation: Muslim Studies, 2 vols. Albany, 1977.
 * Abhandlungen zur arabischen Philologie, 2 vols. Leiden, 1896–1899.
 * Buch vom Wesen der Seele. Berlin 1907.
 * Vorlesungen über den Islam. 1910; 2nd ed. revised by Franz Babinger, 1925.
 * English translation: Introduction to Islamic Theology and Law, trans. Andras and Ruth Hamori. Princeton University Press, 1981.
 * English translation: Introduction to Islamic Theology and Law, trans. Andras and Ruth Hamori. Princeton University Press, 1981.

title: Ignác Goldziher


text:
U.S. Route 30

U.S. Route 30 or U.S. Highway 30 (US 30) is an east–west main route of the United States Numbered Highway System, with the highway traveling across the Northern U.S. With a length of 3072 mi, it is the third-longest U.S. Highway, after US 20 and US 6. The western end of the highway is at US 101 in Astoria, Oregon; the eastern end is at Virginia Avenue, Absecon Boulevard, and Adriatic Avenue in Atlantic City, New Jersey. The "0" as the last digit in the number indicates that it is a coast-to-coast route and a major east–west route. Despite long stretches of parallel and concurrent Interstate Highways, it has not been decommissioned unlike other long-haul routes such as US 66. It is also the only U.S. Highway that has always been coast-to-coast since the beginning of U.S. Numbered Highway System.

US 20 and US 30 break the general U.S. Highway numbering rules in Oregon, since US 20 actually starts south of US 30 in Newport, running through the middle of Oregon, while US 30 runs parallel to the north of the state (the Columbia River and Interstate 84, or I-84). The two run concurrently and continue in the correct positioning near Caldwell, Idaho. This situation is because US 20 was not a planned coast-to-coast route while US 30 was.

Much of the historic Lincoln Highway, the first road across the U.S. (from New York City to San Francisco), became part of US 30; it is still known by that name in many areas.

Route description

 * OR
 * 477 mi
 * ID
 * 416 mi
 * WY
 * 454 mi
 * NE
 * 451 mi
 * IA
 * 330 mi
 * IL
 * 151 mi
 * IN
 * 152 mi
 * OH
 * 245 mi
 * WV
 * 3 mi
 * PA
 * 333 mi
 * NJ
 * 58 mi
 * Total
 * 3072 mi
 * }
 * WV
 * 3 mi
 * PA
 * 333 mi
 * NJ
 * 58 mi
 * Total
 * 3072 mi
 * }
 * Total
 * 3072 mi
 * }

Oregon
The western terminus of US 30 is at an intersection with US 101 at the southern end of the Astoria–Megler Bridge in downtown Astoria, Oregon, approximately 5 mi from the Pacific Ocean. It heads east to Portland, where it uses a short section of freeway built for the canceled I-505. From there, it heads around the north side of downtown on I-405 and I-5 to reach I-84. Most of the rest of the route is concurrent with I‑84, with only about 70 mi, under a fifth of its remaining length, off the freeway, mainly on old alignments.

Idaho
Upon entering Idaho, US 30 runs along its old surface route through Fruitland and New Plymouth before joining I‑84. It leaves at Bliss and soon crosses the Snake River, running south of it through Twin Falls and Burley before crossing it again and rejoining I‑84. At the split with I-86, US 30 continues east with I‑86 almost to its end at Pocatello. US 30 cuts southeast through downtown Pocatello to I-15, where it heads south to McCammon. There, it exits and heads east and southeast into Wyoming, not paralleling an Interstate Highway for the first time since Portland.

Wyoming
In Wyoming, US 30 heads southeast through Kemmerer to Granger, where it joins I-80 across the southern part of the state. It is also here that it joins the historic Lincoln Highway. As in the previous two states, US 30 remains with the Interstate highway for most of its path, only leaving for the old route in the following places:
 * 97 mi from Walcott to Laramie
 * 12 mi through Cheyenne
 * 2 mi through Pine Bluffs to the Nebraska state line

Nebraska
Unlike the three states to the west, Nebraska keeps US 30 completely separate from its parallel Interstates (I-80 in this case). From the state line to Grand Island, US 30 closely parallels I‑80. East of Grand Island, US 30 diverges from I‑80 and runs northeast toward Columbus on a highway parallel to the Platte River. At Columbus, it turns east toward Schuyler and Fremont and crosses the Missouri River into Iowa east of Blair.

Iowa
US 30 crosses Iowa from west to east approximately 20 mi north of I-80. Between Missouri Valley and Denison, US 30 runs in a southwest–northeast direction. Several freeway bypasses have been built around the major cities on US 30: Ames, Marshalltown, Tama, Cedar Rapids, Mount Vernon and DeWitt. It crosses the Mississippi River into Illinois on the Gateway Bridge at Clinton.

US 30S and US 30A are two previous alternate alignments of US 30 in Iowa. They followed the original alignment of US 30 in the state. They both began in Nebraska, entered Iowa in Council Bluffs, and extended north to Missouri Valley via Crescent to meet the current highway.

Illinois
US 30 heads east in Illinois to Rock Falls, where it begins to parallel I-88. At Aurora, it turns southeast to Joliet, where it is a major thoroughfare in the city of Joliet (Plainfield Road), and then back east through New Lenox, Frankfort, Mokena, Matteson, Olympia Fields, Park Forest, Chicago Heights, Ford Heights, and Lynwood to the Indiana state line, bypassing Chicago to the south. Notwithstanding, the original 1926 routing of US 30 ran directly through downtown Chicago.

Indiana
US 30 in Indiana is a major rural divided highway. It is not a freeway except at Fort Wayne, where it runs around the north side on I-69 and I-469. Between I-65 (at Merrillville) and I‑69 (at Fort Wayne), there are over 40 traffic signals on this divided highway, hindering smooth traffic flow. This is especially pronounced near Warsaw and Columbia City, where the speed limit is reduced as the highway runs through a commercial section with many businesses and traffic signals. Many of the other signals are concentrated between Hobart and Valparaiso, the two cities being about 20 mi apart. It is, however, a four-lane divided road through its entirety within Indiana, generally avoiding small towns. Speed limits range but are generally 60 mph.

Ohio
US 30 continues into Ohio, where it is mainly a four-lane divided highway until Canton. A proposal to make US 30 a limited-access freeway from Trump Avenue and State Route 11 (SR 11) was set in 2019 and federal funding set $18 million (equivalent to $ in ) to construct the new freeway. , the only sections that were limited access freeways are in Van Wert, Bucyrus, Mansfield, Wooster, and Canton. A section between I-71 and US 250 is a divided four-lane highway. A section between SR 57 and SR 172 is a four-lane divided highway, with traffic signals at two intersections. The highway passes through Van Wert. After Van Wert, it travels through Upper Sandusky where the highway runs concurrently with US 23. The section between Mansfield and Canton follows the old Lincoln Highway. The last remaining segments that will be upgraded to a freeway are past Canton; currently, the highway is a two-lane route that passes through East Canton, Minerva, and Lisbon. After Lisbon, it runs concurrently with SR 45 for 3 mi and becomes a freeway. Designated with signs marking routes SR 11, SR 7, SR 39, and US 30. After joining SR 11, SR 7 becomes a part of the freeway where all three routes split in East Liverpool where US 30 joins SR 39 for 1 mi and US 30 crosses the Ohio River into West Virginia.

West Virginia
US 30 runs for only about 4 mi in West Virginia. It crosses the Ohio River over the Jennings Randolph Bridge, continuing the freeway from the Ohio section. After cutting through the town of Chester with only one interchange, West Virginia Route 2 (Carolina Avenue), the freeway section ends not too long after. US 30 continues across the northernmost piece of the Northern Panhandle on a two-lane road.

Pennsylvania
US 30 heads southeast into Pennsylvania, joining US 22 and then the Penn-Lincoln Parkway West west of Pittsburgh. It heads through downtown Pittsburgh on I-376/US 22, leaving at Wilkinsburg for its own alignment. From there, it roughly parallels the Pennsylvania Turnpike (I-76) to the Philadelphia area, though, in many areas, particularly from York past Lancaster, and bypassing Coatesville, Downingtown, and Exton, it is far enough from the Pennsylvania Turnpike to require its own freeway. As it approaches Philadelphia, US 30 constitutes the main road of the Philadelphia Main Line, a string of affluent suburbs west of the city; often called Lancaster Avenue and Lancaster Pike through this stretch. US 30 then briefly joins I‑76 near Center City, Philadelphia, splitting onto I-676 as it crosses the Delaware River on the Benjamin Franklin Bridge.

New Jersey
US 30 splits from I-676 just east of the Benjamin Franklin Bridge toll plaza in Camden and heads southeast to Atlantic City, generally parallel to the Atlantic City Expressway, passing through the New Jersey Pine Barrens. For most of its New Jersey run, it is known as the White Horse Pike. It ends in Atlantic City at the intersection of Absecon Boulevard, Virginia Avenue, and Adriatic Avenue, about 0.5 mi from the Atlantic Ocean.

History
US 30 was originally proposed to run from Salt Lake City, Utah, to Atlantic City, New Jersey. West of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, this was designated largely along the Lincoln Highway, as part of a promise to the Lincoln Highway Association to assign a single number to their road as much as possible. West of Salt Lake City, US 40 continued to San Francisco, California, although it ran farther north than the Lincoln Highway east of Wadsworth, Nevada, and west of Sacramento, California.

The governments of Idaho and Oregon objected to Salt Lake City as the terminus for US 30 and requested extensions. What is now US 30 through those states (west of Burley, Idaho) had been designated as part of US 20, another transcontinental route, but traveled through Yellowstone National Park and was inaccessible during the winter season. The states agreed to take US 30 along that route, splitting from the route to Salt Lake City at Granger, Wyoming, and running along what had been designated as US 530. (That number was then reused for the spur toward Salt Lake City.) The planned US 530 had ended at US 91 at McCammon, Idaho, where the new US 30 turned north to Pocatello, meeting the planned US 20. (US 20 was truncated to Yellowstone National Park but later extended along its own route to the Pacific Ocean.) What had been designated as US 630, from US 30 at Echo to Ogden, Utah, was to be extended east on former US 30 to US 30 at Granger and northwest on US 91 and what had been designated US 191 to US 30 at Burley.

Utah objected to that plan, however, as it removed US 30 from that state, giving them only US 630, a branch. A compromise was reached, in which the US 630 route would become the main line of US 30, once improved to higher standards, but that was still not deemed completely satisfactory. Ultimately, in the final system, a split was approved between Burley, Idaho, and Granger, Wyoming, with US 30N running along the modern routing US 30, and US 30S taking the route through Utah (planned as US 630). In the final plan (dated November 11, 1926), the route toward Salt Lake City became US 530, ending at US 40 at Kimball Junction, Utah.

Around 1931, a split in Ohio was designated, from Delphos east to Mansfield. The original US 30 was assigned US 30S, and a straighter route became US 30N. US 30S was eliminated c. 1975, putting US 30 on former US 30N.

US 30 was rerouted c. 1931 to bypass Omaha, Nebraska, and Council Bluffs, Iowa, to the north. The former route, from Fremont, Nebraska, to Missouri Valley, Iowa, was designated US 30S. Around 1934, it was truncated to Omaha and c. 1939 it was changed from US 30S to US 30A and was removed from service in 1969 when the historic Douglas Street bridge was demolished. Later sections were relocated to parallel Interstate Highways in several states, including I-84 in Oregon and Idaho.

A signed US 30 Bypass was created in Portland, Oregon, beginning at the St. Johns Bridge, following (roughly) Lombard Street in North Portland, continuing along Sandy Boulevard, and rejoining the I-84/US 30 route in the center of the town of Wood Village. Portland also had a US 30 Business route along Northeast Sandy Boulevard; the route, however, was decommissioned in 2007.

In 1988, Pennsylvania Department of Transportation (PennDOT) engineers proposed that US 30 be rerouted and upgraded to a four-lane controlled-access expressway through a portion of Lancaster County. The American Farmland Trust (AFT) opposed the plan because, according to Jim Riggle, then Director of Operations at AFT, it "would have cut right through the heart of the best farmland [and] would probably have been the death knell of the Amish community". The plans were averted when more than a thousand Amish people, people who do not usually participate in the public process, "drove their buggies to the meeting hall and expressed their concern by simply sitting quietly in the audience in their black homespun suits".

Major intersections

 * Oregon
 * in Astoria
 * in Portland. The highways travel concurrently through the city.
 * in Portland. I-5/US 30 travel concurrently through the city.
 * in Portland. I-84/US 30 travel concurrently to Cascade Locks.
 * in Portland
 * in Portland
 * in Portland
 * in Cascade Locks. The highways travel concurrently to Hood River.
 * in Hood River. The highways travel concurrently to Mosier.
 * in The Dalles
 * in The Dalles. The highways travel concurrently through the city.
 * in The Dalles. I-84/US 30 travel concurrently to Pendleton.
 * east-northeast of The Dalles
 * east of Boardman
 * southwest of Hermiston
 * in Stanfield. The highways travel concurrently to Pendleton.
 * in Gopher Flats. The highways travel concurrently to La Grande.
 * southeast of La Grande. The highways travel concurrently to North Powder.
 * in Baker City. The highways travel concurrently to south of Fruitland, Idaho.

 * Idaho
 * south of Fruitland. US 30/US 95 travel concurrently to Palisades Corner.
 * south of New Plymouth. The highways travel concurrently to west-northwest of Bliss.
 * north of Caldwell. The highways travel concurrently to Caldwell.
 * in Boise.
 * in Boise. US 20/US 30 travel concurrently to Mountain Home. US 26/US 30 travel concurrently to west-northwest of Bliss.
 * east of Filer. The highways travel concurrently to Twin Falls.
 * in Heyburn. The highways travel concurrently to northeast of Declo.
 * northeast of Declo. I-86/US 30 travel concurrently to west of Chubbuck.
 * in Pocatello. The highways travel concurrently to northwest of McCammon.
 * in Pocatello. The highways travel concurrently to northwest of McCammon.
 * in Montpelier. The highways travel concurrently through the city.

 * Wyoming
 * in Kemmerer
 * in Little America. The highways travel concurrently to south-southeast of Walcott.
 * in Purple Sage. The highways travel concurrently to Rock Springs.
 * east of Rawlins. The highways travel concurrently to Laramie.
 * southeast of Laramie. The highways travel concurrently to southwest of Cheyenne.
 * in Cheyenne
 * in Cheyenne
 * east-northeast of Cheyenne. The highways travel concurrently to Pine Bluffs.

 * Nebraska
 * in Sidney. The highways travel concurrently to Chappell.
 * north of Big Springs
 * west-southwest of Ogallala. The highways travel concurrently to Ogallala.
 * in North Platte
 * in Lexington
 * in Grand Island
 * south of Columbus. The highways travel concurrently to Columbus.
 * north of Fremont. US 30/US 275 travel concurrently to east-northeast of Fremont.
 * in Blair. The highways travel concurrently through the city.

 * Iowa
 * in Missouri Valley
 * in Denison. The highways travel concurrently through the city.
 * in Carroll
 * on the Amaqua–Beaver township line. The highways travel concurrently to Ogden.
 * in Ames
 * southeast of Ames
 * in Colo
 * in Toledo
 * in Fremont Township. The highways travel concurrently to Cedar Rapids.
 * in Cedar Rapids. The highways travel concurrently to Bertram Township.
 * in Cedar Rapids
 * in De Witt. The highways travel concurrently to southwest of De Witt.
 * in Clinton. The highways travel concurrently through the city.

 * Illinois
 * southeast of Rock Falls
 * north of Amboy
 * southwest of Lee
 * in Oswego. The highways travel concurrently to Montgomery.
 * in Joliet
 * in Joliet. The highways travel concurrently through the city.
 * in New Lenox
 * in Frankfort
 * in Matteson

 * Indiana
 * in Schererville
 * in Merrillville
 * in Wanatah
 * in Davis Township
 * east of Plymouth
 * in Fort Wayne. The highways travel concurrently through the city.
 * in Fort Wayne. I-69/US 30 travel concurrently through the city.
 * in Fort Wayne
 * north-northeast of Fort Wayne. The highways travel concurrently to New Haven.
 * northeast of New Haven. The highways travel concurrently to New Haven.

 * Ohio
 * in Pleasant Township. The highways travel concurrently to Van Wert.
 * north of Van Wert
 * in Madison Township
 * in Salem Township. The highways travel concurrently to Crane Township.
 * in Madison Township
 * in Mifflin Township
 * in Plain Township. The highways travel concurrently to Wooster Township.
 * in Massillon. The highways travel concurrently to Canton.
 * in Canton
 * from West Point to West Virginia state line

 * West Virginia
 * in Chester

 * Pennsylvania
 * in North Fayette Township. The highways travel concurrently to Wilkinsburg.
 * in Robinson Township. The highways travel concurrently to Wilkinsburg.
 * southwest of Pennsbury Village
 * in Pittsburgh. The highways travel concurrently approximately 1 mi.
 * in Pittsburgh
 * in North Huntingdon Township (Pennsylvania Turnpike)
 * in Southwest Greensburg
 * in Jenner Township
 * in Bedford Township
 * in Breezewood. The highways travel concurrently through the town.
 * in Todd Township
 * in Chambersburg
 * in Chambersburg, PA
 * in Straban Township
 * in Manchester Township
 * in Manheim Township. The highways travel concurrently through the township.
 * in Caln Township
 * in West Whiteland Township
 * in Radnor Township
 * on the Lower Merion Township–Philadelphia line
 * in Philadelphia. The highways travel concurrently through the city.
 * in Philadelphia. I-676/US 30 travel concurrently to Camden, New Jersey.
 * in Philadelphia

 * New Jersey
 * in Pennsauken Township. The highways travel concurrently to Collingswood.
 * in Barrington
 * in Hammonton
 * in Absecon
 * Virginia Avenue/Absecon Boulevard/Adriatic Avenue in Atlantic City

Related routes

 * in New Jersey
 * (former) in Pennsylvania
 * (former) in Illinois
 * (former) in Illinois
 * (former) in Utah
 * (former) in Oregon
 * in Oregon and Washington
 * (former) in Washington

title: U.S. Route 30


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Limpkin

The limpkin (Aramus guarauna), also called carrao, courlan, and crying bird, is a large wading bird related to rails and cranes, and the only extant species in the family Aramidae. It is found mostly in wetlands in warm parts of the Americas, from Florida to northern Argentina, but has been spotted as far north as Wisconsin and Southern Ontario. It feeds on molluscs, with the diet dominated by apple snails of the genus Pomacea. Its name derives from its seeming limp when it walks.

Taxonomy and systematics
The limpkin is placed in the family Aramidae, which is in turn placed within the crane and rail order Gruiformes. The limpkin had been suggested to be close to the ibis and spoonbill family Threskiornithidae, based upon shared bird lice. The Sibley–Ahlquist taxonomy of birds, based upon DNA–DNA hybridization, suggested that the limpkin's closest relatives were the Heliornithidae finfoots, and Sibley and Monroe even placed the species in that family in 1990. More recent studies have found little support for this relationship. More recent DNA studies have confirmed a close relationship with particularly the cranes, with the limpkin remaining as a family close to the cranes and the two being sister taxa to the trumpeters.

Although the limpkin is the only extant species in the family today, several fossils of extinct Aramidae are known from across the Americas. The earliest known species, Aramus paludigrus, is dated to the middle Miocene, while the oldest supposed members of the family, Aminornis and Loncornis, have been found in early Oligocene deposits in Argentina, although whether these are indeed related is not certain; in fact, Loncornis seems to be a misidentified mammal bone. Another Oligocene fossil from Europe, Parvigrus pohli (family Parvigruidae), has been described as a mosaic of the features shared by the limpkins and the cranes. It shares many morphological features with the cranes and limpkins, but also was much smaller than either group, and was more rail-like in its proportions. In the paper describing the fossil, Gerald Mayr suggested that it was similar to the stem species of the grues (the cranes and limpkins), and that the limpkins evolved massively long bills as a result of the specialisation to feeding on snails. In contrast, the cranes evolved into long-legged forms to walk and probe on open grasslands.

Subspecies
Between 1856 and 1934, the limpkin was treated as two species, one in South America (Aramus guarauna) and the other found in Central America, the Caribbean, and Florida (Aramus pictus). Today, it is treated as a single species with four subspecies. Along with the nominate subspecies A. g. guarauna, A. g. dolosus, A. g. elucus (both J. L. Peters, 1925), and A. g. pictus (F. A. A. Meyer, 1794) are recognized. The difference between the subspecies are related to slight differences in size and plumage.
 * Aramus guarauna guarauna - South America (except the arid west coast, the Andes and extreme south)
 * Aramus guarauna pictus - Florida, Georgia, The Bahamas, Cuba and Jamaica
 * Aramus guarauna elucus - Hispaniola and (formerly) Puerto Rico
 * Aramus guarauna dolosus - Southwestern Mexico to Panama

Description
The limpkin is a somewhat large bird, 64 - 73 cm long, with a wingspan of 101 - 107 cm. Body mass ranges from 900 to 1300 g, averaging 1080 g. The males are slightly larger than the females in size, but no difference in plumage is seen. Its plumage is drab—dark brown with an olive luster above. The feathers of the head, neck, wing coverts, and much of the back and underparts (except the rear) are marked with white, making the body look streaked and the head and neck light gray. It has long, dark-gray legs and a long neck. Its bill is long, heavy, and downcurved, yellowish bill with a darker tip. The bill is slightly open near but not at the end to give it a tweezers-like action in removing snails from their shells, and in many individuals the tip curves slightly to the right, like the apple snails' shells. The white markings are slightly less conspicuous in first-year birds. Its wings are broad and rounded and its tail is short. It is often confused with the immature American white ibis.

This bird is easier to hear than see. Its common vocalization is a loud wild wail or scream with some rattling quality, represented as "kwEEEeeer or klAAAar." This call is most often given at night and at dawn and dusk. Other calls include "wooden clicking", clucks, and in alarm, a "piercing bihk, bihk...".

Distribution and habitat
The limpkin occurs from peninsular Florida (and the Okefenokee Swamp in southern Georgia) and southern Mexico through the Caribbean and Central America to northern Argentina. In South America, it occurs widely east of the Andes; west of them its range extends only to the Equator.

It inhabits freshwater marshes and swamps, often with tall reeds, as well as mangroves. In the Caribbean, it also inhabits dry brushland. In Mexico and northern Central America, it occurs at altitudes up to 1500 m. In Florida, the distribution of apple snails is the best predictor of where limpkins can be found.

The limpkin undertakes some localized migrations, although the extent of these is not fully understood. In some parts in the northern part of the range, females (and a few males) leave the breeding areas at the end of summer, returning at the end of winter. In Brazil, birds breeding in some seasonal marshes leave during the dry season and return again with the rains. Birds may also migrate between Florida and Cuba, as several limpkins on the Florida Keys and Dry Tortugas have been reported, but these records may also represent vagrants or postbreeding dispersal. One study in Florida using wing tags found limpkins dispersed up to 325 km away from the breeding site. This tendency may explain vagrant limpkins seen in other parts of the United States and at sea near the Bahamas.

Behavior and ecology
Limpkins are active during the day, but also forage at night. Where they are not persecuted, they are also very tame and approachable. Even so, they are usually found near cover. They are not aggressive for the most part, being unconcerned by other species and rarely fighting with members of their own species.

Because of their long toes, they can stand on floating water plants. They also swim well, both as adults or as newly hatched chicks, but they seldom do so. They fly strongly, the neck projecting forward and the legs backward, the wings beating shallowly and stiffly, with a jerky upstroke, above the horizontal most of the time.

Feeding
Limpkins forage primarily in shallow water and on floating vegetation such as water hyacinth and water lettuce. When wading, they seldom go deeper than having half the body underwater, and never are submerged up to the back. They walk slowly with a gait described as "slightly undulating" and "giving the impression of lameness or limping", "high-stepping", or "strolling", looking for food if the water is clear or probing with the bill. They do not associate with other birds in mixed-species feeding flocks, as do some other wading birds, but may forage in small groups with others of their species.

The diet of the limpkin is dominated by apple snails (Ampullariidae) of the genus Pomacea. The availability of this one mollusk has a significant effect on the local distribution of the limpkin. Freshwater mussels, including Anodonta cowperiana, Villosa vibex, Elliptio strigosus, E. jayensis, and Uniomerus obesus, as well as other kinds of snails, are a secondary food sources. Less important prey items are insects, frogs, lizards, crustaceans (such as crayfish) and worms, as well as seeds. These prey items may be important in periods of drought or flooding when birds may be pushed into less than optimal foraging areas. In one site in Florida, moon snails and mussels were the most important prey items. Two studies, both in Florida, have looked at the percentage composition of the diet of limpkins. One, looking at stomach contents, found 70% Pomacea apple snails, 3% Campeloma, and 27% unidentified mollusc, probably Pomacea.

When a limpkin finds an apple snail, it carries it to land or very shallow water and places it in mud, the opening facing up. It deftly removes the operculum or "lid" and extracts the snail, seldom breaking the shell. The extraction takes 10 to 20 seconds. The orange-yellow yolk gland of female snails is usually shaken loose and not eaten. It often leaves piles of empty shells at favored spots.

Reproduction and breeding
Males have exclusive territories, which can vary in size from 0.15 to 4.0 ha. In large, uniform swamps, nesting territories can often be clumped together, in the form of large colonies. These are vigorously defended, with males flying to the territory edges to challenge intruders and passing limpkins being chased out of the territory. Territorial displays between males at boundaries include ritualized charging and wing-flapping. Females may also participate in territorial defense, but usually only against other females or juveniles. Territories may be maintained year-round or abandoned temporarily during the nonbreeding season, usually due to lack of food.

Limpkins may be either monogamous, with females joining a male's territory, or serially polyandrous, with two or more females joining a male. With the monogamous pairs, banding studies have shown that a small number of pairs reform the following year (four out of 18 pairs). Nests may be built in a wide variety of places – on the ground, in dense floating vegetation, in bushes, or at any height in trees. They are bulky structures of rushes, sticks, or other materials. Nest building is undertaken by the male initially, which constructs the nest in his territory prior to pair-bond formation. Unpaired females visit a number of territories before settling on a male with which to breed. Males may initially challenge and fight off prospective mates, and may not accept first-year females as mates. Pair-bond formation may take a few weeks. Courtship feeding is part of the bonding process, where males catch and process a snail and then feed it to the female.

The clutch consists of three to eight eggs, with five to seven being typical and averaging 5.5, which measure 6.0 ×. The egg color is highly variable. Their background color ranges from gray-white through buff to deep olive, and they are marked with light-brown and sometimes purplish-gray blotches and speckles. The eggs are laid daily until the clutch is complete, and incubation is usually delayed until the clutch is completed. Both parents incubate the eggs during the day, but only the female incubates at night. The shift length is variable, but the male incubates for longer during the day. The male remains territorial during incubation, and leaves the clutch to chase off intruders; if this happens, the female returns quickly to the eggs. The incubation period is about 27 days, and all the eggs hatch within 24 hours of each other.

The young hatch covered with down, capable of walking, running, and swimming. They follow their parents to a platform of aquatic vegetation, where they are brooded. They are fed by both parents; they reach adult size at 7 weeks and leave their parents at about 16 weeks.

Ecology
Limpkins are reported to be attacked and eaten by American alligators. Also, adults with serious foot and leg injuries have been reported, suggesting they may have been attacked by turtles while standing on floating vegetation. Their nests are apparently preyed upon by snakes, raccoons, crows, and muskrats. Foraging adults may in times of drought be victims of kleptoparasitism by snail kites, and the attempted theft of apple snails caught by limpkins has also been observed in boat-tailed grackles.

Limpkins in Florida were examined for parasites, which included trematodes, nematodes, and biting lice. Two biting lice species were found, Laemobothrion cubense and Rallicola funebris. The trematode Prionosoma serratum was found in the intestines of some birds; this species may enter the bird after first infecting apple snails (this has been shown to be the route of infection for a closely related trematode to infect snail kites). Nematodes Amidostomum acutum and Strongyloides spp. are also ingested and live in the gut.

Relationship with humans
Many of the limpkin's names across its range are onomatopoeic and reflect the bird's call; for example, carau in Argentina, carrao in Venezuela, and guareáo in Cuba. The species also has a range of common names that refer to its call, for example lamenting bird, or to its supposed gait, crippled bird. The limpkin does not feature much in folklore, although in the Amazon people believe that when the limpkin starts to call, the river will not rise any more. Its call has been used for jungle sound effects in Tarzan films and for the hippogriff in the film Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban.

title: Limpkin


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User:SMoon

SMoon ist ein mopsiger Typ der manchmal aufgeht wie ein Mehlsack. Er ist ein flauschiges Mitglied im Bo_Hammel_Net und wurde 1982 in Husum geboren. Seine Hauptaufgabe ist das nörgeln an Eritons Seiten und das Browserkompatibel machen selbiger. Nebenbei wuselt er durchs IRC und ist ein Gründungsmitglied des GameCon e. V. und codet ein paar Seiten in PHP oder andere Dinge.

title: User:SMoon


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Bill Amend

William J. C. Amend III (born September 20, 1962) is an American cartoonist. He is known for his comic strip FoxTrot.

Early life
Amend was born in Massachusetts and raised in Northern California. He attended high school in Burlingame, California where he was a cartoonist on his school newspaper. Amend is an Eagle Scout in the Boy Scouts of America. He graduated with a degree in physics from Amherst College in 1984.

Career
After about a month in the animation business, Amend got fired for being unqualified and decided to pursue a cartooning career and got signed on with Universal Press Syndicate after three years of trying. FoxTrot first appeared on April 10, 1988. On May 21, 1999, Amherst College awarded him an honorary degree as Doctor of Humane Letters.

On December 5, 2006, Universal Press Syndicate issued a press release stating that his strip, FoxTrot, would turn into a Sunday-only strip. Amend stated that he wanted to continue doing the strip, but at a less hurried pace. This news was followed by several weeks of the characters discussing a "cartoonist" semi-retiring to Sundays only, and what methods he would use to phase out the daily strips. The last daily FoxTrot cartoon was printed on December 30, 2006. Amend also sometimes did guest strips for webcomics such as Scott Kurtz's PvP, Mike Krahulik and Jerry Holkins's Penny Arcade, and Randall Munroe's XKCD.

On May 26, 2007, Amend was presented with the Reuben Award for Outstanding Cartoonist of the Year.

Personal life
Amend made a television appearance on The Screen Savers, which aired October 20, 2003, on the former TechTV. Amend was also an avid World of Warcraft player who played on the server "Bronzebeard".

title: Bill Amend


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Octave Crémazie

Octave Crémazie (April 16, 1827 – January 16, 1879) was a French Canadian poet and bookseller born in Quebec City. Recognized both during and after his lifetime for his patriotic verse and his significant role in the cultural development of Quebec, Crémazie has been called "the father of French Canadian poetry."

Octave was the youngest of the four surviving children of Jacques Crémazie and Marie-Anne Miville. From 1836 to 1844, he was a student at the Seminary of Quebec, where the priest John Holmes (American priest) introduced him to the works of the French Romantic writers. Alfred de Musset, Alphonse de Lamartine, and Victor Hugo, in particular, had a profound influence on the future poet.

After finishing his studies at the Seminary of Quebec, Crémazie went into business with his brother Joseph, a bookseller. Their shop in Quebec City, the J. et O. Crémazie bookstore, established in 1833, was instrumental in the North American dissemination of works by many Romantic writers. It was also a meeting place for the members of what would become known as Quebec's literary movement of 1860.

While still in his early twenties, Crémazie helped found the Institut canadien, an organization devoted to the promotion of French Canadian culture. He would later serve as the organization's president (from 1857 to 1858).

Crémazie's first published poems appeared in L'Ami de la religion et de la patrie (edited by his brother Jacques) and other Quebec City newspapers. Recognition for his poetry grew throughout the 1850s. As French-Canadian literature scholar Odette Condemine writes:

"His nostalgic evocation of the happiness that preceded the Conquest and the miseries that followed roused his compatriots' fervour. 'Le vieux soldat canadien' (1855) and 'Le Drapeau de Carillon' (1858) were enthusiastically received and won Crémazie his title as 'national bard.'"

The longing for a glorious, vanished past and the sense of estrangement from France in Crémazie's work has prompted the critic Gilles Marcotte to describe it as a poetry of exile.

Despite the popularity of his bookstore, Octave Crémazie's extravagant taste for foreign commodities led to large debts and trouble with creditors. By 1862, his financial situation had become so dire that he fled to France in secret, leaving the bookstore bankrupt. He lived at different times in Paris, Bordeaux, and Le Havre under the name of Jules Fontaine, poor and isolated despite having secured a modest job and the support of a few French friends.

Crémazie's poetic production stopped when he left Quebec. The documents that survive from his later years include his Journal du siège de Paris, a diary detailing the hardship that Parisians and Crémazie himself endured during the siege of the capital in 1870 and 1871. Many of his letters to close friends and family members also survive, including his correspondence with the priest Raymond Casgrain, to whom Crémazie often expressed his ideas about literature.

Octave Crémazie died in Le Havre on January 16, 1879.

Œuvres complètes, a volume of Crémazie's poems and letters edited by Raymond Casgrain, was published in 1882 by the Beauchemin bookstore in Montreal and the Institut canadien de Québec. The book included the following remarks: "In a word, the publishers wanted this book to stand as the most enduring monument that could be raised to the memory of the most patriotic, and indeed the most hapless, of our poets."

A statue depicting a French Canadian soldier stands in Montreal's Saint-Louis Square (Rue de Malines and Saint-Denis) with Crémazie's name across the top and the years 1827–1879 (his years of birth and death). Underneath the soldier are the words: Pour mon drapeau je viens ici mourir (literally: "For my flag I come here to die"). There is also a Montreal metro station named for him on the orange line, located on the boulevard likewise named in his honour.

title: Octave Crémazie


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Pele (deity)

In Hawaiian religion, Pele (pronounced ) is the goddess of volcanoes and fire and the creator of the Hawaiian Islands. Often referred to as "Madame Pele" or "Tūtū Pele" as a sign of respect, she is a well-known deity within Hawaiian mythology and is notable for her contemporary presence and cultural influence as an enduring figure from ancient Hawaii. Epithets of the goddess include Pele-honua-mea ("Pele of the sacred land") and Ka wahine ʻai honua ("The earth-eating woman").

In different stories talking about the goddess Pele, she was born from the female spirit named Haumea, a descendant of Papa, or Earth Mother, and Wakea, Sky Father, both descendants of the supreme beings. Pele is also known as "She who shapes the sacred land," known to be said in ancient Hawaiian chants. The first published stories about Pele were written down by William Ellis.

Legends
Kīlauea is a currently active volcano that is located on the island of Hawaii and is still being extensively studied. Many Hawaiians believe Kilauea to be inhabited by a "family of fire gods," one of the sisters being Pele who is believed to govern Kilauea and is responsible for controlling its lava flows. There are several traditional legends associated with Pele in Hawaiian mythology. In addition to being recognized as the goddess of volcanoes, Pele is also known for her power, passion, jealousy, and capriciousness. She has numerous siblings, including Kāne Milohai, Kamohoalii, Nāmaka, and numerous sisters named Hiiaka, the most famous being Hiiakaikapoliopele (Hiiaka in the bosom of Pele). They are usually considered to be the offspring of Haumea. Pele's siblings include deities of various types of wind, rain, fire, ocean wave forms, and cloud forms. Her home is believed to be the fire pit called Halemaʻumaʻu at the summit caldera of Kīlauea, one of the Earth's most active volcanoes, but her domain encompasses all volcanic activity on the Big Island of Hawaii.

Pele shares features similar to other malignant deities inhabiting volcanoes, as in the case of the devil Guayota of Guanche Mythology in the Canary Islands, living on the volcano Teide and considered by the aboriginal Guanches as responsible for the eruptions of the volcano.

Legend told that Pele herself journeyed on her canoe from the island of Tahiti to Hawaiʻi. When on her journey, it was said she tried to create her fires on different islands, but her sister, Nāmaka, was chasing her, wanting to put an end to her. In the end, the two sisters fought each other and Pele was killed. With this happening, her body was destroyed but her spirit lives in Halemaʻumaʻu on Kilauea. They say, "Her body is the lava and steam that comes from the volcano. She can also change form, appearing as a white dog, old woman, or beautiful young woman."

In addition to her role as goddess of fire and her strong association with volcanoes, Pele is also regarded as the "goddess of the hula." She is a significant figure in the history of hula because of her sister Hiiaka, who is believed to be the first person to dance hula. As a result of Pele's significance in hula, there have been many hula dances and chants dedicated to her and her family. With hula being dedicated to Pele, the dance is often performed in a way that represents her intense personality and the movement of volcanoes.

Expulsion version
In one version of the story, Pele is the daughter of Kanehoalani and Haumea in the mystical land of Kuaihelani, a floating free land like Fata Morgana. Kuaihelani was in the region of Kahiki (Kukulu o Kahiki). She stays close to her mother's fireplace with the fire-keeper Lono-makua. Her older sister Nā-maka-o-Kahai, a sea goddess, fears that Pele's ambition would smother the homeland and drives Pele away. Kamohoali'i takes Pele south in a canoe called Honua-i-a-kea, along with her younger sister Hiiaka and with her brothers Kamohoalii, Kane-milo-hai, Kane-apua, arriving at the islets above Hawaii. There Kane-milo-hai is left on Mokupapapa, just a reef, to build it up in fitness for human residence. On Nihoa, 800 feet above the ocean, Pele leaves Kane-apua after her visit to Lehua and after crowning a wreath of kau-no'a. Pele feels sorry for her younger brother and picks him up again. Pele used the divining rod, Pa‘oa, to pick a new home. A group of chants tells of a pursuit by Namakaokahaʻi, who tears Pele apart. Her bones, KaiwioPele, form a hill on Kahikinui, while her spirit escaped to the island of Hawaii.

Flood version
In another version, Pele comes from a land said to be "close to the clouds," with parents Kane-hoa-lani and Ka-hina-lii, and brothers Ka-moho-alii and Kahuila-o-ka-lani. From her husband Wahieloa (also called Wahialoa) she has a daughter, Laka, and a son Menehune. Pele-kumu-honua entices her husband and Pele travels in search of him. The sea pours from her head over the land of Kanaloa (perhaps the island now known as Kahoolawe) and her brothers say: O the sea, the great sea! Forth bursts the sea: Behold, it bursts on Kanaloa! The sea floods the land, then recedes; this flooding is called Kai a Kahinalii ("The sea of Ka-hina-lii"), as Pele's connection to the sea was passed down from her mother Kahinalii.

Pele and Poliʻahu
Pele is considered to be a rival of the Hawaiian goddess of snow, Poliʻahu, and her sisters Lilinoe (a goddess of fine rain), Waiau (goddess of Lake Waiau), and Kahoupokane (a kapa-maker whose kapa-making activities create thunder, rain, and lightning). All except Kahoupokane reside on Mauna Kea. The kapa-maker lives on Hualalai.

One myth tells that Poliʻahu had come from Mauna Kea with her friends to attend sled races down the grassy hills south of Hamakua. Pele came disguised as a beautiful stranger and was greeted by Poliʻahu. However, Pele became jealously enraged at the goddess of Mauna Kea. She opened the caverns of Mauna Kea and threw fire from them towards Poliʻahu, with the snow goddess fleeing towards the summit. Poliʻahu was finally able to grab her now-burning snow mantle and throw it over the mountain. Earthquakes shook the island as the snow mantle unfolded until it reached the fire fountains, chilling and hardening the lava. The rivers of lava were driven back to Mauna Loa and Kīlauea. Later battles also led to the defeat of Pele and confirmed the supremacy of the snow goddesses in the northern portion of the island, and Pele in the southern portion.

Pele, Hiʻiaka, and Lohiʻau
In one account of the Pele myths, she is banished from her home in Tahiti for creating hot spots by her older sister, Namakaokahaʻi, who also convinced the rest of her family that Pele would burn them all. Then, Pele travels on the canoe Honuaiakea to find a new home with her brother Kamohoaliʻi. Her mother gave her an egg to take care of and it later hatches into a baby girl whom Pele names Hiʻiaka-i-ka-poli-o-pele (Hiʻiaka in the Bosom of Pele) or Hiʻiaka for short. She is her favorite sister and encouraged her to befriend the people of Puna. However, when Hiʻiaka became best friends with a girl named Hōpoe, Pele became jealous of their friendship. Pele saw Lohiʻau, a chief of Kauaʻi, in a dream, sending Hiʻiaka to bring him to her in forty days or else she would punish them. When Hiʻiaka seeks out Lohiʻau, she discovers he is dead but she calls upon the power of the sorcery goddess Uli to revive him. As Hiʻiaka is on her journey, Pele grows impatient and sends a lava flow to Hōpoe's home before the forty days were up. When Hiʻiaka returns to Hawaiʻi with Lohiʻau, she saw Hōpoe covered in stone and knew Pele was behind this. Hiʻiaka spitefully embraced Lohiʻau in Pele's view, which further angered Pele, who then covered Lohiʻau with lava as well. The sisters saw that their anger led to the death of the two people who meant the most to them, so Pele apologetically brought Lohiʻau back to life and let him decide whom he would choose. Unfortunately for Pele, Lohiʻau ended up choosing Hiʻiaka, yet Pele gave them both her blessing.

In another version of the myth, Pele hears the beating of drums and chanting coming from Kauaʻi while she is sleeping and travels there in her spirit form. She disguises herself as a beautiful young woman and meets Lohiʻau in this way. After three days of making love together, Pele goes back to Hawaiʻi and Lohiʻau dies from a broken heart.

Modern times
Belief in Pele continued after the old religion was officially abolished in 1819. In the summer of 1823 English missionary William Ellis toured the island to determine locations for mission stations. After a long journey to the volcano Kīlauea with little food, Ellis eagerly ate the wild berries he found growing there. The berries of the ōhelo (Vaccinium reticulatum) plant are considered sacred to Pele. Traditionally prayers and offerings to Pele were always made before eating the berries. The volcano crater was an active lava lake, which the natives feared was a sign that Pele was not pleased with the violation. Although wood carvings and thatched temples were easily destroyed, the volcano was a natural monument to the goddess.

In December 1824 the High Chiefess Kapiolani descended into Halemaʻumaʻu after reciting a Christian prayer instead of the traditional Hawaiian one to Pele. As it was predicted, she survived and this story was often told by missionaries to show the superiority of their faith. Alfred, Lord Tennyson (1809–1892) wrote a poem about the incident in 1892.

An urban legend states that Pele herself occasionally warns locals of impending eruptions. Appearing in the form of either a beautiful young woman or an elderly woman with white hair, sometimes accompanied by a small white dog, and always dressed in a red muumuu, Pele is said to walk along the roads near Kīlauea, but will vanish if passersby stop to help her, similar to the Resurrection Mary or vanishing hitchhiker legend. The passerby is then obliged to warn others or suffer misfortune in the next eruption. Another legend, Pele's Curse, states that Pele's wrath will fall on anyone who removes items from her island. Every year numerous small natural items are returned by post to the National Park Service by tourists seeking Pele's forgiveness. It is believed Pele's Curse was invented in the mid-20th century to deter tourist depredation.

When businessman George Lycurgus ran a hotel at the rim of Kīlauea, called the Volcano House from 1904 through 1921, he would often "pray" to Pele for the sake of the tourists. Park officials frowned upon his practices of tossing items, such as gin bottles (after drinking their contents), into the crater.

William Hyde Rice included an 11-page summary of the legends of Pele in his 1923 collection of Hawaiian legends, a reprint of which is available online from the Bernice P. Bishop Museum's Special Publications section.

In 2003 the Volcano Art Center had a special competition for Pele paintings to replace one done in the early 20th century by D. Howard Hitchcock displayed in the Hawaii Volcanoes National Park visitors center. The existing portrait of what looked like a blond Caucasian as the Hawaiian goddess had been criticized by many Native Hawaiians. Over 140 paintings were submitted, and finalists were displayed at sites within the park. The winner of the contest was artist Arthur Johnsen of Puna. This version shows the goddess in shades of red, with her digging staff Pāʻoa in her left hand, and an embryonic form of her sister goddess Hiʻiaka in her right hand. The painting is now on display at the Kilauea Visitor Center.

The religious group Love Has Won briefly moved to Hawaii and sparked violent protests from locals after claiming their founder Amy Carlson was Pele.

Pele is among the gods and goddesses depicted in Walt Disney's Enchanted Tiki Room at the Disney Parks. She is voiced by Ginny Tyler.

Relatives
Pele's other prominent relatives are:

 * Ai-kanaka, friend
 * Ahu-i-maiʻa-pa-kanaloa, brother, name translates to "banana bunch of Kanaloa's field"
 * Haumea (mythology), mother of pele
 * Hiiaka or Hiʻiaka-i-ka-pua-ʻena-ʻena, sister, spirit of the dance, lei maker, healer
 * Hina-alii, mother and takes different forms
 * Ka-maiau, war god, relative to Pele and Hiʻiaka
 * Kā-moho-alii, a shark god and the keeper of the water of life
 * Kane-ʻapua, demigod younger brother
 * Kamapuaʻa, a shapeshifting kupua and a recurring figure in Hawaiian folklore, sometimes described as the consort of Pele
 * Kane-Hekili, spirit of the thunder (a hunchback)
 * Kane-hoa-lani, father and division with fire
 * Kaōhelo, a mortal sister
 * Kapo, a goddess of fertility
 * Ka-poho-i-kahi-ola, spirit of explosions
 * Ke-ō-ahi-kama-kaua, the spirit of lava fountains (a hunchback)
 * Ke-ua-a-ke-pō, spirit of the rain and fire
 * Nāmaka, appeared as a sea goddess or water spirit in pele cycle sister of Pele
 * Tama-ehu, brother, god of salamanders and fire in Tahitian
 * Ulupoka, enemy from Polynesian Mythology
 * Wahieloa, husband which she fathered sons Laka and Menehune

Chants
Both of the chants above were performed at Halemaʻumaʻu, where it is said Pele currently resides.

Other data
Pele shares features similar to other malignant deities inhabiting volcanoes, as in the case of the devil Guayota of Guanche Mythology in Canary Islands (Spain), living on the volcano Teide and was considered by the aboriginal Guanches as responsible for the eruptions of the volcano.

In geology
Several phenomena connected to volcanism have been named after her, including Pele's hair, Pele's tears, and Limu o Pele (Pele's seaweed). A volcano on the Jovian moon Io is also named Pele.

Myths about Pele encode dateable natural events. The chronology of Pele’s journey corresponds with the geological age of the Hawaiian islands.

In 2006, one volcanologist suggested the battle between Pele and Hiʻiaka was inspired by geological events around 1500 AD.

title: Pele (deity)


text:
Aramidae

Aramidae is a bird family in the order Gruiformes. The limpkin (Aramus guarauna) is the only living member of this family, although other species are known from the fossil record, such as Aramus paludigrus from the Middle Miocene and Badistornis aramus from Oligocene.

title: Aramidae