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Stalemate

Stalemate is a situation in chess where the player whose turn it is to move is not in check and has no legal move. Stalemate results in a draw. During the endgame, stalemate is a resource that can enable the player with the inferior position to draw the game rather than lose. In more complex positions, stalemate is much rarer, usually taking the form of a swindle that succeeds only if the superior side is inattentive. Stalemate is also a common theme in endgame studies and other chess problems.

The outcome of a stalemate was standardized as a draw in the 19th century. Before this standardization, its treatment varied widely, including being deemed a win for the stalemating player, a half-win for that player, or a loss for that player; not being permitted; and resulting in the stalemated player missing a turn. Stalemate rules vary in variants and other games of the chess family.

Etymology and usage
The first recorded use of stalemate is from 1765. It is a compounding of Middle English stale and mate (meaning checkmate). Stale is probably derived from Anglo-French estale meaning "standstill", a cognate of "stand" and "stall", both ultimately derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *sta-. The first recorded use in a figurative sense is in 1885.

Stalemate has become a widely used metaphor for other situations where there is a conflict or contest between two parties, such as war or political negotiations, and neither side is able to achieve victory, resulting in what is also called an impasse, a deadlock, or a Mexican standoff. Chess writers note that this usage is a misnomer because, unlike in chess, the situation is often a temporary one that is ultimately resolved, even if it seems currently intractable. The term "stalemate" is sometimes used incorrectly as a generic term for a draw in chess. While draws are common, they are rarely the direct result of stalemate.

Examples
With Black to move, Black is stalemated in diagrams 1 to 5. Stalemate is an important factor in the endgame – the endgame setup in diagram 1, for example, quite frequently is relevant in play (see King and pawn versus king endgame). The position in diagram 1 occurred in an 1898 game between Amos Burn and Harry Pillsbury and also in a 1925 game between Savielly Tartakower and Richard Réti. The same position, except shifted to the e-, occurred in a 2009 game between Gata Kamsky and Vladimir Kramnik.

The position in diagram 3 is an example of a pawn drawing against a queen. Stalemates of this sort can often save a player from losing an apparently hopeless position (see Queen versus pawn endgame).

The position in diagram 5 is a special kind of stalemate, in which no move is possible even if one ignores the need to avoid self-check. George P. Jelliss has called this type of stalemate a deadlock. Adding a White knight on f2 would produce a checklock: a checkmate position where no moves are possible, even if one ignores the need to avoid self-check. In general, positions with no moves at all available (even ignoring the need to avoid self-check) are called locks.

Anand versus Kramnik
In this position from the game Viswanathan Anand–Vladimir Kramnik from the 2007 World Chess Championship, Black played 65...Kxf5, stalemating White. (Any other move by Black loses.)

Korchnoi versus Karpov
An intentional stalemate occurred on the 124th move of the fifth game of the 1978 World Championship match between Viktor Korchnoi and Anatoly Karpov. The game had been a theoretical draw for many moves. White's bishop is useless; it cannot defend the queening square at a8 nor attack the black pawn on the light a4-square. If the white king heads towards the black pawn, the black king can move towards a8 and set up a fortress.

The players were not on speaking terms, however, so neither would offer a draw by agreement. On his 124th move, White played 124.Bg7, delivering stalemate. Korchnoi said that it gave him pleasure to stalemate Karpov and that it was slightly humiliating. Until 2021, this was the longest game played in a World Chess Championship final match, as well as the only World Championship game to end in stalemate before 2007.

Bernstein versus Smyslov
Sometimes, a surprise stalemate saves a game. In the game Ossip Bernstein–Vasily Smyslov (first diagram), Black can win by sacrificing the f-pawn and using the king to support the b-pawn. However, Smyslov thought it was good to advance the b-pawn because he could win the white rook with a skewer if it captured the pawn. Play went:

 * 59... b2 60. Rxb2

Now 60...Rh2+ 61.Kf3! Rxb2 would be stalemate (second diagram). Smyslov played 60...Kg4, and the game was drawn after 61.Kf1 (see Rook and pawn versus rook endgame).

Matulović versus Minev
Whereas the possibility of stalemate arose in the Bernstein–Smyslov game because of a blunder, it can also arise without one, as in the game Milan Matulović–Nikolay Minev (first diagram). Play continued:

 * 1. Rc6 Kg5 2. Kh3 Kh5 3. f4

The only meaningful attempt to make progress. Now all moves by Black (like 3...Ra3+) lose, with one exception.

 * 3... Rxa6!

Now 4.Rxa6 would be stalemate. White played 4.Rc5+ instead, and the game was drawn several moves later.

Williams versus Harrwitz
In the game Elijah Williams–Daniel Harrwitz (first diagram), Black was up a knight and a pawn in an endgame. This would normally be a decisive advantage, but Black could find no way to make progress because of various stalemate resources available to White. The game continued:

 * 72... Ra8 73. Rc1

Avoiding the threatened 73...Nc2+.

 * 73... Ke3 74. Rc4 Ra4 75. Rc1 Kd2 76. Rc4 Kd3

76...Nc2+ 77.Rxc2+! Kxc2 is stalemate.

 * 77. Rc3+! Kd4

77...Kxc3 is stalemate.

 * 78. Rc1 Ra3 79. Rd1+ Kc5

79...Rd3 80.Rxd3+! leaves Black with either insufficient material to win after 80...Nxd3 81.Kxa2 or a standard fortress in a corner draw after 80...Kxd3.

 * 80. Rc1+ Kb5 81. Rc7 Nd5 82. Rc2 Nc3?? 83. Rb2+ Kc4 84. Rb3! (see second diagram)

Now the players agreed to a draw, since 84...Kxb3 or 84...Rxb3 is stalemate, as is 84...Ra8 85.Rxc3+! Kxc3.

Black could still have won the game until his critical mistake on move 82. Instead of 82...Nc3, 82...Nb4 wins; for example, after 83.Rc8 Re3 84.Rb8+ Kc5 85.Rc8+ Kd5 86.Rd8+ Kc6 87.Ra8 Re1+ 88.Kb2 Kc5 89.Kc3 a1=Q+, Black wins.

Carlsen versus Van Wely
This 2007 game, Magnus Carlsen–Loek van Wely, ended in stalemate. White used the second-rank defense in a rook and bishop versus rook endgame for 46 moves. The fifty-move rule was about to come into effect, under which White could claim a draw. The game ended:

 * 109. Rd2+ Bxd2

White was stalemated.

More complex examples
Although stalemate usually occurs in the endgame, it can also occur with more pieces on the board. Outside of relatively simple endgame positions, such as those above, stalemate occurs rarely, usually when the side with the superior position has overlooked the possibility of stalemate. This is typically realized by the inferior side's sacrifice of one or more pieces in order to force stalemate. A piece that is offered as a sacrifice to bring about stalemate is sometimes called a desperado.

Evans versus Reshevsky
One of the best-known examples of the desperado is the game Larry Evans–Samuel Reshevsky that was dubbed "The Swindle of the Century". Evans sacrificed his queen on move 49 and offered his rook on move 50. White's rook has been called the eternal rook. Capturing it results in stalemate, but otherwise it stays on the seventh and checks Black's king ad infinitum (i.e. perpetual check). The game would inevitably end in a draw by agreement, by threefold repetition, or by an eventual claim under the fifty-move rule.

 * 47. h4! Re2+ 48. Kh1 Qxg3??

After 48...Qg6! 49.Rf8 Qe6! 50.Rh8+ Kg6, Black remains a piece ahead after 51.Qxe6 Nxe6, or after 51.gxf4 Re1+ and 52...Qa2+.

 * 49. Qg8+! Kxg8 50. Rxg7+!

Gelfand versus Kramnik
The position at right occurred in Boris Gelfand–Vladimir Kramnik, 1994 FIDE Candidates match, game 6, in Sanghi Nagar, India. Kramnik, down two pawns and on the defensive, would be very happy with a draw. Gelfand has just played '''67. Re4–e7''' (first diagram), a strong-looking move that threatens 68.Qxf6, winning a third pawn, or 68.Rc7, further constricting Black. Black responded 67... Qc1 If White takes Black's undefended rook with 68.Qxd8, Black's desperado queen forces the draw with 68...Qh1+ 69.Kg3 Qh2+!, compelling 70.Kxh2 stalemate (second diagram). If White avoids the stalemate with 68.Rxg7+ Kxg7 69.Qxd8, Black draws by perpetual check with 69...Qh1+ 70.Kg3 Qg1+ 71.Kf4 Qc1+! 72.Ke4 Qc6+! 73.Kd3 (73.d5 Qc4+; 73.Qd5 Qc2+) Qxf3+! 74.Kd2 Qg2+! 75.Kc3 Qc6+ 76.Kb4 Qb5+ 77.Ka3 Qd3+. Gelfand played '''68. d5''' instead but still only drew.

Troitsky versus Vogt
In Troitsky–, 1896, the famous endgame study composer Alexey Troitsky pulled off an elegant swindle in actual play. After Troitsky's '''1. Rd1!, Black fell into the trap with the seemingly crushing 1... Bh3?''', threatening 2...Qg2#. The game concluded '''2. Rxd8+ Kxd8 3. Qd1+! Qxd1 stalemate'''. White's bishop, knight, and f-pawn are all pinned and unable to move.

In studies
Stalemate is a frequent theme in endgame studies and other chess compositions. An example is the "White to Play and Draw" study at right, composed by the American master Frederick Rhine and published in 2006. White saves a draw with '''1. Ne5+!''' Black wins after 1.Nb4+? Kb5! or 1.Qe8+? Bxe8 2.Ne5+ Kb5! 3.Rxb2+ Nb3. 1... Bxe5 After 1...Kb5? 2.Rxb2+ Nb3 3.Rxc4! Qxe3 (best; 3...Qb8+ 4.Kd7 Qxh8 5.Rxb3+ forces checkmate) 4.Rxb3+! Qxb3 5.Qh1! Bf5+ 6.Kd8!, White is winning. 2. Qe8+! 2.Qxe5? Qb7+ 3.Kd8 Qd7#. '''2... Bxe8 3. Rh6+ Bd6''' 3...Kb5 4.Rxb6+ Kxb6 5.Nxc4+ also leads to a drawn endgame. Not 5.Rxb2+? Bxb2 6.Nc4+ Kb5 7.Nxb2 Bh5! trapping White's knight. '''4. Rxd6+! Kxd6 5. Nxc4+! Nxc4 6. Rxb6+ Nxb6+''' Moving the king is actually a better try, but the resulting endgame of two knights and a bishop against a rook is a well-established theoretical draw. 7. Kd8! (rightmost diagram) Black is three pieces ahead, but if White is allowed to take the bishop, the two knights are insufficient to force checkmate. The only way to save the bishop is to move it, resulting in stalemate. A similar idea occasionally enables the inferior side to save a draw in the ending of bishop, knight, and king versus lone king.

At right is a composition by A. J. Roycroft which was published in the British Chess Magazine in 1957. White draws with '''1. c7!''' after which there are two main lines:
 * 1... f5 2. c8=Q (if 2.c8=R? then 2...Bc3 3.Rxc3 Qg7#) 2... Bc3 3. Qxf5+ draws by stalemate.
 * 1... g5 (1...Ka1 2.c8=R transposes) 2. c8=R (2.c8=Q? Ka1 3.Qc2 [or 3.Qc1+] b1=Q+ wins) 2... Ka1 (2...Ng6 3.Rc1+ forces Black to capture, stalemating White) 3. Rc2!! (not 3.Rc1+?? b1=Q+! 4.Rxb1+ Bxb1#; now White threatens 4.Rxb2 and 5.Rxa2+, forcing stalemate or perpetual check) 3... Bc4 (trying to get in a check; 3...b1=Q, 3...b1=B, and 3...Bb1 are all stalemate; 3...Ng6 4.Rc1+!) 4. Rc1+ Ka2 5. Ra1+ Kb3 6. Ra3+ Kc2 7. Rc3+ Kd2 8. Rc2+ (rightmost diagram). As in Evans–Reshevsky, Black cannot escape the "eternal rook".

In problems
Some chess problems require "White to move and stalemate Black in n moves" (rather than the more common "White to move and checkmate Black in n moves"). Problemists have also tried to construct the shortest possible game ending in stalemate. Sam Loyd devised one just ten moves long: 1.e3 a5 2.Qh5 Ra6 3.Qxa5 h5 4.Qxc7 Rah6 5.h4 f6 6.Qxd7+ Kf7 7.Qxb7 Qd3 8.Qxb8 Qh7 9.Qxc8 Kg6 10.Qe6 (first diagram). A similar stalemate is reached after: 1.d4 c5 2.dxc5 f6 3.Qxd7+ Kf7 4.Qxd8 Bf5 5.Qxb8 h5 6.Qxa8 Rh6 7.Qxb7 a6 8.Qxa6 Bh7 9.h4 Kg6 10.Qe6 (Frederick Rhine).

Loyd also demonstrated that stalemate can occur with all the pieces on the board: 1.d4 d6 2.Qd2 e5 3.a4 e4 4.Qf4 f5 5.h3 Be7 6.Qh2 Be6 7.Ra3 c5 8.Rg3 Qa5+ 9.Nd2 Bh4 10.f3 Bb3 11.d5 e3 12.c4 f4 (second diagram). Games such as this are occasionally played in tournaments as a pre-arranged draw.

Double stalemate
There are chess compositions featuring double stalemate. To the right are two double stalemate positions, in which neither side has a legal move. An example from actual play is given below:

White played '''1. Ngxf6+ Qxf6+ (if 1...exf6 then 2.Ne7#) 2. Nxf6+ exf6 3. c4 c5 4. a4 a5''', leaving a double stalemate position. 1.Ndxf6+ would not have worked, for then 1...exf6 is possible.

The fastest known game ending in a double stalemate position was discovered by Enzo Minerva and published in the Italian newspaper l'Unità on 14 August 2007: 1.c4 d5 2.Qb3 Bh3 3.gxh3 f5 4.Qxb7 Kf7 5.Qxa7 Kg6 6.f3 c5 7.Qxe7 Rxa2 8.Kf2 Rxb2 9.Qxg7+ Kh5 10.Qxg8 Rxb1 11.Rxb1 Kh4 12.Qxh8 h5 13.Qh6 Bxh6 14.Rxb8 Be3+ 15.dxe3 Qxb8 16.Kg2 Qf4 17.exf4 d4 18.Be3 dxe3.

History of the stalemate rule
The stalemate rule has had a convoluted history. Although stalemate is universally recognized as a draw today, that was not the case for much of the game's history. In the forerunners to modern chess, such as chaturanga, delivering stalemate resulted in a loss. This was changed in shatranj, however, where stalemating was a win. This practice persisted in chess as played in early 15th-century Spain. Lucena (c. 1497), however, treated stalemate as an inferior form of victory; it won only half the stake in games played for money, and this continued to be the case in Spain as late as 1600. From about 1600 to 1800, the rule in England was that stalemate was a for the player administering it, a rule that the eminent chess historian H. J. R. Murray believes may have been adopted from Russian chess. That rule disappeared in England before 1820, being replaced by the French and Italian rule that a stalemate was a drawn game.

Throughout history, a stalemate has at various times been:
 * in 10th century Arabia and parts of medieval Europe.
 * In a game played for stakes, the stalemating player would win half the stake (18th century Spain).
 * in 9th century India, 17th century Russia, on the Central Plain of Europe in the 17th century, and 17th–18th century England. This rule continued to be published in Hoyle's Games Improved as late as 1866.
 * . If White made a move that would stalemate Black, he had to retract it and make a different move (Eastern Asia until the early 20th century). Murray likewise wrote that in Hindustani chess and Parsi chess, two of the three principal forms of chess played in India as of 1913, a player was not allowed to play a move that would stalemate the opponent. The same was true of Burmese chess, another chess variant, at the time of writing. Stalemate was not permitted in most of the Eastern Asiatic forms of the game (specifically in Burma, India, Japan, and Siam) until early in the 20th century.
 * (medieval France), although other medieval French sources treat stalemate as a draw.
 * . This was the rule in 13th-century Italy and also stated in the German Cracow Poem (1422), that noted, however, that some players treated stalemate as equivalent to checkmate. This rule was ultimately adopted throughout Europe, but not in England until the 19th century, after being introduced there by Jacob Sarratt.

Proposed rule change
Periodically, writers have argued that stalemate should again be made a win for the side causing the stalemate, on the grounds that the goal of chess is conceptually to capture the king and checkmate merely ends it when this is inevitable. Grandmaster Larry Kaufman writes, "In my view, calling stalemate a draw is totally illogical, since it represents the ultimate zugzwang, where any move would get your king taken". The British master T. H. Tylor argued in a 1940 article in the British Chess Magazine that the present rule, treating stalemate as a draw, "is without historical foundation and irrational, and primarily responsible for a vast percentage of draws, and hence should be abolished". Years later, Fred Reinfeld wrote, "When Tylor wrote his attack on the stalemate rule, he released about his unhappy head a swarm of peevish maledictions that are still buzzing." Larry Evans calls the proposal to make stalemate a win for the stalemating player a "crude proposal that ... would radically alter centuries of tradition and make chess boring". This rule change would cause a greater emphasis on ; an extra pawn would be a greater advantage than it is today.

However, Kaufman tested the idea of scoring stalemates higher than draws with the chess engine Komodo, and found that the impact is quite small because it is rare to be able to force stalemate but not checkmate: while all king and pawn versus king endgames become wins when the pawn is protected (except when the attacking king is trapped in front of its own rook pawn), this does not turn out to be common enough. The problem is that king and lone minor piece against king cannot force stalemate in general. Emanuel Lasker and Richard Réti proposed that both stalemate and king and minor versus king (with the minor piece side to move) should give ¾ points to the superior side: this would effectively restore not only the old stalemate rule but also the old bare king rule. Kaufman and correspondence grandmaster Arno Nickel have proposed going even further, and giving only ¼ point as well to the side that brings about a threefold repetition (which likewise has precedents in xiangqi, shogi, and Go). According to his tests with Komodo, chess at the level of a human World Championship match would have a draw rate of 65.6%; scoring stalemate as ¾–¼ reduces the draw rate to 63.4%; scoring stalemate and bare king as ¾–¼ brings it to 55.9%; and scoring stalemate, bare king, and threefold repetition as ¾–¼ brings it all the way down to 22.6%. (The same reduction of draws would occur if stalemate, bare king, and threefold repetition were scored as 1–0 instead of ¾–¼, but the point of the ¾–¼ scoring is to allow the weaker side to still benefit from avoiding checkmate, while giving the stronger side something to play for even when checkmate cannot be attained.)

Jelliss has suggested that under the logic that stalemate should be a win (since any move would get the king taken), checklock should be a draw. (In a checklock position, no forward play is possible even if exposing the king to check is valid, so the king cannot get captured. The same logic would apply to deadlock.)

Effect on endgame theory
If stalemate were a loss for the player unable to move, the outcome of some endgames would be affected. In some situations the superior side can force stalemate but not checkmate. In others, the defending player can use stalemate as a defensive technique to avoid losing (under the current rule):

 * The endgame of king and pawn versus king would always be a win when the pawn can be protected (except in the singular case of a king trapped in front of its own rook pawn). In all other cases, either the pawn can be promoted or the defending king can be forced into a stalemate (see diagram 2 below).
 * An unusual position is given to the right; it is a draw under orthodox rules, but if stalemate is deemed to be a win, then Black to play wins by 1...Rh8! (Taking the rook gets White stalemated after 2.Kxh8 Kf7 or 2...Kf8, and if White refuses the sacrifice, Black can force White to abandon the pawn with 2.Kg6 Kf8 3.Kh6 Kf7 or 2.Kh6 Kf7, leaving a basic checkmate.)
 * Two knights and a king can force stalemate against a lone king (See Two knights endgame).
 * A plus a bishop on the color opposite the pawn's queening square would be a win instead of a draw, because the defending king can be forced into stalemate  (see diagram 2 below). (See Wrong rook pawn).
 * A king and rook versus a king and bishop would be a win for the side with the rook because the superior side can force stalemate (see diagram 3 below). (The same is not true for a rook versus knight.)
 * If the defending king is cornered, a single bishop or knight may be able to stalemate the king, although these cannot be forced in general.
 * The defensive drawing techniques with a or  on the seventh  with its king nearby versus a queen would not work, because they rely on stalemate . (See Queen versus pawn endgame.)
 * Positions such as the Saavedra position, which would normally require an underpromotion due to the fact that a queen would stalemate the opponent, no longer require an underpromotion. (In fact, underpromotion to rook or bishop would no longer be necessary in chess.)

The effect if stalemates were to be scored as ¾–¼ would be similar but less severe, as then the weaker side would still be rewarded somewhat for avoiding checkmate via stalemate, just not as much as before.

Rules in other chess variants
Not all variants of chess consider the stalemate to be a draw. Many regional variants, as well some variants of Western chess, have adopted their own rules on how to treat the stalemated player. In chaturanga, which is widely considered to be the common ancestor of all variants of chess, a stalemate was a win for the stalemated player. Around the 7th century, this game was adopted in the Middle East as shatranj with very similar rules to its predecessor; however, the stalemate rule was changed to its exact opposite: i.e. it was a win for the player delivering the stalemate. This game was in turn introduced to the Western world, where it would eventually evolve to modern-day Western chess, although the stalemate rule for Western chess was not standardized as a draw until the 19th century (see history of the rule).

Modern Asian variants
Chaturanga also evolved into several other games in various regions of Asia, all of which have varying rules on stalemating:
 * In makruk (Thai chess), a stalemate results in a draw, like in Western chess.
 * In shogi (Japanese chess) and the majority of its variants, a stalemate is a win for the player delivering the stalemate. However, in shogi (and in any variant of the game that features drops), stalemates are extremely rare due to the fact that no piece ever goes entirely out of play.
 * In xiangqi (Chinese chess) it results in an immediate loss for the stalemated player (like in shogi), and there is no explicit distinction between it and checkmate.
 * In janggi (Korean chess), uniquely among modern chess variants, players are allowed to pass their turn at any time. Consequently, there are no stalemates, only positions in which the only legal move is to pass. (In fact, Korean chess does not even have draws, and is the only competitively played version of chess where that is the case: under the official South Korean tournament rules, in positions that would otherwise be draws, points are tallied up for the pieces and pawns remaining on the board, with the player moving second being given 1.5 points to compensate for the first-move advantage. Since every piece and pawn is given an integer number of points, the result can never be a draw.)
 * In sittuyin (Myanmar/Burmese chess), stalemates are avoided altogether, as delivering them is illegal. Players are not allowed to leave the opponent with no legal moves without putting the king into check.
 * In shatar (Mongolian chess), stalemate is a loss for the stalemated player, like in xiangqi and shogi. Jean-Louis Cazaux and Rick Knowlton explain it as follows: "the loss of liberty is considered equal to death by the Mongolian nomadic culture".

Western chess variants
The majority of variants of Western chess do not specify any alterations to the rule of stalemate. There are some variants, however, where the rule specified to differ from that of standard chess:
 * In losing chess, the stalemate rule varies depending on the version being played. According to the "international" rules, a stalemate is simply a win for the stalemated player. The Free Internet Chess Server, however, grants a win to the player with fewer pieces remaining on the board (regardless of who delivered the stalemate); if both players have the same number of pieces it is a draw. There is also a "joint" FICS/international rule, according to which a stalemate is only a win if both sources agree that it is a win (i.e. it counts as a win for the stalemated player if that player also happens to have fewer pieces remaining); in all other cases it is a draw.
 * In Gliński's hexagonal chess, stalemate is neither a draw nor a full win. Instead, in tournament games, the player who delivers the stalemate earns ¾ point, while the stalemated player receives ¼ point. It is unknown whether a stalemate should be considered a draw or a win in a.

title: Stalemate


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Wikipedia talk:WikiProject U.S. counties/mockups

Texas county with image at 300 pixels wide (county described is not the same as county in image):

Anderson County is a county located in the U.S. State of Texas. As of 2000, the population is 55,109. Its county seat is Palestine6.

Geography
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 2,792 km² (1,078 mi²). 2,773 km² (1,071 mi²) of it is land and 19 km² (7 mi²) of it is water. The total area is 0.66% water.

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there are 55,109 people, 15,678 households, and 11,335 families residing in the county. The population density is 20/km² (52/mi²). There are 18,436 housing units at an average density of 7/km² (17/mi²). The racial makeup of the county is 66.44% White, 23.48% African American, 0.64% Native American, 0.45% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 8.00% from other races, and 0.96% from two or more races. 12.17% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race.

There are 15,678 households out of which 34.10% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 55.50% are married couples living together, 13.20% have a female householder with no husband present, and 27.70% are non-families. 24.80% of all households are made up of individuals and 11.80% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.58 and the average family size is 3.07.

In the county, the population is spread out with 20.70% under the age of 18, 9.30% from 18 to 24, 37.70% from 25 to 44, 20.60% from 45 to 64, and 11.70% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 36 years. For every 100 females there are 155.80 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 173.40 males.

The median income for a household in the county is $31,957, and the median income for a family is $37,513. Males have a median income of $27,070 versus $21,577 for females. The per capita income for the county is $13,838. 16.50% of the population and 12.70% of families are below the poverty line. Out of the total people living in poverty, 21.60% are under the age of 18 and 16.60% are 65 or older.

Cities and Towns

 * Elkhart
 * Frankston
 * Palestine

Illinois county with image at 300 pixels wide:

Adams County is a county located in the U.S. State of Illinois. As of 2000, the population is 68,277. Its name is in honor of the sixth President of the United States of America, John Quincy Adams. Its county seat is Quincy, Illinois6.

Geography
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 2,257 km² (871 mi²). 2,219 km² (857 mi²) of it is land and 38 km² (15 mi²) of it is water. The total area is 1.68% water.

Demographics
As of the census2 of 2000, there are 68,277 people, 26,860 households, and 17,996 families residing in the county. The population density is 31/km² (80/mi²). There are 29,386 housing units at an average density of 13/km² (34/mi²). The racial makeup of the county is 95.10% White, 3.07% African American, 0.16% Native American, 0.40% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.31% from other races, and 0.95% from two or more races. 0.83% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race.

There are 26,860 households out of which 31.10% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 54.20% are married couples living together, 9.80% have a female householder with no husband present, and 33.00% are non-families. 28.50% of all households are made up of individuals and 13.20% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.44 and the average family size is 3.00.

In the county the population is spread out with 24.90% under the age of 18, 8.80% from 18 to 24, 26.40% from 25 to 44, 22.40% from 45 to 64, and 17.60% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 38 years. For every 100 females there are 92.70 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 89.70 males.

The median income for a household in the county is $34,784, and the median income for a family is $44,133. Males have a median income of $31,171 versus $21,083 for females. The per capita income for the county is $17,894. 10.00% of the population and 7.40% of families are below the poverty line. Out of the total people living in poverty, 12.00% are under the age of 18 and 8.90% are 65 or older.

Cities and Towns

 * Camp Point
 * Clayton
 * Coatsburg
 * Columbus
 * Golden
 * La Prairie
 * Liberty
 * Lima
 * Loraine
 * Mendon
 * Payson
 * Plainville
 * Quincy
 * Ursa

Geography
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 2,257 km² (871 mi²). 2,219 km² (857 mi²) of it is land and 38 km² (15 mi²) of it is water. The total area is 1.68% water.

Demographics
As of the census2 of 2000, there are 68,277 people, 26,860 households, and 17,996 families residing in the county. The population density is 31/km² (80/mi²). There are 29,386 housing units at an average density of 13/km² (34/mi²). The racial makeup of the county is 95.10% White, 3.07% African American, 0.16% Native American, 0.40% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.31% from other races, and 0.95% from two or more races. 0.83% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race.

There are 26,860 households out of which 31.10% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 54.20% are married couples living together, 9.80% have a female householder with no husband present, and 33.00% are non-families. 28.50% of all households are made up of individuals and 13.20% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.44 and the average family size is 3.00.

In the county the population is spread out with 24.90% under the age of 18, 8.80% from 18 to 24, 26.40% from 25 to 44, 22.40% from 45 to 64, and 17.60% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 38 years. For every 100 females there are 92.70 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 89.70 males.

The median income for a household in the county is $34,784, and the median income for a family is $44,133. Males have a median income of $31,171 versus $21,083 for females. The per capita income for the county is $17,894. 10.00% of the population and 7.40% of families are below the poverty line. Out of the total people living in poverty, 12.00% are under the age of 18 and 8.90% are 65 or older.

Cities and Towns

 * Camp Point
 * Clayton
 * Coatsburg
 * Columbus
 * Golden
 * La Prairie
 * Liberty
 * Lima
 * Loraine
 * Mendon
 * Payson
 * Plainville
 * Quincy
 * Ursa

Geography
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 2,257 km² (871 mi²). 2,219 km² (857 mi²) of it is land and 38 km² (15 mi²) of it is water. The total area is 1.68% water.

Demographics
As of the census2 of 2000, there are 68,277 people, 26,860 households, and 17,996 families residing in the county. The population density is 31/km² (80/mi²). There are 29,386 housing units at an average density of 13/km² (34/mi²). The racial makeup of the county is 95.10% White, 3.07% African American, 0.16% Native American, 0.40% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.31% from other races, and 0.95% from two or more races. 0.83% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race.

There are 26,860 households out of which 31.10% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 54.20% are married couples living together, 9.80% have a female householder with no husband present, and 33.00% are non-families. 28.50% of all households are made up of individuals and 13.20% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.44 and the average family size is 3.00.

In the county the population is spread out with 24.90% under the age of 18, 8.80% from 18 to 24, 26.40% from 25 to 44, 22.40% from 45 to 64, and 17.60% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 38 years. For every 100 females there are 92.70 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 89.70 males.

The median income for a household in the county is $34,784, and the median income for a family is $44,133. Males have a median income of $31,171 versus $21,083 for females. The per capita income for the county is $17,894. 10.00% of the population and 7.40% of families are below the poverty line. Out of the total people living in poverty, 12.00% are under the age of 18 and 8.90% are 65 or older.

Cities and Towns

 * Camp Point
 * Clayton
 * Coatsburg
 * Columbus
 * Golden
 * La Prairie
 * Liberty
 * Lima
 * Loraine
 * Mendon
 * Payson
 * Plainville
 * Quincy
 * Ursa

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Buddleja

Buddleja (orth. var. Buddleia; also historically given as Buddlea) is a genus comprising over 140 species of flowering plants endemic to Asia, Africa, and the Americas. The generic name bestowed by Linnaeus posthumously honoured the Reverend Adam Buddle (1662–1715), an English botanist and rector, at the suggestion of Dr. William Houstoun. Houstoun sent the first plants to become known to science as buddleja (B. americana) to England from the Caribbean about 15 years after Buddle's death. Buddleja species, especially Buddleja davidii and interspecific hybrids, are commonly known as butterfly bushes and are frequently cultivated as garden shrubs. Buddleja davidii has become an invasive species in both Europe and North America.

Nomenclature
The botanic name has been the source of some confusion. By modern practice of botanical Latin, the spelling of a generic name made from 'Buddle' would be Buddleia, but Linnaeus in his Species Plantarum of 1753 and 1754 spelled it Buddleja, with the long i between two vowels, common in early modern orthography. The pronunciation of the long i in Buddleja as j is a common modern error. The International Code of Botanical Nomenclature has gradually changed to incorporate stricter rules about orthographic variants and as of the 2006 edition requires (article 60, particularly 60.5) that Linnaeus' spelling should be followed in this case.

Classification
The genus Buddleja is now included in Scrophulariaceae, having earlier been classified under Buddlejaceae (synonym: Oftiaceae) and Loganiaceae

Description
Of the approximately 140 species, nearly all are shrubs less than 5 m tall, but a few qualify as trees, the largest reaching 30 m. Both evergreen and deciduous species occur, in tropical and temperate regions respectively. The leaves are lanceolate in most species, and arranged in opposite pairs on the stems (alternate in one species, B. alternifolia); they range from 1 - 30 cm long. The flowers of the Asiatic species are mostly produced in terminal panicles 10 - 50 cm long; the American species more commonly as cymes forming small, globose heads. Each individual flower is tubular and divided into four spreading lobes (petals) about 3 - 4 mm across, the corolla length ranging from around 10 mm in the Asiatics to 3–30 mm in the American species, the wider variation in the latter because some South American species have evolved long red flowers to attract hummingbirds, rather than insects, as exclusive pollinators.

The colour of the flowers varies widely, from mostly pastel pinks and blues in Asia, to vibrant yellows and reds in the New World, while many cultivars have deeper tones. The flowers are generally rich in nectar and often strongly honey-scented. The fruit is a small capsule about 1 cm long and 1 - 2 mm diameter, containing numerous small seeds; in a few species (previously classified in the separate genus Nicodemia) the capsule is soft and fleshy, forming a berry.

Distribution
The genus is found in four continents. Over 60 species are native through the New World from the southern United States to southern Chile, while many other species are found in the Old World, in Africa, and parts of Asia, but all are absent as natives from Europe and Australasia. The species are divided into three groups based on their floral type: those in the New World are mostly dioecious (occasionally hermaphrodite or trioecious), while those in the Old World are exclusively hermaphrodite with perfect flowers.

Cultivation and uses
As garden shrubs, buddlejas are essentially 20th-century plants, with the exception of B. globosa which was introduced to Britain from southern Chile in 1774 and disseminated from the nursery of Lee and Kennedy, Hammersmith. Several species are popular garden plants and are commonly known as "butterfly bushes", owing to their attractiveness to butterflies, and have become staples of the modern butterfly garden; they are also attractive to bees and moths.

The most popular cultivated species is Buddleja davidii from central China, named for the French Basque missionary and naturalist Père Armand David. Other common garden species include the aforementioned B. globosa, grown for its strongly honey-scented orange globular inflorescences, and the weeping Buddleja alternifolia. Several interspecific hybrids have been made, notably B. 'Lochinch' (B. davidii × B. fallowiana) and B. × weyeriana (B. globosa × B. davidii), the latter a cross between a South American and an Asiatic species.

Some species commonly escape from the garden. B. davidii in particular is an extensive coloniser of dry open ground. In urban areas in the United Kingdom, it often self-sows on waste ground or old masonry, where it grows into a dense thicket. A number of agricultural organizations and governing authorities throughout the world have designated the plant as an invasive species or a noxious weed. Multiple sources:
 * It is frequently seen in the United Kingdom beside railway lines, on the sites of derelict factories and other buildings and, in the aftermath of World War II, on urban bomb sites. That earned it the popular nickname of "the bomb site plant".
 * It is frequently seen in the United Kingdom beside railway lines, on the sites of derelict factories and other buildings and, in the aftermath of World War II, on urban bomb sites. That earned it the popular nickname of "the bomb site plant".
 * It is frequently seen in the United Kingdom beside railway lines, on the sites of derelict factories and other buildings and, in the aftermath of World War II, on urban bomb sites. That earned it the popular nickname of "the bomb site plant".
 * It is frequently seen in the United Kingdom beside railway lines, on the sites of derelict factories and other buildings and, in the aftermath of World War II, on urban bomb sites. That earned it the popular nickname of "the bomb site plant".

Popular garden cultivars include 'Royal Red' (reddish-purple flowers), 'Black Knight' (very dark purple), 'Sungold' (golden yellow), and 'Pink Delight' (pure pink). In recent years, much breeding work has been undertaken to create seed sterile cultivars (see "Non-invasive" Buddleja cultivars). This is a particularly important consideration in the United States, where several states have banned B. davidii and its fertile cultivars because of their invasiveness. Multiple sources:
 * Unlike native B. davidii, some of these "non-invasive" cultivars are small and compact, such as 'Blue Chip', which only reaches a height of 46 cm and a width of 1.4 m.
 * Unlike native B. davidii, some of these "non-invasive" cultivars are small and compact, such as 'Blue Chip', which only reaches a height of 46 cm and a width of 1.4 m.
 * Unlike native B. davidii, some of these "non-invasive" cultivars are small and compact, such as 'Blue Chip', which only reaches a height of 46 cm and a width of 1.4 m.
 * Unlike native B. davidii, some of these "non-invasive" cultivars are small and compact, such as 'Blue Chip', which only reaches a height of 46 cm and a width of 1.4 m.
 * Unlike native B. davidii, some of these "non-invasive" cultivars are small and compact, such as 'Blue Chip', which only reaches a height of 46 cm and a width of 1.4 m.
 * Unlike native B. davidii, some of these "non-invasive" cultivars are small and compact, such as 'Blue Chip', which only reaches a height of 46 cm and a width of 1.4 m.

List of species and naturally occurring hybrids
The many species of Buddleja have been the subject of much taxonomic contention. The listing below includes the names, still prevalent in horticulture, of many former Asiatic species sunk by the late Toon Leeuwenberg as Buddleja crispa and adopted as such in the definitive Flora of China.

 * Buddleja acuminata Poir.
 * Buddleja agathosma Diels
 * Buddleja × alata Rehder & E.H.Wilson
 * Buddleja albiflora Hemsl.
 * Buddleja alternifolia Maxim.
 * Buddleja americana L.
 * Buddleja anchoensis Kuntze
 * Buddleja araucana Phil.
 * Buddleja aromatica Rémy
 * Buddleja asiatica Lour.
 * Buddleja auriculata Benth.
 * Buddleja axillaris Willd. ex. Roem. et Schult.
 * Buddleja bhutanica T. Yamaz.
 * Buddleja blattaria J. F. Macbr.
 * Buddleja brachiata Cham. & Schltdl.
 * Buddleja brachystachya Diels.
 * Buddleja bullata Kunth
 * Buddleja candida Dunn
 * Buddleja cardanesii Standl. ex E. M. Norman
 * Buddleja caryopteridifolia W.W. Sm.
 * Buddleja cestriflora Cham.
 * Buddleja chapalana B. L. Rob.
 * Buddleja chenopodiifolia Kraenzl.
 * Buddleja colvilei Hook.f. & Thomson
 * Buddleja cordata Kunth
 * Buddleja cordobensis Griseb.
 * Buddleja coriacea J.Rémy
 * Buddleja corrugata M. E. Jones
 * Buddleja crispa Benth.
 * Buddleja crotonoides A. Gray
 * Buddleja cuneata Cham.
 * Buddleja curviflora Hook. & Arn.
 * Buddleja cuspidata Baker
 * Buddleja davidii Franch. (Butterfly bush)
 * Buddleja delavayi Gagnep.
 * Buddleja diffusa Ruíz & Pav.
 * Buddleja domingensis Urb.
 * Buddleja dysophylla (Benth.) Radlk.
 * Buddleja euryphylla Standl. & Steyerm.
 * Buddleja fallowiana Balf.f. & W.W.Sm.
 * var. alba Sabourin
 * Buddleja farreri Balf.f & W. W. Sm.
 * Buddleja filibracteolata J. A. González & J. F. Morales
 * Buddleja forrestii Diels
 * Buddleja fragifera Leeuwenb.
 * Buddleja fusca Baker
 * Buddleja globosa Hope
 * Buddleja glomerata H. L. Wendl.
 * Buddleja grandiflora Cham. & Schltdl.
 * Buddleja hatschbachii E. M. Norman & L. B. Sm.
 * Buddleja hieronymi R. E. Fr.
 * Buddleja ibarrensis E. M. Norman
 * Buddleja incana Ruiz & Pav.
 * Buddleja indica Lam.
 * Buddleja interrupta Kunth.
 * Buddleja iresinoides (Griseb.) Hosseus
 * Buddleja jamesonii Benth.
 * Buddleja japonica Hemsl.
 * Buddleja jinsixiaensis R. B Zhu
 * Buddleja kleinii E. M. Norman & L. B. Sm.
 * Buddleja lanata Benth.
 * Buddleja limitanea W. W. Sm.
 * Buddleja lindleyana Fortune ex Lindl.
 * Buddleja lojensis E. M. Norman
 * Buddleja longifolia Kunth.
 * Buddleja longiflora Brade
 * Buddleja loricata Leeuwenb.
 * Buddleja macrostachya Wallich ex. Benth.
 * Buddleja madagascariensis Lam.
 * Buddleja marrubiifolia Benth.
 * Buddleja megalocephala Donn. Sm.
 * Buddleja mendozensis Gillies ex. Benth.
 * Buddleja microstachya E. D. Liu
 * Buddleja misionum Kraenzl.
 * Buddleja montana Britton
 * Buddleja myriantha Diels.
 * Buddleja nitida Benth.
 * Buddleja nivea Duthie
 * Buddleja oblonga Benth.
 * Buddleja officinalis Maxim.
 * Buddleja paniculata Wallich.
 * Buddleja parviflora Kunth
 * Buddleja perfoliata Kunth
 * Buddleja pichinchensis Kunth
 * Buddleja polycephala Kunth
 * Buddleja polystachya Fresen.
 * Buddleja pulchella N. E. Br.
 * Buddleja racemosa Torr.
 * Buddleja ramboi L. B. Sm.
 * Buddleja rufescens Willd. ex Schultes & Schultes
 * Buddleja saligna Willd.
 * Buddleja salviifolia (L.) Lam.
 * Buddleja scordioides Kunth
 * Buddleja sessiliflora Kunth
 * Buddleja skutchii C. V. Morton
 * Buddleja simplex Kraenzl.
 * Buddleja soratae Kraenzl.
 * Buddleja speciosissima Taub.
 * Buddleja sphaerocalyx Baker
 * Buddleja stachyoides Cham & Schltdl.
 * Buddleja stenostachya Rehder & E.H.Wilson
 * Buddleja sterniana A. D. Cotton
 * Buddleja suaveolens Kunth & Bouché
 * Buddleja subcapitata E. D. Liu
 * Buddleja tibetica W. W. Sm.
 * Buddleja thyrsoides Lam.
 * Buddleja tubiflora Benth.
 * Buddleja tucumanensis Griseb.
 * Buddleja utahensis Coville
 * Buddleja vexans Kraenzl. & Loes. ex E. M. Norman
 * Buddleja × wardii C.Marquand
 * Buddleja yunnanensis Gagnep.

Formerly placed here

 * Cephalanthus glabratus (Spreng.) K.Schum. (as B. glabrata Spreng. )

RHS Award of Garden Merit
The following Buddleja species and cultivars are (2017) holders of the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:

 * B. alternifolia
 * B. asiatica
 * B. davidii 'Black Knight'
 * B. davidii 'Blue Horizon'
 * B. davidii 'Camkeep' =
 * B. davidii 'Darent Valley'
 * B. davidii 'Dartmoor'
 * B. davidii 'Monum' =
 * B. davidii 'Monite' =
 * B. davidii 'Royal Red'
 * B. davidii 'White Profusion'
 * B. fallowiana var. alba
 * B. globosa
 * B. 'Lochinch'
 * B. madagascariensis
 * B. 'Miss Ruby'
 * B. officinalis
 * B. 'Pink Delight'
 * B. 'West Hill'
 * B. × weyeriana 'Sungold'

Asiatic and African species

 * Leeuwenberg, A. J. M. (1979) The Loganiaceae of Africa XVIII Buddleja L. II, Revision of the African & Asiatic species. H. Veenman & Zonen, Wageningen, Nederland.

North and South American species

 * Norman, E. (2000). Buddlejaceae. Flora Neotropica, Vol. 81. New York Botanical Garden, USA.

Cultivated species and cultivars

 * Stuart, D. (2006). Buddlejas. RHS Plant Collector Guide. Timber Press, Oregon, USA. ISBN 978-0-88192-688-0

title: Buddleja


text:
Talk:Marsilius of Padua

edits
I was compressing the EB article at the same time Djnjwd was wikifying the article itself. I thought the EB version might be a bit more detailed than needed for Wikipedia. FWIW, here's what I had come up with. Bill 19:07 13 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Marsilius of Padova (1270 - 1342) was an Italian medieval scholar, born Padua. n collaboration with the philosopher John of Jandun, he authored Defensor pacis, a work which, on its face, affirmed the sovereignty of the people and civil law and sought to greatly limit the power of the Papacy, which he viewed as the "cause of the trouble which prevails among men" and which he characterized as a "fictitious" power. He proposed the elimination of tithes and the seizure of church property by civil authority. In his view, the Papacy would retain only an honorary pre-eminence without any authority to interpret the scriptures or define dogma.

Despite an apparent democratic bent, Marsilius' thought leaned more toward "imperial omnipotence", with religion subservient to the state.

Marsilius' work was censured by Pope Benedict XII and Pope Clement VI.

Reference

 * This article is based on the public domain 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica. Please update as needed.

I agree with you that the EB article needs a bit of finessing - you have to wade through a fair way to get a succinct idea of what Marsilius is about. BTW, I split the original text into two, hiving the part dealing with Defensor pacis into a separate article. Would it work better if we incorporated your summary into the article as a lead-in?

I don't agree that the EB text, or any other incorporated open-source text, needs necessarily to be compressed, though they definitely need a lot more work. I'm posting them as a start, where I think there are gaps in Wiki's coverage. Dave

Perhaps it would work as a lead in for Defensor pacis. I'll put it there and we can see what you and others think. Although the 1911 EB is held in high repute, I certainly don't find this particular article to be very well put together. To me, it reads like a hodge podge. But, then I certainly do not claim to be an expert in the subject matter. ;=) Bill 19:50 13 Jul 2003 (UTC)

I've edited Defensor pacis to eliminate duplication in the later text and ease the flow. I'll have another look at this Marsilius text to see that it reads OK. Dave

John of Jandun
I believe that it is now generally conceded that John of Jandun did not write part of Defensor pacis. Cary J. Nederman, in an Afterword to a recent edition of Defensor pacis while discussing the 'dual perspective' of Discourse I and Discourse II of this text, said, "Indeed, the thematic and conceptual gulf between the two discourses once seemed so wide that scholars commonly supposed Marsilius's colleague John of Jandun to be the coauthor of the Defensor pacis until Gewirth himself proved in a classic article that the treatise was the work of a single hand." (Marsilius of Padua, Defensor pacis, New York: Columbia University Press, 2001, p 444.) Nederman provides, in this edition, the Afterword to Gewirth's 1956 translation. The 'classic article' referred to by Nederman is given (p. 444, note 1) as: "Alan Gewirth, John of Jandun and the Defensor Pacis, Speculum 23 (1948): 267-272." Pomonomo2003 15:07, 19 October 2006 (UTC)

Marsilius and the Holy Roman Empire
The article claims that Marsilius sought "the independence of the Holy Roman Empire from the Papacy." Cf. Skinner in The Foundations of Modern Political Thought Vol. 1 (Cambridge University Press, 1978):

"It was obvious that what they [the Northern Italian cities known as the Regnum Italicum] needed most of all was a form of political argument capable of vindicating their liberty against the Church without involving them in ceding it to anyone else [the Holy Roman Empire]." (18)

This comes after a discussion of Dante's political theory and his encomium toHenry of Luxembourg. Skinner sees Marsilius as writing for the independence of the Regnum italicum from both the papacy and the HRE. (18-19) Considering the seriousness and depth of Skinner's argument, I think this is worthy of an edit to this article. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Timjim7 (talk • contribs) 03:51, 28 February 2012 (UTC)

Lede
a trenchant critique of caesaropapism in Western Europe – it should be either an exposition of caesaropapism in Western Europe or a trenchant critique of papocaesarism in Western Europe. 37.47.194.205 (talk) 22:06, 9 June 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Marsilius of Padua


text:
Eric Bogosian

Eric Michael Bogosian (born April 24, 1953) is an American actor, playwright, monologuist, novelist, and historian. Descended from Armenian-American immigrants, he grew up in Watertown and Woburn, Massachusetts, and attended the University of Chicago and Oberlin College. His numerous plays include Talk Radio (1987) and subUrbia (1994), which were adapted to film by Oliver Stone and Richard Linklater, respectively, with Bogosian starring in the former.

Bogosian has appeared in plays, films, and television series throughout his career. His television roles include Captain Danny Ross in Law & Order: Criminal Intent (2006–2010), Lawrence Boyd on Billions (2017–2018), Daniel Molloy on Interview with the Vampire (2022-present), and Gil Eavis on Succession (2018-2019). He also starred as Arno in the Safdie brothers' film Uncut Gems (2019). He has also been involved in New York City ballet production, and has written several novels as well as the historical nonfiction Operation Nemesis (2015).

Early life
Eric Bogosian (Էրիք Պօղոսեան) was born in Boston, Massachusetts, the son of Edwina (née Jamgochian), a hairdresser and instructor, and Henry Bogosian, an accountant. He spent his early childhood in Watertown, Massachusetts, home to a large Armenian-American community which included his grandparents, survivors of the Armenian genocide. His family moved to nearby Woburn in 1960. He became interested in theater while attending Woburn Memorial High School, and would later base his play subUrbia on his youth in Woburn's Four Corners neighborhood. He attended the University of Chicago before graduating from Oberlin College.

Career
Bogosian is an author and actor known for his plays Talk Radio and subUrbia as well as numerous one-man shows. In 1983, early in his career, Bogosian appeared in the music video for Jim Capaldi's song "That's Love". In recent years he has starred on Broadway in Donald Margulies' Time Stands Still, published three novels, and was featured on Law & Order: Criminal Intent as Captain Danny Ross.

Stage
Between 1980 and 2000, six major solos written and performed by Bogosian were produced Off-Broadway, garnering him three Obie Awards as well as the Drama Desk award. His first two solos, Men Inside and funHouse were presented at the New York Shakespeare Festival. His third, Drinking in America, was produced by American Place Theater. Sex, Drugs, Rock & Roll, Pounding Nails in the Floor with My Forehead and Wake Up and Smell the Coffee were all produced commercially Off-Broadway by Frederick Zollo.

Bogosian is also the author of six produced plays, including 1987's Talk Radio. Talk Radio was a finalist for Pulitzer Prize for Drama, but lost to Alfred Uhry's Driving Miss Daisy. In 2007, a Broadway revival of Talk Radio directed by Robert Falls starred Liev Schreiber. subUrbia was directed by Robert Falls and produced by Lincoln Center Theater in 1994. Other titles include Griller (Goodman Theater); Humpty Dumpty (The McCarter); Red Angel (Williamstown Theater Festival) and 1+1 (New York Stage and Film). Bogosian's one-man drama, Notes from Underground has had several productions, most recently starring Jonathan Ames at Performance Space 122.

In addition to his many appearances in his solo work and starring in his play, Talk Radio, Bogosian has also starred in Stephen Adly Guirgis' The Last Days of Judas Iscariot directed by Philip Seymour Hoffman (LAByrinth) and Donald Margulies' Time Stands Still directed by Daniel Sullivan (Manhattan Theater Club/Broadway).

Film
Bogosian's play Talk Radio was adapted to film in 1988 by Oliver Stone, garnering Bogosian the prestigious Berlin Film Festival Silver Bear. The film version of subUrbia (1996) was directed by Richard Linklater. His play Sex, Drugs, Rock & Roll was adapted to film in 1991. He has appeared in several other films including Under Siege 2: Dark Territory and Wonderland. In addition, he has been featured in films by such directors as Woody Allen, Robert Altman, Taylor Hackford, Atom Egoyan, and Agnieszka Holland.

Television
In television, Bogosian is best known for his starring role as Captain Danny Ross in the series Law & Order: Criminal Intent. In addition, he has appeared as a guest star on dramas and in 1994 created with Steven Spielberg the series High Incident for ABC television. He portrayed Barney Greenwald, defense attorney, in the TV film The Caine Mutiny Court Martial. He also appeared in the episode "His Story" on Scrubs as Dr. Cox's therapist and was recurring character Lawrence Boyd in Billions' second season. In 1993, Bogosian played the role of Stan Paxton, Larry's ex-standup partner in the series 'The Larry Sanders Show'. He has also appeared in HBO's show Succession as Senator Gil Eavis, and in the main cast of the AMC show Interview with the Vampire as Daniel Molloy, the reporter who interviews the titular vampire. That role was particular important to Bogosian as he was a long term fan of vampire genre- “When I first came to New York as a young theatre intern, Frank Langella was doing Dracula on Broadway. I was there with a girlfriend, and we were probably in the last row of the balcony. And I felt like he was breathing down my neck. That power, that energy that he could create, thrilled me.” That titillating thrill embedded itself deep into Bogosian, awakening an inclination toward the vampire’s allure that has persisted for decades. “I love the eroticism of vampire stuff. I love these movies and plays more than anything. I petitioned Francis Ford Coppola to be in his Dracula, but unfortunately, I wasn't a big enough star,” Bogosian shrugs. “But he did invite me to the set, and I got to hang around with him and look at all the storyboards for that movie. That was really exciting.” As the years went on, Bogosian’s fascination crystallized into a specific desire for his career: One way or another, he was determined to play a vampire. “It's just always on my mind,” Bogosian smiles. “I think there's something about the power of a vampire. And hey, the biting the neck stuff is just sexy to me, so that doesn’t hurt.”

Books
Bogosian is the author of three novels published by Simon & Schuster: Mall, Wasted Beauty, and Perforated Heart. All of his dramatic work is in print, published by Theater Communication Group. In 2015, Little, Brown published Operation Nemesis: The Secret Plot that Avenged the Armenian Genocide, a history of Operation Nemesis, which involved a group of Armenian assassins who set out to avenge the deaths of the one and a half million victims of the Armenian genocide.

Dance
Bogosian founded the dance series at The Kitchen. During his charter tenure there, he produced the first concerts in New York City by Bill T. Jones and Arnie Zane, Karole Armitage and Molissa Fenley as well as dozens of other choreographers. In 2006, Bogosian acted as producer on the New York City Ballet's documentary, Bringing Back Balanchine.

Collaborations
In addition to working with Jo Bonney and Tad Savinar, other notable collaborations include with Michael Zwack ("I Saw the Seven Angels"); Joe Hannan ("The Ricky Paul Show"); Glenn Branca ("The New World"); Robert Longo ("American Vanity"); Ann Magnuson (sketches at Folk City) and Elliott Sharp ("This Is Now!"). Since 2016 Bogosian has been filming the 100monologues.com series with Travis Bogosian and Good Baby Films.

Awards
Bogosian has won the Obie Award three times as well as the Drama Desk Award. He received the prestigious "Silver Bear" at the 1989 Berlin Film Festival for his work on Talk Radio. He is a 2004 Guggenheim fellow and the recipient of two fellowships from the National Endowment for the Arts.

Personal life
In 1980, he married Jo Anne Bonney, with whom he has two sons, Harry and Travis Bogosian.

Writing credits

 * Men in Dark Times
 * Scenes from the New World
 * Sheer Heaven (1980)
 * Men Inside (1981)
 * The New World (1981)
 * FunHouse (1983)
 * Drinking in America (1986) (Winner of the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding One-Person Show)
 * Talk Radio (1987) (also film version 1988)
 * Sex, Drugs, Rock & Roll (1990)
 * Notes from the Underground (1993)
 * Pounding Nails in the Floor with My Forehead (1994)
 * subUrbia (1994) (also film version 1996)
 * Griller (1998)
 * Mall (2000)
 * Wake Up and Smell the Coffee (2000)
 * Humpty Dumpty (2004)
 * Non-profit Benefit
 * Red Angel
 * Wasted Beauty (2005)
 * 1+1 (2008)
 * Perforated Heart (2009)
 * Operation Nemesis (2015)

title: Eric Bogosian


text:
Siege of Carthage (Third Punic War)

The siege of Carthage was the main engagement of the Third Punic War fought between Carthage and Rome. It consisted of the nearly-three-year siege of the Carthaginian capital, Carthage (a little north east of Tunis). In 149 BC, a large Roman army landed at Utica in North Africa. The Carthaginians hoped to appease the Romans, but despite the Carthaginians surrendering all of their weapons, the Romans pressed on to besiege the city of Carthage. The Roman campaign suffered repeated setbacks through 149 BC, only alleviated by Scipio Aemilianus, a middle-ranking officer, distinguishing himself several times. A new Roman commander took over in 148 BC, and fared equally badly. At the annual election of Roman magistrates in early 147 BC, the public support for Scipio was so great that the usual age restrictions were lifted to allow him to be appointed commander in Africa.

Scipio's term commenced with two Carthaginian successes, but he tightened the siege and commenced a construction of a large mole to prevent supplies from getting into Carthage via blockade runners. The Carthaginians had partially rebuilt their fleet and it sortied, to the Romans' surprise; after an indecisive engagement the Carthaginians mismanaged their withdrawal and lost many ships. The Romans then built a large brick structure in the harbour area, which dominated the city wall. In the spring of 146 BC, the Romans launched their final assault and over seven days systematically destroyed the city and killed its inhabitants; only on the last day did they take prisoners – 50,000, who were sold into slavery. The formerly Carthaginian territories became the Roman province of Africa, with Utica as its capital. It was a century before the site of Carthage was rebuilt as a Roman city.

Background

Carthage and Rome fought the 17-year long Second Punic War between 218 and 201 BC, which ended with a Roman victory. The peace treaty imposed on the Carthaginians stripped them of all of their overseas territories, and some of their African ones. An indemnity of 10,000 silver talents was to be paid over 50 years. Hostages were taken. Carthage was forbidden to possess war elephants and its fleet was restricted to 10 warships. It was prohibited from waging war outside Africa, and in Africa only with Rome's express permission. Many senior Carthaginians wanted to reject it, but Hannibal spoke strongly in its favour and it was accepted in spring 201 BC. Henceforth, it was clear that Carthage was politically subordinate to Rome.

At the end of the war, the Roman ally Masinissa emerged as by far the most powerful ruler among the Numidians, the dominant indigenous people in North Africa west of Egypt. Over the following 50 years, he repeatedly took advantage of Carthage's inability to protect its possessions. Whenever Carthage petitioned Rome for redress, or permission to take military action, Rome backed its ally, Masinissa, and refused. Masinissa's seizures of and raids into Carthaginian territory became increasingly flagrant. In 151 BC, Carthage raised a large army commanded by Hasdrubal and, the treaty notwithstanding, counterattacked the Numidians. The campaign ended in disaster and the army surrendered; a large number of Carthaginians were subsequently massacred by the Numidians. Hasdrubal escaped to Carthage, where in an attempt to placate Rome he was condemned to death. Carthage had paid off its indemnity and was prospering economically, but was no military threat to Rome. Nevertheless, elements in the Roman Senate had long wished to destroy Carthage, and, using the illicit Carthaginian military action as a pretext, began preparing a punitive expedition. Carthaginian embassies attempted to negotiate with Rome, but when the large North African port city of Utica went over to Rome in 149 BC the Senate and the People's Assembly declared war.

It was the long-standing Roman procedure to elect two men each year, known as consuls, to each lead an army. A large Roman army landed at Utica in 149 BC under both consuls for the year, Manius Manilius commanding the army and Lucius Censorius the fleet. The Carthaginians continued to attempt to appease Rome, and sent an embassy to Utica. The consuls demanded that they hand over all weaponry, and reluctantly the Carthaginians did so. Great convoys took enormous stocks of equipment from Carthage to Utica. Surviving records state that these included 200,000 sets of armour and 2,000 catapults. Their warships all sailed to Utica and were burnt in the harbour. Once Carthage was disarmed, the consuls made the further demand that the Carthaginians abandon their city and relocate 16 km away from the sea; Carthage would then be destroyed. The Carthaginians abandoned negotiations and prepared to defend their city.

Opposing forces
The city of Carthage itself was an unusually large city for the time, with a population estimated at 700,000. It was strongly fortified with walls of more than 35 km circumference. Defending the main approach from the land were three lines of defences, of which the strongest was a brick-built wall 9 m wide and 15 – high with a 20 m ditch in front of it. Built into this wall was a barracks capable of holding over 24,000 soldiers. The city had few reliable sources of ground water, but possessed a complex system to catch and channel rainwater and a large number of cisterns to store it.

The Carthaginians raised a strong and enthusiastic force to garrison the city from their citizenry and by freeing all slaves willing to fight. They also formed a 30,000 strong field army, which was placed under Hasdrubal, freshly released from his condemned cell. This army was based at Nepheris, 25 km south of the city. Appian gives the strength of the Roman army which landed in Africa as 84,000 soldiers; modern historians estimate it at 40,000–50,000 men, of whom 4,000 were cavalry.

149 BC
The Roman army moved to Carthage and twice attempted to scale the city walls, from the sea and the landward sides, being repulsed both times, before settling down for a Siege of Carthage (Third Punic War). Hasdrubal moved up his army and harassed the Roman supply lines and foraging parties. The Romans built two very large battering rams and partially broke down a section of the wall. They stormed the breach but fell into disorder while clambering through and were thrown back by the waiting Carthaginians. The Romans would have been in difficulty except for the actions of Scipio Aemilianus, who was serving with the 4th Legion as a tribune – a middle-ranking military position. Rather than join the attack as ordered, Scipio held back and spaced his men along the partially demolished wall, and so was able to beat off the pursuing Carthaginians when the Romans in front of him fled back through the ranks of his unit.

Censorinus's camp was badly situated and by early summer was so pestiferous that it was moved to a healthier location. This, however, was not as defensible, and the Carthaginians inflicted losses on the Roman fleet with fireships. Separately, a night attack was launched against Manilius's camp; a dangerous outcome for the Romans was again averted by Scipio's prompt action. The Romans made repetitions of these attacks more difficult by building additional field fortifications.

148 BC
The Romans elected two new consuls in 148 BC, but only one of them was sent to Africa: Calpurnius Piso; Lucius Mancinus commanded the navy as his subordinate. He pulled back the close siege of Carthage to a looser blockade and attempted to mop up the other Carthaginian-supporting cities in the area but failed. Meanwhile, Hasdrubal, commander of the Carthaginian field army, overthrew the civilian leadership of Carthage and took command himself. A Numidian chief came over to the Carthaginians with 800 cavalry. Carthage allied with Andriscus, a pretender to the Macedonian throne, who invaded Roman Macedonia, defeated a Roman army, had himself crowned King Philip VI, and sparked the Fourth Macedonian War.

147 BC

Scipio intended to stand in the 147 BC elections for the post of aedile; this was a natural progression for him and at age 36 or 37 he was too young to stand as consul, for which the minimum age requirement was 42. But the public demand to appoint him as consul, and so allow him to take charge of the African war, was so strong that the Senate put aside the age requirements for all posts for the year. There was considerable political manoeuvring behind the scenes, much of which is opaque in the sources, and it is not known to what extent, if any, Scipio helped orchestrate this outcome. In any event, he secured sole command in Africa, the usual right to conscript enough men to make up the numbers of the forces there, and the unusual entitlement to enroll volunteers.

Meanwhile, early in 147 BC Mancinius seized an unexpected opportunity to capture a sally port and forced 3,500 men into the city, 3,000 of whom were lightly-armed and armoured sailors. Mancinius sent messages asking for reinforcements. Sources have Scipio arriving at Utica that evening to take up his post. He sailed overnight for Carthage and arrived just in time to evacuate Mancinius's hard-pressed force as it was expelled by a Carthaginian counterattack.

Scipio moved the Roman main camp back to near Carthage, closely observed by a Carthaginian detachment of 8,000. He made a speech demanding tighter discipline and dismissed those soldiers he considered ill-disciplined or poorly motivated. He then led a night march with a strong force that culminated in an assault against what the Romans considered to be a weak point in Carthage's main wall. A gate was seized and 4,000 Romans pushed into the city. Panicked in the dark, the Carthaginian defenders, after an initial fierce resistance, fled. However, Scipio decided that his position would be indefensible once the Carthaginians reorganised themselves in daylight, and so withdrew. Hasdrubal, horrified at the way the Carthaginian defences had collapsed, had Roman prisoners tortured to death on the walls, in view of the Roman army. He was reinforcing the will to resist in the Carthaginian citizens; from this point there could be no possibility of negotiation or even surrender. Some members of the city council denounced his actions and Hasdrubal had them too put to death and took full control of the city.

The renewed close siege cut off landward entry to the city, but a tight seaward interdiction was all but impossible with the naval technology of the time. Frustrated at the amount of food being shipped into the city, Scipio started to build an immense mole to cut off access to the harbour. As work on this progressed, the Carthaginians responded by cutting a new channel from their harbour to the sea. They had built a new fleet of 50 triremes – medium-sized, manoeuvrable, oared warships – and a large number of smaller ships since sacrificing their original fleet two years before. Once the channel was complete this sailed out, taking the Romans by surprise. A few days were necessary to trim the new-built ships and to train the new crews who had not been to sea for over two years and were out of the habit of operating together, and by the time the Carthaginians felt ready to give battle the Romans had concentrated their own naval forces. In the engagement which followed, the Carthaginians held their own, with their lighter craft proving difficult for the Roman ships to deal with. Breaking off the engagement, the Carthaginian triremes were covering the withdrawal of their lighter vessels when a collision blocked the new channel. With the Carthaginian ships pinned against the city's sea wall with no room to manoeuvre, the Romans sank or captured many of them before the blockage was cleared and the Carthaginian survivors were able to escape back into harbour.

The Romans now attempted to advance against the Carthaginian defences in the harbour area. Carthaginians swam across the harbour at night and set fire to several siege engines and many legionaries panicked and fled. Scipio intercepted them in the dark; when they disregarded his orders to halt he had his mounted bodyguard attack them. Nevertheless, the Romans eventually gained control of the quay and constructed a brick wall as high as the city wall. This took months to complete, but once in place it enabled 4,000 Romans to shoot onto the Carthaginian ramparts from short range.

146 BC
Scipio's position as the Roman commander in Africa was extended for a year in 146 BC, and in the spring he launched the final assault. It came from the harbour area and Hasdrubal, expecting it, set fire to the nearby warehouses. Despite this, a Roman advance party broke through to the military harbour and captured it. The main assault force reached the city's main square, where the legions camped overnight. The next morning Scipio led 4,000 men to link up with the group at the military harbour; this group was delayed when they diverted to strip the gold from the Temple of Apollo. Scipio and his officers were helpless to prevent them and furious. The Carthaginians did not take advantage, having withdrawn to defensive positions.

Having regrouped, the Romans systematically worked their way through the residential part of the city, killing everyone they encountered and firing the buildings behind them. At times, the Romans progressed from rooftop to rooftop, to prevent missiles being hurled down on them. It took six more days to clear the city of resistance, and on the last day Scipio agreed to accept prisoners. The last holdouts, including 900 Roman deserters in Carthaginian service, fought on from the Temple of Eshmoun and burnt it down around themselves when all hope was gone. At this point, Hasdrubal surrendered to Scipio on the promise of his life and freedom. Hasdrubal's wife, watching from a rampart, then blessed Scipio, cursed her husband, and walked into the temple with her children, to burn to death.

There were 50,000 Carthaginian prisoners, a small proportion of the pre-war population, who were sold into slavery. After the final week of fighting, Scipio gave the city over to the soldiers to plunder. After this, a commission of ten senators arrived, ordering Scipio to destroy whatever remained of Carthage and decreed nobody was allowed to settle there or rebuild; however, it was not forbidden to go upon the ground nor was the land cursed, the notion that Roman forces then sowed the city with salt is a 19th-century invention. Many of the religious items and cult-statues which Carthage had pillaged from Sicilian cities and temples over the centuries were returned with great ceremony.

Aftermath
Scipio was awarded the agnomen "Africanus", as his adoptive grandfather had been. The formerly Carthaginian territories were annexed by Rome and reconstituted to become the Roman province of Africa with Utica as its capital. The province became a major source of grain and other foodstuffs. Numerous large Punic cities, such as those in Mauretania, were taken over by the Romans, although they were permitted to retain their Punic system of government. A century later, the site of Carthage was rebuilt as a Roman city by Julius Caesar, and would become one of the main cities of Roman Africa by the time of the Empire. The Punic language continued to be spoken in north Africa until the 7th century.

Rome still exists as the capital of Italy; the ruins of Carthage lie 16 km east of Tunis on the North African coast. A formal peace treaty was signed by Ugo Vetere and Chedli Klibi, the mayors of Rome and the modern city of Carthage, respectively, on 5 February 1985; 2,131 years after the war ended.

title: Siege of Carthage (Third Punic War)


text:
Conch Republic

The Conch Republic is a micronation declared as a sarcastic secession of the city of Key West, Florida, from the United States on April 23, 1982. It has been maintained as a tourism booster for the city. Since then, the term "Conch Republic" has been expanded to refer to "all of the Florida Keys, or, that geographic apportionment of land that falls within the legally defined boundaries of Monroe County, Florida, northward to 'Skeeter's Last Chance Saloon' in Florida City, Dade County, Florida, with Key West as the micronation's capital and all territories north of Key West being referred to as 'The Northern Territories'.

While the protests that sparked the creation of the Conch Republic (and others since then) have been described by some as "tongue-in-cheek", they were motivated by frustrations over genuine concerns. The original protest event was motivated by a U.S. Border Patrol roadblock and checkpoint that greatly inconvenienced residents and tourists.

The Conch Republic celebrates Independence Day every April 23 as part of a week-long festival of activities involving numerous businesses in Key West including local rum distilleries like Chef Distilled. The organization—a "Sovereign State of Mind", seeking only to bring more "humor, warmth and respect" to a world in sore need of all three according to its late secretary general, Peter Anderson—is a key tourism booster for the area.

History
In 1982, the United States Border Patrol set up a roadblock and inspection point on US 1 just north of the merger of Monroe County Road 905A/Miami-Dade County Road 905A onto US 1 (the only two roads connecting the Florida Keys with the mainland), in front of the Last Chance Saloon just south of Florida City. Vehicles were stopped and searched for narcotics and illegal immigrants.

The Key West City Council complained repeatedly about the inconvenience for travelers to and from Key West, claiming that it hurt the Keys' important tourism industry. Eastern Air Lines, which had a hub at Miami International Airport, saw a window of opportunity when the roadblocks were established; Eastern was at the time the only airline to establish jet service to Key West International Airport, counting on travelers from Key West to Miami preferring to fly rather than to wait for police to search their vehicles.

When the city council's complaints went unanswered by the U.S. federal government and attempts to get an injunction against the roadblock failed in court, as a form of protest Mayor Dennis Wardlow and the council declared Key West's independence on April 23, 1982. In the eyes of the council, since the U.S. federal government had set up the equivalent of a border station as if they were a foreign nation, they might as well become one. As many of the local citizens were referred to as Conchs, the micronation took the name of the Conch Republic.

As part of the protest, Mayor Wardlow was proclaimed prime minister of the republic, which immediately declared war against the United States (symbolically breaking a loaf of stale Cuban bread over the head of a man dressed in a naval uniform), quickly surrendered after one minute (to the man in the uniform), and applied for one billion dollars in foreign aid.

Conch Republic officials were invited to the Summit of the Americas in Miami in 1994, and Conch representatives were officially invited to 1995's Florida Jubilee.

The faux secession and the events surrounding it generated great publicity for the Keys' plight—the roadblock and inspection station were removed soon afterward. It also resulted in the creation of a new avenue of tourism for the Keys.

Invasions of 1995
On September 20, 1995, it was reported that the 478th Civil Affairs Battalion of the United States Army Reserve was to conduct a training exercise simulating an invasion of a foreign island. They were to land on Key West and conduct affairs as if the islanders were foreign. However, no one from the 478th notified Conch officials of the exercise.

Seeing another chance at publicity, Wardlow and the forces behind the 1982 Conch Republic secession mobilized the island for a full-scale war, sending the schooner Western Union out to attack an incoming Coast Guard cutter with water balloons, conch fritters and stale Cuban bread (to which the Coast Guard responded with their fire hoses, quickly ending the battle), and protested to the Department of Defense for arranging this exercise without consulting the city officials. The leaders of the 478th issued an apology the next day, saying they "in no way meant to challenge or impugn the sovereignty of the Conch Republic", and submitted to a surrender ceremony on September 22.

During the U.S. federal government shutdown of 1995 and 1996, as a protest, the republic sent a flotilla of Conch Navy, civilian, and fire department boats to Fort Jefferson, located in Dry Tortugas National Park, to reopen it. The action was dubbed a "full-scale invasion" by the Conch Republic. Inspired by efforts of the Smithsonian Institution to keep its museums open by private donations, local residents had raised private money to keep the park running (as a closed park would damage the tourist-dependent local economy), but could find no one to accept the money and reopen the park.

When officials attempted to enter the monument, they were cited. When the citation was contested in court the following year, the resultant case, The United States of America v. Peter Anderson, was quickly dropped.

Annexation of Seven Mile Bridge

On January 13, 2006, Peter Anderson (the defendant in the Dry Tortugas case from 1995 to 1996) purported to annex the abandoned span of Seven Mile Bridge, which had been replaced by a parallel span in 1982. The move was in response to a recent event regarding Cuban refugees. On the previous January 4, fifteen Cuban refugees reached the bridge, but were returned to Cuba by the U.S. Border Patrol because the U.S. government had declared the bridge a "wet feet" location under the wet feet, dry feet policy. The rationale was that, since two sections of the span had been removed and it was no longer connected to land, it was not part of U.S. territory subject to the "dry feet" rule, and thus the refugees could not stay.

Anderson, seizing upon the U.S.'s apparent disavowal of the abandoned span, claimed it for the Republic. He expressed hope to use the bridge for affordable, ecologically friendly housing. In response, Russel Schweiss, spokesman for Florida governor Jeb Bush, declared, "With all due respect to the Conch Republic, the bridge belongs to all the people of Florida, and we're not currently in negotiations to sell it." The refugee decision was later overturned, but only after the refugees had been returned to Cuba.

Recent history
In another protest, beginning in 2008, the northern keys including Key Largo formed a separation of the Conch Republic known as the Independent Northernmost Territories of the Conch Republic. Proponents claim this separation is a result of disagreements over the definition and use of the term "Conch Republic".

As of 2022, the southernmost point buoy mentions the Conch Republic.

Souvenir passports and vehicle registration

Through their website, the republic issues passports as souvenirs, but some have evidently bought them in the mistaken belief they are legitimate travel and identity documents. Shortly after the September 11 attacks, FBI investigators thought that hijacker Mohamed Atta had possibly purchased a Conch Republic passport from the website. International vehicle registration code stickers can also be purchased from vendors in Key West, bearing the initials "KW" and "CR"—the country codes for Kuwait and Costa Rica, respectively.

Military
The Conch Republic actively maintains an Army, Navy, and Air Force whose primary duties are to help re-enact the Great Sea Battle of 1982 and the retaking of Fort Jefferson. The Conch Republic Navy comprises no fewer than 10 civilian boats and the schooner Wolf under the command of Admiral Finbar Gittelman. The Army consists of the 1st Conch Artillery, garrisoned in Fort Taylor.

The Conch Republic Air Force has more than a dozen appointed aircraft in its fleet. The flagship, a 1942 Waco, was flown by Fred R. Cabanas, a legendary stunt pilot and ambassador for the Conch Republic at air shows worldwide. He flew "Conch Fury" in the 2005 Reno Air Races. Fred was declared General of the Air Force by the mayor of Key West after intercepting a defecting Cuban MiG-23 with his Pitts Special in 1991. Following his death in January 2013, Fred was succeeded by his son, Raymond Cabanas.

In literature
Some of the action in Joe Haldeman's 1989 science fiction novel Buying Time (published in UK as The Long Habit of Living) takes place in the Conch Republic, a lawless place where assassination and other activities are perfectly legal.

Science fiction writer Spider Robinson's Callahan's Crosstime Saloon series—about an Irish bar full of time travellers, aliens and musicians—find themselves relocated to the Conch Republic in the 2000 novel Callahan's Key.

National anthem
In 1994, Joe and Meri-Lynn Britz wrote the national anthem for the Conch Republic, "Conch Republic". It was recorded by the Key Lime Pie band and voted on and accepted by the city of Key West City Commissioners.

title: Conch Republic


text:
Fenghuang

Fènghuáng (, Mandarin pronunciation: ) are mythological birds found in Sinospheric mythology that reign over all other birds. The males were originally called fèng and the females huáng, but this distinction of gender is often no longer made and they are blurred into a single feminine entity so that the bird can be paired with the Chinese dragon, which is traditionally deemed male.

It is known under similar names in various other languages (Japanese: hōō; phượng hoàng or phụng hoàng; Korean: bonghwang). In the Western world, it is commonly called the Chinese phoenix or simply phoenix, although mythological similarities with the Western phoenix are superficial.

Appearance
A common depiction of fenghuang was of it attacking snakes with its talons and its wings spread. According to the Erya ' s chapter 17 Shiniao, fenghuang is made up of the beak of a rooster, the face of a swallow, the forehead of a fowl, the neck of a snake, the breast of a goose, the back of a tortoise, the hindquarters of a stag and the tail of a fish. Today, however, it is often described as a composite of many birds including the head of a golden pheasant, the body of a mandarin duck, the tail of a peacock, the legs of a crane, the mouth of a parrot, and the wings of a swallow.

The fenghuang's body symbolizes the celestial bodies: the head is the sky, the eyes are the sun, the back is the moon, the wings are the wind, the feet are the earth, and the tail is the planets. The fenghuang is said to have originated in the sun. Its body contains the five fundamental colors: black, white, red, yellow, and green. It sometimes carries scrolls or a box with sacred books. It is sometimes depicted with a fireball. It is believed that the bird only appears in areas or places that are blessed with utmost peace and prosperity or happiness.

Chinese tradition cites it as living atop the Kunlun Mountains in northern China.

Origin

The earliest known ancient phoenix design dates back to about 7000–8000 years ago and was discovered in Hongjiang, Hunan Province, at the Gaomiao Archeological Site. The earliest known form of dragon-phoenix design, on the other hand, dates back to the Yangshao culture (c. 5000BC) and was found at an archeological site near Xi'an in Shaanxi Province. This ancient usage of phoenix and dragon designs are all evidence of an ancient form of totemism in China.

During the Shang dynasty, phoenix and dragon images appear to have become popular as burial objects. Several archeological artifacts of jade phoenix and jade dragons were unearthed in tombs dating from the Shang dynasty period. During the Spring and Autumn period (c.771 – c.476BC) and the Warring States period, common form of unearthed artifacts is the combination of dragon-phoenix designs together. One such artifact is the Silk Painting of Human Figure with Dragon and Phoenix, pictured left.

In the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC), phoenix hairpins (i.e. hairpins with fenghuang decorations) and shoes which were also decorated with phoenix designs were supposed to be worn by the Imperial concubines of the Qin Emperor.

During the Han dynasty (2,200 years ago) two phoenixes, one a male (feng, 鳳) and the other a female (huang, 凰) were often shown together facing one other. In the Han dynasty, an imperial edict decreed that the phoenix hairpins had to become the formal headpiece for the empress dowager and the imperial grandmother. Later, during the Yuan dynasty the two terms were merged to become fenghuang, but the "King of Birds" came to symbolize the empress when paired with a dragon representing the emperor.

From the Jiajing era (1522–1566) of the Ming dynasty onwards, a pair of phoenixes was differentiated by the tail feathers of the two birds, typically together forming a closed circle pattern – the male identified by five long serrated tail feathers or "filaments" (five being an odd, masculine, or yang number) and the female by what sometimes appears to be one but is in fact usually two curling or tendrilled tail feathers (two being an even, feminine, or yin number). Also during this period, the fenghuang was used as a symbol representing the direction south. This was portrayed through a male and female facing each other. Their feathers were of the five fundamental colors: black, white, red, green, and yellow. These colours are said to represent Confucius' five virtues:
 * 1) Ren: the virtue of benevolence, charity, and humanity;
 * 2) Yi: honesty and uprightness; Yì may be broken down into zhōng, doing one's best, conscientiousness, loyalty and shù: the virtue of reciprocity, altruism, consideration for others
 * 3) Zhi: knowledge
 * 4) Xin: faithfulness and integrity;
 * 5) Li: correct behavior, propriety, good manners, politeness, ceremony, worship.

The phoenix represented power sent from the heavens to the Empress. If a phoenix was used to decorate a house it symbolized that loyalty and honesty were in the people that lived there. Or alternatively, a phoenix only stays when the ruler is without darkness and corruption (政治清明).

Etymology
Linguist Wang Li relates element to  "peng, fabulous great bird"; 鳳 is also related to  "wind".

Historical linguist Marc Miyake reconstructs, which he proposes, though with uncertainty, to be the affixed form of "wind sovereign".

Meaning
The fenghuang has positive connotations. It is a symbol of virtue and grace. The fenghuang also symbolizes the union of yin and yang. The first chapter of the Classic of Mountains and Seas , the "Nanshang-jing", states that each part of fenghuang's body symbolizes a word. The head represents virtue (德), the wing represents duty (義), the back represents propriety (禮), the abdomen represents credibility (信) and the chest represents mercy (仁).

The fenghuang originally consisted of a separate male feng and a female huang as symbols of yin and yang. The male feng represented the yang aspect while the huang represented the yin aspect; and together, the feng and huang image was symbolic of love between husband and wife. However, since the Qin dynasty, the fenghuang progressively went through a feminization process as the dragon became a symbol of masculinity. Eventually, the feng and the huang merged into a single female entity.

In ancient and modern Chinese culture, fenghuang can often be found in the decorations for weddings or royalty, along with dragons. This is because the Chinese considered the dragon-and-phoenix design symbolic of blissful relations between husband and wife, another common yang and yin metaphor. In some traditions, it appears in good times but hides during times of trouble, while in other traditions it appeared only to mark the beginning of a new era. In China and Japan, it was a symbol of the imperial house, and it represented "fire, the sun, justice, obedience, and fidelity".

Modern usage
The phoenix is still used in modern Japan and Korea in relation to the head of state:
 * Japan: The Hōō (ほうおう,, the Japanese pronunciation of 鳳凰) is associated with the Japanese Imperial family. The seemingly vast difference between hōō and fenghuang is due to Chinese vowels with ng usually being converted to ō in go-on reading. Examples include:
 * The actual Imperial throne Takamikura (高御座) is adorned by numerous Hōōs.
 * The Imperial regalia Kōrozen no Gohō (黄櫨染御袍) is decorated by numerous textile patterns including a pair of Hōō.
 * Various Japanese stamps and currency, such as the back of the current series E (2004) ¥10,000 yen note.
 * Toyota's flagship vehicle favored by the Japanese Imperial family and high Japanese government officials, the Toyota Century, uses the Hōō as an identifying emblem.
 * Korea: two bonghwang (봉황, Korean pronunciation of 鳳凰) are used in the symbol of the Korean President. Historically the bonghwang was used for queens and empresses.

Other uses include:
 * Fèng or Fènghuáng is a common element in given names of Chinese women (likewise, "Dragon" is used for men's names).
 * "Dragon-and-phoenix infants" is a Chinese term for a set of male and female fraternal twins.
 * Fenghuang is a common place name throughout China. The best known is Fenghuang County in western Hunan, southern China, formerly a sub-prefecture. Its name is written with the same Chinese characters as the mythological bird.
 * Phoenix talons is a Chinese term for chicken claws in any Chinese dish cooked with them.
 * The Vermilion Bird, (Suzaku in Japanese) one of the Four Symbols of Chinese myth, sometimes equated with the fenghuang.
 * The Chinese University of Hong Kong (CUHK) uses it in its emblem to symbol nobility, beauty, loyalty and majesty.
 * Phoenix Television (鳳凰衛星電視) is a Hong Kong-based media company
 * Typhoon Fung-wong has been a meteorological name for three tropical cyclones. The term was contributed by Hong Kong and is the Cantonese pronunciation of fenghuang.
 * When describing chinoiserie or authentic Asian ceramics and other artworks, English-speaking art historians and antique collectors sometimes refer to it as "hoho bird", a name derived from hōō, with a second extraneous h added. The Japanese also use the word fushichō for this image.

title: Fenghuang