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Future History (Heinlein)

The Future History is a series of stories created by Robert A. Heinlein. It describes a projected future of the human race from the middle of the 20th century through the early 23rd century. The term Future History was coined by John W. Campbell Jr. in the February 1941 issue of Astounding Science Fiction. Campbell published an early draft of Heinlein's chart of the series in the May 1941 issue.

Heinlein wrote most of the Future History stories early in his career, between 1939 and 1941 and between 1945 and 1950. Most of the Future History stories written prior to 1967 are collected in The Past Through Tomorrow, which also contains the final version of the chart. That collection does not include Universe and Common Sense; they were published separately as Orphans of the Sky.

Groff Conklin called the Future History "the greatest of all histories of tomorrow". It was nominated for the Hugo Award for Best All-Time Series in 1966, along with the Barsoom series by Edgar Rice Burroughs, the Lensman series by E. E. Smith, the Foundation series by Isaac Asimov, and The Lord of the Rings series by J. R. R. Tolkien, but lost to Asimov's Foundation series.

Definition
For the most part, The Past Through Tomorrow defines a core group of stories that are clearly within the Future History series. However, Heinlein scholars generally agree that some stories not included in the anthology belong to the Future History series, and that some that are included are only weakly linked to it.

James Gifford adds Time Enough for Love, which was published after The Past Through Tomorrow, and also "Let There Be Light", which was not included in The Past Through Tomorrow, possibly because the collection editor disliked it or because Heinlein himself considered it to be inferior. However, he considers Time Enough for Love to be a borderline case. He considers The Number of the Beast, The Cat Who Walks Through Walls, and To Sail Beyond the Sunset to be too weakly linked to the Future History to be included.

Bill Patterson includes To Sail Beyond the Sunset, on the theory that the discrepancies between it and the rest of the Future History are explained by assigning it to the same "bundle of related timelines" in the "World as Myth" multiverse. However, he lists a number of stories that he believes were never really intended to be part of Future History, even though they were included in The Past Through Tomorrow: "Life-Line" (which was written before Heinlein published the Future History chart; however, Lazarus Long does reference the protagonist of "Life-Line" and his device in Time Enough for Love), "The Menace from Earth", "—We Also Walk Dogs", and the stories originally published in the Saturday Evening Post ("Space Jockey", "It's Great to Be Back!", "The Green Hills of Earth", and "The Black Pits of Luna"). He agrees with Gifford that "Let There Be Light" should be included. The story "—And He Built a Crooked House—" was included only in the pre-war chart and never since.

The Heinlein juveniles do not hew closely to the Future History outline. Gifford states that "Although the twelve juvenile novels are not completely inconsistent with the Future History, neither do they form a thorough match with that series for adult readers. It is not often recognized that they are a reasonably consistent 'Future History' of their own... At least one major story specified in the Future History chart, the revolution on Venus, ended up being told in the framework of the juveniles as Between Planets." The novel Variable Star, written by Spider Robinson from Heinlein's detailed outline, incorporates some elements of both the Future History (such as references to Nehemiah Scudder) and the universe of the Heinlein juveniles (for example, torch ships and faster-than-light telepathic communication between twins). The adult short story "The Long Watch", included in Future History story collections, connects to Space Cadet through the character of (John) Ezra Dahlquist, the central character of the first, memorialized in the second.

Patterson cites "World as Myth" as a way of accounting for the deviation of real history from Heinlein's imagined future as well as inconsistencies between stories, writing, "Heinlein in the World as Myth books redefined the Future History as a timeline (or bundle of related timelines) ... which allows the 'Future History' to be a hard-edged term and yet nevertheless contain inconsistencies (i.e., any inconsistency belongs to a closely-related timeline)."

Stories never written
The chart published in the collection Revolt in 2100 includes several unwritten stories, which Heinlein describes in a postscript. "Fire Down Below", about a revolution in Antarctica, would have been set in the early 21st century. Three more unwritten stories fill in the history from just before "Logic of Empire" in the early 21st century through the beginning of "If This Goes On—". "The Sound of His Wings" covers Nehemiah Scudder's early life as a television evangelist through his rise to power as the First Prophet. "Eclipse" describes independence movements on Mars and Venus. "The Stone Pillow" details the rise of the resistance movement from the early days of the theocracy through the beginning of "If This Goes On—".

These stories were key points in the Future History, so Heinlein gave a rough description of Nehemiah Scudder which made his reign easy to visualize—a combination of John Calvin, Girolamo Savonarola, Joseph Franklin Rutherford, and Huey Long. His rise to power began when one of his flock, the widow of a wealthy man who would have disapproved of Scudder, died and left him enough money to establish a television station. He then teamed up with an ex-Senator and hired a major advertising agency. He was soon famous even off-world—many bonded laborers on Venus saw him as a messianic figure. He had muscle as well—a re-creation of the Ku Klux Klan in everything but name. "Blood at the polls and blood in the streets, but Scudder won the election. The next election was never held." Though this period was integral to the human diaspora that would follow several hundred years later, Heinlein stated that he was never able to write them because they featured Scudder prominently; he "dislike(d) him too much".

Nehemiah Scudder already appears in Heinlein's earliest novel For Us, the Living: A Comedy of Customs (written 1938–1939, though first published in 2003). Scudder's early career as depicted in that book is virtually identical with the above—but with the crucial difference that in the earlier version Scudder is stopped at the last moment by the counter-mobilization of Libertarians, and despite mass voter intimidation carries only Tennessee and Alabama. In fact, the Libertarian regime seen in full bloom in that book's 2086 came into being in direct reaction to Scudder's attempt to impose puritanical mores on the entire American society.

title: Future History (Heinlein)


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Qingdao

Qingdao is a prefecture-level city in eastern Shandong Province of China. Located on China's Yellow Sea coast, Qingdao was founded in 1891 to support coastal defence fortifications. In 1897, the city was ceded to Germany. For the Germans Qingdao (Tsingtao) was a strategic trade center, port and base for its East Asia Squadron, allowing the German navy to project dominance in the Pacific. In 1914, following the outbreak of World War I, Japan occupied the city and the surrounding province during the Siege of Tsingtao. In 1915, China agreed to recognize Japan's special position in the territory through what became known as the Twenty-One Demands. In 1918, the Chinese government, under the control of the warlord Duan Qirui, secretly agreed to Japanese terms in exchange for a loan. Following the First World War, during the Paris Peace Conference, Japan secured agreements with the Allied powers to recognize its claim to the areas in Shandong, which included Qingdao, previously occupied by Germany. In 1922, Shandong reverted to Chinese control following the United States' mediation during the Washington Naval Conference. Today, Qingdao is a major nodal city of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) that connects Continental and East Asia with Europe. It has the highest GDP of any city in the province.

Administered at the sub-provincial level, Qingdao has jurisdiction over seven districts and three county-level cities (Jiaozhou, Pingdu, Laixi). As of the 2020 census, Qingdao built-up (or metro) area made of the seven urban districts (Shinan, Shibei, Huangdao, Laoshan, Licang, Chengyang and Jimo) was home to 7,172,451 inhabitants, making it the 15th largest city in China by population. Lying across the Shandong Peninsula and looking out to the Yellow Sea, it borders the prefecture-level cities of Yantai to the northeast, Weifang to the west and Rizhao to the southwest.

Qingdao is a major seaport and naval base, as well as a commercial and financial center. It is home to electronics multinationals such as Haier and Hisense. The Jiaozhou Bay Bridge, links the main urban area of Qingdao with Huangdao district, straddling the Jiaozhou Bay sea areas. Its historic German-style architecture and Tsingtao Brewery, the second largest brewery in China, are legacies of the German occupation (1898–1914). Qingdao is classified as a Large-Port Metropolis.

In the 2020 Global Financial Centers Index, Qingdao ranked 47th; the index is published by the Z/Yen Group and China Development Institute, the other Chinese cities on the list being Shanghai, Hong Kong, Beijing, Shenzhen, Guangzhou, Chengdu, Nanjing, Xi'an, Tianjin, Hangzhou, Dalian, and Wuhan. In 2007, Qingdao was named as one of China's top ten cities by the Chinese Cities Brand Value Report, which was released at the 2007 Beijing Summit of China Cities Forum.

In 2009, Qingdao was named China's most livable city by the Chinese Institute of City Competitiveness. In 2018, Qingdao held the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation summit. In 2020, Qingdao was rated as a Gamma+ level global city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network.

Qingdao is also one of the world's top 50 cities for global scientific research as tracked by the Nature Index. The city is home to several notable universities, including the Ocean University of China, China University of Petroleum, Shandong University of Science and Technology, Qingdao, Qingdao University of Science and Technology Qingdao University of Technology, and Qingdao Agricultural University.

Antiquity
Human settlement in the area dates back 6,000 years. The Dongyi lived here and created the Dawenkou, Longshan and Dongyeshi cultures. In the Eastern Zhou Dynasty (770–256 BC), the town of Jimo was established, which was then the second-largest one in the Shandong region. The area in which Qingdao is located today was named Jiao'ao (胶澳) when it was administered by the Qing Dynasty on 14 June 1891.

German and Japanese occupations

In 1891, the Qing Empire decided to make coastal Qingdao (then known as "Jiao'ao") a defense base against naval attacks and began to improve its fortifications. Imperial German naval officials observed and reported on this activity during a formal survey of Jiaozhou Bay in May 1897. In November of that year, the Juye Incident would take place, in which three German missionaries were attacked, and two were killed. Subsequently, German troops seized and occupied the fortification.

The preindustrial, waning Qing Empire was forced to concede the area to Germany the following year, and the Kiautschou Bay concession, as it became known, existed from 1898 to 1914 (Li 2005, p. 81).

With an area of 552 km2, it was located in the imperial province of Shandong (alternately romanized as Shantung or Shan-tung) on the southern coast of the Shandong Peninsula in northern China. Jiaozhou was alternatively romanized as Kiaochow, Kiauchau, or Kiao-Chau in English, and Kiautschou in German; Qingdao was its administrative center. "The so-called Marktstrasse (Market Street) was nothing more than the old main street of the Chinese village of Qingdao, and the buildings lining it were the former homes of fishermen and farmers. Having sold their property, they resettled their homes and fields in the villages further east."

Upon gaining control of the area, the Germans outfitted the impoverished fishing village of Qingdao with wide streets, solid housing areas, government buildings, electrification throughout, a sewer system and a safe drinking water supply, a rarity in large parts of Asia at that time and later.

The area had the highest school density and the highest per capita student enrollment in all of China, with primary, secondary and vocational schools funded by the Imperial German treasury and Protestant and Roman Catholic missions. Commercial interests established the Germania Brewery in 1903, which later became the world-famous Tsingtao Brewery. German cultural and commercial influences extended to other areas of Shandong Province, including the establishment of diverse commercial enterprises.

Identified by the German authorities as a strategically important port, Qingdao was administered by the Imperial Department of the Navy (Reichsmarineamt) rather than the Imperial Colonial Office (Reichskolonialamt). The growing Imperial German Navy based their East Asia Squadron there, allowing the warships to conduct operations throughout the western Pacific. Beginning in January 1898, the marines of III. Seebataillon were based at Qingdao. Construction of the Jiaoji Railway began on 23 September 1899, and was completed in 1904.

Before the outbreak of World War I (1914–1918), ships of the German naval forces under Admiral Count von Spee were located at central Pacific colonies on routine missions. The fleet then rendezvoused in the Marianas Islands to plan a transit back to Germany rather than be trapped in the Pacific by more powerful and numerous Allied fleets (British and Japanese).

After a minor British naval attack on the German concession in Shandong in 1914, Japanese Empire troops occupied the city and the surrounding province during the Siege of Tsingtao (Qingdao) after Japan's declaration of war on Germany in accordance with the Anglo-Japanese Alliance. China protested against Japan's violation of her neutrality but was not able to interfere in the military operations. The decision of the Paris Peace Conference and the Versailles Treaty negotiations not to restore Chinese rule over the previous foreign concessions in Qingdao after the Great War triggered the May Fourth Movement (4 May 1919) of anti-imperialism, nationalism and cultural identity in China.

The city came under Chinese rule in December 1922, under control of the Republic of China (R.O.C.) established in 1912 after the Chinese Revolution the year before. However, Japan maintained its economic dominance of the railway and the province as a whole. The city became a direct-controlled municipality of the ROC Government in July 1929.

Japan re-occupied Qingdao in 1938, a year after it expanded the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), (a precursor to World War II, 1939–1945) with its plans of territorial expansion into China's coast. Nationalist (Kuomintang) ROC forces returned after the Japanese surrender in September 1945. On 2 June 1949, during the Chinese Civil War and shortly before the founding of the communist People’s Republic of China on 1 October 1949 the city was taken by Chairman Mao Zedong and his troops.

1898–1914
The development of the Qingdao urban space during the German occupation (1898–1914) originated from the port. Mass urban construction began in 1898 with the relocation of Chinese dwellers along the coast. With the completion of such series of mass construction projects such as wharves, the Tsingtao-Jinan Railway Line, Tsingtao Railway Station and locomotive works, a city was starting to take shape. The area had the highest school density and highest per capita student enrollment in all of China, with primary, secondary and vocational schools funded by the Berlin treasury as well as Protestant and Roman Catholic missions.

In 1910, the Germans drew up for the second time the city planning of Tsingtao (Warner 2001, p. 33). The former urban area was extended four times highlighted by the emphasis on the development of commerce and trade. Sun Yat-sen (1866–1925), leader of the Chinese Revolution of 1911 and subsequently first president of the Republic of China, visited the Tsingtau area and stated in 1912, "I am impressed. The city is a true model for China's future".

1914–1922
The development of Tsingtao urban space continued during the first Japan-occupation period (1914–1922). In 1914, Tsingtao was taken over by the Japanese and served as a base for the exploitation of natural resources of Shandong and northern China. With the development of industry and commerce, a "New City District" was established to furnish the Japanese colonists with commercial sections and living quarters, which suggested a striking contrast to the shabby houses in the local Chinese zones (Li 2007, p. 133). In the meantime, several schools, hospitals, and public buildings were constructed, followed by urban streets and intercity highways as well. The urban spatial layout continued to expand northward along the east bay area.

1922–1938
The development of Tsingtao urban space during the ROC-ruled period (1922–1938). This period saw the substantial progress of the urban development of Tsingtao. The government engaged itself in mass construction that gave birth to villa districts at the beach and bank groups in CBD. Plenty of public buildings and facilities for entertainment and sports were completed. By the year 1937, the urban population numbered 385,000(Lu 2001, p. 327). Tsingtao consequently distinguished itself as a prominent holiday resort and summer retreat.

1938–1945
The development of Tsingtao urban space during the second Japan-occupied period (1938–1945). Japanese armed forces returned to Tsingtao in 1938 and started to strive for the construction of the Greater Tsingtao in the following June. Accordingly, they worked out the city planning of the Greater Tsingtao and the City Planning of the Mother Town (Tsingtao City Proper), even though they had not had the opportunity to actualize either, respectively. The period in question did not witness much urban progress except for the logical construction of No. 6 Wharf, some Japanese residences, and a small number of roads and streets (Lu 2001, p. 339).

Postwar
After World War II, the KMT allowed Qingdao to serve as the headquarters of the Western Pacific Fleet of the US Navy in 1945; however, its headquarters were transferred to the Philippines sometime in late 1948. On 2 June 1949, the CPC-led Red Army entered Qingdao and the city and province have been under PRC control since that time.

Since the 1984 inauguration of China's open-door policy to foreign trade and investment, Qingdao has rapidly developed into an ultramodern port city. It is now the headquarters of the Chinese navy's northern fleet. An early example of the open-door policy occurred on 5 November 1984, when three United States Naval vessels visited Qingdao. This was the first US port call to China in more than 37 years. USS Rentz (FFG-46), USS Reeves (DLG-24), and USS Oldendorf (DD-972) and their crews were officially hosted by the Chinese People's Liberation Army Navy (PLAN).

Northern Qingdao, particularly Shibei, Licang, and Chengyang districts, are now major manufacturing centers. The city has recently experienced a strong growth period, with a new central business district created to the east of the older business district. Outside of the center of the city, there is a large industrial zone, which includes chemical processing, rubber, and heavy manufacturing, in addition to a growing high-tech area. Numerous local and national service companies, rather than manufacturers, are based in the city's southern district.

Administrative divisions
The sub-provincial city of Qingdao has seven districts (区; qū) and three county-level cities (市; shì):Qingdao City, located in Shandong Province, China, is a prefecture-level city with several aliases, including "Island City" and "Jiaozhou Bay." Qingdao is a vice-provincial-level city, a separately listed city, and recognized as a major city.

According to the approval of the State Council, Qingdao is designated as an important coastal center city and a coastal resort tourism city in China, as well as an international port city. Qingdao City administers 7 districts and 3 county-level cities. These districts include Shinan District, Shibei District, Huangdao District, Laoshan District, Licang District, Chengyang District, and Jimo District, while the county-level cities consist of Jiaozhou City, Pingdu City, and Laixi City.

Geographically, there are three districts (Shinan, Shibei, Licang) constituting a peninsula on the east coast of the Jiaozhou Bay as the core urban area, one (Chengyang) on the north coast and one (Xihai'an) on the west coast of the Yellow Sea.
 * Defunct - Jiaonan city - merged into Huangdao District (December 2012)

Geography
Qingdao is located on the south-facing coast of the Shandong Peninsula (Schantung Halbinsel). It borders three prefecture-level cities, namely Yantai to the northeast, Weifang to the west, and Rizhao to the southwest. The city occupies an area totaling 10654 km², and stretches in latitude from 35° 35' to 37° 09' N and in longitude from 119° 30' to 121° 00' E. The populated sections of the city are relatively flat while mountains spur up within city limits and nearby. The highest elevation in the city is located 1133 m above sea level. Of the total area of Qingdao, 15.5% is highland, while the foothill, plain, and lowland areas constitute 25.1%, 37.8%, and 21.7%, respectively. The city has a 730.64 km-long coastline. Five significant rivers exceeding 50 km in length can be found in the region.

Climate
Qingdao has a temperate, four-season, monsoon-influenced climate that lies in the transition between the humid subtropical (Köppen: Cwa) and humid continental (Köppen: Dwa) regimes. Due to the direct regulation of the marine environment, the city is influenced by the southeast monsoon and the currents and water masses from the ocean, so it also has significant maritime climate characteristics. Winters range from cool to cold and windy, but are generally dry, with a January average of 0.2 °C. Summer is generally hot and humid, but very hot days are rare, with an August average of 25.6 °C. Due to its proximity to the coast and location on a peninsula, compared to most inland areas of China, its spring is delayed by one month, and the annual diurnal temperature variation is only 6.3 C-change; conversely, its fall is milder than inland areas in Shandong. The water temperature peaks at about 25 °C in late August. Thus, swimming is possible for two months on either side. The annual mean temperature is 13.3 °C. Extremes since 1951 have ranged from −15.5 °C on 16 January 1958 to 38.9 °C on 15 July 2002. With monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 38 percent in July to 59 percent in October, the city receives 2,261 hours of bright sunshine annually.

During the summer months, the beaches of Qingdao are afflicted by massive algal blooms. The decomposing algae release large amounts of hydrogen sulfide gas, which produces an offensive "rotten egg" odor. Sea lettuce blooms, which are partially caused by seaweed farming in Jiangsu Province, led local officials to declare a "large-scale algae disaster" in 2013.

Demographics
Of the 10 million residents of Qingdao, 6.2 million reside in the Qingdao urban area. Another estimated 5 million live in other cities under Qingdao's jurisdiction. The annual birth rate is calculated around 76,507, with a birth rate of 10.15 per year per thousand, and a death rate of 6.32, both calculated on an annual basis. Living standards are among the highest of leading Chinese cities due to the strong export economy and relatively high family wages.

There is a large Korean community in Qingdao. By 2009, there were approximately 100,000 Koreans working, studying and living in Qingdao, which makes Qingdao the second in terms of Korean population in China, following Beijing which has about 200,000 Koreans.

According to the 2021 Qingdao Statistical Yearbook, the permanent resident population of Qingdao in 2020 was 10.1057 million, an increase of 182700 people compared to the previous year.

Economy
In recent years, an important region in Eastern China, Shandong Province has seen substantial change in its economic landscape. Much of this development has been concentrated in Qingdao. Qingdao has seen rapid development. With an annual growth rate of 18.9 percent in 2006, the city's GDP reached 42.3 billion, ranking first in Shandong Province and tenth out of China's top 20 cities. GDP per capita comprised CN¥52,895 (US$7,616) in 2008. The GDP has grown steadily at an average pace of 16% annually.

In 2006, Qingdao was ranked one of six "golden cities" by the World Bank, out of 120 Chinese cities assessed on factors including investment climate and government effectiveness. In 2018, Qingdao's GDP reached CN¥1200.15 billion, though it shrank a little in 2019.

Internationally, Qingdao is perhaps best known for its Tsingtao Brewery, founded by a German-British joint venture in 1903 that produces Tsingtao beer, the best-known Chinese export beer. It is also home to Haier, a large white goods manufacturer, and Hisense, a major electronics company. In 2002 guitar manufacturers Epiphone opened a factory in Qingdao.

In 1984 the Chinese government named a district of Qingdao a Special Economic and Technology Development Zone (SETDZ). Along with this district, the entire city had gone through fast-tracked development of secondary and tertiary industries. Qingdao has been the recipient of large foreign investment and its port is a hub for local and international trade. South Korea and Japan in particular made extensive investments in the city. In terms of primary sector industries, Qingdao has an estimated 50000 acre of arable land. Qingdao has a zigzagging pattern coastline, and thus possesses an invaluable stock of fish, shrimp, and other sea resources.

Qingdao's wind power electricity generation performs at among the highest levels in the region.

Industrial zones

 * Qingdao West Coast New District
 * Qingdao Special Economic and Technological Development Area
 * Qingdao Free Trade Zone
 * Qingdao High-tech Industrial Zone
 * Qingdao University Industrial Zone

Road
There are a total of 1145 km of roads in the Qingdao area, with nearly 500 km of expressways. These National Trunk Highway System (NTHS) Expressways begin or pass through in Qingdao. Expressways that begin in Qingdao are in Bold: Spur Route: G2011 Qingxin Expressway (Qingdao-Xinhe, Pingdu, Shandong)
 * G15 Shenhai Expressway (Shenyang, Liaoning-Haikou, Hainan)
 * G18 Rongwu Expressway (Rongcheng, Shandong-Wuhai, Inner Mongolia)
 * G20 Qingyin Expressway (Qingdao-Yinchuan, Ningxia)
 * G22 Qinglan Expressway (Qingdao-Lanzhou, Gansu)

These provincial expressways begin in or pass through Qingdao. Expressways that begin in Qingdao are in Bold:
 * S16 Rongwei Expressway (Rongcheng-Weifang)
 * S19 Longqing Expressway (Longkou-Qingdao)
 * S21 Xinwei Expressway (Xinhe-Weifang)
 * S24 Weiqing Expressway (Weihai-Qingdao)

Other than Expressways, there are also National Highways that pass through or begin in Qingdao. National Highways that begin in Qingdao are in bold:
 * G204 (Yantai-Shanghai)
 * G206 (Yantai-Shantou)
 * G308 (Qingdao-Shijiazhuang)
 * G309 (Rongcheng-Lanzhou)

Haiwan Bridge
On 30 June 2011, the longest bridge over water opened in Qingdao. The bridge, Haiwan Bridge, is 26.4 mi long and connects Qingdao to Huangdao and Hongdao. The bridge is almost three miles (3 mi) longer than the previous record-holder, the Lake Pontchartrain Causeway in the American state of Louisiana. Haiwan Bridge is supported by more than 5,000 pillars and costs about 10 billion yuan which is about 1.5 billion dollars. The bridge was designed by the Shandong Gausu Group and the construction lasted for four years. Haiwan Bridge cut the commute between the city of Qingdao and the sprawling suburb of Huangdao by 30 minutes. At least 10,000 workers toiled in two teams around the clock to build the bridge, which was constructed from opposite ends.

On the same day, the Jiaozhou Bay Tunnel opened. The tunnel brought much convenience to people by supporting public buses and making transport between the two areas more convenient.

Marine
Qingdao (official name: Qingdao port international co. ltd.) hosts one of the world's busiest seaports. Cooperative relations have been established with 450 ports in 130 countries worldwide. The port of Qingdao is part of the 21st Century Maritime Silk Road. In 2003, the annual cargo handling capacity exceeded 100 million tons for the first time. The number of containers reached of cargoes.

By 2011, the port had become the world's sixth-busiest by Total Cargo Volume, having handled 372,000,000 t of cargo in that year. As of 2016, it was the 8th in the world in terms of TEUs (Twenty Foot Equivalent Units).

The Orient Ferry connects Qingdao with Shimonoseki, Japan. There are two ferry lines connecting Qingdao with South Korea. The New Golden Bridge II operates between Qingdao and Incheon, and the Blue Sea Ferry operates between Qingdao and Gunsan.

Qingdao port also includes a number of large adjacent ports including Dongjiakou.

Aviation
Qingdao Jiaodong International Airport, located 39 km away from the city center, is served by 13 domestic and international airlines that operate 94 routes, 12 of which are international and regional. The airport opened on August 12, 2021, as a replacement for Qingdao Liuting International Airport.

Intercity rail
Qingdao's railway development picked up during the late 1990s. It is at the start of the Jinan–Qingdao high-speed railway, the Qingdao–Jinan passenger railway and the original Qingdao–Jinan railway. Qingdao's city proper has some major railway stations, including Qingdao railway station, Cangkou railway station, Dagang railway station and Qingdao North railway station. Sifang railway station is now closed to passengers.

D and G series high-speed trains travel on the Jinan–Qingdao high-speed railway and reach speeds of 300 km/h on the Jinan-Qingdao Section. Services go to Beijing, Shanghai, Hefei, Jinan and Tianjin. The fastest train between Qingdao and Beijing is G206 / G205, which takes 2 hours and 58 minutes.

Domestic rail lines connect Qingdao with many cities in China, including Beijing, Lanzhou, Chengdu, Xi'an, Zhengzhou, Jinan and Jining.

Public transport
Qingdao's public traffic owns 5283 large and medium-sized buses, CNG buses. There are also 136 trolleybuses. All of the buses and trolleybuses can be accessed using the Qingdao Public Traffic IC Card, which uses radio frequencies so the card does not have to physically touch the scanner. After that, all public transportation companies use Qingdaotong Card, the last company that started to use this card is the Zhenqing bus company located in The West Coast New Area of Qingdao (original Huangdao Distinct) in 2019.

Non air-conditioned buses cost 1 yuan (excluding the tunnel bus), The volume of road passenger transport approaches 737 million per year. The Public Transport Brand of 'Ri-Xin Bus ' is also known in China.

There are several taxi companies in Qingdao including Yiqing Company, Zhongqing Company, Jiaoyun Company, and, Huaqing Company.

Metro

After getting the approval from the State Council, the government announced on 18 August 2009 that Qingdao is ready to spend more than 29 billion yuan ($4.2 billion) before 2016 on its subway construction. Construction of 54.7 km of subway line 3 was completed before 2016 with a total investment of 29.2 billion yuan ($4.3 billion). Metro Line 3 is the first line in function and opened on 16 December 2015. In the long term, the city plans to build eight subway lines in downtown and some suburban districts, which account for 231.5 km in future. The system has an operating length of 243 km, lines in operation including Line 1, Line 2, Line 3, Line 4, Line 8, Line 11, and Line 13.

As of February 24, 2023, according to the approved network plan of Qingdao City, there are 19 long-term plans for Qingdao Metro, with a total length of 872 kilometers; The third phase construction plan has been approved, with a total of 13 lines and a total length of 503 kilometers, ranking ninth in the national approved mileage level; Seven lines have been opened and operated, including Lines 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 11, and 13, with an operating mileage of 315 kilometers. As of March 2023, there are 146 operating stations, ranking tenth in China and second in northern cities; There are 10 lines under construction (including extension lines), including the West Extension and Phase II of Line 2, Line 5, Phase I and Phase II of Line 6, Phase II of Line 7, South Section and Branch of Line 8, Phase I of Line 9, and Phase I of Line 15. The total length under construction is 188 kilometers, and it is expected to be fully completed by 2028.

If you need information about Qingdao Metro, you can open the website of Qingdao Metro to help you.

Tramway

The Qingdao Tram (official name: Modern tram demonstration line) of Chengyang District, Qingdao, is a tram system operating in Chengyang District, Qingdao, China. It opened in 2016. The Qingdao Public Transport Group Rail Bus Co., Ltd. is responsible for operation and management. The system is only composed of 1 tram line.

Architecture
There are a large number of German-style buildings in Qingdao's city center, a remarkable fact considering the German leased-territory period only lasted 16 years (1898–1914). The unique combination of German and Chinese architecture therein, combined with German demographic roots and a large Korean expatriate population, gives Qingdao a rather distinct atmosphere. An old saying described Qingdao as a city of "red tiles green trees, blue sky, and blue sea." This saying indeed gives a picture of a bird view of Qingdao. A larger number of areas in former foreign styles are well preserved. Although the new city area is under large-scale reconstruction, the old city area (especially the western part of Shinan District) still retains many traditional buildings.

Notable people

 * Long Ding, American football kicker
 * James R. Lilley, U.S. diplomat
 * Ma Jian (马建)
 * Ma Jun (马军)
 * Xiao Hong (萧红)
 * Xiao Jun (萧军)
 * Duanmu Hongliang (端木蕻良)
 * Zou Chenglu (邹承鲁) was born in Qingdao
 * Erin Pizzey, (was born in Qingdao)
 * Li Zhaoxing (李肇星)
 * Zhang Ruimin (张瑞敏)
 * Victoria Song (宋茜, f(x))
 * Huang Zitao (黄子韬, musician, actor)
 * Huang Bo (黄渤)
 * Zhang Jike (张继科)
 * Gao Fenghan (高凤翰)
 * Toshiro Mifune (was born in Qingdao)
 * Li Cunxin (李存信)
 * Huang Xiaoming (黄晓明)
 * Chen Hao (陈好)
 * Xia Yu (夏雨)
 * Fan Bingbing (范冰冰, born in Qingdao)
 * Bai Baihe (白百合)
 * Hao Haidong (郝海东)
 * Wang Dong (王栋, midfielder for Qingdao Huanghai)
 * Bu Xiangzhi (卜祥志, chess grandmaster)
 * Zhang Juanjuan (张娟娟, archer)
 * Malcolm H. Wiener, (was born in Qingdao)
 * Ni Ping (倪萍)
 * Tang Guoqiang (唐国强)
 * Ren Jialun (任嘉伦)
 * Chen Meng (陈梦)

Movies shot in Qingdao

 * A Little Red Flower (送你一朵小红花 2020) 2020
 * A Better Tomorrow 2018 (英雄本色2018) 2016
 * The Great Wall (长城) 2016
 * Underdog Fight (硬汉) 2008
 * Underdog Fight II (硬汉 II) 2013
 * Ocean Heaven (海洋天堂) 2010
 * Beauty Remains (美人依旧) 2005

Language
During the city's leased-territory days, German, the official language, was rigorously taught and promoted. Since the demise of Germany's colonial empire after World War I, the German language is all but gone, leaving little impact on the local languages. A local accent known as Qingdao dialect distinguishes the residents of the city from those of the surrounding Shandong province. Due to the efforts by the city government to promote standard Mandarin, most educated people can speak standard Mandarin in addition to their native dialect. With reform policies and English teaching, some young citizens have been taught English and many can converse with English-speaking foreigners. Business and traffic signs in English are becoming more and more common.

Festivals
Notable festivals include:
 * Qingdao International Horticultural Exposition 2014 is the biggest international fair that has been held in the history of the city.
 * Qingdao International Beer Festival in August/September, held annually since 1991.

Media
Qingdao previously had a large German community and a German garrison, so three German newspapers operated in Qingdao. German papers included Deutsch-Asiatische Warte (weekly newspaper published until 1906, included Die Welt des Ostens, Altes und Neues aus Asiens drei Kaiserreichen, a cultural supplement), the Tsingtauer Neueste Nachrichten and the Kiautschou Post (a daily paper published from 1908 to 1912, referring to the Kiautschou (Jiaozhou) Bay concession). German publishing in Qingdao ended after World War I and the beginning of the Japanese administration.

A 1912 publication of the United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce said that the Tageblatt für Nordchina of Tianjin was read in Qingdao and that major newspapers from Shanghai were also read in Qingdao.

Bandao Broadcasting Media Corporation, a news and broadcasting agency was founded in 1999.

Tourism
Qingdao attracts many tourists due to its seaside setting and temperate weather. Parks, beaches, sculptures, and unique German and modern architecture line the shore. Its centrally located tourist information center, the "Qingdao Information Center for International Visitors for International Visitors," is located on Middle Hong Kong Road (香港中路).

Qingdao's major attractions include:

Western Shinan district

 * Zhan Qiao (Pier, 栈桥)
 * Little Qingdao Isle (小青岛)
 * Tian Hou Temple (天后宫), Qingdao Folk Museum
 * Badaguan, the older area of town with some surviving German and Japanese architecture.
 * Lu Xun Park, named after Lu Xun, modern Chinese writer and critic, who lived and taught in the 1930s.
 * Zhongshan Park, named after the style name 'Zhongshan' of Sun Yat-sen, a famous modern Chinese politician.
 * Xiao Yu Shan
 * The twin-spired St. Michael's Cathedral (天主教堂; Kathedrale St. Michael), a notable example of Qingdao's famous Neo-romanesque architecture, designed by German architect Alfred Fräbel, completed in 1934.
 * Qingdao Aquarium (青岛水族馆)
 * Jiaozhou Governor's Hall (提督府), the office building of former German governors (Gouverneurspalast) and former municipal government
 * Xinhao Hill (信号山)

Eastern Shinan district

 * May Fourth Square (Platz des vierten Mai), Coastal plaza with the Wind of May sculpture
 * Tsingtao Brewery (Tsingtao-Brauerei), founded by Germany and the most exported beer from China.
 * Zhanshan Temple (Dschanschan-Tempel), Qingdao's oldest Buddhist temple.
 * Qingdao International Sailing Centre (青岛奥林匹克帆船中心), hosted the Olympic and Paralympic Sailing competitions in 2008.

Laoshan district

 * Lao Shan (Mount Lao, Lauschan, 崂山), 40 km east of Qingdao, the most famous Taoist mountain with Taoist retreat – Great Purity Palace (太清宫)
 * National Shilaoren Tourist Resort (石老人国家旅游度假区), the famous bathing beach symbolized by a characteristic natural sea rock with a shape like an old man
 * Xiaomaidao Park (小麦岛公园), the park with hills, a beach, and a nice view of the coastal line

Higher education
Qingdao is home to a large number of higher education institutions. The Ocean University of China, formerly called the Ocean University of Qingdao, is the most important university of maritime sciences in China. In addition, the Qingdao University, Qingdao University is ranked No. 940 among Best Global Universities. Schools are ranked according to their performance across a set of widely accepted indicators of excellence. the Qingdao University of Science and Technology as well as the Qingdao Technological University have also been integral parts of higher education in Qingdao for decades. Shandong University Qingdao (SDUQ) was established in 2016, belonging to Shandong University System. Other institutions include:
 * China University of Petroleum, completed its relocation from Dongying to Qingdao in 2012
 * Shandong University of Science and Technology, the main campus is based in Qingdao since 2003
 * Qingdao Agricultural University, the main campus is based in Qingdao since 2007
 * Qingdao Technical College
 * Qingdao Binhai University, located at Huangdao.

Shandong University was located in Qingdao from 1909 to 1936. A new branch campus of the university is under construction in Aoshanwei Town, Jimo.

International schools

 * Korean International School of Qingdao
 * Malvern College Qingdao
 * Pegasus California School, Qingdao
 * International School of Qingdao
 * Qingdao Amerasia International School
 * Qingdao No.1 International School
 * Qingdao Oxford International College
 * Yew Chung International School of Qingdao
 * Belt & Road Collaborative Innovation College (BRCIC)

Secondary schools

 * Qingdao No. 2 High School
 * Qingdao No. 58 School
 * Qingdao No. 1 High School
 * Qingdao No. 9 High School
 * Qingdao No. 15 High School
 * Qingdao No. 19 High School

Stadiums

 * Guoxin Gymnasium (Qingdao city sports center)
 * Yizhong Sports Center
 * Qingdao Tiantai Stadium
 * Hongcheng Stadium

2008 Olympic Summer Games
During the 2008 Summer Olympics, Qingdao and Beijing cohosted the Olympic Sailing competitions. In Qingdao, the events took place along the shoreline by the city. These events were hosted at the Qingdao International Sailing Centre and held in Fushan Bay, near the city's central business district. An international broadcasting center and purpose-built hotel were constructed for the Games.

Motorsport
The IndyCar Series signed a contract with the Qingdao city council to hold an IndyCar race in Qingdao in 2012. The subsequently canceled race was supposed to take place on a 3.87 mi street circuit.

Sister cities
Qingdao has 36 sister cities.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Qingdao


text:
Skewes's number

In number theory, Skewes's number is any of several large numbers used by the South African mathematician Stanley Skewes as upper bounds for the smallest natural number $$x$$ for which
 * $$\pi(x) > \operatorname{li}(x),$$

where $π$ is the prime-counting function and $li$ is the logarithmic integral function. Skewes's number is much larger, but it is now known that there is a crossing between $$\pi(x) < \operatorname{li}(x)$$ and $$\pi(x) > \operatorname{li}(x)$$ near $$e^{727.95133} < 1.397 \times 10^{316}.$$ It is not known whether it is the smallest crossing.

Skewes's numbers
J.E. Littlewood, who was Skewes's research supervisor, had proved in that there is such a number (and so, a first such number); and indeed found that the sign of the difference $$\pi(x) - \operatorname{li}(x)$$ changes infinitely many times. All numerical evidence then available seemed to suggest that $$\pi(x)$$ was always less than $$\operatorname{li}(x).$$ Littlewood's proof did not, however, exhibit a concrete such number $$x$$.

proved that, assuming that the Riemann hypothesis is true, there exists a number $$x$$ violating $$\pi(x) < \operatorname{li}(x),$$ below
 * $$e^{e^{e^{79}}}<10^{10^{10^{34}}}.$$

Without assuming the Riemann hypothesis, proved that there exists a value of $$x$$ below
 * $$e^{e^{e^{e^{7.705}}}}<10^{10^{10^{964}}}.$$

Skewes's task was to make Littlewood's existence proof effective: exhibiting some concrete upper bound for the first sign change. According to Georg Kreisel, this was at the time not considered obvious even in principle.

More recent estimates
These upper bounds have since been reduced considerably by using large-scale computer calculations of zeros of the Riemann zeta function. The first estimate for the actual value of a crossover point was given by, who showed that somewhere between $$1.53\times 10^{1165}$$ and $$1.65\times 10^{1165}$$ there are more than $$10^{500}$$ consecutive integers $$x$$ with $$\pi(x) > \operatorname{li}(x)$$. Without assuming the Riemann hypothesis, proved an upper bound of $$7\times 10^{370}$$. A better estimate was $$1.39822\times 10^{316}$$ discovered by, who showed there are at least $$10^{153}$$ consecutive integers somewhere near this value where $$\pi(x) > \operatorname{li}(x)$$. Bays and Hudson found a few much smaller values of $$x$$ where $$\pi(x)$$ gets close to $$\operatorname{li}(x)$$; the possibility that there are crossover points near these values does not seem to have been definitely ruled out yet, though computer calculations suggest they are unlikely to exist. gave a small improvement and correction to the result of Bays and Hudson. found a smaller interval for a crossing, which was slightly improved by. The same source shows that there exists a number $$x$$ violating $$\pi(x) < \operatorname{li}(x),$$ below $$e^{727.9513468}< 1.39718 \times 10^{316}$$. This can be reduced to $$e^{727.9513386}< 1.39717 \times 10^{316}$$ assuming the Riemann hypothesis. gave $$1.39716 \times 10^{316}$$.

Rigorously, proved that there are no crossover points below $$x = 10^8$$, improved by  to $$8\times 10^{10}$$, by  to $$10^{14}$$, by  to $$1.39\times 10^{17}$$, and by  to $$10^{19}$$.

There is no explicit value $$x$$ known for certain to have the property $$\pi(x) > \operatorname{li}(x),$$ though computer calculations suggest some explicit numbers that are quite likely to satisfy this.

Even though the natural density of the positive integers for which $$\pi(x) > \operatorname{li}(x)$$ does not exist, showed that the logarithmic density of these positive integers does exist and is positive. showed that this proportion is about 0.00000026, which is surprisingly large given how far one has to go to find the first example.

Riemann's formula
Riemann gave an explicit formula for $$\pi(x)$$, whose leading terms are (ignoring some subtle convergence questions)

 * $$\pi(x) = \operatorname{li}(x) - \tfrac{1}{2}\operatorname{li}(\sqrt{x\,}) - \sum_{\rho} \operatorname{li}(x^\rho) + \text{smaller terms} $$

where the sum is over all $$\rho$$ in the set of non-trivial zeros of the Riemann zeta function.

The largest error term in the approximation $$\pi(x) \approx \operatorname{li}(x)$$ (if the Riemann hypothesis is true) is negative $$\tfrac{1}{2}\operatorname{li}(\sqrt{x\,})$$, showing that $$\operatorname{li}(x)$$ is usually larger than $$\pi(x)$$. The other terms above are somewhat smaller, and moreover tend to have different, seemingly random complex arguments, so mostly cancel out. Occasionally however, several of the larger ones might happen to have roughly the same complex argument, in which case they will reinforce each other instead of cancelling and will overwhelm the term $$\tfrac{1}{2}\operatorname{li}(\sqrt{x\,})$$.

The reason why the Skewes number is so large is that these smaller terms are quite a lot smaller than the leading error term, mainly because the first complex zero of the zeta function has quite a large imaginary part, so a large number (several hundred) of them need to have roughly the same argument in order to overwhelm the dominant term. The chance of $$N$$ random complex numbers having roughly the same argument is about 1 in $$2^N$$. This explains why $$\pi(x)$$ is sometimes larger than $$\operatorname{li}(x),$$ and also why it is rare for this to happen. It also shows why finding places where this happens depends on large scale calculations of millions of high precision zeros of the Riemann zeta function.

The argument above is not a proof, as it assumes the zeros of the Riemann zeta function are random, which is not true. Roughly speaking, Littlewood's proof consists of Dirichlet's approximation theorem to show that sometimes many terms have about the same argument. In the event that the Riemann hypothesis is false, the argument is much simpler, essentially because the terms $$\operatorname{li}(x^{\rho})$$ for zeros violating the Riemann hypothesis (with real part greater than $1⁄2$) are eventually larger than $$\operatorname{li}(x^{1/2})$$.

The reason for the term $$\tfrac{1}{2}\mathrm{li}(x^{1/2})$$ is that, roughly speaking, $$\mathrm{li}(x)$$ actually counts powers of primes, rather than the primes themselves, with $$p^n$$ weighted by $$\frac{1}{n}$$. The term $$\tfrac{1}{2}\mathrm{li}(x^{1/2})$$ is roughly analogous to a second-order correction accounting for squares of primes.

Equivalent for prime k-tuples
An equivalent definition of Skewes' number exists for prime k-tuples. Let $$P = (p, p+i_1, p+i_2, ..., p+i_k)$$ denote a prime (k + 1)-tuple, $$\pi_P(x)$$ the number of primes $$p$$ below $$x$$ such that $$p, p+i_1, p+i_2, ..., p+i_k$$ are all prime, let $$\operatorname{li_P}(x) = \int_2^x \frac{dt}{(\ln t)^{k+1}}$$ and let $$C_P$$ denote its Hardy–Littlewood constant (see First Hardy–Littlewood conjecture). Then the first prime $$p$$ that violates the Hardy–Littlewood inequality for the (k + 1)-tuple $$P$$, i.e., the first prime $$p$$ such that
 * $$\pi_P(p) > C_P \operatorname{li}_P(p), $$

(if such a prime exists) is the Skewes number for $$P.$$

The table below shows the currently known Skewes numbers for prime k-tuples:

The Skewes number (if it exists) for sexy primes $$(p, p+6)$$ is still unknown.

It is also unknown whether all admissible k-tuples have a corresponding Skewes number.

title: Skewes's number


text:
Talk:Swedish Vallhund

furr
they have a long soft non wired fur and malt twice a year —Preceding unsigned comment added by 82.38.74.84 (talk) 16:04, 23 March 2010 (UTC)

Västgötaspets
I changed the English translation of västgötaspets from "spitz of the West Goths" to "spitz from Västergötland"

If it meant "spitz of the West Geats" (not Goths), it would be "västgötarsspets". Although historically intertwined (the Goths may have been of Geatish origin and there was a lot of intermarriage going on between the two groups, as well as trade and cultural exchange), there is cultural and geographic distinctions between Goths and Geats. I'm a Geat myself, my ancestors may even have been among the Geats that helped the Goths to plunder Rome in 410 and 546 (and brought back loot to Västergötland), but I'm definitely not a Goth. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 81.234.126.82 (talk) 13:55, 14 February 2011 (UTC)

 * Proper translation should be West Gothland, Västergötland.
 * Chosig (talk) 05:02, 3 July 2013 (UTC)

Västgötaspets
The name of the breed is Västgötaspets, it has been the official name for the breed since 1953.

Also, if Swedish Vallhund is to be kept; Swedish herding dog would be more appropriate, either that or Svensk Vallhund. Vallhund means just that, herding dog.

Chosig (talk) 04:56, 3 July 2013 (UTC)

Removed this
''The Vikings needed small dogs with excellent guarding instincts to secure their ships and livestock. Known as the "Viking dog", the Vallhund was bred to herd cattle, catch vermin and guard the home. The Vallhund was also referred to as "the little cattle dog of the Vikings." Livestock will kick after a herding dog. A big dog can get hurt by this, but a small, dog will simply just be missed as the cow kicks above it. ''

Find refs. Hafspajen (talk) 21:23, 16 December 2014 (UTC)

Assessment comment
Substituted at 07:26, 30 April 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Swedish Vallhund


text:
Ring-necked duck

The ring-necked duck (Aythya collaris) is a diving duck from North America commonly found in freshwater ponds and lakes. The scientific name is derived from Greek, an unidentified seabird mentioned by authors including Hesychius and Aristotle, and Latin  collaris, "of the neck" from collum, "neck".

Description
Ring-necked ducks are small to medium-sized diving ducks with the following length, weight, and wingspan measurements:

 * Length: 15.3-18.1 in (39-46 cm)
 * Weight: 17.3-32.1 oz (490-910 g)
 * Wingspan: 24.4-24.8 in (62-63 cm)

The adult male is similar in color pattern to the Eurasian tufted duck, its relative. Males are a little bit bigger than the female. It has two white rings surrounding its gray bill, a shiny black angular head, black back, white line on the wings, a white breast and yellow eyes. The adult female has a grayish brown angular head and body with a dark brown back, a dark bill with a more subtle light band than the male, grayish-blue feet and brown eyes with white rings surrounding them. Females also make a noise like trrr. The cinnamon neck ring is usually difficult to observe, which is why the bird is sometimes referred to as a "ringbill".

Breeding and migration
Their breeding habitat is wooded lakes or ponds in the northern United States and Canada. The main breeding area is Northwest boreal forest territories. Their breeding habits also take place in the eastern boreal region of Canada but no where near the same amount in the northwestern region. In the winter months they are usually found in southern North America in lakes, ponds, rivers or bays. Ring-necked duck pairs start during spring migration. Unpaired ducks showing up on breeding grounds will most likely end up being non-breeders. The pairs stay together only for reproduction, after that, they separate. The nest is bowl-shaped, built on water in dense emergent vegetation with sedges and woody plants. The female lays one egg per day until 8 to 10 eggs are laid. They are incubated 25–29 days and the female may remain with the young until they are able to fly.

Diet
These birds are omnivores and feed mainly by diving or dabbling at the surface. Ducklings are dependent on animal matter such as insects, earthworms, leeches, midges and snails. As they mature they tend change their diet to submerged plants such as pondweed and coontail, and emergents such as annual wild rice and snails.

Vagrancy
This strong migrant is a rare but regular vagrant to western Europe. In Britain, occasional small flocks occur, including five at Loch Leven, Scotland in September 2003 and four at Standlake in Oxfordshire in April 2015. In Ireland one or two individuals can be seen at any time of year. Vagrant individuals also occur each year in Central America as far south as Costa Rica between October/November and May/June. They have also been reported in small numbers in Suriname and French Guiana, in northern South America.

title: Ring-necked duck


text:
Talk:Redhead (bird)

Name
Couldn't this page be at Redhead duck? Rmhermen 12:50 20 Jun 2003 (UTC)

 * The official name of this species in both North America and Great Britain is Redhead. Even if that were not the case, under wiki policy it would be Redhead Duck. jimfbleak 05:30, 30 Mar 2004 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the nomination page. —Community Tech bot (talk) 10:11, 11 August 2021 (UTC)
 * NewYork (6942231030).jpg

Color key for map?
Can someone add a color key for the range map? Without it, the map is confusing. johnnycat (talk) 23:19, 27 December 2022 (UTC)

Featured picture scheduled for POTD
Hello! This is to let editors know that File:Redhead in Central Park (15503).jpg, a featured picture used in this article, has been selected as the English Wikipedia's picture of the day (POTD) for June 9, 2023. A preview of the POTD is displayed below and can be edited at Template:POTD/2023-06-09. For the greater benefit of readers, any potential improvements or maintenance that could benefit the quality of this article should be done before its scheduled appearance on the Main Page. If you have any concerns, please place a message at Wikipedia talk: Picture of the day. Thank you! — Aviafanboi (talk) 07:06, 30 May 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Redhead (bird)


text:
Talk:Sakanoue no Tamuramaro

Untitled
Id like to know more about this famous person, as he is revered by many amongst the black community. I am planning to do a complete biography of this man's life and rise to power, I have discovered that his wife had wrote a poem in the Manyoo Shuu, but I am unable to find any other comprehensive documentation. Any help will be greatly appreciated. Email me at Tora620@aol.com

Fringe theory
The following non-standard "fact" deserves further evaluation before it is added to the introductory paragraph of this article.
 * Although there are theories that Tamuramaro may have been of African origin <:ref>Beatrice J. Fleming and Marion J. Pryde. (1946). Distinguished Negroes Abroad, these have yet to be confirmed.

Google Book Search plainly identifies Sakanouye Tamuramaro in the contents of the book:
 * Fleming, Beatrice Jackson and Marion J. Pryde. Distinguished Negroes Abroad. Washington, D.C.: Associated Publishers.  OCLC 404451

It was easy to find other published account which reiterates this claim:
 * van Sertima, Ivan and Runoko Rashidi. (1988). African Presence in Early Asia. Transaction Publishers. 10-ISBN 0887387179; 13-ISBN 9780887387173
 * Chamberlain, Alexander Francis. (1916). "The Contribution of the Negro to Human Civilization," in Select Discussions of Race Problems. Atlanta: Atlanta University Press. OCLC 2326370

I remain unconvinced; but there does seem to be undisputed compliance with WP:V, which leads to the conclusion that it should be restored to the main text, e.g.,
 * "And we can cross the whole of Asia and find the Negro again, for, when, in far-off Japan, the ancestors of the modern Japanese were making their way northward against the Ainu, the aborigines of that country, the leader of their armies was Sakanouye Tamuramaro, a famous general and a Negro."<:ref>Chamberlain, Alexander Francis. (1916). Select Discussions of Race Problems, p. 87.

I've moved this controversial claim to the talk page where restoring this very interesting "fact" can be discussed more fully. I'm personally disinclined to give much weight to these specific published sources; but I do not want to invest time in disputing this issue. I would rather leave this to someone else. -- Tenmei (talk) 00:18, 10 March 2009 (UTC)

 * Thank you for taking the time to review this. I had actually edited the original wording to

 * Although there are theories that Tamuramaro may have been of African origin <:ref>Beatrice J. Fleming and Marion J. Pryde. (1946). Distinguished Negroes Abroad, these have yet to be confirmed,"

as the original wording had listed that Sakanouye (in whatever form of spelling you would like, as I've often seen "Sakanoye") was "a black man, one of many blacks in Japan at that time." I disagreed with the claim, but as the individual had listed a reference, i.e. "Distinguished Negroes Abroad", I didn't think it would be good form to eliminate the claim altogether. I, personally, do not feel that this claim (Sakanouye was of African descent)is accurate or can be supported, as there is no conclusive proof in any writings of books or any other research I know of or have in my possession. Not to mention that the Imperial court of the 8th and 9th centuries of Japanese history would have had very little cause to so openly accept a non-asian in such a capacity. -JH —Preceding unsigned comment added by Stagewalker3 (talk • contribs) 20:36, 10 March 2009 (UTC)

 * Compare at Talk:Sakanoue no Karitamaro#Fringe theory. --Tenmei (talk) 02:27, 6 August 2009 (UTC)

 * In the context created by WP:NOR and Wp:Synthesis, more is needed before posting the dubious claims discussed in this thread, e.g.,
 * According to an unsupported "factoid" posted in History of Slavery and Slavery in Japan, the earliest encounters between Japanese and any African were in the 16th century.
 * Oda Nobunaga was said to have been included an African slave or former slave in his retinue.<;ref>Leupp, Gary P. (2003). Interracial Intimacy in Japan: Western Men and Japanese Women, 1543-1900, p. 37.
 * In the absence of any reference to a reliable source, this speculation cannot become a part of the article about Sakanoue no Tamuramaro. --Tenmei (talk) 15:09, 15 October 2009 (UTC)

 * not a single mention of this can be found on the very extensive Japanese page. Selling fringe theories for facts by citing dodgy apologetic sources makes any article look really bad. Personally I think this is just another instance of the misunderstanding of the Japanese use of the word black 黒 (kuro). It is used to describe a dark tan just as it is used to describe the skin tone(s) typical for the African phenotype. "Black" skin is a trait typically associated with rural life, and by extension, with health. References to these associations are abundant in [rakugo] stroies for example.    — Preceding unsigned comment added by 131.130.174.74 (talk) 17:16, 10 December 2013 (UTC)

Race/racism as disruptive tactic
68.190.34.181 -- Your serial edits have something to do with race or racism or something ..., but what? I can't help but notice that you are adding words, but you offer no support for curious claims that historical figures are Negroid or "Black" ...? You post no edit summaries which might explain your rationale? This leaves me at a loss for what to do?

 * Sakanoue no Karitamaro
 * A. diff 16:30, 2 August 2009 68.190.34.181 (685 bytes) <-- no edit summary ...Geolocate: US - Lawrenceville, Georgia 30042
 * B. diff 01:47, 6 August 2009 68.190.34.181 (684 bytes) <-- no edit summary
 * C. diff 16:42, 6 August 2009 68.190.34.181 (684 bytes) <-- no edit summary
 * D. diff 01:11,  4 November  2009 68.190.34.181 (1,751 bytes)  <-- no edit summary

 * Sakanoue no Tamuramaro
 * A. diff 02:29, 17 February 2009 Kinghercules  m (4,934 bytes) <-- no edit summary
 * B. diff 02:31, 17 February 2009 Kinghercules m (4,936 bytes)  <-- no edit summary
 * C. diff 07:30, 8 May 2009 24.30.68.84 (13,067 bytes) (→Notes) <-- no edit summary .. Geolocate: US - Stone Mountain, Georgia	30083
 * D. diff 16:43, 6 August 2009 68.190.34.181 (5,194 bytes) <-- no edit summary ...Geolocate: US - Lawrenceville, Georgia 30042
 * E. diff 01:11,  4 November  2009 68.190.34.181 (5,789 bytes) <-- no edit summary
 * F. diff 13:16,  4 November  2009 68.190.34.181 (5,789 bytes) <-- no edit summary

What's the point? In the absence of other information, I can only guess that this is some kind of trouble-making gambit? If there were some other explanation, now would be a good time to share it. --Tenmei (talk) 14:39, 4 November 2009 (UTC)

Warning
Please refrain from undoing edits repeatedly and Sakanoue no Karitamaro. If you continue, you will be blocked from editing Wikipedia. As you know, the three-revert rule prohibits making more than three reversions in a content dispute within a 24 hour period. You should also note that those -- like you -- who perform a large number of reversions in content disputes may be blocked for edit warring, even if they do not technically violate the three-revert rule.
 * Rather than reverting, discuss disputed changes on the talk page.
 * The revision you want is not going to be implemented as a result of this strategy.

Think carefully about what you do next.--Tenmei (talk) 14:39, 4 November 2009 (UTC)

African Origins
Sure, it may be unlikely that Tamuramaro was African, but I'm surprised and disappointed that the article completely ignores this oft-believed speculation. True or not, it is part of the mythos which surrounds this man and it needs to be addressed directly, with the reasons both for and against that belief clearly stated. 66.27.92.24 (talk) 17:31, 15 May 2010 (UTC)

 * That nonsensical speculation is "oft-believed" is irrelevant, and that is certainly true when "oft-believed" means it is limited to Afrocentrists, who are a minority of a minority in the US. Sakanoue being African is not "part of the mythos" outside of Afrocentric circles, and their assertions all go back to an unsourced and unsubstantiated claim in the US 1,100 years after Sakanoue died. There is zero evidence that he was African, and the non-Afrocentrist side does not have to prove the negative to refute a baseless Afrocentrist claim.76.107.33.178 (talk) 03:46, 4 April 2015 (UTC)

4. Dubious claims
Excuse my writings, I am not a native speaker. I am at a loss though, why these dubious claims made it to the page as a whole. Wheter it is on the front or not, makes no difference at all in my mind.

Firstly the question is wether Alexander Francis Chamberlain used reputable sources or not for his statements - he himself did not meet Sakanoue no Tamuramaro - or not. Citing an old source does not excuse one for revealing the sources of the speaker he is citing, even if a lot of time has passed since the statements. In short, age of statement does not mean truth of statement, except when additionally that statement provides itself clear and precise evidence.

Secondly, references 9, 10, 11, 12 strike me as being a smokescreen. None of what is on those pages has any bearing to the matter at hand, or it is exceedingly diffuse. There is a need to point to the location of the 'proof'.

Finally, the link that is cunningly named "1" and is obfuscatingly inserted right before the references 9 to 12, jumps to http://www.proudblackbuddhist.org/Japanese_Are_Racist__A_Lecture/Black_Presence_Early_Japan.html

The titel of the page says it all : japanese are racist... according to Runoko Rashidi. Also searching the name Runoko Rashidi brings up politicised afro-centric writings.

Motivations behind these additions to the page seem evident, proof sparse. I concur with the notion that Kuro meens dark/bronzed. One who works the fields would be Kuro. If I see a woodblock print of Sakanoue no Tamuramaro depicting him as black I will change my mind. As it is now, this page is a disgrace. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 81.165.221.22 (talk) 21:22, 28 January 2014 (UTC)

Ancestry
Why did the article have to say that an "alternative" view by "Afrocentrists" say that he was black? Where did they get this from? They got the info from a white person, so it is not 'Afrocentric,' it is a fact. Back in 1911, racism was arguably at it's peak against blacks and others, many of whom are accepted as whites today, but were not then. My point is, you can BETTER trust the history as written from the 1800's and early 1900's BETTER than today, and most certainly better than in most pages of Wikipedia, where white supremacists and historical revisionists work overtime to suppress the truth about a people they put all of their money and abilities into keeping down.

We should ask why they are so desperate to go on every site imaginable to lie about themselves and others. Lying about Europe is one thing, but why lie about Japan? The evidence is clear-cut of black in Asia as the Bhuddas have peppercorn hair, not bone straight hair like most visible Asians. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 121.100.143.92 (talk) 06:17, 28 August 2016 (UTC)

 * while i do agree most of what you say, i have to point out that buddha did NOT originate in china, he originated in India.--2604:2000:1382:4C15:7941:EF80:61CA:E23B (talk) 15:52, 17 September 2019 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Sakanoue no Tamuramaro


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Probainognathus

Probainognathus meaning “progressive jaw” is an extinct genus of cynodonts that lived around 235 to 221.5 million years ago, during the Late Triassic in what is now Argentina. Together with the genus Bonacynodon from Brazil, Probainognathus forms the family Probainognathidae. Probainognathus was a relatively small, carnivorous or insectivorous cynodont. Like all cynodonts, it was a relative of mammals, and it possessed several mammal-like features. Like some other cynodonts, Probainognathus had a double jaw joint, which not only included the quadrate and articular bones like in more basal synapsids, but also the squamosal and surangular bones. A joint between the dentary and squamosal bones, as seen in modern mammals, was however absent in Probainognathus.

Discovery and naming

The first specimens of Probainognathus jenseni were discovered in the Chañares Formation in La Rioja Province, Argentina, by a group headed by the Harvard collector James A. Jensen. The specimens were collected 3 km north of the terminus of the Rio Chañares at the Campo de Talampaya.

Probainognathus jenseni was first described and named by the Harvard paleontologist Alfred Sherwood Romer in 1970. The generic name Probainognathus means “progressive jaw” in Greek, referencing its advanced jaw articulation. The specific epithet jenseni honours James A. Jensen.

A juvenile skull (PVSJ 410), from the Ischigualasto Formation of northwestern Argentina, was assigned to cf. Probainognathus in a 1994 paper by José Bonaparte and Alfred W. Crompton. Later studies have shown that the specimen likely belongs to a cynodont more derived than Probainognathus. The specimen was sent through a CT scan at the University of Texas at Austin, and the resulting 3D model was made available to the public.

In 1994, the holotype of Probainognathus jenseni, along with several other specimens, were stolen from the National University of La Rioja in Argentina.

Description
Probainognathus was a small cynodont, the apparent body size of which is inconsistent across sources, ranging from being about the size of a rat, to the size of a small dog.

Teeth and diet
The diet of Probainognathus is thought to have been carnivorous or insectivorous, which can be extrapolated from its teeth. The teeth included dully-tipped, partially developed canines, postcanines, four upper incisors that were positioned vertically, and three lower incisors that leaned slightly forward. The cheek teeth were slender from the sides, but were lengthened anteroposteriorly, with several cusps along the row.

Brain
Based on an endocranial cast of Probainognathus, several details have been extrapolated about its brain. Probainognathus’ cerebral hemispheres were elongated, it had established olfactory bulbs, and a significant cerebellum and flocculi. These were among other, less pronounced, structures such as anterior colliculi. Because of these features, it has been suggested that Probainognathus’ brain had well-developed visual, auditory, motor, and body sensory systems. And, as a whole, the brain of Probainognathus indicates that it was in the process of developing endothermy.

Skull

The snout of Probainognathus extended beyond the premaxillary processes, and was very thin. The apparent fragility of this structure has led to it being broken off several specimens, and has led to an increased difficulty in studying it. There are several features that have been identified, however. The suborbital arch and the zygomatic arch were both shaped relatively sharply, and there was an extension of the squamosal posteriorly on the zygomatic arch. Probainognathus had a long secondary palate as it stretched all the way to the posterior end of the tooth row. The secondary palate was formed largely by the palatine, and it was somewhat narrow. This narrowing of the palate allowed for the conservation of space to be able to fit the back, lower postcanine teeth. Moreover, the vomer stretched posteriorly to the secondary palate, and significant pterygoid flanges were present, as well.

The skull of Probainognathus was on average around 7 cm in length, and lacked the pineal foramen. The skull was broad in proportion to its length, the face was short and narrow, but its zygomatic region was relatively large, seemingly for jaw muscle attachment. The skull also possessed a double occipital condyle, which is a typical mammalian feature. In comparison to close relatives, such as Chiniquodon, the braincase of Probainognathus was broader in the parietal region, and the oticoccipital region of the skull was deeper. Likewise, the parietals had more depth, the occipital crest was higher, and the orbits were proportionately larger relative to the rest of its head. The sagittal crest was also lengthened posteriorly, and split into the occipital crests. This led to a straighter posterior margin, and a more concave occiput in Probainognathus.

Jaw

The jaw of Probainognathus is of particular phylogenetic importance. Morphologically, the dentary made up most of the lower jaw, and it curved and extended down posteriorly to the area of the articular and jaw articulation. Correspondingly, in the upper jaw, the squamosal bone became situated next to the quadrate. Like some other cynodonts, Probainognathus possessed a double jaw joint, as indicated by a socket (glenoid) in the squamosal bone. Romer (1970) interpreted this socket as articulating with the dentary bone of the lower jaw, as seen in modern mammals and early mammaliaforms like Morganucodon. Later studies have reinterpreted the socket as articulating with the surangular, one of the postdentary bones, instead of the dentary. Once the dentary-squamosal articulation became established, the former bones involved in jaw articulation, the articular and quadrate, could become integrated into the inner ear as the malleus and incus, respectively. This had not yet happened in the case of Probainognathus, but the reduced size of the quadrate, as well as its loose association with the squamosal and proximity to the stapes indicates the quadrate to incus process was underway.

The jaw of Probainognathus is suggested to have had mammal-like soft tissue features. The jaw muscles in Probainognathus are thought to have been positioned farther forward, with the masseter splitting into two separate muscles: the superficial masseter and the deep masseter.

Classification
When Romer first described Probainognathus in 1970, he assigned it to the family Chiniquodontidae based on the animal's overall similarities with that group. In a 1973 paper, he decided that Probainognathus was distinct enough from other chiniquodontids to deserve its own family, and thus Probainognathidae was erected. In 2016, a second probainognathid, Bonacynodon, was described from Brazil. Phylogenetic analyses have generally found probainognathids to be early-diverging members of the clade Probainognathia, being closer to mammals than to the traversodontids and other cynognathians.

The cladogram below is from a 2023 paper by Stefanello et al., and shows the position of Probainognathus within Probainognathia.

Paleoecology
Probainognathus was collected from the Chañares Formation in La Rioja Province, Argentina. This locale is known for its preservation of tetrapods, which are largely fossilized in volcanic concretions. When Probainognathus inhabited this area, it is thought to have been a lacustrine region within a rift basin that got a large influx of sedimentary debris and volcanic ash.

Various pieces of evidence suggest tetrapod mass mortality was the cause of death in the Chañares Formation. Fossils of both young and adult specimens were found at this locale, and these are not limited to Probainognathus, but rather represent many taxa that fell victim to the event. There is also an unusual concentration of herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores in this formation. Numerous fossils of each type were found in close proximity to one another, despite the fact that this intermingling would normally be uncommon. It has, subsequently, been suggested that this unusual distribution of specimens could be due to the death event leaving these animals stranded with no other place to go, perhaps along a waterfront of some kind. The evidence at hand, especially the nature of volcanic preservation, has led to the postulation that volcanism played a role in the death event in some capacity. Suggested events include a large outpouring of ash, lethal gas surges, or, more likely, volcanism-induced flooding. Volcanic activity may have caused damming or other water diversion, which led to major widespread flooding in the area, and the death of Probainognathus and other tetrapods. Unfortunately, however, it remains uncertain whether volcanism was the direct cause of this major death event, or if it just aided in preservation after the fact.

title: Probainognathus


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Lepagia

Lepagia is an extinct genus of poorly known carnivorous cynodonts, which lived during the Upper Triassic in Europe. Partly due to the paucity of remains (it is only known from teeth) the precise affinities of this genus are unclear. It seems reasonably closely related to Probainognathus, a somewhat earlier inhabitant of South America. The genus Lepagia ("for Lepage") was named by Hahn, Wild and Wouters in 1987 based on a single species.

Fossil remains of the species Lepagia gaumensis have been found in the Norian (late) - Rhaetian (early) (Upper Triassic)-age strata from Habay-la-Vielle, Hallau, Saint-Nicolas-de-Port in Belgium, Switzerland and France.

The holotype is at the Institut royal des Sciences naturelles de Belgique (Royal Institute of Natural Sciences of Belgium) in Brussels. These teeth are 2 – 3 mm in length. The postcanines have long and narrow crowns with three to five cusps, the central one of which is dominant and points straight upwards. The root is vaguely rectangular, with the lower portion tapering. There are no distinctive wear facets, but the separation of crown and root are clear. Sometimes the crown is larger and sometimes the root.

Godefroit and Battail cite similarities and differences with and to both Chiniquodontidae and Dromatheriidae and leave the systematical placement open.

title: Lepagia


text:
Child sexuality

Sexual behaviors in children are common and may range from normal and developmentally appropriate to abusive. These behaviors may include self-stimulation, interest in sex, curiosity towards sex and the opposite gender, exhibitionism (the display of one's body to another child or an adult), voyeurism (attempts at seeing the body of another child or an adult), gender role behaviors and engagement in interpersonal sexual acts.

More than 50% of children will engage in a form of sexual behavior before the age of 13, including sexual experiences with other children. These experiences can include fondling, interpersonal genital exploration and masturbation, while intrusive contact (digital penetration, oral or genital contact, etc) are more rare.

Curiosity
Although there are variations between individual children, children are generally curious about their bodies and those of others and explore their bodies through explorative sex play. "Playing doctor" is one example of such childhood exploration; such games are generally considered to be normal in young children. Child sexuality is considered fundamentally different from adult sexual behavior, which is more goal-driven. Among children, genital penetration and oral-genital contact are very uncommon, and may be perceived as imitations of adult behaviors. Such behaviors are more common among children who have been sexually abused.

According to the National Child Traumatic Stress Network, children have a natural curiosity about their own bodies and the bodies of others that ought to be addressed in an age-appropriate manner. According to the report:
 * Children less than four years old will sometimes touch their own private parts or look at the private parts of others.
 * Between ages four and six, some children may become more actively curious, attempting to see others dressing or undressing or will perhaps "play doctor".
 * Between ages six and twelve, children may start to expand their curiosity to images of undressed people available in the media. They may develop a need for privacy regarding their own bodies and begin to be sexually attracted to peers. From the ages of three to seven, children are typically curious about where babies come from. They may explore other children's and adults' bodies out of curiosity and also begin to have a sense of learned modesty and of the differences between private and public behaviors. For some children, genital touching increases, especially when they are tired or upset.

Masturbation
Some children partake in genital stimulation at an early age. By the age of 8 or 9, some children become aware that sexual arousal is a specific type of erotic sensation and will seek these pleasurable experiences through various sights, self-touches, and fantasy.

Interpersonal sexual experiences
Many children take part in some sex play, typically with siblings or friends. Sex play with others usually decreases as children go through their elementary school years, yet they still may possess romantic interest in their peers. Curiosity levels remain high during these years, escalating in puberty (roughly the teenage years) when the main surge in sexual interest occurs.

Mutual masturbation or other sexual experimentation between adolescents of similar ages may also occur, though cultural or religious coercion may inhibit or encourage concealment of such activity if there is negative peer pressure or if authority figures are likely to disapprove.

A 1997 study based on limited variables found no correlation between early childhood (age 6 and under) peer sexual play and later adjustment. The study notes that its results do not demonstrate conclusively that no such correlation exists. The study also does not address the question of consequences of intense sexual experiences or aggressive or unwanted experiences.

A Finnish study found that 2.4% of its respondents had sexual experiences with someone at least five years older during childhood. The disclosure of such experiences to adults or peers was conditioned largely by whether violence was employed during the act and the quality of the experience (participants who did not label the experience as abuse, which represented 51% of the sample, were less likely to report it to adults, but not peers).

Discovery of sex differences
With the passage of time, children become more aware of sex differences, and tend to choose same-sex friends and playmates, sometimes disparaging the opposite sex. Children may drop their close attachment to their opposite-sex parent and become more attached to their same-sex parent.

During this time, children, especially girls, show increased awareness of social norms regarding sex, nudity, and privacy. Children may use sexual terms to test adult reaction. "Bathroom humor" (jokes and conversation relating to excretory functions), present in earlier stages, continues.

As this stage progresses, the choices of children picking same-sex friends becomes more marked and extends to disparagement of the opposite sex.

Childcare
In childcare settings outside the home there is difficulty in determining what behavior is normal and what may be indicative of child sexual abuse (CSA). In 2018 an extensive study of Danish childcare institutions (which had, in the prior century, been tolerant of child nudity and playing doctor) found that contemporary policy had become restrictive as the result of childcare workers being charged with CSA. However, while CSA does occur, the response may be due to "moral panic" that is out of proportion with its actual frequency and over-reaction may have unintended consequences. Strict policies are being implemented not to protect children from a rare threat, but to protect workers from the accusation of CSA. The policies have created a split between childcare workers who continue to believe that behaviors involving nudity are a normal part of child development and those that advocate that children be closely supervised to prohibit such behavior.

Research
Studies on children's sexual behaviors are scarce. Empirical knowledge about child sexual behavior is not usually gathered by direct interviews of children, partly due to ethical consideration. Information about child sexual behavior is gathered by observing children being treated for problematic behavior, such as use of force in sex play, often using anatomically correct dolls; Recollections by adults and observation by caregivers.

Most published sexual research material emanates from the Western world.

Early 20th century
Until Sigmund Freud published his Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality in 1905, children were often regarded as asexual, having no sexuality until later development. Freud was one of the first researchers to seriously study child sexuality, and his acknowledgment of its existence was a significant change.

Aside from Freud, the modern shift from childhood sexuality being understood as a pathological concept to a normal part of child behavior was also influenced by Albert Moll, Carl Jung, William Stern and Charlotte Bühler. Although Freud is usually regarded as the central figure in the "discovery of childhood sexuality", his work was influenced by an already existing discussion around this topic that started in the second half of the 19th century.

Kinsey
Alfred Kinsey in the Kinsey Reports (1948 and 1953) included research on the physical sexual response of children, including pre-pubescent children (though the main focus of the reports was adults). While there were initially concerns that some of the data in his reports could not have been obtained without observation of or participation in child sexual abuse, the data was revealed much later in the 1990s to have been gathered from the diary of a single pedophile who had been molesting children since 1917. This effectively rendered the data-set nearly worthless, not only because it relied entirely on a single source, but the data was hearsay reported by a highly unreliable observer. In 2000, Swedish researcher Ing-Beth Larsson noted, "It is quite common for references still to cite Alfred Kinsey", due to the scarcity of subsequent large-scale studies of child sexual behavior.

Contemporary issues
In the latter part of the 20th century, sexual liberation probably arose in the context of a massive cultural explosion in the United States of America following the upheaval of the Second World War, and the vast quantity of audiovisual media distributed worldwide by the new electronic and information technology. Children are apt to gain access and be influenced by material, despite censorship and content-control software.

Sex education
The extent of sex education in public schools varies widely around the world, and within countries such as the United States where course content is determined by individual school districts.

A series of sex education videos from Norway, intended for 8–12 year olds, includes explicit information and images of reproduction, anatomy, and the changes that are normal with the approach of puberty. Rather than diagrams or photos, the videos are shot in a locker room with live nude people of all ages. The presenter, a physician, is relaxed about close examination and touching of relevant body parts, including genitals. While the videos note that the age of consent in Norway is 16, abstinence is not emphasized. As of 2015, however, 37 U.S. states required that sex education curricula include lessons on abstinence and 25 required that a "just say no" approach be stressed. Studies show that early and complete sex education does not increase the likelihood of becoming sexually active, but leads to better health outcomes overall.

Social media's role on child sexuality
The impact of social media on adolescent sexuality is a multifaceted concern requiring ongoing research for a comprehensive understanding. Research suggests that exposure to sexual content on social media can influence adolescents' sexual attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors, given their vulnerable state during this developmental period when gender roles, sexual attitudes, and behaviors are actively being shaped. Studies have identified a positive association between high-frequency social media use and increased sexual risk behaviors among adolescents.

Exposure to sexual displays on social media sites has been linked to problematic beliefs and behaviors among both content creators and viewers, particularly affecting adolescents who are more susceptible to these effects and may encourage risky sexual behavior, associated with an increase in sexually transmitted infection rates and unintended pregnancies . Social media can have both positive and negative effects on the sexual orientation of children and adolescents. For instance, it may provide a safe space for sexual identity exploration and expression for LGBTQ+ youth, fostering connectivity, social support, and positive impacts on well-being. While early adopters of the LGBTQ+ identity within the youth use social media to understand their sexuality and connect with like-minded individuals, contributing to improved emotional support and development, it's important to note that social media can also expose children to inaccurate and potentially harmful information about sexuality, perpetuate risky sexual behaviors, and provide anonymity to potential dangers, further covered in the proceeding sections.

Sexualization of children
Over recent decades, children have been subject to a premature sexualization, as indicated by a level of sexual knowledge or sexual behavior not previously normal for their age group. The causes of this premature sexualization that have been cited include portrayals in the media of sex and related issues, especially in media aimed at children; the marketing of products with sexual connotations to children, including clothing; the lack of parental oversight and discipline; access to adult culture via the internet; and the lack of comprehensive school sex education programs. For girls and young women in particular, studies have found that sexualization has a negative impact on their "self-image and healthy development".

Social media has been associated with an increase in child sexual exploitation and abuse. Reports indicate that social media platforms have become a pipeline for the rapid spread of child sexual abuse material (CSAM), leading to an alarming increase in the dissemination of such content Further, child predators use social media to identify and groom potential victims, and the closed or private social media groups enable them to connect with like-minded peers and trade tips on how to secretly record and share CSAM.

Child sexual abuse
Child sexual abuse is defined as an adult or older adolescent having a sexual relationship with a child. Effects of child sexual abuse include clinical depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety, propensity to further victimization in adulthood, and physical injury to the child, among other problems.

Child sexual abuse by a family member is a form of incest, and can result in more serious and long-term psychological trauma, especially in the case of parental incest.

Children who have been the victim of child sexual abuse sometimes display overly sexualized behavior, which may be defined as expressed behavior that is non-normative for the culture. Typical symptomatic behaviors may include excessive or public masturbation and coercing, manipulating or tricking other children into non-consensual or unwanted sexual activities, also referred to as "child-on-child sexual abuse". Sexualized behavior is thought to constitute the best indication that a child has been sexually abused.

Children who exhibit sexualized behavior may also have other behavioral problems. Other symptoms of child sexual abuse may include manifestations of post-traumatic stress in younger children; fear, aggression, and nightmares in young school-age children; and depression in older children.

Among siblings
In 1980, a survey of 796 undergraduates, 15 percent of females and 10 percent of males reported some form of sexual experience involving a sibling; most of these fell short of actual intercourse. Approximately one quarter of these experiences were described as abusive or exploitative. A 1989 paper reported the results of a questionnaire with responses from 526 undergraduate college students in which 17 percent of the respondents stated that they had preadolescent sexual experiences with a sibling.

title: Child sexuality