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Skittles (sport)

Skittles is a historical lawn game and target sport of European origin, from which the modern sport of nine-pin bowling is descended. In regions of the United Kingdom and Ireland the game remains as a popular indoor pub game.

Playing
Skittles is usually played indoors on a bowling alley, with one or more heavy balls, usually spherical but sometimes oblate, and several (most commonly nine), or small bowling pins. The general object of the game is to use the ball(s) to knock over the skittles, either specific ones or all of them, depending upon game variant. Exact rules vary widely on a regional basis.

Rules variations
(Note: See Glossary below for explanation of named pins)

Front pin first
In this variant of the game, pins are counted only if the front pin is knocked over first. If the front pin is missed, any pins that are knocked over are not reset. In Devon Summer League, this rule is played frequently. In Bristol, this is the form of the game played and "all in" skittles tends to be looked down upon as involving less skill. In Worcestershire, this type of game is also known as "King pin".

Nomination
In this variant of the game, the player has to nominate the pin that will be hit first before the throw. Unless this pin is knocked over, the player will not score. The names given to the pins may vary from region to region; in Wiltshire they are usually referred to as "front pin", "front right quarter", "front left quarter", "outside right" (or "right winger"), "centre pin", "outside left" (or "left winger"), "back right quarter", "back left quarter", and "back pin".

Four-pins
In this variant of the game, only four pins (the two coppers and the front and back pins) are put up and must be hit with the front pin first. It is often used in conjunction with nomination as well. It is currently used in North Somerset Cup games.

London Bridge
A variant of nomination but with only the landlord and two coppers set up, i.e. one has to hit a pin with each ball and nominate which one each time.

Killer, Coffins, or German skittles
A game for any number of people. Each starts with three lives. Each bowls only one ball at a time. The first bowls at a full frame and the skittles are not stuck up until all nine are hit down. Each time a player fails to hit at least one pin, they lose a life. The winner is the last one left with a life intact. Usually played for small amounts of money, the winner takes the combined player entry fees (typically £1 or 50p per game each). It is found in the Wiltshire, Somerset, and Bristol areas. Players might claim a "tactical miss" when they have multiple lives remaining and fail to hit the only pin still standing. This is to avoid giving the following player a full frame.

Six-ball Westbury
Another game for any number of people. Each player has one hand of six balls at a full frame. If all nine pins are knocked down within the hand, then they are reset, meaning that a player may score anywhere between 0 and 54. The winner is the player with the highest score. It is similar to killer in that it is usually played for money with the winner taking the pot.

Greater London
Also known as Old English Skittles, the Greater London version uses nine pins (made of wood) and a thick circular disc known as a 'cheese'. The cheese is thrown at the pins using a swinging motion whilst stepping forwards. After an initial throw, the remaining pins (the 'broken frame') may end up in a variety of formations - each of which has a distinctive (and usually London-based) name, such as a London Bridge or a Portsmouth Road. Knocking down all the pins at once is known as a 'floorer' and is highly respected. The last time a player is known to have thrown three floorers in succession was in 1960.

While it was once a popular game played in pubs all over London (generally sited by the Thames river), it is now only played at the Freemasons Arms in Hampstead. The origins of this skittles game are vague, but it is thought by some to have been started by Dutch sailors, possibly playing on the decks of moored barges.

A game of Greater London skittles can be seen played in the film The Water Gipsies (film).

Guernsey
In the Sarnia Skittles League of Guernsey, the teams are made up of six players playing five legs of three balls. Currently there are 25 teams playing across three leagues and each team plays the others three times during the season. The season runs from September to April.

Gloucestershire
In the Tewkesbury and District Skittles League, teams consist of 10 players playing 8 hands each. The league runs from early September through to the following April. The league was formed in September 1960. Each game has 10 points available with two points available for the first, second and third leg with another four for the match result. The highest ever individual score is 99 scored by Dougy for the DM4s team at the Spartans caldron 17 April 2014.

In the Stroud and District Skittle League, teams are made up of 10 players (Men's Sections) each having eight hands of three balls. In the Ladies Sections each team consists of eight players each having 10 hands of three balls. Games are played in two equal halves. The league runs from early September through to the following May.

In the Cheltenham Skittles League, skittles is played with either a team of 12 (winter skittles) or six (summer skittles). Each player plays six hands of three balls. However, in Gloucester, the players play 10 hands of three balls, and a team is made up of 10 players.

The Berkeley and District Skittles League was formed in 1957 and has in excess of 100 teams playing in seven divisions in a geographical area of around eight miles in diameter in the southern end of the county. Teams are made up of eight players and each player bowls eight hands of three balls. The pins (skittles) used in the League vary in size, but are between 9 - 10 in in height and 4 - 5 in in diameter at the widest (centre) point, and are either made of wood (traditionally sycamore or beech) or plastic. Balls are between 4.5 - 5 in in diameter and again are either made of wood (lignum vitae) or a composite rubber. Alleys, on which games are played, are between 30 - 55 ft in length and are generally of a wooden construction, although one alley is linoleum over a concrete base. The League runs from September through to the following April.

In the Cirencester & District Men's Skittle League, teams are made up of nine players each having six hands of three balls. The league runs from early September through to the following May

Herefordshire
In the Hereford & District Invitation Skittle League, skittles is played with either a team of 12 (winter skittles) or 6 (summer skittles). In the Winter league each player plays four hands of three balls, and in the Summer League they play six hands of three balls.

The winter league comprises 70 teams competing in five divisions, five cups competitions (KO, Front Pin, Man v Man, Champion of Champions, and Charity eight-a-side) and also singles and pairs competitions.

Wiltshire
In the Devizes Skittles League, 9-pin skittles is played with a team of 9 players. Each player throws 3 balls. A team's aggregate score decides the leg - 2 points are awarded for each leg won (1 point each for a draw). Two points for the overall aggregate number of pins, for a total of 10 points available for the match. The team with the most points wins the match. The league runs from August to April. There are approximately 33 teams across 3 divisions, playing within a 5-mile radius of Devizes. The top division plays front-pin rules whereby only pins knocked down after the front pin count.

In the Westbury Skittles League, teams consist of 8 players, games consist of 5 legs, and players throws 3 balls per leg. Points are awarded to the winning team by aggregate score; 1 point per leg (1/2 for a draw) and 2 points for the game (1 for a draw) for a total of 7 points per game. As of the 2023/24 season, there are 35 teams across 3 divisions (none currently playing front-pin rules). Anyone 14 years or older may join the league but there is also a Ladies league with 10 teams each consisting of 6 players. Both leagues host Singles, Pairs, Nomination, and Knockout Cup competitions (all decided by game aggregate score). The rubber balls and resin pins are standardised across the league, whilst alley dimensions vary slightly and may have a concrete, wood, or lino surface.

The Malmesbury and District League is played with nine players per team, divided into three legs. Each player has six goes with three balls. Two points are awarded for each winning leg, and a further four points are awarded to the overall winning team, so ten points are available per game. Games typically last around 1 hour 40 minutes and are played Tuesday to Friday. This is one of the larger leagues in the area with 95 teams playing on 20 different alleys within a ten-mile radius of Malmesbury Abbey. The league begins in September and concludes in April, although various cup matches occur in August and April.

The Swindon & District Friday Skittles League is played with twelve players per team, divided into four legs; hence, each is called a 'Horse' (because a horse has four legs). Points are awarded thus - 2 points per Horse, plus 6 points for winning. There are currently 36 teams in three sections. The league runs from September to June. There are Cup Knockout Competitions throughout the season.

The Trowbridge Town Skittles League,Teams consist of 10 players, games consist of 5 legs, and players throws 3 balls per leg. Points are awarded to the winning team by aggregate score; 1 point per leg (1/2 for a draw) and 2 points for the game (1 for a draw) for a total of 7 points per game. The League consists of 3 divisions with division 1 playing front pin rules. The league also hosts Singles, Pairs and Knock Out Cup competitions. A summer 4 man league is also played each year.

Somerset and Bristol
The rules and team formats of "Somerset" skittles vary. Major skittles areas include Bridgwater, Wells, Yeovil, Taunton, Weston-super-Mare, and Burnham-on-Sea. Bristol is also included in the "Somerset" skittles "set". Depending on where the leagues play, there may be 6 players per side (normally in summer leagues), or 8 per side (winter). There are mixed leagues (males and females in each team) and there are all male leagues and all female leagues. The highest known score in a game of 8 man skittles was in the Street and District league, this was by Ryan Church for the Carrot Crunchers. He scored 97 in 6 hands including two 26 spares.

Traditionally, Somerset skittles uses wooden balls (made from apple wood or similar) and wooden pins. Times have changed and for various reasons, some alleys now use composite rubber balls and nylon pins. Bristol and North Somerset alleys have, in the past been known for their "camber". Some alleys were (and still are) raised in the middle, making bowling an accurate art.

As of 2024, active skittles leagues in Bristol and North Somerset include: Bristol Northwest Skittles League, Central Skittles League (Weston), Clevedon and District Clubs Skittles League, Clevedon Skittles League, 'Hop Leaf' Skittles League (Bristol), Kingswood Skittles League, Nailsea and District Skittles League, New Bristol Charity Skittles League, Paulton and District Skittles League, Portishead, Pill, and District Skittles League, Severnside Skittles League, Weston-super-Mare and District Skittles League, Wrington Vale Skittles League, and Yatton and District Summer Skittles League.

The Alley, Pin diamond, Pins and Balls
As with all variations of skittles the pins are laid out in a diamond and played on an alley, with the pins placed on painted squares known as plates. In the Worcestershire Leagues there is no set measurement for this, instead the size of the diamond should be 'not less than 3 ft and no greater than 4 ft.

The pins and balls are known as the 'Kit' and the balls should be made of wood, Tufnol or rubber and 'must not exceed five and a quarter inches in diameter and no less than four and three quarter inches in diameter'. Despite guidelines for the diamond and balls there is no uniform size of pin needing only 'to be uniform size and painted white, one and a half inches around the top.

The Alley itself should be 'clean and well lit, with a bowling line approximately 33 ft to the front pin of the diamond'. However this rule is not strictly enforced with some alleys being shorter than others. The Alley itself can be either Lino or Wood.

The front pin is known as the 'King' and is painted with a white, one and a half inch wide vertical stripe. The two pins to either side are known as the 'Quarter pins' and are marked with either a triangle or the numbers 1 and 2, in order to identify them. Traditionally the 'King' is the heaviest pin, with the 'Quarters' being heavier than the rest of the pins but not heavier than the 'King'. Directly behind the 'King' is the middle pin which is known as the 'Birdie', as the other pins form a 'cage' around it. The back pin sits directly behind the 'Birdie', the 'Back quarters' directly behind the 'Quarter' pins, and the 'Wingers' on the outside of the diamond. The 'Birdie', 'Back Quarters', 'Back Pin' and 'Wingers' are non-specific pins and are not marked so any of the six unmarked pins can be placed on any of the six plates.

Because of the lack of guidelines on pin size, the pins themselves vary in size. this leads to some 'Kits' being higher scoring than others and some alleys being higher scoring than others, due to variations in length and diamond size

Scoring pins
All balls must touch the Alley before the 'Line' to be deemed as legal. However the 'Linesman' (a member of the opposing team who sits and watches the line) must call 'Over' before the ball strikes a pin. If they fail to do this, the pins felled will count. In Worcester skittles all pins are live until they land in the pit behind the diamond, or leave the alley on an open side. They can rebound off a side wall back into the diamond taking down other pin(s). In some alleys, such as the Saracens Head in Worcester, the Diamond is flanked by two side walls making the possibility of a spare, achieved by bouncing pins off the wall more of a possibility. It is more than common to hear the cries of 'let it roll' go out in the alleys of the city to stop an over enthusiastic 'sticker up' (a young person employed to put the pins back up after they have been knocked down) removing a pin from the alley before it has finished knocking down the others. However, if a ball hits the cush, or wall or passes through the diamond and bounces back out of the pit before felling pins the frame must be reset.

Spiders and Spares
A Player scoring no pins after bowling three balls in the leg is known as scoring a 'Spider'. A spider is recorded by drawing legs and a face onto the zero on the board and is greeted with delight when the opposing team returns to the alley. A 'Spare' where the pins are reset after being felled with balls to spare is denoted on the board by a circle drawn around the score. This is not greeted so favourably. The maximum score in a 9-pin frame is 27, however this is virtually unheard of, the highest spare in the history of the Worcester and District was thought to be a 24 scored by Gary Sandbrook whilst playing for the Independents Skittle team in the early 1990s, the highest spare in the friendly league was achieved by Scott Heywood with a full house score of 27 at the Alma tavern whilst playing for the Rushwick Cavalier on 18 September 2014. Spares are not uncommon however, and a good score in the Worcester game is 40 plus.

Worcester and District Skittle League
The Worcester and District Skittle League, 12 players, playing 5 legs of 3 ball (winter league, men only, Tuesday nights) is the oldest skittle league running in the county, having been restarted post-war in 1946, and is a founder member of the Three cities Association. The Worcester and District is the county representative in the Three City Cup competition, played between Worcestershire, Gloucestershire and Herefordshire between September and May each season.

The rivalry between the District and the younger Friendly leagues (WFSL) in Worcester has always been great; however, in season 2004/05 it was decided by the District League that players signed on for a team registered for their competition were free to play for a team affiliated with the WFSL. Up to that point playing for a team in the WFSL while being signed on to a team affiliated with the Worcester and District would lead to a lifetime ban from the District League.

Until the end of season 2009/10 the scoring system was different for both leagues, with the Worcester and District League opting for the traditional 2 points for a win and 1 for a draw, and the WFSL opting for a system which awards 2 points for winning a leg and 10 points for the game, a total of twenty points. However at the start of season 2010/11 the same scoring system as the WFSL was adopted by the Worcester and District in order to increase the competitive nature of the League and hopefully stem the declining interest in the sport. In recent years, the popularity of Skittles has declined with the District League and WFSL both having to reduce the number of divisions from 5 down to 3.

District Cup Competitions
The District League compete for a number of cup competitions, with matches taking place on both Tuesday and Friday evenings. The premier cup competition being the Team Knock Out, but also the King Pin Cup (a variation in the rules applied so the front pin, or King pin as its known in Worcester has to be knocked over before scoring can commence) and the Mick Potter Memorial Trophy. There are also Singles (solo players) and Doubles (Teams of two) as well as a Six a side Trophy held each year.

The County Cup
The County Cup is played between the representative sides of the WFSL, Worcester and District, Worcester Ladies, Malvern Men's League and the Malvern Ladies League. It is played on a Round Robin basis, with ten fixture dates (to include one bye), a play off, and a final. The Evesham League is not included, possibly due to too many rule variations (player v player format, mixed teams).

Worcester Friendly Skittle League (WFSL)
In the Worcester Friendly Skittle League (WFSL) of Worcestershire, both the men's and ladies' winter leagues are made up of 12 players. Men's Matches are played on Monday and Wednesday Nights and Ladies on Thursdays.

Malvern Men's Skittle league
Malvern Men's Skittle League has been running for over 35 years within the Malvern area. This includes Great Malvern, Malvern Link, Madresfield, Barnards Green, Cradley, West Malvern, Hanley Swan, Colwall and Suckley.

League and Cup games are played on Thursday evenings, over a 42-week period beginning in September running through to the following June. With over 400 members from 31 teams who meet with their friends and teammates to play skittles; this makes Thursday night one of the busiest in the Malvern area's pubs and clubs.

Each team consists of 9 players (although teams can sign as many players as they wish), league matches consist of 5 'legs' (each player bowling 3 balls), the winning team of each 'leg' gaining one point. The team scoring most 'pins' overall is also awarded 6 points. League matches are enhanced with team (Ken Baker Cup), 4 a side, doubles and singles cup competitions all played on Thursday evenings.

Evesham Skittles League
The league was formed in the early 1970s and is based around the Vale of Evesham and surrounding districts. It is played mostly in Public Houses, Working Men's Clubs, British Legion Clubs, Social and Recreational Clubs within a 12-15 mi radius of Evesham in Worcestershire. The league consisted of six divisions with a total of 72 teams competing These teams play from Monday to Thursday during the season, which stretches from early September through to late May. Teams included both men and women.

The Evesham League game has been structured upon the Long alley-Western type of game, whereby 9 pins are formed in the shape of a diamond facing the player The pins are normally placed upon a steel plate, which bear markings to identify placement of each pin The League allows pins to be made from either wood or high density polyurethane and the design is based upon the 10 in Gloucester pin Balls can be made from wood or composite material and are approximately 4.75 in in diameter. The League stipulates that the front pin facing the player should always be marked and is known as the 'King' pin. The two pins next to the 'King' pin are also marked and these are known as the 'Quarter' pins All the alleys within the Evesham League are wood and are based upon general guidelines in terms of length and width.

Each Team consists of 10 Players, each player playing six legs consisting of 3 balls per leg. The game consists of 6 legs for each team, each player bowling once (3 balls) per leg. Points are awarded on the basis of each leg won, plus a further 6 points for an overall win, making a full six leg win 12 Points. Many years ago the League introduced a system of play, whereby each player bowls alternatively against a player of the opposing team for each leg. This proved to be a successful format creating tension and excitement down to the last leg - last man.

Other counties in England
The game is also very common in the southwest counties of Cornwall, Devon, and Dorset. In Dorset some games are played by bowling a technique known as the 'Dorset flop', it is mainly used by those without proper technique. This is where the bowler crouches on the alley and throws themselves and the ball forward landing on their stomach and letting the ball go between two bowling lines. In some parts of Somerset the ball has to hit a pitch plate (a diamond painted on the alley) in order for it to be a legal ball. It is also popular in South Wales.

South Wales
In the Cardiff and District skittles league the teams are made up of 12 players playing 5 legs of three balls. The league was founded in 1909 and is still very popular in the region with 10 men's divisions. Other leagues within the Cardiff area are The Cardiff Combined clubs league with 9 men's and 9 women's divisions, Skittles Cardiff (a recent addition formed in 2010) and the Whitchurch and district skittles league

In the Newport and District skittle league (started c. 1927), Men-only teams are made up of 12 players playing in groups of four v four (three sections) each playing 3 legs of 3 balls, the league did have 7 men's divisions of up to 15 teams but now down to 4 divisions, Premier, 1st, 2nd and 3rd (2016/17).

In the 2012/13 season, the scoring changed from 2 points for a win and 1 point for a draw to 1 point for each leg and 2 points for the game. If the leg are drawn no points are awarded; however, if the game is drawn the a point is awarded to both sides.

There is a Ladies league that is played on a Tuesday.

They also play in the summer (started c. 1979) a mixed league. This has 3 divisions (2017), playing for 2 points a leg and 3 points for the game. There are cups to play for which are 8-a-side and also singles, pairs and fours. In 2016, Divisions 1, 2 & 3 were won by Dean Street, Windsor A and The Nightingale respectively.

In the Conservative league (Men only), the scoring is slightly different, with 1 point for each leg and 2 points for the game. However, points are shared between both sides for a draw for the legs and the game.

France
The jeu de quilles de neuf ("nine-pin skittle game") of France, also known simply as quilles de 9 or just quilles, is a complicated variant with similarities to both British skittles and pétanque. It is popular only in the southwest of the country. It is an indoor game which is played on a hard-packed surface. The skittles are placed on a square court, each resting on a round piece of wood called pitere or pitet, 2.20 m apart from each other. A skittle measures about 96 cm and weighs 3 kg, and is made of beech wood. The bowl (ball) weighs about 6 kg and has a 30 cm diameter; it is made of walnut wood. There is also an eight-pin version, quilles de huit (8), and a version played with a mallet, quilles au maillet, which is related to ground billiards and its variants such as croquet and paille-maille, and which has experienced a resurgence in Gascony since 1973.

Ireland
The Irish sport is a game played with five 3 in pins and three 9 in pieces of wood (skittles). Pins are numbered from 1 to 5, each representing a number of points. Throwers must toss the skittles towards the pins over a distance of approximately 8 m (this varies from county to county) in order to score points with the aim to scoring exactly 41. Points are recorded in descending order. If a player should score too many points ("go bust", as in darts) they return to a score of 9 left, unless their previous score was above this in which case they return to that score.

The game is played frequently in pubs and Gaelic athletic clubs in various parts of the island with team leagues and cup matches.

Germany, Central Europe and the United States
The German sport kegel or nine-pin bowling is played in widely organized leagues through the country and is also popular in many other countries with long German connections, including Austria, Switzerland, Serbia, Slovenia, Croatia, Hungary and Liechtenstein and is currently gaining popularity in Australia. A variant was once also the dominant bowling game in the United States, but today only survives in a small area of rural Texas.

Glossary

 * Anchor Man: the last player to throw in each leg. Likely chosen for their ability to score highly under pressure.
 * Any Old How: a ball that has missed its intended target, but has knocked over quite a few pins that count towards the score.
 * Backboard: a small optional plank behind the player and/or playing mat- some players like to rest their heels on it during play.
 * Back-Stabber (Gloucestershire): a ball that knocks over the back pin only. Known as a “Taylor” in the Westbury league.
 * Ball: the wooden or rubber ball rolled at the skittles.
 * Beaver: when a player knocks down no pins in a hand.
 * Birdie: Worcestershire term for the pin in the centre of the frame, immediately behind the front pin. Also known as "bird in the cage" or the "Landlord".
 * Bobby: Also known as the front or king pin.
 * Bolter (South Wales): a ball that fails to hit any pin.
 * Broken frame: a frame with some pins knocked over.
 * Cheese: a round, flattened wooden discus (often made of lignum vitae), shaped like some types of cheese, which in some variants of the game is thrown instead of rolling a ball. It may also be rolled, like the oblate ball used in the game of bowls. It is particular used in deck skittles.
 * Chute: see Trough.
 * Copper: the pin on the extreme left or right of the frame. In Worcestershire the term 'Copper' is an alternative name for the front pin or 'King' as it's also known.
 * Cush: the rails on either side of the alley, usually made from timber. Some alleys have ditches/gutters instead (similar to ten pin bowling).
 * Cush ball: a ball that is bowled and hits the cush. In most variants of the game the pins that are then knocked down are not counted in the players score (see also sidey)
 * Cut: when the ball hits the side of a pin.
 * Dam Busters: The Dam Busters March is hummed loudly in unison when a player accidentally bounces a ball down the alley.
 * Ditch: an area behind the pins that has been dug into the floor. It catches the pins that are knocked down.
 * Dorset flop: a way in throwing in which the player throws “double handed” by throwing themselves off of the backboard into a press-up position
 * Down: the scores for all players in one set during a single hand, combined, e.g. "we just got a 24 down"
 * Duck: a player's score when he or she doesn't knock down any pins on their turn. Used to be referred to as a Jon until October 2016 when it was renamed as a "Simon".
 * Fat Annie: Bristol and Somerset term for the middle pin, as in Birdie above.
 * Flattener: same as strike, flopper or floorer (q.v.).
 * Flopper: when a player knocks down all nine pins with one ball or cheese.
 * Flopper ball: the ball that achieves a flopper
 * Floorer (South Wales): same as strike
 * Foul: a ball delivered illegally over the foul line
 * Frame: the full set of pins (usually nine) standing upright.
 * Front-for-one (Bristol): Where the front pin is struck without felling anything else with a single ball.
 * Good strike: Denotes when after the first ball the remaining Pins stood up are able to be knocked down with the second ball for a spare.
 * Half Nazi (Puriton and District): Where the front left and quarter pin and back right and quarter pin are knocked down, resulting in half a swastika remaining.
 * Hand: a player's turn at the game
 * Hill gap: The Gap between the front pin and the front quarter pin, known as Ian and Darren respectively.
 * King pin (Worcestershire): The pin at the front of the frame. Also name of type of skittles where front pin has to be floored before any pins count
 * Landlord: the pin in the centre of the frame, immediately behind the front pin. Also known as "bird in the cage".
 * Line: the mark on the alley that denotes where the ball must be delivered (before the line in Worcestershire, in-between two lines in Bristol etc.)
 * Linesman: A member of the opposing side tasked with watching the Line for foul balls
 * Long Three: three pins that are situated in a straight line when they are the only pins left standing and the player is trying to hit them down.
 * Leg: known as a set elsewhere comprising 6, 8, 9, 10 or 12 players. In Gloucestershire, the name for a "down" (q.v.)
 * No Ball: same as foul.
 * Old Market (Bristol): Where the three front, middle and back pins are all felled by a single ball. Considered bad luck as it offers a poor remaining frame.
 * One ball skittler (Bristol, Worcestershire): Where a player uses only one ball to good effect. Frowned on by purists.
 * Over: same as foul.
 * Oxo: same as Beaver.
 * Pin: a skittle.
 * Pit: same as Ditch.
 * Pitch: the long rectangular strip along which balls are thrown and at the end of which the pins stand
 * Plate: the strip on the floor which the balls have to hit when they leave the skittlers' hands. In Worcestershire, Bristol and North Somerset the plate is the square which the pins are stood on.
 * Punch: when the ball hits the pin dead centre and ploughs through afterwards knocking down the pin behind but not the pins either side.
 * Quarter: the two pins to either side and behind the front pin
 * Quarter slasher: a player who seems to score well despite always hitting the quarter pin, rather than the front pin.
 * Red Arrows: Front pin and the next two skittles left and right of it plus the third pin behind the front pin
 * Running three: three pins running diagonally left to right or right to left.
 * Set: three or four players who play against the opposing teams set
 * Sidey: a ball played that hits the side of the alley.
 * Skittle alley: a long narrow building in which skittles is usually played.
 * Skittle the noise made when the skittles fall.
 * Skittler's Nine (Worcestershire, North Somerset, and Gloucestershire): a nine achieved where a spare has not been possible, i.e. when the front pin has punched the middle and the back pin out.
 * Spare: when a player knocks down all nine pins with 2 balls, allowing a third throw with the pins re-set.
 * Split: The pins left after the first ball has been played.
 * Spider (Worcestershire): when a player fails to knocks down any pins in a hand with his or her three balls.
 * Spot: The marks on the plate which the pins are placed.
 * Sticker or sticker-up: a person who puts knocked-over pins back upright.
 * Strike: hitting over all the pins within one turn.
 * Sunshine (New South Wales): same as spider
 * Trough: a feature on most skittle alleys (constructed out of wood or plastic with a slope)that is used by the sticker-up to return the balls to the players end of the alley for the next go.
 * V/c: used to denote a beaver or sunshine when chalking, also an alternative for those names in North Somerset—said to stand for "very close"
 * Wide A ball that misses the diamond on either side, Also called a Steve or a Jake
 * Winger (Worcestershire): Either of the two pins at the extreme right and left of the frame.
 * Wraxall 8 (North Somerset): used to denote when a player scores 8 with the front pin still standing

Table skittles

Table-top versions of the game also exist. These include:
 * Hood skittles: a miniaturized version in which the pins are on a special table which is closed on three sides with a leather hood; a 'cheese' is thrown at the pins underarm
 * Devil among the tailors: another miniaturized version, in which a small ball is attached by a chain or string to a vertical pole, allowing it to be swung through the air in an arc to strike the pins. This game is seen in the British television period drama series Downton Abbey in episode 2.3.  The game is seen being played in the library scene before dinner.  A 10-pin version of this game was produced by Aurora Plastics and was sold in the United States under the name "Skittle Bowl" (©1969).  The game is also seen in the Beatles film "A Hard Days Night." Ringo leaves his pot of beer on the table of the game and when the ball comes around the glass is smashed. The owner then throws all of the Beatles out of the pub.

Scattles and smite

Scattles is a version of skittles in which all the pins are numbered. Players take turn in throwing the baton at the pins with a view to totalling exactly 50 points. If more than one pin is knocked over, the score received is that quantity of pins. But if only one pin is knocked over, the value on it is scored. If a player exceeds 50, their total reduces to 25. Pins are then placed upright where they stand, thus scattering. Scattles is made by Jaques of London and reminiscent of the older Cornish game, smite, itself based on the Finnish skittles game mölkky.

Cultural references
The phrase "beer and skittles" refers to indulgently spending one's time at a pub, drinking and playing the game, and by extension any indulgent, irresponsible lifestyle choice.

A table-top version of the game is also featured in the first season of the Netflix series Easy, specifically episode seven. It also features in the episode "Therapy" (season 2, episode 8) of Malcolm in the Middle.

title: Skittles (sport)


text:
Patrick Lalime

Patrick Lalime (born July 7, 1974) is a Canadian ice hockey commentator and former professional ice hockey player who played twelve seasons in the National Hockey League (NHL) with the Pittsburgh Penguins, Ottawa Senators, St. Louis Blues, Chicago Blackhawks and Buffalo Sabres. Lalime retired from playing in 2011 to join the Réseau des sports (RDS) television network covering the Ottawa Senators, but has since left RDS to cover the Montreal Canadiens and the NHL for TVA Sports.

Pre-NHL years
As a youth, Lalime played in the 1988 Quebec International Pee-Wee Hockey Tournament with the Drummondville Voltigeurs minor ice hockey team.

Lalime played his junior hockey with the Shawinigan Cataractes of the QMJHL. In 1992–93, Lalime posted a 10–24–4 record with a GAA of 4.67 and a .863 save percentage as the team failed to make the playoffs. In the 1993 NHL Entry Draft, Lalime was chosen by the Pittsburgh Penguins in the sixth round, the 156th overall pick. In 1993–94, he returned to the Cataractes and posted a 22–20–2 record with a GAA of 4.22. In the playoffs, Lalime struggled badly with a 1–3 record and GAA of 6.73.

In 1994–95, Lalime moved to the Hampton Roads Admirals of the ECHL where he posted a solid 15–7–3 record, a GAA of 3.35 and save percentage of .898 until January 1995. Then on January 26, Lalime signed a contract with the Penguins, who then assigned him to the Cleveland Lumberjacks of the IHL. He struggled with the Lumberjacks, with a 7–10–4 record and a 4.44 GAA and save percentage of .882.

In 1995–96, Lalime remained with the Lumberjacks, and helped lead the team to the playoffs with a 20–12–7 record, 3.86 GAA and save percentage of .893 in 41 games. He was recalled to the Penguins twice in December 1995 and served as a backup goalie for nine games, but never saw any action. He also served as a backup for the Penguins in the playoffs for four games and did not participate in Cleveland's playoff run.

Early success
Lalime went back to Cleveland for a third season in 1996–97 and remained with the Lumberjacks until early November. The Penguins then called him up and Lalime made his NHL debut on November 16 against the New York Rangers, as he replaced Ken Wregget midway through the game, allowing three goals on 14 shots in an 8–3 loss. Lalime's next appearance was on December 6, replacing Wregget after the first period down 2–0, but Lalime made 16 saves and the Penguins rebounded for a 5–3 win, giving him his first career victory. Lalime was given the start the next night against the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim, and he responded with 30 saves in a 5–3 victory. Lalime would go on to set an NHL record with the longest unbeaten streak to begin a career (16 games with a 14–0–2 record) before suffering his first defeat on January 23, a 4–3 OT loss to the Colorado Avalanche. During the streak, Lalime recorded his first shutout, a 4–0 win over the San Jose Sharks on December 13, and had a 49 save performance against the Calgary Flames on January 21, a 4–2 Penguins victory. After the streak ended, Lalime cooled off for the rest of the season and finished off with a 21–12–2 record, 2.94 GAA and a save percentage of .913. With Cleveland, Lalime was 6–6–2 with a 3.24 GAA. He dressed as the backup to Ken Wregget during the Penguins five playoff games that year. For his efforts, he was named to the NHL's All-Rookie Team.

In 1997–98, Lalime and the Penguins could not agree on a contract, and he spent the season with the Grand Rapids Griffins of the IHL, appearing in 31 games and posting a 10–10–9 record with a team leading GAA of 2.61 and .918 save percentage. On March 24, 1998, the Penguins traded his rights to the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim for Sean Pronger, but Lalime stayed with the Griffins, and played in one playoff game, allowing four goals in an overtime loss.

In 1998–99, he failed to make the Mighty Ducks team during the pre-season, and the club assigned him to the Kansas City Blades of the IHL. Lalime rewrote the team's record book with a 39–20–4 record, a 3.01 GAA and a save percentage of .900. He was named IHL goaltender of the month for March and earned a first team all-star selection after leading the league in wins, minutes played (3789) and saves (1708). In the playoffs, Lalime went 1–2 with a 2.08 GAA as Kansas City lost to the Long Beach Ice Dogs in the first round.

Senators
The Mighty Ducks traded Lalime to the Ottawa Senators for Ted Donato and Antti-Jussi Niemi on June 18, and he opened the 1999–2000 season as a Senator as he and Ron Tugnutt would split duties. Lalime began his Senators career with a 3–0 shutout victory over the Philadelphia Flyers on October 2. He would go on and have a solid season with a 19–14–3 record, a GAA of 2.33 and save percentage of .905. The Senators would trade Tugnutt to Pittsburgh in March for Tom Barrasso, and Lalime would serve as his backup for the remainder of the season. Lalime dressed for six playoff games against the Toronto Maple Leafs, but did not see any action as the Senators were put out in the first round.

The Senators gave Lalime the starting job in 2000–01, and he responded with a 36–19–5 record, 2.35 GAA, and a save percentage of .914 and helped the Senators to winning the Northeast Division, despite missing ten games with a sprained left MCL in mid-October. He was named NHL Player of the Week twice (November 27 – December 3 and February 12–18). In the playoffs, the Senators would meet the Maple Leafs for the second consecutive season, and Lalime played very well, with a GAA of 2.39, however the Senators struggled to score goals and were eliminated in four games.

In 2001–02 Lalime had a 27–24–8 record, 2.48 GAA and .903 save percentage. He was second in the league with seven shutouts and set a club record with a 149:41 shutout streak from October 23 to November 10. In the playoffs, the Senators faced off with the Philadelphia Flyers and were heavy underdogs, however, Lalime was unbeatable, as he allowed only two goals as Ottawa defeated the Flyers in five games. His GAA for the series was 0.40, and he had a .985 save percentage. In the second round, the Senators met up with the Maple Leafs for the third straight year, and with a 5–0 game one win, Lalime tied an NHL playoff record with four shutouts. However the Maple Leafs stormed back and eventually won the series in seven games. Lalime finished the 2002 playoffs with a 7–5 record and a 1.39 GAA.

In 2002–03, the Senators won the Presidents' Trophy for having the best regular season record, and Lalime led the way with a 39–20–7 record, 2.16 GAA and .911 save percentage. He was second in the NHL in wins, shutouts (8), fourth in minutes (3943) and fifth in GAA. He appeared in his first all-star game on February 2 after Ed Belfour pulled out with an injury. He made 18 saves on 19 shots in 25 minutes, then he allowed three goals during the shootout and took the loss. He broke his own record for shutout streak with 184:06 from January 9 to 18. In the playoffs, he helped the Senators defeat the New York Islanders in five games, then the Philadelphia Flyers in six games, before losing to the eventual Stanley Cup champion New Jersey Devils in seven games in the Eastern Conference Final. Lalime had an 11–7 record and GAA of 1.82 during the playoffs.

In 2003–04, Lalime finished with a 25–23–7 record with a 2.29 GAA and save percentage of .905. In the opening round of the playoffs, the Senators would meet their Battle of Ontario opponents, the Maple Leafs for the fourth time in five years. Lalime struggled during the series, allowing the opening goal in every game, and despite the Senators heavily outshooting the Maple Leafs, the series was tied after six games. In game seven, Lalime allowed two soft goals to Joe Nieuwendyk, and after the first period he was pulled out of the game with the Senators losing 3–0. They would eventually lose 4–1 and lost to the Maple Leafs for the fourth time in the playoffs. It marked the end of Lalime's playing time in Ottawa.

Post-Ottawa years
After acquiring star goaltender Dominik Hašek via free agency, the Senators decided to trade Lalime to the St. Louis Blues for a fourth round conditional pick in the 2005 NHL Entry Draft on June 27, 2004. Lalime was set to be the Blues starter during the 2004–05 season, however the lockout wiped out the season, and Lalime did not play any hockey that year.

During the 2005–06 season, he earned his first win with the Blues on October 11 against the Chicago Blackhawks, making 32 saves in a 4–1 victory. However, this was a season to forget for Lalime, as he finished the year with a 4–18–8 record, 3.64 GAA and a .881 save percentage. He also spent a part of the season in the AHL, where he posted a record of 6–6–1, 2.86 GAA and .903 save percentage with the Peoria Rivermen. On April 2, Lalime played his final game as a Blue, as he suffered a torn ACL that had him out for the remainder of the season.

On July 1, 2006, Lalime was signed by the Chicago Blackhawks to a one-year, $700,000 contract, likely to be the backup to Nikolai Khabibulin. He ended up being injured just before training camp with a herniated disk. In his debut as a Blackhawk on February 7, 2007, Lalime stopped 34 shots and shut out the Vancouver Canucks as Chicago won the game 3–0. He went 4–6–1 in 12 games during the regular season with a 3.07 goals against average and a .896 save percentage. His play with the Blackhawks was good enough for the club to re-sign him to another one-year contract, this one worth $950,000.

On July 1, 2008, Lalime was signed by the Buffalo Sabres to a two-year, $2 million contract to play backup to Ryan Miller. In his first season with the Sabres, Lalime recorded a 5-13-3 record with a 3.10 goals against average.

On July 20, 2011, Lalime retired from the NHL and became an analyst on Ottawa Senators television broadcasts on RDS. Lalime worked 15 Senators games on the French-language network during the 2011-12 season as well as contributing to other hockey shows. He quit RDS in 2014 to become the primary NHL analyst for TVA Sports.

Records

 * On May 2, 2002, Lalime became the fourteenth goaltender in NHL history to record four shutouts in one postseason, with a 27-save, 5–0 victory, in Toronto over the Maple Leafs. The win gave Lalime's Senators a 1–0 lead in their Eastern Conference Semifinal series.
 * Owns the Senators record for wins in a season (39 in 2002–03), along with career playoff wins (21).
 * Longest unbeaten streak to start an NHL career: 16 games (14 wins, 2 ties)

Awards

 * Nominated for the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy (2008)

Mask creativity
Lalime is known for his distinguishing goalie mask theme - the use of cartoon eyes. His first mask in Pittsburgh featured a penguin with its eyes peeking through the ice. When he played for the Ottawa Senators, Lalime's mask featured the Warner Brothers cartoon character Marvin the Martian. The use of the character was inspired by the similarity of Marvin's costume to the Senators team logo. However, after a terrible St. Louis start (and getting sent to the minors), Lalime came back to the lineup with a completely different goalie mask which still featured the Marvin the Martian theme. This trend continued in Chicago, where Lalime had the same theme going with his Blackhawks helmet, though during that time, Marvin featured an Indian headdress. In 2010, Lalime signed a deal with the Buffalo Sabres and wore a mask featuring Marvin with the horns of a buffalo.

TV guest appearances

 * RDS - May 2, 2007
 * RDS - April 25, 2007
 * TSN's Off The Record - April 19, 2007
 * TSN's Off The Record - May 12, 2008
 * TVA sports (Hockey analyst) - since January 2015

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Patrick Lalime


text:
Nicole Markotic

Nicole Markotić is a Canadian poet and novelist who lives in Windsor, Ontario. She teaches creative writing at the University of Windsor. Markotic specializes in the subjects of Canadian literature, poetry, children's literature, disability in film and disability in literature. Previously, she was an assistant professor at the University of Calgary. She was the co-editor, along with Ashok Mathur, of Calgary-based DisOrientation Chapbooks. She was also the poetry editor of Red Deer College Press from 1998 to 2004.

She co-edited The Problem Body: Projecting Disability on Film a critical book about disability in film, which was published by Ohio State Press in 2010. She also edited Robert Kroetsch: Essays on His Works, which was released in 2017.

Awards

 * bpNichol Chapbook Award (minotaurs & other alphabets, 1998)

title: Nicole Markotic


text:
Pervaporation

Pervaporation (or pervaporative separation) is a processing method for the separation of mixtures of liquids by partial vaporization through a non-porous or porous membrane.

Theory
The term pervaporation is a portmanteau of the two steps of the process: (a) permeation through the membrane by the permeate, then (b) its evaporation into the vapor phase. This process is used by a number of industries for several different processes, including purification and analysis, due to its simplicity and in-line nature.

The membrane acts as a selective barrier between the two phases: the liquid-phase feed and the vapor-phase permeate. It allows the desired components of the liquid feed to transfer through it by vaporization. Separation of components is based on a difference in transport rate of individual components through the membrane.

Typically, the upstream side of the membrane is at ambient pressure and the downstream side is under vacuum to allow the evaporation of the selective component after permeation through the membrane. Driving force for the separation is the difference in the partial pressures of the components on the two sides and not the volatility difference of the components in the feed.

The driving force for transport of different components is provided by a chemical potential difference between the liquid feed/retentate and vapor permeate at each side of the membrane. The retentate is the remainder of the feed leaving the membrane feed chamber, which is not permeated through the membrane. The chemical potential can be expressed in terms of fugacity, given by Raoult's law for a liquid and by Dalton's law for (an ideal) gas. During operation, due to removal of the vapor-phase permeate, the actual fugacity of the vapor is lower than anticipated on basis of the collected (condensed) permeate. Separation of components (e.g. water and ethanol) is based on a difference in transport rate of individual components through the membrane. This transport mechanism can be described using the solution-diffusion model, based on the rate/degree of dissolution of a component into the membrane and its velocity of transport (expressed in terms of diffusivity) through the membrane, which will be different for each component and membrane type leading to separation.

Applications
Pervaporation is effective for dilute solutions containing trace or minor amounts of the component to be removed. Based on this, hydrophilic membranes are used for dehydration of alcohols containing small amounts of water and hydrophobic membranes are used for removal/recovery of trace amounts of organics from aqueous solutions.

Pervaporation is an efficient energy conserving alternative to processes such as distillation and evaporation. It allows the exchange of two phases without direct contact.

Examples include solvent dehydration: dehydrating the ethanol/water and isopropanol/water azeotropes, continuous ethanol removal from yeast fermentors, continuous water removal from condensation reactions such as esterifications to enhance conversion and rate of the reaction, membrane introduction mass spectrometry, removing organic solvents from industrial waste waters, combination of distillation and pervaporation/vapour permeation, and concentration of hydrophobic flavour compounds in aqueous solutions (using hydrophobic membranes).

Recently, a number of organophilic pervaporation membranes have been introduced to the market. Organophilic pervaporation membranes can be used for the separation of organic-organic mixtures, e.g.: reduction of the aromatics content in refinery streams, breaking of azeotropes, purification of extraction media, purification of product stream after extraction, and purification of organic solvents.

Materials
Hydrophobic membranes are often polydimethylsiloxane based where the actual separation mechanism is based on the solution-diffusion model described above.

Hydrophilic membranes are more widely available. The commercially most successful pervaporation membrane system to date is based on polyvinyl alcohol. More recently also membranes based on polyimide have become available. To overcome the intrinsic disadvantages of polymeric membrane systems ceramic membranes have been developed over the last decade. These ceramic membranes consist of nanoporous layers on top of a macroporous support. The pores must be large enough to let water molecules pass through and retain any other solvents that have a larger molecular size such as ethanol. As a result, a molecular sieve with a pore size of about 4 Å is obtained. The most widely available member of this class of membranes is that based on zeolite A.

Alternatively to these crystalline materials, the porous structure of amorphous silica layers can be tailored towards molecular selectivity. These membranes are fabricated by sol-gel chemical processes. Research into novel hydrophilic ceramic membranes has been focused on titania or zirconia. Very recently a break-through in hydrothermal stability has been achieved through the development of an organic-inorganic hybrid material.

title: Pervaporation


text:
Ananda Coomaraswamy

Ananda Kentish Muthu Coomaraswamy (ஆனந்த குமாரசுவாமி, Āṉanta Kentiś Muthū Kumāracuvāmi; ආනන්ද කුමාරස්වාමි Ānanda Kumārasvāmī; 22 August 1877 − 9 September 1947) was a Ceylonese metaphysician, historian and a philosopher of Indian art who was an early interpreter of Indian culture to the West. In particular, he is described as "the groundbreaking theorist who was largely responsible for introducing ancient Indian art to the West".

Life
Ananda Kentish Coomaraswamy was born in Colombo, British Ceylon, now Sri Lanka, to the Ceylon Tamil legislator and philosopher Sir Muthu Coomaraswamy of the Ponnambalam–Coomaraswamy family and his English wife Elizabeth Beeby. His father died when Ananda was two years old, and Ananda spent much of his childhood and education abroad.

Coomaraswamy moved to England in 1879 and attended Wycliffe College, a preparatory school in Stroud, Gloucestershire, at the age of twelve. In 1900, he graduated from University College London (UCL), with a degree in geology and botany. On 19 June 1902, Coomaraswamy married Ethel Mary Partridge, an English photographer, who then traveled with him to Ceylon. Their marriage lasted until 1913. Coomaraswamy's field work between 1902 and 1906 earned him a doctor of science for his study of Ceylonese mineralogy, and prompted the formation of the Geological Survey of Ceylon which he initially directed. While in Ceylon, the couple collaborated on Mediaeval Sinhalese Art; Coomaraswamy wrote the text and Ethel provided the photographs. His work in Ceylon fueled Coomaraswamy's anti-Westernization sentiments. After their divorce, Partridge returned to England, where she became a famous weaver and later married the writer Philip Mairet.

By 1906, Coomaraswamy had made it his mission to educate the West about Indian art, and was back in London with a large collection of photographs, actively seeking out artists to try to influence. He knew he could not rely on museum curators or other members of the cultural establishment – in 1908 he wrote "The main difficulty so far seems to have been that Indian art has been studied so far only by archaeologists. It is not archaeologists, but artists ... who are the best qualified to judge of the significance of works of art considered as art." By 1909, he was firmly acquainted with Jacob Epstein and Eric Gill, the city's two most important early Modernists, and soon both of them had begun to incorporate Indian aesthetics into their work. The curiously hybrid sculptures that were produced as a result can be seen to form the very roots of what is now considered British Modernism.

Coomaraswamy then met and married a British woman Alice Ethel Richardson and together they stayed on a houseboat in Srinagar in Kashmir. Commaraswamy studied Rajput painting while his wife studied Indian music with Abdul Rahim of Kapurthala. When they returned to England, Alice performed Indian song under the stage name Ratan Devi. Alice was successful and both went to America when Ratan Devi did a concert tour. While they were there, Coomaraswamy was invited to serve as the first Keeper of Indian art in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts in 1917. The couple had two children, a son, Narada, and daughter, Rohini.

Coomaraswamy divorced his second wife after they arrived in America. He married the American artist Stella Bloch, 20 years his junior, in November 1922. Through the 1920s, Coomaraswamy and his wife were part of the bohemian art circles in New York City, Coomaraswamy befriended Alfred Stieglitz and the artists who exhibited at Stieglitz's gallery. At the same time, he studied Sanskrit and Pali religious literature as well as Western religious works. He wrote catalogues for the Museum of Fine Arts and published his History of Indian and Indonesian Art in 1927.

After the couple divorced in 1930, they remained friends. Shortly thereafter, on 18 November 1930, Coomaraswamy married Argentine Luisa Runstein, 28 years younger, who was working as a society photographer under the professional name Xlata Llamas. They had a son, Coomaraswamy's third child, Rama Ponnambalam (1929-2006), who became a physician and convert at age 22 to the Roman Catholic Church. Following Vatican II, Rama became a critic of the reforms and author of Catholic Traditionalist works. He was also ordained a Traditionalist Roman Catholic priest, despite the fact that he was married and had a living wife. Rama Coomaraswamy studied in England and then in India, learning Hindi and Sanskrit. Became a psychiatrist in the United States, he was an opponent of Pope John Paul II and remain a wider correspondent of mother Teresa of Calcutta, whose first healing attribution was recognized by John Paul II in 2002.

In 1933 Coomaraswamy's title at the Museum of Fine Arts changed from curator to Fellow for Research in Indian, Persian, and Mohammedan Art. He served as curator in the Museum of Fine Arts until his death in Needham, Massachusetts, in 1947. During his long career, he was instrumental in bringing Eastern art to the West. In fact, while at the Museum of Fine Arts, he built the first substantial collection of Indian art in the United States. He also helped with the collections of Persian Art at the Freer Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C., and the Museum of Fine Arts.

After Coomaraswamy's death, his widow, Doña Luisa Runstein, acted as a guide and resource for students of his work.

Contributions
Coomaraswamy made important contributions to the philosophy of art, literature, and religion. In Ceylon, he applied the lessons of William Morris to Ceylonese culture and, with his wife Ethel, produced a groundbreaking study of Ceylonese crafts and culture. While in India, he was part of the literary circle around Rabindranath Tagore, and he contributed to the "Swadeshi" movement, an early phase of the struggle for Indian independence. In the 1920s, he made discoveries in the history of Indian art, particularly some distinctions between Rajput and Moghul painting, and published his book Rajput Painting. At the same time he amassed an unmatched collection of Rajput and Moghul paintings, which he took with him to the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, when he joined its curatorial staff in 1917. Through 1932, from his base in Boston, he produced two kinds of publications: brilliant scholarship in his curatorial field but also graceful introductions to Indian and Asian art and culture, typified by The Dance of Shiva, a collection of essays that remain in print to this day. Deeply influenced by René Guénon, he became one of the founders of the Traditionalist School. His books and essays on art and culture, symbolism and metaphysics, scripture, folklore and myth, and still other topics, offer a remarkable education to readers who accept the challenges of his resolutely cross-cultural perspective and insistence on tying every point he makes back to sources in multiple traditions. He once remarked, "I actually think in both Eastern and Christian terms—Greek, Latin, Sanskrit, Pali, and to some extent Persian and Chinese." Alongside the deep and not infrequently difficult writings of this period, he also delighted in polemical writings created for a larger audience—essays such as "Why exhibit works of art?" (1943).

In his book The Information Society: An Introduction (Sage, 2003, p. 44), Armand Mattelart credits Coomaraswamy for coining the term 'post-industrial' in 1913.

Methodology
Coomaraswamy was a firm believer in the comparative method. The analysis of both texts and symbols across a wide variety of cultures and time periods allowed him to see below the surface of local interpretations and religious exclusivism to locate the bedrock of tradition. By tradition, he meant that which has been handed down from time beyond memory.

The folk has thus preserved, without understanding, the remains of old traditions that go back sometimes to the indeterminably distant past, to which we can only refer as “prehistoric”. Had the folk beliefs not indeed been once understood, we could not now speak of them as metaphysically intelligible, or explain the accuracy of their formulations.

His extensive knowledge of ancient languages allowed him access to primary sources and his understanding of metaphysics helped him discern the deeper meanings that other scholars often missed. Given the specialization and compartmentation of knowledge that was part of the Western academic tradition, his efforts were not always appreciated. He expressed some of his feelings in a letter to Graham Carey:

What the secular mind does is to assert that we (symbolists) are reading meaning into things that originally had none: our assertion is that they are reading out the meaning. The proof of our contention lies in the perfection, consistency and universality of the pattern in which these meanings are united.

His criticism of the academic world was centered around a number of related issues. First, the academic method, by itself, was ill-equipped to deal with the way in which ideas where transmitted in non-literate cultures, due to an over-reliance on written documentation. Too much was left out.

By “folklore” we mean the whole and consistent body of culture which has been handed down, not in books but by word of mouth and in practice, from time beyond the reach of historical research, in the form of legends, fairy tales, ballads, games, toys, crafts, medicine, agriculture, and other rites, and forms of social organization, especially those that we call “tribal.” This is a cultural complex independent of national and even racial boundaries, and of remarkable similarity throughout the world.

A second point of conflict was the obsessive tendency of Western scholarship to divide cultures, religions, and time periods into discrete categories in order to fit into academic organizational and mental structures.

It is equally surprising that so many scholars, meeting with some universal doctrine in a given context, so often think of it as a local peculiarity.

As a traditionalist, Coomaraswamy emphasized the continuity of culture. He was well aware of historical change but he felt that the connecting elements had been lost by the extreme emphasis placed on change and “progress”. Conflict between a new religion and an older one often obscured the commonalities that linked them.

The opposition of religion to folklore is often a kind of rivalry set up as between a new dispensation and an older tradition, the gods of the older cult becoming the evil spirits of the newer.

He pointed out that the Greek word daimon, which at root indicates something given, was synonymous with the Christian Holy Spirit, God's gift of life. If Christian propagandists chose to emphasize the demonic at the expense of the daimon it was only to further their own cause. Ideas like this did not go over well with other scholars and his correspondence has its share of angry or condescending responses to his work which he deflected with a combination of erudition, tact, and humor.

A third issue that raised his ire was the racism inherent in the Western world's criticism and misinterpretation of traditional and tribal cultures, attitudes tied closely to literacy and the attendant idea of progress.

It was possible for Aristotle, starting from the premise that a man, being actually cultured, may also become literate, to ask whether there is a necessary or merely an accidental connection of literacy with culture. Such a question can hardly arise for those to whom illiteracy implies, as a matter of course, ignorance, backwardness, unfitness for self-government: for you, unlettered people are uncivilized peoples and vice versa—as a recent publisher's blurb expresses it: “The greatest force in civilization is the collective wisdom of a literate people."

Like Franz Boas and a handful of others, Coomaraswamy waged a constant war against racism with the press and academic world. He was a strong advocate for Indian independence and was pressured to leave England for publicly suggesting that Indians not fight in the First World War.

Unlike Rene Guenon and others who shared many of his understandings, he was not content to describe traditional ideas from the inside out, in metaphysical terms alone. His commitment to the Western intellectual tradition was deep. He didn't believe that science and metaphysics were in opposition but were two different ways of looking at the world. He was trained as a geologist and was well equipped to deal with science as well as metaphysics.

Nor did his work suffer from the oversimplifications and distortions that can afflict comparative studies. He was critical of the writings of Carl Jung and of Theosophy which he believed distorted the meaning of traditional ideas. The details he provided in support of his arguments could daunt the ablest scholar; his footnotes sometimes took up more room on a page than the text. The comparative method has achieved a good deal of success in linguistics but its application to culture had rarely gone beyond mere documentation before Ananda Coomaraswamy.

Traditional symbolism
One of Coomaraswamy's most important contributions was his profound understanding of how people communicated in early times and how their ideas were transmitted and preserved in the absence of writing. He felt that traditional symbolism could best be understood by means of images, which preceded writing and which contained ideas that had been handed down from the earliest times and preserved in a vast array of media.

To have lost the art of thinking in images is precisely to have lost the proper linguistic of metaphysics and to have descended to the verbal logic of “philosophy.

His study of traditional symbols had taught him that symbols were meant to express ideas and not emotions and that a study of “styles” and “influences” would reveal little of significance.

An adequate knowledge of theology and cosmology is then indispensable to an understanding of the history of art, insofar as the actual shapes and structures of works of art are determined by their real content. Christian art, for example, begins with the representation of deity by abstract symbols, which may be geometrical, vegetable, or theriomorphic, and are devoid of any sentimental appeal whatever. An anthropomorphic symbol follows, but this is still a form and not a figuration; not made as though to function biologically or as if to illustrate a text book of anatomy or dramatic expression. Still later, the form is sentimentalised; the features of the crucified are made to exhibit human suffering, the type is completely humanised, and where we began with the shape of humanity as an analogical representation of the idea of God, we end with the portrait of the artist's mistress posing as the Madonna and a representation of an all-too-human baby; the Christ is no longer a man-God, but the sort of man we can approve of.

In keeping with his traditionalist stance, he saw this process as one of gradual decay in which the human life world began to encroach gradually on the divine with an attendant growth of sentimentality and loss of meaning. He was fond of quoting the curator, John Lodge: “From the Stone Age until now, quelle dégringolade.”

Coomaraswamy spent a lot of his time documenting themes and images that appeared to be very old, given their widespread distribution. Major areas of study included:
 * Solar symbolism
 * Symbolism of the wheel
 * The Flood story
 * The “Water Cosmology” and the “Plant Style”
 * Soma and the Water of Life
 * Traditional cosmologies (the three worlds)
 * The symbolism of snakes and reptiles
 * The symbolism of birds and other “psychopomps” (soul carriers)
 * The heavenly ladder
 * The cosmic dome and the hole in the sky with its guardian figure
 * The Thread-spirit (sutratman) doctrine that underlies the symbolism of the fiber arts
 * The concept of ether and the symbolism of fire
 * Divine bi-unity (male/female) as one
 * The inverted tree and arboreal symbolism
 * The Symplegades (Clashing Rocks) and the Coincidence of Opposites

He found these symbols in many cultures and time periods, both in religious writings and in folklore. He saw little opposition between religion and folklore. Folklore was transmitted in the vernacular as compared to the sacred languages in which scripture was delivered and interpreted. Folklore was less moralistic but its themes shared a common source with those of religion; Jack's beanstalk was Jacob's ladder. Religion was not “contaminated” by folklore but used it to express the same ideas in a more rationalized and moralized setting, just as Plato used myths to explain his philosophy.

The designs we found in Neolithic times were derived from older images. Thus the continuity of tradition reveals itself best in art, which expresses ideas. Even when religious philosophies developed with writing, a continuity of meaning could be observed often because the change was gradual and the old and the new existed side by side.

In the Vedas, the belief {that all life began in the “Waters”} appears in the form of an old popular theory, for which are substituted the successively more philosophical concepts of Space Cosmology, of a belief in the origin of the world in Non-being, in an origin of the world from Being, and finally in the conception of Brahman (the Absolute) as world-ground. The Water Cosmology, it is true, persists side by side with, and linked with these deeper views, even in post-Vedic literature; but it is typically not a creation of the Vedas and seems to belong to an even older stratum of ideas than that which is developed in the Vedas.

The ideas expressed by images were made explicit by writing, which allowed for a greater degree of abstraction and elaboration but since the concrete preceded the abstract, all philosophy started with images. In the absence of writing, the tribal cultures of the world have preserved a good deal of this older symbolism.

Coomaraswamy also maintained that traditional technologies (like the needle or the fire drill) were applications of metaphysical ideas, just as modern technology is an expression of scientific principles.

Primitive man knew nothing of a possible divorce of function and meaning: all his inventions were applied meaning.

The American art historian, Carl Schuster, who corresponded with Coomarawamy and learned much from him, would go on to identify some of the Paleolithic sources of this symbolism.

Perennial philosophy
He was described by Heinrich Zimmer as "That noble scholar upon whose shoulders we are still standing." While serving as a curator to the Boston Museum of Fine Arts in the latter part of his life, he devoted his work to the explication of traditional metaphysics and symbolism. His writings of this period are filled with references to Plato, Plotinus, Clement, Philo, Augustine, Aquinas, Shankara, Eckhart, Rumi and other mystics. When asked how he defined himself foremost, Coomaraswamy said he was a "metaphysician", referring to the concept of perennial philosophy, or sophia perennis.

Along with René Guénon and Frithjof Schuon, Coomaraswamy is regarded as one of the three founders of Perennialism, also called the Traditionalist School. Several articles by Coomaraswamy on the subject of Hinduism and the perennial philosophy were published posthumously in the quarterly journal Studies in Comparative Religion alongside articles by Schuon and Guénon among others.

Although he agrees with Guénon on the universal principles, Coomaraswamy's works are very different in form. By vocation, he was a scholar who dedicated the last decades of his life to "searching the Scriptures". He offers a perspective on the tradition that complements Guénon's. He was extremely perceptive regarding aesthetics and wrote dozens of articles on traditional arts and mythology. His works are also finely balanced intellectually. Although born in the Hindu tradition, he had a deep knowledge of the Western tradition as well as a great expertise in, and love for, Greek metaphysics, especially that of Plotinus, the founder of Neoplatonism.

Coomaraswamy built a bridge between East and West that was designed to be two-way: among other things, his metaphysical writings aimed at demonstrating the unity of the Vedanta and Platonism. His works also sought to rehabilitate original Buddhism, as he believed that the distance (i.e. differences) between Buddhism and Hinduism was artificially created by Western Indologists. In his book, Hinduism and Buddhism, he wrote:

"The more superficially one studies Buddhism, the more it seems to differ from the Brahmanism in which it originated; the more profound our study, the more difficult it becomes to distinguish Buddhism from Brahmanism, or to say in what respects, if any, Buddhism is really unorthodox."

Works
For a complete bibliography, see James S. Crouch, A Bibliography of Ananda Kentish Coomarswamy. Indira Gandhi, National Center for the Arts, Manohar, New Delhi, (2002). See also Corrigenda to A Bibliography of Ananda Kentish Coomaraswamy.

 * Traditional art
 * Elements of Buddhist Iconography, Harvard University Press, 1935.
 * Figures of Speech or Figures of Thought?: The Traditional View of Art, (World Wisdom 2007)
 * Introduction To Indian Art, (Kessinger Publishing, 2007)
 * Buddhist Art, (Kessinger Publishing, 2005)
 * Guardians of the Sundoor: Late Iconographic Essays, (Fons Vitae, 2004)
 * History of Indian and Indonesian Art, (Kessinger Publishing, 2003)
 * Teaching of Drawing in Ceylon (1906, Colombo Apothecaries)
 * The Indian craftsman (1909, Probsthain: London)
 * Voluspa; The Sibyl's Saying (1909, Essex House Press, London)
 * Viśvakarmā; examples of Indian architecture, sculpture, painting, handicraft (1914, London)
 * Vidyāpati: Bangīya padābali; songs of the love of Rādhā and Krishna], (1915, The Old Bourne press: London)
 * The mirror of gesture: being the Abhinaya darpaṇa of Nandikeśvara (with Duggirāla Gōpālakr̥ṣṇa) (1917, Harvard University Press; 1997, South Asia Books,)
 * Indian music (1917, G. Schirmer; 2006, Kessinger Publishing,
 * A catalog of sculptures by John Mowbray-Clarke: shown at the Kevorkian Galleries, New York, from May the seventh to June the seventh, 1919. (1919, New York: Kevorkian Galleries, co-authored with Mowbray-Clarke, John, H. Kevorkian, and Amy Murray)
 * Rajput Painting, (B.R. Publishing Corp., 2003)
 * Early Indian Architecture: Cities and City-Gates, (South Asia Books, 2002) I
 * The Origin of the Buddha Image, (Munshirm Manoharlal Pub Pvt Ltd, 2001)
 * The Transformation of Nature in Art, (Sterling Pub Private Ltd, 1996)
 * Bronzes from Ceylon, chiefly in the Colombo Museum, (Dept. of Govt. Print, 1978)
 * Early Indian Architecture: Palaces, (Munshiram Manoharlal, 1975)
 * The arts & crafts of India & Ceylon, (Farrar, Straus, 1964)
 * Christian and Oriental Philosophy of Art, (Dover Publications, 1956)
 * Archaic Indian Terracottas, (Klinkhardt & Biermann, 1928)
 * Yaksas, (Munshirm Manoharlal Pub Pvt Ltd, 1998) ISBN 978-81-215-0230-6

 * Metaphysics
 * Hinduism and Buddhism, (Kessinger Publishing, 2007; Golden Elixir Press, 2011)
 * Myths of the Hindus & Buddhists (with Sister Nivedita) (1914, H. Holt; 2003, Kessinger Publishing)
 * Buddha and the gospel of Buddhism (1916, G. P. Putnam's sons; 2006, Obscure Press,)
 * A New Approach to the Vedas: An Essay in Translation and Exegesis, (South Asia Books, 1994)
 * The Living Thoughts of Gotama the Buddha, (Fons Vitae, 2001)
 * Time and eternity, (Artibus Asiae, 1947)
 * Perception of the Vedas, (Manohar Publishers and Distributors, 2000)
 * Coomaraswamy: Selected Papers, Volume 2, Metaphysics, (Princeton University Press, 1977)

 * Social criticism
 * Am I My Brothers Keeper, (Ayer Co, 1947)
 * The Dance of Shiva – Fourteen Indian essays Turn Inc., New York; 2003, Kessinger Publishing,
 * The village community and modern progress (12 pages) (Colombo Apothecaries, 1908)
 * Essays in national idealism (Colombo Apothecaries, 1910)
 * Bugbear of Literacy, (Sophia Perennis, 1979)
 * What is Civilisation?: and Other Essays. Golgonooza Press, (UK),
 * Spiritual Authority and Temporal Power in the Indian Theory of Government, (Oxford University Press, 1994)

 * Posthumous collections
 * The Door in the Sky. Coomaraswamy on Myth and Meaning, (Princeton University Press, 1997)
 * Coomaraswamy: Selected Papers, 3 volumes: Traditional Art and Symbolism, Metaphysics, His Life and Work, (Princeton University Press, 1977)
 * The Essential Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, (2003, World Wisdom)
 * Guardians of the Sun-Door, (Fons Vitae, 2004)

title: Ananda Coomaraswamy


text:
Extraction

Extraction may refer to:

Biology and medicine

 * Comedo extraction, a method of acne treatment
 * Dental extraction, the surgical removal of a tooth from the mouth

Computing and information science

 * Data extraction, the process of retrieving data out of data sources
 * Information extraction
 * Knowledge extraction
 * The process of reversing data compression, a.k.a. decompression
 * The process of choosing elements from a source document, in linguistics

Other uses in science and technology

 * Root extraction, in mathematics, the computation of a $n$th root
 * Extraction (chemistry), the separation of a substance from a matrix
 * Primary extraction, the act of removing a spent cartridge from the chamber of a firearm
 * Fragrance extraction, the process of obtaining fragrant oils and compounds from raw materials
 * Resource extraction, the process of locating, acquiring and selling any resource
 * Petroleum extraction, the process of recovering petroleum from the ground
 * Ancestry or origin of a person

Arts and entertainment

 * Extraction (2015 film), an American thriller film starring Kellan Lutz, Bruce Willis, and Gina Carano
 * Extraction (2020 film), an American action film starring Chris Hemsworth
 * Extraction (album), by guitarist Greg Howe
 * "Extraction" (The Shield), an episode of the television series
 * Dead Space: Extraction, a video game prequel to the 2008 game Dead Space
 * "Extractions", a song by BS 2000 on the 2001 album Simply Mortified
 * Dirty Bomb (video game), formerly known as Extraction
 * Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Extraction, 2022 video game

Other uses

 * Extraction (military), the removal of someone from a hostile area to an area occupied by either friendly personnel or within friendly control
 * Literary extract, in which a portion of a written work is published
 * A part of the anatomy of a stroke, in rowing

title: Extraction


text:
Mixture

A mixture is a material made up of two or more different chemical substances which can be separated by physical method. A mixture is the physical combination of two or more substances in which the identities are retained and are mixed in the form of solutions, suspensions and colloids.

Mixtures are one product of mechanically blending or mixing chemical substances such as elements and compounds, without chemical bonding or other chemical change, so that each ingredient substance retains its own chemical properties and makeup. Despite the fact that there are no chemical changes to its constituents, the physical properties of a mixture, such as its melting point, may differ from those of the components. Some mixtures can be separated into their components by using physical (mechanical or thermal) means. Azeotropes are one kind of mixture that usually poses considerable difficulties regarding the separation processes required to obtain their constituents (physical or chemical processes or, even a blend of them).

Characteristics of mixtures
All mixtures can be characterized as being separable by mechanical means (e.g. purification, distillation, electrolysis, chromatography, heat, filtration, gravitational sorting, centrifugation). Mixtures differ from chemical compounds in the following ways: In the example of sand and water, neither one of the two substances changed in any way when they are mixed. Although the sand is in the water it still keeps the same properties that it had when it was outside the water.
 * the substances in a mixture can be separated using physical methods such as filtration, freezing, and distillation.
 * there is little or no energy change when a mixture forms (see Enthalpy of mixing).
 * The substances in a mixture keep its separate properties.
 * mixtures have variable compositions, while compounds have a fixed, definite formula.
 * when mixed, individual substances keep their properties in a mixture, while if they form a compound their properties can change.

The following table shows the main properties and examples for all possible phase combinations of the three "families" of mixtures:

Homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures
Mixtures can be either homogeneous or heterogeneous: a mixture of uniform composition and in which all components are in the same phase, such as salt in water, is called homogeneous, whereas a mixture of non-uniform composition and of which the components can be easily identified, such as sand in water, it is called heterogeneous.

In addition, "uniform mixture" is another term for homogeneous mixture and "non-uniform mixture" is another term for heterogeneous mixture. These terms are derived from the idea that a homogeneous mixture has a uniform appearance, or only one visible phase, because the particles are evenly distributed. However, a heterogeneous mixture has non-uniform composition, and its constituent substances are easily distinguishable from one another (often, but not always, in different phases).

Several solid substances, such as salt and sugar, dissolve in water to form a special type of homogeneous mixture called a solution, in which there is both a solute (dissolved substance) and solvent (dissolving medium) present. Air is an example of a solution as well: a homogeneous mixture of gaseous nitrogen solvent, in which oxygen and smaller amounts of other gaseous solutes are dissolved. Mixtures are not limited in either their number of substances or the amounts of those substances, though in a homogeneous mixture the solute-to-solvent proportion can only reach a certain point before the mixture separates and becomes heterogeneous.

A homogeneous mixture is characterized by uniform dispersion of its constituent substances throughout; the substances exist in equal proportion everywhere within the mixture. Differently put, a homogeneous mixture will be the same no matter from where in the mixture it is sampled. For example, if a solid-liquid solution is divided into two halves of equal volume, the halves will contain equal amounts of both the liquid medium and dissolved solid (solvent and solute).

In physical chemistry and materials science, "homogeneous" more narrowly describes substances and mixtures which are in a single phase.

Solutions
A solution is a special type of homogeneous mixture where the ratio of solute to solvent remains the same throughout the solution and the particles are not visible with the naked eye, even if homogenized with multiple sources. In solutions, solutes will not settle out after any period of time and they cannot be removed by physical methods, such as a filter or centrifuge. As a homogeneous mixture, a solution has one phase (solid, liquid, or gas), although the phase of the solute and solvent may initially have been different (e.g., salt water).

Gases
Gases exhibit by far the greatest space (and, consequently, the weakest intermolecular forces) between their atoms or molecules; since intermolecular interactions are minuscule in comparison to those in liquids and solids, dilute gases very easily form solutions with one another. Air is one such example: it can be more specifically described as a gaseous solution of oxygen and other gases dissolved in nitrogen (its major component).

General Properties of a Homogeneous Mixture
The basic properties of solutions are as drafted under:

 * All solutions are the examples of homogeneous mixture.
 * The particles of a homogeneous mixture are less than one nanometre in size.
 * A homogeneous mixture does not show Tyndall effect.
 * The constituent of homogeneous mixture cannot be separated using centrifugation or decantation.

Heterogeneous mixtures
Examples of heterogeneous mixtures are emulsions and foams. In most cases, the mixture consists of two main constituents. For an emulsion, these are immiscible fluids such as water and oil. For a foam, these are a solid and a fluid, or a liquid and a gas. On larger scales both constituents are present in any region of the mixture, and in a well-mixed mixture in the same or only slightly varying concentrations. On a microscopic scale, however, one of the constituents is absent in almost any sufficiently small region. (If such absence is common on macroscopic scales, the combination of the constituents is a dispersed medium, not a mixture.) One can distinguish different characteristics of heterogeneous mixtures by the presence or absence of continuum percolation of their constituents. For a foam, a distinction is made between reticulated foam in which one constituent forms a connected network through which the other can freely percolate, or a closed-cell foam in which one constituent is present as trapped in small cells whose walls are formed by the other constituents. A similar distinction is possible for emulsions. In many emulsions, one constituent is present in the form of isolated regions of typically a globular shape, dispersed throughout the other constituent. However, it is also possible each constituent forms a large, connected network. Such a mixture is then called bicontinuous.

Distinguishing between mixture types
Making a distinction between homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures is a matter of the scale of sampling. On a coarse enough scale, any mixture can be said to be homogeneous, if the entire article is allowed to count as a "sample" of it. On a fine enough scale, any mixture can be said to be heterogeneous, because a sample could be as small as a single molecule. In practical terms, if the property of interest of the mixture is the same regardless of which sample of it is taken for the examination used, the mixture is homogeneous.

Gy's sampling theory quantitatively defines the heterogeneity of a particle as:

 * $$h_i = \frac{(c_i - c_\text{batch})m_i}{c_\text{batch} m_\text{aver}},$$

where $$h_i$$, $$c_i$$, $$c_\text{batch}$$, $$m_i$$, and $$m_\text{aver}$$ are respectively: the heterogeneity of the $$i$$th particle of the population, the mass concentration of the property of interest in the $$i$$th particle of the population, the mass concentration of the property of interest in the population, the mass of the $$i$$th particle in the population, and the average mass of a particle in the population.

During sampling of heterogeneous mixtures of particles, the variance of the sampling error is generally non-zero.

Pierre Gy derived, from the Poisson sampling model, the following formula for the variance of the sampling error in the mass concentration in a sample:

 * $$V = \frac{1}{(\sum_{i=1}^N q_i m_i)^2} \sum_{i=1}^N q_i(1-q_i) m_{i}^{2} \left(a_i - \frac{\sum_{j=1}^N q_j a_j m_j}{\sum_{j=1}^N q_j m_j}\right)^2,$$

in which V is the variance of the sampling error, N is the number of particles in the population (before the sample was taken), qi is the probability of including the ith particle of the population in the sample (i.e. the first-order inclusion probability of the ith particle), mi is the mass of the ith particle of the population and ai is the mass concentration of the property of interest in the ith particle of the population.

The above equation for the variance of the sampling error is an approximation based on a linearization of the mass concentration in a sample.

In the theory of Gy, correct sampling is defined as a sampling scenario in which all particles have the same probability of being included in the sample. This implies that qi no longer depends on i, and can therefore be replaced by the symbol q. Gy's equation for the variance of the sampling error becomes:

 * $$V = \frac{1-q}{q M_\text{batch}^2} \sum_{i=1}^N m_{i}^{2} \left(a_i - a_\text{batch} \right)^2,$$

where abatch is that concentration of the property of interest in the population from which the sample is to be drawn and Mbatch is the mass of the population from which the sample is to be drawn.

Health effects
Air pollution research show biological and health effects after exposure to mixtures are more potent than effects from exposures of individual components.

Properties of a mixture

 * Chemical substance
 * Mixing (process engineering)

title: Mixture


text:
Wikipedia talk:Requests for investigation/Archives/2003/08 (New Imperialism)

 * Jtdirl has protected New Imperialism, as part of an "edit war" in which he was part. This is an abuse of his sysop powers. 172 has also previously protected this page (and the talk page) unilaterally. Pizza Puzzle

 * I request that New Imperialism be protected so that New Imperialism (temp) is not censored. I went to the page, as I saw it on Recent Changes, and modified a few links -- 172 then protected the entire page. There was a discussion at Talk:New Imperialism about editing New Imperialism -- 172 deleted the discussion and protected the page. 172 then told me I could go "play" at New Imperialism (temp) and that I could not make any edits to his page. After I went to all the trouble of creating an edited version of New Imperialism, 172 now refuses to allow a link to that page. He is backed by his buddy Jtdirl. Pizza Puzzle
 * I have temporarily protected the page to ask other users for an adjudication. I am not a participant in the editing of the text in any way and I have made it clear that I respect both 172's and PP's efforts. The question is simple:

Should a temp page that is not a communally edited text but a rival to the main article be advertised as a rival on the main page? If we were saying that everyone was re-writing the temp and the main page was going to be replaced by the rewrite such a mention might be warranted. In this case, it is in effect two rival articles. I question in the circumstances whether it is correct to advertise both rivals on the one page. I have asked PP to desist for a while while this was explored. He has refused and continually reinserted the link to his draft. Pending a resolution of this problem, which I expect will be shift, I protected the page to allow a decision to be made. The issue is not the rival merits of both articles; that is a different article. The issue is simply how to deal with the existence of two rival articles and should the temp be put on the main page as a link?

In the meantime I also redesigned the top of the talk page to increase the visibility of the link to PP's temp page. FearÉIREANN 14:15 28 Jul 2003 (UTC)
 * JTdirl is most definitely involved in the edit war at New Imperialism. Pizza Puzzle

 * I am bending over backwards to get along with 172, not even editing his precious New Imperialism -- instead working on a seperate article. And then he goes and does this at New Imperialism (temp) http://www.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=New_Imperialism_(temp)&diff=1200557&oldid=1200538 -- its behavior totally inappropriate for a sysop. Pizza Puzzle
 * You expressed a POV. He expressed a different one. What is the problem? If you don't want someone to express a different POV to yourself, then don't express one and let the text stand or fall on other people's analysis. Don't try to tell them what to think, which is what you tried to do and he reacted to it. FearÉIREANN 04:12 27 Jul 2003 (UTC)
 * I did not express a POV. My version of the article is shorter and more concise - its a fact. 172 entered deragatory comments about my version of the article, on the article page itself, because he wanted to vandalize it. His actions were no different than if I went to Fusion and wrote "this article is garbage" at the top. Pizza Puzzle
 * shorter does not mean more concise. It could also mean inadequate. (Before you jump down my throat, I'm not saying it is or isn't.) You put in a POV heading. You can hardly take offence if another user disagrees with that analysis and challenges it. Leave any POV claims off, let the reader decide for themselves, and everyone will be happy. FearÉIREANN 04:38 27 Jul 2003 (UTC)
 * "This is the over-simplified and reductionistic version of New Imperialism." was not a constructive attempt to improve New Imperialism (temp). You friend was vandalising the article. Pizza Puzzle
 * I am trying to be helpful PP. I have defended you in the past when calls were made by Eloquence for your banning. I have said that I don't care who your identity is once you act constructively and I have offered you advice (which you perversely took as an attack though it was meant as constructive advice). You are clearly a well read intelligent contributor. 172 is one of best historians on wiki, whom I admire for his intellectual thoroughness and desire for high quality academic excellence, even though I have disagreed with him in the past on some topics (eg. Robert Mugabe). All I am urging you to do is to avoid adding a POV at the top of your text. You cannot complain if, having expressed on POV, someone expresses another. There is no need to add in any POV banner. It is simply provocative. FearÉIREANN 04:56 27 Jul 2003 (UTC)
 * Fine, this was a bad idea. But if you can insert your POV and call your version "concise," I decided that I'd insert my POV about the article to prove a point. I know that you feed of stirring up trouble and provoking emotional reactions. So I'll take some advice and quit letting you provoke me. 172 04:47 27 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * 172 is removing the temp links from New Imperialism despite the vote he called for having been in favor of the links. This issue has gone on for some time, and I request that the page be protected from 172. Pizza Puzzle

 * As you well know PP so stop lying about it, the temps were based on the perceived need to substantially rewrite the page to reduce its size from 50K. The page has been rewritten and redesigned. Those who supported the link for one week (many with reluctance) have now changed their votes and said due to the different content now on the article page the temps are not needed. In addition it was decided originally to have one temp for one week. This was turned into two, contrary to what was agreed. Nor is it just 172 who was removing the links. Mav, who was not a combatant in the debate, also reverted your insertion of two links, pointing out that they were no longer needed. Your continuous dishonest representation of what is happening on that page is getting tedious. FearÉIREANN 20:00, 2 Aug 2003 (UTC)

 * Click here for information on Pizza Puzzles banned status. Evercat put an incredible amount of work into proving the Lir/PP connection, linking him to his innumerable banned identities, such as Adam, Bridget, Lir, Vera Cruz, Susan Mason, and Dietary Fiber. 172 18:40, 1 Aug 2003 (UTC)
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