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Laelian

Laelian (Ulpius Cornelius Laelianus), also incorrectly referred to as Lollianus and Aelianus, was a usurper against Postumus, the emperor of the Gallic Empire. His revolt lasted from approximately late February to early June 269.

Origins
Little is known about Laelian. He shares the same nomen as a prominent Hispano-Roman family, the Ulpii, that included Trajan among its members, and may have been a relative. This is supported by the strong allusion to Hispania on an aureus he struck, which featured the design of Hispania reclining with a rabbit to her side. If he indeed was a relative, this may be the reason Hispania allied itself with Claudius II, after the death of Laelian, seemingly without a struggle.

Rule
Laelian declared himself emperor at Moguntiacum (modern-day Mainz in Germany) in February/March 269, after repulsing a Germanic invasion. Although his exact position is unknown, he is believed to have been a senior officer under Postumus, either the legatus of Germania Superior or the commander of Legio XXII Primigenia. Laelian represented a strong danger to Postumus because of the two legions he commanded (Primigenia in Moguntiacum and VIII Augusta in Argentoratum); Despite this, his rebellion lasted only about two months before he was executed, reputedly by his own soldiers, or by Postumus' troops after a siege of Laelian's capital. The siege of Moguntiacum was also fatal for Postumus; it is said he was slain when he refused to allow his troops to plunder the city following its capture.

Laelian (under the Latin name Lollianus) is listed among the Thirty Tyrants in the Historia Augusta.

title: Laelian


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Ventricle (heart)

A ventricle is one of two large chambers located toward the bottom of the heart that collect and expel blood towards the peripheral beds within the body and lungs. The blood pumped by a ventricle is supplied by an atrium, an adjacent chamber in the upper heart that is smaller than a ventricle. Interventricular means between the ventricles (for example the interventricular septum), while intraventricular means within one ventricle (for example an intraventricular block).

In a four-chambered heart, such as that in humans, there are two ventricles that operate in a double circulatory system: the right ventricle pumps blood into the pulmonary circulation to the lungs, and the left ventricle pumps blood into the systemic circulation through the aorta.

Structure
Ventricles have thicker walls than atria and generate higher blood pressures. The physiological load on the ventricles requiring pumping of blood throughout the body and lungs is much greater than the pressure generated by the atria to fill the ventricles. Further, the left ventricle has thicker walls than the right because it needs to pump blood to most of the body while the right ventricle fills only the lungs.

On the inner walls of the ventricles are irregular muscular columns called trabeculae carneae which cover all of the inner ventricular surfaces except that of the conus arteriosus, in the right ventricle. There are three types of these muscles. The third type, the papillary muscles, give origin at their apices to the chordae tendinae which attach to the cusps of the tricuspid valve and to the mitral valve.

The mass of the left ventricle, as estimated by magnetic resonance imaging, averages 143 g ± 38.4 g, with a range of 87–224 g.

The right ventricle is equal in size to the left ventricle and contains roughly 85 millilitres (3 imp fl oz; 3 US fl oz) in the adult. Its upper front surface is circled and convex, and forms much of the sternocostal surface of the heart. Its under surface is flattened, forming part of the diaphragmatic surface of the heart that rests upon the diaphragm.

Its posterior wall is formed by the ventricular septum, which bulges into the right ventricle, so that a transverse section of the cavity presents a semilunar outline. Its upper and left angle forms a conical pouch, the conus arteriosus, from which the pulmonary artery arises. A tendinous band, called the tendon of the conus arteriosus, extends upward from the right atrioventricular fibrous ring and connects the posterior surface of the conus arteriosus to the aorta.

Shape
The left ventricle is longer and more conical in shape than the right, and on transverse section its concavity presents an oval or nearly circular outline. It forms a small part of the sternocostal surface and a considerable part of the diaphragmatic surface of the heart; it also forms the apex of the heart. The left ventricle is thicker and more muscular than the right ventricle because it pumps blood at a higher pressure.

The right ventricle is triangular in shape and extends from the tricuspid valve in the right atrium to near the apex of the heart. Its wall is thickest at the apex and thins towards its base at the atrium. When viewed via cross section however, the right ventricle seems to be crescent shaped. The right ventricle is made of two components: the sinus and the conus. The Sinus is the inflow which flows away from the tricuspid valve. Three bands made from muscle, separate the right ventricle: the parietal, the septal, and the moderator band. The moderator band connects from the base of the anterior papillary muscle to the ventricular septum.

Development
By young adulthood, the walls of the left ventricle have thickened from three to six times greater than that of the right ventricle. This reflects the typical five times greater pressure workload this chamber performs while accepting blood returning from the pulmonary veins at ~80mmHg pressure (equivalent to around 11 kPa) and pushing it forward to the typical ~120mmHg pressure (around 16.3 kPa) in the aorta during each heartbeat. (The pressures stated are resting values and stated as relative to surrounding atmospheric which is the typical "0" reference pressure used in medicine.)

Function
During systole, the ventricles contract, pumping blood through the body. During diastole, the ventricles relax and fill with blood again.

The left ventricle receives oxygenated blood from the left atrium via the mitral valve and pumps it through the aorta via the aortic valve, into the systemic circulation. The left ventricular muscle must relax and contract quickly and be able to increase or lower its pumping capacity under the control of the nervous system. In the diastolic phase, it has to relax very quickly after each contraction so as to quickly fill with the oxygenated blood flowing from the pulmonary veins. Likewise in the systolic phase, the left ventricle must contract rapidly and forcibly to pump this blood into the aorta, overcoming the much higher aortic pressure. The extra pressure exerted is also needed to stretch the aorta and other arteries to accommodate the increase in blood volume.

The right ventricle receives deoxygenated blood from the right atrium via the tricuspid valve and pumps it into the pulmonary artery via the pulmonary valve, into the pulmonary circulation.

Pumping volume
The typical healthy adult heart pumping volume is ~5 liters/min, resting. Maximum capacity pumping volume extends from ~25 liters/min for non-athletes to as high as ~45 liters/min for Olympic level athletes.

Volumes
In cardiology, the performance of the ventricles are measured with several volumetric parameters, including end-diastolic volume (EDV), end-systolic volume (ESV), stroke volume (SV) and ejection fraction (Ef).

Pressures

Ventricular pressure is a measure of blood pressure within the ventricles of the heart.

Left
During most of the cardiac cycle, ventricular pressure is less than the pressure in the aorta, but during systole, the ventricular pressure rapidly increases, and the two pressures become equal to each other (represented by the junction of the blue and red lines on the diagram on this page), the aortic valve opens, and blood is pumped to the body.

Elevated left ventricular end-diastolic pressure has been described as a risk factor in cardiac surgery.

Noninvasive approximations have been described.

An elevated pressure difference between the aortic pressure and the left ventricular pressure may be indicative of aortic stenosis.

Right
Right ventricular pressure demonstrates a different pressure-volume loop than left ventricular pressure.

Dimensions
The heart and its performance are also commonly measured in terms of dimensions, which in this case means one-dimensional distances, usually measured in millimeters. This is not as informative as volumes but may be much easier to estimate with (e.g., M-Mode echocardiography or with sonomicrometry, which is mostly used for animal model research). Optimally, it is specified with which plane the distance is measured in, e.g. the dimension of the longitudinal plane.

Fractional shortening (FS) is the fraction of any diastolic dimension that is lost in systole. When referring to endocardial luminal distances, it is EDD minus ESD divided by EDD (times 100 when measured in percentage). Normal values may differ somewhat dependent on which anatomical plane is used to measure the distances. Normal range is 25–45%, Mild is 20–25%, Moderate is 15–20%, and Severe is <15%. Cardiology Diagnostic Tests Midwall fractional shortening may also be used to measure diastolic/systolic changes for inter-ventricular septal dimensions and posterior wall dimensions. However, both endocardial and midwall fractional shortening are dependent on myocardial wall thickness, and thereby dependent on long-axis function. By comparison, a measure of short-axis function termed epicardial volume change (EVC) is independent of myocardial wall thickness and represents isolated short-axis function.

Clinical significance
An arrhythmia is an irregular heartbeat that can occur in the ventricles or atria. Normally the heartbeat is initiated in the SA node of the atrium but initiation can also occur in the Purkinje fibres of the ventricles, giving rise to premature ventricular contractions, also called ventricular extra beats. When these beats become grouped the condition is known as ventricular tachycardia.

Another form of arrhythmia is that of the ventricular escape beat. This can happen as a compensatory mechanism when there is a problem in the conduction system from the SA node.

The most severe form of arrhythmia is ventricular fibrillation which is the most common cause of cardiac arrest and subsequent sudden death.

 * Ventricular septal defect
 * Atrioventricular septal defect

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Ventricle (heart)


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Cardiac tamponade

Cardiac tamponade, also known as pericardial tamponade, is a compression of the heart due to pericardial effusion (the build-up of pericardial fluid in the sac around the heart). Onset may be rapid or gradual. Symptoms typically include those of obstructive shock including shortness of breath, weakness, lightheadedness, and cough. Other symptoms may relate to the underlying cause.

Common causes of cardiac tamponade include cancer, kidney failure, chest trauma, myocardial infarction, and pericarditis. Other causes include connective tissues diseases, hypothyroidism, aortic rupture, autoimmune disease, and complications of cardiac surgery. In Africa, tuberculosis is a relatively common cause.

Diagnosis may be suspected based on low blood pressure, jugular venous distension, or quiet heart sounds (together known as Beck's triad). A pericardial rub may be present in cases due to inflammation. The diagnosis may be further supported by specific electrocardiogram (ECG) changes, chest X-ray, or an ultrasound of the heart. If fluid increases slowly the pericardial sac can expand to contain more than 2 liters; however, if the increase is rapid, as little as 200 mL can result in tamponade.

Tamponade is a medical emergency. When it results in symptoms, drainage is necessary. This can be done by pericardiocentesis, surgery to create a pericardial window, or a pericardiectomy. Drainage may also be necessary to rule out infection or cancer. Other treatments may include the use of dobutamine or in those with low blood volume, intravenous fluids. Those with few symptoms and no worrisome features can often be closely followed. The frequency of tamponade is unclear. One estimate from the United States places it at 2 per 10,000 per year.

Signs and symptoms
Onset may be rapid (acute) or more gradual (subacute). Signs of cardiac tamponade typically include those of cardiogenic shock including shortness of breath, weakness, lightheadedness, cough and those of Beck's triad e.g. jugular vein distention, quiet heart sounds and hypotension. Other symptoms may relate to the underlying cause.

Other general signs of shock (such as fast heart rate, shortness of breath and decreasing level of consciousness) may also occur. However, some of these signs may not be present in certain cases. A fast heart rate, although expected, may be absent in people with uremia and hypothyroidism.

According to Reddy and co-authors, cardiac tamponade and its progression can be described in 3 different phases. In phase I, the required filling pressure increases due to the high stiffness of the ventricles. This is because of the accumulation of pericardial fluid in the pericardial cavity. During phase II, the pericardial pressure exceeds the ventricular filling pressure caused by the further accumulation of pericardial fluid. This results in a decrease in cardiac input and output. A further decrease of cardiac input and output is typical in phase III of the progression of cardiac tamponade. This is caused by the equilibration of left ventricular filling and pericardial pressure, leading to “severe deterioration of end-organ perfusion.” Some of the symptoms, as a consequence, include abdominal pain due to liver engorgement.

Causes
Cardiac tamponade is caused by a large or uncontrolled pericardial effusion, i.e. the buildup of fluid inside the pericardium. This commonly occurs as a result of chest trauma (both blunt and penetrating), but can also be caused by myocardial infarction, myocardial rupture, cancer (most often Hodgkin lymphoma), uremia, pericarditis, or cardiac surgery, and rarely occurs during retrograde aortic dissection, or while the person is taking anticoagulant therapy. The effusion can occur rapidly (as in the case of trauma or myocardial rupture), or over a more gradual period of time (as in cancer). The fluid involved is often blood, but pus is also found in some circumstances.

Surgery
One of the most common settings for cardiac tamponade is in the first 7 days after heart surgery. After heart surgery, chest tubes are placed to drain blood. These chest tubes, however, are prone to clot formation. When a chest tube becomes occluded or clogged, the blood that should be drained can accumulate around the heart, leading to tamponade.

Pathophysiology
The pericardium, the double-walled sac surrounding the heart, consists of a fibrous pericardium layer on the outside and a double-layered serous pericardium on the inside. Between the two layers of the serous pericardium is the pericardial space, which is filled with lubricating serous fluid that prevents friction as the heart contracts. The outer layer of the heart is made of fibrous tissue which does not easily stretch, so once excess fluid begins to enter the pericardial space, pressure starts to increase. Consequently, the heart becomes compressed due to its inability to fully relax.

If fluid continues to accumulate, each successive diastolic period leads to less blood entering the ventricles. Eventually, increasing pressure on the heart forces the septum to bend in towards the left ventricle, leading to a decrease in stroke volume. This causes the development of obstructive shock, which if left untreated may lead to cardiac arrest (often presenting as pulseless electrical activity). The decrease in stroke volume can also ultimately lead to a decrease in cardiac output, which could be signaled by tachycardia and hypotension.

Diagnosis

The three classic signs, known as Beck's triad, are low blood pressure, jugular-venous distension, and muffled heart sounds. Other signs may include pulsus paradoxus (a drop of at least 10 mmHg in arterial blood pressure with inspiration), and ST segment changes on the electrocardiogram, which may also show low voltage QRS complexes.

Medical imaging
Tamponade can often be diagnosed radiographically. Echocardiography, which is the diagnostic test of choice, often demonstrates an enlarged pericardium or collapsed ventricles. A large cardiac tamponade will show as an enlarged globular-shaped heart on chest x-ray. During inspiration, the negative pressure in the thoracic cavity will cause increased pressure into the right ventricle. This increased pressure in the right ventricle will cause the interventricular septum to bulge towards the left ventricle, leading to decreased filling of the left ventricle. At the same time, right ventricle volume is markedly diminished and sometimes it can collapse.

Differential diagnosis
Initial diagnosis of cardiac tamponade can be challenging, as there is a broad differential diagnosis. The differential includes possible diagnoses based on symptoms, time course, mechanism of injury, patient history. Rapid onset cardiac tamponade may also appear similar to pleural effusions, obstructive shock, shock, pulmonary embolism, and tension pneumothorax.

If symptoms appeared more gradually, the differential diagnosis includes acute heart failure.

In a person with trauma presenting with pulseless electrical activity in the absence of hypovolemia and tension pneumothorax, the most likely diagnosis is cardiac tamponade.

In addition to the diagnostic complications afforded by the wide-ranging differential diagnosis for chest pain, diagnosis can be additionally complicated by the fact that people will often be weak or faint at presentation. For instance, a fast rate of breathing and difficulty breathing on exertion that progresses to air hunger at rest can be a key diagnostic symptom, but it may not be possible to obtain such information from people who are unconscious or who have convulsions at presentation.

Pre-hospital care
Initial treatment given will usually be supportive in nature, for example administration of oxygen, and monitoring. There is little care that can be provided pre-hospital other than general treatment for shock. Some teams have performed an emergency thoracotomy to release clotting in the pericardium caused by a penetrating chest injury.

Prompt diagnosis and treatment is the key to survival with tamponade. Some pre-hospital providers will have facilities to provide pericardiocentesis, which can be life-saving. If the person has already suffered a cardiac arrest, pericardiocentesis alone cannot ensure survival, and so rapid evacuation to a hospital is usually the more appropriate course of action.

Hospital management
Initial management in hospital is by pericardiocentesis. This involves the insertion of a needle through the skin and into the pericardium and aspirating fluid under ultrasound guidance preferably. This can be done laterally through the intercostal spaces, usually the fifth, or as a subxiphoid approach. A left parasternal approach begins 3 to 5 cm left of the sternum to avoid the left internal mammary artery, in the 5th intercostal space. Often, a cannula is left in place during resuscitation following initial drainage so that the procedure can be performed again if the need arises. If facilities are available, an emergency pericardial window may be performed instead, during which the pericardium is cut open to allow fluid to drain. Following stabilization of the person, surgery is provided to seal the source of the bleed and mend the pericardium.

Following heart surgery, the amount of chest tube drainage is monitored. If the drainage volume drops off, and the blood pressure goes down, this can suggest a tamponade due to chest tube clogging. In that case, the person is taken back to the operating room for an emergency reoperation.

If aggressive treatment is offered immediately and no complications arise (shock, AMI or arrhythmia, heart failure, aneurysm, carditis, embolism, or rupture), or they are dealt with quickly and fully contained, then adequate survival is still a distinct possibility.

Epidemiology
The frequency of tamponade is unclear. One estimate from the United States places it at 2 per 10,000 per year. It is estimated to occur in 2% of those with stab or gunshot wounds to the chest.

title: Cardiac tamponade


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USS Deane (1778)

The continental Navy frigate USS Deane was originally a ship secretly ordered by the American Commissioners from the Nantes shipowner Jean Peltier Dudoyer.

This 400 ton 'merchant' ship, then named the Lyon, with 32 gun emplacements, was fitted with 24 cannons and was built by Bourmaud. The number of cannons attracted the attention of the local maritime authorities, who notified the Minister of Marine. Having been paid through a Paris banker, Jean Peltier denied any other use apart from trade, and, on 3 November 1777, indicated in the deed of purchase that there was "absolutely no foreign involvement" and that the ship would be commanded by a Frenchman, Barthélémy Corvaisier, on the voyage to Santo Domingo.

Even though suspicions had not completely disappeared, fortunately French intentions towards the USA had changed and Jean Peltier was encouraged to hasten the preparation of the ship. On 12 February 1778, the Lyon joined the Duc de Choiseul and the Brume in Saint Nazaire to then sail to the Quiberon Bay, where the escort of La Motte-Picquet was waiting to accompany them the 900 km to the United States. However disagreements with Samuel Nicholson led to the departure of a large number of the French crew, including Nicolas Baudin, and the embarkation of 102 American 'passengers'. An agreement was signed between Jonathan Williams and Nicholson and Corvaisier stepped down. Nicholson took command and renamed the ship the Deane after American Founding Father Silas Deane. On 14 February the crew was present at the 13-gun salute by John Paul Jones fired from the 'Ranger' and the 9-gun salute in response from La Motte-Picquet, in recognition of the American nation. And brought to the United States in May 1778 to be prepared for sea. She was named Hague in 1782, and was taken out of commission in 1783.

Career
Under the command of Captain Samuel Nicholson of the Continental Navy, Deane sailed from Boston 14 January 1779 with USS Alliance (1778) for a cruise in the West Indies. She returned to Philadelphia 17 April with one prize, the armed ship Viper. On 29 July she joined with USS Boston (1777) and two ships of the Virginia Navy guarding a convoy of merchantmen out to sea and continuing on for a five-week cruise which netted eight prizes, including four privateers, the packet Sandwich, and the sloop-of-war HMS Thorn. The frigates arrived at Boston 6 September with 250 prisoners after one of the most notable cruises of the Continental Navy.

During the winter and early spring of 1781 Deane cruised with USS Confederacy (1778) and USS Saratoga (1780) in the West Indies. In May, Lloyd's List reported that the rebel frigates Dean and Protector had captured John, Ashburner, master, from Lancaster to St. Kitts, and a ship sailing from Glasgow to Jamaica with 90-0 barrels of beef and a quantity of dry goods, and had taken them into Martinique.

Deane again cruised with Confederacy and Saratoga in the West Indies in 1782, capturing four prizes. In April 1782 she captured the cutter HMS Jackal (1779). After two more cruises in the Caribbean, one in September 1782 and the other in 1783, she was renamed Hague in September 1782 (perhaps because of false accusation against Deane that was current at the time).

Fate
Deane was taken out of commission in 1783 at Boston.

title: USS Deane (1778)


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Talk:USS Confederacy

The 1779 cruise story is not entirely consistent with what's at USS Deane, needs further research. Stan 04:40 7 Jul 2003 (UTC)

This article says that John Jay was the first American Minister to Spain. This may be true -- does this mean Ambassador? According to John Jay, he was the President of the Continental Congress at this time. So the statement that he was the American Minsiter to Spain is in any event misleading. Matthias5 01:50, 22 Nov 2004 (UTC)

JJ was elected President of Congres in December 1778. He served in this capacity until he was appointed Minister Plenipotentiary to Spain in September 1779. See Walter Stahr's biography of Jay, chapter 5. 128.59.160.141 19:06, 12 June 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:USS Confederacy


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Talk:Mutual Broadcasting System

Anon, thanks for the work
Anon, thanks for the work. It looks like your sources were much more detailed than mine. I had been under the impression that the Quality Network lasted longer.

What was the arrangement (if any) between the stations in the years inbetween the demise of Quality and the start of Mutual? I was under the impression they continued sharing programing, is this false? -- Infrogmation 04:44 7 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Rolled back an anonymous contribution
I rolled back an anonymous contribution that discussed the quality of the article within the article, someone should edit and incorporate the accurate and relevant bits and make sure it comports with encyclopedia standards. dml 13:47, 4 January 2006 (UTC)

Mutual Broadcasting Company
I have failed to establish exactly what the relation was between Mutual Broadcasting Company and Mutual Broadcasting System, but they seem to be used interchangeably, so I made Mutual Broadcasting Company a redirect. Algae 12:21, 11 March 2006 (UTC)

Mutual Broadcasting System
Suggest inclusion of several other Mutual Broadcasting System citations, sample scripts, recordings and/or links, including, at the least:

 * 'Some History of the Mutual Broadcasting System'
 * Linked in notes.—DCGeist 23:58, 11 January 2007 (UTC)
 * The Truman Library citations regarding The Mutual Broadcasting System
 * Added.—DCGeist 23:58, 11 January 2007 (UTC)
 * Script for Mutual Broadcasting System production starring Raymond Massey
 * Not high enough quality, especially given long download time.—DCGeist 23:58, 11 January 2007 (UTC)
 * Mutual Broadcasting System script from The Everett Dirksen Center
 * Added.—DCGeist 23:58, 11 January 2007 (UTC)
 * Historians.org discussion of post-war Government control of radio, highlighting The Mutual Broadcasting System
 * Added.—DCGeist 23:58, 11 January 2007 (UTC)
 * Library of Virginia citations regarding the development of The Mutual Broadcasting System
 * Only passing mention of MBS. No unique info or perspective here.—DCGeist 23:58, 11 January 2007 (UTC)
 * Mutual's compelling arguments contributing to the Supreme Court's breakup of NBC in 1943
 * More complete version of ruling already cited in notes.—DCGeist 23:58, 11 January 2007 (UTC)
 * The Mutual Broadcasting System's Golden Age
 * Added.—DCGeist 23:58, 11 January 2007 (UTC)

Listen To

 * Permanent audio links for 'The Lone Ranger', The Green Hornet', 'Let George Do It', 'The Shadow', and 'Johnny Madero'

Jerry Haendiges also posts a few Mutual Broadcasting System episodes each month, but they're not permanent links.

 * Digital Deli link added. Many references to Jerry Haendiges now already exist in Notes.—DCGeist 23:24, 11 January 2007 (UTC)

Initial Review of MBS
As per the request left on my page, I've read over your site, at least for a once-over, "strikes me" kind of review. I'm not the world's best at the formatting type stuff, so please excuse the lack of practical comments in that regard.

Aside from correcting one minor error (the year of Pearl Harbor), a quick read didn't disclose anything I thought was flamingly wrong. The nature of OTR scholarship being what it is, I know there's a lot of conflicting material out there, but judging from a reading of the footnotes, you seem to have a grip on that. I just re-read "The Murrow Boys," by Stanley Cloud & Lynne Olson. This is about Edward R. Murrow and the rise (and fall) of CBS News, focusing on the 1930s and 1940s. The authors there take the position that both NBC and Mutual made a bad error in judgement in September of '39 by halting broadcasts from abroad: "by the time they regained their senses a couple of critical months later, CBS' dominance was clear." (page 58). You can take that for what you wish.

Another thing that struck me about Mutual is the sheer number of serial/kiddie programs that it created or broadcast. Cisco Kid, Superman, Green Hornet, Lone Ranger, the Shadow, et alia. Granted, many of these moved on to other networks, but this is a noteworthy fact, I think.

In terms of structure, I would break up the sections a bit more, splitting your decade discussions between subsections on corporate movements and on-air movements. This might make it flow better, with smaller, easier-to-digest sections, especially if some readers are a little less interested in the corporate stuff. (I'm an ex-corporate lawyer, so I don't count!)

Mutual's tussle with NBC ended in victory for Mutual, and resulted in a significant change in the way radio networks do business (e.g., forcing them to get rid of talent booking agencies, changing affiliation contracts, &c.). The role of Mutual's anti-trust lawsuit might be worthwhile exploring.

Ray Swing, if I'm not mistaken, moved on to Blue/ABC; I think he's the same guy I mention in my article. Which brings up the point that you allude to, which is how much Mutual stuff ended up moving to the other networks, even up to the Queen for a Day era. Bit of hard luck for Mutual, if you ask me.

Pretty good selection of pictures, I thought. I think somewhere else on Wiki there's a nice photo of Jackson Beck with Bud Collyer, standing in front of a Mutual microphone at a Superman broadcast. (Addendum -- the picture is at the entry for the Adventures of Superman radio show.) I'd also recommend a subscription to newspaperarchive.com, where I got a bunch of my advertisement illustrations for my article. If you acquire some items on eBay for your collection, like matchbooks or publicity photographs or publicity handouts and the like, these can add more spice. (You have some of this with those local materials.) How about a photo of FDR with NBC, CBS and Mutual microphones?

One thing I've been thinking about adding to my article, but need to figure out the logistics, are tag-line excerpts. Perhaps more important for an outfit that changed its identity, like the Blue Network, but still, a collection of clips as to how Mutual advertised itself over the decades, especially with its change in ownership, might be a worthwhile thing. I believe a lot of OTR stuff is public domain, so you may not have issues with using sound clips. Later clips, you might have issues, of course, so you'd have to be wary.

I hope you find the above of some use.

Sincerely yours,

Eric O. Costello 01:18, 13 January 2007 (UTC)

Opening Paragraph
Thinking it over, the opening paragraphs should be streamlined somewhat, and should function as more of a general overview and introduction. Permit me to suggest the following:

The Mutual Broadcasting System was an American radio network that operated from 1934 to 1999, as one of the four major national networks of the classic era of American radio, along with NBC, CBS, and Blue Network/American Broadcasting Company. It was known for its distinctive, co-operative style of ownership that lasted from its founding through the early 1950s, as well as a number of landmark action/adventure shows, such as the Lone Ranger, The Shadow, and The Adventures of Superman (radio), as well as its sports coverage; later on, it would be the radio network that would launch Larry King's career. Through its involvement in landmark litigation in the early 1940s over the means by which NBC and CBS controlled their affiliates, MBS played a major role in reshaping the way radio was conducted as an industry. From the 1950s through the end of its existence, the network underwent a long series of successive management and ownership changes, which eventually resulted in its dissolution as an independent entity.

You may need to adjust the links, but you get the idea. Use this as you see fit.

Sincerely yours,

Eric O. Costello 00:17, 14 January 2007 (UTC)

 * Thanks. You're right--Superman crucial to identity, and emphasis on Mutual's distinctive cooperative nature good. Haven't found any authoritative evidence to support the case that Mutual istelf played a "major role" in reshaping the industry; rather, its weak competitive situation was used in the regulatory argument against NBC and CBS. But, pursuing your suggestion, have added substantial detail to this history.—DCGeist 20:01, 18 January 2007 (UTC)

Mutual Television
This article states "Late in the decade, there was a brief exploration into the idea of launching a Mutual television network, serious enough to prompt talks with MGM as a potential source of programming talent.[44] The plans never got off the ground and Mutual thus became the only one of the "Big Four" U.S. radio networks not to start (and eventually be dominated by) a television network."

The more I dig into old broadcasting history, the more evidence I find that despite what established history states, Mutual seems to have ventured into television.

The 1952 Hollywood Reporter Production Encyclopedia indicates there were a number of Mutual television affiliates around 1951-1952; it lists affiliations of stations in late 1951/early 1952 on pages 700-725. It lists these stations:

 * WNHC-TV in New Haven ABC/CBS/MBS/NBC/DuMont
 * WSPD-TV in Toledo ABC/CBS/MBS/NBC/DuMont
 * KHJ-TV in Hollywood Don Lee
 * (It also lists a number of Paramount Television affiliates)

This site claims KPTV in Portland, OR "As Portland's only television station, KPTV spent its first twelve months "cherry-picking" programs from NBC, CBS, ABC, DuMont... even the Mutual network."

The Internet Movie Database includes an entry on Telemount-Mutual, a joint Paramount/Mutual venture, at. Cowboy G-Men is listed as a Telemount-Mutual program.

It seems clear Mutual did venture into television, if only on a limited basis. Firsfron of Ronchester 23:38, 8 October 2007 (UTC)

 * Great work. I'll be spending a day at the library next week and I'll see what more on this I can dig up--especially on Cowboy G-Men. Certainly the Hollywood Reporter Production Encyclopedia is a strong enough source to cite.—DCGeist 05:56, 9 October 2007 (UTC)

 * I look forward to your research, Dan. Total Television (McNeil, 4th ed.) lists Cowboy G-Men as: "1952 - Syndicated. This low-budget western starred Russell Hayden and Jackie Coogan as Pat Gallagher and Stoney Crockett, two nineteenth-century government agents. Leslie Selander directed the series." McNeil lists any series not broadcast by a major network as Syndicated (for example, the Overmyer Network's The Las Vegas Show, etc). "Telemount Mutual" doesn't get a lot of Google hits, but a good library might have more info. Scans of the Hollywood Reporter encyclopedia have been made, too. Firsfron of Ronchester  07:13, 9 October 2007 (UTC)

 * If I can butt in here, I'd like to note that WNHC-TV, New Haven still exists...it changed its name to WTNH many years ago, but it's one of Connecticut's leading television stations to this day. Why not give the station a telephone call?  YouTube has bits from one of its anniversary shows, which doesn't mention Mutual, as I recall.   Eric O. Costello 11:00, 10 October 2007 (UTC)
 * All four stations listed above still exist, although WSPD-TV's call signs have changed to WTVG and KHJ-TV is now KCAL-TV. Giving the station a call is probably original research, and the people who work at the station now are unlikely to be the same folks who worked at the station in 1952. I'd prefer to use contemporary sources (published sources from the 1950s) rather than testimonials from people who had little or nothing to do with the history of the station. Doug Quick at WICD, who maintains an on-line archive of Illinois broadcasting history, recently told me that very few broadcast facilities keep any records beyond what's necessary for legal reasons, and that the history of local television has in great part been lost or thrown away. Firsfron of Ronchester  13:01, 10 October 2007 (UTC)

 * It appears that Mutual may have taken some steps toward establishing a television network (including contacting potential affiliates) but never actually produced or fed any programs. Brooks and Marsh list no programs identified as Mutual broadcasts.  I have a video of a 40th anniversary history of WOR-TV (now WWOR).  At the time, WOR branded itself as "WOR-Mutual," and some early TV broadcasts (from the photos and kinescopes in the documentary) were branded this way, too.  WOR-TV also aired TV versions of some programs Mutual carried  (like the "Merry Mailman") but it does not appear these were fed to other stations.  Cowboy G-Men was a syndicated show (filmed and shipped to individual stations).  There is no indication Telemont Mutual had any connection with the Mutual Broadcasting System.  The word "Mutual" is in common use and is not Trade Marked.  Michaelcarraher (talk) 12:28, 29 October 2009 (UTC)

Timeline of MBS logos
Besides the microphone logo at the top of this article, there was also a logo for Mutual consisting of an antenna and a pair of wings, which can be seen on the article for RKO Television. As well, at the bottom of posters for the Mutual Black Network, a logo can be seen of a microphone between 2 diagonal lines to form a capital M. Have there been other logos for Mutual? And during what periods were each logo used?Jeremicus rex (talk) 21:39, 13 February 2009 (UTC)

Some images are waaay too large
Several of the images in this article are way too large. They include Image:LumAbnerHorlicks.jpg (325px), Image:WellesShadow.jpg (300px), Image:FultonLewisAd.jpg (300px), Image:KFRCMutualDonLeeLogo.jpg (300px), Image:QueenForADay.gif (325px), Image:MutualComo54a.jpg (200px), Image:MutualFisher54a.jpg (200px), Image:SerlingZeroHour.jpg (300px), and Image:DickCarkAd.gif (325px). None of the images have the sort of detail that would require resolution above the default. The images that are more vertical than horizontal should be marked with " " so that they aren't oversized; one image, Image:FultonLewisAd.jpg, should be marked with  so that it's larger than usual (but not as huge as it is now).

The above advice would result in images the following sizes. They main photos and text of these images are all quite legible, even on a high-resolution screen.

frameless frameless|upright

This compares to the current size, which is way too large. Just one example:

I installed a change along these lines, but it was almost immediately reverted with the edit summary "caption text (which is article text) was vetted and approved in FAC--discuss in Talk any desired changes which might substantively affect them". My change had moved some caption text to the body of the article (I didn't delete anything), simply to avoid having these very long captions attached to smaller images, which is visually unappealing. If you'd rather have the long captions that's OK with me, my main objection is that the images are too large. I read the FAC and don't see anything there that "vetted and approved" the idea that the caption text should be very long and the images should be very large. All that I saw vetted was some of the details in the caption text, and these details were still in the article after my edits. Eubulides (talk) 08:46, 28 October 2009 (UTC)

 * In broad strokes, this is not unreasonable. However, the article very much as you see it today was vetted and approved by multiple editors in FAC. It is inappropriate to now move some of the caption text into running text for the sole purpose of reducing image size, when that repositioning disrupts the existing focus and flow of the running text. I'll go through the proposed changes in detail early tomorrow afternoon, and we can proceed from there.—DCGeist (talk) 09:12, 28 October 2009 (UTC)

 * Thanks, and by the way, there's absolutely no rush: this can wait until after the Main-Page rush is over. Eubulides (talk) 15:56, 28 October 2009 (UTC)

 * I shifted a little material out of the two longest captions and reduced the corresponding image sizes some. Will revisit in a bit. Best, Dan.—DCGeist (talk) 05:48, 29 October 2009 (UTC)

Mutual is not a cooperative
It seems to me Mutual does not meet the definition of a cooperative. Most stations did not have an ownership interest in the network. The few (listed in the article) did not have an equal interest. Most stations did not contribute programming to the network; programming came from the same few stations which had an ownership interest. In contrast, NPR is a cooperative. All "member stations" have an equal interest in the network (and an equal voice in selecting the governing board). Mutual was unique in that (some) stations owned the network, not the other way around. It seems Mutual might better be described as a joint venture among a handful of large independent stations and regional networks (until RKO General acquired a controlling interest by buying WOR, CKLW, WHK, Don Lee and Colonial). Michaelcarraher (talk) 00:27, 29 October 2009 (UTC)

 * In the sort of authoritative sources upon which we're obliged to rely, the standard way of describing Mutual before General Tire assumed control is as a "cooperative." The article reflects that, while also providing extensive detail on the network's organizational and operational structure.—DCGeist (talk) 05:37, 29 October 2009 (UTC)

 * This sounds like the recent spat of obits for Walter Cronkite which said in various countries news presenters are called "Cronkiteurs" (or some variation). This is not true but was used in a book (no source named) by Gay Talese.  Then repeated in a book on CBS News and then repeated as fact.  This article links to an article on cooperatives, which defines the word.  It is clear in the article on Mutual that after its incorporation, the network did not fit this definition.  What is the original source for calling Mutual a "cooperative?"  If this source can not be determined, there is no way to evaluate whether it is "authoritative."  Michaelcarraher (talk) 12:15, 29 October 2009 (UTC)

 * There are literally dozens of authoritative sources, stretching back to the 1940s, that characterize Mutual as a "cooperative". Perhaps that's why, among the article's many readers, you are the first to identify a problem here. For efficiency's sake, here is a simple Google Book search on the terms "mutual broadcasting" and cooperative: .—DCGeist (talk) 19:28, 29 October 2009 (UTC)

 * Even further back, note the language in this Time article from 1937, currently adduced in our article: Mutual's emergence "depended largely upon co-operation of three potent Eastern and Midwestern independents"; "the network was not organized for corporate profit"; WLW "soon became a cooperating member of the Mutual network".—DCGeist (talk) 20:45, 29 October 2009 (UTC)

 * I'd agree that Mutual started out as a cooperative among the four stations and that appears to be to what the earliest articles in your search refer. From there on, it seems later writers just repeated the term, even though as the article here (and some of those in your search) make clear, Mutual was no longer functioning that way.  I'd say the article here should refer to the original Quality Network and pre-October, 1934 Mutual as a cooperative but should not imply that Mutual continued as a cooperative for 18 more years.  Interestingly enough, WXYZ dropped out of Mutual (and became part of NBC's "Blue" station line-up) by 1935 but had contracted to provide the Lone Ranger to Mutual.  So WXYZ fed the Ranger to Mutual until 1939 and the show was heard in Detroit on CKLW.  While WXYZ did not carry Mutual programs at this point, WXYZ's out-state "Michigan Network" continued to be available to sponsors buying time on Mutual (as well as NBC Blue).  Dick Osgood in "Wixie Wonderland" describes a rather extensive set-up at WXYZ with the station capable of simultaneously feeding programs to its local transmitter, out-state stations on the Michigan Network, Mutual, NBC or the CBC Dominion Network.  Michaelcarraher (talk) 21:50, 29 October 2009 (UTC)

 * I guess the question is: is there a reliable source stating that Mutual was not a cooperative? DC's links show several sources stating it was. Firsfron of Ronchester  03:18, 30 October 2009 (UTC)

 * That's generous...too generous. If Michael digs deep enough, he may well find a reliable source that says Mutual was not a cooperative. But no matter. There are verifiably dozens that say it was. The language of the article ain't changing on this one.—DCGeist (talk) 09:03, 30 October 2009 (UTC)

Don Lee's date of death?
This article says 1936; the Don Lee Broadcasting entry says 1934. Timbabwe (talk) 03:06, 29 October 2009 (UTC)

 * The correct year is 1934. Thanks for the catch.—DCGeist (talk) 05:52, 29 October 2009 (UTC)

Afred E. Newman
Is Alfred E. Newman properly included in "People" under "See also" or is this a joke? Thank you, RadioBroadcast (talk) 15:38, 29 October 2009 (UTC)

 * As the article on Mr. Neuman (not "Newman") describes, Mutual plays a very significant role in his history.—DCGeist (talk) 20:34, 29 October 2009 (UTC)

 * Thank you very much, that is interesting; what threw me off was his listing under People as he is a fictional character. This is a very well-done and excellent article. RadioBroadcast (talk) 03:12, 31 October 2009 (UTC)

Assessment comment
Substituted at 00:41, 30 April 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Mutual Broadcasting System


text:
Stealth technology

Stealth technology, also termed low observable technology (LO technology), is a sub-discipline of military tactics and passive and active electronic countermeasures, which covers a range of methods used to make personnel, aircraft, ships, submarines, missiles, satellites, and ground vehicles less visible (ideally invisible) to radar, infrared, sonar and other detection methods. It corresponds to military camouflage for these parts of the electromagnetic spectrum (i.e., multi-spectral camouflage).

Development of modern stealth technologies in the United States began in 1958, where earlier attempts to prevent radar tracking of its U-2 spy planes during the Cold War by the Soviet Union had been unsuccessful. Designers turned to developing a specific shape for planes that tended to reduce detection by redirecting electromagnetic radiation waves from radars. Radiation-absorbent material was also tested and made to reduce or block radar signals that reflect off the surfaces of aircraft. Such changes to shape and surface composition comprise stealth technology as currently used on the Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit "Stealth Bomber".

The concept of stealth is to operate or hide while giving enemy forces no indication as to the presence of friendly forces. This concept was first explored through camouflage to make an object's appearance blend into the visual background. As the potency of detection and interception technologies (radar, infrared search and tracking, surface-to-air missiles, etc.) have increased, so too has the extent to which the design and operation of military personnel and vehicles have been affected in response. Some military uniforms are treated with chemicals to reduce their infrared signature. A modern stealth vehicle is designed from the outset to have a chosen spectral signature. The degree of stealth embodied in a given design is chosen according to the projected threats of detection.

History
Camouflage to aid or avoid predation predates humanity, and hunters have been using vegetation to conceal themselves, perhaps as long as people have been hunting. The earliest application of camouflage in warfare is impossible to ascertain. Methods for visual concealment in war were documented by Sun Tzu in his book The Art of War in the 5th century BC, and by Frontinus in his work Strategemata in the 1st century AD.

In England, irregular units of gamekeepers in the 17th century were the first to adopt drab colours (common in 16th century Irish units) as a form of camouflage, following examples from the continent.

During World War I, the Germans experimented with the use of Cellon (Cellulose acetate), a transparent covering material, in an attempt to reduce the visibility of military aircraft. Single examples of the Fokker E.III Eindecker fighter monoplane, the Albatros C.I two-seat observation biplane, and the Linke-Hofmann R.I prototype heavy bomber were covered with Cellon. However, sunlight glinting from the material made the aircraft even more visible. Cellon was also found to degrade quickly from both sunlight and in-flight temperature changes, so the effort to make transparent aircraft ceased.

In 1916, the British modified a small SS class airship for the purpose of night-time reconnaissance over German lines on the Western Front. Fitted with a silenced engine and a black gas bag, the craft was both invisible and inaudible from the ground but several night-time flights over German-held territory produced little useful intelligence and the idea was dropped.

Diffused lighting camouflage, a shipborne form of counter-illumination camouflage, was trialled by the Royal Canadian Navy from 1941 to 1943. The concept was followed up for aircraft by the Americans and the British: in 1945, a Grumman Avenger with Yehudi lights reached 3000 yd from a ship before being sighted. This ability was rendered obsolete by radar.

Chaff was invented in Britain and Germany early in World War II as a means to hide aircraft from radar. In effect, chaff acted upon radio waves much as a smoke screen acted upon visible light.

The U-boat U-480 may have been the first stealth submarine. It featured an anechoic tile rubber coating, one layer of which contained circular air pockets to defeat ASDIC sonar. Radar-absorbent paints and materials of rubber and semiconductor composites (codenames: Sumpf, Schornsteinfeger) were used by the Kriegsmarine on submarines in World War II. Tests showed they were effective in reducing radar signatures at both short (centimetres) and long (1.5 metre) wavelengths.

In 1956, the CIA began attempts to reduce the radar cross-section (RCS) of the U-2 spyplane. Three systems were developed, Trapeze, a series of wires and ferrite beads around the planform of the aircraft, a covering material with PCB circuitry embedded in it, and radar-absorbent paint. These were deployed in the field on the so-called dirty birds but results were disappointing, the weight and drag increases were not worth any reduction in detection rates. More successful was applying camouflage paint to the originally bare metal aircraft; a deep blue was found to be most effective. The weight of this cost 250 ft in maximum altitude, but made the aircraft harder for interceptors to see.

In 1958, the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency requested funding for a reconnaissance aircraft to replace the existing U-2 spy planes, and Lockheed secured contractual rights to produce it. "Kelly" Johnson and his team at Lockheed's Skunk Works were assigned to produce the A-12 (or OXCART), which operated at high altitude of 70,000 to 80,000 ft and speed of 3.2 Mach to avoid radar detection. Various plane shapes designed to reduce radar detection were developed in earlier prototypes, named A-1 to A-11. The A-12 included a number of stealthy features including special fuel to reduce the signature of the exhaust plume, canted vertical stabilizers, the use of composite materials in key locations, and the overall finish in radar-absorbent paint.

In 1960, the USAF reduced the radar cross-section of a Ryan Q-2C Firebee drone. This was achieved through specially designed screens over the air intake, and radiation-absorbent material on the fuselage, and radar-absorbent paint.

The United States Army issued a specification in 1968 which called for an observation aircraft that would be acoustically undetectable from the ground when flying at an altitude of 1,500 ft at night. This resulted in the Lockheed YO-3A Quiet Star, which operated in South Vietnam from late June 1970 to September 1971.

During the 1970s, the U.S. Department of Defense launched project Lockheed Have Blue, with the aim of developing a stealth fighter. There was fierce bidding between Lockheed and Northrop to secure the multibillion-dollar contract. Lockheed incorporated into its bid a text written by the Soviet-Russian physicist Pyotr Ufimtsev from 1962, titled Method of Edge Waves in the Physical Theory of Diffraction, Soviet Radio, Moscow, 1962. In 1971, this book was translated into English with the same title by U.S. Air Force, Foreign Technology Division. The theory played a critical role in the design of American stealth-aircraft F-117 and B-2. Equations outlined in the paper quantified how a plane's shape would affect its detectability by radar, termed radar cross-section (RCS). At the time, the Soviet Union did not have supercomputer capacity to solve these equations for actual designs. This was applied by Lockheed in computer simulation to design a novel shape they called the "Hopeless Diamond", a wordplay on the Hope Diamond, securing contractual rights to produce the F-117 Nighthawk starting in 1975. In 1977, Lockheed produced two 60% scale models under the Have Blue contract. The Have Blue program was a stealth technology demonstrator that lasted from 1976 to 1979. The Northrop Grumman Tacit Blue also played a part in the development of composite material and curvilinear surfaces, low observables, fly-by-wire, and other stealth technology innovations. The success of Have Blue led the Air Force to create the Senior Trend program which developed the F-117.

Principles
Stealth technology (or LO for low observability) is not one technology. It is a set of technologies, used in combinations, that can greatly reduce the distances at which a person or vehicle can be detected; more so radar cross-section reductions, but also acoustic, thermal, and other aspects.

Radar cross-section (RCS) reductions
Almost since the invention of radar, various methods have been tried to minimize detection. Rapid development of radar during World War II led to equally rapid development of numerous counter radar measures during the period; a notable example of this was the use of chaff. Modern methods include Radar jamming and deception.

The term stealth in reference to reduced radar signature aircraft became popular during the late eighties when the Lockheed Martin F-117 stealth fighter became widely known. The first large scale (and public) use of the F-117 was during the Gulf War in 1991. However, F-117A stealth fighters were used for the first time in combat during Operation Just Cause, the United States invasion of Panama in 1989.

Aircraft
The possibility of designing aircraft in such a manner as to reduce their radar cross-section was recognized in the late 1930s, when the first radar tracking systems were employed, and it has been known since at least the 1960s that aircraft shape makes a significant difference in detectability. The Avro Vulcan, a British bomber of the 1960s, had a remarkably small appearance on radar despite its large size, and occasionally disappeared from radar screens entirely. It is now known that it had a fortuitously stealthy shape apart from the vertical element of the tail. Despite being designed before a low radar cross-section (RCS) and other stealth factors were ever a consideration, a Royal Aircraft Establishment technical note of 1957 stated that of all the aircraft so far studied, the Vulcan appeared by far the simplest radar echoing object, due to its shape: only one or two components contributing significantly to the echo at any aspect (one of them being the vertical stabilizer, which is especially relevant for side aspect RCS), compared with three or more on most other types. While writing about radar systems, authors Simon Kingsley and Shaun Quegan singled out the Vulcan's shape as acting to reduce the RCS. In contrast, the Tupolev 95 Russian long-range bomber (NATO reporting name 'Bear') was conspicuous on radar. It is now known that propellers and jet turbine blades produce a bright radar image; the Bear has four pairs of large 5.6 m diameter contra-rotating propellers.

Another important factor is internal construction. Some stealth aircraft have skin that is radar transparent or absorbing, behind which are structures termed reentrant triangles. Radar waves penetrating the skin get trapped in these structures, reflecting off the internal faces and losing energy. This method was first used on the Blackbird series: A-12, YF-12A, Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird.

The most efficient way to reflect radar waves back to the emitting radar is with orthogonal metal plates, forming a corner reflector consisting of either a dihedral (two plates) or a trihedral (three orthogonal plates). This configuration occurs in the tail of a conventional aircraft, where the vertical and horizontal components of the tail are set at right angles. Stealth aircraft such as the F-117 use a different arrangement, tilting the tail surfaces to reduce corner reflections formed between them. A more radical method is to omit the tail, as in the B-2 Spirit. The B-2's clean, low-drag flying wing configuration gives it exceptional range and reduces its radar profile. The flying wing design most closely resembles a so-called infinite flat plate (as vertical control surfaces dramatically increase RCS), the perfect stealth shape, as it would have no angles to reflect back radar waves. In addition to altering the tail, stealth design must bury the engines within the wing or fuselage, or in some cases where stealth is applied to an extant aircraft, install baffles in the air intakes, so that the compressor blades are not visible to radar. A stealthy shape must be devoid of complex bumps or protrusions of any kind, meaning that weapons, fuel tanks, and other stores must not be carried externally. Any stealthy vehicle becomes un-stealthy when a door or hatch opens.

Parallel alignment of edges or even surfaces is also often used in stealth designs. The technique involves using a small number of edge orientations in the shape of the structure. For example, on the F-22A Raptor, the leading edges of the wing and the tail planes are set at the same angle. Other smaller structures, such as the air intake bypass doors and the air refueling aperture, also use the same angles. The effect of this is to return a narrow radar signal in a very specific direction away from the radar emitter rather than returning a diffuse signal detectable at many angles. The effect is sometimes called "glitter" after the very brief signal seen when the reflected beam passes across a detector. It can be difficult for the radar operator to distinguish between a glitter event and a digital glitch in the processing system.

Stealth airframes sometimes display distinctive serrations on some exposed edges, such as the engine ports. The YF-23 has such serrations on the exhaust ports. This is another example in the parallel alignment of features, this time on the external airframe.

The shaping requirements detracted greatly from the F-117's aerodynamic properties. It is inherently unstable, and cannot be flown without a fly-by-wire control system.

Similarly, coating the cockpit canopy with a thin film transparent conductor (vapor-deposited gold or indium tin oxide) helps to reduce the aircraft's radar profile, because radar waves would normally enter the cockpit, reflect off objects (the inside of a cockpit has a complex shape, with a pilot helmet alone forming a sizeable return), and possibly return to the radar, but the conductive coating creates a controlled shape that deflects the incoming radar waves away from the radar. The coating is thin enough that it has no adverse effect on pilot vision.

Ships
Ships have also adopted similar methods. Though the earlier Arleigh Burke-class destroyer incorporated some signature-reduction features. the Norwegian Skjold-class corvette was the first coastal defence and the French La Fayette-class frigate the first ocean-going stealth ship to enter service. Other examples are the Dutch De Zeven Provinciën class frigates, the Taiwanese Tuo Chiang stealth corvette, German Sachsen-class frigates, the Swedish Visby-class corvette, the USS San Antonio amphibious transport dock, and most modern warship designs.

Non-metallic airframe
Dielectric composite materials are more transparent to radar, whereas electrically conductive materials such as metals and carbon fibers reflect electromagnetic energy incident on the material's surface. Composites may also contain ferrites to optimize the dielectric and magnetic properties of a material for its application.

Radar-absorbent material
Radiation-absorbent material (RAM), often as paints, are used especially on the edges of metal surfaces. While the material and thickness of RAM coatings can vary, the way they work is the same: absorb radiated energy from a ground- or air-based radar station into the coating and convert it to heat rather than reflect it back. Current technologies include dielectric composites and metal fibers containing ferrite isotopes. Ceramic composite coating is a new type of material systems which can sustain at higher temperatures with better sand erosion resistance and thermal resistance. Paint comprises depositing pyramid-like colonies on the reflecting superficies with the gaps filled with ferrite-based RAM. The pyramidal structure deflects the incident radar energy in the maze of RAM. One commonly used material is called iron ball paint. It contains microscopic iron spheres that resonate in tune with incoming radio waves and dissipate most of their energy as heat, leaving little to reflect back to detectors. FSS are planar periodic structures that behave like filters to electromagnetic energy. The considered frequency-selective surfaces are composed of conducting patch elements pasted on the ferrite layer. FSS are used for filtration and microwave absorption.

Low-frequency radar
Shaping offers far fewer stealth advantages against low-frequency radar. If the radar wavelength is roughly twice the size of the target, a half-wave resonance effect can still generate a significant return. However, low-frequency radar is limited by lack of available frequencies (many are heavily used by other systems), by lack of accuracy of the diffraction-limited systems given their long wavelengths, and by the radar's size, making it difficult to transport. A long-wave radar may detect a target and roughly locate it, but not provide enough information to identify it, target it with weapons, or even to guide a fighter to it.

Multiple emitters
Stealth aircraft attempt to minimize all radar reflections, but are specifically designed to avoid reflecting radar waves back in the direction they came from (since in most cases a radar emitter and receiver are in the same location). They are less able to minimize radar reflections in other directions. Thus, detection can be better achieved if emitters are in different locations from receivers. One emitter separate from one receiver is termed bistatic radar; one or more emitters separate from more than one receiver is termed multistatic radar. Proposals exist to use reflections from emitters such as civilian radio transmitters, including cellular telephone radio towers.

Moore's law
By Moore's law the processing power behind radar systems is rising over time. This will eventually erode the ability of physical stealth to hide vehicles.

Ship wakes and spray
Synthetic aperture sidescan radars can be used to detect the location and heading of ships from their wake patterns. These are detectable from orbit. When a ship moves through a seaway it throws up a cloud of spray which can be detected by radar.

Acoustics
Acoustic stealth plays a primary role for submarines and ground vehicles. Submarines use extensive rubber mountings to isolate, damp, and avoid mechanical noises that can reveal locations to underwater passive sonar arrays.

Early stealth observation aircraft used slow-turning propellers to avoid being heard by enemy troops below. Stealth aircraft that stay subsonic can avoid being tracked by sonic boom. The presence of supersonic and jet-powered stealth aircraft such as the SR-71 Blackbird indicates that acoustic signature is not always a major driver in aircraft design, as the Blackbird relied more on its very high speed and altitude.

One method to reduce helicopter rotor noise is modulated blade spacing. Standard rotor blades are evenly spaced, and produce greater noise at a given frequency and its harmonics. Using varied spacing between the blades spreads the noise or acoustic signature of the rotor over a greater range of frequencies.

Visibility
The simplest technology is visual camouflage; the use of paint or other materials to color and break up the lines of a vehicle or person.

Most stealth aircraft use matte paint and dark colors, and operate only at night. Lately, interest in daylight Stealth (especially by the USAF) has emphasized the use of gray paint in disruptive schemes, and it is assumed that Yehudi lights could be used in the future to hide the airframe (against the background of the sky, including at night, aircraft of any colour appear dark ) or as a sort of active camouflage. The original B-2 design had wing tanks for a contrail-inhibiting chemical, alleged by some to be chlorofluorosulfonic acid, but this was replaced in the final design with a contrail sensor that alerts the pilot when he should change altitude and mission planning also considers altitudes where the probability of their formation is minimized.

In space, mirrored surfaces can be employed to reflect views of empty space toward known or suspected observers; this approach is compatible with several radar stealth schemes. Careful control of the orientation of the satellite relative to the observers is essential, and mistakes can lead to detectability enhancement rather than the desired reduction.

Infrared
An exhaust plume contributes a significant infrared signature. One means to reduce IR signature is to have a non-circular tail pipe (a slit shape) to minimize the exhaust cross sectional area and maximize the mixing of hot exhaust with cool ambient air (see Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk). Often, cool air is deliberately injected into the exhaust flow to boost this process (see Ryan AQM-91 Firefly and Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit). The Stefan–Boltzmann law shows how this results in less energy (Thermal radiation in infrared spectrum) being released and thus reduces the heat signature. In some aircraft, the jet exhaust is vented above the wing surface to shield it from observers below, as in the Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk, and the unstealthy Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II. To achieve infrared stealth, the exhaust gas is cooled to the temperatures where the brightest wavelengths it radiates are absorbed by atmospheric carbon dioxide and water vapor, greatly reducing the infrared visibility of the exhaust plume. Another way to reduce the exhaust temperature is to circulate coolant fluids such as fuel inside the exhaust pipe, where the fuel tanks serve as heat sinks cooled by the flow of air along the wings.

Ground combat includes the use of both active and passive infrared sensors. Thus, the United States Marine Corps (USMC) ground combat uniform requirements document specifies infrared reflective quality standards.

Reducing radio frequency (RF) emissions
In addition to reducing infrared and acoustic emissions, a stealth vehicle must avoid radiating any other detectable energy, such as from onboard radars, communications systems, or RF leakage from electronics enclosures. The F-117 uses passive infrared and low light level television sensor systems to aim its weapons and the F-22 Raptor has an advanced LPI radar which can illuminate enemy aircraft without triggering a radar warning receiver response.

Measuring
The size of a target's image on radar is measured by the radar cross section (RCS), often represented by the symbol σ and expressed in square meters. This does not equal geometric area. A perfectly conducting sphere of projected cross sectional area 1 m2 (i.e. a diameter of 1.13 m) will have an RCS of 1 m2. Note that for radar wavelengths much less than the diameter of the sphere, RCS is independent of frequency. Conversely, a square flat plate of area 1 m2 will have an RCS of σ=4π A2 / λ2 (where A=area, λ=wavelength), or 13,982 m2 at 10 GHz if the radar is perpendicular to the flat surface. At off-normal incident angles, energy is reflected away from the receiver, reducing the RCS. Modern stealth aircraft are said to have an RCS comparable with small birds or large insects, though this varies widely depending on aircraft and radar.

If the RCS was directly related to the target's cross-sectional area, the only way to reduce it would be to make the physical profile smaller. Rather, by reflecting much of the radiation away or by absorbing it, the target achieves a smaller radar cross section.

Tactics
Stealthy strike aircraft such as the Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk, are usually used against heavily defended enemy sites such as command and control centers or surface-to-air missile (SAM) batteries. Enemy radar will cover the airspace around these sites with overlapping coverage, making undetected entry by conventional aircraft nearly impossible. Stealthy aircraft can also be detected, but only at short ranges around the radars; for a stealthy aircraft there are substantial gaps in the radar coverage. Thus a stealthy aircraft flying an appropriate route can remain undetected by radar. Even if a stealth aircraft is detected, fire-control radars operating in C, X and Ku bands cannot paint (for missile guidance) low observable (LO) jets except at very close ranges. Many ground-based radars exploit Doppler filter to improve sensitivity to objects having a radial velocity component relative to the radar. Mission planners use their knowledge of enemy radar locations and the RCS pattern of the aircraft to design a flight path that minimizes radial speed while presenting the lowest-RCS aspects of the aircraft to the threat radar. To be able to fly these "safe" routes, it is necessary to understand an enemy's radar coverage (see electronic intelligence). Airborne or mobile radar systems such as airborne early warning and control (AEW&C, AWACS) can complicate tactical strategy for stealth operation.

Research
After the invention of electromagnetic metasurfaces, the conventional means to reduce RCS have been improved significantly. As mentioned earlier, the main objective in purpose shaping is to redirect scattered waves away from the backscattered direction, which is usually the source. However, this usually compromises aerodynamic performance. One feasible solution, which has extensively been explored in recent time, is to use metasurfaces which can redirect scattered waves without altering the geometry of a target. Such metasurfaces can primarily be classified in two categories: (i) checkerboard metasurfaces, (ii) gradient index metasurfaces. Similarly, negative index metamaterials are artificial structures for which refractive index has a negative value for some frequency range, such as in microwave, infrared, or possibly optical. These offer another way to reduce detectability, and may provide electromagnetic near-invisibility in designed wavelengths.

Plasma stealth is a phenomenon proposed to use ionized gas, termed a plasma, to reduce RCS of vehicles. Interactions between electromagnetic radiation and ionized gas have been studied extensively for many purposes, including concealing vehicles from radar. Various methods might form a layer or cloud of plasma around a vehicle to deflect or absorb radar, from simpler electrostatic to radio frequency (RF) more complex laser discharges, but these may be difficult in practice.

Several technology research and development efforts exist to integrate the functions of aircraft flight control systems such as ailerons, elevators, elevons, flaps, and flaperons into wings to perform the aerodynamic purpose with the advantages of lower RCS for stealth, via simpler geometries and lower complexity (mechanically simpler, fewer or no moving parts or surfaces, less maintenance), and lower mass, cost (up to 50% less), drag (up to 15% less during use), and inertia (for faster, stronger control response to change vehicle orientation to reduce detection). Two promising approaches are flexible wings, and fluidics.

In flexible wings, much or all of a wing surface can change shape in flight to deflect air flow. Adaptive compliant wings are a military and commercial effort. The X-53 Active Aeroelastic Wing was a US Air Force, Boeing, and NASA effort.

In fluidics, fluid injection into airflows is being researched for use in aircraft to control direction, in two ways: circulation control and thrust vectoring. In both, larger more complex mechanical parts are replaced by smaller, simpler, lower mass fluidic systems, in which larger forces in fluids are diverted by smaller jets or flows of fluid intermittently, to change the direction of vehicles. Mechanical control surfaces that must move cause an important part of aircraft radar cross-section. Omitting mechanical control surfaces can reduce radar returns. , at least two countries are known to be researching fluidic control. In Britain, BAE Systems has tested two fluidically controlled unmanned aircraft, one starting in 2010 named Demon, and another starting in 2017 named MAGMA, with the University of Manchester. In the United States, the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) program named Control of Revolutionary Aircraft with Novel Effectors (CRANE) seeks "... to design, build, and flight test a novel X-plane that incorporates active flow control (AFC) as a primary design consideration. ... In 2023, the aircraft received its official designation as X-65." In January 2024, construction began, at Boeing subsidiary Aurora Flight Sciences. According to DARPA, the Aurora X-65 could be completed and unveiled as soon as early 2025, with the first flight occurring in summer 2025.

In circulation control, near the trailing edges of wings, aircraft flight control systems are replaced by slots which emit fluid flows.

List of stealth aircraft

 * F-117 Nighthawk
 * B-2 Spirit
 * F-22 Raptor
 * F-35 Lightning II
 * J-20
 * Su-57
 * B-21 Raider
 * FC-31
 * SU-75 Checkmate

List of reduced-signature ships
Navy ships worldwide have incorporated signature-reduction features, mostly for the purpose of reducing anti-ship missile detection range and enhancing countermeasure effectiveness rather than actual detection avoidance. Such ships include:
 * Bhumibol Adulyadej-class frigate
 * Independence-class littoral combat ship
 * Kamorta-class corvette
 * Kolkata-class destroyer
 * Klewang-class fast attack craft
 * Nilgiri-class frigate (2019)
 * La Fayette-class frigate
 * Visby-class corvette
 * Skjold-class corvette
 * Tuo Chiang-class Stealth Corvette
 * Sachsen-class frigate
 * Shivalik-class frigate
 * Talwar-class frigate
 * Type 055 destroyer
 * Visakhapatnam-class destroyer
 * Zumwalt-class destroyer

List of stealth helicopters

 * Boeing–Sikorsky RAH-66 Comanche
 * Hughes 500P

title: Stealth technology


text:
Kjelfossen

Kjelfossen (Kjell Falls) is one of the highest waterfalls in Norway. The falls are located near the village of Gudvangen in Aurland Municipality in Vestland county. With a total fall height of 705 m, the waterfall is listed as the 18th tallest waterfall in the world. The tallest single drop is 198 m. The height of the waterfall has never been accurately measured, so there are discrepancies in its actual height. Some sources list it as 840 m tall.

The waterfall is only about 8 m wide and has a flow of only 1.42 to 0.42 m3/s. There are six drops in the falls. The largest of the three main drops (the one on the left) is officially named Kjelfossen, but is also known as Stor Kjelfossen. The middle falls is known as Vetle Kjelfoss, and the one on the right (and the smallest by volume) is thought to be unnamed. The falls are located just east of Gudvangen at the end of the Nærøyfjord. The falls can be seen from the European route E16 highway, just west of the entrance into the Gudvanga Tunnel. The falls are located about 18 km west of the village of Flåm and 27 km west of the village of Aurlandsvangen.

title: Kjelfossen


text:
Tyssestrengene

Tyssestrengene are waterfalls east of the village of Tyssedal in Ullensvang Municipality, in Vestland county, Norway. The waterfalls are fed by the Tysso River before flowing down into the lake Ringedalsvatnet. The Trolltunga cliff is located near the waterfalls.

The total drop is 646 m, while the tallest single drop is 312 m. Following their incorporation in the Norwegian Hydroelectric Power Authority, their water flow is diminished to such a point that only after heavy snow melts is there any flow of substance. Most of the year there is no water flowing. However, they are amongst the highest waterfalls in the world and, according to Statistics Norway, the tallest single drop in Norway.

title: Tyssestrengene


text:
Wollomombi Falls

The Wollomombi Falls is a plunge waterfall on the Wollomombi River in the New England region of New South Wales, Australia.

Location and features
In the Oxley Wild Rivers National Park approximately 40 km due east of Armidale and 1.45 km off the Waterfall Way, the Wollomombi Falls are atop the Wollomombi Gorge near the confluence of the Wollomombi River with the Chandler River. The Chandler Falls are on the Chandler River, adjacent to the Wollomombi Falls. The falls descend from an elevation of 907 m above sea level (AHD) in one drop of 100 m, with a total descent that ranges in height between 150 - 230 m depending on the flow of the river.

At one time they were believed to be the tallest in Australia. However, recent geographical revisions place them at second or third tallest, depending on the source, after the Tin Mine Falls in the Snowy Mountains and the Wallaman Falls, near, Queensland.

Hiking tracks and campground
Several camp grounds and walking tracks are adjacent to the Wollomombi Falls and provide access to see the waterfall. Constructed by the National Parks and Wildlife Service are the Wollomombi Gorge and Falls Picnic Area, the 4 km long, three-hour return Wollomombi Walking Track, the 2.5 km, 90-minute return Chandler Walking Track, and the Wollomombi Campground. The Chandler Walk route passes Checks Lookout before reaching the Chandler Lookout and then winding down to the bottom of the gorge downstream from the falls. Checks Lookout is about a third of the way along this walk with a view back along the gorge to the falls. The track ends 400 m below the top of the gorge. The Wollomombi Walk goes upstream past a lookout platform and across the Wollomombi River on a long steel bridge. The track continues to another lookout platform, which looks down on the falls from the opposite side of the gorge. A further extension of the track ends at a platform with views into the Chandler River gorge, which joins the Wollomombi Gorge.

Edgars Lookout provides an accessible view of the gorge on the western side of the falls lookouts.

Facilities include drinking water, pit toilets, shelter shed, fireplace, and bush camping sites. There is also an information display.

title: Wollomombi Falls


text:
Vs. (Pearl Jam album)

Vs. (pronounced versus) is the second studio album by the American rock band Pearl Jam, released on October 19, 1993, through Epic Records. After a relentless touring schedule in support of their 1991 debut album Ten, Pearl Jam headed into the studio in early 1993 facing the challenge of following up the commercial success of its debut. The resulting album, Vs., featured a rawer and more aggressive sound compared with the band's previous release. It was the band's first collaboration with producer Brendan O'Brien and its first album with drummer Dave Abbruzzese.

Pearl Jam decided to scale back its promotional efforts for Vs., including declining to produce music videos for any of the album's singles. Upon its release, the album sold 950,378 copies in its first five days on sale, which set the record for most copies of an album sold during its first week since SoundScan began tracking sales data in 1991, a record it held for five years. It occupied the No. 1 spot on the Billboard 200 chart for five weeks, the longest duration for a Pearl Jam album. Vs. received critical acclaim and has been certified 7× platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for sales of at least seven million copies in the United States.

Recording
For its second album, Pearl Jam felt the pressure of trying to match the success of its debut album, Ten. In a 2002 interview, the guitarist Mike McCready said, "The band was blown up pretty big and everything was pretty crazy." Vs. was the first Pearl Jam album to have production duties handled by Brendan O'Brien. It was also the band's first album with the drummer Dave Abbruzzese, who had joined the band in August 1991 and toured for the album Ten. Rehearsals for Vs. began in February 1993 at Potatohead Studio in Seattle. The band then moved to The Site in Nicasio, California, in March 1993 to begin recording. Abbruzzese called the tranquil recording site "paradise" while the singer Eddie Vedder said, "I fucking hate it here ... I've had a hard time ... How do you make a rock record here?"

The band took the approach of recording one song at a time, and agreed with O'Brien to mix the songs as each one was finished. O'Brien had the band members set up much as they do live, and most of the songs were developed out of jam sessions. The guitarist Stone Gossard said, "I think we allowed things to develop in a more natural, band-oriented sort of way, rather than me bringing in a bunch of stuff that was already arranged." Gossard added that most of the songs were arranged once Vedder joined in and started singing, elaborating, "You could tell when the music wanted to change just by the way he was singing." In a 2009 interview, Gossard stated, "[Vs.] was probably where it felt better recording-wise. I saw how it could change and evolve which gave me a lot of inspiration to go we can do ballads, we can do fast stuff, we can do slow stuff, we can do punk stuff. That was where I realized there were going to be a lot of places to go with Ed."

The first week of recording produced "Go", "Blood", "Rats", and "Leash" before the band hit a lull. In order to keep up his intensity, Vedder traveled into San Francisco and began sleeping in his truck, as well as the sauna at the recording studio. The bassist Jeff Ament said, "Recording Vs., there was a lot more pressure on Ed. The whole follow-up. I thought we were playing so well as a band that it would take care of itself ... He was having a hard time finishing up the songs; the pressure, and not being comfortable being in such a nice place." Ament added that "toward the end it got fairly intense" and that the band "tried to make it as uncomfortable for [Vedder] as we could." Eventually the band was able to get "back on track" according to Ament as Vedder was allowed "to get in the space of his songs". The album was finished in May 1993. Vedder later said, "The second record, that was the one I enjoyed making the least ... I just didn't feel comfortable in the place we were at because it was very comfortable. I didn't like that at all."

Music and lyrics
The album featured a much looser and rawer sound compared to the band's debut album, Ten. Ament said, "When we made Vs., our second record, I remember thinking, 'Man, I wish our first record sounded like this.' I thought it was more direct, more powerful." Besides the heavier songs, the album features two acoustic ballads in "Daughter" and "Elderly Woman Behind the Counter in a Small Town". A few songs incorporate elements of funk, including "Animal", "Blood", and "Rats". McCready stated that it was not that the band "sat down and decided to be funky", but rather it came from the band "exploring different directions and combining our influences". Paul Evans of Rolling Stone said "'Animal', 'Daughter' and 'Blood' ... are songs of a kind of ritual passion, tapping into something truly wild." In a 2002 interview, Gossard said, "We got our heavyosity out on that record."

The songs on the album tackle personal as well as social and political concerns. Vedder said that "you write what comes to you ... You try to reflect the mood of the songs." Topics on the album include child abuse ("Daughter"), gun culture ("Glorified G"), police racism ("W.M.A."), and the media ("Blood"). "Daughter", "Dissident", and "Elderly Woman Behind the Counter in a Small Town" are three storytelling songs. "Daughter" tells the story of a child who is abused by her parents because they do not understand her learning disability; "Dissident" tells the story of a woman who takes in a political fugitive; and "Elderly Woman Behind the Counter in a Small Town" tells the story of an old lady who has been stuck in a small town her whole life.

"Glorified G", a song mocking gun enthusiasts, was inspired by an incident that involved Abbruzzese telling the band he had just bought two guns, which sparked a conversation about guns within the band. "W.M.A." was inspired by an incident that happened outside Pearl Jam's rehearsal studio in which Vedder got into an altercation with a group of police officers who hassled a black friend of his but ignored him. Vedder said that "Rearviewmirror" is about being "in a car, leaving ... a bad situation". Vedder stated that "Rats" is about the idea that "rats are probably a hell of a lot more admirable" than humans. "Leash" was written about the same girl that the Ten song "Why Go" is about. Regarding "Indifference", Vedder said it is about "[trying to] do something to make some other peoples' lives better than they are, even if it means going through hell. Three Faces of Me."

Release and reception
Vs. was released on October 19, 1993. The album sold 950,378 copies in its first five days of release, which set a record for the most copies of an album sold in its first week of release since SoundScan began tracking sales data in 1991, surpassing the record held by Use Your Illusion II by Guns N' Roses in 1991, and outperformed all other entries in the Billboard top ten that week combined. Vs. held this record for five years before it was broken by Garth Brooks' 1998 album, Double Live. While Double Live officially beat Vs. in first week sales, Vs. still holds an unbreakable record in that SoundScan only counted the first five days of an album's release in its first week sales until 1998. The album has been certified 7× platinum by the RIAA, and, as of July 2013, has sold 7,400,000 copies in the United States according to Nielsen SoundScan.

Rolling Stone staff writer Paul Evans gave Vs. a favorable review, saying, "Few American bands have arrived more clearly talented than this one did with Ten; and Vs. tops even that debut." He added, "Like Jim Morrison and Pete Townshend, Vedder makes a forte of his psychological-mythic explorations ... As guitarists Stone Gossard and Mike McCready paint dense and slashing backdrops, he invites us into a drama of experiment and strife." Jon Pareles of The New York Times stated that "Pearl Jam uses its new album ... to broaden its music," and added that "most of the album ... projects individual misery as public catharsis." AllMusic staff writer Steve Huey gave the album four out of five stars, saying "Vs. may not reach the majestic heights of Ten, but at least half the record stands with Pearl Jam's best work."

David Browne of Entertainment Weekly gave the album a B−. He said, "Vs. is not a carbon copy of Ten; for that alone, [Pearl Jam] get points." However, he countered by saying that "Vs. confirms once and for all that there's nothing underground or alternative about [Pearl Jam]." Village Voice critic Robert Christgau gave the album a "dud" rating.

Pearl Jam made a conscious decision beginning with the release of Vs. to scale back its commercial efforts. "We pulled back after the second record pretty hard," Ament stated. "A lot of it had to do with being in the eye of the storm and not being able to think straight." The band declined to produce music videos after the very successful "Jeremy", and opted to give fewer interviews as well as make fewer television appearances. "Ten years from now," Ament said, "I don't want people to remember our songs as videos."

Vs. included the hit singles "Go", "Daughter", "Animal", and "Dissident", all of which placed on the Album Rock and Modern Rock charts. "Daughter" was the most successful song from Vs. on the rock charts, reaching the number one spot on both the Album Rock and Modern Rock charts and spending a total of eight weeks at number one on the former. Album tracks "Glorified G" and "Elderly Woman Behind the Counter in a Small Town" also charted. At the 1995 Grammy Awards, "Daughter" received a nomination for Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal and "Go" received a nomination for Best Hard Rock Performance. Vs. received a nomination for Best Rock Album.

In 2011, Pearl Jam released a remastered Vs., along with Vitalogy, in three formats: an Expanded Version, a three-CD Deluxe Edition and a Limited Edition Collector's Boxed Set. The Expanded Version features three bonus tracks recorded by Brendan O'Brien at The Site studio during the Vs. sessions: a previously unreleased acoustic version of "Hold On", "Cready Stomp" - a previously unreleased studio outtake, and the band's cover of Victoria Williams' "Crazy Mary" featuring Williams on backing vocals and guitar, which had previously been issued on the 1993 tribute album, Sweet Relief: A Benefit for Victoria Williams. The three-CD Deluxe Edition features both the Legacy Versions of Vs. and Vitalogy with their bonus tracks and a copy of Live at the Orpheum Theater, Boston, April 12, 1994.

Packaging
The album's cover art, photographed by Ament, features a black-and-white picture of an angora goat from Lifeline Farm in Victor, Montana. According to Ament, the cover was a representation of how the band felt at the time, with Ament stating "we were slaves". The album booklet contains additional drawings and writings by Vedder, including one page apparently doodled at a business meeting that says "I will never trust anybody again." The lyric page for "W.M.A." features a portion of a news story concerning Malice Green, a victim of police brutality.

Originally, the album was titled Five Against One (The song "Animal" features the lyric "One, two, three, four, five against one ..."). Concerning the original album title, Gossard said, "For me, that title represented a lot of struggles that you go through trying to make a record ... Your own independence—your own soul—versus everybody else's." The album title was changed at the last minute, first to a self-titled album and then to Vs., a nod to the general theme of conflict present in most of the songs on the album. Regarding the title Vs., Vedder said, "They were writing all these articles ... Our band against somebody else's band. What the hell are they talking about? You know, don't try to separate the powers that be. We're all in this together."

The decision to change the album's name at the last minute resulted in a few different versions of the album. There are also different versions of the album that are unrelated to the title. Regarding the different versions of the album, some of the first pressings of the cassette still contained Five Against One printed on the cassette itself, the first couple of pressings of the cassette do not contain the title printed on the artwork at all, and the lyrics to "Indifference" are included in the cassette version. The first couple of pressings of the CD do not contain the title printed on the artwork at all, and the initial versions of the CD came in an Ecopak, which was a variation on the traditional CD-sized Digipak. While not rare, they went out of print quickly and are now hard to find. The song titles are not printed on the back cover of this version, but the artwork remains the same. The vinyl version has never had the title printed on it, and the cover art on the vinyl copies is different from the CD and cassette. For all versions, the picture of the "elderly woman" changed at some point after the first pressings. Allegedly, the original woman never gave permission for her picture to be used, so Pearl Jam changed the picture to another woman. The difference is easy to spot, as "the new and improved woman behind the counter" is printed below the picture.

Tour
Pearl Jam promoted the album with tours in the United States in the fall of 1993 and the spring of 1994. The fall 1993 tour focused on the Western United States, while the spring 1994 tour focused on the Eastern United States. Industry insiders compared Pearl Jam's tour to the touring habits of Led Zeppelin, in that the band "ignored the press and took its music directly to the fans". During this tour the band set a cap on ticket prices in the attempt to thwart scalpers.

Several songs from the band's third album, Vitalogy, were premiered during this tour. The band's April 3, 1994, concert in Atlanta at the Fox Theatre was broadcast live on the radio in the United States. A few days later, the body of Nirvana frontman Kurt Cobain was found in his home in Seattle due to an apparent suicide, which deeply affected Vedder. At the band's April 8, 1994, concert in Fairfax, Virginia, at the Patriot Center, Vedder proclaimed, "I don't think any of us would be in this room tonight if it weren't for Kurt Cobain." Vedder later said that "the day that we found out about Kurt ... I was just spinning. I was lost and didn't know if we should play, or if we should just go home, or if we should attend the services. I still have some regrets about that, even though in the end it was probably better that we played the last two weeks of the tour. I decided I would play those next two weeks and then I'd never have to play again."

Pearl Jam was outraged when it discovered after a pair of shows in Chicago in March 1994 that ticket vendor Ticketmaster had added a service charge to the tickets. Following the tour, the band brought a lawsuit against Ticketmaster that accused them of being a monopoly whose anticompetitive practices allowed markup prices of more than 30%. The band's intention was to get ticket prices lowered for its fans. Pearl Jam's plans for a 1994 summer tour were cancelled as a result of a Ticketmaster boycott.

On April 16, 2016, at the Bon Secours Wellness Arena in Greenville, South Carolina, Pearl Jam played the entire album in order as part of the band's set.

Track listing
All lyrics are written by Eddie Vedder, except as noted. All music is credited to Pearl Jam, except as noted.

Vs. Tour bonus live CD
Performed April 12, 1994, at the Orpheum Theater, Boston, MA. The penultimate show of the Vs. tour, this concert featured some songs from the upcoming follow-up album Vitalogy. The CD omits eight songs from the original performance: "State of Love and Trust", "Hard to Imagine", "Go", "Animal", "Alone", "Better Man", "Yellow Ledbetter", "I've Got a Feeling" (The Beatles cover).

 * 1) "Oceans"
 * 2) "Even Flow"
 * 3) "Sonic Reducer" (Dead Boys cover; guest performance: Mark Arm)
 * 4) "Immortality"
 * 5) "Glorified G"
 * 6) "Daughter"
 * 7) "Not for You"
 * 8) "Rats"
 * 9) "Blood"
 * 10) "Release"
 * 11) "Tremor Christ"
 * 12) "Once"
 * 13) "Fuckin' Up" (Neil Young cover)
 * 14) "Dirty Frank"
 * 15) "Rearviewmirror"
 * 16) "Elderly Woman Behind the Counter in a Small Town"

Outtakes
Two songs recorded during the sessions but left off the album later appeared on the band's follow-up Vitalogy: "Whipping" and "Better Man". Both songs made their live debuts at the band's May 13, 1993, concert in San Francisco at Slim's Café, where the band premiered most of the newly recorded songs for Vs. "Better Man" was said to have been rejected because Vedder was not comfortable with the song's accessibility. Another song recorded during the sessions is "Hard to Imagine", which later appeared on the soundtrack for the 1998 film, Chicago Cab; however, that version was recorded during sessions for Vitalogy. The version recorded for Vs. appears on the 2003 rarities compilation, Lost Dogs. According to Gossard, "Hard to Imagine" was cut from Vs. because the band already had enough mellow songs for the album. Pearl Jam's cover of the Victoria Williams song "Crazy Mary" (to which Williams herself contributed background vocals and guitar) was also recorded during these sessions. "Crazy Mary" appeared on the 1993 tribute album, Sweet Relief: A Benefit for Victoria Williams, and later on the 2011 Vs. reissue, as a bonus track. The Pearl Jam/Cypress Hill collaboration "Real Thing" was also recorded around this time. "Real Thing" appeared on the 1993 Judgment Night soundtrack.

Personnel
Pearl Jam
 * Eddie Vedder – lead vocals, rhythm guitar on "Rearviewmirror" and "Elderly Woman Behind the Counter in a Small Town"
 * Mike McCready – lead guitar
 * Stone Gossard – rhythm guitar, backing vocals
 * Jeff Ament – bass, upright bass; credited as Ames for the artwork and black-and-white photography
 * Dave Abbruzzese – drums

Production
 * Brendan O'Brien – production
 * Pearl Jam – production
 * Nick DiDia – recording
 * Adam Kasper – assistance
 * Kevin Scott – assistance
 * Lance Mercer – inside color photography
 * Bob Ludwig – mastering
 * Joel Zimmerman – art direction

title: Vs. (Pearl Jam album)