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Chicken Run

Chicken Run is a 2000 animated adventure comedy film produced by Pathé and Aardman Animations in partnership with DreamWorks Animation. Aardman's first feature-length film, it was directed by Peter Lord and Nick Park (in their feature-length directorial debuts) from a screenplay by Karey Kirkpatrick and based on an original story by Lord and Park. The film stars the voices of Julia Sawalha, Mel Gibson, Tony Haygarth, Miranda Richardson, Phil Daniels, Lynn Ferguson, Timothy Spall, Imelda Staunton, and Benjamin Whitrow. Set in the countryside of Yorkshire, the plot centres on a group of British anthropomorphic chickens who see an American rooster named Rocky Rhodes as their only hope to escape the farm when their owners want to turn them into chicken pies.

Chicken Run was a critical and commercial success, grossing over $220 million and becoming the highest-grossing stop-motion animated film in history. At the time, this film was DreamWorks Animation's most successful release, but this was overtaken by Shrek the following year.

23 years later, a sequel, titled Chicken Run: Dawn of the Nugget, was released on Netflix on 15 December 2023. Its Netflix release followed its world premiere at the 67th BFI London Film Festival on 14 October 2023, which would also see preview screenings taking place at UK cinemas at the same time.

Plot
In the countryside of Yorkshire, a flock of chickens live on an egg farm structured like a prisoner-of-war camp. The farm is run by the cruel Mrs Tweedy and her submissive husband, Mr Tweedy, who kill and eat any chicken that is no longer able to lay eggs. Led by the rebellious Ginger, the chickens constantly devise new ways to try to escape but are always caught. Mr Tweedy suspects the chickens are organised and plotting resistance, but his wife dismisses his theories while being frustrated with making minuscule profits.

One night, Ginger witnesses an American rooster named Rocky Rhodes glide over the coop's fences and crash-land; the chickens put his sprained wing in a cast and hide him from the Tweedys, who have been promised a handsome reward by Rocky's owner for his return. Inspired by Rocky's apparent flying abilities, Ginger begs him to help teach her and the other chickens to fly so they can escape, threatening to alert the humans if he refuses. Rocky reluctantly gives them training lessons. One evening, a load of equipment is delivered to the farm, containing the parts for a chicken pie machine that Mrs Tweedy has ordered as part of a plan to convert the farm into a profitable pie-making factory. When the Tweedys increase the chickens' food rations and ignore the decline in egg production, Ginger deduces that the couple's new plan is to fatten the chickens for slaughter. After Ginger and Rocky get into an argument, Rocky holds a morale-boosting dance party during which it is revealed that his wing is healed. Ginger insists that he demonstrate flying the next day, but Mr Tweedy finishes assembling the machine and puts Ginger in it for a test run. Rocky saves her and sabotages the machine, buying them time to warn the chickens and plan an escape from the farm.

The next day, Ginger finds Rocky has left, leaving behind part of a poster that shows that he is in fact part of a "chicken cannonball" act with no ability to fly on his own, making them realize that their chance to learn how to fly has been crushed. In the midst of being devastated, Ginger is inspired by elderly rooster Fowler's stories of his time in the Royal Air Force to build an aircraft to flee the farm. The chickens assemble parts for the plane as Mr Tweedy fixes the pie-making machine. Meanwhile, Rocky comes across a billboard advertising Mrs Tweedy's chicken pies and returns to the farm out of guilt.

Mrs Tweedy orders Mr Tweedy to gather all the chickens for the machine, but the chickens subdue him and finish the plane, which Ginger persuades Fowler to pilot. As the plane approaches the take-off ramp, Mr Tweedy is able to knock over the ramp before being knocked out; Ginger races to reset the ramp, but a now-alerted Mrs Tweedy attacks her. Before Mrs Tweedy can hurt Ginger, Rocky returns and subdues her, before holding up the ramp with Ginger, allowing the plane to take flight. Rocky and Ginger grab on to the runway lights, which have been snagged by the departing plane. An axe-wielding Mrs Tweedy follows them by climbing up the lights, but Ginger tricks Mrs Tweedy into cutting the line, sending her falling into the pie machine, causing it to explode in a mushroom cloud of gravy.

The chickens celebrate their victory after defeating the Tweedys while Ginger and Rocky kiss each other, and they fly to an island bird sanctuary where they make their home. Sometime later, the chickens have settled into their new home, and Rocky and Ginger have started a romantic relationship. Nick and Fetcher, two rats that have been helping the chickens throughout the escape, decide to set up their own egg farm, but they fall into a circular debate over whether they must use a chicken or egg to start it.

Voice cast

 * Julia Sawalha as Ginger, the de facto British leader of the chickens
 * Mel Gibson as Rocky, an American circus rooster and Ginger's love interest
 * Miranda Richardson as Mrs Tweedy, the owner of the farm
 * Tony Haygarth as Mr Tweedy, Mrs Tweedy's husband and the co-owner of the farm
 * Benjamin Whitrow as Fowler, an elderly rooster
 * Timothy Spall as Nick, a cynical rat
 * Phil Daniels as Fetcher, Nick's partner
 * Jane Horrocks as Babs, a chubby chicken who loves knitting
 * Imelda Staunton as Bunty, the champion egg-layer
 * Lynn Ferguson as Mac, Ginger's Scottish second in command

Development
Chicken Run was first conceived in 1995 by Aardman co-founder Peter Lord and Wallace and Gromit creator Nick Park. According to Park, the project started as a spoof on the 1963 film The Great Escape. Chicken Run was Aardman Animations' first feature-length production, which would be executive produced by Jake Eberts. Nick Park and Peter Lord, who run Aardman, directed the film, while Karey Kirkpatrick scripted, with additional input from Mark Burton and John O'Farrell.

When a chicken speaks, each sound corresponds to a different beak that was placed on the character.

Pathé agreed to finance the film in 1996, putting their finances into script development and model design. DreamWorks officially came on board in 1997. They beat out studios like Disney, 20th Century Fox, and Warner Bros. and largely won due to the perseverance of DreamWorks co-chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg; as a company they were eager to make their presence felt in the animation market in an attempt to compete with Disney's dominance of the field. Katzenberg explained that he had "been chasing these guys for five or six years, ever since I first saw Creature Comforts." DreamWorks secured their first animated feature with the film, and they handled distribution in all territories except Europe, which Pathé handled. The two studios co-financed the film. DreamWorks also retains rights to worldwide merchandising.

Animation
Principal photography began on 29 January 1998. During production, 30 sets were used with 80 animators working along with 180 people working overall. The result was one minute of film completed for each week of filming, with production wrapped on 18 June 1999.

Music
John Powell and Harry Gregson-Williams composed the music for the film, which was released on 20 June 2000 under the RCA Victor label. It was recorded at the Abbey Road Studios in London. Powell incorporated some kazoos and whistles to create an even funnier soundtrack.

Critical response
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported approval rating and an average rating of, based on  reviews. The website's critics consensus reads: "Chicken Run has all the charm of Nick Park's Wallace & Gromit, and something for everybody. The voice acting is fabulous, the slapstick is brilliant, and the action sequences are spectacular." At Metacritic the film has a weighted average score of 88 out of 100, based on 34 critics, indicating "universal acclaim". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A−" on an A+ to F scale.

Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave three and a half stars out of four, writing: "So it truly is a matter of life and death for the chickens to escape from the Tweedy Chicken Farm in Chicken Run, a magical new animated film that looks and sounds like no other. Like the otherwise completely different Babe, this is a movie that uses animals as surrogates for our hopes and fears, and as the chickens run through one failed escape attempt after another, the charm of the movie wins us over."

Chicken Run and its sequel has been noted for its depiction of feminism,  revolution,  Marxism,   veganism and fascism. According to Florentine StrzeIczyk, Chicken Run points to the way that masculinity and femininity are mediated in popular film genres. It also received attention for its female-led cast. Film School Rejects called the movie feminist, noting that "the stereotypical 'woman's work' of these female chickens (such as their sewing and knitting) is crucial in constructing their mechanism for escape and vital towards the revolution itself." The Islamic Republic of Iran News Network argued it was a way to disguise Zionism and Western propaganda.

Box office
On opening weekend, the film grossed $17,506,162 for a $7,027 average from 2,491 theatres. Overall, the film placed second behind Me, Myself & Irene. In its second weekend, the film held well as it slipped only 25% to $13,192,897 for a $4,627 average from expanding to 2,851 theatres and finishing in fourth place. The film's widest release was 2,953 theatres, after grossing $106,834,564 in the United States and Canada. In the United Kingdom, it was the third highest-grossing film of the year with a gross of $43 million. With an additional $75 million from other markets, it grossed $224,834,564 worldwide. Produced on an estimated budget of $42–45 million, the film was a huge box office hit. To date, it is still the highest grossing stop motion animated movie.

Home media
Chicken Run was released on VHS and DVD in the United States on November 21, 2000 by DreamWorks Home Entertainment.

Universal Pictures Home Entertainment released Chicken Run on Blu-ray in North America on January 22, 2019.

Sequel
In January 2022, the title for the sequel was revealed as Chicken Run: Dawn of the Nugget and was announced for a 2023 release on Netflix. Zachary Levi, Thandiwe Newton, Romesh Ranganathan and Daniel Mays were revealed to be replacing Gibson, Sawalha, Spall and Daniels as the voices of Rocky, Ginger, Nick and Fetcher; David Bradley will voice Fowler due to Whitrow's death in 2017, while Horrocks, Staunton and Ferguson will reprise their roles as Babs, Bunty and Mac. Bella Ramsey has been cast as Molly, while Nick Mohammed and Josie Sedgwick-Davies will voice two new characters, Dr Fry and Frizzle, respectively. Sam Fell would direct with Steve Pegram and Leyla Hobart producing. Kirkpatrick and O'Farrell wrote the script with Rachel Tunnard. In June 2023, Gregson-Williams was revealed to be composing the sequel. Later that month, it was officially announced that the film would release on Netflix on 15 December 2023. Its Netflix release followed its world premiere at the 67th BFI London Film Festival on 14 October 2023, which would also see preview screenings taking place at UK cinemas at the same time.

Video game
Chicken Run is a stealth-based 3-D platformer based on the movie. It was released in November 2000 on most consoles. The game is a loose parody of the film The Great Escape, which is set during World War II.

title: Chicken Run


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Leo Fender

Clarence Leonidas Fender (August 10, 1909 – March 21, 1991) was an American inventor and founder of the Fender Musical Instruments Corporation.

Fender designed the company's iconic early instruments: the Fender Telecaster, the first mass-produced solid-body electric guitar; the Fender Stratocaster, among the most iconic electric guitars; and the Fender Precision Bass, which set the standard for electric basses. He also designed the Fender Bassman amplifier, which became the archetype for later amplifiers (notably by Marshall and Mesa Boogie) that dominated rock and roll music.

Fender, who was not a guitarist himself, was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1992.

Early life and education
Clarence Leonidas Fender was born on August 10, 1909, to Clarence Monte Fender and Harriet Elvira Wood, owners of a successful orange grove located between Anaheim and Fullerton, California. At the age of eight, Fender developed a tumor in his left eye, resulting in the eye being removed and being replaced with a glass eye, making him ineligible for the draft in World War II later in life.

As a youth, Fender played piano and saxophone before his interests shifted toward electronics. When he was 14, Fender visited his uncle's automotive-electric shop in Santa Maria, and was fascinated by a radio his uncle had built from spare parts. Soon thereafter, Fender began repairing radios in a small shop in his parents' home.

In 1928, Fender graduated from Fullerton Union High School, and entered Fullerton Junior College as an accounting major, though he continued to work with electronics. After college, Fender worked as an ice delivery man and later bookkeeper. Around this time, he was approached by a local bandleader asking him to build six public address systems for use in Hollywood dance halls.

Fender Radio Service
In 1938, with a borrowed $600, Fender and his wife Esther returned to Fullerton, and started his own radio repair shop, Fender Radio Service. Soon, musicians and band leaders began coming to him for public address systems, which he built, rented, and sold. They also visited his store for amplification for the amplified acoustic guitars that were beginning to show up on the southern California music scene—in big band and jazz music, and for the electric "Hawaiian" or "lap steel" guitars becoming popular in country music.

Early guitars
During World War II, Fender met Clayton Orr "Doc" Kauffman, an inventor and lap steel player who had worked for Rickenbacker, which had been building and selling lap steel guitars for a decade. While with Rickenbacker, Kauffman had invented the "Vibrola" tailpiece, a precursor to the later vibrato tailpiece. Fender convinced him that they should team up, and they started the "K&F Manufacturing Corporation" to design and build amplified Hawaiian guitars and amplifiers. In 1944, Fender and Kauffman patented a lap steel guitar with an electric pickup already patented by Fender. In 1945, they began selling the guitar in a kit with an amplifier designed by K&F. In 1946, Doc pulled out of K&F and Fender revised the company and renamed it "Fender Manufacturing", and then later "Fender Electric Instrument Co." at the end of 1947 and he handed over the reins of his radio shop to Dale Hyatt.

As the Big Bands fell out of vogue towards the end of World War II, small combos playing boogie-woogie, rhythm and blues, western swing, and honky-tonk formed throughout the United States. Many of these outfits embraced the electric guitar because it could give a few players the power of an entire horn section. Pickup-equipped archtops were the guitars of choice in the dance bands of the late 1940s, but the increasing popularity of roadhouses and dance halls created a growing need for louder, cheaper, and more durable instruments. Players also needed "faster" necks and better intonation to play what the country players called "take-off lead guitar." In the late 1940s, solid-body electric guitars began to rise in popularity, yet they were still considered novelty items, with the Rickenbacker Spanish Electro guitar being the most commercially available solid-body, and Les Paul's one-off home-made "Log" and the Bigsby Travis guitar made by Paul Bigsby for Merle Travis being the most visible early examples.

Fender recognized the potential for an electric guitar that was easy to hold, tune, and play, and would not feed back at dance hall volumes as the typical archtop would. In 1948, he finished the prototype of a thin solid-body electric; the first one-pickup model was released in 1950 as the Fender Esquire, while a two-pickup version, initially called the Broadcaster but renamed the Telecaster after a trademark issue, was released the year after. The Telecaster became one of the most popular electric guitars in history.

Stratocaster
Instead of updating the Telecaster, Fender decided, based on customer feedback, to leave the Telecaster as it was and design a new, upscale solid-body guitar to sell alongside the basic Telecaster. Western swing guitarist Bill Carson was one of the chief critics of the Telecaster, stating that the new design should have individually adjustable bridge saddles, four or five pickups, a vibrato unit that could be used in either direction and return to proper tuning, and a contoured body for enhanced comfort over the slab-body Telecaster's harsh edges. Fender, assisted by draftsman Freddie Tavares, began designing the Stratocaster in late 1953. It included a rounder, less "club-like" neck (at least for the first year of issue) and a double cutaway for easier reach to the upper registers.

Another novelty to the Stratocaster design included the use of three pickups wired to offer three different voicings, two of which could be further tailored by the player by adjusting the two tone controls. The Stratocaster was the first electric guitar on the market to offer three pickups and a tremolo arm (which was actually used for vibrato, not tremolo), which became widely used by guitarists. The three pickups could be selected using the standard three-way switch to give the guitar different sound and options by using the "neck", "middle" or "bridge" pickups. Though Fender preferred the sound of single pickups, guitarists discovered they could get the switch to stay between the detent positions and activate two pickups at once. The five-way switch was finally implemented as a factory option in late 1976, adding the detent combinations of neck+middle or bridge+middle that musicians had been using for years.

Electric basses
During this time, Fender also tackled the problems experienced by players of the acoustic double bass, who could no longer compete for volume with the other musicians. Besides, double basses were also large, bulky, and difficult to transport. With the Precision Bass (or "P-Bass"), released in 1951, Fender addressed both issues: the Telecaster-based Precision Bass was small and portable, and its solid-body construction and four-magnet, single coil pickup let it play at higher volumes without feedback. Along with the Precision Bass (so named because its fretted neck allowed bassists to play with "precision"), Fender introduced a bass amplifier, the Fender Bassman, a 25-watt amplifier with one 15-inch speaker (later updated to 45 watts and four 10-inch speakers).

1954 saw an update of the Precision Bass to coincide with the introduction of the Stratocaster. Incorporating some of the body contours of the Stratocaster, the update also included a two-section nickel-plated bridge and a white single-layer pickguard.

In June 1957, Fender announced a redesign of the Precision Bass. The remake included a larger headstock, a new pickguard design, a bridge with four steel saddles that could be individually adjusted and a new split single-coil pickup. This proved to be the final version of the instrument, which has changed little since then. In 1960, rosewood fingerboards, wider color selections and a three-ply pickguard became available for the P-Bass.

1960 saw the release of the Jazz Bass, a sleeker, updated bass with a slimmer neck, and offset waist body and two single coil pickups (as opposed to the Precision Bass and its split-humbucking pickup that had been introduced in 1957). Like its predecessor, the Jazz Bass (or simply "J-Bass") was an instant hit and has remained popular to this day, and early models are highly sought after by collectors.

1970 and later: Music Man and G&L
In the 1950s, Fender contracted a streptococcal sinus infection that impaired his health to the point where he decided to wind up his business affairs, selling the Fender company to CBS in 1965. As part of this deal, Fender signed a non-compete clause and remained a consultant with Fender for a while. Shortly after selling the company, he changed doctors and was cured of his illness. In 1971, Forrest White and Tom Walker formed the Tri-Sonix company (often incorrectly referred to as "Tri-Sonic"), based in Santa Ana, California. Walker and White went to Fender to help finance their company and it evolved into "Music Man", a name Fender preferred over their name. After considerable financing, in 1975, Fender became its president.

The StingRay bass was an innovative early instrument. Though the body design borrowed heavily from the Precision Bass, the StingRay is largely considered the first production bass with active electronics. The StingRay's two-band active equalizer, high-output humbucking pickup, and high-gloss finished neck became a favorite of many influential bassists, including Louis Johnson, Bernard Edwards, John Deacon, Ben Orr, John Taylor, Tony Levin, Pino Palladino, Kim Deal, Tim Commerford, Gail Ann Dorsey and Flea. Later, a three-band active equalizer was introduced on the StingRay. Music Man was active in making amplifiers as well, but the HD-130 Reverb, designed to compete with the Twin Reverb, came at a time when the clean sounds of the Twin were going out of fashion.

In 1979, Fender and old friends George Fullerton and Dale Hyatt started a new company called G&L ("George & Leo") Musical Products. G&L guitar designs tended to lean heavily upon the looks of Fender's original guitars such as the Stratocaster and Telecaster, but incorporated innovations such as enhanced tremolo systems and electronics.

Personal life and death
In 1934, Fender married Esther Klosky, and the couple remained together until Esther's death from cancer in 1979. Fender remarried in 1980; his second wife Phyllis became an Honorary Chairman of G&L. Despite suffering several minor strokes, Fender continued to work. On March 21, 1991, he died of complications from Parkinson's disease. He was buried at Fairhaven Memorial Park in Santa Ana, California, next to his first wife Esther. Phyllis Fender died on July 22, 2020.

Fender's accomplishments for "contributions of outstanding technical significance to the recording field" were acknowledged with a Technical Grammy Award in 2009. Fender Avenue in Fullerton, California was named after him.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Leo Fender


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Bitboard

A bitboard is a specialized bit array data structure commonly used in computer systems that play board games, where each bit corresponds to a game board space or piece. This allows parallel bitwise operations to set or query the game state, or determine moves or plays in the game.

Bits in the same bitboard relate to each other by the rules of the game, often forming a game position when taken together. Other bitboards are commonly used as masks to transform or answer queries about positions. Bitboards are applicable to any game whose progress is represented by the state of, or presence of pieces on, discrete spaces of a gameboard, by mapping of the space states to bits in the data structure. Bitboards are a more efficient alternative board representation to the traditional mailbox representation, where each piece or space on the board is an array element.

Bitboards are especially effective when the associated bits of various related states on the board fit into a single word or double word of the CPU architecture, so that single bitwise operators like AND and OR can be used to build or query game states.

Among the computer game implementations that use bitboards are chess, checkers, othello and word games. The scheme was first employed in checkers programs in the 1950s, and since the mid-1970s has been the de facto standard for game board representation in computer automatons.

Description
A bitboard, a specialized bit field, is a format that packs multiple related boolean variables into the same machine word, typically representing a position on a board game, or state of a game. Each bit represents a space; when the bit is positive, a property of that space is true. Bitboards allow the computer to answer some questions about game state with one bitwise operation. For example, if a chess program wants to know if the white player has any pawns in the center of the board (center four squares) it can just compare a bitboard for the player's pawns with one for the center of the board using a bitwise AND operation. If there are no center pawns then the result will be all zero bits (i.e. equal to zero). Multiple bitboards may represent different properties of spaces over the board, and special or temporary bitboards (like temporary variables) may represent local properties or hold intermediate collated results.

The efficacy of bitboards is augmented by two other properties of the implementation. First, bitboards are fast to incrementally update, such as flipping the bits at the source and destination positions in a bitboard for piece location when a piece is moved. Second, bitmaps representing static properties like all spaces attacked by each piece type for every position on a chessboard can be pre-collated and stored in a table, so that answering a question like "what are the legal moves of a knight on space e4?" can be answered by a single memory fetch.

Bitfield implementations take advantage of the presence of fullword (32-bit or 64-bit) bitwise logical operations like AND, OR, NOT and others on modern CPU architectures in order to be efficient. Bitboards may not be effective on earlier 8- and 16-bit minicomputer and microprocessor architectures.

Implementation issues
As a result of necessary compression and encoding of the contents of massive tables and the probability of transcription or encoding errors, bitboard programs are tedious for software developers to either write or debug. Auxiliary generative methods not part of the application are usually required to build the tables.

Pros
Bitboard representations use parallel bitwise operations available on nearly all CPUs that complete in one cycle and are fully pipelined and cached etc. Nearly all CPUs have AND, OR, NOR, and XOR. Furthermore, modern CPUs have instruction pipelines that queue instructions for execution. A processor with multiple execution units can perform more than one instruction per cycle if more than one instruction is available in the pipeline. Normal instruction sequences with branches may cause the pipeline to empty if a branch is mispredicted. Many bitboard operations require fewer conditionals and therefore increase pipelining and make effective use of multiple execution units on many CPUs.

CPUs have a bit width which they are designed toward and can carry out bitwise operations in one cycle in this width. So, on a 64-bit or more CPU, 64-bit operations can occur in one instruction. There may be support for higher or lower width instructions. Many 32-bit CPUs may have some 64-bit instructions and those may take more than one cycle or otherwise be handicapped compared to their 32-bit instructions.

If the bitboard is larger than the width of the instruction set, multiple instructions will be required to perform a full-width operation on it. So a program using 64-bit bitboards would run faster on a 64-bit processor than on a 32-bit processor.

Cons
Bitboard representations have much longer code, both source and object code. Long bit-twiddling sequences are technically tricky to write and debug. The bitboards themselves are sparse, sometimes containing only a single one bit in 64, so bitboard implementations are memory-intensive. Both these issues may increase cache misses or cause cache thrashing.

If the processor does not have hardware instructions for 'first one' (or 'count leading zeros') and 'count ones' (or 'count zeros'), the implementation will be significantly handicapped, as these operations are extremely inefficient to code as assembly language loops.

Pros
Bitboards require more memory than piece-list board data structures, but are more execution efficient because many loop-and-compare operations are reduced to a single (or small number of) bitwise operation(s). For example, in mailbox, determining whether piece attacks space requires generating and looping through legal moves of piece and comparing the final space with space. With bitboards, the legal moves of piece are stored in a bitmap, and that map is ANDed with the bitmap for space. A non-zero result means that piece attacks space.

Cons
For some games, writing a bitboard engine requires a fair amount of source code including data tables that will be longer than the compact mailbox/enumeration implementation. For mobile devices (such as cell phones) with a limited number of registers or processor instruction cache, this can cause a problem. For full-sized computers, it may cause cache misses between level-one and level-two cache. This is only a potential problem, not a major drawback, as most machines will have enough instruction cache for this not to be an issue.

Incremental update
Some kinds of bitboards are derived from others by an elaborate process of cross-correlation, such as the attack maps in chess. Reforming all these maps at each change of game state (such as a move) can be prohibitively expensive, so derived bitmaps are incrementally updated, a process which requires intricate and precise code. This is much faster to execute, because only bitmaps associated with changed spaces, not all bitmaps over the board, need to change. Without incremental update, bitmapped representation may not be more efficient than the older mailbox representation where update is intrinsically local and incremental.

Precomputed bitmaps and table lookup
Some kinds of bitmaps that don't depend on board configurations can be precomputed and retrieved by table lookup rather than collated after a move or state change of the board, such as spaces attacked by a knight or king located on each of 64 spaces of a chessboard that would otherwise require an enumeration.

Chess bitboards
The obvious, and simplest representation of the configuration of pieces on a chessboard, is as a list (array) of pieces in a conveniently searchable order (such as smallest to largest in value) that maps each piece to its location on the board. Analogously, collating the spaces attacked by each piece requires a serial enumeration of such spaces for a piece. This scheme is called mailbox addressing. Separate lists are maintained for white and black pieces, and often for white and black pawns. The maps are updated each move, which requires a linear search (or two if a piece was captured) through the piece list. The advantage of mailbox is simple code; the disadvantage is linear lookups are slow. Faster, but more elaborate data structures that map pieces to locations are called bitboards.

Standard
In bitboard representations, each bit of a 64 bit word (or double word on 32-bit architectures) is associated with a square of the chessboard. Any mapping of bits to squares can be used, but by broad convention, bits are associated with squares from left to right and bottom to top, so that bit 0 represents square a1, bit 7 is square h1, bit 56 is square a8 and bit 63 is square h8.

Many different configurations of the board are usually represented by their own bitboards including the locations of the kings, all white pawns, all black pawns, as well as bitboards for each of the other piece types or combinations of pieces like all white pieces. Two attack bitboards are also universal: one bitboard per square for all pieces attacking the square, and the inverse bitboard for all squares attacked by a piece for each square containing a piece. Bitboards can also be constants like one representing the first rank, which would have one bits in positions 0 - 7. Other local or transitional bitboards like "all spaces adjacent to the king attacked by opposing pieces" may be collated as necessary or convenient.

An example of the use of the bitboards would be determining whether a piece is  en prise: bitboards for "all friendly pieces guarding space" and "all opposing pieces attacking space" would allow matching the pieces to readily determine whether a target piece on space is en prise.

One of the drawbacks of standard bitboards is collating the attack vectors of the sliding pieces (rook, bishop, queen), because they have an indefinite number of attack spaces depending on other occupied spaces. This requires several lengthy sequences of masks, shifts and complements per piece.

Auxiliary bitboard representations
In acknowledgement of the code size and computing complexity of generating bitboards for the attack vectors of sliding pieces, alternate bitboard data structures have been devised to collate them. The bitboard representations of knights, kings, pawns and other board configurations is unaffected by the use of auxiliary bitboards for the sliding pieces.

Rotated bitboards
Rotated bitboards are complementary bitboard data structures that enable tabularizing of sliding piece attack vectors, one for file attack vectors of rooks, and one each for the diagonal and anti-diagonal attack vectors of bishops (rank attacks of rooks can be indexed from standard bitboards). With these bitboards, a single table lookup replaces lengthy sequences of bitwise operations.

These bitboards rotate the board occupancy configuration by 90 degrees, 45 degrees, and/or 315 degrees. A standard bitboard will have one byte per rank of the chess board. With this bitboard it's easy to determine rook attacks across a rank, using a table indexed by the occupied square and the occupied positions in the rank (because rook attacks stop at the first occupied square). By rotating the bitboard 90 degrees, rook attacks up and down a file can be examined the same way. Adding bitboards rotated 45 degrees and 315 degrees (-45 degrees) produces bitboards in which the diagonals are easy to examine. The queen can be examined by combining rook and bishop attacks. Actually rotating a bitboard is an inelegant transformation that can take dozens of instructions.

Direct hashing
The rank and file attack vectors of rooks and the diagonal and anti-diagonal attack vectors of bishops can be separately masked and used as indices into a hash table of precomputed attack vectors depending on occupancy, 8-bits each for rooks and 2-8 bits each for bishops. The full attack vector of a piece is obtained as the union of each of the two unidirectional vectors indexed from the hash table. The number of entries in the hash table is modest, on the order of 8*2^8 or 2K bytes, but two hash function computations and two lookups per piece are required., see the hashing scheme employed.

Magic bitboards
Magic bitboards are an extrapolation of the time-space tradeoff of direct hashing lookup of attack vectors. These use a transmutation of the full attack vector as an index into the hash table. Magic is a misnomer, and simply refers to the generation and use of a perfect hash function in conjunction with tricks to reduce the potential size of the hash table that would have to be stored in memory, which is 8*2^64 or 144 exabytes. The first observation is that the outer squares or first and eighth ranks together with the 'a' and 'h' files are irrelevant to the occupancy of the attack vector: the piece attacks those squares or not (depending on other blocking pieces) regardless of occupancy, so these can be eliminated from consideration, leaving just 6x6 or 36 squares (~bits in the corresponding hash function). As with other schemes which require a perfect hashing function, an exhaustive process of enumeration, partly algorithmic and partly trial and error, is necessary to generate the hash function. But the intractable issue remains: these are very active tables, and their size (fewer than a million entries in most cases) is huge relative to the lower level cache sizes of modern chip architectures, resulting in cache flooding. So magic bitboards in many applications provide no performance gain over more modest hashing schemes or rotated bitboards.

History
The bitboard method for representing a board game appears to have been invented in the mid-1950s, by Arthur Samuel and was used in his checkers program. For the more complicated game of chess, it appears the method was independently rediscovered later by the Kaissa team in the Soviet Union in the late 1960s, and again by the authors of the U.S. Northwestern University program "Chess" in the early 1970s. The 64-bit word length of 1970s super computers like Amdahl and Cray machines, facilitated the development of bitboard representations which conveniently mapped the 64-squares of the chessboard to bits of a word.

Rotated bitboards for collating the moves of sliding pieces were invented by Professor Robert Hyatt, author of Cray Blitz and Crafty chess engines, sometime in the mid-1990s and shared with the Dark Thought programming team. They were later implemented in Crafty and Dark Thought, but the first published description wasn't until 1997.

A decade later, direct lookup methods using masked ranks, files and diagonals to index a table of attack vectors depending on occupancy states of bits under the mask, were introduced. One such scheme utilizing a perfect hash function to eliminate hash collisions, was termed "magic bitboards". Nonetheless, the large size and high access rates of such tables caused memory occupancy and cache contention issues, and weren't necessarily more efficacious than the rotated bitboard approach. Today, game programs remain divided, with the best scheme being application dependent.

Other games
Many other games besides chess benefit from bitboards.

 * In Connect Four, they allow for very efficient testing for four consecutive discs, by just two shift + AND operations per direction.
 * In the Conway's Game of Life, they are a possible alternative to arrays.
 * Othello/Reversi (see the Reversi article).

Calculators

 * 64 bits representation and manipulation

Checkers

 * Checkers Bitboard Tutorial by Jonathan Kreuzer

Articles

 * Bitboards - Chessprogramming wiki
 * Programming area of the Beowulf project
 * Laramee, Francois-Dominic. Chess Programming Part 2: Data Structures.
 * Verhelst, Paul. Chess Board Representations
 * Hyatt, Robert. Chess program board representations
 * Frayn, Colin. How to implement bitboards in a chess engine (chess programming theory)
 * Pepicelli, Glen. Bitfields, Bitboards, and Beyond - (Example of bitboards in the Java Language and a discussion of why this optimization works with the Java Virtual Machine  (www.OnJava.com publisher: O'Reilly 2005))
 * Magic Move-Bitboard Generation in Computer Chess. Pradyumna Kannan

Code examples

 * The author of the Frenzee engine had posted some source examples.
 * A 155 line java Connect-4 program demonstrating the use of bitboards.

Open source

 * Beowulf Unix, Linux, Windows. Rotated bitboards.
 * Crafty See the Crafty article.  Written in straight C.  Rotated bitboards in the old versions, now uses magic bitboards.
 * GNU Chess See the GNU Chess Article.
 * Stockfish UCI chess engine ranking second in Elo as of 2010
 * Gray Matter C++, rotated bitboards.
 * KnightCap GPL. ELO of 2300.
 * Pepito C. Bitboard, by Carlos del Cacho. Windows and Linux binaries as well as source available.
 * Simontacci Rotated bitboards.

Closed source

 * DarkThought Home Page

Othello

 * A complete discussion of Othello (Reversi) engines with some source code including an Othello bitboard in C and assembly.
 * Edax (computing) See the Edax article. An Othello (Reversi) engine with source code based on bitboard.

Word games

 * Overview of bit board usage in word games.

title: Bitboard


text:
IBM PCjr

The IBM PCjr (pronounced "PC junior") was a home computer produced and marketed by IBM from March 1984 to May 1985, intended as a lower-cost variant of the IBM PC with hardware capabilities better suited for video games, in order to compete more directly with other home computers such as the Apple II and Commodore 64.

It retained the IBM PC's 8088 CPU and BIOS interface, but provided enhanced graphics and sound, ROM cartridge slots, built-in joystick ports, and an infrared wireless keyboard. The PCjr supported expansion via "sidecar" modules, which could be attached to the side of the unit.

Despite widespread anticipation, the PCjr was ultimately unsuccessful in the market. It was only partially IBM compatible, limiting support for IBM's software library, its chiclet keyboard was widely criticized for its poor quality, expandability was limited, and it was initially offered with a maximum of $128 KB$ of RAM, insufficient for many PC programs.

Models
The PCjr came in two models:

 * 4860-004 - 64 KB of memory, priced at US$669
 * 4860-067 - 128 KB of memory and a 360 KB, 5.25-inch floppy disk drive, priced at US$1,269

The PCjr was manufactured for IBM in Lewisburg, Tennessee by Teledyne.

A related machine, the IBM JX, was sold in the Japan, Australia and New Zealand markets.

Hardware
The PCjr chassis is made entirely of plastic, unlike the all-steel chassis of the IBM PC. A 5.25" front bay allows the installation of a 180/360K floppy disk drive. The internal floppy drive was a half-height Qume 5.25" unit; IBM also used these drives in the PC Portable, but the PCjr units were specially equipped with a small fan to prevent overheating since the computer did not have a case fan.

Cartridges
The front of the PCjr exposes a pair of cartridge slots in which the user can insert software on ROM cartridges, as was common with other home computers. When a ROM cartridge is inserted, the machine automatically restarts and boots off of the ROM, without requiring the user to manually reboot.

Cartridges can also replace the system BIOS and other firmware. A number of patches from various vendors are included on a single "combo-cartridge", licensed and sold by PC Enterprises, to support add-on hardware, bypass certain limitations of design, and keep up with changing OS requirements.

Processor
Like the IBM PC, the PCjr uses an Intel 8088 clocked at 4.77 MHz.

Despite using the same CPU and clock speed, performance is often inferior to the PC, because access to system RAM is delayed by wait states added by the Video Gate Array to synchronize shared access to RAM between the CPU and the video hardware. IBM claimed that an average of two wait states are added, but the designers of the Tandy 1000, a clone of the PCjr, claimed that six was a more accurate figure.

This delay only applies to software resident in the first 64 KB or 128 KB of RAM inside the system unit itself, and not to programs or data located in ROM - including software on ROM cartridges plugged into the front of the PCjr - or in additional RAM in a sidecar attachment. Under these circumstances the PCjr should run at full speed. The most common instances in which this maximum speed would be achieved are when running games or productivity applications from ROM cartridges. In fact, because the PCjr video subsystem continuously refreshes the system internal DRAM transparently, without disturbing the CPU, programs running from ROM on the PCjr may actually run slightly faster on the PCjr than on an IBM PC or XT.

Video
Unlike the IBM PC, which required a separate video card, the PCjr display hardware was built in to the system board. At the time, the only cards available from IBM for the PC were the monochrome MDA and color CGA boards. PCjr graphics were similar to CGA, with several new video modes: The primary improvement over CGA is the greater color depth. CGA could only display 4 colors in its medium-resolution mode, and 2 colors in high-resolution. The PCjr increases these to 16 and 4 colors.
 * 160 × 200 at 16 colors
 * 320 × 200 at 16 colors
 * 640 × 200 at 4 colors

Video modes on the PCjr use varying amounts of system memory: 40 x 25 text mode uses 1 KB, for instance, while 320 x 200 x 16 and 640 x 200 x 4 use 32 KB. These latter two modes, as well as 80 x 25 text mode, are referred to in documentation as "high bandwidth modes" and are unsupported on base models with only 64 KB of memory.

Multiple text or graphics pages can be used for page-flipping as long as there is enough memory, a feature missing from the CGA. The CGA also did not provide a VBLANK interrupt, making it hard to detect when the screen was beginning to be drawn, but the PCjr provides this on IRQ 5, an important feature for smooth page-flipping.

The video system also has a "blink" feature which toggles the palette between the first and second groups of eight palette registers at the same rate used for the PCs blinking text attribute, and a palette bit-masking feature that can be used to switch between palette subsets without reprogramming palette registers.

Unlike CGA, PCjr has palette registers which allow the colors in all modes to be chosen from the full 16-color RGBI palette. When the BIOS is used to set a video mode, it sets up the palette table to emulate the CGA color palette for that mode. Programs specifically written to use PCjr graphics can subsequently reprogram the palette table to use any colors desired. Palette changes must be made during horizontal or vertical blanking periods of a video frame in order to avoid corrupting the display.

The monitor included with the PCjr is a 12" TTL RGBI display like those supported by the CGA, but including an internal amplified speaker. Also like CGA, the PCjr supported composite video out for use with a TV or composite monitor.

A Motorola 6845 CRTC like the one used in the MDA and CGA adapters, and a custom IBM chip called the Video Gate Array (VGA) comprise the PCjr video hardware. The 6845 is responsible for the basic raster timing and video data address sequencing, and the Video Gate Array contains all the additional timing logic, video data demultiplexing logic, color processing logic, and programmable palette table logic, as well as the logic for multiplexing RAM access between the 8088 CPU and the video generation circuitry.

The 6845 CRTC and the VGA together are responsible for refreshing the internal DRAM of the PCjr, which complicates the process of switching video modes on the PCjr. Resetting the VGA, which must be done during certain video mode switches, must be done by code not running from system RAM, and if the CRTC or the VGA is disabled for too long, the contents of the internal RAM can be lost. Additional external DRAM (in sidecar expansion modules) is refreshed independently.

Of the three new modes, 160 x 200 x 16 mode has the same layout as CGA graphics modes; the odd and even scanlines are stored in the first and second half of the video buffer, each half being 8k in size, and every four bits represents one pixel. The 320 x 200 x 16 and 640 x 200 x 4 modes have four blocks of scanlines; every four or two bits respectively represents a pixel.

Since the PCjr uses the main system RAM for the video buffer, less memory is available for software than on a standard PC, which has its video memory in the A000h-BFFFh segments, above conventional memory.

Sound
The PCjr's sound is provided by a Texas Instruments SN76496 which can produce three square waves of varying amplitude and frequency along with a noise channel powered by a shift register. It is similar to the programmable sound generator chips used in game consoles such as the Master System. The PCjr design also allows for an analog sound source in an expansion-bus "sidecar" module, and a software-controlled internal analog switch can select the source for the sound output from among the PC speaker, the SN76489, the cassette port, or the expansion-bus sound source. Only one sound source can be selected at a time; the sources cannot be mixed.

Keyboard / Lightpen
The original keyboard included with the PCjr was a wireless design using infrared line-of-sight communication, which IBM initially marketed as the "Freeboard." This is a chiclet keyboard with small, flat, calculator style plastic keycaps. The keycaps are blank, with the labels printed between keys so that overlays can be used. The PCjr keyboard has 62 keys rather than the 83 of the PC keyboard, and the remaining keys must be entered by holding a modifier key.

For infrared wireless operation, the keyboard is powered by four AA cells. Certain types of room lighting can cause interference with the infrared keyboard sensor, and multiple keyboards cannot be used in the same room without problems.

IBM sold a cable which could be plugged in between the keyboard and computer if the user wanted a more reliable connection, which also eliminated the need for batteries, since the keyboard IR receiver is automatically disabled when the cord is attached to the computer.

The chiclet design was not well received, and in 1984 IBM began shipping a new design, still wireless, but using more conventionally shaped keycaps.

The PCjr also has a light pen port. Besides being used for a light pen (a rarely purchased option), this port can be used in combination with the serial port to supply voltage to a Mouse Systems optical mouse of the same design as those for Sun workstations.

Expansion
The back of the machine does not have any expansion slots. Instead, several permanently mounted, proprietary connectors provide attachment to many built-in hardware capabilities, which replaced many of the features that PC expansion cards provided, including:

 * Graphics hardware
 * Multichannel sound
 * Joystick ports
 * Lightpen interface
 * Serial port
 * Cassette interface

Internally the PCjr did have expansion slots to support specific upgrades: a RAM upgrade, a modem, and a floppy drive.

On the right side of the machine, the system bus was exposed for use with "sidecars," upgrade modules which attached to the side of the machine. Third-party manufacturers produced a number of expansion units for the PCjr.

Software
The primary OS for the PCjr was PC DOS, like the IBM PC, and it supported a large amount of PC software, with some incompatibilities.

PC DOS 2.10 is the minimum version of DOS required for the PCjr. IBM's OEM versions of MS-DOS supported the machine up to DOS 3.30, but memory expansion was required for DOS 3.20 and 3.30.

Like the original PC, the PCjr has BASIC in ROM, but includes Cartridge BASIC instead of Cassette BASIC. In addition to cartridge support, it extended the standard IBM BASIC with commands to support the new video and audio functionality. The system will boot into Cartridge BASIC if no cartridge or boot disk is present.

Compatibility
The register mapping of the PCjr's video hardware is different from the IBM CGA card, so software that tries to modify or read registers directly will not work. The PCjr has a "gate" register to which software writes the number of the video register to be accessed, followed by the value to be written into it. Alteration of other CRTC registers cannot be assumed to produce the same results from the PCjr video system as from the CGA.

Programs for the CGA that manipulate the CRTC start address, and that rely on address wrap-around above address 0xBC000, may not work correctly on the PCjr because it always has a 32 KB contiguous block of RAM in the video area from address 0xB8000 through 0xBFFFF. The PCjr's video memory cannot be moved above 128k if expansion memory is added, so some PC software that ran off of self-booting disks would not work on a PCjr if the software required more than 128k of RAM.

The floppy controller on the PCjr also had its I/O registers mapped into different ports than on the PC, and since the PCjr did not have DMA, the BIOS routines for handling floppy access were different and more complex than those on the PC. Software that tried to perform direct, low-level disk access (mainly utilities, but also the occasional game such as Dunzhin: Warrior of Ras) would not work unless it was rewritten for the PCjr.

History
IBM's first home computer was the PC, released in 1981. Within two years the PC had created a large new ecosystem of hardware and software, nearly leading the home computer market  with 26% of all microcomputers sold in 1983, second only to the much less expensive Commodore 64.

For a year before the PCjr's announcement, the computer industry discussed rumors of a new IBM product, code named "Peanut", that would repeat the PC's success. The rumors described Peanut as a home computer with $64 KB$ of memory that would be IBM PC compatible, benefit from IBM's service network and, at US$600 to US$1000, be less expensive than the Apple IIe. IBM repeatedly denied these rumors,  but customers visited stores attempting to buy the product and rivals' revenue, product plans, and share prices reacted to the officially nonexistent computer in what the press called "Peanut Panic" or "The Great Peanut Roast".

By September 1983, books and magazine articles on Peanut were ready for publishing, with only a few changes needed once the still officially nonexistent computer appeared. Software companies prepared to market products as "Peanut compatible" with the computer of which, rumors said, IBM would produce 500,000 units in the first year. Adweek estimated that IBM would spend US$75 million on marketing, including an alleged license of Charles Schulz's Peanuts characters. Smalltalk magazine in August published a detailed article on the computer, stating that it would cost US$600 plus US$400 for a disk drive, use a color TV as a display, and have a standard typewriter keyboard.

Announcement
IBM announced the PCjr on November 1, 1983, at its New York City headquarters with an enormous amount of advance publicity, including live news coverage of the event.

Experts predicted, according to The Washington Post, that the PCjr would "quickly become the standard by which all other home computers are measured" and estimated sales of one million or more in 1984, expecting the PCjr to change the home-computer market in a similar way to how the IBM PC had changed the business-microcomputer market. They predicted that the PCjr would extend IBM's dominance, with customers able to use the company's computers in the home and in the office. Texas Instruments left the market four days before IBM's announcement, after losing US$223 million in nine months against Commodore by selling its 99/4A for as low as US$99.

Developers began creating PCjr software in 1982. Sierra On-Line, SPC, and The Learning Company were among those that produced games, productivity, and educational software as launch titles, using detailed IBM production outlines under a policy of strictly enforced security.

The PCjr's graphics and sound features were superior to the PC's, and PC Magazine speculated that "the PCjr might be the best game machine ever designed". Prominent among launch titles was Sierra's graphical adventure King's Quest I, much of whose US$850000 budget was paid by IBM.

Release and reception

The PCjr was released in March 1984, missing the 1983 Christmas sales season due to production delays.

Even prior to release, anticipation of the machine was mixed. Ziff Davis, publisher of the successful PC Magazine, printed the first issue of PCjr Magazine before the first units shipped, and competing computer magazines included Peanut, PCjr World, jr, and ''Compute! for the PC and PCjr''. However, as new information became available about the machine, retailers became deeply concerned about its marketability.

When the PCjr became widely available in March 1984 sales were below expectations. Consumer interest was reportedly high until demonstration machines were available, at which point interest dropped steeply. Dealers reported that consumers disliked the price, keyboard, and limited memory, and retailers that sold primarily to business customers did not know how to market it.

The press soon reported that the PCjr could embarrass IBM, with executives reportedly worrying about demand. Stores began discounts while vendors slowed plans to release products. IBM admitted that demand for the PCjr was not growing as rapidly as expected. By May 1984 it had only sold 10,000 units, while other companies were reported to be slow in developing software for the system.

In response to the surprising lack of interest, IBM began early discounts of up to US$370 in June, lowering the two models' prices to US$599 and US$999, but many of its dealers could not sell their initial shipments of 25 computers each. IBM allowed them to postpone paying for inventory for 180 days, but inventory continued to pile up. By August the PCjr was being described as a flop.

Issues
One of the most significant complaints about the PCjr was its chiclet keyboard, which was described as unsuitable for serious typing and "nearly useless." The lack of direct function keys was a pain point for word processing.

Cost
The PCjr's cost was its biggest disadvantage, even more so than the keyboard. The price point was perceived as too high for a home computer, but not powerful enough for a business machine. IBM's lack of clear messaging on their target market (home, schools, or executives working at home) made it difficult for software developers, consumers, and dealers to prepare for the product. The price point was perceived as targeting a market that did not exist. IBM was surprised to learn that many of the initial customers for the PCjr were not home users as they assumed, but instead businesses who wanted a cheaper PC that took less space on a desk.

IBM failed to recognize that many consumers wanted a computer more sophisticated than those that cost less than US$500, but did not want to spend more than US$1000. The PCjr offered no compelling reason to spend that much. The PCjr cost more than twice as much as the C64 and the Atari 8-bit computers, while inferior to both for videogames. Spinnaker, a game developer, stated that they discontinued development for the PCjr when they learned of the actual price.

Consumers were reportedly much more excited about the also-new Macintosh 128K, which was more sophisticated but only cost US$300 more, with accessories and software. The Macintosh reportedly outsold the IBM product during their first two months on the market. The PCjr's price was close to that of the Coleco Adam, but the Adam also included a tape drive, a printer, and software. A realistic cost including peripherals was US$2000 and other configurations cost $3,000 or more.

The IIe was the PCjr's most direct competition. Although the PC outsold it Apple sold almost 110,000 units in December 1983, in part to customers who had waited until details of the PCjr became available. Apple estimated that 80% of its dealers sold IBM and Apple computers, and many visitors who were disappointed by the PCjr, or curious about the Macintosh, reportedly left with a IIe instead. The latter was so popular that a shortage occurred in early 1984.

The US$669 PCjr model compared favorably to a US$1400 IIe also with $128 KB$ and no floppy drive, but Apple lowered their computer's price as part of a "Starter System" package, with monitor and floppy drive, to a price as low as US$1300, plus a 30% discount for the important education market. In April 1984 Apple introduced the Apple IIc, a portable version with a more compact form factor, $64 kB$ of RAM, and a floppy drive. Although the PCjr's CPU was superior, the IIc—which Apple did not describe as a home computer, to avoid the "game machine" connotation—had an excellent keyboard and was compatible with the Apple II's enormous software library.

Compatibility
By early 1984, PC compatibility was vital for any new, non-Apple computer's success. IBM had expected that most customers in the market would be new to computers, but 75% of the market were familiar with computers and wanted to run business software on the PCjr. An important market was executives who took data home to work on applications such as Lotus 1-2-3 and Peanut had been rumored to be fully PC compatible, so many customers visited stores believing that the PCjr could run most PC software.

IBM's intent was for the PCjr to be perceived as a unique platform, like most other home computers, and their documentation stated it was "a different computer than the PC", but with "a high level of programming compatibility." Nonetheless, potential customers perceived it as a variant of the PC, not a unique platform. While many PC applications would run, specific compatibility issues existed with software that used more than 128K of RAM or required more than one floppy disk drive.

Thousands of PC applications did require more than 128K of memory and two disk drives, making the PCjr incompatible with about 60% of software by some measures, including the popular word-processing program WordStar and Lotus 1-2-3, common applications used to test PC compatibility. IBM's own DisplayWrite was released as a unique PCjr version. These compatibility limitations made the computer unsuitable for taking work home, although a PCjr variant of 1-2-3 was eventually released.

Ultimately, the PCjr was perceived as not having a killer app to make up for these limitations. Software incompatibility made it inadequate as a business machine, but poor performance with arcade-style games made it inadequate as a games machine.

Limited hardware expansion
Computer dealers quickly identified the PCjr's limited hardware expansion capability as another major disadvantage. ROM cartridges had small storage capacity, requiring, for instance, two cartridges and a floppy disk for the PCjr version of Lotus 1-2-3, which also had difficulty fitting complex spreadsheets into 128K of RAM. IBM published technical details for the PCjr as it had done for the IBM PC to encourage third parties to develop accessories, but did not offer a second floppy drive, hard drive, or memory beyond 128 KB.

While multiple sidecar expansion units could be attached, they took up a lot of space, and the computer required additional power supplies to support a second floppy drive or more than one sidecar. IBM advised against adding more than four sidecars. The PCjr also lacks a DMA controller, so the 8088 CPU has to service floppy disk transfers directly, causing the system to momentarily freeze while accessing a disk. The PCjr also cannot use modems faster than 2400 baud.

Response to poor sales
By mid-1984, the PCjr had experienced months of bad publicity, and dealers were panicking. Sales were poor and falling each month before rising slightly with the June discounts, and each dealer sold an average of 15 units total in the first half of the year. Apple sold almost as many IIc computers on its first day as PCjr since introduction.

IBM downplayed complaints about the keyboard, but in July announced that it would replace the chiclet keyboards, for free, with a new model with conventional typewriter-style keys. This was perceived as unusually generous even for IBM, especially within the computer industry. By replacing the keyboards IBM was acknowledging the original models were a mistake.

In August 1984, IBM began a massive advertising campaign which ran through the end of the year. They reduced the PCjr's list price, offering a US$999 package meant to be superior to the comparably priced Apple IIe and IIc, and they introduced new IBM-made memory expansion options to bring the machine to 512 KB. As part of $32.5 million in advertising for the computer during 1984, it began what the company described as the most extensive marketing campaign in IBM history, in which 98% of Americans would see at least 30 PCjr advertisements in the last four months of the year. Three simultaneous bundled software promotions, a sweepstakes with Procter & Gamble, and direct mail to more than 10 million people marketed the redesigned computer, while deemphasizing the PCjr's role as a home computer and emphasizing PC compatibility. Advertisements listed the new price, "new typewriter-style keyboard", standard 128 KB of memory and expansion options, the PCjr version of 1-2-3, and the ability to "run over a thousand of the most popular programs written for the IBM PC". A $500 rebate to dealers let them include a free color monitor with the discounted PCjr.

Despite widespread skepticism, what became known as the "Save-the-Junior campaign" succeeded in the short term. Sales rose every month from June (1.9 units sold per store) to September (4.2) and many dealers reported selling more in the weeks following the changes than in the previous seven months. The more expensive model now cost the $64 kB$ that had originally been expected prior to release. With the new hardware options and lower prices consumers could buy a PCjr for US$1000 less than a comparable PC.

The PCjr reportedly became the best-selling computer, outselling the Apple IIe and IIc by four to one in some stores and even the C64. As sales reached an estimated 50 per store in December dealers increased inventories, and Tecmar resumed production of PCjr peripherals after retailers suddenly began ordering its products again.

Discontinuation
By January 1985, IBM had sold an estimated 240,000-275,000 PCjrs, 200,000 of which were sold in the fourth quarter of 1984. When the discounts ended, however, sales decreased abruptly and inventories began to stack up again. By this time, three PCjr-specific magazines had ended their publications with significant losses. IBM was unable to meet the demand for its new PC AT business microcomputer, but the home-computer market was in decline and the company was likely unable to make a sufficient profit when selling the PCjr at a discount.

IBM discontinued the PCjr on March 19, 1985, stating that "The home market didn't expand to the degree I.B.M. and many observers thought it would". The surprise decision by IBM's CEO John Akers astounded software developers, some of which only made PCjr products. Rumored to have 100,000 to 400,000 unsold PCjrs despite not having ordered new microprocessors from Intel since summer 1984, the company offered large discounts to its employees and consumers. Inventory remained through Christmas 1985, and IBM used discounts as well as radio and full-page print ads to try to sell off remaining stocks.

Legacy
The press widely covered the failure of the PCjr. Although the machine's failure had little effect on IBM's revenue ($46 billion in 1984) discontinuing such a prominent product embarrassed IBM. The failure was so great that it was compared to the Edsel and New Coke, and IBM reportedly created a Chiclet rule, requiring human factors testing for future products.

Some analysts speculated that IBM's bureaucratic culture, so different from that of the less-rigid Boca Raton division that created the PC, had resulted in the failure, while others thought that the absence of IBM's cautious and thorough bureaucrats had caused it. Don Estridge said their mistake had been to expect that first-time computer users would buy a PCjr. It was perceived by developers that IBM had entered the market without doing any research.

Tandy Corporation released a clone, the Tandy 1000, in November 1984, describing it as "what the PCjr should have been". After the PCjr's discontinuation, Tandy quickly removed any mention of it in advertising, while emphasizing the 1000's PC compatibility. The machine and its many successors sold well, unlike the PCjr, partly because the Tandy 1000 was sold in ubiquitous Radio Shack stores and partly because it was less costly, easier to expand, and almost entirely compatible with the IBM PC. The PCjr's enhanced graphics and sound standards became known as "Tandy-compatible", and many PC games advertised their Tandy support. One company developed a PCjr modification that made it compatible with Tandy software.

Ultimately, the PCjrs failure was attributed to its lack of PC compatibility. As PC clones became widely available at prices as low as $600, less than the price of the Apple IIc, consumers began purchasing DOS computers for the home in large numbers, and these inexpensive clones succeeded with consumers where the PCjr had failed, by being as fast as, or faster than the IBM PC while still being highly compatible.

Several upgrades for the PCjr were designed by IBM/Teledyne but never reached store shelves before the PCjr was canceled. These included a wireless joystick and various memory and drive upgrades. PC Enterprises became the last of the major third-party vendors to supply full service, parts, and add-ons, extending the functional life of the PCjr to about 10 years, often buying out inventory and rights for PCjr support.

Other manufacturers provided support items for PCjr fans, such as hard drive attachments and specialized sidecars that the user could use to enhance the system. The PCjr was able to run other software designed for the PC, such as word processor, database and spreadsheet programs ran well on the PCjr with 128K of memory. When fully expanded to over 600K memory, the PCjr would run most IBM PC software.

IBM returned to the home market in 1990 with the PS/1. Unlike the PCjr, the PS/1 offered full PC compatibility, a low price, and a conventional keyboard.

title: IBM PCjr


text:
Talk:Kirkpatrick Doctrine

Untitled
The last paragraph is bad as worded. I understand what it's trying to say, but as it says it, it's bad. The notion of greater stability does not mean absolute stability. Part of Kirkpatrick's point was that communist countries tended to have more oligarchic structures, with the result that the regime could continue despite the death of the leader. This in turn was due to the ideological focus of the governing elite. By contrast, a merely "authoritarian" regime was supposedly based much more on the personal charisma and authority of a single person, and thus wouldn't survive in the same form to the next leader.

The collapse of any particular regime doesn't do anything to prove or disprove the thesis. It might be obvious; I think the thesis is more or less correct, though I strongly disagree with the ethical conclusion that it's ok to make buddy-buddy with "authoritarian" states or that their human rights abuses are less worthy of challenge. --Tb 22:54, 29 Jul 2003 (UTC)

The right wing
Deleted from intro:

 * right-wing, ...

Since "right-wing" includes fascism and Kirkpatrick explicitly condemns fascism as "totalitarian", it would be misleading to use it to described her doctrine - especially in the intro.

How does right wing include fascism? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 129.33.1.37 (talk) 10:21, 4 June 2008 (UTC)

Perhaps later in the article we could clarify that certain parties (who, of course, should be named explicitly) regard anti-communism as right wing despite Kirkpatrick's, er, "typology". (What the hell is a typology, anyway?)

Trying to control everything = totalitarianism. This means in particular fascism and Communism.

Trying to control a lot of stuff, for the benefit of the elite, but otherwise letting people have an acceptable degree of personal autonomy, is what Kirkpatrick termed authoritarianism.

Whether she was right about the wisdom of pitting "authoritarian" regimes against Communist regimes, is another thing. Let's just get the description correct, first of all. Only then will we have a basis for criticism of her ideas. (I myself am not so user her idea was so wise, even if like her I think the Communism of USSR, Cuba and North Korea far worse than even Pinochet's authoritarianism.)

First describe what SHE saw as the distinction (a vs. t); second, her reasoning about the strategy of pitting one against the other; third, critiques of (a) the distinction and/or (b) the strategy.

I daresay many leftists bristle at having their cherished Marxist or socialist ideas lumped in with Hitler and Mussolini's fascist ideas. This may be part of the reason it's so hard to write a clear and unbiased article. Uncle Ed 18:33, 28 October 2005 (UTC)

Table of good and bad
recomending changes to the first paragraph The Kirkpatrick Doctrine was a political doctrine expounded by United States of America Ambassador to the United Nations Jeane Kirkpatrick in the early 1980s to justify US support for Third World anti-Communist dictatorships in the context of the Cold War. Under the doctrine, the U.S. gave support to dozens of regimes worldwide that brazenly committed murder and genocide against their peoples. This sounds as though she made up the Kirkpatrick docterine in order to moralize US policy. The Kirkpatrick docterine, in large part stems from a disagreement with the Carter administration as expressed in her essay Dictatorships and Double Standards Anyone who has not taken the time to read this should not comment on this docterine. Also, It seems like this page has things reversed concerning her understanding of Communist versus authoritarian regimes. ". Kirkpatrick claimed that totalitarian regimes were more stable than authoritarian regimes, and thus had a greater propensity to influence neighboring states" The reality is the opposite. Because communist regimes lacked civilain stability, that they posed a greater threat to their neighbors. Indeed when Stalin died no one would have guessed that Kruschev would repalce him and much less the half hearted antistalinism. On the other hand did anyone doubt that baby Doc Duvalier would replace his father? Communist regime had to retain their revolutionary character and thus their inherent instability. No matter how "westernized" a given leader was, he could not make substantial reforms without undermining the parties position and thus its legitimacy. Clearly authouritarian regimes were not immune to palace coups, but were less likely to menace their neighbors. Kirkpatrick seems to have believed that authoritarian regimes, could over time be led toward liberalization, but certainly not while communist rebels Often supported by the soviet union or china) sought their demise. In this context any comprimise with a revolutionary movement bent on their destruction could only weaken the existing regime.

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Roskilde Festival

The Roskilde Festival is a Danish music festival held annually south of Roskilde. It is one of the largest music festivals in Europe and the largest in the Nordic countries. It was created in 1971 by two high school students and a promoter. In 1972, the festival was taken over by the Roskilde Foundation, which has since run the festival as a non-profit organization for development and support of music, culture and humanism. In 2014, the Roskilde Foundation provided festival participants with the opportunity to nominate and vote upon which organizations should receive funds raised by the festival.

The Roskilde Festival was Denmark's first music-oriented festival created for hippies, and today covers more of the mainstream youth from Scandinavia and the rest of Europe. Most festival visitors are Danes, but there are also many visitors from elsewhere, especially the other Scandinavian countries and Germany.

The beginning

The first Roskilde Festival was held on 28 and 29 August 1971, originally named the Sound Festival. It was created by two high schoolers, Mogens Sandfær and Jesper Switzer Møller, and promoter Carl Fischer. It was inspired by festivals and youth gatherings like Newport, Isle of Wight and Woodstock. It was characterized mainly by poor management but also great enthusiasm. The festival's inaugural year saw roughly 20 bands ranging from folk, jazz, rock and pop genres all playing on a single stage, which lasted for two days with some 10,000–13,000 visitors. Because of a lack of time and funds, the two high schoolers withdrew and the next year's festival, under the name Fantasy Festival, was arranged by the non-profit Roskilde Foundation and the American folk singer Tony Busch. The foundation had been involved in Roskilde's city festival since 1932 and had the necessary contacts. Unlike the first year, the 1972 festival produced a surplus and the foundation was able to donate 50,000 dkk (equalling c. 330,000 dkk in 2020) to local projects for children and youths. Many volunteers had been involved in the 1972 festival and this, along with being non-profit, would become a hallmark of the future festivals. Since 1973, the Roskilde Foundation (today known as the Roskilde Festival Group) alone has been responsible for arranging the festival.

In 1978, festival organizers acquired the Canopy Scene, an orange musical stage previously used by the Rolling Stones on a European tour. Since its beginning, the Canopy Scene and its characteristic arches have become a well-known symbol and logo representing the festival.

Expansion and professionalization

By the early 1980s, the festival was large and well-established, but the workload had become unmanageable for an organization of all-volunteers. It was decided that a professional board of directors and people in several other fields were necessary. Nevertheless, the festival remains non-profit and still relies heavily on thousands of volunteers.

From the 1980s, there has been an expansion in the music genres represented at the festival and more stages have been added. They have continued their history of hiring a combination of large international bands, local bands, and up-and-coming bands, like U2 in 1981. In the 1990s, electronic music was introduced to the festival. In 1991, Club Roskilde was held, which was an electronic music dance club held in the evenings. In 1995, electronic music artists received their own stage. In the following years, even more room for electronic music was created by the establishment of the chill-out zone and the Roskilde Lounge. Since then, artists like Fatboy Slim, The Prodigy, Basement Jaxx and Chemical Brothers appeared on the main stage.

By the 1990s, the number of tickets offered for sale was restricted and later even reduced. Due to steadily increasing popularity of the festival, the number of visitors had increased to up to 125,000. In addition, 90,000 tickets for about 25,000 volunteers, 5,000 media people and 3,000 artists were added. In order to preserve the quality of the festival, the festival organizers decided to limit the number of participants. The distance from the rearmost part of the camping area to the stages of the festival management seemed to have become unreasonable. The festival had become so popular that the festival management decided in 1994 to expand the festival area to the west, providing more space without increasing distances between the campgrounds and the concert venues. The festival site was now divided by the small railway line into two parts. In 1995 the festival inaugurated its own train station, which facilitates the arrival of visitors. In 1997, another tent called Roskilde Ballroom was built. If Roskilde Festival visitors are included in the population of Roskilde, it is the fourth-largest city in Denmark.

In the 2000s, there has been an increasing focus on the footprint of the festival. In 2017, 90 percent of the food sold in food stalls at the festival was organic and a container-deposit system (expanded compared to the one that already exists in Denmark) has been introduced, which resulted in more than eight million items being returned in that year's festival alone. There are programs for efficient waste sorting, increase of recycling levels, and a reduction of the amount of garbage produced. A partnership with DSB has resulted in more direct train links between the Copenhagen Central Station and the Roskilde Festival station, making it easier to reach by public transport.

Stages

The bands presented at Roskilde Festival are traditionally a balanced mix of large, well-known artists, cutting-edge artists from all contemporary genres, popular crowd-pleasing acts plus local Scandinavian headliners and up-and-coming names.

The stages were until 2003 named after their colour, but as the names had not matched the actual color of the tents for a period, it was decided to rename all stages except the Orange Stage, the central and main stage. The Orange Stage is open in front of a huge field, whereas the other tents cover the whole audience, the largest of which is the Arena stage (formerly known as Green Stage), the largest tent in Europe with an official capacity of 17,000 people. The 2007 edition saw two new tents, replacing Ballroom (1997–2006) which presented mainly World music, and Metropol (2003–2006) which presented mainly Electronica. In 2010 two stages, Astoria (from 2007) and Lounge, did not return, due to a slight shift in focus towards fewer, but bigger bands. In 2014 the Odeon stage was cancelled along with the surrounding sustainable-style food outlets, and the area was replaced with pre-booked tents for festival guests that prefer not to bring their own.

The music covers such styles as rock, Hip Hop, Metal, urban, electronica and 3rd world contemporary music. It has become a tradition to let a Danish act open the Orange Stage on the first day of the festival. There are often surprising performances by classical acts, film-music, opera etc.

Apart from music there is always some theatre and 'lone acts' wandering around the festival site. Terrain and tents are always decorated in various ways. The current tents are:

Campsite
The festival campsite covers nearly 80 ha and access to it is included in the ticket price. It usually opens on Saturday afternoon prior to the festival itself. Apart from the small and separate Camping South it is divided into two areas, East and West, each comprising a service center with establishments ranging from food stalls to a cinema. The campsite is further divided into 'agoras' that provide toilets, cell phone charging and luggage storage. They also host events according to each agora's theme.

As of 2018, a new gate system has been installed. This means that all guests arriving first fill 7 rows of the gate system (1000 people in each). Behind this, a large field holding all remaining guests. At 16:00 on the opening Saturday, the gates open, one row at a time at approx 90sec intervals. Once this is complete, the remaining guest in the back area are free to enter the camping area. The concert sites only open the following day.

Every year since 1999, on the Saturday of the festival (held on a Thursday in 2015, 2016 and 2017), Roskilde Festival Radio organizes a naked run in a fenced-in track around the camp site. One male and one female winner receive a ticket for the next year's festival. The run has subsequently become a very popular and "legendary" part of the festival.

Newspaper

The Orange Press (named after the main stage) was a newspaper that specifically dealt with events relevant to the festival. First published in 2008, it was made by more than 70 journalists, photographers and music reviewers. It was published daily during the festival and available online and on-site for free until its last issue in 2022. The festival has since decided to focus more on digital communication.

2000 crush
During Pearl Jam's concert at the Orange Stage on 30 June 2000, a crowd crush occurred. Nine people died, and twenty-six people were injured, three of them seriously. The dead, all male, were a 26-year-old German, a 23-year-old Dutchman, a 24-year-old Australian (who died a few days later in a hospital), three Swedes, two aged 22 and one 20, and three Danes, one aged 22 and two aged 17.

The concert began late in the evening around 22:30 CET and had an audience of about 50,000, a fairly typical size for large concerts at this stage. About half an hour after the concert began, many people fell down at one place, primarily due to a series of wave-like motions in the audience, which were the result of some trying to get closer to the stage. When they did not immediately get up, others were pushed over them and crowd surfers fell into this "hole" that was a few metres in size. The people at the bottom died of asphyxiation, likely within five minutes. On the day of the incident, there was also heavy rainfall, which could have contributed to the ground being slippery.

Most people who fell were at a location not far from the stage, but initially not easily seen and out of easy reach for the security guards because of the dense crowd. Some of the concertgoers who were lifted over the barrier at the stage told the security about the seriousness of the situation further back. The band was informed and stopped the music, and told the crowd to step back. This had some effect, but it still took several more minutes before it was possible to get all the victims.

The victims were taken to the adjacent medical tent where they were treated by nurses and doctors, but for some it was already too late. The victims needing further medical treatment were subsequently transferred by ambulances to Roskilde Hospital, about 2 km from the concert site. None of the people who died were under the influence of drugs and none were heavily impaired by alcohol. In the area where the main fall happened, several women had been helped out earlier because they were nervous about the pushing and crowd surfers; this might explain why all the people who died were men. Because of the large size of the concert, some concertgoers only realized how serious it had been after they had left the venue.

Other bands at Roskilde cancelled their performances, whereas D.A.D. (the unofficial "house band" of the festival), which already was scheduled to hold the festival's final concert, decided to change it into a sensitive memorial concert for the people who had not yet left the festival. The incident was examined separately by police, public prosecutors, and subsequent civil trials, all of which determined that it was accidental and that there had been no criminal actions, although the response time from when the people fell over until they were rescued was criticized.

Before this, there had not been major incidents at Roskilde and it was generally considered a very safe festival. Following a detailed review, several new measures were implemented such as a larger safety area with extra emergency exits in front of the stage, more "hard" and "soft" systems to control the number of people allowed into each concert, more spacing and clear separation between audience sections with separate entrances/exits, an expanded video surveillance system making it easier to detect potential problems early, more guards among the audience, an emergency system where the safety staff can shut down the entire concert at the push of a single button, and the chain-of-command was strengthened. Each year, the Roskilde Festival performs a new safety review. A safety network of European festivals and concerts, along with experts, was started (the "YES Group") and many of the measures introduced in Roskilde have later been added elsewhere. As crowd surfing seems to have been among the precipitating factors, it was subsequently forbidden at many festivals in Europe. In part because of the accident at Roskilde, Glastonbury Festival in the United Kingdom was cancelled in 2001 to implement extra safety measures.

Pearl Jam's song "Love Boat Captain" references the tragedy with the line "Lost nine friends we'll never know... two years ago today." When performed in concert, lead singer Eddie Vedder modifies the lyric to reflect the passage of time since the tragedy. Before the opening of the 2001 festival, a memorial to those killed in 2000 containing a stone with the inscription "How fragile we are" (a quote from the Sting song "Fragile") surrounded by nine trees had been made. At the official opening of the 2010 festival (the 10-year anniversary), Patti Smith held the short pre-concert ceremony, and she chose to open the tribute with accompanying music from Mozart. Her lead guitarist, Lenny Kaye, then read out the nine men's names while Smith threw nine roses into the crowd.

2005
The 2005 edition featured artists such as Audioslave, Autechre, Snoop Dogg, Black Sabbath, D-A-D, Duran Duran, Foo Fighters, Green Day, Brian Wilson, Fantômas, Kent, Sonic Youth, Interpol and more than 160 other bands and DJs. This year was also a huge contrast to the previous year on the weather front. Hot and sunny all week.

2006
With more than 79,000 paying visitors (as well as approximately 20,000 volunteer day workers), the 2006 festival was among the biggest in Europe for the year. With only one day of rain and the rest of the week being sunny, this festival also ranks as one with lucky weather conditions. Changes from the previous year included a new swimming lake – which proved to be very successful due to the warm and sunny weather – and a lounge stage called Bar'n. Some of the performing artists were Bob Dylan, Immortal Technique, Roger Waters, Guns N' Roses, Tool, The Strokes, Deftones, Morrissey, Franz Ferdinand, Kanye West, Placebo, Bullet for My Valentine, Arctic Monkeys, Sigur Rós and The Streets. Danish band Magtens Korridorer opened Orange Stage.

2007
Roskilde Festival 2007 turned out to be the wettest one yet, by a rather large margin: Approximately 46 mm of rain fell during the course of the festival, as opposed to 43 mm in 1997, which was the wettest before 2007. The full programme was released on 19 April 2007 and included bands such as Muse, Queens of the Stone Age, Björk, Beastie Boys, My Chemical Romance, Arctic Monkeys, The Who, Red Hot Chili Peppers, The Killers, Tiësto, Nephew and L.O.C. Danish band Volbeat opened Orange Stage.

2008
Roskilde Festival 2008 was dry with the exception of a 10-minute shower on Saturday 5 July and rain that started around 22:00 on Sunday 6 July. The sun shone for the rest of the festival. The full programme was released on 16 April 2008 and included Jay-Z, The Chemical Brothers, Band of Horses, Duffy, Kings of Leon, Neil Young, Radiohead, Grinderman, My Bloody Valentine, Gnarls Barkley, Girl Talk, The Dillinger Escape Plan, The Streets, Judas Priest, Slayer, Tina Dickow, and the Hellacopters.

2009
Petter performed at the festival and had prominent visitors on stage such as Dee Pee from Rockers By Choice, and L.O.C, Nine Inch Nails, Kanye West, Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds, Oasis, Coldplay, Faith No More, The Mars Volta, Volbeat, Slipknot, Lily Allen and Pet Shop Boys, Malk de Koijn, Trentemøller and Jooks.

2010
Main names in 2010 were Gorillaz, Nephew,Them Crooked Vultures, Alice In Chains, Dizzy Mizz Lizzy, The Prodigy, Muse, Kashmir, Prince and Motörhead. The weather at 2010 festival was warm and sunny.

2011
The 2011 had nice weather the first few days, but on Thursday-Friday there was massive rain. The tickets were sold out, with a projected profit of around 10 million Kr. The opening of Orange Stage was done by Danish Veto, and was closed by Kings of Leon. On 2 July, a 35-year-old German woman died after she, in an apparent attempt of teasing the guards, crawled over a safety barrier and accidentally fell 26 m from the Tuborg tower (the tower was subsequently removed entirely).

2013
The 2013 festival featured acts such as Metallica, Sigur Rós, Volbeat, Kvelertak, Goat, Queens of the Stone Age, C2C, Daedelus, Slipknot, Disclosure, Chase and Status, Baauer, Holy Other, Jam City, Vatican Shadow and When Saints Go Machine and Rihanna.

2017

The 2017 festival featured acts such as Foo Fighters, Arcade Fire, The Weeknd, The xx, Ice Cube, Justice, Moderat, Solange, Lorde and Trentemøller.

2018
The 2018 festival featured acts such as Joey Badass, Black Star, David Byrne, Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds, Descendents, Eminem, Fever Ray, First Aid Kit, Fleet Foxes, Four Tet, Ben Frost, Charlotte Gainsbourg, Gorillaz, Interpol, C.V. Jørgensen, Khalid, Dua Lipa, Chelsea Manning, Bruno Mars, Massive Attack, Mogwai, Pablo Moses, My Bloody Valentine, Nephew, Nine Inch Nails, Odesza, Anderson Paak & The Free Nationals, Mike Skinner, St. Vincent, Vince Staples, Stone Sour, Stormzy, The Minds of 99, Alex Vargas and When Saints Go Machine.

2019
The 2019 festival, which had a lineup of over 170 artists, featured acts such as Tears for Fears, The Cure, Bob Dylan, Robert Plant, Travis Scott, Noel Gallagher, Cardi B, Cypress Hill, Neneh Cherry, Rosalía, Testament, Philip H. Anselmo & the Illegals, Ulver, and Behemoth.

2020
The 2020 festival with performers such as Taylor Swift, Deftones, Thom Yorke, and others was supposed to start on 1 July, but was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

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