text:
Talk:Combine harvester

A Lot More Work on Progression of Technology
First, we have the sickle bar mower, a sharp-toothed device moving back and forth between fixed point, thus allowing a shearing of the crop. (Note that ripe, dry crop stalks are far easier to cut than "green" ones) such devices are still in common usage--occasionally in roadside trimming, though much of this is done by a rotary mower which is little more than a very large version of a common 20" home lawn mower. Next, we have the Cyrus McCormick reaper which collected an amount of cut crop on a platform and dropped it in a pile This progressed rapidly to the binder which collected several hundred stalks of crop, and with the help of a mechanical knotter (we need to give credit to this inventor), tied them into a bundle. Improvements quickly allowed the collection of a number of bundles into a "shock."  The Wichita State University sports teams logo is the Shockers....yes, it looks like a huge bundle of wheat (Kansas is the wheat state) with the grain heads drooping from the top.  The next step is the development of a threshing machine, which, though mobile to move from site to site, is stationary in use, with a steam or gas/diesel/oil burning tractor to provide power via a large, flat drive belt, often over 100 feet in length. Workers threw bundles of ripe grain stalks into the feeding intake mechanism with pitch forks, from hopper trailers of wheat shocks which had been collected from the fields. A threshing crew could easily be a dozen or more men--at least four to six to collect the wheat in the field--two more to run the tractor and fetch water and coal if it was a steam tractor--a chief machine operator--a couple of guys to collect and haul the grain away...and certainly a couple more to tend to the horses. In the plains states of the US, the transition to self-propelled harvester combines coincided with the end of World War II. Early combines often had separate industrial engines and horsedrawn combines before the war obtained rotary power from the forward motion of a large wheel. Even a ground friction driven machine of small width would need at least six horses. I'll let someone else take it regarding the inside mechanicals of a harvester, which involves beating the incoming stalks, with blowers to remove the hulls "which the wind driveth away." (just like in Biblical times--Psalm 1:4) Moving and reciprocating table like devices "walk" the straw to the outlet of the machine, while the seeds fall down in a hopper, as their weight keeps them from going out with the straw. (Modern combines have electronic "eyes" that see seeds going over and not being collected properly, so the farmer/operator can make appropriate adjusments. So, can someone else help me with drawings and photographs? Homebuilding207.178.98.32 (talk) 01:38, 26 February 2008 (UTC)
 * John Appleby of Beloit, Wisconsin invented the knotter used on binders.
 * As an aside, a picture near the bottom of the article shows an old self propelled McCormick combine. Note the chimney-like structure that goes up from the engine's radiator. That's a screen on top. It's up way high to try and keep it out of the chaff that the combine produces.  Chaff was a BIG problem as it clogged the radiators and lead to the engine overheating, ruining the engine. Nowdays you'll find the self-cleaning rotary screens in front of the radiators. Solved the problem nicely. As simple as it is, its extremely important.--71.38.174.228 (talk) 23:58, 14 November 2009 (UTC)

Old talk
This page has more detail which we could mine. Rmhermen 14:42 28 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Well, there's some. Kat 19:25 28 Jul 2003 (UTC)

I know that the leveling concept was invented by a man named "haywire" Hansen but can't find the company or reference too it online. I lived near his house however. If anyone can find info it's an intersting fact. His company was bought out long ago I believe. Jenshegg 23:45, 17 Feb 2005 (UTC)

The thing I noticed is that about half the article is dedicated to sidehill combining but no mention of what happens to the crop after it is cut and conveyed into the throat is made. If I had time, the other things I would add would be (1) mention of price (these are extremely expensive machines) and how it forces many (at least American) farmers to hire out "custom combine" services and (2) a picture of a modern combine with a wide wheat header to demonstrate how wide a swath the machine can cut in one pass. Ari 19:04, 27 Feb 2005 (UTC)

 * (on 1)Swedish and danish versions mention a "high cost per hour" due to the short period of use and the high price.
 * (on 2) I saw an article mentioning that John Deere were the largest in march this year, thou this was in Denmark with small fields, and "just above 30 ft" doesn't seem that large to me...
 * This site list a 40 foot width as the largest in the world apparently. Another site talks about a effective 20 foot width as being common after allowing for overlap using more common equipment. Rmhermen 18:16, 16 October 2005 (UTC)

Unfortunately no pics in the article, so no link G®iffen 16:33, 16 October 2005 (UTC)

Date of invention?
https://mobile.abc.net.au/news/2018-09-18/headlie-taylor-father-of-the-modern-header-harvester-statue/10256308?pfmredir=sm — Preceding unsigned comment added by 49.178.11.131 (talk) 14:27, 18 July 2019 (UTC)

Alvin Toffler in his book Futureshock states that the combine ('a machine that mowed, treshed, tied straw into sheaves and poured grain into sacks') was invented in 1836. Any more references to that? --Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus Talk 14:49, 25 Apr 2005 (UTC)

The above Toffler reference is an incorrect hodge-podge. Various mechanical reapers were built by the 1830s, but they simply cut the grain heads and straw at ground level, leaving them on a platform to be human ties, and then left in the field to dry. The tied bundles were stacked together into shocks. The shocks were collected on wagons and hauled to the site of a stationary threshing machine which were invented in the later 1830s. Horse-drawn combines were made before the widespread use of steam power. (A large wheel on the combine, when drawn forward would operate all mechanical components. It might be fair to say that the labor requirements for harvesting grain were reduced dramatically from 1830 to 1850 and there were many gradual changes in the next 100 years.  By 1950, self-propelled combines were in near universal use in all economically advanced countries.  — Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.97.76.105 (talk) 20:15, 30 November 2015 (UTC)

That almost certainly would be false, as the reaper was only invented in 1831. The binder, which could tie sheaves, was only invented in the mid 1870s. It would take a large team of horses to supply the power needed to run even a primative combine. Also, in the mid 1830's I don't believe that a steam engines were sufficiently advanced either. --71.32.166.217 04:48, 11 August 2005 (UTC)

Incomplete research by Mr. Toffler, obviously.Landroo 05:00, 30 July 2006 (UTC)

Talking about the date, how did HV McKay get missed? The sunshine harvester was the first to be commercialised i think, and that was in 1885. Also i can only find 1 article on Hiran Moore, and all it says is he invented the combine. Poor evidence if you ask me. Shemefle 17:13, 31 October 2009 (AWST)

Just thought that I should add that there is no direct reference to why a "Combine-Harvester" is called a "Combine-Harvester". Of course the machine combines the previous separate processes but in which case one would have thought that it would have been called a "Combined-Harvester" and not a Combine. It would be interesting to know when the terminology came into common use. gilfrid 13:00, 13 September 2009 (GMT)

 * It combined reaping, and threshing (and eliminated the need for binding). --71.38.174.228 (talk) 02:04, 15 November 2009 (UTC)

First Self Propelled
I've got a reference which indicates that the first self propelled combine was a Gleaner, developed starting 1923. The article is from AGCO (Gleaner) and seems to be a bit coy about what it's saying so I'm reluctant to modify the main article. http://www.masseyferguson.com.au/agco/Gleaner/GleanerEAPAC/AboutGleaner/Heritage.htm

The main article states it was invented by Class in 1953. Does anyone out there know of a reference that would show a self-propelled Gleaner combine before 1953? This would invalidate the Class claim.--71.38.174.228 (talk) 02:04, 15 November 2009 (UTC)

The Baldwin Brothers of Nickerson, Kansas invented a variety of mechanical farm improvements and in the early 1920s had a "bolt-on" combine that fitted around a Fordson Model F tractor. They built this for several years, until Fordson stopped production of this tractor. There is a photo of this arrangement at Gleaner in wikipedia. I believe this photo was taken in a mini-museum on the grounds of the AGCO plant in Hesston, Kansas. At this plant, modern Gleaner, Challenger, and Massey-Ferguson combines are made, presently, by the AGCO corporation. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.97.76.105 (talk) 20:30, 30 November 2015 (UTC)

what about Massey Harris (Model #20-21) combines approx 1938-39 —Preceding unsigned comment added by 64.201.218.72 (talk) 01:26, 5 April 2010 (UTC)

The first self propelled combine (of which at least I can give sufficient verifiable information) was manufactured in 1929 in Sunchales, Sta. Fe, Argentina. It is housed in a glass made shed in the same city and in the year 2000 it was refurbished together by the company CLAAS and NIDERA. Sorry, all the links in Spanish.. (by Reinsalkas) http://www.clarin.com/suplementos/rural/2000/01/29/c-00401r.htm http://www.cavaargentina.com/es/noticias-nacionales/argentina-ya-produce-su-primera-cosechadora-mecanica-de-uvas.html http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=651079 http://www.facebook.com/note.php?note_id=416426403377 —Preceding unsigned comment added by 200.2.127.242 (talk) 17:20, 6 May 2010 (UTC)

I did some search and this is what I found.

Sunshine Auto Header (Australia, ~1924): Here are some sentences from the book "Remarkable Australian Farm Machines: Ingenuity on the Land" by Graeme R. Quick: "They took out patents in 1923 and named it the Sunshine Auto Header...The first production Sunshine Auto Headers were released in 1924. They had a 12 foot (3.66 m) cut and were powered by a Fordson 25 HP engine...The Auto Header was produced at the Sunshine Works from 1924 through 1947, by which time a total of 1356 units had been made. In 1932, Massey-Harris had bought into Sunshine ..." There are also many pictures in this book, old and also new ones, showing that there are still a few of them around in working condition.

Gleaner (USA, ~1923): I found some information in the company brochure "Gleaner 85th Anniversary" (http://www.agcoiron.com/fileUpload/GLEANER_85Years_Brochure.pdf): Fordson-mounted, Patent No. 1,702,323 for the company in 1923, sales of around 100 combines, but then, it seems, the company switched to pull-type models, partly due to the "demise of the Fordson". I don't know what that means, maybe it refers to the fact that the production of Fordson tractors in the US ceased in 1928. Gleaner began making SP combines again only in the early 1950's.

Rotonia (Argentina, 1929): Sorry, I do not have any information in addition to what has been said above.

It seems that the first that was really successful in the US, was the Massey-Harris model 21 in the early 1940's, followed by the International Harvester 123-SP (introduced in 1942) and the John Deere 55 (1947). (http://www.livinghistoryfarm.org/farminginthe40s/machines_05.html).

So this statement about Claas being first in 1953 is obviously not true, even if it is written in an article of the London Times.

Maybe some writer can use this information to improve the article. 188.22.162.92 (talk) 21:08, 13 May 2010 (UTC)

Correct Category?
I see the line in the bottom and can't figure out what a combine does in engineering? G®iffen 16:33, 16 October 2005 (UTC)

RE: Old Talk
"Sidehill" machines were produced to deal with harvesting conditions found in the Northwestern US and in Canada. (I'm sure many other parts of the world use these features also, however, I will speak from an American's point of view).

Problems with conventional cylinder\walker machines when operated on hillsides are many. First, the cylinder and really, the entire seperator likes to deal with a consistant amount of material through-out it's entire width. When operating on a hillside, the material will tend to fall to the low side of the machine. This causes issues with slugging the cylinder. (Slugging a cylinder is a slang term where the operator has allowed the cylinder to become overloaded with material, or fed it green material. The distance between the rasp bars and the concave bars is typically 1/4" or less.  The cylinder can not deal with the influx of green or too much material and it stops turning abruptly.)  The cylinder can not process the material properly in a hillside condition, so this will leave grain in the head that will continue through the machine and be 'thrown-over' the straw walkers.  The grain that is processed along with the straw and chaff material will continue to the shoe and overload the downhill side of the seives.  The fan can not lift the bunched up straw and chaff properly. This causes throw over as the clean grain goes out the back with this overload of material.

The Sidehill feature is simply a method by which we allow the front axle to pivot independatly from the rest of the machine. Hydraulic cylinders are connected to both ends of the axle and can be adjusted to level the seperator up to about 15 degrees of axle pivot.(KF)

On Cost: In 1980, a brand new, mid-range "John Deere 7720 Titan" could be purchased from the dealership for $80,000 USD. That included the base model, and most features available at the time, such as a Hydrostatic drive, Secondary countershaft sensors, the "Sound-Gard" cab with air-conditioning and an AM/FM/Casette radio. The standard cross-auger 24' Model 224 grain platform header was an extra $15,000. The Deere 643 6-row corn head was around $20,000, and the Deere 653 Row Crop head was also close to $15,000. All 3 were needed if you planned on harvesting your own small grains like wheat or barley, and corn and milo or sunflowers. Total was nearly $130,000 USD.

In 1985, the same setup was $200,000 USD if all the headers were purchased new along with the new 7720 Titan II machine that by itself had gone to $120,000.

Today, a new Top line Deere 9660 WTS (conventional cylinder/walker machine) will cost you $250,000 by itself.

On the subject of headers. In 1920, Holt Caterpiller built a self-propelled machine that had a side mounted 50' wide canvas draper header. This is the largest header ever installed on any combine to-date in the US. Today, common widths are 18,20,24 and 30'. The largest headers are built by Macdon and Shelborn. The Macdon draper headers top out at 39' while the shelborne stripper headers top out at 32'. Deere provides a draper header to 36'.

Rotary vs. Conventional Design
When rotaries were first introduced, larger engines were considered the tradeoff for a better technology. It wasn't long before someone put two and two together, and realized that the same power applied to a conventional machine would produce similar performance. It seemed to make more sense to revert back to conventional machines with better straw-handling capabilities after that.

Perhaps that's why some manufacturers chose to stick to conventional designs, increasing their capacities, while the rotary combine fad was going on. Landroo 19:01, 25 June 2006 (UTC)

Rotary History
Sperry-New Holland introduced rotary combines in 1975. The IH axial flow in 1977 was a copycat. Sperry-New Holland was the innovator of this technology. I've added a reference, but I've seen other references claim the IH was first. Having been around for awhile, and with a farming background I know personally that Sperry New-Holland was first. --71.38.174.228 (talk) 00:33, 15 November 2009 (UTC)

I believe the Roto Thresh was actually the first. http://www.wdm.ca/skteacherguide/WDMResearch/HarvestingDvpt.pdf —Preceding unsigned comment added by 207.195.73.212 (talk) 03:44, 19 July 2010 (UTC)

Depending on how you define a rotary combine, the Roto Thresh was a significant predecessor to most of the rotary designs which appeared in the late 1970s. Although each design had significant differences, they all essentially used the threshing cylinder for most of the separation. The Roto Thresh also used a separate centrifugal separator, apart from the cylinder for separating the chaff from the straw.Landroo (talk) 14:10, 23 September 2010 (UTC)

FYI - Image found on commons
[[Image:Jd9880sts.jpg|thumb|right|] - [[User:Leonard G.|Leonard G.]] 00:45, 22 December 2006 (UTC)

Quick-tach
An anon editor added 'quick-tach' to the Headers section:
 * Combines are equipped with quick-tach removable heads

Some very quick web research suggests that it was originally a Bobcat proprietary system, and therefore should be capitalised (see here).

However, I would suggest that this is a modern development, and should be noted lower down the page.

EdJogg 13:14, 26 February 2007 (UTC)

Combine in popular culture
FIRST I think the Combine from the movie twister should be removed, because it just picks the thing up and drops it, it's like if a semi truck is lifted up in a tornado, you wouldn't have the movie Twister referenced in the article. SECOND consider adding Half-Life 2 because the empire that enslaves mankind is called the combine THIRD In an Itchy And Scratchy episode one of them is rnu over by a combine and Krusty says something about them having fun until getting run over by the thresher

Reply the hl2 really has no real reference. it is a similarity in the name but not in the actual meaning, combine as in enslaving and combine as in harvesting have no relevance to eachother —Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.58.221.6 (talk) 04:05, 21 December 2007 (UTC)

Three Processes
The beginning part of this article states that a combine performs 3 processes which were previously performed separately, but it doesn't state what these three processes are. This seems like a pretty critical fact and should be stated in the openning paragraph. Jlenthe (talk) 16:04, 2 August 2009 (UTC) Hi, I am new to combine harvesters. I was wondering if it would be possible to add a cut away picture so as to show the inner workings of a combine? I can understand the operation as it is described, but a inside view would be helpful. Thanks though for a great article. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 122.108.195.145 (talk) 09:45, 23 September 2010 (UTC)
 * This bothered me too. A quick pass over the article doesn't really explain either. --YixilTesiphon TalkContribs 01:35, 27 October 2009 (UTC)

The name "combine "
I didn't see it in the article. Why "combine"? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 74.196.153.73 (talk) 18:39, 27 June 2011 (UTC)

The name 'combine' refers to the combination of harvesting (collecting) and threshing functions. Prior to WWII, these functions were often separate. We need to go back all the way to the "binder" invented by Cyrus McCormick. These were horse-drawn machines that cut off the near mature stalks/grain heads of various crops, dropping them on a platform where an operator (and later the machine) would tie the crop into bundles. These bundles would be left in the field to dry/mature. As the harvest progressed, numerous bound bundles of grain would be collected into shocks. (These might be five to ten bundles.) When fully mature they would be loaded onto a trailer and hauled to a site where a threshing machine was set up with a steam or petroleum powered tractor. The tractor transferred the power to the machine via a belt which might be as much as ten inches wide with a total length approaching 100 feet. Considerable manual labor was involved in pitching the bundles into the machine, which would beat out the grain while blowing the chaff to a site, typically as far away from steam engine (coal fired) sparks, as possible.

Combining the binding/bundler functions with the threshing functions specifically saves a great deal of labor and requires the specialized combined ("combine") machine. A number of harvesting functions are altered, as well. Grain is now harvested (cut), now, only when the moisture percentage in the kernels is well below 15% (mature grains)--in binder times, the grain was bundled far earlier and wetter. The present procedure increases the risk of hail damage losses, though the spectacularly increased speed of the harvesting--now easily 25 times as fast as during WWII, mitigates this risk, substantially. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 72.198.101.30 (talk) 19:04, 19 January 2012 (UTC)

Effectiveness in a Zombie Apocolypse
How effective would a combine be should the world be introduced to a zombie infestation? Would this vehicle be handy in mowing down a horde of zombies? Or is the perceived possibility of heavy and rapid damage infliction merely a device for Hollywood scenes? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 155.8.89.2 (talk) 08:38, 29 March 2012 (UTC)

I would refer you to Italy, to research a rotary flail device. Invented by Leonardo Da Vinci, it was drawn forward by horses, the rotating wheels transferred power to a circle of flails, perhaps two or three feet above the ground. This deadly machinery was just behind the horseman. I am certain that this information will be of value in planning for future fantasies. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.97.76.105 (talk) 20:39, 30 November 2015 (UTC)

Bakery
In Germany, they now have added threshing, Mixing with water, kneading the dough and leaving it to rise, and baking to harvest breadrolls direct from wheat. I couldn't find any online sources, but have seen this process in operation in Bavaria. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 60.226.138.94 (talk) 19:34, 30 July 2012 (UTC)

Morrow vs McKay
See http://www.radioaustralia.net.au/international/radio/onairhighlights/doubt-on-harvester-history

It's also unclear how stories like that refer to the Australians inventing the first combine harvester (not just the first commercial combine harvester) if an American invented it decades earlier.

David B 114.198.31.180 (talk) 14:24, 25 August 2012 (UTC)

Additional text not appearing in edit mode
Where the hell is this additional "John is gay" text coming from? I can't find it anywhere in edit mode, let alone somewhere it can be removed. Here is an image showing the article in both display and source edit mode. I thought it might be my cache, but that doesn't appear to be the case. --Jasca Ducato (talk) 16:05, 13 December 2013 (UTC)
 * Well, I managed to fix it by reverting ClueBot NG's edit. Somehow :S --Jasca Ducato (talk) 16:07, 13 December 2013 (UTC)

Grain Auger
This article says it was invented by Lyle Yost, yet the article Screw_conveyor says it was Peter Pakosh. 2001:56A:F414:D300:7D01:6086:CA91:97DD (talk) 03:11, 8 June 2016 (UTC)
 * They both claim to have made them in 1947. It appears Yost developed the unloading auger specifically for combines. Pakosh appears to have invented the screw auger, a separate piece of equipment. I can't find pictures of either original model - they may both be very similar and near simultaneous inventions. Rmhermen (talk) 20:21, 8 June 2016 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Combine harvester


text:
AWG (disambiguation)

AWG is an abbreviation for American wire gauge.

AWG may also refer to:

In science and technology:
 * Arbitrary waveform generator, a piece of electronic test equipment used to generate electrical waveforms
 * Arrayed waveguide grating, in telecommunications, an optical (de)multiplexing device
 * Atmospheric water generator, a device that extracts water from humid air
 * Anthropocene Working Group, a research group dedicated to the study of the Anthropocene as a geological time unit

Businesses and organizations:
 * Anglian Water Group, a British water company
 * Association for Women Geoscientists
 * Associated Wholesale Grocers
 * Australian Writers' Guild

Other uses:
 * American Winery Guide, a compendium of wineries in the United States
 * Arctic Winter Games, an international biennial sports competition
 * Aruban guilder, the currency of Aruba by ISO 4217 code
 * Asymmetric Warfare Group, a unit of the United States Army which crafts doctrine for asymmetric warfare

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: AWG (disambiguation)


text:
Anvil

An anvil is a metalworking tool consisting of a large block of metal (usually forged or cast steel), with a flattened top surface, upon which another object is struck (or "worked"). Anvils are massive because the higher their inertia, the more efficiently they cause the energy of striking tools to be transferred to the work piece. In most cases the anvil is used as a forging tool. Before the advent of modern welding technology, it was the primary tool of metal workers.

The great majority of modern anvils are made of cast steel that has been heat treated by either flame or electric induction. Inexpensive anvils have been made of cast iron and low-quality steel, but are considered unsuitable for serious use, as they deform and lack rebound when struck.

The largest single piece tool steel anvil that is heat treated is 1600 pounds. This anvil was made in 2023 by Oak Lawn Blacksmith. There are larger anvils that are made out of multiple pieces such as “The mile long anvil” made by Napier which weighs 6500 pounds. This anvil is not heat treated or made from tool steel.

Structure

The primary work surface of the anvil is known as the face. It is generally made of hardened steel and should be flat and smooth with rounded edges for most work. Any marks on the face will be transferred to the work. Also, sharp edges tend to cut into the metal being worked and may cause cracks to form in the workpiece. The face is hardened and tempered to resist the blows of the smith's hammer, so the anvil face does not deform under repeated use. A hard anvil face also reduces the amount of force lost in each hammer blow. Hammers, tools, and work pieces of hardened steel should never directly strike the anvil face with full force, as they may damage it; this can result in chipping or deforming of the anvil face.

The horn of the anvil is a conical projection used to form various round shapes and is generally unhardened steel or iron. The horn is used mostly in bending operations. It also is used by some smiths as an aid in "drawing down" stock (making it longer and thinner). Some anvils, mainly European, are made with two horns, one square and one round. Also, some anvils are made with side horns or clips for specialized work.

The step is the area of the anvil between the "horn" and the "face". It is soft and is used for cutting; its purpose is to prevent damaging the steel face of the anvil by conducting such operations there and so as not to damage the cutting edge of the chisel, though many smiths shun this practice as it will damage the anvil over time.

There have also been other additions to the anvil such as an upsetting block; this is used to upset steel, generally in long strips/bars as it is placed between the feet of the anvil. Upsetting is a technique often used by blacksmiths for making the steel workpiece short and thick, having probably been originally long and thin.

The hardy hole is a square hole into which specialized forming and cutting tools, called hardy tools, are placed. It is also used in punching and bending operations. These are not to be confused with swage blocks, although their purpose is similar.

The pritchel hole is a small round hole that is present on most modern anvils. Some anvils have more than one. It is used mostly for punching. At times, smiths will fit a second tool to this hole to allow the smith more flexibility when using more than one anvil tool.

Placement
The anvil is placed as near to the forge as is convenient, generally no more than one step from the forge to prevent heat loss in the work piece. An anvil needs to be placed upon a sturdy base made from an impact and fire resistant material. Common methods of attaching an anvil are spikes, chains, steel or iron straps, clips, bolts where there are holes provided, and cables.

The most common base traditionally was a hard wood log or large timber buried several feet into the floor of the forge shop. In the industrial era, cast iron bases became available. They had the advantage of adding additional weight to the anvil, making it more stable. These bases are highly sought after by collectors today. When concrete became widely available, there was a trend to make steel reinforced anvil bases by some smiths, though this practice has largely been abandoned. In more modern times, anvils have been placed upon bases fabricated from steel, often a short thick section of a large I-beam. In addition, bases have been made from dimensional lumber bolted together to form a large block or steel drums full of oil-saturated sand to provide a damping effect. In recent times, tripod bases of fabricated steel have become popular.

Types

There are many designs for anvils, which are often tailored for a specific purpose or to meet the needs of a particular smith. For example, there were anvils specifically made for farriers, general smiths, cutlers, chain makers, armorers, saw tuners, coach makers, coopers, and many other types of metal workers. Most of these anvil types look similar, but some are radically different. Saw maker anvils, for instance, are generally a large rectangular block of steel that have a harder surface than most other anvils due to hammering on a harder steel for saws. Bladesmith anvils tend to be rectangular with a hardy and pritchel, but no horn. Such designs have originated in diverse geographic locations. Several styles of anvils include, Bavarian, French Pig anvil, Austrian, and Chinese turtle anvil.

The Bavarian style is known for the sloped brow. The brow was first used in medieval times to make armor on the church windows below the brow. Common manufactures include, Söding Halbach and Holthaus. This style of anvil is known not to sway in the face due to the extra mass with the brow.

The common blacksmith's anvil is made of either forged or cast steel, forged wrought iron with a hard steel face or cast iron with a hard steel face. Cast iron anvils are not used for forging as they are incapable of standing up to the impact and will crack and dent. Also, cast iron anvils without a hard steel face do not have the rebound that a harder anvil would and will tire out the smith. Historically, some anvils have been made with a smooth top working face of hardened steel welded to a cast iron or wrought iron body, though this manufacturing method is no longer in use. At one end, the common smith's anvil has a projecting conical bick (beak, horn) used for hammering curved work pieces. The other end is typically called the heel. Occasionally, the other end is also provided with a bick, partly rectangular in section. Most anvils made since the late 18th century also have a hardy hole and a pritchel hole where various tools, such as the anvil-cutter or hot chisel, can be inserted and held by the anvil. Some anvils have several hardy and pritchel holes, to accommodate a wider variety of hardy tools and pritchels. An anvil may also have a softer pad for chisel work.

An anvil for a power hammer is usually supported on a massive anvil block, sometimes weighing over 800 tons for a 12-ton hammer; this again rests on a strong foundation of timber and masonry or concrete.

An anvil may have a marking indicating its weight, manufacturer, or place of origin. American-made anvils were often marked in pounds. European anvils are sometimes marked in kilograms. English anvils were often marked in hundredweight, the marking consisting of three numbers, indicating hundredweight, quarter hundredweight and pounds. For example, a 3-1-5, if such an anvil existed, would be 3×112lb + 1×28lb + 5 lb = 369 lb ≈ 168 kg.

Cheap anvils made from inferior steel or cast iron and often sold at retail hardware stores, are considered unsuitable for serious use, and are often derisively referred to as "ASOs", or "anvil shaped objects". Amateur smiths have used lengths of railroad rail, forklift tines, or even simple blocks of steel as makeshift anvils.

A metalworking vise may have a small anvil integrated into its design.

History

Anvils were first made of stone, then bronze, and later wrought iron. As steel became more readily available, anvils were faced with it. This was done to give the anvil a hard face and to stop the anvil from deforming from impact. Many regional styles of anvils evolved through time from the simple block that was first used by smiths. The majority of anvils found today in the US are based on the London pattern anvil of the mid-19th century.

The wrought iron steel faced anvil was produced up until the early 20th century. Through the 19th and very early 20th centuries, this method of construction evolved to produce extremely high quality anvils. The basic process involved forge-welding billets of wrought iron together to produce the desired shape. The sequence and location of the forge-welds varied between different anvil makers and the kind of anvil being made. At the same time cast iron anvils with steel faces were being made in the United States. At the dawn of the 20th century solid cast steel anvils began to be produced, as well as two piece forged anvils made from closed die forgings. Modern anvils are generally made entirely from steel.

There are many references to anvils in ancient Greek and Egyptian writings, including Homer's works. They have been found at the Calico Early Man Site in North America.

Anvils have since lost their former commonness, along with the smiths who used them. Mechanized production has made cheap and abundant manufactured goods readily available. The one-off handmade products of the blacksmith are less economically viable in the modern world, while in the past they were an absolute necessity. However, anvils are still used by blacksmiths and metal workers of all kinds in producing custom work. They are also essential to the work done by farriers.

Firing
Anvil firing is the practice of firing an anvil into the air using gunpowder. It has been popular in California, the eastern United States and the southern United States, much like how fireworks are used today. There is a growing interest in re-enacting this "ancient tradition" in the US, which has now spread to England.

Television and film
A typical metalworker's anvil, with horn at one end and flat face at the other, is a standard prop for cartoon gags, as the epitome of a heavy and clumsy object that is perfect for dropping onto an antagonist. This visual metaphor is common, for example, in Warner Brothers' Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies shorts, such as those with Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner. Anvils in cartoons were also referenced in an episode of Gilmore Girls, where one of the main characters tries to have a conversation about "Where did all the anvils go?", a reference to their falling out of use on a general scale. Animaniacs made frequent gags on the topic throughout its run, even having a kingdom named Anvilania, whose sole national product is anvils.

Books
Dwarves were blacksmiths who used anvils for metalworking on C.S.Lewis's The Chronicles of Narnia, most iconically on The Magician's Nephew and Prince Caspian; as well as on J.R.R. Tolkien's The Hobbit.

Music

Anvils have been used as percussion instruments in several famous musical compositions, including:

 * Louis Andriessen: De Materie (Part I), which features an extended solo for two anvils
 * Kurt Atterberg: Symphony No. 5
 * Daniel Auber: opera Le Maçon
 * Alan Silvestri: The Mummy Returns
 * Arnold Bax: Symphony No. 3
 * The Beatles: "Maxwell's Silver Hammer" makes prominent use of the anvil. Their roadie Mal Evans played the anvil.
 * Benjamin Britten: The Burning Fiery Furnace
 * Aaron Copland: Symphony No. 3
 * Don Davis: The Matrix trilogy
 * Brad Fiedel: The Terminator
 * Neil Finn: "Song of the Lonely Mountain," written for the end credits of The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey
 * Gustav Holst: Second Suite in F for Military Band, which includes a movement titled "Song of the Blacksmith"
 * Nicholas Hooper: Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince
 * James Horner: Used it extensively in Aliens, and his other films such as Flightplan, The Forgotten and Titanic
 * Metallica: "For Whom the Bell Tolls"
 * Randy Newman: Toy Story 3
 * Carl Orff: Antigone
 * Howard Shore: The Lord of the Rings film trilogy. Used predominantly for the theme of Isengard.
 * Juan María Solare: Veinticinco de agosto, 1983 and Un ángel de hielo y fuego
 * John Philip Sousa: Dwellers of the Western World, in which the second movement, The White Man, calls for two pairs of anvils, the one small, the other large
 * Johann Strauss II: Der Zigeunerbaron (The Gipsy Baron; 1885): Ja, da wird das Eisen gefüge
 * Josef Strauss: Feuerfest!, op. 269 (1869). The title means "fireproof". This was the slogan of the Wertheim fireproof safe company, which commissioned the work.
 * Edgard Varèse: Ionisation
 * Giuseppe Verdi: Il Trovatore, featuring the famous Anvil Chorus
 * Richard Wagner: Der Ring des Nibelungen in Das Rheingold in scene 3, using 18 anvils tuned in F in three octaves, and Siegfried in act I, notably Siegfried's "Forging Song" (Nothung! Nothung! Neidliches Schwert!)
 * William Walton: Belshazzar's Feast
 * John Williams: Jaws, Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith
 * Carl Michael Ziehrer: Der Traum eines österreichischen Reservisten (1890)

Wagner's Ring des Nibelungen is notable in using the anvil as pitched percussion. The vast majority of extant works use the anvil as unpitched. However tuned anvils are available as musical instruments, albeit unusual. These are not to be confused with the "sawyers' anvils" used to "tune" big circular saw blades. Steel anvils are used for tuning for use as musical instruments, because those based partly on cast iron and similar materials give a duller sound; this is actually valued in industry, as pure steel anvils are troublesomely noisy, though energetically more efficient. The hammer and anvil have enjoyed varying popularity in orchestral roles. Robert Donington pointed out that Sebastian Virdung notes them in his book of 1510, and Martin Agricola includes it in his list of instruments (Musica instrumentalis deudsch, 1529) largely as a compliment to Pythagoras. In pre-modern or modern times anvils occasionally appear in operatic works by Berlioz, Bizet, Gounod, Verdi, and Wagner for example. Commonly pairs of anvils tuned a third apart are used.

In practice modern orchestras commonly substitute a brake drum or other suitable steel structure that is easier to tune than an actual anvil, although a visibly convincing anvil-shaped prop may be shown as desired. In Das Rheingold Wagner scored for nine little, six mid-sized, and three large anvils, but orchestras seldom can afford instrumentation on such a scale.

title: Anvil


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User talk:Aboyd

Hello. Please use the article's talk page for those sorts of messages (I moved the Chavez one). Thank you. -- Notheruser 14:56 28 Jul 2003 (UTC)

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Homobasidiomycetidae

Homobasidiomycetidae is one of the two subclasses of the class Agaricomycetes which is contained in the Kingdom of Fungi. The other subclass is Gasteromycetidae.

title: Homobasidiomycetidae


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James Bowie

James Bowie (April 10, 1796 – March 6, 1836) was a 19th-century American pioneer, slave smuggler and trader, and soldier who played a prominent role in the Texas Revolution. He was among the Americans who died at the Battle of the Alamo. Stories of him as a fighter and frontiersman, both real and fictitious, have made him a legendary figure in Texas history and a folk hero of American culture.

Bowie was born on April 10, 1796, in Logan County, Kentucky. He spent most of his life in Louisiana, where he was raised and where he later worked as a land speculator. His rise to fame began in 1827 on reports of the Sandbar Fight near present-day Vidalia, Louisiana. What began as a duel between two other men deteriorated into a mêlée in which Bowie, having been shot and stabbed, killed the sheriff of Rapides Parish with a large knife. This, and other stories of Bowie's prowess with a knife, led to the widespread popularity of the Bowie knife.

Bowie enlarged his reputation during the Texas Revolution. After moving to Texas in 1830, Bowie became a Mexican citizen and married Ursula Veramendi, the daughter of Juan Martín de Veramendi, the Mexican vice-governor of the province. Bowie led an expedition to find the lost San Saba mine, during which his small party repelled an attack by a large Native American raiding party. This enhanced his reputation, although they didn't find the mine.

At the outbreak of the Texas Revolution, Bowie joined the Texas militia, leading forces at the Battle of Concepción and the Grass Fight. In January 1836, he arrived at the Alamo, where he commanded the volunteer forces until an illness left him bedridden. Bowie died on March 6, 1836, with the other Alamo defenders. Despite conflicting accounts of his death, the "most popular, and probably the most accurate" accounts maintain that he died in his bed while defending himself against Mexican soldiers.

Early years
According to his older brother, John, James Bowie was born in Logan County, Kentucky, on April 10, 1796 (Historical marker: 36° 46' 25"N 86° 42' 10"W). In his 1948 book, Bowie Knife, historian Raymond Thorp gives Bowie's birth date as April 10 but does not support it with any documentation. Bowie's surname was pronounced. (Some reference works refer to an incorrect alternate pronunciation   ). His ancestry was predominatly Scottish and English.

Bowie was the ninth of ten children born to Reason (or Rezin) and Elve Ap-Catesby (née Jones, or Johns) Bowie. His father was wounded while fighting in the American Revolutionary War, and in 1782 he married Elve, the young woman who nursed him back to health. The Bowies first settled in Georgia and then moved to Kentucky. At the time of Bowie's birth, his father owned eight African slaves, eleven head of cattle, seven horses, and one stud horse. The following year, the family acquired 200 acre along the Red River. They sold that property in 1800 and relocated to what is now Missouri. In 1802, they moved south to Spanish Louisiana, where they settled on Bushley Bayou in what soon became Rapides Parish.

The family moved again in 1809, settling on Bayou Teche in Louisiana before finding a permanent home in Opelousas in 1812. Raised on the frontier, the Bowie children worked from a young age, helping to clear the land and plant and cultivate crops. All the children learned to read and write in English, but James and his elder brother Rezin could also read, write, and speak Spanish and French fluently. The children learned to survive on the frontier, learning how to fish, butcher meat, and run a farm and plantation. James Bowie became proficient with pistol, rifle, and knife, and had a reputation for fearlessness. When he was a boy, one of his Native American friends taught him to rope alligators.

In late 1814, in response to General Andrew Jackson's plea for volunteers to fight the British in the War of 1812, James and Rezin enlisted in the Louisiana militia. The Bowie brothers arrived in New Orleans too late to participate in the fighting. After mustering out of the militia, Bowie settled in Rapides Parish. He supported himself by sawing planks and lumber, and floating them down the bayou for sale. In June 1819, he joined the Long Expedition, an effort to liberate Texas from Spanish rule. The group encountered little resistance and, after capturing Nacogdoches, declared Texas an independent republic. The extent of Bowie's participation is unclear, but he returned to Louisiana before the invasion was repelled by Spanish troops.

Land speculator and slave smuggler
Shortly before the senior Bowie died, circa 1820, he gave ten slaves and horses and cattle to both James and Rezin. For the next seven years, the brothers worked together to develop several large estates in Lafourche Parish and Opelousas. Louisiana's population was growing rapidly, and the brothers hoped to take advantage of its rising land prices through speculation. Lacking the capital required to buy large tracts, in 1818 they entered into a partnership with pirate Jean Lafitte. By then, the United States had outlawed the importation of slaves from Africa. Most Southern states gave incentives for informing on an illegal slave trader: Informers could receive half of what the imported slaves would earn at auction, as a reward.

Bowie made three trips to Lafitte's compound on Galveston Island. On each occasion, he bought smuggled slaves and took them directly to a customhouse to inform on his own actions. When the customs officers offered the slaves for auction, Bowie purchased them and received back half the price he had paid, as allowed by the state laws. He could legally transport the slaves and resell them at a greater market value in New Orleans or areas farther up the Mississippi River. Using this scheme, the brothers collected $65,000 to use for their land speculation.

In 1825, the two brothers joined with their younger brother, Stephen, to buy Acadia Plantation near Thibodaux. Within two years, they had established there the first steam mill in Louisiana for grinding sugar cane. The plantation became known as a model operation, but on February 12, 1831, they sold it and 65 slaves for $90,000 (~$ in ). With their profits, James and Rezin bought a plantation in Arkansas.

In the late 1820s, Bowie and his brother John were involved in a major Arkansas court case over land speculation. When the United States purchased the Louisiana Territory in 1803, it promised to honor all former land grant claims made to French and Spanish colonists. For the next 20 years, efforts were made to establish who owned what land. In May 1824, Congress authorized the superior courts of each territory to hear suits from those who claimed they had been overlooked.

In late 1827, the Arkansas Superior Court received 126 claims from residents who claimed to have purchased land in former Spanish grants from the Bowie brothers. Although the Superior Court originally confirmed most of those claims, the decisions were reversed in February 1831, after further research showed that the land had never belonged to the Bowies and that the original land grant documentation had been forged. The U.S. Supreme Court upheld the reversal in 1833. When the disgruntled purchasers considered suing the Bowies, they discovered that the documents in the case had been removed from the court. Left without evidence, they declined to pursue the lawsuit.

Bowie knife
Bowie became internationally famous as a result of a feud with Norris Wright, the sheriff of Rapides Parish. Bowie had supported Wright's opponent in the race for sheriff, and Wright, a bank director, had been instrumental in turning down a Bowie loan application. After a confrontation in Alexandria one afternoon, Wright fired a shot at Bowie, after which Bowie resolved to carry his hunting knife at all times. The knife he carried had a blade that was 9.25 in long and 1.5 in wide.

The following year, on September 19, 1827, Bowie and Wright attended a duel on a sandbar outside of Natchez, Mississippi. Bowie supported duelist Samuel Levi Wells III, while Wright supported Wells's opponent, Dr. Thomas Harris Maddox. The duelists each fired two shots and, because neither man had been injured, resolved their duel with a handshake. Other members of the groups, who had various reasons for disliking each other, began fighting. Bowie was shot in the hip, and, after regaining his feet, he drew a knife, described as a butcher knife, and charged his attacker. The man hit Bowie over the head with his empty pistol, breaking the pistol and knocking Bowie to the ground. Wright shot at and missed the prone Bowie, who returned fire and possibly hit Wright. Wright drew his sword cane and impaled Bowie. When Wright attempted to retrieve his blade by placing his foot on Bowie's chest and tugging, Bowie pulled him down and disemboweled Wright with his large knife. Wright died instantly. Bowie, with Wright's sword still protruding from his chest, was shot again and stabbed by another member of the group. The doctors who had been present for the duel removed the bullets and patched Bowie's other wounds.

Newspapers picked up the story and named it the Sandbar Fight, describing in detail Bowie's fighting prowess and his unusual knife. Witness accounts agreed that Bowie did not attack first, and the other combatants had focused their attack on Bowie because "they considered him the most dangerous man among their opposition." Bowie's reputation as a superb knife fighter was set across the South.

Scholars disagree as to whether the knife Bowie used in this fight was the same design as the blade, now known as a Bowie knife, fabricated by a knifemaker in Arkansas who created another renowned large blade known as the Arkansas toothpick. There are multiple accounts of the design and fabrication of the first Bowie knife. Some claim that Bowie designed it, while others attribute the design to noted knife makers of the time. In a letter to The Planter's Advocate, his brother Rezin claimed to have designed the knife. Many Bowie family members, as well as "most authorities on the Bowie knife tend to believe it was invented by" Rezin. However, Rezin Bowie's grandchildren said that Rezin only supervised his blacksmith, who was the designer of the knife.

After the Sandbar Fight and subsequent battles in which Bowie used his knife in self-defense, the Bowie knife became very popular. Many craftsmen and manufacturers made their own versions, and major cities of the Old Southwest had "Bowie knife schools" that taught "the art of cut, thrust, and parry." Bowie's fame, and that of his knife, spread to Great Britain, and by the early 1830s, many British manufacturers were producing Bowie knives for shipment to the United States. The design of the knife continued to evolve, but a Bowie knife is now generally considered to have a blade 8.25 in long and 1.25 in wide, with a curved point, a "sharp false edge cut from both sides", and a cross-guard to protect the user's hands.

Establishment in Texas
In 1828, after recovering from the wounds he received in the Sandbar Fight, Bowie decided to move to Coahuila y Texas, at that time a state in the Mexican federation. The 1824 Constitution of Mexico banned religions other than Roman Catholicism and gave preference to Mexican citizens in receiving land. Bowie was baptized into the Roman Catholic faith in San Antonio on April 28, 1828, sponsored by the alcalde (chief administrator) of the town, Juan Martín de Veramendi, and his wife, Josefa Navarro. For the next 18 months, Bowie traveled through Louisiana and Mississippi. In 1829, he became engaged to Cecilia Wells, but she died in Alexandria on September 29, two weeks before they were to be married.

On January 1, 1830, Bowie left Louisiana to live in Texas, permanently. He stopped at Nacogdoches, at Jared E. Groce's farm on the Brazos River, and in San Felipe, where he presented a letter of introduction from Thomas F. McKinney, one of the Old Three Hundred colonists, to Stephen F. Austin. On February 20, Bowie swore an oath of allegiance to Mexico and proceeded to San Antonio de Bexar. At the time, the city was known as Bexar and had a population of 2500, mostly of Mexican descent. Bowie's fluency in Spanish helped him to get established in the area.

Bowie was elected a commander of the Texas Rangers later that year, with the rank of colonel. Although the Rangers would not be organized officially until 1835, Austin had founded the group by hiring 30 men to keep the peace and protect the colonists from attacks by hostile Native Americans. Other areas assembled similar volunteer militias. Bowie commanded a group of volunteers.

Bowie renounced his American citizenship and became a Mexican citizen on September 30, 1830, after promising to establish textile mills in the state of Coahuila y Tejas. To fulfill his promise, Bowie entered into partnership with Veramendi to build cotton and wool mills in Saltillo. With his citizenship assured, Bowie had the right to buy up to 11 leagues of public land. He convinced 14 or 15 other citizens to apply for land and transfer it to him, giving him 700,000 acres (280,000 ha) for speculation. Bowie may have been the first to induce settlers to apply for empresario grants, which could be sold in bulk to speculators, as Bowie had. The Mexican government passed laws in 1834 and 1835 that stopped much of the land speculation.

On April 25, 1831, Bowie married nineteen-year-old Maria Ursula de Veramendi, the daughter of his business partner, who had become the vice governor of the province. Several days before the ceremony, he signed a dowry contract promising to pay his new bride 15,000 pesos (approximately $15,000 then, or $0 today) in cash or property within two years of the marriage. At the time, Bowie claimed to have a net worth of $223,000 ($0 today), mostly in land of questionable title. Bowie also lied about his age, claiming to be 30 rather than 35.

The couple built a house in San Antonio, on land Veramendi had given them near the San José Mission. After a short time, however, they moved into the Veramendi Palace to live with Ursula's parents, who supplied them with spending money. The couple had two children, Marie Elve (b. March 20, 1832) and James Veramendi Bowie (b. July 18, 1833).

Maria Ursula, her parents, and both children died in September 1833 during a cholera epidemic that swept through the South and along major waterways.

Los Almagres Mine

Shortly after his marriage, Bowie became fascinated with the story of the "lost" Los Almagres Mine (also known as the lost San Saba Mine and the lost Bowie Mine), said to be northwest of San Antonio, near the ruin of the Spanish Mission Santa Cruz de San Saba. According to legend, the mine had been operated by local Native Americans before being seized by the Spanish. After Mexico won independence from Spain, government interest in mining waned. A number of native groups roamed the area, including Comanche, Lipan Apache, Tawakoni, and Tonkawa. Without government troops to keep hostile natives at bay, mining and mineral exploration were impossible. Some believed that the Lipan took over the mine after the Mexican citizens left the area.of

After obtaining permission from the Mexican government to mount an expedition into Indian territory to search for the legendary silver mine, Bowie, his brother Rezin, and ten others set out for San Saba on November 2, 1831. Six miles (10 km) from their goal, the group stopped to negotiate with a large raiding party—reportedly more than 120 Tawakoni and Waco, plus another 40 Caddo. The attempts at parley failed, and Bowie and his group fought for their lives for the next 13 hours. When the raiding party finally retreated, Bowie reportedly had lost only one man, while more than 40 Indians had been killed and 30 were wounded. In the meantime, a party of friendly Comanche rode into San Antonio bringing word of the raiding party, which outnumbered the Bowie expedition by 14 to 1. The citizens of San Antonio believed the members of the Bowie expedition must have perished, and Ursula Bowie began wearing widow's weeds.

To the town's surprise, the surviving members of the group returned to San Antonio on December 6. Bowie's report of the expedition, written in Spanish, was printed in several newspapers, further establishing his reputation. He set out again the following month, with a larger force, but returned home empty-handed after $2 1/2$ months of searching.

Bowie never talked about his exploits, despite his increasing fame. Captain William Y. Lacey, who spent eight months living in the wilderness with Bowie, described him as a humble man who never used profanity or vulgarities.

Texan rumblings
Between 1830 and 1832, the Mexican Congress passed a series of laws that seemed to discriminate against Anglo colonists in the province of Coahuila y Tejas, increasing tension between the Anglo citizenry and Mexican officials. In response to the rumblings, Mexican troops established military posts in several locations within the province, including San Antonio de Béxar. Although much of the military supported the administration of President Anastasio Bustamante, Antonio López de Santa Anna led an insurrection against him in 1832. Anglo colonists in Texas supported Santa Anna and General José Antonio Mexía, who led soldiers into Texas to oust commanders loyal to Bustamante.

In July 1832, after hearing that the Mexican army commander in Nacogdoches, José de las Piedras, had demanded that all residents in his area surrender their arms, Bowie cut short a visit to Natchez to return to Texas. On August 2, 1832, he joined a group of other Texans and marched into Nacogdoches to "present their demands" to Piedras. Before the group reached the building housing the town officials, they were attacked by a force of 100 Mexican cavalry. The Texans returned fire and the Battle of Nacogdoches began. After the cavalry retreated, they laid siege to the garrison. After a second battle, in which Piedras lost 33 men, the Mexican army evacuated during the night. Bowie and 18 companions ambushed the fleeing army and, after Piedras fled, marched the soldiers back to Nacogdoches. Bowie later served as a delegate to the Convention of 1833, which formally requested that Texas become its own state within the Mexican federation.

Several months later, a cholera epidemic struck Texas. Fearing the disease would reach San Antonio, Bowie sent his pregnant wife and their daughter to the family estate in Monclova, in the company of her parents and brother. The cholera epidemic struck Monclova, and between September 6 and September 14, Ursula, their children, her brother, and her parents all died of the disease. Bowie, on business in Natchez, did not hear of his family's deaths until November. From then on, he drank heavily and became "careless in his dress."

The following year, the Mexican government passed new laws allowing sale of land in Texas, and Bowie returned to land speculation. He was appointed a land commissioner and was tasked with promoting settlement in the area purchased by John T. Mason. His appointment ended in May 1835, when President Antonio López de Santa Anna abolished the Coahuila y Tejas government and ordered the arrest of all Texans (including Bowie) doing business in Monclova. Bowie was forced to flee Monclova and return to the Anglo areas of Texas.

The Anglos in Texas began agitating for war against Santa Anna, and Bowie worked with William B. Travis, the leader of the War Party, to gain support. Bowie visited several Native American villages in East Texas in an attempt to persuade the reluctant tribes to fight against the Mexican government. Santa Anna responded to the rumblings by ordering large numbers of Mexican troops to Texas.

Battle of Concepción
The Texas Revolution began on October 2, 1835, with the Battle of Gonzales. Stephen F. Austin formed an army of 500 men to march on the Mexican forces in San Antonio with the cannon that had precipitated the fight. The name "Texian Army" is sometimes applied to this militia. On October 22, Austin asked James W. Fannin and Bowie, now a colonel in the volunteer militia, to scout the area around the missions of San Francisco de la Espada and San José y San Miguel de Aguayo and find supplies for the volunteer forces. The scouting party left with 92 men, many of them members of the New Orleans Grays, who had just arrived in Texas. After discovering a good defensive position near Mission Concepción, the group requested that Austin's army join them.

On the foggy morning of October 28, Mexican General Domingo Ugartechea led a force of 300 infantry and cavalry soldiers and two small cannons against the Texian forces. Although the Mexican army was able to get within 200 yards (183 m), the Texian defensive position protected them from fire. When the Mexicans stopped to reload their cannon, the Texians climbed a bluff and picked off some of the soldiers. The stalemate ended shortly after Bowie led a charge to seize one of the Mexican cannons, at that time only 80 yards (73 m) away. Ugartechea retreated with his troops, ending the Battle of Concepción. One Texian and ten Mexican troops had been killed. One of the men under Bowie's command during the battle later praised him "as a born leader, never needlessly spending a bullet or imperiling a life, who repeatedly admonished... Keep under cover boys, and reserve your fire; we haven't a man to spare."

Grass Fight and commission difficulties
An hour after the battle ended, Austin arrived with the rest of the Texian army to begin a siege of San Antonio de Béxar, where General Martín Perfecto de Cós, the overall commander of Mexican forces in Texas, and his troops were garrisoned. Two days later, Bowie resigned from Austin's army because he did not have an official commission in the army, and he disliked the "minor tasks of scouting and spying".

On November 3, 1835, Texas declared itself an independent state, and a provisional government was formed, with Henry Smith of Brazoria elected provisional governor. Austin asked to be relieved of his command of the army, and Sam Houston was named army chief. Edward Burleson was chosen as temporary commander of the troops in San Antonio. At some point, Bowie appeared before the council and spoke for an hour, asking for a commission. The council refused his request, probably because of lingering animosity over his land dealings.

Houston offered Bowie a commission as an officer on his staff, but Bowie rejected the opportunity, explaining that he wanted to be in the midst of the fighting. Instead, Bowie enlisted in the army as a private under Fannin. He distinguished himself again in the Grass Fight on November 26. Cós had sent approximately 187 men to cut grass for his horses. As they returned to San Antonio, Bowie took 60 mounted men to intercept the party, which they believed carried valuable cargo. The Mexican troops quickened their pace in hopes of reaching the safety of the city, but Bowie and his cavalry chased them. At the end of the fight, the Texians had two wounded men but had captured many horses and mules.

Shortly after Bowie left San Antonio, Ben Milam led an assault on the city. In the ensuing fighting, the Texians suffered only a few casualties, including Milam, while the Mexican army lost many troops to death and desertion. Cós surrendered and returned to Mexico, taking with him the last Mexican troops in Texas. Believing the war was over, many of the Texian volunteers left the army and returned to their families. In early January 1836, Bowie went to San Felipe and asked the council to allow him to recruit a regiment. He was turned down again, because he "was not an officer of the government nor army."

Battle of the Alamo
After Houston received word that Santa Anna was leading a large force to San Antonio, Bowie offered to lead volunteers to defend the Alamo from the expected attack. He arrived with 30 men on January 19. They found a force of 104 men with a few weapons and a few cannons, but not many supplies and little gunpowder. Houston knew that there were not enough men to hold the fort in an attack, and he gave Bowie authority to remove the artillery and blow up the fortification. Bowie and the Alamo commander, James C. Neill, decided they did not have enough oxen to move the artillery, and they did not want to destroy the fortress. On January 26, one of Bowie's men, James Bonham, organized a rally that passed a resolution in favor of holding the Alamo. Bonham signed the resolution first; Bowie's signature came second.

Because of Bowie's fluency in Spanish and his connections through his marriage, the predominantly Mexican population of San Antonio often furnished him with information about the movements of the Mexican army. After learning that Santa Anna had 4,500 troops and was heading for the city, Bowie wrote several letters to the provisional government asking for help in defending the Alamo, especially "men, money, rifles, and cannon powder". In another letter, to Governor Smith, he reiterated his view that "the salvation of Texas depends in great measure on keeping Béxar out of the hands of the enemy. It serves as the frontier picquet guard, and if it were in the possession of Santa Anna, there is no stronghold from which to repel him in his march toward the Sabine." The letter to Smith ended, "Colonel Neill and myself have come to the solemn resolution that we will rather die in these ditches than give it up to the enemy."

On February 3, Davy Crockett appeared with thirty Tennesseans. Neill went on furlough on February 11 to visit his sick family, leaving Travis, a member of the regular army, in command. Bowie was older than Travis, had a better reputation and considered himself a colonel, thus outranking Travis, who was a lieutenant colonel. Bowie refused to answer to Travis, who called an election for the men to choose their own commander. They chose Bowie, infuriating Travis. Bowie celebrated his appointment by getting very drunk and causing havoc in San Antonio, releasing all prisoners in the local jails and harassing citizens. Travis was disgusted, but two days later the men agreed to a joint command: Bowie would command the volunteers, and Travis would command the regular army and the volunteer cavalry.

On February 23, the bells of San Fernando sounded the alarm for the approach of the Mexicans. Travis ordered all the Texan forces into the Alamo. Bowie hurried to gather provisions and herd cattle into the Alamo compound. Fearing for the safety of his wife's relatives in San Antonio, Bowie invited her cousins, Getrudis Navarro and Juana Navarro Alsbury, as well as Alsbury's 18-month-old son, Alijo Perez Jr., to stay inside the walls of the Alamo. Bowie also brought several black servants, some of whom worked at the Veramendi Palace, into the security of the Alamo fortress. Bowie had been ill, and two doctors, including the fort surgeon, were unable to diagnose his illness. Travis became the sole commander of the forces when Bowie was confined to bed. Santa Anna and his army began a siege of the Alamo on February 24. The Mexican army raised a red flag to warn the defenders that no quarter would be given.

Bowie and Travis began sending out couriers with pleas for provisions and assistance. On February 25, Travis sent Juan Seguin, on Bowie's horse, to recruit reinforcements, and 32 additional men arrived. On February 26, Crockett reported that Bowie, though suffering from his condition, continued to crawl from his bed around noon every day and present himself to the Alamo's inhabitants, which much boosted the morale of his comrades. Thirty-five years after the Alamo fell, a reporter identified Louis "Moses" Rose as the only man to have "deserted" the Texian forces at the Alamo. According to the reporter's version of Rose's account, when Travis realized that the Mexican army would likely prevail, he drew a line in the sand and asked those willing to die for the cause to cross the line. At Bowie's request, Crockett and several others carried his cot over the line, leaving Rose alone on the other side. After this article appeared, several other eyewitnesses confirmed the account, but because Rose was deceased the story can only be authenticated by the word of the reporter, who admitted to embellishing other articles, "and thus many historians refuse to believe it."

Bowie perished with the rest of the Alamo defenders when the Mexicans attacked on March 6. Most of the noncombatants in the fort, including Bowie's relatives, survived. Santa Anna ordered the alcalde of San Antonio, Francisco Antonio Ruiz, to confirm the identities of Bowie, Travis, and Crockett. After first ordering that Bowie be buried, as he was too brave a man to be burned like a dog, Santa Anna later had Bowie's body placed with those of the other Texians on the funeral pyre.

When Bowie's mother was informed of his death, she calmly stated, "I'll wager no wounds were found in his back." Various eyewitnesses to the battle gave conflicting accounts of Bowie's death. A newspaper article claimed that a Mexican soldier saw Bowie carried from his room on his cot, alive, after the conclusion of the battle. The soldier maintained that Bowie castigated a Mexican officer in fluent Spanish, and the officer ordered Bowie's tongue cut out and his still-breathing body thrown onto the funeral pyre. This account has been disputed by numerous other witnesses, and it is thought to have been invented by the reporter. Other witnesses maintained that they saw several Mexican soldiers enter Bowie's room, bayonet him, and carry him, alive, from the room. Various other stories circulated. Some witnesses claimed that Bowie shot himself. Others said he was killed by soldiers while too weak to lift his head. Alcalde Ruiz said that Bowie was found "dead in his bed." According to Wallace O Chariton, the "most popular, and probably the most accurate" version is that Bowie died on his cot, "back braced against the wall, and using his pistols and his famous knife." One year after the battle, Juan Seguin returned to the Alamo and gathered the remaining ashes from the funeral pyre. He placed these in a coffin inscribed with the names of Bowie, Travis, and Crockett. The ashes were interred at the Cathedral of San Fernando.

Legacy

Despite his continual claims of wealth, Bowie's estate was found to be very small. His possessions were auctioned for only $99.50. His larger legacy is his position as "one of the legendary characters of the American frontier." Bowie left a "frustratingly sparse paper trail" of his life, and for many "where history failed, the legends prevailed." Although Bowie's name and knife were well known during his lifetime, his legend grew after October 1852, when DeBow's Review published an article written by his brother, John Jones Bowie, called, "Early Life in the Southwest—The Bowies." The article focused primarily on the exploits of Jim Bowie. Beginning with that article, "romanticized stories" about Bowie began appearing in national press. In many cases, "these stories were pure melodrama, with Bowie rescuing some naïve planter's son or damsel in distress."

Jim Bowie was inducted posthumously into the Blade Magazine Cutlery Hall of Fame at the 1988 Blade Show in Atlanta, Georgia, in recognition of the impact that his eponymous design had upon generations of knife makers and cutlery companies.

A number of films have depicted the events of the Battle of the Alamo, and Bowie has appeared as a character in each.

From 1956 to 1958, Bowie was the subject of a CBS television series, The Adventures of Jim Bowie, which was primarily set in 1830s Louisiana, although later episodes ventured into the Mexican province of Texas. The show, which starred Scott Forbes as Jim Bowie, was based on the 1946 novel Tempered Blade.

Rock star David Bowie, who was born David Robert Jones, adopted the folk legend's surname. Jones changed his last name in the 1960s because he feared confusion with Davy Jones, a member of the already famous The Monkees. He chose the Bowie eponym because he admired James Bowie and the Bowie knife, although his pronunciation uses the  variant.

Bowie County in northeast Texas, and the city of Bowie in Montague County, Texas, were both named in honor of James Bowie. James Bowie Elementary in Corsicana, Texas was also named in his honor.

title: James Bowie


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European herring gull

The European herring gull (Larus argentatus) is a large gull, up to 66 cm long. It breeds throughout the northern and western coasts of Europe. Some European herring gulls, especially those resident in colder areas, migrate further south in winter, but many are permanent residents, such as in Ireland, Britain, Iceland, or on the North Sea shores. They have a varied diet, including fish, crustaceans, as well as some plants, and are also scavengers, consuming carrion and food left by or stolen from humans.

Taxonomy
Their scientific name is from Latin. Larus appears to have referred to a gull or other large seabird and argentatus means decorated with silver.

The taxonomy of the herring gull/lesser black-backed gull is contentious, with different authorities recognising between two and eight species.

This group has a ring distribution around the Northern Hemisphere. Most adjacent populations interbreed; however, adjacent terminal populations do not.

The Association of European Rarities Committees recognises six species:

 * European herring gull, L. argentatus
 * American herring gull, L. smithsonianus
 * Caspian gull, L. cachinnans
 * Yellow-legged gull, L. michahellis
 * Vega gull, L. vegae
 * Armenian gull, L. armenicus

Subspecies

 * L. a. argentatus – Pontoppidan, 1763, the nominate form, sometimes known as the Scandinavian herring gull, breeds in Scandinavia and northwestern Russia. Northern and eastern populations migrate southwest in winter. It is a large, bulky gull with extensive white in the wingtips. The outermost primary, p10 often has a large white spot (called a mirror) that extends to the wingtip. The bill is longer and forehead flatter than argenteus.
 * L. a. argenteus – Brehm & Schilling, 1822, sometimes known as the Western European herring gull breeds in Western Europe in Iceland, the Faroes, Britain, Ireland, France, Belgium, the Netherlands and Germany. Many birds are resident while others make short-distance migratory journeys. It is smaller than L. a. argentatus with more black and less white in the wingtips (p10 mirror is distinct from the white wingtip spot) and paler upper parts.

These taxa are classified as subspecies of Larus argentatus by some authorities such as the American Ornithologists' Union and Handbook of the Birds of the World. Others such as the Association of European Rarities Committees, British Ornithologists' Union, and the International Ornithological Union now regard them as one or two separate species.

 * L. (a.) smithsonianus, the American herring gull, breeds in Alaska, Canada, and the Northeast United States. Many birds migrate southwards in winter, reaching as far as Central America and the West Indies. Immature birds tend to be darker and more uniformly brown than European herring gulls and have a dark tail.
 * L. (a.) vegae, the Vega gull, breeds in northeastern Siberia. It winters in Japan, Korea, eastern China, and Taiwan.

Several other gulls have been included in this species in the past, but are now normally considered separate, e.g. the yellow-legged gull (L. michahellis), the Caspian gull (L. cachinnans), the Armenian gull (L. armenicus) and Heuglin's gull (L. heuglini).

Description
The male European herring gull is 60 – long and weighs 1050 - 1525 g, while the female is 55 – and weighs 710 - 1100 g. The wingspan can range from 125 to 155 cm. Among standard measurements, the wing chord is 38 to 48 cm, the bill is 4.4 to 6.5 cm and the tarsus is 5.3 to 7.5 cm. Adults in breeding plumage have a light grey back and upper wings and white head and underparts. The wingtips are black with white spots known as "mirrors". The bill is yellow with a red spot and a ring of bare yellow skin is seen around the pale eye. The legs are normally pink at all ages, but can be yellowish, particularly in the Baltic population, which was formerly regarded as a separate subspecies "L. a. omissus". Non-breeding adults have brown streaks on their heads and necks. Male and female plumage are identical at all stages of development, but adult males are often larger.

Juvenile and first-winter birds are mainly brown with darker streaks and have a dark bill and eyes. Second-winter birds have a whiter head and underparts with less streaking and the back is grey. Third-winter individuals are similar to adults, but retain some of the features of immature birds such as brown feathers in the wings and dark markings on the bill. The European herring gull attains adult plumage and reaches sexual maturity at an average age of four years.

Yellow-legged variety
At least in the south-west part of the Baltic Sea and surrounding areas, the European herring gull (L. argentatus) actually can be seen with yellow legs. They are not considered as a subspecies, since they regularly breed with grey/flesh-coloured legged herring gulls. The offspring may get yellow or normal-coloured legs. They must not be confused with the in general yellow-legged gull (L. michahellis), which are more common in the Mediterranean area, but single birds may reach more northern seas.

Similar species
Adult European herring gulls are similar to ring-billed gulls, but are much larger, have pinkish legs, and a much thicker yellow bill with more pronounced gonys. First-winter European herring gulls are much browner, but second- and third-winter birds can be confusing since soft part colours are variable and third-year herring gull often show a ring around the bill. Such birds are most easily distinguished by the larger size and larger bill of European herring gull.

The European herring gull can be differentiated from the closely related, slightly smaller lesser black-backed gull by the latter's dark grey (not actually black) back and upper wing plumage and its yellow legs and feet.

The smaller silver gull is largely confined to Australia.

Voice
Herring gulls are noisy, gregarious birds with distinctive vocalisations. Their loud, laughing call is particularly well known, and is often seen as a symbol of the seaside in countries such as the United Kingdom. The European herring gull also has a yelping alarm call and a low, barking anxiety call. The most distinct and best known call produced by European herring gulls – which is shared with their American relative – is the raucous territorial 'long call', used to signal boundaries to other birds; it is performed by the gull initially with its head bowed, then raised as the call continues.

European herring gull chicks and fledglings emit a distinctive, repetitive, high-pitched 'peep', accompanied by a head-flicking gesture when begging for food from or calling to their parents. Adult gulls in urban areas also exhibit this behaviour when fed by humans.

Behaviour
European herring gull flocks have a loose pecking order, based on size, aggressiveness, and physical strength. Adult males are usually dominant over females and juveniles in feeding and boundary disputes, while adult females are typically dominant when selecting their nesting sites.

The European herring gull has long been believed to have extremely keen vision in daylight and night vision equal or superior to that of humans; however, this species is also capable of seeing ultraviolet light. This gull also appears to have excellent hearing and a sense of taste that is particularly responsive to salt and acidity.

Parasites of European herring gulls include the fluke Microphallus piriformes.

Distribution
Herring gulls breed in much of north-western Europe, including Iceland, the United Kingdom, Ireland and France. Since 2009, herring gulls in the United Kingdom have been on the red list of birds of conservation concern, including County Durham.

They have been recorded from all the coasts of Europe including the Mediterranean and occasionally inland. Vagrants have been recorded in Israel, Cyprus and Turkey.

Birds in France are mainly resident, but northern populations migrate in winter, generally to the coasts of north-western Europe.

Diet
These are omnivores and opportunists like most Larus gulls, and scavenge from garbage dumps, landfill sites, and sewage outflows, with refuse comprising up to half of the bird's diet. It also steals the eggs and young of other birds (including those of other gulls), as well as seeking suitable small prey in fields, on the coast or in urban areas, or robbing plovers or lapwings of their catches. European herring gulls may also dive from the surface of the water or engage in plunge diving in the pursuit of aquatic prey, though they are typically unable to reach depths greater than 1 – due to their natural buoyancy. Despite their name, they have no special preference for herrings — in fact, examinations have shown that echinoderms and crustaceans comprised a greater portion of these gulls' stomach contents than fish, although fish is the principal element of regurgitations for nestlings. European herring gulls can frequently be seen to drop shelled prey from a height to break the shell. In addition, the European herring gull has been observed using pieces of bread as bait with which to catch goldfish. Vegetable matter, such as roots, tubers, seeds, grains, nuts, and fruit, is also taken to an extent. Captive European herring gulls typically show aversion to spoiled meat or heavily salted food, unless they are very hungry. The gulls may also rinse food items in water in an attempt to clean them or render them more palatable before swallowing.

European herring gulls may be observed rhythmically drumming their feet upon the ground for prolonged periods of time in a behaviour that superficially resembles Irish stepdancing, for the purpose of creating vibrations in the soil, driving earthworms to the surface, which are then consumed by the gull. These vibrations are thought to mimic those of digging moles, eliciting a surface-escape behaviour from the earthworm, beneficial in encounters with this particular predator, which the European herring gull then exploits to its own benefit in a similar manner to human worm charmers.

Whilst the European herring gull is fully capable (unlike humans) of consuming seawater without becoming ill, using specialized glands located above the eyes to remove excess salt from the body (which is then excreted in solution through the nostrils and drips from the end of the bill), it drinks fresh water in preference, if available.

The opportunistic diet of the herring gull has consequences for egg traits. A study found that larger eggs were laid in colonies where females consumed either a higher proportion of marine resources or terrestrial resources; smaller eggs were laid in colonies where females had an intermediate diet. In colonies where females consumed more marine items, they also laid eggs with higher maculation (intensity and size of spots) compared with colonies where females mainly consumed terrestrial food.

Courtship and reproduction
When forming a pair bond, the hen approaches the cock on his territory with a hunched, submissive posture, while making begging calls (similar to those emitted by young gulls). If the cock chooses not to attack her and drive her away, he responds by assuming an upright posture and making a mewing call. This is followed by a period of synchronised head-tossing movements, after which the cock then regurgitates some food for his prospective mate. If this is accepted, copulation follows. A nesting site is then chosen by both birds which is returned to in successive years. European herring gulls are almost exclusively sexually monogamous and may pair up for life, provided the couple is successful in hatching their eggs.

Two to four eggs, usually three, are laid on the ground or cliff ledges in colonies, and are defended vigorously by this large gull. The eggs are usually olive-brown in colour with dark speckles or blotches. They are incubated by both parents for 28–30 days. The chicks hatch with their eyes open, covered with fluffy down, and they are able to walk around within hours. Breeding colonies are preyed upon by great black-backed gulls, harriers, corvids and herons.

Juveniles use their beaks to peck at the red spot on the beaks of adults to indicate hunger. Parents then typically disgorge food for their offspring. The young birds are able to fly 35–40 days after hatching and fledge at five or six weeks of age. Chicks are generally fed by their parents until they are 11–12 weeks old, but the feeding may continue for more than six months of age if the young gulls continue to beg. The male feeds the chick more often than the female before fledging, with the female more often feeding after fledging.

Like most gulls, European herring gulls are long-lived, with a maximum age of 49 years recorded. Raptors (especially owls, peregrine falcons, and gyrfalcons) and seals (especially grey seals) occasionally prey on the non-nesting adults.

Interactions with humans

In the UK, the species, when taken as a whole, is declining significantly across the country, despite an increase in urban areas. The UK European herring gull population has decreased by 50% in 25 years and it is protected by law: since January 2010, Natural England has allowed lethal control only with a specific individual licence that is available only in limited circumstances. Natural England made the change following a public consultation in response to the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds in 2009 placing the species on its 'Red List' of threatened bird species, affording it the highest possible conservation status. (Previously, killing the species was allowed under a general licence obtainable by authorised persons (e.g. landowners or occupiers) under certain circumstances (e.g. to prevent serious damage to crops or livestock, to prevent disease, or to preserve public health or safety) without requiring additional permission beyond the general licence. )

The gulls are found all year round in the streets and gardens of Britain, due to the presence of street lighting (which allows the gulls to forage at night), discarded food in streets, food waste contained in easy-to-tear plastic bin bags, food intentionally left out for other birds (or the gulls themselves), the relative lack of predators, and readily available, convenient, warm and undisturbed rooftop nesting space in towns and cities. Particularly large urban gull colonies (composed primarily of European herring gulls and lesser black-backed gulls) are now present in Cardiff, Bristol, Gloucester, Swindon, London, and Aberdeen.

Where not persecuted, herring gulls can become tame in the presence of humans, and may live in proximity to certain humans they learn to trust, and may occasionally enter buildings to receive or steal food.

The survival rate for urban gulls is much higher than their counterparts in coastal areas, with an annual adult mortality rate less than 5%. Also, each European herring gull pair commonly rears three chicks per year. This, when combined with their long-lived nature, has resulted in a massive increase in numbers over a relatively short period of time and has brought urban-dwelling members of the species into conflict with humans.

Once familiar with humans, urban European herring gulls show little hesitation in swooping down to steal food from the hands of humans, although a study conducted in 2019 demonstrated that some gulls are more averse to snatching food in proximity to humans if the experimenter made eye contact with the bird. During the breeding season, the gulls also aggressively 'dive bomb' and attempt to strike with claws and wings (sometimes spraying faeces or vomit at the same time) at humans that they perceive to be a threat to their eggs and chicks—often innocent passers-by or residents of the buildings on which they have constructed their nests. Large amounts of gull excrement deposited on property and the noise from courting pairs and begging chicks in the summer is also considered to be a nuisance by humans living alongside the European herring gull.

Nonlethal attempts to deter the gulls from nesting in urban areas have been largely unsuccessful. The European herring gull is intelligent and will completely ignore most bird-scaring technology after determining that it poses no threat. Rooftop spikes, tensioned wires, netting, and similar are also generally ineffective against this species, as it has large, wide feet with thick, leathery skin, which affords the seagull excellent weight distribution and protection from sharp objects (the bird may simply balance itself on top of these obstacles with little apparent concern). If nests are removed and eggs are taken, broken, or oiled, the gulls simply rebuild and/or relay, or choose another nest site in the same area and start again.

Man-made models of birds of prey placed on top of buildings are generally ignored by the gulls once they realise they are not real, and attempts to scare the gulls away using raptors are similarly ineffective. Although they are intimidated by birds of prey, European herring gulls, in addition to being social birds with strength in numbers, are large, powerful, and aggressive as individuals and are more than capable of fighting back against the potential predator, particularly if they consider their chicks to be at risk; in fact, the gulls may actually pose a greater threat to a raptor than vice versa. European herring gulls are also naturally accustomed to predators (such as skuas and great black-backed gulls) living in the vicinity of their nest sites in the wild and are not particularly discouraged from breeding by their presence.

title: European herring gull


text:
Caffeinism

Caffeinism is a state of intoxication caused by excessive consumption of caffeine. This intoxication covers a variety of unpleasant physical and mental symptoms associated with the consumption of excessive amounts of caffeine.

Caffeine is considered one of the most widely consumed drugs around the world. Around 80% of the world population consumes caffeine in one form or another. It is found in coffee, tea, caffeinated alcoholic drinks, cocoa, chocolate, soft drinks, especially cola, and is an important component of energy drinks and other dietary supplements.

Caffeine is also an ingredient of several medications, many of them over-the-counter and prescription drugs. The consensus is to consider caffeine a drug with pharmacological effects acting throughout the body.

Signs and symptoms

In moderate doses, caffeine is used to reduce physical fatigue, to prevent drowsiness and sleep, and to maintain and restore mental alertness and wakefulness. However, at higher doses, these stimulatory effects can become excessive and lead to a wide range of unpleasant symptoms including a dysphoric physical and mental state that is labeled caffeinism and is also known colloquially as "coffee nerves" or "caffeine jitters." These symptoms including nervousness, irritability, restlessness, insomnia, headaches, and palpitations after caffeine use.

Caffeinism usually occurs when consumption of caffeine reaches 1 – per day. For reference, a brewed 8oz (227ml) cup of coffee contains ~95 mg of caffeine (per USDA).

According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, caffeine overdose can result in a state of excessive stimulation of the central nervous system and the essential feature of Caffeine Intoxication is the recent consumption of caffeine. This diagnosis requires the presence of at least five signs or symptoms, from a list of 12, that develop during or shortly after caffeine use. This syndrome regularly happens when a person ingested large amounts of caffeine from any source (e.g., more than 400–500 mg at a time).

The signs and symptoms are divided into one group that can appear after an intake of as little as 100 mg of caffeine (roughly the amount contained in a cup of brewed coffee) and another group of symptoms that appear at higher levels of intake (more than 1 g per day). Low-dose symptoms include Symptoms associated with high doses of caffeine include The symptoms of caffeine intoxication are comparable to the symptoms of overdoses of other stimulants. In cases of much larger overdoses, mania, depression, lapses in judgment, disorientation, disinhibition, delusions, weight loss, loss of appetite, hallucinations, or psychosis may occur.
 * 1) restlessness,
 * 2) nervousness,
 * 3) excitement,
 * 4) insomnia,
 * 5) flushed face,
 * 6) diuresis (increased urination), and
 * 7) gastrointestinal disturbance.
 * 1) muscle twitching,
 * 2) rambling flow of thought and speech,
 * 3) tachycardia and cardiac arrhythmia,
 * 4) periods of inexhaustibility, and
 * 5) psychomotor agitation,
 * 6) anorexia (loss of appetite),
 * 7) seizures,
 * 8) death.

Death can occur as a result of caffeine overdose. The LD50 of caffeine in humans is dependent on individual sensitivity, but is estimated to be 150–200 milligrams per kilogram of body mass (75–100 cups of coffee for a 70 kilogram adult). A number of fatalities have been caused by overdoses of readily available powdered caffeine supplements, for which the estimated lethal amount is less than a tablespoon. The lethal dose is lower in individuals whose ability to metabolize caffeine is impaired due to genetics or chronic liver disease. A death was reported in a man with liver cirrhosis who overdosed on caffeinated mints.

Treatment
Treatment of mild caffeine intoxication is directed toward symptom relief; severe intoxication may require peritoneal dialysis, hemodialysis, or hemofiltration. Control of caffeine intake requires awareness of the caffeine content of caffeinated beverages, over-the-counter drugs, and other sources of caffeine in the diet. Such information is not easy to obtain. The content of brewed beverages such as coffee and tea varies greatly based on the method of preparation.

There is no standard value for "a cup of coffee." The caffeine content of cola drinks and most energy drinks can be difficult to determine, because in many cases the labels do not indicate the dose per serving. Caffeine doses in these beverages range from 20 to 30 mg in some soft drinks, up to 350 mg or more in some energy drinks. Although some Internet web sites report caffeine content for beverages, official lists are not available and the number of brands continually grows.

Attempting to abruptly discontinue all consumption of caffeine-containing products from the diet is not usually recommended. The person could suffer from severe symptoms of caffeine withdrawal including headaches, fatigue, and difficulty concentrating. It is recommended that the person reduces caffeine consumption gradually to avoid withdrawal as attempts to suddenly discontinue all caffeine consumption are frequently abandoned due to the severity of the withdrawal symptoms.

Epidemiology
Little is known about the prevalence of caffeinism in the general population. Although most people are familiar with the disorder, it probably remains underdiagnosed, because patients are rarely questioned about the use of caffeine.

title: Caffeinism