text:
Walker (surname)

Walker is an English, Scottish and German surname.

With close to 100,000 bearers, Walker is the 18th most common surname in England. As of the 2000 U.S. Census, 501,307 people had the surname Walker, making it the 28th most common surname in America. It is the 14th most common surname in Australia, with 26,688 people as of 2007.

A

 * Abby Walker, American actress
 * Abi Walker, Scottish surgeon
 * Abraham Beverley Walker (1851–1909), New Brunswick-born lawyer and journalist
 * Abram Joseph Walker (1819–1872), American judge
 * Ada Hill Walker (1879–1955), British illustrator
 * Adele Walker (born 1976), British biathlete
 * Admiral Walker (1898–2001), American baseball player
 * Adrian Walker, American journalist
 * Adrian Walker (computer scientist), American computer scientist
 * Aida Overton Walker (1880–1914), American actress
 * Aidee Walker (born 1981), New Zealand actress
 * Al Walker (born 1959), American basketball coach
 * Alan Walker (born 1997), British-born Norwegian DJ, YouTuber, and record producer
 * Alasdair Walker (1956–2019), British doctor
 * Albertina Walker (1929–2010), American singer-songwriter
 * Aldace F. Walker (1842–1901), American railroad executive
 * A'Lelia Walker (1885–1931), American businesswoman
 * Alexia Walker (born 1982), English cricketer
 * Alf Walker (1884–1961), English football manager
 * Alick Walker (1925–1999), British paleontologist
 * Alison Walker, Scottish broadcaster
 * Alison Walker (scientist), English physicist
 * Alistair Walker (1944–2021), English racing driver
 * Alister Walker (born 1982), English squash player
 * Alleyne Walker, Grenadian politician
 * Ally Walker (born 1961), American actress
 * Allyn Walker, American author
 * Alta Walker (1942–2015), American geologist
 * Alvin Walker (1954–2022), American football player
 * A. Maceo Walker (1909–1994), American businessman
 * Amanda Walker (born 1935), English actress
 * Amani Walker (born 1989), Jamaican footballer
 * Amara Walker (born 1981), American journalist
 * Amasa Walker (1799–1875), American politician
 * Amelia Himes Walker (1880–1974), American suffragist
 * Amy Walker (born 1982), American actress
 * Andre Walker (born 1956), American hairstylist
 * Andre Walker (c. 1965) British-born fashion designer.
 * Angus Walker (born 1939), Canadian musician
 * Annabel Walker, English author
 * Annor Walker, Ghanaian football coach
 * Antoine Walker (born 1976), American basketball player
 * Antonio Walker (born 1961), Chilean politician and lawyer
 * Antony Walker (1934–2023), British army officer
 * Antony Walker (conductor), Australian conductor
 * April Walker (born 1943), British actress
 * Archibald Walker (1858–1945), Scottish rugby union footballer
 * Arnetia Walker, American actress
 * A. S. Walker (1826–1896), American judge
 * Asa Walker (1845–1916), American admiral
 * Ash Walker, English musician
 * Ashlie Walker, British acting coach
 * Asiedu Walker (born 1955), Ghanaian politician
 * Astia Walker (born 1975), Jamaican athlete
 * Audrey Walker (1928–2020), American textile artist
 * Aundrey Walker (born 1993), American football player
 * Austin Walker (1883–1945), American politician
 * Ayana Walker (born 1979), American basketball player

B

 * Baldwin Wake Walker (1802–1876), English naval officer
 * Barry Walker (born 1968), American rugby league footballer
 * Beau Walker (born 1985), Australian surfer
 * Ben Walker (born 1976), American rugby league footballer
 * Bertrand N. O. Walker (1870–1927), American native poet
 * Beth Walker (judge) (born 1965), American judge
 * Beth A. Walker, American academic administrator
 * Bettina Walker (1837–1893), Irish pianist
 * Betty Walker (1928–1982), American actress
 * Beverly Walker-Griffea, American public official and academic administrator
 * Blythe Walker (born 1968), Bermudian sailor
 * Bracy Walker (born 1970), American football player
 * Brady Walker (1921–2007), American basketball player
 * Brandon Walker (born 2002), Australian rules footballer
 * Bree Walker (born 1953), American radio personality
 * Breeana Walker (born 1992), Australian bobsledder
 * Brenda Walker (born 1957), Australian writer
 * Bret Walker (born 1954), Australian barrister
 * Brett Walker (1961–2013), American songwriter
 * Brígida Walker (1863–1942), Chilean teacher
 * Bryant Walker (1856–1936), American malacologist
 * Bub Walker (1907–1963), American football player
 * Butch Walker (born 1969), American musician
 * Byron Walker (born 1960), American football player
 * Byron Edmund Walker (1848–1924), Canadian banker

C

 * Carl Walker (1934–2022), English police inspector
 * Carlene M. Walker (born 1947), American politician
 * Carmaine Walker (born 1979), English footballer
 * Carole Walker, British news correspondent
 * Caroline Holme Walker (1863-1955), American composer
 * Carolyn Walker (born 1945), American politician
 * Cas Walker (1902–1998), American businessman
 * Casey Walker (born 1989), American football player
 * Casey Walker (baseball) (1912–1998), American baseball player
 * Cavon Walker (born 1994), American football player
 * Cecil Walker (1924–2007), Northern Irish politician
 * Cedric Walker (born 1971), American football player
 * Chad N. Walker, American filmmaker
 * Challis Walker (1912–2000), American sculptor
 * C. Harding Walker (1859–1934), American politician
 * Charlotte Walker (1876–1958), American actress
 * Charls Walker (1923–2015), American treasurer
 * Ché Walker, English actor
 * Cherryl Walker, South African professor
 * Chet Walker (1940–2024), American basketball player
 * Chev Walker (born 1982), English rugby league footballer
 * Chevon Walker (born 1987), Jamaican-American football player
 * Chico Walker (born 1957), American baseball player
 * Christian Walker (born 1991), American baseball player
 * Christian Walker (photographer) (1953–2003), American photographer
 * Cindy Walker (1918–2006), American songwriter
 * Claiborne Walker (1899–1927), American fencer
 * Clarissa Walker (??–2011), American activist
 * Claud Walker (1934–2019), American politician
 * Claudia Walker (born 1996), English footballer
 * Clay Walker (born 1969), American singer-songwriter
 * Clay Walker (filmmaker) (born 1968), American filmmaker
 * Clement Walker (??–1651), English politician
 * Cleo Walker (born 1948), American football player
 * Clint Walker (1927–2018), American actor
 * Clinton Walker (born 1957), Australian writer
 * Clifford Walker (1877–1954), American politician
 * Clifford Walker (cricketer) (1919–1992), English cricketer
 * Colleen Walker (1956–2012), American golfer
 * Colonel James Walker (1846–1936), Canadian pioneer
 * Colt Walker (gymnast) (born 2001), American artistic gymnast
 * Constantine Walker (born 1951), Jamaican singer-songwriter
 * Cora Walker (1922–2006), American lawyer
 * Cora Faith Walker (1984–2022), American politician
 * Corey D. B. Walker, American sociologist
 * Cory Walker (born 1980), American comic book artist
 * Curtis Walker (born 1961), British actor

D

 * Daisy Walker (born 2002), Australian rules footballer
 * Dallas Walker (born 1988), American football player
 * D'Andre Walker (born 1997), American football player
 * Danville Walker, Jamaican politician
 * Darby Walker (born 1974), Canadian ice hockey player
 * Darius Walker (born 1985), American football player
 * Darnell Walker (born 1970), American football player
 * Darnell Lamont Walker (born 1982), American writer
 * Darrell Walker (born 1961), American basketball coach
 * Darren Walker (born 1959), American lawyer and banker
 * Darren Walker (cricketer) (born 1966), Australian cricketer
 * Darwin Walker (born 1977), American football player
 * Daryl Walker (born 1981), American goalball player
 * Dave Walker (born 1945), British singer
 * Davie Walker (1884–1935), English footballer
 * Dawn Walker, Australian politician
 * Dawson Walker (1916–1973), Scottish football manager
 * Delanie Walker (born 1984), American football player
 * Deloss Walker (1931–1996), American advertiser
 * DeMarcus Walker (born 1994), American football player
 * DeMya Walker (born 1977), American basketball player
 * Denard Walker (born 1973), American football player
 * Denis Walker (1933–2024), Zimbabwean politician
 * Denis Walker (activist) (1947–2017), Australian activist
 * Derel Walker (born 1991), American football player
 * Derrick Walker (born 1945), British auto racing owner
 * Derrick Walker (American football) (born 1967), American football player
 * Des Walker (born 1965), English footballer
 * Devin G. Walker, American physicist
 * Devon Walker (born 1990), American football player
 * Devon Walker (comedian), American comedian
 * DeVon Walker (born 1985), American football player
 * Devondrick Walker (born 1992), American basketball player
 * Devontez Walker (born 2001), American football player
 * DeWayne Walker (born 1960), American football coach
 * Diana Barnato Walker (1918–2008), British pilot
 * Dianne Walker (born 1951), American tap dancer
 * Dixie Walker (1910–1982), American baseball player
 * Dixie Walker (pitcher) (1887–1965), American baseball player
 * Django Walker (born 1981), American singer-songwriter
 * Doak Walker (1927–1998), American football player
 * Dobby Walker (1919–2009), American lawyer
 * Donny Walker (born 1980), American mixed martial artist
 * Dora Walker (1890–1980), British boat skipper
 * D. Ormonde Walker (1890–1955), American academic administrator
 * D. P. Walker (1914–1985), English historian
 * Dublin Walker, American politician
 * Dugald Stewart Walker (1883–1937), American illustrator
 * Duncan Walker (1899–1963), Scottish footballer
 * Duncan Stephen Walker (1841–1912), American brigadier general
 * Dwight Walker (born 1959), American football player

E

 * Eamonn Walker (born 1962), British actor
 * E. C. Walker (1820–1894), American politician
 * Edith Mary Walker (1903–1970), British archaeologist
 * Edmund Murton Walker (1877–1969), Canadian entomologist
 * Edsall Walker (1910–1997), American baseball player
 * Egan Walker (born 1961), American lawyer
 * E. Jean Walker, American academic
 * Eli Walker (born 1992), Welsh rugby union footballer
 * Elkanah Walker (1805–1877), American pioneer
 * Ella May Walker (1892–1960), Canadian-American artist
 * Elle Walker, American vlogger
 * Elliot Walker, British sculptor
 * Elliott Walker (born 1956), American football player
 * Eloise Walker (born 2001), British track athlete
 * Elyse Walker (born 1967), American fashion designer
 * Emery Walker (1851–1933), English photographer
 * Emily Wilson Walker (1904-2007), American doctor
 * Emmett H. Walker Jr. (1924–2007), American lieutenant general
 * Erica N. Walker (born 1971), American mathematician
 * Ericka Walker (born 1981), American artist
 * Ernesto Walker (born 1999), Panamanian footballer
 * Erving Walker (born 1990), American basketball player
 * Erwin Walker (1917–2008), American policeman
 * Esther Walker (1894–1943), American comedian
 * Ethan Walker (born 2002), English footballer
 * Ethel Walker (1861–1951), Scottish painter
 * Eva Mary Walker (1895–1981), English artist. Her professional name was Eva Leigh

F

 * F. Ann Walker (??–2022), American chemist
 * Fiona Walker (born 1944), English actress
 * Fiona Walker (author) (born 1969), English author
 * Flem Walker, American general
 * Foots Walker (born 1951), American basketball player
 * François Walker (1888–1951), French gymnast
 * Fraser Walker (born 1972), Scottish medley swimmer
 * Fredi Walker (born 1962), American actress
 * Freeman Walker (1780–1827), American politician

G

 * Galal Walker (born 1943), American professor
 * Garry Walker (born 1974), Scottish conductor
 * Gee Walker (1908–1981), American baseball player
 * Gene Walker (1893–1924), American motorcycle racer
 * Geordie Walker (1958–2023), English musician
 * Georgia Walker (born 1998), Australian rules footballer
 * Georgina Walker (born 1985), English table tennis player
 * Gerald Walker (born 1987), American rapper
 * Gerran Walker (born 1983), American football player
 * Gertrude Walker (1902–1995), American screenwriter
 * Giles Walker (1946–2020), Scottish-Canadian film director
 * Gina Luria Walker, American professor
 * Glen Walker (born 1952), American football player
 * Gordie Walker (born 1965), Canadian ice hockey player
 * Gus Walker (1912–1986), English pilot
 * Gwyneth Van Anden Walker (born 1947), American composer

H

 * Hal Walker (1896–1972), American director
 * Hamish Walker (born 1985), New Zealand politician
 * Harriet G. Walker (1841–1917), American hospital administrator
 * Hazel Walker (1914–1990), American basketball player
 * Hazel M. Walker (1889–1960), American lawyer
 * Helene Walker (1904–1994), British trade unionist
 * Henderson Walker (1659–1704), English politician
 * Herschel Walker (born 1962), American football player
 * Herwig Walker (born 1972), Austrian footballer
 * Hezekiah Walker (born 1962), American musician
 * Hilda Annetta Walker (1877–1960), English sculptor
 * Hilman Walker (1912–1983), American football player
 * Hiram Walker (1816–1899), American entrepreneur
 * H. M. Walker (1884–1937), American scriptwriter
 * Holly Walker (born 1982), New Zealand politician
 * Horace Walker (1838–1908), English mountaineer
 * Horace Walker (basketball) (1937–2001), American basketball player
 * Horatio Walker (1858–1938), Canadian painter
 * Hoss Walker (1904–1984), American baseball player
 * Hovenden Walker (1656–1728), British naval officer
 * Hub Walker (1906–1982), American baseball player
 * Hunter Walker (born 1984), American reporter
 * Hunter Walker (curler) (born 2002), New Zealand curler

I

 * Ida Walker (1876–1968), American politician
 * Ignacio Walker (born 1956), Chilean politician
 * Ignacio Pérez Walker (born 1948), Chilean politician
 * Ivy Walker (1911–??), English athlete
 * Izannah Walker (1817–1888), American inventor

J

 * Jabari Walker (born 2002), American basketball player
 * Jabez K. Walker, American politician
 * Jalon Walker, American football player
 * Jamall Walker (born 1977), American basketball coach
 * Jamar K. Walker, American lawyer
 * Jamil Walker (born 1981), American soccer player
 * Janet Walker, Canadian scholar
 * Janet Walker (costumier) (1850–1940), Australian businesswoman
 * Jarace Walker (born 2003), American basketball player
 * Jarrett Walker (born 1962), American transit consultant
 * Jarvis Walker (basketball) (born 1966), American basketball player
 * Jasmine Walker (born 1998), American basketball player
 * Javon Walker (born 1978), American football player
 * Jayden Walker (born 1996), Italian rugby league footballer
 * J. Brent Walker (born 1950), American minister and lawyer
 * Jean Nellie Miles Walker (1878–1918), Australian nurse
 * Jearl Walker (born 1945), American physicist
 * Jefferson Cobb Walker (1845–??), American politician
 * Jemma Walker, English actress
 * Jenny Walker (born 1956), Australian tennis player
 * Jenonne R. Walker (born 1934), American ambassador
 * Jerald Walker, American writer
 * Jermaine Walker (born 1977), American basketball player
 * Jerry Walker (1939–2024), American baseball player
 * Jerry Jeff Walker (1942–2020), American singer-songwriter
 * Jesse Walker (born 1970), American editor
 * Jesse Walker (Methodist) (1766–1835), American minister
 * Jessica Walker (born 1990), British canoeist
 * Jessie Walker (born 1994), English cyclist
 * J. H. Walker (1860–1947), American land commissioner
 * Jimmie Walker (born 1947), American actor and comedian
 * Joan Walker, Canadian writer
 * Joaquín Garrigues Walker (1933–1980), Spanish politician
 * Johnny "Big Moose" Walker (1927–1999), American blues pianist and organist
 * Jon Walker (born 1985), American musician
 * Josiah Walker (1761–1831), Scottish author
 * Josie Walker (born 1970), Northern Irish actress
 * Joyce Walker (born 1961/1962), American basketball player
 * J. P. Walker (born 1976), American snowboarder
 * J. Samuel Walker, American historian
 * Judy L. Walker, American mathematician
 * Julian Walker (born 1986), Swiss ice hockey player
 * Julian F. Walker (1929–2018), British cartographer
 * Julius Waring Walker Jr. (1927–2003), American diplomat
 * Junior Walker (1931–1995), American instrumentalist

K

 * Kara Walker (born 1969), American artist
 * Kara Odom Walker, American physician
 * Kareem Walker (born 1998), American football player
 * Katie Walker (born 1969), British furniture designer
 * Katie Walker (netball) (born 1978), Australian netball player
 * Kathryn Walker (born 1943), American actress
 * Keenan A. Walker, American researcher
 * Keenyn Walker (born 1990), American baseball player
 * Keith Walker (writer) (1935–1996), American writer
 * Kelley Walker (born 1969), American artist
 * Kemba Walker (born 1990), American professional basketball player
 * Kenney Walker (born 1988), American soccer player
 * Kenronte Walker (born 1990), American football player
 * Kent Walker, American corporate executive
 * Kenyatta Walker (born 1979), American football player
 * Kerry Walker (born 1948), Australian actress
 * Kev Walker, British comic artist
 * Kirk Walker, American softball coach
 * Kristen Walker, Australian lawyer
 * Kristina Walker (born 1996), Canadian rower
 * Kyle Walker (born 1990), English footballer
 * Kyle Walker (politician), American politician
 * Kyree Walker (born 2000), American basketball player

L

 * Lamar Walker (born 2000), Jamaican footballer
 * Lance Walker (born 1955), Australian rugby union footballer
 * Lance E. Walker (born 1972), American judge
 * Lancelot Walker (1829–1907), New Zealand politician
 * Landry Walker (born 1971), American writer
 * Langston Walker (born 1979), American football player
 * Larrington Walker (1946–2017), Jamaican-British actor
 * Lary Walker, American neuroscientist
 * Latrice Walker (born 1979), American politician
 * Laudie Walker (1898–1962), American baseball player
 * Lauren Walker (born 1989), English footballer
 * LaVar Walker, American comedian
 * Leanne Walker (born 1968), New Zealand basketball player
 * Lee Walker (born 1976), Welsh snooker player
 * Lee Walker (footballer) (born 1973), Australian rules footballer
 * Len Walker (born 1944), English footballer
 * Léon Walker (1937–2006), Swiss footballer
 * Leonard Walker (1877–1964), British painter
 * Les Walker, South African bishop
 * Les Walker (politician) (born 1965), Australian politician
 * Lesley Walker, British film editor
 * Lewis L. Walker (1873–1944), American politician
 * Lewis Walker (footballer) (born 1999), English footballer
 * Liam Walker (born 1988), Gibraltarian footballer
 * Lillian Walker (1887–1975), American actress
 * Lillian Walker (politician) (1923–2016), American politician
 * Linda T. Walker (born 1960), American judge
 * Livingstone Walker (1879–1940), English cricketer
 * Liza Walker (born 1972), English actress
 * Lloyd Walker (rugby union) (born 1959), Australian rugby union footballer
 * Lonnie Walker (born 1998), American basketball player
 * Lorna Walker, British historian
 * Lorraine Walker, Australian judge
 * Lou Ann Walker, American author
 * Louie Walker (born 1953), American football player
 * L. T. Walker, American football coach
 * Lucas Walker (born 1984), Australian basketball player
 * Lucius M. Walker (1829–1863), American soldier
 * Luise Walker (1910–1998), Austrian composer
 * Luther Walker (1864–1903), English footballer
 * Lyman Walker (1799–1886), American politician
 * Lyman Fessenden Walker (1836–1920), American shipbuilder
 * Lyndsay Walker (born 1974), Australian cricketer

M

 * Mack Walker (1929–2021), American historian
 * Madam C. J. Walker (1867–1919), American entrepreneur
 * Maggie L. Walker (1864–1934), American teacher and businesswoman
 * Mandy Walker (born 1963), Australian cinematographer
 * Magnus Walker (born 1967), British fashion designer
 * Mallory Walker (1935–2014), American musician
 * Mamie Dowd Walker (1880–1960), American judge
 * Marco Walker (born 1970), Swiss footballer
 * Marcy Walker (born 1961), American actress
 * Marietta Walker (1834–1930), American academic administrator
 * Marilyn Walker, American computer scientist
 * Marion Walker, Scottish activist
 * Marquis Walker (born 1972), American football player
 * Marquise Walker (born 1978), American football player
 * Marty Walker (1899–1978), American baseball player
 * Matías Walker (born 1973), Chilean politician
 * Max Walker (1948–2016), Australian cricketer
 * Max Walker (actor) (born 1986), Canadian actor
 * Maxine Walker (born 1962), British-Jamaican photographer
 * Meadow Walker (born 1998), American model
 * Megan Walker (born 1998), American basketball player
 * Melaine Walker (born 1983), Jamaican hurdler
 * Melissa Walker (born 1977), American author
 * Meriwether Lewis Walker (1869–1947), American brigadier general
 * Merv Walker (born 1952), Canadian football player
 * Miles Walker (born 1940), English businessman and politician
 * Miles Walker (tennis) (born 1961), American tennis player
 * M. J. Walker (born 1998), American basketball player
 * Molly Walker (footballer) (1898–??), English footballer
 * Molly Manning Walker (born 1993), English cinematographer
 * Monica Walker (born 1987), American curler
 * Monica Walker (illustrator), British illustrator
 * Mort Walker (1923–2018), American cartoonist
 * Moses B. Walker (1819–1895), American general
 * Moses Fleetwood Walker (1856–1924), American baseball player
 * Murdoch Walker (??–1580), Scottish stonemason
 * Murray Walker (1923–2021), English journalist
 * Murphy Walker (born 1999), Scottish rugby union footballer
 * Mykal Walker (born 1997), American football player
 * Mysterious Walker (1884–1958), American athlete and coach

N

 * Nancy Walker (1922–1992), American actress
 * Naomi Ruiz Walker (born 1992), Spanish artistic gymnast
 * Natalie Walker, American vocalist
 * Natalie Walker (actress), Australian actress
 * Nate Walker (born 1952), American businessman
 * Nathan Walker (born 1994), Australian ice hockey player
 * Nefertiti A. Walker, American academic administrator
 * Nella Walker (1886–1971), American actress
 * Nellie Walker (1874–1973), American sculptor
 * Nellie Craig Walker (1881–1969), American teacher
 * Neva Walker (born 1971), American politician
 * Nicky Walker (born 1962), Scottish footballer
 * Nico Walker (born 1985), American author
 * Nicola Walker (born 1970), English actress
 * Nicole Walker (writer), American writer
 * Niel Walker (1895–1960), British cricketer
 * Nikki Walker (born 1982), Scottish rugby union footballer
 * Norma Ford Walker (1893–1968), Canadian scientist
 * Norma O. Walker (1928–2023), American politician

O

 * Obadiah Walker (1616–1699), English academic
 * Obie Walker (1911–1989), American boxer
 * Olene Walker (1930–2015), American politician
 * Ordell Walker, American football coach
 * Orris George Walker (1942–2015), American bishop
 * Oscar Walker (1854–1889), American baseball player
 * Owen Walker, New Zealand computer hacker

P

 * Pamela Gaye Walker, American actress
 * Pat Walker (activist) (1939-1999), American activist, poet, and businesswoman
 * Pat Walker (footballer) (born 1959), Irish footballer
 * Patricia Stilwell Walker, American philatelist
 * Patricio Walker (born 1969), Chilean politician
 * Paul Walker (1973–2013), American actor
 * Peahead Walker (1899–1970), American football and baseball coach
 * Percy Walker (1812–1880), American politician
 * Pete Walker (baseball) (born 1969), American baseball coach and player
 * Pinkney H. Walker (1815–1885), American jurist
 * P. J. Walker (born 1995), American football player
 * Platt D. Walker (1849–1923), justice of the North Carolina Supreme Court
 * Polly Walker (born 1966), English actress
 * Purcy Walker (born 1951), American politician

Q

 * Quay Walker (born 2000), American football player
 * Quentin Walker (born 1961), American football player
 * Quock Walker (1753–??), American slave

R

 * Ramon Walker (born 1979), American football player
 * Rana Walker, American psychologist
 * Ranginui Walker (1932–2016), New Zealand academic and writer
 * Rasheed Walker (born 2000), American football player
 * Regan Walker (born 1996), English footballer
 * Reuben Lindsay Walker (1827–1890), American general
 * Rhys Walker (born 1994), English badminton player
 * Rick Walker (born 1955), American football player
 * Ricky Walker (born 1996), American football player
 * Rod Walker (born 1976), American football player
 * Roderick Walker (1932–2008), British military officer
 * Roland Walker (born 1970), British army officer
 * Roman Walker (born 2000), Welsh cricketer
 * Rose A. Walker (1879–1942), Australian painter
 * Rosa Kershaw Walker (??–1909), American author
 * Rosie Walker (born 1957), American basketball player
 * Roslyn Walker (born 1981), English entertainer
 * Roslyn Walker (curator), American curator
 * Rowan Walker (born 1970), Australian runner
 * R. T. Walker (1914–?), American baseball player
 * R. Tracy Walker (1939–2019), American politician
 * Rube Walker (1926–1992), American baseball player
 * Rudolph Walker (born 1939), Trinidadian actor
 * Ruel C. Walker (1910–1998), American judge
 * Russell Walker (1842–1922), English cricketer
 * Ryley Walker (born 1989), American singer-songwriter
 * Rysa Walker (born 1961), American writer

S

 * Samaki Walker (born 1976), American basketball player
 * Sampson Walker (1843–1933), English-Canadian businessman
 * Sandy Walker (born 1942), American artist
 * Sara Imari Walker, American physicist
 * Sears Cook Walker (1805–1853), American astronomer
 * Sebo Walker (born 1988), American skateboarder
 * Selma Walker (1925–1997), American social worker
 * Seth Walker (born 1972), American guitarist
 * Shannon Walker (born 1965), American physicist
 * Shannon Walker (rugby) (born 1988), Australian rugby union footballer
 * Shelby Walker (1975–2006), American boxer
 * Sherron Walker (born 1956), American athlete
 * Shiloh Walker (born 1976), American author
 * Shirley Walker (1945–2006), American composer
 * Skeeter Werner Walker (1933–2001), American skier
 * S. Lynne Walker, American journalist
 * Solomon Walker, American guitarist
 * Sonny Walker, British actor
 * Sophie Walker (born 1971), British activist
 * Sophie Walker (golfer) (born 1984), English golfer
 * Speed Walker (1898–1959), American baseball player
 * Speedy Walker (1906–2004), American basketball player
 * Steele Walker (born 1996), American baseball player
 * Stéphane Walker (born 1990), Swiss figure skater
 * Stephanie Walker (born 1994), Australian rules footballer
 * Struan Walker (born 2002), Scottish field hockey player
 * Sullivan Walker (1946–2012), Trinidadian actor
 * Summer Walker (born 1996), American singer-songwriter
 * Suzanne Walker, American microbiologist
 * Syd Walker (1886–1945), British actor
 * Sydney Walker (1921–1994), American actor
 * Sylford Walker (born 1955), Jamaican singer
 * Sylvia Walker (1937–2004), American professor

T

 * Taijuan Walker (born 1992), American baseball player
 * Tamara Walker (born 1966), American singer-songwriter
 * Tawee Walker, American football player
 * T. B. Walker (1840–1929), American businessman
 * T-Bone Walker (1910–1975), American musician
 * Ted Walker (1934–2004), English poet
 * Terence Walker (born 1935), British politician
 * Terri Walker (born 1979), English singer-songwriter
 * Thelma Walker (born 1957), British politician
 * Theresa Walker (1807–1876), Australian sculptor
 * Tippy Walker (born 1947), American actress
 * Tirame Walker (born 1975), American basketball player
 * Tisha Walker (born 1975), American figure skater
 * Todd Walker (born 1973), American baseball player
 * Tonette Walker (born 1955), American social figure
 * Toni Walker (born 1952), American politician
 * Tonja Walker (born 1960), American soap opera actress
 * Tony Walker (American football) (born 1968), American football player
 * Tony Walker (outfielder) (born 1959), American baseball player
 * Tony Walker (Negro leagues), American baseball player
 * Tracy Walker (American football) (born 1995), American football player
 * Travis Walker (born 1979), American boxer
 * Travon Walker (born 2000), American football player
 * Tray Walker (1992–2016), American football player
 * Trent Walker, American sound engineer
 * Trevor Walker, Barbadian politician
 * Tricia Walker (1964–2018), British author
 * Tristan Walker (born 1991), Canadian luger
 * Tristan Walker (entrepreneur), American corporate executive
 * Tristen Walker (born 1984), Australian rules footballer
 * Tyr Walker (born 2003), Canadian soccer player
 * Tyrunn Walker (born 1990), American football player
 * Tyson Walker (born 2000), American basketball player

U

 * Uncle Homer Walker (1898–1980), American banjo player
 * Uroyoán Walker, American academic administrator

V

 * Val Walker (1890–1969), English magician
 * Val Joe Walker (1930–2013), American football player
 * Vance Walker (born 1987), American football player
 * Vanessa Siddle Walker, American professor
 * Vaughn Walker (born 1944), American judge
 * V. E. Walker (1837–1906), English cricketer
 * Vernon L. Walker (1894–1948), American cinematographer
 * Vicki Walker (born 1956), American politician
 * Victor B. Walker (1864–??), American lawyer and businessman
 * Victoria Walker, known as PinkPantheress (born 2001), British singer, songwriter, and record producer
 * Vincent Walker (born 1980), American singer
 * Virginia Walker (1916–1946), American film actress
 * Vordell Walker (born 1982), American professional wrestler

W

 * Wade Walker (1923–2013), American football player
 * Wally Walker (born 1954), American basketball player
 * Walt Walker (1860–1922), American baseball player
 * Walton Walker (1889–1950), American general
 * Waurine Walker (1908–1987), American educator
 * W. Danforth Walker, American philatelist
 * Weldy Walker (1860–1937), American baseball player
 * Wendell Walker (born 1952), American politician
 * Wendy Jane Walker (born 1964), English actress
 * Wickliffe Walker (born 1946), American canoeist
 * Wilbert Walker (born 1985), Jamaican triple jumper
 * Willis Walker (1892–1991), English footballer
 * Williston Walker (1860–1922), American historian
 * Winifred Walker (1882–1965), English artist
 * Wirt Dexter Walker (1860–1899), American lawyer
 * Wyatt Tee Walker (1928–2018), American pastor and activist

Z

 * Zain Walker (born 2002), English footballer
 * Zena Walker (1934–2003), English actress

A

 * Aaron Walker (disambiguation)
 * Adam Walker (disambiguation)
 * Alan Walker (disambiguation)
 * Albert Walker (disambiguation)
 * Alexander Walker (disambiguation)
 * Alfred Walker (disambiguation)
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B

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C

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D

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E

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F

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G

 * Gary Walker (disambiguation)
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H

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I

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J

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K

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L

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M

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N

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O

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P

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R

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W

 * Walter Walker (disambiguation)
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Fictional characters

 * Addy Walker, American Girl character from the Civil War era
 * Allen Walker, on the Manga series D.Gray-man
 * Brenda Walker, on the soap opera Emmerdale
 * Captain Martin Walker, main character of the video game Spec Ops: The Line
 * Dexter Walker, on the soap opera Home and Away
 * Ed Walker (Ninjago), a character in Ninjago
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 * Gennie Walker, on the soap opera Emmerdale
 * Indi Walker, on the soap opera Home and Away
 * Jay Walker (Ninjago), a character in Ninjago
 * Julia Walker, on the television series Brothers & Sisters
 * Karen Walker, on the sitcom series Will & Grace
 * Kate Walker, main character of the Syberia video game series
 * Margaret Walker (EastEnders), a fictional character on the British soap opera played by Susan George
 * Molly Walker, on the drama series Heroes
 * Nicole Walker, on the soap opera Days of Our Lives
 * Nora Walker, on the television series Brothers & Sisters
 * Patsy Walker, from the comic series Marvel Comics
 * Private Walker, on the television series Dad's Army
 * Renee Walker, on the television series 24
 * Rinslet Walker, from the manga series Black Cat (manga)
 * Saint Walker, from the comic series DC Comics
 * Sarah Walker, on the television series Chuck (TV series)
 * Sid Walker, on the soap opera Home and Away
 * Lily Walker, on the soap opera Doctors

title: Walker (surname)


text:
Carlos Manuel Pruneda

Carlos Manuel (born 1973) is a Cuban singer, known simply as "Carlos Manuel".

Career in Cuba
Carlos Manuel had been a member of the Mayohuacan, Carapacho and Irakere groups in Cuba, and had had success within Cuba as vocalist with Carlos Manuel y su Clan, which he founded in 1997. In 2001, he was voted the most popular artist in Cuba, Clan decreed the best new band, and his song "Malo Cantidad" the most listened to.

In 2003, after performing a concert in Mexico City, Pruneda boarded a plane and flew to Monterrey, Mexico. He boarded a cab and drove to the US border crossing at Brownsville, Texas, where he asked for asylum.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Carlos Manuel Pruneda


text:
User talk:Dragons Bay

Hi!, I expect you already know that plunge pool is spelt wrong (and I'm fairly sure it's two words) on the Waterfall article. Just thought I'd let you know. Best Wishes. Adrian Pingstone 09:07 21 Jun 2003 (UTC)

Unverified images
Hi! Thanks for uploading the following image:

 * Image:Destructive_margin.png
 * Image:Waterfall_formation.png

I notice they currently don't have image copyright tags. Could you add some to let us know their copyright status? (You can use if you release them under the GNU Free Documentation License,  if you claim fair use, etc.) If you don't know what any of this means, just let me know at my talk page where you got the images and I'll tag them for you. Thanks so much. [[User:Poccil|Peter O. (Talk, automation script)]] 04:56, Dec 11, 2004 (UTC)

P.S. You can help tag other images at User:Yann/Untagged_Images. Thanks again.

HKWNB, HKCOTW, Current events
Hi. Thanks for your contributions to some Hong Kong-related articles. You might be interested to take a look at HK wikipedians' notice board, HK Collaboration of the Week and Current events in Hong Kong and Macao. — Instantnood July 6, 2005 13:53 (UTC)

Re:Water formation
You're just too welcome :-D -- Jerry Crimson Mann 15:39, 22 July 2005 (UTC)

re:Map of Hong Kong
mind pointing out the errors directly on the map. I'm a poor map reader... -- Jerry Crimson Mann 15:44, 24 July 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Dragons Bay


text:
Free love

Free love is a social movement that accepts all forms of love. The movement's initial goal was to separate the state from sexual and romantic matters such as marriage, birth control, and adultery. It stated that such issues were the concern of the people involved and no one else. The movement began during the 19th century and was advanced by hippies during the 1960s and early 70s.

Principles
Much of the free love tradition reflects a liberal philosophy that seeks freedom from state regulation and church interference in personal relationships. According to this concept, the free unions of adults (or persons at or above the age of consent) are legitimate relations which should be respected by all third parties whether they are emotional or sexual relations. In addition, some free love writing has argued that both men and women have the right to sexual pleasure without social or legal restraints. In the Victorian era, this was a radical notion. Later, a new theme developed, linking free love with radical social change and depicting it as a harbinger of a new anti-authoritarian, anti-repressive sensibility.

According to the modern stereotype, earlier middle-class Americans wanted the home to be a place of stability in an uncertain world. To this mentality are attributed strongly defined gender roles, which led to a minority reaction in the form of the free-love movement.

While the phrase free love is often associated with promiscuity in the popular imagination, especially in reference to the counterculture of the 1960s and 1970s, historically, the free-love movement has not advocated multiple sexual partners or short-term sexual relationships. Rather, it has argued that sexual relations that are freely entered into should not be regulated by law, and may be initiated or terminated by the parties involved at will. Nevertheless, it has been acknowledged that many men who participated in the free love movement also saw free love as a way to get free sex.

The term "sex radical" is often used interchangeably with the term "free lover". By whatever name, advocates had two strong beliefs: opposition to the idea of forced sexual activity in a relationship and advocacy for a woman to use her body in any way that she pleases.

Laws of particular concern to free love movements have included those that prevent an unmarried couple from living together, and those that regulate adultery and divorce, as well as age of consent, birth control, homosexuality, abortion, and sometimes prostitution; although not all free-love advocates agree on these issues. The abrogation of individual rights in marriage is also a concern—for example, some jurisdictions do not recognize spousal rape, or they treat it less seriously than non-spousal rape. Free-love movements since the 19th century have also defended the right to publicly discuss sexuality and have battled obscenity laws.

Relationship to feminism
The history of free love is entwined with the history of feminism. From the late 18th century, leading feminists, such as Mary Wollstonecraft, have challenged the institution of marriage, and many have advocated its abolition.

According to feminist critique, a married woman was solely a wife and mother, denying her the opportunity to pursue other occupations; sometimes this was legislated, as with bans on married women and mothers being employed as teachers. In 1855, free love advocate Mary Gove Nichols (1810–1884) described marriage as the "annihilation of woman", explaining that women were considered to be men's property in law and public sentiment, making it possible for tyrannical men to deprive their wives of all freedom. For example, the law often allowed a husband to beat his wife. Free-love advocates argued that many children were born into unloving marriages out of compulsion, but should instead be the result of choice and affection—yet children born out of wedlock did not have the same rights as children with married parents.

In 1857, in the Social Revolutionist, Minerva Putnam complained that "in the discussion of free love, no woman has attempted to give her views on the subject" and challenged every woman reader to "rise in the dignity of her nature and declare herself free."

The figureheads of the free love movement were often men, both in leading organizations and contributing to its ideology. Almost all books endorsing free love in the 1850s were by men, except for Mary Gove Nichols's 1855 autobiography. This was the first full-length case against marriage written by a woman. Of the four major free-love periodicals in the Reconstruction era, half had woman editors.

To proponents of free love, the act of sex was not just about reproduction. Access to birth control was considered a means to women's independence, and leading birth-control activists also embraced free love. Sexual radicals remained focused on their attempts to uphold a woman's right to control her body and to freely discuss issues such as contraception, marital-sex abuse (emotional and physical), and sexual education. These people believed that by talking about female sexuality, they would help empower women. To help achieve this goal, such radical thinkers relied on the written word, books, pamphlets, and periodicals, and by these means the movement was sustained for over fifty years, spreading the message of free love all over the United States. However, many feminists would point out that the 1960s free love movement did not significantly change views about women's role in mainstream America. Haight-Ashbury Free Clinic founder Dr. David Smith, who was a prominent participant in the 1967 Summer of Love, acknowledged in 2007 how many of the men who participated in the event viewed women as prone.

Early precedents
A number of utopian social movements throughout history have shared a vision of free love. An early Christian sect known as the Adamites existed in North Africa in the 2nd, 3rd and 4th centuries and rejected marriage. They practiced nudism and believed themselves to be without original sin.

In the 6th century, adherents of Mazdakism in pre-Muslim Persia apparently supported a kind of free love in the place of marriage. One folk story from the period that contains a mention of a free-love (and nudist) community under the sea is "The Tale of Abdullah the Fisherman and Abdullah the Merman" from The Book of One Thousand and One Nights (c. 10th–12th century).

Karl Kautsky, writing in 1895, noted that a number of "communistic" movements throughout the Middle Ages also rejected marriage. Typical of such movements, the Cathars of 10th to 14th century Western Europe freed followers from all moral prohibition and religious obligation, but respected those who lived simply, avoided the taking of human or animal life, and were celibate. Women had an uncommon equality and autonomy, even as religious leaders. The Cathars and similar groups (the Waldenses, Apostle brothers, Beghards and Beguines, Lollards, and Hussites) were branded as heretics by the Roman Catholic Church and suppressed. Other movements shared their critique of marriage but advocated free sexual relations rather than celibacy, such as the Brethren of the Free Spirit, Taborites, and Picards.

Free love was an element in radical thinking during the "English Revolution" of 1640–1660, most strongly associated with the "Ranters". There were also perceptive critiques, within these radical movements, such as Gerrard Winstanley: "The mother and child begotten in this manner is like to have the worst of it, for the man will be gone and leave them ... after he hath had his pleasure. .....    By seeking their own freedom they embondage others."

Enlightenment thought

The ideals of free love found their champion in one of the earliest English feminists, Mary Wollstonecraft. In her writings, Wollstonecraft challenged the institution of marriage, and advocated its abolition. Her novels criticized the social construction of marriage and its effects on women. In her first novel, Mary: A Fiction written in 1788, the heroine is forced into a loveless marriage for economic reasons. She finds love in relationships with another man and a woman. The novel, Maria: or, The Wrongs of Woman, never finished but published in 1798, revolves around the story of a woman imprisoned in an asylum by her husband. Maria finds fulfilment outside of marriage, in an affair with a fellow inmate. Wollstonecraft makes it clear that "women had strong sexual desires and that it was degrading and immoral to pretend otherwise."

Wollstonecraft felt that women should not give up freedom and control of their sexuality, and thus did not marry her partner, Gilbert Imlay, despite the two conceiving and having a child together in the midst of the Terror of the French Revolution. Though the relationship ended badly, due in part to the discovery of Imlay's infidelity, and not least because Imlay abandoned her for good, Wollstonecraft's belief in free love survived. She later developed a relationship with the anarchist William Godwin, who shared her free love ideals, and published on the subject throughout his life. However, the two did decide to marry, just months before her death from complications in parturition.

A member of Wollstonecraft's circle of notable radical intellectuals in England was the Romantic poet William Blake, who explicitly compared the sexual oppression of marriage to slavery in works such as Visions of the Daughters of Albion (1793), published five years after Wollstonecraft's Mary. Blake was critical of the marriage laws of his day, and generally railed against traditional Christian notions of chastity as a virtue. At a time of tremendous strain in his marriage, in part due to Catherine's apparent inability to bear children, he directly advocated bringing a second wife into the house. His poetry suggests that external demands for marital fidelity reduce love to mere duty rather than authentic affection, and decries jealousy and egotism as a motive for marriage laws. Poems such as "Why should I be bound to thee, O my lovely Myrtle-tree?" and "Earth's Answer" seem to advocate multiple sexual partners. In his poem "London" he speaks of "the Marriage-Hearse" plagued by "the youthful Harlot's curse", the result alternately of false Prudence and/or Harlotry. Visions of the Daughters of Albion is widely (though not universally) read as a tribute to free love since the relationship between Bromion and Oothoon is held together only by laws and not by love. For Blake, law and love are opposed, and he castigates the "frozen marriage-bed". In Visions, Blake writes:

Blake believed that humans were "fallen", and that a major impediment to a free love society was corrupt human nature, not merely the intolerance of society and the jealousy of men, but the inauthentic hypocritical nature of human communication. He also seems to have thought that marriage should afford the joy of love, but that in reality it often does not, as a couple's knowledge of being chained often diminishes their joy:

In an act understood to support free love, the child of Wollstonecraft and Godwin, Mary, took up with the then still-married English romantic poet Percy Bysshe Shelley in 1814 at the young age of sixteen. Shelley wrote in defence of free love in the prose notes of Queen Mab (1813), in his essay On Love (c. 1815), and in the poem Epipsychidion (1821).

Utopian socialism
Sharing the free-love ideals of the earlier social movements—as well as their feminism, pacifism, and simple communal life—were the utopian socialist communities of early-nineteenth-century France and Britain, associated with writers and thinkers such as Henri de Saint-Simon and Charles Fourier in France, and Robert Owen in England. Fourier, who coined the term feminism, argued for true freedom, without suppressing passions: the suppression of passions is not only destructive to the individual, but to society as a whole. He argued that all sexual expressions should be enjoyed as long as people are not abused, and that "affirming one's difference" can actually enhance social integration.

Origins of the movement
The eminent sociologist Herbert Spencer argued in his Principles of Sociology for the implementation of free divorce. Claiming that marriage consists of two components, "union by law" and "union by affection", he argued that with the loss of the latter union, legal union should lose all meaning and dissolve automatically, without the legal requirement for a divorce. Free love particularly stressed women's rights since most sexual laws discriminated against women: for example, marriage laws and anti-birth control measures.

United States
Free love began to coalesce into a movement in the mid to late 19th century. The term was coined by the Christian socialist writer John Humphrey Noyes, although he preferred to use the term 'complex marriage'. Noyes founded the Oneida Community in 1848, a utopian community that "[rejected] conventional marriage both as a form of legalism from which Christians should be free and as a selfish institution in which men exerted rights of ownership over women". He found scriptural justification: "In the resurrection they neither marry nor are given in marriage, but are like the angels in heaven" (Matt. 22:30). Noyes also supported eugenics; and only certain people (including Noyes himself) were allowed to become parents. Another movement was established in Berlin Heights, Ohio.

In 1852, a writer named Marx Edgeworth Lazarus published a tract entitled "Love vs. Marriage pt. 1", in which he portrayed marriage as "incompatible with social harmony and the root cause of mental and physical impairments." Lazarus intertwined his writings with his religious teachings, a factor that made the Christian community more tolerable to the free love idea. Elements of the free-love movement also had links to abolitionist movements, drawing parallels between slavery and "sexual slavery" (marriage), and forming alliances with black activists.

American feminist Victoria Woodhull (1838–1927), the first woman to run for presidency in the U.S. in 1872, was also called "the high priestess of free love". In 1871, Woodhull wrote: "Yes, I am a Free Lover. I have an inalienable, constitutional and natural right to love whom I may, to love as long or as short a period as I can; to change that love every day if I please, and with that right neither you nor any law you can frame have any right to interfere".

The women's suffrage movement, free love and Spiritualism were three strongly linked movements at the time, and Woodhull was also a spiritualist leader. Like Noyes, she also supported eugenics. Fellow social reformer and educator Mary Gove Nichols was happily married (to her second husband), and together they published a newspaper and wrote medical books and articles. Both Woodhull and Nichols eventually repudiated free love.

Publications of the movement in the second half of the 19th century included Nichols' Monthly, The Social Revolutionist, Woodhull & Claflin's Weekly (ed. Victoria Woodhull and her sister Tennessee Claflin), The Word (ed. Ezra Heywood), Lucifer, the Light-Bearer (ed. Moses Harman) and the German-language Detroit newspaper Der Arme Teufel (ed. Robert Reitzel). Organisations included the New England Free Love League, founded with the assistance of American libertarian socialist Benjamin Tucker as a spin-off from the New England Labor Reform League (NELRL). A minority of freethinkers also supported free love.

The most radical free love journal was The Social Revolutionist, published in 1856–1857 by John Patterson. The first volume consisted of twenty writers, of which only one was a woman.

Sex radicals were not alone in their fight against marriage ideals. Some other nineteenth-century Americans saw this social institution as flawed, but hesitated to abolish it. Groups such as the Shakers, the Oneida Community, and the Latter-day Saints were wary of the social notion of marriage. These organizations and sex radicals believed that true equality would never exist between the sexes as long as the church and the state continued to work together, worsening the problem of subordination of wives to their husbands.

Free-love movements continued into the early 20th century in bohemian circles in New York's Greenwich Village. A group of Villagers lived free-love ideals and promoted them in the political journal The Masses and its sister publication The Little Review, a literary journal. Incorporating influences from the writings of the English thinkers and activists Edward Carpenter and Havelock Ellis, women such as Emma Goldman campaigned for a range of sexual freedoms, including homosexuality and access to contraception. Other notable figures among the Greenwich-Village scene who have been associated with free love include Edna St. Vincent Millay, Max Eastman, Crystal Eastman, Floyd Dell, Mabel Dodge Luhan, Ida Rauh, Hutchins Hapgood, and Neith Boyce. Dorothy Day also wrote passionately in defense of free love, women's rights, and contraception—but later, after converting to Catholicism, she criticized the sexual revolution of the sixties.

The development of the idea of free love in the United States was also significantly impacted by the publisher of Playboy magazine, Hugh Hefner, whose activities and persona over more than a half century popularized the idea of free love to some of the general public.

United Kingdom
Free love was a central tenet of the philosophy of the Fellowship of the New Life, founded in 1883 by the Scottish intellectual Thomas Davidson. Fellowship members included many illustrious intellectuals of the day, who went on to radically challenge accepted Victorian notions of morality and sexuality, including poets Edward Carpenter and John Davidson, animal rights activist Henry Stephens Salt, sexologist Havelock Ellis, feminists Edith Lees, Emmeline Pankhurst and Annie Besant and writers H. G. Wells, Bernard Shaw, Bertrand Russell and Olive Schreiner. Its objective was "The cultivation of a perfect character in each and all," and believed in the transformation of society through setting an example of clean simplified living for others to follow. Many of the Fellowship's members advocated pacifism, vegetarianism and simple living.

Edward Carpenter was an early activist for the rights of homosexuals. He became interested in progressive education, especially providing information to young people on the topic of sexual education. For Carpenter, sexual education meant forwarding a clear analysis of the ways in which sex and gender were used to oppress women, contained in Carpenter's radical work Love's Coming-of-Age. In it he argued that a just and equal society must promote the sexual and economic freedom of women. The main crux of his analysis centred on the negative effects of the institution of marriage. He regarded marriage in England as both enforced celibacy and a form of prostitution.

The best-known British advocate of free love was the philosopher Bertrand Russell, later Third Earl Russell, who said that he did not believe he really knew a woman until he had made love with her. Russell consistently addressed aspects of free love throughout his voluminous writings, and was not personally content with conventional monogamy until extreme old age. His most famous work on the subject was Marriage and Morals, published in 1929. The book heavily criticizes the Victorian notions of morality regarding sex and marriage. Russell argued that the laws and ideas about sex of his time were a potpourri from various sources, which were no longer valid with the advent of contraception, as the sexual acts are now separated from the conception. He argued that family is most important for the welfare of children, and as such, a man and a woman should be considered bound only after her first pregnancy.

Marriage and Morals prompted vigorous protests and denunciations against Russell shortly after the book's publication. A decade later, the book cost him his professorial appointment at the City College of New York due to a court judgment that his opinions made him "morally unfit" to teach. Contrary to what many people believed, Russell did not advocate an extreme libertine position. Instead, he felt that sex, although a natural impulse like hunger or thirst, involves more than that, because no one is "satisfied by the bare sexual act". He argued that abstinence enhances the pleasure of sex, which is better when it "has a large psychical element than when it is purely physical".

Russell noted that for a marriage to work requires that there "be a feeling of complete equality on both sides; there must be no interference with mutual freedom; there must be the most complete physical and mental intimacy; and there must be a certain similarity in regard to standards of value". He argued that it was, in general, impossible to sustain this mutual feeling for an indefinite length of time, and that the only option in such a case was to provide for either the easy availability of divorce, or the social sanction of extra-marital sex.

Russell's view on marriage changed as he went through personal struggles of subsequent marriages, in his autobiography he writes: "I do not know what I think now about the subject of marriage. There seem to be insuperable objections to every general theory about it. Perhaps easy divorce causes less unhappiness than any other system, but I am no longer capable of being dogmatic on the subject of marriage ".

Russell was also a very early advocate of repealing sodomy laws.

France

An important propagandist of free love was individualist anarchist Émile Armand. He advocated naturism and polyamory in what he termed la camaraderie amoureuse. He wrote many propagandist articles on this subject such as "De la liberté sexuelle" (1907) where he advocated not only a vague free love but also multiple partners, which he called "plural love". In the individualist anarchist journal L'en dehors he and others continued in this way. Armand seized this opportunity to outline his theses supporting revolutionary sexualism and camaraderie amoureuse that differed from the traditional views of the partisans of free love in several respects.

Later Armand submitted that from an individualist perspective nothing was reprehensible about making "love", even if one did not have very strong feelings for one's partner. "The camaraderie amoureuse thesis", he explained, "entails a free contract of association (that may be annulled without notice, following prior agreement) reached between anarchist individualists of different genders, adhering to the necessary standards of sexual hygiene, with a view toward protecting the other parties to the contract from certain risks of the amorous experience, such as rejection, rupture, exclusivism, possessiveness, unicity, coquetry, whims, indifference, flirtatiousness, disregard for others, and prostitution." He also published Le Combat contre la jalousie et le sexualisme révolutionnaire (1926), followed over the years by Ce que nous entendons par liberté de l'amour (1928), La Camaraderie amoureuse ou "chiennerie sexuelle" (1930), and, finally, La Révolution sexuelle et la camaraderie amoureuse (1934), a book of nearly 350 pages comprising most of his writings on sexuality. In a text from 1937, he mentioned among the individualist objectives the practice of forming voluntary associations for purely sexual purposes of heterosexual, homosexual, or bisexual nature or of a combination thereof.

He also supported the right of individuals to change sex and stated his willingness to rehabilitate forbidden pleasures, non-conformist caresses (he was personally inclined toward voyeurism), as well as sodomy. This led him to allocate more and more space to what he called "the sexual non-conformists", while excluding physical violence. His militancy also included translating texts from people such as Alexandra Kollontai and Wilhelm Reich and establishments of free love associations which tried to put into practice la camaraderie amoureuse through actual sexual experiences.

Free love advocacy groups active during this time included the Association d'Études sexologiques and the Ligue mondiale pour la Réforme sexuelle sur une base scientifique.

USSR
After the October Revolution in Russia, Alexandra Kollontai became the most prominent woman in the Soviet administration. Kollontai was also a champion of free love. However, Clara Zetkin recorded that Lenin opposed free love as "completely un-Marxist, and moreover, anti-social". Zetkin also recounted Lenin's denunciation of plans to organise Hamburg's women prostitutes into a "special revolutionary militant section": he saw this as "corrupt and degenerate".

Despite the traditional marital lives of Lenin and most Bolsheviks, they believed that sexual relations were outside the jurisdiction of the state. The Soviet government abolished centuries-old Czarist regulations on personal life, which had prohibited homosexuality and made it difficult for women to obtain divorce permits or to live singly. However, by the end of the 1920s, Stalin had taken control of the Communist Party and begun to implement socially conservative policies. Homosexuality was classified as a mental disorder, and free love was further demonized.

Recent
With the Summer of Love in 1967, the eccentricities of the beat generation became a nationally recognized movement. Despite the developing sexual revolution and the influence of the Beatniks in this new counterculture social rebellion, it has been acknowledged that the New Left movement was arguably the most prominent advocate of free love during the late 1960s. Many among the counterculture youth sided with New Left arguments that marriage was a symbol of the traditional capitalist culture which supported war. "Make Love Not War" became a popular slogan in the counterculture movement which denounced both war and capitalism. Images from the pro-socialist May 1968 uprising in France, which occurred as the anti-war protests were escalating throughout the United States, would provide a significant source of morale to the New Left cause as well.

Canadian Justice Minister, and future Prime Minister, Pierre Elliot Trudeau's 20 December 1967 statement "there's no place for the state in the bedrooms of the nation" was a very public declaration justifying his government's decriminalization of sexual activity between same sex partners in Canada, following 1967's Summer of Love.

title: Free love


text:
Abe Fortas

Abraham Fortas (June 19, 1910 – April 5, 1982) was an American lawyer and jurist who served as an associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States from 1965 to 1969. Born and raised in Memphis, Tennessee, Fortas graduated from Rhodes College and Yale Law School. He later became a law professor at Yale Law School and then an advisor for the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. Fortas worked at the Department of the Interior under President Franklin D. Roosevelt, and was appointed by President Harry S. Truman to delegations that helped set up the United Nations in 1945.

In 1948, Fortas represented Lyndon B. Johnson in the dispute over the Democratic U.S. Senate nomination, and he formed close ties with Johnson. Fortas also represented Clarence Earl Gideon before the U.S. Supreme Court, in a landmark case involving the right to counsel. Nominated by Johnson to the Supreme Court in 1965, Fortas was confirmed by the Senate, and maintained a close working relationship with the president. As a justice, Fortas wrote several landmark opinions in cases such as In re Gault and Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District.

In 1968, Johnson tried to elevate Fortas to the position of Chief Justice of the United States, but that nomination faced a filibuster and was withdrawn. Fortas later resigned from the Court after a controversy involving his acceptance of $20,000 from financier Louis Wolfson while Wolfson was being investigated for insider trading. The Justice Department investigated Fortas at the behest of President Richard Nixon, who saw replacing Fortas as a chance to move the Court in a more conservative direction. Attorney General John N. Mitchell pressured Fortas into resigning. Following his resignation, Fortas returned to private practice, occasionally appearing before the justices with whom he had served.

Early years
Fortas was born the youngest of five children to Orthodox Jewish immigrants Woolfe Fortas and Rachel "Ray" Berzansky Fortas in Memphis, Tennessee. Woolfe was born in Russia, and Rachel was born in Lithuania. Woolfe was a cabinetmaker, and the couple operated a store together. Fortas acquired a lifelong love for music from his father, who encouraged his playing the violin, and was known in Memphis as "Fiddlin' Abe Fortas". Fortas learned to play the violin from local Catholic nuns at the St. Patrick's School on Linden, a block from his house on Pontotoc Street; he then studied chamber music with the leader of a local trio. Fortas attended South Side High School where, at the age of sixteen, he graduated second in his class in 1926. After graduating from high school, Fortas won a scholarship to attend Southwestern at Memphis, a liberal arts college now called Rhodes College. During his college years, Fortas supported himself by working as a shoe salesman and as a performing violinist, while also giving violin lessons to local children. Initially, Fortas considered studying music, before settling on English and political science. He graduated first in his class in 1930.

Fortas earned scholarships from both Harvard Law School and Yale Law School but ultimately decided to attend Yale, becoming the youngest law student there at 20 years old. He became editor-in-chief of the Yale Law Journal and graduated cum laude and second in the class of 1933. One of his professors, William O. Douglas, was impressed with Fortas, and Douglas arranged for Fortas to stay at Yale to become an assistant professor of law.

Shortly thereafter, Fortas took on a series of government positions, including with the Agricultural Adjustment Administration and the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) in Washington, D.C. In 1937, he was made assistant director of the public utilities division at the SEC. Throughout this period, Fortas commuted between New Haven and Washington in order to fulfill his responsibilities both to Yale and to the government.

Personal life

In 1935, Fortas married Carolyn E. Agger, who became a successful tax lawyer. They had no children, and after his appointment to the Supreme Court of the United States, they lived at 3210 R Street NW in the Georgetown section of Washington, D.C.

Just like his days in Memphis, Fortas was an amateur musician who played the violin in a string quartet, called the "N Street Strictly-no-refunds String Quartet" on Sunday evenings in Washington. Fortas was friends with well-known musicians such as Rudolf Serkin, Isaac Stern and Pablo Casals. Fortas was a good friend of the first democratically elected Governor of Puerto Rico, Luis Muñoz Marín, calling him "a spectacularly great figure". Fortas visited the island often, frequently lobbied for the island's interests in Congress, participated in drafting the Constitution of Puerto Rico, and gave legal advice to Marín's administration whenever requested.

The Puerto Rican actor José Ferrer portrayed Fortas in the film Gideon's Trumpet (1980).

Early career
Leaving Yale in 1939, Fortas served as general counsel of the Public Works Administration and then as Undersecretary of the Interior in Franklin D. Roosevelt's administration. While he was working at the U.S. Department of the Interior, the Secretary of the Interior, Harold L. Ickes, introduced him to a young congressman from Texas, Lyndon B. Johnson.

In October 1943, Fortas was granted a leave of absence from the Department of Interior to join the United States Navy for World War II. Assigned to Naval Training Station Sampson, New York for his initial training, in December 1943 he was honorably discharged as the result of an arrested case of ocular tuberculosis that caused doctors to deem him medically unfit. He had resigned from his position at the Interior department while in the navy, but was reappointed in January 1944. In 1945, he was appointed by President Harry S. Truman as an advisor to the U.S. delegation during the organizational meeting of the United Nations (UN) in San Francisco, and at the 1946 General Assembly meeting in London.

Private practice
In 1946, after leaving government service, Fortas founded a law firm, Arnold & Fortas, with Thurman Arnold. Former Federal Communications Commission commissioner Paul A. Porter joined the firm in 1947; in 1965, following the appointment of Fortas to the Supreme Court, the firm was renamed as Arnold & Porter. For many years, it has remained one of Washington's most influential law firms, and today is among the most profitable law firms in the world.

In the 1948 United States Senate election in Texas, Lyndon Johnson ran for the Democratic nomination for one of the two seats in the U.S. Senate from Texas. Johnson won the Democratic primary by only 87 votes. His opponent, former Governor of Texas Coke R. Stevenson, persuaded a federal judge to issue an order taking Johnson's name off the general election ballot while the primary results were being contested. There were serious allegations of corruption in the voting process, including 200 votes for Johnson that had been cast in alphabetical order. Johnson asked Fortas for help, and Fortas persuaded Supreme Court Justice Hugo Black to overturn the ruling. Johnson then won the general election and became a U.S. Senator.

During the Red Scare of the late 1940s and early 1950s, Fortas came to widespread notice as the defense attorney for Owen Lattimore. In 1950, Fortas often clashed with Senator Joseph McCarthy when representing Lattimore before the Tydings Committee, and also before the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee.

Fortas initially opposed the creation of a presidential commission to investigate the assassination of President John F. Kennedy. When it became clear that multiple investigations were gearing up simultaneously at the city, state, and federal levels, Fortas changed his mind and advised Johnson to establish the Warren Commission.

Durham v. United States
Fortas was known in Washington circles to have a serious interest in psychiatry, still a controversial subject at the time. In 1953, this expertise led to his appointment to represent the indigent Monte W. Durham, whose insanity defense had been rejected at trial two years earlier, before a U.S. Court of Appeals.

Durham's defense had been denied because the District Court had applied the M'Naghten rules, requiring that the defense prove the accused did not know the difference between right and wrong for an insanity plea to be accepted. Adopted by the British House of Lords in 1843, generations before the origins of modern psychiatry, this test was still in common use in American courts over a century later.

The effect of this standard was to exclude psychiatric and psychological testimony almost entirely from the legal process. In a critical turning point for American criminal law, the Court of Appeals accepted Fortas's call to abandon the M'Naghten Rule and to allow for testimony and evidence regarding the defendant's mental state.

Gideon v. Wainwright
In 1963, Fortas represented Clarence Earl Gideon in his appeal before the Supreme Court. Gideon had been convicted by a Florida court of breaking into a pool hall. He could not afford a lawyer, and none was provided for him when he asked for one at trial. In its landmark ruling in Gideon v. Wainwright, the Supreme Court held for Gideon, ruling that state courts are required under the Sixth Amendment to provide counsel in criminal cases for defendants unable to afford their own. Fortas's former Yale Law School professor, longtime friend and future Supreme Court colleague, William O. Douglas praised his argument as "probably the best single legal argument" in Douglas's time on the court.

Associate Justice of the Supreme Court

On July 28, 1965, President Johnson nominated Fortas as an associate justice of the United States Supreme Court, to succeed Arthur Goldberg, who had resigned to become the U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations following the death of Adlai Stevenson. Johnson persuaded Goldberg to leave the Court for the U.N. in part because he wanted Fortas on the Court. Johnson thought that some of his "Great Society" reforms could be ruled unconstitutional by the Court and felt that Fortas would let him know if that was to happen. The nomination was given a favorable recommendation by the Senate Judiciary Committee two weeks later, following a one-day public hearing. He was confirmed by the U.S. Senate on August 11, 1965, and took the judicial oath of office on October 4, 1965. His appointment ensured the continuation of the Warren Court's liberal majority.

The seat Fortas occupied on the Court had come to be informally known as the "Jewish seat," as his three immediate predecessors—Goldberg, plus Felix Frankfurter and Benjamin Cardozo before him—were also Jewish.

Fortas continued to serve as an adviser to Johnson after becoming an associate justice. He attended White House staff meetings, advising the president on judicial nominations and discussing private Supreme Court deliberations with him. In 1966, he substantially edited an initial version of Johnson's State of the Union Address.

In 1968, Fortas wrote a book called Concerning Dissent and Civil Disobedience.

Fortas's law clerks included future Under Secretary of Defense for Policy Walter B. Slocombe and Martha A. Field, a scholar of constitutional law, family law, and bioethics.

Relationship with other justices
Fortas had mostly good working relations with his fellow justices, although they worried that he talked to President Johnson too much. Fortas clashed with his fellow Associate Justice Hugo Black during much of his time on the Court. The two had been friends since the 1930s, and Black helped convince Fortas's wife, Carolyn Agger, to consent to his appointment to the Supreme Court. However, once both men were on the Court, they disagreed about the manner in which the Constitution should be interpreted, finding themselves on opposing sides of the Court's opinions most of the time. In 1968, a Warren clerk called their feud "one of the most basic animosities of the Court".

Fortas's best relationship was with William O. Douglas, his former law professor at Yale. Fortas was also close to Associate Justice William J. Brennan and Chief Justice Earl Warren. Brennan's offices were in the chambers next to those of Fortas. Fortas's wife recalled that Fortas "loved Warren".

Fortas called fellow associate justice John Marshall Harlan II "one of my dearest friends, although we usually are on opposite sides of the issues here."

In 1967, Fortas and Douglas dissented in the 5–4 decision Fortson v. Morris, which cleared the path for the Georgia State Legislature to choose the Governor of Georgia in the deadlocked Georgia gubernatorial election of 1966 between the Democrat Lester Maddox and the Republican Howard Callaway. Fortas said that the State Constitution of 1824, allowing the legislature to choose the governor if no one wins a majority in the general election, was at odds with the equal protection clause of the 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution: "'If the voting right is to mean anything, it certainly must be protected against the possibility that the victory will go to the loser.'" In this case, Maddox trailed Callaway by about 3,000 votes.

Justice Black took the strict constructionist view that the U.S. Constitution does not dictate how a state must choose its governor: "'Our business is not to write the laws to fit the day. Our task is to interpret the Constitution.'"

Approach to oral arguments
Fortas was critical of justices (he specifically cited Thurgood Marshall) who frequently broke into attorneys' arguments to ask questions. As an attorney arguing before the Court, he had resented intrusions by the justices and so as a justice himself, he felt it best to let the lawyers give their arguments uninterrupted.

Children's and students' rights
During his time on the Court, Fortas led a revolution in US juvenile justice, broadly extending the Court's logic on due process rights and procedure to legal minors and overturning the existing paradigm of parens patriae in which the state had usurped the parental role. Writing the majority decision in Kent v. United States (1966), the first Supreme Court case that evaluated a juvenile court procedure, Fortas suggested that the existing system might be "the worst of both worlds."

At that time, the state was held to have a paternal interest in the child rather than a prosecutorial one, a concept that dispensed with the obligation to provide a child accused of a crime with the opportunity to make a defense. Still, courts were empowered to decide, in the interests of the child, to have the child incarcerated for lengthy periods or otherwise severely punished.

Fortas elaborated on his critique the following year in the case of In re Gault (1967). The case concerned a 15-year-old who had been sentenced to almost six years (until his 21st birthday) in the Arizona State Industrial School for making an obscene phone call to his neighbor. Had he been an adult, the maximum punishment he could have received was a $50.00 fine or two months in jail. Fortas used the case to launch a ferocious attack on the juvenile justice system and parens patriae. His majority opinion was a landmark, extending the Fourteenth Amendment's guarantees of right to sufficient notice, right to counsel, right to confrontation of witnesses, and right against self-incrimination to certain juvenile proceedings.

Two years later, Fortas wrote another landmark in children's rights with the decision in the case of Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District (1969), involving two high school students and one junior high school student, who had been suspended for wearing black armbands to school to protest the Vietnam War. Extending First Amendment rights to school students for the first time, Fortas wrote that neither "students or teachers shed their constitutional rights to freedom of speech or expression at the schoolhouse gate".

Epperson v. Arkansas
In 1968, Fortas persuaded the court to accept the appeal of Little Rock Central High School teacher Sue Epperson who had challenged Arkansas's anti-evolution law, with the support of the state teachers union. Epperson had won the case, but the Arkansas Supreme Court had overturned the ruling. Although the Court agreed quickly after hearing the case that the Arkansas ruling should be reversed, there was no consensus as to why, most Justices favoring fairly narrow grounds. Fortas was the architect and the author of the broader landmark majority opinion that emerged in Epperson v. Arkansas, banning religiously based creation narratives from public school science curricula.

Presidential power
Fortas believed in an expanded executive branch and a less powerful legislative branch. He wrote: "The enormous growth of presidential power from Franklin D. Roosevelt to Lyndon Johnson was a necessary and an inevitable adaptation of our constitutional system to national needs."

Nomination to be Chief Justice
On June 26, 1968, Johnson nominated Fortas as Chief Justice of the United States, to succeed Earl Warren, who had submitted his resignation effective with the confirmation of a successor. Anticipating that conservative members of the Senate would have concerns about Fortas's liberal opinions, Johnson simultaneously announced that he would fill the vacancy created by Fortas's elevation with United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit Judge Homer Thornberry of Texas. The propriety of the coordinated resignation-nomination on the eve of the November presidential election was called into question by Republican candidate Richard Nixon and the media. By the time the Judiciary Committee opened hearings on the nomination on July 11, bipartisan opposition to the nomination (among Republicans and Southern Democrats) had become well organized. Fortas was the first sitting associate justice, nominated for chief justice, ever to appear before the Senate. He underwent four days of questioning about his legal career, judicial philosophy, and his relationship with President Johnson. Judiciary Committee chairman James Eastland, a Missippippi segregationist, told Johnson he "had never seen so much feeling against a man as against Fortas".

Antisemitism likely played a role in the confirmation battle. Afterward, Eastland reportedly said "After [Thurgood] Marshall, I could not go back to Mississippi if a Jewish chief justice swore in the next president." The National Socialist White People's Party undertook a phone campaign that summer, condemning Fortas as a "despicable Jew with a 'red' record that smells to high heaven." Such attacks were soundly condemned by most senators. Even so, the White House began alerting the press to growing antisemitic opposition against Fortas, and used the issue to garner support for him in the Senate. Fortas himself called the effort to defeat his nomination, "anti-Negro, anti-liberal, anti-civil rights, [and] anti-Semitic."

American University payments
Fortas's acceptance of $15,000 for nine speaking engagements at American University's Washington College of Law became a source of controversy. The money had come, not from the university, but from private sources that represented business interests connected to 40 companies; Senator Strom Thurmond raised the idea that cases involving these companies might come to the Court, and Fortas might not be objective. While the fee itself was legal, the size of the fee raised much concern about the Court's insulation from private interests, especially as the speaking fee had been funded by former legal clients and partners of Fortas. The $15,000 represented more than 40 percent of a Supreme Court justice's salary at the time, and was seven times what any other American University seminar leader had ever been paid.

"Fortas Film Festival"
Thurmond also hammered at the issue of pornography. He condemned Fortas for voting with the majority to overturn obscenity laws dealing with pornographic films. Thurmond obtained some of the films in question and played them in the Senate building while the hearings were out of session. These showings became known as the "Fortas Film Festival", and the association of Fortas with some of the films' strip-teases and especially the rape or homosexual sex depicted in one film, Flaming Creatures, was effective in tarnishing Fortas's image and disheartening his supporters.

Cloture vote
It was not until September 17 that the Judiciary Committee took a final vote on the nomination, reporting it favorably by an 11 to 6 vote to the full Senate. Thurmond promised to filibuster, and when the senate debate began on September 25, Fortas's opponents restated every criticism they had earlier directed against Fortas, especially with regard to the issue of obscenity. Johnson remained resolute in his support for his nominee, saying to an aide: "We won't withdraw the nomination. I won't do that to Abe."

The debate lasted for four days, until a cloture motion to end the debate was made. The 45–43 vote in favor of cloture demonstrated that the nomination was in trouble. It was 14 votes short of the two-thirds majority (59 votes) needed to cut off debate and force a vote on the nomination. (35 Democrats and 10 Republicans voted to end debate, while 24 Republicans and 19 Democrats voted to continue it.) Although the vote suggested to Fortas's supporters that a slim majority favored confirmation, it effectively derailed the nomination. In light of the slim prospect for a positive outcome, Johnson withdrew Fortas's nomination.

News accounts at the time consistently described the Senate floor debate as a filibuster intended to prevent the nomination from reaching the floor, where a simple majority vote would have been enough for confirmation. Republican Senator John Cornyn asserted in 2003, however, that several senators who opposed Fortas asserted at the time they were not conducting a perpetual filibuster and were not trying to prevent a final up-or-down vote from occurring. Public debate occasionally still occurs over whether Fortas would have been confirmed in a simple majority vote. The Fortas nomination is seen as a harbinger of later filibusters of judicial nominees.

Richard Nixon won the 1968 presidential election, and Johnson did not make another nomination before his term as president expired on January 20, 1969. Earl Warren was succeeded as chief justice by Warren Burger, who was sworn into office on June 23, 1969.

Ethics scandal and resignation
Fortas remained an associate justice, but in 1969, a new scandal arose. Fortas had accepted a US $20,000 retainer from the family foundation of Wall Street financier Louis Wolfson, a friend and former client, in January 1966. In return for unspecified advice, it was to pay Fortas $20,000 a year for the rest of Fortas's life (and then pay his widow for the rest of her life). However, in order to avoid apparent impropriety, Fortas returned the money the same year and received no further payments. Fortas was not unique in receiving this type of funding and other Justices had similar arrangements. William O. Douglas, Fortas's mentor, likewise received funding from casino magnate Albert Parvin through his own foundation. The American Bar Association revamped its rules as a result of the Wolfson affair, revising circumstances under which judges should not accept outside income.

Wolfson was under investigation for securities violations at the time, and it was alleged that he expected that his arrangement with Fortas would help him stave off criminal charges or help him secure a presidential pardon. He asked Fortas to help him secure a pardon from Johnson, which Fortas claimed that he did not do. Fortas recused himself from Wolfson's case when it came before the Court.

In May 1969, Life magazine chronicled Fortas's tangled relations with Wolfson. The revelation engendered calls for Fortas to be impeached, and motivated Richard Nixon, who knew that Fortas's resignation would enable the appointment of a more conservative Justice, to order the Justice Department to investigate Fortas. Nixon was unsure if an investigation or prosecution was legal, but was convinced by then-Assistant Attorney General and future Chief Justice William Rehnquist that it would be.

Chief Justice Earl Warren (who, like the other Justices, was unaware of Nixon's actions) urged Fortas to resign to protect the reputation of the Court and avoid impeachment proceedings, as did Justice Hugo Black. However, when Fortas said it would "kill" his wife, Black changed his mind, realized that Nixon wanted Fortas off the Court for political reasons, and urged Fortas not to resign.

Fortas ultimately decided resignation would be best for him and for his wife's legal career after Attorney General John N. Mitchell threatened to prosecute him, and potentially investigate his wife for tax evasion. On the subject of his resignation, Justice William J. Brennan later said, "We were just stunned." Fortas later said he "resigned to save Douglas," another justice who was being investigated for a similar scandal at the same time.

Fortas resigned from the Court on May 14, 1969. When the Justice Department heard the news, the Attorney General's office celebrated, and Nixon called to congratulate them.

Fortas's seat on the Supreme Court was vacant until June 1970, when Harry Blackmun was sworn into office. This was Nixon's third attempt to fill the vacancy. His earlier failed nominations were of Clement Haynsworth in September 1969 and G. Harrold Carswell in February 1970.

Seven years later in 1977, Wolfson's lawyer Bernard Fensterwald disclosed to Washington Post reporter Bob Woodward that Wolfson had surreptitiously recorded a 1970 phone call with Fortas, also giving the Post the transcript of this phone call. The Washington Post subsequently published several excerpts, including language suggesting that Fortas might have indeed spoken with President Johnson about a pardon for Wolfson, but there was no direct evidence that it was a quid pro quo rather than a voluntary intervention for a friend. Wolfson was convicted of violating federal securities laws later that year and spent time in prison.

Later years
Rebuffed in the wake of his fall by the powerful Washington law firm he had founded, Fortas founded another firm, Fortas & Koven, and maintained a successful law practice until his death in 1982. However, his wife, Carolyn Agger, stayed at Fortas's original firm—Fortas had resigned in order to protect her job there. He turned down an offer to publish his memoirs.

At Fortas & Koven, Fortas also kept two notable non-paying clients: preeminent cellist/composer Pablo Casals and Lyndon Johnson. Johnson and Fortas remained great friends, with the latter often visiting the former president at his ranch near Stonewall, Texas, until his death in 1973. Fortas was asked to donate his papers to Johnson's presidential library by Lady Bird Johnson, but he replied that his correspondence with Johnson had always been kept in strictest confidence.

A portrait of him was placed in Yale Law School while he was still alive, underwritten by an anonymous donor. Fortas served as a longtime member of the board of directors of Carnegie Hall, including while he was on the Supreme Court. He also served on the board of the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts since the inauguration of the project in 1964.

In the course of his return to private practice, Fortas sometimes appeared before his former colleagues at the Supreme Court. On the first occasion he did so, his successor, Harry Blackmun, recalled that his eyes met Fortas's: "[Fortas] kind of nodded ... I wondered what was going through his mind". When Blackmun later questioned Fortas if he remembered the encounter, Fortas said he would "never forget it". Blackmun thought Fortas's attitude toward the new justice was remarkable, not showing "an ounce of antagonism or resentment."

Fortas died from a ruptured aorta on April 5, 1982. His memorial service was held at the Kennedy Center with Isaac Stern and Lady Bird Johnson in attendance.

title: Abe Fortas


text:
Vacutainer

A vacutainer blood collection tube is a sterile glass or plastic test tube with a colored rubber stopper creating a vacuum seal inside of the tube, facilitating the drawing of a predetermined volume of liquid. Vacutainer tubes may contain additives designed to stabilize and preserve the specimen prior to analytical testing. Tubes are available with a safety-engineered stopper, with a variety of labeling options and draw volumes. The color of the top indicates the additives in the vial.

Vacutainer tubes were invented by Joseph Kleiner in 1949. Vacutainer is a registered trademark of Becton Dickinson, which manufactures and sells the tubes today.

Principles

The Vacutainer needle is double-ended: the inner end is encased in a thin rubber coating that prevents blood from leaking out if the Vacutainer tubes are changed during a multi-draw, and the outer end which is inserted into the vein. When the needle is screwed into the translucent plastic needle holder, the coated end is inside the holder.

When a tube is inserted into the holder, its rubber cap is punctured by this inner needle and the vacuum in the tube pulls blood through the needle and into the tube. The filled tube is then removed and another can be inserted and filled the same way. The amount of air evacuated from the tube predetermines how much blood will fill the tube before blood stops flowing.

Each tube is topped with a color-coded plastic or rubber cap. Tubes often include additives that mix with the blood when collected, and the color of each tube's plastic cap indicates which additives it contains.

Blood collection tubes expire because over time the vacuum is lost and blood will not be drawn into the tube when the needle punctures the cap.

Types of tubes
Vacutainer tubes may contain additional substances that preserve blood for processing in a medical laboratory. Using the wrong tube may make the blood sample unusable for the intended purpose. These additives are typically thin film coatings applied using an ultrasonic nozzle.

The additives may include anticoagulants (EDTA, sodium citrate, heparin) or a gel with density between those of blood cells and blood plasma. Additionally, some tubes contain additives that preserve certain components of or substances within the blood, such as glucose. When a tube is centrifuged, the materials within are separated by density, with the blood cells sinking to the bottom and the plasma or serum accumulating at the top. Tubes containing gel can be easily handled and transported after centrifugation without the blood cells and serum mixing.

The meanings of the various colors are standardized across manufacturers.

The term order of draw refers to the sequence in which tubes should be filled. The needle which pierces the tubes can carry additives from one tube into the next, so the sequence is standardized so that any cross-contamination of additives will not affect laboratory results.

History
Vacutainer technology was developed in 1947 by Joseph Kleiner, and is currently marketed by Becton Dickinson (B-D). The Vacutainer was preceded by other vacuum-based phlebotomy technology such as the Keidel vacuum.

The plastic tube version, known as Vacutainer PLUS, was developed at B-D in the early 1990s by E. Vogler, D. Montgomery and G. Harper amongst others of the Surface Science Group as US patents 5344611, 5326535, 5320812, 5257633 and 5246666.

Vacutainers are widely used in phlebotomy in developed countries due to safety and ease of use. Vacutainers have the advantage of being prepared with additives, allowing easy multi-tube draws, and having a lower chance of hemolysis. In developing countries, it is still common to draw blood using a syringe or syringes. Many brands have now started manufacturing Vaccutainer such as Vacu-8, Hemo Tube and Hemo Vac Plus. These tubes are now also available in pre-barcoded forms.

title: Vacutainer