text:
Carlo Azeglio Ciampi

Carlo Azeglio Ciampi (9 December 1920 – 16 September 2016 ) was an Italian politician, statesman and banker who was the prime minister of Italy from 1993 to 1994 and the president of Italy from 1999 to 2006.

Education
Ciampi was born in Livorno. He received a B.A. in ancient Greek literature and classical philology in 1941 from the Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa, one of the country's most prestigious universities, defending a thesis, entitled Favorino d'Arelate e la consolazione Περὶ φυγῆς, under the direction of the Hellenist Augusto Mancini. Then he was called to military duty in Albania as a lieutenant. On 8 September 1943, on the date of the armistice with the Allies, he refused to remain in the Fascist Italian Social Republic, and took refuge in Abruzzo, in Scanno. He subsequently managed to pass the lines and reach Bari, where he joined the Partito d'Azione and thus the Italian resistance movement. In 1946 he married Franca Pilla. That same year, he obtained a B.A. in law from the University of Pisa and began working at the Banca d'Italia. He also joined the CGIL (Trade Union), which he left in 1980.

Bank of Italy
In 1960, he was called to work in the central administration of the Bank of Italy, where he became Secretary General in 1973, Vice Director General in 1976, and Director General in 1978. In October 1979, he was nominated Governor of the Bank of Italy and President of the national Bureau de Change, positions he filled until 1993.

Political career
Ciampi was the first non-parliamentarian prime minister of Italy in more than 100 years. From April 1993 to May 1994 he oversaw a technical government. Later, as treasury minister from 1996 to May 1999 in the governments of Romano Prodi and Massimo D'Alema, he was credited with adopting the euro currency. He personally chose the Italian design for the 1-euro coin, whereas all others were left to a television vote among some candidates the ministry had prepared. Ciampi chose the Vitruvian Man of Leonardo da Vinci, on the symbolic grounds that it represented man as a measure of all things, and in particular of the coin: in this perspective, money was at the service of man, instead of its opposite. The design also fitted very well on the bimetallic material of the coin.

According to the Italian weekly Famiglia Cristiana, in 1993 Ciampi was a member of the regular Masonic Lodge "Hermes" of Livorno which was affiliated to the Grand Orient of Italy and linked to the Rito Filosofico Italiano.

President (1999–2006)
Ciampi was elected with a broad majority, and was the second president ever to be elected at the first ballot (when there is a requirement of a two-thirds majority) in a joint session of the Chamber of Deputies, the Italian Senate and representatives of the Regions. He usually refrained from intervening directly into the political debate while serving as president. He often addressed general issues, without mentioning their connection to the current political debate, in order to state his opinion without being too intrusive. His interventions frequently stressed the need for all parties to respect the constitution and observe the proprieties of political debate. He was generally held in high regard by all political forces represented in the parliament.

The possibility of persuading Ciampi to stand for a second term as president by the election 2006 – the so-called Ciampi-bis – was widely discussed, despite his advancing age, but it was officially dismissed by Ciampi himself on 3 May 2006: "None of the past nine presidents of the Republic has been re-elected. I think this has become a meaningful rule. It is better not to infringe it". Ciampi, whose mandate was due to expired on the 18th, resigned on the 15th. His successor, Giorgio Napolitano took the oath on the same day.

As head of state of the host country, he officially declared the 2006 Winter Olympics open, on 10 February 2006. As president, Ciampi was not considered to be close to the positions of the Vatican and the Catholic Church, in a sort of alternance after the devout Oscar Luigi Scalfaro. He often praised patriotism, not always a common feeling because of its abuse by the Italian Fascist regime.

Death
He died in Rome on 16 September 2016 at the age of 95. His funeral was officiated at the Church of San Saturnino in Rome on 19 September by Archbishop Vincenzo Paglia. A national day of mourning was proclaimed on the same day and flags were flown at half-mast.

Awards and honours
As President of the Italian Republic between 18 May 1999 and 15 May 2006, Ciampi held the roles of:
 * Head of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic
 * Chief of the Military Order of Italy
 * Head of the Order of Merit for Labour
 * Head of the Order of the Star of Italian Solidarity
 * Head of the Order of Vittorio Veneto
 * Bailiff Grand Cross of Honour and Devotion of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta
 * Collar of the Order of Pius IX (Papal Order)
 * 1982: Great Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic
 * 1985: 🇫🇷 – Commander of the Legion of Honour (France)
 * 1986: 🇩🇪 – Great Cross of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
 * 1991: Honorary degree, University of Pavia
 * 1993: 🇯🇵 – Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun (Japan)
 * 1995: Freeman of the City of Naples
 * 1999: 🇫🇮 – Collar of the Order of the White Rose (Finland)
 * 2000: Gold Medal of the Jean Monnet Foundation for Europe
 * 2000: 🇬🇧 – Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (United Kingdom, 16 October 2000)
 * 2000: 🇵🇱 – Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the White Eagle (Poland)
 * 2001: 🇳🇴 – Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav
 * 2001: Medal of the Oriental Republic of Uruguay.
 * 2001: Grand Cross of the Grand Order of King Tomislav ("For outstanding contribution to the promotion of friendship and development co-operation between the Republic of Croatia and the Italian Republic." – Croatia, 19 October 2001)
 * 2001: Honorary doctorate from the University of Leipzig Faculty of Economics
 * 2002: 🇦🇹 – Grand Star of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria
 * 2002: 🇸🇰 – Grand Cross (or 1st Class) of the Order of the White Double Cross (Slovakia)
 * 2002: 🇵🇹 – Grand Collar of the Order of Prince Henry (Portugal, 22 February 2002)
 * 2002: 🇭🇺 – Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Merit of the Hungarian Republic
 * 2002: 🇲🇹 – Collar Pro Merito Melitensi of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta
 * 2003: 🇷🇴 – Collar of the Order of the Star of Romania
 * 2003: 🇲🇾 – Honorary Recipient of the Order of the Crown of the Realm (Malaysia)
 * 2004: 🇪🇪 – Collar of the Order of the Cross of Terra Mariana (Estonia)
 * 2004: 🇱🇻 – Commander Grand Cross with Chain of the Order of Three Stars (Latvia)
 * (Malta, 19 May 2005) Honorary Member of the Xirka Ġieħ ir-Repubblika
 * 2005: Charlemagne Prize
 * 2005: 🇲🇨 – Grand Cross of the Order of Saint-Charles (Monaco, 13 December 2005)
 * March 2005: honorary Doctor of Civil Law degree form the Oxford University
 * 🇧🇷 – Grand Cross of the Order of the Southern Cross (Brazil)
 * 2008: Honorary doctorate from the Economics Faculty of the University of Augsburg
 * 15 June 2005: honorary doctorate by the École Normale Supérieure of Paris.

title: Carlo Azeglio Ciampi


text:
User talk:Darkdan

Hello, Darkdan. Welcome to Wikipedia.

A few tips for you to start going. (I'll send more if I see that I can help you :-)

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-- Cimon Avaro on a pogo-stick 03:48 2 Jul 2003 (UTC)

FYI, don't move pages by cutting-and-pasting the content. On the left-hand side of your screen, there should be a "move this page" function. Use that and it will keep the page history with the article. Let me know if you have any questions... Tuf-Kat 05:15, Feb 18, 2004 (UTC)

I'm fine.
How are you doing? About the forums section, hey, I do what I do. ;).

The new ULMB wiki looks great. I'm user number two, apparently.
 * --BDWill Talk  04:43, 15 April 2006 (UTC)

Westboro proposed move
Hi! You've already voted at Talk:Westboro, so I just wanted to let you know about a very small technical change I just made; I changed the proposed move target to Westboro (Ottawa), a page that already exists as a redirect to the current Westboro page. -- Jim Douglas (talk) (contribs)  03:47, 15 November 2006 (UTC)

Seaview Square Mall
Just want to say thanks for all the work you do with articles pertaining to New Jersey. Also, thanks for the cites on Seaview Square Mall. You're awesome! --Darkdan 04:00, 28 November 2006 (UTC)

 * Thanks for the kind words. If it's on my watch list, I feel it's my responsibility to defend the article, all 6,500 of them. I have fought for retention of this and other malls and I hope to stand up for other similar articles and bring them up to standards and beyond. Keep up the good fight yourself. Alansohn 04:17, 28 November 2006 (UTC)

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Please help
Centre 2000 is up for deletion again - you helped keep it once. :-( Also a similar article at Macleod Mall. Please weigh in on the discussion.68.144.31.71 02:56, 1 October 2007 (UTC)

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TUSC token 58f21cdf3cd62c75ed229442697616fe
I am now proud owner of a TUSC account! —Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.141.242.236 (talk) 19:55, 21 July 2008 (UTC)

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Edit to 867-5309/Jenny
My guess is it will stay; Red Pen of Doom deleted it with the comment Find a reliable source to back this statement and it can go back in.  It must be a bit startling to see your name pop up on your watchlist, though, huh? TJRC (talk) 01:17, 27 August 2008 (UTC)

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Articles for deletion nomination of DJ Miko
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license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Darkdan


text:
Scow

A scow is a smaller type of barge. Some scows are rigged as sailing scows. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, scows carried cargo in coastal waters and inland waterways, having an advantage for navigating shallow water or small harbours. Scows were in common use in the American Great Lakes and other parts of the U.S., Canada, southern England, and New Zealand. In modern times their main purpose is for recreation and racing; there are also garbage scows for aquatic transport of refuse.

Scows
The name "scow" derives from the Dutch. Old Saxon has a similar word scaldan which means to push from the shore, clearly related to punting.

The basic scow was developed as a flat-bottomed barge (i.e. a large punt) capable of navigating shallow rivers and sitting comfortably on the bottom when the tide was out. By 1848 scows were being rigged for sailing using leeboards or sliding keels. They were also used as dumb barges towed by steamers. Dumb scows were used for a variety of purposes: garbage (see The Adventures of Tugboat Annie), dredging (see Niagara Scow) as well as general estuarine cargos.

Sailing scows

Sailing scows have significant advantages over traditional deep-keel sailing vessels that were common at the time the sailing scow was popular. Keelboats, while stable and capable in open water, were incapable of sailing into shallow bays and rivers, which meant that to ship cargo on a keelboat required a suitable harbour and docking facilities, or else the cargo had to be loaded and unloaded with smaller boats. Flat-bottomed scows, on the other hand, could navigate shallow waters, and could even be beached for loading and unloading. This made them useful for moving cargo from inland regions unreachable by keelboat to deeper waters where keelboats could reach. The cost of this shallow water advantage was the loss of the seaworthiness of flat-bottomed scow boats in open water and bad weather.

The squared-off shape and simple lines of a scow make it a popular choice for simple home-built boats made from plywood. Phil Bolger and Jim Michalak, for example, have designed a number of small sailing scows, and the PD Racer and the John Spencer designed Firebug are growing classes of home-built sailing scow. Generally these designs are created to minimize waste when using standard 4-foot by 8-foot sheets of plywood.

The scow hull is also the basis for the shantyboat or, on the Chesapeake, the ark, a cabin houseboat once common on American rivers. The ark was used as portable housing by Chesapeake watermen, who followed, for example, shad runs seasonally.

The Thames sailing barge and the Norfolk wherry are two British equivalents to the scow schooner. The Thames sailing barges, while used for similar tasks, used significantly different hull shapes and rigging.

The term scow is used in and around the west Solent for a traditional class of sailing dinghy. Various towns and villages claim their own variants (Lymington, Keyhaven, Yarmouth, West Wight, Chichester), they are all around 11 ft in length and share a lug sail, pivoting centre board, small foredeck and a square transom with a transom-hung rudder.

Scow schooners
An American design that reached its zenith of size on the American Great Lakes, and was also used widely in New Zealand, the schooner-rigged scow was used for coastal and inland transport, from colonial days to the early 1900s. Scow schooners had a broad, shallow hull, and used centreboards, bilgeboards or leeboards rather than a deep keel. The broad hull gave them stability, and the retractable foils allowed them to move even heavy loads of cargo in waters far too shallow for keelboats to enter. The squared-off bow and stern accommodated a large cargo. The smallest sailing scows were sloop-rigged (making them technically a scow sloop), but were otherwise similar in design. The scow sloop eventually evolved into the inland lake scow, a type of fast racing boat.

Sailing scows were popular in the American South for economic reasons, because the pine planks found there were difficult to bend, and because inlets along the Gulf Coast and Florida were often shallow.

New Zealand trading scows
The American scow design was copied and modified in New Zealand by early immigrant settlers to Auckland in the 1870s. In 1873, a sea captain named George Spencer, who had once lived and worked on the American Great Lakes and had gained a first-hand knowledge of the practical working capabilities of the sailing barges that plied their trade on the lakes, recognised the potential use of similar craft in the protected waters of the Hauraki Gulf, Auckland. He commissioned a local shipbuilder, Septimus Meiklejohn, to construct a small flat-bottomed sailing barge named the Lake Erie, which was built at Ōmaha, not far from Mahurangi. An account of the launching of this vessel appeared in 1873 in the Auckland newspaper, The Daily Southern Cross, which gave its readers a good idea of the distinctive construction and advantages over other vessels.

The Lake Erie was 60 feet 6 inches in length, seventeen feet 3 inches in breadth and had a draught of three feet 4 inches. It was fitted with lee boards (a type of keel slotted onto the sides of the vessel), but these were highly impracticable in rough weather on the New Zealand coast. Later scows were constructed with the much safer slab-sided centre board, which crews raised and lowered as required. This one small craft spawned a fleet of sailing scows that became associated with the gum trade and the flax and kauri industries of northern New Zealand.

Scows came in all manner of shape and sizes and all manner of sailing rigs, but the "true" sailing scow displayed no fine lines or fancy rigging. They were designed for hard work and heavy haulage and they did their job remarkably well. They took cattle north from the stockyards of Auckland and returned with a cargo of kauri logs, sacks of kauri gum, shingle, firewood, flax or sand. With their flat bottoms they could be sailed or poled much further up the many tributaries and rivers where the bushmen and bullock teams had the freshly sawn kauri logs amassed, thereby saving a great deal of time and energy on the part of the bushmen. Flat-bottomed scows were also capable of grounding on a beach for loading and unloading. Over the side went duckboards, wheelbarrows, and banjo shovels. The crew then filled the vessel with sand, racing against the turn of the tide. When the tide did turn, they loaded the equipment back on board and put off to sea. Occasionally an inexperienced skipper overloaded the scow. Then, as the water rose against the outside of the hull (diminishing the amount of safe "free board"), the crew had to shovel rapidly to reduce the contents in the hold to a safe level.

Logs when hauled were always carried above deck, secured by heavy chain, the space between decks being left empty to give added buoyancy. The logs were taken to Auckland and unloaded into floating "booms" to await breaking down in the sawmills of the Kauri Timber Company and other such mills that operated right on the edge of Auckland Harbour.

The golden age of scows and schooners lasted from the 1890s to the end of the First World War, when schooners were superseded by steamers and scows were gradually replaced with tugs.

The Subritzky family of Northland operated the scows Jane Gifford and Owhiti as the last fleet of working scows, operating between the Port of Auckland and the Island communities of the Hauraki Gulf. The Jane Gifford was gifted to the Waiuku Historical Society by Captain Bert Subritzky and his wife Moana in 1985, where it was re-masted and re-rigged to its original splendour. The Owhiti was sold to Captain Dave Skyme and fully restored to its 1924 sea worthiness, and it subsequently starred in the 1983 movie Savage Islands (starring Tommy Lee Jones and amongst others Kiwi icon and singer Prince Tui Teka as King Ponapa). Unfortunately the Owhiti was not maintained for a period of time, during which teredo shipworms destroyed much of her structure. She remains in a deteriorating condition at Opua. Her rig may see use in another scow when restored.

The main differences from American scows were sharper bows and favouring the ketch rig instead of the schooner rig, although a great many schooner- and topsail schooner-rigged vessels were built. Some 130 scows were built in the north of New Zealand between 1873 and 1925; they ranged from 45 to 130 ft (14–40 m). New Zealand trading scows travelled all around New Zealand as well as to Australia and to the west coast of America although the majority were based in the Hauraki Gulf of New Zealand.

Notable sailing scows
The scow schooner Alma of San Francisco, built in 1891, restored in the 1960s, and designated a National Historic Landmark (NHL) in 1988, was one of the last scow schooners in operation. She is a small example, 59 feet in length, 22.6 feet in beam, with a draft of 4 feet and a loaded displacement of 41 tons.

Elsie was the last scow sloop operated on the Chesapeake Bay. Although sailing scows were once numerous around the Bay, they are poorly documented.

The Ted Ashby is a ketch-rigged scow built in 1993 and based at the New Zealand National Maritime Museum in Auckland, it regularly sails the Auckland harbour as a tourist attraction. It was named after an old-time New Zealand seafarer and scowman, Ted Ashby, who had the foresight to document much of the history of these coastal work horses in his book Phantom Fleet - The Scows and Scowmen of Auckland, which was published by A. H. & A. W. Reed, Wellington, in 1976.

The Jane Gifford is a ketch-rigged deck scow built in 1908 by Davey Darroch, Big Omaha, New Zealand. The vessel was re-launched at Waiuku on the 28 November 1992, with Captain Basil Subritzky, the son of the late Captain Bert Subritzky and his family as guests of honour. The Jane Gifford then commenced sailings and tours on the Manukau Harbour between Waiuku and the Onehunga Wharf. In 1999 she was pulled out of the water for a rebuild, which commenced at Okahu Bay on the Waitemata Harbour. She then sat rotting until 2005, when she was moved to Warkworth for rebuilding. A full rebuild, using modern materials has been done at Warkworth, and the vessel was relaunched on 16 May 2009. She returned to sail later, and has been occasionally under sail in the Hauraki Gulf. She is the only original New Zealand scow still afloat to carry sail.

The Echo was built in 1905 of Kauri in New Zealand. She is 104 feet (32 m) long, with two masts and topsail rigged. Twin diesel engines were installed in 1920. In 1942–44 she was used by US forces in the Pacific, see USS Echo (IX-95). Her story was the basis for the 1960 film with Jack Lemon, The Wackiest Ship in the Army and the 1965 TV series. She was nearly broken up in 1990, but is now preserved at Picton, New Zealand Howard I. Chapelle documented a number of scows in his book American Small Sailing Craft.

North American commercial scows
Scows were widely used to carry freight and passengers along or across inland waterways, sometimes preceding the arrival of railway transportation. Many scows were pulled/pushed by a tug or shore cable, whereas others were powered only by the current.

Historic 19th-century US canals used work scows for canal construction and maintenance, as well as ice breaker scows, filled with iron or heavy objects, to clear ice from canals.

The Niagara Scow is a former dredging scow stuck on the rocks in the Niagara River upstream from the brink of Niagara Falls Horseshoe Falls since 1918. After being stuck in place for more than 100 years, in November 2019, the scow broke loose during a wind storm and moved 50 m closer to the edge of the Horseshoe Falls.

Racing boats: the inland lake scows
In the early 20th century, smaller sloop and cat rigged scows became popular sailboats on inland lakes throughout the midwestern United States. First popularized by Johnson Boat Works in Minnesota, these boats were distinguished by their larger sail plans, retractable bilgeboards, and (in some classes) twin rudders. There are many active racing classes throughout the Midwest, Western New York, the New Jersey Shore and parts of the South. These boats are traditionally identified by their class letters:
 * A: The largest inland lake scow at 38 feet long, the A normally requires a crew of six or seven. The sail plan includes a mainsail, a jib, and a large asymmetrical spinnaker. It has twin rudders. A new A scow (with sails and a trailer) cost $200,000 in 2020. Once the fastest monohull sailboat in the world, has been clocked in at 33 kn. It is possible to waterski behind these sailboats, as demonstrated by Buddy Melges.
 * E: This is essentially a smaller version of the A scow. Only 28 feet long, it requires a crew of three or four. In 2007, the class association NCESA voted to make the asymmetrical spinnaker the class legal standard.
 * M-16: This 16-foot scow crews two, and has a mainsail and jib but no spinnaker. It has tiny dual rudders like the A and the E.
 * M-20: A 20-foot version of the M-16, with the addition of a backstay, a tunnel hull, twin bilgeboards and rudders, and a spinnaker. Modern boats are built with both the symmetrical spinnaker, or the I-20 version with an asymmetrical spinnaker. Because of the hull configuration, at a substantial angle of heel, it is similar to having a catamaran on one hull: the ratio of waterline length to breadth increases dramatically, along with a geometric increase in speed.
 * C: This is a 20-foot catboat with one large sail set far forward on the hull. It requires a crew of two or three. Unlike the A and E, the C-scow has a large, efficient single rudder. It has no permanent backstay, so jibing the boat requires the quick use of running backstays.
 * MC: The MC is a "mini-C" of sorts, a 16-foot cat-rigged boat with a higher and narrower sailplan. It also has a large efficient single rudder. It can be sailed competitively by 1 person. This is a growing class, especially popular in the midwest and southern USA.
 * 17: Introduced in 2005 by Melges Performance Sailboats, the 17 is a departure from traditional scow design. It has an asymmetrical spinnaker and retractable bowsprit, a high-roach full-battened mainsail, and unusually long and thin rudder and bilgeboards.
 * Butterfly: This small scow is meant to be sailed by one person. It features a cat rig, and unlike the boats above, it has a daggerboard.

Contrary to the connotations of the old definition of "scow" (large and slow), the inland lake scows are extremely fast—the wide, flat bottom hull allows them to plane easily. As a consequence of this, the A scow is the highest rated centerboard boat according to the US Portsmouth yardstick numbers.

Alternative design
A 'semi-flying' scow that uses a host of design tricks, including wings/foils and a telescopic canting keel, a retractable bowsprit and an asymmetrical spinnaker, has been designed in France.

General bibliography

 * Chapelle, ASSC Chapter 3, Scow and Bateau
 * Flipper Scow (in Swedish) The Danish constructed (Peer Bruun) dinghy class.
 * History of the Inland Lake Yachting Assn. Excerpts from Dr. Thomas Hodgson's History of the Inland Lake Yachting Association, 1998.
 * National Register Nomination for Alma with overview of San Francisco Bay scow schooners and extensive bibliography.
 * Flipper Scow (in Swedish) The Danish constructed (Peer Bruun) dinghy class.
 * History of the Inland Lake Yachting Assn. Excerpts from Dr. Thomas Hodgson's History of the Inland Lake Yachting Association, 1998.
 * National Register Nomination for Alma with overview of San Francisco Bay scow schooners and extensive bibliography.
 * History of the Inland Lake Yachting Assn. Excerpts from Dr. Thomas Hodgson's History of the Inland Lake Yachting Association, 1998.
 * National Register Nomination for Alma with overview of San Francisco Bay scow schooners and extensive bibliography.

title: Scow


text:
County of Tripoli

The County of Tripoli (1102–1289) was one of the Crusader states. It was founded in the Levant in the modern-day region of Tripoli, northern Lebanon and parts of western Syria. When the Frankish Crusaders, mostly southern French forces – captured the region in 1109, Bertrand of Toulouse became the first count of Tripoli as a vassal of King Baldwin I of Jerusalem. From that time on, the rule of the county was decided not strictly by inheritance but by factors such as military force (external and civil war), favour and negotiation. In 1289, the County of Tripoli fell to the Muslim Mamluks of Cairo under Sultan Qalawun, and the county was absorbed into Mamluk Sultanate.

Capture by Christian forces
Raymond IV of Toulouse was one of the wealthiest and most powerful of the crusaders. Even so, after the First Crusade, he had failed to secure any land holdings in the Near East. Meanwhile, the County of Edessa, the Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Principality of Antioch had been established. Tripoli was an important strategic goal as it linked the French in the south with the Normans in the north. It was a fertile and well populated area. In 1102, Raymond IV occupied Tortosa (now Tartus) and in 1103, he prepared, together with veterans of the 1101 crusade, to take Tripoli.

Citadel of Tripoli
On a natural ridge, which he named "Mons Peregrinus" (Mont Pèlerin, Mount Pilgrim), 3 km from Tripoli, Raymond IV (also known as Raymond de Saint-Gilles) began the construction of a large fortress, the Citadel of Tripoli (قلعة طرابلس Qalʻat Ṭarābulus), formerly also known as the "Castle of Saint-Gilles" (قلعة سان جيل Qalʻat Sān Jīl). Despite this new fortress and seasoned troops, Raymond IV's siege of Tripoli failed to secure the port. He died on 25 February 1105.

Succession
Count William of Cerdagne, Raymond IV's cousin and comrade, was supported by Tancred, Prince of Galilee, but his succession in the Tripoli campaign was challenged by Raymond IV's illegitimate son, Bertrand of Toulouse. Bertrand of Toulouse, who was supported by Baldwin I of Jerusalem, arrived in the Near East with a substantial army and a large Genoese fleet. In order to resolve the succession issue, Baldwin I created a partition treaty. It specified that William was to hold northern Tripoli and pay homage to Tancred, while Bertrand was to hold south Tripoli as a vassal of Baldwin. Under a united Christian onslaught, Tripoli fell on 12 July 1109, completing the Kingdom of Jerusalem. When William died of an arrow through the heart (some claim it was murder), Bertrand became the first count of Tripoli.

Holdings and vassals

The extent of the County of Tripoli was determined in part by pre-existing Byzantine borders and in part by victory in battle, tempered by the demands of neighbouring crusader states. At its height, the county controlled the coastline from Maraclea in the north to Beirut in the south. Inland, the county's control extended to the Krac des Chevaliers fortress. The rich inland agricultural land of the Homs Gap was known as La Bocquée. The county was divided into 'lordships'; areas based roughly around its coastal ports. The count of Tripoli himself held the port of Tripoli and its surrounds. He also controlled the hostile region of Montferrand, now modern-day Bar'in, Syria, lying to the east. Approximately one quarter of the land seized around Tripoli was given to the Genoese as payment for military aid. The Genoese admiral Guglielmo Embriaco was awarded the city of Byblos.

Homage to the king
The County of Tripoli was an autonomous state. Despite his contribution to its establishment, Baldwin I did not directly control the County of Tripoli. Nevertheless, the County of Tripoli owed fealty (allegiance) and homage (declarations of allegiance) to him, and he, in return, provided support to the county in times of trouble.

Defence
Although occupying a narrow coastal plain, the mountain range beyond was a natural defensive line for Tripoli. Several castle forts were built to defend the mountain passes. Muslim forces (Turk and Egyptian) attacked the County of Tripoli along its borders, especially those to the east. In 1137, Raymond II, the reigning count, lost control of Montferrand. The Muslim position strengthened when the Hashshashin (Nizari Ismailis) forces formed in the Nosairi mountains to the north. In 1144, in order to increase the county's defences, particularly against Zangi of Mosul, Raymond II gave the Knights Hospitaller large stretches of frontier land along the Buqai'ah plain. This included the castles of Krak des Chevaliers, Anaz, Tell Kalakh, Qalaat el Felis and Mardabech. In the 1150s, the defences were further strengthened by the presence of the Knights Templar at Tartus on the seashore.

Religion
In religious matters, the counties of the Kingdom of Jerusalem were expected to follow the lead of the Latin patriarch of Jerusalem. However, Count Pons had formed an alliance with Antioch, and acknowledged the Latin patriarch of Antioch. This was so even after a papal edict to the contrary.

War with the Seljuk Empire
As a vassal of the kings of Jerusalem, Bertrand of Tripoli was drawn into war with the Seljuk Turks. In 1111, Mawdud, a Turkish military leader, campaigned against Antioch and Edessa. Count Bertrand of Tripoli and King Baldwin I of Jerusalem marched to defend the Christians in the north. In joining Prince Tancred of Galilee and Count Baldwin II of Edessa at the Battle of Shaizar, their defence of the kingdom was successful.
 * Shaizar

In 1119, the Seljuk Empire again attacked Antioch, winning the Battle of Ager Sanguinis. However, Count Pons of Tripoli and Baldwin II defended Antioch and, at the Battle of Hab, successfully defended the flank of the Christian forces.
 * Hab

In 1125, Count Pons of Tripoli marched against the Turks who had again attacked Edessa, this time besieging the town of Azaz. Pons of Tripoli, Baldwin II and Count Joscelin I of Edessa lured the Turks from Azaz and into an ambush on the plains, where the Turkish forces were defeated.
 * Azaz

Earthquake of 1170
On 29 June 1170, an earthquake struck the region. The defensive forts of Krac des Chevaliers, Chastel Blanc and al-'Ariymah were damaged. The cathedral of St Mary in Tripoli township was destroyed. The earthquake of 1170 resulted in a brief truce between Nur al-Din and the county (unlike a previous less severe earthquake of 1157 where fighting continued).

Bertrand of Toulouse, son of Alphonso-Jordan

Alfonso Jordan (1103–1148) was the son of Raymond IV and his third wife, Elvira of Castile. Although he was born in Tripoli, Alphonso-Jordan was raised in France. In 1147, he joined the Second Crusade, which was launched in response to the loss of the County of Edessa to Turkish forces. Alphonso died, possibly poisoned, in Caesarea, in 1148. He had an illegitimate son, Bertrand of Toulouse, who continued his progress towards Tripoli. Count Raymond II (1115–1152), the grandson of Bertrand, Count of Tripoli, engaged his enemies, Nur al-Din and Unur of Damascus, to confront his cousin, Bertrand. The Turkish forces, having only recently battled Raymond II at the Siege of Damascus, attacked the castle of Arima (al-Ariymah). They captured Bertrand of Toulouse, who spent the following decade in Muslim prisons. He was released in 1159 following the intervention of Manuel Komnenos, emperor of Byzantium. Raymond II later regained Arima. In 1152, Raymond II was killed by the Assassins. He was the first recorded non-Muslim victim of this sect.

Guy II Embriaco
Bohemond VII (1261 – 19 October 1287) was Count of Tripoli and the nominal Prince of Antioch from 1275 until his death. From 1275 to 1277, Bartholomew, Bishop of Tortosa, was Bohemond VII's regent. Paul of Segni, Bishop of Tripoli, who was a friend of the Templar Grandmaster, William of Beaujeu, opposed the succession of Bohemond VII. Ernoul wrote, "This was the beginning of war between Bohemond VII and the Templars." Guy II Embriaco (1277–1282) was a former vassal of Bohemond VII in Gibelet (Byblos). Grievances between them had led to enmity and this was part of a larger trade war between Genoa and the Venetians. The Templars sought to unseat Bohemond VII by supporting Guy II Embriaco. Bohemond VII responded by sacking the Templar house in Tripoli and forests at Montroque. This action led to indecisive fighting over the following months at Botron, Fort Nephin, Sidon and at sea. In 1282, Guy II Embriaco and the Templars were ambushed in Tripoli. Guy, his brothers, and cousins were imprisoned at Fort Nephin and left to starve; his followers were blinded and the Templars were summarily executed.

Benedetto I Zaccaria
After the death of Bohemond VII in 1287, the resulting power vacuum moved the lords of the County of Tripoli to offer Benedetto I Zaccaria (1235–1307), a powerful Genoese merchant, control of the county. In Tripoli, a special non-aristocratic social status had been granted to people from the great mercantile cities of Europe, especially those from the maritime republics of Italy (e.g., Venice). The communes elected Bartholomew Embriaco to the role of Mayor of Tripoli. He also promoted trade with the Genoese. Bohemond VII had no issue. His mother, Sibylla of Armenia, was discounted in the succession because she was the friend of Bishop Bartholomew of Tortosa, considered an enemy of Tripoli. Bohemond VII's younger sister, Lucie, established herself at Fort Nephin with the support of the Knights Hospitaller. Eventually, Bartholomew Embriaco and the communes decided they could not rule, while Benedetto I Zaccario declined the countship. Thus, after negotiations, Lucie became Lucia, Countess of Tripoli in 1288.

Fall to the Muslims
Constant infighting, lack of resources, a series of poor harvests, changes to trade routes and the local economy and Muslim and Mongol military pressure led to the decline of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. By the 1280s, only two crusader states remained; the remnants of Jerusalem and the County of Tripoli. Even though the Mamluk government of Egypt had a treaty with the county, in March 1289, Tripoli favoured an alliance with the Mongols and as a result Sultan Qalawun of Egypt attacked Tripoli. Despite desperate defense operations, the county fell and was merged with Qalawun's empire.

Vassals of Tripoli

 * County of Montferrand
 * Lordship of Besmedin
 * Lordship of Botron
 * Lordship of Buissera
 * Lordship of Calmont
 * Lordship of Chastel Blanc
 * Lordship of Chastel Rouge
 * Lordship of Fontaines
 * Lordship of Gibelacar
 * Lordship of Gibelet
 * Lordship of La Colée
 * Lordship of Le Puy
 * Seigneury of Moinetre
 * Lordship of Nephin
 * Lordship of Raisagium Montanée
 * Lordship of Terra Galifa
 * Lordship of Tokle
 * Lordship of Tortosa Maraclea
 * Krak des Chevaliers

Counts of Tripoli

 * Raymond I (1102–1105, also Count of Toulouse as Raymond IV)
 * Alfonso Jordan (1105–1109), with William Jordan as regent
 * Bertrand (1109–1112)
 * Pons (1112–1137)
 * Raymond II (1137–1152)
 * Raymond III (1152–1187)
 * Raymond IV (1187–1189), son of Bohemond III of Antioch.
 * Bohemond IV (1189–1233, also Prince of Antioch 1201–1216 and 1219–1233)
 * Bohemond V (1233–1252, also Prince of Antioch)
 * Bohemond VI (1252–1275, also Prince of Antioch 1252–1268)
 * Bohemond VII (1275–1287)
 * Lucia (1287–1289)

Titular rulers of Tripoli after its fall to Egyptian forces:

 * Lucia (1289 – c.1299)
 * Philippe (c.1299 – 1300)

Tripoli passes to the Kings of Cyprus and Jerusalem:

 * Peter I of Cyprus (1346–1359)
 * Peter II of Cyprus (1359–1369)
 * James of Lusignan (? – c. 1396), cousin
 * John of Lusignan (c. 1396 – c. 1430), son
 * Peter of Lusignan (c. 1430 – 1451), brother, Regent of Cyprus
 * Juan Tafures (1469–1473)

title: County of Tripoli


text:
User:Tracian

Hi. Welcome to Tracian's WikiPedia page. My interests are various, mainly history, ethnology, languages, sciences, math.

On the Wikipedia: This anonymous publishing medium is something that I have searched for long time. I hope that this whole project will have long and fruitfull life, and that all collected data will not disappear one day by some corporate acquisitions and privatization of this collective work.

So far I started following pages: St. Sava, Blatensko Knezevstvo, Severans, Hilandar, Hilandar Research Library, Rastko Nemanjic, Ordered Exponential, WaterFire, Barnaby Evans, Kwiki.

Pages edited by me: Sava, Patron saint, Providence, Rhode Island, Rhode Island, Quadric.

Hi. I am very glad that there are people who are interested in Thracians or the threcians or tracs as we call ourselves.The history of the tracs does not start with the christianity in the balkans on the cotrarery it starts dissolving and dissappering under the repression of the slavik oppresors and the orthadox church.The tracs are ancient people of the balkans who have pagan roots, believe that there is a ceator of the universe (god) and the nature is the sum of all knowledge. All religions are part of this nature and different practices and rituals are based on the traditions.(like Judaism,Christianity or Islam)Actualy the only true religion. As the tracian lands are under occupation of new commers in different statehoods the tracs are organised in esotheric societies in different countries like Bulgaria, Greece, Turkey, Macedonia speaking different languages widely in accordance with the religious traditions they are practice. Last attempt to unite this multilingual ancient people was made in 1874 in Adrianopolis (which is Todays Edirne in West Turkey) and a counsil has been appoved by the tracs coming from different parts of the balkans. In modern day Europa the Trac Consul still exist through all these esotheric societies. The legal structure representing the tracs is a foundation called Fundacion Traciain Montevideo - Uruguay.(In the hope this is far enough not to become an asset for the Euroboys!!)Current Presitent of the foundation is MR.ULUC TURAN residing currently in İstanbul-TURKEY.(For information ut1874@gmail.com)

title: User:Tracian


text:
Tungusic languages

The Tungusic languages (also known as Manchu–Tungus and Tungus) form a language family spoken in Eastern Siberia and Manchuria by Tungusic peoples. Many Tungusic languages are endangered. There are approximately 75,000 native speakers of the dozen living languages of the Tungusic language family. The term "Tungusic" is from an exonym for the Evenk people (Ewenki) used by the Yakuts ("tongus").

Classification
Linguists working on Tungusic have proposed a number of different classifications based on different criteria, including morphological, lexical, and phonological characteristics. Some scholars have criticized the tree-based model of Tungusic classification and argue that the long history of contact among the Tungusic languages makes them better treated as a dialect continuum. [[File:Distribution_of_the_Tungusic_languages.svg|alt=|thumb|300x300px|Current geographic distribution of languages in the Tungusic family.

{{Legend|aa251c|Even}} {{Legend|d5462d|Evenki}} {{Legend|f37343|Negidal}} {{Legend|f29e22|Oroqen}} {{Legend|a04720|Kili}}

{{Legend|94bf62|Oroch}} {{Legend|3aa03a|Udihe}}

{{Legend|48a0b5|Manchu}} {{Legend|2f6384|Xibe}} {{Legend|9797dd|Nanai}} {{Legend|6464b2|Orok}} {{Legend|3b246d|Ulch}} ]] The main classification is into a northern branch and a southern branch (Georg 2004) although the two branches have no clear division, and the classification of intermediate groups is debatable.

Four mid-level subgroups are recognized by Hölzl (2018), namely Ewenic, Udegheic, Nanaic, and Jurchenic.

Alexander Vovin notes that Manchu and Jurchen are aberrant languages within South Tungusic but nevertheless still belong in it, and that this aberrancy is perhaps due to influences from the Para-Mongolic Khitan language, from Old Korean, and perhaps also from Chukotko-Kamchatkan and unknown languages of uncertain linguistic affiliation.

 * Tungusic
 * Southern Tungusic (Jurchenic–Nanaic)
 * Jurchenic (Southwestern Tungusic) ("Manchu group")
 * Jurchen† (extinct, developed into Manchu in the 17th century)
 * Manchu: speakers originated from the Sungari Ula River area (they founded the Jin and Qing or Manchu dynasties of China)
 * Xibe: spoken in Qapqal Xibe Autonomous County, Xinjiang. (Developed separately since 1764 from a Qing military garrison)
 * Chinese Kyakala† (恰喀拉 )
 * Bala†? (巴拉 )
 * Alchuka† (阿勒楚喀 )
 * Nanaic (Southeastern Tungusic) ("Nanai group" / "Amur group")
 * Nanai (Gold, Goldi, Hezhen) (Akani, Birar, Samagir)
 * Upper Amur
 * Right-bank Amur
 * Sungari
 * Bikin (Ussuri)
 * Central Amur
 * Sakachi-Alyan
 * Naykhin (basis of standard Nanai but not identical)
 * Dzhuen
 * Lower Amur
 * Bolon
 * Ekon
 * Gorin
 * Orok (Uilta)
 * Northern (East Sakhalin)
 * Southern (South Sakhalin, Poronaysky)
 * Ulch / Olcha
 * Northern Tungusic (Ewenic–Udegheic)
 * Ewenic
 * Even (Lamut) (in eastern Siberia)
 * Arman
 * Indigirka
 * Kamchatka
 * Kolyma-Omolon
 * Okhotsk
 * Ola
 * Tompon
 * Upper Kolyma
 * Sakkyryr
 * Lamunkhin
 * Evenki
 * Evenki (obsolete: Tungus), spoken by Evenks in central Siberia and Manchuria
 * Solon (Solon Ewenki)
 * Hihue/Hoy (basis of the standard, but not identical)
 * Haila’er
 * Aoluguya (Olguya)
 * Chenba’erhu (Old Bargu)
 * Morigele (Mergel)
 * Siberian Ewenki / Ewenki of Siberia
 * Northern (spirant)
 * Ilimpeya (subdialects: Ilimpeya, Agata and Bol'shoi, Porog, Tura, Tutonchany, Dudinka/Khantai)
 * Yerbogachen (subdialects: Yerbogachen, Nakanno)
 * Southern (sibilant)
 * Hushing
 * Sym (subdialects: Tokma/Upper Nepa, Upper Lena/Kachug, Angara)
 * Northern Baikal (subdialects: Northern Baikal, Upper Lena)
 * Hissing
 * Stony Tunguska (subdialects: Vanavara, Kuyumba, Poligus, Surinda, Taimura/Chirinda, Uchami, Chemdal'sk)
 * Nepa (subdialects: Nepa, Kirensk)
 * Vitim-Nercha/Baunt-Talocha (subdialects: Baunt, Talocha, Tungukochan, Nercha)
 * Eastern (sibilant-spirant)
 * Vitim-Olyokma (subdialects: Barguzin, Vitim/Kalar, Olyokma, Tungir, Tokko)
 * Upper Aldan (subdialects: Aldan, Upper Amur, Amga, Dzheltulak, Timpton, Tommot, Khingan, Chul'man, Chul'man-Gilyui)
 * Uchur-Zeya (subdialects: Uchur, Zeya)
 * Selemdzha-Bureya-Urmi (subdialects: Selemdzha, Bureya, Urmi)
 * Ayan-Mai (subdialects: Ayan, Aim, Mai, Nel'kan, Totti)
 * Tugur-Chumikan (subdialects: Tugur, Chumikan)
 * Sakhalin (no subdialects)
 * Negidal
 * Lower Negidal †
 * Upper Negidal
 * Oroqen
 * Gankui (basis of standard Oroqen but not identical)
 * Selpechen
 * Kumarchen
 * Selpechen
 * Orochen
 * Kili (previously thought to be a dialect of Nanai)
 * Udegheic (Oroch–Udege; strongly influenced by Southern Tungusic)
 * Oroch †?
 * Tumninsky dialect †?
 * Khadinsky dialect †?
 * Hungarisky dialect †?
 * Udege / Udihe
 * Kur-Urmi
 * Northern (Udihe)
 * Xor
 * Anjuj
 * (Xungari)
 * Southern (Kekar a.k.a. Kyakala)
 * Samarga
 * Iman; Bikin

Proto-Tungusic
Some linguists estimate the divergence of the Tungusic languages from a common ancestor spoken somewhere in Eastern Manchuria around 500 BC to 500 AD. (Janhunen 2012, Pevnov 2012) Other theories favor a homeland closer to Lake Baikal. (Menges 1968, Khelimskii 1985) While the general form of the protolanguage is clear from the similarities in the daughter languages, there is no consensus on detailed reconstructions. As of 2012, scholars are still trying to establish a shared vocabulary to do such a reconstruction. The Lake Khanka region was found to present the most likely homeland, based on linguistic and ancient genetic data.

There are some proposed sound correspondences for Tungusic languages. For example, Norman (1977) supports a Proto-Tungusic *t > Manchu s when followed by *j in the same stem, with any exceptions arising from loanwords. Some linguists believe there are connections between the vowel harmony of Proto-Tungusic and some of the neighboring non-Tungusic languages. For example, there are proposals for an areal or genetic correspondence between the vowel harmonies of Proto-Korean, Proto-Mongolian, and Proto-Tungusic based on an original RTR harmony. This is one of several competing proposals, and on the other hand, some reconstruct Proto-Tungusic without RTR harmony.

Some sources describe the Donghu people of 7th century BC to 2nd century BC Manchuria as Proto-Tungusic. Other sources sharply criticize this as a random similarity in pronunciation with "Tungus" that has no real basis in fact.

The historical records of the Korean kingdoms of Baekje and Silla note battles with the Mohe (靺鞨) in Manchuria during the 1st and 2nd centuries. Some scholars suggest these Mohe are closely connected to the later Jurchens, but this is controversial.

Alexander Vovin (2015) notes that Northern Tungusic languages have Eskimo–Aleut loanwords that are not found in Southern Tungusic, implying that Eskimo–Aleut was once much more widely spoken in eastern Siberia. Vovin (2015) estimates that the Eskimo–Aleut loanwords in Northern Tungusic had been borrowed no more than 2,000 years ago, which was when Tungusic was spreading northwards from its homeland in the middle reaches of the Amur River.

Wang and Robbeets (2020) place the Proto-Tungusic homeland in the Lake Khanka region.

Liu et al. (2020) revealed that Haplogroup C-F5484 and its subclades are the genetic markers of Tungusic-speaking peoples. C-F5484 emerged 3,300 years ago and began to diverge 1,900 years ago, indicating the approximate age of differentiation of Tungusic languages.

Jurchen-Manchu language
The earliest written attestation of the language family is in the Jurchen language, which was spoken by the rulers of the Jin dynasty (1115–1234). The Jurchens invented a Jurchen script to write their language based on the Khitan scripts. During this time, several stelae were put up in Manchuria and Korea. One of these, among the most important extant texts in Jurchen, is the inscription on the back of "the Jin Victory Memorial Stele" (Da Jin deshengtuo songbei), which was erected in 1185, during the Dading period (1161–1189). It is apparently an abbreviated translation of the Chinese text on the front of the stele. The last known example of the Jurchen script was written in 1526.

The Tungusic languages appear in the historical record again after the unification of the Jurchen tribes under Nurhaci, who ruled 1616–1626. He commissioned a new Manchu alphabet based on the Mongolian alphabet, and his successors went on to found the Qing dynasty. In 1636, Emperor Hong Taiji decreed that the ethnonym "Manchu" would replace "Jurchen". Modern scholarship usually treats Jurchen and Manchu as different stages of the same language.

Currently, Manchu proper is a dying language spoken by a dozen or so elderly people in Qiqihar, China. However, the closely related Xibe language spoken in Xinjiang, which historically was treated as a divergent dialect of Jurchen-Manchu, maintains the literary tradition of the script, and has around 30,000 speakers. As the only language in the Tungusic family with a long written tradition, Jurchen-Manchu is a very important language for the reconstruction of Proto-Tungusic.

Other Tungusic languages
Other Tungusic languages have relatively short or no written traditions. Since around the 20th century, some of these other languages can be written in a Russian-based Cyrillic script, but the languages remain primarily spoken languages only.

Research
The earliest Western accounts of Tungusic languages came from the Dutch traveler Nicolaes Witsen, who published in the Dutch language a book, Noord en Oost Tartarye (literally 'North and East Tartary'). It described a variety of peoples in the Russian Far East and included some brief word lists for many languages. After his travel to Russia, his collected findings were published in three editions, 1692, 1705, and 1785. The book includes some words and sentences from the Evenki language, then called "Tungus".

The German linguist Wilhelm Grube (1855–1908) published an early dictionary of the Nanai language (Gold language) in 1900, as well as deciphering the Jurchen language for modern audiences using a Chinese source.

Common characteristics
The Tungusic languages are of an agglutinative morphological type, and some of them have complex case systems and elaborate patterns of tense and aspect marking. However, none of the languages have grammatical gender or noun classes. All Tungusic languages have postpositions. Counting is done in base ten, and the names of the cardinal numbers from 1 to 10 are cognates in most cases.

The normal word order for all of the languages is subject–object–verb.

Phonology
Tungusic languages exhibit a complex pattern of vowel harmony, based on two parameters: vowel roundedness and vowel tenseness (in Evenki, the contrast is back and front). Tense and lax vowels do not occur in the same word; all vowels in a word, including suffixes, are either one or the other. Rounded vowels in the root of a word cause all the following vowels in the word to become rounded, but not those before the rounded vowel. Those rules are not absolute, and there are many individual exceptions.

Vowel length is phonemic in most languages, with many words distinguished based on the distinction between short vowel and long vowel. Languages without long vowels consist of the Jurchenic languages (Jurchen, Manchu, Xibe) and the Hezhe language. Diphthongs also occur in all languages.

Tungusic words have simple word codas, and usually have simple word onsets, with consonant clusters forbidden at the end of words and rare at the beginning.

Below are Proto-Tungusic consonants as reconstructed by Tsintsius (1949) and the vowels according to Benzing (1955):

 * {| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center

! colspan=2 | ! scope="col" | Labial ! scope="col" | Dental ! scope="col" | Palatal ! scope="col" | Velar ! scope="row" rowspan=2 | Stop ! voiceless ! voiced ! scope="row" rowspan=2 | Affricate ! voiceless ! voiced ! colspan=2 | Fricative ! colspan=2 | Nasal ! colspan=2 | Lateral approximant ! colspan=2 | Rhotic ! colspan=2 | Glide
 * + Consonants
 * p || t || || k
 * b || d || || ɡ
 * || || t͡ʃ ⟨č⟩ ||
 * || || d͡ʒ ⟨ǯ⟩ ||
 * || s || ʃ ⟨š⟩ || x
 * m || n || ɲ ⟨ń⟩ || ŋ
 * || l || ||
 * || r || ||
 * w || || j ||
 * }

 * {| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center

! !! front !! central !! back ! high ! mid ! low
 * +Vowels
 * i y ⟨ü⟩ || ɨ ⟨ï⟩ || u
 * e ø ⟨ö⟩ || || o
 * || a ||
 * }

Relationships with other languages
Tungusic is today considered a primary language family. Especially in the past, some linguists linked Tungusic with Turkic and Mongolic languages, among others, in either the Altaic or the Transeurasian language family. However, the proposal that there are genetic rather than merely areal links remains highly controversial.

Some scholars believe that the language spoken in Europe by the Avars (who created the Avar Khaganate) is of Tungusic origin.

title: Tungusic languages


text:
Talk:Xuanzang (Mythology)

Untitled
If he's called Sanzang "For most of Journey to the West" -- and that's how I've heard of the famous character as such, shouldn't the title be Sanzang (currently empty) instead of Xuan Zang (fictional character)? --Menchi 04:27 2 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Yeah i think we should all agree on one name for him because it's geting confusing for readers. I don't know which one is right, but i think we should just use either "Xuanzang" or "Sanzang" throughout the entire encyclopedia.

Small Hairy Man
Is there any link to a source about the discovery of the painting with the "small hairy man"?

 * I was going to ask the same question. The whole article could do with more than one source, especially as right now the one listed seems to be broken... --Oolong 12:41, 20 September 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Xuanzang (Mythology)


text:
Saint George (disambiguation)

Saint George was a soldier in the Roman army in the 3rd and 4th centuries AD, venerated as a Christian martyr.

Saint George or Saint George's may also refer to:

Film and television

 * Saint George (film), a 2016 Portuguese film
 * Saint George (TV series), an American television comedy

Honors

 * Cross of St. George, a military honor in Russia
 * Order of St. George, a military honor in Russia
 * Ribbon of Saint George, a Russian patriotic ribbon
 * Sacred Military Constantinian Order of Saint George, a Roman Catholic order of chivalry

Monasteries

 * Saint George Monastery, al-Khader, a Greek Orthodox monastery in al-Khader, West Bank
 * St. George's Monastery, Wadi Qelt, an ancient monastery in Waldi Qilt, in the West Bank

People

 * St George of Choziba, seventh-century saint
 * St George I of Antioch, Syriac Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch (died 790)
 * St George the Confessor, Bishop of Antioch in Pisidia (died 814)
 * St George, Archbishop of Develtos, one of the Martyrs of Adrianople (died 815)
 * St George the Standard-Bearer, Archbishop of Mytilene (776–821)
 * St George of Amastris, Bishop of Amastris (died 825)
 * St George of Mytilene (or Militene), also called George the Younger; Archbishop of Mytilene (753–846), brother of St Symeon Stylites of Lesbos
 * St George, one of the Martyrs of Córdoba (died 852)
 * St George the Hagiorite (1009–1065)
 * St George of Kratovo (died 1515)
 * St George Preca (1880–1962), Maltese Roman Catholic priest
 * St George (Karslidis) of Drama (1901–1959)

Antigua and Barbuda

 * Saint George Parish, Antigua and Barbuda

Australia

 * Parish of St George, a parish in Sydney.
 * St George (Sydney), a region of Sydney
 * St George, Queensland
 * St Georges, South Australia, Adelaide
 * Division of St George, proclaimed 1949, abolished 1993, electoral district in New South Wales, Australia
 * Electoral district of St George, created 1894, abolished 1930, electoral district in New South Wales, Australia

Barbados

 * Saint George, Barbados, a parish in Barbados.

Bermuda

 * St. George's, Bermuda, an UNESCO World Heritage Site
 * St. George's Parish, Bermuda, one of Bermuda's parishes, containing the above town
 * St. George's Island, Bermuda, an island of the archipelago of Bermuda, contained within the above parish

Canada

 * St. George (Manitoba provincial electoral district), established 1914, eliminated 1981
 * St. George, New Brunswick, a town in Charlotte County
 * Saint George Parish, New Brunswick
 * St. George's, Newfoundland and Labrador
 * St. George's Bay (Newfoundland and Labrador), a bay in Newfoundland and Labrador
 * St. George's Bay (Nova Scotia), a bay in Nova Scotia
 * St. George, Ontario, a village near Brantford
 * St. George (TTC), a subway station in Toronto, Ontario
 * St. George (Ontario provincial electoral district), created 1926, abolished 1987
 * Saint-Georges, Quebec, a city in the Chaudière-Appalaches region of Quebec

Grenada

 * St. George's, Grenada, the capital city
 * Saint George Parish, Grenada

Greenland

 * Saint George Fjord

Romania

 * Sfântu Gheorghe, a Székely city north of Braşov
 * Sfântu Gheorghe, Tulcea, a commune in Tulcea County
 * Sfântu Gheorghe, Ialomița, a commune in Ialomița County

United Kingdom

 * St George, Bristol
 * St. George, Conwy
 * St George Hanover Square, London
 * St George in the East, London
 * St George in the East (parish), London
 * St George, former name of Easton in Gordano, North Somerset
 * St. Georges, North Somerset, near Weston-super-Mare
 * St George's, Preston, an electoral ward in Preston, Lancashire
 * St. George's, Telford, a component of St George's and Priorslee civil parish
 * St George's Channel, connecting the Irish Sea and the Atlantic Ocean
 * Saint George's Hill, Weybridge
 * St Georges super Ely and St George's, Vale of Glamorgan, Wales
 * St George (UK Parliament constituency)

United States

 * St. George, Alaska
 * St. George's Hundred, Delaware, an unincorporated subdivision of New Castle County
 * St. George, Broward County, Florida, a former census-designated place, now a neighborhood of Lauderhill
 * St. George, Pinellas County, Florida, a place in Pinellas County, Florida
 * St. George Island (Florida) in Franklin County
 * Saint George, Georgia
 * Saint George, Illinois
 * St. George, Kansas
 * St. George, Louisiana
 * St. George, Maine
 * St. George, Minnesota
 * St. George Township, Benton County, Minnesota
 * St. George, Missouri
 * St. George, Wright County, Missouri
 * St. George, Staten Island, New York
 * St. George, South Carolina
 * St. George, Utah
 * St. George, Vermont, a New England town
 * St. George (CDP), Vermont, a census-designated place within the town
 * Saint George, Virginia
 * St. George, West Virginia

Other places

 * St Georges Strand, a coastal village near Port Elizabeth, South Africa
 * Saint George Parish, Antigua and Barbuda
 * Saint George, Barbados
 * Saint George's Memorial Church, Ypres, Belgium
 * Saint George Parish, Dominica
 * St. Georg, Hamburg, a quarter of Hamburg, Germany
 * Saint George Bay, Beirut, Lebanon
 * Saint George's Channel (Papua New Guinea)
 * St. George's Caye, an island in the Caribbean Sea
 * Saint George Basseterre Parish, Saint Kitts and Nevis
 * Saint George Parish, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
 * Saint-George, Switzerland
 * São Jorge do Ivaí, a municipality in the state of Paraná, Brazil

Schools

 * St. George Campus, University of Toronto, Canada
 * St George's, University of London, a medical college
 * St George's School, Edinburgh, Scotland
 * St. George's Girls' School (Penang, Malaysia)
 * St. George's University, Grenada

Sports

 * Birmingham St George's F.C., a defunct English association football club
 * Saint George S.C., an Ethiopian association football club
 * St George FC, an Australian association football club
 * St Georges A.F.C., an association football club in Douglas, Isle of Man
 * St. George Dragons, an Australian rugby league club
 * St George AFC, an Australian Rules Football club based in Sydney, Australia
 * St. George Illawarra Dragons, Australian Rugby League team in the NRL
 * St. George's F.C., a Maltese association football club

Other uses

 * St. George (name)
 * St George (advertisement), a commercial for the UK soft drink Blackcurrant Tango
 * Saint George (Donatello), a c. 1415–1417 sculpture by Donatello
 * Saint George (icon, 1130), a Russian Saint George icon
 * Saint George the Victorious (coin), Russian coin
 * St. George Bank, an Australian bank
 * St. George Defence, an uncommon chess opening
 * St George's Distillery, a distillery in England
 * St. George Records, a record label
 * St. George Spirits, a distillery in California, USA
 * Saint George's Day, the feast day of Saint George
 * St. George's mushroom or Calocybe gambosa
 * St George's Park National Football Centre

title: Saint George (disambiguation)


text:
User:Delirium

Hi, I'm Mark. Though on the internet I'm more often "Delirium", a handle I picked in the mid-'90s in middle school, and kind of kept by inertia. In real life, I'm an academic with a background in computer science, specializing in artificial intelligence. Much of my Wikipedia editing relates to my hobby of researching historical figures and events, though I occasionally edit in my "official" specialty. I grew up in Chicago and Houston, and since then have lived in Los Angeles, Atlanta, Santa Cruz, Copenhagen, Cornwall, and Washington, D.C.. I've also spent a good amount of time in Thessaloniki.

Article lists
My Wikipedia interests are mainly in history. I'm especially interested in writing articles on people and events from non-English-speaking regions, even subjects of relatively minor importance. Since Wikipedia is a hypertext encyclopedia, even minor subjects help illustrate the contours of a time and place, as well as providing link scaffolding to more easily add additional articles in that area into the English-Wikipedia web of knowledge.

For a combination of vanity and organizational purposes, here are some of the articles I created (some are still mainly my work, while others have been significantly expanded by others):

 * Robert Contee, American police chief
 * Reneé Hall, American police chief
 * Carmen Best, American police chief
 * Julie Kirchner, American activist
 * Betsy Reed, American journalist and editor
 * Endeavour (building), high-rise building in Houston, Texas
 * Hudson and Emma Rood Tuttle, American spiritualist authors
 * Natural Trap Cave, paleontological site in Wyoming
 * John H. Davis (diplomat), American academic and diplomat
 * Guillaume de Varax, Swiss bishop
 * Slug's Saloon, Jazz club in New York
 * Hoshino Hisashi, Japanese historian
 * Yvonne Herløv Andersen, Danish politician
 * May Brodbeck, American philosopher of science
 * Krudttårnet, historical structure in Frederikshavn, Denmark
 * André Bollier, French resistance member during World War II
 * James L. Autry House, community center in Houston, Texas
 * Joseph-Frédéric-Benoît Charrière, Swiss–French manufacturer of surgical instruments
 * Lariboisière Hospital, hospital in Paris
 * Former Reichsbank building, building in Berlin
 * Old Navarino castle, fortress near Pylos, Greece
 * Kavala aqueduct, aqueduct in Kavala, Greece
 * Jurgen Ruesch, American psychiatrist
 * Latvia University of Agriculture, university in Jelgava, Latvia
 * Johan Cornelius Krieger, Danish landscape architect
 * Søren Pind, Danish politician
 * International Hygiene Exhibition, 1911 world's fair in Dresden
 * Ibrahim al-Mazini, 20th-century Egyptian writer
 * Romm publishing house, 19th-century Jewish publisher
 * Grisha Bruskin, 20th/21st-century Russian artist
 * Georg Gradnauer, 20th-century German politician
 * Roger Brunet, 20th/21st-century French geographer
 * Château Saint-Maire, Swiss castle
 * Francesco Pasquale Ricci, 18th/19th-century Italian composer
 * Giuseppe Pasquale Ricci, 18th-century politician of Triste
 * Krzysztof Grodzicki, 17th-century Polish general
 * Hans Sima, 20th-century Austrian politician
 * Mostafa Mir-Salim, 20th/21st-century Iranian politician
 * Mohsen Aminzadeh, 20th/21st-century Iranian politician
 * Zan (newspaper), 20th-century Iranian newspaper
 * Uzdunrobita, mobile-phone operator of Uzbekistan
 * Gernot Rumpold, Austrian politician
 * Karl Sudhoff, 19th/20th-century German historian of medicine
 * Juan de Esteyneffer, 17th/18th-century missionary and documenter in the New World
 * Thomas Drennan, 18th-century Irish minister
 * Pericles the Younger, ancient Athenian general
 * Charles Monnard, 19th-century Swiss historian
 * Carl Jacob Burckhardt, 20th-century Swiss diplomat and historian
 * Boris P. Stoicheff, 20th-century Macedonian-Canadian physicist
 * Dom in svet, 19th/20th-century Slovenian journal
 * Jacob Toorenvliet, 17th/18th-century Dutch painter
 * Dirck van der Lisse, 17th-century Dutch painter
 * Ministry of Energy (Russia), the energy ministry of Russia
 * Sergei Shmatko, 20th/21st-century Russian businessman and politician
 * Giacomo Guardi, 18th/19th-century Italian painter
 * Francesco Albotto, 18th-century Italian painter
 * Ukrainian school, 19th-century school of Polish poetry
 * Minos Wines, Greek winemaker
 * Lagorthi, Greek wine grape
 * Ulubrae, ancient village near Rome
 * Georgios Chortatzis, 16th/17th-century Greek dramatist
 * Coxiella burnetii (section "History and naming"), bacteria
 * Edward Holbrook Derrick, 20th-century American pathologist
 * Turlupins, 14th/15th-century French religious sect
 * Pedro de Soto, 16th-century Spanish Dominican
 * Inalchuq, 13th-century governor in the Khwarezmian Empire
 * London International College, 19th-century British secondary school
 * Leonhard Schmitz, 19th-century German-British classical scholar
 * Carl Werner, 19th-century German watercolor painter
 * Emanuel von Friedrichsthal, 19th-century Austrian traveler and botanist
 * Otto von Erdmannsdorff, 20th-century German diplomat
 * Joaquín Vicuña, 19th-century Chilean politician
 * Leopold Wagner, 20th-century Austrian politician
 * Jan Prandota, 13th-century Polish bishop
 * Jan Grot, 14th-century Polish bishop
 * Iwo Odrowąż, 13th-century Polish bishop
 * Martyrius of Antioch, 5th-century Patriarch of Antioch
 * Archangel ivory, 6th-century Byzantine ivory panel
 * Hippolyte Montillie, 19th/20th-century French sculptor
 * Pierre-Henri de Valenciennes, 18th/19th-century French painter
 * Esperanza Andrade, 20th/21st-century American politician
 * Therese Maron, 18th-century German painter
 * Anton von Maron, 18th-century Austrian painter
 * Scipione Barbò Soncino, 16th-century Italian jurist and writer
 * Madern Gerthener, 14th/15th-century German stonemason and architect
 * Tsantali, Greek winemaker
 * Marcus Antonius Antimachus, 15th/16th-century Italian translator of Greek
 * Johann Peter Berg, 18th-century German theologian, historian, and Orientalist
 * Piero Valeriano Bolzani, 15th/16th-century Italian Renaissance humanist
 * Lazarus Buonamici, 16th-century Italian Renaissance humanist
 * Calendion, 5th-century Patriarch of Antioch
 * California Propositions 98 and 99 (2008), June 2008 ballot propositions in California relating to eminent domain and property rights
 * Walter Channing (physician), 19th-century American physician and professor of medicine
 * Conrad II, Bishop of Hildesheim, 13th-century German bishop
 * Genaro Estrada, 20th-century Mexican statesman, academic, and writer
 * Marcus Fabius Ambustus (consul 360 BC), 4th-century-BC statesman and general of the Roman Republic
 * Leontius (usurper), 5th-century Byzantine usurper
 * Pedro de Lerma, 15th/16th-century Spanish theologian
 * Émile Loubon, 19th-century French painter
 * Michiel Maddersteg, 17th/18th-century Dutch painter
 * Jean Pierre Félicien Mallefille, 19th-century French novelist and playwright
 * Laura Beatrice Mancini, 19th-century Italian poet
 * Johann Kaspar Friedrich Manso, 18th/19th-century German historian and philologist
 * Firmin Marbeau, 19th-century French philanthropist
 * Bessie Marchant, 19th/20th-century English novelist
 * Camille Mauclair, 20th-century French poet, novelist, biographer, travel writer, and art critic
 * Carlo Mense, 20th-century German artist
 * Neshobe Island, island in Vermont associated with the Algonquin Round Table
 * Johann Georg Primavesi, 19th-century German etcher and painter
 * Willi Schmid, 20th-century German music critic accidentally murdered by the Nazis in a case of mistaken identity
 * Flavius Sigisvultus, 5th-century general of the Western Roman Empire
 * Flavius Sporacius, 5th-century statesman of the Eastern Roman Empire

Other lists
 * User:Delirium/Article list, for articles I wrote prior to mid-2008
 * User:Delirium/Translations, for articles I've translated, either from public-domain sources or other Wikipedias

title: User:Delirium