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Provenance

Provenance is the chronology of the ownership, custody or location of a historical object. The term was originally mostly used in relation to works of art, but is now used in similar senses in a wide range of fields, including archaeology, paleontology, archival science, economy, computing, and scientific inquiry in general.

The primary purpose of tracing the provenance of an object or entity is normally to provide contextual and circumstantial evidence for its original production or discovery, by establishing, as far as practicable, its later history, especially the sequences of its formal ownership, custody and places of storage. The practice has a particular value in helping authenticate objects. Comparative techniques, expert opinions and the results of scientific tests may also be used to these ends, but establishing provenance is essentially a matter of documentation. The term dates to the 1780s in English. Provenance is conceptually comparable to the legal term chain of custody.

For museums and the art trade, in addition to helping establish the authorship and authenticity of an object, provenance has become increasingly important in helping establish the moral and legal validity of a chain of custody, given the increasing amount of looted art. These issues first became a major concern regarding works that had changed hands in Nazi-controlled areas in Europe before and during World War II. Many museums began compiling pro-active registers of such works and their history. Recently the same concerns have come to prominence for works of African art, often exported illegally, and antiquities from many parts of the world, but currently especially in Iraq, and then Syria.

In archaeology and paleontology, the derived term provenience is used with a related but very particular meaning, to refer to the location (in modern research, recorded precisely in three dimensions) where an artifact or other ancient item was found. Provenance covers an object's complete documented history. An artifact may thus have both a provenience and a provenance.

Works of art and antiques
The provenance of works of fine art, antiques and antiquities is of great importance, especially to their owner. There are a number of reasons why painting provenance is important, which mostly also apply to other types of fine art. A good provenance increases the value of a painting, and establishing provenance may help confirm the date, artist and, especially for portraits, the subject of a painting. It may confirm whether a painting is genuinely of the period it seems to date from. The provenance of paintings can help resolve ownership disputes. For example, provenance between 1933 and 1945 can determine whether a painting was looted by the Nazis.

Many galleries are putting a great deal of effort into researching the provenance of paintings in their collections for which there is no firm provenance during that period. Documented evidence of provenance for an object can help to establish that it has not been altered and is not a forgery, a reproduction, stolen or looted art. Provenance helps assign the work to a known artist, and a documented history can be of use in helping to prove ownership. An example of a detailed provenance is given in the Arnolfini portrait.

The quality of provenance of an important work of art can make a considerable difference to its selling price in the market. This is affected by the degree of certainty of the provenance, the status of past owners as collectors, and in many cases by the strength of evidence that an object has not been illegally excavated or exported from another country. The provenance of a work of art may vary greatly in length, depending on context or the amount that is known, from a single name to an entry in a scholarly catalogue some thousands of words long.

An expert certification can mean the difference between an object having no value and being worth a fortune. Certifications themselves may be open to question. Jacques van Meegeren forged the work of his father Han van Meegeren, who had forged the work of Vermeer. Jacques sometimes produced a certificate with his forgeries, stating that a work was created by his father.

John Drewe was able to pass off as genuine paintings, a large number of forgeries that would have easily been recognised as such by scientific examination. He established an impressive, but false provenance. Because of this, galleries and dealers accepted the paintings as genuine. He created this false provenance by forging letters and other documents, including false entries in earlier exhibition catalogues.

Sometimes provenance can be as simple as a photograph of the item with its original owner. Simple yet definitive documentation such as that can increase its value by an order of magnitude, but only if the owner was of high renown. Many items that were sold at auction have gone far past their estimates because of a photograph showing that item with a famous person. Some examples include antiques owned by politicians, musicians, artists, actors, etc.

In the context of discussions about the restitution of cultural objects in museum collections of colonial origin, the AfricaMuseum in Belgium started to publicly present information about such objects in its permanent exhibition in 2021.

Researching the provenance of paintings
The objective of provenance research is to produce a complete list of owners (together, where possible, with the supporting documentary proof) from when the painting was commissioned or in the artist's studio through to the present time. In practice, there are likely to be gaps in the list and documents that are missing or lost. The documented provenance should also list when the painting has been part of an exhibition and a bibliography of when it has been discussed, or illustrated in print.

Where the research is proceeding backwards, to discover the previous provenance of a painting whose current ownership and location are known, it is important to record the physical details of the painting – style, subject, signature, materials, dimensions, frame, etc. The titles of paintings and the attribution to a particular artist may change over time. The size of the work and its description can be used to identify earlier references to the painting.

The back of a painting can contain significant provenance information. There may be exhibition marks, dealer stamps, gallery labels and other indications of previous ownership. There may be shipping labels. In the BBC TV programme Fake or Fortune? the provenance of the painting Bords de la Seine à Argenteuil was investigated using a gallery sticker and shipping label on the back. Early provenance can sometimes be indicated by a cartellino, a trompe-l'œil representation of an inscribed label, added to the front of a painting. However, these can be forged, or can fade or be painted over.

Auction records are an important resource to assist in researching the provenance of paintings.
 * The Witt Library houses a collection of cuttings from auction catalogs which enables the researcher to identify occasions when a picture has been sold.
 * The Heinz Library at the National Portrait Gallery, London maintains a similar collection, but restricted to portraits.
 * The National Art Library at the Victoria and Albert Museum has a collection of UK sales catalogues.
 * The University of York is establishing a web site with on-line resources for investigating art history in the period 1660–1735. This includes diaries, sales catalogues, bills, correspondence and inventories.
 * The Getty Research Institute in Los Angeles has a Project for the Study of Collecting and Provenance (PSCP) which includes an on-line database, still being compiled, of auction and other records relating to painting provenance.
 * The Frick Art Reference Library in New York has an extensive collection of auction and exhibition catalogues.
 * The Netherlands Institute for Art History (RKD) has a number of databases related to artists from the Netherlands.

If a painting has been in private hands for an extended period and on display in a stately home, it may be recorded in an inventory – for example, the Lumley inventory. The painting may also have been noticed by a visitor who subsequently wrote about it. It may have been mentioned in a will or a diary. Where the painting has been bought from a dealer, or changed hands in a private transaction, there may be a bill of sale or sales receipt that provides evidence of provenance. Where the artist is known, there may be a catalogue raisonné listing all the artist's known works and their location at the time of writing. A database of catalogues raisonné is available at the International Foundation for Art Research.

Historic photos of the painting may be discussed and illustrated in a more general work on the artist, period or genre. Similarly, a photograph of a painting may show inscriptions (or a signature) that subsequently became lost as a result of overzealous restoration. Conversely, a photograph may show that an inscription was not visible at an earlier date. One of the disputed aspects of the "Rice" portrait of Jane Austen concerns apparent inscriptions identifying artist and sitter.

Archives
Provenance – also known as custodial history – is a core concept within archival science and archival processing. The term refers to the individuals, groups, or organizations that originally created or received the items in an accumulation of records, and to the items' subsequent chain of custody. The principle of provenance, also termed the principle of "archival integrity", and a major strand in the broader principle of respect des fonds, stipulates that records originating from a common source, or fonds, should be kept together – where practicable, physically, but in all cases intellectually, in the way in which they are catalogued and arranged in finding aids.

Conversely, records of different provenance should be preserved and documented separately. In archival practice, proof of provenance is provided by the operation of control systems that document the history of records kept in archives, including details of amendments made to them. The authority of an archival document or set of documents of which the provenance is uncertain, because of gaps in the recorded chain of custody, will be considered to be severely compromised.

The principles of archival provenance were developed in the 19th century by both French and Prussian archivists, and gained widespread acceptance on the basis of their formulation in the Manual for the Arrangement and Description of Archives by Dutch state archivists Samuel Muller, J. A. Feith, and R. Fruin, published in the Netherlands in 1898, often referred to as the "Dutch Manual".

Seamus Ross has argued a case for adapting established principles and theories of archival provenance to the field of modern digital preservation and curation.

Provenance is also the title of the journal published by the Society of Georgia Archivists.

Books
In the case of books, the study of provenance refers to the study of the ownership of individual copies of books. It is usually extended to include the study of the circumstances in which individual copies of books have changed ownership, and of evidence left in books that shows how readers interacted with them.

Provenance studies may shed light on the books themselves, providing evidence of the role particular titles have played in social, intellectual and literary history. Such studies may also add to our knowledge of particular owners of books. For instance, looking at the books owned by a writer may help to show which works influenced him or her.

Many provenance studies are historically focused, and concentrated on books owned by writers, politicians and public figures. The recent ownership of books is studied, however, as is evidence of how ordinary or anonymous readers have interacted with books.

Provenance can be studied both by examining the books themselves, for instance looking at inscriptions, marginalia, bookplates, book rhymes, and bindings, and by reference to external sources of information such as auction catalogues.

Pianos
Provenance for pianos is authenticated before a piano is inducted into a museum, sold at an auction, or appraised for an estate or legal action, when it has extraordinary value in connection to a composer, performer, event or location that has become famous. For example, the piano that Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart used during the final 10 years of his life, is on display in the Mozarteum Museum in Salzberg, one of many historical pianos in museums around the world. The 300,000th Steinway piano that was presented to President Franklin D. Roosevelt by Theodore Steinway, on behalf of the Steinway family is on display in the White House. It is one of many pianos with a provenance that have extraordinary value because of art, sculpture or design incorporated into the cabinet. It has legs carved into golden eagles and figures painted on the body of the piano.

For a piano, provenance can be established by starting with the authentication of the brand of manufacture and serial number, which will usually identify age. Then bills of sale, tuning records, bills of lading, concert programs that identify a piano by serial number, letters, famous signatures inside or on the outside of a piano, statements under oath in a court of law and photographs can all help authenticate a piano's provenance.

Piano Provenance and Valuation
Pianos can sell for millions of dollars, when the provenance is significant enough to increase its value well beyond what it would be worth as a musical instrument alone.

When decisions need to be made in a court of law for a bankruptcy, or before a piano goes up for auction, or when an educational institution needs to establish a value for a deed of trust being established with the gift of a piano, then experts are usually hired to authenticate the piano's provenance.

Piano provenance has emerged as a field of study with experts having college degrees in some specialty connected to the piano or to art combined with professional training and experience in the field.

Most experts belong to some form of association. For example, Karen Earle Lile niece of Tony Terran and Kendall Ross Bean, members of the Preservations Artisans Guild, were chosen by Mercersburg Academy to research and authenticate the provenance of the Lennon-Ono-Green-Warhol piano before it was put up for sale to fund a Deed of Trust by the Shaool Family to Mercersburg Academy for future student scholarships. Because this piano was part of a famous lawsuit in 2000 and had extensive coverage as the "Lost Lennon Piano", when provenance research done by Lile was revealed by the Alex Cooper Auctioneers to the public, the provenance became the subject of dozens of newspapers and magazines that picked up the story.

In the case of sculpture or art that are incorporated into the piano's cabinet, experts might be come from the field of art valuation and belong to an appraiser society such as the American Society of Appraisers or the International Society of Appraisers.

Wines
In transactions of old wine with the potential of improving with age, the issue of provenance has a large bearing on the assessment of the contents of a bottle, both in terms of quality and the risk of wine fraud. A documented history of wine cellar conditions is valuable in estimating the quality of an older vintage due to the fragile nature of wine.

Recent technology developments have aided collectors in assessing the temperature and humidity history of the wine which are two key components in establishing perfect provenance. For example, there are devices available that rest inside the wood case and can be read through the wood by waving a smartphone equipped with a simple app. These devices track the conditions the case has been exposed to for the duration of the battery life, which can be as long as 15 years, and sends a graph and high/low readings to the smartphone user. This takes the trust issue out of the hands of the owner and gives it to a third party for verification.

Archaeology, anthropology, and paleontology
Archaeology and anthropology researchers use provenience to refer to the exact location or find spot of an artifact, a bone or other remains, a soil sample, or a feature within an ancient site, whereas provenance covers an object's complete documented history. Ideally, in modern excavations, the provenience is recorded in three dimensions on a site grid with great precision, and may also be recorded on video to provide additional proof and context. In older work, often undertaken by amateurs, only the general site or approximate area may be known, especially when an artifact was found outside a professional excavation and its specific position not recorded. The term provenience appeared in the 1880s, about a century after provenance. Outside of academic contexts, it has been used as a synonymous variant spelling of provenance, especially in American English.

Any given antiquity may have both a provenience, where it was found, and a provenance, where it has been since it was found. A summary of the distinction is that "provenience is a fixed point, while provenance can be considered an itinerary that an object follows as it moves from hand to hand." Another metaphor is that provenience is an artifact's "birthplace", while provenance is its "résumé". This can be imprecise. Many artifacts originated as trade goods created in one region, but were used and finally deposited in another.

Aside from scientific precision, a need for the distinction in these fields has been described thus: "Archaeologists ... don't care who owned an object—they are more interested in the context of an object within the community of its (mostly original) users. ... [W]e are interested in why a Roman coin turned up in a shipwreck 400 years after it was made; while art historians don't really care, since they can generally figure out what mint a coin came from by the information stamped on its surface. 'It's a Roman coin, what else do we need to know?' says an art historian; 'The shipping trade in the Mediterranean region during late Roman times' says an archaeologist. ... [P]rovenance for an art historian is important to establish ownership, but provenience is interesting to an archaeologist to establish meaning."

In this context, the provenance can occasionally be the detailed history of where an object has been since its creation, as in art history contexts – not just since its modern finding. In some cases, such as where there is an inscription on the object, or an account of it in written materials from the same era, an object of study in archaeology or cultural anthropology may have an early provenance – a known history that predates modern research – then a provenience from its modern finding, and finally a continued provenance relating to its handling and storage or display after the modern acquisition.

Evidence of provenance in the more general sense can be of importance in archaeology. Fakes are not unknown, and finds are sometimes removed from the context in which they were found without documentation, reducing their value to science. Even when apparently discovered in situ, archaeological finds are treated with caution. The provenience of a find may not be properly represented by the context in which it was found, e.g. due to stratigraphic layers being disturbed by erosion, earthquakes, or ancient reconstruction or other disturbance at a site.

Artifacts can be moved through looting as well as trade, far from their place of origin and long before modern rediscovery. Many source nations have passed legislation forbidding the domestic trade in cultural heritage. Further research is often required to establish the true provenance and legal status of a find, and what the relationship is between the exact provenience and the overall provenance.

In paleontology and paleoanthropology, it is recognized that fossils can also move from their primary context and are sometimes found, apparently in-situ, in deposits to which they do not belong because they have been moved, for example, by the erosion of nearby but different outcrops. It is unclear how strictly paleontology maintains the provenience and provenance distinction. For example, a short glossary at a website, primarily aimed at young students, of the American Museum of Natural History treats the terms as synonymous, while scholarly paleontology works make frequent use of provenience in the same precise sense as used in archaeology and paleoanthropology.

While exacting details of a find's provenience are primarily of use to scientific researchers, most natural history and archaeology museums also make strenuous efforts to record how the items in their collections were acquired. These records are often of use in helping to establish a chain of provenance.

Data provenance
Scientific research is generally held to be of good provenance when it is documented in detail sufficient to allow reproducibility. Scientific workflow systems assist scientists and programmers with tracking their data through all transformations, analyses, and interpretations. Data sets are reliable when the processes used to create them are reproducible and analyzable for defects. Security researchers are interested in data provenance because it can analyze suspicious data and make large opaque systems transparent.

Current initiatives to effectively manage, share, and reuse ecological data are indicative of the increasing importance of data provenance. Examples of these initiatives are National Science Foundation Datanet projects, DataONE and Data Conservancy, as well as the U.S. Global Change Research Program. Some international academic consortia, such as the Research Data Alliance, have specific groups to tackle issues of provenance. In that case it is the Research Data Provenance Interest Group.

Computer science
Within computer science, informatics uses the term "provenance" to mean the lineage of data, as per data provenance, with research in the last decade extending the conceptual model of causality and relation to include processes that act on data and agents that are responsible for those processes. See, for example, the proceedings of the International Provenance Annotation Workshop (IPAW) and Theory and Practice of Provenance (TaPP). Semantic web standards bodies, including the World Wide Web Consortium in 2014, have ratified a standard data model for provenance representation known as PROV which draws from many of the better-known provenance representation systems that preceded it, such as the Proof Markup Language and the Open Provenance Model.

Interoperability is a design goal of most recent computer science provenance theories and models, for example the Open Provenance Model (OPM) 2008 generation workshop aimed at "establishing inter-operability of systems" through information exchange agreements. Data models and serialisation formats for delivering provenance information typically reuse existing metadata models where possible to enable this. Both the OPM Vocabulary and the PROV Ontology make extensive use of metadata models such as Dublin Core and Semantic Web technologies such as the Web Ontology Language (OWL). Current practice is to rely on the W3C PROV data model, OPM's successor.

There are several maintained and open-source provenance capture implementation at the operating system level such as CamFlow, Progger for Linux and MS Windows, and SPADE for Linux, MS Windows, and MacOS. Operating system level provenance have gained interest in the security community notably to develop novel intrusion detection techniques. Other implementations exist for specific programming and scripting languages, such as RDataTracker for R, and NoWorkflow for Python.

Whole-system provenance implementation for Linux

 * PASS – closed source – not maintained – kernel v2.6.X
 * Hi-Fi – open source – not maintained – kernel v3.2.x
 * Flogger – closed source – not maintained – kernel v2.6.x
 * S2Logger – closed source – not maintained – kernel v2.6.x
 * LPM – open source – not maintained – kernel v2.6.x
 * Progger – open source – not maintained – kernel v2.6.x and kernel v.4.14.x
 * CamFlow  – open source – maintained – kernel v6.0.X

Petrology
In the geologic use of the term, provenance instead refers to the origin or source area of particles within a rock, most commonly in sedimentary rocks. It does not refer to the circumstances of the collection of the rock. The provenance of sandstone, in particular, can be evaluated by determining the proportion of quartz, feldspar, and lithic fragments (see diagram).

Seed provenance
Seed provenance refers to the geographic location of a parent plant, from which seeds were collected. In the context of ecological restoration, seed provenancing refers to a seed-sourcing strategy that focuses on the geographic location of seed sources, as each provenance can describe the genetic material from that location. Local provenancing is a position maintained by ecologists that suggests that only seeds of local provenance should be planted in a particular area. However, this view depends on the adaptationist program – a view that populations are universally locally adapted. It is maintained that local seed is best adapted to local conditions, and that outbreeding depression will be avoided. Evolutionary biologists suggest that strict adherence to provenance collecting is not a wise decision because:
 * 1) Local adaptation is not as common as assumed.
 * 2) Background population maladaptation can be driven by natural processes.
 * 3) Human actions of habitat fragmentation drive maladaptation up and adaptive potential down.
 * 4) Natural selection is changing rapidly due to climate change. and habitat fragmentation
 * 5) Population fragments are unlikely to divergence by natural selection since fragmentation (< 500 years). This leads to a low risk of outbreeding depression.

Provenance trials, where material of different provenances are planted in a single place or at different locations spanning a range of environmental conditions, is a way to reveal genetic variation among provenances. It also contributes to an understanding of how different provenances respond to various climatic and environmental conditions and can as such contribute with knowledge on how to strategically select provenances for climate change adaptation.

Computers and law
The term provenance is used when ascertaining the source of goods such as computer hardware to assess if they are genuine or counterfeit. Chain of custody is an equivalent term used in law, especially for evidence in criminal or commercial cases.

Software provenance encompasses the origin of software and its licensing terms. For example, when incorporating a free, open source or proprietary software component in an application, one may wish to understand its provenance to ensure that licensing requirements are fulfilled and that other software characteristics can be understood.

Data provenance covers the provenance of computerized data. There are two main aspects of data provenance: ownership of the data and data usage. Ownership will tell the user who is responsible for the source of the data, ideally including information on the originator of the data. Data usage gives details regarding how the data has been used and modified and often includes information on how to cite the data source or sources.

Data provenance is of particular concern with electronic data, as data sets are often modified and copied without proper citation or acknowledgement of the originating data set. Databases make it easy to select specific information from data sets and merge this data with other data sources without any documentation of how the data was obtained or how it was modified from the original data set or sets. The automated analysis of data provenance graphs has been described as a mean to verify compliance with regulations regarding data usage such as introduced by the EU GDPR.

Secure Provenance refers to providing integrity and confidentiality guarantees to provenance information. In other words, secure provenance means to ensure that history cannot be rewritten, and users can specify who else can look into their actions on the object.

A simple method of ensuring data provenance in computing is to mark a file as read only. This allows the user to view the contents of the file, but not edit or otherwise modify it. Read only can also in some cases prevent the user from accidentally or intentionally deleting the file.

title: Provenance


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User talk:SpeakerFTD

No problem, and welcome. :) Here's a crib sheet on the markup tags, might be handy. - Hephaestos 03:19, 5 Aug 2003 (UTC)

Greetings! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. You can sign your name with ~. If you have questions or doubts of any sort, do not hesitate to post them on the Village Pump, somebody will respond ASAP. Other helpful pages include: Have fun! --Jiang 13:59, 5 Aug 2003 (UTC)
 * Welcome, newcomers
 * Manual of style
 * Naming conventions

Yes. See How to revert a page to an earlier version - Efghij 21:44, 6 Aug 2003 (UTC)

Nice work improving the Gyatt article. There is, of course, more to be done. I expect to improve it further as i get more well-versed in the format and procedures. StinKerr 04:40, 15 Aug 2003 (UTC)

OSC fan, I surmise. welcome from me too. -- Cimon Avaro on a pogo-stick 21:24, Aug 15, 2003 (UTC)

Thanks, and a belated welcome. Graculus 02:20, 26 Aug 2003 (UTC)

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Henry IV, Part 1

Henry IV, Part 1 (often written as 1 Henry IV) is a history play by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written not later than 1597. The play dramatises part of the reign of King Henry IV of England, beginning with the battle at Homildon Hill late in 1402, and ending with King Henry's victory in the Battle of Shrewsbury in mid-1403. In parallel to the political conflict between King Henry and a rebellious faction of nobles, the play depicts the escapades of King Henry's son, Prince Hal (the future King Henry V), and his eventual return to court and favour.

Henry IV, Part 1 is the first of Shakespeare's two plays that deal with the reign of Henry IV (the other being Henry IV, Part 2), and the second play in the Henriad, a modern designation for the tetralogy of plays that deal with the successive reigns of Richard II, Henry IV, and Henry V. From its first performance on, it has been an extremely popular work both with the public and critics.

Characters
Of the King's party Eastcheap
 * King Henry the Fourth – King of England.
 * Henry, Prince of Wales (nicknamed "Prince Hal" or "Harry") – eldest son of Henry IV
 * John of Lancaster – represented in the play as the King's second son, although he was actually the third
 * Ralph Neville, Earl of Westmorland - the King's brother-in-law
 * Sir Walter Blount ("Blunt")
 * Sir John Falstaff – a knight and friend of Prince Hal's
 * Ned Poins
 * Bardolph
 * Peto
 * Mistress Quickly – hostess of the Boar's Head Tavern
 * Francis – tapster
 * Vintner – tavern keeper
 * Gadshill
 * Two Carriers (Mugs and Tom)
 * Ostler

Rebels Other Characters
 * Henry Percy, Earl of Northumberland
 * Thomas Percy, Earl of Worcester – Northumberland's brother
 * Harry Percy (nicknamed "Hotspur") – Northumberland's son
 * Edmund Mortimer – Hotspur's brother-in-law and Glendower's son-in-law
 * Owen Glendower – leader of the Welsh rebels
 * Archibald, Earl of Douglas – leader of the Scottish rebels
 * Sir Richard Vernon, 8th Baron of Shipbrook
 * Richard le Scrope ("Scroop"), Archbishop of York
 * Sir Michael – a friend to the Archbishop of York
 * Lady Percy ("Kate", though her real name was Elizabeth) – Hotspur's wife and Mortimer's sister
 * Lady Mortimer (Catrin) – Glendower's daughter and Mortimer's wife
 * Chamberlain
 * Sheriff
 * Travellers
 * Servant to Hotspur
 * Lords, Officers, Drawers, Messengers, and Attendants

Mentioned only
 * Robin Ostler, deceased character who preceded the current Ostler, concerned with the price of oats
 * Gilliams, courier sent by Hotspur

Synopsis
The play follows three groups of characters who initially interact only indirectly. These groups grow closer as the play progresses, coming together at the climax during the Battle of Shrewsbury. The first is centred around King Henry IV and his immediate council, who contrive to suppress a growing rebellion. The second is the group of rebel lords, led by Thomas Percy, Earl of Worcester, and including his brother, the Earl of Northumberland, and energetic nephew, Harry Percy ("Hotspur"). The Scottish Earl of Douglas, the Welshman Owen Glendower, and Edmund Mortimer also join. The third group, the comic centre of the play, consists of the young Prince Hal (King Henry's eldest son) and his companions, Falstaff, Poins, Bardolph, and Peto.

From the play's outset, Henry IV's reign is beset by problems: His personal disquiet at having usurped the throne from Richard II would be solved by a crusade to the Holy Land, but trouble on his borders with Scotland and Wales make such an act impossible. Moreover, he is increasingly at odds with the Percy family, who helped him to his throne, and with Edmund Mortimer, Richard II's chosen heir.

King Henry is also troubled by the behaviour of his eldest son and heir, Hal (the future Henry V). Hal spends little time in the royal court, preferring instead to drink in taverns with lowborn and dishonourable companions. This makes him an object of scorn to the nobles and jeopardises his legitimacy as heir; early in the play, King Henry laments that he can "See riot and dishonour stain the brow of young Harry." Hal's chief friend is Sir John Falstaff, a cowardly, drunken, but quick-witted knight whose charisma and zest for life captivate the Prince.

In the first scene, the political action of the play is set in motion. King Henry and Hotspur fall out after a disagreement over the treatment of hostages: Hotspur withholds, against the King's orders, hostages taken in recent action against the Scots at the Battle of Homildon Hill, while King Henry refuses to pay Owen Glendower (a Welsh rebel) the ransom for Hotspur's brother-in-law, Edmund Mortimer. This disagreement, and the King's harsh treatment of the House of Percy generally, drives them to ally with Welsh and Scot rebels, resolving to depose "this ingrate and cankered Bolingbroke."

Meanwhile, Hal meets with Falstaff and his associates at the Boar's Head Tavern. Falstaff and Hal are close, but Hal enjoys insulting Falstaff, and, in a soliloquy, makes it clear that he does not plan to continue in his present lifestyle forever: Hal aims to re-assume his high place in court by proving himself to his father. Indeed, Hal reasons that by suddenly changing his ways he will be even more popular among the nobility than if he had behaved conventionally all his life. Nevertheless, he is happy to carry out a plot against Falstaff: after performing a highway robbery, Hal and Poins will slip away from Falstaff, disguise themselves, and rob Falstaff, purely for the fun of hearing the older man lie about it later, after which Hal will return the stolen money. The plot is carried out successfully.

As the revolt of Mortimer and the House of Percy grows, the Prince makes up with his father and is given the command of an army. He vows to fight and kill the rebel Hotspur, and orders Falstaff to recruit and lead a group of foot soldiers. Falstaff uses the appointment to enrich himself by taking bribes from those who do not want to be pressed into service, and, in the end, recruits only the very poor, whose wages he withholds.

All the parties meet at the Battle of Shrewsbury, a crucial moment for all involved: If the rebels are not defeated outright, they will gain a considerable advantage; other forces (under Northumberland, Glendower, Mortimer, and the Archbishop of York) can be called upon in the event of a stalemate or a victory for the rebels. Though Henry outnumbers the rebels, Hotspur, wild and skilled in battle, leads the opposing army personally. As the battle drags on, the king is hunted by Douglas. Prince Hal and Hotspur duel, and, in an important moment of noble virtue for the young prince, Hal prevails, killing Hotspur in single combat.

Left on his own during Hal's battle with Hotspur, Falstaff dishonourably feigns death to avoid an attack by Douglas. After Hal leaves Hotspur's body on the field, Falstaff revives in a mock miracle. Seeing he is alone, he stabs Hotspur's corpse in the thigh and claims credit for the kill. Hal allows Falstaff to claim the honour of the kill. Soon after Hal's generous gesture, Falstaff states that he wants to amend his life and begin "to live cleanly as a nobleman should do".

The play ends at Shrewsbury, after the battle. The loss of Hotspur and the fight has dealt a serious blow to the rebel cause. King Henry is pleased with the outcome, not least because it gives him a chance to execute Thomas Percy, the Earl of Worcester, one of his chief enemies (though previously one of his greatest friends). Meanwhile, Hal demonstrates his mercy by ordering Douglas—now a prisoner of war—to be released without ransom. However, the rebellion continues, now led by the Archbishop of York and the Earl of Northumberland. This inconclusive ending sets the stage for Henry IV, Part 2.

Date and text
1 Henry IV was almost certainly in performance by 1597, given the wealth of allusions and references to the Falstaff character. The earliest recorded performance occurred on the afternoon of 6 March 1600, when the play was acted at court before the Flemish Ambassador. Other court performances followed in 1612 and 1625.

The play was entered into the Register of the Stationers Company on 25 Feb. 1598 and first printed in quarto later that year by stationer Andrew Wise. The play was Shakespeare's most popular printed text: new editions appeared in 1599, 1604, 1608, 1613, 1622, 1632, 1639, and 1692.

The Dering Manuscript

The Dering Manuscript, the earliest extant manuscript text of any Shakespeare play, provides a single-play version of both Part 1 and Part 2 of Henry IV. The consensus of Shakespeare scholars is that the Dering Manuscript represents a redaction prepared around 1623, perhaps for family or amateur theatrics, by Edward Dering (1598–1644), of Surrenden Manor, Pluckley, Kent, where the manuscript was discovered. A few dissenters have argued that the Dering MS. may indicate that Shakespeare's Henry IV was originally a single play, which the poet later expanded into two parts to capitalise on the popularity of the Sir John Falstaff character. The Dering MS. is part of the collection of the Folger Shakespeare Library in Washington, D.C.

Themes and interpretations
At its first publication in 1597 or 1598, the play was titled The History of Henrie the Fourth, and its title page advertised only the presence of Henry Percy and the comic Sir John Falstaff; Prince Hal was not mentioned. Indeed, throughout most of the play's performance history, Hal has been staged as a secondary figure, and popular actors, beginning with James Quin and David Garrick, often preferred to play Hotspur. It was only in the twentieth century that readers and performers began to see the central interest as the coming-of-age story of Hal, who is now seen as the starring role.

In the "coming-of-age" interpretation, Hal's acquaintance with Falstaff and the tavern lowlife humanises him and provides him with a more complete view of life. At the outset, Prince Hal seems to pale in comparison with the fiery Henry Percy, the young noble lord of the North (whom Shakespeare portrays as considerably younger than he was in history in order to provide a foil for Hal). Many readers interpret the history as a tale of Prince Hal growing up, evolving into King Henry V, in what is a tale of the prodigal son adapted to the politics of medieval England. The low proportion of scenes featuring the title character, the king, has also been noted, with some authors suggesting that the play contrasts the authority of Henry IV, and his struggle to stay in control of the situation, with the chaotic forces of the rebels and Falstaff.

Honor and Falstaff's Catechism
A major theme in Henry IV Part 1 is the expression of honour and the intersection and contrasts between honour and war. In Act 5 scene 1, Falstaff delivers a soliloquy, scholastically referred to as Falstaff's Catechism, which asserts his pragmatic and matter-of-fact perspective on war. The soliloquy reads:"’Tis not due yet. I would be loath to pay Him before His day. What need I be so forward with Him that calls not on me? Well, ’tis no matter. Honor pricks me on. Yea, but how if honor prick me off when I come on? How then? Can honor set to a leg? No. Or an arm? No. Or take away the grief of a wound? No. Honor hath no skill in surgery, then? No. What is honor? A word. What is in that word “honor”? What is that “honor”? Air. A trim reckoning. Who hath it? He that died o’ Wednesday. Doth he feel it? No. Doth he hear it? No. ’Tis insensible, then? Yea, to the dead. But will ⌜it⌝ not live with the living? No. Why? Detraction will not suffer it. Therefore, I’ll none of it. Honor is a mere scutcheon. And so ends my catechism. (5.1.128-142)"In this soliloquy, Falstaff dismisses honour as an abstract concept that has no tangible benefits. His repetition of the word "honor" and the subsequent reduction of it to "air" underscores his cynical perspective, suggesting that honour is an empty, meaningless concept that holds no practical value. He questions whether honour can "set to a leg" or "an arm," implying that honour cannot heal wounds or restore life. This practical viewpoint starkly contrasts with the romanticised notion of honour as a noble pursuit worth dying or seriously injuring oneself for. Falstaff's rhetorical questions serve to undermine the glorification of honour in martial society, pointing out its inability to provide any real, physical benefit to those who seek it.

The passage contrasts the other views expressed in the play, and is also unique for its deviation from Falstaff's character, giving him a moment of philosophy distinct from his usual dismissive prose. Shakespeare’s intent with the soliloquy has been debated between academics. While some believe that the passage serves to juxtapose Falstaff’s pragmatic philosophy with the romantic, valour driven views of the rest of the cast, others assert that Falstaff’s catechism highlights his cowardice and can be played comedically.

Professor Clifford Davidson drew parallels between Philippe de Mornay’s 1582 treatise De la verité de la religion chrestienne, which would have already been translated into English at the time of writing Henry IV Part 1:"They that attaine to honor, are in continuali torment, spightfull or spighted, doing mischiefe, or receiving mischiefe, over-mated, or over-mating. What is this but many evils for one, and a multiplying of miseries without number, for the obtainment of one silly shadow of felicity? We will leave the residue to declamers: what are the fruits of these hellish torments, what are they? Forsooth Honor, Reputation, and Power or Authority. What is all this but winde, which cannot fill us, nor scarcely puffe us up? I shall be saluted as I goe abroad, I shall sit highest at meetings. In having these things, what have I, which a wicked man may not rather have than I? And if it be a good thing, how is it given to evill men?"De Moray’s passage and Falstaff’s catechism use similar language, both reducing honour to “air” and following a catechetical structure. As de Moray’s passage highlights the dangers of pursuing honour for reputational benefits rather than out of virtue, so Shakespeare uses Falstaff to critique the ill-intentioned pursuit of honour in early modern England. Davidson writes, “Who will pursue the ‘shadow’ of reputation rather than the ‘body’ of virtue?” Falstaff seemingly rejects both the “body” and the “shadow,” denouncing both the virtue of honour and the praise that comes with it. However, at the end of the play, Falstaff accepts praise for Hotspur’s death, suggesting that his wisdom may in fact be a facade for pure cowardice.

In the broader context of "Henry IV, Part 1," Falstaff's soliloquy offers a counterpoint to the play's exploration of heroism and honour. His catechism challenges the audience to reconsider the true value of honour and to question the societal pressure to uphold it. Through his catechism, Falstaff juxtaposes both Hotspur’s misguided and vengeful pursuit of honour and Hal’s virtue.

Oldcastle controversy
Henry IV, Part 1 caused controversy on its first performances in 1597, because the comic character now known as "Falstaff" was originally named "Oldcastle" and was based on John Oldcastle, a famous proto-Protestant martyr with powerful living descendants in England.

Although the character is called Falstaff in all surviving texts of the play, there is abundant external and internal evidence that he was originally called Oldcastle. The change of names is mentioned in seventeenth-century works by Richard James ("Epistle to Sir Harry Bourchier", c. 1625) and Thomas Fuller (Worthies of England, 1662). It is also indicated in detail in the early texts of Shakespeare's plays. In the quarto text of Henry IV, Part 2 (1600), one of Falstaff's speech prefixes in Act I, Scene ii is mistakenly left uncorrected, "Old." instead of "Falst." In III, ii, 25-6 of the same play, Falstaff is said to have been a "page to Thomas Mowbray, Duke of Norfolk"—a statement that is true of the historical Oldcastle. In Henry IV, Part 1, I, ii, 42, Prince Hal calls Falstaff "my old lad of the castle". An iambic pentameter verse line in Henry IV, Part 1 is irregular when using the name "Falstaff", but regular with "Oldcastle". Finally, there is the explicit disclaimer at the close of Henry IV, Part 2 that discriminates between the two figures: "for Oldcastle died [a] martyr, and this is not the man" (Epilogue, 29–32).

There is evidence that Falstaff was originally called Oldcastle in The Merry Wives of Windsor as well, the only play (outside of the two parts Henry IV) that contains the character. When the First Folio and quarto texts of that play are compared, it appears that the joke in V.v.85–90 is that Oldcastle/Falstaff incriminates himself by calling out the first letter of his name, "O, O, O!," when his fingertips are singed with candles—which of course works for "Oldcastle" but not "Falstaff." There is also the "castle" reference in IV.v.6 of the same play.

The name change and the Epilogue disclaimer were required, it is generally thought, because of political pressure: the historical Oldcastle was not only a Protestant martyr but a nobleman with powerful living descendants in Elizabethan England. These were the Lords Cobham: William Brooke, 10th Baron Cobham (died 6 March 1597), Warden of the Cinque Ports (1558–97), Knight of the Order of the Garter (1584), and member of the Privy Council (1586–97); his son Henry Brooke, 11th Baron Cobham, Warden of the Cinque Ports and Knight of the Order of the Garter; and Frances Brooke, the 10th Baron's wife, and 11th Baron's mother, a close personal favourite of Queen Elizabeth I.

The elder Lord Cobham is known to have had a strongly negative impact on the lives of Shakespeare and his contemporaries in the theatre. The company of actors formed by Shakespeare (the Lord Chamberlain's Men) in 1594 enjoyed the patronage of Henry Carey, first Lord Hunsdon, then serving as Lord Chamberlain. When Carey died on 22 July 1596, the post of Lord Chamberlain was given to William Brooke, Lord Cobham, who withdrew what official protection they had enjoyed. The players were left to the care of the local officials of the City of London, who had long wanted to drive the companies of actors out of the city. Thomas Nashe, in a contemporary letter, complained that the actors were "piteously persecuted by the Lord Mayor and the aldermen" during this period. The interval did not last; when Cobham died less than a year later, the post of Lord Chamberlain went to Henry Carey's son George, 2nd baron Hunsdon, and the actors regained their previous patronage.

The name was changed to "Falstaff", based on Sir John Fastolf, a historical person with a reputation for cowardice at the Battle of Patay, whom Shakespeare had previously represented in Henry VI, Part 1. Fastolf had died without descendants, making him safe for a playwright's use.

Shortly afterward, a team of playwrights wrote a two-part play entitled Sir John Oldcastle, which presents a heroic dramatisation of Oldcastle's life and was published in 1600.

In 1986, the Oxford Shakespeare edition of Shakespeare's works rendered the character's name as Oldcastle, rather than Falstaff, in Henry IV, Part 1 (although not, confusingly, in Part 2), as a consequence of the editors' aim to present the plays as they would have appeared during their original performances. No other published editions have followed suit.

Adaptations

There have been three BBC television films of Henry IV, Part 1. In the 1960 mini-series An Age of Kings, Tom Fleming starred as Henry IV, with Robert Hardy as Prince Hal, Frank Pettingell as Falstaff, and Sean Connery as Hotspur. The 1979 BBC Television Shakespeare version starred Jon Finch as Henry IV, David Gwillim as Prince Hal, Anthony Quayle as Falstaff, and Tim Pigott-Smith as Hotspur. In the 2012 series The Hollow Crown, Henry IV, Part 1 was directed by Richard Eyre and starred Jeremy Irons as Henry IV, Tom Hiddleston as Prince Hal, Simon Russell Beale as Falstaff and Joe Armstrong as Hotspur.

Orson Welles's Chimes at Midnight (1965) compiles the two Henry IV plays into a single, condensed storyline, while adding a handful of scenes from Henry V and dialogue from Richard II and The Merry Wives of Windsor. The film stars Welles himself as Falstaff, John Gielgud as King Henry, Keith Baxter as Hal, Margaret Rutherford as Mistress Quickly, Jeanne Moreau as Doll Tearsheet and Norman Rodway as Hotspur.

BBC Television's 1995 Henry IV also combines the two Parts into one adaptation. Ronald Pickup played the King; David Calder, Falstaff; Jonathan Firth, Hal; and Rufus Sewell, Hotspur.

Adapted scenes in flashback from Henry IV are included in the 1989 film version of Henry V (1989) with Robbie Coltrane portraying Sir John Falstaff and Kenneth Branagh playing the young Prince Hal.

Gus Van Sant's 1991 film My Own Private Idaho is loosely based on Part 1 of Henry IV, as well as Henry IV, Part 2 and Henry V.

The one-man hip-hop musical Clay is loosely based on Henry IV.

In 2014, playwright and actor Herbert Sigüenza adapted the play to El Henry, a post-apocalyptic Chicano gang version set in "the year 2045, and to a place identified as 'Aztlan City, Aztlan. Formerly San Diego.'"

In 2015, The Michigan Shakespeare Festival produced an award-winning combined production—directed and adapted by Janice L. Blixt—of the two plays focusing on the relationship between Henry IV and Prince Hal.

In 2016, Graham Abbey combined Richard II and Henry IV, Part 1 into a single play called Breath of Kings: Rebellion. Henry IV, Part II and Henry V together became Breath of Kings: Redemption. Both adaptations were staged at the Stratford Festival in Stratford, Ontario. Abbey, in the productions, played Henry IV (Bolingbroke).

The 2016 app Cycle of Kings features the entire play Henry IV, Part 1 in interactive form, as well as a modern English translation.

In 2019, Netflix released the film The King, an adaptation of the play directed by David Michôd and starring Timothée Chalamet, Robert Pattinson and Joel Edgerton.

Legacy
The famous Sherlock Holmes catchphrase "The game is afoot" is taken from Act I, Scene 3, line 615, where the Earl of Northumberland says: "Before the game is afoot, thou still let'st slip."

The phrase was also later used by Shakespeare in Henry V, Act III, Scene 1, by the title character:
 * "I see you stand like greyhounds in the slips,
 * Straining upon the start. The game's afoot:
 * Follow your spirit, and upon this charge
 * Cry 'God for Harry, England, and Saint George!'"

title: Henry IV, Part 1


text:
Quod

Quod may refer to:

 * The Quod, a contemporary nickname for the English Quota System during the Napoleonic Wars
 * a quod, the main playing item in the fictional sport of Quodpot in the Harry Potter universe
 * Quod (board game), an abstract strategy game

The word is also common in several Latin phrases used in different (English) contexts:

 * per quod
 * ad quod damnum
 * nemo dat quod non habet
 * quod erat demonstrandum (often abbreviated "Q.E.D.")

title: Quod


text:
Talk:Nika riots

Untitled
An event in this article is a January 11 selected anniversary

Top
The usage "the most violent Constantinople had ever seen" is not standard English. The former phrase, "the most violence [sic] ...", is. Jmacwiki (talk) 05:28, 21 March 2008 (UTC)

Was Narses actually involved in this? My Byzantine history text book (by Warren Treadgold) doesn't mention Narses at all, and says it was Belisarius and Mundus (a commander of some sort under Belisarius, who is not mentioned anywhere else). Mundus apparently comes from Procopius.

 * According to Bury at least, Narses was involved in the creation of chaos in the hippodrome before the two generals Mundus and Belisarius struck. I have an additional textbook, by Robert Browning I think, that claims that Narses sent out agents in the crowd to start cheering for Justinian. In any case, Narses was at the time the commander of the Emperor's eunuch bodyguard, so it's probable that he played a prominent role. Bror Martin

 * Narses was involved in the riots, according to Norwich as well.Zambetis 14:30, 19 June 2007 (UTC)

 * Ditto Diehl [Theodora, Empress of Byzantium, 1972]. Narses was himself a eunuch (I have no idea about the bodyguards) and Theodora got him appointed a general, sometimes replacing Belisarius in later campaigns. Narses is also reported to have paid Blue leaders to support Justinian and leave the Hippodrome. Jmacwiki (talk) 05:06, 21 March 2008 (UTC)

 * BTW, Mundus seems to have been commander of a few thousand "barbarians", passing through the city at the time. Jmacwiki (talk) 05:28, 21 March 2008 (UTC)

the Chariot "fans"
Calling the "Greens", "Blues", "Reds" & "Whites" "sports fans" is more than a poor choice of words. They were organized factions, with a long history under the Roman Empire. Every major city had chapters of these factions, where they rampaged as unchecked mobs: for example, about the year 492 the Greens of Antioch burned down the synagogue in Antioch.

Even the dreaded British football ruffians had nothing on these lot. -- llywrch 04:02, 11 Jan 2005 (UTC)

 * Well, they are "fans" in the most literal sense of "fanatics", I guess. But what should we use, factions? That doesn't seem to describe it fully either..."street gangs"? But more organized? Adam Bishop 06:33, 11 Jan 2005 (UTC)

 * In the book or two I've read about them, I recall the word "circus faction" being used to describe them as a group, but the author would then call them simply by their color -- "Greens", "Blues", "Reds" & "Whites". Chariot racing does a fair job of explaining these social groups.

 * Sadly, our ancient sources failed to record much about them. They considered these cliques or factions all one variant or another of an otherwise undifferentiated mob, & alluded to these lower-class groups with as few words as possible. -- llywrch 23:03, 11 Jan 2005 (UTC)

 * "Faction" seems to be as close as we can come with a common modern word. By the time of the Nika riots, only the Greens & Blues were still very active in Constantinople.  They had strong class (and maybe religious sect) ties, but not a political platform or ideology.Jmacwiki (talk) 05:06, 21 March 2008 (UTC)

Just why is this popular theme for science fiction?
The article fails to explain why such a relatively remote and not obviously all that remarkable event is an inspiration for numerous science fiction writers. If anybody knows this, please add it. -- 84.57.21.99 04:36, 11 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * I doubt anybody really knows, and it's not our place to invent theories anyway - we'd have to find a scholarly article on the subject and quote from it. Talk page speculation is OK though; my theory is that it is one of the few events of ancient history that seems anachronistic, with its modern-day-like connection to sports obsession, and yet very bloody in the ancient way. So I think writers find it intriguing, and perhaps see it as a little window into the human psyche. Of course, we could just send the authors email and ask. :-) Stan 05:25, 11 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Well, this event by itself is not what inspired those writers.The reign of Justinian (as the last effort by the Roman empire to reclaim it's western provinces) and Belisarius(as one of the greatest military leaders) is their inspiration.And since this was one of the most important events of their time it's only natural that they would mention it.Padem 13:06, 11 January 2006 (UTC)

 * Agreed. (Also, with Procopius so closely connected with Belisarius himself, our principle historian for Justinian's reign would give it additional weight.)  Theodora's role is also remarkable here.  Speculation: The empire was able to reassert itself so widely because it had at least one extraordinary and entirely loyal general, two strong co-emperors, and a 40-year reign.  A strikingly unusual confluence. Jmacwiki (talk) 05:06, 21 March 2008 (UTC)

Name
Where does the name Nika come from? olivier 07:40, Jan 11, 2005 (UTC)

It is not a name actually but a slogan. The rebells supposedly shouted "Nika", roughly translated as "victory". According to a modern Greek dictionary: the word comes from the Imperative mood of the verb Niko (Νικώ). The verb is usually translated in English as "overcome, overwhelm, subdue". The name of the goddess Nike also derives from the same verb. User: Dimadick

 * Hi I am Greek. "Níka" (Νίκα) indeed is in the imperative mood the second singular of the verb "Nikò" (Νικώ) which means freely in English "you (go and) win" (as an order). The same is valid for both Byzantine and Anchient Greek.

Therefore, I suggest the change of this article with the correct translation. More specifically, where it says: ...the chants had changed from "Blue" or "Green" to "Nika" (Greek word for "Victory" or "Conquer") and the crowds broke out and...

it must be changed to:

...the chants had changed from "Blue" or "Green" to "Nika" (Greek word ordering to "Win" or "Conquer") and the crowds broke out and... NikoSilver 17:24, 11 January 2006 (UTC)

 * Sounds fine to me, no problems with that suggestion.--cjllw | TALK  21:51, 11 January 2006 (UTC)

 * I think "(Greek word ordering to "Win" or "Conquer")" would be confusing to English-speaking readers. "word ordering" would likely be read as "which word comes first" which doesn't make sense. I like the current wording better, even if it isn't 100% technically correct. KarlBunker 13:00, 12 January 2006 (UTC)

 * What about something like, ..(exhortation in Greek to "win", "conquer", or "achieve victory") ?--cjllw |  TALK  23:33, 12 January 2006 (UTC)

 * I already changed it. People seem to forget that the article itself has an edit button too... Adam Bishop 01:12, 13 January 2006 (UTC)

 * That's as may be, although I also have just now made an amendment to it, without however first checking the history or registering that you'd made that earlier change, Adam. If you want to change it back, I don't really mind the wording.--cjllw | TALK  02:50, 13 January 2006 (UTC)

 * No problem...but it's actually just an imperative, rather than an exhortation, isn't it? I mean, I guess those are generally the same thing, but it is grammatically imperative. Adam Bishop 02:57, 13 January 2006 (UTC)

 * I believe you are right, but I dunno how familiar or otherwise the casual reader may be with grammatical terminology - maybe we were better off with the original! :-) --cjllw | TALK  04:14, 13 January 2006 (UTC)

 * Although exhortation may be too technical, the recent edit covers my point fine. -NikoSilver 19:25, 29 January 2006 (UTC)

table of contents
I added headings to this article, but for some reason (at least at the moment and on my browser) no table of contents is being generated. This is supposed to happen automatically when you add headings, and I've seen it work before. Couldn't find anything that explained this in WK's help pages. Weird

 * You need four headings to make a table of contents appear. Adam Bishop 00:38, 12 January 2006 (UTC)

Aha! thanks for the info! KarlBunker 12:50, 12 January 2006 (UTC)

Cause
People, the cause of the riots was more than taxes. It was to do with the Iconclasm. I think. Correct me if I'm wrong. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 68.6.230.65 (talk • contribs).

There were many reasons, as I recall ( I wrote my IB extended essay about the riots), being for example the taxes that forced a lot of poor farmers to move to Constantinople, creating much civil unrest. Iconoclasm cannot be blamed as that controversy was in the 8th century. Persecution of monophysites can be consaidered a factor that made the nobility prone to support the masses in their rebellion, but can not really be called a cause IMO, as the masses were mostly not monophysites (correct me if I'm wrong). I do also recall (sorry, I don't have my essay for the moment) that Justinian did tamper with the system of subventioning bread for the poor, which probably made people angry. Also I think it's probable that Justinian's arrogant way of ruling the empire is partly to be blamed, he seems to have had little sympathy for the downtrodden.BrorMartin 09:50, 20 November 2006 (UTC)

 * This overlaps with Diehl's explanations, too: Little sympathy by Justinian, high taxes, as well as Theodora's strongly biased and sometimes very unjust support for the Blues (virtually never overruled or even tempered by Justinian). Perhaps some other contributors as well. Jmacwiki (talk) 05:06, 21 March 2008 (UTC)

Rule of law
Re: this section recently added and moved here:
 * The rebellion escalated to the point that it put "civilization on the edge". Military historian William Weir, who authored Battles 50 that Changed the world ranked the Nika rebellion of 532 AD, as the second most significant conflict that influenced the course of history. According to Weir, what was at stake was "the rule of law". Justinian could commence his greatest accomplishment: the codification of the law. Weir also states, "the rule of law, not the changing whims of a succession of tyrants, became established in Western civilization.

What Weir is saying here is, if Justinian had lost the battle, he would have never become emperor, and thus the Justinian Code would have never come into being - the Justinian Code being very important later in the Middle Ages in transmitting Roman laws into the modern west. However, this is pure speculation on Weir's part, as who is to say the next emperor would not have codified Roman Law under a different name (it wasn't Justinian himself who did it but talented people working for him that could just as easily worked for the next emperor). I'm not sure Weir's emphasis is justified except in the context of his book in trying to find meaning and order for 50 battles. -- Stbalbach 14:57, 12 April 2007 (UTC)

 * I must say I haven't read the book, but to me it looks very much like a rhetoric device to justify including the Nika riot in a list of maybe more spectacular battles. Whatever the case, I agree that that contention has no place here. It is dependent on a method called counterfactual history, which is a branch of history as entertaining as it is controversial. Iblardi 18:51, 12 April 2007 (UTC)

 * Careful: Justinian would certainly have been the emperor after Justin -- he already WAS the emperor. But his reign might have ended in 7 years instead of 40.  FWIW, I greatly doubt that a counterfactual successor emperor (Hypatius, maybe?) would have had the same influence on the West, even if he promulgated the same code.  Why?  No Theodora, no Belisarius.  So no retaking of Italy (among other things) to introduce the legal code directly into Western Europe. (As for counterfactual history: Wouldn't it be silly to learn nothing from history, simply on the grounds that we can't know with certainty how the alternatives would have developed?  That argument would apply as much to geology and paleontology, two historical but hard sciences -- and would be as invalid.) Jmacwiki (talk) 05:06, 21 March 2008 (UTC)

 * One other point: The Nika riots are unusually well documented. The entire exchange between rioters, Justinian's herald, and Justinian himself is recorded, as well as conversations from the inner circle.  And, of course, the current Hagia Sophia is a reminder of the riot's fire that destroyed so much of the city. Conceivably, there were equally impressive, destructive, and pivotal riots that left no records; but that does not make Nika's inclusion on Weir's (or anybody else's) list arbitrary. Jmacwiki (talk) 05:34, 21 March 2008 (UTC)

I read that the Nika Riots were a cause of religious tension apart from the high taxes and political unrest. Was race a factor in the violence between these factions? —Preceding unsigned comment added by IamGriffin530 (talk • contribs) 19:46, 16 September 2010 (UTC)

redirecting
if people is searching for "Nika revolt" can someone make it so that it directs to the article? thanks

Names of the Demes
What were the Greek names of the factions? We call them "blues" and "greens", but as far as I know Koine greek did not have a generic name for the colour "blue". So what were the Greek words? Anyone? Cheers! KC Gustafson (talk) 20:40, 30 December 2011 (UTC)

 * The names were Βένετοι και Πράσινοι for blues and greens respectively — Preceding unsigned comment added by 5telios (talk • contribs) 08:58, 21 November 2012 (UTC)

Image description
The description of the image seems to be mislabeled. AbeBehr (talk) 19:51, 2 October 2021 (UTC)

Name drops
In the passage "It is the view of Mischa Meir that Justinian may have intentionally provoked the riots so that his political rivals within the senate, like Hypatius may reveal themselves to him. This is however a view that was considered radical and was rejected by Pfeilschifter" there ought to be an explanation of who these people are. FatherThornside (talk) 14:36, 18 January 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Nika riots


text:
Mohammed V International Airport

Mohammed V International Airport is an international airport serving Casablanca, Morocco. Located in Nouaceur Province, it is operated by ONDA (National Airports Office).

With about 7.6 million passengers passing through the airport in 2022, it was the busiest airport in Morocco and in the top 10 of busiest airports in Africa. Passenger traffic in 2022 had recovered to 74% of the total pre-pandemic numbers of 2019. The airport serves as hub for Royal Air Maroc, Royal Air Maroc Express and Air Arabia Maroc. It is named after King Mohammed V of Morocco, who led the country's successful push for independence from French and Spanish colonial rule.

1940s
The Casablanca Mohammed V Airport was originally built by the United States in early 1943 following Operation Torch in World War II. It was named Berrechid Airfield and it served as an auxiliary airfield for Casablanca's Anfa Airport. The airfield handled diverse military traffic as a stopover en route to Port Lyautey Airfield, and to Marrakech Airport on the North African Cairo-Dakar route. In addition, it was the terminus of Mid-Atlantic route transatlantic flights via the Azores to Nova Scotia and airfields on the East Coast of the United States.

In addition to its transportation role, the airfield supported the North African Campaign with the Twelfth Air Force 68th Reconnaissance Group operating photo-reconnaissance versions of the P-38 Lightning and P-51 Mustang. Part of the 68th first arrived at Angads Airport in Oujda in November 1942 and moved to Berrechid in March 1943 upon its completion. It flew both antisubmarine missions over the Atlantic and photo-reconnaissance combat missions over German-held territory until early September when it moved east to Massicault Airfield in Tunisia. With the end of the war in 1945, the airfield was handed over to the civil government.

1950s
During the Cold War in the early and middle 1950s, the airfield was reopened as Nouasseur Air Base and was used as a United States Air Force Strategic Air Command staging area for B-47 Stratojet bombers pointed at the Soviet Union. These operations later moved to Ben Guerir Air Base.

With the destabilisation of French government in Morocco, and Moroccan independence in 1956, the government of Mohammed V wanted the US Air Force to pull its bases out of Morocco, insisting on such action after American intervention in Lebanon in 1958. The United States agreed to leave in December 1959, and was fully out of Morocco by 1963. The U.S. felt that, with the long range of the B-52 and completion of Spanish bases in 1959, the Moroccan bases were no longer important.

2020s
In 2022, Mohammed V Airport was ranked the 4th busiest airport in Africa.

Passenger
The following airlines operate regular scheduled and charter flights at Casablanca Mohammed V International Airport:

Rail
The Al Bidaoui train service, operated by ONCF from 04:00 to 23:00, is available every hour and connects the airport to Casablanca's two main railway stations, Casa-Port Railway Terminal and Casa-Voyageurs Railway Station.

Car

 * From Casablanca main access is by A3 Motorway;
 * From Rabat by A1 Motorway through Tit Mellil and Road N9;
 * From Beni Mellal by A4 Motorway;
 * From Marrakech by A3 Motorway exit km 225;
 * From El Jadida by A1 Motorway and A3 Motorway.

Incidents and accidents

 * On 1 April 1970, a Royal Air Maroc Sud Aviation SE-210 Caravelle crashed on approach to Casablanca Mohammed V airport when it lost control at a height of about 500 feet. The fuselage broke in two. Sixty-one of the eighty-two passengers and crew were killed.

title: Mohammed V International Airport


text:
Gum arabic

Gum arabic (gum acacia, gum sudani, Senegal gum and by other names) is a natural gum originally consisting of the hardened sap of two species of the Acacia tree, Senegalia senegal and Vachellia seyal. However, the term "gum arabic" does not actually indicate a particular botanical source. The gum is harvested commercially from wild trees, mostly in Sudan (about 70% of the global supply) and throughout the Sahel, from Senegal to Somalia. The name "gum Arabic" (al-samgh al-'arabi) was used in the Middle East at least as early as the 9th century. Gum arabic first found its way to Europe via Arabic ports, and so retained its name.

Gum arabic is a complex mixture of glycoproteins and polysaccharides, predominantly polymers of arabinose and galactose. It is soluble in water, edible, and used primarily in the food industry and soft-drink industry as a stabilizer, with E number E414 (I414 in the US). Gum arabic is a key ingredient in traditional lithography and is used in printing, paints, glues, cosmetics, and various industrial applications, including viscosity control in inks and in textile industries, though less expensive materials compete with it for many of these roles.

Definition
Gum arabic was defined by the 31st Codex Committee for Food Additives, held at The Hague from 19 to 23 March 1999, as the dried exudate from the trunks and branches of Acacia senegal or Vachellia (Acacia) seyal in the family Fabaceae (Leguminosae). A 2017 safety re-evaluation by the Panel on Food Additives and Nutrient Sources of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) said that although the above definition holds true for most internationally traded samples, the term "gum arabic" does not indicate a particular botanical source; in a few cases, so‐called "gum arabic" may not even have been collected from Acacia (in the broad sense) species, instead coming from e.g. Combretum or Albizia.

Health benefits
Gum arabic is a rich source of dietary fibers and in addition to its widespread use in food and pharmaceutical industries as a safe thickener, emulsifier, and stabilizer, it also possesses a broad range of health benefits that have been evidently proved through several in vitro and in vivo studies. Gum arabic is not degraded in the stomach, but fermented in the large intestine into a number of short chain fatty acids. It is regarded as a prebiotic that enhances the growth and proliferation of the beneficial intestinal microbiota and therefore its intake is associated with many useful health effects. These health benefits include:
 * Improved absorption of calcium from the gastrointestinal tract
 * Anti-diabetic
 * Anti-obesity (gum arabic lowers the body mass index and body fat percentage)
 * Lipid lowering potential (gum arabic decreases total cholesterol, LDL, and triglyceride)
 * Antioxidant activities
 * Kidney and liver support
 * Immune function via modulating the release of some inflammatory mediators
 * Prebiotic improving the intestinal barrier function, preventing colon cancer, and alleviating symptoms of irritable bowel diseases
 * In rats, a protective effect on the intestine against the adverse actions of the NSAID drug meloxicam

Uses
Gum arabic's mixture of polysaccharides and glycoproteins gives it the properties of a glue and binder that is edible by humans. Other substances have replaced it where toxicity is not an issue, as the proportions of the various chemicals in gum arabic vary widely and make it unpredictable. It remains an important ingredient in soft drink syrup and "hard" gummy candies such as gumdrops, marshmallows, and M&M's chocolate candies. For artists, it is the traditional binder in watercolor paint and in photography for gum printing, and it is used as a binder in pyrotechnic compositions. Pharmaceutical drugs and cosmetics also use the gum as a binder, emulsifier, and suspending agent or viscosity-increasing agent. Wine makers have used gum arabic as a wine fining agent.

It is an important ingredient in shoe polish, and can be used in making homemade incense cones. It is also used as a lickable adhesive, for example on postage stamps, envelopes, and cigarette papers. Lithographic printers employ it to keep the non-image areas of the plate receptive to water. This treatment also helps to stop oxidation of aluminium printing plates in the interval between processing of the plate and its use on a printing press.

Food
Gum arabic is used in the food industry as a stabiliser, emulsifying agent, and thickening agent in icing, fillings, soft candy, chewing gum, and other confectionery, and to bind the sweeteners and flavourings in soft drinks. A solution of sugar and gum arabic in water, gomme syrup, is sometimes used in cocktails to prevent the sugar from crystallising and provide a smooth texture.

Gum arabic is a complex polysaccharide and soluble dietary fibre that is generally recognized as safe for human consumption. An indication of harmless flatulence occurs in some people taking large doses of 30 g (1 oz) or more per day. It is not degraded in the intestine, but fermented in the colon under the influence of microorganisms; it is a prebiotic (as distinct from a probiotic). No regulatory or scientific consensus has been reached about its caloric value; an upper limit of 2 kcal/g was set for rats, but this is not valid for humans. The US FDA initially set a value of 4 kcal/g for food labelling, but in Europe no value was assigned for soluble dietary fibre. A 1998 review concluded that "based on present scientific knowledge, only an arbitrary value can be used for regulatory purposes". In 2008, the FDA sent a letter of no objection in response to an application to reduce the rated caloric value of gum arabic to 1.7 kcal/g.

Painting and art

Gum arabic is used as a binder for watercolor painting because it dissolves easily in water. Pigment of any color is suspended within the acacia gum in varying amounts, resulting in watercolor paint. Water acts as a vehicle or a diluent to thin the watercolor paint and helps to transfer the paint to a surface such as paper. When all moisture evaporates, the acacia gum typically does not bind the pigment to the paper surface, but is totally absorbed by deeper layers.

If little water is used, after evaporation, the acacia gum functions as a true binder in a paint film, increasing luminosity and helping prevent the colors from lightening. Gum arabic allows more subtle control over washes, because it facilitates the dispersion of the pigment particles. In addition, acacia gum slows evaporation of water, giving slightly longer working time.

The addition of a little gum arabic to watercolor pigment and water allows for easier lifting of pigment from paper, thus can be a useful tool when lifting out color when painting in watercolor.

Ceramics
Gum arabic has a long history as additives to ceramic glazes. It acts as a binder, helping the glaze adhere to the clay before it is fired, thereby minimising damage by handling during the manufacture of the piece. As a secondary effect, it also acts as a deflocculant, increasing the fluidity of the glaze mixture, but also making it more likely to sediment out into a hard cake if not used for a while.

The gum is normally made up into a solution in hot water (typically 10–25 g/L; ¼ to ½ oz per pint), and then added to the glaze solution after any ball milling in concentrations from 0.02% to 3.0% of gum arabic to the dry weight of the glaze. On firing, the gum burns out at a low temperature, leaving no residues in the glaze. More recently, particularly in commercial manufacturing, gum arabic is often replaced by more refined and consistent alternatives, such as carboxymethyl cellulose.

Photography
The historical photography process of gum bichromate photography uses gum arabic mixed with ammonium or potassium dichromate and pigment to create a coloured photographic emulsion that becomes relatively insoluble in water upon exposure to ultraviolet light. In the final print, the acacia gum permanently binds the pigments onto the paper.

Printmaking
Gum arabic is also used to protect and etch an image in lithographic processes, both from traditional stones and aluminum plates. In lithography, gum by itself may be used to etch very light tones, such as those made with a number-five crayon. Phosphoric, nitric, or tannic acid is added in varying concentrations to the acacia gum to etch the darker tones up to dark blacks. The etching process creates a gum adsorb layer within the matrix that attracts water, ensuring that the oil-based ink does not stick to those areas. Gum is also essential to what is sometimes called paper lithography, printing from an image created by a laser printer or photocopier.

Pyrotechnics
Gum arabic is also used as a water-soluble binder in fireworks composition.

Composition
Arabinogalactan is a biopolymer consisting of arabinose and galactose monosaccharides. It is a major component of many plant gums, including gum arabic. 8-5' Noncyclic diferulic acid has been identified as covalently linked to carbohydrate moieties of the arabinogalactan-protein fraction.

Production

While gum arabic has been harvested in Arabia and West Asia since antiquity, sub-Saharan acacia gum has a long history as a prized export. The gum exported came from the band of acacia trees that once covered much of the Sahel region, the southern littoral of the Sahara Desert that runs from the Atlantic Ocean to the Red Sea. Today, the main populations of gum-producing Acacia species are found in Mauritania, Senegal, Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, Nigeria, Chad, Cameroon, Sudan, Eritrea, Somalia, Ethiopia, Kenya, and Tanzania. Acacia is tapped for gum by stripping bits off the bark, from which gum then exudes. Traditionally harvested by seminomadic desert pastoralists in the course of their transhumance cycle, acacia gum remains a main export of several African nations, including Mauritania, Niger, Chad, and Sudan. Total world gum arabic exports were estimated in 2019 at 160,000 tonnes, having recovered from 1987 to 1989 and 2003–2005 crises caused by the destruction of trees by the desert locust.

West Africa
In 1445, Prince Henry the Navigator set up a trading post on Arguin Island (off the coast of modern Mauritania), which acquired acacia gum and slaves for Portugal. With the merger of the Portuguese and Spanish crowns in 1580, the Spaniards became the dominant influence along the coast. In 1638, however, they were replaced by the Dutch, who were the first to begin exploiting the acacia gum trade. Produced by the acacia trees of Trarza and Brakna, this acacia gum was considered superior to that previously obtained in Arabia. By 1678, the French had driven out the Dutch and established a permanent settlement at Saint Louis at the mouth of the Senegal River. Gum Arabic came to play an essential role in textile printing and therefore in pre-industrial economies of France, Great Britain and other European countries. Throughout the 18th century, their competition over the commodity was so fierce, that some have referred to it as the gum wars.

For much of the 18th and 19th centuries, gum arabic was the major export from French and British trading colonies in modern Senegal and Mauritania. West Africa had become the sole supplier of world acacia gum by the 18th century, and its export at the French colony of Saint-Louis doubled in the decade of 1830 alone. A threat to bypass Saint-Louis and taxes by sending gum to the British traders at Portendick, eventually brought the Emirate of Trarza into direct conflict with the French. In the 1820s, the French launched the Franco-Trarzan War of 1825. The new emir, Muhammad al Habib, had signed an agreement with the Waalo Kingdom, directly to the south of the river. In return for an end to raids in Waalo territory, the emir took the heiress of Waalo as a bride. The prospect that Trarza might inherit control of both banks of the Senegal struck at the security of French traders, and the French responded by sending a large expeditionary force that crushed Muhammad's army. The war incited the French to expand to the north of the Senegal River for the first time, heralding French direct involvement in the interior of West Africa. Africa continued to export gum arabic in large quantities—from the Sahel areas of French West Africa (modern Senegal, Mauritania, Mali, Burkina Faso, and Niger) and French Equatorial Africa (modern Chad) as well as British-administered Sudan, until these nations gained their independence in 1959–61.

Sudan
Since the 1950s, the global supply of gum arabic has been dominated by Sudan. In the early 2020s, about 70% of the global supply has been sourced from Sudan, with approximately 5 million Sudanese people (more than 10 percent of a country's population) being directly or indirectly dependent on gum arabic for their livelihoods. After market reforms in 2019, official figures showed that Sudan's exports of gum arabic were at about 60,000 tonnes in 2022, but exact numbers are difficult to ascertain because some production is in regions that are hard to access. Before the reforms, the production of gum arabic was heavily dominated by the Sudanese government and in some periods there were attempts of using its importance to the global market as a leverage against other countries. Since the 2023 Sudan conflict, the export of gum arabic has been interrupted, causing a crash in its price in Sudan because of a reduced ability to export the product, whereas international companies that rely on it are attempting to diversify the supply chain of gum arabic and find alternative ingredients that can be used as a replacement.

Pharmacology
Gum arabic slows the rate of absorption of some drugs, including amoxicillin, from the gut.

Symbolic value
In the works of English playwright William Shakespeare, Dutch poet Jacob Cats and other European poets of the 13th to 17th centuries, gum arabic represented the "noble Orient". In the Sahel, it is a symbol of the purity of youth.

title: Gum arabic


text:
LeTourneau University

LeTourneau University (abbreviated LETU) is a private, interdenominational evangelical Christian university in Longview, Texas. Founded as LeTourneau Technical Institute in February 1946 by R. G. LeTourneau with his wife, Evelyn, the school initially educated veterans returning from World War II. Total annual enrollment is nearly 3,000.

History

R. G. LeTourneau founded LeTourneau Technical Institute in February 1946 with a mission to shape "Christian leaders in every workplace". The site was the recently abandoned Harmon General Hospital, a World War II hospital that specialized in treating servicemen with neurological and dermatological issues. LeTourneau bought the site from the United States government with the help of Longview News-Journal publisher Carl Estes and other Longview community leaders for one dollar with the conditions that for the next decade, the U.S. government could reclaim the 156 acres (631,000 m2) and 220 buildings in the event of an emergency and no new construction or demolition could occur.

The State of Texas chartered the school on February 20, 1946, and classes were first held on April 1. At that point, enrollment at LeTourneau was exclusively male and predominantly veterans. For the first two years, LeTourneau provided an academy section to allow the completion of the junior and senior years of high school as well as a college section that offered two-year trade skill programs and a four-year technology program. Students attended classes on alternating days; while one half of the students were in class, the other half worked at R. G. LeTourneau's nearby LeTourneau Incorporated manufacturing plant (now part of Cameron International), thus satisfying the laboratory requirements of all of the industrial courses.

From 1946 to 1961, LeTourneau Technical Institute and LeTourneau, Inc. were one unified company under R. G. LeTourneau. In 1961, LeTourneau Technical Institute underwent a transformation into the co-educational LeTourneau College and began to offer bachelor's degrees in engineering, technology, and a limited number of arts and sciences. At this point, the college began to transition from the traditional wooden barracks buildings. The Tyler Hall Dormitory for men was erected in 1962, the Margaret Estes Library in 1963 and the Hollingsworth Science Hall in 1965.

The college continued to grow under the leadership of Allen C. Tyler in 1961 and 1962 and Richard H. LeTourneau (eldest son of R. G. and Evelyn) from 1962 to 1968. Harry T. Hardwick's presidency from 1968 to 1975 saw to the construction of the R. G. LeTourneau Memorial Student Center and the Longview Citizens Resource Center along with spearheading LeTourneau's accreditation by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools. Richard LeTourneau again assumed the presidency from 1975 to 1985, during which time he oversaw the accreditation of the school's mechanical and electrical engineering programs by the Engineer's Council for Professional Development (now the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology) and supervised nine major construction projects.

LeTourneau College became LeTourneau University in 1989 under the leadership of President Alvin O. Austin, who served until 2007. Austin oversaw the development of an MBA program and the expansion of programs in business and education into educational centers in Houston, Dallas, Tyler, Austin and Bedford. Austin also oversaw the removal of all wooden barracks from the Longview campus except the historic landmark known as Speer Chapel, which is the only remaining WWII-era structure and is a popular place for weddings and ceremonies. Under Austin's leadership, the university's main campus underwent considerable improvements including the construction of the university mall and Belcher Bell Tower, the Solheim Recreation and Activity Center, the Glaske Engineering Center, seven new residence halls, and the S.E. Belcher Jr. Chapel and Performance Center, a 2,011-seat auditorium that opened in spring 2007.

In the spring of 2006, Austin announced that he would retire from his position as university president in June 2007 and assume the newly created role of university chancellor. On March 8, 2007, Dale A. Lunsford was announced as the new president of LeTourneau University. He assumed the office on July 1, 2007. Prior to accepting the job as university president, Lunsford served as the vice president of student affairs and external relations at the University of Texas at Tyler.

The school was in the spotlight in May 2015 when Outsports reported it "updated its student-athlete handbook to ban gay athletes from dating" and "athletes from showing support for gay marriage".

Academics
Many of the university's undergraduate degrees are focused on engineering, aeronautics, computer science, business, and education. A smaller liberal arts program provides educational balance to the largely technical concentrations.

In June 2023 the university was placed on Warning status by its educational accreditor, the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools, after the accreditor's board found the school not hiring sufficient full-time faculty. The warning status was removed in June 2024.

Athletics
The LeTourneau YellowJackets compete in nine women's sports and eight men's sports in NCAA Division III athletics in the American Southwest Conference. These sports include men's and women's soccer, basketball, golf, tennis, cross country, indoor and outdoor track and field, men's baseball, women's softball, and women's volleyball. The school's mascot is "Buzz" the yellow jacket and the colors are royal blue and gold. The baseball team was the 2014 American Southwest Conference Champions. The men's basketball team won more games than any ASC School from 2016 to 2020 averaging 22 wins a season, two ASC East Championships and the school's only NCAA Team Tournament win. They also won the 2020 American Southwest Conference Tournament. LeTourneau also has a club Men's Rugby team which competes in the Lone Star conference of the Texas Rugby Union, a division of USA Rugby.

Fine arts and music
Although it does not offer a music major, LeTourneau University includes fine arts opportunities for its students.

The university choir, the LeTourneau Singers, performs regularly in chapel and presents an annual free Masterworks concert of classical works. The Longview Civic Chorus is composed of regional adults and high school singers.

The LeTourneau Community Orchestra is a symphonic ensemble made up of LeTourneau students, professors, and Longview community members. It includes over 130 musicians and its own internal chorus. The Yellowjacket Jazz Band comprised of about 20 LeTourneau students, professors, and Longview community members.

Campus

Longview, the seat of Gregg County, is located about a two-hour drive east of Dallas and about a one-hour drive west from Shreveport, Louisiana. The main campus itself is located on the south side of Longview, two miles north of Interstate 20 (exit 595B). Most of LeTourneau University's 1,400 traditional students live on campus; the school requires all unmarried students under the age of 22 (who are not living with parents or relatives during the school year) to live in residence halls and on-campus apartments or to apply for a special waiver to live off-campus. While Longview is home to a variety of neighborhoods, both in age and economic circumstance, LeTourneau is located in the middle of the highest poverty (26.1% below poverty line based on 2000 census) and lowest income (median of $26,308 as of 2000 census) compared to 10 surrounding ZIP codes.

Student life

In addition to official university sports, intramural competitions in soccer, football, volleyball, ultimate and basketball are also highly valued and widely popular. Somewhat unusual to LeTourneau is the extensive amount of student pride and residence hall unity known as "floor pride". Many floors in the residence halls have their own student-created name, logo, mascot, colors, T-shirt, etc.; these floors form teams that compete in intramural events.

Floor system
LeTourneau has a housing system similar to the House System with the use of numerous (roughly 30) individual floor assignments as opposed to four houses (which is closer to the House System at Caltech). Housing is generally gender-segregated by building. In years where housing space is limited, one or two residence halls will have housing that is gender-segregated by floor. However, access is limited to each of these floors via Prox cards, which allow only residents into their respective floor areas. Freshmen are placed into floors based upon both building preference and the order in which applications and deposits are received. New students can request a particular floor through their application process, though some are placed at the discretion of Residence Life. Many students remain on the same floor until they graduate from the university, only leaving to move off campus or to on-campus apartments rather than to join another floor.

Greek life
LeTourneau has no traditional Greek system. There are three independent Greek Men's "Societies" and one independent Greek Women's "Society". Of those, the Societies Alpha Omega (ΑΩ), Kappa Zeta Chi (ΚΖΧ), and Lambda Alpha Sigma (ΛΑΣ) have charters from the university and have residence facilities on campus. The Greek Society Residences of ΑΩ, ΚΖΧ, and LAS are unique in that they are owned by the university but were built with donations from alumni and friends. The Greek Women's "Society" is Lambda Omega Chi (ΛΩΧ) and has a charter with the university but does not currently have a residential facility on campus. None of LeTourneau's Societies are part of national Greek organizations. Two previous societies, Tau Kappa Delta (ΤΚΔ) and Delta Sigma Psi (ΔΣΨ) lost their charters from the university in the 1990s.

Other student activities
LeTourneau has a variety of student-led foundations and a representative body of elected students known as the Student Senate (senate seats are allocated by residence hall or living area). A portion of each student's tuition and fees is allocated to Student Senate each year to distribute to spring break mission trips, campus activities, on-campus clubs, and other projects.

The Yellowjacket Activities Council (YAC), a university-sanctioned and funded student events committee, is responsible for planning and supervising several recreational "student life" activities each semester. Several student YAC Coordinators are responsible for different sections of planning and implementation of concerts, coffeehouse parties, midnight festivals, athletic competitions, off-campus events, movie nights, paintball, and Valentine parties. These are a few among the many activities organized by YAC.

Homecoming at LeTourneau, while once being hosted in the fall with a talent and variety show along with other activities for returning alumni, is now hosted in the spring. A Starlight Soiree is held, as well as athletic events, including the annual intersociety rope pull competition, and Hootenanny.

The traditional Hootenanny variety show brings together the majority of the student body, faculty, staff, alumni, and members of the community for a dose of original comedy, music, and talent. Most students at LETU attend the event. The event is put on by individuals or groups of students who have auditioned in the weeks leading up to the show. 2005 marked the 40th anniversary of the Hootenanny production. Traditionally, members of the school faculty and administration have also participated at the students' request, often in satirical roles. "Hootenuity 2007" marked the end of using the Belcher Gym as the performance venue, with the new S. E. Belcher Chapel and Performance center slated as the new home for "O Hootenanny, Where Art Thou?" in the 2007–2008 school year. Because of this transition, the well-used rotating stage was destroyed and a two-story stage built to make use of the new facility. The rotating stage was a product of a senior design project in the 1970s.

title: LeTourneau University


text:
Confidence, West Virginia

Confidence is an unincorporated community in Putnam County West Virginia, United States, located on WV 34. The community is served by Confidence Elementary School. Confidence is a part of the Huntington-Ashland Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA). As of the 2010 census, the MSA had a population of 287,702. New definitions from February 28, 2013 placed the population at 363,000.

title: Confidence, West Virginia


text:
Hometown, West Virginia

Hometown is a census-designated place (CDP) located along the Kanawha River on West Virginia Route 62 in Putnam County, West Virginia, United States. As of the 2010 census, its population was 668. Hometown has six streets that are intersected by one street. There is an elementary school. The red house on the left in the photo was constructed for Thomas M. Brown and Ella Mae Criner Brown in the early 1920s, and was the first house built at Hometown.

title: Hometown, West Virginia