text:
ISAM

Indexed Sequential Access Method (ISAM) is a method for creating, maintaining, and manipulating computer files of data so that records can be retrieved sequentially or randomly by one or more keys. Indexes of key fields are maintained to achieve fast retrieval of required file records in indexed files. IBM originally developed ISAM for mainframe computers, but implementations are available for most computer systems.

The term ISAM is used for several related concepts:
 * The IBM ISAM product and the algorithm it employs.
 * A database system where an application developer directly uses an application programming interface to search indexes in order to locate records in data files. In contrast, a relational database uses a query optimizer which automatically selects indexes.
 * An indexing algorithm that allows both sequential and keyed access to data. Most databases use some variation of the B-tree for this purpose, although the original IBM ISAM and VSAM implementations did not do so.
 * Most generally, any index for a database. Indexes are used by almost all databases.

Organization
In an ISAM system, data is organized into records which are composed of fixed length fields, originally stored sequentially in key sequence. Secondary set(s) of records, known as indexes, contain pointers to the location of each record, allowing individual records to be retrieved without having to search the entire data set. This differs from the contemporaneous navigational databases, in which the pointers to other records were stored inside the records themselves. The key improvement in ISAM is that the indexes are small and can be searched quickly, possibly entirely in memory, thereby allowing the database to access only the records it needs. Additional modifications to the data do not require changes to other data, only the table and indexes in question.

When an ISAM file is created, index nodes are fixed, and their pointers do not change during inserts and deletes that occur later (only content of leaf nodes change afterwards). As a consequence of this, if inserts to some leaf node exceed the node's capacity, new records are stored in overflow chains. If there are many more inserts than deletions from a table, these overflow chains can gradually become very large, and this affects the time required for retrieval of a record.

Relational databases can easily be built on an ISAM framework with the addition of logic to maintain the validity of the links between the tables. Typically the field being used as the link, the foreign key, will be indexed for quick lookup. While this is slower than simply storing the pointer to the related data directly in the records, it also means that changes to the physical layout of the data do not require any updating of the pointers—the entry will still be valid.

ISAM is simple to understand and implement, as it primarily consists of direct access to a database file. The trade-off is that each client machine must manage its own connection to each file it accesses. This, in turn, leads to the possibility of conflicting inserts into those files, leading to an inconsistent database state. To prevent this, some ISAM implementations provide whole-file or individual record locking functionality. Locking multiple records runs the risk of deadlock unless a deadlock prevention scheme is strictly followed. The problems of locking, and deadlock are typically solved with the addition of a client-server framework which marshals client requests and maintains ordering. Full ACID transaction management systems are provided by some ISAM client-server implementations. These are the basic concepts behind a database management system (DBMS), which is a client layer over the underlying data store.

ISAM was replaced at IBM with a methodology called VSAM (virtual storage access method). Still later, IBM developed SQL/DS and then Db2 which IBM promotes as their primary database management system. VSAM is the physical access method used in Db2.

OpenVMS
The OpenVMS operating system uses the Files-11 file system in conjunction with RMS (Record Management Services). RMS provides an additional layer between the application and the files on disk that provides a consistent method of data organization and access across multiple 3GL and 4GL languages. RMS provides four different methods of accessing data; sequential, relative record number access, record file address access, and indexed access.

The indexed access method of reading or writing data only provides the desired outcome if in fact the file is organized as an ISAM file with the appropriate, previously defined keys. Access to data via the previously defined key(s) is extremely fast. Multiple keys, overlapping keys and key compression within the hash tables are supported. A utility to define/redefine keys in existing files is provided. Records can be deleted, although "garbage collection" is done via a separate utility.

Design considerations
IBM engineers designed the ISAM system to use a minimum amount of computer memory. The tradeoff was that the Input/Output channel, control unit, and disk were kept busier. An ISAM file consists of a collection of data records and two or three levels of index. The track index contains the highest key for each disk track on the cylinder it indexes. The cylinder index stores the highest key on a cylinder, and the disk address of the corresponding track index. An optional master index, usually used only for large files, contains the highest key on a cylinder index track and the disk address of that cylinder index. Once a file is loaded data records are not moved; inserted records are placed into a separate overflow area. To locate a record by key the indexes on disk are searched by a complex self-modifying channel program. This increased the busy time of the channel, control unit, and disk. With increased physical and virtual memory sizes in later systems this was seen as inefficient, and VSAM was developed to alter the tradeoff between memory usage and disk activity.

ISAM's use of self-modifying channel programs later caused difficulties for CP-67 support of OS/360, since CP-67 copied an entire channel program into fixed memory when the I/O operation was started and translated virtual addresses to real addresses.

ISAM-style implementations

 * Advantage Database Server database manager
 * Berkeley DB
 * Btrieve
 * FairCom DB
 * C-ISAM
 * DataFlex proprietary database
 * dBase and related products Clipper and Foxpro
 * Digital Equipment Corporation Record Management Services
 * Enscribe is the HP Tandem structured file access method
 * Extensible Storage Engine
 * Access Database Engine (ACE and formerly JET) used by Microsoft Access
 * MySQL implements and extends ISAM as MyISAM
 * Paradox
 * pblIsam GPL implementation written in C
 * Superbase database family
 * dbm DBM and Flat File databases working in tandem

title: ISAM


text:
List of governors of Guam

The governor of Guam (I Maga'låhen / Maga'håga Guåhan) is the head of government of Guam and the commander-in-chief of the Guam National Guard, whose responsibilities also include making the annual State of the Island (formerly the State of the Territory) addresses to the Guam Legislature, submitting the budget, and ensuring that Guam's public laws are enforced. The position was created in 1968, through the passage of the Guam Elected Governors Act which took effect in 1970. Guam elected its first civilian governor in 1970 with the inauguration of former governor Carlos Camacho.

The current governor is Lou Leon Guerrero, a Democrat who was inaugurated on January 7, 2019, following her election in 2018.

Powers and duties
The governor has a duty to enforce Guam's public laws, the power to either approve or veto bills passed by the Guam Legislature, to convene the legislature, and to commute or grant pardons to criminal sentences, except in cases of treason and impeachment. The governor is given the power to control government budgeting and appoint many officials (including many judges).

Unlike the other government departments that compose the executive branch of government, the governor is themselves head of the state executive department. The governor may also perform ceremonial roles, such as greeting dignitaries, issuing symbolic proclamations or commencing the Liberation Day parade.

As the commander-in-chief of the Guam National Guard, the governor, as well as the president, may call on the Guard at a moment's notice to provide defense for the island, in a state of emergency.

The governor also delivers the annual State of the Island address (similar to the State of the State address in the US) to a special session of the Guam Legislature. The speech is given to satisfy a constitutional stipulation that a governor must report annually, or in older constitutions described as being "from time to time", on the state or condition of the territory.

Seat and residence
Sitting along Route 1, the governor's seat of power is located in Adelup in the Ricardo J. Bordallo Governor's Complex, named after the island's 2nd and 4th governor, Ricardo Bordallo.

The governor lives in their official residence at the Government House in Agaña Heights. The island's former Spanish and American military governors had lived in the Governor's Palace in the Plaza de España (Hagåtña) until its destruction in the shelling of Hagåtña during the reconquest of Guam in World War II.

Eligibility
According to the Elective Governors Act:

"No person shall be eligible for election to the office of Governor or Lieutenant Governor unless he/she is an eligible voter and has been for five consecutive years immediately preceding the election a citizen of the United States and a bona fide resident of Guam and will be, at the time of taking office, at least thirty years of age. The Governor shall maintain his/her official residence in Guam during his/her incumbency. "

To be eligible, a candidate for Governor of Guam must:
 * an eligible voter of Guam
 * a United States citizen
 * at least thirty years of age.
 * has lived in Guam for five years, preceding the general election.

Election
According to the Elective Governor Acts of 1968, the Governor of Guam, together with the Lieutenant Governor, shall be elected by a majority of the votes cast by the people who are qualified to vote for the members of the Legislature of Guam. The Governor and Lieutenant Governor shall be chosen jointly, by the casting by each voter of a single vote applicable to both offices. The first election for Governor and Lieutenant Governor was held on November 3, 1970, with the election of Governor Carlos Camacho and Lt. Governor Kurt Moylan. Beginning in 1974, Guam's Governor and Lieutenant Governor is elected by direct vote, on the first Tuesday of November. The Governor and Lieutenant Governor shall hold office for a term of four years and until their successors are elected and qualified.

Inauguration
The Governor of Guam usually takes the oath of office on the first Monday of January. In past inaugurations, however, the governor-elect and lieutenant governor-elect would take the oath of office past midnight on Monday morning.

Traditionally, the lieutenant governor-elect takes the oath first and delivers his inaugural remarks, followed then by the incoming governor-elect. As soon as the governor takes the oath of office, four ruffles and flourishes are played then followed by "The Stars and Stripes Forever" and a 21-gun salute. The newly inaugurated governor delivers his inaugural address, an opportunity for the new leader to state his goals for the next 4 years.

Oath of office
Pursuant to the Guam Organic Act, the governor's term of office begins at midnight on the first Monday of January of the year following the election. The day marks the beginning of the four-year term of the Governor and Lieutenant Governor of Guam. Before executing the powers as the Governor of Guam, the governor must take an oath of office:

"I, (name), duly elected Governor of Guam, do solemnly swear, in the presence of the Almighty God, that I will well and faithfully support the Constitution of the United States, the laws of the United States applicable to Guam, and the laws of Guam, and that I will conscientiously and impartially discharge my duties as the Governor of Guam."

In line with traditional oath-takings, governors have traditionally palmed a Bible and have added, "So help me God!" at the end of their oaths. The Governor of Guam is sworn in by the Chief Justice of Guam.

Tenure and term limits
The Governor of Guam is only limited two terms as prescribed in the Elective Governors Act: However, a former governor can be re-elected once again only after a full term has passed.
 * No person who has been elected Governor for two full successive terms shall again be eligible to hold that office until one full term has intervened.
 * The term of the elected Governor and Lieutenant Governor shall commence on the first Monday of January following the date of election.

Spanish era
In 1565, Miguel López de Legazpi formally declared Spanish sovereignty over the Mariana Islands. However, there was no permanent Spanish presence on the island and it was ruled from the Philippines as part of the Spanish East Indies by the Governor-General of the Philippines. Diego Luis de San Vitores established a mission on Guam in 1668, but Francisco de Irrisari was the first person to take the title "Governor" in June 1676, amidst the Spanish-Chamorro Wars. Antonio de Saravia, who arrived in June 1681, was the first to receive his appointment as governor from the Spanish throne, meaning that, technically, he was no longer subordinate to rule from the Philippines or Mexico.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: List of governors of Guam


text:
Algonquin people

The Algonquin people are an Indigenous people who now live in Eastern Canada. They speak the Algonquin language, which is part of the Algonquian language family. Culturally and linguistically, they are closely related to the Odawa, Potawatomi, Ojibwe (including Oji-Cree), Mississaugas, and Nipissing, with whom they form the larger Anicinàpe (Anishinaabeg). Algonquins are known by many names, including Omàmiwinini (plural: Omàmiwininiwak, "downstream man/men") and Abitibiwinni (pl.: Abitibiwinnik "men [living] halfway across the water") or the more generalised name of Anicinàpe.

Though known by several names in the past, such as Algoumequin, the most common term "Algonquin" has been suggested to derive from the Maliseet word elakómkwik : "they are our relatives/allies." The much larger heterogeneous group of Algonquian-speaking peoples, who, according to Brian Conwell, stretch from Virginia to the Rocky Mountains and north to Hudson Bay, was named after the tribe.

Most Algonquins live in Quebec. The nine recognized status Algonquin bands in that province and one in Ontario have a combined population of about 17,002. In addition, there are additional non-status communities, some of which are controversial. Algonquins are original Indigenous People of southern Quebec and eastern Ontario in Canada.

Many Algonquins still speak the Algonquin language, called generally Anicinàpemowin or specifically Omàmiwininìmowin. The language is considered one of several divergent dialects of the Anishinaabe languages. Among younger speakers, the Algonquin language has experienced strong word borrowings from the Cree language. Traditionally, the Algonquins lived in either birch bark or wooden mìkiwàms.

Traditionally, the Algonquins were practitioners of Midewiwin (the Path of the Heart). They believed they were surrounded by many manitòk or spirits in the natural world. French missionaries converted many Algonquins to Catholicism in the 17th and 18th centuries. Today, many Algonquin practice traditional Midewiwin or a syncretic merging of Christianity and Midewiwin.

In the oral history of the Great Anishinaabeg Migration, the Algonquins say they migrated from the Atlantic coast. Together with other Anicinàpek, they arrived at the "First Stopping Place" near Montreal. While the other Anicinàpe peoples continued their journey up the St. Lawrence River, the Algonquins settled along Kitcisìpi (the Ottawa River), a long-important highway for commerce, cultural exchange and transportation. Algonquin identity, though, was not fully realized until after the dividing of the Anicinàpek at the "Third Stopping Place". Scholars have used the oral histories, archeology, and linguistics to estimate this took place about 2000 years ago, near present-day Detroit.

After contact with the Europeans, especially the French and Dutch, the Algonquin nations became active in the fur trade. This led them to fight against the powerful Haudenosaunee, whose confederacy was based in present-day New York. In 1570, the Algonquins formed an alliance with the Innu (Montagnais) to the east, whose territory extended to the ocean. Culturally, Omàmìwininì (Algonquin) and the Mississaugas (Michi Saagiig) were not part of the Ojibwe–Odawa–Potawatomi alliance known as the Council of Three Fires, though they did maintain close ties. Omàmìwininìwak (Algonquins) maintained stronger cultural ties with the Wendat, Abenaki, Atikamekw, and Cree, along with the Innu, as related above.

French contact
Algonquin first met Europeans when Samuel de Champlain came upon a party led by the Kitcisìpirini Chief Tessouat at Tadoussac, in eastern present-day Quebec, in the summer of 1603. They were celebrating a recent victory over the Iroquois, with the allied Montagnais and Etchemins (Malecite). Champlain did not understand that Algonquins were socially united by a strong totem/clan system rather than the European-styled political concept of nationhood. The several Algonquin bands each had its own chief. Within each band, the chief depended on political approval from each of the band's clan leaders. Champlain needed to cultivate relationships with numerous chiefs and clan leaders. From 1603, some of the Algonquins allied with the French under Champlain. This alliance proved useful to the Algonquin, who previously had little to no access to European firearms.

Champlain made his first exploration of the Ottawa River during May 1613 and reached the fortified Kitcisìpirini village at Morrison Island. Unlike the other Algonquin communities, the Kitcisìpiriniwak did not change location with the seasons. They had chosen a strategic point astride the trade route between the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River. They prospered through the collection of beaver pelts from Indigenous traders passing through their territory. They also were proud of their corn fields.

At first, the French used the term "Algonquin" only for a second group, the Wàwàckeciriniwak. However, by 1615, they applied the name to all of the Algonquin bands living along the Ottawa River. Because of keen interest by tribes to gain control of the lower Ottawa River, the Kitcisìpiriniwak and the Wàwàckeciriniwak came under fierce opposition. These two large groups allied together, under the leadership of Sachem (Carolus) Charles Pachirini, to maintain the Omàmiwinini identity and territory.

French-Indian War/Seven Years' War
The Iroquois Confederacy (Haudenosaunee) drove Algonquins from their lands. The Haudenosaunee were aided by having been traded arms by the Dutch, and later by the English. The Haudenosaunee and the English defeated the French and Algonquins in the 1620s, and, led by Sir David Kirke, occupied New France.

In 1623, having realized the occupation of New France demonstrated French colonial vulnerability, the French began to trade muskets to Algonquins and their allies. French Jesuits began to seek Algonquin conversions to Roman Catholicism.

Through all of these years, the Haudenosaunee never attacked the Kitcisìpirinik fortress. But, in 1642, they made a surprise winter raid, attacking Algonquins while most of their warriors were absent, and causing severe casualties. On March 6, 1647 (Ash Wednesday), a large Kanienkehaka (Mohawk) war party attacked the Kitcisìpiriniwak living near Trois-Rivières and almost exterminated them. The Kitcisìpiriniwak were still at Morrison Island in 1650 and inspired respect with their 400 warriors. When the French retreated from Wendat (Huron) country that year, Tessouat was reported to have had the superior of the Jesuit mission suspended by his armpits because he refused to offer him the customary presents for being allowed to travel through Algonquin territory.

Some joined the mission at Sillery, where they were mostly destroyed by an infectious disease epidemic by 1676. Encouraged by the French, others remained at Trois-Rivières. Their settlement at nearby Pointe-du-Lac continued until about 1830. That year the last 14 families, numbering about 50, moved to Kanesatake near Oka. (The families who stayed in Trois Rivieres can be found in the Algonquin census of Trois Rivieres in the mid-19th century).

History 18th Century to Present
The Lake of Two Mountains band of Algonquins were located just west of the Island of Montreal, and were signatories to the Great Peace of Montreal in 1701. The Sulpician Mission of the Mountain was founded at Montreal in 1677.

In 1717, the King of France granted the Mohawk in Quebec a tract of land 9 miles long by 9 miles wide about 40 miles to the northwest of Montreal, under the condition that they leave the island of Montreal. Sulpician Missionaries set up a trading post at the village in 1721 and attracted a large number of Haudenosaunee converts to Christianity to the area. The settlement of Kanesatake was formally founded as a Catholic mission, a seigneury under the supervision of the Sulpician Order for 300 Christian Mohawk, about 100 Algonquins, and approximately 250 Nipissing peoples "in their care". Over time the Sulpicians claimed total control of the land, gaining a deed that gave them legal title. But the Haudenosaunee (Mohawks), Algonquins, and Nipissing understood that this land was being held in trust for them.

The Sulpician mission village of Lake of Two Mountains (Lac des Deux Montagnes), west of Montreal, became known both by its Algonquin language name Oka (meaning "pickerel"), and the Mohawk language Kanehsatà:ke ("sandy place"); however, Algonquin also called the village as Ganashtaageng after the Mohawk language name.

Algonquin warriors continued to fight in alliance with France until the British conquest of Quebec in 1760, during the Seven Years' War. After the British took over colonial rule of Canada, their officials sought to make allies of the First Nations, and the Algonquin, along with many other First Nations signed the Royal Proclamation of 1763, which was then ratified in 1764 as the Treaty of Niagara. Subsequently, fighting on behalf of the British Crown, Algonquins took part in the Barry St Leger campaign during the American Revolutionary War.

Following the American Revolutionary War, and later the War of 1812, the Lake of Two Mountains Algonquins found their territory increasingly encroached on by Loyalist settlers. Beginning in the 1820s and 1930s, the lumber industry began to move up the Ottawa valley. Algonquin became increasingly displaced as a result. Beginning in the 1820s, Algonquin Grand Chief Constant Pinesi sent a series of letters petitioning the British Crown for Algonquin Territorial Recognition previously agreed upon in the Treaties of 1701 and 1764, ratified by Algonquins and the British Crown. No responses were forthcoming from the British, and the Algonquins began to be relegated to a string of small reserves beginning in the 1830s.

Algonquins who agreed to move to these reserves or joined other historical bands were federally "recognized". Others maintained their attachment to the traditional territory and fur trading, and chose not to re-locate. These Algonquins were later called "stragglers" in the Ottawa and Pontiac counties with some eventually settling in small towns such as Renfrew, Whitney, and Eganville as the 19th Century progressed. Many of these Algonquins were not recognized as "Status Indians".

The location of the former Lake of Two Mountains Band came to be known as Kahnesatake. As a large majority of the Algonquin population had left the area, with only the Christian Haudenosaunee and a few Algonquins remaining, it became recognized as a Mohawk reserve (though many in the community have at least partial Algonquin Ancestry).

Algonquins living in the northern regions of Algonquin Territory gradually moved to towns such as present day Témiscaming, and Mattawa, amongst others in Ontario and Quebec, as territorial encroachment by settlers, and lumber and resource companies increased throughout the 19th and 20th Centuries or various reserves set up in their traditional territories.

Economy
Historical Algonquin society was largely hunting and fishing-based. Being primarily a hunting nation, the people emphasized mobility. They used materials that were light and easy to transport. Canoes were made of birch bark, sewed with spruce roots and rendered waterproof by the application of heated spruce resin and bear grease. During winter, toboggans were used to transport material, and people used snowshoes to get around. The women used tikinaagan (cradleboards) to carry their babies. It was built with wood and covered with an envelope made of leather or material. The baby was standing up with his feet resting on a small board. The mother would then put the tikinàgan on her back. This allowed the infant to look around and observe his surroundings. The child was kept close to the mother but also had much stimulation.

Algonquian-speaking people also practiced agriculture, particularly south of the Great Lakes, where the climate allows for a longer growing season. Notable indigenous crops historically farmed by Algonquins are the sunflower and tobacco. Around 800CE, Eastern Algonquins adopted maize agriculture from their neighbors in the interior. Even among groups who mainly hunted, agricultural products were an important source of food. They obtained what was needed by trading with or raiding societies that practiced more agriculture. Eastern Algonquins created pots that could withstand not only thermal stress but the mechanical stress of rough use.

Archaeological sites on Morrison Island near Pembroke, within the territory of the later Kitcisìpiriniwak, reveal a 1,000-year-old culture that manufactured copper tools and weapons. Copper ore was extracted north of Lake Superior and distributed down to present-day northern New York. Local pottery artifacts from this period show widespread similarities that indicate the continuing use of the river for cultural exchange throughout the Canadian Shield and beyond.

Beginning at the latest in c. 1 CE, the Algonquin Nation inhabited the islands and shores along Kitcisìpi (Algonquin Language name translating to The Great River, known now as the Ottawa River). By the 17th century European Explorers found them well established as a hunter-gatherer society in control of the river. On Morrison Island, at the location where 5,000-year-old copper artifacts were discovered, the Kitcisìpiriniwak levied a toll on canoe flotillas descending the river.

Ethnobotany
Algonquins of Quebec gather the berries of Ribes glandulosum and Viburnum nudum var. cassinoides as food, and eat and sell the fruit of Vaccinium myrtilloides. They take an infusion of Epigaea repens leaves for kidney disorders and apply a poultice of the gum or needles of Abies balsamea to open sores, insect bites, boils and infections. The needles are a sudatory for women after childbirth and are infused for a laxative tea, while the roots treat heart disease.

Modern events
In recent years, tensions with the lumber industry have flared up again among Algonquin communities, in response to the practice of clear-cutting.

In Ontario, an Algonquin land claim has been ongoing since 1983, encompassing much of the southeastern part of the province, stretching from near North Bay to near Hawkesbury and including Ottawa, Pembroke, and most of Algonquin Provincial Park. The Algonquins never relinquished title to this area. An agreement-in-principle between the Algonquins of Ontario, the Government of Canada and the Government of Ontario was reached in 2015. Many Algonquins dispute both the validity of both this settlement and the organization of the Algonquins of Ontario as a whole.

In 2000, Algonquins from Timiskaming First Nation played a significant part in the local popular opposition to the plan to convert Adams Mine into a garbage dump.

Communities
At the time of their first meeting with the French in 1603, the various Algonquin bands probably had a combined population somewhere in the neighborhood of 6,000. The British estimate in 1768 was 1,500. As of 2000, there are close to 8,000 Algonquins in Canada, organized into ten separate First Nations: nine in Quebec and one in Ontario.

Historic
Algonquian Nations documented as early as 1630:

Quebec

 * Kichesipirini ("people of the great river") — They were the largest and most powerful group of Algonquins. Known variously as: Kitcisìpirini, Kitcisìpiriniwak, Algoumequins de l'Isle-aux-Allumettes, Big River People, Gens d l'Isle, Honkeronon (Wyandot language), Island Algonquian, Island Indians, Island Nation, People from the Island, Kichesippiriniwek, Nation de l'Isle, Nation of the Isle, and Savages de l'Isle. Their main village was on Morrison Island.
 * Kinounchepirini ("people of the Pickerel-waters") — Also known as Keinouche, Kinouchebiiriniwek, Kinònjepìriniwak, Kinonche, Pickerel, Pike and Quenongebin. Sometimes they were listed as an Algonquian band, but after 1650 they were associated with the Ottawa and were originally found along the lower Ottawa River below Allumette Island.
 * Otaguottaouemin — Also known as Kotakoutouemi or Outaoukotwemiwek. They were located along the Upper Ottawa River above Allumette Island.
 * Sàgaiganininiwak ("people of the lake") — Also known as Saghiganirini.
 * Saginitaouigama — Also known as Sagachiganiriniwek.
 * Weskarini ("people of the deer[-clan]") — Also known as the Wàwàckeciriniwak, La Petite Nation, Little Nation, Ouaouechkairini, Ouassouarini, Ouescharini, Ouionontateronon (Wyandot language), or Petite Nation. Their traditional home land is located on the north side of the Ottawa River along the Lievre River and the Rouge River in Quebec.

Ontario

 * Iroquet — They were known as Hiroquet, Hirocay, Iroquay, Yroquetto, and to the Huron as the Atonontrataronon or Ononchataronon; they lived along Ontario's South Nation River.
 * Matàwackariniwak "people of the bulrushed-shore" — Also known as Madawaska, Madwaska, Matouchkarine, Matouashita, Mataouchkarini, Matouechkariniwek and Matouescarini; the Madawaska River in the Upper Ottawa Valley is named after this band.
 * Nibachis — Located at Muskrat Lake near present-day Cobden, Ontario.

Status nations in Quebec

 * Kitigan Zibi Anishinabeg, Kitigan Zibi near Maniwaki (population 3,237)
 * Timiskaming First Nation, Notre-Dame-du-Nord, Quebec (population 2,129)
 * Nation Anishinabe du Lac Simon, Lac-Simon, Quebec (population 2,149)
 * Conseil de la Première Nation Abitibiwinn, Pikogan, Quebec (population 1,059)
 * Eagle Village First Nation, Témiscaming, Quebec (population 991)
 * Long Point First Nation, Winneway River, Quebec (population 866)
 * Algonquins of Barrière Lake, Lac Rapide (population 791)
 * Kitcisakik Anicinape Community, Val-d'Or, Quebec (population 494)
 * Wolf Lake First Nation, Témiscaming, Quebec (population 232) — formed from three historical bands:
 * Dumoine Lake Band of Algonquin, (historical)
 * Grassy Lake Band of Algonquin, (historical)
 * Lac des Quinze Band of Algonquin, (historical)

Status nations in Ontario

 * Matachewan First Nation, Matachewan, Ontario (population 787) — formed in part by Algonquins
 * Temagami First Nation, Temagami, Ontario (population 841) — formed in part by Algonquins
 * Wahgoshig First Nation, Black River-Matheson, Ontario (population 332) — formed in part by Algonquins
 * Algonquins of Pikwàkanagàn First Nation, Golden Lake, Ontario (population 2,635)

title: Algonquin people


text:
List of governors of New Hampshire

The governor of New Hampshire is the head of government of the U.S. state of New Hampshire and is commander-in-chief of the state's military forces.

The current governor is Republican Chris Sununu, who took office on January 5, 2017, and has been re-elected three times. The longest-serving governor is John Taylor Gilman, who served as governor for 14 years, from 1794 to 1805 and from 1813 to 1816.

Governors
New Hampshire was one of the original Thirteen Colonies and was admitted as a state on June 21, 1788. Before it declared its independence, New Hampshire was a colony of the Kingdom of Great Britain.

The original 1776 Constitution of New Hampshire did not provide for a chief executive. The office of President was created by the 1784 constitution, and renamed Governor in 1792. Governors served one-year terms until an 1877 amendment increased this to two years. there have never been any term limits for the office, nor is there a lieutenant governor; should the office become vacant, the president of the New Hampshire Senate acts as governor.

title: List of governors of New Hampshire


text:
Canuck

Canuck is a slang term for a Canadian. While there are some sources that claim the origins of the word are uncertain, or related to the Iroquoian word for village (kanata), the term comes from the influx of Kanaka Maoli to what would become British Columbia The Canadian Encyclopedia, "Canuck," 2019 .The term Kanuck is first recorded in 1835 as an Americanism, originally referring to Dutch Canadians (which included German Canadians) or French Canadians. By the 1850s, the spelling with a "C" became predominant. Today, many Canadians and others use Canuck as a mostly affectionate term for any Canadian.

Johnny Canuck is a folklore hero who was created as a political cartoon in 1869 and was later re-invented as a Second World War action hero in 1942. The Vancouver Canucks, a professional ice hockey team in the National Hockey League (NHL) has  used a version of "Johnny Canuck" as their team logos.

The Canadian military has used the term colloquially for several projects: Operation Canuck, the Avro Canada CF-100 Canuck and the Fleet 80 Canuck.

Captain Canuck is a Canadian comic book superhero who first appeared in Captain Canuck #1 (July 1975). The series was the first successful Canadian comic book since the collapse of the nation's comic book industry following World War II.

Origin
Although its etymology is unclear, possible origins include:
 * kanata, "village" (see name of Canada)
 * Canada + -uc (Algonquian noun suffix)
 * Kanaka, derived from the Hawaiian Kanaka.

Usage and examples
Canadians use Canuck as an affectionate or merely descriptive term for their nationality.

If familiar with the term, most citizens of other nations, including the United States, also use it affectionately, though there are individuals who may use it as a derogatory term.

Usage of the term includes the following.

History

 * Canuck also has the derived meanings of a Canadian pony (rare) and a French-Canadian patois (very rare).
 * Johnny Canuck, a personification of Canada who appeared in early political cartoons of the 1860s resisting Uncle Sam's bullying. Johnny Canuck was revived in 1942 by Leo Bachle to defend Canada against the Nazis. The Vancouver Canucks have adopted a personification of Johnny Canuck on their alternate hockey sweater.
 * As the historical nickname for three Canadian-built aircraft from the 20th century: the Curtiss JN-4C training biplane, with some 1,260 airframes built; the Avro CF-100 jet fighter; and the Fleet 80 Canuck two-seat side-by-side trainer.
 * One of the first uses of Canuck – in the form of Kanuk – specifically referred to Dutch Canadians as well as the French.
 * Operation Canuck was the designated name of a British SAS raid led by a Canadian captain, Buck McDonald in January 1945.
 * The Canuck letter became a focal point during the US 1972 Democratic primaries, when a letter published in the Manchester Union Leader implied Democratic contender Senator Edmund Muskie was prejudiced against French-Canadians. He soon ended his campaign as a result. The letter was later discovered to have been written by the Nixon campaign in an attempt to sabotage Muskie.
 * A brand of firearms engineered and distributed by O'Dell Engineering Ltd since 2014 includes the Canuck 1911, Canuck Over Under and Canuck Shotgun.

Media

 * In the opening of Thornton Wilder's 1938 play Our Town, Polish and "Canuck families" are mentioned as living on the outskirts of the prototypical 1901 New Hampshire town.
 * In 1975, in comics by Richard Comely, Captain Canuck is a super-agent for Canadians' security, with Redcoat and Kebec being his sidekicks. (Kebec is claimed to be unrelated to Capitaine Kébec of a French-Canadian comic published two years earlier.) Captain Canuck had enhanced strength and endurance thanks to being bathed in alien rays during a camping trip. The captain was reintroduced in the mid-1990s, and again in 2004.
 * The Marvel Comics character Wolverine is often referred to affectionately as "the Ol' Canucklehead" due to his Canadian heritage.
 * Soviet Canuckistan was an insult used by Pat Buchanan in response to Canada's reaction to racial profiling by US Customs agents.

Sport

 * The Canada national rugby union team (men's) is officially nicknamed Canucks.
 * The Canucks rugby Club, playing in Calgary since 1968.
 * The Crazy Canucks, Canadian alpine ski racers who competed successfully on the World Cup circuit in the '70s.
 * The Vancouver Canucks professional ice hockey team, with their former goaltender, Roberto Luongo, having a depiction of Johnny Canuck on his goalie mask. The full body Johnny Canuck was then updated in 2009 by graphic designer Evan Biswanger.
 * During the Vancouver 2010 Olympics official Canadian Olympic gear bore the term.

title: Canuck


text:
Burebista

Burebista (Βυρεβίστας, Βοιρεβίστας) was the king of the Getae and Dacian tribes from 82/61BC to 45/44BC. He was the first king who successfully unified the tribes of the Dacian kingdom, which comprised the area located between the Danube, Tisza, and Dniester rivers, and modern day Romania and Moldova. In the 7th and 6thcenturies BC it became home to the Thracian peoples, including the Getae and the Dacians. From the 4thcentury to the middle of the 2ndcentury BC the Dacian peoples were influenced by La Tène Celts who brought new technologies with them into Dacia. Sometime in the 2ndcentury BC, the Dacians expelled the Celts from their lands. Dacians often warred with neighbouring tribes, but the relative isolation of the Dacian peoples in the Carpathian Mountains allowed them to survive and even to thrive. By the 1stcentury BC the Dacians had become the dominant power.

From 61 BC onwards Burebista pursued a series of conquests that expanded the Dacian kingdom. The tribes of the Boii and Taurisci were destroyed early in his campaigns, followed by the conquest of the Bastarnae and probably the Scordisci peoples. He led raids throughout Thrace, Macedonia, and Illyria. From 55BC the Greek cities on the west coast of the Black Sea were conquered one after another. These campaigns inevitably culminated in conflict with Rome in 48BC, at which point Burebista gave his support to Pompey. This in turn made him an enemy to Caesar, who decided to start a campaign against Dacia. This plan fell through in 44BC when Caesar was assassinated. Burebista himself was assassinated in a plot by the Dacian aristocracy at around the same time.

After Burebista's death, the empire he had created broke up into smaller kingdoms. From the reign of Tiberius to Domitian, Dacian activity was reduced into a defensive state. The Romans abandoned plans of mounting an invasion against Dacia. In 86AD the Dacian king, Decebalus, successfully re-united the Dacian kingdom under his control. Domitian attempted a hasty invasion against the Dacians that ended in disaster. A second invasion brought peace between Rome and Dacia for nearly a decade, until Trajan became emperor in 98AD. Trajan also pursued two conquests of Dacia, the first, in 101–102AD, concluded in a Roman victory. Decebalus was forced to agree to harsh terms of peace, but did not honour them, leading to a second invasion of Dacia in 106AD that ended the independence of the Dacian kingdom.

Early references
Only three ancient sources on Burebista survive: Strabo: Geographica 7.3.5, 7.3.11 and 16.2.39 (who spells his name Byrebistas and Boirebistas); Jordanes: Getica67 (spells his name Buruista); and a marble inscription found in Balchik, Bulgaria (now housed at the National Museum in Sofia), which represents a decree by the citizens of Dionysopolis about Akornion.

Dacian kingdom
The area roughly located between the Danube, Tisza and Dniester rivers – approximately coinciding with modern-day Romania – became home to a varied group of Thracian peoples, including the Getae and Dacians, sometime around the 7th to 6thcenturies BC. The Getae and Dacians are related but distinct peoples that are sometimes treated as a single group under the name of Geto-Dacians. The Getae and the Dacians shared many cultural and linguistic similarities. Living in the lower Danube basin, the Getae were able to establish regular trade with the Greek cities along the coast of the Black Sea. The Dacians were located in the Carpatho-Danubian basin along the southern border of the Carpathian Mountains. This relative geographic isolation allowed the Dacians to survive catastrophic struggles – often with the Getae – and thrive to become the dominant tribe by the 1stcentury BC.

Before Burebista's rule, the Dacians had experienced a succession of kings through the period 450 to 60BC. The kings included Dromichaetes, Oroles, and Rubobostes in the 3rd and 2ndcenturies BC. From the 4thcentury BC to the 2ndcentury BC the LaTène Celts of the Danube, Alpines, and Balkans influenced the Dacian culture. LaTène material culture was found in the central and north-west regions of Dacia. The development of a LaTène-based economy in the 3rd and 2ndcenturies BC allowed the consolidation of political power through tribal unions. Such regional unions were found among both the Transylvanian Dacians under the rule of Rubobostes and the Moldavian and Muntenian Getae in Argedava.

It is from the LaTène that the Dacians were introduced to the potter's wheel, superior metal-working techniques, and probably a tradition of minting coins. In homes were found a combination of Celtic and Dacian pottery, and certain Celtic-style graves contain Dacian style vessels. This suggests a sort of co-existence and fusion between the cultures. Sometime after around 150BC, however, evidence of LaTène culture peters out, around the same time the Dacian culture began to mature, as evidenced by population and economic growth. Under Rubobstes the authority of the Dacians appears to have increased, thus ending the dominance of the Celtic culture, and leading to the Celts being expelled from the area or merging into the culture, or both. There is archaeological evidence to suggest that relations between Dacians and Celts living in the areas north and west of Dacia continued. Painted ceramics of late LaTène-style have been found in Dacian sites in west and central Dacia. Some of these ceramics were imported while others were made by Dacian potters imitating Celtic style. A stable monarchy, however, only developed when Burebista became king. Burebista's accession came with the expulsion of Celts around 60BC when his forces moved through to the middle Danube region, and with the support of the religious establishment and leaders in Dacia which brought around a stricter moral code in the Dacian kingdom. Around this time the pottery of the Dacian style began appearing in Celtic settlements in Central Europe, including the area covered by the former Yugoslavia, especially in Gomolava, Yugoslavia, and Budapest, Hungary.

Date of ascension
The exact date that Burebista came to reign over the Dacians is debated among scholars; University of Illinois professor Keith Hitchins gave a starting date for Burebista's reign of 82BC, while historian Matthew Bunson, and authors John Middleton and Michael Schmitz suggest a starting date around 61–60 BC. The historian John Koch states that Burebista founded an empire sometime during the 1stcentury BC and that around 61BC Burebista expelled the Celts and moved into the middle Danube.

Development of Burebista's polity
This alliance was probably a weakly centralized state, with a military organization similar to the one of the Hellenistic kingdoms. The exact degree of centralization is a matter of debate, with archaeologists such as Kris Lockyear denying the existence of a state, saying the archaeological evidence shows regional diversity and only a few region-wide trends. Others, such as historian Alexandru Diaconescu, dispute this and conclude that there was a centralized political structure.

In the Orăștie Mountains, Burebista built a system of stone fortifications on high ground; the most important of such hill forts are located today in the villages of Costești, Blidaru, Piatra Roșie, and Bănița. These citadels, which exhibited Greek military architecture, coupled with the presence of Burebista and his armed forces, served to secure the Dacian people internally.

Neighbouring tribes

From around 61 BC Burebista began to lead a series of campaigns of conquest against neighbouring tribes and clans. In 60/59BC he defeated and conquered the Boii, who were led by Critasiros, and the Taurisci tribes dwelling in the Middle Danube, in modern Bohemia and Slovakia. The Boii had established a tribal presence in the areas now occupied by eastern Austria and south-western Slovakia and Hungary sometime in 75–50BC. The Boii extended their influence eastward towards modern day Bratislava, Slovakia around 64–63BC. It is these Boii tribes east of the Alps that came into conflict with the Dacians and were heavily defeated in 50–40BC. These conquests were followed by the destruction of the Bastarnae peoples. Similarly, Burebista conquered a tribe that Strabo describes as living among the Illyrians and Thracians – most likely the Scordisci – while simultaneously conducting raids throughout Thrace, Roman Macedonia, and Illyria.

Capture of Greek cities
Beginning around 55 BC Burebista annexed the Greek cities on the coast of the Black Sea, occupying the Greek fortresses from Olbia to Apollonia, as well as the Danubian plain all the way to the Balkans. These conquered cities were: Olbia, Tyras, Histria, Tomis, Callatis, Odessos, Messembria, Apollonia, and Dionysopolis. Dionysopolis, however, enjoyed good relations with Burebista. An inscription dating to 48BC found in Dionysopolis and in honour of Akornion of Dionysopolis describes Akornion as the "first and greatest friend" of Burebista. Akornion was sent as an ambassador to Pompey to claim the title of "king of kings" for Burebista to be used within the Hellenistic kingdoms of the Balkans and the Near East.

Caesar's civil war
Burebista inevitably came into conflict with Rome. During the Roman civil war of 49–44 BC, Pompey gained the support of Burebista through Akornion of Dionysopolis. Pompey himself had recognized the might of Burebista and Dacia after their successful conquests against the Greek Black Sea cities. Caesar, however, ended any alliance between Pompey and Burebista at the Battle of Pharsalus. Caesar was also aware of the growing strength of the Dacians and had planned to lead an attack against Burebista. Burebista at this time had a force that may have numbered up to 200,000 men – though it is disputed whether this force was an actual military force or the number of ablebodied men within the kingdom. Regardless, Dacia was a formidable power that Caesar perceived as a threat to Rome. But Caesar was never able to start his intended campaign because he was assassinated in 44BC, Burebista meeting the same fate when he was killed in a civil uprising in either 45 or 44BC.

Death
Burebista may have outlived Caesar for only a short time. In the same year Caesar was assassinated, Burebista was killed in a plot by the Dacian aristocracy, who saw a centralized state as leading to a reduction in their privileges. After his death, the Dacian kingdom dissolved, with the exception of the enclave around the Orăștie Mountains, while the rest became various smaller kingdoms. After Burebista's death, the kingdom was divided into four parts, to be ruled by the religious elite. By the time of Augustus Dacia had broken further into five parts.

Dacia after Burebista

In the time following Burebista's death, and between the rule of Tiberius and the rule of Domitian, Dacian activity was minimal. The Dacians were forced into a defensive state where their main activity was keeping the Romans out of Dacian territories. The regional factions that remained posed no substantial threat to the Roman empire, and Roman sources stop mentioning plans for Roman invasions during this time. Dacian power resurged during the reigns of Duras – who reigned 68–87ADand peaked during the reign of Decebalus – who reigned from 85/87-106AD. By this time the Dacian tribes had united once more, under the rule of Decebalus, and again posed a threat to Rome.

Decebalus' reign saw nearly constant warfare between the Dacians and Roman administrations south of the Danube. Around 85AD raiding resumed in Moesia, Illyria, and Macedonia, culminating in the death of the Roman Governor of Moesia, Oppius Sabinius. In response, Domitian launched a campaign the same year under the command of the Praetorian Prefect Cornelius Fuscus. Domitian ignored Decebalus' offer of peace, an error which caused the Romans to suffer a disastrous defeat, losing not only Fuscus, but his forces and the Roman standards and war machines. A second expedition was launched in 88AD, this time under the command of Tettius Julianus. This second campaign was somewhat victorious as both sides suffered massive casualties in battle. However, revolts and defections forced Domitian to negotiate a hasty peace treaty with Decebalus in 89AD. This peace had benefits and costs to both sides: Rome had to pay financial tributes and provide technological assistance to Dacia; in exchange, Dacia effectively became a client kingdom of Rome, acting as a bulkhead for the empire, separating Rome from other warring tribes.

This peace lasted for around a decade, until Trajan became emperor in 98AD. Immediately upon becoming emperor, Trajan travelled to the frontier stretching from Pannonia to Moesia, where he worked to strengthen the fortifications. In 101–102AD Trajan assembled an army of up to 150,000 men to send against Decebalus' 50,000. The army was split into two and entered into Dacian territory at two points along the frontier. The columns met at Tibiscum and marched together towards Sarmizegetusa. At Tapae they encountered and defeated the Dacian force. This in turn forced Decebalus to sue for peace. Trajan agreed but imposed harsh terms against the Dacians. Decebalus failed to meet the terms of the peace, and in 105 Trajan launched a second campaign against him. By 106 Trajan had completed the conquest of Dacia, ending its existence as an independent kingdom.

Legacy

The image of fearless and noble Dacians as predecessors to modern Romanians was augmented and impressed by nationalist movements in the late 1920s and 1930s. On one hand, the Dacians were often used in discourses claiming an ethnically pure origin for the Romanian people. At the same time, however, the Romans were preferred instead when the objective was portraying Romania as a civilized and cosmopolitan nation.

In the 1960s statues were erected for the two leaders of the Dacian kingdom, Burebista and Decebalus. These came as part of a gradual process of disassociating Socialist Romania from the Soviet Union. The statues depict the kings as freedom fighters, and nationwide celebrations were held for the anniversaries of ancient battles. Additionally, two government-funded film productions were created as part of this same process. Both films focus on the history of Dacia in the 1st and 2ndcentury AD and the exploits of Decebalus, while Burebista is almost ignored.

Starting in the 1970s, the Nicolae Ceaușescu regime used nationalistic and questionable interpretations of ancient history (Protochronism) to legitimize its rule. In 1980 the Romanian government declared a celebration of the 2,050th anniversary of the founding of the "unitary and centralized" Dacian state of Burebista, drawing comparisons with Ceaușescu's Romania and claiming an uninterrupted existence of the state from Burebista to Ceaușescu. The epic movie Burebista (1980) based on the king's life was released the same year, and celebrated him as the Romanian pater patriae. This commemoration led the press to note "similarities" between Burebista and Ceaușescu, and even professional historians such as Ion Horațiu Crișan spoke about Burebista in ways similar to how party activists spoke about Ceaușescu.

Burebista and his descendants are considered by Romanian nationalists to be the true ancestors of their nation. Historian László Kürti describes this as an imaginary history, and notes that during the regime of Ceaușescu this alternate history was used as a political device. In 1984 the brother of President Ceaușescu, Ilie Ceaușescu, published a treatise stating that; "[t]he archaeological evidence conclusively shows the uninterrupted ethnic, political, and military continuity of the Romanians." Kürti notes that similar political devices are used by Hungarians to promote their claim to the same Transylvanian region, part of Romania.

title: Burebista


text:
Hiisi

Hiisi (plural hiidet ) is a term in Finnic mythologies, originally denoting sacred localities and later on various types of mythological entities.

In later, Christian-influenced folklore, they are depicted as demonic or trickster-like entities, often the autochthonous, pagan inhabitants of the land, similar in this respect to mythological giants. They are found near salient promontories, ominous crevasses, large boulders, potholes, woods, hills, and other outstanding geographical features or rough terrain.

Origin and etymology
Hiisi was originally a spirit of hill forests. In Estonian hiis (or his) means a sacred grove in trees, usually on elevated ground. In the spells ("magic songs") of the Finns the term Hiisi is often used in association with a hill or mountain, as a personage he also associated with the hills and mountains, such as the owner or ruler of the same. His name is also commonly associated with forests, and some forest animals.

More recent speculation, by Mauno Koski and others, associates the Finnish "Hiisi" and the Estonian "Hiis" primarily with burial sites, or sacred areas associated with burial sites; with a secondary meaning of hiisi applied to dominant, exceptional or anomalous geographical features. Following the Christianization of Finland and Estonia these meanings may have been lost or become unclear, which may have led to the application of anthropomorphism to hiisi sites, as "giant's ...", or the emergence of Hiisi or Hiis as a proper noun, the name of a deity or spirit.

It has been supposed that Hiisi's evil nature has been magnified over time, starting with the Christianization of Finland in the 12th and 13th centuries. In more recent times his nature has been nearly identical with that of a Christian devil, or even the Devil. In Bishop Mikael Agricola's list of Finnish pagan gods Hiisi is said to have been a god of forest game or fur, sharing this attribute with a similar god, Tapio.

Folklore
Oral folklore concerning hiisi mostly describes creatures that dwelt in hiisi sites, typically trolls or giants. Many of the stories describe how odd rock formations or other features of the landscape were created by the actions of these creatures.

Much of the recorded folklore about hiisi comes from the village of Narva in Vesilahti, Finland. There are tales of cauldrons of coins being caught by fishermen after having rolled down the cliff at Hiidennokka, as well as tales of how the cape of Hiidennokka was created by giants throwing rocks. One of these tales takes on a Christian element, as the giants throw rocks into the sea to prevent people going to church by boat.

Later the original aspect of nature's awesomeness inherent in the hiidet was diminished, and they passed into folklore as purely evil spirits vaguely analogous to trolls. According to this later view, hiidet were often small in size, but others were gigantic. Hiidet could travel in a noisy procession and attack people who did not give way to them. If somebody left their door open, a hiisi could come inside and steal something. If you were chased by a hiisi. you should seek safety in a cultivated area. In folklore, it was the cultivated areas that were blessed in contrast to the pagan holiness residing in the awesome and forbidding features of raw nature, and an evil hiisi could not step inside areas sanctified by cultivation.

Geographical objects and names
In 1933 a Finnish archaeologist, Aarne Michaël Tallgren, identified 15 or 16 potential Hiisi locations, and in 1967 a linguist, Mauno Koski, identified 14 Iron Age cemeteries as Hiisi sites. Both based their lists primarily on the presence of an element of the word hiisi in placenames. These locations include cup marked stones, sacred trees and springs. The term hiisi appears as a compound element in placenames such as Hiisimäki [hiisi hill].

The Finnish term for a prehistoric cairn grave is a hiidenkiuas [hiisi's sauna stove]. A giant's kettle is called a hiidenkirnu [hiisi's churn].

The settlement of Hiitola takes its name from the spirit.

In "Magic Songs"
Numerous "Magic Songs" were catalogued by in the Suomen kansan muinaisia loitsurunoja, translated into English by Abercromby; these contain numerous references to "Hiisi" :

Hiisi was often used as a prefix in figurative expressions referring to certain things in Finnish life when casting spells ("magic songs")- for example for animals (in English): "Hiisi's bandy legs": a Hare; "braid of hair of Hiisi's girl", or "Hiisi's scourge": a Snake; "Hiisi's eye": A Lizard.; "Hiisi's bird": a Hornet;. The same was used for diseases and afflictions: "Hound of Hiisi": disease causing principle; "Hiisi's son", "Hiisi's cat": Toothache; "Hiisi's toadstool", "Hiisi's filth": tumors or swellings, etc. - the term "Hiisi" alone was also used for ailments, Tempo and Juntas's names were also used in similar contexts.

Hiisi's name was also used in curses - such as one against envy :

In such incantations Hiisi's name often carries negative connotations, being associated with waste, pain, punishment and so on.

However, not all associations were negative - Hiisi is associated with good horses - in a song about travel : ".. good horses live at Hiisi’s place, on the mountains there are first-rate foals. From Hiisi take a horse, from the hard land a trotting horse, the chestnut nag of Hiisi with forelock of fire .. ". Hiisi was also assumed to assist forest hunters catching game. One folklore song gives Hiisi as the origin (creator) of the Horse, though claims this is a substitution and that he was originally associated with the Elk, Reindeer or Ox.

The name is also invoked in songs telling of the origins of parts of other creatures including the cat's tail, and the raven's neck, body, legs, and guts, and one of its eyes. One song tells of the snake's creation from the saliva of a sleeping Hiisi, which was eaten by Syöjätär - it burned and she coughed it out - once dried out Hiisi gave it life. (Tempo and Hiisi both appear in some forms of this creation text) The Aspen tree was also said to have come from Hiisi.

The Hornet (or wasp), closely associated with Hiisi (or Tempo) is a key element in the mythic creation of steel from iron - its sting - mistaken for honey by the smith Ilmarinen was used to harden the iron into steel - this poison was indicated as the origin of steel being used as a weapon against other people. One version of the origin of copper ore has it coming from the urine of Hilahatar (Hiisi's girl), his old woman, and his mare (horse).

Riddles
Hiisi's name was used in Finnish riddles - "Hiisi's elk" (or ".. with a hundred horns") is a pine tree; and "the neighing of Hiisi's horse in Hiisi's land" refers to thunder.

In the Kalevala

 * Except where noted, quotations in English are from the translation by

There are many references to Hiisi in the Kalevala.

In Runo VI Joukahainen's bow has a drawstring made from the "elk of Hisi".

In Runo VII an evil spirit or agent called Hiisi is blamed for Väinämöinen's self-injury with his axe.

In Runo IX "Hiisi's cauldron" is mentioned as a vessel for creating enchantments.

Lemminkäinen is associated indirectly with Hiisi. He sometimes calls on Hiisi's aid, or others refer to the association as an insult. Hiisi's name is invoked in spells by Lemminkäinen. In Runo XI he silences a guard dog with the words "Stop the barker's mouth, O Hiisi", and in Runo XII, when he sings a spell calling forth warriors to aid him from the earth, the water and the forests he refers to those from the water as "Water-Hiisi". In Runo XI Lemminkäinen claims to have a sword with a "blade forged by Hiisi" and the same sword is mentioned in Runo XII as having been sharpened by Hiisi.

Lemminkäinen's pursuit of "Hiisi's elk" is the main quest in Runo XIII. The form of this elk fulfills a curse made earlier (lines 55-58), and it is constructed by Hiisi with a head of rotten wood, horns of willow, and other parts of sticks, reeds, and so on.

In Runo XIV Lemminkäinen is given the task of bridling the "fire-breathing steed of Hiisi".

In Runo XVII the giant Antero Vipunen refers to Väinämöinen, who has entered his stomach and is troubling him, as a Hiisi (line 169, 277), and as a "hound of Hiisi" (line 245), while Väinämöinen refers to Vipunen's stomach as "Hiisi's stable" (line 117).

In Runo XIX a field of serpents is said to have once been ploughed by Hiisi.

Runo XXVI includes the tale of the creation of snakes by Hiisi and Syöjätär.

In Runo XXVII the Mistress of Pohjola refers to Lemminkäinen as "scamp of Hiisi" (line 263).

In both Runo XXXIII and Runo L a woman is insulted as a "whore of Hiisi".

There are also figurative expressions such as "Bird of Hiisi" for a wasp (Runo IX).

There are some minor references that do not fit the pattern of references to evil spirits. In Runo XVIII, for instance, there is a line,"Gently barked the castle's Hiisi", though the text make it clear that is an ordinary dog (lines 476–550).

Associated terms
Hiitola is his home/homeland; Hippa his daughter, and Kipinatar his cat.

Modern language usage
Often, the English "goblin" is translated as "hiisi" in Finnish, due to the numerous similarities between the typical goblin and hiisi. In the Finnish translations of the works of J.R.R. Tolkien, where the word "goblin" is a synonym for "Orc", hiisi is used as the translation for "goblin", whereas "orc" is translated as "örkki".

In modern Finnish, hiisi and its derivatives hitto and hittolainen are mild profanities.

In the video game Noita a faction of hostile NPCs are referred to as The Hiisi

In the Swedish fantasy drama Border (2018), the troll character Vore lays an unfertilized egg that he calls a "hiisit". He says it is a changeling.

Sources cited

 * , e-text via www.gutenberg.org
 * , e-text via www.gutenberg.org
 * , e-text via www.gutenberg.org
 * , e-text via www.gutenberg.org

title: Hiisi


text:
List of governors of Virginia

The governor of Virginia is the state's head of government and commander-in-chief of the state's official national guard. The first Constitution of 1776 created the office of governor, to be elected annually by the Virginia State Legislature. The governor could serve up to three years at a time, and once out of office, could not serve again for four years. The 1830 constitution changed the thrice-renewable one-year term length to a non-renewable three-year term, and set the start date at the first day in January following an election. This constitution also prevented governors from succeeding themselves, a prohibition that exists to the present day. The 1851 Constitution increased terms to four years and made the office elected by the people, rather than the legislature. The commencement of the Governor's term was moved to the first day in February by the 1902 Constitution, and then to the Saturday after the second Wednesday in January by the 1971 and current Constitution.

If the office of governor is vacant due to death, impeachment and disqualification, or resignation, the lieutenant governor of Virginia becomes governor. The office of lieutenant governor was created in 1851. Prior to that a Council of State existed; it chose from among its members a president who would be "lieutenant-governor" and would act as governor when there was a vacancy in that office. The governor and the lieutenant governor are elected at the same time but not on the same ticket. Officially, there have been 74 governors of Virginia; the acting governors are not counted.

Governors
Virginia was one of the original Thirteen Colonies and was admitted as a state on June 25, 1788. Before it declared its independence, Virginia was a colony of the Kingdom of Great Britain. It seceded from the Union on April 17, 1861, and was admitted to the Confederate States of America on May 7, 1861. Following the end of the American Civil War, Virginia during Reconstruction constituted the First Military District, which exerted some control over governor appointments and elections. Virginia was readmitted to the Union on January 26, 1870.

The federal government recognized the Restored Government of Virginia, based in Wheeling, as the legitimate government in Virginia on June 25, 1861. It elected its own slate of governors, and after West Virginia was split from Virginia on June 20, 1863, the restored government relocated to Alexandria.

title: List of governors of Virginia


text:
List of governors of Pennsylvania

The governor of Pennsylvania is the head of government of the U.S. state of Pennsylvania, as well as commander-in-chief of the state's national guard.

The governor has a duty to enforce state laws and the power to approve or veto bills passed by the Pennsylvania General Assembly, as well as to convene the legislature. The governor may grant pardons except in cases of impeachment, but only when recommended by the Board of Pardons.

There have been seven presidents and 48 governors of Pennsylvania, with two governors (Robert E. Pattison and Gifford Pinchot) serving non-consecutive terms, totaling 55 terms in both offices. The longest term was that of the first governor, Thomas Mifflin, who served three full terms as governor in addition to two years as President of the Continental Congress. The shortest term belonged to John C. Bell Jr., who served only 19 days as acting governor after his predecessor, Edward Martin, resigned.

The current governor is Josh Shapiro, who took office on January 17, 2023.

Governors
Pennsylvania was one of the original Thirteen Colonies and was admitted as a state on December 12, 1787. Before it declared its independence, Pennsylvania was a colony of the Kingdom of Great Britain.

Presidents of the Supreme Executive Council
The Pennsylvania Constitution of 1776 created the Supreme Executive Council as the state's executive branch, with a president as its head. The president was chosen annually by the council, though with no specific term dates.

The constitution created the position of "vice-president", though no provision was made if the office of the president became vacant, which occurred four times later. Contemporary sources continue to label the chief executive in such times as the vice-president, without any notion of succeeding in the presidency. One acting president, George Bryan, was subsequently recognized later as a full-fledged governor, due to his acting as president for over six months.

Governors of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania

The 1790 constitution abolished the council and replaced the president with a governor, and established a three-year term for governor commencing on the third Tuesday of the December following the election, with governors not allowed to serve more than nine out of any twelve years. The 1838 constitution moved the start of the term to the third Tuesday of the January following the election, and allowed governors to only serve six out of any nine years. The 1874 constitution lengthened the term to four years, and prohibited governors from succeeding themselves. The current constitution of 1968 changed this to allow governors to serve two consecutive terms, with no lifetime limit.

Under the 1968 constitution, Milton Shapp was the first governor to serve two terms, and Tom Corbett was the first incumbent governor to lose a re-election bid.

If the office of governor becomes vacant through death, resignation, or conviction on impeachment, the lieutenant governor becomes governor for the remainder of the term; if the office is only temporarily vacant due to disability of the governor, the lieutenant governor only acts out the duties of governor. Should both offices be vacant, the president pro tempore of the state senate becomes governor. The position of a lieutenant governor was created in the 1874 constitution; prior to then, the speaker of the senate would act as governor in cases of vacancy. Originally, the lieutenant governor could only act as governor; it was not until the 1968 constitution that the lieutenant governor could actually become the sitting governor in that fashion. The office of governor has been vacant for an extended period once before, a 17-day gap in 1848 between the resignation of the previous governor and the swearing in of his acting successor. Governors and lieutenant governors are elected on the same political party ticket.

title: List of governors of Pennsylvania