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James Hinton (surgeon)

James Hinton (baptised 26 November 1822 – 16 December 1875) was an English surgeon and author. He was the father of mathematician Charles Howard Hinton. He was an outspoken advocate of polygamy. He appears as a character in some fictional accounts of the 19th century English serial murderer known as Jack the Ripper.

Life
He was born at Reading, Berkshire, the son of John Howard Hinton, Baptist minister and author of the History and Topography of the United States and other works. James was educated at his grandfather's school near Oxford, and at the Nonconformist school at Harpenden, and in 1838, on his father's removal to London, was apprenticed to a woollen-draper in Whitechapel. After working there for about a year he became clerk in an insurance office. His evenings were spent in intense study, and this, combined with a concentration on moral problems, so affected his health that, aged eighteen, he tried to seek refuge from his own thoughts by running away to sea. His intention having been discovered, he was sent, on the advice of his doctor, to St Bartholomew's Hospital to study for the medical profession. After receiving his diploma in 1847, he was for some time assistant surgeon at Newport, Essex, but the same year he went out to Sierra Leone to take medical charge of the free labourers on their voyage thence to Jamaica, where he stayed some time. He returned to England in 1850, and entered into partnership with a surgeon in London, where he soon had his interest awakened specially in aural surgery, and also studied physiology.

After being appointed aural surgeon to Guy's Hospital in 1863, he soon acquired a reputation as the most skillful aural surgeon of his day. In the 1870s his health began to break down, and in 1874 he gave up practice. He died the following year at the Azores of "acute inflammation of the brain".

Writings
His career as an author started in 1856 with papers on physiological and ethical subjects to the Christian Spectator; and in 1859 he published Man and his Dwellingplace. A series of papers entitled "Physiological Riddles," in the Cornhill Magazine, afterwards published as Life in Nature (1862), as well as another series entitled Thoughts on Health (1871), proved his aptitude for popular scientific exposition. His specialist field of aural surgery was the subject of An Atlas of the membrana tympani with descriptive text; being illustrations of diseases of the ear (1874), and Questions of Aural Surgery (1874). In addition to the works already mentioned, he was the author of The Mystery of Pain (1866) and The Place of the Physician (1874). On account of their fresh and vigorous discussion of many of the important moral and social problems of the times his writings had a wide circulation on both sides of the Atlantic.

He was also a radical advocate of polygamous relationships, and according to his wife, had once remarked to her: "Christ was the saviour of Men but I am the saviour of Women and I don't envy him a bit." The notoriety of his writings on polygamy led to accusations in polite society of actual immorality leading to a renunciation of them just before he died.

His Life and Letters, edited by Ellice Hopkins, with an introduction by Sir WW Gull, appeared in 1878 but overlooked references to polygamy. Some philosophical writings were published posthumously, edited by his wife Margaret and sister-in-law Caroline Haddon. The polygamous aspects led to a campaign to discredit him, fronted especially by a group of London radicals, The Men and Women's Club, founded in 1885 to discuss matters of gender and sexuality. Its success led to the discrediting too of his son, Charles Howard, whose bigamy was attributed to his father's theories. In 1887, Charles Howard and Mary Ellen Boole, the eldest daughter of George Boole and Mary Everest, exiled their family to Japan.

Portrayal in fiction
Because of his association with Sir William Withey Gull, Hinton has been indirectly associated with the murders of Jack the Ripper.

In their fictional graphic novel on the Ripper, From Hell, authors Alan Moore and Eddie Campbell extend Hinton's concern over social problems to prostitution in Whitechapel, which became the hunting grounds for the Ripper after his death. Their suggestion is that his concerns over prostitution among the lower classes greatly influenced Gull, who was put forward as a Ripper suspect in Stephen Knight's 1976 book, Jack the Ripper: The Final Solution.

In From Hell, Hinton is portrayed as an idealistic doctor given to "passionate outbursts" and flights of metaphysical theorising and speculation. His character is used as a complementary figure to the more worldly – and less compassionate – Dr. Gull.

Hinton's association with the murders has much to do with both Knight's book and Iain Sinclair's novel White Chappell, Scarlet Tracings.

title: James Hinton (surgeon)


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Cypripedioideae

Cypripedioideae is a subfamily of orchids commonly known as lady's slipper orchids, lady slipper orchids or slipper orchids. Cypripedioideae includes the genera Cypripedium, Mexipedium, Paphiopedilum, Phragmipedium and Selenipedium. They are characterised by the slipper-shaped pouches (modified labella) of the flowers – the pouch traps insects so they are forced to climb up past the staminode, behind which they collect or deposit pollinia, thus fertilizing the flower. There are approximately 165 species in the subfamily.

Description
All representatives of the Cypripedioideae are perennial, herbaceous plants. The fleshy roots sometimes possess a veil. The leaves are arranged spirally or in two rows, the shoot is slender or compressed. In the bud, the leaves are rolled and the leaf blade is plikat (folded) or the leaves are folded in the bud, smooth and leathery. There is no dividing tissue between leaf and shoot.

The inflorescence of the Cypripedioideae are terminal and mostly unbranched. The flowers are spiral or in two lines on the shoot, they are resupinated. The petals are in two threefold circles, with mostly two petals of the outer circle are completely fused. The labellum forms a sac-like structure. The ovary is under constant and one-chambered or three-chambered. Two fertile stamens, a staminode and style are fused into a complex structure. The stylus is short and thick, the stigma is large and convex, the central lobe of the stigma is larger than the two lateral ones. The two lateral stamens are fertile, the pollen grains are glued together to form a paste or formed into connected pollinia in some Phragmipedium species. The middle, barren stamen is shield-shaped widened. The fruits are mostly capsule fruits, with Selenipedium they are berry-like. They contain numerous flattened seeds, about a millimeter long and 0.1 millimeters wide. In contrast, the seeds of Selenipedium are lens-shaped and have a hard seed coat.

Chromosome numbers vary within the subfamily over a wide range from 2n=20 in Cypripedium to 26 to 44 chromosomes in Paphiopedilum. The chromosomes are quite large.

The species in this subfamily form trap flowers in which insect access to the saclike lip from the front is quite easy. The inside is designed in such a way that the insects climb out of the flower past the stigma and the stamens and thereby pollinate the flower.

Distribution
The species in the subfamily Cypripedioideae are found in northern South America and Central America (Mexipedium, Phragmipedium, Selenipedium), circumboreal in North America, Europe, Africa (Algeria ) and in northern Asia (Cypripedium) as well as in subtropical and tropical Southeast Asia (Paphiopedilum). They do not occur in Australia and Africa. The spread could have started from a center of origin in Central America.

Taxonomy
Unlike most other orchids, slipper orchids have two fertile anthers — they are "diandrous". For that reason, experts have debated whether this clade should be classified within the orchid family (Orchidaceae), or whether they should compose a separate family altogether called Cypripediaceae. Around the year 2000, molecular phylogenetics and DNA sampling have come to play an increasingly important role in classification. This has led to the conclusion that recognition of a distinct family Cypripediaceae would be inappropriate.

The subfamily Cypripedioideae is monophyletic and consists of five genera:

 * Cypripedium, found across much of North America, as well as in parts of Europe (one species), Africa (only in Algeria has been discovered in 2019 ) and Asia. The state flower of Minnesota is the showy lady's slipper (Cypripedium reginae); the pink lady's slipper (Cypripedium acaule) is the official flower of the Canadian province of Prince Edward Island.
 * Mexipedium, a monotypic genus, consisting of a single species that was found in a single locality in Oaxaca, Mexico.
 * Paphiopedilum, found in the tropical forests of southeast Asia reaching as far north as southern China. Paphiopedilum is quite easy to cultivate and therefore is popular among orchid enthusiasts.  In fact, over-collection of this genus has been so extensive that many species are now sub-viable in their natural habitats.
 * Phragmipedium, found across northern South and Central America, is also easy to cultivate as it requires lower temperatures than Paphiopedilum, eliminating the need for a greenhouse in many areas.
 * Selenipedium, found in Central and South America.

Intergeneric hybrids
Hybrids between the genera in this subfamily are placed in the following nothogenera: Hybrids with genera outside of the subfamily are not known as of 2017.
 * × Cyphiopedilum (Cphd.) = Cypripedium × Paphiopedilum
 * × Cyphragmipedium (Cgd.) = Cypripedium × Phragmipedium
 * × Phragmipaphium (Phrphm.) = Paphiopedilum × Phragmipedium

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Cypripedioideae


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Manufacturing, Science and Finance

Manufacturing, Science and Finance (or the Manufacturing, Science and Finance Union; almost exclusively known as MSF) was a trade union in Britain. Over eighty members of Parliament (primarily members of the Labour Party) were members.

History
The MSF was the result of a merger in January 1988 between the Association of Scientific, Technical and Managerial Staffs (ASTMS) and the Technical, Administrative and Supervisory Section (TASS). In 1991, it had 604,000 members, but this fell to 446,000 in 1996, the most rapid decline of any major British union.

In 2001 the MSF merged with the Amalgamated Engineering and Electrical Union to form Amicus. The General Secretary of MSF from 1992 until the merger with Amicus was Roger Lyons, who continued as Joint General Secretary of Amicus's MSF section. In 2007 Amicus merged with the TGWU to form Unite.

Amalgamations
Several unions amalgamated with the MSF:

 * 1988: Church of England Children's Society Staff Association, Imperial Supervisors' Association, United Friendly Field Management Staff Association
 * 1989: Imperial Group Staff Association
 * 1990: Health Visitors' Association
 * 1991: Australian Mutual Provident Society
 * 1993: Hospital Physicists Association, National Union of Scalemakers
 * 1994: Ceron Research Staff Association
 * 1997: College of Health Care Chaplains
 * 1998: Communication Managers' Association
 * 1999: Britannic Supervisory Union, Corporation of London Staff Association, National Union of Insurance Workers, Neilson Staff Association
 * 2000: Lloyds Registry Staff Association, Union of Textile Workers
 * 2001: Leicester Housing Association Staff Association

General Secretaries

 * 1988: Clive Jenkins and Ken Gill
 * 1988: Ken Gill
 * 1992: Roger Lyons

Assistant General Secretaries

 * 1988: Roger Lyons and Barbara Switzer
 * 1992: John Chowcat and Barbara Switzer
 * 1997: John Chowcat
 * 1999: Post vacant

title: Manufacturing, Science and Finance


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Derek Simpson (trade unionist)

Derek Simpson (born 23 December 1944) is a British trade unionist who was the Joint-General Secretary of the UK's biggest private-sector trade union, Unite, from 2007 until 2010. He was previously the General Secretary of Amicus from 2002 until its merger with the Transport and General Workers' Union to form Unite in 2007.

Early life
Derek Simpson was born and educated in Sheffield. He was an only child with an absent father. He attended Sheffield Central Technical School (a technical school, which transferred to the Ashleigh School in Gleadless and was then demolished having merged to become Myrtle Springs School which is now Sheffield Springs Academy).

In 1987 he received an Open University BSc in computing and mathematics. He was appointed an honorary fellow of Sheffield Hallam University in 1999.

Career
From 1960 to 1966 he worked for Firth Brown Tools, then Balfour Darwin from 1966 to 1981, then working full-time as a union official.

AEU
He joined the Amalgamated Engineering Union (AEU) on becoming an apprentice at the age of 15. He became an AEU shop steward at Balfour Darwin in 1967 and held a number of increasingly senior union positions in workplaces where he was employed, learning his politics in what described as "the socialist republic of South Yorkshire". In 1981 he became a full-time union official, becoming the AEU's District Secretary for Sheffield. He was still working for the union in that city when he stood for the position of Joint General Secretary in 2002.

General Secretary of Amicus
Simpson was the surprise winner of the June 2002 election for the position of Joint General Secretary of the AEEU Section of Amicus. He beat Tony Blair's 'favourite trade unionist' – Sir Ken Jackson. He assumed the position of General Secretary in May 2004 following the departure of the MSF Section's JGS, Roger Lyons.

In the above election, Simpson was seen as the left candidate, and was backed by the broad left in the AEEU, now known as Amicus Unity Gazette. During this election campaign he appeared at fringe meetings of the Amicus MSF section conference in Blackpool, defying an instruction from Jackson not to attend. He was still identified with the Unity Gazette and appeared at their national meetings until 2008, when he helped launch a rival "Workers Uniting Group".

Simpson has repeatedly denied press claims that he was part of the "Awkward Squad" of trade union leaders opposed to New Labour policies, that they perceive to be against the interests of working people. Simpson stated that he is not in the awkward squad: "I get named as such, but it's astonishing that nobody's able to back that up with any fact".

Since becoming General Secretary, he has been supportive of the links between Amicus and the Labour Party. A member of the Communist Party of Great Britain until its disbanding in 1991, he joined the Labour Party in 1994. He was involved in the negotiation that let to the 2004 Warwick Agreement, in which the Labour Party agreed to implement some of the trade unions' policies during their third term. He favoured the early departure of Tony Blair as Labour Party Leader and Prime Minister.

Joint General Secretary of Unite
On 9 October 2008, the Executive Council of Unite decided that there would be an election for the General Secretary (Amicus section), with a timetable of January/February 2009 for the election, the results to be announced in March 2009. This election was for a fixed term until December 2010. The Executive council also postponed the merger of the union and adoption of the new rule book until May 2009.

In May 2010, during confidential negotiations with British Airways under the chairmanship of conciliation service Acas to resolve an ongoing dispute, Simpson was found to be using his BlackBerry to update his Twitter account with progress of the confidential negotiations.

Personal life
Simpson met his first wife Freda when working at a greyhound track, parading the dogs and setting the traps. They married on 23 December 1967 in Sheffield. They divorced in 1974, and in 1976 Simpson married Linda Gilliver; they have two sons (born 1980 and September 1986) and a daughter (born 1982). Simpson then divorced Linda, and remarried Freda, who has two sons (born 1979 and August 1984) and a daughter (born 1977) from her previous marriage.

title: Derek Simpson (trade unionist)


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Georges River

The Georges River, also known as Tucoerah River, is an intermediate tide-dominated drowned valley estuary, that is located in Sydney in the state of New South Wales, Australia. The Georges River is located south and south-west from the Sydney CBD, with the mouth of the river being at Botany Bay.

The river travels for approximately 96 km in a north and then easterly direction to its mouth at Botany Bay, about 5 km from the Tasman Sea. The Georges River is the main tributary of Botany Bay; with the Cooks River being a secondary tributary.

The total catchment area of the river is approximately 930.9 km2 and the area surrounding the river is managed by various local government authorities and NSW Government agencies across Sydney.

The land adjacent to the Georges River was occupied for many thousands of years by the Tharawal and Eora peoples. They used the river as an important source of food and a place for trade.

Geography

From its source east of Appin within heath habitat of Wollondilly Shire & Wollongong Local government area, the Georges River flows north through rugged sandstone gorges to the east of Campbelltown, roughly parallel to the Main South railway line, with its eastern bank forming a boundary of Holsworthy Army Base. At Glenfield it reaches the urban environment and then travels to Liverpool where the river turns east and flows past the suburbs of East Hills, Lugarno, and Blakehurst, before emptying into Botany Bay at Taren Point/Sansouci in the southern suburbs of Sydney, where it joins with the estuarine catchment.

Major tributaries include O'Hares Creek, Bunbury Curran Creek, Cabramatta Creek, Lennox River (proposed), Prospect Creek, Salt Pan Creek and the Woronora River. The Georges River is popular for recreational activities such as water skiing and swimming. The banks of the river along the lower reaches are marked by large inlets and indentations overlooked by steep sandstone ridges and scarps, many being home to expensive residential properties.

The Georges River features some artificial lakes in the suburb of Chipping Norton, near Liverpool. These lakes, known as the Chipping Norton Lakes, are the result of sand mining and quarrying operations in the twentieth century. The Lakes are now a popular watersports and recreational facility for the residents of the south-western suburbs of Sydney.

Liverpool Weir now forms the uppermost tidal limit and presence of salt water on the Georges River.

[From Appin to Glenfield, a large corridor has been protected as part of the Georges River Regional Open Space Corridor. Council reserves allow for access to natural sections of the river at Simmo's Beach, Ingleburn Reserve, Keith Longhurst Reserve, and Frere's Crossing.

Botany Bay Community River Health Monitoring Program is a community-based initiative to monitor ecosystem health catchment.

Aboriginal history
Prior to the arrival of Europeans, Georges River was formerly known as Tucoerah (or Toggerai / Tuggerah) River by the traditional custodians of the area. It is not known whether this word referred to the whole river or rather just a part of it. Mill Creek, a tributary of Tucoerah was called Guragurang.

To the south of Tocoerah are the traditional lands of the Dharawal people. The Dharug/Eora people are the traditional custodians of the land on its northern banks.

European history
The Georges River was given its English name in honour of King George III, by Governor Arthur Phillip. It was one of the many sites of the Hawkesbury and Nepean Wars, a series of wars between the Kingdom of Great Britain and the resisting Indigenous clans in the late 1700s and early 1800s.

One of the earliest contacts between British settlers and Aboriginal people occurred on 20 January 1788. Arthur Philip and Philip Gidley King, leading a party of seamen from the First Fleet rowing two open boats, explored the 'South-West Arm of Botany Bay' (now Georges River). They are now thought to have gone as far as Lime Kiln Bay, where they landed at two locations there, the first of which they called 'Lance Point'—thought to be modern-day Gertrude Point, Lugarno—where an altercation with local people occurred. Later the same day, there was a peaceful meeting at what is now thought to have been the head of Lime Kiln Bay. They are also now believed to have entered the estuarine mouth of the Georges Rivers' tributary, Woronora River. Not finding enough freshwater, around Botany Bay and its two 'arms', the colonists moved on to Port Jackson, where the settlement of Sydney began six days later.

The river was explored by Bass and Flinders in 1795 on their first voyage on the Tom Thumb after their arrival in New South Wales. The exploration led to the establishment of Bankstown.

A dam was constructed by David Lennox using convict labour at Liverpool in 1836, as a water supply to Liverpool.

Oyster farming on Georges River occurred between around 1870 and 2023, in the part of the river estuary downstream from Salt Pan Creek.

In February 2007, Liverpool and Campbelltown City Council were awarded a $2 million grant from the NSW Environmental Trust under their Urban Sustainability Initiative. The grant was to allow the councils, in conjunction with Wollondilly Shire Council and the Georges River Combined Councils Committee, to develop a Comprehensive Strategic Plan focused on the rehabilitation of the catchment area.

Since the 2010s, the Mandaean community in the Greater Sydney region has been using the Georges River for their ritual baptisms, called masbuta. Along with the Nepean River, it is one of the few ritual rivers (called yardna in Mandaic) that they use for their baptism and ablution rituals.

Crossings
Bridges over the Georges River include from east to west:
 * Captain Cook Bridge (connecting Sans Souci to Taren Point), for cars, pedestrians and cyclists.
 * Tom Uglys Bridge (connecting Blakehurst to Sylvania), for cars, pedestrians and cyclists.
 * Old Como railway bridge, now for pedestrians and cyclists.
 * Como railway bridge on the Illawarra line, connecting Oatley to Como, for trains.
 * Alfords Point Bridge (connecting Padstow Heights to Alfords Point), for cars, pedestrians and cyclists.
 * East Hills rail bridge at East Hills, for the Airport & South Line
 * Voyager Point footbridge, for pedestrians and cyclists.
 * M5 South Western Motorway Georges River East Bridge
 * Milperra Bridge (Newbridge Rd connecting Moorebank to Milperra), for cars, pedestrians and cyclists.
 * Governor Macquarie Drive bridge (connecting Warwick Farm to Chipping Norton), for cars, pedestrians and cyclists.
 * Liverpool Weir – built 1836
 * Liverpool footbridge (now demolished which utilised the footing of the decommissioned railway bridge to Holsworthy).
 * Newbridge Rd (connecting Liverpool to Chipping Norton), for cars, pedestrians and cyclists.
 * M5 South Western Motorway Georges River West Bridge
 * Airport & South Line rail bridge (connecting Holsworthy to Glenfield), for trains.
 * Cambridge Ave Causeway (connecting Holsworthy to Glenfield), for cars.
 * King Falls Bridge

Fish
The Georges River is a popular area for recreational fishing. Species present in the river include bass, bream, whiting, yellowtail, jewfish and flathead. The river is also host to a number of commercial oyster farms. The upper ends of the Georges River are abundant with Bass during the summer months and during the winter months these bass migrate down to the lower ends of the river towards the salt water to breed. Waste water inflows to the river are carefully managed to maintain the estuarine habitat.

title: Georges River


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Broad left

Broad Left is a coalition of leftist members, usually involving independents, members of the Labour Party (UK) (although some people deny that the Labour Party still constitute as "broad left"), and members of organised revolutionary leftist movements within a trade union, or members of a political party that appeals to a wide range of leftist ideologies, such as Left Unity (UK).

title: Broad left


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Unity Gazette

Unity Gazette is a broad left caucus group in the Amicus trade union in the United Kingdom. It includes activists from the former Manufacturing, Science and Finance (MSF) and Amalgamated Engineering and Electrical Union (AEEU) trade unions which merged to form Amicus. The broad left of AEEU was also known as Unity Gazette or Engineering Gazette. Recent mergers between Amicus and UNIFI and GPMU have resulted in new members from those unions.

Unity Gazette is often known as "the Gazette" or "the Left" by supporters and opponents alike.

Membership of Unity Gazette is open to any lay member or employee of Amicus who shares its aims, regardless of any position they may hold within the union.

Grass-roots activity of the Gazette is organised on a regional basis, each region being permitted a high degree of autonomy in how it organises its own activities. In some regions, candidates for membership must be proposed, seconded and approved by the attendees at the regional meeting, while other regions grant membership immediately on request.

National Gazette policy is decided at National Meetings, which normally take place every three months in Preston, Lancashire. At all other times the Editorial Committee are empowered to run the affairs of the national Gazette.

Activities of Unity Gazette include:
 * Regular national and regional meetings to decide policy and lists of candidates, which all members are then mandated to support.
 * Encouragement of members who belong to the Labour Party to stand for election to the Amicus Political Committees, which are only open to Labour Party members.
 * Publicising and encouraging support for Amicus campaigns and industrial disputes.

The Gazette was instrumental in campaigning for two rule changes which were approved by the union's 2005 Policy and Rules Conference. The first introduced area committees, consisting of workplace representatives from a given geographical area. Such structures existed in the AEEU. The second, much more controversial rule change, introduced election of full-time officers rather than appointment; although an election was held for the Regional Secretary of the Yorkshire and Humberside, it is highly unlikely that any more elections of officers will take place in Amicus, and there is no provision for election of officers within the new union formed by the merger of Amicus and the Transport and General Workers' Union.

At the Unity Gazette Annual General Meeting held on 2007-03-10, members voted to support a statement of intent to merge with the TGWU Broad Left organisation at the earliest opportunity, to maximise the role of both organisations' activists in the new union.

Unity Gazette is completely self-financing, by means of members' donations.

The name Unity Gazette derives from a newspaper of the same name which had a regular print run and was circulated within AEEU workplaces. This paper was not printed for many years except as a special edition for conferences and in response to industrial disputes. In April 2006 the Unity Gazette was revived as a monthly newsletter which is available on the website and is delivered to supporters by email or post.

Another caucus group within the union, with different aims, is ATU Network. That group seeks to attract Labour-supporting members of Amicus who are sympathetic to Blairism. It is currently smaller than the Gazette, with a much lower profile. However it is believed to have opposed the Gazette's campaign for election of full-time officers.

title: Unity Gazette


text:
Sequent calculus

In mathematical logic, sequent calculus is a style of formal logical argumentation in which every line of a proof is a conditional tautology (called a sequent by Gerhard Gentzen) instead of an unconditional tautology. Each conditional tautology is inferred from other conditional tautologies on earlier lines in a formal argument according to rules and procedures of inference, giving a better approximation to the natural style of deduction used by mathematicians than to David Hilbert's earlier style of formal logic, in which every line was an unconditional tautology. More subtle distinctions may exist; for example, propositions may implicitly depend upon non-logical axioms. In that case, sequents signify conditional theorems in a first-order language rather than conditional tautologies.

Sequent calculus is one of several extant styles of proof calculus for expressing line-by-line logical arguments. In other words, natural deduction and sequent calculus systems are particular distinct kinds of Gentzen-style systems. Hilbert-style systems typically have a very small number of inference rules, relying more on sets of axioms. Gentzen-style systems typically have very few axioms, if any, relying more on sets of rules.
 * Hilbert style. Every line is an unconditional tautology (or theorem).
 * Gentzen style. Every line is a conditional tautology (or theorem) with zero or more conditions on the left.
 * Natural deduction. Every (conditional) line has exactly one asserted proposition on the right.
 * Sequent calculus. Every (conditional) line has zero or more asserted propositions on the right.

Gentzen-style systems have significant practical and theoretical advantages compared to Hilbert-style systems. For example, both natural deduction and sequent calculus systems facilitate the elimination and introduction of universal and existential quantifiers so that unquantified logical expressions can be manipulated according to the much simpler rules of propositional calculus. In a typical argument, quantifiers are eliminated, then propositional calculus is applied to unquantified expressions (which typically contain free variables), and then the quantifiers are reintroduced. This very much parallels the way in which mathematical proofs are carried out in practice by mathematicians. Predicate calculus proofs are generally much easier to discover with this approach, and are often shorter. Natural deduction systems are more suited to practical theorem-proving. Sequent calculus systems are more suited to theoretical analysis.

Overview
In proof theory and mathematical logic, sequent calculus is a family of formal systems sharing a certain style of inference and certain formal properties. The first sequent calculi systems, LK and LJ, were introduced in 1934/1935 by Gerhard Gentzen as a tool for studying natural deduction in first-order logic (in classical and intuitionistic versions, respectively). Gentzen's so-called "Main Theorem" (Hauptsatz) about LK and LJ was the cut-elimination theorem, a result with far-reaching meta-theoretic consequences, including consistency. Gentzen further demonstrated the power and flexibility of this technique a few years later, applying a cut-elimination argument to give a (transfinite) proof of the consistency of Peano arithmetic, in surprising response to Gödel's incompleteness theorems. Since this early work, sequent calculi, also called Gentzen systems,   and the general concepts relating to them, have been widely applied in the fields of proof theory, mathematical logic, and automated deduction.

Hilbert-style deduction systems
One way to classify different styles of deduction systems is to look at the form of judgments in the system, i.e., which things may appear as the conclusion of a (sub)proof. The simplest judgment form is used in Hilbert-style deduction systems, where a judgment has the form
 * $$B$$

where $$B$$ is any formula of first-order logic (or whatever logic the deduction system applies to, e.g., propositional calculus or a higher-order logic or a modal logic). The theorems are those formulae that appear as the concluding judgment in a valid proof. A Hilbert-style system needs no distinction between formulae and judgments; we make one here solely for comparison with the cases that follow.

The price paid for the simple syntax of a Hilbert-style system is that complete formal proofs tend to get extremely long. Concrete arguments about proofs in such a system almost always appeal to the deduction theorem. This leads to the idea of including the deduction theorem as a formal rule in the system, which happens in natural deduction.

Natural deduction systems
In natural deduction, judgments have the shape
 * $$A_1, A_2, \ldots, A_n \vdash B$$

where the $$A_i$$'s and $$B$$ are again formulae and $$n\geq 0$$. Permutations of the $$A_i$$'s are immaterial. In other words, a judgment consists of a list (possibly empty) of formulae on the left-hand side of a turnstile symbol "$$\vdash$$", with a single formula on the right-hand side. The theorems are those formulae $$B$$ such that $$\vdash B$$ (with an empty left-hand side) is the conclusion of a valid proof. (In some presentations of natural deduction, the $$A_i$$s and the turnstile are not written down explicitly; instead a two-dimensional notation from which they can be inferred is used.)

The standard semantics of a judgment in natural deduction is that it asserts that whenever $$A_1$$, $$A_2$$, etc., are all true, $$B$$ will also be true. The judgments
 * $$A_1, \ldots, A_n \vdash B$$

and
 * $$\vdash (A_1 \land \cdots \land A_n) \rightarrow B$$

are equivalent in the strong sense that a proof of either one may be extended to a proof of the other.

Sequent calculus systems
Finally, sequent calculus generalizes the form of a natural deduction judgment to
 * $$A_1, \ldots, A_n \vdash B_1, \ldots, B_k,$$

a syntactic object called a sequent. The formulas on left-hand side of the turnstile are called the antecedent, and the formulas on right-hand side are called the succedent or consequent; together they are called cedents or sequents. Again, $$A_i$$ and $$B_i$$ are formulae, and $$n$$ and $$k$$ are nonnegative integers, that is, the left-hand-side or the right-hand-side (or neither or both) may be empty. As in natural deduction, theorems are those $$B$$ where $$\vdash B$$ is the conclusion of a valid proof.

The standard semantics of a sequent is an assertion that whenever every $$ A_i$$ is true, at least one $$B_i$$ will also be true. Thus the empty sequent, having both cedents empty, is false. One way to express this is that a comma to the left of the turnstile should be thought of as an "and", and a comma to the right of the turnstile should be thought of as an (inclusive) "or". The sequents
 * $$A_1, \ldots, A_n \vdash B_1, \ldots, B_k$$

and
 * $$\vdash (A_1 \land\cdots\land A_n)\rightarrow(B_1 \lor\cdots\lor B_k)$$

are equivalent in the strong sense that a proof of either sequent may be extended to a proof of the other sequent.

At first sight, this extension of the judgment form may appear to be a strange complication—it is not motivated by an obvious shortcoming of natural deduction, and it is initially confusing that the comma seems to mean entirely different things on the two sides of the turnstile. However, in a classical context the semantics of the sequent can also (by propositional tautology) be expressed either as
 * $$\vdash \neg A_1 \lor \neg A_2 \lor \cdots \lor \neg A_n \lor B_1 \lor B_2 \lor\cdots\lor B_k$$

(at least one of the As is false, or one of the Bs is true)
 * or as
 * $$\vdash \neg(A_1 \land A_2 \land \cdots \land A_n \land \neg B_1 \land \neg B_2 \land\cdots\land \neg B_k)$$

(it cannot be the case that all of the As are true and all of the Bs are false). In these formulations, the only difference between formulae on either side of the turnstile is that one side is negated. Thus, swapping left for right in a sequent corresponds to negating all of the constituent formulae. This means that a symmetry such as De Morgan's laws, which manifests itself as logical negation on the semantic level, translates directly into a left-right symmetry of sequents—and indeed, the inference rules in sequent calculus for dealing with conjunction (∧) are mirror images of those dealing with disjunction (∨).

Many logicians feel that this symmetric presentation offers a deeper insight in the structure of the logic than other styles of proof system, where the classical duality of negation is not as apparent in the rules.

Distinction between natural deduction and sequent calculus
Gentzen asserted a sharp distinction between his single-output natural deduction systems (NK and NJ) and his multiple-output sequent calculus systems (LK and LJ). He wrote that the intuitionistic natural deduction system NJ was somewhat ugly. He said that the special role of the excluded middle in the classical natural deduction system NK is removed in the classical sequent calculus system LK. He said that the sequent calculus LJ gave more symmetry than natural deduction NJ in the case of intuitionistic logic, as also in the case of classical logic (LK versus NK). Then he said that in addition to these reasons, the sequent calculus with multiple succedent formulas is intended particularly for his principal theorem ("Hauptsatz").

Origin of word "sequent"
The word "sequent" is taken from the word "Sequenz" in Gentzen's 1934 paper. Kleene makes the following comment on the translation into English: "Gentzen says 'Sequenz', which we translate as 'sequent', because we have already used 'sequence' for any succession of objects, where the German is 'Folge'."

Reduction trees
Sequent calculus can be seen as a tool for proving formulas in propositional logic, similar to the method of analytic tableaux. It gives a series of steps that allows one to reduce the problem of proving a logical formula to simpler and simpler formulas until one arrives at trivial ones.

Consider the following formula:
 * $$((p\rightarrow r)\lor (q\rightarrow r))\rightarrow ((p\land q)\rightarrow r)$$

This is written in the following form, where the proposition that needs to be proven is to the right of the turnstile symbol $$\vdash$$:
 * $$\vdash((p\rightarrow r)\lor (q\rightarrow r))\rightarrow ((p\land q)\rightarrow r)$$

Now, instead of proving this from the axioms, it is enough to assume the premise of the implication and then try to prove its conclusion. Hence one moves to the following sequent:
 * $$(p\rightarrow r)\lor (q\rightarrow r)\vdash (p\land q)\rightarrow r$$

Again the right hand side includes an implication, whose premise can further be assumed so that only its conclusion needs to be proven:
 * $$(p\rightarrow r)\lor (q\rightarrow r), (p\land q)\vdash r$$

Since the arguments in the left-hand side are assumed to be related by conjunction, this can be replaced by the following:
 * $$(p\rightarrow r)\lor (q\rightarrow r), p, q\vdash r$$

This is equivalent to proving the conclusion in both cases of the disjunction on the first argument on the left. Thus we may split the sequent to two, where we now have to prove each separately:
 * $$p\rightarrow r, p, q\vdash r$$
 * $$q\rightarrow r, p, q\vdash r$$

In the case of the first judgment, we rewrite $$p\rightarrow r$$ as $$\lnot p \lor r$$ and split the sequent again to get:
 * $$\lnot p, p, q \vdash r$$
 * $$r, p, q \vdash r$$

The second sequent is done; the first sequent can be further simplified into:
 * $$p, q \vdash p, r$$

This process can always be continued until there are only atomic formulas in each side. The process can be graphically described by a rooted tree graph, as depicted on the right. The root of the tree is the formula we wish to prove; the leaves consist of atomic formulas only. The tree is known as a reduction tree.

The items to the left of the turnstile are understood to be connected by conjunction, and those to the right by disjunction. Therefore, when both consist only of atomic symbols, the sequent is accepted axiomatically (and always true) if and only if at least one of the symbols on the right also appears on the left.

Following are the rules by which one proceeds along the tree. Whenever one sequent is split into two, the tree vertex has two child vertices, and the tree is branched. Additionally, one may freely change the order of the arguments in each side; Γ and Δ stand for possible additional arguments.

The usual term for the horizontal line used in Gentzen-style layouts for natural deduction is inference line.

Starting with any formula in propositional logic, by a series of steps, the right side of the turnstile can be processed until it includes only atomic symbols. Then, the same is done for the left side. Since every logical operator appears in one of the rules above, and is removed by the rule, the process terminates when no logical operators remain: The formula has been decomposed.

Thus, the sequents in the leaves of the trees include only atomic symbols, which are either provable by the axiom or not, according to whether one of the symbols on the right also appears on the left.

It is easy to see that the steps in the tree preserve the semantic truth value of the formulas implied by them, with conjunction understood between the tree's different branches whenever there is a split. It is also obvious that an axiom is provable if and only if it is true for every assignment of truth values to the atomic symbols. Thus this system is sound and complete for classical propositional logic.

Relation to standard axiomatizations
Sequent calculus is related to other axiomatizations of propositional calculus, such as Frege's propositional calculus or Jan Łukasiewicz's axiomatization (itself a part of the standard Hilbert system): Every formula that can be proven in these has a reduction tree.

This can be shown as follows: Every proof in propositional calculus uses only axioms and the inference rules. Each use of an axiom scheme yields a true logical formula, and can thus be proven in sequent calculus; examples for these are shown below. The only inference rule in the systems mentioned above is modus ponens, which is implemented by the cut rule.

The system LK
This section introduces the rules of the sequent calculus LK (standing for Logistische Kalkül) as introduced by Gentzen in 1934. A (formal) proof in this calculus is a sequence of sequents, where each of the sequents is derivable from sequents appearing earlier in the sequence by using one of the rules below.

Inference rules
The following notation will be used:
 * $$\vdash$$ known as the turnstile, separates the assumptions on the left from the propositions on the right
 * $$A$$ and $$B$$ denote formulae of first-order predicate logic (one may also restrict this to propositional logic),
 * $$\Gamma, \Delta, \Sigma$$, and $$\Pi$$ are finite (possibly empty) sequences of formulae (in fact, the order of formulae does not matter; see ), called contexts,
 * when on the left of the $$\vdash$$, the sequence of formulas is considered conjunctively (all assumed to hold at the same time),
 * while on the right of the $$\vdash$$, the sequence of formulas is considered disjunctively (at least one of the formulas must hold for any assignment of variables),
 * $$t$$ denotes an arbitrary term,
 * $$x$$ and $$y$$ denote variables.
 * a variable is said to occur free within a formula if it is not bound by quantifiers $$\forall$$ or $$\exists$$.
 * $$A[t/x]$$ denotes the formula that is obtained by substituting the term $$t$$ for every free occurrence of the variable $$x$$ in formula $$A$$ with the restriction that the term $$t$$ must be free for the variable $$x$$ in $$A$$ (i.e., no occurrence of any variable in $$t$$ becomes bound in $$A[t/x]$$).
 * $$WL$$, $$WR$$, $$CL$$, $$CR$$, $$PL$$, $$PR$$: These six stand for the two versions of each of three structural rules; one for use on the left ('L') of a $$\vdash$$, and the other on its right ('R'). The rules are abbreviated 'W' for Weakening (Left/Right), 'C' for Contraction, and 'P' for Permutation.

Note that, contrary to the rules for proceeding along the reduction tree presented above, the following rules are for moving in the opposite directions, from axioms to theorems. Thus they are exact mirror-images of the rules above, except that here symmetry is not implicitly assumed, and rules regarding quantification are added.

Restrictions: In the rules $$({\forall}R)$$ and $$({\exists}L)$$, the variable $$y$$ must not occur free anywhere in the respective lower sequents.

An intuitive explanation
The above rules can be divided into two major groups: logical and structural ones. Each of the logical rules introduces a new logical formula either on the left or on the right of the turnstile $$\vdash$$. In contrast, the structural rules operate on the structure of the sequents, ignoring the exact shape of the formulae. The two exceptions to this general scheme are the axiom of identity (I) and the rule of (Cut).

Although stated in a formal way, the above rules allow for a very intuitive reading in terms of classical logic. Consider, for example, the rule $$({\land}L_1)$$. It says that, whenever one can prove that $$\Delta$$ can be concluded from some sequence of formulae that contain $$A$$, then one can also conclude $$\Delta$$ from the (stronger) assumption that $$A \land B$$ holds. Likewise, the rule $$({\neg}R)$$ states that, if $$\Gamma$$ and $$A$$ suffice to conclude $$\Delta$$, then from $$\Gamma$$ alone one can either still conclude $$\Delta$$ or $$A$$ must be false, i.e. $${\neg}A$$ holds. All the rules can be interpreted in this way.

For an intuition about the quantifier rules, consider the rule $$({\forall}R)$$. Of course concluding that $$\forall{x} A$$ holds just from the fact that $$A[y/x]$$ is true is not in general possible. If, however, the variable y is not mentioned elsewhere (i.e. it can still be chosen freely, without influencing the other formulae), then one may assume, that $$A[y/x]$$ holds for any value of y. The other rules should then be pretty straightforward.

Instead of viewing the rules as descriptions for legal derivations in predicate logic, one may also consider them as instructions for the construction of a proof for a given statement. In this case the rules can be read bottom-up; for example, $$({\land}R)$$ says that, to prove that $$A \land B$$ follows from the assumptions $$\Gamma$$ and $$\Sigma$$, it suffices to prove that $$A$$ can be concluded from $$\Gamma$$ and $$B$$ can be concluded from $$\Sigma$$, respectively. Note that, given some antecedent, it is not clear how this is to be split into $$\Gamma$$ and $$\Sigma$$. However, there are only finitely many possibilities to be checked since the antecedent by assumption is finite. This also illustrates how proof theory can be viewed as operating on proofs in a combinatorial fashion: given proofs for both $$A$$ and $$B$$, one can construct a proof for $$A \land B$$.

When looking for some proof, most of the rules offer more or less direct recipes of how to do this. The rule of cut is different: it states that, when a formula $$A$$ can be concluded and this formula may also serve as a premise for concluding other statements, then the formula $$A$$ can be "cut out" and the respective derivations are joined. When constructing a proof bottom-up, this creates the problem of guessing $$A$$ (since it does not appear at all below). The cut-elimination theorem is thus crucial to the applications of sequent calculus in automated deduction: it states that all uses of the cut rule can be eliminated from a proof, implying that any provable sequent can be given a cut-free proof.

The second rule that is somewhat special is the axiom of identity (I). The intuitive reading of this is obvious: every formula proves itself. Like the cut rule, the axiom of identity is somewhat redundant: the completeness of atomic initial sequents states that the rule can be restricted to atomic formulas without any loss of provability.

Observe that all rules have mirror companions, except the ones for implication. This reflects the fact that the usual language of first-order logic does not include the "is not implied by" connective $$\not\leftarrow$$ that would be the De Morgan dual of implication. Adding such a connective with its natural rules would make the calculus completely left-right symmetric.

Example derivations
Here is the derivation of "$$ \vdash A \lor \lnot A $$", known as the Law of excluded middle (tertium non datur in Latin).

Next is the proof of a simple fact involving quantifiers. Note that the converse is not true, and its falsity can be seen when attempting to derive it bottom-up, because an existing free variable cannot be used in substitution in the rules $$(\forall R)$$ and $$(\exists L)$$.

For something more interesting we shall prove $${\left( \left( A \rightarrow \left( B \lor C \right) \right) \rightarrow \left( \left( \left( B \rightarrow \lnot A \right) \land \lnot C \right) \rightarrow \lnot A \right) \right)}$$. It is straightforward to find the derivation, which exemplifies the usefulness of LK in automated proving.

These derivations also emphasize the strictly formal structure of the sequent calculus. For example, the logical rules as defined above always act on a formula immediately adjacent to the turnstile, such that the permutation rules are necessary. Note, however, that this is in part an artifact of the presentation, in the original style of Gentzen. A common simplification involves the use of multisets of formulas in the interpretation of the sequent, rather than sequences, eliminating the need for an explicit permutation rule. This corresponds to shifting commutativity of assumptions and derivations outside the sequent calculus, whereas LK embeds it within the system itself.

Relation to analytic tableaux
For certain formulations (i.e. variants) of the sequent calculus, a proof in such a calculus is isomorphic to an upside-down, closed analytic tableau.

Structural rules
The structural rules deserve some additional discussion.

Weakening (W) allows the addition of arbitrary elements to a sequence. Intuitively, this is allowed in the antecedent because we can always restrict the scope of our proof (if all cars have wheels, then it's safe to say that all black cars have wheels); and in the succedent because we can always allow for alternative conclusions (if all cars have wheels, then it's safe to say that all cars have either wheels or wings).

Contraction (C) and Permutation (P) assure that neither the order (P) nor the multiplicity of occurrences (C) of elements of the sequences matters. Thus, one could instead of sequences also consider sets.

The extra effort of using sequences, however, is justified since part or all of the structural rules may be omitted. Doing so, one obtains the so-called substructural logics.

Properties of the system LK
This system of rules can be shown to be both sound and complete with respect to first-order logic, i.e. a statement $$A$$ follows semantically from a set of premises $$\Gamma$$ $$(\Gamma \vDash A)$$ if and only if the sequent $$\Gamma \vdash A$$ can be derived by the above rules.

In the sequent calculus, the rule of cut is admissible. This result is also referred to as Gentzen's Hauptsatz ("Main Theorem").

Variants
The above rules can be modified in various ways:

Minor structural alternatives
There is some freedom of choice regarding the technical details of how sequents and structural rules are formalized without changing what sequents the system derives.

First of all, as mentioned above, the sequents can be viewed to consist of sets or multisets. In this case, the rules for permuting and (when using sets) contracting formulae are unnecessary.

The rule of weakening becomes admissible if the axiom (I) is changed to derive any sequent of the form $$\Gamma, A \vdash A , \Delta$$. Any weakening that appears in a derivation can then be moved to the beginning of the proof. This may be a convenient change when constructing proofs bottom-up.

One may also change whether rules with more than one premise share the same context for each of those premises or split their contexts between them: For example, $$({\lor}L)$$ may be instead formulated as

\cfrac{\Gamma, A \vdash \Delta \qquad \Sigma, B \vdash \Pi}{\Gamma, \Sigma, A \lor B \vdash \Delta, \Pi}. $$

Contraction and weakening make this version of the rule interderivable with the version above, although in their absence, as in linear logic, these rules define different connectives.

Absurdity
One can introduce $$\bot$$, the absurdity constant representing false, with the axiom:

\cfrac{}{\bot \vdash \quad } $$

Or if, as described above, weakening is to be an admissible rule, then with the axiom:

\cfrac{}{\Gamma, \bot \vdash \Delta} $$

With $$\bot$$, negation can be subsumed as a special case of implication, via the definition $$(\neg A) \iff (A \to \bot)$$.

Substructural logics
Alternatively, one may restrict or forbid the use of some of the structural rules. This yields a variety of substructural logic systems. They are generally weaker than LK (i.e., they have fewer theorems), and thus not complete with respect to the standard semantics of first-order logic. However, they have other interesting properties that have led to applications in theoretical computer science and artificial intelligence.

Intuitionistic sequent calculus: System LJ
Surprisingly, some small changes in the rules of LK suffice to turn it into a proof system for intuitionistic logic. To this end, one has to restrict to sequents with at most one formula on the right-hand side, and modify the rules to maintain this invariant. For example, $$({\lor}L)$$ is reformulated as follows (where C is an arbitrary formula):

\cfrac{\Gamma, A \vdash C \qquad \Gamma, B \vdash C }{\Gamma, A \lor B \vdash C} \quad ({\lor}L) $$

The resulting system is called LJ. It is sound and complete with respect to intuitionistic logic and admits a similar cut-elimination proof. This can be used in proving disjunction and existence properties.

In fact, the only rules in LK that need to be restricted to single-formula consequents are $$({\to}R)$$, $$(\neg R)$$ (which can be seen as a special case of $${\to}R$$, as described above) and $$({\forall}R)$$. When multi-formula consequents are interpreted as disjunctions, all of the other inference rules of LK are derivable in LJ, while the rules $$({\to}R)$$ and $$({\forall}R)$$ become

\cfrac{\Gamma, A \vdash B \lor C}{\Gamma \vdash (A \to B) \lor C} $$ and (when $$y$$ does not occur free in the bottom sequent)

\cfrac{\Gamma \vdash A[y/x] \lor C}{\Gamma \vdash (\forall x A) \lor C}. $$

These rules are not intuitionistically valid.

title: Sequent calculus


text:
Talk:Canadian Football League

What happened to the old CFL logo (2002-2015)?
The old logo that was used by the league from 2002 to 2015 seems to have disappeared from the site. Does anyone know what happened to it? Did it get renamed or deleted? For anyone who doesn't know what I'm talking about, I'm referring to this logo. AquilaXIII (talk) 06:21, 9 August 2020 (UTC)

 * Per the file page, it was deleted because it violated non-free use policy. BilCat (talk) 06:30, 9 August 2020 (UTC)

Canadian football / American football difference in lead section
Saw that a small paragraph has been added to the lead outlining some of the differences between Canadian and American football, but I don't feel this is relevant as the article is on a Canadian football league, not the subject of Canadian football. The latter article contains a similar section in its lead with a link to the same article referenced in this one and does a much better job of outlining the differences between the two sports. I don't think this paragraph is relevant to the CFL article, but wanted to get others thoughts on whether it should remain, be deleted or moved to a different section of the article.  OliverEastwood  talk  14:47, 23 November 2020 (UTC)
 * In general I agree with you. That said, it's not the most intrusive paragraph. On balance I think it's probably unneeded, though. oknazevad (talk) 20:11, 23 November 2020 (UTC)
 * Deleted. The paragraph confused the league (CFL) with the game (Canadian football). The material is relevant to the game, not the league.--Khajidha (talk) 13:41, 25 March 2021 (UTC)

Questions for NFL, CFL projects
Hello, I have a few questions for the CFL and NFL project users

1. For the CFL, WP:NGRIDIRON states that Canadian football players are presumed notable if they played in the Canadian Football League, my question is, are the pre-CFL players notable too, because the league was founded as a merger between the IRFU and WIFU, so it was the same teams and players, just a different name of the league. I was wondering because I created a few Canadian football coach articles and wanted to make sure they would not be deleted (the current ones I have created I have made sure have received a lot of coverage (as some articles pass GNG with for say, 3 or 4 articles with SIGCOV, I made sure they received more than that, see Rev. Father Stanton)) And also, if they are notable, how far back would the notability go?

2. For the NFL, in 1920, some of the NFL teams played against non league opponents, and they were counted as official games (in fact, I've created articles for some of those teams, see Lansing Oldsmobile, Kewanee Walworths, Zanesville Mark Grays, Gary Elks, Columbus Wagner Pirates, Chicago Boosters, Moline Universal Tractors, and those are some of the weirdest team names I've ever seen) this was only in the first season, though. Should the players and head coaches from the non league teams have articles too? As NGRIDIRON says that players in the NFL are notable. However, the only sources for the players would most likely just be a short newspaper article listing the rosters, which is not significant coverage. In addition, these players do not have NFL.com, Pro-Football-Reference.com, or profootballarchives pages. I don't think these players should have articles since there is probably barely anything on them, as even some NFL players from the 20s don't have much on them.

3. Also for the NFL, should the Syracuse Pros players have articles? As they do not have Pro Football Reference pages and the Pros are a debated NFL team.

4. Again NFL, but this is more minor league, I was going to create an article for Dutch Slagle (I already did make an article for him, but it was changed to a redirect because "minor league coaches don't pass notability criteria", but that was good at the time because I barely had any sources), coach of the Wilmington Clippers in 1937, but I'm not sure if he is also George Slagle who played in the NFL in 1926. I think this because it says here that he spent time with Louisville, where George Slagle played. (and he does meet GNG based on my newspaper clippings, see       plus more)

Thanks BeanieFan11 (talk) 00:26, 28 April 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Canadian Football League


text:
Billy Cotton

William Edward Cotton (6 May 1899 – 25 March 1969) was an English band leader and entertainer, one of the few whose orchestras survived the British dance band era. Cotton is now mainly remembered as a 1950s and 1960s radio and television personality, but his musical career had begun in the 1920s. In his younger years, Billy Cotton was also an amateur footballer for Brentford (and later, for the then Athenian league club Wimbledon), an accomplished racing driver and the owner of a Gipsy Moth, which he piloted himself. His autobiography, I Did It My Way, was published in 1970, a year after his death.

Life and career
Born in Smith Square, Westminster, London, England, to Joseph and Susan Cotton, Cotton was a choirboy and started his musical career as a drummer. He enlisted in the Royal Fusiliers by falsifying his age and saw service in the First World War in Malta and Egypt before landing at Gallipoli in the middle of an artillery barrage. He was recommended for a commission and learned to fly Bristol Fighter aircraft. Not yet 19 years old, he flew solo for the first time in 1918, on the day the Royal Flying Corps became the Royal Air Force. After the end of the war, in the early 1920s, he worked at several jobs, including as a bus driver, before setting up his own orchestra, the London Savannah Band, in 1924.

At first a conventional dance band, the London Savannah Band gradually tended towards music hall/vaudeville entertainment, introducing visual and verbal humour in between songs. Famous musicians who played in Billy Cotton's band during the 1920s and 1930s included Arthur Rosebery, Syd Lipton and Nat Gonella. The band was also noted for their African American trombonist and tap dancer, Ellis Jackson. Their signature tune was "Somebody Stole My Gal", and they made numerous commercial recordings for Decca.

During the Second World War Cotton and his band toured France with the Entertainments National Service Association (ENSA). After the war, he started his successful Sunday lunchtime radio show on BBC, the Billy Cotton Band Show, which ran from 1949 to 1968. In the 1950s, composer Lionel Bart contributed comedy songs to the show. It regularly opened with the band's signature tune and Cotton's call of "Wakey Wakey". From 1956, it was also broadcast on BBC television. Cotton often also provided vocals on many of his band's recordings, in addition to work as a vocalist on recordings that did not feature his band.

As a racing driver, he raced at Brooklands between the wars. He finished fourth in the 1949 British Grand Prix, sharing an English Racing Automobiles car with David Hampshire.

Personal life
Cotton married Mabel E. Gregory in 1921. They had two sons, Ted and Bill Cotton, who later became the BBC's managing director of television; despite this, he had an affair with one of his band's singers (Doreen Stephans) and moved into a flat with her in the early 1950s. In 1962, Billy Cotton suffered a stroke. He died in 1969 while watching a boxing match at Wembley Arena.

Billy Cotton was the great-great-uncle of TV and radio presenter Fearne Cotton.

Selected filmography

 * The First Mrs. Fraser (1932)
 * Variety (1935)
 * Music Hall Parade (1939)

title: Billy Cotton


text:
Osceola

Osceola (1804 – January 30, 1838, Asi-yahola in Creek), named Billy Powell at birth in Alabama, became an influential leader of the Seminole people in Florida. His mother was Muscogee, and his great-grandfather was a Scotsman, James McQueen. He was reared by his mother in the Creek (Muscogee) tradition. When he was a child, they migrated to Florida with other Red Stick refugees, led by a relative, Peter McQueen, after their group's defeat in 1814 in the Creek Wars. There they became part of what was known as the Seminole people.

In 1836, Osceola led a small group of warriors in the Seminole resistance during the Second Seminole War, when the United States tried to remove the tribe from their lands in Florida to Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River. He became an adviser to Micanopy, the principal chief of the Seminole from 1825 to 1849. Osceola led the Seminole resistance to removal until he was captured on October 21, 1837, by deception, under a flag of truce, when he went to a site near Fort Peyton for peace talks. The United States first imprisoned him at Fort Marion in St. Augustine, then transported him to Fort Moultrie in Charleston, South Carolina. He died there a few months later of causes reported as an internal infection or malaria. Because of his renown, Osceola attracted visitors in prison, including renowned artist George Catlin, who painted perhaps the most well-known portrait of the Seminole leader.

Early life

Osceola was named Billy Powell at his birth in 1804 in the Creek village of Talisi, which means "Old Town". The village site, now the city of Tallassee, Alabama, was located on the banks of the Tallapoosa River about 20 mi upstream from Fort Toulouse where the Tallapoosa and the Coosa rivers meet to form the Alabama River. The residents of the original Talisi village and of the current city of Tallassee were a mixture of several ethnicities. The Muscogee Creek were among the Indigenous peoples of the Southeastern Woodlands, and some of them held enslaved black people. Powell was believed to have ancestors from all of these groups. His mother was Polly Coppinger, a mixed-race Creek woman, and his father was most likely William Powell, a Scottish trader.

Polly was also of Muscogee and European ancestry, as the daughter of Ann McQueen and Jose Coppinger. Because the Muscogee had a matrilineal kinship system, Polly and Ann's children were all born into their mother's clan. They were reared by their mothers and their maternal male relatives following Muscogee cultural practices, and they gained their social status from their mother's people. Ann McQueen was also mixed-race Muscogee Creek; her father, James McQueen, was Scottish. Ann was probably the sister or aunt of Peter McQueen, a prominent Muscogee leader and warrior. Like his mother, Billy Powell was raised in the Muscogee Creek confederacy.

Billy Powell's maternal grandfather, James McQueen, was a ship-jumping Scottish sailor who in 1716 became the first recorded white person to trade with the Muscogee Creek Confederacy in Alabama. He stayed in the area as a fur trader and married into a Muscogee family, becoming closely involved with these people. He was buried in 1811 at the Indian cemetery in Franklin, Alabama, near a Methodist missionary church for the Muscogee.

In 1814, after the Red Stick Muscogee Creeks were defeated by United States forces, Polly took Osceola and moved with other Muscogee refugees from Alabama to Florida, where they joined the Seminole. In adulthood, as part of the Seminole, Powell was given his name Osceola ( or ). This is an anglicized form of the Creek Asi-yahola (pronounced ); the combination of asi, the ceremonial black drink made from the yaupon holly, and yahola, meaning "shout" or "shouter".

In 1821, the United States acquired Florida from Spain, and more European-American settlers started moving in, encroaching on the Seminoles' territory. After early military skirmishes and the signing of the 1823 Treaty of Moultrie Creek, by which the US seized the northern Seminole lands, Osceola and his family moved with the Seminole deeper into the unpopulated wilds of central and southern Florida.

As an adult, Osceola took two wives, as did some other high-ranking Muscogee and Seminole leaders. With them, he had at least five children. One of his wives was black, and Osceola fiercely opposed the enslavement of free people. Lt. John T. Sprague mentions in his 1848 history The Florida War that Osceola had a wife named "Che-cho-ter" (Morning Dew), who bore him four children.

1830s resistance and war leader

Through the 1820s and the turn of the decade, American settlers continued pressuring the US government to remove the Seminole from Florida to make way for their desired agricultural development. In 1832, a few Seminole chiefs signed the Treaty of Payne's Landing, by which they agreed to give up their Florida lands in exchange for lands west of the Mississippi River in Indian Territory. According to legend, Osceola stabbed the treaty with his knife, although there are no contemporary reports of this. Donald L. Fixico, an American Indian historian, says he made a research trip to the National Archives to see the original Treaty of Fort Gibson (also known as the Treaty of Payne's Landing), and that upon close inspection, he observed that it had "a small triangular hole shaped like the point of a knife blade."

Five of the most important Seminole chiefs, including Micanopy of the Alachua Seminole, did not agree to removal. In retaliation, the US Indian agent, Wiley Thompson, declared that those chiefs were deposed from their positions. As US relations with the Seminole deteriorated, Thompson forbade the sale of guns and ammunition to them. Osceola, a young warrior rising to prominence, resented this ban. He felt it equated the Seminole with slaves, who were forbidden by law to carry arms.

Thompson considered Osceola to be a friend and gave him a rifle. Osceola had a habit of barging into Thompson's office and shouting complaints at him. On one occasion Osceola quarreled with Thompson, who had the warrior locked up at Fort King for two nights until he agreed to be more respectful. In order to secure his release, Osceola agreed to sign the Treaty of Payne's Landing and to bring his followers into the fort. After his humiliating imprisonment, Osceola secretly prepared vengeance against Thompson.

On December 28, 1835, Osceola, with the same rifle Thompson gave him, killed the Indian agent. Osceola and his followers shot six others outside Fort King, while another group of Seminole ambushed and killed a column of US Army, more than 100 troops, who were marching from Fort Brooke to Fort King. Americans called this event the Dade Massacre. These nearly simultaneous attacks catalyzed the Second Seminole War with the United States.

In April 1836, Osceola led a band of warriors in an attempt to expel U.S. forces from Fort Cooper. The fortification was built on the west bank of Lake Holathikaha as an outpost for actions against the local Seminole population. Despite running low on food, the U.S. garrison had enough gunpowder and ammunition to keep the Seminoles from taking the fort before reinforcements arrived.

Capture and death

On October 21, 1837, Osceola and 81 of his followers were captured by General Joseph Hernández on the orders of General Thomas Jesup, under a white flag of truce, when they went for peace talks to Fort Peyton near St. Augustine. He was initially imprisoned at Fort Marion in St. Augustine, before being transferred to Fort Moultrie on Sullivans Island, outside Charleston, South Carolina. Osceola's capture by deceit caused a national uproar. General Jesup's treacherous act and the administration were condemned by many congressional leaders and vilified by international press. Jesup suffered a loss of reputation that lasted for the rest of his life; his betrayal of the truce flag has been described as "one of the most disgraceful acts in American military history."

That December, Osceola and other Seminole prisoners were moved to Fort Moultrie. They were visited by various townspeople. The portraitists George Catlin, W. M. Laning, and Robert John Curtis, the three artists known to have painted Osceola from life, persuaded the Seminole leader to allow his portrait to be painted despite his being gravely ill. Osceola and Curtis developed a close friendship, conversing at length during the painting sessions; Curtis painted two oil portraits of Osceola, one of which remains in the Charleston Museum. These paintings have inspired numerous widely distributed prints and engravings, and cigar store figures were also based on them.

Osceola, having suffered from chronic malaria since 1836, and having acute tonsillitis as well, developed an abscess. When he was close to death, as his last wish he asked the attending doctor, Frederick Weedon, that his body be returned to Florida, his home, so that he might rest in peace. He died of quinsy on January 30, 1838, three months after his capture. Rather than honoring his last wish, Weedon cut off Osceola's head and buried his decapitated body, displaying the Seminole leader's head in his drug store. During the time Weedon had the head in his possession, he would often place it in the bedroom of his three sons as punishment for misbehavior. Weedon would later give the head to his son-in-law, Dr. Daniel Whitehurst, who gifted the head to Valentine Mott in 1843. Mott placed it in his Surgical and Pathological Museum, where it was presumed destroyed in a fire in 1866.

Legacy and honors

 * Numerous landmarks and geographic locations have been named in his honor, such as counties in Florida, Iowa, and Michigan.
 * The town of Osceola, New York, is named for him. The name was selected by Anna Maria Jay, the granddaughter of John Jay.
 * Osceola, Arkansas, one of two county seats in Mississippi County
 * Osceola, Indiana, a town
 * Osceola, Iowa, county seat of Clarke County
 * Osceola, Nebraska, county seat of Polk County
 * Osceola, Wisconsin, a village
 * Osceola Township, Renville County, Minnesota
 * Florida's Osceola National Forest was named for him.
 * Mount Osceola, located in the White Mountains of New Hampshire.
 * Two lakes in Florida named Osceola, one located on the University of Miami campus in Coral Gables, and another in Winter Park.
 * Battery Osceola at Fort Taylor, Key West, Florida, is named after him.
 * Osceola Hall, a dormitory at Florida State University.
 * Ocilla, a small town in southern Georgia, may have been named after him.
 * The World War II Liberty Ship SS Chief Osceola was named in his honor.
 * The U.S. Navy has named three vessels for him.
 * Osceola is a symbol for Florida State University athletic teams.

Descendants

 * Chairman Joe Dan Osceola (1936–2019), ambassador of the Seminole Tribe, was Osceola's great-great-great grandson.

Relics
According to the oral tradition of his descendants, Dr. Frederick Weedon was alone with the body and cut off Osceola's head, placing it in the coffin with the scarf that Osceola had customarily worn being wrapped around the neck, and immediately before the funeral ceremony removed the head and shut the coffin's lid. Weedon kept the head for himself, as well as other objects belonging to Osceola, including a brass pipe and a silver concho. Capt. Pitcairn Morrison, the U.S. Army officer in charge of the Seminole prisoners who had been transported with Osceola, made a last-minute decision to take other items belonging to Osceola. The historical evidence suggests that it was Morrison who decided that a death mask should be made, a European-American custom at the time for prominent persons, but it was done without the permission of Osceola's people. An acquaintance of Morrison, Dr. Benjamin Strobel, a native of Charleston, made a plaster cast of Osceola's face and upper torso. The process of "pulling" the first mold, which was soon displayed in the window of a Charleston drugstore, destroyed the original cast. Weedon apparently preserved Osceola's head in a large jar of alcohol and took it to St. Augustine, where he exhibited it in the family drugstore.

Captain Pitcairn Morrison sent the death mask and some other objects collected by Weedon to an army officer in Washington. By 1885, the death mask and some of Osceola's belongings were being held in the anthropology collection of the Smithsonian Institution. The death mask is currently housed in the Luce collection of the New-York Historical Society.

In 1966, Miami businessman Otis W. Shriver claimed he had dug up Osceola's grave and put his bones into a bank vault to rebury them at a tourist site at the Rainbow Springs in Marion County. Shriver traveled around the state in 1967 to gather support for his project. Archaeologists later proved that Shriver had dug up animal remains; Osceola's body was still in its coffin.

In 1979 the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma bought Osceola's bandolier and other personal items from a Sotheby's auction. Because of the chief's significance, over time some people have created forgeries of Osceola's belongings. Rumors persist that his embalmed head has been found in various locations.

Literature

 * Osceola (1858) by Thomas Mayne Reid
 * In the Wilds of Florida: A Tale of Warfare and Hunting (1880) by William Henry G. Kingston
 * "Osceola" (1889), a poem by Walt Whitman, featured in Leaves of Grass.
 * "Osceola" was an early pen name used by Danish author Karen Blixen (1885–1962), known primarily for her novels and stories set in Kenya during the colonial period. She also published as Isak Dinesen.
 * War Chief of the Seminoles (1954), a children's book by May McNeer, is part of the Landmark Books series.
 * Osceola, Häuptling der Seminole-Indianer (1963) by Ernie Hearting, is a German novel featuring Osceola and based on historical sources.
 * In the alternate history novel The Probability Broach  (1979), part of the North American Confederacy Series by L. Neil Smith, the United States becomes a Libertarian State after a successful Whiskey Rebellion and execution of George Washington. The figure of Osceola is featured as the ninth President of the North American Confederacy, serving from 1842 to 1848.
 * Tourist Season (1986) and Nature Girl (2006), mystery novels by Carl Hiaasen, each give an abbreviated history of Osceola's capture and imprisonment, as well as that of his contemporary, Thlocklo Tustenuggee.
 * Light a Distant Fire (1988) by Lucia St. Clair Robson
 * Captive (1996), a historical-fiction book by Heather Graham, features Osceola as one of the protagonists.
 * Freedom Land: A Novel (2003) by Martin L. Marcus. In this version, Osceola was the son of a respected British officer and his Creek consort.

Films

 * In the mid-1930s Nathanael West wrote a 17-page film treatment entitled Osceola but failed to sell it to a studio.
 * Seminole (1953), highly fictionalized American western film directed by Budd Boetticher and starring Anthony Quinn as Osceola.
 * Naked in the Sun (1957), the life of Osceola and the Second Seminole War, starring James Craig as Osceola.
 * Osceola – Die rechte Hand der Vergeltung (1971) by Konrad Petzold, an East German western with Gojko Mitić as the Native American leader.

Television, music, sports, and art

 * The Sedgeford Hall Portrait (c. 1830), once thought to be of Pocahontas and her mixed-race son, Thomas Rolfe, is now believed to be of Pe-o-ka (a wife of Osceola) and their son.
 * 1957 Jim Bowie TV-series episode "Osceola." When the army attempts to remove the Seminole Indians from their own lands to a less desirable tract, Bowie steps in on their behalf.
 * The song "Seminole Wind", the title track of the album by the same name by John Anderson, refers to hearing the ghost of Osceola. The song has been covered by James Taylor and Gravemist.
 * Osceola and Renegade are mascots of the Florida State Seminoles football team. The use of Osceola and Renegade as a symbol was approved by the Seminole Tribe of Florida.

title: Osceola


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Brunost

Brunost is a common Norwegian name for mysost (myseost; mesost; mesjuusto; mysuostur/mysingur), a family of soft cheese-related foods made with whey, milk, and/or cream. The characteristic brown color and sweet taste result from milk sugars being caramelized after boiling. The term brunost is often used to refer to fløtemysost or Gudbrandsdalsost ('Gudbrandsdal cheese'), which are the most popular varieties.

Brunost is primarily produced in Norway and is popular there, and has spread to South Korea. It is regarded as one of Norway's most iconic foodstuffs, and is considered an important part of the country's gastronomical and cultural identity and heritage.

History
Boiling down whey 10:1 to create a brown, cheesy spread (such as the Norwegian prim and Swedish messmör) has been common in the Scandinavian countries for at least 2,500 years. An archeological find from September 2016 in central Jutland has determined that a cheese residue on pottery from circa 650 B.C.E. is a type of cheese, potentially similar to brunost.

However, the creation of the modern, firm, fatty brunost is commonly attributed to the milkmaid Anne Hov from the rural valley of Gudbrandsdalen. In the second half of the 19th century, Gudbrandsdalen was suffering economically due to falling profits from grain and butter sales. While working at the Valseter mountain farm near Gålå in 1863, Anne Hov (sometimes spelled Anne Haav) came up with the idea of adding cream to the whey when boiling, and to boil it down in an iron pot until the fluid content was reduced to less than 80 percent, creating a firmer, fattier, more cheese-like product. She originally called it feitost ('fat cheese'). The name later changed into fløtemysost ('cream whey cheese'). The product immediately caught on, and was soon commonly produced and consumed in the area. This variety is currently the second most popular type in Norway. In 1805, Ole Olsen Evenstad from Stor-Elvdal wrote his cheese manuscript, Om Brug af Myse og dens Indkogning til Myssmør, but Evenstad does not mention goat's milk or cream as an additive.

When Hov married and moved to Rusthågå farm in Nord-Fron, she started larger-scale production and invented a variety where she added goat's milk to the mix for a more pronounced taste. The local trader Ole Kongsli liked it so much he thought there might be a market for the product in the capital, Oslo. He started exporting it to his business contacts in Oslo under the name Gudbrandsdalsost ('Gudbrand Valley Cheese'), and it became so successful that it contributed significantly to the economy of the region, thus helping Gudbrandsdalen out of recession. In 1933, at age 87, Hov received the King's Medal of Merit (Kongens fortjenstmedalje) for her contributions to Norwegian cuisine and economy.

In modern times, the world's largest producer of brunost is the Norwegian dairy co-operative Tine, which markets a total of 13 varieties, as well as three types of prim and three types of pultost. The second-largest is Norwegian dairy company Synnøve Finden, which markets two varieties of brunost, as well as two varieties of prim. There are also a number of smaller, artisanal producers, mainly in Norway and in the US.

Description
Mysost is a family of cheese-related foods made with whey and milk and/or cream. The main ingredient, whey, is a byproduct of the cheese making process; it is what is left when the cheese is removed from the milk. Therefore, brunost is not technically cheese. However, it is produced by cheese makers, and is sold, handled and consumed in the same way as cheese. Therefore, it is generally regarded as a cheese. The texture is firm, but slightly softer than Gouda cheese, for example, and lends itself well to cutting and shaping. It does not crumble like hard cheeses. The taste is sweet, and best described as caramel-like, but with a tang that is more noticeable in the variants that contain goat's milk. The variant ekte geitost ('true goat's cheese') contains only whey and goat's milk, and has an intense, chèvre-like taste that cuts the sweetness.

Production
Brunost is made by boiling a mixture of milk, cream, and whey carefully for several hours so that the water evaporates. The heat turns the milk sugars into caramel, which gives the cheese its characteristic brown colour and sweetness. It is ready for consumption as soon as it is packed and refrigerated. Low-fat varieties are made by increasing the proportion of whey to milk and cream.

Varieties
In Norway, brunost is commonly divided into two types: those that contain only cow's cream and/or milk, and the ones that contain some proportion of goat's milk. The latter type is commonly called geitost or gjetost ('goat cheese'). Varieties that do not contain any cow's milk are called ekte geitost ('true goat cheese'). Technically, the name 'true goat cheese' is misleading, since goat cheese (such as the French chèvre) is relatively uncommon in Norway, and is commonly called hvit geitost ('white goat cheese') to avoid confusion.

By far the most popular variety is Gudbrandsdalsost, which contains a mixture of cow and goat milk, cream, and whey. Heidal cheese is a type of Gudbrandsdalsost. In Norway it is so common that it is simply referred to as brunost or geitost, assuming that unless otherwise specified, Gudbrandsdalsost will be provided. This variety is also the most popular internationally, and in the US it is commonly referred to just as gjetost. The second most popular variety is fløtemysost, which has a milder taste due to the lack of goat's milk. The third most popular type is ekte geitost.

Related to brunost are prim (in Norwegian) or messmör (in Swedish), which is a soft, sweet spread commonly sold in tubes all across the Nordic countries. This is the original, ancient product made by boiling whey for a shorter period of time than brunost, and not adding milk or cream. Also, in Norway, pultost is traditionally made from byproducts of the brunost-making process, and has a very distinctive flavour.

Very similar to full cow's milk brunost, but unrelated to it (probably developed independently) is requeijão moreno, from the state of Minas Gerais in Brazil. It is produced in a similar way, by boiling cow's milk until it caramelises and darkens to a brown colour, hence the name moreno 'tanned, brown'. Requeijão has three varieties: branco 'white', de raspa 'with scrapes' (because of the streaks of caramelised milk scraped from the pan), and moreno. The flavour and texture of the latter have a remarkable resemblance to brunost.

Use
Brunost is mostly used as a topping for sandwiches, crispbread, and biscuits. It is very common in the traditional Norwegian matpakke (lit. 'food pack'), which is a common Norwegian lunch—sandwiches are packed in a lunch box in the morning, and carried to work for consumption in the 30-minute lunch break commonly afforded to Norwegian workers. One advantage of brunost for this purpose is that although its texture changes if not refrigerated, its taste does not. Brunost is also popular on Norwegian waffles, and as an ingredient in cooking, particularly in gravy for game meat.

Nutrition
To what extent brunost is healthy has been the subject of some controversy in Norway. On the one hand, brunost contains high amounts of calcium, proteins and vitamin B, as well as iodine, which is beneficial. It also does not, as other cheeses do, contain salt. It used to contain significant amounts of iron because it was traditionally made in iron pots. In fact, when modern production methods with aluminium pans were introduced by the Norwegian dairy co-operative, the government was worried that it would significantly reduce iron intake in the general population, and ordered iron to be added to the cheese. On 1 September 2001, however, a ban on the addition of iron to brunost was introduced. A few years later, exceptions to the ban were introduced after health authorities identified an increasing incidence of iron deficiency in younger age groups. Modern brunost does not contain significant amounts of iron.

On the other hand, the (natural) sugar content of brunost is quite high, and also the fat content is significant, causing some to warn against it, and even likening it to milk chocolate. Some tests have shown major nutritional differences between different varieties of brunost. Also, it has been pointed out by nutrition experts that the fat content of most brunost is significantly lower than that of numerous other cheeses, such as soft cheeses.

Brattli tunnel fire
In January 2013, a lorry caught fire in the 3.5 km long Brattli tunnel in Tysfjord. The temperature of the burning lorry rose so high that the 27 tonnes of brunost it was carrying caught fire also, its fats and sugars fuelling the blaze and preventing firefighters from approaching it until four days later, when most of it had burned out. The tunnel was severely damaged, and was closed for repair for several months afterward. The accident was widely publicized in international media, and was dubbed "the goat cheese fire". It was likened to the 1999 Mont Blanc tunnel fire, when a truck carrying margarine and flour caught fire.

title: Brunost


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Aristippus

Aristippus of Cyrene (Ἀρίστιππος ὁ Κυρηναῖος; c. 435 – c. 356 BCE) was a hedonistic Greek philosopher and the founder of the Cyrenaic school of philosophy. He was a pupil of Socrates, but adopted a different philosophical outlook, teaching that the goal of life was to seek pleasure by adapting circumstances to oneself and by maintaining proper control over both adversity and prosperity. His view that pleasure is the only good came to be called ethical hedonism. Due to the ideological and philosophical differences between Socrates and himself, Aristippus faced backlash by Socrates and many of his fellow-pupils. Out of his hedonistic beliefs, Aristippus' most famous phrase was, "I possess, I am not possessed." Despite having two sons, Aristippus identified his daughter Arete as the "intellectual heiress" of his work, resulting in the systematization of his work and the Cyrenaic school of philosophy, by Arete, and her son Aristippus the Younger, Aristippus' grandson, during the later years of his life and after his death.

There are indications that Aristippus was conflated with his grandson, Aristippus the Younger.

Life
Aristippus, the son of Aritades, was born in Cyrene, Ancient Libya, c. 435 BCE. Having come to Greece to attend the Olympic games, he met and asked Ischomachus about Socrates, resulting in a strong desire to see Socrates, after hearing of his description. Seeking Socrates, he went to Athens and made him his master.

Though a disciple of Socrates, Aristippus wandered both in principle and practice from the teaching and example of his master. After learning the philosophical views and values of Socrates, Aristippus formed a greater interest in pleasure, eventually leading him to popularize and focus more solely on ethical hedonism. Due to his philosophical differences from Socrates, Aristippus sought other avenues, leading him towards the court of Dionysius I of Syracuse or Dionysius the Younger. At the court Aristippus became a counselor, and continued to seek his pleasures. While there he lived luxuriously and sought sensual gratification and the company of the notorious Lais. Additionally, Aristippus was the first of Socrates' disciples to make money for his teaching, which on occasion he sent to Socrates, although often returned to him, due to Socrates viewing it as an insult. Aristippus also said that he resided in a foreign land in order to escape the trouble of involving himself in the politics of his native city, to Socrates. Due to his lifelong pursuit of pleasure and philosophical teachings on pleasure, against the teachings of Socrates, Aristippus garnered conflict between philosophers like Socrates and his fellow-pupils over the course of his life. He is also said to have been taken prisoner by Artaphernes, the satrap who drove the Spartans from Rhodes in 396. Despite the backlash he received for his philosophical views, teachings and lifestyle, Aristippus continued his spread of ethical hedonism by imparting his doctrine to his daughter Arete who, in turn, imparted it to her son, Aristippus the Younger, who is said to have reduced it to a system in the Cyrenaic school of philosophy, that Aristippus helped found. In old age, Aristippus is said to have returned to Cyrene, living out his retirement in luxury and in the pursuit of pleasure till his death, at the age of 79.

In Book VI of De architectura, Vitruvius describes Aristippus: "It is related of the Socratic philosopher Aristippus that, being shipwrecked and cast ashore on the coast of the Rhodians, he observed geometrical figures drawn thereon, and cried out to his companions: 'Let us be of good cheer, for I see the traces of man.' With that he made for the city of Rhodes, and went straight to the gymnasium. There he fell to discussing philosophical subjects, and presents were bestowed upon him, so that he could not only fit himself out, but could also provide those who accompanied him with clothing and all other necessaries of life. When his companions wished to return to their country, and asked him what message he wished them to carry home, he bade them say this: that children ought to be provided with property and resources of a kind that could swim with them even out of a shipwreck."

Philosophy
Aristippus' philosophies centered around hedonism. Having been a pupil of Socrates, Aristippus recognized Socrates' enjoyment of things like parties, the drinking of wine and accepting gifts. Intrigued by such acts, Aristippus eventually formed the philosophy of ethical hedonism. Aristippus viewed pleasure and the pursuit of pleasure as life's supreme good, as well as valued the importance of not becoming possessed or enslaved by such pleasurable acts and objects. By way of his philosophy, Aristippus' famous phrase, "I possess, I am not possessed," emerged. Having stressed his beliefs, Aristippus admonished his followers to never harm others, and cautioned that the pursuit of pleasure ought to be moderated by moral self-restraint. After forming his philosophy, Aristippus started the Cyrenaic school of philosophy where his philosophical principles would be taught, further structured, and turned into a comprehensive system by his daughter, Arete, and his grandson, Aristippus the Younger.

Despite Aristippus' bringing attention to the value of pursuing pleasure albeit in moderation, Aristippus' hedonistic philosophy often received backlash by Socrates and his fellow-pupils. While Socrates did indulge in such activities like parties, drinking wine and accepting gifts, Socrates viewed virtue as more valuable than pleasure. Since Aristippus valued pleasure more than Socrates did and found less intrinsic value in virtue, other philosophers, like Plato and Xenophon, supported as well as initiated the accusation that Aristippus had defied and had strayed from Socrates' philosophical teachings. Aristotle is also noted for calling him a sophist. Due to the differences in philosophical values and beliefs, Aristippus and his hedonistic philosophy separated him from Socrates as well as from other prominent philosophers at that time. One notable example of philosophers demonstrating disdain for Aristippus' values is in Plato's Phaedo, where Plato describes Aristippus having been at Aegina, a pleasure resort, rather attending as a witness of Socrates' death.

Of the anecdotes that survive about Aristippus, those from Diogenes Laërtius are the most abundant. Diogenes asserts, for example, that to observe the precepts of Aristippus is "to endeavor to adapt circumstances to myself, not myself to circumstances" and that, "every complexion of life, every station and circumstance sat gracefully upon him." Another such report is of Aristippus being reproached for his love of bodily indulgences, to which Aristippus is said to have answered, "It is not abstinence from pleasures that is best, but mastery over them without ever being worsted."

Works
None of Aristippus's works are extant. Diogenes Laërtius, on the authority of Sotion and Panaetius, gives a long list of books whose authorship is ascribed to Aristippus, though he also states that according to Sosicrates of Rhodes, Aristippus never wrote anything. Some letters attributed to him are said by some to be forgeries.

One work attributed to Aristippus in ancient times was a book entitled On Ancient Luxury (or On the Luxury of the Ancients; Περὶ παλαιᾶς τρυφῆς); although it has long been considered that this work could not have been written by Aristippus of Cyrene, not least because the author mentions Theophrastus, who lived a generation after Aristippus. The name may have been adopted by the writer to suggest a connection with the hedonistic philosopher. This work, judging by the quotations preserved by Diogenes Laërtius, has also been presumed to have been filled with anecdotes about philosophers and their supposed taste for courtesans or boys. Since Aristippus esteemed himself more highly than his fellow philosophers, Aristippus having been the writer of such work has been considered unlikely due to the irregular effort such an act would have been for him. [???]

title: Aristippus