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Monrovia

Monrovia  is the capital and largest city of Liberia. Founded in 1822, it is located on Cape Mesurado on the Atlantic coast and as of the 2022 census had 1,761,032 residents, home to 33.5% of Liberia’s total population. Its Metro Area including Montserrado and Margibi counties largely being urbanized, was home to 2,225,911 inhabitants as of the 2022 census. As the nation's primate city, Monrovia is the country's economic, financial and cultural center; its economy is primarily centered on its harbor and its role as the seat of Liberian government.

Etymology
Monrovia is named in honor of U.S. President James Monroe, a prominent supporter of the colonization of Liberia and the American Colonization Society. Along with Washington, D.C., it is one of two world capitals to be named after a U.S. President.

History

Before 1816, the area around Cape Mesurado and the mouth of the Mesurado River was called Ducor. It had long been established as a crossroads and place of trade, and was inhabited by fishing, trading and farming communities of various ethnicities, including the Dey, Kru, Bassa, Gola, and Vai. The French cartographer and enslaver Chevalier des Marchais visited Ducor and the Cape in 1723, conducted business there and later published a map of the area.

In 1816, with the aim of establishing a self-sufficient colony for emancipated American slaves, something that had already been accomplished in Freetown, the first group of African American settlers arrived in West Africa from the United States under the auspices of the American Colonization Society and with the support of the U.S. government. They landed at Sherbro Island in what today is Sierra Leone.

On January 7, 1822, a ship took these settlers to Dazoe Island (now called Providence Island) at the mouth of the Mesurado River. They subsequently went ashore at Cape Mesurado, and established a settlement they called Christopolis. In 1824, the city was renamed Monrovia after James Monroe, president of the United States at the time. Monroe was a prominent supporter of developing the city as a place to relocate formerly enslaved Black people from the United States of America and Caribbean islands, as an alternative to abolishing the institution of slavery in America.

In 1845, there was a constitutional convention in Monrovia, at which the document was drafted that would be adopted two years later as the constitution of the newly independent and sovereign Republic of Liberia.

At the beginning of the 20th century, 2,500 of Monrovia’s 4,000 residents were Americo-Liberian. Monrovia was divided into two sectors: Monrovia proper, and Krutown. Monrovia proper was where the city's Americo-Liberian population resided; the architectural style of its buildings was reminiscent of that of the southern United States. Krutown was inhabited mainly by ethnic Krus, but also by Bassas, Grebos and members of other ethnic groups. By 1926, ethnic groups from Liberia's interior had begun migrating to Monrovia in search of jobs. By 1937, Monrovia’s population had grown to 10,000, and it had 30 police officers. In 1979, the Organisation of African Unity held their conference near Monrovia, and it was chaired by the then president of Liberia, William Tolbert. During his term, Tolbert improved public housing in Monrovia and cut in half the tuition fees at the University of Liberia. In 1980, a military coup led by Samuel Doe overthrew the Tolbert government and executed many of its members. Tolbert and many others who were killed were buried in a mass grave in Palm Grove Cemetery.

The First Liberian Civil War (1989 to 1997) and Second Liberian Civil War (1999 to 2003) severely damaged many buildings and nearly all the infrastructure in the city, particularly during the siege of Monrovia. There were major battles between Samuel Doe's government forces and Prince Johnson's forces in 1990, and during the National Patriotic Front of Liberia's assault on the city in 1992. During the wars, many children and youths were forced to be involved in the fighting, and were deprived of any schooling, and afterwards, many of them were left homeless.

In 2002, Leymah Gbowee organized the Women of Liberia Mass Action for Peace, as part of which, in Monrovia, local women gathered in a fish market to pray and sing. This movement helped to end the war the following year, and to bring about the election of Ellen Johnson Sirleaf as president of Liberia, which thereby became the first African nation to have a female president.

In 2014, the city was affected by the 2014 West Africa Ebola outbreak. The Ebola virus epidemic in Liberia was declared to be over on 3 September 2015.

Geography

Monrovia lies along the Cape Mesurado peninsula, between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mesurado River, whose mouth forms a large natural harbor. The Saint Paul River lies directly north of the city and forms the northern boundary of Bushrod Island, which is reached by crossing the "New Bridge" from downtown Monrovia. Monrovia is located in Montserrado County and is Liberia's largest city and its administrative, commercial and financial center.

Climate
According to the Köppen climate classification, Monrovia has a tropical monsoon climate (Am). It is the wettest capital city in the world, with annual rainfall averaging 182 in. It has a wet season and a dry season but gets precipitation even during the dry season. Temperatures are fairly constant throughout the year, averaging around 79.5 F. The only slight differences are the high temperatures, as they are around 81 F in the winter and near 90 F in the summer, with lows being around 22–24 year-round.

Neighborhoods
Monrovia comprises several districts spread across the Mesurado peninsula; the greater metropolitan area encircles the mouth of the marshy Mesurado River. The historic downtown area, centered on Broad Street, is at the very end of the peninsula; the major market district, Waterside, immediately to its north, faces the city's large natural harbor.

Northwest of Waterside is the large, low-income West Point community. To the west and southwest of the downtown area is Mamba Point, traditionally the city's principal diplomatic quarter and home to the embassies of the United States and United Kingdom, as well as the European Union delegation. South of the city center is Capitol Hill, where the major institutions of the national government, including the Temple of Justice and the Executive Mansion, are located.

Further east along the peninsula is the Sinkor section of Monrovia. Originally a suburban residential district, today Sinkor is the bustling midtown section of the city. It includes many diplomatic missions, major hotels, businesses, and residential neighborhoods, including informal communities such as Plumkor, Jorkpentown, Lakpazee and Fiamah. Sinkor is also home to the city's secondary airport, Spriggs Payne, and the area immediately next to the airport, called Airfield, is a major nightlife district for the whole city. East of the Airfield is the Old Road section of Sinkor, which is predominantly residential, and includes informal settlements such as Chugbor and Gaye Town.

At the southeastern base of the peninsula is the independent township of Congo Town, and to its east is the large suburb of Paynesville. Other suburbs, such as Chocolate City, Gardnersville, Barnesville, Kaba Town, Dandawailo, and New Georgia lie to the north, across the river. On Bushrod Island, north of Monrovia, are the neighborhoods of Clara Town, Logan Town and New Kru Town. To the far east are the suburbs of Stockton Creek Bridge, Caldwell, Louisiana, and Cassava Hill.

 * Other neighborhoods and suburbs of Monrovia include:

 * Bakoi
 * Banjoa
 * Barekling
 * Bassa Community
 * Buzzi Quarters
 * Clara Town
 * Crown Hill
 * Dixville
 * Doin Town
 * Dwahn Town
 * Duala
 * Fanti Town
 * Jatuja
 * Jacob Town
 * Jallah Town
 * Logan Town
 * Matadi
 * New Kru Town
 * Old Road
 * Point Four
 * Red Light
 * Slipway
 * Snapper Hill
 * South Beach
 * Toe Town
 * Tomo
 * Topoe Village
 * Vai Town
 * Virginia

Notable people

 * Henry Clifford Boles (1910–1979), American architect, active in Monrovia through the Point Four Program
 * Prince Johnson, Liberian politician
 * Clarence Kparghai, Swiss ice hockey player
 * Sio Moore, American football player
 * Aloysius Wleh Penie, Liberian footballer
 * Massimo Pigliucci (born 1964), ecological and evolutionary geneticist
 * Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, former president of Liberia
 * Takun J, Liberian musician
 * Charles Taylor, former president of Liberia
 * Benoni Urey, Liberian businessman
 * George Weah, Liberian president and former footballer
 * Ashton Youboty, American football player

Economy

Monrovia's economy is dominated by its harbor - the Freeport of Monrovia - and as the location of Liberia's government offices. Monrovia's harbor was significantly expanded by U.S. forces during the Second World War and the main exports include latex and iron ore.

Materials are also manufactured on-site, such as cement, refined petroleum, food products, brick and tile, furniture, and chemicals. Located on Bushrod Island between the mouths of the Mesurado and Saint Paul rivers, the harbor also has facilities for storing and repairing vessels.

Transport

Boats link the city's Freeport of Monrovia, the country's busiest port, with Greenville and Harper. The nearest airport is Spriggs Payne Airport, located less than four miles (4 mi) from the city center. Roberts International Airport, the largest international airport in Liberia, is 37 mi away in Harbel.

Monrovia is connected with the rest of the country via a network of roads and railways. Monrovia is listed as the home port by between ten and fifteen percent of the world's merchant shipping, registered in Liberia under Flag of Convenience arrangements. Both private taxis and minibuses run in the city, and are supplemented by larger buses run by the Monrovia Transit Authority.

In recent years (2005–present) the roads on many streets in Monrovia have been rebuilt by the World Bank and the Liberian Government. Private and public infrastructures are being built or renovated as reconstruction takes place.

Administration and government
Monrovia is situated in the district of Greater Monrovia in Montserrado County. Instead of being divided into clans like other districts of Liberia, Greater Monrovia is divided into 16 "zones". Like clans, these zones are subdivided into 161 communities. Greater Monrovia does not have an organized district administration like other districts, with all lower-level local authorities being directly supervised by the Montserrado County Superintendent. Municipally, Greater Monrovia District is subdivided into two city corporations and ten other local authorities (nine townships and one borough). Established by law in 1973 and operational since 1976, the Monrovia City Corporation (MCC) is responsible for the city's administration. The MCC also provides services to the townships and borough through a revenue-sharing arrangement, but has no zoning or enforcement jurisdiction in them.

City corporations
 * Monrovia City Corporation
 * Paynesville City Corporation

Townships
 * Barnesville
 * Caldwell
 * Congo Town
 * Dixville
 * Gardnersville
 * Garworlon
 * Johnsonville
 * New Georgia
 * West Point

Borough
 * New Kru Town

Former mayors include:
 * W. F. Nelson, 1870s
 * C. T. O. King, 1880s and served three terms
 * H. A. Williams, 1890s
 * Arthur Barclay, 1892–1902
 * Gabriel M. Johnson, 1912–1913; 1920–1921
 * Thomas J.R. Faulkner, 1914–1918
 * Nathan C. Ross, 1956–1969
 * Ellen A. Sandimanie, 1970–1973
 * Ophelia Hoff Saytumah, 2001–2009
 * Mary Broh, February 2009 – February 2013
 * Henry Reed Cooper, March 2013 – July 2013
 * Clara Doe-Mvogo, March 2014 – January 2018
 * Jefferson Tamba Koijee, January 2018 – January 2024

Culture and media
Cultural attractions in Monrovia include the Liberian National Museum, the Masonic Temple, the Waterside Market, and several beaches. The city also houses Antoinette Tubman Stadium and the Samuel Kanyon Doe Sports Complex, which boasts one of the largest stadiums in Africa, with seats for 40,000.

The newspaper industry in Monrovia dates back to the 1820s, with the founding of the Liberia Herald, one of the first newspapers to be published in Africa. Today, numerous tabloid-style newspapers are printed daily or bi-weekly, most are 20 pages or less. The Daily Talk is a compilation of news and Bible quotations written daily on a roadside blackboard in the Sinkor section of Monrovia.

Monrovia also has radio and TV stations. Radio is the dominant source of news, because problems with the electric grid make watching television more difficult. UNMIL Radio has been broadcasting since October 1, 2003, and is the only radio station in Liberia that is on the air 24 hours a day. It reaches an estimated $2/3$ of the population. The state-owned Liberia Broadcasting System broadcasts nationwide from its headquarters in Monrovia. STAR radio broadcasts at 104 FM.

Education

Monrovia is home to the University of Liberia, along with African Methodist Episcopal University, United Methodist University, Stella Maris Polytechnic, and many other public and private schools. Medical education is offered at the A.M. Dogliotti College of Medicine, and there is a nursing and paramedical school at the Tubman National Institute of Medical Arts.

Kindergarten through twelfth grade education is provided by the Monrovia Consolidated School System, which serves the greater Monrovia area. Schools include Monrovia Central High School, Bostwain High School, D. Twe High School, G. W. Gibson High School and William V. S. Tubman High School.

The American International School of Monrovia is located in Congo Town.

Places of worship
The places of worship in Monrovia are predominantly Christian churches and temples. These include the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Monrovia (Catholic Church), the United Methodist Church in Liberia (World Methodist Council), the Liberia Baptist Missionary and Educational convention (Baptist World Alliance) and the Assemblies of God. In October 2021, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints announced plans to construct a temple in Monrovia. The city also has Muslim mosques.

Pollution

Pollution is a significant challenge in Monrovia. Piles of household and industrial rubbish tend to build up. The World Bank pays sanitation companies to collect it, but collections are irregular.

In 2013, the problem of uncollected rubbish in the Paynesville area of Monrovia became so acute that traders and residents burnt "the huge garbage piles that seemed on the verge of cutting off the main road" out of Monrovia to Kakata.

Flooding brings additional environmental problems to residents: flood water picks up the waste that has been deposited in swamps at the edge of residential areas, and spreads it around.

In 2009, only one-third of Monrovia's 1.5 million people had access to clean toilets. Those without their own toilets defecate in the narrow alleyways between their houses, or on the beach, or into plastic bags that they dump onto nearby piles of rubbish or into the sea.

Congested housing, a lack of any requirement that landlords provide working toilets, and virtually no urban planning "have combined to create lethal sanitation conditions in the capital".

Twin towns – Sister cities
Monrovia is twinned with:
 * Taipei, Taiwan
 * 🇺🇸 Dayton, Ohio, United States

title: Monrovia


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Raqs sharqi

Raqs sharqi (رقص شرقي, ; literally "oriental dancing") is the classical Egyptian style of belly dance that developed during the first half of the 20th century.

History
Raqs sharqi was developed by Taheyya Kariokka, Samia Gamal, Naima Akef, Zeinat Olwi, and other dancers who rose to fame during the golden years of the Egyptian film industry. This has come to be considered the classical style of dance in Egypt by the 1950s. These dancers were famous not only for their role in Egyptian films, but also for their performances at the "Opera Casino" opened in 1925 by Badia Masabni. This venue was a popular place for influential musicians and choreographers from both the US and Europe, so many of the developments pioneered here can be considered new developments in the dance. Later dancers who were influenced by these artists are Soheir Zaki, Nagwa Fouad, Fifi Abdou, and Dalilah. All rose to fame between 1960 and 1980, and are still popular today. And later generations, such as Dina, some of these later dancers were the first to choreograph and perform dances using a full 'orchestra' and stage set-up, which had a huge influence upon what is considered the 'classical' style.

Though the basic movements of raqs sharqi are unchanged, the dance form continues to evolve. Nelly Mazloum and Mahmoud Reda are noted for incorporating elements of ballet, and their influence can be seen in modern Egyptian dancers who stand on relevé as they turn or travel in a circle or figure eight.

Costume
Since the 1950s, it has been illegal in Egypt for belly dancers to perform publicly with their midriff uncovered or to display excessive skin. It is therefore becoming more common to wear a long, figure-hugging lycra one-piece gown with strategically placed cut-outs filled in with sheer, flesh-coloured fabric. If a separate bra and skirt are worn, a belt is rarely used and any embellishment is embroidered directly on the tight, sleek lycra skirt. A sheer body stocking must be worn to cover the midsection. Egyptian dancers traditionally dance in bare feet, but these days often wear shoes and even high heels.

Respectability in Egypt
Generally, Egyptians do not consider Raks Sharki to be a respectable profession, despite attempts by several groups to change the perception. Many Egyptians also continue to employ native Egyptian dancers for wedding receptions and other celebratory events. Strict moral laws prevent a lot of local Egyptian dancers from performing in public spaces so many dancers performing for tourists in nightclubs today are foreigners.

Belly dancers in Egypt have restrictions placed on their costume and movements. Most notably, no floor work is permitted and the dancer's midriff must be covered. However, many Egyptian nightclubs don't necessarily follow the government guidelines.

In 2009, a plan to establish a state institute to train belly dancers in Egypt came under heavy fire as it "seriously challenges the Egyptian society's traditions and glaringly violates the constitution", said Farid Esmail a member of the parliament, a thing that was widely viewed by many Egyptian celebrities and dancers as hate against Egyptian arts.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Raqs sharqi


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Lee Chang-dong

Lee Chang-dong (born July 4, 1954) is a South Korean film director, screenwriter, and novelist. He has directed six feature films: Green Fish (1997), Peppermint Candy (1999), Oasis (2002), Secret Sunshine (2007), Poetry (2010), and Burning (2018). Burning became the first Korean film to make it to the 91st Academy Awards' final nine-film shortlist for Best Foreign Language Film. Burning also won the Fipresci International Critics' Prize at the 71st Cannes Film Festival, Best Foreign Language Film in Los Angeles Film Critics Association, and Best Foreign Language Film in Toronto Film Critics Association.

Lee has won Silver Lion for Best Director and Fipresci International Critics' Prize at the 2002 Venice Film Festival and the Best Screenplay Award at the 2010 Cannes Film Festival. He also won the award for Achievement in Directing at the 4th Asia Pacific Screen Awards in 2017, Jury Grand Prize at the 2018 Asia Pacific Screen Awards, Best Director and Lifetime Achievement Award at the 13th Asian Film Awards in 2019, and he has been nominated for the Golden Lion and the Palme d'Or. Lee served as South Korea's Minister of Culture and Tourism from 2003 to 2004.

Early life
Lee Chang-dong was born in Daegu, Korea. He graduated in 1981 with a degree in Korean Literature from Kyungpook National University in Daegu, where he spent much of his time in the theater, writing and directing plays. He went on to teach high school Korean and established himself as a novelist with his first novel Chonri in 1983.

Career
Lee had no formal training in filmmaking. He was approached by Park Kwang-su to write the screenplay for To the Starry Island. Lee negotiated for an assistant director (AD) position as part of the deal and was promoted to first AD on the first day of the shoot when the original first AD failed to show up. The film was released in 1993. He went on to write A Single Spark in 1995, which won Best Film at the 1995 Blue Dragon Film Awards.

After being encouraged by his contemporaries to finally step behind the director's chair, Lee made Green Fish, a "critique of Korean society told through the eyes of a young man who becomes enmeshed in the criminal underworld", in 1997. Green Fish won Best Film at Blue Dragon Film Awards, Dragons and Tigers Award at the Vancouver International Film Festival, and had NETPAC Award's Special Mention at Rotterdam International Film Festival. In 2000, Lee made Peppermint Candy, a story following a single man in reverse chronology through 20 years of South Korean history—from 1980's student uprising, to the film's 2000 release. Peppermint Candy won Special Jury Prize at Bratislava International Film Festival, and got three awards at Karlovy Vary International Film Festival including Don Quijote Award, Special Jury Prize and NETPAC Award. The film also won Best Film at Grand Bell Awards.

Lee released Oasis in 2002, a story involving a mentally ill man and a woman with cerebral palsy, winning the Silver Lion for Best Director at the 2003 Venice Film Festival. Oasis was selected as Korean entry for the Best Foreign Language Film at the 75th Academy Awards. The film was awarded Chief Dan George Humanitarian Award at 2003 Vancouver International Film Festival. It also won 2003 Venice International Film Festival's Special Director's Award, FIPRESCI Prize, and SIGNIS Award. Lee won Baeksang Arts Awards for Best Director. Oasis was nominated at the 2005 Independent Spirit Awards for Best Foreign Film.

From 2003 to 2004, Lee served as the minister of Culture and Tourism in the South Korean Government. On the political appointment, Lee said:

In October 2006, Lee was awarded with the Chevalier (Knight) order of the Legion d'Honneur (Legion of Honor) by the French government for "his contribution to maintaining the screen quota to promote cultural diversity as a cultural minister." It was delivered to the French embassy in South Korea by the French Minister of Culture, Renaud Donnedieu de Vabres during an official visit.

Lee's fourth film, Secret Sunshine about a grieving mother who loses her son, was completed in 2007. At the 60th Cannes Film Festival, the film was entered in the competition category with lead actress Jeon Do-yeon, winning the Prix d'interprétation féminine. It was released to theaters in South Korea in 2007, and was South Korea's submission for the Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film in 2008. Secret Sunshine won Best Feature Film at Asia Pacific Screen Awards. It won Best Film and Best Director at 2008 Asian Film Awards. It won Best Picture and Best Director at Korean Film Awards, Best Director at Director's Cut Awards, and Special Award at Grand Bell Awards.

In 2009, Lee was appointed as a jury member of the international competition in 61st Cannes Film Festival along with Isabelle Huppert, Shu Qi and Robin Wright Penn.

The following year, Lee's film Poetry was released. The film tells a story of a suburban woman in her 60s who begins to develop an interest in poetry while struggling with Alzheimer's disease and her irresponsible grandson. It garnered positive critical reviews and won the Best Screenplay Award at the 2010 Cannes Film Festival. Notably, the film's starring role was played by Yoon Jeong-hee, who was returning to the screen after an absence of 16 years. For this film, Lee won Achievement in Directing in Asia Pacific Screen Awards. Poetry also won Best Film and Best Screenplay at 2010 Grand Bell Awards, and Lee won Best Director at 2011 Baeksang Arts Awards.

Lee returned after eight years of hiatus with a 2018 psychological drama mystery film Burning, based on one of Haruki Murakami's seventeen short stories in The Elephant Vanishes, "Barn Burning". The film premiered at the 71st Cannes Film Festival, winning the Fipresci International Critics' Prize. It became the highest-rated film in the history of Screen International’s Cannes jury grid. Burning was selected as the South Korean entry for the Best Foreign Language Film at the 91st Academy Awards, and became the first Korean film to make it to the final nine-film shortlist of the Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film. Burning also won Best Foreign Language Film in Los Angeles Film Critics Association, Best Foreign Language Film in Toronto Film Critics Association, and the runner-up of National Board of Review's Top Five Foreign Language Film. For this film, Lee won Best Director at 2018 Buil Film Awards and 2019 KOFRA Film Awards. In addition to international acclaims, the film also won 2018 Grand Bell Awards for Best Film and FIPRESCI Award at Korean Association of Film Critics Awards.

In March 2019, Lee won Best Director for Burning and was honored Lifetime Achievement Award at the 13th Asian Film Awards. In 2021, he was appointed as the head of jury of the international competition in the 15th Asian Film Awards. He has also worked with Jason Yu's first film "Sleep" along with Bong Joon-ho.

Political beliefs
Lee Chang-dong was born in Daegu, the most conservative and rightist city in Korea, to lower middle-class parents, who were left-leaning, particularly his father. His family came from noble class of the old Korea. This contradiction of growing up in an ex-noble family with socialist ties shaped his character, and subsequently his film style.

Lee supported Roh Moo-hyun's candidacy since 2002, and after he won the elections, Lee served in the office as Minister of Culture from 2003 to 2004. During his term, Lee proposed a screen quota for independent film but his proposal met with fierce opposition by the Korean movie industry. However, in October 2006, he was rewarded for his efforts with the Chevalier (Knight) order of the Legion d'Honneur (Legion of Honor) by the French government for "his contribution to maintaining the screen quota to promote cultural diversity as a cultural minister".

Lee has been boycotting and refusing to attend the Blue Dragon Film Awards ceremony since 2002 due to political conflicts with Chosun Ilbo, a conservative South Korean newspaper which hosts the awards. Consequently, since 2002 his films have never been submitted to the competition and were excluded from the nomination for the award's best picture and best director.

For nearly a decade until 2017, during the Lee Myung-bak and Park Geun-hye presidential administrations, Lee Chang-dong was blacklisted by the government. Artists such as Lee that were put on the blacklist were subject to investigations and denial of subsidies. Lee recalls of his eight-year-hiatus:

During these eight years, I questioned myself a lot: what kind of films I want to make and what kind of films am I going to make for my audience? Actually, it wasn’t necessary to catch up for such a long time: I just could’ve easily made films that people wanted to see, with a touch of my personal style so they could be critically acclaimed, but I was looking for my own films, that’s all I can speak and talk about. At the time I was thinking about people’s anger: everybody I knew back then was angry, no matter their religion or nationality or differences. (Burning) original story put me in connection with my own questions and story.

Film and directing style
Lee Chang-dong describes his creative process as one of utter despair. Almost all Lee's films have that of melodramatic element, except for Burning that bends the contours of the thriller with a tense, haunting multiple-character study. All his films are dark stories of innocence lost, suffering and alienation. His key themes have been consistently about psychological trauma. Rather than allowing his characters simply to wallow in their misery, Lee draws them into situations that make them search, often futilely, for the meaning of life. Memory has often been an important theme for Lee. His work can be defined by the tragedy genre and his stories almost always involve his characters experiencing some degree of suffering.

His films are the reflection of the repressive social and political climate of the South Korea, and depictions of marginalized blue-collar Koreans. His characters are characteristically anti-heroic, but he seems to justify them due to their background. Through realistic portraits of troubled characters, Lee asks the audience to examine themselves and to look at what society pushes under the rug. However, he shys away from masking his themes with bold surrealism. Instead, he's more driven by naturalism.

Lee doesn't give too specific direction when he works with actors. He believes that an actor's reaction is more important than the action. He doesn't have a particular method of directing. He doesn't tell the actors to act or be in a certain way. Instead, he tells them to become the persona, the character in the film. He said, "'What I try to have them do is become the character, to feel like the character. I do not try to be very specific in how I direct my actors, for instance I will not say things like 'Use this expression' or 'Speak this way', or 'Can you please raise the pitch of your voice a bit higher' or anything like that.' And, 'Sometimes, actors expect from me a bit more detail, to give them specific advise but I don't do that. But what I DO sometimes is to tell them different stories, or speak about other things that do not seem to have anything in common with what the actors should be playing, but indirectly might help them feel the same way as the character feels so that they become the character.'"It was talked about that there is a lot of pressure on a Lee Chang-dong set. In respond to the pressures felt by Moon So-ri and Sol Kyung-gu on his film set, Lee said, "'[...] I've never raised my voice, and I'm never really about giving any sort of strict direction, especially when it comes to working with the actors. When it comes to acting, I really prefer the actors to find themselves in the character, and find themselves living in the situations, themselves. I'm not someone to tell them, or to instruct them how to express whatever in a certain sort of situation.' And, '[...] One of the things that I say a lot to my actors is, 'Don't act'. That be a bit flabbergasting to actors, because, 'Wait, I'm an actor, I'm supposed to act. What do you mean? What does that mean?' That can come as a confusing statement.'"

Literature
In 1987, Lee Chang-dong published his first short story, Possession, followed by There's a Lot of Shit in Nokcheon in 1992 which won him The Korea Times Literary Prize, and then Tenaciousness in 1996.

Lee said about his writing style, "'I always wrote for one person, for this person who thought and felt the same way as I do. It almost felt like I was writing a love letter to this very specific person who would understand what I'm writing and share the same feelings and thoughts.'"In 2007, Lee's short story, The Dreaming Beast (translated by Heinz Insu Fenkl), was published in the journal AZALEA. In 2018, his short story, On Destiny (translated by Soyoung Kim), was published in the journal Asymptote.

In 2023, Lee's short story, Snowy Day (translated by Heinz Insu Fenkl and Yoosup Chang), was published in the March 6th, 2023 issue of The New Yorker.

Personal life
Lee Chang-dong is the third son out of four brothers. He said that they were very close, and called themselves fraternity brothers. His youngest brother, Lee Joon-dong, is a film producer for Lee's films. Lee hoped to become a painter growing up, but he could not afford art supplies. Lee and the president of MBC television and radio network company, Choi Seung-ho, are old friends and Kyungpook National University alumni. He personally asked Choi to appear in Burning playing as Jong-su's father. He is also a close friend of his frequent collaborator, actor Moon Sung-keun.

title: Lee Chang-dong


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National Firearms Act

The National Firearms Act (NFA), 73rd Congress, Sess. 2, ch. 757, was enacted on June 26, 1934, and currently codified and amended as. The law is an Act of Congress in the United States that, in general, imposes an excise tax on the manufacture and transfer of certain firearms and mandates the registration of those firearms. The NFA is also referred to as Title II of the federal firearms laws, with the Gun Control Act of 1968 ("GCA") as Title I.

All transfers of ownership of registered NFA firearms must be done through the National Firearms Registration and Transfer Record (the "NFA registry"). The NFA also requires that the permanent transport of NFA firearms across state lines by the owner must be reported to the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF). Temporary transports of some items, most notably suppressors (also referred to as silencers), do not need to be reported.

Background
The ostensible impetus for the National Firearms Act of 1934 was the gangland crime of the Prohibition era, such as the St. Valentine's Day Massacre of 1929, and the attempted assassination of President-elect Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1933. Like the current National Firearms Act (NFA), the 1934 Act required NFA firearms to be registered and taxed. The $200 tax was quite prohibitive at the time. With a few exceptions, the tax amount is unchanged.

Originally, pistols and revolvers were to be regulated as strictly as machine guns; towards that end, cutting down a rifle or shotgun to circumvent the handgun restrictions by making a concealable weapon was taxed as strictly as a machine gun.

Conventional pistols and revolvers were ultimately excluded from the Act before passage, but other concealable weapons were not. Regarding the definition of "firearm", the language of the statute as originally enacted was as follows:

 * The term "firearm" means a shotgun or rifle having a barrel of less than eighteen inches in length, or any other weapon, except a pistol or revolver, from which a shot is discharged by an explosive if such weapon is capable of being concealed on the person, or a machine gun, and includes a muffler or silencer for any firearm whether or not such firearm is included within the foregoing definition.

Under the original Act, NFA weapons were machine guns, short-barreled rifles (SBR), short-barreled shotguns (SBS), any other weapons (AOW, i.e., concealable weapons other than pistols or revolvers), and silencers for any type of NFA or non-NFA weapon. Minimum barrel length was soon amended to 16 inches for rimfire rifles and by 1960 had been amended to 16 inches for centerfire rifles as well.

NFA categories have been modified by laws passed by Congress, rulings by the Department of the Treasury, and regulations promulgated by the enforcement agency assigned, known as the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives or ATF.

Categories of regulated firearms
The current National Firearms Act (NFA) defines a number of categories of regulated firearms. These weapons are collectively known as NFA firearms and include the following:

 * Machine guns: "any weapon which shoots, is designed to shoot, or can be readily restored to shoot, automatically more than one shot, without manual reloading, by a single function of the trigger. The term shall also include the frame or receiver of any such weapon, any part designed and intended solely and exclusively, or combination of parts designed and intended, for use in converting a weapon into a machinegun, and any combination of parts from which a machinegun can be assembled if such parts are in the possession or under the control of a person."

 * Short-barreled rifles (SBRs): Includes any firearm with a buttstock and either a rifled barrel less than 16" long or an overall length under 26". The overall length is measured with any folding or collapsing stocks in the extended position. The category also includes firearms which came from the factory with a buttstock that was later removed by a third party.

 * Short-barreled shotguns (SBSs): Similarly to SBRs, but with either a smoothbore barrel less than 18" long or a minimum overall length under 26".

 * Suppressors: The legal term for a suppressor is silencer, and includes any portable device designed to muffle or disguise the report of a portable firearm, but does not include non-portable devices, such as sound traps used by gunsmiths in their shops which are large and usually bolted to the floor.

 * Destructive devices (DDs) - (added to the NFA of 1934 by the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968): There are two broad classes of destructive devices:

Any other weapon (AOW)
Firearms meeting the definition of "any other weapon", or AOW, are weapons or devices that can be concealed on the person and from which a shot can be discharged by the energy of an explosive. Many AOWs are disguised devices such as pens, cigarette lighters, knives, cane guns, and umbrella guns. AOWs can be pistols and revolvers with smooth bore barrels (e.g., H&R Handy-Gun, Serbu Super-Shorty) designed or redesigned to fire a fixed shotgun shell. While the above weapons are similar in appearance to weapons made from shotguns, they were originally manufactured in the described configuration rather than modified from existing shotguns. As a result, such weapons do not fit within the definition of shotgun or weapons made from a shotgun.

The AOW definition includes specifically described weapons with combination shotgun and rifle barrels 12 inches or more but less than 18 inches in length from which only a single discharge can be made from either barrel without manual reloading.

The ATF Firearms Technology Branch has issued opinions that when a pistol (such as an AR-type pistol) under 26" in overall length is fitted with a vertical fore-grip, it is no longer "designed, made and intended to fire ... when held in one hand," and therefore no longer meets the definition of a pistol. Such a firearm then falls only within the definition of "any other weapon" under the NFA.

In 1938, Congress recognized that the Marble Game Getter, a short .22/.410 sporting firearm, had "legitimate use" and did not deserve the stigma of a "gangster weapon" and reduced the $200 tax to one dollar for the Game Getter. In 1960 Congress changed the transfer tax for all AOW category firearms to $5. The transfer tax for machine guns, silencers, SBR and SBS remained at $200.

Parts associated with NFA items
In general, certain components that make up an NFA item are considered as regulated. For example, the components of a silencer are considered as "silencers" by themselves and the replacement parts are regulated. However, the repair of original parts without replacement can be done by the original manufacturer, FFL gunsmith, or by the registered owner without being subjected to new registration as long as the serial number and the dimension (caliber) are maintained. The length may be reduced in repair, but cannot be increased. Increasing the length is considered as making a new silencer. "Suppressor" is the term used within the trade/industry literature while the term "silencer" is the commonly used term that appears in the actual wording of the NFA. The terms are often used interchangeably depending on the source quoted.

Suppressors and machine guns are the most heavily regulated. For example, in Ruling 81-4, ATF declared that any AR-15 Drop-in Auto-Sear (DIAS) made after November 1, 1981 is itself a machine gun, and is therefore subject to regulation. While this might seem to mean that pre-1981 sears are legal to possess without registration, ATF closes this loophole in other publications, stating,"Regardless of the date of manufacture of a drop in auto sear, possession of such a sear and certain M-16 fire control parts is possession of a machine gun as defined by the NFA. Specifically, these parts are listed as '(a) combination(s) of parts' designed 'Solely and exclusively' for use in converting a weapon into a machine gun and are a machine gun as defined in the NFA."ATF machine gun technology letters written between 1980 and 1996 by Edward M. Owen—the then-chief of the ATF technology division defined "solely and exclusively" in all of his published and unpublished machine gun rulings with specific non-ambiguous language.

Owning for the parts needed to assemble other NFA firearms is generally restricted. One individual cannot own or manufacture certain machine gun sear (fire-control) components, unless, he owns a registered machine gun. The M2 carbine trigger pack is such an example of a "combination of parts" that is a machine gun in and of itself. Most of these have been registered as they were pulled from stores of surplus rifles in the early 1960s. In some special cases, exceptions have been determined to these rules by ATF. A semiautomatic firearm which could have a string or shoelace looped around the cocking handle of and then behind and in front of the trigger in such a way as to allow the firearm to be fired automatically is no longer considered a machine gun unless the string is attached in this manner.

Most current fully automatic trigger groups will not fit their semi-automatic firearm look-alike counterparts—the semi-automatic version is specifically constructed to reject the fully automatic trigger group by adding metal in critical places. This addition is required by ATF to prevent easy conversion of Title I firearms into machine guns.

For the civilian possession, all machine guns must have been manufactured and registered with ATF prior to May 19, 1986, to be transferable between citizens. These machine gun prices have drastically escalated in value, especially items like registered sears and conversion-kits. Only a Class-II manufacturer (a FFL holder licensed to manufacture firearms or Type-07 license that has paid a Special Occupational Tax Stamp or SOT) could manufacture machine guns after that date, and they can only be sold to government, law-enforcement, and military entities. Transfer can only be done to other SOT FFL-holders, and such FFL-holders must have a "demonstration letter" from a respective government agency to receive such machine guns. Falsification and/or misuse of the "demo-letter" process can and has resulted in long jail sentences and felony convictions for violators.

Owning both a short barrel and a legal-length rifle could be construed as intent to build an illegal, unregistered SBR. This possibility was contested and won in the U.S. Supreme Court case of United States v. Thompson-Center Arms Company. ATF lost the case, and was unable to prove that possession of a short barrel for the specific pistol configuration of a Thompson Contender is illegal. ATF later released ruling 2011-4 to clarify the legal status of owning such conversion kits.

Removal of a weapon from classification as an NFA firearm, such as the reclassification of the original Broomhandle Mauser with shoulder stock from "short barrel rifle" (SBR) to a curio or relic handgun, changed its status as a Title II NFA firearm but did not change its status as a Title I Gun Control Act firearm.

Muzzle-loading firearms are exempt from the Act (as they are defined as "antique firearms" and are not considered "firearms" under either the GCA or the NFA). Thus, though common muzzle-loading hunting rifles are available in calibers over 0.50 inch, they are not regulated as destructive devices. Muzzle-loading cannon are similarly exempt since the law makes no distinction about the size of muzzle-loading weapons. Thus it is legal for a civilian to build muzzle-loading rifles, pistols, cannon, and mortars with no paperwork. However, ammunition for these weapons can still be classified as destructive devices themselves, such as explosive shells. While an 'antique firearm' is not considered a 'firearm' under the NFA, some states (such as Oregon) have laws that specifically prohibit anyone that could not otherwise own/obtain an GCA or NFA defined 'firearm' (i.e., felons, recipients of dishonorable discharge from military service, the mentally adjudicated, etc.) from owning/obtaining an 'antique firearm'.

Individuals or companies seeking to market large-bore firearms may apply to ATF for a "sporting clause exception". If granted, ATF acknowledges that the firearm has a legitimate sporting use and is therefore not a destructive device. Certain large safari rifle calibers, such as .585 Nyati and .577 Tyrannosaur, have such exceptions.

The phrase "all NFA rules apply" is commonplace. This disclaimer is usually posted in bold print from firearm dealers holding an FFL license.

Registration, purchases, taxes and transfers
It is a common misconception that an individual must have a "Class 3" license in order to own an NFA weapon. A Federal Firearms License (FFL) is not required to be an individual owner, although it is required as a prerequisite to become a Special Occupation Taxpayer (SOT, see Special Occupational Taxpayers): Class 1 importer, Class 2 manufacturer-dealer or Class 3 dealer in NFA weapons. There are generally three ways to own an NFA weapon: as an individual, through a gun trust, or as a Limited Liability Company (LLC). Legal possession of an NFA firearm by an individual requires transfer of registration within the NFA registry. An individual owner does not need to be an NFA dealer to buy Title II weapons. The sale and purchase of an NFA weapon is, however, taxed and regulated, as follows:

All NFA items must be registered with the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF). Private owners wishing to purchase an NFA item must obtain approval from the ATF, pass an extensive background check to include submitting a photograph and fingerprints, fully register the firearm, receive ATF written permission before moving the firearm across state lines, and pay a tax. The request to transfer ownership of an NFA item is made on an ATF Form 4. There have been several unfavorable lawsuits where plaintiffs have been denied NFA approval for a transfer. These lawsuits include: Lomont v. O'Neill, Westfall v. Miller, and Steele v. National Branch.

NFA items may also be transferred to corporations (or other legal entities such as a trust). When the paperwork to request transfer of an NFA item is initiated by an officer of a corporation, fingerprint cards and photographs of the official need to be submitted with the transfer request. This method has downsides, since it is the corporation (and not the principal) that owns the firearm. Thus, if the corporation dissolves, it must transfer its NFA weapon to the owners. This event would be considered a new transfer and would be subject to a new transfer tax.

The tax for privately manufacturing any NFA firearm (other than machine guns, which are illegal for individuals to manufacture) is $200. Transferring requires a $200 tax for all NFA weapons except AOWs, for which the transfer tax is $5 (although the manufacturing tax remains $200).

All NFA weapons made by individuals must be legal in the State or municipality where the individual lives. The payment of a $200 "making tax" prior to manufacture of the weapon, although a subsequent transfer of AOWs after they are legally "made" is only $5. Only a Class-II manufacturer (a FFL holder licensed as a "Manufacture of Firearms" or Type-07 license that has paid a Special Occupational Tax Stamp or SOT) can manufacture NFA firearms (other than destructive devices) tax free, but they pay a larger annual tax which ranges from $500 to $1000 to cover manufacturing.

A Destructive Device manufacturing license (Type-10 FFL) holder can manufacture destructive devices tax-free. However, a type-07 license costs $150 for three years –– whereas a Type-10 destructive manufacturing license costs $3000 for three years. Both licenses still require the payment of the $500 (reduced-rate) Special Occupational Tax Stamp or SOT, (or the $1000 full tax) per year to conduct manufacturing of NFA weapons that they are respectively qualified to manufacturer. The SOT "reduced rate" applies to a business whose sales are less than $500,000 per year.

Transferable machine guns made or registered before May 19, 1986, are worth far more than their original, pre-1986 value and items like registered "auto-sears", "lightning-links", trigger-packs, trunnions, and other "combination of parts" registered as machine guns before the aforementioned date are often worth nearly as much as a full registered machine gun. For instance, as of September 2008, a transferable M16 rifle costs approximately $11,000 to $18,000, while a transferable "lightning-link" for the AR-15 can sell for $8,000 to $10,000. New manufacture M-16s sell to law enforcement and the military for around $600 to $1000.

Upon the request of any ATF agent or investigator, or the Attorney General, the registered owner must provide proof of registration of the firearm.

In a number of situations, an NFA item may be transferred without a transfer tax. These include sales to government agencies, temporary transfers of an NFA firearm to a gunsmith for repairs, and transfer of an NFA firearm to a lawful heir after the death of its owner. A permanent transfer, even if tax-free, must be approved by ATF. The proper form should be submitted to ATF before the transfer occurs. For example, lawful heirs must submit a Form 5 and wait for approval before taking possession of any NFA item willed to them. Temporary transfers, such as those to a gunsmith or to the original manufacturer for repair, are not subject to ATF approval since they are not legally considered transfers. ATF does, however, recommend filing tax-free transfer paperwork on all such temporary transfers, to confer an extra layer of legal protection on both the owner and the gunsmith.

Criminal conduct
The Act makes certain conduct a criminal offense, in relation to engaging in business as a manufacturer, importer, or dealer with respect to (NFA) firearms without having registered or paid a Special Occupational Tax (SOT); receiving or possessing a firearm transferred to oneself in violation of the NFA; receiving or possessing a firearm made in violation of the NFA; receiving or possessing a firearm not registered to oneself in the National Firearms Registration and Transfer Record; transferring or making a firearm in violation of the NFA; or obliterating, removing, changing, or altering the serial number of the firearm.

Criminal penalties
Violations of the Act are punishable by up to 10 years in federal prison and forfeiture of all devices or firearms in violation, and the individual's right to own or possess firearms in the future. The Act provides for a penalty of $10,000 for certain violations. A willful attempt to evade or defeat a tax imposed by the Act is a felony punishable by up to five years in prison and a $100,000 fine ($500,000 in the case of a corporation or trust), under the general tax evasion statute. For an individual, the felony fine of $100,000 for tax evasion could be increased to $250,000.

Exceptions
The United States Supreme Court has ruled in Haynes v. United States that the Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution exempts felons—and, by extrapolation, all other prohibited possessors—from the registration requirements of the Act. The prohibited person who violates the possession prohibition can, however, be convicted under the Gun Control Act of 1968 for being a prohibited person in possession of a (any) firearm.

The Atomic Energy Act of 1954 was amended in 2005 and includes a provision (42 U.S.C. § 2201a) to allow Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) licensees and authorized contractors to possess machine guns for the purpose of providing security.

The market for NFA items
Importation of NFA firearms was banned by the 1968 Gun Control Act which implemented a "sporting" clause. Only firearms judged by ATF to have feasible sporting applications can be imported for civilian use. Licensed manufacturers of NFA firearms may still, with the proper paperwork, import foreign NFA firearms for research and development purposes, or for government use.

The domestic manufacture of new machine guns that civilians could purchase was effectively banned by language in the Firearm Owners Protection Act of 1986 (also known as "McClure-Volkmer"). The language was added in an amendment from William J. Hughes and referred to as the Hughes Amendment. Machine guns legally registered prior to the date of enactment (i.e. May 1986) are still legal for possession by and transfer among civilians where permitted by state law. The static and relatively small number of transferable machine guns has caused their price to rise, often over $10,000, although transferable MAC-10 and MAC-11 submachine guns can still be purchased for around $8,000. Machine guns manufactured after the FOPA's enactment can be sold only to law enforcement and government agencies, exported, or held as inventory or "dealer samples" by licensed manufacturers and dealers. Machine guns made after 1986 for law enforcement but not transferable to civilian registration are usually priced only a few hundred dollars more than their semi-automatic counterparts, whereas a pre-Hughes Amendment registered machine gun that can be legally transferred commands a huge premium.

The Hughes Amendment affected only machine guns. All other NFA firearms are still legal for manufacture and registration by civilians under Form 1, and transfer of registration to civilians via Form 4 (though some states have their own laws governing which NFA firearms are legal to own there). Silencers and Short-Barreled Rifles are generally the most popular NFA firearms among civilians, followed by Short-Barreled Shotguns, Destructive Devices, and "Any Other Weapons". While most NFA firearms are bought from manufacturers and transferred to civilians through a dealer, many are made by civilians themselves after they file a Form 1 and pay the $200 tax. Some types of NFA firearms can be relatively simple to make: a Short-Barreled Rifle can be made by swapping out the upper receiver for one containing a short barrel, and a Short-Barreled Shotgun can be created by using a pipe cutter to shorten the barrel length. Other NFA firearms, such as suppressors, require more technical skill.

NFA trust
An NFA trust (also known as a gun trust, Title II trust, ATF trust, or Class 3 trust) is a legal trust that is used in the United States to register and own NFA firearms. Under regulations, use of a trust allows prospective purchasers of NFA items to avoid some of the federal transfer requirements that would otherwise be imposed on an individual. Like other trusts, it allows for estate planning in inheriting firearms. In 2013, ATF proposed new rules, often referred to as ATF Proposed Rule 41p, which, if adopted, would require all "responsible persons" of an entity being used to purchase NFA items to comply with the same procedures as individuals in obtaining NFA items. In an NFA trust, a responsible person is defined as "any grantor, trustee, beneficiary, ... who possesses, directly or indirectly, the power or authority under any trust instrument, ... to receive, possess, ship, transport, deliver, transfer, or otherwise dispose of a firearm for, or on behalf of, the entity." ATF finalized the rule on January 15, 2016, to become effective 180 days later. The previous requirement for "chief law enforcement officer" approval was eliminated, while all responsible people for a trust must now comply with the same restrictions as individual owners.

Miller case
In 1938, the United States District Court for the Western District of Arkansas ruled the statute unconstitutional in United States v. Miller. The defendant Miller had been arrested for possession of an unregistered short double-barreled shotgun, and for "unlawfully ... transporting [it] in interstate commerce from Claremore, Oklahoma to Siloam Springs, Arkansas" which perfected the crime. The government's argument was that the short barreled shotgun was not a military-type weapon and thus not a "militia" weapon protected by the Second Amendment, from federal infringement. The District Court agreed with Miller's argument that the shotgun was legal under the Second Amendment.

The District Court ruling was overturned on a direct appeal to the United States Supreme Court (see United States v. Miller). No brief was filed on behalf of the defendants, and the defendants themselves did not appear before the Supreme Court. Miller himself had been murdered one month prior to the Supreme Court's decision. No evidence that such a firearm was "ordinary military equipment" had been presented at the trial court (apparently because the case had been thrown out—at the defendants' request—before evidence could be presented), although two Supreme Court justices at the time had been United States Army officers during World War I and may have had personal knowledge of the use of such weapons in combat. The Supreme Court indicated it could not take judicial notice of such a contention.

The Supreme Court reversed the District Court and held that the NFA provision (criminalizing possession of certain firearms) was not in violation of the Second Amendment's restriction and therefore was constitutional. (Citation?)

Subsequent rulings have been allowed to stand, indicating that short-barreled shotguns are generally recognized as ordinary military equipment if briefs are filed (e.g., see: Cases v. United States), describing use of short-barreled shotguns in specialized military units. (Citation?)

title: National Firearms Act


text:
Sonia Rolland

Sonia Rolland (born 11 February 1981) is a Rwandan-French actress and beauty pageant titleholder who was crowned Miss France 2000 and represented her country at Miss Universe 2000 where she placed Top 10. She was the first African-born winner of the Miss France pageant.

Born in Kigali, Rwanda, to a Rwandan mother and a French father, Rolland and her family fled the country due to safety concerns with the Rwandan genocide instigating, especially since her mother is Tutsi. In 1990 they moved to the neighboring country of Burundi. With the growing unrest that led to the Burundi Civil War, they moved to France in 1994. At the age of 13, Rolland settled with her family in Burgundy in the small town of Cluny.

In October 1999, Sonia Rolland won the "Miss Burgundy" beauty contest that allowed her to compete for the Miss France 2000 title and at the age of 18 she was the first woman of African descent to win. At the Miss Universe 2000 pageant, which took place in Cyprus, Rolland was a top 10 semi-finalist, placing 9th overall.

Rolland once lived in Paris with Christophe Rocancourt, an impostor, confidence man and gentleman thief who scammed affluent people by masquerading as a French member of the Rockefeller family. They had a daughter together, named Tess. They announced their split on 10 April 2008. Rolland has another daughter, Kahina, with actor and director Jalil Lespert, who is her partner since 2009.

At twenty years old after serious acting lessons with renowned actor Alain Delon, Rolland embarked on a new career as an actress. Following an unsettling incident during which she was attacked in the metro she took kickboxing classes that later proved advantageous as they helped her land the role of Léa in the television series Léa Parker that ran for two seasons from 2004 to 2006.

Literary work
Rolland's first book was published in 2007 titled "Les gazelles n'ont pas peur du noir" which in English translates to "Gazelles are not afraid of the dark". The book is her testimony to her childhood in Rwanda, transition to a different culture, her modeling and acting career, her philanthropic work and her family. Her next book was "Beauté Black" which was collaboration with Sandrine Jeanne-Rose, an expert in ethnic and black cosmetics and hair care. This collection of practical guidelines is mainly meant to reach women of African descent. The two beauty enthusiasts focus on three areas: the face, the body and most importantly the hair essentially afro-textured hair as it is an important subject in the black community.

Philanthropy
Rolland's work is mostly concentrated in Rwanda where she focuses a lot on education, as it is one of the things children survivors of the Genocide have missed out on. She is currently collecting funds that will go towards building a school. With her new documentary "Rwanda Mon Amour" ("Rwanda My Love") in the works the former Miss France is hoping to inspire other African nations to follow the example of Rwanda by encourage the people to participate in the ongoing changes but at the same time Rolland promises to be impartial and objective about the achievements of the country over the last 20 years. The documentary is expected to make an appearance at the Cannes film festival.

title: Sonia Rolland


text:
Quantifier

Quantifier may refer to:

 * Quantifier (linguistics), an indicator of quantity
 * Quantifier (logic)
 * Quantification (science)

title: Quantifier


text:
Talk:A20 line

old post
This is a really a note to myself but if anyone else wants to tackle before I get around to it then they can.

This article really additional information. Such as the segemented memory model of the x86 architecture and how this translates to the address lines of the chip. Also the 8042 chip should be mentioned in relation to its role with the A20 line. Mention AT and XT arcitectures. -- Popsracer 10:29, 31 Jul 2003 (UTC)

I'm extremely dubious of the expansion of the A in A20 as "above". I'm fairly certain that the name simply derives from the fact that the hardware implementation gated this signal from the keyboard controller (8042) with the address line A20 from the microprocessor. --Brouhaha 21:36, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC)

I removed the following information as it is misleading/incorrect.

"Letter "A" in the name A20 refers to "Above", while "20" refers to the 20th power of 2. (220 bytes = 1 Mbyte)"

A20 refers to Address line 21. In real mode there are 20 address lines A0-A19. With a 286, 386, etc, there are more than 20 address lines, ergo, the 21st address line is A20 and must be pulled low to enable to address wrapping mentioned in the article. Sure the power of 2 information is correct only coencidently in that every time you add an address line, you raise the addressable region by a power of two. In the context it was presented, it is misleading. I can't imagine a simple, relevant way to describe these things, I think its better to just let them be deleted. -- (unsigned) 2005-01-08T21:24:17 by IP 155.229.83.62

A20m should be disabled VMX instructions [From Wanchun Wang] -- (unsigned) 2007-10-17T09:25:02 by IP 69.232.205.79

Explain "wrap around"
This article would be more clear if somebody explained what does the "wrap around" exactly mean in this case, including real example. --81.219.244.145 (talk) 10:27, 15 June 2008 (UTC)

Stop overcomplicating a simple physical implementation
Seriously, it's not that hard to understand, just link other terms such as "wraparound". This is ridiculous. ChazZeromus (talk) 04:20, 5 October 2009 (UTC)

DOS-programmers
a) I need a citation for this! b) I want to get explained why the programmers did this. What was the advantage in this method? mabdul 10:38, 10 December 2010 (UTC)
 * Because loading segment registers was very slow on early processors, this trick was used by some DOS programmers, for example, to have one segment that has access to program data (e.g. from F800:0000 to F800:7FFF, pointing to the physical addresses 0x000F8000 - 0x000FFFFF) as well as the I/O data (e.g. keyboard buffer) that was located in the first memory segment (with addresses F800:8000 to F800:FFFF pointing to the physical addresses 0x00000000 to 0x00007FFF).

 * a) It already says "loading segment registers was very slow". There was a time when programmers cared how fast their programs ran, and relied on their own efforts rather than Intel to speed up programs.
 * b) Pretty standard discussion in any text of that time, one that comes to mind is Robert Jourdain Programmer's problem solver, 1992, but my copy isn't yet unpacked. --Wtshymanski (talk) 14:59, 10 December 2010 (UTC)
 * a)I did understand the second part and hope that this time get a revival ^^ - did I understand this now correctly: because the programmers don't want to wait on Intel creating a faster way, the used the "trick" to get the needed data from the segment register by addressing them not over the normal way rather the modified "direct" address? mabdul 15:24, 10 December 2010 (UTC)
 * I've no idea what you understand, I certainly don't understand you. --Wtshymanski (talk) 17:08, 10 December 2010 (UTC)
 * Guys, I just looked this up and in fact on the 8088 loading registers is not particularly slow, it takes the same number of cycles as writing any other register. Rather, it's a matter of the programmers wanting to squeeze every last bit of performance out of the chip.
 * -- (unsigned) 2016-08-24T13:16:04 by IP 80.114.146.117

title: Talk:A20 line


text:
Talk:Quantification

Old material
This contains material from Universal quantification and Existential quantification. When I finish transferring items (tomorrow?), then I'll remove stuff from those articles that applies to quantification in general and appears here. Then those articles can focus on aspects unique to their particular sort of quantification. For now, those articles remain complete, without relying on this one. -- Toby Bartels 10:30, 31 Jul 2003 (UTC)

These changes have now been made. -- Toby Bartels 21:29, 3 Aug 2003 (UTC)

 * This is a important article; it was well written but I think some clarification on the rule of formation would be helpful. However, I believe in the scientific method. TEAR IT APART. After all, I'm just a vacuum cleaner.CSTAR 03:56, 12 May 2004 (UTC)

 * I have continued to make some changes to discuss natural language quantification, informal mathematical quantification and the formal semantics of quantification (at least what is objective quantifcation, as opposed to substitute quantification). Again I think a lot can be removed. Please have a look at this and modify. CSTAR 05:42, 15 May 2004 (UTC)

 * I will add some stuff on multal and paucal quantification ( quantification such as for almost every x blah...) and then I'll call it quits on this article.

 * Could we merge the other articles on existential and universal quantification into this one?CSTAR 23:12, 15 May 2004 (UTC)

In Mathematics section there is following phrase: A similar analysis applies to the disjunction, 1 is prime, or 2 is prime, or 3 is prime, etc. 1 is NOT prime number, but it does not break the disjunction. I'm not sure if it should be fixed as English is not my mothertongue, but this phrase may cause some confustion. Mathemonkey (talk) 21:28, 1 May 2008 (UTC)

New intro
The new intro is innaccurate. Quantification is not limited to size. Unless there is any objection soon I will revert it.CSTAR 14:03, 19 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * Your change is sound, in that what you have written is better than what you replaced, but I've got some reservations about the way the relation between quantifiers and quantities is being treated. I'm not a linguist, and am not entirely comfortable with the following material, but it seems to me that in natural language, mass noun (eg. two pints of beer) and count noun constructions (eg. four cats) are in many respects the paradigmatic instances of quantifiers, with some, no and all being more in the line of special instances.  It seems backwards to me to relegate the quantity-related aspects of quanitifers to the back seat.  Charles Stewart 14:18, 19 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * Sigh, yes, I have to agree with your assertion:

 * I've got some reservations about the way the relation between quantifiers and quantities is being treated.

 * In fact the article's treatment of quantification is almost entirely restricted to quantification in formal languages (Mea culpa). Unfortunately, I don't know much about this, I admit. When I first stumbled on this page it only dealt with formal quantification and moreover even with that restricted focus, I thought the material was not very informative and in  fact a little condescending to the reader.

 * Of course feel free to revert back to any previous state or some suitable middle.

 * Sooner or later I will tackle this problem. I can't think of a 30 second edit that will resolve the issue, and I have little time for WP right now, so I am OK with leaving it as is.  Charles Stewart 23:29, 20 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Attention banner needed?
Should we put in an attention banner? Yes, I now have pangs of guilt about this article. Please, someone, absolve me of the burden of this guilt. CSTAR 15:29, 19 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * No guilt feelings are deserved. What is an attention banner?  Charles Stewart 23:29, 20 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * The following is an attention banner:

CSTAR 23:33, 20 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Uniform vs pointwise continuity
Let f be a real-valued function on R.

 * A: Pointwise continuity of f on R:
 * $$ \forall x \in \mathbb{R}, \ \forall \epsilon >0, \exists \delta > 0, \forall h \in \mathbb{R}, \quad |h| < \delta \implies |f(x) - f(x+h)| < \epsilon $$

which is the same as
 * A': Pointwise continuity of f on R:
 * $$ \forall \epsilon >0, \ \forall x \in \mathbb{R}, \exists \delta > 0, \  \forall h \in \mathbb{R}, \quad |h| < \delta  \implies |f(x) - f(x+h)| < \epsilon $$

This differs from
 * B: Uniform continuity of f on R:
 * $$ \forall \epsilon >0, \exists \delta > 0, \forall x \in \mathbb{R}, \forall h \in \mathbb{R}, \quad |h| < \delta\implies |f(x) - f(x+h)| < \epsilon $$

by exchange of two quantifiers. Where are the additional variables?--CSTAR 03:20, 6 September 2006 (UTC)

Two meanings of quantification
There need to be two different pages for "quantification", one which is the formal logic definition, the other which is the process of quantifying information. The latter is a very important topic and has really nothing to do with the former that I can see. There are many books on the history of quantification and the "quantitative spirit" in science (starting around the 18th century), ample material for an entire article. --24.147.86.187 01:48, 4 January 2007 (UTC) Insert non-formatted text here

 * The scientific usage of "quantification" might be a synonym of measurement, and we already have a page on that topic. Tim Vickers (talk) 14:52, 24 August 2008 (UTC)

I don't think 'measurement' is an adequate synonym for quantification even though their meanings do overlap. I propose we create a new page called 'quantification (science)' and remove from this article all the empirical science stuff. Then it might prove ?desirable?? to rename this page as 'quantification (logic)' to reduce any remaining confusion. Any views on this idea? thanks Peter morrell 06:41, 4 September 2008 (UTC)

Maybe this is stupid, but I was actually looking for what ist in German called `Quantor'. This is the mathematical (international) symbol language of mathematics. The symbols are called `Quantoren' (plural). Maybe this is also part of the confusion here. Quantors themselves do not only quantify things in mathematics. They are more or less an extremly short and precise way to write down relations between structures or - more generally - almost any mathematical statement can be written with them. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 178.5.170.2 (talk) 18:43, 31 January 2012 (UTC)

 * Visiting this article almost 6 years after 's suggestion, I wonder why it hasn't been realized yet. Apparently there are no objections to it, are there? - Jochen Burghardt (talk) 08:19, 25 June 2014 (UTC)
 * I'm creating a suggestion about splitting the article in my sandbox, see User:Jochen Burghardt/sandbox/Quantification (extended disambiguation page), User:Jochen Burghardt/sandbox/Quantifier (logic), User:Jochen Burghardt/sandbox/Quantifier (linguistics), and User:Jochen Burghardt/sandbox/Quantification (science). - Jochen Burghardt (talk) 10:25, 26 June 2014 (UTC)

 * Today, I implemented the split suggested above. - Jochen Burghardt (talk) 14:35, 8 August 2014 (UTC)

Changes made to article undone
I recently changed an erroneous statement in the article which said, "1 is prime" to "1 is not prime." The entry has since been changed back to "1 is prime."

It is widely accepted by mathematicians that 1 is not a prime number. If 1 were to be prime then the fundamental theorem of arithmetic would have to be changed drastically. As it stands, the fundamental theorem of arithmetic holds that every natural number is either prime or can be expressed as a unique, finite product of prime numbers. If 1 were to be prime then every natural number would have an infinite number of prime factors. I am going to change this back. Please, leave the statement "1 is not prime" alone. Eyes down, human. (talk) 01:19, 25 August 2008 (UTC)

 * The article is not saying 1 is prime. It is using an example:
 * 1 is prime, or 2 is prime, or 3 is prime, ...
 * as an example of an OR statement. Since it is apparently causing confusion to have an or statement in which one disjunct is "1 is prime", I'll change it to something else. — Carl (CBM · talk) 01:47, 25 August 2008 (UTC)

is this relevant?
Goldbach's conjecture is that this statement is false, that is, that every natural number greater than 2 is the sum of two primes.

It seemed a bit off-topic to mention Goldbach's conjecture here. It seems sufficient to mention that the example is related to Goldbach's conjecture, but no more.

--Paul (talk) 00:35, 7 March 2009 (UTC)

 * I think this is fine: first, saying what GC is allows the reader unfamiliar with GC to see that it is the negation of the sentcne above, and secondly, GC is good sort of example, since clicking on the link shows the interesting fact that such a simple sounding sentence is unknown. If we were to further point out that all such undetermined sentences of arithmetic make use of quantifiers, that might be nice in this article, too. — Charles Stewart (talk) 13:07, 8 March 2009 (UTC)

 * Apart from being relevant or not, Goldbach's conjecture states something different from what is written here. In its present form the statement in the article is just a correct statement. For instance, 11 is not the sum of two primes. —Chris Barista (talk) 15:41, 1 April 2009 (UTC)

Someone gets mugged in New York every 10 minutes
Is that true? I'm guessing it's intended as a joke, although slightly inappropriate. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Money is tight (talk • contribs) 00:31, 2 December 2009 (UTC)

 * It's just an example of an ambiguous sentence. — Carl (CBM · talk)

Example matrices
These are the 8 different formulas, using the loving-relation Lxy and the quantifiers ∀ and ∃. You may concider adding them to this or an other article.

Watchduck (talk) 23:31, 7 December 2010 (UTC)

 * Copied from Watchduck's talk page:
 * I'm angling for some in-line (i.e. footnoted) sources for the Quantification article. Your drawings are interesting and engaging. Did you dream these up, or is there a source for them? And the number "16" for the possible drawings is also interesting . . . again is there a source, or did you derive this? I'd say the drawings are worthy of inclusion in the article if you can source their origin.

 * If you created them yourself, and as these vaguely resemble Venn diagrams, is a way that you could (re-)generate them so they mimic the familiar Venn diagrams? (Is that even possible? Haven't thought it thru . . ..) Personally I wouldn't regard such drawings as O.R., but rather as "examples". I know you've put a lot of work into your drawings as they exist now; they are just a bit foreign even to someone like myself who knows Karnaugh maps pretty much backwards and forwards . ..

 * If you choose to respond I suggest that that you do so at Talk:Quantification, but if you'd rather, respond at my talk page. Bill Wvbailey (talk) 02:37, 9 April 2011 (UTC)

 * It is common to represent a binary relation by its logical matrix, and as everyone else we may do so as well. As a binary relation on a set A is a subset of the Cartesian product A2 = A × A, this is the most natural representation one could imagine. A link to Logical matrix should be given in the description. If you want to add something else, you may google for "matrix of a relation" etc.

 * Maybe the ten examples themselves should be sourced, but that should be found in a random textbook about the subject. I've got them from the german article de:Prädikatenlogik, as well as the implications shown in the Hasse diagram.

 * I think this can be used without hesitation, because the facts are easily checked, and they are represented in a common way.

 * (16 possible drawings? These are 8, but indeed there are 8 negations too. But this is not about powers of two. The next number after the 8 is a 46: Wikiversity: Formulas in predicate logic)
 * Watchduck (talk) 11:37, 9 April 2011 (UTC)

This is just silly
By the time this article gets to Natural Language it has probably lost anyone who actually wanted to understand the subject. Anybody who understands the article doesn't need it for an explanation. Who is it written for (apart from the authors)?Cannonmc (talk) 14:47, 8 April 2011 (UTC)

Improvement/addition suggestions
I reviewed this quickly and don't agree with the above complaint. But I see some issues (my apologies if these are in there but my scan missed them):
 * 1 This article is almost completely about quantification in logic and should be disambiguated as such, with removal of the other possible meanings (but see the problems around "conversational language" below). For instance, re "quantification" as applied to Inductive reasoning, I hunted through my Russell 1912/1977 The problems of philosophy but didn't find anything useful. The world "probability" crops up, as in, "possibility of occurrence given previous observaton", but does the literature support the use of the notion of "quantification" in this context? I don't know. I doubt it: here's a definition from From Encyclopedia Britannica http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/486102/quantification :
 * "quantification, in logic, the attachment of signs of quantity to the predicate or subject of a proposition."
 * 2 Include footnotes in the body so a person can figure out which text or reference to go to, to learn more. For instance, the relevant chapters of Reichenbach 1947/1980 is quite sophisticated but doesn't contain info re "paucal and multal", so a person would be clueless as to where to start to find out about these notions.
 * 3 Infinite versus finite quantification, i.e. "To extend thse operations to an infinite number of terms requires new primitive terms. The correct form of statement therrefore that a conjunction and a disjunction of an infinite number of terms are defined by the operators" (Reichenbach 1980:92):
 * ∀(x): f(x) ≡ f(x1) & f(x2) & . . . f(xn),
 * ∃(x): f(x) ≡ f(x1) V f(x21) V . . . f(xn)
 * [Something about Wittgenstein goes here]
 * Only one quantifier, usually ∃, is necessary in a formal theory. Hilbert reduced the notion to what he called his " ε-function ", and considered it to be an axiom as opposed to a primitive symbol defined by its usage; note that this operator does play an important role in quantifying conversational language (see Reichenbach below): A(a) --> A(ε(A)). "Here ε(A) stands for an object of which the proposition A(a) certainly holds if it holds of any object; let us call ε the logical ε-function. [The substitution of any given formula for A(a) will be made possible if, instead of ε(A), we write more precisely εxA(x), εyA(y) . . .]"
 * Hilbert uses his ε-function three ways:
 * (i) in the common definitions of ∀ and ∃:
 * ∀a: A(a) <--> A(ε(~A))
 * ∃a: A(a) <--> A(ε(A))
 * Here I've used the modern " ∀a: " for Hilbert's " (a) ", and " ∃a: " for Hilbert's " (Ea) ".
 * (ii) in defining the notion of "one and only one" i.e. the object [his words]
 * (iii) in the definition of the choice function i.e. "if A(a) holds of several objects, then ε(U) is some one of the objects a of which U(a) holds"
 * From Hilbert 1927 The foundations of mathematics, appearing in van Heijenoort 1967:466.
 * 4 Perhaps add something more re the use of quantifiers in pure logic versus "conversational language". This is covered in Reichenbach; see next entry.
 * 5 Add something more about negation of quantifiers, i.e. "(For all pigs) It's not the case that (at least one of) pigs fly" is logically equivalent to "There exists no flying pigs". This apparently requires two treatments, one for "logic" (shown in brown), the other for "classes" as they appear in conversation (shown in blue). There's a lot to this and a lot needs to be explained (e.g. what the words "subaltern" mean, for example). And there are subtleties, for example, in the case of conversational classes the domain of S cannot be empty i.e. because the class "sea serpents" is empty, "All sea serpents live in the sea" does not allow us to infer "Some sea serpents live in the sea" (Reichenbach's example). The drawing below combines 2 drawings in Reichenbach that appear on p. 93 and 95, the first one in brown dealing with quantification and negation of functions, the second in blue with the "scholastic" forms that deal with classes (to paraphrase Reichenbach).
 * 6 Venn diagrams may be useful here. As I review my Reichenbach I see little Venn drawings that I made in the past, and these are still somewhat useful to me. What's important in them is to show the Universe of discourse (as a box surrounding the circles).
 * 7 Also, the drawings above may be useful.

If I come up with more ideas I'll add them here. Bill Wvbailey (talk) 15:23, 9 April 2011 (UTC)

Connonmc's complaint reiterated
I am sorry but the "improvement" is as incomprehensible (to the layman) as the original article. There is no point in a Wikipedia article that can only be understood by people who know what the subject is about in the first place Cannonmc (talk) 12:06, 11 April 2011 (UTC)

 * No one's made any changes to the article, that I know of. The above are only suggestions in the process of mouldering away, probably.

 * In certain areas of human knowledge, there may be no way of, to use the pejorative "dumbing it down", i.e. reducing a discussion/teaching below a certain level of background-knowledge that is required for the discussion. Problem is, what is that level? What is the necessary background knowledge necessary? I'd say these notions are difficult for almost anyone under the age of about 15-16 years.

 * As a starting point: For an eye-opening discussion in very elegant simple prose see Bertrand Russell 1912/1997 The problems of philosophy, Oxford University Press, NY, ISBN 0-19-511552-N; Russell wrote this during his work on his and Whitehead's Principia Mathematica. You can buy this book at the e.g. Borders, for not very much money ($10.95).

 * To avoid clutter on this talk page I've cc'd to here the contents that was here as of 04 April 2011. There I can work on it without disturbing other editors. If you want to see what I'm working on, please feel free.

 * The problem of "induction" as it relates to "Quantification" : The article does not develop the philosophy of this. But as I was working on what is now here I realized that (and Russell treats this as well) the notion of "Induction" needs development. Induction is what our minds undergo when we repeatedly experience an association of sensations (e.g. { this_particular_dogshow, blue_dogs } to the point that we expect the association to happen every time the first element appears ( e.g. this_particular_dogshow ). Some folks call this "animal logic". There's a great little parable in Russell about the farmer that feeds the chicken every morning until the chicken comes to expect it as a "rule" or "law" of its existence: just as surely as the day breaks every morning the farmer brings the grain in a pail. Then one day instead of a pail of grain the farmer arrives with a hatchet. . .. From this, it would seem that we naturally by a priori or "built-in" mechanisms, "generalize". Some possible associations for the dog-show example: "At this particular dog show, all the dogs are blue ", or perhaps "This dog show always has blue dogs". This needs further development. Bill Wvbailey (talk) 18:49, 12 April 2011 (UTC)

Notation
There is an error - at least in mathematics the symbols

"$$\wedge$$" and "$$\forall$$" have two totally different meanings. As the html-code of this page already shows, "$$\forall$$" means ALL or FOR ALL, whereas "$$\wedge$$" means a logical AND. Also "$$\exists$$" means EXIST and "$$\vee$$" means a logical OR. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 178.5.170.2 (talk) 18:53, 31 January 2012 (UTC)

 * I hung flags on these. I looked up the symbols from Arial Unicode MS: ∨ ∧ ∀ ∃, and these are logical OR, logical AND, "for all", "there exists". Also the ∧ with an x under it is odd; it looks like something in Wittgenstein or somewhere (I don't feel like looking it up). Other symbols of course do exist (x) "for all x", and I've seen "E" for "there exists". But I'm not sure wikipedia is in the business of listing an interpretation of every symbol ever used by every mathematician. I know I'm not in that business. I suggest we use the common contemporary symbols. The way to dodge this bullet is to state (in maybe half the words): "Other symbols are in use. The symbolism has varied from era to era, and from author to author. It is a reader's responsibility to learn the symbolism used by the author of the paper or text that they are reading." Bill Wvbailey (talk) 20:00, 31 January 2012 (UTC)

 * Your suggestion sounds good. Actually I'm studying mathematics quite some time now and I had just never seen $$\wedge$$ and $$\vee$$ for any other meaning than 'and' or 'or'. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 178.5.170.2 (talk) 22:55, 31 January 2012 (UTC)

 * WRONG. see e.g. http://matematyka.pisz.pl/strona/1070.html or http://www.romazur.republika.pl/logika-rachunek_kwantyfikatorow.html - there *are* countries which mostly use these, esp. below college level. also, these AREN'T lowercase $$\wedge$$ and $$\vee$$, they are $$\bigwedge$$ and $$\bigvee$$.Vaxquis (talk) 17:05, 16 February 2012 (UTC)

Clarify nesting.
It arises only when mixing the metatheory with the theory, for exmple when doing so by using in the metatheory the domains of discourse from the theory. For example, escaping the domain of discourse from second order predicate logic and quantifying the variables over a set, sometimes obscuring it with some shorthand relation and omitting logical connectives from the metatheory (for the universal quantifier, usually the implication is omitted; for the existential quantifier, usually the conjunction is omited).

All these three can be rewritten just by using the correct domain of discourse which is R, and then creating unquantified predicates and connecting them usually with conjunction and implication. In fact, they are informally stated: it's just natural language spelled in formal symbols.
 * $$ \underbrace{\forall x \in \mathbb{R} \, \, \forall \epsilon >0} \, \exists \delta > 0 \, \forall h \in \mathbb{R} \, \left( \, |h| < \delta \, \to \, |f(x) - f(x+h)| < \epsilon \, \right) $$
 * $$ \forall \epsilon >0 \, \underbrace{\forall x \in \mathbb{R} \, \, \exists \delta > 0} \, \forall h \in \mathbb{R} \, \left( \, |h| < \delta \, \to \, |f(x) - f(x+h)| < \epsilon \, \right)$$
 * $$ \forall \epsilon >0 \, \underbrace{\exists \delta > 0 \, \, \forall x \in \mathbb{R}} \, \forall h \in \mathbb{R} \, \left( \, |h| < \delta \, \to \, |f(x) - f(x+h)| < \epsilon \, \right) $$

An example that you cannot mix metatheory with theory is Tarski's undefinability theorem

Nesting arises from human tendency to bring mathematical notations closer to natural language. 79.119.14.247 (talk) 12:22, 8 March 2012 (UTC)

I removed an entire section, because of bias. It's correct just because "falsehood implies truth". The entire section I removed: Nesting. No one reacted, so I reverted back.

Observation: Formal logic makes the base for "Foundations of mathematics" and formal logic can be described and studied within Mathematics.

The concept of "Nesting" is not incorrect. It is superfluous. One may add it to a theory but, with respect to Occam's razor, it should be added with a parpose. This purpose may be to help understanding of the mathematical formal language by the human Intuition (psychology).

The natural language examples should need the mention that, when taken out of context, they may have more than one meaning. A possible reason for such examples is that "we don't like to overcomplicate" what we say, so we use expressions with missing information, but which was presented in the past. 79.119.14.247 (talk) 18:17, 8 March 2012 (UTC) 79.119.7.169 (talk) 07:30, 10 March 2012 (UTC) 79.119.7.169 (talk) 10:41, 10 March 2012 (UTC)

 * Perhaps the reason is that your complaint here is not very clear. You seem to be complaining about the use of bounded quantifier notation ($$(\forall \epsilon > 0)$$) but the use of bounded quantifiers is beside the point, that section is about nesting of quantifiers ($$(\forall x)(\exists y)R(x,y)$$). Tarski's theorem seems to be unrelated as far as I can tell. — Carl (CBM · talk) 12:02, 10 March 2012 (UTC)

About 2.4 Nesting
In the first two lines, why is the equation display not at the proper height? It is below the normal height of the sentence. Pratyush Sarkar ( talk ) 02:59, 26 October 2012 (UTC)

Sigma notation
Is the sigma $\sum$ in the sigma notation of sums really a quantifier? It does bind variables, so according to the definition in this article it apparently is one. 95.90.43.41 (talk) 06:24, 26 June 2013 (UTC)

title: Talk:Quantification


text:
Vale of Leven

The Vale of Leven (Magh Leamhna) is an area of West Dunbartonshire, Scotland, in the valley of the River Leven. Historically, it was part of The Lennox, the name of which derives from the Gaelic term Leamhnach, meaning field of the Leven. Leamnha is thought to mean elm-water.

Geographically the valley of the Vale of Leven runs from Loch Lomond in the north to Dumbarton in the south. However, the term "Vale of Leven" or just "The Vale" is commonly used locally to refer to the urban area towards the north of the valley that consists of a number of communities. These were historically separate villages but have expanded into one conurbation. The largest of these communities is the town of Alexandria, which sits on the west bank of the Leven. Alexandria is connected to the village of Renton to the south and to the village of Balloch in the north. Across the river from Alexandria Is Bonhill which is connected to Jamestown to the north. The combined population of these areas in 2020 was approximately 22000.

The area's name lends itself to Alexandria's local football club, Vale of Leven F.C.; the secondary school, Vale of Leven Academy; the Vale of Leven District General Hospital and other local organisations.

Geography
The Vale of Leven is the valley of the River Leven between Loch Lomond in the north and the River Clyde at Dumbarton in the south. To the east are the Kilpatrick Hills. The western hills form a minor off-shoot of the Scottish Highlands, comprising Ben Bouie, Mount Mallow and Carman muir. The valley was shaped by glacial action associated with the last glacial period in Britain, the [https://www.antarcticglaciers.org/glacial-geology/british-irish-ice-sheet/younger-dryas-loch-lomond-stadial/the-loch-lomond-stadial/#:~:text=The%20Loch%20Lomond%20Stadial%20was%20a%20period%20of,a%20valley%20glacier%20during%20the%20Loch%20Lomond%20Stadial. Loch Lomond Readvance].

History
Carman Hill is a large hillfort sitting west of Renton. Despite its impressive size, a lack of detailed archaeological investigations make the timing of its inhabitation and many other basic details uncertain, but its close geographical proximity to the major fortress of Alcluith at Dumbarton Rock (sited where the River Leven meets the River Clyde) suggests a relationship with this important iron age centre. After incorporation of Alcluith's successor state, Strathclyde, into the kingdom of Scotland, the Vale of Leven became the political centre of the Earldom of Lennox. By the 13th century nearby Dumbarton was centrally controlled by the crown as a royal burgh, however the Vale of Leven remained a relatively wild area. As an example, in 1230 when the Earl of Lennox granted valuable fishing rights on the River Leven to local monks, he had to promise them protection to enable them to work there. After the Wars of Independence, Robert the Bruce purchased land in Cardross and the Vale of Leven. He lived and ruled from there until his death in 1329. There is a small King Robert the Bruce Heritage Centre situated at the train station in Renton.

The Vale of Leven was an area of small farms and relatively low population until industrialisation started with the establishment of a bleach-field at Dalquhurn, Renton in 1715. Both dyeing and bleaching industries were attracted to the area by the reliable and fast flowing waters of the River Leven. By the 1830's dye works had spread along the river from Renton to Balloch. Individual works included those at Dalquhurn, Cordale, Bonhill, Alexandria, Milton, Dalmonach, Dillichip, Ferryfield and Levenbank. People emigrated from the Highlands, from Ireland and from northern England to staff this industry, and the five villages of The Vale grew. In 1897 several of these works amalgamated as the United Turkey Red Company. The last dyeworks in the area was the British Silk Factory which closed in 1980. Current notable employers include Loch Lomond Distilleries, Chivas Brothers distillers, and Aggreko Generators. The tourism and hospitality industries are also important local employers.

Politics
The area is traditionally industrial, based particularly on the dyeing industry, but with the decline of manufacturing in Scotland has had to look to new areas for employment. The area had exceptionally high levels of unemployment in the 1920s and 1930s, which gave it a radical reputation, with Communism and Socialism being popular political philosophies in particular. During that time it was known as one of the "Little Moscows" in Britain i.e. an area where the Communist Party of Great Britain had exceptional strength. The Vale of Leven District Council (which disappeared in the local government reorganisation of the 1970s) could have had the distinction of being the only local council in Great Britain where the Communist Party were ever the largest single party, although unlike most of the "little Moscows" it was not a coal mining area. The Communist Party went into serious decline locally in the 1950s under the influence of the Cold War, more quickly than in some other "little Moscows". However, there was an important industrial struggle during the early 1970s when the Plessey factory experienced a lengthy sit-in, objecting to its proposed closure.

In recent years the Labour Party and the Scottish National Party have been the dominant parties in the area, though Jim Bollan of the West Dunbartonshire Community Party and formerly the Scottish Socialist Party has been a councillor for the Leven ward of West Dunbartonshire council since 2007.

Sport
The Vale of Leven was a hotspot for the early development of Scottish football. This relatively small area gave birth to numerous football clubs, of which the most successful were Vale of Leven FC and Renton FC. Neither is currently a senior team, but by 1888 the 2 clubs had won 5 Scottish Cup finals between them. As well as football teams, The Vale currently is home to the Vale of Leven Golf Club, the Vale of Leven Cricket Club, the Loch Lomond Rugby Club, a swimming pool, several bowling clubs, and the Vale of Leven & District Angling Club. The latter reflects the River Leven's historic recognition as a salmon and trout river.

Walking and cycling
Two major walking and/or cycling routes cross the Vale of Leven. National Cycling Network route 7 (Glasgow to Balloch) runs along the length of the River Leven and the John Muir Way crosses the northern end of the valley. There are also many local hill walking routes leading to Cardross, Helensburgh and Glen Fruin to the west and into the Kilpatrick hills to the east.

Transport
Train links to Glasgow with railway stations at Balloch, Alexandria and Renton. Bus links to Glasgow via Dumbarton and Clydebank. Also bus routes to Drymen, Helensburgh, and Luss. The A82 trunk road from Glasgow to Fort William runs through the Vale of Leven.

title: Vale of Leven


text:
Colentina

Colentina may refer to:
 * Colentina (river), a tributary of the river Dâmboviţa in Bucharest
 * Colentina, Bucharest, a neighborhood
 * Colentina Hospital, Bucharest

title: Colentina


text:
Crișul Repede

The Crișul Repede (Romanian Crișul Repede ("the rapid Criș"); Hungarian Sebes-Körös) is a river in Bihor County, Crișana, Romania and in southeastern Hungary (Körösvidek). Together with the rivers Crișul Alb ("the white Criș") and Crișul Negru ("the black Criș"), it makes up the Three Criș rivers ("Cele Trei Crișuri"). These are considered the main rivers in the Crișana region of Romania. Historically, when Crișana was recognised as an official region (today, Romania is divided into 40 counties), the Criș rivers were the most important in the region. The basin size of the Crișul Repede is 9119 km2. Its length in Romania is 171 km.

The Crișul Repede runs through the city of Oradea, the capital of Bihor County. It flows into the Körös (Criș) near Gyomaendrőd, in Hungary. Part of the water from the Crișul Repede is diverted towards the Crișul Negru by the Criș Collector Canal.

Towns and villages
The following towns and villages are situated along the Crișul Repede, from source to mouth:
 * In Romania: Izvoru Crișului, Huedin, Poieni, Ciucea, Negreni, Bucea, Bulz, Bratca, Vadu Crișului, Aușeu, Aleșd, Tileagd, and Oradea.
 * In Hungary: Körösszakál, Körösújfalu, and Körösladány.

Tributaries
The following rivers are tributaries to the Crișul Repede (from source to mouth):

 * Left: Șipot, Domoș, Călata, Săcuieu, Drăgan, Surduc, Neportoc, Valea Satului, Iad, Valea Boiului, Brătcuța, Misir, Dobrinești, Râciu, Mnierea, Cropandă, Medeș, Chijic, Sărand, Tășad, Bonor, Peța, Alceu, Corhana
 * Right: Poicu, Semeni, Negrea, Beznea, Borod, Pârâul Omului, Gepiș, Izvor, Huta, Uileac, Bonda, Pasteur, Barcău

title: Crișul Repede