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Tales of the Jedi (comics)

Star Wars: Tales of the Jedi is a series of comic books published by Dark Horse Comics between 1993 and 1998. They are part of the fictional Star Wars expanded universe, and cover the Great Sith War and the Great Hyperspace War. The series represented the earliest chronological Star Wars stories until the publication of the Dawn of the Jedi series of comics and novels.

The first books released covered the Great Sith War (3,996 BBY, or Before the Battle of Yavin). The latter were prequels that covered the Great Hyperspace War, which happened a thousand years earlier.

Summary
The Great Hyperspace War was instigated when two Republic hyperspace explorers accidentally crash-landed on the Sith graveyard planet Korriban during the funeral procession of Marka Ragnos. His successor, Naga Sadow, provoked war with the Republic, and installed himself as the leader of the Sith Empire. He fought not only the Republic, but the forces of his chief rival, Ludo Kressh, and was forced to destroy his own fleet to cover his escape. Sadow landed on Yavin IV and constructed vast temples with the labor of his Massassi warriors.

Six hundred years later, fallen Jedi Freedon Nadd arrived on Yavin IV, and learned Sith sorcery from the spirit of Naga Sadow. He took his knowledge and the treasures of Sadow to the planet Onderon, where he used his acquired gifts to install himself as king. His spirit continued to advise his descendants.

Another Jedi, Ulic Qel-Droma, was sent to Onderon to mediate a conflict, where he met the spirit of Freedon Nadd, who told him he would become a Sith Lord. The prophecy came true when the Krath, a secret dark side society, attacked the Republic and injured Ulic with alchemically treated shrapnel, and then injected him with dark side poisons that would ensure his fall.

Exar Kun left his master, Vodo-Siosk Baas, because his master would not let him learn about the dark side. He went to Onderon, where he learned of Freedon Nadd's tomb. Nadd's spirit told him to go to Korriban, where Nadd tricked him into accepting the dark side. They went to Yavin IV, where Nadd gave him a choice: surrender to the dark side, or die. Kun chose life. After learning about the dark side from Nadd, Kun destroyed him with a dark side amulet.

Exar Kun and Ulic Qel-Droma met on Cinnagar, and their battle was interrupted by the spirit of Marka Ragnos, who declared Kun the Dark Lord of the Sith, and Qel-Droma his apprentice. Together, they waged war on the Republic, stealing Jedi students from Ossus and subverting them to the dark side. Qel-Droma defeated Lord Mandalore, earning the services of the Mandalorian warriors. Qel-Droma attacked Coruscant, but was captured. Kun led a rescue attempt, and killed his former master in the process. Soon thereafter, the Sith Lords caused the Cron Cluster to go supernova, destroying countless Jedi artifacts on nearby Ossus.

Before Ossus was destroyed, Ulic's brother Cay tried to convince him to return to the light. Ulic cut him down in a lightsaber duel and, horrified by what he had done, surrendered himself to his former lover, Nomi Sunrider, when she forever cut off his connection to the Force. Broken, Ulic surrendered to the Republic, and led them to Yavin IV, where Exar Kun committed a ritual that sapped the life from every Massassi on the planet to separate his spirit from his body and bind it to his temple.

The Cleansing of the Nine Houses are the events during the aftermath of the Great Sith War, when, after the repentance of Ulic Qel-Droma, and the death/ascension of Exar Kun, the Old Republic hunted down and bloodily purged the remnants of the Sith Brotherhood.

The video game Knights of the Old Republic, takes place forty years after the end of the Sith War.

Knights of the Old Republic
Knights of the Old Republic (1993–94) is a five-part series by Tom Veitch, Chris Gossett, Janine Johnston, and David Roach. It is set between 4,000 and 3,999 years before the Battle of Yavin.

The Freedon Nadd Uprising
The Freedon Nadd Uprising (1994) is a two-part story arc by Tom Veitch, Tony Akins, and Dennis Rodier, set during the same era as the previous arc.

While attempting to move the sarcophagi of Freedon Nadd and Queen Amanoa to the moon of Dxun, Jedi Knights Arca Jeth, Ulic Qel-Droma, Cay Qel-Droma, Tott Doneeta and Oss Wilum are attacked by several hundred Naddists, led by Warb Null, invading Iziz from underground. While distracting the Iziz forces, a group of Naddists are able to snatch the sarcophagi and take it back with them underground. Master Arca, Ulic and Queen Galia consult Galia's ailing father, King Ommin, for assistance. However, they are confronted by the spirit of Freedon Nadd, and Ommin betrays his seemingly immobile state by attacking Master Arca, knocking him unconscious. Warb Null comes in and attacks Ulic, but is soon bested and killed by the young Jedi. Unfortunately, this gives Ommin the time he needs to kidnap Master Arca.

Meanwhile, on Ossus, Nomi Sunrider, Dace Diath, Shoaneb Culu, Kith Kark and Qrrrl Toq are chosen to defend Iziz in the forthcoming Second Battle of Onderon. On Coruscant, heirs to the Empress Teta system royalty and members of the Dark Side cult the Krath, Satal and Aleema Keto, enter the Galactic Museum and find a fascinating Sith book. Satal steals it while the curator is not looking, and, after seeing a news report on the Sith practitioners still active in Iziz, the Ketos fly to Onderon to find said practitioners and discover the secrets of their new book.

Satal and Aleema Keto arrive on Onderon to find a massive battle taking place. Their ship, The Krath Enchanter, crashes, but the young Ketos are able to escape with their lives. Meanwhile, the Jedi task force from Ossus, led by Nomi Sunrider, battles their way through Sith war droids and Naddists. Kith Kark is killed in the assault, as the rest of the Jedi infiltrate the royal palace, meeting up with Ulic and Cay Qel-Droma, Tott Doneeta and Oss Wilum. Meanwhile, the Ketos are greeted by King Ommin, hoping to unlock the mysteries of their stolen Sith tome. Ommin gives Satal an amulet, with which he can read the book perfectly, as Arca Jeth is hung on the wall, suffering under deadly Sith magic. Out in the battlefield, Cay Qel-Droma has his prosthetic arm cut off by a war droid, which he quickly dispatches with his organic arm.

The group of seven Jedi arrive at King Ommin's stronghold, and Ulic slices off the former King's armature, sending him tumbling to the ground limply. Victorious, the forces of Iziz soon transport the sarcophagi of Freedon Nadd, Queen Amanoa and now King Ommin to Dxun, to forever be laid to rest.

Dark Lords of the Sith
Dark Lords of the Sith (1994–95) is a six-part story arc by Kevin J. Anderson, Tom Veitch, Chris Gossett, and Art Wetherell. It is set two years after the previous arcs, continues the tale of Ulic Qel-Droma, and introduces the character of Exar Kun, a dark lord of the Sith. The story details how the Jedi, led by Ulic Qel-Droma and Nomi Sunrider attempt to free the Empress Teta System from the tyrannical control of evil Dark Side adepts Satal and Aleema. It also details Exar Kun's fall to the Dark Side at the seduction of the spirit of Freedon Nadd, becoming Dark Lord of the Sith with Ulic as his apprentice.

The Sith War
The Sith War (1995–96) is a six-part comic by Kevin J. Anderson, set a year after the previous arc. It continues the story of Ulic Qel-Droma and Exar Kun. The story also shows how the current Mandalore shows great loyalty to Ulic.

Mandalore the Indomitable, wage war on the Teta system. Mandalore challenges Ulic Qel-Droma to a duel, which Ulic accepts on the terms that if he wins, he shall receive control of the Mandalorian warriors. Ulic wins, and recruits Mandalore and his army to fight for the Sith. They begin to plan a devastating attack on Coruscant.

The Golden Age of the Sith
The Golden Age of the Sith (1996–97) a six-part arc by Kevin J. Anderson, Chris Gossett, and Dario Carrasco Jr., set a millennium before the original comic.

Odan-Urr is studying Jedi history when his master, Ooroo, sends him to the Koros system to help Empress Teta fight the Unification Wars and unite the seven worlds located in the system. Once he has arrived on Cinnagar he helps to conquer the last planet, Kirrek, with Battle Meditation, a technique he has learned about in his studies. But even with this technique he cannot prevent casualties from occurring; among them are two blockade runners, Hok and Timar Daragon. With their parents dead, Gav and Jori Daragon get their ship, Starbreaker 12, back from Aarrba the Hutt who was holding it back as collateral.

With the ship Gav and Jori have become hyperspace explorers, but their latest route proves less than successful; they just barely make it through. They make it back to Cinnegar, but their ship is heavily damaged. Aarrba the Hutt agrees to make the repairs, but he won't give their ship back until they have paid all the bills.

Ssk Kahorr sends one of his drone ships along the route discovered by Gav and Jori, but it is destroyed when it passes too close to Primus Goluud, a red supergiant. Ssk Kahorr isn't pleased with this and sends two bounty hunters after the two hyperspace explorers. But they are saved by two Jedi, Odan-Urr and Memit Nadill. They advise them to leave the Koros system, because it is not safe for them. Gav and Jori steal back the Starbreaker 12 and desperately flee the system with random hyperspace coordinates.

On Korriban, on the far side of the galaxy, a funeral procession is held for Marka Ragnos, a Dark Lord of the Sith. The procession is led by Sith Lord Ludo Kressh. Just when the tomb is about to be closed, however, Kressh's nemesis, Naga Sadow, arrives. A fight about who should be the next Dark Lord ensues between the two rivals, but they are stopped by the ghost of Ragnos himself, who warns them of what is to come. Meanwhile, back in the Koros system, Odan-Urr has a premonition about the evil Jedi banished centuries ago. He tells Empress Teta about his dreams, and she promises that she will raise the matter on Coruscant. Back on Korriban, the Starbreaker 12 arrives and Gav and Jori are captured by the Sith forces.

On Ziost, the Sith Lords discuss what to do with the prisoners. After a long debate it is decided to have Gav and Jori killed. But Naga Sadow, seeing in these prisoners a chance to expand the Sith Empire, does not give up this easily. He sends one of his Massassi warriors to retrieve the weapons on their ship. He hatches a plan to capture the prisoners for himself and use them to regain contact with the Republic.

Together with his most loyal Massassi warriors, he frees the Daragons. But to keep his identity hidden from the other Sith Lords, he has to kill everyone in his path, including his old mentor Simus. He leaves a Republic blaster behind, to let others think it was an attack by the Republic. Gav and Jori are sent to his stronghold on Khar Shian and Sadow returns to Ziost where an urgent meeting is held between the Sith Lords. The other Sith Lords are indecisive about what to do and in the confusion he claims to be named the new Dark Lord of the Sith. The other Sith Lords, except Ludo Kressh and his supporters, agree. Sadow immediately calls upon the others to prepare their ships and warriors so they can attack the Republic first. Empress Teta and her two Jedi advisors have arrived at Coruscant, where she addresses the Senate about Odan-Urr's premonition, but the people listening do not believe her. Even without the help of the Republic, Teta decides to prepare her own forces.

In Naga Sadow's hidden fortress on the dark side of Kar Shian, he trains Gav Daragon in the ways of the Sith. Sadow sends his Massassi warriors to retrieve the Starbreaker 12 from Ziost and then travels to his decoy fortress on Khar Delba, where Jori Daragon is held. On Ziost, Sadow's loyal Massassi steal the Starbreaker 12, but not without leaving evidence of their Master's involvement. Ludo Kressh discovers this evidence, and together with his supporters, Horak-mul and Dor Gal-ram, he prepares to attack Sadow's fortress on Khar Delba. Meanwhile, the Starbreaker 12 arrives there.

Kressh's forces have arrived at Khar Delba and have opened fire at Sadow's apparently defenseless fortress. Sadow convinces Daragon that she must return to the Republic before the fortress is destroyed. Reluctant to leave her brother behind, she agrees. After the Starbreaker 12 has escaped to hyperspace, Sadow calls in his fleet that he had hidden on the dark side of Khar Shian. But that is not all; Massassi warriors on the ships of Horak-mul and Dol Gal-ram kill the Sith Lords and direct their fire on Kressh, who has no choice but to retreat. After this victory, Sadow prepares his forces to invade the Republic, using the tracking beacon hidden on the Starbreaker 12.

The Fall of the Sith Empire
The Fall of the Sith Empire (1997) is a five-part arc by Kevin J. Anderson, Dario Carrasco, Dario Carrasco Jr, Bill Black, David Jacob Beckett, and Ray Murtaugh. Set in the same era as the previous comic, many battles are recounted.

The Battle of Coruscant was the first battle between the Galactic Republic and Naga Sadow's Sith Empire. Memit Nadill, trusting in Odan-Urr's judgement, came to Coruscant to rally the Jedi before the Sith were to attack, but the invasion fleet came early. The Coruscant defense forces led by Jedi Guardian Anavus Svag defended the planet as other Republic forces and Jedi joined the defense. The size of the Sith Lord's army is visually exaggerated and influenced by Sadow himself, meditating in his meditation sphere high above Primus Goluud. When Gav Daragon fires on the sphere, Naga Sadow's concentration is disrupted, causing much of the army on Coruscant to fade. This increases the confidence and resolve of the Jedi and Republic soldiers, allowing them to take advantage and repel the Sith invasion.

The Battle of Koros Major is fought between the army of Koros and the Sith Empire. Naga Sadow's focus is on the Battle of Coruscant, so he appoints his prisoner Gav Daragon as commander of the Koros Major invasion fleet. As the battle begins, Gav lands on the planet to look for his sister Jori, with a group of Massassi bodyguards. As Gav enters Aarrba the Hutt's repair dock, his bodyguards see the Hutt as a threat, and attack and kill him. Jori enters at that exact moment and attacks Gav with a lightsaber given to her by Odan-Urr, assuming he had killed Aarrba. Gav escapes and flees the planet, leaving Teta's men to battle the Sith to eventual victory.

The Battle of Kirrek is fought between the army of Koros and the Sith Empire. Prior to the battle, Empress Teta had made an agreement with Commander Llaban, commander of the rebellion in the earlier Battle of Kirrek, to fight alongside each other to defend Kirrek against the Sith, earning amnesty for the ex-rebels. She also decides to let the prisoners mining the colony world of Ronika to fight in the defense of Kirrek, but they are absent for the beginning of the battle. Early in the battle, Odan-Urr attempts to use his Battle Meditation as he did during the Unification Wars, but the fury and determination of the Massassi warriors is infallible. Led by the Sith Lord Shar Dakhan, the Massassi break through the line of defenders and begin climbing the wall. Separating much of the defenders from the Sith onslaught, Odan-Urr's Master Ooroo orders the Kirrek rebels to find cover. He then tips himself over, shattering his cyanogen tank and sending the fumes into the breaths of several Massassi, killing them instantly. This kills Ooroo as well, as oxygen is just as toxic to him as cyanogen is to the Massassi. As the prisoners from Ronika arrive, and with the death of the Sith commander, victory for the Tetans quickly becomes a foregone conclusion.

The Battle of Primus Goluud takes place above the red supergiant Primus Goluud between Empress Teta's forces and the Sith Empire. Jori Daragon leads Empress Teta to her brother Gav, presuming he has turned to the dark side of the Force. Gav, trapped in Sadow's meditation sphere, proves he is still on their side by transmitting the coordinates to Korriban to Teta's ship. Soon, the dark lord's ships arrives and engages the Koros battalion. Sadow wastes no time in using a superweapon attached to his flagship to trigger solar flares across Primus Goluud. The Sith forces retreat to the Sith Empire, closely followed by Teta's ships, as Gav is left to die in the meditation sphere.

The First Battle of Korriban is fought between Naga Sadow and Ludo Kressh's respective war fleets high above the Sith funeral world of Korriban. Fleeing the Battle of Primus Goluud, Sadow's fleet is confronted by Kressh, who declares himself the new Dark Lord of the Sith and banishes Sadow from the Sith Empire. A fierce battle between the Sith Lords ensues, until Sadow crashes one of his ships into Kressh's flagship, killing the new Dark Lord.

The Second Battle of Korriban immediately follows the first battle. The Tetan forces, using coordinates given to them by Gav Daragon, come out of hyperspace very soon after Kressh's death in the First Battle of Korriban, catching Sadow by surprise. This allows the Koros ships to quickly put the Sith Empire's forces at a disadvantage. Sadow has another trick up his sleeve, however; the Dark Lord orders his Massassi to kill their commanders on each ship, leaving a massive, impassable barricade between himself and the Koros fleet. Sadow then flees to Yavin 4 with his one remaining ship, to hopefully rebuild the once glorious Sith legacy.

Sequel
Redemption (1998) is a five-part arc by Kevin J. Anderson and Chris Gossett. It is set ten years after the end of the original comic run.

Hoggon's ship arrives in the Yavin System and makes its way to the surface. Hoggon tells Ulic of the events that happened there, but all Ulic can see is ghosts, including that of his dead brother, Cay. Ulic tells Hoggon that this place will not do as well.

On Ryloth, many Twi'leks flee as a heat storm rages upon them, with Jedi Tott Doneeta doing what he can to help. He tries using the force to hold back the storm, but is overwhelmed, receiving burns across the side of his face. Rather than stay and rest his wounds, he announces that he must leave for the Great Jedi Convocation.

On Exis Station, Master Thon arrives, meeting Vima Sunrider, now a teenager. The two are shortly interrupted by the Cathar Jedi Sylvar, and the two Jedi leave Vima to join the convocation that has begun. While Nomi speaks, Vima gets bored and decides to take off and try out flying a mining ship. But, while flying, Vima gets caught in a magnetic loop and has her ship disabled and is forced to eject. She is then rescued by a late arrival for the convocation, Tott Doneeta. Upon arriving back at the station, Nomi questions her daughter's actions, asking how she can expect to become a Jedi with such brash choices. Vima responds by saying if Nomi would spend more time training her, she could have gotten out of it herself.

Elsewhere, Hoggon's ship arrives on the icy surface of Rhen Var. Upon landing, Ulic announces that he is satisfied with this place. Hoggon arrives at Exis Station and takes a place in an airshaft to watch the convocation, as Sylvar has taken the chance to speak. She talks of Ulic Qel-Droma and mentions that he betrayed the Jedi and now wanders free. She makes reference to Ulic's conspiring with Exar Kun, and the death of Jedi, including her mate Crado. She then states that Ulic is the greatest shame of the Jedi Knights.

On Rhen Var, Ulic takes up his lightsaber, but cannot feel anything in the force. The weapon is nothing but a tool in his hands. The ground beneath him then gives way, dropping him into a hole.

Back on Exis, Vima stares at two hologram's belonging to her mother; one is Vima's father, Andur, and the other is Ulic. Vima asks her mother about training, to which Nomi responds with "not today." Vima then goes off to the docking bay, stowing away on a ship, intent on finding her own trainer. Also in the docking bay is Tott, who asks Sylvar to come with him to Ryloth, in order to deal with the anger within her.

Upon arriving at the new city of Tott's clan, the two Jedi are told of an attack on the clan by another clan. Tott leaves to deal with the situation and asks Sylvar to help while he is gone. Sylvar decides to try and rally the clan, telling them that they must attack and have revenge. Tott returns to announce that blood shed does not create peaces, and that a solution has been reached; the two clan leaders will go into the desert together and a new head-clan will join the tribes. Not used to the difference in custom, Sylvar asks to be taken home to Cathar.

On Rhen Var, Ulic looks back on what he has done in the past; betraying Nomi and killing Cay. He considers this to be a place as good as any to die, but is urged to live on by an image of his deceased teacher, Master Arca Jeth. Ulic pulls his strength together and climbs back up through the snow.

On Exis Station, Nomi finds her hologram of Ulic missing, and is told by Master Thon that Vima is missing.

On his ship, Hoggon discovers that Vima has stowed away on his ship. Vima says she is looking for Ulic Qel-Droma, and show Hoggon the hologram. Hoggon takes her to Rhen Var and drops her on the planet, giving her a transmitter with which to contact him. After Hoggon leaves, Vima states that she will not leave until she is a Jedi.

Collected editions

 * Tales of the Jedi: Knights of the Old Republic (1994) ISBN 1-56971-020-1
 * Tales of the Jedi: The Freedon Nadd Uprising (1995) ISBN 1-56971-307-3
 * Tales of the Jedi: Dark Lords of the Sith (1996) ISBN 1-56971-095-3
 * Tales of the Jedi: The Sith War (1996) ISBN 1-56971-173-9
 * Tales of the Jedi: The Golden Age of the Sith (1997) ISBN 1-56971-229-8
 * Tales of the Jedi: The Fall of the Sith Empire (1998) ISBN 1-56971-320-0
 * Tales of the Jedi: Redemption (2001) ISBN 1-56971-535-1
 * Star Wars Omnibus: Tales of the Jedi Volume 1 (2007) ISBN 1-59307-830-7
 * Star Wars Omnibus: Tales of the Jedi Volume 2 (2008) ISBN 1-59307-911-7

Legacy
The publisher West End Games produced a role-playing game sourcebook related to the first three arcs of the series.

Veitch reused his character Ood Bnar in Dark Empire II, set thousands of years later. Along with Tales of the Jedi, the story is no longer canon. The novelization of The Rise of Skywalker references Ommin, and the junior novelization references Naga Sadow.

The 2022 canon novel Shadow of the Sith establishes that the planet Ossus, introduced in The Freedon Nadd Uprising, is the location of Luke Skywalker's Jedi temple, which is depicted in a 2022 episode of The Book of Boba Fett.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Tales of the Jedi (comics)


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User:UniversalRebel/The History of Wikipedia

Wikipedia started (in English) as a global multilingual project on January 15, 2001.


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Talk:List of ethnic slurs and epithets by ethnicity

Semi-protected edit request on 22 January 2024
You need to include the slur "zipperhead" for Japanese during WW2 It was later used to refer to all Orientals 70.35.123.98 (talk) 16:21, 22 January 2024 (UTC)
 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done: please provide reliable sources that support the change you want to be made. Nthep (talk) 16:28, 22 January 2024 (UTC)

Terrone
I was reading the article and noticed that it states that the etymology of terrone (slur used against southern italians) is uncertain. Since the article is protected I wanted to add some details about this word: it comes from italian “terra” which means dirt, it is used by northern italians to underline even more how poor are the southerners. So that’s all that I know, if I get more information I’ll write it. 176.32.16.187 (talk) 20:32, 1 May 2024 (UTC)
 * I have fixed it. Richard-of-Earth (talk) 05:43, 3 May 2024 (UTC)

Add кацап to Russians
Under slurs for Russians should be added katsap (кацап).

https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B0%D0%BF%D1%8B -- Ru Wikipedia article on it 2601:249:8100:BA20:B83E:8624:9AF2:4776 (talk) 19:57, 12 May 2024 (UTC)
 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done: please provide reliable sources that support the change you want to be made. User-generated content, including Wikipedia, is not considered a reliable source. Jamedeus (talk) 02:09, 13 May 2024 (UTC)
 * I found a usable citation and added it. Richard-of-Earth (talk) 07:36, 19 May 2024 (UTC)

"Apple"
I'm native American, to us apple is not a slur, and it is used as an insult. It's not a racial slur. ImOdawaAndCherokee (talk) 06:25, 22 June 2024 (UTC)


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Haleakalā

Haleakalā (Hawaiian: ), or the East Maui Volcano, is a massive, active shield volcano that forms more than 75% of the Hawaiian Island of Maui. The western 25% of the island is formed by another volcano, Mauna Kahalawai, also referred to as the West Maui Mountains.

The tallest peak of Haleakalā ("house of the sun"), at 10023 ft, is Puu Ulaula (Red Hill). From the summit one looks down into a massive depression some 11.25 km across, 3.2 km wide, and nearly 800 m deep. The surrounding walls are steep and the interior mostly barren-looking with a scattering of volcanic cones.

History
Early Hawaiians applied the name Haleakalā ("house of the sun") to the general mountain. Haleakalā is also the name of a peak on the southwestern edge of Kaupō Gap. In Hawaiian folklore, the depression (crater) at the summit of Haleakalā was home to the grandmother of the demigod Māui. According to the legend, Māui's grandmother helped him capture the sun and force it to slow its journey across the sky in order to lengthen the day.

Geology
Haleakala has produced numerous eruptions in the last 30,000 years, including ten eruptions in the past 1,000 years and at least one in the last 400–600 years, making it the only active volcano on the island of Maui. This volcanic activity has been along two rift zones: the southwest and east. These two rift zones together form an arc that extends from La Perouse Bay on the southwest, through the Haleakalā Crater, and to Hāna to the east. The east rift zone continues under the ocean beyond the east coast of Maui as Haleakalā Ridge, making the combined rift zones one of the longest in the Hawaiian Islands chain. In its prime, Haleakala may have reached a height of 12,000 feet before water and wind erosion, and possibly glaciers, began to carve two large river valleys out of the rim. Eventually, these valleys formed gaps that merged at the volcano summit to create a crater-like basin.

Haleakala, also known as East Maui Volcano, was previously thought to have last erupted around 1790, based largely on comparisons of maps made during the voyages of La Perouse and George Vancouver. However, in 1999, the U.S. Geological Survey published in a column that radiocarbon dating indicated that the last eruption was more likely to have taken place sometime between 1480 and 1600. These last flows from the southwest rift zone of Haleakalā make up the large lava deposits of the Ahihi Kina`u/La Perouse Bay area of South Maui.

Contrary to popular belief, Haleakalā crater is not volcanic in origin, nor can it accurately be called a caldera (which is formed when the summit of a volcano collapses to form a depression). Scientists believe that Haleakalā's crater was formed when the headwalls of two large erosional valleys merged at the summit of the volcano. These valleys formed the two large gaps — Koolau on the north side and Kaupō on the south — on either side of the depression.

Macdonald, Abbott, & Peterson state it this way:

"Haleakalā is far smaller than many volcanic craters (calderas); there is an excellent chance that it is not extinct, but only dormant; and strictly speaking it is not of volcanic origin, beyond the fact that it exists in a volcanic mountain."

Volcanic hazard
On the island of Hawaii, lava-flow hazards are rated on a scale of one through nine with one being the zone of highest hazard and nine being the zone of lowest hazard. For example, the summits and rift zones of Kilauea and Mauna Loa volcanoes are rated Hazard Zone 1.

Using this same scale, preliminary estimates of lava-flow hazard zones on Maui made in 1983 by the U.S. Geological Survey rated the summit and southwest rift zone of Haleakala as Hazard Zone 3. The steep, downslope areas of the Kanaio and Kahikinui ahupuaa and the area north of Hana are rated as Hazard Zone 4. Other areas of Haleakala are rated comparable to the lava-flow hazards of Mauna Kea and Kohala (Hazard Zones 7 through 9).

These high hazard estimates for Haleakala are based on the frequency of its eruptions. Haleakala has erupted three times in approximately the last 900 years. By way of comparison, both Mauna Loa and Kilauea have erupted more than a dozen times each in the last 90 years. Hualalai has an eruption rate comparable to Haleakala. All of Hualalai is rated as Hazard Zone 4. However, the frequency of eruption of a volcano is only one of the criteria on which hazards are based. The other important criterion is the lava flow coverage rate. Using the preliminary dates for Haleakala flows, only 8.7 mi2 of lava flows have been emplaced in the last 900 years. In comparison, approximately 43 mi2 of Hualalai are covered with flows 900 years old or younger and approximately 104 mi2 on Kilauea and 85 mi2 on Mauna Loa are covered by lavas less than 200 years old. Thus, Haleakala is a distant fourth in coverage rates.

According to the United States Geological Survey Volcano Warning Scheme for the United States, the Volcano Alert Level for Haleakala was "normal". A "Normal" status is used to designate typical volcanic activity in a background, non-eruptive phase.

Nēnē
The nēnē bird is on the endangered species list. The bird was once on all the islands of Hawaii but now it is only on the Island of Hawaii, Maui, and Kauai. Habitat loss, hunting, and introduction of mammals caused the bird population to dwindle. Since 2010, only 2,000 birds were left. These birds were then kept in captivity to increase the population.

Silversword
Haleakala silversword is a quintessential plant of Haleakalā since it grows nowhere else on Earth. Climate change has been threatening the population of this plant due to hotter temperatures and lower rainfall. The park service has erected fences to prevent damage from local herbivores and from visitors taking the plants as souvenirs.

Forest birds
Several species of native forest birds across Hawaiʻi are nearly extinct, including the kiwikiu and  'ākohekohe that are found only in East Maui, whose population decreased by more than 70% in the 21st century. A primary threat is mosquito-borne diseases such as avian malaria. Attempts to relocate kiwikiu to higher elevations were unsuccessful in protecting the population as mosquitos also rose into higher elevation habitats after the 1980s.

The working group Birds, Not Mosquitos joined with the National Park Service and the Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources to develop a plan to address the threat, eventually settling on the Incompatible insect model. As of 2024, each week some 250,000 male southern house mosquitos carrying Wolbachia bacteria were released on the mountain, totaling 10 million by June of that year. Maui mosquitos carry a different, incompatible strain of Wolbachia. The offspring of infected males do not reproduce.

 Invertebrates

Haleakalā is also home to many invertebrates including snails, spiders, moths, flies, and many more. Many species including snails live in the rainforest around the mountain. While others live in the subalpine shrubland and the rocky alpine terrain. The Haleakalā flightless moth is endemic to the alpine area at the summit. Many snails including those in the genus Partulina live in the Rainforest. Yellow faced bees know as Nalo Meli Maoli in Hawaiian live in most of the mountain's habitats.

National Park
Surrounding and including the crater is Haleakalā National Park, a 30183 acre park, of which 24719 acre are wilderness. The park includes the summit depression, Kipahulu Valley on the southeast, and Oheo Gulch (and pools), extending to the shoreline in the Kipahulu area. From the summit, there are two main trails leading into Haleakalā: Sliding Sands Trail and Halemauu Trail.

The temperature near the summit tends to vary between about 40 and 60 °F and, especially given the thin air and the possibility of dehydration at that elevation, the walking trails can be more challenging than one might expect. This is aggravated by the fact that trails lead downhill from parking areas into the crater. Because of this, hikers are faced with a difficult return ascent after potentially descending 2000 ft or more to the crater floor. Despite this, Haleakalā is popular with tourists and locals alike, who often venture to its summit, or to the visitor center just below the summit, to view the sunrise. There is lodging in the form of a few simple cabins, though no food or gas is available in the park. To help with preservation efforts, Haleakala National Park started requiring a sunrise reservation to enter Haleakala National Park between the hours of 3:00 AM and 7:00 AM HST.

Astrophysical research
Because of the remarkable clarity, dryness, and stillness of the air, and its elevation (with atmospheric pressure of 71 kPa ), as well as the absence of the lights of major cities, the summit of Haleakalā is one of the most sought-after locations in the world for ground-based telescopes (though to a lesser extent than Mauna Kea on neighboring Hawaii). As a result of the geographic importance of this observational platform, experts come from all over the world to take part in research at "Science City", an astrophysical complex operated by the U.S. Department of Defense, University of Hawaii, Smithsonian Institution, Air Force, Federal Aviation Administration, and others.

Some of the telescopes operated by the US Department of Defense are involved in researching man-made (e.g. spacecraft, monitoring satellites, rockets, and laser technology) rather than celestial objects. The program is in collaboration with defense contractors in the Maui Research and Technology Park in Kihei. The astronomers on Haleakalā are concerned about increasing light pollution as Maui's population grows. Nevertheless, new telescopes are added, such as the Pan-STARRS in 2006.

Transportation
A well traveled Haleakalā Highway, completed in 1935, is a road mainly composed of switchbacks that leads to the peak of Haleakala. The road is open to the public (although parts of it are restricted) and is a well-maintained two-lane highway containing many blind turns and very steep dropoffs. Local animals, including cattle, are often encountered in the roadway. The Park Service charges a vehicle entrance fee of $30 (US). Public transportation does not go through the park, but there are four vehicle based tour companies (Polynesian Adventure Tours, Skyline Eco Adventures, Haleakala EcoTours, and Valley Isle Excursions) that operate tours of the park and trips to the summit.

There are three Sunset and Stargazing tours permitted within Haleakala National Park. Arrive for sunset and stay to look through a telescope after dark. Cycling and horseback riding are other popular ways to explore the park. There are a few tour guides on Maui that pick people up at their hotels, and outfit them with a bicycle to glide down the road from just outside the National Park boundary (starting at 6500 ft altitude). Tour operators used to run bike rides down the entire 27 miles from the summit, but in 2007 the National Park Service suspended all commercial bicycle activity within the park boundaries, following multiple fatal accidents. Some tour operators now offer a modified version of the service which descends 6,500 feet from outside of the National Park.

Climate
Haleakalā's summit experiences a cold-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen classification Csc), one of the few locations in the world with this climate type. The Haleakalā Ranger station, at a lower elevation, lies in the subtropical highland (Cfb, bordering on Csb if the 40 mm threshold is used) climate zone. It is in hardiness zone 10a.

title: Haleakalā


text:
Comparison of standard Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin and Serbian

Standard Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin, and Serbian are different national variants and official registers of the pluricentric Serbo-Croatian language.

History
In socialist Yugoslavia, the language was approached as a pluricentric language with two regional normative varieties—Eastern (used in Serbia, Montenegro, and Bosnia and Herzegovina by all ethnicities, either with the Ekavian or the Ijekavian accent) and Western (used in Croatia by all ethnicities, the Ijekavian accent only). However, due to discontent in Croatian intellectual circles, beginning in the late 1960s Croatian cultural workers started to refer to the language exclusively as 'the Croatian literary language', or sometimes 'the Croatian or Serbian language', as was common before Yugoslavia. Bolstered with the 1967 Declaration on the Name and Status of the Croatian Literary Language, these two names were subsequently prescribed in the Croatian constitution of 1974. The language was regarded as one common language with different variants and dialects. The unity of the language was emphasised, making the differences not an indicator of linguistic divisions, but rather factors enriching the 'common language' diversity. West European scientists judge the Yugoslav language policy as an exemplary one: Although three-quarters of the population spoke one language, no single language was official on a federal level. Official languages were declared only at the level of constituent republics and provinces,

With the breakup of the Federation, in search of additional indicators of independent and separate national identities, language became a political instrument in virtually all of the new republics. With a boom of neologisms in Croatia, an additional emphasis on Turkisms in the Muslim parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and a privileged position of the Cyrillic script in Serb-inhabited parts of the new states, every state and entity showed a 'nationalisation' of the language. The language in Bosnia started developing independently after Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence in 1992. The independent development of the language in Montenegro became a topic among some Montenegrin academics in the 1990s.

Serbian, Montenegrin and Bosnian standards varieties tend to be inclusive, i.e. to accept a wider range of idioms and to use loanwords (German, Italian and Turkish), whereas the Croatian language policy is more purist and prefers neologisms to loan-words, as well as the re-use of neglected older words. Yet there is criticism of the puristic language policy even in Croatia, as exemplified by linguist Snježana Kordić. In 2017, numerous prominent writers, scientists, journalists, activists and other public figures from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro and Serbia signed the Declaration on the Common Language, faced with "the negative social, cultural and economic consequences of political manipulations of language in the current language policies of the four countries", which "include using language as an argument justifying the segregation of schoolchildren in some multiethnic environments, unnecessary 'translation' in administration or the media, inventing differences where they do not exist, bureaucratic coercion, as well as censorship (and necessarily also self-censorship), where linguistic expression is imposed as a criterion of ethnonational affiliation and a means of affirming political loyalty".

Despite the 'nationalisation' of the language in the four countries, "lexical differences between the ethnic variants are extremely limited, even when compared with those between closely related Slavic languages (such as standard Czech and Slovak, Bulgarian and Macedonian), and grammatical differences are even less pronounced. More importantly, complete understanding between the ethnic variants of the standard language makes translation and second language teaching impossible", which all means that it is still a pluricentric language. "An examination of all the major 'levels' of language show that BCS is clearly a single language with a single grammatical system."

Script
Though all of the language variants could theoretically use either, the scripts differ:
 * Bosnian and Montenegrin officially use both the Latin and Cyrillic scripts, but the Latin one is more in widespread use.
 * Croatian exclusively uses the Latin alphabet.
 * Serbian uses both the Cyrillic and Latin scripts. Cyrillic is the official script of the administration in Serbia and Republika Srpska, but the Latin script is the most widely used in media and especially on the Internet.

Phonemes
Three out of four standard variants have the same set of 30 regular phonemes, so the Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian Latin and Serbian Cyrillic alphabets map one to one with one another and with the phoneme inventory, while Montenegrin alphabet has 32 regular phonemes, the additional two being $⟨Ś⟩$ and $⟨Ź⟩$.

Some linguists analyse the yat reflexes $⟨je⟩$ and $⟨ije⟩$, commonly realised as in Croatian and Bosnian dialects, as a separate phoneme – "jat diphthong" – or even two phonemes, one short and one long. There are even several proposals by Croatian linguists for an orthography reform concerning these two diphthongs, but they have not been seriously considered for implementation.

The standardisation of Montenegrin in 2009 has introduced two new letters, $⟨Ś⟩$ and $⟨Ź⟩$, for the sounds and  respectively. These are optional spellings of the digraphs $⟨sj⟩$ and $⟨zj⟩$. Critics argue that and  are merely allophones of  and  in Herzegovinian dialects such as Montenegrin, and therefore the new letters are not required for an adequate orthography.

Most dialects of Serbia and Montenegro originally lack the phoneme, instead having , , or nothing (silence). was introduced with language unification, and the Serbian and Montenegrin standards allow for some doublets such as snaja–snaha and hajde–ajde. However, in other words, especially those of foreign origin, $⟨h⟩$ is mandatory.

In some regions of Croatia and Bosnia, the sounds for letters $⟨č⟩$ (realised as in most other dialects) and $⟨ć⟩$  merged or nearly merged, usually into. The same happened with their voiced counterparts, i.e. $⟨dž⟩$ and $⟨đ⟩$ merged into. As result, speakers of those dialects often have difficulties distinguishing these sounds.

Orthography
The Serbian variety usually phonetically transcribes foreign names and words (although both transcription and transliteration are allowed), whereas the Croatian standard usually transliterates. Bosnian and Montenegrin accept both models, but transliteration is often preferred.

Also, when the subject of the future tense is omitted, producing a reversal of the infinitive and auxiliary "ću", only the final "i" of the infinitive is orthographically elided in Croatian and Bosnian, whereas in Serbian and Montenegrin the two have merged into a single word:
 * "Uradit ću to." (Croatian/Bosnian)
 * "Uradiću to." (Serbian/Montenegrin)

Accentuation
In general, the Shtokavian dialects that represent the foundation of the four standard varieties have four pitch accents on stressed syllables: falling tone on a short vowel, written e.g. $⟨ı̏⟩$ in dictionaries; rising tone on a short vowel, written e.g. $⟨ì⟩$; falling tone on a long vowel, written e.g. $⟨î⟩$; and rising tone on a long vowel, written e.g. $⟨í⟩$. In addition, the following unstressed vowel may be either short, $⟨i⟩$, or long, $⟨ī⟩$. In declension and verb conjugation, accent shifts, both by type and position, are very frequent.

The distinction between four accents and preservation of post accent lengths is common in vernaculars of western Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in parts of Serbia, as well as in parts of Croatia with a strong Serb presence. In addition, a distinct characteristics of some vernaculars is stress shift to proclitics, e.g. phrase u Bosni (in Bosnia) will be pronounced instead of  as in northern parts of Serbia.

The northern vernaculars in Serbia also preserve the four-accent system, but the unstressed lengths have been shortened or disappeared in some positions. However, the shortening of post-accent lengths is in progress in all Shtokavian vernaculars, even in those most conservative in Montenegro. Stress shift to enclitics is, however, in northern Serbia rare and mostly limited to negative verb constructs (ne znam = I don't know > ).

The situation in Croatia, is however, different. A large proportion of speakers of Croatian, especially those coming from Zagreb, do not distinguish between rising and falling accents. This is considered to be a feature of the Zagreb dialect, which has strong Kajkavian influence, rather than standard Croatian.

Regardless of vernacular differences, all three standard varieties exclusively promote the Neo-Shtokavian four-accentual system. Both dialects that are considered to be the basis of standard Serbian (Eastern Herzegovinian and Šumadija-Vojvodina dialects) have four accents.

Morphology
There are three principal "pronunciations" (izgovori/изговори) of the Shtokavian dialect that differ in their reflexes of the Proto-Slavic vowel jat. Illustrated by the Common Slavic word for "child", dětę, they are:
 * dite in the Ikavian pronunciation
 * dijete in the Ijekavian pronunciation
 * dete in the Ekavian pronunciation

The Serbian language recognises Ekavian and Ijekavian as equally valid pronunciations, whereas Croatian, Montenegrin and Bosnian accept only the Ijekavian pronunciation. In Bosnia and Herzegovina (regardless of the official language) and in Montenegro, the Ijekavian pronunciation is used almost exclusively.

Ikavian pronunciation is nonstandard, and is limited to dialectal use in Dalmatia, Lika, Istria, central Bosnia (area between Vrbas and Bosna), Western Herzegovina, Bosanska Krajina, Slavonia and northern Bačka (Vojvodina). So, for example:

A few Croatian linguists have tried to explain the following differences in morphological structure for some words, with the introduction of a new vowel, "jat diphthong". This is not the opinion of most linguists.

Sometimes this leads to confusion: Serbian and Montenegrin poticati (to stem from) is in Croatian and Bosnian "to encourage". Croatian and Bosnian "to stem from" is potjecati, whereas Serbian and Montenegrin for "encourage" is podsticati.

Standard Bosnian allows both variants, and ambiguities are resolved by preferring the Croatian variant; this is a general practice for Serbian–Croatian ambiguities.

The phoneme /x/ (written as h) has been volatile in eastern South Slavic dialects. In Serbian, Montenegrin and some Croatian dialects (including some of those in Slavonia), it has been replaced with /j/, /v/, or elided, and subsequent standardisation sanctioned those forms:

However, /x/ and /f/ have been kept in many words as a distinct feature of Bosnian speech and language tradition, particularly under influence of Turkish and Arabic, and even introduced in some places where it etymologically did not exist. Those forms were in the mid 1990s also accepted in the orthography of the Bosnian language. However, 2018, in the new issue of the Orthography of the Bosnian language, words without the phoneme /x/ (written as "h") are accepted due to their prevalence in language practice.

Because the Ijekavian pronunciation is common to all official standards, it will be used for examples on this page. Other than this, examples of different morphology are:

Internationalisms
Also many internationalisms and transliterations are different:

(cf. German organisieren,  konstruieren, analysieren)

Historically, modern-age internationalisms entered Bosnian and Croatian mostly through German and Italian, Montenegrin mostly through Italian, whereas they entered Serbian through French and Russian, so different localisation patterns were established based on those languages. Also, Greek borrowings came to Serbian directly, but through Latin into Croatian:

Most of terms for chemical elements are different: for international names, Bosnian and Croatian use -ij where Serbian and Montenegrin have -ijum (uranij–uranijum). In some native names, Croatian has -ik where Serbian and Montenegrin have -(o)nik (kisik–kiseonik "oxygen", vodik–vodonik "hydrogen"), and Bosnian accepts all variants. Yet others are totally different (dušik–azot 'nitrogen', kositar–kalaj 'tin'). Some element names are the same: srebro (silver), zlato (gold), bakar (copper).

Some other imported words differ by grammatical gender, feminine words having an -a suffix and masculine words having a zero-suffix:

Pronouns
In Serbian, Montenegrin and Bosnian, the pronoun what is što when used as a relative, but šta when used as an interrogative; the latter applies also to relative sentences with interrogative meaning. Croatian uses što in all contexts (but in colloquial speech, "šta" is often used).

This is applicable only to the nominative and the accusative – in all other cases, the standards have the same forms: čega, čemu etc. for što.

In Croatian, the pronoun who has the form tko, whereas in Serbian, Bosnian and Montenegrin it has ko, but again, in colloquial speech, the initial "t" is usually omitted. The declension is the same: kome, koga, etc. In addition, Croatian uses komu as an alternative form in the dative case.

The locative pronoun kamo is only used in Croatian:

Infinitive versus subjunctive
With modal verbs such as ht(j)eti (want) or moći (can), the infinitive is prescribed in Croatian, whereas the construction da (that/to) + present tense is preferred in Serbian and Montenegrin. This subjunctive of sorts is possibly an influence of the Balkan sprachbund. Again, both alternatives are present and allowed in Bosnian (the first one is preferred in orthography, the latter is more common in colloquial language).

Here is an example of a yat reflection that is the same in everything but the syntax: The sentence "I want to do that" could be translated with any of
 * Hoću to da uradim.
 * Hoću to učiniti.

This difference partly extends to the future tense, which in Serbo-Croatian is formed in a similar manner to English, using (elided) present of verb "ht(j)eti" → "hoću"/"hoćeš"/… > "ću"/"ćeš"/… as auxiliary verb. Here, the infinitive is formally required in both variants:
 * Ja ću to uraditi. (I shall do that.)

However, when da+present is used instead, it can additionally express the subject's will or intention to perform the action:
 * Ja ću to da uradim. (I will do that.)

This form is more frequently used in Serbia, Montenegro and Bosnia. The nuances in meaning between the three constructs can be slight or even lost (especially in Serbian dialects), in similar manner as the shall/will distinction varies across English dialects. Overuse of da+present is regarded as Germanism in Serbian linguistic circles, and it can occasionally lead to awkward sentences.

Interrogative constructs
In interrogative and relative constructs, standard Croatian prescribes using the interrogative participle li after the verb, whereas standard Serbian also allows forms with da li. (A similar situation exists in French, where a question can be formed either by inversion or using est-ce que, and can be stretched in English with modal verbs):
 * Možeš li? (Can you?) (Croatian)
 * Both Možeš li? and Da li možeš? (Can you, Do you can?) are common in Serbian.

In addition, non-standard je li ("Is it?"), usually elided to je l' , is vernacular for forming all kinds of questions, e.g. Je l' možeš?. In standard language, it is used only in questions involving auxiliary verb je (="is"):
 * Je li moguće? (Is it possible?) (Croatian)
 * Both Je li moguće? and Da li je moguće? are common in Serbian.

In summary, the English sentence "I want to know whether I'll start working" would typically read:
 * Želim da znam hoću li početi da radim. (spoken Serbian)
 * Želim znati hoću li početi raditi. (spoken Croatian)

although many in-between combinations could be met in vernacular speech, depending on speaker's dialect, idiolect, or even mood.

The Croatian avoidance of da li is largely an expression of prescriptivism. In everyday speech in Croatia, da li is used, in fact, extensively, but avoided in written language.

Trebati
In formal Croatian, verb trebati (need or should) is transitive, as in English. In Serbian, Montenegrin and Bosnian, it is impersonal, like the French il faut, or the English construct is necessary (to); the grammatical subject is either omitted (it), or presents the object of needing; the person that needs something is an indirect grammatical object, in the dative case. The latter usage is, however, also encountered in Croatian, especially in spoken form. ):

Examples
The greatest differences between the standards is in vocabulary. However, most words are well understood, and even occasionally used, in the other standards. In most cases, common usage favours one variant and the other(s) are regarded as "imported", archaic, dialectal, or simply more rarely used.

Note that there are only a few differences that can cause confusion, for example the verb "ličiti" means "to look like" in Serbian, Montenegrin and Bosnian, but in Croatian it is "sličiti"; "ličiti" means "to paint (a house)". However, "ličiti" is often used Croatian in the meaning of "to look like".

The word "bilo" means "white" in the Ikavian accent, "pulse" in official Croatian, and "was" in all official languages, although it is not so confusing when pronounced because of different accentuation (bîlo or bílo = white, bı̏lo = pulse, bílo = was).

In Serbian, Montenegrin and Bosnian, the word izvanredan (extraordinary) has only the positive meaning (excellent), vanredan being used for "unusual" or "out of order"; however, only izvanredan is used in Croatian in both contexts.

Also note that in most cases Bosnian officially allows almost all of the listed variants in the name of "language richness", and ambiguities are resolved by preferring the Croatian variant. Bosnian vocabulary writers based their decisions on usage of certain words in literary works by Bosnian authors.

Names of the months
The months have Slavic-derived names in Croatian, wheres Serbian and Bosnian have almost the same set of Latin-derived names as English. The Slavic-derived names may also be used in Bosnian, but the Latinate names are preferred.

The Latin-derived names of the months are well understood in Croatia and are used in several fixed expressions such as Prvi Maj (May 1), Prvi April (April Fools' Day) or Oktobarska revolucija (October Revolution).

In spoken Croatian and in western Bosnia it is common to refer to a month by its number. Therefore, many speakers refer to the month of May as peti mjesec ("the fifth month"). Saying sedmi peti (seventh of fifth) would be the equivalent of May 7.

Miscellaneous

 * Pronunciation and vocabulary differs among dialects spoken within Serbia, Croatia, Montenegro and Bosnia themselves. Each larger region has its own pronunciation and it is reasonably easy to guess where a speaker is from by their accent and/or vocabulary. Colloquial vocabulary can be particularly different from the official standards.
 * This is one of the arguments for claiming it is all one and the same language: there are more differences within the territories of the official languages themselves than there are between the standards (all four of which are based on the same Neo-Štokavian dialect). This is not surprising, of course, for if the lines between the varieties were drawn not politically but linguistically, then there would be no borders at all. As Pavle Ivić explains, the continuous migration of Slavic populations during the five hundred years of Turkish rule has scattered the local dialects all around.

 * When Bosniaks, Croats, Montenegrins and Serbs talk amongst each other, the other speakers usually understand them completely, save for the odd word, and quite often, they will know what that means (much as with British and American English speakers). Nevertheless, when communicating with each other, there is a habit to use terms that are familiar to everyone, with the intent to avoid not being understood and/or confusion. For example, to avoid confusion with the names of the months, they can be referred to as the "first month", "second month" and so on, or the Latin-derived names can be used if "first month" itself is ambiguous, which makes it perfectly understandable for everyone. In Serbia, the names of the months are the same Latin-derived names as in English so again they are understandable for anyone who knows English or another Western European language.
 * Even during the time of Yugoslavia it was common for publishers to do some adaptations to "Eastern" or "Western" standard. Especially translations were and are changed by the lectors. It is to be considered that Croatian and Serbian standards have completely different scientific terminology. Carl Jung's masterpiece "Psychology and Alchemy" was translated into Croatian in 1986, and adapted in the late 1990s into Serbian. Ivo Andrić had some problems in Croatia with publishers who changed his infinitive constructions and other expressions. Eventually, he managed to forbid that kind of intervention. In Montenegro, the publisher CID switched from the Ekavian to the Ijekavian after Montenegro's independence.

Language samples
The following samples, taken from article 1 to 6 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, are "synonymous texts, translated as literally as possible" in the sense of Ammon designed to demonstrate the differences between the standard varieties treated in this article in a continuous text. However, even when there is a different translation, it does not necessarily mean that the words or expression from other languages do not exist in a respective language, e.g. the words osoba and pravni subjekt exist in all languages, but in this context, the word osoba is preferred in Croatian and Bosnian and the word pravni subjekt is favored in Serbian and Montenegrin. The word vjeroispovijest is mentioned just in the Montenegrin translation, but the same word exists in other standard varieties too - albeit in Serbian in the Ekavian variant veroispovest.