text:
User talk:Bjh21

Greetings! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. If you have questions or doubts of any sort, do not hesitate to post them on the Village Pump, somebody will respond ASAP. Other helpful pages include: Have fun! --Jiang 20:58 15 Jul 2003 (UTC)
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beautyvash
Hi,

I've tagged the page you edited for deletion. This is a fairly obvious case of non-notability.

Regards, Lotsofissues 08:05, 12 May 2005 (UTC)

Template:delete
Thanks for the catch - I had been going through all of the csd's - some of which appeared to include various Template:Delete related notices. -SV|t 17:26, 17 May 2005 (UTC)

Bere Alston railway station
Thanks for the photo -- and the correction to my 'senior moment' re Calstock/Callington! -- Picapica 21:40, 3 February 2006 (UTC)

Falmouth Docks railway station
Thanks for the tips. I have now loaded the next batch (working eastwards from Bodmin Parkway railway station to St Germans but skipping Liskeard for now).

Geof Sheppard 13:45, 16 February 2006 (UTC)

Thanks
Thanks for editing my pages, regards AshLin 18:35, 5 April 2006 (UTC)

Whoops, sorry!
I was actually going to put it back. Its not the station that is in the Hertfordshire boundary but Ashwell village itself. This was a bit of a mix up. Simply south 19:11, 5 April 2006 (UTC)

Alabama Public Radio and user namespace
I see you deleted the link to a user namespace in Alabama Public Radio. I haven't seen this before. Is there a Wikipedia policy against linking to user namespaces? What might be the rationale behind that? Thanks any further clarification. --Jeremy Butler 15:38, 10 April 2006 (UTC)
 * I don't know of a settled policy in this area, but WP:SELF covers very similar ground: article pages shouldn't contain links that are specific to the fact that the article is part of Wikipedia. That you are a Wikipedia user may be significant while that article is in Wikipedia, but is irrelevant if the article is copied to another site, printed out, or what-have-you.  Of course, if you're sufficiently notable, there should be a page at Jeremy Butler about you.  --bjh21 16:42, 10 April 2006 (UTC)
 * Thanks. That makes sense.  Hadn't see the WP:SELF policy before.  (And, no, I don't reckon I'm sufficiently notable!) --Jeremy Butler 18:15, 10 April 2006 (UTC)

Rude forcing
Re your comment at Hinckley railway station (edit history): "Forcing thumbnail sizes is generally rude". I had no idea! Background to this notion? And what are the permissible exceptions to this generalization? Most thumbnails in Wp appear to me to be posted with an indicated size – whether "forced" or not I cannot tell. Or have I just led a particularly sheltered life? -- Picapica 23:38, 16 May 2006 (UTC) (doubtless often, but seldom knowingly, rude)

Small request
I have just created an article on Welwyn Viaduct. ?You seem to add railway photos so could you add one of Welwyn Viaduct please. Sorry to bother you. Simply south 16:05, 19 May 2006 (UTC)

Thanks Simply south 19:02, 19 May 2006 (UTC)

Orphaned fair use image (Image:John Hemming MP.jpg)
Thanks for uploading Image:John Hemming MP.jpg. The image description page currently specifies that the image is non-free and may only be used on Wikipedia under a claim of fair use. However, the image is currently orphaned, meaning that it is not used in any articles on Wikipedia. If the image was previously in an article, please go to the article and see why it was removed. You may add it back if you think that that will be useful. However, please note that images for which a replacement could be created are not acceptable under fair use (see our fair use policy).

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County Durham
Perhaps of interest to you: Talk:County Durham/Archive 1. Argovian (talk) 00:52, 27 October 2014 (UTC)

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File names
I've been unhappy with the changes you have been making to image names, as your changes appear to remove the explicit credit to Geograph or wherever the image was uploaded from. I am therefore very pleased to see that you've started editing filenames to the style "Description-description-description (Geograph 1234567)" which achieves the best of both worlds. Thank you. Dave DavidAHull (talk) 22:51, 29 October 2017 (UTC)
 * That was part of why I changed my practice, though the main reason was simply that if I always include the Geograph image ID then I don't have to think about whether it might be necessary for disambiguation. That gives me more brain to spare for making sure the rest of the name is sensible. --bjh21 (talk) 23:12, 29 October 2017 (UTC)
 * Taking that a step further, you could simply add something meaningful to the naming convention Geograph ask us to use, which would be easier for you and courteous to them, eg "Geograph-1234567 by Fred Bloggs" becomes "Geograph-1234567 by Fred Bloggs. Southerly view from Waterloo Platform 7". I might even start doing so myself! All the best, Dave DavidAHull (talk) 20:04, 31 October 2017 (UTC)
 * Can you point me to the request from Geograph regarding filenames on Commons? I haven't seen it.  I'd prefer not to have a name that begins with the default filename because that creates more noise when searching for files with the default name. --bjh21 (talk) 20:13, 31 October 2017 (UTC)
 * Basically, it is implicit, as that's what it defaults to, also if you start the download process it asks if you will please use the routine which stamps the image with copyright info. Wikipedia rejects this. I see what you mean about noise at the beginning of filenames, so it would be equally easy to reverse it, so "Geograph-1234567 by Fred Bloggs" becomes "Southerly view from Waterloo Platform 7, source Geograph-1234567 by Fred Bloggs." Dave DavidAHull (talk) 03:33, 1 November 2017 (UTC)
 * I think you're reading an awful lot into a Content-Disposition header. I see the default filename as a way to ensure that the (licence-required) attribution stays attached to the file, in the same way that the stamping process embeds it in the image data.  Neither of these is necessary on Commons because Commons file description pages hold the same information.  This is borne out by the fact that in the Wikipedia section of Geograph's reuse.php, the only image link is to the full-res unstamped version, and there's a suggestion to use geograph2commons whose file-naming convention I've adopted.
 * Anyway, I've run out of files to rename now, so this is a bit academic. I do have a couple of bot ideas that might care about naming of files from Geograph: I'll let you know if/when they come up for approval. --bjh21 (talk) 10:38, 1 November 2017 (UTC)

Picture renaming
Sorry, noted for future uploads. Mark83 (talk) 17:39, 15 March 2021 (UTC)

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title: User talk:Bjh21


text:
William Haywood

William Haywood may refer to:

 * Bill Haywood (William Dudley Haywood, 1869–1928), American union leader
 * William Henry Haywood Jr. (1801–1852), North Carolina senator
 * William Haywood (architect) (1876–1957), British architect and town planner
 * William Haywood (cricketer) (1841–1912), British cricketer
 * William Haywood (engineer) (1821–1894), British Surveyor and Engineer to the City of London Commissioners of Sewers
 * Bill Haywood (baseball) (born 1937), American baseball former pitcher, coach and manager

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: William Haywood


text:
River Tamar

The Tamar (Dowr Tamar) is a river in south west England that forms most of the border between Devon (to the east) and Cornwall (to the west). A part of the Tamar Valley is a World Heritage Site due to its historic mining activities.

The Tamar's source is less than 6 km from the north Cornish coast, but it flows southward across the peninsula to the south coast. The total length of the river is 61 mi. At its mouth, the Tamar flows into the Hamoaze before entering Plymouth Sound, a bay in the English Channel. Tributaries of the river include the rivers Inny, Ottery, Kensey and Lynher (or St Germans River) on the Cornish side and the Deer and Tavy on the Devon side.

The name Tamar (or Tamare) was mentioned by Ptolemy in the 2nd century AD in his Geography. The name is said to mean "great water". The Tamar is one of several British rivers whose ancient name is assumed by some to be derived from a prehistoric river word apparently meaning "dark flowing" and which it shares with the River Thames.

The seventh-century Ravenna Cosmography mentions a Roman settlement named Tamaris, but it is unclear to which of those towns along the Tamar this refers. Plymouth, Launceston and the Roman fort at Calstock have been variously suggested.

Environment
The river (and/or land on its banks) is designated as a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI), a European Special Area of Conservation, and an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. A part of it is also designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site as part of the Cornwall and West Devon Mining Landscape.

In November 2013, South West Water was fined £50,000 after it admitted permitting the discharge of sewage from its Camels Head treatment plant into a tributary of the River Tamar for eight years.

Tamar Valley AONB
Together, the Tamar, Tavy and Lynher form the Tamar Valley, a designated Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. The Tamar Valley Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty covers around 195 km2 around the lower Tamar (below Launceston) and its tributaries the Tavy and the Lynher. It was first proposed in 1963, but was not designated until 1995. The highest point in the AONB is Kit Hill, 334 metres above sea level. The Tamar Discovery Trail is a 35-mile hiking route following the course of the Tamar through the valley.

Special Area of Conservation
The Plymouth Sound and Estuaries are a Special Area of Conservation. Rocky reefs in low salinity estuarine conditions far inland on the Tamar are very unusual and support species such as the hydroid Cordylophora caspia. The Tamar is one of a few estuaries where zonation of rocky habitats (intertidal and subtidal) can be observed along an estuarine gradient.

Site of Special Scientific Interest
The Tamar–Tavy Estuary is a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) covering the tidal estuaries of the River Tamar and the River Tavy. Part of the Tamar estuary also forms the Tamar Estuary Nature Reserve, owned by the Cornwall Wildlife Trust. The site was designated in 1991 for its biodiversity and varying habitats that support a large number of wader and wildfowl species, as well as the special interest of its marine biology. The site supports a nationally important wintering population of avocet and supports species such as black-tailed godwit, Eurasian whimbrel, greenshank, spotted redshank, green sandpiper and golden plover.

UNESCO World Heritage Site
Throughout human history the valley has been almost continuously exploited for its rich mineral and metal deposits including silver, tin, lead and arsenic leaving a unique archaeological landscape which forms a significant part of the Cornwall and West Devon Mining Landscape. Remains include wheal or engine houses, deep and open cast mines dating from the Bronze Age through to the medieval and modern era, the export docks at Morwellham Quay were once an international centre of trade in copper, lead and arsenic. The valley, with the stannary town of Tavistock was added to the World Heritage List during the 30th Session of the UNESCO World Heritage Committee in Vilnius, July 2006.

Water quality
The Environment Agency measures the water quality of the river systems in England. Each is given an overall ecological status, which may be one of five levels: high, good, moderate, poor and bad. There are several components that are used to determine this, including biological status, which looks at the quantity and varieties of invertebrates, angiosperms and fish. Chemical status, which compares the concentrations of various chemicals against known safe concentrations, is rated good or fail.

Reservoirs
The Upper Tamar Lake and Lower Tamar Lake are two small reservoirs on the Tamar's upper course. The Lower Lake was constructed in the 1820s to feed the Bude Canal; it is now a nature reserve. The Upper Lake was constructed in the 1970s and supplies fresh water to the Bude area, as well as having some recreational use.

Border
The east bank of the Tamar was fixed as the border of Cornwall by King Athelstan in the year 936. Several villages north of Launceston, to the west of the Tamar, were transferred to Devon at some point in the eleventh century when the border was changed to follow the River Ottery westward, rather than the Tamar. The county boundary was restored to the Tamar in 1966, when the civil parishes of North Petherwin and Werrington were transferred from Devon to Cornwall. The Counties (Detached Parts) Act 1844 ensured parishes were entirely within one county. It transferred a part of the Rame Peninsula (on the west side of the Hamoaze) from Devon to Cornwall (namely, parts of the parishes of Maker and St John). The Act also transferred part of the parish of Bridgerule to Devon and part of the parish of North Tamerton to Cornwall — these latter transfers created two of the present-day 'exceptions' to the river boundary.

The modern administrative border between Devon and Cornwall more closely follows the Tamar and Hamoaze than the 'historic' county border (of the 11th to 19th centuries). Only three 'exceptions' to the rule that the border follows the river (from source to sea) currently exist, all of which are upstream of the confluence of the River Deer, in the upper course of the Tamar. Part of the Cornish civil parish of North Tamerton extends east across the river, whilst parts of the Devon civil parishes of Bridgerule and Pancrasweek extend west across the Tamar. Where the border does follow the Tamar, it is defined as being along a line running at the centre of the river — where the river is tidal, it is the centre of the low water channel. This "centre of river" arrangement ends just upstream of the Tamar Bridge at Saltash, downstream of which the counties officially extend only to their respective (tidal) bank's low water mark. The river is dammed at two points of its upper course, forming two reservoirs in place of the natural river: at Upper Tamar Lake the border follows the line of the river as it was prior to the construction of the reservoir (therefore now within the lake), whilst at the older Lower Tamar Lake the border was re-aligned along a (now disused) re-routing of the river to the reservoir's west side, placing the lake in Devon.

Crossings
List of crossings of the River Tamar

The river has 22 road crossings, including some medieval stone bridges. The oldest bridge still extant is at Horsebridge (1437), and the next oldest is Greystone Bridge near Lawhitton — this arched stone bridge was built in 1439. Gunnislake New Bridge was built in 1520 by Sir Piers Edgcumbe, the owner of Cotehele and Mount Edgcumbe. The Gunnislake bridge was a main route into south east Cornwall and the lowest bridge over the Tamar until the Tamar Bridge at Saltash was opened in 1962.

The lower Tamar is spanned also by the Royal Albert Bridge (built 1859), a rail bridge now adjacent to the newer Tamar Bridge. Both of these bridges are between Saltash (known as the 'Gateway to Cornwall') and Plymouth. Further downstream, crossing the Hamoaze, is the Torpoint Ferry — a chain ferry connecting Torpoint to Devonport — and at the most downstream part of the Hamoaze there is also the Cremyll Ferry.

The Calstock Viaduct is another notable structure on the Tamar, being 120 feet (37 m) high with twelve 60-foot (18 m) wide arches, of which three of the piers stand in the river, and was built between 1904 and 1907.

Navigation
The total length of the tidal river (which, like other tidal waters in England, has public right of navigation) is 19.2 mi. The normal tidal limit (noted on Ordnance Survey maps as 'NTL') is a weir just downstream of the village of Gunnislake. Waterborne traffic through the Hamoaze is controlled by the Queen's Harbour Master for Plymouth, who is responsible for managing navigation along the entire tidal Tamar. The Royal Navy has one of its three main naval bases at Devonport, situated on the Hamoaze, upstream of which the river is now used largely by recreational craft. Excursions operate (April to October only) on the river between Plymouth and Calstock; excursions used to operate as far as Morwellham Quay, but were suspended indefinitely in 2016. A passenger ferry also operates April to October between Cotehele Quay and Calstock.

A typical Tamar vessel was a sailing barge, built on the open river bank, of up to 60 tons, with a peaked, gaff-rigged mainsail and a fore staysail. The Tamar was navigable by seagoing ships of up to 400 register tons as far inland as Weir Quay, near Bere Alston, where the estuary narrows into the tidal river, some 8.4 mi upstream from Plymouth Sound. Vessels of 300 tons sailed as far inland as Morwellham, 17.2 mi along the river from the sea. A further stretch of 1.8 mi upstream to Weir Head, near Gunnislake, is accessible to smaller boats. Weir Head is just downstream of the weir at Gunnislake (the tidal limit) and is the final place to turn boats; it was from here that smaller craft could begin their journey on the Tamar Manure Canal.

Tamar Manure Navigation

In 1794 the Tamar Manure Navigation Company was formed to extend navigation inland for a further 30 miles, to Tamerton Bridge in North Tamerton. An Act of Parliament of 1796 authorised the works, with the company empowered to improve and manage navigation on the Tamar from Morwellham Quay upstream to Boat Pool, at Blanchdown (just upstream of Gunnislake), and to construct a canal from there. The project however advanced no further than Gunnislake, with work ceasing in 1808. Barges of up to 30 tons could then proceed as far as Gunnislake New Bridge, bypassing the weir (above Weir Head) via a 500-yard canal to the west of the river. As the only completed work of the original project, this short canal became known as the Tamar Manure (Navigation) Canal. It had one lock allowing vessels to rise from the tidal Tamar to the water level above the weir. A salmon ladder bypassed the lock.

The navigable route along the Tamar and the Manure Canal that was managed by the company (from Morwellham Quay upstream to Blanchdown) was known as the Tamar Manure Navigation and was 3.0 mi in length. The import of fertilizer (at the time of the construction of the canal all types of which were typically referred to as "manure") and coal and the export of bricks and granite along this short navigation proved profitable for many years. The navigation from Launceston to Tamerton was completed in 1826 as part of a separate project, the Bude Canal. The Tamar Manure Navigation ceased functioning in 1929 and the company was wound up in 1942.

History
In 997 according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, raiding Vikings travelled up the Tamar and then the Tavy river as far as Lydford, and burned Ordwulf's monastery at Tavistock.

During the English Civil War, Cornwall was entirely loyal to King Charles I and the Royalist cause. However, Devon was primarily Parliamentarian; thus the River Tamar became the site of many battles, such as the Battle of Gunnislake New Bridge on 20 July 1664. Each side of the Tamar understood that if they were either to invade or to defend themselves, they had to have control of the Tamar crossings.

In medieval times the transport of goods to supply the Benedictine abbey at Tavistock, four miles by track from the river port of Morwellham, was significant. Sea sand from the coast was imported to spread on farmland, until in the 18th century a dressing of lime was found to be more beneficial. Large quantities of limestone and coal were then imported to burn in the numerous limekilns on the river quays; the lime had to be made locally as it was not slaked before application, and was too chemically reactive for transport by water after burning. Later, street sweepings and other refuse from Plymouth and Devonport, together with bones for the newly discovered bone fertiliser, were carried inland to manure the fields. Other regular imports were timber from British Columbia and the Baltic, in large baulks for use as pit props in the mines, and coal from Wales to supply the mine pumping engines. Tavistock was one of the three stannary towns of Devon, and large quantities of refined tin ore were exported through Morwellham from the 12th century until 1838, when the requirement to pay duty on the metal at one of the specified towns was relaxed. The opening in 1817 of the Tavistock Canal, between Tavistock and Morwellham, facilitated traffic. Later, the East Cornwall Mineral Railway provided an outlet through the quays of Calstock from the Cornish side of the valley. Other significant cargoes exported were quarried granite, and later, copper, lead and manganese ores, with their important by-product of arsenic. Arsenic was extracted from mispickel, once regarded as a waste product but later offering an important source of revenue as copper and tin extraction declined in profitability. The refined product was exported worldwide, in particular to the southern United States, where it was used as an insecticide in the cotton fields.

In the 13th century lead and silver output from the royal mines on the Bere peninsula (between the Tamar and the Tavy) was significant, and production continued intermittently until the 19th century. The Johnson Matthey smelting works at Weir Quay extracted silver and lead not only from local ore, but also from ore imported by sea from Europe and from as far away as Newfoundland. Fluorspar from the lead mine tailings was exported to France for use in the manufacture of glassware.

The old ferry crossings developed into the busy river quays of the 18th and 19th centuries.

The development of the "Three Towns" (Plymouth, Devonport and Stonehouse) at the mouth of the river offered an important market for the valley's agricultural produce, needed in particular to serve the victualling requirements of the royal dockyard, and this was always carried by boat. In 1820 or 1821 the first paddle steamer on the Tamar inaugurated a service between Calstock and Devonport to deliver foodstuffs. In 1859 a rail connection from Plymouth to London was opened, and fresh produce could be landed at the Devonport steamer quays in the evening and be on sale in London by the next morning. The growing city population created a large demand for sightseeing cruises on the river; this was a significant source of traffic from 1823, with the launch of the Cornish steam packet Sir Francis Drake, until the outbreak of World War II.

Mineral traffic on the river diminished towards the end of the 19th century, after the Plymouth, Devonport and South Western Junction Railway reached Tavistock in 1859 (so making the Tavistock Canal to Morwellham redundant for transport, although it remains in use as a source of hydropower) and as the copper and tin mines became exhausted. The decline accelerated from 1894, when the East Cornwall Mineral Railway, until then linked to the outside world only through the port of Calstock, was extended to the Plymouth, Devonport and South Western Junction Railway at Bere Alston. Tourist and market traffic on the river, using purpose-built or converted steamers, remained substantial until the Devonport piers were closed and the ships requisitioned on the outbreak of war in 1939.

Economy
Rocks around the edge of Dartmoor were mineralised by fluids driven by the heat of the Earth's core, which gave rise to ores containing tin, copper, tungsten, lead and other minerals in the Valley. The medieval estate of Cotehele, owned by the Edgcumbe family, was a significant producer of silver for the Royal Mint. During the industrial revolution, there was significant mining activity near the river, between Gunnislake and Weir Quay. During this period, the Tamar was an important river for shipping copper from ports such as Morwellham Quay, Calstock and New Quay (Devon) to south Wales where it would be smelted. The valley forms district A10i of the Cornwall and West Devon Mining Landscape. The river has long been famous for the quality of its salmon whilst the valley was known nationally for the high quality, and early, soft fruit and market gardens sheltered by its steeply winding slopes.

Folklore
The Alliterative Morte Arthure states that the mortal combat of King Arthur and Mordred took place close to the banks of the river.

A traditional Cornish tale claims that the devil would never dare to cross the River Tamar into Cornwall for fear of ending up as a pasty filling. Though unusual landscape features are often named after the devil (e.g. devil's frying pan) it used to be said that the devil never came to Cornwall: he once reached Torpoint and immediately noticed that various kinds of pie were customary; he feared that devilly pie might be the next kind so returned to Devon. This legend is set to music in the traditional Cornish folk song Fish and Tin and Copper.

Legend of Tamara
The legend behind the name involves a nymph by the name of Tamara, who lived in the underworld. Tamara wanted to wander freely in the mortal world, against the advice of her parents. One day, wandering in Dartmoor, she happened to meet two giants called Tavy and Torridge (or Tawradge). Both giants became smitten with Tamara and vied for her affections. Tamara led the giants on a dance, but never let them touch her, instead darting out of reach whenever they came too close. Tamara's father, who had been out looking for her, located her just as the giants finally caught up with her near Morwenstow. He flew into a rage and used a spell to put Tavy and Tawradge into a deep sleep. This infuriated Tamara, who subsequently refused to return to the underworld with her father. He became even more enraged and cast a spell on Tamara, turning her into a bubbling spring, which produced the Tamar river and flowed all the way to the sea. Tawradge awoke to find his beloved had become a river; in despair, he sought the advice of a magician, who turned him into a river (the River Torridge and the River Taw) so that he could hope to reunite with Tamara. Tawradge was never able to find and merge with his beloved Tamara, instead turning north toward Bideford and the Bristol Channel and is still said to mourn his love, the Tamar. This legend explains why the River Torridge, which rises only 500 metres from the Tamar, veers away from the Tamar and forms a huge arc, eventually flowing to the North Devon coast. The other giant, Tavy, also awoke in despair and sought the aid of his own father, also a powerful magician. His father turned Tavy into a river as well, and the Tavy set off in search of the Tamar, eventually finding her and merging with her into a wide and beautiful estuary.

title: River Tamar


text:
Talk:List of letters used in mathematics, science, and engineering

Untitled
I don't know which kind of efficiency eta is supposed to stand for. Someone should disambiguate the link.
 * Done. 213.66.223.179 22:23, 15 April 2006 (UTC)

Lambda and Iwasawa algebra
"Iwasawa algebra" is a red link. Is Iwasawa theory a suitable entry at upper-case lambda? __ Just plain Bill (talk) 16:43, 11 May 2011 (UTC)

 * I've redirected Iwasawa algebra to Iwasawa theory for now. RobHar (talk) 18:17, 11 May 2011 (UTC)

Letter-derived symbols
Currently the "More" section (which would perhaps be better titled "Other alphabets") includes the letter ш (lowercase Cyrillic sha) for the shuffle product and the symbols ∂ and ∇ used in multivariable calculus. However, the latter two of these are not actually letters; they are mathematical symbols derived as modifications of a lowercase d and an uppercase Δ respectively. Similarly, according to the page Shuffle algebra the shuffle product is actually denoted by ⧢, which is a distinct Unicode symbol, though derived from ш. Is the intent for this page to also list mathematical symbols that are not actually letters but were derived from letters? If so, then there are plenty more to include, such as ∈ derived from ε, ∏ derived from Π, ∑ derived from Σ, and so on.

Michael Shulman (talk) 05:09, 6 July 2019 (UTC)

Duplication?
I don't understand why this page coexists with Greek letters used in mathematics, science, and engineering and Latin letters used in mathematics. I don't have any opinion on whether it's better to list all alphabets on one page or have separate pages for each alphabet, but it seems a waste of effort to do both. Of course the very short list of non-Latin-or-Greek letters on this page couldn't go on either of those other pages, but if this page were removed in favor of those then there could be a separate page like "Letters used in mathematics from alphabets other than Latin and Greek", or even separate (even shorter) pages like "Hebrew letters used in mathematics" and "Cyrillic letters used in mathematics".

(Also, is there a good reason for the inconsistency in naming? "...in mathematics" vs "...in mathematics and science" vs "...in mathematics, science, and engineering"?)

Michael Shulman (talk) 05:15, 6 July 2019 (UTC)

 * Agreed! I have renamed to Latin letters used in mathematics, science, and engineering to reflect the actual scope, and will rename this article now. -- Beland (talk) 23:43, 10 August 2023 (UTC)

Graviton
Does graviton (Hypothetical particle) fit into the section for capital G? Gioguch (talk) 22:21, 15 September 2020 (UTC)

Merging the three 'letters' articles
As Michael Shulman mentioned some time back, there are three separate articles on letters in mathematics, with a discrepancy in titles and obvious overlap in scope (This list (entirely unreferenced) is essentially the union of the other two lists and a small number of entries from other alphabets):

 * Greek letters used in mathematics, science, and engineering
 * List of mathematical uses of Latin letters
 * List of letters used in mathematics and science

As Kabiryani pointed out on Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Mathematics, I would suggest that the sole use of "mathematics" is the least appropriate, since in fact among the now referenced entries those from physics and chemistry predominate. I propose merging the other two lists into List of letters used in mathematics and science, solving both problems at once. It seems to me that splitting the coverage into lists for each alphabet is unsatisfactory for the small number of other entries, mainly from Hebrew and Cyrillic. These should certainly be preserved, but lists that are by nature limited to such a small number of entries may be problematic. Pinging user:D.Lazard and user:Trovatore who were involved in determining the current name of List of mathematical uses of Latin letters. Felix QW (talk) 17:05, 30 March 2022 (UTC)
 * I would not oppose formally to such a merge, but, IMO, this is putting the cart before the horse. Indeed, for the moment, the three lists have problems with WP:INDISCRIMINATE, and I cannot imagine to whom they may be useful. Here are some issues that are shared by the three lists:
 * They do not dinstinguish between standards (uses that can be encountered without explanation, such as symbols for measurement units), common uses that are not mandatory and must be specified before being used ($V$ for a vector space, or $$\alpha, \beta, \gamma $$ for the angle of a triangle), and uncommon uses.
 * The lists are indiscriminate with respect to the area of use. A letter can be a standard in a specific area, and be meaningless in another area. For example, $$\varphi$$ denotes probably a phase in physics, an Euler angle in geometry and Euler's totient function in number theory.
 * It is generally not distinguished whether a letter is used as a stand-alone symbol or in a compound symbol. For example, it is said that $F$ may represent a Fibonacci number. This is definitively wrong, as an integer subscript is required for this use.
 * There is no distinction between letters used as variables or for denoting unspecified objects, and letters used for denoting a constant or a fully specified object.
 * So before merging or restructuring, one must have a clear idea what would be possibly useful for some readers. For the moment, I do not see any information that a reader may obtain in these articles, that he has not previously obtained before coming here.
 * I did a similar work to that that is needed here with Glossary of mathematical symbols. I did not include letters used as symbols, for several reasons, which include the fact that I have no clear idea of what woukd be a convenient structure for solving above issues. D.Lazard (talk) 10:30, 31 March 2022 (UTC)
 * I share some of your concerns. In my opinion, though, fixing content at one place is much easier than fixing overlapping content in two different pages. Therefore, I think the merger would be the ideal preparation for any restructuring effort.
 * My personal view on the individual items:
 * I think that actually one should remove all those instances that would always be expected to be introduced before using, even in terse papers; this includes in particular common variable designations (V for a vector space, or for the angle of a triangle) and certainly uncommon uses. This would leave a significantly shorter list, which can help readers to pinpoint uses they encounter much more easily.
 * The area of use could be specified where it matters, and I think this can be done through ordinary editing.
 * I am less decided on whether to include compound usage, but I think it could have its place here if it is clearly a letter with additional identifier (if not here, where else?)
 * A quick fix would just add definite or indefinite articles to the entries.
 * In general, I think that in the long run, one would like a layout like that in Glossary of mathematical symbols, but in my opinion this will most likely rather be achieved through incremental editing at one place rather than some concerted effort.
 * I completely agree that we should reach consensus about the inclusion criteria, though. Felix QW (talk) 11:59, 31 March 2022 (UTC)
 * I don't agree with this merger on the basis from you removing engineering reference; I actually think removing information will not solve this problem: you should instead ADD information to help comprehensively identify each use case scenario and then structure one comprehensive page where people can locate their relevant data from one comprehensive source, otherwise: Google will quickly outpace Wikipedia traffic, further reducing donations, leading to a downward spiral seen on competing websites (Wikia, Fandom, Wikimedia, etcetera), there is a reason why Wikipedia has stood dominant over others: I've been looking for these symbols' names for 3 years, I found them today because I finally found this page on Wikipedia; additionally I found ALL the symbols located in one comprehensive page, hastening my search result and locating additional information I never knew involving these symbols using a quick and easily recognized quickly navigatable thoroughly indexed page filled with (mostly) comprehensive instruction on each use case. I think this has plentiful engineering references associated with these symbols.
 * One comprehensive page functions better in this case than a referencing specific individual pages specifically dedicated to each classification; example: a “Greek Letters used in Engineering” page alongside a “Greek Letters used in Mathematics” page would prove less effective than just one page comprehensively dedicated to Greek Letters.
 * ~ Blue64 24.167.45.252 (talk) 17:33, 17 April 2022 (UTC)
 * Oppose Not an improvement. We need specific articles to give detailed information, not a huge combined article containing everything. 2001:8003:913E:5D01:C8F0:E933:7B8F:4260 (talk) 13:32, 11 December 2022 (UTC)

FWIW, these articles have since been renamed to all say "used in mathematics, science, and engineering", and the duplication has been eliminated by pushing Latin and Greek lists out to those subarticles completely. -- Beland (talk) 23:59, 22 December 2023 (UTC)


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John Wilson Croker

John Wilson Croker (20 December 1780 – 10 August 1857) was an Anglo-Irish statesman and author.

Life
He was born in Galway, the only son of John Croker, the surveyor-general of customs and excise in Ireland. He was educated at Trinity College Dublin, where he graduated in 1800. Immediately afterwards he entered Lincoln's Inn, and in 1802 he was called to the Irish bar.

He married Rosamond Pennell, daughter of William Pennell and Elizabeth Pennell (née Carrington))on 22 May 1806, in Waterford, Ireland.

None of his children with Rosamond Pennell survived past 3 years old. He and Rosamond adopted Rosamond's younger sister (who was the 18th child of Rosamond's parents) and she was also (confusingly) named Rosamond Hester Elizabeth Pennell. The younger Rosamond was born in January 1810 in Waterford, Ireland (christened with the surname Pennell). Sometime between birth and 1814, she became part of the Croker family. The name she was better known by was the nickname "Nony" Croker. Nony's portrait by Sir Thomas Lawrence (commissioned by John Croker) is in the collection of the Albright-Knox Art Gallery in Buffalo, New York.

His interest in the French Revolution led him to collect a large number of valuable documents on the subject, which are now in the British Museum. In 1804 he published anonymously Familiar Epistles to J. F. Jones, Esquire, on the State of the Irish Stage, a series of caustic criticisms in verse on the management of the Dublin theatres. The book ran through five editions in one year. Equally successful was the Intercepted Letter from Canton (1805), also anonymous, a satire on Dublin society in the guise of a report on the manners of the Chinese at Quang-tchen on the "Li-fee". During this period a rather scathing poem attributed to Croker led to the suicide of actor John Edwin, husband of Elizabeth Rebecca Edwin. In 1807 he published a pamphlet on The State of Ireland, Past and Present, in which he advocated Catholic emancipation.

He was a distant relation of Thomas Crofton Croker, Irish writer and antiquarian, who served under him in the Admiralty.

Parliamentary career
The following year (1808) Croker entered parliament as member for Downpatrick, obtaining the seat on petition, though he had been unsuccessful at the poll. The acumen displayed in his Irish pamphlet led Spencer Perceval to recommend him to the Duke of Wellington, who had just been appointed to the command of British forces in the Iberian Peninsula, as his deputy in the office of chief secretary for Ireland. This connection led to a friendship which remained unbroken till Wellington's death. The notorious case of the Duke of York in connexion with his abuse of military patronage furnished Croker with an opportunity for distinguishing himself. The speech which he delivered on 14 March 1809, in answer to the charges of Colonel Wardle, was regarded as able; and Croker was appointed to the office of first secretary to the Admiralty, which he held without interruption under various administrations for more than twenty years. Among the first acts of his official career was the exposure of George Villiers, a fellow official who had misappropriated public funds to the extent of £280,000; Villiers was well regarded at court, and action was taken against him only after Croker threatened resignation. It was soon noted by a First Lord that although Croker described himself as the servant of the Board, in reality, the reverse was true. The second secretary to the Admiralty John Barrow became a close personal friend, and Barrow's eldest son Sir George Barrow, 2nd Baronet married Croker's adopted daughter Nony.

In 1816 he reduced the size of the Royal Navy, and over 1,000 ships were decommissioned and placed in the Reserve Fleet (United Kingdom) or "laid up in ordinary" at various British naval bases. In 1824 he helped found the Athenaeum Club, and when the members voted £2000 for an icehouse, instead he commissioned from sculptor John Henning a full-scale replica in Bath stone of sculptures from the Parthenon, occasioning the widely circulated squib "I'm John Wilson Croker, I do as I please. They ask for an Ice House, I give them—a Frieze".

In 1827 he became the Member of Parliament for Dublin University, having previously sat successively for the boroughs of Athlone, Yarmouth, Bodmin and Aldeburgh. He was made a Privy Councillor in June 1828 and, having secured a pension of £1500 a year, retired from his post at the admiralty in 1830. He was a determined opponent of the Reform Bill, and vowed that he would never sit in a reformed parliament; he left parliament when the Act was passed in 1832. Many of his political speeches were published in pamphlet form, and they show him to have been a vigorous and effective, though somewhat unscrupulous and often virulently personal, party debater. Yet he could on occasion be magnanimous to his opponents: when Lord Althorp during a debate in the Commons, said that while he had figures which refuted Croker's argument he had mislaid them, Croker replied that he would never doubt Althorp's word. Croker had been an ardent supporter of Robert Peel, but finally broke with him when he began to advocate the repeal of the Corn Laws.

Literary career
Croker was for many years one of the leading contributors on literary and historical subjects to the Quarterly Review, with which he had been associated from its foundation. The rancorous spirit in which many of his articles were written did much to embitter party feeling. It also reacted unfavourably on Croker's reputation as a worker in the department of pure literature by bringing political animosities into literary criticism.

He had no sympathy with the younger school of poets who were in revolt against the artificial methods of the 18th century. In April 1833 he savagely criticised Poems, published the previous December by Alfred Tennyson—an attack which, coupled with the death of his friend Arthur Hallam, discouraged the aspiring poet from seeking to publish anything more for nine years. He was also responsible for the famous Quarterly article on John Keats's Endymion. Shelley and Byron blamed this article for bringing about the death of the poet, 'snuffed out', in Byron's phrase, 'by an article' (they, however, attributed the article to William Gifford).

His magnum opus, an edition of Boswell's Life of Johnson (1831) was the subject of an unfavourable review by Macaulay in the Edinburgh Review (a Whig rival/opponent of the Quarterly Review) The main grounds of criticism were echoed by Thomas Carlyle in a less famous review in Fraser's Magazine Croker made no immediate reply to Macaulay's attack, but when the first two volumes of Macaulay's History appeared he took the opportunity of pointing out the inaccuracies in the work.
 * that Croker had added extensive notes which were to little point, being superfluous or declaring Croker's inability to grasp Johnson's point on matters where the reviewers had no difficulty. Macaulay also complained (with numerous examples) of factual errors in the notes; Carlyle of their carping attitude to Johnson's motives (Carlyle, whose father was a stonemason, and who (like Johnson) had scraped a living as a schoolmaster, before writing encyclopedia articles for bread-and-butter wages, also took great exception to one note which took for granted that when Johnson spoke of having lived on 4½ d a day he was disclosing something of which he should have been ashamed to speak)
 * that Croker had not preserved the integrity of Boswell's text, but had interpolated text from four other accounts of Johnson (Hawkins, Mrs Thrale etc.), distinguished only from genuine Boswell by being inside brackets, so that "You begin a sentence under Boswell's guidance, thinking to be carried happily through it by the same: but no; in the middle, perhaps after your semi-colon, and some consequent 'for' – starts up one of these Bracket-ligatures, and stitches you in half a page to twenty or thirty pages of a Hawkins, Tyers, Murphy, Piozzi; so that often one must make the old sad reflection, Where we are, we know; whither we are going no man knoweth"

George Birkbeck Hill in his preface to his 1887 edition of Boswell endorses much of Macaulay's criticism of Croker, but adds, "I should be wanting in justice were I not to acknowledge that I owe much to the labours of Mr Croker". Hill observed that Croker was "not deeply versed in books", was "shallow in himself", did not understand Johnson's strong character, seemed inadequately acquainted with Johnson's writings, failed to grasp Boswell's flair as a biographer, and "is careless in small matters, and his blunders are numerous":
 * Yet he has added considerably to our knowledge of Johnson. He knew men who had intimately known both the hero and his biographer, and he gathered much that but for his care would have been lost for ever. He was diligent and successful in his search after Johnson's letters, of so many of which Boswell with all his persevering and pushing diligence had not been able to get a sight.

Croker was occupied for several years on an annotated edition of Alexander Pope's works. It was left unfinished at the time of his death, but it was afterwards completed by Whitwell Elwin and William John Courthope. He died at St Albans Bank, Hampton.

Croker was generally supposed to be the original from which Benjamin Disraeli drew the character of "Rigby" in Coningsby, because he had for many years had the sole management of the estates of the Marquess of Hertford, the "Lord Monmouth" of the story. Hostile portrayals of Croker can also be found in the novels Florence Macarthy by Lady Morgan (a political opponent whom Croker subjected to notoriously savage reviews in the Quarterly) and The Anglo-Irish of the Nineteenth Century (1828) by John Banim.

The chief works of Croker not already mentioned were: He also wrote several lyrical pieces of some merit, such as the Songs of Trafalgar (1806) and The Battles of Talavera (1809). He edited the Suffolk Papers (1823), Hervey's Memoirs of the Court of George II (1817), the Letters of Mary Lepel, Lady Hervey (1821–1822), and Walpole's Letters to Lord Hertford (1824). His memoirs, diaries and correspondence were edited by Louis J. Jennings in 1884 under the title of The Croker Papers (3 vols.).
 * Stories for Children from the History of England (1817), which provided the model for Scott's Tales of a Grandfather
 * Letters on the Naval War with America
 * A Reply to the Letters of Malachi Malagrowther (1826)
 * Military Events of the French Revolution of 1830 (1831)
 * a translation of Bassompierre's Embassy to England (1819)

Legacy
Croker Bay, named by Sir William Edward Parry.

Cape Croker on Ontario's Bruce Peninsula is also named after him by Henry Wolsey Bayfield.

title: John Wilson Croker


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Pity Me

Pity Me is a suburban village of Durham, England, located north of Framwellgate Moor and west of Newton Hall.

Etymology
There are various theories on the origin of Pity Me's unusual name. Most likely, as speculated in the Oxford Dictionary of British Place Names, it is simply "a whimsical name bestowed in the 19th century on a place considered desolate, exposed or difficult to cultivate". Alternatively it may be a shortened form of an earlier place name referring to a shallow lake or mere, such as Petit Mere (i.e. from Norman French), Petty Mere or Peaty Mere. Related theories suggest that it comes from Pithead Mere, referring to an extended area of boggy waste ground onto which the outwash from minehead pumping engines was discharged, or that petite mer (small sea) is an ironic name for the settlement given the arid nature of the land.

However, the existence of several examples of other, lesser settlements, that share this name in Northumberland - particularly one north of Barrasford, near Hexham, and another outside Hartburn, west of Morpeth - suggests that it may be derived from some actual feature of the landscape, or former land-use, that has since been forgotten (one exotic suggestion for the North Tynedale example being the Ancient British term "Beddan Maes", meaning "burial ground" - although this suggestion has never been offered to explain the name of the Durham settlement. This form looks suspiciously like modern Welsh rather than any Brythonic name. As a Welsh name it makes no sense, although 'bedd' is 'grave', and 'maes' is 'open field').

More obvious folk etymologies include the story that the coffin of St Cuthbert was dropped near Pity Me on the way to Durham, at which point the saint implored the monks carrying him to take pity on him and be more careful; or that coming to the location during a flight from a Viking raid, a group of monks sang the 51st Psalm, the Latin version of which includes the words "Miserere mei, Deus", which may be rendered in English as "Pity me, O God".

Transport
Pity Me is bypassed by the A167 which connects to Darlington and Newcastle via Chester-le-Street along the former route of the A1 through the region.

The Arnison Centre, an out of town retail park, is located on the edge of the village. It is served by several frequent bus routes operated by Go North East; destinations include Newcastle, Sunderland, Durham and Sherburn Village.

Northumberland

 * 428140,563380 Pity Me hamlet demolished, on the north bank of River Tyne near St Anthony's.
 * 428050,585740 Pityme building demolished, on the north bank of River Wansbeck east of North Seaton railway viaduct.
 * 411790,586680 Pity Me building extant, west of Morpeth.
 * 391860,576730 Pity Me building extant, north of Barrasford.

County Durham

 * 419530,529560 Pity Me building demolished, on the south bank of River Wear west of Bishop Auckland.
 * 432420,550360 Pity Me building demolished, now the site of Sedgeletch Industrial Estate, Fencehouses.
 * 430160,528390 Pity Me building demolished, west of Bradbury.
 * 397030,540330 Pityme Spring watercourse extant, west of Stanhope.

Other unusual place names in the North East include the village of No Place, believed to be a contraction of North Place, as marked on the original Ordnance Survey maps, and Bearpark, from Beaurepaire, French for "beautiful retreat" - the name of a nearby Norman priory.

title: Pity Me


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Haxby Hall

Haxby Hall was an estate in York Road, village of Haxby, York, England. It was built in 1790 on 22 acres (89,000 m2) of land, and was grade II listed.

In 1923, Haxby Hall was the residence of Mr. William Abel Wood, J.P. During the Second World War, the hall was used to billet evacuees from Hull.

In 1950, the owner of the estate, Kenneth Ward, donated the pleasure grounds around the building to the village (which is now part of the City of York), to build the Ethel Ward Memorial Playing Field. The playing field now contains a children's playground, ball playing courts, a scout centre, and more. It is also the location of the village fairs and celebrations, and the home of the Haxby football teams, who play in the York and District League.

Haxby Hall itself, now with only 3 acres (12,000 m2) of land, was demolished in 1960, and in 1965 it was replaced by the Haxby Hall Residential Home for the elderly (with accommodations for 52 elderly people), and an adjoining ambulance station.

title: Haxby Hall


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Orlando Gibbons

Orlando Gibbons (bapt. 25 December 1583 – 5 June 1625) was an English composer and keyboard player who was one of the last masters of the English Virginalist School and English Madrigal School. The best known member of a musical family dynasty, by the 1610s he was the leading composer and organist in England, with a career cut short by his sudden death in 1625. As a result, Gibbons's oeuvre was not as large as that of his contemporaries, like the elder William Byrd, but he made considerable contributions to many genres of his time. He is often seen as a transitional figure from the Renaissance to the Baroque periods.

Gibbons was born into a musical family where his father was a wait, his brothers—Edward, Ellis and Ferdinand—were musicians and Orlando was expected to follow the tradition. It is not known under whom he studied, although it may have been with Edward or Byrd, but he almost certainly studied the keyboard in his youth. Irrespective of his education, he was musically proficient enough to be appointed an unsalaried member of the Chapel Royal in May 1603 and a full-fledged gentleman of the Chapel Royal as junior organist by 1605. By 1606 he had graduated from King's College, Cambridge with a Bachelor of Music degree.

Throughout his professional career, Gibbons maintained good relations with many important people of the English court. King James I and Prince Charles were supportive patrons and others, such as Sir Christopher Hatton, even became close friends. Along with Byrd and John Bull, Gibbons was the youngest contributor to the first printed collection of English keyboard music, Parthenia, and published other compositions in his lifetime, notably, the First Set of Madrigals and Motets (1612) which includes the best known English madrigal: The Silver Swan. Other important compositions include "This Is the Record of John", the 8-part full anthem "O Clap Your Hands Together" and 2 settings of Evensong. The most important position achieved by Gibbons was his appointment in 1623 as the organist at Westminster Abbey which he held for 2 years until his death.

Gibbons developed Byrd's foundations of the English madrigal, full and verse anthems, and by doing so he exerted significant influence on subsequent English composers. This generation included his oldest son Christopher, who would teach John Blow, Pelham Humfrey and Henry Purcell, the English pioneer of the Baroque era. After his death he was primarily remembered a composer of sacred music. Since the early music revival however, increased attention has come to his other compositions, with his keyboard works championed by Glenn Gould, while his madrigals and viol fantasies are popular among early music ensembles. By the 21st-century almost all of his music has been published and recorded.

Birthplace and background
Orlando Gibbons was born in Oxford. Until the early 20th-century he was believed to have been born in Cambridge. This was accepted as fact by his contemporaries, stated in multiple early biographies and even recorded on his memorial monument in Canterbury Cathedral, erected soon after his death. It is even possible that Gibbons himself thought that he was born in Cambridge, since he spent most of his life there and only the first four to five years of his life in Oxford. Matters are made more confusing as his father had lived in Cambridge for at least ten years before the birth of Gibbons. Therefore, even though 17th-century biographer Anthony Wood discovered a record of an "Orlando Gibbons" being baptised in St Martin's Church, Oxford, it was assumed that Gibbons was born in Cambridge but baptized in Oxford. Modern historians have proved the claim that he was born in Cambridge to be incorrect. Not only was the baptismal record shown to be authentic, but it was discovered that Orlando's parents both resided in Oxford at the time of his birth, confirming that Orlando was born in Oxford and baptized at St. Martin's, Oxford.

The Gibbons family can be traced back to Richard Gibbons (d. 1577), who was a glover active in Oxford; by 1549/50 he became a hanaster. Richard's son William was probably born in 1540 and at some point married Mary, whose maiden name is unknown. By 1567, William became wait at Cambridge by 1567. From 1580 to 1588 he lived in Oxford, where he was a city councillor and head of the town waits there.

Early life
While in Oxford, William and Mary had Orlando as probably the seventh of nine surviving children. There is no surviving record of the date of his birth, but he is recorded as being baptised at St. Martin's on Christmas Day 1583. It would be consistent with the normal practice of the time that Gibbons was born no more than a week before his baptism. Gibbons's father had previously lived in Cambridge where he was also the head of the town waits and around 1588, when Orlando was 4–5 years old, the Gibbons family moved back to Cambridge and William resumed his previous post there.

Orlando was born into a musical family: not only was his father a musician, but his oldest brother, Edward, was a composer and master of the Choir of King's College, Cambridge. His second brother, Ellis, was a promising composer but died prematurely, and his third brother, Ferdinando, eventually took their father's place as a wait. Not much else is known about Orlando Gibbons's youth, but being born into a musical family he was almost certainly instructed on a keyboard instrument and perhaps the viol. At the age of 12, he became a member of Edward's Choir of King's on 14 February 1596. He was a regular member of the choir until some time in the Michaelmas term of 1598. In the Easter term (summer term) of the same year he enrolled at King's College, Cambridge as a sizar, meaning he paid reduced fees but had to do various menial tasks. From 1598–99 Gibbons's name appeared sporadically in the chorus member logs, suggesting that, if not a clerical error, he continued to sing from time to time, perhaps for special occasions.

Gibbons's composition teacher is also unknown. It is possible he continued study with Edward, though there is no record of this. Another possible composition teacher is William Byrd, who was at least 40 years his senior and the most respected English composer at the time. Gibbons and Byrd along with the composer John Bull later collectively published music and since Bull was a student of Byrd's, Gibbons may very well also have been. Regardless of how his musical education came about, Gibbons was known to be composing music by the end of his time at the choir in 1599, at age 15–16. There is nothing known of Gibbons from then until 1603.

Early career and marriage
Gibbons's abilities had reached the point to allow him become a musician of the Chapel Royal by at least 19 May 1603. The Chapel Royal was a sizable group of priests and musicians who attended to the Monarch and royal household and Gibbons name appears at this time in a cheque book of the Chapel. Gibbons was a Gentleman Extraordinary (unpaid substitute) awaiting the vacancy of a paid position. Earlier that year King James I had ascended to the throne; in all likelihood Gibbons took part in the hymns and anthems of the 25 July coronation. 1603 was a year of mixed fortunes: he received his first position as a professional musician, but in the same year both his mother and his brother Ellis died. The plague may have been what his brother Ellis succumbed to. Eventually Gibbons's awaited vacancy occurred with the death of Arthur Cook in January 1605, and on 21 March 1605 he secured the prestigious position of Gentleman of the Chapel Royal, as the junior chapel organist. Edward Gibbons's friendship with the former organist, Arthur Cook, and the senior chapel organist, John Bull, may have helped his younger brother secure this position. Gibbons kept the position until the end of his life.

In 1606 Gibbons married Elizabeth Patten on 17 February. Her father, John Patten, was a yeoman of the vestry in the Chapel Royal, and probably well acquainted with Gibbons, which would have helped to bring about the marriage. When John Patten died in 1623, he made Gibbons his sole heir, residuary legatee and left 200 pounds for his children. Later in 1606, Orlando graduated from Cambridge with the degree of Bachelor in Music. Gibbons and his wife lived in Woolstaple (now Bridge Street) which was in the parish of St Margaret's, Westminster, the church where Gibbons's seven children—James, Alice, Christopher, Ann, Mary, Elizabeth and Orlando—would be baptised.

Publishing and patronage
By the 1610s Gibbons had become a composer of high repute and the most outstanding organist in England. He became a close friend of Sir Christopher Hatton, the second cousin and heir of the more famous Christopher Hatton, favourite of Queen Elizabeth I. Though Hatton was a minor figure in court, he became an important patron to Gibbons. The next few years saw the publishing of various works by Gibbons, firstly his 1612 First Set of Madrigals and Motets from the patronage of Hatton. One of the Madrigals in the set was The Silver Swan, often considered the most famous English madrigal. Gibbons dedicated the entire set of works to Hatton: "[The songs] were most of them composed in your owne [sic] house, and doe therefore properly belong unto you, as Lord of the Soile; the language they speake you provided them, I onely furnished them with Tongues to utter the same name". The English musician Frederick Bridge interpreted this as implying that Hatton wrote some or all of the poems that Gibbons set to music in his Madrigals and Motets. However, the musicologist Edmund Fellowes noted that it is unlikely Gibbons was an actual resident of Hatton's household, although their friendship suggests that Hatton may have set a room aside for him to compose. The death of King James's son, Prince Henry Frederick, was a considerable shock to the English, as many considered him a promising heir to the Kingdom. James in particular went into a deep depression; many wrote works to mourn Henry's death, including writers Ben Jonson and George Chapman as well as composers John Coperario and the retired Byrd. Among these was probably Gibbons's Nay let me weep from the recently published First Set of Madrigals and Motets. It is also possible that the full anthem I am the resurrection was for Prince Henry's burial, though there is no firm evidence for this.

In 1613 Gibbons had six works published in the first printed collection of English keyboard music, Parthenia, which included works by the older composers, Byrd and Bull. This publication was to celebrate the marriage of the Princess Elizabeth Stuart to Frederick V of the Palatinate. Gibbons's compositions written around the time of Parthenia include various anthems dedicated to senior nobles and clergy: the pavane Lord Salisbury for Lord Salisbury, the wedding anthem Blessed are all they for the Earl of Somerset, as well as anthems for Godfrey Goodman, William Laud and Anthony Maxey. Such works suggest that he was well associated throughout the court and that he was aiming for a permanent post. Frederick returned to Heidelberg with Elizabeth in 1613 and the couple was accompanied by a vast entourage, including Coperario and the harpist Daniel Callinder. A list of attendants includes "Gibbons", which presumably refers to Orlando Gibbons, meaning that the composer spent some time in the capital of the Electoral Palatinate. Gibbons seems to have taken Bull's place, who was in financial jeopardy.

In 1614 William Leighton published The Teares and Lamentatacions of a Sorrowfull Soule with 2 contributions by Gibbons, O Lord how do my woes increase and O Lord, I lift my heart to Thee. Although he possibly started as early as 1605, Gibbons was the joint organist of the Royal Chapel with Edmund Hooper by at least 1615. The same year he received two grants from King James I, worth 150 pounds total. These grants were: "For and in consideration of the good and faithful service heretofore done unto ourself by Orlando Gibbons our organist, and divers other good causes and considerations us thereunto moving". Gibbons continued writing for James I, composing the anthem Great King of Gods and the court song Do not repine, fair sun in celebration of the King's 1617 visit to Scotland.

Late career
By the late 1610s Gibbons was undoubtedly the most important musician and composer at court as Byrd had been long-retired in Essex and Bull had left for the Low Countries in late 1614. In 1617 Gibbons gained the position as keyboard player in an ensemble, organised by John Cooper, for the privy chamber of Prince Charles (later King Charles I). Gibbons was the only keyboardist in a group of 17 musicians which included Alfonso Ferrabosco the younger, Thomas Ford, Robert Johnson and Thomas Lupo. The Prince himself was thought to have occasionally joined on either the Bass-Viol or Viol da Gamba. It is likely that Gibbons, along with Coperario, was able to write for this ensemble and had pieces premiered by it. In addition to this, Gibbons probably gained a 3rd position in September 1619, attending the royal privy chamber of James I. His next major work, Fantasies of Three Parts was published around 1620 and dedicated it to Edmund Wray. This seemingly random dedication has provoked much speculation. It may be because Wray could secure Gibbons a better post, or it may be an action of gratitude for having already secured him the post for the royal privy chamber of the King.

While once assumed to be fact, there is now much doubt whether Gibbons received a Doctorate of Music in May 1622. In 1692, Wood stated:

"'On the 17th of May, Orlando Gibbons, one of the organists of his majesty's chapel, did supplicate the venerable congregation that he might accumulate the degrees in music; but whether he was admitted to the one, or license to proceed in the other, it appears not.'"

This uncertainty has continued until the present day. Gibbons’s 8-part full anthem, O clap your hands was sung on 17 May 1622 at the degree ceremony for William Heather. Heather had financially supported William Camden's creation and maintenance of the Camden Professor of Ancient History chair, and in return the university awarded him the honorary degrees of bachelor in music and doctor of music, even though he was not known to be a musician. The author Sir John Hawkins and musicologists Fellowes and David Mateer state unequivocally that Gibbons was awarded a doctorate along with Heather, and cite O clap your hands as the composer’s qualifying exercise for the degree. Other musicologists—Peter Le Huray, John Harper and John Harley—express some doubt whether Gibbons received a doctorate. Specifically, Harley cites a record in the Cheque book of the Chapel Royal that refers to William Heather as "doctor" but Gibbons as "senior organist." The same writer refers to a letter from Camden to William Piers from 18 May 1622 that says Gibbons is a Doctor of Music. Harley suggests that the authenticity of the letter is uncertain, since the original does not survive; he suggests that Camden could have written something such as "G––––s," which an editor assumed to mean Gibbons. The most convincing piece of evidence is thought to be the absence of mention of the supposed doctorate of music on Gibbons's Cambridge monument, erected in his memory when he died. Although the existing evidence seems to support the conclusion that he never achieved a doctorate in music, there is no indisputable evidence to confirm it.

Final years and death
Some time in 1623, George Wither published Hymnes and Songs of the Church in which Gibbons provided the tunes for most of the songs. The same year he succeeded John Parsons as the organist at Westminster Abbey, with Thomas Day as junior organist. This was probably the most important position Gibbons had taken in his career thus far and on 7 May 1625 he officiated at the funeral of King James I.

During late May 1625, the English court was preparing to receive Queen Henrietta Maria, whom the now King Charles I of England had married through proxy in France on 1 May. Gibbons and other Chapel Royal members had begun travelling to Canterbury on 31 May when Gibbons suddenly succumbed to an illness, probably a brain haemorrhage. He died at age 41 in Canterbury and was buried in Canterbury Cathedral. His death was a shock to his peers and brought about a post-mortem, although the cause of death aroused less comment than the haste of his burial and his body's not being returned to London. His wife Elizabeth died a little over a year later, in her mid-30s, leaving Orlando's eldest brother, Edward to care for the orphaned children.

Character
There is little known about Gibbons's personality or character. Harley names this, along with the period between his time in the Choir of King's and his appointment at the Chapel Royal (1599–1603), as the largest gaps in the modern understanding of Gibbons. The lives of his contemporaries Byrd and Bull make Gibbons's life seem comparably dull. Byrd frequently found himself in court—once even against Gibbons's father William—in disputes over property or accusations that he was Catholic in post-Reformation England. Bull on the other hand had to flee the country while chief organist of the Chapel Royal on charges of adultery. One incident in Gibbons's life, however, is described by Harley as "the most bizarre event of Gibbons's career". A complaint in 1620 reported that Henry Eveseed, a yeoman of the vestry, assaulted Gibbons, the report saying: he "did violently and sodenly without cause runne uppon Mr Gibbons took up and threw him doune uppon a standard... and withall he tare his band from his neck". Other than this, the relative normality of Gibbons's life suggests he maintained good relations with his employers and fellow musicians. His patron Hatton seems to have become a close friend. In fact, Hatton and his wife, Alice Fanshawe, were probably the namesakes of two of Gibbons's two eponymous children. Other close acquaintances throughout his life included Wray, his father-in-law John Patten and his older brother Edward. It is also possible Gibbons had a particularly close relationship with Prince Charles; Gibbons's death's "formal observation, investigation, and reporting, perhaps suggests how close he may have been to the new king."

Gibbons's music may give some insight into his character. His career was primarily centered around court, where he seems to have been increasingly successful. Indeed Gibbons's Chapel Royals post at age 19, and then 21, would have been an impressive feat, comparable to Byrd becoming the organist and choirmaster of the Lincoln Cathedral in his early twenties. Each of the four positions he held centered around his ability as a keyboardist. Contemporary accounts hold him in high regard in this respect; during a 1624 visit from the French ambassador, John Hacket said upon entering Westminster Abbey that "At the entrance, the organ was touched by the best finger of that age, Mr. Orlando Gibbons." John Chamberlain stated in a letter to Sir Dudley Carleton on Gibbons's death that he had "the best hand in England".

Music
His oeuvre as a whole suggests he was comfortable composing in the genres he had established himself in, rarely adventuring to unexplored genres.

Gibbons wrote a large number of keyboard works, around thirty fantasias for viols, a number of madrigals (the best-known being "The Silver Swan"), and many popular verse anthems, all to English texts (the best known being "Great Lord of Lords"). Perhaps his best-known verse anthem is "This Is the Record of John", which sets an Advent text for solo countertenor or tenor, alternating with full chorus. The soloist is required to demonstrate considerable technical facility, and the work expresses the text's rhetorical force without being demonstrative or bombastic. He also produced two major settings of Evensong, the Short Service and the Second Service, an extended composition combining verse and full sections. Gibbons's full anthems include the expressive O Lord, in thy wrath, and the Ascension Day anthem "O clap your hands together" (after Psalm 47) for eight voices.

Gibbons's surviving keyboard output comprises some 45 pieces. The polyphonic fantasia and dance forms are the best represented genres. Gibbons's writing exhibits a command of three- and four-part counterpoint. Most of the fantasias are complex, multi-sectional pieces, treating multiple subjects imitatively. Gibbons's approach to melody, in both his fantasias and his dances, features extensive development of simple musical ideas, as for example in Pavane in D minor and Lord Salisbury's Pavan and Galliard.

Legacy
In the 20th century, the Canadian pianist Glenn Gould championed Gibbons's music, and named him as his favourite composer. Gould wrote of Gibbons's hymns and anthems: "ever since my teen-age years this music ... has moved me more deeply than any other sound experience I can think of."

In one interview, Gould compared Gibbons to Beethoven and Webern: "...despite the requisite quota of scales and shakes in such half-hearted virtuoso vehicles as the Salisbury Galliard, one is never quite able to counter the impression of music of supreme beauty that lacks its ideal means of reproduction. Like Beethoven in his last quartets, or Webern at almost any time, Gibbons is an artist of such intractable commitment that, in the keyboard field, at least, his works work better in one's memory, or on paper, than they ever can through the intercession of a sounding-board."

Gibbons's death, on 5 June 1625, is regularly marked in King's College Chapel, Cambridge, by the singing of his music at Evensong. A number of Gibbons's church anthems were included in the Oxford Book of Tudor Anthems.

Musicologist and composer, Frederick Ouseley, dubbed him to be the "English Palestrina." Gibbons paved the way for a future generation of English composers by perfecting Byrd's foundations of the English madrigal as well as both full and verse anthems, and especially by teaching music to his oldest son, Christopher, who in turn taught John Blow, Pelham Humfrey and most notably Henry Purcell, the English pioneer of the Baroque era. The modern music critic John Rockwell claimed that the oeuvre of Gibbons: "all attested not merely to a significant figure in music's past but to a composer who can still speak directly to the present."

Modern

 * Books

 * Journal and encyclopedia articles

 * Online

title: Orlando Gibbons


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Anhydrous

A substance is anhydrous if it contains no water. Many processes in chemistry can be impeded by the presence of water; therefore, it is important that water-free reagents and techniques are used. In practice, however, it is very difficult to achieve perfect dryness; anhydrous compounds gradually absorb water from the atmosphere so they must be stored carefully.

Solids
Many salts and solids can be dried using heat, or under vacuum. Desiccators can also be used to store reagents in dry conditions.

Common desiccants include phosphorus pentoxide and silica gel. Chemists may also require dry glassware for sensitive reactions. This can be achieved by drying glassware in an oven, by flame, or under vacuum.

Dry solids can be produced by freeze-drying, which is also known as lyophilization.

Liquids or solvents
In many cases, the presence of water can prevent a reaction from happening, or cause undesirable products to form. To prevent this, anhydrous solvents must be used when performing certain reactions. Examples of reactions requiring the use of anhydrous solvents are the Grignard reaction and the Wurtz reaction.

Solvents have typically been dried using distillation or by reaction with reactive metals or metal hydrides. These methods can be dangerous and are a common cause of lab fires. More modern techniques include the use of molecular sieves or a column purification system. Molecular sieves are far more effective than most common methods for drying solvents and are safer and require no special equipment for handling. Column solvent purification devices (generally referred to as Grubb's columns) recently became available, reducing the hazards (water reactive substances, heat) from the classical dehydrating methods.

Anhydrous solvents are commercially available from chemical suppliers, and are packaged in sealed containers to maintain dryness. Typically anhydrous solvents will contain approximately 10 ppm of water and will increase in wetness if they are not properly stored.

Organic solutions can be dried using a range of drying agents. Typically following a workup the organic extract is dried using magnesium sulfate or a similar drying agent to remove most remaining water.

Anhydrous acetic acid is known as glacial acetic acid.

Gases
Several substances that exist as gases at standard conditions of temperature and pressure are commonly used as concentrated aqueous solutions. To clarify that it is the gaseous form that is being referred to, the term anhydrous is prefixed to the name of the substance:
 * Gaseous ammonia is generally referred to as anhydrous ammonia, to distinguish it from its solution in water, household ammonia solution, also known as ammonium hydroxide.
 * Gaseous hydrogen chloride is generally referred to as anhydrous, to distinguish it from its solution in water, hydrochloric acid.

Reactions which produce water can be kept dry using a Dean–Stark apparatus.

title: Anhydrous


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John Wallis (publisher)

John Wallis (died 1818) was an English board game publisher, bookseller, map/chart seller, print seller, music seller, and cartographer. With his sons John Wallis Jr. and Edward Wallis, he was one of the most prolific publishers of board games of the late 18th and early 19th centuries.

Wallis's company occupied a number of sites in London, England including:
 * 16 Ludgate Street (under the name "Map Warehouse") from 1775.
 * 13 Warwick Square (under the name "Instructive Toy Warehouse") from 1805.
 * 42 Skinner Street, Snow Hill – this address was mainly used by Edward Wallis when working alone or when working with his father, in those cases publishing as "Wallis and Son" or "John & Edward Wallis".
 * 188 The Strand – this address being used solely by John Wallis Jr.

Publications

 * (with Elizabeth Newbery) The New Game of Human Life, 1790

title: John Wallis (publisher)


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First Barbary War

The First Barbary War (1801–1805), also known as the Tripolitan War and the Barbary Coast War, was a conflict during the Barbary Wars, in which the United States and Sweden fought against Tripolitania. Tripolitania had declared war against Sweden and the United States over disputes regarding tributary payments made by both states in exchange for a cessation of Tripolitanian commerce raiding at sea. United States President Thomas Jefferson refused to pay this tribute. Sweden had been at war with the Tripolitans since 1800. The First Barbary War was the first major American war fought outside the New World, and in the Arab world.

Background and overview
Barbary corsairs and crews from the quasi-independent North African Ottoman provinces of Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, and the independent Sultanate of Morocco under the Alaouite dynasty (the Barbary Coast) were the scourge of the Mediterranean. Capturing merchant ships and enslaving or ransoming their crews provided the rulers of these nations with wealth and naval power. The Trinitarian Order, or order of "Mathurins", had operated from France for centuries with the special mission of collecting and disbursing funds for the relief and ransom of prisoners of Mediterranean pirates. According to Robert Davis, between 1 and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by Barbary pirates and sold as slaves between the 16th and 19th centuries.

Barbary corsairs led attacks upon American merchant shipping in an attempt to extort ransom for the lives of captured sailors, and ultimately tribute from the United States to avoid further attacks, as they had with the various European states. Before the Treaty of Paris, which formalized the United States' independence from Great Britain, United States shipping was protected by France during the revolutionary years under the Treaty of Alliance (1778–83). Although the treaty does not mention the Barbary States in name, it refers to common enemies between both the United States and France. As such, piracy against United States shipping only began to occur after the end of the American Revolution, when the United States government lost its protection under the Treaty of Alliance.

This lapse of protection by a European power led to the first American merchant ship being seized after the Treaty of Paris. On 11 October 1784, Moroccan pirates seized the brigantine Betsey. The Spanish government negotiated the freedom of the captured ship and crew; however, Spain advised the United States to offer tribute to prevent further attacks against merchant ships. The United States Minister to France, Thomas Jefferson, decided to send envoys to Morocco and Algeria to try to purchase treaties and the freedom of the captured sailors held by Algeria. Morocco was the first Barbary Coast State to sign a treaty with the United States, on 23 June 1786. This treaty formally ended all Moroccan piracy against American shipping interests. Specifically, article six of the treaty states that if any Americans captured by Moroccans or other Barbary Coast States docked at a Moroccan city, they would be set free and come under the protection of the Moroccan State.

American diplomatic action with Algeria, the other major Barbary Coast State, was much less productive than with Morocco. Algeria began piracy against the United States on 25 July 1785 with the capture of the schooner Maria, and Dauphin a week later. All four Barbary Coast states demanded $660,000 each (equivalent to $ million in ). However, the envoys were given only an allocated budget of $40,000 to achieve peace. Diplomatic talks to reach a reasonable sum for tribute or for the ransom of the captured sailors struggled to make any headway. The crews of Maria and Dauphin remained enslaved for over a decade, and soon were joined by crews of other ships captured by the Barbary States.

In March 1786, Thomas Jefferson and John Adams went to London to negotiate with Tripoli's envoy, ambassador Sidi Haji Abdrahaman (or Sidi Haji Abdul Rahman Adja). When they enquired "concerning the ground of the pretensions to make war upon nations who had done them no injury", the ambassador replied:

"It was written in their Koran, that all nations which had not acknowledged the Prophet were sinners, whom it was the right and duty of the faithful to plunder and enslave; and that every mussulman who was slain in this warfare was sure to go to paradise. He said, also, that the man who was the first to board a vessel had one slave over and above his share, and that when they sprang to the deck of an enemy's ship, every sailor held a dagger in each hand and a third in his mouth; which usually struck such terror into the foe that they cried out for quarter at once."

Jefferson reported the conversation to Secretary of Foreign Affairs John Jay, who submitted the ambassador's comments and offer to Congress. The incident convinced Jefferson that paying further tribute would do nothing to prevent more attacks. Although John Adams agreed with Jefferson, he believed that circumstances forced the United States to pay tribute; the United States had just fought an exhausting war, which put the nation deep into debt and unable to finance the establishment of a navy.

Various letters and testimonies by captured sailors described their time in captivity. Barbary Coast imprisonment was different from that practiced by the United States and the European powers of the time. Prisoners were able to obtain wealth and property, along with achieving status beyond that of a slave. One such example was James Leander Cathcart, who rose to the highest position a Christian slave could achieve in Algeria, becoming an adviser to the dey (governor). Even so, most captives could expect little more than lives of hard labor and abuse, and struggled under extremely poor conditions that exposed them to vermin and disease. As word of their treatment reached the United States, through freed captives' narratives and letters, Americans pushed for Congress to take military action against the Barbary states.

On July 19, 1794, Congress appropriated $800,000 (equivalent to $ million in ) for the release of American prisoners and for a peace treaty with Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli. On September 5, 1795, American negotiator Joseph Donaldson signed a peace treaty with the Dey of Algiers, that included an upfront payment of $642,500 in specie (silver coinage, equivalent to $ million in ) for peace, the release of American captives, various expenses for their care, and various gifts for the Dey's royal court and family. An additional indefinite yearly tribute of $21,600 in shipbuilding supplies and ammunition would be given to the Dey. The treaty, designed to prevent further piracy, resulted in the release of 115 American sailors held captive by the Dey.

Jefferson continued to argue for cessation of the tribute, with rising support from George Washington and others. With the recommissioning of the American Navy in 1794 and a rush of new ships and weapons, it became increasingly possible for America to cease payments, although by now the long-standing habit was difficult to change. The continuing demand for tribute ultimately led to the formation of the United States Department of the Navy, founded in 1798 to prevent further attacks upon American shipping while resolving the issue of Barbary piracy. Federalist and Anti-Federalist forces argued over the needs of the country and the burden of taxation. Jefferson's own Democratic-Republicans and anti-navalists believed that the future of the country lay in westward expansion, arguing that the Atlantic trade threatened to siphon money and energy away from the new nation while entangling it in the wars and intrigue of the Old World. During the divisive 1800 presidential election, Thomas Jefferson defeated incumbent President John Adams. Jefferson was sworn into office on March 4, 1801. The new President was now poised to order naval actions against the Barbary states.

Declaration of war and naval blockade
Just before Jefferson's inauguration in 1801, Congress passed naval legislation that, among other things, provided for six frigates that "shall be officered and manned as the President of the United States may direct." In the event of a declaration of war on the United States by the Barbary powers, these ships were to "protect our commerce and chastise their insolence—by sinking, burning or destroying their ships and vessels wherever you shall find them." On Jefferson's inauguration as president in 1801, Yusuf Karamanli, the Pasha (or Bashaw) of Tripoli, demanded $225,000 (equivalent to $ million in ) from the new administration. It was a long-standing tradition that, if a government was changed or the consular was changed, said government would have to pay 'consular' gifts, in either gold or in goods, usually military and naval stores. (In 1800, federal revenues totaled a little over $10 million, equivalent to $ million in .) Putting his long-held beliefs into practice, Jefferson refused the demand. Consequently, because of this, along with the Americans not paying the money nor the gifts as stated in the Treaty of Tripoli signed in 1796 between Tripoli and America, on 10 May 1801, the Pasha declared war on the United States, not through any formal written documents but in the customary Barbary manner of cutting down the flagstaff in front of the United States Consulate. Algiers and Tunis did not follow their ally in Tripoli.

Before learning that Tripoli had declared war on the United States, Jefferson sent a small squadron, consisting of three frigates and one schooner, under the command of Commodore Richard Dale, with gifts and letters to attempt to maintain peace with the Barbary powers. However, if war had been declared, then Dale was instructed to "protect American ships and citizens against potential aggression"; however, Jefferson made it clear that he was "unauthorized by the constitution, without the sanction of Congress, to go beyond the line of defense." He told Congress: "I communicate [to you] all material information on this subject, that in the exercise of this important function confided by the constitution to the legislature exclusively their judgment may form itself on a knowledge and consideration of every circumstance of weight." Although Congress never voted on a formal declaration of war, it authorized the President to instruct the commanders of armed American vessels to seize all vessels and goods of the Pasha of Tripoli "and also to cause to be done all such other acts of precaution or hostility as the state of war will justify." The American squadron joined a Swedish flotilla under Rudolf Cederström in blockading Tripoli, the Swedes having been at war with the Tripolitans since 1800.

On 31 May 1801, Dale's successor, Commodore Edward Preble, traveled to Messina, Sicily, to the court of King Ferdinand IV of the Kingdom of Naples. The kingdom was at war with Napoleon, but Ferdinand saw an opportunity and supplied the Americans with manpower, craftsmen, supplies, gunboats, mortar boats, and the ports of Messina, Syracuse, and Palermo to be used as naval bases for launching operations against Tripoli, a port walled fortress city protected by 150 pieces of heavy artillery and manned by 25,000 soldiers, assisted by a fleet of 10 ten-gunned brigs, 2 eight-gun schooners, two large galleys, and 19 gunboats.

The first action of the campaign took place on 1 August 1801, when the armed schooner USS Enterprise (1799) (commanded by Lieutenant Andrew Sterret) defeated the 14-gun Tripolitan corsair Tripoli in battle.

In 1802, in response to Jefferson's request for a formal authorization of anti-piracy efforts, Congress passed "An act for the protection of commerce and seamen of the United States against the Tripolitan cruisers", authorizing the President to "employ such of the armed vessels of the United States as may be judged requisite... for protecting effectually the commerce and seamen thereof on the Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean and adjoining seas." The statute authorized American ships to seize vessels belonging to the Bey of Tripoli, with the captured property distributed to those who brought the vessels into port.

The United States Navy went unchallenged on the sea, but the question of how far to push the conflict remained. Jefferson pressed the issue the following year, with an increase in military force and deployment of many of the navy's best ships to the region throughout 1802. USS Argus (1803), USS Chesapeake (1799), USS Constellation (1797), USS Constitution, Enterprise, USS Intrepid (1798), USS Philadelphia (1799), USS Vixen (1803), USS President (1800), USS Congress (1799), USS Essex (1799), USS John Adams (1799), USS Nautilus (1799), Scourge, USS Syren (1803), and USS Hornet (1805 sloop) (joined in 1805) all saw service during the war, under the overall command of Preble. Throughout 1803, Preble set up and maintained a blockade of the Barbary ports while taking action to seize and harass their fleets.

Battles

In October 1803, Tripoli's fleet captured the USS Philadelphia intact after the frigate ran aground on a reef while patrolling Tripoli harbor. Efforts by the Americans to refloat the ship while under fire from shore batteries and Tripolitan Naval units failed. The ship, her captain William Bainbridge, and all officers and crew were taken ashore and held as hostages. Philadelphia was subsequently converted into a floating battery for harbor defense.

On the night of 16 February 1804, Captain Stephen Decatur led a small detachment of United States Marines aboard the captured Tripolitan ketch rechristened Intrepid, thus deceiving the guards on Philadelphia to float close enough to board her. Decatur's men stormed the ship and overpowered the Tripolitan sailors. With fire support from American warships, the Marines set fire to Philadelphia and destroyed her.

Preble attacked Tripoli on 14 July 1804, kicking off a series of inconclusive battles, including an unsuccessful attempt to use Intrepid under Captain Richard Somers as a fire ship, packed with explosives and sent to enter Tripoli harbor. However, Intrepid was destroyed, possibly by enemy gunfire, before she achieved her goal, killing Somers and his entire crew.

The turning point in the war was the Battle of Derna (April–May 1805). Ex-consul William Eaton, a former Army captain who used the title of "general", and United States Marine Corps 1st Lieutenant Presley O'Bannon led a force of eight U.S. Marines and five hundred mercenaries—Greeks from Crete, Arabs, and Berbers—on a march across the desert from Alexandria, Egypt, to capture the Tripolitan city of Derna. This was the first time the United States flag was raised in victory on foreign soil. The action is memorialized in a line of the Marines' Hymn—"the shores of Tripoli". The capturing of the city gave American negotiators leverage in securing the return of hostages and the end of the war.

Peace treaty and legacy
Wearied of the blockade and raids, and now under threat of a continued advance on Tripoli proper and a scheme to restore his deposed older brother Hamet Karamanli as ruler, Yusuf Karamanli signed a treaty ending hostilities on 10 June 1805. Article 2 of the treaty reads: "The Bashaw of Tripoli shall deliver up to the American squadron now off Tripoli, all the Americans in his possession; and all the subjects of the Bashaw of Tripoli now in the power of the United States of America shall be delivered up to him; and as the number of Americans in possession of the Bashaw of Tripoli amounts to three hundred persons, more or less; and the number of Tripolino subjects in the power of the Americans to about, one hundred more or less; The Bashaw of Tripoli shall receive from the United States of America, the sum of sixty thousand dollars, as a payment for the difference between the prisoners herein mentioned."

In agreeing to pay a ransom of $60,000 (equivalent to $ million in ) for the American prisoners, the Jefferson administration drew a distinction between paying tribute and paying ransom. At the time, some argued that buying sailors out of slavery was a fair exchange to end the war. William Eaton, however, remained bitter for the rest of his life about the treaty, feeling that his efforts had been squandered by the American emissary from the United States Department of State, diplomat Tobias Lear. Eaton and others felt that the capture of Derna should have been used as a bargaining chip to obtain the release of all American prisoners without having to pay ransom. Furthermore, Eaton believed the honor of the United States had been compromised when it abandoned Hamet Karamanli after promising to restore him as leader of Tripoli. Eaton's complaints generally went unheard, especially as attention turned to the strained international relations which would ultimately lead to the withdrawal of the United States Navy from the area in 1807 and to the War of 1812.

The First Barbary War was beneficial to the reputation of the United States' military command and war mechanism, which had been up to that time relatively untested. The First Barbary War showed that the United States could execute a war far from home, and that American forces had the cohesion to fight together as Americans rather than separately as Georgians, New Yorkers, etc. The United States Navy and United States Marine Corps became a permanent part of the United States government and United States history, and Decatur returned to the United States as its first post-revolutionary war hero.

However, the more immediate problem of Barbary piracy was not fully settled. By 1807, Algiers had reassembled its fleets and resumed taking American ships and seamen hostage. Distracted by the preludes to the War of 1812, the United States was unable to respond to the provocation until 1815, with the Second Barbary War, in which naval victories by Commodores William Bainbridge and Stephen Decatur led to treaties ending all tribute payments by the United States.

Monument
The Tripoli Monument, the oldest military monument in the United States, honors the American heroes of the First Barbary War: Somers—by then promoted to the rank of master commandant–Lieutenant James Caldwell, James Decatur (brother of Stephen Decatur), Henry Wadsworth, Joseph Israel and John Dorsey. Originally known as the Naval Monument, it was carved of Carrara marble in Italy in 1806 and brought to the United States on board Constitution ("Old Ironsides"). From its original location in the Washington Navy Yard, it was moved to the west terrace of the national Capitol and finally, in 1860, to the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland.

title: First Barbary War