text:
Tea for the Tillerman

Tea for the Tillerman is the fourth studio album by singer-songwriter Cat Stevens, released in November 1970.

Overview
Stevens' fourth album released during the year 1970, Tea for the Tillerman includes many of his best-known songs such as "Where Do the Children Play?", "Hard Headed Woman", "Wild World", "Sad Lisa", "Into White", and "Father and Son".

Stevens, a former art student, created the artwork featured on the record's cover.

With "Wild World" as an advance single, this was the album that brought Stevens worldwide fame. The album itself charted into the top 10 in the United States.

In November 2008, a "Deluxe Edition" was released featuring a second disc of demos and live recordings. In January 2012, a hi-res 24/192 kHz version was remastered using an Ampex ATR100 and a MSB Technology Studio ADC and released on HDtracks.com.

Fifty years after the original album's release, in September 2020, Stevens remade the album as Tea for the Tillerman2, including new lyrics and new instrumentation, and he sings along with his 22-year-old self in "Father and Son". That same year, Tea for the Tillerman was re-released as a 50th Anniversary Super Deluxe Edition. Along with five discs, the Super Deluxe Edition also includes a Blu-ray containing music videos, live videos, and audio of the 2020 mixes of the original album, as well as a 12" vinyl record of live recordings by Stevens in 1970 at the Troubadour, Los Angeles.

Critical reception
In a contemporary review for The Village Voice, music critic Robert Christgau found the music monotonous and lacking the "dry delicacy" Stevens exhibited on Mona Bone Jakon (1970). Rolling Stone magazine's Ben Gerson said that Stevens' songs effortlessly resonate beyond their artfully simple lyrics and hooks, despite his occasional overuse of dynamics "for dramatic effect."

In a retrospective five-star review, AllMusic's William Ruhlmann praised Stevens' themes of spirituality and transcendence, and felt that he had continued to show his ability as a pop melodicist: "As a result, Tea for the Tillerman became a big seller and, for the second time in four years, its creator became a pop star." On 18 November 2003, Rolling Stone included this album in its 500 Greatest Albums of All Time list at number 206, number 208 in a 2012 revised list, and currently at number 205 on its latest list published in 2020. In 2006, the album was included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die. In 2007, the album was included in the list of "The Definitive 200 Albums of All Time", released by The National Association of Recording Merchandisers and the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. It was voted number 342 in Colin Larkin's All Time Top 1000 Albums.

Track listing
All songs were written by Cat Stevens.

Disc one
Original album.

Discs one, two and three
The first disc on the Super Deluxe Edition contains 2020 remasters of the original album; the second disc contains 2020 mixes of the original album; and the third disc contains Tea for the Tillerman2.

Re-recording
On 28 May 2020, Yusuf (also known as Cat Stevens) announced his new album, Tea for the Tillerman2, which was released on 18 September 2020. Tea for the Tillerman2 is a reimagining of "the same eleven songs for a new age with dramatic results", celebrating the 50th anniversary of Tea for the Tillerman.

Personnel
Adapted from liner notes of 2020 CD reissue.
 * Cat Stevens – guitar (tracks 1 to 3, 5 to 10), keyboards (tracks 1, 3 to 7, 10, 11) , vibraphone (track 1) , Hammond organ (track 9) , lead vocals (all tracks) , backing vocals (1, 5 to 7, 9, 11)
 * Alun Davies – guitar (tracks 1 to 10), backing vocals (tracks 1, 5 to 7, 9)
 * Harvey Burns – drums and percussion (tracks 1 to 3, 5 to 7, 9, 10)
 * John Ryan – double bass (tracks 1 to 3, 5 to 10)
 * Del Newman – string arrangements (tracks 1, 2, 4, 8)
 * Jack Rothstein (as John Rostein) – solo violin (track 4)
 * Paul Samwell-Smith – backing vocals (tracks 1, 5 to 7, 9, 11)
 * Technical
 * Cat Stevens - front cover illustration
 * Shepard "Shep" Sherbell - photography

In popular culture
"Tea for the Tillerman" was used as the closing title track of the British sitcom Extras.

The opening scene to a 2014 episode of The Simpsons titled "Super Franchise Me" parodied the artwork to this album, with the title track playing over it.

A previously unreleased version of "But I Might Die Tonight", was used in the 1970 film Deep End in the opening and closing scenes. The version of the song used in the film was eventually released in 2020.

Four of the songs from this album were used in the 1971 film Harold and Maude: "Tea for the Tillerman"; "Where Do the Children Play"; "Miles from Nowhere" and "On the Road to Find Out".

The song "Father and Son", was used in the closing scene of the 2017 film Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2. The song is also featured in the 2009 film The Boat That Rocked.

title: Tea for the Tillerman


text:
Federal Protective Service

Federal Protective Service may refer to:

 * Federal Protective Service (United States), a U.S. security police force responsible for the security of buildings owned by the U.S. federal government
 * Federal Protective Service (Russia), the successor of the KGB Ninth Chief Directorate, now an independent organization

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Federal Protective Service


text:
Wireless local loop

Wireless local loop (WLL) is the use of a wireless communications link as the "last mile / first mile" connection for delivering plain old telephone service (POTS) or Internet access (marketed under the term "broadband") to telecommunications customers. Various types of WLL systems and technologies exist.

Other terms for this type of access include broadband wireless access (BWA), radio in the loop (RITL), fixed-radio access (FRA), fixed wireless access (FWA) and metro wireless (MW).

Definition of fixed wireless service
Fixed wireless terminal (FWT) units differ from conventional mobile terminal units operating within cellular networks – such as GSM or LTE  –  in that a fixed wireless terminal or desk phone will be limited to an almost permanent location with almost no roaming abilities.

WLL and FWT are generic terms for radio-based telecommunications technologies and the respective devices, which can be implemented using a number of different wireless and radio technologies.

Wireless local-loop services are segmented into a number of broad market and deployment groups. Services are split between licensed – commonly used by carriers and telcos –  and unlicensed services more commonly deployed by home users and wireless ISPs (WISPs).

Licensed Point-to-Point Microwave
Licensed point-to-point microwave was first deployed by AT&T Long Lines in the 1960s for high-bandwidth, interstate transmission of voice, data and television. AT&T's network covered the entire U.S., carried across hundreds of microwave towers, largely transmitting at 3700–4200 MHz and 5000–6200 MHz. The network was slowly obsoleted, starting in the late 1980's, as fiber optics became the solution of choice for communications backhaul. Following the Breakup of the Bell System on January 8, 1982, licensed point-to-point microwave solutions could be sold to enterprise and government accounts for their own private use. Frequently, the argument was to bypass wired local loops in order to save money or backup weak copper cables. In 1987, Microwave Bypass modified a high-frequency licensed microwave radio (23GHz) and developed the first 802.3 wireless interface, dubbed the EtherWave Transceiver. The result was the first (FCC licensed) point-to-point microwave radio capable of delivering 10 Mbps Ethernet, full-duplex, between local and remote networks up to 4.3 miles apart. Distance limitation had more to do with 802.3 Ethernet latency than microwave range. Later, in 1988 Microwave Bypass teamed up with Cisco to create an end-to-end full-duplex connection that doubled the distance of the previous 4.3 mile limitation. Then, the point-to-point microwave solution was referred to as, "LAN extension over microwave", thereafter, "wireless backhaul," and it was exclusively deployed for enterprise and government clients. In the 1990s, point-to-point microwave flourished under the growth of cell towers. This growth spurred research in this area, and as the cost continues to decline, it is being used as an alternative to T-1, T-3, and fiber connectivity.

Following the release of wi-fi IEEE 802.11, licensed point-to-point microwave became an addition tool for wireless internet service providers (WISP) and ISPs to close the Digital divide. In 2017, a company called Climate Resilient Internet, LLC, formed to develop a new standard and certification for point-to-point microwave ("fixed wireless") for enterprise and government resilience to extreme weather, grid outages and terror attacks. The company was co-founded by David Theodore, founder of Microwave Bypass, who pioneered the first use of point-to-point microwave for internet access.

Licensed point-to-multipoint microwave services
Multipoint microwave licenses are generally more expensive than point-to-point licenses. A single point-to-point system could be installed and licensed for US$50,000 to US$200,000. A multipoint license would start in the millions of dollars. Multichannel multipoint distribution service (MMDS) and local multipoint distribution service (LMDS) were the first true multipoint services for wireless local loop. While Europe and the rest of the world developed the 3500 MHz band for affordable broadband fixed wireless, the U.S. provided LMDS and MMDS, and most implementations in the United States were conducted at 2500 MHz. The largest was Sprint Broadband's deployment of hybrid networks equipment. Sprint was plagued with difficulties operating the network profitably, and service was often spotty, due to inadequate radio link quality.

Unlicensed multi point wireless service
Most of the growth in long-range radio communications since 2002 has been in the license-free bands (mostly 900 MHz, 2.4 GHz and 5.8 GHz). Global Pacific Internet and Innetix started wireless service in California in 1995 using Breezecom (Alvarion) frequency-hopping radio, which later became the standard 802.11.

A few years later NextWeb Networks of Fremont began deploying reliable license-free service. For Nextweb they originally deployed 802.11b equipment and later switched to Axxcelera, which uses propriety protocol.

1995–2004: License-free equipment
Most of the early vendors of license-free fixed wireless equipment such as Adaptive Broadband (Axxcelera), Trango Broadband, Motorola (Orthogon), Proxim Networks, Redline Communications and BreezeCom (Alvarion) used proprietary protocols and hardware, creating pressure on the industry to adopt a standard for unlicensed fixed wireless. These MAC layers typically used a 15–20 MHz channel using direct-sequence spread spectrum and BPSK, CCK and QPSK for modulation.

These devices all describe the customer premises wireless system as the subscriber unit (SU), and the operator transmitter delivering the last mile local loop services as the access point (AP). 802.11 uses the terms AP and STA (station).

2002–2005: Wi-Fi local loop
Originally designed for short-range mobile internet and local area network access, IEEE 802.11 has emerged as the de facto standard for unlicensed wireless local loop. More 802.11 equipment is deployed for long-range data service than any other technology. These systems have provided varying results, as the operators were often small and poorly trained in radio communications, additionally 802.11 was not intended to be used at long ranges and suffered from a number of problems, such as the hidden node problem. Many companies such as KarlNet began modifying the 802.11 MAC to attempt to deliver higher performance at long ranges.

2005–present: Maturation of the wireless ISP market
In nearly every metropolitan area worldwide, operators and hobbyists deployed more and more unlicensed broadband point-to-multipoint systems. Providers that had rave reviews when they started faced the prospect of seeing their networks degrade in performance, as more and more devices were deployed using the license-free U-NII (5.3/5.4 GHz) and ISM (2.4 and 5.8 GHz) bands and competitors sprung up around them.

The growing interference problem
Interference caused the majority of unlicensed wireless services to have much higher error rates and interruptions than equivalent wired or licensed wireless networks, such as the copper telephone network and the coaxial-cable network. This caused growth to slow, customers to cancel, and many operators to rethink their business model.

There were several responses to these problems.

2003: Voluntary frequency coordination (USA)
Next-Web, Etheric Networks, Gate Speed and a handful of other companies founded the first voluntary spectrum coordination, working entirely independently of government regulators. This organization was founded in March 2003 as BANC, "Bay Area Network Coordination". By maintaining frequencies used in an inter-operator database, disruptions between coordinating parties were minimized, as well as the cost of identifying new or changing transmission sources, by using the frequency database to determine what bands were in use. Because the parties in BANC comprised the majority of operators in the Bay Area, they used peer pressure to imply that operators who did not play nice would be collectively punished by the group, through interfering with the non-cooperative, while striving not to interfere with the cooperative. BANC was then deployed in Los Angeles. Companies such as Deutsche Telekom joined. It looked like the idea had promise.

2005: Operators flee unlicensed for licensed
The better capitalized operators began reducing their focus on unlicensed and instead focused on licensed systems, as the constant fluctuations in signal quality caused them to have very high maintenance costs. NextWeb, acquired by Covad for a very small premium over the capital invested in it, is one operator who focused on licensed service, as did WiLine Networks. This led to fewer of the more responsible and significant operators actually using the BANC system. Without its founders active involvement, the system languished.

2005 to present: Adaptive network technology
Operators began to apply the principles of self-healing networks. Etheric Networks followed this path. Etheric Networks focused on improving performance by developing dynamic interference and fault detection and reconfiguration, as well as optimizing quality based routing software, such as MANET and using multiple paths to deliver service to customers. This approach is generally called "mesh networking", which relies on ad hoc networking protocols, however, mesh and ad hoc networking protocols have yet to deliver high-speed low-latency business-class end-to-end reliable local-loop service, as the paths can sometimes traverse exponentially more radio links than a traditional star (AP → SU) topology.

Adaptive network management actively monitors the local-loop quality and behaviour, using automation to reconfigure the network and its traffic flows, to avoid interference and other failures.

Mobile technologies
These include Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM), time-division multiple access (TDMA), code-division multiple access (CDMA), and Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications (DECT). Earlier implementations included such technologies as Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS).

Deployment
The wireless local loop market is currently an extremely high-growth market, offering Internet service providers immediate access to customer markets without having to either lay cable through a metropolitan area, or work through the ILECs, reselling the telephone, cable or satellite networks, owned by companies that prefer to largely sell direct.

This trend revived the prospects for local and regional ISPs, as those willing to deploy fixed wireless networks were not at the mercy of the large telecommunication monopolies. They were at the mercy of unregulated re-use of unlicensed frequencies upon which they communicate.

Due to the enormous quantity of 802.11 "Wi-Fi" equipment and software, coupled with the fact that spectrum licenses are not required in the ISM and U-NII bands, the industry has moved well ahead of the regulators and the standards bodies.

WLL methods

 * Mobile:
 * CDMA (USA).
 * TDMA (USA).
 * GSM (ITU – Worldwide).
 * UMTS 3rd Generation (World).
 * Personal Handy-phone System (PHS in Japan, PAS/Xiaolingtong in China)
 * Fixed or local area network:
 * DECT, for local loop
 * LMDS
 * IEEE 802.11, originally designed for short-range mobile Internet and network access service, it has emerged as the facto standard for wireless local loop.
 * WiMAX or IEEE 802.16 may become the dominant medium for wireless local loop. Currently more operators are running on the 802.11 MAC at 2 and 5 GHz. 802.16 was unlikely to outperform 802.11 until at least late 2008. Intel is promoting this standard, while Atheros and Broadcom are still focused largely on 802.11.
 * Satellite Internet access for autonomous building.

Manufacturers

 * Huawei
 * Airspan
 * Alvarion
 * Axxcelera
 * Cambridge Broadband
 * Intracom Telecom
 * P-Com
 * Redline Communications
 * Sony Ericsson
 * SR Telecom

title: Wireless local loop


text:
Carlton Draught

Carlton Draught is a 4.6% (abv) beer made in Australia by Carlton & United Breweries, a subsidiary of Asahi Breweries.

Description
Carlton Draught is a draught Australian lager which is sold on tap Australia-wide, including its home state of Victoria, and is currently the fourth-most popular beer brand in Australia. It is also sold pre-packaged, Carlton Draught comes in 375 ml "stubbie" and 750 ml "longneck" bottles and 375 ml cans.

The formulation of Carlton Draught was changed slightly in 2003 to reduce the alcohol content from 5.0% to 4.6% in response to an increase in alcohol taxes by the federal government. The logo was also changed and a new advertising campaign was introduced to target a wider market. Featuring quirky, comical advertisements and billboards, the beer was promoted as simply being "made from beer". Carlton Draught, like most Australian lagers, is made using a wortstream brewing process, and it uses a portion of cane sugar to thin out the body of the beer, apparently due to drinkers' preferences.

Advertising
The Carlton Draught: Big Ad used viral marketing techniques before being released on television.

A second comical viral campaign was initiated in September 2006 entitled Flash Beer. It is focused on a character named Kevin Kavendish (played by Aaron Bertram) applying for a job as a brewer in Carlton Draught. At first, he is rejected, so he copies a dance sequence in the movie Flashdance to the song "Flashdance... What a Feeling" and is accepted. The ad was parodied on The Chaser's War on Everything.

Carlton Draught has been a sponsor of the Australian Football League since 1877 (except for 1991 and 2009) and used to be the main sponsor but was superseded by Toyota. It is the official beer of the AFL.

title: Carlton Draught


text:
CorDECT

corDECT is a wireless local loop standard developed in India by IIT Madras and Midas Communications (www.midascomms.com) at Chennai, under leadership of Prof Ashok Jhunjhunwala, based on the DECT digital cordless phone standard.

Overview
The technology is a Fixed Wireless Option, which has extremely low capital costs and is ideal for small start ups to scale, as well as for sparse rural areas. It is very suitable for ICT4D projects and India has one such organization, n-Logue Communications that has aptly done this.

The full form of DECT is Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications, which is useful in designing small capacity WLL (wireless in local loop) systems. These systems are operative only on LOS Conditions and are very much affected by weather conditions.

System is designed for rural and sub urban areas where subscriber density is medium or low. "corDECT" system provides simultaneous voice and Internet access. Following are the main parts of the system.

DECT Interface Unit (DIU)

This is a 1000 line exchange provides E1 interface to the PSTN. This can cater up to 20 base stations. These base stations are interfaced through ISDN link which carries signals and power feed for the base stations even up to 3 km.

Compact Base Station (CBS)

This is the radio fixed part of the DECT wireless local loop. CBSs are typically mounted on a tower top which can cater up to 50 subscribers with 0.1 erlang traffic.

Base Station Distributor (BSD)

This is a traffic aggregator used to extend the range of the wireless local-loop where 4 CBS can be connected to this.

 Relay Base Station (RBS)

This another technique used to extend the range of the corDECT wireless local loop up to 25 km by a radio chain.

 Fixed Remote Station (FRS)

This is the subscriber-end equipment used the corDECT wireless local loop which provides standard telephone instrument and Internet access up to 70 kbit/s through Ethernet port.

The new generation corDECT technology is called Broadband corDECT which supports provides broadband Internet access over wireless local loop.

title: CorDECT


text:
Talk:Billiard Congress of America

Competing groups
As far as I can tell, there are several competing organizations that govern pool playing in the United States. . I can't figure out the role of the Billiard Congress of America, and the fact that nobody else has bothered to do so suggests that this is really just an ad. -- ESP 23:14 20 Jul 2003 (UTC)
 * That's a bit cynical. The BCA is the big cheese, with International Olympic Committee recognition (by way of being the North American World Pool-Billiard Association affiliate, and thereby also the N.Am. World Confederation of Billiard Sports affiliate), and have been the only organization publishing consistent rulebooks for several generations. There are various national and slightly international amateur leagues including the American Poolplayers Association, the Valley National Eight-ball Association with non-BCA rulesets but no authoritativeness outside their member players, and the recent pro-am league, the International Pool Tour, which is basically in the same boat.  There are also other organizations such as the Women's Professional Billiard Association which cooperate pretty well with the BCA and last I looked use the BCA's rules.  I.e., I don't see what the fuss is about. —  SMcCandlish  [talk] [cont]  ‹(-¿-)› 15:06, 11 May 2007 (UTC)

Working on improvements
The pool world's organizations are ever changing. There is lots of discord and frequent splitting. The BCA is/was a legit player organization and is still an industry trade group with lots of clout and deserving of a Wikipedia entry. I'm familiar with their origins and recent changes and I am working on a revision for this page. -- User:LastBall 00:49 2 May 2006 (EST)
 * Certainly needs it! :-) —  SMcCandlish  [talk] [cont]  ‹(-¿-)› 15:06, 11 May 2007 (UTC)

Proposed split
The BCA Open (and other notable BCA events) need separate articles. —  SMcCandlish  [talk] [cont] ‹(-¿-)› 15:06, 11 May 2007 (UTC)

 * I have removed the split request. There has been no discussion in the past year, the article is a stub and no suitable split article has been created. -- Alan Liefting ( talk ) - 22:32, 20 May 2008 (UTC)

Contested info moved to talk

 * The organizations runs the annual BCA Open Nine-ball Championship. The winner can be considered to be the pool champion of the United States  in some sense.
 * Professional pool players do not have a well established association of their own, so the best players usually compete in the BCA open.

Please do not return this information to the article without a citation to support it.-- Birgitte SB  22:07, 22 January 2009 (UTC)

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Subtle Differences in Rules?
I would like to point out a subtle inaccuracy in regards to one of the statements made here.

""Both the BCAPL and USAPL (who share a rulebook) use BCA rules, with the addition of wheelchair rules, team play adaptations, and "Applied Rulings" from years of large-scale tournament administration.""

This isn't necessarily true. For instance, the determination of the first break is determined via lag in the BCA, which isn't necessarily the case in the BCAPL. For the BCA, whose rules can be easily accessed here, you can see that they require a lag, in section 1.2 of their general rules, to determine the first break. This appears to be the standard for eight ball as well. I don't know that the same can be said for the BCAPL Rules. In section 1-12 of their rulebook, it states that the rules covering a lag only apply if a lag is required by the event. This makes it seem like this aspect of the rules is optional. I can look for clarification elsewhere on this matter. But would like input from other users prior to looking into it, and making changes based on my findings.

From here, I'd like to reference the differences regarding fouls on the break. I normally play Eight Ball, which is why I've been referencing those rules as heavily as I have been. I will continue to do so for this example as well. For the BCA, as can be noted in section 3.3, subsection (h), regarding break shots, something like a scratch on the break would result in ball in hand behind the headstring. However, for the BCAPL, the rule as it applies to the same situation, (see section 2-3, subsection 4) states that one would be given ball in hand anywhere.

In my own opinion, these are notable differences in the way that each league operates and plays. These changes, though seemingly inconsequential to the average person, have significant bearing on the games being played. I'd argue that the rules could not be described as being the same. The leagues themselves obviously don't share a rulebook. That's why I'm able to cite rulebooks from each league. I'd like to make these changes, and would love to provide reasonable citations for every change I make. However, I'd like to garner information from the community prior to making the changes myself. More so, I'm looking to gather feedback as to how such changes should be phrased, if they are made.

I look forward to input from the community. -Poodle of Doom (talk) 20:35, 26 February 2018 (UTC)
 * That's part of "team play adaptations, and "Applied Rulings" from years of large-scale tournament administration". We should just document what these differences are.  — SMcCandlish ☏ ¢ 😼  13:55, 5 August 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Billiard Congress of America


text:
Stack (abstract data type)

In computer science, a stack is an abstract data type that serves as a collection of elements with two main operations: Additionally, a peek operation can, without modifying the stack, return the value of the last element added. The name stack is an analogy to a set of physical items stacked one atop another, such as a stack of plates.
 * Push, which adds an element to the collection, and
 * Pop, which removes the most recently added element.

The order in which an element added to or removed from a stack is described as last in, first out, referred to by the acronym LIFO. As with a stack of physical objects, this structure makes it easy to take an item off the top of the stack, but accessing a datum deeper in the stack may require removing multiple other items first.

Considered a sequential collection, a stack has one end which is the only position at which the push and pop operations may occur, the top of the stack, and is fixed at the other end, the bottom. a stack may be implemented as a singly linked list and as a pointer to the top element. A stack may be implemented to have a bounded capacity. If the stack is full and does not contain enough space to accept another element, the stack is in a state of stack overflow.

A stack is needed to implement depth-first search.

History
Stacks entered the computer science literature in 1946, when Alan Turing used the terms "bury" and "unbury" as a means of calling and returning from subroutines. Subroutines and a two-level stack had already been implemented in Konrad Zuse's Z4 in 1945.

Klaus Samelson and Friedrich L. Bauer of Technical University Munich proposed the idea of a stack called Operationskeller ("operational cellar") in 1955 and filed a patent in 1957. In March 1988, by which time Samelson was deceased, Bauer received the IEEE Computer Pioneer Award for the invention of the stack principle. Similar concepts were independently developed by Charles Leonard Hamblin in the first half of 1954 and by Wilhelm Kämmerer with his automatisches Gedächtnis ("automatic memory") in 1958.

Stacks are often described using the analogy of a spring-loaded stack of plates in a cafeteria. Clean plates are placed on top of the stack, pushing down any plates already there. When the top plate is removed from the stack, the one below it is elevated to become the new top plate.

Non-essential operations
In many implementations, a stack has more operations than the essential "push" and "pop" operations. An example of a non-essential operation is "top of stack", or "peek", which observes the top element without removing it from the stack. Since this can be broken down into a "pop" followed by a "push" to return the same data to the stack, it is not considered an essential operation. If the stack is empty, an underflow condition will occur upon execution of either the "stack top" or "pop" operations. Additionally, many implementations provide a check if the stack is empty and an operation that returns its size.

Implementation
A stack can be easily implemented either through an array or a linked list, as it is merely a special case of a list. In either case, what identifies the data structure as a stack is not the implementation but the interface: the user is only allowed to pop or push items onto the array or linked list, with few other helper operations. The following will demonstrate both implementations using pseudocode.

Array
An array can be used to implement a (bounded) stack, as follows. The first element, usually at the zero offset, is the bottom, resulting in  being the first element pushed onto the stack and the last element popped off. The program must keep track of the size (length) of the stack, using a variable top that records the number of items pushed so far, therefore pointing to the place in the array where the next element is to be inserted (assuming a zero-based index convention). Thus, the stack itself can be effectively implemented as a three-element structure:

structure stack: maxsize : integer top : integer items : array of item

procedure initialize(stk : stack, size : integer): stk.items ← new array of size items, initially empty stk.maxsize ← size stk.top ← 0

The push operation adds an element and increments the top index, after checking for overflow:

procedure push(stk : stack, x : item): if stk.top = stk.maxsize: report overflow error else: stk.items[stk.top] ← x        stk.top ← stk.top + 1

Similarly, pop decrements the top index after checking for underflow, and returns the item that was previously the top one:

procedure pop(stk : stack): if stk.top = 0: report underflow error else: stk.top ← stk.top − 1 r ← stk.items[stk.top] return r

Using a dynamic array, it is possible to implement a stack that can grow or shrink as much as needed. The size of the stack is simply the size of the dynamic array, which is a very efficient implementation of a stack since adding items to or removing items from the end of a dynamic array requires amortized O(1) time.

Linked list
Another option for implementing stacks is to use a singly linked list. A stack is then a pointer to the "head" of the list, with perhaps a counter to keep track of the size of the list:

structure frame: data : item next : frame or nil

structure stack: head : frame or nil size : integer

procedure initialize(stk : stack): stk.head ← nil stk.size ← 0

Pushing and popping items happens at the head of the list; overflow is not possible in this implementation (unless memory is exhausted):

procedure push(stk : stack, x : item): newhead ← new frame newhead.data ← x    newhead.next ← stk.head stk.head ← newhead stk.size ← stk.size + 1

procedure pop(stk : stack): if stk.head = nil: report underflow error r ← stk.head.data stk.head ← stk.head.next stk.size ← stk.size - 1 return r

Stacks and programming languages
Some languages, such as Perl, LISP, JavaScript and Python, make the stack operations push and pop available on their standard list/array types. Some languages, notably those in the Forth family (including PostScript), are designed around language-defined stacks that are directly visible to and manipulated by the programmer.

The following is an example of manipulating a stack in Common Lisp (">" is the Lisp interpreter's prompt; lines not starting with ">" are the interpreter's responses to expressions):

Several of the C++ Standard Library container types have push_back and pop_back operations with LIFO semantics; additionally, the stack template class adapts existing containers to provide a restricted API with only push/pop operations. PHP has an SplStack class. Java's library contains a class that is a specialization of. Following is an example program in Java language, using that class.

Hardware stack
A common use of stacks at the architecture level is as a means of allocating and accessing memory.

Basic architecture of a stack
A typical stack is an area of computer memory with a fixed origin and a variable size. Initially the size of the stack is zero. A stack pointer, usually in the form of a processor register, points to the most recently referenced location on the stack; when the stack has a size of zero, the stack pointer points to the origin of the stack.

The two operations applicable to all stacks are:

 * A push operation: the address in the stack pointer is adjusted by the size of the data item and a data item is written at the location to which the stack pointer points.
 * A pop or pull operation: a data item at the current location to which the stack pointer points is read, and the stack pointer is moved by a distance corresponding to the size of that data item.

There are many variations on the basic principle of stack operations. Every stack has a fixed location in memory at which it begins. As data items are added to the stack, the stack pointer is displaced to indicate the current extent of the stack, which expands away from the origin.

Stack pointers may point to the origin of a stack or to a limited range of addresses above or below the origin (depending on the direction in which the stack grows); however, the stack pointer cannot cross the origin of the stack. In other words, if the origin of the stack is at address 1000 and the stack grows downwards (towards addresses 999, 998, and so on), the stack pointer must never be incremented beyond 1000 (to 1001 or beyond). If a pop operation on the stack causes the stack pointer to move past the origin of the stack, a stack underflow occurs. If a push operation causes the stack pointer to increment or decrement beyond the maximum extent of the stack, a stack overflow occurs.

Some environments that rely heavily on stacks may provide additional operations, for example:

 * Duplicate: the top item is popped and then pushed twice, such that two copies of the former top item now lie at the top.
 * Peek: the topmost item is inspected (or returned), but the stack pointer and stack size does not change (meaning the item remains on the stack). This can also be called the top operation.
 * Swap or exchange: the two topmost items on the stack exchange places.
 * Rotate (or Roll): the $n$ topmost items are moved on the stack in a rotating fashion. For example, if $n = 3$, items 1, 2, and 3 on the stack are moved to positions 2, 3, and 1 on the stack, respectively. Many variants of this operation are possible, with the most common being called left rotate and right rotate.

Stacks are often visualized growing from the bottom up (like real-world stacks). They may also be visualized growing from left to right, where the top is on the far right, or even growing from top to bottom. The important feature is for the bottom of the stack to be in a fixed position. The illustration in this section is an example of a top-to-bottom growth visualization: the top (28) is the stack "bottom", since the stack "top" (9) is where items are pushed or popped from.

A right rotate will move the first element to the third position, the second to the first and the third to the second. Here are two equivalent visualizations of this process:

apple                        banana banana   ===right rotate==>  cucumber cucumber                     apple

cucumber                     apple banana   ===left rotate==>   cucumber apple                        banana

A stack is usually represented in computers by a block of memory cells, with the "bottom" at a fixed location, and the stack pointer holding the address of the current "top" cell in the stack. The "top" and "bottom" nomenclature is used irrespective of whether the stack actually grows towards higher memory addresses.

Pushing an item on to the stack adjusts the stack pointer by the size of the item (either decrementing or incrementing, depending on the direction in which the stack grows in memory), pointing it to the next cell, and copies the new top item to the stack area. Depending again on the exact implementation, at the end of a push operation, the stack pointer may point to the next unused location in the stack, or it may point to the topmost item in the stack. If the stack points to the current topmost item, the stack pointer will be updated before a new item is pushed onto the stack; if it points to the next available location in the stack, it will be updated after the new item is pushed onto the stack.

Popping the stack is simply the inverse of pushing. The topmost item in the stack is removed and the stack pointer is updated, in the opposite order of that used in the push operation.

Stack in main memory
Many CISC-type CPU designs, including the x86, Z80 and 6502, have a dedicated register for use as the call stack stack pointer with dedicated call, return, push, and pop instructions that implicitly update the dedicated register, thus increasing code density. Some CISC processors, like the PDP-11 and the 68000, also have special addressing modes for implementation of stacks, typically with a semi-dedicated stack pointer as well (such as A7 in the 68000). In contrast, most RISC CPU designs do not have dedicated stack instructions and therefore most, if not all, registers may be used as stack pointers as needed.

Stack in registers or dedicated memory

Some machines use a stack for arithmetic and logical operations; operands are pushed onto the stack, and arithmetic and logical operations act on the top one or more items on the stack, popping them off the stack and pushing the result onto the stack. Machines that function in this fashion are called stack machines.

A number of mainframes and minicomputers were stack machines, the most famous being the Burroughs large systems. Other examples include the CISC HP 3000 machines and the CISC machines from Tandem Computers.

The x87 floating point architecture is an example of a set of registers organised as a stack where direct access to individual registers (relative to the current top) is also possible.

Having the top-of-stack as an implicit argument allows for a small machine code footprint with a good usage of bus bandwidth and code caches, but it also prevents some types of optimizations possible on processors permitting random access to the register file for all (two or three) operands. A stack structure also makes superscalar implementations with register renaming (for speculative execution) somewhat more complex to implement, although it is still feasible, as exemplified by modern x87 implementations.

Sun SPARC, AMD Am29000, and Intel i960 are all examples of architectures that use register windows within a register-stack as another strategy to avoid the use of slow main memory for function arguments and return values.

There is also a number of small microprocessors that implement a stack directly in hardware, and some microcontrollers have a fixed-depth stack that is not directly accessible. Examples are the PIC microcontrollers, the Computer Cowboys MuP21, the Harris RTX line, and the Novix NC4016. At least one microcontroller family, the COP400, implements a stack either directly in hardware or in RAM via a stack pointer, depending on the device. Many stack-based microprocessors were used to implement the programming language Forth at the microcode level.

Expression evaluation and syntax parsing
Calculators that employ reverse Polish notation use a stack structure to hold values. Expressions can be represented in prefix, postfix or infix notations and conversion from one form to another may be accomplished using a stack. Many compilers use a stack to parse syntax before translation into low-level code. Most programming languages are context-free languages, allowing them to be parsed with stack-based machines.

Backtracking
Another important application of stacks is backtracking. An illustration of this is the simple example of finding the correct path in a maze that contains a series of points, a starting point, several paths and a destination. If random paths must be chosen, then after following an incorrect path, there must be a method by which to return to the beginning of that path. This can be achieved through the use of stacks, as a last correct point can be pushed onto the stack, and popped from the stack in case of an incorrect path.

The prototypical example of a backtracking algorithm is depth-first search, which finds all vertices of a graph that can be reached from a specified starting vertex. Other applications of backtracking involve searching through spaces that represent potential solutions to an optimization problem. Branch and bound is a technique for performing such backtracking searches without exhaustively searching all of the potential solutions in such a space.

Compile-time memory management

A number of programming languages are stack-oriented, meaning they define most basic operations (adding two numbers, printing a character) as taking their arguments from the stack, and placing any return values back on the stack. For example, PostScript has a return stack and an operand stack, and also has a graphics state stack and a dictionary stack. Many virtual machines are also stack-oriented, including the p-code machine and the Java Virtual Machine.

Almost all calling conventions—the ways in which subroutines receive their parameters and return results—use a special stack (the "call stack") to hold information about procedure/function calling and nesting in order to switch to the context of the called function and restore to the caller function when the calling finishes. The functions follow a runtime protocol between caller and callee to save arguments and return value on the stack. Stacks are an important way of supporting nested or recursive function calls. This type of stack is used implicitly by the compiler to support CALL and RETURN statements (or their equivalents) and is not manipulated directly by the programmer.

Some programming languages use the stack to store data that is local to a procedure. Space for local data items is allocated from the stack when the procedure is entered, and is deallocated when the procedure exits. The C programming language is typically implemented in this way. Using the same stack for both data and procedure calls has important security implications (see below) of which a programmer must be aware in order to avoid introducing serious security bugs into a program.

Efficient algorithms
Several algorithms use a stack (separate from the usual function call stack of most programming languages) as the principal data structure with which they organize their information. These include:
 * Graham scan, an algorithm for the convex hull of a two-dimensional system of points. A convex hull of a subset of the input is maintained in a stack, which is used to find and remove concavities in the boundary when a new point is added to the hull.
 * Part of the SMAWK algorithm for finding the row minima of a monotone matrix uses stacks in a similar way to Graham scan.
 * All nearest smaller values, the problem of finding, for each number in an array, the closest preceding number that is smaller than it. One algorithm for this problem uses a stack to maintain a collection of candidates for the nearest smaller value. For each position in the array, the stack is popped until a smaller value is found on its top, and then the value in the new position is pushed onto the stack.
 * The nearest-neighbor chain algorithm, a method for agglomerative hierarchical clustering based on maintaining a stack of clusters, each of which is the nearest neighbor of its predecessor on the stack. When this method finds a pair of clusters that are mutual nearest neighbors, they are popped and merged.

Security
Some computing environments use stacks in ways that may make them vulnerable to security breaches and attacks. Programmers working in such environments must take special care to avoid such pitfalls in these implementations.

As an example, some programming languages use a common stack to store both data local to a called procedure and the linking information that allows the procedure to return to its caller. This means that the program moves data into and out of the same stack that contains critical return addresses for the procedure calls. If data is moved to the wrong location on the stack, or an oversized data item is moved to a stack location that is not large enough to contain it, return information for procedure calls may be corrupted, causing the program to fail.

Malicious parties may attempt a stack smashing attack that takes advantage of this type of implementation by providing oversized data input to a program that does not check the length of input. Such a program may copy the data in its entirety to a location on the stack, and in doing so, it may change the return addresses for procedures that have called it. An attacker can experiment to find a specific type of data that can be provided to such a program such that the return address of the current procedure is reset to point to an area within the stack itself (and within the data provided by the attacker), which in turn contains instructions that carry out unauthorized operations.

This type of attack is a variation on the buffer overflow attack and is an extremely frequent source of security breaches in software, mainly because some of the most popular compilers use a shared stack for both data and procedure calls, and do not verify the length of data items. Frequently, programmers do not write code to verify the size of data items, either, and when an oversized or undersized data item is copied to the stack, a security breach may occur.

title: Stack (abstract data type)


text:
Bishop of Quebec

Bishop of Quebec may refer to:
 * Archbishop of the Archdiocese of Quebec
 * Bishop of the Anglican Diocese of Quebec

title: Bishop of Quebec


text:
File:WhiteZombie-AstroCreep2000.jpg

Summary
White Zombie - Astro-Creep: 2000 – Songs of Love, Destruction and Other Synthetic Delusions of the Electric Head album cover. Copyright 1995 Geffen Records.

title: File:WhiteZombie-AstroCreep2000.jpg


text:
Stack (geology)

A stack or sea stack is a geological landform consisting of a steep and often vertical column or columns of rock in the sea near a coast, formed by wave erosion. Stacks are formed over time by wind and water, processes of coastal geomorphology. They are formed when part of a headland is eroded by hydraulic action, which is the force of the sea or water crashing against the rock. The force of the water weakens cracks in the headland, causing them to later collapse, forming free-standing stacks and even a small island. Without the constant presence of water, stacks also form when a natural arch collapses under gravity, due to sub-aerial processes like wind erosion. Erosion causes the arch to collapse, leaving the pillar of hard rock standing away from the coast—the stack. Eventually, erosion will cause the stack to collapse, leaving a stump. Stacks can provide important nesting locations for seabirds, and many are popular for rock climbing.

Isolated steep-sided, rocky oceanic islets typically of volcanic origin, are also loosely called "stacks" or "volcanic stacks".

Formation
Stacks typically form in horizontally bedded sedimentary or volcanic rocks, particularly on limestone cliffs. The medium hardness of these rocks means medium resistance to abrasive and attritive erosion. A more resistant layer may form a capstone. (Cliffs with weaker rock, such as claystone or highly jointed rock, tend to slump and erode too quickly to form stacks, while harder rocks such as granite erode in different ways.)

The formation process usually begins when the sea attacks lines of weakness, such as steep joints or small fault zones in a cliff face. These cracks then gradually get larger and turn into caves. If a cave wears through a headland, an arch forms. Further erosion causes the arch to collapse, leaving the pillar of hard rock standing away from the coast, the stack. Eventually, erosion will cause the stack to collapse, leaving a stump. This stump usually forms a small rock island, low enough for a high tide to submerge.

title: Stack (geology)


text:
Talk:2010 Winter Olympics

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title: Talk:2010 Winter Olympics


text:
IBM Portable Personal Computer

The IBM Portable Personal Computer 5155 model 68 is an early portable computer developed by IBM after the success of the suitcase-size Compaq Portable. It was released in February 1984 and was quickly replaced by the IBM Convertible, only roughly two years after its debut.

Design
The Portable was basically a PC/XT motherboard, transplanted into a Compaq-style luggable case. The system featured 256 kilobytes of memory (expandable to 640 KB), an added CGA card connected to an internal monochrome amber composite monitor, and one or two half-height $5 1/4$-inch 360 KB floppy disk drives, manufactured by Qume. Unlike the Compaq Portable, which used a dual-mode monitor and special display card, IBM used a stock CGA card and a 9-inch amber monochrome composite monitor, which had lower resolution. It could, however, display color if connected to an external monitor or television. A separate 83-key keyboard and cable was provided, which uses a front panel mounted phone jack styled connector RJ11. The cable from the connector then went to the back of the machine, where the original XT keyboard jack was.

Experts stated that IBM developed the Portable in part because its sales force needed a computer that would compete against the Compaq Portable. If less sophisticated than the Compaq, the IBM had the advantage of a lower price tag. The motherboard had eight expansion slots. The power supply was rated 114 watts and was suitable for operation on either 115 or 230 VAC. Hard disks were a very common third-party add-on as IBM did not offer them from the factory. Typically in a two-drive context, floppy drive A: ran the operating system, and drive B: would be used for application and data diskettes.

Its selling point as a "portable" was that it combined the monitor into a base unit approximating a medium-sized suitcase that could be simply set on its flat side, the back panel slid away to reveal the power connector, plugged in, the keyboard folded down or detached, and booted up for use, though printers at the time, if needed, still tended to be less "portable". At thirty pounds, it may have been difficult to carry for some, and was often referred to as "luggable".

title: IBM Portable Personal Computer


text:
Ben Curtis (golfer)

Ben Clifford Curtis (born May 26, 1977) is an American professional golfer and four-time winner on the PGA Tour, best known for winning the 2003 Open Championship.

In January 2018, Curtis told Golf Digest that he has stopped playing golf competitively, opting to teach instead.

Early career
Curtis was born in Columbus, Ohio and grew up in Ostrander. His family runs the Mill Creek Golf Club, also in Ostrander. Curtis is a graduate of Buckeye Valley High School and Kent State University, where he was a star on the golf team and earned a bachelor's degree in recreation management in 2000.

As an amateur, Curtis found much success, winning the Ohio Amateur in 1999 and 2000 (joining professional golfers John Cook, Arnold Palmer and Frank Stranahan as the only men to win the Ohio Amateur in consecutive years), and also the Players Amateur in 2000.

Professional career
Curtis turned professional in 2000, originally playing on the Hooters Tour without much success. At the end of 2002, he finished in a tie for 26th at that year's Q-School, earning his PGA Tour card for the following year, becoming one of the few players to completely skip the Nationwide Tour. His first year on tour began unspectacularly as he made a fair amount of cuts, but had no finishes in the top 25, until a tie for 13th at the Western Open on July 6, which qualified him for The Open Championship in England less than two weeks later.

2003 Open Championship win
Curtis entered the 2003 Open Championship at Royal St George's as a 300–1 outsider, defying the odds to win the tournament.

After an opening round 72 (+1), he shot a second round 72 to pull into a seven-way tie for fourth. A third round 70 put Curtis in a five-way tie for third, two strokes behind leader Thomas Bjørn and one stroke behind second-place Davis Love III. While Bjørn shot a final round 72, Curtis fired a 69 to finish at −1, one stroke ahead of Bjørn and Vijay Singh.

The 2003 Open Championship was Curtis' first appearance in a major. He became the first golfer since Francis Ouimet in the 1913 U.S. Open to win his major championship debut, later accomplished by Keegan Bradley in the 2011 PGA Championship. After his victory, Curtis jumped from 396th in the world rankings to 35th. This victory and a solid first season on the PGA Tour led to Curtis being named the 2003 PGA Tour Rookie of the Year. Curtis was the lowest-ranked player to win a major since official world rankings were first calculated.

Further success
2004–07

Curtis' Open Championship victory gave him a five-year exemption on the PGA Tour and a 10-year exemption on the European Tour, and he played events on both tours in 2004. However, he did not experience immediate success, missing many cuts and only recording one top-10 finish on the PGA Tour. He missed even more cuts in 2005 and only had two top-10 finishes.

In 2006, his results improved as he made the cut much more consistently and recorded two wins, the Booz Allen Classic and the 84 Lumber Classic. His consistent form continued into 2007 and he tied for 8th place at that year's Open Championship in Carnoustie, his best result in a major since winning the tournament.

2008–09

Curtis recorded five top-10 finishes and missed only four cuts. He bettered his Open Championship result from the previous year by finishing in a tie for 7th at Royal Birkdale and followed it up a month later by finishing tied for 2nd place in the PGA Championship at Oakland Hills. This second-place finish qualified him for the 2008 Ryder Cup, his first appearance in the event.

For 2009, Curtis missed only three cuts in 18 PGA Tour events. However, Curtis managed only one top-20 finish and ended the year outside the top 100 in the money list. He did achieve two top-10 finishes on the European Tour. At the 2009 Open Championship at Turnberry, Curtis shot a 65 to tie for second after the first round, but a second round 80 meant that he missed the cut by one shot.

2010–12

In 2010, Curtis missed only eight cuts in 24 events, but achieved only one top-10 finish and he ended outside the top 100 on the money list for a second consecutive year. A rough 2011 season saw Curtis finish 149th on the PGA Tour money list after making 10 cuts in 23 events, leaving him partially exempt for the 2012 PGA Tour season. For the start of the 2012 season, he split his time between the European Tour and PGA Tour, taking advantage of his European Tour exemption and attempting to qualify for the Race to Dubai.

In April 2012, Curtis won the Valero Texas Open for his fourth PGA Tour victory, ending a six-year winless drought. Curtis held a one-shot lead entering the 71st hole and made a 22-foot putt for par to maintain his lead. He went on to birdie the last hole, sinking a 12-foot birdie putt for a two-stroke victory over Matt Every and John Huh. With the win, Curtis regained full exemption status on the PGA Tour through 2014. Curtis jumped from 200th to 28th in the FedEx Cup standings and moved up over 100 places in the world rankings to 156th.

Curtis followed up his win at the Valero Texas Open with three straight top-15 finishes (tied for 13th at the Zurich Classic, tied for 5th at the Wells Fargo Classic, and tied for 2nd at The Players Championship). This moved him into the top 75 of the Official World Golf Ranking. His career high ranking is 24th. He also finished tied for 11th in the PGA Championship, his best finish in a major championship in four years.

2013–16

In 2013 Curtis played in 20 PGA Tour events, making the cut in 10 with three top-25 finishes. His 2014 season netted him one top 10 and ten missed cuts in 24 starts to finish 131st in the FedEx Cup, leaving him partially exempt for the 2015 season. In 2015 Curtis played a partial schedule on the PGA Tour with little success. He played 14 events and only made the cut three times, with his best finish a tie for 29th at the Sanderson Farms Championship. With a finish well outside 150th, Curtis played the 2015–16 season with only past champion status. He only played five events during the 2016 season, missing the cut in all but one tournament.

Personal life
Curtis, his wife Candace, and their two children reside in Franklin Township, just north of Kent, Ohio after previously living in neighboring Stow. In 2013, Ben and Candace started the Ben Curtis Family Foundation to benefit needy children in the Kent area. Currently coaching his son as the Head Golf Coach at Kent Roosevelt High School

Amateur wins

 * 1999 Ohio Amateur
 * 2000 Ohio Amateur, Players Amateur

Results timeline
{{legend|lime|Win}} {{legend|yellow|Top 10}} {{legend|#eeeeee|Did not play}} CUT = missed the half-way cut "T" indicates a tie for a place

Summary

 * Most consecutive cuts made – 4 (2008 Open Championship – 2009 U.S. Open)
 * Longest streak of top-10s – 2 (2008 Open Championship – 2008 PGA)

Results in The Players Championship
{{legend|yellow|Top 10}} CUT = missed the halfway cut "T" indicates a tie for a place

Results in World Golf Championships
{{legend|#eeeeee|Did not play}} QF, R16, R32, R64 = Round in which player lost in match play "T" = tied Note that the HSBC Champions did not become a WGC event until 2009.

U.S. national team appearances
Amateur
 * Palmer Cup: 1999 (winners)
 * Eisenhower Trophy: 2000 (winners)

Professional
 * Ryder Cup: 2008 (winners)
 * World Cup: 2008

title: Ben Curtis (golfer)


text:
Benguet

Benguet, officially the Province of Benguet (Probinsya ne Benguet; Probinsyan di Benguet; Luyag/Probinsia na Benguet; Probinsia ti Benguet; Lalawigan ng Benguet), is a landlocked province of the Philippines located in the southern tip of the Cordillera Administrative Region in the island of Luzon. Its capital is La Trinidad.

The highland province is known as the Salad Bowl of the Philippines due to its huge production of upland vegetables.

Situated within the interior of Benguet is the highly urbanized city of Baguio, which is administered independent from the province and also its largest city.

Early history
The mountainous area now covered by Benguet is generally presumed to have been settled from at least the 14th century by tribes coming from the surrounding lowlands, lured by the abundance of natural resources such as gold, hides, and wax. Two of these groups, the Ibaloi and the Kankanaey, are dominant ethnolinguistic groups of the area. In the pre-conquest period, these tribes enjoyed flourishing trade with lowland groups immediately to their west and south, such as the Pangasinans. Governor Juan "Oraa" Cariño (1913-1918), one of Benguet’s governors, was the first Filipino governor.

The Kankanaey occupied the northern highlands of the province, while the Ibaloy occupied the southern portion, while all Igorots practiced animism and ancestor worship. Rituals were proscribed by the priests, mambunong. The economy of the region was based on rice terraces, root crop swidden farming, livestock raising, hunting, foraging, plus the mining and trading of gold. These Igorot gold mines were located in Suyoc, Tabio, Acupan, and Antamok. Gold panning took place in placer deposits along the Agno River, the Bued River, the Suyoc River, and the Amburayan River. Gold was also mined from lode veins within andesite and diorite. Gold in Mankayan was associated with copper. Gold mining resulted in social stratification, with the upper class consisting of the mine owners, the baknang, followed by the gold workers, or abiteg, and then the bagaen, or slave class. These slaves were made up of war captives, and their children. Gold mines were inheritable kinship property, while original ownership was bestowed on those individuals discovering the gold location, and then developing the property.

Spanish colonial era
At the beginning of the Spanish Era, colonisers heard of the rich gold mines in the mountains and attempted to colonize the highlands, but failed. In 1572, Spanish conquistador Juan de Salcedo led a small expedition into the southern part of Benguet, but the natives forced it to retreat. The first major expedition into the mountains occurred in 1620, when Spanish explorers went into the La Trinidad Valley, followed by a second expedition in 1623, and a third in 1624. This was the last attempt to occupy the Baguio gold mines by the Spanish until the Galvey expeditions (1829-1839).

In the 1800s, Spanish colonizers made more serious attempts such as expeditions under Col. Guillermo Galvey and succeeded in establishing a presence in the La Trinidad Valley, named after Galvey's wife.

This area later became a district of the new province of LaMontañosa (or LaMontaña) in 1846. Eight years later, in 1854, Benguet became a separate comandancia politico-militar. Parts of the present province were established as component territories of other comandancias such as Lepanto and Amburayan.

American government era
When the Americans took control of the Philippines, they established local civil governments in many parts of the country. American civilian government was established in Benguet on November 23, 1900, through Act No. 48, with Canadian journalist H.P. Whitmarsh appointed as the province's first governor.

Upon the American colonial government enacting Act No. 1876 on August 18, 1908, which created Mountain Province from areas of the old La Montañosa, Benguet (along with Amburayan, Apayao, Bontoc, Ifugao, Kalinga, and Lepanto) became sub-provinces of this new province. A year later in 1909, the township of Baguio was abolished upon its conversion into a chartered city. In 1920, portions of the sub-provinces of Amburayan and Lepanto were incorporated into Benguet.

Mining companies started operating in the province in the 1930s. This brought jobs, and many lowlanders migrated to Benguet, especially in towns surrounding the gold mines, such as Itogon, Mankayan and Tuba.

Japanese occupation era
During World War II, Igorot guerrillas and the combined Filipino and American forces fought Japanese soldiers during the final days of the war in 1945.

Contemporary history
On June 18, 1966, the huge Mountain Province was split into four provinces with the enactment of Republic Act No. 4695. The four provinces were Benguet, Mountain Province, Kalinga-Apayao and Ifugao.

On June 22, 1973, as part of the Integrated Organization Plan of President Ferdinand Marcos, Benguet was placed under the jurisdiction of the Ilocos Region.

When the Cordillera Administrative Region was established by President Corazon Aquino through Executive Order 220 on July 15, 1987, Benguet was made one of its provinces.

Geology

The Baguio Mining District consists of Late Cretaceous ophiolite basement rocks. These are overlain by Eocene back arc tholeiitic Pugo Metavolcanics. These grade into the Dalupirip Schist, which is separated from the Early Oligocene-Early Miocene sedimentary Zigzag Formation by an unconformity. The Zigzag is composed of deep depositional environment interbedded green sandstones, red siltstones, oligomicitc conglomerates, and minor limestone units. The late Early Miocene-early Middle Miocene reefal Kennon Limestone overlays the Zigzag. The Late Oligocene-Early Miocene Agno Batholith intrudes the Pugo and Zigzag. The Middle-Late Miocene Klondyke Formation was deposited during Central Cordillera geologic uplift, consisting of coarse clastics, polymictic conglomerates, sandstones, and vitric (glassy) tuffs, with minor shales and siltstones. Gold mineralization occurred with dioritic and gabbroic intrusions, and basaltic to andesitic lavas, including the Monglo adakite. The Pliocene Baguio Formation consists of conglomerates interbedded with lava flows and pyroclastics. Pleistocene gold-copper mineralization occurred with calc-alkaline and dioritic and dacitic adakitic intrusions. This mineralization characterizes the Philex Mine.

The main gold base metal mineralization zone is approximately 8 km wide, trends north south for tens of kilometers, and is centrally located at 16° 20' to 16° 26' N latitude and 120° 37' 30" to 120° 43' 30" E longitude. The western boundary of this zone is defined by a volcanic belt, just west of Baguio, while the eastern boundary is defined by an intrusive belt, just east of the Itogon and Antamok mines. The Agno quartz diorite batholith is further east near Binga Dam. Key mines, starting from the south, include the Philex (Cu), Acupan (Au), Itogon (Au), Black Mt. (Cu), Benguet Exploration (Cu), Atok (Au), Antamok (Cu and Au), and Baguio Gold (Au), where Baguio Gold and Antamok are east of Baguio. Continuing northwards, key mines include the King Solomon (Cu), St. Nino (Cu), Boneng (Cu), Lobo (Cu), Gambang (Cu and Au), and Lepanto (Cu and Au). By 1979, underground mining had reached Level 1850 in the Antamok Mine.

Geography

Benguet covers an area of 2,769.08 km2 occupying the southwestern tip of the Cordillera Administrative Region. If Baguio is included for geographical purposes, the total area of Benguet is 2826.59 km2.

The province is bordered on the northeast by Mountain Province and Ifugao, on the southeast by Nueva Vizcaya, on the south by Pangasinan, on the west by La Union, and on the northwest by Ilocos Sur.

Situated within the Cordillera mountains, Benguet is dominantly mountainous. Mount Pulag, the highest in Luzon is located within Kabayan. The mountains form the headwaters of several rivers, the major ones which include the Agno, Amburayan, Bued, Bakun, Balili and the Asin. Some of these run through river valleys or gorges.

Several natural lakes, small in size, are found within the hinterlands. The largest are the "Four Lakes" in Kabayan; Lake Bulalacao, Lake Detepngepos, Lake Incolos and Lake Tabeyo.

The province is the location of several conservation areas, the largest of which are the Upper Agno River Basin Resource Reserve, Mount Pulag National Park, Mount Data National Park and Lower Agno Watershed Forest Reserve.

Climate

Most of Benguet falls under the subtropical highland climate (Köppen Cwb) zone, experiencing annual average highs of 25.3 C in April and lows of 13.3 C in January.

The province suffers from crop damage resulting from seasonal frost during the cold months of December to March, especially in high-altitude towns such as Atok, Buguias, Mankayan and Kibungan. In February 2007, Benguet suffered crop damage due to temperatures reaching as low as 7 C.

Administrative divisions
Benguet comprises 13 municipalities, all encompassed by double legislative districts.

The highly urbanized city of Baguio, although administratively independent from Benguet, is situated in the interior of the province, surrounded by the municipalities of La Trinidad, Itogon, Sablan and Tuba. The city used to be part of the province but became independent when the city's charter was enacted in 1909.

Barangays
The 13 municipalities of the province comprise a total of 140 barangays, with Pico in La Trinidad as the most populous in 2010, and Anchokey in Kabayan as the least.

Demographics
The population of Benguet in the 2020 census was 460,683 people, making it the most populous province in the region. It had a density of undefined PD/km2. If the highly urbanized city of Baguio is included for geographical purposes, the population is 791,590, with a density of.

In the May 2000 census, Benguet had a total population of 330,129. This figure is up by 16,296 from 313,833 persons recorded in the 1995 census, giving an annual growth rate of 1.09% during the 5-year period compared to the national average of 2.43%. The province registered 63,123 households, an increase of 4,588 households over the 1990 figure. This gave an average household size of 5.20 persons, slightly higher than the national average of 4.99.

Ethnicity
The people of Benguet comprise three main ethnolinguistic groups. Kankanaeys dominate the northwestern municipalities, Ibalois are concentrated on the southeast, and Kalanguyas are mostly found in the east. Migrants from lowland provinces have fused with the local populace to form a melting pot in some areas.

According to the 2000 Philippine census, Kankanaeys comprised NaN% (NaN) of the entire provincial household population of 329,216 at the time, while NaN% (NaN) were identified as Ibalois, and NaN% (NaN) were Ikalahan/Kalanguya. Major resident lowland ethnic groups included Ilocanos at NaN% (NaN) and Tagalogs at NaN% (NaN). Ilokano population particularly doctors, teachers, businessmen and public servants arrived during the American period for the improvement of the health condition and for the education of the people. The pioneer Ilocanos helped establish La Trinidad as a commercial and political center.This resulted in an improved healthcare, education and economic life of the people' lives. It also established a closer ties between the Ilocanos and the Cordillerans.

Languages
Benguet residents generally speak their own languages in addition to Ilocano, Tagalog, and English, which are used for trade and commerce. The Ibaloi tribe speak Ibaloi, which is similar to Pangasinan, while the Kankanaey have their own eponymous language, which is related to the Bontoc language.

The SIL Ethnologue database classifies the languages under the South-Central Cordilleran branch. Nabaloy (named in the database as Ibaloi) is part of the Southern Cordilleran branch which also includes Pangasinense. The Kankanaey language is under the Central Cordilleran branch, which also includes Bontoc and Ifugao.

Religion
Roman Catholicism is the predominant religion with 59% adherence, Other groups such as Members Church of God International (MCG), Protestants, especially Anglicans, Methodists, Baptists, and Evangelicals, form about 33% of the population, while the Iglesia ni Cristo forms about 7%. There is also small community of Muslims (0.472% of the province population).

Economy

Agriculture, mining, and tourism are the major industries in Benguet. Its cool climate and high altitude has made it an ideal place for producing highland vegetables. Benguet is often called the Salad Bowl of the Philippines. The La Trinidad Vegetable Trading Post in the capital town of La Trinidad serves as the hub of vegetable trading in the province, attracting farmers, merchants and traders from the local community and the Philippines' different provinces. Major crops produced which include potatoes, Baguio beans, peas, strawberries, cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, lettuce, sayote and carrots are shipped throughout the country.

Horticulture and floriculture are practiced in the province. The province supplies flowers to the different municipalities, including Baguio, as well as to Metro Manila, including other parts of Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao. Roses are produced, particularly in Barangay Bahong in La Trinidad, earning the barangay the title Rose Capital of the Philippines. Apisang (scientific name: Pittosporum resiniferum), a plant endemic to the Philippines (as well as Malaysia), is grown in the municipalities of Kapangan and Kibungan as a potential alternative source of fuel and energy, rivaling the jatropha biofuel plant.

Other agricultural-related activities are monggo processing, fruit preservation, peanut brittle manufacturing, broom making and basket weaving.

Mining is a major industry in Benguet, which is one of the country's leading gold producers. The Benguet Corporation, the first and oldest mining company in the Philippines, has extracted gold, copper and chromite in Itogon since 1903.

Other mineral deposits are silver, copper, pyrite, and limestone. Silver smithing is a large industry in Benguet, and many entrepreneurs sell silver works at lower prices in Baguio compared to Manila. In 2006, revenues from mining reached 4 billion pesos from just two (Lepanto Consolidated Mining Corporation and Philex Mines) of many mining firms operating in the province. The province's mining vigor has never translated into better quality of life of the Benguet people, simply because a bulk of the mining firm's taxes are not paid directly to the province. The two mining corporations, like many others around the country, have principal offices in the City of Makati, a set-up that makes Makati the prime mining tax beneficiary.

The location of Baguio within Benguet draws many tourists from the lowlands. Often, people who go to Baguio also explore the province, especially the strawberry fields in La Trinidad.

Education
Higher education in the province is centered in the capital town of La Trinidad, which houses the Main Campus of the only university in Benguet, the Benguet State University (BSU). The university has two satellite campuses in two municipalities; the Buguias Campus at Loo, Buguias, and the Bokod Campus at Ambangeg, Bokod.

Other educational institutions which include Advocates Academic College, BVS Colleges, Cordillera Career Development College, King's College of the Philippines, Philippine College of Ministry, Philippine Nazarene College, as well as the Cordillera Regional Science High School, the Benguet National High School (with several annexes) and the Benguet SPED Center are also situated within La Trinidad.

The independent chartered city of Baguio hosts several higher education institutions, which include most notably the University of the Philippines Baguio, Saint Louis University, University of the Cordilleras (formerly Baguio Colleges Foundation), University of Baguio, Pines City Colleges, Baguio Central University, and Baguio School of Business and Technology, attracting students from across the Philippines.

Tourism
The province is a major tourist destination in the country, with most of its tourist spots centered on culture and nature. Baguio's location within the province provides a boost to the tourism industry of the province. Notable interesting places in the province include Mount Pulag along Kabayan, Kennon Road in Tuba, Ambuklao Dam in Bokod, Binga Dam in Itogon, strawberry and flower farms in La Trinidad, and the Palina and Naguey rice terraces in Atok.

Tuba and Tublay hot springs are usually flocked by local tourists from the neighboring provinces. Vegetable terraces can be seen along the Halsema Highway, especially during the growing season. Kabayan is known for its centuries-old mummies, while Buguias is visited for its hot springs and the Apo Anno.

title: Benguet


text:
File:Ministry-TheLandOfRapeAndHoney.jpg

Summary
Ministry - The Land of Rape and Honey album cover. Copyright 1988 Sire Records.

title: File:Ministry-TheLandOfRapeAndHoney.jpg


text:
The Land of Rape and Honey

The Land of Rape and Honey is the third studio album by American industrial metal band Ministry, released on October 11, 1988, by Sire Records. This is the first Ministry album to include bassist Paul Barker and marks a departure from the band's previous two synthpop and EBM records. It incorporates heavy metal guitars and industrial music influences, and Al Jourgensen uses distorted vocals in his natural accent, rather than the faux British accent of previous albums. The resulting sound was influential in the industrial metal genre and is Jourgensen's favorite Ministry album. The album was certified gold by the RIAA in January 1996.

The album title comes from the slogan of Tisdale, Saskatchewan, whose motto at that time was "The Land of Rape and Honey", a reference to the agricultural products rapeseed and honey. The band chose the name after seeing the slogan on a souvenir mug.

Background
Jourgensen credited his work with Adrian Sherwood on the preceding album, Twitch, for giving him confidence in his vision and showing him new techniques, which he said he pushed to an extreme. Jourgensen had experimented with a heavier, industrial sound starting in the mid-1980s with singles such as "No Devotion" from the Revolting Cocks' Big Sexy Land and "All Day" from Twitch. When RevCo's next single was more commercial, Sire proposed doing the same for the new Ministry album, but Jourgensen threatened to disband Ministry. Continuing in this less-commercial, industrial-laced direction, Land of Rape and Honey incorporates elements of heavy metal such as fast electric guitar riffs, although only the album's first three songs use guitars extensively. "Stigmata" does not feature live guitars; the two chord riff, altered with a pitch shifter, was sampled. Jourgensen had written some of the songs prior to working on Twitch and said this was the sound he originally wanted for the band.

In his memoirs, Jourgensen described himself at the time as a "functional addict" who scheduled his life around his dealer's availability. Despite this, he spent hours editing tapes of music the band had recorded; Jourgensen described them as "snippets of noise" that came to him in dreams. Inspired by William Burroughs and the cut-up technique, Jourgensen cut up the tapes and spliced them back together randomly until he liked the end result. Jourgensen wrote "Stigmata" at the last minute after realizing he needed another song to complete the album.

A post made on Wax Trax! Records' official Instagram account in 2019 shows a handwritten production sheet featuring a number of tracks which did not appear on the final record. Certain songs were instead released through the bands' side projects: "Idiot" and "Blackened Heart" under Lead Into Gold and "Apathy" for 1000 Homo DJs.

Artwork
The album cover is an electronically processed image of a burned corpse in the Leipzig-Thekla subcamp of Buchenwald. Jourgensen took a photograph while watching a Holocaust documentary on television and distorted the image himself. According to Jourgensen, it was originally rejected by the record label, but they later changed their mind after Jourgensen cut off the head of a roadkilled deer, put it in his truck, drove from Austin to Los Angeles, went into the Sire Records building, threw the head on the desk of the head of the art department and said, "Here's your new fucking [album] cover."

Additional inner sleeve photography features a 1945 archival film footage of corpses of the Mittelbau-Dora concentration camp lying in a hillside mass grave in Nordhausen, Germany.

Legacy
The album was certified gold by the RIAA in January 1996 and was re-issued by Wounded Bird Records in 2007.

Tom Moon wrote in 1,000 Recordings to Hear Before You Die that the album "became the blueprint for all of what was tagged as 'industrial' dance music". Fear Factory, Linkin Park, Slipknot and Nine Inch Nails have cited this album as a major influence. Jason Heller of The A.V. Club said the album "straddles a huge shift in industrial" and includes influences from most industrial music offshoots at the time. Heller suggested it to pop culture enthusiasts who want an accessible entry-point for industrial music. Jourgensen has cited The Land of Rape and Honey as his favorite Ministry album, likening it to a learning experience that changes one's life. However, Jourgensen said that "Stigmata" is his least favorite song in the Ministry catalogue for its simplistic songwriting despite its popularity. The track is featured in Richard Stanley's 1990 science fiction thriller Hardware, although the band shown performing the track is Gwar. Marilyn Manson performed a cover on the soundtrack of the film Atomic Blonde.

Samples

 * 1) "Golden Dawn"
 * 2) *"You are being found guilty of covenants with the devil," "State your confession," "Confess! Confess!" "The Anti-Christ" - The Devils
 * 3) *[chanting] - Aleister Crowley, from his "Call of the First Aethyr"
 * 4) *[chanting] - Israel Regardie, quoting the English translation of the First Enochian Key.
 * 5) "Hizbollah"
 * 6) *"Kad Ataka" - Fairuz
 * 7) "The Land of Rape and Honey"
 * 8) *"Sieg..." "...Heil!" [chanting] - The Tin Drum. These chants are used ironically in the song, which is anti-fascist, and the band gave context to the Nazi chants by ranting about political issues during concerts.  This was still misinterpreted by white power skinheads as the band's support for Nazism.  Jourgensen said the band jumped into the crowd and fought the skinheads, but rumors persisted that the band was fascist.
 * 9) "You Know What You Are"
 * 10) *"You know what you are" - closing dialog by Tuco from The Good, the Bad and the Ugly
 * 11) *[Macabre Laugh] - A Fistful of Dollars
 * 12) *"Die, Motherfucker!" - Aliens
 * 13) *"C'mon, motherfuckers!" "Dance, motherfucker!" - Platoon
 * 14) "Flashback"
 * 15) *"Now hold up, man!" "Do it," "Everybody's got to die sometime," "I'm hurtin' real bad inside" - Platoon
 * 16) "Abortive"
 * 17) *"T minus 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4; we've got the main engine start—we have main...", "America's first space shuttle!" "And the shuttle has cleared the tower." - NASA

Ministry

 * Al Jourgensen – vocals, guitar, programming, production, engineer
 * Paul Barker – bass, keyboards, programming, production, engineer

Additional personnel

 * William Rieflin – drums, programming, keyboards, guitar, background vocals
 * Chris Connelly – background vocals (2 & 3)
 * Eddie Echo – production (11)
 * Steve Spapperi – engineer
 * Julian Herzfeld – engineer
 * Keith "Fluffy" Auerbach – engineer
 * "Dog" (a pseudonym of Al Jourgensen) – album cover
 * "Ill" – album cover
 * Brian Shanley – album cover

title: The Land of Rape and Honey