text:
List of common carrier freight railroads in the United States

About 700 railroads operate common carrier freight service in the United States. There are about 160141 mi of railroad track in the United States, nearly all standard gauge.

Reporting marks are listed in parentheses.

 * A&R Terminal Railroad (ART)
 * Aberdeen and Rockfish Railroad (AR)
 * Aberdeen, Carolina and Western Railway (ACWR)
 * Acadiana Railway (AKDN)
 * Adams-Warnock Railway (AWRY)
 * Adrian and Blissfield Rail Road (ADBF)
 * Affton Terminal Services Railroad (AT)
 * Ag Valley Railroad (AVRR)
 * Aiken Railway (AIKR)
 * Akron Barberton Cluster Railway (AB)
 * Alabama and Gulf Coast Railway (AGR) (GWI)
 * Alabama and Tennessee River Railway (ATN) (OmniTRAX)
 * Alabama Export Railroad (ALE)
 * Alabama Southern Railroad (ABS)
 * Alabama Warrior Railway (ABWR)
 * Alamo Gulf Coast Railroad (AGCR)
 * Alamo North Texas Railroad (ANTX)
 * Alaska Railroad (ARR)
 * Albany and Eastern Railroad (AERC)
 * Albany Port Railroad (APD)
 * Alexander Railroad (ARC)
 * Aliquippa and Ohio River Railroad (AOR)
 * Allegheny Valley Railroad (AVR)
 * Allentown and Auburn Railroad (ALLN)
 * Alton and Southern Railway (ALS)
 * AN Railway (AN)
 * Angelina and Neches River Railroad (ANR)
 * Ann Arbor Railroad (AA)
 * Apache Railway (APA)
 * Appalachian and Ohio Railroad (AO)
 * Arcade and Attica Railroad (ARA)
 * Arizona and California Railroad (ARZC)
 * Arizona Central Railroad (AZCR)
 * Arizona Eastern Railway (AZER)
 * Arkansas–Oklahoma Railroad (AOK)
 * Arkansas and Missouri Railroad (AM)
 * Arkansas Midland Railroad (AKMD) (GWI)
 * Arkansas Southern Railroad (ARS) (Watco)
 * Arkansas, Louisiana and Mississippi Railroad (ALM) (GWI)
 * Ashland Railway (ASRY)
 * Ashtabula, Carson and Jefferson Railroad (ACJR)
 * AT&L Railroad (ATLT)
 * Atlantic and Western Railway (ATW) (GWI)
 * Atlantic Railways (ATL)
 * Austin Western Railroad (AWRR) (Watco)
 * Autauga Northern Railroad (AUT) (Watco)
 * B&H Rail Corporation (BH)
 * Baja California Railroad (BJRR)
 * Ballard Terminal Railroad (BDTL)
 * Baton Rouge Southern Railroad (BRS) (Watco)
 * Batten Kill Railroad (BKRR)
 * Bauxite and Northern Railway (BXN) (GWI)
 * Bay Colony Railroad (BCLR)
 * Bay Line Railroad (BAYL) (GWI)
 * Bayway Terminal Switching Company (BAWT)
 * Beech Mountain Railroad (BEEM)
 * Bee Line Railroad (BLEX)
 * Bellingham International Railroad (BIRR)
 * Belt Railway of Chicago (BRC)
 * Belvidere and Delaware River Railway (BDRV)
 * Bessemer and Lake Erie Railroad (BLE)
 * BG&CM Railroad (BGCM)
 * Big 4 Terminal Railroad (BFT)
 * Big Spring Rail System (BSR)
 * Bighorn Divide and Wyoming Railroad (BDW)
 * Birmingham Terminal Railway (BHRR)
 * Belpre Industrial Parkersburg Railroad (BIP)
 * Black River and Western Corporation (BRW)
 * Blacklands Railroad (BLR)
 * Blackwell Northern Gateway Railroad (BNG)
 * Bloomer Line (BLOL)
 * Blue Rapids Railway (BLRR)
 * Blue Ridge Southern Railroad (BLU)
 * BNSF Railway (BNSF)
 * Bogalusa & Northern Railway (BNR)
 * Boise Valley Railroad (BVRR)
 * Boone and Scenic Valley Railroad (BSVY)
 * Border Pacific Railroad (BOP)
 * Brandywine Valley Railroad (BVRY)
 * Branford Steam Railroad (BRFD)
 * Bridgeport Switching Company (BPSC)
 * Brownsville and Rio Grande International Railroad (BRG)
 * Buckingham Branch Railroad (BB)
 * Bucyrus Industrial Railroad (BIR)
 * Buffalo and Pittsburgh Railroad (BPRR)
 * Buffalo Southern Railroad (BSOR)
 * Burlington Junction Railway (BJRY)
 * Burns Harbor Shortline Railroad (BHS)
 * Butte, Anaconda and Pacific Railway (BAP)
 * Caldwell County Railroad (CWCY)
 * California Northern Railroad (CFNR)
 * Camden and Southern Railroad (CSR)
 * Camp Chase Railway (CAMY)
 * Canadian National Railway (CN)
 * Caney Fork and Western Railroad (CFWR)
 * Canton Railroad (CTN)
 * Cape Fear Railways (CF)
 * Cape May Seashore Lines (CMSL)
 * Carolina Coastal Railway (CLNA)
 * Carolina Piedmont Railroad (CPDR)
 * Cascade and Columbia River Railroad (CSCD)
 * CaterParrott Railnet (CPR)
 * Cedar Rapids and Iowa City Railway (CIC)
 * Central California Traction Company (CCT)
 * Central Indiana and Western Railroad (CEIW)
 * Central Montana Rail, Inc. (CM)
 * Central New England Railroad (CNZR)
 * Central New York Railroad (CNYK)
 * Central Oregon and Pacific Railroad (CORP)
 * Central Railroad of Indiana (CIND) (GWRR)
 * Central Railroad of Indianapolis (CERA)
 * Central Washington Railroad (CWRR)
 * CGB Shortline Railroad (CGRX)
 * CG Railway (CGR)
 * Charlotte Southern Railroad (CHS)
 * Charlotte Western Railroad (CER)
 * Chattahoochee Industrial Railroad (CIRR)
 * Chattooga and Chickamauga Railway (CCKY)
 * Chesapeake and Albemarle Railroad (CA)
 * Chesapeake and Indiana Railroad (CKIN)
 * Chessie Logistics (CLCY)
 * Chestnut Ridge Railroad (CHR)
 * Chicago–Chemung Railroad (CCUO)
 * Chicago Junction Railway (CJRY)
 * Chicago Port & Rail (CPRL)
 * Chicago Port Railroad (CPC)
 * Chicago Rail Link (CRL)
 * Chicago South Shore and South Bend Railroad (CSS)
 * Chicago, Fort Wayne and Eastern Railroad (CFE)
 * Chicago, St. Paul & Pacific Railroad (CSP)
 * Cicero Central Railroad (CECR)
 * Cimarron Valley Railroad (CVR)
 * Cincinnati Eastern Railroad (CCET)
 * City of Prineville Railway (COP)
 * Clackamas Valley Railroad (CVLY)
 * Clarendon and Pittsford Railroad (CLP)
 * Cleveland and Cuyahoga Railroad (CCRL)
 * Cleveland Port Railroad (CHB)
 * Cleveland Terminal & Valley Railroad (CTV)
 * Cleveland Works Railway (CWRO)
 * Clinton Terminal Railroad (CTR)
 * Cloquet Terminal Railroad (CTRR)
 * CMC Railroad (CMC)
 * Colorado Pacific Railroad (CXR)
 * Colorado Pacific Rio Grande Railroad (CXRG)
 * Coffeen and Western Railroad (CAEG)
 * Colorado and Wyoming Railway (CW)
 * Columbia and Cowlitz Railway (CLC)
 * Columbia Basin Railroad (CBRW)
 * Columbia Shipyards Railroad (CSBP)
 * Columbia Terminal Railroad (CT)
 * Columbia-Walla Walla Railway (CWW)
 * Columbus and Chattahoochee Railroad (CCH)
 * Columbus and Greenville Railway (CAGY)
 * Columbus and Ohio River Rail Road (CUOH)
 * Commonwealth Railway (CWRY)
 * Conecuh Valley Railroad (COEH)
 * Connecticut Southern Railroad (CSOR)
 * Coopersville and Marne Railway (CPMY)
 * Coos Bay Rail Link (CBRL)
 * Copper Basin Railway (CBRY)
 * Cornhusker Railroad (CNRR)
 * CPKC Railway (CPKC)
 * Crab Orchard and Egyptian Railway (COER)
 * CSX Transportation (CSXT)
 * D&I Railroad (DAIR)
 * D&W Railroad (DWRV)
 * Dakota Northern Railroad (DN)
 * Dakota Southern Railway (DSRC)
 * Dakota, Missouri Valley and Western Railroad (DMVW)
 * Dallas, Garland and Northeastern Railroad (DGNO)
 * Dardanelle and Russellville Railroad (DR)
 * Davenport Industrial Railroad (DIR)
 * De Queen and Eastern Railroad (DQE)
 * Decatur & Eastern Illinois Railroad (DREI)
 * Decatur Junction Railway (DT)
 * Delaware and Raritan River Railroad (DRRR)
 * Delaware–Lackawanna Railroad (DL)
 * Delray Connecting Railroad (DC)
 * Delmarva Central Railroad (DCR)
 * Delta Southern Railroad (DSRR)
 * Delta Valley and Southern Railway (DVS)
 * Denver Rock Island Railroad (DRIR)
 * Depew, Lancaster and Western Railroad (DLWR)
 * Deseret Power Railroad (DPRW)
 * Detroit Connecting Railroad (DCON)
 * DFW & Southern Railway (DFWS)
 * Dover and Delaware River Railroad (DD)
 * Dover & Rockaway River Railroad (DRRV)
 * Drake Switching Company (DSC)
 * Dubois County Railroad (DCRR)
 * Dutchtown Southern Railroad (DUSR)
 * East Brookfield and Spencer Railroad (EBSR)
 * East Camden and Highland Railroad (EACH)
 * East Chicago Rail Terminal (ECRT)
 * East Cooper and Berkeley Railroad (ECBR)
 * East Erie Commercial Railroad (EEC)
 * East Jersey Railroad (EJR)
 * East Ohio Valley Railway (EOVR)
 * East Penn Railroad (ESPN)
 * East Tennessee Railway (ETRY)
 * East Terminal Railway (ECTR)
 * East Troy Electric Railroad (METW)
 * Eastern Alabama Railway (EARY)
 * Eastern Idaho Railroad (EIRR)
 * Eastern Kentucky Railway Company (EKRC)
 * Eastern Maine Railway (EMRY)
 * Effingham Railroad (EFRR)
 * El Dorado and Wesson Railway (EDW)
 * Elizabethtown Industrial Railroad (EZR)
 * Elkhart and Western Railroad (EWR)
 * Ellis and Eastern Company (EE)
 * Elwood, Joliet & Southern Railroad (EJSR)
 * Escanaba and Lake Superior Railroad (ELS)
 * Evansville Western Railway (EVWR)
 * Everett Railroad (EV)
 * Fairfield Southern Company (FS)
 * Falls Road Railroad (FRR)
 * Farmrail Corporation (FMRC)
 * FFG&C Railroad (FFGC)
 * Finger Lakes Railway (FGLK)
 * First Coast Railroad (FCRD)
 * Flats Industrial Railroad (FIR)
 * Florida Central Railroad (FCEN)
 * Florida East Coast Railway (FEC)
 * Florida Gulf & Atlantic Railroad (FGAR)
 * Florida Midland Railroad (FMID)
 * Florida Northern Railroad (FNOR)
 * Fore River Transportation Corporation (FRVT)
 * Fort Smith Railroad (FSR)
 * Fort Worth and Western Railroad (FWWR)
 * Fox Valley & Lake Superior Rail System (FOXY)
 * Fredonia Valley Railroad (FVRR)
 * Fulton County Railroad (FC)
 * Fulton County Railway (FCR)
 * Galveston Railroad (GVSR)
 * Garden City Western Railway (GCW)
 * Gardendale Railroad (GRD)
 * Gary Railway (GRW)
 * Gateway Industrial Railroad (GIRR)
 * Geaux Geaux Railroad (GOGR)
 * Georgetown Railroad (GRR)
 * Georgia and Florida Railway (GFRR)
 * Georgia Central Railway (GC)
 * Georgia Northeastern Railroad (GNRR)
 * Georgia Southern Railway (GS)
 * Georgia Southwestern Railroad (GSWR)
 * Georgia Woodlands Railroad (GWRC)
 * Gettysburg and Northern Railroad (GET)
 * GG Railroad (GGRR)
 * Golden Isles Terminal Railroad (GITM)
 * Golden Triangle Railroad (GTRA)
 * Goose Lake Railway (GLRY)
 * Grafton and Upton Railroad (GU)
 * Grainbelt Corporation (GNBC)
 * Grand Elk Railroad (GDLK)
 * Grand Rapids Eastern Railroad (GR)
 * Grand River Railway (GRRL)
 * Great Basin & Northern Railroad (GBN)
 * Great Lakes Central Railroad (GLC)
 * Great Northwest Railroad (GRNW)
 * Great Walton Railroad (GRWR)
 * Great Western Railway of Colorado (GWR)
 * Green Mountain Railroad (GMRC)
 * Greenville and Western Railway (GRLW)
 * Grenada Railway (GRYR)
 * Gulf & Ship Island Railroad (GSIR)
 * Gulf Coast Switching (GCSX)
 * Hainesport Secondary Railroad (HSCR)
 * Hamilton Northwestern Railroad (HNW)
 * Hampton and Branchville Railroad (HB)
 * Hartwell Railroad (HRT)
 * Heart of Georgia Railroad (HOG)
 * Heritage Railroad (HR)
 * Herrin Railroad (HRRL)
 * Hilton & Albany Railroad (HAL)
 * Hondo Railway (HRR)
 * Hoosier Southern Railroad (HOS)
 * Housatonic Railroad (HRRC)
 * Huntsville and Madison County Railroad Authority (HMCR)
 * Huron and Eastern Railway (HESR)
 * Hussey Terminal Railroad (HTRC)
 * Idaho Northern and Pacific Railroad (INPR)
 * Illinois and Midland Railroad (IMRR)
 * Illinois Railway (IR)
 * Illinois Western Railroad (ILW)
 * Indiana and Ohio Railway (IORY)
 * Indiana Eastern Railroad (IERR)
 * Indiana Harbor Belt Railroad (IHB)
 * Indiana Northeastern Railroad (IN)
 * Indiana Rail Road (INRD)
 * Indiana Southern Railroad (ISRR)
 * Indiana Southwestern Railway (ISW)
 * Illinois Terminal Belt Railroad (ITB)
 * Iowa Interstate Railroad (IAIS)
 * Iowa Northern Railway (IANR)
 * Iowa River Railroad (IARR)
 * Iowa Southern Railway (ISRY)
 * Iowa Traction Railroad (IATR)
 * Itawamba Mississippian Railway (IMR)
 * Ithaca Central Railroad (ITHR)
 * Jackson & Lansing Railroad (JAIL)
 * Jacksonville Port Terminal Railroad (JXPT)
 * Joppa and Eastern Railroad (JE)
 * Juniata Valley Railroad (JVRR)
 * Kanawha River Railroad (KNWA)
 * Kankakee, Beaverville and Southern Railroad (KBSR)
 * Kansas and Oklahoma Railroad (KO)
 * Kansas City Transportation Lines (KCTL)
 * Kaw River Railroad (KAW)
 * Kendallville Terminal Railway (KTR)
 * Kennewick Terminal Railroad (KET)
 * Kentucky and Tennessee Railway (KT)
 * Keokuk Junction Railway (KJRY)
 * Kiamichi Railroad (KRR)
 * Kingman Terminal Railroad (KGTR)
 * Kinston Railroad (KR)
 * Klamath Northern Railway (KNOR)
 * KM Railways (KM)
 * Knoxville and Cumberland Gap Railroad (KXCG)
 * Knoxville and Holston River Railroad (KXHR)
 * KS Railroad (KSRR)
 * KWT Railway (KWT)
 * Kyle Railroad (KYLE)
 * Lake Michigan and Indiana Railroad (LMIC)
 * Lake State Railway (LSRC)
 * Lake Superior and Ishpeming Railroad (LSI)
 * Lake Terminal Railroad (LT)
 * Lancaster and Chester Railway (LC)
 * LVR Railroad (LVR)
 * Lapeer Industrial Railroad (LIRR)
 * LaSalle Railway (LSRY)
 * Laurinburg and Southern Railroad (LRS)
 * Lehigh Valley Rail Management (LVRM)
 * Little Kanawha River Railroad (LKRR)
 * Little Rock and Western Railway (LRWN)
 * Little Rock Port Authority Railroad (LRPA)
 * Live Oak Railroad (LOR)
 * Livonia, Avon and Lakeville Railroad (LAL)
 * Longview Switching Company (LVSW)
 * Louisiana and Delta Railroad (LDRR)
 * Louisiana and North West Railroad (LNW)
 * Louisiana Southern Railroad (LAS)
 * Louisville and Indiana Railroad (LIRC)
 * Lubbock and Western Railway (LBWR)
 * Lucas Oil Rail Lines (LORL)
 * Luxapalila Valley Railroad (LXVR)
 * Lycoming Valley Railroad (LVRR)
 * M&B Railroad (MNBR)
 * Madison Railroad (CMPA)
 * Mahoning Valley Railway (MVRY)
 * Maine Northern Railway (MNRY)
 * Manning Rail (MANN)
 * Manufacturers' Junction Railway (MJ)
 * Marquette Rail, LLC (MQT)
 * Maryland and Delaware Railroad (MDDE)
 * Maryland Midland Railway (MMID)
 * Massachusetts Central Railroad (MCER)
 * Massachusetts Coastal Railroad (MC)
 * Massena Terminal Railroad (MSTR)
 * McKees Rocks Railroad (PAM)
 * Meeker Southern Railroad (MSN)
 * Merced County Central Valley Railroad (MCVR)
 * Meridian Southern Railway (MDS)
 * MG Rail, Inc. (MGRI)
 * Michigan Shore Railroad (MS)
 * Michigan Southern Railroad (MSO)
 * Midcoast Railservice (FGLK)
 * Mid-Michigan Railroad (MMRR)
 * Middletown and Hummelstown Railroad (MIDH)
 * Middletown and New Jersey Railroad (MNJ)
 * Midway Southern Railway (MWS)
 * Milford-Bennington Railroad (MBRX)
 * Mineral Range Railroad (MRAX)
 * Minnesota Commercial Railway (MNNR)
 * Minnesota Northern Railroad (MNN)
 * Minnesota Prairie Line, Inc. (MPLI)
 * Minnesota, Dakota and Western Railway (MDW)
 * Mission Mountain Railroad (MMT)
 * Mississippi Central Railroad (MSCI)
 * Mississippi Delta Railroad (MSDR)
 * Mississippi Export Railroad (MSE)
 * Mississippi Southern Railroad (MSR)
 * Mississippi Tennessee Railroad (MTNR)
 * Missouri and Northern Arkansas Railroad (MNA)
 * Missouri Eastern Railroad (MER)
 * Missouri North Central Railroad (MNC)
 * Modesto and Empire Traction Company (MET)
 * Mohawk, Adirondack and Northern Railroad (MHWA)
 * Morristown and Erie Railway (ME)
 * Moscow, Camden and San Augustine Railroad (MCSA)
 * Mountain Pacific Railroad (MPR)
 * Mount Hood Railroad (MH)
 * Mount Vernon Terminal Railway (MVT)
 * Napoleon, Defiance & Western Railroad (NDW)
 * Natchez Railway (NTZR)
 * Naugatuck Railroad Company (NAUG)
 * Northampton Switching Company (NDCR)
 * Nebraska Central Railroad (NCRC)
 * Nebraska Kansas Colorado Railway (NKCR)
 * Nebraska Northwestern Railroad (NNW)
 * New Castle Industrial Railroad (NCIR)
 * New Castle Southern Railroad (NCSR)
 * New Century AirCenter Railroad (JCAX)
 * New England Central Railroad (NECR)
 * New England Southern Railroad (NEGS)
 * New Hampshire Central Railroad (NHCR)
 * New Hampshire Northcoast Corporation (NHN)
 * New Hope and Ivyland Railroad (NHRR)
 * New Jersey Rail Carriers, LLC (NJRC)
 * New Jersey Seashore Lines (NJSL)
 * New Orleans and Gulf Coast Railway (NOGC)
 * New Orleans Public Belt Railroad (NOPB)
 * New York and Atlantic Railway (NYA)
 * New York and Lake Erie Railroad (NYLE)
 * New York and Ogdensburg Railway (NYOG)
 * New York New Jersey Rail, LLC (NYNJ)
 * New York, Susquehanna and Western Railway (NYSW)
 * Newburgh and South Shore Railroad (NSR)
 * Nittany and Bald Eagle Railroad (NBER)
 * Norfolk and Portsmouth Belt Line Railroad (NPB)
 * Norfolk Southern Railway (NS)
 * North Carolina and Virginia Railroad (NCVA)
 * North Louisiana & Arkansas Railroad (NLA)
 * North Shore Railroad (NSHR)
 * Northeast Texas Connector (NETC)
 * Northern Lines Railway (NLR)
 * Northern Ohio and Western Railway (NOW)
 * Northern Plains Railroad (NPR)
 * Northwestern Oklahoma Railroad (NOKL)
 * Oakland Global Rail Enterprise (OGRE)
 * Ogeechee Railway (ORC)
 * Ohio Central Railroad (OHCR)
 * Ohio South Central Railroad (OSCR)
 * Ohio Southern Railroad (OSRR)
 * Oil Creek and Titusville Lines, Inc. (OCTL)
 * Old Augusta Railroad (OAR)
 * Olympia and Belmore Railroad (OLYO)
 * Omaha, Lincoln and Beatrice Railway (OLB)
 * Ontario Central Railroad (ONCT)
 * Ontario Midland Railroad (OMID)
 * Orange Port Terminal Railway (OPT)
 * Oregon Eastern Railroad (OERR)
 * Oregon Independence Railroad (OIRR)
 * Oregon Pacific Railroad (OPR)
 * Ottawa Northern Railroad (ONR)
 * Otter Tail Valley Railroad (OTVR)
 * Ouachita Railroad (OUCH)
 * Ozark Valley Railroad (OVRR)
 * Pacific Harbor Line, Inc. (PHL)
 * Paducah and Louisville Railway (PAL)
 * Palouse River and Coulee City Railroad (PCC)
 * Panhandle Northern Railroad (PNR)
 * Pecos Valley Southern Railway (PVS)
 * Pee Dee River Railway (PDRR)
 * Pend Oreille Valley Railroad (POVA)
 * Peninsula Terminal Company (PT)
 * Pennsylvania and Southern Railway (PSCC)
 * Pennsylvania Southwestern Railroad (PSWR)
 * Perry County Railroad (PCYR)
 * Peru Industrial Railroad (PIRR)
 * Pickens Railway (PICK)
 * Pioneer Industrial Railroad (PRY)
 * Pioneer Valley Railroad (PVRR)
 * Pittsburgh and Ohio Central Railroad (POHC)
 * Plainsman Switching Company (PSC)
 * Plainview Terminal Company (PTM)
 * Point Comfort and Northern Railway (PCN)
 * Port of Catoosa Industrial Railroad (PCIR)
 * Port Bienville Railroad (PBVR)
 * Port Harbor Railroad (PHRR)
 * Port Jersey Railroad (PJR)
 * Port Manatee Railroad (PMR)
 * Port Rail, Inc (PRI)
 * Port Terminal Railroad Association (PTRA)
 * Port Terminal Railroad of South Carolina (PTR)
 * Portland and Western Railroad (PNWR)
 * Portland Terminal Railroad (PTRC)
 * Portland Vancouver Junction Railroad (PVJR)
 * Prescott and Northwestern Railroad (PNW)
 * Progressive Rail, Inc. (PGR)
 * Providence and Worcester Railroad (PW)
 * Puget Sound and Pacific Railroad (PSAP)
 * Quincy Railroad (QRR)
 * Rainer Rail (RR)
 * Raleigh and Fayetteville Railroad (RFCC)
 * Rawhide Short Line (RHSL)
 * R.J. Corman Railroad/Allentown Lines (RJCN)
 * R.J. Corman Railroad/Bardstown Line (RJCR)
 * R.J. Corman Railroad/Carolina Line (RJCA)
 * R.J. Corman Railroad/Central Kentucky Lines (RJCC)
 * R.J. Corman Railroad/Cleveland Line (RJCL)
 * R.J. Corman Railroad/Lehigh Line (LRWY)
 * R.J. Corman Railroad/Luzerne & Susquehanna Line (LS)
 * R.J. Corman Railroad/Memphis Line (RJCM)
 * R.J. Corman Railroad/Nashville & Eastern Line (NERR)
 * R.J. Corman Railroad/Nashville & Western Line (NWR)
 * R.J. Corman Railroad/Owego & Harford Line (OHRY)
 * R.J. Corman Railroad/Pennsylvania Lines (RJCP)
 * R.J. Corman Railroad/Tennessee Terminal (RJCK)
 * R.J. Corman Railroad/Texas Lines (RJCD)
 * R.J. Corman Railroad/West Virginia Line (RJCV)
 * R.J. Corman Railroad/Western Ohio Lines (RJCW)
 * Rapid City, Pierre and Eastern Railroad (RCPE)
 * Raritan Central Railway (RCRY)
 * Reading Blue Mountain and Northern Railroad (RBMN)
 * Red River Valley and Western Railroad (RRVW)
 * Republic N&T Railroad (NTRY)
 * Riceboro Southern Railway (RSOR)
 * Richmond Pacific Railroad (RPRC)
 * Ringneck and Western Railroad (RWRR)
 * Rio Valley Switching Company (RVSC)
 * Ripley & New Albany Railroad (RNAB)
 * River Ridge Railroad (RRR)
 * Riverport Railroad (RVPR)
 * Rochester and Erie Railroad (RER)
 * Rochester and Southern Railroad (RSR)
 * Rochester Switching Services (RSS)
 * Rock and Rail LLC (RRRR)
 * Rogue Valley Terminal Railroad (RVT)
 * Republic Short Line (RSL)
 * S&L Railroad (SLGG)
 * Sabine River and Northern Railroad (SRN)
 * Sacramento Southern Railroad (SSRR)
 * Sacramento Valley Railroad (SAV)
 * Salt Lake, Garfield and Western Railway (SLGW)
 * San Antonio Central Railroad (SAC)
 * San Diego and Imperial Valley Railroad (SDIY)
 * San Francisco Bay Railway (SFBR)
 * San Joaquin Valley Railroad (SJVR)
 * San Manuel Arizona Railroad (SMA)
 * San Luis Central Railroad (SLC)
 * San Pedro Valley Railroad (SPVR)
 * Santa Teresa Southern Railroad (STSR)
 * Sand Springs Railway (SS)
 * Sandersville Railroad (SAN)
 * Santa Cruz, Big Trees and Pacific Railway (SCBG)
 * Santa Maria Valley Railroad (SMV)
 * Savage Bingham and Garfield Railroad (SBG)
 * Savage Tooele Railroad (SVGX)
 * Savannah and Old Fort Railroad (SVHO)
 * Savannah Industrial Transportation (SIT)
 * Savannah Port Terminal Railroad (SAPT)
 * Seaview Railroad (SVTX)
 * Seminole Gulf Railway (SGLR)
 * SEMO Port Railroad (SE)
 * Sequatchie Valley Switching Company (SQSC)
 * Shamokin Valley Railroad (SVRR)
 * Shenandoah Valley Railroad (SV)
 * Sierra Northern Railway (SERA)
 * Sisseton Milbank Railroad (SMRR)
 * SJRE Railroad (SJRE)
 * SMS Rail Service, Inc. (SLRS)
 * Spokane, Spangle & Palouse Railway (SSPR)
 * South Branch Valley Railroad (SBVR)
 * South Buffalo Railway (SB)
 * South Carolina Central Railroad (SCRF)
 * South Central Florida Express, Inc. (SCXF)
 * South Central Tennessee Railroad (SCTR)
 * South Chicago and Indiana Harbor Railway (SCIH)
 * South Kansas and Oklahoma Railroad (SKOL)
 * South Plains Lamesa Railroad (SLAL)
 * South Point and Ohio Railroad (SPOR)
 * Southern Electric Railroad Company (SERC)
 * Southern Railroad of New Jersey (SRNJ)
 * Southern Switching Company (SSC)
 * Southwest Gulf Railroad (SWG)
 * Southwest Pennsylvania Railroad (SWP)
 * Southwestern Railroad (SW)
 * Squaw Creek Southern Railroad (SCS)
 * St. Croix Valley Railroad (SCXY)
 * St. Lawrence and Atlantic Railroad (SLR)
 * St. Maries River Railroad (STMA)
 * St. Marys Railroad (SM)
 * St. Marys Railway West (SMW)
 * Stillwater Central Railroad (SLWC)
 * St. Paul and Pacific Northwest Railroad (SPPN)
 * St. Paul and Pacific Railroad (SPPR)
 * Stockton Terminal and Eastern Railroad (STE)
 * Stourbridge Railroad (SBRR)
 * Strasburg Rail Road (SRC)
 * Swan Ranch Railroad (SRRR)
 * Tacoma Rail (TMBL)
 * Tazewell and Peoria Railroad (TZPR)
 * Temple and Central Texas Railway (TC)
 * Tennessee Southern Railroad (TSRR)
 * Tennken Railroad (TKEN)
 * Terminal Railroad Association of St. Louis (TRRA)
 * Terminal Railway Alabama State Docks (TASD)
 * Texas & New Mexico Railroad (TXN)
 * Texas and Eastern Railroad (TESR)
 * Texas and Northern Railway (TN)
 * Texas and Oklahoma Railroad (TXOR)
 * Texas Central Business Lines Corporation (TCB)
 * Texas City Terminal Railway (TCT)
 * Texas Coastal Bend Railroad (TCBR)
 * Texas North Western Railway (TXNW)
 * Texas Northeastern Railroad (TNER)
 * Texas Pacifico Transportation (TXPF)
 * Texas Rock Crusher Railway (TXR)
 * Texas, Gonzales and Northern Railway (TXGN)
 * Thermal Belt Railway (TBRY)
 * Three Notch Railroad (TNHR)
 * Timber Rock Railroad (TIBR)
 * Toledo Industrial Railroad (TIR)
 * Toledo Junction Railroad (TJR)
 * Toledo, Peoria and Western Railway (TPW)
 * Tomahawk Railway (TR)
 * Tradepoint Rail (TPR)
 * Trona Railway (TRC)
 * Tulsa–Sapulpa Union Railway (TSU)
 * Turners Island, LLC (TI)
 * Twin Cities and Western Railroad (TCWR)
 * Tyburn Railroad (TYBR)
 * Tyner Terminal Railway (TYNT)
 * Union City Terminal Railroad (UCTR)
 * Union County Industrial Railroad (UCIR)
 * Union Pacific Railroad (UP)
 * Union Railroad (URR)
 * Upper Merion and Plymouth Railroad (UMP)
 * Utah Railway (UTAH)
 * Utah Central Railway (UCRY)
 * V&S Railway (VSR)
 * Valdosta Railway (VR)
 * Vandalia Railroad (VRRC)
 * Ventura County Railroad (VCRR)
 * Vermilion Valley Railroad (VVRR)
 * Vermont Railway (VTR)
 * Vicksburg Southern Railroad (VSOR)
 * Virginia Southern Railroad (VSRR)
 * Wabash Central Railroad (WBCR)
 * Walking Horse Railroad (WHRR)
 * Wallowa Union Railroad Authority (WURR)
 * Warren and Saline River Railroad (WSR)
 * Warren and Trumbull Railroad (WTRM)
 * Washington County Railroad (WACR)
 * Washington Eastern Railroad (WERR)
 * Washington Royal Line (WRL)
 * Wellsboro and Corning Railroad (WCOR)
 * West Belt Railway (WBRW)
 * West Isle Line (WFS)
 * West Michigan Railroad (WMI)
 * West Tennessee Railroad (WTNN)
 * Western Maryland Scenic Railroad (WMSR)
 * Western New York and Pennsylvania Railroad (WNYP)
 * Western Rail Road (WRRC)
 * Wheeling and Lake Erie Railway (WE)
 * Wichita Terminal Association (WTA)
 * Wichita, Tillman and Jackson Railway (WTJR)
 * Willamette Valley Railway (WVR)
 * Wilmington Terminal Railroad (WTRY)
 * Wilmington and Western Railroad (WWRC)
 * Winchester and Western Railroad (WW)
 * Winston-Salem Southbound Railway (WSS)
 * Wiregrass Central Railroad (WGCR)
 * Wisconsin and Southern Railroad (WSOR)
 * Wisconsin Great Northern Railroad (WGNS)
 * Wisconsin Northern Railroad (WN)
 * Wolf Creek Railroad (WCKR)
 * Yak Rail, LLC (YCR)
 * Yadkin Valley Railroad (YVRR)
 * Yellowstone Valley Railroad (YSVR)
 * York Railway (YRC)
 * Youngstown and Austintown Railroad (YARR)
 * Youngstown and Southeastern Railroad (YSRR)
 * Youngstown Belt Railroad (YB)
 * Yreka Western Railroad (YW)
 * Zemba Rail Services (ZEMBA)


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Battle of the Ardennes

The Battle of the Ardennes took place during the First World War fought on the frontiers of France, Germany, Belgium and Luxembourg from 21 to 23 August 1914. The German armies defeated the French and forced their retreat. The battle was part of the larger Battle of the Frontiers, the first battle of the Western Front.

Belgium
Belgian military planning was based on an assumption that other powers would expel an invader but the likelihood of a German invasion did not lead to France and Britain being seen as allies or for the Belgian government intending to do more than protect its independence. The Anglo-French Entente (1904) had led the Belgian government to think that the British attitude to Belgium was that it had come to be seen as a protectorate. A Belgian General Staff was formed in 1910 but the Chef d'État-Major Général de l'Armée, Lieutenant-Général Harry Jungbluth was retired on 30 June 1912 and only replaced in May 1914 by Lieutenant-General Chevalier Antonin de Selliers de Moranville, who began work on a contingency plan for the concentration of the army and also met railway officials on 29 July.

Belgian troops were to be massed in central Belgium, in front of the National redoubt of Belgium ready to face any border, while the Fortified Position of Liège and Fortified Position of Namur were left to secure the frontiers. On mobilisation, the King became Commander-in-Chief and chose where the army was to concentrate. Amid the disruption of the new rearmament plan the disorganised and poorly trained Belgian soldiers would benefit from a central position to delay contact with an invader but it would also need fortifications for defence, which were on the frontier. A school of thought wanted a return to a frontier deployment in line with French theories of the offensive. Belgian plans became a compromise in which the field army concentrated behind the river Gete with two divisions forward at Liège and Namur.

Schlieffen–Moltke Plan
Field marshal Alfred Graf von Schlieffen was Chief of the German General Staff (Oberste Heeresleitung, OHL) from 1891 until his retirement in 1906. A student of Carl von Clausewitz, like other Prussian officers, he had been taught that "the heart of France lies between Paris and Brussels". In 1839, the Treaty of London masterminded by the British diplomat Lord Palmerston was signed by France, Prussia, Russia, Austria and the United Kingdom creating the independent Kingdom of Belgium. France and Russia joined in a military alliance in 1892, which threatened Germany with the possibility of a war on two fronts. German strategy gave priority to an offensive operation against France and a strategic defensive against Russia. Planning would be determined by numerical inferiority, speed of mobilisation, concentration and the effect of modern weaponry. The Germans expected frontal attacks to be costly and protracted, leading to limited success, particularly after the French and Russians modernised the fortifications on their frontiers with Germany. To evade the fortified frontier with France, Schlieffen devised a plan that by 1898–99 envisioned German forces rapidly passing between Antwerp and Namur to take Paris from the north, inflicting a quick and decisive defeat on France.

The German left flank in occupied Alsace would tempt the French into attacking there, drawing the French forces away from Paris and the German right. In its 1906 version, the Schlieffen Plan allocated six weeks and seven eighths of the Imperial German Army (a force of 1.5 million men) to overwhelm France while the remainder fought against the Russian Army in East Prussia. Helmuth von Moltke the Younger succeeded Schlieffen in 1906 and was less certain that the French would conform to German assumptions. Moltke adapted the deployment and concentration plan to accommodate an attack in the centre or an enveloping attack from both flanks as variants to the plan, by adding divisions to the left flank opposite the French frontier, from the c. 1,700,000 men expected to be mobilised in the Westheer (western army). The main German force would still advance through Belgium and attack southwards into France, the French armies would be enveloped on the left and pressed back over the Meuse, Aisne, Somme, Oise, Marne and Seine, unable to withdraw into central France. The French would either be annihilated or the manoeuvre from the north would create conditions for victory in the centre or in Lorraine on the common border. Moltke planned for a force of about 320,000 men to defend Alsace-Lorraine south of Metz, 400,000 men to invade France and Luxembourg through the Ardennes and 700,000 more troops to invade Belgium.

Plan XVII
After the defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, France had been humiliated, forced to pay the French indemnity of five billion francs and lost the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine to the new German Empire, so as to permanently put France on the defensive. The French fortified the common border but after 30 years the French felt confident enough to plan for an offensive strategy, thanks in no small part to Ferdinand Foch. France had a population and birth rate smaller than those of Germany and invented the concept of élan vital and decided on a strategy of "offensive to the limit", making the will to fight the cornerstone of French military planning. Colonel Louis Loyzeau de Grandmaison, took up Foch's doctrine and delivered two speeches before the École Militaire that set the foundations of Plan XVII, which was formally adopted in May 1913. French strategists took account of the possibility of envelopment by the German right and calculated that the more powerful the German right, the weaker the center and left would be. The French decided to concentrate their forces on the Rhine, planning to break the German left and center on either side of Metz, to cut off the German right and defeat the German armies in detail.

Under Plan XVII, the French peacetime army was to form five field armies of about two million men, with groups of Reserve divisions attached to each army and a group of reserve divisions on the flanks. The armies were to concentrate opposite the German frontier around Épinal, Nancy and Verdun–Mezières, with an army in reserve around Ste. Ménéhould and Commercy. Since 1871, railway building had given the French General staff sixteen lines to the German frontier against thirteen available to the German army and the French could afford to wait until German intentions were clear. The French deployment was intended to be ready for a German offensive in Lorraine or through Belgium. The French expected that the Germans would use reserve troops but also assumed that a large German army would be mobilised on the border with Russia, leaving the western army with sufficient troops only to advance through Belgium, south of the rivers Meuse and Sambre. French intelligence had obtained a 1905 map exercise by the German general staff, in which German troops had gone no further north than Namur and assumed that plans to besiege Belgian forts were a defensive measure against the Belgian army.

A German attack from south-eastern Belgium towards Mézières and a possible offensive from Lorraine towards Verdun, Nancy and St. Dié was anticipated; the plan was a development of Plan XVI and made more provision for the possibility of a German offensive through Belgium. The First, Second and Third armies were to concentrate between Épinal and Verdun opposite Alsace and Lorraine, the Fifth Army was to assemble from Montmédy to Sedan and Mézières and the Fourth Army was to be held back west of Verdun, ready to move east to attack the southern flank of a German invasion through Belgium or south against the northern flank of an attack through Lorraine. No formal provision was made for joint operations with the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) but discreet arrangements had been made between the French and British general staffs; during the Second Moroccan Crisis in 1911, the French had been told that six British divisions could be expected to operate around Maubeuge.

Declarations of war
At midnight on 31 July/1 August, the German government sent an ultimatum to Russia and announced a state of Kriegsgefahr (threat of war) during the day; the Turkish government ordered mobilisation and the London Stock Exchange closed. On 1 August, the British government ordered the mobilisation of the navy, the German government ordered general mobilisation and declared war on Russia. Hostilities commenced on the Polish frontier, the French government ordered general mobilisation and next day the German government sent an ultimatum to Belgium, demanding passage through Belgian territory and German troops crossed the frontier of Luxembourg. Military operations began on the French frontier, Libau was bombarded by the German light cruiser SMS Augsburg and the British government guaranteed naval protection for French coasts. On 3 August, the Belgian Government refused German demands and the British Government guaranteed military support to Belgium, should Germany invade. Germany declared war on France, the British government ordered general mobilisation and Italy declared neutrality. On 4 August, the British government sent an ultimatum to Germany which expired at midnight on 4–5 August, Central European Time. Belgium severed diplomatic relations with Germany and Germany declared war on Belgium. German troops crossed the Belgian frontier and attacked Liège.

French preparations
French commander-in-chief Joseph Joffre ordered an attack through the Ardennes forest in support of the French invasion of Lorraine. According to the pre-war French war strategy document, Plan XVII, German forces in the area were only expected to be light, with French light, rapid-firing artillery proving advantageous in a wooded terrain such as that found in the Ardennes. By 20 August, however, it was becoming clear, first to the Fifth Army (General Charles Lanrezac) and then to Commander-in-Chief Joseph Joffre, that a large German force was gathering in the area. That day the Germans launched a counter-attack against the French advance into Lorraine. Even so, Joffre ordered an invasion of the Ardennes on 20 August for the following day.

Battle
Joffre issued instructions on 18 August but held back the Third and Fourth armies because air and cavalry reconnaissance found few German troops opposite the two armies, only a large force moving north-west 40 – away. On 19 August the Fourth Army (General Fernand de Langle de Cary) was ordered to occupy the bridges over the Semois but not to advance into Belgium until the German offensive began. A premature attack would advance into a trap rather than give time for the Germans to empty Luxembourg of troops before the French advanced. On 20 August the German armies in the south attacked the French First and Second armies and next day the Third and Fourth armies began their offensive. The Fourth Army crossed the Semois and advanced towards Neufchâteau and the Third Army (General Pierre Ruffey) attacked towards Arlon, as a right flank guard for the Fourth army. South of Verdun, the Third army was renamed Army of Lorraine and was to watch for a German offensive from Metz, which left the remainder of the Third Army free to concentrate on the offensive into Belgium. The French armies invaded Belgium with nine infantry corps but ten German corps and six reserve brigades of the 4th and 5th armies lay between Metz and the north of Luxembourg.

The German 4th Army (Albrecht, Duke of Württemberg) and 5th Army (Crown Prince Wilhelm) had moved slower than the 1st, 2nd and 3rd armies and the French advance towards them was reported on 21 August. The French armies had few maps and were unaware of the size of the German force opposite, as the Third Army brushed aside small German detachments. On 22 August in the Third army area, V Corps attacked dug-in German troops at Longwy at 5:00 a.m. in thick fog and heavy rain, with no artillery support. As the fog lifted, German artillery caught the French guns in the open and silenced them. A German counter-attack routed a French division and the corps was not rallied until the evening. To the north the IV Corps also advanced in fog, encountered German troops dug in near Virton and was forced back also with a division routed. On the southern Flank, VI Corps was pushed back a short distance. In the Fourth Army area the II Corps on the right flank managed to keep level with the Third Army to the south but was not able to advance further. The Colonial Corps on the left was defeated at the Battle of Rossignol, 15 km south of Neufchâteau and suffered 11,646 casualties but the 5th Colonial Brigade on the left easily reached Neufchâteau before being repulsed with many casualties. Further north XII Corps advanced steadily but the XVII Corps beyond was outflanked and the 33rd Division lost most of its artillery. On the northern flank the XI and IX corps were not seriously engaged.

Analysis
Charbonneau explained that the defeat of the Colonial Corps was caused by faulty reconnaissance, the ineffectiveness of advanced guards in causing delay to advancing German units and that French offensive tactics neglected the importance of obtaining a superiority of fire, which had led to reckless attacks. The quality of the German opponents was not mentioned but German reconnaissance had been effective, communication between commanders and subordinates had not broken down, mutual support between neighbouring units had occurred and German artillery had provided continuous close fire support. At Neufchâteau, the French colonial infantry had been out-gunned and outnumbered by German units, which had been able to engage all their forces quickly. The French XII Corps had a greater number of guns but was not able to overcome two German infantry battalions. German artillery had engaged the Colonial Brigade from close range but when in a hastily occupied defensive position, the French had nullified much of the German artillery-fire; French troops caught in the open had been annihilated. Both sides had attempted to gain fire superiority before advancing and once this had been achieved by the Germans, they had been able to manoeuvre without severe casualties.

The French commanders were ordered by Joffre to continue the offensive on 23 August as early as possible, since his strategy depended on the success of the Third and Fourth armies. Ruffey replied in the morning that the attack could not begin until his divisions had reorganised and in the early afternoon found that the Germans had forestalled another advance, by pushing the V Corps in the centre back for 8 km, which led to the rest of the army falling back level. In the Fourth Army area, the 33rd Division of XVII Corps was routed and the rest of the corps had retired during the night of 22/23 August. The 5th Colonial Brigade withdrew from Neufchâteau before dawn on 23 August, exposing the right flank of XII Corps, which also fell back. By the end of 23 August, the survivors of the Third and Fourth armies were back to their jumping-off positions except for the XI and IX corps on the northern flank.

Casualties
At Rossignol German casualties were c. 1,318 and French casualties c. 11,277 men. The French 4th Division had c. 1,195 casualties at Bellefontaine against c. 1,920 German casualties. At Neufchâteau the 5th Colonial Brigade had c. 3,600 casualties against units of the German XVIII Reserve Corps, which suffered c. 1,800 casualties. At Bertrix the artillery of the 33rd Division was destroyed and c. 3,181 casualties suffered against c. ⅓ of the number of German casualties, which were noted to be greater than all of the casualties in the Franco-Prussian War. At Massin-Anloy, the French 22nd Division and 34th Division lost 2,240 men killed and the 34th Division was routed. German casualties in the 25th Division were c. 3,224, of whom 1,100 men were killed. At Virton the French 8th Division was "destroyed" and the 3rd Division had c. 556 casualties; German losses were c. 1,281.

In the fighting around Éthe and Bleid, the French 7th Division lost 5,324 men and the German 10th Division suffered c. 1,872 casualties. At Longwy the French V Corps with the 9th and 10th divisions had c. 2,884 casualties and German units of the 26th Division had c. 1,242. South of Longwy, German casualties in the 9th and 12th Reserve and 33rd divisions were c. 4,458 men against the French 12th 40th and 42nd divisions, of which the 40th Division was routed. In 2009, Holger Herwig recorded 19,218 casualties from 21 to 31 August in the 4th Army and 19,017 casualties in the 5th Army. Herwig also recorded 5,500 casualties in the French 8th Division at Virton and wrote that at Ethe, the 7th Division had been "stomped". At Ochamps the 20th Infantry Regiment lost 1,300 men (50 per cent) and the 11th Infantry Regiment lost 2,700 of 3,300 men. The 5th Colonial Brigade lost 3,200 of 6,600 men.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Battle of the Ardennes


text:
Jäger Movement

The Jäger Movement (Jääkäriliike) consisted of volunteers from Finland who trained in Germany as Jägers (elite light infantry) during World War I. Supported by Germany to enable the creation of a Finnish sovereign state, the movement was one of many means by which Germany intended to weaken Russia and to cause Russia's loss of its western provinces and dependencies.

History
The recruitment of the Jäger volunteers from the Grand Duchy of Finland was clandestine and dominated by Germany-influenced circles, such as university students and the Finnish upper middle class. The recruitment was however in no way exclusive. In all, over 1,100 volunteers are estimated to have "slipped off" to train in Germany.

The recruits were transported across Finland's western border via Sweden to Germany, where they were formed into the Royal Prussian 27th Jäger Battalion. The Jäger Battalion fought in the ranks of the German Army from 1916 in the battles on the northern flank of the eastern front.

After the outbreak of the Civil War in Finland the Jägers were engaged on the "White" (non-communist) side in the war and formed the nucleus of the new Finnish Army. In Finland, these 2,000 volunteers were simply called The Jägers (Finnish pl. Jääkärit).

Their contribution to the White victory was crucial, not least through improving morale. Educated as elite troops they were also fit to assume command as officers over the untrained troops of the Civil War.

Immediately after the Civil War, they were allowed to use the word Jäger in their military ranks. Many of the Jägers continued their military careers. In the 1920s a long feud between officers with Jäger-background and Finnish officers who had served in the Russian Imperial army was concluded in favor of the Jägers. Most of the commanders of army corps, divisions, and regiments in the Winter War were Jägers. The Jäger March composed by Jean Sibelius for the words written by Jäger Heikki Nurmio, was the honorary march of many army detachments.

Conflict with Mannerheim
The Jäger conflict derived from rising tensions (short of armed conflict) between German-influenced Jägers and politicians who looked to Germany as their ally on one side, and the faction centered on former Russian General and Finnish Commander-in-Chief Baron Gustaf Mannerheim on the other side. The Mannerheim side was oriented towards an alliance with Sweden, which remained neutral during the war but which was opposed to Russia, and with which Finland shared its history up to 1809. Mannerheim, who was from a Finland Swedish family, was respected among Finns, Russians, and Swedes alike. Baron Mannerheim and some of the Swedish-speaking officers of the Finnish army left Finland as a direct consequence of this conflict, as the Finnish senate elected a German prince as King of Finland and would have made Finland a monarchy. However, the kingdom was never realized beyond this election; and when World War I ended and the German Kaiser fled, the nascent Finnish monarchy was replaced by a republic, whereupon Baron Mannerheim returned.

Today
At the present time, infantry in the Finnish Army are designated either as infantry or Jäger troops, specifically mechanized infantry or motorised infantry using APCs or vehicles such as Sisu Nasu. Mechanized infantry using IFVs are called panssarijääkäri or Armoured Jäger. Several other variations exist, including Finnish Navy Coastal Jäger (Marine), Guard's Jäger of the Guard Jaeger Regiment, in special forces (Para) Jäger, Special Jäger, and in the Border Guard border jäger and special border jäger.

title: Jäger Movement


text:
Talk:Ned Kelly

Citizenship / Nationality
Should the article explain Kelly's acquisition of Australian citizenship, given that he was born in a then-British colony? JezGrove (talk) 20:20, 22 January 2024 (UTC)

 * I don't see that this is an issue. All reliable sources refer to him as an Australian bushranger and he certainly didn't identify as British. His notatiblity comes from being an Australian bushranger. This is perfectly consistent with MOS:NATIONALITY. Aemilius Adolphin (talk) 22:37, 22 January 2024 (UTC)

inflation calcs
Kind of hard to grasp reward amounts from this era without modern-day approximations. Should this be introduced. I've invoked it for the Aus gold rushes, which was of a similar era. Thoughts? Electricmaster (talk) 07:13, 7 March 2024 (UTC)

 * I don't think it is useful because the result would be misleading. I understand that there is a template which provides an adjustment of money amount for inflation, but such templates are only as useful as the source data. Consumer inflation is usually calculated using the change in price of a "typical" basket of goods and services, but there is no comparison between a typical basket of goods and services in 1880 compared with today. Today, people spend a lot of money on cars, laptops and iphones; these didn't exist in 1880. Today a typical house in Melbourne costs $800k; in 1880 Ned built a loghouse for his family himself. A more useful comparison (IMHO) would be reward money expressed a a multiple of the average wage. Unfortunately such a comparison would involve original research. Also see my concerns last time you raised this issue. Aemilius Adolphin (talk) 09:44, 7 March 2024 (UTC)

Police-murderer?
Why does the lead paragraph describe him as a police-murderer? Are police lives more valuable in Australia? Sorry. I'm American. Maybe I don't get it because we at least pretend to value all human life equally even if we dont always live up to it. And also everyone here hates the police except the police, their wives/husbands, and the mob bosses that pay them to ignore their crimes. And Republicans, I guess. They want to enforce their way of life on everyone else by any means necessary. But seriously, are we suggesting that killing a policeman is a worse crime than killing someome else? Not if Im on the jury. 2600:1702:AC1:3BA0:8DB:1F30:8D14:FE09 (talk) 16:19, 4 May 2024 (UTC)

 * Because Kelly was convicted of murdering a policeman. Aemilius Adolphin (talk) 22:26, 4 May 2024 (UTC)
 * Was he? The article says he "was convicted of the willful murder of Lonigan". Yes, he murdered someone who was a policeman, but it's not clear to me that the crime was different form murdering a non-policeman. The source is a book, so I can't check. HiLo48 (talk) 09:33, 5 May 2024 (UTC)
 * Back in those days the police and government were very corrupt and they regarded non-police officers not as highly. Ned shooting the officers also showed that if he could kill some police officers then he could easily kill some commoners, so the people feared him. King kobra2 (talk) 10:03, 16 July 2024 (UTC)

Reason for killing officers
I think that in the paragraph on the reasoning of Ned killing officers during stringybark incident there should be a mention that in Ned's letters he says that he only killed constable Kennedy because he saw the constable already shot multiple times and wanted to give him mercy. ( I would have edited it myself but I have already been for editing other pages badly, so hopefully someone else with more experience can do it King kobra2 (talk) 10:13, 16 July 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Ned Kelly


text:
Talk:Jäger Movement

Untitled
I wonder about the connection between Finland's state flag and the Jäger flag. Was the blue on white cross chosed in reverence of the Jägers, ...or what? :-)

http://www.mannerheim.fi/06_vsota/e_jaakar.htm says:
 * (The battallion was joined into the Finnish army in February 1918, and) was given their own flag in Libau. The blue and white flag, resembling that of the Finnish Guard, had a blue cross with the lion coat-of-arms in the middle, and Prussian-style eagle emblems in the corners.

-- Ruhrjung 13:20 28 Jun 2003 (UTC)
 * Not entirely sure of where I found the info, but I'd say that the Finnish flag came into being in the late 19th century, and thus predate the Jäger flag. Quite possibly the jäger flag was instead inspired by the design that was agreed upon by the independence movement.Scoo 14:38, 22 November 2005 (UTC)

 * Like Ruhrjung's quote says, its modeled after the Finnish Guard (Suomen Kaarti) flag, not the national flag. See here: http://www.eskoff.net/skaartje.htm, http://www.mannerheim.fi/13_erity/s_jaakl.htm 213.243.182.3 13:47, 12 August 2006 (UTC)

The flag in question is indeed older than the "jääkärilippu" (jäger flag). Siniristilippu (blue cross flag) was used by finnish merchantile ships during the krim war 1854-1856. It was suggested as official flag for finnish grand dutchy at 1863 but the suggestion failed and it remained as half official flag of finnish ships. It passed as official flag in 1918 because the old finnish grand dutcy flag had dark red background and it was assosiated with the finnish civil war losing side and the bolsevik revolution.

The jäger flag gets its shape from older "suomenkaartinlippu" (finnish guard flag), its colors from the siniristilippu (blue cross flag) and it seal from the old "suomenruhtinaskunnan lippu" (grand dutchy of finlands flag).

Would post you the sources but it wouldnt help since they are in finnish.

http://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuva:Finnish_Guard_Battallion_Flag_Parade.jpg http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nordic_Cross_Flag

--- finnish panzerjäger

Jäger and Jägers
I don't know about finnish practice, but in german, Jäger is both the singular and plural form. There is no such word as Jägers. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by MartinKal (talk • contribs) 22:37, 30 January 2007 (UTC).

That also brings into question how it is used in english. is it like ninja, where using either ninja, or ninjas for plural is acceptable? 67.173.1.71 (talk) 07:11, 24 November 2008 (UTC)

 * The Jäger (military) article says plural is jäger in English. The Finnish word jääkäri has plural forms (jääkärit, jääkäreitä) as has the (definite form of) Swedish jägare. --LPfi (talk) 11:58, 12 March 2009 (UTC)

Separate article needed
There should probably be a separate article about the Jäger movement, as that was the foundation for the volunteers going to Germany from Finland, the Finnish and also Swedish language version seems to cover this in a better way than the current article in English. Ulflarsen (talk) 11:43, 16 October 2008 (UTC)

Background and motivation
I am suprised that the importance for Germany is mentioned in the beginning of the article, but not the motivations of the volonteers themselves. I have understood that most of them went to Germany only to get training to fight the Russians in Finland (see Russification of Finland). I have not heard about the fighting in the German army being part of what they set out to do. Many were also from "red" background and were quite confused when they were put to fight Finnish people.

The last point might have been important also for many of the farmers on the white side in the civil war, who believed they were fighting Russians and collaborators. This is one reason why calling the war "The civil war" or "The war of freedom" is so controversial.

I am not going to edit the article as I do not have good sources. I do not know for sure whether these points are true for a small minority or for a big majority of the people involved, but I think it is important to be aware of them.

--LPfi (talk) 11:58, 12 March 2009 (UTC)

 * This brings up a good point. As modern people, we have to realize that "truths we hold self-evident" weren't in 1915. It was not clear to anyone how to support Finnish nationalism, and both collaboration with Russians and anti-Czarism were seen as valid methods. Jägers saw the former as ineffective. Furthermore, with Finnish nationalism not fully developed, anti-monarchist liberalism, i.e. anti-Czarism was the motivation for earlier Finnish "activists". This is one point that modern people frequently confuse: "activists" were not modern nationalists. --Vuo (talk) 19:52, 12 March 2009 (UTC)

title: Talk:Jäger Movement


text:
Peter II of Portugal

Dom Pedro II (Peter II; 26 April 1648 – 9 December 1706), nicknamed "the Pacific", was King of Portugal from 1683 until his death, previously serving as regent for his brother Afonso VI from 1668 until his own accession. He was the fifth and last child of John IV and Luisa de Guzmán.

Early life
Third son of King John IV and Queen Luisa, Peter was created Duke of Beja and Lord of the House of the Infantado.

Following his father's death, his mother became regent for the new king Afonso VI, Peter's elder, partially paralyzed, and mentally unstable brother. In 1662, Afonso put his mother away in a convent and assumed control of the state. In January 1668, shortly before Spanish recognition of Portugal's restoration of independence, Peter acquired political ascendancy over his brother and was appointed regent, banishing Afonso to the Azores and, later, Sintra where he died in 1683. Peter thereupon inherited the throne.

Peter not only inherited his brother's throne but also wed his former spouse, Queen Marie-Françoise of Savoy (1646–1683). They had one daughter, Isabel Luísa, Princess of Beira (1669–90), who was heir presumptive.

Rule (1668–1706)
Peter consolidated Portugal's independence with the signing of the Treaty of Lisbon in 1668, putting the Portuguese Restoration War, that began in 1640, to an end. He formed an alliance with England and had its decisive support based on marriage clauses that united Charles II of England with his sister Catherine of Braganza in 1661. Portugal ceded Tangier and Bombay as a dowry, and compromised to transfer to the English the majority of the places recovered from the Dutch, to share in half the commerce of cinnamon, to install English families with the same privileges of the Portuguese families in Goa, Cochin, Diu, Bahia, Pernambuco and Rio de Janeiro. In exchange, England would give Lisbon military support, protecting Portuguese shipments in the Mediterranean and the coasts of Lisbon and Porto.

After his coup in 1667, Peter restored the nobility to their full power and government by councils of nobles reached a high point during his reign because he required their support in deposing Alfonso VI. However, by the end of his reign, Peter centralized the monarchy's power and dissolved the excessive strength of the nobility. His successors would rule as absolute monarchs, and the Cortes would not be assembled for more than a century.

His long tenure was one of important accomplishments. In 1671 he conceded freedom of commerce to the English residing in Portugal and began the establishment of textile manufactures. Isabel Luísa was proclaimed heir presumptive to the throne at the Portuguese Cortes of 1674, Peter promulgating a letter on the regencies and tutorships of Kings to better found the rights of his daughter.

In 1674 his main concern was to improve the defenses of the realm, asking for contributions from the Junta dos Três Estados to the keeping of border garrisons, its paraphernalia and indispensable works in castles and forts. The Cortes didn't attend to totality of his request, but the great apprehension was in the coastal defense. Veríssimo Serrão, in his book "History of Portugal", Volume V, page 213 says the following, "The shipments from India and Brazil were the main object of greed so that the Crown was obliged to arm a fleet of 11 boats. (...) The squadron left the Tejo on 21 July 1675, under the command of Pedro Jacques de Magalhães. (...) But the results of such a costly undertaking were none."

There was a legal impediment to the marriage of his daughter with her cousin, the Duke of Savoy. The so-called Law of the Cortes of Lamego prevented the marriage of an heiress with a foreign prince. This alleged document became fundamental law of the Realm in 1640. The Cortes, called on 1 November 1679, proceeded with the derogation. By then the ambassador of Savoy, the Marquis of Ornano, had come to Lisbon to celebrate the marriage by proxy. But it would all turn ineffective to the extent that the embassy of the Duke of Cadaval, sent to Turin in May 1682, did not reach or did not finish the project, by pressures, perhaps, of Louis XIV on the dynasty of Savoy.

In 1683, Queen Maria Francisca died. In the court there was a strong French party, headed by the Duke of Cadaval, the then Count of Vila Maior and by the Viscount of Ponte de Lima, but others favored a closer alliance with Spain. By marrying again, Peter II chose the sister of the Queen of Spain, daughter of Philipp Wilhelm, Elector Palatine. The new queen, Maria Sophia of Neuburg, never influenced political life, maintaining a low profile. The couple had eight children, including the younger John, who succeeded his father in 1706 as King John V of Portugal.

European policy
Peter initially supported France and Spain in the War of Spanish Succession (1701–1714), but on 16 May 1703, Portugal and England signed the Methuen Treaty. This trade accord granted mutual commercial privileges for Portuguese wine and English textile traders and would later give England significant influence in the Portuguese economy. This was followed in December 1703 by a military alliance between Portugal, Austria and England for an invasion of Spain. Portuguese and Allied forces, under the command of the Marquis of Minas, captured Madrid in 1706, during the campaign which ended in the Allied defeat at Almansa.

Brazil
Peter obtained papal approval for the elevation of the Bahia bishopric to the status of archbishopric, and the creation of the bishoprics of Olinda and Rio de Janeiro in 1676. In 1677 saw the creation of the bishopric of Maranhão, directly subordinated to the archbishopric of Lisbon. In 1686, via decree from the Missionary Regiment, the privileges of the Jesuits in the interior of the Northern region were restricted. There was, however, resistance to the reordering process of the colonial administration, such as the Beckman revolt of 1684 that sublevated the Maranhão colonists against the monopoly of the General Company of Commerce of Grão-Pará and Maranhão and the rise of the Tapuias in the 1680s in various regions of the Northeast.

The discovery of gold in the interior of Caetés, Minas Gerais, at the end of the 17th century, began an age of economic prosperity and administrative change. The year 1693 saw the creation of the Captaincy of São Paulo and Minas Gerais. The Intendancy of Minas Gerais was formed in 1702. This period saw the destruction of the Quilombo dos Palmares, Alagoas, in 1695.

The King fixed the basis of his Brazilian policy in two main points: the importation of precious metals and stones and the expansion of the borders of the colony to the banks of the Río de la Plata. He sent the Viscount of Barbacena to Brazil with instructions to encourage mining exploration. The reputation of the Paulistas was such that, urged by Barbacena, Peter wrote to twelve frontiersmen Piratinganos, and provided them with the "incomparable honor" of a direct summoning them to place their employment at the royal service.

Under his reign the Casa da Moeda do Brasil was created on 8 March 1694. The King ceded his seigniorage rights, tribute owed to him, in favor of the better functioning of this institution, that minted the first Brazilian coins for usage within the colony. These coins of 2,000 and 4,000 réis in gold, and 640, 320, 160, 80, 40 and 20 réis in silver amplified and diversified the circulating midst in Brazil.

By the end of Peter's reign, there were two big problems in Brazil: the dispute over the Colónia do Sacramento that, even though since 1680 recognized as Portuguese territory, was occupied by the Spanish in 1705, and the first conflicts between Paulistas and Emboabas, competing outsiders, including metropolitan people (ie. people from European Portugal), who arrived in the region in search of gold.

Death
Beginning in 1703 the King went through times of deep drowsiness that doctors attributed to a "downflow of 'estilicido'", i.e., severe infection of the larynx. On 5 December 1706 he was stricken with a "legitimate pleurisy", that derived a seizure, with which he lost consciousness. The bloodletting from his feet did not yield results, and on 9 December, the attack became fatal. It is believed nowadays that the King suffered from a liver disease, because the autopsy found "a part of his liver twisted where 25 stones in the gall could be found". He died in the Palhavã Palace, in Lisbon.

He was the last surviving child of John IV of Portugal, and is buried in Lisbon in the Pantheon of the Braganzas.

Assessment
Historian Veríssimo Serrão says of The King in his "History of Portugal", Volume IV, page 233:

"A coeval historian extolled his physical qualities, skilled both in arms as in horseback bullfighting, having an agility and strength that predisposed him to the exercise of violence. It was during his time that the Palace of Salvaterra de Magos became again the favorite place of court, Pedro II settling there in the months of January and February, to devote himself to the sport of riding. (...) Master of a great memory, the monarch never refused an audience to whoever asked it, was it day or night, delighted to listen to others and to discuss the issues in the smallest details. This quality was (...) ''one of his biggest flaws, because he always wanted to hear the opinion of advisers, fact that led to him dilating the problems. His reign had as a great aim to rebuild the country, shaken by the wars of Restoration. Since 1693 he could dispose of the gold from Brazil that gave to this work the decisive push that Portugal needed. But the participation in the Wars of the Spanish Succession went against the national interests."''

He was tall, well proportioned, with dark eyes and dark hair.

He earned the nickname "the Pacific", because peace was made with Spain during his regency in 1668.

title: Peter II of Portugal


text:
Mathematical fallacy

In mathematics, certain kinds of mistaken proof are often exhibited, and sometimes collected, as illustrations of a concept called mathematical fallacy. There is a distinction between a simple mistake and a mathematical fallacy in a proof, in that a mistake in a proof leads to an invalid proof while in the best-known examples of mathematical fallacies there is some element of concealment or deception in the presentation of the proof.

For example, the reason why validity fails may be attributed to a division by zero that is hidden by algebraic notation. There is a certain quality of the mathematical fallacy: as typically presented, it leads not only to an absurd result, but does so in a crafty or clever way. Therefore, these fallacies, for pedagogic reasons, usually take the form of spurious proofs of obvious contradictions. Although the proofs are flawed, the errors, usually by design, are comparatively subtle, or designed to show that certain steps are conditional, and are not applicable in the cases that are the exceptions to the rules.

The traditional way of presenting a mathematical fallacy is to give an invalid step of deduction mixed in with valid steps, so that the meaning of fallacy is here slightly different from the logical fallacy. The latter usually applies to a form of argument that does not comply with the valid inference rules of logic, whereas the problematic mathematical step is typically a correct rule applied with a tacit wrong assumption. Beyond pedagogy, the resolution of a fallacy can lead to deeper insights into a subject (e.g., the introduction of Pasch's axiom of Euclidean geometry, the five colour theorem of graph theory). Pseudaria, an ancient lost book of false proofs, is attributed to Euclid.

Mathematical fallacies exist in many branches of mathematics. In elementary algebra, typical examples may involve a step where division by zero is performed, where a root is incorrectly extracted or, more generally, where different values of a multiple valued function are equated. Well-known fallacies also exist in elementary Euclidean geometry and calculus.

Howlers
Examples exist of mathematically correct results derived by incorrect lines of reasoning. Such an argument, however true the conclusion appears to be, is mathematically invalid and is commonly known as a howler. The following is an example of a howler involving anomalous cancellation: $$\frac{16}{64} = \frac{16\!\!\!/}{6\!\!\!/4}=\frac{1}{4}.$$

Here, although the conclusion $16⁄64$ = $1⁄4$ is correct, there is a fallacious, invalid cancellation in the middle step. Another classical example of a howler is proving the Cayley–Hamilton theorem by simply substituting the scalar variables of the characteristic polynomial by the matrix.

Bogus proofs, calculations, or derivations constructed to produce a correct result in spite of incorrect logic or operations were termed "howlers" by Edwin Maxwell. Outside the field of mathematics the term howler has various meanings, generally less specific.

Division by zero
The division-by-zero fallacy has many variants. The following example uses a disguised division by zero to "prove" that 2 = 1, but can be modified to prove that any number equals any other number.

 * 1) Let a and b be equal, nonzero quantities
 * $$a = b$$
 * 1) Multiply by a
 * $$a^2 = ab$$
 * 1) Subtract b2
 * $$a^2 - b^2 = ab - b^2$$
 * 1) Factor both sides: the left factors as a difference of squares, the right is factored by extracting b from both terms
 * $$(a - b)(a + b) = b(a - b)$$
 * 1) Divide out (a − b)
 * $$a + b = b$$
 * 1) Use the fact that a = b
 * $$b + b = b$$
 * 1) Combine like terms on the left
 * $$2b = b$$
 * 1) Divide by the non-zero b
 * $$2 = 1$$
 * Q.E.D.

The fallacy is in line 5: the progression from line 4 to line 5 involves division by a − b, which is zero since a = b. Since division by zero is undefined, the argument is invalid.

Analysis
Mathematical analysis as the mathematical study of change and limits can lead to mathematical fallacies — if the properties of integrals and differentials are ignored. For instance, a naive use of integration by parts can be used to give a false proof that 0 = 1. Letting u = $1⁄log x$ and dv = $dx⁄x$, we may write:

 * $$\int \frac{1}{x \, \log x} \, dx = 1 + \int \frac{1}{x \, \log x} \, dx$$

after which the antiderivatives may be cancelled yielding 0 = 1. The problem is that antiderivatives are only defined up to a constant and shifting them by 1 or indeed any number is allowed. The error really comes to light when we introduce arbitrary integration limits a and b.

 * $$\int_a^b \frac{1}{x \, \log x} \, dx = 1 |_a^b + \int_a^b \frac{1}{x \, \log x} \, dx = 0 + \int_a^b \frac{1}{x \log x} \, dx = \int_a^b \frac{1}{x \log x} \, dx$$

Since the difference between two values of a constant function vanishes, the same definite integral appears on both sides of the equation.

Multivalued functions
Many functions do not have a unique inverse. For instance, while squaring a number gives a unique value, there are two possible square roots of a positive number. The square root is multivalued. One value can be chosen by convention as the principal value; in the case of the square root the non-negative value is the principal value, but there is no guarantee that the square root given as the principal value of the square of a number will be equal to the original number (e.g. the principal square root of the square of −2 is 2). This remains true for nth roots.

Positive and negative roots
Care must be taken when taking the square root of both sides of an equality. Failing to do so results in a "proof" of 5 = 4.

Proof:
 * Start from
 * $$-20 = -20$$
 * Write this as
 * $$25-45 = 16-36$$
 * Rewrite as
 * $$5^2-5\times9 = 4^2-4\times9$$
 * Add $81⁄4$ on both sides:
 * $$5^2-5\times9+\frac{81}{4} = 4^2-4\times9+\frac{81}{4}$$
 * These are perfect squares:
 * $$\left(5-\frac{9}{2}\right)^2 = \left(4-\frac{9}{2}\right)^2$$
 * Take the square root of both sides:
 * $$5-\frac{9}{2} = 4-\frac{9}{2}$$
 * Add $9⁄2$ on both sides:
 * $$5 = 4$$
 * Q.E.D.

The fallacy is in the second to last line, where the square root of both sides is taken: a2 = b2 only implies a = b if a and b have the same sign, which is not the case here. In this case, it implies that a = –b, so the equation should read
 * $$5-\frac{9}{2} = -\left(4-\frac{9}{2}\right)$$

which, by adding $9⁄2$ on both sides, correctly reduces to 5 = 5.

Another example illustrating the danger of taking the square root of both sides of an equation involves the following fundamental identity
 * $$\cos^2x=1-\sin^2x$$

which holds as a consequence of the Pythagorean theorem. Then, by taking a square root,
 * $$\cos x = \sqrt{1-\sin^2x}$$

Evaluating this when x = $\pi$, we get that
 * $$-1 = \sqrt{1-0}$$

or
 * $$-1 = 1$$

which is incorrect.

The error in each of these examples fundamentally lies in the fact that any equation of the form
 * $$x^2 = a^2$$

where $$a \ne 0$$, has two solutions:
 * $$x=\pm a$$

and it is essential to check which of these solutions is relevant to the problem at hand. In the above fallacy, the square root that allowed the second equation to be deduced from the first is valid only when cos x is positive. In particular, when x is set to π, the second equation is rendered invalid.

Square roots of negative numbers
Invalid proofs utilizing powers and roots are often of the following kind:
 * $$1 = \sqrt{1} = \sqrt{(-1)(-1)} = \sqrt{-1}\sqrt{-1}=i \cdot i = -1.$$

The fallacy is that the rule $$\sqrt{xy} = \sqrt{x}\sqrt{y}$$ is generally valid only if at least one of $$x$$ and $$y$$ is non-negative (when dealing with real numbers), which is not the case here.

Alternatively, imaginary roots are obfuscated in the following:

 * $$i=\sqrt{-1} = \left(-1\right)^\frac{2}{4} = \left(\left(-1\right)^2\right)^\frac{1}{4} = 1^\frac{1}{4} = 1$$

The error here lies in the incorrect usage of multiple-valued functions. $$(-1)^\frac{1}{2}$$ has two values $$i$$ and $$-i$$ without a prior choice of branch, while $$\sqrt{-1}$$ only denotes the principal value $$i$$. Similarly, $$1^\frac{1}{4}$$ has four different values $$1$$, $$i$$, $$-1$$, and $$-i$$, of which only $$i$$ is equal to the left side of the first equality.

Complex exponents
When a number is raised to a complex power, the result is not uniquely defined (see ). If this property is not recognized, then errors such as the following can result:

\begin{align} e^{2 \pi i} &= 1 \\ \left(e^{2 \pi i}\right)^{i} &= 1^{i} \\ e^{-2 \pi} &= 1 \\ \end{align} $$

The error here is that the rule of multiplying exponents as when going to the third line does not apply unmodified with complex exponents, even if when putting both sides to the power i only the principal value is chosen. When treated as multivalued functions, both sides produce the same set of values, being $$\{e^{2 \pi n} | n \isin \mathbb{Z} \}.$$

Geometry
Many mathematical fallacies in geometry arise from using an additive equality involving oriented quantities (such as adding vectors along a given line or adding oriented angles in the plane) to a valid identity, but which fixes only the absolute value of (one of) these quantities. This quantity is then incorporated into the equation with the wrong orientation, so as to produce an absurd conclusion. This wrong orientation is usually suggested implicitly by supplying an imprecise diagram of the situation, where relative positions of points or lines are chosen in a way that is actually impossible under the hypotheses of the argument, but non-obviously so.

In general, such a fallacy is easy to expose by drawing a precise picture of the situation, in which some relative positions will be different from those in the provided diagram. In order to avoid such fallacies, a correct geometric argument using addition or subtraction of distances or angles should always prove that quantities are being incorporated with their correct orientation.

Fallacy of the isosceles triangle
The fallacy of the isosceles triangle, from, purports to show that every triangle is isosceles, meaning that two sides of the triangle are congruent. This fallacy was known to Lewis Carroll and may have been discovered by him. It was published in 1899.

Given a triangle △ABC, prove that AB = AC: Q.E.D.
 * 1) Draw a line bisecting ∠A.
 * 2) Draw the perpendicular bisector of segment BC, which bisects BC at a point D.
 * 3) Let these two lines meet at a point O.
 * 4) Draw line OR perpendicular to AB, line OQ perpendicular to AC.
 * 5) Draw lines OB and OC.
 * 6) By AAS, △RAO ≅ △QAO (∠ORA = ∠OQA = 90°; ∠RAO = ∠QAO; AO = AO (common side)).
 * 7) By RHS, △ROB ≅ △QOC (∠BRO = ∠CQO = 90°; BO = OC (hypotenuse); RO = OQ (leg)).
 * 8) Thus, AR = AQ, RB = QC, and AB = AR + RB = AQ + QC = AC.

As a corollary, one can show that all triangles are equilateral, by showing that AB = BC and AC = BC in the same way.

The error in the proof is the assumption in the diagram that the point O is inside the triangle. In fact, O always lies on the circumcircle of the △ABC (except for isosceles and equilateral triangles where AO and OD coincide). Furthermore, it can be shown that, if AB is longer than AC, then R will lie within AB, while Q will lie outside of AC, and vice versa (in fact, any diagram drawn with sufficiently accurate instruments will verify the above two facts). Because of this, AB is still AR + RB, but AC is actually AQ − QC; and thus the lengths are not necessarily the same.

Proof by induction
There exist several fallacious proofs by induction in which one of the components, basis case or inductive step, is incorrect. Intuitively, proofs by induction work by arguing that if a statement is true in one case, it is true in the next case, and hence by repeatedly applying this, it can be shown to be true for all cases. The following "proof" shows that all horses are the same colour.

 * 1) Let us say that any group of N horses is all of the same colour.
 * 2) If we remove a horse from the group, we have a group of N − 1 horses of the same colour. If we add another horse, we have another group of N horses. By our previous assumption, all the horses are of the same colour in this new group, since it is a group of N horses.
 * 3) Thus we have constructed two groups of N horses all of the same colour, with N − 1 horses in common. Since these two groups have some horses in common, the two groups must be of the same colour as each other.
 * 4) Therefore, combining all the horses used, we have a group of N + 1 horses of the same colour.
 * 5) Thus if any N horses are all the same colour, any N + 1 horses are the same colour.
 * 6) This is clearly true for N = 1 (i.e., one horse is a group where all the horses are the same colour). Thus, by induction, N horses are the same colour for any positive integer N, and so all horses are the same colour.

The fallacy in this proof arises in line 3. For N = 1, the two groups of horses have N − 1 = 0 horses in common, and thus are not necessarily the same colour as each other, so the group of N + 1 = 2 horses is not necessarily all of the same colour. The implication "every N horses are of the same colour, then N + 1 horses are of the same colour" works for any N > 1, but fails to be true when N = 1. The basis case is correct, but the induction step has a fundamental flaw.

title: Mathematical fallacy


text:
Joseph I of Portugal

Dom Joseph I (José Francisco António Inácio Norberto Agostinho, ; 6 June 1714 – 24 February 1777), known as the Reformer (Portuguese: o Reformador), was King of Portugal from 31 July 1750 until his death in 1777. Among other activities, Joseph was devoted to hunting and the opera. His government was controlled by Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal.

The third child and second son of King John V, Joseph became his father's heir as an infant when his older brother, Pedro, Prince of Brazil, died. In 1729 he married Infanta Mariana Victoria, the eldest daughter of Philip V of Spain. Joseph and Mariana Victoria had four daughters: Maria, Mariana, Doroteia, and Benedita.

With the death of his father in 1750, Joseph became king of Portugal. His reign witnessed, among other things, a deadly earthquake in Lisbon in 1755 and a Spanish-French invasion of Portugal in 1762. The Lisbon earthquake allowed the Marquis of Pombal to consolidate power and also caused King Joseph to develop claustrophobia, refusing to live in a walled building ever again. Afterwards, Joseph moved his court into a series of tents. A new palace was built for him in Lisbon in the aftermath of the earthquake, but this was left uncompleted. Joseph died in 1777 and was succeeded by his eldest daughter, Queen Dona Maria I.

Early life
Joseph was the third child of King John V of Portugal and his wife Maria Anna of Austria. He had an older brother Pedro, Prince of Brazil, an older sister Barbara and three younger brothers. When his brother Pedro died in 1714 at the age of two, Joseph became heir apparent with the titles of Prince of Brazil and Duke of Braganza.

Marriage
On 19 January 1729, Joseph married Infanta Mariana Victoria of Spain, daughter of King Philip V of Spain and Elisabeth Farnese, and his elder sister Barbara married King Philip's son and heir, Ferdinand, Prince of Asturias (later King Ferdinand VI of Spain). The ceremony became known as the Exchange of the Princesses. Mariana Victoria loved music and hunting, just like her husband, but she was also a serious woman who disapproved of Joseph's love affairs and did not hesitate to expose them to acquaintances. They had four daughters, all born before Joseph ascended the throne.

Reign
Joseph succeeded to the Portuguese throne in 1750, when he was 36 years old, and almost immediately placed effective power in the hands of Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo (in 1770, the king made him Marquis of Pombal). Indeed, the history of Joseph's reign is really that of the Marquis of Pombal himself. The king's eldest daughter, Maria Francisca, became heir presumptive with the title of Princess of Brazil.

Victory over Spain and France (1762)
One of the most difficult situations faced by the king was the Franco-Spanish invasion of Portugal, in the end of the Seven Years' War (5 May-24 November 1762). France and Spain sent an ultimatum in order to force Portugal to abandon its alliance with Great Britain and close her ports to British ships. King Joseph refused to submit and asked for British help since both Portugal and its army were in a very poor condition, mainly because of the great 1755 Lisbon earthquake. England sent a force of 7,104 men led by John Campbell, 4th Earl of Loudoun, and John Burgoyne, and also the exceptional military leader William, Count of Schaumburg-Lippe, which reformed the Portuguese army and led the allied army of 14–15,000 men in a victorious war. The Bourbon invaders first led by Nicolás de Carvajal, Marquis of Sarriá, and then by Pedro Pablo Abarca de Bolea, Count of Aranda, were thrice defeated by a combination of popular uprising, scorched earth strategy/famine and encircling movements by the regular Anglo-Portuguese troops, which like the militia, skilfully used the mountainous terrain to their advantage. The Spanish and French troops suffered staggering losses when they were driven out from Portugal and chased into Spain. As synthesized by historian Walter Dorn:

"… Effort of the Bourbon powers to set up the beginnings of a 'continental system' by sending a summons to Portugal to close her ports to British ships and exclude Englishmen from Brazil trade. But the Portuguese minister, the Marquis of Pombal, refused, and with the assistance of Count Lippe and the English General Burgoyne broke the offensive of the Spanish invading army. D'Aranda, the Spanish General, was forced to retreat in disgrace. With the utter failure of the Spanish war machine everywhere, all the hopes which Choiseul [French Foreign Minister] had placed on the Spanish alliance vanished. 'Had I known', he wrote, 'what I now know, I should have been very careful to cause to enter the war a power which by its feebleness can only ruin and destroy France'."

- In Competition for Empire, 1740–1763

In South America, the war ended in a draw; the Portuguese took territory from Spain (most of the Rio Negro Valley) and defeated a Spanish invasion of Mato Grosso, while Spain conquered Colónia do Sacramento and the vast territory of Rio Grande do Sul (1763). The Treaty of Paris (1763) restored the status quo ante bellum. The rich and huge territory of Rio Grande do Sul would be retaken from the Spanish army during the undeclared war of 1763-1777.

Marquis of Pombal
The powerful Marquis of Pombal sought to overhaul all aspects of economic, social and colonial policy to make Portugal a more efficient contender with the other great powers of Europe, and thus enhance his own political stature. A supposed conspiracy of nobles aimed at murdering King Joseph and Pombal gave him the opportunity (some say the pretext) to neutralize the Távora family in the Távora affair and to expel the Jesuits in September 1759, thus gaining control of public education and a wealth of church lands and ushering Portugal into the Age of the Enlightenment.

Legacy and death
Joseph's reign is also noteworthy for the Lisbon earthquake, firestorm and tsunami of 1 November 1755, in which between 30,000 and 40,000 people died. The earthquake caused Joseph to develop a severe case of claustrophobia, and he was never again comfortable living within a walled building. Consequently, he moved the royal court to an extensive complex of tents in the hills of Ajuda.

The Project for the Royal Palace in Campo de Ourique was an ambitious palatial complex planned for the Campo de Ourique neighborhood of Lisbon, but later abandoned due to a lack of impetus from the Portuguese royal family and a prioritization of other reconstruction efforts. The capital was eventually rebuilt at great cost, and an equestrian statue of King Joseph still dominates the Praça do Comércio, Lisbon's main plaza.

With Joseph's death on 24 February 1777, the throne passed to his daughter, Queen Dona Maria I, and his brother and son-in-law, King Dom Peter III. Pombal's iron rule was sharply brought to an end, because Maria disliked him since she had been heavily influenced by the Portuguese old nobility that strongly opposed Pombal.

Issue

Joseph I fathered four daughters by his wife Mariana Victoria, and there were also four stillbirths. Of their four daughters, only the eldest had issue:

 * 1) Maria Francisca Isabel Rita Gertrudes Joanna (17 December 1734 – 20 March 1816), married her uncle Infante Peter of Portugal, with issue. After her father's death, she became the first queen regnant of Portugal as Dona Maria I.
 * 2) Maria Ana Francisca Dorotea Josefa Antonia Gertrudes Rita Joanna Efigenia (7 October 1736 – 6 May 1813), potential bride for Louis, Dauphin of France, son and heir of King Louis XV. However, Maria Ana's mother refused to consent to the marriage, and the infanta died unmarried.
 * 3) Stillborn son (February 1739).
 * 4) Maria Francisca Doroteia Josefa Antónia Gertrudes Rita Joanna Efigénia de Braganca (21 September 1739 – 14 January 1771), potential bride for the French nobleman and revolutionary Philippe Égalité, but she refused to marry him and died unmarried.
 * 5) Stillborn daughter (7 March 1742).
 * 6) Stillborn daughter (15 October 1742).
 * 7) Stillborn daughter (May 1744).
 * 8) Maria Francisca Benedita Ana Isabel Joanna Antonia Laurencia Inacia Teresa Gertrudes Rita Rosa (25 July 1746 – 18 August 1829) married her nephew Dom Joseph, Prince of Brazil, no issue.

title: Joseph I of Portugal


text:
Talk:Bank and Monument stations

connection to Monument
The connection to Monument is an escalator, not a Travolator. There is a moving walkway (no longer an Otis Travolator) in the complex, between the W&C platforms and the Central Line. More at CULG (natch). --rbrwr 13:59, 28 June 2003 (UTC)

 * The moving walkway runs between the booking hall and the W&C not the Central line and W&C Wilmot1 15:36, 21 May 2007 (UTC)
 * As a passenger who uses it a lot I know that 'Bank Northern' is effectively closer to 'Monument District' platforms than they are to 'Bank Central'. For all practical purposes to get to Central from Northern one is walking the full length of King William Street underground. 92.10.41.176 (talk) 04:45, 4 November 2017 (UTC)

WWII bomb
A WWII bomb hit the Bank junction in the 1940s, killing several people, collapsing a large part of the subway and disrupting traffic above. News of the bomb was suppressed to avoid giving the Germans a propaganda victory. It would be useful to include this in the article, but I don't have the full details. Anyone? Lee M 01:13, 29 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * "The Underground at War" has the exact date, casualty lists, etc.:
 * http://www.cwgcuser.org.uk/personal/subterra/lu/tuaw.htm
 * http://www.cwgcuser.org.uk/personal/subterra/lu/tuawcafa.htm#bank
 * --rbrwr

Split?
Although they are connected, the stations are surely so far apart that they should have their own seperate articles. Lord Cornwallis (talk) 12:59, 26 April 2008 (UTC)
 * Could we at least have the correct lat-longs for each bit? Railwayfan2005 (talk) 21:37, 10 August 2009 (UTC)

Post Office line
I am not sure if this is the correct place to add my comment. I remember using Bank/Monument station when I was aged 11 in 1968, as far as I can recall there was an additional underground train line that was operated by the post office. The trains were smaller than the Central Line trains and the train conveyed passengers as well as parcels. Is this correct?

adlington.robert@gmail.com —Preceding unsigned comment added by 62.130.247.70 (talk) 10:50, 9 February 2009 (UTC)

 * That'll be London Post Office Railway a.k.a. Mail Rail. "Passengers" were only carried on special occasions. Nick Cooper (talk) 10:53, 9 February 2009 (UTC)

New title
Woudln't it be sensible to rename this article simply Bank-Monument station, considering that it is also served by the DLR (not part of the London Underground)? Don Quixote is awesome (talk) 19:32, 14 August 2009 (UTC)

Just moved it - never mind. Don Quixote is awesome (talk) 19:34, 14 August 2009 (UTC)

 * I think this should move to Bank and Monument stations. We seem to be inventing a double barrel name here that doesn't exist outside Wikipedia. MRSC (talk) 05:48, 4 June 2010 (UTC)

 * Actually quite a few TfL and media sources call it Bank-Monument. I think the main talking point is usually the complex which surrounds the three stations (Bank LU, Monument LU and Bank DLR). CrossHouses (talk) 06:15, 4 June 2010 (UTC)

 * Have you got links? I see bank and monument far more than Bank-Monument. In particular from TfL sources  MRSC (talk) 09:02, 4 June 2010 (UTC)

Future Developments
This section states that when the lift access was closed "access for the mobility-impaired was lost". It is highly unlikely that there ever was any "access for the mobility-impaired". At other stations lift shafts (both in use and disused) do not reach to platform level. There is a mezzanine level reached by stairs from the platforms, allowing a single bank of lifts for side platforms. Island platforms have insufficient space in the cross passages to fit a bank of lifts. Also the ticket office was unlikely to have a lift to the street.

Requested move

 * The following discussion is an archived discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: page moved. Armbrust The Homunculus 12:16, 25 April 2014 (UTC)

Bank–Monument station → Bank and Monument stations – Per User:MRSC's remarks above. A cursory Google search will reveal 'Bank and Monument stations' is far more common than 'Bank–Monument station' to refer to this station complex. — lfdder 03:43, 18 April 2014 (UTC)
 * Support move - as nominated. Far more common usage and used by TfL. MRSC (talk) 06:21, 18 April 2014 (UTC)
 * Weak Support - Nom's WP:COMMONNAME argument seems to hold true at first glance. I'm not sure I'd go as far as to say the name is far more common though. NickCT (talk) 14:50, 18 April 2014 (UTC)
 * Looking over the history here it seems like we are correcting a bad move from 2010. Looks like there was a discussion about it that fizzled out. NickCT (talk) 14:58, 18 April 2014 (UTC)

 * Comment TfL seem to use both depending on the medium, context and possibly person. Certainly the service status updates broadcast on the PA come from "the control room at Bank-Monument". On the ground it's one complex that comprises two stations, so my gut feeling is that both official and common usage prefer "Bank-Monument" when thinking of it as a single complex and "Bank and Monument" when thinking of it as two stations so neither is "wrong". Without having looked at any evidence yet, I would not be surprised if "Bank and Monument" was more dominant in common usage as passengers will be more often referring to in contexts where the two-station thought pattern makes sense from their point of view. Passengers will more than likely be doing the majority of the commenting due to their overwhelming numerical advantage over staff. Thryduulf (talk) 02:15, 19 April 2014 (UTC)
 * Support The station signs on the Central and Northern lines say "Bank"; those on the District say "Monument". Two names, so "and" is logical here. If they ever alter the platform signage to "Bank-Monument", we can move back. -- Red rose64 (talk) 10:08, 19 April 2014 (UTC)
 * Support They are two LU stations with different names which happen to have an underground walkway (and now, it seems, a common control room), if that is enough to make it a "complex". WP:OSE doesn't help much as Paddington is two stations with the same name that have one article, yet Hammersmith is two stations with the same name but two articles. Davidships (talk) 18:16, 19 April 2014 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page or in a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

List of OSI
According to TfL, free OSIs are only valid for Bank and Monument with surrounding NR stations but not other tube stations, i.e. Cannon Street and Liverpool Street. I wonder if it's still free to touch out Bank-Monument, in/out Liverpool Street NR and lastly in Liverpool Street tube. -- Sameboat - 同舟 (talk · contri.) 01:45, 10 March 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Bank and Monument stations


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User:Mykdavies

Hi, thanks for popping in.

title: User:Mykdavies