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Tammar wallaby

The tammar wallaby (Notamacropus eugenii), also known as the dama wallaby or darma wallaby, is a small macropod native to South and Western Australia. Though its geographical range has been severely reduced since European colonisation, the tammar wallaby remains common within its reduced range and is listed as "Least Concern" by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). It has been introduced to New Zealand and reintroduced to some areas of Australia where it had been previously extirpated. Skull variations differentiate between tammar wallabies from Western Australia, Kangaroo Island, and mainland South Australia, making them distinct population groups.

The tammar wallaby is among the smallest of the wallabies in the genus Notamacropus. Its coat colour is largely grey. The tammar wallaby has several notable adaptations, including the ability to retain energy while hopping, colour vision, and the ability to drink seawater. A nocturnal species, it spends the nighttime in grassland habitat and the daytime in shrubland. It is also very gregarious and has a seasonal, promiscuous mating pattern. A female tammar wallaby can nurse a joey in her pouch while keeping an embryo in her uterus. The tammar wallaby is a model species for research on marsupials, and on mammals in general. Its genome was sequenced in 2011.

Taxonomy and classification
The tammar wallaby was seen in the Houtman Abrolhos off Western Australia by survivors of the 1628 Batavia shipwreck, and recorded by François Pelsaert in his 1629 Ongeluckige Voyagie. It was first described in 1817 by the French naturalist Anselme Gaëtan Desmarest, who gave it the name eugenii based on a specimen found on an island then known as Ile Eugene in the Nuyts Archipelago off South Australia, which is now known as St. Peter Island. The island's French name was given in honour of Eugene Hamelin, caption of the ship Naturaliste; whose name is now the specific name of the tammar wallaby. The common name of the animal is derived from the thickets of the shrub locally known as tamma (Allocasuarina campestris) that sheltered it in Western Australia. It is also known as the dama wallaby or darma wallaby.

The tammar wallaby is traditionally classified together with the kangaroos, wallaroos and several other species of wallaby in the genus Macropus, and in the subgenus Notamacropus with the other brush wallabies, all of which have a facial stripe. However, some authors have proposed elevating the three subgenera of Macropus, Macropus (sensu stricto), Osphranter, and Notamacropus into distinct genera, making the tammar's specific name Notamacropus eugenii. This has been supported by genetic studies.

Fossil evidence of the tammar wallaby exists from the Late Pleistocene Era – remains were found in the Naracoorte Caves. The mainland and island-dwelling tammar wallabies split from each other 7,000–15,000 years ago, while the South Australian and Western Australian animals diverged around 50,000 years ago. The extirpated tammar wallabies on Flinders Island were greyer in colour with thinner skulls than present-day Kangaroo Island tammars, which are in turn larger than the East and West Wallabi Islands animals. The island tammar wallabies were once thought to be a separate species from the mainland population.

A 1991 examination of tammar wallaby skulls from different parts of the species' range found that the populations can be divided into three distinct groups: one group consisting of the populations from mainland Western Australia, East and West Wallabi Islands, Garden Island and Middle Island; a second group consisting of the populations from Flinders Island, 19th-century mainland Southern Australia and New Zealand; and a third group consisting of the population from Kangaroo Island. The Western Australia Department of Environment and Conservation listed these populations as the subspecies Macropus eugenii derbianus, M. e. eugenii and M. e. decres, respectively.

A 2017 study found many genetic differences between tammars from Western and South Australia and comparably little between the Kangaroo island and introduced New Zealand tammars. The researchers proposed dividing the species into two subspecies; the subspecific name eugenii for South Australian tammars and derbianus for those from Western Australia.

Characteristics and adaptations
One of the smallest wallaby species, the tammar wallaby features a proportionally small head with large ears, and an elongated tail, with a thick base. It has dark greyish upperparts with a paler underside and rufous-coloured sides and limbs. The tammar wallaby exhibits great sexual dimorphism, males reaching 9.1 kg in weight compared to 6.9 kg for females. Males are 59 to(-) long while females are 52 to(-), while both sexes stand 45 cm tall. The tail has a length of 34 to(-) for males and 33 to(-) for females.

Locomotion

As with most macropods, the tammar wallaby moves around by hopping. This species typically leaps 0.8 to(-) with 3.5 landings per second. Proximal muscles at the knee and hip joints provide the power for each leap, which shifts to the ankle muscles as the animal pushes off. As it lands, the energy of the jump is converted into strain energy made when its leg tendons are stretched. As it leaps back off the ground, the tammar wallaby can recover much of this energy for reuse through elastic recoil. When on the move, animal's respiration is tried to its hopping cycle, inhaling when leaping and exhaling when landing. As it moves faster, its heart rate increases nearly twice as much as its hopping frequency.

The amount of energy stored in the tendons increases with the animal's speed and the weight of the load it is carrying. This is particularly helpful for mothers carrying young, and explains why tammar wallabies can increase their hopping speed without using more energy. The tammar wallaby shares this characteristic with other macropods that move on flat terrain, like the red kangaroo. By comparison, rock-wallabies, such as the yellow-footed rock-wallaby, have traded efficient energy-saving for greater tendon strength: an adaption for rocky cliffs which allows them to leap higher and lowers the risk of their tendons breaking.

Senses
The tammar wallaby can see at 324° peripheral vision and 50° binocular vision, which gives them a wide field view but still being about to see their hands in front of them. It can discern light gradients better than most other small mammals, such as rabbits. Its vision is, nevertheless, not as good as that of a cat or human. Tammar wallabies appear to have some colour vision: its eyes have only blue sensitive and green sensitive photoreceptor cones, allowing it to see colour in the blue-green band of the colour spectrum, but not the longer wavelengths of the red-yellow band. Nevertheless, in the band where it can see colour, it can differentiate between two monochromatic colours with wavelengths as close as 20 nm apart. The pinna (ear) of the tammar wallaby is mobile, allowing it to track sounds from different parts of its surroundings without moving its head. A tammar wallaby can point its pinna at a sound source and increase its eardrum's sound pressure by 25–30 dB at 5   kHz. When the pinna moves away from the sound source, the animal's hearing level quickly drops. When born, a tammar wallaby's sense of smell is already developed; this allows the newborn to find its mother's pouch by scent.

Thermoregulation and water balance
Tammar wallabies lick their forearms and pant to keep cool in hot weather. They breathe more heavily and lose more water when the temperature is over 30 C. Tammar wallabies cannot survive in temperatures above 40 C and must find cooler surroundings. To prevent dehydration, tammar wallabies urinate less and suck up water from the distal colon, which gives them relatively dry feces. Being able to concentrate more urine in their kidneys allows them to survive on seawater.

Ecology and life history
During the day, tammar wallabies stay close to scrub for shade and move out to more open grassland by nightfall.In winter their home ranges are about 16 ha, but in the dry summers they range further afield to search for quality food, needing about 42 ha of space. Tammar wallaby home ranges overlap with those of conspecifics. Like all macropods, the tammar wallaby is herbivorous. They are known to both graze and browse, but the latter is less effective, as they commonly drop leaves when chewing on them. When eating large leaves, tammar wallabies handle them with their fingers. Tammar wallabies consume several plant species such as heart-leaved poison (Gastrolobium bilobum), small-flowered wallaby grass (Austrodanthonia setacea), and marri (Corymbia calophylla). They survive on several islands that have no fresh water, subsisting on seawater.

Tammar wallabies gather into groups which lessens the chance of an individual being taken by a predator. As the group increases in size, tammar wallabies spend more time feeding, grooming, and interacting and less time being vigilant and moving around. They are also more likely to rest on their sides rather than in a more alert posture where their head is held up. Predators of the tammar wallaby include dingoes, feral cats, red foxes and wedge-tailed eagles. They may also have been preyed upon by the extinct thylacine. Tammar wallabies appear to respond more to the sight than the sound of predators. They can also use their acute sense of smell to detect a potential threat. When a predator is detected, a tammar wallaby will alert others by thumping its foot. When lost, young tammar wallabies are known to emit a distress call and adult females may respond with a similar call.

Breeding and development
The tammar wallaby has a promiscuous mating system. It is a seasonal breeder and with many births taking place between late January and early February. During the breeding season, the male's prostate and bulbourethral gland enlarge while the weight of the testes remain the same. Around two weeks prior to the first births, the males start checking the reproductive status of the females by sniffing their urogenital openings and pouches. After giving birth, females enter estrus and allow males to mate with them. However, a male that attempts to mate with an estrous female may risk attacks from other males. A male can achieve reproductive success by mate-guarding. During the estrous period, males establish a dominance hierarchy, and the higher ranking males will try to prevent subordinates from mating with estrous females. Several males may pursue a single female.

The female tammar wallaby is receptive shortly after giving birth. Tammar wallabies undergo embryonic diapause and the blastocyst remains dormant for nearly a year. A joey in the pouch prevents the blastocyst from developing for the first six months and experiments have shown that removing the joey within this time period will stimulate the blastocyst's development. However, after this, the blastocyst remains dormant even after the joey has left. It begins to develop by the summer solstice at the end of December. A 2019 study found that more males are born due to a greater amount of Y chromosome sperm in sires. To balance out the sex ratios, tammar mothers are more likely to abandon male joeys and more females survive to weaning periods.

The lactation period of the tammar is divided into phases 2A, 2B, and 3 (pregnancy is labeled phase 1). Phase 2A encompasses the first 100–120 days after birth, and the underdeveloped young is fed diluted milk which is richer in carbohydrates than proteins and lipids. This allows for the rapid growth of important organs and internal systems including the respiratory system, lymphoid system, and nervous system. During this phase, the young remains latched on to a teat. Phase 2B lasts for another 100 days; the young suckles intermittently but still does not leave the pouch. The composition of the milk is similar, though the proteins are different. During phase 3, the joey can leave the pouch and eat plant material. The joey will continue to suckle, the teat having enlarged and the milk having become richer in proteins and lipids over carbohydrates to give the joey more energy. During this time, the joey also experiences rapid development and transitions from ectothermy to endothermy. The joey no longer needs the pouch by 250 days and is fully weaned at 300–350 days. The tammar wallaby has been observed to engage in alloparental care, in which an adult may adopt another's young. Female tammar wallabies may mature at nine months and live to age fourteen, while males mature around two years and live for eleven years.

Health
In one population of tammar wallabies, the tick species Ixodes hirsti was found to infest them during autumn and winter while those of the genus Amblyomma were more common in spring and summer. In late 1998 and again in early 1999, 120–230 tammar died suddenly in research facilities and zoos in New South Wales and Queensland, perishing less than 12 hours after their sickness was discovered, with most showing no symptoms prior. Necropsies revealed haemorrhaging of the muscles, and numerous internal organs. The syndrome is known as tammar sudden death syndrome and the pathogen is an orbivirus of the family Reoviridae. It does not occur south of Sydney, and treatment is difficult due to the rapid progression of the disease.

Population dynamics and conservation

The tammar wallaby is listed as Least Concern by the IUCN as of 2016, being particularly numerous on Kangaroo Island and four Western Australian islands. It has a maximum population of 50,000 mature individuals in total. However, the fragmentation of its range has led to high amounts of inbreeding and physical deformities in some populations.

Since European colonisation, tammar wallabies on both mainland Australia and some of the islands have greatly declined or even been eradicated. In the early 20th century, the mainland population in Western Australia was described as numerous throughout the southwest, but declining in agricultural areas to the north. Clearings made for wheat and sheep caused the population to fall even further. Starting in the 19th century, tammar wallabies in the Eyre Peninsula and around Adelaide were decimated by mobs of hunters protecting agriculture. As a result, they were extirpated from both these areas in the 20th century. Tammars from Flinders Island and St Peter Island were eradicated in a similar manner.

Tammar wallabies from these areas were introduced to Kawau Island in New Zealand by Sir George Grey in 1870. They were introduced to the Rotorua area in the early 20th century. Since then, they have flourished to the point where their foraging has damaged local plants. Pest control operators have used sodium fluoroacetate to control their populations, a practice which has been controversial because of its possible effect on organisms not targeted by the poison, including humans. Cyanide pellets have been used as an alternative.

In 1985, tammar wallabies were introduced to the North Island of the Houtman Abrolhos and have made similar impacts on native vegetation. Their numbers grew to over 450 individuals, but by 2008 culling efforts appeared to have reduced their numbers to 25 individuals. In 2003, the Monarto Zoo temporarily kept 85 tammar wallabies from New Zealand awaiting reintroduction to the Innes National Park on the Yorke Peninsula in South Australia. Four releases have been made, and the population increased to 100–120 animals by 2012. Tammar wallaby were reintroduced to Kalbarri National Park in 2010 though the project was not considered successful as the majority of radio-collared individuals did not last more than a year.

Resistance to sodium fluoroacetate
Different tammar wallaby populations have varying levels of resistance to sodium fluoroacetate. Mainland Western Australian tammar wallabies appear to be the most resistant, while those on Kangaroo Island are much more vulnerable. Tammar wallabies from New Zealand are also vulnerable, as poison has been successfully used to control their populations. Tammar wallabies from East and West Wallabi Islands and Garden Island, which do not have plants containing sodium fluoroacetate, are less resistant than mainland Western Australian tammar wallabies, but are more resistant than those from Kangaroo Island. This suggests that tammar wallabies originated in South Australia and developed a resistance to sodium fluoroacetate when they reached Western Australia, where the poison is found in plants.

Use in science

The tammar wallaby is a model organism for studying marsupial biology, as well as mammal biology in general. It has been used in the fields of reproductive biology, immunology, metabolism, neurobiology and many others. Its "seasonal and lactational control of its reproduction" makes its reproduction particularly suited for study. Saunders and colleagues (2017) have suggested the bipedal tammar as a better model for research into human spinal cord injuries than quadrupedal rodents. Tammar wallabies are easy to keep in captivity as they are non-aggressive, can adjust to surgeries and reproduce easily, requiring just one male for five females. Tammar wallabies used for scientific study are generally housed in outdoor pens with enough water and shelter, instead of a laboratory.

The genomes of marsupials are of great interest to scientists studying comparative genomics, and the study of tammar wallabies has provided much information about the genetics of marsupials and mammals in general. Marsupials are at a convenient degree of evolutionary divergence from humans; mice are too close and have not developed many different functions, while birds are genetically too remote. Key immune genes from the tammar wallaby were highlighted and studied in 2009.

In 2011, the tammar would become the second marsupial to have its full genome sequenced after the grey short-tailed opossum. The researchers found "innovation in reproductive and lactational genes, rapid evolution of germ cell genes, and incomplete, locus-specific X inactivation". The researchers also found new HOX genes that control gene expression, as well as new microRNAs. Genes for producing milk were shown to be novel while gonad genes appeared to be more conserved. Prior to the full genome sequencing of marsupials, the identification and characterization of important immunological components were limited in most marsupial species. The current sequencing and annotation of whole marsupial genomes have been useful for the further understanding of marsupial immune systems by simplifying the characterization of immune molecules in marsupials, and has aided in biomedical research. A 2017 molecular study of the tammar and the mink found the potential involvement of EGF, FOXO, CDKN1A in controlling mammalian embryonic diapause. IL-10 and IL-10Δ3 are conserved in the tammar showing their immune system can respond to pathogens similarly to other eutherian mammals using these same immune components.

A compound in the milk of the tammar wallaby called AGG01 has the potential to be a new and effective antibiotic. AGG01 is a protein, and in laboratory tests has proven to be far more powerful than penicillin. It kills many types pathogenic bacteria (both Gram-positive and Gram-negative) and at least one fungus. Subsequent analysis of the genome has led to the finding of several cathelicidin peptides, which could also be used as antibiotics. The foregut of the tammar wallaby contains species of bacteria belonging to the phyla Bacillota, Bacteroidota and Pseudomonadota. New species have been discovered: WG–1 of Pseudomonadota and TWA4 of Bacillota. These bacteria produce less methane than others and do not require CO2 to survive. This has important environmental implications, as this information could be used to reduce carbon production in livestock.

title: Tammar wallaby


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Gloria Leonard

Gloria Leonard (born Gale Sandra Klinetsky; August 28, 1940 – February 3, 2014) was an American pornographic actress during the Golden Age of Porn (1969–1984) who later became the publisher of High Society magazine. As a board member of Adult Video Association and its successor the Free Speech Coalition, Leonard was an outspoken advocate for the adult film industry and free speech rights.

Career
In the 1960s, Leonard was a Wall Street commodities trader. She later went into public relations and worked for Elektra Records. Upon her return to New York, looking for work, she contacted casting agent Dorothy Palmer, who apparently failed to tell Leonard that the acting role she cast her in was for an adult film.

Adult film
Leonard began appearing in hardcore pornography in 1974 and appeared in approximately 40 film/projects from 1976 to 1984, in films including Odyssey: The Ultimate Trip (1977), directed by Gerard Damiano, The Trouble With Young Stuff, All About Gloria Leonard (both of which were written and directed by Joseph W. Sarno), Fortune Smiles, Maraschino Cherry and Taboo: American Style. She is best known for her role in The Opening of Misty Beethoven, Radley Metzger’s erotic reimagining of George Bernard Shaw’s play Pygmalion. She retired from acting in 1984.

She directed several films for companies such as Adam & Eve, VCA Pictures, and Vivid Entertainment.

Publishing
In 1977, she was hired as the publisher of High Society magazine, a position she held for 14 years while continuing to act and appear in films. She was hired by the magazine's publisher Carl Ruderman, who wanted a female publisher of a men's magazine. Adult-industry historian Ashley West stated in an interview that Ruderman expected her to be a figurehead, but that she took the position seriously. West said, "Gloria really would visit wholesalers herself, had relationships with all the distributors, would hire and fire staff, would supervise layouts, would recommend and decide upon the content, so really became a hands-on editor, at least in the first five or six years of her stint at High Society."

Leonard is also credited with two successful ideas that each became cottage industries: the publishing of nude celebrity photos and phone sex lines. Starting out as a feature that showcased risqué photos of celebrities like Jodie Foster and Goldie Hawn, usually lifted from film stills, the former became a spin-off venture of High Society called Celebrity Skin magazine in 1986. Over its 25-year run Margot Kidder, Ann-Margret and Barbra Streisand unsuccessfully attempted to sue the magazine after it published nude photos of them.

Phone sex line pioneer
Leonard is credited with being one of the first people to use "976 numbers" for promotional purposes and as a revenue stream: this later became known as the "phone sex" industry. Initially Leonard recorded her own voice informing callers of the contents of the next issue of High Society magazine before its publication. Later she recorded others, such as Annie Sprinkle, "talking sexy". Leonard convinced magazine owner Ruderman to purchase more of these numbers and the business began to be successful using the magazine to promote the service.

Appearances
Early in her career she was interviewed by a magazine for an article titled "The Parkway All-Stars" (after the Mosholu Parkway in the Bronx) about a group of overachievers who grew up within a 15-block radius. The article also featured interviews with actor Robert Klein, actress Penny Marshall (and her brother, TV producer Garry Marshall) and fashion designers Calvin Klein and Ralph Lauren. Leonard remarked to a colleague, "Yeah, I knew Ralph Lauren when he was Ralph Lipschitz."

Leonard was also presenter at an awards ceremony for Video Review magazine that was emceed by Klein. She recalled in an interview, "When he introduced me he told the audience, 'For 15 years I walked to school with this woman and I saw more of her in three minutes of Misty Beethoven than I saw in all of those 15 years.'"

Leonard appeared in a documentary film by Melissa Monet called Porn—It's A Living. Leonard delivered the film's opening line: "Not too many people are going to be proud saying, 'Look at my daughter, look how good she sucks cock.'"

Television appearances
She had a role as a salesperson on Simon & Simon in 1984, in the episode "Manna from Heaven". Leonard had also been a guest on several talk shows, including Oprah, Geraldo, Maury, Larry King, Morton Downey Jr., and Howard Stern. She has also hosted her own television shows - The Leonard Report: For Adults Only and later, Gloria Leonard's Hot Shopper Hour.

Organizations
Leonard helped found and was a lifetime member of one of the industry's earliest adult actress support groups. Started in 1984, the group was named Club 90 and initially met at Annie Sprinkle's home at "90 Lexington Avenue" in New York. Other members included Veronica Vera, Veronica Hart, Annie Sprinkle, and Candida Royalle.

She also served as administrative director of the Adult Film and Video Association of America, the adult film industry trade association, from 1989 to 1992, until that organization merged with the Free Speech Coalition. In 1998, she was elected president of the FSC. She was also president of the AFVAA in 1986.

Feminism
Leonard was a feminist and free speech advocate, and debated on the issues of pornography and censorship and their impact on the women's movement at several colleges and universities. For several years in the 1980s she debated representatives from the feminist organization Women Against Pornography at numerous college campuses.

Awards and recognition
She won the Best Actress award for Taboo, American Style from the AFAA. Leonard is a member of the X-Rated Critics Organization (XRCO) Hall of Fame and Adult Video News (AVN) Hall of Fame.

Personal life
Leonard was Jewish and raised in the Bronx neighborhood of New York City. She was a single mother, more mature than most porn ingenues, and had had other occupations, such as a Wall Street broker and publicist. She was formerly married to adult-film producer/director Bobby Hollander. Her first two marriages ended in divorce. She was separated from Hollander, her third husband, when he died in 2002.

Relationship with Norman Mailer
In a chance meeting in an Upper East Side New York restaurant in 1982, Leonard first met author/playwright Norman Mailer. Mailer, a noted womanizer, struck up a conversation with Leonard after recognizing her. The meeting was rumored to have led to an affair between the two, but it did not last long.

Later on, Leonard was approached by a group of movie distributors from the Midwest to finance what was described as "the world's first million-dollar pornographic movie." She invited Mailer to lunch and made her pitch. In an interview Leonard said that the author "sat straight up in his chair and said, 'I always knew I'd one day make a porny.'" Leonard then asked what his fee would be and Mailer responded with "Two-hundred fifty thousand". The project later ended due to scheduling conflicts between the two.

Death
Leonard had made her home in Waimea, Hawaii, in what proved to be her last years. Either on January 31, 2014, or in the early hours of February 1, she suffered a massive stroke there. Not found for approximately 24 hours afterward, she was transported to a nearby hospital. As a result of the stroke, Leonard was left with extensive brain damage, and she died on February 3, 2014, at the age of 73, after having her life-support systems disconnected.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Gloria Leonard


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Cochise

Cochise (Apache: Shi-ka-She or A-da-tli-chi, lit. 'having the quality/strength of an oak'; later K'uu-ch'ish or Cheis, ; c. 1805 –June 8, 1874) was the leader of the Chiricahui local group of the Chokonen and principal nantan of the Chokonen band of a Chiricahua Apache. A key war leader during the Apache Wars, he led an uprising that began in 1861 and persisted until a peace treaty was negotiated in 1872. Cochise County is named after him.

Biography
Cochise (or "Cheis") was one of the most noted Apache leaders (along with Geronimo and Mangas Coloradas) to resist intrusions by Mexicans and Americans during the 19th century. He was described as a large man (for the time), with a muscular frame, classical features, and long, black hair, which he wore in traditional Apache style. He was about 6 ft tall and weighed about 175 lb. In his own language, his name Cheis meant "having the quality or strength of oak."

Cochise and the Chokonen-Chiricahua lived in the area that is now the northern region of Sonora, Mexico; New Mexico, and Arizona, which they had settled in sometime before the arrival of the European explorers and colonists. As Spain and later Mexico attempted to gain dominion over the Chiricahua lands, the indigenous groups became increasingly resistant. Cycles of warfare developed, which the Apache mostly won. Eventually, the Spanish tried a different approach; they tried to make the Apache dependent (thereby placating them), giving them older firearms and liquor rations issued by the colonial government (this was called the "Galvez Peace Policy"). After Mexico gained independence from Spain and took control of this territory, it ended the practice, perhaps lacking the resources (and/or possibly the will) to continue it. The various Chiricahua bands resumed raiding in the 1830s to acquire what they wanted after the Mexicans stopped selling these goods to them.

As a result, the Mexican government began a series of military operations to stop the raiding by the Chiricahua, but they were fought to a standstill by the Apache. Cochise's father was killed in the fighting. Cochise deepened his resolve, and the Chiricahua Apache pursued vengeance against the Mexicans. Mexican forces captured Cochise at one point in 1848 during an Apache raid on Fronteras, Sonora, but he was exchanged for nearly a dozen Mexican prisoners.

Border tensions and fighting
Beginning with early Spanish colonization around 1600, the Apache suffered tension and strife with European settlers until the greater part of the area was acquired by the United States in 1850 following the Mexican War. For a time, the two peoples managed peaceful relations. In the late 1850s, Cochise may have supplied firewood for the Butterfield Overland Mail stagecoach station at Apache Pass.

The tenuous peace did not last, as American encroachment into Apache territory continued. In 1861, the Bascom affair was a catalyst for armed confrontation. An Apache raiding party had driven away a local rancher's cattle and kidnapped his 12-year-old stepson (Felix Ward, who later became known as Mickey Free). Cochise and his band were mistakenly accused of the incident (which had been carried out by another band, Coyotero Apache). Army officer Lt. George Bascom invited Cochise to the Army's encampment in the belief that the warrior was responsible for the incident. Cochise maintained his innocence and offered to look into the matter with other Apache groups, but the officer tried to arrest him. Cochise escaped by drawing a knife and slashing his way out of the tent, but was shot at as he fled.

Bascom captured some of Cochise's relatives, who apparently were taken by surprise as Cochise escaped. Cochise eventually also took hostages to use in negotiations to free the Apache Indians. However, the negotiations fell apart, because the arrival of U.S. troop reinforcements led Cochise to believe that the situation was spiraling out of his control. Both sides eventually killed all their remaining hostages. Cochise went on to carry out about 11 years of relentless warfare, reducing much of the Mexican/American settlements in southern Arizona to a burned-out wasteland. Dan Thrapp estimated the total death toll of settlers and Mexican/American travelers as 5,000, but most historians believe it was more likely a few hundred. The mistaken arrest of Cochise by Lt. Bascom is still remembered by the Chiricahua's descendants today, who describe the incident as "Cut the Tent".

Cochise joined his father-in-law Mangas Coloradas (Red Sleeves, Kan-da-zis Tlishishen), the powerful Chihenne-Chiricahua chief, in a long series of retaliatory skirmishes and raids on the white settlements and ranches. The First Battle of Dragoon Springs was one of these engagements. During the raids, many people were killed, but the Apache quite often had the upper hand. The United States was distracted by its own internal conflict of the looming Civil War, and had begun to pull military forces out of the area. Additionally, the Apaches were highly adapted to living and fighting in the harsh terrain of the Southwest. Many years passed before the US Army, using tactics conceived by General George Crook and later adopted by General Nelson A. Miles,  was able to effectively challenge the Apache warriors on their own lands.

Battle of Apache Pass
At Apache Pass in 1862, Cochise and Mangas Coloradas, with around 500 fighters, held their ground against a New Mexico-bound force of California volunteers under General James Henry Carleton until carriage-mounted howitzer artillery fire was brought to bear on their positions in the rocks above.

According to scout John C. Cremony and historian Dan L. Thrapp, the howitzer fire sent the Apaches into an immediate retreat. The Battle of Apache Pass was one of the rare pitched battles the Apaches fought against the Army. Normally, the Apaches' tactics involved guerrilla-style warfare. Capt. Thomas Roberts was persuaded by this conflict that it would be best to find a route around Apache Pass, which he did. Gen. Carleton continued unhindered to New Mexico and subsequently took over as commander of the territory.

In January 1863, Gen. Joseph R. West, under orders from Gen. Carleton, captured Mangas Coloradas by luring him into a conference under a flag of truce. During what was to be a peaceful parley session, the Americans took Mangas Coloradas prisoner and later murdered him. This fanned the flames of enmity between the encroaching Americans and the Apache. Cochise believed that the Americans had violated the rules of war by capturing and killing Mangas Coloradas during a parley session. Cochise and the Apache continued their raids against U.S. and Mexican settlements and military positions throughout the 1860s.

Capture, escape and retirement
Following various skirmishes, Cochise and his men were gradually driven into Arizona's Dragoon Mountains, but used the mountains for cover and as a base from which to continue attacks against white settlements. Cochise evaded capture and continued his raids against white settlements and travelers until 1872. In 1871, General Oliver O. Howard was ordered to find Cochise, and in 1872, Howard was accompanied by his aide 1st Lt Joseph A. Sladen and Captain Samuel S. Sumner to Arizona to negotiate a peace treaty with Cochise. Tom Jeffords, the Apache leader's only white friend, was also present. A treaty was negotiated on October 12, 1872. Based on statements by Sumner and descriptions by Sladen, modern historians such as Robert M. Utley believe that Cochise's Spanish interpreter was Geronimo.

After the peace treaty, Cochise retired to the short-lived Chiricahua Reservation (1872–1876), with his friend Jeffords as agent. He died of natural causes (probably abdominal cancer) in 1874, and was buried in the rocks above one of his favorite camps in Arizona's Dragoon Mountains, now called the Cochise Stronghold. Only his people and Tom Jeffords knew the exact location of his resting place, which they never disclosed.

Many of Cochise's descendants reside at the Mescalero Apache Reservation near Ruidoso, New Mexico, and in Oklahoma with the Fort Sill Apache Tribe of Chiricahua Warm Springs Apache.

Whether a portrait of Cochise exists is unknown; a reported portrait is actually that of a 1903 Pueblo of Isleta man named Juan Rey Abeita.

Family
Cochise married Dos-teh-seh (Dos-tes-ey, Doh-teh-seh – "Something-at-the-campfire-already-cooked", b. 1838), the daughter of Mangas Coloradas, who was the leader of the Warm Springs and Mimbreño local groups of the Chihenne band. Their children were Taza (1842–1876) and Naiche (1856–1919).

In popular culture

 * The best-selling novel by Elliott Arnold in 1947 titled Blood Brother gives a fictionalized account of the latter part of the struggle and friendship between Tom Jeffords and Cochise.
 * In 1950, director Delmer Daves turned Arnold's novel into a film retitled Broken Arrow, featuring James Stewart as Tom Jeffords and Jeff Chandler as Cochise. Broken Arrow is often credited as the first sound film to show a sympathetic picture of Native Americans and influenced the popular image of Native American people. The tall, handsome, deeply tanned Chandler, a Jewish actor born in Brooklyn, New York, portrayed Cochise as a noble, nearly tragic character forced to fight against the U.S. Army officers who led incursions into Apache territory.
 * John Ford's representation of Cochise in the 1948 film Fort Apache was also positive to Native Americans, although in that film, Cochise spoke Spanish (a language the Apaches had learned from their Mexican enemies).
 * Jeff Chandler again portrayed Cochise in the 1952 film The Battle at Apache Pass as well as in Taza, Son of Cochise (1954), with Rock Hudson as his son, Taza.
 * The film Conquest of Cochise released by Columbia Pictures in 1953 and starring John Hodiak as Cochise also showed Cochise as a caring man who wanted peace with whites.
 * Broken Arrow is a TV series adapted from the 1950 film that told a fictionalized account of the historical relationship between Tom Jeffords (John Lupton) and Cochise (Michael Ansara); the show was aired on ABC in prime time from 1956 through 1958.
 * Cochise was portrayed by Jeff Morrow in a 1961 episode of Bonanza.
 * "Cochise" is an instrumental piece in the album Guitars, by Mike Oldfield.
 * Audioslave's debut single "Cochise" is named after the chief. In an interview, guitarist Tom Morello said that Cochise was "the last great American Indian chief to die free and absolutely unconquered. When several members of his family were captured, tortured, and hanged by the U.S. Cavalry, Cochise declared war on the entire Southwest.... Cochise the avenger, fearless and resolute, attacked everything in his path with an unbridled fury."
 * The 2008 novel by Melody Groves titled Arizona War: A Colton Brothers Saga gives a fictionalized account of Cochise's dealings with the main characters, James and Trace Colton, during the early 1860s, including the Bascom affair of 1861 and the New Mexico-bound force of California volunteers under General James Henry Carleton during 1862.
 * Wes Studi portrays Cochise in A Million Ways to Die in the West despite the film being set in 1882, eight years after Cochise's death.
 * A statue of Cochise is shown as a meeting point between friends Jaime Reyes and Tye Longshadow in the Young Justice episode "Beneath".
 * A small lunar crater was named after Cochise, located near the landing site in the Taurus–Littrow valley, by the astronauts of Apollo 17.
 * Phoenix-area theme park, Legend City (now defunct), featured a popular animatronic river ride called Cochise's Stronghold.
 * An alien from the TV show Falling Skies is nicknamed "Cochise" by his human allies.

title: Cochise


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Robert Orben

Robert Orben (March 4, 1927 – February 2, 2023) was an American professional comedy writer and magician. He wrote multiple books on comedy, mostly collections of gags and "one-liners" originally written for his newsletter, Orben's Current Comedy, and also wrote books for magicians. Later, Orben moved into politics, and in 1973 he became head speechwriter to Vice President Gerald R. Ford.

Orben died at a nursing home in Alexandria, Virginia, on February 2, 2023, at the age of 95.

title: Robert Orben


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Arsenio Hall

Arsenio Hall (born February 12, 1956) is an American comedian, actor and talk show host. He hosted the late-night talk show, The Arsenio Hall Show, from 1989 until 1994, and again from 2013 to 2014.

He has appeared in Martial Law, Coming to America (1988), Coming 2 America (2021), and Harlem Nights (1989). He was also the host of Star Search and appeared as Alan Thicke's sidekick on the talk show Thicke of the Night.

In 2012, he won NBC's reality-competition game show Celebrity Apprentice 5.

Early life
Hall was born in Cleveland, Ohio, the son of Fred and Annie Hall. His father is a Baptist minister. Hall performed as a magician when he was a child. He graduated from Warrensville Heights High School in Warrensville Heights, Ohio, in 1973, after briefly attending John F. Kennedy High School. He later attended Ohio University and Kent State University.

Career
Hall later moved to Chicago, and then Los Angeles, to pursue a career in comedy, making a couple of appearances on Soul Train. In 1984, he was the announcer/sidekick for Alan Thicke during the short-lived talk show Thicke of the Night (a role for which he has on occasion noted his confusion with Monty Hall).

He appeared on five weeks of episodes of the short-lived NBC game show Match Game-Hollywood Squares Hour from 1983 to 1984. He was also the original voice of Winston Zeddemore in the animated series The Real Ghostbusters from 1986 to 1987. In 1988, he co-starred in the comedy film Coming to America with Eddie Murphy. During his career, he set up Arsenio Hall Communications in 1987, and then he had signed a two-year, multi-picture agreement with Paramount Pictures to develop films for an exclusive agreement.

Talk shows
In 1986, the Fox network introduced The Late Show Starring Joan Rivers, created to directly challenge The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson. After a moderate start, ratings for the show sagged. Relations between Rivers and network executives at Fox quickly eroded, and she left in 1987. The series was subsequently renamed The Late Show, and featured several interim hosts, including Ross Shafer, Suzanne Somers, Shawn Thompson, Richard Belzer and Robert Townsend, before it was canceled in 1988. Hall was also chosen to host the show in the fall of 1987, and his stint proved immensely popular, leading to his being offered his own show in syndication.

From January 2, 1989, to May 27, 1994, he had a Paramount contract to host a nationwide syndicated late-night talk show, The Arsenio Hall Show. It was a breakout success, rating especially high among the coveted younger demographic, and it was known for its audience's distinctive alternative to applause in chanting, "Woof, woof, woof!" (which originated in the Cleveland Browns' Dawg Pound in the east end zone) while pumping their fists. The practice soon became such a ritual that by 1991 it had become a "pop culture stamp of approval"—one that Hall said had become "so popular it's getting on people's nerves". The gesture was so well known that it appeared in films such as Pretty Woman and The Hard Way.

He also had a rivalry with Jay Leno after the latter was named host of The Tonight Show, during which Hall said that he would "kick Jay's ass" in ratings.

Support of gay rights and the fight against AIDS
Hall was a supporter of gay rights long before the movement had become overwhelmingly popular and supported in the mainstream, especially in black culture. In the early 1990s, this culminated in an episode of The Arsenio Hall Show where Hall was protested by gay rights activists, who criticized that he didn't have any gay guests on the show and that he would occasionally play gay characters; Hall was clearly upset by the accusation, saying he had famously put LGBT celebrities on his show, including Elton John, and had others on who preferred not to publicly advocate their sexual orientation. After passionately stating his points, Hall received overwhelming woof chants of support from his audience. Additionally, Hall used his fame during this period to help fight worldwide prejudice against HIV/AIDS after Magic Johnson contracted the virus. Hall and Johnson filmed a public service announcement about the disease that aired in the early 1990s.

Other television and radio work
Between 1988 and 1991, Hall hosted the MTV Video Music Awards. Over the years, he has appeared as a guest on numerous talk shows, in special features, as a voice actor, on game shows and other award shows. Since The Arsenio Hall Show ended, Hall had leading roles on television shows such as the short-lived sitcom Arsenio (1997) and Martial Law with Sammo Hung (1998–2000), and hosted the revival of Star Search (2003–2004). While hosting Star Search, he popularized the catchphrase "Hit me with the digits!"

Hall appeared as himself in Chappelle's Show in March 2004 (convinced by Swedish comedy director Saman Khadiri) when Chappelle was imagining "what Arsenio is doing right now" in a dinner scene. Hall has guest co-hosted Wednesday evenings on The Tim Conway Jr. Show on KLSX 97.1 FM radio. He hosted MyNetworkTV's comedic web video show The World's Funniest Moments and TV One's 100 Greatest Black Power Moves. He also appeared on Real Time with Bill Maher in May 2012, in a discussion commemorating the 1992 Los Angeles riots.

Hall was considered the host of the syndicated version of Deal or No Deal and filmed a pilot (there were six taped). However, by the time the syndicated series began on September 8, 2008, Howie Mandel was chosen as host.

Hall also appeared regularly on The Jay Leno Show, and was a guest on Lopez Tonight. George Lopez credits Arsenio as the reason he had a late night show; Lopez appeared on The Arsenio Hall Show more times than any other comedian. Lopez requested Hall be a co-host on Lopez Tonight (November 25, 2009) since he regarded Hall as his inspiration and the first "late night party show host". Hall has filled in as guest host for NBC's Access Hollywood Live (2011) and CNN's evening talk/interview program Piers Morgan Tonight in 2012.

In 2012, Hall was a contestant on the fifth edition of The Celebrity Apprentice, which began airing February 19, 2012. Hall represented his charity, the Magic Johnson Foundation, which is dedicated to advancing economic and social equality by engaging minorities in every aspect of their communities; increasing academic and innovative achievement; and raising HIV/AIDS awareness, treatment and prevention. While Hall clashed with Aubrey O'Day, he befriended a majority of the cast. On May 20, 2012, in the live season finale, he was chosen as the Celebrity Apprentice winner, being "hired" by Donald Trump over the other celebrity finalist, singer Clay Aiken. For winning The Celebrity Apprentice, Hall won the $250,000 grand prize for his charity, in addition to money for the tasks he and his team performed when he was a team leader.

A revival of Hall's syndicated late-night talk show, The Arsenio Hall Show, premiered September 9, 2013, on Tribune owned stations and other networks via CBS Television Distribution. It was canceled after one season due to low ratings. The last taping aired May 30, 2014.

Arsenio appeared in a bit in the January 2024 Emmys.

Personal life
In 1997, after being out of the public eye for three years, Hall gave an interview to dispel rumors regarding what had driven him off stage. "I went on the Internet," he said, "and read I was in detox at Betty Ford. I got online under a fake name and typed in, 'I know Arsenio better than anyone else and he's not in detox, you idiots!'"

Hall has one son, born in 1998. Hall says he took time off to raise his son before resuming The Arsenio Hall Show in 2013. Hall had an interest in returning to the business eventually, but his decision was not confirmed until he appeared on Lopez Tonight in 2009 (although he initially considered a weekend show because he did not want to compete in ratings against his friend George Lopez).

On May 5, 2016, Hall filed a $5 million defamation lawsuit against Sinéad O'Connor after she claimed he had fueled Prince's drug habit and had also spiked his drink at a party at Eddie Murphy's house. Hall dropped the lawsuit after O'Connor apologized and retracted her allegations.

Recognition

 * 1988 NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Motion Picture (Coming to America)
 * 1989 American Comedy Award for Funniest Supporting Actor in a Motion Picture (Coming to America)
 * Hall received an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters degree from Central State University, Wilberforce, Ohio, Spring 1992.

As "Chunky A"

 * Large and in Charge (1989)

title: Arsenio Hall


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Gayane (ballet)

Gayane (Gayaneh or Gayne, the e is pronounced; Գայանե; Гаянэ) is a four-act ballet with music by Aram Khachaturian. Originally composed in or before 1939, when it was first produced (in Yerevan) as Happiness. Revised in 1941–42 to a libretto by Konstantin Derzhavin and with choreography by Nina Aleksandrovna Anisimova (Derzhavin's wife), the score was revised in 1952 and in 1957, with a new plot. The stage design was by Nathan Altman (scenery) and Tatyana Bruni (costumes).

The first performance took place on 9 December 1942, staged by the Kirov Ballet while in Perm, Russia, during the Second World War evacuation, and was broadcast on the radio. The principal dancers were: Natalia Dudinskaya (Gayane), Nikolai Zubkovsky (Karen), Konstantin Sergeyev (Armen), Tatanya Vecheslova (Nune), and Boris Shavrov (Giko). The conductor was Pavel Feldt. The most famous parts of the ballet are the "Sabre Dance", which has been performed by many (including pop artists).

Khachaturian's original Gayane was the story of a young Armenian woman whose patriotic convictions conflict with her personal feelings on discovering her husband's treason. In later years the plot was modified several times, the resultant story emphasizing romance over nationalistic zeal.

Background
The ballet, based on an earlier ballet composed in 1939 by Khachaturian called Happiness, was created when the Kirov ballet was in Perm. Khachaturian started composing the score in autumn 1941 and the ballet was first mounted on 3 December 1942 on the small stage of the Perm state theatre. Despite these limitations, the effect was profound; in effect, the message was that the company was continuing to exist and to produce new ballets, despite the very hard times. Anisimova invited different dancers to participate in her ballet, dancers who happened to be in the city at that time; there was a sense of camaraderie and combined effort which suited the positive feeling of the ballet itself. The composition, the music, the dancing, all together created something which, regardless of the weaknesses in the libretto, expressed the triumph of dancing and its many different possibilities.

Instrumentation
The orchestral score calls for:
 * woodwinds: 3 flutes (3rd doubling piccolo), 2 oboes, English horn, 3 clarinets (3rd doubling bass clarinet), alto saxophone, 2 bassoons;
 * Brass: 4 horns, cornet, 3 trumpets, alto trumpet, 3 trombones, bass tuba;
 * Timpani and percussion: triangle, tambourine, 2 side drums, cymbals, bass drum, tam-tam, doli, daira, Glockenspiel, xylophone, marimba, vibraphone, chimes;
 * keyboards: celesta, piano;
 * strings: 2 harps, violins (1st and 2nd), violas, cellos and double basses.

Plot
Many themes of interethnic love, betrayal and friendship interact in an Armenian setting. The central character is a young woman named Gayane, who works in a kolkhoz in a mountainous district near the national border.

In the Armenian kolkhoz, farmers are busy reaping cotton. Among them are heroine Gayane, her father Ovanes, brother Armen and younger sister Nune. They are all models of hard work with the only exception of Gayane's husband Giko, a lazy drunkard. She admonishes Giko for his misconduct and this escalates into a quarrel. Then arrives Kazakov, commander of the Soviet frontier guard, and a dance of welcome begins. Seeing Gayane present a bouquet to Kazakov, Giko violently snatches the bouquet from her and ignoring everybody's reproach, disappears.
 * Act I

At Gayane's home, people console Gayane who is deploring her husband's misconduct. The singing voices of carpet weavers are heard. As Giko returns, all go out. Gayane sings her child Ripsime to sleep. Three smugglers come to see Giko. They conspire to share the public money they have embezzled, to set fire to the cotton warehouse and to flee abroad. Overhearing their conspiracy, Gayane admonishes her husband, but he thrusts her into another room and locks her up.
 * Act II

At a Kurdish settlement in a mountainous area near the kolkhoz are many people, including Gayane's brother Armen, a Kurdish girl Aishe, and a Kurdish young man Izmail who loves her. Giko and the three smugglers arrive, asking Armen their way. Wondering about their intentions and activity, he sends some Kurdish youths to fetch Kazakov. Noticing this, Giko and his gang try to kill Armen, but Kazakov appears just in time and arrests the three smugglers. Giko escapes, however, and sets fire to the cotton warehouse. Trying to flee in the confusion of the moment, Giko is found by Gayane, who has managed to break out of the room in which she was imprisoned. Giko threatens Gayane that he will drop their child Ripsime from a cliff. As Gayane does not yield, Giko stabs her with a dagger. Hearing her shriek, Kazakov rushes in and arrests Giko, who will be brought to justice. Kazakov tends Gayane devotedly, and she recovers. Love grows between the two.
 * Act III

A year later, at the kolkhoz, a dedication ceremony of the reconstructed warehouse occurs, as well as three weddings: Gayane and Kazakov, Armen and Aishe, Karen and Nune. Folk dances, rich in local color, are performed one after another. The ballet ends amid blessings by all.
 * Act IV

Analysis
The ballet Gayane was modestly successful when danced before Joseph Stalin; performances outside the USSR have been infrequent. At the time, it was understood that the simple libretto was a necessary backdrop for the dancing, which was splendidly staged and choreographed by Anisimova, who danced in the original production. Choreographically, Anisimova thought in character dancing terms; she knew much classical dance.

Excerpts from Gayane are performed by dance companies and dance schools, especially the wedding in the second act: wonderful duets and variations for Gayane and Kazakov, her lover. The choreography was unusual for its time—classical and folk dance combined—especially the stylized use of arms and hands from the folkloric Armenian culture that is the ballet's background.

The collective farm's ethnic diversity is the backdrop for each part of the music (adagio arrangements, lively Armenian and Caucasian tunes) and for the compelling tale of love between a couple from different social classes.

The premiere cast included Natalia Dudinskaya and Konstantin Sergeyev, then leading figures in Leningrad ballet. Nina Anisimova danced the part of an Armenian girl who is an image and symbol of socialist labour: she works hard, she knows how to produce the most from the fields, but she also knows how to enjoy life, spending her free time dancing and laughing.

The suite of dances in the second act reflects the nationalities of the Soviet Union. At the time, Armenia was one of 15 republics within the Union. For that, Anisimova created the famous "Sabre Dance" that, when performed as a musical extract, became a showpiece for many dance companies.

The style of movement in the dance is unusual and unexpected for character dance—unusual bends of the body, inventive positions of the arms, not from the classical moves, the overall structure of the body is not balletic, but, most of all, in keeping with Khachaturian's music, the choreography is temperamental, like Anisimova herself.

When critics analysed Gayane, they saw that, in strict ballet terms, it is not completely successful as a whole, because of its naïve libretto and its overtly social emphasis, yet, choreographers, critics, and historians persuaded the Kirov Theatre to profitably stage excerpts of the ballet.

The "Variation of Gayane", the "Variation of Giko", and the character dances were effectively done and subsequently danced as gala pieces. After its premiere in Perm, Anisimova twice restaged Gayane for the Kirov and after revision, the 1952 version stands as the definitive version of Gayane.

In the end, Nina Anisimova proved that character dancing endures and should be included in the world of classical ballet. The dance in Gayane did not follow the Petipa tradition, for example Swan Lake, wherein the audience is treated to national dance in discrete divertissements of "dances of le salon", in Petipa's words; in contrast, the dance in Gayane, by force of character, is felt throughout the ballet; it is a natural part of the people and of their history. In time, the ballet helped choreographers understand the importance of choreographic art in Russia, combining character dance with classical and mime traditions. Gayane is an excellent example of character dance and ballet combined; its artistic value to twentieth-century Soviet choreography is significant.

Derivative works
For concert performance Khachaturian arranged three orchestral suites drawn from the score. Published in 1943, these became very popular. The suites exist in various configurations, and conductors often compile their own selection for any given performance.
 * Suite from Gayane No. 1 (1943)
 * Suite from Gayane No. 2 (1943)
 * Suite from Gayane No. 3 (1943)

Stanley Kubrick's film 2001: A Space Odyssey featured one of the less up-tempo sections of the Gayane third suite (the Adagio). The composer James Horner quoted from this same piece in three of his film scores, Patriot Games, Clear and Present Danger and Aliens. The "Adagio" was also used, among other pieces by Khachaturyan, in Tinto Brass's Caligula.

The "Sabre Dance" features prominently in the 1961 film One, Two, Three directed by Billy Wilder and starring James Cagney, as well as in Woody Allen's 2006 film Scoop. It has also been used in numerous other movies, TV shows, and video games. Because of its feverish tempo, the music has long been a staple of novelty acts such as plate twirling. It is also used as the introductory and promotional theme for the professional hockey team, the Buffalo Sabres.

title: Gayane (ballet)