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Hans von Ohain

Hans Joachim Pabst von Ohain (14 December 1911 – 13 March 1998) was a German physicist, engineer, and the designer of the first turbojet engine to power an aircraft. Together with Frank Whittle he has been described as the co-inventor of the turbojet engine. However, the historical timelines show that von Ohain was still a university student when, in January 1930, Whittle filed his first patent for a turbojet engine and successfully tested his first engine in April 1937, some 6 months before von Ohain. Additionally, prior to designing his engine and filing his own patent in 1935, von Ohain had read and critiqued Whittle's patents. Von Ohain stated in his biography that "My interest in jet propulsion began in the fall of 1933 when I was in my seventh semester at Göttingen University. I didn't know that many people before me had the same thought." Unlike Whittle, von Ohain had the significant advantage of being supported by an aircraft manufacturer, Heinkel, who funded his work.

When in 1935 von Ohain designed his overall engine layout, he based it for compactness on a centrifugal impeller (centrifugal or radial compressor) and a radial inflow turbine.

Ultimately, this configuration had too many shortcomings to be put into production; however, aided by the enormous resources of the Heinkel Aircraft Company, a developed version was sufficient to power the He-178, and on 27 August 1939 von Ohain entered history as the designer of the world's first gas turbine to power an aircraft.

Von Ohain stayed with centrifugal designs, contributing his research to Heinkel's other projects such as the combined centrifugal/axial HeS8 and 011, but ultimately none of his designs was put into production. Other competing German designers at Junkers and BMW, following the axial design layout, saw their engines brought into production, although they never solved some of the basic power and durability problems. Von Ohain nevertheless started the world's first jet engine industry in his homeland of Germany, with many prototypes and series productions built until 1945.

Von Ohain, having entered turbojet design some time later than Whittle, began working on his first turbojet engine designs during the same period that Whittle was building his WU engine in Britain. Their turbojet designs have been said by some to be an example of simultaneous invention. However, von Ohain explains in his biography that, in 1935, while his own patent was being prepared (and before he had begun construction of an engine), his lawyer gave him a copy of Whittle's patent, which he read and critiqued. As a result, he was forced to modify his own application so as not to infringe on Whittle's design.

The core of Ohain's first jet engine, the Heinkel HeS 1, which he described as his "hydrogen test engine," was run "in March or early April" according to Ohain (although Ernst Heinkel's diaries record it as September 1937).

Work on the hydrogen test engine continued, but the engine required modifications to fix overtemperature problems and to fit a fuel system to enable it to run self-contained on liquid fuel, which was achieved in September 1937. With the heavy backing of Heinkel, Ohain's jet engine was the first to power an aircraft, the Heinkel He 178 aircraft in 1939, which was followed by Whittle's engine within the Gloster E.28/39 in 1941. Turbojet powered fighter aircraft from both Germany and Britain entered operational use virtually simultaneously in July 1944: the Me 262 on July 26 and the Gloster Meteor on July 27 of 1944. The Me 262 was the first operational fighter jet and saw flight combat with hundreds of machines, while the few dozen Meteors saw limited action.

Although Von Ohain and Whittle both knew about axial flow compressors, they remained dedicated to improving centrifugal compressor engines to power respectively the Heinkel He 178 and the Gloster E.28/39 until the end of the Second World War. Axial flow compressor jet engines were instead developed in parallel by Anselm Franz (Junkers) and Hermann Oestrich (BMW) to design the similar Jumo 004 and BMW 003 engines, designs that were eventually adopted by most manufacturers by the 1950's.

After the war the two men met, became friends and received the Charles Stark Draper Prize for Engineering "for their independent development of the turbojet engine."

Early life and jet development
Born in Dessau, Germany, Ohain finished high school in 1930 at the Arndt-Gymnasium in Dahlem and earned a PhD in physics in 1935 at the University of Göttingen, with his thesis entitled An Interference Light Relay for White Light on an optical microphone to record sound directly to film, which led to his first patent. The University of Göttingen was then one of the major centers for aeronautical research, with Ohain having attended lectures by Ludwig Prandtl. In 1933, while still a student, he conceived what he called "an engine that did not require a propeller".

After receiving his PhD in 1935, Ohain became the junior assistant of Robert Wichard Pohl, then director of the Physical Institute of the university. In 1936, while working for Pohl, Ohain registered a patent on his version of a jet engine, Process and Apparatus for Producing Airstreams for Propelling Airplanes. Unlike Frank Whittle's Power Jets WU design with its axial flow turbine, Ohain used a radial in-flow turbine to go with a centrifugal compressor, placing them back-to-back with an annular combustion space wrapped around the rotor.

While working at the university, Ohain used to take his sports car to be serviced at a local garage, Bartles and Becker. There he met an automotive mechanic, Max Hahn, and eventually arranged for him to build a demonstration model of his engine for. The completed model was larger in diameter than Whittle's fully working engine of 1937, although much shorter. Ohain took the model to the university for testing but ran into problems with combustion of the petrol fuel, which took place mostly after the turbine, sending flames shooting out from the exhaust duct. The lack of combustion before the turbine contributed to the engine being unable to run without the assistance of the electric motor which subsequently overheated.

According to von Ohain, "My interest in jet engines began in about 1933. I found that the elegance of flying was spoiled by the enormous vibrations and noise from the piston engine/propeller combination. I came to the conclusion that a constant work process, i.e. constant compression, combustion, expansion, would have great advantages. Thus I chose a quite simple engine, a radial compressor with a radial turbine."

However, the model he and Max Hahn built and tested in the courtyard of the Institute showed the combustion chamber needed further development. As a consequence, Pohl and von Ohain decided to approach Heinkel as someone who "doesn't back away from new ideas".

Heinkel
In February 1936, Pohl wrote to Ernst Heinkel, telling him about Ohain's design and its possibilities. Heinkel arranged a meeting between his engineers and Ohain, during which he argued that the current "garage engine" would never work, but that the concept upon which it was based was sound. The engineers were convinced, and in April Ohain and Hahn began working for Heinkel at the Marienehe airfield outside Rostock, in Warnemuende.

Working with Engineer Gundermann and Hahn in Special Development, von Ohain states: "Under pressure of aiming to bring a combustion chamber of unknown endurance to flight readiness, I came upon the idea of separating the turbine problem from the combustion chamber problem by using hydrogen fuel. As a physicist, I knew of course that the diffusion and combustion speed of gaseous hydrogen was substantially greater than that of petrol."

A study of the model's airflow resulted in several improvements over a two-month period. Encouraged by these findings, Ohain produced a new prototype that would run on hydrogen gas supplied by an external pressurised source. The resulting Heinkel-Strahltriebwerk 1 (HeS 1), German for Heinkel Jet Engine 1, was built by hand-picking some of the best machinists in the company, much to the chagrin of the shop-floor supervisors. Hahn, meanwhile, worked on the combustion problem, an area in which he had some experience.

The engine was extremely simple, made largely of sheet metal. Construction, by the blacksmith in his village, started late in the summer of 1936 and was completed in March 1937. Two weeks later the engine was running on hydrogen, but the high temperature exhaust led to considerable "burning" of the metal. The tests were otherwise successful, and in September the combustor was replaced and the engine was run on gasoline for the first time. Running on gasoline caused the combustor to clog up. Although the engine was never intended to be a flight-quality design, it proved beyond a doubt that the basic concept was workable, and Ohain had at last caught up with Whittle. With vastly more funding and industry support, Ohain would soon overtake Whittle and forge ahead.

Unaware of Whittle?
It has often been claimed that Ohain was unaware of Whittle's work. While in a very strict sense this may be true (in that he was unaware of Whittle's experiments at Lutterworth where the RAF engineer ran the world's first jet engine on the 12th of April 1937), nevertheless Ohain had been given a copy of Whittle's patents by his lawyer, while his own patent application being prepared and before he had begun construction of an engine.

In his biography, Ohain frankly critiqued Whittle's design: "When I saw Whittle's patent I was almost convinced that it had something to do with boundary layer suction combinations. It had a two-flow, dual entrance flow radial flow compressor that looked monstrous from an engine point of view. Its flow reversal looked to us to be an undesirable thing, but it turned out that it wasn't so bad after although it gave some minor instability problems ... Our patent claims had to be narrowed in comparison to Whittle's because Whittle showed certain things." He then somewhat understandably justified their knowledge of Whittle's work by saying: "We felt that it looked like a patent of an idea ... We thought that it was not seriously being worked on."

Developing the engine
In February 1937, the turbine section was running on a test stand. According to von Ohain, "We were now working on a machine capable of powering an aircraft, the forerunner of the He-S3B. I had intended to put the combustion chamber between the compressor and the turbine, as we had done with the hydrogen unit, but Hahn suggested putting it ahead of them, which was an excellent idea." The He-S3 turbine was test flown by Erich Warsitz and Walter Künzel in a Heinkel He 118, providing additional throttled thrust to the conventional engine.

While work on the HeS 1 continued, the Pohl-Ohain team had already moved on to the design of a flight-quality engine, the HeS 3. The major differences were the use of machined compressor and turbine stages, replacing the bent and folded sheet metal, and a re-arrangement of the layout to reduce the cross-sectional area of the engine by placing the annular combustor in an extended gap between the compressor and turbine. The original turbine was too small to work efficiently.

In the beginning of 1939, the He-S3A was fitted into the He 178 airframe for a standing display at Roggentin on 3 July 1939. Yet this turbine was still not powerful enough for flight. According to von Ohain, "We experimented with various combinations to modify the compressor diffuser and turbine nozzle vanes to increase thrust sufficiently to qualify the aircraft for the first flight demonstration. We found that a small diffuser behind the engine with a collar and splitter to divert flows functioned better than a high speed flow through the entire tube.  The final result of the changes was the He-S3B."

A new design, the HeS 3b was proposed, which lengthened the combustor by placing the forward part of it in front of the compressor outer rim. While not as small as the original HeS 3 design, the 3b was nevertheless fairly compact. The 3b first ran in July 1939 (some references say in May), and was air-tested under the Heinkel He 118 dive bomber prototype. The original 3b engine soon burned out, but a second one was nearing completion at about the same time as a new test airframe, the Heinkel He 178, which first flew on 27 August 1939, the first jet-powered aircraft to fly by test pilot Erich Warsitz. Heinkel had applied, May 31, 1939, for a patent: US2256198 Espacenet - Original document, an 'Aircraft power plant', inventor Max Hahn. First application for this patent in Germany was May, 1938.

Work started immediately on larger versions, first the HeS 6 which was simply a larger HeS 3b, and then on a new design known as the HeS 8 which once again re-arranged the overall layout. The compressor and turbine were connected with a large-diameter drum long-enough to fit an annular combustion chamber between them. It was intended to install the engine on the Heinkel He 280 fighter, but the airframe development progressed much more smoothly than the engine, and had to be used in gliding tests while work on the engine continued. A flight-quality HeS 8 was installed in late March 1941, followed by the first flight on 2 April. Three days later the aircraft was demonstrated for a party of Nazi and RLM officials, all of whom were impressed. Full development funds soon followed.

By this point there were a number of turbojet developments taking place in Germany. Heinkel was so impressed by the concept that he arranged the transfer to the project of Adolph Müller from Junkers, who was developing an axial compressor-powered design, renamed as the Heinkel HeS 30. Müller left Junkers after they purchased the Junkers Motoren company, who had their own project under way, which by this time was known as the Junkers Jumo 004. Meanwhile, BMW was making good progress with its own design, the BMW 003.

By early 1942 the HeS 8, officially the 109-001 (HeS 001), was still not progressing well. Meanwhile, Müller's HeS 30, officially the 109-006 (HeS 006), was developing much more quickly. Both engines were still some time from being ready for production, however, while the 003 and 004 appeared to be ready to go. In early 1942 the director of jet development at the RLM, Helmut Schelp, refused further funding for both designs, and ordered Heinkel to work on a new "pet project" of his own, eventually becoming the Heinkel HeS 011. Although this was the first of Schelp's "Class II" engines to start working well, production had still not started when the war ended. Work continued on the HeS 8 for some time, but it was eventually abandoned in the spring of 1943.

Ultimate outcome
Part of the challenge for von Ohain was his approach to designing a practical turbojet that could be developed. His primary design comprised a centrifugal compressor with a radial inflow turbine, a design that proved to be impractical and as a result, despite much effort, was never put into production.

By comparison, Whittle's centrifugal flow engines, in both straight-through and reverse flow configuration (developed further by Rolls Royce), powered all Allied World War Ii jets and the majority of immediate post-war fighters. They were built under licence in numerous countries including Australia, France and the US and were copied by the Russians and Chinese to power the MiG-15 and MiG-17. Whittle's basic reverse flow design remains the most common gas turbine configuration in production today with over 80,000 built in the form of the Allison (RR) 250/300 and Pratt & Whitney PT6 series of engines.

However, in his invention of HE S011, von Ohain introduced a standard concept which combined axial and radial designs for most business jets today, along with turboprops and helicopters.

Post-World War II
In 1947, Ohain was brought to the United States by Operation Paperclip and went to work for the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base. In 1956 he was made the Director of the Air Force Aeronautical Research Laboratory and by 1975 he was the Chief Scientist of the Aero Propulsion Laboratory there.

During his work at Wright-Patterson, Ohain continued his own personal work on various topics. In the early 1960s he did a fair amount of work on the design of gas core reactor rockets which would retain the nuclear fuel while allowing the working mass to be used as exhaust. The engineering needed for this role was also used for a variety of other "down to earth" purposes, including centrifuges and pumps. Ohain would later use the basic mass-flow techniques of these designs to create a fascinating jet engine with no moving parts, in which the airflow through the engine created a stable vortex that acted as the compressor and turbine.

This interest in mass-flow led Ohain to research magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) for power generation, noting that the hot gases from a coal-fired plant could be used to extract power from their speed when exiting the combustion chamber, remaining hot enough to then power a conventional steam turbine. Thus an MHD generator could extract further power from the coal, and lead to greater efficiencies. Unfortunately this design has proven difficult to build due to a lack of proper materials, namely high-temperature non-magnetic materials that are also able to withstand the chemically active exhaust. Ohain also investigated other power related concepts.

He also invented the idea of the "jet wing", in which air from the compressor of a jet engine is bled off to large "augmented" vents in the wings to provide lift for VTOL aircraft. A small amount of high-pressure air is blown into a venturi, which in turn sucks a much larger volume of air along with it, thus leading to "thrust augmentation". The concept was used in the Rockwell XFV-12 experimental aircraft, although the market interest in VTOL aircraft was short-lived. He participated in several other patents.

Ohain was the influence in shifting the mind of Paul Bevilaqua, one of his students at WP-AFB, from math to engineering, which later enabled Bevilaqua to invent the Rolls-Royce LiftSystem for the JSF F35B STOVL: "in school I learned how to move the pieces, and Hans taught me how to play chess". Ohain also showed Bevilaqua "what those TS-diagrams actually mean".

Ohain retired from Wright-Patterson in 1979 and took up an associate professor position teaching propulsion and thermodynamics at the nearby University of Dayton, spending winter sessions from 1981 to 1983 teaching the same subjects at the University of Florida. Ohain continued at the University of Dayton until 1992, when concerns about his health prompted a move with his wife, Hanny, to Melbourne, Florida.

Awards
During his career, Ohain won many engineering and management awards, including (among others) the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA) Goddard Astronautics Award, the United States Air Force Exceptional Civilian Service Award, Systems Command Award for Exceptional Civilian Service, the Eugene M. Zuckert Management Award, the Air Force Special Achievement Award, and just before he retired, the Citation of Honor. In 1984–85, Ohain served as the Charles A. Lindbergh Chair in Aerospace History, a competitive senior fellowship at the National Air and Space Museum. In 1991 Ohain and Whittle were jointly awarded the Charles Stark Draper Prize for their work on turbojet engines. Ohain was elected a member of the U.S. National Academy of Engineering (NAE).

Ohain was awarded the Ludwig-Prandtl-Ring from the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Luft- und Raumfahrt (German Society for Aeronautics and Astronautics) for "outstanding contribution in the field of aerospace engineering" in 1992.

In 1982, Ohain was inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame at the San Diego Air & Space Museum.

In 1990, Ohain was inducted into the National Aviation Hall of Fame.

Death
Ohain died in Melbourne, Florida, in 1998, aged 86. He was survived by his wife and four children. One of his sons, Christopher von Ohain, joined the United States Marine Corps (USMC). Christopher’s son, Hans Christopher von Ohain, also joined the USMC; he was killed in a car accident in 2022.

title: Hans von Ohain


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Sandwich, Massachusetts

Sandwich is a town in Barnstable County, Massachusetts, United States and is the oldest town on Cape Cod. The town motto is Post tot Naufracia Portus, "after so many shipwrecks, a haven". The population was 20,259 at the 2020 census.

History
Cape Cod was inhabited by American Indians prior to European colonization. Sandwich was occupied by the Eastern Algonquian speaking Wampanoag tribe who aided the Pilgrims of Plymouth Colony in the 1620s. The Mashpee Wampanoag Tribe still live on Cape Cod and are making efforts to revive the Wampanoag language.

A group of settlers from Saugus, Massachusetts colonized Sandwich in 1637 with the permission of the Plymouth Colony. It is named for the seaport of Sandwich, Kent in England. It was incorporated in 1639 and is the oldest town on Cape Cod, together with Yarmouth. The western portion of the town was separated from the original Town of Sandwich and became the town of Bourne in 1884.

Sandwich was the site of an early Quaker settlement and today hosts the oldest continuous Quaker Meeting in the U.S.

Early industry revolved around agriculture, with fishing and trading also providing for the town. Later, the town grew a small industrial component along the Scusset River and Old Harbor Creek and its tributaries. Today, most of its economy is centered on tourism.

Deming Jarves founded the Boston & Sandwich Glass Factory in 1825. Sandwich had proximity to a shallow harbor, was a possible canal site, and had local supplies of timber to fuel the furnaces. The glass works primarily made lead glass and was known for its use of color. Jarves received several patents for his improvements in glass mold designs and pressing techniques. The factory declined after the Civil War due to competition from Ohio, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia companies that produced less expensive pressed soda-lime glass tableware.

The Cape Cod Canal was constructed through the town starting in 1909, opening for travel in 1914. The Canal Generating Plant went online in 1968.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 114.5 sqkm, of which 110.7 sqkm is land and 3.8 sqkm, or 3.32%, is water. Sandwich is bordered by Cape Cod Bay to the north, Barnstable to the east, Mashpee and Falmouth to the south, and Bourne to the west. It is approximately 57 mi south-southeast of Boston.

Sandwich is the site of the Cape Cod Bay entrance to the Cape Cod Canal. The northern point of Sandwich, where Sagamore Hill and Scusset Beach State Reservation lie, is divided from the rest of the town by the canal. The town is also the location of the Shawme-Crowell State Forest and the Massachusetts State Game Farm. The town is home to six beaches along the shores of Cape Cod Bay. The rest of the town's geography is typical of the rest of the Cape, with many small ponds and hills, with most of the trees being pine or oak. Sandwich is also the site of Old Harbor Creek, a large inlet with several other small creeks feeding it, which once served to provide a safe harbor for ships.

Climate
According to the Köppen climate classification system, Sandwich, Massachusetts has a warm-summer, wet year-round, humid continental climate (Dfb). Dfb climates are characterized by at least one month having an average mean temperature ≤ 32.0 °F (≤ 0.0 °C), at least four months with an average mean temperature ≥ 50.0 °F (≥ 10.0 °C), all months with an average mean temperature ≤ 71.6 °F (≤ 22.0 °C), and no significant precipitation difference between seasons. The average seasonal (Nov–Apr) snowfall total is approximately 30 inches (76 cm). The average snowiest month is February, which corresponds with the annual peak in nor'easter activity. According to the United States Department of Agriculture, the plant hardiness zone is 6b, with an average annual extreme minimum air temperature of −0.7 °F (−18.2 °C).

Ecology
According to the A. W. Kuchler U.S. Potential natural vegetation Types, Sandwich, Massachusetts would primarily contain a Northeastern Oak/Pine (110) vegetation type with a Southern Mixed Forest (26) vegetation form.

Transportation
U.S. Route 6, also known as the Mid-Cape Highway on Cape Cod, passes through the town to the north of Otis Air National Guard Base as a four-lane divided freeway. There are three exits off this route within town. Massachusetts Route 6A passes through town to the north of Route 6, and is the town's main local road. The northern terminus of Massachusetts Route 130 is near the intersection of Routes 6 and 6A within town. The road passes along the eastern side of Otis on its way towards Mashpee.

Freight rail service is provided by the Massachusetts Coastal Railroad. The Cape Cod Central Railroad, which operates seasonal tourist excursions from Hyannis to Buzzards Bay, serves Sandwich via a station in the western section of the town.

The nearest MBTA's commuter rail stations are the Kingston/Route 3 and Middleborough/Lakeville stations, both of which provide direct service to Boston. There is also seasonal passenger rail available in nearby Hyannis and Bourne via the CapeFlyer, which runs to Boston's South Station along the Middleborough/Lakeville line. The nearest inter-city (Amtrak) passenger rail stations are Boston's South Station and Providence.

The town was one that had been served by Amtrak's Cape Codder train service (1986–1996); however, it has been eliminated from the schedule of the seasonal Cape Flyer train service. From the 19th century, under the Old Colony Railroad, and until 1964 under the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad, passenger trains served Sandwich. Trains of the 1940s–1960s included the Day Cape Codder and the Neptune.

The nearest private and regional air service can be found in Barnstable, and the nearest national and international airport is Logan International Airport in Boston.

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 20,136 people, 7,335 households, and 5,515 families residing in the town. The population density was 467.9 PD/sqmi. There were 8,748 housing units at an average density of 78.5 persons/km2 (203.3 persons/sq mi). The racial makeup of the town was 97.75% White, 0.38% African American, 0.31% Native American, 0.54% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.32% from other races, and 0.69% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.80% of the population.

There were 7,335 households, out of which 38.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 65.0% were married couples living together, 8.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 24.8% were non-families. 20.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.72 and the average family size was 3.18.

In the town, the population was spread out, with 28.4% under the age of 18, 4.9% from 18 to 24, 27.7% from 25 to 44, 25.3% from 45 to 64, and 13.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.2 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $61,250 and the median income for a family was $66,553. Males had a median income of $49,195 versus $33,516 for females. The per capita income for the town was $26,895. About 2.2% of families and 3.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3.3% of those under the age of 18 and 4.1% ages 65 years or older.

Government
Sandwich is represented by State Representative Steven Xiarhos in the Massachusetts House of Representatives as a part of the Fifth Barnstable District, which also includes portions of Barnstable, Bourne and Plymouth. The town is represented by State Senator Susan Moran in the Massachusetts Senate as a part of the Plymouth and Barnstable district, which includes Bourne, Falmouth, Kingston, Pembroke, Plymouth, and Plympton. The town is patrolled by the Sandwich Police Department. The Police Department has 28 full-time staff members, including Chief, Lieutenants, Sergeants, Detectives, Patrol Officers and support staff. The Sandwich Board of Selectmen has five members: Robert George, Shane Hoctor, Susan James, Michael Miller, and David Sampson.

On the national level, Sandwich is a part of Massachusetts's 9th congressional district, and is currently represented by William Keating. The state's junior (Class II) member of the United States Senate is Ed Markey. The senior (Class I) senator is Elizabeth Warren.

Sandwich is governed by the open town meeting form of government. Day-to-day operation is led by a board of selectmen, which appoints a town manager. The town manager is George H. "Bud" Dunham, who has served in that role for more than 30 years. The town operates a police department, and a fire department consisting of three fire stations. There are three post offices in town (East Sandwich, Sandwich, and Forestdale). The Sandwich Public Library is located in the town's center, and belongs to the Old Colony Library Network, the Southeastern Massachusetts Regional Library System, and the Massachusetts Library Information Network. Sandwich has a public access television station (PEG) Sandwich Community TV which archives all government meetings on its website.

Education
Sandwich operates its own public school system. Forestdale Pre-K–2, Oak Ridge 3–6, STEM Academy 7–8. The STEM Academy is located in the town's High School. Sandwich High School, located in East Sandwich, operates Grades 7–12. The school teams are called the Blue Knights, and their colors are navy blue, Columbia blue, and white.

High school students may also choose to attend the Upper Cape Cod Regional Technical High School in Bourne free of charge (Sandwich taxpayers contribute to that school's budget) as well as Sturgis Charter Public School in Hyannis. Students may also choose to attend private schools in Barnstable, Bourne, Falmouth or other neighboring communities. A few Sandwich students choose to attend private high schools off-Cape, such as Tabor Academy, Sacred Heart High School, and Bishop Stang High School.

Attractions
There are several attractions in Sandwich, including Heritage Museums and Gardens, the Wing Fort House, the Sandwich Glass Museum, the Thornton Burgess Museum, Hoxie House (the oldest house on Cape Cod), the Daniel Webster Inn, the Dexter Grist Mill (the oldest mill on Cape Cod), the Sandwich Friends (Quaker) Meetinghouse (the oldest in North America), and Shawme Lake. Sandwich is home to numerous art galleries, as well as rare book and antique stores. Many of these attractions are found within the Town Hall Square Historic District and Jarvesville Historic District within the town. Sandwich is also home to a major portion of Otis Air National Guard Base, including half the land that the runways are on.

The Sandwich boardwalk is located in downtown and leads to the Town Beach on Cape Cod Bay. It is a popular tourist attraction and was elected by National Geographic in July 2010 as one of the top ten boardwalks in the United States. It is 1,350 feet long, from Scorton Creek to the Cape Cod Canal, and crossing the Creek Mill and the marsh. It was created in 1875 by Gustavus Howland, the son of Ellis Howland who built the town hall. In 1991, it was almost completely destroyed by Hurricane Bob. It was rebuilt in 1992, financed through the sale of 1,700 personalized planks with engravings. It was damaged by blizzards in March 2018, but was rebuilt and reopened in June 2018.

A winter storm in winter 2021-2022 destroyed many portions of the boardwalk. Amid concerns from beach goers to make the boardwalk handicap accessible, plans to rebuilt the boardwalk were put on hold. In fall 2023, the town began reconstruction on a renewed version of the boardwalk, which is expected to reopen to the public in summer 2024.

Notable people

 * Charles Higbee Bridges (1873–1948), Adjutant General of the United States Army 1928–1933
 * Thornton Burgess (1874–1965), conservationist and author of the Old Mother West Wind and Bedtime Stories series
 * Ed Conley (1864–1894), Major League Baseball pitcher
 * Edmund Freeman, one of the town's founders, Deputy Governor of Plymouth Colony under Governor William Bradford and Governor Edward Winslow
 * Nathaniel Freeman Jr. (1766–1800), Massachusetts's 5th congressional district Representative for the Democratic-Republican Party 1795–1799 and Massachusetts militia brigade major
 * Duff Goldman (born 1974), pastry chef, television personality, and cookbook author; Sandwich High School, Class of 1993
 * Willard Woodard (1824–1891), Chicago politician, publisher, and parks advocate

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Sandwich, Massachusetts


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Adams (CDP), Massachusetts

Adams is a census-designated place (CDP) located in the town of Adams in Berkshire County, Massachusetts, United States. The population was 5,515 at the 2010 census, out of 8,485 in the entire town of Adams.

Geography
Adams CDP is located in the center of the town of Adams at 42.62528°N, -73.11806°W (42.625349, -73.118249). Massachusetts Route 8 passes through the center of the community, leading north to North Adams and south towards Pittsfield. Massachusetts Route 116 leaves southeast from the center of town, leading eventually to Amherst in the Connecticut River valley.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the Adams CDP has a total area of 5.9 sqkm, of which 5.8 sqkm is land and 0.1 sqkm, or 1.36%, is water.

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 5,784 people, 2,729 households, and 1,555 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 988.1/km$2$ (2,554.6/mi2). There were 3,005 housing units at an average density of 513.4/km$2$ (1,327.2/mi2). The racial makeup of the CDP was 98.24% White, 0.35% Black or African American, 0.12% Native American, 0.21% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 0.36% from other races, and 0.69% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.02% of the population.

There were 2,729 households, out of which 25.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40.1% were married couples living together, 12.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 43.0% were non-families. 39.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 20.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.12 and the average family size was 2.80.

In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 21.9% under the age of 18, 6.5% from 18 to 24, 26.5% from 25 to 44, 22.9% from 45 to 64, and 22.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females, there were 87.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 82.3 males.

The median income for a household in the CDP was $28,703, and the median income for a family was $37,574. Males had a median income of $31,096 versus $23,802 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $18,210. About 7.9% of families and 11.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 16.7% of those under age 18 and 11.9% of those age 65 or over.

title: Adams (CDP), Massachusetts


text:
Great Barrington (CDP), Massachusetts

Great Barrington is a census-designated place (CDP) located in the town of Great Barrington in Berkshire County, Massachusetts, United States. The population was 2,231 at the 2010 census, out of 7,104 in the entire town of Great Barrington.

Geography
The Great Barrington CDP is located near the center of the town of Great Barrington at 42.19528°N, -73.3625°W (42.19532, -73.362645), along the Housatonic River. U.S. Route 7 (Main Street) passes through the center of the CDP, leading north to Stockbridge, Lenox, and Pittsfield, and south to Sheffield then into Connecticut. Massachusetts Route 23 also passes through CDP on Main Street but leads east to Monterey, Otis, and beyond, and west to Egremont and then into New York. Massachusetts Route 41 also uses Main Street in Great Barrington and leads north to West Stockbridge and southwest through South Egremont towards Connecticut.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the Great Barrington CDP has a total area of 3.7 sqkm, of which 3.5 sqkm is land and 0.1 sqkm, or 3.30%, is water.

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 2,459 people, 1,184 households, and 590 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 668.6 /km2. There were 1,282 housing units at an average density of 348.6 /km2. The racial makeup of the CDP was 92.84% White, 3.09% Black or African American, 0.33% Native American, 1.02% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 1.26% from other races, and 1.42% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.97% of the population.

There were 1,184 households, out of which 24.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 34.6% were married couples living together, 11.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 50.1% were non-families. 42.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.06 and the average family size was 2.84.

In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 21.5% under the age of 18, 8.6% from 18 to 24, 27.7% from 25 to 44, 25.9% from 45 to 64, and 16.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 87.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 84.2 males.

The median income for a household in the CDP was $35,077, and the median income for a family was $53,542. Males had a median income of $31,653 versus $28,846 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $23,390. About 2.5% of families and 8.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3.7% of those under age 18 and 5.9% of those age 65 or over.

title: Great Barrington (CDP), Massachusetts


text:
Lee (CDP), Massachusetts

Lee is a census-designated place (CDP) located in the town of Lee in Berkshire County, Massachusetts, United States. The population was 2,051 at the 2010 census, out of 5,943 in the entire town of Lee.

Geography
The Lee CDP is located in the center of the town of Lee at 42.30667°N, -73.24722°W (42.306929, -73.247351). U.S. Route 20 passes through the CDP as Main Street and Housatonic Street, leading north to Lenox and Pittsfield and south to Interstate 90 (the Massachusetts Turnpike), which forms the southern edge of the CDP and accesses it via Turnpike Exit 2. The Housatonic River flows north to south through the center of the CDP.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 3.5 sqkm, of which 3.4 sqkm is land and 0.1 sqkm, or 2.68%, is water.

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 2,021 people, 901 households, and 500 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 573.8 /km2. There were 953 housing units at an average density of 270.6 /km2. The racial makeup of the CDP was 95.50% White, 1.39% Black or African American, 0.15% Native American, 0.89% Asian, 0.05% Pacific Islander, 1.24% from other races, and 0.79% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.50% of the population.

There were 901 households, out of which 27.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 41.4% were married couples living together, 10.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 44.4% were non-families. 38.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.20 and the average family size was 2.88.

In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 21.8% under the age of 18, 9.0% from 18 to 24, 29.4% from 25 to 44, 22.9% from 45 to 64, and 17.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 89.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.8 males.

The median income for a household in the CDP was $32,183, and the median income for a family was $41,588. Males had a median income of $32,188 versus $25,741 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $18,069. About 7.0% of families and 13.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 9.7% of those under age 18 and 4.1% of those age 65 or over.

title: Lee (CDP), Massachusetts


text:
Lee, Massachusetts

Lee is a town in Berkshire County, Massachusetts, United States. It is part of the Pittsfield, Massachusetts, metropolitan statistical area. The population was 5,788 at the 2020 census. Lee, which includes the villages of South and East Lee, is part of the Berkshires resort area.

History
Lee occupies land that was originally territory of Mahican Indians. The first non-native settlement in the area was known as Dodgetown as early as 1760. Dodgetown was named after its founding settler, Asahel Dodge, who immigrated to the area from Cape Cod. Lee was incorporated in 1777 from parts of Great Barrington and Washington. It is named after Revolutionary War General Charles Lee. Lee is a former mill town.

In the autumn of 1786 during Shays' Rebellion, about 250 followers of Daniel Shays encountered state troops commanded by General John Paterson near East Lee. The Shaysites paraded a fake cannon crafted from a yarn beam, and the troops fled.

Early industries included agriculture, lumbering, and lime making. Abundant streams and rivers provided water power for mills that produced textiles and wire. Papermaking became the principal industry in 1806 with the construction of the Willow Mill by Samuel Church in South Lee. The Columbia Mill in central Lee was established in 1827, and eventually became the first to supply 100% groundwood newsprint to The New York Times. By 1857, there were 25 paper mills in Lee. The Smith Paper Company discovered how to manufacture paper solely from wood pulp in 1867, and through the 1870s was the country's largest producer of paper. The mills previously owned by Smith Paper Company were closed in 2008. Today, Lee has only a single papermaking facility.

The town's marble is famous for its quality. The first quarry was established in 1852. In 1867, almost 500000 cuft of marble was excavated and shipped on the Housatonic Railroad. Buildings constructed of Lee marble include a wing of the Capitol in Washington, 250 sculptures adorning Philadelphia City Hall, as well as the General Grant National Memorial, and St. Patrick's Cathedral (both in New York City).

The town's 19th-century prosperity is still evident in its architecture, including its town hall, library, several churches and private homes. South Lee includes a historic district listed on the National Register.

Lee has become a popular tourist destination, noted both for its New England charm and its bed and breakfast establishments. It is known as the "Gateway to The Berkshires" because it provides one of only two exits on the Massachusetts Turnpike that serve the county, and the only one going eastbound.

Arlo Guthrie's court appearance before the blind judge and his seeing-eye dog for dumping garbage as described in the song "Alice's Restaurant" took place in the courtroom at the Lee Town Hall.

Lee was a filming location for Before and After (1996) and The Cider House Rules (1999).

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 70.0 km2, of which 67.7 km2 is land and 2.3 km2, or 3.22%, is water. Lee is bordered by Lenox to the northwest, Washington to the northeast, Becket to the east, Tyringham in the southeast, Great Barrington to the southwest, and Stockbridge to the west. Lee is 10 mi south of Pittsfield, 42 mi west-northwest of Springfield, and 125 mi west of Boston. Lee is in the southern section of the Berkshires, in a valley along the Housatonic River. It is west of October Mountain State Forest, with two sections of the forest in Lee. In the southwestern corner of town lies a portion of Beartown State Forest, where Burgoyne Pass crosses the northern end of the mountain. Hop Brook, a marshy brook which flows from Tyringham, flows into the Housatonic in the south; other bodies of water include Laurel Lake to the north and Goose Pond to the southeast. The Appalachian Trail skirts the eastern part of town, passing through Tyringham, Becket and Washington.

Lee is on Interstate 90 (the Massachusetts Turnpike), and is home to Exit 10, the westernmost full exit on the turnpike (Exit 1, in West Stockbridge, is only a turnaround exit) as well as the first service area along the Pike. Lee is also on U.S. Route 20, the "old Mass Pike", which was the main route to New York until the interstate. A small section of U.S. Route 7 crosses through the northwestern corner of town before meeting Route 20 in Lenox. Massachusetts Route 102's eastern terminus is at Route 20, at the Exit 2 toll plaza.

Lee lies along the Housatonic Railroad line, which travels from Pittsfield to Great Barrington and Sheffield, terminating near at New Milford, Connecticut, near Danbury. The line is still the area's primary rail link to New York City's metropolitan area, Boston, and Albany. As of 2013 negotiations are underway to restore rail commuter service between the Berkshires and New York City along this route. The town is covered by the Berkshire Regional Transit Authority (BRTA) bus line, which runs between Pittsfield and Great Barrington. Regional bus services make regular daily stops, and maintain year-round schedules through Lee. Peter Pan and Bonanza Bus Lines each make scheduled stops at Town Hall.

Regional air service can be reached at Pittsfield Municipal Airport. The nearest national and international air services can be reached at Albany International Airport in Albany, New York, about 55 mi away. Bradley International Airport, near Hartford, Connecticut, approximately 70 mi from Lee, is also a popular option.

Climate
Lee experiences a humid continental climate with cold winters and warm summers.

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 5,985 people, 2,442 households, and 1,606 families residing in the town. By population, Lee ranks seventh out of the 32 cities and towns in Berkshire County, and 227th out of 351 cities and towns in Massachusetts. The population density was 226.7 PD/sqmi, which ranks sixth in the county and 241st in the Commonwealth. There were 2,927 housing units at an average density of 110.9 /sqmi. The racial makeup of the town was 96.93% White, 0.62% Black or African American, 0.15% Native American, 0.95% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 0.74% from other races, and 0.60% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.49% of the population.

There were 2,492 households, out of which 28.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.7% were married couples living together, 10.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.2% were non-families. 28.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.39 and the average family size was 2.91.

In the town, the population was spread out, with 22.1% under the age of 18, 7.0% from 18 to 24, 28.5% from 25 to 44, 25.6% from 45 to 64, and 16.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.1 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $41,556, and the median income for a family was $49,630. Males had a median income of $35,565 versus $26,232 for females. The per capita income for the town was $19,799. About 2.5% of families and 6.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3.4% of those under age 18 and 4.2% of those age 65 or over.

Government
Lee is the least populous municipality in Massachusetts not to use the open town meeting form of government; instead, it uses the representative town meeting, and is led by a board of selectmen and a town administrator. Lee has its own police, fire and public works departments, as well as a post office. The town's library is a member of the regional library networks.

On the state level, Lee is represented in the Massachusetts House of Representatives by the Fourth Berkshire district, which covers southern Berkshire County, as well as the westernmost towns in Hampden County. In the Massachusetts Senate, the town is represented by the Berkshire, Hampshire and Franklin district, which includes all of Berkshire County and western Hampshire and Franklin counties. The town is home to the First Station of Barracks "B" of the Massachusetts State Police.

On the national level, Lee is part of Massachusetts's 1st congressional district, represented by Richard Neal of Springfield, Massachusetts. Massachusetts is represented in the United States Senate by senior Senator Elizabeth Warren and junior Senator Ed Markey.

Education
Lee operates its own school department, which also serves the town of Tyringham, and has an option to serve Otis and Sandisfield. Lee Elementary School serves students from pre-kindergarten through sixth grades, and the Lee Middle and High School serves students from seventh through twelfth grades. Lee's athletics teams are nicknamed the Wildcats, and their colors are black and orange. Additionally, Lee is home to Saint Mary's School, a parochial school which serves students through eighth grade. Other private schools can be found in Great Barrington and other surrounding towns.

The nearest community college is the South County Center of Berkshire Community College in Great Barrington, and the nearest state university is Massachusetts College of Liberal Arts. The nearest private college is Bard College at Simon's Rock.

Sites of interest

 * Festival Latino of the Berkshires
 * Golden Hill Bridge
 * Hyde House
 * Hyde School
 * Lee historic railroad station
 * Lower Main Street Historic District
 * Museum of Animation, Special Effects & Art
 * October Mountain State Forest
 * South Lee Historic District
 * Unique Specialty Shops of Main Street

Goose Pond and Laurel Lake
Goose Pond and Laurel Lake are two significant bodies of water located in Lee, Massachusetts. Both are popular recreational areas, offering opportunities for boating, fishing, and swimming.

Goose Pond
Goose Pond is a 263-acre enlarged Great Pond. It is a glacially formed body of water that is long and narrow, stretching over two miles in length but only a quarter-mile at its widest point. The pond is known for its clear, clean water and is home to various species of fish. The pond's ability to carry trout from year to year has led to its designation as special brown trout water.

The pond is divided into two parts: the lower larger pond, surrounded by summer homes, and the upper pond, which maintains a more wilderness-like atmosphere. The upper pond lies in the 112-acre Goose Pond Reservation, where it intersects the Appalachian Trail and an Appalachian Mountain Club shelter for hikers is situated on its shore. Goose Pond Reservation is managed by the Massachusetts Trustees of Reservations. The town of Tyringham maintains a boat ramp close by, which serves as the only public access point.

In recent years, Goose Pond has been the site of several notable incidents. In July 2021, a woman drove her car into the pond after taking a wrong turn while following her GPS. The woman escaped unharmed, and the car was later towed from the water. In another incident, a fugitive from Maine was found hiding in the hikers' shelter near Goose Pond after fleeing from a car accident on Route 90. The man was apprehended without incident after a multi-agency search.

Laurel Lake
Laurel Lake is a 170-acre body of water that straddles the border between Lee and Lenox. The lake is a popular destination for boating, fishing, and swimming. It is stocked annually with trout by the Massachusetts Division of Fisheries and Wildlife.

Laurel Lake has been facing challenges with invasive species, particularly Eurasian watermilfoil and zebra mussels. Efforts to manage and control these invasive species have been ongoing. The Laurel Lake Association, in partnership with the Town of Lee, has been actively involved in the prevention and management of these invasive species. These efforts include the use of benthic barriers to smother the milfoil and prevent its growth, as well as public education, boat inspections, and boat washing, to prevent the spread of zebra mussels.

Notable people

 * John M. Barlow, politician and businessman
 * Nathan B. Bradley, congressman
 * Henry Billings Brown, Associate Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court
 * Michelle Cuevas, author
 * Thomas C. Durant, financier and railroad promoter
 * Frank Dwyer, baseball pitcher
 * Elisha Foote, judge, inventor, and mathematician
 * Henri Gosselin, politician
 * Addison H. Laflin, congressman
 * Wayne Larrivee, sportscaster
 * Debra Jo Rupp, actress
 * Augusta Read Thomas, composer
 * Elizur Smith, senator and paper manufacturer
 * Elizur Yale Smith, socialite, historian
 * Wellington Smith, largest American paper manufacturer
 * Edward V. Whiton, Chief Justice of the Wisconsin Supreme Court
 * Josiah Yale, captain and pioneer of Lee

title: Lee, Massachusetts


text:
Lenox (CDP), Massachusetts

Lenox, also known as Lenox Center, is a census-designated place (CDP) in the town of Lenox in Berkshire County, Massachusetts, United States. The population was 1,675 at the 2010 census, out of 5,025 in the entire town of Lenox.

Geography
The Lenox CDP is located southwest of the geographic center of the town of Lenox at 42.35694°N, -73.28417°W (42.35722, -73.284172). It is bordered to the south and west by the town of Stockbridge. Massachusetts Route 7A passes through the center of the CDP, heading north on Main Street and south on Kemble Street. In both directions it ends at U.S. Route 7, which bypasses the town center and forms the eastern edge of the CDP. Massachusetts Route 183 crosses Route 7A in the center of town, leading southeast through Lenox Dale towards East Lee, and southwest into the Interlaken section of Stockbridge.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the Lenox CDP has a total area of 4.7 sqkm, of which 0.03 sqkm, or 0.53%, is water.

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 1,667 people, 885 households, and 386 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 359.6 /km2. There were 1,045 housing units at an average density of 225.4 /km2. The racial makeup of the CDP was 97.66% White, 0.60% Black or African American, 0.06% Native American, 0.78% Asian, 0.36% from other races, and 0.54% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.74% of the population.

There were 885 households, out of which 15.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 34.6% were married couples living together, 7.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 56.3% were non-families. 49.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 29.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1.84 and the average family size was 2.69.

In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 15.4% under the age of 18, 4.7% from 18 to 24, 21.7% from 25 to 44, 24.6% from 45 to 64, and 33.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 51 years. For every 100 females, there were 71.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 67.4 males.

The median income for a household in the CDP was $35,662, and the median income for a family was $60,893. Males had a median income of $41,875 versus $35,208 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $23,810. About 3.6% of families and 12.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6.7% of those under age 18 and 12.3% of those age 65 or over.

title: Lenox (CDP), Massachusetts


text:
Williamstown (CDP), Massachusetts

Williamstown is a census-designated place (CDP) in the town of Williamstown in Berkshire County, Massachusetts, United States. The population of the CDP was 4,325 at the 2010 census, out of 7,754 in the entire town.

Geography
The Williamstown CDP is located in the northeastern part of the town of Williamstown at 42.70944°N, -73.19722°W (42.709577, -73.197396). Williams College occupies much of the center of the CDP. At the west side of campus is the intersection of U.S. Route 7 and Massachusetts Route 2. Route 2 leads east through the CDP as Main Street, then becomes the Mohawk Trail as it continues east towards North Adams and the Connecticut River valley. Route 7 leaves to the north as North Street towards Vermont, and the two highways leave to the south as Cold Spring Road.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 8.9 sqkm, of which 8.8 sqkm is land, and 0.1 sqkm, or 0.95%, is water. The Hoosic River, a tributary of the Hudson River, forms the northern edge of the CDP, and the Green River flows into the Hoosic River from the south.

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 4,754 people, 1,368 households, and 715 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 536.7/km$2$ (1,389.8/mi$2$). There were 1,550 housing units at an average density of 175.0/km$2$ (453.1/mi$2$). The racial makeup of the CDP was 86.87% White, 3.83% Black or African American, 0.06% Native American, 4.80% Asian, 0.11% Pacific Islander, 1.20% from other races, and 3.13% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.64% of the population.

There were 1,368 households, out of which 21.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 41.9% were married couples living together, 7.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 47.7% were non-families. 40.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 18.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.04 and the average family size was 2.75.

In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 11.7% under the age of 18, 45.0% from 18 to 24, 13.8% from 25 to 44, 15.8% from 45 to 64, and 13.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 22 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.3 males.

The median income for a household in the CDP was $40,223, and the median income for a family was $70,000. Males had a median income of $44,167 versus $23,702 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $20,859. About 0.4% of families and 7.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 1.7% of those under age 18 and 4.6% of those age 65 or over.

title: Williamstown (CDP), Massachusetts


text:
Williamstown, Massachusetts

Williamstown is a town in Berkshire County, Massachusetts, United States. It shares a border with Vermont to the north and New York to the west. Located in Berkshire County, the town is part of the Pittsfield, Massachusetts metropolitan statistical area. The population was 7,513 at the 2020 census. A college town, it is home to Williams College, the Clark Art Institute and the Tony-awarded Williamstown Theatre Festival.

History
Originally called West Hoosac, the area was first settled in 1749. Prior to this time its position along the Mohawk Trail made it ideal Mohican hunting grounds. Its strategic location bordering Dutch colonies in New York led to its settlement, because it was needed as a buffer to stop the Dutch from encroaching on Massachusetts. Fort West Hoosac, the westernmost blockhouse and stockade in Massachusetts, was built in 1756. The town was incorporated in 1765 as Williamstown according to the will of Col. Ephraim Williams, who was killed in the French and Indian War. He bequeathed a significant sum to the town on the condition that the town would be named after him and that a free school would be established. In 1791 the school opened but only lasted a short time as a free school. It became Williams College in 1793.

The primary industry was agriculture, particularly dairy farming, sheep herding and wool production. Sawmills and gristmills operated by water power at the streams. With the Industrial Revolution larger mills were added, including the Walley Mill and Williamstown Manufacturing Company (Station Mill), both of which produced textiles. The A. Loop & Company (Water Street Mill) produced twine. With the opening of the railroad, tourists arrived. Several inns and hotels were established, including the Idlewild Hotel and Greylock Hotel. In the late 1930s and 1940s, E. Parmelee Prentice and his wife Alta, the daughter of John D. Rockefeller, created Mount Hope Farm. With a mansion designed by James Gamble Rogers, it was one of the outstanding experimental farms in the country. Today, it belongs to Williams College, which remains the largest employer in town.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 121.4 sqkm, of which 121.1 sqkm is land and 0.3 sqkm, or 0.27%, is water. Located in the Berkshires, Williamstown is drained by the Hoosic River.

Williamstown is the northwesternmost town in Massachusetts. The town is bordered on the north by Pownal, Vermont, on the east by Clarksburg, North Adams and Adams, on the south by New Ashford and Hancock, and on the west by Berlin and Petersburgh, New York.

The town proper lies southwest of the confluence of the Green River and the Hoosic River. To the west, the Taconic Range lines the N.Y. state border and is where Taconic Trail State Park is located. Brodie Mountain rises to the south of town, and Mount Greylock State Reservation occupies the southwestern corner of town, with the peak of Mount Greylock and its subsidiary peak Mount Fitch just over the line in Adams. The highest point in town is at 3320 ft above sea level, just 0.2 mi west of the summit of Greylock. The Appalachian Trail skirts the town twice, near the southeastern corner of town and again along the North Adams border. To the northeast, Pine Cobble lies along the Clarksburg town line, and to the north lies the Green Mountain National Forest in Vermont.

U.S. Route 7 passes from north to south through the town, crossing into Vermont to the north and New Ashford to the south. Massachusetts Route 2 begins in the town, starting from New York State Route 2 at the Petersburg Pass, then combining with Route 7 for a stretch before heading east into North Adams. From Route 7 westward, it is known as the Taconic Trail; the road does not become the Mohawk Trail in the east until passing through North Adams. Route 43 also begins at Route 2 and heads southward towards Hancock, crossing Route 7 near the fork of the east and west branches of the Green River.

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 8,424 people, 2,753 households, and 1,693 families residing in the town. Williamstown is the fourth-largest town in Berkshire County, and ranks 189th out of the 351 cities and towns in Massachusetts by population. The population density was 179.7 PD/sqmi, ranking it 7th in the county and 264th in the Commonwealth. There were 3,053 housing units at an average density of 65.1 /sqmi.

In 2017, the population of the town was estimated at 7,623. The racial makeup of the town in 2017 was 81.6% white (77.8% non-Hispanic white), 5.1% black, 0.9% Native American, 6.3% Asian (1.8% Chinese, 0.9% Korean, 0.9% Japanese, 0.5% Cambodian, 0.4% Nepalese, 0.3% Indonesian, 0.3% Indian, 0.3% Vietnamese, 0.2% Filipino, 0.2% Sri Lankan, 0.1% Thai), 0.00% Pacific Islander, 1.7% from other races, and 4.3% from two or more races. Hispanics and Latinos of any race were 7.5% of the population (3.1% Puerto Rican, 1.7% Mexican, 0.4% Dominican, 0.3% Cuban, 0.3% Ecuadorian, 0.3% Spanish, 0.2% Colombian, 0.2% Nicaraguan, 0.1% Costa Rican, 0.1% Guatemalan). The ten largest ancestry groups in the town were Irish (15.0%), English (12.5%), German (10.9%), Italian (9.7%), French (6.8%), Polish (6.7%), Scottish (3.9%), French-Canadian (3.1%), American (2.7%), and Russian (2.1%). Immigrants accounted for 11.6% of the population. The ten most common countries of origin for immigrants in the town were China, South Korea, Cambodia, Canada, Nepal, Ireland, Japan, Colombia, Indonesia, and Kenya.

In 2000 there were 2,753 households, out of which 24.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.3% were married couples living together, 7.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 38.5% were non-families. 32.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.21 and the average family size was 2.80.

In the town, the population was spread out, with 15.3% under the age of 18, 27.5% from 18 to 24, 16.6% from 25 to 44, 21.0% from 45 to 64, and 19.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 87.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.8 males.

The median income for a household in the town was $51,875, and the median income for a family was $67,589. Males had a median income of $50,011 versus $32,845 for females. The per capita income for the town was $26,039. About 1.7% of families and 5.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 1.3% of those under age 18 and 6.8% of those age 65 or over.

Government
Williamstown is governed by the open town meeting form of government, and is governed by a board of selectmen and a town manager. The town has its own police department and a volunteer fire department. The town has its own library, Milne Public Library, and other public services. Ambulance services are covered by Northern Berkshire EMS. The nearest hospital, Southwestern Vermont Medical Center, is located in Bennington, to the north.

On the state level, Williamstown is represented in the Massachusetts House of Representatives by Representative John Barrett III of the First Berkshire district, which covers northern Berkshire County, as well as portions of Franklin County. In the Massachusetts Senate, the town is represented by Senator Paul W. Mark of the Berkshire, Hampden, Franklin, and Hampshire district. Williamstown is located in the Eighth Massachusetts Governor's Council district and is represented by Tara Jacobs.

Education
The town has its own elementary school, Williamstown Elementary School, which serves students from pre-kindergarten through sixth grade. The town is home to Mount Greylock Regional School, which also serves the neighboring towns of New Ashford, Lanesborough and portions of Hancock. The school's colors are red and white, and the sports teams are nicknamed the Mounties. Williamstown is also home to Pine Cobble School, a private school serving students from pre-kindergarten through ninth grade, as well as Buxton School, a private co-educational boarding school serving high-school students.

Williamstown is home of Williams College, an elite, private liberal arts college. The nearest community college is Berkshire Community College, located in Pittsfield. The nearest public college is Massachusetts College of Liberal Arts in neighboring North Adams, and the nearest University of Massachusetts campus is the University of Massachusetts Amherst.

Places of interest

 * Williamstown Historical Museum, founded in 1941, is currently located in the historic South Center School building at 32 New Ashford Road. It catalogs the history of the area from when it was a stopping point along the Mohawk Trail to the present. In addition to permanent exhibits tracing the history of the town, there is a rotating exhibit which changes twice annually. Permanent exhibits include "From Wilderness to Williamstown", "The College: A Defining Presence", "Growth of a Summer Resort", and "The Twentieth Century: Continuity and Change", among others.
 * The 1753 House was built in 1953 to help celebrate the 200th anniversary of the town's founding. Built by volunteers using 18th-century building materials and tools, the replica house is intended to recreate how a typical home is believed to have looked back in 1753.
 * Clark Art Institute
 * Williams College Museum of Art
 * Field Farm

Notable people

 * W. J. Abrams, Wisconsin state senator
 * Herbert A. Allen, Jr., businessman
 * Albert LeRoy Andrews, professor of Germanic philology and avocational bryologist
 * Jean Ankeney, Vermont state senator
 * Florence Bascom, geologist
 * John Bascom, educator, author and President of University of Wisconsin
 * Ali Benjamin, author
 * Bernard Blair, congressman
 * Gerald Warner Brace, author and educator
 * James MacGregor Burns, historian and biographer
 * Albert Cummings, blues guitarist
 * Daniel Dewey, congressman
 * Dick Farley, football player and coach
 * Ali Fedotowsky, entertainment journalist (2001–2007)
 * Darra Goldstein, cookbook author and food scholar
 * Stephen Hannock, painter
 * Carol Holloway, actress
 * Mark Hopkins, educator, President of Williams College
 * Peter H. Hunt, producer and director
 * Alex Kershaw, author
 * Elizabeth Kolbert, journalist & author
 * Joe McGinniss, author
 * Francis Christopher Oakley, historian, President of Williams College
 * Farah Pahlavi, former empress of Iran
 * John Bennett Perry, actor
 * Matthew Perry, actor (1969–2023)
 * Cole Porter, songwriter
 * Roger Rees, actor
 * Christopher Reeve, actor
 * Dick Sabot, economist
 * John Edward Sawyer, historian, soldier, Wiliams pres., Mellon Foundation pres.
 * Michael Scanlan, friar
 * Morton O. Schapiro, professor, Williams College president
 * Benjamin Simonds, Revolutionary War commander
 * Jane Swift, former Lieutenant governor and acting Governor
 * Charles Stebbins, member of the New York State Senate and acting lieutenant governor
 * George Steinbrenner, New York Yankees owner
 * William Henry Vanderbilt III, statesman
 * Fay Vincent, baseball commissioner
 * Bill Wootters, physicist

Transportation
Williamstown is crossed by U.S. Route 7, MA Route 2—also known as the Mohawk Trail—and MA Route 43. Town bus service is provided by Berkshire Regional Transit Authority (BRTA) to and from North Adams and Pittsfield. The Green Mountain Express' Purple Line provides a weekday commuter bus route northward to Bennington. Daily intercity bus service to Williamstown is operated by Peter Pan Lines to and from New York City, and intermediate towns and cities along the way.

There is a freight rail line that passes from the north to the east into North Adams and the Hoosac Tunnel. The nearest Amtrak train station, on the Boston-Chicago Lake Shore Limited line is in Pittsfield. Until 1958 there had been passenger Boston & Maine service from nearby North Adams to Troy, New York. Previously, that service continued to Chicago. Until 1960 there had been service from North Adams to Boston's North Station on the Fitchburg Line which has been truncated to Fitchburg. The nearest small-craft airport is Harriman-and-West Airport in North Adams, and the nearest airport with commercial jet service is Albany International Airport.

title: Williamstown, Massachusetts


text:
Amesbury (CDP), Massachusetts

Amesbury CDP was a census-designated place comprising the main urban portions of the city of Amesbury, Massachusetts, in Essex County. With the change of Amesbury's status from town to city in 1996, the delineation of the downtown area as a CDP became unnecessary, and it was no longer used for data collection by the time of the 2010 census.

Those details reported here are also included in the aggregate values reported for the entire city; at the 2000 census, the CDP had a total population of 12,327.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP had a total area of 14.7 km2. 13.8 km2 of it was land and 1.0 km2 of it was water. The total area was 6.51% water.

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were:
 * 12,327 people,
 * 4,910 households, and
 * 3,093 families residing in the CDP.

The population density was 896.3 /km2. There were 5,099 housing units at an average density of 370.8 /km2. The racial makeup of the CDP was 96.87% White, 0.65% African American, 0.21% Native American, 0.60% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 0.28% from other races, and 1.37% from two or more races. 1.05% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.

There were 4,910 households, out of which 33.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.6% were married couples living together, 12.4% had a woman whose husband did not live with her, and 37.0% were non-families. 29.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.45, and the average family size was 3.07.

In the CDP the population was spread out, with 25.4% under the age of 18, 6.6% from 18 to 24, 34.5% from 25 to 44, 21.0% from 45 to 64, and 12.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.6 males.

The median income for a household in the CDP was $50,037, and the median income for a family was $59,853. Males had a median income of $41,566 versus $31,209 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $22,657. 7.0% of the population and 4.6% of families were below the poverty line. Out of the total people living in poverty, 8.7% were under the age of 18 and 10.3% were 65 or older.

title: Amesbury (CDP), Massachusetts


text:
Amesbury, Massachusetts

Amesbury is a city in Essex County, Massachusetts, United States, located on the left bank of the Merrimack River near its mouth, upstream from Salisbury and across the river from Newburyport and West Newbury. The population was 17,366 at the 2020 United States Census. A former farming and mill town, Amesbury is today largely residential. It is one of the two northernmost towns in Massachusetts (the other being neighboring Salisbury).

Pre-Colonial Period
At the time of European contact and colonization, the area north of the Merrimack River was inhabited by the Pentucket Tribe of the Pennacook confederation. Several places in Amesbury retain or have been returned to indigenous names including the Powwow River and Hill, and Lake Attitash.

Plantation at Merrimac
In 1637, the first English settler in the Salisbury-Amesbury region, John Bayly, crossed the Merrimack River from the new settlement at Newbury, built a log cabin, and began to clear the land for cultivation. He intended to send for his wife and children in England, but they never joined him. He and his hired man, William Schooler, were arrested for a murder Schooler had committed. Schooler was hanged for the murder but Bayly was acquitted. Given the fishing rights on the river by the subsequent settlement, provided he would sell only to it, he abandoned agriculture for fishing.

On September 6, 1638, the General Court of Massachusetts created a plantation on behalf of several petitioners from Newbury, on the left bank of the Merrimack, as far north as Hampton, to be called Merrimac. They were given permission to associate together as a township. The area remained in possession of the tribes along the Merrimack, who hunted and fished there.

The settlers of the plantation, who entered Massachusetts Bay Colony, were rebels in a cause that was settled by the English Civil War (1642–1651). Although nominally subjects of the crown, they did not obey it. The settlers maintained close ties with the Parliamentary cause in Britain. The supreme government of the colony was the General Court, which functioned autonomously, passing its own laws, establishing courts, incorporating townships and providing for the overall defense of the colony. They established a Puritan church rather than the Church of England.

In the early spring of 1639, approximately 60 planters took up residence on land cleared by the natives. In May, an elected planning committee laid out the green, the initial streets, the burial ground, and the first division into lots, apportioning the size of a lot to the wealth of the settler. In November, the General Court appointed a government of six, which required that every lot owner take up residence on his lot. They began to assign lots west of the Pow-wow river. The town was originally named Colchester, but was renamed Salisbury in October 1640, potentially at the suggestion of Christopher Batt, from Salisbury, England. Batt trained the militia in the town. The incorporation of the town granted it legal recognition by the colony to a township of that name, with its own government, empowered by citizens populating a territory of legally defined boundaries. The original Salisbury was many times larger than the present. From it several townships were later separated.

On January 12, 1641, a town meeting ordered the first roads north and west of the Pow-wow River to be built. On April 21, another meeting granted William Osgood 50 acres of "upland" and 10 of "meadow" along the Pow-wow River, provided he build a sawmill for the town to use. It utilized a water wheel driven by the Pow-wow River. The mill produced lumber for local use and pipe-staves for export. A gristmill was added to the Pow-wow river location in 1642. The Powwow River provided water power for a subsequent mill complex. In 1642, the town wanted families to take up residence west of the Pow-wow and form a "New Town." No volunteers responded.

In 1643, the General Court divided Massachusetts Bay Colony into four counties: Essex, Norfolk, Middlesex and Suffolk. Norfolk contained Salisbury, Hampton, Haverhill, Exeter, Dover, and Strawberry Bank (Portsmouth). This division was a legal convenience based on the distribution of courts. Since the first establishment of four courts on March 3, 1635, the General Court had found it necessary to multiply and distribute courts, so that the magistrates would not spend time in travel that they needed for settling case loads. The main requirement for membership in a shire was incorporation.

Separation from Salisbury
Private occupation of the west bank of the Pow-wow River went on as East Salisbury citizens sold their property and moved to New Town. However, New Town remained a paper construct without enforcement. On January 14, 1654, articles of agreement adopted at town meeting divided Salisbury into Old Town and New Town, each to conduct its own affairs. The border was the Pow-wow. The agreement went into effect on January 19, 1655. In New Town, a new government was voted in, which claimed authority over "all matters of publicke concernment." They still paid taxes to Old Town and expected services from it. The board of Old Town contained some members from New Town for fair representation. This agreement also was known as a "settlement".

On May 26, 1658, New Town petitioned the General Court for independent town status, but the Old Town denied the petition. The Old Town required all inhabitants, including those in the New Town, to attend church in Old Town and fined settlers for each missed meeting The church and preacher were maintained from taxes. Minister Joseph Peasley of New Town and his congregation attempting to defy the General Court were summoned into District Court at Ipswich "to answer for their disobedience", were fined there and Peasly was enjoined from preaching. Another petition for separation was denied in 1660.

The burden of attending church several miles away became so great that New Town built a new meeting house and requested the General Court to find a preacher. The court yielded to the petition of 1666, granting the "liberty of a township" to New Town. The town was unofficially incorporated, meaning a government was constituted and officers elected, on June 15. It was named New Salisbury, but in 1667 the name was changed to Amesbury on the analogy of Amesbury, England, which was next to Salisbury, England. Amesbury was officially granted incorporation under that name on April 29, 1668.

After King Phillips War (1675–1678), an effort by the natives to rid themselves of the colonists, the Royal Province of New Hampshire was created and took away several towns in northern Norfolk shire. Massachusetts was reduced in size from most of New England to roughly its current borders. The Court dissolved Norfolk Shire, transferring Salisbury and Amesbury to Essex County.

Industrial Era
Beginning as a modest farming community, Amesbury developed a maritime and industrial economy. Shipbuilding, shipping and fishing were also important. The ferry across the Merrimack River to Newburyport was a business until the construction of bridges to cross the river. Newton, New Hampshire, was set off from Amesbury in 1741, when the border between the two colonies was adjusted.

In the 19th century, textile mills were built at the falls, as was a nail-making factory. Beginning around 1800, Amesbury began building carriages, a trade which evolved into the manufacture of automobile bodies. Prominent manufacturers included Walker Body Company, Briggs Carriage Company, and Biddle and Smart. The industry ended with the Great Depression. The Merrimac Hat Company was founded in 1856 and became one of the top hat producers in the nation. Amesbury also produced Hoyt's Buffalo Brand Peanut Butter Kisses.

In 1876, Merrimac was created out of West Amesbury. In 1886, West Salisbury was annexed to Amesbury, unifying the mill areas on both banks of the Pow-wow River.

Newspapers in the 19th century included the Amesbury Daily News, Merrimac Journal, Morning Courier, Evening Courier, New England Chronicle, Transcript, and the Villager. Newspapers in the 20th century included the Amesbury Advocate, Amesbury News, Amesbury Times, and Leader.

Twentieth century and beyond
In 1996, the town changed its status to a city, and adopted the mayor and municipal council form of government, although it retained the title "Town of Amesbury", as voters "thought Amesbury was too small and quaint to be a city". Voters approved a charter amendment in November 2011 changing the city's official name to the "City of Amesbury" and removing references to the old "Town of Amesbury" name. The name change took effect in March 2012. The city's seal still bears the name "Town of Amesbury", although the City put forth a bill in 2013 to correct the seal with the new name.

The community has several buildings that feature early architecture, particularly in the Federal and Victorian styles. The "Doughboy", a memorial sculpture by Leonard Craske, stands on the front lawn of the Amesbury Middle School. It was dedicated November 11, 1929. Craske is best known as sculptor for the "Fishermens' Memorial" in Gloucester. There is also a monument erected to Josiah Bartlett, the first signer of the Declaration of Independence, who was born in Amesbury.

Geography
Amesbury is located at 42.85806°N, -70.93056°W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 35.5 sqkm, of which 31.8 sqkm is land and 3.8 sqkm, or 10.65%, is water. Amesbury is drained by the Powwow River. Powwow Hill, elevation 331 ft, is the highest point in town. Once the site of Indian gatherings, or "powwows", it has views to Maine and Cape Ann. Amesbury is the second northernmost town in Massachusetts, its northernmost point coming just south of the northernmost point of the state, in Salisbury. Amesbury lies along the northern banks of the Merrimack River and is bordered by Salisbury to the east, Newburyport to the southeast, West Newbury to the southwest, Merrimac to the west, and South Hampton, New Hampshire, to the north.

The Powwow River bisects the town, joined by the Back River near the town center. The river flows through Lake Gardner and Tuxbury Pond, which are two of several inland bodies of water in town, including Lake Attitash (which is partially in Merrimac), Meadowbrook Pond, and Pattens Pond. Several brooks also flow through the town. Amesbury has a town forest, which is connected to Woodsom Farm, as well as Powwow Conservation Area, Victoria Batchelder Park and Amesbury Golf & Country Club.

Transportation
Amesbury is served by two interstate highways. Interstate 495 runs from west to east through town, ending at Interstate 95 just over the Salisbury town line. It has two exits in town, Exit 54 at Massachusetts Route 150 (which lies entirely within Amesbury, and leads to New Hampshire Route 150) and Exit 55 at Massachusetts Route 110, which also provides the town's only direct access to Interstate 95 at Exit 58. I-95 crosses the southeast corner of town, entering along the John Greenleaf Whittier Memorial Bridge, a steel through-truss bridge crossing the Merrimack River. The Whittier Memorial Bridge lies just west of the town's only other bridges across the Merrimack, the Derek S. Hines Memorial Bridge, which connects Amesbury to Deer Island (which is still part of Amesbury), and the Chain Bridge, the only suspension bridge in Massachusetts, which spans from Deer Island to Newburyport. The current version was built in 1909, but was predated by the 1810 suspension bridge, one of the oldest suspension bridges in the country. The Chain Bridge and its counterparts over the years have been the main entryways into town across the Merrimack, and until the building of the Newburyport Turnpike Bridge, it was the easternmost bridge on the Merrimack River.

MVRTA provides bus service in Amesbury. Route 51 connects to the Haverhill train station. Route 54 connects to Newburyport train station.

Government
Amesbury is part of the Massachusetts Senate's 1st Essex district.

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 16,450 people, 6,380 households, and 4,229 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,326.3 PD/sqmi. There were 6,623 housing units at an average density of 206.2 persons/km2 (534.0 persons/sq mi). The racial makeup of the city was 97.2% White, 0.6% African American, 0.22% Native American, 0.9% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.

There were 6,380 households, out of which 34.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.2% were married couples living together, 11.3% have a woman whose husband does not live with her, and 33.7% were non-families. 26.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.52 and the average family size was 3.09.

In the city, the population was spread out, with 26.1% under the age of 18, 6.1% from 18 to 24, 33.8% from 25 to 44, 22.0% from 45 to 64, and 12.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 93.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.7 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $34,906, and the median income for a family was $62,875. Males had a median income of $25,489 versus $31,968 for females. The per capita income for the city was $23,103. 5.9% of the population and 3.9% of families were below the poverty line.

Education
The major educational institutions are: In 2023, the Amesbury Elementary School closed following the construction of the Shay Memorial School, built on the same property as the Cashman Elementary School. Prior to this, both Amesbury Elementary School and Cashman Elementary School housed K-4 students, with students attending whichever school they lived closer to. Beginning in the 2024-2025 school year, all K-5 students were housed on the same property and divided by age between the Shay Memorial Lower Elementary School and the preexisting Cashman Elementary School.
 * Amesbury Public Schools
 * SGT. Jordan Shay Memorial Lower Elementary School (K-2)
 * Charles C. Cashman Elementary School (3–5)
 * Amesbury Middle School (6–8)
 * Amesbury High School (9–12)
 * Amesbury Innovation High School (School of Choice)
 * Sparhawk School (School of Choice)

Amesbury's high school football rival is Newburyport; the two teams play against each other every Thanksgiving Day. The Amesbury mascot is "Red Hawks," formerly the "Indians."

Public library
As of 2012, the Amesbury Public Library pays for access to information resources produced by Brainfuse, Cengage Learning, EBSCO Industries, LearningExpress, Library Ideas, Mango Languages, NewsBank, Online Computer Library Center (OCLC), ProQuest, TumbleBook Library, World Book of Berkshire Hathaway, and World Trade Press.

The Public Library houses an extensive Local History and genealogy collection which is open and available for research.

Points of interest
• Alliance Park, site of the construction of the USS Alliance in 1777

• Amesbury Carriage Museum

• Amesbury Friends Meeting House (1850)

• Amesbury Hat Museum, which displays hats of the old Merrimack Hat Factory

• Amesbury Public Library

• Chain Bridge

• Bartlett Museum, Inc. (1870)

• Fortune Bar

• John Greenleaf Whittier House

• Lowell's Boat Shop (1793)

• Macy-Colby House (c. 1654)

• Mary Baker Eddy Historic House

• Old Powder House (1810)

• Rocky Hill Meeting House (c. 1785)

• Salisbury Point Railroad Historical Society

• Acorn Mountain Park

• Maples Crossing (2021)

Notable people

 * Jimmy Bannon (1871–1948), outfielder in Major League Baseball
 * Josiah Bartlett (1729–1795), signer of the Declaration of Independence, fourth Governor of New Hampshire
 * Daniel Blaisdell (1762–1833), congressman from New Hampshire
 * Nathaniel Currier (1813–1888), American lithographer, Currier and Ives
 * Jeffrey Donovan (born 1968), actor; star of television show Burn Notice
 * Mary Baker Eddy (1821–1910), founder of Christian Science
 * Robert Frost (1874–1963), poet
 * Susannah (North) Martin, victim of Salem witch trials in 1692
 * William A. Paine (1844–1929), businessman, co-founded the brokerage firm Paine Webber
 * Harriet Prescott Spofford (1835–1921), author
 * Paine Wingate (1739–1838), preacher, served in the Continental Congress; US senator and congressman
 * Al Capp, cartoonist, author of long running satirical strip Li'l Abner lived in Amesbury for most of his life and is buried in the town.
 * John Greenleaf Whittier (1807–1892), poet

Twin towns – Sister cities
Amesbury is twinned with:
 * Esabalu, Kenya (since 1987)

Books and articles

 * Amesbury Vital Records to 1849. Published 1913. Transcribed and put online by John Slaughter and Jodi Salerno.
 * Merrill, Joseph, History of Amesbury, from the History of Essex County Volume 2 Chapter 125, pages 1495–1535, compiled by D. Hamilton Hurd, published by J.W. Lewis 1888.
 * Amesbury Vital Records to 1849. Published 1913. Transcribed and put online by John Slaughter and Jodi Salerno.
 * Merrill, Joseph, History of Amesbury, from the History of Essex County Volume 2 Chapter 125, pages 1495–1535, compiled by D. Hamilton Hurd, published by J.W. Lewis 1888.
 * Merrill, Joseph, History of Amesbury, from the History of Essex County Volume 2 Chapter 125, pages 1495–1535, compiled by D. Hamilton Hurd, published by J.W. Lewis 1888.

Maps

 * Sargeant, Christopher. 1794 Map of Amesbury.
 * Clough, Aaron. 1795 Map of Salisbury.
 * Nichols, W., J S Morse. 1830 Map of Amesbury.
 * Anderson, Philander. 1830 Map of Salisbury.
 * Beers, D.G. 1872 Atlas of Essex County, Massachusetts Amesbury. Plate 9. Amesbury and Salisbury Mills. Now Amesbury Center. Plate 12. Salisbury. Plate 15. West Amesbury now Merrimac. And East Salisbury. Plate 17. Salisbury Point. Plate 19. (Now The Point in Amesbury).
 * Bigelow, E.H. Amesbury and Salisbury Mills. Bird's-eye view at the Boston Public Library website.
 * Norris, George E. Amesbury. Panoramic View. Published 1890. Burleigh Lith. Est. At the Library of Congress website.
 * Hughes & Bailey. Amesbury. Panoramic View. Published 1914.
 * Walker, George H. 1884 Atlas of Essex County Massachusetts 1884 Map of Amesbury. Plate 169. Amesbury, Salisbury Point. Plate 74. Merrimac Center (was West Amesbury). Plate 151. Amesbury Village Mills. Plate 170-171. 1884 Map of Merrimac. Plate 172. 1884 Map of Salisbury. Plate 175. Salisbury Village Mills on the Powwow River. Plate. 176-177. East Salisbury. Plate 178. Danvers Catholic Church, Folger's Carriage Factory Amesbury. Plate 166.

title: Amesbury, Massachusetts


text:
Andover (CDP), Massachusetts

Andover is a census-designated place (CDP) in the town of Andover in Essex County, Massachusetts, United States. The population was 8,762 at the 2010 census.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 9.8 sqkm, of which 9.5 sqkm is land and 0.2 sqkm (2.15%) is water.

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 7,900 people, 3,488 households, and 1,981 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 824.4 /km2. There were 3,611 housing units at an average density of 376.8 /km2. The racial makeup of the CDP was 93.84% White, 1.08% African American, 0.08% Native American, 3.14% Asian, 0.05% Pacific Islander, 0.95% from other races, and 0.87% from two or more races. 1.82% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.

There were 3,488 households, out of which 26.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.4% were married couples living together, 8.5% have a woman whose husband does not live with her, and 43.2% were non-families. 39.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 19.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.22 and the average family size was 3.03.

In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 22.8% under the age of 18, 4.3% from 18 to 24, 27.8% from 25 to 44, 24.7% from 45 to 64, and 20.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females, there were 82.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 75.7 males.

The median income for a household in the CDP was $60,040, and the median income for a family was $87,516. Males had a median income of $70,074 versus $41,601 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $34,760. 8.3% of the population and 5.8% of families were below the poverty line. Out of the total people living in poverty, 11.1% are under the age of 18 and 8.4% are 65 or older.

title: Andover (CDP), Massachusetts