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French West Africa

French West Africa (Afrique-Occidentale française, AOF) was a federation of eight French colonial territories in West Africa: Mauritania, Senegal, French Sudan (now Mali), French Guinea (now Guinea), Ivory Coast, Upper Volta (now Burkina Faso), Dahomey (now Benin) and Niger. The federation existed from 1895 until 1958. Its capital was Saint-Louis in Senegal until 1902, and then Dakar until the federation's collapse in 1960.

With an area of 4,689,000 km2, French West Africa was eight times the size of Metropolitan France. French Equatorial Africa had an additional area of 2,500,000 km2.

History

Until after World War II, almost none of the Africans living in the colonies of France were citizens of France. Rather, they were "French subjects," lacking rights before the law, property ownership rights, rights to travel, dissent, or vote. The exception was the Four Communes of Senegal: those areas had been towns of the tiny Senegal Colony in 1848 when, at the abolition of slavery by the French Second Republic, all residents of France were granted equal political rights. Anyone able to prove they were born in these towns was legally French. They could vote in parliamentary elections, which had been previously dominated by white and mixed-race residents of Senegal.

The Four Communes of Senegal were entitled to elect a deputy to represent them in the French parliament in 1848–1852, 1871–1876, and 1879–1940. In 1914, the first African, Blaise Diagne, was elected as the deputy for Senegal in the French Parliament. In 1916, Diagne pushed a law through the National Assembly (loi Blaise Diagne) granting full citizenship to all residents of the so-called Four Communes. In return, he promised to help recruit millions of Africans to fight in World War I. Thereafter, all black Africans of Dakar, Gorée, Saint-Louis, and Rufisque could vote to send a representative to the French National Assembly.

As the French pursued their part in the scramble for Africa in the 1880s and 1890s, they conquered large inland areas, and at first, ruled them as either a part of the Senegal colony or as independent entities. These conquered areas were usually governed by French Army officers, and dubbed "military territories". In the late 1890s, the French government began to rein in the territorial expansion of its "officers on the ground", and transferred all the territories west of Gabon to a single governor based in Senegal, reporting directly to the Minister of Overseas Affairs. The first governor-general of Senegal was named in 1895, and in 1904, the territories he oversaw were formally named French West Africa (AOF). Gabon would later become the seat of its own federation French Equatorial Africa (AEF), which was to border its western neighbor on the modern boundary between Niger and Chad.

In 1905, the French officially abolished slavery in most of French West Africa. From 1906 to 1911, as emancipation progressed, over a million slaves in French West Africa fled from their masters to earlier homes.

After the Fall of France in June 1940 and the two battles of Dakar against the Free French Forces in July and September 1940, authorities in West Africa declared allegiance to the Vichy regime, as did the colony of French Gabon in AEF. Gabon fell to Free France after the Battle of Gabon in November 1940, but West Africa remained under Vichy control until the Allied landings in North Africa in November 1942.

Following World War II, the French government began a process of extending limited political rights in its colonies. In 1945 the French Provisional Government allocated ten seats to French West Africa in the new Constituent Assembly called to write a new French Constitution. Of these five would be elected by citizens (which only in the Four Communes could an African hope to win) and five by African subjects. The elections brought to prominence a new generation of French-educated Africans. On 21 October 1945 six Africans were elected, the Four Communes citizens chose Lamine Guèye, Senegal/Mauritania Léopold Sédar Senghor, Ivory Coast/Upper Volta Félix Houphouët-Boigny, Dahomey/Togo Sourou-Migan Apithy, Soudan-Niger Fily Dabo Sissoko, and Guinea Yacine Diallo. They were all re-elected to the 2nd Constituent Assembly on 2 June 1946.

In 1946, the Loi Lamine Guèye granted some limited citizenship rights to natives of the African colonies. The French Empire was renamed the French Union on 27 October 1946, when the new constitution of the Fourth Republic was established. In late 1946 under this new constitution, each territory was for the first time (excepting the Four Communes) able to elect local representatives, albeit on a limited franchise, to newly established General Councils. These elected bodies had only limited consultative powers, although they did approve local budgets. The Loi Cadre of 23 June 1956 brought universal suffrage to elections held after that date in all French African colonies. The first elections under universal suffrage in French West Africa were the municipal elections of late 1956. On 31 March 1957, under universal suffrage, territorial Assembly elections were held in each of the eight colonies (Togo as a UN trust Territory was at this stage on a different trajectory). The leaders of the winning parties were appointed to the newly instituted positions of Vice-Presidents of the respective Governing Councils — French Colonial Governors remained as Presidents.

The Constitution of the French Fifth Republic of 1958 again changed the structure of the colonies from the French Union to the French Community. Each territory was to become a "Protectorate", with the consultative assembly named a National Assembly. The Governor appointed by the French was renamed the "High Commissioner", and made head of state of each territory. The Assembly would name an African as Head of Government with advisory powers to the Head of State. Legally, the federation ceased to exist after the 1958 French constitutional referendum to approve this French Community. All the colonies except Guinea voted to remain in the new structure. Guineans voted overwhelmingly for independence. In 1960, a further revision of the French constitution, compelled by the failure of the French Indochina War and the tensions in Algeria, allowed members of the French Community to unilaterally change their own constitutions. Senegal and former French Sudan became the Mali Federation (1960–61), while Ivory Coast, Niger, Upper Volta and Dahomey subsequently formed the short-lived Sahel-Benin Union, later the Conseil de l'Entente.

Territorial changes
The administrative structure of French colonial possessions in West Africa, while more homogeneous than neighboring British possessions, was marked by variety and flux. Throughout the history of the AOF, individual colonies and military territories were reorganized numerous times, as was the Government General in Dakar. French Upper Volta was formed and parceled out to neighboring colonies twice. The future states of Mauritania and Niger remained out of the federation until the 1920s and 1940s respectively. They were Military Territories, directly controlled by the French Army. World War II, and the passing of the Loi Cadre (Overseas Reform Act of 1956), both radically restructured the administration of the colonies. French Togoland, seized by France from Germany in World War I, was for most of this period not nominally a colony but a Mandate territory.

Federal structure

In theory, the Governors-General of the AOF reported directly to the Minister of Colonies in Paris, while individual colonies and territories reported only to Dakar. Originally created in 1895 as a union of Senegal, French Sudan, French Guinea and Ivory Coast only, the federation was placed on a permanent footing in 1904. A governor-general was based first in Saint-Louis, then (from 1902) in Dakar (both in Senegal, the oldest French settlement). The AOF subsequently expanded to neighbouring French-ruled territories: Dahomey was added in 1904, after having been put under colonial tutelage in 1892; Mauritania in 1920, and when the territory of Upper Volta was divided from French Sudan by colonial decree in 1921, it automatically also entered the AOF. Between 1934 and 1937, the League of Nations Mandate territory of French Togoland was subsumed into Dahomey, and between its seizure from Germany in World War I and independence it was administered through the AOF. In 1904, both Mauritania and Niger were classed "Military Territories": ruled by the AOF in conjunction with officers of the French Colonial Forces.

Colonial administration

Each colony of French West Africa was administered by a Lieutenant Governor, responsible to the Governor General in Dakar. Only the Governor-General received orders from Paris, via the Minister of Colonies. The Minister, with the approval of the French Chamber of Deputies (French National Assembly after 1946), chose Lieutenants Governor and Governors-General.

Grand Council of French West Africa
Beginning in 1946, a Grand Council of French West Africa was created in Dakar. Two representatives from each colony, usually the Lieutenant Governor and a representative of the French population there, were seated. This council had only consultative powers over the office of the Governor General. The functioning of such bodies rested upon the Indigénat legal code of 1885.

Local administration
Despite this state of flux, and with the exception of the Senegalese Communes, the administrative structure of French rule at the lower levels remained constant, based upon the Cercle system. This was the smallest unit of French political administration in French colonial Africa that was headed by a European officer. They might range in size, but French Sudan (modern Mali) consisted of less than a dozen Cercles for most of its existence. Thus, a Cercle Commander might be the absolute authority over hundreds of thousands of Africans.

Cercles
A Cercle consisted of several cantons, each of which in turn consisted of several villages, and was almost universal in France's African colonies from 1895 to 1946.

The "Cercle Commander" ("commandant de cercle") was subject to the authority of a District Commander, and the government of the colony above him, but was independent of the Military structure (outside Military areas, e.g.: modern Niger and Mauritania prior to the Second World War). Below the "Cercle Commander" were a series of African "Chefs de canton" and "Chefs du Village": "chiefs" appointed by the French and subject to removal by the Europeans. As well, the "Cercle Commander" made use of a large number of servants, employees, and African officers such as the "Gardes-de-cercle" police, any military units seconded to them by government authorities, and sub-administrators such as the Precepteur du marché trade inspectors, etc.

Because of administrative practice and geographic isolation, Cercle Commanders had a tremendous amount of power over the lives of the Africans around them. The Cercle Commanders also had tremendous power over the economic and political life of their territories. Legally, all Africans outside the Four Communes of Senegal were "subjects" under the Indigénat legal code of 1885. This code gave summary powers to French administrators, including the rights to arrest, try, punish and imprison subjects. It also gave French local authorities the right to requisition forced labour, usually limited to able-bodied men for a few weeks a year, but in practice having few restrictions. These "tools" included the Civilizing mission ideology common in the period following the First World War. Every new Cercle Commander might well bring with him vast projects for development and the restructuring of the people's lives he governed.

Chiefs
The other official office particular to the local administration of French West Africa was the "Chief". These were Africans appointed by French officials for their loyalty to France, regardless of their rights to local power. These chiefs were assigned created territories based on the scale of a French Canton, as well as on the small scale tribal structures the French found in the coastal areas of the Rivières du Sud colony in the 1880s, modern Guinea. The Canton, then, was much smaller than, and qualitatively different from, the pre-colonial states of the Sahel (such as the Toucouleur Empire) which the French would later conquer.

They were styled "Chefs de canton", "Chefs du Village", or occasionally taking the title of precolonial states assimilated by the French structure whole. This last was uncommon, but became more prevalent in the later colonial territories conquered, as fewer administrators were available to rule over larger, less populated territories with strong pre-colonial state structures.

Where these larger polities resisted the French, they were often broken into small chiefdoms. Larger polities which presented a segment of the elite who would work with the French were maintained under new leadership. The Sultan of Agadez, the Sultan of Damagaram, and the Djermakoy of Dosso are examples of these large scale "Chefs de canton". But even these rulers were replaced by individuals handpicked by French authorities.

Regardless of source, chiefs were given the right to arm small numbers of guards and made responsible for the collection of taxes, the recruitment of forced labour, and the enforcement of "customary law". In general, Canton Chiefs served at the behest of their Cercle Commander and were left to see to their own affairs as long as calm was maintained and Administrative orders were carried out.

Geography

With an area of some 4689000 km2 (mostly the desert or semi-desert interior of Mauritania, Sudan and Niger) extending from Africa's westernmost point to the depths of the Sahara, the Federation contained more than ten million inhabitants at its creation, and some 25 million at its dissolution. The AOF included all of the Senegal River valley, most of the Niger River valley, and most of the West African Sahel region. It also included tropical forests in Ivory Coast and Guinea, the Fouta Djallon highlands, and the Aïr Mountains of modern Niger.

Territories

 * Ivory Coast
 * Dahomey (currently Benin)
 * French Sudan (currently Mali)
 * Guinea
 * Mauritania
 * Niger
 * Senegal
 * Upper Volta (currently Burkina Faso)
 * French Togoland (currently Togo)
 * Enclaves of Forcados and Badjibo (in modern Nigeria)

Postage stamps

The French colonial territories in the federation issued their own postage stamps until 1943. In many cases the stamps were inscribed with the name of the federation "Afrique Occidentale Française" as well as the colony's own name.

In 1943 and 1944, stamps of Senegal and Mauritania were overprinted with new values and valid throughout French West Africa.

The first issues printed specifically for the federation were the Eboue common design type and a definitive series depicting colonial soldiers, both in 1945. A series of 1947 featured 19 scenes and people of the various colonies, then during the 1950s there were about 30 various commemoratives. The last issue inscribed "Afrique occidentale française" and "RF" was the Human Rights issue of December 1958.

It was followed by a Stamp Day issue on 21 March 1959, which omitted the federation's name and was inscribed "CF" along with "Dakar-Abidjan" for use in Ivory Coast and Senegal.

title: French West Africa


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DUI (disambiguation)

A DUI, in vehicular crime, is a charge of driving under the influence of alcohol or drugs.

DUI may also refer to:

Arts and entertainment

 * D.U.I. (TV series), an American reality television series (2011–2012)
 * "DUI", a song by Ciara from her 2013 album Ciara
 * "D.U.I.", a 1997 punk song by The Offspring from Club Me

Government, military and politics

 * Democratic Union for Integration, a Macedonian political party
 * Distinctive unit insignia, a metal heraldic device worn in the United States Army
 * Documento Único de Identidad, the national identity document of El Salvador

Other uses

 * Dui (vessel), a type of bronze vessel from ancient China
 * Dui, Jalgaon district, a village in Maharashtra, India
 * Diving Unlimited International, an American diving equipment designer and manufacturer
 * Melvil Dui (1851–1931), also known as Melvil Dewey, an American librarian

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: DUI (disambiguation)


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Mohawk River

The Mohawk River is a 149 mi river in the U.S. state of New York. It is the largest tributary of the Hudson River. The Mohawk flows into the Hudson in Cohoes, New York, a few miles north of the state capital of Albany. The river is named for the Mohawk Nation of the Iroquois Confederacy. A major waterway, in the early 19th century, the river's east-west valley provided the setting and water for development of the Erie Canal, as a key to developing New York. The largest tributary, the Schoharie Creek, accounts for over one quarter (26.83%) of the Mohawk River's watershed. Another main tributary is the West Canada Creek, which makes up for 16.33% of the Mohawk's watershed.

Course
The river's source is at the confluence of the West Branch Mohawk River and East Branch Mohawk River in north-central Oneida County. It begins flowing generally southeastward towards the Hamlet of Hillside, first receiving Blue Brook then McMullen Brook and Haynes Brook. In Hillside is the confluence of Lansing Kill, after which it flows towards the Hamlet of North Western receiving Stringer Brook along the way. After North Western it receives Tannery Brook then Wells Creek in the Hamlet of Frenchville. At Frenchville it curves to the southwest and heads toward the Hamlet of Westernville receiving Deans Gulf along the way. In Westernville it enters Delta Reservoir. After exiting the reservoir it heads south toward the City of Rome receiving Hurlbut Glen Brook and passing the Rome Fish Hatchery along the way. On the south side of the City it enters the Erie Canal and begins to flow east.

After Rome the river flows generally east through the Mohawk Valley, passing by the cities of Utica, Little Falls, Canajoharie, Amsterdam, and Schenectady before entering the Hudson River at Cohoes, just north of Albany.

Modifications
The river and its supporting canal, the Erie Canal, connect the Hudson River and port of New York with the Great Lakes at Buffalo, New York. The lower part of the Mohawk River has five permanent dams, nine movable dams (seasonal), and five active hydropower plants.

Schoharie Creek and West Canada Creek are the principal tributaries of the Mohawk River. Both of these tributaries have several significant dams including the Hinckley Dam on the West Canada and the Gilboa Dam on the upper reaches of Schoharie Creek. The Gilboa Dam, which was completed in 1926 as part of the New York City water supply system, is the subject of an active and aggressive rehabilitation project.

Geology
The Mohawk watershed drains a large section of the Catskill Mountains, the Mohawk Valley proper, and a section of the southern Adirondack Mountains. All three regions have distinct bedrock geology, and the underlying rocks become progressively younger to the south. Overall, this part of New York is represented by lower Paleozoic sedimentary rocks that unconformably overlie the Grenville-aged (Proterozoic, here about 1.1 billion years old) metamorphic rocks of the Adirondacks. In the watershed, these rocks are only significant in the headwaters of the West Canada Creek. Much of the main trunk of the Mohawk River sits in Cambro-Ordovician carbonates (limestone) and Middle Ordovician sandstones and shales. The southern tributaries (Catskill Mountains) are underlain by a thin sequence of Devonian limestones that are overlain by a thick sequence of sandstones and shale of the Catskill Delta, which is also Devonian in age.

During the Pleistocene (c. 1.8 to 0.01 mya), the watershed was extensively modified by continental glaciation. As a result of glacial scour and deposition, the surficial deposits in much of the watershed are poorly sorted boulder- and clay-rich glacial till. During deglaciation, several glacial lakes left varved clay deposits. In the final stages of deglaciation, approximately 13,350 years ago, the catastrophic draining of Glacial Lake Iroquois, a pro-glacial lake, was through what would become the modern Mohawk Valley. In this final phase, the enormous discharge of water caused local deep scour features (e.g. the Potholes at Little Falls), and extensive sand and gravel deposition, which is one of the key sources of municipal groundwater including the Scotia Delta, which is also known as the Great Flats Aquifer.

Etymology
The river is named for the Mohawk Nation of the Iroquois Confederacy. In the 1700s and before, the Mohawk people, a section of Iroquois Confederacy, were based in the Mohawk Valley, which included the area around the creek. Their territory ranged north to the St. Lawrence River, southern Quebec and eastern Ontario; south to greater New Jersey and into Pennsylvania; eastward to the Green Mountains of Vermont; and westward to the border with the Iroquoian Oneida Nation's traditional homeland territory.

History
The river has long been important to transportation and migration to the west as a passage through the Appalachian Mountains, between the Catskill Mountains and Allegheny Plateau to the south and the Adirondack Mountains to the north. The Mohawk Valley allowed easier passage than going over the mountains to the north or south of the valley. As a result, it was strategically important during the French and Indian War and the American Revolutionary War, and a number of important battles were fought here. The fertile Mohawk Valley also attracted early settlers.

The river was the highway of the native Mohawk people. The Mohawk name for the river is Teionontatátie, "a river flowing through a mountain"  (or  Yeionontatátie, "going round a mountain"). The first recorded European exploration of the Mohawk was a trip by the Dutchman Harman Meyndertsz van den Bogaert in 1634. He followed the river upstream from Albany for a distance of 100 miles, including all the territory of the Mohawks.

In 1661 Dutch colonists founded the city of Schenectady on the Mohawk River approximately 19 mi from Albany. "For fifty years Schenectady was the outpost of civilization and Dutch-English rule in the Mohawk valley."

In 1712 the British, now in control of New York, built Fort Hunter at the confluence of the Mohawk and the Schoharie Creek, about 22 mi upriver from Schenectady. Around 600 Palatine Germans were settled along the Mohawk and Schoharie Creek. Swedish explorer and botanist, Pehr Kalm, visited the area along the river in the mid-18th century where he encountered some of the indigenous peoples belonging to the Iroquois confederacy, and has left a record for posterity of some of their customs in his journal.

In the early nineteenth century water transport was a vital means of transporting both people and goods. A corporation was formed to build the Erie Canal off the Mohawk River to Lake Erie. Its construction simplified and reduced the difficulties of European westward settler migration.

The Mohawk Valley still plays an important role in transportation. Railroads followed the Water Level Route, as did major east–west roads such as Route 5 and Interstate 90.

The Mohawk River Heritage Corridor Commission was created to preserve and promote the natural and historic assets of the Mohawk River. This commission was created by the NY State Legislature in 1997 to improve historic preservation along the river.

Flooding and discharge
The Mohawk River has a relatively long record of flooding that has been documented back to settlement in the 17th century. The average volume of water that flows through the Mohawk is about 5.21 km3 every year. Much of the water flows through the watershed in the spring as snow melts rapidly and enters the tributaries and the main trunk of the river. The maximum average daily flow on the river occurs between late March and early April. For the period between 1917 and 2000, the highest mean daily flow is c. 18000 cuft as measured at Cohoes, near the confluence with the Hudson. The lowest mean daily flow of 1400 cuft occurs in late August. There is a long record of significant and damaging floods along the entire length of the river.

Because the river and its tributaries typically freeze in the winter, the spring melt is commonly accompanied by ice floes that get stuck and jammed along the main trunk of the river. This annual spring breakup typically occurs in the last few weeks of March, although there are numerous floods that have occurred before or after this time, such as in 2018 when the ice jam breakup happened in late February after record warm weather in the region. These ice jams can cause considerable damage to structures along the riverbanks and on the floodplain. The most severe flood of record on the main trunk of the Mohawk River was the spring breakup flood that occurred from 27 to 28 March 1914. This flood caused a tremendous amount of damage to the infrastructure because it was a spring breakup flood with enormous amounts of ice. Ice jams of some significance occur about every other year.

One major flood on the Mohawk was on 26–29 June 2006, during the Mid-Atlantic United States flood of 2006. Flooding was caused by a stalled frontal system that resulted in 50 to 330 mm of rain across central New York and widespread flooding occurred in the Mohawk, Delaware, and Susquehanna watersheds. Across the state, this event caused over $227 million in damage and resulted in the loss of four lives. This flooding was acute in the upper parts of the Mohawk watershed.

The Mohawk River also saw significant flooding during the weeks between August 21, 2011, and September 5, 2011, due to torrential rains experienced from Hurricane Irene and Tropical Storm Lee. Many of the Mohawk Barge Canal locks sustained major damage, especially near Waterford and Rotterdam Junction.

Another major flood was on June 28, 2013. It was caused by heavy rain that had fallen in the region for weeks. On the night of June 27, 2013, the Jordanville area reported that 4 inches of rain fell in one hour. The next day, the Mohawk River flooded the valley, residents were stranded and without power for about a week. There was considerable damage everywhere, especially Mohawk and Fort Plain.

On July 3, 1985, Congress approved a project at Amsterdam for work to be done on the Mohawk River and South Chuctanunda Creek. South Chuctanunda Creek was cleared at the upstream end of the project for approximately 950 ft. New flood walls were installed along the right bank of South Chuctanunda Creek and the Mohawk River. A new wing wall was installed on the left bank of South Chuctanunda Creek at the upstream end of the New York Central Railroad Bridge. The South Chuctanunda was realigned and reshaped for approximately 1056 ft and riprap was added where needed. The existing channel of the South Chuctanunda was slightly reshaped downstream of the Florida Avenue bridge. Construction plans for the project were issued on November 15, 1962. Construction work began on February 25, 1963, with construction being completed on June 4, 1965. The flood walls protect the city of Amsterdam from floods of 122500 cuft/s from the Mohawk River and floods of 3400 cuft/s from South Chuctanunda Creek. The floodwalls were able to prevent $13.6 million in damages from tropical storms Lee and Irene. In July 2012, governor Cuomo announced a project to improve the flood walls on South Chuctanunda Creek and Mohawk River. The floodwalls and river banks were repaired at a cost of $164,248.

Watershed management
Historically, the Mohawk watershed has lacked a watershed management plan typical in many adjacent basins. In 2010, the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation released the Mohawk River Basin Action Agenda, which is the first framework for a watershed management plan in this basin. This plan identifies five priority goals for the Mohawk River Basin that are designed to enhance ecosystem health and the vitality of the region. The Action Agenda, developed by the NYS DEC in collaboration with a number of stakeholders in the basin with public input, advocates an ecosystem-based approach to watershed management. In October 2014, Riverkeeper, an environmental advocacy and clean water watchdog organization, announced that they will be expanding the reach of their efforts from the Hudson River to the Mohawk as well.

Right

 * McMullen Brook
 * Deans Gulf
 * Wheelers Creek
 * Oriskany Creek
 * Sauquoit Creek
 * Starch Factory Creek
 * Bonny Brook
 * Moyer Creek
 * Steele Creek
 * Fulmer Creek
 * Nowadaga Creek
 * Otsquago Creek
 * Canajoharie Creek
 * Flat Creek
 * Lasher Creek
 * Yatesville Creek
 * Van Wie Creek
 * Auries Creek
 * Schoharie Creek
 * South Chuctanunda Creek
 * Terwilleger Creek
 * Sandsea Kill
 * Moccasin Kill
 * Plotter Kill
 * Lisha Kill
 * Shakers Creek
 * Delphus Kill

Left

 * Blue Brook
 * Haynes Brook
 * Lansing Kill
 * Stringer Brook
 * Tannery Brook
 * Wells Creek
 * Hurlbut Glen Brook
 * Sixmile Creek
 * Ninemile Creek
 * Crane Creek
 * Decks Creek
 * Jones Creek
 * Gridley Creek
 * Reall Creek
 * Budlong Creek
 * Wood Creek
 * Knapp Brook
 * Burch Creek
 * Sterling Creek
 * Pratt Creek
 * Bridenbecker Creek
 * West Canada Creek
 * Beaver Brook
 * Crum Creek
 * East Canada Creek
 * Timmerman Creek
 * Zimmerman Creek
 * Mother Creek
 * Caroga Creek
 * Knauderack Creek
 * Briggs Run
 * Cayadutta Creek
 * Danascara Creek
 * Kayaderasseras Creek
 * Dove Creek
 * Bunn Creek
 * North Chuctanunda Creek
 * Degraff Creek
 * Evas Kill
 * Compaanen Kill
 * Chaughtanoonda Creek
 * Verf Kill
 * Washout Creek
 * Alplaus Kill
 * Stony Creek

Islands

 * Abeel Island – Located north of Fort Plain.
 * Bronson Island – Located west of Amsterdam.
 * Davey Island – Located South of Amsterdam.
 * Dalys Island – Located by Scotia.
 * Giording Island – Located south of Amsterdam.
 * Goat Island – Located north of Niskayuna.
 * Isle of the Oneidas – Located south of Scotia.
 * Isle of the Onondagas – Located south of Scotia.
 * Isle of the Senecas – Located south of Scotia.
 * Isle of the Mohawks – Located south of Scotia.
 * Isle of the Cayugas – Located south of Scotia.
 * Upper Pepper Island – Located south of Fort Johnson.
 * Pepper Island – Located south of Fort Johnson.
 * Robb Island – Located southeast of Fort Johnson.
 * Swart Island – Located west of Hoffmans.

title: Mohawk River


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Townes Van Zandt

John Townes Van Zandt (March 7, 1944 – January 1, 1997) was an American singer-songwriter. He wrote numerous songs, such as "Pancho and Lefty", "For the Sake of the Song", "If I Needed You", "Snake Mountain Blues", "Our Mother the Mountain", "Waitin' Round to Die", and "To Live Is to Fly". His musical style has often been described as melancholic and features rich, poetic lyrics. During his early years, Van Zandt was respected for his guitar playing and fingerpicking ability.

Much of Van Zandt's life was spent touring various bars, music clubs, colleges, and folk venues and festivals, often lodging in motel rooms or the homes of friends. He suffered from drug addiction and alcoholism, and was diagnosed with bipolar disorder. When he was young, the now-discredited insulin shock therapy erased much of his long-term memory.

In 1983, Willie Nelson and Merle Haggard covered and popularized Van Zandt's song "Pancho and Lefty", reaching number one on the Billboard country music chart. Van Zandt's influence has been cited by countless artists across multiple genres and his music has been recorded or performed by Bob Dylan, Willie Nelson, Lyle Lovett, Merle Haggard, Norah Jones, Emmylou Harris, Counting Crows, Steve Earle, Whitey Morgan, Rodney Crowell, Robert Earl Keen Jr., Nanci Griffith, Guy Clark, Wade Bowen, Gillian Welch, Richard Buckner, Pat Green, Colter Wall, Billy Strings, Molly Tuttle, Jason Isbell, Calvin Russell, Natalie Maines, Jason Molina, Kevin Morby, Stephen Duffy, Doc Watson, The Cowboy Junkies, Frank Turner, Rowland S. Howard, Tindersticks, Cave In, Amenra, Charley Crockett, Tyler Childers and Marissa Nadler.

Van Zandt died on New Year's Day 1997 from cardiac arrythmia caused by health problems stemming from years of substance abuse. A revival of interest in Van Zandt blossomed in the 2000s. During the decade, two books, a documentary film (Be Here to Love Me), and numerous magazine articles were written about him.

Early life
Born in Fort Worth, Texas, into a wealthy family, Van Zandt was a great-great-great-grandson of Isaac Van Zandt (a prominent leader of the Republic of Texas) and a great-great-grandnephew of Khleber Miller Van Zandt (a major in the Confederate army and one of the founders of Fort Worth).

Townes' parents were Harris Williams Van Zandt and Dorothy Townes. He had two siblings, Bill (1949–2009) and Donna (1941–2011). Harris was a corporate lawyer and his career required the family to move several times during the 1950s and 1960s. In 1952, the family relocated from Fort Worth to Midland, Texas for six months before moving to Billings, Montana.

At Christmas in 1956, Townes's father gave him a guitar, which he practiced while wandering the countryside. He later told an interviewer that "seeing Elvis Presley on the Ed Sullivan Show was the starting point for me becoming a guitar player... I just thought that Elvis had all the money in the world, all the Cadillacs and all the girls, and all he did was play the guitar and sing. That made a big impression on me." In 1958, the family moved to Boulder, Colorado. Van Zandt remembered his time in Colorado fondly and often visited it as an adult. He later referred to Colorado in "My Proud Mountains", "Colorado Girl", and "Snowin' on Raton". Townes was a good student and active in team sports. In grade school, he was found to have a high IQ, and his parents began grooming him to become a lawyer or senator. Fearing that his family would move again, he willingly decided to attend the Shattuck School in Faribault, Minnesota. He received a score of 1170 when he took the SAT in January 1962. His family soon moved to Houston, Texas.

In 1962, he enrolled at the University of Colorado Boulder, wrote poetry, and listened to records by Lightnin' Hopkins and Hank Williams. In the spring of his second year, his parents flew to Boulder to bring Townes back to Houston, worried about his binge drinking and episodes of depression. They admitted him to the University of Texas Medical Branch in Galveston, where he was diagnosed with manic depression. He received three months of insulin shock therapy, which erased much of his long-term memory. Afterwards, his mother said that her "biggest regret in life was that she had allowed that treatment to occur". In 1965, he was accepted into the University of Houston's pre-law program. Soon after, he attempted to join the Air Force, but was rejected because of a doctor's diagnosis that labelled him "an acute manic-depressive who has made minimal adjustments to life". After Townes's father died in January 1966 at age 52, he quit school and went on the road for the first time having been inspired by his singer-songwriter heroes to pursue a career in playing music.

Early musical career
In 1965, Van Zandt began playing regular shows at the Jester Lounge in Houston for $10 per night. After the Jester closed, he began to regularly perform (and occasionally live) at Sand Mountain Coffee House. In these Houston clubs, he met fellow musicians Lightnin' Hopkins, Guy Clark, Jerry Jeff Walker, and Doc Watson. His repertoire consisted mostly of covers of songs written by Hopkins, Bob Dylan, and others, as well as original novelty songs like "Fraternity Blues." In 1966, Harris Van Zandt had encouraged his son to stop playing covers and write his own songs.

At one point around 1968, Van Zandt was roommates with 13th Floor Elevators singer Roky Erickson. Erickson suggested that he audition as the Elevators' new bassist, even though he was a guitarist who had never played bass before. When Tommy Hall found out he never played bass, he kicked him out of the audition.

In 1968, Van Zandt met songwriter Mickey Newbury in a Houston coffee shop. Newbury persuaded Van Zandt to go to Nashville, Tennessee, where he was introduced by Newbury to the man who became his longtime producer, "Cowboy" Jack Clement.

Van Zandt cited Lightnin' Hopkins, Bob Dylan, and Hank Williams and such varied artists as Muddy Waters, The Rolling Stones, Blind Willie McTell, Tchaikovsky, and Jefferson Airplane as having had a major impact on his music.

1970s
The years between 1968 and 1973 proved to be his most prolific era. Van Zandt released six albums during the time period: For the Sake of the Song, Our Mother the Mountain, Townes Van Zandt, Delta Momma Blues, High, Low and In Between, and The Late Great Townes Van Zandt. Among the tracks written for these albums were "To Live Is to Fly", "Pancho and Lefty", and "If I Needed You". These songs eventually raised Van Zandt to near-legend status in American and European songwriting circles.

In 1972, he recorded tracks for an album with a working title of Seven Come Eleven, which remained unreleased for many years due to a dispute between his manager Kevin Eggers and producer Jack Clement. Eggers either could not or refused to pay for the studio sessions, so Clement erased the master tapes. However, before they were deleted, Eggers sneaked into the studio and recorded rough mixes of the songs on to a cassette tape. Tracks from the aborted Seven Come Eleven debacle later surfaced on The Nashville Sessions.

In 1975, Van Zandt was featured prominently in the documentary film Heartworn Highways with Guy Clark, Steve Earle, Steve Young, Gamble Rogers, Charlie Daniels and David Allan Coe. His segment of the film was shot at his run-down trailer home in Austin, Texas, where Van Zandt is shown drinking straight whiskey during the middle of the day, shooting and playing with guns, and performing the songs "Waitin' Around to Die" and "Pancho and Lefty." His soon-to-be second wife Cindy and dog Geraldine (a large, "keenly intelligent" half-wolf, half-husky) are featured in the film.

In 1977, Live at the Old Quarter, Houston, Texas was released. The album showcased Van Zandt solo at a 1973 concert before a small audience, and less elaborately produced than many of his early records. The album received positive reviews, and is considered by many to be among the best albums that the songwriter ever released.

In the mid-1970s, Van Zandt split from his longtime manager, Kevin Eggers. He found a new manager, John Lomax III (grandson of the famed folk music historian John Lomax), who set up a fan club for Van Zandt. Though the club was only advertised through small ads in the back of music magazines, Lomax immediately began to receive hundreds of impassioned letters from around the world written by people who felt touched by Van Zandt. Some of the letters described how his material often served as a crutch for those who were dealing with depression. In 1978, the singer fired Lomax and re-hired Eggers. He soon signed with Eggers' new label, Tomato Records. The following year, he recorded Flyin' Shoes; he did not release another album until 1987's At My Window. Despite critical acclaim, he remained a cult figure. He normally played small venues (often to crowds of fewer than fifty people) but began to move towards playing larger venues (and even made a handful of television appearances) during the 1990s. For much of the 1970s, he lived a reclusive life outside of Nashville in a tin-roofed, bare-boards shack with no heat, plumbing or telephone, occasionally appearing in town to play shows.

1980s–1990s
Several of Van Zandt's compositions were recorded by other artists, such as Emmylou Harris who, with Don Williams, had a No. 3 country hit in 1981 with "If I Needed You," and Willie Nelson and Merle Haggard, the pair taking "Pancho and Lefty" to No. 1 on the country charts in 1983. Van Zandt had a small cameo appearance in the video for the song. In his later years, he recorded less frequently, his voice and singing style altered in part because of his drug addiction and alcoholism. However, he continued writing songs, such as "Marie" and "The Hole".

According to Susanna Clark, Van Zandt turned down repeated invitations to write with Bob Dylan. Dylan was reportedly a "big fan" of Townes and claimed to have all of his records; Van Zandt admired Dylan's songs, but didn't care for his celebrity. The two first met during a chance encounter outside a costume shop in the South Congress district of Austin, on June 21, 1986. According to Johnny Guess, Dylan later arranged another meeting with the songwriter. The Drag in Austin was shut down due to Dylan being in town; Van Zandt drove his motorhome to the cordoned-off area, after which Dylan boarded the vehicle and requested to hear him play several songs. In May and June 1990, he opened for the Cowboy Junkies during a two-month-long tour of the United States and Canada, which exposed him to a younger generation of fans. As a result, he wrote the song "Cowboy Junkies Lament" for the group, with a verse about each member of the band.

Relationships
Van Zandt married Fran Peterson on August 26, 1965; a son, John Townes "J.T." Van Zandt II, was born to them on April 11, 1969, in Houston. The couple divorced on January 16, 1970. He began dating Cindy Morgan in 1974 and they married in 1978. Van Zandt and Cindy became estranged for much of the early 1980s, and were divorced on February 10, 1983, in Travis County, Texas. They had no children.

Van Zandt's third marriage was to Jeanene Munsell. They met on December 9, 1980, at a memorial for John Lennon. When the terminally-ill Dorothy Van Zandt learned that her son had impregnated Munsell, she told him, "You're going to do the right thing and honor that baby." He divorced his estranged second wife and married Munsell on March 14, 1983. Their first child, William Vincent, was born 10 days later. Another child, Katie Belle, was born February 14, 1992. Van Zandt and Munsell divorced on May 2, 1994. However, the two remained close, and Jeanene was an executor of his estate.

Around the time of their April 1993 separation, Jeanene coaxed the musician into signing over the publishing rights of his back catalog and recording royalties to her and their children. Van Zandt's only source of income after making that change was money received from concert engagements and, even then, Van Zandt frequently visited his ex-wife and gave her the money in his pockets. Following their divorce in 1994, his only possessions were a 1989 GMC Truck with camper shell, a 1984 Honda Shadow motorcycle and a 1983 Starwind 22-foot boat named Dorothy. He also retained sole ownership of his family inheritance of ownership in oil lease and mineral rights.

At the time of his death, he had begun a long-distance relationship with a woman named Claudia Winterer from Darmstadt, Germany. The two met in November 1995 during a concert of his in Hanau, Germany. Van Zandt told friends, he planned on marrying Winterer, but the two never became engaged.

Addiction
Van Zandt was addicted to heroin and alcohol throughout his adult life. At times, he became drunk on stage and forgot the lyrics to his songs. At one point, his heroin habit was so intense that he offered Kevin Eggers the publishing rights to all of the songs on each of his first four albums for $20. At various points, his friends saw him shoot up not just heroin, but also cocaine, vodka, as well as a mixture of rum and Coke. On at least one occasion, he shot up heroin in the presence of his son J.T., who was only eight years old at the time.

As a result of Van Zandt's constant drinking, Harold Eggers, Kevin's brother, was hired as his tour manager and 24-hour caretaker in 1976, a partnership that lasted for the rest of the singer's life. Although the musician was years older than he was, Eggers later said that Van Zandt was his "first child." His battles with addiction led him into rehab nearly a dozen times throughout the 1970s and 1980s. Medical records from his recovery centers indicate that he believed his drinking had become a problem around 1973, and that by 1982 he was drinking at least a pint of vodka daily. Doctors' notes reported: "He admits to hearing voices, mostly musical voices", and "Affect is blunted and mood is sad. Judgment and insight is impaired." At various times he was prescribed the antidepressant Zoloft and the mood stabilizer lithium. The longest and final period of sobriety during his adult life was about a year in 1989 and 1990.

Death
Van Zandt continued writing and performing through the 1990s, though his output slowed noticeably. He had enjoyed some sobriety during the early 1990s, but actively abused alcohol during his final years. In 1994, he was admitted to the hospital to detox, when a doctor told Jeanene Van Zandt that trying to detox Townes again could potentially kill him. He grew increasingly frail during the mid-1990s, with friends noting that he seemed to have "withered."

In early 1996, he was contacted by Sonic Youth's Steve Shelley, who informed Van Zandt that he was interested in recording and releasing an album for him on the band's Ecstatic Peace label, funded by Geffen. Van Zandt agreed, and sessions were scheduled to begin in Memphis during late December of that year. On December 19 or 20, Van Zandt fell down the concrete stairs outside his home, badly injuring his hip. After lying outside for an hour, he dragged himself inside and called his ex-wife Jeanene, who sent friends Royann and Jim Calvin to check on him. He told the couple that he had sustained the injury while getting out of bed, and refused medical treatment. They took him back to their home, and he spent Christmas week on their couch, unable to get up even to use the bathroom.

Determined to finish the album that he had scheduled to record with Shelley and Two Dollar Guitar, Van Zandt arrived at the Memphis studio being pushed in a wheelchair by road manager Harold Eggers. Shelley canceled the sessions due to the songwriter's erratic behavior and drunkenness. Van Zandt finally agreed to hospitalization, but not before returning to Nashville. By the time he consented to receive medical care, eight days had passed since the injury. On December 31, X-rays revealed that Van Zandt had an impacted left femoral neck fracture in his hip, and several corrective surgeries were performed. Jeanene informed the surgeon that one of Townes's previous rehab doctors had told her detoxing could kill him. The medical staff tried to explain to her that detoxing a "late-term alcoholic" at home would be ill-advised, and he would have a better chance at recovering under hospital supervision. She did not heed the warnings, and checked Townes out of the hospital. Understanding that he would most likely drink immediately after leaving the hospital, the physicians refused to prescribe him any painkillers.

By the time Van Zandt was checked out of the hospital early the next morning, he had begun to show signs of delirium tremens. Jeanene rushed him to her car, where she gave him a flask of vodka to ward off the withdrawal delirium. She later reported that after getting him back home to Smyrna, Tennessee, and giving him alcohol, he became "lucid, in a real good mood, calling his friends on the phone." Jim Calvin shared a marijuana joint with him, and he was also given about four Tylenol PM tablets.

While Jeanene was on the phone with Susanna Clark, their son Will noticed that Townes had stopped breathing and "looked dead", and alerted his mother, who attempted to perform CPR, "screaming his name between breaths". Townes Van Zandt died in the early morning hours of January 1, 1997, at the age of 52. His official cause of death was "natural" cardiac arrhythmia.

Two services were held for Van Zandt: one in Texas for family, and another in a large Nashville church, attended by friends, acquaintances, and fans. Some of his ashes were placed underneath a headstone in the Van Zandt family plot at the Dido Cemetery in Dido, Texas, near Fort Worth.

Legal issues over his work
In the years immediately following Van Zandt's death, his former manager and label owner Kevin Eggers issued 14 albums of both new and previously unreleased material by the singer, all without consent of his estate (represented by Jeanene Van Zandt and his three children). Eggers claimed a 50% interest in eighty of Van Zandt's songs. After nearly ten years of legal battles, the court sided with the estate, issuing "injunctive relief against Eggers, restraining him from reproducing or distributing any of Van Zandt's songs."

It was revealed through these proceedings that Van Zandt's annual income in the years before his death had climbed to over $100,000, thanks in large part to the royalties accrued from his songs being covered by Willie Nelson, Emmylou Harris, Lyle Lovett, Merle Haggard, Cowboy Junkies, and other major music stars. After Van Zandt's death his road manager, Harold Eggers, released video and audio recordings from the songwriter's concerts. An out-of-court settlement in 2006 granted the Van Zandts conditional control of Harold Eggers' mastered recordings with Eggers retaining a 50% ownership of seven albums and some royalties for the remaining recordings.

On October 21, 2008, a number of Van Zandt's personal possessions were auctioned off at The Northside in Akron, Ohio at a benefit for Rex "Wrecks" Bell. Bell was a close friend and bandmate, and the inspiration for the song "Rex's Blues". Bell was also part owner of the bar Old Quarter in Houston, where Van Zandt performed the songs that would comprise the album Live at the Old Quarter.

In music
Van Zandt has been referred to as a cult musician and "a songwriter's songwriter." Musician Steve Earle, who met him in 1978 and considered Van Zandt a mentor, once called Van Zandt "the best songwriter in the whole world and I'll stand on Bob Dylan's coffee table in my cowboy boots and say that." The quote was printed on a sticker featured on the packing of At My Window, much to Van Zandt's displeasure. In the years following, the quote was often cited by the press, much to Van Zandt and Earle's embarrassment; in 2009, Earle told the New York Times "Did I ever believe that Townes was better than Bob Dylan? No." But he concluded at the end of the same article that, "As a songwriter, you won't find anybody better." Earle has championed the songwriter on a number of occasions: his eldest son, Justin Townes Earle, also a musician, was named after Van Zandt. Earle wrote the song "Fort Worth Blues" as a tribute to the singer in the late 1990s, and in 2009 released an album titled Townes, which featured all covers of Van Zandt songs.

His Texas-grounded impact stretched farther than country. He has been cited as a source of inspiration by such notable artists as Bob Dylan, Neil Young, Willie Nelson, Guthrie Thomas, John Prine, Lyle Lovett, Chelsea Wolfe, Scott Avett of The Avett Brothers, Emmylou Harris, Nanci Griffith, Cowboy Junkies, Vetiver, Guy Clark, Devendra Banhart, Norah Jones, Robert Plant & Alison Krauss, The Be Good Tanyas and Jolie Holland, Rowland S. Howard, Michael Weston King, Hayes Carll, Josh Ritter, Gillian Welch, Garth Brooks, Simon Joyner, Conor Oberst of Bright Eyes, Caleb Followill of Kings of Leon, Marissa Nadler, Laura Marling, and Frank Turner, Folk musician Shakey Graves has credited his fast-paced, rhythmic style of finger picked guitar playing partially to Van Zandt's influence.

In 1994, Israeli singer David Broza performed with Van Zandt during a Writers in the Round concert in Houston. When Van Zandt died, he left a shoe box full of unreleased poems and lyrics with a request that Broza set them to music. The resulting album was Night Dawn: The Unpublished Poetry of Townes Van Zandt.

In 2012, Van Zandt was inducted into the Texas Heritage Songwriters Hall of Fame.

In July 2012, Neurot Recordings released a three-way split album in tribute to Van Zandt, featuring Neurosis singer/guitarists Scott Kelly, Steve Von Till and doom/stoner metal legend Scott "Wino" Weinrich. Two years later another similar album was released featuring John Baizley, Mike Scheidt and Nate Hall, frontmen of the bands Baroness, YOB and U.S. Christmas respectively.

On June 18, 2015, Van Zandt was inducted into the second year's ceremony of the Austin City Limits Hall of Fame, along with Asleep at the Wheel, Loretta Lynn, Guy Clark and Flaco Jimenez. Gillian Welch inducted Van Zandt by telling stories about how he had come to her early gigs in Nashville and how he had bolstered her confidence in writing sad songs.

In an interview with The Guardian in 2016, Van Zandt was cited as being an influence to the American avant-garde metal group Neurosis.

In film and television
Van Zandt's Roadsongs album version of The Rolling Stones' "Dead Flowers" was used during the final scene of the Coen Brothers' 1998 film The Big Lebowski. The song was included on the movie's soundtrack. Since his death, Van Zandt's recordings have been licensed by his family for use in a number of films and television programs, including Stepmom, Ozark, Six Feet Under, In Bruges, Calvary, Crazy Heart, Leaves of Grass, Seven Psychopaths, Deadwood, Breaking Bad, Billions, Patriot, True Detective, Euphoria (American TV Series), and Hell or High Water (Dollar Bill Blues). His "Buckskin Stallion Blues" was featured in the 2017 American film Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri both as his original recording and a cover by Amy Annelle.

In the film Country Strong, the Austin Statesman describes the character of Beau Hutton as "the next Townes Van Zandt". The 2012 documentary film Low & Clear, which revolves around Van Zandt's son JT fly fishing for steelhead in British Columbia with his old fishing buddy Xenie, features Van Zandt's songs.

Films and book
In 2004, the film Be Here to Love Me, chronicling the artist's life and musical career, was released in the United States. It was very well received, earning a 94% rating on Rotten Tomatoes. Georgia Christgau of the Village Voice called the documentary "sympathetic but frank." Eddie Cockrell of Variety called the film "a dignified and wistful look at the unusual life, difficult career and lasting influence" of Van Zandt.

A biography, titled To Live's to Fly: The Ballad of the Late, Great Townes Van Zandt by John Kruth, was released in 2007. It received mixed reviews, with Publishers Weekly lamenting that Kruth's "efforts are diminished by oddly alternating first- and third-person narratives, awkward transitions and text cluttered with excessive quotes... more insight into why – rather than countless tales of how – would have made this bio a more worthwhile read."

In April 2008, the University of North Texas Press published Robert Earl Hardy's biography on the songwriter, titled A Deeper Blue: The Life and Music of Townes Van Zandt, which took more than eight years of research, including interviews with Mickey Newbury, Jack Clement, Guy and Susanna Clark, Mickey White, Rex Bell, Dan Rowland, Richard Dobson, John Lomax III, Van Zandt's brother and sister, cousins, his three ex-wives, and many others. The book has been described by Kirkus Reviews as a "poignant, clear and vivid portrait."

I'll Be Here in the Morning: The Songwriting Legacy of Townes Van Zandt by Brian T. Atkinson was released on New Year's Day 2012 by Texas A&M University Press, coinciding with the 15th anniversary of Van Zandt's death. The book contains interviews with longtime Van Zandt friends Guy Clark, Billy Joe Shaver, Ray Wylie Hubbard, Kris Kristofferson, Tom Russell and Peter Rowan as well as younger disciples such as Scott Avett (the Avett Brothers), Jim James (My Morning Jacket), Kasey Chambers, Josh Ritter, and Grace Potter.

Van Zandt was portrayed by Charlie Sexton in the 2018 film Blaze, a biographical drama about the life of Blaze Foley.

More books and movies about Townes Van Zandt were released, e.g. Harold Eggers' My Years with Townes Van Zandt and Mickey White's ''Another Mickey. Ruminations of a Texas Guitar Slinger (books ) or Without Getting Killed or Caught'' (movie, director: Tamara Saviano).

Studio albums

 * For the Sake of the Song (1968)
 * Our Mother the Mountain (1969)
 * Townes Van Zandt (1969)
 * Delta Momma Blues (1971)
 * High, Low and In Between (1971)
 * The Late Great Townes Van Zandt (1972)
 * Flyin' Shoes (1978)
 * At My Window (1987)
 * The Nashville Sessions (1993)
 * No Deeper Blue (1994)

Posthumous albums

 * A Far Cry From Dead (1999)
 * Texas Rain: The Texas Hill Country Recordings (2001)
 * In the Beginning (2003)
 * Sunshine Boy: The Unheard Studio Sessions & Demos 1971–1972 (2013)
 * Sky Blue (2019)
 * Somebody Had to Write It (2020)

Singles

 * "Waiting Around to Die" / "Talking Karate Blues" (1968)
 * "Second Lovers Song" / "Tecumseh Valley" (1969)
 * "Come Tomorrow" / "Delta Mama Blues" (1971)
 * "Greensboro Woman" / "Standin'" (1972)
 * "If I Needed You" / "Sunshine Boy" (1972)
 * "Honky Tonkin'" / "Snow Don't Fall" (1972)
 * "Fraulein" / "Don't Let the Sunshine Fool Ya" (1972)
 * "Pancho and Lefty" / "Heavenly Houseboat Blues" (1972)
 * "Pancho and Lefty" / "If I Needed You" (1973)
 * "Who Do You Love" / "Dollar Bill Blues" (1978)
 * "When She Don't Need Me" / "No Place to Fall" (1978)
 * "Dead Flowers" / "Fraulein" / "Racing in the Street" (1993) – German CD single
 * "Riding the Range" / "Dirty Old Town" (1996)
 * "Ain't Leavin' Your Love" (1999) – US CD single
 * "Snowin' on Raton" (2001) – US CD single; from Texas Rain: The Texas Hill Country Recordings
 * "Highway Kind" (2002) – CD single

Live albums

 * Live at the Old Quarter, Houston, Texas (1977) – recorded July 1973
 * Live and Obscure (1987) – recorded 1985
 * Down Home & Abroad (2018) – recorded 1985/1993
 * Rain on a Conga Drum: Live in Berlin (1991) – recorded October 1990
 * Rear View Mirror (1993) – recorded in Oklahoma, 1978
 * Roadsongs (1993) – all cover songs, recorded late 1970s & early 1980s
 * Abnormal (1996) – reissued in 1998 with 3 tracks replaced
 * The Highway Kind (1997)
 * Documentary (1997)
 * Last Rights (1997) – alternate version of Documentary
 * Together at the Bluebird Café (2001) – with Guy Clark and Steve Earle; recorded September 1995
 * In Pain (1999) – recorded 1994/1996
 * Live at McCabe's (2001) – recorded February 1995
 * A Gentle Evening with Townes Van Zandt (2002) – recorded November 1969
 * Absolutely Nothing (2002) – recorded 1991–1996
 * Acoustic Blue (2003) – recorded 1994/1996
 * Live at the Jester Lounge, Houston, Texas, 1966 (2004)
 * Rear View Mirror, Volume 2 (2004) – recorded 1977–80; album credits erroneously state 1976–79
 * Live at Union Chapel, London, England (2005) – recorded April 1994
 * Houston 1988: A Private Concert (2005)

Videos

 * Heartworn Highways (1981)
 * Be Here to Love Me (2004)
 * Houston 1988: A Private Concert (2004)
 * Townes Live in Amsterdam (2008) – recorded November 2, 1991

title: Townes Van Zandt


text:
Hayward

Hayward may refer to:

People

 * Hayward (surname), including a list of people with the name
 * Hayward (given name), including a list of people with the name

Places

 * Hayward, California, U.S., in Alameda County
 * Hayward station (Amtrak)
 * Hayward station (BART)
 * Hayward Executive Airport
 * Hayward Fault Zone, a geologic fault zone
 * Hayward, Mariposa County, California, U.S.
 * Hayward, Minnesota, U.S.
 * Hayward Township, Freeborn County, Minnesota, U.S.
 * Hayward, Missouri
 * Hayward, Oklahoma
 * Hayward, Oregon
 * Hayward, Wisconsin
 * Hayward (town), Wisconsin
 * Hayward station (British Columbia), Canada

Other uses

 * Hayward (profession), officer of an English parish in charge of fences and enclosures
 * Hayward Gallery, an art gallery in London, England
 * Actinidia deliciosa 'Hayward', a common cultivar of Kiwifruit

title: Hayward


text:
Formosa Province

Formosa Province is a province in northeastern Argentina, part of the Gran Chaco Region. Formosa's northeast end touches Asunción, Paraguay, and the province borders the provinces of Chaco and Salta to its south and west, respectively. The capital is Formosa.

Source of the provincial name
The name of the city (and the province) comes from the archaic Spanish word fermosa (currently hermosa) meaning "beautiful". The name Vuelta Fermosa or Vuelta la Formosa was used by Spanish sailors in the 16th century to describe the area where the Paraguay River makes a turn, right in front of the actual city. These sailors were searching for the legendary Sierra del Plata.

History
Native inhabitants of these lands include the Pilagás, Wichis and Tobas, whose languages are still spoken in the province.

Sebastian Cabot and Diego García de Moguer first explored the area at the beginning of the 16th century trying to find a route from Viceroyalty of Peru to Asunción. Because the Pilcomayo and Bermejo Rivers are so shallow, the attempts to set a route towards Asunción was abandoned.

The area's first European settlement, Concepción del Bermejo, was established in 1585. Following the establishment of Argentine and Paraguayan independence in the 1810s, the area fell under dispute between the two nations, a matter not settled until after the War of the Triple Alliance (1865–70). Commander Luis Jorge Fontana founded the settlement of Formosa in 1879, bringing the remote area into national attention and helping to secure a territorial status in 1884.

Formosa had less than 20,000 inhabitants in 1914; but in 1955, when it acquired the status of Province by decree of President Juan Perón, it had already more than 150,000. Following the Rincón Bomba massacres by the Argentinean Gendarmerie of nomadic Amerindians in 1947, President Perón initiated a program of land reform in the province; the program, by the time of his 1955 overthrow, had issued only around 4,000 land grants, however. Continuing to grow slowly, though relatively steadily, the Formosa campus of the National University of the Northeast was established as the National University of Formosa in 1988.

Geography
Located within the geographic coordinates 26° 22°30' south, and 57°30' 62°25' west, the plains run between the Bermejo and Pilcomayo Rivers with a slight inclination towards the southeast. Due to this flatness, riverbeds are not stable, and small lagoons that are slowly reabsorbed arise.

Climate
The average annual temperature is 21 °C; during summer it can rise to 45 °C.

The tropical weather is characterized with uniform annual rains in the east (1000 mm annual), while in the rest of the country winter is a drier season (80 mm). The humidity variation results in the jungle vegetation on one side, and the Chaqueño forest in the other. The limit with the Salta Province is known as the Impenetrable ("Impenetrable").

Formosa's protected areas are the Río Pilcomayo National Park and the Formosa National Reserve.

Fauna
Formosa, a province located in northern Argentina, is renowned for its exceptional fauna diversity. The region's diverse ecosystems, encompassing wetlands, forests, grasslands, and rivers, provide a wide array of habitats for a rich variety of animal species.

The fauna of Formosa showcases a remarkable assortment, playing a vital role in preserving the ecological balance of this vast environment and contributing to the overall functionality of the ecosystem.

Nevertheless, the indigenous animals of Formosa have faced significant declines as a result of human activities. The yaguareté, once a prevalent inhabitant of the forests and jungles, has experienced a population decrease. Other felids, such as pumas and various feline species, also inhabit the area. The humid forest areas are home to tapirs and monkeys, with the distinctive howler monkey, known as carayá, standing out among them. In the drier forest zones, armadillos, including the giant armadillo, locally known as tatú carreta, alongside foxes and rodents commonly found in the Chaco region, have established their habitats. The bird and reptile populations in Formosa share similarities with those found in other provinces of Argentina.

Mammals
In Formosa Province, one can still find both large and small feline species, such as the jaguar, puma, ocelot, mountain cat, and pampas cat.

In the grassland areas, the maned wolf, known as "aguara-guazu," can be found, although its population is currently declining. In more open and cleared areas, armadillos such as the mulita, giant armadillo, mataco, and peludo can be found.

Other abundant mammals in Formosa include coatis, tapirs, small deer known as corzuelas, foxes, skunks, vizcachas, overa weasels, howler monkeys or caraya, and various rodent species.

The 27 species of mammals that have been identified in Formosa are:
 * Giant Anteater
 * Southern Tamandua
 * Marsh Deer
 * Gray brocket
 * Collared Peccary
 * White-lipped Peccary
 * Maned Wolf
 * Crab-eating Fox
 * Pampas Fox
 * Jaguar
 * Puma
 * Jaguarundi
 * Geoffroy's Cat
 * Tayra (Eira barbara)
 * Neotropical Otter
 * Crab-eating Raccoon
 * South American Coati
 * Screaming Hairy Armadillo
 * Southern Three-banded Armadillo
 * Nine-banded Armadillo
 * Common tapeti
 * South American Tapir
 * Azara's Night Monkey
 * Black Howler Monkey
 * Capybara
 * Chacoan Mara
 * Brazilian Guinea Pig

Birds
Formosa is one of the preferred destinations for nature enthusiasts due to the excellent state of conservation of its ecosystems across much of its territory. It is renowned for its rich birdlife, with many species easily observable during a day trip into nature.

Within this province, one can encounter rheas (ñandúes), various species of partridges among the terrestrial birds, and herons among the aquatic species. Other notable bird species include toucans, southern lapwings, crested caracaras, crows, caracaras, magpies, woodpeckers, kingfishers, different species of doves and ducks, guans, hoatzins, ovenbirds, cattle tyrants, fork-tailed flycatchers, owls, and nightjars, seedeaters, swans, and spoonbills. In the areas near rivers, especially along the Paraná River, common parakeets and the yellow-chevroned parakeet and blue-fronted parrot are abundant.

It could be said that half of Argentina's bird species are found in Formosa, as 367 species have been recorded out of the 1,020 documented across the entire country. These are just a few examples of the diverse avian inhabitants of the province: Some of the birds found in Formosa include:

 * Rhea
 * Southern Screamer
 * Red-and-green Macaw
 * Brazilian Teal
 * Glittering-bellied_emerald
 * Black-throated Mango
 * Andean Flamingo
 * White-barred Piculet
 * Toco Toucan
 * Ringed Kingfisher
 * Scarlet Macaw

Reptiles
Formosa is home to a variety of reptiles, each with its own characteristics and level of danger. Among them are the lampalagua, the false yarará, the yarará or cross snake, and the coral snake, with the latter two being highly venomous. In addition to these venomous snakes, the chaco region is also inhabited by the overas and coloradas iguanas, as well as land turtles.

The reptiles found in Formosa include:
 * Yacare caiman
 * Broad-snouted caiman
 * Yellow anaconda
 * Boa constrictor
 * Argentinian rainbow boa
 * Micrurus altirostris
 * South American rattlesnake
 * Crossed pit viper
 * Ameiva
 * Scorpion mud turtle

Demographics
According to the 2022 Argentine national census, the Province of Formosa has 606,941 inhabitants.

Economy
Remote and saddled by its inhospitable geography and climate, Formosa's economy has long been one of Argentina's poorest. Its economy in 2006 was estimated at US$2.082 billion, or, US$4,278 per capita. Its economy is the third-smallest and second-least developed in Argentina, yet it has shared in Argentina's recovery since 2002 very well.

Poorly industrialized, Formosa's economy is based on cattle and agricultural activities like cotton and fruit cultivation, these being mostly centered in the Patino, Pilagás and Pilcomayo departments.

Cattle in Formosa exceed 1.5 million head and ranching has long been the agricultural mainstay of the province. Like elsewhere in Argentina, agriculture has long since been overtaken by other activities and amounts to about 10% of Formosa's output (somewhat more than average).

Cotton cultivation passed from over 100,000 tons at the end of the 1970s to 10,000 at the end of the 1990s because of the drop of the international price, and the fixed exchange rate. After the 2001 crisis, production slightly revived to 50,000 tons a year in 2004. More than 70% of the area sown with cotton belongs to small family-run farms of less than 10 hectares. Cotton represents half of the agricultural wealth of the province followed by soybean (25,000 tons a year) and maize (55,000 tons), who have experienced a less dramatic invigoration after the 2001 crisis.

Bananas, grown mainly for domestic consumption, amount to a steady annual average crop of 70,000 tons. Citrus and juice production for exportation, specially grapefruit, is growing rapidly, with 1,200 planted hectares and an annual production of around 15,000 tons.

Others; honey (273 tons) and derivatives, timber-wood (140,000 tons) and textile industry (cotton, leather).

Tourist infrastructure is barely developed. Sites of interest include the city of Formosa, the Río Pilcomayo National Park, Bañado La Estrella, Laguna Yema, Herradura town, and Misión Laishí.

Government
The provincial government is divided into the usual three branches: the executive, headed by a popularly elected governor, who appoint the cabinet; the legislative; and the judiciary, headed by the Supreme Court.

The Constitution of Formosa Province forms the formal law of the province.

In Argentina, the most important law enforcement organization is the Argentine Federal Police but the additional work is carried out by the Formosa Provincial Police.

Political division
The province is divided into nine departments:

Villages

 * Herradura, settlement
 * Villa General Güemes, settlement

State anthem
Formosa has its own anthem, called "Himno Marcha Formosa". On April 8, 1955, the Anthem "Marcha Formosa" was sung for the first time, in 1964 the definitive arrangement of it was made and it became official as a song. By decree No. 1471 of July 21, 1988, compulsory education was established in primary, secondary and tertiary establishments and its intonation in public events.

title: Formosa Province


text:
Formosa, Argentina

Formosa is the capital city of the Argentine province of Formosa, on the banks of the Paraguay River, opposite the Paraguayan town of Alberdi, about 1200 km north from Buenos Aires, on National Route 11. The city has a population of about 234,000 per the.

Formosa is the hub of the provincial industry, that processes the product of its natural resources. The port that serves Paraguay towards the Paraná River is the main transport means for the provincial production.

Notable sights of the city include the Nuestra Señora del Carmen Cathedral, the Government House, the Torelli Botanic Forest Garden, the Provincial History Museum (Museo Histórico Provincial), the Estadio Centenario ("Centenary Stadium") football stadium, the Guaicole fauna reserve, the shore of the Paraguay River, the Isla de Oro Island, and the Central Square named after José de San Martín.

History
The lands were initially inhabited by the Toba and Wichí (Mataco) indigenous peoples. On April 8, 1879 Commander Luis Jorge Fontana founded the settlement that would become the capital of the National Territory of Chaco from 1884 to June 15, 1955, when it gained the status of province. The Formosa campus of the National University of the Northeast was established as the National University of Formosa in 1988.

The name of the city (and the province) comes from the archaic Spanish word fermosa (currently hermosa) meaning "beautiful". The name Vuelta Fermosa or Vuelta la Formosa was used by Spanish sailors in the 16th century to describe the area where the Paraguay River makes a turn, right in front of the actual city. These sailors were searching for the legendary Sierra de la Plata.

Government and politics
The city of Formosa is governed by the Municipal Council, which has autonomous status. It consists of an Executive Department (led by the Mayor), a Legislative Department (the Deliberative Council), and a Judicial Department (headed by the Municipal Chamber of Appeals and the misdemeanor judges distributed in the two Misdemeanor Courts of the city).

The Deliberative Council of Formosa has the highest number of members in the entire province, as it is the only municipality that currently has over 100,000 inhabitants in the province. There are a total of twelve councilors. The Council is headed by the President of the Council, followed by the 1st Vice President and the 2nd Vice President of the Council.

The Executive Department is led by the Mayor of the city of Formosa, who determines the members of the municipal cabinet. Within the cabinet, the Secretaries are responsible for endorsing the acts of the Mayor within their competence. Each Municipal Secretary is in charge of a specific area of the Executive Department. These secretaries, in turn, have sub-secretariats under their authority, which handle more specific competencies. Generally, the Sub-secretariats, such as the Traffic and Transportation sub-secretariat, are further divided into General Directorates, which are composed of Directorates and Departments.

Culture
The city, which is only a few hundred meters away from Paraguay across the river, has a culture closer to that of Paraguay than the "porteño" culture of Buenos Aires. Laid back and relaxed, its young people relax on the Costanera, the recently restored pathway along the Río Paraguay which serves as a venue for arts displays and features a fast-food restaurant, or at boliches, local clubs. The city's well-known cultural institutions include the Formosa Regional Historical Museum, the Juan Pablo Duffard Historical Museum (a National Historic Monument), the Qomp Toba Artisanal Museum, and the Oscar Albertazzi Arts Institute.

The city has, since the 1970s, enjoyed increasing domestic tourism as a winter destination and, since the devaluation of the peso in 2002, growing international tourism, as well. Formosa is currently home to one five-star hotel (the International Tourist Hotel) and four four-star hotels. One other five-star establishment, the Howard Johnson Neo Formosa, was completed in July 2011 and features a casino and shopping gallery. 23,000-capacity Estadio Don Carlos Antonio Romero, used mainly for association football, is the main venue in Formosa.

Festivals
Formosa celebrates Our Lady of Carmen (Nuestra Señora del Carmen), its patron saint, on July 16 in honor of its holy day. Celebrations, which occur in the main Plaza San Martín, include the traditional pericón dance and stalls selling everything from food to balloons.

It also celebrates the Fiesta del Río in November, Carnaval on weekends in February and Día de la Fundación de Formosa in April.

Transport

Located in the Argentine Littoral, Formosa is well connected to the rest of the country, the most used ways to go to and from Formosa, are through:

 * The Formosa Bus Terminal Station, which goes to medium and long distances, with great passenger movement throughout the year. Several national and international transport companies operate in the city, whose most common destinations are Buenos Aires, Rosario, Corrientes, Resistencia, Córdoba, Mendoza, Posadas, Salta and Clorinda-Asunción.
 * The El Pucú Airport, 7 kilometres south of the city , serves charter flights, and regular flights to Buenos Aires.
 * The Port of Formosa, with boat services to and from Alberdi, Paraguay.

The General Belgrano Railway, which is currently not in operation. In the branch near the port, its tracks were dismantled and the building where the station was located was converted into a museum, while the sheds of its mechanical workshops were converted into a large fair.

 * The Public and Semi-public Transportation of Passengers: the city of Formosa has modern transportation units, reaching international standards, also providing the user with air conditioning and wifi while traveling; There are also taxi and remiss agencies.

From Buenos Aires, the highways to take are the: National Route A011, National Route 86 and National Route 12.

Climate
The city has a climate considered as humid subtropical or Cfa by Köppen classification. The city's climate is among the hottest and most humid in Argentina: Winters are generally mild, air frosts are very uncommon. Summers are hot and humid. During the most extreme heat waves, temperatures exceed 40 °C. Temperatures have exceeded 35 °C in every season.

Summers are long, hot and sticky, with most days between 30 and 35 °C; temperatures up to 38 °C are common, and nights are usually between 20 and 25 °C. Cooler temperatures only arrive by late April, and winters are warm: highs average 22 °C, lows average 12 °C. However, these averages are reached through a pattern that switches from hot, northerly winds, to cold southerly winds, and so forth: with northerly winds, temperatures are often much hotter, between 25 and 30 °C and nights are mild, around 15 °C. Southerly winds often bring a period of drizzly, cold weather with temperatures that stay around 10 to 15 °C for a day or two (which, combined with the high humidity and the winds can feel surprisingly cold), followed by clear skies, cold nights (2 to 7 °C) and pleasant days at 15 to 20 °C. Light frost is possible in Formosa, especially in the outskirts of the city further away from the river; however, air temperatures seldom fall below 0 °C, every few years at most, with a record low of −2 °C. The highest temperature recorded was 43.7 °C on October 17, 2014 while the lowest temperature recorded was -2.5 °C on July 29, 2021.

Rainfall can be expected throughout the year though summer is usually the wettest season. Thunderstorms can be intense with frequent lightning, powerful gusts of wind and intense precipitation.

Sister cities

 * Asunción, Paraguay
 * Bella Unión, Uruguay

Sports
The Aborigen Rugby Club, an Argentine rugby union club from the city of Formosa, was established in 1993.

Notable people

 * Martín Alarcón (1928–1988), footballer
 * Sergio Barreto (born 1999), footballer
 * Andrea Benítez (born 1986), tennis player
 * Jorge Berendt (born 1964), golfer
 * Raúl Bobadilla (born 1987), Paraguayan footballer
 * Floro Bogado (born 1939–2017), politician, lawyer, and diplomat
 * Cristian Campozano (born 1985), footballer
 * Raúl Chaparro (born 1953), footballer
 * Néstor Espínola (born 1985), footballer
 * Ramón Fernández (born 1984), Argentine-Chilean footballer
 * Gastón Giménez (born 1991), Paraguayan footballer
 * Manuel Insaurralde (born 1999), footballer
 * Mario Jara (born 1980), football manager
 * Hugo Jazmín (born 1979), footballer

 * Franco Llamas, footballer
 * Edgardo Massa (born 1981), tennis player
 * Emiliano Massa (born 1988), tennis player
 * Ricardo Mazacotte (born 1985), Argentine-Paraguayan footballer
 * Gervasio Núñez (born 1988), footballer
 * Lucas Ojeda (born 1986), footballer
 * Aldo Paredes (born 1972), footballer
 * Lucas Passerini (born 1994), footballer
 * Marcos Pinto (born 1994), footballer
 * Sebastián Silguero (born 1992), footballer
 * Francisco Solano Patiño (born 1990), Paraguayan footballer
 * Gabriel Tellas (born 1992), footballer
 * Abel Valdez (born 1987), footballer
 * Sergio Villamayor (born 1989), modern pentathlete

title: Formosa, Argentina


text:
Midvale

Midvale may refer to:

Places

 * Midvale, Western Australia
 * Midvale Ridge, an area of south central England

United States

 * Midvale, Idaho
 * Midvale, Montana
 * Midvale, Ohio
 * Midvale, Utah, the largest city with the name in the United States
 * Midvale, Washington
 * Midvale, West Virginia

Other uses

 * Midvale (DC Comics), the home of Supergirl
 * "Midvale" (Supergirl), an episode of the television series Supergirl
 * Midvale Steel

title: Midvale


text:
Charles de Saint-Évremond

Charles de Marguetel de Saint-Denis, seigneur de Saint-Évremond (1 April 1613 – 9 September 1703) was a French soldier, hedonist, essayist and literary critic. After 1661, he lived in exile, mainly in England, as a consequence of his attack on French policy at the time of the Peace of the Pyrenees (1659). He is buried in Poets' Corner, Westminster Abbey. He wrote for his friends and did not intend his work to be published, although a few of his pieces were leaked in his lifetime. The first full collection of his works was published in London in 1705, after his death.

Life
He was born at Saint-Denis-le-Guast, near Coutances, the seat of his family in Normandy. He was a pupil of the Jesuits at the College de Clermont (now Lycée Louis-le-Grand), Paris; then a student at Caen. For a time he studied law in Paris at the College d'Harcourt (now Lycée Saint-Louis). He soon, however, took to arms, and in 1629 went with Marshal Bassompierre to Italy. He served through a great part of the Thirty Years' War, distinguishing himself at the siege of Landrecies (1637), when he was made captain. During his campaigns he studied the works of Montaigne and the Spanish and Italian languages.

In 1639 he met Gassendi in Paris, and became one of his disciples. He was present at the battles of Rocroi, Nördlingen, and at Lerida. For a time he was personally attached to Condé, but offended him by a satirical remark and was deprived of his command in the prince's guards in 1648. During the Fronde, Saint-Évremond was a steady royalist. The Duke of Candale, of whom Saint-Évremond has left a very severe portrait, gave him a command in Guienne after he had reached the grade of maréchal de camp, and he is said to have pocketed 50,000 livres in less than three years from this office. He was one of the numerous victims involved in the fall of Fouquet in 1661. His letter to Marshal Créquy on the Treaty of the Pyrenees, which is said to have been discovered by Colbert's agents at the seizure of Fouquet's papers, seems a very inadequate cause for his disgrace.

Saint-Évremond fled to the Netherlands and to England, where he was kindly received by Charles II and was pensioned. After James II's flight to France, Saint-Évremond was invited to return, but he declined. Hortense Mancini, the most attractive of Cardinal Mazarin's group of attractive nieces, came to England in 1670, and set up a salon for flirtation, gambling, and witty conversation, and here Saint-Évremond was for many years at home. He died aged ninety on 9 September 1703 and was buried in Westminster Abbey, where his monument is in Poets' Corner, close to that of Prior.

Literary work
Saint-Évremond never authorised the printing of any of his works during his lifetime, though Barbin in 1668 published an unauthorised collection but he empowered Pierre des Maizeaux to publish his works after his death, and they were published in London (2 volumes, 1705), and often reprinted. His masterpiece in irony is the so-called Conversation du maréchal d'Hocquincourt avec le père Canaye (the latter a Jesuit and Saint-Évremond's master at school), which has been frequently classed with the Lettres provinciales.

His Œuvres meslées, edited from the manuscripts by Silvestre and Maizeaux, were printed by Jacob Tonson (London, 1705, 2 volumes; 2nd edition, 3 volumes, 1709), with a notice by Maizeaux. His correspondence with Ninon de l'Enclos, whose fast friend he was, was published in 1752; La Comédie des académistes, written in 1643, was printed in 1650. Modern editions of his works are by Hippeau (Paris, 1852), C. Giraud (Paris, 1865), and a selection (1881) with a notice by M. de Lescure. Among his plays is one called Politick Would-be, modelled on a character from Ben Jonson's Volpone.

Partial bibliography

 * Œuvres mêlées (1643–1692),
 * Les Académistes (1650)
 * Retraite de M. le duc de Longueville en Normandie
 * Lettre au marquis de Créqui sur la paix des Pyrénées (1659)
 * Conversation du maréchal d’Hocquincourt avec le Père Canaye
 * Réflexions sur les divers génies du peuple romain (1663)
 * Seconde partie des œuvres meslées (1668),
 * Sur nos comédies
 * De quelques livres espagnols, italiens et français
 * Réflexions sur la tragédie ancienne et moderne
 * Défense de quelques pièces de Corneille
 * Parallèle de M. le Prince et de M. de Turenne
 * Discours sur Épicure
 * Pensées sur l’honnêteté
 * Considérations sur Hannibal
 * Jugement sur Tacite et Salluste
 * L’idée de la femme qui ne se trouve point
 * Jugement sur les sciences où peut s’appliquer un honnête homme
 * Dissertation sur la tragédie d’Alexandre
 * Fragment d’une lettre écrite de La Haye
 * De la seconde guerre punique
 * De l’éloquence, tirée de Pétrone
 * La matrone d’Éphèse

Publications

 * Les Opéra, Éd. Robert Finch et Eugène Joliat, Genève, Droz, 1979.
 * Œuvres en prose, Éd. René Ternois, Paris, Didier, 1962.
 * La Comédie des académistes, Éd. Louis d'Espinay Ételan, Paolo Carile et al., Paris, Nizet, 1976.
 * Entretiens sur toutes choses, Éd. David Bensoussan, Paris, Desjonquères, 1998. ISBN 2-84321-010-0
 * Écrits philosophiques, Éd. Jean-Pierre Jackson, Paris, Alive, 1996. ISBN 2-911737-01-6
 * Réflexions sur les divers génies du peuple romain dans les divers temps de la république, Napoli, Jovene, 1982.
 * Conversations et autres écrits philosophiques, Paris, Aveline, 1926.
 * Lettres, Éd. intro. René Ternois, Paris, Didier, 1967.
 * Maximes et œuvres diverses, Paris, Éditions du Monde Moderne, 1900–1965.
 * Pensées d’Épicure précédées d'un Essai sur la morale d’Épicure, Paris, Payot 1900.

Online

 * http://frenchphilosophes.weebly.com/saint-evremond.html
 * Discours sur Épicure. Paris: Claude Barbin, 1684.
 * Œuvres meslées de M. D. *** de S. Évremont. Paris: Claude Barbin, 1693.
 * Œuvres meslées Tome I. Paris: Claude Barbin, 1670.
 * Œuvres meslées Tome II. Paris: Claude Barbin, 1671.
 * Œuvres meslées Tome III. missing.
 * Œuvres meslées Tome IV. Paris: Claude Barbin, 1681.
 * Œuvres meslées Tome V. Paris, Claude Barbin, 1678.
 * Œuvres meslées Tome VI. Paris: Claude Barbin, [1683].
 * Œuvres meslées Tome VII. Paris: Claude Barbin, 1684.
 * Œuvres meslées Tome VIII. Paris: Claude Barbin, 1684.
 * Œuvres meslées Tome IX. Paris: Claude Barbin, 1684.
 * Œuvres meslées Tome X. Paris: Claude Barbin, 1684.
 * Œuvres meslées Tome XI. Paris: Claude Barbin, 1684.
 * Les Académiciens : comédie. Paris: Charavay frères, 1879.

Print

 * Antoine Adam, Les libertins au XVIIe, Paris, Buchet/Chastel 1964
 * Patrick Andrivet, Saint-Évremond et l'histoire romaine, Orléans, Paradigme, 1998 ISBN 2-86878-184-5
 * H.T. Barnwell, Les idées morales et critiques de Saint-Évremond : essai d'analyse explicative, Paris, PUF, 1957
 * Patrice Bouysse, Essai sur la jeunesse d'un moraliste : Saint-Évremond (1614–1661), Seattle, Papers on French Seventeenth Century Literature, 1987
 * Gustave Cohen, Le séjour de Saint-Évremond en Hollande, Paris, Champion, 1926
 * Walter Daniels, Melville Saint-Évremond en Angleterre, Versailles, L. Luce, 1907
 * Soûad Guellouz, Entre baroque et lumières : Saint-Évremond (1614–1703) : colloque de Cerisy-la-Salle (25–27 septembre 1998), Caen : Presses universitaires de Caen, 2000 ISBN 2-84133-111-3
 * Suzanne Guellouz, Saint-Évremond au miroir du temps : actes du colloque du tricentenaire de sa mort, Caen – Saint-Lô (9-11 octobre 2003), Tübingen, Narr, 2005 ISBN 3-8233-6115-5
 * Célestin Hippeau, Les écrivains normands au XVIIe : Du Perron, Malherbe, Bois-Robert, Sarasin, P. Du Bosc, Saint-Évremond, Genève, Slatkine Reprints, 1970
 * Mario Paul Lafargue, Saint-Évremond ; ou, Le Pétrone du XVIIe, Paris, Société d'éditions extérieures et coloniales, 1945
 * Gustave Merlet Saint-Évremond : étude historique morale et littéraire; suivie de fragments en vers et en prose, Paris, A. Sauton, 1870
 * Luigi de Nardis, Il cortegiano e l’eroe, studio su Saint-Évremond, Firenze, La Nuova Italia Editrice, 1964
 * Léon Petit, La Fontaine et Évremond : ou, La tentation de l'Angleterre, Toulouse, Privat, 1953
 * Jacques Prévot, Libertins du XVIIe, v. 2, Paris, Gallimard, 1998–2004 ISBN 2-07-011569-0
 * Gottlob Reinhardt, Saint-Évremonds Urteile und Gedanken üer die alten Griechen und Römer, Saalfeld am Saale, 1900
 * Leonard Rosmarin, Saint-Évremond : artiste de l'euphorie, Birmingham, Summa Publications, 1987 ISBN 0-917786-52-1
 * Albert-Marie Schmidt, Saint-Évremond ; ou, L'humaniste impur, Paris, Éditions du Cavalier, 1932
 * K. Spalatin, Saint-Évremond, Zagreb, Thèse de doctorat de l’Université de Zagreb, 1934
 * Claude Taittinger, Saint-Évremond, ou, Le bon usage des plaisirs, Paris, Perrin, 1990 ISBN 2-262-00765-9

title: Charles de Saint-Évremond


text:
Cypress

Cypress is a common name for various coniferous trees or shrubs from the Cupressus genus of the Cupressaceae family, typically found in warm-temperate and subtropical regions of Asia, Europe, and North America.

Description
Cypress trees typically reach heights of up to 25 m and exhibit a pyramidal form, particularly in their youth. Many are characterised by their needle-like, evergreen foliage and acorn-like seed cones. Some species develop flattened, spreading heads at maturity, while certain variants may manifest as shrubs, standing at less than 6 m. The bark of cypress trees varies, with some species having smooth surfaces, while most exhibit bark that separates into thin plates or strips, often shedding over time. Leaves of young cypress trees are spreading and awl-shaped, and are typically small, scale-like formations that tightly adhere to older branches. They are usually aromatic, with glandular pits on the outer surface, and cover the stem in opposite pairs, giving the branchlet a four-sided appearance.

Species
Cypress is any of the twelve species of ornamental and timber evergreen conifers constituting the genus Cupressus of the family Cupressaceae. Many resinous, aromatic evergreen trees called cypress belong to other genera of the same family, especially species of false cypress and cypress pine. The name cypress is occasionally used for some species of fustic and for bald cypress, and it often denotes jack pine in eastern Canada.

Species that are commonly known as cypresses include:

 * Cypress (multiple species within the genus Cupressus):
 * Cupressus sempervirens, a common cypress also referred to as Italian cypress and Mediterranean cypress. It is native to Libya, Cyprus, Iran, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Turkey, and Greece.
 * Hesperocyparis lusitanica, commonly known as the Mexican cypress, which is native to Mexico and Central America.
 * Chamaecyparis:
 * Chamaecyparis lawsoniana, known as the Lawson's cypress or Port Orford cedar. This is a native species to Oregon and northwestern California.
 * Taxodium:
 * Taxodium ascendens, commonly known as pond cypress and native to North America.
 * Taxodium distichum, commonly known as bald cypress and native to the southeastern United States.
 * Taxodium mucronatum, commonly known as Montezuma cypress or Montezuma bald cypress. It is native Mexico, Guatemala, and southern-central United States.
 * Calocedrus:
 * Calocedrus decurrens, which has the common names bastard-cedar, incense-cedar and California incense cedar. They are native to North America, specifically California, Oregon, Nevada, and Mexico.
 * Thuja:
 * Platycladus orientalis or Thuja orientalis, commonly known as Chinese thuja and native to China and Korea.
 * Thujopsis:
 * Thujopsis dolabrata, also known as asunaro and hiba. This is a native species of Japan.

Other species include:

 * African cypress (Widdringtonia species), native to Southern Africa
 * Bald, Pond, and Montezuma cypresses (Taxodium species), native to North America
 * Chinese swamp cypress (Glyptostrobus pensilis), Vietnam, critically endangered
 * Cordilleran cypress (Austrocedrus chilensis), native to Chile and Argentina
 * Cypress-pines (Actinostrobus species), southwestern Australia
 * Cypress-pines (Callitris species), Australia and New Caledonia
 * False cypress (Chamaecyparis species), Asia and North America.
 * Fujian cypress (Fokienia hodginsii), southeastern China
 * Guaitecas cypress (Pilgerodendron uviferum), western Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego
 * Japanese cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa), East Asia
 * Patagonian cypress (Fitzroya cupressoides), southern Chile and Argentina
 * Mediterranean cypress (Cupressus sempervirens), famous for its longevity, popular garden plant
 * Monterey cypress (Cupressus macrocarpa), native to the Monterey Peninsula, California
 * Nootka cypress (Cupressus nootkatensis), native to the Pacific Northwest of North America
 * Siberian cypress (Microbiota decussata)
 * Summer cypress (Bassia scoparia), in the family Amaranthaceae
 * Western red cedar (Thuja plicata), native to North America.

Plants named cypress

Etymology
The word cypress is derived from Old French cipres, which was imported from Latin cypressus, the latinisation of the Greek κυπάρισσος (kyparissos).

Symbology
In Greek mythology, Cyparissos, Cyparissus or Kyparissos (Ancient Greek: Κυπάρισσος, "cypress") was a male lover of Apollo, as well as other deities in other versions of mythology.

In the most prevalent version of the story, Cyparissus receives a stag as a gift from Apollo, which he accidentally kills with a spear while hunting in the forest. Cyparissus is overwhelmed by pain and sorrow, and asks Apollo to allow his tears to flow for eternity. Apollo transforms Cyparissus into a cypress tree, and the sap that typically drips down the tree's trunk represents Cyparissus' tears.

Consequently, the cypress emerged as a symbol of mourning, sadness, and loss in classical mythology, thereby serving an aetiological purpose in explaining its cultural significance. Due to its connection to grief, the cypress became one of the symbols of Hades and has been planted in cemeteries since the classical era. During the Renaissance period, the myth of Kyparissos was revived, and is depicted in several works of art and poetry.

title: Cypress