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Penrose–Hawking singularity theorems

The Penrose–Hawking singularity theorems (after Roger Penrose and Stephen Hawking) are a set of results in general relativity that attempt to answer the question of when gravitation produces singularities. The Penrose singularity theorem is a theorem in semi-Riemannian geometry and its general relativistic interpretation predicts a gravitational singularity in black hole formation. The Hawking singularity theorem is based on the Penrose theorem and it is interpreted as a gravitational singularity in the Big Bang situation. Penrose was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2020 "for the discovery that black hole formation is a robust prediction of the general theory of relativity", which he shared with Reinhard Genzel and Andrea Ghez.

Singularity
A singularity in solutions of the Einstein field equations is one of three things:

 * Spacelike singularities: The singularity lies in the future or past of all events within a certain region. The Big Bang singularity and the typical singularity inside a non-rotating, uncharged Schwarzschild black hole are spacelike.
 * Timelike singularities: These are singularities that can be avoided by an observer because they are not necessarily in the future of all events. An observer might be able to move around a timelike singularity. These are less common in known solutions of the Einstein field equations.
 * Null singularities: These singularities occur on light-like or null surfaces. An example might be found in certain types of black hole interiors, such as the Cauchy horizon of a charged (Reissner–Nordström) or rotating (Kerr) black hole.

A singularity can be either strong or weak:

 * Weak singularities: A weak singularity is one where the tidal forces (which are responsible for the spaghettification in black holes) are not necessarily infinite. An observer falling into a weak singularity might not be torn apart before reaching the singularity, although the laws of physics would still break down there. The Cauchy horizon inside a charged or rotating black hole might be an example of a weak singularity.
 * Strong singularities: A strong singularity is one where tidal forces become infinite. In a strong singularity, any object would be destroyed by infinite tidal forces as it approaches the singularity. The singularity at the center of a Schwarzschild black hole is an example of a strong singularity.

Space-like singularities are a feature of non-rotating uncharged black holes as described by the Schwarzschild metric, while time-like singularities are those that occur in charged or rotating black hole exact solutions. Both of them have the property of geodesic incompleteness, in which either some light-path or some particle-path cannot be extended beyond a certain proper time or affine parameter (affine parameter being the null analog of proper time).

The Penrose theorem guarantees that some sort of geodesic incompleteness occurs inside any black hole whenever matter satisfies reasonable energy conditions. The energy condition required for the black-hole singularity theorem is weak: it says that light rays are always focused together by gravity, never drawn apart, and this holds whenever the energy of matter is non-negative.

Hawking's singularity theorem is for the whole universe, and works backwards in time: it guarantees that the (classical) Big Bang has infinite density. This theorem is more restricted and only holds when matter obeys a stronger energy condition, called the strong energy condition, in which the energy is larger than the pressure. All ordinary matter, with the exception of a vacuum expectation value of a scalar field, obeys this condition. During inflation, the universe violates the dominant energy condition, and it was initially argued (e.g. by Starobinsky ) that inflationary cosmologies could avoid the initial big-bang singularity. However, it has since been shown that inflationary cosmologies are still past-incomplete, and thus require physics other than inflation to describe the past boundary of the inflating region of spacetime.

It is still an open question whether (classical) general relativity predicts spacelike singularities in the interior of realistic charged or rotating black holes, or whether these are artefacts of high-symmetry solutions and turn into null or timelike singularities when perturbations are added.

Interpretation and significance
In general relativity, a singularity is a place that objects or light rays can reach in a finite time where the curvature becomes infinite, or spacetime stops being a manifold. Singularities can be found in all the black-hole spacetimes, the Schwarzschild metric, the Reissner–Nordström metric, the Kerr metric and the Kerr–Newman metric, and in all cosmological solutions that do not have a scalar field energy or a cosmological constant.

One cannot predict what might come "out" of a big-bang singularity in our past, or what happens to an observer that falls "in" to a black-hole singularity in the future, so they require a modification of physical law. Before Penrose, it was conceivable that singularities only form in contrived situations. For example, in the collapse of a star to form a black hole, if the star is spinning and thus possesses some angular momentum, maybe the centrifugal force partly counteracts gravity and keeps a singularity from forming. The singularity theorems prove that this cannot happen, and that a singularity will always form once an event horizon forms.

In the collapsing star example, since all matter and energy is a source of gravitational attraction in general relativity, the additional angular momentum only pulls the star together more strongly as it contracts: the part outside the event horizon eventually settles down to a Kerr black hole (see No-hair theorem). The part inside the event horizon necessarily has a singularity somewhere. The proof is somewhat constructive – it shows that the singularity can be found by following light-rays from a surface just inside the horizon. But the proof does not say what type of singularity occurs, spacelike, timelike, null, orbifold, jump discontinuity in the metric. It only guarantees that if one follows the time-like geodesics into the future, it is impossible for the boundary of the region they form to be generated by the null geodesics from the surface. This means that the boundary must either come from nowhere or the whole future ends at some finite extension.

An interesting "philosophical" feature of general relativity is revealed by the singularity theorems. Because general relativity predicts the inevitable occurrence of singularities, the theory is not complete without a specification for what happens to matter that hits the singularity. One can extend general relativity to a unified field theory, such as the Einstein–Maxwell–Dirac system, where no such singularities occur.

Elements of the theorems
In history, there is a deep connection between the curvature of a manifold and its topology. The Bonnet–Myers theorem states that a complete Riemannian manifold that has Ricci curvature everywhere greater than a certain positive constant must be compact. The condition of positive Ricci curvature is most conveniently stated in the following way: for every geodesic there is a nearby initially parallel geodesic that will bend toward it when extended, and the two will intersect at some finite length.

When two nearby parallel geodesics intersect (see conjugate point), the extension of either one is no longer the shortest path between the endpoints. The reason is that two parallel geodesic paths necessarily collide after an extension of equal length, and if one path is followed to the intersection then the other, you are connecting the endpoints by a non-geodesic path of equal length. This means that for a geodesic to be a shortest length path, it must never intersect neighboring parallel geodesics.

Starting with a small sphere and sending out parallel geodesics from the boundary, assuming that the manifold has a Ricci curvature bounded below by a positive constant, none of the geodesics are shortest paths after a while, since they all collide with a neighbor. This means that after a certain amount of extension, all potentially new points have been reached. If all points in a connected manifold are at a finite geodesic distance from a small sphere, the manifold must be compact.

Roger Penrose argued analogously in relativity. If null geodesics, the paths of light rays, are followed into the future, points in the future of the region are generated. If a point is on the boundary of the future of the region, it can only be reached by going at the speed of light, no slower, so null geodesics include the entire boundary of the proper future of a region. When the null geodesics intersect, they are no longer on the boundary of the future, they are in the interior of the future. So, if all the null geodesics collide, there is no boundary to the future.

In relativity, the Ricci curvature, which determines the collision properties of geodesics, is determined by the energy tensor, and its projection on light rays is equal to the null-projection of the energy–momentum tensor and is always non-negative. This implies that the volume of a congruence of parallel null geodesics once it starts decreasing, will reach zero in a finite time. Once the volume is zero, there is a collapse in some direction, so every geodesic intersects some neighbor.

Penrose concluded that whenever there is a sphere where all the outgoing (and ingoing) light rays are initially converging, the boundary of the future of that region will end after a finite extension, because all the null geodesics will converge. This is significant, because the outgoing light rays for any sphere inside the horizon of a black hole solution are all converging, so the boundary of the future of this region is either compact or comes from nowhere. The future of the interior either ends after a finite extension, or has a boundary that is eventually generated by new light rays that cannot be traced back to the original sphere.

Nature of a singularity
The singularity theorems use the notion of geodesic incompleteness as a stand-in for the presence of infinite curvatures. Geodesic incompleteness is the notion that there are geodesics, paths of observers through spacetime, that can only be extended for a finite time as measured by an observer traveling along one. Presumably, at the end of the geodesic the observer has fallen into a singularity or encountered some other pathology at which the laws of general relativity break down.

Assumptions of the theorems
Typically a singularity theorem has three ingredients:

 * 1) An energy condition on the matter,
 * 2) A condition on the global structure of spacetime,
 * 3) Gravity is strong enough (somewhere) to trap a region.

There are various possibilities for each ingredient, and each leads to different singularity theorems.

Tools employed
A key tool used in the formulation and proof of the singularity theorems is the Raychaudhuri equation, which describes the divergence $$\theta$$ of a congruence (family) of geodesics. The divergence of a congruence is defined as the derivative of the log of the determinant of the congruence volume. The Raychaudhuri equation is

 * $$\dot{\theta} = - \sigma_{ab}\sigma^{ab} - \frac{1}{3}\theta^2 - {E[\vec{X}]^a}_a$$

where $$\sigma_{ab}$$ is the shear tensor of the congruence and $${E[\vec{X}]^a}_{a} = R_{mn} \, X^m \, X^n$$ is also known as the Raychaudhuri scalar (see the congruence page for details). The key point is that $${E[\vec{X}]^a}_a$$ will be non-negative provided that the Einstein field equations hold and

 * the null energy condition holds and the geodesic congruence is null, or
 * the strong energy condition holds and the geodesic congruence is timelike.

When these hold, the divergence becomes infinite at some finite value of the affine parameter. Thus all geodesics leaving a point will eventually reconverge after a finite time, provided the appropriate energy condition holds, a result also known as the focusing theorem.

This is relevant for singularities thanks to the following argument:

 * 1) Suppose we have a spacetime that is globally hyperbolic, and two points $$p$$ and $$q$$ that can be connected by a timelike or null curve. Then there exists a geodesic of maximal length connecting $$p$$ and $$q$$. Call this geodesic $$\gamma$$.
 * 2) The geodesic $$\gamma$$ can be varied to a longer curve if another geodesic from $$p$$ intersects $$\gamma$$ at another point, called a conjugate point.
 * 3) From the focusing theorem, we know that all geodesics from $$p$$ have conjugate points at finite values of the affine parameter. In particular, this is true for the geodesic of maximal length. But this is a contradiction – one can therefore conclude that the spacetime is geodesically incomplete.

In general relativity, there are several versions of the Penrose–Hawking singularity theorem. Most versions state, roughly, that if there is a trapped null surface and the energy density is nonnegative, then there exist geodesics of finite length that cannot be extended.

These theorems, strictly speaking, prove that there is at least one non-spacelike geodesic that is only finitely extendible into the past but there are cases in which the conditions of these theorems obtain in such a way that all past-directed spacetime paths terminate at a singularity.

Versions
There are many versions; below is the null version:

 * Assume

 * 1) The null energy condition holds.
 * 2) We have a noncompact connected Cauchy surface.
 * 3) We have a closed trapped null surface $$\mathcal{T}$$.
 * Then, we either have null geodesic incompleteness, or closed timelike curves.
 * Sketch of proof: Proof by contradiction. The boundary of the future of $$\mathcal{T}$$, $$\dot{J}(\mathcal{T})$$ is generated by null geodesic segments originating from $$\mathcal{T}$$ with tangent vectors orthogonal to it. Being a trapped null surface, by the null Raychaudhuri equation, both families of null rays emanating from $$\mathcal{T}$$ will encounter caustics. (A caustic by itself is unproblematic. For instance, the boundary of the future of two spacelike separated points is the union of two future light cones with the interior parts of the intersection removed. Caustics occur where the light cones intersect, but no singularity lies there.) The null geodesics generating $$\dot{J}(\mathcal{T})$$ have to terminate, however, i.e. reach their future endpoints at or before the caustics. Otherwise, we can take two null geodesic segments – changing at the caustic – and then deform them slightly to get a timelike curve connecting a point on the boundary to a point on $$\mathcal{T}$$, a contradiction. But as $$\mathcal{T}$$ is compact, given a continuous affine parameterization of the geodesic generators, there exists a lower bound to the absolute value of the expansion parameter. So, we know caustics will develop for every generator before a uniform bound in the affine parameter has elapsed. As a result, $$\dot{J}(\mathcal{T})$$ has to be compact. Either we have closed timelike curves, or we can construct a congruence by timelike curves, and every single one of them has to intersect the noncompact Cauchy surface exactly once. Consider all such timelike curves passing through $$\dot{J}(\mathcal{T})$$ and look at their image on the Cauchy surface. Being a continuous map, the image also has to be compact. Being a timelike congruence, the timelike curves can't intersect, and so, the map is injective. If the Cauchy surface were noncompact, then the image has a boundary. We're assuming spacetime comes in one connected piece. But $$\dot{J}(\mathcal{T})$$ is compact and boundariless because the boundary of a boundary is empty. A continuous injective map can't create a boundary, giving us our contradiction.

 * Loopholes: If closed timelike curves exist, then timelike curves don't have to intersect the partial Cauchy surface. If the Cauchy surface were compact, i.e. space is compact, the null geodesic generators of the boundary can intersect everywhere because they can intersect on the other side of space.

Other versions of the theorem involving the weak or strong energy condition also exist.

Modified gravity
In modified gravity, the Einstein field equations do not hold and so these singularities do not necessarily arise. For example, in Infinite Derivative Gravity, it is possible for $${E[\vec{X}]^a}_a$$ to be negative even if the Null Energy Condition holds.

title: Penrose–Hawking singularity theorems


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British Academy Games Awards

The BAFTA Games Awards or British Academy Games Awards are an annual British awards ceremony honouring "outstanding creative achievement" in the video game industry. First presented in 2004 following the restructuring of the BAFTA Interactive Entertainment Awards, the awards are presented by the British Academy of Film and Television Arts (BAFTA).

Since the inaugural BAFTA Games Awards in February 2004, twenty ceremonies have taken place. The most recent, the 20th British Academy Games Awards, was held at Queen Elizabeth Hall on 11 April 2024.

Categories

 * Animation (2004–2005, revived in 2020 )
 * Artistic Achievement
 * Audio Achievement
 * Best Game
 * British Game (introduced in 2013)
 * Debut Game (introduced in 2013)
 * EE Game of the Year (introduced in 2018, formerly EE Mobile Game, audience-voted award)
 * Evolving Game (introduced in 2015)
 * Family (previously "Children's Game")
 * BAFTA Fellowship (presented sporadically)
 * Game Beyond Entertainment (introduced in 2017)
 * Game Design (introduced in 2012)
 * Intellectual Property (previously "Originality" and "Original Property")
 * Multiplayer
 * Music
 * Narrative (previously "Screenplay/Story")
 * Performer in a Leading Role
 * Performer in a Supporting Role
 * Special Award (presented sporadically)
 * Technical Achievement (Renamed from "Game Innovation" in 2020 )
 * Young Game Designers (five per year)

Defunct

 * Action Game
 * Adventure Game
 * Animation or Intro
 * Art Direction
 * Best Character
 * Casual and Social Game
 * Game Boy Advance Game
 * Game Innovation (renamed to "Technical Achievement" in 2020)
 * Gamecube Game
 * Gameplay
 * Handheld Game
 * Mobile Game (retired by 2020 )
 * One to Watch Award
 * Online Game
 * PC Game
 * British Academy Games Award for Performer (split into two categories in 2020 )
 * PS2 Game
 * Puzzle Game
 * Racing Game
 * Simulation Game
 * Sound
 * Sports Game
 * Strategy Game
 * Sunday Times Reader's Award
 * Xbox Game

Ceremonies and winners
The BAFTA ceremonies are typically held in March or April of each year. In some years, BAFTA has given out additional awards just prior to the Electronic Entertainment Expo event, which happens in May or June of the year.

2003
The 2003 ceremony took place in February 2004.
 * Action Game – Grand Theft Auto: Vice City
 * Adventure Game – The Legend of Zelda: The Wind Waker
 * Animation or Intro – Soulcalibur II (Jame Chung Edition)
 * Children's Game – EyeToy: Play
 * Design – Grand Theft Auto: Vice City
 * Game Boy Advance Game – Advance Wars 2: Black Hole Rising
 * Game on Any Platform – The Year's Best Game – Call of Duty
 * Gamecube – Metroid Prime
 * Mobile Game – Tony Hawk's Pro Skater
 * Multiplayer – Battlefield 1942
 * Original Music – Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets
 * PC – Grand Theft Auto: Vice City
 * PS2 – Grand Theft Auto: Vice City
 * Racing – Project Gotham Racing 2
 * Sound – Grand Theft Auto: Vice City
 * Sports – FIFA Football 2004
 * Strategy – Advance Wars 2: Black Hole Rising
 * Sunday Times Reader Award for Games – Grand Theft Auto: Vice City
 * Technical Achievement – EyeToy: Play
 * Xbox – Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic
 * Special Award (Games) – Chris Deering

2004
The 2004 ceremony took place on 1 March 2005.
 * Action Game – Half-Life 2
 * Animation – Half-Life 2
 * Art Direction – Half-Life 2
 * Audio Achievement – Call of Duty: Finest Hour
 * Best Game – Half-Life 2
 * Children's – Donkey Konga
 * Gamecube – Prince of Persia: Warrior Within
 * Handheld – Colin McRae Rally 2005
 * Mobile Game – BlueTooth BiPlanes
 * Online Multiplayer – Half-Life 2
 * Original Music – Hitman: Contracts
 * Originality – SingStar/Singstar Party
 * PC – Half-Life 2
 * PS2 – Burnout 3: Takedown
 * Racing – Burnout 3: Takedown
 * Sports – Pro Evolution Soccer 4
 * Sunday Times Reader Award for Games – Football Manager 2005
 * Technical Direction – Burnout 3: Takedown
 * Xbox – Halo 2
 * Special Award (Games) – Sam Houser & Leslie Benzies

2006
The 2006 ceremony took place at The Roundhouse on 5 October 2006 and was hosted by Vernon Kay.
 * Action and Adventure (Sponsored by PC World) – Shadow of the Colossus
 * Artistic Achievement – Shadow of the Colossus
 * Audio Achievement – Electroplankton
 * Best Game (Sponsored by PC World) – Tom Clancy's Ghost Recon Advanced Warfighter
 * Casual and Social – Buzz!: The BIG Quiz
 * Character – LocoRoco (LocoRoco)
 * Children's – LocoRoco
 * Gameplay (Sponsored by Nokia N-Gage) – Lego Star Wars II: The Original Trilogy
 * Gamers' Award (Sponsored by Nokia N-Gage) – 24: The Mobile Game
 * Innovation – Dr. Kawashima's Brain Training: How Old Is Your Brain?
 * Multiplayer – Dungeons and Dragons Online: Stormreach
 * Original Score – Tomb Raider: Legend
 * Screenplay – Psychonauts
 * Simulation – The Movies
 * Soundtrack – Guitar Hero
 * Sports – Fight Night Round 3
 * Strategy – Rise and Fall: Civilizations at War
 * Technical Achievement (Sponsored by Skillset) – Tom Clancy's Ghost Recon Advanced Warfighter

2007
The 2007 ceremony took place at Battersea Evolution on 23 October 2007 and was hosted by Vic Reeves.
 * Action and Adventure (Sponsored by PC World) – Crackdown
 * Artistic Achievement – Ōkami
 * Best Game – BioShock
 * Casual – Wii Sports
 * Gameplay (Sponsored by Nokia N-Gage) – Wii Sports
 * Innovation – Wii Sports
 * Multiplayer – Wii Sports
 * Original Score – Ōkami
 * Sports – Wii Sports
 * Story and Character – God of War II
 * Strategy and Simulation – Wii Sports
 * Technical Achievement – God of War II
 * Use of Audio – Crackdown
 * BAFTA One's To Watch Award (in association with Dare to Be Digital) – Ragnarawk
 * The PC World Gamers Award (voted for by the public) – Football Manager 2007
 * Academy Fellowship – Will Wright

2008
The 2008 ceremony took place at London Hilton on 10 March 2009 and was hosted by Dara Ó Briain.
 * Action and Adventure – Fable II
 * Artistic Achievement – LittleBigPlanet
 * Best Game – Super Mario Galaxy
 * Casual – Boom Blox
 * Gameplay – Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare
 * Handheld – Professor Layton and the Curious Village
 * Multiplayer – Left 4 Dead
 * Original Score – Dead Space
 * Sports – Race Driver: Grid
 * Strategy – Civilization Revolution
 * Story and Character – Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare
 * Technical Achievement – Spore
 * Use of Audio – Dead Space
 * BAFTA One's to Watch Award (in association with Dare to Be Digital) – Boro-Toro
 * GAME Award of 2008 – Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare
 * Academy Fellowship – Nolan Bushnell

2009
The 2009 ceremony took place at London Hilton 19 March 2010 and was hosted by Dara Ó Briain.
 * Action – Uncharted 2: Among Thieves
 * Artistic Achievement – Flower
 * Best Game – Batman: Arkham Asylum
 * Family & Social – Wii Sports Resort
 * Gameplay – Batman: Arkham Asylum
 * Handheld – LittleBigPlanet
 * Multiplayer – Left 4 Dead 2
 * Original Score – Uncharted 2: Among Thieves
 * Sports – FIFA 10
 * Story – Uncharted 2: Among Thieves
 * Strategy – Empire: Total War
 * Use of Audio – Uncharted 2: Among Thieves
 * Use of Online – FIFA 10
 * BAFTA One's to Watch Award (in association with Dare to Be Digital) – Shrunk!
 * GAME Award of 2009 – Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2
 * Academy Fellowship – Shigeru Miyamoto

2010
The 2010 ceremony took place at London Hilton on 16 March 2011 and was hosted by Dara Ó Briain.
 * Action – Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood
 * Artistic Achievement – God of War III
 * Best Game – Mass Effect 2
 * Family – Kinect Sports
 * Gameplay – Super Mario Galaxy 2
 * Handheld – Cut the Rope
 * Multiplayer – Need for Speed: Hot Pursuit
 * Original Music – Heavy Rain
 * Puzzle – Rooms: The Main Building
 * Social Network Game – My Empire
 * Sports – F1 2010
 * Story – Heavy Rain
 * Strategy – Civilization V
 * Technical Innovation – Heavy Rain
 * Use of Audio – Battlefield: Bad Company 2
 * BAFTA Ones to Watch Award (in association with Dare to Be Digital) – Twang!
 * GAME Award of 2010 – Call of Duty: Black Ops
 * Academy Fellowship – Peter Molyneux

2011
The 2011 ceremony took place at London Hilton on 16 March 2012 and was hosted by Dara Ó Briain.
 * Action – Batman: Arkham City
 * Artistic Achievement – Rayman Origins
 * Audio Achievement – Battlefield 3
 * Best Game – Portal 2
 * Debut Game – Insanely Twisted Shadow Planet
 * Family – LittleBigPlanet 2
 * Game Design – Portal 2
 * Game Innovation – LittleBigPlanet 2
 * Mobile & Handheld – Peggle HD
 * Online – Browser – Monstermind
 * Online Multiplayer – Battlefield 3
 * Original Music – L.A. Noire
 * Performer – Mark Hamill (as The Joker, Batman: Arkham City)
 * Sports/Fitness – Kinect Sports: Season Two
 * Story – Portal 2
 * Strategy – Total War: Shogun 2
 * BAFTA Ones To Watch Award (in association with Dare to Be Digital) – Tick Tock Toys
 * GAME Award of 2011 – Battlefield 3
 * Special – Markus Persson

2012
The 2012 ceremony took place at London Hilton on 5 March 2013 and was hosted by Dara Ó Briain.
 * Action – Far Cry 3
 * Artistic Achievement – Journey
 * Audio Achievement – Journey
 * Best Game – Dishonored
 * British Game – The Room
 * Debut Game – The Unfinished Swan
 * Family – Lego Batman 2: DC Super Heroes
 * Game Design – Journey
 * Game Innovation – The Unfinished Swan
 * Mobile & Handheld – The Walking Dead
 * Online – Browser – SongPop
 * Online Multiplayer – Journey
 * Original Music – Journey
 * Performer – Danny Wallace (as the narrator, Thomas Was Alone)
 * Sports/Fitness – New Star Soccer
 * Story – The Walking Dead
 * Strategy – XCOM: Enemy Unknown
 * BAFTA Ones to Watch Award (in association with Dare to Be Digital) – Starcrossed
 * Academy Fellowship – Gabe Newell

2013
The 2013 ceremony took place at Tobacco Dock on 12 March 2014 and was hosted by Dara Ó Briain.
 * Action & Adventure – The Last of Us
 * Artistic Achievement – Tearaway
 * Audio Achievement - The Last of Us
 * Best Game – The Last of Us
 * British Game – Grand Theft Auto V
 * Debut Game – Gone Home
 * Family – Tearaway
 * Game Design – Grand Theft Auto V
 * Game Innovation – Brothers: A Tale of Two Sons
 * Mobile & Handheld – Tearaway
 * Online Multiplayer – Grand Theft Auto V
 * Original Music – BioShock Infinite
 * Performer – Ashley Johnson (as Ellie, The Last of Us)
 * Sports – FIFA 14
 * Story – The Last of Us
 * Strategy & Simulation – Papers, Please
 * BAFTA Ones to Watch Award – Size DOES Matter
 * Academy Fellowship – Rockstar Games

2014
The 2014 ceremony took place at Tobacco Dock on 12 March 2015 and was hosted by Rufus Hound.
 * Artistic Achievement – Lumino City
 * Audio Achievement – Alien: Isolation
 * Best Game – Destiny
 * British Game – Monument Valley
 * Debut Game – Never Alone
 * Family – Minecraft: Console Editions
 * Game Design – Middle-earth: Shadow of Mordor
 * Game Innovation – The Vanishing of Ethan Carter
 * Mobile & Handheld – Monument Valley
 * Online Multiplayer – Hearthstone: Heroes of Warcraft
 * Original Music – Far Cry 4
 * Original Property – Valiant Hearts: The Great War
 * Performer – Ashley Johnson (as Ellie, The Last of Us: Left Behind)
 * Persistent Game – League of Legends
 * Sports – OlliOlli
 * Story – The Last of Us: Left Behind
 * BAFTA Ones to Watch Award – Chambara
 * Academy Fellowship – David Braben

2015
The 2015 ceremony took place at Tobacco Dock on 7 April 2016 and was hosted by Dara Ó Briain.
 * Artistic Achievement – Ori and the Blind Forest
 * Audio Achievement – Everybody's Gone to the Rapture
 * Best Game – Fallout 4
 * British Game – Batman: Arkham Knight
 * Debut Game – Her Story
 * Family – Rocket League
 * Game Design – Bloodborne
 * Game Innovation – Her Story
 * Mobile & Handheld – Her Story
 * Multiplayer – Rocket League
 * Music - Everybody's Gone to the Rapture
 * Original Property – Until Dawn
 * Performer – Merle Dandridge (as Kate Collins, Everybody's Gone to the Rapture)
 * Persistent Game – Prison Architect
 * Sports – Rocket League
 * Story – Life Is Strange
 * Special - Amy Hennig
 * BAFTA Ones to Watch Award – Sundown
 * Academy Fellowship – John Carmack
 * AMD eSports Audience Award – Smite

2016
The 2016 ceremony took place at Tobacco Dock on 6 April 2017 and was hosted by Danny Wallace.
 * Artistic Achievement – Inside
 * Audio Achievement – The Last Guardian
 * Best Game – Uncharted 4: A Thief's End
 * British Game – Overcooked
 * Debut Game – Firewatch
 * Evolving Game – Rocket League
 * Family – Overcooked
 * Game Design – Inside
 * Game Innovation – That Dragon, Cancer
 * Mobile – Pokémon Go
 * Multiplayer – Overwatch
 * Music – Virginia
 * Narrative – Inside
 * Original Property – Inside
 * Performer – Cissy Jones (as Delilah, Firewatch)
 * BAFTA Special Award – Brenda Romero
 * BAFTA Special Award - Brandon Beck and Marc Merrill of Riot Games
 * BAFTA Ones to Watch Award – Among the Stones
 * AMD eSports Audience Award – Clash Royale

2017
The 2017 ceremony took place at The Troxy on 12 April 2018 and was hosted by Dara Ó Briain.
 * Artistic Achievement – Hellblade: Senua's Sacrifice
 * Audio Achievement – Hellblade: Senua's Sacrifice
 * Best Game – What Remains of Edith Finch
 * British Game – Hellblade: Senua's Sacrifice
 * Debut Game – Gorogoa
 * Evolving Game – Overwatch
 * Family – Super Mario Odyssey
 * Game Beyond Entertainment – Hellblade: Senua's Sacrifice
 * Game Design – Super Mario Odyssey
 * Game Innovation – The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild
 * Mobile Game – Golf Clash
 * Multiplayer – Divinity: Original Sin II
 * Music – Cuphead
 * Narrative – Night in the Woods
 * Original Property – Horizon Zero Dawn
 * Performer – Melina Juergens (as Senua, Hellblade: Senua's Sacrifice)
 * Special Award: Nolan North

2018
The 2018 ceremony took place at Queen Elizabeth Hall on 4 April 2019 and was hosted by Dara Ó Briain.

 * Artistic Achievement – Return of the Obra Dinn
 * Audio Achievement – God of War
 * Best Game – God of War
 * British Game – Forza Horizon 4
 * Debut Game – Yoku's Island Express
 * EE Mobile Game – Old School RuneScape
 * Evolving Game – Fortnite Battle Royale
 * Family – Nintendo Labo
 * Game Beyond Entertainment – My Child Lebensborn
 * Game Design – Return of the Obra Dinn
 * Game Innovation – Nintendo Labo
 * Mobile Game – Florence
 * Multiplayer – A Way Out
 * Music – God of War
 * Narrative – God of War
 * Original Property – Into the Breach
 * Performer – Jeremy Davies as The Stranger/Baldur in God of War
 * Special Award – Epic Games

2019
Though originally planned to be presented at a ceremony at the Queen Elizabeth Hall in London, the event was instead presented as a live stream on 2 April 2020 due to concern over the COVID-19 pandemic.

 * Animation – Luigi's Mansion 3
 * Artistic Achievement – Sayonara Wild Hearts
 * Audio Achievement – Ape Out
 * Best Game – Outer Wilds
 * British Game – Observation
 * Debut Game – Disco Elysium
 * EE Mobile Game – Call of Duty: Mobile
 * Evolving Game – Path of Exile
 * Family – Untitled Goose Game
 * Game Beyond Entertainment – Kind Words (lo fi chill beats to write to)
 * Game Design – Outer Wilds
 * Multiplayer – Apex Legends
 * Music – Disco Elysium
 * Narrative – Disco Elysium
 * Original Property – Disco Elysium
 * Performer in a Leading Role – Gonzalo Martin as Sean Diaz in Life Is Strange 2
 * Performer in a Supporting Role – Martti Suosalo as Ahti the Janitor in Control
 * Technical Achievement – Death Stranding
 * BAFTA Fellowship – Hideo Kojima

2020
The event was held as a live-streamed event on 25 March 2021. The nominees were announced on 3 March 2021.
 * Animation – The Last of Us Part II
 * Artistic Achievement – Hades
 * Audio Achievement – Ghost of Tsushima
 * Best Game – Hades
 * British Game – Sackboy: A Big Adventure
 * Debut Game – Carrion
 * EE Game of the Year – The Last of Us Part II
 * Evolving Game – Sea of Thieves
 * Family – Sackboy: A Big Adventure
 * Game Beyond Entertainment – Animal Crossing: New Horizons
 * Game Design – Hades
 * Multiplayer – Animal Crossing: New Horizons
 * Music – Spider-Man: Miles Morales
 * Narrative – Hades
 * Original Property – Kentucky Route Zero: TV Edition
 * Performer in a Leading Role – Laura Bailey as Abby in The Last of Us Part II
 * Performer in a Supporting Role – Logan Cunningham for multiple roles in Hades
 * Technical Achievement – Dreams
 * BAFTA Fellowship – Siobhan Reddy

2021
The ceremony took place at Queen Elizabeth Hall on 7 April 2022 and was hosted by television presenter Elle Osili-Wood for the second time. The nominees were announced on 3 March 2022.
 * Animation – Ratchet & Clank: Rift Apart
 * Artistic Achievement – The Artful Escape
 * Audio Achievement – Returnal
 * Best Game – Returnal
 * British Game – Forza Horizon 5
 * Debut Game – TOEM
 * EE Game of the Year – Unpacking
 * Evolving Game – No Man's Sky
 * Family – Chicory: A Colorful Tale
 * Game Beyond Entertainment – Before Your Eyes
 * Game Design – Inscryption
 * Multiplayer – It Takes Two
 * Music – Returnal
 * Narrative – Unpacking
 * Original Property – It Takes Two
 * Performer in a Leading Role – Jane Perry as Selene Vassos in Returnal
 * Performer in a Supporting Role – Kimberly Brooks as Hollis Forsythe in Psychonauts 2
 * Technical Achievement – Ratchet & Clank: Rift Apart

2022
The ceremony took place at Queen Elizabeth Hall on 30 March 2023 and was hosted by esports presenter Frankie Ward. The nominees were announced on 2 March 2023.
 * Animation – God of War Ragnarök
 * Artistic Achievement – Tunic
 * Audio Achievement – God of War Ragnarök
 * Best Game – Vampire Survivors
 * British Game – Rollerdrome
 * Debut Game – Tunic
 * EE Game of the Year – God of War Ragnarök
 * Evolving Game – Final Fantasy XIV Online
 * Family – Kirby and the Forgotten Land
 * Game Beyond Entertainment – Endling: Extinction is Forever
 * Game Design – Vampire Survivors
 * Multiplayer – Elden Ring
 * Music – God of War Ragnarök
 * Narrative – Immortality
 * Original Property – Elden Ring
 * Performer in a Leading Role – Christopher Judge as Kratos in God of War Ragnarök
 * Performer in a Supporting Role – Laya Deleon Hayes as Angrboða in God of War Ragnarök
 * Technical Achievement – Horizon Forbidden West

2023
The ceremony took place at Queen Elizabeth Hall on 11 April 2024. For the first time, BAFTA released their official longlist on 14 December 2023, with the shortlisted nominees announced on 7 March 2024.

 * Animation – Hi-Fi Rush
 * Artistic Achievement – Alan Wake 2
 * Audio Achievement – Alan Wake 2
 * Best Game – Baldur's Gate 3
 * British Game – Viewfinder
 * Debut Game – Venba
 * EE Game of the Year – Baldur's Gate 3
 * Evolving Game – Cyberpunk 2077
 * Family – Super Mario Bros. Wonder
 * Game Beyond Entertainment – Tchia
 * Game Design – Dave the Diver
 * Multiplayer – Super Mario Bros. Wonder
 * Music – Baldur's Gate 3
 * Narrative – Baldur's Gate 3
 * New Intellectual Property – Viewfinder
 * Performer in a Leading Role – Nadji Jeter as Miles Morales in Marvel's Spider-Man 2
 * Performer in a Supporting Role – Andrew Wincott as Raphael in Baldur's Gate 3
 * Technical Achievement – The Legend of Zelda: Tears of the Kingdom

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: British Academy Games Awards


text:
John E. Mack

John Edward Mack (October 4, 1929 – September 27, 2004) was an American psychiatrist, writer, and professor of psychiatry. He served as the head of the department of psychiatry at Harvard Medical School from 1977 to 2004. In 1977, Mack won the Pulitzer Prize for his book A Prince of Our Disorder on T.E. Lawrence.

Mack's clinical expertise was in child psychology, adolescent psychology, and the psychology of religion. He was also known as a leading researcher on the psychology of teenage suicide and drug addiction, and he later became a researcher in the psychology of alien abduction experiences.

Early life, education and military service
Mack was born in New York City to an academic German Jewish family. His father, the historian Edward Clarence Mack (1904–1973), was a professor at CUNY, while his mother Eleanor Liebmann Mack (1905–1930) died while John was an infant. After his mother died, his father married the economist Ruth P. Mack, through which he had a half-sister, Mary Lee Ingbar, a pioneer of computer analysis who became a professor at Dartmouth College and University of Massachusetts Medical School. As John grew up, his father would read the Bible to him and his sister, but as a work of culture or literature. Mack graduated from the Horace Mann-Lincoln School in 1947 and Phi Beta Kappa from Oberlin in 1951 and received his medical doctorate degree cum laude from Harvard Medical School in 1955. Mack subsequently interned at the Massachusetts General Hospital and trained as a psychiatrist at the Massachusetts Mental Health Center.

In 1959, Mack joined the United States Air Force, serving as a medic in Japan, where he rose to the rank of captain. In 1961, he returned from military service in Japan, continuing at the Massachusetts Mental Health Center and Boston Psychoanalytic Society and Institute, receiving certification in child and adult psychoanalysis and psychotherapy. From 1964, Mack returned to Harvard Medical School, becoming a full professor at Harvard in 1972. In 1977, he became the chairman of the executive committee of Psychiatry at Harvard Medical School, which position he occupied until his death in 2004.

Mack published over 150 scientific articles and eleven books in his career. As department head at Harvard Medical School, he worked primarily in the field of child and adolescent psychology. He worked on treating suicidal patients and published research on heroin addiction. The dominant theme of his life's work at Harvard had been the exploration of how one's perceptions of the world affect one's relationships. He addressed this issue of "world view" on the individual level in his early clinical explorations of dreams, nightmares and teen suicide, and in A Prince of Our Disorder, his biographical study of the life of British officer T. E. Lawrence, for which he received the Pulitzer Prize for Biography in 1977.

Activism during the Cold War
In the 1980s, Mack interviewed many international political figures as part of his research into the root causes of the Cold War, including former United States President Jimmy Carter and the "father of the hydrogen bomb", Edward Teller.

Mack, together with astrophysicist Carl Sagan and other Physicians for Social Responsibility (the United States affiliate of International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War), promoted the elimination of nuclear weapons and an end to the simmering conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union. Emboldened by the organization's receipt of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1985, Mack, Sagan, and 700 other academics walked upon the grounds of the Nevada Test Site in the summer of 1986, setting a civil disobedience record for that nuclear weapons testing facility.

Psychology of alien abduction phenomena
In the early 1990s, Mack commenced a decade-plus psychological study of 200 men and women who reported recurrent alien encounter experiences. Such encounters had seen some limited attention from academic figures, R. Leo Sprinkle perhaps being the earliest, in the 1960s. Mack, however, remains probably the most esteemed academic to have studied the subject.

He initially suspected that such persons were suffering from mental illness, but when no obvious pathologies were present in the persons he interviewed, his interest was piqued. Following encouragement from longtime friend Thomas Kuhn, who predicted that the subject might be controversial, but urged Mack to collect data and ignore prevailing materialist, dualist and "either/or" analysis, Mack began concerted study and interviews. Many of those he interviewed reported that their encounters had affected the way they regarded the world, including producing a heightened sense of spirituality and environmental concern.

Mack was somewhat more guarded in his investigations and interpretations of the abduction phenomenon than were earlier researchers. Literature professor Terry Matheson writes that "On balance, Mack does present as fair-minded an account as has been encountered to date, at least as these abduction narratives go." In a 1994 interview, Jeffrey Mishlove stated that Mack seemed "inclined to take these [abduction] reports at face value". Mack replied by saying "Face value I wouldn't say. I take them seriously. I don't have a way to account for them." In a 1996 interview with PBS, he stated '' There are aspects of this which I believe we are justified in taking quite literally. That is, UFOs are in fact observed, filmed on camera at the same time that people are having their abduction experiences....It's both literally, physically happening to a degree; and it's also some kind of psychological, spiritual experience occurring and originating perhaps in another dimension. '' The BBC quoted Mack as saying, "I would never say, yes, there are aliens taking people. [But] I would say there is a compelling powerful phenomenon here, that I can't account for in any other way, that's mysterious. Yet I can't know what it is, but it seems to me that it invites a deeper, further inquiry."

Mack noted that there was a worldwide history of visionary experiences, especially in pre-industrial societies. One example is the vision quest common to some Native American cultures. Only fairly recently in Western culture, notes Mack, have such visionary events been interpreted as aberrations or as mental illness. Mack suggested that abduction accounts might best be considered as part of this larger tradition of visionary encounters.

His interest in the spiritual or transformational aspects of people's alien encounters and his suggestion that the experience of alien contact itself may be more transcendent than physical in nature – yet nonetheless real – set him apart from many of his contemporaries, such as Budd Hopkins, who advocated the physical reality of aliens.

His later research broadened into the general consideration of the merits of an expanded notion of reality, one which allows for experiences that may not fit the Western materialist paradigm, yet deeply affect people's lives. His second (and final) book on the alien encounter experience, Passport to the Cosmos: Human Transformation and Alien Encounters (1999), was as much a philosophical treatise connecting the themes of spirituality and modern world-views as it was the culmination of his work with the "experiencers" of alien encounters, to whom the book is dedicated.

In November 1994, Mack travelled to Ruwa, Zimbabwe, to interview children at the Ariel School who claimed that they had seen a UFO land near their school and aliens exit the craft.

Investigation by Harvard
In May 1994, the Dean of Harvard Medical School, Daniel C. Tosteson, appointed a committee of peers to confidentially review Mack's clinical care and clinical investigation of the people who had shared their alien encounters with him (some of their cases were written of in Mack's 1994 book Abduction). Angela Hind wrote, "It was the first time in Harvard's history that a tenured professor was subjected to such an investigation."

The committee chairman was Arnold "Budd" Relman, M.D., a Professor of Medicine and of Social Medicine at Harvard Medical School who served as editor of The New England Journal of Medicine. According to Daniel P. Sheehan, one of Mack's attorneys, the committee's draft report suggested that "To communicate, in any way whatsoever, to a person who has reported a ‘close encounter’ with an extraterrestrial life form that this experience might well have been real ... is professionally irresponsible.”

Upon the public revelation of the existence of the committee (inadvertently revealed during the solicitation of witnesses for Mack's defense, ten months into the process), questions arose from the academic community (including Harvard Professor of Law Alan Dershowitz) regarding the validity of an investigation of a tenured professor who was not suspected of ethics violations or professional misconduct. Concluding the fourteen-month investigation, Harvard then issued a statement stating that the Dean had "reaffirmed Dr. Mack's academic freedom to study what he wishes and to state his opinions without impediment," concluding "Dr. Mack remains a member in good standing of the Harvard Faculty of Medicine." (Mack was censured in the committee's report for what they believed were methodological errors, but Dean Tosteson took no action based on the committee's assessment.) He had received legal help from Roderick MacLeish and Daniel Sheehan (of the Pentagon Papers case), and the support of Laurance Rockefeller, who also funded Mack's non-profit organization for four consecutive years at $250,000 per year.

Death
On Monday, September 27, 2004, while in London to lecture at a T. E. Lawrence Society-sponsored conference, Mack was killed by a drunk driver heading west on Totteridge Lane. He was walking home alone, after a dinner with friends, when he was struck at 11:25 p.m. near the junction of Totteridge Lane and Longland Drive. He lost consciousness at the scene of the crash and was pronounced dead shortly thereafter. The driver, Raymond Czechowski, an IT manager, was arrested at the scene and later entered a plea of guilty to careless driving while under the influence of alcohol. Mack's family requested leniency for the driver in a letter to the Wood Green Crown Court. "Although this was a tragic event for our family," the letter reads, "we feel [the accused's] behavior was neither malicious nor intentional, and we have no ill will toward him since we learned of the circumstances of the collision." The driver, Ray Czechowski, served 6 months and was disqualified from driving for 3 years.

Works
He wrote the following books:
 * Passport to the Cosmos: Human Transformation and Alien Encounters (1999)
 * Abduction: Human Encounters with Aliens (1994)
 * A Prince of Our Disorder: The Life of T.E. Lawrence (1976)
 * Nightmares and Human Conflict (1970)

Collaborations:
 * The Alchemy of Survival: One Woman's Journey (1988)
 * Vivienne: The Life and Suicide of an Adolescent School Girl (1977)

He was editor or co-editor of:
 * Mind Before Matter: Vision of a New Science of Consciousness (2007; succeeded by Paul Devereux)
 * Alien Discussions: Proceedings of the Abduction Study Conference Held at M.I.T. Cambridge, MA (1995)
 * Human Feelings: Explorations in Affect Development and Meaning (1993)
 * Development and Sustenance of Self-Esteem in Childhood (1984)
 * Borderline States in Psychiatry – Seminars in Psychiatry (1975)

Unpublished:
 * When Worldviews Collide: A Paradigmatic Passion Play, a manuscript about the Harvard inquiry, was largely complete at the time of his death and in the 2010s was optioned for feature film development.
 * Elisabeth and Mark Before and After Death: The Power of a Field of Love, described in Vanity Fair as an unpublished manuscript about Dr. Elisabeth Targ, in fact exists only as an outline and as hours of interview transcripts.

He also wrote the foreword to Paths Beyond Ego: The Transpersonal Vision (1993), the introductions to The PK Man: A True Story of Mind Over Matter (2000) by Jeffrey Mishlove and Secret Life (1992) by David M. Jacobs, and he contributed chapters to several books including The Long Darkness: Psychological and Moral Perspectives on Nuclear Winter (1986), The Psychology of Terrorism Vol. 1: A Public Understanding (2002), and The Psychospiritual Clinician's Handbook (2005).

Popular culture

 * A biography, The Believer: Alien Encounters, Hard Science, and the Passion of John Mack, by former New York Times reporter Ralph Blumenthal was published by High Road Books in March 2021.
 * He was illustrated by cartoonist Roz Chast in a four-page color strip, Aliens, Ahoy!, originally published in Duke University's DoubleTake magazine, Winter 1999 issue, and reprinted in the book, Theories of Everything: Selected, Collected, Health-Inspected Cartoons by Roz Chast
 * He appears as a character in William Baer's book of poetry, The Unfortunates (1997).
 * In the French TV show Profilage, John Mack is quoted by the character of Chloé, in the episode "OVNI" ("UFO") (episode 8 of season 6, aired November 26, 2015).
 * John Mack was technical advisor for the TV movie Intruders.
 * John Mack was featured in the 2020 documentary The Phenomenon.
 * John Mack was featured in the 2022 documentary Ariel Phenomenon about the Ariel School UFO incident.

title: John E. Mack


text:
Martin Marprelate

Martin Marprelate (sometimes printed as Martin Mar-prelate and Marre–Martin) was the name used by the anonymous author or authors of the seven Marprelate tracts that circulated illegally in England in the years 1588 and 1589. Their principal focus was an attack on the episcopacy of the Anglican Church.

Background
In 1583, the appointment of John Whitgift as Archbishop of Canterbury had signalled the beginning of a drive against the Presbyterian movement in the church, and an era of censorship began. In 1586, by an edict of the Star Chamber, the archbishop was empowered to license and control all of the printing apparatus in the country.

Identity and authorship
The true identity of "Martin" was for a long time the subject of speculation. For many years, the main candidate was John Penry, a Welsh preacher and author of several impassioned polemics against the state of the church. Renaissance historian John Dover Wilson posited, in his 1912 book Martin Marprelate and Shakespeare's Fluellen, the Welsh soldier Roger Williams was the author of the first three tracts signed "Martin Prelate", with Penry authoring the subsequent tracts signed "Martin Junior" and the Warwickshire squire and Member of Parliament Job Throckmorton the author of those signed "Martin Senior". In 1981 Leland Carlson argued for the authorship of Job Throckmorton. Kathryn M. Longley and Patrick Collinson suggested George Carleton. Henry M. Dexter argued for Henry Barrow.

Recent scholarship, the most authoritative and exhaustive being Joseph Black's The Martin Marprelate Tracts: A Modernized and Annotated Edition, has established that Throckmorton was the main author, assisted by Penry.

The tracts had to be printed in secrecy, and some sort of organisation was involved to handle their production and distribution. Penry was definitely involved in the printing, and the press was frequently relocated to different parts of the country to avoid the authorities. Penry himself denied any involvement in the actual authorship.

Official reaction
The government was concerned enough at the virulence of the attacks on the ecclesiastical hierarchy to respond in kind, hiring professional writers such as Thomas Nashe, Robert Greene and John Lyly to write counter-tracts. The tracts are invectives against the episcopacy and sometimes described the bishops as representing the Antichrist. The most prolific and effective of the anti-Martinists went by the colourful sobriquet, "the renowned Cavaliero Pasquill". Pasquill was traditionally believed to have been Thomas Nashe, however R. B. McKerrow, the editor of Nashe's complete works refutes this: "further study led me to suspect – indeed, to feel almost certain – that Nashe had nothing to do with them (anti-Marprelates texts)." Francis Bacon also involved himself in the pamphleteering, writing An Advertisement Touching the Controversies of the Church of England in 1589, a piece which did not leave the bishops free from criticism.

Some scholars, notably Arul Kumuran, have argued Robert Greene's later works were influenced by the Marprelate pamphlets, though Greene is noted as an anti-Martinist author.

Later influence and interpretation
Some of the Marprelate pamphlets were reprinted in the seventeenth century, and an extensive scholarship has commented on their historical and literary significance. The anti-Martinist literature, including the Pasquill pamphlets, by contrast, has suffered from relative neglect by scholars of early modern England.

During the English civil war, Leveller pamphleteer Richard Overton embraced Marprelate's legacy by publishing several tracts as "Martin Marpriest", purportedly Martin Marprelate's son.

The Marprelate tracts are important documents in the history of English satire: critics from C. S. Lewis to John Carey have recognised their originality. In particular, the pamphlets show concern with the status of the text, wittily pastiching conventions such as the colophon and marginalia.

title: Martin Marprelate


text:
AppleWorks

AppleWorks was an integrated office suite containing a word processor, database, and spreadsheet. It was developed by Rupert Lissner for Apple Computer, originally for the Apple II and launched in 1984. Many enhancements for AppleWorks were created, the most popular being the TimeOut series from Beagle Bros which extended the life of the Apple II version of AppleWorks. Appleworks was later reworked for the Macintosh platform.

AppleWorksGS was developed for the Apple IIGS using the graphical desktop interface instead of the text based filecard interface of the Apple II. AppleWorksGS was slow & buggy and a planned version 2.0 never materialized. Beagle Bros created a BeagleWorks program that was eventually sold to the Apple subsidiary Claris. ClarisWorks for Macintosh (1991), and Windows (1993) became a popular program and saw rapid development. Those applications do not share any code with the 8-bit Apple II original. Apple absorbed Claris and the name ClarisWorks was changed to AppleWorks. It was bundled with all consumer-level Macintoshes sold by Apple until its discontinuation. As of 2007, AppleWorks had not been updated in several years and was unable to run on the Intel processors shipping in new Macs. On August 15, 2007, Apple announced AppleWorks had reached end-of-life status, and would no longer be sold. Apple instead promoted its recently launched iWork suite as a replacement, which contains word processing, spreadsheet, and presentation applications with capabilities similar to AppleWorks, but is not directly compatible with AppleWorks file formats.

AppleWorks (Apple II, 1984–1991)
Developed by Rupert Lissner, the original AppleWorks is one of the first integrated office suites for personal computers, featuring a word processor, spreadsheet, and database merged into a single program. It was released in 1984 as a demonstration product for the new 128k models of the Apple II line.

In 1982, Apple published Lissner's Quick File, a database program that closely resembled what would become the AppleWorks database module, on both the Apple III and Apple II. Apple favored Apple Pascal at the time, so Lissner initially wrote Quick File in that language at Apple's request. Lissner preferred coding in assembly language, however, and soon rewrote Quick File in assembly on his Apple III and, by summer of 1983, he had added word processor and spreadsheet modules as well. Apple initially purchased the rights to distribute both the Apple III and Apple II versions of the program. However, Apple decided to drop support for the Apple III and sold the rights for the Apple III version to Haba Systems, who marketed it as III E-Z Pieces and released it shortly before Apple released AppleWorks. The two products shared the same file formats.

All three AppleWorks programs have the same user interface and exchange data through a common clipboard. Previous Apple II application programs had mainly been designed with the older II/II+ line in mind, which only has 48k of RAM and 40-column text without an add-on card, thus limiting the software's capabilities. In contrast, Appleworks was designed for the IIe and IIc models which have more RAM, standard 80-column text, an optional numeric keypad, cursor keys, and the new ProDOS operating system in place of DOS 3.3 which had been standard on 48k machines.

AppleWorks debuted at #2 on Softalk's monthly bestseller list and quickly became the best-selling software package on any computer, ousting even Lotus 1-2-3 from the top of the industry-wide sales charts. Apple's software subsidiary Claris sold the one millionth copy of AppleWorks in December 1988.

Apple and Lissner provided limited technical information on modifying AppleWorks, helping to create a substantial market for third-party accessories and support. Apple released version 2.0 in 1986 with the Apple IIGS, and then a year later the program was published by Claris. The September 1986 issue of inCider contained two AppleWorks-related articles; advertisements for two AppleWorks-related expansion cards from Applied Engineering, an application promising to let AppleWorks run on an Apple II Plus with an 80-column display board, an AppleWorks-dedicated newsletter called The Main Menu, and an AppleWorks-related product from Beagle Bros; many other advertisements that mentioned AppleWorks; and a column criticizing companies that developed AppleWorks-related products instead of new ones ("thinks small and innovates nothing"). Two years later Beagle Bros released the TimeOut series for AppleWorks and grossed millions of dollars. Thanks to the UltraMacros programming language they included, many other third-party developers innovated new products that used AppleWorks as a foundation and virtual operating system. Compute!'s Apple Applications reported in 1987 that "AppleWorks has become a frontier for software developers", and predicted that "Soon, the best software on the Apple II computer line will require AppleWorks". Claris contracted with Beagle Bros to upgrade AppleWorks to version 3.0 in 1989; TimeOut developers Alan Bird, Randy Brandt, and Rob Renstrom added new features and incorporated numerous TimeOut functions.

By 1989, Claris turned its attention to producing Macintosh and Windows software, letting AppleWorks languish. Claris did, however, agree to license the AppleWorks trademark to Quality Computers. TimeOut developers Randy Brandt and Dan Verkade then created AppleWorks 4.0 in 1993 and AppleWorks 5.0 in 1994, published by Quality Computers along with training videos.

The original 8-bit AppleWorks (which included 16-bit memory management on the IIGS) is sometimes referred to as "AppleWorks Classic" to differentiate it from AppleWorks GS and the later product for Macintosh and Windows.

AppleWorks GS (Apple IIGS, 1988–1996)
Observers had expected AppleWorks 2.0 to have a Macintosh-like mouse-driven graphical user interface, but inCider reported before its release that such a revision had been delayed because of "problems between Apple and [Lissner]". It was nonetheless very popular among IIGS owners; in December 1987 Compute!'s Apple Applications reported that "the hottest product on the Apple IIGS is AppleWorks. No mouse interface, no color, no graphics. Just AppleWorks from the IIe and IIc world". The magazine wondered in an editorial, "AppleWorks, Where Are You?", stating that a IIGS version of AppleWorks or another AppleWorks-like integrated suite "could galvanize the machine's sales" and warned that otherwise "the IIGS may well languish".

In 1988, Claris acquired an integrated package called GS Works from StyleWare and renamed it AppleWorks GS, bringing the AppleWorks brand to the 16-bit Apple IIGS, though no code from the 8-bit Apple II version is used. In addition to the word processing, database, and spreadsheet functions, AppleWorks GS also includes telecommunications, page layout and graphics modules. Only one major version of AppleWorks GS exists, progressing as far as 1.1; a vaporware 2.0 update was rumored to be "just short of completion" for a long time. AppleWorks GS can open AppleWorks files without needing to import them first.

AppleWorks and ClarisWorks (Macintosh and Windows, 1991–2004)
The second incarnation of AppleWorks began as ClarisWorks, written by Bob Hearn and Scott Holdaway and published by Claris, a wholly owned subsidiary of Apple, also known as FileMaker Inc.) The Creator code of ClarisWorks for the Macintosh is "BOBO". ClarisWorks combines these applications:
 * A word processor, which in version 6 also includes an equation editor based on MathType.
 * A drawing program,
 * A painting program,
 * A spreadsheet,
 * A database program, and
 * A terminal program for communications (up to and including version 5), or
 * A presentation program (in version 6).

All the components are integrated to provide a seamless suite that works in concert; for example, spreadsheet frames can be embedded in a word processing document, or formatted text into drawings, etc. The components are not derived from the contemporary Claris programs MacWrite and MacDraw but written from scratch and then redesigned to match other Claris programs after the purchase by Claris.

ClarisWorks 1.0 shipped for the Macintosh in October 1991.

ClarisWorks 2.0 was released on March 24, 1993.

ClarisWorks 3.0 was released in October 1994. It is the last version to run on the 68000 CPU with at least System 6.0.7.

ClarisWorks 4.0 was released on June 14, 1995. It requires a 68020 CPU and System 7.

When the Claris company was disbanded and absorbed back into Apple, the product was renamed AppleWorks; version 5.0 was released on August 24, 1997, shortly before the product's return to Apple and was briefly called ClarisWorks 5. ClarisWorks/AppleWorks 5 requires System 7.0.1, though the 5.0.4 patch can only be applied in Mac OS 9. It is the last version to support the 68k CPU architecture.

The last major version, AppleWorks 6.0, released at MacWorld Expo in January 2000, requires a PowerPC CPU and replaces the communications module with a presentation module (in prior versions there was only rudimentary support for presentations through the other modules). It was also ported to the Carbon API to work on Mac OS X, but as an early Carbon application, it does not take advantage of many of the newer features of Mac OS X and portions of the interface still retain elements of the Platinum appearance of Mac OS 8/9.

Using Claris's XTND framework, AppleWorks can create, open, and save files in a number of file formats. For example, word processor documents can be saved in Microsoft Word format, and spreadsheet files can be saved in Microsoft Excel format.

The software received good reviews during the course of its lifespan for its interface and the tight integration of its modules. For example, like the earlier versions, in AppleWorks a drawing "frame" can be placed in a spreadsheet document, a paint frame can be placed in a drawing document, etc. This allows for very elaborate and data-rich layouts. However, the limitations of the product became more apparent as the product aged. The program also only allows for a single undo/redo, and in many cases, if a frame from one module is placed in another module, the frame may no longer be editable in any way as soon as it is deselected.

Equation Editor by Design Science is bundled with AppleWorks. Also, the MathType or MathMagic equation editors can be used. Both support automatic baseline alignment for inline equations.

Discontinuation
In August 2007, Apple declared AppleWorks "end of life" and stated that they would no longer sell the package. The iWork package, which includes a word processing program, a spreadsheet, and a presentation graphics program, is intended to be its replacement. While more feature-rich, iWork still lacks some of the modules and the tight integration of AppleWorks. AppleWorks will not run on any versions of Mac OS X later than Snow Leopard because it is compiled for the PowerPC CPU architecture.

AppleWorks word processing, spreadsheet, and presentation files can be opened in earlier versions of iWork applications Pages, Numbers, and Keynote respectively, but not since 2013. Collabora Online, LibreOffice or Apache OpenOffice can open AppleWorks word processing, spreadsheet, and presentation files. A script exists for batch converting Appleworks (.cwk) files to MS Word (.docx) format (usable by Pages) using the command-line interface for LibreOffice. There is no Apple-supplied application to open AppleWorks database, painting, or drawing files without converting them to a different format. EazyDraw Retro supports the import of the AppleWorks drawing formats. This software runs on Mojave and older. AppleWorks User Group continues support, and migrating away from AppleWorks is possible.

Several of the core engineers behind ClarisWorks left to form Gobe Software whose main product, GoBe Productive, would be released on BeOS, Windows, and Linux.

Reception
II Computing listed AppleWorks ninth on the magazine's list of the top Apple II non-game, non-educational software as of late 1985, based on sales and market-share data.

BYTE's reviewer in December 1984 called AppleWorks "easy to use, genuinely user-friendly, and well documented". She called the word processor "my favorite part ... well above average" and the spreadsheet and database "good but certainly not standouts". As a package for novice and casual users, the reviewer concluded, "Appleworks is excellent". InfoWorld that month disagreed, calling it "a study in limitations ... this package is not strong". While approving of the shared clipboard and user interface, the magazine stated that Appleworks' limitations—such as the limit of eight pages in the word processor with 64K RAM—made it "not good enough as a business product to warrant much consideration".

Compute! in 1989 stated that "Though not a speed demon" like the original 8-bit AppleWorks, the GS version "isn't as slow as many had feared"; although a fast typist could still outrun the computer's display, it performed better than other Apple IIGS software. Although many original users bought the IIGS version, with reportedly 35,000 copies sold in the first three weeks, the magazine warned that they "must forget virtually everything they've learned ... What a pain".

title: AppleWorks


text:
Erich von Stroheim

Erich Oswald Hans Carl Maria von Stroheim (born Erich Oswald Stroheim; September 22, 1885 – May 12, 1957) was an Austrian-American director, screenwriter, actor, and producer, most noted as a film star and avant-garde, visionary director of the silent era. His 1924 film Greed (an adaptation of Frank Norris's 1899 novel McTeague) is considered one of the finest and most important films ever made. After clashes with Hollywood studio bosses over budget and workers' rights problems, Stroheim found it difficult to find work as a director and subsequently became a well-respected character actor, particularly in French cinema.

For his early innovations as a director, Stroheim is still celebrated as one of the first of the auteur directors. He helped introduce more sophisticated plots and noirish sexual and psychological undercurrents into cinema. He died of prostate cancer in France in 1957, at the age of 71. Beloved by Parisian neo-Surrealists known as Lettrists, he was honored by Lettrist Maurice Lemaître with a 70-minute 1979 film titled Erich von Stroheim.

Background and personal life
Stroheim was born in Vienna, Austria, in 1885 as Erich Oswald Stroheim (some sources give Hans Erich Maria Stroheim von Nordenwall, but this seems to have been an assumed name, see below), the son of Benno Stroheim, a middle-class hatmaker, and Johanna Bondy, both of whom were observant Jews.

Stroheim deserted his military service and immigrated to America aboard the SS Prinz Friedrich Wilhelm on November 26, 1909. On arrival at Ellis Island, he claimed to be Count Erich Oswald Hans Carl Maria von Stroheim und Nordenwall, the son of Austrian nobility like the characters he would go on to play in his films. However, he first found work as a traveling salesman – work which took him to San Francisco and then Hollywood.

Both Billy Wilder and Stroheim's agent Paul Kohner claimed that he spoke with a decidedly lower-class Austrian accent. His years in America seem to have affected his speech, though. In The Great Gabbo, Stroheim's German, though fluid, has Midwestern American r's. Later, while living in Europe, Stroheim claimed in published remarks to have "forgotten" his native tongue. In Renoir's movie La Grande Illusion, Stroheim speaks German with what seems to be an American accent. Similarly, in his French-speaking roles, von Stroheim speaks with a noticeable American accent. Jean Renoir writes in his memoirs: "Stroheim spoke hardly any German. He had to study his lines like a schoolboy learning a foreign language."

However, the fashion photographer Helmut Newton, whose first language was German, used a clip from a Stroheim film on which to base one of his fantasy nude photographs, and he has commented that in the clip Stroheim speaks "a very special kind of Prussian officer lingo – it's very abrupt: it's very, very funny".

Stroheim was married three times. He was married to Margaret Knox from 1913 to 1915; His second marriage was to Mae Jones from 1916 to 1919. He was never divorced from his third wife Valerie Germonprez, though he lived with actress Denise Vernac, from 1939 until his death. Vernac also starred with him in several films. Two of Stroheim's sons eventually joined the film business: Erich Jr. (1916–1968) as an assistant director and Josef (1922–2002) as a sound editor.

After appearing in 1950's Sunset Boulevard, Stroheim moved to France where he spent the last part of his life. There his silent film work was much admired by artists in the French film industry. In France he acted in films, wrote several novels that were published in French, and worked on various unrealized film projects. He was awarded the French Legion of Honour shortly before his death.

In 1956, Stroheim began to suffer severe back pain that was diagnosed as prostate cancer. He eventually became paralyzed and was carried to his drawing room to receive the Legion of Honor award from an official delegation. He died at his chateau in Maurepas near Paris on May 12, 1957, at age 71, accompanied by his longtime lover Denise Vernac.

Film career
By 1914, he was working in Hollywood. He began working in movies as a stuntman, and then in bit-parts and as a consultant on German culture and fashion. His first film, in 1915, was The Country Boy, in which he was uncredited. His first credited role came in Old Heidelberg.

He began working with D. W. Griffith, taking an uncredited role as a Pharisee in Intolerance. Additionally, Stroheim acted as one of the many assistant directors on Intolerance, a film remembered in part for its huge cast of extras. Later, with America's entry into World War I, he played sneering German villains in such films as Sylvia of the Secret Service and The Hun Within. In The Heart of Humanity, he tears the buttons from a nurse's uniform with his teeth, and when disturbed by a crying baby, throws it out of a window.

Following the end of the war, Stroheim turned to writing and then directed his own script for Blind Husbands in 1919. He also starred in the film. As a director, Stroheim was known to be dictatorial and demanding, often antagonizing his actors. He is considered one of the greatest directors of the silent era, creating films that represent cynical and romantic views of human nature. In the 1932 film The Lost Squadron, Stroheim played a parody of himself as a fanatic German film director making a World War I movie, who orders extras playing dead soldiers to "Stay dead!" Recurring tropes in his films include the portrayal of janitors, and the depiction of characters with physical disabilities.

His next directorial efforts were the lost film The Devil's Pass Key (1919) and Foolish Wives (1922), in which he also starred. Studio publicity for Foolish Wives claimed that it was the first film to cost $1 million.

In 1923, Stroheim began work on Merry-Go-Round. He cast the American actor Norman Kerry as Count Franz Maximilian von Hohenegg, a part written for himself, and newcomer Mary Philbin in the lead actress role. However studio executive Irving Thalberg fired Stroheim during filming and replaced him with director Rupert Julian.

Probably Stroheim's best remembered work as a director is Greed, a detailed filming of the novel McTeague by Frank Norris. He originally started it as a project with Samuel Goldwyn's Goldwyn Pictures. Stroheim had long wanted to do a film version of the book. He originally intended it to be a highly detailed reproduction of the original, shot mostly at the locations described in the book in San Francisco and Death Valley. Von Stroheim shot in San Francisco with his actors in period dress and silent movie makeup while the city itself was represented in its modern form. Automobiles can be seen in the background of some scenes and any "extras" or passersby are in (what was for the time) modern clothing. When the production did move to Death Valley it was in the middle of summer. Greed is also considered by some film historians to be the first feature-length film shot on location. The original print ran for an astonishing 10 hours. Knowing this version was far too long, Stroheim cut almost half the footage, reducing it to a six-hour version to be shown over two nights. It still was deemed too long, so Stroheim and director Rex Ingram edited it into a four-hour version that could be shown in two parts.

However, in the midst of filming, Goldwyn Pictures was bought by Marcus Loew and merged into Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. After rejecting Stroheim's attempts to cut it to less than three hours, MGM removed Greed from his control and gave it to head scriptwriter June Mathis, with orders to cut it to a manageable length. Mathis gave the print to a cutter, who reduced it to 2.5 hours. The shortened release version was a box-office failure, and was angrily disowned by Stroheim. In particular, he blamed Mathis for destroying his pet project, since she was credited as a writer due to contractual obligations. However, Mathis had worked with Stroheim before and had long admired him, so it is not likely she would have indiscriminately butchered his film. The film was partially reconstructed in 1999 by producer Rick Schmidlin, using the existing footage mixed with surviving still photographs, but the original cut of Greed has passed into cinema lore as a lost masterpiece.

Stroheim followed with a commercial project, The Merry Widow, his most commercially successful film; the more personal The Wedding March, as well as the now-lost The Honeymoon.

Stroheim's unwillingness or inability to modify his artistic principles for the commercial cinema, his extreme attention to detail, his insistence on near-total artistic freedom and the resulting costs of his films led to fights with the studios. As time went on, he received fewer directing opportunities.

In 1929, Stroheim was dismissed as the director of the film Queen Kelly, after disagreements with star Gloria Swanson and producer and financier Joseph P. Kennedy over the mounting costs of the film and Stroheim's introduction of indecent subject matter into the film's scenario.

After Queen Kelly and Walking Down Broadway, a project from which Stroheim was also dismissed, Stroheim returned to working principally as an actor, in both American and French films.

His stern nature, as well as some of his villainous roles, earned him the nickname "the man you love to hate".

Working in France on the eve of World War II, Stroheim was prepared to direct the film La dame blanche from his own story and screenplay. Jean Renoir wrote the dialogue, Jacques Becker was to be assistant director and Stroheim himself, Louis Jouvet and Jean-Louis Barrault were to be the featured actors. Max Cossvan was to produce the film for Demo-Film. The production was prevented by the outbreak of the war on September 1, 1939, and Stroheim returned to the United States.

Stroheim is perhaps best known as an actor for his role as Rauffenstein in Jean Renoir's La Grande Illusion (1937) and as Max von Mayerling in Billy Wilder's Sunset Boulevard (1950). For the latter film, which also starred Gloria Swanson, Stroheim was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor. Excerpts from Queen Kelly were used in the film. The Mayerling character states that he used to be one of the three great directors of the silent era, along with D. W. Griffith and Cecil B. DeMille; many film critics agree that Stroheim was indeed one of the great early directors. Stroheim's character in Sunset Boulevard thus had an autobiographical basis that reflected the humiliations suffered throughout his career.

He appeared as a guest star in the 1953 anthology drama television series Orient Express in the episode titled The Man of Many Skins.

Quotes
"Lubitsch shows you first the king on the throne, then as he is in the bedroom. I show you the king in the bedroom so you'll know just what he is when you see him on his throne."

"If you live in France, for instance, and you have written one good book, or painted one good picture, or directed one outstanding film 50 years ago and nothing else since, you are still recognized and honored accordingly. People take their hats off to you and call you 'maître'. They do not forget. In Hollywood—in Hollywood, you're as good as your last picture. If you didn't have one in production within the last three months, you're forgotten, no matter what you have achieved ere this."

title: Erich von Stroheim