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Epistle of Barnabas

The Epistle of Barnabas (Βαρνάβα Ἐπιστολή) is a Greek epistle written between AD 70 and 132. The complete text is preserved in the 4th-century Codex Sinaiticus, where it appears at the end of the New Testament, following the Book of Revelation and before the Shepherd of Hermas. For several centuries it was one of the "antilegomena" ("disputed") writings that some Christians looked on as sacred scripture, while others excluded them. Eusebius of Caesarea classified it with excluded texts. It is mentioned in a perhaps third-century list in the sixth-century Codex Claromontanus and in the later Stichometry of Nicephorus appended to the ninth-century Chronography of Nikephoros I of Constantinople. Some early Fathers of the Church ascribed it to the Barnabas who is mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles, but it is now generally attributed to an otherwise unknown early Christian teacher, although some scholars do defend the traditional attribution. It is distinct from the Gospel of Barnabas.

The main message of the Epistle of Barnabas is that the Hebrew scriptures — what would become the Old Testament in Christianity — were actually Christian documents from the beginning. According to the epistle, the Jews had misinterpreted their own law by applying it literally; the true meaning was to be found in its symbolic prophecies foreshadowing the coming of Jesus. The Jews broke their covenant from the very beginning, and are misled by an evil angel. After explaining its Christian interpretations of the Jewish scriptures, the epistle concludes by discussing "The Two Ways", also seen in the Didache: a Way of Light and a Way of Darkness.

Manuscript tradition
The 4th-century Codex Sinaiticus (S), discovered by Constantin von Tischendorf in 1859 and published by him in 1862, contains a complete text of the Epistle placed after the canonical New Testament and followed by the Shepherd of Hermas. The 11th-century Codex Hierosolymitanus (H), which also includes the Didache, the two Epistles of Clement and the longer version of the Letters of Ignatius of Antioch, is another witness to the full text. It was discovered by Philotheos Bryennios at Constantinople in 1873 and published by him in 1875. Adolf Hilgenfeld used it for his 1877 edition of the Epistle of Barnabas. A family of 10 or 11 manuscripts dependent on the 11th-century Codex Vaticanus graecus 859 (G) contain chapters 5:7b−21:9 placed as a continuation of a truncated text of Polycarp's letter to the Philippians (1:1–9:2). An old Latin version (L), perhaps of no later than the end of the 4th century, that is preserved in a single 9th-century manuscript (St Petersburg, Q.v.I.39) gives the first 17 chapters (without the "Two Ways" section of chapters 18 to 21) This is a fairly literal rendering in general, but is sometimes significantly shorter than the Greek text. S and H generally agree on readings. G often agrees with L against S and H. A small papyrus fragment (PSI 757) of the third or fourth century has the first 6 verses of chapter 9, and there are a few fragments in Syriac of chapters 1, 19,20. The writings of Clement of Alexandria give a few brief quotations, as to a smaller extent do Origen, Didymus the Blind and Jerome.

Status for Christians

The Epistle was viewed as authoritative scripture by some Christians in the early centuries of church history. It was attributed to Barnabas, the companion of Paul the Apostle, by Clement of Alexandria (c. 150 – c. 215) and Origen (c. 184 – c. 253). Clement quotes it with phrases such as "the Apostle Barnabas says." Origen speaks of it as "the General Epistle of Barnabas," a phrase usually associated with canonical non-Pauline epistles.

In the fourth century, the Epistle was also highly regarded by Didymus the Blind (c. 313 – c. 398), Serapion of Thmuis (c. 290 – c. 358), and Jerome (c. 342 – 420) as an authentic work of the apostolic Barnabas. Its inclusion in close proximity to the New Testament writings in Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Claromontanus witnesses to the canonical or near-canonical authority it held for some Christians, though it is argued by some that this is evidence merely of its popularity and usefulness, not necessarily of canonicity.

Eusebius (c. 260 – c. 340), in book three of his Church History, excluded it from "the accepted books," classifying it as among the "rejected" or "spurious" (νόθοι) writings, although he elsewhere included this same Epistle of Barnabas with Hebrews and Jude in the category of “disputed scriptures” (ἀντιλεγομένων γραφῶν).

In the sixth-century, Codex Claromontanus (a list of Old Testament and New Testament books, dating from the third or fourth century) includes the Epistle of Barnabas between Jude and Revelation along with the Shepherd of Hermas, the Acts of Paul and the Apocalypse of Peter. Next to the listing of Barnabas is a dash (most likely added some time later) that may indicate doubtful or disputed canonicity, though the same marking is found next to 1 Peter as well, so its meaning is unclear.

The Stichometry of Nicephorus, a later list of uncertain date appended to the Chronography of the early 9th century Nikephoros I of Constantinople, puts the Epistle of Barnabas among its four "disputed" New Testament works — along with the Book of Revelation, the Revelation of Peter and the Gospel of the Hebrews — but not among its seven "New Testament apocrypha".

Date of composition
In 16.3–4, the Epistle of Barnabas reads:"Furthermore he says again, "Behold, those who tore down this temple will themselves build it." It is happening. For because of their fighting it was torn down by the enemies. And now the very servants of the enemies will themselves rebuild it."

As commonly interpreted, this passage places the Epistle after the destruction of the Second Temple in AD 70. It also places the Epistle before the Bar Kokhba revolt of AD 132, after which there could have been no hope that the Romans would help to rebuild the temple. The document must therefore come from the period between the two Jewish revolts. Attempts at identifying a more precise date are conjectures. The Encyclopædia Britannica puts the latest possible date at AD 130, and for the actual date of composition gives "circa AD 100". Its 1911 edition opted strongly for "the reign of Vespasian (AD 70-79)", shortly after the Catholic Encyclopedia had preferred AD 130−131 in an article by Paulin Ladeuze, and AD 96−98 in an article by John Bertram Peterson. On a more precise dating within the limits associated with the Jerusalem temple there is thus an "absence of scholarly consensus".

Jay Curry Treat comments on the absence in the Epistle of Barnabas (except for a possible reference to the phrase "Many are called, but few are chosen" in the Gospel according to Matthew) of citations from the New Testament: "Although Barnabas 4:14 appears to quote Matt 22:14, it must remain an open question whether the Barnabas circle knew written gospels. Based on Koester's analysis (1957: 125–27, 157), it appears more likely that Barnabas stood in the living oral tradition used by the written gospels. For example, the reference to gall and vinegar in Barnabas 7:3, 5 seems to preserve an early stage of tradition that influenced the formation of the passion narratives in the Gospel of Peter and the synoptic gospels."

J.E Jacquier is of a different opinion, pointing to the fact that the reference to Matthew 22:14 is proceeded by the words "as the scripture saith" (os gegraptai) which not only shows that the words are a quotation but according to him "proves that the author considered the Gospel of Matthew equal in point of authority to the writings of the Old Testament".

Helmut Koester considers the Epistle to be earlier than the Gospel of Matthew: in his Introduction to the New Testament he says of the author of the Epistle: "It cannot be shown that he knew and used the Gospels of the New Testament. On the contrary, what Barnabas presents here is from 'the school of the evangelists'. This demonstrates how the early Christian communities paid special attention to the exploration of Scripture in order to understand and tell the suffering of Jesus. Barnabas still represents the initial stages of the process that is continued in the Gospel of Peter, later in Matthew, and is completed in Justin Martyr."

John Finnis has recently argued that the Epistle may have been written around the year 40 AD, proposing that chapter 16 refers instead to the destruction of the First Temple in 587 BC.

An opposing view is enunciated by Everett Ferguson: "The language of rebuilding the temple in 16.3–5 refers to the spiritual temple of the heart of Gentile believers (any allusion to a physical temple in Jerusalem is doubtful)." On the date of composition he says: "The Epistle of Barnabas is usually dated to 130−135, although an earlier date in the late 70s has had its champions, and 96−98 is a possibility."

Provenance
The place of origin is generally taken to be Alexandria in Egypt. It is first attested there (by Clement of Alexandria). Its allegorical style points to Alexandria. Barnabas 9:6 mentions idol-worshipping priests as circumcised, a practice in use in Egypt. However, some scholars have suggested an origin in Syria or Asia Minor.

Treat comments on the provenance of the Epistle of Barnabas: "Barnabas does not give enough indications to permit confident identification of either the teacher's location or the location to which he writes. His thought, hermeneutical methods, and style have many parallels throughout the known Jewish and Christian worlds. Most scholars have located the work's origin in the area of Alexandria, on the grounds that it has many affinities with Alexandrian Jewish and Christian thought and because its first witnesses are Alexandrian. Recently, Prigent (Prigent and Kraft 1971: 20–24), Wengst (1971: 114–18), and Scorza Barcellona (1975: 62–65) have suggested other origins based on affinities in Palestine, Syria, and Asia Minor. The place of origin must remain an open question, although the Gk-speaking E. Mediterranean appears most probable."

Contents
The Epistle of Barnabas has the form not so much of a letter (it lacks indication of identity of sender and addressees), but as of a treatise. In this, it is like the Epistle to the Hebrews, which Tertullian ascribed to the apostle Barnabas and with which it has "a large amount of superficial resemblance". On the other hand, it does have some features of an epistolary character, and Reidar Hvalvik argues that it is in fact a letter.

The document can be divided into two parts. Chapters 1−17 give a Christ-centred interpretation of the Old Testament, which it says should be understood spiritually, not in line with the literal meaning of its rules on sacrifice (chapter 2: the sacrifice God wants is that of a contrite heart), fasting (3: the fasting God wants is from injustice), circumcision (9), diet (10: rules that really prohibit behaviour such as praying to God only when in need, like swine crying out when hungry but ignoring their master when full, or being predatory like eagle, falcon, kite and crow, etc.; and that command to chew by meditating the cud of the word of the Lord and to divide the hoof by looking for the holy world to come while walking in this world), sabbath (15), and the temple (16). The passion and death of Jesus at the hands of the Jews, it says, is foreshadowed in the properly understood rituals of the scapegoat (7) and the red heifer (8) and in the posture assumed by Moses in extending his arms (according to the Greek Septuagint text known to the author of the Epistle) in the form of the execution cross, while Joshua, whose name in Greek is Ἰησοῦς (Jesus), fought against Amalek (12). The last four chapters, 18−21, are a version of The Two Ways teaching that appears also in chapters 1−5 of the Didache.

As viewed by Andrew Louth, the author "is simply concerned to show that the Old Testament Scriptures are Christian Scriptures and that the spiritual meaning is their real meaning". As viewed by Bart D. Ehrman, the Epistle of Barnabas is "more anti-Jewish than anything that did make it into the New Testament".

Midrash and gematria
According to David Dawson, "the Jewish mind-set of Barnabas, evident in its choice of images and examples, is unmistakable". He says that the work's two-part structure, with a distinct second part beginning with chapter 18, and its exegetical method "provide the most striking evidence of its Jewish perspective. It is presented as a talmud or didachē ('teaching') divided into haggadah and halakhah. It uses Philonic allegorical techniques to interpret fragments of Septuagint passages, in the manner of the midrashim. Finally, it applies biblical texts to its own contemporary historical situation in a manner reminiscent of the pesher technique found at Qumran."

The creative interpretation of Bible texts, that is most typically found in rabbinic literature and is known as midrash, appears also in the New Testament and other early Christian works, where it is utilized with the prior assumption that the whole of the Bible relates to Christ.

James L. Bailey judges as correct the classification as midrash of the frequent use by the evangelists of texts from the Hebrew Bible, and Daniel Boyarin applies this in particular to the Prologue (1:1−18) of the Gospel of John. Other instances of New Testament allegorical interpretations of the Old Testament scriptures as foreshadowing Jesus are, and. Other examples of midrash-like exegesis are found in the accounts of the temptation of Christ in Matthew and Luke, and of circumstances surrounding the birth of Jesus.

Midrashic presentation of a writer's own views on the basis of the sacred texts was subject to well-established rules, but some scholars, due to their failure to recognize the meaning and use of midrash, have evaluated pejoratively the use of scripture by such as Matthew.

Similar negative judgments have been expressed on the abundant use of midrash in the Epistle of Barnabas. In 1867, Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson, in their Ante-Nicene Christian Library, disparaged the Epistle for what it called "the absurd and trifling interpretations of Scripture which it suggests".

The Epistle of Barnabas also employs another technique of ancient Jewish exegesis, that of gematria, the ascription of religious significance to the numerical value of letters. When applied to letters of the Greek alphabet, it is also called isopsephia. A well-known New Testament instance of its use is in the Book of Revelation, "Let the one who has understanding calculate the number of the beast, for it is the number of a man, and his number is 666", which is often interpreted as referring to the name "Nero Caesar" written in Hebrew characters. The interpretation of Genesis 17:23–27 in Barnabas 9:7–8 is considered "a classic example" of allegorical or midrashic interpretation: "In reading the story of Abraham circumcising his household, his eye fell on the figure 318 which appeared in the scroll as ΤΙΗ. Now ΙΗ was a familiar contraction of the sacred name of Jesus, and is so written in the Alexandrian papyri of the period; and the letter Τ looked like the cross." The same gematria was adopted by Clement of Alexandria and by several other Church Fathers: William Barclay notes that, because the Greek letter Τ (tau) is shaped exactly like the crux commissa and represented the number 300, "wherever the fathers came across the number 300 in the Old Testament they took it to be a mystical prefiguring of the cross of Christ".

Philip Carrington says: "Barnabas can be artificial, irritating, and censorious; but it would not be fair to judge him by his less fortunate expositions. His interpretation of the unclean beasts and fishes was in line with the thought of his time, being found in the Letter of Aristeas, for instance. His numerology was also a fashionable mode of thought, though the modern scholar is often impatient with it." Robert A. Kraft states that some of the materials used by the final editor "certainly antedate the year 70, and are in some sense 'timeless' traditions of Hellenistic Judaism (e.g., the food law allegories of ch. 10, the Two Ways). It is with such materials that much of the importance of the epistle for our understanding of early Christianity and its late-Jewish heritage rests." The author's style was not a personal foible: in his time it was accepted procedure in general use, although no longer in favour today. Andrew Louth says: "Barnabas seems strange to modern ears: allegory is out of fashion and there is little else in the epistle. But the fashion that outlaws allegory is quite recent, and fashions change."

Gnosis
In its first chapter, the Epistle states that its intention is that the "sons and daughters" to whom it is addressed should have, along with their faith, perfect knowledge. The knowledge (in Greek, γνῶσις, gnosis) that the first part (chapters 1−17) aims to impart is "an essentially practical γνῶσις, somewhat mystical in character, which seeks to make known the deeper sense of scripture". The first part, of an exclusively exegetical character, provides a spiritual interpretation of scripture.

The second part opens with a declaration (chapter 18:1) that it is turning to "another knowledge" (γνῶσις). This second gnosis is "the knowledge of the will of God, the art of enumerating and specifying his commandments, and applying them to various situations", a halakhic, as opposed to an exegetical, gnosis.

The gnosis of the Epistle of Barnabas by no means links it with Gnosticism. On the contrary, it shows "an implicit anti-Gnostic stance": "Barnabas's gnosis can be seen as a precursor of the gnosis of Clement of Alexandria, who distinguished the 'true' gnosis from the 'knowledge falsely so-called' espoused by heretics".

Scriptural quotations
Contrary to the views of Helmut Koester and Jay Curry Treat, cited above in relation to the date of composition of the Epistle, the authors of The Comprehensive New Testament say the Epistle of Barnabas quotes from the New Testament gospels twice (4:14, 5:9).

On the other hand, the Epistle abundantly cites the Old Testament in the Septuagint version, including therefore the deuterocanonical books. The Old Testament material appears as allusions and paraphrases as well as explicit quotations. However, the work in no way distinguishes its quotations from sacred scripture from its quotations from other works, some of which are now unknown. While there are agreed upon instances where the Epistle quotes from 1 Enoch, it is not clear whether other material in the Epistle that, though not an exact quotation, resembles 1 Enoch (4:3; 16:5) or 4 Esdras (12:1) attributes to the supposed sources exactly the same status as books now considered canonical. Besides, the Epistle sometimes presents as quotations what are rather free paraphrases, while at other times it gives identifiable phrases without any introductory phrase to indicate that it is quoting.

title: Epistle of Barnabas


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El Paso International Airport

El Paso International Airport (EPIA,, Aeropuerto Internacional de El Paso) is an international airport located four miles (6 km) northeast of downtown El Paso, in El Paso County, Texas, United States. It is the busiest commercial airport in West Texas, and also serves Southern New Mexico and Northern Mexico. It handled 3,904,110 passengers in 2023, with 96,316 aircraft operations.

ELP has two concourses, A & B for a total of 15 ramps. It is a focus airport for Southwest Airlines, which accounts for over half of all passengers, and is served by 9 major airlines including Alaska Airlines, Allegiant Airlines, American, American Eagle, Delta Airlines, Frontier, United; United Express. Cargo airlines serving the airport are Amerijet International, DHL Aviation, FedEx Express, Freight Runners Express, GTA Air, and UPS Airlines.

The airport has an array of shops and restaurants like Black Mesa, Carlos & Mickey's, Home Team Sports, Starbucks, PGA Tour Grill, Schlotzsky's, Cinnabon, Slice, and Tia's Mexican Restaurant.

History
The City of El Paso built the first El Paso Municipal Airport near the east side of the Franklin Mountains in 1928. The airport was closed by 1945 and in more recent times has been home to the Jobe Concrete Products "Planeport" cement factory.

In 1934, Varney Speed Lines (now United Airlines) operated at the original El Paso Municipal Airport (now closed). The original El Paso Municipal Airport construction was inspired by a visit from Charles Lindbergh.

What became today's El Paso International Airport was built as Standard Airport by Standard Airlines in 1929 for transcontinental air mail service. Standard Airlines became a division of American Airlines in the 1930s. In 1936, American Airlines "swapped" airports with the City of El Paso, and El Paso International Airport was born.

During World War II, the airport was a United States Army Air Forces training base. Units which trained at El Paso Army Airfield were:
 * 385th Bombardment Group (Heavy) (B-17 Flying Fortress) December 21, 1942 – February 1, 1943
 * Served with the 8th Air Force in England.
 * 491st Bombardment Group (Heavy) (B-24 Liberator) November 11, 1943 – January 1, 1944
 * Served with the 8th Air Force in England.
 * 497th Bombardment Group (Very Heavy) (B-29 Superfortress) November 20–December 1, 1943
 * Served with the 20th Air Force at Saipan.

On August 3, 1961, El Paso was the last stop of the first major US hijacking of a jetliner, a Boeing 707 owned by Continental Airlines.

An expansion that tripled the size of the terminal occurred in 1971. A new structure for ticketing and bag claim was built in front of the old terminal and two passenger concourses were built behind the old terminal, retaining the old terminal in the middle, the outline of which can still be recognized today. It was designed by Garland & Hilles.

Serving general aviation at El Paso International Airport, Cutter Aviation established a fixed-base operation in 1982. Cutter Aviation moved to a new facility on Shuttle Columbia Drive in 2006. Atlantic Aviation also serves general aviation at ELP.

Historical airline service

Standard Air Lines began the first scheduled commercial passenger and mail service to El Paso on February 4, 1928, with a route to Los Angeles making stops in Douglas, Tucson, and Phoenix, Arizona. The carrier began using a Fokker F-7 aircraft and soon upgraded to a Fokker F-10 trimotor. Maddux Air Lines soon followed beginning service on February 23, 1929, with nearly the same route as Standard Air Lines however Maddux continued on from Los Angeles to San Francisco. Maddux used a Ford trimotor aircraft but the service ended later in 1929 by the time of the great stock market crash. Western Air Express replaced Standard on the route to Los Angeles for a short time in 1930 and extended service eastward from El Paso to Dallas stopping at Big Spring, Abilene, and Fort Worth, Texas. American Airways then took over the route beginning on October 15, 1930, and later extended the route eastward all the way to New York, stopping at Little Rock, Memphis, Nashville, and Washington D.C. as well as several other points. The carrier changed its name to American Airlines in 1934. Douglas DC-3 aircraft were primarily used in the latter 1930s through 1940s followed by Convair 240's and Douglas DC-6's in the 1950s. A new route to Monterrey and Mexico City, Mexico was flown from 1943 through 1957 and direct service to San Francisco was added in 1948. Through the 1950s, American partnered with Continental Airlines offering an interchange service where American's flights from Los Angeles and San Francisco, stopping in Phoenix, would continue eastward through El Paso as Continental's flights to San Antonio and Houston using the same Douglas DC-6 aircraft. The interchange flights ended in 1961 when American received its own authority to serve the El Paso-San Antonio-Houston route. American Boeing 707 and Boeing 727 jets began serving El Paso in the early 1960s and widebody Douglas DC-10 jets began service on nonstop flights to Dallas in 1972. The stop at Douglas, Arizona, on westbound flights ended in the mid-1960s and new nonstop service to Chicago was added in 1969. Direct flights to San Antonio, Houston, Tucson, and San Francisco ended after airline deregulation in 1978 and American's service to Dallas, Chicago, Phoenix, and Los Angeles continues today.

From 1929 to 1931, Mid-Continent Air Express operated a route from El Paso to Denver stopping at Albuquerque, Santa Fe, Las Vegas, NM, Pueblo, and Colorado Springs. From 1931 through 1934, Western Air Express took over this route and extended it onto Cheyenne, WY.

Continental Airlines was the second major airline to serve El Paso. The carrier began as Varney Speed Lines in 1934 operating the northerly route from El Paso but only to Pueblo, Colorado, with stops at Albuquerque and several other points in New Mexico and Colorado. The name was changed to Continental Air Lines in 1937 and the route was extended back to Denver. A new route to Carlsbad, Hobbs, and Roswell, New Mexico, was added in 1940 followed by new routes to San Antonio and to Kansas City with several stops by the mid-1940s. Continental primarily used Lockheed Model 10 Electra and Lockheed Model 18 Lodestar aircraft in the 1930s followed by Douglas DC-3's in the 1940s. Larger Convair 240, Convair 340, and Douglas DC-6 aircraft were introduced in the 1950s followed by the Vickers Viscount by 1959. The San Antonio route was extended to Houston by the early 1950s at which time Continental partnered with American Airlines to offer interchange service from Houston and San Antonio to Los Angeles and San Francisco by way of El Paso. Service to Alamogordo, New Mexico, was added in 1954 but discontinued in 1963, transferring the route to Frontier Airlines. New nonstop service to Dallas began in 1959, and in the early 1960s Continental received its own authority to operate westbound from El Paso to Los Angeles with stops in Tucson and Phoenix. Jet service began in the early 1960s with Boeing 707 and Boeing 720 jets on the Los Angeles-El Paso-Houston route which also made stops at Phoenix, Tucson, Midland and San Antonio. Douglas DC-9 jets arrived in 1966 which began jet service on the routes to Dallas, Albuquerque and Denver, and also the route to Kansas City that stopped in Midland, Lubbock, and Wichita Falls, Texas, as well as Lawton, Oklahoma City, and Tulsa, Oklahoma. The service to the smaller cities in southeastern New Mexico ended in 1963 (retiring the DC-3 aircraft) and was transferred to Trans Texas Airlines. Continental was operating all jets by 1967 and El Paso became a small hub through the 1970s with up to five flights on the ground at a time using a new rotunda shaped gate area on the end of the east concourse. A widebody Douglas DC-10 was operated on a Los-Angeles-El Paso-San Antonio-Houston flight, eastbound only, in the latter 1970s. Service to the Mexican resort cities of Acapulco, La Paz, Los Cabos, Manzanillo, and Puerto Vallarta was operated from 1979 through 1981. After airline deregulation in 1978, Continental slowly downsized its El Paso operation to flights only serving its hubs at Denver and Houston. For a few years in the early 1990s, nonstop flights to Mexico City were operated. Continental Express service to Alamogordo, Carlsbad, and Roswell, New Mexico, was briefly operated in 1987. The Denver flights ended in 1994 and new Continental Express service with regional jets began replacing Continental's mainline jets to Houston in the 2000s. Continental merged into United Airlines in 2012.

Trans-Texas Airways was the third carrier to serve El Paso. Trans-Texas began operating in 1947 solely within the state of Texas and El Paso was the western terminus for flights from Dallas and Houston that made many stops at small communities throughout central and west Texas. Trans-Texas operated Douglas DC-3 aircraft and flights from El Paso would stop at Marfa, Alpine, Pecos, Ft. Stockton, and several other communities. In 1963, new routes were established to Carlsbad, Hobbs, and Roswell, New Mexico while the initial routes to most of the small Texas cities were discontinued. Larger Convair 240 and Convair 600 aircraft replaced the DC-3's in the mid-1960s. In 1969 the carrier changed its name to Texas International Airlines and new Douglas DC-9 jets began flights from El Paso to Houston making stops in Midland, San Angelo and Austin. These flights ended in 1971. For the next several years only a single flight to Carlsbad, Hobbs, Big Spring, Brownwood, and Dallas was operated using a Convair-600. A DC-9 jet flight to Dallas, stopping in Roswell and Midland, operated for a period in 1975. All service to El Paso ended in 1977 but was reinstated in 1980 when nonstop jet flights to Dallas began. Texas International merged into Continental Airlines in 1982 at which time the Dallas flights ended.

Frontier Airlines (1950-1986) began a route from El Paso to Phoenix in 1950 that made stops in Las Cruses, Deming, Silver City and Lordsburg, New Mexico, as well as Clifton, Safford, Globe and Superior, Arizona. Douglas DC-3 aircraft were used and the service ended in 1955. Frontier returned to El Paso in 1963 with a route to Alamogordo and Albuquerque, New Mexico, which eventually continued to Salt Lake City. Convair 580 aircraft were used on this route and in 1967 Frontier began nonstop flights to Albuquerque and onto Denver with Boeing 727 jets. The 727's were later swapped out with Boeing 737-200 jets and new service to several points in Mexico was established from 1978 through 1984. These Mexican destinations included Guadalajara, Ixtapa-Zihuatanejo, Manzanillo, Mazatlán, and Puerto Vallarta. Frontier ceased operating in 1986, and a new Frontier Airlines was established in 1994 with Boeing 737 flights to Albuquerque and Denver.

Southwest Airlines began flights from El Paso to Dallas, Lubbock, and Midland/Odessa in 1977 using Boeing 737-200's and continually added new service, becoming the largest carrier at El Paso by the early 1980s. Delta Airlines and United Airlines also began service in the 1980s.

Since airline deregulation went into effect in late 1978, many other carriers have served El Paso including Eastern Airlines, Western Airlines, America West Airlines, USAir, Northwest Airlines, TWA, Aerolitoral (feeder carrier for AeroMexico), and Lineas Aereas Azteca. At least 15 smaller commuter airlines have also provided service to points in southern New Mexico, southeast Arizona, and to Chihuahua, Mexico, from the 1960s through the 1990s.

Facilities

El Paso International Airport covers 6,670 acres (2,699 ha) and has three runways:
 * 4/22: 12020 x, asphalt
 * 8R/26L: 9025 x, asphalt
 * 8L/26R: 5499 x, asphalt

Main terminal

The terminal is a pier-satellite layout. It has a central entrance and the gates branch out east to west on the two concourses. The airport has East and West Concourses. Gates A1–A4 are located on the West Concourse and Gates B1–B11 is located on the East Concourse. The airport has a total of 15 gates. There is also a lower and upper level. The gates are located on the upper level and the ticketing, baggage claim, rental car, and main entrance are located on the lower level of the terminal. The meeter/greeter area is located on the lower level just behind the escalators that lead to the Transportation Security Administration (TSA) checkpoint leading to the gates. The corridor from the ticketing/baggage claim to the gate concourses passes through the old terminal which is used today for airport administration. Major terminal renovations have been made over the past several years, designed and managed by the local architectural firm MNK Architects. The airport access road is Convair Road. Convair Road splits into four lanes with the left two lanes reserved for commercial vehicles and the right two lanes utilized for pickup and drop-off of passengers. In between the split road there is a waiting area where passengers can wait for commercial vehicles to arrive.

Gates: Generally, these gates are used by: Gates A1–A4: American Airlines and American Eagle. Gate B1: Delta Air Lines. Gates B3, B5-B7: Southwest Airlines Gate B10 Allegiant. Gates B8 and B9: United Airlines and United Express. Gate B10: Alaska. Gate B11: Frontier.

Food court: The food court is between gates B6 and B11; it has Carlos and Mickey's Mexican Express, Slice, Tia's, Schlotzsky's, Cinnabon and Starbucks.

Other facilities
The El Paso Independent School District (EPISD) began leasing a property on the grounds of the airport in 1963 to house its administrative headquarters. By the 2010s the City of El Paso desired the use of the property for airport expansion, but chose to defer the original 2014 expiration of the lease to at least December 31, 2019 so EPISD had time to find a new headquarters location. In 2021 the current EPISD headquarters in Downtown El Paso opened.

Ground Transportation
Sun Metro routes 33 and 208 pick up outside the terminal. A connection at the Eastside Terminal to the 50 or 59 bus is required to get to Amtrak and the El Paso Streetcar.

Airlines and destinations
El Paso International Airport has 15 gates on 2 concourses: Concourse A (used exclusively by American) has gates A1–A4 and Concourse B has gates B1–B11.

Accidents and incidents

 * On August 31, 1957, a USAF Douglas C-124 Globemaster II struck the ground while on approach in poor weather 2.5 miles NE of ELP. Five out of the 15 occupants on board died.
 * On July 20, 1982, Douglas C-47D N102BL of Pronto Aviation Services was damaged beyond repair in a crash landing near El Paso International Airport following an engine failure shortly after take-off. The aircraft was on a domestic non-scheduled passenger flight to Tucson International Airport in Arizona when the engine failed and the decision was made to return to El Paso. A single-engine go-around was attempted following an unsafe landing gear warning.
 * On February 19, 1988, Don McCoy, a private pilot, the owner of El Paso Sand and Gravel, took off in a newly acquired Rockwell Aero Commander 680 in a snowstorm (an aircraft he was not properly rated to fly), and attempted to land again after encountering mechanical trouble in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC). The aircraft crashed, killing the owner and two acquaintances. Some later attempted to attribute the accident to US Senator Phil Gramm, as it was alleged that McCoy planned to testify against Senator Gramm's shakedown of campaign contributions made by the El Paso Small Business Administration office.
 * On January 16, 2006, Continental Airlines Flight 1515, (Registered as N32626 for both Continental and United), a Boeing 737-524 bound for Houston, was undergoing a pre-flight inspection when a mechanic (Donald Gene Buchanan) was sucked into the right engine and killed. The aircraft sustained major damage.
 * On April 11, 2015, a Southwest Airlines jet was directed by the tower at ELP to land on a closed runway under construction. The aircraft landed safely but missed construction equipment by "mere feet".
 * On June 3, 2018, American Airlines Flight 1897, an Airbus A319 aircraft from San Antonio to Phoenix, was diverted to El Paso due to damage sustained by the aircraft after running into a hail storm in flight. The plane was able to land normally, and no injuries were reported.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: El Paso International Airport


text:
Talk:Declaration of war

Russo-Georgian War
The article says there was a "declaration of war" (from one party to the other) but the linked news article only says "Georgia declares 'state of war' " which is not the same thing at all. 80.29.155.223 (talk) 06:54, 4 November 2018 (UTC)
 * The sourcing is poor and definitely needs improvement. I would support removal, along with a review of the other conflicts in the table to confirm that they conform to this definition. 69.174.144.79 (talk) 19:56, 24 February 2022 (UTC)

Has Russia declared war?
An anonymous editor has added the current conflict to Declaration of war. This language is being bandied about even on some news sites, but is it true? Do we have evidence of a formal declaration of war by Putin? --PeterR2 (talk) 11:40, 24 February 2022 (UTC)
 * Not that I have seen. To my knowledge, they declared a peacekeeping operation and the intent to demilitarize Ukraine, but I don't think anything referring to a "state of war" has been issued. Torven (talk) 18:29, 24 February 2022 (UTC)
 * OK I have reverted those edits on the basis that there is no evidence of a declarion of war in the traditional or legal sense of those words. --PeterR2 (talk) 19:47, 24 February 2022 (UTC)
 * We need to wait until more thorough reporting emerges that references an actual governmental act by Russia or Ukraine. At least in the sense this article uses it, a declaration of war requires a formal and unequivocal act, under the domestic law of one of the belligerents, that creates a state of war. Military action, whether or not it is an act of aggression, isn't enough. Otherwise I see no reason why the Korean War or Vietnam War shouldn't be included, or the 2003 invasion of Iraq. As a more general note, the sourcing of that table needs to be improved. For example, I question whether the source used for the Russo-Georgian War is sufficient for the statement in this article (and I can't find an indication of it being called a declared war in our article on that war). 69.174.144.79 (talk) 19:54, 24 February 2022 (UTC)
 * I would also point out that the language is not only be bandied by news agencies, but even by actual ambassadors and diplomats in UN meetings. Ukraine's U.N. Ambassador Sergiy Kyslytsya had stated "Because about 48 minutes ago, your president declared war on Ukraine." https://www.npr.org/2022/02/24/1082806285/ukraine-ambassador-russia-security-council
 * It also begs the question what exactly constitutes a proper declaration of war according to the Russian domestic law and it Putin's declaration has not already met their qualifications.
 * http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-04.htm
 * Article 71 states the jurisdiction of the Russian Federation includes: "foreign policy and international relations of the Russian Federation, international treaties and agreements of the Russian Federation, issues of war and peace;"
 * Meanwhile Article 86 states The President of the Russian Federation shall:
 * "govern the foreign policy of the Russian Federation;"
 * Could it very well be that Putin's address does actually constitute a formal declaration of war according to the Russian constitution? That in Russia it is entirely in the power of the President to make "a formal and unequivocal act, under the domestic law"? 71.1.236.127 (talk) 17:51, 10 March 2022 (UTC)

No. While the Russia's armed forces are obviously waging a war, no formal declaration of war has been issued, no matter what some news sources claim. In fact, a declaration of war was deliberately side-stepped by the Kremlin, in euphemistically announcing a "limited military operation". -- Seelefant (talk) 14:01, 15 April 2022 (UTC)

So no more post-1945 list?
I thought the list of declared wars since WWII was an interesting resource. It put into context the reality of the postmodern "declaration of war," the idea that such declarations have too many legal implications to be useful to most developed nations.

Are we, the people of Wikipedia, abandoning the effort to archive formal declarations of war? I understand the concerns about verifiability. But surely rewriting the list completely would be better than just deleting it. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2607:FEA8:623:8800:8139:268F:44F3:DC4C (talk) 05:58, 26 February 2022 (UTC)

 * The sourcing was so bad that it's probably better to remove it first. There's been no ruling that we can't talk about particular examples. The editor who removed it, though, is probably correct that "lists of examples" are disfavored in articles. If we really wanted we could create an article called List of declared wars after 1945 or something to that effect. But the issue with the list in this article was the sourcing: Many of the examples were sourced to questionable media accounts. There is also a question of what defined a "declared war" within the context of that list; many of the examples were claims by one or the other government that a state of war existed, which in my view doesn't fit the definition of the concept.And another thing, the definitions section in this article is awful. It's sourced to a single law review article less than 20 years old by an author I've never heard of before in international law circles, which is predominantly about what declarations of war mean within the United States Constitution; and a blog post, that discusses the first article (and touches on a couple of others), written by another American law professor (who appears to have little or no scholarship in international law). Surely, surely, there's something more within the European scholarship, perhaps the Hague Academy of International Law's proceedings, and especially showing the development of the concept over the years. Why are we only seeing information from the late 2000s? Why not the League of Nations era? Why not the early UN era? 69.174.144.79 (talk) 17:13, 27 February 2022 (UTC)

Israel-Hamas 2023
As of right now there has not been a formal declaration of war by Israel, as spelled out in Basic Law: The Government. Until this changes, adding Israel to the list is misinformation. Not logged in 2 (talk) 17:56, 7 October 2023 (UTC)

 * Cannot confirm myself whether a formal declaration has been made, but according Basic Law: The Government, it is the governments decision to declare war with the Knesset to be notified "as soon as possible" by the Prime Minister, and it defines the government as the Prime Minister and his ministers. So it is within the Prime Minister's power to declare war, then to notify the parliament. In his words "we are at war not an operation" yet we could do with some more concrete evidence of this being formalized beyond his words. 2600:1006:A020:6D1B:B8AC:D704:567E:CA58 (talk) 23:38, 7 October 2023 (UTC)
 * To add, the full quotation from the Prime Minister is: "“Citizens of Israel, we are at war. Not an operation, not a round [of fighting,] at war!"
 * https://www.timesofisrael.com/we-are-at-war-netanyahu-says-after-hamas-launches-devastating-surprise-attack/
 * And later in the day he says "since the morning Israel has been at war"
 * https://twitter.com/netanyahu/status/1710631847879717236
 * Given he has the legal power to declare war on behalf of Israel, what more evidence is necessary to infer that Israel has made a formal declaration of war? 2600:1006:A020:6D1B:B8AC:D704:567E:CA58 (talk) 04:50, 8 October 2023 (UTC)
 * You can read an article in Hebrew here discussing it. What has technically been declared is a "אירוע חירום אזרחי" or Civil Emergency. It has not yet been reported that war has been declared per Section 40 of the Basic Law: The Government. Not logged in 2 (talk) 18:08, 8 October 2023 (UTC)

I'm fully aware that there are headlines saying things like "Israel declares war on Hamas" but it has not in fact formally declared war per Israeli law. Not logged in 2 (talk) 22:07, 7 October 2023 (UTC)

 * Care to elaborate upon which portions of Israeli law have not yet been fulfilled in a formal declaration? The Prime Minister has outwardly spoken to the nation being in a state of war, and according to Israeli law the Prime Minister has the authority to declare war, and that parliament is to be notified.
 * Which other elements have not been fulfilled to constitute a formal declaration of war? 2600:1006:A020:6D1B:B8AC:D704:567E:CA58 (talk) 12:56, 8 October 2023 (UTC)
 * It would seem that the Israeli Prime Minister has now taken the step as outlined by Israeli law to formally declare war.
 * https://x.com/israelipm/status/1710988418585423898?s=46&t=H3koeNAS0TIAR4vtVle6wQ FatCatSwe (talk) 14:12, 8 October 2023 (UTC)
 * Twitter is not a reliable source. That said, there are multiple sources stating that Israel has formally declared war. -Ad Orientem (talk) 17:21, 8 October 2023 (UTC)
 * Although I am no longer able to capture it on the Internet Archive because the page has already been captured 7 times today, the front page of the Washington Post as of writing reads "Israel formally declares war; combined death toll passes 1,000". Here's an archive of a Washington Post article titled "Israel formally declares war against Hamas as hundreds killed on both sides": https://web.archive.org/web/20231008185504/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/10/08/israel-hamas-war-gaza/
 * I don't think it gets any clearer than that.
 * NateNate60 (talk) 18:56, 8 October 2023 (UTC)
 * The WaPo headline notwithstanding, as posted above the Mekomit newspaper in Israel reported that what has been technically declared is a civil emergency. Order signing is reported here at Ynet. This is not to say that there won't be a formal declaration of war per Section 40 of Basic Law: The Government, just that it has not actually happened yet. Not logged in 2 (talk) 19:04, 8 October 2023 (UTC)
 * @Not logged in 2 The source you linked to appears to be from yesterday and refers to an emergency declaration. There is an avalanche of reliable secondary sources that are stating quite explicitly that today the Israeli government formally declared war. Some have specifically cited section 40 of the Basic Law. At this point I don't think this is reasonably controvertible. I would ask you to please remove the disputed tag from the entry on the article page. Thank you. -Ad Orientem (talk) 19:47, 8 October 2023 (UTC)
 * Fair enough then, it's been reported enough that looks like it may have passed muster. I'll remove the tag, but let's keep the discussion open in case there are any clarifications later. Not logged in 2 (talk) 20:07, 8 October 2023 (UTC)

Chinese Civil War and Korean War removed from post-WW2 list?
Why were these post-WW2 items removed from the list? Some Hecking Nerd (talk) 16:21, 8 October 2023 (UTC)

"one sovereign state against another"
Do Hamas, SASR and IS count? Or does the wording need to be changed? Smeagol 17 (talk) 15:05, 2 November 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Declaration of war


text:
Stencil

Stencilling produces an image or pattern on a surface by applying pigment to a surface through an intermediate object, with designed holes in the intermediate object. The holes allow the pigment to reach only some parts of the surface creating the design. The stencil is both the resulting image or pattern and the intermediate object; the context in which stencil is used makes clear which meaning is intended. In practice, the (object) stencil is usually a thin sheet of material, such as paper, plastic, wood or metal, with letters or a design cut from it, used to produce the letters or design on an underlying surface by applying pigment through the cut-out holes in the material.

The key advantage of a stencil is that it can be reused to repeatedly and rapidly produce the same letters or design. Although aerosol or painting stencils can be made for one-time use, typically they are made with the intention of being reused. To be reusable, they must remain intact after a design is produced and the stencil is removed from the work surface. With some designs, this is done by connecting stencil islands (sections of material that are inside cut-out "holes" in the stencil) to other parts of the stencil with bridges (narrow sections of material that are not cut out).

Stencil technique in visual art is also referred to as pochoir. A related technique (which has found applicability in some surrealist compositions) is aerography, in which spray-painting is done around a three-dimensional object to create a negative of the object instead of a positive of a stencil design. This technique was used in cave paintings dating to 10,000 BC, where human hands were used in painting handprint outlines among paintings of animals and other objects. The artist sprayed pigment around his hand by using a hollow bone, blown by mouth to direct a stream of pigment.

Screen printing also uses a stencil process, as does mimeography. The masters from which mimeographed pages are printed are often called "stencils". Stencils can be made with one or many colour layers using different techniques, with most stencils designed to be applied as solid colours. During screen printing and mimeography, the images for stenciling are broken down into color layers. Multiple layers of stencils are used on the same surface to produce multi-colored images.

History
Hand stencils, made by blowing pigment over a hand held against a wall, are found from over 35,000 years ago in Asia and Europe, and later prehistoric dates in other continents. After that stenciling has been used as a historic painting technique on all kinds of materials. Stencils may have been used to color cloth for a very long time; the technique probably reached its peak of sophistication in Katazome and other techniques used on silks for clothes during the Edo period in Japan. In Europe, from about 1450 they were commonly used to color old master prints printed in black and white, usually woodcuts. This was especially the case with playing-cards, which continued to be colored by stencil long after most other subjects for prints were left in black and white. Stencils were used for mass publications, as the type did not have to be hand-written.

Book illustration
Stencils were popular as a method of book illustration, and for that purpose, the technique was at its height of popularity in France during the 1920s when André Marty, Jean Saudé and many other studios in Paris specialized in the technique. Low wages contributed to the popularity of the highly labor-intensive process. When stencils are used in this way they are often called "pochoir". In the pochoir process, a print with the outlines of the design was produced, and a series of stencils were used through which areas of color were applied by hand to the page. To produce detail, a collotype could be produced which the colors were then stenciled over. Pochoir was frequently used to create prints of intense color and is most often associated with Art Nouveau and Art Deco design.

Aerosol stencils

Aerosol stencils have many practical applications and the stencil concept is used frequently in industrial, commercial, artistic, residential and recreational settings, as well as by the military, government and infrastructure management. A template is used to create an outline of the image. Stencils templates can be made from any material which will hold its form, ranging from plain paper, cardboard, plastic sheets, metals, and wood.

Official use
Stencils are frequently used by official organizations, including the military, utility companies, and governments, to quickly and clearly label objects, vehicles, and locations. Stencils for an official application can be customized, or purchased as individual letters, numbers, and symbols. This allows the user to arrange words, phrases and other labels from one set of templates, unique to the item being labeled. When objects are labeled using a single template alphabet, it makes it easier to identify their affiliation or source.

Stencil graffiti
Stencils have also become popular for graffiti, since stencil art using spray-paint can be produced quickly and easily. These qualities are important for graffiti artists where graffiti is illegal or quasi-legal, depending on the city and stenciling surface. The extensive lettering possible with stencils makes it especially attractive to political artists. For example, the anarcho-punk band Crass used stencils of anti-war, anarchist, feminist and anti-consumerist messages in a long-term graffiti campaign around the London Underground system and on advertising billboards. There has been a semi-recent trend in making multi-layered stencils with different shades of grey for each layer creating a more detailed stenciled image. Also well known for their use of stencil art are Blek le Rat, Epsylon, Marie Rouffet, Nuklé-art, Kim Prisu, Miss Tic and Jef aerosol from France, British artist Banksy, New York artist, world traveling artist Tavar Zawacki f.k.a. 'ABOVE', Shepard Fairey's OBEY, and Pirate & Acid from Hollywood, California.

Home stenciling
A common tradition for stencils is in home decorating and arts & crafts. Home decor stencils are an important part of the DIY (Do It Yourself) industry. There are prefabricated stencil templates available for home decoration projects from hardware stores, arts & crafts stores and through the internet. Stencils are usually applied in the home with a paint or roller brush along wall borders and as trim. They can also be applied with a painted sponge for a textured effect.

Stencil templates can be purchased or constructed individually. Typically they are constructed of flexible plastics, including acetate, mylar, and vinyl. Stencils can be used as children's toys.

Military stenciling
Stencils have been used in the military across most nations for many years and continue to be used today. They are used to mark up equipment, vehicles, rations, signposts, helmets, etc. One use of military stencils was the application of playing card designs to USA Airborne helmets during World War Two as a method to identify regimental units.

Silk screening
Silk screening is a type of printing on paper or textiles, in which an ink is embedded in the cloth. The ink is controlled through the use of a stencil, which is placed directly over the paper or textile. This process can only handle one color of ink at a time. Therefore, multi-colored designs must be silk screened several times, with each interval taking time to dry.

Micro- and nanostencil
Stencils are also used in micro- and nanotechnology, as miniature shadow masks through which material can be deposited, etched or ions implanted onto a substrate. These stencils are usually made out of thin (100-500 nm) low-stress Silicon nitride (SiN) in which apertures are defined by various lithographic techniques (e. g. electron beam, photolithography).

Stencil lithography has unique advantages compared to other patterning techniques: it does not require spinning of a uniform layer of resist (therefore patterns can be created on 3D topographies) and it does not involve any heat or chemical treatment of the substrate (like baking, developing and removing the resist). Thus it allows a wide range of substrates (e.g. flexible, surface-treated) and materials (e. g. organics) to be used.

Screen printing
A stencil technique is employed in screen printing which uses a tightly woven mesh screen coated in a thin layer of emulsion to reproduce the original image. As the stencil is attached to the screen, a contiguous template is not necessary.

Airbrushing
A stencil used in airbrushing called a frisket is pressed directly on the artwork. It can be used to control or contain overspray, create sharp or complex shapes, but is not designed to be used more than once.

Wall stencils
Wall stencils - to decorate walls and ceilings or create your own repeat for an overall modern wall pattern effect.

Rock art
One form of pictograph found in ancient and traditional rock paintings is created by the hand first being placed against the panel, with dry paint then being blown onto it through a tube, in a process that is akin to air-brush or spray-painting. The resulting image is a negative print of the hand, and is sometimes described as a "stencil" in Australian archaeology.

Miniature rock art of the stencilled variety at a rock shelter known as Yilbilinji, in the Limmen National Park in the Northern Territory, is one of only three known examples of such art. Usually stencilled art is life-size, using body parts as the stencil, but the 17 images of designs of human figures, boomerangs, animals such as crabs and long-necked turtles, wavy lines and geometric shapes are very rare. Found in 2017 by archaeologists, the only other recorded examples are at Nielson's Creek in New South Wales and at Kisar Island in Indonesia. It is thought that the designs may have been created by stencils fashioned out of beeswax.

title: Stencil


text:
ST

ST, St, or St. may refer to:

Arts and entertainment

 * Stanza, in poetry
 * Suicidal Tendencies, an American heavy metal/hardcore punk band
 * Star Trek, a science-fiction media franchise
 * Summa Theologica, a compendium of Catholic philosophy and theology by St. Thomas Aquinas
 * St or St., abbreviation of "State", especially in the name of a college or university

Transportation

 * Germania (airline) (IATA airline designator ST)
 * Maharashtra State Road Transport Corporation, abbreviated as State Transport
 * Sound Transit, Central Puget Sound Regional Transit Authority, Washington state, US
 * Springfield Terminal Railway (Vermont) (railroad reporting mark ST)
 * Suffolk County Transit, or Suffolk Transit, the bus system serving Suffolk County, New York

Other businesses and organizations

 * Statstjänstemannaförbundet, or Swedish Union of Civil Servants, a trade union
 * STMicroelectronics, a worldwide manufacturer of semiconductors

Geography

 * São Tomé and Príncipe (ISO 3166-1 country code ST)
 * .st, Internet country code top-level domain for São Tomé and Príncipe
 * Saxony-Anhalt, a state of Germany
 * Split, Croatia (vehicle plate code ST)
 * Stoke-on-Trent postcode area, United Kingdom
 * St or St., abbreviation of Saint
 * St or St., abbreviation of Street
 * St or St., abbreviation of Strait

Language and typography

 * Sesotho language (ISO 639-1 language code "st")
 * ﬅ, or st, a typographic ligature
 * Standard Theory in generative grammar

Computing

 * ST connector, a type of optical fiber connector
 * Atari ST, a personal computer
 * Prefix of hard disk drives made by Seagate Technology, e.g. ST-506
 * Internet Stream Protocol, an experimental Internet protocol
 * Structured text, a high-level programming language that syntactically resembles Pascal and is designed for programmable logic controllers (PLC)
 * .st, the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for São Tomé and Príncipe
 * St (terminal emulator), minimalist terminal emulator by suckless.org

Mathematics

 * Standard part function, a term used in non-standard analysis

Physics

 * Stanton number St, used in physics
 * Strouhal number St, used in fluid mechanics
 * String theory

Units of measurement

 * Stokes (unit) (St), a CGS unit of kinematic viscosity
 * Stone (weight) (st.), a unit of mass used in the British Isles and other countries

Medicine

 * ST segment, the part of an electrocardiogram connecting the QRS complex and the T wave
 * Sulfotransferase, enzymes that catalyze the transfer of a sulfo group
 * Heat-stable enterotoxin, secretory peptides produced by some bacterial strains, such as enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli

Other uses

 * -st, a suffix for an ordinal number, such as 1$st$ or 21$st$
 * Saint (St or St.), especially in Christianity
 * Scheduled Tribes, in India
 * Ship prefix for a steam tug
 * Sine tempore (s.t.), Latin term indicating that a lecture will begin at the exact time; see Academic quarter (class timing)
 * Striker (association football), a position in association football
 * ST, a type of London bus
 * ST, a court-ordered pseudonym used during a British court case; see Sudiksha Thirumalesh case

title: ST


text:
San Antonio International Airport

San Antonio International Airport is an international airport in San Antonio, Texas, United States. It is in Uptown Central San Antonio, about 8 mi north of Downtown. It has three runways and covers 2,305 acre. Its elevation is 809 ft above sea level. SAT averages 260 daily departures and arrivals at its 27 gates, which serve 14 airlines flying non-stop to 53 destinations in the US and Mexico. The airport is the sixth busiest in Texas–after the airports at Dallas-Fort Worth (DFW and Love), Houston (Intercontinental and Hobby), and Austin–as well as the 45th busiest airport in the United States by passenger traffic.

Beginnings
San Antonio International Airport was founded in 1941 when the City of San Antonio purchased 1200 acre of undeveloped land that was then north of the city limits (now part of the city's Uptown District) for a project to be called "San Antonio Municipal Airport." World War II wartime needs meant the airport was not fully finished till after the war.

A large portion of the northeast section of the airport was pressed into federal government service. This area was known as Alamo Field and was used by the United States Army Air Forces as a training base. The 77th Reconnaissance Group, equipped with various aircraft (P-39, P-40, A-20, B-25, O-47, O-52, and L-5) trained reconnaissance personnel who later served overseas. One squadron (113th) flew antisubmarine patrols over the Gulf of Mexico.

The first airline to serve the airport was Braniff Airlines in 1943, followed by American Airlines the following year. In 1944 the airports name was changed from San Antonio Municipal Airport to the current name of San Antonio International Airport. At the end of World War II the Alamo Field portion of the airport was no longer needed by the military and was turned over to the City of San Antonio for civil use. Terminal 2 was built in 1951–53, along with the FAA control tower and a baggage claim area. For HemisFair '68, a new satellite concourse was built, containing eight jet bridge gates and passenger waiting areas. In June 1971, the airport was one of three original destinations along with Dallas and Houston for new startup Southwest Airlines.

Expansion for a growing city
In 1975 the city adopted its first Airport Master Plan with plans for a new 1,300 space parking garage and a new 360000 sqft Terminal (formerly called Terminal 1, now called Terminal A). Once the new terminal was completed in 1984 it brought the airport's capacity up from eight gates to 27 gates. In 1986 a new 221 ft FAA air traffic control tower was built at a new location.

In 1994 a second Airport Master Plan was developed that would take the airport into the 21st century. This plan included major updates for the airport: more parking spaces in a 3,000 space parking garage to be completed by 2007, improved airport access and an improved concession program. Two new terminals were planned to replace Terminal 2, to increase the airports gate count to 35. San Antonio boarded over 3.5 million passenger in 1999. Since 1966, the airport has boarded more than 80 million people.

Recent history
From February to September 2006, the airport was a focus city for United Airlines (the airline called it a "hublet") with flights to 12 cities in conjunction with partner Trans States Airlines. Trans States Airlines redeployed its aircraft elsewhere, eliminating service to seven cities.

Mexicana celebrated 50 years serving the airport in September 2007, but suspended service to San Antonio in August 2010 when the airline went bankrupt and suspended operations. From April 2007 to September 2008 ExpressJet operated a focus city under its own branded operations at the airport. Many of the cities served were ones previously operated during the United Airlines focus city the previous year. All service ended when ExpressJet folded its branded operations.

On November 9, 2010, the original Terminal 2 closed, and Terminal B opened. Terminal 1 was then renamed Terminal A. The removal of fixtures in the old Terminal 2 began in January 2011. Final demolition of Terminal 2 was in May 2011. In 2013, the SAT Customs and Border Protection became a Global Entry enrollment center.

In June 2015, officials announced that the three-story short-term parking garage, which was over 30 years old, would be closed and demolished to make way for a new seven-story parking garage and Consolidated Rental Car Center. Work began in early 2017 on the 1.8 million square feet facility, which was planned to house up to 14 rental car brands and short-term public parking. The public parking portion was completed in April 2017, and the rental car portion opened in January 2018. The airport received its first nonstop flight to Europe in May 2024, with German airline Condor launching seasonal service to Frankfurt.

Expansion
Beginning in 2023 with a scheduled completion in 2028, the airport will complete a new terminal, renovate the existing Terminal A, and upgrade the airfield and roadways to accommodate the projected growth and needs of passengers.

The new Terminal C will feature up to 17 domestic and international gates, with six of the gates able to accommodate wide-body aircraft. The new terminal will be about the same size as the current two terminals combined, providing ample room for new concession space, club lounges, and a modern federal inspection station for expanded international air service. It will also contain a central passenger screening area for all terminals.

Terminal A will be renovated with state-of-the-art systems and a wider concourse. New roadways will improve traffic flow and remove congestion.

Current projects
Construction began October 2023 on a Ground Load Facility expected to be completed by early 2025. The facility will be connected to the current Terminal A. It will contain three ground load gate positions, along with retail and food options. The facility is geared towards ultra low-cost airlines such as Frontier Airlines and Spirit Airlines.

Terminals

San Antonio International Airport has two terminals with an overall 27 jet bridge gates. The original one-level terminal (formerly Terminal 2) opened in 1953 with ground-loading holding areas and was expanded twice, once in 1959 with new east and west wings, and again in 1968 with an eight-gate satellite concourse, which was built to handle visitors to HemisFair '68. Terminal 2 closed on November 9, 2010, as the new Terminal B opened, and Terminal 2 began to be demolished in March 2011, with completion in January 2012. A second terminal (now Terminal A) opened in 1984 with a 16-gate concourse. The U.S. Customs and Border Protection facility is located in Terminal A.

Terminal A is the larger of the two concourses, with 17 gates in total. All international carriers operate out of Terminal A. On June 18, 2014, a $35.6 million renovation was completed for this terminal, with the most visible improvements to passengers being new terrazzo floors, updated food courts, and new signage. On October 15, 2014, all gates in Terminal A were renumbered in sequential order. 12 of the current 14 airlines serving the airport operate from Terminal A. Including the Airports largest airline by passengers and routes served Southwest Airlines.

Terminal B opened in November 2010, containing eight gates. Corgan Associates, Inc. and 3D/International designed the new terminal. American and Continental were the two original airlines at Terminal B. United, at the time located in Terminal A, moved into Terminal B on August 1, 2012, during the merger with Continental. A United Club is located between gates B3 and B5. The USO is located on the arrivals level of Terminal B next to baggage claim. In 2022 construction began to add two more gates to Terminal B in order to better accommodate increasing passenger numbers. Construction was completed in January 2023, bringing the total gates for Terminal B to ten.

Ground transportation
The airport has a 1.8 million square foot consolidated rental car facility that was completed in January 2018. The facility is reached via a sky bridge from the mezzanine level of Terminal B.

The airport is located near the intersection of Interstate 410 and U.S. 281 in Uptown Central San Antonio. U.S. 281 provides quick drives (under 15 minutes in normal traffic) to Downtown and northern San Antonio. Interstate 410, a loop, makes the rest of the city easily accessible.

VIA Metropolitan Transit provides weekday express bus service from the airport directly to Downtown and a park & ride facility in Stone Oak on Route 7; Route 5 provides local bus service and transfers to other routes at the North Star Transit Center.

Other facilities
ST Engineering maintains a large presence at the airport knows as SAA (San Antonio Aerospace) employing around 1,000 staff. The facilities were previously owned by Dee Howard Aircraft Maintenance and were purchased during the company's bankruptcy in 2002. The facility provides heavy maintenance and other services for numerous passenger and cargo airlines along with aircraft leasing operations. The most recent addition being a passenger to cargo conversion line for Airbus A320 series family.

Accidents and incidents

 * On January 31, 1967, a Saturn Airways DC-6 was operating on a cargo flight to Kelly AFB. The crew decided to divert to San Antonio International Airport and commenced the approach. The airplane descended 1100 ft below the glide slope, flew through trees and collided with a cliff. All three occupants were killed.
 * On October 29, 2012, Interjet Flight 2953, scheduled to Mexico City International Airport, made an emergency landing at San Antonio after suffering engine sputtering problems that were caused by a bird strike. No injuries or fatalities were reported.
 * On November 15, 2019, a Cessna 525 Citation arriving from San Jose International Airport collided with a parked Cessna 560 Citation during taxi to a service center. No injuries were reported.
 * On December 1, 2019, a Piper PA-24 Comanche en route to Boerne from Sugar Land crashed in a neighborhood while attempting an emergency landing at the airport. While there were no injuries on the ground, the three occupants of the aircraft were killed.
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text:
The Internationale

"The Internationale" ("L'Internationale" ) is an international anthem that has been adopted as the anthem of various anarchist, communist, socialist, democratic socialist, and social democratic movements. It has been a standard of the socialist movement since the late nineteenth century, when the Second International adopted it as its official anthem. The title arises from the "First International", an alliance of workers which held a congress in 1864. The author of the anthem's lyrics, Eugène Pottier, an anarchist, attended this congress. Pottier's text was later set to an original melody composed by Pierre De Geyter, a Marxist.

It is one of the most widely translated anthems in history.

French version
The original French lyrics were written in June 1871 by Eugène Pottier (previously a member of the Paris Commune) and were originally intended to be sung to the tune of "La Marseillaise". However, the melody to which it is usually sung was composed in 1888 by Pierre De Geyter for the choir "La Lyre des Travailleurs" of the French Worker's Party in his hometown of Lille, and the first performed there in July of that year. DeGeyter had been commissioned to do this for the choir by Gustave Delory, the mayor of Lille.

There is an early edition of the song, predating the final 1887 version; it was published in 1990 by Robert Brécy. Contemporary editions published by Boldoduc (Lille) in 1888, by Delory in 1894, and by Lagrange in 1898 are no longer locatable.

Pottiers's lyrics contain one-liners that became very popular and found widespread use as slogans; other lines ("Ni Dieu, ni César, ni tribun") were already well-known in the workers' movement. The success of the song is connected to the stability and widespread popularity of the Second International. Like the lyrics, the music by Degeyter was relatively simple and down to earth, suitable for a workers' audience.

Authorship and copyright
In a successful attempt to save Pierre De Geyter's job as a woodcarver, the 6,000 leaflets printed by Lille printer Boldoduc only mentioned the French version of his family name (Degeyter). The second edition published by Delory named Pierre's brother Adolphe as the composer. With neither money nor representation, Pierre De Geyter lost his first lawsuit over this in 1914 and did not gain legal recognition of authorship until 1922 when he was 74. His brother had in the meantime died by suicide in 1916, leaving a note to Pierre explaining the fraud and stating that Delory had manipulated him into claiming authorship; and Delory had inscribed on Adolphe's tombstone "Ici repose Adolphe Degeyter, l'auteur de L'Internationale". Despite this dying declaration, historians in the 1960s such as Daniel Ligou were still contending that Adolphe was the author.

In 1972 "Montana Edition", owned by Hans R. Beierlein, bought the rights to the song for 5,000 Deutschmark, first for the territory of West Germany, then in East Germany, then worldwide. East Germany paid Montana Edition 20,000 DM every year for its rights to play the music. Pierre De Geyter died in 1932, causing the copyrights to expire in 2002. Luckhardt's German text is the public domain since 1984.

As the "Internationale" music was published before 1 July 1909 outside the United States, it is in the public domain in the United States. As of 2013, Pierre De Geyter's music is also in the public domain in countries and areas whose copyright durations are authors' lifetime plus 80 years or less. Due to France's wartime copyright extensions (prorogations de Guerre), SACEM claimed that the music was still copyrighted in France until October 2014. The "Internationale" is now also in the public domain within France.

As Eugène Pottier died in 1887, his original French lyrics are in the public domain. Gustave Delory once acquired the copyright of his lyrics through the songwriter G. B. Clement having bought it from Pottier's widow.

Translations
There have been a very wide variety of translations of the anthem from the original French. Kuznar (2002) notes that the nature of these translations has varied widely. Many have been closely literal translations with variations soley to account for rhyme and meter but others have been done to encode different ideology perspectives and or to update contents to adapt the lyrics to relevant more contemporary issues.

One of the earliest translations of the song dates from around 1900, when Dutch communist poet Henriette Roland Holst translated it into Dutch, with "Ontwaakt, verworpenen der aarde" ("Wake up, all who are cast away"). The American English version by Charles Kerr, and anonymous British English and Rumanian versions, were made around the same time. By the time of the 1910 International Socialist Congress in Copenhagen, versions had appeared in 18 different languages, including a Danish one by A. C. Meyer, which was sung at the end of a cantata by 500 singers.

Anthem of the Soviet Union
The Russian version was initially translated by Arkady Kots in 1902 and printed in London in Zhizn, a Russian émigré magazine. The first Russian version had only three stanzas, based on stanzas 1, 2, and 6 of the original, and the refrain. After the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia, the text was slightly re-worded to get rid of "now useless" future tenses – particularly the refrain was reworded (the future tense was replaced by the present, and the first person plural possessive pronoun was introduced). In 1918, the chief editor of Izvestia, Yuri Steklov, appealed to Russian writers to translate the other three stanzas, which did eventually happen.

The full Russian version is as follows:

Toscanini and Hymn of the Nations
The change of the Soviet Union's national anthem from "The Internationale" to the "State Anthem of the USSR" was a factor in the production of the 1944 movie Hymn of the Nations, which made use of an orchestration of "The Internationale" that Arturo Toscanini had already done the year before for a 1943-11-07 NBC radio broadcast commemorating the twenty-sixth anniversary of the October Revolution. It was incorporated into Verdi's Inno delle nazioni alongside the national anthems of the United Kingdom (already in the original) and the United States (incorporated by Toscanini for a prior radio broadcast of the Inno in January of that year) to signify the side of the Allies during World War Two.

Toscanini's son Walter remarked that an Italian audience for the movie would see the significance of Arturo being willing to play these anthems and unwilling to play Giovinezza and the Marcia Reale because of his anti-Fascist political views. Alexandr Hackenschmied, the film's director, expressed his view that the song was "ormai archeologico" (nearly archaeological), but this was a countered in a letter by Walter Toscanini to Giuseppe Antonio Borgese, rejecting the objections of Borgese, Hackenschmied, and indeed the Office of War Information. At the time, Walter stated that he believed that "The Internationale" had widespread relevance across Europe, and in 1966 he recounted in correspondence that the OWI had "panicked" when it had learned of the Soviet Union's plans, but Arturo had issued an ultimatum that if "The Internationale", "l'inno di tutte le glebe ed i lavoratori di tutto il mondo" (the anthem of the working classes of the whole world) was not included, that if the already done orchestration and performance were not used as-is, then they should forget about distributing the film entirely.

The inclusion of "The Internationale" in the Toscanini's minds was not simply for the sake of a Soviet Union audience, but because of its relevance to all countries of the world. Although Walter did not consider "The Internationale" to be "good music", he considered it to be (as he stated to the OWI) "more than the hymn of a nation or a party" and "an idea of brotherhood".

It would have been expensive to re-record a new performance of the Inno without "The Internationale", and it remained in the movie as originally released. Some time during the McCarthy Era, however, it was edited out of re-released copies, and remained so until a 1988 Library of Congress release on video, which restored "The Internationale" to the movie.

Winston Churchill and National Anthems of the Allies
A similar situation had occurred earlier in the War with the BBC's popular weekly Sunday evening radio broadcast, preceding the Nine O'Clock News, titled National Anthems of the Allies, whose playlist was all of the national anthems of the countries allied with the United Kingdom, the list growing with each country that Germany invaded. After the Germans began their invasion of the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941 (Operation Barbarossa), it was fully expected that "The Internationale", as the anthem of the Soviet Union, would be included in the playlist that day, but to people's surprise it was not, neither that week nor the week after. Winston Churchill, a staunch opponent of communism, had immediately sent word to the BBC via Anthony Eden that "The PM has issued an instruction to the Ministry of Information that the Internationale is on no account to be played by the B.B.C." (emphasis in the original).

Newspapers such as the Daily Express and Daily Mail were sharply critical of the Foreign Office, and questions were asked in the House of Commons. Ambassador Ivan Maisky recorded in his diary a conversation with Duff Cooper on 11 July 1941 where Cooper asked him if the music played after Vyacheslav Molotov's speech on 22 June would be acceptable to the Soviet Union, and he replied that it would not be. (The music was Tchaikovsky's 1812 Overture.) On the evening of 13 July, the BBC instead played, in Maisky's words, "a very beautiful but little-known Soviet song", which he described as demonstrating "the British Government's cowardice and foolishness". Rather than risk offending the Soviet Union by continuing to pointedly refuse to play its national anthem in a radio programme entitled National Anthems, the BBC discontinued the programme. Six months later, on 22 January 1942, Churchill relented and lifted the prohibition.

This relaxation enabled "The Internationale" to be used in wartime broadcasts and films, and at public occasions, thereafter. The BBC's 1943 Salute to the Red Army had a mass performance of "The Internationale" at the Royal Albert Hall by the choir of the Royal Choral Society, the BBC Symphony Orchestra, the London Philharmonic Orchestra, and military bands, in front of the flag of the Soviet Union and following a speech by Anthony Eden. The day before, which was Red Army Day, troops and the audience had sung "The Internationale" to the Lord Mayor of Bristol. The 1944 movie Tawny Pipit depicted schoolchildren in the fictional village of Lipton Lea welcoming the character Olga Boclova (based upon Ludmilla Pavlichenko) to their town by singing "The Internationale".

Soviet cinema and theatre
Dmitry Shostakovich used "The Internationale" twice for the movie soundtrack to the 1936 Soviet movie Girl Friends, once performed by a military-style band when a group of women are preparing for war, and a second time as a solo performance on a theremin.

Nikolai Evreinov's 1920 The Storming of the Winter Palace used both "The Internationale" and "La Marseillaise" symbolically in opposition to each other, with the former sung by the "Red platform" proletariat side and the latter sung by the "White platform" government side, the former starting weakly and in disarray but gradually becoming organised and drowning out the latter.

China
Qu Qiubai revised the translation of the lyrics into Chinese after having attended the Fourth Conference of Comintern in November 1921 and having not been able to join in the spontaneous singing by attendees there of "The Internationale" in their various home languages with their own Chinese rendition because the Chinese attendees did not have a good one. He proceeded, according to the political memoirs of his contemporaries, in 1923 to re-translate the lyrics from the original French at the organ in his cousin's home in Beijing, publishing them in New Youth, a journal of which he was the editor-in-chief.

This has become part of the cultural narrative of Qu's life, including in a 2001 television dramatisation of events, The Sun Rises from the East, where Qu is depicted as explaining to Cai Hesen that he (Qu) did not translate the song's title because he wished to make the Chinese version, which used a phonetic rendering of the French name using Chinese words "yingtenaixiongnaier", accessible to a multi-lingual non-Chinese-speaking audience. The television dramatisation included excerpts from the movie Lenin in October, a popular movie in China during the time of Mao with scenes that were set to "The Internationale".

Lenin in October was one of several movies from Soviet cinema translated into Chinese in the 1950s that led to the widespread popularity of "The Internationale" in the early years of the PRC. Others include Lenin in 1918, a 1939 movie which came to China in 1951, with "The Internationale" abruptly terminated at the point in the movie that Lenin is shot by an assassin; and the 1952 The Unforgettable 1919 which came to China that same year and used "The Internationale" for a mass rally scene involving Joseph Stalin.

Chinese movies about martyrs to the CCP cause would begin to incorporate the song into pivotal scenes later in the 1950s, this use peaking in the 1960s with inclusion into such movies as the 1965 Living Forever in Burning Flames depicting the execution of Jiang Jie. In the 1956 movie Mother, the character Lao Deng, a local revolutionary leader, is depicted singing "The Internationale" on the way to his execution, and in the 1960 A Revolutionary Family, the son of the protagonist (in chorus with his fellow prisoners) also sings "The Internationale" on the way to his execution. It would become a leitmotif of Chinese Revolutionary (model) cinema.

Political memoirs of Li Dazhao's daughter Li Xinghua recount his explaining the lyrics of the song to her, he having encountered it on his travels with Qu in 1923 and during his visit to Moscow the following year. He also encouraged people to sing it during socialist activism training sessions in 1925 and 1926. As with Qu, the song forms part of the cultural narrative of his life, it being the widely accepted account of his execution in 1927 that he sang the song in the last moments of his life.

As with Qu and Li, the song is found in many places in political histories of CCP leaders and martyrs to its cause, symbolising their socialist ideals, including Zhu De, Zhou Enlai, and Deng Xiaoping. It has also seen continued, and sometimes contradictory, uses over the decades as politics in China have changed, such as (for one example) Chen Yun's use in the 1960s to justify a new agricultural land allocation policy. It has maintained its status as a de facto CCP anthem, and its continued relevance over the decades can be seen in its inclusion in all three of the 1964 The East Is Red, the 1984 The Song of the Chinese Revolution, and the 2009 The Road to Prosperity.

While the song has a wide influence as an adjunct of official ideology, it has also been used in counter-cultural movements, such as the demonstrators in the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests singing it during their final retreat. Barbara Mittler maintains that this dual use of "The Internationale" by the government and by people demonstrating against it disproves any hypothesis that "a certain type of music 'depicts' a certain social environment".

"The Internationale" continues to be popular with 21st century Chinese audiences, as exemplified by its reception by audience when sung at the second curtain call of the "Shocking" concert of Liu Han, Liao Changyong, and Mo Hualun.

Qu was hired as a translator for students at the Communist University of the Toilers of the East in Moscow, where he met Xiao San in 1922, who had newly arrived from France. There, Xiao was drawn into the performing arts as a vehicle for revolutionary messages and, in conjunction with other students, translated "The Internationale" and several Soviet songs from the original French and Russian into Chinese, separately from Qu's work in Beijing in 1923. Xiao re-worked his translation in 1939, adding to it an explanatory history. Ironically, the translation in the television dramatisation The Sun Rises from the East that is recited by the character of Qu, is not in reality Qu's translation at all, but is the 1949 official approved translation based upon Xiao's, that is additionally credited to Zheng Zhenduo.

The 2004 movie My Years in France, a biopic of Deng Xiaoping, re-framed this history into a dramatic scene, set in 1920s Paris before Xiao leaves for Moscow, in which Zhou Enlai, Liu Qingyang, Zhang Shenfu, and others climb to the top of Notre Dame to sing "The Internationale" to the accompaniment of its bell Emmanuel, and the character of Xiao resolves at that point, instead, to translate the song into Chinese.

English translations
The traditional UK version of "The Internationale" is usually sung in three verses, while the American version, written by Charles Hope Kerr with five verses, is usually sung in two. The American version is sometimes sung with the phrase "the internationale", "the international soviet", or "the international union" in place of "the international working class". In English renditions, "Internationale" is sometimes sung as rather than the French pronunciation of. In modern usage, the American version also often uses "their" instead of "his" in "Let each stand in his place", and "free" instead of "be" in "Shall be the Human race".

Pete Seeger asked Billy Bragg to sing "The Internationale" with him at the Vancouver Folk Festival in 1989. Bragg thought the traditional English lyrics were archaic and unsingable (Scottish musician Dick Gaughan and former Labour MP Tony Benn disagreed), and composed a new set of lyrics. The recording was released on his album The Internationale along with reworkings of other socialist songs.

Bengali translation
"The Internationale" was first translated to Bengali by the rebel poet Kazi Nazrul Islam. Nazrul, who was greatly inspired by the tenets of Socialism and its relevance to India under British colonial occupation, authored numerous poems in Bengali highlighting socio-political issues, including gender and economic inequities, and social justice overall. Around 1927, Nazrul (already an established poet and composer), was approached by Muzaffar Ahmad, one of the Founders of the Communist Party of India, requesting that he translate the celebrated song into Bengali. While it maintains the essential theme of the original (via the English version), Nazrul skillfully inserted salient social issues into it within the Indian context. It was also translated by Hemanga Biswas and Mohit Banerji, that was subsequently adopted by West Bengal's Left Front. Here is the Bengali audio version, performed by Satya Chowdhury. Appended below are the Bengali lyrics written by Kazi Nazrul Islam:

Chinese translations
In addition to the Mandarin version, "The Internationale" also has Cantonese and Taiwanese Hokkien versions, occasionally used by communists or leftists in Hong Kong and Taiwan. The word "Internationale" is not translated in either version. There is also a Uyghur version, a Tibetan version, and Mongolian version translated from the Chinese version which is used for ethnic minorities of China.

Filipino translation
There were three Filipino versions of the song. The first was composed by Juan Feleo of the Partido Komunista ng Pilipinas-1930 under the title "Pandaigdigang Awit ng Manggagawa" (The International Worker's Anthem) which was translated from the English version. The second version was a retranslation of the first two stanzas on the basis of the French original by the Communist Party of the Philippines. The third version, which introduced the third stanza, was derived from both Chinese and French versions and translated by Jose Maria Sison, the CPP's founding chairman.

German translations
The original French text has six stanzas. The best-known and still widespread German-language adaptation was created by Emil Luckhardt (1880–1914) in 1910. His version is merely based on the original French text and is limited to a translation of the first two stanzas and the last stanza of the French song that is somewhat weakened and romanticised in its radicalism.

Apart from Luckhardt's version, there are at least seven other lesser-known German text variants—each relating to specific historical situations or ideologically divergent socialist, communist and anarchist alignments. In addition to the Luckhardt version mentioned above, there is a version penned by Franz Diederich (1908) and by Sigmar Mehring. In 1919 a version was written by Erich Mühsam and in 1937 during the Spanish Civil War another one for the German Thälmann Brigade (cf. also International Brigades) by Erich Weinert.

Kurdish translations
This anthem was translated into Kurdish language by poets such as Kakay Falah and Rebwar and performed by singers such as Kalle Atashi and Raza Yusif Beygi.

Korean translation
The Internationale is used in both Koreas, though it is more commonly used in the North. The DPRK uses "The Internationale" in propaganda and music, Party Congresses, and even sports events. In the South, the Internationale has been used by labour unions and protestors but remains less celebrated. As the northern lyrics are often considered too archaic and Communistic by southerners, there are 2 presently used versions of the Korean Internationale – the traditional lyrics, and the newer lyrics. While the northern lyrics borrow heavily from the Russian Internationale, the southern lyrics are completely original. In addition, the Southern refrain is longer and does not repeat.

Persian translation
For the first time, Abolqasem Lahouti, an Iranian poet and songwriter, translated and standardized this hymn into Persian. It was used as the official anthem of the short lived Persian Socialist Soviet Republic and one of the main anthems of the communist Tudeh Party of Iran.

Portuguese translation
Originally translated to Portuguese by Neno Vasco in 1909 from the French version, a very similar version was wildly disseminated during the general strike of 1917 by anarchists and anarcho-syndicalists. The main difference between the two versions is that in the third verse the Brazilian version goes "Masters, bosses, supreme chiefs" (Senhores, Patrões, chefes supremos) while the Portuguese version is "Messiah, God, supreme chiefs" (Messias, Deus, chefes supremos).

Sinhalese translation
On April 5, 1978, Lionel Bopage translated and released a Sinhalese version titled "Jātyantara Gītaya" ("ජාත්‍යන්තර ගීතය"), or "The International Song". This version was translated from the original French and German versions. The vocals were provided by Lionel Bopage and Sunila Abeysekera. Sena Weerasekera, State Music Director of Radio Ceylon composed the music. Bopage and Abeysekara had initially approached Premasiri Khemadasa to compose, but he declined.

Vietnamese translation
"The Internationale" was first translated into Vietnamese by the founder of the Communist Party of Vietnam and the first President of modern Vietnam, Ho Chi Minh, under the pseudonym "Nguyễn Ái Quốc". The current lyrics in Vietnamese were translated by the 1st and 2nd General Secretaries of the Communist Party of Vietnam, Trần Phú and Lê Hồng Phong. It was subsequently adopted by the Communist Party of Vietnam.

Differences in the first line between translations
The first line of the song has been translated differently into various languages. The original French "debout" means "stand up", and this is retained in the Russian translation and several English ones, but the German translation is "aufwachen" meaning "wake up"/"arise" and this connotation of sleeping can also be found in English versions that read "Arise ye workers from your slumber".

Allusions in other works
The "anthem" in the early pages of George Orwell's Animal Farm has been described as a "parody" or a "reconfiguration" of "The Internationale"; Orwell's text states (as a "humorous introduction") that it was sung as "between Clementine and La Cucaracha", in reference to "Oh My Darling, Clementine" and "La Cucaracha".

William Carlos Williams' poem Choral: The Pink Church alludes to the lyrics of "The Internationale" in order to symbolise Communism, the poem otherwise barely mentioning Communism directly, Williams himself claiming to be "a pink [...] not a red" in a letter discussing the poem.

One of Aleksandr Lebedev-Frontov's most famous works, which hung in the headquarters of the National Bolshevik Party, is a poster of the French Fantomas aiming a pistol at the viewer, subtitled with the first line of the Russian version of "The Internationale".

The Russian poet Vladimir Mayakovsky concluded his play Mystery-Bouffe with an "Internationale of the Future", set to the tune of the Internationale, but with lyrics describing a complete, perfect classless society as an existing fact.

Documentary film on the anthem
Peter Miller produced and directed a half-hour documentary on the anthem (The Internationale (2000) First Run/Icarus Films) with interviews with a range of people including Annette Rubinstein, Vladimir Grigorʹevich Zak, Marina Feleo-Gonzalez, Pete Seeger, Dorothy Ray Healey, Li Lu and Billy Bragg. The film aims to provide a cultural history of the anthem that addresses the complexities of the relationships between the collective and the individual. The film was short-listed for the Academy Award nomination for the Best Short Documentary and won the Woodstock Film Festival, Best Short Documentary award.

title: The Internationale