text:
Talk:Arminianism

POV - "best", "worst"
In the history section:

"Some, like Philip von Limborch, moved in the direction of semi-Pelagianism at best or Socinianism or rationalism at worst."

A wikipeadia article shouldn't say that something is 'better' or 'worse' than something, as this is opinion. However, as I don't know much about the topic I don't feel I can rewrite the sentence. 217.44.97.242 (talk) 18:20, 22 September 2009 (UTC)

 * I removed the sentence in question. carl bunderson (talk) (contributions) 23:52, 16 October 2010 (UTC)

"Further reading" section
Hi all,

I moved a "further reading" annotated bibliography from this article to History of Calvinist–Arminian debate. It did not seem to really belong here. I mean, there's no "supporting" and "opposing" bibliography section on the Calvinism article, is there? However, it seemed a good fit on the History of Calvinist–Arminian debate page, so I moved it there. On that page it still needs to be wikified. Here on this page I removed the "opposing" Arminianism section, removed the annotations, and wikified the sources.

TuckerResearch (talk) 20:37, 29 June 2010 (UTC)

Salvation by Faith alone in Arminian theology
Revision as of 17:50, 2 May 2011 (edit)178.99.224.4 (talk)(→Common misconceptions)

In the Common misconceptions section the following was added:
 * To keep true to faith, by one's own effort, constitutes a work. So Arminianism does, philosophically, teach work as the way to be eternally saved, and not that faith is simply a once for all gift of God (Eph.2.8), that is not upheld by man or the term faith loses its meaning.

I undid the edit because it presented a personal opinion (argument) without citing a scholarly source. Wikipedia is not for presenting a Bible study to advocate a certain view as opposed to another 'incorrect' view. It is an encyclopedia where scholarly views are cited and perhaps compared. If editor 178.99.224.4 can find a citable statement, then it would be acceptable to enter the viewpoint into the text. As editors, we need to guard against writing uncited personal views. Ephesians 2.8 has been explained by Arminians as well as those who oppose Arminian thought. DonaldRichardSands (talk) 18:35, 2 May 2011 (UTC)

Comparison with Calvinism
In this section the parenthetical remark saying Arminians "don't believe the Bible" seems like a violation of POV regulations. I'm getting it out. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 84.122.30.141 (talk) 18:51, 12 May 2011 (UTC)

 * Fine. (Please add the ~ signature on talk pages.) Charles Matthews (talk) 06:55, 13 May 2011 (UTC)

What about Anglican Arminianism?
This page lacks any reference to the brand of Arminianism which gained ascendance in Laudian wing of the Church of England in the 1620s and 30s. After the Restoration it was among the dominant schools of theology in the Church of England, to the detriment of Calvinism. Laudian Arminianism is a unique species, and reflected the religious controversies particular to England (the Laudian/Puritan battles) and only bears a family resemblance to Arminianism as classically defined, but bears some mentioning nonetheless. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 65.206.37.234 (talk) 15:03, 4 March 2012 (UTC)
 * I agree, I was editing Laud's page and came here expecting to read a bit more about it but it is entirely absent.--Britannicus (talk) 20:10, 25 June 2013 (UTC)

Suggestion for addition after the chart "Comparison among protestants"
An example of Arminianism can be found in John Wesley, whose beliefs have been contrasted with the five point of Calvinism with the acrostic ACURA.

ACURA
A: all are sinful

C: conditional election

U: unlimited atonement

R: resistible grace

A: assurance of salvation

I am a student researcher for Dr. Thorsen, so do not want to add it to the document myself. Klfkyle (talk) 15:14, 11 August 2014 (UTC)

source please
for the following sentence: "Some falsely assert that Universalists and Unitarians in the 18th and 19th centuries were theologically linked with Arminianism." --Richardson mcphillips (talk) 17:38, 8 November 2015 (UTC)
 * If it has no source, either add a template, or just remove it. — Confession0791 talk 03:27, 9 November 2015 (UTC)

regeneration
this is a newer subject for me, and i was reading through the article and realized that without understanding certain terminology, it would be difficult to understand even the basic outline of the theology/ies. specifically, "regeneration" came up multiple times in the list of beliefs of 'Classical Arminianism." i scanned to the top of that section but didn't see an explanation for this term/concept. so i used the "find" feature of the browser to look for "regeneration."  not once was it explained.  i finally "found" it waaayy down at the bottom, "defined" as:
 * regenerated (that is, born again) or saved.

i'm just thinking that MAYBE this term (and even this concept) ought to be explained towards the BEGINNING of the article, since it IS a central part of this theology/belief system?Colbey84 (talk) 04:53, 8 November 2016 (UTC)

16th Century Baptists
"Many Christian denominations have been influenced by Arminian views on the will of man being freed by grace prior to regeneration, notably the Baptists in the 16th century..."

Seeing as there were no Baptists in the 16th Century, either the source is incorrect, there is an error in its usage, or people have mistaken the 16th century for the 1600's. 2606:A000:8311:CE00:C015:9ACA:EF15:5BF7 (talk) 04:30, 23 July 2017 (UTC)AM
 * I just corrected it, with only 2 years of response time. Thank you ---Telikalive (talk) 15:59, 16 December 2019 (UTC)
 * I'm afraid I think the phrase "the will of man being freed by grace" is nonsense. No one on either side of the Arminian/Calvinist debate talks like that. The Arminians say man has free will (not that it is freed) and that he can therefore decide to repent of sin and come to God; the Calvinists say man's will is so bound up in sin that he is "dead in trespasses and sins" is not able even to desire to be saved from sin. But neither party says that the will is "freed by grace". UBJ 43X (talk) 19:19, 9 August 2022 (UTC)
 * @UBJ 43X Augustine who coined the term "prevenient grace" talked also about the related "liberated free will" (liberum arbitrium liberatum). This is this very terminology used by Arminians. As Olson put it : "The gospel read or heard imparts prevenient grace so that the person is for the first time freed to repent and trust in God. In other words, Arminians do not believe in “free will” but in “freed will.”" What Olson wants to say here, is that of course Arminians beleive in the existence of the philosophical "libertarian free will", but their real hope is in the spiritual liberation of the free will by the prevenient grace. ---Telikalive (talk) 09:02, 10 August 2022 (UTC)
 * Thank you, Telikalive. I'm having a hard time wrapping my head around what you say and your Olson quotation. I've never heard anything like that before. I had been on the point of boldly rewriting the article on this point, but perhaps it was a good thing I held back. UBJ 43X (talk) 00:06, 11 August 2022 (UTC)

List of recent Arminian theologians
I already provided an extended notable Arminian christians list. Recent Arminian scholars cited in Arminianism should be among the most notable ones. In order to provide an objective base of discussion, I put in the table below the Worldcat number of publications at date as a measure of "global notability". I know this number is not exhaustive, and that the type of publications is the most important parameter. And I put the posts about them on http://evangelicalarminians.org as a measure of their "Arminian notability" at date. I recognize that those figures are certainly not a definitive indication of notability. Moreover, I think that this list of people can be improved, and additional criterion should be taken into account. Personally I would not mention Stanley Hauerwas and William Henry Willimon, and I don't consider J. Kenneth Grider as among the most notable Arminian theologians. This is because I don't see in their publications many that promote, explain, defend Arminianism in itself. I even think that Mildred Bangs Wynkoop would be preferable to be mentioned at the place of Grider. This having been said I'm not a specialist, and your reasoned opinion is welcomed about "why not removing him ?" ---Telikalive (talk) 09:16, 9 December 2019 (UTC)

 * I apologise for the late reply. I saw that you had removed a name alongside a citation and the edit summary did not appear satisfactory to me. Usually when removing sourced content an explanation is given. However I see your edit is reasonable, so I don't object to your improvement. Thanks for your contributions! --Hazhk (talk) 19:51, 11 December 2019 (UTC)
 * Thank for the reminder. You are right, I recognize that I didn't give enough explanation. I know I need to be more careful about that. Thank you. ---Telikalive (talk) 21:05, 11 December 2019 (UTC)

To do list
As part of the WikiProject Arminianism tasks list, some tasks to be performed on this article should be: History Current landscape Theological legacy Classical Arminianism Wesleyan Arminianism Other variations Arminianism and other views ---Telikalive (talk) 12:08, 20 December 2021 (UTC)
 * Reduce lead size according to MOS:LEADLENGTH (2 paragraphs is less than 200 words / 25 % of the current size)✅
 * Lead information that is not explained in the body should be moved there (MOS:INTRO).✅
 * Move the notes of the lead in the body (MOS:LEADCITE) ✅
 * Expand theological chapters with topics not yet covered by this articles:
 * Anabaptism ✅
 * Arminianism in the Church of England ✅
 * methodism ✅
 * Pentecostalism ✅
 * Seventh-day Adventist Church ✅
 * One source for each theologian mentioned ✅
 * Free_will_in_antiquity ✅
 * Predestination✅
 * Free will in theology ✅
 * Synergism ✅
 * Penal theory ✅
 * Governmental theory of atonement ✅
 * Apostasy in Christianity ✅
 * Hell in Christianity (view of classical Arminianism on the nature of definitive judgment output)✅
 * Covenant theology
 * Penal theory ✅
 * Governmental theory of atonement ✅
 * Imparted righteousness
 * Corporate election ✅
 * Move here open theism from "other variations", since its base can be not only Arminianism but also semi-Pelagianism.✅
 * Reduce points that tend to define Calvinism, which is to be left to the Calvinism article. ✅

The "five solae of the Reformation" - but this appears to be a 20th century concept
Hello. The introductory paragraph states that Jacobus Arminius's "teachings held to the five solae of the Reformation". I do not think this can be exactly correct, since the idea that there were "FIVE" solae is itself only a 20th century idea (according to the Wikipedia article on the solae). And that sounds right to me; I do not remember anything about "five" solae in the Reformation, rather "sola scriptura", "sola fide" and I guess "sola gratia".

But I have never done an edit so I leave this as a discussion point...

Gregory Todd 22.04.2021 172.58.239.70 (talk) 13:52, 22 April 2021 (UTC) I removed "five solea" Telikalive (talk) 14:59, 19 November 2021 (UTC)

The lede does not define or explain the subject of the article
The whole lede does not contain any information on what the key doctrine(s) of this school of thought were, just a vague statement that they were 'an attempt' to be in some way 'more moderate' on a certain subject than another school of thought. A lede should contain a brief definition and explanation of the essence of the subject of the article - in the case of a school of thought, that means stating what its most characteristic idea(s) is/are. Readers shouldn't have to read the entire article to find out what its subject even *is*. 87.126.21.225 (talk) 11:13, 30 December 2022 (UTC)
 * I just re-read the lede, and in my opinion it is OK. It does say that the main issue is the Calvinist approach to predestination and to the free will of man by grace (which even has a wl to the separate concept). You could try and spell out anything you think is missing here, so we can see if it can be added to it? Thank you, warshy (¥¥) 15:51, 30 December 2022 (UTC)
 * Following this remark, I highlighted a little bit more the central Arminian beliefs in the lead. ---Telikalive (talk) 16:00, 2 January 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Arminianism


text:
Coat of arms of Quebec

The coat of arms of the province of Quebec (armoiries du Québec) was adopted by order-in-council of the Government of Quebec on 9 December 1939, replacing the arms assigned by royal warrant of Queen Victoria on 26 May 1868.

Symbolism
The shield is divided into three horizontal fields:
 * Top – three gold fleurs-de-lis on a blue background, symbolizing royal France;
 * Middle – a gold lion passant guardant on a red background, symbolizing the Kingdom of England;
 * Bottom – three green maple leaves on a gold background, symbolizing Canada.

The shield is surmounted by the Tudor Crown and accompanied by a silver scroll bearing the province's motto,.

Blazon
The blazon is:

 * Tiercé en fasce; d'azur, à trois fleurs-de-lis d'or; de gueules, à un léopard d'or, armé et lampassé d'azur; d'or, à une branche d'érable à sucre à triple feuille de sinople, aux nervures du champ. Timbré de la couronne royale. Sous l'écu, un listel d'argent bordé d'azur portant la devise JE ME SOUVIENS du même.

 * Tierced (divided in three parts, horizontally) in fess, Azure three fleurs-de-lis Or, Gules a lion passant guardant, and Or a sprig of three maple leaves Vert; Motto: JE ME SOUVIENS.

History
Arms were first granted to the province in 1868 by Queen Victoria. They were blazoned as follows:

 * Or on a Fess Gules between two Fleurs de Lis in chief Azure, and a sprig of three Leaves of Maple slipped Vert in base, a Lion passant guardant Or.

However, in 1939, the Quebec government adopted arms by order-in-council, replacing the two blue fleurs-de-lis on the golden field with the royal arms of France Modern in chief. Quebec is the only Canadian province to have adopted arms by its own authority.

The federal government is inconsistent in the use of the two variants: it often uses the 1939 variant, but in some cases, such as on the Centennial Flame on Parliament Hill and the badge of the Royal 22e Régiment, it uses the 1868 variant.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Coat of arms of Quebec


text:
New Best Friend

New Best Friend is a 2002 American psychological thriller film based on a story by author James Edwards. The film was originally owned by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, which eventually lost the rights to it. Later, Sony Pictures acquired the rights to distribute the film in the United States and some other territories mainly on home video; the film was ultimately released theatrically in the United States in a limited release by TriStar Pictures on April 12, 2002. It was a critical and box office bomb.

Plot summary
A North Carolina sheriff (Taye Diggs) investigates the near-fatal drug overdose of a working class college girl (Mia Kirshner) and discovers many sordid details of her life before and during her descent into drugs and debauchery.

Cast

 * Mia Kirshner as Alicia Campbell
 * Meredith Monroe as Hadley Ashton
 * Dominique Swain as Sidney Barrett
 * Rachel True as Julianne Livingstone
 * Eric Michael Cole as Warren
 * Scott Bairstow as Trevor
 * Taye Diggs as Sheriff Artie Bonner
 * Oliver Hudson as Josh
 * Joanna Canton as Sarah
 * Dean James as Max
 * Glynnis O'Connor as Connie Campbell
 * Ralph Price as Eddie

Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a rating of 5%.

Box office
It grossed $46,375 against a budget of $8 million.

title: New Best Friend


text:
Nicholas Ridley

Nicholas Ridley may refer to:

 * Nicholas Ridley (martyr) (died 1555), English clergyman
 * Nicholas Ridley-Colborne, 1st Baron Colborne (1779–1854), British politician
 * Henry Nicholas Ridley (1855–1956), English botanist
 * Nicholas Ridley, Baron Ridley of Liddesdale (1929–1993), British politician

title: Nicholas Ridley


text:
OS/8

OS/8 is the primary operating system used on the Digital Equipment Corporation's PDP-8 minicomputer.

PDP-8 operating systems which precede OS/8 include:
 * R-L Monitor, also referred to as MS/8.
 * P?S/8, requiring only 4K of memory.
 * PDP-8 4K Disk Monitor System
 * PS/8 ("Programming System/8"), requiring 8K. This is what became OS/8 in 1971.

Other/related DEC operating systems are OS/78, OS/278, and OS/12. The latter is a virtually identical version of OS/8, and runs on Digital's PDP-12 computer.

Digital released OS/8 images for non-commercial purposes which can be emulated through SIMH.

Overview
OS/8 provides a simple operating environment that is commensurate in complexity and scale with the PDP-8 computers on which it ran. I/O is supported via a series of supplied drivers which uses polled (not interrupt-driven) techniques. The device drivers have to be cleverly written as they can occupy only one or two memory pages of 128 12-bit words, and have to be able to run in any page in field 0. This often requires considerable cleverness, such as the use of the OPR instruction (7XXX) for small negative constants.

The memory-resident "footprint" of OS/8 is only 256 words; 128 words at the top of Field 0 and 128 words at the top of Field 1. The rest of the operating system (the USR, "User Service Routines") swaps in and out of memory transparently (with regard to the user's program) as needed. This disk-resident (or more properly, system-device-resident) part of OS/8 is the first 14K words (56 blocks) of the SYS: device, including swap space.

The remaining memory contents are preserved between some of the basic user commands. This is exploited by the process by which executable programs are built: for example, an assembly language program is first assembled into a .BN (binary) file. Then one or more .BN files are loaded into memory using the LOAD (ABSLDR) command. You could then execute the loaded program with the START command, debug it with ODT, or SAVE it to a .SV file which can be later retrieved with the GET command or executed immediately with R or RUN commands. Information about the currently loaded program is maintained in the CCB (Core Control Block), which is located on the SYS: device. This information includes which parts of memory are used by the program (which parts should be saved) and the program's starting address.

This concept of preserved memory being associated with a user or job also appears in other DEC operating systems, including TOPS-10 for the PDP-10, where such memory is known as a context.

OS/8 can boot from a hard disk and present the command prompt in under half a second.

The Concise Command Language
Early versions of OS/8 have a very rudimentary command-line interpreter with very few basic commands: GET, SAVE, RUN, ASSIGN, DEASSIGN, and ODT. With version 3 they add a more sophisticated overlay called CCL (Concise Command Language) that implements many more commands. OS/8's CCL is directly patterned after the CCL found on Digital's PDP-10 systems running TOPS-10. In fact, much of the OS/8 software system is deliberately designed to mimic, as closely as possible, the TOPS-10 operating environment. (The CCL command language is used on PDP-11 computers running RT-11, RSX-11, and RSTS/E, providing a similar user operating environment across all three architectures: PDP-8s, PDP-10s, and PDP-11s.)

The basic OS and CCL implements many rather sophisticated commands, many of which still do not exist in modern command languages, not even in MS-DOS, Windows, or Unix-like operating systems.

For example, the COMPILE command automatically finds the right compiler for a given source file and starts the compile/assemble/link cycle.

The ASSIGN and DEASSIGN commands permit the use of logical device names in a program instead of physical names (as required in MS-DOS). For example, a program can write to device FLOP:AAA.TXT, and with an initial "ASSIGN FLOP: RXA2:" then the file is created on physical device RXA2 (the second floppy disk drive). VAX/VMS and the Amiga's operating system AmigaOS (and other OSes built around TRIPOS) make considerable use of this feature.

The SET command is capable of setting many system options by patching locations in the system binary code. One of them, a command under OS-78, is SET SYS OS8, which re-enables the MONITOR commands that are not part of OS-78.

The BUILD command can reconfigure the OS on the fly, even adding device drivers, often without having to reboot the OS.

The OS/8 Filesystem
OS/8 supports a simple, flat file system on a variety of mass storage devices including:
 * TU56 DECtapes
 * DF32 32KW fixed-head disks
 * RF08 256KW fixed-head disks
 * RK01/02/03/04/05 cartridge disk drives
 * RL01/02 cartridge disk drives
 * RX01/02 floppy diskette drives

Filenames on the PDP-8 take the form of FFFFFF.XX where "F" represents an uppercase, alphanumeric character of the filename and "X" represents an uppercase, alphanumeric character of the extension (filetype).
 * .PA : Assembly language
 * .SV : saved core-images (executable programs)
 * .FT : Fortran source files
 * .DA : Data files

The contents of any given file is stored contiguously in a single "extent". Allocation works as follows: a program first opens a tentative file (using the User Service Router (USR) "ENTER" function). This assigns either the largest free extent to the file, or if the desired file size is known in advance, the smallest extent that it fits in. ENTER returns the starting block number and size of the file to the program which then writes to the file by directly calling the device driver. Once writing is complete, the program calls the USR "CLOSE" function. CLOSE marks the tentative file as a permanent file and creates an extent for the remaining free space for future allocations. It also deletes (marks as available free space) any other file with the same name. This facilitates replacing an existing file with a new version, for example after editing ("CLOSE" doubles as the file deletion call). Only one tentative file per volume may be open at a time. This seems limiting, but works for something like the PAL8 assembler since only one output file is generated at a time for each pass.

PIP includes an option to compress ("squeeze") the filesystem, so that all unallocated space is moved to a single extent at the end of the disk. This can be invoked by the SQuish CCL command, much as MUNG can be used to run a TECO macro.

OS/8 volumes have a limited maximum storage size (4096 blocks of 256 twelve-bit words) and the RK05 (2.4MB) moving-head disk exceeds this size: "1.6 million words of storage". Because of this, RK05 cartridges are divided into two partitions. For example, the first RK05 on a system is known as both RKA0: (SY:) and RKB0:. This division refers to "the outer cylinders" and "the inner cylinders".

ASCII
There are two systems for handling ASCII text. ASCII files are stored as three 8-bit characters per pair of 12-bit words. The first two characters (marked with bits a0–a7 and b0–b7 below) are stored whole in their words, while the third character (bits c0–c7) is stored with half of its bits in word 1 and the other half in word 2.
 * WORD 1: c0 c1 c2 c3 | a0 a1 a2 a3 a4 a5 a6 a7
 * WORD 2: c4 c5 c6 c7 | b0 b1 b2 b3 b4 b5 b6 b7 ASCII files end with a CTRL/Z (ASCII 232).

6-bits per character uppercase only ASCII strings are also used. In this case, two characters efficiently fit in each word. This is used for filenames in directory entries, but also for strings in BASIC. In BASIC, even though strings use 6-bit characters, you may print any 8-bit code by using the PNT function within PRINT, for example use PNT(27) to print an ASCII ESC character.

OS/8 date format
OS/8 allocates the PDP-8's 12 bit words for storing dates per:
 * 4 bits for the month
 * 5 bits for the date therein
 * 3 bits for the year.

The insufficiency of a three-bit year field, capable of storing only eight years, was recognized when COS-310 was developed.

OS/8 CUSPs (Utility Programs)
The CUSPs (Commonly-Used System Programs, that is utilities) supplied with OS/8 include:
 * BUILD (the program to install a configured OS/8 system onto mass storage)
 * DIR (the directory-listing program)
 * EDIT (A line-oriented editor)
 * MACREL (A relocating assembler that, unlike PAL, implements macros. Written by Stanley Rabinowitz of DEC's Small Systems Group. Stan had an ASCII-artwork picture of a fish in his office that said "MACREL IS A FISH")
 * FLAP (An absolute assembler derived from RALF)
 * FORTRAN-II.
 * FOTP (File-Oriented Transfer Program, an alternative to PIP)
 * PAL (The assembler)
 * PIP (the Peripheral Interchange Program, used to copy files)
 * PIP10 (a version of PIP used to copy files to from PDP-10 DECtapes)
 * RALF (Another relocating assembler for the FPP)
 * TECO (Text Editor and COrrector, a sophisticated editor). The MUNG command runs TECO macros.
 * CCL, the command line interpreter, supplied in source form and user-extensible.

BASIC
A single-user BASIC and two multi-user versions of BASIC are available as options.

The single-user BASIC uses several overlays to provide the full functionality of the language; when OS/8 is booted from a DECtape, a noticeable delay occurred each time BASIC is required to switch overlays as they need to be read from tape.

The multi-user versions of BASIC (EDU20 and EDU25) differ only in whether or not they support block-replaceable devices (DECtape or disk). Due to cost constraints, many PDP-8s have punched paper tape readers as their only mass-storage I/O device. EDU20 loads from paper tape and can do output to a paper tape writer if the machine has one, whereas EDU25 understands the structure of a filesystem, can load from DECtape or disk, and can create files on DECtape or disk. Both can run multiple BASIC programs simultaneously using a primitive task-scheduler that round-robins among the attached terminals. Memory is always tight because the PDP-8 uses core memory, which was extremely expensive compared to RAM technology. In 8K of 12-bit words EDU20 can support up to 4 terminals at once, although more memory was recommended. EDU25 requires an additional 4K memory bank (for a minimum of 12K) because the code contains a disk device driver and a filesystem handler. While running, EDU20 and EDU25 are self-contained programs that don't use any OS/8 system calls. Immediately upon being invoked from the OS/8 command interpreter, they overwrite OS/8's entire resident portion – all 256 words of it. Upon startup, EDU25 saves the contents of memory to DECtape or disk and restores it upon exit. But EDU20 cannot do this as it is targeted at hardware configurations without any block-replaceable device.

FORTRAN
In addition to a freely available FORTRAN II compiler, there is also a rather complete FORTRAN IV compiler available. This compiler generates code for the optional FPP-8 floating-point processor, which is essentially a separate CPU, only sharing memory with the PDP-8 CPU. With the FPP-8 option installed, the FORTRAN runtime code detects it and uses the FPP-8 to run the main program code, and the PDP-8 CPU runs as an I/O processor. Lacking the FPP-8, the runtime code instead calls an FPP-8 interpreter running on the PDP-8 CPU, so the program runs at reduced speed.

This FORTRAN IV compiler in version 1 has the interesting bug that DO loops counted incorrectly: DO loops would count 1,2,3,5,6,7,… (skipping 4). A quick patch was released to fix this.

title: OS/8


text:
Louis Spohr

Louis Spohr (, 5 April 1784 – 22 October 1859), baptized Ludewig Spohr, later often in the modern German form of the name Ludwig was a German composer, violinist and conductor.

Highly regarded during his lifetime, Spohr composed ten symphonies, ten operas, eighteen violin concerti, four clarinet concerti, four oratorios, and various works for small ensemble, chamber music, and art songs. Spohr invented the violin chinrest and the orchestral rehearsal mark. His output spans the transition between Classical and Romantic music, but fell into obscurity following his death, when his music was rarely heard. The late twentieth century saw a modest revival of interest in his oeuvre primarily in Europe, but his reputation has never been restored to that of his lifetime.

Life
Spohr was born in Braunschweig in the duchy of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel to Karl Heinrich Spohr and Juliane Ernestine Luise Henke; then in 1786 the family moved to Seesen. Spohr's first musical encouragement came from his parents: his mother was a gifted singer and pianist, and his father played the flute. A violinist named Dufour gave him his earliest violin teaching. The pupil's first attempts at composition date from the early 1790s. Dufour, recognizing the boy's musical talent, persuaded his parents to send him to Brunswick for further instruction.

The failure of his first concert tour, a badly planned venture to Hamburg in 1799, caused him to ask Duke Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand of Brunswick for financial help. A successful concert at the court impressed the duke so much that he engaged the 15-year-old Spohr as a chamber musician. In 1802, through the good offices of the duke, he became the pupil of Franz Eck and accompanied him on a concert tour which took him as far as Saint Petersburg. Eck, who completely retrained Spohr in violin technique, was a product of the Mannheim school, and Spohr became its most prominent heir. Spohr's first notable compositions, including his Violin Concerto No. 1, date from this time. After his return home, the duke granted him leave to make a concert tour of North Germany. A concert in Leipzig in December 1804 brought the influential music critic Friedrich Rochlitz "to his knees," not only because of Spohr's playing but also because of his compositions. This concert brought the young man overnight fame in the whole German-speaking world.

In 1805, Spohr obtained a position as concertmaster at the court of Gotha, where he stayed until 1812. There he met the 18-year-old harpist and pianist Dorette Scheidler, daughter of one of the court singers. They were married on 2 February 1806, and lived happily until Dorette's death 28 years later. They performed successfully together as a violin and harp duo (Spohr having composed the Sonata in C minor for violin and harp for her), touring in Italy (1816–1817), England (1820) and Paris (1821), but Dorette later abandoned her harpist's career and concentrated on raising their children.

In 1808, Spohr practiced with Beethoven at the latter's home, working on the Piano Trio, Op. 70 No. 1, The Ghost. Spohr wrote that the piano was out of tune and that Beethoven's playing was harsh or careless. In 1812, Spohr conducted a concert in the Predigerkirche of the French-occupied Principality of Erfurt to celebrate Napoleon's 43rd birthday. Spohr later worked as conductor at the Theater an der Wien, Vienna (1813–1815), where he continued to be on friendly terms with Beethoven; subsequently he was opera director at Frankfurt (1817–1819) where he was able to stage his own operas — the first of which, Faust, had been rejected in Vienna. Spohr's longest period of employment, from 1822 until his death in Kassel, was as the director of music at the recently succeeded William II, Elector of Hesse's court of Kassel, a position offered him on the suggestion of Carl Maria von Weber. In Kassel on 3 January 1836, he married his second wife, the 29-year-old Marianne Pfeiffer, daughter of the jurist Burkhard Wilhelm Pfeiffer. She survived him by many years, living until 1892.

In 1851 the elector refused to sign the permit for Spohr's two months' leave of absence, to which he was entitled under his contract, and when the musician departed without the permit, a portion of his salary was deducted. In 1857 he was pensioned off, much against his own wish, and in the winter of the same year he broke his arm, an accident which put an end to his violin playing. Nevertheless, he conducted his opera Jessonda at the fiftieth anniversary of the Prague Conservatorium in the following year. In 1859 he died at Kassel.

Like Haydn, Mozart, and his own slightly older contemporary Hummel, Spohr was an active Freemason. He was also active as a violin instructor and had about 200 pupils throughout his career – many of them becoming famous musicians. His notable pupils included violinists Henry Blagrove and Henry Holmes.

Works
As a composer, Spohr produced more than 150 works with opus numbers, in addition to a number of nearly 140 works without such numbers. He wrote music in all genres. His nine symphonies (a tenth was completed, but withdrawn: Cf. ) show a progress from the classical style of his predecessors to program music: his sixth symphony represents successive styles from "Bach–Handel" to the moderns; his seventh symphony represents the 'sacred and secular in human life' with a double orchestra; and his ninth symphony represents Die Jahreszeiten (The Seasons). (The autograph score of the tenth symphony, which bears the complete work, is held by the Staatsbibliothek Berlin. Furthermore, the same institution holds a complete set of copied parts. Cf. also ). Between 1803 and 1844 Spohr wrote more violin concertos than any other composer of the time, eighteen in all, including works left unpublished at his death. Some of them are formally unconventional, such as the one-movement Concerto No. 8, which is in the style of an operatic aria, and which is still periodically revived (Jascha Heifetz championed it), most recently in a 2006 recording by Hilary Hahn. There are two double-violin concertos as well. Better known today, however, are the four clarinet concertos, all written for the virtuoso Johann Simon Hermstedt, which have established a secure place in clarinettists' repertoire.

Among Spohr's chamber music is a series of no fewer than 36 string quartets, as well as four double quartets for two string quartets. He also wrote an assortment of other quartets, duos, trios, quintets and sextets, an octet and a nonet, works for solo violin and for solo harp, and works for violin and harp to be played by him and his wife together.

Though obscure today, Spohr's operas Faust (1816), Zemire und Azor (1819) and Jessonda (1823) remained in the popular repertoire through the 19th century and well into the 20th, when Jessonda was banned by the Nazis because it depicted a European hero in love with an Indian princess. Spohr also wrote 105 songs and duets, many of them collected as Deutsche Lieder (German Songs), as well as a mass and other choral works. Most of his operas were little known outside of Germany, but his oratorios, particularly Die letzten Dinge (1825–1826) were greatly admired during the 19th century in England and America. This oratorio was translated by Edward Taylor (1784–1863) and performed as The Last Judgment in 1830 for the first time. During the Victorian era Gilbert and Sullivan mentioned him in act 2 of The Mikado in a song by the title character.

Spohr, with his eighteen violin concertos, won a conspicuous place in the musical literature of the nineteenth century. He endeavored (without any good result) to make the concerto a substantial and superior composition free from the artificial bravura of the time. He achieved a new romantic mode of expression. The weaker sides of Spohr's violin compositions are observed in his somewhat monotonous rhythmic structures; in his rejection of certain piquant bowing styles, and artificial harmonics; and in the deficiency of contrapuntal textures.

Spohr was a noted violinist, and invented the violin chinrest, about 1820. He was also a significant conductor, being one of the first to use a baton and also inventing rehearsal letters, which are placed periodically throughout a piece of sheet music so that a conductor may save time by asking the orchestra or singers to start playing "from letter C", for example.

In addition to musical works, Spohr is remembered particularly for his Violinschule (The Violin School), a treatise on violin playing which codified many of the latest advances in violin technique, such as the use of spiccato. It became a standard work of instruction. In addition, he wrote an entertaining and informative autobiography, published posthumously in 1860. A museum is devoted to his memory in Kassel.

According to Rey M. Longyear, Spohr's best works were hailed by many of his contemporaries as quintessentially Romantic and inherited by Mendelssohn.

Selected recordings
Opera
 * Faust (WoO 51) Hillevi Martinpelto, Franz Hawlata and Bo Skovhus. Klaus Arp conducting the SWR Radio Orchestra, Kaiserslautern. Label: Capriccio, 1995.
 * Faust (WoO 51a – recitative version of 1852) A live recording of Bielefeld Opera from June 17/18, 1993. Geoffrey Moull conducting the Bielefelder Philharmonie, Chorus of the Bielefeld opera house. Label: CPO Records, 1994.
 * Zemire und Azor (WoO 52) "The Beauty and the Beast" – A production with singers of the Manhattan School of Music, New York, Christopher Larkin conducting. English spoken dialogues. Label: Albany Records, 2005.
 * Zemire und Azor (WoO 52) Anton Kolar conducting the Max Bruch Philharmonie, a production of the Theater Nordhausen. Label: Ds – Pool Music und Media, 2003.
 * Jessonda (WoO 53) Gerd Albrecht conducting the Hamburg State Philharmonic Orchestra, with Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, Júlia Várady, Renate Behle, Kurt Moll a.o. The Chorus of the Hamburgische Staatsoper. Label: Orfeo, 1994.
 * Der Berggeist (WoO 54) Wykonawca: Camerata Silesia, Polska Orkiestra Radiowa, Susanne Bernhard, Agnieszka Piass, Dan Karlstrom, Szabolcs Brickner. Conductor: Łukasz Borowicz. Warsaw, April 8, 2009.
 * Der Alchymist (WoO 57) Bernd Weikl, Moran Abouloff, Jörg Dürmüller, Jan Zinkler, Susanna Pütters, Staatsorchester Braunschweig, Christian Fröhlich. Label: Oehms, 2009. The libretto is based on Washington Irving's sketch "The Student of Salamanca" from Bracebridge Hall, 1822.

Note: WoO = work without opus number (see also: Folker Göthel "Thematisch-Bibliographisches Verzeichnis der Werke von Louis Spohr". Tutzing, 1981).

title: Louis Spohr


text:
Isaac K. Funk

Isaac Kaufmann Funk (September 10, 1839 – April 4, 1912) was an American Lutheran minister, editor, lexicographer, publisher, and spelling reformer. He was the co-founder of Funk & Wagnalls Company, the father of author Wilfred J. Funk (who founded his own publishing company, Wilfred Funk, Inc., and wrote the Word Power feature in Reader's Digest from 1945 to 1962), and the grandfather of author Peter Funk, who continued his father's authorship of Word Power until 2003. Funk & Wagnalls Company published The Literary Digest, The Standard Dictionary of the English Language, and Funk & Wagnalls Standard Encyclopedia.

Early life
Funk was born in 1839 in the village of Clifton, Ohio. In 1842, he moved to Springfield, Ohio, where his father John managed the Pennsylvania House.

Years later, he attended Wittenberg College (now Wittenberg University) and Wittenberg Theological Seminary, both in Springfield.

Career
Upon his graduation in 1860, he was ordained as a Lutheran pastor, and served pastorates in New York, Indiana, and his home state of Ohio; his last pastorate was at Saint Matthews English Lutheran Church in Brooklyn, New York, where he stayed seven years. In 1872, Funk resigned from the ministry and made an extensive tour through Europe, northern Africa, and Asia Minor.

Funk was a prohibitionist. He founded the Voice in 1880, an organ of the Prohibition Party, and he was the Prohibition candidate for mayor of New York. His Staten Island home, "grand in scale and extremely decorative", was built in 1893 in what was then Prohibition Park, and the home still stands.

In 1875 he founded the publishing firm of I.K. Funk & Company, with the help of a Wittenberg classmate, Adam Willis Wagnalls, a lawyer and accountant. That year he founded and published the Metropolitan Pulpit (later its name was changed to Homiletic Review). Missionary Review also numbered among the many religious publications he founded after 1876. In 1877 the name of his company was changed to Funk & Wagnalls Company, to reflect Wagnalls' partnership. In 1890 Funk published The Literary Digest, a departure from the religious works earlier in his career.

Perhaps Funk's most important achievement was his Standard Dictionary of the English Language, the first volume of which was published in 1893. He worked with a team of more than 740 people. His aim was to provide essential information thoroughly and simply at the same time. In order to achieve this he placed current meanings first, archaic meanings second, and etymologies last. The dictionary was said to have cost Funk & Wagnalls over $960,000.

From 1901 until 1906, Funk & Wagnalls compiled the Jewish Encyclopædia. After Funk died in 1912, the publishing house eventually became a subsidiary of Thomas Y. Crowell Co.

Psychic research
In his later years, Funk spent time on psychic research. Funk was a believer in spiritualism and in his book, The Widow's Mite and Other Psychic Phenomena, published in 1904, he defended a number of mediums and spirit photography.

Magician Joseph Rinn has noted that Funk was easily duped by fraudulent mediums, such as the Bangs Sisters. Funk had bought several of their 'spirit' pictures, unaware they were produced fraudulently. He also defended Anna Eva Fay and May S. Pepper, two mediums that were also exposed.

Personal life
Funk married Eliza Thompson of Carey, Ohio in 1864. After her death in 1868, Funk married her sister, Helen Gertrude Thompson (1842–1911). Funk had two sons and a daughter:

 * James A. Funk (1876–1898), who predeceased his father in 1898 at age 21.
 * Wilfred John Funk (1883–1965)
 * Lida M. Funk, a Vassar College graduate who married Robert Scott in 1895.

Funk died in Montclair, New Jersey on April 4, 1912. After some bequests to his alma mater and his brother, the residue of the estate was left to his two surviving children.

Selected works

 * The Complete Preacher, Sermons Preached By Some of the Most Prominent Clergymen (The Religious Newspaper Agency, New York. 1878)
 * Great Advance: Address by Dr. I.K. Funk, as Chairman of the New York Prohibition State Convention. Saratoga, September 12, 1895 (The Voice. 1895)
 * Next Step in Evolution the Present Step (1902)
 * The Widow's Mite and Other Psychic Phenomena (Funk & Wagnalls Co. 1904)
 * The Psychic Riddle (Funk & Wagnalls Co. 1907)
 * Standard Encyclopedia of the World's Knowledge (Funk and Wagnalls Co. 1912)

title: Isaac K. Funk


text:
Binomial heap

In computer science, a binomial heap is a data structure that acts as a priority queue. It is an example of a mergeable heap (also called meldable heap), as it supports merging two heaps in logarithmic time. It is implemented as a heap similar to a binary heap but using a special tree structure that is different from the complete binary trees used by binary heaps. Binomial heaps were invented in 1978 by Jean Vuillemin.

Binomial heap
A binomial heap is implemented as a set of binomial trees (compare with a binary heap, which has a shape of a single binary tree), which are defined recursively as follows:
 * A binomial tree of order 0 is a single node
 * A binomial tree of order $$k$$ has a root node whose children are roots of binomial trees of orders $$k-1$$, $$k-2$$, ..., 2, 1, 0 (in this order).

A binomial tree of order $$k$$ has $$2^k$$ nodes, and height $$k$$. The name comes from the shape: a binomial tree of order $$k$$ has $$\tbinom k d$$ nodes at depth $$d$$, a binomial coefficient. Because of its structure, a binomial tree of order $$k$$ can be constructed from two trees of order $$k-1$$ by attaching one of them as the leftmost child of the root of the other tree. This feature is central to the merge operation of a binomial heap, which is its major advantage over other conventional heaps.

Structure of a binomial heap
A binomial heap is implemented as a set of binomial trees that satisfy the binomial heap properties: The first property ensures that the root of each binomial tree contains the smallest key in the tree. It follows that the smallest key in the entire heap is one of the roots.
 * Each binomial tree in a heap obeys the minimum-heap property: the key of a node is greater than or equal to the key of its parent.
 * There can be at most one binomial tree for each order, including zero order.

The second property implies that a binomial heap with $$n$$ nodes consists of at most $$1+\log_2 n$$ binomial trees, where $$\log_2$$ is the binary logarithm. The number and orders of these trees are uniquely determined by the number of nodes $$n$$: there is one binomial tree for each nonzero bit in the binary representation of the number $$n$$. For example, the decimal number 13 is 1101 in binary, $$2^3 + 2^2 + 2^0$$, and thus a binomial heap with 13 nodes will consist of three binomial trees of orders 3, 2, and 0 (see figure below).

The number of different ways that $$n$$ items with distinct keys can be arranged into a binomial heap equals the largest odd divisor of $$n!$$. For $$n=1,2,3,\dots$$ these numbers are
 * 1, 1, 3, 3, 15, 45, 315, 315, 2835, 14175, ...

If the $$n$$ items are inserted into a binomial heap in a uniformly random order, each of these arrangements is equally likely.

Implementation
Because no operation requires random access to the root nodes of the binomial trees, the roots of the binomial trees can be stored in a linked list, ordered by increasing order of the tree. Because the number of children for each node is variable, it does not work well for each node to have separate links to each of its children, as would be common in a binary tree; instead, it is possible to implement this tree using links from each node to its highest-order child in the tree, and to its sibling of the next smaller order than it. These sibling pointers can be interpreted as the next pointers in a linked list of the children of each node, but with the opposite order from the linked list of roots: from largest to smallest order, rather than vice versa. This representation allows two trees of the same order to be linked together, making a tree of the next larger order, in constant time.

Merge

The operation of merging two heaps is used as a subroutine in most other operations. A basic subroutine within this procedure merges pairs of binomial trees of the same order. This may be done by comparing the keys at the roots of the two trees (the smallest keys in both trees). The root node with the larger key is made into a child of the root node with the smaller key, increasing its order by one:

function mergeTree(p, q)    if p.root.key <= q.root.key return p.addSubTree(q) else return q.addSubTree(p)

To merge two heaps more generally, the lists of roots of both heaps are traversed simultaneously in a manner similar to that of the merge algorithm, in a sequence from smaller orders of trees to larger orders. When only one of the two heaps being merged contains a tree of order $$j$$, this tree is moved to the output heap. When both of the two heaps contain a tree of order $$j$$, the two trees are merged to one tree of order $$j+1$$ so that the minimum-heap property is satisfied. It may later become necessary to merge this tree with some other tree of order $$j+1$$ in one of the two input heaps. In the course of the algorithm, it will examine at most three trees of any order, two from the two heaps we merge and one composed of two smaller trees.

function merge(p, q)    while not (p.end and q.end) tree = mergeTree(p.currentTree, q.currentTree)

if not heap.currentTree.empty tree = mergeTree(tree, heap.currentTree)

heap.addTree(tree) heap.next; p.next; q.next

Because each binomial tree in a binomial heap corresponds to a bit in the binary representation of its size, there is an analogy between the merging of two heaps and the binary addition of the sizes of the two heaps, from right-to-left. Whenever a carry occurs during addition, this corresponds to a merging of two binomial trees during the merge.

Each binomial tree's traversal during merge only involves roots, hence making the time taken at most order $$\log_2 n$$ and therefore the running time is $$O(\log n)$$.

Insert
Inserting a new element to a heap can be done by simply creating a new heap containing only this element and then merging it with the original heap. Because of the merge, a single insertion takes time $$O(\log n)$$. However, this can be sped up using a merge procedure that shortcuts the merge after it reaches a point where only one of the merged heaps has trees of larger order. With this speedup, across a series of $$k$$ consecutive insertions, the total time for the insertions is $$O(k+\log n)$$. Another way of stating this is that (after logarithmic overhead for the first insertion in a sequence) each successive insert has an amortized time of $$O(1)$$ (i.e. constant) per insertion.

A variant of the binomial heap, the skew binomial heap, achieves constant worst case insertion time by using forests whose tree sizes are based on the skew binary number system rather than on the binary number system.

Find minimum
To find the minimum element of the heap, find the minimum among the roots of the binomial trees. This can be done in $$O(\log n)$$ time, as there are just $$O(\log n)$$ tree roots to examine.

By using a pointer to the binomial tree that contains the minimum element, the time for this operation can be reduced to $$O(1)$$. The pointer must be updated when performing any operation other than finding the minimum. This can be done in $$O(\log n)$$ time per update, without raising the overall asymptotic running time of any operation.

Delete minimum
To delete the minimum element from the heap, first find this element, remove it from the root of its binomial tree, and obtain a list of its child subtrees (which are each themselves binomial trees, of distinct orders). Transform this list of subtrees into a separate binomial heap by reordering them from smallest to largest order. Then merge this heap with the original heap. Since each root has at most $$\log_2 n$$ children, creating this new heap takes time $$O(\log n)$$. Merging heaps takes time $$O(\log n)$$, so the entire delete minimum operation takes time $$O(\log n)$$.

function deleteMin(heap) min = heap.trees.first for each current in heap.trees if current.root < min.root then min = current for each tree in min.subTrees tmp.addTree(tree) heap.removeTree(min) merge(heap, tmp)

Decrease key
After decreasing the key of an element, it may become smaller than the key of its parent, violating the minimum-heap property. If this is the case, exchange the element with its parent, and possibly also with its grandparent, and so on, until the minimum-heap property is no longer violated. Each binomial tree has height at most $$\log_2 n$$, so this takes $$O(\log n)$$ time. However, this operation requires that the representation of the tree include pointers from each node to its parent in the tree, somewhat complicating the implementation of other operations.

Delete
To delete an element from the heap, decrease its key to negative infinity (or equivalently, to some value lower than any element in the heap) and then delete the minimum in the heap.

Applications

 * Discrete event simulation
 * Priority queues

title: Binomial heap


text:
Compatible Time-Sharing System

The Compatible Time-Sharing System (CTSS) was the first general purpose time-sharing operating system. Compatible Time Sharing referred to time sharing which was compatible with batch processing; it could offer both time sharing and batch processing concurrently.

CTSS was developed at the MIT Computation Center ("Comp Center"). CTSS was first demonstrated on MIT's modified IBM 709 in November 1961. The hardware was replaced with a modified IBM 7090 in 1962 and later a modified IBM 7094 called the "blue machine" to distinguish it from the Project MAC CTSS IBM 7094. Routine service to MIT Comp Center users began in the summer of 1963 and was operated there until 1968.

A second deployment of CTSS on a separate IBM 7094 that was received in October 1963 (the "red machine") was used early on in Project MAC until 1969 when the red machine was moved to the Information Processing Center and operated until July 20, 1973. CTSS ran on only those two machines; however, there were remote CTSS users outside of MIT including ones in California, South America, the University of Edinburgh and the University of Oxford.

History
John Backus said in the 1954 summer session at MIT that "By time sharing, a big computer could be used as several small ones; there would need to be a reading station for each user". Computers at that time, like IBM 704, were not powerful enough to implement such system, but at the end of 1958, MIT's Computation Center nevertheless added a typewriter input to its 704 with the intent that a programmer or operator could "obtain additional answers from the machine on a time-sharing basis with other programs using the machine simultaneously".

In June 1959, Christopher Strachey published a paper "Time Sharing in Large Fast Computers" at the UNESCO Information Processing Conference in Paris, where he envisaged a programmer debugging a program at a console (like a teletype) connected to the computer, while another program was running in the computer at the same time. Debugging programs was an important problem at that time, because with batch processing, it then often took a day from submitting a changed code, to getting the results. John McCarthy wrote a memo about that at MIT, after which a preliminary study committee and a working committee were established at MIT, to develop time sharing. The committees envisaged many users using the computer at the same time, decided the details of implementing such system at MIT, and started the development of the system.

Experimental Time Sharing System
By July, 1961 a few time sharing commands had become operational on the Computation Center's IBM 709, and in November 1961, Fernando J. Corbató demonstrated at MIT what was called the Experimental Time-Sharing System. On May 3, 1962, F. J. Corbató, M. M. Daggett and R. C. Daley published a paper about that system at the Spring Joint Computer Conference. Robert C. Daley, Peter R. Bos and at least 6 other programmers implemented the operating system, partly based on the Fortran Monitor System.

The system used an IBM 7090, modified by Herbert M. Teager, with added 3 Flexowriters for user consoles, and maybe a timer. Each of the 3 users had two tape units, one for the user's file directory, and one for dumping the core (program in memory). There was also one tape unit for the system commands, there were no disk drives. The memory was 27 k words (36-bit words) for users, and 5 k words for the supervisor (operating system). The input from the consoles was written to the buffers in the supervisor, by interrupts, and when a return character was received, the control was given to the supervisor, which dumped the running code to the tape and decided what to run next. The console commands implemented at the time were login, logout, input, edit, fap, mad, madtrn, load, use, start, skippm, listf, printf, xdump and xundump.

This became the initial version of the Compatible Time-Sharing System. This was apparently the first ever public demonstration of time-sharing; there are other claims, but they refer to special-purpose systems, or with no known papers published. The "compatibility" of CTSS was with background jobs run on the same computer, which generally used more of the compute resources than the time-sharing functions.

DOTSYS and BRAILLEMBOSS
The first version of the DOTSYS braille translation software ran on CTSS and could output to a BRAILLEMBOSS braille page printer. DOTSYS on CTSS was first demonstrated on August 18, 1966, as part of a feasibility study where teletypesetter tape, in the form of news, was converted to Grade 2 Braille. The following month the feasibility of converting textbook information on teletypesetter tape to error-free Grade 2 Braille was successfully demonstrated. As MIT CTSS was an academic system, a research vehicle and not a system for commercial computing, two years later a version of DOTSYS stripped of CTSS dependencies for software portability was used on an IBM 709 at the American Printing House for the Blind to print the first braille edition of a book produced from teletypesetter input, only a few weeks after the ink-print version. The following year, on CTSS, a demonstration of printing mathematical tables in braille was shown. A short FORTRAN II program was written to produce a conversion table from inches to millimeters in braille via the BRAILLEMBOSS braille page printer.

Intrex
The Intrex Retrieval System ran on CTSS. Intrex was an experimental, pilot-model machine-oriented bibliographic storage and retrieval system with a database that stored a catalog of roughly 15,000 journal articles. It was used to develop and test concepts for library automation. A deployment of three BRISC CRT consoles for testing at the MIT Engineering Library showed that it was preferred over two other systems, ARDS and DATEL.

Features

 * The original ELIZA ran on CTSS.
 * CTSS was the first computer system to implement password login.
 * CTSS had one of the first computerized text editing and formatting utilities, called TYPSET and RUNOFF (the successors of MEMO, MODIFY and DITTO).
 * CTSS had one of the first inter-user messaging implementations, pioneering electronic mail.
 * CTSS had one of the first instant messaging systems similar to write.
 * MIT Computation Center staff member Louis Pouzin created for CTSS a command called RUNCOM, which executed a list of commands contained in a file. RUNCOM also provided for parameter substitution. He later created a design for the Multics shell that was implemented by Glenda Schroeder which in turn inspired Unix shell scripts.
 * CTSS had an implementation of the text editor QED, the predecessor of ed, vi, and vim, with regular expressions added by Ken Thompson.

Kernel
CTSS used a modified IBM 7090 mainframe computer that had two 32,768 (32K) 36-bit-word banks of core memory instead of the default configuration which provides only one. One bank was reserved for the time-sharing supervisory program, the other for user programs. CTSS had a protected-mode kernel; the supervisor's functions in the A-core (memory bank A) could be called only by software interrupts, as in modern operating systems. Causing memory-protection interrupts were used for software interrupts. Processor allocation scheduling with a quantum time unit 200 ms, was controlled by a multilevel feedback queue. It also had some special memory-management hardware, a clock interrupt, and the ability to trap certain instructions.

Supervisor subroutines

 * RDFLXA – Read an input line from console
 * WRFLX – Write an output line to console
 * DEAD – Put the user into dead status, with no program in memory
 * DORMNT – Put the user into dormant status, with program in memory
 * GETMEM – Get the size of the memory allocation
 * SETMEM – Set the size of the memory allocation
 * TSSFIL – Get access to the CTSS system files on the disk
 * USRFIL – Change back to user's own directory
 * GETBRK – Get the instruction location counter at quit

Programming languages
CTSS at first had only an assembler, FAP, and a compiler, MAD. Also, Fortran II code could be translated into MAD code by using MADTRN. Later half of the system was written in MAD. Later there were other programming languages including COMIT II, LISP 1.5 and a version of ALGOL.

File system
Each user had their own directory, and there were also shared directories for groups of people with the same "problem number". Each file had two names, the second indicating its type as did the extension in later system. At first, each file could have one of four modes: temporary, permanent, read-only class 1, and read-only class 2. Read-only class 1 allowed the user to change the mode of the file. Files could also be symbolically linked between directories. A directory listing by listf: 10 FILES	20 TRACKS USED DATE		NAME		MODE	NO. TRACKS 5/20/63		MAIN	MAD	P	15 5/17/63 	DPFA	SYMTB	P	1 5/17/63 	DPFA	BSS	P	1 5/17/63 	DPFA	FAP	P	2

Peripherals
Input-output hardware was mostly standard IBM peripherals. These included six data channels connecting to:
 * Printers, punched card readers and punches
 * IBM 729 tape drives, an IBM 1301 disk storage, later upgraded to an IBM 1302, with 38 million word capacity
 * An IBM 7320 drum memory with 186K words that could load a 32K-word memory bank in one second (later upgraded to 0.25 seconds)
 * Two custom high-speed vector graphics displays
 * An IBM 7750 transmission control unit capable of supporting up to 112 teleprinter terminals, including IBM 1050 Selectrics and Model 35s. Some of the terminals were located remotely, and the system could be accessed using the public Telex and TWX networks.

Influences
CTSS was described in a paper presented at the 1962 Spring Joint Computer Conference, and greatly influenced the design of other early time-sharing systems.

Maurice Wilkes witnessed CTSS and the design of the Titan Supervisor was inspired by that.

Dennis Ritchie wrote in 1977 that UNIX could be seen as a "modern implementation" of CTSS. Multics, which was also developed by Project MAC, was started in the 1960s as a successor to CTSS – and in turn inspired the development of Unix in 1969. One of the technical terms inherited by these systems from CTSS is daemon.

Incompatible Timesharing System (ITS), another early, revolutionary, and influential MIT time-sharing system, was produced by people who disagreed with the direction taken by CTSS, and later, Multics; the name was a parody of "CTSS", as later the name "Unix" was a parody of "Multics". CTSS and ITS file systems have a number of design elements in common. Both have an M.F.D. (master file directory) and one or more U.F.D. (user file directories). Neither of them have nested directories (sub-directories). Both have file names consisting of two names which are a maximum of six-characters long. Both support linked files.

title: Compatible Time-Sharing System


text:
Fibonacci heap

In computer science, a Fibonacci heap is a data structure for priority queue operations, consisting of a collection of heap-ordered trees. It has a better amortized running time than many other priority queue data structures including the binary heap and binomial heap. Michael L. Fredman and Robert E. Tarjan developed Fibonacci heaps in 1984 and published them in a scientific journal in 1987. Fibonacci heaps are named after the Fibonacci numbers, which are used in their running time analysis.

The amortized times of all operations on Fibonacci heaps is constant, except delete-min. Deleting an element (most often used in the special case of deleting the minimum element) works in $$O(\log n)$$ amortized time, where $$n$$ is the size of the heap. This means that starting from an empty data structure, any sequence of a insert and decrease-key operations and b delete-min operations would take $$O(a + b\log n)$$ worst case time, where $$n$$ is the maximum heap size. In a binary or binomial heap, such a sequence of operations would take $$O((a + b)\log n)$$ time. A Fibonacci heap is thus better than a binary or binomial heap when $$b$$ is smaller than $$a$$ by a non-constant factor. It is also possible to merge two Fibonacci heaps in constant amortized time, improving on the logarithmic merge time of a binomial heap, and improving on binary heaps which cannot handle merges efficiently.

Using Fibonacci heaps improves the asymptotic running time of algorithms which utilize priority queues. For example, Dijkstra's algorithm and Prim's algorithm can be made to run in $$O(|E|+|V|\log|V|)$$ time.

Structure
A Fibonacci heap is a collection of trees satisfying the minimum-heap property, that is, the key of a child is always greater than or equal to the key of the parent. This implies that the minimum key is always at the root of one of the trees. Compared with binomial heaps, the structure of a Fibonacci heap is more flexible. The trees do not have a prescribed shape and in the extreme case the heap can have every element in a separate tree. This flexibility allows some operations to be executed in a lazy manner, postponing the work for later operations. For example, merging heaps is done simply by concatenating the two lists of trees, and operation decrease key sometimes cuts a node from its parent and forms a new tree.

However, at some point order needs to be introduced to the heap to achieve the desired running time. In particular, degrees of nodes (here degree means the number of direct children) are kept quite low: every node has degree at most $$\log n$$ and the size of a subtree rooted in a node of degree $$k$$ is at least $$F_{k+2}$$, where $$F_i$$ is the $$i$$th Fibonacci number. This is achieved by the rule: at most one child can be cut off each non-root node. When a second child is cut, the node itself needs to be cut from its parent and becomes the root of a new tree (see Proof of degree bounds, below). The number of trees is decreased in the operation delete-min, where trees are linked together.

As a result of a relaxed structure, some operations can take a long time while others are done very quickly. For the amortized running time analysis, we use the potential method, in that we pretend that very fast operations take a little bit longer than they actually do. This additional time is then later combined and subtracted from the actual running time of slow operations. The amount of time saved for later use is measured at any given moment by a potential function. The potential $$\phi$$ of a Fibonacci heap is given by

 * $$\phi = t + 2m$$,

where $$t$$ is the number of trees in the Fibonacci heap, and $$m$$ is the number of marked nodes. A node is marked if at least one of its children was cut, since this node was made a child of another node (all roots are unmarked). The amortized time for an operation is given by the sum of the actual time and $$c$$ times the difference in potential, where c is a constant (chosen to match the constant factors in the big O notation for the actual time).

Thus, the root of each tree in a heap has one unit of time stored. This unit of time can be used later to link this tree with another tree at amortized time 0. Also, each marked node has two units of time stored. One can be used to cut the node from its parent. If this happens, the node becomes a root and the second unit of time will remain stored in it as in any other root.

Operations
To allow fast deletion and concatenation, the roots of all trees are linked using a circular doubly linked list. The children of each node are also linked using such a list. For each node, we maintain its number of children and whether the node is marked.

Find-min
We maintain a pointer to the root containing the minimum key, allowing $$O(1)$$ access to the minimum. This pointer must be updated during the other operations, which adds only a constant time overhead.

Merge
The merge operation simply concatenates the root lists of two heaps together, and setting the minimum to be the smaller of the two heaps. This can be done in constant time, and the potential does not change, leading again to constant amortized time.

Insert
The insertion operation can be considered a special case of the merge operation, with a single node. The node is simply appended to the root list, increasing the potential by one. The amortized cost is thus still constant.

Delete-min
The delete-min operation does most of the work in restoring the structure of the heap. It has three phases:

Overall, the amortized time of this operation is $$O(\log n)$$, provided that $$d = O(\log n)$$. The proof of this is given in the following section.
 * 1) The root containing the minimum element is removed, and each of its $$d$$ children becomes a new root. It takes time $$O(d)$$ to process these new roots, and the potential increases by $$d-1$$. Therefore, the amortized running time of this phase is $$O(d) = O(\log n)$$.
 * 2) There may be up to $$n$$ roots. We therefore decrease the number of roots by successively linking together roots of the same degree. When two roots have the same degree, we make the one with the larger key a child of the other, so that the minimum heap property is observed. The degree of the smaller root increases by one. This is repeated until every root has a different degree. To find trees of the same degree efficiently, we use an array of length $$O(\log n)$$ in which we keep a pointer to one root of each degree. When a second root is found of the same degree, the two are linked and the array is updated. The actual running time is $$O(\log n + m)$$, where $$m$$ is the number of roots at the beginning of the second phase. In the end, we will have at most $$O(\log n)$$ roots (because each has a different degree). Therefore, the difference in the potential from before to after this phase is $$O(\log n) - m$$. Thus, the amortized running time is $$O(\log n + m) + c(O(\log n) - m)$$. By choosing a sufficiently large $$c$$ such that the terms in $$m$$ cancel out, this simplifies to $$O(\log n)$$.
 * 3) Search the final list of roots to find the minimum, and update the minimum pointer accordingly. This takes $$O(\log n)$$ time, because the number of roots has been reduced.

Decrease-key
If decreasing the key of a node $$x$$ causes it to become smaller than its parent, then it is cut from its parent, becoming a new unmarked root. If it is also less than the minimum key, then the minimum pointer is updated.

We then initiate a series of cascading cuts, starting with the parent of $$x$$. As long as the current node is marked, it is cut from its parent and made an unmarked root. Its original parent is then considered. This process stops when we reach an unmarked node $$y$$. If $$y$$ is not a root, it is marked. In this process we introduce some number, say $$k$$, of new trees. Except possibly $$x$$, each of these new trees loses its original mark. The terminating node $$y$$ may become marked. Therefore, the change in the number of marked nodes is between of $$-k$$ and $$-k+2$$. The resulting change in potential is $$k+2(-k+2)=-k+4$$. The actual time required to perform the cutting was $$O(k)$$. Hence, the amortized time is $$O(k) + c(-k+4)$$, which is constant, provided $$c$$ is sufficiently large.

Proof of degree bounds
The amortized performance of a Fibonacci heap depends on the degree (number of children) of any tree root being $$O(\log n)$$, where $$n$$ is the size of the heap. Here we show that the size of the (sub)tree rooted at any node $$x$$ of degree $$d$$ in the heap must have size at least $$F_{d+2}$$, where $$F_i$$ is the $$i$$th Fibonacci number. The degree bound follows from this and the fact (easily proved by induction) that $$F_{d+2} \ge \varphi^d$$ for all integers $$d\ge 0$$, where $$\varphi = (1+\sqrt 5)/2 \approx 1.618$$ is the golden ratio. We then have $$n \ge F_{d+2} \ge \varphi^d$$, and taking the log to base $$\varphi$$ of both sides gives $$d\le \log_{\varphi} n$$ as required.

Let $$x$$ be an arbitrary node in a Fibonacci heap, not necessarily a root. Define $$\mathrm{size}(x)$$ to be the size of the tree rooted at $$x$$ (the number of descendants of $$x$$, including $$x$$ itself). We prove by induction on the height of $$x$$ (the length of the longest path from $$x$$ to a descendant leaf) that $$\mathrm{size}(x) \ge F_{d+2}$$, where $$d$$ is the degree of $$x$$.

Base case: If $$x$$ has height $$0$$, then $$d=0$$, and $$\mathrm{size}(x) = 1 \ge F_2$$.

Inductive case: Suppose $$x$$ has positive height and degree $$d>0$$. Let $$y_1, y_2 \dots y_d$$ be the children of $$x$$, indexed in order of the times they were most recently made children of $$x$$ ($$y_1$$ being the earliest and $$y_d$$ the latest), and let $$c_1, c_2 \dots c_d$$ be their respective degrees.

We claim that $$c_i \ge i-2$$ for each $$i$$. Just before $$y_i$$ was made a child of $$x$$, $$y_1 \dots y_{i-1}$$ were already children of $$x$$, and so $$x$$ must have had degree at least $$i-1$$ at that time. Since trees are combined only when the degrees of their roots are equal, it must have been the case that $$y_i$$ also had degree at least $$i-1$$ at the time when it became a child of $$x$$. From that time to the present, $$y_i$$ could have only lost at most one child (as guaranteed by the marking process), and so its current degree $$c_i$$ is at least $$i-2$$. This proves the claim.

Since the heights of all the $$y_i$$ are strictly less than that of $$x$$, we can apply the inductive hypothesis to them to get$$\mathrm{size}(y_i) \ge F_{c_i+2} \ge F_{(i-2)+2} = F_i.$$The nodes $$x$$ and $$y_1$$ each contribute at least 1 to $$\mathrm{size}(x)$$, and so we have$$\begin{align} \mathrm{size}(x) &\ge 2 + \sum_{i=2}^d \mathrm{size}(y_i) \\ &\ge 2 + \sum_{i=2}^d F_i \\ &= 1 + \sum_{i=0}^d F_i \\ &= F_{d+2} \end{align}$$where the last step is an identity for Fibonacci numbers. This gives the desired lower bound on $$\mathrm{size}(x)$$.

Performance
Although Fibonacci heaps look very efficient, they have the following two drawbacks:
 * 1) They are complicated to implement.
 * 2) They are not as efficient in practice when compared with theoretically less efficient forms of heaps. In their simplest version, they require manipulation of four pointers per node, whereas only two or three pointers per node are needed in other structures, such as the binomial heap, or pairing heap. This results in large memory consumption per node and high constant factors on all operations.

Although the total running time of a sequence of operations starting with an empty structure is bounded by the bounds given above, some (very few) operations in the sequence can take very long to complete (in particular, delete-min has linear running time in the worst case). For this reason, Fibonacci heaps and other amortized data structures may not be appropriate for real-time systems.

It is possible to create a data structure which has the same worst-case performance as the Fibonacci heap has amortized performance. One such structure, the Brodal queue, is, in the words of the creator, "quite complicated" and "[not] applicable in practice." Invented in 2012, the strict Fibonacci heap is a simpler (compared to Brodal's) structure with the same worst-case bounds. Despite being simpler, experiments show that in practice the strict Fibonacci heap performs slower than more complicated Brodal queue and also slower than basic Fibonacci heap. The run-relaxed heaps of Driscoll et al. give good worst-case performance for all Fibonacci heap operations except merge. Recent experimental results suggest that the Fibonacci heap is more efficient in practice than most of its later derivatives, including quake heaps, violation heaps, strict Fibonacci heaps, and rank pairing heaps, but less efficient than pairing heaps or array-based heaps.

title: Fibonacci heap


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Johann Simon Hermstedt

Johann Simon Hermstedt (29 December 1778 – 10 August 1846) was one of the most famous clarinettists of the 19th century. He is a German who served as court clarinettist to Duke Günther I of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, and taught the Duke to play the clarinet. All four of Louis Spohr's clarinet concertos and several of his other clarinet works were written with Hermstedt's skills in mind and were dedicated to him. Hermstedt also composed a few works for wind instruments himself.

title: Johann Simon Hermstedt


text:
Akitaro Daichi

Akitaro Daichi (大地 丙太郎) is a Japanese anime director, producer and photography director.

Career
Daichi is a native of Gunma Prefecture and a graduate of Tokyo Polytechnic University. He originally aspired to be a stage photographer, but entered the employ of Tokyo Animation Film, an anime photography company. His first work in the industry was as photography director for the Doraemon movie History of Nobita's Outer Space Trailblazing (ドラえもん のび太の宇宙開拓史). After five years, Daichi changed jobs and worked for a video production company making karaoke videos among other things, but he later returned to the anime industry and focused on direction. In 1994, he attracted attention for his storyboard work on Akazukin Chacha, and in 1995 he made his debut as a series director on Nurse Angel Ririka SOS.

Sexual harassment allegations
In 2018 and 2019, voice actress Hiroko Konishi alleged that she was propositioned by her manager to enter a mixed bath with Daichi in the nude and was blacklisted from the voice acting industry when she refused.

Works (as director)

 * Nurse Angel Ririka SOS (1995)
 * Elf Princess Rane (1995)
 * Kodomo no Omocha (Kodocha; 1996–1998)
 * Ojarumaru (1998)
 * Sexy Commando Gaiden: Sugoi yo!! Masaru-san (1998)
 * Jubei-chan: The Ninja Girl (1999)
 * Now and Then, Here and There (1999)
 * Carried by the Wind: Tsukikage Ran (2000)
 * Fruits Basket (2001)
 * Animation Runner Kuromi (2001)
 * Atashin'chi (2002)
 * Animation Runner Kuromi 2 (2004)
 * Makasete Iruka! (Grrl Power!) (2004)
 * Jubei-chan: The Ninja Girl 2 (2004)
 * Legendz (2004)
 * Gag Manga Biyori (2005)
 * We Were There (2006)
 * Poyopoyo Kansatsu Nikki (2012)
 * Kamisama Kiss (2012–2015)
 * DD Fist of the North Star (2013)
 * Tonkatsu DJ Agetarō (2016)
 * Nobunaga no Shinobi (2017)
 * Nobunaga no Shinobi: Anegawa Ishiyama-hen (2018)
 * Meiji Tokyo Renka (2019)
 * Detective Conan: The Culprit Hanzawa (2022)
 * Me & Roboco (2022–2023)

title: Akitaro Daichi


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Project A-ko

Project A-ko (プロジェクトA子) is a 1986 Japanese animated science fiction action comedy film. The film focuses on 16-year-old Japanese teenage schoolgirl A-ko, who defends her best friend C-ko, as they face off against their fellow classmate and rival B-ko while the Earth faces the threat of an alien invasion. It was directed by Katsuhiko Nishijima with Yuji Moriyama did animation direction and character design. The film project initially started as part of the Cream Lemon series of original video animation, but later became its own film. The film staff said they were motivated to produce a fun exciting film in contrast to the more serious anime films being produced at the time. Additionally, the film includes a variety of references and parodies a number of other works of anime from the 1970s and 1980s.

The film was largely well received by critics who praised the humor, and action and considered it an anime classic. Outside of Japan, the film was seen by many fans of anime which served as an introduction to the medium. The film was followed up by several sequels and a spin-off first with Project A-Ko 2 in 1987. The original 35mm film negatives were once thought lost until they were recovered in 2021.

Plot
An alien spaceship crashes into Graviton City, wiping out the entire population and leaving a massive crater where the city is rebuilt 16 years later. High school students A-ko Magami, a perky, fun-loving red-haired, sailor-suited teenage girl, and her best friend C-ko Kotobuki, a bubbly, carefree optimist, enter a new year of school as transfer students at the all-girls Graviton High School. Although A-ko possesses superhuman speed and strength, she considers herself an average teenager. She mostly worries about getting to school on time, due to her habit of chronically oversleeping her alarm clock each morning. The pair catch the unwanted attention of B-ko Daitokuji, a rich, snobbish, spoiled, and brilliant fellow student.

B-ko develops an obsession in regards to C-ko, and is determined to win her over. B-ko's attempts to win C-ko over fail, however, and remembering that she was A-ko's rival back in kindergarten, B-ko creates a series of mecha piloted by her team of female followers to attack A-ko each morning. After losing each new and more powerful mecha, she eventually creates and dons the "Akagiyama 23", a powered suit that looks like a bikini. B-ko quickly escalates the fight across the school with no restraint.

Trench-coated spy "D" has been monitoring A-ko and C-ko each morning and reporting back to a large spacecraft as it approaches Earth. The aliens' conclusion is that they have located a lost princess whom they have been looking for. The aliens finally reach Earth and begin an all-out attack against the Graviton military, which is outmatched by the alien technology. A-ko and B-ko's own fight continues across the big city even as the military and aliens do battle. C-ko is abducted in the middle of this confrontation by "D", who is revealed to be a member of the Lepton Kingdom of Alpha Cygni, an all-female race of aliens. C-ko is their princess.

Witnessing the abduction, A-ko and B-ko set aside their differences. Infiltrating the spaceship, A-ko confronts D and the ship's alcoholic Captain Napolipolita, while B-ko rescues C-ko. B-ko then reneges on the truce and opens fire on A-ko, D, and the Captain, destroying the ship's navigation system. The vessel lands, precariously perched on top of the city's Military Command Tower (actually the remains of the previously crashed ship). Having survived the crash, both A-ko and C-ko find themselves on top of an unconscious B-ko.

A-ko happily awakens the next morning, sore from the previous day's adventures, and walks with C-ko to school in their new uniforms. The girls pass by a disheveled D and the Captain begging for donations to repair their ship. The film ends with B-ko smiling as A-ko appears on the horizon.

Production
The film was directed by Katsuhiko Nishijima who would later go on to direct Agent Aika and Labyrinth of Flames. The music for the film features music and songs composed by Richie Zito and Joey Carbone. Nishijima said that he wanted to make a film that directors Mamorou Oshii and Hayao Miyazaki were not able to make which is a light hearted entertaining film without much deep social commentary. Yuji Moriyama is credited with character design and animation director, and previously worked on the Urusei Yatsura television series, and the films Beautiful Dreamer and Only You. According to Moriyama, the crew of the film had mostly worked on Urusei Yatsura, and felt demoralized after Mamoru Oshii left production of the series, and wished to work on a new project. Moriyama also said that the motivation for making the film was to create a less serious and more entertaining film: "The currents [at that time] were shifting favorably towards more serious works that were loaded with meaning and heavy themes. It was a frustrating time for animators who liked to animate. A-ko was a deliberate attempt to push all that aside, to provide some mindless fun, to make an action-packed film that would be fun to make and fun to watch. I guess you could say it was an animator’s anime. Animators who wanted to animate big action but couldn’t, came together on this project and let it all hang out.”"Production of the film included several artists who would later create other popular works, including Kia Asamiya and Atsuko Nakajima.

The title itself is a reference to the 1983 Jackie Chan film Project A, although the film bears no resemblance to Project A; the working title ended up sticking.

Project A-ko was initially planned to be part of the Cream Lemon series of pornographic OVAs, but during the production of the series, it was decided to make it into a more mainstream title. The only sequence animated during its Cream Lemon days left in the revised production is B-ko's private bath scene. In a nod to Project A-ko's origins as a Cream Lemon episode, the owner and several working girls from the brothel in the Cream Lemon episode "Pop Chaser" - where director Katsuhiko Nishijima was one of the animators - can be seen in one of the classrooms A-ko and B-ko crash through during a fight sequence in the film.

Moriyama explains that the names "A-ko", "B-ko", and "C-ko" were initially placeholder names that were kept throughout production rather than being replaced.

The film's format uses a surface plot a high stakes action story, while at the same time making allusions and parodies to a number of other works of anime from the 1970s and 1980s. The classmate Mari alludes to Fist of the North Star, and the character of the Captain Napolipolita is inspired by Captain Harlock. Additionally the forward section of the alien spacecraft looks like the ship "Arcadia" from Captain Harlock. In addition, the series makes homage to American comics as well, as A-ko's parents resemble Superman and Wonder Woman.

Analysis
Project A-ko contains themes and elements common throughout other anime storylines. Infatuation is a common theme in Japanese anime storylines, where it is typically between a male and a female character. However, in Project A-ko, the female B-ko is infatuated with another female, C-ko, and tries to separate her from A-ko. Though there are hints that the infatuation may be of lesbian in origin, it appears to be platonic in nature. B-ko is primarily motivated her ego and desire to control C-Ko, and acts like a bully throughout the film. The film contains satire of the kind of sentimental attachments females can have for each other in other anime, such as Gunbuster.

The relationship in the film has been described as a lesbian love triangle.

During a screening of the film in 1993, Michael Flores explains the relationship as part of Japanese culture and common in Japanese television and film. "In Japan, women are separated from men until they are about 18 or 19, and women form tics and have love affairs with each other before they go on to be interested in men. It's treated matter-of-factly in Japanese films and TV shows. "That's what I mean about understanding a society through its popular culture," he adds."If you didn't know that, you'd wonder why these women would be fighting over another woman.

Additionally, it is common for anime and manga stories to include women who are independent and often powerful physical warriors, and A-ko is another example of this. Other examples include Battle Angel Alita and Ghost in the Shell.

The destruction and rebuilding of the city of Tokyo is a common theme throughout Japanese media (including the Godzilla franchise and Akira). In Project A-ko, the Gavitron City is modeled after Tokyo and is rebuilt after the catastrophic destruction of the crashing space ship at the beginning of the film.

Release
The film was released to theaters by Shochiku-Fuji on June 21, 1986, alongside a shorter film titled Going on a Journey: Ami Final Chapter. Pony Video distributed the film via VHS and LaserDisc later in the year. The film's soundtrack was released on LP, CD, and cassette through Polystar Records on May 25 of the same year. "Dance Away" by Annie Livingston was released as a single simultaneously with the album, with the background music track "Spaceship in the Dark" as the B-side. A Japanese-language version of "Dance Away" and "Follow Your Dream" by Project Sisters (プロジェクト・シスターズ) was released a month later.

Outside of Japan, the many fans of anime would watch the film without subtitles and serve as an introduction to anime films. Project A-ko was Central Park Media's first video release in 1991 alongside Dominion Tank Police and MD Geist. They later released a dubbed version produced by Manga Entertainment to VHS in 1992. Both Project A-ko and Dominion Tank Police were later shown in America on the Sci-Fi Channel during a "Festival of Japanese Animation".

The album was released in the U.S. in 1994 by Central Park Media under their MangaMusic label and later included as a bonus disc the "Collector's Series" DVD in 2002.

In 1996, a CD-Rom package called "Anime Hyperguide: Project A-ko" was released, including artwork, interviews with the creators.

After releasing Project A-ko on DVD in its original widescreen video format, Central Park Media later released a "Collector's Series" version in 2002, which features remastered video and coloring, a large number of A-ko related extras, commentary and interviews by many of the Project A-ko staff, and a free Project A-ko soundtrack CD. Central Park Media has released the three OVA sequels in a single-disc DVD collection, Project A-ko: Love and Robots:

In May 2011, Eastern Star released a newly remastered R1 Project A-ko DVD. It contains many of the extras of the original CPM release, minus the soundtrack CD. Discotek Media released the film on Blu-ray in December 2021. Originally, the footage for the film was to be sourced from the laserdisc release using the Domesday Duplicator to capture the footage at a higher quality than previous releases, with a technology called AstroRes being used to upscale the footage and restore it to a higher quality. The film was instead sourced from the original 35mm film negatives, which were previously thought lost. The film negatives had been stored in a film laboratory but a clerical error had resulted in confusion as to where it was.

Reception
The film has largely been praised reviewers who consider it a classic for fans of Japanese anime. The film is considered to be a cult film in the west. The film's humor was praised, with Hyper magazine saying that the film hits with its "cheesy" humor. Reviewer Joe Bob Briggs praised the film, citing the more adult subject matter compared to Saturday morning cartoons and crazy action, giving it four out of four stars. He placed the film alongside others such as Gunbuster and Dominion: Tank Police which feature scantily clad women in science fiction adventures causing a lot of mayhem. J-Fan praised the English dub calling it one of Manga Entertainment's best dubs saying it is a "near perfect example of the genre. Highly recommended."

GameFan writer Shidoshi considers the film a "must see" film for any serious anime fan, saying it rises above being a mere parody and stands on its own as a work. He also says that it is the best film in the series, with the sequels being the sort of work that the film set out to mock.

Game Zone magazine saying: "Low on violence, but high on humour and girly fight scenes ".

Writer James Swallow in Anime FX said "Like more readily labelled 'classics', PROJECT A-KO and its sister OAVs were an archetype, and as such deserve a place in anime academia. But forget all that and watch 'em because they're funny."

Max Autohead in Hyper magazine said "Project A-ko is an anime that had me in stiches with its fast hitting cheesy humour It’s original and fresh and is so immersed in trash anime culture that any Manga patriot would be proud."

Sequels
Afterwards, the film spawned a series of sequels which were original video animation (OVA) starting with Plot of the Daitokuji Financial Group in 1987, followed by Cinderella Rhapsody in 1988 and then FINAL in 1989. After this original series, a spin-off entitled A-ko the Vs (1990) was created and released in the OVA format. In this two-part series (a "Grey side" and "Blue side"), A-ko and B-ko are partners hunting monsters in an extraterrestrial environment, with no relationship to the previous series. Central Park Media released it as Project A-ko: Uncivil Wars. The film also spawned an American produced comic series, and a tabletop role playing game.

title: Project A-ko