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Metalworking

Metalworking is the process of shaping and reshaping metals in order to create useful objects, parts, assemblies, and large scale structures. As a term, it covers a wide and diverse range of processes, skills, and tools for producing objects on every scale: from huge ships, buildings, and bridges, down to precise engine parts and delicate jewelry.

The historical roots of metalworking predate recorded history; its use spans cultures, civilizations and millennia. It has evolved from shaping soft, native metals like gold with simple hand tools, through the smelting of ores and hot forging of harder metals like iron, up to and including highly technical modern processes such as machining and welding. It has been used as an industry, a driver of trade, individual hobbies, and in the creation of art; it can be regarded as both a science and a craft.

Modern metalworking processes, though diverse and specialized, can be categorized into one of three broad areas known as forming, cutting, or joining processes. Modern metalworking workshops, typically known as machine shops, hold a wide variety of specialized or general-use machine tools capable of creating highly precise, useful products. Many simpler metalworking techniques, such as blacksmithing, are no longer economically competitive on a large scale in developed countries; some of them are still in use in less developed countries, for artisanal or hobby work, or for historical reenactment.

Prehistory
The oldest archaeological evidence of copper mining and working was the discovery of a copper pendant in northern Iraq from 8,700 BCE. The earliest substantiated and dated evidence of metalworking in the Americas was the processing of copper in Wisconsin, near Lake Michigan. Copper was hammered until it became brittle, then heated so it could be worked further. In America, this technology is dated to about 4000–5000 BCE. The oldest gold artifacts in the world come from the Bulgarian Varna Necropolis and date from 4450 BCE.

Not all metal required fire to obtain it or work it. Isaac Asimov speculated that gold was the "first metal". His reasoning being, that, by its chemistry, it is found in nature as nuggets of pure gold. In other words, gold, as rare as it is, is sometimes found in nature as a native metal. Some metals can also be found in meteors. Almost all other metals are found in ores, a mineral-bearing rock, that require heat or some other process to liberate the metal. Another feature of gold is that it is workable as it is found, meaning that no technology beyond a stone hammer and anvil is needed to work the metal. This is a result of gold's properties of malleability and ductility. The earliest tools were stone, bone, wood, and sinew, all of which sufficed to work gold.

At some unknown time, the process of liberating metals from rock by heat became known, and rocks rich in copper, tin, and lead came into demand. These ores were mined wherever they were recognized. Remnants of such ancient mines have been found all over Southwestern Asia. Metalworking was being carried out by the South Asian inhabitants of Mehrgarh between 7000 and 3300 BCE. The end of the beginning of metalworking occurs sometime around 6000 BCE when copper smelting became common in Southwestern Asia.

Ancient civilisations knew of seven metals. Here they are arranged in order of their oxidation potential (in volts):

 * Iron    +0.44 V,
 * Tin     +0.14 V
 * Lead    +0.13 V
 * Copper  −0.34 V
 * Mercury −0.79 V
 * Silver  −0.80 V
 * Gold    −1.50 V.

The oxidation potential is important because it is one indicator of how tightly bound to the ore the metal is likely to be. As can be seen, iron is significantly higher than the other six metals while gold is dramatically lower than the six above it. Gold's low oxidation is one of the main reasons that gold is found in nuggets. These nuggets are relatively pure gold and are workable as they are found.

Copper ore, being relatively abundant, and tin ore became the next important substances in the story of metalworking. Using heat to smelt copper from ore, a great deal of copper was produced. It was used for both jewelry and simple tools. However, copper by itself was too soft for tools requiring edges and stiffness. At some point tin was added into the molten copper and bronze was developed thereby. Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin. Bronze was an important advance because it had the edge-durability and stiffness that pure copper lacked. Until the advent of iron, bronze was the most advanced metal for tools and weapons in common use (see Bronze Age for more detail).

Outside Southwestern Asia, these same advances and materials were being discovered and used around the world. People in China and Great Britain began using bronze with little time being devoted to copper. Japanese began the use of bronze and iron almost simultaneously. In the Americas it was different. Although the peoples of the Americas knew of metals, it was not until the European colonisation that metalworking for tools and weapons became common. Jewelry and art were the principal uses of metals in the Americas prior to European influence.

About 2700 BCE, production of bronze was common in locales where the necessary materials could be assembled for smelting, heating, and working the metal. Iron was beginning to be smelted and began its emergence as an important metal for tools and weapons. The period that followed became known as the Iron Age.

History

By the historical periods of the Pharaohs in Egypt, the Vedic Kings in India, the Tribes of Israel, and the Maya civilization in North America, among other ancient populations, precious metals began to have value attached to them. In some cases rules for ownership, distribution, and trade were created, enforced, and agreed upon by the respective peoples. By the above periods metalworkers were very skilled at creating objects of adornment, religious artifacts, and trade instruments of precious metals (non-ferrous), as well as weaponry usually of ferrous metals and/or alloys. These skills were well executed. The techniques were practiced by artisans, blacksmiths, atharvavedic practitioners, alchemists, and other categories of metalworkers around the globe. For example, the granulation technique was employed by numerous ancient cultures before the historic record shows people traveled to far regions to share this process. Metalsmiths today still use this and many other ancient techniques.

As time progressed, metal objects became more common, and ever more complex. The need to further acquire and work metals grew in importance. Skills related to extracting metal ores from the earth began to evolve, and metalsmiths became more knowledgeable. Metalsmiths became important members of society. Fates and economies of entire civilizations were greatly affected by the availability of metals and metalsmiths. The metalworker depends on the extraction of precious metals to make jewelry, build more efficient electronics, and for industrial and technological applications from construction to shipping containers to rail, and air transport. Without metals, goods and services would cease to move around the globe on the scale we know today.

General processes

Metalworking generally is divided into three categories: forming, cutting, and joining. Most metal cutting is done by high speed steel tools or carbide tools. Each of these categories contains various processes.

Prior to most operations, the metal must be marked out and/or measured, depending on the desired finished product.

Marking out (also known as layout) is the process of transferring a design or pattern to a workpiece and is the first step in the handcraft of metalworking. It is performed in many industries or hobbies, although in industry, the repetition eliminates the need to mark out every individual piece. In the metal trades area, marking out consists of transferring the engineer's plan to the workpiece in preparation for the next step, machining or manufacture.

Calipers are hand tools designed to precisely measure the distance between two points. Most calipers have two sets of flat, parallel edges used for inner or outer diameter measurements. These calipers can be accurate to within one-thousandth of an inch (25.4 μm). Different types of calipers have different mechanisms for displaying the distance measured. Where larger objects need to be measured with less precision, a tape measure is often used.

Casting

Casting achieves a specific form by pouring molten metal into a mold and allowing it to cool, with no mechanical force. Forms of casting include:
 * Investment casting (called lost wax casting in art)
 * Centrifugal casting
 * Die casting
 * Sand casting
 * Shell casting
 * Spin casting

Forming processes
These forming processes modify metal or workpiece by deforming the object, that is, without removing any material. Forming is done with a system of mechanical forces and, especially for bulk metal forming, with heat.

Bulk forming processes
Plastic deformation involves using heat or pressure to make a workpiece more conductive to mechanical force. Historically, this and casting were done by blacksmiths, though today the process has been industrialized. In bulk metal forming, the workpiece is generally heated up.
 * Cold sizing
 * Extrusion
 * Drawing
 * Forging
 * Powder metallurgy
 * Friction drilling
 * Rolling
 * Burnishing

Sheet (and tube) forming processes
These types of forming process involve the application of mechanical force at room temperature. However, some recent developments involve the heating of dies and/or parts. Advancements in automated metalworking technology have made progressive die stamping possible which is a method that can encompass punching, coining, bending and several other ways below that modify metal at less cost while resulting in less scrap.
 * Bending
 * Coining
 * Decambering
 * Deep drawing (DD)
 * Foldforming
 * Hydroforming (HF)
 * Hot metal gas forming
 * Hot press hardening
 * Incremental forming (IF)
 * Spinning, Shear forming or Flowforming Metal spinning brass vase.jpg
 * Planishing
 * Raising
 * Roll forming
 * Roll bending
 * Repoussé and chasing
 * Rubber pad forming
 * Shearing
 * Stamping
 * Superplastic forming (SPF)
 * Wheeling using an English wheel (wheeling machine)

Cutting processes

Cutting is a collection of processes wherein material is brought to a specified geometry by removing excess material using various kinds of tooling to leave a finished part that meets specifications. The net result of cutting is two products, the waste or excess material, and the finished part. In woodworking, the waste would be sawdust and excess wood. In cutting metals the waste is chips or swarf and excess metal.

Cutting processes fall into one of three major categories:
 * Chip producing processes most commonly known as machining
 * Burning, a set of processes wherein the metal is cut by oxidizing a kerf to separate pieces of metal

 * Miscellaneous specialty process, not falling easily into either of the above categories

Drilling a hole in a metal part is the most common example of a chip producing process. Using an oxy-fuel cutting torch to separate a plate of steel into smaller pieces is an example of burning. Chemical milling is an example of a specialty process that removes excess material by the use of etching chemicals and masking chemicals.

There are many technologies available to cut metal, including:
 * Manual technologies: saw, chisel, shear or snips
 * Machine technologies: turning, milling, drilling, grinding, sawing
 * Welding/burning technologies: burning by laser, oxy-fuel burning, and plasma
 * Erosion technologies: by water jet, electric discharge, or abrasive flow machining.
 * Chemical technologies: Photochemical machining

Cutting fluid or coolant is used where there is significant friction and heat at the cutting interface between a cutter such as a drill or an end mill and the workpiece. Coolant is generally introduced by a spray across the face of the tool and workpiece to decrease friction and temperature at the cutting tool/workpiece interface to prevent excessive tool wear. In practice there are many methods of delivering coolant.

Health effects

The use of an angle grinder in cutting is not preferred as large amounts of harmful sparks and fumes (and particulates) are generated when compared with using reciprocating saw or band saw. Angle grinders produce sparks when cutting ferrous metals. They also produce shards cutting other materials.

Milling

Milling is the complex shaping of metal or other materials by removing material to form the final shape. It is generally done on a milling machine, a power-driven machine that in its basic form consists of a milling cutter that rotates about the spindle axis (like a drill), and a worktable that can move in multiple directions (usually two dimensions [x and y axis] relative to the workpiece). The spindle usually moves in the z axis. It is possible to raise the table (where the workpiece rests). Milling machines may be operated manually or under computer numerical control (CNC), and can perform a vast number of complex operations, such as slot cutting, planing, drilling and threading, rabbeting, routing, etc. Two common types of mills are the horizontal mill and vertical mill.

The pieces produced are usually complex 3D objects that are converted into x, y, and z coordinates that are then fed into the CNC machine and allow it to complete the tasks required. The milling machine can produce most parts in 3D, but some require the objects to be rotated around the x, y, or z coordinate axis (depending on the need). Tolerances come in a variety of standards, depending on the locale. In countries still using the imperial system, this is usually in the thousandths of an inch (unit known as thou), depending on the specific machine. In many other European countries, standards following the ISO are used instead.

In order to keep both the bit and material cool, a high temperature coolant is used. In most cases the coolant is sprayed from a hose directly onto the bit and material. This coolant can either be machine or user controlled, depending on the machine.

Materials that can be milled range from aluminum to stainless steel and almost everything in between. Each material requires a different speed on the milling tool and varies in the amount of material that can be removed in one pass of the tool. Harder materials are usually milled at slower speeds with small amounts of material removed. Softer materials vary, but usually are milled with a high bit speed.

The use of a milling machine adds costs that are factored into the manufacturing process. Each time the machine is used coolant is also used, which must be periodically added in order to prevent breaking bits. A milling bit must also be changed as needed in order to prevent damage to the material. Time is the biggest factor for costs. Complex parts can require hours to complete, while very simple parts take only minutes. This in turn varies the production time as well, as each part will require different amounts of time.

Safety is key with these machines. The bits are traveling at high speeds and removing pieces of usually scalding hot metal. The advantage of having a CNC milling machine is that it protects the machine operator.

Turning

Turning is a metal cutting process for producing a cylindrical surface with a single point tool. The workpiece is rotated on a spindle and the cutting tool is fed into it radially, axially or both. Producing surfaces perpendicular to the workpiece axis is called facing. Producing surfaces using both radial and axial feeds is called profiling.

A lathe is a machine tool which spins a block or cylinder of material so that when abrasive, cutting, or deformation tools are applied to the workpiece, it can be shaped to produce an object which has rotational symmetry about an axis of rotation. Examples of objects that can be produced on a lathe include candlestick holders, crankshafts, camshafts, and bearing mounts.

Lathes have four main components: the bed, the headstock, the carriage, and the tailstock. The bed is a precise & very strong base which all of the other components rest upon for alignment. The headstock's spindle secures the workpiece with a chuck, whose jaws (usually three or four) are tightened around the piece. The spindle rotates at high speed, providing the energy to cut the material. While historically lathes were powered by belts from a line shaft, modern examples uses electric motors. The workpiece extends out of the spindle along the axis of rotation above the flat bed. The carriage is a platform that can be moved, precisely and independently parallel and perpendicular to the axis of rotation. A hardened cutting tool is held at the desired height (usually the middle of the workpiece) by the toolpost. The carriage is then moved around the rotating workpiece, and the cutting tool gradually removes material from the workpiece. The tailstock can be slid along the axis of rotation and then locked in place as necessary. It may hold centers to further secure the workpiece, or cutting tools driven into the end of the workpiece.

Other operations that can be performed with a single point tool on a lathe are:

Chamfering: Cutting an angle on the corner of a cylinder.

Parting: The tool is fed radially into the workpiece to cut off the end of a part.

Threading: A tool is fed along and across the outside or inside surface of rotating parts to produce external or internal threads.

Boring: A single-point tool is fed linearly and parallel to the axis of rotation to create a round hole.

Drilling: Feeding the drill into the workpiece axially.

Knurling: Uses a tool to produce a rough surface texture on the work piece. Frequently used to allow grip by hand on a metal part.

Modern computer numerical control (CNC) lathes and (CNC) machining centres can do secondary operations like milling by using driven tools. When driven tools are used the work piece stops rotating and the driven tool executes the machining operation with a rotating cutting tool. The CNC machines use x, y, and z coordinates in order to control the turning tools and produce the product. Most modern day CNC lathes are able to produce most turned objects in 3D.

Nearly all types of metal can be turned, although more time & specialist cutting tools are needed for harder workpieces.

Threading

There are many threading processes including: cutting threads with a tap or die, thread milling, single-point thread cutting, thread rolling, cold root rolling and forming, and thread grinding. A tap is used to cut a female thread on the inside surface of a pre-drilled hole, while a die cuts a male thread on a preformed cylindrical rod.

Grinding

Grinding uses an abrasive process to remove material from the workpiece. A grinding machine is a machine tool used for producing very fine finishes, making very light cuts, or high precision forms using an abrasive wheel as the cutting device. This wheel can be made up of various sizes and types of stones, diamonds or inorganic materials.

The simplest grinder is a bench grinder or a hand-held angle grinder, for deburring parts or cutting metal with a zip-disc.

Grinders have increased in size and complexity with advances in time and technology. From the old days of a manual toolroom grinder sharpening endmills for a production shop, to today's 30000 RPM CNC auto-loading manufacturing cell producing jet turbines, grinding processes vary greatly.

Grinders need to be very rigid machines to produce the required finish. Some grinders are even used to produce glass scales for positioning CNC machine axis. The common rule is the machines used to produce scales be 10 times more accurate than the machines the parts are produced for.

In the past grinders were used for finishing operations only because of limitations of tooling. Modern grinding wheel materials and the use of industrial diamonds or other man-made coatings (cubic boron nitride) on wheel forms have allowed grinders to achieve excellent results in production environments instead of being relegated to the back of the shop.

Modern technology has advanced grinding operations to include CNC controls, high material removal rates with high precision, lending itself well to aerospace applications and high volume production runs of precision components.

Filing

Filing is combination of grinding and saw tooth cutting using a file. Prior to the development of modern machining equipment it provided a relatively accurate means for the production of small parts, especially those with flat surfaces. The skilled use of a file allowed a machinist to work to fine tolerances and was the hallmark of the craft. Today filing is rarely used as a production technique in industry, though it remains as a common method of deburring.

Other
Broaching is a machining operation used to cut keyways into shafts. Electron beam machining (EBM) is a machining process where high-velocity electrons are directed toward a work piece, creating heat and vaporizing the material. Ultrasonic machining uses ultrasonic vibrations to machine very hard or brittle materials.

Welding
Welding is a fabrication process that joins materials, usually metals or thermoplastics, by causing coalescence. This is often done by melting the workpieces and adding a filler material to form a pool of molten material that cools to become a strong joint, but sometimes pressure is used in conjunction with heat, or by itself, to produce the weld.

Many different energy sources can be used for welding, including a gas flame, an electric arc, a laser, an electron beam, friction, and ultrasound. While often an industrial process, welding can be done in many different environments, including open air, underwater and in space. Regardless of location, however, welding remains dangerous, and precautions must be taken to avoid burns, electric shock, poisonous fumes, and overexposure to ultraviolet light.

Brazing
Brazing is a joining process in which a filler metal is melted and drawn into a capillary formed by the assembly of two or more work pieces. The filler metal reacts metallurgically with the workpieces and solidifies in the capillary, forming a strong joint. Unlike welding, the work piece is not melted. Brazing is similar to soldering, but occurs at temperatures in excess of 450 C. Brazing has the advantage of producing less thermal stresses than welding, and brazed assemblies tend to be more ductile than weldments because alloying elements can not segregate and precipitate.

Brazing techniques include, flame brazing, resistance brazing, furnace brazing, diffusion brazing, inductive brazing and vacuum brazing.

Soldering

Soldering is a joining process that occurs at temperatures below 450 C. It is similar to brazing in the way that a filler is melted and drawn into a capillary to form a joint, although at a lower temperature. Because of this lower temperature and different alloys used as fillers, the metallurgical reaction between filler and work piece is minimal, resulting in a weaker joint.

Riveting
Riveting is one of the most ancient metalwork joining processes. Its use declined markedly during the second half of the 20th century, but it still retains important uses in industry and construction, and in artisan crafts such as jewellery, medieval armouring and metal couture in the early 21st century. The earlier use of rivets is being superseded by improvements in welding and component fabrication techniques.

A rivet is essentially a two-headed and unthreaded bolt which holds two other pieces of metal together. Holes are drilled or punched through the two pieces of metal to be joined. The holes being aligned, a rivet is passed through the holes and permanent heads are formed onto the ends of the rivet utilizing hammers and forming dies (by either cold working or hot working). Rivets are commonly purchased with one head already formed.

When it is necessary to remove rivets, one of the rivet's heads is sheared off with a cold chisel. The rivet is then driven out with a hammer and punch.

Mechanical fixings
This includes screws, as well as bolts. This is often used as it requires relatively little specialist equipment, and are therefore often used in flat-pack furniture. It can also be used when a metal is joined to another material (such as wood) or a particular metal does not weld well (such as aluminum). This can be done to directly join metals, or with an intermediate material such as nylon. While often weaker than other methods such as welding or brazing, the metal can easily be removed and therefore reused or recycled. It can also be done in conjunction with an epoxy or glue, reverting its ecological benefits.

Associated processes
While these processes are not primary metalworking processes, they are often performed before or after metalworking processes.

Heat treatment
Metals can be heat treated to alter the properties of strength, ductility, toughness, hardness or resistance to corrosion. Common heat treatment processes include annealing, precipitation hardening, quenching, and tempering:
 * annealing softens the metal by allowing recovery of cold work and grain growth.
 * quenching can be used to harden alloy steels, or in precipitation hardenable alloys, to trap dissolved solute atoms in solution.
 * tempering will cause the dissolved alloying elements to precipitate, or in the case of quenched steels, improve impact strength and ductile properties.

Often, mechanical and thermal treatments are combined in what is known as thermo-mechanical treatments for better properties and more efficient processing of materials. These processes are common to high alloy special steels, super alloys and titanium alloys.

Plating
Electroplating is a common surface-treatment technique. It involves bonding a thin layer of another metal such as gold, silver, chromium or zinc to the surface of the product by hydrolysis. It is used to reduce corrosion, create abrasion resistance and improve the product's aesthetic appearance. Plating can even change the properties of the original part including conductivity, heat dissipation or structural integrity. There are four main electroplating methods to ensure proper coating and cost effectiveness per product: mass plating, rack plating, continuous plating and line plating.

Thermal spraying
Thermal spraying techniques are another popular finishing option, and often have better high temperature properties than electroplated coatings due to the thicker coating. The four main thermal spray processes include electric wire arc spray, flame (oxy acetylene combustion) spray, plasma spray and high velocity oxy fuel (HVOF) spray.

title: Metalworking


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Paul Sabatier (theologian)

Charles Paul Marie Sabatier (3 or 9 August 1858 – 5 March 1928), was a French clergyman and historian who produced the first modern biography of St. Francis of Assisi. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature five times.

Life
Sabatier was born at Saint-Michel-de-Chabrillanoux in Ardèche, and was educated at the Protestant Faculty of Theology in Paris. In 1885 he became vicar of St Nicolas, Strasbourg, but in 1889, declining an offer of preferment which was conditional on his becoming a German subject, he was expelled.

For four years he was pastor of Saint-Cierge in Ardèche, but had to retire in 1893 due to health concerns. He then devoted himself entirely to historical research, spending much of his time in Italy. He had already produced an edition of the Didache, and in November 1893 published his important Life of Francis of Assisi. This book gave a great stimulus to the study of medieval literary and religious documents, especially of such as are connected with the history of the Franciscan Order. In 1908 he delivered the Jowett Lectures on Modernism at the Passmore Edwards Settlement, London.

Sabatier's 1893 book La vie de St. François d'Assise (translated as Life of St. Francis of Assisi in 1894) was placed upon the Index of Forbidden Books by the Catholic Church in 1894. Emily Marshall obtained a copy of his book and she came to meet him in the 1890s. He agreed that her ideas for reviving the Third Order were in line with the ideas of St Francis. As a result she wrote "The dawn breaking, and some thoughts on the third order of St. Francis, with translation from the French" in 1896. Her ideas took root in the Anglican church in Guyana.

In 2003, Catholic independent scholar Jon M. Sweeney re-edited and published a new version of Sabatier's biography, and it became an alternate selection of the History Book Club and Book-of-the-Month Club. Sabatier also published in 1905 A propos de la séparation des églises et de l'État, in 1909 Les modernistes, notes d'histoire religieuse contemporaine, and in 1911 L'orientation religieuse de la France actuelle.

In 1919, Sabatier became professor of Church history at the Protestant Faculty of Theology of the University of Strasbourg. He died in Strasbourg in 1928.

Works

 * La Didachè, texte grec, avec un comm. Paris (1885)
 * Codex colbertinus parisiensis. Qvatuor Evangelia ante Hieronymum latine translata post editionem Petri Sabatier cum ipso codice collatam (1888)
 * Life of St. Francis of Assisi
 * Modernism The Jowett Lectures (1908)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Paul Sabatier (theologian)


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Survivors (1975 TV series)

Survivors is a British post-apocalyptic fiction drama television series created by Terry Nation and produced by Terence Dudley at the BBC, that broadcast from 1975 to 1977. It concerns the plight of a group of people who have survived an apocalyptic plague pandemic, which was accidentally released by a Chinese scientist and quickly spread across the world via air travel. Referred to as "The Death", the plague kills approximately 4,999 out of every 5,000 human beings on the planet within a matter of weeks of being released.

History
The programme ran for three series and 38 episodes (series 1 and 2 comprised 13 episodes each, the third series just 12; budget cuts and technical problems reduced the planned last double episode to a single, as some scenes were lost during shooting). All series were broadcast on Wednesday evenings on BBC 1, from April 1975 to June 1977. Writer Terry Nation (whose work included many scripts for Doctor Who) created the series, but he left the show after the first series due to disputes with producer Terence Dudley.

The series' main actors included Carolyn Seymour (Abby), Lucy Fleming (Jenny), Ian McCulloch (Greg), and Denis Lill (Charles). The child actor Stephen Dudley (John) was given his part by his father, the show's producer Terence Dudley; while the child actress Tanya Ronder (who in series 1 and 2 played Lizzie) is the daughter of Jack Ronder, who wrote eight episodes of Survivors. In addition, the few appearances of Greg and Jenny's baby son Paul on Survivors saw Lucy Fleming's real-life son Diggory appear as Paul, although uncredited. Notable guest stars in the series included Patrick Troughton, Peter Jeffrey, Brian Blessed, George Baker, Philip Madoc, Bryan Pringle, Iain Cuthbertson, Peter Bowles. Kevin McNally, Robert Fyfe, Denis Lawson, David Neilson, Peter Duncan, June Brown, David Troughton, and Roger Lloyd-Pack.

In a High Court case in the mid-1970s, which was abandoned by both sides due to escalating costs, writer Brian Clemens claimed that he had told Terry Nation the concept for the series in the late 1960s and had registered the idea with the Writers' Guild of Great Britain in 1965. Nation strenuously denied this.

A BBC Four documentary, entitled The Cult of... Survivors, featuring interviews with actors Lucy Fleming, Ian McCulloch, and Carolyn Seymour, director Pennant Roberts, and scriptwriter Martin Worth, was broadcast on 5 December 2006, as part of the channel's Science Fiction Britannia series.

Locations
The majority of the locations for all three series of Survivors were in the Welsh Marches, the counties of Monmouthshire, Shropshire, Powys, and, for the first two series, the characters most often seen in Herefordshire. The first episode of series 1 ("The Fourth Horseman") featured several locations in Worcestershire, including Great Malvern railway station. Much of episode 2, "Genesis", was filmed around the village of Rose, Cornwall. Later episodes had the characters move around Herefordshire, from places like Ross-on-Wye to Welsh Newton Common. Llanarth Court in Monmouthshire was also featured. Brockhampton Court near How Caple, Herefordshire was used as "Waterhouse" in the episode "Garland's War". Towards the end of the first series, the action moved to a more permanent base at Hampton Court, again in Herefordshire. (This was the property referred to as "The Grange" by the characters.)

For the beginning of series 2 the focus moved to a new location, at Callow Hill Farm, near Monmouth (but again just within Herefordshire), as "Whitecross". The Lights of London episodes featured Hanwell railway station, The Oval, and other locations in London, while the Waterloo & City line and the Camden Town deep-level shelter were used to represent parts of the London Underground. The Monmouthshire and Brecon Canal and village of Skenfrith also made appearances.

During series 3, production occasionally moved further afield to Suffolk, Derbyshire, and Wiltshire, with the last episode filmed in the Scottish Highlands. Extensive use was made of the Severn Valley Railway.

There are a great number of technical and continuity errors visible as the series was shot quickly on early video cameras, which did not work well in the gloomy conditions in which much of the programme was shot. Two cameras were used, but one of them had a recurrent fault, which shows as multiple reflections on the left hand side of pictures in many scenes, particularly visible in series 3. Primitive equipment meant that many shots suffered from a green tint. Due to audience complaints about this, the production crew replaced the cameras.

2008 version
In 2008, the BBC began airing a new version of Survivors, with Adrian Hodges as the main writer. In the credits, this version is said to be based on Terry Nation's novel Survivors (1976), rather than the previous series. This statement was made to avoid copyright problems, as the rights to the television series were vested with a different legal entity from the rights to the book.

The principal characters of Abby, Greg, Jenny and Tom Price were retained, but new elements were introduced, including a subplot about the origins of the virus and a stronger focus on action. The show took pains to make sure these characters represented a broader spread of racial and social backgrounds. The show received mixed reviews, but initial viewing figures were strong.

The 2008 series ran for two seasons, and the BBC announced in April 2010 that there would be no third series.

Audio drama version
In June 2014, Big Finish Productions released the first four-episode volume of an audio drama expansion of Survivors, with Seymour, McCulloch, and Fleming reprising their screen roles. The second and third volumes were released in 2015, and the fourth and fifth in 2016, with sixth and seventh volumes scheduled for 2017. On 21 December 2016, Big Finish announced an eighth and ninth volume to be released in 2018.

Series 1 (1975)
As the world's population is almost annihilated by a mysterious pandemic, accidentally unleashed by an unnamed Chinese scientist, the crisis is first seen through the eyes of two characters—Jenny Richards, a young working woman in London who is naturally immune to the disease, and Abby Grant, a middle-class corporate wife living a comfortable existence in a suburban commuter village who caught the virus but barely recovered, while her husband died. As Abby goes in search of her son Peter, who was away at boarding school when the pandemic occurred, Jenny wanders aimlessly through the countryside.

Other major characters introduced in the first few episodes are the resourceful engineer Greg Preston, the shifty Welshman Tom Price, and two children, John Millon and Lizzie Willoughby. Abby, Jenny, and Greg eventually come together and realise they must start again from scratch now that the civilisation they once knew has been destroyed. After several adventures on the road, they find a property called The Grange which they can use as a base and, joined by other survivors, they form a potted community of disparate individuals all united by a shared purpose; to relearn the old skills of farming and tool-making, and to try to live in this new world.

Series 2 (1976)
Having received word that her son is still alive, Abby has left the Grange to resume her search. Meanwhile, the community is devastated by a fire that kills many, including Emma, Charmian and Vic. The survivors join another community, Whitecross, run by Charles Vaughan, and become once more focused on the everyday practicalities of post-Death life. New major characters comprising the Whitecross band are Charles' partner Pet Simpson, travelling doctor Ruth Anderson and farmyard labourer Hubert Goss. Frequent visitors to Whitecross, both friendly and hostile, act as catalysts for various dramatic situations. Finally, the arrival of Norwegian survivors brings the possibility of re-establishing worldwide contact and technology. To achieve this, Greg departs Whitecross in a hot air balloon bound for Norway.

Series 3 (1977)
Having received word that Greg has returned to England from Norway and is injured, Charles and Jenny set out on horseback to find him. Warned by Jack that Charles and Jenny should turn back as they're heading into danger, Hubert sets out on horseback after Charles and Jenny. The trio's journey will take them right across what is left of the United Kingdom as their search leads them to various dead ends. However, they meet a broad spectrum of other survivors along the way, and the series continues to explore alternative reactions to the Death and what it takes to survive. The third series juxtaposes the personal story arc of the search for Greg with a wider narrative of society appearing to re-establish itself, with federated communities, market bartering and rudimentary railway travel, based on using the steam locomotives preserved on heritage railways. This culminates in the tentative return of law and order, and the quest to restore power through hydroelectricity.

Series 1 (2014)
"Revelation" and "Exodus" depict events happening in parallel with the early episodes of the first TV series, as the Death first takes hold and wipes out much of the UK's population. "Judges" and "Esther" take place after the Grange's cellar storeroom is flooded ("Something of Value").

Series 2 (2015)
Events in this box-set take place between Series 1 and Series 2 of the TV series.

Series 3 (2015)
Events in this box-set take place between Series 1 and Series 2 of the TV series.

Series 4 (2016)
Events in this box-set take place between the episodes of the second TV series.

Series 5 (2016)
Events in this box-set happen between the episodes of the second TV series.

Series 6 (2017)
Events in this box-set happen between the second and third TV series and in parallel with early episodes of the third.

Series 7 (2017)
Events in this box-set happen after the end of the third TV series.

Series 8 (2018)
Events in this box-set happen after the end of the third TV series.

Books
Five novels related to series one have been published:
 * An adaptation of certain of his own series one episodes, with a radically different ending
 * A direct sequel to Nation's book; it bears no relation to events in series two and three
 * A follow-up to Eyers' previous novel, continuing in the Terry Nation timeline
 * A new standalone story set during the latter half of series one
 * A new standalone story set during the latter half of series one

Two factual books about the series have been published:

Home releases
Each of the three series of Survivors were originally released on DVD annually from 2003–2005 by DD Home Entertainment. Each series set included a colour booklet written and researched by Survivors fan Andy Priestner chronicling the making of each series, plus the following extra features:

On 24 November 2008, the BBC company 2 Entertain released all three series of Survivors together in a boxset, with the BBC4 documentary The Cult of Survivors from 2006 included as an extra. Also included on the 2008 DVD boxset were English language subtitles for the hard-of-hearing, which were not included on previous DVD releases. However, the audio commentaries, on-camera interviews, Denis Lill's photo collection and New World Rising documentary from previous DVD releases were not included on the 2008 DVD boxset.

title: Survivors (1975 TV series)


text:
Coilgun

A coilgun is a type of mass driver consisting of one or more coils used as electromagnets in the configuration of a linear motor that accelerate a ferromagnetic or conducting projectile to high velocity. In almost all coilgun configurations, the coils and the gun barrel are arranged on a common axis. A coilgun is not a rifle as the barrel is smoothbore (not rifled).

Coilguns generally consist of one or more coils arranged along a barrel, so the path of the accelerating projectile lies along the central axis of the coils. The coils are switched on and off in a precisely timed sequence, causing the projectile to be accelerated quickly along the barrel via magnetic forces.

Coilguns are distinct from railguns, as the direction of acceleration in a railgun is at right angles to the central axis of the current loop formed by the conducting rails. In addition, railguns usually require the use of sliding contacts to pass a large current through the projectile or sabot, but coilguns do not necessarily require sliding contacts. While some simple coilgun concepts can use ferromagnetic projectiles or even permanent magnet projectiles, most designs for high velocities actually incorporate a coupled coil as part of the projectile.

Coilguns are also distinct from Gauss guns, although many works of science fiction have erroneously confused the two. A coil gun uses electromagnetic acceleration whereas Gauss guns predate the idea of coil guns and instead consists of ferromagnets using a configuration similar to a Newton's Cradle to impart acceleration.

History
The oldest electromagnetic gun came in the form of the coilgun, the first of which was invented by Norwegian scientist Kristian Birkeland at the University of Kristiania (today Oslo). The invention was officially patented in 1904, although its development reportedly started as early as 1845. According to his accounts, Birkeland accelerated a 500-gram projectile to approximately 50 m/s.

In 1933, Texan inventor Virgil Rigsby developed a stationary coil gun that was designed to be used similarly to a machine gun. It was powered by a large electrical motor and generator. It appeared in many contemporary science publications, but never piqued the interest of any armed forces.

Construction
There are two main types or setups of a coilgun: single-stage and multistage. A single-stage coilgun uses one electromagnetic coil to propel a projectile. A multistage coilgun uses several electromagnetic coils in succession to progressively increase the speed of the projectile.

Ferromagnetic projectiles

For ferromagnetic projectiles, a single-stage coilgun can be formed by a coil of wire, an electromagnet, with a ferromagnetic projectile placed at one of its ends. This type of coilgun is formed like the solenoid used in an electromechanical relay, i.e. a current-carrying coil which will draw a ferromagnetic object through its center. A large current is pulsed through the coil of wire and a strong magnetic field forms, pulling the projectile to the center of the coil. When the projectile nears this point the electromagnet must be switched off, to prevent the projectile from becoming arrested at the center of the electromagnet.

In a multistage design, further electromagnets are then used to repeat this process, progressively accelerating the projectile. In common coilgun designs, the "barrel" of the gun is made up of a track that the projectile rides on, with the driver into the magnetic coils around the track. Power is supplied to the electromagnet from some sort of fast discharge storage device, typically a battery, or capacitors (one per electromagnet), designed for fast energy discharge. A diode is used to protect polarity sensitive components (such as semiconductors or electrolytic capacitors) from damage due to inverse polarity of the voltage after turning off the coil.

Many hobbyists use low-cost rudimentary designs to experiment with coilguns, for example using photoflash capacitors from a disposable camera, or a capacitor from a standard cathode-ray tube television as the energy source, and a low inductance coil to propel the projectile forward.

Non-ferromagnetic projectiles
Some designs have non-ferromagnetic projectiles, of materials such as aluminium or copper, with the armature of the projectile acting as an electromagnet with internal current induced by pulses of the acceleration coils. A superconducting coilgun called a quench gun could be created by successively quenching a line of adjacent coaxial superconducting coils forming a gun barrel, generating a wave of magnetic field gradient traveling at any desired speed. A traveling superconducting coil might be made to ride this wave like a surfboard. The device would be a mass driver or linear synchronous motor with the propulsion energy stored directly in the drive coils. Another method would have non-superconducting acceleration coils and propulsion energy stored outside them but a projectile with superconducting magnets.

Though the cost of power switching and other factors can limit projectile energy, a notable benefit of some coilgun designs over simpler railguns is avoiding an intrinsic velocity limit from hypervelocity physical contact and erosion. By having the projectile pulled towards or levitated within the center of the coils as it is accelerated, no physical friction with the walls of the bore occurs. If the bore is a total vacuum (such as a tube with a plasma window), there is no friction at all, which helps prolong the period of reusability.

Switching

One main obstacle in coilgun design is switching the power through the coils. There are several common solutions—the simplest (and probably least effective) is the spark gap, which releases the stored energy through the coil when the voltage reaches a certain threshold. A better option is to use solid-state switches; these include IGBTs or power MOSFETs (which can be switched off mid-pulse) and SCRs (which release all stored energy before turning off).

A quick-and-dirty method for switching, especially for those using a flash camera for the main components, is to use the flash tube itself as a switch. By wiring it in series with the coil, it can silently and non-destructively (assuming that the energy in the capacitor is kept below the tube's safe operating limits) allow a large amount of current to pass through to the coil. Like any flash tube, ionizing the gas in the tube with a high voltage triggers it. However, a large amount of the energy will be dissipated as heat and light, and, because of the tube being a spark gap, the tube will stop conducting once the voltage across it drops sufficiently, leaving some charge remaining on the capacitor.

Resistance
The electrical resistance of the coils and the equivalent series resistance (ESR) of the current source dissipate considerable power.

At low speeds the heating of the coils dominates the efficiency of the coilgun, giving exceptionally low efficiency. However, as speeds climb, mechanical power grows proportional to the square of the speed, but, correctly switched, the resistive losses are largely unaffected, and thus these resistive losses become much smaller in percentage terms.

Magnetic circuit
Ideally, 100% of the magnetic flux generated by the coil would be delivered to and act on the projectile; in reality this is impossible due to energy losses always present in a real system, which cannot be eliminated.

With a simple air-cored solenoid, the majority of the magnetic flux is not coupled into the projectile because of the magnetic circuit's high reluctance. The uncoupled flux generates a magnetic field that stores energy in the surrounding air. The energy that is stored in this field does not simply disappear from the magnetic circuit once the capacitor finishes discharging, instead returning to the coilgun's electric circuit. Because the coilgun's electric circuit is inherently analogous to an LC oscillator, the unused energy returns in the reverse direction ('ringing'), which can seriously damage polarized capacitors such as electrolytic capacitors.

Reverse charging can be prevented by a diode connected in reverse-parallel across the capacitor terminals; as a result, the current keeps flowing until the diode and the coil's resistance dissipate the field energy as heat. While this is a simple and frequently utilized solution, it requires an additional expensive high-power diode and a well-designed coil with enough thermal mass and heat dissipation capability in order to prevent component failure.

Some designs attempt to recover the energy stored in the magnetic field by using a pair of diodes. These diodes, instead of being forced to dissipate the remaining energy, recharge the capacitors with the right polarity for the next discharge cycle. This will also avoid the need to fully recharge the capacitors, thus significantly reducing charge times. However, the practicality of this solution is limited by the resulting high recharge current through the equivalent series resistance (ESR) of the capacitors; the ESR will dissipate some of the recharge current, generating heat within the capacitors and potentially shortening their lifetime.

To reduce component size, weight, durability requirements, and most importantly, cost, the magnetic circuit must be optimized to deliver more energy to the projectile for a given energy input. This has been addressed to some extent by the use of back iron and end iron, which are pieces of magnetic material that enclose the coil and create paths of lower reluctance in order to improve the amount of magnetic flux coupled into the projectile. Results can vary widely, depending on the materials used; hobbyist designs may use, for example, materials ranging anywhere from magnetic steel (more effective, lower reluctance) to video tape (little improvement in reluctance). Moreover, the additional pieces of magnetic material in the magnetic circuit can potentially exacerbate the possibility of flux saturation and other magnetic losses.

Ferromagnetic projectile saturation
Another significant limitation of the coilgun is the occurrence of magnetic saturation in the ferromagnetic projectile. When the flux in the projectile lies in the linear portion of its material's B(H) curve, the force applied to the core is proportional to the square of coil current (I)—the field (H) is linearly dependent on I, B is linearly dependent on H and force is linearly dependent on the product BI. This relationship continues until the core is saturated; once this happens B will only increase marginally with H (and thus with I), so force gain is linear. Since losses are proportional to I2, increasing current beyond this point eventually decreases efficiency although it may increase the force. This puts an absolute limit on how much a given projectile can be accelerated with a single stage at acceptable efficiency.

Projectile magnetization and reaction time
Apart from saturation, the B(H) dependency often contains a hysteresis loop and the reaction time of the projectile material may be significant. The hysteresis means that the projectile becomes permanently magnetized and some energy will be lost as a permanent magnetic field of the projectile. The projectile reaction time, on the other hand, makes the projectile reluctant to respond to abrupt B changes; the flux will not rise as fast as desired while current is applied and a B tail will occur after the coil field has disappeared. This delay decreases the force, which would be maximized if the H and B were in phase.

Induction coilguns
Most of the work to develop coilguns as hyper-velocity launchers has used "air-cored" systems to get around the limitations associated with ferromagnetic projectiles. In these systems, the projectile is accelerated by a moving coil "armature". If the armature is configured as one or more "shorted turns" then induced currents will result as a consequence of the time variation of the current in the static launcher coil (or coils).

In principle, coilguns can also be constructed in which the moving coils are fed with current via sliding contacts. However, the practical construction of such arrangements requires the provision of reliable high speed sliding contacts. Although feeding current to a multi-turn coil armature might not require currents as large as those required in a railgun, the elimination of the need for high speed sliding contacts is an obvious potential advantage of the induction coilgun relative to the railgun.

Air cored systems also introduce the penalty that much higher currents may be needed than in an "iron cored" system. Ultimately though, subject to the provision of appropriately rated power supplies, air cored systems can operate with much greater magnetic field strengths than "iron cored" systems, so that, ultimately, much higher accelerations and forces should be possible.

Formula for exit velocity of coilgun projectile
An approximate result for the exit velocity of a projectile having been accelerated by a single-stage coilgun can be obtained by the equation

$$ v_{exit}=\sqrt{\frac{2}{m}{V\mu_0\chi_mn^2I^2}}$$

m being the mass of the projectile, defined as kg

V being the volume of the projectile, defined as m3

μ0 being the vacuum permeability, defined in SI units as 4π × 10−7 V·s/(A·m)

χm being the magnetic susceptibility of the projectile, a dimensionless proportionality constant indicating the degree of magnetization in a material in response to applied magnetic fields. This often must be determined experimentally, and tables containing susceptibility values for certain materials may be found in the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics as well as the Wikipedia article for magnetic susceptibility.

n being the number of coil turns per unit length of the coil, which can be found by dividing the total turns of the coil by the total length of the coil in meters.

and I being the current passing through the coil in amperes.

While this approximation is useful for quickly defining the upper limit of velocity in a coilgun system, more accurate and non-linear second order differential equations do exist. The issues with this formula being that it assumes the projectile lies completely within a uniform magnetic field, that the current dies out instantly once the projectile reaches the center of the coil (eliminating the possibility of coil suck-back), that all potential energy is transferred into kinetic energy (whereas most would go into frictional forces), and that the wires of the coil are infinitely thin and do not stack on one another, all cumulatively increasing the expected exit velocity.

Uses

Small coilguns are recreationally made by hobbyists, typically up to several joules to tens of joules projectile energy (the latter comparable to a typical air gun and an order of magnitude less than a firearm) while ranging from under one percent to several percent efficiency.

In 2018, a Los Angeles-based company Arcflash Labs offered the first coilgun for sale to the general public, the EMG-01A. It fired 6-gram steel slugs at 45 m/s with a muzzle energy of approximately 5 joules. In 2021, they developed a larger model, the GR-1 Gauss rifle which fired 30-gram steel slugs at up to 75 m/s with a muzzle energy of approximately 85 joules, comparable to a PCP air rifle.

In 2022 Northshore Sports Club, an American gun club in Lake Forest, Illinois began distributing the CS/LW21, also referred to as the "E-Shotgun", a compact, 15 joule magazine fed coil gun, manufactured by the China North Industries Group Corp. They project distribution to reach 5000 units per year in the US, and the manufacturer has also unveiled plans to supply the Chinese police and military with units for "non-lethal riot control".

Much higher efficiency and energy can be obtained with designs of greater expense and sophistication. In 1978, Bondaletov in the USSR achieved record acceleration with a single stage by sending a 2-gram ring to 5000 m/s in 1 cm of length, but the most efficient modern designs tend to involve many stages. It is estimated that greater than 90% efficiency will be required for vastly larger superconducting systems for space launch. An experimental 45-stage, 2.1 m long DARPA coilgun mortar design is 22% efficient, with 1.6 megajoules KE delivered to a round.

Though they face the challenge of competitiveness versus conventional guns (and sometimes railgun alternatives), coilguns are being researched for weaponry.

The DARPA Electromagnetic Mortar program is one example, if practical challenges like sufficiently low weight can be achieved. The coilgun would be relatively silent with no smoke giving away its position, though a supersonic projectile would still create a sonic boom. Adjustable, smooth acceleration of the projectile along the barrel length would allow higher velocity, with a predicted range increase of 30% for a 120mm EM mortar over the conventional version of similar length. With no separate propellant charges to load, the researchers envision the firing rate to approximately double.

In 2006, a 120mm prototype was under construction for evaluation, though a tenuous time for deployment was then estimated to be 5 to 10+ years by Sandia National Laboratories. In 2011, development was proposed for an 81mm coilgun mortar to operate with a hybrid-electric version of the future Joint Light Tactical Vehicle.

Electromagnetic aircraft catapults are planned, including on board future U.S. Gerald R. Ford class aircraft carriers. An experimental induction coilgun version of an Electromagnetic Missile Launcher (EMML) has been tested for launching Tomahawk missiles. A coilgun-based active defense system for tanks is under development at HIT in China.

Coilgun potential has been perceived as extending beyond military applications.

Few entities could overcome the challenges and corresponding capital investment to fund gigantic coilguns with projectile mass and velocity on the scale of gigajoules of kinetic energy (as opposed to megajoules or less). Such have been proposed as Earth or Moon launchers:

 * An ambitious lunar-base proposal considered in a 1975 NASA study would have involved a 4000-ton coilgun sending 10 million tons of lunar material over several years to L5 in support of massive space colonization utilizing a large 9900-ton power plant).
 * A 1992 NASA study calculated that a 330-ton lunar quench gun (superconducting coilgun) could launch 4400 projectiles annually, each 1.5 tons and mostly liquid oxygen payload, using a relatively small amount of power, 350 kW average.
 * After a NASA Ames study of aerothermal requirements for heat shields with terrestrial surface launch, Sandia National Laboratories investigated electromagnetic launchers for spacecraft and researched other EML applications using both railguns and coilguns. In 1990 a kilometer-long coilgun was proposed for launch of small satellites.
 * Later investigations at Sandia included a 2005 proposal of the StarTram concept for an extremely long coilgun, one version conceived as launching passengers to orbit with survivable acceleration.
 * A mass driver is essentially a coilgun that magnetically accelerates a package consisting of a magnetizable container with a payload. Once accelerated, the container and payload separate, the container is slowed and recycled to receive another payload.

title: Coilgun


text:
Talk:Ethnic cleansing

Lead
Hi there regarding the recent edits, I would like to know why it is still taken out, because the revert note wasnt very enlightening.

Text in question: "It can include extermination, genocide, deportation, population transfer and internment, but also indirect methods aimed at forced migration [...]" Nsae Comp (talk) 15:56, 16 January 2024 (UTC)

 * As I said in my edit summary wp:lede should be a summary of the article content. As it stands the discussion in the article about genocide and ethnic cleansing is lacking substance. The article current calls ethnic cleansing a category, then calls that category a continuum or sprectrum, and then adds one of the most worthless quotes on the encyclopedia to support it, which could be edited down to reveal its true lack of substance: "At one end it is virtually indistinguishable from forced emigration...while at the other it merges with deportation and genocide."
 * Yes, deportation and genocide, so we are crystal clear it is not the extermination and genocide your edit changed it to. Even if you add sources to the lede, the article needs to be improved before such a dramatic change can be made to the lede. Ben Azura (talk) 17:38, 16 January 2024 (UTC)
 * I am sorry but that only explains the problem with how the body (does not) work with the leas, but still doesnt explain what the "dramatic change" is.
 * BUT reading the lead and body again I think you mean to say that genocide is a legal term and that it is not clear if ethnic cleansing falls under the convention. If this is the argument, then I am fine with leaving it be, because in that case genocide is accordingly covered in the last sentence of the lead. Nsae Comp (talk) 03:58, 17 January 2024 (UTC)
 * Yes, I think this is correct. Ben Azura (talk) 04:03, 17 January 2024 (UTC)
 * Thanks taking out extermination here is the necessary step to make this clearer and leave its inclusion to the mention of genocide. Nsae Comp (talk) 04:30, 17 January 2024 (UTC)
 * In terms of the lead order, I think the causes should be placed earlier on and the legal classification at the end of the lead. (t · c)  buidhe  04:58, 17 January 2024 (UTC)
 * In defense of my reorder: I have moved the legal issue up because it is quite crucial for the description/definition,as above discussion would suggest. Therefore I tried to integrate it in my last edits into the first para.
 * If the reasons or the history should follow in which order I see both ways equal. Nsae Comp (talk) 05:08, 17 January 2024 (UTC)
 * The legal classification has nothing to do with the description of ethnic cleansing. Genocide is a legal classification and it encompasses multiple lines of attack against an ethnic group. We should be specific about which of these can also be a tactic of ethnic cleansing. (t · c)  buidhe  05:16, 17 January 2024 (UTC)
 * I am all for nuancing
 * /clarification. The int. law aspect as integrated now in the first para is about clarifying that there is disagreement and not clear def of the term, other than forced deportation. Nsae Comp (talk) 06:02, 17 January 2024 (UTC)
 * what do you think about my latest edit (see also the talk section below) (t · c)  buidhe  06:04, 17 January 2024 (UTC)
 * History for me just comes always first as in often the articles are structured like that. Nsae Comp (talk) 05:09, 17 January 2024 (UTC)

Ethnic cleansing and extermination
I think that removing it here is unwarranted; many sources include it as a way that ethnic cleansing is carried out, while others definitionally exclude it. Per NPOV both definitions must be mentioned. (t · c)  buidhe  05:46, 17 January 2024 (UTC)
 * "ethnic cleansing comprises not only ethnic expulsions and extermination during war"
 * "The term “ethnic cleansing” refers to deportations or killings conducted by a state, or a non-state actor that controls territory, that victimize a substantial segment of an ethnic group on the state’s or non-state actor’s territory (for more detail on this definition, see Bulutgil 2016). According to this definition, “genocide” is a subcategory of ethnic cleansing in which the victimization primarily takes the form of killings rather than deportations."
 * "On the one hand, ethnic cleansing is defined as the "system- atic and violent removal of undesired ethnic groups from a given territory."31 This definition is used to distinguish ethnic cleansing-as a form of violence-from gen- ocide by its intent to merely remove a group from an area rather than to exterminate the group altogether.32 On the other hand, there is the definition of ethnic cleansing that incorporates the possibility of group extermination-that is, the systematic forced removal, by any means necessary including extermination, of ethnic, racial, and/or religious groups from a given area.33 This second definition, which is widely accepted in the general public sphere,34 leads people to assume the term is inter- changeable with the term genocide."

 * Well I agree completely, and that was also why the above previous issue was raised. But I agreed on taking it out because it is better dealt by the statement about the genocide convention. Moving up the genocide convention was then to facilitate a more nuanced and complete perspective on what and especially how extermination and genocide are considered as related to ethnic cleansing. So yes I am all for expanding on that and there (where ever it ends up in the lead, though further up would have helped this issue, but ok so be it)! So expand on it at the convention para. Nsae Comp (talk) 06:37, 17 January 2024 (UTC)
 * Chill: sorry for my last edit I seem to have not seen the insertion of mass killing. Thanks! For me that seems sufficient. Nsae Comp (talk) 07:05, 17 January 2024 (UTC)
 * Agreed, the current version with Buidhe's changes including mass killing in the lede doesnt present major NPOV concerns. The term "extermination" is non-controversial genocide under the Genocide Convention and the euphemistic use of "ethnic cleansing" has fallen out of favor. I dont think we do NPOV any justice by presenting it uncritically as a synonym for genocide. Maybe we can expand on the article content for this about which  has already made some helpful edits. Ben Azura (talk) 07:21, 17 January 2024 (UTC)

Can we add this image?

The description of the violent expulsion of Palestinians to make way for the new state of Israel in 1948 (the Nakba) as ethnic cleansing is widely accepted by most historians. May we please add one of these images to this article? It would serve a purpose not only in demonstrating ethnic cleansing, but also in describing the historiography, why it can be disputed by some historians outside the fringe, etc. 222.152.25.14 (talk) 21:38, 1 February 2024 (UTC)

The Alhambra Decree was "an early example of ethnic cleansing"
The article says that the The Alhambra Decree was "an early example of ethnic cleansing."

While I personally believe it was ethnic cleansing, do we have reputable sources that state this? The fact that Jews were allowed to convert and stay also challenges traditional notions of "ethnic" cleansing, and suggests that religion was the core focal point.

To be clear, I am not defending what the Spanish did (it was despicable obviously), but it seems like this characterization might be original synthesis.

The following articles on the expulsion and pogroms of Jews from Spain do not even have the phrase "ethnic cleansing" even once:

 * Expulsion of Jews from Spain
 * Alhambra Decree
 * Massacre of 1391

Phantomette (chat) 19:51, 27 February 2024 (UTC)

 * (t · c)  buidhe  20:28, 27 February 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Ethnic cleansing


text:
Talk:Micromouse

When you said "far east" (changed to East Asia now), do you mean Japan? Please be specific. --Menchi 12:48 13 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * I mean Japan, South Korea and Singapore.

 * I found links to events in Ireland and Austrailia too, so changed it to say it runs worldwide. I changed the link from Wayne's site to A personal website as the name Wayne wouldn't mean anything to many viewing the page. Angela 19:25 13 Jul 2003 (UTC)

To User:BAxelrod:

I am curious. In the revision to the micromouse entry that you made on Oct 8th 2004, you state that the A* is one of the more popular search strategies.

It is my understanding that most mice have much simpler algorithms based on a straightforward flooding of the maze in the style of Lee-Moore.

I would be very interested in finding out about any mice that use A*

Pete Harrison

Topknot 19:23, 22 Nov 2004 (UTC)

To User:Topknot:

I think i was mistaken, because it looks like the Lee-Moore maze flooding is what i was refering to. This is not exactly my area of expertise, so if you know better, you can certainly change the page. However, i think that the Lee-Moore algorithm can be considered a simplified version of A*. (an examination of the external links on the A* page might make this clear). This simplified version has a very bad heuristic and a uniform path cost. It is not inconceivable that a mouse use A* especially when the locations of the start and goal states are known. This would allow a reasonable heuristic to be formed and would decrease search time. But in these competitions, search time is usually unlimited or very long so the overhead is probably not worth it. If you feel that the A* remark should be replaced with Lee-Moore, then please do so.

--BAxelrod 20:48, 24 Nov 2004 (UTC)

As far as I can tell, in Singapore, and I suspect this being likely in most other countries, micromouses typically use a simple rule-based algorithm. Micromouses are limited in computing capability and code size, the effort needed to implement a more involved algorithm is usually not a worthy tradeoff. The time gained is usually superficial as the standard for calculating runtime is largely based on the speed of the fastrun, and only a fraction of the search-time is considered. Besides, micromouse handlers often want to locate the best path, instead of just settling for "any path".

--Shasderias 12:36, 10 July 2005 (UTC)

Italic texthi this is ajay kumar —Preceding unsigned comment added by 210.212.208.226 (talk) 08:38, 6 February 2008 (UTC)

Needs update for the run times.

6 to 7 seconds!? BAH!

http://spectrum.ieee.org/automaton/robotics/diy/meet-the-new-worlds-fastest-micromouse

Brandon.irwin (talk) 01:21, 22 November 2011 (UTC)

Micromice?
Micromouses, shurely? David Lloyd-Jones (talk) 19:27, 20 September 2018 (UTC)

 * I'm pleased to find that Shasderias, above, agrees with me. In the IBM literature, btw, the things you push a cursor around with on screen are mouses.

 * David Lloyd-Jones (talk) 19:31, 20 September 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Micromouse


text:
New York City draft riots

The New York City draft riots (July 13–16, 1863), sometimes referred to as the Manhattan draft riots and known at the time as Draft Week, were violent disturbances in Lower Manhattan, widely regarded as the culmination of working-class discontent with new laws passed by Congress that year to draft men to fight in the ongoing American Civil War. The riots remain the largest civil urban disturbance in American history. According to Toby Joyce, the riot represented a "civil war" within the city's Irish community, in that "mostly Irish American rioters confronted police, [while] soldiers, and pro-war politicians ... were also to a considerable extent from the local Irish immigrant community."

President Abraham Lincoln diverted several regiments of militia and volunteer troops after the Battle of Gettysburg to control the city. The rioters were overwhelmingly Irish working-class men who did not want to fight in the Civil War and resented that wealthier men, who could afford to pay a $300 commutation fee to hire a substitute, were spared from the draft. At the time a typical laborer's wage was between $1.00 and $2.00 a day, and the fee was.

Initially intended to express anger at the draft, the protests turned into a race riot against African-Americans by Irish rioters. The Irish resented the fact that free black men were paid more than them and did not need to fear being drafted, whereas the Irish could only avoid the draft by paying $300. The official death toll was listed at either 119 or 120 individuals. Conditions in the city were such that Major General John E. Wool, commander of the Department of the East, said on July 16 that "Martial law ought to be proclaimed, but I have not a sufficient force to enforce it."

The military did not reach the city until the second day of rioting, by which time the mobs had ransacked or destroyed numerous public buildings, two Protestant churches, the homes of various abolitionists or sympathizers, many black homes, and the Colored Orphan Asylum at 44th Street and Fifth Avenue, which was burned to the ground. The area's demographics changed as a result of the riot. Many black residents left Manhattan permanently with many moving to Brooklyn. By 1865, the black population had fallen below 11,000 for the first time since 1820.

Background
New York's economy was tied to the South; by 1822, nearly half of its exports were cotton shipments. In addition, upstate textile mills processed cotton in manufacturing. New York had such strong business connections to the South that on January 7, 1861, Mayor Fernando Wood, a Democrat, called on the city's Board of Aldermen to "declare the city's independence from Albany and from Washington"; he said it "would have the whole and united support of the Southern States." When the Union entered the war, New York City had many sympathizers with the South. The city was also a continuing destination of immigrants. Since the 1840s, most were from Ireland and Germany. In 1860, nearly 25 percent of the New York City population was German-born, and many did not speak English. During the 1840s and 1850s, journalists had published sensational accounts, directed at the white working class, dramatizing the evils of interracial socializing, relationships, and marriages. Reformers joined the effort.

The Democratic Party's Tammany Hall political machine had been working to enroll immigrants as U.S. citizens so they could vote in local elections and had strongly recruited Irish. In March 1863, with the war continuing, Congress passed the Enrollment Act to establish a draft for the first time, as more troops were needed. In New York City and other locations, new citizens learned they were expected to register for the draft to fight for their new country. Black men were excluded from the draft as they were largely not considered citizens, and wealthier white men could pay for substitutes.

New York political offices, including the mayor, were historically held by Democrats before the war, but the election of Abraham Lincoln as president had demonstrated the rise in Republican political power nationally. Newly elected New York City Republican Mayor George Opdyke was mired in profiteering scandals in the months leading up to the riots. The Emancipation Proclamation of January 1863 alarmed much of the white working class in New York, who feared that freed slaves would migrate to the city and add further competition to the labor market. There had already been tensions between black and white workers since the 1850s, particularly at the docks, with free black people and immigrants competing for low-wage jobs in the city. In March 1863, white longshoremen refused to work with black laborers and rioted, attacking 200 black men.

Monday
There were reports of rioting in Buffalo, New York, and certain other cities, but the first drawing of draft numbers—on July 11, 1863—occurred peaceably in Manhattan. The second drawing was held on Monday, July 13, 1863, ten days after the Union victory at Gettysburg. At 10 am, a furious crowd of around 500, led by the volunteer firemen of Engine Company 33 (known as the "Black Joke"), attacked the assistant Ninth District provost marshal's office, at Third Avenue and 47th Street, where the draft was taking place.

The crowd threw large paving stones through windows, burst through the doors, and set the building ablaze. When the fire department responded, rioters broke up their vehicles. Others killed horses that were pulling streetcars and smashed the cars. To prevent other parts of the city being notified of the riot, rioters cut telegraph lines.

Since the New York State Militia had been sent to assist Union troops at Gettysburg, the local New York Metropolitan Police Department was the only force on hand to try to suppress the riots. Police Superintendent John Kennedy arrived at the site on Monday to check on the situation. An Irish-American himself, Kennedy was a steadfast unionist. Although he was not in uniform, people in the mob recognized him and attacked him. Kennedy was left nearly unconscious, his face bruised and cut, his eye injured, his lips swollen, and his hand cut with a knife. He had been beaten to a mass of bruises and blood all over his body. Physicians later counted over 70 knife wounds alone. He would never fully recover.

Police drew their clubs and revolvers and charged the crowd but were overpowered. The police were badly outnumbered and unable to quell the riots, but they kept the rioting out of Lower Manhattan below Union Square. Inhabitants of the "Bloody Sixth" Ward, around the South Street Seaport and Five Points areas, refrained from involvement in the rioting. The 19th Company/1st Battalion US Army Invalid Corps which was part of the Provost Guard tried to disperse the mob with a volley of gunfire but were overwhelmed and suffered over 14 injured with 1 soldier missing (believed killed). The Bull's Head hotel on 44th Street, which refused to provide alcohol to the rioters, was burned. The mayor's residence on Fifth Avenue was spared by words of Judge George Gardner Barnard, and the crowd of about 500 turned to another location of pillage. The Eighth and Fifth District police stations, and other buildings were attacked and set on fire. Other targets included the office of the New York Times. The mob was turned back at the Times office by staff manning Gatling guns, including Times founder Henry Jarvis Raymond. Fire engine companies responded, but some firefighters were sympathetic to the rioters because they had also been drafted on Saturday. The New York Tribune was attacked, being looted and burned; not until police arrived and extinguished the flames was the crowd dispersed. Later in the afternoon, authorities shot and killed a man as a crowd attacked the armory at Second Avenue and 21st Street. The mob broke all the windows with paving stones ripped from the street. The mob beat, tortured and/or killed numerous black civilians, including one man who was attacked by a crowd of 400 with clubs and paving stones, then lynched, hanged from a tree and set alight.

The Colored Orphan Asylum at 43rd Street and Fifth Avenue, a "symbol of white charity to blacks and of black upward mobility" that provided shelter for 233 children, was attacked by a mob at around 4 pm. A mob of several thousand, including many women and children, looted the building of its food and supplies. However, the police were able to secure the orphanage for enough time to allow the orphans to escape before the building burned down. Throughout the areas of rioting, mobs attacked and killed numerous black civilians and destroyed their known homes and businesses, such as James McCune Smith's pharmacy at 93 West Broadway, believed to be the first owned by a black man in the United States.

Near the midtown docks, tensions brewing since the mid-1850s boiled over. As recently as March 1863, white employers had hired black longshoremen, with whom many White men refused to work. Rioters went into the streets in search of "all the negro porters, cartmen and laborers" to attempt to remove all evidence of a black and interracial social life from the area near the docks. White dockworkers attacked and destroyed brothels, dance halls, boarding houses, and tenements that catered to black people. Mobs stripped the clothing off the white owners of these businesses.

Tuesday
Heavy rain fell on Monday night, helping to abate the fires and sending rioters home, but the crowds returned the next day. Rioters burned down the home of Abby Gibbons, a prison reformer and the daughter of abolitionist Isaac Hopper. They also attacked white "amalgamationists", such as Ann Derrickson and Ann Martin, two white women who were married to black men, and Mary Burke, a white prostitute who catered to black men.

Governor Horatio Seymour arrived on Tuesday and spoke at City Hall, where he attempted to assuage the crowd by proclaiming that the Conscription Act was unconstitutional. General John E. Wool, commander of the Eastern District, brought approximately 800 soldiers and Marines in from forts in New York Harbor, West Point, and the Brooklyn Navy Yard. He ordered the militias to return to New York.

Wednesday
The situation improved July 15 when assistant provost-marshal-general Robert Nugent received word from his superior officer, Colonel James Barnet Fry, to postpone the draft. As this news appeared in newspapers, some rioters stayed home. But some of the militias began to return and used harsh measures against the remaining rioters. The rioting spread to Brooklyn and Staten Island.

Thursday
Order began to be restored on July 16. The New York State Militia and some federal troops were returned to New York, including the 152nd New York Volunteers, the 26th Michigan Volunteers, the 27th Indiana Volunteers and the 7th Regiment New York State Militia from Frederick, Maryland, after a forced march. In addition, the governor sent in the 74th and 65th regiments of the New York State Militia, which had not been in federal service, and a section of the 20th Independent Battery, New York Volunteer Artillery from Fort Schuyler in Throggs Neck. The New York State Militia units were the first to arrive. There were several thousand militia and Federal troops in the city.

A final confrontation occurred in the evening near Gramercy Park. According to Adrian Cook, twelve people died on this last day of the riots in skirmishes between rioters, the police, and the Army.

The New York Times reported on Thursday that Plug Uglies and Blood Tubs gang members from Baltimore, as well as "Scuykill Rangers [sic] and other rowdies of Philadelphia", had come to New York during the unrest to participate in the riots alongside the Dead Rabbits and "Mackerelvillers". The Times editorialized that "the scoundrels cannot afford to miss this golden opportunity of indulging their brutal natures, and at the same time serving their colleagues the Copperheads and secesh [secessionist] sympathizers."

Aftermath
The exact death toll during the New York draft riots is unknown, but according to historian James M. McPherson, 119 or 120 people were killed. Although other estimates list the death toll as high as 1,200. Violence by longshoremen against black men was especially fierce in the docks area:

"West of Broadway, below Twenty-sixth, all was quiet at 9 o'clock last night. A crowd was at the corner of Seventh avenue and Twenty-seventh Street at that time. This was the scene of the hanging of a negro in the morning, and another at 6 o'clock in the evening.  The body of the one hung in the morning presented a shocking appearance at the Station-House.  His fingers and toes had been sliced off, and there was scarcely an inch of his flesh which was not gashed.  Late in the afternoon, a negro was dragged out of his house in West Twenty-seventh street, beaten down on the sidewalk, pounded in a horrible manner, and then hanged to a tree."

In all, eleven black men and boys were hanged over five days. Among the murdered black people was the seven-year-old nephew of Bermudian First Sergeant Robert John Simmons of the 54th Massachusetts Infantry Regiment, whose account of fighting in South Carolina, written on the approach to Fort Wagner July 18, 1863, was to be published in the New York Tribune on December 23, 1863 (Simmons having died in August of wounds received in the attack on Fort Wagner).

The most reliable estimates indicate at least 2,000 people were injured. Herbert Asbury, the author of the 1928 book Gangs of New York, upon which the 2002 film was based, puts the figure much higher, at 2,000 killed and 8,000 wounded, a number that some dispute. Total property damage was about $1–5 million (equivalent to $ – $ in ). The city treasury later indemnified one-quarter of the amount.

Historian Samuel Eliot Morison wrote that the riots were "equivalent to a Confederate victory". Fifty buildings, including two Protestant churches and the Colored Orphan Asylum, were burned to the ground. The orphans at the asylum were first put under siege, then the building was set on fire, before all those who attempted to escape were forced to walk through a "beating line" of white rioters holding clubs. To escape, they would need to run through the gauntlet as the rioters viciously attacked them. Many did not manage the escape. 4,000 federal troops had to be pulled out of the Gettysburg Campaign to suppress the riots, troops that could have aided in pursuing the battered Army of Northern Virginia as it retreated out of Union territory. During the riots, landlords, fearing that the mob would destroy their buildings, drove black residents from their homes. As a result of the violence against them, hundreds of black people left New York, including physician James McCune Smith and his family, moving to Williamsburg, Brooklyn, or New Jersey.

The white elite in New York organized to provide relief to black riot victims, helping them find new work and homes. The Union League Club and the Committee of Merchants for the Relief of Colored People provided nearly $40,000 to 2,500 victims of the riots. By 1865 the black population in the city had dropped to under 10,000, the lowest since 1820. The white working-class riots had changed the demographics of the city, and white residents exerted their control in the workplace; they became "unequivocally divided" from the black population.

On August 19, the government resumed the draft in New York. It was completed within 10 days without further incident. Fewer men were drafted than had been feared by the white working class: of the 750,000 selected nationwide for conscription, only about 45,000 were sent into active duty.

While the rioting mainly involved the white working class, middle and upper-class New Yorkers had split sentiments on the draft and use of federal power or martial law to enforce it. Many wealthy Democratic businessmen sought to have the draft declared unconstitutional. Tammany Democrats did not seek to have the draft declared unconstitutional, but they helped pay the commutation fees for those who were drafted.

In December 1863, the Union League Club recruited more than 2,000 black soldiers, outfitted and trained them, honoring and sending men off with a parade through the city to the Hudson River docks in March 1864. A crowd of 100,000 watched the procession, which was led by police and members of the Union League Club.

New York's support for the Union cause continued, however grudgingly, and gradually Southern sympathies declined in the city. New York banks eventually financed the Civil War, and the state's industries were more productive than those of the entire Confederacy. By the end of the war, more than 450,000 soldiers, sailors, and militia had enlisted from New York State, which was the most populous state at the time. A total of 46,000 military men from New York State died during the war, more from disease than wounds, as was typical of most combatants.

New York Metropolitan Police Department
New York Metropolitan Police Department under the command of Superintendent John A. Kennedy. Commissioners Thomas Coxon Acton and John G. Bergen took command when Kennedy was seriously injured by a mob during the early stages of the riots. Of the NYPD Officers-there were four fatalities-1 killed and 3 died of injuries

New York State Militia
1st Division: Major General Charles W. Sandford

Unorganized Militia:

Union Army
Department of the East: Major General John E. Wool headquartered in New York

Defenses of New York City: Brevet Brigadier General Harvey Brown, Brig. General Edward R. S. Canby
 * Artillery: Captain Henry F. Putnam, 12th United States Infantry Regiment.
 * Provost marshals tasked with overseeing the initial enforcement of the draft:
 * Provost Marshal General U.S.A.: Colonel James Fry
 * Provost Marshal General New York City: Colonel Robert Nugent (During the first day of rioting on July 13, 1863, in command of the Invalid Corps: 1st Battalion)

Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton authorized five regiments from Gettysburg, mostly federalized state militia and volunteer units from the Army of the Potomac, to reinforce the New York City Police Department. By the end of the riots, there were more than 4,000 soldiers garrisoned in the troubled area.

Fiction

 * Wilderness: A Tale of the Civil War (1961) by Robert Penn Warren
 * The Banished Children of Eve, A Novel of Civil War New York (1995) by Peter Quinn
 * My Notorious Life: A Novel (2014) by Kate Manning
 * On Secret Service (2000) by John Jakes
 * Paradise Alley (2003) by Kevin Baker
 * New York: the Novel (2009) by Edward Rutherfurd
 * Grant Comes East (2004) by Newt Gingrich
 * Last Descendants (2016) by Matthew J. Kirby
 * Riot (2009) by Walter Dean Myers
 * A Wish After Midnight (2008) by Zetta Elliott, speculative fiction set in Brooklyn alternating between the early 21st century and 1863.
 * Libertie (2021) by Kaitlyn Greenidge
 * Moon and the Mars (2021) by Kia Corthron
 * Booth (2021) by Karen Joy Fowler

Television, theatre and film

 * The short-lived 1968 Broadway musical Maggie Flynn was set in the Tobin Orphanage for black children (modeled on the Colored Orphan Asylum).
 * Gangs of New York (2002), a film directed by Martin Scorsese, includes a fictionalized portrayal of the New York Draft Riots in its finale.
 * Paradise Square (2018), a musical that had its Broadway debut in 2022, depicts events that led up to and included the New York Draft Riots.
 * Copper (2012), a BBC America television series about the Five Points in New York City in 1864-1865, has flashbacks to the riots and the lynchings which took place in the area.

title: New York City draft riots


text:
The Big Impression

The Big Impression, known as Alistair McGowan's Big Impression for the first three series, is a British comedy sketch show. It features Alistair McGowan and Ronni Ancona impersonating personalities from entertainment and sport. Four series and a number of specials were made by Vera Productions and it was first broadcast on BBC One between 1999 and 2004.

The series has won five awards, including the BAFTA TV Award for Best Comedy Programme or Series in 2003.

Production
McGowan and Ancona first met at a comedy club, and later started dating. They worked together on a number of projects, with their first television series being The Staggering Stories of Ferdinand de Bargos in 1989. After performing in his own show in Edinburgh in 1998, McGowan was approached by a BBC executive about working on a series, which he wanted Ancona to be involved in. Alistair McGowan's Big Impression first aired as a pilot on BBC One in 1999, running to a full series in 2000, with the couple splitting up just before filming began. Speaking with The Independent, Ancona said working on the series was "exciting but it was tricky and there were some very low points. [...] But, if anything, the tension added a little frisson to some of the sketches and it made the show better."

For the fourth series in 2003, McGowan's name was dropped from the show's title.

Alistair McGowan
There have been many characters that Alistair McGowan and Ronni Ancona have impersonated. Some celebrities that McGowan has done impressions of include:

 * Charles, Prince of Wales
 * Lawrence Llewelyn-Bowen
 * Richard Madeley
 * David Beckham
 * Michael Parkinson
 * Robert Kilroy Silk
 * Angus Deayton
 * Jonathan Ross
 * Huw Edwards
 * Gary Lineker
 * Robert Winston
 * Sven-Göran Eriksson
 * Alan Davies (As Jonathan from Jonathan Creek)
 * Craig Cash (As Dave Best from The Royle Family)
 * Michael Douglas
 * Alan Titchmarsh
 * Tony Blair
 * June Brown (As Dot Branning from EastEnders and a version of Albert Steptoe) in spoof "Cotton & Son")
 * John Altman (As Nick Cotton from EastEnders with the voice of Harold Steptoe in spoof "Cotton & Son")
 * Cary Grant
 * Terry Wogan
 * Trinny Woodall
 * Billy Connolly
 * Griff Rhys Jones
 * Leonard Rossiter
 * Kevin Keegan
 * Nicky Campbell
 * Jeremy Clarkson
 * Brian May
 * Frank Butcher

Ronni Ancona
Some celebrities that Ancona has done impressions of include:

 * Judy Finnigan
 * Carol Smillie
 * Victoria Beckham
 * Ruby Wax
 * Barbara Windsor (As Peggy Mitchell from EastEnders)
 * Caroline Aherne (As Denise Best/Royle from The Royle Family)
 * Catherine Zeta-Jones
 * Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall
 * Davina McCall
 * Christine Hamilton
 * Nigella Lawson
 * Audrey Hepburn
 * Jennie Bond
 * Jerry Hall
 * Charlie Dimmock
 * Jessie Wallace (As Kat Slater from EastEnders)
 * Lorraine Kelly
 * Nancy Dell'Olio
 * Susannah Constantine
 * Sharon Osbourne
 * Penélope Cruz

Episodes
A pilot and four series of the programme were made between 1999 and 2003.

Special episodes
There have also been a number of one-off specials, including:
 * Alistair McGowan's 2000 Impressions (30 December 2000)
 * Alistair McGowan's Big 'Enders (10 August 2001)
 * The Big Impression Christmas Special (25 December 2001)
 * Alistair McGowan's Big World Cup (31 May 2002)
 * Alistair McGowan's Big Jubilee (2 June 2002)
 * The Big Impression Christmas Special (25 December 2002)
 * Posh & Becks' Big Impression (25 December 2003)
 * The Big Impression Euro 2004 Special (10 June 2004)

Awards
The series has been nominated for a number of awards, winning one from BAFTA, two from the Royal Television Society, and two British Comedy Awards.

title: The Big Impression


text:
Eugène Rambert

Eugène Rambert (6 April 1830 – 21 November 1886), was a Swiss author and poet.

Life
He was born at Sâles near Swiss Clarens, the eldest son of a Vaudois schoolmaster, from whom he received his education. When in 1845 his father lost his post owing to the religious disputes, Rambert became a teacher in Paris, and later a tutor in England and at Geneva. When the family's fortunes improved, Rambert was able to pursue his studies for the ministry, but he was more attracted by literature, and in 1855 became professor of French literature at the academy of Lausanne, and in 1860 at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zürich, where he remained till 1881, when he again became professor at Lausanne.

His principal work, Les Alpes suisses (5 vols., 1866–1875; republished with large additions, according to his own scheme, in 6 volumes, 1887–1889), is a mine of miscellaneous information on the subject. He also published several volumes of poetry, as well as a volume entitled Écrivains nationaux (1874, republished 1889), and biographies of the pietist Alexandre Vinet (1875), of the poet Juste Olivier (1879) and of the artist Alexandre Calame (1883).

Rambert's Dernières Poesies were edited (1903) by Henri Warnery, whose Eugène Rambert (Lausanne, 1890) contains a critical estimate.

authors: Я сошла с ума

title: Eugène Rambert