text:
Illinois Confederation

The Illinois Confederation, also referred to as the Illiniwek or Illini, were made up of 12 to 13 tribes who lived in the Mississippi River Valley. Eventually member tribes occupied an area reaching from Lake Michicigao (Michigan) to Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, and Arkansas. The five main tribes were the Cahokia, Kaskaskia, Michigamea, Peoria, and Tamaroa. The spelling Illinois was derived from the transliteration by French explorers of iliniwe to the orthography of their own language. The tribes are estimated to have had tens of thousands of members, before the advancement of European contact in the 17th century that inhibited their growth and resulted in a marked decline in population.

The Illinois, like many Native American groups, sustained themselves through agriculture, hunting, and fishing. A partially nomadic group, the Illinois often lived in longhouses and wigwams, according to the season and resources that were available to them in the surrounding land. While the men usually hunted, traded, or participated in war, the women cultivated and processed their crops, created tools and clothing from game, and preserved food in various ways for storage and travel. Not officially a Confederation, the villages were led by one Great Chief. The villages had several chiefs who led each individual clan. The Illinois people eventually declined because of losses to infectious disease and war, mostly brought through the arrival of French colonists.

Eventually, they reorganized under the name of the Confederated Peoria. They are now known as the federally recognized "Peoria Tribe of Indians" and reside in present-day Oklahoma.

Name
French missionaries who documented their interactions with the tribes note that the people referred to themselves as the Inoka. The meaning of this word is unknown. Jacques Marquette, a French Jesuit missionary, claimed that Illinois was derived from Illini in their Algonquian language, meaning 'the men'. Louis Hennepin claimed the aforementioned men were a symbol of maturity and strength, and representative of the prime of a man's age.

In the 21st century, however, linguistic research demonstrates that ilinois derives indirectly from irenweewa, meaning 'he speaks in the ordinary way'. When the French encountered the Ojibwa, who occupied neighboring areas around the eastern Great Lakes, their pronunciation for this concept sounded to the French like ilinwe. Ilinwe is the singular form of ilinwek. The French explorers who first heard it recorded it in various transliterated forms, such as "liniouek", "Aliniouek", "Iliniouek", and "Abimiouec". For the French, the singular form evolved into the commonly known "Illinois".

Formation
The Illinois Confederation comprised 12 separate tribes who shared common language and culture. These tribes are the Kaskaskia, Cahokia, Peoria, Tamaroa, Moingwena, Michigamea, Chepoussa, Chinkoa, Coiracoentanon, Espeminkia, Maroa, and Tapouara. Of these 12, only the Kaskaskia, Cahokia, Peoria, Tamaora, and Michigamea remain; others were lost as distinct tribes to disease and warfare. When the Illinois were first documented by Europeans in the 17th century, they were said to be a population of about 10,000 people. Although the number has significantly reduced, many of their descendants are today part of the Peoria Tribe of Miami, Oklahoma, as part of the merged Confederated Peoria Tribe.

Interactions with Europeans
It is thought that when the French first encountered the Illiniwek tribes, there were as many as 10,000 members living in a vast area stretching from Lake Michigan out to the heart of Iowa and as far south as Arkansas. In the 1670s, the French found a village of the Kaskaskia, in the Illinois River valley (the later site of present-day Utica), a village of Peoria in present-day Iowa (near the later site of Keokuk), and a village of the Michigamea in northeast Arkansas.

The Kaskaskia village, also known as the Grand Village of the Illinois, was the largest and best-known village of the Illinois tribes. In 1675 the French established a Catholic mission, called the Mission of the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin, and a fur trading post near the village. The population increased to about 6,000 people in about 460 houses. Before long, however, Eurasian infectious diseases and the ongoing Beaver Wars brought high mortality to the Illiniwek, causing their population to plummet over the coming decades.

The French named the area Pays des Illinois (meaning "country of the Illinois [plural"), which came to be a common name in referring to the homeland of the Illinois. The early French explorers, including Louis Jolliet, Jacques Marquette and René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, produced accounts that documented the first discovery of the Illinois. Because of these developments, the Illinois tribes became well known to European explorers. European colonization, values, and religion began to affect the tribes.

In the late 17th century, the Iroquois, to expand their region and control the fur trade, forced the Kaskaskia and other Illinois out of their villages. They relocated to the south. Although the Illinois fought back against their primary enemy at the time, the wars scattered and killed many of their members. Eventually they reclaimed some of their lands.

In the early 1700s, the Illinois became involved in the conflict between the Meskwaki, also known as "Fox", and the French, known as the Fox Wars. In 1722, the Meskwaki attacked the Peoria for having killed the nephew of one of their chiefs, and forced them onto Starved Rock. The Peoria sent out messengers asking for help from the French, but by the time they reached the site, many of the Peoria warriors had been killed. The French and their Illini, Miami, Potawatomi and Sac allies continued to battle the Meskwaki, but were unsuccessful until 1730. That year they besieged a Fox village on the Sangamon River and conducted a brutal attack.

By the mid 1700s, the 12 or 13 tribes of the Confederation had dwindled to five: the Cahokia, Kaskaskia, Michigamea, Peoria, and Tamaroa. European diseases drastically reduced the numbers of the Illinois. The wars had arisen due to the conflicts between tribes for resources and trade goods, or were initiated by European explorers looking to expand their land. The remaining descendants of the Illinois Confederation have merged with the Peoria and are known as the Peoria Tribe of Indians and reside in Ottawa County, Oklahoma.

Dissolution
Some of the Illinois people's prominent enemies were the Lakota (Sioux), Osage, Pawnee, Sac and Fox Nation and Arikara to the west and the Quapaw, Shawnee, and Chickasaw to the south. Although these tribes were consistent threats, the Iroquois became the most pressing enemy of the Illinois beginning in the late 1600s. The Iroquois, hoping to replace deceased kin through adoption and looking for new hunting grounds after exhausting their own resources, killed or captured many Illinois people through their war parties. Other than the internal conflict among the tribes themselves, the Illinois also faced threat from European forces that stirred conflict with them and started wars, some of in which the Illinois were recruited as allies.

Additionally, with the expansion of European and Iroquois contact, the Illinois were exposed to a variety of new diseases that caused high mortality among them. Through war and foreign disease, the Illinois population drastically declined to a village of about 300 people by 1778. Pushed out by the Iroquois and Shawnee and facing more numerous European settlers, the Illinois accepted a reservation in 1832 at the Big Muddy River south of Kaskaskia. But within a few months, they ceded the rest of their territory and migrated in order to settle on a reservation in Eastern Kansas.

In 1854, the Illinois merged with the Wea and Piankashaw nations, renaming themselves as the Confederated Peoria Tribe. In 1867, they resettled in a new reservation in Northeast Oklahoma and were eventually joined by members of the Miami Tribe, who became an official part of their new confederation in 1873. Lasting about 50 years, the United Peoria and Miami Tribe dissolved in the 1920s. The remaining members of the Peoria Confederation reorganized, seeking federal recognition by the U.S. government, and were officially acknowledged by 1978. The remaining descendants of the Illinois Confederation are today found within the Peoria in Ottawa County, Oklahoma.

Language
Miami and Illinois are dialects of the same Algonquian language, spoken in Indiana and later Oklahoma. Though no native speakers of the language remain, language revival efforts are ongoing, and children from both the Miami and Peoria nations are learning to speak their ancestral language again. Miami–Illinois is a polysynthetic language with complex verb morphology and fairly free word order.

The Algonquian language is a North American Indian language family that was spoken in Canada, New England, the Atlantic coastal region, and the Great Lakes region, moving towards the Rocky Mountains. Although there are numerous Algonquian languages, such as Cree, Ojibwa, Blackfoot, and Cheyenne, the term "Algonquin" is employed to refer to the dialect of Ojibwa, which is used by the Illinois. Today, there are no native speakers of the language, although revival movements are making efforts to keep the language alive.

Gender
Like most Native American tribes, the men of the Illinois were mainly hunters and warriors while the women had domestic and agricultural roles. However, records show that some women also had positions of leadership, including those for ritualistic purposes. Amidst a polygamous society, the first wives held superiority in their families, and held leadership roles in the household. Additionally, some women were shamans and priests, thus holding great power in the community. They enacted powers that could lead to death, and were thus both revered and feared by both men and women. Women were sometimes granted hunting tasks upon communal hunts, but were denied the use of any weapons, thus making it difficult to participate in this activity. Outside of religion, women could achieve status in the village through domestic activities and through harvest. Growing bountiful produce, raising many children, and being a faithful wife were signs that led to an elevated status as well as respect among the natives. Men, on the other hand, could receive status through their achievements in battle and demonstrating courage and bravery. The capacity of their hunting skills led to a greater number of wives, which also promised respect in the villages. Within these polygamous marriages, wives who were unfaithful were punished severely, sometimes by having parts of their face cut off.

Outside of stereotypical social roles, some Illinois men played out the roles of women, likening their appearance to them. These people were called the Ikoneta, and referred to by the French as berdache. Current ethnographers considers the Ikoneta to have been bisexual. While these roles were more deliberate, young boys that demonstrated feminine tendencies were brought up as girls in both outerwear and domestic roles. As according to culture, they were tattooed and taught the language patterns that were specific to women.

Religion
People of all social roles and positions were very religious, relying on spiritual guidance to dictate every aspect of their lives. Hunters depended on spirits in catching wild animals, warriors asked the spirits for guidance before warfare, and shamans were regularly employed to absolve matters concerning physical and mental health. However, with the arrival of the European missionaries in the late 1600s, Jesuit missions were established as a means to convert the Illinois to Christianity. While a great portion of the tribes eventually converted, some tribal elders rejected the religions and worked to retain their beliefs in the spirit world.

Traditions
The Illinois men and women practiced dream seeking, a ritual in which young boys and girls of about fifteen years of age would paint their face and isolate themselves to fast and pray as a means to reveal to them a specific spirit guardian upon which they would depend on to guide them for the rest of their lives. Called manitou, this vision quest was an important part of becoming an adult in the lives of the Illinois.

The Illinois had two burial procedures. One is the burial of bodies that were intact, and the other for burials of skeletons that were placed on scaffolds prior to the ceremony. Only people of the same gender and age of the dead person could participate as a part of their burial crew. For bodies that were intact, the cadavers were ceremonially dressed and placed in their grave along with funeral objects that would accompany them into the afterlife. A wooden cover is placed over their graves in order to prevent animals and environmental factors from disturbing the grave.

Economy
The economy of the Illinois people was based on agriculture, hunting, and fishing. They depended heavily on agriculture, and generally had villages located near rivers where the soil was most fertile. Maize was the primary crop, but the Illinois also planted beans, squash, pumpkins, and watermelons, and gathered wild foods in the forests. Maize was planted in late spring and harvested prematurely in July, at which point most was preserved in order to prepare for the coming winter. The second harvest collected ripened maize, which were eaten during warmer months. Fish was plentiful in the Illinois river, but the Illinois generally did not rely on fishing as sustenance. Hunters primarily sought bison, which were also numerous in the northern Illinois prairies. Hunting expeditions set out as individuals or groups, although sometimes in communal groups in which even women were able to participate. Annual bison hunts often necessitated groups of up to 300 people. In bison hunts, groups would split into several groups and surround the bison on foot. When in close proximity, the hunters would shoot their arrows and spears and force the animal in the opposite direction, towards the rest of the hunting party. The women had the task of butchering the bison and would preserve the meat by drying and heating it in order to prepare for the winter, when hunting was not possible.

At the time of European contact, the Illinois economy was largely self-sufficient. In the course of their yearly activities, the Illinois people produced virtually all of the foodstuffs and other material products they needed to maintain their way of life. However, the Illinois also participated in an extensive trading network. In exchange for hides, furs, and human slaves obtained from tribes living to their south and west, the Illinois traded with Great Lakes tribes and French traders for guns and other European goods. As time passed, traders and missionaries began to settle among the Illinois and their formerly self-sufficient economy became increasingly dependent upon their French allies.

The Illinois seasonally lived in wigwams and longhouses, depending on the weather and the resources available to them. Like most other tribes, they lived in villages with dwellings that were occupied by a number of different families.

Warfare
In the beginning of February, war chiefs of each tribes organized raids against enemies, who included the Pawnee and the Quapaw, and later on, the five tribes of the Iroquois Confederacy. Prior to each battle, 20 warriors were invited by the war chief to a feast, in which the men would pray to their manitou for strengths such as speed and endurance when fighting in battle. For campaigns involving larger numbers of enemies, war parties involving both men and women were organized in the villages. To the Illinois, capturing of prisoners was preferred over death, although some prisoners were eventually killed or forced into slavery. The Illinois preferred arrows and spears over guns, finding them slower than the use of their own weapons. The noise of guns was sometimes employed against other tribal nations that had never before seen or heard such a weapon to frighten them before battle.

Government
Although specific dates are unknown, the Illinois Confederation had at one time been one large nation without any divisions of smaller tribes. They were divided into smaller groups once their population proved to be too large to meet effective hunting and agricultural needs. But even after the split, all the tribes maintained a strong sense of unification as one nation of the Illini. The structures of authority are set out to have one central authority, called the Great Chief, and Chiefs under him that lead each individual tribe. One such Great Chief that is noteworthy in European history is Mamantouensa, who even traveled to France. Direct political leadership was established and maintained by peace chiefs, who were in charge of organizing communal hunting expeditions and communicating with leaders of other tribes. Although highly respected, peace chiefs did not have the authority of village chiefs, and made decisions that were enforced through persuasion over force. War chiefs had the power to plan and lead raids on other tribes. These roles were not inherited, but could be achieved through a demonstration of great battle skills, as well as through convincing the other warriors that his manitou could guide them into a successful raid. For those who died in the battle, it was the war chief's role to compensate the families of the deceased through gifts and lead another raid against those who killed the warrior as a means to enact vengeance. Primarily only men were allowed to be chiefs, although women sometimes had leadership roles in the community as village chiefs.

Though chiefs had the authority of political power and were widely respected by the people, the egalitarian society of the Ilinois presented a more democratic environment in which important decisions that effected the community were made by tribal consensus. It was only through the expansion of European ideals and direct contact with French officials that influenced the chiefs to wield greater power over their people. By the 1760s, the rise of a new chief had to be approved by colonial authorities.

Because a true confederation refers to different groups of people who, although linked as one nation, are culturally distinct, the Illinois, in the direct definition of the word, are more a segmented tribe rather than a confederation. They share a common language and are culturally similar throughout their tribes. Instead of having multiple individual tribe leaders that assume full authority, the Illinois also had one Grand Chief that centralized power over all of the tribes.

Settlements
There are conflicting reports as to the number of villages and populations of the Illinois, both among the tribes and as a whole. When Europeans first documented the nation, the Illinois had villages along the Mississippi and Illinois River and a population of about eight or nine thousand. However, another report counts only five villages and about two thousand people. The former is considered to be a more accurate representation, and the Illinois are said to number 10,500 people at the time of European contact.

title: Illinois Confederation


text:
Realm (disambiguation)

A realm is the dominion of a king or queen; a kingdom. Realm may also more broadly refer to everything which falls within a certain set of parameters.

Realm may also refer to:

Maths and science

 * biogeographic realm, the largest scale bio-geographic division of the Earth's surface
 * A hyperplane in geometry
 * Domain (biology), the highest taxonomic rank of life, also called realm
 * Realm (virology), the highest taxonomic rank of viruses

Religion

 * Realm, an English translation for two terms in Buddhist cosmology:
 * Trailokya, or three realms
 * Six realms (gati)
 * Plane (esotericism)

Information technology

 * Realm (database), an object database and platform created primarily for mobile devices maintained by Realm Inc.
 * A URL pattern in OpenID protocol, for which the OpenID authentication is valid
 * An ID for an instance of a server software- HTTP transmits Realm when answering to a Basic access authentication request to distinguish different areas on server
 * A scope of operation in networking or in security — as in Active Directory realms

Arts and media

 * Realms (album), by Cindy Wilson, 2023
 * Realm (magazine), a British coffee-table magazine
 * Realm Media, formerly Serial Box, an American audio entertainment company
 * "Realms", a song by Hawkwind from Space Bandits
 * The Realm (film), a 2018 Spanish thriller film

Games

 * Realm (World of Warcraft), a server cluster for playing World of Warcraft
 * Realm (video game), a 1996 platform shooter
 * Realms (video game), a 1991 real-time strategy game by Graftgold
 * The Realm Online, one of the first massively multiplayer online role-playing games

Other uses

 * Commonwealth realm, one of the states of the Commonwealth of Nations that recognize King Charles III as monarch
 * German Reich, or German Realm, the nation state of the German people

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Realm (disambiguation)


text: Talk:Jerry Garcia

title: Talk:Jerry Garcia


text:
Castro Theatre

The Castro Theatre is a historic movie palace in the Castro District of San Francisco, California. The venue became San Francisco Historic Landmark #100 in September 1976. Located at 429 Castro Street, it was built in 1922 with a California Churrigueresque façade that pays homage—in its great arched central window surmounted by a scrolling pediment framing a niche—to the basilica of Mission Dolores nearby. Its designer, Timothy L. Pflueger, also designed Oakland's Paramount Theater and other movie theaters in California during that period. The theater has more than 1,400 seats (approx. 800 downstairs and 600 in the balcony).

Location and history
The Castro Theatre originally opened at 479 Castro Street in 1910. It was subsequently remodeled into a retail store (currently occupied by Cliff's Variety, since 1971) in the mid-1920s after the larger Castro Theatre was built at 429 Castro Street, its current location, only a few doors up from the original theatre.

The Castro Theatre is located on Castro Street near the intersection of Market and 17th Streets, across from the Castro Street Station on the Muni Metro subway.

The new Castro Theatre opened on June 22, 1922, for an invitation-only screening, with Mayor James "Sunny Jim" Rolph in attendance, of the Paramount Pictures release Across the Continent (1922), starring Wallace Reid. The new Castro Theatre opened the following day to the general public.

The Nasser brothers, who built the theatre and whose family members still own it, also owned several other movie houses in the San Francisco area. The interior is luxurious and ornate, with subtly convex and concave walls and ceilings, and a dramatic "Mighty Wurlitzer" pipe organ that is played before films and events. The large neon "Castro" sign is emblematic of both the theatre and the Castro District.

Current events
Until the COVID pandemic lockdown early in 2020, the Castro Theatre hosted repertory movies, film festivals, and special events, often with an LGBT and multicultural focus, such as the San Francisco International Film Festival, Frameline: the SF International Lesbian and Gay Film Festival, Noir City: The Film Noir Festival, the SF International Asian American Film Festival, the SF International South Asian Film Festival, Berlin and Beyond: German Film Festival, the San Francisco Jewish Film Festival, SF Indiefest, the San Francisco Silent Film Festival, Midnites For Maniacs, and the Shock It To Me! Classic Horror Film Festival.

In recent years, the Castro Theatre also was the site for gala tributes to many legendary Hollywood stars including Tony Curtis, Ann-Margret, Debbie Reynolds, Mitzi Gaynor, Ann Miller, Kim Novak, Jane Russell, and Sandra Dee—many of the events produced by local impresario Marc Huestis.

In January 2008, for the filming of the Gus Van Sant biopic Milk, restorations were made to the neon on the theater's marquee and blade sign, and the facade was repainted. The movie about the life and times of Harvey Milk, the San Francisco city Supervisor who was California's first openly gay elected official (portrayed by actor Sean Penn, who won an Academy Award for his performance), had its world premiere at the theater in November 2008.

The theater can project modern digital formats such as 4K DCP with 5.1 Dolby sound and can accurately reproduce the classic silent film experience by projecting custom frame rates anywhere between 12 and 30 frames per second, including the ability to speed up or slow down during a film. The Castro is capable of showing 70mm films and is one of the few theaters in the world that can show a 70mm film with separate DTS soundtrack.

APE partnership and historic restoration
In January 2022, during an extended closure due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Berkeley-based concert promoter Another Planet Entertainment announced that it had leased the Castro Theater from Bay Properties, the theater's owner, to reopen in January 2023, refocusing on presenting live music, in addition to film, comedy, and other events. APE also announced plans to update the theater by implementing significant improvements to the sound, lighting, production, HVAC, and the theatre's trademark marquee.

APE's management of the space raised questions about the hosting of movies at the theatre, as the local film community was anxious that the change could mean the end of the theatre's legacy as a repertory movie house. Complaints also arose over the future of the organ located there.

Historic preservation campaign
Plans for the Castro Theatre announced by APE also have produced sustained opposition from historic preservation advocates and promoters of LGBTQ intangible cultural heritage. APE has proposed destroying the historic configuration of the orchestra (the main floor of the auditorium) by demolishing or building over the historic raked floor and aisles to install flat terraces for standing-room music shows with optional temporary chairs. Although APE has offered various modifications to the plan since its initial proposal, none involve preserving the classic movie-palace seating.

A "Save the Seats" campaign bringing together members of the international film community and the LGBTQ community has argued that the movie-palace seating is integral to the historic integrity of the Castro Theatre and that the venue can be run successfully without destroying the form of the orchestra which reflects its original configuration from 1922. Among the groups leading the campaign are the Castro Theatre Conservancy, an independent nonprofit; the Castro LGBTQ Cultural District, a City-recognized organization devoted to preserving and promoting the intangible LGBTQ cultural heritage of the Castro District; and the Friends of the Castro Theatre Coalition, an unincorporated association of community organizations and individuals.

Castro Symphonic Theatre Organ
The organ was originally a Robert Morton, but it was removed in 1962. The Wurlitzer that became a symbol of the theatre was added in the 1980s, but was removed in 2015 after its owner decided to move to Sacramento, taking a quarter of the pipework with him. A 3-manual Allen was used as a temporary instrument while a major new installation was being undertaken.

The new instrument is considered the largest hybrid organ ever built, with 7 manuals and over 400 registers available. The organ has just 1,200 physical pipes, borrowed from a Wurlitzer/Kimball instrument, as the 16 ranks that were meant to be installed proved too complex and expensive to restore. The size was meant to achieve a near-infinite tonal palette, and in addition to organ tone, the sixth manual is capable of controlling a virtual orchestra, with technology provided by Audio Impressions. The bottom manual was extended to 88 notes to be able to play a full compass piano.

Despite the larger instrument, the basic stops found on a theatre organ are being maintained. The theatre portion of the instrument will reflect the 37-rank Fox Specials that were offered by Wurlitzer in the 1920s.

The console of the instrument was designed with ergonomics in mind, so that every tab can be reached during a performance, while the manuals are based on a mock-up design to ensure the best ergonomics for the performer.

The specifications are located here:

title: Castro Theatre


text:
Talk:Hedeby

Links in notes
Links for notes 4 and 5 (http://www.denmark.org/about_denmark/factsheets_articles/factsheets_vikings.html) seems to be expired. I haven't (so far) been able to find a good substitute, so I left it as it is. The information/quote is AFAIK correct after all.

EaCalendula (talk) 14:50, 12 October 2008 (UTC)

Naming issues
on talk:Truso, it was remarked:

 * I think Haithabu was changed because in English we say Hedeby. JHK

 * Yes, the problem with Haithabu is fundamentally one of the runic transliteration into English. It is very seldom referred to as Haithabu in English. sjc

Future work on this article
Temporary note: I'm in the middle of a mid-term overhaul and expansion of this article. Areas to which attention might be directed (and which I might get round to myself):
 * Geopolitical significance of Hedeby (section)
 * Brief references to: slavery, castle during Otto's occupation, Ansgar church (+ medieval church still in use today)
 * Reconstruction: expand, more pics
 * A pic of the ship (if can get)
 * English-language books and articles (if they exist)
 * A lot more footnotes with sources

Caravaca 18:08, 19 January 2006 (UTC)

Thirty-five or so years ago I visited Schleswig & a Viking museum there: a place I was told I shouldn't miss (on display were many Viking artifacts & the peat-preserved corpse of a young girl who'd been murdered). Since it isn't cited here as a place of interest on the Schleswig page & I don't remember the name, I was wondering whether anyone more familiar with 21st-cent. Schleswig knew of this museum: its name & exactly where it is. BubbleDine (talk) 11:27, 1 May 2008 (UTC)

Map of Viking Denmark
Hi Caravaca.

Just for your information. Yes, I did read the article, but I edited the image description since the image contains factual errors. 1) Denmark's southern border is shown too far to the north, and 2) the eastern border is too far to the east. The map shows Hedeby *outside* of the Danish territory and this is incorrect.

BTW, I am a history major from Denmark's third largest university. I've read about the Danish borderlands and Danish history for the last 20 years.

Ad 1) The southern border is shown too far to the north. Except for a very short interlude during Charlemagne, the Danish-German border remained pretty stable at the Eider and Levenså (the latter is now part of the Kiel Canal.) This border was first challenged by the Valdemarian kings and the counts of Schauenburg in the thirteenth - fourteenth centuries. The construction of the Dannevirke is considered to be the first indicator of a unified Danish realm. A similar indicator (although slightly later) is canal dug though the island of Samsø in central Denmark. Basically, the amount of work required to construct these works, is taken as an indicator that the minor chiefdoms must have been united around that time.

Ad 2) Denmark is shown as encompassing a great part of Western Småland. I've never seen any scientific proof of this. I first saw an (American) map like that a few years ago, and such a border is not mentioned in Danish history. The area in question was a dense forest at the time, and rather sparsely populated. The Danish-Swedish border was ultimately demarcated around 1050 with 6 large stones. The (invisible) line between them marked the border. For more information on that see: (in Danish, with a map). However, Denmark *did* originally control all of the coastline of the Skagerrak, cutting off Sweden from access to the sea. This is not shown on the map.

Other points about the map:
 * I) The six Viking ring castles are not shown. Neither is the supposed ring castle Jomsborg of the Vikings on Wollin / Wolin, or the canal on Samsø. I also noted that Odense is missing (first mentioned in 988). I might be able to find a list of early Danish settlements, if you're interested.
 * II) There is a number of typos. In Danish, it is "Jylland" not "Jütland"; "Sjælland" is spelled with a double "L" and why is Slesvig spelled in German? The town was a Danish settlement. In fact, the entire area north of the Dannevirke was ethnicly Danish. The area between the Dannevirke and the Eider was a mixed area; the area around Oksevejen / Hærvejen (Ochsenweg) was ethnicly Danish, while the rest was mixed. The totals for this southern area is that around 20% of the place names are Danish, the rest are in German.
 * III) The western coastline of South Jutland was very different at the time. The modern outline was pretty much established in the sixteenth or seventeenth century. Before that time, large areas or land were destroyed by flooding (or by some records, sinking). I might be able to find a few maps if you're interested.

Regarding the Swedish dynasty: No respectable Danish historian takes the fables of Saxo seriously, and the theory about the "Swedish dynasty" is generally ranked on the same level. Three rune stones does not constitute a Swedish settlement. If somebody finds a rune stone in Russia, is does not mean anything else that "a Viking was here". It is not proof that any settlements existed. The origins of some Danish chief is of very little importance. I'm no expert on runes, but I've heard examples of "short runes" in Denmark several times. I wouldn't place too much faith in that legend. Regards. --Valentinian 18:24, 29 January 2006 (UTC)

Your comments are so extensive that I think we need to discuss this by email. Caravaca 05:25, 30 January 2006 (UTC)

 * By all means. I haven't been reading about these topics for the last few years, so I'm a bit rusty (I'm mostly interested in contemporary politics.) But I do own a few books about the history of Southern Jutland. If you have specific questions, I might be able to find a bit of relevant literature at the university library. Besides, I own a Danish copy of the history booklet published by Wikinger Museum Haithabu (it's around 10-15 years old.) --Valentinian 13:36, 30 January 2006 (UTC)

 * I sent you a long email some hours before you wrote this. Didn't you get it? If so, shall we also delete our discussion from the talk page (otherwise it will get too long)? Caravaca 17:41, 30 January 2006 (UTC)

Naming
Isn't it more likely, that the Old Norse spelling was Heiðabýr with Ð and Ý (O.N. heiðr = heathland, and býr = yard)? -- Arne List 13:00, 10 April 2006 (UTC)
 * Addition: I have added it to the article, because there can be no big doubt on that spelling of Old Norse. Heiða is the genitive singular of heiðr, and the German article says as well, that the name refers to "heath yard" or "heath town", as well as the Danish name Hedeby does mean the same (hede = heath, by = town). Old Norse býr can also found in Faroese býur (city, town), while Icelandic uses bær -- Arne List 13:25, 10 April 2006 (UTC)

 * There's a number of runestones mentioning Hedeby. You don't have to guess! Off course, for latinized spelling you should look to the sagas. 83.72.136.244 09:52, 19 October 2006 (UTC)
 * I'm not an expert on Old Norse. I'll believe you. Caravaca 17:26, 15 October 2006 (UTC)
 * Since "by" means a village or a town (in Swedish too), shouldn't the translation of the name be changed to "Heath village" or "Heath town" instead? Norum 16:40, 9 December 2009 (UTC)
 * I am quite sceptic about the explanation of the second element -by. In fact on the old runic inscriptions, the result of the transcription always gives -bu. The letter u has to be pronounced [u], not [y]. That is the reason why I think -bu represents the Old Norse bú “farming, farm, farm stock” clearly distinct of býr “farm, town”. But -by (from býr) replaced -bu by confusion, when it developed as a town. The same thing happened to the neighbouring Haddeby, that was in the oldest records Hadaeboth in 1285, Haddebooth in 1286, Haddebothe in 1354. The last element is clearly both, in fact the Old East Norse bóð "shop, shelter, home", variant form of Old Norse búð, that gave English booth. In that case, -both was clearly replaced by the more common -by when it developed as a town. There are many exemples of that kind in Denmark, Norway and Great-Britain.Nortmannus (talk) 17:01, 2 February 2017 (UTC)
 * Such a confusion is quite easy to understand because of the phonetics and the significations : all close to each other : býr, acc. dat. by and variant form bœr, acc. dat. bœ; bú and búð....Nortmannus (talk) 17:11, 2 February 2017 (UTC)

Facts in conflict ++Expert tag
re:
 * NOTE -- Cross-posted from This talk

Best regards // Fra nkB 02:25, 22 June 2007 (UTC)
 * Added this to Schleswig, Schleswig-Holstein history section: {fact|This "history" is in direct conflict with the history given in Hedeby, in particular, the likelihood that both were founded about the same time, which on reading, seems to have an archaeological basis.}
 * Hence, needs some expert attention.

swedish/svear occupation
According to the history book "Svenska Krönikan" (1957) Hedeby was conquered briefly during the 900s by swedish "vikings" (Svear) and held for roughly three decades. (page 64)

an external link, that suppliment/support this: http://forum.woodenboat.com/showthread.php?13105-viking-settlement-Haithabu-Hedeby

Thoughts? --Byzantios (talk) 01:18, 6 October 2012 (UTC)

Questionable reference
I think there may be a problem with the source added in this edit. The source uses the exact same wording as our article, but our text goes back many years and the source was published a few months ago. I think the writer may have copied from Wikipedia, and citing it would be an instance of WP:CITOGEN. Schazjmd  (talk)  16:29, 20 January 2024 (UTC)

 * The 770 claim appeared in 2002, but I couldn't find anything to back it up, so I modified the section and found a source discussing its first appearance in the historical record. Eiszett (talk) 00:42, 22 January 2024 (UTC)
 * I appreciate it, thanks! Schazjmd   (talk)  00:52, 22 January 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Hedeby


text:
Talk:Mark of the Beast (disambiguation)

This should be merged with Number of the Beast (numerology) --Delirium 20:11 22 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Should NOT be merged with Number of the Beast (666) because the number (666) is different then the "Mark" (Greek, Caragma = Money).

The Greek word mistranslated as Mark is MONEY the correct, in context translation is: "No one buys or sells without the MONEY of the beast on/in mind or hand."

This article is a mess, having been gutted and replaced with completely NPOV info. It's one thing to state that some people think such a thing, and another to just have it look like this is the absolute facts as said by Wikipedia. I think someone should go through the history, put the article back together in an NPOV format, and then it should be left alone or protected, if necessary. Pulsemeat 7 July 2005 04:12 (UTC)

Can this article be fixed? Caragma and Carachya are in reference to the book of Revelation written by John on the island of Patmos while he was sent to exile. John was the only of the original twelve disciples that followed Jesus and his ministry while he was on earth, that did not fear an earthly death and stayed next to Jesus during his death of crucifixion. He was also the only out of the 12 that did not die a terrible premature death, the others being be headed, crucified upside down and stoned to name a few. John received a revelation similar to Daniel with similar attributes to the end of age.

The movie documentary Mark of The Beast, filmed in 1997 at minute 56 in to the movie he states:

Revelation 13:16 states “Mark” which is identified in the Greek, back of the concordance at point 5480 and 5481 said to be Caragma and Carachya, put together meaning engraving instrument to put an incision in the flesh for a mark. But then he states that 666 is not only a number, but is also a word, and the word it’s the word chiksistigma and can be found at point 5516 in the back of the book.

(Note: the concordance is not argued you be Holy Spirit inspired but he is I assume mentioning the translation from Greek to English. This movie was a hoot to me how much was accurate to current time, technology that did not exhaust back then) — Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.225.225.42 (talk) 16:39, 5 November 2019 (UTC)

Nero
As God hasn't dropped out of the sky and affirmed that 666 = Nero. The explaination seems more dogmatic than it should that 666=Nero.

Plagarism
"The 'Revelation' was originally a revolutionary Jewish book, which was plagarized"

Wow, this is one of the most non-neutral comments I've ever seen in Wikipedia.

The "Revelation" was originally a revolutionary Jewish book, which was plagarized by Christians who added stuff about Jesus at the beginning and end. (Parables of War: Reading John's Jewish Apocalypse, John W. Marshall, Studies in Christianity and Judaism/Études sur le christianisme et le judaïsm . Waterloo, Ont.: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 2001.)

The citation is also in the wrong format.

Translation
"... no one may buy or sell except one who has the mark or name of the beast, or the number of his name."

There is no citation for the source translation of this verse.

Move discussion in progress
There is a move discussion in progress on Talk:Number of the Beast (disambiguation) which affects this page. Please participate on that page and not in this talk page section. Thank you. —RMCD bot 22:01, 10 February 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Mark of the Beast (disambiguation)


text:
User:Whyang

Wen-ho Yang Rockford, Chicago, Illinois

Heard about this page on npr.org's All Things Considered program on 7/21/2003. Woa!!!

Entered an article for Reiter's Syndrome.

title: User:Whyang


text:
Iberian lynx

The Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) is one of the four extant species within Lynx, a genus of medium-sized wild cats. The Iberian lynx is endemic to the Iberian Peninsula in southwestern Europe. It is listed as vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. In the 20th century, the Iberian lynx population had declined because of overhunting, poaching, fragmentation of suitable habitats, and the population decline of its main prey species, the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus), caused by myxomatosis and rabbit haemorrhagic disease. Fossils suggest the species has been present in Iberia since the end of the Early Pleistocene, around one million years ago.

By the turn of the 21st century, the Iberian lynx was on the verge of extinction, as only 94 individuals survived in two isolated subpopulations in Andalusia in 2002. Conservation measures have been implemented since then, which included improving habitat, restocking of rabbits, translocating, reintroducing and monitoring Iberian lynxes. Between 2012 and 2024, the population had increased from a low of 326 individuals to some 2,021, leading to its reclassification as vulnerable. It is a monotypic species, and is thought to have evolved from Lynx issiodorensis.

Taxonomy
Felis pardina was the scientific name proposed by Coenraad Jacob Temminck in 1827 who described skins of Iberian lynxes that were killed in the area of the Tagus river in Portugal and were traded in Paris and London. It is a monotypic species.

Phylogeny
The Iberian lynx is suggested to have evolved from Lynx issiodorensis. Its earliest known fossil remains date to the end of the Early Pleistocene, around one million years ago.

The Iberian lynx genetically diverged as a unique species 1.98 to 0.7 million years ago. Its closest living relative is the Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) with which it coexisted to a certain degree until the 20th century.

Characteristics

The Iberian lynx has a short bright yellowish to tawny coloured spotted fur. The spots vary in shape and size from small round to elongate. They are arranged in lines and decrease in size from the back toward the sides. Its head is small with tufted ears and a ruff. Its body is short with long legs and a short tail. Head and body length of males is 74.7-82 cm with a 12.5-16 cm long tail and a weight of 7-15.9 kg. Females are smaller with a head-to-body-length of approximately 68.2–77.5 cm and a weight of 9.2–10 kg.

Distribution and habitat
The Iberian lynx was once present throughout the Iberian Peninsula. In the 1950s, the northern population extended from the Mediterranean to Galicia and parts of northern Portugal, and the southern population from central to southern Spain. Populations declined from 15 subpopulations in the 1940s to only two subpopulations in the early 1990s, most noticeably in Montes de Toledo and Sierra Morena. Before 1973, it was present in Sierra de Gata, Montes de Toledo, eastern Sierra Morena, Sierra de Relumbrar and coastal plains in the Doñana area. Between the early 1960s and 2000, it has lost about 80% of its former range. In 2012, it was restricted to very limited areas in southern Spain, with breeding only confirmed in Sierra Morena and Doñana coastal plains. As of 2014, its range included the Sierra Morena and Montes de Toledo of Castilla-La Mancha and the Matachel Valley of Extremadura in Spain, and the Guadiana Valley in Portugal.

Fossil remains indicate that the Iberian lynx had a wider range during the Late Pleistocene and early Holocene. Five lynx remains found in Arene Candide in Northern Italy date to about 24,820–18,620 years before present. One specimen found in Cabias cave in southern France was radiocarbon dated to 3780±90 years before present. In 2021, a large concentration of Iberian lynxes dating to 40,000 years ago were identified for the first time in Southern Italy, at the fossil site of Ingarano in Apulia.

The Iberian lynx prefers heterogeneous environments of open grassland mixed with dense shrubs such as strawberry tree, mastic, and juniper, and trees such as holm oak and cork oak. It is now largely restricted to mountainous areas.

Behaviour and ecology
The Iberian lynx marks its territory with its urine, scratch marks on the barks of trees, and scat. The home ranges of adults are stable over many years. Camera trapping surveys in the eastern Sierra Morena Mountains between 1999 and 2008 revealed that six females had home ranges of 5.2–6.6 km2. Four males in the area had home ranges of 11.8–12.2 km2.

Diet and hunting
The Iberian lynx preys foremost on the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) for the bulk of its diet, supplemented by red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa), rodents and to a smaller degree also on wild ungulates. It sometimes preys on young fallow deer (Dama dama), European roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), European mouflon (Ovis aries musimon), and ducks. A male requires one rabbit per day, while a female raising kittens eats three per day.

The Iberian lynx has low adaptability and continued to rely heavily on rabbits, which account for 75% of its food intake, despite the latter's repeated population crashes due to myxomatosis and rabbit haemorrhagic disease. Fecal samples of Iberian lynx contained anaerobic bacteria of the genus Anaeroplasma that suggest gut microbiome helps it digest its rabbit prey and may also aid in the degradation of plant material from the rabbits' guts. Antibiotic resistant bacteria were also found within the digestive tract of wild Iberian lynx.

The Iberian lynx competes for prey with the Iberian wolf (Canis lupus signatus), red fox (Vulpes vulpes), the Egyptian mongoose (Herpestes ichneumon), and the European wildcat (Felis silvestris). Also, it often kills other smaller carnivores such as the aforementioned red fox, Egyptian mongoose and common genet (Genetta genetta).

Reproduction

The kittens become independent at 7 to 10 months old, but remain with the mother until around 20 months old. Survival of the young depends heavily on the availability of prey species. In the wild, both males and females reach sexual maturity at the age of one year, though in practice they rarely breed until a territory becomes vacant; one female was known not to breed until five years old when her mother died. The maximum longevity in the wild is 13 years.

Difficulty in finding mates has led to more inbreeding, which results in fewer kittens and a greater rate of non-traumatic death. Inbreeding leads to lower semen quality and greater rates of infertility in males, hindering efforts to increase the species' fitness.

Threats
The Iberian lynx is threatened by habitat loss, road accidents, and illegal hunting. Habitat loss is due mainly to infrastructure improvement, urban and resort development and tree mono cultivation, which fragments the lynx's distribution. In the 20th century, rabbit diseases such as myxomatosis and hemorrhagic disease resulted in a dramatic decline of its main prey. Further, the lynx was hunted as "vermin" under a law passed under Francisco Franco, from the 1950s to the late 1970s, when the hunting of lynx was prohibited. Secret hunting of lynxes still occurs today and is becoming a serious problem. Illegal traps set for rabbits and foxes were the leading causes for lynx mortality in the 1990s. In addition, every year, several Iberian lynxes die when trying to cross highways with heavy traffic, representing the majority of lynx deaths. In 2013, 14 Iberian lynxes died on roads, and 21 in 2014. In 2023, 144 lynxes were killed on roads.

In 2007, several individuals died of feline leukemia.

Increasing interactions with humans and spread of antibiotic resistant genes between lynx populations could pose a significant threat not only to lynx but also to humans.

Conservation
The Iberian lynx is fully protected and listed on CITES Appendix I, on Appendix II of the Berne Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats and on Annexes II and IV of the Habitats Directive of the European Union. It was listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List from 2014 through 2024. In 2024, it was reclassified to Vulnerable after young and mature Iberian lynx numbers increased to more than 2,000.

Conservation measures include restoring its native habitat, maintaining the wild rabbit population, reducing unnatural causes of death, and releasing captive bred individuals. The Spanish National Commission for the Protection of Nature endorsed the Iberian Lynx Ex Situ Conservation Breeding Program to serve as a "safety net" by managing the captive population and also to "help establish new Iberian lynx free-ranging populations through reintroduction programmes." Before release of captive-bred cats, their natural habit may be simulated to prepare them for life in the wild. A 2006 study used a non-intrusive monitoring system involving cameras to monitor the demographics of both lynxes and rabbits residing in Sierra Morena. Supplemental food sources could be provided if wild rabbits suffered a decline.

Management efforts have been developed to conserve and restore the animal's native range. Officials intending to release captive-bred lynx look for areas of appropriate habitat, rabbit abundance, and acceptance by the local human population. About 90 million euros was spent on various conservation measures between 1994 and 2013. The European Union contributes up to 61% of funding.

Reintroduction programme
Beginning in 2009, the Iberian lynx was reintroduced into Guadalmellato, resulting in a population of 23 in 2013. Since 2010, the species has also been released in Guarrizas. Discussions were held with the Ministry of Environment on plans for releases in the Campanarios de Azaba area near Salamanca. In April 2013, it was reported that Andalusia's total wild population—only 94 in 2002—had tripled to 309 individuals. In July 2013, environmental groups confirmed the presence of a wild-born litter in the Province of Cáceres (Extremadura). A study published in July 2013 in Nature Climate Change advised that reintroduction programs take place in northern Iberia, suggesting that climate change would threaten rabbits in the south.

In November 2014, three Iberian lynxes were released in the Montes de Toledo; one of them later traveled near Aranjuez, in the Madrid region, the first time in 40 years.

The presence of Iberian lynxes in Portugal, particularly in the south, has been verified. In 2014, the Institute for Nature Conservation and Forests signed contracts securing 2,000 hectares of land for Portugal's reintroduction project. In 2015, 10 captive-bred Iberian lynxes were released into Guadiana Valley Natural Park and surrounding areas in southeastern Portugal's Guadiana Valley. By the end of 2015, there were 400 lynx on the Iberian peninsula, the vast majority in Andalusia, in southern Spain, but with smaller new populations in the hills near Toledo, in Extremadura (south-western Spain) and in southern Portugal.

The reintroduction of Iberian lynx in Portugal has been a success; from 17 animals that were reintroduced, 12 have already established territories.

Since a 2007 outbreak of feline leukemia virus (FeLV), wild lynxes are tested periodically for possible disease. September–December 2013 samples were negative for FeLV but one male became the first of his species to test positive for feline immunodeficiency virus and was placed into quarantine.

Captive breeding

In 2002, the Jerez Zoo confirmed it had three females and was developing a plan for a captive breeding program. One of those females was Saliega, captured as a kitten in April 2002. She became the first Iberian lynx to breed in captivity, giving birth to three healthy kittens on 29 March 2005 at the El Acebuche Breeding Center, in the Doñana National Park in Huelva, Spain. Over the following years, the number of births grew and additional breeding centers were opened. In March 2009, it was reported that 27 kittens had been born since the beginning of the program. In 2009, the Spanish government planned to build a €5.5 million breeding center in Zarza de Granadilla.

In Portugal, the Centro Nacional de Reprodução do Lince-Ibérico established a breeding center near Silves, Portugal, and has since nurtured 122 individuals all born in the breeding center, of which 89 survived. 73 of them were reintroduced in the wild. Reintroduction takes place in Mértola and Serpa in the Guadiana Valley. As of 2020, there are around 140 individuals in the wild in Portugal spread through an area of approximately 50,000 hectares, 50 of them are cubs.

There were 14 surviving kittens in 2008 and 15 in 2009. In 2010, intense rain and health issues resulted in lower reproductive success, i.e. 14 born, eight surviving. But the next year, breeding centers recorded 45 births with 26 surviving kittens. In 2012, breeding centers in Portugal and Spain reported a total of 44 survivors from 59 births, while 2013 saw a total of 44 survivors out of 53 born. In 2017, the total population of Iberian lynx reached 475 specimens. In February 2019, the total population was estimated to grow to around 650 individuals.

In March 2013, it was reported that Iberian lynx embryos and oocytes had been collected and preserved for the first time. They were collected from Saliega and another female—both sterilized and retired from the breeding program—by Berlin's Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research and stored in liquid nitrogen at the Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales in Madrid for possible future breeding. In July 2014, the MNCN-CSIC announced they had produced sperm cells from the testicular tissue of sexually immature lynx.

Iberian lynxes are kept at Jerez Zoo, at Lisbon Zoo since December 2014, and since July 2016 at the Madrid Zoo.

Genetic research
The genetic diversity of the Iberian lynx is lower than in any other genetically impoverished felid, which is a consequence of fragmentation, a population bottleneck, and isolation of population units. Iberian lynxes in Doñana and Andujar differ genetically at microsatellite markers. Samples collected in Doñana exhibited a high degree of inbreeding as this unit was isolated for a long time.

In popular culture
Portuguese street artist Bordalo II creates installations made of garbage to highlight over-consumption. His works consisting of animals are created to highlight the destruction of species by waste caused by humans. One of his public sculptures is a huge Iberian lynx in the Parque das Nações, Lisbon, Portugal, made for the World Conference of Ministers Responsible for Youth in 2019 and Youth Forum Lisboa+21.

title: Iberian lynx


text:
Ethical calculus

An ethical calculus is the application of mathematics to calculate issues in ethics.

Scope
Generally, ethical calculus refers to any method of determining a course of action in a circumstance that is not explicitly evaluated in one's ethical code.

A formal philosophy of ethical calculus is a development in the study of ethics, combining elements of natural selection, self-organizing systems, emergence, and algorithm theory. According to ethical calculus, the most ethical course of action in a situation is an absolute, but rather than being based on a static ethical code, the ethical code itself is a function of circumstances. The optimal ethic is the best possible course of action taken by an individual with the given limitations.

While ethical calculus is, in some ways, similar to moral relativism, the former finds its grounds in the circumstance while the latter depends on social and cultural context for moral judgment. Ethical calculus would most accurately be regarded as a form of dynamic moral absolutism.

Ethical calculus is not to be confused with ethics in mathematics or ethics of quantification which study the moral questions coming from mathematical practice and quantification in society.

Examples
Francis Hutcheson devoted a section of his 1725 work Inquiry into the Original of our ideas and Beauty and Virtue to "an attempt to introduce a Mathematical Calculation in subjects of Morality". Formulas included: where,
 * M = B × A
 * M is the moral importance of any agent
 * B is the benevolence of the agent
 * A is the ability of the agent

Another example is the felicific calculus formulated by utilitarian philosopher Jeremy Bentham for calculating the degree or amount of pleasure that a specific action is likely to cause. Bentham, an ethical hedonist, believed the moral rightness or wrongness of an action to be a function of the amount of pleasure or pain that it produced. The felicific calculus could, in principle at least, determine the moral status of any considered act.

title: Ethical calculus


text:
Hermit crab

Hermit crabs are anomuran decapod crustaceans of the superfamily Paguroidea that have adapted to occupy empty scavenged mollusc shells to protect their fragile exoskeletons. There are over 800 species of hermit crab, most of which possess an asymmetric abdomen concealed by a snug-fitting shell. Hermit crabs' soft (non-calcified) abdominal exoskeleton means they must occupy shelter produced by other organisms or risk being defenseless.

The strong association between hermit crabs and their shelters has significantly influenced their biology. Almost 800 species carry mobile shelters (most often calcified snail shells); this protective mobility contributes to the diversity and multitude of these crustaceans which are found in almost all marine environments. In most species, development involves metamorphosis from symmetric, free-swimming larvae to morphologically asymmetric, benthic-dwelling, shell-seeking crabs. Such physiological and behavioral extremes facilitate a transition to a sheltered lifestyle, revealing the extensive evolutionary lengths that led to their superfamily success.

Classification
The hermit crabs of Paguroidea are more closely related to squat lobsters and porcelain crabs than they are to true crabs (Brachyura). Together with the squat lobsters and porcelain crabs, they all belong to the infraorder Anomura, the sister taxon to Brachyura.

However, the relationship of king crabs to the rest of Paguroidea has been a highly contentious topic. Many studies based on their physical characteristics, genetic information, and combined data demonstrate the longstanding hypothesis that the king crabs in the family Lithodidae are derived hermit crabs descended from pagurids and should be classified as a family within Paguroidea. The molecular data has disproven an alternate view based on morphological arguments that the Lithodidae (king crabs) nest with the Hapalogastridae in a separate superfamily, Lithodoidea. As such, in 2023, the family Lithodidae was placed back into Paguroidea after having been moved out of it in 2007.

Nine families are formally recognized in the superfamily Paguroidea, containing around 1200 species in total in 135 genera.
 * Calcinidae Fraaije, Van Bakel & Jagt, 2017 – seven genera
 * Coenobitidae Dana, 1851 – two genera: terrestrial hermit crabs and the coconut crab
 * Diogenidae Ortmann, 1892 – 20 genera of "left-handed hermit crabs"
 * Lithodidae Samouelle, 1819 – 15 genera of "king crabs"
 * Paguridae Latreille, 1802 – 76 genera
 * Parapaguridae Smith, 1882 – 10 genera
 * Parapylochelidae Fraaije et al., 2012 – two genera
 * Pylochelidae Bate, 1888 – 9 genera of "symmetrical hermit crabs"
 * Pylojacquesidae McLaughlin & Lemaitre, 2001 – two genera

Phylogeny
The placement of Paguroidea within Anomura can be shown in the cladogram below, which also shows the king crabs of Lithodidae as sister taxon to the hermit crabs of Paguridae:

Fossil record
The fossil record of in situ hermit crabs using gastropod shells stretches back to the Late Cretaceous. Before that time, at least some hermit crabs used ammonite shells instead, as shown by a specimen of Palaeopagurus vandenengeli from the Speeton Clay Formation, Yorkshire, UK, from the Lower Cretaceous, as well as a specimen of a diogenid hermit crab from the Upper Jurassic of Russia. The earliest record of the superfamily extends back to the earliest part of the Jurassic, with the oldest known species being Schobertella hoelderi from the late Hettangian of Germany.

Aquatic and terrestrial hermit crabs
Hermit crabs can be informally divided into two groups: aquatic hermits crabs and terrestrial hermit crabs.

The first group is the aquatic hermit crabs (almost all marine, with a single species, Clibanarius fonticola, in freshwater). These crabs spend most of their lives underwater as aquatic animals, living in depths of saltwater that range from shallow reefs and shorelines to deep sea bottoms, rarely leaving the water for land. They breathe through gills but do not have to carry around their water to do so, and most can survive briefly out of water as long as their gills are damp. However, this ability is not as developed as it is in land hermit crabs. A few species do not use a "mobile home" and inhabit immobile structures left by polychaete worms, vermetid gastropods, corals, and sponges.

The second group, the land hermit crabs, spend most of their life on land as terrestrial species in tropical areas, though even they require access to both freshwater and saltwater to keep their gills damp or wet to survive and to reproduce. They belong to the family Coenobitidae.

Description
Most species have long, spirally curved abdomens, which are soft, unlike the hard, calcified abdomens seen in related crustaceans. The vulnerable abdomen is protected from predators by a salvaged empty seashell carried by the hermit crab, into which its whole body can retract. Most frequently, hermit crabs use the shells of sea snails (although the shells of bivalves and scaphopods and even hollow pieces of wood and stone are used by some species). The tip of the hermit crab's abdomen is adapted to clasp strongly onto the columella of the snail shell. Most hermit crabs are nocturnal.

Development and reproduction
Hermit crab species range in size and shape, from species with a carapace only a few millimetres long to Coenobita brevimanus, which can live 12–70 years and can approach the size of a coconut. The shell-less hermit crab Birgus latro (coconut crab) is the world's largest terrestrial invertebrate.

The young develop in stages, with the first two (the nauplius and protozoea) occurring inside the egg. Most hermit crab larvae hatch at the third stage, the zoea. In this larval stage, the crab has several long spines, a long, narrow abdomen, and large fringed antennae. Several zoeal moults are followed by the final larval stage, the megalopa.

The sexual behavior exhibited by hermit crabs varies from species to species, but a general description is as follows. If the female possesses any larvae from a previous mating, she moults and lets them go. Female hermit crabs are ready to mate shortly before moulting, and she may come in contact with a male. In certain species the male grabs the pre-moult female for sometimes hours. Prior to the female moulting, and usually continuing after she has moulted, the male performs precopulatory behaviors. These vary widely but the most common are rotating/shaking the female, and jerking the female towards the male.

After some time, the female moves the chelipeds in her mouth region, signaling the male. Then they both move their bodies mostly out of their shells, and mate. Both crabs then go back inside their shells, and they may mate again. In some species the male performs post-copulatory behavior until the female has the eggs on her pleopods.

Shells and shell remodeling
As hermit crabs grow, they require larger shells. Since suitable intact gastropod shells are sometimes a limited resource, competition often occurs between hermit crabs for shells. The availability of empty shells at any given place depends on the relative abundance of gastropods and hermit crabs, matched for size. An equally important issue is the population of organisms that prey upon gastropods and leave the shells intact. Hermit crabs kept together may fight or kill a competitor to gain access to the shell they favour. However, if the crabs vary significantly in size, fights over empty shells are rare. Hermit crabs with undersized shells cannot grow as fast as those with well-fitting shells, and are more likely to be eaten if they cannot retract completely into the shell.

Shells used by hermit crabs have usually been remodeled by previous hermit crab owners. This involves a hermit crab hollowing out the shell, making it lighter. Only small hermit crabs are able to live without remodelled shells. Most big hermit crabs that have been transferred to a normal shell die. Even if they were able to survive, hollowing out a shell takes precious energy, making it undesirable to any hermit crab. They achieve this remodeling by both chemically and physically carving out the interiors of their shell. These shells can last for generations, explaining why some hermit crabs are able to live in areas where snails have become locally extinct.

There are cases when seashells are not available and hermit crabs will use alternatives such as tin cans, custom-made shells, or any other types of debris, which often proves fatal to the hermit crabs (as they can climb into, but not out of, slippery plastic debris). This can even create a chain reaction of fatality, because a dead hermit crab will release a signal to tell others that a shell is available, luring more hermit crabs to their deaths. More specifically, they are attracted to the scent of dead hermit crab flesh.

For some larger marine species, supporting one or more sea anemones on the shell can scare away predators. The sea anemone also benefits, because it is in a prime position to consume fragments of the hermit crab's meals. Other very close symbiotic relationships are known from encrusting bryozoans and hermit crabs forming bryoliths.

In February 2024, Polish researchers reported that 10 of 16 terrestrial hermit crab species were observed using artificial shells, including discarded plastic waste, broken glass bottles and light bulbs, in lieu of natural shells.

Shell fighting
Shell fighting is a behavior observed in all hermit crabs. It is a process in which the attacker hermit crab attempts to steal the shell of the victim, using a fairly intricate process. It usually only occurs if there is no empty shell suitable for the growing hermit crab. These fights are usually between the same species, though they can also occur between two separate species.

If the defending crab does not retreat to the inside of its shell, an aggressive interaction will usually take place, until the defending crab retreats, or the attacker flees. After the defender has retreated, the attacker will usually turn the shell over multiple times, holding it with its legs. It then places its chelipeds into the shell's opening.

Then the crabs start the "positioning" behavior, this consists of the attacker moving side to side, over the opening of the defender's shell. This movement usually forms a figure 8. The attacker then goes into the aptly named "rapping" behavior. The attacker holds its legs and chepelothorax stationary, while it moves its shell down on the defender's shell. It is done quite rapidly, and is usually enough to produce an audible sound. It seems like little to no contact happens directly between the two crabs.

After a number of "raps", the defender may come out of its shell completely, usually positioning itself of one of the shells. The attacker then checks the now free shell, and then changes shell rapidly. As the crab tries its new shell, it usually holds its old shell, as it may decide to come back to the old one. The defeated crab then runs to the empty shell. If the defeated crab does not stay close to the shells, it is usually eaten.

Several hermit crab species, both terrestrial and marine, have been observed forming a vacancy chain to exchange shells. When an individual crab finds a new empty shell, or steals one from another, it will leave its own shell and inspect the vacant shell for size. If the shell is found to be too large, the crab goes back to its own shell and then waits by the vacant shell for up to 8 hours. As new crabs arrive they also inspect the shell and, if it is too big, wait with the others, forming a group of up to 20 individuals, holding onto each other in a line from the largest to the smallest crab. As soon as a crab that is the right size for the vacant shell arrives and claims it—leaving its old shell vacant—all the crabs in the queue swiftly exchange shells in sequence, each one moving up to the next size. If the original shell was taken from another hermit crab, the victim is usually left without a shell, and gets eaten. Hermit crabs often "gang up" on one of their species with what they perceive to be a better shell, and pry its shell away from it before competing for it until one takes it over.

Aggressive behaviors
Aggressive behaviors for hermit crabs are quite similar to one another, with some variations present between species. It usually consists of moving or positioning the legs and the chelipeds, also known as the claw or pincer. Usually these displays are enough to avoid confrontation. Sometimes two opposing crabs will do multiple actions, with no apparent pattern. These confrontations usually last a few seconds, though some may last a few minutes, for those especially stubborn crabs.

They can also raise a leg which is sometimes referred to as an "ambulatory raise". This can happen with multiple legs such as with the first two walking legs, or both the first and second pair. This is referred to as "double ambulatory raise", and "quadruple ambulatory raise", respectively. The exact form of this movement is variable between species. In some other species there is another distinct movement, where they move their leg away and upwards from the body, while it moves forwards, this same movement continues as the limb is brought down. This movement is sometimes called an "ambulatory poke".

They also use their chelipeds as a warning display, usually used in two distinct variations. The first one consists of the crab lifting its whole body (shell included), and spreading its legs, then moving its cheliped forward until the dactylus (top part of the claw) is perpendicular with the ground. This movement is usually called an "cheliped presentation" This position may be more distinct in some species, such as those in the genus Pagurus. The second variation called the "cheliped extension", is usually a purely visual movement, though it may sometimes be used to strike a crab. The chelipeds move forward and upwards, until the limb is parallel with the ground, usually used to push another crab out of the way. If a larger crab pushes a smaller one, the smaller one may be moved multiple centimeters.

The crabs of the family Paguridae, have another distinct type of movement. Individuals may crawl upon another's crab shell. If the size is just right the crab climbed upon may move rapidly up and down or sideways, usually causing the other crab to fall off.

Grouping behavior
Some species such as Clibanarius tricolor, Calcinus tibicen and Pagurus miamensis are semi gregarious, showing unique behaviors in groups. While these three species all show gregarious behavior, C. tricolor, forms the densest and bigger groups. The crabs of Clibanarius tricolor congregate during the day, and usually stay with their same respective group, day after day. At 4:00 p.m. the crabs would start moving in their groups, and by 5:00 p.m. they had left their congregation. The congregations usually move in one general direction, and may be close to other crabs. This behavior seems to be lost under controlled conditions, however.

Associations with other animals
The shells of hermit crabs have multiple "associates" whose exact roles have not been well described. These associates are usually categorized into two groups, those who live in the interior of the shell and those who live on the exterior. Some of the interior associates include nereid worms which have a commensal relation, the worms help the hermit crabs keep their shell clean along with the crabs of the family Porcellanidae. It is not rare to see both the worms and crabs in the same shell.

There are also associations with Amphipods, such as the relationship between the hermit crab species Pagurus hemphilli and the amphipod genus Liljeborgia. The coloration of this amphipod matches the coloration of the hermit crab and the Crustose rhodophycean algae which commonly grows in their shells. Specimens of P. hemphilli tolerated the presence of their guest, while other hermit crab species attempted eating them.

Some of the exterior associates are the epifauna, such as barnacles and Crepidula, which may be a hindrance to the crabs, as they may ruin the stability or just add weight to the shell. Some species of hermit crabs have live colonies of Hydractina, while others rejected them. Some species just keep the colony in their shells, while others are actively detaching and re-attaching the sea anemone. Most hermit crabs attempt to place the most anemones as possible, while some others steal the anemone another hermit crab is carrying. There is a mutually beneficial relationship between the two, as they help defend against predators.

Hermit crabs as pets
Several marine species of hermit crabs are common in the marine aquarium trade. They are commonly kept in reef fish tanks.

Of the approximately 15 terrestrial species of genus Coenobita in the world, the following are commonly kept as pets: Caribbean hermit crab (Coenobita clypeatus), Australian land hermit crab (Coenobita variabilis), and the Ecuadorian hermit crab (Coenobita compressus). Other species, such as Coenobita brevimanus, Coenobita rugosus, Coenobita perlatus or Coenobita cavipes, are less common but growing in availability and popularity as pets.

Hermit crabs are often considered to be 'throwaway pets' that only live for a few months, but species such as Coenobita clypeatus have a 20-year lifespan if properly cared for, and some have lived longer than 32 years.

title: Hermit crab


text:
User talk:Ahoerstemeier

Disclaimer: If you ask me something I will usually answer on this page, it makes the discussion much more readable to have it in one place. Please add new topics at the bottom. Any insults or obvious trolling attempts will get deleted without answer.

> Archive February till June 2003 > Archive July till October 2003 > Archive November 2003 till January 2004 > Archive February till March 2004 > Archive April till May 2004 > Archive June till August 2004 > Archive September till November 2004 > Archive December 2004 till March 2005 > Archive April 2005 till August 2005 > Archive September 2005 till April 2006 > Archive May 2006 till December 2006 > Archive January 2007 till August 2007 > Archive September 2007 till July 2022

RIP
I absolutely agree with the above message. I didn't know you but I remember encountering your name around the place. RIP. Graham 87 09:22, 28 September 2022 (UTC)

 * I'm saddened to hear of Andy's passing, which is a great loss to the project. Few have contributed as much as he did to Wikipedia's early coverage of Thailand, especially its provinces and districts, most articles of which he practically single-handedly created way back, between 2003 and 2007. It's surreal to think it's been nearly twenty years already. Few of the active contributors at the time who knew him well are still around, but the groundwork he helped lay has proved an important foundation to Wikipedia's Thailand coverage, and I am sure will continue to be long into the future. --Paul_012 (talk) 12:26, 28 September 2022 (UTC)
 * I am in the same boat as Graham and Paul_012. As I wrote in the admin barnstar below, you will be sorely missed but will also live on through your contributions to the Wikimedia projects. Should his family and friends ever stumble across this, know that Andy will not be forgotten (Google translation to follow). Ruhe in Frieden Andy. Sie werden nicht vergessen. -- The SandDoctor Talk 16:07, 1 October 2022 (UTC)
 * Rest In Peace, my condolences to his family. Thanks,L3X1 ◊distænt write◊  00:57, 3 October 2022 (UTC)
 * Memory eternal! -Ad Orientem (talk) 01:04, 3 October 2022 (UTC)
 * Requiescat in pace. Fare thee well, long time co-editor and -admin. Du wirst nicht vergessen werden. Lectonar (talk) 07:15, 4 October 2022 (UTC)
 * Job well done. Know your edits endure. BusterD (talk) 17:38, 22 October 2022 (UTC)
 * RIP and thanks for your significant contributions.. My condolences to your family and friends. Volten 001  ☎ 07:32, 28 October 2022 (UTC)

Always precious
You were found precious. You and your contributions will be remembered. -- Gerda Arendt (talk) 10:23, 28 September 2022 (UTC)

Rest in peace
The news of your passing saddens me. You tirelessly and amazingly contributed a lot to the content about Thai administrative subdivisions and geographical places both on Wikipedia and Wikidata. Throughout several years of my stay on Wikipedia, even though we did not know each other personally, it was such a great feeling to know there existed people who shared the same interests as me in this world. Rest in peace Andy. Thank you for what you did for us. I will always remember you. --Potapt (talk) 10:53, 30 September 2022 (UTC)

RIP
RIP and thank you for your amazing work. You will be missed. Olivier (talk) 12:23, 1 October 2022 (UTC)

R.I.F.
Unser lieber Kollege der letzten Jahre, ich bin traurig über deinen Tod. Ruhe in Frieden! -- Hamid Hassani (talk) 18:58, 26 December 2022 (UTC)

 * In english: Our dear colleague of recent years, I am saddened by your death. Rest in peace! TheCorvetteZR1(The Garage) 21:43, 30 May 2023 (UTC)

Protected edit request on 16 January 2023
Linter errors on the page, 5 obsolete font tags + 2 misnested tags + 2 bogus file options.

Replacements:
 * 1) There are two instances of  ; change them to and their closing font tags  to
 * 2) Joseph --> Joseph
 * 3) Calton | Talk --> Calton | Talk (Creates bogus file option linter error due to unescaped pipe)
 * 4) Naturenet | Talk --> Naturenet | Talk (Creates bogus file option linter error due to unescaped pipe)  Sheep  (talk • he/him) 15:18, 16 January 2023 (UTC) bogus file options replacements added 22:49, 16 January 2023 (UTC)
 * ✅ — xaosflux  Talk 15:11, 20 January 2023 (UTC)

Category:Australian football clubs has been nominated for deletion
Category:Australian football clubs has been nominated for deletion. A discussion is taking place to decide whether this proposal complies with the categorization guidelines. If you would like to participate in the discussion, you are invited to add your comments at the category's entry on the categories for discussion page. Thank you. Kaffet i halsen (talk) 18:16, 30 May 2023 (UTC)

Proposed deletion of Roi Et (disambiguation)

The article Roi Et (disambiguation) has been proposed for deletion because of the following concern: "'Roy Et' is not ambiguous. All the entries on this page or linked from the lead of the primary topic article."

While all constructive contributions to Wikipedia are appreciated, pages may be deleted for any of several reasons.

You may prevent the proposed deletion by removing the notice, but please explain why in your edit summary or on the article's talk page.

Please consider improving the page to address the issues raised. Removing will stop the proposed deletion process, but other deletion processes exist. In particular, the speedy deletion process can result in deletion without discussion, and articles for deletion allows discussion to reach consensus for deletion. Shhhnotsoloud (talk) 12:11, 20 August 2023 (UTC)

notification from Wiki love monument
งานประกวดภาพถ่ายที่ใหญ่ที่สุดในโลก Wiki Loves Monuments Thailand 2023 ได้เริ่มขึ้นแล้ว! ทุกท่านที่สนใจสามารถเข้าร่วมงานประกวดภาพถ่าย WLM 2023 ได้โดยไม่จำเป็นต้องเป็นช่างภาพมืออาชีพ เพียงอัปโหลดภาพถ่ายโบราณสถานหรือแหล่งมรดกทางวัฒนธรรมในไทยที่ท่านถ่ายด้วยตนเองเข้าไปในฟอร์มที่กำหนดให้ภายในวันที่ 30 กันยายน 2566 ท่านจะได้สิทธิ์พิจารณารางวัล และได้รับการคัดเลือกเพื่อเข้าร่วมการแข่งขันระดับนานาชาติต่อไป

ท่านสามารถอัปโหลดภาพ และศึกษารายละเอียดการแข่งขันได้ที่

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Commons:Wiki_Loves_Monuments_2023_in_Thailand

ดูภาพถ่ายจากผู้เข้าประกวดชาวไทยที่ชนะอันดับ 1 การประกวด WLM 2022 ระดับนานาชาติได้ที่

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wiki_Loves_Monuments_2022_winners

Wiki Loves Monuments Thailand 2023, the largest photography competition in the world, is starting now!

Everyone interested, no need to be a professional photographer, can participate in WLM 2023 by submitting your self-taken photo of any monument in Thailand by September 30, 2023. Then, You will have the right to be considered for the award, and selected to participate in international competitions !

Here, you can submit your photos, and explore more about WLM 2023.

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Commons:Wiki_Loves_Monuments_2023_in_Thailand

Take a look at the photo from the Thai participiant who won first place in the international WLM 2022 competition !

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wiki_Loves_Monuments_2022_winners — Preceding unsigned comment added by MerelyAMoon (talk • contribs) 11:07, 17 September 2023 (UTC)

title: User talk:Ahoerstemeier