text:
United Nations Security Council Resolution 940

United Nations Security Council resolution 940, adopted on 31 July 1994, after recalling resolutions 841 (1993), 861 (1993), 862 (1993), 867 (1993), 873 (1993), 875 (1993), 905 (1994), 917 (1994) and 933 (1994), the Council permitted a United States-led force to restore President Jean-Bertrand Aristide and authorities of the Government of Haiti, and extended the mandate of the United Nations Mission in Haiti (UNMIH) for an additional six months.

Resolution
The council began with condemnations of the military regime in Haiti because it had refused to co-operate with the United Nations. Some concern was also expressed at the deteriorating humanitarian situation in the country, violations of civil liberties and expulsion of staff from the International Civilian Mission.

The resolution claimed an extraordinary situation in Haiti, which required an exceptional response. The Council then authorised, under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter, for Member States to form a multinational force under US command to overthrow current leaders from Haiti, and for previous ones to return to an environment in which a United States agreement could be implemented. An advance team of no more than 60 personnel was established in order to co-ordinate and observe the American operations, requesting the Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali to report back on developments relating to the advance team within 30 days.

Once the multinational force had completed its mission, UNMIH would take over its functions when a suitable environment had been secured. After extending UNMIH's mandate for six months, it was decided to increase the size of the mission to 6,000 troops with the aim of completing it by February 1996. The safety of United Nations personnel and those from diplomatic missions and international humanitarian organisations would be guaranteed. Finally, international sanctions imposed on Haiti would be lifted once Aristide had been returned to power.

Resolution 940 was controversially adopted by 12 votes to none, with two abstentions from Brazil and China, while Rwanda was not present when voting took place, most likely due to the ongoing Rwandan Genocide. Accusations surfaced of US pressure.

Reaction
The vote was the first time the United Nations sanctioned the use of an invading force to "restore democracy." It was also the first time the US has sought and gained UN approval for a military intervention in the Americas.

Many Latin American countries were opposed to the resolution. Mexico's UN ambassador, Víctor Flores Olea, spoke out against the resolution, saying that "it sets an extremely dangerous precedent in the field of international relations" because the crisis "does not constitute a threat to peace and international security." Cuban Foreign Minister Roberto Robaina said that the resolution furthers "the repeated attempts by the Security Council to amplify its powers beyond those which were granted it by the Charter."

Brazilian President Itamar Franco strongly opposed the UN decision, saying "The Security Council's special powers should not be invoked in an indiscriminate manner in the name of a 'search for more rapid means' to respond to attacks on democracy, because it violates the basic principles of peaceful co-existence between nations and normal UN legal procedures." After a visit to Brazil from U.S. Under Secretary of State Peter Tarnoff the week before the vote, Brazil's decision to abstain instead of oppose the resolution can clearly be seen to be the result of enormous U.S. pressure.

Pointing out that the situation in Haiti posed no threat to world peace and security, Uruguay's UN representative Ramiro Piriz Ballon said his country "will not support any military intervention, unilateral or multilateral."

Argentina initially offered to send four marine and infantry companies to join the U.S.-led invasion forces. However, after popular discontent over the decision, President Carlos Menem was forced to back down on the offer.

On 17 January 1995, UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali issued a 17-page report on the result of the intervention: the report noted the ongoing repression in Haiti, the complete lack of justice for victims of the September 1991 coup d'état, the deteriorating economic situation, and the growing impatience of the Haitian people.


text:
FDG

FDG may refer to:

Politics

 * Democratic Forces of Guiana (French: Forces democratiques de Guyane), a political party in French Guiana
 * Left Front (France) or Front de gauche, an electoral federation
 * Youth Front (Fronte della Gioventù), the youth wing of the neofascist Italian Social Movement

Science

 * Fluorodeoxyglucose (18F)
 * Fluid dynamic gauge

Other

 * Fording Canadian Coal Trust, a defunct Canadian trust
 * Friedrich-Dessauer-Gymnasium, Frankfurt, a school in Germany
 * Functional discourse grammar

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: FDG


text:
Elephantidae

Elephantidae is a family of large, herbivorous proboscidean mammals collectively called elephants and mammoths. These are large terrestrial mammals with a snout modified into a trunk and teeth modified into tusks. Most genera and species in the family are extinct. Only two genera, Loxodonta (African elephants) and Elephas (Asian elephants), are living.

The family was first described by John Edward Gray in 1821, and later assigned to taxonomic ranks within the order Proboscidea. Elephantidae has been revised by various authors to include or exclude other extinct proboscidean genera.

Description
Elephantids are distinguished from more primitive proboscideans like gomphotheres by their teeth, which have parallel lophs, formed from the merger of the cusps found in the teeth of more primitive proboscideans, which are bound by cement. In later elephantids, these lophs became narrow lamellae, with the number of lophs/lamellae per tooth, as well as the tooth crown height (hypsodonty) increasing over time. Elephantids chew using a proal jaw movement involving a forward stroke of the lower jaws, different from the oblique movement using side to side motion of the jaws in more primitive proboscideans. The most primitive elephantid Stegotetrabelodon had a long lower jaw with lower tusks and retained permanent premolars similar to many gomphotheres, while modern elephantids lack permanent premolars, with the lower jaw being shortened (brevirostrine) and lower tusks being absent.

Classification

Some authors have suggested to classify the family into two subfamilies, Stegotetrabelodontinae, which is monotypic, only containing Stegotetrabelodon, and Elephantinae, containing all other elephantids. Recent genetic research has indicated that Elephas and Mammuthus are more closely related to each other than to Loxodonta, with Palaeoloxodon closely related to Loxodonta. Palaeoloxodon also appears to have received extensive hybridisation with the African forest elephant, and to a lesser extent with mammoths.

Living species

 * Loxodonta (African)
 * L. africana African bush elephant
 * L. cyclotis African forest elephant
 * Elephas (Asiatic)
 * E. maximus Asian elephant
 * E. m. maximus Sri Lankan elephant
 * E. m. indicus Indian elephant
 * E. m. sumatranus Sumatran elephant
 * E. m. borneensis Borneo elephant

Classification

 * Elephantidae
 * †Stegotetrabelodon (4 species)
 * Subfamily Elephantinae
 * †Primelephas (2 species)
 * Elephas (7+ species)
 * †Stegoloxodon (2 species)
 * Loxodonta (6 species)
 * †Palaeoloxodon (14+ species)
 * †Phanagoroloxodon (1 species)
 * †Mammuthus (10 species)
 * †Stegodibelodon (1 species)
 * †Selenetherium (1 species)

Evolutionary history
Elephantids are thought to have evolved from gomphotheres, with some authors proposing the most likely ancestors to be African species of the "tetralophodont gomphothere" Tetralophodon. The earliest members of the family, are known from the Late Miocene, around 9–10 million years ago. The modern genera of elephants and mammoths had diverged from each other by the end of the Miocene, around 5 million years ago. Elephantids began to migrate out of Africa during the Pliocene, with mammoths and Elephas arriving in Eurasia around 3–3.8 million years ago. Around 1.5 million years ago, mammoths migrated into North America. At the end of the Early Pleistocene, around 0.8 million years ago, Palaeoloxodon migrated out of Africa, becoming widespread across Eurasia, from Western Europe to Japan. Palaeoloxodon and Mammuthus became extinct during the Late Pleistocene-Holocene, with the last population of mammoths persisting on Wrangel Island until around 4,000 years ago.

title: Elephantidae


text:
Talk:History of Sweden

Untitled
A new styled table has been introduced to the History of Russia series. Similar tables will be introduced in the History of Sweden series. -- Mic 09:11 11 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Peer Review invitation
Greetings.

There is a peer review started on Peer review/Viking/archive1 and any interested party is invited to take part in reviewing the article. If you know the history of scandinavia, then please stop by and help the peer review of the artile Viking

Thank you for your time. -- Orbit One    [ Talk 22:37, 27 March 2006 (UTC)

Why give concessions to cranks and cooks?
The text said that the centre of "Svea rike" (still a name for the country, isn't it?) was "allegedly at Old Uppsala". Based on WP:FRINGE, WP:WEASEL, WP:verifiability and WP:OR, I strongly disagree with such concessions to cranks and cooks in Västergötland. As long as the Götaland theory has never been accepted by professional historians, it is verboten on Wikipedia to make such concessions to that "school".--Berig 19:10, 15 June 2007 (UTC)

1914-1945
The interwar period, a very important period in European History generally, seems to be missing from this article —Preceding unsigned comment added by 204.52.215.67 (talk) 03:46, 9 February 2008 (UTC)

POV
"After falling upon harder times in the 1970s, the economy stagnated somewhat and in 1976, the social democrats lost their majority to the opposition. When the 1980s came and the economy started to get back on track again, the social democrats returned."

I'm going to try and rewrite the later part of the previous snippet in a less biased and more factual manner. The article as it stands now does not accurately respresent history or the original article it points to. Compare yourself. I've split the original article in 3 diffrent parts.

"The 1976 parliamentary elections brought a liberal/right-wing coalition to power after almost half a century of social democrat leadership, and Mr Palme gave way to Thorbjörn Fälldin (of the Centre Party, a former farmers/landowners party which had incorporated social liberal ideas as well as the burgeoning environmental debate)."

"Over the next six years, four governments ruled and fell, composed by all or some of the parties that had won in 1976, and the questions of energy and of battling the economic recession came to the fore like never before. The fourth liberal government in these years, again with Fälldin at the helm, seemed somewhat baffled by these problems and had neither the support of a firm majority in the parliament, nor a clear mandate from the non-socialist part of the Swedish electorate."

"Predictably it came under fire both from the Social Democrats & trade unions, and from the Moderate Party, now heading in an increasingly Friedman-inspired and market liberal direction, and it was defeated in the elections of 1982, with Mr. Palme returning to the PM's seat."

In fact, the original article doesn't even mention the economy improving. Even if it had, I doubt there is a general consensus that the economy improved because of anything the right did, except if you're a rightist, in wich case of course it did. To me, the original article seems to imply that the reason the social democrats returned was the right's inability to cope with the problems. Who to credit the economic recovery to is not in there. I've tagged this article to check if anyone will have an opinion about my edit.

213.141.89.53 (talk) 15:20, 9 February 2008 (UTC)

Swedish Empire and the Wolves
There is some rather dubious editing going on at Swedish Empire - this edit is verging on bizarre ("Wolves, not seen in settled areas since the Middle Ages, stalked the deserted streets of once-bustling villages."). Help correcting this would be welcome, as the author is taking my corrections of his original research/unencyclopaedic tone rather personally. The Red Hat of Pat Ferrick t 00:52, 1 December 2008 (UTC)

Restructured heading levels
I restructured heading levels according to the conventional pattern: followed by f.ex. ISBN 91-518-3539-8 "Sveriges historia". ... said: Rursus ( m bork³ ) 08:44, 14 November 2009 (UTC)
 * Early time
 * Medieval ages
 * Modern ages (or Current time)

POV 2: Bias in Post-War Sweden Economy Section
This section, which contains as much foreign policy and politics as economics (How is the joining of the UN, or the partisan fluidity of 1976-82 relevant to the broad-brush outlines of the post-war Swedish economy?), also has a striking fierce ideological and political bias.

The purpose of the paragraphs seems to be to belittle the socialist policies of the nation during this period, suggesting that they were only feasible due to the Sweden's neutrality in WWII and that they were responsible for the economic challenges presented by the first stages of globalization in the 1970s. The intellectual merit of these two propositions is nil in my view, but that is not relevant for wikipedia. What is relevant is that they are quite controversial OPINIONS and ought not to appear here unless they cite published researchers and balance those views with the (majority) opinions of other scholars. TheCormac (talk) 13:52, 4 June 2010 (UTC)

 * No. Being one of those "belittled" Swedes, I cannot see anything wrong with the section. The later neutrality followed from the neutrality in WWII. There were two reasons, first that the social democracy (not quite the same as "socialism") led the coalition government during WWII, secondly that neutrality needed to be kept in order to motivate for the people the Swedish military industry, that was built up during WWII. That Olof Palme used the neutrality to balance the superpowers by claiming a "third way policy" was effectively a way to disarm the conflict during the cold war, it was smart politics that later gave some positive effects, but it was not the original reason for the neutrality. Rursus dixit. ( m bork3 !) 17:41, 21 February 2011 (UTC)

 * And Sweden became an "economical superpower", as some German bank called it, partially because of the intact industry, none denies that, seriously. Rursus dixit. ( m bork3  !) 18:07, 21 February 2011 (UTC)

Missing: Kalmar Union
Or almost missing: there's one (1) paragraph only of a more than one century of violent conflicts and rebellions in Sweden, whence the nobility, farmers and mining industrialist sided with either the faraway king in Copenhagen, or a local noble wearing the title of "rikshövitsman" (c:a regent), sometimes transformed to "king". In this period the farmers got a strong position as a military power, in many ways building the basis for the later Swedish "Empire", and the mining industry prepared for a future arms race. Rursus dixit. ( m bork3 !) 18:22, 21 February 2011 (UTC)

Blacklisted Links Found on the Main Page
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Sweden remained neutral during World War II, avoiding the fate of occupied Norway?
It sounds as if Norway didn't want to be neutral... — Preceding unsigned comment added by 96.21.40.84 (talk) 00:41, 15 August 2015 (UTC)

External links modified
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A Commons file used on this page has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. Community Tech bot (talk) 11:24, 18 July 2018 (UTC)
 * Sweden Main Line Railways.png

Please insert article into "List of runestones"
For article Småland Runic Inscription 99, it can be added into List of runestones. Into what District location of Sweden I am unsure. So asking for help here. JoeNMLC (talk) 13:41, 1 May 2022 (UTC)

 * Just added it now. TylerBurden (talk) 07:28, 2 May 2022 (UTC)

 * and All here - Discovered "Template:Runestones" and article "Rundata", so I added "List of runestones" and "Rundata" to Resources section of the navbox. Another fun-day at WP! (adding Wikilinks) JoeNMLC (talk) 14:23, 2 May 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:History of Sweden


text:
Molecular magnet

Molecular magnet can refer to:
 * Molecule-based magnet, an unconventional magnetic material that consists of organic molecules, coordination compounds, or combinations
 * Single-molecule magnet, a single molecule that exhibits magnetic hysteresis of itself, without collective long-range ordering

title: Molecular magnet


text:
Talk:Hartley William Shawcross

Two things, I haven't added, because i'm not sure of.

 * 1) He received a knighthood in 1974, but I beleive he had an earlier knighthood. I can't pin this down.

 * 1) His wife Monique has a son Hume, who I assume is not Shawcross' child, but again I can't pin this down.

 * Mintguy 09:16 11 Jul 2003 (UTC)

As per Burke's, he was knighted in 1945 -- Someone else 09:54 11 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Hm.. but what I meant was, which order was he knighted under on both occasions, for he apparently received a second knighthood in 1974. Mintguy 20:17 11 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * I don't know on which occasion it was but he was a Knight Grand Cross in The Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (GBE). -- Someone else 21:45 11 Jul 2003 (UTC)

As written in the New York Times obituary column, it said that Shawcross was knighted in 1945, at the relatively young age of 43. Shortly after this is when he was selected as the British delegate to the United Nations. Just thought you'd like to know. Longevitymonger

We now have a second article about this man at Hartley Shawcross. A merge may be needed. --rbrwr

Under Wikipedia naming conventions, life peers are not to have their life peerages indicated in the article title. A move is therefore in order. -- Lord Emsworth 01:38, Jan 13, 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Hartley William Shawcross


text: Talk:Gilderoy Lockhart

title: Talk:Gilderoy Lockhart


text:
Talk:Panama Canal

future expansion ?
it is here any plans to rebuild old lock to wider ones (with water saving basins) ? or to build new ones ? since shiping trends clerly show that new panamax is desired with demand for old panamax ships hitting ground, meaning at some point in future no ship in use will be able to pass old locks (or at least in significiant numbers).

2A00:1028:9198:E50E:C0FE:B67C:3CBA:20AB (talk) 13:06, 9 October 2017 (UTC)

Discrepancies?
While reading the article, there is a discrepancy to be noted. In the article itself, it states that the SS Cristobal was the first to make the transit through the Panama Canal on August 3 1914, but the picture states that it is the SS Ancon on August 15 1914. Further research may need to be done to solidify which is the true first. Gladdisiator (talk) 20:27, 2 June 2021 (UTC)Gladdisiator

Expansion completion date vs. Panamamax vessel in photo date
New to this but: article states the expansion to allow panamax vessels was completed June 26, 2016 but the panamax vessel in article photo states it is entering the lock in March 2013. Apologies if I am misunderstanding. Cheers, Billy Dogboy777 (talk) 04:52, 6 July 2021 (UTC)
 * Panama_Canal_Map_EN.png Hi Billy. Great question – I believe that both the article and the photo caption are correct. The photo, which as you noted was taken in March 2013, shows a Panamax ship traversing the Miraflores locks before the expansion project was completed. On the other hand, the article states The new locks opened for commercial traffic on 26 June 2016, and the first ship to cross the canal using the third set of locks was a modern New Panamax vessel, the Chinese-owned container ship Cosco Shipping Panama. "New Panamax" refers to ships that are even larger than the old "Panamax" ships, and they pass through a set of new locks (the Agua Clara and Cocoli locks) that were constructed next to the old locks. See the photo to the right. So there is no contradiction between the article and the caption. Does this answer make sense? Best, Altamel (talk) 05:12, 6 July 2021 (UTC)

No mention of the US invasion of Panama
It came to my attention that the article doesn't mention the US invasion of Panama. Is there a reason? 46.19.86.168 (talk) 16:11, 25 August 2021 (UTC)
 * Why should it be mentioned? This article is about the Panama Canal, not about Panama. The Banner  talk 17:19, 25 August 2021 (UTC)

not a single word on ecological and ecosystem impacts,
just praise — Preceding unsigned comment added by 47.71.34.207 (talk) 12:33, 26 January 2022 (UTC)

 * I was thinking exactly the same. Bountykilla (talk) 14:39, 5 August 2022 (UTC)
 * Yes, 47.71.34.207, Bountykilla couldnt agree with you more- it´s horrific how the thing is extolled. the article is dominated by engineering details. I just added merely the fact how it works and how water wasting this thing is-An average of 52000000 usgal of fresh water used in a single passing.- none of this was mentioned.  maybe we need to add a section?--Wuerzele (talk) 21:03, 25 August 2023 (UTC)
 * Gatun is also the main freshwater reservoir for water for the population, which has doubled in size since 1980. Since there has been no change in freshwater collection the last sentence of the lede is at least incomplete if not outright fabrication. Greglocock (talk) 23:32, 22 November 2023 (UTC)

Panama canal lock sizes
File:Panama canal lock sizes.png says that the maximum DWT for New Panamax is 60–100. This is obviously wrong. It's also wrong in the original source at eia. Maybe this is supposed to be thousands? GA-RT-22 (talk) 17:26, 7 January 2024 (UTC)
 * Indeed. I've added a note to the page talk on Commons. Perhaps there's an replacement table available somewhere? - Davidships (talk) 12:37, 14 January 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Panama Canal


text:
Cost-effectiveness analysis

Cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) is a form of economic analysis that compares the relative costs and outcomes (effects) of different courses of action. Cost-effectiveness analysis is distinct from cost–benefit analysis, which assigns a monetary value to the measure of effect. Cost-effectiveness analysis is often used in the field of health services, where it may be inappropriate to monetize health effect. Typically the CEA is expressed in terms of a ratio where the denominator is a gain in health from a measure (years of life, premature births averted, sight-years gained) and the numerator is the cost associated with the health gain. The most commonly used outcome measure is quality-adjusted life years (QALY).

Cost–utility analysis is similar to cost-effectiveness analysis. Cost-effectiveness analyses are often visualized on a plane consisting of four quadrants, the cost represented on one axis and the effectiveness on the other axis. Cost-effectiveness analysis focuses on maximising the average level of an outcome, distributional cost-effectiveness analysis extends the core methods of CEA to incorporate concerns for the distribution of outcomes as well as their average level and make trade-offs between equity and efficiency, these more sophisticated methods are of particular interest when analysing interventions to tackle health inequality.

Applications
The concept of cost-effectiveness is applied to the planning and management of many types of organized activity. It is widely used in many aspects of life.

In military acquisitions
In the acquisition of military tanks, for example, competing designs are compared not only for purchase price, but also for such factors as their operating radius, top speed, rate of fire, armor protection, and caliber and armor penetration of their guns. If a tank's performance in these areas is equal or even slightly inferior to its competitor, but substantially less expensive and easier to produce, military planners may select it as more cost-effective than the competitor.

Conversely, if the difference in price is near zero, but the more costly competitor would convey an enormous battlefield advantage through special ammunition, radar fire control and laser range finding, enabling it to destroy enemy tanks accurately at extreme ranges, military planners may choose it instead – based on the same cost-effectiveness principle.

In pharmacoeconomics
In the context of pharmacoeconomics, the cost-effectiveness of a therapeutic or preventive intervention is the ratio of the cost of the intervention to a relevant measure of its effect. Cost refers to the resource expended for the intervention, usually measured in monetary terms such as dollars or pounds. The measure of effects depends on the intervention being considered. Examples include the number of people cured of a disease, the mm Hg reduction in diastolic blood pressure and the number of symptom-free days experienced by a patient. The selection of the appropriate effect measure should be based on clinical judgment in the context of the intervention being considered.

A special case of CEA is cost–utility analysis, where the effects are measured in terms of years of full health lived, using a measure such as quality-adjusted life years (QALY) or disability-adjusted life years. Cost-effectiveness is typically expressed as an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER), the ratio of change in costs to the change in effects. A complete compilation of cost-utility analyses in the peer-reviewed medical and public health literature is available from the Cost-Effectiveness Analysis Registry website.

A 1995 study of the cost-effectiveness of reviewed over 500 life-saving interventions found that the median cost-effectiveness was $42,000 per life-year saved. A 2006 systematic review found that industry-funded studies often concluded with cost-effective ratios below $20,000 per QALY and low quality studies and those conducted outside the US and EU were less likely to be below this threshold. While the two conclusions of this article may indicate that industry-funded ICER measures are lower methodological quality than those published by non-industry sources, there is also a possibility that, due to the nature of retrospective or other non-public work, publication bias may exist rather than methodology biases. There may be incentive for an organization not to develop or publish an analysis that does not demonstrate the value of their product. Additionally, peer reviewed journal articles should have a strong and defendable methodology, as that is the expectation of the peer-review process.

In energy efficiency investments
CEA has been applied to energy efficiency investments in buildings to calculate the value of energy saved in $/kWh. The energy in such a calculation is virtual in the sense that it was never consumed but rather saved due to some energy efficiency investment being made. Such savings are sometimes called negawatts. The benefit of the CEA approach in energy systems is that it avoids the need to guess future energy prices for the purposes of the calculation, thus removing the major source of uncertainty in the appraisal of energy efficiency investments.

title: Cost-effectiveness analysis


text:
ICER (file format)

ICER is a wavelet-based image compression file format used by the NASA Mars rovers. ICER has both lossy and lossless compression modes.

The Mars Exploration Rovers Spirit and Opportunity both used ICER. Onboard image compression is used extensively to make best use of the downlink resources. The Curiosity rover supports the use of ICER for its navigation cameras (but all other cameras use other file formats).

Most of the MER images are compressed with the ICER image compression software. The remaining MER images that are compressed make use of modified Low Complexity Lossless Compression (LOCO) software, a lossless submode of ICER.

ICER is a wavelet-based image compressor that allows for a graceful trade-off between the amount of compression (expressed in terms of compressed data volume in bits/pixel) and the resulting degradation in image quality (distortion). ICER has some similarities to JPEG2000, with respect to select wavelet operations.

The development of ICER was driven by the desire to achieve high compression performance while meeting the specialized needs of deep space applications.

Practical considerations
To control the image quality and amount of compression in ICER, the user specifies a byte quota (the nominal number of bytes to be used to store the compressed image) and a quality level parameter (which is essentially a quality goal). ICER attempts to produce a compressed image that meets the quality level using as few compressed bytes as possible. It stops producing compressed bytes once the quality level or byte quota is met, whichever comes first.

This arrangement provides added flexibility compared to compressors (like the JPEG compressor used on Mars Pathfinder) that provide only a single parameter to control image quality. Using ICER, when the primary concern is the bandwidth available to transmit the compressed image, one can set the quality goal to lossless and the given byte quota will determine the amount of compression obtained.

At the other extreme—when the only important consideration is a minimum acceptable image quality—it is possible to specify sufficiently large byte quota and the amount of compression will be determined by the quality level specified.

To achieve error containment, ICER produces the compressed bitstream in separate pieces or segments that can be decoded independently. These segments represent rectangular regions of the original image, but are defined in the transform domain. If, instead, the image were partitioned directly and the wavelet transform separately applied to each segment, under lossy compression the boundaries between segments would tend to be noticeable in the reconstructed image even when no compressed data is lost.

Since ICER provides a facility for automated flexibility in choosing the number of segments, compression effectiveness can be traded against packet loss protection, thereby accommodating different channel error rates.

More segments are not always bad for compression effectiveness: many images are most effectively compressed using 4 to 6 segments (for megapixel images) because disparate regions of the image end up in different segments.

Design commonalities with the JPEG2000 compressor
JPEG 2000 has some design commonalities with the ICER image compression format that is used to send images back from the Mars rovers.

ICER (like JPEG 2000) is wavelet-based and provides
 * progressive compression.
 * lossless compression (using the LOCO compressor).
 * lossy compression.
 * image context error correction to limit the effects of data loss on the deep-space channel.

ICER overall provides lossy compression performance competitive with the JPEG2000 image compression standard.

ICER-JPEG 2000 Common Features
 * Both offer a variable number of image tiles to increase compression effectiveness over the deep space channel. Image tiles reduce demands on memory and processing time.
 * Both offer a 'byte' quota.
 * Both offer a 'quality' quota.

ICER-JPEG 2000 differences
JPEG2000 and ICER have many important internal differences
 * JPEG 2000 uses floating point math, where ICER uses only integer math. Thus ICER will have good performance on integer only CPUs like the T414 Transputer, whereas JPEG 2000 will not perform as well as it is forced into floating point emulation.
 * ICER reverts to a separate internal LOCO (Low Complexity Lossless Compression) compressor for lossless image compression.
 * JPEG 2000 implements a low complexity symmetrical wavelet lossless compressor, but ICER uses an integer only non-wavelet lossless compressor.
 * ICER and JPEG 2000 encode color spaces differently.
 * ICER in its current form does compress monochrome images better than colour images due to its origins as an internal NASA Deep Space Network file format.
 * ICER is subject to less than 1% overshoot when byte and quality quotas are in effect. On the other hand, JPEG2000 codecs are typically designed never to overshoot their byte quotas.

When should one use ICER or ICER-3D
ICER was created for low end 32 bit CPUs (essentially embedded computers) on spacecraft. It was finally used for the Mars Exploration Rovers. It has never been used for any real time application, only near real time.

JPEG2000 has been used by many image processing applications in near real time and real-time (Digital Cinema, Broadcast). Main advantages of the codec is that it is License free (JPEG2000 PART1). The JPEG committee has stated: “It has always been a strong goal of the JPEG committee that its standards should be implementable in their baseline form without payment of royalty and license fees.[...] Agreements have been reached with over 20 large organizations holding many patents in this area to allow use of their intellectual property in connection with the standard without payment of license fees or royalties”. Hewlett-Packard's Remote Graphics Software uses a video codec called HP3 (codec) which claims to derive from Mars rover compression - this could be a real-time implementation of ICER.

ICER offers a new mode called Spectral+ICER that makes possible lower rate distortion levels (aka grey level errors) with ICER images. This mode is only so far being used with the Mars Pathfinders, but may see wider implementation in the ICER standard.

ICER-3D
ICER-3D is a compressor for hyperspectral images. Error-containment segments in ICER-3D are defined spatially (in the wavelet transform domain), similarly to JPEG 2000. The wavelet-transformed data are partitioned in much the same way as in ICER, except that in ICER-3D the segments extend through all spectral bands. Error-containment segments in ICER and ICER-3D are defined using an unmodified form of the ICER rectangle partitioning algorithm.

In ICER-3D, contexts are defined based on two neighboring coefficients in the spectral dimension and no neighboring coefficients in the same spatial plane. This contrasts with the context modeling scheme used by ICER, which makes use of previously encoded information from spatially neighboring coefficients.

ICER-3D exploits 3D data dependencies in part by using a 3-D wavelet decomposition. The particular decomposition used by ICER-3D includes additional spatial decomposition steps compared to a 3-D Mallat decomposition. This modified decomposition provides benefits in the form of quantitatively improved rate-distortion performance and in the elimination of spectral ringing artifacts.

ICER-3D takes advantage of the correlation properties of wavelet-transformed hyperspectral data by using a context modeling procedure that emphasizes spectral (rather than spatial) dependencies in the wavelet-transformed data. This provides a significant gain over the alternative spatial context modeler considered.

ICER-3D also inherits most of the important features of ICER, including progressive compression, the ability to perform lossless and lossy compression, and an effective error-containment scheme to limit the effects of data loss on the deep-space channel.

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Shashi Kapoor

Shashi Kapoor ( pronounced [ʃəʃi kəpuːɾ]; born Balbir Raj Kapoor; 18 March 1938 – 4 December 2017) was an Indian actor and film producer who is best known for his works in Hindi films. A recipient of several accolades, including four National Film Awards and two Filmfare Awards, he also featured in a number of English-language international films, particularly films produced by Merchant Ivory. The Government of India honoured him with the Padma Bhushan in 2011, and the Dadasaheb Phalke Award, in 2014, for his contribution to Indian cinema.

Born into the Kapoor family, he was the third and the youngest son of Prithviraj Kapoor. He began his career as a child actor in 1948 with his brother Raj Kapoor's maiden directorial Aag, and had his first role as an adult in the year 1961 with Yash Chopra's political drama Dharmputra. He established himself in 1965 with two blockbusters - Waqt and Jab Jab Phool Khile. This was followed by a period of lukewarm success, with Kanyadaan, Sharmeelee and Aa Gale Lag Jaa being the major exceptions. He made a big comeback in 1974 with Chor Machaye Shor. With the mega success of Chor Machaye Shor, Kapoor became the top five to six saleable stars of the time and starred in top grossing Hindi films since the early 1970s to 1980s, such as - Roti Kapada Aur Makaan, Deewaar, Chori Mera Kaam, Kabhi Kabhie, Fakira, Trishul, Suhaag, Kranti and Namak Halaal. He received critical acclaim for his portrayal of a reckless chieftain in Junoon, a businessman in Kalyug, a strict father in Vijeta and an honest journalist in New Delhi Times for which he won National Film Award for Best Actor. The last film to feature him was the much delayed Ghar Bazar which released in 1998.

Early life
Shashi Kapoor was born as Balbir Raj Kapoor to Prithviraj Kapoor and his wife in Calcutta, British India, on 18 March 1938. He was the youngest brother of Raj Kapoor and Shammi Kapoor. Actor Trilok Kapoor was his paternal uncle.

Kapoor acted in plays, directed and produced by his father Prithviraj Kapoor, while travelling with Prithvi Theatres. He started acting in films as a child in the late 1940s under the name of Shashiraj, as there was already another actor by the same name who used to act in mythological films as a child artiste. His best-known performances as a child actor were in Aag (1948) and Awaara (1951), where he played the younger version of the characters played by his older brother Raj Kapoor, and in Sangram (1950), where he played the younger version of Ashok Kumar and Dana Paani (1953) where he acted with Bharat Bhushan. He worked in four Hindi films as a child artiste from 1948 to 1954.

Debut and rise to stardom (1961-1965)
After appearing as a child artist in some highly successful films like Sangram (1950), Samadhi (1950) and Awaara (1951), Shashi Kapoor made his debut as a leading man in 1961 with Yash Chopra's partition drama Dharmputra. This was followed by another release the same year in Char Diwari. Both Dharmputra and Char Diwari didn't do well at ticket counters.

In 1962 and 1963, he saw minor successes with - Bimal Roy's Prem Patra and Kanak Mishra's Yeh Dil Kisko Doon, respectively. Kapoor also made his English film debut in 1963 with James Ivory's acclaimed family drama The Householder. This was followed by S. Khalil's Muslim social Benazir (1964) which also had Meena Kumari, Ashok Kumar and Tanuja in the lead, but contrary to expectations, it was a box office failure.

The year 1965 changed his fortune as he starred in two highest grossing films of that year with Yash Chopra's masala film Waqt and Suraj Prakash's romantic musical Jab Jab Phool Khile. Waqt went on to become a massive blockbuster at the box office, receiving praise for performances of the cast, Chopra's direction and cinematography. Today, it is widely regarded as an evergreen classic. The mega success of Waqt was followed by another blockbuster in Jab Jab Phool Khile which had Kapoor paired with Nanda. It too got highly positive response from critics, especially for its soundtrack which was the fourth best-selling Hindi film album of the 1960s with a number of melodious songs, like "Ye Samaa Samaa Hai Pyar Ka", "Affoo Khudaya", "Ek Tha Gul Aur Ek Thi Bulbul", "Na Na Karte Pyar Tumhin Se", "Pardesiyon Se Na Ankhiyan Milana". Jab Jab Phool Khile made Kapoor a star and won him that year's BFJA Award for Best Actor (Hindi) for his moving performance of an innocent boatman in the film.

Sporadic success, resurgence and critical acclaim (1966-1986)
Despite establishing himself, Kapoor's career fluctuated from late 60s to early 70s as very few of his films emerged successful during this period.

In 1966, he starred alongside Kishore Kumar, Mehmood, Kalpana Mohan, Rajasree and Mumtaz in C. V. Sridhar's romantic comedy Pyar Kiye Jaa. Pyar Kiye Jaa proved to be a hit, but his other release Neend Hamari Khwab Tumhare again opposite Nanda did only average business at the box office. After seeing two more moderate successes in 1967 with Dil Ne Pukara and Aamne Samne, the following year, he delivered a blockbuster in Kanyadaan opposite Asha Parekh and a hit in Haseena Maan Jayegi co-starring Babita. The soundtrack of Kanyadaan composed by Shankar-Jaikishan was also very successful with a Mohammed Rafi solo - "Likhe Jo Khat Tujhe" topping the musical charts.

From 1969 to 1972, Kapoor had only one major success with Samir Ganguly's romantic thriller Sharmeelee (1971) opposite Rakhee Gulzar. In 1973, he reunited with Sharmila Tagore for Manmohan Desai's romantic drama Aa Gale Lag Jaa. Backed up with chartbuster music, it proved to be one of the highest earners of the year, eventually emerging a superhit at the box office.

The year 1974 changed the trajectory of Kapoor's career and marked his comeback. It started with Ashok Roy's action comedy Chor Machaye Shor which also had Mumtaz, Asrani and Danny Denzongpa in the lead. Chor Machaye Shor proved to be a blockbuster in India as well as overseas, putting a line of producers outside Kapoor's house and making him top five to six saleable stars of the time. The massive success of Chor Machaye Shor was followed by Manoj Kumar's social drama Roti Kapada Aur Makaan. Roti Kapada Aur Makaan went on to become an All Time Blockbuster and is regarded as one of the most influential movies of its time. Roti Kapada Aur Makaan and Chor Machaye Shor took 1st and 2nd spot, respectively at the box office in 1974. Apart from their box office success, both the films had superhit music and were the best selling Bollywood albums of the year. The song "Le Jayenge, Le Jayenge Dilwale Dulhaniya Le Jayenge" from Chor Machaye Shor was so popular that it went on to inspire the title of Shah Rukh Khan starrer Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge. 1975 proved to be another iconic year for Kapoor as he formed a hit pair with megastar Amitabh Bachchan and together both of them gave many successful and iconic films to Hindi cinema. His first release Anari underperformed commercially, but his second release, Deewaar directed by Yash Chopra, written by Salim-Javed and co-starring Bachchan, Parveen Babi, Neetu Singh, proved to be a major critical and commercial success, eventually emerging a huge blockbuster at the box office. Deewaar is considered one of the best films ever made in the history of Indian cinema and got featured in the book 1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die. Kapoor's line "Mere paas maa hai" ("I have mother"), is widely known in India and has become part of Indian popular culture. Kapoor's impactful portrayal of a police officer torn between love for his brother and duty met with acclaim and won him Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor. His next release was Raj Khosla's romantic drama Prem Kahani which also had Rajesh Khanna and Mumtaz in the lead. The film received good response from reviewers as well as the audience and proved to be a hit at the box office. He delivered another major hit that year with Brij Sadanah's action comedy Chori Mera Kaam opposite Zeenat Aman. Kapoor began 1976 with Yash Chopra's romantic musical Kabhi Kabhie. It had a huge star cast comprising of Waheeda Rehman, Bachchan, Rishi Kapoor, Rakhee and Neetu Singh. Despite its heavy theme, Kabhi Kabhie went on to become a blockbuster at the box office. It also had a highly successful soundtrack composed by Khayyam with lyrics written by Sahir Ludhianvi. Rakesh Budhu of Planet Bollywood gave 9.5 stars out of 10 to the album stating, "Kabhi Kabhie will remain an ode to brilliant melody". For his performance in the film, Kapoor received a nomination in the Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor category. After the huge success of Kabhi Kabhie, he reunited with the team of Chor Machaye Shor and delivered another blockbuster in Fakira, which was also remade in Telugu as Dongalaku Donga (1977). This was followed by a hit in Shibu Mitra's Shankar Dada and a semi-hit in Mohan Kumar's Aap Beati.

In 1977, he reunited with Bachchan for Desh Mukherjee's highly anticipated actioner Immaan Dharam, which took a bumper opening, but collections dropped afterwards due to poor reception and it ended up as a flop venture by the end of its run. His most of the other releases that year, such as Hira Aur Patthar, Farishta Ya Qatil, Chor Sipahee met the same fate, with the exception of Ashok Roy's Chakkar Pe Chakkar co-starring Rekha, Pran and Amjad Khan. This changed in 1978 when he starred in two of the highest grossing films of the year with Raj Kapoor's romantic drama Satyam Shivam Sundaram and Yash Chopra's action drama Trishul. While Satyam Shivam Sundaram opposite Zeenat Aman proved to be a hit, the latter in which he was paired alongside Hema Malini was a blockbuster. Kapoor also set up his own production house, Film-Valas in 1978. The following year, he reunited with Bachchan for two big-budget actioners, The first one was Yash Chopra's Kaala Patthar and the second was Manmohan Desai's Suhaag. Kaala Patthar did average business at the time of release, but gained cult status afterwards and is now considered an action classic. Its song "Ek Raasta Hai Zindagi" sung by Kishore Kumar and filmed on Kapoor remains highly popular till date. Suhaag, on the other hand, was a blockbuster as well as the highest grossing film of 1979. The same year, he produced and starred in Shyam Benegal's art-house film Junoon which also had Nafisa Ali, Shabana Azmi, Jennifer Kendal and Naseeruddin Shah in the lead. Junoon met with acclaim, winning Kapoor National Award for Best Feature Film (Hindi) as well as Filmfare Award for Best Film.

In 1980, Kapoor delivered a hit with Swayamvar, but his other releases, such as Do Aur Do Paanch and Neeyat failed to leave a mark while Ramesh Sippy's mega-budget action crime film Shaan ended up as an average grosser. In 1981, he co-starred alongside Dilip Kumar, Manoj Kumar, Hema Malini, Shatrughan Sinha and Parveen Babi in the historical drama Kranti. It went on to become the biggest patriotic hit of all time, topping the box office chart in 1981 and emerging an All Time Blockbuster. The same year, he saw moderate successes in Ek Aur Ek Gyaarah, Maan Gaye Ustaad and received acclaim for his performances in Yash Chopra's romantic drama Silsila and Shyam Benegal's crime drama Kalyug (which he also produced). 1982 was a good year for him as both critical and commercial success came his way with Govind Nihalani's coming-of-age drama Vijeta and Prakash Mehra's action comedy Namak Halaal. Vijeta which starred his son Kunal Kapoor in his debut, received enormous praise with many reviewers hailing it as one of the best films of the year. On the other hand, Namak Halaal opened to thunderous response from the audience and proved to be a blockbuster with Kapoor receiving another nomination in the Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor category.

Post-1982, Kapoor's star power began to wane as he shifted his focus majorly towards parallel cinema and limited his work in mainstream films, accepting only few offers. After not seeing any success in 1983, the next year, he produced and starred in Girish Karnad's critically acclaimed erotic drama Utsav. It was filmed in Hindi and English simultaneously, the post-production work of latter version was done in London. He also played a supporting role in K. Bapayya's superhit drama film Ghar Ek Mandir. In 1985, he appeared in Babbar Subhash's Aandhi-Toofan and Shakti Samanta's Alag Alag. While Aandhi-Toofan emerged a hit, Alag Alag fared poorly at the box office.

1986 proved to be a notable year for Kapoor as he won his first National Award for Best Actor and second BFJA Award for Best Actor (Hindi) for the extraordinary portrayal of an honest journalist in Ramesh Sharma's highly acclaimed political thriller New Delhi Times. His another major release of the year was Shibu Mitra's multi-starrer actioner Ilzaam co-starring Shatrughan Sinha, Govinda, Neelam and Anita Raj. The film proved to be a major commercial success and also one of the top grossers of the year.

Final works (1987–1998)

In 1987, he reunited with Govinda and Neelam for K. Ravi Shankar's actioner Sindoor which also had Jaya Prada in the lead. He also did a guest appearance in Gulzar's romantic musical Ijaazat. Although Ijaazat flopped commercially, it won massive critical acclaim. On the other hand, Sindoor emerged a hit and also proved to be Kapoor's last box office success. In 1988, he acted with Pierce Brosnan in The Deceivers. He also collaborated with Sudesh Issar and Manoj Kumar in 1989 for Akhri Muqabla and Clerk, respectively.

Shashi Kapoor requested Amitabh Bachchan to star in his ambitious directorial debut film Ajooba (1991). Bachchan made a notable exception and agreed to do the film due to their friendship, even though at the time Amitabh was not signing any new films. Despite having a lavish budget and a huge star cast, the film flopped miserably at the box office. Kapoor also won Special Jury Award for his performance in the 1993 film In Custody and played the Rajah in the TV miniseries Gulliver's Travels (1996).

In 1998, he retired from acting after his final film appearances in Jinnah, Side Streets and the much delayed Ghar Bazar. He was seen in the limelight at the Shashi Kapoor Film Festival held in Muscat, Oman (September 2007). At the 55th Annual Filmfare Awards in 2010, Shashi Kapoor received the Filmfare Lifetime Achievement Award.

Kapoor was of particular note in the Kapoor clan. He has been the solo hero more times (61 films) and also as a lead protagonist in more Hindi films (116) than his nephews Rishi Kapoor, Randhir Kapoor and Rajiv and even more than his brothers Raj Kapoor, Shammi Kapoor, his grand-nephews and grand-nieces.

Personal life
Kapoor attended Don Bosco High School in Matunga, Mumbai. He met English actress Jennifer Kendal in Calcutta in 1956 while both were working for their respective theatre groups. Shashi was both assistant stage manager as well as an actor for his father's theatre group, Prithvi Theatre. Geoffrey Kendal's Shakespearean group was also present at the same time in Calcutta and Jennifer was Geoffrey's daughter. After their subsequent meeting, the couple fell in love and after facing initial opposition from the Kendals and support from sister-in-law Geeta Bali, they got married in July 1958. They acted in a number of films together, most notably in Merchant Ivory productions. They had three children: Kunal Kapoor, Karan Kapoor and Sanjana Kapoor. Jennifer and Shashi established Prithvi Theatre on 5 November 1978 in Mumbai. Jennifer died of cancer in 1984 which shattered him. After losing her to cancer, Shashi Kapoor fell into a deep depression that he never recovered from. The English actress Felicity Kendal is his sister-in-law.

His eldest son Kunal is married to director Ramesh Sippy's daughter. Kunal moved on to ad film direction and established his production house Adfilm-Valas. Shashi's daughter Sanjana, is a theatre personality and married to wildlife conservationist Valmik Thapar. They have a son named Hamir. Shashi's younger son Karan became successful in modeling and later settled down in London and runs a photography company. His grandson Zahan who is son of Kunal made his debut in Faraaz (2023).

Kapoor was admitted to the Kokilaben Hospital, Versova, Mumbai, for what was speculated to be chest infection, and died on 4 December 2017. According to The Guardian, he was in hospital for treatment from long-standing liver and heart complications, and was always helping other patients. Officially, his cause of death was attributed to liver cirrhosis. His body was cremated. Kapoor and actress Sridevi, who died in 2018, were the only two Indians honored posthumously in memoriam at 90th Academy Awards.

Filmography and awards
In 2011, the Government of India honored him with the Padma Bhushan for his contributions to Indian cinema.

Reception and legacy
Kapoor is regarded as one of the greatest actors of Indian cinema. Apart from his work in mainstream Hindi films, he is also known for acting and producing several highly acclaimed and award-winning movies belonging to the genre of Parallel cinema, such as Junoon (1979), Kalyug, 36 Chowringhee Lane (both 1981), Vijeta (1982) and Utsav (1984).

Kapoor's deep attachment and commitment to theatre which started in childhood remained almost untouched even when he was immobile due to age-related complications. After renovating Prithvi Theatre in the western part of Mumbai, he was able to successfully create an environment congenial for creative pursuits. The lanes that reach Prithvi Theatre especially in the 1980s were not just routes to the theatre. They were a testimony to principles such as clarity of purpose, commitment to nonconformity and alacrity and utmost willingness to be part of creative process which would have enduring value and which would be incorruptible by market forces. Till date, Prithvi Theatre oozes out an infectious creative energy which can compel people to become dedicated theatre artists and earn a decent living. This has become possible because of consistent efforts of Shashi Kapoor who would be present for special theme-based theatre festivals at the theatre.

In 2022, he was placed in Outlook India's "75 Best Bollywood Actors" list.

Works

 * Shashi Kapoor presents the Prithviwallahs, by Shashi Kapoor, Deepa Gahlot, Prithvi Theatre (Mumbai, India). Roli Books, 2004. ISBN 81-7436-348-3.

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Talk:Sybill Trelawney

Previously redirected to: Talk:Hogwarts staff

title: Talk:Sybill Trelawney


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Incremental cost-effectiveness ratio

The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) is a statistic used in cost-effectiveness analysis to summarise the cost-effectiveness of a health care intervention. It is defined by the difference in cost between two possible interventions, divided by the difference in their effect. It represents the average incremental cost associated with 1 additional unit of the measure of effect. The ICER can be estimated as:

 * $$ICER=\frac{(C_{1}-C_{0})}{(E_{1}-E_{0})}$$,

where $C_{1}$ and $$E_{1}$$ are the cost and effect in the intervention group and where $C_{0}$  and $E_{0}$  are the cost and effect in the control care group. Costs are usually described in monetary units, while effects can be measured in terms of health status or another outcome of interest. A common application of the ICER is in cost-utility analysis, in which case the ICER is synonymous with the cost per quality-adjusted life year (QALY) gained.

Use as a decision rule
The ICER can be used as a decision rule in resource allocation. If a decision-maker is able to establish a willingness-to-pay value for the outcome of interest, it is possible to adopt this value as a threshold. If for a given intervention the ICER is above this threshold it will be deemed too expensive and thus should not be funded, whereas if the ICER lies below the threshold the intervention can be judged cost-effective. This approach has to some extent been adopted in relation to QALYs; for example, the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) adopts a nominal cost-per-QALY threshold of £20,000 to £30,000. As such, the ICER facilitates comparison of interventions across various disease states and treatments. In 2009, NICE set the nominal cost-per-QALY threshold at £50,000 for end-of-life care because dying patients typically benefit from any treatment for a matter of months, making the treatment's QALYs small. In 2016, NICE set the cost-per-QALY threshold at £100,000 for treatments for rare conditions because, otherwise, drugs for a small number of patients would not be profitable. The use of ICERs therefore provides an opportunity to help contain health care costs while minimizing adverse health consequences. Treatments for patients who are near death offer few QALYs simply because the typical patient has only months left to benefit from treatment. They also provide to policy makers information on where resources should be allocated when they are limited. As health care costs have continued to rise, many new clinical trials are attempting to integrate ICER into results to provide more evidence of potential benefit.

Controversies
Many people feel that basing health care interventions on cost-effectiveness is a type of health care rationing and have expressed concern that using ICER will limit the amount or types of treatments and interventions available to patients. Currently, the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) of England's National Health Service (NHS) uses cost-effectiveness studies to determine if new treatments or therapies at the prices proposed by manufacturers provide better value relative to the treatment that is currently in use. With the number of cost-effectiveness studies rising, it is possible for a cost-effectiveness ratio threshold to be established in other countries for the acceptance of reimbursement or formulary listing at a given price.

Research by the University of York identified that the cost per quality adjusted life year for changes in existing NHS expenditure in 2008 was £12,936 leading to concerns new treatments approved by NICE at £30,000 per quality adjusted life year are less cost-effective than spend on existing treatments. This would mean that diverting NHS spend to new treatments would forgo more than 2 quality adjusted life years for every year gained from the new treatment.

The concern that ICER may lead to rationing has affected policy makers in the United States. The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act of 2010 provided for the creation of the independent Patient-Centered Outcomes Research Institute (PCORI). The Senate Finance Committee in writing PPACA forbade PCORI from using "dollars-per-quality adjusted life year (or similar measure that discounts the value of a life because of an individual's disability) as a threshold to establish what type of health care is cost effective or recommended".

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1980 in aviation

This is a list of aviation-related events from 1980.

Events

 * British West Indian Airlines merges with Trinidad and Tobago′s flag carrier Trinidad and Tobago Air Services and becomes the country's new flag carrier, BWIA International Airways.
 * Ballistic Recovery Systems is founded.
 * Summer 1980 – The British Aerospace Sea Harrier enters operational service with the Fleet Air Arm, providing the British Royal Navy with its first high-performance fixed-wing aircraft capability since the retirement of the aircraft carrier HMS Ark Royal (R09) in December 1978.

January

 * January 7 – Pan American World Airways completes its acquisition of National Airlines, taking control of National's assets and routes. National Airlines formally will cease to exist on October 26.
 * January 8 – A Mooney 231 lands in San Francisco, after flying coast-to-coast non-stop across the continental United States, setting a record by completing the flight in 8 hours and 4 minutes.
 * January 10 – A Cessna 441 Conquest II en route from Shreveport to Baton Rouge, Louisiana ceases communications, flies far off-course on autopilot, and eventually crashes into the Atlantic Ocean off North Carolina due to fuel exhaustion. The two occupants, new Louisiana State University football coach Bo Rein and the pilot, are killed, and are assumed to have lost consciousness in flight due to hypoxia resulting from cabin depressurization.
 * January 14 – A Tunisian man hijacks Alitalia Flight 864 – a Douglas DC-9-32 (registration I-DIZI) with 93 people on board flying from Rome, Italy, to Tunis, Tunisia – and forces it to land at Palermo, Sicily. He demands the release of 25 Tunisian prisoners without success, and surrenders after 12 hours of negotiations.
 * January 16 – British Island Airways and Air Anglia merge to form Air UK.
 * January 18 – A hijacker commandeers a Middle East Airlines Boeing 720 bound from Beirut, Lebanon, to Larnaca, Cyprus, demanding to be flown to Iran. The hijacker surrenders at Beirut.
 * January 21 – While on approach to Mehrabad Airport in Tehran, Iran, in fog and snow, an Iran Air Boeing 727-86 crashes in the Alborz Mountains, killing all 128 people on board.
 * January 23 – A Pelita Air Service CASA/Nurtanio NC-212 Aviocar 100 (registration PK-PCX) on descent to Jakarta, Indonesia, in bad weather crashes into Mount Cemonyet at an altitude of 2,700 ft, killing all 13 people on board.
 * January 24 – A Burmese Air Force Fairchild FH-227B suffers an engine failure shortly after takeoff from Mandalay-Annisaton Airport in Mandalay, Burma, strikes the roof of a tobacco factory, and crashes, killing 43 of the 44 people on board and injuring a watchman at the factory.
 * January 25 – Armed with a pistol and pretending to have a bomb, a man claiming to be a Black Muslim hijacks Delta Air Lines Flight 1116 – a Lockheed L-1011 Tristar with 63 people on board bound from Atlanta, Georgia to New York City – and forces it to fly to Havana, Cuba. He then demands to be flown to Iran, but eventually surrenders to Cuban authorities. It is the first time since the United States implemented the mandatory security screening of airline passengers nationwide on January 5, 1973, that anyone has smuggled real weapons through the U.S. airport security screening system.
 * January 28 – A hijacker commandeers a Middle East Airlines Boeing 720 flying from Baghdad, Iraq, to Beirut, Lebanon, and demands to be allowed to make a political statement. The hijacker surrenders at Beirut.
 * January 30 – Two hijackers take control of an Interflug Ilyushin Il-18 during a domestic flight in East Germany from Erfurt to East Berlin but are taken down.

February

 * An Aeroflot Ilyushin Il-18 flies 30,000 km from Moscow in the Soviet Union to the Molodyozhnaya Station observatory in East Antarctica.
 * One year after the Iranian Revolution, repeated purges of the Iranian armed forces have led to the loss of 25 to 50 percent of majors and field-grade officers of the Iranian Air Force and Iranian Army.
 * February 21 – Australia experiences its first fatal airline accident since 1968 when an Advance Aviation Beechcraft King Air 200 suffers the failure of an engine shortly after takeoff from Sydney Airport in Mascot, Australia, due to water in the fuel tank and crashes into a seawall while trying to return to the airport. All 13 people on board die.
 * February 23 – Trying to avoid a bicyclist or pedestrian on the runway during its takeoff run at Kheria Air Force Station in Agra, India, an Indian Air Force Fairchild C-119G Flying Boxcar stalls, crashes, and bursts into flames, killing 46 of the 47 people on board.
 * February 27 – A China Airlines Boeing 707 originating from Taipei crash-lands in Manila, the Philippines, and is destroyed by fire. All 124 passengers and 11 crew members survive.
 * February 28 – A Guatemalan Air Force Douglas C-47 Skytrain carrying Guatemalan Army officers and their families on an excursion to Poptún, Guatemala, crashes in a mountainous region 65 km from Poptún, killing all 31 people on board.

March

 * March 10 – A hijacker commandeers a Middle East Airlines Boeing 707 flying from Amman, Jordan, to Beirut, Lebanon, and demands to be allowed to make a political statement. The hijacker surrenders at Beirut.
 * March 12–14 – Two United States Air Force B-52 Stratofrotresses make a non-stop round-the-world flight in 42.5 hours
 * March 14
 * One of the fuel tanks of a United States Air Force Lockheed C-130H Hercules explodes while it is on approach to Incirlik Air Base in Adana, Turkey, and it crashes 15 km west of the base, killing all 18 people on board.
 * The Ilyushin Il-62 Mikołaj Kopernik, operating as LOT Flight 7, crashes into the moat of a military fortress near Okęcie Airport in Warsaw, Poland, as the crew attempts a go around after a mechanical failure forces them to abort a landing. All 87 people on board die, including Polish singer Anna Jantar, American ethnomusicologist Alan P. Merriam, and a contingent of the United States amateur boxing team.
 * March 19 – Pudahuel International Airport in Pudahuel, outside Santiago, Chile, is renamed Arturo Merino Benítez International Airport.
 * March 20
 * A CAAC Airlines Antonov An-24RV on a domestic flight in the People's Republic of China from Guiyang to Changsha crashes near Changsha Huanghua Airport, killing all 26 people on board.
 * A hijacker takes control of an Aeroflot Tupolev Tu-134 during a domestic flight in the Soviet Union from Baku to Yerevan, demanding to be flown to Turkey. The hijacker is taken down.
 * March 27 – A Lufkin Industries Beechcraft 200 Super King Air crashes in an open field north of Parker, Colorado, about 13 mi east of Arapahoe County Airport, due to icing of its airframe, killing all 10 people on board.
 * March 28 – The 1,000th production Learjet is delivered.
 * March 31 – The U.S. Air Force inactivates the Aerospace Defense Command.

April

 * Due to the increasing price of jet fuel, East Germany's national airline, Interflug, makes its last domestic flight, a flight from East Berlin to Erfurt. Henceforth, Interflug offers only international service.
 * April 3 – The prototype of the Bombardier Challenger 600 series crashes in the Mojave Desert in California, killing its pilot.
 * April 9
 * In response to an assassination attempt against Iraqi Foreign Minister Tariq Aziz by the pro-Iranian Shiite Muslim group Al Dawaa, the Iraqi Air Force bombs the Iranian town of Qasr-e Shirin on the Iran–Iraq border.
 * As American Airlines Flight 348 – a Boeing 727 with seven crew members on board – prepares to board 74 passengers at Ontario International Airport in Ontario, California, for a flight to Chicago, Illinois, a man armed with a.45-caliber pistol appears on the tarmac, forces his way up the stairs, and hijacks the plane, demanding to be flown to Havana, Cuba. With only the crew and hijacker aboard, the plane flies to Dallas, Texas, to refuel and then on to Havana, where the hijacker is arrested by Cuban authorities.
 * April 12 – On a night approach to Hercilio Luz International Airport in Florianópolis, Brazil, during a severe thunderstorm, Transbrasil Flight 303, a Boeing 727-27C, crashes into a hill, killing 55 of the 58 people on board.
 * April 14 – At Stapleton International Airport in Denver, Colorado, a hijacker commandeers Continental Airlines Flight 11, a Boeing 727 with 78 people on board bound for Ontario, California.
 * April 18 – Air Zimbabwe is formed in Zimbabwe.
 * April 24 – To rescue 52 Americans held hostage in Tehran, Iran, during the Iran hostage crisis, the United States Armed Forces mount Operation Eagle Claw, an attempt to carry United States Army Delta Force rescue team to Tehran in eight United States Navy RH-53D Sea Stallion helicopters manned by United States Marine Corps personnel flying from the aircraft carrier USS Nimitz (CVN-68) in the Persian Gulf. The plan requires the helicopters to meet six United States Air Force aircraft – three special operations MC-130E Combat Talon I penetration/transport aircraft and three EC-130E Hercules – on the ground at the secret "Desert One" airstrip inside Iran for refueling. After only six of the helicopters arrive at Desert One and one of them proves mechanically incapable of continuing, the operation is aborted and, as the aircraft prepare to leave, an RH-53 crashes into an EC-130, killing eight men and destroying both aircraft. The five surviving helicopters are abandoned and all the surviving personnel evacuate Desert One in the remaining MC-130s and EC-130s.
 * April 25 – Dan-Air Flight 1008, a Boeing 727-46, turns the wrong way in a holding pattern and crashes into high terrain while on approach to Tenerife North Airport on the island of Tenerife in Spain's Canary Islands, killing all 146 people on board. It is the largest loss of life aboard an aircraft registered in the United Kingdom.
 * April 27 – Thai Airways Flight 231, a Hawker Siddeley HS 748, crashes after entering a thunderstorm while on approach to Don Mueang International Airport in Bangkok, Thailand, killing 44 of the 53 people on board and injuring all nine survivors.

May

 * May 1
 * A United States Marine Corps AV-8A Harrier crashes spectacularly at Marine Corps Air Station Cherry Point in North Carolina. During a vertical takeoff the aircraft rolls, drops to the runway, bounces into a ditch, bursts into flames, flips, and slides through a hangar and into a parking lot, where it damages more than 20 vehicles.
 * A hijacker commandeers Pacific Southwest Airlines Flight 818, a Boeing 727 flying from Stockton to Los Angeles, California, with eight people on board. The hijacker demands to be taken to Iran, but is overpowered by the pilot.
 * May 6 – A hijacker takes control of a TAP Air Portugal Boeing 727-172C during a domestic flight in Portugal from Lisbon to Faro and demands to be taken to Switzerland. The airliner diverts to Madrid, Spain, where the hijacker surrenders.
 * May 8–12 – Maxie Anderson and his son, Kristian Anderson, make the first nonstop balloon crossing of North America, flying from Fort Baker in California to Sainte-Félicité, Queboon.
 * May 26 – Encountering a severe thunderstorm, a Nigerian Air Force Fokker F27 Friendship 400M carrying a 12-man Nigerian military delegation on a defence diplomatic mission to São Tomé and Principe crashes in the Atlantic Ocean off Forçados, Nigeria, killing all 18 people on board. Nigerian Minister of External Affairs Abubakar Usman is among the dead.
 * May 28 – A Spanish Air Force Lockheed C-130H Hercules crashes into the cloud-covered mountain Hoya del Gamonal on Las Palmas in the Canary Islands, killing all 10 people on board.

June

 * European Helicopter Industries is formed.
 * Braniff International Airways ends its Concorde service. Inaugurated in January 1979, it involved an interchange service allowing the Concorde to operate over the United States by having Air France and British Airways crews fly the aircraft from Europe to Washington Dulles International Airport in Virginia outside Washington, D.C., where the aircraft were temporarily leased and re-registered to Braniff and flown by Braniff crews as Braniff aircraft to Dallas-Fort Worth Regional Airport. The process was reversed on the return trip, with Braniff crews flying the planes as Braniff aircraft to Washington Dulles, where they were "sold" back and re-registered to Air France and British Airways before being flown back to Europe by French and British crews. Braniff finds that its Concordes generally carry only 15 passengers per trip (about 20 percent of capacity) on the Dallas-Washington route, in sharp contrast to its Boeing 727s, which are full on the same route, and thus decides to discontinue its Concorde operations. Braniff is the only American airline ever to operate the Concorde.
 * June 1 – Mauro Milhomem, a Brazilian pilot, attempted to crash his Sertanejo-721 into the Hotel Presidente owned by his mother-in-law, after he had an argument with his wife the previous day after he discovered that she cheated him. The plane failed to hit the target and hit into several objects and ultimately crashed into an accounting office in front to a forum. Six people were killed and four were wounded.
 * June 2 – A Lloyd Aéreo Boliviano Fairchild F-27J (registration CP-1117) crashes in the Tapecua Hills near Yacuíba in southern Bolivia, killing all 13 people on board.
 * June 8 – A MiG-19 (NATO reporting name "Farmer") shoots down a TAAG Angola Airlines Yakovlev Yak-40K (registration D2-TYC) near Matala, Angola, killing all 19 people on board. Some reports identify the attacking aircraft as a Zambian Shenyang F-6.
 * June 12
 * Badly off course after a long detour around a thunderstorm, an Aeroflot Yakovlev Yak-40 (registration CCCP-87689) attempting to descend toward Dushanbe in the Soviet Union's Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic crashes into a mountain slope 44 kilometers northwest of Dushanbe Airport, killing all 29 people on board.
 * On approach to Lincoln Municipal Airport in Lincoln, Nebraska, Air Wisconsin Flight 965, a Swearingen SA226-TC Metro II (registration N650S) enters an area of very heavy precipitation. Water ingestion causes both engines to lose power simultaneously. The crew restarts them, but the aircraft crashes in a muddy field about 5 km north of Valley, Nebraska, killing 13 of the 15 people on board.
 * June 13 – The last Concorde to be produced, number 16, is delivered to British Airways.
 * June 19 – Sikorsky Aircraft delivers the last of its S-61 commercial helicopters.
 * June 23 – Piloting a new aerobatic biplane of the Delhi Flying Club, Sanjay Gandhi, the son of Prime Minister of India Indira Gandhi, loses control at the top of a loop he is performing over his office near Safdarjung Airport in New Delhi, India. He and his passenger die in the subsequent crash.
 * June 27 – Itavia Flight 870, a McDonnell Douglas DC-9-15, crashes in the Tyrrhenian Sea near the Italian island of Ustica, killing all 81 people on board. Various theories have been put forward suggesting that the airliner was destroyed in flight by a bomb or was accidentally shot down during a military operation.
 * June 30 – A hijacker commandeers an Aerolineas Argentinas Boeing 737-287C during a domestic flight in Argentina from Mar del Plata to Buenos Aires, demanding ransom money.

July

 * July 6 – The largest light airplane meet outside the United States brings 750 small planes to the Popular Flying Association's annual meeting in Leicester, England.
 * July 7 – An Instituto Mexicano de Seguridad Social Embraer EMB-110P1 Bandeirante air ambulance (registration XA-DAK) carrying 10 patients, a nurse, and a crew of two crashes into a hill three minutes after takeoff from Tepic Airport in Tepic, Mexico, killing everyone on board.
 * July 8 – Aeroflot Flight 4225, a Tupolev Tu-154B-2 (registration CCCP-85355), gets caught in a downdraft two minutes after takeoff from Alma-Ata Airport in Alma-Ata in the Soviet Union's Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic. It stalls, strikes a farm, crashes in a wheat field, disintegrates, catches fire, and falls into a ravine 5 km from the airport, killing all 166 people on board. At the time, it is the deadliest accident involving a Tu-154, the deadliest aviation accident in the history of Kazakhstan, and the second-deadliest aviation accident in the history of the Soviet Union.
 * July 11 – At Seattle-Tacoma International Airport outside Seattle, Washington, 18-year-old Glenn Kurt Tripp hijacks Northwest Orient Airlines Flight 608 – a Boeing 727 with 64 people on board bound for Portland, Oregon – and demands a US$600,000 ransom, two parachutes, and the assassination of his boss. After a 10-hour standoff, police storm the plane and arrest Tripp. While on probation, he will hijack the same flight in January 1983.
 * July 12 – In the Philippines, a hijacker commandeers a Philippine Air Lines Boeing 727 bound from Manila to Cebu, demanding a ransom and to be flown to Libya. At Manila International Airport, security forces storm the plane and arrest the hijacker.
 * July 17
 * Cathay Pacific begins a Hong Kong-London service
 * A Vickers Viscount of the charter airline Alidair lands safely in Devon, England, after suffering damage to all four engines.
 * July 21 – The General Dynamics F-16 is officially named the "Fighting Falcon" in a ceremony at Hill Air Force Base, Utah.
 * July 22 – A hijacker describing himself as a Puerto Rican man with "personal problems" draws a small pistol and grabs a stewardess aboard Delta Air Lines Flight 1135 – a Lockheed L-1011 Tristar with 158 people on board flying from Miami, Florida, to San Juan, Puerto Rico – about 200 mi into its flight, demanding to be flown to Havana, Cuba. Bad weather at Havana forces the airliner to land at Camagüey, Cuba, instead, where the hijacker surrenders to the Cuban authorities and is arrested. The plane then returns to Miami.
 * July 24 – Two hijackers take control of a Kuwait Airways Boeing 737-269 (registration 9K-ACV) during a flight from Beirut, Lebanon, to Kuwait City, Kuwait, and demand a ransom. After the plane lands at Kuwait City, they force it to fly to Manama, Bahrain, back to Kuwait City, to Abadan, Iran, and back to Kuwait City again before surrendering to Kuwaiti authorities.

August

 * August 7 – Janice Brown pilots the MacCready Gossamer Penguin on its first solar-powered flight.
 * August 10 – A man who had arrived in the United States from Cuba as a refugee during the Mariel boatlift earlier in the year hijacks Air Florida Flight 4 – a Boeing 737 with 35 people on board flying from Miami to Key West, Florida – claiming to have a bomb and forces it to fly him to Havana, Cuba, where he surrenders to Cuban authorities. His "bomb" turns out to be a bar of soap packed in a box.
 * August 11 – The construction of São Paulo–Guarulhos International Airport in São Paulo, Brazil, begins.
 * August 13 – Complaining that they had been unable to find jobs in the United States, seven man who had arrived in the United States from Cuba as refugees during the Mariel boatlift earlier in the year hijack Air Florida Flight 707 – a Boeing 737 with 74 people on board flying from Key West to Miami, Florida – splashing gasoline (petrol) on the floor and threatening to ignite it. They force it to fly to Havana, Cuba, where they surrender to Cuban authorities. Thirty-nine-year-old passenger Martin Thomas makes his second unplanned trip to Havana in three days; he also had been aboard Air Florida Flight 4 when it was hijacked three days earlier.
 * August 14
 * Two Spanish-speaking men armed with a bottle of what appears to be gasoline (petrol) hijack National Airlines Flight 872 – a Douglas DC-10 with 224 people on board flying from Miami, Florida, to San Juan, Puerto Rico – and force it to fly them to Havana, Cuba, where they surrender to Cuban authorities. After four hours on the ground in Havana, the DC-10 takes off early on August 15 and continues its flight to San Juan.
 * Representatives of 17 airlines meet with officials of the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation, U.S. Federal Aviation Administration, and the Public Safety Department of Dade County, Florida, to discuss ways of addressing the new wave of airliner hijackings from the United States to Cuba, which began on June 12, 1979. The renewed use of "behavioral profiles" to identify hijackers based on their personalities and behaviors is among the options they consider.
 * August 16 – A record three hijackings of U.S. airliners take place on the same day. First, six Latin men threatening to ignite a fluid they said was explosive commandeer Eastern Air Lines Flight 90, a Boeing 727 with 53 people on board flying from Miami to Orlando, Florida. Later in the afternoon, four Latin men armed with bottles they say contain inflammable liquids take control of Republic Airlines Flight 228, a Douglas DC-9 with 116 people on board flying from Miami to Orlando. A half-hour after that, three Latin men threaten to ignite four containers they say contain gasoline (petrol) aboard Delta Air Lines Flight 1065, a Lockheed L-1011 Tristar with 183 people on board flying from San Juan, Puerto Rico, to Miami. All three airliners divert to Havana, Cuba, where Cuban authorities arrest all of the hijackers.   In addition, two men armed with bottles containing gasoline are arrested at Miami International Airport in Miami while trying to board an Air Florida flight to Key West.  Sky marshals have begun flying aboard airliners flying to and from airports in South Florida during the weeken of August 16–17 to combat the wave of hijackings to Cuba.
 * August 18 – A hijacker commandeers Eastern Air Lines Flight 348 – a Douglas DC-9 with 59 people on board flying from Melbourne, Florida, to Atlanta, Georgia – demanding ransom money and to be flown Cuba. Police storm the airliner at Atlanta and arrest the hijacker.
 * August 19 – A fire breaks out in the aft cargo compartment of Saudia Flight 163, a Lockheed L-1011-200 TriStar, a few minutes after takeoff from Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. The plane returns to the airport and makes a safe emergency landing, but instead of ordering an immediate emergency evacuation, the flight crew taxis onto a taxiway before stopping. Engine shutdown takes another 3 minutes 15 seconds, by which time all or most of the passengers and crew apparently have been overcome by smoke and fire. By the time airport emergency personnel get one of the plane's doors open 23 minutes after engine shutdown, all 301 people on board have died. It remains the second-deadliest single-aircraft accident in history, the deadliest in Saudi Arabian history, and the deadliest involving an L-1011.
 * August 26
 * The right horizontal stabilizer of a Bouraq Indonesia Airlines Vickers 812 Viscount (registration PK-IVS) separates from the aircraft in flight. The airliner crashes in Indonesia 26 km northeast of Jakarta's Kemayoran Airport, killing all 37 people on board.
 * Three hijackers commandeer Eastern Air Lines Flight 401 – a Lockheed L-1011 Tristar with 242 people on board flying from New York City to Miami, Florida – and force it to fly to Havana, Cuba, where they surrender to Cuban authorities.
 * August 28–31 – The 3rd FAI World Rally Flying Championship is held in Aschaffenburg, West Germany. Individual winners are 1. Witold Świadek / Andrzej Korzeniowski (Poland), 2. Otto Höfling / Michael Amtmann (West Germany), 3. Luckerbauer / Meszaros (Austria). Team results are 1. Poland, 2. West Germany, 3. Austria.
 * August 29 – As passengers board Braniff International Airways Flight 920 – a Douglas DC-8 flying from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, to Los Angeles, California – during a refueling stop at Jorge Chávez International Airport in Lima, Peru, Cuban refugees break windows in the airport terminal, rush onto the tarmac, and storm the plane, demanding to be flown to the United States. Although Peruvian Civil Guard officers fire shots in the air and prevent some refugees from boarding, 168 refugees join 17 passengers on board the airliner, and about another 150 refugees mill around outside the plane. With no crew aboard the DC-8 to fly it anywhere, negotiations result in the refugees surrendering to the Peruvian authorities. Two refugees suffer minor gunshot wounds during the incident when Civil Guard officers fire at them, and other refugees are cut by broken glass while breaking windows in the terminal.

September

 * September 8 – As Eastern Air Lines Flight 161 – a Boeing 727 with 89 people on board flying from New York City to Tampa, Florida – passes over Charleston, South Carolina, a man – apparently a homesick Cuban refugee – holding a cigarette lighter and a container of liquid threatens to set the airliner on fire if it does not fly him to Cuba, then locks himself in the plane's lavatory. The airliner lands in Havana, Cuba, where Cuban soldiers arrest the hijacker. The plane then refuels and continues its flight to Tampa. It is the eighth hijacking of a U.S. airliner, and the third of an Eastern Air Lines plane, to Cuba since August 10.
 * September 9 – Island Air begins operations in Hawaii.
 * September 12
 * Florida Commuter Airlines Flight 65, a Douglas DC-3A, crashes in the Atlantic Ocean near West End Settlement, Grand Bahama Island, Bahamas, killing all 34 people on board. Fifteen bodies are recovered before search-and-rescue operations cease on September 15.
 * A hijacker commandeers Eastern Air Lines Flight 5 – a Boeing 727 with 85 people on board flying from Newark, New Jersey, to Miami, Florida – but is taken down.
 * September 13 – Two Cuban refugees, brothers Miguel Aguiar Rodriguez and Roberto Aguiar Rodriguez, who had arrived in the United States earlier in 1980 during the Mariel boatlift, hijack Delta Air Lines Flight 334 – a Boeing 727 with 88 people on board flying from New Orleans, Louisiana, to Atlanta, Georgia – threatening to ignite bottles of inflammable liquid. They force it to fly to Havana, Cuba, where they are arrested by Cuban authorities. Roberto will die in October 2002, but Miguel will return to the United States illegally in 2000 and finally will be arrested for the hijacking by U.S. authorities when he arrives for an appointment with the U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service in Miami, Florida, in August 2002.
 * September 14
 * A Royal Saudi Air Force Lockheed C-130H Hercules crashes after suffering engine failure on takeoff from Prince Mohammad bin Abdulaziz Airport in Medina, Saudi Arabia, killing all 89 people on board.
 * A Zaire Air Force Lockheed C-130H Hercules crashes while attempting to takeoff from Kindu Airport in Kindu, Zaire, on three engines at maximum gross takeoff weight, killing all 36 people on board.
 * September 17 – A Zaire Air Force de Havilland Canada DHC-5D Buffalo crashes at Kindu Airport in Kindu, Zaire, killing 36 people.
 * September 19 – The Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force admits to losing two F-4 Phantom II fighter-bombers during heavy fighting with Iraq over control of the Shatt al-Arab waterway.
 * September 21 – A Douglas A-26 Invader crashes during an air show at Biggin Hill in London, England, killing its pilot and seven passengers. The incident prompts the United Kingdom's Civil Aviation Authority to introduce rules prohibiting aircraft from carrying passengers during air shows.
 * September 22
 * The Iran–Iraq War begins. The Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force has about 100,000 men and 447 combat aircraft, while the Iranian Army Aviation Corps has about 70 light reconnaissance and support planes and over 200 armed helicopters; only 50–60 percent of Iranian fixed-wing aircraft, 18–50 percent of its combat aircraft, and 60 percent of its helicopters are operational. The Iraqi Air Force has about 38,000 men, of which about 10,000 are air defense personnel, and 332 combat aircraft, and the Iraqi Army Air Corps has about 70 armed helicopters.
 * The Iraqi Air Force begins the war with an attempt to destroy the Iranian Air Force on the ground in a surprise attack, striking the Iranian airfields at Mehrabad, Kermanshah, Sanandaj, and Al-Ahwaz, and the Iranian Army bases at Hamadan, Tehran, Isfahan, Dezful, Shiraz, and Tabriz, but the attacks have little effect.
 * September 23–24 – Iraqi aircraft attack Iranian airfields at Tabriz (twice), Dezful (twice), Shahroki, Kermanshah, Al-Ahwaz, and Sanandaj, but again make little impact on Iranian air capabilities. Iranian aircraft fly 100 sorties on September 23 despite the attacks, prompting Iraq ro disperse many of its aircraft into other Arab countries for the next week to ten days.
 * September 24 – The Iraqi Air Force attacks Iran's oil terminal at Kharg Island for the first time.
 * September 28 – Iraqi Air Force Tupolev Tu-22 (NATO reporting name "Blinder') bombers land in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, after bombing Iran.
 * September 30 – At Saudi Arabia's request, the U.S. Air Force's "ELF-1" force – consisting of four E-3A Sentry Airborne Warning and Control System (AWACS) aircraft, two KC-135 Stratotanker tanker aircraft, and 300 support personnel – arrives at Dhahran International Airport in Saudi Arabia to provide long-range air defense and maritime surveillance support to Saudi and American forces. ELF-1 will remain in Saudi Arabia through the end of the Iran–Iraq War in 1988.

October

 * October 1
 * Republic Airlines completes its buyout of Hughes Airwest.
 * Seaboard World Airlines merges into Flying Tiger Line and disappears as a corporate entity. The merger makes Flying Tiger the largest air cargo carrier.
 * October 2 – A Westland Sea King helicopter rescues 22 passengers from the Swedish ship Finneagle in the North Sea.
 * October 7 – The Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force attacks Iraqi oil facilities at Kirkuk and Sulaimaniyeh, but inflicts little real damage.
 * October 12 – Mesa Airlines commences operations.
 * October 16 – Iraqi aircraft destroy Iranian oil tanks at Tehran.
 * October 20 – The first dogfights of the Iran–Iraq War take place. Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force F-4 Phantom IIs shoot down an Iraqi Air Force Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21.
 * October 26 – National Airlines formally ceases to exist. Pan American World Airways already had completed its acquisition of National Airlines on January 7, when it had taken control of National's assets and routes.

November

 * November 1 – British Airways terminates Concorde services to Bahrain and Singapore.
 * November 4 – A Venezuelan Air Force Lockheed C-130H Hercules crashes during its initial climb after takeoff from Simón Bolívar International Airport in Caracas, Venezuela, killing all six people on the plane and five people on the ground.
 * November 9 – Dan-Air registers the last commercial flight by a de Havilland Comet. The plane flies enthusiasts on a round-trip flight from London Gatwick Airport.
 * November 12
 * Turning onto final approach after a night go-around at Cairo West Air Base in Cairo, Egypt, a United States Air Force Lockheed C-141B Starlifter crashes, killing all 13 people on board.
 * Delta Air Lines orders 60 Boeing 757s, the largest single order to this time for a single airliner type.
 * November 19 – Korean Airlines Flight 015, a Boeing 747-2B5B (registration HL7445) carrying 212 people, lands 90 m short of the runway at Kimpo International Airport in Seoul, South Korea, and strikes an embankment. Its main landing gear collapses backward and penetrates its cargo compartment, where sparks start a fire while the plane slides down the runway on its nose gear and belly. The fire quickly guts the fuselage, killing 14 people, but the rest of the passengers and crew evacuate and survive. Four of the survivors are seriously injured.
 * November 21 – Continental Micronesia, a Boeing 727-92C, skids off the runway and crashes when its right main landing gear separates from the airliner as it lands at Yap International Airport on Yap in the western Caroline Islands. A fire subsequently destroys the plane, but all 73 people on board evacuate, three of them with serious injuries.
 * November 24 – Flying in heavy rain, a Douglas C-47A-35-DL Skytrain (registration HK-1221G) operated by Colombia's customs service crashes into the mountain Cerro El Boquerón near Murri, Colombia, at an altitude of 9,500 ft, killing all 20 people on board.
 * November 25 – U.S. Navy helicopters join U.S. Air Force and U.S. Army units in providing aid to victims of an earthquake at Avellino, Italy, which had killed 3,000 and left many people homeless two days earlier.

December

 * Thanks to purges of officers since the February 1979 Iranian Revolution and the Western embargo on spare parts shipments to Iran, by late 1980 the operational level of the Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force drops below 100 aircraft and its sustained sortie rate to drop to one per day. This will not change through the end of the Iran–Iraq War in 1988. The Iranian Army helicopter force, able to fly 60 to 70 percent of its helicopters, suffers from similar problems.
 * December 4 – Prime Minister of Portugal Francisco de Sá Carneiro and Portuguese Minister of National Defence Adelino Amaro da Costa die in the crash of a Cessna 421A Golden Eagle in Camarate, Portugal. The other five people on board also die.
 * December 7 – The Pan American World Airways Boeing 747 China Clipper arrives in Beijing, China, from John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York after a stop in Tokyo, Japan. It marks the first time since 1949 that a commercial flight between the United States and mainland China is completed.
 * December 19 – New York Air begins airline operations.
 * December 21 – An explosion occurs in the right rear portion of a TAC Colombia Sud Aviation SE-210 Caravelle VIN (registration HK-1810) on its first scheduled flight after 17 months of maintenance work shortly after takeoff from Almirante Padilla Airport in Riohacha, Colombia. It crashes, killing all 70 people on board.
 * December 22 – Saudia Flight 162, a Lockheed L-1011 TriStar with 292 people on board, suffers an explosive decompression over the Persian Gulf off Qatar, killing two people and injuring seven.
 * December 24 – The Iraqi Air Force makes its first major air raid against the Iranian oil terminal at Kharg Island.

March

 * March 14 – Grob G 109
 * March 28 – Rolladen-Schneider LS4

April

 * April 9 – Akaflieg Braunschweig SB-12

May

 * May 10 – Glasflügel 304
 * May 13 – Antonov An-3

June

 * June 4 – Mitsubishi F-15J
 * June 20 – Beechcraft Commuter
 * June 24 – Microturbo Microjet 200 F-WZJF

July

 * July 1 - QAC Quickie Q2
 * July 12 – McDonnell Douglas KC-10 Extender 79-0433
 * July 16 – British Aerospace Nimrod AEW3
 * July 21 – Caproni Vizzola Ventura
 * July 23 – Eurocopter HH-65 Dolphin

August

 * August 11 – Learjet Longhorn 50
 * August 16 – EMBRAER Tucano 1300
 * August 19 – Boeing-Vertol Model 234

September

 * September 26 – Shanghai Y-10
 * September 30 - Monnett Monex

October

 * October 9 - Hoffman H36 Dimona
 * October 16 - Pottier P.100
 * October 23 - Striplin Lone Ranger

November

 * November 6 – MacCready Solar Challenger
 * November 8 - Nash Petrel

December

 * December 2 - Gyroflug Speed Canard
 * December 8 – Robin R3140
 * December 16 - Glasflügel 402
 * December 31 - SZD-51 Junior

January

 * Bell Model 222 with Petroleum Helicopters and Schiavone Construction

October

 * The MD-80 series enters airline service.

November

 * November 13 – F/A-18 Hornet with VFA-125 at NAS Lemoore.

December

 * December 26 – Ilyushin Il-86 with Aeroflot

Retirements

 * North American F-100 Super Sabre by the United States Air National Guard

Deadliest crash
The deadliest crash of this year is considered an unusual accident: Saudia Flight 163, a Lockheed L1011 Tristar, caught on fire in the air shortly after departing Riyadh, Saudi Arabia on 19 August; the aircraft landed and came to a halt near Riyadh's runway but in failing to evacuate promptly, the fire overcame the passengers and crew killing all 301 people on board.

title: 1980 in aviation