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Trans fat regulation

Trans fat regulation, that aims to limit the amount of "trans fat" — fat containing trans fatty acids — in industrial food products, has been enacted in many countries. These regulations were motivated by numerous studies that pointed to significant negative health effects of trans fat. It is generally accepted that trans fat in the diet is a contributing factor in several diseases, including cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and cancer.

History
As early as 1956, there were suggestions in the scientific literature that trans fats could be a cause of the large increase in coronary artery disease but after three decades the concerns were still largely unaddressed. Instead, by the 1980s, fats of animal origin had become one of the greatest concerns of dieticians. Activists, such as Phil Sokolof, who took out full page ads in major newspapers, attacked the use of beef tallow in McDonald's french fries and urged fast-food companies to switch to vegetable oils. The result was an almost overnight switch by most fast-food outlets to trans fats.

Studies in the early 1990s, however, brought renewed scrutiny and confirmation of the negative health impact of trans fats. In 1994, it was estimated that trans fats caused 20,000 deaths annually in the United States from heart disease.

Mandatory food labeling for trans fats was introduced in several countries. Campaigns were launched by activists to bring attention to the issue and change the practices of food manufacturers.

International regulation
The international trade in food is standardized in the Codex Alimentarius. Hydrogenated oils and fats come under the scope of Codex Stan 19. Non-dairy fat spreads are covered by Codex Stan 256-2007. In the Codex Alimentarius, trans fat to be labelled as such is defined as the geometrical isomers of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids having non-conjugated [interrupted by at least one methylene group (−CH2−)] carbon-carbon double bonds in the trans configuration. This definition excludes specifically the trans fats (vaccenic acid and conjugated linoleic acid) that are present especially in human milk, dairy products, and beef.

In 2018 the World Health Organization launched a plan to eliminate trans fat from the global food supply. They estimate that trans fat leads to more than 500,000 deaths from cardiovascular disease yearly.

Argentina
Trans fat content labeling is required starting in August 2006. Since 2010, vegetable oils and fats sold to consumers directly must contain only 2% of trans fat over total fat, and other food must contain less than 5% of their total fat. Starting on 10 December 2014, Argentina has on effect a total ban on food with trans fat, a regulation that could save the government more than US$100 million a year on healthcare.

Australia
The Australian federal government has indicated that it wants to pursue actively a policy to reduce trans fats from fast foods. The former federal assistant health minister, Christopher Pyne, asked fast food outlets to reduce their trans fat use. A draft plan was proposed, with a September 2007 timetable, to reduce reliance on trans fats and saturated fats.

, Australia's food labeling laws do not require trans fats to be shown separately from the total fat content. However, margarine in Australia has been mostly free of trans fat since 1996.

Austria
Trans fat content limited to 4% of total fat, 2% on products that contain more than 20% fat.

Belgium
The Conseil Supérieur de la Santé published in 2012 a science-policy advisory report on industrially produced trans fatty acids that focuses on the general population. Its recommendation to the legislature was to prohibit more than 2 g of trans fatty acids per 100 g of fat in food products.

Brazil
Resolution 360 of 23 December 2003 by the Brazilian ministry of health required for the first time in the country that the amount of trans fat to be specified in labels of food products. On 31 July 2006, such labelling of trans fat contents became mandatory. In 2019 Anvisa published a new legislation to reduce the total amount of trans fat in any industrialized food sold in Brazil to a maximum of 2% by the end of 2023.

Canada
In a process that began in 2004, Health Canada finally banned partially hydrogenated oils (PHOs), the primary source of industrially produced trans fats in foods, in September 2018.

On 15 September 2017, Health Canada announced that trans fat will be completely banned effective on 15 September 2018. and the ban came into effect in September 2018, banning partially hydrogenated oils (the largest source of industrially produced trans fats in foods). It is now illegal for manufacturers to add partially hydrogenated oils to foods sold in or imported into Canada.

Denmark
In March 2003, Denmark became the first country to effectively ban artificial trans fat It limited the trans share to 2% of fats and oils destined for human consumption, a standard that partially hydrogenated oil fails. This restriction is on the ingredients rather than the final products. This regulatory approach thus made Denmark the first country in which it was possible to eat "far less" than 1 g of industrially produced trans fats daily, even with a diet including processed foods. One public health study concluded that Danish government's efforts to decrease trans fat intake from 6 g to 1 g per day over 20 years is related to a 50% decrease in deaths from ischemic heart disease.

European Union
In 2004, the European Food Safety Authority produced a scientific opinion on trans fatty acids, surmising that "higher intakes of TFA may increase risk for coronary heart disease".

From 2 April 2021 foods in the EU intended for consumers are required to contain less than 2g of industrial trans fat per 100g of fat.

Greece
Law in Greece limits content of trans fats sold in school canteens to 0.1% (Ministerial Decision Υ1γ/ΓΠ/οικ 81025/ΦΕΚ 2135/τ.Β'/29-08-2013 as modified by Ministerial Decision Υ1γ/ Γ.Π/οικ 96605/ΦΕΚ 2800 τ.Β/4-11-201).

Iceland
Total trans fat content was limited in 2010 to 2% of total fat content.

Israel
Since 2014, it is obligatory to mark food products with more than 2% (by weight) fat. The nutritional facts must contain the amount of trans fats.

Romania
On 19 August 2020, the president promulgated Law 182/2020 that limits trans fats to 2 grams per every 100 grams of fat, max. The food producers who will not conform will be fined with a sum ranging between 10,000 and 30,000 lei. It will come into force on the 1st of April 2020, and it was initiated in 2017 by Save Romania Union senator Adrian Wiener.

Saudi Arabia
The Saudi Food and Drug Authority (SFDA) requires importers and manufacturer to write the trans fats amounts in the nutritional facts labels of food products according to the requirements of Saudi Standard Specifications/Gulf Specifications.

Starting in 2020, Saudi Minister of Health announced the ban of trans fat in all food products due to their health risks.

Singapore
The Ministry of Health announced a total ban on partially-hydrogenated oils (PHOs) on 6 March 2019. The target was set to ban PHOs by June 2021, with the aim of encouraging healthy eating habits. The total ban on PHOs took effect on 1 June 2021.

Sweden
The parliament gave the government a mandate in 2011 to submit without delay a law prohibiting the use of industrially produced trans fats in foods, as of 2017 the law has not yet been implemented.

Switzerland
Switzerland followed Denmark's trans fats ban, and implemented its own starting in April 2008.

United Kingdom
In October 2005, the Food Standards Agency (FSA) asked for better labelling in the UK. In the edition of 29 July 2006 of the British Medical Journal, an editorial also called for better labelling. In January 2007, the British Retail Consortium announced that major UK retailers, including Asda, Boots, Co-op Food, Iceland, Marks and Spencer, Sainsbury's, Tesco and Waitrose intended to cease adding trans fatty acids to their own products by the end of 2007.

On 13 December 2007, the Food Standards Agency issued news releases stating that voluntary measures to reduce trans fats in food had already resulted in safe levels of consumer intake.

On 15 April 2010, a British Medical Journal editorial called for trans fats to be "virtually eliminated in the United Kingdom by next year".

The June 2010 National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) report Prevention of cardiovascular disease declared that 40,000 cardiovascular disease deaths in 2006 were "mostly preventable". To achieve this, NICE offered 24 recommendations including product labelling, public education, protecting under–16s from marketing of unhealthy foods, promoting exercise and physically active travel, and even reforming the Common Agricultural Policy to reduce production of unhealthy foods. Fast-food outlets were mentioned as a risk factor, with (in 2007) 170 g of McDonald's fries and 160 g nuggets containing 6 to 8 g of trans fats, conferring a substantially increased risk of coronary artery disease death. NICE made three specific recommendation for diet: (1) reduction of dietary salt to 3 g per day by 2025; (2) halving consumption of saturated fats; and (3) eliminating the use of industrially produced trans fatty acids in food. However, the recommendations were greeted unhappily by the food industry, which stated that it was already voluntarily dropping the trans fat levels to below the WHO recommendations of a maximum of 2%.

Rejecting an outright ban, the Health Secretary Andrew Lansley launched on 15 March 2012 a voluntary pledge to remove artificial trans fats by the end of the year. Asda, Pizza Hut, Burger King, Tesco, Unilever and United Biscuits are some of 73 businesses who have agreed to do so. Lansley and his special Adviser Bill Morgan formerly worked for firms with interests in the food industry and some journalists have alleged that this results in a conflict of interest. Many health professionals are not happy with the voluntary nature of the deal. Simon Capewell, Professor of Clinical Epidemiology at the University of Liverpool, felt that justifying intake on the basis of average figures was unsuitable since some members of the community could considerably exceed this.

United States
On 11 July 2003, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued a regulation requiring manufacturers to list trans fat on the Nutrition Facts panel of foods and some dietary supplements. The new labeling rule became mandatory across the board on 1 January 2006, even for companies that petitioned for extensions. However, unlike in many other countries, trans fat levels of less than 0.5 grams per serving can be listed as 0 grams trans fat on the food label. According to a study published in the Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, without an interpretive footnote or further information on recommended daily value, many consumers do not know how to interpret the meaning of trans fat content on the Nutrition Facts panel. Without specific prior knowledge about trans fat and its negative health effects, consumers, including those at risk for heart disease, may misinterpret nutrient information provided on the panel. The FDA did not approve nutrient content claims such as "trans fat free" or "low trans fat", as they could not determine a "recommended daily value". Nevertheless, the agency is planning a consumer study to evaluate the consumer understanding of such claims and perhaps consider a regulation allowing their use on packaged foods. However, there is no requirement to list trans fats on institutional food packaging; thus bulk purchasers such as schools, hospitals, jails and cafeterias are unable to evaluate the trans fat content of commercial food items.

Critics of the plan, including FDA advisor Dr. Carlos Camargo, have expressed concern that the 0.5 gram per serving threshold is too high to refer to a food as free of trans fat. This is because a person eating many servings of a product, or eating multiple products over the course of the day may still consume a significant amount of trans fat. Despite this, the FDA estimates that by 2009, trans fat labeling will have prevented from 600 to 1,200 cases of coronary artery disease, and 250 to 500 deaths, yearly. This benefit is expected to result from consumers choosing alternative foods lower in trans fats, and manufacturers reducing the amount of trans fats in their products.

The American Medical Association supports any state and federal efforts to ban the use of artificial trans fats in U.S. restaurants and bakeries.

The American Public Health Association adopted a new policy statement regarding trans fats in 2007. These new guidelines, entitled Restricting Trans Fatty Acids in the Food Supply, recommend that the government require nutrition facts labeling of trans fats on all commercial food products. They also urge federal, state, and local governments to ban and monitor use of trans fats in restaurants. Furthermore, the APHA recommends barring the sales and availability of foods containing significant amounts of trans fat in public facilities including universities, prisons, and day care facilities etc.

In January 2007, faced with the prospect of an outright ban on the sale of their product, Crisco was reformulated to meet the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) definition of "zero grams trans fats per serving" (that is less than one gram per tablespoon, or up to 7% by weight; or less than 0.5 grams per serving size)   by boosting the saturation and then diluting the resulting solid fat with unsaturated vegetable oils.

In 2010, according to the FDA, the average American consumed 5.8 grams of trans fat per day (2.6% of energy intake). Monoglycerides and diglycerides are not considered fats by the FDA, despite their nearly equal calorie per weight contribution during ingestion.

On 7 November 2013, the FDA issued a preliminary determination that trans fats are not "generally recognized as safe", which was widely seen as a precursor to reclassifying trans fats as a "food additive," meaning they could not be used in foods without specific regulatory authorization. This would have the effect of virtually eliminating trans fats from the US food supply. The ruling was formally enacted on 16 June 2015, requiring that within three years, by 18 June 2018 no food prepared in the United States is allowed to include trans fats, unless approved by the FDA.

The FDA agreed in May 2018 to give companies one more year to find other ingredients for enhancing product flavors or grease industrial baking pans, effectively banning trans fats in the United States from May 2019 onwards. Also, while new products can no longer be made with trans fats, they will give foods already on the shelves some time to cycle out of the market.

State and local regulation
Even before the federal ban, the state of California and several U.S. cities took action to reduce consumption of trans fats.

In 2005, Tiburon, California, became the first American city where all restaurants voluntarily cook with trans fat-free oils. In 2007, Montgomery County, Maryland, approved a ban on partially hydrogenated oils, becoming the first county in the nation to restrict trans fats.

New York City embarked on a campaign in 2005 to reduce consumption of trans fats, noting that heart disease is the primary cause of resident deaths. This has included a public education campaign and a request to restaurant owners to eliminate trans fat from their offerings voluntarily. Finding that the voluntary program was not successful, New York City's Board of Health in 2006 solicited public comments on a proposal to ban artificial trans fats in restaurants. The board voted to ban trans fat in restaurant food on 5 December 2006. New York was the first large US city to strictly limit trans fats in restaurants. Restaurants were barred from using most frying and spreading fats containing artificial trans fats above 0.5 g per serving on 1 July 2007, and were supposed to have met the same target in all of their foods by 1 July 2008.

The Philadelphia City Council unanimously voted to enact a ban in February 2007. The ordinance does not apply to prepackaged foods sold in the city, but did require restaurants in the city to stop frying food in trans fats by 1 September 2007. The ordinance also contained a provision going into effect one year later that barred trans fat from being used as an ingredient in commercial kitchens. On 10 October 2007, the Philadelphia City Council approved the use of trans fats by small bakeries throughout the city.

Albany County of New York passed a ban on trans fats. The ban was adopted after a unanimous vote by the county legislature on 14 May 2007. The decision was made after New York City's decision, but no plan has been put into place. Legislators received a letter from Rick J. Sampson, president and CEO of the New York State Restaurant Association, calling on them to "delay any action on this issue until the full impact of the New York City ban is known."

San Francisco officially asked its restaurants to stop using trans fat in January 2008. The voluntary program will grant a city decal to restaurants that comply and apply for the decal. Legislators say the next step will be a mandatory ban.

Chicago also passed partial ban on oils and posting requirements for fast food restaurants.

Trans fat bans were also introduced in the state legislatures of Massachusetts, Maryland, and Vermont.

In March 2008, the Boston Public Health Commission's Board of Health passed a regulation food service establishments from selling foods containing artificial trans fats at more than 0.5 grams per serving, which is similar to the New York City regulation; there are some exceptions for clearly labeled packaged foods and charitable bake sales.

In July 2008, California became the first state to ban trans fats in restaurants effective 1 January 2010; Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger signed the bill into law. California restaurants are prohibited from using oil, shortening, and margarine containing artificial trans fats in spreads or for frying, with the exception of deep frying doughnuts. As of 1 January 2011, doughnuts and other baked goods have been prohibited from containing artificial trans fats. Packaged foods are not covered by the ban and can legally contain trans fats.

2015–2018 federal phaseout
In 2009, at the age of 94, University of Illinois professor Fred Kummerow, a trans fat researcher who had campaigned for decades for a federal ban on the substance, filed a petition with the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) seeking elimination of artificial trans fats from the U.S. food supply. The FDA did not act on his petition for four years, and in 2013 Kummerow filed a lawsuit against the FDA and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, seeking to compel the FDA to respond to his petition and "to ban partially hydrogenated oils unless a complete administrative review finds new evidence for their safety." Kummerow's petition stated that "Artificial trans fat is a poisonous and deleterious substance, and the FDA has acknowledged the danger."

Three months after the suit was filed, on 16 June 2015, the FDA moved to eliminate artificial trans fats from the U.S. food supply, giving manufacturers a deadline of three years. The FDA specifically ruled that trans fat was not generally recognized as safe and "could no longer be added to food after 18 June 2018, unless a manufacturer could present convincing scientific evidence that a particular use was safe." Kummerow stated: "Science won out."

The ban is believed to prevent about 90,000 premature deaths annually. The FDA estimates the ban will cost the food industry $6.2 billion over 20 years as the industry reformulates products and substitutes new ingredients for trans fat. The benefits are estimated at $140 billion over 20 years mainly from lower health care spending. Food companies can petition the FDA for approval of specific uses of partially hydrogenated oils if the companies submit data proving the oils' use is safe.

Manufacturer response
Palm oil, a natural oil extracted from the fruit of oil palm trees that is semi-solid at room temperature (15–25 degrees Celsius), can potentially serve as a substitute for partially hydrogenated fats in baking and processed food applications, although there is disagreement about whether replacing partially hydrogenated fats with palm oil confers any health benefits. A 2006 study supported by the National Institutes of Health and the USDA Agricultural Research Service concluded that palm oil is not a safe substitute for partially hydrogenated fats (trans fats) in the food industry, because palm oil results in adverse changes in the blood concentrations of LDL and apolipoprotein B just as trans fat does.

The J.M. Smucker Company, American manufacturer of Crisco (the original partially hydrogenated vegetable shortening), in 2004 released a new formulation made from solid saturated palm oil cut with soybean oil and sunflower oil. This blend yielded an equivalent shortening much like the prior partially hydrogenated Crisco, and was labelled zero grams of trans fat per 1 tablespoon serving (as compared with 1.5 grams per tablespoon of original Crisco). As of 24 January 2007, Smucker claims that all Crisco shortening products in the US have been reformulated to contain less than one gram of trans fat per serving while keeping saturated fat content less than butter. The separately marketed trans fat free version introduced in 2004 was discontinued.

On 22 May 2004, Unilever, the corporate descendant of Joseph Crosfield & Sons (the original producer of Wilhelm Normann's hydrogenation hardened oils) announced that they have eliminated trans fats from all their margarine products in Canada, including their flagship Becel brand.

title: Trans fat regulation


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Cattle mutilation

Cattle mutilation (also known as bovine excision and unexplained livestock death, or animal mutilation) is the killing and mutilation of cattle under supposedly unusual, usually bloodless circumstances. This phenomenon has been observed among wild animals as well. Worldwide, sheep, horses, goats, pigs, rabbits, cats, dogs, bison, moose, deer and elk have been reported mutilated with similar bloodless excisions; often an ear, eyeball, jaw flesh, tongue, lymph nodes, genitals and rectum are removed.

Since the first reports of animal mutilations, various explanations have been offered, ranging from natural decomposition and normal predation to cults and secretive governmental and military agencies, to a range of speculations, including cryptid predators (such as the chupacabra) and extraterrestrials. Mutilations have been the subject of two independent federal investigations in the United States.

Early history
The earliest known documented outbreak of unexplained livestock deaths occurred in early 1606 "...about the city of London and some of the shires adjoining. Whole slaughters of sheep have been made, in some places to number 100, in others less, where nothing is taken from the sheep but their tallow and some inward parts, the whole carcasses, and fleece remaining still behind. "Of this sundry conjectures, but most agree that it tendeth towards some fireworks." The outbreak was noted in the official records of the Court of James I of England. Charles Fort collected many accounts of cattle mutilations that occurred in England in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

The "Snippy" horse death of 1967
Unexplained livestock deaths were relatively unknown until 1967, when the Pueblo Chieftain published a story about a horse called "Snippy" that was mysteriously killed and mutilated in Alamosa, Colorado.

On September 9, 1967, Agnes King and her son Harry reportedly found the dead body of their three-year-old horse. The horse's head and neck had been skinned and defleshed, and the body displayed cuts that, to King, looked very precise. No blood was at the scene, according to Harry, and a strong medicinal odor was in the air.

The story was republished by the wider press and distributed nationwide; this case was the first to feature speculation that extraterrestrial beings and unidentified flying objects were associated with mutilation. A subsequent investigation by Wadsworth Ayer for the Condon Committee concluded that "There was no evidence to support the assertion that the horse's death was associated in any way to abnormal causes".

Alamosa County Sheriff Ben Phillips suggested that the death was probably due to "a lightning strike" and never bothered to visit the site. Early press coverage of the case misnamed Lady as Snippy. Snippy was Lady's sire and belonged to Nellie's husband, Berle Lewis. Later press coverage mentions that the horse had been shot "in the rump". However, two students from Alamosa State College confessed to sneaking out into the pasture and shooting the horse several weeks after the case was publicized.

Cattle mutilations 1973-1980
Waves of cattle mutilations were reported in Kansas, Nebraska, Colorado, and New Mexico.

In April 1973, sheriffs in Western Iowa reported unidentified helicopters involved in cattle and pig rustling. In August, similar helicopter-based rustling were reported in Missouri and authorities warned farmers not to fire on helicopters.

1973 Kansas wave
On June 10, 1973, Cloud County sheriff Fred Modlin warned the public about a series of telephone calls from a caller identifying as a USDA official conducting a survey of herd population and locations. After the USDA denied such a survey, Modlin advised that the calls might be coming from rustlers.

On June 14, a 700-pound Heifer was found butchered on the Ray Vizner farm near Munden, Kansas. Its right ear had reported been removed and right rear quarter butchered; Republic County sheriff Bob Blecha argue the death was not the work of predators. Two weeks later, on June 18, a second butchered cow was found on the Lowell Darcy farm, twenty miles away from the first butchered cow; Like the first, its right ear was removed. Local press initially speculated about a 'Mad Dog' or 'phantom' Butcher. On August 9, a third butchered cow was found, this one in South County. On August 30, a fourth butchered cow was reported, this one on the Larry LeBlanc farm south of St. Joseph in Cloud County; The right ear was again removed.

On October 25, three cows in Harvey County were discovered with their sex organs removed. On November 15, press reported a slain cow on the Don Peter farm near Munden,the seventh animal death attributed to the "butcher". The November 22 issue of the Belleville Telescope again referenced the "Mad Dog Cattle Butcher". On December 4, 1973, law enforcement including Modlin reported a wave of cattle deaths in seven counties across Kansas and Nebraska. Sexual organs were reported having been removed. An upcoming meeting on the mutilations was announced. On December 6, a killing on the Lavern Hiner farm in Cloud County was reported to be the butcher's ninth. By December 13, Kansas law enforcement reported having investigated total 40 mutilations, most occurring on land near US Highway 81. On December 20, State Senator Ross Doyen reported a cattle mutilation on his ranch.

On December 22, the Kansas Brand Commissioner's office determined that most of the deaths and removal of sex organs were the result of natural causes including predation, "shipping fever" and blackleg. Modlin and others vocally disagreed with these conclusion and denied that local ranchers would mutilate dead animals for insurance money, calling them "honest and respectable".

1974 Nebraska wave
Reports resumed in April 1974, when a Nebraska cow was discovered mutilated and drained of blood. That month, the North American Newspaper Alliance reported on the 1973 mutilations along with sightings of unidentified helicopters.

In May, two mutilations were reported in Mills County, Iowa; An AP story argued coyotes were responsible. By June 1974, mutilations were reported in Lancaster County, Nebraska. Custer Country reported similar helicopter sightings and armed patrols. On August 14, 1974, the Cascade County, Montana Sheriff's Office received its first report of a mutilated cow.

On August 20, press reported a "new twist" in the mutilations:  Days prior, near  Agnew, Nebraska,  an unidentified helicopter had been spotted hovering 400 feet above where a mutilated cow would later be discovered. The helicopter was reported shining a spotlight into the field; FAA and National Guard reported no knowledge of helicopters operating in the area. Knox County Sheriff Herbert Thompson reported that armed civilians had begun patrols in response to repeated helicopter sightings. Cloud County Attorney William Walsh told press of an jailhouse informant who claimed to be a former cult member and opined the mutilations were likely the result of devil-worshiping cultists. The Kansas Bureau of Investigation and the Kansas Brand Inspectors were reported to lean toward predators as the cause. Amid the cattle mutilation jitters and drought, Oakland, Nebraska experienced as spate of "beast" sightings as residents feared an unidentified noisy night-time animal. State Sen. John Decamp called on authorities to coordinate an investigation into the mutilations. As on August 28, there had been 25 mutilations reported across five Nebraska counties.

On August 28, press reported that a rancher near Hartington had apparently thwarted a mutilation in progress when he found a helicopter above his field was spotted by a neighbor who summons the sheriff;  All three reportedly witnessed the helicopter as well as a car that also seen shining a spotlight into the field. The following morning, a dead cow was found near where the helicopter had been spotted, but the cow had not been mutilated. Authorities cautioned the public not to shoot at aircraft. On September 5, it was reported that authorities had ordered helicopters to fly above 1000 feet after a commercial helicopter took two bullets during a power line inspection.

On September 11, a supposedly-mutilated cow was revealed at autopsy to have died of natural causes, i.e. bacterial infection. It was the third such mutilation disproved by authorities as the University of Nebraska's Department of Veterinary Science. On September 17, over 50 law enforcement officials from 24 counties attended a meeting at the Knox County Courthouse in Center, Nebraska to discuss the mutilations. Participants, who dismissed the cult theory, estimated that out of 80 cow deaths under discussion, about 27 were suspected mutilations.

On September 19, press reported three cases of alleged mutilations in South Dakota:  Two in Moody County and one in Lake County. On the advice of the Sheriff, patrols were organized and farmers were instructed to check their herds every 12 hours. On September 30, papers reported on an unusual cow death where the animal was shot with a firearm, incised, and set aflame with fuel oil. Unlike other cases, removed body parts were left on site and no parts of the animal were taken.

In the September 30, 1974 issue of Newsweek, the magazine became the first national outlet to cover the ongoing mutilation story; Its story reported 100 cattle mutilated in Nebraska, Kansas, and Iowa since May.

On October 2, 1974,  South Dakota Attorney General Kermit Sande told press that a number of mutilations had been reported in the state. Mutilations had been reported in three counties, and a psychiatrist argued the person responsible might be psychotic. After five mutilations were reported in Day County, a $500 reward was offered.

It was reported that UFO conspiracy theorists considered cattle mutilations might be related to flying saucers;  On November 15, UFO expert J. Allen Hynek released a statement denying any link.

On December 2 1974, press reported on the Minnesota mutilations: two in Kandiyohi County, six in Swift County, and one in Meeker County. The Meeker animal was reportedly drained of blood. Between 1970 and 1974, twenty-two mutilated cattle were reported in Minnesota.

1975 Colorado
In 1975, the Colorado Associated Press voted the mutilations as the state's top story. Senator Floyd K. Haskell contacted the FBI asking for help in 1975 due to public concern regarding the issue. He claimed there had been 130 mutilations in Colorado alone, and further reports across nine states. A 1979 FBI report indicated that, according to investigations by the New Mexico State Police, there had been an estimated 8,000 mutilations in Colorado, causing approximately $1 million in damages.

In January 1975, the Michigan ATF tasked Donald E. Flickinger with investigating the mutilations; Flickinger investigated possible links to a "Hell-oriented biker gang". In May 1975, the Colorado Bureau of Investigation opened an investigation under the leadership of Carl Whiteside.

In October 1975, the New York Times published a story examining cattle mutilations across 11 states.

1976 Dulce, New Mexico
On June 13, 1976, Dulce rancher Manuel Gomez reported a mutilation to Officer Gabe Valdez of the New Mexico State Patrol.

1979 Public meeting
On April 20, 1979, U.S. Attorney R. E. Thompson and US Senator Harrison Schmidt held a public meeting about cattle mutilations. The meeting was attended by about 80 people. One attendee was Paul Bennewitz, who approached Valdez and reported having seen unidentified lights over Kirtland Air Force Base.

On May 2, 1979, Valdez told press that two drugs had been found in the remains of a mutilated bull found in Torrance County on February 15. Valdez reported one drug, Chlorpromazine (Thorazine), was used to tranquilize and immobilize the animal, while a second, unnamed drug was used to "clog the blood and remove it through the jugular vein." Valdez told papers "We know this stuff is made here, and it isn't from outer space. Whoever is doing it is highly sophisticated, and they have a lot of resources.  They're well organized". Valdez was described as "the state's chief information source on mutilations, having worked on 32 cases... in about three years".

On June 14, 1981, investigators found a mutilated cow at the Gomez ranch with a large amount of radar chaff nearby.

Later incidents
Many cases of mutilation have been reported worldwide since the 1967 Snippy incident, chiefly in the Americas and Australia. In South America, an estimated 3,500 incidents have occurred since 2002, when around 400 cases were reported. Mutilation investigators assert that a large number of cases are never reported to authorities, perhaps no more than one in ten.

In 1993, photographic evidence surfaced of a mutilated male human corpse that was found near the Guarapiranga reservoir of São Paulo, Brazil in 1988. The victim's identity was kept private. Theories ranged from a mundane criminal act of homicide, to more fantastical speculation alleging alien abduction due to perceived similarities with UFO-related animal mutilations. An autopsy report concluded the wounds occurred while the victim was still alive, and the associated pain resulted in cardiac arrest. However, another independent investigation later concluded that he died from natural causes.

Characteristics
Cattle death due to natural causes are extremely common; In Minnesota, where mutilations first began, nearly 2 million head of cattle were lost during 1973. That year, ranchers began reporting dozens of unusual cattle deaths characterized by absence of sex organs, udders, tongues, anus, rectum, and sometimes ears or eyes.

Cuts were described as "clean" and "surgical". Some animals were reported to have been drained of blood but with no sign of blood in the immediate area or even around their wounds.

According to Howard Burgess, nearly 90 percent of mutilated cattle are between four and five years old.

In some cases, strange marks or imprints near the site have been found. In the famous "Snippy" case, there was an absolute absence of tracks in a 100 ft radius of the carcass (even the horse's own tracks disappeared within 100 ft of the body.) But within this radius, several small holes were found seemingly "punched" in the ground and two bushes were absolutely flattened. In Rio Arriba County, New Mexico, June 1976, a "trail of suction cup-like impressions" was found leading from a mutilated three-year-old cow. The indentations were in a tripod form, 4 in in diameter, 28 in apart, and disappeared 500 ft from the dead cow. Similar incidents were reported in the area in 1978.

Laboratory reports
Laboratory reports carried out on some mutilated animals have shown unusually high or low levels of vitamins or minerals in tissue samples, and the presence of chemicals not normally found in animals. However, not all mutilated animals display these anomalies, and those that do have slightly different anomalies from one another. On account of the time between death and necropsy, and a lack of background information on specific cattle, investigators have often found it impossible to determine if these variations are connected to the animals' deaths or not.

In one case documented by New Mexico police and the FBI, an 11-month-old cross Hereford-Charolais bull, belonging to a Mr. Manuel Gomez of Dulce, New Mexico, was found mutilated on March 24, 1978. It displayed "classic" mutilation signs, including the removal of the rectum and sex organs with what appeared to be "a sharp and precise instrument" and its internal organs were found to be inconsistent with a normal case of death followed by predation.

"Both the liver and the heart were white and mushy. Both organs had the texture and consistency of peanut butter"

The animal's heart as well as bone and muscle samples were sent to the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory for microscopic and bacteriological studies, while samples from the animal's liver were sent to two separate private laboratories.

Los Alamos detected the presence of naturally occurring Clostridium bacteria in the heart, but was unable to reach any conclusions because of the possibility that the bacteria represented postmortem contamination. No microscopic changes of pathological significance were found in the heart tissue.

Samples from the animal's liver were found to be completely devoid of copper and to contain 4 times the normal level of zinc, potassium and phosphorus. The scientists performing the analysis were unable to explain these anomalies.

Blood samples taken at the scene were reported to be "light pink in color" and "Did not clot after several days" while the animal's hide was found to be unusually brittle for a fresh death (the animal was estimated to have been dead for 5 hours) and the flesh underneath was found to be discolored.

None of the laboratories were able to report any firm conclusions on the cause of the blood or tissue damage. At the time, it was suggested that a burst of radiation may have been used to kill the animal, blowing apart its red blood cells in the process. This hypothesis was later discarded as subsequent reports from the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory later confirmed the presence of anti-coagulants in samples taken from other cows mutilated in the region.

Helicopter sightings
On July 15, 1974, two unregistered helicopters, a white helicopter and a black twin-engine aircraft were reported to have opened fire on Robert Smith Jr. while he was driving his tractor on his farm in Honey Creek, Iowa. This attack followed a rash of alleged mutilations in the area and across the nearby border in Nebraska. In August 1974, state leaders called for an investigation.

On August 20, 1974, the Lincoln Journal Star reported that residents had seen unidentified helicopters shining spotlights into fields where mutilated cows were later found. Know County Sheriff Herbert Thompson claimed helicopter sightings had become a nightly occurrence, with both the FAA and the National Guard reportedly being unaware of any helicopter activity. However, both Thompson and the Nebraska State Patrol found no definite connection between the cattle deaths and the helicopter sightings.

By 1975, the problem was so prevalent, that some ranchers formed armed vigilante groups to patrol their fields at night. Authorities ran ads in Colorado urging ranchers to not shoot at their survey helicopters. The National Guard warned its helicopter pilots to fly at higher than normal altitude to avoid fire from "jittery farmers".

In 1976, two Cache County, Utah, police officers reportedly confronted several men in an unmarked U.S. Army helicopter at a small community airport in Cache County. The witnesses asserted that after this heated encounter, cattle mutilations in the region ceased for about five years. The story was first published in a 2002 report.

On April 8, 1979, three police officers in Dulce, New Mexico, reported a mysterious aircraft which resembled a U.S. military helicopter hovering around a site following a wave of alleged mutilation which claimed 16 cows. The reports of "helicopter" involvement have been used to explain why some cattle appear to have been "dropped" from considerable heights.

Official investigations
The New Mexico Livestock Board sought assistance from the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory. Colorado Bureau of Investigation agents went undercover to investigate. Oklahoma convened a task force.

After coming under increasing public pressure, Federal authorities launched a comprehensive investigation of the mutilation phenomenon.

Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms
In January 1975, the Minnesota field office of the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms (ATF) launched their own investigation into the phenomenon, headed by Agent Donald Flickinger. Flickinger was tasked with investigating the possible connections between cults and the mutilation of cattle.

Flickinger recorded a number of 'unusual' incidents and circumstantial evidence, but was unable to find sufficient evidence of cult involvement for the ATF to take further action. Media reports of the time reported his investigation was dropped when it was determined cattle deaths were not a prelude to a co-ordinated campaign against elected officials by cult members. During the investigation, Flickinger arranged for two prison informants to be transferred to less-secure facilities; Both ultimately escaped, on separate occasions. Flickinger closed his investigation by Spring 1975.

Colorado Bureau of Investigation
In May 1975, the Colorado Bureau of Investigation opened an investigation under the leadership of Carl Whiteside. 19 animals underwent necropsies at Colorado State University but no conclusive results emerged. A $40,000 reward was offered. The US Bureau of Land Management was forced to ground all helicopters in Easter Colorado. By December, the CBI had investigated 203 reports of cattle mutilations. The CBI investigation was closed after Coloard mutiliation reports dwindled in Summer 1976.

New Mexico State Police
On June 13, 1976, the New Mexico State Police began an investigation, headed by Officer Gabe Valdez with the assistance of Cattle Inspector Jim Dyad and Officer Howard Johnston of the New Mexico Department of Game and Fish.

Valdez began investigating and solicited the assistance of retired Sandia National Laboratories scientist Howard Burgess. On the night of July 5, suspecting that cattle might be "marked" in a way detectable from the air at night, Burgess and Valdez screened the Gomez herd;   five animals were found to have been marked with a chemical that fluoresced under ultraviolet light.

On June 14, 1981, intact radar chaff was found near a mutilated cow on the Gomez ranch.

This investigation reported finding evidence that some mutilated animals had been tranquilized and treated with an anti-coagulant prior to their mutilation. It also contended that alleged surgical techniques performed during mutilations had become "more professional" over time. However, officers in charge were unable to determine responsibility or motive.

Rommel investigation
Despite repeated requests from US Senator Haskell, the FBI declined to investigate, arguing there was no evidence of crossing state lines and thus no federal jurisdiction. In lieu of a federal investigation, a federally funded investigation was conducted under the direction of the New Mexico District Attorney's office.

Beginning in May 1979, an investigation was funded by a $44,170 grant from the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration, and was headed by recently-retired FBI agent Kenneth Rommel. It had five key objectives:
 * 1) To determine the reliability of the information on which the grant was based, which entailed gathering as much information as possible about the cases reported in New Mexico prior to May 1979
 * 2) To determine the cause of as many mutilations as possible, especially those reported in New Mexico
 * 3) To determine if livestock mutilations as described constitute a major law enforcement problem
 * 4) If these mutilations do constitute a major law enforcement problem, to determine the scope of the problem and to offer recommendations on how to deal with it
 * 5) If it is shown that the mutilation phenomenon is not a law enforcement problem, to recommend that no further law enforcement investigations be funded.

Rommel's final report, released in June 1980, was 297 pages long; in the report's introduction, Rommel stated: "According to some estimates, by 1979 10,000 head of cattle have been mysteriously mutilated". However, the report concluded that the mutilations were predominantly the result of natural predation, but that some cases contained anomalies that could not be accounted for by conventional wisdom. The FBI was unable to identify any individuals responsible for the mutilations. Details of the investigation are now available under the Freedom of Information Act. The released material includes correspondence from Rommel where he states that "most credible sources have attributed this damage to normal predator and scavenger activity".

New Mexico State patrolman Gabe Valdez, who by the time of the Rommel report had investigated dozens of mutilation cases, told investigator Christopher O'Brien that "during the six to eight months when Rommel was actively investigating the mutilations in New Mexico, the state (especially the northern tier) became suddenly quiet with very few (if any) true mutilations being reported to officials". Valdez was convinced that Rommel never was able to investigate a single genuine mutilation because the mutilators moved their operations to other parts of the west. Rommel (a former FBI bank robbery expert) was disgusted by dead necrotic cows and chose to let others do the actual investigations while he waited upwind in the car.

Western Canada, during this period, was especially hard hit. During the six to eight months of Rommel's investigation, RCMP investigator Corporal Lyn Lauber of the Calgary detachment (who was in charge of the Canadian mutilation probe) investigated numerous mutilation cases. When Rommel's final report was released to the public. Lauber answered an inquiry by investigator Tommy Bland: "I find it difficult to understand how Rommel could make a statement such as this, without ever having personally witnessed a [real] mutilation firsthand". He also stated that "I would like to see Rommel write off our confirmed cases as due to predators".

Conventional explanations
As with most disputed phenomena, there are a number of potential explanations for the causes of cattle mutilations, ranging from death by natural causes to purposeful acts by unknown individuals.

On April 20, 1979, C Hibbs of the New Mexico State Veterinary diagnostics Laboratory spoke before a hearing chaired by Senator Harrison Schmitt. Hibbs testified that mutilation fell into three categories: Natural causes such as predators, deaths caused by pranksters or deviants, and animals mutilated with "sharp instruments".

Natural causes
While many unconventional explanations have been put forward to explain cattle mutilations, a variety of scientists, veterinary workers, and knowledgeable observers (including farmers and other agricultural workers) have suggested more conventional ideas, most of which revolve around the hypothesis that "mutilated" animals died of natural causes and were subjected to known terrestrial phenomena – including the action of predators, parasites, and scavengers.

Missing or mutilated mouth, lips, anus, and genitalia are explained as:
 * Contraction of missing/damaged areas due to dehydration.
 * The actions of small scavengers and burrowing parasites seeking to enter or consume the body in areas where skin is at its thinnest.

Missing/mutilated eyes and soft internal organs are explained as:
 * The action of carrion feeding insects such as blowflies, and opportunistic or carrion birds such as vultures, which are known to direct themselves toward an animal's eyes, and to enter the body through the openings of the mouth and anus in order to feed on soft internal organs.

Absence of blood is explained as:
 * Blood pooling in the lowest points in the body where it will break down into its basic organic components.
 * Blood that is external to the body, or in the area of a wound being consumed by insects or reduced by solar desiccation.

Surgical incisions in the skin are explained as:
 * Tears in the skin created when it is stretched by postmortem bloat and/or as dehydration causes the animal's hide to shrink and split, often in linear cuts.
 * Incisions caused by scavengers or predators, possibly exacerbated by the above.

The hypothesis that natural phenomena account for most mutilation characteristics has been validated by a number of experiments, including one cited by long-time scientific skeptic Robert T. Carroll, conducted by Washington County (Arkansas) Sheriff's Office. In the experiment, the body of a recently deceased cow was left in a field and observed for 48 hours. During the 48 hours, postmortem bloating was reported to have caused incision-like tears in the cow's skin that matched the "surgical" cuts reported on mutilated cows, while the action of blowflies and maggots reportedly matched the soft tissue damage observed on mutilated cows.

Experiments have also been conducted to compare the different reactions of surgically cut hide/flesh and predated hide/flesh to natural exposure. They demonstrated pronounced differences between surgical cuts and non surgical cuts over time.

Some ranchers have disputed the scientific "natural causes hypothesis" on the grounds that the mutilated animals often fall outside of the normal categories of natural deaths by predation or disease. One reason cited is that the animals were healthy and showed no sign of disease prior to death, and were large and strong enough not to be a likely target for a predator. In some cases, ranchers have reported that the mutilated cattle were among the healthiest and strongest animals in their herd.

Animal cruelty, pranks, and hoaxes
It is alternatively hypothesised that cattle mutilations are the result of two unrelated deviant phenomena. The bulk of mutilations are the result of predation and other natural processes, and those with anomalies that cannot be explained in this way are the work of humans who derive pleasure or sexual stimulation from mutilating animals. Lone individuals have attacked larger animals, including sheep, cows, and horses. Humans, particularly those with sociopathic disorders, have been found to have mutilated animals in elaborate ways using knives or surgical instruments.

Covert monitoring of threats to public health
In 1997, cattle mutilation researcher Charles T. Oliphant speculated the killings might be the result of covert research into emerging cattle diseases, and the possibility they could be transmitted to humans.

Biochemist Colm Kelleher, who has investigated several purported mutilations first-hand, argues that the mutilations are most likely a clandestine U.S. government effort to track the spread of Bovine spongiform encephalopathy ("mad cow disease") and related diseases, such as scrapie. Kelleher argues there was an "uncanny resemblance between the pattern of organ removals that were taking place in cattle mutilations and standard wildlife sampling techniques for monitoring the spread of infectious agents in the wild." Kelleher furthered noted that infectious disease experts had a history of using helicopters to conduct surveys, euthanizing animals with sedatives before removing organs, and applying formaldehyde to the carcasses of animals to prevent consumption by scavengers;   Mutilated cattle were found to have traces of sedatives and formaldehyde, and their carcasses were avoided by scavengers.

In 2014, Gabe's son Greg Valdez authored Dulce Base: The Truth and Evidence from the Case Files of Gabe Valdez based on his father's files. Greg Valdez reports his father never believed aliens were involved: "People want to come and find aliens, but there is no proof of aliens and my father never believed there was alien activity.  He pointed toward the government." Greg Valdez concludes that mutilations were a government testing program looking at the after-effects of radiation from 1967's Project Gasbuggy, in which an underground atomic device was detonated just 21 mi southwest of Dulce:  "They were testing the cattle to avoid panicking the public".

Secret weapons testing
Edwards reported his theory that the government was testing cattle parts to develop biological weapons to use in Vietnam, going so far as to write to Colorado Senator Floyd K. Haskell during Haskell's investigation to accuse agents of threatening him into silence.

In October, Edwards gave an interview to the Gazette (Colorado Springs Gazette Telegraph), announcing a theory that a government project was behind the mutilations. He expressed frustration that the FBI would not get involved and said he would be writing a book explaining "how the project was conceived". Shortly after, he was fired by the Gazette and then disappeared. On December 5, 1975, Edwards' wife reported him as a missing person. Edwards reemerged in the 1990s. He had adopted a new name, Dr. David Ellsworth, and founded an English-language instruction program that was adopted by many federal universities in Mexico.

Proponents of the weapons test hypothesis point to the fact that in March 1968, 6,000 sheep were killed as part of chemical weapons testing; the Army denied responsibility until 1998.

Other explanations
Fringe explanations for the mutiliation have blamed satanic cults, aliens, or even mythical monsters. Historian Michael J. Goleman has argued that ranchers' conflicts with the federal government fueled nefarious explanations.

Satanic cults
Closely related to the deviant hypothesis is the hypothesis that cattle mutilations are the result of cult activity. However, contrary to the deviancy hypothesis, which holds that cattle are mutilated at random by individual deviants, the cult hypothesis holds that cattle mutilations are coordinated acts of ritual sacrifice carried out by organized groups.

In July 1975, reporter Dane Edwards of the Brush Banner published a cattle mutilation story and began investigating a theory that a cult was responsible. When the origin of the cult theory was traced to a federal inmate and no cult members were ever identified, ranchers and law enforcement started looking for other explanations.

Beliefs held by proponents of the cult hypothesis vary, but may include:
 * That the apparent absence of blood at mutilation sites may indicate cult members would harvest it
 * That organs have been removed from cattle for use in rituals
 * That unborn calves have been harvested from mutilated cattle.

The hypothesis that cults were responsible for cattle mutilation was developed in the U.S. during the 1970s and 1980s, a time of growing national concern over cults (such as the Peoples Temple and Jonestown) and ritual satanic abuse ("Satanic panic").

However, there were various reports during the time of menacing groups prowling around mutilation sites. In September 1975, a forestry service employee in Blaine County, Idaho, reported seeing a group of people in black hooded robes. Several cattle were found mutilated in the area the following day. On October 9, 1975, a motorist on U.S. Highway 95 in northern Idaho, in an area of frequent cattle mutilation, reported to police that some 15 masked individuals formed a roadblock with linked arms, forcing him to turn around.

Since the beginning of the cult hypothesis, law enforcement agents in several states and provinces, including Alberta, Idaho, Montana, and Iowa have reported evidence implicating cults in several instances of cattle mutilations.

During their investigations, the FBI and the ATF were unable to find appropriate evidence, including signs of consistency between mutilations, to substantiate that the animals had been the victims of any form of ritual sacrifice or organized mutilation effort. They were also unable to determine how or why a cult would perform procedures that would result in the anomalies reported in some necropsies, or to verify that the anomalies were 1) connected to the mutilations themselves 2) the result of human intervention.

In most cases, mutilations were either ruled due to natural causes, or the cattle were too far decayed for any useful conclusions to be drawn. Some cases of cult hysteria were traced back to fabrication by individuals unrelated to the incident. In one case it was concluded that claims had been falsified by a convict seeking favorable terms on his sentence in exchange for information. In another case, claims were traced back to local high school students who had circulated rumors as a joke.

Aliens
Since the Snippy case in 1967, press had linked reports of unidentified aircraft to UFOs and flying saucers. In 1974, a few months after the first spate of alleged mutilations in the US, multiple farmers in Nebraska claimed to witness UFOs on the nights their cattle were harmed. The sightings were hailed by UFO researchers as the first physical evidence of extraterrestrial life. In 1980, journalist Linda Moulton Howe produced A Strange Harvest, a documentary on cattle mutilations. Based on information provided by a supposed-insider source called "Rick Doty", Howe used the film to claim the mutilations were linked to UFOs and aliens.

The 2013 documentary Mirage Men suggests there was conspiracy by the U.S. military to fabricate UFO folklore in order to deflect attention from classified military projects. The book it is based on, also called Mirage Men, was published in 2010 by Constable & Robinson. Mirage Men discusess how, on April 20, 1979, U.S. Attorney R. E. Thompson and US Senator Harrison Schmidt held a public meeting about the ongoing cattle mutilations. The meeting was attended by about 80, including UFO researcher Paul Bennewitz. At the meeting,  Bennewitz was introduced to highway patrol officer Gabe Valdez who was leading the state investigation into the incidents. Mirage Men suggests government agents likely "first identified" Bennewitz at this meeting and perhaps outright targeted him for his participation.

By August 1988, Bennewitz was accusing his wife of being in control of the extraterrestrials. After attempting to barricade himself in his home using sandbags, his family admitted him to the mental health unit of Presbyterian Anna Kaseman Hospital; He remained under observation there for one month.

On July 1, 1989, UFO author William Moore claimed that he tried to push Bennewitz into a mental breakdown by feeding him false information about aliens. This was corroborated by a declassified CIA document that claims Moore and another officer of the Air Force Office of Special Investigations, Richard Doty, are responsible for a disinformation campaign against Bennewitz.

In 1990, the Bennewitz story was featured in Howard Blum's book Out There: The Government's Secret Quest for Extraterrestrials. Blum publicized that the government had sent undercover agents to befriend and mislead Bennewitz using counterfeit documents.

Mythic monsters
Folklore has attributed the mutilations to chupacabras and similar creatures. "Mothman" author John Keel mentioned investigating animal mutilation cases in 1966 (while with Ivan T. Sanderson) that were being reported in the Upper Ohio River Valley, around Gallipolis, Ohio.

In popular culture
In 1982, researcher David Perkins authored Altered Steaks on the topic. In 1984, Bantam Books published Mute Evidence by journalists Daniel Kagan and Ian Summers. In 2014, Christopher O'Brian authored Stalking the Herd.

The 1977 British television mockumentary Alternative 3 linked mutilations to a fictional plan to transport livestock to secret military bases on the Moon and Mars.

The 1992 film Sneakers featured Dan Aykroyd as a conspiracy theorist who links aliens to cattle mutilations. The X-Files episodes "Eve" and "Irresistible" included mention of cattle mutilations. In Dulce, New Mexico and elsewhere, pranksters have added UFO images to roadside signs warning of cattle crossing. The 1997 pilot episode of South Park titled Cartman Gets an Anal Probe references UFO and aliens as being linked to cattle mutilation. The 2022 film Nope features a biological flying saucer that feeds on livestock.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Cattle mutilation


text:
Phoenix Command

Phoenix Command is a combat-oriented role-playing game system published by Leading Edge Games in 1986. Variations of its rules system have also been used in other military games such as Morning Star Missions, Living Steel, and Aliens Adventure Game.

Description
Although Phoenix Command is ostensibly a role-playing game, and does have character generation and skills resolution systems, the extremely detailed rules for small arms combat are the central focus of the game. The game utilizes lookup tables which resolve injuries to specific digits, organs, and bones, and simulates the physics of different attacks, such as bullets with different velocities.

Publication history
Phoenix Command was designed by Barry Nakazono and David McKenzie, and was published by Leading Edge Games in 1986 as a boxed set containing a 56-page spiral bound rule book, 32 page modern military weapon data supplement, reference tables, blank character sheets and one ten-sided die.

Additional supplements were subsequently published, including Hand to Hand Combat System (1988), World War 2 Weapon Data Supplement (1988), Wild West Weapon Data Supplement (1989), Civilian Weapon Data Supplement (1987), Living Steel Power Armour Sourcebook (1991), Advanced Damage Tables (1987), High Tech Weapon Data Supplement (1987), Phoenix Command Advanced Rules for Small Arms Combat (1986), Phoenix Command Damage Tables: Small Arms (1986), and Phoenix Command Small Arms Combat System (1989).

Reception
In his 1990 book The Complete Guide to Role-Playing Games, game critic Rick Swan called this "Less of an RPG than a meticulous combat system" and noted that it was made for "role-players who relish every smack and slash of a combat encounter." Although Swan found the combat system quite complex, he noted that it "plays quite well and produces astonishingly realistic results." Swan found the role-playing rules "merely adequate" and the scenarios "fairly routine", and suggested the game would be more useful as a supplement and reference to other military role-playing games such as Top Secret/S.I. or Twilight 2000. He concluded by giving the game a solid rating of 3 out of 4, saying, "as a combat system, Phoenix Command is top of the line, rivaling the best tactical wargames in detail and sophistication."

Other reviews and commentary

 * Different Worlds #47
 * Gizmodo

title: Phoenix Command


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Road Show (musical)

Road Show (previously titled Bounce, Wise Guys, and Gold!) is a musical with music and lyrics by Stephen Sondheim and a book by John Weidman. It tells the story of Addison Mizner and his brother Wilson Mizner's adventures across America from the beginning of the twentieth century during the Klondike gold rush to the Florida real estate boom of the 1920s. The musical takes considerable liberties with the facts of the brothers' lives.

The history and evolution of the show are extraordinarily complex, with numerous different versions and recordings. After a 1999 workshop in New York City, the musical was produced in Chicago and Washington, D.C. in 2003 under the title Bounce. Although it did not achieve much success it is notable due to the fact it is the last collaboration between writer-director duo Stephen Sondheim and Harold Prince. A revised version of the musical premiered Off-Broadway in New York in October 2008 where the show changed its title for the last time to Roadshow.

Background
Addison and Wilson Mizner both died in 1933. Interest in their colorful lives as dramatic/musical subjects began with the 1952 publication of The Last Resorts, by Cleveland Amory. Irving Berlin was a friend of Addison, and referred to Wilson as "my pal." He began work on a musical called The Mizner Story. It was not completed; a partial manuscript is in the Library of Congress. After the 1953 publication of Alva Johnston's The Legendary Mizners he returned to the project and completed Wise Guy. It was never produced, though songs from it have been published and recorded.

At about the same time, Sondheim began work on a musical based on The Last Resorts, which he discussed with Oscar Hammerstein. In 1956 David Merrick, "for purposes of comparison, sent Sondheim a script by Sam Behrman of Irving Berlin's unproduced musical." Sondheim set his idea aside. Three songs from it ("Pour le Sport", "High Life", and "I Wouldn't Change a Thing") have been published in The almost unknown Stephen Sondheim.

Production history
The musical premiered at the New York Theatre Workshop from October through November 1999 under the title, Wise Guys. It was directed by Sam Mendes and starred Nathan Lane and Victor Garber as brothers Addison Mizner and Wilson Mizner. A legal case involving Scott Rudin and Weidman and Sondheim held up further production.

Rewritten and given the new title Bounce, the show opened on June 20, 2003 at the Goodman Theatre in Chicago. The production was directed by Harold Prince, with choreography by Michael Arnold, set design by Eugene Lee, costume design by Miguel Angel Huidor, lighting design by Howell Binkley, and hair design by David H. Lawrence. The cast starred Richard Kind (Addison Mizner), Howard McGillin (Wilson Mizner), Jane Powell (Mama Mizner), Herndon Lackey (Papa Mizner/Businessman/Englishman/Plantation Owner/Armstrong/Real Estate Owner), Gavin Creel (Hollis Bessemer), and Michele Pawk (Nellie). This production reunited Sondheim with longtime collaborator Prince for the first time since the disastrous original Broadway production of Merrily We Roll Along in 1981.

The musical then ran at the Kennedy Center in Washington, D.C. in October and November 2003 with the Chicago cast. It received mixed–to–negative reviews and was not produced in New York. A private reading of Bounce was held at the Public Theater on February 6, 2006. Playbill reported that Eric Schaeffer directed, with Richard Kind and Bernadette Peters among the cast.

A new production of the musical, now titled Road Show, rewritten without an intermission and without the leading female character of Nellie (who had been added for 2003 production), opened Off-Broadway at The Public Theater's Newman Theater in previews on October 28, 2008, officially opening on November 18, and closing December 28, 2008. The director/designer was John Doyle, who had become known for critically-acclaimed Broadway revivals of Sweeney Todd (in 2005) and Company (2006); it starred Michael Cerveris and Alexander Gemignani playing brothers Wilson and Addison Mizner respectively, Alma Cuervo as Mama, Claybourne Elder as Hollis, and William Parry as Papa. This production won the 2009 Obie Award for Music and Lyrics. and the Drama Desk Award, Outstanding Lyrics (Sondheim).

The title changes reflect attempts by the creators to hone the show's story and themes. "Ideally the title is connected to what we hope the show is about," Weidman said.

The musical opened at the Menier Chocolate Factory, London in previews on June 24, 2011, officially on July 6 and closed on September 18. John Doyle was the director and designer, with a cast featuring Michael Jibson, David Bedella, and Jon Robyns.

The U.S. regional premiere opened at Stages Repertory Theatre in Houston, Texas on May 22, 2013, directed by Kenn McLaughlin. The cast featured Tom Frey and L. Jay Meyer, playing Wilson and Addison Mizner, respectively, along with Susan Shofner as Mama, Jimmy Phillips as Papa, and Michael McClure as Hollis. Rounding out the cast were Cameron Bautsch, Bridget Bierne, Hunter Frederick, Sarah Myers, Amanda Parker, Amanda Passanante, Tom Prior, and Brandon Whitley.

A production opened at the Chicago Shakespeare Theatre on March 13, 2014, starring Andrew Rothenberg as Wilson and Michael Aaron Lindner as Addison.

The New England premiere of Road Show ran from January 12 to February 11, 2018 at The Lyric Stage Company of Boston in Boston, Massachusetts.

In 2019, Road Show was presented as part of the Encores! Off-Center season at New York City Center from July 24–27. This production starred Brandon Uranowitz as Addison, Raúl Esparza as Wilson, Chuck Cooper as Papa Mizner, Mary Beth Peil as Mama Mizner, and Jin Ha as Hollis Bessemer and was directed and choreographed by Will Davis.

Early versions
In the workshop, then titled Wise Guys, the show was framed as a vaudeville act, with Wilson and Addison opening the show with the title song, in the style of vaudeville comics, a theme that recurred over the show. The tone was meant to be similar to the Road to ... films starring Bob Hope and Bing Crosby. There was an additional song for Mama Mizner called "Brothers", and a song for Wilson called "Stay Right Where You Are", in which he seduces his future wife. Addison had a song in Act II sung to a sick Wilson called, "Make it Through the Night." This version dealt with Addison's real-life business partner Paris Singer; however, the writers soon decided to deal more openly with Addison's sexuality, and the character of Hollis Bessemer was created. Eventually, the vaudeville concept was dropped, and the overall tone of the show became less comic.

In the later stage version, then titled Bounce, the character of Wilson's wife was developed into a secondary lead called Nellie. Wilson first meets her in a saloon in Alaska, where she seduces him with the song "What's Your Rush?". They re-encounter each other in New York, Nellie having become rich on the brothers' gold claim, and they marry after the song "The Best Thing That Ever Has Happened". She divorces him when his enterprises interfere with their love life. The brothers meet her again in Florida, where she joins in the Boca Raton scheme. After this fails, she leaves with Hollis to find her next opportunity. In Road Show, her character was again reduced to Wilson's marriage to her in Act I.

For Road Show, Sondheim rewrote the opening number "Bounce" as "Waste," to reflect a darker tone. He added an additional song, "Brotherly Love," for the Mizners, and rewrote "The Best Thing That Ever Has Happened" as a duet for Addison and Hollis.

Plot of Road Show
After the 1933 death of Addison Mizner, people who knew him, including his estranged lover Hollis Bessemer, comment on his life and the way he squandered his talents ("Waste"). Addison's younger brother Wilson appears and speaks to Addison, who angrily claims that Wilson was the cause of all his failures. The time shifts to Papa Mizner's death in California at the beginning of the twentieth century. On his deathbed, Papa charges his sons with the task of using their gifts to shape America ("It's In Your Hands Now"), telling them that there's a "road" to follow. Mama Mizner reveals the family's wealth has been eaten away by Papa's long illness and advises the boys to seek gold in Alaska; Addison is reluctant, but goes along with Wilson anyway ("Gold!").

In the Klondike, the brothers share a sleeping bag and reminisce about their childhood ("Brotherly Love"). Wilson leaves to get supplies while Addison works the claim. Wilson is lured into a game of poker. Addison is shocked to discover his brother gambling. Wilson explains his newfound love of taking risks regardless of what's at stake ("The Game"). Wilson stakes their gold claim in a poker game and wins the saloon in which the game is taking place. (This episode is fictitious.) A shade of Papa Mizner appears and tells Addison that this was not what he had in mind for his sons.

Addison leaves in disgust with his share of Wilson's winnings and travels around the world searching for business opportunities and a sense of purpose ("Addison's Trip"). All of his ventures fail due to bad luck. He is left with nothing but souvenirs that inspire him to take up architecture (so he can design a house in which to show them off). Wilson's businesses in Alaska also have failed, so he comes south to seek his brother's help. Wilson seduces and marries Addison's first client, a rich widow, and fritters away her money on various flashy endeavours, including fixed boxing matches and horse races ("That Was A Year").

Although Wilson's various partners lose money, they remain fond of him because of the verve and energy with which he lives. Even Mama Mizner, who is being looked after by Addison and never receives any visits from Wilson, enjoys reading about Wilson's exploits, saying that she can live through him ("Isn't He Something!"). Only Addison remains uncharmed by Wilson, and when Wilson finally comes back, his resources exhausted, he finds that Mama has died in his absence. Addison angrily throws Wilson out of the house.

Learning of rising property interests in Florida ("Land Boom!"), Addison decides to travel to Palm Beach to take advantage of the many rich people settling there who need houses built. (In reality, Mizner went there for his health.) On the train he meets the fictitious Hollis Bessemer, with whom he is smitten instantly. Hollis is the son of a wealthy industrialist, cut off by his father for refusing to enter the family business. His real passion is art, and although he is not talented, he dreams of creating an artist colony in Palm Beach with the help of his aunt, who is staying there in a hotel ("Talent").

Addison shows Hollis's aunt a plan for a house he proposes to build for her. Impressed, she agrees and offers to sponsor Hollis's artist colony. However, Hollis and Addison, now lovers, are too busy designing resort homes for the rich ("You") and enjoying each other's company ("The Best Thing That Ever Has Happened") to follow up on Hollis's original plan. Wilson arrives at Hollis's and Addison's house, destitute and sick ("The Game [Reprise]"). Addison reluctantly takes him in, and when Wilson has recovered, he begins to work on Hollis, persuading him to be a patron to his newest scheme: to build a brand new city in Boca Raton with Wilson as promoter and Addison as chief architect ("Addison's City").

Wilson's con man instincts resurface. He promotes the Boca Raton real estate scheme with increasingly extravagant and eventually fraudulent claims, creating a price bubble ("Boca Raton"). Addison goes along, until it is Hollis who finally puts a stop to the real-estate scheme. He asks Addison to choose between Wilson and him. Addison, brought to a state of desperation, drives Hollis away by claiming he never loved him. Addison also orders Wilson out of his life ("Get Out"), but Wilson insists Addison loves him too much ("Go"). Addison agrees, but still wants him to go.

Wilson leaves for good, but not quite, for in the finale (as in the first scene) all the characters leave the stage except for Wilson and Addison. At this point, Wilson realizes that he, too, has died. The brothers bicker half-heartedly, their differences no longer mattering enough to keep them apart. Confronted by their father, they shrug off his criticisms and the brothers set out together on the road to eternity—or, as Wilson calls it, "the greatest opportunity of all". "Sooner or later", he says, "we're bound to get it right."

Historical liberties
Sometimes the musical is mistaken as a faithful portrayal of the lives of the two brothers; this is not quite the case. Sondheim's interest in the brothers' story came from The Legendary Mizners, written by Alva Johnston, which Sondheim admits was an "exaggerated biography" and Johnston a "fanciful reporter". The exaggerated tone was also kept because Sondheim and Weidman felt it suited the two brothers' attitudes in their own writings, such as Wilson's screenplays and Addison's autobiography.

While Addison was an architect and Wilson a con man, among other things, Hollis Bessemer is fictitious. In early workshops his role was filled by Addison's real-life friend Paris Singer, but Singer was not a homosexual and was not Addison's lover. In the workshopped Wise Guys, Addison's sexuality was only hinted at, but Sondheim and Weidman decided they had to address it more openly, and so the character of Hollis was created to give him a love interest. As Sondheim put it, "We wanted to take liberties with our characters, but not misrepresent them. Or be sued by Singer's descendants."

Wilson's role in the Boca Raton fiasco is exaggerated, and while he did marry a rich widow, who quickly divorced him, she had not been a client of Addison. Addison never blamed Wilson for all his problems. Mama Mizner was not behind the gold mining adventure by her sons. While Addison did travel considerably, it was not around the world, and it was not the case that part of it was a string of businesses. Addison's alleged decision to become an architect so as to build a house for his souvenirs is colorful, but fictitious.

Wise Guys and Bounce stuck more closely to the facts of the brothers' lives, including references to their other siblings, their father's successful career, and Wilson's New York period, but Sondheim and Weidman decided these facts held back the story with what Sondheim called "interesting and irrelevant information". "In our attempt to cover every colorful incident in the Mizners' lives we were shortchanging the emotional content of the material: the convoluted love story between the brothers and with their parents."

Musical numbers

 * As presented in the 1997 Wise Guys workshop
 * Act I
 * First Vaudeville - Wilson and Addison
 * Benicia - Mama and Ensemble
 * My Two Young Men - Mama
 * Gold! - Prospector, Wilson, Addison, Mama, and Ensemble
 * Second Vaudeville - Wilson and Addison
 * Next to You - Wilson, Addison, and Mama
 * Addison's Trip - Addison and Ensemble
 * Dowagers - Addison
 * The Good Life - Wilson
 * The Game - Wilson
 * Journalists - Wilson
 * What's Next? - Wilson
 * The Game (reprise) - Wilson
 * What's Next? (reprise) - Wilson and Ensemble
 * Third Vaudeville - Wilson and Addison
 * What's Next? (reprise) - Addison
 * I'm on My Way (reprise) - Addison

 * Act II
 * Fourth Vaudeville - Wilson and Addison
 * Palm Beach Sequence - Addison, Paris and Ensemble
 * Fifth Vaudeville - Addison, Paris, and Wilson
 * Boca Raton Sequence - Ensemble
 * Get Out of My Life/Go - Wilson and Addison
 * Final Vaudeville - Wilson and Addison

 * As presented in the 1999 Wise Guys workshop

 * Act I
 * Wise Guys - Addison and Wilson
 * It's in Your Hands - Papa Mizner
 * My Two Young Men - Mama Mizner
 * Gold - Prospector
 * You and Me Together - Wilson
 * The Game - Wilson
 * Wise Guys (reprise) - Addison and Wilson
 * Next to You - Addison and Wilson
 * Addison's Trip (On My Way) - Addison and Ensemble
 * Stay Right Where You Are - Wilson and Myra
 * That Was a Year - Wilson and Ensemble
 * A Little House for Mama - Addison
 * Isn't He Something? - Mama Mizner
 * Wise Guys (reprise) - Addison and Wilson

 * Act II

 * Talent - Paris Singer
 * You - Addison and Paris
 * Make It Through the Night - Addison
 * Wise Guys (reprise) - Addison, Wilson and Paris
 * Boca Raton - Wilson, Addison, Ensemble
 * It's in Your Hands Now - Wilson, Addison, Ensemble
 * Call it Home - Wilson
 * Get Out of My Life - Addison
 * Wise Guys (reprise) - Addison and Wilson

 * As presented in 2003 as Bounce, Kennedy Center

 * Act I
 * Bounce – Wilson, Addison
 * Opportunity – Papa, Mama
 * Gold! – Prospector, Wilson, Mama, Addison, Alaskans
 * Gold! (Reprise) –
 * What's Your Rush? – Nellie
 * The Game – Wilson
 * Next to You – Addison, Wilson, Mama
 * Addison's Trip (Around the World) – Addison, Salesman, Guatemalans, Servants
 * The Best Thing That Ever Happened – Wilson, Nellie
 * I Love This Town - Wilson, Nellie, Addison, and Company
 * Alaska – Mrs. Yerkes, Wilson §
 * New York Sequence - Wilson, Nellie, Reporters, Photographer, Ketchel, Armstrong, Jockey, Gamblers, Policeman, Wilson's Women §
 * Isn't He Something? – Mama
 * Bounce (Reprise) – Addison, the cast.

 * Act II
 * The Game – Addison, Nellie, Wilson, Promoter
 * Talent – Hollis
 * You – Addison, Hollis, Aristocrats
 * Addison's City – Hollis, Wilson, Nellie, Addison
 * Get Rich Quick - Company
 * Boca Raton – Boca Girl, Sportsmen, Fashion Models, Yachtsmen, Caruso, Salvador Dalí, Wilson, Addison, Nellie, Hollis, Prospector, Varmints, Bobby Jones, Mae West, Princess Ghika, Chorus §
 * Last Fight – Addison, Wilson
 * Bounce (Reprise) – Wilson, Addison

§ In Chicago production, not in Kennedy Center

 * As presented in 2008 as Road Show, performed in one act
 * Waste – Full Company
 * It's in Your Hands Now – Papa
 * Gold! – Full Company
 * Brotherly Love – Addison, Wilson
 * The Game – Wilson
 * Addison's Trip – Full Company
 * That Was a Year – Full Company
 * Isn't He Something! – Mama
 * Land Boom! – Real Estate Agent
 * Talent – Hollis
 * You – Full Company
 * The Best Thing That Ever Has Happened – Addison, Hollis
 * The Game (Reprise) – Wilson
 * Addison's City – Addison, Hollis, Wilson
 * Boca Raton – Full Company
 * Get Out – Addison
 * Go – Wilson
 * Finale – Addison, Wilson

Critical response
Referring to the 2003 Bounce productions, TheaterMania noted the "brace of mixed-to-negative reviews has all but assured that this production of Bounce will not be coming to New York." In November 2003, The New York Times reported "the show, which received lukewarm reviews in two tryout runs, is not coming to Broadway anytime soon."

Ben Brantley, in his New York Times review of the 2003 Kennedy Center production, said "[It] never seems to leave its starting point...Mr. Kind and Mr. McGillin execute this self-introduction [title song] charmingly, translating wryness and ruefulness into a breezy soft-shoe sensibility. But in a sense, when they have finished the song they have already delivered the whole show...Bounce, which features the vibrant Michele Pawk as a zestful gold digger (of both Klondike and jazz-age varieties) and Jane Powell as the Mizners' mother, only rarely kicks into a higher gear than the one that gently propels the opening duet...their trajectory feels as straight and flat as a time line in a history book. The bounce in Bounce is never very high...Much of the music, while whispering of earlier, more flashily complex Sondheim scores, has a conventional surface perkiness that suggests a more old-fashioned, crowd-pleasing kind of show than is this composer's wont. But his extraordinary gift for stealthily weaving dark motifs into a brighter musical fabric is definitely in evidence, mellifluously rendered in the peerless Jonathan Tunick's orchestrations."

Brantley, in his review of the 2008 production, praised Cerveris and Gemignani, but declares that, "The problem is that this musical's travelogue structure precludes its digging deep. It hints at dark and shimmering glories beneath the surface that it never fully mines. Like its leading characters, 'Road Show' doesn’t quite know what to do with the riches at its disposal."

Recordings
An original cast recording of the 2003 version (then titled Bounce) was released on May 4, 2004 by Nonesuch Records.

An original cast recording of the 2008 Public Theater production was released June 30, 2009 by PS Classics and Nonesuch Records.

title: Road Show (musical)