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Moïse Tshombe

Moïse Kapenda Tshombe (sometimes written Tshombé; 10 November 1919 – 29 June 1969) was a Congolese businessman and politician. He served as the president of the secessionist State of Katanga from 1960 to 1963 and as prime minister of the Democratic Republic of the Congo from 1964 to 1965.

Tshombe was born to an aristocratic Lunda family and ran several businesses in Katanga Province before becoming involved in politics, cofounding the pro-Western, anti-communist CONAKAT party in 1958 and advocating for autonomy for Katanga province. Following the Republic of the Congo-Léopoldville's accession to independence in June 1960, Tshombe became president of the autonomous province, and soon came into conflict with the central government's leftist prime minister, Patrice Lumumba. Accusing Lumumba of communist sympathies, Tshombe declared Katanga's independence as the breakaway State of Katanga, becoming a major actor of the Congo Crisis. Following Lumumba's overthrow and execution by Tshombe's supporters in 1961, the Katanga rebellion was suppressed in 1963, forcing Tshombe into exile.

The following year, he was made prime minister of the country as part of a new coalition government against the Simba rebellion by Lumumba's supporters. In 1965, he founded the CONACO alliance, which comfortably won the March and April general elections. However, he was dismissed as Prime Minister in October of that year, being replaced by Évariste Kimba. Following the November 1965 coup which ended the Congo Crisis, he was charged with treason and was forced into exile again. He died four years later.

Early life
A member of the Lunda ethnic group, Tshombe was born near Musumba, Belgian Congo, the son of a successful businessman. The Tshombe family were Lunda royalty and a number of Tshombes had reigned as the Mwaant Yav, the traditional king of the Lunda people. He received his education from an American missionary school and later trained as an accountant. In the 1950s, he took over a chain of stores in Katanga Province, which failed. Tshombe ran a number of businesses, which all failed, requiring his wealthy family to bail him out. Tshombe later became involved in politics.

Katanga was different from the other provinces of the Belgian Congo, being rich in copper, tin and uranium, all of which were mined by the Union Minière company. The wealth generated by its minerals led to 32,000 Belgians settling in Katanga by the 1950s, which had more white settlers than any other province of the Belgian Congo. The mining industry provided, by the standards of Africa, well paying jobs, and as such Katanga province attracted immigrants from the other provinces of the Belgian Congo.

Tshombe, like many members of the Lunda royalty, was close to the settler elite, and felt threatened by the flood of Kasai Baluba moving into Katanga. In the late 1950s, the Belgians allowed a limited degree of democracy in the Belgian Congo and in the first municipal elections in 1957, the majority of the mayors elected were Baluba, which sparked fears that the Lunda would be a marginalized group in their own province. Tshombe's political involvement started in 1957 in response to the perceived threat of Baluba domination.

Political career
Along with Godefroid Munongo, he founded the Confédération des associations tribales du Katanga (CONAKAT) party. CONAKAT promoted a federal Congo independent of the Belgian colonial empire. CONAKAT was founded in October 1958 to address the perceived problems of "immigration" into Katanga from the other provinces of the Belgian Congo, and its platform called for upholding the rights of the "indigenous" peoples of Katanga by ending the "immigration". The majority of the CONAKAT supporters were Lunda, Batabwa, Tshowke and Bayeke, most of whom lived in southern Katanga.

In common with the other members of the Lunda elite, the aristocratic Tshombe looked back nostalgically to the Kingdom of Lunda that once covered much of northern Angola, the southern Belgian Congo and Northern Rhodesia (modern Zambia) in the 17th and 18th centuries. CONAKAT formed an electoral alliance with the Union Katangaise party that represented the white Belgian settlers of Katanga. Both CONAKAT and the Union Katangaise wanted very broad autonomy for Katanga within an independent Congo in order to keep the wealth generated by the mining industry within Katanga. In contrast to CONAKAT with its calls for autonomy and curbs on "immigration", the "immigrants" in Katanga tended to favor the parties that called for a more centralized state.

President of Katanga

CONAKAT won control of the Katanga provincial legislature in the May 1960 general elections. One month later, the Congo became an independent republic. Tshombe became President of the autonomous province of Katanga. Patrice Lumumba was tasked with forming a national government. Members of his party, the Mouvement National Congolais, were given charge of the portfolios of national defence and interior, despite Tshombe's objections. The portfolio for economic affairs was awarded to a CONAKAT member, but this was undercut by the positioning of nationalists in control of the Ministry and Secretariat for Economic Coordination. Mines and land affairs were placed under separate portfolios. Tshombe declared that this diluting of CONAKAT's influence rendered his agreement to support the government "null and void".

On the evening of 11 July, Tshombe, accusing the central government of communist leanings and dictatorial rule, announced that Katanga was seceding from the Congo. Tshombe had the full support of both Belgium and the Union Minière in proclaiming Katanga independent. One American diplomat described Katanga as a sham, reporting to Washington that the State of Katanga was "designed mainly for the protection of European lives and property". Favoring continued ties with Belgium, Tshombe asked the Belgian government to send military officers to recruit and train a Katangese army. Tshombe's Belgian military adviser, Major Guy Weber, on 13 July 1960 appointed Major Jean-Marie Crèvecœur to train an army for Katanga.

To disguise its military nature, the force being raised and trained was called the Katangese gendarmerie, but this was highly misleading as it was in fact an army. The majority of the officers training the gendarmerie were Belgian. The Belgian historian Jules Gérard-Libois wrote: "During the entire month of August, a veritable race against the clock took place with the objective, for Tshombe and his advisers, of building a more or less efficient gendarmery before the eventual withdraw of the Belgian troops". Tshombe engaged in a successful bluff in the summer of 1960 as he maintained that Katanga had the military forces to repel an invasion while an army was being raised.

Tshombe demanded United Nations recognition for independent Katanga, and he announced that any intervention by UN troops would be met with force. Nonetheless, Congolese Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba and his successor, Cyrille Adoula, successfully requested intervention from UN forces. UN forces were sent under the direction of UN Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjöld.

The British diplomat Brian Urquhart, who met Tshombe several times, wrote: "Tshombe was not stupid, but he desperately wanted to be liked and recognized. He tended to agree with the last person he had talked to and could be counted on to go back on any agreement as soon as he had seen his next visitor. He was also an accomplished hypochondriac, using feigned ill health to avoid answering awkward questions. “J’ai mal à la gorge, Monsieur Urquhart” ("I have a sore throat, Mr. Urquhart"), he would suddenly whisper. "Je dois prendre immédiatement une piqûre" ("I must immediately get a [medical] shot.") And that would be the end of the conversation. Tshombe was basically a weak person who was always being manipulated by others-the Union Minière, right-wing politicians in Europe and the United States, mercenaries, arms dealers and other adventurers who were after his money."

France, wishing to take advantage of Katangese minerals, sent to Tshombe the reinforcement of the mercenary Bob Denard and his men. It was supported by the networks of Jacques Foccart, the "Mr. Africa" of the French government.

Lumumba's government was dissolved, and Lumumba taken prisoner by Mobutu and detained at Camp Hardy in Thysville. Harold Charles d'Aspremont Lynden (Belgian minister for African Affairs) sent a highly confidential telegram on 16 January 1961 to the government in Léopoldville (President Joseph Kasa-Vubu and Mobutu) to send Lumumba to Katanga. That would have stemmed from Lumumba's increasing popularity among soldiers, who might release him. Meanwhile, soldier mutinies and unrest increased by the day, at Prison Camp Hardy in Thysville. The telegram has still not been shown to exist.

Whilst being flown in a Sabena Douglas DC-4 plane to Katanga, Lumumba was beaten by the Congolese soldiers escorting him. In custody in Katanga, Lumumba was visited by Katangese notables and Belgian officers, who included Tshombe, Godefroid Munongo, Kibwe, Kitenge, Grandelet, Son, Gat, Huyghé, Tignée, Verscheure, Segers and Rougefort. Lumumba's execution, on 17 January, was carried out by a firing squad led by a Belgian mercenary, Julien Gat.

In September 1961, the United Nations launched Operation Morthor with the aim of reintegrating Katanga into the Congo, causing Tshombe to flee into Northern Rhodesia for a time. However, the Katangese gendarmerie proved to be tougher than expected and in the siege of Jadotville, Irish troops serving under the United Nations flag were forced to surrender. The United Nations secretary-general, Dag Hammarskjöld, flew to meet Tshombe to discuss a ceasefire. After the meeting, Hammarskjöld was killed in an airplane crash.

Tshombe become an iconic figure for American conservatives in the 1960s, who saw him as an acceptable African leader. The American historian Kyle Burke wrote: "To them [American conservatives], Tshombe represented a comfortable kind of decolonization, in which elite Africans would manage the transition from colony to nation without altering the existing racial, political and economic order, thereby ensuring that communists would not gain a foothold in these countries". American conservatives presented the Belgian Congo as a place of racial harmony, which Tshombe had tried to preserve.

The principal lobbying group for Tshombe was the American Committee for Aid to Katangan Freedom Fighters that portrayed the United Nations as a communist-dominated organization that was seeking to crush Katanga to achieve Soviet foreign policy goals in Africa. The support for Tshombe was at least in part related to American domestic politics as the Kennedy administration supported the United Nations against Katanga and the support for Tshombe in the United States came mostly from conservative Republicans and Democrats, who used Kennedy's opposition to Tshombe to argue that he was "soft on communism". By contrast, Afro-Americans loathed Tshombe, seeing him as an "Uncle Tom" figure, a black man who was submissive and docile towards whites.

Prime Minister of the Congo
In 1963, UN forces succeeded in suppressing Katanga, driving Tshombe into exile in Northern Rhodesia and then Spain. Tshombe took 890 suitcases full of one million gold pieces with him into exile, which he placed into various European banks, allowing him to live in comfort and luxury. At the same time, the UN forces found that the Katangese treasury had been stripped bare. The entire vault contained only £10 British pounds together with one dead rat.

In early 1964, the Simba rebellion broke out and the Congolese government rapidly lost control of the entire eastern half of the Congo. At the same time, Tshombe started to correspond with several of his former enemies such as the justice minister, Justin-Marie Bomboko; the police chief, Victor Nendaka; and most importantly, the commander of the army, General Joseph-Désiré Mobutu.

As the Armée Nationale Congolaise could not handle the Simbas, Mobutu argued that the Congo needed Western help. Mobutu had been the king-maker of Congolese politics ever since he staged his first coup in 1960. He pressured President Joseph Kasa-Vubu to appoint Tshombe premier on the grounds that he was the Congolese politician most likely to secure Western support.

Most of the economic concessions in the Belgian Congo were para-statal, as the Belgian state had invested its own funds alongside those of European capitalists in developing the concessions. When Belgium granted independence to the Congo in 1960, the Belgians refused to transfer their shares in the concessions to the Congolese state under the grounds that the Congo refused to assume the debts that the Belgians had incurred when developing the concessions, which deprived the Congolese state of much needed revenue.

In March 1964, the Belgian Foreign Minister Paul-Henri Spaak visited Leopoldville and agreed to transfer the Belgian shares of the concessions. During the same visit, Spaak seems to have made appointing Tshombe premier the precondition of the share transfer. Finally, the administration of John F. Kennedy was very hostile towards Tshombe, but on 22 November 1963 Kennedy was assassinated. Kennedy's successor, Lyndon B. Johnson was more supportive of Tshombe, viewing him as a firmly pro-Western politician.

In July 1964, he returned to the Congo to serve as prime minister in a new coalition government. His cabinet was sworn in on 10 July. Tshombe's national support was derived from the backing of provincial political bosses, customary chiefs, and foreign financial interests. Among his first acts in office were the lifting of a curfew in Léopoldville, the release of 600 political prisoners—including Antoine Gizenga, and the ordering of Katangese gendarmes to return from their exile in Angola to the Congo and join the national army.

Tshombe had made extensive use of white mercenaries to fight for Katanga, and as the Congolese premier, he hired the same mercenaries to fight for the Congo. The return of Tshombe to power was met with criticism. Malcolm X detested Tshombe as an "Uncle Tom", and in a 1964 speech in New York called him "the worst African ever born" and "the man who in cold blood, cold blood, committed an international crime-murdered Patrice Lumumba".

In a New Year's message at the beginning of 1965, Tshombe rejected conciliation with the Simba rebels and called for their total defeat. Tshombe formed the federalist Convention Nationale Congolaise (CONACO), a bloc of forty-nine parties for the 1965 general election. The party won comfortably gaining 38 seats with the alliance as a whole winning 122 seats. Despite this victory Tshombe was dismissed from his position as Prime Minister in October 1965 by President Kasa-Vubu and replaced by Évariste Kimba. In November, General Joseph Mobutu, who had just staged a successful coup against Kasa-Vubu, brought charges of treason against Tshombe, who again fled the country and settled in Francoist Spain.

Later life
In 1965, Tshombe's brother, Daniel, became the Mwaant Yav, which greatly added to his appeal in Katanga. Traditionally, the title of Mwaant Yav alternated between different Lunda royal families, but since 1965 the office of Mwaant Yav has been held by members of the Tshombe family. In 1967, Tshombe was sentenced to death in absentia.

On 30 June 1967, Tshombe was in a Hawker Siddeley jet aircraft that was hijacked by Francis Bodenan, an agent of the French SDECE. According to the Congolese government, Tshombe was travelling to Africa. He was taken to Algeria, jailed, and placed under house arrest. At his trial, he was represented by French lawyer René Floriot. The pilots of the plane, Britons Trevor Copleston and David Taylor, were released and returned to the United Kingdom. The Congolese government demanded his extradition to Congo and his Western supporters agitated for his release.

The Algerians resisted both demands. A part of his supporters gathered to form the Tshombe Emergency Committee in the U.S., including Marvin Liebman and William F. Buckley, to press for his release and move to Spain. The Tshombe Emergency Committee filed a number of legal challenges to force the Algerians to release Tshombe to no avail. Long-time aide Michel Struelens travelled to different European cities to lobby for Tshombe, eventually to no avail.

Death and legacy
Tshombe died in Algeria in 1969. The Algerian government called in eight Algerian physicians and three French doctors, who concluded that he died in his sleep. Later, an autopsy concluded a natural death. Tshombe's nephew Joseph Kayomb Tshombe stipulated that no medical doctor chosen by the Tshombe family was admitted at the autopsy.

Further doubts were raised regarding Tshombe's death by former governor of Katanga and political exile Daniel Monguya Mbenge, who accused French lawyer Jacques Vergès of poisoning Tshombe by order of Mobutu. In the context of a series of interviews regarding a conspiracy theory about the assassination of US President John F. Kennedy, Belgian mercenary Joseph Smal told author Stephen J. Rivele that Tshombe was killed by two injections with two different substances, prepared by the CIA.

Moïse Tshombe was buried in a Methodist service at Etterbeek Cemetery, near Brussels, Belgium. Owing to his role in the death of Lumumba and his association with Western interests, Tshombe's name became synonymous with "sellout" to Black African nationalists.

Tshombe's nephew, Jean Nguza Karl-i-Bond, later became an important politician and served as prime minister from 1980 to 1981.

Portrayals
The plot of the 1978 war film The Wild Geese is based in part on speculation that Tshombe's plane had initially been diverted to Rhodesia before being sent to Algeria. The film's characters Colonel Allen Faulkner and President Julius Limbani were largely based on Tshombe and his military ally Maj. "Mad Mike" Hoare.

Tshombe has been played twice by the French actor Pascal N'Zonzi, first in the 2000 film Lumumba and again in the 2011 film Mister Bob. He was portrayed by Danny Sapani in the 2016 film The Siege of Jadotville.

Honours

 * Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown.

title: Moïse Tshombe


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1957 in science

The year 1957 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below.

Astronomy and space exploration

 * October 4 – Launch of Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite, by an R-7 Semyorka rocket from the Baikonur Cosmodrome near Tyuratam in the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic.
 * November 3 – Launch of Sputnik 2, with a dog called Laika on board, the first animal sent into orbit. There is no technology available to return it to Earth.
 * December 6 – The United States attempts launch of Vanguard TV3 which fails after just two seconds in the air.
 * Project Orion begins, a U.S. program to build a spacecraft powered by nuclear explosions.
 * Wilhelm Gliese publishes the first Gliese Catalogue of Nearby Stars.

Biology

 * Dopamine is first identified in the human brain by Katharine Montagu.
 * The structure of myoglobin is determined (using x-ray crystallography) by John Kendrew and colleagues in England.
 * The discovery of Na+/K+-ATPase, the first antiporter enzyme identified, is published by Jens Christian Skou of Aarhus University.
 * The Chlamydia trachomatis bacterium is first cultured (in the yolk sacs of eggs) by Tang Feifan and colleagues.

Chemistry

 * Costin Nenițescu synthesizes cyclobutadiene.

Computer science

 * April – IBM delivers the first compiler for the FORTRAN scientific programming language. It becomes the most widely used computer language for technical work.
 * Robert C. Prim independently rediscovers Prim's algorithm. It was first discovered in 1930 by Vojtěch Jarník and independently rediscovered again by Edsger Dijkstra in 1959.

Exploration

 * Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station established.

Mathematics

 * Karl Prachar publishes a key text on the distribution of prime numbers, Primzahlverteilung.

Medicine

 * June 27 – A report by the Medical Research Council (UK) reveals evidence to support a link between tobacco smoking and lung cancer.
 * October 1 – The drug Thalidomide is launched as a sedative by Grünenthal GmbH.
 * October 11 – An article by Fred Kummerow suggests a link between trans fats and heart disease.
 * Hashimoto's thyroiditis is recognised as an autoimmune disease, the first identified as organ-specific.

Paleontology

 * Charnia is first described following its discovery by schoolboy Roger Mason at a site in the Charnwood Forest of England; it is the first definitely Precambrian fossil known.

Physics

 * July – Hugh Everett III publishes the first scientifically founded many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics.
 * August – ZETA fusion reactor begins operation at the Atomic Energy Research Establishment, Harwell, Oxfordshire.
 * BCS theory of superconductivity developed by John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and Robert Schrieffer.
 * B2FH, an astrophysics paper by the British astronomers Geoffrey Burbidge, Margaret Burbidge and Fred Hoyle and the American astronomer William Fowler, describes the synthesis of the lightest elements through nuclear processes in stars.
 * Rudolf Mössbauer discovers the Mössbauer effect.
 * University of Liverpool cyclotron produces violation of charge conjugation symmetry.

Psychology

 * Harry Harlow begins maternal-separation and social isolation experiments on rhesus monkeys.

Technology

 * December 2 – Reactor goes critical in Shippingport Atomic Power Station, Pennsylvania, the first commercial pressurized water reactor.
 * First working prototype Wankel engine.

Events

 * First Conference on Science and World Affairs held at Pugwash, Nova Scotia, organized by Joseph Rotblat.

Institutions

 * May 13 – National Polytechnical Museum established in Sofia, Bulgaria.

Awards

 * Nobel Prizes:
 * Physics – Chen Ning Yang and Tsung-Dao Lee
 * Chemistry – Lord Alexander R Todd
 * Medicine – Daniel Bovet

Births

 * April 2 – Caroline Dean, English plant scientist.
 * May 11 – Lynn J. Rothschild, American evolutionary biologist, astrobiologist and synthetic biologist at NASA's Ames Research Center.
 * July 12 – Rick Husband (died 2003), American astronaut.
 * October 1 – Éva Tardos, Hungarian-American computer scientist, Gödel Prize laureate.
 * September 11 – Julie Williams, Welsh neuropsychological geneticist.
 * October 6 – Ian Jacobs, English gynaecological oncologist.
 * October 21 – Wolfgang Ketterle, German winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics (2001).
 * November 23 – William Kaelin Jr., American winner of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (2019).
 * December 29 – Bruce Beutler, American immunologist, winner of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (2011).

Deaths

 * February 8
 * John von Neumann (born 1903), Hungarian American mathematician.
 * Walther Bothe (born 1891), German physicist, winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics 1954.
 * February 18 – Henry Norris Russell (born 1877), American astronomer.
 * May 7 – Wilhelm Filchner (born 1877), German explorer.
 * May 13 – Michael Fekete, (born 1886) Hungarian-born Israeli mathematician (died 1957)
 * May 26 – Edward Hutchinson Synge (born 1890), Irish|Irish theoretical physicist.
 * July 3 – Frederick Lindemann, 1st Viscount Cherwell (born 1886), German-born English physicist.
 * August 16 – Irving Langmuir (born 1881), American chemist and physicist, winner of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1932.
 * August 21 – Harald Ulrik Sverdrup (born 1888), Norwegian meteorologist and oceanographer.
 * September 21 – Henry E. Warren (born 1872), American inventor.
 * October 26 – Gerty Cori (born 1896), Czech American biochemist, winner of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1947.
 * November – Helen Boyle (born 1869), British physician and psychologist.
 * November 3 – Wilhelm Reich (born 1897), Austrian American psychoanalyst.
 * December 14 – Kathleen Mary Drew-Baker (born 1901), English phycologist.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: 1957 in science


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Talk:Lil Kim

''Most recently, Kim has released a single and video for "The Jumpoff" which features rapper Mr. Cheeks. She also appeared in the video for Aaliyah's latest single, "Miss You", where she, Missy Elliott, Brandy, Tweet, DMX, Montell Williams, and several others pay tribute to the deceased hip-hopper.''

shouldn't this be changed to Hip-Hop Artist???

I've never heard the term hip-hopper...

--hoshie

 * It should be changed to "R&B singer"; Aaliyah was not a hip-hop artist. And a "hip-hopper" refers to a person who participates in hip-hop culture --b. Touch 21:24, 9 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Gay Icon Project
In my effort to merge the now-deleted list from the article Gay icon to the Gay icons category, I have added this page to the category. I engaged in this effort as a "human script", adding everyone from the list to the category, bypassing the fact-checking stage. That is what I am relying on you to do. Please check the article Gay icon and make a judgment as to whether this person or group fits the category. By distributing this task from the regular editors of one article to the regular editors of several articles, I believe that the task of fact-checking this information can be expedited. Thank you very much. Philwelch 21:09, 24 Mar 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Lil Kim


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1867 in science

The year 1867 in science and technology involved many significant events, listed below.

Events

 * April – First clear recorded use of the word science in English with today's usage as restricted to the natural and physical sciences (by Catholic theologian and mathematician W. G. Ward writing in the London-published Dublin Review).

Botany

 * Gorse naturalises in New Zealand and soon becomes the worst invasive weed.
 * Swiss botanist Simon Schwendener proposes his dual theory of lichens.
 * Rosa 'La France', the first hybrid tea rose, is cultivated by Jean-Baptiste Guillot.
 * The Big Trees Ranch at Felton, California, is bought by San Francisco businessman Joseph Warren Welch to preserve the giant redwoods (Sequoia sempervirens) from logging.

Chemistry

 * Alfred Nobel patents dynamite (in the United Kingdom on May 7, and in Sweden on October 19).
 * Henry Enfield Roscoe isolates vanadium.
 * Charles-Adolphe Wurtz synthesizes neurine.

Economics

 * Publication of the first volume of Das Kapital by Karl Marx.

Geology

 * At Fountain Point, Michigan, an artesian water spring begins to gush continuously.
 * Geological Exploration of the Fortieth Parallel established in the United States under the directorship of Clarence King.

History of science

 * Assyriologist George Smith discovers an inscription recording a solar eclipse in the month of Sivan on British Museum Tablet K51, which he is able to link to 15 June 763 BC, the cornerstone of ancient Near Eastern chronology.

Mathematics

 * English mathematician Rev. William Allen Whitworth publishes the first edition of his Choice and Chance: An Elementary Treatise on Permutations, Combinations, and Probability.

Physiology and medicine

 * March 16 – First publication of an article by Joseph Lister outlining the discovery of antiseptic surgery, in The Lancet.
 * July 17 – In Boston, Massachusetts, the Harvard School of Dental Medicine is established as the first dental school in the United States.
 * Henry Maudsley publishes The Physiology and Pathology of Mind.
 * Viennese psychiatrist Theodor Meynert observes variations in the cytoarchitecture of the brain.
 * Yellow fever kills 3093 in New Orleans.

Technology

 * January 1 – The Covington–Cincinnati Suspension Bridge opens between Cincinnati and Covington, Kentucky, its 1,057-foot (322 m) main span making it the longest single-span bridge in the world by a margin of 14 m at this time. It will be renamed after its designer, John A. Roebling, in 1983.
 * February 17 – The first ship passes through the Suez Canal.
 * July 2 – First elevated railroad in the United States begins service in New York City.
 * December 14 – Spanish inventor Narcís Monturiol submerges his submarine Ictineo II at Barcelona, demonstrating its chemically fired anaerobic steam propulsion system.
 * Pierre Michaux invents the front wheel-driven velocipede, the first mass-produced bicycle.

Awards

 * Copley Medal: Karl Ernst von Baer
 * Wollaston Medal: George Poulett Scrope

Births

 * January 11 – Edward B. Titchener (died 1927), English-born structuralist psychologist.
 * January 22 – Gisela Januszewska (died 1943 in Theresienstadt concentration camp), Moravian-born public health physician.
 * April 16 – Wilbur Wright (died 1912), American pioneer aviator.
 * May 5 – Kintarô Okamura (died 1935), Japanese phycologist.
 * May 21 – Anne Walter Fearn (died 1939), American physician.
 * June 11 – Charles Fabry (died 1945), French optical physicist.
 * July 8 – Edgar Buckingham (died 1940), American physicist.
 * October 21 – Aldred Scott Warthin (died 1931), American cancer geneticist.
 * October 28 – Hans Driesch (died 1941), German developmental biologist.
 * November 7 – Maria Skłodowska, later Marie Curie (died 1934), Polish-born physicist.
 * November 26 – Emil von Dungern (died 1961), German serologist.
 * December 1 – Ignacy Mościcki (died 1946), chemist and President of Poland.
 * December 26 – John Bradfield (died 1943), Australian civil engineer.
 * December 29 – Annie Montague Alexander (died 1950), American paleontologist.

Deaths

 * January 16 – William Marsden (born 1796), English surgeon.
 * February 9 – Filippo de Filippi (born 1814), Italian zoologist.
 * March 25 – Friedlieb Ferdinand Runge (born 1794), German analytical chemist.
 * March 27 – Prideaux John Selby (born 1788), English ornithologist.
 * April 12 – William Bullock (born 1813), American inventor.
 * May 29 – Margaretta Morris (born 1797), American entomologist.
 * August 25 – Michael Faraday (born 1791), English chemist and physicist.
 * December 22 – Jean-Victor Poncelet (died 1788), French mechanical and military engineer and mathematician.

title: 1867 in science


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Talk:Magnetostriction

what is effect of magnetostriction on dry type of transformer to reduce the noise produced by magnetostriction effect.

Hum
120hz or 60hz hum near transformers? RJFJR 20:06, May 2, 2005 (UTC)

 * I would imagine both, plus harmonics. .  Also 50 or 100 in other countries. - Omegatron 20:43, May 2, 2005 (UTC)
 * Hi all, I removed the bit on the frequency being multiples of 100Hz or 120Hz. The dominant harmonics in a big power transformer are mostly odd, and the injection of even harmonics is heavily restricted. But that's irrelevant either way to the discussion of magnetostriction. 18.62.13.152 (talk) 02:39, 6 January 2014 (UTC)

Does anyone know if this is also the source of the noise in an MRI? NubinskiMXM
 * Basically, yes it is. It's the movement of scanning coils in response to the changing magnetic field.Cpmartin (talk) 14:14, 16 September 2008 (UTC)

Is it me or is that OGG of 60Hz hum completely f*cked? Doesn't sound like any mains hum I've ever heard. Sounds more like a slowed-down recording of a budgie. If anyone's got anything more typically illustrative that would be good!Cpmartin (talk) 14:14, 16 September 2008 (UTC)

Magnetomechanical Effect
Someone should add a short section on the Magnetomechanical effect (the inverse of magnetostriction) in the article.

A good reference is in Introduction to Magnetism and Magnetic Materials By David Jiles, towards the back of the book if i can remember clearly.

I know I should, but I am too lazy! and too busy of cause. ;-p

Samlaw (talk) 14:22, 8 July 2008 (UTC)

 * I have added a link to Inverse magnetostrictive effect, does this help? Marechad (talk) 18:34, 1 July 2010 (UTC)

Animation is distracting
The animation image on this article is distracting, makes it hard to read. It is often recommended to avoid animations, see for example http://www.useit.com/alertbox/990502.html or http://universalusability.com/access_by_design/images/animated.html - recommend replacing the animation with static image(s). --mcld (talk) 07:08, 24 August 2009 (UTC)
 * P.S. wkp's policy recommends against animated images being inlined in articles: Image_use_policy  --mcld (talk) 07:11, 24 August 2009 (UTC)

 * I'd have to disagree; this is an AC effect that cannot be illustrated well with a static image. The Wikipedia policy is to use animations sparingly, notwithstanding the opinion on useit.com. -W0lfie (talk) 16:12, 9 November 2009 (UTC)
 * What exactly is it illustrating? What does the grey arrow represent? Magnetostriction is not inherently an AC effect, so an animation confuses the issue. RockMagnetist (talk) 14:16, 16 September 2010 (UTC)

Applications of Magnetostriction?
1. Magnetostriction is the working principle of magnetostriction oscillator which is used to produce     ultrasonic waves of frequencies up to 3MHz. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 49.203.81.8 (talk)  03:15, 13 August 2011

change in length
As the reference given at the bottom of article does, I believe it should be clearly stated that change in length can either be positive or negative:

The coefficient Λ may be positive or negative — Preceding unsigned comment added by 79.45.158.211 (talk) 10:43, 6 October 2014 (UTC)

Magnetostriction in antiferromagnets and ferrimagnets
Magnetostriction does not only occur in ferromagentic materials.

For ferrimagnets such as TbFe2 and DyFe2 see: Clark, A. E.; Belson, H. S. (1972): Giant Room-Temperature Magnetostrictions in Tb Fe2 and Dy Fe2. In: Phys. Rev. B 5 (9), S. 3642–3644. DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevB.5.3642.

Antiferromagnets such as the rare earth elements such as Dy and Ho see: Darnell, F. J. (1963): Temperature Dependence of Lattice Parameters for Gd, Dy, and Ho. In: Phys. Rev. 130 (5), S. 1825–1828. DOI: 10.1103/PhysRev.130.1825. or: Darnell, F. J. (1963): Magnetostriction in Dysprosium and Terbium. In: Phys. Rev. 132 (1), S. 128–133. DOI: 10.1103/PhysRev.132.128.

thus I would vote for changing the first sentence of the article to: Magnetostriction (cf. electrostriction) is a general property of magnetic materials that causes them to change their shape or dimensions during the process of magnetization. --Goldfinger25 (talk) 12:04, 7 January 2020 (UTC)
 * Good point. I have changed the wording as you suggest. If I have time later, I'll incorporate your sources into the section on magnetostrictive materials. Or you could do it. RockMagnetist(talk) 18:14, 7 January 2020 (UTC)

Possible spam link
Wahi, Sajan K.; Kumar, Manik; Santapuri, Sushma; Dapino, Marcelo J. (2019-06-07). "Computationally efficient locally linearized constitutive model for magnetostrictive materials". Journal of Applied Physics. 125 (21): 215108. Bibcode:2019JAP...125u5108W. doi:10.1063/1.5086953. ISSN 0021-8979. The above 2019 paper is a primary source, and the text at the end of the "Constitutive behavior of magnetostrictive materials" subsection isn't particularly encyclopedic. I'm going to remove it all if nobody states a convincing objection.--Quisqualis (talk) 05:27, 4 February 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Magnetostriction


text:
1934 in science

The year 1934 in science and technology involved some significant events, listed below.

Astronomy

 * Richard Tolman shows that black-body radiation in an expanding universe cools but remains thermal.
 * Georges Lemaître interprets the cosmological constant as due to a vacuum energy with an unusual perfect fluid equation of state.

Chemistry

 * The Mulliken scale of chemical element electronegativity is developed by Robert S. Mulliken.
 * Norman Haworth and Edmund Hirst report the first synthesis of vitamin C.
 * J. D. Bernal and Dorothy Crowfoot first successfully apply the technique of X-ray crystallography to analysis of a biological substance, pepsin.
 * The first commercial heavy water plant is built at Vemork in Norway; production also starts this year at Dnepropetrovsk in the Soviet Union.

History of science and technology

 * January 18 – The Iron Bridge in Shropshire, dating from the Industrial Revolution period, becomes an officially scheduled monument in England.
 * Lewis Mumford publishes Technics and Civilization.

Mathematics

 * Penrose triangle devised.

Physics

 * March 25 – Enrico Fermi publishes his discovery of neutron activation of radioactive decay.
 * Sonoluminescence is discovered at the University of Cologne.
 * Gregory Breit and John A. Wheeler describe the Breit–Wheeler process.
 * Henri Coandă obtains his first patent, in France, on the Coandă effect.

Physiology and medicine

 * March 8 – Sodium thiopental, the first intravenous anesthetic, synthesized by Ernest H. Volwiler with Donalee L. Tabern of Abbott Laboratories, is first administered to human subjects.
 * November 1 – William F. Wells publishes the Wells curve (or Wells evaporation falling curve of droplets) giving an explanation of the behavior of exhaled respiratory droplets and their influence on the transmission of infectious respiratory diseases.
 * Outbreak of "atypical poliomyelitis", strongly resembling what would later be called chronic fatigue syndrome, affects a large number of medical staff at the Los Angeles County Hospital.
 * George de Hevesy uses heavy water in one of the first biological tracer experiments, to estimate the rate of turnover of water in the human body.
 * Austrian biochemist Regina Kapeller-Adler develops an innovative early pregnancy test based on the presence of histidine in urine.
 * Tudor Thomas' work on corneal grafting restores the sight of a man who had been nearly blind for 27 years.

Technology

 * April 3 – Percy Shaw patents the cat's eye road-safety device in Britain.
 * April 18 – Citroën Traction Avant introduced, the world's first front-wheel drive monocoque (welded steel unit body) production automobile, designed by André Lefèbvre and Flaminio Bertoni.
 * April 24 – Laurens Hammond patents the Hammond organ in the United States.
 * The 135 film cartridge is introduced in Germany and the United States with the Kodak Retina camera, making 35mm film easy to use.
 * The first commercial electronic television sets with cathode ray tubes are manufactured by Telefunken in Germany.

Publications

 * Samuel C. Bradford proposes Bradford's law of scattering, an example of Pareto distribution applicable in the bibliometrics of scientific literature and beyond.
 * Karl Popper publishes Logik der Forschung.

Awards

 * Nobel Prize
 * Physics: not awarded
 * Chemistry: Harold Clayton Urey
 * Physiology or Medicine: George Hoyt Whipple, George Richards Minot, William Parry Murphy

Births

 * February 15 – Niklaus Wirth (died 2024), Swiss computer scientist.
 * March 4 – Janez Strnad, Slovenian physicist.
 * March 5 – Daniel Kahneman (died 2024), Israeli-American psychologist, winner of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences.
 * March 6 – Milton Diamond, American sexologist and professor of anatomy and reproductive biology.
 * March 9 – Yuri Gagarin (died 1968), Russian cosmonaut, the first man in space.
 * March 14 – Eugene Cernan (died 2017), American astronaut, the last man to walk on the Moon (1972)
 * March 23 – Ludvig Faddeev (died 2017), Russian mathematician and theoretical physicist.
 * March 31 – Carlo Rubbia, Italian winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics.
 * April 2 – Paul Cohen (died 2007), American mathematician, winner of the Fields Medal.
 * April 3 – Jane Goodall, English primatologist.
 * April – Dona Strauss, South African-born mathematician.
 * May 21 – Bengt I. Samuelsson, Swedish biochemist, winner of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.
 * May 23
 * Robert Moog (died 2005), American pioneer of electronic music.
 * Willie Hobbs Moore (died 1994), African American engineer.
 * May 30 – Alexei Leonov (died 2019), Russian cosmonaut, the first man to walk in space.
 * July 7 – Robert McNeill Alexander (died 2016), British zoologist, authority on animal locomotion.
 * September 21 – David J. Thouless (died 2019), Scottish-born winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics.
 * November 9 – Carl Sagan (died 1996), American astronomer.
 * November 27 – Gilbert Strang, American mathematician.

Deaths

 * January 6 – Fernand Lataste (born 1847), French zoologist.
 * January 14 – Ioan Cantacuzino (born 1863), Romanian microbiologist.
 * January 29 – Fritz Haber (born 1868), German chemist.
 * February 25 – Elizabeth Gertrude Britton (born 1858), American botanist.
 * April 9 – Oskar von Miller (born 1855), German electrical engineer and founder of the Deutsches Museum.
 * April 10 – Cecilia Grierson (born 1859), Argentine physician and reformer.
 * April 21 – Carsten Borchgrevink (born 1864), Norwegian Antarctic explorer.
 * July 4 – Marie Curie (born 1867), Polish-born French physicist.
 * October 17 – Santiago Ramón y Cajal (born 1852), Spanish winner of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.
 * September 27 – Ellen Willmott (born 1858), English horticulturist.
 * November 16 – Carl von Linde (born 1842), German refrigeration engineer.
 * November 20 – Willem de Sitter (born 1872), Dutch mathematician, physicist and astronomer.
 * December 2 – T. H. E. C. Espin (born 1858), English astronomer, scientist and clergyman.
 * December 10 – Theobald Smith (born 1859), American bacteriologist.
 * December 31 – Cornelia Clapp (born 1859), American marine biologist
 * William Hoskins (born 1862), American inventor.

title: 1934 in science


text:
Lambda Legal

The Lambda Legal Defense and Education Fund, better known as Lambda Legal, is an American civil rights organization that focuses on lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) communities as well as people living with HIV/AIDS (PWAs) through impact litigation, societal education, and public policy work.

History
Lambda's founder William J. Thom, Esq. submitted incorporation papers for approval to the New York Courts in 1971, but his application was denied on the grounds that its proposed activities would be "neither benevolent nor charitable in purpose" and "there was no demonstrated need for its existence". That decision was overturned in 1973 by the New York Court of Appeals, which is the highest court of New York State. (In re Thom, 301 N.E.2d 542 (N.Y. 1973).)

The original incorporators, in addition to Bill Thom, were E. Carrington Boggan, and Michael J. Lavery. At their first meeting on November 10, 1973, they were elected to the newly constituted board of directors namely Rodney L. Eubanks, Shepherd Raimi, and D. Nicholas Russo.

Because of the scarcity of openly gay lawyers in 1973, Lambda Legal formed a Board of Advisors of prominent New Yorkers sympathetic to the cause of gay rights. They included US Congressperson Bella Abzug, New York State Senator Carol Bellamy, Association of the Bar President Merrell E. Clark, Rev. John Corn of Trinity Church and Martin Duberman, Distinguished Professor at City University of New York. Also on the Board of Advisors were the two lawyers who later became New York State Supreme Court Justices: Phyllis Gangel-Jacob and Shirley Fingerhood.

From its inception, Lambda Legal sought diversity on its board of directors. Initially, it could find no lesbian lawyers who were willing or able to be openly associated with a gay activist organization. Nathalie Rockhill, a major figure in the early post-Stonewall days of Gay Liberation, was the first woman elected to the board in 1974. She was soon followed by lesbian law students and, in time, by lesbian lawyers. By the 1980s, men and women were equally represented on Lambda's board.

Lambda's growth paralleled the growth of the gay movement. By the 1980s, with the crisis of the AIDS epidemic getting more attention, awareness of gay activism had grown significantly. Thomas B. Stoddard, who was executive director from 1986 to 1992, helped to author a bill passed in 1986 by the New York City Council to protect queer people against bias in housing, employment, and public accommodations. Mayor Ed Koch, who signed the bill enacting it into law said: "The legislation drafted by Tom Stoddard was perfect." In 1993, Stoddard and other nationally known gay leaders met with President Bill Clinton, first such delegation to meet inside the Oval Office.

In 2013, Lambda Legal – Midwest Regional Office was inducted into the Chicago Gay and Lesbian Hall of Fame.

Its national headquarter remained in New York City, but today it has regional offices in Atlanta, Chicago, Dallas, Los Angeles, and Washington.

Work
Lambda Legal has played a role in many legal cases pertaining to gay rights, including the 6–3 United States Supreme Court's 2003 decision in Lawrence v. Texas, which invalidated sodomy laws in the United States.

Lambda Legal carries out its legal work principally through test cases selected for the likelihood of their success in establishing positive legal precedents that will affect lesbians, gay men, bisexuals, transgender people and those affected by HIV. Lambda Legal's staff of attorneys works on a wide range of cases, with their docket averaging more than 50 cases at any given time.

Lambda Legal also maintains a national network of volunteer Cooperating Attorneys, which widens the scope of their legal work and allows attorneys, legal workers and law students to become involved in the program by working with Lambda Legal's legal staff.

Lambda Legal pursues litigation in all parts of the country, in every area of the law that affects communities they represent, such as discrimination in employment, housing, public accommodations, and the military; HIV/AIDS-related discrimination and public policy issues; parenting and relationship issues; equal marriage rights; equal employment and domestic partnership benefits; "sodomy" law challenges; immigration issues; anti-gay initiatives; and free speech and equal protection rights. Before taking on legal work on behalf of same-sex marriage rights, Lambda Legal had to resolve an internal debate over the significance of marriage for its constituency and the strategic wisdom of taking on the issue. In 1990, it declined to represent the plaintiffs in the initial challenge to Hawaii's denial of marriage licenses to same-sex couples. It filed an amicus brief in that case at a later stage and another in Dean v. District of Columbia, its first advocacy for same-sex marriage.

Lambda Legal publishes the "Little Black Book", which contains information regarding the possible consequences of gay men "cruising" for sex in public places. The "Little Black Book" includes the following material: "If you cruise in parks, bathrooms or other spaces open to public view, trust your instincts, be aware of your surroundings – and know your rights. While Lambda Legal and other groups are fighting against the ways police target men who have sex with men, having sex where others might see you and take offense can subject you to arrest, publicity and other serious consequences. If you feel unsafe, you should leave." The "Little Black Book" goes on to advise as follows: "If you’re cruising for sex and an undercover cop hits on you, what you do can still be a crime."

In July 2012, Lambda founder Bill Thom was interviewed at his nursing home in Manhattan, and gave a first-hand account of the early years of Lambda Legal. This resulted in a letter from the current co-chair of Lambda Legal to Bill Thom dated September 25, 2012, in which he says "The world is a vastly better place for LGBT people than when I started practice 20 years ago and is almost unrecognizable from the world in which you took on the heroic and unprecedented task of fighting back."

Represented by Lambda Legal, Immigration Equality and law firm Morgan Lewis & Bockius, in October 2020, the United States Department of State withdrew its appeal of the verdict in Kiviti v. Pompeo, and declined to appeal Mize-Gregg v. Pompeo. Federal district courts ruled the State Department's refusal to recognize children born overseas to married same-sex, American citizen couples as U.S. citizens to be unlawful in both cases.

Following a 2017 Trump administration presidential order to ban transgender troops from the US military, Lambda indicated that they would be taking action to challenge the legality of the order. The order was blocked by courts until the Supreme Court allowed it to go into effect in January 2019, but was reversed two years later by executive order of President Biden, less than a week after his inauguration in January 2021.

In May 2022, Lambda Legal launched the first episode of its new podcast, "Making the Case," hosted by Alex Berg. Listeners will have the opportunity to learn more about the creative strategies, unique challenges, and passion that helped win some of the most significant cases for the LGBTQ+ community and people living with HIV in recent memory.

Attorneys and legal department
The legal department at Lambda Legal consists of a broad array of grassroots activists, corporate attorneys, Help Desk staff, and administrative professionals committed to achieving the full recognition of the civil rights of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) people and people living with HIV:

Jenny Pizer, Chief Legal Officer and the Eden/Rushing Chair for Lambda Legal:

As Chief Legal Officer, Jenny Pizer leads Lambda Legal's department of over 20 attorneys, 11 paraprofessionals, and five dozen impact litigation cases across the United States.

Pizer first joined Lambda Legal's staff in 1986 as an intern while attending New York University School of Law. Pizer co-counseled the litigation that legalized marriage between same-sex couples in California on May 15, 2008, in re Marriage Cases. On August 18 of that same year, Pizer won a unanimous California Supreme Court victory in ''N. Coast Women's Care Med. v. S.C'' on behalf of Guadalupe Benitez, a lesbian denied infertility due to the discriminatory religious objections brought forth by her doctor.

She clerked for the honorable Ann Aldrich of the U.S. District Court for the Northern District of Ohio, received her J.D. from New York University School of Law and her Bachelor of Arts from Harvard College.

Public education
As a part of Lambda Legal's education component, the organization periodically publishes articles, playbooks, and surveys to educate the general public and influence public policy on issues facing the LGBTQ+ community and people living with HIV.

On April 20, 2023, Lambda Legal partnered with the non-profit organizations Black and Pink National, and Strength in Numbers Consulting Group to publish the ''Protected & Served? 2022 Report''. The report is a data-quantitative information of personal stories conducted across over 2,500 LGBTQ+ people and people living with HIV capturing their experiences with misconduct involving police, courts, prisons, jails, schools, and other government agencies.

title: Lambda Legal


text:
Lari (bird)

The suborder Lari is the part of the order Charadriiformes that includes the gulls, terns, skuas and skimmers; the rest of the order is made up of the waders and snipes. The auks are now placed into the Lari too, following recent research. Sometimes, the buttonquails are also placed here, but the molecular data and fossil record rather suggests they are a quite basal offshoot along with the snipe-like and aberrant waders.

The larids are generally larger species that take fish from the sea. Several gulls and skuas will also take food items from beaches, or rob smaller species, and some have become adapted to inland environments.

The suborder Lari includes five to six families: and sometimes:
 * Family Dromadidae – crab-plover
 * Family Glareolidae – coursers, pratincoles (17 species)
 * Family Laridae – gulls, terns, skimmers (103 species)
 * Family Stercorariidae – skuas (7 species)
 * Family Alcidae – auks (25 species)
 * Family Turnicidae – buttonquails (18 species)

title: Lari (bird)


text:
New York Supreme Court

The Supreme Court of the State of New York is the trial-level court of general jurisdiction in the judiciary of New York. It is vested with unlimited civil and criminal jurisdiction, although in many counties outside New York City it acts primarily as a court of civil jurisdiction, with most criminal matters handled in County Court.

Unlike all other states, New York is the only state where the Supreme Court is a trial court rather than a court of last resort which is the Court of Appeals. Also, although it is a trial court, the Supreme Court sits as a "single great tribunal of general state-wide jurisdiction, rather than an aggregation of separate courts sitting in the several counties or judicial districts of the state." The Supreme Court is established in each of New York's 62 counties.

A separate branch of the Supreme Court called the Appellate Division serves as the highest intermediate appellate court in New York.

Jurisdiction

Under the New York State Constitution, the New York State Supreme Court has unlimited jurisdiction in both civil and criminal cases, with the exception of certain monetary claims against the State of New York itself. In practice, the Supreme Court hears civil actions involving claims above a certain monetary amount (for example, $50,000 in New York City) that puts the claim beyond the jurisdiction of lower courts. Civil actions about lesser sums are heard by courts of limited jurisdiction, such as the New York City Civil Court, or the County Court, District Court, city courts, or justice courts (town and village courts) outside New York City.

The Supreme Court also hears civil cases involving claims for equitable relief, such as injunctions, specific performance, or rescission of a contract, as well as actions for a declaratory judgment. The Supreme Court also has exclusive jurisdiction of matrimonial actions, such as either contested or uncontested actions for a divorce or annulment. The court also has exclusive jurisdiction over "Article 78 proceedings" against a body or officer seeking to overturn an official determination on the grounds that it was arbitrary, capricious and unreasonable or contrary to law.

At English Common Law, the lord chancellor, not as a part of his equitable jurisdiction, but as the king's delegate to exercise the Crown's special jurisdiction, had responsibility for the custody and protection of infants and the mentally incapacitated. Upon the organization of the Supreme Court in New York the Legislature transferred so much of the law as formed a part of the king's prerogative to it. The Appellate Divisions of the Supreme Court are responsible for oversight of the related programs.

With respect to criminal cases, the Criminal Branch of Supreme Court tries felony cases in the five counties of New York City, whereas they are primarily heard by the County Court elsewhere. Misdemeanor cases, and arraignments in almost all cases, are handled by lower courts: the New York City Criminal Court; the District Court in Nassau County and the five western towns of Suffolk County; city courts; and justice courts.

The Commercial Division
In 1993, Administrative Judge Stanley S. Ostrau established pilot Commercial Parts in the New York County Supreme Court. Two years later, Chief Judge Judith S. Kaye established a trial level Commercial Division, beginning in New York County (Manhattan) and Monroe County (the 7th Judicial District ). The Commercial Division has expanded to the 8th District (located in Buffalo), and the Albany, Bronx, Kings, Nassau, Onondaga, Queens, Suffolk and Westchester County Supreme Courts. These are specialized business courts, with a defined jurisdiction focusing on business and commercial litigation. The jurisdictional amount in controversy required to have a case heard in the Commercial Division varies among these Commercial Division courts, ranging from $50,000 in Albany and Onondaga Counties to $500,000 in New York County, but the Commercial Division rules (Section 202.70) are otherwise uniform.

The first specialist commercial judges assigned to the pilot Commercial Parts in 1993 were Justices Ira Gammerman, Myriam Altman, Herman Cahn, and Beatrice Shainswit. Among other long serving Commercial Division Justices, these judges served at least a decade: Justice Cahn continued on as a Commercial Division judge in Manhattan from 1995 until 2008, Justice Charles Ramos served as a Commercial Division judge in Manhattan from 1996-2018, Justice Elizabeth Hazlitt Emerson served in the Suffolk County Commercial Division from 2002-2023, Justice Carolyn E. Demerest served in the Brooklyn, Kings County Commercial Division from its inception in 2002 through 2016, Justice Deborah Karalunas presided in the Onondaga County (Syracuse) Commercial Division from its inception in 2007 for over 15 years, Justice Timothy S. Driscoll has served in the Nassau County Commercial Division since 2009 (as of May 2024), and Justice Thomas A. Stander served in the Monroe County Commercial Division from its inception for ten years. One constant throughout the Commercial Division history has been the involvement of New York attorney Robert L. Haig, who, among other things, co-chaired the 1995 Commercial Courts Task Force, facilitated the 2006 Commercial Division Focus Group study, and has chaired the Commercial Division Advisory Council since 2013 (through at least May 2024).

Appellate Division

Appeals from Supreme Court decisions, as well as from the Surrogate's Court, Family Court, and Court of Claims, are heard by the New York Supreme Court, Appellate Division. This court is intermediate between the New York Supreme Court and the New York Court of Appeals.

There is one Appellate Division, which for administrative purposes comprises four judicial departments.

Decisions of the Appellate Division department panels are binding on the lower courts in that department, and also on lower courts in other departments unless there is contrary authority from the Appellate Division of that department.

Appellate terms
The Appellate Division of the Supreme Court in each judicial department is authorized to establish "appellate terms". An appellate term is an intermediate appellate court that hears appeals from the inferior courts within their designated counties or judicial districts, and are intended to ease the workload on the Appellate Division and provide a less expensive forum closer to the people.

Appellate terms are located in the 1st and 2nd Judicial Departments only, representing Downstate New York. These hear appeals from the New York City Civil Court, New York City Criminal Court, City Courts in the 1st and 2nd Departments, and District Court. (City Courts in other departments appeal to the County Courts instead.)

The 1st Department has a single Appellate Term covering Manhattan and The Bronx. The 2nd Department has two Appellate Terms. The Appellate Term for the 2nd, 11th and 13th Judicial Districts covers Brooklyn, Queens, and Staten Island, and generally sits at 141 Livingston Street in Brooklyn. The Appellate Term for the 9th and 10th Judicial Districts covers Nassau, Suffolk, Westchester, Rockland, Orange, Dutchess, and Putnam Counties; it generally rotates between the Westchester County Courthouse in White Plains, the Nassau County Supreme Court Building in Mineola, and the Cohalan Court Complex in Central Islip. They occasionally sit at other locations within their jurisdiction.

Appellate terms consist of between three and five justices of the Supreme Court, appointed by the Chief Administrative Judge with the approval of presiding justice of the appropriate appellate division. The court sits in three-judge panels, with two justices constituting a quorum and being necessary for a decision. Decisions by the Appellate Term must be followed by courts whose appeals lie to it.

Criminal terms
In New York City, all felony cases are heard in criminal terms.

The Criminal Term of the Supreme Court, New York County is divided into 2 Trial Assignment parts, 10 conference and trial parts, 1 youth part, 1 narcotics/felony waiver part, 1 integrated domestic violence part, and 16 trial parts which include 1 Judicial Diversion part, 1 Mental Health part, 1 Veteran's Court part, and 1 JHO part.

Civil terms
In New York City, all major civil cases are heard in civil terms.

Administration

The court system is divided into thirteen judicial districts: seven upstate districts each comprising between five and eleven counties, five districts corresponding to the boroughs of New York City, and one district on Long Island. In each judicial district outside New York City, an Administrator (or Administrative Judge if a judge) is responsible for supervising all courts and agencies, while inside New York City an Administrator (or Administrative Judge) supervises each major court. Administrators are assisted by Supervising Judges who are responsible in the on-site management of the trial courts, including court caseloads, personnel, and budget administration, and each manage a particular type of court within a county or judicial district. The Administrator is also assisted by the District Executive and support staff. The district administrative offices are responsible for personnel, purchasing, budgets, revenue, computer automation, court interpreters, court security, and case management. Opinions of the New York trial courts are published selectively in the Miscellaneous Reports.

Judges
A judge of the New York Supreme Court is titled a justice.

Number of justices and assignments
The number of justices of the Supreme Court in each New York Supreme Court judicial district (including justices assigned to the Appellate Division) is set forth by the New York State Constitution. Once a decade, the state Legislature may increase the number of justices in any judicial district, but Article VI of the state Constitution sets a population-based cap on the number of justices in each district, based on census data. As a result of the population-based cap, some areas have overloaded courts. New York City has a cap of 171 justices (and only some of the New York Supreme Court justices in New York City serve in trial parts, with others assigned to the Appellate Division or the Appellate Term). As a result, New York City has too few judges to handle New York City's caseload, which is more than 100,000 cases annually; the population-based formula in the state Constitution does not account for the millions of non-resident workers and visitors in the city, nor the 315,000 business associations that operate in the city. Elected New York Supreme Court justices can be moved or temporarily reassigned anywhere in the state, although typically such moves or reassignments are within the judge's judicial district.

To address the imbalance, the New York court system designates other courts' judges (such as those sitting on the lower-level New York City Civil Court, New York City Criminal Court, and New York City Family Court, as well as the statewide New York Court of Claims) as "acting" Supreme Court justices to serve on the New York Supreme Court in New York City. A similar practice is done in the 9th Judicial District (which covers the New York suburban counties of Orange, Dutchess, Westchester, Rockland and Putnam), in which County and Family Court judges have been designated as acting Supreme Court justices, serving part-time on that court. However, this practice also strains the resources of the courts that "lend" justices to the Supreme Court.

Elections and terms
Supreme Court justices are elected to 14-year terms. Justices are nominated by judicial district nominating conventions, with judicial delegates themselves elected from assembly districts. Some (political party) county committees play a significant role in their judicial district conventions, for example restricting nomination to those candidates that receive approval from a party screening committee. Sometimes, the parties cross-endorse each other's candidates, while at other times they do not and incumbent judges must actively campaign for re-election. Judicial conventions have been criticized as opaque, brief and dominated by county party leaders. In practice, most of the power of selecting justices belongs to local political party organizations, such as the Kings County Democratic County Committee (Brooklyn Democratic Party), which control the delegates. The process was challenged in litigation which ultimately resulted in a U.S. Supreme Court decision in N.Y. State Board of Elections v. Lopez Torres (2008), in which the justices unanimously upheld the constitutionality of New York's judicial election system.

Mandatory retirement age
Under state law, New York Supreme Court justices have a mandatory retirement age: a justice's term ends, even if his or her 14-year term has not yet expired, at the end of the calendar year in which the justice reaches the age of 70. However, an elected Supreme Court Justice may apply for a "certification" from the Office of Court Administration (OCA) to continue in office, without having to be re-elected, for three two-year periods, until final retirement at the end of the year in which the Justice turns 76. A judge applying for certification to continue to serve must pass cognitive tests, but OCA is not required to grant certification even if judges are capable. In 2020, for example, OCA denied certification to 46 of the 49 judges who applied for it, citing budget cuts and a hiring freeze.

These additional six years of service are available only for elected Supreme Court Justices, not for "Acting" Justices whose election or appointments were to lower courts.

A referendum to increase the retirement age to 80 for Supreme Court and Court of Appeals judges was defeated by New York voters in 2013.

Notable justices

 * George Pierce Andrews
 * George G. Barnard
 * Richard J. Bartlett
 * Benjamin N. Cardozo
 * John Carro
 * Richard J. Daronco
 * Noah Davis
 * Arthur Engoron
 * Gerald Garson
 * Jasper W. Gilbert
 * James Kent
 * Barry Kramer
 * Irving Lehman
 * Samuel Leibowitz
 * Edmund H. Lewis
 * Henry Brockholst Livingston
 * Joseph Lorigo
 * Jeremiah T. Mahoney
 * Juan Merchan
 * Levinus Monson
 * Daniel D. Tompkins
 * Sol Wachtler
 * Robert F. Wagner
 * Raymond Walter

History

The New York Supreme Court is the oldest Supreme Court with general original jurisdiction. It was established as the Supreme Court of Judicature by the Province of New York on May 6, 1691. That court was continued by the State of New York after independence was declared in 1776. It became the New York Supreme Court under the New York Constitutional Convention of 1846.

In November 2004, the court system merged the operations of two separate criminal courts—the Bronx County Criminal Court and the Criminal Term of Bronx County Supreme Court—into a single trial court of criminal jurisdiction known as the Bronx Criminal Division.

title: New York Supreme Court


text:
Talk:Project Sugita Genpaku

Untitled
Name of the project is "Sugita Genpaku" while scholar after whom the project is named is "Sugita Ganpaku". Could comeone check which spelling is correct? This is important as his name is link, so someone might create article with wrong name. Nikola 08:46 11 Jul 2003 (UTC)

"translate any text without permission if there is no copyright trouble"... this is not very clear. Someone who can read Japanese should visit the homepage sometime, then come back and rewrite that sentence more clearly.

title: Talk:Project Sugita Genpaku