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Talk:Dutch Golden Age

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Culture section
Hello Erik,

Great article, but I have one small qualm with it: the article mixes subjects that were of a profound influence to the rest of the world with local, parochial things. Surely, Van den Vondel, no matter how great a writer he was, was not a writer of world fame. Everybody, however, still knows Rembrandt van Rijn. This is not to say that there is no place for Van den Vondel, or for Dutch writing during the Golden Age, but I don't think these subjects are central to the current topic.

To put it more cynically: isn't it remarkable how bad and underdeveloped Dutch literature was during the Golden Age, given the amount of other cultural aspects in the Northern Low Countries were blooming during those days? branko

 * Hi Branko, I do agree that Dutch literature is a lesser topic from a world perspective. The small paragraph dealing with the subject shows this. The same goes for sculpture and music, all small sections and at the bottom of the article. I would say that pariochial is a bit of an overstatement. Surely the mentioned writers are still well known names for most learned Dutch people, and shed a bit of light on the era under discussion, which had everything to do with an exceptional intellectual climate, to which they probably will have contributed. In my opinion, someone who really wants to know about the Dutch Golden Age and reads the whole article, deserves to hear their names at least once, they will show up in other contexts and books about the subject. Erik Zachte 23:51 13 Jul 2003 (UTC)

End of the Golden Age
It's a great article, but shouldn't it contain a paragraph about the ending of the Golden Age by the corruption in the VOC? Gemertp 08:14, 19 December 2005 (UTC)
 * Agreed. The Dutch version has a section about the end of the Golden Age, but unfortunately that doesn't cite any sources. -- MiG (talk) 16:28, 11 July 2008 (UTC)

 * Just checking in to say that almost nine years after the original comment, the article is still excellent, yet still lacks this section which is required based on the fact that we no longer live in the Dutch Golden Age.

A reference
Here I go plugging my own site again (it's highly relevant :) If anyone is less lazy than I, go look at http://eh.net/encyclopedia/Harreld.Dutch.php and see about adding some information aboud the Dutch economy during the Golden Age. - Fennec (はさばくのきつね) 23:46, 13 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Simon Stevin
Simon Stevin was not Dutch, and published his important works before 1600. Should he even be in this article? Piet 09:18, 30 January 2006 (UTC)

Certainly Simon Stevin would have considered himself Dutch, and - apart from his scientific work - he played his role in politics and public life early in the Dutch Golden Age. He was advisor of Prince Maurice and director of the (still existing) Dutch department of Waterstaat. He was from Bruges, Flanders. In his age Flanders was part of the Southern Netherlands, an integral and important part of the Dutch Republic, which covered present day's Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg and small parts of Germany and France. You're right, today Bruges is located in Belgium, but Belgium did not exist until 1831. Jaho 01:08, 11 August 2006 (UTC)

Culture section
I've moved a few pieces around, so culture is now one section. Problem is that the "Painting" subsection is now too complex. It is rightfully the most extensive section but I think it is too long for in this general article. I propose a new article is created for "Dutch Golden Age, Painting", in which case the subsection can be shortened here and expanded in the new article. Piet 10:28, 31 January 2006 (UTC)

 * Yes! Title it "Dutch Golden Age painting". >>sparkit|TALK<< 13:52, 31 January 2006 (UTC)

Here it is. Piet 15:16, 31 January 2006 (UTC)

And now the painting section is gone. I hope I didn't kill any information in the process. Probably some changes in the text will be necessary, I will reread but undoubtably forget some things. Piet 16:22, 31 January 2006 (UTC) no — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2601:19B:701:C670:DC94:FF9:F300:236E (talk) 01:30, 3 October 2019 (UTC)

Dutch Slave trade
I’ve added a section on how Dutch wealth during the “golden period” came partly from their extensive slaving. For references and for those interested in the appalling human cost of the Dutch wealth, se the following links: --Stor stark7 Talk 15:53, 8 August 2006 (UTC)
 * The forgotten history of the slave trade
 * Slave Routes Netherlands
 * "The World's Oldest Trade": Dutch Slavery and Slave Trade in the Indian Ocean in the Seventeenth Century*

The reason why the slave trade information is left out is because most of the supposed Dutch slave traders were actually jews who had moved from spain to the netherlands.

This section needs to go back into the article. Bram Jacobs (talk) 09:06, 15 August 2019 (UTC)

Why 1584?
Why is 1584 used as the beginning of the Dutch "Golden Age"? William the silent was assassinated that year, but I can't think of any other major marker. Wouldn't something like the 1581 Oath of Abjuration make more sense? --Stomme (talk) 07:36, 18 March 2008 (UTC)

 * I had the same question. The first sentence says 1584 - 1702, but these years are not mentioned anywhere else in the article. Those dates were added in 2006 without explanation (diff). I don't think that there a generally accepted definition exist, so I removed the years. The phrase "roughly the seventeenth century" should be enough. -- Jitse Niesen (talk) 13:58, 26 March 2008 (UTC)

What about the form of government?
There seems to be no information about how this Republic functioned. It was in search of such information that I came to this article. --Janice Vian, Ph.D. (talk) 03:02, 20 January 2010 (UTC)
 * Why here? Dutch Republic is the place to start. Johnbod (talk) 03:32, 20 January 2010 (UTC)

Tolerance
rm

since nobody in fact does seem to want to discuss or supply refs for this common knowledge summary. 72.228.150.44 (talk) 01:03, 16 August 2008 (UTC)

 * FTR, IIRC, the real problem with that section is timeframe. Seems to refer to a national characteristic as having been preexisting during the period of its formation. 72.228.150.44 (talk) 15:16, 16 August 2008 (UTC)
 * Yes, plus it should explain the actual restrictions on religious minorities during the period. The section as it is, effectively free of facts, would probably be better removed until it is improved. Johnbod (talk) 15:46, 16 August 2008 (UTC)

 * Done. Here is a clean up: "Toleration The Dutch were internationally oriented even before this period. This may at least partially explain the development of Toleration as a hallmark of the national character, i.e.attributing it to their dependence on international commerce and good foreign relations. This national trait may in return have been particularly applied to toleration towards minority views and interests. It can also be said that the Reformation had contributed to this mild attitude towards dissenters. Protestants stressed the importance of each person's individual conscience in determining how to interpret the Bible, rejecting central dogmas and a fixed clerical hierarchy to enforce them. This almost proverbial Dutch tolerance (rather strong today, less so perhaps in the 17th century, cf. also religion below) made it easy for foreigners to travel or even immigrate (often as refugees) to the Netherlands. Thus some Dutch cities became to some extent a 'melting pot'. Jews from Portugal and Belgium fled the zealots of the Spanish inquisition and philosophers like Baruch Spinoza and René Descartes published their most famous works first in the Netherlands." 72.228.150.44 (talk) 16:29, 16 August 2008 (UTC)
 * That's better, but the information in the religion section is more factual and covers nearly all these points. Perhaps addition of some of these points to that section would be best. Johnbod (talk) 16:37, 16 August 2008 (UTC)

 * Yeah, and still retains some weasel lingo. Too bad we can't just say "They rocksorz teh Toleranz!" 72.228.150.44 (talk) 17:32, 16 August 2008 (UTC)

Sephardi jews involvement in the "dutch" slave trade
I added that the sephardi jews, who moved to the netherlands because of the spanish inquisition, were the people who brought the african slave trade to the netherlands. Do to the fact that historians have no evidence that any ethnic germanic dutch person was a slave trader or slave owner while there is alot of evidence that sephardi jews who lived in spain were involved in the african slave trade it is not to hard to see that sephardi jews who moved to the netherlands would have brought african slave tradeing with them.

If wikipedia is going to blame the netherlands for the african slave trade wikipedia has to prove that it was actually ethnic germanic dutch people who were the instigators of the "dutch" slave not a group non-germanic people who moved to the netherlands and brought the african slave trade with them. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 12.160.141.90 (talk) 17:24, 8 June 2010 (UTC)

 * What nonsense! No wonder no-one has considered it worth a reply.Leutha (talk) 09:36, 5 October 2020 (UTC)

Japan
During the 16th century, traders and Jesuit missionaries from Portugal reached Japan for the first time, initiating direct commercial and cultural exchange between Japan and the West. Oda Nobunaga conquered many other daimyo using European technology and firearms; after he was assassinated in 1582, his successor Toyotomi Hideyoshi unified the nation in 1590. Hideyoshi invaded Korea twice, but following defeats by Korean and Ming Chinese forces and Hideyoshi's death, Japanese troops were withdrawn in 1598.[34] This age is called Azuchi–Momoyama period (1573–1603). Tokugawa Ieyasu served as regent for Hideyoshi's son and used his position to gain political and military support. When open war broke out, he defeated rival clans in the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600. Ieyasu was appointed shogun in 1603 and established the Tokugawa shogunate at Edo (modern Tokyo).[35] The Tokugawa shogunate enacted measures including buke shohatto, as a code of conduct to control the autonomous daimyo;[36] and in 1639, the isolationist sakoku ("closed country") policy that spanned the two and a half centuries of tenuous political unity known as the Edo period (1603–1868).[37] The study of Western sciences, known as rangaku, continued through contact with the Dutch enclave at Dejima in Nagasaki. The Edo period also gave rise to kokugaku ("national studies"), the study of Japan by the Japanese.[38]

Why was all this information ignored? The first contact with the Western culture was made with the Portuguese traders, the Dutch attacked the Portuguese and gained control of their concessions. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 85.240.135.159 (talk) 03:20, 4 October 2013 (UTC)

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Dutch involvement in slave trade
I'd like to preface this by saying I am myself a Dutch person. I think it's completely appalling that there's ZERO mention of the Netherlands' involvement in international slave trade, and also the comments in the discussion page saying the community should first "prove" that it was the "ethnically Germanic" Dutch people who were involved in slave trade. This should be fixed ASAP. This is disgusting. — Preceding unsigned comment added by ThoracicTrack58 (talk • contribs) 15:42, 18 December 2017 (UTC)

Agreed. It's a shame to see how it's callously omitted. Furthermore, it was not only Sephardic Jews who were involved. Bram Jacobs (talk) 09:02, 15 August 2019 (UTC)

Article seems to be written to glorify the Netherlands, rather than to accurately depict history
The article is problematic in that it does not even mention the slave trade or the crimes of the VOC. The slave trade brought huge investments to the Dutch stock market and was a very profitable enterprise. It is a highly relevant part of the Dutch Golden Age, but this article clearly wants to bury this fact. The article uncritically uses the word 'trade' for what was a de facto exploitation of powerless territories under colonial oppression. The explanation of the 'protestant work ethic' is only taken serious by other protestants and few secular scholars would agree with the weight given to this dimension. What was important about protestantism was that it allowed usury, laying the foundation for modern day capitalism. In general, this article is uncritical, unreflecting and written from a eurocentric world view that sees everything as auxiliary and expendable except itself. It is an anti-historical horror piece. Bram Jacobs (talk) 13:45, 14 August 2019 (UTC)

Amsterdam Museum announces that it stops using using the 'Golden Age' term
In Dutch news today: Amsterdam Museum (not a minor one; for instance it's the collection holder of The Night Watch) announces that it stops using the term 'Golden Age' (article 1 - opinion piece by the museum's dirctors and staff) (article 2 - context piece by newspaper reporter). Translating a key paragraph in the opinion piece: 'In Western historiography, the 'Golden Age' has a prominent position, strongly connected to national pride. However, positive connotations of the term, such as prosperity, peace, wealth and innocence, don't cover the historical reality of this era. Think of poverty, war, forced labor, and human trafficking, in a context in which Amsterdam ruled over various overseas occupied territories.' Spinster (talk) 05:22, 13 September 2019 (UTC)

=> I think this could give substance to a 'controversy' section. It has stirred some commotion in Belgian media too with responses from right-wing politicians Rutte in the Netherlands and De Wever in Belgium, with others (Johan Lievens) defending the decision of the museum. Bram Jacobs (talk) 13:19, 16 September 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Dutch Golden Age


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Friuli-Venezia Giulia

Friuli-Venezia Giulia is one of the 20 regions of Italy and one of five autonomous regions with special statute. The regional capital is Trieste on the Gulf of Trieste, a bay of the Adriatic Sea.

Friuli-Venezia Giulia has an area of 7,924 km2 and about 1.2 million inhabitants. A natural opening to the sea for many central European countries, the region is traversed by the major transport routes between the east and west of Southern Europe. It encompasses the historical-geographical region of Friuli and a small portion of the historical region of Venezia Giulia – also known in English as the Julian March – each with its own distinct history, traditions and identity.

Name
Friuli comes from the Latin term Forum Julii ("Julius' forum"), a center for commerce in the Roman times, which today corresponds to the city of Cividale. The denomination Venezia Giulia ("Julian Venetia", not referring to the city of Venice but to the Roman province of Venetia et Histria) was proposed by the Italian linguist Graziadio Isaia Ascoli, with the intention of marking the Italian cultural spirit of the area.

History

In Roman times, modern Friuli-Venezia Giulia was located within Regio X Venetia et Histria of Roman Italy. The traces of its Roman origin are visible all over the area. In fact, the city of Aquileia, founded in 181 BC, served as the regional capital and rose to prominence in the Augustan era.

Following the Lombard settlements in the 6th century, the historical paths of Friuli and Venezia Giulia began to diverge. In 568, Cividale del Friuli (the Roman Forum Iulii (from which the name Friuli is derived)) became the capital of the first Lombard dukedom in Italy. In the 6th century, the Alpine Slavs, ancestors of present-day Slovenes, settled the eastern areas of the region. They settled in the easternmost mountainous areas of Friuli known as the Friulian Slavia, as well as in the Karst Plateau and in the area north and south of Gorizia. In the 12th and 13th centuries, they also moved closer to Trieste.

In 774 Charlemagne conquered Lombard Italy and absorbed it into Francia (the Frankish Empire from 800), with the Lombard Duke of Friuli replaced by a Frankish one. In 787 Charlemagne established a new patriarch at Aquileia. The duchy was dissolved in 828 and partitioned into smaller counties. In 843 the Empire was partitioned in the Treaty of Verdun placing Friuli at the frontier between Middle Francia (later the Kingdom of Italy) and East Francia (later the Kingdom of Germany) and in 846 the former duchy was reconstituted as the March of Friuli. In 961 Otto the Great of Germany took control of Italy and established the Holy Roman Empire. In 1077, the Holy Roman Emperor recognized the territorial powers of the Patriarchate of Aquileia that temporarily extended its rule to areas to the east; however, by the 12th century the County of Gorizia had become independent. Trieste developed into the Imperial Free City of Trieste. The coastal territory between Gorizia and Trieste was controlled by the March of Carniola (Duchy of Carniola from 1364).

Friuli became Venetian territory in 1420; Trieste and Gorizia, which remained within the Holy Roman Empire, came under Habsburg (Austrian) dominance in 1382 and 1500 respectively. The Venetian fortress of Gradisca d'Isonzo was retaken by the Empire in 1511 and incorporated into Gorizia but Monfalcone to the south remained an effective Venetian exclave. Pordenone was a "corpus separatum", under Austrian influence until 1515, when it fell to Venetian rule. Gradisca was separated from Gorizia in 1647 but were reunited in 1754 to form the Princely County of Gorizia and Gradisca.

With the 1797 Treaty of Campo Formio, Venetian domination came to an end and Friuli was ceded to the Habsburg Monarchy (formally part of the Austrian Empire from 1804); however, Austria was forced to cede it to the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy in the 1805 Peace of Pressburg, along with the parts of the County of Gorizia and Gradisca west of the Isonzo (the boundary was formalized in the 1807 Treaty of Fontainebleau). Trieste and Gorizia were then also ceded to the Napoleonic Illyrian Provinces in the 1809 Treaty of Schönbrunn.

In 1815, following the end of the Napoleonic Wars, the Congress of Vienna returned the area to Austria: Friuli was included in the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, while Gorizia and Trieste were assigned to the Kingdom of Illyria (both crown lands of the Austrian Empire), with the boundary roughly following the former Imperial-Venetian border. In 1849 Illyria was abolished and Gorizia and Trieste both became part of the Austrian Littoral crown land, along with Istria and several islands in the Kvarner Gulf.

Under the enlightened government and policies set by the Austrian Empire and continued by the Austrian-Hungarian Empire in the 18th and 19th centuries, Trieste flourished, reaching an extraordinary economic development as the main harbor of the Habsburg empire. The Third Italian War of Independence led to the annexation of Lombardy-Venetia, including Friuli, to the Kingdom of Italy, while the Littoral remained in Austrian hands.

During the First World War, the region was a prominent theatre for military operations and suffered serious damage and loss of lives. After the war, the former Littoral was annexed by Italy in the 1920 Treaty of Rapallo, although Venezia Giulia's borders were the subject of an international dispute.

The Second World War led to the creation of the Anglo-American Administration in Trieste until the border was defined in the 1954 Memorandum of London. After Trieste was reassigned to Italy, the Autonomous Region of Friuli-Venezia Giulia was finally established.

The region's name was Friuli-Venezia Giulia (hyphenated) until 2001, when the official spelling Friuli Venezia Giulia (without hyphen) was adopted following the modification of Article No.116 of the Italian Constitution. The term "Venezia Giulia" was coined by Graziadio Isaia Ascoli.

Geography
Friuli-Venezia Giulia is Italy's north-easternmost region. It covers an area of 7,858 km2 and is the fifth smallest region of the country. It borders Austria to the north and Slovenia to the east, the three countries meeting at the tripoint on the mountain of Dreiländereck, known as Monte Forno in Italian. To the south, it faces the Adriatic Sea and to the west the Veneto region.

The region spans a wide variety of climates and landscapes from the mild Oceanic in the south to Alpine continental in the north. The total area is subdivided into 42.5% mountainous-alpine terrain in the north, 19.3% is hilly, mostly to the southeast, while the remaining 38.2% comprises the central and coastal plains.

Morphologically the region can be subdivided into four main areas. The mountainous area in the north: this part of the region includes Carnia and the ending section of the Alps (Carnic Alps and Julian Alps), of which the highest peaks exceed 2,700 m above sea level (Jôf di Montasio 2,754 m). Its landscapes are characterised by vast pine forests and pastures, mountain lakes (e.g. Sauris, Fusine, and Barcis), and numerous streams and small rivers descending from the mountains.

The area is also known for its tourist destinations, especially during the winter season (Monte Zoncolan, Tarvisio, Sella Nevea, Forni di Sopra and Piancavallo). The hilly area is situated to the south of the mountains and along the central section of the border with Slovenia. The main product of agriculture in this area is wine, whose quality, especially the white, is known worldwide. The easternmost part of the hilly area is also known as Slavia Friulana, as it is mostly inhabited by ethnic Slovenes.

The central plains are characterized by poor, arid, and permeable soil. The soil has been made fertile with an extensive irrigation system and through the adoption of modern intensive farming techniques. In this part of the region, most of the agricultural activities are concentrated. The coastal area can be further subdivided into two, western-eastern, subsections separated by the river Isonzo's estuary.

To the west, the coast is shallow and sandy, with numerous tourist resorts and the lagoons of Grado and Marano Lagunare. To the east, the coastline rises into cliffs, where the Karst Plateau meets the Adriatic, all the way to Trieste and Muggia on the border with Slovenia. The Carso has geological features and phenomena such as hollows, cave networks, and underground rivers, which extend inland in the provinces of Trieste and Gorizia, with an altitude ranging between 300m and 600m.

The rivers of the region flow from the North and from Slovenia into the Adriatic. The two main rivers are the Tagliamento, which flows west–east in its upper part in the Carnic Alps and then bends into a north–south flow that separates the Julian Alps from Alpine foothills and the Isonzo (Slovenian: Soča) which flows from Slovenia into Italy. The Timavo is an underground river that flows for 38 km from Slovenia and resurfaces near its mouth north-west of Duino.

The region Friuli-Venezia Giulia has a temperate climate. However, due to the terrain's diversity, it varies considerably from one area to another. Walled by the Alps on its northern flank, the region is exposed to air masses from the East and the West. The region receives also the southerly Sirocco from the Adriatic Sea, which brings in heavy rainfall. Along the coast, the climate is mild and pleasant.

Trieste records the smallest temperature differences between winter and summer and between day and night. The climate is Alpine-continental in the mountainous areas, where, in some locations, the coldest winter temperatures in Italy can often be found. The Kras plateau has its own weather and climate, influenced, mostly during autumn and winter, by masses of cold air coming from the northeast. These generate a very special feature of the local climate: the north-easterly wind Bora, which descends onto the Gulf of Trieste with gusts occasionally exceeding speeds of 150 km/h.

Economy
The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the region was 38 billion euros in 2018, accounting for 2.2% of Italy's economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 31,200 euros or 103% of the EU27 average in the same year. The GDP per employee was 106% of the EU average.

The economy of Friuli-Venezia Giulia is one of Italy's most successful. Its core is based on small and middle-size enterprises (the so-called "North-East model"), on specialized farming and on high-quality tourism with a significant inclination towards exports.

Agriculture and farming maintain an essential role in the economy of the region and employed in 2001 around 95,000 persons. Its products are exported not only within the country and Europe (fruit and vegetables, cheese) but have become known worldwide for their acclaimed quality (cured ham and wines, especially white ones). Noteworthy is also the production of soy (third producer in Italy with more than 37,000 hectares cultivated in 2000) and timber production in Carnia.

The economy of the region is based on a widespread mosaic of small and medium-sized enterprises; of particular importance are the four industrial districts where a multitude of highly specialised enterprises are concentrated. These districts are centred around the towns of Manzano, San Daniele del Friuli (cured ham), Maniago (knives), and Brugnera (furniture). Several large enterprises are also present in the region in both the industry and services sectors. Some of these companies are world leaders in their relevant sectors; such are Fincantieri (headquarters in Trieste with shipyards in Monfalcone) for the construction of the world's largest cruise ships, Zanussi-Electrolux (Pordenone) in the production of electrical appliances, Danieli, Eurotech, Illy, Rizzani de Eccher, Solari di Udine, TBS Group, Banca Generali, Genertellife, Italia Marittima, Telit, Wärtsilä, Allianz Italia and Assicurazioni Generali in Trieste, a leading insurance company in the world.

In the services sector, the city of Trieste plays a leading role (with knock-on effects on the other provincial capitals); it is here that activities such as the regional government, large banking, and insurance companies are concentrated.

The unemployment rate stood at 5.7% in 2020.

Transport
With its commercial Free Port, Trieste also plays an essential role in the trade sector: special custom regulations ensure exclusive financial conditions to operators. The Port of Trieste is today the most important centre worldwide for the trade of coffee and plays a strategic key role in trade with northern and eastern Europe.

Although small in size, Friuli-Venezia Giulia has always been 'in the centre of Europe' and has played an important role in connecting Italy (and the Mediterranean) to Central and Eastern Europe. Its role will become even more strategic as a logistical platform with the imminent enlargement of the European Union. Hence the importance of the infrastructure network of the region, which can today be considered first-rate in quality and diversity. The motorway network consists of more than 200 km that runs from North to South and from West to East, connecting the region to Austria and Slovenia.

The railway network consists of around 500 km of track, with the two twin-line 'backbones' Venice-Trieste and Trieste-Udine-Tarvisio-Austria. The motorway and railway networks are linked to the ports of Trieste, Monfalcone, and Porto Nogaro, the three most northerly ports of the Mediterranean. Trieste, in particular, has a free port for goods since 1719. It is the Italian port with the greatest capacity for covered storage, with a surface area of more than 2 million square meters and 70 km of rail tracks. Intermodality is guaranteed by the Cervignano terminal, in operation since 1988, to serve the increasing commercial traffic between Italy and Eastern European countries.

The regional airport of Ronchi dei Legionari is situated 30 km from Trieste and 40 km from Udine and is closely connected to the motorway and railway networks. The airport offers regular national and international flights including destinations in Eastern Europe. The region is now placing much of its hopes for future economic development in the construction of a high-speed European Transport Corridor n° V connecting Lyon, Turin, Venice, Trieste, Ljubljana, Budapest, and Kiev, so as to improve the traffic of goods and services with new EU partners.

Tourism
Friuli-Venezia Giulia has many small and picturesque villages, 13 of them have been selected by I Borghi più belli d'Italia (The most beautiful Villages of Italy), a non-profit private association of small Italian towns of strong historical and artistic interest, that was founded on the initiative of the Tourism Council of the National Association of Italian Municipalities.

Demographics
Population density is lower than the national average: In 1978 there were in total only 1,224,611 inhabitants; in 2008 it was 157.5 inhabitants per km2 (compared to 198.8 for Italy as a whole). However, density varies from a minimum of 106 inhabitants per km2 in the province of Udine to a maximum of 1,144 inhabitants per km2 in the province of Trieste.

The negative natural balance in the region is partly made up by the positive net migration. To some extent the migratory surplus has in fact offset the downward trend in the population since 1975. In 2008, the resident population with foreign nationality registered in the region accounted to 83,306 persons (6.7% of the total population).

Government and politics

A special Italian statute of 31 January 1963 effective 16 February 1963 constituted Friuli-Venezia Giulia as an autonomous region within the Italian Republic.

The President of Regional Government is the region's head of government. Executive power is exercised by the Regional Government of Friuli-Venezia Giulia and legislative power is vested in both the government and the Regional Council. In the latest regional election, which took place on 4 March 2018, Massimiliano Fedriga of the Lega Nord Friuli-Venezia Giulia was elected president by a landslide.

Administrative divisions
Like most of the rest of Italy, Friuli-Venezia Giulia was previously divided into four provinces: Gorizia, Pordenone, Trieste and Udine. They were abolished on 30 September 2017, with the first three immediately ceasing activity, while the province of Udine remained active until 22 April 2018. In 2019, they were all reactivated as "regional decentralization entities" (Enti di decentramento regionale, or EDR) beginning on 1 July 2020.

In anticipation of this 2017 and 2018 abolition of the provinces in Friuli-Venezia Giulia, the Regional Council created a system of 18 Intermunicipal Territorial Unions (Unioni territoriali intercomunali, or UTI). The UTIs progressively took on the local services that the municipalities previously managed, extending across the larger area managed by each UTI, while also taking on some responsibilities previously managed by the provinces; this handling of "wide area local development policies" by the UTIs was conceived as a way allow more focused planning and budgeting for the 215 comuni, divided across the 18 UTIs, than would be possible on a region-wide basis by the Regional Council. However, activity of UTIs was discontinued after the reactivation of former provinces.

The Regional Council also passed a statute which allows, should it desire at some future point, for the establishment of the regional capital of Trieste – with smaller surrounding towns – as a metropolitan city administering wide area local development policies.

Regional decentralization entities
Until 2017–18, Friuli-Venezia Giulia was divided into four provinces. The Regional Council voted to abolish them effective 30 September 2017, though the provincial council of the largest, Udine, carried on some administrative responsibilities until 22 April 2018. They have again been active since 1 July 2020 under the administrative form of regional decentralization entities or EDRs.

Language
The official languages of the region are Italian, Friulian, Slovene and German.

Italian is the official national language. Friulian language is also spoken in most of the region – with a few exceptions, most notably Trieste and the area around Monfalcone and Grado, where a version of the Venetian language and Triestine dialect is spoken instead.

Venetian is also spoken in western part of the Province of Pordenone, and in the city of Pordenone itself, due to its proximity with the Veneto region. Friulian and Venetian are more common in the countryside, while standard Italian is the predominant language in the larger towns (Udine, Pordenone, Gorizia). The region is also home to Italy's Slovene-speaking minority.

Historical flag
A very popular symbol among the Friulian community (mostly identified with the friulian-speaking population in the provinces of Udine, Pordenone and Gorizia and the numerous expat communities around the world) is the Friulian Historical Flag, to which the official regional flag is roughly inspired, being somehow a modern interpretation of it. The official, modern "Friuli-Venezia Giulia" flag logo was issued in 1967–1968 (and adopted in 2001) to represent the region which in 1963 took the administrative setup of today. The historical symbol of the eagle dates back to (at least) the 13th century, the time of the Patriarchate of Aquileia.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Friuli-Venezia Giulia


text:
Westerkerk

The Westerkerk (Western Church) is a Reformed church within Dutch Protestant Calvinism in central Amsterdam, Netherlands. It lies in the most western part of the Grachtengordel neighborhood (Centrum borough), next to the Jordaan, between the Prinsengracht and Keizersgracht.

History

The Westerkerk was built between 1620 and 1631 in Renaissance style according to designs by architect Hendrick de Keyser. He is buried in the church he designed earlier: the Zuiderkerk. The building of the Westerkerk was finished and completed by his son Pieter de Keyser and inaugurated on June 8, 1631. The church has a length of 58 m and a width of 29 m. The high nave is flanked by the two lower aisles. The three-aisled basilica has a rectangular plan with two transepts of equal dimensions. As a result, the plan for this church was given the form of two Greek crosses connected with each other (a patriarchal cross).

Several older churches in Amsterdam, such as the Oude Kerk and Nieuwe Kerk, were originally built before the Reformation and were converted to Protestantism during the Reformation in 1578. The Westerkerk was one of the first purpose-built Protestant churches. The Noorderkerk and Zuiderkerk preceded the Westerkerk. Today the Westerkerk remains the largest church in the Netherlands that was built for Protestants, and is still in use by the PKN (Protestantse Kerk in Nederland)

Main Duyschot organ

There was no organ when the Westerkerk was consecrated on Pentecost Sunday, June 8, 1631, in accordance with Calvinistic belief at that time instrumental music in the church was considered profane. It took many years of deliberation until an organ was finally allowed. At first there was still talk of moving the small organ (koororgel) used in the Nieuwe Kerk or the Oude Kerk, but the pipes of the Oude Kerk choir organ were finally moved to the Zuiderkerk. In 1681 the Westerkerk decided to commission the organ builder Roelof Barentszn Duyschot for the construction of a new organ. Roelof Barentszn Duyschot died before the organ was completed. His son finished the commission in 1686. Later, in 1727, the console was enlarged with a third manuel by Christiaan Vater, who learned his profession through Arp Schnitger.

Many alterations were done on the organ in the course of time. In the 19th century in 1895 a rebuild of the inside of the organ took place by Daniel Gerard Steenkuyl. Many of the old pipes and the wind chests were re-used. In 1939, the keyboard was equipped with electric tracker action and a swell work was added. It was not what this organ was intended to be in sound and action. The organ was almost doubled in size, but was also too big for its case.

So between 1989 and 1992 the organ was reconstructed by Flentrop organ builders in Zaandam to its former mechanical action, again more or less like Christiaan Vater made it in 1727. Today the bovenwerk (Oberwerk, located in the top of the organ case) is still almost complete, with stops by Vater. An exception is the baarpyp, which is made by Steenkuyl in 1896 and the Dulciaan which is made by Flentrop in 1992. The front pipes were made in 1842 by Hermanus Knipscheer. The situation after 1992 was that less than half of the pipes are historic and re-used in the hoofdwerk (great organ) and the Rugwerk (choir organ). The manuals and stop triggers beside this mechanical baroque organ are located in the main case behind this rugwerk. For this kind of baroque organs, it is characteristic that many of the stops, mainly the principals, are doubled in the trebles. This was set up to create more power in leading the congregation in their psalm singing. For complex organ works one or even two stop assistants are necessary for triggering the stops. During the restoration of the inside of the church between 2018 and 2020, the inside of the organ was taken to Zaandam at Flentrop Orgelbouw for cleaning and partly revoicing the sound. In the spring of 2020 it was returned to the church. On 18 April the new organist Evan Bogerd performed the commissioning concert on the internet; the church was closed to visitors because of the coronavirus pandemic.

From April till the end of October, there is a free weekly lunchtime concert on Fridays or Saturdays at 1pm. In August there are free concerts almost every day for a week 'Geen dag zonder Bach' ('Not a day without Bach') and the Grachten (Canal) festival. A voluntary donation is asked at the end of the concert upon leaving the church. Music by Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750) is performed almost weekly at the services of divine worship on Sundays.

The organist titulaire in the Westerkerk is Evan Bogerd. -

Stoplist of the Duyschot organ
Couplers and shutters:
 * Shutters for all manuals and pedals.
 * Couplers: I/II, II/I, III/II, I/P, II/P, III/P
 * Td = Treble is doubled

The paintings of the organ

The inside of the organ shutters of the hoofdwerk was painted by Gerard de Lairesse. On the left panel we see the dancing and playing King David in front of the Ark of the Covenant. On the right panel we see the Queen of Sheba presenting gifts to King Solomon. Both stories in the book of Kings in the old testament of the Bible. Gerard de Lairesse was born in Liège in French Belgium in 1640 and he moved to Amsterdam in 1664. In the second half of the 17th century, he was one of the most popular painters in the Netherlands. At this moment, the shutters of the Duyschot organ can be seen on a retrospective of the work of Gerard de Lairesse at the National Museum Twente in Enschede. The outside paintings of these panels or shutters were lost in the 19th century when the church wanted to sell them. The grisailles on the rugwerk panels were also painted by Gerard de Lairesse; The four evangelists with their items are shown. The inside of the rugwerk shutters have paintings of old musical instruments. The complete organ was cleaned and re-painted in 1992 in its original state of colour in 1686; most of it in marble imitation.

Ds. A.H. Visser organ

The small organ on the east side of the church was built in 1963 by D.A. Flentrop from Zaandam. It was tuned and slightly altered in 2001. In that year it was named after the minister Ds. H.A Visser who was the man begging for money to buy the organ in 1963. He succeeded. The organ has 12 stops over 2 manuals and pedal. Since 1963 the organ case was in not painted but plain oak wood. After the renovation it was painted in a light green color. In 2017 the organ was cleaned by Flentrop Zaandam. During the church interior restoration it was packed against the dust.

Stoplist

 * Couplers: II/I, I/P, II/P

The tower with the spire

The tower, called the Westertoren ('western tower'), is the highest church tower in Amsterdam, at 87 meters (286 feet). It is not known who the designer of the spire was. Hendrick de Keyser designed an octagonal spire for the tower which was never built. It is suggested Jacob van Campen was the designer. The crown topping the spire is the Imperial Crown of Austria of Maximilian I. In 2006 the crown on top was painted in its original blue color.

Bells in the Westertoren
Just above the clock-faces is the carillon. The largest 14 of the 51 bells in this carillon were cast by François Hemony in 1658. The modern bells were cast in 1959 by Eijsbouts replacing bells which had been damaged by atmospheric pollution. In 1991 three bells more were added by the same foundery. The smaller Hemony bells, which are not currently In use, can be seen in the tower together with the original baton keyboard from the 17th century. The carillon was enlarged to four octaves and is tuned in meantone temperament. It is the only carillon in the city chiming the entire twenty-four hours (At the request of the residents of the Jordaan District). The drum to do this, was made by Jurriaen Spraeckel from Zutphen in 1659 and it still chimes every quarter of the hour to announce the hour and half hour strike. On the quarter of the hour a short tune is performed. The two strike bells were made by Assuerus (Ahasverus) Koster in 1636. The hour strike bell (F0) is the largest in Amsterdam (7509 kg) and is hung in the room for the carillon. The text on this Bourdon bell is: "VERBUM DOMINI MANET IN ETERNUM - ASSUERUS KOSTER ME FECIT AMSTELDAMI 1636" The smaller bell (A1) for half hour is hung in top of the spire just under the crown. Weekly on Tuesday at noon the city carillonneur gives his recital on the carillon for an hour. He is also responsible for the tunes on the drum and changes these twice a year. At this moment (2024) Boudewijn Zwart is the city carillonneur. A major restoration of the tower started in 2023 and will be completed in 2024. The bells also had to go to the foundry to allow for an improved design in the windows of the tower, as the bells have hung for centuries with hammers that hang on the outside. The second city carillonneur Gideon Bodden is the advisor for this work on the carillon. No changes are made to the bells. See above for the names and years

In a lower chamber behind the sounding boards in the tower wall there are three swinging bells also made by François Hemony in 1658. The largest swinging bell was replaced after 27 years by Claude Fremy (his pupil, nephew and successor), because it was cracked. The bells (a major triad) are rung to announce the divine service on Sunday and also when the service is on, during praying the 'Our Father'. This bell by Fremy is also connected with the pedals in the baton keyboard of the carillon.

Rembrandt

Rembrandt van Rijn was buried somewhere under a tombstone in the Westerkerk on October 8, 1669. The exact location of the grave is unknown; the number of his grave was lost. It was in a numbered kerkgraf (grave owned by the church). There is a memorial marker on the north wall, made in 1909 after a model on the Nachtwacht. After twenty years, his remains were taken away and destroyed. That was customary with the remains of poor people at that time. Rembrandt was buried as a poor man. Every year on his birthday anniversary, the 15th of July, he is remembered in the Westerkerk with a lunchtime concert with music from the time of Rembrandt's life, and flowers are hung on his memorial marker.

Rembrandt's lover Hendrickje Stoffels was also buried here, as was Rembrandt's son Titus van Rijn. Other painters buried in the Westerkerk are Nicolaes Berchem, Gillis d'Hondecoeter, Melchior d'Hondecoeter and Govert Flinck.

Dutch royal family

On March 10, 1966, Princess Beatrix married Prince Claus von Amsberg in the Westerkerk. The Nieuwe Kerk on Dam Square where royal weddings are usually held was being renovated at the time.

Anne Frank
The Westerkerk is located close to the Anne Frank House where diarist Anne Frank, her family and others were hid in the Achterhuis from Nazi persecution for two years during World War II. The Westertoren is mentioned frequently in her diary – its clock-face on the tower could be seen from the attic of the Achterhuis, and Anne Frank described the chiming of the carillon as a source of comfort. A memorial statue of Anne Frank is located outside the church at Westermarkt.

Burials

 * Nicolaes Pietersz. Berchem (1620–1683), painter
 * Jan Bicker (1591–1653), shipbuilder and merchant
 * Joan Blaeu (1596–1673), printer, publisher and cartographer
 * Steven Blankaart (1650–1704), physician and entomologist
 * Samuel Blommaert (1583–1651), merchant, director of the Dutch West India Company
 * Anthonie van Borssom (1631–1677), painter and draughtsman
 * Pieter de Carpentier (1586–1659), Governor-General of the Dutch East India Company, after whom the Gulf of Carpentaria in Australia is named
 * Frederick Coyett (1615/1620–1687), last Dutch governor of Dutch Formosa (present-day Taiwan)
 * Christoffel van Dijck (c. 1605–1669), typefounder, with his wife and son Abraham
 * Govert Flinck (1615–1660), painter
 * Johann Rudolph Glauber (1604–1670), German pharmacist and chemist
 * Pieter van Gunst (1658/9–1732), painter
 * Gillis d'Hondecoeter (ca. 1575–1638), painter
 * Melchior d'Hondecoeter (1636–1695), painter
 * Rembrandt van Rijn (1606/1607–1669), painter
 * Titus van Rijn son of Rembrandt (1641–1668)
 * Hendrickje Stoffels mistress of Rembrandt (1626–1663)
 * Albertus Seba (1665–1736), pharmacist and collactor
 * Jacques Specx (1585–1652), merchant who established the Dutch trade with Japan and Korea
 * Isaak Tirion (1705–1765), book trader and publisher
 * Hendrick van Uylenburgh (ca. 1587–1661), art trader

Notable people

 * Cristina Pumplun, missionary vicar

title: Westerkerk


text:
Citroën DS

The Citroën DS is a front mid-engined, front-wheel drive executive car manufactured and marketed by Citroën from 1955 to 1975, in fastback/sedan, wagon/estate, and convertible body configurations, across three series of one generation.

Marketed with a less expensive variant, the Citroën ID, the DS was known for its aerodynamic, futuristic body design; unorthodox, quirky, and innovative technology, and it set new standards in ride quality, handling, and braking, thanks to both being the first mass production car equipped with hydropneumatic suspension, as well as disc brakes. The 1967 series 3 also introduced directional headlights to a mass-produced car.

Italian sculptor and industrial designer Flaminio Bertoni and the French aeronautical engineer André Lefèbvre styled and engineered the car, and Paul Magès developed the hydropneumatic self-levelling suspension. Robert Opron designed the 1967 Series 3 facelift. Citroën built 1,455,746 examples in six countries, of which 1,330,755 were manufactured at Citroën's main Paris Quai de Javel (now Quai André-Citroën) production plant.

In combination with Citroën's proven front-wheel drive, the DS was used competitively in rally racing during almost its entire 20year production run, and achieved multiple major victories, as early as 1959, and as late as 1974. It placed third in the 1999 Car of the Century poll recognizing the world's most influential auto designs and was named the most beautiful car of all time by Classic & Sports Car magazine.

The name DS and ID are puns in the French language. "DS" is pronounced exactly like déesse, lit. 'goddess', whereas "ID" is pronounced as idée ('idea').

Model history
After 18 years of secret development as the successor to the Traction Avant, the DS 19 was introduced on 6 October 1955, at the Paris Motor Show. In the first 15 minutes of the show, 743 orders were taken, and orders for the first day totalled 12,000. During the 10 days of the show, the DS took in 80,000 deposits; a record that stood for over 60 years, until it was eclipsed by the Tesla Model 3 which received 180,000 first day deposits in March 2016. The original list price for a 1959 ID19 was US$2,833 ($0 in dollars).

Contemporary journalists said the DS pushed the envelope in the ride vs. handling compromise possible in a motor vehicle.

To a France still deep in reconstruction after the devastation of World War II, and also building its identity in the post-colonial world, the DS was a symbol of French ingenuity. The DS was distributed to many territories throughout the world. It also posited the nation's relevance in the Space Age, during the global race for technology of the Cold War. Structuralist philosopher Roland Barthes, in an essay about the car, said that it looked as if it had "fallen from the sky". An American advertisement summarised this selling point: "It takes a special person to drive a special car".

Because they were owned by the technologically aggressive tyre manufacturer Michelin, Citroën had designed their cars around the technologically superior radial tyre since 1948, and the DS was no exception.

The car used double wishbone suspension with L-shaped arms at the front and trailing-arms at the rear, with totally novel hydropneumatic spring and damper units. The car's advanced hydraulics included automatic self-levelling and driver adjustable ride-height, developed in-house by Paul Magès. This suspension allowed the DS to travel quickly on the poor road surfaces then common in France.

In addition, the vehicle had power steering and a semi-automatic transmission (the transmission required no clutch pedal but gears still had to be shifted by hand, with the shift lever controlling a powered hydraulic shift mechanism in place of a mechanical linkage). It had a fibreglass roof which lowered the centre of gravity, and so reduced weight transfer. Inboard front disc brakes (as well as independent suspension) reduced unsprung weight. Different front and rear track widths reduced the unequal tyre loading, which is well known to promote understeer, typical of front-engined and front-wheel drive cars. Although disc brakes had been tried on a car as early as 1902 by British Lanchester, volume production had not been applied until 1949, by USA small car manufacturer Crosley, but without success. The Citroën DS was the first successful fielding of disc brakes on a mass-produced car.

Furthermore, at launch the DS featured innovative centerlock wheels which used a captive allen bolt as the central fastener whilst a hexagonal protrusion transferred the drive to a matching recess in the wheel. This made it possible to change the wheel very quickly in the event of a puncture and proved an advantage in motor racing.

As with all French cars, the DS design was affected by the tax horsepower system, which effectively encouraged smaller engines. Unlike the Traction Avant predecessor, there was no top-of-range model with a powerful six-cylinder engine. Citroën had planned an air-cooled flat-6 engine for the car, but did not have the funds to put the prototype engine into production.

The DS placed third in the 1999 Car of the Century competition, and fifth on the 2005 list of "100 Coolest Cars" by Automobile Magazine. It was also named the most beautiful car of all time by Classic & Sports Car magazine after a poll of 20 world-renowned car designers, including Giorgetto Giugiaro, Ian Callum, Roy Axe, Paul Bracq, and Leonardo Fioravanti.

Motorsport

The DS was successful in motorsports like rallying, where sustained speeds on poor surfaces are paramount, and won the Monte Carlo Rally in 1959. In the 1000 Lakes Rally, Pauli Toivonen drove a DS19 to victory in 1962.

In 1966, the DS won the Monte Carlo Rally again, with some controversy as the competitive BMC Mini-Cooper team was disqualified due to rule infractions. Ironically, Mini was involved with DS competition again two years later, when a drunk driver in a Mini in Sydney Australia crashed into the DS that was leading the 1968 London–Sydney Marathon, 158 km from the finish line. Robert Neyret won the Rallye du Maroc in 1969 and 1970 in a DS 21.

The DS was still competitive in the grueling 1974 London-Sahara-Munich World Cup Rally, where it won over 70 other cars, only 5 of which even completed the entire event.

Technical innovation – hydraulic systems
In conventional cars, hydraulics are only used in brakes and power steering. In the DS they were also used for the suspension, clutch, and transmission. The cheaper 1957 ID19 did have manual steering and a simplified power braking system. An engine-driven pump pressurizes the closed system to 17.2 MPa

At a time when few passenger vehicles had independent suspension on all wheels, the application of the hydraulic system to the car's suspension system to provide a self-levelling system was an innovative move. This suspension allowed the car to achieve sharp handling combined with very high ride quality, frequently compared to a "magic carpet".

The hydropneumatic suspension used was pioneered the year before, on the rear of another car from Citroën, the top of range Traction Avant 15CV-H.

Effect on Citroën brand development
The 1955 DS cemented the Citroën brand name as an automotive innovator, building on the success of the Traction Avant, which had been the world's first mass-produced unitary body front-wheel-drive car in 1934. In fact, the DS caused such a huge sensation that Citroën was apprehensive that future models would not be of the same bold standard. No clean sheet new models were introduced from 1955 to 1970.

The DS was a large, expensive executive car and a downward brand extension was attempted, but without result. Throughout the late 1950s and 1960s, Citroën developed many new vehicles for the very large, profitable market segments between the 2CV and the DS, occupied by vehicles like the Peugeot 403, Renault 16 and Ford Cortina, but none made it into production. Either they had uneconomic build costs, or were ordinary "me too" cars, not up to the company's high standard of innovation. As Citroën was owned by Michelin from 1934 to 1974 as a sort of research laboratory, such broad experimentation was possible. Michelin was getting a powerful advertisement for the capabilities of the radial tyre Michelin had invented, when such experimentation was successful.

New models based on the small, utilitarian 2CV economy car were introduced, such as the 1961 Ami. It was also designed by Flaminio Bertoni and aimed to combine Three-box styling with the chassis of the 2CV. The Ami was very successful in France, but less so on export markets. Many found the styling controversial, and the car noisy and underpowered. The Dyane was a modernised 2CV with a hatchback that competed with the 2CV inspired Renault 4 Hatchback. All these 2 cylinder models were very small, so there remained a wide market gap to the DS range all through the 1960s.

In 1970, Citroën finally introduced a car to target the mid-range – the Citroën GS, which won the "European car of the Year" for 1971 and sold 2.5 million units. It combined a small 55 HP flat-4 air-cooled engine with Hydropneumatic suspension. The intended 106 HP Wankel rotary-engined version with more power did not reach full production.

Replacing the DS
The DS maintained sales and remained competitive throughout its production run. Its peak production year was 1970. Certain design elements like the somewhat narrow cabin, column-mounted gearstick, and separate fenders began to seem a little old-fashioned in the 1970s.

Citroën invested enormous resources to design and launch an entirely new vehicle in 1970, the SM, which was in effect a thoroughly modernized DS, with similar length, but greater width. The manual gearbox was a modified DS unit. The front disc brakes were the same design. Axles, wheel bearings, steering knuckles, and hydraulic components were either DS parts or modified DS parts.

The SM had a different purpose than replacing the 15-year-old DS design, however – it was meant to launch Citroën into a completely new luxury grand touring market segment. Only fitted with a costly, exotic Maserati engine, the SM was faster and much more expensive than the DS. The SM was not designed to be a practical 4-door saloon suitable as a large family car, the key market for vehicles of this type in Europe. Typically, manufacturers would introduce low-volume coupés based on parts shared with an existing saloon, not as unique models, a contemporary example being the Mercedes-Benz SLC (C107). BMW follows a similar strategy of a mid-size sedan (5 series), large coupe (6 series), and large sedan (7 series) sharing common underpinnings.

The SM's high price and limited utility of the 2+2 seating configuration meant the SM as actually produced could not seize the mantle from the DS. While the design funds invested would allow the DS to be replaced by two cars, a 'modern DS' and the smaller CX, it was left to the CX alone to provide Citroën's large family or executive car in the model range.

The last DS came off the production line on 24 April 1975 – with Citroën building up approximately eight months of inventory of the 'break'/'Safari' (estate/station wagon) version of the DS, to continue sales until the autumn of 1975 when the estate/station wagon version of the CX would be introduced.

Development
The DS maintained its size and shape, with easily removable, unstressed body panels, but design changes occurred. During the 20-year production, improvements were made on an ongoing basis.

ID 19 submodel to extend brand downwards (1957–69)
The 1955 DS19 was 65% more expensive than the car it replaced, the Citroën Traction Avant. This affected potential sales in a country still recovering economically from World War II, so a cheaper submodel, the Citroën ID, was introduced in 1957. The ID shared the DS's body but was less powerful and luxurious. Although it shared the engine capacity of the DS engine (at this stage 1,911 cc), the ID provided a maximum power output of only 69 HP compared to the 75 HP claimed for the DS19. Power outputs were further differentiated in 1961 when the DS19 acquired a Weber-32 twin bodied carburettor, and the increasing availability of higher octane fuel enabled the manufacturer to increase the compression ratio from 7.5:1 to 8.5:1. A new DS19 now came with a promised 83 HP. The ID19 was also more traditional mechanically: it had no power steering and had conventional transmission and clutch instead of the DS's hydraulically controlled set-up. Initially, the basic ID19 was sold on the French market with a price saving of more than 25% against the DS, although the differential was reduced at the end of 1961 when the manufacturer withdrew the entry-level ID19 "Normale". A station wagon variant, the ID Break, was introduced in 1958.

D Spécial and D Super (1970–75)
The ID was replaced by the D Spécial and D Super in 1970, but these retained the lower specification position in the range. The D Super was available with the DS21 2175 cc engine and a 5-speed gearbox, and named the D Super 5.

Series 2 – Nose redesign in 1962
In September 1962, the DS was restyled with a more aerodynamically efficient nose, better ventilation, and other improvements. It retained the open two headlamp appearance, but was available with an optional set of driving lights mounted on the front fenders. All models in the range changed nose design at the same time, including the ID and station wagon models.

Series 3 – Nose redesign in 1967 with directional headlights
In late 1967, for the 1968 model year, the DS and ID was again restyled, by Robert Opron, who also styled the 1970 SM and 1974 CX. This version had a more streamlined headlamp design. This design had four headlights under a smooth glass canopy and the inner set swivelled with the steering wheel. This allowed the driver to see "around" turns, especially valuable on twisting roads driven at high speed at night. The directional headlamps were linked to the wheels by cable.

Behind each glass cover lens, the inboard high-beam headlamp swivels by up to 80° as the driver steers, throwing the beam along the driver's intended path rather than uselessly across the curved road. The outboard low-beam headlamps are self-leveling in response to pitching caused by acceleration and braking.

Because this feature was not allowed in the US (see World Forum for Harmonization of Vehicle Regulations), a version with four exposed headlights that did not swivel was manufactured for the US market.

Although a directional headlight was previously seen on the 1948 Tucker 48 'Torpedo', Citroën was the first to mass-market adaptive headlights.

New "green" hydraulic fluid
The original hydropneumatic system used a vegetable oil (liquide hydraulique végétal, LHV), but later switched to a synthetic (liquide hydraulique synthétique, LHS). Both had the disadvantage of being hygroscopic. Disuse allows water to enter the hydraulic components, causing deterioration and requiring expensive maintenance. The difficulty with hygroscopic hydraulic fluid was exacerbated in the DS/ID due to the extreme rise and fall in the fluid level in the reservoir, which went from nearly full to nearly empty when the suspension extended to maximum height and the six accumulators in the system filled with fluid. With every "inhalation" of fresh moisture- (and dust-) laden air, the fluid absorbed more water.

For the 1967 model year, Citroën introduced a new mineral oil-based fluid LHM (liquide hydraulique minéral). This fluid was much less harsh on the system.

LHM required completely different materials for the seals. Using either fluid in the incorrect system would completely destroy the hydraulic seals very quickly. To help avoid this problem, Citroën added a bright green dye to the LHM fluid and also painted all hydraulic elements bright green. The earlier LHS parts were painted black.

All models, including the station wagon and ID, were upgraded at the same time. The hydraulic fluid changed to the technically superior LHM in all markets except the US and Canada, where the change did not take place until January 1969 due to local regulations.

International sales and production
The DS was primarily manufactured at the Quai André-Citroën in the Javel neighborhood of Paris, with other manufacturing facilities in the United Kingdom, South Africa, the former Yugoslavia (mostly Break Ambulances), and Australia.

Australia constructed their own D variant in the 1960s at Heidelberg, Victoria, identified as the ID 19 "Parisienne." Australian market cars were fitted with options as standard equipment such as the "DSpecial DeLuxe" that were not available on domestic European models.

Until 1965 UK cars were assembled at the manufacturer's Slough premises, to the west of London, using a combination of French-made knock down kits and locally sourced components, some of them machined on site. A French electrical system superseded the British one on the Slough cars in 1962, giving rise to a switch to "continental style" negative earthing. An intermediate model between the DS and the ID, called the DW, was introduced on the UK market in 1963 with a manual transmission and simpler foot-operated clutch while retaining the DS power unit, power steering and power braking; outside of the UK this model was known as the DS19M. When the 1985 cc engine replaced the original 1911 cc unit in September 1965 the manual-equipped DSes built in Slough were renamed DS19A. The Slough factory closed on 18 February 1966 and thereafter cars for the British market were imported fully assembled from the company's French plant. The British-built cars are distinguished by their leather seats, wooden (early ID19 models) or one-piece plastic (early DS19 models) dashboards, chromed number plate mount set into the front bumper, and (on pre-1962 cars) Lucas-made electrics. These were all right hand drive cars.

The DS was built and sold in South Africa from 1959 to 1975.

The DS was sold in Japan, but the models were built in France and left hand drive.

DS in North America
The DS was sold in North America from 1956 to 1972. Despite its popularity in Europe and regard for its design from the American motoring press, it did not sell well in the United States, and little better in Canada. While promoted as a luxury car, it did not have the basic features that American buyers expected to find on such a vehicle, such as an automatic transmission, air conditioning, power windows, or a powerful engine. The DS was designed specifically to address the French market, with punitive tax horsepower taxation of large engines and very poor roads, and not for a market where those constraints were removed.

Further harming the DS' prospects on the other side of the Atlantic was an inadequate supply of parts for the vehicle. Jay Leno described the sporadic supply of spare parts as a problem for 1970s era customers, based on his early experiences working at a Citroën dealer in Boston. Additionally, the DS was expensive, with a 115 hp vehicle costing $4,170 in 1969, when $4,500 would buy a 360 hp Buick Electra 225 Custom. The Electra was available with an automatic transmission, power windows, and came with a much larger engine (a 7,040 cc V8), and it was hardly the only competitor to the DS to have these features as options or as standard.

As a result of the insufficient supply of replacement parts, an inability to compete with bigger and more luxurious cars sold for the same price, and simply having not been designed for the North American market, sales for the DS were mediocre on the North American market, ultimately reaching a total of 38,000.

US regulations at the time also banned one of the car's more advanced features: its composite headlamps with aerodynamic covered lenses. Based on legislation that dated from 1940, all automobiles sold in the U.S. were required to have round, sealed-beam headlamps that produced 75,000 candlepower. The DS's quartz iodine swiveling headlamps designed for the 1968 model were not allowed by the regulations. Even the aerodynamic headlight covers, featured on other cars such as the Jaguar E-Type were illegal and had to be removed. It was not until Ford Motor Company lobbied to have composite headlamps allowed that the sealed-beam headlamp requirements were finally rescinded in 1983.

However, the European lamps were legal in Canada, including the directional headlamps.

The hydraulic fluid change in 1967 also fell afoul of American regulations. NHTSA follows the precautionary principle, also used by the Food and Drug Administration, where new innovations are prohibited until their developers can prove them safe to the regulators. The castor-based LHV and synthetic LHS fluids used in European-market DSes were not certified for use in North America, so cars sold there used conventional brake fluid instead. Brake fluid (as well as LHV and LHS) is hygroscopic and miscible, readily absorbing and mixing with moisture, the idea being that within a closed hydraulic circuit these properties will ensure pockets of non-soluble water will not form and cause corrosion of the system from within. The design of the DS's hydraulic system used much more fluid and allowed much more moist air into the system than a simple hydraulic braking circuit, so the fluid's hygroscopic properties were not preventing corrosion as intended. Brake fluid also did not provide the viscosity and lubricity suited for used in the suspension, clutch and gear change mechanism. Mineral-based LHM fluid was designed to remedy these issues but Citroen was obligated to demonstrate the new fluid was safe for automotive use before it could be installed in American-market cars. It took NHTSA until January 1969 to approve it, so in the US market about half the production of cars in the 1969 model year use the older red LHS fluid and half use newer green LHM fluid, neither of which is compatible with the other.

Pallas
In 1965 a luxury upgrade, the DS Pallas (after Greek goddess Pallas Athena), was introduced. This included comfort features such as better noise insulation, a more luxurious (and optional leather) upholstery, and external trim embellishments. From 1966, the Pallas model received a driver's seat with height adjustment.

Station wagon, Familiale, and ambulance
A station wagon version was introduced in 1958. It was known by different names in individual markets (Break in France, Safari, and Estate in the UK, Wagon in the US, and Citroën Australia used the terms Safari and Station-Wagon). It had a steel roof to support the standard roof rack. 'Familiales' had a rear seat mounted further back in the cabin, with three folding seats between the front and rear squabs. The standard Break had two side-facing seats in the main load area at the back.

The Ambulance configuration was similar to that of the Break, but with a 60/30 split in the rear folding seat to accommodate a stretcher. A 'Commerciale' version was also available for a time.

The Safari saw use as a camera car, notably by the BBC. The hydropneumatic suspension produces an unusually steady platform for filming while driving.

Convertible
A factory convertible was offered from summer 1960 until summer 1971. The Décapotable Cabriolet d'Usine (factory convertible) were built by French carrossier Henri Chapron, for the Citroën dealer network. It was an expensive car and only 1,365 were sold. These DS convertibles used a special frame which was reinforced on the side members and rear suspension swingarm bearing box, similar to, but not identical to the Break (Station Wagon) frame.

The design of the factory convertible was by Flaminio Bertoni, who had originally started sketching convertibles in 1954. The production version was developed together with Chapron. The manufacture was passed to Henri Chapron, who had already been converting small numbers of DS's to convertibles in his Paris plant since 1958. Chapron persevered with his own custom versions alongside the works cars, for those who wanted something particular or to allow conversion of an existing sedan. After official production ended in August 1971, Chapron kept building small numbers of the works design for individual customers until 1977.

Chapron variations
In addition, Chapron also produced a few coupés, non-works convertibles and special sedans (including the "Prestige", same wheelbase but with a central divider, and the "Lorraine" notchback). Chapron also built the imposing DS Présidentielle in 1967-1968 to a design created by Citroën's design department. This car was 6.53 m long, specifically to be longer than the cars used by US Presidents Johnson and Nixon. Ordered directly by President Charles de Gaulle, he did not like the car due to its divider and continued to mainly use either DS landaulets or the two earlier special-bodied Citroën 15/6 H built by Franay and Chapron.

Bossaert coupé
Between 1959 and 1964, Hector Bossaert produced a coupé on a DS chassis shortened by 18+1/2 in. While the front end remained unchanged, the rear end featured notchback styling.

The Reactor
In 1965, American auto customizer Gene Winfield created The Reactor, a Citroën DS chassis, with a turbocharged 180 HP flat-six engine from the Corvair driving the front wheels. Since the DS already had the engine behind the front wheels, the longer engine meant only one row of seats. This was draped in a streamlined, low slung, aluminum body.

The Reactor was seen in American television programs of the era, such as Star Trek: The Original Series (episode 54, "Bread and Circuses"), Batman episodes 110 ("Funny Feline Felonies") and 111 (driven by Catwoman Eartha Kitt), and Bewitched, which devoted its episode 3.19 ("Super Car") to The Reactor.

Michelin PLR
The Michelin PLR is a mobile tyre evaluation machine, based on the DS Break, built in 1972, later used for promotion.

Back to the Future Part II taxi
For the 1989 film Back to the Future Part II, the producers created a flying car to depict a typical taxi in the future world of 2015. This taxi was based on the DS.

Suspension
In a hydropneumatic suspension system, each wheel is connected, not to a metal spring, but to a hydraulic suspension unit consisting of a hydraulic accumulator sphere of about 12 cm in diameter containing pressurised nitrogen, a cylinder containing hydraulic fluid screwed to the suspension sphere, a piston inside the cylinder connected by levers to the suspension itself, and a damper valve between the piston and the sphere. A membrane in the sphere prevented the nitrogen from escaping. The motion of the wheels translated to a motion of the piston, which acted on the oil in the nitrogen cushion and provided the spring effect. The damper valve took place of the shock absorber in conventional suspensions. The hydraulic cylinder was fed with hydraulic fluid from the main pressure reservoir via a height corrector, a valve controlled by the mid-position of the anti-roll bar connected to the axle. If the suspension was too low, the height corrector introduced high-pressure fluid; if it was too high, it released fluid back to the fluid reservoir. In this manner, a constant ride height was maintained. A control in the cabin allowed the driver to select one of five heights: normal riding height, two slightly higher-riding heights for poor terrain, and two extreme positions for changing wheels. (The correct term, oleopneumatic (oil-air), has never gained widespread use. Hydropneumatic (water-air) continues to be preferred overwhelmingly.)

The DS neither had nor needed a jack to raise the car off the ground. Instead, the hydraulic system enabled wheel changes with the aid of a simple adjustable stand. To change wheel in the event of a flat tyre, one would adjust the suspension to its topmost setting, insert the stand into a special peg near the flat tyre, then readjust the suspension to its lowermost setting. The flat tyre would then retract upwards and hover above the ground, ready to be changed. This system, used on the SM also, was superseded on the CX by a screw jack that, after the suspension was raised to the high position, lifted the tyre clear of the ground. The DS system, while impressive to use, sometimes dropped the car quite suddenly, especially if the stand was not placed precisely or the ground was soft or unlevel.

Source and reserve of pressure
The central part of the hydraulic system was the high-pressure pump, which maintained a pressure of between 130 and 150 bar in two accumulators. These accumulators were very similar in construction to the suspension spheres. One was dedicated to the front brakes, and the other ran the other hydraulic systems. (On the simpler ID models, the front brakes operated from the main accumulator.) Thus in case of a hydraulic failure, the first indication would be that the steering became heavy, followed by the gearbox not working; only later would the brakes fail.

Two different hydraulic pumps were used. The DS used a seven-cylinder axial piston pump driven off two belts and delivering 175 bar (2,540 psi) of pressure. The ID19, with its simpler hydraulic system, had a single-cylinder pump driven by an eccentric on the camshaft.

Hydraulique or Citromatic
The DS was initially offered only with the Hydraulique four-speed semi-automatic (B.V.H.—Boîte de Vitesses Hydraulique) gearbox.

This was a four-speed gearbox and clutch, operated by a hydraulic controller. To change gears, the driver flicked a lever behind the steering wheel to the next position and eased-up on the accelerator pedal. The hydraulic controller disengaged the clutch, disengaged the previous gear, then engaged the nominated gear, and re-engaged the clutch. The speed of engagement of the clutch was controlled automatically, responding to hydraulic sensing of engine rpm and the position of the butterfly valve in the carburetor (i.e., the position of the accelerator), and the brake circuit. When the brake was pressed, the engine idle speed dropped to an rpm below the clutch engagement speed, thus preventing friction while stopped in gear at traffic lights. When the brake was released, the idle speed increased to the clutch dragging speed. The car would then creep forward much like automatic transmission cars. This drop-in idle throttle position also caused the car to have more engine drag when the brakes were applied even before the car slowed to the idle speed in gear, preventing the engine from pulling against the brakes. In the event of loss of hydraulic pressure (following a loss of system fluid), the clutch would disengage, to prevent driving, while brake pressure reserves would allow safe braking to a standstill.

Unlike an automatic transmission, there is no Park position on the transmission where the wheels are locked. In addition, the hydraulic clutch would disengage with the engine stopped, so the car could not be left in gear when parked. The only way to prevent the car from rolling (for example, if parked on a slope) is to use the parking brake.

Manual—four-speed and five-speed
The later and simpler ID19 had the same gearbox and clutch, manually operated. This configuration was offered as a cheaper option for the DS in 1963. The mechanical aspects of the gearbox and clutch were completely conventional and the same elements were used in the ID 19. In September 1970, Citroën introduced a five-speed manual gearbox, in addition to the original four-speed unit. All manual transmissions used a steering column-mounted shifter.

Fully-automatic
In September 1971 Citroën introduced a 3-speed fully-automatic Borg-Warner 35 transmission gearbox, on the DS 21 and later DS 23 models. The fully automatic transmission DS was never sold in the US market where this type of transmission had gained market share so quickly that it became the majority of the market by this time. Many automatic DSs, fuel-injected DS 23 sedans with air conditioning, were sold in Australia.

Engines
The DS was originally designed around an air-cooled flat-six based on the design of the 2-cylinder engine of the 2CV, similar to the motor in the Porsche 911. Technical and monetary problems forced this idea to be scrapped.

Thus, for such a modern car, the engine of the original DS 19 was old-fashioned. It was derived from the engine of the 11CV Traction Avant (models 11B and 11C). It was an OHV four-cylinder engine with three main bearings and wet liners, and a bore of 78 mm and a stroke of 100 mm, giving a volumetric displacement of 1911 cc. The cylinder head had been reworked; the 11C had a reverse-flow cast iron cylinder head and generated 60 hp at 3800 rpm; by contrast, the DS 19 had an aluminium cross-flow head with hemispherical combustion chambers and generated 75 hp at 4500 rpm.

Like the Traction Avant, the DS had the gearbox mounted in front of the engine, with the differential in between. Thus some consider the DS to be a mid engine front-wheel drive car.

The DS and ID engines evolved throughout their 20-year production run. The car was underpowered and faced constant mechanical changes to boost the performance of the four-cylinder engine. The initial 1911 cc three main bearing engine (carried forward from the Traction Avant) of the DS 19 was replaced in 1965 with the 1985 cc five-bearing wet-cylinder motor, becoming the DS 19a (called DS 20 from September 1969).

The DS 21 was also introduced for model year 1965. This was a 2175 cc, five main bearing engine; power was 106 hp DIN This engine received a substantial increase in power with the introduction of Bosch electronic fuel injection for 1970, making the DS one of the first mass-market cars to use electronic fuel injection. Power of the carbureted version also increased slightly at the same time, owing to the employment of larger inlet valves.

Lastly, 1973 saw the introduction of the 2347 cc 115 hp engine of the DS 23 in both carbureted and fuel-injected forms. The DS 23 with electronic fuel injection was the most powerful production model, producing 141 hp SAE (130 hp DIN).

IDs and their variants went through a similar evolution, generally lagging the DS by about one year. ID saloon models never received the DS 23 engine or fuel injection, although the Break/Familiale versions received the carburetted version of the DS 23 engine when it was introduced, supplemented the DS20 Break/Familiale.

The top of the range ID model, The DSuper5 (DP) gained the DS21 engine (the only model that this engine was retained in) for the 1973 model year and it was mated to a five-speed gearbox. This should not be confused with the 1985 cc DSuper fitted with an optional "low ratio" five-speed gearbox, or with the previous DS21M (DJ) five-speed.

In popular culture
President Charles de Gaulle survived an assassination attempt at Le Petit-Clamart near Paris on 22 August 1962, planned by Algerian War veteran Jean-Marie Bastien-Thiry. The plan was to ambush the motorcade with machine guns, disable the vehicles, and then close in for the kill. De Gaulle praised the unusual abilities of his unarmoured Citroën DS with saving his life – the car, riddled with bullets and with two tyres punctured, was still able to escape at full speed. Afterward, De Gaulle vowed never to ride in any other make of car. This event was recreated in the film The Day of the Jackal (1973).

The 1961 Citroën DS 19 Décapotable Usine by Henri Chapron garnered publicity for the new model, from its prominent film placement, when Cary Grant himself "telephoned the French automotive company, Citroën, to order a new car for use in the film That Touch of Mink (1962)."

Legacy
Citroën DS values have been rising – a 1973 DS 23 Injection Electronique "Decapotable" (Chapron Convertible) sold for €176,250 (US$209,738) at Christie's Rétromobile in February 2006. A similar car sold by Bonhams in February 2009 brought €343,497 (US$440,436). On 18 September 2009 a 1966 DS21 Decapotable Usine was sold by Bonhams for a hammer price of GB£131,300. Bonhams sold another DS21 Decapotable (1973) on 23 January 2010 for €189,000.

Citroën was the featured exhibit at the Mullin Automotive Museum for the year 2017/8, and the DS made its first appearance on the lawn at the Pebble Beach Concours d'Elegance in 2018.

The DS's place in French society was demonstrated in Paris on 9 October 2005 with a celebration of the 50th anniversary of its launch. 1,600 DS cars drove in procession past the Arc de Triomphe.

In 2009, Groupe PSA created a new brand – DS Automobiles, intended as high quality, high specification variations on existing models, with differing mechanics and bodywork. This brand was introduced in three models, the DS 3, DS 4, and the DS 5. The DS 3, launched in March 2010, is based on Citroën's new C3, but is more customisable and unique, bearing some resemblance to the original DS, with its "Shark Fin" side pillar.

Production figures

 * 1955: 69
 * 1956: 9,868
 * 1957: 28,593
 * 1958: 52,416
 * 1959: 66,931
 * 1960: 83,205
 * 1961: 77,597
 * 1962: 83,035
 * 1963: 93,476
 * 1964: 85,379
 * 1965: 89,314
 * 1966: 99,561
 * 1967: 101,904
 * 1968: 81,860
 * 1969: 82,218
 * 1970: 103,633
 * 1971: 84,328
 * 1972: 92,483
 * 1973: 96,990
 * 1974: 40,039
 * 1975: 847

title: Citroën DS


text:
Centericq

Centericq is a text mode menu- and window-driven instant messaging interface that supports the ICQ, Yahoo!, AIM, MSN, IRC, XMPP, LiveJournal, and Gadu-Gadu protocols.

Overview
Centericq allows you to send, receive, and forward messages, URLs, SMSes (both through the ICQ server and email gateways supported by Mirabilis), contacts, and email express messages, and it has many other useful features. Known to work in Linux, FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD, Solaris, Windows and macOS/Darwin Operating Systems.

Its heyday was in the first half-decade of the 2000s, with reviews appearing in Softpedia, Czech online magazines ABC Linux and Linux.cz. It was recommended in a 2004 OSNews article on console applications, and in a similar article in the Russian magazine Computerra. Two tutorial articles appeared in the German magazine LinuxUser in 2001 and 2004; the latter article appeared in the English version of Linux Magazine. It was included in a 2002 round-up of ICQ clients in the Russian XAKEP magazine, and in a 2005 round-up review of IRC Clients in Free Software Magazine. The FSM reviewer noted Centericq for its windows-like interface built on top of the usual curses library, which provides much information, but can look cluttered on smaller terminal windows, including the standard 80 by 25 terminal. It found that IRC support was "excellent" due to support for multiple servers and channels and the ease of switching between them in the “windowed” interface. In September 2002, Steven J. Vaughan-Nichols found it "the greatest of all console IM clients" due to its "excellent interface and a huge number of features and configuration options" in a category review on Freshmeat. In 2005 it was reviewed in The Unofficial Apple Weblog; despite support for .mac accounts, the reviewer noted "annoying key combos" required to access the menus, because on Mac OS X the usual function key assignments of Centericq could not be used. Though he could not access the MSN network, he concluded: "All things considered, I've decided that Centericq is the most stable and intuitive terminal based chat client."

In August 2007, the project's (then) website stated that Centericq development was "dead", and that the website would be shut down in November 2007. The site referred users to the CenterIM fork of the project. The developers of the CenterIM fork applied several security patches and updates. , CenterIM was still in development, with version 4.22.9 released on December 14. Neither CenterICQ nor CenterIM 4 support Unicode, but support for UTF-8 is planned for CenterIM 5.

title: Centericq


text:
George Airport

George Airport (George Lughawe) is an airport located in George, Western Cape, South Africa. It was formerly known as P.W. Botha Airport, named after the state president who lived in this part of the country.

This airport was originally built in 1977 as an exact replica of the Keetmanshoop Airport in Namibia, but since its expansion and renovation, it now looks completely different. George Airport has won the award for Africa's best airport in the category under two million passengers per year six times; the last time was in 2017. The award is given by Airports Council International (ACI).

In 2013, the airport served 560,432 passengers, substantially more than the 154,000 in 2003. From 2014 onwards, continued increase in passenger numbers were witnessed, with 2017 seeing a record number of passengers (785,486), closing in on the design capacity of the airport which should necessitate further terminal expansion in the near future.

Accidents and incidents

 * 7 December 2009 – An Embraer ERJ 135 (registration:ZS-SJW) operated by Airlink on a scheduled flight (SA-8625) overran the runway in wet conditions and ended up on a public road. There were no fatalities, but the plane suffered substantial damage. The accident was caused by an incorrect sealant used on the runway, and the airline was cleared of all blame. Airlink's insurers took legal action against the state-owned Airports Company of South Africa.

title: George Airport


text:
Hiller Aviation Museum

The Hiller Aviation Museum is an aviation museum located at the San Carlos Airport in San Carlos, California focused on Northern California aviation history, Hiller Aircraft and helicopter history.

History
The museum was founded by Stanley Hiller in June 1998 and is endowed by members of the Hiller family.

Aircraft

 * Aero Commander 500U
 * Aero L-39 Albatros
 * Airbus Vahana
 * Arnold AR-5
 * Beachey Little Looper – replica
 * Bede BD-5T
 * Bell 47D
 * Boeing 737-200 – cockpit
 * Boeing 747 – forward fuselage
 * Boeing Condor
 * Bright Star Swift
 * Buhl A-1 Autogiro
 * Cessna 177 Cardinal
 * Colomban Cri-cri
 * Curtiss Model D – replica
 * Del Mar DH-20
 * EAA Penguin
 * Fairchild Hiller FH-1100
 * Fokker Dr.I – replica
 * General Atomics MQ-1 Predator
 * Grumman HU-16(RD) Albatross
 * Hiller 360
 * Hiller Flying Platform
 * Hiller VXT-8 – replica
 * Hiller J-10
 * Hiller OH-23B Raven
 * Hiller XH-44 – replica
 * Hiller XROE-1 Rotorcycle
 * Hiller YH-32 Hornet
 * Hiller YH-32 Hornet
 * Hollmann HA-2M Sportster
 * Irvine Aerocycloid – replica
 * Kitty Hawk Flyer
 * Lockheed YO-3 Quiet Star
 * Maupin-Lanteri Black Diamond
 * Marriott Avitor – replica
 * Montgomery Evergreen
 * Montgomery Gull – replica
 * Montgomery Santa Clara – replica
 * NASA AD-1
 * Opener BlackFly
 * ParaPlane PM-1
 * Pietenpol Air Camper
 * Pitts S-1C
 * Quicksilver MX
 * RotorWay Scorpion
 * Rutan Defiant
 * Rutan Long-EZ
 * SoloTrek XFV
 * SpaceShipOne – replica
 * Stearman-Hammond Y-1
 * Thaden T-1 Argonaut – fuselage
 * Travel Air D4D
 * United Helicopters UH-4
 * Velie Monocoupe Model 70
 * Vin Fiz Flyer – replica
 * Wisk Cora Gen5
 * Wright Flyer – replica

Ground vehicles

 * Baker electric automobile
 * Messerschmitt KR200

Simulators

 * Curtiss Wright P-2
 * Del Mar DHT-2
 * Link Trainer
 * McDonnell Douglas A-4M Skyhawk simulator

Events
This museum sponsored Vertical Challenge, an annual all-helicopter airshow from 2000-2010, and a final one in 2012. In 2011 and 2016 an aviation festival event called Heli-Fest was held instead.

Programs
This museum offers two Scouts BSA Merit Badge programs, the Aviation Merit Badge and the Weather Merit Badge.

title: Hiller Aviation Museum


text:
Talk:Friuli - Venezia Giulia

Seems unusual to have whitespace around the hypen in a hyphenated name; although redirs are useful, this is so eye-rubbingly hard to see I probably would have edited the free links. Stan 16:34 13 Jul 2003 (UTC)

title: Talk:Friuli - Venezia Giulia


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San Carlos Airport (California)

San Carlos Airport is a public airfield located 2 mi northeast of San Carlos, California, in San Mateo County and serves the San Francisco Bay Area.

The airport lies off U.S. Route 101. The airport is home to Civil Air Patrol West Bay Composite Squadron 192. Next to the airport lies the Hiller Aviation Museum.

History
The San Carlos Flying Field was established during World War I by J. Paulding Edwards on a field north of Cordilleras Creek and east of today's Old County Road. A 300 ft hangar was situated along the western end of Terminal Way. San Carlos' first pilot's license was issued on July 10, 1917 to Lieutenant Prince.

In 1923, the airfield was taken over by the Cooley family. Charles P. Cooley was the primary flight instructor and his father, Frank S. Cooley, operated the field. On July 12, 1940, a fire destroyed the main hangar and twelve aircraft. Operations were maintained on an airstrip bounded by today's Brittan Avenue, Washington Street, Old County Road, and Industrial Road.

Sometime around 1935 the Cooley family established a different airfield near the foot of today's Twin Dolphin Drive in San Carlos. That facility had a 2100 by runway and a building that housed various industrial activities. The Cooley family eventually determined that the airport needed to be moved because its proximity to the Phelps and Steinberger Sloughs limited the length of the runway.

The Cooleys opened another airfield at the present location of the San Carlos airport in 1948. In 1952, ownership was transferred to Francis Michaud, who renamed it San Carlos-Belmont Airport. Repair and administrative buildings were added, and plans were developed to lengthen the runway to 7000 ft. In 1957, the field was renamed San Mateo County Airport, Inc. Ownership was split between Michaud, the Piombo Construction Company, and six other parties. San Mateo County purchased the property in 1964. Today the airport is completely funded with user and business fees and receives no money from the County's General Fund.

In 1999, a proposal was given to extend the runway by 400 ft into the marshy area near Bair Island south of the airport. The proposal encountered opposition among the adjacent residents in Redwood Shores and Foster City, who complained about the potential for increased noise. Opponents felt a longer runway would lead to bigger and noisier planes, in particular, more corporate aircraft of the light jet category. As a result, the runway was not extended.

In 2017, residents complained of excessive noise at the airport caused by flights operated by Surf Air (now operated by Southern Airways Express). They formed a group named Calm The Skies. San Mateo County acknowledged the noise issue caused by Surf Air. Part of the County solution was to introduce an arrival procedure called "Bayside Visual Approach" that underwent testing in 2016 which shifts flights and noise from San Mateo County to the city of Sunnyvale in neighboring Santa Clara County. A curfew has also been discussed in addition to other measures to mitigate the noise.

Facilities
San Carlos Airport covers 110 acre at an elevation of 5 feet (2 m). Its one runway, 12/30, is 2621 by with an asphalt surface. Aircraft with gross weight in excess of 12500 lb are prohibited.

San Carlos Airport is home to over 30 aviation-related businesses. Facilities and FBOs at KSQL include Bay Aerial Helicopter Service, FlyBayArea, JATO Aviation, Rabbit Aviation Services, Surf Air, Zanette Aviation Insurance, West Valley Flying Club, Diamond Aviation Charter, and the San Carlos Flight Center.

The Experimental Aircraft Association (EAA) has a chapter at San Carlos Airport. EAA Chapter 20 had about 50 members as of 2010. An on-field flight school typically hosts monthly meetings on the second Saturday of each month.

In the year ending May 31, 2020, the airport had 75,243 aircraft operations, average 206 per day: 84% general aviation, 16% air taxi and <1% military. 323 aircraft were then based at this airport: 287 single-engine, 23 multi-engine, four jets and nine helicopters.

Origin of SQL airport code
Some have speculated that the airport code of SQL is a humorous reference to the nearby headquarters of Oracle Corporation, a maker of database software. In databases, SQL, or Structured Query Language, is used for handling structured data. However, the airport had the code SQL years before Oracle's predecessor, Software Development Laboratories, was incorporated in June, 1977, as it is listed in the Airman's Information Manual published by the Federal Aviation Administration in 1972.

Accidents and incidents

 * On September 2, 2010, a Beechcraft Queen Air crashed into a nearby lagoon at Oracle headquarters shortly after takeoff from runway 30, killing all three occupants.
 * On October 20, 2017, a Cirrus SR-22 overran the end of runway 30, crashing through a fence and onto adjacent Skyway Road upon takeoff. The two occupants suffered only minor injuries.

title: San Carlos Airport (California)