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Operation Paperclip

Operation Paperclip was a secret United States intelligence program in which more than 1,600 German scientists, engineers, and technicians were taken from former Nazi Germany to the U.S. for government employment after the end of World War II in Europe, between 1945–59. Some were former members and leaders of the Nazi Party.

The effort began in earnest in 1945, as the Allies advanced into Germany and discovered a wealth of scientific talent and advanced research that had contributed to Germany's wartime technological advancements. The U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff officially established Operation Overcast on July 20, 1945, with the dual aim of leveraging German expertise to assist in the ongoing war effort against Japan, and to bolster U.S. postwar military research. The Operation was conducted by the Joint Intelligence Objectives Agency (JIOA), which was largely carried out by special agents of the U.S. Army's Counterintelligence Corps (CIC). Scientists taken were often involved in the Nazi rocket program, aviation, and chemical and biological warfare.

The operation was characterized by the recruitment of German specialists, along with their families, bringing the total to more than 6,000 relocated to the US for their expertise, valued at US$10 billion in patents and industrial processes. These recruits included notable figures such as Wernher von Braun, a leading scientist in rocket technology, and were instrumental in the development of the U.S. space program and military technology during the Cold War. Despite its contributions to American scientific advances, Operation Paperclip has been controversial due to the Nazi affiliations of many recruits, and the ethical implications of assimilating individuals associated with war crimes into American society.

The operation was not solely focused on rocketry; efforts were directed toward synthetic fuels, medicine, and other fields of research. Notable achievements, under Paperclip, include advancements in aeronautics, leading to significant progress in rocket and space-flight technologies that were pivotal in the Space Race. The operation played a crucial role in the establishment of NASA and the success of the Apollo missions to the Moon.

Operation Paperclip was part of a broader strategy by the US to harness German scientific talent in the face of emerging Cold War tensions, ensuring this expertise did not fall into the hands of the Soviet Union or other nations. The operation's legacy is a blend of scientific achievement and ethical controversy, reflecting the challenges of reconciling the pursuit of knowledge, with the imperative to uphold justice and human rights.

Background and Operation Overcast
In February 1945, Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF) set up T-Force, or Special Sections Subdivision, which grew to over 2,000 personnel by June. T-Force examined 5,000 German targets, seeking expertise in synthetic rubber and oil catalysts, new designs in armored equipment, V-2 (rocket) weapons, jet and rocket propelled aircraft, naval equipment, field radios, secret writing chemicals, aero medicine research, gliders, and "scientific and industrial personalities".

When large numbers of German scientists began to be discovered by the advancing Allied forces in late April 1945, the Special Sections Subdivision set up the Enemy Personnel Exploitation Section to manage and interrogate them. The Enemy Personnel Exploitation Section established a detention center, Camp Dustbin, first near Paris and later in Kransberg Castle outside Frankfurt. The U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) established the first secret recruitment program, called Operation Overcast, on July 20, 1945, initially "to assist in shortening the Japanese war and to aid our postwar military research". The term "Overcast" was the name first given by the German scientists' family members for the housing camp where they were held in Bavaria. In late summer 1945, the JCS established the JIOA, a subcommittee of the Joint Intelligence Community, to directly oversee Operation Overcast and later Operation Paperclip. The JIOA representatives included the army's director of intelligence, the chief of naval intelligence, the assistant chief of Air Staff-2 (air force intelligence), and a representative from the State Department. In November 1945, Operation Overcast was renamed Operation Paperclip by Ordnance Corps officers, who would attach a paperclip to the folders of those rocket experts whom they wished to employ in the United States.

The project was not initially targeted against the Soviet Union; rather the concern was that German scientists might emigrate and continue their research in countries that remained neutral during the war. Much U.S. effort was focused on Saxony and Thuringia, which on July 1, 1945, became part of the Soviet occupation zone. Many German research facilities and personnel had been evacuated to these states before the end of the war, particularly from the Berlin area. The USSR then relocated more than 2,200 Nazi specialists and their families—more than 6,000 people—with Operation Osoaviakhim during one night on October 22, 1946.

In a secret directive circulated on September 3, 1946, President Truman officially approved Operation Paperclip and expanded it to include 1,000 German scientists under "temporary, limited military custody". News media revealed the program as early as December 1946.

On April 26, 1946, the Joint Chiefs of Staff issued directive JCS 1067/14 to General Eisenhower instructing that he "preserve from destruction and take under your control records, plans, books, documents, papers, files and scientific, industrial and other information and data belonging to ... German organizations engaged in military research"; and that, excepting war-criminals, German scientists be detained for intelligence purposes as required.

Osenberg List
In the later part of World War II, Germany was at a logistical disadvantage, having failed to conquer the USSR with Operation Barbarossa (June–December 1941), and its drive for the Caucasus (June 1942 – February 1943). The failed conquest had depleted German resources, and its military–industrial complex was unprepared to defend the Greater Germanic Reich against the Red Army's westward counterattack. By early 1943, the German government began recalling from combat a number of scientists, engineers, and technicians to work in research and development to bolster German defense for a protracted war with the USSR. The recall from frontline combat included 4,000 rocketeers returned to Peenemünde, in northeast coastal Germany.

"Overnight, Ph.D.s were liberated from KP duty, masters of science were recalled from orderly service, mathematicians were hauled out of bakeries, and precision mechanics ceased to be truck drivers."

The Nazi government's recall of their now-useful intellectuals for scientific work first required identifying and locating the scientists, engineers, and technicians, then ascertaining their political and ideological reliability. Werner Osenberg, the engineer-scientist heading the Wehrforschungsgemeinschaft (Defense Research Association), recorded the names of the politically cleared men to the Osenberg List, thus reinstating them to scientific work.

In March 1945, at Bonn University, a Polish laboratory technician found pieces of the Osenberg List stuffed in a toilet; the list subsequently reached MI6, who transmitted it to U.S. intelligence. Then U.S. Army Major Robert B. Staver, Chief of the Jet Propulsion Section of the Research and Intelligence Branch of the United States Army Ordnance Corps, used the Osenberg List to compile his list of German scientists to be captured and interrogated; Wernher von Braun, Germany's best rocket scientist, headed Major Staver's list.

Identification

In Operation Overcast, Major Staver's original intent was only to interview the scientists, but what he learned changed the operation's purpose. On May 22, 1945, he transmitted to the U.S. Department of War Colonel Joel Holmes' telegram urging the evacuation to America of 100 of the 400 German scientists in his custody, as most "important for [the] Pacific war" effort. Most of the Osenberg List engineers worked at the Baltic coast German Army Research Center Peenemünde, developing the V-2 rocket. After capturing them, the Allies initially housed them and their families in Landshut, Bavaria, in southern Germany.

Beginning on July 19, 1945, the U.S. Joint Chiefs managed the captured ARC rocketeers under Operation Overcast. However, when the "Camp Overcast" name of the scientists' quarters became locally known, the program was renamed Operation Paperclip in November 1945. Despite these attempts at secrecy, the press interviewed several of the scientists later that year.

Capture and detention

Early on, the United States created the Combined Intelligence Objectives Subcommittee (CIOS). This provided the information on targets for the T-Forces that went in and targeted scientific, military, and industrial installations (and their employees) for their know-how. Initial priorities were advanced technology, such as infrared, that could be used in the war against Japan; finding out what technology had been passed on to Japan; and finally to halt research elsewhere.

Von Braun and more than a thousand of his colleagues decided to surrender to Americans in 1945. One of the engineers later recalled their options: "We despise the French, we are mortally afraid of the Soviets, we do not believe the British can afford us. So that leaves the Americans." On June 20, 1945, they moved from the east closer to the American forces, to avoid the advancing Soviet army.

A project to halt the research was codenamed "Project Safehaven"; it was not initially targeted against the Soviet Union but addressed the concern that German scientists might emigrate and continue their research in countries that had remained neutral during the war. To avoid the complications involved with the emigration of German scientists, the CIOS was responsible for scouting and kidnapping high-profile individuals to block technological advancements in nations hostile to the U.S.

Much U.S. effort was focused on Saxony and Thuringia, which on July 1, 1945, would become part of the Soviet Occupation zone. Many German research facilities and personnel had been evacuated to these states, particularly from the Berlin area. Fearing that the Soviet takeover would limit U.S. ability to exploit German scientific and technical expertise, and not wanting the Soviet Union to benefit from it, the United States instigated an "evacuation operation" of scientific personnel from Saxony and Thuringia, issuing orders such as:

"On orders of Military Government you are to report with your family and baggage as much as you can carry tomorrow noon at 1300 hours (Friday, 22 June 1945) at the town square in Bitterfeld. There is no need to bring winter clothing. Easily carried possessions, such as family documents, jewelry, and the like should be taken along. You will be transported by motor vehicle to the nearest railway station. From there you will travel on to the West. Please tell the bearer of this letter how large your family is."

By 1947, this evacuation operation had netted an estimated 1,800 technicians and scientists and 3,700 family members. Those with special skills or knowledge were taken to detention and interrogation centers, such as one code-named "Dustbin" (located first at Chesnay, near Versailles and then moved to Kransberg Castle outside Frankfurt) to be held and interrogated, in some cases for months.

A few of the scientists were gathered as a part of Operation Overcast, but most were transported to villages in the countryside where there were neither research facilities nor work; they were provided with stipends, and required to report twice weekly to police headquarters to prevent them from leaving. The Joint Chiefs of Staff directive on research and teaching stated that technicians and scientists should be released "only after all interested agencies were satisfied that all desired intelligence information had been obtained from them".

On November 5, 1947, the Office of Military Government, United States (OMGUS), which had jurisdiction over the western part of occupied Germany, held a conference to consider the status of the evacuees, the monetary claims that the evacuees had filed against the United States, and the "possible violation by the U.S. of laws of war or Rules of Land Warfare". The OMGUS director of Intelligence Robert L. Walsh initiated a program to resettle the evacuees in the Third World, which the Germans referred to as General Walsh's Urwald-Programm ("jungle program"); but the program was not carried out. In 1948, the evacuees received settlements of 69.5 million Reichsmarks from the U.S., a settlement that soon became severely devalued during the currency reform that introduced the Deutsche Mark as the official currency of western Germany.

John Gimbel concludes that the United States held some of Germany's best minds for three years, therefore depriving the German recovery of their expertise.

Arrivals
In May 1945, the U.S. Navy "received in custody" Herbert A. Wagner, the inventor of the Hs 293 missile; for two years, he first worked at the Special Devices Center, at Castle Gould and at Hempstead House, Long Island, New York; in 1947, he moved to the Naval Air Station Point Mugu.

In August 1945, Colonel Holger Toftoy, head of the Rocket Branch of the Research and Development Division of the U.S. Army's Ordnance Corps, offered initial one-year contracts to the rocket scientists; 127 of them accepted. In September 1945, the first group of seven rocket scientists (aerospace engineers) arrived at Fort Strong on Long Island in Boston harbor: Wernher von Braun, Erich W. Neubert, Theodor A. Poppel, William August Schulze, Eberhard Rees, Wilhelm Jungert, and Walter Schwidetzky.

Beginning in late 1945, three rocket-scientist groups arrived in the United States for duty at Fort Bliss, Texas, and at White Sands Proving Grounds, New Mexico, as "War Department Special Employees".

In 1946, the United States Bureau of Mines employed seven German synthetic fuel scientists at a Fischer–Tropsch chemical plant in Louisiana, Missouri.

On June 1, 1949, the Chief of Ordnance of the United States Army designated Redstone Arsenal in Huntsville, Alabama, as the Ordnance Rocket Center, its facility for rocket research and development. On April 1, 1950, the Fort Bliss missile development operation, including von Braun and his team of over 130 Paperclip members, was transferred to Redstone Arsenal.

In early 1950, legal U.S. residency for some of the Project Paperclip specialists was effected through the U.S. consulate in Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, Mexico; thus, German scientists legally entered the United States from Latin America.

Between 1945 and 1952, the United States Air Force sponsored the largest number of Paperclip scientists, importing 260 men, of whom 36 returned to Germany, and one, Walter Schreiber, emigrated to Argentina.

The United States Army Signal Corps employed 24 specialists—including the physicists Georg Goubau, Gunter Guttwein, Georg Hass, Horst Kedesdy, and Kurt Lehovec; the physical chemists Rudolf Brill, Ernst Baars, and Eberhard Both; the geophysicist Helmut Weickmann; the optician Gerhard Schwesinger; and the engineers Eduard Gerber, Richard Guenther, and Hans Ziegler.

In 1959, 94 Operation Paperclip men went to the United States, including Friedwardt Winterberg and Friedrich Wigand.

Overall, through its operations to 1990, Operation Paperclip imported 1,600 men as part of the intellectual reparations owed to the US and the UK, valued at US$10 billion in patents and industrial processes.

Major awards (in the United States)

The NASA Distinguished Service Medal is the highest award which may be bestowed by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). After more than two decades of service and leadership in NASA, four Nazi members from Operation Paperclip were awarded the NASA Distinguished Service Medal in 1969: Kurt Debus, Eberhard Rees, Arthur Rudolph, and Wernher von Braun. Ernst Geissler was awarded the medal in 1973.

The Department of Defense Distinguished Civilian Service Award is the highest civilian award given by the United States Department of Defense. After two decades of service, Nazi member from Operation Paperclip Siegfried Knemeyer was awarded the Department of Defense Distinguished Civilian Service Award in 1966.

The Goddard Astronautics Award is the highest honor bestowed for notable achievements in the field of astronautics by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA). For their service, three Operation Paperclip members were awarded the Goddard Astronautics Award: Wernher von Braun (1961), Hans von Ohain (1966), and Krafft Arnold Ehricke (1984).

The U.S. Space & Rocket Center in Huntsville, Alabama, owns and operates the U.S. Space Camp. Several Operation Paperclip members are members of the Space Camp Hall of Fame (which began in 2007): Wernher von Braun (2007), Georg von Tiesenhausen (2007), and Oscar Holderer (2008).

The New Mexico Museum of Space History includes the International Space Hall of Fame. Two Operation Paperclip members are members of the International Space Hall of Fame: Wernher von Braun (1976) and Ernst Steinhoff (1979). Hubertus Strughold was inducted in 1978 but removed as a member in 2006. Other closely related members include Willy Ley (1976), a German-American science writer, and Hermann Oberth (1976), a German scientist who advised von Braun's rocket team in the U.S. from 1955 to 1958; neither Ley, nor Oberth moved to the US via the Operation Paperclip.

Two lunar craters are named after Paperclip scientists: Debus after Kurt Debus, the first director of NASA's Kennedy Space Center, and von Braun.

Adolf Busemann
Dr. Adolf Busemann was born in Lubeck, Germany, in 1902. He graduated from the Carolo Wilhelmina Technical University in Braunschweig and received a Ph.D. in engineering in 1924. In 1925, the Max-Planck Institute invited him to become an official aeronautical research scientist, and in 1930, he became a professor at Georgia Augusta University in Goettingen.

Busemann spent many years working for the German government, most notably directing research at the Braunschweig Laboratory. He gave a speech in 1935 at the Volta Congress, an international meeting on the problems of high-speed aeronautics. At this conference, he presented his first theory of how the angle of sweep of a plane wing reduces drag at supersonic speed. After the war, he traveled to the United States to assist them with the war tensions with Russia, where he continued his work on his theory of wing sweep.

Wernher von Braun
Wernher von Braun is known for developing rocket and space-flight technology, including the V-2 missile. In late 1932, he worked for the German army to develop new liquid propulsion-based missiles. He received a doctorate in physics in 1934 from the Friedrich-Wilhelms University of Berlin. He and his team then surrendered to the Allies at the end of World War II, shortly after Hitler's suicide in 1945. They were brought to America through Operation Paperclip and assimilated into NASA's space program, where they worked on missile technology at Fort Bliss before transferring to Huntsville, Alabama. He became the director of the Marshall Space Flight Center in 1960.

Von Braun is also a controversial figure for his involvement with the Nazi party and the slave labor involved in developing the V-2 rocket in Germany before it began to be developed in the United States. He became a member of the Nazi party in 1937 and was made a junior SS officer in 1940.

Marshall Space Flight Center

In July 1960, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) established the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) in Huntsville, Alabama after taking control of the Development Operations Division from the Army's Redstone Arsenal. The Redstone Arsenal was led by the Army Ballistic Missile Agency. Wernher von Braun became the first director of the MSFC. The MSFC's development team was formed by American engineers from the Redstone Arsenal and 118 German migrants who came from Peenemünde through Operation Paperclip. Von Braun worked with Operation Paperclip to get scientists from his team to the United States. They began work at Fort Bliss in El Paso, Texas in September 1945, and most of the team had arrived by 1946. Von Braun and his team worked as consultants for the military until 1950 when they began transferring to Huntsville.

Originally, the center focused on weaponry and further development of the V-2 rocket line but later became one of NASA's main development centers for space flight project. The team also worked on missions that related to Moon landing missions, such as the Lunar Roving Vehicle. However, the main projects from the Marshall Space Flight Center were the V-2 rocket and the Apollo missions.

V-2 rocket

The V-2 rocket was developed in Germany at the Peenemünde military research center. Wernher von Braun was the director of Peenemünde and worked with a team of engineers, physicists, and chemists. The Nazis used the V-2 rocket during World War II to attack Paris and Great Britain. Roughly five thousand people died in these attacks. The location of V-2 production moved to Mittelwerk in Nordhausen after a British raid on Peenemünde on August 17, 1943. Mittelwerk was supplemented with slave labor from Dora, a nearby concentration camp.

Production of the V-2 missile then moved to the United States after Wernher von Braun surrendered to the Allies (Hall 2022). In March 1946, a V-2 was test-fired in New Mexico, followed by the first launch of a captured V-2 in April of the same year. After months of adaptation, a V-2 missile was fired in White Sands Proving Ground, New Mexico that broke a record with an altitude of 116 miles (186.68 km). The V-2 rockets were used to test the effects of cosmic rays on fruit flies and seeds. They also took the first pictures of Earth from 100 miles (160.93 km) in the air and tested g-force on various monkeys.

Apollo missions

The Marshall Space Flight Center was one of three institutions at NASA involved in the Apollo program. The Center was equipped to become a part of Apollo because it had the facilities to study rocketry: Aero-Astrodynamics, Astrionics, Space Sciences, Propulsion and Vehicle Engineering, Computation, Manufacturing, Test, and Quality. Each of these laboratories handled a different aspect of creating and testing rockets that suited the shift from military weapons to space travel. The weaponry from WWII, including rocket and missile in the United States, set the precedent for the kinds of technology used to create the Saturn rocket line. The Marshall engineers' experience in rocket development led to what Dieter Grau, head of the Quality lab, described as a "rigid inspection program" focused on craftsmanship. This meant to create prototypes that had a higher success rate instead of lesser prototypes that required more tests.

The American and German Marshall engineers created the launch vehicles and designed some launching facilities at Cape Canaveral, Florida during the Apollo program. They also created the Saturn rocket line, which was the kind of rocket that sent American astronauts to the Moon. The Saturn rocket line drew on previous military engineering, such as the liquid propulsion system developed from von Braun's V-2 rocket and navigation systems derived from the US army's Redstone and Jupiter rockets.

Controversy and investigations
Before his official approval of the program, President Truman was indecisive about it for sixteen months. Years later in 1963, Truman recalled that he was not in the least reluctant to approve Paperclip; that because of relations with the Soviet Union "this had to be done and was done". Several of the Paperclip scientists were later investigated because of their links with the Nazi Party during the war. Only one Paperclip scientist, Georg Rickhey, was formally tried for any crime, and no Paperclip scientist was found guilty of any crime, in the United States or Germany. Rickhey was returned to Germany in 1947 to stand at the Dora Trial, where he was acquitted.

In 1951, weeks after his U.S. arrival, Walter Schreiber was linked by the Boston Globe to human experiments conducted by Kurt Blome at Ravensbrück; he emigrated to Argentina with the aid of the U.S. military.

In 1984, Arthur Rudolph, under perceived threat of prosecution relating to his connection – as operations director for V-2 missile production – to the use of forced labor from Mittelbau-Dora at the Mittelwerk, renounced his U.S. citizenship and moved to West Germany, which granted him citizenship. Von Braun was investigated in 1961 for his involvement in the Nazi party as an SS member. The FBI concluded that he had joined the Nazi Party solely to advance his academic career and to avoid imprisonment.

For 50 years, from 1963 to 2013, the Strughold Award – named after Hubertus Strughold, "the father of space medicine", for his central role in developing innovations like the space suit and space life support systems – was the most prestigious award from the Space Medicine Association, a member organization of the Aerospace Medical Association. On October 1, 2013, in the aftermath of a Wall Street Journal article published on December 1, 2012, which highlighted his connection to human experiments during WWII, the Space Medicine Association's executive committee announced that the Space Medicine Association Strughold Award had been retired.

Similar operations

 * Operation APPLEPIE: Project to capture and interrogate key Wehrmacht, RSHA AMT VI, and General Staff officers knowledgeable of the industry and economy of the USSR.
 * Operation Bloodstone: Project to recruit and utilize personnel in Eastern Europe to foster anti-Communism.
 * Camp Dustbin (counterpart of Camp Ashcan): An Anglo-American military interrogation camp for German scientists and industry specialists.
 * ECLIPSE (1944): An unimplemented Air Disarmament Wing plan for post-war operations in Europe for destroying V-1 and V-2 missiles.
 * Safehaven: US project within ECLIPSE meant to prevent the escape of Nazi scientists from Allied-occupied Germany.
 * Field Information Agency, Technical (FIAT): US Army agency for securing the "major, and perhaps only, material reward of victory, namely, the advancement of science and the improvement of production and standards of living in the United Nations, by proper exploitation of German methods in these fields"; FIAT ended in 1947, when Operation Paperclip began functioning.
 * National Interest/Project 63: Job placement assistance for Nazi engineers at Lockheed, Martin Marietta, North American Aviation, and other aeroplane companies, whilst American aerospace engineers were being laid off work.
 * Alsos Mission, Operation Big, Operation Epsilon, Russian Alsos: American, British and Soviet efforts to capture German nuclear secrets, equipment, and personnel.
 * Operation Backfire: A British effort at recovering rocket and aerospace technology, followed by assembling and testing rockets at Cuxhaven.
 * Fedden Mission: British mission to gain technical intelligence concerning advanced German aircraft and their propulsion systems.
 * Operation LUSTY (Luftwaffe Secret Technology): US efforts to capture Luftwaffe equipment, technology, and personnel.
 * Technical Air Intelligence Unit: joint Allied military intelligence units formed to recover Japanese aircraft
 * Operation Osoaviakhim (sometimes transliterated as "Operation Ossavakim"), a Soviet counterpart of Operation Paperclip, involving German technicians, managers, skilled workers and their respective families who were transferred to the USSR in October 1946.
 * Operation Surgeon: British operation for denying German aeronautical expertise to the USSR, and for exploiting German scientists in furthering British research.
 * Special Mission V-2: April–May 1945 US operation, by Maj. William Bromley, that recovered parts and equipment for 100 V-2 missiles from a Mittelwerk underground factory in Kohnstein within the Soviet zone. Major James P. Hamill co-ordinated the transport of the equipment on 341 railroad cars with the 144th Motor Vehicle Assembly Company, from Nordhausen to Erfurt, just before the Soviets arrived. (See also Operation Blossom, Project Hermes, and Operation Sandy)
 * TICOM: Anglo/US project to exploit German cryptographers.

title: Operation Paperclip


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Talk:Larousse Gastronomique

[Untitled]
Yes, I know what I wrote in the comments box for my Edit had an error. I wrote: "Ne plus altra was misspelt, and the phrase is too obscure". The altra was a typo, it's "ne plus ultra" and means "the very best of". Adrian Pingstone 19:27 29 Jun 2003 (UTC)

 * Strictly speaking, ne plus ultra means "not more beyond" or "nothing more beyond". Jhobson1 (talk) 12:16, 29 July 2011 (UTC)

I can't remember much detail, or i would add it and see if it's found to be encyclopedic: there was a stir in the late 1960s or early 1970s about the new edition of LG endorsing the consumption of rhubarb leaves, of which 25 g. (less than an ounce) is likely to kill you due to their high content of oxalic acid. --Jerzy(t) 18:17, 2004 Nov 5 (UTC)

25 grams of oxalic acid will.kill you, not 25g of leaves. In fact, 25g of acid correspond to about 8kg of leaves.

A reference template is available for the US version

usage :

Trivia
This book is shown and read in Red Dragon (film) and Julie & Julia. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 111.251.192.145 (talk) 09:19, 27 February 2011 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Larousse Gastronomique


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Bea (Dennis the Menace)

Beatrice "Bea" Menace is a fictional character from the British comic magazine The Beano. She was born in issue 2931 (introduced by David Parkins) and is the baby sister of Dennis the Menace. She appears frequently in her brother's comic strip, but would receive comic strips of her own to star in, including a crossover comic strip with Ivy the Terrible.

She is very flatulent and often farts. She uses her farts as a way of menacing.

Physical appearance
Bea's appearance is extremely similar to her elder brother's in that she sports short jet-black messy hair and a behind the nose grin. She is a toddler who wears a striped yellow and black onesie with a short ponytail with a yellow hair band to match. After the 2009 re-launch of Dennis and Gnasher, eyelashes were added to her appearance and she became far more baby-like in not only looks but also personality.

David Parkins had always intended that the character would be called "Bea" (short for Beatrice), but the comic staff decided to put the name up for a reader vote. The readers seemed to agree with Parkins, as "Bea" won the vote by a nearly two-thirds majority. Dennis' Mum regularly shouts, "Bea! No!" whenever she misbehaves.

Introduction to The Beano
As part of The Beano 65th anniversary, issue 2925 teased a "big surprise". Five issues later, Dennis' parents announced his mother was pregnant, making Dennis faint in shock, but ended on a cliffhanger as his mother went into labour and rushed to the nearby hospital. The front cover of the following issue showed Dennis' delighted father rushing out of the maternity ward to tell his son (and Gnasher) "It's a girl!" The story inside showed Dennis and Gnasher's worry that a little sister would mean constant crying, baby toys all over the house, and that she could grow up to be an ultra-feminine little girl obsessed with makeup and perfume, who over-occupies the bathroom. The final panels reveal he has nothing to worry about as Walter takes a family photo that shows Bea kicking her father in the mouth and spraying her mother with a milk bottle. She would later win the vote for naughtiest baby in Beanotown at a week old.

Solo stories
In issue 2935, Bea starred in Beaginnings drawn by Nigel Parkinson. It was about her misbehaviour at home, saying her first word ("mud") and playing with her older brother's pets. The title changed to Dennis's Little Sister Bea – the Mini-Menace from issue 3099, but was also known as Bea. She shares notable similarities with fellow Beano character, Ivy the Terrible, who, from August 2008, joined Bea in her strip, renamed Bea and Ivy. Nigel Parkinson continued as artist, as Ivy had been reprinted before the team up.

Bea's own strip returned for a few issues in 2009, however, this was dropped later that year, mainly due to her older brother's relaunch. In 2010 Bea joined up with Gnipper and Harley, Gran's pet pig, in a new strip titled The Bea Team, the title being a parody of The A-Team film which was released around the time the strip was in The Beano. In 2014, Bea returned to her strip drawn by Nigel Parkinson.

Subsequent appearances
Issue 2942 (5 December 1998) was a special issue dedicated to her, where she appeared in every strip in the comic.

Bea makes appearances in the CBBC series Dennis the Menace and Gnasher.

title: Bea (Dennis the Menace)


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Index of ethics articles

This index of ethics articles puts articles relevant to well-known ethical (right and wrong, good and bad) debates and decisions in one place - including practical problems long known in philosophy, and the more abstract subjects in law, politics, and some professions and sciences. It lists also those core concepts essential to understanding ethics as applied in various religions, some movements derived from religions, and religions discussed as if they were a theory of ethics making no special claim to divine status.

A
A Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain

Abortion, legal and moral issues

absolutism

abuse of trust

Academic integrity

Accidentalism

accounting reform

Act utilitarianism

Adam Zachary Newton

adultery

advertising

Advice (opinion)

Aequiprobabilism

Affect (philosophy)

Agathusia and aschimothusia

Ahimsa

All men are created equal

Altruism

Amoralism

animal rights

anti-psychiatry

Anti-social behaviour

Antidosis

Antinatalism

Antinomianism

applied ethics

arbitration

archaeological ethics

Argument from morality

Aristotelianism

arrogance

artificial intelligence

Ascriptivism

authority

Autonomy

avarice

axiology

B
Backbiting

Beginning of human personhood

Biocentrism (ethics)

biodefense

bioethics

biosafety

biosafety protocol

biosecurity

Biosphere Reserve

biowar

black market

blame

borders

Brownie points

Business and Professional Ethics Journal

Buddhist ethics

business ethics

Business Ethics Quarterly

C
capital punishment

carceral state

case-based reasoning specifically

casuistry

categorical imperative

Catholic Probabilism

censorship

child labor

Chrematistics

Christian ethics

circumcision

civics

civil law

civil procedure

cloning especially - human cloning

Cognitivism (ethics)

Coherent Extrapolated Volition

Collectivism and individualism

Commensurability (ethics)

Common good

common sense

Compassion

Compensationism

Competing goods

conceptual metaphor

Confucianism

Conscience

consensual crime

consensus decision making

consensus reality

consent

Consequentialism

conservation

conservation movement

consumerism

Contextualism

Contractualism

Conventionalism

corporate accountability

corporate crime

Corporate Social Entrepreneurship

Corruption

courage

cowardice

creative accounting

Crime

criminal justice (- retributive justice - restorative justice - transformative justice - psychiatric imprisonment)

Critique of Practical Reason

cult

cultural bias

Cynicism (philosophy)

Cynicism (contemporary)

D
debt

debt slavery

Decadence

Decisionism

deliberative democracy

democracy

Deontological ethics

deontology

descriptive ethics

Desert (philosophy)

Dignity

Dirty hands

discourse ethics

discrediting tactic

Discrimination

dissent

distribution of wealth

Distrust

divine command theory

doctrine of double effect

dog fighting

dominator culture

Double-mindedness

doubt

duty

Darwinism

E
Ecological Self

education reform

educational perennialism

egalitarianism

Egoism

election

elitism

Emotivism

environmental ethics

envy

epistemic community

equality

equity

ethic of care

ethical calculus

ethical code

Ethical decision

Ethical dilemma

ethical egoism

ethical extensionism

Ethical formalism

ethical implications in contracts

Ethical intuitionism

ethical investing

ethical naturalism

ethical non-naturalism

ethical purchasing

Ethical relationship

Ethical Theory and Moral Practice

ethicist

Ethics

Ethics AdviceLine for Journalists

Ethics & International Affairs (journal)

Ethics Bowl

Ethics in mathematics

Ethics in religion

Ethics of artificial intelligence

Ethics of care

Ethics of eating meat

Ethics of justice

Ethics of uncertain sentience

etiquette

Eudaimonia

Eupraxis

Eutaxiology

euthanasia

evil

exploratory engineering

Expressivism

Extrication morality

F
faction

fair trade

family values

Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence)

forgiveness

Formal ethics

fornication

free software

Free will

Freedom

Friedman doctrine

fundamentalism

G
gender

gene therapy

genetic modification

genocide

world debt

gluttony

goodness

Government ethics

graded absolutism

greed

Green movement

group entity

guilt

H
Hamartiology

Happiness

Halal

Haram

hate

hedonism

Heresy

Higher good

homeschooling

Homestead principle

homosexuality

honesty

Honour

How Are We to Live?

human cloning

human resources

human rights

Humanitarianism

I
Ideal (ethics)

Ideology

Immorality

In vitro fertilisation

individualism

Initiation of force

Injustice

Insects in ethics

Institutional cruelty

instructional technology

Internalism and externalism

international law

Intrinsic value (ethics)

Islamic ethics

Islamization of knowledge

J
Jainism

Jain ethics

jealousy

Jewish ethics

Jewish medical ethics

Journal of Business Ethics

Journal of Business Ethics Education

journalism ethics and standards

Just war

K
Kathekon

Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal

L
land ethic

law

legal code (examples: - English Common Law - Napoleonic Code - United States constitutional law)

Legalism (theology)

Li (Confucianism)

liability

Liberty

logical positivism

Love and Responsibility

lust

lying (see - doctrine of mental reservation)

M
Machine ethics

marketing

Max Lüscher

McDonald Centre

Means to an end

mediation

medical ethics

mercy

meta-ethics

Miguel A. De La Torre

military medical ethics

Misotheism

modern Islamic philosophy

Modern Moral Philosophy

molecular engineering

monetary reform

moral absolutism

Moral agency

Moral bioenhancement

moral code (examples: - Golden Rule - Noble Eightfold Path - Ten Commandments)

Moral character

moral community

Moral compass

Moral development

Moral economy

Moral emotions

Moral equivalence

moral equivalent

moral example

Moral hierarchy

Moral imperative

Moral luck

Moral nihilism

Moral obligation

Moral particularism

Moral patienthood

Moral perception

Moral psychology

Moral rationalism

Moral reasoning

Moral relativism

Moral responsibility

moral skepticism

moral syndrome

moral universalism

Moralism

Mussar Movement (Jewish ethical movement)

N
national sovereignty

nationalism

Natural and legal rights

Natural law

Natural order (philosophy)

naturalistic fallacy

neuroethics

Nihilism

Noble lie

Non-cognitivism

nonviolence

Norm (philosophy)

normative ethics

O
oath

Objectivism

Objectivist movement

Organizational ethics

ownership

P
paradox of hedonism

Parenting For Everyone

particle physics

Passion play

Paternalism

peacekeeping

Personism

persuasion technology

Pessimism

philosophy of law

Philosophy of love

plagiarism

planned obsolescence

Pleonexia

poker collusion

political privacy

Population ethics

Postgenderism

Poverty

power

precautionary principle

predation problem

Prevention of Disasters Principle

pride

Principia Ethica

Principle

Principlism

Prior Informed Consent

Prioritarianism

privacy

Probabilism

professional ethics

Projectivism

Promise

Proportionalism

Protected values

Protrepsis and paraenesis

Prudentialism

psychological pain

public relations

punishment

Puruṣārtha

Q
Quality (philosophy)

Quasi-realism

R
race to the bottom

racism

Rational egoism

reflective equilibrium

Regulatory ethics

relationship between animal ethics and environmental ethics

relationship between religion and science

relationship ethics

relativism

Relativism

religion

religious law

ren

reproductive technology

Resources for clinical ethics consultation

revenge

Reverence for Life

revolt

Righteousness

Rights

Rights Ethics

Ring of Gyges

Roboethics

Rule egoism

rural development

S
Samaritan's dilemma

satyagraha

scandal

scientific misconduct

scientism

Scientology ethics and justice

Secular ethics

Selling out

Seny

Sexual ethics

Shame

sin

situational ethics

sloth

social control

sociology of knowledge

soundbite

Speciesism

Stem cell controversy

Sten Philipson

Stewardship

Stockholder theory

stoicism

subjectivism

Suffering

suffering-focused ethics

suicide (philosophical views)

Supererogation

T
Taboo

Teaism

Tearoom Trade

Techniques of neutralization

technology assessment

telemarketing

Telishment

The Ethical Slut

The Schizophrenia of Modern Ethical Theories

theory of value

Thick concept

Title-transfer theory of contract

Torture

tragedy of the commons

Trail ethics

transhumanism

Transsexualism

triage

Trolley problem

trust

Trust (social sciences)

Tirukkural

U
Ubuntu (ideology)

Universal code (ethics)

Universal law

Universal prescriptivism

universal values

urban secession

usury

Utilitarian bioethics

utilitarianism

V
Value (ethics)

Value judgment

value of Earth

value of life

Value pluralism

value theory

vanity

Veganism

Vegetarianism

Veil of ignorance (philosophy)

verbal abuse

Veritism

victimless crime

Virtue

virtue ethics

Visual ethics

Vojin Rakić

Voluntary Principles on Security and Human Rights

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

vow

W
war

Welfarism

Wild animal suffering

will (philosophy)

wrath

Wrong

title: Index of ethics articles


text:
Talk:Springfield (The Simpsons)

"Learn to Fart state" listed at Redirects for discussion
An editor has asked for a discussion to address the redirect Learn to Fart state. Please participate in the redirect discussion if you wish to do so. Hog Farm (talk) 19:42, 20 February 2020 (UTC)

Enriched Learning Center for Gifted Children
What about the Enriched Learning Center for Gifted Children that Bart goes to in one of the first episodes? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.168.238.221 (talk) 06:50, 16 May 2020 (UTC)

Sources are needed for the (currently removed) section "Bars and Restaurants"
We can't remove this section. Reliable citations need to be found and added so it can be kept. IPs are people too 🇺🇸🦅 05:13, 16 October 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Springfield (The Simpsons)


text:
FoxTrot

FoxTrot is an American comic strip written and illustrated by Bill Amend. The strip launched on April 10, 1988, and it originally ran seven days a week. From December 31, 2006 onwards, FoxTrot has only appeared on Sundays.

The strip revolves around the daily lives of the Fox family, composed of parents Andrea (Andy) and Roger and their children, Peter, Paige, and Jason. It covers a wide range of subject matter, including spoofs of pop culture fads, nerd culture, complex math, and popular consumer products.

Publication history
Cartoonist Bill Amend states that after he submitted strips for three years, in 1987 Universal Press Syndicate (UPS) offered him a contract. FoxTrot was first syndicated by UPS on April 10, 1988.

On December 5, 2006, Universal Press Syndicate issued a press release stating that Amend's strip, FoxTrot, would turn into a Sunday-only strip and the comic confirming it was on December 25 2006 just 20 days later. Amend stated that he wanted to continue doing the strip, but at a less hurried pace. This news was followed by a week-long arc of the characters discussing a "cartoonist" semi-retiring to Sundays only, and what methods he would use to phase out the daily strips. The last daily strip was shown on December 30, 2006. At the end of its run as a daily comic, FoxTrot was carried by more than 1,200 newspapers worldwide. Since moving to one comic every week, Amend has said that it's harder to remain topical because Sunday's deadline is 30 days ahead of publication, compared with just 10-day deadlines the rest of the week. Amend and fellow cartoonist Stephan Pastis joked that Amend switched to a Sundays-only schedule "so he could spend 18 hours a day playing World of Warcraft."

Characters and story
FoxTrot takes place with the daily lives of the Foxes, a suburban family, composed of father Roger, mother Andrea (Andy), and their children: Peter (age 16), Paige (14), and Jason (10), who live together. The Fox family lives in a suburban setting. Amend has said he has never specified where the Foxes live, and he has shown them taking vacations to the desert and various amusement parks and campgrounds.

Amend majored in physics at Amherst College, and his knowledge on the subject is sometimes reflected in FoxTrot's frequent inclusion of complex mathematical or physics formulae, usually written by Jason, whom Amend described as "largely an exaggerated representation of [his] own geeky nature." Jason is also used to express Amend's knowledge of computer languages.

Additional characters include Jason's pet iguana Quincy; Jason's friend Marcus and his classmate Eileen Jacobson; Paige's friend Nicole and her classmate Morton Goldthwait; Peter's blind girlfriend, Denise, and his friend Steve; and other friends and classmates of the children and Roger's co-workers. Like many comic strips, FoxTrot employs a floating timeline "for specific reasons and to create specific dynamics between [Peter, Paige, and Jason]."

Books
The strips have been printed in 45 different books, all by Andrews McMeel Publishing. Of the 45 books, 31 are collections and 14 are anthologies. The anthologies are composed of the two or three previous collections and include Sunday strips in color.

Merchandising
During the late 1990s, the character of Jason Fox was licensed to Wolfram Research as a product mascot for its mathematica software package.

title: FoxTrot


text:
Stavka

The Stavka (Russian and Ukrainian: Ставка, Belarusian: Стаўка) is a name of the high command of the armed forces formerly used formerly in the Russian Empire and Soviet Union and currently in Ukraine.

In Imperial Russia Stavka referred to the administrative staff, and to the General Headquarters in the late 19th-century Imperial Russian armed forces and subsequently in the Soviet Union. In Western literature it is sometimes written in uppercase (STAVKA), although it is not an acronym. Stavka may refer to its members, as well as to the headquarters location (its original meaning from the old Russian word ставка, 'tent').

Stavka of the Supreme Commander during World War I
The commander-in-chief of the Russian army at the beginning of World War I was Grand Duke Nicholas Nicholaievitch, a grandson of Tsar Nicholas I. Appointed at the last minute in August 1914, he played no part in formulating the military plans in use at the beginning of the war. Nikolai Yanushkevich was his chief of staff. In the summer of 1915 the Tsar himself took personal command, with Mikhail Alekseyev as his chief of staff. In the years 1915–1917 Stavka was based in Mogilev and the Tsar, Nicholas II, spent long periods there as Commander-in-Chief.

The Stavka was divided into several departments:
 * Department of General-Quartermaster (Operations department)
 * Department of General on Duty (Organisation of troops, supplies, promotions, staff matters)
 * Department of military transportations
 * Naval department
 * Diplomatic chancery (liaison with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs)

The Stavka was first established in Baranovichi. In August 1915, after the German advance, the Stavka re-located to Mogilev.

Chiefs of staff

 * 19 July 1914 – 18 August 1915: Lieutenant-General (from 22 October 1914, General of Infantry) Nikolai Yanushkevich
 * 18 September 1915 – 1 April 1917: General of Infantry (from 1916 adjutant General) Mikhail Alekseyev
 * 10 November 1916 – 17 February 1917: General of Cavalry Vasily Gurko
 * 11 March 1917 – 5 April 1917: General of Infantry Vladislav Klembovsky
 * 5 April 1917 – 31 May 1917: Lieutenant-General Anton Denikin
 * 2 June 1917 – 30 August 1917: Lieutenant-General Alexander Lukomsky
 * 30 August 1917 – 9 September 1917: General of Infantry Mikhail Alekseyev
 * 10 October 1917 – 3 November 1917: Lieutenant-General Nikolay Dukhonin
 * 3 November 1917 – 7 November 1917: Major General Mikhail Dieterichs
 * 7 November 1917 – February 1918: Major General Mikhail Bonch-Bruevich

Stavka of the Red Army during World War II
The Stavka of the Soviet Armed Forces during World War II, or the headquarters of the "Main Command of the Armed Forces of the USSR" (Stavka Glavnogo Komandovaniya) (Ставка Главного Командования Вооруженных Сил Союза ССР), was established on 23 June 1941 by a top-secret decree signed by Joseph Stalin in his capacities both as the head of government and as the leader of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. According to this decree, Stavka was composed of the defence minister Marshal Semyon Timoshenko (as its president), the head of General Staff Georgy Zhukov, Stalin, Vyacheslav Molotov, Marshal Kliment Voroshilov, Marshal Semyon Budyonny and the People's Commissar (Narkom) of the Navy Admiral Nikolai Gerasimovich Kuznetsov.

The same decree organized at Stavka "the institution of permanent counsellors of Stavka": Marshal Kulik, Marshal Shaposhnikov, Kirill Meretskov, head of the Air force Zhigarev, Nikolay Vatutin, head of Air Defence Voronov, Mikoyan, Kaganovich, Lavrenty Beria, Voznesensky, Zhdanov, Malenkov, Mekhlis.

Very soon afterwards, the deputy defence minister of the army, Meretskov, was arrested following false charges made by Beria and Merkulov. Meretskov was subsequently released from jail on the same day, at the end of the first week of September 1941, which was called for by Stalin.

Stavka's Main Command was reorganized into the Stavka of the Supreme Command (Stavka Verkhovnogo Komandovaniya) on 10 July 1941. This action occurred after Stalin was named Supreme Commander, and replaced Timoshenko as head of Stavka. On 8 August 1941 it was again reorganized into Stavka of the Supreme Main Command (Stavka Verkhovnogo Glavnokomandovaniya).

On the same day Strategic Directions commands were instituted.

A 17 February 1945 decree set out the membership of Stavka as Stalin (President), Zhukov, Aleksandr Vasilevsky, Aleksei Antonov, Nikolai Bulganin and Kuznetsov.

Stavka of the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of Ukraine
The Stavka of the Supreme Commander-in-Chief (Ставка Верховного Головнокомандувача) is the highest command and control body for the troops and individual branches of the Armed Forces of Ukraine, as well as law enforcement services and agencies of Ukraine, which are part of the Armed Forces, formed by decree of the President of Ukraine No. 72/2022 dated February 24, 2022 in response to the Russian invasion of Ukraine on that day.

title: Stavka


text:
Lambic

Lambic is a type of beer brewed in the Pajottenland region of Belgium southwest of Brussels and in Brussels itself since the 13th century. Types of lambic beer include gueuze, kriek lambic, and framboise. Lambic differs from most other beers in that it is fermented through exposure to wild yeasts and bacteria native to the Zenne valley, as opposed to exposure to carefully cultivated strains of brewer's yeast. This process gives the beer its distinctive flavour: dry, vinous, and cidery, often with a tart aftertaste.

Etymology
This beverage is first mentioned in 1794 as allambique. The initial 'a' was dropped early on so that in an 1811 advertisement it was called lambicq, though it was sometimes referred to as alambic as late as 1829. The name may stem from alembic, a type of still used for producing local spirits such as cognac and jenever (but not used in the production of lambic). Breweries in and around Lembeek, a village near Halle, Belgium, have attempted to associate lambic with that name, including through the legend of local saint Veronus of Lembeek.

Brewing

Lambic is generally brewed from a grist containing about 60–70% barley malt and 30–40% unmalted wheat. The wort is cooled overnight in a shallow, flat, metal pan (generally copper or stainless steel) called a coolship, where it is left exposed to the open air so more than 120 different types of microorganisms may inoculate the wort. This cooling process requires night-time temperatures between -8 and 8 C. While this cooling method of open-air exposure is a critical feature of the style, the key yeasts and bacteria that perform the fermentation reside within the breweries' timber fermenting vessels. Over 80 microorganisms have been identified in lambic beer, the most significant being Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Saccharomyces pastorianus, and Brettanomyces bruxellensis. The process is generally only possible between October and May as in the summer, too many unfavourable organisms that are in the air could spoil the beer. In Brussels dialect, lambic produced after this traditional brewing season is referred to as bezomerd, meaning that it has had "too much summer". Climate change is further shortening this limited brewing window; in the early 1900s, lambic brewers enjoyed roughly 165 days a year in the ideal temperature range, whereas by 2018, that number has shrunk to 140.

Since at least the 11th century, and probably earlier, hops have been used in beer for their natural preservative qualities and for the pleasant bitterness, flavour, and aroma they impart. Since the method of inoculation and long fermentation time of lambic beers increases the risk of spoilage, lambic brewers use large amounts of hops for their antibacterial properties. Lambic in the early 19th century was a highly hopped beer, using 8–9 g/L of the locally grown 'Aalst' or 'Poperinge' varieties. Modern lambic brewers, however, try to avoid making the beer extremely hop-forward and use aged, dry hops, which have lost much of their bitterness, aroma, and flavour. Consequently, lambics often have a strong, cheese-like, "old hop" aroma, in contrast to the resiny, herbal, earthy hop bitterness found in other styles. The favourite hop used for lambic in the nineteenth century was a variety called Coigneau which was cultivated in the Aalst-Asse area in Belgium.

After the fermentation process starts, the lambic is siphoned into barrels, mostly old port wine or sherry barrels (of chestnut or oak) from Portugal or Spain. Some brewers prefer used wine barrels. The lambic is left to ferment and mature for one or several years. It forms a velo de flor of yeast that gives some protection from oxidation, in a similar way to vin jaune and sherry; the barrels are not topped up.

Types of lambic and derived beers
Lambic is usually a blend of at least two different beers; many producers are blenders who buy beer from other brewers and blend them together to create the desired result. A gueuze may have occupied space in several different cellars over six years or more. While those outside Belgium are likely to find bottled gueuze and fruited versions, a wider variety of styles is available to local drinkers. Beers are often blended again or sweetened with sugar or flavoured syrups before drinking, as some can be extremely tart. Most, if not all, of the varieties listed below, have Traditional Speciality Guaranteed (TSG) status. This status does not specify that a product has a link to a specific geographical area.

Unblended lambic
Unblended lambic is a cloudy, uncarbonated, bracingly sour beverage that is rarely available on tap. Draught releases are generally regarded as either jonge (young) or oude (old), depending on the age and discretion of the brewer. Bottled offerings from Cantillon and De Cam can be found outside Belgium.

Gueuze
A mixture of young (one-year-old) and old (two- and three-year-old) lambics have been bottled. Because the young lambics are not yet fully fermented, they undergo secondary fermentation in the bottle and produce carbon dioxide. A gueuze is given at least a year to carbonate in the bottle, but can be kept for 10–20 years.

Mars
Mars traditionally referred to a weaker beer made from the second runnings of a lambic brewing. It is no longer commercially produced. In the 1990s, Boon Brewery made a modern Mars beer called Lembeek's 2% (the 2% referring to the alcohol content), but it is now only produced for use of Tilquin as a component of their keg beers.

Faro

Historically, Faro (beer) is a low-alcohol, sweetened beer made from a blend of lambic and a much lighter, freshly brewed beer to which brown sugar (or sometimes caramel or molasses) was added. The fresh beer was referred to as meertsbier, and was not necessarily a lambic. Sometimes herbs were added as well. The use of meertsbier (or water) and of substandard lambic in the blend made this a cheap, light, sweet drink for everyday consumption. The 19th-century French poet Charles Baudelaire commented on faro's disagreeable aftertaste in saying, "It's beer that you drink twice", believing that the faro in Brussels was brewed from the waters of a river (the Senne or Zenne) that was also used as a sewer.

The sugar was originally added shortly before serving, so does not add carbonation or alcohol to the beverage, as the sugar did not have the time to ferment. Modern faro beer is still characterized by the use of brown sugar and lambic, but is not always a light beer. The use of meertsbier has disappeared, and modern faro is not viewed as cheap or light. Today, faro is bottled, sweetened, and pasteurized to prevent refermentation in the bottle. Examples are produced by Cantillon, Boon, Oud Beersel, Lindemans or Mort Subite.

Kriek
Lambic refermented in the presence of sour cherries (usually the morello variety, or a bitter variety known as the Schaarbeek cherry) and with secondary fermentation in the bottle results in kriek. Traditional versions of kriek are dry and sour, just as with traditional gueuze.

Fruit

Lambic may be made with the addition of raspberry (framboise), peach (pêche), blackcurrant (cassis), grape (druif), or strawberry (aardbei), as either whole fruit or syrup. Other, rarer fruit lambic flavorings include apple (pomme), banana (banane), pineapple (ananas), apricot (abricot), plum (prune), cloudberry (plaquebière), lemon (citron), and blueberry (myrtille). Fruit lambics are usually bottled with secondary fermentation. Although fruit lambics are among the most famous Belgian fruit beers, the use of names such as kriek, framboise or frambozen, cassis, etc. does not necessarily imply that the beer is made from lambic. The fruit beers produced by the Liefmans Brewery, for example, use an oud bruin, rather than a lambic, as a base.

Many of the non-traditional fruit beers derived from lambic that was commercialized in the last decades are considered to be low-quality products by many beer enthusiasts. These products are typically artificially sweetened, artificially carbonated, sterilized, and based on the juice of the fruit instead of the whole fruit.

Belgian producers

Lambic beers are only produced near Brussels due to that region's natural microflora. The number of producers, which numbered more than 300 in 1900, shrank drastically throughout the 20th century. Lambic production is generally sanctioned and promoted by HORAL.

Breweries

 * 3 Fonteinen (traditional), Beersel
 * Angerik (traditional), Dilbeek
 * Belle-Vue, owned by AB InBev (sweetened, except Sélection lambic), Sint-Pieters-Leeuw
 * Boon (traditional + sweetened), Lembeek
 * Brussels Beer Project (traditional), Brussels
 * Cantillon (traditional), Brussels
 * De Troch (sweetened + traditional), Wambeek (Ternat)
 * Girardin (traditional), Sint-Ulriks-Kapelle
 * Kestemont (traditional), Sint-Gertrudis-Pede
 * Lindemans (traditional + sweetened), Vlezenbeek
 * Mort Subite, owned by Heineken, (sweetened, except Gueuze Fond), Kobbegem
 * Timmermans (sweetened, except "Traditional" line), Itterbeek
 * Van Honsebrouck produce St. Louis beers (sweetened, except Gueuze Fond Tradition) located outside of the Zenne valley, in Ingelmunster

Blenders

 * De Cam (traditional), Gooik
 * Eylenbosch, brewed at De Troch, (traditional), Zellik
 * Hanssens Artisanaal (traditional), Dworp
 * Oud Beersel, brewed by Boon, (traditional), Beersel
 * Tilquin (traditional), Rebecq

title: Lambic


text:
Nancy Spungen

Nancy Laura Spungen (February 27, 1958 – October 12, 1978) was the American girlfriend of English musician Sid Vicious and a figure of the 1970s punk rock scene.

Born and raised in Philadelphia, Spungen was an emotionally disturbed child who was diagnosed with schizophrenia at age 15. After being expelled from college, she flew to London in December 1976 at the height of the punk rock movement, where she became involved with Vicious, the bassist for the Sex Pistols. Their relationship was tumultuous, characterized by domestic violence, substance abuse and heroin addiction.

Media labeled Spungen "Nauseating Nancy" for her outrageous and frequently antisocial behavior. After John Lydon left the band and Vicious was made a focal point of subsequent band activities, the couple moved to New York City and checked into the Hotel Chelsea, where they spent much of their time using drugs, especially heroin.

In October 1978, Spungen was found dead in the bathroom of the couple's room at the Hotel Chelsea from a single stab wound to her abdomen. Vicious was charged with her second-degree murder but died of a heroin overdose while on bail in February 1979, before the case could be brought to trial. Various authors and filmmakers have speculated about Vicious' role in Spungen's death, and the possibility that she was killed by a drug dealer who frequently visited their room.

Early life and education
Spungen was born on February 27, 1958, at the University of Pennsylvania Hospital in Philadelphia, to Franklin "Frank" (1934–2010) and Deborah Spungen (born 1937). The Spungens were a middle-class Jewish family that resided in Lower Moreland Township, a Philadelphia suburb. Spungen's father was a traveling salesman and her mother later owned an organic food store called The Earth Shop in nearby Jenkintown. Her maternal family originally emigrated to the United States from Zhmerynka, Ukraine, following the pogroms during the Russian Civil War in the 1910s.

At the time of her birth, a newborn Spungen nearly died of oxygen deprivation after being choked by her umbilical cord during delivery; it was determined that she had not suffered any serious, brain-damaging oxygen loss. However, it was then noted that Spungen’s skin was jaundiced and that she showed symptoms of severe cyanosis, forcing the newborn to undergo immediate blood transfusions; her parents were not able to see her or hold her at this point, preventing potential bonding-time. Instead, Spungen was strapped to a small hospital bed and worked on by doctors, who ultimately saved her life. She was released from the hospital eight days after her birth.

Spungen proved to be a difficult baby, throwing crying fits and temper tantrums late into childhood. At three months old, she was prescribed a liquid barbiturate by a pediatrician, something typically given to patients experiencing seizures. The medication was ineffective, and her violent behavior persisted. In 1983, Spungen's mother said, "I know it's normal for babies to cry, but Nancy did nothing but scream." Though she excelled academically, she had few friends during her elementary school years.

As a child, Spungen exhibited violent behavior toward her younger sister Susan, but was very caring toward her younger brother David. Susan, who later became a noted author and food stylist, said she had "mixed memories" of her sister: "We were happy as kids and we played together and I looked up to [Nancy]. I was 10 or 11 when she went to boarding school and then she wasn't home a lot." Spungen allegedly threatened to kill a babysitter with scissors and attempted to batter her psychiatrist, who accused her of acting out for attention. At age 11, Spungen was expelled from public school after missing class over two weeks. Weary of her erratic behavior, her parents enrolled her at Devereux Glenholme School in Washington, Connecticut, and Devereux Manor High School in Berwyn, Pennsylvania. In January 1972, Spungen ran away from Devereux Manor and attempted suicide by slitting her wrists with scissors. At age 15, her psychiatrist diagnosed her with schizophrenia.

Spungen graduated from Lakeside High School in 1974, two weeks after she was accepted to the University of Colorado Boulder. She began attending the university at age 16. Five months into her freshman year, she was arrested for attempting to purchase marijuana from an undercover police officer. After being arrested a second time for storing stolen property in her dorm room, CU Boulder expelled her. Spungen's father traveled to Boulder and accepted a plea bargain on her behalf, under which she agreed to be banished from the state of Colorado.

Relationship with Sid Vicious
Spungen left home at age 17 and moved to New York City, where she supported herself via prostitution, amateur music journalism, and retail jobs at clothing stores. In her free time, she became a groupie and followed rock bands, including Aerosmith, Bad Company, the New York Dolls, and the Ramones.

In December 1976, Spungen flew to London with The Heartbreakers and met the Sex Pistols, which later included bassist Sid Vicious. Vicious and Spungen first met the night she arrived in London. After being rejected by John Lydon, Nancy and Sid started a relationship, moving in together in March 1977.

Over their 19-month relationship from March 1977 to October 1978, Spungen and Vicious developed heroin addictions; Vicious was already abusing multiple drugs prior to meeting Spungen. Tabloids dubbed Spungen "Nauseating Nancy" for her frequent public outbursts.

In January 1978, following the breakup of the Sex Pistols, Spungen and Vicious relocated to New York City, where they lived in Room 100 at the Hotel Chelsea, where they were registered as "Mr. and Mrs. John Simon Ritchie", Vicious' real name.

Death
On October 12, 1978, Spungen's body was found under the wash basin in the bathroom of their room at the Hotel Chelsea. She had suffered a stab wound to the abdomen. Vicious owned the knife that inflicted the injury, a Jaguar Wilderness K-11 with a 5 in blade. Press misreported the murder weapon as a different knife owned by Vicious, a "007" hunting knife.

Vicious shared conflicting stories of the night Spungen died. He was immediately arrested, charged with second-degree murder, and released on bail.

Four months after Spungen's death, Vicious died of a heroin overdose prior to his trial taking place. The New York City Police Department closed the case after Vicious' death.

Spungen is buried in the King David Memorial Park, a traditional Jewish cemetery in Bensalem Township, Pennsylvania.

There are various theories about the cause of Spungen's death. Some of them do not implicate Vicious in her murder. One such theory is that two drug dealers visited their room that night and conducted a robbery. Certain items, including a substantial amount of money, were claimed to be missing from the room.

In his book Pretty Vacant: A History of Punk, Phil Strongman accuses actor and stand-up comic Rockets Redglare of killing Spungen; Redglare delivered drugs to the couple's room the night of Spungen's death. Throughout his life, Redglare (who died in 2001) steadfastly denied any involvement in the killing to the press, but allegedly confessed to the killing within his circle of friends.

In popular culture

 * In 1979, "Horror Business", a 1979 song by the American punk rock band the Misfits, was inspired by Spungen's murder. The song's lyrics include lines, such as: "You don't go in the bathroom with me" and "I'll put a knife right in you." Prior to Vicious's death, the Misfits were rumored to back Vicious on his proposed debut solo album. Misfits bassist Jerry Only attended a dinner gathering at the apartment of Michelle Robinson, Vicious's new girlfriend, the night Vicious died.
 * In 1983, Spungen's mother Deborah wrote a memoir, And I Don't Want to Live This Life. Its title is taken from a poem Vicious wrote.
 * In 1986, the film Sid and Nancy, directed by Alex Cox, was released, portraying the life of Vicious, played by Gary Oldman, and his relationship with Spungen, played by Chloe Webb. Critics praised Webb's performance as Spungen. In the film, Cox also put forth the theory that Spungen and Vicious had a suicide pact.
 * In 2007, Veronica Schanoes's story "Rats" appeared at the 2007 Interstitial Arts Foundation anthology, Interfictions. The story is a punk rock fairytale inspired by Spungen's life. Schanoes said, "I wrote 'Rats' because I was angry with the way the recent coffee-table histories of punk seem to have no problem demonizing a dead, mentally ill, teenage girl."
 * In 2010, a documentary film Who Killed Nancy?, directed by Alan G. Parker, was released, and includes interviews with Vicious and Spungen's associates, including John Holmstrom, Don Letts, Glen Matlock, and Howie Pyro.
 * In 2022, Pistol, a miniseries, was released, with Vicious portrayed by Louis Partridge. The miniseries depicts Vicious as waking up in a confused state the morning after Spungen's death with apparently vague recollections of an altercation the previous night. He is then horrified to find Spungen, played by Emma Appleton, dead in the bathroom. This version appears to accept Vicious's account that he had no memory of how Spungen had been injured.

title: Nancy Spungen