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Baby sign language

Baby sign language is the use of manual signing allowing infants and toddlers to communicate emotions, desires, and objects prior to spoken language development. With guidance and encouragement, signing develops from a natural stage in infant development known as gesture. These gestures are taught in conjunction with speech to hearing children, and are not the same as a sign language. Some common benefits that have been found through the use of baby sign programs include an increased parent-child bond and communication, decreased frustration, and improved self-esteem for both the parent and child. Researchers have found that baby sign neither benefits nor harms the language development of infants. Promotional products and ease of information access have increased the attention that baby sign receives, making it pertinent that caregivers become educated before making the decision to use baby sign.

Overview
Baby sign involves enhanced gestures and altered signs that infants are taught in conjunction with spoken words with the intention of creating richer parent-child communication. The main reason that parents use baby sign is with hope that it will reduce the frustration involved in trying to interpret their pre-verbal child's needs. It can be considered a useful method of communication in the early developmental stages, since speech production follows children's ability to express themselves through bodily movement.

Baby sign is distinct from sign language. Baby sign is used by hearing parents with hearing children to improve communication. Sign languages, including ASL, BSL, ISL and others, are natural languages, typically used in the Deaf community. Sign languages maintain their own grammar, and sentence structure. Because sign languages are as complex to learn as any spoken language, simplified signs are often used with infants in baby sign. Teaching baby signs allows for greater flexibility in the form of sign and does not require the parent to learn the grammar of a sign language. Baby signs are usually gestures or signs taken from the sign language community and modified to make them easier for an infant to form.

It is common for the difference between symbolic gestures and baby signs to be mistaken. Symbolic gestures are a form of communication that children adopt before they develop the ability to produce spoken language. This includes pointing to what they want or using a hand motion in conjunction with a word which allows greater communication for infants. Writing on the topic, Jane Collingwood states that "Infants from about six months of age can begin to learn the basic signs, which cover such objects and concepts as "thirsty", "milk", "water", "hungry", "sleepy", "pacifier", "more", "hot", "cold", "play", "bath", and "teddy bear"." Typically, developing children will produce their first gestures between the ages of 9 and 12 months without any prompting or assistance from a caregiver. Infants learn how to use their body language, eye gaze, and hand gestures as a way to attract attention and communicate. Once children gain some language production, they will couple language with gesture to further communicate. Gesture remains present in all individuals at any age which is a distinguishing factor from baby sign.

Suggested benefits
Baby sign promotes communication before a child is able to verbally communicate with others. Since gestures are part of normal speech, teaching baby sign allows infants to learn an aspect of communication that is used with language. It is not, however designed to replace language. This demonstrates that infants are able to learn gestures before mastering verbal skills. Therefore, those who learn these simplified signs may enhance their cognitive development by gaining language skills through both visual and auditory modes.

In an article in The Psychologist, Gwyneth Doherty-Sneddon has considered in detail the theory behind the growth of this phenomenon and some of the claims made by its supporters. Doherty-Sneddon points out that baby sign is not entirely new. Variations have been used by speech and language therapists for decades with children who have impairments to either their speech, cognitive abilities, or both. It is widely recognized that communication is at the heart of cognitive, social, emotional, and behavioral development in children. Baby sign may assist in improving these significant developmental functions.

Baby signs create mutual attention between the parent and child leading to further elaboration of what the infant is communicating. A study collected self-reports from mothers who had engaged in a baby sign training workshop, to clarify whether or not signing with their child would create added parental stress and/or enhance parent-child communication. Overall the parents did not express feeling heightened stress or frustration from the baby sign training process but rather they reported a greater ability to understand their child. This richer communication was found to lead to a more positive interaction with their child which overall benefits the establishment of an earlier parent-child bond.

Children who learned enhanced symbolic gestures performed better on both expressive and receptive verbal language tests compared to those who had not been encouraged to learn such gestures. Receptive language means being able to recognize words and signs, while expressive language involves the process of forming words or signs. Research has shown that enhanced gesture input for hearing children is the first step toward successfully mastering gesture use, and the use of representational form and symbolic communicative function. Improved symbolic gestures may contribute to language development by providing children with increased knowledge of concepts by explaining the functions of the objects that they are exposed to. In support of expressive language development studies have shown that learning symbolic gestures can lead to advanced verbal development and accelerated language acquisition. An effective baby sign workshop also resulted in the improvement of numerous areas of development by comparing the child's results before and after the workshop. Some of these areas included communicative, cognitive, social, adaptive behavior, physical, and fine motor skill development of children. This enhancement however, is short-lived (from between 12 and 15 months of age). Doherty-Sneddon argues, however, that this timescale represents only a general norm. The enhancement and advantage is far more extended in the many toddlers who do not speak until well after their second birthdays.

Doherty-Sneddon also states a key issue is ensuring that sufficient and appropriately designed research is available to back the claims made in relation to baby signing. A literature review concluded that although benefits were reported in 13 of 17 studies, various weaknesses in the methods used for baby sign studies leave the evidence unsupported. Certainly, research into the effects of baby signing needs better control groups, such as children who are involved in equally interesting and fun activities based around adult and child language interaction, but not baby signing. This suggestion for further research implies that it may not be the baby signs themselves that facilitate language development but rather the underlying benefit being active, joint attention that is stimulated by baby sign.

Therefore, the enhanced joint visual attention during parent-child interaction empowers the infant to focus the topic and context of the conversation, clarify concepts, and creates added practice with symbolic interaction. These underlying mechanisms of baby sign are proposed to create benefits for the infant such as; enhancing vocabulary, advancing cognitive development, reducing tantrums and frustration, and improving the parent-child relationship and communication. More specifically language development is improved by advancing comprehension, promoting literacy and successfully allowing the infant to express their needs so the parent becomes more responsive and observant of their baby.

Why it may be neither beneficial nor harmful
Researchers have suggested the possibility of parents and experimenters being overly liberal in attributing sign or word status to early attempts at communication by children. Puccini and Liszkowski found that when infants associate labels with objects, they use verbal cues more frequently than gestures to make these associations. The process of further facilitating gesturing with baby signs is suggested to possibly cause interference toward children's mapping of these words. This may be a result of infants lacking enough attention to take in these two types of information and process it at the same time. It is suggested that these labels, and further through the facilitation of baby sign, that it is unlikely that baby sign is facilitating speech development in infants.

Baby sign programs encourage parents to improve their communication skills between themselves and their infants before they have developed speech. Kirk and colleagues have found that the results of their study with hearing infants provided no evidence to support that a child's language development would benefit from learning baby sign. They also found that children who participated in baby sign had similar language development to children who did not learn baby sign. It is suggested that participating in baby sign may be an unnecessary effort with infants when being motivated by the hopes of advanced language learning for the child. However, it was found that mothers who used baby sign with their infants encouraged increased independence with them and supported a higher level of independence for their child. Another conducted research study has shown that there are no significant differences found with language acquisition between infants who are receiving or not receiving exposure to baby sign, including reaching language milestones Although no support for using baby sign was found in this study, there was also no negative effects found to be associated with language development when using baby sign with your child. It is possible that baby sign is working in support of infant's spoken language, but was not found to further their later language development.

The results of multiple studies regarding baby sign have found that the advantages provided do not go beyond children over the age of two years old. The results of this literature review have not shown support that baby sign increases a child's linguistic development. When teaching a child baby sign, an infant's attention is directed away from what they are interested in and is redirected towards the adult and the desired sign. This interaction has been claimed to increase joint attention between parent and child, but has yet to be studied enough in research literature. It has also been proposed by researchers that baby sign may increase parental stress rather than decrease it because of busy lifestyles that may be disrupting interactions between parents and children. Teaching baby sign outside of research settings does not allow for the parent to raise questions or concerns to trained individuals. Reaching fundamental linguistic milestones and the natural course of children's language development has been suggested to be disrupted because of the unnatural intervention in language development that baby sign provides, supported by the lack of support in prior studies which have been analyzed.

Learning baby sign
There are numerous concepts to keep in mind when encouraging baby sign. Caregivers should ensure that they have their infant's attention, maintain consistency with what sign is used and how it is used in relation to an item, repeat signs often, encourage the infant, and be alert to recognize when the infant is signing back.

When it comes to infants who have not yet acquired language abilities, signs are an easy and readily accessible form of communication. Prior to infants learning specific signs or developing language skills, they acquire the spontaneous use of gesture. An infant's first gesture may appear between 9–12 months of age, often classified as pointing. Gesturing gradually increases as infants connect pointing to word meaning, making a gesture-plus-word combination that will evolve into a two word combination. It is thought that gestures may be easier for infants to remember than a name alone since a gesture is representative of what the child can picture happening, when thinking about the item.

To determine how infant communication is influenced by gesture and speech, Iverson and Goldin-Meadow conducted a study. Infants in the study used eye gaze, body position, and vocalization to attract and direct their target audience's attention, while gesturing to items. Results looked to see if the gestures that children use are related to the word they say while doing the gesture. Iverson and Goldin-Meadow found that infants gesture for items that they did not have the ability to express with words. When words were produced by the child, they typically were ones that the child had already been gesturing for. This shows that gesture is directly linked to the words that children will produce.

Symbolic gesture is the specific term that encompasses baby sign. This form of gesture aids in communication through the use of hand movements that represent an item or feeling. Infants are quick to note if there is a connection between an item and a symbolic gesture. Once they make the connection infants will imitate actions that are produced by the caregiver. Consistency from the caregiver is crucial during the teaching and feedback stage in order for infants to learn from repetition. This repetition applies to how the caregiver uses the sign and in what way the sign is associated with the object or emotion. If the association changes then the child will have a harder time understanding how the symbolic gesture links to the item. One way for caregivers to ensure the infant associates the symbolic gesture with the object or emotion is to gain the infant's attention, and say the name of the object at the same time that the sign is performed.

Infants watch their caregiver during everyday routines and situations. This observation allows infants to learn symbols by borrowing the actions from the observed routine. A natural association occurs between signs and items, allowing infants to explore and express new ideas prior to language development. Infants will learn to associate a word with the general motion that they carry out while using an object, such as throwing a ball. After this association children begin to make connections with the word and motion alone, in this case a throwing gesture. Infants now can make the throwing gesture to alert caregivers that they wish to throw a ball, thus increasing their non-verbal communication. Representative abilities such as these are further used by infants to demonstrate emotional feelings as they associate a motion or sign with a feeling.

Further studies demonstrate that increasing the use of gesture, not necessarily use of a sign language, can increase the richness of a child's linguistic development. It is suggested that learning signs happens over a period of time, inferring the importance of caregivers being patient with children as it takes more than a brief interaction between parent and child. Parent-child interactions are vital to the learning of baby sign since the infant looks to the caregiver for guidance. By consciously demonstrating the sign to the infant, the caregiver and infant are sustaining joint attention which increases communication. When caregivers aid infants in creating the sign with their hands, they are further increasing encouragement, repetition, and communication. It is the caregiver's job to not only teach specific hand signals, beyond what infants naturally pick up, but to provide support and feedback to infants when signs are produced correctly. Through making a connection, and parental encouragement of that connection, infants can learn and actively engage in baby sign language.

In 1998, a program was conducted at A. Sophie Rogers Infant-Toddler Laboratory School in Ohio State University by Kimberlee Whaley. Certain signs used in American Sign Language were taught to infants, along with their teachers, to establish whether these signs could be used to increase effective communication with the very young children. From about the age of 9 months, the children began to use the signs they had learned; these included words like "eat", "juice", "more", "now", and "sleep". The program found that children would also use the signs they learned in the classroom to communicate with parents at home. Based on this study, learning baby sign appears to be a beneficial tool for children if implemented in schools and day cares.

Media and Internet influences
Due to promotional products, easy access to baby sign tutorial videos, and representations in popular culture, parental attempts at signing with their baby may be more focused on the popularity social aspects instead of an intention to potentially enhance their child's communication skills.

A study examined the degree to which information about baby sign found on the internet was based on research. Results found thirty-three websites that all promoted baby sign and the benefits associated. Over 90% of the information referred to opinion articles or promotional products encouraging parents to sign, with little to no basis in research. Although websites claim that using baby sign will reduce tantrums, increase infant's self-esteem, satisfaction, feelings of accomplishment, increase parent-child bonding, and decrease frustration, the sites do not provide enough research-based evidence to support these claims.

Another study examined internet information found using Google Scholar as well as a few academic databases. Researchers examined whether results claimed baby sign encouraged developmental, social, cognitive, and language skills while achieving a greater bond between parent and child. The goal of asking this question was to find information that allows parents, caregivers, childhood educators, and clinicians to make informed decisions about the amount of emphasis to place on baby sign. When all the cited material was gathered there were 1747 articles with only 10 articles providing research regarding infant's developmental outcome in connection to baby sign. Consensus gathered from these 10 articles states that baby sign, as used by the commercially advertised product authored by Acredolo and Goodwyn, does not benefit language production or parent-child relationships. However, there is also no evidence from these articles that baby sign is in any way harmful to infants. Through these two studies it is illustrated that websites may not contain 100% research based information. Individuals looking for information regarding the pros and cons of using baby sign should ensure they are accessing sites backed by research and not opinion.

Commercial products available to parents participating in baby sign workshops or implementing it at home, are found to be comparable to the quality of products used in research studies. It is suggested that parents be cautious of baby sign products as it is difficult to assess the credibility of commercialized products for facilitating baby sign.

title: Baby sign language


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Zakir Hussain (musician)

Zakir Hussain (born 9 March 1951) is an Indian tabla player, composer, percussionist, music producer and film actor. He is the eldest son of tabla player Alla Rakha. He is widely considered as one of the greatest tabla players of all time.

He was awarded the Padma Shri in 1988, the Padma Bhushan in 2002, and the Padma Vibhushan in 2023, by the Government of India. On 8 February 2009 for 51st Grammy Awards, Hussain won the Grammy in the Contemporary World Music Album category for his collaborative album Global Drum Project with Mickey Hart, & Giovanni Hidalgo.

He was also awarded the Govt of India's Sangeet Natak Akademi Award in 1990, Sangeet Natak Akademi Fellowship, Ratna Sadsya in 2018. In 1999, he was awarded the United States National Endowment for the Arts' National Heritage Fellowship, the highest award given to traditional artists and musicians. Hussain has received seven Grammy Award nominations, with four wins. He received three Grammys in February 2024.

Early life and education
Zakir Hussain Allaraka Qureshi was born on 9 March 1951 in Mumbai (officially known then as Bombay), India. He attended St. Michael's High School in Mahim, and graduated from St. Xavier's College, Mumbai.

Career

Hussain played on George Harrison's 1973 album Living in the Material World and John Handy's 1973 album Hard Work. He also performed on Van Morrison's 1979 album Into the Music and Earth, Wind & Fire's 1983 album Powerlight.

Mickey Hart of the Grateful Dead, who had known Hussain since the 1960s, invited him to create the special album Planet Drum, featuring drummers from different parts of the world. Featured along with Hussain, from India, was Vikku Vinayakram, with whom Hussain had collaborated in Shakti. The first Planet Drum album, released in 1991 on the Rykodisc label, went on to earn the 1992 Grammy Award for Best World Music Album, the first Grammy ever awarded in this category. The Global Drum Project album and tour brought Mickey Hart, Hussain, Sikiru Adepoju, and Giovanni Hidalgo together again in a reunion sparked by the 15th anniversary of the Planet Drum album. The album Global Drum Project won the Grammy Award for Best Contemporary World Music Album at the 51st Grammy Awards Ceremony held on 8 February 2009.

Hussain composed, performed and acted as Indian music advisor for the Malayalam film Vanaprastham, a 1999 Cannes Film Festival entry which was nominated for the Grand Jury Prize at the AFI Los Angeles International Film Festival (AFI Fest) in 1999, and won awards at 2000 Istanbul International Film Festival (Turkey), 2000 Mumbai International Film Festival (India), and 2000 National Film Awards (India). He has composed soundtracks for several movies, most notably In Custody and The Mystic Masseur by Ismail Merchant, and has played tabla on the soundtracks of Francis Coppola's Apocalypse Now, Bernardo Bertolucci's Little Buddha, and other films. He starred in several films specifically showcasing his musical performance both solo and with different bands, including the 1998 documentary Zakir and His Friends, and the documentary The Speaking Hand: Zakir Hussain and the Art of the Indian Drum (2003 Sumantra Ghosal). Hussain co-starred as Inder Lal in the 1983 Merchant Ivory film Heat and Dust, for which he was an associate music director.

Hussain is a founding member of Bill Laswell's world music supergroup Tabla Beat Science.

In 2016, Hussain was amongst many musicians invited by President Obama to the International Jazz Day 2016 All-Star Global Concert at the White House.

Haridas Vhatkar has been making Hussain's tablas for more than 18 years. Haridas said he learned how to make tabla so he could specially make them for Hussain.

Hussain has stated that he does not play at private gatherings, corporate events, or weddings; he believes music should not be heard at events where folks come to socialize, drink or enjoy a meal (music should be the sole purpose of the event).

Book
Nasreen Munni Kabir compiled 15 interview sessions (each lasting about 2 hours) from 2016 to 2017 into the book Zakir Hussain: A Life in Music, which was published in 2018. This book takes the reader through Hussain's life from his youth, his years of intense training, and growth as a musician.

Personal life
Hussain married Antonia Minnecola, a Kathak dancer and teacher, who is also his manager. They have two daughters, Anisa Qureshi and Isabella Qureshi. Anisa graduated from UCLA and is a film maker. Isabella is studying dance in Manhattan.

Hussain has two brothers: Taufiq Qureshi a percussionist, and Fazal Qureshi, also a tabla player. Their brother Munawar died at a young age when he was attacked by a rabid dog. His eldest sister Bilquis died before Hussain was born. Another sister, Razia, died due to complications during a cataract surgery, just a few hours before their father's death in 2000. He has another sister named Khurshid.

He was named an Old Dominion Fellow by the Humanities Council at Princeton University, where he resided for the 2005–2006 semester as full professor in the music department. He was also a visiting professor at Stanford University. In May 2022, he was conferred the honorary Doctor of Law (LLD) degree for his contribution to the field of music by Mumbai University.

Discography

 * Evening Ragas (1970) Vasant Rai
 * Shanti (1971)
 * Rolling Thunder (1972) – Mickey Hart
 * Shakti (1975) – Shakti with John McLaughlin
 * Karuna Supreme (MPS, 1976) - John Handy with Ali Akbar Khan
 * Hard Work - John Handy (ABC/Impulse, 1976)
 * A Handful of Beauty (1976) – Shakti with John McLaughlin
 * Diga (1976) – Diga Rhythm Band
 * Natural Elements (1977) – Shakti with John McLaughlin
 * Morning Ragas (1979) with Vasant Rai
 * Who's to Know (1980) – L. Shankar
 * Song for Everyone (1985) – L. Shankar
 * Making Music (1987) with Jan Garbarek, John McLaughlin and Hariprasad Chaurasia
 * Tabla Duet (1988) – Zakir Hussain & Alla Rakha
 * Venu (1989) – Hariprasad Chaurasia & Zakir Hussain
 * At the Edge (1990) – Mickey Hart
 * Maestro's Choice Series One (1991) – Alla Rakha
 * Planet Drum (1991) – Mickey Hart
 * When Words Disappear (1991) – David Trasoff & Zakir Hussain
 * Flights of Improvisation (1992)
 * Sangeet Sartaj (1992)
 * The One and Only (1992)
 * ''Zakir Hussain and the Rhythm Experience (1992)
 * Music of the Deserts (1993)
 * Rag Madhuvanti / Rag Misra Tilang (1993) – Shivkumar Sharma
 * Concert for Peace (1993) – Ravi Shankar
 * Jog And Rageshri (1994)
 * Ustad Amjad Ali Khan & Zakir Hussain (1994) – Amjad Ali Khan & Zakir Hussain
 * Golden Krithis Colours – (1994) – Kunnakudi Vaidyanathan
 * Raga Aberi (1995) – Shankar
 * Maestro's Choice – Series Two (1995) – Sultan Khan & Zakir Hussain
 * World Network Series, Vol. 1: India- Raga Purya Kalyan (1995) – Zakir Hussain & Shivkumar Sharma
 * The Elements – Space (1996)
 * Mickey Hart's Mystery Box (1996) – Mickey Hart
 * Kirwani (1997)
 * Magical Moments of Rhythm (1997)
 * And the Rhythm Experience (1998)
 * Essence of Rhythm (1998)
 * Night Spinner (1998) – George Brooks (Moment Records)
 * Supralingua (1998) – Mickey Hart
 * Fire Dance (1998) collaboration with Pat Martino
 * Save Our Children (1998) - Pharoah Sanders
 * Remember Shakti (1999) – Remember Shakti
 * Spirit into Sound (1999) – Mickey Hart
 * The Believer (2000) – Remember Shakti
 * Tala Matrix (2000) – Tabla Beat Science
 * Golden Strings of the Sarode (2001) – Aashish Khan & Zakir Hussain
 * Saturday Night in Bombay (2001) – Remember Shakti (Universal Records)
 * Selects (2002)
 * Summit (2002) – George Brooks (Earth Brothers Music BMI)
 * The Best of Mickey Hart: Over the Edge and Back (2002) – Mickey Hart
 * Live in San Francisco at Stern Grove (2002) – Tabla Beat Science
 * Ustad Mohammad Omar: Virtuoso from Afghanistan (2002)- Zakir Hussain
 * Energy (2003)
 * Live at Miles Davis Hall (8 July 2004) – Remember Shakti
 * Live at 38th Montreux Jazz Festival (18 July 2004) – Remember Shakti
 * Punjabi Dhamar (2004)
 * Raag Chandrakauns (2004)
 * Sangam (2006) – Jazz collaboration with bandleader Charles Lloyd.
 * Soukha (2006) – V. Selvaganesh (with John McLaughlin, Zakir Hussain, Vikku, Shrinivas) – Naive
 * Global Drum Project (2007) – Mickey Hart, Zakir Hussain, Imran Hussain, Chandan Sharma Sikiru Adepoju, Giovanni Hidalgo – Shout Factory
 * The Melody of Rhythm (2009) – Bela Fleck, Zakir Hussain, Edgar Meyer
 * Venu (2011) Hariprasad Chaurasia, Zakir Hussain
 * Mysterium Tremendum (2012) – Mickey Hart Band
 * Good Hope (2019) – Dave Holland, Zakir Hussain, Chris Potter
 * Is That So? (2020) – John McLaughlin, Shankar Mahadevan, Zakir Hussain
 * In the Groove (2022) – Planet Drum
 * ''As We Speak (2023) – Béla Fleck, Edgar Meyer, Zakir Hussain, with Rakesh Chaurasia

Filmography

 * Heat and Dust (1983)
 * The Perfect Murder (1988)
 * Thanduvitaen Ennai (1991 Tamil movie, cameo role)
 * Miss Beatty's Children (1992)
 * Saaz (1998)
 * Zakir and His Friends (1998)
 * The Speaking Hand: Zakir Hussain and the Art of the Indian Drum (2003) - Sumantra Ghosal
 * Talamanam Sound Clash – Further Adventures in Hype (2003 – DVD) – Tabla Beat Science
 * The Way of Beauty (2006 – DVD) – Remember Shakti
 * The Rhythm Devils Concert Experience (2008 – DVD) – The Rhythm Devils
 * Manto (2018)
 * Monkey Man (2024)

Soundtracks

 * In Custody (1993)
 * Little Buddha (1993)
 * Saaz (1998)
 * Vanaprastham (1999)
 * The Mystic Masseur (2001)
 * Mr. and Mrs. Iyer (2002)
 * One Dollar Curry (2003)

Awards and honours

 * Hussain was awarded the titles of Padma Shri in 1988, Padma Bhushan in 2002, and Padma Vibhushan in 2023.
 * Awarded the Indo-American Award in 1990 in recognition for his outstanding cultural contribution to relations between the United States and India.
 * Presented with the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award in 1990 by the President of India, making him one of the youngest musicians to receive this recognition given by the Sangeet Natak Academy, India's National Academy of Music, Dance & Drama.
 * In 1992 Planet Drum, an album co-created and produced by Hussain and Mickey Hart, was awarded the first-ever Grammy for Best World Music Album, the Downbeat Critics' Poll for Best World Beat Album and the NARM Indie Best Seller Award for a World Music Recording.
 * Recipient of a 1999 National Heritage Fellowship from the National Endowment for the Arts, the United States government's honour for a master in the traditional arts, presented by First Lady Hillary Clinton at the United States Senate on 28 September 1999.
 * In 2005, he was named an Old Dominion Fellow by the Humanities Council at Princeton University, where he resided for the 2005–2006 semester as full professor in the music department, teaching a survey course in Indian classical music and dance.
 * Recipient of the Kalidas Samman in 2006, an award for artists of exceptional achievement, from the Government of Madhya Pradesh.
 * Golden Strings of the Sarode (Moment! Records 2006) with Aashish Khan and Hussain was nominated for a Grammy in the Best Traditional World Music Album category in 2006.
 * In 2007, readers' polls from both Modern Drummer and Drum! magazines named Hussain Best World Music and Best World Beat Drummer respectively.
 * On 8 February 2009 for the 51st Grammy Awards, Hussain won the Grammy in the Contemporary World Music Album category for his collaborative album Global Drum Project along with Mickey Hart, Sikiru Adepoju & Giovanni Hidalgo.
 * On 23 February 2012 for Guru Gangadhar Pradhan Lifetime Achievement Award at Konark Dance & Music Festival, Organised by Konark Natya Mandap
 * Summer of 2016, he was nominated for President's Medal of the Arts, however, new rule stated non-Americans could not receive the medal.
 * On 18 January 2017, San Francisco Jazz Center gave Hussain a Lifetime Achievement Award
 * In 2019, Sangeet Natak Academy, India's National Academy of Music, Dance & Drama, honored Hussain with the Academy Fellow award, also known as the Academy Ratna, for the year 2018.
 * In 2022, he was conferred the honorary Doctor of Law (LLD) degree for his exceptional contribution in the field of music by Mumbai University.
 * On 17 June 2022, he was named by the non-profit Inamori Foundation to receive the Kyoto Prize, Japan's highest private award for global achievement, in the category of Arts and Philosophy (field: Music).
 * On 4 February 2024, Hussain received 3 awards at the 66th Annual Grammy Awards. Hussain’s first win came for Pashto, written and recorded in collaboration with American banjo player Béla Fleck, American bassist Edgar Meyer and Indian flautist Rakesh Chaurasia. Hussain’s second Grammy of the night was for Best Contemporary Instrumental Album, which he won alongside Fleck, Meyer and Chaurasia, for the eclectic classical-meets-jazz album, As We Speak. His third win of the night came for the album This Moment, the critically acclaimed comeback of the pioneering world-fusion band Shakti.

Tribute
The line "Zakir Hussain Tabela Ivaltana" in the Tamil song "Telephone Manipol" in Indian (1996) film directed by S.Shankar is a tribute to him. This song was written by poet Vairamuthu.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Zakir Hussain (musician)


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Talk:Steaming

The latest addition

 * Steaming out door can be done with some banana leaves wrap up meat, poultry and fish and bury under the sand or ash. Also, some place they cover meat(fish) with crey then burn into the fire.

does not sound like cooking by steam at all. I don't understand why it was added here. Kowloonese 09:05, 6 Aug 2003 (UTC)

Appropriateness of Steamed egg and Reheating examples (photos)
I think the examples of "Chinese steamed eggs" and "Reheating a commercially sold frozen meal by steaming in a wok" are not really a steaming -- according to the explanation in the Method section "The food is kept separate from the boiling water but has direct contact with the steam, resulting in a moist texture to the food. This differs from double boiling, in which contact with steam is undesired." -- 180.183.131.188 (talk) 16:52, 6 December 2012 (UTC)

What is this
Oh gosh this is the worst article i've ever read here. someone please wipe it and rewrite from scratch — Preceding unsigned comment added by 79.78.90.194 (talk) 02:00, 6 December 2013 (UTC)

Expanded by translating ja and added images
Well, hope somebody will jump in and follow up on me.
 * As noted by User:Kowloonese, there needs to be a separate section where steaming without pans/woks and water could be described. In ja:蒸し物, they introduce 焙烙蒸し (hōrokumushi) that uses a clay pan in which fish/poultry is steamed with its own moisture.
 * I added an image against 79.78.90.194's note. The food is in a dish that controls moisture contact with the food itself, thus a make-shift vessell works to steam. --Omotecho (talk) 22:12, 28 January 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Steaming


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Encomium

Encomium (: encomia) is a Latin word deriving from the Ancient Greek enkomion (ἐγκώμιον), meaning "the praise of a person or thing." Another Latin equivalent is laudatio, a speech in praise of someone or something.

Originally was the song sung by the chorus at the κῶμος, or festal procession, held at the Panhellenic Games in honour of the victor, either on the day of his victory or on its anniversary. The word came afterwards to denote any song written in celebration of distinguished persons, and in later times any spoken or written panegyric whatever.

Encomium also refers to several distinct aspects of rhetoric:

 * A general category of oratory
 * A method within rhetorical pedagogy
 * A figure of speech praising a person or thing, but occurring on a smaller scale than an entire speech
 * The eighth exercise in the progymnasmata series
 * A literary genre that included five elements: prologue, birth and upbringing, acts of the person's life, comparisons used to praise the subject, and an epilogue
 * The basilikos logos (imperial encomium), a formal genre in the Byzantine empire

Examples

 * Gorgias' famous Encomium of Helen offers several justifications for excusing Helen of Troy's adultery
 * In Erasmus' In Praise of Folly, Folly composes an encomium to herself
 * De Pippini regis Victoria Avarica is a medieval encomium of the victory of Pepin of Italy over the Avars
 * Encomium Emmae Reginae is a medieval encomium of Queen Emma of Normandy
 * Laudes Mediolanensis civitatis or Versum de Mediolano civitate is a medieval encomium of Milan
 * Versus de Verona is a medieval encomium of Verona
 * Polychronion is chanted in the liturgy of Churches which follow the Byzantine Rite
 * Paul the Apostle uses a kind of encomium in his praise of love, in 1 Corinthians 13; the prologue is verses 1–3, acts are v. 4–7, comparison is v. 8–12, and epilogue is 13:13–14:1.

title: Encomium


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Alberto Cutié

Alberto R. Cutié (born April 29, 1969, in San Juan, Puerto Rico) is a Cuban-American Episcopal priest who is also known as Padre Alberto. He was ordained as a Catholic priest in 1995. He has an internationally recognizable name, due to his work as the host of television and radio programs.

Cutié left the Roman Catholic Church in May 2009 after publication of photographs showing him with a woman at the beach and his subsequent admission that he was in love. He has said that mandatory celibacy was only one of the theological differences that led him to leave the Catholic Church. He later married Ruhama Buni Canellis and joined the Episcopal (Anglican) Church. He now serves as rector of St. Benedict's, an Episcopal parish in Plantation, Florida.

Media appearances
Cutié, the middle child and son of Cuban exiles, was born in San Juan, Puerto Rico. As a teenager he worked as a DJ.

He was ordained a Roman Catholic priest of the Archdiocese of Miami in 1995, the first ordinand of the then-newly designated Archbishop John Favalora (retired 2010). He is a regular columnist whose writings appear in Spanish language newspapers throughout the United States and Latin America. He made his television debut in 1999 as the host of Padre Alberto (and later Cambia tu Vida con el Padre Alberto), a daily talk show televised on the Telemundo network.

Beginning in 2002, Cutié hosted a weekly talk program called Hablando Claro con el Padre Alberto, reaching millions of households throughout the United States, Canada, Spain and Latin America on EWTN Español, which is part of the global network founded by Mother Angelica. In July 2003 he officiated at Celia Cruz's Funeral Mass in Miami, Florida.

Cutié also published his first self-help book, Real Life, Real Love (Ama de Verdad, Vive de Verdad) in January 2006. It sold thousands of copies and became a bestseller in the Spanish language market. His second book, Dilemma: A Priest's Struggle with Faith and Love (Dilema: La Lucha de un Sacerdote Entre Su Fe y el Amor), was released on January 4, 2011. He has been labeled as "Father Oprah" by various publications. He was president and general director of Radio Paz and Radio Peace Catholic 24-hour radio station from January 2001. He hosted several radio programs, such as Al Dia and Linea Directa, and directed the daily operations of Pax Catholic Communications for the Archdiocese of Miami until 2009.

Personal life
On May 5, 2009, Cutié asked church officials for a time of reflection and a leave of absence from his media programs and pastoral work after publication of pictures in which he was shown kissing and touching Ruhama Buni Canellis at a public beach while still a Catholic priest. Cutié asked the Archdiocese of Miami for some time to think and make a decision on where his life as a priest was heading. As a result, the Archdiocese of Miami granted him a leave of absence for an undefined period of personal decision making. After meeting with two of his bishops and informing them of his decision, he chose to continue his ministry as a married priest in the Episcopal Church, part of the Anglican Communion.

On May 11, 2009, Cutié was interviewed by Maggie Rodriguez of CBS' The Early Show. He said that he was thinking about leaving the Roman Catholic Church for a woman he loves. He said that he respected the existing rule of mandatory celibacy and acknowledged that some priests remain dedicated to that calling. There are many priests in communion with the Vatican who are married, but they are mostly members of the Eastern Catholic Churches. He stated he did not want to become the "anti-celibacy priest".

On May 13, 2009, Cutié was interviewed by Teresa Rodríguez on the Univision show Aquí y Ahora. He said: "I do regret if my actions hurt people with all my heart", adding "[t]here are other ways to serve God. I am not the same man I was when I entered the seminary 22 years ago." By the end of the month Cutié announced that he had been in the process of discerning entering the Episcopal Church for the last couple of years, which in turn helped him consolidate marriage and his calling to serve God.

On July 11, 2011, Cutié aired his first English-speaking syndicated daytime talk show, Father Albert. The show was produced by Debmar-Mercury, the same company that syndicates South Park and Family Feud as a summer test-run.

Father Albert returned to daily radio with Univision in March 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic with a daily call-in Talk-Show which had a huge reception by the Latino audience. In 2021, he returned to daytime television with a new version of his long-time Talk-Show "Hablando Claro con el Padre Alberto" on Mega TV, part of the Spanish Broadcasting System (SBS) conglomerate of radio and television stations.

Reception into the Episcopal Church and marriage
Cutié was received into the Episcopal Church on May 28, 2009, by the Right Reverend Leo Frade, the Cuban-born bishop of the Episcopal Diocese of Southeast Florida and became the administrator and pastoral minister of the Episcopal Church of the Resurrection in Biscayne Park, Miami, Florida, where he was licensed as a pastoral assistant. He was received as an Episcopal priest and instituted as priest-in-charge of the parish on May 29, 2010.

On June 26, 2009, Cutié and Ruhama Buni Canellis married in a church ceremony at St. Bernard de Clairvaux Church in North Miami Beach. Bishop Frade officiated, assisted by the Right Reverend Onell Soto (retired Episcopal Bishop of Venezuela) and several other Episcopal clergy. He and his wife have two children.

Cutié is rector of St. Benedict's Parish in Plantation, Florida.

title: Alberto Cutié


text:
Mitsui

Mitsui Group (三井グループ) is a Japanese corporate group and keiretsu that traces its roots to the zaibatsu groups that were dissolved after World War II. Unlike the zaibatsu of the pre-war period, there is no controlling company with regulatory power. Instead, the companies in the group hold shares in each other, but they are limited to exchanging information and coordinating plans through regular meetings.

The major companies of the group include Mitsui & Co. (general trading company), Sumitomo Mitsui Banking Corporation, Nippon Paper Industries, Pokka Sapporo Holdings, Toray Industries, Mitsui Chemicals, Isetan Mitsukoshi Holdings, Sumitomo Mitsui Trust Holdings, Mitsui Engineering & Shipbuilding, Mitsui O.S.K. Lines and Mitsui Fudosan.

Edo period origins

Founded by Mitsui Takatoshi (1622–1694), who was the fourth son of a shopkeeper in Matsusaka, in what became Mie prefecture. From his shop, called Echigoya (越後屋), Mitsui Takatoshi's father originally sold miso and ran a pawn shop business. The family would later open a second shop in Edo (modern Tokyo).

Takatoshi moved to Edo when he was 14 years old, and later his older brother joined him. Sent back to Matsusaka by his brother, Takatoshi waited for 24 years until his older brother died before he could take over the family shop, Echigoya. He opened a new branch in 1673; a large gofukuya (kimono shop) in Nihonbashi, a district in the heart of Edo. The genesis of Mitsui's business was in the Enpō era, which was a nengō meaning "Prolonged Wealth".

In time, the gofukuya division separated from Mitsui, and became Mitsukoshi. Traditionally, gofukuyas provided products made to order; a visit was made to the customer's house (typically a person of high social class or who was successful in business), an order taken, then fulfilled. The system of accountancy was called "margin transaction". Mitsui changed this by producing products first, then selling them directly at his shop for cash. This was then an unfamiliar mode of operation in Japan. Even as the shop began providing dry goods to the government of the city of Edo, cash sales were not yet a widespread business practice.

Edo's government had struck a business deal with Osaka. Osaka would sell crops and other material to pay its land tax. The money was then sent to Edo—but moving money was dangerous in middle feudal Japan. In 1683, the shogunate granted permission for money exchanges (ryōgaeten) to be established in Edo. The Mitsui "exchange shops" facilitated transfers while mitigating risks.

Formation of Mitsui zaibatsu
After the Meiji Restoration, Mitsui was among the enterprises that were able to expand to become zaibatsu not simply because they were already big and rich at the start of modern industrial development. Firms like Mitsui and Sumitomo were led by non-family managers such as Minomura Rizaemon, who guided the business by accurately forecasting the coming political and economic situations, by acquaintance with high-ranking government officials or politicians, and bold investment.

Mitsui's main business in the early period was drapery, finance, and trade, the first two being the businesses it inherited from the Tokugawa Era. It entered into mining when it acquired a mine as collateral from a loan it had made, partly because it could buy a mine cheaply from the government, Mitsui then diversified to become the biggest business in pre-war Japan. The diversification was mainly into related fields to take advantage of accumulated capabilities; for instance, the trading company entered into chemicals to attain forward integration.

On July 1, 1876, Mitsui Bank, Japan's first private bank, was founded with Takashi Masuda (1848–1938) as its president. Mitsui Bank, which following a merger with Taiyō-Kobe Bank in the mid-1980s became part of Sakura Bank, survives as part of the Sumitomo Mitsui Banking Corporation. During the early 20th century, Mitsui was one of the largest zaibatsu, operating in numerous fields.

Mitsui Bank became the holding company of the Mitsui zaibatsu from 1876. It was joined as an ultimate parent company by Mitsui & Co. and Mitsui Mining in 1900, with various industrial concerns owned by various combinations of these companies and their subsidiaries.

Likewise, Mitsui invested in maritime transportation to support its trading activities as well as invest in passenger transportation, first with the creation in 1878, of Osaka Shosen Kaisha (OSK), which was merged with Mitsui Steamship in 1964, to become Mitsui OSK Lines (MOL), which became one of the largest ocean shipping groups in the world.

When the United Kingdom withdrew from the gold standard in 1931, during the height of the Great Depression, Mitsui Bank and Mitsui & Co. were found to have speculated around the transaction. This raised a political furor in Japan and resulted in the assassination of Mitsui executive Takuma Dan.

World War II
During the 1930s and '40s, the subsidiary tobacco industry of Mitsui had started production of special "Golden Bat" cigarettes using the then-popular Far East trademark. Their circulation was prohibited in Japan and was used only for export. Local Japanese secret service kempeitai under the controversial Imperial Japanese Army General Kenji Doihara had the control of their distribution in China and Manchuria where the production exported. Within the mouthpiece were small discreet doses of opium or heroin, and consequently millions of unsuspecting consumers became addicted to these narcotics, while huge profits were created for the company. The mastermind of the plan, Doihara, was later prosecuted and convicted for war crimes before the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, sentenced to death; but no actions ever took place against the company which profited from their production. According to testimony presented at the Tokyo War Crimes trials in 1948, the revenue from the narcotization policy in China, including Manchukuo, was estimated in 20 million to 30 million yen per year, while another authority stated that the annual revenue was estimated by the Japanese military at US$300 million a year.

During the Second World War, Mitsui employed American prisoners of war as slave laborers, some of whom were maimed by Mitsui employees.

Postwar development as keiretsu
In 1947 and 1948, the Supreme Commander Allied Powers pressed the Japanese government to dismantle the ten largest zaibatsu conglomerates, including Mitsui. The Mitsui Group, broken into many separate companies, reorganized itself as a horizontal coalition of independent companies in the 1950s, once the occupation of Japan had ended and some of the smaller companies were allowed to re-coalesce. The central firms in the keiretsu became Mitsui Bank and Mitsui & Co.

Mitsui lagged somewhat behind its rivals Mitsubishi and Sumitomo Group in reorganization. Mitsui Bank, which should have been the mainstay and principal capital provider of the group, declined in size due to the collapse of the Imperial Bank after the war, which resulted in reduced cohesion of the conglomerate. Many companies that were once part of the Mitsui Group have become independent or tied to other conglomerates. Specifically, Toshiba, Toyota Motors, and Suntory, once part of the Mitsui Group, became independent, with the Toyota Group becoming a conglomerate in its own right.

In 2000, Mitsui Pharmaceuticals was acquired by the German Schering AG from Berlin.

Ishikawajima-Harima Heavy Industries (IHI Corporation) is now considered to be part of the Mizuho Group, and many companies in the Sumitomo Mitsui Financial Group are more closely tied to the Sumitomo Group than the Mitsui Group. there were signs that Mitsubishi UFJ Financial Group and the Mitsubishi Group could be taking over other parts of the Sumitomo Mitsui Financial Group. Mitsukoshi merged into Isetan, a major department store with close ties to the Bank of Tokyo-Mitsubishi UFJ, to form Isetan Mitsukoshi Holdings in April 2008.

Makeup of the Mitsui Group
Companies associated with the Mitsui keiretsu include Mitsui & Co., Sumitomo Mitsui Trust Holdings, Japan Steel Works, Mitsui Chemicals, Mitsui Construction Co., Mitsui Engineering & Shipbuilding, Mitsui Fudosan, Mitsui-gold, Mitsui Mining & Smelting Co., Ltd., Mitsui Oil Exploration Co. (MOECO), Mitsui O.S.K. Lines, Mitsui Petrochemical Industries Ltd, Mitsui-Soko, Mitsui Sumitomo Insurance Group, Nippon Paper Industries, Pacific Coast Recycling, Sumitomo Mitsui Banking Corporation, Taiheiyo Cement, TBS Holdings, Toray Industries, Tri-net Logistics Management, and Mitsui Commodity Risk Management (MCRM).

Mitsui companies in the Nikkei 225

 * Aim Services Co., Ltd
 * Denka
 * Isetan Mitsukoshi Holdings
 * JA Mitsui Leasing
 * Japan Steel Works
 * Mitsui & Co.
 * Mitsui Chemicals
 * Mitsui Engineering & Shipbuilding
 * Mitsui Fudosan
 * Mitsui Life Insurance Co.
 * Mitsui Mining & Smelting Co., Ltd.
 * Mitsui O.S.K. Lines
 * Mitsui Sumitomo Insurance Group
 * Mitsui-Soko Holdings
 * Nippon Paper Industries
 * Nihon Unisys
 * Sanki Engineering
 * Sapporo Brewery
 * Shin Nippon Air Technologies
 * Sumitomo Mitsui Banking Corporation
 * Sumitomo Mitsui Construction
 * Sumitomo Mitsui Financial Group
 * Sumitomo Mitsui Trust Holdings
 * TBS Holdings
 * Toray Industries
 * Toyo Engineering Corporation

Companies with close ties to Mitsui

 * Abellio Greater Anglia – Mitsui owns 40% of the British rail operator.
 * West Midlands Trains - Mitsui owns 15% of the British rail operator.
 * BHP
 * Columbia Asia
 * Fujifilm
 * IHH Healthcare Berhad – Mitsui owns 20.5% of the company and is represented on its board.
 * Ito-Yokado
 * Kanebo (Kao Corporation)
 * Komatsu
 * Multi X (Multiexport Foods)– Mitsui owns 24.5% of the company and is represented on its board.
 * Oji Paper Company - once had a transaction in its development on the purchase of several Mitsui subsidiaries by Oji.
 * The Oriental Land Company (Keisei Electric Railway)
 * Rio Tinto
 * Sagami Railway
 * Sims Metal – Mitsui owns 18% of the company and is represented on its board.
 * Sony
 * Suntory - former subsidiary.
 * Toyota - former subsidiary
 * Vale
 * Yamaha
 * Yanmar
 * RTV Pink

General sources

 * Hall, John Whitney (1970). Japan: From Prehistory to Modern Times. Delacorte Universal History no. XX. New York: Delacorte Press. ISBN 0-297-00237-6.
 * Shinjō, Hiroshi (1962). History of the Yen: 100 Years of Japanese Money-economy. Kobe: Research Institute for Economics & Business Administration, Kōbe University.

title: Mitsui


text:
User:Senor Fishcake

Señor Fishcake is Chairman of the Sodwok Appreciation Society. He is a very private person, rarely appearing in public, but his resolve for the sodwok cause has not been shaken. He continues to fight a just cause to increase the awareness of sodwoks across the world.

title: User:Senor Fishcake


text:
Legio I Italica

Legio I Italica ("First Italian Legion") was a legion of the Imperial Roman army founded by emperor Nero on September 22, 66 (the date is attested by an inscription). Originally named Legio Phalanx Alexandri Magni, it was stationed in Italy during the year of four emperors and gained the name Italica. It was later stationed at Novae, near modern-day Svishtov (Bulgaria). There are still records of the I Italica on the Danube border at the beginning of the 5th century. The emblem of the legion was a boar.

History
In the aftermath of the Roman–Parthian War of 58–63, Emperor Nero levied the I Italica with the name phalanx Alexandri Magni ("phalanx of Alexander the Great"), for a campaign in Armenia, ad portas Caspias – to the pass of Chawar. The sources mention the peculiar fact that the original legionaries were all over six feet tall. However, since the Jewish Revolt broke out a few weeks later, the projected Armenian campaign never took place. Also, the governor of Gaul, Gaius Julius Vindex, rose in revolt in early 68 and I Italica was redirected there, arriving just in time to see the end of the revolt. In the Year of the Four Emperors (69), after the death of Nero, the legion received the name I Italica and fought for Vitellius at the second Battle of Bedriacum, where the Vitellians were defeated by forces supporting Vespasian. The new emperor sent I Italica to the province of Moesia in 70 where they encamped at Novae (modern Svishtov) which became the legion's base of operations for centuries.

The legion served on campaign during the Dacian wars of Trajan. The legion was also responsible for bridge construction over the Danube. Building activities seem to have been an area of expertise for the legion. On 3 December 1969 a Roman votive altar was found at Old Kilpatrick on the Antonine Wall dating from around 140 A.D. It has been scanned and a video produced. The inscription mentions the First Cohort of Baetasians, previously known to have been at Bar Hill, and also Julius Candidus, a centurion from I Italica.

During the reign of Marcus Aurelius, Legio I Italica was involved in the wars against the Germanic tribes that threatened to cross the Danube. After a long war, the Romans had conquered much territory on the left side of the Danube. There Marcus Aurelius had intended to form a new province under governor Aulus Julius Pompilius Piso, commander of I Italica and IV Flavia Felix, but the revolt of Avidius Cassius in the East prevented this.

In 193, the Governor of Pannonia Superior, Septimius Severus claimed the purple and moved to Italia. I Italica supported Severus, but did not move to Italy. The legion fought against Severus' rival, Pescennius Niger, besieging Byzantium together with XI Claudia, fighting at Issus. The First possibly took part in the Parthian campaign of Severus (198).

In the 3rd century, during the rule of Caracalla, the legion participated in the construction of the Limes Transalutanus, a defensive wall along the Danube, which began near Novae. Under Alexander Severus, some vexillationes of the I Italica moved to Salonae, guarding the Dalmatian coast.

title: Legio I Italica


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User talk:Racomedia

If you can be bothered putting stuff on this page, please make sure you are not already snatching air from those who need it.

Hello there Racomedia welcome to Wikipedia! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. If you ever need editing help visit How does one edit a page or how to format them visit our manual of style. Experiment at Sandbox. If you need pointers on how we title pages visit Naming conventions. If you have any other questions about the project then check out Help or add a question to the Village pump or my talk page. Cheers, Muriel Gottrop

Asking for Aussie Aid
Hi Rac: I picked up from the Atlantium page that you are likely in Austrailia and I need some Aussie aid. I am seeking photographs of the works of the Australian sculptor Rayner Hoff to compliment my entry on him. He has work all over the place. Is there any chance that you could direct me to someone (or be such a person yourself?) who can help me. I contacted the Museum of NSW who said, "No problem. For $60 a year you can rent some." Not what i had in mind.

Live is Good. Einar "carptrash" Kvaran

title: User talk:Racomedia


text:
Legio I Minervia

Legio I Minervia (lit. First Legion "Minervan", i.e., "devoted to the goddess Minerva") was a legion of the Imperial Roman army founded in AD 82 by emperor Domitian ((r. undefined – undefined) 81–96), for his campaign against the Germanic tribe of the Chatti. Its cognomen refers to the goddess Minerva, the legion's protector. There are still records of the I Minervia in the Rhine border region in the middle of the 4th century. The legion's emblem is an image of goddess Minerva.

Legio I Minervia first, and main, camp was in the city of Bonna (modern Bonn), in the province of Germania Inferior. In 89, they suppressed a revolt of the governor of Germania Superior. Due to this, Domitian gave them the cognomen Pia Fidelis Domitiana (loyal and faithful to Domitian) to acknowledge their support.

History
Between 101 and 106, the legion fought the Dacian Wars of emperor Trajan, commanded by Hadrian, the future emperor. The emblem with Minerva figure appears on the column of Trajan in Rome, along with symbols of other legions. After this war, I Minervia returned to its home city of Bonna. Together with XXX Ulpia Victrix, stationed close by in Castra Vetera II (modern Xanten), they worked in numerous military and building activities, even extracting stone from quarries.

Although it belonged to the Germanic army and Bonn was its camp, vexillationes (subunits) of the legion were allocated in different parts of the Empire:
 * 162–166 war against the Parthian Empire, commanded by emperor Lucius Verus
 * 166–175 and 178–180 war against the Marcomanni, commanded by emperor Marcus Aurelius
 * 173 campaign against the Chauci of Gallia Belgica, commanded by governor Didius Julianus
 * 198–211 garrison of the city of Lugdunum, capital of Gallia

During the civil wars of the late 2nd and 3rd century, I Minervia supported the following emperors (each of them gave them the indicated titles, dropped out after their fall):
 * Septimius Severus
 * Elagabalus (Antoniniana)
 * Alexander Severus (Severiana Alexandriana)
 * The Gallic Empire, that existed between 260 and 274

Around 353, Bonna was destroyed by the Franks. Although Legio I Minervia disappears from recorded history, there is no account of its end, whether destroyed in battle or simply disbanded.

title: Legio I Minervia


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Quimper

Quimper (, ; Kemper ; Civitas Aquilonia or Corisopitum) is a commune and prefecture of the Finistère department of Brittany in northwestern France.

Administration
Quimper is the prefecture (capital) of the Finistère department.

Geography
The city was built on the confluence of the Steir, Odet and Jet rivers. Route National 165, D785, D765 and D783 were constructed to intersect here, 62 km northwest of Lorient, 181 km west of Rennes, and 486 km west-southwest of Paris.

Climate
Quimper has an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification Cfb). The average annual temperature in Quimper is 11.9 C. The average annual rainfall is 1250.2 mm with December as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 17.8 C, and lowest in February, at around 6.7 C. The highest temperature ever recorded in Quimper was 35.9 C on 30 June 1976; the coldest temperature ever recorded was -10.1 C on 13 January 1987.

Etymology
The name Quimper comes from the Breton kemper, meaning "confluent".

History

Quimper is the ancient capital of Cornouaille, Brittany's most traditional region, and has a distinctive Breton Celtic character. Its name is the Breton word kemper (cognate to Welsh cymer), meaning "confluence". The town developed at the confluence of the rivers Le Steir and L'Odet. Shops and flags celebrate the region's Celtic heritage.

Quimper was originally settled during Roman times. By AD 495, the town had become a Bishopric. It subsequently became the capital of the counts of Cornouailles. In the eleventh century, it was united with the Duchy of Brittany. During the War of the Breton Succession (1341–1364), the town suffered considerable ruin. In 1364, the duchy passed to the House of Montfort.

The town has a rustic atmosphere, with footbridges spanning the rivers that flow through it. The Church of Locmaria, a Romanesque structure, dates from the eleventh century. The Cathedral of Saint-Corentin, with its Gothic-style façade, was constructed between the thirteenth and sixteenth centuries. It is the oldest Gothic structure in lower Brittany. Its two towers are 76 m; its spires were added in the nineteenth century. The fifteenth-century stained glass windows are exceptional. The cathedral is dedicated to Quimper's first bishop, Corentin.

To the cathedral's west are the pedestrianised streets of Vieux Quimper (Old Quimper), which have a wide array of crêperies, half-timbered houses, and shops. Near the Episcopal palace, which now holds the Musée départemental Breton (devoted to regional history, archaeology, ethnology and economy) are the ruins of the town's fifteenth-century walls. Nearby is the Musée des beaux-arts de Quimper. The museum has a nineteenth-century façade and an entirely rebuilt interior. It houses a collection of fourteenth to twenty-first century paintings that includes works by François Boucher, Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot, Jean-Baptiste Oudry and Peter Paul Rubens, along with canvases by such Pont-Aven School painters as Émile Bernard, Maurice Denis, Georges Lacombe, Maxime Maufra and Paul Sérusier.

The town's best known product is Quimper faience, tin-glazed pottery. It has been made here since 1690, using bold provincial designs of Jean-Baptiste Bousquet. Quimper has a museum devoted to faience. The town has also been known for copper and bronze work, food items, galvanised ironware, hosiery, leather, paper and woollen goods.

Population
The population data in the table and graph below refer to the commune of Quimper proper, in its geography at the given years. The commune of Quimper absorbed the former communes of Ergué-Armel, Kerfunteun and Penhars in 1959. Its inhabitants are called Quimpérois.

Breton language
The municipality launched a linguistic plan through Ya d'ar brezhoneg on 6 February 2008, to revive the teaching and use of Breton, the historic Celtic language of the region. In 2008, 4.61% of primary-school children attended bilingual schools.

Education
Quimper has several schools. These include two Diwan pre-schools, two Diwan primary schools and one Diwan collège (all specialise in use of Breton). In total, 287 students here attended a Diwan school in 2003–2004.

Festivals
While many French festivals are held in the summer season, Quimper has a winter festival: Les Hivernautes.

In the summer, concerts are held on street corners, with pipers and accordion players.

The Festival de Cornouaille, a cultural festival, is typically held in the last week of July.

Tourism
Points of interest in Quimper include:
 * Quimper Cathedral and the nearby statue of Gradlon (looking in the direction of Ys)
 * Musée des Beaux-Arts (near the cathedral)
 * Several churches, including Locmaria, Saint-Mathieu, Kerfeunteun and Ergue-Armel.
 * The old town centre with mediaeval fortifications and houses
 * Faience museum

Transport
Public transport in Quimper is provided by QUB. The network consists of seven urban bus routes and 16 suburban bus routes. During the summer months of July and August, an additional "beach" bus route is open to service.

The Gare de Quimper is the terminus of a TGV high-speed train line from Paris, which passes through Le Mans, Rennes and Vannes. Journey duration is approximately 3 hours 40 minutes. In addition, the following destinations are served by the TER Bretagne (the regional train network):
 * Quimper – Brest (1 hour 9 minutes)
 * Quimper – Rennes (2 hours 15 minutes)

Quimper–Cornouaille Airport has flights to Paris and London City.

Notable people
Quimper is the birthplace of:
 * Guillaume Hyacinthe Bougeant (1690–1743), Jesuit author
 * Louis Billouart, Chevalier de Kerlérec (1704–1770), last French governor of Louisiana
 * René Cardaliaguet (1875–1950), priest and writer
 * Élie Catherine Fréron (1718–1776), critic and controversialist
 * Franciscus Lé Livec de Trésurin (1726–1792), French Jesuit
 * Yves-Joseph de Kerguelen-Trémarec (1734–1797), explorer, admiral, discoverer of the Kerguelen archipelago
 * Rene-Marie Madec (1736–1784), adventurer, Nawab of India. See also René Madec
 * Guillaume François Laennec (1748–1822), French physician
 * René Laennec (1781–1826), physician, inventor of the stethoscope
 * Max Jacob (1876–1944), poet, painter, writer and critic
 * Corentin Louis Kervran (1901–1983), scientist
 * Philippe Poupon (born 1954), sailor
 * William Stanger (born 1985), footballer
 * Jacques Villeglé (1926–2022), mixed-media artist
 * Jean-Claude Andro (1937–2000), novelist
 * Jessica Cérival (born 1982), athlete
 * Dan Ar Braz (b. 1949), guitarist
 * Anne Quemere (b. 1966), sailor and sportswoman
 * Clémence Quélennec (b.1991) singer and composer

Twin towns – sister cities
Quimper is twinned with:

 * 🇮🇪 Limerick, Ireland
 * 🇩🇪 Remscheid, Germany
 * 🇬🇷 Laurium, Greece
 * 🇪🇸 Ourense, Spain
 * Yantai, China
 * 🇮🇹 Foggia, Italy

title: Quimper


text:
State

State most commonly refers to:
 * State (polity), a centralized political organization that regulates law and society within a territory
 * Sovereign state, a sovereign polity in international law, commonly referred to as a country
 * Nation state, a state where the majority identify with a single nation (with shared culture or ethnic group)
 * Constituent state, a political subdivision of a state
 * Federated state, constituent states part of a federation
 * State of nature, a concept within philosophy that describes the way humans acted before forming societies or civilizations

State may also refer to:

Literature

 * State Magazine, a monthly magazine published by the U.S. Department of State
 * The State (newspaper), a daily newspaper in Columbia, South Carolina, United States
 * Our State, a monthly magazine published in North Carolina and formerly called The State
 * The State (Larry Niven), a fictional future government in three novels by Larry Niven

Groups and labels

 * States Records, an American record label
 * The State (band), Australian band previously known as the Cutters

Albums

 * State (album), a 2013 album by Todd Rundgren
 * States (album), a 2013 album by the Paper Kites
 * States, a 1991 album by Klinik
 * The State (album), a 1999 album by Nickelback

Songs

 * "The State", a 2011 song by Porter Robinson from Spitfire

Television

 * The State (American TV series), 1993
 * The State (British TV series), 2017

Other

 * State Theatre (disambiguation), several theatres
 * The State (comedy troupe), an American comedy troupe

Law and politics

 * Rechtsstaat, the legal state (constitutional state, state subordinated to law) in the philosophy of law and as a principle of many national constitutions
 * United States Department of State, a division of the executive branch of the United States federal government, dealing with foreign affairs; sometimes referred to as "State", for short, in American political jargon.

Federated states: Constituent states: The Estates or the States, a national assembly of the estates of the realm, an early form of legislature that was common throughout feudal Europe:
 * States of Australia
 * States of Austria
 * States of Brazil
 * States of Germany
 * States of India
 * States of Malaysia
 * States of Mexico
 * States of Micronesia
 * States of Nigeria
 * States of Somalia
 * States of South Sudan
 * States of Sudan
 * States of the United States
 * States of Venezuela
 * States of Myanmar
 * States of Palau
 * States of Alderney, the government and parliament of Alderney
 * States of Deliberation, the government and parliament of Guernsey
 * States of Jersey, including the States Assembly parliament and the Government of Jersey executive
 * States-General (disambiguation), a name for several historic and current national assemblies

Locations

 * State College, Pennsylvania, a city in the United States, often referred to informally as "State"
 * State College Area High School, or "State High"
 * State station, subway station in Boston
 * State station (CTA), in Chicago

Mathematics

 * State (controls), a term related to control theory
 * State (functional analysis), a positive linear functional on an operator algebra
 * State, in dynamical systems, is a fixed rule describing the time dependence of a point in a geometrical space

Computing

 * State (computer science), a unique configuration of information in a program or machine
 * Program state, in computer science, a snapshot of the measure of various conditions in the system
 * State (website), semantic web platform created by London, UK-based Equal Media Ltd
 * State pattern, in computer science, a behavioral design pattern

Healthcare

 * Medical state, one's current state of health, usually within a hospital
 * Mental state

Physics and chemistry

 * State, a complete description of a system in classical mechanics
 * Chemical state, the electronic, chemical and physical nature of an element
 * Quantum state, the state of a quantum mechanical system given by a vector in the underlying Hilbert space
 * Stationary state, an eigenvector of a Hamiltonian
 * State of matter, solid, liquid or gaseous phases of matter; describing the organization of matter in a phase
 * Thermodynamic state, a set of physical quantities describing variable properties of a given thermodynamic system

Printing

 * State (printmaking), distinct revisions of a work by a deliberate change to the print master

Universities

 * Ball State University, in Muncie, United States
 * Michigan State University, in East Lansing, United States
 * Michigan State Spartans, the athletic teams, commonly referred to as "State"

Other uses

 * State (theology), a degree or stage of perfection in the Christian religion
 * States (automobile), cyclecar manufactured by the States Cyclecar Co of Detroit, Michigan in 1915

title: State


text:
User talk:Hba242

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Hba. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Hba~enwiki that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name. If you think you might own all of the accounts with this name and this message is in error, please visit Special:MergeAccount to check and attach all of your accounts to prevent them from being renamed.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 00:16, 20 March 2015 (UTC)

Proposed deletion of File:Anax Imperator at Mars.jpg

The file File:Anax Imperator at Mars.jpg has been proposed for deletion because of the following concern: "Unused (see WP:NOTWEBHOST), unclear purpose"

While all constructive contributions to Wikipedia are appreciated, pages may be deleted for any of several reasons.

You may prevent the proposed deletion by removing the notice, but please explain why in your edit summary or on the file's talk page.

Please consider addressing the issues raised. Removing will stop the proposed deletion process, but other deletion processes exist. In particular, the speedy deletion process can result in deletion without discussion, and files for discussion allows discussion to reach consensus for deletion. Zinclithium (talk) 06:28, 29 June 2018 (UTC)

title: User talk:Hba242


text:
User:Japman~enwiki

wiktionary:User:Japman

ジャプ万

ぁ ァ

ぃ ィ

ぅ ゥ

ぇ ェ

ぉ ォ

ヴ

ヵ

ヶ

title: User:Japman~enwiki


text:
User:Morwen/Cabinet

Tory front-benchers

 * Edward Heath
 * Reginald Maudling
 * Alec Douglas-Home
 * Anthony Barber
 * Lord Carrington
 * Keith Joseph
 * Geoffrey Rippon
 * Margaret Thatcher
 * Baroness Young
 * Norman Tebbit
 * Leon Britten
 * John Wakeham
 * Lord Carrington
 * William Whitelaw
 * David Waddington
 * John Gummer
 * Tom King
 * Keith Joseph
 * Cecil Parkinson
 * Michael Heseltine
 * Norman Fowler
 * James Prior
 * Norman Lamont
 * John Major
 * Malcom Rifkind
 * Douglas Hurd
 * Nigel Lawson
 * Kenneth Baker
 * Nicholas Ridley
 * Alan Clark
 * Kenneth Clarke
 * Geoffrey Howe
 * Chris Patten
 * Peter Lilley
 * Michael Howard
 * Brian Mawhinney
 * Tony Newton
 * Stephen Dorrell
 * Michael Portillo
 * Patrick Mayhew
 * Gillian Shepherd
 * Virginia Bottomley
 * Edwina Currie
 * Johnathan Aitken
 * John Redwood
 * Nicholas Soames
 * Anne Widdecombe
 * William Hague
 * Bill Cash
 * Iain Duncan Smith
 * Steven Norris
 * Liam Fox
 * Ian Lang

Labour front-benchers

 * Tony Blair
 * John Prescott
 * Gordon Brown
 * Lord Falconer
 * Peter Hain
 * David Blunkett
 * Jack Straw
 * Geoffrey Hoon
 * Patricia Hewitt
 * Margaret Beckett
 * Charles Clarke
 * John Reid
 * Andrew Smith
 * Alistair Darling
 * Tessa Jowell
 * Baroness Amos
 * Paul Murphy
 * Paul Boateng
 * Hilary Armstrong
 * Nick Brown

 * Robin Cook
 * Jack Straw
 * Mo Mowlam
 * Clare Short
 * Lord Irvine
 * Jack Cunningham
 * Donald Dewar
 * George Robertson
 * Frank Dobson
 * Ann Taylor
 * Chris Smith
 * Ron Davies
 * Peter Mandelson
 * Alan Milburn
 * Harriet Harman
 * Keith Vaz

 * John Smith
 * Neil Kinnock
 * Tony Benn
 * Michael Foot
 * Dennis Healey
 * David Owen
 * James Callaghan
 * Harold Wilson
 * George Brown
 * Bryan Gould

title: User:Morwen/Cabinet


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Talk:History of house music

I think this article should be merged with house music. That article is kind of short anyway and could be consolidated somewhat, and having an entirely separate "history" page seems like overkill. -- Lexor 10:43, 6 Aug 2003 (UTC)

 * Since nobody objected, I went ahead and did the merge. --Lexor 07:08, 3 Sep 2003 (UTC)

title: Talk:History of house music


text:
Talk:Encomium

Spelling?
Is it EncoNium, or EncoMium? Th eimage seems to show the latter, but the page itself is the former. GRAHAMUK 10:43, 6 Aug 2003 (UTC)

Greek?
Encomium is a greek word? Sounds Latin to me.

The word encomium written in the Roman alphabet is a Latin word, but it is originally, and very obviously, a Greek word. The Greek word ἐγκώμιον comes from the Greek words ἐν ("in") and κῶμος ("village festival," where a victor or other person was praised), hence the substantive ἐγκώμιον originally meaning "a song in honor of a conqueror, a eulogy." --74.140.205.36 (talk) 03:33, 11 August 2008 (UTC)

2007-02-1 Automated pywikipediabot message
--CopyToWiktionaryBot 10:43, 1 February 2007 (UTC)

Wikiproject for Encomium?
What WikiProject for his article? Literature? Medieval? Please add if you know. --DThomsen8 (talk) 02:59, 4 September 2009 (UTC)

title: Talk:Encomium


text:
Douglas Hurd

Douglas Richard Hurd, Baron Hurd of Westwell, (born 8 March 1930) is a British Conservative Party politician who served in the governments of Margaret Thatcher and John Major from 1979 to 1995.

A career diplomat and political secretary to Prime Minister Edward Heath, Hurd first entered Parliament in February 1974 as MP for the Mid Oxfordshire constituency (Witney from 1983). His first government post was as Minister for Europe from 1979 to 1983 (being that office's inaugural holder) and he served in several Cabinet roles from 1984 onwards, including Secretary of State for Northern Ireland (1984–85), Home Secretary (1985–89) and Foreign Secretary (1989–95). He stood unsuccessfully for the Conservative Party leadership in 1990, and retired from frontline politics during a Cabinet reshuffle in 1995.

In 1997, Hurd was elevated to the House of Lords and is one of the Conservative Party's most senior elder statesmen. He is a patron of the Tory Reform Group. He retired from the Lords in 2016.

Early life
Hurd was born in 1930 in the market town of Marlborough in Wiltshire. His father Anthony Hurd (later Lord Hurd) and grandfather Sir Percy Hurd were also Members of Parliament. Douglas attended Twyford School and Eton College, where he was a King's Scholar and won the Newcastle Scholarship in 1947. He was also captain of school (head boy).

Following school Hurd did National Service, which he did not particularly enjoy, at a time when the Berlin Blockade made a Third World War seem far from unlikely. He began in July 1948 with a compulsory period in the ranks of the Royal Regiment of Artillery alongside young men of all social backgrounds. He later recorded that although living standards were no great shock after the spartan conditions at public school in those days, the petty dishonesty which he saw in the barrack room, and the waste of time which was so large a part of a conscript's experience, made him sceptical in later years of constituents' demands for a restoration of National Service. He was selected for officer training, attended Mons Officer Cadet School, Aldershot; from November 1948, and was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the 5th Regiment, Royal Horse Artillery (as it was then called) at the start of March 1949. He was released from the Army in September 1949 to take up his place at Cambridge University. He trained for a few weeks each summer as a reserve officer until 1952.

Hurd went up to Trinity College, Cambridge, in the autumn of 1949. He achieved an upper second (II:1) in his preliminary exams in summer 1950. In March 1951 he was approached by an admiral to be recruited to British Intelligence. He attended a selection panel, but withdrew from the process because, he later wrote, he did not want a career which would have to be pursued in secret. Hurd's brother Julian, who was on the officer training course at Aldershot at the time, committed suicide in June 1951. In his third year, Hurd served as chairman of the Cambridge University Conservative Association for Michaelmas (autumn) Term 1951 and president of the Cambridge Union Society in Easter (summer) Term 1952. His special subject for study was the Second French Republic. He graduated in 1952 with a first-class degree (BA) in history.

In 1952, Hurd joined the Diplomatic Service. He was posted to China, the United States and Italy, before leaving the service in 1966 to enter politics as a member of the Conservative Party.

Member of Parliament
Hurd became private secretary (a political appointment, his salary paid by the Conservative Party) to Conservative Prime Minister Edward Heath, and was first elected to Parliament in February 1974 to represent the constituency of Mid Oxfordshire. Following his election, he was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the February 1974 Dissolution Honours, gazetted on 2 April 1974. At the 1983 general election the seat was replaced by Witney and he remained MP for that seat until his retirement from the House of Commons in 1997 having served 23 years in Parliament. His immediate successor was Shaun Woodward, who defected to Labour in 1999, and moved in 2001 to a safe Labour seat, before serving as Northern Ireland Secretary, a position Hurd once held. From 2001 to 2016, Hurd's former constituency was represented by the former Leader of the Conservative Party and former British prime minister, David Cameron.

In government: 1979–1990
Hurd was appointed Minister of State at the Foreign & Commonwealth Office upon the Conservative victory in the 1979 general election and remained in that post for the duration of the Parliament. Following the 1983 election Thatcher moved Hurd to the Home Office, but just over a year later he was promoted to Cabinet rank, succeeding Jim Prior as Secretary of State for Northern Ireland. In this position, his diplomatic skills paved the way for the signing of the Anglo-Irish Agreement on the future of Northern Ireland, which marked a turning point in British-Irish co-operation on the political situation in the troubled region. A month before the agreement was signed, however, Hurd returned to the Home Office, this time as Home Secretary, following the demotion of Leon Brittan to the Department of Trade and Industry.

Widely seen as a "safe pair of hands" and a solid, loyal member of the Cabinet, Hurd's tenure as Home Secretary was largely uncontroversial, although he was notably of the view that Her Majesty's Prison Service did not work effectively and argued for more rehabilitation of offenders and alternative sentencing.

Hurd brought in the Public Order Act, 1986, which created the crime of hate speech for speech which is "threatening, abusive or insulting" and which is spoken in public, with intent or likely to "stir up" racial hatred.

Candidature in the 1990 leadership election
Hurd's Cabinet career progressed further during the turbulent final months of Margaret Thatcher's prime ministership. On 26 October 1989, Hurd moved to the Foreign Office, succeeding John Major, whose rapid rise through the Cabinet saw him become Chancellor of the Exchequer in the wake of Nigel Lawson's resignation.

In mid-November 1990, Hurd supported Margaret Thatcher's candidature as Conservative Party leader against challenger Michael Heseltine, but on her withdrawal from the second round of the contest on 22 November, Hurd decided to enter the race as a moderate centre-right candidate, drawing on his reputation as a successful 'law-and-order' Home Secretary. He was endorsed by former Prime Minister and Conservative Party Leader Edward Heath. He was seen as an outsider, lagging behind the more charismatic Heseltine and the eventual winner, John Major, who shared the moderate centre-right political ground with Hurd but had the added advantages of youth and political momentum. Hurd's Etonian education may have also been a disadvantage. Years later, Hurd expressed frustration that his privileged background counted against him in the leadership election, commenting in an interview that "I should have said I am standing for leadership of the Tory party and not for some demented Marxist outfit". He came third, winning 56 of the 372 votes cast and, together with Heseltine, conceded defeat to allow Major, who had fallen just three votes short of an outright majority, to return unopposed and take over as prime minister on 27 November 1990. Hurd was gracious in defeat and, on the formation of Major's first Cabinet, was returned to his position as Foreign Secretary.

Foreign Secretary
Hurd was widely regarded as a statesmanlike British Foreign Secretary, his tenure having been particularly eventful. He oversaw Britain's diplomatic responses to the end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, as well as the first Gulf War to drive Ba'athist Iraqi troops out of Kuwait. Hurd cultivated good relations with the United States under President George H. W. Bush, and sought a more conciliatory approach to other members of the European Community, repairing relationships damaged during the increasingly Eurosceptic tone of Margaret Thatcher's final years. Hurd was a signatory of the Maastricht Treaty establishing the European Union in 1992. Hurd welcomed a reunified Germany into the European political community in 1990.

One of the defining features of Hurd's tenure as Foreign Secretary was the British reaction to the Yugoslav Wars. During the Bosnian War, Hurd was seen as a leading voice among European politicians arguing against sending military aid to the Bosniaks and for maintaining the arms embargo, in defiance of the line taken by US President Bill Clinton, and arguing that such a move would only create a 'level killing field' and prolong the conflict unduly. Hurd also resisted pressure to allow Bosnian refugees to enter into Britain arguing that to do so would reduce pressure on the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina to sue for peace. Hurd described his and British policy during that time as 'realist'.

Shortly after his withdrawal from frontline politics, Hurd travelled to Serbia and Montenegro to meet Slobodan Milošević on behalf of the British bank NatWest (see below), fuelling some speculation that Hurd had taken a pro-Serbian line. There has been criticism of Hurd's policies in relation to the war. The Bosnian government even threatened to charge Hurd as an accomplice to the Bosnian genocide before the War Tribunal at The Hague, though this came to nothing. In 2010 Hurd told a reporter that he was troubled by his Bosnia policy but still doubted that intervention would have brought about an earlier end to the war.

Hurd was involved in a public scandal concerning Britain's funding of a hydroelectric dam on the Pergau River in Malaysia, near the Thai border. Building work began in 1991 with money from the British foreign aid budget. Concurrently, the Malaysian government bought around £1 billion's worth of British-made arms. The suggested linkage of arms deals to aid became the subject of a UK Government inquiry from March 1994. In November 1994, after an application for Judicial review brought by the World Development Movement, the High Court of Justice held that the British Foreign Secretary, Douglas Hurd's actions were ultra vires [outside his legal powers and therefore unlawful] by allocating £234 million towards the funding of the dam, on the grounds that the legislation only empowered him to fund economically sound projects.

In 1997, the administration of the UK's aid budget was removed from the Foreign Secretary's remit (previously the Overseas Development Administration had been under the supervision of the Foreign and Commonwealth Office). The new department, the Department for International Development (DfID), had its own Secretary of state who was a member of the Cabinet. In 1995, during the Cabinet reshuffle widely seen as setting up the Conservative team which would contest the next election, Hurd retired from frontline politics after 11 years in the Cabinet and was replaced by Malcolm Rifkind.

Retirement
After his retirement as foreign secretary, Hurd remained a key supporter of John Major, and kept a range of active political involvements as well as taking on some business appointments, most notably as a deputy chairman of NatWest Markets and a board director of NatWest Group, posts he held from October 1995–99.

Hurd left the House of Commons at the 1997 general election, and on 13 June 1997 was created Baron Hurd of Westwell, of Westwell in the County of Oxfordshire, which enabled him to continue sitting in Parliament as a member of the House of Lords. He retired from the Lords on 9 June 2016.

In December 1997, Hurd was appointed chairman of British Invisibles (now renamed International Financial Services London or IFSL). He was chairman of the judging panel for the 1998 Booker Prize for Fiction. He became a member of the Royal Commission on the Reform of the House of Lords in February 1999, and in September 1999 he was appointed High Steward of Westminster Abbey, reflecting his long active membership of the Church of England. He later went on to chair the Hurd Commission which produced a review of the roles and functions of the Archbishop of Canterbury.

Hurd is chairman of the advisory council at FIRST, an international affairs organisation. Hurd was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1974 and Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour in the 1996 New Year Honours. He was formerly a Visiting Fellow of Nuffield College, Oxford and Chairman of the German British Forum. On 17 July 2009, he received the honorary degree of Doctor of Letters (Hon DLitt) from Aston University at its Degree Congregation.

Hurd is a member of the Top Level Group of UK Parliamentarians for Multilateral Nuclear Disarmament and Non-proliferation, established in October 2009.

Personal life
Hurd has married twice. In 1960, he married his first wife Tatiana, daughter of Major Arthur Eyre MBE, and their union produced three sons. The couple separated in 1976, and divorced in 1982. Tatiana Hurd cited her husband's career as the reason for their separation, saying, "Really, politics don't mix with marriage". In 1982 Hurd married Judy Smart, his former parliamentary secretary, who was 19 years his junior. They had two children, a boy and a girl. Judy Hurd died of leukaemia on 22 November 2008 in an Oxford hospital, aged 58.

Hurd's eldest son, Nick Hurd, was Conservative Member of Parliament for Ruislip Northwood and Pinner from May 2005 to December 2019. In 2010, he was appointed Minister for Civil Society and married Lady Clare Kerr, daughter of the Marquess of Lothian.

Hurd's second son, Thomas, joined the Diplomatic service. His name appeared on a list of suspected MI6 operatives which was published on the Internet, along with the name of Douglas himself. The Hon Thomas was appointed OBE in 2006, and is married with five children. His wife, Catherine, known as Sian, died on 21 May 2011, after falling from the roof of the building where they lived on East 84th Street in New York City.

In 1988, Hurd set up the charity Crime Concern. Crime Concern worked to reduce crime, anti-social behaviour and the fear of crime, by working with young people, their families and adult offenders, offering opportunities through training and employment. Crime Concern merged with young people's charity Rainer in 2008 to become Catch22. Hurd is fluent in Mandarin, French, and Italian.

Literary works
Hurd is a writer of political thrillers including:
 * The Smile on the Face of the Tiger (1969, with Andrew Osmond)
 * Scotch on the Rocks (1971, with Andrew Osmond)
 * Truth Game (1972)
 * A Vote to a Kill (1975)
 * Palace of Enchantments (1985, with Stephen Lamport)
 * The Shape of Ice (1998)
 * Image in the Water (2001)
 * 10 Minutes to Turn the Devil (2015), a collection of short stories.

His non-fiction works include:
 * The Arrow War (1967)
 * An End To Promises (1979)
 * The Search for Peace (1997)
 * Memoirs (2003)
 * Robert Peel, a Biography (2007)
 * Choose your Weapons (2010)
 * Disraeli: or, The Two Lives (2013, with Edward Young)

title: Douglas Hurd


text:
Duke of Buckingham and Normanby

Duke of Buckingham and Normanby is a title in the Peerage of England. The full title was Duke of the County of Buckingham and of Normanby but in practice only Duke of Buckingham and Normanby was used. The dukedom was created in 1703 for John Sheffield, 1st Marquess of Normanby KG, a notable Tory politician of the late Stuart period, who served under Queen Anne as Lord Privy Seal and Lord President of the Council. He had succeeded his father as 3rd Earl of Mulgrave in 1658 and been made Marquess of Normanby in 1694.

The duke's family descended from Sir Edmund Sheffield, second cousin of Henry VIII, who in 1547 was raised to the Peerage of England as Baron Sheffield and in 1549 was murdered in the streets of Norwich during Kett's Rebellion. His grandson, the 3rd Baron, served as Lord Lieutenant of Yorkshire from 1603 to 1619 and was created Earl of Mulgrave in 1626, also in the Peerage of England. On the death of the 2nd Duke of Buckingham and Normanby in 1735, all these titles became extinct. The Sheffield family estates passed to the 2nd duke's half-brother Charles Herbert—the illegitimate son of the 1st Duke by Frances Stewart—who changed his surname to Sheffield as a condition of the 2nd duke's will, thereby becoming Charles Herbert Sheffield. Charles Herbert Sheffield was created a Baronet in 1755 and is the ancestor of the Sheffield Baronets, of Normanby.

The Mulgrave title was used again in 1767 when Constantine Phipps was made Baron Mulgrave. He was the son of William Phipps and Lady Catherine Annesley (daughter and heiress of James Annesley, 3rd Earl of Anglesey and his wife Lady Catherine Darnley, illegitimate daughter of King James II by his mistress Catherine Sedley, Countess of Dorchester). Lady Catherine Darnley later married John Sheffield, 1st Duke of Buckingham and Normanby, and hence Constantine Phipps, 1st Baron Mulgrave was the step-grandson of the 1st Duke of Buckingham and Normanby. In 1838 also the Normanby title was used again when the 1st Baron Mulgrave's grandson Constantine was made Marquess of Normanby. These titles are still extant.

Barons Sheffield (1547)

 * Edmund Sheffield, 1st Baron Sheffield (1521–1549)
 * John Sheffield, 2nd Baron Sheffield (c. 1538–1568)
 * Edmund Sheffield, 3rd Baron Sheffield (c. 1564–1646) (created Earl of Mulgrave in 1626)

Earls of Mulgrave (1626)

 * Edmund Sheffield, 1st Earl of Mulgrave (c. 1564–1646)
 * Edmund Sheffield, 2nd Earl of Mulgrave (1611–1658)
 * John Sheffield, 3rd Earl of Mulgrave (1647–1721) (created Marquess of Normanby in 1694 and Duke of Buckingham and Normanby in 1703)

Dukes of Buckingham and Normanby (1703)

 * John Sheffield, 1st Duke of Buckingham and Normanby (1648–1721)
 * John Sheffield, Marquess of Normanby (1710)
 * Robert Sheffield, Marquess of Normanby (1711–1714)
 * Edmund Sheffield, 2nd Duke of Buckingham and Normanby (1716–1735)

title: Duke of Buckingham and Normanby


text:
Marquess of Buckingham

Marquess of Buckingham was a title that has been created two times in the peerages of England and Great Britain.

The first creation of the marquessate was in 1618 for George Villiers, a favourite of James I of England. He had previously been made Baron Whaddon, of Whaddon in the County of Buckingham, and Viscount Villiers in 1616, then Earl of Buckingham in 1617. Later he was also created Earl of Coventry and Duke of Buckingham in 1623. With his son's death in 1687, the title became extinct.

The second creation came in 1784, when George Nugent-Temple-Grenville, 3rd Earl Temple was made Marquess of Buckingham in the Peerage of Great Britain. However, on his grandson's death in 1889 without male issue, the marquessate of Buckingham became extinct.

Marquesses of Buckingham (1618)
See Dukes of Buckingham
 * George Villiers, 1st Marquess of Buckingham (1592–1628) (created Duke of Buckingham in 1623)

Marquesses of Buckingham (1784)
See Dukes of Buckingham and Chandos
 * George Nugent-Temple-Grenville, 1st Marquess of Buckingham (1753–1813)
 * Richard Temple-Nugent-Brydges-Chandos-Grenville, 2nd Marquess of Buckingham (1776–1839) (created Duke of Buckingham and Chandos in 1822)

title: Marquess of Buckingham


text:
Earl of Buckingham

Earl of Buckingham is a peerage title created several times in the Peerage of England. It is not to be confused with the title of Earl of Buckinghamshire.

It was first created in 1097 for Walter Giffard, but became extinct in 1164 with the death of the second earl. It may have been created again in 1164 for Richard de Clare ("Strongbow"), who died without issue in 1176. It was created again in 1377 for Thomas of Woodstock, the youngest son of King Edward III. He was created Duke of Gloucester in 1385. The dukedom was forfeit on his attainder in 1397, but the earldom passed to his son, Humphrey, but became extinct on his death two years later. The title was created a fourth time in 1618 for Mary Villiers for life only. The title was created for a fifth time in 1617 for her son George Villiers, 1st Viscount Villiers, who was subsequently created Duke of Buckingham in 1623. All titles became extinct on the death of the second duke in 1687.

Earls of Buckingham (1097), first creation

 * Walter Giffard, 1st Earl of Buckingham (d. 1102)
 * Walter Giffard, 2nd Earl of Buckingham (d. 1164)

Earls of Buckingham (1164), second creation

 * Richard de Clare, 1st Earl of Buckingham (d. 1176)

Earls of Buckingham (1377), third creation

 * Thomas of Woodstock, 1st Earl of Buckingham (d. 1397)
 * Humphrey, 2nd Earl of Buckingham (d. 1399)

Countesses of Buckingham (1618), fourth creation

 * Mary Villiers, Countess of Buckingham (1570–1632)

Earls of Buckingham (1617), fifth creation

 * see Duke of Buckingham, second creation

Impostor
From 1997 to 2006, Charles Stopford claimed to be the Earl of Buckingham.

title: Earl of Buckingham