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Gina Lollobrigida

Luigia "Gina" Lollobrigida OMRI (4 July 1927 – 16 January 2023) was an Italian actress, model, and photojournalist. She was one of the highest-profile European actresses of the 1950s and 1960s, a period in which she was an international sex symbol. Dubbed "the most beautiful woman in the world", at the time of her death she was among the last surviving high-profile international actors from the Golden Age of Hollywood cinema.

As her film career slowed, Lollobrigida established a second career as a photojournalist. In the 1970s she achieved a scoop by gaining access to Fidel Castro for an exclusive interview.

Lollobrigida continued as an active supporter of Italian and Italian-American causes, particularly the National Italian American Foundation (NIAF). In 2008 she received the NIAF Lifetime Achievement Award at the Foundation's Anniversary Gala. In 2013, she sold her jewellery collection and donated the nearly US$5 million from the sale to benefit stem-cell therapy research. She won the Henrietta Award at the 18th Golden Globe Awards.

Youth
Luigia Lollobrigida was born in Subiaco, Lazio, about 64 km from Rome, the daughter of a furniture maker and his wife. She had three sisters: Giuliana, Maria and Fernanda. After the end of World War II in 1945, the family moved to Rome, where Lollobrigida took singing lessons, did some modelling, and participated in several beauty contests, placing third in the 1947 Miss Italy contest. In 1946, she began appearing in Italian films in minor roles.

In 1945 at age 18, Lollobrigida played a part in the comedy Santarellina by Eduardo Scarpetta at the Teatro della Concordia of Monte Castello di Vibio, the smallest theatre all'italiana in the world.

Film
In 1950, Howard Hughes signed Lollobrigida on a preliminary seven-year contract to make three pictures a year. She refused the final terms of the contract, preferring to remain in Europe, and Hughes suspended her. Despite selling RKO Pictures in 1955, Hughes retained Lollobrigida's contract. The dispute prevented her from working in American movies filmed in the U.S. until 1959, but allowed for American productions shot in Europe, although Hughes often threatened legal action against the producers.

Her performance in the Italian romantic comedy Bread, Love and Dreams (Pane, amore e fantasia, 1953) led to its becoming a box-office success and her receiving a BAFTA nomination. Furthermore, she won a Nastro d'Argento award from the Italian National Syndicate of Film Journalists for her role in the picture. Lollobrigida appeared in The Wayward Wife (1953) and in Woman of Rome (1954). These were three of her most renowned Italian films, but she worked also in the French industry on such films as Fearless Little Soldier (Fanfan la Tulipe, 1952), Beauties of the Night (Les Belles de nuit, 1952), and Le Grand Jeu (1954).

Her first widely seen English-language film, Beat the Devil (1953), was shot in Italy, and directed by John Huston. In this film she played the wife of Humphrey Bogart, with Jennifer Jones and Robert Morley as her costars. She then took part in the Italian-American production Crossed Swords (1954), co-starring with Errol Flynn. Her performance in The World's Most Beautiful Woman (also known as Beautiful But Dangerous, 1955) led to her receiving the first David di Donatello for Best Actress award. In this movie Lollobrigida played Italian soprano Lina Cavalieri and sang all the songs in the movie, including arias from Tosca, in her own voice. She played the principal female lead in the circus drama Trapeze (1956) directed by Carol Reed and co-starring with Burt Lancaster and Tony Curtis and in The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1956) appeared as Esmeralda with Anthony Quinn as Quasimodo. The film was directed by Jean Delannoy.

She appeared in the French movie The Law (1959), alongside Yves Montand and Marcello Mastroianni; then, she co-starred with Frank Sinatra in Never So Few (1959) and with Yul Brynner in Solomon and Sheba (1959). The latter was the last film directed by King Vidor and features a dance routine which was supposed to depict an orgy scene. Brynner had been chosen to substitute for Tyrone Power, who died before the shots were completed.

In the romantic comedy Come September (1961), Lollobrigida had a leading role along with Rock Hudson, Sandra Dee, and Bobby Darin. It was a film for which she won a Golden Globe Award. She appeared, also in 1961, with Ernest Borgnine and Anthony Franciosa in the drama Go Naked in the World.

She attended the 1961 Academy Awards ceremony, hosted by Bob Hope, delivering the Academy Award for Best Director to Billy Wilder for the film The Apartment.

Jean Delannoy then directed her again, this time in Venere Imperiale (1962). She co-starred with Stephen Boyd and received Nastro d'Argento and David di Donatello awards. She co-starred with Sean Connery in the thriller Woman of Straw (1964), with Rock Hudson again in Strange Bedfellows (1965), and appeared with Alec Guinness in Hotel Paradiso (1966).

Lollobrigida starred in Buona Sera, Mrs. Campbell (1968) with Shelley Winters, Phil Silvers, Peter Lawford, and Telly Savalas. For this role, she was nominated for a Golden Globe Award and won a third David di Donatello award. Lollobrigida co-starred with Bob Hope in the comedy The Private Navy of Sgt. O'Farrell (1968) and also accompanied Hope on his visits to military troops overseas.

During this stage of her career, she rejected roles in many films, including Lady L (1965) with Tony Curtis, directed by George Cukor, due to conflicts with Cukor (the leading role then went to Sophia Loren); Five Branded Women (1960), directed by Martin Ritt (the leading role went to Silvana Mangano); and The Lady Without Camelias (1953), directed by Michelangelo Antonioni (the leading role went to Lucia Bosè). She later revealed regret for having refused a supporting role in La Dolce Vita (1960). The film's director, Federico Fellini, wanted to cast her in the film but, she explained, proposed projects were arriving too often at the time and her husband accidentally misplaced the script.

By the 1970s, her film career had slowed down. She appeared in King, Queen, Knave (1972), co-starring with David Niven, and in a few other poorly received productions in the early part of the decade. In 1973, she was a member of the jury at the 8th Moscow International Film Festival.

Television
In the mid-1980s, she guest starred in a multi-episode arc on the television series Falcon Crest as Francesca Gioberti, a role originally written for Sophia Loren, who had turned it down. For the role, she received a third Golden Globe nomination. She also had a supporting role in the 1985 television miniseries Deceptions, co-starring with Stefanie Powers. The following year, she appeared as a guest star in the TV series The Love Boat.

Judging
In 1986, she was invited to head the jury at the 36th Berlin International Film Festival, which awarded the Golden Bear to Reinhard Hauff's film Stammheim. She said the majority decision was "prefabricated", and opposed it. In 1997 she was in the jury at Film Fest Gent and similarly distanced herself from the Grand Prix winner The Witman Boys, which she deemed 'immoral'.

Photojournalism
By the end of the 1970s, Lollobrigida had embarked on what she developed into a successful second career as a photographic journalist. She photographed, among others, Paul Newman, Salvador Dalí, Henry Kissinger, David Cassidy, Audrey Hepburn, Ella Fitzgerald, and the Germany national football team. In 1974 she managed to obtain an exclusive interview with Cuban leader Fidel Castro. Between 1972 and 1994 she published six collections of her photographs, including the 1973 title Italia Mia.

Politics

In 1999, Lollobrigida unsuccessfully ran for election to the European Parliament as a candidate for The Democrats, a party led by Romano Prodi. In 2020, she publicly endorsed Pope Francis' view on LGBT rights. In the 2022 Italian general election, Lollobrigida, at the age of 95, attempted to win a seat in the Senate of the Republic, by standing for election as candidate for the Sovereign and Popular Italy (ISP), a newly-founded Eurosceptic alliance opposed to Mario Draghi, in Latina, Lazio. She was unsuccessful, as the party garnered only 1% of the constituency vote, below the 3% electoral threshold. In an interview with Corriere della Sera prior to the election, Lollobrigida said she was inspired by Mahatma Gandhi's "way of doing things". She also claimed to have been close to Indira Gandhi.

Personal life
In 1949 Lollobrigida married a Slovenian physician, Milko Škofič. Their only child, Andrea Milko (Milko Škofič, Jr.), was born on 28 July 1957. Škofič gave up the practice of medicine to become her manager. In 1960, Lollobrigida moved from her native Italy to Toronto, with Škofič and their son. The couple meant to solve the legal situation of their son who was considered stateless by the Italian bureaucracy. The couple divorced in 1971.

In October 2006, at age 79, she announced to Spain's ¡Hola! magazine her engagement to a 45-year-old Spanish businessman, Javier Rigau y Rafols (Javier Rigau i Ràfols).

They had met at a party in Monte Carlo in 1984 and had since become companions. The engagement was called off on 6 December 2006, reportedly because of the strain of intense media interest.

In 2006 Lollobrigida and Rigau signed a prenuptial agreement and married in Spain.

In January 2013, she started legal action against Rigau, claiming that her ex-boyfriend had staged a secret ceremony in which he "married" an imposter pretending to be her at a registry office in Barcelona. She said he intended to lay claim to her estate after her death. Lollobrigida accused Rigau of fraud, saying that he had earlier obtained the legal right to act on her behalf with a power of attorney, and carried out the plot to get extra power. "A while ago he convinced me to give him my power of attorney. He needed it for some legal affairs. But instead, I fear that he took advantage of the fact that I don't understand Spanish ... Who knows what he had me sign." In March 2017, she lost her court action, but subsequently said that she would appeal.

Lollobrigida had a habit of referring to herself in the third person. Lollobrigida retired from filming in 1997. She told PARADE in April 2000: "I studied painting and sculpting at school and became an actress by mistake ... I've had many lovers and still have romances. I am very spoiled. All my life, I've had too many admirers." After retirement she divided her time between her house on Via Appia Antica in Rome and a villa in Monte Carlo. After 2009, she refused visitors to her home.

In 2013, Lollobrigida sold her jewelry collection through Sotheby's. She donated nearly $5 million to benefit stem-cell therapy.

In 2019, the Roman Rota, with the consent of Pope Francis, issued a declaration of nullity for her marriage with Rigau after a two-year review.

At the end of the 2010s, Andrea Piazzolla became Lollobrigida's main collaborator,  general director and trustee of some Monegasque real estate and financial societies. In July 2020 he was charged for circumvention of an incapable person.

In 2021, the Italian Supreme Court of Cassation, at the request of her son, ruled that Lollobrigida should have a legal guardian appointed to manage her affairs and prevent predation. Although the court determined she was mentally capable, medical evidence had indicated that there was "a weakening in her correct perception of reality" and that she was in a state of "vulnerability".

Lollobrigida died at a clinic in Rome on 16 January 2023, at the age of 95. She is buried in her birthplace, Subiaco, Lazio.

The lawyer and politician, and current Minister of Agriculture of Italy, Francesco Lollobrigida, is her great-nephew.

In 2022, sports media noted that Olympic speed skating silver medalist Francesca Lollobrigida is her great-niece, though the two had never met.

In November 2023 Andrea Piazzolla was convicted of embezzling Lollobrigida's millions.

Awards and nominations
Lollobrigida won three David di Donatello, two Nastro d'Argento, and six Bambi awards. She was nominated three times for the Golden Globe and won once in 1961 as World Film Favorite– Female. She was nominated once for a BAFTA award.

In 1985, she was nominated as an officer of France's Ordre des Arts et des Lettres by Jack Lang, for her achievements in photography and sculpture.

Lollobrigida was awarded the Légion d'honneur by François Mitterrand.

On 16 October 1999, Lollobrigida was nominated as a Goodwill Ambassador of the UN Food and Agriculture Organization.

On 1 February 2018, Lollobrigida received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.

Books

 * Italia mia (1973) – a collection of photographs across Italy
 * The Philippines (1976) – a collection of photographs across the Philippines
 * Wonder of Innocence (1994) – a book of photographs
 * Sculptures (2003)
 * Gina Lollobrigida Photographer (2009) – a book of her photography
 * Gina Lollobrigida "Vissi D'Arte" (2008) – a book of her sculptures and some of her drawings and paintings

Filmography

 * Sources:

title: Gina Lollobrigida


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Green-veined white

The green-veined white (Pieris napi) is a butterfly of the family Pieridae.

Appearance and distribution
A circumboreal species widespread across Europe and Asia, including the Indian subcontinent, Japan, the Maghreb and North America. It is found in meadows, hedgerows and woodland glades but not as often in gardens and parks like its close relatives the large and small whites, for which it is often mistaken. Like other "white" butterflies, the sexes differ. The female has two spots on each forewing, the male only one. The veins on the wings of the female are usually more heavily marked. The underside hindwings are pale yellow with the veins highlighted by black scales giving a greenish tint, hence green-veined white. Unlike the large and small whites, it rarely chooses garden cabbages to lay its eggs on, preferring wild crucifers. Males emit a sex pheromone that is perceptible to humans, citral, the basic flavor-imparting component of lemon peel oil.

Some authors consider the mustard white and West Virginia white of North America to be conspecific with P. napi or consider P. napi to be a superspecies. Despite this, the American butterflies, unlike P. napi, cannot successfully use garlic mustard as a host plant. Females will lay eggs on it, mistaking this non-native species for a compatible native mustard, resulting in the death of the offspring. Classification is also an issue concerning the European dark-veined white.

Life cycle and food plants
The eggs are laid singly on a wide range of food plants including hedge mustard (Sisymbrium officinale), garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata), cuckooflower (Cardamine pratense), water-cress (Rorippa nastutium-aquaticum), charlock (Sinapis arvensis), large bitter-cress (Cardamine amara), wild cabbage (Brassica oleracea), and wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum), and so it is rarely a pest in gardens or field crops. The caterpillar is green and well camouflaged. When full grown it is green above with black warts, from which arise whitish and blackish hairs. There is a darker line along the back and a yellow line low down on the sides. Underneath the colour is whitish-grey. The spiracular line is dusky but not conspicuous, and the spiracles are blackish surrounded with yellow. There is extensive overlap with other leaf-feeding larvae of large and small whites in some wild populations (e.g. in Morocco). It is often found feeding on the same plant as the orange tip but rarely competes for food because it usually feeds on the leaves whereas the orange tip caterpillar feeds on the flowers and developing seed pods. Like other Pieris species it overwinters as a pupa. This is green in colour, and the raised parts are yellowish and brown. This is the most frequent form, but it varies through yellowish to buff or greyish, and is sometimes without markings.

Habitat
P. napi is found in damp, grassy places with some shade, forest edges, hedgerows, meadows and wooded river valleys. The later generations widen their habitat use in the search for alternative food plants in drier, but flowery places. In the Mediterranean the insect is also found in scrub around mountain streams or springs and on floodplains with Nasturtium officinale. It is found from sea level to high elevations (2500 m in central Europe, 2600 m in Italy, 3600 m in Morocco).

Flight times
The generations vary with location, elevation and season. In northern Europe there are two or three generations from April to early September. In warmer areas and in some good years there is a fourth generation. In southern Europe there are three or more partially overlapping generations from March to October.

Seasonal variation
In Great Britain, April, May and June specimens have the veins tinged with grey and rather distinct, but are not so strongly marked with black as those belonging to the second flight, which occurs in late July and throughout August. This seasonal variation, as it is called, is also most clearly exhibited on the underside. In the May and June butterfly (plate 13, left side) the veins below are greenish grey, and those of the hindwings are broadly bordered also with this colour. In the bulk of the July and August specimens (plate 13, right side) only the nervures are shaded with greenish grey, and the nervures are only faintly, or not at all, marked with this colour. Now and then a specimen of the first brood may assume the characters properly belonging to the specimens of the second brood; and, on the other hand, a butterfly of the second brood may closely resemble one of the first brood. As a rule, however, the seasonal differences referred to are fairly constant. By rearing this species from the egg it has been ascertained that part (sometimes the smaller) of a brood from eggs laid in June attains the butterfly stage the same year, and the other part remains in the chrysalis until the following spring, the butterflies in each set being of the form proper to the time of emergence.

Other variation
In the typical form -forma typica- the forewings are creamy-white, irrorated with black towards the base. There is an apical blackish blotch, sometimes broken into several terminal spots ; and a black spot between 3 and 4 (in male sometimes absent) In the  female there is a black subdorsal posterior spot, and a dorsal confluent mark. The hindwings are creamy-white, the base black-sprinkled and a black costal spot before the apex (in male sometimes absent). The underside of the hindwings and underside apex of the forewings is pale yellow the veins edged with a shading of fine black lines, in  the hindwings more broadly.

The ground colour varies from white to cream, sulphur-yellow, chrome yellow and light hues of buff or brown. The spot markings also vary and may be joined or absent. The vein shading varies in colour and in intensity and the shaded bands may be broad or narrow.

Variants, many named, are described by Röber (Europe), Langham (Ireland) and Anon (Britain)

Senses
Recent research has shown that when males mate with a female, they inject methyl salicylate along with their sperm. The smell of this compound repels other males, thus ensuring the first male's paternity of the eggs—a form of chemical mate guarding.

After a female mates, she will display a mate refusal posture that releases methyl salicylate during a subsequent courtship. The release of this anti-aphrodisiac will quickly terminate the courtship. Males are very sensitive to differences in methyl salicylate levels, and will use this sense to influence their mating behaviour. However, a virgin female displaying a very similar posture will release a different chemical that will prolong the courtship ritual. Males are sensitive to these chemical and postural differences, and can discriminate between a receptive virgin female and an unreceptive mated female.

The adult male of this species has a distinctive odour that resembles lemon verbena. This smell is associated with specialized androconial scales on male wings.

Mating system
In the usually polyandrous P. napi, females who mate multiple times have higher lifetime fecundity, lay larger eggs, and live longer compared to females who mate only once. In most organisms it is the female who contributes the most to the reproduction of offspring as she must invest an egg and then carry the zygote. Males, on the other hand, need only provide a sperm that is of low cost. In P. napi, however, mating is unusually costly to males as the ejaculate matter produced contains not only sperm but accessory substances as well. These substances average 15% of male body mass and are incorporated into female soma and reproductive tissues during the mating process. Therefore, the nuptial gift given by P. napi males qualifies both as paternal investment and mating effort. Despite the presence of nuptial gifts and the known benefits to females and offspring, some females are still monogamous. There are multiple reasons in why other species are monogamous like access to males, low sperm population, and age. Some P. napi are likely monogamous due to variation in egg production between polygamous and monogamous females. Polygamous females rely on male mates in order to increase their reproductive output, but polygamous females that only mate twice may not have as high of reproductive output as monogamous females do. This system is unlike other types of butterflies such as Pararge aegeria, where female reproductive effort is independent of male ejaculate.

The amount of ejaculate of virgin males during mating is larger than that of non-virgin males. Females therefore must mate more frequently with non-virgin males in order to obtain the necessary amount of male-derived nutrition.

Sexual cooperation and conflict
In P. napi, the nuptial gift is an example of sexual cooperation towards a common interest of both males and females. The existence of nutrients in the ejaculate is beneficial to the females because it increases female fecundity and longevity, and eventually promotes re-mating. The existence of the anti-aphrodisiac, methyl salicylate, is effective in reducing female harassment by other males.

However, the transfer of this ejaculate can cause a conflict over re-mating due to sperm competition. After a female mates, infertile sperm ejaculated by the male will fill the female's sperm storage organ and prevent her from mating. The amount of infertile sperm stored is correlated with the refractory period of a female after mating. Infertile sperm makes up 90% of the sperm count, showing that males manipulate females by preventing them from mating with another male for a certain period of time. Although polyandry benefits females of P. napi by maximizing the amount of transferred nutrients from the male, the infertile sperm storage prolongs female re-mating.

This refractory period makes it harder for females to mate, and females will continue to have difficulty as their age and mating frequency increase. Males who have recently copulated will not transfer as many nutrients to their next mate, but will spend a longer duration of time for each mating. This increases the mating costs for females because they are spending more time copulating and receiving fewer nutrients from the ejaculate. Males take advantage of this because females do not reduce their mating costs by copulating with virgin males. In addition, males will transfer the most methyl salicylate to their first mate to ensure its paternity. However, a female who mates with a virgin male will have the most difficulty re-mating, therefore delaying her from engaging in the preferred polyandry. Males tailor their ejaculate in the sense that the first ejaculate is meant to prolong the refractory period of the female, and every subsequent ejaculate is meant to maximize efficiency in sperm competition.

Fecundity benefits of polyandry
Fecundity in P. napi varies with the number of eggs produced as well as the lifespan of the female, and is positively influenced by body mass, other genetic factors independent of body size, and with the degree of polyandry. Fecundity increases with the amount of spermatophore material and ejaculate received from males during mating. In particular, mating with recently unmated males can increase overall female reproductive output, though small females are unable to compensate for the negative effects of size on fecundity by mating multiply. However, by mating multiply, polyandrous females have overall higher lifetime fecundity, produce more offspring, and have faster-developing offspring compared to monandrous females.

Polyandry versus monandry is a genetically-based mating strategy
Despite the benefits of mating multiply, many female P. napi only mate once, irrespective of the number of high quality, more fit, mates available. Monandry is more common in northern populations of P. napi, and sperm competition is correspondingly lower in the north. This polymorphic mating system is partially determined by genetic variability within the females genomes. Monandrous and polyandrous females exhibit different heritable reproductive tactics with monandrous females relying on larval derived resources to realize their fecundity and polyandrous females relying on male donations. When genetically polyandrous females are forced into monandry, due to suboptimal mating conditions, they experience reduced life spans. Monandrous and polyandrous females exhibit different life history strategies: at the start of reproduction females that are monandrous produce more eggs than polyandrous females. It is hypothesized that this life history difference is why monandry is more common in the most northern parts of the species' range, as early investment in reproduction can be more beneficial with shorter mating seasons.

Maintenance of the monandry/polyandry genetic polymorphism
The maintenance of the two mating systems had been hypothesized to be due to the availability of male nutrients, which can vary within the male-biased operational sex ratio. The male biased sex-ratio can lead to strong competition for mates among the males as well as the males are unlikely to encounter more than one female during the mating season. As a result, females often encounter males that have not recently mated that provide large nuptial gifts. Given the size of the nuptial gift provided by males, means that polyandrous females can substantially increase their lifetime fecundity. However, higher mating rates in females comes with a cost, which can explain the presence of monandrous females in primarily polyandrous populations. Polyandrous females have a higher cost of mating characterized by an increase in time spent looking for mates and time spent mating. This results in a decreased time spent looking for food.

Taxonomy
Some authorities consider P. napi to be a superspecies that includes the American species mustard white and West Virginia white as well as the European dark-veined white.

However, the American butterflies cannot successfully reproduce by laying eggs on the invasive weed garlic mustard, Alliaria petiolata, a fact that threatens their survival as garlic mustard out-competes native mustard plants due to having no biological control species present in North America. In Europe, where garlic mustard is native, 76 things consume it.

Similar species

 * Pieris bryoniae
 * Pieris ergane
 * Pieris krueperi – Krueper's small white
 * Pieris rapae – small white
 * Pieris oleracea

Subspecies
For others see Wikispecies.
 * Pieris napi napi
 * Pieris napi adalwinda (Fruhstorfer, 1909) Finland, Sweden
 * Pieris napi meridionalis Heyne & Rühl, 1895 Spain, Italy
 * Pieris napi segonzaci (le Cerf, 1923) High Atlas
 * Pieris napi maura (Verity, 1911) Glacières de Blida, Algeria
 * Pieris napi atlantis (Oberthür, 1923) Azrou, Middle Atlas, Morocco
 * Pieris napi flavescens (Wagner, 1903) Mödling, Austria
 * Pieris napi lusitanica Lep. Portug. Porto: 2, 1929 De Sousa Portugal

Synonyms

 * Pieris adalwinda Fruhstorfer, 1909
 * Pieris arctica Verity, 1911
 * Pieris canidiaformis Drenowsky, 1910
 * Pieris dubiosa Röber, 1907
 * Pieris flavescens Wagner, 1903
 * Pieris meridionalis Heyne, 1895

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Green-veined white


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Pieridae

The Pieridae are a large family of butterflies with about 76 genera containing about 1,100 species, mostly from tropical Africa and tropical Asia with some varieties in the more northern regions of North America and Eurasia. Most pierid butterflies are white, yellow, or orange in coloration, often with black spots. The pigments that give the distinct coloring to these butterflies are derived from waste products in the body and are a characteristic of this family. The family was created by William John Swainson in 1820.

The name "butterfly" is believed to have originated from a member of this family, the brimstone, Gonepteryx rhamni, which was called the "butter-coloured fly" by early British naturalists.

The sexes usually differ, often in the pattern or number of the black markings.

The larvae (caterpillars) of a few of these species, such as Pieris brassicae and Pieris rapae, commonly seen in gardens, feed on brassicas, and are notorious agricultural pests.

Males of many species exhibit gregarious mud-puddling behavior when they may imbibe salts from moist soils.

Classification
The Pieridae have the radial vein on the forewing with three or four branches and rarely with five branches. The forelegs are well developed in both sexes, unlike in the Nymphalidae, and the tarsal claws are bifid, unlike in the Papilionidae.

Like the Papilionidae, the Pieridae also have their pupae held at an angle by a silk girdle, but running at the first abdominal segment, unlike the thoracic girdle seen in the Papilionidae. But some species such as the madrone butterfly that belong to this family do not shows the presence of this abdominal silk girdle.

Subfamilies
The Pieridae are generally divided into these four subfamilies:

 * Dismorphiinae (six genera), mostly Neotropical; this group includes several mimetic species. The host plants are in the family Fabaceae.
 * Pierinae (55 genera), whites, yellows, and orange-tips; many of these species are strongly migratory. Host plants are in the families Capparidaceae, Brassicaceae, Santalaceae, and Loranthaceae.
 * Coliadinae (14 genera), sulphurs or yellows; many of these species are sexually dimorphic. Some, such as Colias, have wing patterns that are visible only under ultraviolet.
 * Pseudopontiinae includes only the genus Pseudopontia, which was formerly considered monotypic. Its type species—formerly the sole species in this subfamily—Pseudopontia paradoxa, is endemic to West Africa.

According to the molecular phylogenetic study of Braby et al. (2005), sister group relationships among Pieridae subfamilies are ((Dismorphiinae + Pseudopontiinae) + (Coliadinae + Pierinae)).

Some common species

 * Brimstone, Gonepteryx rhamni
 * California dogface, Zerene eurydice
 * Catalina orangetip, Anthocharis cethura catalina
 * Cloudless sulphur, Phoebis sennae
 * Clouded yellow, Colias croceus
 * Orange tip, Anthocharis cardamines
 * Psyche butterfly, Leptosia nina

Some pest species

 * Colias eurytheme, alfalfa butterfly or orange sulphur
 * ''Colias philodice clouded sulphur
 * Pieris rapae, small white or cabbage white
 * Pieris brassicae, large white or cabbage white

title: Pieridae


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Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld

Nils Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld (18 November 1832 – 12 August 1901) was a Finland-Swedish aristocrat, geologist, mineralogist and Arctic explorer. He was a member of the noble Nordenskiöld family of scientists and held the title of a friherre (baron).

Born in the Grand Duchy of Finland in the Russian Empire, he was forced to move to Sweden in 1857 due to his political activity, where he became a member of the Parliament of Sweden and of the Swedish Academy. He led the Vega Expedition along the northern coast of Eurasia in 1878–1879. This was the first complete crossing of the Northeast Passage. Initially a troubled enterprise, the successful expedition is considered to be among the highest achievements in the history of Swedish science.

Nordenskiöld family
The Nordenskiölds were an old Fenno-Swedish family, and members of the nobility. Nordenskiöld's father, Nils Gustaf Nordenskiöld, was a Finnish mineralogist, civil servant and traveller. He was also a member of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

Adolf Erik was the father of Gustaf Nordenskiöld (explorer of Mesa Verde) and Erland Nordenskiöld (ethnographer of South America) and maternal uncle of Nils Otto Gustaf Nordenskjöld (another polar explorer). Nils Otto Gustaf Nordenskjöld's parents were cousins — Otto Gustaf Nordenskjöld (born in 1831 in Hässleby, Sweden) and Anna Elisabet Sofia Nordenskiöld (born in 1841 in Finland), who was the sister of Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld. The Swedish side of the family used the spelling "Nordenskjöld", whereas the Finnish side of the family used the "Nordenskiöld" spelling.

Early life and education
Nordenskiöld was born in 1832 in Helsinki, the capital of Finland, but he spent his early youth on the family estate, the Alikartano Manor, located in the Numminen village in Mäntsälä. He went to school in Porvoo, a small town on the south coast of Finland. He then entered the Imperial Alexander University in Helsinki in 1849 where he studied mathematics, geology, and applied himself especially to chemistry and mineralogy. He received his master's degree in 1853. Two years later he published his doctoral dissertation, entitled "Om grafitens och chondroditens kristallformer" ("On the crystal forms of graphite and chondrodite").

Upon his graduation, in 1853, Nordenskiöld accompanied his father to the Ural Mountains and studied the iron and copper mines at Tagilsk; on his return he received minor appointments both at the university and the mining office.

Political activity and exile
Having studied under Johan Ludvig Runeberg, Nordenskiöld belonged to Liberal, anti-tsarist circles that agitated for Finland's liberation from Russia by the Swedes during the Crimean War. An unguarded speech at a convivial entertainment in 1855 drew the attention of the Imperial Russian authorities to his political views, and led to a dismissal from the university.

He then visited Berlin, continuing his mineralogical studies, and in 1856 obtained a travelling stipend from the university in Helsinki and planned to expend it in geological research in Siberia and Kamchatka. In 1856, Nordenskiöld was also appointed Docent in Mineralogy at the university. In 1857 he aroused the suspicion of the authorities again, so that he was forced to leave Finland, practically as a political refugee, and was deprived of the right of ever holding office in the university of Finland. He fled to Sweden.

In 1862, he was one of the founding members of Sällskapet Idun, a men's association founded in Stockholm.

In 1863 he married Anna Maria Mannerheim, the aunt of Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim.

Settling in Stockholm, and Arctic exploration

Nordenskiöld settled in Stockholm, and soon he received an offer from Otto Torell, a geologist, to accompany him on an expedition to Spitsbergen. To the observations of Torell on glacial phenomena Nordenskiöld added the discovery at Bell Sound of remains of Tertiary plants, and on the return of the expedition he received the appointment of a curator and Director of the Mineralogical Department of the Swedish Museum of Natural History (Naturhistoriska Riksmuseet) and a professorship in Mineralogy at the Swedish Academy of Sciences. He was also awarded the 1869 Royal Geographical Society's Founder's Medal.

Nordenskiöld's participation in three geological expeditions to Spitsbergen, followed by longer Arctic explorations in 1867, 1870, 1872 and 1875, led him to attempt the discovery of the long-sought Northeast Passage. This he accomplished in the voyage of the SS Vega, navigating for the first time the northern coasts of Europe and Asia. Starting from Karlskrona on 22 June 1878, the Vega doubled Cape Chelyuskin in the following August, and after being frozen in at the end of September near the Bering Strait, completed the voyage successfully in the following summer. He edited a monumental record of the expedition in five volumes, and himself wrote a more popular summary in two volumes. On his return to Sweden he received an enthusiastic welcome, and in April 1880 was made a baron and a commander of the Order of the North Star.

In 1883, he visited the east coast of Greenland for the second time, and succeeded in taking his ship through the great ice barrier, a feat attempted in vain during more than three centuries. The captain on the Vega expedition, Louis Palander, was made a nobleman at the same time, and took the name Palander af Vega.

Later life and death
In 1893, Nordenskiöld was elected to the 12th chair of the Swedish Academy. In 1900 he received the Murchison Medal from the Geological Society of London. He was nominated for the first Nobel Prize in Physics but died before the prizes were awarded.

Nordenskiöld died on 12 August 1901, in Dalbyö, Södermanland, Sweden, at the age of 68.

Historian of early cartography
As an explorer, Nordenskiöld was interested in the history of Arctic exploration, especially as evidenced in old maps. This interest in turn led him to collect and systematically study early maps. He wrote two substantial monographs, which both included many facsimiles, on early printed atlases and geographical mapping and medieval marine charts, respectively the Facsimile-Atlas to the Early History of Cartography (1889) and Periplus (1897).

He left his huge personal collection of early maps to the University of Helsinki, and it was inscribed on UNESCO's Memory of the World Register in 1997.

Expeditions

 * In 1858, Nordenskiöld took part in Torell's first expedition to Svalbard in the sloop Frithiof. The expedition made biological and geological observations along the coast of Spitsbergen.
 * In 1861, he took part in Torell's second Svalbard expedition on board the Æolus. This included a boat journey along the scarcely explored northern coast of Nordaustlandet as far as Prins Oscars Land. They also began to measure a meridian arc, but did not complete the work.
 * In 1864, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences placed Nordenskiöld in command of the schooner Axel Thordsen to complete the meridian arc survey. After conducting the necessary measurements in the south of Svalbard, they rescued 27 men who had to abandon their ice-locked ships.
 * In 1868 on the schooner-rigged iron steamer Sofia, he went farther north than any vessel had ever been in the Eastern hemisphere. He reached 82° 42' N, surpassing William Scoresby's previous record by 12'.
 * In 1870, he visited Greenland to find out whether using sledge dogs was advisable for a polar expedition. He came to the conclusion that it would be impractical to procure and rely on a large number of dogs from Greenland in view of recent outbreaks of a contagious dog sickness. He made a journey ca. 30 mi onto the inland ice. At Uivfaq on Disko Island, several large blocks of native iron were found that Nordenskiöld assumed to be meteorites. Nowadays it is thought that the iron accumulated in basalt formations through volcanic eruptions.
 * In 1872, Nordenskiöld embarked on an expedition to reach the North Pole using reindeer. To this end, the steamer Polhem, the steamer Onkel Adam, and the brig Gladan met by Spitsbergen. At Mosselbukta, the three ships were unexpectedly frozen in. Nordenskiöld was faced with feeding the 67 men throughout the winter, as well as helping out the crews from six Norwegian hunting vessels that had suffered the same fate. The situation was worsened when all but one of the reindeer escaped. Instead of a sledge journey to the pole, only a trip to Nordaustlandet could be undertaken during which one expedition member disappeared while searching for driftwood. The supplies ran dangerously low and scurvy was rampant. Only one sailor succumbed to it however, because Benjamin Leigh Smith on the steamer Diana found the beset ships and donated his provisions. Two weeks later, the ice opened up and the ships could return to Sweden.
 * In 1875, he went to the Yenisei River in Siberia, on board the sloop Pröven, which he sent back while he went up the river in a boat and returned home by land.
 * In 1876, Nordenskiöld repeated the journey to the mouth of the Yenisei with the steamer Ymer to prove that this route was not dependent on unusually favourable ice conditions.
 * In 1878–1879 he was the first to complete the entire Northeast passage along the northern coast of Eurasia. This he accomplished in the voyage of the Vega. Starting from Karlskrona on 22 June 1878, the Vega doubled Cape Chelyuskin in August. Vega was initially accompanied by the ships Lena, Fraser, and Express. The latter two parted way at the mouth of the Yenisei and traveled upstream. Lena navigated up the River Lena to Yakutsk. At the end of September, Vega was frozen in near the Bering Strait and passed the winter among the coastal Chukchi. By sailing through Bering Strait in July 1879, Vega completed the Northeast Passage.
 * In 1882–1883 – 2nd Dickson Expedition ("Den andra Dicksonska Expeditionen till Grönland" ), he took Sofia to Disko Bay where, together with three Saami, he made an expedition to the inland ice sheet. He expected the interior of Greenland to be ice-free and perhaps covered in forests. Nordenskiöld quickly had to give up due to technical problems, but the Saami penetrated 230 kilometres eastward before returning. On the east coast of Greenland, the expedition penetrated the great ice barrier—as the first after 300 years of attempts—and landed at Ammasalik (Kung Oscars Hamn) 65° 37' N, only slightly to the north of where Wilhelm August Graah was forced to turn his Umiak expedition round in 1830.

Honours

 * Nordenskiöld Archipelago, an island group in the Kara Sea, off the Siberian coast
 * The Laptev Sea used to be called "Nordenskiöld Sea" (мо́ре Норденшёльда), in honour of this Arctic explorer.
 * Nordenskiöld Fjord in Peary Land, Greenland
 * Nordenskiöld Bay, Novaya Zemlya
 * Nordenskiöld Glacier, East Greenland
 * Nordenskiöld Glacier, Northwest Greenland
 * Nordenskiöld Glacier, West Greenland
 * Nordenskiöld Glacier (Novaya Zemlya), a group of four glaciers
 * Nordenskiöldbreen, a glacier in Svalbard
 * Nordenskiöld Bay in Svalbard
 * Nordenskiöld crater on Mars
 * Nordenskiöld was the main motif for a Finnish commemorative coin of 2007, the €10 Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld and Northeast Passage commemorative coin. The issue celebrated the 175th anniversary Nordenskiöld's birth and his discovery of the Northeast Passage.
 * Nordenskiöldinkatu (Nordenskiöld street), a street in Helsinki, Finland

title: Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld


text:
Restoration Path

Restoration Path, known as Love in Action (LIA) until March 2012, was an ex-gay Christian ministry founded in 1973.

History
The organization was founded in 1973 by Frank Worthen, John Evans, and Kent Philpott in Marin County, California, just north of San Francisco. In 2010, Tommy Corman became the Executive Director of Love In Action. In March 2012, Love In Action changed its name to Restoration Path. In October 2012, David Jones became the executive director of Restoration Path; as of August 2018, he remains the Executive Director.

On July 5, 2007, Love in Action announced the initiation of Family Freedom Intensive, a monthly four-day program for parents with teens "struggling with same-sex attraction, pornography, and/or promiscuity". Teenagers who they would like to join their parents may be considered for inclusion. As of 2018, there is no mention of this program on the Restoration Path website.

As of October 2019, both the organization's website and Facebook page were offline. According to the California Secretary of State, the organization has been dissolved.

Controversies
After Jack McIntyre, a friend of co-founder John Evans, died by suicide because of his inability to change, Evans left Love in Action and denounced it as dangerous. He said: "They're destroying people's lives. If you don't do their thing, you're not of God, you'll go to hell. They're living in a fantasy world."

John Smid recounts becoming a Christian in 1982. He found that his religious conviction was incompatible with his homosexuality. He entered into a relationship with a woman and married. In 1986 he joined the leadership of Love In Action, eventually becoming executive director. Smid left LIA in 2008. In 2011, on his website, he stated that homosexuality is an intrinsic part of one's being, and that "change, repentance, reorientation and such" cannot occur, and noted that he had "never met a man who experienced a change from homosexual to heterosexual". On November 16 2014, John Smid married his same-sex partner, Larry McQueen.

Zach Stark
In June 2005, a 16-year-old Tennessee boy, Zach Stark, posted a blog entry on his MySpace site, part of which includes:

"Somewhat recently, as many of you know, I told my parents I was gay.... Well today, my mother, father, and I had a very long 'talk' in my room where they let me know I am to apply for a fundamentalist christian program for gays. They tell me that there is something psychologically wrong with me, and they 'raised me wrong.' I'm a big screw up to them, who isn't on the path God wants me to be on. So I'm sitting here in tears, joing [sic] the rest of those kids who complain about their parents on blogs - and I can't help it."

The program Stark noted is a Love In Action-run camp known as Refuge.

On August 14, Stark updated his blog, stating that LIA had not pressured him into doing anything and he got along well with most of the clients there. He said his parents no longer let him hang out with girls as friends because it was unhealthy and that his father had asked him to stop blogging. Stark has since accepted his homosexuality, and appears in the documentary from director Morgan Jon Fox, entitled This Is What Love In Action Looks Like, which features an exclusive interview with Stark about the controversy.

A Tennessee investigation against the camp began shortly after Stark's story appeared online. As of June 28, 2005, the investigation was dropped, with Tennessee officials citing a lack of evidence of child abuse at the facilities. "Department of Children's Services dispatched its special investigations unit to the facility, and after conducting a full investigation, determined that the child abuse allegations were unfounded", Rob Johnson, an agency spokesman, told the Associated Press. On September 12, 2005, the Tennessee-based Love in Action facility was determined by the Tennessee Department of Mental Health to have been operating two "unlicensed mental health supportive living facilities". LIA stopped accepting the mentally ill and dispensing medications and, in February 2006, the state of Tennessee ceased legal action.

In 2005, Tommy Corman, the spokesman for Love In Action, said the facility did not need to be licensed because it was "not doing anything therapeutic".

Love in Action sued the state of Tennessee for discrimination against the facility. The suit was settled on October 27, 2006. Tennessee agreed that Love in Action would not need licensing as a mental health facility, and LIA agreed to make sure none of its employees administered or regulated the medication of its clients. The state of Tennessee was told to pay Love in Action's legal fees.

In June 2007, LIA discontinued the Refuge program.

In media
The 2012 book The Miseducation of Cameron Post, the debut novel of American author Emily M. Danforth, was inspired by the Stark controversy. The book was adapted as a 2018 film with the same name.

The program is described in the 2016 book Boy Erased: A Memoir by Garrard Conley. The book was adapted in 2018 as Boy Erased, a film directed by Joel Edgerton starring Lucas Hedges.

title: Restoration Path


text:
Naming of military air bases

Most countries with military aviation forces have a system for naming of military airbases. "Air Force Base" ("AFB") is part of the name of military airbases of the United States Air Force (USAF) and the South African Air Force (SAAF), with the USAF using it at the end of the name of the base (e.g. "Dover AFB"), and the SAAF using it at the start (e.g. "AFB Hoedspruit"). The Royal Australian Air Force uses a slightly different format referring to bases as "RAAF Base" (Royal Australian Air Force Base). The Canadian Forces also uses a different format referring to any base as "CFB" (Canadian Forces Base) or "BFC" in French (Base des Forces Canadiennes).

Naming of British airbases
The Royal Air Force (RAF) call their bases "Royal Air Force station", followed by the station name. This is often abbreviated into "RAF" plus the name, e.g. RAF Marham. They are generally named after the closest railway station as rail travel was the main means of transport for service personnel in the early days of the RAF. Many RAF stations have long since lost their local railway station. Other bases were named after the local village, or used the name of the building in which they resided, such as RAF Bentley Priory, or country (e.g. RAF Belize). There is no difference in nomenclature for non-flying RAF stations, and overseas RAF stations have followed the same principles.

The aviation division of the Royal Navy, the Fleet Air Arm (FAA) generally follow the same principles of naming as the RAF, but are instead prefixed with Royal Naval Air Station (RNAS), such as RNAS Yeovilton. However, in maintaining the maritime link, all Royal Navy air stations are additionally named in the same manner as the Navy's ships - in Yeoviltons' instance, it is also called HMS Heron.

The British Army Air Corps uses the term "Airfield", preceded by the local name, for example Wattisham Airfield. However AAC can also mean Army Aviation Centre such as is the case for AAC Middle Wallop.

Naming of United States airbases
United States Air Force bases are often but not always named after a person of military or governmental significance. Examples include Edwards Air Force Base, Selfridge Air National Guard Base and General Mitchell Air Reserve Base. Sometimes bases are named after a nearby city. Examples include Little Rock Air Force Base, Dover Air Force Base, and Los Angeles Air Force Base. Air Force Station is usually used in the name of those with very little or no flight activity, although there are cases where installations with no flight activity use the term Base instead of Station (e.g., Bolling Air Force Base). USAF bases located in other countries are usually named after the city or region where they're located and are referred to as Air Bases rather than Air Force Bases (e.g. Spangdahlem Air Base in Germany).

The United States Army call their air bases Army Airfields and like the Air Force, names most of them after a military or government figure (e.g. Biggs Army Airfield). Some Army Airfields are named for the Army base where they're located as well (e.g. Campbell Army Airfield, located at Fort Campbell). The Army also has Army Heliports such as Hanchey Army Heliport. As titled, these airfields are used by helicopters only.

The United States Navy, United States Marine Corps, and United States Coast Guard generally prefer to name their bases for the area where they're located (e.g. Pensacola Naval Air Station, Cherry Point Marine Corps Air Station and Coast Guard Air Station Elizabeth City). This is also to avoid longer names given by the pilots if names of persons are added. The Navy also operates a number of Naval Outlying Landing Fields, auxiliary air fields primarily used for flight training purposes.

There are also a number of joint air bases throughout the U.S. These bases are owned & operated by one particular military component (usually the US Navy or US Air Force) and will have other military units (and sometimes non-military governmental air units) garrisoned at the base. Examples include Naval Air Station Joint Reserve Base New Orleans, Minneapolis–Saint Paul Joint Air Reserve Station, and Naval Air Station Joint Reserve Base Fort Worth.

title: Naming of military air bases


text:
HMBS

HMBS may refer to:
 * Her/His Majesty's Britannic Ship, Her/His Majesty's Bahamian Ship, Her/His Majesty's Bermudian Ship, and Her/His Majesty's Burmese Ship - various ship prefixes. See Her Majesty's Ship.
 * HMBS (gene), hydroxymethylbilane synthase gene, involved in heme biosynthesis

title: HMBS


text:
Talk:History of Algeria

Untitled
This can has been made into a series incorporating the public domain text from http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/dztoc.html. Please wikify dumped text at will.

--Jiang — Preceding undated comment added 15:26, 9 August 2003 (UTC)

This article is not credible
The number of muslim deaths during independance war is nosense.

The french army lost 23 000 deaths. It was war. You write more than 1 millions for muslims !!! How can it be !!! There was no concentration camp if I remember well. But civils in the french army (soldat du contingent). No way to lay a lot to journalists in fact. And you should precise the number of deaths because of conflict between muslims. It is more than 100 000. If it wasn't about war and deaths, I would have laugh a lot.

Sorry but completely dismaying ! --64.208.49.62 16:37, 11 December 2006 (UTC)

This article needs reorganization
The structure of this article is very confusing. We should reorganize it into a straightforward Wikipedia article, with each historical period given a short summary and a main article. Now, there's some sort of parallell order of summaries (historical setting plus chapters of the series. I will do this if and when I have time, but anyone who feels like it would be welcome to begin. Arre 05:16, 14 February 2006 (UTC)

Genocides_in_history#Algeria
There are some discrepancies between the info given here and at Genocides_in_history. --tickle me 09:47, 2 May 2006 (UTC)

Ţia i s my name and i got it going on

Spader Parader link
I fixed, then commented out, this link on the page because it seemed unrelevant: Peaceray (talk) 07:03, 3 December 2010 (UTC)

External links modified
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 * Sétif massacre.jpeg

Maps
Hello,
 * This map is based on a primary source, it must be supplemented by secondary sources. Finally "Algeria" is an anachronism, it is about the regency of Algiers.
 * This map is also wrong and doesn’t correspond to the source. Please provide a cartographic source justifying this map. Most of the maps in this article are fanciful, they can not be found anywhere else than on this version of Wikipedia, most are not based on any cartographic reference and are the product of misappropriation of sources / exaggerations YusAtlas (talk) 10:30, 28 May 2022 (UTC)

it seems that you don’t understand French. Please avoid ad hominem and focus only on my arguments instead of trying to discredit me.
 * No, it doesn't have to be supplemented by anything. The fact that you don't like it is irrelevant.
 * Your claim that "Algeria" is an anachronism is factually incorrect.
 * The Ifranid map appears to be based on original research (I haven't checked the sources). Tag it if you wish or remove it (if it bothers that much). M.Bitton (talk) 10:43, 28 May 2022 (UTC)
 * It is indeed an anachronism, consult this letter from General Schneider, this map is false and is not based on any bibliographical reference and any secondary reference. The Ifranids map does not correspond at all to the source, it is fanciful. I will remove it since you are ok. The same goes for the Zirids who never ruled Sicily, for example. The most accurate map of the Zirids is the one used on WP in French, it results from several months of discussion and confrontation of resources. YusAtlas (talk) 11:03, 28 May 2022 (UTC)
 * Again, Your claim that "Algeria" is an anachronism is factually incorrect. No need to repeat what was said previously. M.Bitton (talk) 11:14, 28 May 2022 (UTC)
 * The source that I sent clearly says that it is General Schneider who named Algeria as such. Moreover this map is not based on any bibliographical reference, that's a primary source WP:IDPRIMARY you have to bring secondary sources that justify this map. Worse still, this map is the product of misappropriation of sources, on the source of this map it is written "Morocco" (= Maroc in French) and "Algiers" (= Alger in French) and not "Alaouites" and "Algérie" . The Zirids map is also not valid, they never ruled Sicily, for example. The most accurate map of the Zirids is the one used on WP in French, it results from several months of discussion and confrontation of resources. Yus Atlas (talk) 18:43, 29 May 2022 (UTC)
 * Your irrelevant source mentions the different names that the French used to designate Algeria by (including the name "Algeria") before finally adopting the latter (the shorter one). In other words, this is just a waste of energy that doesn't change a thing about what I said.
 * Given that I don't feel like repeating myself, especially after dealing with the nonsensical OR that you added to various articles (after pretending to care about the policy), I'll ping and  (the concerned map creators) and see what they have to say. M.Bitton (talk) 22:32, 29 May 2022 (UTC)
 * "Your irrelevant source mentions the different names that the French used to designate Algeria by (including the name "Algeria") before finally adopting the latter (the shorter one)"
 * YusAtlas (talk) 14:08, 30 May 2022 (UTC)
 * Hello M.Bitton, I am not opposed to replacing the Zirid map with the one currently in use on the main page, however the arguments used by YusAtlas seem to be quite odd and characteristic of biased editing.
 * “The same goes for the Zirids who never ruled Sicily, for example”: The Zirids did rule Sicily, this can be verified here.
 * “they can not be found anywhere else than on this version of Wikipedia”: That’s not surprising considering how YusAtlas removed one of the maps that was added by another editor and replaced it.
 * “The most accurate map of the Zirids is the one used on WP in French”: Clearly stating his opinion as a fact (see WP:YESPOV).
 * Again, I’m not opposed to replacing the Zirid map with the one in use on the main page I just wanted to point out the flaws in YusAtlas’ baseless arguments.
 * Regards, Kabz15 (talk) 20:41, 30 May 2022 (UTC)
 * Nothing surprising there. Thank you for the reply and for updating the article. Best, M.Bitton (talk) 22:27, 31 May 2022 (UTC)

It's a shame that these issues cannot be raised in a more reasonable manner. That said, please do replace both the Zirid and Hammadid maps with the ones currently used on their respective main pages, as those have already reached some consensus at Talk:Zirid dynasty and Talk:Hammadid dynasty. As I've explained before in those discussions, the two currently included maps (or related versions of those maps) for these dynasties involve WP:OR and don't reflect reliable scholarly sources, and there's no reason why they would be more acceptable here. As for the 19th-century map over which there was edit-warring, it may or may not be dubious in its details, but it's based on a clear source. If there's still dispute over it, my recommendation is that you simply make that source more explicit in the caption, and readers can judge for themselves. Otherwise I see no objective problem with it. R Prazeres (talk) 00:58, 31 May 2022 (UTC)

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 * Dynastie Alaouite.jpg

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 * Emblem of Algeria.svg

Proposed trim
Creating this here for discussion. I haven't examined every paragraph in detail, I agree that some condensation and reorganization is needed, but I don't see wholesale removal of 80% of the text as helpful, especially the references. I'm not particularly active, and so I don't expect anyone to wait for my input, which sometimes occurs sporadically only at intervals of weeks or months, but someone needed to start a section for discussion here so I've done so. 74.73.224.126 (talk) 18:08, 10 March 2023 (UTC)

 * This article must return to an earlier version before @Italiancorsair's disruptive edits, there is no need to add sections about Zirids, Almohads, Maghrawa and Zayyanids since all of them are treated well enough in the middle ages section. Also the added content is coppied from other articles with a lot of information that has no place here. Simoooix.haddi (talk) 18:58, 10 March 2023 (UTC)
 * I suggest you re-read User_talk:Simoooix.haddi (this time, try to pay attention to what the IP said). I will also ping and  to see what they have to say about your wholesale content removal and baseless accusations of vandalism and disruptive editing. M.Bitton (talk) 19:31, 10 March 2023 (UTC)
 * The IP's advice above (and at the user talk page section M.Bitton linked) is right. As it happens, this is the exact same problem at History of Morocco, where most of the medieval/pre-modern section were copied wholesale from the corresponding articles without any adaptation. I left a comment on the talk page there (this) in the hope that we'll have time to do clean it up eventually, and I think the same sentiment applies here.
 * I'd echo the IP's suggest here that constructive editors should work through this section by section, with Summary style in mind. One relatively easy thing to clean up right now, though, would be to at least fix the section headings; currently they're not in the right format. R Prazeres (talk) 20:28, 10 March 2023 (UTC)
 * Alright, it seems there is some kind of misunderstanding, so let me clarify my position, Actually i'm not against adding copied content as long as it is in the right place and makes sense.
 * Knowing that this article must treat the "History of Algeria" what's the point of mentioning details about the origins of the Almohad movement? and what is the relation between Algeria and the battles of "Alarcos" and "Las Navas de Tolosa"? Simoooix.haddi (talk) 22:09, 10 March 2023 (UTC)
 * However i don't oppose what @R Prazeres is suggesting about both articles. Simoooix.haddi (talk) 22:48, 10 March 2023 (UTC)
 * By that made up standard, there is no relation between Morocco and the battle of Alarcos either. Don't worry though, we'll deal with everything (including the appropriation) in due time. M.Bitton (talk) 23:31, 10 March 2023 (UTC)
 * That's your POV. Simoooix.haddi (talk) 00:02, 11 March 2023 (UTC)
 * I'm not exactly sure what you meant by the section headings, but you're more than welcome to fix them if you want. M.Bitton (talk) 23:31, 10 March 2023 (UTC)
 * I didn't have time to do it earlier, but I'll have a go at it now. R Prazeres (talk) 23:39, 10 March 2023 (UTC)

I've revised the headings so they're organized per usual formatting and nesting; see edits here and here. There was a lot of other initial clean up needed, though. Copied infoboxes have been removed here. The non-history sections that were copied from other articles (i.e. auxiliary topics like art, armed forces, healthcare, etc), including some that were literally copied twice, have been removed here and here; I hope it's obvious enough that these particular duplications are excessive and that these kind of subtopics do not appear in standard history overview articles of this kind (e.g. compare with GA article History of Scotland or other large modern-country history articles).

There still seems to be some unnecessary repetition at the beginning of what is currently the "Medieval Muslim Algeria" section, but, aside from that, the rest of the content should be within the scope of a typical article of this kind and just needs to be condensed and sourced. R Prazeres (talk) 00:43, 11 March 2023 (UTC)

 * @R Prazeres Thank you for what you've done so far. Simoooix.haddi (talk) 00:52, 11 March 2023 (UTC)

Inserting POV and bad writing in lead
This version of the lead is what was used in the article for years and is a WP:SUMMARY that reflects information that can be easily found in reliable sources and in the article itself. This version is full of obvious POV nonsense, including WP:PUFFERY like "considered to be one of the first cradles of humanity" and unsourced WP:OR, like claiming the Regency of Algiers became a separate state after 1710, the "Republic of Algiers" with "total independence" from the Ottoman Empire, which has no basis in reliable sources and is an obvious attempt to reintroduce the unsourced OR that was recently deleted at this AfD. These nonsensical revert+deletion edits don't help either.

If you want to improve the lead, please make an effort to keep to Wikipedia's content policies. If you have new content to add, please do so in the body of the article, not in the lead section: again, the lead is supposed to be a summary of the article, not a place to introduce new ideas (see MOS:LEAD). R Prazeres (talk) 16:15, 29 May 2023 (UTC)

To editors: Reference 235 is incorrect
The reference talks about another subject entirely. It is about French reaction to Algerian uprisings following WW2, not French crimes committed during the colonisation of Algeria. The page referenced also makes no mention of any of the things it's apparently being cited for. For accurate information on the atrocities committed by the French during the colonisation of Algeria, try the chapter on Camus in Said's Culture and Imperialism (1993) or chapter 2 in McDougall's A History of Algeria (2017). Don't really know how to do the editing myself but if anyone does and sees this it'd be great. 5.151.132.98 (talk) 18:04, 13 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:History of Algeria


text:
Flavonoid

Flavonoids (or bioflavonoids; from the Latin word flavus, meaning yellow, their color in nature) are a class of polyphenolic secondary metabolites found in plants, and thus commonly consumed in the diets of humans.

Chemically, flavonoids have the general structure of a 15-carbon skeleton, which consists of two phenyl rings (A and B) and a heterocyclic ring (C, the ring containing the embedded oxygen). This carbon structure can be abbreviated C6-C3-C6. According to the IUPAC nomenclature, they can be classified into:
 * flavonoids or bioflavonoids
 * isoflavonoids, derived from 3-phenylchromen-4-one (3-phenyl-1,4-benzopyrone) structure
 * neoflavonoids, derived from 4-phenylcoumarin (4-phenyl-1,2-benzopyrone) structure

The three flavonoid classes above are all ketone-containing compounds and as such, anthoxanthins (flavones and flavonols). This class was the first to be termed bioflavonoids. The terms flavonoid and bioflavonoid have also been more loosely used to describe non-ketone polyhydroxy polyphenol compounds, which are more specifically termed flavanoids. The three cycles or heterocycles in the flavonoid backbone are generally called ring A, B, and C. Ring A usually shows a phloroglucinol substitution pattern.

History
In the 1930s, Albert Szent-Györgyi and other scientists discovered that Vitamin C alone was not as effective at preventing scurvy as the crude yellow extract from oranges, lemons or paprika. They attributed the increased activity of this extract to the other substances in this mixture, which they referred to as "citrin" (referring to citrus) or "Vitamin P" (a reference to its effect on reducing the permeability of capillaries). The substances in question (hesperidin, eriodictyol, hesperidin methyl chalcone and neohesperidin) were however later shown not to fulfil the criteria of a vitamin, so that this term is now obsolete.

Biosynthesis
Flavonoids are secondary metabolites synthesized mainly by plants. The general structure of flavonoids is a fifteen-carbon skeleton, containing two benzene rings connected by a three-carbon linking chain. Therefore, they are depicted as C6-C3-C6 compounds. Depending on the chemical structure, degree of oxidation, and unsaturation of the linking chain (C3), flavonoids can be classified into different groups, such as anthocyanidins, flavonols, flavanones, flavan-3-ols, flavanonols, flavones, and isoflavones. Chalcones, also called chalconoids, although lacking the heterocyclic ring, are also classified as flavonoids. Furthermore, flavonoids can be found in plants in glycoside-bound and free aglycone forms. The glycoside-bound form is the most common flavone and flavonol form consumed in the diet.

Functions of flavonoids in plants
Flavonoids are widely distributed in plants, fulfilling many functions. They are the most important plant pigments for flower coloration, producing yellow or red/blue pigmentation in petals designed to attract pollinator animals. In higher plants, they are involved in UV filtration, symbiotic nitrogen fixation, and floral pigmentation. They may also act as chemical messengers, physiological regulators, and cell cycle inhibitors. Flavonoids secreted by the root of their host plant help Rhizobia in the infection stage of their symbiotic relationship with legumes like peas, beans, clover, and soy. Rhizobia living in soil are able to sense the flavonoids and this triggers the secretion of Nod factors, which in turn are recognized by the host plant and can lead to root hair deformation and several cellular responses such as ion fluxes and the formation of a root nodule. In addition, some flavonoids have inhibitory activity against organisms that cause plant diseases, e.g. Fusarium oxysporum.

Subgroups
Over 5000 naturally occurring flavonoids have been characterized from various plants. They have been classified according to their chemical structure, and are usually subdivided into the following subgroups (for further reading see ):

Anthocyanidins
Anthocyanidins are the aglycones of anthocyanins; they use the flavylium (2-phenylchromenylium) ion skeleton.
 * Examples: cyanidin, delphinidin, malvidin, pelargonidin, peonidin, petunidin

Anthoxanthins
Anthoxanthins are divided into two groups:

 * {| class="wikitable"

!rowspan=3|Group !colspan=4|Skeleton !rowspan=3|Examples !rowspan=2|Description !colspan=2|Functional groups !rowspan=2|Structural formula !|3-hydroxyl !|2,3-dihydro or flav
 * style="text-align:center"|Flav
 * style="text-align:center"|2-phenylchromen-
 * style="text-align:center; font-size:x-large"|✗
 * style="text-align:center; font-size:x-large"|✗
 * [[Image:Flavone skeleton colored.svg]]
 * Luteolin, Apigenin, Tangeritin
 * style="text-align:center"|Flav
 * style="text-align:center"|Flav
 * style="text-align:center"|Flav
 * style="text-align:center"|-2-phenylchromen-
 * style="text-align:center; font-size:x-large"|✓
 * style="text-align:center; font-size:x-large"|✗
 * [[Image:Flavonol skeleton colored.svg]]
 * Quercetin, Kaempferol, Myricetin, Fisetin, Galangin, Isorhamnetin, Pachypodol, Rhamnazin, Pyranoflavonols, Furanoflavonols,
 * }

Flavanones
Flavanones

Flavanonols
Flavanonols

Flavans
Include flavan-3-ols (flavanols), flavan-4-ols and flavan-3,4-diols.
 * Flavan-3-ols (flavanols)
 * Flav an -3-ols use the 2-phenyl- 3,4-dihydro -2H-chromen-3-ol skeleton
 * Examples: Catechin (C), Gallocatechin (GC), Catechin 3-gallate (Cg), Gallocatechin 3-gallate (GCg), Epicatechins (Epicatechin (EC)), Epigallocatechin (EGC), Epicatechin 3-gallate (ECg), Epigallocatechin 3-gallate (EGCg)
 * Theaflavin
 * Examples: Theaflavin-3-gallate, Theaflavin-3'-gallate, Theaflavin-3,3'-digallate
 * Thearubigin
 * Proanthocyanidins are dimers, trimers, oligomers, or polymers of the flavanols

Isoflavonoids

 * Isoflavonoids
 * Isoflavones use the 3-phenylchromen-4-one skeleton (with no hydroxyl group substitution on carbon at position 2)
 * Examples: Genistein, Daidzein, Glycitein
 * Isoflavanes
 * Isoflavandiols
 * Isoflavenes
 * Coumestans
 * Pterocarpans

Dietary sources

Flavonoids (specifically flavanoids such as the catechins) are "the most common group of polyphenolic compounds in the human diet and are found ubiquitously in plants". Flavonols, the original bioflavonoids such as quercetin, are also found ubiquitously, but in lesser quantities. The widespread distribution of flavonoids, their variety and their relatively low toxicity compared to other active plant compounds (for instance alkaloids) mean that many animals, including humans, ingest significant quantities in their diet.

Foods with a high flavonoid content include parsley, onions, blueberries and other berries, black tea, green tea and oolong tea, bananas, all citrus fruits, Ginkgo biloba, red wine, sea-buckthorns, buckwheat, and dark chocolate with a cocoa content of 70% or greater. As flavonoids in cocoa have a bitter taste, they may be removed during chocolate manufacturing.

Citrus flavonoids include hesperidin (a glycoside of the flavanone hesperetin), quercitrin, rutin (two glycosides of quercetin, and the flavone tangeritin. The flavonoids are less concentrated in the pulp than in the peels (for example, 165 versus 1156 mg/100 g in pulp versus peel of satsuma mandarin, and 164 vis-à-vis 804 mg/100 g in pulp versus peel of clementine).

Peanut (red) skin contains significant polyphenol content, including flavonoids.

 * {| class="wikitable"

! Food source ! Flavones ! Flavonols ! Flavanones
 * +Flavonoid content in food (mg/100 g)
 * Red onion
 * 0
 * 4–100
 * 0
 * Parsley, fresh
 * 24–634
 * 8–10
 * 0
 * Thyme, fresh
 * 56
 * 0
 * 0
 * Lemon juice, fresh
 * 0
 * 0–2
 * 2–175
 * }
 * 0
 * 0–2
 * 2–175
 * }

Dietary intake

Food composition data for flavonoids were provided by the USDA database on flavonoids. In the United States NHANES survey, mean flavonoid intake was 190 mg per day in adults, with flavan-3-ols as the main contributor. In the European Union, based on data from EFSA, mean flavonoid intake was 140 mg/d, although there were considerable differences among individual countries. The main type of flavonoids consumed in the EU and USA were flavan-3-ols (80% for USA adults), mainly from tea or cocoa in chocolate, while intake of other flavonoids was considerably lower.

Research
Neither the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) nor the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has approved any flavonoids as prescription drugs. The U.S. FDA has warned numerous dietary supplement and food manufacturers, including Unilever, producer of Lipton tea in the U.S., about illegal advertising and misleading health claims regarding flavonoids, such as that they lower cholesterol or relieve pain.

Metabolism and excretion
Flavonoids are poorly absorbed in the human body (less than 5%), then are quickly metabolized into smaller fragments with unknown properties, and rapidly excreted. Flavonoids have negligible antioxidant activity in the body, and the increase in antioxidant capacity of blood seen after consumption of flavonoid-rich foods is not caused directly by flavonoids, but by production of uric acid resulting from flavonoid depolymerization and excretion. Microbial metabolism is a major contributor to the overall metabolism of dietary flavonoids. The effect of habitual flavonoid intake on the human gut microbiome is unknown.

Inflammation
Inflammation has been implicated as a possible origin of numerous local and systemic diseases, such as cancer, cardiovascular disorders, diabetes mellitus, and celiac disease. There is no clinical evidence that dietary flavonoids affect any of these diseases.

Cancer
Clinical studies investigating the relationship between flavonoid consumption and cancer prevention or development are conflicting for most types of cancer, probably because most human studies have weak designs, such as a small sample size. There is little evidence to indicate that dietary flavonoids affect human cancer risk in general.

Cardiovascular diseases
Although no significant association has been found between flavan-3-ol intake and cardiovascular disease mortality, clinical trials have shown improved endothelial function and reduced blood pressure (with a few studies showing inconsistent results). Reviews of cohort studies in 2013 found that the studies had too many limitations to determine a possible relationship between increased flavonoid intake and decreased risk of cardiovascular disease, although a trend for an inverse relationship existed.

In 2013, the EFSA decided to permit health claims that 200 mg/day of cocoa flavanols "help[s] maintain the elasticity of blood vessels." The FDA followed suit in 2023, stating that there is "supportive, but not conclusive" evidence that 200 mg per day of cocoa flavanols can reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease. This is greater than the levels found in typical chocolate bars, which can also contribute to weight gain, potentially harming cardiovascular health.

Color spectrum
Flavonoid synthesis in plants is induced by light color spectrums at both high and low energy radiations. Low energy radiations are accepted by phytochrome, while high energy radiations are accepted by carotenoids, flavins, cryptochromes in addition to phytochromes. The photomorphogenic process of phytochrome-mediated flavonoid biosynthesis has been observed in Amaranthus, barley, maize, Sorghum and turnip. Red light promotes flavonoid synthesis.

Availability through microorganisms
Research has shown production of flavonoid molecules from genetically engineered microorganisms.

Shinoda test
Four pieces of magnesium filings are added to the ethanolic extract followed by few drops of concentrated hydrochloric acid. A pink or red colour indicates the presence of flavonoid. Colours varying from orange to red indicated flavones, red to crimson indicated flavonoids, crimson to magenta indicated flavonones.

Sodium hydroxide test
About 5 mg of the compound is dissolved in water, warmed, and filtered. 10% aqueous sodium hydroxide is added to 2 ml of this solution. This produces a yellow coloration. A change in color from yellow to colorless on addition of dilute hydrochloric acid is an indication for the presence of flavonoids.

p-Dimethylaminocinnamaldehyde test
A colorimetric assay based upon the reaction of A-rings with the chromogen p-dimethylaminocinnamaldehyde (DMACA) has been developed for flavanoids in beer that can be compared with the vanillin procedure.

Quantification
Lamaison and Carnet have designed a test for the determination of the total flavonoid content of a sample (AlCI3 method). After proper mixing of the sample and the reagent, the mixture is incubated for ten minutes at ambient temperature and the absorbance of the solution is read at 440 nm. Flavonoid content is expressed in mg/g of quercetin.

Semi-synthetic alterations
Immobilized Candida antarctica lipase can be used to catalyze the regioselective acylation of flavonoids.

Databases

 * USDA Database for the Flavonoid Content of Selected Foods, Release 3.1 (December 2013); data for 506 foods in the 5 subclasses of flavonoids provided in a separate PDF updated May 2014
 * FlavoDB, Bioinformatics Centre, India, November 2019

title: Flavonoid