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Bin packing problem

The bin packing problem   is an optimization problem, in which items of different sizes must be packed into a finite number of bins or containers, each of a fixed given capacity, in a way that minimizes the number of bins used. The problem has many applications, such as filling up containers, loading trucks with weight capacity constraints, creating file backups in media, splitting a network prefix into multiple subnets, and technology mapping in FPGA semiconductor chip design.

Computationally, the problem is NP-hard, and the corresponding decision problem, deciding if items can fit into a specified number of bins, is NP-complete. Despite its worst-case hardness, optimal solutions to very large instances of the problem can be produced with sophisticated algorithms. In addition, many approximation algorithms exist. For example, the first fit algorithm provides a fast but often non-optimal solution, involving placing each item into the first bin in which it will fit. It requires Θ(n log n) time, where n is the number of items to be packed. The algorithm can be made much more effective by first sorting the list of items into decreasing order (sometimes known as the first-fit decreasing algorithm), although this still does not guarantee an optimal solution and for longer lists may increase the running time of the algorithm. It is known, however, that there always exists at least one ordering of items that allows first-fit to produce an optimal solution.

There are many variations of this problem, such as 2D packing, linear packing, packing by weight, packing by cost, and so on. The bin packing problem can also be seen as a special case of the cutting stock problem. When the number of bins is restricted to 1 and each item is characterized by both a volume and a value, the problem of maximizing the value of items that can fit in the bin is known as the knapsack problem.

A variant of bin packing that occurs in practice is when items can share space when packed into a bin. Specifically, a set of items could occupy less space when packed together than the sum of their individual sizes. This variant is known as VM packing since when virtual machines (VMs) are packed in a server, their total memory requirement could decrease due to pages shared by the VMs that need only be stored once. If items can share space in arbitrary ways, the bin packing problem is hard to even approximate. However, if space sharing fits into a hierarchy, as is the case with memory sharing in virtual machines, the bin packing problem can be efficiently approximated.

Another variant of bin packing of interest in practice is the so-called online bin packing. Here the items of different volume are supposed to arrive sequentially, and the decision maker has to decide whether to select and pack the currently observed item, or else to let it pass. Each decision is without recall. In contrast, offline bin packing allows rearranging the items in the hope of achieving a better packing once additional items arrive. This of course requires additional storage for holding the items to be rearranged.

Formal statement
In Computers and Intractability Garey and Johnson list the bin packing problem under the reference [SR1]. They define its decision variant as follows.

Instance: Finite set $$I$$ of items, a size $$s(i) \in \mathbb{Z}^+$$ for each $$i \in I$$, a positive integer bin capacity $$B$$, and a positive integer $$K$$.

Question: Is there a partition of $$I$$ into disjoint sets $$I_1,\dots, I_K$$ such that the sum of the sizes of the items in each $$I_j$$ is $$B$$ or less?

Note that in the literature often an equivalent notation is used, where $$B = 1$$ and $$s(i) \in \mathbb{Q} \cap (0,1]$$ for each $$i \in I$$. Furthermore, research is mostly interested in the optimization variant, which asks for the smallest possible value of $$K$$. A solution is optimal if it has minimal $$K$$. The $$K$$-value for an optimal solution for a set of items $$I$$ is denoted by $$\mathrm{OPT}(I)$$ or just $$\mathrm{OPT}$$ if the set of items is clear from the context.

A possible integer linear programming formulation of the problem is: where $$ y_j = 1$$ if bin $$j$$ is used and $$ x_{ij} = 1$$ if item $$i$$ is put into bin $$j$$.

Hardness of bin packing
The bin packing problem is strongly NP-complete. This can be proven by reducing the strongly NP-complete 3-partition problem to bin packing.

Furthermore, there can be no approximation algorithm with absolute approximation ratio smaller than $$\tfrac 3 2$$ unless $$\mathsf{P} = \mathsf{NP}$$. This can be proven by a reduction from the partition problem: given an instance of Partition where the sum of all input numbers is $$2T$$, construct an instance of bin-packing in which the bin size is $T$. If there exists an equal partition of the inputs, then the optimal packing needs 2 bins; therefore, every algorithm with an approximation ratio smaller than $3⁄2$ must return less than 3 bins, which must be 2 bins. In contrast, if there is no equal partition of the inputs, then the optimal packing needs at least 3 bins.

On the other hand, bin packing is solvable in pseudo-polynomial time for any fixed number of bins $K$, and solvable in polynomial time for any fixed bin capacity $B$.

Approximation algorithms for bin packing
To measure the performance of an approximation algorithm there are two approximation ratios considered in the literature. For a given list of items $$L$$ the number $$A(L)$$ denotes the number of bins used when algorithm $$A$$ is applied to list $$L$$, while $$\mathrm{OPT}(L)$$ denotes the optimum number for this list. The absolute worst-case performance ratio $$R_A$$ for an algorithm $$A$$ is defined as

 * $$R_A \equiv \inf\{r \geq 1 : A(L)/\mathrm{OPT}(L) \leq r \text{ for all lists } L\}.$$

On the other hand, the asymptotic worst-case ratio $$R_A^{\infty}$$ is defined as

 * $$R_A^\infty \equiv \inf\{ r \geq 1: \exists N >0, A(L)/\mathrm{OPT}(L) \leq r \text{ for all lists } L \text{ with } \mathrm{OPT}(L) \geq N\}.$$

Equivalently, $$R_A^{\infty}$$ is the smallest number such that there exists some constant K, such that for all lists L:

 * $$A(L) \leq R^{\infty}_A \cdot \mathrm{OPT}(L) + K$$.

Additionally, one can restrict the lists to those for which all items have a size of at most $$\alpha$$. For such lists, the bounded size performance ratios are denoted as $$R_A(\text{size}\leq \alpha)$$ and $$R_A^\infty(\text{size}\leq \alpha)$$.

Approximation algorithms for bin packing can be classified into two categories:

 * 1) Online heuristics, that consider the items in a given order and place them one by one inside the bins.  These heuristics are also applicable to the offline version of this problem.
 * 2) Offline heuristics, that modify the given list of items e.g. by sorting the items by size. These algorithms are no longer applicable to the online variant of this problem. However, they have an improved approximation guarantee while maintaining the advantage of their small time-complexity. A sub-category of offline heuristics is asymptotic approximation schemes. These algorithms have an approximation guarantee of the form $$(1+\varepsilon)\mathrm{OPT}(L) + C$$ for some constant that may depend on $$1/\varepsilon$$. For an arbitrarily large $$\mathrm{OPT}(L)$$ these algorithms get arbitrarily close to $$\mathrm{OPT}(L)$$. However, this comes at the cost of a (drastically) increased time complexity compared to the heuristical approaches.

Online heuristics
In the online version of the bin packing problem, the items arrive one after another and the (irreversible) decision where to place an item has to be made before knowing the next item or even if there will be another one. A diverse set of offline and online heuristics for bin-packing have been studied by David S. Johnson on his Ph.D. thesis.

Single-class algorithms
There are many simple algorithms that use the following general scheme:
 * For each item in the input list:
 * If the item fits into one of the currently open bins, then put it in one of these bins;
 * Otherwise, open a new bin and put the new item in it.

The algorithms differ in the criterion by which they choose the open bin for the new item in step 1 (see the linked pages for more information):

In order to generalize these results, Johnson introduced two classes of online heuristics called any-fit algorithm and almost-any-fit algorithm:
 * Next Fit (NF) always keeps a single open bin. When the new item does not fit into it, it closes the current bin and opens a new bin. Its advantage is that it is a bounded-space algorithm since it only needs to keep a single open bin in memory. Its disadvantage is that its asymptotic approximation ratio is 2. In particular, $$NF(L) \leq 2 \cdot \mathrm{OPT}(L) -1 $$, and for each $$N \in \mathbb{N}$$ there exists a list $L$ such that $$\mathrm{OPT}(L) = N$$ and $$NF(L) = 2 \cdot \mathrm{OPT}(L) -2$$. Its asymptotic approximation ratio can be somewhat improved based on the item sizes: $$R_{NF}^\infty(\text{size}\leq\alpha) \leq 2$$ for all $$\alpha \geq 1/2$$ and $$R_{NF}^\infty(\text{size}\leq\alpha) \leq 1/(1-\alpha)$$ for all $$\alpha \leq 1/2$$. For each algorithm $A$ that is an AnyFit-algorithm it holds that $$R_{A}^{\infty}(\text{size}\leq\alpha)\leq R_{NF}^{\infty}(\text{size}\leq\alpha)$$.
 * Next-k-Fit (NkF) is a variant of Next-Fit, but instead of keeping only one bin open, the algorithm keeps the last $k$ bins open and chooses the first bin in which the item fits. Therefore, it is called a k-bounded space algorithm. For $$k\geq 2$$ the NkF delivers results that are improved compared to the results of NF, however, increasing $k$ to constant values larger than $2$ improves the algorithm no further in its worst-case behavior. If algorithm $A$ is an AlmostAnyFit-algorithm and $$m = \lfloor 1/\alpha\rfloor \geq 2$$ then $$R_{A}^{\infty}(\text{size}\leq\alpha)\leq R_{N2F}^{\infty}(\text{size}\leq\alpha) = 1+1/m$$.
 * First-Fit (FF) keeps all bins open, in the order in which they were opened. It attempts to place each new item into the first bin in which it fits. Its approximation ratio is $$FF(L) \leq \lfloor 1.7\mathrm{OPT}\rfloor$$, and there is a family of input lists $L$ for which $$FF(L)$$ matches this bound.
 * Best-Fit (BF), too, keeps all bins open, but attempts to place each new item into the bin with the maximum load in which it fits. Its approximation ratio is identical to that of FF, that is: $$BF(L) \leq \lfloor 1.7\mathrm{OPT}\rfloor$$, and there is a family of input lists $L$ for which $$BF(L)$$ matches this bound.
 * Worst-Fit (WF) attempts to place each new item into the bin with the minimum load. It can behave as badly as Next-Fit, and will do so on the worst-case list for that $$NF(L) = 2 \cdot \mathrm{OPT}(L) -2 $$. Furthermore, it holds that $$R_{WF}^{\infty}(\text{size}\leq \alpha) = R_{NF}^{\infty}(\text{size}\leq \alpha)$$. Since WF is an AnyFit-algorithm, there exists an AnyFit-algorithm such that $$R_{AF}^{\infty}(\alpha) = R_{NF}^{\infty}(\alpha)$$.
 * Almost Worst-Fit (AWF) attempts to place each new item inside the second most empty open bin (or emptiest bin if there are two such bins). If it does not fit, it tries the most empty one. It has an asymptotic worst-case ratio of $$\tfrac {17}{10}$$.
 * In an AnyFit (AF) algorithm, if the current nonempty bins are B1,...,Bj, then the current item will not be packed into Bj+1 unless it does not fit in any of B1,...,Bj. The FF, WF, BF and AWF algorithms satisfy this condition. Johnson proved that, for any AnyFit algorithm A and any $$\alpha$$:
 * $$R_{FF}^{\infty}(\alpha) \leq R_{A}^{\infty}(\alpha) \leq R_{WF}^{\infty}(\alpha)$$.
 * In an AlmostAnyFit (AAF) algorithm, if the current nonempty bins are B1,...,Bj, and of these bins, Bk is the unique bin with the smallest load, then the current item will not be packed into Bk, unless it does not fit into any of the bins to its left. The FF, BF and AWF algorithms satisfy this condition, but WF does not. Johnson proved that, for any AAF algorithm A and any $α$:
 * $$R_{A}^{\infty}(\alpha) = R_{FF}^{\infty}(\alpha) $$ In particular: $$R_{A}^{\infty} = 1.7 $$.

Refined algorithms
Better approximation ratios are possible with heuristics that are not AnyFit. These heuristics usually keep several classes of open bins, devoted to items of different size ranges (see the linked pages for more information):

 * Refined-first-fit bin packing (RFF) partitions the item sizes into four ranges: $$\left(\frac 1 2,1\right]$$, $$\left(\frac 2 5, \frac 1 2\right]$$, $$\left(\frac 1 3, \frac 2 5\right]$$, and $$\left(0, \frac 1 3\right]$$. Similarly, the bins are categorized into four classes. The next item $$i \in L$$ is first assigned to its corresponding class. Inside that class, it is assigned to a bin using first-fit. Note that this algorithm is not an Any-Fit algorithm since it may open a new bin despite the fact that the current item fits inside an open bin. This algorithm was first presented by Andrew Chi-Chih Yao, who proved that it has an approximation guarantee of $$RFF(L) \leq (5/3) \cdot \mathrm{OPT}(L) +5 $$ and presented a family of lists $$L_k$$ with $$RFF(L_k) = (5/3)\mathrm{OPT}(L_k) +1/3$$ for $$\mathrm{OPT}(L) = 6k+1$$.
 * Harmonic-k partitions the interval of sizes $$(0,1]$$ based on a Harmonic progression into $$k-1$$ pieces $$I_j := \left(\frac 1 {j+1}, \frac 1 j\right] $$ for $$1\leq j < k$$ and $$I_k := \left(0, \frac 1 k\right]$$ such that $$\bigcup_{j=1}^k I_j = (0,1]$$. This algorithm was first described by Lee and Lee. It has a time complexity of $$\mathcal{O}(|L|\log(|L|))$$ and at each step, there are at most $k$ open bins that can be potentially used to place items, i.e., it is a $k$-bounded space algorithm. For $$k \rightarrow \infty$$, its approximation ratio satisfies $$R_{Hk}^{\infty} \approx 1.6910$$, and it is asymptotically tight.
 * Refined-harmonic combines ideas from Harmonic-k with ideas from Refined-First-Fit. It places the items larger than $$\tfrac 1 3$$ similar as in Refined-First-Fit, while the smaller items are placed using Harmonic-k. The intuition for this strategy is to reduce the huge waste for bins containing pieces that are just larger than $$\tfrac 1 2$$. This algorithm was first described by Lee and Lee. They proved that for $$k = 20$$ it holds that $$R^\infty_{RH} \leq 373/228$$.

General lower bounds for online algorithms
Yao proved in 1980 that there can be no online algorithm with an asymptotic competitive ratio smaller than $$\tfrac 3 2$$. Brown and Liang improved this bound to $1.536$. Afterward, this bound was improved to $1.54$ by Vliet. In 2012, this lower bound was again improved by Békési and Galambos to $$\tfrac {248}{161} \approx 1.54037$$.

Offline algorithms
In the offline version of bin packing, the algorithm can see all the items before starting to place them into bins. This allows to attain improved approximation ratios.

Multiplicative approximation
The simplest technique used by offline approximation schemes is the following:

 * Ordering the input list by descending size;
 * Run an online algorithm on the ordered list.

Johnson proved that any AnyFit scheme A that runs on a list ordered by descending size has an asymptotic approximation ratio of"$1.22 \approx \frac{11}{9} \leq R^{\infty}_A \leq \frac{5}{4} = 1.25$."Some methods in this family are (see the linked pages for more information):

Fernandez de la Vega and Lueker presented a PTAS for bin packing. For every $$\varepsilon>0$$, their algorithm finds a solution with size at most $$(1+\varepsilon)\mathrm{OPT} + 1$$ and runs in time $$\mathcal{O}(n\log(1/\varepsilon)) + \mathcal{O}_{\varepsilon}(1)$$, where $$\mathcal{O}_{\varepsilon}(1)$$ denotes a function only dependent on $$1/\varepsilon$$. For this algorithm, they invented the method of adaptive input rounding: the input numbers are grouped and rounded up to the value of the maximum in each group. This yields an instance with a small number of different sizes, which can be solved exactly using the configuration linear program.
 * First-fit-decreasing (FFD) orders the items by descending size, then calls First-Fit. Its approximation ratio is $$FFD(I) = \frac{11}9 \mathrm{OPT}(I) + \frac 6 9$$, and this is tight.
 * Next-fit-decreasing (NFD) orders the items by descending size, then calls Next-Fit. Its approximate ratio is slightly less than 1.7 in the worst case. It has also been analyzed probabilistically. Next-Fit packs a list and its inverse into the same number of bins. Therefore, Next-Fit-Increasing has the same performance as Next-Fit-Decreasing.
 * Modified first-fit-decreasing (MFFD) , improves on FFD for items larger than half a bin by classifying items by size into four size classes large, medium, small, and tiny, corresponding to items with size > 1/2 bin, > 1/3 bin, > 1/6 bin, and smaller items respectively. Its approximation guarantee is $$MFFD(I) \leq \frac {71}{60}\mathrm{OPT}(I) + 1$$.

Additive approximation
The Karmarkar-Karp bin packing algorithm finds a solution with size at most $$\mathrm{OPT} + \mathcal{O}(\log^2(\mathrm{OPT}))$$, and runs in time polynomial in $n$ (the polynomial has a high degree, at least 8).

Rothvoss presented an algorithm that generates a solution with at most $$\mathrm{OPT} + \mathcal{O}(\log(\mathrm{OPT})\cdot \log\log(\mathrm{OPT}))$$ bins.

Hoberg and Rothvoss improved this algorithm to generate a solution with at most $$\mathrm{OPT} + \mathcal{O}(\log(\mathrm{OPT}))$$ bins. The algorithm is randomized, and its running-time is polynomial in $n$.

Exact algorithms
Martello and Toth developed an exact algorithm for the 1-dimensional bin-packing problem, called MTP. A faster alternative is the Bin Completion algorithm proposed by Korf in 2002 and later improved.

A further improvement was presented by Schreiber and Korf in 2013. The new Improved Bin Completion algorithm is shown to be up to five orders of magnitude faster than Bin Completion on non-trivial problems with 100 items, and outperforms the BCP (branch-and-cut-and-price) algorithm by Belov and Scheithauer on problems that have fewer than 20 bins as the optimal solution. Which algorithm performs best depends on problem properties like the number of items, the optimal number of bins, unused space in the optimal solution and value precision.

Small number of different sizes
A special case of bin packing is when there is a small number d of different item sizes. There can be many different items of each size. This case is also called high-multiplicity bin packing, and It admits more efficient algorithms than the general problem.

Bin-packing with fragmentation
Bin-packing with fragmentation or fragmentable object bin-packing is a variant of the bin packing problem in which it is allowed to break items into parts and put each part separately on a different bin. Breaking items into parts may allow for improving the overall performance, for example, minimizing the number of total bin. Moreover, the computational problem of finding an optimal schedule may become easier, as some of the optimization variables become continuous. On the other hand, breaking items apart might be costly. The problem was first introduced by Mandal, Chakrabary and Ghose.

Variants
The problem has two main variants.

 * 1) In the first variant, called bin-packing with size-increasing fragmentation (BP-SIF), each item may be fragmented; overhead units are added to the size of every fragment.
 * 2) In the second variant, called bin-packing with size-preserving fragmentation (BP-SPF) each item has a size and a cost; fragmenting an item increases its cost but does not change its size.

Computational complexity
Mandal, Chakrabary and Ghose proved that BP-SPF is NP-hard.

Menakerman and Rom showed that BP-SIF and BP-SPF are both strongly NP-hard. Despite the hardness, they present several algorithms and investigate their performance. Their algorithms use classic algorithms for bin-packing, like next-fit and first-fit decreasing, as a basis for their algorithms.

Bertazzi, Golden and Wang introduced a variant of BP-SIF with $$1-x$$ split rule: an item is allowed to be split in only one way according to its size. It is useful for the vehicle routing problem for example. In their paper, they provide the worst-case performance bound of the variant.

Shachnai, Tamir and Yehezkeli developed approximation schemes for BP-SIF and BP-SPF; a dual PTAS (a PTAS for the dual version of the problem), an asymptotic PTAS called APTAS, and a dual asymptotic FPTAS called AFPTAS for both versions.

Ekici introduced a variant of BP-SPF in which some items are in conflict, and it is forbidden to pack fragments of conflicted items into the same bin. They proved that this variant, too, is NP-hard.

Cassazza and Ceselli introduced a variant with no cost and no overhead, and the number of bins is fixed. However, the number of fragmentations should be minimized. They present mathematical programming algorithms for both exact and approximate solutions.

Related problems
The problem of fractional knapsack with penalties was introduced by Malaguti, Monaci, Paronuzzi and Pferschy. They developed an FPTAS and a dynamic program for the problem, and they showed an extensive computational study comparing the performance of their models. See also: Fractional job scheduling.

Performance with divisible item sizes
An important special case of bin packing is that the item sizes form a divisible sequence (also called factored). A special case of divisible item sizes occurs in memory allocation in computer systems, where the item sizes are all powers of 2. If the item sizes are divisible, then some of the heuristic algorithms for bin packing find an optimal solution.

Cardinality constraints on the bins
There is a variant of bin packing in which there are cardinality constraints on the bins: each bin can contain at most k items, for some fixed integer k.

 * Krause, Shen and Schwetman introduce this problem as a variant of optimal job scheduling: a computer has some k processors. There are some n jobs that take unit time (1), but have different memory requirements. Each time-unit is considered a single bin. The goal is to use as few bins (=time units) as possible, while ensuring that in each bin, at most k jobs run. They present several heuristic algorithms that find a solution with at most $$2 \mathrm{OPT}$$ bins.
 * Kellerer and Pferschy present an algorithm with run-time $$O(n^2 \log{n})$$, that finds a solution with at most $$\left\lceil\frac{3}{2}\mathrm{OPT}\right\rceil$$ bins. Their algorithm performs a binary search for OPT. For every searched value m, it tries to pack the items into 3m/2 bins.

Non-additive functions
There are various ways to extend the bin-packing model to more general cost and load functions:

 * Anily, Bramel and Simchi-Levi study a setting where the cost of a bin is a concave function of the number of items in the bin. The objective is to minimize the total cost rather than the number of bins. They show that next-fit-increasing bin packing attains an absolute worst-case approximation ratio of at most 7/4, and an asymptotic worst-case ratio of 1.691 for any concave and monotone cost function.
 * Cohen, Keller, Mirrokni and Zadimoghaddam study a setting where the size of the items is not known in advance, but it is a random variable. This is particularly common in cloud computing environments. While there is an upper bound on the amount of resources a certain user needs, most users use much less than the capacity. Therefore, the cloud manager may gain a lot by slight overcommitment. This induces a variant of bin packing with chance constraints: the probability that the sum of sizes in each bin is at most B should be at least p, where p is a fixed constant (standard bin packing corresponds to p=1). They show that, under mild assumptions, this problem is equivalent to a submodular bin packing problem, in which the "load" in each bin is not equal to the sum of items, but to a certain submodular function of it.

Related problems
In the bin packing problem, the size of the bins is fixed and their number can be enlarged (but should be as small as possible).

In contrast, in the multiway number partitioning problem, the number of bins is fixed and their size can be enlarged. The objective is to find a partition in which the bin sizes are as nearly equal is possible (in the variant called multiprocessor scheduling problem or minimum makespan problem, the goal is specifically to minimize the size of the largest bin).

In the inverse bin packing problem, both the number of bins and their sizes are fixed, but the item sizes can be changed. The objective is to achieve the minimum perturbation to the item size vector so that all the items can be packed into the prescribed number of bins.

In the maximum resource bin packing problem, the goal is to maximize the number of bins used, such that, for some ordering of the bins, no item in a later bin fits in an earlier bin. In a dual problem, the number of bins is fixed, and the goal is to minimize the total number or the total size of items placed into the bins, such that no remaining item fits into an unfilled bin.

In the bin covering problem, the bin size is bounded from below: the goal is to maximize the number of bins used such that the total size in each bin is at least a given threshold.

In the fair indivisible chore allocation problem (a variant of fair item allocation), the items represent chores, and there are different people each of whom attributes a different difficulty-value to each chore. The goal is to allocate to each person a set of chores with an upper bound on its total difficulty-value (thus, each person corresponds to a bin). Many techniques from bin packing are used in this problem too.

In the guillotine cutting problem, both the items and the "bins" are two-dimensional rectangles rather than one-dimensional numbers, and the items have to be cut from the bin using end-to-end cuts.

In the selfish bin packing problem, each item is a player who wants to minimize its cost.

There is also a variant of bin packing in which the cost that should be minimized is not the number of bins, but rather a certain concave function of the number of items in each bin.

Other variants are two-dimensional bin packing, three-dimensional bin packing, bin packing with delivery,

Resources

 * BPPLIB - a library of surveys, codes, benchmarks, generators, solvers, and bibliography.

title: Bin packing problem


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Marsilius of Inghen

Marsilius of Inghen (c. 1340 – 20 August 1396) was a medieval Dutch Scholastic philosopher who studied with Albert of Saxony and Nicole Oresme under Jean Buridan. He was Magister at the University of Paris as well as at the University of Heidelberg from 1386 to 1396.

Life
He was born near Nijmegen. Details about his family and early life are not well known, the first known date of his biography being 27 September 1362. On that day he gave his Magister Artium lecture at the University of Paris. There, he received his masters of arts, then took up work and was rector in 1367 and 1371. Aside from his philosophical and logical studies, he also studied theology, in which subject his lectures enjoyed large popularity. In 1378, Marsilius was the delegate of University of Paris for the Pope Urban VI in Tivoli.

After 1379 the name of Marsilius of Inghen was not mentioned anymore in the recordings of the University of Paris. He was probably driven out of the university because of a schism. In 1383 Marsilius and Albert of Saxony went to spread the nominalist doctrine at. In 1386, Marsiluis became the first rector of the University of Heidelberg, which he founded with the help of Rupert I, Elector Palatine. He was, furthermore, the first theologian to receive a doctorate from the university.

In 1386 Marsilius became Magister at the University of Heidelberg, of which he was rector nine times altogether: From 1386, the year of the foundation of the university, to 1392 and still from June 23 up to his death. From 1389 to 1390 he was responsible for transferring the university register to Rome. Afterwards he took up again the study of theology. Deceased just months later, Marsilius of Inghen was buried in the Church of Peter (Heidelberger Peterskirche) at Heidelberg.

Overview
In logic, he was an Aristotelian nominalist; in natural philosophy, an empiricist. He applied a synthesis of the new 14th century physics of Buridan, Thomas Bradwardine and Oresme in his commentaries on Aristotle. Both his theological and philosophical works are characterized by a logico-semantical approach in which he followed Buridan, combined with an eclectic use of older theories, sometimes more Aristotelian and sometimes more Neoplatonist; this fact that renders narrow the label "Ockhamist" often applied to Marsilius.

Nominalism
Marsilius of Inghen is most well known for his work in nominalism. Though no one called themselves nominalists in the 14th century, he is considered one of the movement's "forefathers." In his nominalist philosophy he accepted the basic nominalist foundation, namely that universals are only existent within the mind, and outside the mind there are only individuals. He advocated that human knowledge can be derived from a foundation of sensory knowledge. However, to Marsilius, metaphysical knowledge was the greatest obtainable form of knowledge. This is due to its ability to grasp the most highly universal propositions.

The object of scientific knowledge
From his beliefs in nominalism in conjunction with his Aristotelian influences follows his reasoning on the object of scientific knowledge. Marsilius claims such an object must be singular and conform to Aristotle's requirement that such an object must be a necessary universal. Therefore, given Marsilius’ acceptance of the basic nominalist foundation—that is, universals are only in the mind—objects of science are predicates which exist in the mind and describe the individuals in the world outside of the mind.

Natural philosophy
As already mentioned, he accepted that knowledge is made evident via sensory knowledge, i.e. he was an empiricist. However, he also accepted a priori truths to be an acceptable source of scientific knowledge. Also noteworthy is Marsilius’ theory behind impetus. Following in the footsteps of Buridan, Marsilius rejected the Aristotelian theory and claimed that such forces are the transfer of some property from that which did the affecting into the affected object.

In his Questions on the Eight Books of the Physics, Marsilius cites ancient experiments with the clepsydra as proof that "nature abhors a vacuum."

Theology
Marsilius began studies of theology at the University of Paris in 1366, though, the majority of his theological study took place during his time at the University of Heidelberg. His overall theological philosophy was influenced by Adam Wodeham, Gregory of Rimini, Thomas Aquinas, and Bonaventure. However, he does not wholly follow their thinking and holds original ideas in the subject.

In considering the creation of the world by God Marsilius held that God did not create the world as eternal, and that such means of creation was not contrary to God's perfection. Concerning Marsilius’ other specific theological thought, he believed his natural philosophy lead to both some true knowledge of God, as well as an impediment towards complete true knowledge of God. Human's natural capacities, according to Marsilius, are sufficient to derive the truth of proposition asserting God's existence, God having a will, and God having knowledge. Natural capacities, although achieving that much, are unable to reach the truth of propositions asserting God's omnipotence, God's free will, and God's ability to create ex nihilo. Hence, Marsilius thought that using nothing but one's natural capacities in trying to find true knowledge of God will actually lead to the negation of God's omnipotence, free will, and ability to create ex nihilo. Not only this, but use of logic in general regarding theological study was something Marsilius didn't wholly accept. In order for one to reach such knowledge of God one must use Christian faith. This faith is the only means to reach the knowledge of God which natural capacities cannot obtain. In this sense, Marsilius advocated that natural human knowledge is such that it is limited in its capability to comprehend the divine, but still aides the search for such knowledge.

Also crucial to his theological studies are his thoughts regarding a version of divine simplicity—of which he was highly influenced by Wodeham. Even though human knowledge seems to abstract various properties or parts of God, such extrapolations are merely existent in human conceptions of God. God truly has only one essence and is one singular unity according to Marsilius.

Influence
Following Marsilius’ death, his works became rather well known. Marsilius was revered as one of the greatest nominalists of his time, alongside Ockham and Buridan. His extensive questions and commentaries on Aristotle (including commentaries on De Generatione et Corruptione, De Anima, Metaphysics, Physics, and Ethics) became textbooks for students throughout various universities. Moreover, his theology became widely read and influential in Spanish theology. He was influential on Central European philosophy of later centuries, both through his own philosophy and by the way he stimulated reform of university programmes. In the 16th century there were still references to a "Marsilian way" in logic and physics.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Marsilius of Inghen


text:
Palmerston, Northern Territory

Palmerston is a planned satellite city of Darwin, the capital and largest city of Australia's Northern Territory. The city is situated approximately 20 kilometres from Darwin and 10 kilometres from Howard Springs and the surrounding rural areas. Palmerston had a population of 33,695 at the 2016 census, making it the second largest city in the Northern Territory.

There are eighteen suburbs in Palmerston, ten of which are close to the Palmerston city centre. Palmerston is mostly residential with two light industrial areas in the north of the city.

1864–1911
Palmerston was the name chosen in 1864 for the capital of the Northern Territory by the South Australian Government, which was then responsible for its administration, in recognition of Lord Palmerston, who became Prime Minister of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in 1855. The first site, as chosen by Boyle Travers Finniss at Escape Cliffs near the mouth of the Adelaide River, on the coast of Adam Bay on the western side of the Cape Hotham peninsula in 1864, was abandoned in 1867 and a second laid out by Surveyor-General George Goyder near Port Darwin in 1869. The town was officially renamed Darwin in April 1911 after responsibility for the Northern Territory passed to the Commonwealth of Australia and was officially gazetted as the City of Darwin in 1959.

1971–present
The land for a new satellite city of Darwin was acquired in 1971 by the Australian Government after concerns of under-supply of residential land in Darwin. The site was selected as the land was adjacent to existing transportation corridors. The decision to proceed with the development was made in 1980 and for the third time, the name of Palmerston was selected for the new city. Planning and development was managed by the Palmerston Development Authority.

Development of Palmerston began during the early 1980s. Suburbs of Palmerston were built in stages. The first suburbs built were Gray and Driver, followed by Moulden, then Woodroffe and Marlow Lagoon. The urban area continued to grow throughout the 1990s, with the new suburbs of Bakewell, Rosebery and Durack. The population growth of Palmerston continues to be the highest in the Northern Territory.

The population increased by almost 8,000 people between 1991 and 2001 to a total of 21,000 people. Palmerston's population growth is expected to continue and reach over 40,000 people by 2023.

In 1995/1996 the construction commenced on 5 new Palmerston suburbs, Rosebery, Bakewell, Durack, Gunn, and Farrar. These were developed in stages. In 2000 the Palmerston Town Council sought and obtained a change in the name of the municipality to City of Palmerston.

Since then, other suburbs have been registered and remain in various stages of development, including Archer (2001), Bellamack (2001), Johnston (2007), Zuccoli (2007) and Mitchell (2007).

Landmarks
The major landmark in Palmerston is the Power and Water Corporation's water storage tank, which supplies the city with fresh potable water. Formerly, the city had a large escarpment in the heart of the city, with extensive walking paths and a small creek, but the area has since been converted into an open grassy area; the community space known as Goyder Square.

Geography
Palmerston is located between the outer industrial areas of Darwin and the rural areas of Howard Springs, 20 kilometres (13 mi) southeast of Darwin, and is situated in the local government area of the City of Palmerston.

The urban area of Palmerston extends from the Stuart Highway in the north and east and the East Arm inlet to the west and south.

Regions and suburbs
The City of Palmerston initially consisted of the Palmerston Town (CBD), as well as suburbs of Driver and Gray. These were followed by Moulden and Woodroffe after development in those areas commenced in 1983. Also included in the City of Palmerston are the semi-rural suburb of Marlow Lagoon, the suburb of Archer and the industrial zones of Yarrawonga and Pinelands. Further developments have occurred leading to the creation of the suburbs of Rosebery, Bakewell, Gunn, Durack and more recently Farrar, Bellamack, Johnston, Zuccoli and Mitchell. The newer suburbs are located on the south-east side of the existing city.

Climate
Palmerston has a tropical savannah climate (Aw) like Darwin with distinct wet and dry seasons. The dry season runs from May to September. In the coolest months of June and July, daily temperature range is 19 to 35 °C. The wet season is associated with tropical cyclones and monsoon rains. The majority of rainfall occurs between December and March when thunderstorms are common and humidity is regularly over 80 per cent.

Demographics
As of the 2016 Census, there were 33,695 people in Palmerston. The median age of persons in Palmerston was 28 years. 18.9% of the population of Palmerston were children aged between 5–14 years, and 47.1% were persons aged 25–54 years. 74.8 per cent of Palmerston's population are Australian born; the biggest overseas birthplaces were England (692 or 2.9 per cent), New Zealand (437 or 1.9 per cent), the Philippines (278 or 1.2 per cent), Papua New Guinea (144 or 0.6 per cent) and East Timor (116 or 0.5 per cent).

The 2006 Census found the most inhabitants in Palmerston practice 'no religion' (6,106 or 25.9 per cent), Catholicism (5,263 or 22.3 per cent), Anglican (3,561 or 15.1 per cent), Uniting Church (1,205 or 5.1 per cent) and Presbyterian and Reformed (419 or 1.8 per cent).

Palmerston's population represents one quarter of the combined Palmerston-Darwin total population, and represents 11.7% of the Northern Territory's population.

Population growth
Palmerston is one of the fastest-growing cities in Australia. Palmerston recorded the fastest increase of population of all the local government areas in the Northern Territory. Palmerston increased by 1,300 people, growing by 5 per cent. The fastest growth occurred within Palmerston which includes the suburbs of Farrar, Rosebery, Marlow Lagoon and Gunn and Palmerston City.

Government
The Palmerston region is covered by the Local Government Area of the City of Palmerston. The council was created in 1985. The council chambers are located in the Palmerston City Centre.

The Palmerston City Council (Incorporated under the Northern Territory Local Government Act 1993) governs the City of Palmerston which takes in the CBD and the suburbs. The City of Palmerston has governed Palmerston since 1985. It is governed by a seven-member council comprising the mayor, deputy mayor and five aldermen. Unlike Darwin, the city is not divided into wards and all councillors are elected at-large. The current mayor of Palmerston is Athina Pascoe-Bell, who was elected in the local government election on 24 March 2018.

In territory politics, Palmerston is split between five Legislative Assembly districts. The districts of Blain, Brennan and Drysdale are entirely within the city. The district of Spillett is located mostly within Palmerston, but its area reaches up to eastern Darwin. The mostly rural district of Nelson spills into the city. Historically, Palmerston has been a bastion of conservatism, with Country Liberal Party candidates usually winning by wide margins. Labor never came remotely close to winning seats in Palmerston until 2005, when that year's massive Labor landslide saw Labor take Brennan and Drysdale off the CLP. However, those seats reverted to form in the 2008 election.At the 2016 general election, however, Labor took Brennan and Drysdale off the CLP, while Blain fell to then-independent Terry Mills, a former CLP Chief Minister. The CLP, however, gained victories in Brennan and Nelson, while Labor retained Drysdale and Mills lost his seat of Blain to Labor's Mark Turner at the 2020 election. Currently, Palmerston is represented by two Labor members and two CLP members.

In federal politics, most of Palmerston's suburbs are located in the House of Representatives division shared with Darwin – the Division of Solomon, with the remaining suburbs in the city's outskirts located within the Division of Lingiari. The MP from 2010 to 2016, and the current Administrator of the Australian Indian Ocean Territories, Natasha Griggs, was a Palmerston resident and a former member of Palmerston City Council. The current members for the Division of Solomon and Lingiari are Labor members Luke Gosling and Warren Snowdon, respectively.

Economy
Palmerston has around 19,800 people in the labour force. In March 2017, the unemployment rate in the city was 3.98 per cent which was above the Northern Territory average of 3.5 per cent.

The largest industry employers in Palmerston are public administration & safety (2,751 or 21.3 per cent), retail trade (1,190 or 9.2 per cent), construction (892 or 6.9 per cent), health care & social assistance (829 or 6.4 per cent) and education & training (825 or 6.4 per cent). The total numbers of businesses in Palmerston was 1,410. Of these, 57% of businesses were categorised as non-employing.

Retail
Palmerston has four major shopping centres: Palmerston Shopping Centre, Bakewell Shopping Centre, Gateway Shopping Centre, and Oasis Shopping Village. The Palmerston Shopping Centre contains over 69 businesses including a Coles Supermarket, and the discount department store Target. Oasis Shopping Village contains a Coles supermarket and 18 businesses. Stage 1 of the new Gateway Shopping Centre has numerous specialty stores including Big W, Best & Less, and Woolworths. Stage 2 includes the Pavilions Dining and Entertainment area, as well as Gateway Home—which opened in early 2018.

Education
For further information see Schools in the Northern Territory.

Preschool, primary and secondary
Palmerston is served by 11 state primary schools, two Catholic primary schools, two private schools, one state secondary school (Palmerston College) and one Catholic secondary school (MacKillop Catholic College). There are over 5,867 primary and secondary students enrolled in Palmerston with 2,942 students attending primary education and 1,292 students attending secondary education. There are over 3,100 students enrolled in government schools in Palmerston, 1087 students enrolled in Catholic schools and 625 students enrolled in independent schools.

In 2017, the now former Rosebery Middle School amalgamated into Palmerston's secondary school campus of Palmerston Senior College (formerly Driver High School) to create the dual campus facility, Palmerston College.

Tertiary and vocational
The Charles Darwin University Palmerston campus is located in the suburb of Durack. The campus hosts the School of Tourism and Hospitality as well as expanding into a mini-School of Conservation and Land Management. There are over 4,318 students enrolled in tertiary and further education courses. In 2008, 247 of Palmerston residents were enrolled in higher education at Charles Darwin University and 4,071 students enrolled in vocational education and training.

Sport and recreation
Palmerston is home to the Palmerston Football Club (known as the "Magpies") Northern Territory Football League (AFL) and is based out of the Archer Sporting Complex. Palmerston has a strong presence in Australian rules football. The Archer Sporting Complex has an Australian rules football field, a senior Softball diamond and senior Baseball diamond. There are also a number of sporting clubs located at the complex. The complex home to the, Palmerston and Rural Baseball Club, and the Palmerston Pirates Softball team.

There are three Rugby Union teams in the Palmerston area. These are the Palmerston Crocs, the Swampdogs and the MacKillop Saints.

The Palmerston Raiders Rugby League team are based at Goodline Park in the Southern suburbs.

Palmerston has one association football team, the Palmerston Rovers FC which plays in the Northern Zone League.

The city has a skate park located on University Avenue that is funded by the Palmerston City Council.

There is also a local near-Olympic size swimming pool with a gymnasium.

There is also a boat ramp allowing access to the Elizabeth River for small trail-able marine craft. Persons utilising the area are cautioned that both box jellyfish and crocodiles are present in the river.

A branch of the YWCA is located at the CBD.

The Palmerston Scouts are based at MacKillop Catholic College.

Palmerston has one major tennis centre. Opened in January 2012 it includes 7 courts, BBQ area and canteen. The centre offers group coaching and competition opportunities for people of all ages.

Palmerston is well served by its many park reserves. Some parks also offer coin-operated public barbecue facilities.

Palmerston Golf and Country Club has a full 18-hole design with the Northern Territory PGA Championship held there.

Media
The Northern Territory News, published daily by News Corp, is widely available in Palmerston. Its Sunday edition, The Sunday Territorian, and the national newspaper, The Australian, are also published by News Corp and are also available in Palmerston. Most large statewide and interstate newspapers are also available from local retailers, albeit with a delay in arrival.

Palmerston also receives radio and television services sourced from transmitters located in the Darwin region. Which include the three commercial channels 7 Darwin, Nine Darwin and Darwin Digital Television and the two Government-owned channels ABC and SBS. Pay television is also available through satellite, fixed cable and IPTV from various providers, such as Foxtel and Fetch.

Palmerston receives most of the radio stations from Darwin, which include ABC Local Radio (105.7FM), Radio National (657AM), ABC Classic FM (107.3FM) and Triple J (103.3FM), as well as commercial radio stations Mix 104.9 and Hot 100 and community radio station 104.1 Territory FM.

Transport
The city has a network of bicycle paths, most of which are lit for night-time usage.

There is also a public bus service operated by Darwinbus that offers transportation around Palmerston, into Darwin City and out to Darwin's northern suburbs.

Darwin International Airport is the closest air terminal in Palmerston. The airport is located in the Darwin suburb of Marrara, approximately 20 minutes away from Palmerston.

Darwin-based taxis are also available in Palmerston, as well as a number of local and Darwin-based mini-bus operators.

Utilities
Water storage and supply, as well as sewerage services for Palmerston, are managed by Power and Water Corporation, while power is managed by Jacana Energy, both of which are owned by the Northern Territory Government. The corporation is also responsible for management of sewerage and the major water catchments in the region. Water is mainly stored in the largest dam, the Darwin River Dam which holds up to 90% of Palmerston's water supply. For many years, the city's principal water supply came from Manton Dam.

Palmerston and its suburbs are powered by the Channel Island Power Station, the largest power plant in the Northern Territory.

Health
Many of Palmerston's health needs are serviced by the Palmerston Health Precinct which includes the Palmerston Community Care Centre, public dental service, St John Ambulance, Medical Specialists Clinic and the Farrar Medical Centre. There are seven general practices in the Palmerston health region, four of which provide after-hours services.

There are two hospitals serving the Palmerston area. These are Royal Darwin Hospital, located in the Darwin suburb of Tiwi and Palmerston Regional Hospital, which is located in Holtze.

title: Palmerston, Northern Territory


text:
United League

United League may refer:

Sports

 * United League Baseball, an independent baseball league, founded in 2006, which operates in Texas
 * United Baseball League (proposed), a planned third North American baseball major league that folded without playing a game in 1996
 * United League (football), a short-lived professional association football (soccer) league in England which existed during the late 19th century
 * VTB United League, a basketball league

Other uses

 * United League (social organization), a U.S. African American organization in Mississippi
 * United League, one of the English names for the revolutionary group Tongmenghui of China

title: United League


text:
Talk:Republican Revolution

Redirect proposal
There's not much here. The title is too vague anyways. "Republican revolution" is not limited to China. Redirect to History of the Republic of China? --Jiang

Propose Merge
I think this article should be merged with U.S. House election, 1994. There isn't much there, but there's a lot less here, and the topics are not really independent. Republican Revolution is just a POV title forthe same thing. --Mm35173 20:56, 19 August 2005 (UTC)

 * Not unreasonable, but isn't part of the "revolution" that the Republicans gained control of the Senate as well? (even though their last majority there was only 8 yrs prior, not the 40 as in the House).

Kaisershatner 15:43, 30 November 2005 (UTC)

 * This article is a good candidate for expansion, rather than merger. It would be more complete if it included some reference to the platform and agenda of the 'revolutionaries', and some analysis of the progress, or lack thereof, that has followed. --Dschor 20:59, 1 December 2005 (UTC)

The article should not be merged, but rather expanded because it is now part of: my american history chronology

 * The article must NOT be merged. The "Republican Revolution" is a subject into itself, separate from the House Elections of 1994 because it involves not just the House, but the Senate and the governorships as well. Therefore it deserves its own page. -- Judson 01:49, 8 January 2006 (UTC)

 * This article absolutely should not be merged. The "Republican Revolution" was really a clean sweep - they went from being in the minority in the Senate, House, and governorships to being in the majority in all three. It was a sweeping party victory which has not been seen since and is rarely seen on such a scale. It can't be merged also because there's no one article to merge it into. Can we take down the merge box now? - RPIRED 21:38, 27 January 2006 (UTC)

I don't get this article's purpose. It doesn't once mention WHY the Democrats lost so much power of how the platforms were different/ It didn't once even mention the Assault Weapons Ban. - Interslice

This should be a separate article, but it should be clear that this is a partisan term, as let's face it, it wasn't a revolution. Just as the 2006 victory for the Democrats wasn't a revolution. It should be about the term, with a brief election background. Wikipediatoperfection 05:36, 15 March 2007 (UTC)

Don't say what you don't know. We don't know the long term impact of 2006 elections. Don't say it's over until the fat lady sings. And yes, I mean hillary clinton. 199.120.31.20 19:18, 19 April 2007 (UTC)

Policy section
One reason the article feels incomplete is that there are no discussion of policy changes like welfare reform and national security. Each Congress session could have its own subsection where notable policies are highlighted. Infernalfox 10:47, 13 November 2006 (UTC)

 * The place to put such discussions would be in articles like 105th United States Congress, not in this article. This article might have a quick (as in, two sentence) summary and link, but this article is not the place that someone would look to find out the policy changes implemented by, say, the 105th U.S. Congress. John Broughton | Talk 19:20, 13 November 2006 (UTC)
 * There is no doubt that the Republican Revolution of 1994 produced a critical and history-defining political shift, from a relatively moderate “conservative coalition” to a far-right Republican Party against a centrist Democratic Party almost exclusively based in urban areas. The Republican Revolution coincided with – indeed is firmly related to – the growth of radical anti-government extremist movements, witnessed in Timothy McVeigh and the Oklahoma City bombing a few months subsequently, and also to the growth of radical right news media, like Fox News. I myself began to observe this when I read Peter Kreeft in the late 1990s. The effects of the shift has been seen in – despite an increase in Democratic presidential popular vote shares – policies much more favourable to the extremely rich and opposed to the poor and nonwhites than observed even during the Reagan era. Before the Republican Revolution, even GOP congressmen supported the Voting Rights Act and campaign finance reform, but the new generation of Republican congressmen and state legislators – like, critically, the immense majority of rural white Americans ever since 1964 – wanted to gut all civil rights and voting rights legislation, and all public support for nonwhite welfare. Luokehao | Talk 08:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

No Content :(
This article does not really have a lot of content or, as noted above, history or explanation in it. Probably not unlike the Democrats winning in 2006, the Republicans win in 1994 was largely a rejection of how the Democratic party was handling Congress -- i.e. The house banking scandal, the house post office scandal, missing money, high crime rate, closed doors during national health care discussions, national sales tax proposals, tax hikes, etc. 67.149.220.91 02:05, 27 August 2007 (UTC)

Vote for Deletion
I think this article should be removed, as it has no unique content to offer whatsoever. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.111.199.200 (talk) 02:09, 21 January 2010 (UTC)

 * I oppose, the article describes a sociopolitical phenomenon in the United States in the 1990s and 2000s, when neo-conservatism has won the house, senate, presidency (the George W. Bush administration) and hearts of millions of American voters. It owuld be nice to discuss what brought on the "Republican Revolution" from the end of the Cold war to the early 1990s recession to the L.A. Riots in '92, has moved a sizable majority of Americans into the side of conservatives and Republicans on fiscal and social issues.+ 71.102.7.77 (talk) 23:12, 3 February 2010 (UTC)

Government Shutdown
Shouldn't we at least mention the 1995 government shutdown? -- Bertrc (talk) 19:05, 25 September 2013 (UTC)

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No mention of the 1994 assault weapons ban in this?
Seems like a big omission. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Rja13ww33 (talk • contribs)

 * I am more than a little surprised by that too. The passage of AWB94, as part of the crime bill, was certainly a factor in the midterms.-- Surv1v4l1st ╠Talk║Contribs╣ 22:59, 20 February 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Republican Revolution


text:
NEC (disambiguation)

NEC is a Japanese electronics manufacturer, formerly "Nippon Electric Company".

NEC may refer to:

Companies, government, and organizations

 * Nepal Engineering Council, an autonomous government agency of Nepal
 * National Economic Commission, a deficit reduction commission in the United States
 * National Electoral Commission (Somaliland)
 * National Economic Council (United Kingdom)
 * National Economic Council (United States) in the Executive Office of the US President
 * National Elections Commission, an autonomous government agency of Liberia
 * National Electrostatics Corporation, a manufacturer of particle accelerators
 * National Empowerment Center, a US mental health advocacy and recovery organization
 * National Enterprise Corporation, a state corporation of Uganda
 * National Executive Committee of the Labour Party
 * National Executive of the Bharatiya Janata Party
 * National Executive Committee of the African National Congress
 * National Executive Committee for Space-Based Positioning, Navigation and Timing
 * Nauru Electoral Commission
 * Negro Ensemble Company, New York City theatre company
 * National Electricity Company (NEK EAD), a Bulgarian electricity company
 * New England Coalition, an anti-nuclear organization based in Brattleboro, VT
 * Niagara Escarpment Commission, an agency of the Ontario government
 * The ASX stock ticker for Nine Entertainment, an Australian media company
 * North Eastern Council
 * National Entertainment Commission, a former name of the Media Rating Council

Exhibition centres

 * National Exhibition Centre, the largest exhibition centre in the UK in Birmingham, England
 * NEC Group, the British company operating the National Exhibition Centre and other venues

Educational institutions

 * New England Conservatory, America's oldest independent music conservatory
 * National Engineering College in Tamil Nadu, India
 * National Extension College, a UK specialist in online and distance learning, based in Cambridge
 * New England College, a private college in Henniker, New Hampshire
 * Native Education Centre, a private college in Vancouver, Canada

Engineering

 * National Electrical Code, a US design standard on electrical wiring and equipment in construction
 * New Engineering Contract, a UK system that guides the drafting of documents

Sports

 * Teams sponsored by NEC Corporation in Japan:
 * NEC Green Rockets, rugby union
 * NEC Red Rockets, women's volleyball
 * NEC Blue Rockets, men's volleyball
 * NEC Nijmegen, a Dutch football club
 * Nueva Ecija Capitals, a Filipino basketball team, the alternate moniker of Nueva Ecija Rice Vanguards
 * Northeast Conference, an NCAA athletics conference
 * Northeastern Conference, a high school athletic conference in Massachusetts, United States
 * North Egypt Conference, former Illinois, US high school athletic conference

Health

 * No effect concentration in chemical hazards
 * Necrotizing enterocolitis, a medical condition usually affecting premature infants
 * National Emission Ceiling, part of EU Directive 2001/81/EC regarding air pollution

Science and mathematics

 * Non-Euclidean crystallographic group, a group of symmetries in hyperbolic geometry
 * Numerical Electromagnetics Code, a computer program used to simulate antennas

Military

 * Navy Enlisted Classification, US Navy
 * Network-enabled capability, a UK military doctrine for using information systems

Other

 * Northeast Corridor, a rail line on the east coast of the United States

title: NEC (disambiguation)


text:
François de La Rochefoucauld (writer)

François de La Rochefoucauld, 2nd Duke of La Rochefoucauld, Prince de Marcillac (15 September 1613 – 17 March 1680) was an accomplished French moralist of the era of French Classical literature and author of Maximes and Memoirs, the only two works of his dense literary œuvre published. His Maximes portrays the callous nature of human conduct, with a cynical attitude towards putative virtue and avowals of affection, friendship, love, and loyalty. Leonard Tancock regards Maximes as "one of the most deeply felt, most intensely lived texts in French literature", with his "experience, his likes and dislikes, sufferings and petty spites ... crystallized into absolute truths."

Born in Paris in 1613, at a time when the royal court was vacillating between aiding the nobility and threatening it, he was considered an exemplar of the accomplished seventeenth-century nobleman. Until 1650, he bore the title of Prince de Marcillac. His great-grandfather François III, count de La Rochefoucauld, was killed in the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre, being a Huguenot.

Early life: 1613–1629
François de La Rochefoucauld was born on September 15, 1613, at Rue des Petits Champs, in Paris's 1st arrondissement neighborhood. La Rochefoucauld was given the education of a nobleman of his era, which concentrated on military exercises, hunting, court etiquette, elegance of expression and comportment, and a knowledge of the world. He was married at the age of fourteen to Andrée de Vivonne. Belonging to one of the most illustrious families of the French nobility, the young La Rochefoucauld, then prince of Marcillac, succeeded at the age of 16 (1 May 1629) to his uncle Benjamin de La Rochefoucauld, count of Estissac, as camp master of the Estissac regiment.

Military career
He joined the army the following year and almost immediately established himself as a public figure. He fought bravely in the annual campaigns, though his actions were never formally recognised.

Under the patronage of Madame de Chevreuse, whom he met at this time, the first of the three celebrated women who influenced his life, he joined the service of Queen Anne of Austria. In one of Madame de Chevreuse's quarrels with Cardinal Richelieu and her husband, a scheme apparently was conceived by which La Rochefoucauld was to carry her off to Brussels on horseback. Other cabals against Richelieu once resulted in La Rochefoucauld being sentenced to eight days in the Bastille, and he was occasionally required to leave the Court, exiled to his father's estates. In the power vacuum following Richelieu's death in 1642, La Rochefoucauld, among others, took an active role in urging the queen and Condé to act together against Gaston, Duke of Orléans. However, the growing reputation of Mazarin impeded the ambition of the plotters, and La Rochefoucauld's 1645 liaison with Duchess of Longueville made him irrevocably a frondeur (aristocratic rebel). He was a conspicuous figure in the 1649 siege of Paris, fought in many of the frequent military engagements, and was seriously wounded at the siege of Mardyke.

In the second Fronde, La Rochefoucauld allied himself with Condé. He used the occasion of his father's funeral in 1650 to urge the attending provincial nobility to help him attack the royalist garrison of Saumur. In the battle of the Faubourg Saint-Antoine, in 1652, he was shot through the head. It was feared that he would lose his sight, but he recovered after a year's convalescence.

For some years thereafter, he retired to his country estate of Verteuil. Although his fortune had been much reduced, in time he was able to restore it somewhat, thanks chiefly to the fidelity of Gourville, who had been in his service and who, passing into the service of Mazarin and of Condé, had acquired both wealth and influence. La Rochefoucauld did not return to court life until just before Mazarin's death, when Louis XIV was about to assume absolute power, and the aristocratic anarchy of the Fronde was over. He wrote his memoirs during this time, as did many of his prominent contemporaries.

Salon participation

Somewhat earlier, La Rochefoucauld had taken his place in the salon of Madeleine de Souvré, marquise de Sablé, a member of the Marquise de Rambouillet côterie, and the founder of a kind of successor to it, whose special literary work was the writing of Sentences and Maximes. In 1662, the Dutch firm House of Elzevir surreptitiously published what purported to be his memoirs, which brought him both trouble and fame. Many of his old friends were offended. These memoirs were not a faithful copy of what he had written, and while he hastened to deny their authenticity, this was not generally believed.

Three years later, in 1665, he anonymously published the Maximes (maxims), which established his position among the men of letters of the time. At about the same date, his friendship with Marie-Madeleine Pioche de La Vergne, Comtesse de La Fayette, began, which lasted for the rest of his life. The glimpses which we have of him henceforward are chiefly from the letters of Madame de Sévigné, and though they show him suffering from gout, are on the whole pleasant ones.

He had a circle of devoted friends and was recognized as a top-ranking moralist and man of letters. His son, the Prince de Marcillac, to whom he gave his titles and honors in 1671, enjoyed a considerable position at court. But above all La Rochefoucauld was recognized by his contemporaries, including the king, as an exemplar of the older noblesse, the nobility that existed under the great monarch before the brilliance of his reign faded. This reputation he has retained to the present day.

La Rochefoucauld's ethical views have given rise to attacks upon his works by pious moralists of later eras. Like his contemporaries, he saw politics as a chessboard for powerful players, rather than as a struggle of ideologies or a means for achieving broad social goals. He appears to have been unusually scrupulous in his personal conduct, and his lack of success in the aristocratic struggles arose more from this than from anything else.

He died in Paris on 17 March 1680.

Literary works
His importance as a social and historical figure is overshadowed by his towering stature in French literature. His literary work consists of three parts—his Memoirs, the Maximes, and his letters.

The Memoirs are of high interest and literary merit. A book purporting to be La Rochefoucauld's memoirs was published in the Dutch Republic whence, despite the author's protest, it continued to be reprinted for some thirty years. It has now been proved to have been pieced together from the work of half a dozen men, with scarcely a third of it being La Rochefoucauld's. Some years after La Rochefoucauld's death, a new recension appeared, still largely adulterated but with some errors corrected. This work went unchallenged for more than a century. Only in 1817 did anything like a genuine, if still imperfect, edition appear.

However, the pithy, elegant Maximes (maxims) had no such fate. The author made frequent alterations and additions to them during his life and a few were added after his death. It is usual now to publish them in their totality of 504. The majority consist of just two or three lines, and hardly any exceed half a page. La Rochefoucauld reflects on the conduct and motives of mankind, from the point of view of a man of the world who intends not to sugar-coat his observations. In fact, in his introduction, he advises,

"...the best approach for the reader to take would be to put in his mind right from the start that none of these maxims apply to himself in particular, and that he is the sole exception, even though they appear to be generalities. After that I guarantee that he will be the first to endorse them and he will believe that they do credit to the human spirit."

Physical appearance
La Rochefoucauld's literary debut was his self-portrait: Portrait de La Rochefoucauld fait par lui-même, published in collection compiled in salon of Mademoiselle de Montpensier: Recueil des Portraits et éloges en vers et en prose. "I am of a medium height, active, and well-proportioned. My complexion dark, but uniform, a high forehead; and of moderate height, black eyes, small, deep set, eyebrows black and thick but well placed. I am rather embarrassed in talking of my nose, for it is neither flat nor aquiline, nor large; nor pointed: but I believe, as far as I can say, it is too large than too small, and comes down just a trifle too low. I have a large mouth, lips generally red enough, neither shaped well nor badly. I have white teeth, and fairly even. I have been told I have a little too much chin. I have just looked at myself in the glass to ascertain the fact, and I do not know how to decide. As to the shape of my face, it is either square or oval, but which I should find it very difficult to say. I have black hair, which curls by nature, and thick and long enough to entitle me to lay claim to a fine head."

Marriage
On 20 January 1628, at Mirebeau-sur-Bèze, he married Andrée de Vivonne (1612-1670) only daughter and heiress of André de Vivonne, Baron of la Chataigneraie, Grand Falconer of France and Marie Antoinette de Loménie.

Children

 * 1) François de la Rochefoucauld, 3rd Duke of La Rochefoucauld  (15 June 1634 - 11 January 1714) married Jeanne Charlotte du Plessis.
 * 2) Charles de la Rochefoucauld (22 September 1635 - 19 November 1691) Abbot of Molesme.
 * 3) Marie Catherine de la Rochefoucauld (22 February 1637 - 5 October 1711) known as Mademoiselle de La Rochefoucauld never married.
 * 4) Henriette de la Rochefoucauld (15 July 1638 - 3 November 1721) known as Mademoiselle de Marsillac never married.
 * 5) Françoise de la Rochefoucauld (9 August 1641 - 22 March 1708) known as Mademoiselle d'Anville never married.
 * 6) Henri Achille de la Rochefoucauld (8 December 1642 - 19 May 1698) Abbot of Fonfroide, then of Beauport, and of La Chaise-Dieu known as the Abbé de Marsillac,.
 * 7) Jean Baptiste de la Rochefoucauld (19 August 1646 - June 1675) known as the Chevalier de Marsillac.
 * 8) Alexandre de la Rochefoucauld known as the Abbé de Verteuil.

Influence
Nearly all the great French critics of the 19th century wrote to some extent about La Rochefoucauld.

Philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche greatly admired La Rochefoucauld and was influenced not only by his ethics, but also his style.

The editions of La Rochefoucauld's Maximes (as the full title runs, Réflexions ou sentences et maximes morales) published in his lifetime bear the dates 1665 (editio princeps), 1666, 1671, 1675, 1678.

Previous editions were superseded by that of Jean Désiré Louis Gilbert and Jules Gourdault (1868–1883), in the series Grands Écrivains de la France, 3 vols.

A separate edition of the Maximes is the so-called Édition des bibliophiles (1870). See also the English translation of The Moral Maxims and Reflections of the Duke De La Rochefoucauld by George H. Powell (1903).

General references

Attribution:

title: François de La Rochefoucauld (writer)


text:
La Rochefoucauld

La Rochefoucauld may refer to:

People

 * Alexandre, comte de La Rochefoucauld (1767–1841), married Adélaïde de Pyvart de Chastullé, a San Domingo heiress allied to the Beauharnais family. Mme de La Rochefoucauld became dame d'honneur to the empress Josephine, and their eldest daughter married Francesco Borghese [fr], a brother-in-law of Pauline Bonaparte, Princess Borghese. La Rochefoucauld became ambassador successively to Vienna (1805) and to The Hague (1808–1810), where he negotiated the union of the Kingdom of Holland with France. During the "Hundred Days" he was made a peer of France. He subsequently devoted himself to philanthropic work, and in 1822 became deputy to the Chamber of Deputies and sat with the constitutional royalists. He was again raised to the peerage in 1831. His descendants became Dukes of Estissac and Princes of La Rochefoucauld-Montbel.
 * Ambroise-Polycarpe de La Rochefoucauld (1765–1841), soldier and minister of Charles X
 * Antoine de La Rochefoucauld (before 1552 – after 1569), French knight
 * Antoine de La Rochefoucauld (1862–1959), 19th century Rosicrucian
 * Dominique de La Rochefoucauld (1712–1800), French bishop and cardinal
 * Dominique, Prince de La Rochefoucauld-Montbel (born 1950), diplomat, Grand Hospitalier of the Order of Malta, President of the French association, Chancellor of the « Académie des Psychologues du Goût »
 * Edmée de La Rochefoucauld (1896-1991), French activist
 * Emmanuel, Prince de La Rochefoucauld-Montbel (1883-1974), diplomat, ambassadeur, owner of the Grottes de Lascaux with his marriage to Simone Darblay
 * François III de La Rochefoucauld (1521–1572), French courtier and soldier
 * François de La Rochefoucauld (cardinal) (1558–1645), French cardinal of the Catholic Church
 * François de La Rochefoucauld (writer) (1613–1680), French author noted for his maxims and memoirs
 * François de La Rochefoucauld, Marquis de Montandre (1672–1739)
 * François Alexandre Frédéric, duc de La Rochefoucauld-Liancourt (1747–1827), social reformer
 * François, duc de La Rochefoucauld (1765–1848)
 * Frédéric Jérôme de La Rochefoucauld (1701–1757), French cardinal of the Catholic Church, Archbishop of Bourges
 * Frédéric Gaëtan, marquis de La Rochefoucauld-Liancourt (1779–1863), politician
 * Jean-Baptiste Louis Frédéric de La Rochefoucauld de Roye (1707–1746), French naval commander
 * Jean-Dominique de La Rochefoucauld (1931–2011), French screenwriter and television director
 * Louis Alexandre de La Rochefoucauld d'Enville (1743–1792), French aristocrat and politician
 * Robert de La Rochefoucauld (1923–2012), French count and special operations executive

Places

 * La Rochefoucauld, Charente, a commune in the Charente département in France

title: La Rochefoucauld


text:
Pagoda

A pagoda is a tiered tower with multiple eaves common to Thailand, Cambodia, Nepal, China, Japan, Korea, Myanmar, Vietnam, and other parts of Asia. Most pagodas were built to have a religious function, most often Buddhist, but sometimes Taoist, and were often located in or near viharas. The pagoda traces its origins to the stupa, while its design was developed in ancient India. Chinese pagodas are a traditional part of Chinese architecture. In addition to religious use, since ancient times Chinese pagodas have been praised for the spectacular views they offer, and many classical poems attest to the joy of scaling pagodas.

The oldest and tallest pagodas were built of wood, but most that survived were built of brick or stone. Some pagodas are solid with no interior. Hollow pagodas have no higher floors or rooms, but the interior often contains an altar or a smaller pagoda, as well as a series of staircases for the visitor to climb to see the view from an opening on one side of each tier. Most have between three and 13 tiers (almost always an odd number) and the classic gradual tiered eaves.

In some countries, the term may refer to other religious structures. In Vietnam and Cambodia, due to French translation, the English term pagoda is a more generic term referring to a place of worship, although pagoda is not an accurate word to describe a Buddhist vihara. The architectural structure of the stupa has spread across Asia, taking on many diverse forms specific to each region. Many Philippine bell towers are highly influenced by pagodas through Chinese workers hired by the Spaniards.

Etymology
One proposed etymology is from a South Chinese pronunciation of the term for an eight-cornered tower,, and reinforced by the name of a famous pagoda encountered by many early European visitors to China, the "Pázhōu tǎ" , standing just south of Guangzhou at Whampoa Anchorage. Another proposed etymology is Persian butkada, from but, "idol" and kada, "temple, dwelling."

Yet another etymology is from the Sinhala word dāgaba, derived from Sanskrit dhātugarbha or Pali dhātugabbha: "relic womb/chamber" or "reliquary shrine", i.e. a stupa, by way of Portuguese.

History
The origin of the pagoda can be traced to the stupa (3rd century BCE). The stupa, a dome shaped monument, was used as a commemorative monument to house sacred relics and writings. In East Asia, the architecture of Chinese towers and Chinese pavilions blended into pagoda architecture, eventually also spreading to Southeast Asia. Their construction was popularized by the efforts of Buddhist missionaries, pilgrims, rulers, and ordinary devotees to honor Buddhist relics.

Japan has a total of 22 five-storied timber pagodas constructed before 1850.

China
The earliest styles of Chinese pagodas were square-base and circular-base, with octagonal-base towers emerging in the 5th–10th centuries. The highest Chinese pagoda from the pre-modern age is the Liaodi Pagoda of Kaiyuan Monastery, Dingxian, Hebei, completed in the year 1055 AD under Emperor Renzong of Song and standing at a total height of 84 m (275 ft). Although it no longer stands, the tallest pre-modern pagoda in Chinese history was the 100 m of Chang'an, built by Emperor Yang of Sui, and possibly the short-lived 6th century Yongning Pagoda (永宁宝塔) of Luoyang at roughly 137 metres. The tallest pre-modern pagoda still standing is the Liaodi Pagoda. In April 2007 a new wooden pagoda Tianning Temple of Changzhou was opened to the public, the tallest in China, standing 154 m (505 ft).

Symbolism and geomancy
Chinese iconography is noticeable in Chinese and other East Asian pagoda architectures. Also prominent is Buddhist iconography such as the image of the Shakyamuni and Gautama Buddha in the abhaya mudra. In an article on Buddhist elements in Han dynasty art, Wu Hung suggests that in these temples, Buddhist symbolism was fused with native Chinese traditions into a unique system of symbolism.

Some believed reverence at pagodas could bring luck to students taking the Chinese civil service examinations. When a pagoda of Yihuang County in Fuzhou collapsed in 1210, local inhabitants believed the disaster correlated with the recent failure of many exam candidates in the prefectural examinations The pagoda was rebuilt in 1223 and had a list inscribed on it of the recently successful examination candidates, in hopes that it would reverse the trend and win the county supernatural favor.

Architecture
Pagodas come in many different sizes, with taller ones often attracting lightning strikes, inspiring a tradition that the finial decoration of the top of the structure can seize demons. Today many pagodas have been fitted with wires making the finial into a lightning rod.

Wooden pagodas possess certain characteristics thought to resist earthquake damage. These include the friction damping and sliding effect of the complex wooden dougong joints, the structural isolation of floors, the effects of wide eaves analogous to a balancing toy, and the Shinbashira phenomenon that the center column is bolted to the rest of the superstructure.

Pagodas traditionally have an odd number of levels, a notable exception being the eighteenth-century orientalist pagoda designed by Sir William Chambers at Kew Gardens in London.

The pagodas in Himalayas are derived from Newari architecture, very different from Chinese and Japanese styles.

Wood
During the Southern and Northern dynasties, pagodas were mostly built of wood, as were other ancient Chinese structures. Wooden pagodas are resistant to earthquakes, and no Japanese pagoda has been destroyed by an earthquake, but they are prone to fire, natural rot, and insect infestation.

Examples of wooden pagodas:
 * White Horse Pagoda at White Horse Temple, Luoyang
 * Futuci Pagoda in Xuzhou, built in the Three Kingdoms period (c. 220–265)
 * Many of the pagodas in Stories About Buddhist Temples in Luoyang, a Northern Wei text

The literature of subsequent eras also provides evidence of the domination of wooden pagoda construction. The famous Tang dynasty poet, Du Mu, once wrote: 480 Buddhist temples of the Southern Dynasties, uncountable towers and pagodas stand in the misty rain.

The oldest standing fully wooden pagoda in China today is the Pagoda of Fugong Temple in Ying County, Shanxi, built in the 11th century during the Song/Liao dynasty (see Song architecture).

Transition to brick and stone
During the Northern Wei and Sui dynasties (386–618) experiments began with the construction of brick and stone pagodas. Even at the end of the Sui, however, wood was still the most common material. For example, Emperor Wen of the Sui dynasty (reigned 581–604) once issued a decree for all counties and prefectures to build pagodas to a set of standard designs, however since they were all built of wood none have survived. Only the Songyue Pagoda has survived, a circular-based pagoda built out of brick in 523 AD.

Brick
The earliest extant brick pagoda is the 40-metre-tall Songyue Pagoda in Dengfeng Country, Henan. This curved, circle-based pagoda was built in 523 during the Northern Wei dynasty, and has survived for 15 centuries. Much like the later pagodas found during the following Tang dynasty, this temple featured tiers of eaves encircling its frame, as well as a spire crowning the top. Its walls are 2.5 m thick, with a ground floor diameter of 10.6 m. Another early brick pagoda is the Sui dynasty Guoqing Pagoda built in 597.

Stone
The earliest large-scale stone pagoda is a Four Gates Pagoda at Licheng, Shandong, built in 611 during the Sui dynasty. Like the Songyue Pagoda, it also features a spire at its top, and is built in the pavilion style.

Brick and stone
One of the earliest brick and stone pagodas was a three-storey construction built in the (first) Jin dynasty (266–420), by Wang Jun of Xiangyang. However, it is now destroyed.

Brick and stone went on to dominate Tang, Song, Liao and Jin dynasty pagoda construction. An example is the Giant Wild Goose Pagoda (652 AD), built during the early Tang dynasty. The Porcelain Pagoda of Nanjing has been one of the most famous brick and stone pagoda in China throughout history. The Zhou dynasty started making the ancient pagodas about 3,500 years ago.

De-emphasis over time
Pagodas, in keeping with the tradition of the White Horse Temple, were generally placed in the center of temples until the Sui and Tang dynasties. During the Tang, the importance of the main hall was elevated and the pagoda was moved beside the hall, or out of the temple compound altogether. In the early Tang, Daoxuan wrote a Standard Design for Buddhist Temple Construction in which the main hall replaced the pagoda as the center of the temple.

The design of temples was also influenced by the use of traditional Chinese residences as shrines, after they were philanthropically donated by the wealthy or the pious. In such pre-configured spaces, building a central pagoda might not have been either desirable or possible.

In the Song dynasty (960–1279), the Chan (Zen) sect developed a new 'seven part structure' for temples. The seven parts—the Buddha hall, dharma hall, monks' quarters, depository, gate, pure land hall and toilet facilities—completely exclude pagodas, and can be seen to represent the final triumph of the traditional Chinese palace/courtyard system over the original central-pagoda tradition established 1000 years earlier by the White Horse Temple in 67. Although they were built outside of the main temple itself, large pagodas in the tradition of the past were still built. This includes the two Ming dynasty pagodas of Famen Temple and the Chongwen Pagoda in Jingyang of Shaanxi.

A prominent, later example of converting a palace to a temple is Beijing's Yonghe Temple, which was the residence of Yongzheng Emperor before he ascended the throne. It was donated for use as a lamasery after his death in 1735.

Han dynasty
Examples of Han dynasty era tower architecture predating Buddhist influence and the full-fledged Chinese pagoda can be seen in the four pictures below. Michael Loewe writes that during the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) period, multi-storied towers were erected for religious purposes, as astronomical observatories, as watchtowers, or as ornate buildings that were believed to attract the favor of spirits, deities, and immortals.

Sui and Tang
Pagodas built during the Sui and Tang dynasty usually had a square base, with a few exceptions such as the Daqin Pagoda:

Song, Liao, Jin, Yuan
Pagodas of the Five Dynasties, Northern and Southern Song, Liao, Jin, and Yuan dynasties incorporated many new styles, with a greater emphasis on hexagonal and octagonal bases for pagodas:

Ming and Qing
Pagodas in the Ming and Qing dynasties generally inherited the styles of previous eras, although there were some minor variations:

Notable pagodas
Tiered towers with multiple eaves:

 * Dâu Temple, Bắc Ninh, Vietnam, built in 187
 * Changu Narayan Temple, Bhaktapur, Nepal, originally built in 4th century CE, rebuilt in 1702
 * Pashupatinath Temple, Kathmandu, Nepal, built in the 5th century
 * Trấn Quốc Pagoda, Hanoi, Vietnam, built in 545
 * Songyue Pagoda on Mount Song, Henan, China, built in 523
 * Mireuksa at Iksan, Korea, built in the early 7th century
 * Bunhwangsa at Gyeongju, Korea, built in 634
 * Xumi Pagoda at Zhengding, Hebei, China, built in 636
 * Daqin Pagoda in China, built in 640
 * Hwangnyongsa Wooden nine-story pagoda on Hwangnyongsa, Gyeongju, Korea, built in 645
 * Pagoda at Hōryū-ji, Ikaruga, Nara, Japan, built in the 7th century, one of the oldest wooden buildings in the world
 * Giant Wild Goose Pagoda, made of brick, built in Xi'an, China in 704
 * Small Wild Goose Pagoda, built in Xi'an, China in 709
 * Seokgatap on Bulguksa, Gyeongju, South Korea, built in 751, made of granite. In 1966, the Mugujeonggwang Great Dharani Sutra, the oldest extant woodblock print, was found with several other treasures in the second story of this pagoda.
 * Dabotap on Bulguksa, Gyeongju, Korea, built in 751
 * Tiger Hill Pagoda, built in 961 outside of Suzhou, China
 * Lingxiao Pagoda at Zhengding, Hebei, China, built in 1045
 * Iron Pagoda of Kaifeng, built in 1049, during the Song dynasty
 * Liaodi Pagoda of Dingzhou, built in 1055 during the Song dynasty
 * Pagoda of Fogong Temple, built in 1056 in Ying County, Shanxi, China
 * Pizhi Pagoda of Lingyan Temple, Shandong, China, 11th century
 * Beisi Pagoda at Suzhou, Jiangsu, China, built in 1162
 * Liuhe Pagoda (Six Harmonies Pagoda) of Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China, built in 1165 during the Song dynasty
 * Ichijō-ji, Kasai, Hyōgo, Japan, built in 1171
 * Bình Sơn Pagoda of Vĩnh Khánh Temple, Vĩnh Phúc, Vietnam, built in the Trần dynasty (about the 13th century)
 * Phổ Minh pagoda of Phổ Minh Temple, Vietnam, built in 1305
 * Prashar Lake temple, dedicated to the Rishi Prashar, the patron of the Mandi region in India. The temple was constructed by Raja Ban Sen in the 14th century, with the rishi being present in the form of a pindi stone.
 * The Porcelain Tower of Nanjing, built between 1402 and 1424, a wonder of the medieval world in Nanjing, China.
 * Tsui Sing Lau Pagoda in Ping Shan, Hong Kong, built in 1486
 * Bajrayogini Temple, Kathmandu, Nepal, built in 16th century by Pratap Malla
 * Taleju Temple, a temple in Kathmandu, Nepal, built in 1564
 * Gokarneshwor Mahadev temple, Nepal, built in 1582
 * Pazhou Pagoda on Whampoa (Huangpu) Island, Guangzhou (Canton), China, built in 1600
 * Phước Duyên Pagoda of Thiên Mụ Temple, in Huế, Vietnam, built in 1844 on the order of the Thiệu Trị Emperor
 * Palsangjeon, a five-story pagoda at Beopjusa, Korea built in 1605
 * Tō-ji, the tallest wooden structure in Kyoto, Japan, built in 1644
 * Nyatapola at Bhaktapur, Kathmandu Valley built during 1701–1702
 * The Great Pagoda at Kew Gardens, London, UK, built in 1762
 * Reading Pagoda of Reading, Pennsylvania, built in 1908
 * Kek Lok Si's main pagoda in Penang, Malaysia, exhibits a combination of Chinese, Burmese and Thai Buddhist architecture, built in 1930
 * Seven-storey Pagoda in Chinese Garden at Jurong East, Singapore, built in 1975
 * Dragon and Tiger Pagodas in Kaohsiung, Taiwan, built in 1976
 * The pagoda of Japan Pavilion at Epcot, Florida, built in 1982
 * Pagoda of Tianning Temple, the tallest pagoda in the world since its completion in April 2007, stands at 153.7 m in height.
 * Nepalese Peace Pagoda in Brisbane, Australia built for the World Expo '88
 * Pagoda Avalokitesvara, Indonesia, tallest pagoda in Indonesia, stands at 45 meters, built in 2004.
 * Sun and Moon Pagodas in Guilin, Guangxi, China, twin pagodas on Shan Lake, originally built in the 10th century and reconstructed using historical description on the original foundation in 2001

Stupas called "pagodas":
 * Global Vipassana Pagoda, the largest unsupported domed stone structure in the world
 * Mingun Pahtodawgyi, a monumental uncompleted stupa began by King Bodawpaya in 1790. If completed, it would be the largest in the world at 150 meters.
 * Pha That Luang, the holiest wat, pagoda, and stupa in Laos, in Vientiane
 * Phra Pathommachedi the highest pagoda or stupa in Thailand Nakhon Pathom, Thailand
 * Shwedagon Pagoda, a 98 m gilded pagoda and stupa located in Yangon, Myanmar. It is the most sacred Buddhist pagoda for the Burmese with relics of the past four Buddhas enshrined within.
 * Shwezigon Pagoda in Nyaung-U, Myanmar. Completed during the reign of King Kyanzittha in 1102, it is a prototype of Burmese stupas.
 * Uppatasanti Pagoda, a 325-foot tall landmark in Naypyidaw, Myanmar, built from 2006 to 2009, which houses a Buddha tooth relic

Places called "pagoda" but which are not tiered structures with multiple eaves:
 * One Pillar Pagoda: Hanoi, Vietnam, is an icon of Vietnamese culture. It was built in 1049, destroyed, and rebuilt in 1954.

Structures that evoke pagoda architecture:

 * The Dragon House of Sanssouci Park, an eighteenth-century German attempt at imitating Chinese architecture
 * The Panasonic Pagoda, or Pagoda Tower, at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway. This 13-story pagoda, used as the control tower for races such as the Indy 500, has been transformed several times since it was first built in 1913.
 * Jin Mao Tower in Shanghai, built between 1994 and 1999
 * Petronas Towers in Kuala Lumpur, the tallest buildings in the world from 1998 to 2004
 * Taipei 101 in Taiwan, record setter for height (508 m) in 2004 and currently (2021) the world's tenth tallest completed building

Structures not generally thought of as pagodas, but which have some pagoda-like characteristics:
 * The Hall of Prayer for Good Harvests at the Temple of Heaven
 * Wongudan Altar in Korea

title: Pagoda


text:
Chedi

Chedi may refer to:

 * Chedi (เจดีย์), an alternative term for a Buddhist stupa, mainly used in Thailand
 * Cetiya, a sacred place or object in Buddhism, from which the above is derived
 * Chaitya, a shrine in Indic religions, cognate with the above
 * Chedi Kingdom, an early kingdom in central India
 * Cedī (tribe), an ancient Indian tribe
 * Chedi, U Thong, a subdistrict of U Thong District, Suphan Buri Province, Thailand

title: Chedi