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Joel Schumacher

Joel T. Schumacher (August 29, 1939 –June 22, 2020) was an American film director, producer and screenwriter. Raised in New York City by his mother, Schumacher graduated from Parsons School of Design and originally became a fashion designer. He first entered filmmaking as a production and costume designer before gaining writing credits on Car Wash, Sparkle, and The Wiz.

Schumacher received little attention for his first theatrically released films, The Incredible Shrinking Woman and D.C. Cab, but rose to prominence after directing St. Elmo's Fire, The Lost Boys, and The Client. Schumacher was selected to replace Tim Burton as director of the Batman franchise and oversaw Batman Forever and Batman & Robin. Later, after his career declined following the failure of Batman & Robin, a resurfaced Schumacher directed smaller-budgeted films, including Tigerland and Phone Booth. In 2004, he directed The Phantom of the Opera, which was released to mixed reviews. His final directorial work was two episodes of House of Cards.

Early life and education
Joel T. Schumacher was born on August 29, 1939, in New York City. His parents were Francis Schumacher, a Baptist from Knoxville, Tennessee, who died from pneumonia when Joel was four, and Marian (Kantor), a Swedish Jew. He was raised by his mother in Long Island City. During his youth, he used LSD and methamphetamine and started drinking alcohol by age nine. In 1965, he graduated from Parsons School of Design, after having studied at the Fashion Institute of Technology, and later became a designer for Revlon in 1966.

At the time of his mother's death in 1965, Schumacher stated that his "life seemed like a joke" as he was $50,000 in debt, lost multiple teeth, and only weighed 130 lb. However, in 1970, he stopped using drugs and became employed at Henri Bendel. He later stated that "I got my self-respect back getting a good day's pay for a good day's work."

Production designer
In 1972, Schumacher served as a costume designer for Play It as It Lays and designed the wardrobes of Dyan Cannon, Joan Hackett, and Raquel Welch for the film The Last of Sheila. In 1973, he served as a costume designer for Woody Allen's Sleeper, and Paul Mazursky's Blume in Love. In 1974, he served as the production designer of Killer Bees. He later served as a costume designer for The Time of the Cuckoo, The Prisoner of Second Avenue and Interiors.

Early filmmaking
In 1974, Schumacher wrote a script for an eponymous biographic made-for-television movie based on the life of Virginia Hill. He was selected to serve as the movie's director and started filming on September 9.

In 1974, he and Howard Rosenman wrote the script for Sparkle which later went into production in 1975, and was released in 1976. His original plan for the film was for the film to be a "black Gone with the Wind", but had to be modest due to the limited budget given to the production by Warner Bros. According to Schumacher the film represented his "personal fascination" with Jesse Jackson, Angela Davis, Tammi Terrell, and Diana Ross. He was later selected to write the screenplays for Car Wash and The Wiz.

In 1978, Schumacher was selected to serve as the director of Amateur Night at the Dixie Bar and Grill which was later released in 1979. On January 31, 1980, he submitted a script for A Chorus Line, but the film underwent rewrites in development hell.

In 1979, he was selected to serve as the director of The Incredible Shrinking Woman, his first theatrically released film, to replace John Landis, who had left after Universal Pictures had reduced the film's budget. In 1981, the film was released to negative reviews, and was a box office bomb. The film was initially given a $30 million budget, but it was reduced to $11–13 million although it would later rise to over $20 million due to the cost of special effects.

In 1983, he directed D.C. Cab starring Mr. T, but later stated that he only worked on the film as he needed a job.

St. Elmo's Fire and The Lost Boys
In 1984, Schumacher was selected by Columbia Pictures to direct St. Elmo's Fire and was secretive during the production of the film. In 1987, he directed The Lost Boys. Both films were successful among young people and were his first major critical and commercial successes.

Following The Lost Boys, Schumacher directed Cousins (a remake of the French film Cousin Cousine), Flatliners, Dying Young, Falling Down, and The Client.

Batman
Schumacher was selected by Warner Bros. in 1993 to replace Tim Burton as the director of the Batman franchise. He directed Batman Forever, which was a stylistic departure from Burton's Batman and Batman Returns. Batman Forever was released to mixed reviews, but was more financially successful than Batman Returns.

He later directed Batman & Robin, which was rushed into production following Batman Forever and was intentionally made toyetic and light-hearted to appeal to children and sell merchandise. The film was released to largely negative reviews and did not perform as well at the box-office as any of its predecessors, causing a planned sequel, Batman Unchained, to be cancelled. Schumacher later approached Warner Bros. to pitch concepts for a new Batman movie which were inspired by Frank Miller's graphic novels Batman: Year One and The Dark Knight Returns, but due to the box-office bomb of Batman & Robin, along with the negative impact that the film had on his reputation, Warner Bros. refused to let him develop another Batman film. Schumacher later apologized for the quality of Batman & Robin in 2017.

It was alleged that Schumacher, a gay man, had added homoerotic elements to the film with the most prominent being the rubber nipples, codpieces, and close-up camera shots of Batman and Robin's buttocks. Schumacher stated that the designs of the suits had been based on anatomically correct Greek statues and medical drawings. However, George Clooney, who played Batman in the film, said in 2005 that Schumacher told him that Batman was gay.

Later career
Following Batman & Robin Schumacher directed 8mm, Flawless, Tigerland, Bad Company, Phone Booth, Veronica Guerin, The Phantom of the Opera, The Number 23, Blood Creek, Twelve, and Trespass.

In August 2008, Schumacher directed the music video for American rock band Scars on Broadway, for their single "World Long Gone".

In 2013, he directed two episodes of the television series House of Cards.

Personal life and death
Schumacher described himself as "extremely promiscuous", saying in a 2019 interview that he became sexually active at age eleven, and estimating that he had sex with between 10,000 and 20,000 men over the course of his life. Schumacher said the first person he knew who died from the AIDS epidemic, in 1983, "was not promiscuous", leading Schumacher to believe he would die soon after, recalling that he thought at the time, "If he has it, I must have it quadrupled [...] I was sure I had it, I was planning my death", though he never contracted the disease.

In 1984, Schumacher purchased the horse stables that had belonged to Rudolph Valentino from Doris Duke.

Schumacher donated to Democratic Party candidates, including multiple congressional campaigns as well as John Kerry's 2004 presidential campaign.

On June 22, 2020, Schumacher died from cancer. Following his death, he was praised by Jim Carrey as well as Matthew McConaughey who credited Schumacher with launching his career.

Filmmaking credits
Executive producer
 * The Babysitter (1995)
 * Gossip (2000)

title: Joel Schumacher


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Sydney Trains M set

The Sydney Trains M sets, also referred to as the Millennium trains, are a class of electric multiple units that operate on the Sydney Trains network. Built by EDi Rail between 2002 and 2005, the first sets initially entered service under the CityRail brand on 1 July 2002 after short delays due to electrical defects. The M sets were built as "fourth generation" trains for Sydney's suburban rail fleet, replacing the 1960s Tulloch carriages and providing extra capacity on the suburban rail network. The sets currently operate on the T2 Inner West & Leppington, T3 Bankstown, T5 Cumberland, T7 Olympic Park and T8 Airport & South lines.

Design
The Millennium train, like the entire Sydney Trains fleet and electric NSW TrainLink fleet, is a double decker. It is a four car consist, with the middle two cars being non-control motor cars and the two outer cars being driving control trailer cars fitted with the pantograph. The Millennium train was the first to be equipped with an AC drive system unlike the Tangara, which has a DC drive system. The sets usually operate in eight-car formations with two four-car sets combined. While the Millennium train concept is an evolution of the Tangara concept (manufactured by A Goninan & Co), the Millennium train introduced new features such as internal electronic destination indicators, automated digital voice announcements for upcoming stops, a return to reversible seating, surveillance cameras, wider stairways, a new safety yellow colour scheme, and push-button opened internal doors. The Millennium Train also introduced crumple zones to absorb impact in a collision. Interiors were designed by Transport Design International.

The train also features emergency help points, allowing passengers to contact the train crew in an emergency. The help points are located on the sides of the stairwell to the upper deck. There are actually two help points in the same location, with a large one at face height with a microphone and speaker, and a lower one with a microphone only. There are also emergency door releases which were retrofitted to the trains. These allow passengers to manually open the doors in an emergency, as recommended in the report for the Waterfall rail accident. The retrofit program was stated as having been completed in November 2014.

Like with the T, A and B sets, the M sets feature Scharfenberg couplers.

M sets are 3.03 m wide, being classed by Transport for NSW as medium width trains, which allows them to operate within the whole Sydney Trains suburban network.

Unlike sets M2–M35, set M1 has a slightly different interior design with differently coloured doors and different seat handles for unknown reasons.

Delivery

The cars were constructed by EDi Rail at Cardiff Workshops. The contract included a 15-year maintenance agreement with EDi Rail to maintain the trains at a specialised maintenance centre at Eveleigh. During testing and initial revenue service, they ran as four car sets, with eight car sets commencing service towards the end of 2002 after further testing. All 35 four car sets were delivered by October 2005.

The initial order signed in October 1998 was for 81 carriages, in December 2002 an option was taken up for an additional 60. In February 2017, Sydney Trains exercised an option to extend Downer's maintenance of the trains for a further 10 years.

Criticisms
The Millennium trains were criticised for having several technical problems and causing problems with Sydney Trains, they were referred to in the media reports as The "Mi-lemon" and "Millenni-Bug" as a result. Some of the problems were caused by insufficient power supply on the overhead to cope with the power demands of the more technologically advanced trains causing them to shut down. Software bugs also contributed to the trains' poor reliability.

The Millennium trains were withdrawn from service in April 2003 while the problems were being rectified and a full audit was carried out. They were subsequently reintroduced into service in June 2003 and have since been operating on the T2 Inner West & Leppington, T3 Bankstown, T6 Carlingford, T7 Olympic Park and T8 Airport & South lines. After the new timetable was released on 26 November 2017, M sets began as 4-car services on the T5 Cumberland line on both weekdays & weekends, along with a few 8-car Waratahs.

External Carriage Camera Trial
In late 2008, two Millennium trains were fitted with external cameras atop of carriages near the doors, testing their use for the then-future Waratah trains. These cameras were subsequently incorporated into the final design of the Waratah train.

Lines serviced
The Millennium trains typically operate on the following lines (normally described as Sector 2):
 * T2 Inner West & Leppington Line: Leppington or Parramatta to City Circle via Granville
 * T3 Bankstown Line: Liverpool or Lidcombe to City Circle via Bankstown
 * T5 Cumberland Line: Leppington to Richmond
 * T7 Olympic Park Line: Shuttle from Lidcombe to Olympic Park on weekdays
 * T8 Airport & South Line: Macarthur to City Circle via Airport or Sydenham

Maintenance Depots
The trains were originally maintained at Eveleigh Maintenance Centre.

As with all other trains, these trains are not exclusively kept in Auburn overnight. They only need to return to the depot for maintenance, and at other times, they may be stabled at various yards on the lines that they operate, such as Liverpool and Leppington yards.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Sydney Trains M set


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Sydney Trains T set

The T sets, also referred to as the Tangara trains, are a class of electric multiple units that currently operate on the Sydney Trains network. Built by A Goninan & Co, the sets entered service between 1988 and 1995, initially under the State Rail Authority and later on CityRail. The T sets were built as "third-generation" trains for Sydney's rail fleet, coinciding with the final withdrawals of the "Red Rattler" sets from service in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The Tangaras were initially built as two classes; the long-distance G sets and the suburban T sets, before being merged after successive refurbishments.

Design
The Tangara is a double-deck four-car set, with the two outer cars being driving control trailers (carrying a D prefix) that are fitted with one pantograph each and the middle two cars being non-control motor cars (carrying an N prefix). All sets are equipped with chopper control.

Unlike most other Sydney Trains rolling stock, the seats on the suburban T sets are fixed, meaning that half the seats face backwards. Former G sets, however, do have reversible seats.

Initial delivery
In July 1986, the Government of New South Wales awarded A Goninan & Co a contract for 450 carriages for $530 million. In 1993, it was decided that the last 80 carriages of the order would be built to a modified design to operate peak-hour services to Wyong, Port Kembla and Dapto. In 1996, five spare driving trailers were ordered.

The Tangara name is of Aboriginal origin, meaning to go.

Two subclasses of Tangara were built, the suburban sets targeted as T sets, and outer-suburban sets originally targeted as G sets. The T sets replaced the first generation of Sydney's electric rolling stock.

The G sets differed from the T sets in originally having manual door buttons, high-backed reversible seats, toilets, fresh water dispensers and luggage racks. Additionally, the G sets were delivered with a revised design at the front and rear of the train, notably an angular cutout in the bottom of their noses. Additionally, the pinstriped grey panels below the cab windows were replaced with light orange panels for improved visibility. All T sets have a number plate below a hundred while all G sets are numbered at or above The first train (set T20) was unveiled at Sydney Central in December 1987, heavily promoted as the "train of the 21st century", operating a promotional service on 28 January 1988 targeted as TAN1, and entering regular service on 12 April 1988. The final T set (set T59, formerly T92) was delivered in February 1994 and the final G set (set T100, formerly G32) in October 1995.

The cars built were: Set G7 was fitted with an AC drive system for evaluation purposes with the existing DC stock and compatibility with signalling and communication systems on the network. G7 was scrapped in 2005 at Maintrain, Auburn after the Waterfall rail accident, as all four cars were beyond repair.
 * T set driving trailer cars: D6101-D6284 with additional spare cars D6285-D6289
 * T set non-driving motor cars: N5101-N5284 with additional spare car N5285
 * G set driving trailer cars: OD6801-OD6840 with additional spare car OD6841
 * G set non-driving motor cars: ON5801-ON5820
 * G set non-driving motor cars with toilet: ONL5851-ONL5870

Upgrades in the early 2000s
When first introduced, the T sets were fitted with passenger door release handles to prevent loss of air conditioning at stations. These were later disconnected (and later removed) due to passengers not getting used to opening the doors for themselves when needed. The seats originally had fabric upholstery, but this was gradually replaced by blue vinyl.

In the early 2000s, all Tangaras were updated with a new CityRail corporate appearance. This involved painting the passenger doors and much of the front and rear ends of the trains yellow. Blue and yellow stripes along the bottom of the carriages were replaced by a single yellow stripe and updated CityRail logos were placed on the driving cars.

In late 2005, 15 V set carriages were suddenly withdrawn due to the discovery of corrosion in their underframes. G sets began to operate more off-peak Intercity services to Port Kembla, Kiama, and Wyong to cover for the withdrawn V sets. H sets started entering service in December 2006. The newer trains feature a very similar level of passenger amenity to the G sets and can be seen as a continuation of the design. Their introduction lead to a change in the role of the G sets. From 2007, the G sets were progressively redeployed to suburban services, providing extra capacity on high-demand existing services such as on the Western line and allowing new services to be introduced. By 2008, G sets were often used on peak suburban services that extended into intercity areas, such as services to Springwood (via the Western line).

Conversion of G sets to T sets
In 2009, the conversion of G sets to T sets began, to improve their suitability for suburban working as H sets took over their outer suburban duties. Conversion work consisted of the removal of toilets and their replacement with additional seating. Other work included the installation of new handrails and hangers and the recoding of cars and sets. The carriage numbers were kept, however the O (outer suburban) prefix was dropped. OD became D, while ONL and ON became N. The set numbers were reclassified from G1-30 to T100-130. G4 was the first to be converted (into T104). In 2010, sets being converted started receiving a full interior refurbishment as part of the program to refurbish all the Tangara carriages. In 2018, sets T14 and T121 (ex G21) both became mixtures of T set and ex-G set carriages, with both sets swapping two carriages with each other.

Upgrades in the 2010s
In 2010, a refresh of the Tangaras commenced with the interiors repainted, and new seat moquette and handrails fitted.

In July 2013, Sydney Trains trialled rearranging the seating on the upper and lower decks of two carriages. There were 16 fewer seats per carriage; 3x2 seats were replaced by 2x2 seats in one carriage (N5134 on set T78) while in the other carriage (N5131 on set T77) there are double seats on one side and a bench style seating on the other. Both carriages were later returned to the normal 3x2 arrangement.

In 2014, phase one of a technology upgrade program, aiming to improve reliability and upgrade ageing components, was underway. A contract for phase two of the program, aiming to extend the life of these trains and bring technology into line with newer trains was awarded to UGL Limited in August 2015. This was expected to be completed by July 2018. The expected completion date was revised to 2019, however as of February 2023 only 2 sets have entered service with the second phase upgrades.

The first phase of the program involved upgrading the passenger doors to cut down on vandalism, as the steel panels on the original doors were prone to being kicked out by vandals. The door kicking incidents often led to unnecessary delays as the guard had to lock off the affected carriage. The new lightweight passenger doors have a similar design to the doors on the M sets. This phase of the project was completed at the end of July 2016. The first set to receive the new doors was T96, in October 2014.

The second phase of the program was initially set to include destination indicators and digital voice announcements, which were installed in T72 and T106, were not installed in other sets due to delays and issues with the DVA system. The upgrade still went ahead however, with vestibules given modifications including marked priority seating and Automatic Train Protection (ATP). The first sets with this revised phase 2 upgrade, T52 and T73, re-entered service on 12 November 2021. As of 26 February 2022, sixteen sets have entered service with the upgrade.

The program includes overhauling air conditioning units, Static Inverter upgrades, and modifications to the Driver's desk/cab.

Other anti-vandal improvements included the introduction of 'Mousetrap' sensors. Trialed in 2015, these sensors are able to detect vapors from strong permanent markers and spray paint; triggering an in-built camera feed which is relayed to Sydney Trains staff as well as the Police Transport Command. They were then installed in most converted G sets.

Upgrades in the 2020s
On 5 June 2024, it was announced the Tangaras would be receiving a life extension to enable operation until at least 2036. The upgrades will see upgrades to the doors, train operating system, and improved disability access and passenger information systems.

Lines serviced
The Tangaras usually operate on the following lines:
 * T1 North Shore & Western Line: Emu Plains to City via Parramatta, City to Berowra or Hornsby via Gordon
 * T4 Eastern Suburbs & Illawarra Line: Bondi Junction to Waterfall & Cronulla via Hurstville & Sutherland
 * T7 Olympic Park Line: Lidcombe to Olympic Park
 * T9 Northern Line: Gordon to Hornsby via Strathfield
 * South Coast Line: Waterfall & Thirroul to Port Kembla

Since 2013, their operation on Sector 2 has ended timetable services with all of them being displaced to Sector 1 since A sets do not operate on that sector.

Wentworthville derailment
Driving trailer car D6127 and motor car N5127 were both involved in the Wentworthville train derailment on 27 December 1989, the first major accident involving the Tangara fleet. D6127 was written off, having collided with the platform. N5127 was sent to Dunheved on the Ropes Creek line for training fire fighters, along with S Set car C3866.

Vineyard collision
On 10 February 1994, set T99 travelling from Richmond towards Blacktown collided with a van at the level crossing at Vineyard. The first 3 cars derailed in a zig-zag format, starting a nearby grassfire.

Unanderra derailment
On 24 January 2009 at 2:35 AM, set G4 (now T104) was departing from Unanderra towards Wollongong and derailed due to the train passing a signal at Danger, and the catch-points derailing the train to avoid a collision with a freight train. The first 2 cars and the front bogie of the third car derailed and stopped safely 50 metres from the signal. Subsequently because of this incident, G4 was the first G set to undergo conversion to suburban T set T104.

Carriage pierced by guard rail
During evening peak on 15 January 2014, motor car N5222 on set T10 was pierced by a guard rail near Edgecliff railway station while on a service to Cronulla. Issues with the train were already developing on the previous run, triggering wheelslip sensors on the train multiple times. As the train entered the Eastern Suburbs Line, a strong burning smell was reported at several stations. It was later revealed that an incorrectly repaired axle on N5222 led to the force of the 440-tonne train picking up the piece of guard rail.

Kembla Grange derailment
On 20 October 2021 at 4:09 AM, Tangara set T42 derailed near Kembla Grange station on a level crossing. It was caused by a motor vehicle that was stolen and driven up the rail corridor near the railway crossing. Car D6212 fell onto its side and car N5212 also derailed, while cars N5211 and D6211 did not derail and only had minor damage. There were no serious passenger injuries or deaths as a result of this incident, however two passengers, as well as the guard and the driver, were hospitalised to be checked. The Driver was badly injured during the rollover of the Driver trailer carriage. T sets usually don't operate through Kembla Grange, however due to industrial action on the day of the incident banning the usual H sets, they were used.

4D

A train bearing strong resemblance to a Tangara, known as the 4D, was built by A Goninan & Co in 1991 for the Public Transport Corporation. Although outwardly similar to the Tangaras it was mechanically very different being built to be compatible with the Comeng trains operated in Melbourne. It was included in the sale of Hillside Trains to Connex Melbourne in August 1999. It wasn't successful and after spending large periods out of service, being withdrawn in December 2002 and stored at Newport Workshops. The 4D was bought by CityRail for parts and then scrapped in March 2006 by them at Sims Metal, Brooklyn, Victoria. The G sets' cab ends have a design similar to the 4D, with the bottom part being bent inwards.

title: Sydney Trains T set


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User:RPG Advocate

Owner of the now defunct site phylomortis.com.

User claimed many times to have been the original translator or RPG Maker 2003.

He really is the original translator of RPG Maker 2003 and is a god for doing so.

He is not a god for doing so. RPG Maker 2003 is trash. RPG Advocate is one of the worst people on the planet.

title: User:RPG Advocate


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Headland (disambiguation)

A headland is a point of land, usually high and often with a sheer drop, that extends out into a body of water.

Headland or Headlands can also refer to:
 * headLand, an Australian television series
 * Headland (agriculture), the area at each end of a planted field used for turning farm machinery
 * Headland, Alabama, a small city in the US
 * Headland, Hartlepool, a civil parish in County Durham, UK
 * Headlands Center for the Arts, in California, US
 * Headlands Beach State Park, in Ohio, US
 * Headlands Technologies, an American quantitative trading firm
 * Headlands, Zimbabwe, a village in the province of Manicaland, Zimbabwe
 * Headlands (constituency), a parliamentary constituency in Zimbabwe
 * The Headlands, a county park in Michigan

People

 * Des Headland (born 1981), Australian rules footballer
 * Isaac Taylor Headland (1859–1942), American sinologist
 * Leslye Headland (born 1980), American playwright, screenwriter, and director

title: Headland (disambiguation)


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Harmony, Maryland

Harmony is an unincorporated community in Caroline County, Maryland, United States. It is little more than an intersection of state Routes 16 and 578 on Maryland's Eastern Shore. Its original name was Fowling Creek, named after a stream nearby that is a tributary of the Choptank River.

Harmony was the scene of a murder in 1895.

There is a small country store with one gas pump, a church, a local produce stand, and farmland. While many of the farmers in the area are of German descent as can be seen in last names such as Mueller, Kraus, Thomas, Steenken, and Worm; they settled after the Civil War, filling the void of the men lost in the war. The older families of Towers, Todd, and Wyddel were the original settlers who came from England in the early eighteenth century, as can be confirmed from the original patents granted to them one of which is Wyddels Venture, the oldest century farm in the county. These names can be seen on the 1875 Map of Caroline County.

The soil is sandy and requires irrigation. There are many cash crops grown such as sweet corn, cantaloupes, tomatoes and squash. Some farms also have chicken houses as a second means of income.

title: Harmony, Maryland


text:
Ginza Rabba

The Ginza Rabba, Ginza Rba, or Sidra Rabba , and formerly the Codex Nasaraeus, is the longest and the most important holy scripture of Mandaeism.

The Ginza Raba is composed of two parts: the Right Ginza (GR) and the Left Ginza (GL). The GR is composed of eighteen tractates and covers a variety of themes and topics, whereas the three tractates that make up the GL are unified in their focus on the fate of the soul after death. The GL is also occasionally referred to as the Book of Adam.

Language and authorship
The language used is Classical Mandaic, a variety of Eastern Aramaic written in the Mandaic script (Parthian chancellory script), similar to the Syriac script. The authorship is unknown, and dating is a matter of debate, with estimates ranging from the first to third centuries. Determining date and authorship is complicated by the late date of the earliest manuscripts, the potentially lengthy oral transmission of Mandaean religious texts prior to their being written, and that conclusions about the dating of some tractates or one either GR or GL may not carry over for material elsewhere in the Ginza.

Dating
The date of Mandaean texts remains hotly contested. Even within the scope of the Ginza Rabba, the GL and GR are separate compositions with separate dates, making the Ginza Rabba a composite text of diverse origins. Furthermore, the individual tractates within these collections appear to have separate origins by virtue of their distinct genre, grammar, and according to their colophon evidence. The GL has its own colophon, as do the first thirteen tractates of the GR. Each from the fourteenth through eighteenth subsequent tractates have their own colophons. The current form and final compilation of the Ginza as a whole must come from Islamic times as it contains numerous references to Muhammad, the Islamic conquests, and related.

Left Ginza
In 1949, Torgny Säve-Söderbergh argued that the third-century Coptic Manichaean Psalms of Thomas depend on the Left Ginza, A recent re-evaluation suggests instead that both sources derived their shared material from a common source, perhaps Elcesaite poetry.

In 1965, Rudolph Macuch argued for a third century date on the basis of a tradition saying Zazai of Gawazta copied important Mandaean texts 368 years prior to the Arab conquest of Iraq c. 640, or 272. However, this tradition, extant from one manuscript, only refers to an unspecified year of the hijri calendar and not the point in time before 640. This means that 272 is the earliest possible date if the very first hijri year is being referenced, though later dates are not excluded. The number 368 itself may be invented.

Book of Kings (GR 18)
GR 18, also known as the Book of Kings, says that "after the Persian kings there will be Arabian kings. They will reign seventy-one years." Starting with Theodor Nöldeke, historians have widely interpreted this as a reference to the Islamic-era Arab rulers, and so have dated GR 18 to the Islamic era. Recently, Häberl has argued from the colophons and external references that GR 18s dates to the rule of Lakhmid Arab kings in the pre-Islamic period. The latter is argued to place GR 18, separately from the rest of the Ginza Rabba, in the hands of a copyist at one point named Ennoš b. Danqā who appears to have worked in the mid-7th century, implying the text is no later than ~650. The Arab kings reigning for 71 years are identified to be the Lakhmid kings starting with Al-Mundhir III ibn al-Nu'man, installed into power in 531 by Khosrow I (r. 531–579), to Khosrow II who deposed Al-Nu'man III ibn al-Mundhir in 602. To supplement this observation, Häberl points to the absence of Arabic language on or explicit references to Islam in GR 18 unlike later Mandaean texts. The final Sassanid ruler mentioned by the text is interpreted to be Kavad II, who ruled until 628, roughly giving the date soon after which the text entered its current form. Häberl offers the following chronology for the events mentioned in GR 18, alongside the earlier chronology implied by Nöldeke's work.

Other tractates
An Islamic-era date for several tractates of the Right Ginza is evident from various references to Muhammad or Islam:
 * The first tractate (GR 1) refers to Muhammad by the name of "Ahmad" (a common name for Muhammad in Mandaean literature) as the son of a sorcerer named Bizbat.
 * GR 2 claims that faith will disappear from the world after the coming of the Arab prophet Muhammad.
 * GR 7 uses the name Yahyā for John, which is the form of the name John that appears in the Quran. However, Häberl has argued that the use of this name is known in pre-Islamic Arabic text and so its presence does not conclusively argue for an Islamic-era dating.
 * GR 9 speaks of how the Arab "Abdallah" (Muhammad) was given by Ruha "the book and discourse" around which he rallies servants and takes over and sacks the world.

The Ginza may have been composed, at least partially, as a response to the Arab conquests, along with other pieces of Mandaean literature such as the Mandaean Book of John, and a study of the colophons of the Ginza date the emergence of the text to the second half of the seventh century.

Structure
The Ginza Rabba is divided into two parts – the Right Ginza, containing 18 books, and the Left Ginza, containing 3 books. In Mandaic studies, the Right Ginza is commonly abbreviated as GR, while the Left Ginza is commonly abbreviated as GL. Alternatively, sometimes the Right Ginza is abbreviated as GY after the Mandaic Ginza Yamin, while the Left Ginza is commonly abbreviated as GS after the Mandaic Ginza Smal.

Ginza Rabba codices traditionally contain the Right Ginza on one side, and, when turned upside-down and back to front, contain the Left Ginza (the Left Ginza is also called "The Book of the Dead"). The Right Ginza part of the Ginza Rabba contains sections dealing with theology, creation, ethics, historical, and mythical narratives; its six colophons reveal that it was last redacted in the early Islamic Era. The Left Ginza section of Ginza Rabba deals with man's soul in the afterlife; its colophon reveals that it was redacted for the last time hundreds of years before the Islamic Era.

There are various manuscript versions that differ from each other. The versions order chapters differently from each other, and textual content also differs.

Contents
The Ginza Rabba is a compilation of various oral teachings and written texts, most predating their editing into the two volumes. It includes literature on a wide variety of topics, including liturgy and hymns, theological texts, didactic texts, as well as both religious and secular poetry.

For a comprehensive listing of summaries of each chapter in the Ginza Rabba, see the articles Right Ginza and Left Ginza.

Manuscript versions
Manuscript versions of the Ginza include the following. Two are held in the Bodleian Library at Oxford, three in the British Library in London, four in the Bibliothèque nationale de France in Paris, and others are in private ownership. All extant manuscripts of the Ginza appear to derive from a few copies that were produced around 1500.

 * Bodleian Library manuscripts
 * DC 22 (copied by Ram Zihrun in 1831)
 * Huntington Ms. 6 (copied by Adam Paraš in 1615)
 * British Library manuscripts catalogued under the same title, Liber Adami Mendaice
 * Add. 23,599 (copied by female priests during the 1700s)
 * Add. 23,600 (copied by Yahya Bihram bar Adam, of the Manduia and ‛Kuma clans, in 1735-6, who also copied Paris Ms. D)
 * Add. 23,601 (copied by Adam Yuhana bar Sam in 1824)
 * Paris manuscripts, Bibliothèque nationale de France (consulted by Lidzbarski for his 1925 German translation)
 * Paris Ms. A (copied by Ram Baktiar in 1560)
 * Paris Ms. B (copied by Baktiar Bulbul in 1632; also called the "Norberg version," since it was used by Norberg during the early 1800s)
 * Paris Ms. C (copied by Yahya Adam in 1680)
 * Paris Ms. D (copied by Yahya Bihram in the early 1700s)

For his 1925 German translation of the Ginza, Lidzbarski also consulted other Ginza manuscripts that were held at Leiden (complete) and Munich (fragmentary).

Jorunn Jacobsen Buckley has also found Ginza manuscripts that are privately held by Mandaeans in the United States. Two are in San Diego, California, which belong to Lamea Abbas Amara; they were originally copied by Mhatam Zihrun (Sheikh Dakhil Aidan) in 1935, and by a copyist named Adam (Sheikh Aidan, father of Dakhil) in 1886, respectively. One is in Flushing, New York, which belonged to Nasser Sobbi (1924–2018) and was originally copied by Adam Zihrun in 1928. Another one is in Lake Grove, New York and belongs to Mamoon Aldulaimi, which was originally given to him by Sheikh Abdullah, son of Sheikh Negm and was copied by Yahya Ram Zihrun in 1940. A version of the Ginza by Mhatam Yuhana was also used by Carlos Gelbert in his 2011 English translation of the Ginza. Another manuscript known to Gelbert is a privately owned Ginza manuscript in Ahvaz belonging to Shaikh Abdullah Khaffaji, the grandson of Ram Zihrun.

Printed versions of the Ginza in Mandaic include:
 * Norberg version (Mandaic): A printed Ginza in Mandaic was published by Matthias Norberg in 1816. Based on Code Sabéen 2 (Paris Ms. B). It was republished by Gorgias Press in 2007.
 * Petermann version (Mandaic): In 1867, Julius Heinrich Petermann published Mandaic and Syriac transcriptions of the Ginza Rabba. His work was based on four different Ginza manuscripts held at Paris, and relied most heavily on MS Paris A (also known as Code Sabéen 1). Only 100 copies were printed, 13 of which Petermann kept himself. A three-volume set of Petermann's work was republished by Gorgias Press in 2007.
 * Mubaraki version (Mandaic, also in Roman script): The full Ginza Rba in printed Mandaic script, compiled primarily from the Mhatam Zihrun br rbai Adam manuscript from Iraq (copied in 1898), was first published by Majid Fandi al-Mubaraki, Haitham Mahdi Saed (also known as Brikha Nasoraia), and Brian Mubaraki in Sydney, Australia in March 1998 during Parwanaya. Two other Ginza versions were also consulted, including one copied by Ram Zihrun in Šuštar in 1843, and another one by Sam bar Zihrun, from the Manduia and ‛Kuma clans. A Roman transliteration of the entire Ginza Rba was also published in 1998 by Majid Fandi Al-Mubaraki and Brian Mubaraki.  At present, there are two published Mandaic-language editions of the Ginza published by Mandaeans themselves. The Concordance of the Mandaean Ginza Rba was published by Brian Mubaraki and Majid Fandi Al-Mubaraki in 2004.
 * Gelbert version (Mandaic, in Arabic script; derived from the Mhatam Yuhana version): The full Mhatam Yuhana Ginza manuscript from Ahvaz, Iran was transcribed in Arabic script by Carlos Gelbert in 2021. As the fourth edition of the Gelbert's Arabic Ginza, Gelbert (2021) contains an Arabic translation side by side with the Mandaic transcription.
 * Al-Sabti version (Mandaic): In 2022, Rbai Rafid al-Sabti published a printed Mandaic version of the Ginza Rabba based on a comparison of 22 manuscripts. The Al-Sabti Ginza contains 157 chapters, 602 pages, 111,684 words, and 560,825 letters.

Translations
Notable translations and printed versions of the Ginza Rabba include:

 * Norberg version (Latin, 1816): From 1815 to 1816, Matthias Norberg published a Latin translation of the Ginza Rabba, titled Codex Nasaraeus liber Adami appellatus (3 volumes). The original Mandaic text, based on MS Paris B, was also printed alongside the Latin translation.
 * Lidzbarski version (German, 1925): In 1925, Mark Lidzbarski published the German translation Der Ginza oder das grosse Buch der Mandäer. Lidzbarski translated an edition of the Ginza by Julius Heinrich Petermann from the 1860s, which in turn relied upon four different Ginza manuscripts held at Paris. Lidzbarski was also able to include some material from a fifth Ginza which was held at Leiden.
 * Baghdad version (Arabic, abridged, 2001): An Arabic version of the Ginza Rabba, similar to that of the Al-Saadi (Drabsha) version, was first published in Baghdad in 2001.
 * Al-Saadi (Drabsha) version (English, abridged, 2012): Under the official auspices of the Mandaean spiritual leadership, Drs. Qais Al-Saadi and Hamed Al-Saadi published an English translation of the Ginza Rabba: The Great Treasure in 2012. In 2019, the second edition was published by Drabsha in Germany. The translation, endorsed by the Mandaean rishamas Salah Choheili (Salah Jabbar Tawos) and Sattar Jabbar Hilo, is designed for contemporary use by the Mandaean community and is based on an Arabic translation of the Ginza Rabba that was published in Baghdad. However, it has been criticized for being overly abridged and paraphrased.
 * Gelbert version (English translation in 2011; Arabic translation in 2021): The first full English translation of the Ginza Rba was published by Carlos Gelbert in 2011, with the collaboration of Mark J. Lofts and other editors. It is mostly based on the Mhatam Yuhana Ginza Rba from Iran (transcribed in the late 1990s and published in 2004 under the supervision of Mhatam Yuhana, the ganzibra or head-priest of the Mandaean Council of Ahvaz in Iran) and also on Mark Lidzbarski's 1925 German translation of the Ginza. Gelbert's 2011 edition is currently the only full-length English translation of the Ginza that contains detailed commentary, with extensive footnotes and many original Mandaic phrases transcribed in the text. An Arabic translation (fourth edition) of the Ginza was also published by Gelbert in 2021, with the book also containing the original Mandaic text transcribed in Arabic script.

Häberl (2022) is a translation of the Book of Kings, the final book of the Right Ginza.

In 2021 (1400 A.H.), Salem Choheili completed a Persian translation of the Ginza Rabba.

title: Ginza Rabba


text:
Hong Kong tea culture

The tea-drinking habits of Hong Kong residents derive from Chinese tea culture, primarily the Cantonese traditions such as yum cha. Because of Hong Kong's period as a British colony, Hong Kong tea culture is distinct from the tea culture of the mainland. The uniqueness of its tea culture applies both to the tea itself, and also the underlying social and cultural values.

History of Teahouses in Hong Kong
The first teahouse in Hong Kong was established at the end of the 19th century. At that time people bought tea leaves from tea houses so that they could serve tea to visiting guests. Tea would be brewed at the beginning of the day and would be served as guests arrived during the day. At night, the remaining tea would be poured away. They did this whether or not visitors actually arrived. This gave rise to the idiom "Tea is for pouring away."

In contemporary society, Hong Kong people buy tea at teahouses not only for serving their guests, but also for themselves.

Tea Packing in Hong Kong
Tea-house staff used to store tea leaves in a large, foil container, then weigh them and pack them with papers and a plastic bag. This type of packaging would negatively affect the quality of the tea leaves as they would oxidize quickly, thereby losing their aroma. The packaging of tea leaves has greatly improved since then. Now tea leaves are vacuum-packed in high density plastic packs with fancy packaging. Not only is the quality raised, but the market value of the tea is also increased.

However, this only applies to non-fermented or semi-fermented teas (such as green or oolong teas). For fermented tea, like black tea, it is not recommended that plastic wares be used as the tea should be allowed to continue to oxidize and mature.

"Tea Pocket" Trend
"Tea pockets", also known as tea bags, have in recent years been used in Chinese tea. Initially they could be found in the supermarket, but were not popular as they were not well-publicized and not very attractively packaged. As earlier with tea leaves, there has been an increase of well-packaged tea bags with any number of varieties of tea leave contained within. Most modern packages can be resealed so as to keep the tea dry. One of the brands has even made an inspiring design of the tea pocket that it gives the tea pocket a tetrahedral (pyramid-like) shape which allows more volume for larger sized tea leaves to expand and impart their flavor.

Ritual of Tea Drinking in Hong Kong – "Morning Tea and Newspaper"
Hong Kong is a place with plenty of night life. In contrast, streets are almost empty from seven to eight in the morning. Most shops open at or after nine o'clock in the morning, where Cantonese restaurants open at about six or even earlier (restaurants in the Western District open at about 4:00a.m.). The working class of Hong Kong usually have breakfast in these Cantonese restaurants in the early morning. They enjoy 一盅兩件 (Lit. One bowl with two pieces, meaning a cup of tea with two Dim sums) and they read newspapers in the morning before they go to work. Many elderly people bring their caged birds to the restaurants and chat with others. They can spend a whole morning doing this.

Hong Kong style tea – Milk Tea
The unique taste of Hong Kong milk tea is a blend of strong Ceylon black tea with other teas mixed with milk. The addition of milk to tea was introduced during the British colonial period

Flagstaff House Museum of Tea Ware
The Flagstaff House Museum of Tea Ware is a branch museum of Hong Kong Museum of Art, located centrally in Hong Kong Park. It is a place for collecting, studying and displaying tea ware and holding regular presentation or demonstration lectures to promote Chinese tea drinking culture. Many famous Yixing teapots are exhibited in the museum.

title: Hong Kong tea culture


text:
Carl Nägeli

Carl Wilhelm von Nägeli (26 or 27 March 1817 – 10 May 1891)  was a Swiss botanist. He studied cell division and pollination but became known as the man who discouraged Gregor Mendel from further work on genetics. He rejected natural selection as a mechanism of evolution, favouring orthogenesis driven by a supposed "inner perfecting principle".

Birth and education
Nägeli was born in Kilchberg near Zürich, where he studied medicine at the University of Zürich. From 1839, he studied botany under A. P. de Candolle at Geneva, and graduated with a botanical thesis at Zürich in 1840. His attention having been directed by Matthias Jakob Schleiden, then professor of botany at Jena, to the microscopical study of plants, he engaged more particularly in that branch of research. He also coined the term "meristematic tissue" in 1858.

Academic career
Soon after graduation he became Privatdozent and subsequently professor extraordinary, in the University of Zürich; later he was called to fill the chair of botany at the University of Freiburg; and in 1857 he was promoted to Munich, where he remained as professor until his death.

Contributions
It was thought that Nägeli had first observed cell division during the formation of pollen, in 1842. However, this is disputed by Henry Harris, who writes: "What Nägeli saw and did not see in plant material at about the same time [as Robert Remak] is somewhat obscure... I conclude... that, unlike Remak, he did not observe nuclear division... it is clear that Nägeli did not in 1844 have any idea of the importance of the nucleus in the life of the cell."

In 1857, Nägeli first described microsporidia, the causative agent of pebrine disease in silkworms, which has historically devastated the silk industry in Europe.

Among his other contributions to science were a series of papers in the Zeitschrift für wissenschaftliche Botanik (1844–1846); Die neueren Algensysteme (1847); Gattungen einzelliger Algen (1849); Pflanzenphysiologische Untersuchungen (1855–1858), with Carl Eduard Cramer; Beiträge zur wissenschaftlichen Botanik (1858–1868); a number of papers contributed to the Royal Bavarian Academy of Sciences, forming three volumes of Botanische Mitteilungen (1861–1881); and, finally, his volume, Mechanisch-physiologische Theorie der Abstammungslehre, published in 1884. However, perhaps Nägeli is best known nowadays for his unproductive correspondence (1866–1873) with Gregor Mendel concerning the latter's celebrated work on Pisum sativum, the garden pea.

The writer Simon Mawer, in his book Gregor Mendel: planting the seeds of genetics (2006), gives us an interesting and detailed account of Nägeli's correspondence with Mendel. Mawer underlines that, at the time Nägeli was writing to the friar from Moravia, Nägeli "must have been preparing his great work entitled A mechanico-physiological theory of organic evolution (published in 1884, the year of Mendel's death) in which he proposes the concept of the 'idioplasm' as the hypothetical transmitter of inherited characters". Mawer notes that, in this Nägeli book, there is not a single mention of the work of Gregor Mendel. That prompted him to write: "We can forgive von Nägeli for being obtuse and supercilious. We can forgive him for being ignorant, a scientist of his time who did not really have the equipment to understand the significance of what Mendel had done despite the fact that he (von Nägeli) speculated extensively about inheritance. But omitting an account of Mendel's work from his book is, perhaps, unforgivable." (Mawer 2006, p. 81)

Nägeli and Hugo von Mohl were the first scientists to distinguish the plant cell wall from the inner contents, which was named the protoplasm in 1846. Nägeli believed that cells receive their hereditary characters from a part of the protoplasm which he called the idioplasma. Nägeli was an advocate of orthogenesis and an opponent of Darwinism. He developed an "inner perfecting principle" which he believed directed evolution. He wrote that many evolutionary developments were nonadaptive and variation was internally programmed.

Nägeli also coined the terms 'Meristem', 'Xylem' and 'Phloem' (all in 1858) while he and Hofmeister gave the 'Apical Cell Theory' (1846) which aimed to explain origin and functioning of the shoot apical meristem in plants.

title: Carl Nägeli


text:
Tektite

Tektites are gravel-sized bodies composed of black, green, brown or grey natural glass formed from terrestrial debris ejected during meteorite impacts. The term was coined by Austrian geologist Franz Eduard Suess (1867–1941), son of Eduard Suess. They generally range in size from millimetres to centimetres. Millimetre-scale tektites are known as microtektites.

Tektites are characterized by:
 * 1) a fairly homogeneous composition
 * 2) an extremely low content of water and other volatiles
 * 3) an abundance of lechatelierite
 * 4) a general lack of microscopic crystals known as microlites
 * 5) not having a chemical relationship to the local bedrock or local sediments
 * 6) their distribution within geographically extensive strewn fields

Characteristics
Although tektites are superficially similar to some terrestrial volcanic glasses (obsidians), they have unusual distinctive physical characteristics that distinguish them from such glasses. First, they are completely glassy and lack any microlites or phenocrysts, unlike terrestrial volcanic glasses. Second, although high in silica (>65 wt%), the bulk chemical and isotopic composition of tektites is closer to those of shales and similar sedimentary rocks and quite different from the bulk chemical and isotopic composition of terrestrial volcanic glasses. Third, tektites contain virtually no water (<0.02 wt%), unlike terrestrial volcanic glasses. Fourth, the flow-banding within tektites often contains particles and bands of lechatelierite, which are not found in terrestrial volcanic glasses. Finally, a few tektites contain partly melted inclusions of shocked and unshocked mineral grains, i.e. quartz, apatite, and zircon, as well as coesite.

The difference in water content can be used to distinguish tektites from terrestrial volcanic glasses. When heated to their melting point, terrestrial volcanic glasses turn into a foamy glass because of their content of water and other volatiles. Unlike terrestrial volcanic glass, a tektite produces only a few bubbles at most when heated to its melting point, because of its much lower water and other volatiles content.

Classification
On the basis of morphology and physical characteristics, tektites have traditionally been divided into four groups. Those found on land have traditionally been subdivided into three groups: (1) splash-form (normal) tektites, (2) aerodynamically shaped tektites, and (3) Muong Nong-type (layered) tektites. Splash-form and aerodynamically shaped tektites are only differentiated on the basis of their appearance and some of their physical characteristics. Splash-form tektites are centimeter-sized tektites that are shaped like spheres, ellipsoids, teardrops, dumbbells, and other forms characteristic of isolated molten bodies. They are regarded as having formed from the solidification of rotating liquids, and not atmospheric ablation. Aerodynamically shaped tektites, which are mainly part of the Australasian strewn field, are splash-form tektites (buttons) which display a secondary ring or flange. The secondary ring or flange is argued as having been produced during the high-speed re-entry and ablation of a solidified splash-form tektite into the atmosphere. Muong Nong tektites are typically larger, greater than 10 cm in size and 24 kg in weight, irregular, and layered tektites. They have a chunky, blocky appearance, exhibit a layered structure with abundant vesicles, and contain mineral inclusions, such as zircon, baddeleyite, chromite, rutile, corundum, cristobalite, and coesite.

Microtektites, the fourth group of tektites, are less than 1 mm in size. They exhibit a variety of shapes ranging from spherical to dumbbell, disc, oval, and teardrop. Their colors range from colorless and transparent to yellowish and pale brown. They frequently contain bubbles and lechatelierite inclusions. Microtektites are typically found in deep-sea sediments that are of the same ages as those of the four known strewn fields. Microtektites of the Australasian strewn field have also been found on land within Chinese loess deposits, and in sediment-filled joints and decimeter-sized weathering pits developed within glacially eroded granite outcrops of the Victoria Land Transantarctic Mountains, Antarctica.

Occurrence
Most tektites have been found within four geographically extensive strewn fields: the Australasian, Central European, Ivory Coast, and North American. As summarized by Koeberl, the tektites within each strewn field are related to each other with respect to the criteria of petrological, physical, and chemical properties, as well as their age. In addition, three of the four strewn fields have been clearly linked with impact craters using those same criteria. Recognized types of tektites, grouped according to their known strewn fields, their associated craters, and ages are:
 * Australasian strewnfield Approximate age: 0.77–0.78 million years), no confirmed crater:
 * Australites (Australia, dark, mostly black);
 * Indochinites (South East Asia, dark, mostly black);
 * Philippinites (Philippines, black).
 * Central European strewnfield (Nördlinger Ries impact crater (24 km), Germany, age: 15 million years):
 * Moldavites (Czech Republic, green).
 * Ivory Coast strewnfield (Lake Bosumtwi impact crater (10 km), Ghana, age: 1 million years):
 * Ivorites (Ivory Coast, black).
 * North American tektite strewn field (Chesapeake Bay impact crater (40 km), United States – age: 34 million years):
 * Bediasites (Texas – black to dark brown, some with metallic finish);
 * Georgiaites (Georgia – green).

Comparing the number of known impact craters versus the number of known strewn fields, Natalia Artemieva considered essential factors such as the crater must exceed a certain diameter to produce distal ejecta, and that the event must be relatively recent. Limiting to diameters 10 km or more and younger than 50 Ma, the study yielded a list of 13 candidate craters, of which the youngest eight are given below.

Preliminary papers in the late 1970s suggested either Zhamanshin or Elgygytgyn as the source of the Australasian strewnfield.

Povenmire and others have proposed the existence of an additional tektite strewn field, the Central American strewn field. Evidence for this reported tektite strewn field consists of tektites recovered from western Belize in the area of the villages of Bullet Tree Falls, Santa Familia, and Billy White. This area lies about 55 km east-southeast of Tikal, where 13 tektites, two of which were dated as being 820,000 years old, of unknown origin were found. A limited amount of evidence is interpreted as indicating that the proposed Central American strewn field likely covers Belize, Honduras, Guatemala, Nicaragua, and possibly parts of southern Mexico. The hypothesized Pantasma Impact Crater in northern Nicaragua might be the source of these tektites.

Age
The ages of tektites from the four strewnfields have been determined using radiometric dating methods. The age of moldavites, a type of tektite found in the Czech Republic, was determined to be 14 million years, which agrees well with the age determined for the Nördlinger Ries crater (a few hundred kilometers away in Germany) by radiometric dating of Suevite (an impact breccia found at the crater). Similar agreements exist between tektites from the North American strewnfield and the Chesapeake Bay impact crater and between tektites from the Ivory Coast strewnfield and the Lake Bosumtwi Crater. Ages of tektites have usually been determined by either the K-Ar method, fission-track dating, the Ar-Ar technique, or combination of these techniques. Tektites in geological and archaeological deposits have been used as age markers of stratified deposits, but this practice is controversial.

Terrestrial source theory

The overwhelming consensus of Earth and planetary scientists is that tektites consist of terrestrial debris that was ejected during the formation of an impact crater. During the extreme conditions created by a hypervelocity meteorite impact, near-surface terrestrial sediments and rocks were either melted, vaporized, or some combination of these, and ejected from an impact crater. After ejection from the impact crater, the material formed millimeter- to centimeter-sized bodies of molten material, which as they re-entered the atmosphere, rapidly cooled to form tektites that fell to Earth to create a layer of distal ejecta hundreds or thousands of kilometers away from the impact site.

The terrestrial source for tektites is supported by well-documented evidence. The chemical and isotopic composition of tektites indicates that they are derived from the melting of silica-rich crustal and sedimentary rocks, which are not found on the Moon. In addition, some tektites contain relict mineral inclusions (quartz, zircon, rutile, chromite, and monazite) that are characteristic of terrestrial sediments and crustal and sedimentary source rocks. Also, three of the four tektite strewnfields have been linked by their age and chemical and isotopic composition to known impact craters. A number of different geochemical studies of tektites from the Australasian strewnfield concluded that these tektites consist of melted Jurassic sediments, or sedimentary rocks that were weathered and deposited about 167 Mya. Their geochemistry suggests that the source of Australasian tektites is a single sedimentary formation with a narrow range of stratigraphic ages close to 170 Mya, more or less. This effectively refutes multiple impact hypotheses.

Although the formation and widespread distribution of tektites is widely accepted to require the intense (superheated) melting of near-surface sediments and rocks at the impact site and the following high-velocity ejection of this material from the impact crater, the exact processes involved remain poorly understood. One possible mechanism for the formation of tektites is by the jetting of highly shocked and superheated melt during the initial contact/compression stage of impact crater formation. Alternatively, various mechanisms involving the dispersal of shock-melted material by an expanding vapor plume, which is created by a hypervelocity impact, have been used to explain the formation of tektites. Any mechanism by which tektites are created must explain chemical data that suggest that parent material from which tektites were created came from near-surface rocks and sediments at an impact site. In addition, the scarcity of known strewn fields relative to the number of identified impact craters indicate that very special and rarely met circumstances are required for tektites to be created by a meteorite impact.

Nonterrestrial source theories

Though the meteorite impact theory of tektite formation is widely accepted, there has been considerable controversy about their origin in the past. As early as 1897, the Dutch geologist Rogier Diederik Marius Verbeek (1845–1926) suggested an extraterrestrial origin for tektites: he proposed that they fell to Earth from the Moon. Verbeek's proposal of an extraterrestrial origin for tektites was soon seconded by the Austrian geologist Franz E. Suess. Subsequently, it was argued that tektites consist of material that was ejected from the Moon by major hydrogen-driven lunar volcanic eruptions and then drifted through space to later fall to Earth as tektites. The major proponents of the lunar origin of tektites include NASA scientist John A. O'Keefe, NASA aerodynamicist Dean R. Chapman, meteorite and tektite collector Darryl Futrell, and long-time tektite researcher Hal Povenmire. From the 1950s to the 1990s, O'Keefe argued for the lunar origin of tektites based upon their chemical, i.e. rare-earth, isotopic, and bulk, composition and physical properties. Chapman used complex orbital computer models and extensive wind tunnel tests to argue that the so-called Australasian tektites originated from the Rosse ejecta ray of the large crater Tycho on the Moon's near side. O'Keefe, Povenmire, and Futrell claimed on the basis of behavior of glass melts that the homogenization, which is called "fining", of silica melts that characterize tektites could not be explained by the terrestrial-impact theory. They also argued that the terrestrial-impact theory could not explain the vesicles and extremely low water and other volatile content of tektites. Futrell also reported the presence of microscopic internal features within tektites, which argued for a volcanic origin.

At one time, theories advocating the lunar origin of tektites enjoyed considerable support as part of a spirited controversy about the origin of tektites that occurred during the 1960s. Starting with the publication of research concerning lunar samples returned from the Moon, the consensus of Earth and planetary scientists shifted in favor of theories advocating a terrestrial impact versus lunar volcanic origin. For example, one problem with the lunar origin theory is that the arguments for it that are based upon the behavior of glass melts use data from pressures and temperatures that are vastly uncharacteristic of and unrelated to the extreme conditions of hypervelocity impacts. In addition, various studies have shown that hypervelocity impacts are likely quite capable of producing low-volatile melts with extremely low water content. The consensus of Earth and planetary scientists regards the chemical, i.e. rare-earth, isotopic, and bulk composition evidence as decisively demonstrating that tektites are derived from terrestrial crustal rock, i.e. sedimentary rocks, that are unlike any known lunar crust.

Books

 * Barnes, V., and M. Barnes (1973) Tektites. Dowden, Hutchinson, & Ross, Inc., New York, New York. 444 pp. ISBN 0-87933-027-9
 * Bouska, Vladimir (1994). Moldavites: The Czech Tektites. Stylizace, Prague, Czechoslovakia. 69 pp.
 * Heinen, Guy (1998) Tektites – Witnesses Of Cosmic Catastrophes. Guy Heinen, Luxembourg. 222 pp.
 * McCall, G.J.H. (2001) Tektites in the Geological Record. The Geological Society of London, London, United Kingdom. 256 pp. ISBN 1-86239-085-1
 * McNamara, K., and A. Bevan (1991) Tektites, 2nd ed. Western Australian Museum, Perth, Western Australia, Australia. 28 pp.
 * O'Keefe, J. A. (1976) Tektites And Their Origin. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam, Netherlands. 266 pp. ISBN 0-44441-350-2
 * Povenmire, Hal (2003) Tektites: A Cosmic Enigma. Florida Fireball Network, Indian Harbour Beach, Florida. 209 pp.

title: Tektite


text:
Cover girl (disambiguation)

A cover girl is a woman whose photograph features on the front cover of a magazine.

Cover girl may also refer to:

Film and television

 * Cover Girl (film), a 1944 film starring Rita Hayworth and Gene Kelly
 * Cover Girl (1964 film), an Italian film of 1964
 * Cover Girl (TV series), a Canadian French-language television sitcom
 * Covergirl (film), a 1984 Canadian drama film
 * Cover Girls (film), a 1977 American TV film
 * "Cover Girl" an episode of Sex and the City
 * "Cover Girls", a season 1 episode of The Loud House

Music

 * The Cover Girls, an American music group
 * Cover Girl (singer), a singer who released "We Found Love"
 * Cover Girl (Shawn Colvin album), 1994
 * Covergirl (Groove Coverage album), 2002
 * Covergirl (Jared Louche and The Aliens album), 1999
 * "Cover Girl" (New Kids on the Block song), 1989
 * "Cover Girl", a song by RuPaul from the 2009 album Champion
 * "Cover Girl", a song by Big Time Rush from the 2011 album Elevate
 * "Cover Girls" a 2017 song by Hitimpulse
 * "Cover Girls" a 2008 song by Quanteisha

Other uses

 * Cover Girl (G.I. Joe), a fictional character in the G.I. Joe universe
 * CoverGirl, a brand of makeup

title: Cover girl (disambiguation)


text:
Talk:Lady Jane Grey

Jane of England on British Royal Family website
I keep amending the article to reflect the fact that the British Royal Family cite Jane Grey as Queen but it keeps getting changed back. Jane Grey is NOT a disputed Queen if the Royal Family specifically acknowledge her as Queen. Please see article below:

https://www.royal.uk/lady-jane-grey

 * Leaving the Queen/No Queen question aside, I wonder why you think the royal family's website operator's opinion should be dispositive. Surely it's historians and not royals who can present informed opinions on the subject. - Nunh-huh 22:14, 15 November 2018 (UTC)
 * The website you've linked to says 'Lady Jane Grey' not 'Jane of England'. The article should do as the citations do, not make up new names. Celia Homeford (talk) 09:22, 16 November 2018 (UTC)

I strongly dispute this. The website operator would need to ensure a level of accuracy before publishing, surely? Also, it's still a credible and official source. The website also states that she reigned from 10th to the 19th of July. If that is correct, then "Jane of England" would not necessarily be a made up name - it would be her regnal name. Similarly Queen Anne is listed as "Anne, Queen of Great Britain" or simply as "Anne". Rhys Hoffman (talk) 17:22, 17 November 2018 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by 80.0.29.40 (talk)

I will offer an even better authority for answering the question of whether or not Jane should be regarded as a former Queen of England: The British Government. The National Archives at Kew stores and preserves the State Papers for each of the many monarchs that have reigned in England and the UK and for whom records survive, and it catalogues those State Papers according to the regnal name of the given monarch. The National Archives does have a separate cataloguing category for "Queen Jane" (though it is actually only a handful of items, since few documents from the brief reign survived). Further, the National Archives are an official sub-department of the UK Government under the main Department for Digital, Culture, Media, and Sport, which has its own Cabinet-rank Secretary/Minister. I would therefore suggest that if a Cabinet-level department of the official government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland acknowledges Jane as a former Queen of England, then the issue is settled. Unless one thinks that the British Government is wrong about its own former heads of state .... DesertSkies120 (talk) 04:43, 10 March 2021 (UTC)

 * Although Queen Jane's reign was short, she was legally Queen of England, France (though not in practice) and Ireland, Jane was proclaimed Queen and was made so by Edward VI letters patent and was (briefly) recognised by the privy council. I say her title should be "Jane, Queen of England" WiltedXXVI (talk) 14:08, 18 September 2022 (UTC)
 * Also, is her proclamation not enough (note that the following is the actual spelling in the proclamation, I can spell): "Jane, by the Grace of God Quene of England, Fraunce and Ireland, defendor of the faith" WiltedXXVI (talk) 14:55, 18 September 2022 (UTC)
 * Article titles follow WP:COMMONNAME. Amazingly enough, this has been discussed and rejected before - see here for the last time. Johnbod (talk) 15:44, 18 September 2022 (UTC)
 * Wikipedia will always bow to "facts determined by ballot and popular opinion" rather than taking the bold step of stating actual fact. The continuing insistence even far beyond Wikipedia on referring to Jane Grey Dudley as "Lady Jane" is sadly prompted by the former, not the latter.DesertSkies120 (talk) 09:54, 30 April 2024 (UTC)

Manner of Execution
The article says that Lady Jane was sentenced to be burned but then says that she was beheaded. An explanation of the change would be nice.Bill (talk) 06:18, 23 March 2022 (UTC)
 * No, it says she was sentenced to be burned or beheaded. Celia Homeford (talk) 10:10, 23 March 2022 (UTC)
 * Well it was February. Firewood may have been scarce. Martinevans123 (talk) 12:21, 23 March 2022 (UTC)
 * I believe Lady Jane was sentenced to death, the manner of which (beheading of burning) was at the Queen's pleasure. Mary chose to have mercy on her cousin and had her mercifully beheaded, rather than being painfully burned alive. Unlimitedlead (talk) 01:03, 13 April 2022 (UTC)
 * That makes sense also because she was basically accused of treason - rivalry to the Queen, rather than heresy. Rakovsky (talk) 17:49, 24 April 2024 (UTC)
 * First, it is important to understand that justice was administered in England by two separate judicial systems: secular and ecclesiastical. The secular or civil courts adjudicated cases according to English common and statute civil law. Treason was a civil offense and was adjudicated in civil courts. Ecclesiastical courts adjudicated cases according to English canon or church law. Heresy was a religious offense and was adjudicated in English canon law courts.
 * Jane Grey Dudley was tried in the Court of King's Bench, a secular civil court operating under English common and statute civil law. She never faced any charges whatsoever of violating canon law and thus never stood before an ecclesiastical or canon court. Only secular civil law determined her punishment.
 * Both civil and canon law mandated certain specific punishments for corresponding specific crimes, and those punishments were often gender specific. The statutory civil punishment for treason was likewise gender specific. For a man, the statutory punishment was hanging, drawing, and quartering. For women, it was burning. The reason for burning women rather than hanging, drawing, and quartering was ... bizarrely enough ... the pervasive deference to notions of feminine modesty. "For, as the natural modesty of the sex forbids the exposing and publicly mangling their bodies, their sentence is to be drawn [transported in a cart] to the gallows, and there to be burned alive." In all instances of crime and punishment, including treason, the Crown is the "Fount of Justice" but also has the prerogative right to exercise mercy and to commute the punishment for any crime to a lesser one or to pardon the convicted outright. In convictions for treason, the standard commutation is to beheading, for both men and women. The Court of King's Bench handed down to Jane Grey Dudley a sentence of burning because that was what common and civil law mandated for treason. Mary commuted it to beheading as more merciful. The issue of religion was entirely moot since Jane never faced a religious charge. DesertSkies120 (talk) 09:18, 30 April 2024 (UTC)
 * I think, in convictions for treason, the standard commutation was to beheading. But an explanatory footnote in the article might be useful? Martinevans123 (talk) 09:22, 30 April 2024 (UTC)
 * Please carefully read line 8 of my last paragraph, Martinevans123. "In convictions for treason, the standard commutation is to beheading, for both men and women." So yes, it "was." I decline ever to edit this article since doing so just leads to what I refer to as "reversal wars." So feel free to add that explanatory note. Just please be very careful that the note is factually accurate. DesertSkies120 (talk) 09:34, 30 April 2024 (UTC)
 * Is treason still on the statute book for England and Wales? It's unfortunate that you "decline to ever edit this article", as you obviously have some expertise in this area. Either way, I guess, any addition would need some WP:RS source(s)? An alternative approach would be to agree the wording of a footnote here first and then add it, if all editors are in agreement? Thanks. Martinevans123 (talk) 09:58, 30 April 2024 (UTC)
 * Laws against treason do remain "on the books" in many or even most countries today, including in the UK and the US. In the UK, the Treason Acts of 1351, 1702, and 1842 remain in effect, though they have all been repeatedly and extensively amended. They address primarily high treason, or acts committed against the Crown. (Petty treason is an act against a subject of the Crown.) The Felony Treason Act of 1848 also remains in effect. The punishment for treason has changed to life imprisonment rather than death by execution.
 * Yes, I firmly decline ever to edit Wikipedia articles related to Tudor history, especially those related to Jane Grey Dudley, her family, and the succession crisis of 1553. I am confident that I do indeed possess "some expertise" in that area, but Wikipedia has some problematic rules related to recognizing what constitutes "some expertise," who can or cannot serve as an expert, and how they can or cannot do so. Under Wikipedia's rules, for example, I cannot create edits that cite my own work, despite the fact that there simply is no other academically trained expert on Jane Grey Dudley living today and thus no published work authored by any academically trained expert other than Eric Ives and myself. And with all due respect to active Wikipedia editors, what qualifications do they have that enable them to determine what is or is not a valid edit of articles on Jane Grey Dudley and closely related topics? How do I find out what their qualifications are? After all, having watched one or two TV shows on the subject and having read Alison Plowden's plagiarized biography of Jane Grey Dudley or Mary Luke's or Alison Weir's novels about Jane Grey Dudley does not qualify one to edit articles about her, in my opinion.
 * But Wikipedia is not alone in that regard. The supposedly authoritative and highly respected Oxford Dictionary of National Biography 's article of Jane Grey Dudley was written by none other than Alison Plowden, a former BBC scriptwriter and plagiarist with zero training of any kind whatsoever in history, and that article states quite definitively ... and quite wrongly ... that Jane Grey Dudley was born on 12 October 1537 at Bradgate in Leicestershire. So rather than argue with Wikipedia editors who rely on incorrect and outdated secondary source material, I simply decline to do any editing myself. I will continue to point out in this Talk page what I believe to be the most egregious errors in the article and then leave it to the editors to vote or whatever on what they believe constitutes a "fact" and is therefore worthy of inclusion in the articles.DesertSkies120 (talk) 23:41, 1 May 2024 (UTC)

Ives 2009
In my opinion, the "Ives 2009" source should be consolidated into one single reference. It unnecessarily takes up a lot of the reference list. Nophunintended0 (talk) 23:57, 19 March 2024 (UTC)
 * No, it's better to keep the page numbers as it improves verifiability. Celia Homeford (talk) 09:02, 20 March 2024 (UTC)
 * I'm not suggesting to remove the page numbers from the citations, I'm suggesting collecting all the different instances in which the "Ives 2009" source is used into one single reference, so it's easier to refer to. Wouldn't it make a lot more sense to have that all in one place? Why should each individual page be listed separately? Nophunintended0 (talk) 00:11, 27 March 2024 (UTC)
 * It's more difficult to refer to the book for verifiability if the page numbers are all mashed up together. It's better to give a specific page for each claim in the article so when we check verifiability we only have to go to that page instead of having to read the entire book. Celia Homeford (talk) 08:40, 27 March 2024 (UTC)
 * May I just suggest that anyone wanting to edit the formatting of the footnotes please first do some background reading in reliable guides on the purpose and formatting of those notes? The format you suggest is entirely contradictory to both the form and the function of end- and footnotes. Adopting the suggestion would significantly damage both the functionality and the credibility of Wikipedia itself. DesertSkies120 (talk) 07:13, 24 April 2024 (UTC)

Edward VI's "Will"
May I just point out an obvious error of fact in the second paragraph of this article?

The error: "In June 1553, the dying Edward VI wrote his will ... The will removed his half-sisters ...."

King Edward VI of England and Ireland did not write or leave a "will." He was only 16 years old at the time of his death and thus a legal minor. Only legal adults can write or leave last wills and testaments. Indeed, the fact that he was still a legal minor was a significant obstacle to his attempt to alter the succession. The document that he wrote himself is known as The Devize for the Succession. It is not a "will," and it had no binding legal authority whatsoever. In a failed attempt to get around the issue of his age and his inability to leave a will, he resorted to transforming the Devize into letters patent in the hope that they might be legally binding. But because even that was legally "sketchy," he compelled a large number of civil and religious authorities to countersign the letters patent in the hope of bolstering the legal validity of the letters patent. Academics and scholars continue to debate their binding legal authority even today.

If this article is to be correct and factual, it should state, "On 21 June 1553, the dying Edward VI published letters patent countersigned by a large number of civil and religious authorities nominating ...."DesertSkies120 (talk) 00:01, 2 May 2024 (UTC)

Navy
This article always frustrates me with its inclusion of so much speculation and narrative not supported by the sources. There is a statement in this article indicating that Mary "eventually took control over the Royal navy." The chronological context is very muddled in the article (it is July 20 in the first sentence of the paragraph, then some unspecified date prior to that in the second sentence, then July 19 in the fourth sentence), but there is no footnote to indicate precisely when Mary "took control over the Royal navy." "Took control" is extreme wording, and "eventually" is extremely imprecise, especially in a context of building support toward claiming the throne from Jane. I wonder whether the person who wrote that section may have misunderstood or misstated the narrative. Might they be referring to the handful of ships that changed allegiance to Mary sometime between 14 and 19 July? That hardly constitutes taking control over an entire national navy. She did not assume (not "take") effective control over the entire English navy until some time after reaching London. DesertSkies120 (talk) 21:22, 6 June 2024 (UTC)

Jane's Father's Title Duke of Suffolk
Pardon me while I go on another lengthy tirade, but once again some anonymous "editor" has seen fit to edit this article under the false assumption that they, the 'editor,' knows what they are doing. I get so very tired of amateurs with limited or no knowledge making damaging edits to this article!

80.189.76.144 edited the text to indicate that Jane's father Henry Grey was 2nd Duke of Suffolk, not first. That anonymous editor is perhaps unaware of how holders of titles of nobility are numbered. The only explanation for that erroneous edit is that the anonymous editor perhaps assumed that Henry Grey somehow inherited the title from his father-in-law.

Henry Grey did not inherit the title Duke of Suffolk. He was elevated to that dignity by the Crown in November 1551. It was a new creation and had no direct relation to Charles Brandon, a previous holder of the title Duke of Suffolk and father of Henry Grey's wife Frances. As such, Henry Grey was 1st Duke of Suffolk in a new and 3rd creation. If 80.189.76.144's logic were valid, Grey would have been 4th Duke of Suffolk, since Charles Brandon's son Henry became 2nd Duke (in the second creation) on the death of his father in 1545, and Henry's brother Charles became 3rd Duke (again in the second creation) on Henry's death in July 1551 before himself dying one hour later. And no, before anyone raises the objection, Jane's father Henry Grey did not become Duke of Suffolk "in right of his wife." The title was bestowed in a new creation, though the Suffolk designation was based in part on the fact that his wife's father had held that designation.

WHAT WILL IT TAKE FOR WIKIPEDIA TO LOCK THIS ARTICLE TO PROTECT IT AGAINST EDITING BY PERSONS WHO SHOULD NOT BE EDITING IT?

Wikipedia's "open source editing" policy, or whatever they call it, remains a massive impediment to Wikipedia's credibility and to its ability to be accepted as a consistently reliable source of factual information. I am utterly terrified of what will happen to this article when the My Lady Jane fans start dropping in to wreak editorial havoc by inserting tidbits they have gleaned from that unfortunate travesty. And if you want to know what gives me the right to speak with authority on the subject of Jane Grey Dudley, just have a look at my UserPage.DesertSkies120 (talk) 19:12, 25 June 2024 (UTC)

Portraits and paintings included in this article
I just "undid" a revision by Alanscottwalker in which he had added some text to the caption of the Delaroche image. I removed the revision because a) it is unnecessary and b) the term "chopping block" is incorrect.

Regarding the two portraits said to depict Frances Brandon Grey and Henry Grey, I have to ask "Why?" Neither portrait depicts the individuals named in the captions. Even the data for the portrait of the woman says quite clearly that it is "A Woman," with zero indication that it depicts Frances Grey. Did someone just pick any old random portrait and toss it into this article as a portrait of Frances Grey? Why? No portrait of France Brandon Grey has ever been confirmed. The portrait of the male dates to a much later period, long after Henry Grey was dead. The source appears to be Richard Davey's NOVEL (FICTION!) from 1909. And while it has repeatedly (and erroneously) been published as a portrait of Henry Grey, it is in fact a portrait of Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester.

The portrait said to depict Guildford Dudley is from the Palace of Westminster and was painted in the 19th century. It is 100% imaginary ... fictitious. It is therefore useless for this article. DesertSkies120 (talk) 20:29, 18 July 2024 (UTC)

 * If chopping block is "incorrect" that's no reason for the revert, is beheading block more to your liking. The reason for the edit is tying the scene depicted by the artist with the text of the article, so I don't agree with your revert.
 * As for the other images, why did you not just remove them. -- Alanscottwalker (talk) 23:31, 18 July 2024 (UTC)

The correct term(s) ... the term(s) that academic historians like myself use ... is simply "the block" or "the executioner's block." But I understand that many Wikipedia users are not concerned with accuracy of details and instead prefer inaccurate colloquial terminology.

I do not myself see any need to "tie the scene depicted by the artist to the text of the article" since I think the association is very obvious. But perhaps you are correct ... perhaps some people have significant difficulty making the association unless it is explicitly pointed out to them.

And I never remove entire chunks of content posted by others because that too often leads to editing wars and petty power struggles. I prefer simply to point out the facts as they are currently known to academic historians and to leave the large-chunk editing to persons braver than myself. Wikipedia gives the same editing authority to average people who have read a Philippa Gregory or Alison Weir novel that it gives to recognized academic experts, so what can I do? DesertSkies120 (talk) 01:51, 19 July 2024 (UTC)

 * As for your problems with Wikipedia, you seem to be wasting your time and howling at the wind, (which by the way, DesertSky120, another thing about Wikipedia is you are actually anonymous no matter what you say, so count your overweening need to seek to qualify and requalify yourself as another useless gesture). You seem to be confused between the meanings of colloquial and incorrect, or just elide them into meaninglessness for another waste of rhetoric. And no, to understand the painting, you already have to be well versed in what historians say happened, but perhaps you don't care about audience in writing, which is just poor writing technique. At any rate, go on, ironically you seem to be enjoying yourself, howling at the wind. Alanscottwalker (talk) 10:27, 19 July 2024 (UTC)
 * There's no need to be offensive! Johnbod (talk) 21:28, 19 July 2024 (UTC)

The tone of Alanscottwalker's response is precisely why I do not engage directly in editing on Wikipedia. The slightest hints of criticism seems to cause certain types of people to become rude and offensive, as Johnbod kindly pointed out. I am quite happy to stand idly by and watch quietly as individuals introduce errors of fact into this article, if that is what it takes to keep from ruffling some peoples' feathers. "Truth" and "facts" are entirely subjective in the twenty-first century, after all.DesertSkies120 (talk) 21:52, 19 July 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Lady Jane Grey


text:
Whitechapel Bell Foundry

The Whitechapel Bell Foundry was a business in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets. At the time of the closure of its Whitechapel premises, it was the oldest manufacturing company in Great Britain. The bell foundry primarily made church bells and their fittings and accessories, although it also provided single tolling bells, carillon bells and handbells. The foundry was notable for being the original manufacturer of the Liberty Bell, a famous symbol of American independence, and for re-casting Big Ben, which rings from the north clock tower (the Elizabeth Tower) at the Houses of Parliament in London.

The Whitechapel premises are a Grade II* listed building. The foundry closed on 12 June 2017, after nearly 450 years of bell-making and 250 years at its Whitechapel site, with the final bell cast given to the Museum of London along with other artefacts used in the manufacturing process, and the building has been sold.

Following the sale of the Whitechapel Bell Foundry, the bell patents were sold to the bell-hanging company Whites of Appleton in Oxfordshire, with which the foundry had a business relationship for 197 years. The rights to tower bell production are now under the ownership of Westley Group Ltd. Production of presentation and hand bells continues under the name Bells of Whitechapel Ltd.

History
The bell founding industry around Aldgate and Whitechapel can be traced back to at least 1360, and a few years later, Geoffrey Chaucer, living in a room in the Aldgate itself, described the presence of a bell founding industry in the area. The Master Founders (bell makers) of Aldgate and Whitechapel, can be traced back to 1420.

The Whitechapel Bell Foundry company began in 1570. The last premises at 32–34 Whitechapel Road, backing on to Plumbers Row, dates from 1670 and was formerly a coaching inn called "The Artichoke" which had been damaged in the Great Fire of London. The Artichoke ceased trading in 1738 and the following year the Whitechapel Bell Foundry moved into the premises. The foundry remained at the site until May 2017. It was one of only two bell foundries left in the UK and had been in continuous production for almost 450 years.

The three bells manufacturer's mark can be seen on the bells and the three bells sign hung over the door of the Whitechapel site. According to previous owners Alan and Kathryn Hughes, the foundry had been a family-owned company throughout its history continuing when Alan Hughes's grandfather bought the company in 1904, until its sale to Westley group in 2017.

The business had to adapt throughout the centuries and in modern times, with new churches being built less frequently, produced handbells and doorbells. It responded to a surge in orders for table bells, following the popularity of the ITV period drama Downton Abbey, with a third of its sales going overseas. In 2013 the foundry launched an online shop selling house bells, musical instruments and personalised merchandise. The large bell business has been largely unaffected by periods of financial depression, partly owing to the fact that from enquiry to completion an order takes on average 11 years. During World War II the foundry was used as a munitions production line where they made casings for the War Office. The foundry was particularly busy after the war, replacing bells lost or damaged by fire in bombing raids across London. Hughes said "Our business runs counter to the national economy. If the economy goes down and unemployment rises, we start to get busy. Last year was our busiest in thirty years, an increase of 27% on the previous year. Similarly, the nineteen twenties were very busy." Hughes also tells a story of an order requested of his grandfather in the 1890s which his father quoted again for in the 1950s and he himself gave a quote for in the 1970s. The order was finally completed in 1998.

In March 2017 a consortium of heritage groups, including Save Britain's Heritage, the East End Preservation Society, the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings, the Ancient Monuments Society and the Royal Academy of Arts attempted to have the foundry's Grade II* premises re-listed as a Grade I listed building as an asset of community value to preserve the historical importance of the building within the wider east end community.

The foundry was sold to US investor Raycliff who proposed their intention to convert the site into a 100 to 108 room hotel at the rear of the building with a bell themed cafe while maintaining space for the production of smaller bells including hand bells. Raycliff hired local architectural practice 31/44 for the design. The plan has the support of Historic England, described by one journalist as “a public body which gives paid advice to property developers to encourage them to get through the existing planning systems.” The application has been controversial. The application was called in by the government on 22 January 2020, preventing the London Borough of Tower Hamlets from proceeding with the planning application pending the outcome of further public inquiry. The London Bell Foundry, a not for profit company dedicated to saving the historic foundry as a working enterprise, made an offer to purchase the site in November 2022.

Notable bells

Many churches across the world have bells cast by the Whitechapel Bell Foundry, but arguably its two best-known examples are not in places of worship. In 1752 the foundry (known at the time as Lester and Pack) cast the Liberty Bell, which was commissioned to celebrate the 50th anniversary of William Penn's 1701 Charter of Privileges, Pennsylvania's original constitution. As a result of damage sustained during its stormy passage across the Atlantic, the bell cracked when it was first rung, and after repeated repairs cracked again in 1846 when rung to mark the birthday of George Washington. Since 2003, the bell has been housed at the Liberty Bell Center near Independence Hall.

Big Ben, which tolls the hour at the Palace of Westminster, was cast in 1858 and rung for the first time on 31 May 1859. "Big Ben" weighs 13½ tons and is the largest bell ever cast at the foundry. This bell also cracked because a too heavy hammer was initially used. The crack and the subsequent retuning gives Big Ben its present distinctive tone. A profile template of Big Ben surrounds the entrance door of the Whitechapel Foundry, while the original moulding gauge is retained near the furnaces. The final bill for Big Ben came to £572.

Whitechapel has supplied bells to several cathedrals. Guildford Cathedral in Surrey had a peal of 10 bells (later augmented to 12), Canterbury Cathedral augmented its bells to a peal of 14 in 1981, and the National Cathedral in Washington, D.C. in 1962. The foundry produced "Great Tom" at Lincoln Cathedral, the "Clock Bells" at St Paul's Cathedral, the bells of Westminster Abbey Upon the construction of its tower between 1924 and 1942, the foundry cast 14 bells for the Liverpool Cathedral which all include psalm texts engravings. The bells are notable for being the heaviest change ringing peal of bells in the world. The foundry's bellfounder at that time, Albert Hughes, is commemorated in a stained glass window in the nave. Churches with bells from Whitechapel include ones as near as St Mary-le-Bow, Cheapside and as far as the Armenian Church, Chennai, India. English examples include St Dunstan's, Stepney and St Dunstan's, Mayfield; St Michael's, Beckwithshaw; St Mary-le-More, Wallingford Church of St Thomas the Apostle, Killinghall; and St Michael and All Angels, Leaden Roding. American churches in the Anglican Communion, for example St. Michael's Church, in Charleston, South Carolina. Australian churches include St Bartholomew's Church, Burnley, St Stephen's Anglican Church, Newtown; St Philip's Church and St James' Church, Sydney.

Bells not in churches include civic focal points such as a clock tower; Thomas Mears II cast the bell for Herne Bay Clock Tower in 1837. The Old Post Office in Washington, D.C., USA, has a ring of 10 bells in the key of D (tenor 26 cwt) that were cast by the Whitechapel Foundry in 1976, installed in 1982, and dedicated in 1983. The bells range in weight from 581 to 2953 pounds. These bells, referred to as The Congress Bells, were a gift to the US Congress from Britain's Ditchley Foundation to celebrate the bicentennial of American independence.

The sterling silver bell silver ships bell on post WW II HMS Ark Royals (4 - 1955) and (5 - 1985) is said (by Taylor's of Loughborough to have been cast by Whitechapel Foundry)

Following the September 11 attacks on the United States in 2001, the company made a tribute bell, the Bell of Hope, as a gift from the people of London to the city of New York. It is rung at 08:46 each year on the anniversary of the tragedy, the time the first plane hit the first tower. It was designed by architect Paul Byard and was rung for the first time on American soil by the Bishop of New York, the Rt. Rev. Mark S. Sisk. The bell resided at Trinity Church (Manhattan), before being moved to St. Paul's Chapel. In 2005 it was rung again four times for the people killed in the 7 July 2005 London bombings. The Whitechapel Bell Foundry designed the Olympic Bell seen at the opening ceremony for the London 2012 Olympic Games, although it was not cast on the premises. The furnaces at Whitechapel could not provide the 23 tons of molten metal required to make the bell, so it was manufactured at a factory in the Netherlands which normally produces ship's propellers. The Olympic Bell is the largest harmonically tuned bell in the world and the widest bell in Britain. It now hangs in the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park, but is not rung because it is deemed too loud to be rung without disturbing local residents.

The Foundry cast the Royal Jubilee Bells used on the lead barge for the Thames Diamond Jubilee Pageant the same summer, which now hang in the church of St James Garlickhythe.

Damon Albarn had three bells cast from the foundry for "On Melancholy Hill" for the Gorillaz album Plastic Beach, although they were not used on the final song. These were cast in the notes D, A and C-sharp. However one of the bells is often used on live versions of "We Got the Power".

The last bell to be cast at the foundry was on 22 March 2017, and was given to the Museum of London along with historical artefacts from the premises. The manufacturing patents for the Whitechapel bells have been sold to the bell-hanging company, Whites of Appleton in Oxfordshire, with whom the foundry has had a business relationship for 197 years.

Master founders
The names on this list are those that are cast into the surface of Whitechapel bells of different dates. Prior to Robert Mot, in 1574, the sign of three bells was often cast to indicate that it was a Whitechapel (or Aldgate) bell.

 * 1420 Robert Chamberlain of Aldgate
 * 1426 William Chamberlain
 * 1456 John Daniel
 * 1470 John Daniel's Successor
 * 1487 IW
 * 1500–1515 Thomas Bullisdon
 * 1506–1522 William Culverden
 * 1523 Thomas Lawrence
 * 1538 John Owen
 * 1553 Thomas Kempe
 * 1574 Robert Mot
 * 1606 Joseph Carter
 * 1610 William Carter
 * 1616 Thomas Bartlet
 * 1632 John Clifton
 * 1640 Anthony Bartlet
 * 1675 James Bartlet
 * 1700 Richard Phelps
 * 1735 Phelps and Lester
 * 1738 Thomas Lester
 * 1752 Lester and Pack
 * 1769 Lester, Pack and Chapman
 * 1769 Pack and Chapman
 * 1781 Chapman and Mears
 * 1784 William Mears
 * 1787 William and Thomas Mears
 * 1791 Thomas Mears I
 * 1805 Mears and Son
 * 1810 Thomas Mears II
 * 1844 Charles and George Mears
 * 1861 George Mears and Co
 * 1865 Mears and Stainbank
 * 1873 Robert Stainbank
 * 1884 Alfred Lawson
 * 1904 Arthur Hughes
 * 1916 Albert Hughes
 * 1945 Albert and William Hughes
 * 1950 Albert, William and Douglas Hughes
 * 1964 William and Douglas Hughes
 * 1972 William, Douglas and Alan Hughes
 * 1993 Douglas and Alan Hughes
 * 1997 Alan and Kathryn Hughes

title: Whitechapel Bell Foundry