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Tamar (Genesis)

In the Book of Genesis, Tamar was the daughter-in-law of Judah (twice), as well as the mother of two of his children: the twins Perez and Zerah.

Genesis narrative
In, Tamar is first described as marrying Judah's eldest son, Er. Because of his wickedness, Er was killed by God. By way of a levirate union, Judah asked his second son, Onan, to provide offspring for Tamar so that the family line might continue. This could have substantial economic repercussions, with any son born deemed the heir of the deceased Er, and able to claim the firstborn's double share of inheritance. However, if Er was childless, Onan would inherit as the oldest surviving son.

Onan performed coitus interruptus. His action displeased God and so, like his older brother, God killed him. At this point, Judah is portrayed as viewing Tamar to be cursed and therefore as being reluctant to give her his remaining and youngest son Shelah. Rather, he tells Tamar to wait for Shelah. However, even after Shelah has grown up, Judah still does not give Tamar to him in marriage.

Judah and Tamar

After Shelah had grown up, Judah became a widower. After Judah mourned the death of his wife, he planned on going to Timnath to shear his sheep. Upon hearing this news, Tamar disguised herself as a prostitute and immediately went to Timnath which was en route to Judah's destination. Upon arriving at a place near Timnath, where two roads met, Judah saw the woman but did not recognize her as Tamar because of the veil she wore over her face. Thinking she was a prostitute, he requested her services. Tamar's plan was to become pregnant by this ruse so that she might bear a child in Judah's line, since Judah had not given her to his son Shelah. So she played the part of a prostitute and struck a bargain with Judah for a goat, secured by his staff, seal, and cord. When Judah was able to have a goat sent to Timnath, in order to collect his staff and seal, the woman was nowhere to be found and no one knew of any prostitute in Timnath.

Three months later, Tamar was reported to Judah by family members to be pregnant. Upon hearing this news, Judah ordered that she be burned to death. Tamar sent the staff, seal, and cord to Judah with a message declaring that the owner of these items was the man who had made her pregnant. Upon recognizing these items as his security, Judah released Tamar from her sentence. Tamar gave birth to twins, Perez and Zerah. Their birth is reminiscent of the birth of Rebekah's twin sons. The midwife marks Zerah's hand with a scarlet cord when he emerges first from the womb, though Perez is born first. Perez is identified in the Book of Ruth as the ancestor of King David. The Genesis narrative also makes a note that Judah praised Tamar's righteousness and did not have further sexual relations with her.

According to Ethiopic tradition, Perez became the king of Persia.

Narrative criticism
Literary critics have focused on the relationship between the Judah story in chapter 38 and the Joseph story in chapters 37 and 39. Victor P. Hamilton notes some "intentional literary parallels" between the chapters, such as the exhortation to "identify" (38:25–26 and 37:32–33). John Emerton regards the connections as evidence for including chapter 38 in the J corpus, and suggests that the J writer dovetailed the Joseph and Judah traditions. Derek Kidner points out that the insertion of chapter 38 "creates suspense for the reader", but Robert Alter goes further and suggests it is a result of the "brilliant splicing of sources by a literary artist." He notes that the same verb "identify” will play "a crucial thematic role in the dénouement of the Joseph story when he confronts his brothers in Egypt, he recognizing them, they failing to recognize him."

J. A. Emerton also suggests that the Judah and Tamar narrative contains "aetiological motifs concerned with the eponymous ancestors of the clans of Judah.' Emerton notes that Dillman and Noth considered the account of the deaths of Er and Onan to "reflect the dying out of two clans of Judah bearing their names, or at least of their failure to maintain a separate existence." However, this view was "trenchantly criticized" by Thomas L. Thompson.

Along with the account of Lot and his daughters and Ruth and Boaz, Tamar and Judah is one of three instances of sperm stealing in the Bible, in which a woman seduces a male relative under false pretenses in order to become pregnant. Each case involves a direct ancestor of King David.

Jewish views
According to the Talmud, Judah's confession of guilt itself atoned for some of his prior faults, and resulted in his being divinely rewarded by a share in the future world. The Talmud also suggests that Tamar's actions were for the purpose of avoiding Judah's humiliation, although the Genesis Rabbah portrays her as boastful and unashamed in regard to the pregnancy itself.

Both the Genesis Rabbah and Talmud state that Tamar was an Israelite, and that Judah ended up marrying her and had further sexual liaisons with her as a result.

However, some argue that Tamar was Canaanite, since her father's residence was not implied to be outside of Canaan. She is also theorized to be the daughter of Melchizedek. One reason includes Judah prescribing a penalty similar to the one in against Tamar. In addition, Melchizedek was the only Canaanite priest who worshiped the "one true God".

Frymer-Kensky finds Tamar's traits of assertiveness in action, willingness to be unconventional, and deep loyalty to family to be qualities that distinguish her descendant, King David.

According to Legends of the Jews, Tamar was endowed with a prophetic gift which allowed her to know the future of her descendants. From this gift, she knew that she would be the ancestress of royal line of David and mighty prophets. While she was standing in gate of Timnah and wearing a veil; Judah, who was intoxicated from wine that twisted his understanding away, came to her. After that, he left her with three symbolical pledges; his staff, the stay of Tribe of Judah; his mantle, representation of his strength; and his signet-diadem, the glory of kingdom of Judah. When her state became known, Tamar was dragged before the court, in which Isaac, Jacob, and Judah as the judges.

As a judge, Judah gave a decision that Tamar was liable to the death penalty by burning according to the law, for she was the daughter of the high priest (Shem) who was accused of leading an unchaste demeanor. After Tamar showed the three pledges from the man who came to her, Judah's countenance grew pale to green color when he publicly confessed his relationship with her.

Christian views
According to the Gospel of Matthew, Judah and Tamar are ancestors of Jesus through their son Perez.

Chronological issues
Together with the brief preceding narrative of the birth of Er, Onan, and Shelah, and the subsequent narrative of the birth of Perez's children, the passage is often regarded as presenting a significant chronological issue, since it is surrounded by a narrative concerning Joseph; before the passage occurs, Joseph is described as being 17 years old, and after the passage, Joseph is described as meeting up with Judah 9 years after Joseph reached 30 years of age.

The gap, a maximum of 22 years, is somewhat small to contain within it Judah's first marriage, the birth of Er and Onan, Er's marriage to Tamar, Tamar's subsequent pregnancy by Judah, and the birth of Judah's children (Judah was the father and his daughter-in-law, Tamar, was the mother); the passage is also widely regarded as an abrupt change to the surrounding narrative Joseph story. According to some textual scholars, the reason for these features is that the passage derives from the Jahwist source, while the immediately surrounding narrative is from the Elohist, the two being spliced together at a later date.

The Jamieson-Fausset-Brown Bible Commentary proposes that Judah was about 20 years old when he settled in Adullam and that his sons, Er and Onan, were 17 years old when they married. The sons of Hezron and Hamul were considered to be part of Jacob's family that moved to Egypt since they were born there.

title: Tamar (Genesis)


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Talk:Emergence

Un-notified Litigation by Fourdee against Psychohistorian
There is a discussion about "un-notified litigation" available at Talk:Emergence/Litigation which was moved because it does not directly relate to the content of the article.

Emergence is not that complicated
About the mathematical proof of the emergence. can not any closed figure be used as a simpler proof??

I mean, you can make a circle of bend lines, and only when all the lines are put into place the emergence shows.

Mistake
From just a reader

"Constructal law – Romanian-American professor"

Seems wrong. Sorry I have no time/expertise to fix it. 46.253.188.161 (talk) 14:19, 13 December 2023 (UTC)

About strong emergency
The sentence: "Strong emergence describes the direct causal action of a high-level system on its components" suggests that there is always "downward causation" (probably influenced by Jaegwon Kim's argument about the "overdetermination" of the mental over the physical domain, if you consider the mental as strongly emergent). However, that is not true: you can say that the properties of a strongly emergent phenomenon supervene on the properties of its building blocks (just as the properties of a water molecule supervene on the properties of its building blocks: hydrogen and oxygen atoms). But that is not the same as the other way round: "downward causation", where the water molecule is supposed to change the properties of its building blocks. Moreover, "downward causation" is never a direct reversal of cause and effect, but always via a detour - that is normally called "feedback".

Moreover, the question is whether you can even consider the mental domain as a complex system as a case of strong emergence. I propose to change this.

Ypan1944 (talk) 15:36, 30 January 2024 (UTC)

 * As always, this will be a matter of checking what the best sources say about the matter, and following what they say as strictly as possible without close paraphrasing. Generalrelative (talk) 17:25, 30 January 2024 (UTC)

Philip Ball article on emergence in Quanta magazine
Peaceray (talk) 00:31, 17 June 2024 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Emergence


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Bund

Bund, BUND, or the Bund may refer to:

Arts, entertainment, and media

 * Der Bund, a German-language newspaper published in Bern, Switzerland
 * Shanghai Bund (TV series), a 2007 Chinese television remake of the 1980 Hong Kong television series The Bund produced by TVB
 * The Bund (TV series), a 1980 Hong Kong television series produced by TVB
 * The Bund II, a 1980 Hong Kong television series produced by TVB
 * The Bund III, a 1980–1981 Hong Kong television series produced by TVB
 * The Bund, a fictional refuge for vampires in the manga series Dance in the Vampire Bund

Organizations

 * Bund: Gemeinschaft für ein sozialistisches Leben, a communitarian group of Germans resisting the Nazis, 1924–1968
 * Bund für Umwelt und Naturschutz Deutschland or Friends of the Earth Germany, one of Germany's largest environmental protection organisations
 * Communist League (Japan), a radical Marxist student group, nicknamed "The Bund"
 * General Jewish Labour Bund in Lithuania, Poland and Russia, a political party founded in the Russian Empire
 * General Jewish Labour Bund in Poland, a political party founded in Poland
 * German American Bund, a pro-Nazi pre–World War II organization
 * International Jewish Labor Bund, New York–based international Jewish socialist organization
 * The Deutscher Bund (German Confederation), an association of 39 German-speaking states in Central Europe, created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 to coordinate the economies of separate German-speaking countries

People with the name

 * Károly Bund (1869–1931), Hungarian forestry engineer and early environmentalist
 * Lisa Bund (born 1988), German pop singer

Places

 * Old Bund, a waterfront area in Ningbo, China
 * The Bund, a waterfront area in Shanghai, China

Other uses

 * Bundesanleihe, German government-issued bonds, commonly referred to as "the Bund" or "Bunds"
 * Bunding, a structure designed to prevent inundation or breaches in construction
 * Bundism, a Jewish socialist and secular movement founded in the Russian Empire in 1897

title: Bund


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George Washington University

The George Washington University (GW or GWU) is a private federally-chartered research university in Washington, D.C. Originally named Columbian College, it was chartered in 1821 by the United States Congress and is the first university founded under Washington D.C.'s jurisdiction. It is one of nation's six federally chartered universities.

GW is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very High Research Activity." It is the only member of the Association of American Universities in Washington, D.C. The university offers degree programs in seventy-one disciplines, enrolling around 11,500 undergraduate and 15,000 graduate students. The school's athletic teams, the George Washington Revolutionaries, play in the NCAA Division I Atlantic 10 Conference. GW also annually hosts numerous political events, including the World Bank and International Monetary Fund's Annual Meetings.

Several notable individuals have served as trustees, including two presidents, John Quincy Adams and Ulysses S. Grant, and Alexander Graham Bell. Notable alumni, faculty, and affiliates include 16 foreign heads of state or government, 28 United States senators, 27 United States governors, 18 U.S. Cabinet members, five Nobel laureates, two Olympic medalists, two Academy Award winners, and a Golden Globe winner. GW has over 1,100 active alumni in the U.S. Foreign Service and is one of the largest feeder schools for the diplomatic corps.

Founding
The first President of the United States, George Washington, long favored the establishment of a university in a central part of the United States. He wrote to the U.S. Congress and others in favor of it. Washington envisioned the new university would become a central part of the new national capital, and said he hoped the university would educate the most promising students from across the country while reaping the benefits of the nation's capital.

On July 9, 1799, Washington included a bequest of his shares in the Potomac Company in his last will and testament, though the shares lost their value and no educational institution ever benefited from them. His desire was shared and encouraged after his death by subsequent U.S. presidents Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, who both expressed the need to carry out Washington's plans.

In 1821, the Baptist missionary and leading minister Luther Rice secured funds from James Monroe, John Quincy Adams, John C. Calhoun, and other benefactors for a college to educate citizens from throughout the young nation in Washington, D.C. A large building was constructed on College Hill, which is now known as Meridian Hill. On February 9, 1821, President Monroe approved the congressional charter, creating the non-denominational Columbian College. Washingtonians, Congress, and the academic community celebrated this new institution as the fulfillment of Washington's vision. In 1824, the first commencement was considered an important event for the young city. In attendance were President Monroe, John C. Calhoun, Henry Clay, the Marquis de Lafayette, and other dignitaries.

Like much of Washington, D.C., George Washington University traces its origins back to the Freemasons. The Bible that the President of the George Washington University uses to swear an oath on upon inauguration is the Bible of Freemason George Washington. Freemasonry symbols are prominently displayed throughout the campus, including the foundation stones of many of the university buildings.

19th century
During the 19th century, most of the university's students came from the South. As the American Civil War commenced in 1861, many left their studies to join the Confederate States Army. However, the college was still fractured. Professor of anatomy A. Y. P. Garnett left the university to serve as Jefferson Davis' physician, and Robert King Stone stayed in Washington, D.C., serving as physician to Abraham Lincoln. The college was temporarily turned into a Union Army military camp during the Civil War. Poet Walt Whitman worked at this camp while visiting his wounded brother.

In 1873, following the Civil War, Columbian College was renamed Columbian University and moved to an urban downtown location centered on 15th and H streets.

20th century
In 1904, Columbian University was renamed George Washington University following an agreement with the George Washington Memorial Association. In honor of George Washington, funds from the memorial association were donated to construct Lisner Auditorium.

In 1912, the university moved its principal operations to the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, D.C. Many of the colleges of the George Washington University are notable for their age and history. The law school is the oldest law school in the District of Columbia. The medical school is the 11th-oldest medical school in the nation and the first established in the nation's capital. The Columbian College was founded in 1821 and is the oldest unit of the university. The Elliott School of International Affairs was formalized in 1898.

In the 1930s, the university was a major center for theoretical physics. George Gamow, a cosmotologist, produced the Big Bang theory at the university in the 1930s and 1940s. On January 26, 1039, Niels Bohr announced that Otto Hahn had successfully split the atom at the Fifth Washington Conference on theoretical physics in the Hall of Government.

During the Vietnam War era, Thurston Hall, an undergraduate dormitory housing 1,116 students at 1900 F Street NW, located three blocks from the White House, was a staging ground for student anti-war demonstrations.

In 1996, the university purchased the Mount Vernon College for Women in the city's Palisades neighborhood that became the school's coeducational Mount Vernon Campus. The campus was first utilized in 1997 for women only but became co-educational in a matter of years. The Mount Vernon campus is now totally integrated into the GW community, serving as a complement to the Foggy Bottom campus. In 1999, GW hosted the Town Hall with President Clinton, the first presidential town hall to ever be webcast live.

21st century
In December 2006, the university appointed Johns Hopkins University provost Steven Knapp as the 16th President of the George Washington University, and his presidency began August 1, 2007. In 2017, Thomas LeBlanc, provost of the University of Miami, was named the President of the George Washington University.

In July 2020, the university began forming special committees to look at possible name changes to an on-campus building and the school moniker. In a statement on the university's website, LeBlanc said one of the panels would examine the Colonials moniker, which critics said conjured up racism, violence, and genocide. In 2022, the Colonials name was officially retired. The following year, in 2023, the new nickname, the George Washington Revolutionaries, was announced. Another panel looked into renaming the Marvin Center, which was named after former school President Cloyd Heck Marvin, a segregationist.

In January 2022, LeBlanc was succeeded by former Washington University in St. Louis Chancellor Mark S. Wrighton as interim university president. A year later, in January 2023, the university named Ellen Granberg, provost at Rochester Institute of Technology, as the university's new president, with a start date of July 1, 2023.

Campuses
GW has three fully integrated campuses in the Washington, D.C. area: the Foggy Bottom campus, the Mount Vernon campus, and the Virginia Science and Technology campus. The Foggy Bottom Campus houses the vast majority of academic programming. Residence halls exist on the Foggy Bottom and Mount Vernon campuses.

The GW library system contains the Gelman Library, the Himmelfarb Health Sciences Library, the Burns Law Library, Eckles Library (named for Charles Ellison Eckles and Anita Heurich Eckles), and the Virginia Science and Technology Library. The GW Library System is a constituent member of the Washington Research Library Consortium, which allows for resource sharing among the university libraries of the Washington metropolitan area.

Foggy Bottom
The main GW campus consists of 43 acre in historic Foggy Bottom and is located a few blocks from the White House, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, State Department and the National Mall. Barring a few outlying buildings, the boundaries of campus are delineated by (running clockwise from Washington Circle) Pennsylvania Avenue, 19th Street, E Street, Virginia Avenue, 24th Street, and New Hampshire Avenue. The university owns much of the property in Foggy Bottom and leases it to various tenants, including the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. Other institutions in proximity include the U.S. State Department, the Kennedy Center, the U.S. Institute of Peace, the Watergate complex, and embassies of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Mexico, Saudi Arabia, Spain, and Uruguay. The University Yard is the main open space and historic heart of the university. Along with George Washington's main library, Gelman Library, it constitutes the hub of the main campus. The seven-story Gelman Library building contains over two million volumes and is constructed in the Brutalist architectural style of the 1970s. It features a concrete façade punctuated by windows that are divided by projecting vertical slabs. For most of the year, parts of the library are open 24 hours a day, seven days per week for use by students, faculty, and staff. The library's seventh floor includes the Special Collections Research Center, National Security Archives, Global Resources Center, and Kiev Library.

The National Security Archives (NSA) is a research institution that publishes declassified U.S. government files concerning selected topics of American foreign policy. It was a National Security Archive Freedom of Information Act request that eventually made the Central Intelligence Agency's so-called "Family Jewels" public.

Close to the library is Lisner Auditorium and a large open area between them is known as Kogan Plaza. Southeast of the plaza and located near Monroe Hall and Hall of Government is the Monroe Court, a landscaped area with a large fountain. The Foggy Bottom–GW Washington Metro station is located at the intersection of 23rd and I Streets NW due south of Washington Circle, and provides access to the Orange, Blue and Silver lines. The University Hospital is located next to the Metro station entrance.

The Foggy Bottom campus contains most of the residence halls in which GW students live. The most notable include Shenkman Hall, Thurston Hall, Madison Hall, Potomac House, Fulbright Hall, Mitchell Hall, Munson Hall, Jacqueline Bouvier Kennedy Onassis Hall, Phillip Amsterdam Hall, Guthridge Hall, Madison Hall, Townhouse Row, South Hall, and the newest, District House, which opened in 2016.

In late 2007, construction began on a large mixed-use residential, office and retail development located on the site of the old GW Hospital (Square 54) and just east of the Foggy Bottom–GW Metrorail station. It was the second-largest undeveloped lot in the District of Columbia at the time of initial construction activity. In 2014, the university assumed ownership of the Corcoran Gallery of Art, the oldest private art museum in Washington, D.C. and independent college of art and design. The college of art and design became The Corcoran School of the Arts and Design under the Columbian College of Arts and Sciences. The National Gallery of Art will acquire many of the 17,000 pieces of art from the Corcoran and the rest will be donated to other museums around the country. In May 2014, GW opened the Milken Institute School of Public Health, a nine-story building that received LEED certification for sustainability features including a green roof, rainwater collection system, and special heating and air conditioning technologies that helps mass air displacement. The Textile Museum reopened to the public in March 2015 after the institution merged with the university in 2011 and closed it for renovations two years later.

Mount Vernon
In 1996, the university purchased the Mount Vernon College for Women in the city's Palisades neighborhood that became the school's coeducational Mount Vernon Campus. Initially, the Mount Vernon Campus remained exclusively a women's college until 1999 when GW changed its operations to a co-ed facility. It was purchased so that the university could gain more space and valuable land for athletics, such as for the women's soccer team. Now known as the Mount Vernon campus, it is totally integrated into the GW community, serving as a complement to the Foggy Bottom campus. The campus has transportation systems connecting the students to the GW campus in Foggy Bottom. It also includes Eckles Library, six residence halls, Lloyd Gymnasium, The GW-Mount Vernon Athletic Complex and other various campus facilities.

Virginia
The George Washington University also operates a research and graduate campus in Ashburn, Virginia (near Dulles International Airport) which was established in 1991. Starting with a donation of 50 acre from Robert H. Smith, the campus grew to 101 acre by 2010. Besides graduate education, this campus also offers undergraduate education to students, including Health Science, Cybersecurity& Information Technology, and Nursing.

Additionally, the university also operates several other graduate satellite education centers. These include the Alexandria Graduate Education Center in Alexandria, the Graduate Education Center in Arlington, and the Hampton Roads Center in Newport News. The Virginia Science and Technology Campus hosts research and educational partnerships with industry and government officials and offers more than 20 graduate degrees.

The Virginia Science and Technology Campus is home to the first walkable solar-power sidewalk in the world. The project began in 2012 and was completed two years later, inaugurated in October 2014.

Organization
George Washington University is governed by the GW Board of Trustees, the President of the George Washington University, provost, deans, and department chairs. The university employs over 6,000 faculty members, administrators, and support staff. In 2007, Steven Knapp was named the university's sixteenth president.; he had previously taught at the University of California, Berkeley and was later the provost at Johns Hopkins University. The current President of the George Washington University is Ellen Granberg. Ulysses S. Grant was a member of the Board of Trustees, and his Grandson, Ulysses S. Grant III, was Vice President of GW. John Quincy Adams was also a member of the board of trustees.

Schools and colleges
GW is organized into fourteen schools and colleges, each with a different dean and organization. The Columbian College of Arts and Sciences was the original academic unit of the university. The Medical School is the 11th oldest medical school in the nation and the first to open in the District of Columbia. The Law School was also the first law school in the District of Columbia. Each academic unit has a distinct identity within the broader university. The Graduate School of Political Management and the Corcoran School of the Arts and Design were organized outside of the university, later to join in 1987 and 2014, respectively.

Columbian College of Arts and Sciences
The Columbian College of Arts and Sciences (CCAS) is the oldest and largest college in the university. It was founded in 1821; at the beginning of the university's history, there was no distinction between this college and the university. The School of Media and Public Affairs (SMPA), and the Trachtenberg School of Public Policy and Public Administration (SPPPA) belong to this college, although they are run separately. The Columbian College was among the first American institutions to grant a Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.), in 1888. The Columbian College is notable for its academic diversity, and offers a wide range of majors and courses of study. The Columbian College contains the Trachtenberg School of Public Policy and Public Administration, the School of Media and Public Affairs, and the Corcoran School of the Arts and Design. The Columbian College is primarily housed in Philips Hall, Rome Hall, Smith Hall of Art, MPA Building, Monroe Hall, Hall of Government, 1922 F Street, Corcoran Hall, Bell Hall, Samson Hall, Lisner Hall, and many other places around campus. The college is also present on the Mount Vernon and Virginia Campuses.

Trachtenberg School of Public Policy and Public Administration
The Trachtenberg School of Public Policy and Public Administration is a graduate school in the Columbian College of Arts and Sciences. Consistently ranked as one of the top Public Affairs Schools in the United States, it is ranked 11th nationwide by U.S. News & World Report. The Trachtenberg School offers Master of Public Policy, Master of Public Administration, and PhD degrees in Public Policy and Public Administration. The school works in partnership with the Elliott School of International Affairs, the School of Public Health and Health Services, and the Graduate School of Education & Human Development to offer a variety of concentrations for its graduates.

School of Media and Public Affairs
The School of Media and Public Affairs (SMPA), although run separately, belongs to the Columbian College of Arts in Sciences. It offers two undergraduate degrees, Journalism and Mass Communication and Political Communication and a master's degree in Media and Public Affairs. It is housed in the same building as the Graduate School of Political Management. The Public Affairs Project at GW, part of SMPA, is responsible for the creation and production of the PBS special, Planet Forward. School of Media and Public Affairs (SMPA) was the first in the nation to offer a bachelor's degree in Political Communication. The program boasts a faculty of retired and current professionals – including CNN correspondents, journalists, political analysts, and campaign professionals. The school is consistently ranked in the top 10 programs in the nation.

Corcoran School of the Arts and Design
The Corcoran School of the Arts and Design is one of the oldest arts education institutions in the United States. It is a school of the Columbian College of Arts and Sciences. It is housed in the Corcoran Gallery of Art, the oldest private cultural institution in Washington, D.C.

Formerly an independent institution, known as the Corcoran College of Art and Design, the institution later merged the college operations with the George Washington University. The school retained over 20 full-time faculty members, and the college will continue to function as a separate entity within the university. The school has a historic building facing the White House on 17th Street.

School of Business
The George Washington School of Business was established in 1928 with a $1 million gift by the Supreme Council of Scottish Rite Freemasonry Southern Jurisdiction. On February 6, 2006, the chairman and CEO of FedEx, Frederick W. Smith, opened a new complex for the school called Ric and Dawn Duquès Hall, which today houses the business school along with the Norma Lee and Morton Funger Hall.

, GW's undergraduate business program was ranked 42nd nationally and its International Business program was ranked ninth by U.S. News & World Report.

School of Medicine and Health Sciences
Founded in 1824, the School of Medicine and Health Sciences (SMHS), or simply the George Washington School of Medicine, was the first school of medicine in Washington, D.C.

In 1981, George Washington University Hospital became the center of the national spotlight when President Ronald Reagan was rushed to the emergency room after an attempted assassination.

GW Hospital's emergency department was later renamed the Ronald Reagan Institute of Emergency Medicine. Other politicians, such as former Vice President Dick Cheney, come to GW for routine and emergency procedures. Cheney and wife Lynne Cheney helped to start the Richard B. and Lynne V. Cheney Cardiovascular Institute in 2006. Others notable patients include former First Lady Laura Bush, who was treated for a pinched nerve. SMHS is primarily housed in the GW Hospital, Ross Hall, and many other centers along K Street and throughout the city.

GW was once home to the George Washington Dental College, but this department would close in 1921 due to budget constraints.

School of Engineering and Applied Science
The School of Engineering and Applied Science (SEAS) was founded on October 1, 1884, as the Corcoran Scientific School of Columbian University. The school separated from the Columbian College in 1962 and was one of the first to accept women for degree candidacy in engineering. The bazooka was invented at the SEAS in 1942. The school moved into the new Science and Engineering Hall in D.C. in March 2015.

Elliott School of International Affairs
The Elliott School of International Affairs (ESIA) was founded in 1898, as the School of Comparative Jurisprudence and Diplomacy. Under President Lloyd Elliott, the school separated from Columbian College. On September 3, 2003, alumnus Colin Powell opened a new complex for this school at 1957 E Street NW in front of the Department of State. , its undergraduate program was ranked eighth globally by Foreign Policy magazine, while the graduate program is currently ranked seventh in the world. ESIA is primarily housed in Elliott Hall at 1957 E St.

School of Nursing
The history of nursing education at GW spans more than 100 years. In 2002, Jean Johnson, Ph.D., RN, FAAN, then senior associate dean for Health Sciences, met with the nursing faculty to assess GW's capacity to create GW's degree programs. The faculty moved forward to develop an MSN in the GW School of Medicine and Health Sciences with programs in adult nurse practitioner, family nurse practitioner, nursing leadership and management, and clinical research administration. The first MSN class was admitted in 2004.

Meanwhile, approval was also obtained to develop a Department of Nursing Education. As the first and only chair of the department, Ellen Dawson, Ph.D., RN, ANP, led the MSN program to accreditation in time for the graduation of the first class in 2006. Also, she spearheaded the development of both the doctor of nursing practice (DNP) program and the 15-month (four consecutive semesters) accelerated second-degree bachelor of nursing science (ABSN) program located in Ashburn, VA. The first classes for these degrees were admitted in 2007 and 2009, respectively. In 2010, the GW School of Nursing was re-established and is now the university's tenth academic institution, with Jean Johnson and Ellen Dawson as the founding deans.

Law School
The George Washington University Law School was established in 1826 and is the oldest law school in the District of Columbia. Supreme Court Justices Clarence Thomas, William Strong, David J. Brewer, Willis Van Devanter and John Marshall Harlan were among those who served on its faculty. Chief Justice John Roberts, Justice Sonia Sotomayor, Justice Samuel Alito, and Justice Antonin Scalia presided over its moot court in 2006, 2007 and 2009, respectively. The law school is located primarily on the east side of University Yard.

Graduate School of Education and Human Development
Although teacher education has been offered since the university's founding in 1904, the Graduate School of Education and Human Development officially started in 1909. The school turned its focus to graduate education in 1994.

College of Professional Studies
The George Washington University College of Professional Studies (CPS) was founded during the Trachtenberg Presidency. The Graduate School of Political Management is included within the college. CPS offers courses on the Foggy Bottom and Virginia campuses.

Graduate School of Political Management
The Graduate School of Political Management (GSPM) is an academic unit of the College of Professional Studies. GSPM offers graduate degrees in legislative affairs, political management, and other related disciplines. The current director is Lara Brown.

Milken Institute School of Public Health
Established in July 1997, and renamed in March 2014, the Milken Institute School of Public Health brought together three longstanding university programs in the schools of medicine, business, and education that have since expanded substantially. Today, more than 900 students from nearly every U.S. state and more than 35 nations pursue undergraduate, graduate, and doctoral-level degrees in public health. Its student body is one of the most ethnically diverse among the nation's private schools of public health.

The School also offers an array of joint degree programs, allowing students to couple a Juris Doctor (JD) with the Master of Public Health (MPH), or to combine an MPH with a Doctor of Medicine (MD) or an MA in International Affairs. An MPH/Physician Assistant program, the first in the world, is available at the Milken Institute SPH, as is the opportunity to serve as a Peace Corps volunteer while pursuing an MPH.

Admission
GW is the largest higher education institution in Washington, D.C. There are approximately 10,000 full-time undergraduates studying at George Washington University, and 14,000 graduate students. These students come from all 50 states and over 120 countries. Nearly 900 students participate in GW's Study Abroad Programs each semester in 50 countries. , George Washington University no longer required the SAT and ACT test scores for applicants in order to boost the enrollment of disadvantaged students. GW tuition was guaranteed to remain at the freshman rate for up to ten continuous (full-time) semesters of undergraduate attendance at the university. GW no longer offers fixed tuition. The 2021–2022 academic year tuition rate was $59,780. Students were awarded $308.1 million in financial-aid during the 2017–2018 academic year. For the FY2011 cohort of students, the student loan default rate was 1.4, one of the lowest in the nation. For the 2010–2011 school year, the freshman retention rate was 94.3%. GW requires that students live on campus for their first two years of enrollment as undergraduates. According to self-provided data by George Washington University, as of the 2011–2012 academic year, the acceptance rate for the Medical School was 3%, receiving 10,588 applications. GW Law School's acceptance was 23%, receiving 10,021 applications. GW's Undergraduate studies' acceptance rate was 32%, receiving 21,433 applications. Admission to George Washington was at 43% for undergraduates in 2023.

In September 2013, The GW Hatchet reported that the university had a need-aware admissions policy, even though it claimed to have a need-blind policy at the time. The university subsequently admitted that its admissions policy was, in fact, need-aware.

Enrollment
During the 2013–2014 academic year, there were 5,015 undergraduates enrolled in the Columbian College of Arts and Sciences, 2,005 in the Elliott School of International Affairs, 1,566 in the School of Business, 774 in the School of Engineering and Applied Science, 367 in the George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, 174 in the Milken Institute School of Public Health, and 153 in the School of Nursing.

Students come from all 50 U.S. states. The top states include New York, California, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Florida, Illinois and Connecticut.

George Washington University has many international students at both the undergraduate and graduate levels. During the 2013–2014 academic year, there were over 130 countries represented among the student body. The most represented countries represented were China, South Korea, India, Saudi Arabia, Canada, Mexico, United Kingdom, Turkey, France, Nigeria, Pakistan, Japan, Iran, Germany, Brazil, Colombia, and Vietnam.

Rankings
GW was ranked tied for 25th of the "Top Universities for Producing Billionaires 2016–2017" by Times Higher Education's World University Rankings, which also ranks GW as 51st of the "Top 100 Universities for Producing Millionaires" in the world.

Apart from its 61st national ranking, Forbes ranks GW 44th among "Research Universities", 60th among "Private Colleges", 43rd among universities in the U.S. Northeast, and 287th among university rankings of "America's Best Value Colleges".

GW was ranked the 66th world's wealthiest university in 2015.

The Princeton Review consistently ranks George Washington University in the Top 10 for the following categories: • Most Politically Active

• Dorms Like Palaces

• Great College Towns

• Best in the Northeast

• Best College Newspaper

• Most Popular Study Abroad Program

In 2012, the university received national attention when GW officials announced that they had misreported admissions data on their student body for over a decade, overstating the number of students who had graduated from high school in the top ten percent of their classes due to a "data reporting error". Consequently, U.S. News & World Report removed the school from its rankings and altered the GW's entry to being unranked for the 2013. The university was reinstated a year later in the 2014 rankings.
 * Misreported admissions data

The Princeton Review ranked GW first for "Top Colleges or Universities for Internship Opportunities." GW is consistently ranked by The Princeton Review in the top "Most Politically Active" Schools.
 * Program rankings

U.S. News & World Report ranks GW's international business program as eighth best in the world, its MBA program as 51st best, and its undergraduate business program as 38th best. The Financial Times ranks GWSB as the 47th best business school in the United States.

Foreign Policy ranks the Elliott School's Masters in International Affairs as the seventh best in the world in its 2018 "Inside the Ivory Tower" annual report. Foreign Policy ranks the Elliott School as being the eighth in the "Top U.S. Undergraduate Institutions to Study International Relations 2018."

U.S. News & World Report ranks the Trachtenberg School of Public Policy and Public Administration as the 10th best public affairs school in the United States and as having the 6th best Global Policy program, 11th best public management program, the 14th best health policy program, and the 20th best social policy program in the U.S.

The 2020 U.S. News & World Report ranks GW Law School as fifth best in the U.S. for its international law program, fifth best for intellectual law, second best for part-time law, and as the 22nd best law school in the United States. The National Law Journal ranked GW Law 21st for law schools that sent the highest percentage of new graduates to NLJ 250 law firms, the largest and most prominent law practices in the U.S.

George Washington is ranked 61st for the "Best Global Universities for Social Sciences and Public Health 2018" by U.S. News & World Report.

The Times Higher Education ranks GW as having the 64th best law program in the world in 2019.

Research
George Washington University is the largest research university in Washington, D.C. According to the National Science Foundation, the university spent $260 million on research and development in 2018, ranking it 89th in the nation. In 2023, GW was invited to join the Association of American Universities, making it the only member of the research university organization in Washington D.C.

Centers and institutes
George Washington University has many research centers, including:

• Sigur Center for Asian Studies
 * Centers

• Center for the Advanced Study of Human Paleobiology

• GW Cancer Center

• Center for Aging, Health, & Humanities

• Center for Equity and Excellence in Education

• GW Institute for Biomimetics and Bioinspired Engineering

• Center for Otolaryngology Microsurgery Education & Training (COMET)

• The Dr. Cyrus & Myrtle Katzen Cancer Research Center

• McCormick Genomic and Proteomic Center (MGPC)

• National Crash Analysis Center

• Biostatistics Center

• Regulatory Studies Center

• Center for the Connected Consumer

• The Project on Forward Engagement

• GW Project on Extremism

• Eleanor Roosevelt Papers Project

• Jackie Robinson Project

• First Federal Congress Project

• The Gill-Lebovic Center for Community Health

• Institute for International Economic Policy
 * Institutes:

• Institute for Public Diplomacy and Global Communication

• Institute for Security and Conflict Studies

• Institute for International Science and Technology Policy

• Institute for Global and International Studies

• Institute for Disaster and Fragility Resilience

• Institute for European, Russian, and Eurasian Studies

• Institute for Middle East Studies

• Institute for African Studies

• Institute for Korean Studies

• Cisneros Hispanic Leadership Institute

• George Washington Institute for Neuroscience

• George Washington Institute for Public Policy

• GW Cancer Institute

• GW Solar Institute

• GW Institute for Biomedical Sciences

• GW Institute for Biomedical Engineering

• Rodham Institute

• Ronald Reagan Institute of Emergency Medicine

• Space Policy Institute

• Institute for Politics, Democracy & the Internet

• Institute for Security and Conflict Studies

• Computational Biology Institute

• Institute for Biomedical Engineering

• Jacobs Institute of Women's Health

• Washington Institute of Surgical Education (WISE)

• Global Food Institute

Student life
The university is located in downtown Washington, D.C., near the Kennedy Center, embassies, and other cultural events. Students are known as highly politically active; Uni in the USA stated that "politics at George Washington is about as progressive as it gets".

GW has a Division I athletics program that includes men's baseball, basketball, cross country, golf, gymnastics, women's lacrosse, women's rowing, soccer, women's softball, swimming, women's tennis, women's volleyball and men's water polo. Colonials athletics teams compete in the Atlantic 10 Conference. The Division II men's and women's Rugby Teams both compete in the Potomac Rugby Union.

Student organizations
Most student organizations are run through the George Washington University Student Association (SA). The SA is fashioned after the federal government with an executive, legislative, and judicial branch. There are over 500 registered student organizations on campus. The largest student organization on campus, the GW College Democrats have hosted speakers such as CNN contributor Donna Brazile and former DNC Chairman Howard Dean among many others. Likewise, the GW College Republicans, the largest CR chapter in the nation, have been visited by politicians like John Ashcroft former Florida Governor Jeb Bush and former President George W. Bush. The International Affairs Society (IAS) runs the university's internationally top-ranked Model United Nations team, in addition to hosting yearly high school and middle school Model UN conferences on campus. This organization also hosts various foreign dignitaries, US Government officials, and subject matter experts to further inform and foster international understanding both in the university's student body and the greater D.C. community.

There are also several a cappella performance groups on campus. The university's school-sponsored a cappella group, the co-ed GW Troubadours, has been a presence on campus since the mid-1950s and regularly records studio albums and travels internationally with the Department of Music. The Sons of Pitch, GW's only male a cappella group, has been around since 2003, and the female group the GW Pitches was founded in 1996. All the groups are extremely committed to charity work, with the Troubadours holding an annual philanthropic concert in the fall entitled "Acappellapalooza," and the Sons of Pitch holding one in the spring named "The United States of A-Cappella." In the case of the former, groups from GW are drawn for a concert, in the latter, groups from around the nation. The groups have raised tens of thousands of dollars for various charitable causes. Additionally, the university is home to the Voice gospel choir, a group that sings gospel music, the GW Vibes, a co-ed group focusing on soulful music. The GW Sirens, another all-girls group, and the GW Motherfunkers, a coed top 40 group, were created in 2003 and 2012, respectively. Each year, the groups duke it out at the Battle of the A-Cappella groups, one of the biggest student events on GW's campus. Another student group, the Emergency Medical Response Group (EMeRG) provides an all-volunteer 24/7 ambulance service for the campus and the Foggy Bottom/West End community at no cost. EMeRG has been active on campus since 1994 and has advanced from bike response into a two ambulance system that is sanctioned by the District of Columbia Department of Health and DC Fire and EMS (DCFEMS). EMeRG also plays an active role in special events in around the DC area including the Marine Corps Marathon, National Marathon, Cherry Blossom Race, Commencement, Inauguration and other events in downtown D.C. and on the National Mall.

Greek life
GW has a large Greek community with over 3,000 students consisting of just under 27 percent of the undergraduate population. Greek organizations are divided up between and governed by the Inter-Fraternity Council with 14 chapters, the Panhellenic Association with 11 chapters, the National Pan-Hellenic Council with seven chapters, and the Multicultural Greek Council with seven chapters as well. Other Greek-life, known as "Alternative Greek Life" or simply "Alt-Greek", exists on campus in the form of professional, community-serviced based and honor groups although not under the university's traditional Greek life governing structure but instead are considered separate student organizations.

Scholarly societies
There are chapters of many varied academic groups at the university. The local chapter of the Society of Physics Students was at one time under the auspices of world-renowned scientists like George Gamow, Ralph Asher Alpher, Mario Schoenberg and Edward Teller, who have all taught at the university. The Enosinian Society, founded in 1822, is one of the university's oldest student organizations. Invited speakers included Daniel Webster.

Campus media
There are four major news sources on campus: the independent student-run newspaper The GW Hatchet, which publishes articles online daily and a print edition weekly; The Rival GW, an online-only student-run publication; the online-only radio station, WRGW; and the university's official news source, GW Today. GW also publishes a peer-reviewed journal, The International Affairs Review, which is run by graduate students at the Elliott School.

WRGW
WRGW is the student-run radio station of George Washington University. It broadcasts live every day online throughout the school year between 8am and 2am. The studio is in the ground floor of the University Student Center, where it has been located since 1999. While now only available on the internet, the online broadcasts are named for a carrier current radio station that first operated on campus in 1958. That station was created as a result of efforts by GWU's Radio Club, which was founded in February 1929.

Environmental sustainability
George Washington University was ranked number 12 on The Sierra Club's magazine "Cool Schools List" for 2014 and was included in the Princeton Review's Guide to 322 Green Schools for 2013. The campus has a campus-wide building energy efficiency program along with nine LEED-certified buildings including the Milken Institute School of Public Health building. In 2016, university officials rejected demands by the student body for the university to divest from fossil fuels.

Religious organizations
George Washington University has an active Newman Center that supports the growing Catholic student community on campus. Its current chaplain is Fr. Benjamin Petty.

GW Hillel serves more than 3,000 Jewish students and is one of the largest campus Hillel International organizations in the United States. In 2021, a multistory building was erected in the middle of GW's campus.

Athletics
George Washington University is a member of the Atlantic 10 Conference and most of its teams play at the NCAA Division I level. All indoor sports play at the Charles E. Smith Center, an indoor arena on the Foggy Bottom campus. Outdoor events are held at the Mount Vernon campus Athletic Complex. The university's colors are buff and blue, with buff sometimes represented as gold or yellow. The colors were taken from the colors of George Washington's uniform during the Revolutionary War.

The official fight song is "Hail to the Buff and Blue", composed in 1924 by GW student Eugene F. Sweeney and rewritten in 1989 by Patrick M. Jones. The song is tolled twice-daily by bells atop Corcoran Hall, at 12:15pm and 6:00pm.

Baseball
The GW baseball team, founded in 1891, is a member of the Atlantic 10 Conference, which is part of the National Collegiate Athletic Association's Division I. The team plays its home games at Barcroft Park in Arlington County, Virginia, and Gregg Ritchie is the team's coach.

Football
The university had a college football team from 1881 to 1966. The team played home games primarily at Griffith Stadium and later at Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium. In 1966, the football program was discontinued due to a lack of adequate facilities and the university's desire to develop an on-campus fieldhouse for basketball and other sports. GW has one alumni in the Pro Football Hall of Fame, Alphonse Leemans.

Men's basketball
The George Washington Revolutionaries men's basketball team is coached by Chris Caputo, former coach at the University of Miami.

Spirit programs
The GW Spirit Program includes a co-ed Cheer Team, the First Ladies Dance team, and the university mascot. The Revolutionaries mascot is named George, and is portrayed by a student wearing an outfit inspired by a uniform worn by General Washington. In 2012, George took first place at the National Cheerleaders Association Mascot Competition and is the university's first national champion. The spirit program also includes the GW Brass, directed by Professor Benno Fritz.

Club sports
The university also has various club sports, which are not varsity sports, but compete against other colleges. Examples include: boxing, basketball, volleyball, ice hockey, figure skating, fencing, lacrosse, rugby, soccer, triathlon, tennis, ultimate frisbee, cricket, Brazilian jiu-jitsu, water polo, equestrian, and others.

GW Balance Dance Group
GW Balance is a popular dance and choreography group at the George Washington University. The club performs once every semester.

Notable alumni
George Washington University alumni have included many current and past political figures, both in the United States and abroad. 16 GW alumni have served as foreign heads of state or government with four currently serving as of 2019). Many alumni have held U.S. Cabinet positions, including former Attorney General William Barr, former acting Secretary of Defense Mark Esper, and former Secretary of the Interior David Bernhardt. GW is one of the schools with the most alumni that have served in the U.S. Congress. Notable recent GW alumni members of congress include Harry Reid (Senate Majority Leader for most of the Obama Presidency), Elizabeth Warren (2020 presidential candidate), Eric Cantor (House Majority Leader, 2011–2014), and Robert Byrd (President pro tempore of the Senate under President Bush and President Obama). Alumni have served as governors of 19 U.S. states, as well as the District of Columbia and Guam, among others. Some alumni serving in President Trump's White House include current White House Director of Strategic Communications Mercedes Schlapp and White House Cabinet Secretary Bill McGinley. Other prominent U.S. politicians include Senator J. William Fulbright, former Secretary of State Colin Powell, former FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover, former CIA Director Allen Dulles and his brother, former Secretary of State John Foster Dulles. Also, current Premier of Bermuda Edward David Burt (youngest in history) and current Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Bhutan Tshering Wangchuk are GW alumni. Former associate director for National Preparedness at the United States Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), John Brinkerhoff was a GW alumni.

In business, Lee Kun-hee (MBA), Chairman of Samsung who is credited with transforming the company into one of the largest electronics manufacturers, Scott Kirby (MS), CEO of United Airlines, Kathy J. Warden (MBA), President and CEO of Northrop Grumman and John F.W. Rogers (BA), Executive Vice President, Chief of Staff and Secretary to the Board of Goldman Sachs. Notable company founders include Robert A. Altman (JD), co-founder of ZeniMax Media, Elaine Wynn, co-founder of Wynn Resorts, and Tom Cortese, co-founder of Peloton.

Science and technology alumni include Julius Axelrod (PhD), Nobel Laureate and medical researcher, Ralph Asher Alpher, National Medal of Science laureate, physicist and "father" of the Big Bang theory, Jack Edmonds, noted computer scientist and mathematician and one of the creators of combinatorial optimization, Walter O. Snelling, who first identified propane and researched how propane could be liquefied and used as a viable energy resource, Charles Browne Fleet, inventor of ChapStick. In addition, 7 NASA astronauts are alumni, including Charles Camarda and Serena Auñón-Chancellor.

In arts, entertainment and media, writer and filmmaker William Peter Blatty (MA), author of The Exorcist, which he adapted for the screen and won the Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay. Emmy winning actors Alec Baldwin and Kerry Washington are also alumni, while filmmaker and Palme d'Or recipient David Lynch, Oscar winning actor Jared Leto, and portrait painter Ned Bittinger attended the Corcoran School of the Arts and Design. Journalism alumni include Pulitzer Prize winner Glenn Greenwald, CNN commentators Dana Bash and Chuck Todd, as well as NBC News reporter Kasie Hunt.

Leaders of academic institutions include William Greenleaf Eliot co-founder of Washington University in St. Louis, Derek Bok (AM), president of Harvard University, Scott Cowen (MBA), president of Tulane University, and John T. Wilson, president of University of Chicago.

Well known athletes and sports personnel include Boston Celtics coach Red Auerbach (BA, MA), winner of nine NBA championships as a head coach with an additional seven as a general manager for grand total of 16 NBA championships. Many players have been drafted into NBA such as Yinka Dare and Yuta Watanabe. Other notable athletes include WNBA star Jonquel Jones, NFL Hall of Fame running back Tuffy Leemans, and Olympic medalist Elena Myers. Several alumni have owned sports teams including Ted Lerner, owner of the Washington Nationals, Abe Pollin, owner of the Washington Wizards and Washington Capitals, Jerry Reinsdorf, owner of the Chicago Bulls and the Chicago White Sox.

Notable faculty
Notable GW faculty include Tom Perez, former Chair of the Democratic National Committee; two current Supreme Court Justices, Clarence Thomas and Ketanji Brown Jackson; George Gamow, developer of the Big Bang theory; Edward Teller, "father of the hydrogen bomb"; Vincent du Vigneaud, Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner; John Negroponte, first Director of National Intelligence; Thomas Buergenthal, former President of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights; Masatoshi Koshiba, Nobel Prize in Physics winner; Scott Pace, current Executive Secretary of the National Space Council; Amitai Etzioni, former President of the American Sociological Association; Marshall Warren Nirenberg, Nobel Prize in Medicine winner; Edward P. Jones, Pulitzer Prize winner; Abba Eban, former Vice President of the United Nations General Assembly; Dana Perino, former White House Press Secretary; and Ferid Murad, Nobel Prize in Medicine winner.

Other faculty have included Frank Sesno, CNN former Washington, D.C. Bureau Chief and Special Correspondent; James Carafano, Heritage Foundation national security and homeland security expert; Leon Fuerth, former national security adviser to Vice President Al Gore; James Rosenau, political theorist and former president of the International Studies Association; Steven V. Roberts, American journalist, writer and political commentator and former senior writer at U.S. News & World Report; Nancy E. Gary, former dean of Albany Medical College, Executive Vice President of the Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences and Dean of its F. Edward Hébert School of Medicine, Roy Richard Grinker, anthropologist specializing in autism and North-South Korean relations, Edward P. Jones, who won the Pulitzer Prize for fiction in 2004, novelist Herman "H.G." Carrillo, historian Jessica Krug, Dagmar R. Henney, Mohammad Nahavandian (economics), chief of staff of the President of Iran since 2013, and Faure Essozimna Gnassingbé (MBA), president of Togo since 2005, Blake R. Van Leer, president of Georgia Tech, Colonel and Civil Rights advocate.

title: George Washington University


text:
Stearin

Stearin, or tristearin, or glyceryl tristearate is an odourless, white powder. It is a triglyceride derived from three units of stearic acid. Most triglycerides are derived from at least two and more commonly three different fatty acids. Like other triglycerides, stearin can crystallise in three polymorphs. For stearin, these melt at 54 (α-form), 65, and 72.5 °C (β-form).

Note that stearin is also used to mean the solid component of an oil or fat that can be separated into components that melt at higher (the stearin) and lower (the olein) temperatures. This is the usage meant in an example such as palm stearin.

Occurrence
Stearin is obtained from animal fats created as a byproduct of processing beef. It can also be found in tropical plants such as palm. It can be partially purified by dry fractionation by pressing tallow or other fatty mixtures, leading to separation of the higher melting stearin-rich material from the liquid, which is typically enriched in fats derived from oleic acid. It can be obtained by interesterification, again exploiting its higher melting point which allows the higher melting tristearin to be removed from the equilibrated mixture. Stearin is a side product obtained during the extraction of cod liver oil removed during the chilling process at temperatures below −5 °C.

Uses
Stearin is used as a hardening agent in the manufacture of candles and soap. It is mixed with a sodium hydroxide solution in water, creating a reaction which gives glycerin and sodium stearate, the main ingredient in most soap:

 * C3H5(C18H35O2)3 + 3 NaOH → C3H5(OH)3 + 3 C18H35OONa

Stearin is also added to aluminium flakes to help in the grinding process in making dark aluminium powder.

title: Stearin


text:
Operation Nachshon

Operation Nachshon (מבצע נחשון, Mivtza Nahshon; 5–16 April 1948) was a military operation of the Haganah during the 1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine and part of Plan Dalet. Its objective was to open the Tel Aviv – Jerusalem road blockaded by Palestinian Arabs, and furnish arms and supplies to the besieged Jewish community of Jerusalem. The operation was also known as "The operation to take control of the Jerusalem road," following which participating units later broke off to form the Harel Brigade. Following attempts to take control of the road to Jerusalem were unsuccessful and led to the construction of a makeshift bypass—Burma Road.

Nachshon was the first major Haganah operation and the first step of Plan Dalet. The Deir Yassin massacre was conducted as a part of the operation. Operation Nachshon was carried out by the Haganah's Givati and what was later to be known as the Harel Brigade of the Palmach.

Background
By the end of March 1948, Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni's troops were preventing supply convoys from reaching Jerusalem. The city was besieged and the Jewish population was forced to adhere to a rationing system. On 31 March a 60 vehicle Jewish convoy was ambushed at Khulda and forced to turn back with the loss of five vehicles and 17 dead. Yishuv leader David Ben-Gurion decided to launch Nachshon in order to open up the city and provide supplies to the Jewish residents. Although initially intended as a one-shot affair, Nachshon later proved to be the first operation in the implementation of Plan Dalet.

According to historian Ilan Pappé, "Operation Nachshon [...] was the first operation in which all the various Jewish military organisations endeavoured to act together as a single army – providing the basis for the future Israeli Defence Forces (IDF)."

The operation
The operation was named after the Biblical figure Nachshon Ben Aminadav, who was the first to wade into the Red Sea when the Hebrews escaped from slavery in Egypt. The operation was commanded by Shimon Avidan.

The first orders were given on 2 April 1948. A telegraph confirming the beginning of the operation was released on 5 April, with the operation starting that same night. It lasted until 20 April. 1,500 men from the Givati and Harel brigades took control of the road to Jerusalem, allowing three of four convoys to get to the city.

The operation was a military success. All the Arab villages that blocked the route were either taken or destroyed, and the Jewish forces were victorious in all their engagements. Nonetheless, not all the objectives of the operation were achieved, as only 1,800 tonnes of the 3,000 envisaged were transported to the town, and two months of severe rationing had to be assumed.

Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni was killed during the night of 7–8 April, in the middle of the battles taking place in Al-Qastal. The loss of the charismatic Palestinian leader 'disrupted the Arab strategy and organisation in the area of Jerusalem.' His successor, Emil Ghuri, changed tactics: instead of provoking a series of ambushes throughout the route, he had a huge road block erected at Bab-el-Oued, and Jerusalem was once again isolated as a consequence.

During Operation Nachshon the Haganah wanted to attack the strategic village of Abu Gosh but this was opposed by the Stern Gang whose local commanders were on good terms with the mukhtar.

Aftermath
Operation Nachshon exposed the poor military organisation of the Palestinian paramilitary groups. Due to lack of logistics, particularly food and ammunition, they were incapable of maintaining engagements that were more than a few hours away from their permanent bases.

Faced with these events, the Arab Higher Committee asked Alan Cunningham to allow the return of the Mufti, the only person capable of redressing the situation. Despite obtaining permission, the Mufti did not get to Jerusalem. His declining prestige cleared the way for the expansion of the influence of the Arab Liberation Army and of Fawzi al-Qawuqji in the Jerusalem area.

Between 15 and 20 April, three convoys, totalling over 700 lorries were able to reach Jewish Jerusalem. The Arabs, however, managed to block the road immediately thereafter. Operation Nachshon was therefore followed by Operation Harel, and immediately thereafter Operation Yevusi. Further operations in the Jerusalem region, Operation Maccabi and Operation Kilshon, took place in May.

Palestinian communities captured during Operation Nachshon
Sources:
 * Walid Khalidi, All That Remains, ISBN 0-88728-224-5.
 * Benny Morris, The Birth of the Palestinian refugee problem, 1947–1949, ISBN 0-521-33028-9.

title: Operation Nachshon


text:
Vehicle Assembly Building

The Vehicle Assembly Building (originally the Vertical Assembly Building), or VAB, is a large building at NASA's Kennedy Space Center (KSC) in Florida, designed to assemble large pre-manufactured space vehicle components, such as the massive Saturn V, the Space Shuttle and the Space Launch System, and stack them vertically onto one of three mobile launcher platforms used by NASA. As of March 2022, the first Space Launch System (SLS) rocket was assembled inside in preparation for the Artemis 1 mission, launched on November 16, 2022.

At 129,428,000 ft3, it is the eighth-largest building in the world by volume as of 2022. The building is at Launch Complex 39 at KSC, 149 mi south of Jacksonville, 219 mi north of Miami, and 50 mi due east of Orlando, on Merritt Island on the Atlantic coast of Florida.

The VAB is the largest single-story building in the world, was the tallest building (526 ft) in Florida until 1974, and is the tallest building in the United States outside an urban area.

History
The VAB, completed in 1966, was originally built for the vertical assembly of the Apollo–Saturn V space vehicle and was originally referred to as the Vertical Assembly Building. In anticipation of post-Apollo projects such as the Space Shuttle program, it was renamed the Vehicle Assembly Building on February 3, 1965. It was subsequently used to mate the Space Shuttle orbiters to their external fuel tanks and solid rocket boosters. Once the complete space vehicle was assembled on a mobile launcher platform, a crawler-transporter moved it to Launch Complex-39A or 39B.

Before the destruction of in 2003, NASA installed a sub-roof inside the VAB to deal with falling concrete debris due to the building's age.

The VAB was designated as a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Civil Engineers in 2020.

Construction
In 1963, NASA contracted Urbahn Architects to design and build the VAB. Construction began with driving the first steel foundation piles on Aug. 2, 1963. It was part of NASA's massive effort to send astronauts to the Moon for the Apollo program. Altogether, 4,225 pilings were driven down 164 feet to bedrock with a foundation consisting of 30,000 yd3 of concrete. Construction of the VAB required 98,590 ST of steel. The building was completed in 1966. The VAB is 526 ft tall, 716 ft long and 518 ft wide. It covers 8 acre, and encloses 129428000 cuft of space. Located on Florida's Atlantic coast, the building was constructed to withstand hurricanes and tropical storms. Despite this, it has received damage from several hurricanes (see below).

Capabilities
There are four entries to the bays located inside the building, which are the four largest doors in the world. Each door is 456 ft high, has seven vertical panels and four horizontal panels, and takes 45 minutes to completely open or close. The north entry that leads to the transfer aisle was widened by 40 ft to allow entry of the shuttle orbiter. A central slot at the north entry allowed for passage of the orbiter's vertical stabilizer.

To lift the components of the Space Shuttle, the VAB housed five overhead bridge cranes, including two capable of lifting 325 tons, and 136 other lifting devices.

The building has air conditioning equipment, including 125 ventilators on the roof supported by four large air handlers (four cylindrical structures west of the building) rated at a total 10,000 tons of refrigeration (120,000,000 BTU/hr, 35 MW) to keep moisture under control. Air in the building can be completely replaced every hour. The large doors can allow fog to roll into the building and become trapped, leading to incorrect rumors that the building has its own weather and can form clouds.

Exterior
The American flag painted on the building was the largest in the world when added in 1976 as part of United States Bicentennial celebrations, along with the star logo of the anniversary, later replaced by the NASA insignia in 1998. It is 209 ft high and 110 ft wide. Each of the stars on the flag is 6 ft across, the blue field is the size of a regulation basketball court, and each of the stripes is 9 ft wide. Work began in early 2007 to restore the exterior paint on the immense facility. Special attention was paid to the enormous American flag and NASA "meatball" insignia. The work repaired visible damage from years of storms and weathering. The flag and logo had been previously repainted in 1998 for NASA's 40th anniversary.

The most extensive exterior damage occurred during the storm season of 2004, when Hurricane Frances blew off 850 14 x aluminum panels from the building, resulting in about 40000 sqft of new openings in the sides. Twenty-five additional panels were blown off the east side by the winds from Hurricane Jeanne just three weeks later. Earlier in the season, Hurricane Charley caused significant but less serious damage, estimated to cost $700,000 to repair. Damage caused by these hurricanes was still visible in 2007. Some of these panels are "punch-outs", designed to detach from the VAB when a large pressure differential is created on the outside vs. the inside. This allows for equalization, and helps protect the structural integrity of the building during rapid changes in pressure such as in tropical cyclones.

The building has been used as a backdrop in several Hollywood movies including Marooned, SpaceCamp, Apollo 13, Contact, and others.

Future

Originally, after the Space Shuttle was intended to be retired in 2010, the VAB would have been renovated for stacking of the Ares I and Ares V launch vehicles for the Constellation program, however the Constellation program was cancelled in 2010. The Space Shuttle itself was retired in 2011 after which NASA temporarily (as early as 2012) offered public tours of the VAB. These tours were temporarily discontinued in February 2014 to allow for renovations to take place.

The NASA FY2013 budget included US$143.7 million for Construction of Facilities (CoF) requirements in support of what is now known as the Artemis program and its vehicles, including the Space Launch System (SLS) and Orion spacecraft. NASA began modifying Launch Complex 39 at KSC to support the new SLS in 2014, beginning with major repairs, code upgrades and safety improvements to the Launch Control Center, Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB) and the VAB Utility Annex. This initial work is required to support any launch vehicle operated from Launch Complex 39 and will allow NASA to begin modernizing the facilities, while vehicle-specific requirements are being developed.

The VAB could be used to some extent for assembly and processing of any future vehicles using Launch Complex 39, in addition to renovations for SLS capabilities. On June 16, 2015, NASA released an announcement for proposals (AFP) seeking interest in using the VAB High Bay 2 and other complex facilities for commercial use in "assembling, integration, and testing of launch vehicles". This move is in line with the intent to migrate KSC towards acting as a spaceport accessible to both government and commercial ventures.

On April 21, 2016, NASA announced the selection of Orbital ATK (bought by Northrop Grumman as of 2019) to begin negotiations for High Bay 2. The "potential agreement" included an existing mobile launcher platform. NASA subsequently completed the agreement in August 2019 to lease High Bay 2 and Mobile Launcher Platform 3 to Northrop Grumman for use with their OmegA launch vehicle. However, development of OmegA was subsequently cancelled in September 2020. Northrop Grumman had yet to make any modifications to High Bay 2, and were using it for the storage of OmegA hardware. This hardware was scheduled to be removed from the VAB and returned to Northrop Grumman by the end of September 2020.

title: Vehicle Assembly Building


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Talk:Vitamin D

Do μg and IU refer to D3?
Vitamin D is a group of secosteroids. Amounts in IU and μg and given throughout the article, but I only see one case that states which form it refers to (D3). At a guess they're all D3 but this should be explicit. According to this https://walrus.com/questions/converting-micrograms-mcg-of-calcitriol-to-international-units one IU of D3 is equivalent to one IU of D2, but it makes no sense to talk about an IU of calcitriol as no amount of it can be said to be equivalent to one IU of D3. The URL above does not look like a citable reference, despite looking very scholarly, so I won't edit the article, but someone more knowledgeable might want to, to say something like "all references to IU are to D3" and something similar for μg if that's true. Housecarl (talk) 00:31, 9 December 2023 (UTC)

 * - New talk topics go to the bottom of the page, WP:TALK. This section of the article explains thoroughly the relationship between μg and IU for D3 and D2 food or supplement sources, which do not distinguish a possible difference in vitamin D production between the two substrates. Calcitriol is not expressed in the article in units of μg or IU. Zefr (talk) 17:28, 9 December 2023 (UTC)

 * My point was "Vitamin D" is a group of things and the quantities given do not identity which of those things they refer to. But now I see the Types section says "Vitamin D without a subscript refers to either D2 or D3, or both, and is known collectively as calciferol.[citation needed]". Housecarl (talk) 21:36, 9 December 2023 (UTC)

Production from sunlight
I What to add this two sections Production from sunlight and Absorption in the body from the sun. I have tried after best ability to follow WP:MEDRS.

To convey the difficulties, with getting vitamin D from the sun. And that getting vitamin D from sun/previtamin D is a different from supplement.

Production from sunlight

To produce Vitamin D, UVB light is required. To have sufficient light containing UVB, the UV index needs to be 3 or higher (≥45 solar zenith angle at sea level). Vitamin D production is maximal at one-third of the minimal erythemal dose. When UV exposure increases to a minimal erythemal dose, vitamin D synthesis stops. One must be south of latitude 50°N to produce vitamin D around the Winter solstice.

The table assumes that one is outdoors in sunlight for more than 3 times a week, wearing only swim trunks and a t-shirt or swimsuit, and has not applied sunscreen. Such exposure to the entire skin surface corresponds to receiving between 250–1250 μg of vitamin D (10k to 50k IU) per session, or a similar amount as obtained by consuming 125–500 ml of cod liver oil (200μg/100ml ).

The "summer level" decreases to "winter level" within 6 to 8 weeks after insufficient sun exposure, without supplementation.

Barriers to UVB absorption:

 * Sunscreen
 * Clothing covering a larger area
 * Overcast skies
 * Staying in the shade
 * Insufficient UV index.

Absorption in the body from the sun
Vitamin D absorption from sunlight differs from absorption from supplements. When absorbing 3 minimum erythema doses (the time it takes for the skin to turn red), with the whole body exposed to UV light:

 * Within 24 hours, serum vitamin D levels rose from 15 nmol/l to 149 nmol/l.
 * After 1 week, serum vitamin D fell back to its initial value, while serum 1,25-(OH)2-D reached its peak.
 * Between 2-3 weeks, serum 25-OH-D concentration reached its highest level, while serum 1,25-(OH)2-D fell back to its initial value.

The study does not mention the time it takes for serum 25-OH-D to return to its initial value.

In another study comparing the difference between 1 MED, 625μg D2 (25k IU) supplement, and 250μg D2 (10k IU) supplement  , they found that vitamin D from the sun lasts significantly longer than supplements. Vitamin D from supplements returned to baseline levels within 2 days, whereas vitamin D from the sun returned after 7 days. EidenNor (talk) 08:02, 24 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Vitamin D


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User talk:Tonycow

Hi. I moved a lot of text from Victoria Peak, Hong Kong to a talk page, because it reads like a tourist brochure. Even if you have permission to use it, an encyclopedia article needs more facts; this is too close to advertising. Vicki Rosenzweig 17:45 14 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Greetings! If you have questions or doubts of any sort, do not hesitate to post them on the Village Pump, somebody will respond ASAP. Other helpful pages include: Have fun! --Jiang 23:12 15 Jul 2003 (UTC)
 * Welcome, newcomers
 * How does one edit a page
 * Manual of style
 * Naming conventions

Un licenced Images
Thank you for uploading Image:Lfshom2.jpg, Image:HQ17.JPG, Image:HQ49.JPG, Image:HQ30.JPG, Image:HQ13.JPG, Image:Rest.jpg and Image:Rest.gif. They are currently tagged. Can you please tag with the appropriate copyright notice and cite the source if possible. Thanks, EyeBall 18:50, 13 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Thousands of images have no copyright tags. You can help!

title: User talk:Tonycow


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Stapleton International Airport

Stapleton International Airport was a major airport in the western United States, and the primary airport of Denver, Colorado. It opened in 1929, and was replaced by the current Denver International Airport in 1995.

It was a hub for Continental Airlines, the original Frontier Airlines, People Express, United Airlines, and Western Airlines. Other airlines with smaller operations at Stapleton included Aspen Airways, today’s Frontier Airlines, and Rocky Mountain Airways, all three being based in Denver at the time.

Stapleton International Airport was replaced by Denver International Airport in 1995; it was closed and the property redeveloped as the commercial and residential neighborhood of Central Park, which was named Stapleton until 2020. The Stapleton International Airport codes were transferred to the new airport, which continues to use them today.

Prewar and wartime years (1929–1945)
Stapleton opened in 1929 as Denver Municipal Airport on October 17. The development of the airport was spearheaded by Denver mayor Benjamin F. Stapleton and Improvements and Parks Department manager Charles Vail. Prior to the new airport's opening, Denver had been served by a number of smaller facilities, including an airstrip along Smith Road in Aurora (first used in 1911), an airfield at 26th Avenue and Oneida Street, Lowry Field near 38th Avenue and Dahlia Street, and Denver Union Airport at 46th Avenue east of Colorado Boulevard.

In the late 1930s the facilities consisted of two hangars and a small administration building mainly used for air mail processing. United Airlines and Continental Airlines began service in 1937. The March 1939 Official Aviation Guide (OAG) shows nine weekday departures: seven United and two Continental.

Continental moved its headquarters from El Paso, Texas, to Denver in October 1937, as airline president Robert F. Six believed that the airline should have its headquarters in a large city with a potential base of customers. Continental moved its headquarters to Los Angeles in July 1963.

The airfield was renamed Stapleton Airfield on 25 August 1944, in honor of Mayor Stapleton, who had served from 1923-1931 and from 1935 until 1947.

Postwar years (1945–1978)
Stapleton's modern horseshoe-shaped terminal design was announced in 1946, and was shelved in 1947 by incoming mayor James Newton. The original administration building was extended with new wings in the early 1950s, and replaced entirely in 1954.

DC-4 nonstop flights to Chicago, San Francisco and Los Angeles began in 1946; DC-6 nonstops to Washington DC began in 1951 and to New York in 1952. Denver then had five airlines: United flew across the country, Continental flew south and east, Braniff flew to Texas, Frontier flew to smaller cities north and south from Denver, and Western connected Denver to Minneapolis and to Edmonton in Canada. TWA and Central arrived in 1956.

The April 1957 OAG shows 38 daily United departures, 12 for Continental, 7 Braniff, 7 Frontier, 7 Western, 5 TWA and 1 Central. The jet age arrived in May 1959 when Continental began operating Boeing 707s to Stapleton, initially under weight restrictions due to Stapleton's runway weight capacity. (Scheduled 707s started in August 1959.)

Runway 17/35 and a new terminal building opened in 1964; runway 17L opened sometime between 1975 and 1980. Stapleton adopted the "International" name in 1964, but its first nonstop international flight came in 1968, when Western began flights to Calgary. The Boeing 747 was introduced to Stapleton on Continental's Los Angeles route in 1970.

In the early 1970s Frontier was in Concourse A, United occupied most of Concourse B, and Western and Continental occupied most of Concourse C. United and TWA served both coasts nonstop, while Continental and Western nonstop flights only extended to the western half of the country. Concourse D was built in 1972.

Post-deregulation (1978–1985)
After deregulation, Denver's four major airlines developed hubs at Stapleton. United occupied Concourse B, Continental and Western occupied Concourse C and Frontier occupied Concourse D. Western flew nonstop between Denver and London in 1981 and 1982, but then shifted resources to Salt Lake City and Los Angeles; Denver had ceased to be a Western hub by the time Delta acquired that airline in 1987. In 1983 Arrow Air introduced transatlantic services to London and Manchester, and Condor flew a weekly charter to Frankfurt, Germany. Southwest Airlines and People Express tried low-cost service to Denver in the mid-1980s, but Southwest withdrew and People Express was acquired by Continental.

In September 1982 the first revenue flight of the Boeing 767 arrived at Stapleton, a United flight from O'Hare International Airport in Chicago.

During the energy boom of the early 1980s, several skyscrapers were built in downtown Denver, including Republic Plaza (Denver's tallest at 714′). Due to Stapleton's location 3 mi east of downtown, the Federal Aviation Administration imposed a building height restriction of 700'-715' (depending on the building's position). This allowed an unimpeded glide slope for runways (8L/26R) and (8R/26L). The height restriction was lifted in 1995, well after the city's skyscrapers had been erected.

Decommissioning (1985–1995)

By the 1980s, plans were under way to replace Stapleton, which had a number of problems, including:
 * inadequate lateral separation between runways, leading to long waits during instrument-flight operations
 * little or no room for other airlines that wanted to use Stapleton for new destinations (one such example was Southwest Airlines, now a large carrier at Denver International Airport)
 * a lawsuit over aircraft noise, brought by residents of the nearby Park Hill community
 * legal threats by Adams County, to block a runway extension into Rocky Mountain Arsenal lands

The Colorado General Assembly brokered a deal in 1985 to annex a plot of land in Adams County into the city of Denver, and use that land to build a new airport. Adams County voters approved the plan in 1988, and Denver voters approved the plan in a 1989 referendum.

To combat congestion, runway 18/36 was added in the 1980s and the terminal was again expanded with the $250-million (or $58-million according to the New York Times ), 24-gate Concourse E opening in 1988, despite Denver's replacement airport already being under construction. By the early 1990s, Concourses A and B were exclusively used by United and United Express; Continental used most of Concourses C and D, and most other airlines moved to Concourse E. In the early 1990s, several charter services to the United Kingdom were introduced, and Martinair inaugurated services to Amsterdam until Stapleton's closure. Continental closed its Stapleton pilot and flight attendant bases in October 1994, reducing operations and making United the airport's largest carrier. On the other hand, despite leaving Stapleton in the 1980s due to congestion, the new Denver International Airport would eventually become Southwest's largest base.

On February 27, 1995, Delta Flight 569 from Dallas/Ft.Worth was the last revenue flight to land at Stapleton, scheduled for 7:59 pm. Later that evening, air traffic controller George Hosford cleared the last revenue flight – Continental Flight 34, a McDonnell Douglas DC-10 bound for London′s Gatwick Airport scheduled to depart at 8:30 pm but delayed– to take off from Stapleton at 9:27 pm. The aircraft was piloted by Captain Gary "Gomo" Greer, First Officer Scott Nutter and Second Officer Bob Horn. After Flight 34 cleared the runway at 9:39 pm, the airport was shut down, marking the end of 65 years of service. A convoy of ground service equipment and other vehicles (rental cars, baggage carts, fuel trucks, etc.) traveled to the new Denver International Airport (DEN), which opened at 12:01 am on February 28.

Post-closure redevelopment

When it closed in 1995, Stapleton had six runways (two sets of three parallel runways) and five terminal concourses. The runways at Stapleton were then marked with large yellow "X"s, which indicated it was no longer legal or safe for aircraft to land there. The IATA and ICAO airport codes of DEN and KDEN were transferred to the new DIA, to coincide with the same changes in airline and ATC computers, to ensure that flights to Denver would land at the new DIA. The main reason the decision was made to close the airport was because the runways were too close together. This would mean air traffic controllers would have to stagger airplane movements. Also, most of the runways were too short, considering the fact that the airport was at 5,333 ft above sea level. Denver International Airport runways are all at or over 12,000 feet in length (runway 16/34L is 16,000 feet).

While Denver International was being built, planners began to consider how the Stapleton site would be redeveloped. A private group of Denver civic leaders, the Stapleton Development Foundation, convened in 1990 and produced a master plan for the site in 1995, emphasizing a pedestrian-oriented design rather than the automobile-oriented designs found in many other planned developments.

Denver sought tenants for Stapleton's terminal and concourses, but these buildings proved ill-suited for alternative uses. A July 1997 hailstorm punched several thousand holes in the roofs of the old terminal and concourses, causing water damage, which compelled the city to tear them down. The airport's 12-story control tower was retained and served for a time as part of the new Punch Bowl Social, a restaurant and social gathering spot. The office building attached to the tower housed the kitchens and social areas; the tower is closed to public access but is available for private tours.

Most of Stapleton's airport infrastructure has been removed, except for the control tower and some hangars, used by Denver Police Academy and by Arise Church Denver among others. The final parking structure was torn down to make room for the "Central Park West" section of the housing development in May 2011. While not part of the former airport, United—Stapleton's former largest carrier and current largest airline at Denver International—does operate a training center in the former Stapleton grounds.

Facilities

At the time of its decommissioning, the airport covered 4700 acre and had six runways:
 * 17R/35L (11,500 ft), concrete
 * 17L/35R (12,000 ft), concrete
 * 8L/26R (8,599 ft), concrete
 * 8R/26L (10,004 ft), concrete
 * 7/25 (4,871 ft), concrete
 * 18/36 (7,750 ft), asphalt

The terminal had five concourses:
 * Concourse A – Commuter flights, Mesa Air Group, United Airlines
 * Concourse B – United Airlines
 * Concourse C – Continental Airlines, Mexicana, Martinair, Condor
 * Concourse D – Continental Express, Delta Air Lines, MarkAir, Pan Am, Trans World Airlines,  Frontier Airlines,
 * Concourse E – America West Airlines, American Airlines, Northwest Airlines, Sun Country, USAir

Accidents and incidents
Several major incidents occurred at Stapleton:
 * On November 1, 1955, United Air Lines Flight 629 was blown up over Longmont shortly after takeoff from Stapleton while en route to Portland. Jack Gilbert Graham planted a bomb on the plane to kill his mother. He purchased travel insurance before the flight took off.
 * On July 11, 1961, United Airlines Flight 859, a DC-8-12 (tail number N8040U), veered off the runway on landing. Asymmetric reverse thrust on engines 1 and 2 (left wing) resulted in a loss of directional control, causing the aircraft to collide with construction equipment, killing the driver of one vehicle. In the ensuing fire, 17 of the DC-8's 122 occupants died.
 * On December 21, 1967, Frontier Airlines (1950-1986) Flight 2610, a Douglas C-47 converted to carry cargo, crashed after takeoff due to the failure of the crew to perform a pre-takeoff control check resulting in takeoff with the elevators immobilized by a control batten. Both occupants were killed.
 * On August 7, 1975, Continental Airlines Flight 426, a Boeing 727 bound for Wichita, Kansas, crashed after encountering windshear on takeoff on runway 35L after climbing to 100 ft. Nobody was killed in the accident.
 * On November 16, 1976, a Texas International DC-9-10 stalled after takeoff at Stapleton and crashed. There were 14 injuries among the 81 passengers and 5 crewmembers.
 * On November 15, 1987, Continental Airlines Flight 1713, a DC-9-14 bound for Boise, Idaho, crashed on takeoff at Stapleton during a snowstorm. The probable cause of the crash was loss of control due to ice and snow adhering to the aircraft. The aircraft had been de-iced, but spent longer than normal on the ground in moderate snowfall before takeoff due to confusion about its location. This aircraft accident led to significant changes in aircraft de-icing fluids and flight crew procedures for checking for ice contamination prior to takeoff. Twenty-eight of the plane's 82 occupants were killed.
 * On September 17, 1988, Continental Express Flight 2063, a Beechcraft 1900 turboprop under the control of Captain Orlando Zullo, made a wheels-up landing. The flight was bound for North Platte when hydraulic issues arose, forcing the aircraft to return to Stapleton. Stapleton spokesman Richard Boulware was quoted as saying, "It was a perfect landing, the propellers stopped turning when the aircraft was about four feet above the runway," and that "the aircraft came to rest exactly on the center line of the runway." Despite the runway not being prepped for the landing with foam, there were no injuries, and the aircraft was operational within a week. The landing gear failed due to an error in the manufacturing process.

title: Stapleton International Airport


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Talk:Energy of activation

This was the former content of this article before I turned it into a redirect. Perhaps someone would like to incorporate this information into the activation energy article. Ed Cormany 23:13 15 Jul 2003 (UTC)

The amount of energy required as heat or pressure to disbalance an otherwise stable but energy storing compound so that it will release its potential energy. The energy that must be overcome to allow an otherwise exothermic reaction to proceed.

title: Talk:Energy of activation