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Tit for tat

Tit for tat is an English saying meaning "equivalent retaliation". It is an alteration of tip for tap "blow for blow", first recorded in 1558.

It is also a highly effective strategy in game theory. An agent using this strategy will first cooperate, then subsequently replicate an opponent's previous action. If the opponent previously was cooperative, the agent is cooperative. If not, the agent is not. This is similar to reciprocal altruism in biology.

Game theory
Tit-for-tat has been very successfully used as a strategy for the iterated prisoner's dilemma. The strategy was first introduced by Anatol Rapoport in Robert Axelrod's two tournaments, held around 1980. Notably, it was (on both occasions) both the simplest strategy and the most successful in direct competition.

Implications
The success of the tit-for-tat strategy, which is largely cooperative despite that its name emphasizes an adversarial nature, took many by surprise. Arrayed against strategies produced by various teams it won in two competitions. After the first competition, new strategies formulated specifically to combat tit-for-tat failed due to their negative interactions with each other; a successful strategy other than tit-for-tat would have had to be formulated with both tit-for-tat and itself in mind.

This result may give insight into how groups of animals (and particularly human societies) have come to live in largely (or entirely) cooperative societies, rather than the individualistic "red in tooth and claw" way that might be expected from individuals engaged in a Hobbesian state of nature. This, and particularly its application to human society and politics, is the subject of Robert Axelrod's book The Evolution of Cooperation.

Moreover, the tit-for-tat strategy has been of beneficial use to social psychologists and sociologists in studying effective techniques to reduce conflict. Research has indicated that when individuals who have been in competition for a period of time no longer trust one another, the most effective competition reverser is the use of the tit-for-tat strategy. Individuals commonly engage in behavioral assimilation, a process in which they tend to match their own behaviors to those displayed by cooperating or competing group members. Therefore, if the tit-for-tat strategy begins with cooperation, then cooperation ensues. On the other hand, if the other party competes, then the tit-for-tat strategy will lead the alternate party to compete as well. Ultimately, each action by the other member is countered with a matching response, competition with competition and cooperation with cooperation.

In the case of conflict resolution, the tit-for-tat strategy is effective for several reasons: the technique is recognized as clear, nice, provocable, and forgiving. Firstly, it is a clear and recognizable strategy. Those using it quickly recognize its contingencies and adjust their behavior accordingly. Moreover, it is considered to be nice as it begins with cooperation and only defects in response to competition. The strategy is also provocable because it provides immediate retaliation for those who compete. Finally, it is forgiving as it immediately produces cooperation should the competitor make a cooperative move.

The implications of the tit-for-tat strategy have been of relevance to conflict research, resolution and many aspects of applied social science.

Mathematics
Take for example the following infinitely repeated prisoners dilemma game:

The tit-for-tat strategy copies what the other player previously chose. If players cooperate by playing strategy (C,C) they cooperate forever.

Cooperation gives the following payoff (where $$\delta$$ is the discount factor):

6 + 6\delta + 6\delta^2 + 6\delta^3..., $$

a geometric series summing to

\frac{6}{1-\delta} $$

If a player deviates to defecting (D), then the next round they get punished. Alternate between outcomes where p1 cooperates and p2 deviates, and vice versa.

Deviation gives the following payoff:

9 + 2\delta + 9\delta^2 + 2\delta^3 + 9\delta^4 + 2\delta^5..., $$

a sum of two geometric series that comes to

\frac{9}{1-\delta^2} + \frac{2\delta}{1-\delta^2} $$

Expect collaboration if payoff of deviation is no better than cooperation.

 * $$\begin{align}

\frac{6}{1-\delta} &\geq \frac{9}{1-\delta^2} + \frac{2\delta}{1-\delta^2} \\ \frac{6}{1-\delta} &\geq \frac{9 + 2\delta}{1-\delta^2} \\ \frac{1-\delta^2}{1} \cdot \frac{6}{1-\delta} &\geq \frac{9 + 2\delta}{\cancel{1-\delta^2}} \cdot \frac{\cancel{1-\delta^2}}{1} \\ \frac{(1+\delta)\cancel{(1-\delta)}}{1} \cdot \frac{6}{\cancel{1-\delta}} &\geq 9 + 2\delta \\ 6 + 6\delta &\geq 9 + 2\delta \\ 4\delta &\geq 3 \\ \delta &\geq \frac{3}{4} \end{align}$$

Continue cooperating if, $$\delta \geq \frac{3}{4}$$

Continue defecting if, $$\delta < \frac{3}{4}$$

Problems
While Axelrod has empirically shown that the strategy is optimal in some cases of direct competition, two agents playing tit for tat remain vulnerable. A one-time, single-bit error in either player's interpretation of events can lead to an unending "death spiral": if one agent defects and the opponent cooperates, then both agents will end up alternating cooperate and defect, yielding a lower payoff than if both agents were to continually cooperate. This situation frequently arises in real world conflicts, ranging from schoolyard fights to civil and regional wars. The reason for these issues is that tit for tat is not a subgame perfect equilibrium, except under knife-edge conditions on the discount rate. While this sub-game is not directly reachable by two agents playing tit-for-tat strategies, a strategy must be a Nash equilibrium in all sub-games to be sub-game perfect. Further, this sub-game may be reached if any noise is allowed in the agents' signaling. A sub-game perfect variant of tit for tat known as "contrite tit for tat" may be created by employing a basic reputation mechanism.

Knife-edge is "equilibrium that exists only for exact values of the exogenous variables. If you vary the variables in even the slightest way, knife-edge equilibrium disappear."

Can be both Nash equilibrium and knife-edge equilibrium. Known as knife-edge equilibrium because the equilibrium "rests precariously on" the exact value.

Example: Suppose X = 0. There is no profitable deviation from (Down, Left) or from (Up, Right). However, if the value of X deviates by any amount, no matter how small, then the equilibrium no longer stands. It becomes profitable to deviate to up, for example, if X has a value of 0.000001 instead of 0. Thus, the equilibrium is very precarious. In its usage in the Wikipedia article, knife-edge conditions is referring to the fact that very rarely, only when a specific condition is met and, for instance, X, equals a specific value is there an equilibrium.

Tit for two tats could be used to mitigate this problem; see the description below. "Tit for tat with forgiveness" is a similar attempt to escape the death spiral. When the opponent defects, a player employing this strategy will occasionally cooperate on the next move anyway. The exact probability that a player will respond with cooperation depends on the line-up of opponents.

Furthermore, the tit-for-tat strategy is not proved optimal in situations short of total competition. For example, when the parties are friends it may be best for the friendship when a player cooperates at every step despite occasional deviations by the other player. Most situations in the real world are less competitive than the total competition in which the tit-for-tat strategy won its competition.

Tit for tat is very different from grim trigger, in that it is forgiving in nature, as it immediately produces cooperation, should the competitor choose to cooperate. Grim trigger on the other hand is the most unforgiving strategy, in the sense even a single defect would the make the player playing using grim trigger defect for the remainder of the game.

Tit for two tats
Tit for two tats is similar to tit for tat, but allows the opponent to defect from the agreed upon strategy twice before the player retaliates. This aspect makes the player using the tit for tat strategy appear more “forgiving” to the opponent.

In a tit for tat strategy, once an opponent defects, the tit for tat player immediately responds by defecting on the next move. This has the unfortunate consequence of causing two retaliatory strategies to continuously defect against each other resulting in a poor outcome for both players. A tit for two tats player will let the first defection go unchallenged as a means to avoid the "death spiral" of the previous example. If the opponent defects twice in a row, the tit for two tats player will respond by defecting.

This strategy was put forward by Robert Axelrod during his second round of computer simulations at RAND. After analyzing the results of the first experiment, he determined that had a participant entered the tit for two tats strategy it would have emerged with a higher cumulative score than any other program. As a result, he himself entered it with high expectations in the second tournament. Unfortunately, owing to the more aggressive nature of the programs entered in the second round, which were able to take advantage of its highly forgiving nature, tit for two tats did significantly worse (in the game-theory sense) than tit for tat.

Peer-to-peer file sharing
BitTorrent peers use tit-for-tat strategy to optimize their download speed. More specifically, most BitTorrent peers use a variant of tit for two tats which is called regular unchoking in BitTorrent terminology. BitTorrent peers have a limited number of upload slots to allocate to other peers. Consequently, when a peer's upload bandwidth is saturated, it will use a tit-for-tat strategy. Cooperation is achieved when upload bandwidth is exchanged for download bandwidth. Therefore, when a peer is not uploading in return to our own peer uploading, the BitTorrent program will choke the connection with the uncooperative peer and allocate this upload slot to a hopefully more cooperating peer. Regular unchoking correlates to always cooperating on the first move in prisoner's dilemma. Periodically, a peer will allocate an upload slot to a randomly chosen uncooperative peer (unchoke). This is called optimistic unchoking. This behavior allows searching for more cooperating peers and gives a second chance to previously non-cooperating peers. The optimal threshold values of this strategy are still the subject of research.

Explaining reciprocal altruism in animal communities
Studies in the prosocial behaviour of animals have led many ethologists and evolutionary psychologists to apply tit-for-tat strategies to explain why altruism evolves in many animal communities. Evolutionary game theory, derived from the mathematical theories formalised by von Neumann and Morgenstern (1953), was first devised by Maynard Smith (1972) and explored further in bird behaviour by Robert Hinde. Their application of game theory to the evolution of animal strategies launched an entirely new way of analysing animal behaviour.

Reciprocal altruism works in animal communities where the cost to the benefactor in any transaction of food, mating rights, nesting or territory is less than the gains to the beneficiary. The theory also holds that the act of altruism should be reciprocated if the balance of needs reverse. Mechanisms to identify and punish "cheaters" who fail to reciprocate, in effect a form of tit for tat, are important to regulate reciprocal altruism. For example, tit-for-tat is suggested to be the mechanism of cooperative predator inspection behavior in guppies.

War
The tit-for-tat inability of either side to back away from conflict, for fear of being perceived as weak or as cooperating with the enemy, has been the cause of many prolonged conflicts throughout history.

However, the tit for tat strategy has also been detected by analysts in the spontaneous non-violent behaviour, called "live and let live" that arose during trench warfare in the First World War. Troops dug in only a few hundred feet from each other would evolve an unspoken understanding. If a sniper killed a soldier on one side, the other expected an equal retaliation. Conversely, if no one was killed for a time, the other side would acknowledge this implied "truce" and act accordingly. This created a "separate peace" between the trenches.

The Troubles
During The Troubles the term was used to describe increasing eye for an eye behaviour between the Irish Republicans and Ulster Unionists. This can be seen with the Red Lion Pub bombing by the IRA being followed by the McGurk's Bar bombing, both targeting civilians. Specifically the attacks of massacres would be structured around the mutual killings of Unionist and Republican communities, both communities being generally uninterested in the violence. This sectarian mentality led to the term "Tit for tat bombings" to enter the common lexicon of Northern Irish society.

title: Tit for tat


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Systematic sampling

In survey methodology, one-dimensional systematic sampling is a statistical method involving the selection of elements from an ordered sampling frame. The most common form of systematic sampling is an equiprobability method. This applies in particular when the sampled units are individuals, households or corporations. When a geographic area is sampled for a spatial analysis, bi-dimensional systematic sampling on an area sampling frame can be applied.

In one-dimensional systematic sampling, progression through the list is treated circularly, with a return to the top once the list ends. The sampling starts by selecting an element from the list at random and then every kth element in the frame is selected, where k, is the sampling interval (sometimes known as the skip): this is calculated as:

 * $$k = \frac Nn$$

where n is the sample size, and N is the population size.

Using this procedure each element in the population has a known and equal probability of selection (also known as epsem). This makes systematic sampling functionally similar to simple random sampling (SRS). However, it is not the same as SRS because not every possible sample of a certain size has an equal chance of being chosen (e.g. samples with at least two elements adjacent to each other will never be chosen by systematic sampling). It is, however, much more efficient (if the variance within a systematic sample is more than the variance of the population).

Systematic sampling is to be applied only if the given population is logically homogeneous, because systematic sample units are uniformly distributed over the population. The researcher must ensure that the chosen sampling interval does not hide a pattern. Any pattern would threaten randomness.

Example: Suppose a supermarket wants to study buying habits of their customers, then using systematic sampling they can choose every 10th or 15th customer entering the supermarket and conduct the study on this sample.

This is random sampling with a system. From the sampling frame, a starting point is chosen at random, and choices thereafter are at regular intervals. For example, suppose you want to sample 8 houses from a street of 120 houses. 120/8=15, so every 15th house is chosen after a random starting point between 1 and 15. If the random starting point is 11, then the houses selected are 11, 26, 41, 56, 71, 86, 101, and 116. As an aside, if every 15th house was a "corner house" then this corner pattern could destroy the randomness of the sample.

If, more frequently, the population is not evenly divisible (suppose you want to sample 8 houses out of 125, where 125/8=15.625), should you take every 15th house or every 16th house? If you take every 16th house, 8*16=128, there is a risk that the last house chosen does not exist. On the other hand, if you take every 15th house, 8*15=120, so the last five houses will never be selected. The random starting point should instead be selected as a non-integer between 0 and 15.625 (inclusive on one endpoint only) to ensure that every house has an equal chance of being selected; the interval should now be non-integral (15.625); and each non-integer selected should be rounded up to the next integer. If the random starting point is 3.6, then the houses selected are 4, 20, 35, 50, 66, 82, 98, and 113, where there are 3 cyclic intervals of 15 and 4 intervals of 16.

To illustrate the danger of systematic skip concealing a pattern, suppose we were to sample a planned neighborhood where each street has ten houses on each block. This places houses No. 1, 10, 11, 20, 21, 30... on block corners; corner blocks may be less valuable, since more of their area is taken up by street front etc. that is unavailable for building purposes. If we then sample every 10th household, our sample will either be made up only of corner houses (if we start at 1 or 10) or have no corner houses (any other start); either way, it will not be representative.

Systematic sampling may also be used with non-equal selection probabilities. In this case, rather than simply counting through elements of the population and selecting every kth unit, we allocate each element a space along a number line according to its selection probability. We then generate a random start from a uniform distribution between 0 and 1, and move along the number line in steps of 1.

Example: We have a population of 5 units (A to E). We want to give unit A a 20% probability of selection, unit B a 40% probability, and so on up to unit E (100%). Assuming we maintain alphabetical order, we allocate each unit to the following interval: A: 0 to 0.2 B: 0.2 to 0.6 (= 0.2 + 0.4) C: 0.6 to 1.2 (= 0.6 + 0.6) D: 1.2 to 2.0 (= 1.2 + 0.8) E: 2.0 to 3.0 (= 2.0 + 1.0)

If our random start was 0.156, we would first select the unit whose interval contains this number (i.e. A). Next, we would select the interval containing 1.156 (element C), then 2.156 (element E). If instead our random start was 0.350, we would select from points 0.350 (B), 1.350 (D), and 2.350 (E).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Systematic sampling


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Magnetic Scrolls

Magnetic Scrolls was a British video game developer active between 1984 and 1990. A pioneer of audiovisually elaborate text adventure games, it was one of the largest and most acclaimed interactive fiction developers of the 1980s, and one of the "Big Two" with Infocom according to some.

Magnetic Scrolls was one of the first game developers to use graphics and animation in its text adventure games, which set it apart from other companies in the genre. The company's games were known for their complex puzzles, intricate storylines, and immersive gameplay. Games developed by Magnetic Scrolls include The Pawn, The Guild of Thieves, and Jinxter.

Formation
Formed by Anita Sinclair, Ken Gordon and Hugh Steers in 1984, London-based Magnetic Scrolls initially dabbled with development on the Sinclair QL home computer before deciding to take advantage of the emerging Atari ST and Amiga gaming platforms. Having secured a publication deal with Rainbird, a British software label owned by Telecomsoft, they began work producing an ambitious text adventure game that would become The Pawn.

During the mid-1980s, the text adventure market was thriving, although only a very few developers exclusively specialised in the genre. The undisputed giants of the genre were Infocom, based in Cambridge, Massachusetts, who practically redefined the genre by ensuring the interface (or text parser) never provided a barrier between the player and the fictional elements of the game.

Infocom's dominance of the text adventure market ensured they had very few rivals in the United States. Adventure International, owned by Scott and Lexis Adams, had been an early competitor of Infocom, but they went out of business long before Infocom had hit their stride. Their only other serious competitor was Sierra On-Line, owned by Ken and Roberta Williams, who specialised in graphical adventure games.

During the early to mid-1980s Level 9 Computing dominated the UK text adventure market. Delta 4 and CRL also produced a number of text adventures that were critical and commercial hits but were never a serious rival to Level 9. Until they were acquired by Activision in 1985, Infocom's titles were something of a rarity in the UK, only usually available as expensive imports. Magnetic Scrolls immediately took advantage of this considerable gap in the UK market with their first release, The Pawn.

Early releases
The Pawn, written by Rob Steggles, was released in 1985, on a wide range of 8-bit and 16-bit platforms, to considerable acclaim. One of the game's biggest selling points, besides the advanced text parser, engrossing story and exquisite packaging, were the high resolution illustrations that accompanied many of the game's locations. Although decidedly antiquated by today's standards, at the time they were considered state-of-the-art. The ZX Spectrum version of the game did not include graphics.

In 1987, Magnetic Scrolls released two new games. Steggles returned to write The Guild of Thieves, a traditional treasure hunt, while Georgina Sinclair and Michael Bywater wrote the contemporary fantasy of Jinxter. Both games met with similar critical acclaim as The Pawn.

For their next release, Corruption (1988), Magnetic Scrolls decided to experiment with the boundaries of interactive fiction. Once again written by Rob Steggles, with the help of Hugh Steers, the game was a contemporary thriller that explored corporate corruption and greed. Corruption abandoned the traditional puzzle-solving, treasure-hunting gameplay of many text adventure games, requiring the player to progress by conversing with characters, collecting evidence and working against the clock in order to beat the game. The game came packaged with a cassette tape containing a series of audio conversations. The player would be prompted to play them at specific points during the story, adding an extra layer of depth to the game.

Released towards the end of 1988 was Fish!, a more light-hearted, surreal adventure game, where the player assumed the role of a dimension-jumping goldfish. Written by John Molloy, Pete Kemp, Phil South and edited by Rob Steggles, Fish! would prove to be the last of Magnetic Scrolls' traditional commercial releases.

Myth was released in 1989 through Official Secrets, an adventure gaming club set up by Tony Rainbird after he (and Magnetic Scrolls) parted ways with Telecomsoft. Now based in Hertfordshire, Magnetic Scrolls produced this mini-adventure as a freebie that would be given away to those who signed up to join Official Secrets. The gaming club didn't last long, however, and was quickly assimilated into Tony Rainbird's new Special Reserve company, specialising in mail order computer hardware and software.

Later years and demise
Wonderland had been in development at Magnetic Scrolls for some time and was finally released by Virgin Mastertronic in 1990. Magnetic Scrolls had devised a brand new interface, christened Magnetic Windows, to take advantage of the Amiga and Atari ST's advanced capabilities. Incorporating auto-mapping, icons, help functions and separate, resizable windows for graphics and text, Wonderland, written by David Bishop and based on the works of Lewis Carroll, was a deliberate attempt to push the text adventure in a new, hi-tech direction. However, by the time the new interface was ready the traditional text-based genre had already begun to die out as gamers craved more visually elaborate gaming experiences.

In 1988, Magnetic Scrolls began to collaborate with Infocom, Douglas Adams and Michael Bywater on a sequel to The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy. This project was never finished. A playable draft of an early part of the game, along with the personal and commercial circumstances behind its ill-fated development, came briefly to public attention twenty years later.

In 1991, Virgin Interactive released The Magnetic Scrolls Collection Vol 1, containing new versions of The Guild of Thieves, Corruption and Fish! that took advantage of the Magnetic Windows engine. A second collection, containing their remaining games, was planned but never completed.

As a consequence of the dying text adventure market, Magnetic Scrolls ceased publishing in 1992. They were acquired by MicroProse later that year. A number of Magnetic Scrolls' staff went on to help develop a 3D role-playing video game entitled The Legacy: Realm of Terror, which was released on the PC to lukewarm reviews, but MicroProse did not capitalise on the Magnetic Scrolls name beyond that. In the late 1990s, Ken Gordon registered the magneticscrolls.com domain, which now redirects to the Strand Games website.

Two programmers from Magnetic Scrolls, Doug Rabson and Servan Keondjian later formed the company RenderMorphics which produced the highly acclaimed 3D Graphics API Reality Lab. In January 1995 another Magnetic Scrolls programmer, Steve Lacey joined RenderMorphics and in February of the same year Microsoft acquired the company. Reality Lab became the basis for Direct3D. Rabson and Keondjian are now at Qube Software, which they co-founded with Hugh Steers. Lacey remained at Microsoft as the graphics engine lead on Microsoft Flight Simulator. In October 2006, Lacey moved to Google. In 2011, he was killed in a car accident.

John Molloy moved to Florida, US, working on web-based applications, and died in 2018 following an illness. Phil South lives in South Wales, UK, and after many years working Disney Channel UK's web presence worked at the Bristol Old Vic Theatre School for 7 years. He now works as a freelance writer and blogger and in 2022 published a novel under a pseudonym.

Anita Sinclair is now one of the UK's most successful bridge players, winning a number of domestic competitions, and winning a gold medal in China.

Reappearance
In May 2017 the Strand games initiative emerged. Strand Games was started by Hugh Steers — co-founder and core developer of Magnetic Scrolls — and Stefan Meier of the Magnetic Scrolls Memorial fanpage. It is supported by several members of the original Magnetic Scrolls team, including Anita Sinclair, Ken Gordon, Rob Steggles and Servan Keondjian. The non-profit initiative aims both to preserve the original works of Magnetic Scrolls and to remaster the games for modern devices. With the public appearance of the initiative a first beta version of the remastered classic The Pawn was released. The official release followed in June 2017.

In June 2017 Strand games worked on recovering the source code of their classics from tapes to remaster and re-release them. After the successful recovery of the original source code in a remarkable process, which involved baking the original backup tapes at low temperature in a kitchen oven, the initiative started to remaster The Guild of Thieves from the original source code. In December 2017 the remastered and enhanced game was published. This was followed by a similarly revived edition of Jinxter in 2019.

List of games

 * The Pawn (1985, Rainbird)
 * The Guild of Thieves (1987, Rainbird)
 * Jinxter (1987, Rainbird)
 * Corruption (1988, Rainbird)
 * Fish! (1988, Rainbird)
 * Myth (1989, Rainbird)
 * Wonderland (1990, Virgin Interactive)
 * The Magnetic Scrolls Collection Vol 1 (1991, Virgin Interactive)
 * The Legacy: Realm of Terror (1992, MicroProse)

title: Magnetic Scrolls


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Talk:Hong Kong Tramways

Victoria Peak Tram
Do you think that we should include any information about the Victoria Peak Tram? It is a special kind of tram that tourists are most likely to reach, so including them may help people understand more

 * A sentence mentioning them and possibly a link to the Victoria Peak article might do the trick. Whatever you do, minimising duplication of information on the Wikipedia is generally a good thing.  --Robert Merkel 02:25 17 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Double-decker
''"Hong Kong Tramways" is one of the two tramways in the world which provides normal operation of the double-decker trams. ''

 * Which is the other? - Patrick 01:57 15 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * Possibly Blackpool, England. They run both single decker and double decker trams on their tracks.  Popsracer 02:59 15 Jul 2003 (UTC)
 * Make that Blackpool Tramway, but Alexandria tramways is another. So that would change the statement to "is one of the three tramways" Peter Horn User talk 01:53, 3 March 2019 (UTC)
 * Use the wording one of the Tramway and drop the word "three". Without citation to verify how many double decked tramway in the world. It is OR to count by ourselves, as it is a classical Black swan theory. The statement is easily rebutted by finding the fourth . It need a very detailed research by expert on every tramway of the world in every city. Matthew hk (talk) 11:23, 3 March 2019 (UTC)
 * Make that Alexandria tramways (typo). I myself have found Trams in India and Dubai Tram and two, or so, others are mentioned in double-decker tram. Peter Horn User talk 15:08, 3 March 2019 (UTC)
 * Others may be found here but none of those appear to be in current use. Peter Horn User talk 17:17, 3 March 2019 (UTC)

 * It is unreliable and original research to use wikipedia article to conclude real world situation. Matthew hk (talk) 13:46, 4 March 2019 (UTC)
 * Where, and how, else would one start and then use the external links? Peter Horn User talk 14:03, 4 March 2019 (UTC)

Image size
Can anyone help to adjust the image size and position? i dunno how to change it! Thx!

 * Done. CW 06:43, 7 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Uploading photos
Can anyone tell me how to upload the photos here? I've tried by clicking the "Upload File" on the left-hand colume, however it doesn't work. Tonnes of Thanks~
 * what type of ur file is? i tried jpg files and is okay:

With direct current
The trams should be running with direct current.

Tram stops
Is there any information on the location (and perhaps the names) of the tram stops? I've tried to look up on the company website but there wasn't any. — Instantnood 18:34, May 1, 2005 (UTC)

#168
Has anybody got a picture of the new trams 168, 169 or 170? — Instantnood 20:41, September 9, 2005 (UTC)

What about tram #70?
This article states that tram #120 is the only tram in the fleet that has retained its 1950s style. This 'fact' can be found all over the internet. I rode on #70 this morning which, to my eye, looks identical to #120. I hesitate to change the page in case I'm missing something.

Fair use rationale for Image:TramStop.jpg
Image:TramStop.jpg is being used on this article. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in this Wikipedia article constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use.

Please go to the image description page and edit it to include a fair use rationale. Using one of the templates at Fair use rationale guideline is an easy way to insure that your image is in compliance with Wikipedia policy, but remember that you must complete the template. Do not simply insert a blank template on an image page.

If there is other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on the other images used on this page. Note that any fair use images uploaded after 4 May, 2006, and lacking such an explanation will be deleted one week after they have been uploaded, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.

BetacommandBot 04:43, 11 July 2007 (UTC)

Paragraph on 1912 boycott added. DOR (HK) (talk) 08:18, 10 June 2008 (UTC)

External links modified
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 * Hong Kong 4th, 5th Generation Tram 香港第四、五代電車（1949、1950年).jpg

Dimensions
Hong Kong Tramways What are the dimensions, such as width, etc? Peter Horn User talk 01:47, 3 March 2019 (UTC)

 * Well, i guess may be there is some Chinese language book in Hong Kong to have that information . And that book can be added as citation. However, WP:WPHK is dead project, may be i leave a message in zh-wiki to ask for help. (I am currently not in HK, not going to order a book for this). Matthew hk (talk) 11:24, 3 March 2019 (UTC)

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add possible extension to the central and wan chai reclamation area to projects
it’s on the Chinese Wikipedia page for this article Noob251 (talk) 05:17, 10 August 2020 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Hong Kong Tramways


text:
Talk:2003 Tour de France

Untitled
The mountains classification and points classification columns were switched in the classification leadership table. I switched them back.--98.206.161.246 (talk) 08:28, 1 February 2010 (UTC)

Andre,

I edited your excellent stage summaries a little, mainly to correct some problems with tense. Some of your description was written in the present tense (writing about something occurring right now), some in the past tense (describing something that happened previously). As the summaries will be read after the stage is completed, the past tense is probably more appropriate. See my edits.

Intriguing tour this year, isn't it? --Robert Merkel 02:02 15 Jul 2003 (UTC)

title: Talk:2003 Tour de France


text:
Ian Clarke (computer scientist)

Ian Clarke (born 16 February 1977) is the original designer and lead developer of Freenet.

Early life
Clarke grew up in Navan, County Meath, Ireland. He was educated at Dundalk Grammar School and while there, he came first twice in the Senior Chemical, Physical, and Mathematical section of the Young Scientist Exhibition. The first time, in 1993, was with a project entitled "The C Neural Network Construction Kit". The second time, the following year, was with a project entitled "Mapping Internal Variations in Translucency within a Translucent Object using Beams of Light".

Freenet
In 1995, Clarke left Dundalk to study Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence at the University of Edinburgh, Scotland. While at Edinburgh, he became president of the then dormant Artificial Intelligence Society, resulting in its revival. In Clarke's final year at Edinburgh, he completed his final year project, entitled "A Distributed, Decentralised Information Storage and Retrieval System". In July 1999, after receiving a 'B' grade for his paper, he decided to release it to the Internet and invited volunteers to help implement his design. The resulting free software project became known as Freenet, and attracted significant attention from the mainstream and technology media.

In August 1999, Clarke began his first full-time job as a software developer in the Space Division of Logica plc, a London-based software consulting company. In February 2000, he left Logica to join a small software start-up called Instil Ltd. In August 2000, he left London for Santa Monica, California, where he co-founded Uprizer, Inc. with the intent of commercializing some of his Freenet-related ideas. In January 2001, Uprizer Inc. successfully raised $4 million in Series A round venture funding from investors including Intel Capital.

In March 2001, Clarke published an article describing FairShare, developed in collaboration with Uprizer's co-founders, Steven Starr and Rob Kramer. Clarke was concerned that copyright would become increasingly difficult to enforce in the Internet age, the goal of Fairshare was to provide an alternative to copyright as a way to compensate creators.

Professional career
In September 2002, after leaving Uprizer, Clarke formed Cematics LLC to explore a variety of new ideas and opportunities. Cematics LLC developed a number of products including Locutus - a P2P search application for the enterprise, WhittleBit - a search engine that learns from user feedback, and 3D17, a web-based collaborative editing tool.

In October 2003, Clarke decided to leave the United States to return to Edinburgh, Scotland. In December 2004, he began work on Dijjer, a distributed P2P web cache, and Indy, a collaborative music discovery system, both in conjunction with ChangeTv, a company founded by his long-time collaborator, Steven Starr, who later brought in Clarke and Oliver Luckett as co-founders. In 2003, he was named to the MIT Technology Review TR100 as one of the top 100 innovators in the world under the age of 35.

ChangeTv changed its name to Revver Inc. and unveiled a new website in November 2005 that strove to let creators of short videos earn revenue from their work. Revver was one of several user-created video websites unveiled in late 2005, but was the first such website to financially compensate video creators, and is reminiscent of Fairshare.

In December 2006, Clarke left Revver and moved to Austin, Texas. There, Clarke founded a new company, SenseArray, which is a drop-in ad targeting engine based on a proprietary algorithm developed by Clarke. In October 2009, he released Swarm,   a novel approach to distributing computation across multiple computers in a manner largely transparent to the programmer.

In January 2012, Clarke co-founded OneSpot, with the goal of creating "ads that don't suck". Over the next 3 years, he designed a real-time bidding engine capable of consistently outperforming Google Adwords. In March 2012, he open sourced LastCalc, an online calculator he intended to provide an open and more flexible alternative to tools like Google Calculator.

title: Ian Clarke (computer scientist)


text:
Talk:Hamm's Bear

Untitled
In 2000, the St. Paul Pioneer Press newspaper voted the Hamm's Beer bear a runner-up in its "150 most influential Minnesotans in the past 150 years" contest.. So, who won? :) RickK 02:17 15 Jul 2003 (UTC)
 * I would assume 150 real people won, although I have to admit I didn't read the article that closely. *grin* - Hephaestos 02:19 15 Jul 2003 (UTC)
 * Oh. A runnerup.  I read that as the runnerup.  :)  I thought he was number 2 on the list.  Shows what happens when you're on too late at night.  :) RickK 03:06 16 Jul 2003 (UTC)

I love the Hamm's beer bear! Just makes me feel all warm and fuzzy....and buzzed! :)

Hamm's Bear at the Detroit Zoo?
I am new to discussing things on Wikipedia, so please forgive any potential faux pas....

I was just at the Detroit Zoo, and there is a black bear on display there who had been rescued. According to the Detroit Zoo, "Hamms the bear" had at one time been a mascot for Hamms Beer. When he was two, he was sold to a private individual in Iowa. For twenty years, he was kept in a small cage in the backyard and had been tormented by trespassing vandals. Hamms had even been stabbed in the nose by a pitchfork. The bear bit the owner and was to be destroyed, but an animal welfare organization; along with the Detroit Zoo stepped in and pleaded for his release. He is now learning to do basic bear activities at the zoo, alongside a couple of female bears.

Is this something that should be noted on this page? Thanks!Gretchen1111 20:20, 15 October 2007 (UTC)

WikiProject Food and drink Tagging
This article talk page was automatically added with WikiProject Food and drink banner as it falls under Category:Food or one of its subcategories. If you find this addition an error, Kindly undo the changes and update the inappropriate categories if needed. The bot was instructed to tagg these articles upon consenus from WikiProject Food and drink. You can find the related request for tagging here. Maximum caution and careful attention was done to avoid any wrongly tagging any categories, but mistakes may happen... If you have concerns, please inform the project members on the project talk page -- TinucherianBot (talk) 07:30, 4 July 2008 (UTC)

Assessment comment
Substituted at 21:43, 26 June 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Hamm's Bear


text:
User talk:GrandVoivodOfErdely/Six

While many Americans are enjoying unprecedented prosperity ... - what decade are you talking about? RickK 02:19 15 Jul 2003 (UTC)

title: User talk:GrandVoivodOfErdely/Six


text:
Talk:Franco-Belgian comics artists

The article title reads like the people being discussed are French-speaking Belgians, not people of either French or Belgian nationality. RickK 02:24 15 Jul 2003 (UTC)

title: Talk:Franco-Belgian comics artists


text:
Charlie Barnet

Charles Daly Barnet (October 26, 1913 – September 4, 1991) was an American jazz saxophonist, composer, and bandleader.

His major recordings were "Skyliner", "Cherokee", "The Wrong Idea", "Scotch and Soda", "In a Mizz", and "Southland Shuffle".

Early life
Barnet was born in New York City, the son of Charline (Daly) and Willard Barnet. His parents divorced when he was two, and he was raised by his mother and her grandparents. His grandfather was Charles Frederick Daly, a vice-president for the New York Central Railroad, banker, and businessman.

Barnet attended boarding schools, both in the New York and Chicago areas. He learned to play piano and saxophone as a child. He often left school to listen to music and to try to gain work as a musician. Although his family wanted him to become a lawyer, he chose to be a musician instead.

Career
By sixteen, Barnet had played on tours with Jean Goldkette's satellite band and was in New York, where he joined Frank Winegar's Pennsylvania Boys on tenor sax. Always restless, by 1931 he had relocated to Hollywood and appeared as a film extra while trying to interest local bandleaders in hot music, which was increasingly unpopular due to the Great Depression. Late in 1932, aged 18, he returned east and persuaded a contact at CBS' artist bureau to try him out as an orchestra leader.

Barnet began recording in October 1933, during an engagement at New York's Park Central Hotel, but was not a great success for most of the 1930s, regularly breaking up his band and changing its style. Early in 1935, he attempted to premiere swing music at New Orleans' Hotel Roosevelt, where Louisiana's colorful Governor Huey Long, disliking the new sound, had the band run out of town by luring them to a bordello, which was then raided.

Barnet arranged with Joe Haymes to take several of his now-jobless sidemen, while he himself went on a lark in Havana, as an escort to well-to-do older women. 1936 saw another swinging Barnet edition, which featured the up-and-coming vocal quartet The Modernaires but quickly faded from the scene.

The height of Barnet's popularity—and his first truly permanent band—came between 1939 and 1941, a period that began with his hit version of "Cherokee", written by Ray Noble and arranged by Billy May. In 1944, Barnet had another big hit with "Skyliner".

In 1947, he started to switch from swing music to bebop. During his swing period, his band included Buddy DeFranco, Neal Hefti, Lena Horne, Barney Kessel, Dodo Marmorosa, Oscar Pettiford, Wes Dean, and Art House, while later versions of the band included Maynard Ferguson, Doc Severinsen, Jimmy Knepper and Clark Terry. Trumpeter Billy May was an arranger in the Charlie Barnet Orchestra before joining Glenn Miller in 1940.

Barnet was one of the first bandleaders to integrate his band, with more black musicians working for him than virtually all of the other popular white bandleaders. Trumpeters Roy Eldridge and Frankie Newton and bassist John Kirby joined in 1937. Lena Horne was one of Barnet's vocalists. Unusually, for a mainly white group, Barnet was booked to perform at the Apollo Theater in Harlem and established a new attendance record. He was an outspoken admirer of Count Basie and Duke Ellington. Ellington recorded the Charlie Barnet composition "In a Mizz". In 1939, in a gesture that was warmly appreciated and admired, Count Basie (who was booked 2 days after) lent Barnet some of his charts after his instruments, notes and arrangements had been destroyed in the famous fire at the Palomar Ballroom in Los Angeles (October 2, 1939), which prevented Barnet's last show there.

Throughout his career he was an opponent of syrupy arrangements. In the song "The Wrong Idea", he lampooned the "sweet" big band sound of the era. The song was written by Billy May, who later used the same satirical bent in his collaborations with Stan Freberg on Capitol Records including the Lawrence Welk satire "Wunnerful! Wunnerful!" Barnet's was a notorious party band where drinking and vandalism were not uncommon. While Glenn Miller enforced strict standards of dress and deportment, Barnet was more interested in having fun, according to his autobiography Those Swinging Years: The Autobiography of Charlie Barnet.

In 1949 he retired, apparently because he had lost interest in music. He was able to retire when he chose because he was one of the few heirs in a very wealthy family. He occasionally returned from retirement for brief tours but never returned to music full-time. In 1956, he released an album, Dance Bash, which was recorded over five years from 1947 to 1952.

Known for a unique sound and hard-swinging style on tenor saxophone, Barnet in the late 1930s added the alto saxophone to his arsenal, followed by the soprano saxophone, an instrument that had fallen out of favor after the 1920s and was not generally used in the big band era.

In September 1964, Barnet arranged a private party for his musical hero, Duke Ellington, and orchestra to play at Palm Springs' San Jacinto country club. At the door, a small sign painted by Barnet said: "Any complaints about loud music or requests for excessive use of mutes will be grounds for instant expulsion (to a table in the parking lot). Any requests for folk music, twist, watusi, or rock and roll will result in instant execution by golf balls at 20 paces." Barnet did not play at the gathering.

Barnet's theme song was "Redskin Rhumba". His autobiography, Those Swinging Years: The Autobiography of Charlie Barnet, written with Stanley Dance, was published in 1984.

Personal life
Barnet was married eleven times and in his autobiography says: "I went through several more marital fiascos, but they were mostly Mexican marriages and quickly annulled, because they weren't legal in the first place." His final marriage, to Betty Thompson, was for 33 years. He had one son, Charles D. Barnet Jr., and two grandchildren from an earlier marriage, Jennifer Ann Barnet and Darren Charles Barnet. During retirement, Barnet resided at homes in Palm Springs and San Diego, California. He kept a 46-foot boat in San Diego.

Death
Barnet died from complications of Alzheimer's disease and pneumonia at San Diego's Hillside hospital, on September 4, 1991, aged 77.

Compositions
Charlie Barnet's compositions included "Skyliner", "Southland Shuffle", "Swing Street Strut", "The Right Idea", "The Wrong Idea" (with Billy May), "Growlin'", "Scotch and Soda", "Midweek Function", "Oh, What You Said (Are We Burnt Up?)", "I Kinda Like You", "Tappin' at the Tappa", "The Last Jump", "Knocking at the Famous Door", "Lazy Bug" (with Juan Tizol), "Ogoun Badagris (Voodoo War God)", "Clap Hands, Here Comes Charlie", and "In a Mizz", which was also recorded by Duke Ellington.

"Skyliner", arranged by Neal Hefti, was written as the theme music for the late 1940s US Armed Forces Network program "Midnight In Munich", broadcast from the AFN station in Munich, Germany, and hosted by Ralph Moffat. Thanks to the station's immensely powerful twin 100 kW transmitters, AFN Munich could be heard as far away as the UK; this, and the popularity of Moffat's show, evidently helped "Skyliner" and many other contemporary American swing hits to gain wide popularity across Europe and become hits in the UK. The title (which was originally printed as "Sky Liner") may be a reference to the practice of American pilots flying into Munich who used the radio station's powerful signal to home in on the city.

Discography
Barnet had 78's, 45's, and 10"/12" LP's from 1935 to his waning years. The record labels on which he appeared included: Bluebird Records/RCA Victor, Decca Records, Apollo Records, Capitol Records, Columbia Records, Mercury Records, Clef Records, Verve Records, Everest Records, Crown Records, Vault Records, Joyce Records, Ajax Records, and Calliope Records.

 * The Best of Charlie Barnet (1942-1946) [The Decca Years] / MCA #2-4069 (1975)
 * The Complete Charlie Barnet, Vol. 1 (1935-1937) / Bluebird #AXM2-5526 (1977)
 * The Complete Charlie Barnet, Volume II (1939) / Bluebird #AXM2-5577 (1981)
 * The Complete Charlie Barnet, Volume 3 (1939-1940) / Bluebird #AXM2-5581 (1981)
 * The Complete Charlie Barnet, Volume IV (1940) / Bluebird #AXM2-5585 (1982)
 * The Complete Charlie Barnet, Volume V (1940-1941) / Bluebird #AXM2-5587 (1982)
 * The Complete Charlie Barnet, Volume VI (1941-1942) / Bluebird #AXM2-5590 (1982)

title: Charlie Barnet


text:
User:Blukens

test &emdash; 123

title: User:Blukens


text:
Yau Tsim Mong District

Yau Tsim Mong District is one of 18 districts of Hong Kong, located on the western part of Kowloon Peninsula. It is the core urban area of Kowloon. The district has the second highest population density of all districts, at 49,115 km2. The 2016 By-Census recorded the total population of Yau Tsim Mong District at 342,970.

Yau Tsim Mong District contains the urban areas of Yau Ma Tei, Tsim Sha Tsui, and Mong Kok, as well as Ferry Point, King's Park, Kwun Chung, Tai Kok Tsui, Tsim Sha Tsui East, the Union Square and Kowloon Point. Formerly two districts, the Yau Tsim District and Mong Kok District, it was combined in 1994. Its name is an acronym of the three aforementioned major areas.

History
The district was once called Yau Ma Tei District. It was renamed Yau Tsim District from 1 April 1988 to "remove any misconception that Tsim Sha Tsui was an administrative district separate from Yau Ma Tei".

Yau Tsim District and Mong Kok District were merged in 1994 to form the new Yau Tsim Mong District.

MTR
Six MTR lines serve this district: the Tsuen Wan line, Kwun Tong line, Tung Chung line, East Rail line, Tuen Ma line and the Airport Express.
 * Tsuen Wan line and Kwun Tong line converge from the north at Prince Edward station, then Mong Kok and Yau Ma Tei the line's last station in the district and continue its journey to Whampoa. Tsuen Wan line continued to Jordan and Tsim Sha Tsui stations before crossing the harbour to Hong Kong Island.
 * Tung Chung line has two stations along the west coast: Kowloon near Jordan and Olympic near Tai Kok Tsui. The former station is also served by the Airport Express.
 * East Rail line has a station in Mong Kok East, while Hung Hom is on the boundary between Yau Tsim Mong and Kowloon City districts.
 * Tuen Ma line and converge from the north at Austin station, then East Tsim Sha Tsui station and Hung Hom the line's last station in the district and continue its journey to Ma On Shan.

Major roads

 * Nathan Road
 * Shanghai Street
 * Austin Road
 * Canton Road
 * Cross-Harbour Tunnel
 * West Kowloon Highway
 * Western Harbour Crossing
 * Salisbury Road

Education
Schools in Yau Tsim Mong District include:
 * Sir Ellis Kadoorie Secondary School (West Kowloon)
 * Diocesan Girls' School
 * Mount Kelly Hong Kong

 * Universities
 * Hong Kong Polytechnic University

title: Yau Tsim Mong District


text:
Talk:Stone–Weierstrass theorem

Domain question
When we say something about "pure states"... is the reader supposed to know what a pure state is??? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 189.61.2.44 (talk) 01:37, 1 November 2019 (UTC)

How about complex case?
Stone-Weierstrass doesn't work in the complex case. Consider complex functions on the unit circle in the complex plane. Polynomials form an algebra with a unit and containing functions which separate the points on the circle. However, the function z->complex_conjugate(z) is *not* well approximated by any polynomial. Indeed, conventional "inner product" between this function and any polynomial is 0 (because the complex conjugate of the complex conjugate is again z).

The solution is to consider *-algebras, that is, algebras which are also closed under the operation of complex conjugation. -- Miguel

Domain question
Forgive the silly question, but I want to make sure I have this clear: the theorem (in the simple form) only applies to approximating functions from $$C[a,b]\,$$. It does not apply to $$C(-\infty,\infty)$$, correct? Am I correct in saying that in general, it applies to real-valued functions $$f \in C[I]\,$$ where I is any compact set in the reals (i.e. any closed set)? And that it fails if I is not compact? Lavaka 17:23, 17 August 2006 (UTC)
 * The general formulation (see article) starts with
 * Suppose K is a compact Hausdorff space
 * so compactness of the domain looks like a necessary condition to me. Perhaps we should include a Proof? --CompuChip 09:45, 31 January 2007 (UTC)

Weierstrass theorem currently redirects here
Students of different disciplines or sub-disciplines are often taught about the "Weierstrass theorem," which may refer to the extreme value theorem, Stone-Weierstrass, Bolzano-Weierstrass, or who knows what. Currently Weierstrass theorem redirects here, to Stone-Weierstrass theorem. I think we should have it redirect to a disambiguation page of sorts, perhaps a page called, "Mathematical objects bearing the name of Karl Weierstrass," which would include a list of theorems, as well as a short description of the theorem so students can figure out which one is relevant. Does this sound like a good idea? I brought this up at Talk:Karl Weierstrass as well, so please feel free to discuss it there. Smmurphy(Talk) 21:22, 18 July 2007 (UTC)

About the comment in "See also"
The "See also" section has the following comment:

 * However, as is shown in Rudin's Principles of Mathematical Analysis, one can easily find a polynomial P uniformly approximating ƒ by convolving ƒ with a polynomial kernel.

I find this remark a bit strange and naive. Weierstrass' original proof is by convolving with a Gausian kernel. Is it really reasonable to mention explicitely Rudin here? I think not, and will change it, if nobody objects. --Bdmy (talk) 12:08, 3 April 2009 (UTC)

About the condition "Hausdorff"
Is the condition "Hausdorff" necessary? It seems that "compact" is enough. --Hang —Preceding unsigned comment added by 219.236.149.32 (talk) 12:55, 28 April 2011 (UTC)

 * I believe you are correct, the proof I know doesn't seem to use the Hausdorff assumption at all. AJ LaMotta (talk) 18:51, 29 May 2024 (UTC)

bishop theorem
The article says:
 * f|S ∈ AS for every maximal set S ⊂ X such that AS contains no non-constant real functions.

So what is AS? --11:22, 30 March 2012 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by 141.35.13.182 (talk)

89.240.118.214 (talk) 15:44, 6 March 2021 (UTC)

Functions Domain: $$L^2$$ functions?
In this article we consider $$C(X)$$ as super function spaces. But in this MSE question, $$L^2(X)$$ is also considered when using Stone-Weierstrass theorem. Is it right? If yes, maybe we could replenish this. -- Namasikanam (talk) 03:15, 17 September 2019 (UTC)

"The Generalized Weierstrass Approximation Theorem" wrong PDF
The link following the last but one reference points to the PDF of a paper by Hager and is unrelated to the cited paper by Stone. Bill

 * Thanks for noticing. I removed the erroneous link. Saung Tadashi (talk) 17:02, 6 March 2021 (UTC)

Editorial history
This new section refers to an English paper published in 1885 under the title On the possibility of giving an analytic representation to an arbitrary function of real variable. The related digital copy seems not to be available in the Internet Archive. Hence, it has been temporarily sourced by four academic papers, which, in my modest opinion, can be removed when the related primary source will be eventually made available on the web.Theologian81sp (talk) 21:51, 3 July 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Stone–Weierstrass theorem


text:
Public service announcement

A public service announcement (PSA) is a message in the public interest disseminated by the media without charge to raise public awareness and change behavior. Oftentimes these messages feature unsettling imagery, ideas or behaviors that are designed to startle or even scare the viewer into understanding the consequences of undergoing a particular harmful action or inaction (such as pictures of drug users before and after their addiction or realistic skits of domestic violence situations) as well as the importance of avoiding such choices. In the UK, they are generally called a public information film (PIF); in Hong Kong, they are known as an announcement in the public interest (API).

History
The earliest public service announcements (in the form of moving pictures) were made before and during the Second World War years in both the UK and the US.

In the UK, amateur actor Richard Massingham set up Public Relationship Films Ltd. in 1938 as a specialist agency for producing short educational films for the public. In the films, he typically played a bumbling character who was slightly more stupid than average and often explained the message of the film by demonstrating the risks if it were ignored. The films covered topics such as how to cross the road, how to prevent the spread of diseases, how to swim, and how to drive without causing the road to be unsafe for other users. During the war, he was commissioned by the UK Ministry of Information to produce films for the war effort. Massingham began to produce longer films, for both private companies and the Government, after the War.

In the US, the Ad Council (initially called the War Advertising Council) was set up in 1941, when America entered World War II. It began implementing on a massive scale the idea of using advertising to influence American society on a range of fronts. Its first campaigns focused on the country's needs during World War II, such as encouraging the American public to invest their savings in government bonds.

United Kingdom
After the war, PSAs were used to educate the public on a broader range of issues. In the UK, they were produced for the Central Office of Information (COI), and again by private contractors, which were usually small film companies, such as Richard Taylor Cartoons. They were supplied to broadcasters free of charge for use at any time. Their utility as a cost-free means to fill the gaps in commercial breaks left by unsold advertising airtime has led to their regular usage since the 1960s.

United States
The most common topics of PSAs are health and safety, such as the multimedia "Emergency Preparedness & Safety Tips On Air and Online" talk radio campaign. A typical PSA is part of a public awareness campaign to inform or educate the public about an issue such as obesity or compulsive gambling.

One of the earliest television public service announcements came in the form of Smokey Bear whose "Only you can prevent forest fires" campaign ran for decades. Other common early themes were traffic safety, especially safe crossing, wearing seat belts and not driving drunk, and the dangers of cigarette smoking.

A charitable organization may enlist the support of a celebrity for a PSA; examples include actress Kathryn Erbe telling people to be green and Crips gang leader Stanley Williams speaking from prison to urge youths not to join gangs or commit crimes.

Some television shows featuring very special episodes made PSAs after the episodes. For example, Law & Order: Special Victims Unit talked about child abduction in one episode, with a PSA about child abduction airing after the episode. After My Sister Sam was canceled in 1988, surviving cast members: Pam Dawber, Joel Brooks, Jenny O'Hara, and David Naughton were reunited to film a PSA for the center to Prevent Handgun Violence on gun control after the murder of their co-star, Rebecca Schaeffer, who was gunned down by a crazed fan on July 18, 1989, at Schaeffer's apartment in Los Angeles.

During the 1980s, many American cartoon shows contained PSAs at the end of their shows to satisfy federal regulations that required programming for children to be educational. Examples include the closing moral segments at the end of He-Man and the Masters of the Universe, the "Knowing is Half the Battle" epilogues in G.I. Joe: A Real American Hero, Jem, M.A.S.K., Inspector Gadget, and the "Sonic Says" segments from Adventures of Sonic the Hedgehog.

PSAs are used as placeholders for unsold commercials.

South Korea
PSAs in South Korea are produced by the Public Service Advertising Council, an organization under the Korea Broadcasting Advertisement Corporation (KOBACO). The Public Service Advertising Council is in charge of advisory roles such as selecting the topic of PSAs broadcast in Korea for one year, establishing public relations measures, and seeking strategies. The Public Service Advertising Council is made up of about 15 persons nominated by advertising academia, broadcasting, advertising industry, and civic groups.

The organization evolved from the 'Broadcasting Advertising Improvement Advisory Committee' formed on August 18, 1981. After going through the 'Public Service Advertising Improvement Advisory Committee' on February 7, 1983, the name was changed to the current name on July 1, 1988.

As of 2020, there are a total of 400 PSAs produced by the KOBACO.

China
China's first PSAs in 1986 were about saving water and were broadcast on Guiyang television. In Hong Kong, terrestrial television networks have been required since National Day 2004 to preface their main evening news broadcasts with a minute-long announcement in the public interest which plays the Chinese National Anthem in Mandarin over various patriotic montages.

Malaysia
Filem Negara Malaysia (FNM) became the early pioneers of PSAs from its establishment in 1946. PSAs produced by FNM have topics such as dengue fever, drug addiction, environmental pollution, road safety and electricity usage. Governmental agencies such as Ministry of Health have produced PSAs to promote their Healthy Lifestyle Campaign which held annually since 1991, with the "Utamakan Kesihatan" ("Prioritize Health") logo appearing at the end of their ads, most notably PSAs about AIDS.

PSAs on road safety were produced by Ministry of Transport, particularly on accidents amongst motorcyclists and alcohol consumption amongst drivers. Some of their ads also using "Anda Mampu Mengubahnya" ("You Can Make a Difference") slogan and also using some of famous actors and actresses including the late Adibah Noor and Nabil Ahmad. Ministry of Science, Technology and the Environment also produces PSAs focusing on environmental pollution. PSAs on corruption and bribery were produced by the Malaysian Anti-Corruption Agency (now Malaysian Anti-Corruption Commission). Most of these PSAs were aired on Radio Televisyen Malaysia (RTM) and TV Pendidikan between the 1990s and 2000s. Private TV networks like TV3 have also produced in-house PSAs, covering topics such as not downloading pirated content, some of which feature actress and infotainer, Janna Nick; and domestic violence which features actress Eyra Hazali.

There was a series of animated PSAs that was made by Filem Negara Malaysia from 2008 till 2013 which is also commonly known as "Pak Abu PSAs" and was frequently shown in Malaysian TV channels.

In 2021, the Malaysia Government produced a series of PSAs known as "Lindung Diri, Lindung Semua". The PSAs cover information about Covid-19 vaccines and the benefits of vaccination. The series also features the Prime Minister of Malaysia at that time, Muhyiddin Yassin.

Festivals and contests
IAA Responsibility Awards is an annual international festival of public service announcements, held by the International Advertising Association since 2008.

title: Public service announcement


text:
PSA

PSA, PsA, Psa, or psa may refer to:

Biology and medicine

 * Posterior spinal artery
 * Primary systemic amyloidosis, a disease caused by the accumulation of abnormal proteins
 * Prostate-specific antigen, an enzyme used as a blood tracer for prostate cancer
 * Psoriatic arthritis (PsA), an inflammatory disease
 * Pseudomonas aeruginosa, a species of bacterium
 * Pseudomonas syringae pv. actinidiae, a pathovar of a bacterium that attacks kiwifruit

Chemistry

 * Polar surface area, the surface sum over all polar atoms of a molecule
 * Pressure swing adsorption, a technology for separating, or purifying, gases

Computing

 * Professional services automation, software for automating project and billing management for professional service firms
 * PSA Certified, Platform Security Architecture, a security certification for the Internet of Things
 * Plesk Server Administrator, a commercial web hosting automation program
 * Persistent staging area, a staging area in data vault modeling

Contracts, legislation, and government

 * Passenger Vessel Services Act of 1886 or Passenger Services Act, US
 * Payment Services Act, Singapore
 * Primary statistical area, a collective term for metropolitan, micropolitan, and combined statistical areas
 * Problem-solution approach, an approach for assessing inventive step at the European Patent Office
 * Production sharing agreement, a contract between a government and a resource extraction company
 * Public Safety Act, a law in Jammu and Kashmir
 * Public service agreement, UK government department targets for 3-year period
 * Public service announcement
 * Purchase and sale agreement, an agreement between a buyer and a seller

World-wide scope

 * Pacific Science Association
 * Pacific Sociological Association
 * Philosophy of Science Association
 * Pro Snowboarders Association
 * Professional Skaters Association
 * Professional Squash Association

Specific to large English-speaking countries

 * Australia:
 * Pharmaceutical Society of Australia
 * Public Schools Association, Perth
 * Public Service Association of NSW, a trade union
 * The Salvation Army, Parramatta
 * United Kingdom:
 * Phone-paid Services Authority
 * Political Studies Association, for academics
 * Professional Standards Authority for Health and Social Care
 * Property Services Agency, former government agency
 * United States:
 * Partnership for a Secure America
 * Photographic Society of America
 * Pi Sigma Alpha, college honor society for political science
 * Poultry Science Association

Other country-specific organizations

 * Parti Solidaire Africain (Democratic Republic of the Congo), defunct political party
 * New Zealand Public Service Association, trade union
 * PSA BPOL a specialised police unit within the Federal Police of Germany
 * Petroleum Safety Authority Norway, governmental supervisory authority
 * Palestinian Scout Association
 * Philippine Statistics Authority
 * Philippine Support Association, raising credit for the poor
 * Polish Society of Actuaries
 * PSA International (Singapore), formerly Port of Singapore Authority
 * Public Servants Association of South Africa, trade union
 * Partido Socialista de Andalucía (Spain), former name of the Andalusian Party
 * Socialist Party of Aragon (Partido Socialista de Aragón), a now defunct Spanish political party
 * Authentic Socialist Party (Argentina), Partido Socialista Auténtico
 * Public Services Association (Trinidad and Tobago), a trade union
 * Partido Socialista Argentino, the Argentine Socialist Party, a now merged Argentinian political party

Transport

 * PSA Airlines, a subsidiary of American Airlines Group
 * Pisa International Airport, Pisa, Italy, IATA code PSA
 * Pacific Southwest Airlines, US, 1949 to 1988, ICAO code PSA
 * Penn Station Access, a planned New York City rail upgrade
 * PSA Group, Peugeot Société Anonyme, a defunct French multinational automobile manufacturer now part of Stellantis

Other uses

 * "PSA" (song) by SZA, from the album Lana (2023)
 * PSA 5.7 Rock, a pistol
 * Penal substitutionary atonement, a theory of atonement in Christianity
 * Professional Sports Authenticator (PSA), an authenticator of sports and trading cards
 * Autonomous Socialist Party (disambiguation)
 * Pisa language or Asue Awyu, ISO 639-3 code psa
 * Piscis Austrinus (Southern Fish) constellation, IAU abbreviation PsA
 * Public Storage stock ticker
 * PSA Ambon, an Indonesian football club
 * Power Station of Art, a contemporary art museum in Shanghai, China
 * Pressure-sensitive adhesive
 * "PSA", title of an earlier version of the R.E.M. song "Bad Day"

title: PSA


text:
Scop

A scop ( or ) was a poet as represented in Old English poetry. The scop is the Old English counterpart of the Old Norse skald, with the important difference that "skald" was applied to historical persons, and scop is used, for the most part, to designate oral poets within Old English literature. Very little is known about scops, and their historical existence is questioned by some scholars.

Functions
The scop, like the similar gleeman, was a reciter of poetry. The scop, however, was typically attached to a court on a relatively permanent basis. There, he most likely received rich gifts for his performances. The performances often featured the recitation of recognisable texts such as the "old pagan legends of the Germanic tribes." However, the scop's duties also included composing his own poetry in different situations, the eulogizing of his master. While some scops moved from court to court, they were (generally speaking) less nomadic than the gleemen and had positions of greater security.

Etymology
Old English scop and its cognate Old High German scoph, scopf, scof (glossing poeta and vates; also poema) may be related to the verb scapan "to create, form" (Old Norse skapa, Old High German scaffan; Modern English shape), from Proto-Germanic skapiz "form, order" (from a PIE  "cut, hack"), perfectly parallel to the notion of craftsmanship expressed by the Greek poetēs itself; Köbler (1993, p. 220) suggests that the West Germanic word may indeed be a calque of Latin poeta.

Scop, scopf, and relationship to scold
While skop became English scoff, the Old Norse skald lives on in a Modern English word of a similarly deprecating meaning, scold. There is a homonymous Old High German scopf meaning "abuse, derision" (Old Norse skop, meaning "mocking, scolding", whence scoff), a third meaning "tuft of hair", and yet another meaning "barn" (cognate to English shop). They may all derive from a Proto-Germanic skupa.

The association with jesting or mocking was, however, strong in Old High German. There was a skopfari glossing both poeta and comicus and a skopfliod glossing canticum rusticum et ineptum and psalmus plebeius. Skopfsang, on the other hand, is of a higher register, glossing poema, poesis, tragoedia. The words involving jesting are derived from another root, Proto-Indo-European *- "push, thrust", related to English shove, shuffle, and the Oxford English Dictionary favours association of scop with that root. The question cannot be decided formally since the Proto-Germanic forms coincided in zero grade, and by the time of the surviving sources (from the late 8th century), the association with both roots may have influenced the word for several centuries.

Literary fiction or reality
The scholar of literature Seth Lerer suggests that "What we have come to think of as the inherently 'oral' quality of Old English Poetry... [may] be a literary fiction of its own." Scholars of Early English have different opinions on whether the Anglo-Saxon oral poet ever really existed. Much of the poetry that survives does have an oral quality to it, but some scholars argue that it is a trait carried over from an earlier Germanic period. If, as some critics believe, the idea of the Anglo-Saxon oral poet is based on the Old Norse Skald, it can be seen as a link to the heroic past of the Germanic peoples. There is no proof that the "scop" existed, and it could be a literary device allowing poetry to give an impression of orality and performance. This poet figure recurs throughout the literature of the period, whether real or not. Examples are the poems Widsith and Deor, in the Exeter Book, which draw on the idea of the mead-hall poet of the heroic age and, along with the anonymous heroic poem Beowulf express some of the strongest poetic connections to oral culture in the literature of the period.

The scholar and translator of Old English poetry Michael Alexander, introducing his 1966 book of The Earliest English Poems, treats the scop as a reality within an oral tradition. He writes that since all the material is traditional, the oral poet achieves mastery of alliterative verse when the use of descriptive half-line formulae has become "instinctive"; at that point he can compose "with and through the form rather than simply in it". At that point, in Alexander's view, the scop "becomes invisible, and metre becomes rhythm".

The nature of the scop in Beowulf is addressed by another scholar-translator, Hugh Magennis, in his book Translating Beowulf. He discusses the poem's lines 867–874, which describe, in his prose gloss, "a man... mindful of songs, who remembered a multitude of stories from the whole range of ancient traditions, found new words, properly bound together". He notes that this offers "an image of the poetic tradition in which Beowulf participates", an oral culture: but that "in fact this narrator and this audience are [in this instance] a fiction", because when the Beowulf text is read out, the narrator is absent. So, while the poem feels like a scop's "oral utterance .. using the traditional medium of heroic poetry", it is actually "a literate work, which offers a meditation on its [centuries old] heroic world rather than itself coming directly from such a world".

title: Scop


text:
Fort Lauderdale–Hollywood International Airport

Fort Lauderdale–Hollywood International Airport is a major public airport in Broward County, Florida, United States. It is one of four airports with commercial service serving the Miami metropolitan area. The airport is off Interstate 595, Interstate 95, U.S. Route 1, Florida State Road A1A, and Florida State Road 5 bounded by the cities Fort Lauderdale, Hollywood, and Dania Beach, 3 miles (5 km) southwest of downtown Fort Lauderdale and 21 mi north of Miami.

With over 700 daily flights to 135 domestic and international destinations, FLL has become an intercontinental gateway since the late 1990s, although Miami International Airport still handles most long-haul flights in and out of South Florida. FLL serves as a primary airport for the Fort Lauderdale, Pompano Beach, Coral Springs, and Boca Raton areas, and a secondary airport for parts of Miami and areas north of Boca Raton for flights that are not served by Palm Beach International Airport, such as Delray Beach, Jupiter, Boynton Beach, and West Palm Beach. The airport is a base for Allegiant Air, JetBlue and Spirit Airlines, the latter of which has its corporate headquarters nearby in the suburb of Miramar, Florida. In addition, FLL is the primary South Florida airport for Southwest Airlines (although Southwest also serves both Miami and Palm Beach) with the majority of Southwest flights currently serving Fort Lauderdale. FLL is classified by the US Federal Aviation Administration as a "major hub" facility serving commercial air traffic.

1926–1959
World War I aviator Merle Fogg purchased an abandoned nine-hole golf course that was destroyed in the 1926 Miami hurricane for $1,200 in 1928. On May 1, 1929, the airport officially opened as Merle Fogg Field, with two criss-cross unpaved runways. At the start of World War II, it was commissioned by the United States Navy and renamed Naval Air Station Fort Lauderdale. The runways were paved, and a control tower was built. The base was initially used for refitting civil airliners for military service before they were ferried across the Atlantic to Europe and North Africa. NAS Fort Lauderdale later became a main training base for Naval Aviators and enlisted naval air crewmen flying the Grumman TBF and TBM Avenger for the U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps aboard aircraft carriers and from expeditionary airfields ashore. NAS Fort Lauderdale was the home base for Flight 19, the five TBM Avengers that disappeared in December 1945, leading in part to the notoriety of the Bermuda Triangle.

NAS Fort Lauderdale closed on October 1, 1946, and was transferred to county control, becoming Broward County International Airport.

Commercial flights to Nassau began on June 2, 1953, and domestic flights began in 1958–1959: Northeast Airlines and National Airlines DC-6Bs flew nonstop to Idlewild, and Northeast flew nonstop to Washington National. In 1959, the airport opened its first permanent terminal building and assumed its current name.

1960–1999
In 1966, the airport averaged 48 airline operations a day; in 1972, it averaged 173 a day.

The Feb 1966 Official Airline Guide shows three nonstop departures to New York–Kennedy and no other nonstop flights beyond Tampa and Orlando. Five years later, FLL had added nonstop flights to Atlanta, Baltimore, Boston, Buffalo, Chicago, Cleveland, Detroit, Minneapolis, New York–La Guardia, Newark, Philadelphia, and Pittsburgh. (Northeast's nonstop to Los Angeles had already been dropped.)

By 1974, the airport was served by Braniff International Airways, Delta Air Lines, Eastern Air Lines, National Airlines, Northwest Orient Airlines, Shawnee Airlines and United Airlines. Delta and Eastern were the dominant carriers, with 12 and 14 routes from FLL respectively. By 1979, following deregulation, Air Florida, Bahamasair, Florida Airlines, Mackey International Airlines, Republic Airlines, Trans World Airlines and Western Airlines also served the airport.

Low-cost airline traffic grew in the 1990s, with Southwest opening its base in 1996, Spirit in 1999, and JetBlue in 2000. Spirit Airlines made FLL a hub in 2002. In 2003, JetBlue made FLL a focus city. US Airways also planned a hub at Fort Lauderdale in the mid-2000s as part of its reorganization strategy before its merger with America West. Eventually, low-cost competition forced several major legacy airlines to cut back service to FLL, with United pulling out of the airport entirely in 2008 and American Airlines moving its New York and Los Angeles services to West Palm Beach in 2013.

2000–2014
In January 2000, South African Airways (SAA) introduced service from Cape Town to Atlanta via Fort Lauderdale on a Boeing 747. The flight from Atlanta to Cape Town operated nonstop. Fort Lauderdale served both as a refueling stop and as a place to pick up passengers. SAA had just started code-sharing with Delta Air Lines, which offered several flights from the airport. Changes to security regulations following the September 11 attacks forced SAA to eliminate the stop.

During the 2005 hurricane season, FLL was affected by Hurricane Katrina and Hurricane Wilma. Katrina struck land in late August as a Category 1 and made landfall on Keating Beach just two miles from the airport (near the border of Broward and Miami–Dade counties) with 80 mph winds but caused only minor damage; however, the airport was closed for about a 48-hour period. However, when Hurricane Wilma made landfall in October roof damage was reported along with broken windows, damaged jetways, and destroyed canopies. The airport was closed for a period of five days. Hurricane Wilma was a Category 2 when its center passed to the west of FLL. In February 2007, the airport started fees to all users, including private aircraft. FLL is one of the few airports to administer fees to private pilots. A minimum charge of $10 is assessed on landing private aircraft.

In May 2008, Zoom Airlines launched a seasonal link to London's Gatwick Airport via Bermuda. The airline shut down three months later. In May 2010, Condor began a seasonal flight to Frankfurt. Norwegian Air Shuttle introduced routes to Copenhagen and Oslo in November 2013 and to Stockholm the following month. The company expanded its operations in Fort Lauderdale over the next few years. By 2017, Norwegian had established a crew base at the airport and added flights to three more cities in Europe, as well as seasonal service to two Caribbean destinations.

2015–present
Emirates launched a flight to Dubai using a Boeing 777-200LR in December 2016. While major airlines tended to prefer flying into Miami, Emirates chose Fort Lauderdale as its gateway to South Florida because of its codeshare agreement with JetBlue and the airport's central location in the region. On January 6, 2017, a lone gunman opened fire inside Terminal 2 with a semi-automatic handgun, killing five people. The shooter was arrested by a BSO deputy within 85 seconds of when he began shooting. He was sentenced to five consecutive life sentences plus 120 years in prison. In 2018, NORAD announced that it would be stationing fighter jets at the airport during President Donald Trump's trips to Mar-a-Lago. As of 2018, the airport had been going through an extensive renovation and expansion project worth approximately $3 billion that has added gates, new parking, stores, and shops. The master plan calls for the construction of an Intermodal center, a people mover, a hotel, an increase in the number of gates from 62 to 95, and widening of the terminal access road.

Emirates ended service to Fort Lauderdale in 2020. In 2021, it began flying to Miami instead, which had more cargo traffic and connecting flights to other countries. In the same year, Norwegian decided to discontinue all of its flights to the United States, leaving the airport without transatlantic service. Norse Atlantic Airways launched a direct flight to Oslo in June 2022. In April 2023, historic flooding in the area caused severe disruptions at the airport, culminating in a complete closure as rainwater flooded parts of the tarmac and airport property. Norse Atlantic relocated to Miami in pursuit of more passengers and cargo in September 2023. The airline was also flying to London-Gatwick and had a crew base in Fort Lauderdale at the time. In the same month, El Al commenced a seasonal route to Tel Aviv for the Jewish High Holidays. It transitioned to year-round service in April 2024 despite the ongoing Israel–Hamas war and an Iranian attack on Israel two days prior. After Miami, Fort Lauderdale was El Al's second destination in South Florida, which has a large Jewish population.

Facilities

Fort Lauderdale–Hollywood International Airport, located in an unincorporated area, covers 1380 acre and has two runways:

The former crosswind runway, 13/31, was closed and decommissioned in 2013 as part of the Airport Expansion Program which extended runway 10R/28L.
 * 10L/28R: 9,000 x 150 ft (2,743 x 46 m): asphalt
 * 10R/28L: 8,000 x 150 ft (2,438 x 46 m): concrete (enlarged September 18, 2014)

In December 2022, there were 100 aircraft based at this airport: 11 single-engine, 7 multi-engine, 80 jet, and 2 helicopter.

Silver Airways has its headquarters in Suite 201 of the 1100 Lee Wagener Blvd building. When Chalk's International Airlines existed, its headquarters was on the grounds of the airport in an unincorporated area.

Terminals
Fort Lauderdale–Hollywood International Airport has four terminals with 66 gates. Terminal 1, commonly referred to as "The New Terminal," opened in stages between 2001 and 2003 and was designed by Hellmuth, Obata and Kassabaum and Cartaya Associates. The other three terminals were constructed in 1986 and designed by Reynolds, Smith & Hills as part of a $263 million construction project. Terminal 4, commonly referred to as the International Terminal, was inaugurated by a Concorde visit in 1983. Since 2005, T4 has been undergoing renovations and a major expansion designed by PGAL/Zyscovich joint venture. The airport announced that Terminal 1, commonly known as "The New Terminal", underwent a $300 million makeover. Construction began in late 2015 and was completed in June 2017.

Terminal 1, known as the Yellow Terminal, contains Concourses A, B & C and 23 gates. Concourse A mainly serves international travelers. United Airlines operates a United Club in Concourse C, which originally opened with the new Terminal in May 2001 as a Continental Airlines Presidents Club before United merged with Continental Airlines. This terminal is also the most frequently used of the four by Southwest Airlines; nearly all Southwest flights operate out of Concourse B.

Terminal 2, known as the Red Terminal, contains Concourse D and 9 gates. Air Canada and Delta Air Lines operate at Terminal 2. Due to construction in Terminal 1, WestJet currently operates from Terminal 2 as well. Delta Air Lines operates a Sky Club here. This terminal is currently undergoing a $100 million modernization, including the expansion of the check-in area, renovations to security screening facilities, new ceilings, flooring, and the inclusion of more concessions, along with the modernization of the Sky Club.

Terminal 3, known as the Purple Terminal, contains Concourses E & F with 20 gates, functioning as the JetBlue operating base. It is also connected to Terminal 4 via a newly built walkway.

Terminal 4, known as the Green Terminal, contains Concourse G with 14 gates, and functions as the Spirit operating base. Concourse H, which closed in December 2017 and has since been demolished, included 10 gates. The former Concourse H was reconfigured and redesigned by the architectural firms of PGAL/Zyscovich joint venture. The new three-story facility, which was renamed Concourse G, has 14 new gates, 11 of which are international/domestic capable, and one arrival area for bussing operations. New concessions, seatings, and approximately 50000 sqft of administrative offices for the Aviation Department are being designed on the upper levels of the facility. An expanded U.S. Customs and Border Protection facility will also be included in the new Eastern Expansion construction.

Ground transportation
Fort Lauderdale–Hollywood International Airport is near the Fort Lauderdale/Hollywood International Airport at Dania Beach train station, served by Tri-Rail commuter trains. Tri-Rail provides a shuttle bus service from the station to three locations at the airport, all on the lower level: the west end of terminal 1, between terminals 2 and 3, and between terminals 3 and 4. The shuttles operate seven days a week and are free for Tri-Rail customers.

The terminals are accessible by U.S. Route 1. Other major roads that border the airport include Florida State Road 818, Interstate 95, and Interstate 595. U.S. Route 1 includes an underpass under Runway 10R/28L.

Ride-sharing companies can also be used to and from the airport in designated pickup and drop-off places found between Terminals 1 and 2 and Terminals 3 and 4.

The airport also offers airport parking and operates a consolidated rental car facility which can be accessed from Terminal 1 by a short walk and from the other terminals by a free shuttle bus service.

FLL is served by Broward County Transit bus Route 1 which offers connecting service through the Broward Central Terminal in downtown Fort Lauderdale, and also serves to Aventura Mall in Aventura, Florida, in Miami-Dade County.

Art
Internationally known artist and sculptor Duane Hanson created an installation for his work Vendor with Walkman at the Departure Level of Terminal 3 at the airport. Hanson, who retired and died in nearby Boca Raton, created a seated middle-aged man wearing a red T-shirt, blue pants, and baseball cap, and listening to a walkman during a break. The installation accessories give additional clues to the narrative of the artwork: toy airplane, various signs, and announcements for the shop, janitorial supplies. The artwork has since been moved to Terminal 1 Arrival Level.

Annual traffic
From 1957 through the end of 2023, over 805 million passengers (domestic+international, enplaned+deplaned) have passed through Fort Lauderdale-Hollywood Int'l Airport.

Accidents and incidents

 * On May 18, 1972, an Eastern Air Lines McDonnell Douglas DC-9-31 had its landing gear collapse and tail section separate during landing. The aircraft then caught fire but all passengers and crew were able to safely evacuate.
 * On May 26, 1979, an Inter Island Shipping Inc. Lockheed Ventura, later converted into a Howard 350, crashed when one engine lost power shortly after takeoff during a forced landing, impacting trees near FLL. Both occupants died. Contaminated fluid was found in the carburetor of the engine.
 * On July 7, 1983, Air Florida Flight 8 with 47 people on board was flying from Fort Lauderdale International Airport to Tampa International Airport. One of the passengers handed a note to a flight attendant, saying that he had a bomb, and telling them to fly the plane to Havana, Cuba. He opened a small athletic bag, inside of which was an apparent explosive device. The airplane was diverted to Havana-José Martí International Airport, and the hijacker was taken into custody by Cuban authorities.
 * On November 19, 2013, an Air Evac International Learjet 35 crashed shortly after take-off from the airport, impacting the Atlantic Ocean 3 miles northeast of FLL on its way to Cozumel, Mexico, after calling mayday and during an attempt to return to the airport, possibly due to engine failure, leaving four people dead.
 * On October 29, 2015, Dynamic Airways Flight 405, a Boeing 767-246ER (N251MY) was taxiing to a runway to take off for a flight to Caracas, Venezuela. when its left engine caught fire due to a fuel leak. The crew immediately stopped the airplane and fire crews arrived on the scene. All 101 passengers and crew evacuated the aircraft, and 17 passengers were transported to a hospital. All runways were shut down and air operations suspended at the airport for three hours.
 * On October 28, 2016, FedEx Express Flight 910, a McDonnell Douglas MD-10-10F suffered a landing gear collapse upon landing. The aircraft subsequently caught fire, which destroyed the left wing and engine. The two crew members on board both survived.
 * On July 23, 2023, shortly after take off, an Allegiant Airways Airbus A320 turned into the path of a Gulfstream private plane. The collision alarm on both planes activated. Both planes subsequently took evasive action and averted a collision.


text:
Talk:Claude Piron

Untitled
The following Korean translation was on the article page.

Korea Traduko fare de Nomota
클로드 피론(1931년생, 언어학자, 심리학자)는 1956년부터 1961년 사이 UN에서 중국어, 영어, 러시아어, 스페인어, 불어를 다루는 번역사로 활동하였고, 그후 세계보건기구를 통해서 전세계서 활동하였고, 그 와중에 수많은 에스페란토 저작을 하였다. 그는 일본, 중국, 우즈베키스탄, 카자크스탄, 아프리카, 남아메리카 및 모든 유럽지역에서 에스페란토 활동을 하였다.

그는 1973년 ~ 1994년 중에 스위스 제나바 대학 심리학부에서 강의하였으며, 불어로 된 그의 저작 "Le defi des langes - Du gachis au bon sens"(언어의 도전 - 혼돈에서 상식까지)(파리, L'Harmattan, 1994)은, 국제 의사소통에 있어서 심리학적인 측면을 분석한 책이다.

그는 여러 종류의 에스페란토 글을 썼는데, 초보자를 위한 글, 소설, 단편, 시, 논픽션 등의 책들이 있으며, 가장 유명한 책은 Gerda Malaperis 와 La Bona Lingvo가 있다. Gerda Malaperis는 초보자들을 위한 학습서로서, 처음에는 단순한 어휘와 단순한 문법으로 시작하다가 점차 심화된 에스페란토를 활용하는 것이 특징이며, 끝에 초보자를 위한 단어 해설이 있다. La Bona Lingvo는 에스페란토의 기본 언어적익 특징과 사회적인 측면을 조망한 책이다.

What in the world is "Standard Esperantology"
In this edit:

https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Claude_Piron&oldid=925676824

a condemnation of bonlingvism as counter-fundamental is given, sourced to "Standard Esperantology." The actual citation of the passage is from here:

https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlina_Komentario_pri_la_Fundamento_de_Esperanto

- it's from a commentary about the Fundamento called the "Berlin Commentary."

I don't know if that particular commentary has any authoritative weight, but I have no reason to believe it's anything more than one Esperantist's opinions.

It isn't named "Standard Esperantology" and I can't find any references to a work called "Standard Esperantology" anywhere but on this wikipedia page.

Bonlingvism -- which is an intra-Esperanto movement which bases its ideas on Claude Piron, but was not created by Claude Piron, and which picked up steam only after his death -- is a controversial topic; however it is not part of Claude Piron's life and work. This edit makes serious charges against Bonlingvism -- essentially, that it is not really Esperanto. Whatever the merit of these charges, it has no particular relevance on a page about the man himself, and seems to be mere expression of animus against a particular group.

Given that, and the fact that it is accompanied by a citation ostensibly to "Standard Esperantology" and yet in the footnote *actually* links to nothing whatsoever called "Standard Esperantology" I don't think this edit is appropriate for this page. Edheil (talk) 20:20, 8 October 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Claude Piron