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Band-pass filter

A band-pass filter or bandpass filter (BPF) is a device that passes frequencies within a certain range and rejects (attenuates) frequencies outside that range. It's the opposite of a band-stop filter.

Description
In electronics and signal processing, a filter is usually a two-port circuit or device which removes frequency components of a signal (an alternating voltage or current). A band-pass filter allows through components in a specified band of frequencies, called its passband but blocks components with frequencies above or below this band. This contrasts with a high-pass filter, which allows through components with frequencies above a specific frequency, and a low-pass filter, which allows through components with frequencies below a specific frequency. In digital signal processing, in which signals represented by digital numbers are processed by computer programs, a band-pass filter is a computer algorithm that performs the same function. The term band-pass filter is also used for optical filters, sheets of colored material which allow through a specific band of light frequencies, commonly used in photography and theatre lighting, and acoustic filters which allow through sound waves of a specific band of frequencies.

An example of an analogue electronic band-pass filter is an RLC circuit (a resistor–inductor–capacitor circuit). These filters can also be created by combining a low-pass filter with a high-pass filter.

A bandpass signal is a signal containing a band of frequencies not adjacent to zero frequency, such as a signal that comes out of a bandpass filter.

An ideal bandpass filter would have a completely flat passband: all frequencies within the passband would be passed to the output without amplification or attenuation, and would completely attenuate all frequencies outside the passband.

In practice, no bandpass filter is ideal. The filter does not attenuate all frequencies outside the desired frequency range completely; in particular, there is a region just outside the intended passband where frequencies are attenuated, but not rejected. This is known as the filter roll-off, and it is usually expressed in dB of attenuation per octave or decade of frequency. Generally, the design of a filter seeks to make the roll-off as narrow as possible, thus allowing the filter to perform as close as possible to its intended design. Often, this is achieved at the expense of pass-band or stop-band ripple.

The bandwidth of the filter is simply the difference between the upper and lower cutoff frequencies. The shape factor is the ratio of bandwidths measured using two different attenuation values to determine the cutoff frequency, e.g., a shape factor of 2:1 at 30/3 dB means the bandwidth measured between frequencies at 30 dB attenuation is twice that measured between frequencies at 3 dB attenuation.

Q factor
A band-pass filter can be characterized by its $Q$ factor. The $Q$-factor is the reciprocal of the fractional bandwidth. A high-$Q$ filter will have a narrow passband and a low-$Q$ filter will have a wide passband. These are respectively referred to as narrow-band and wide-band filters.

Applications
Bandpass filters are widely used in wireless transmitters and receivers. The main function of such a filter in a transmitter is to limit the bandwidth of the output signal to the band allocated for the transmission. This prevents the transmitter from interfering with other stations. In a receiver, a bandpass filter allows signals within a selected range of frequencies to be heard or decoded, while preventing signals at unwanted frequencies from getting through. Signals at frequencies outside the band which the receiver is tuned at, can either saturate or damage the receiver. Additionally they can create unwanted mixing products that fall in band and interfere with the signal of interest. Wideband receivers are particularly susceptible to such interference. A bandpass filter also optimizes the signal-to-noise ratio and sensitivity of a receiver.

In both transmitting and receiving applications, well-designed bandpass filters, having the optimum bandwidth for the mode and speed of communication being used, maximize the number of signal transmitters that can exist in a system, while minimizing the interference or competition among signals.

Outside of electronics and signal processing, one example of the use of band-pass filters is in the atmospheric sciences. It is common to band-pass filter recent meteorological data with a period range of, for example, 3 to 10 days, so that only cyclones remain as fluctuations in the data fields.

Compound or band-pass
A 4th order electrical bandpass filter can be simulated by a vented box in which the contribution from the rear face of the driver cone is trapped in a sealed box, and the radiation from the front surface of the cone is into a ported chamber. This modifies the resonance of the driver. In its simplest form a compound enclosure has two chambers. The dividing wall between the chambers holds the driver; typically only one chamber is ported.

If the enclosure on each side of the woofer has a port in it then the enclosure yields a 6th order band-pass response. These are considerably harder to design and tend to be very sensitive to driver characteristics. As in other reflex enclosures, the ports may generally be replaced by passive radiators if desired.

An eighth order bandpass box is another variation which also has a narrow frequency range. They are often used in sound pressure level competitions, in which case a bass tone of a specific frequency would be used versus anything musical. They are complicated to build and must be done quite precisely in order to perform nearly as intended.

Economics
Bandpass filters can also be used outside of engineering-related disciplines. A leading example is the use of bandpass filters to extract the business cycle component in economic time series. This reveals more clearly the expansions and contractions in economic activity that dominate the lives of the public and the performance of diverse firms, and therefore is of interest to a wide audience of economists and policy-makers, among others.

Economic data usually has quite different statistical properties than data in say, electrical engineering. It is very common for a researcher to directly carry over traditional methods such as the "ideal" filter, which has a perfectly sharp gain function in the frequency domain. However, in doing so, substantial problems can arise that can cause distortions and make the filter output extremely misleading. As a poignant and simple case, the use of an "ideal" filter on white noise (which could represent for example stock price changes) creates a false cycle. The use of the nomenclature "ideal" implicitly involves a greatly fallacious assumption except on scarce occasions. Nevertheless, the use of the "ideal" filter remains common despite its limitations.

Fortunately, band-pass filters are available that steer clear of such errors, adapt to the data series at hand, and yield more accurate assessments of the business cycle fluctuations in major economic series like Real GDP, Investment, and Consumption - as well as their sub-components. An early work, published in the Review of Economics and Statistics in 2003, more effectively handles the kind of data (stochastic rather than deterministic) arising in macroeconomics. In this paper entitled "General Model-Based Filters for Extracting Trends and Cycles in Economic Time Series", Andrew Harvey and Thomas Trimbur develop a class of adaptive band pass filters. These have been successfully applied in various situations involving business cycle movements in myriad nations in the international economy.

4G and 5G wireless communications
Band pass filters can be implemented in 4G and 5G wireless communication systems. Hussaini et al.(2015) stated that, in the application of wireless communication, radio frequency noise is a major concern. In the current development of 5G technology, planer band pass filters are used to suppress RF noises and removing unwanted signals.

Combine, hairpin, parallel-coupled line, step impedance and stub impedance are the designs of experimenting the band pass filter to achieve low insertion loss with a compact size. The necessity of adopting asymmetric frequency response is in behalf of reducing the number of resonators, insertion loss, size and cost of circuit production.

4-pole cross-coupled band pass filter is designed by Hussaini et al.(2015). This band pass filter is designed to cover the 2.5-2.6 GHz and 3.4-3.7  GHz spectrum for the 4G and 5G wireless communication applications respectively. It is developed and extended from 3-pole single-band band pass filter, where an additional resonator is applied to a 3-pole single-band band pass filter. The advanced band pass filter has a compact size with a simple structure, which is convenient for implementation. Moreover, the stop band rejection and selectivity present a good performance in RF noise suppression. Insertion loss is very low when covering the 4G and 5G spectrum, while providing good return loss and group delay.

Energy scavengers
Energy scavengers are devices that search for energy from the environment efficiently. Band pass filters can be implemented to energy scavengers by converting energy generated from vibration into electric energy. The band pass filter designed by Shahruz (2005), is an ensemble of cantilever beams, which is called the beam-mass system. Ensemble of beam-mass systems can be transformed into a band pass filter when appropriate dimensions of beams and masses are chosen. Although the process of designing a mechanical band pass filter is advanced, further study and work are still required to design more flexible band pass filters to suit large frequency intervals. This mechanical band pass filter could be used on vibration sources with distinct peak-power frequencies.

Other fields
In neuroscience, visual cortical simple cells were first shown by David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel to have response properties that resemble Gabor filters, which are band-pass.

In astronomy, band-pass filters are used to allow only a single portion of the light spectrum into an instrument. Band-pass filters can help with finding where stars lie on the main sequence, identifying redshifts, and many other applications.

title: Band-pass filter


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Dr. Martens

Dr. Martens also known as Doc Martens, Docs, or DMs, is a footwear and clothing brand, headquartered in Wollaston, Northamptonshire. Although famous for its footwear, the company also makes a range of accessories including clothing and bags. The footwear is distinguished by its air-cushioned sole, upper shape, welted construction, and yellow stitching. The Dr. Martens' design studio is in Camden Town, London, England. The company manufactures in the UK, China, Vietnam, Laos, and Thailand. The company is listed on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE 250 Index.

Founding
Klaus Märtens was a doctor in the German Army during World War II. After he injured his ankle, while skiing, in 1945, he found that his standard-issue army boots were too uncomfortable on his injured foot. While recuperating, he designed improvements to the boots, with soft leather and air-padded soles made of tyres. When the war ended and Germans looted valuables from their own cities, Märtens purchased leather from a shoemaker's shop. With that leather he made himself a pair of boots with air-cushioned soles.

In 1947 Märtens did not have much success selling his shoes until he met up with an old university friend Herbert Funck in Munich. Funck was intrigued by the new shoe design, and the two went into business that year in Seeshaupt, Germany, using discarded rubber shaped by moulds. The comfortable soles were a big hit with housewives, with 80 percent of sales in the first decade to women over the age of 40.

Expansion in the United Kingdom
Sales had grown so much by 1952 that they opened a factory in Munich. In 1959, the company had grown large enough that Märtens and Funck looked at marketing the footwear internationally. Almost immediately, British shoe manufacturer R. Griggs Group bought patent rights to manufacture the shoes in the United Kingdom. The R. Griggs Group anglicised the company name to Dr. Martens. The heel was reshaped for a better fit and the trademark yellow stitching was added. The sole was formally trademarked.

The first Dr. Martens boot in the UK with an eight-eyelet cherry-red coloured smooth leather design became known as style 1460 and are still in production today. There are now many variations of this classic design which was introduced on 1 April 1960. The three-eyelet shoe was issued exactly one year later with the style number 1461. The Dr. Martens boots were made in their Cobbs Lane factory in Wollaston, Northamptonshire, where they continued to be made, in addition to production elsewhere, until at least 2018.

In addition a number of shoe manufacturers in the Northamptonshire area and further afield produced the boots under licence, as long as they passed quality standards. The boots were popular among workers such as postmen, police officers and factory workers. By the later 1960s, skinheads started to wear them, "Docs" or "DMs" being the usual naming, and by the late 1970s, they were popular among scooter riders, punks, some new wave musicians, and members of other youth subcultures. The shoes' popularity among politically right-wing skinheads led to the brand gaining an association with violence. Alexei Sayle sang the song "Dr. Martens' Boots" in a 1982 episode of the TV comedy The Young Ones.

In 1989 the Accent Group became the first manufacturer of Dr. Martens outside the UK, obtaining the rights to make them in Dunedin, New Zealand, which they did for several years. The boots and shoes became popular in the 1990s as grunge fashion arose. In late November 1994, a six-storey Dr. Martens department store was opened in Covent Garden in London which also sold food, belts, and watches. At this time the R. Griggs company employed 2,700 people, expected to earn annual revenue of £170 million, and could produce up to 10 million pairs of shoes per year.

Sponsorship
The Dr. Martens company sponsored Rushden & Diamonds F.C. from 1998 to 2005. Diamonds approached owner and local businessman Max Griggs to request sponsorship from his company. A new main stand was built at Nene Park in 2001, named the Airwair Stand. Dr. Martens were also the principal sponsors of Premier League club, West Ham United F.C., renaming the upgraded west stand 'The Dr Martens Stand'.

Trademark disputes
In 1999 Dr. Martens fought lawsuits in US courts. The brand filed a number of lawsuits in 2016 based primarily on trademark law.

Expansion
In the 2000s Dr. Martens were sold exclusively under the AirWair name in dozens of different styles, including conventional black shoes, sandals and steel-toed boots. AirWair International Ltd revenue fell from $412 million in 1999 to $127 million in 2006. In 2003 the Dr. Martens company came close to bankruptcy. On 1 April that year, under pressure from declining sales, the company ceased making shoes in the UK, and moved all production to China and Thailand. Five factories and two shops were closed in the UK, and more than 1,000 of the firm's employees lost their jobs. Following the closures, the R. Griggs company employed only 20 people in the UK, all in the firm's head office. Five million pairs of Dr. Martens were sold during 2003, half the 1990s level of sales.

In 2004 a new range of Dr. Martens was launched in an attempt to appeal to a wider market, especially young people. The shoes and boots were intended to be more comfortable, and easier to break in, and included some new design elements. Dr. Martens also began producing footwear again at the Cobbs Lane Factory in Wollaston, England in 2004 as part of the "Vintage" line, which the company advertises as being made to the original specifications. Sales of these shoes are low in comparison to those made in Asia, however; in 2010, the factory was producing about 50 pairs per day. In 2005, under turnaround CEO David Suddens the R. Griggs company was given an award by the "Institute for Turnaround" for implementing a successful restructure.

In 2006 the 1460 Dr. Martens AirWair boot was named in the list of British design icons, alongside the Mini.

Worldwide sales of Dr. Martens shoes grew strongly in the early 2010s, and in 2012 it was the eighth-fastest-growing British company. Over 100 million pairs of Dr. Martens shoes were sold from 1960 to 2010, and in 2010 the company offered 250 different models of footwear. The R. Griggs company opened fourteen new Dr. Martens retail stores in the United Kingdom, United States and Hong Kong between 2009 and 2011, and also launched a line of clothing during 2011.

Private equity investment
The private equity company Permira acquired R. Griggs Group Limited, the owner of the Dr. Martens brand, for £300 million in October 2013. For a time Dr. Martens footwear was sold under a "for life" scheme, under which it would repair or replace worn-out DM shoes forever for a price somewhat more than twice the normal price for a pair. This offer was available in 2016, but was withdrawn for new sales from May 2018. After Permira purchased Dr. Martens the former brand president of Vans was hired as CEO.

Production issues
In 2018 ten million pairs of Dr. Martens shoes were produced, only one percent in the UK. Annual revenue in 2019 was £454 million, six times more than in 2013. The most popular model remained the 1460 boots. In 2019 Dr. Martens announced plans to double the production of shoes and boots in the UK, to 165,000 pairs annually in 2020. Dr Martens' design studio is in Camden Town, London.

In 2019 The Guardian reported concerns that the quality of Dr. Martens shoes had declined since either production was moved to Asia or Permira acquired the brand. Many of the newspaper's readers reported that recently produced Dr. Martens products did not last as long as older production. The company responded that there had been no change in the materials used or production processes since manufacturing was moved to Asia, and only 0.5% of its footwear was defective.

In January 2022 the Dr Marten factory in Wollaston featured on the BBC programme Inside the Factory; Series 6, Leather boots.

Listing on the London Stock Exchange
Dr. Martens was listed on the London Stock Exchange at a value of £3.7 billion in January 2021.

Subcultural significance
Dr. Martens have garnered significant following and ownership within various subcultures, including goth, skinhead, Neo-Nazi, LGBT, and punk.

Notable customers of the brand have included Pope John Paul II, Pete Townshend, Miley Cyrus, Rihanna, The Clash, The Cure, Madness, Madonna, Spice Girls, The Sex Pistols, Avril Lavigne, Gwen Stefani and the 14th Dalai Lama. Under John Paul II, the Swiss Guard were provided with Dr. Martens boots.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

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Scissors

Scissors are hand-operated shearing tools. A pair of scissors consists of a pair of blades pivoted so that the sharpened edges slide against each other when the handles (bows) opposite to the pivot are closed. Scissors are used for cutting various thin materials, such as paper, cardboard, metal foil, cloth, rope, and wire. A large variety of scissors and shears all exist for specialized purposes. Hair-cutting shears and kitchen shears are functionally equivalent to scissors, but the larger implements tend to be called shears. Hair-cutting shears have specific blade angles ideal for cutting hair. Using the incorrect type of scissors to cut hair will result in increased damage or split ends, or both, by breaking the hair. Kitchen shears, also known as kitchen scissors, are intended for cutting and trimming foods such as meats.

Inexpensive, mass-produced modern scissors are often designed ergonomically with composite thermoplastic and rubber handles.

Terminology
The noun scissors is treated as a plural noun, and therefore takes a plural verb (e.g., these scissors are). Alternatively, the tool is referred to by the singular phrase a pair of scissors. The word shears is used to describe similar instruments that are larger in size and for heavier cutting.

History

The earliest known scissors appeared in Mesopotamia 3,000 to 4,000 years ago. These were of the 'spring scissor' type comprising two bronze blades connected at the handles by a thin, flexible strip of curved bronze which served to hold the blades in alignment, to allow them to be squeezed together, and to pull them apart when released.

Spring scissors continued to be used in Europe until the 16th century. However, pivoted scissors of bronze or iron, in which the blades were pivoted at a point between the tips and the handles, the direct ancestor of modern scissors, were invented by the Romans around 100 AD. They entered common use in not only ancient Rome, but also China, Japan, and Korea, and the idea is still used in almost all modern scissors.

Early manufacture
During the Middle Ages and Renaissance, spring scissors were made by heating a bar of iron or steel, then flattening and shaping its ends into blades on an anvil. The center of the bar was heated, bent to form the spring, then cooled and reheated to make it flexible.

The Hangzhou Zhang Xiaoquan Company in Hangzhou, China, has been manufacturing scissors since 1663.

William Whiteley & Sons (Sheffield) Ltd. was producing scissors by 1760, although it is believed the business began trading even earlier. The first trade-mark, 332, was granted in 1791. The company is still manufacturing scissors today, and is the oldest company in the West to do so.

Pivoted scissors were not manufactured in large numbers until 1761, when Robert Hinchliffe of Sheffield produced the first pair of modern-day scissors made of hardened and polished cast steel. His major challenge was to form the bows; first, he made them solid, then drilled a hole, and then filed away metal to make this large enough to admit the user's fingers. This process was laborious, and apparently Hinchliffe improved upon it in order to increase production. Hinchliffe lived in Cheney Square (now the site of Sheffield Town Hall), and set up a sign identifying himself as a "fine scissor manufacturer". He achieved strong sales in London and elsewhere.

During the 19th century, scissors were hand-forged with elaborately decorated handles. They were made by hammering steel on indented surfaces known as 'bosses' to form the blades. The rings in the handles, known as bows, were made by punching a hole in the steel and enlarging it with the pointed end of an anvil.

In 1649, in Swedish-ruled Finland, an ironworks was founded in the village of Fiskars between Helsinki and Turku. In 1830, a new owner started the first cutlery works in Finland, making, among other items, scissors with the Fiskars trademark.

China
The vast majority of global scissor manufacturing takes place in China. As of 2019, China was responsible for 64.3% of worldwide scissors exports. When combined with Chinese Taipei exports, this rises to 68.3%. The primary scissors producing region in China is in Guandong Province.

The Hangzhou Zhang Xiaoquan Company, founded in 1663, is one of the oldest continuously operating scissor manufacturers in the world. The company was nationalized in 1958 and now employs 1500 people who annually mass-produce an estimated seven million pairs of inexpensive scissors that retail for an average of US$4 each.

France
In the late 14th century, the English word "scissors" came into usage. It was derived from the Old French word cisoires, which referred to shears.

There are several historically important scissor-producing regions in France: Haute-Marne in Nogent-en Bassigny, Châtellereault, Thiers and Rouen. These towns, like many other scissor-producing communities, began with sabre, sword and bayonet production, which transitioned to scissors and other blades in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.

Thiers, in the Puy-de-Dôme department of Auvergne, remains an important centre of scissor and cutlery production. It is home to both the Musée de la Coutellerie, which showcases the town's 800-year history of blade-making, as well as Coutellia, an industry tradeshow that advertises itself as one of the largest annual gatherings of artisanal blade-makers in the world.

Germany
Germany was responsible for manufacturing just under 7% of global scissors exports in 2019. Often called "The City of Blades", Solingen, in North Rhine-Westphalia, has been a center for the manufacturing of scissors since medieval times. At the end of the 18th century it's estimated that there were over 300 scissorsmiths in Solingen.

In 1995 the City of Solingen passed The Solingen Ordinance, an update to a 1930s law that decreed "Made in Solingen" stamps could only be applied to products almost entirely manufactured in the old industrial area of Solingen. In 2019 this applied to approximately 150 companies making high-quality blades of all kinds, including scissors.

Friedrich Herder, founded in Solingen in 1727, is one of the oldest scissors manufacturers still operating in Germany.

Italy

Premana, in Lecco Province, has its origins in ironworks and knife manufacturing beginning in the 16th century. In 1900 there were ten scissor manufacturing workshops, 20 in 1952 and 48 by 1960. Today, Consorzio Premax, an industrial partnership, organizes over 60 local companies involved in the manufacture of scissors for global markets. In 2019 Italy exported 3.5% of scissors manufactured globally.

One of the oldest Premanese scissor manufacturing firms still in operation is Sanelli Ambrogio, which was founded in 1869.

Japan
Scissormaking in Japan evolved from sword making in the 14th century. Seki, in Gifu Prefecture, was a renowned center of swordmaking beginning in the 1200s. After citizens were no longer permitted to carry swords, the city's blacksmiths turned to making scissors and knives. There are many specialized types of Japanese scissors, but sewing scissors were introduced by American Commodore Matthew Perry from the United States in 1854.

The Sasuke workshop in Sakai City south of Osaka is run by Yasuhiro Hirakawa, a 5th generation scissorsmith. The company has been in operation since 1867. Yasuhiro Hirakawa is the last traditional scissormaker in Japan, making scissors in the traditional style where the blades are believed to be thinner, lighter and sharper than European scissors. In 2018 he was profiled in a documentary that featured a pair of his bonsai snips which retailed for US$35,000.

Spain
In Solsona, Spain, scissor manufacturing began in the 16th century. At the industry's peak in the 18th century there were 24 workshops, organized as the Guild of Saint Eligius, the patron saint of knife makers. By the mid-1980s there were only two, and by 2021, Pallarès Solsona, founded in 1917 by Lluìs and Carles Pallarès Canal, and still family-operated, was the town's sole remaining artisanal scissor manufacturer.

United Kingdom
Sheffield was home to the first mass production of scissors beginning in 1761. By the 19th century there were an estimated 60 steel scissor companies in Sheffield. However, since the 1980s, industry globalization and a shift towards cheaper, mass-produced scissors created price deflation that many artisanal manufacturers could not compete with. The Sheffield scissor industry consisted of just two local companies in 2021.

The two remaining Sheffield scissor manufacturers are William Whiteley, founded in 1760, and Ernest Wright, which was established in 1902. Both now focus on high-end/niche crafting of "products for life" rather than mass production. Between these two firms it is estimated that there are no more than ten "putter-togetherers" or "putters" who are the master-trained craftspeople responsible for high quality Sheffield scissor assembly. In 2020, Ernest Wright was recognized with the Award for Endangered Crafts by the British Heritage Crafts Association.

Description and operation
A pair of scissors consists of two pivoted blades. In lower-quality scissors, the cutting edges are not particularly sharp; it is primarily the shearing action between the two blades that cuts the material. In high-quality scissors, the blades can be both extremely sharp, and tension sprung – to increase the cutting and shearing tension only at the exact point where the blades meet. The hand movement (pushing with the thumb, pulling with the fingers) can add to this tension. An ideal example is in high-quality tailor's scissors or shears, which need to be able to perfectly cut (and not simply tear apart) delicate cloths such as chiffon and silk.

Children's scissors are usually not particularly sharp, and the tips of the blades are often blunted or 'rounded' for safety.

Mechanically, scissors are a first-class double-lever with the pivot acting as the fulcrum. For cutting thick or heavy material, the mechanical advantage of a lever can be exploited by placing the material to be cut as close to the fulcrum as possible. For example, if the applied force (at the handles) is twice as far away from the fulcrum as the cutting location (i.e., the point of contact between the blades), the force at the cutting location is twice that of the applied force at the handles. Scissors cut material by applying at the cutting location a local shear stress which exceeds the material's shear strength.

Some scissors have an appendage, called a finger brace or finger tang, below the index finger hole for the middle finger to rest on to provide for better control and more power in precision cutting. A finger tang can be found on many quality scissors (including inexpensive ones) and especially on scissors for cutting hair (see hair scissors pictured below). In hair cutting, some claim the ring finger is inserted where some place their index finger, and the little finger rests on the finger tang.

For people who do not have the use of their hands, there are specially designed foot-operated scissors. Some quadriplegics can use a motorized mouth-operated style of scissor.

Right-handed and left-handed scissors
Most scissors are best suited for use with the right hand, but left-handed scissors are designed for use with the left hand. Because scissors have overlapping blades, they are not symmetric. This asymmetry is true regardless of the orientation and shape of the handles and blades: the blade that is on top always forms the same diagonal regardless of orientation. Human hands are asymmetric, and when closing the scissors the thumb and fingers do not close vertically, but have a lateral component to the motion. Specifically, the thumb pushes out from the palm and the fingers pull inwards. For right-handed scissors held in the right hand, the thumb blade is closer to the user's body, so that the natural tendency of the right hand is to push the cutting blades together. Conversely, if right-handed scissors are held in the left hand, the natural tendency of the left hand would be to push the cutting blades apart. Furthermore, with right-handed scissors held by the right hand, the shearing edge is visible, but when they are used with the left hand, the cutting edge of the scissors is behind the top blade, and the cutter cannot see what is being cut.

There are two varieties of left-handed scissors. Many common left-handed scissors (often called "semi"-left-handed scissors) simply have reversed finger grips. The blades open and close as with right-handed scissors, so that users tend to pull the blades apart as they are cutting. This can be challenging for craftspeople as the blades still obscure the cut. "True" left-handed scissors have both reversed finger grips and reversed blade layout, like mirror images of right-handed scissors. A left-handed person accustomed to using semi-left handed scissors may find using true left-handed scissors difficult at first, as they may have learned to rely heavily on the strength of their thumb to pull the blades apart vs. pushing the blades together in order to cut.

Some scissors are marketed as ambidextrous. These have symmetric handles so there is no distinction between the thumb and finger handles, and have very strong pivots so that the blades rotate without any lateral give. However, most "ambidextrous" scissors are in fact still right-handed in that the upper blade is on the right, and hence is on the outside when held in the right hand. Even if they cut successfully, the blade orientation will block the view of the cutting line for a left-handed person. True ambidextrous scissors are possible if the blades are double-edged and one handle is swung all the way around (to almost 360 degrees) so that what were the backs of the blades become the new cutting edges. was awarded for true ambidextrous scissors.

Specialized scissors and shears
Specialized scissors and shears include:

In popular culture
Due to their ubiquity across cultures and classes, scissors have numerous representations across world culture.

Art
Numerous art forms worldwide enlist scissors as a tool/material with which to accomplish the art. For cases where scissors appear in or are represented by the final art product, see Commons:Category:Scissors in art.

Film

 * Dead Again is a 1991 film starring Kenneth Branagh and Emma Thompson in a thriller revolving around repressed memories of scissors.
 * Edward Scissorhands is a 1990 film starring Johnny Depp as a young man who has hands made of multiple pairs of scissors.
 * Running with Scissors is a 2006 film based on the memoir of the same title.
 * Us is a 2019 psychological horror film directed by Jordan Peele about a family confronted by their scissor-wielding doppelgängers.

Games

 * The game Rock paper scissors involves two or more players making shapes with their hands to determine the outcome of the game. One of the three shapes, 'scissors', is made by extending the index and middle fingers to mimic the shape of most scissors.
 * In the horror video game franchise, Clock Tower, there is a character called Scissorman. Although the identity is usually taken by multiple individuals throughout the series, Scissorman is usually portrayed as a demonic serial killer with a giant pair of scissors, and kills anyone without showing any signs of mercy or remorse.
 * An anthropomorphic pair of scissors appears as a boss in Paper Mario: The Origami King. Various additions of scissor related activity appear as well, such as a variation of Rock paper scissors.

Literature
Heinrich Hoffmann's 1845 children's book Struwwelpeter includes Die Geschichte vom Daumenlutscher ("The Story of the Thumb-Sucker") in which a child continues to suck his thumbs despite his mother's warnings about The Great Tall Scissorman.

Augusten Burroughs' 2002 memoir Running with Scissors spent eight weeks on the New York Times best seller list. The book was later adapted into a film.

Music

 * Running with Scissors is the title of a 1999 album by "Weird Al" Yankovic.
 * The song "The Tailor Shop on Enbizaka (円尾坂の仕立屋 Enbizaka no Shitateya)" from Vocaloid producer Akuno-P tells a story about a tailor that kills a man and his family, whom she mistakes for her unfaithful lover and his three mistresses, using her sewing scissors.
 * The XTC song "Scissor Man", later covered by Primus.
 * "Save Your Scissors" – song by City and Colour.
 * The song "Scissors" by American Rock Band "Slipknot"

Sport
The term 'scissor kick' may be found in several sports, including:
 * Scissor kick (strike), a generic martial arts term for any of a number of moves that may resemble the appearance or action of a pair of scissors.
 * Bicycle kicks in football are sometimes known as 'scissor kicks'.
 * Swimming strokes including the sidestroke incorporate a leg movement often known as a 'scissor kick'.

Superstition
Scissors have a widespread place in cultural superstitions. In many cases, the details of the superstition may be specific to a given country, region, tribe, religion or even situation.
 * Africa
 * In parts of North Africa, it was held that scissors could be used to curse a bridegroom. When the bridegroom was on horseback, the person enacting the curse would stand behind him with the scissors open and call his name. If the bridegroom answered to his name being called, the scissors would then be snapped shut and the bridegroom would be unable to consummate his marriage with his bride.
 * Asia
 * In Pakistan, some believe that scissors should never be idly opened and closed without purpose; this is believed to cause bad luck.
 * Western Europe
 * As iron was believed to ward off fairies, British parents traditionally hung a pair of iron scissors over cradles to keep fairies away. Sometimes the scissors were kept open to make the shape of a cross for extra protection.
 * North America
 * United States
 * In New Orleans, some believed that putting an open pair of scissors underneath your pillow at night was a sound method for sleeping well, even if one is cursed.
 * Eastern Europe
 * In some Eastern European countries, it is believed that leaving scissors open causes fights and disagreements within a household.
 * China
 * In China, it is believed that to give scissors to a friend or loved one is to be cutting ties with them.

Science
Scissors have been used in the sciences for various purposes, including descriptions of animals or natural features.

Nature
Animals named after scissors include:
 * Birds
 * The scissor-tailed flycatcher of North and Central America.
 * The scissor-tailed hummingbird
 * The scissor-tailed kite, a bird that is widespread throughout Africa.
 * The scissor-tailed nightjar of South America.
 * Fish
 * The scissor-tail rasbora, several species of fish that are commonly used for freshwater aquariums.

title: Scissors


text:
Hinge

A hinge is a mechanical bearing that connects two solid objects, typically allowing only a limited angle of rotation between them. Two objects connected by an ideal hinge rotate relative to each other about a fixed axis of rotation, with all other translations or rotations prevented; thus a hinge has one degree of freedom. Hinges may be made of flexible material or moving components. In biology, many joints function as hinges, such as the elbow joint.

History
Ancient remains of stone, marble, wood, and bronze hinges have been found. Some date back to at least Ancient Egypt. It's almost impossible to really pinpoint exactly where and when the first hinges were used.

In Ancient Rome, hinges were called cardō and gave name to the goddess Cardea and the main street Cardo. This name cardō lives on figuratively today as "the chief thing (on which something turns or depends)" in words such as cardinal.

According to the OED, the English word hinge is related to hang.

Door hinges

 * Barrel hinge: A barrel hinge consists of a sectional barrel (the knuckle) secured by a pivot. A barrel is simply a hollow cylinder. The vast majority of hinges operate on the barrel principle.

 * Butt hinge / Mortise hinge: Any hinge designed to be set into a door frame and/or door is considered a butt hinge or mortise hinge. A hinge can also be made as a half-mortise, where only one half is mortised and the other is not. Most mortise hinges are also barrel hinges because of how they pivot (i.e., a pair of leaves secured to each other by knuckles through which runs a pin).

 * Butterfly / Parliament (UK) hinge: A decorative variety of barrel hinge with leaves somewhat resembling the wings of a butterfly

 * Case hinge: Similar to butt hinges, but usually more decorative; most commonly used in suitcases, briefcases, and the like

 * Concealed hinge: Used for furniture doors (with or without a self-closing features and/or damping systems),they consist of two parts: (1.) the cup and arm, and (2.) the mounting plate. They are also called "cup hinges", or "Euro hinges", as they were developed in Europe and use metric installation standards. Most concealed hinges offer the advantage of full in situ adjustability for standoff distance from the cabinet face, as well as pitch and roll by means of two screws on each hinge.

 * Continuous / Piano hinge: This variety of barrel hinge runs the entire length of a door, panel, box, etc. They are manufactured with or without holes.

 * Flag hinge: A simple two-part hinge, where a single leaf, attached to a pin, is inserted into a leaf with a hole. This allows the hinged objects to be easily removed (such as removable doors). They are made in right- and left-hand configurations.

 * H hinge: These H-shaped barrel hinges are used on flush-mounted doors. Small H hinges (3 –) tend to be used for cabinets, while larger ones (6 –) are for passage doors and closet doors.

 * HL hinge: Commonly used for passage doors, room doors, and closet doors in the 17th, 18th, and even 19th centuries. On taller doors, H hinges were occasionally used between them.

 * Pivot hinge: This hinge pivots in openings in the floor and the top of the door frame. Also referred to as double-acting floor hinges, they are found in ancient dry stone buildings and, rarely, in old wooden buildings. They are a low-cost alternative for use with lightweight doors. Doors with these hinges may be called haar-hung doors.

 * Self-closing hinge: This is a spring-loaded hinge with a speed control function. The same as spring hinge, usually use spring to provide force to close the door and provide a mechanical or hydraulic damper to control door close speed. That can prevent door slamming problem while auto closes a door.

 * Spring hinge: A spring-loaded hinge that provides assistance in closing or opening the hinge leaves. An inner spring applies force to keep the hinge closed or opened.

 * Swing Clear hinge: Also called offset door hinges, they are ideal for residential and commercial doors, they allow doors to swing completely clear of their openings. They can easily comply with Fair Housing Act (FHA) code by providing a minimum ADA 32” clearance when using a 34” door slab.
 * Living hinge: A hinge of flexible plastic that creates a join between two objects without any knuckles or pins. Molded as a single piece, they never rust or squeak, and have several other advantages over other hinges, but are more susceptible to breakage.

Other types of hinges include:
 * Coach
 * Counterflap
 * Cranked or storm-proof
 * Double action non-spring
 * Double action spring
 * Flush
 * Friction
 * Lift-off
 * Pinge (with a quick-release pin)
 * Rising butt
 * Security
 * Tee

Building access
Since at least medieval times, there have been hinges to draw bridges for defensive purposes for fortified buildings. Hinges are used in contemporary architecture where building settlement can be expected over the life of the building. For example, the Dakin Building in Brisbane, California, was designed with its entrance ramp on a large hinge to allow settlement of the building built on piles over bay mud. This device was effective until October 2006, when it was replaced due to damage and excessive ramp slope.

Large structures
Hinges appear in large structures such as elevated freeway and railroad viaducts, to reduce or eliminate the transfer of bending stresses between structural components, typically in an effort to reduce sensitivity to earthquakes. The primary reason for using a hinge, rather than a simpler device such as a slide, is to prevent the separation of adjacent components. When no bending stresses are transmitted across the hinge, it is called a zero moment hinge.

Spacecraft
A variety of self-actuating, self-locking hinges have been developed for spacecraft deployable structures such as solar array panels, synthetic aperture radar antennas, booms, radiators, etc.

Components

 * Pin: The rod that holds the leaves together, inside the knuckle. Also known as a pintle.
 * Knuckle: The hollow—typically circular—portion creating the joint of the hinge through which the pin is set. The knuckles of either leaf typically alternate and interlock with the pin passing through all of them. (aka. loop, joint, node or curl)
 * Leaf: The portions (typically two) that extend laterally from the knuckle and typically revolve around the pin.

Characteristics

 * End play: Axial movement between the leaves along the axis of the pin. This motion allows the leaves to rotate without binding and is determined by the typical distance between knuckles (knuckle gap) when both edges of the leaves are aligned.
 * Gauge: Thickness of the leaves.
 * Hinge width: Length from the outer edge of one leaf to the outer edge of the other leaf, perpendicularly across the pin (aka open width).
 * Hinge length: The length of the leaves parallel to the pin.
 * Knuckle length: The typical length of an individual knuckle parallel to the pin.
 * Leaf width: Length from the center of the pin to the outer edge of the leaf.
 * Pitch: Distance from the end of a knuckle to the same edge of its adjacent knuckle on the same leaf
 * Door Stop: A colloquialism referring to loose angular movement of the leaves relative to the pin.

Other types

 * Butler tray hinge: Folds to 90 degrees and also snaps flat. They are for tables that have a tray top for serving.
 * Card table hinge: Mortised into edge of antique or reproduction card tables and allow the top to fold onto itself.
 * Carpentier joint: A hinge consisting of several thin metal strips of curved cross section.
 * Drop-leaf table hinge: Mounted under the surface of a table with leaves that drop down. They are most commonly used with rule joints.
 * Hinged expansion joint: an expansion joint with hinges that allow the unit to bend in a single plane
 * Hinged handcuffs: a restraint device designed to secure an individual's wrists in proximity to each other consisting of two cuffs linked with a double or triple hinge. Hinged handcuffs cuffs tend to restrict movement more than chain-linked handcuffs, and they can be used to generate more leverage to force a suspect's hands behind the back, or to apply pain against the wrist, forcing the subject to comply and stop resisting.
 * Hinge region: portion of antibody structure between the fragment antigen-binding region and the fragment crystallizable region
 * Living hinge: a hinge consisting of material that flexes
 * Piano hinge: (or coffin hinge) a long hinge, originally used for piano lids, but now used in many other applications where a long hinge is needed.

title: Hinge


text:
Talk:Hinge

Changes I made
Hello, I made serval changes including adding sections and revising previously written material. I added sections about the history, materials hinges are made of, every day use, and buying. I cited everything I borrowed and I tried to add an image/chart, but I couldn't unless it was my own work. Larisamcguire (talk) 03:51, 14 July 2022 (UTC)

Pintle and gudgeon
This article doesn't mention pintle or gudgeon, the two parts of the the oldest and most common type of hinge. I'm not qualified to write it, but it is needed. UniEngineer (talk) 22:43, 16 April 2023 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: Technology and Culture
— Assignment last updated by Thecanyon (talk) 05:33, 12 December 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Hinge


text:
Fort-de-France

Fort-de-France (,, ; Fodfwans) is a commune and the capital city of Martinique, an overseas department and region of France located in the Caribbean.

History
In 1638, Jacques Dyel du Parquet (1606–1658), nephew of Pierre Belain d'Esnambuc and first governor of Martinique, decided to have Fort Saint Louis built to protect the city against enemy attacks. The fort was soon destroyed, and rebuilt in 1669, when Louis XIV appointed the Marquis of Baas as governor general. Under his orders and those of his successors, particularly the Count of Blénac, the fort was built with a Vauban design.

Originally named Fort-Royal, the administrative capital of Martinique was over-shadowed by Saint-Pierre, the oldest city in the island, which was renowned for its commercial and cultural vibrancy as "The Paris of the Caribbean".

The name of Fort-Royal was changed to a short-lived "Fort-La-Republique" during the French Revolution, and finally settled as Fort-de-France sometime in the 19th century. The old name of Fort-Royal is still used today familiarly in its Creole language form of "Foyal", with the inhabitants of the city being "Foyalais".

The city was captured by a British expedition which captured Martinique in 1762, but the island was returned to French control in the Treaty of Paris. In 1839, the city was struck by a minor earthquake, and in 1890 saw an outbreak of fire which razed part of the city. By the turn of the 20th century, however, Fort-de-France became economically important after the volcanic eruption of Mount Pelée destroyed the town of Saint-Pierre in 1902.

Until 1918, when its commercial growth began, Fort-de-France had an inadequate water supply, was partly surrounded by swamps, and was notorious for yellow fever. Now the swamps are drained to make room for extensive suburbs.

On 3 August 1945, Fort-de-France's hydrobase became the site of Martinique's first fatal airliner crash. A Sikorsky S-43 (NC15066) on Pan Am Flight 216 arriving from Port of Spain at 10:11 was landed in poor weather conditions due to safety concerns by the crew and subsequently sank within 10 minutes, killing 4 of the 14 occupants.

Geography
Fort-de-France, also known as the Fort of France, lies on Martinique's west coast at the northern entrance to the large Fort-de-France Bay, at the mouth of the Madame River. The city occupies a narrow plain between the hills and the sea but is accessible by road from all parts of the island.

Climate
Fort-de-France has a tropical rainforest climate (Köppen Af), characterised by very warm to hot and humid weather year-round. The wettest months are from July to November when hurricanes are a frequent threat, although substantial rainfall occurs in all months. The hottest month on average is September, and the coldest month on average is February.

Naval port
Fort Saint Louis in Fort-de-France is a French naval base.

Government
As of 27 June 2021, the Mayor of Fort de France is Serge Letchimy replacing Alfred Marie-Jeanne as the new mayor of the capitol. With a participation rate of little over 44% the Letchimy Party Alians Matinik received 37,72% of the votes, whereas Marie Jeanna who came in a close second with Gran Sanblé Pou Matinik acquired 35,27% of the votes. The commune of Fort-de-France makes up Martinique's 3rd constituency for the National Assembly.

Main sights
In addition to Fort Saint Louis, there are three other forts:
 * Fort Desaix
 * Fort Tartenson
 * Fort Gerbault

Other sites of interest include:

 * Place de la Savane
 * Schoelcher Library
 * Jardin de Balata, a botanical garden
 * Sacré-Cœur de Balata Church, a replica of the parisian Montmartre Church lodged on a cliff surrounded by tropical forest
 * Fort-de-France Cathedral

A statue commemorating Martinique-born Empress Josephine, the wife of Napoleon, is in the gardens of La Savane. It was vandalized in the 1990s, presumably by individuals who blamed her for supporting the reestablishment of slavery on the island. They removed the head and splashed the body with red paint. It has been further vandalized and destroyed in 2020.

Transport
Martinique Aimé Césaire International Airport is located in a suburb outside Fort-de-France and is accessible via the A1 autoroute.

Notable people

 * Manon Tardon (1913-1989), Resistance fighter
 * Frantz Fanon (1925-1961), psychiatrist, political philosopher and revolutionary
 * Julienne Salvat (1932–2019), teacher, poet, femme de lettres, actress
 * Karine Jean-Pierre (born 1974), organizer, activist, White House Press Secretary (since 2022)

title: Fort-de-France


text:
Talk:Alto

Abigail Adams
Is Abigail Adams certainly an alto role? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.234.27.42 (talk) 02:20, 22 June 2007 (UTC)

"boy altos"
"In English church usage, the term alto is sometimes exclusively used to mean a boy with this range, while contralto is used for a female singer. "

I can confidently assert that in the English choral tradition this is simply not true. Traditionally, altos are male - men, not boys. In boys' choirs, trebles with a lower range might sing the lower part in music written, say, for soprano 1 soprano 2 and alto, but in church music this is certainly not the norm. I will change it unless there are any objections. Stefan 23:38, 22 June 2007 (UTC)

 * The term 'alto' is used in the way you describe in England. However, these men are not altos but are men singing the alto vocal line. In solo singing they would be referred to as countertenors and never altos. Alto is a choral specific term to a particular vocal line and isn't meant to describe individual voice types. See the article now with citation. Nrswanson (talk) 01:07, 8 December 2007 (UTC)

Jane Froman
Jane Froman was an contralto classical singer from the 1950's and mid 1960's. She did some jazz songs as well. I don't know why her name is being deleted from the form.

Ineversigninsodonotmessageme (talk) 19:56, 6 December 2007 (UTC)Ineversigninsodonotmessageme

 * The biography at Jane Froman doesn't mention any classical music work and she isn't listed in Grove or Oxford. The other names here are major singers. Lots of lesser but perfectly genuine classical contraltos are not given. Do you have a personal interest in Froman? -- Kleinzach (talk) 23:42, 6 December 2007 (UTC)

Yes, I am a fan of her work. I used to watch clips of her signing at my vocal classes a few years back. She did sing some classical songs on variety shows such as the voices of firestone in the 1950's and the bell telephone hour in the late 50's, very early 60's.

There are some clips of her work on youtube if you want to take a look at them to see what I am referring. Ineversigninsodonotmessageme (talk) 02:38, 7 December 2007 (UTC)Ineversigninsodonotmessageme

Should we split this page?
This article is part of a section dedicated to opera voice classification. The term "alto" is not really part of this classification system. Alto is a term used specifically in choral singing and is referring more to polyphonic structure and range as opposed to the voice's vocal timbre and coloratura facility, which is the basis of opera categorizarion. I think blending the two terms is confusing and is causing a great deal of conflict on this page. The fact is that most people don't realize that "alto" is not really a voice type at all in classical music. It is incorrect to say, "I am an alto". It would be correct to say "I am a singer who sings the alto line in choral music". Most women who sing the alto line in choir are actually mezzzo-sopranos, for real contraltos are not that common. I think it is possible to say in modern music that alto is a "voice type". The system used in opera really doesn't apply well to singers outside of the bel canto vocal tradition. Singers in other genres could easily be defined as simply: soprano, alto, tenor, and bass with a very simple range destinction.Nrswanson (talk) 05:07, 7 December 2007 (UTC)

 * I basically agree. This article is entitled 'alto' and yet almost all the references are to 'contralto'. It would be better for this page to be renamed 'Contralto' and to have a separate article covering 'alto' as a musical term. -- Kleinzach (talk) 05:31, 7 December 2007 (UTC)

'Male alto'
I notice you have also removed references to "male alto" from the Voice type article. Do you propose to include  references to this term elsewhere? It is still commonly used in Britain and also more widely in some musicological contexts, so perhaps should not be ignored, whatever it might be "correct to say".voxclamans (talk) 23:00, 7 December 2007 (UTC)

 * There's a reference in the 4th paragraph - but why not go ahead and amend it if you don't think it's adequate? Best, -- Kleinzach (talk) 00:49, 8 December 2007 (UTC)

Eula Beal
Why has Eula Beal been deleted from the classical list as well?

It looks like you guys are busy with the forms, lol.

Ineversigninsodonotmessageme (talk) 19:28, 7 December 2007 (UTC)Ineversigninsodonotmessageme

 * See Eula Beal. There's nothing to indicate she is notable in this context. She's not listed by Oxford either. If you think she's notable, then by all means develop her article. Also please read the biographies of Schumann-Heink, Ferrier etc. You will see they are really major figures. -- Kleinzach (talk) 05:26, 7 December 2007 (UTC)

Really? I created that page couple months ago, and had little infomation about her. I'll look something else up and put it on the form. Thanks.Ineversigninsodonotmessageme

 * I added more to her biography but honestly she had a very short career and only made one recording and one movie of any note. She's noteworthy enough to have her own page, but I don't think well known enough to be listed under famous contraltos. I had never heard of her and had to dig around for a while to find anything on her beyond the fact that she was in that movie and married to a famous photographer.Nrswanson (talk) 02:06, 8 December 2007 (UTC)

Hey thanks, Nrswanson. I couldn't find anything else about her life and career. I don't even know if she's still alive or not. I only heard her sing 2 songs, and she has a really deep contralto voice.

Thanks again. Ineversigninsodonotmessageme (talk) 02:12, 8 December 2007 (UTC)Ineversigninsodonotmessageme

Alto article as at 8th December 2007
I started having a look at this, and have done a "spell-check", but would like to discuss a few further points, largely relating to a possible conflict between contemporary usage and historical/musicological accuracy:

[The term alto] Alto is a musical term that has several possible meanings. Within a family of instruments, "alto" refers to the member of the family that has a range lower than that of the treble or soprano. For example, the highest saxophone is a "soprano saxophone", the next highest "alto saxophone", then "tenor saxophone", and then the lowest, "baritone saxophone."[1]

Similarily, the term alto is also used in the context of choral music to refer to the second highest voice part in a 4-part chorus. Many people make the mistake of thinking the term alto is a vocal type synonymous with the contralto voice. This is not strictly correct. The term alto is not a voice classification but a part classification. [this was true as to its historical origin/derivation, but since the term is in common usage, who are we to say that it should not be used?] The choral system was developed to delineate polyphonic structure [this is not historically true - what does the term "choral system" mean?] and was not really intended to designate a vocal type to individual singers. In other words, choral music was designed to be written in four parts [again, this isn't correct: four parts in choral music only became the "standard" during the eighteenth century] and it is the parts themselves that are labelled soprano, alto, tenor, and bass and not the individual singers.[2]

Most women that sing the alto line in choirs would be considered mezzo-sopranos in classical music due to their vocal timbre and their particular vocal range, resting somewhere in the middle between soprano and contralto. A smaller number of them, however, would be true contraltos. Therefore, one could say, "I am a mezzo-soprano singing the alto line", and the other "I am a contralto singing the alto line." [but they use "mezzo" or "alto" as abbreviations because they're more convenient - shouldn't we takre account of common usage?] They have two different ranges and sounds but they are singing the same part.[3] [is this the place to say how the ranges and timbres differ, at least in general terms?]

At times, men have been referred to as altos in the context of English Church choral music. [this term is still often used within the Anglican Church system, thus: "alto lay clerk"] However, within solo-singing in England this term is never used. [not true, and often for the reason cited after the next sentence] In reality these men who can sing in the tessitura of women are called countertenors or sopranists and not altos. [no, they are often still called "male altos" or just "altos" - many musicologists would limit the use of the word "countertenor" to non-falsettist high tenors] Therefore, these men are countertenors/sopranists who are singing the alto vocal line. The exception to this would be in Italy where the word for countertenor is contratenor altus [this is a Latin term, not Italian] and is frequently abbreviated to simply "altus". [they often use the word "contraltista" - what do we do about that?]. Italians do not add the word male in front of alto or any other gender identifying term when they do this. [well, in Italian adjectives usually occur after the noun they qualify, but the term "contralto maschile" is quite common] It is simply an abbreviation and has no relation to the English understanding of the word alto.[4]

The term alto is also used to designate a specific kind of musical clef. See alto clef. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Voxclamans (talk • contribs) 09:11, 8 December 2007 (UTC)

 * I am not sure if Nrswanson will respond. I am not an expert in this field, but it seems that none of these difficulties are all that problematic. Obviously it's important that the article is as broad and neutral as possible representing all points of view and should be edited on that basis. -- Kleinzach (talk) 00:51, 9 December 2007 (UTC)

 * My information is only as good as my resources. You are welcome to present other points of view as long as you do not delete what I have found in other materials. But I request that anything you do add/change is based upon good material that is cited accordingly. I am not going to argue individual points since I found these in reputable books on voice classification, most of which admitedly were interested more in opera which is my field of expertise. However, I have been a member of three professional choirs and have had four semesters of choral conducting within the American tradition and I have a degree in Vocal Music Education. The major point I was trying to make, and most choral people will agree, is that the alto part doesn't really describe a specific female voice, just a female range. If a person pursues a solo singing career in classical music she is never called an alto. Contraltos often sing tenor 1 or alto 2 in choirs so it is not synonymous with that voice (they also have an entirely different range). Mezzo-sopranos can often sing alto 1 or soprano 2 in choirs, so it doesn't match with that voice (some mezzos can sing a high C or D which puts them easily into soprano 1 territory). And of course sopranos sing soprano in choir typically, but some sopranos can sing in the alto range. Alto is therefore, a choral specific term that does not really fit into a "voice type" category. "Voice types" consider range but are more interested in vocal timbre and vocal qualities like the agility of the voice. Alto adresses only range, and the range given does not describe individual female voices well (especially in light of vocal tessitura). It's too limmiting. This is a common problem in choral music for many women have a difficult time fitting in one particular vocal part, either finding the alto line too high (as in the case of many contraltos) or too low (as in some mezzo's on the alto line). Some singers flip flop inbetween sections. Furthermore, this page is not dedicated to countertenors but the term "alto" and wikipedia is an inter-lnked encyclopedia so words like "contraltista", "mezzista", etc. can be addressed on those pages. I have no problem with the "ista" or "ist" words. They are used and appropriate. I do have a problem with calling solo singers "male alto" or "male soprano" when words like "countertenor", "sopranist", "mezzista", "contraltista" exist and are more appropriate becuase they describe not only gender but vocal quality. Male alto and male soprano are certainly never used to describe an opera singer. Countertenor and sopranist, however, are quite common.Nrswanson (talk) 02:03, 9 December 2007 (UTC)
 * Michael Maniaci is frequently referred to as a "male soprano", not least by himself.--voxclamans (talk) 09:17, 9 December 2007 (UTC)
 * Also you are incorrect about the countertenor. Most vocal pedagogy resources and vocal teachers and current singing countertenors consider falsettists as countertenors and every book i have ever read choral or opera describes them this way. Also I have two friends who are professional countertenors and they are falsettists. Your understanding is also in direct contrast to Grove and to Peter Giles who is considered the leading authority on the subject. Those with natural upper extention are technically castrato. Check out his book, The Countertenor, Muller publ. (1982).Nrswanson (talk) 02:14, 9 December 2007 (UTC)
 * I am a countertenor, personally using the term in its broader sense, as do most of my colleagues: in other words, I mainly use falsetto, with modal for some lower notes. I was only stating what I have read in several musicological articles, namely that many authorities would limit the use of the word "countertenor" to high tenors. I have read Peter Giles' books, but not everyone agrees with him. Have a look at: Neal Zaslaw: 'The enigma of the Haute-Contre' (Musical Times, Vol. 115, No. 1581 (Nov., 1974), pp. 939-941); Mary Cyr: 'On performing 18th-century haute-contre roles,' (Musical Times, vol 118, Apr 1977); Simon Ravens: 'A sweet shrill voice': The countertenor and vocal scoring in Tudor England (Early Music.1998; XXVI: 123-136). Andrew Parrott, who also disputes the general modern use of the term "countertenor", will lead a seminar at Oxford University next term that I hope to attend: he has been working on the topic for many years, and I understand has some very good evidence to support his ideas. --voxclamans (talk) 09:17, 9 December 2007 (UTC)

Please define what you mean by "natural upper extension": castrato only refers to eunuch singers, although, as you know, some people use the term "endocrinological castrato" for singers who may have a syndrome such as Kallmann's or some other hormonal anomaly.--voxclamans (talk) 09:17, 9 December 2007 (UTC)
 * Furthermore, contratenor altus is not an italian word but is only used in Italy. The french use haute-contre, the Germans Countertenöre and in English Countertenor. As described, altus is simply an abbriviation used in Italy but really doesn't correspond to the term in other languages.Nrswanson (talk) 02:28, 9 December 2007

(UTC)
 * I wrote that "contratenor altus" was not Italian, but what are your sources for saying it is used in Italy? I believe the German spelling is "Kontratenöre"--voxclamans (talk) 09:17, 9 December 2007 (UTC)
 * Also not that it matters too much in this article, but four part hymnody became standard in the 16th century and not two hundred years later during the eighteenth century. Four part choral singing was developed in close association with the protestant reformation and had a huge impact on the development of modern music notation as well as choral music. After all, Bach pretty much developed our modern notation system and how is all of his music structured.... four part polyphony. How about every oratorio and cantata from baroque and classiic periods of music.... four parts! I don't think you are a reliable source of information.Nrswanson (talk) 02:49, 9 December 2007 (UTC)
 * You make a good point about the development of four-part hymnody, but in the article this was not stated. I would just like to dispute your statement that "choral music was designed to be written in four parts", which maybe needs qualification (five-part writing was common in France, for example, during the baroque period). Do you realise the rudeness of your last sentence?--voxclamans (talk) 09:17, 9 December 2007 (UTC)

Also, the "choral system" is refering to the choral designation of voices into soprano, alto, tenor, and bass as developed in hymnody. As opposed to the vocal type categorization system used in solo non-amplified singing or the German fach system. The choral classification system as this article maintains is really not applicable outside of choral music as it is too limmiting (see above). As a voice teacher, I would not want to use it with my private students in classical or non-classical music. Also see Voice classification in non-classical music.Nrswanson (talk) 02:56, 9 December 2007 (UTC)
 * Thank you for clarifying this. The four part designations are indeed too limiting with regard to solo voices: I would never dispute that.

--voxclamans (talk) 09:17, 9 December 2007 (UTC)
 * This discussion, however, does, as you say, go beyond (a long way beyond!) the scope of the article alto, so perhaps it shoud transfer to countertenor, where it could well run and run!--voxclamans (talk) 09:17, 9 December 2007 (UTC)

Both of you are obviously very knowledgeable in this field, so I hope you will be able to work together to improve a series of articles which until recently were a bit of a black spot in our music/opera coverage. Good luck and all the best! -- Kleinzach (talk) 10:49, 9 December 2007 (UTC)
 * I have ventured to post a recasted version of this page; comments, please.voxclamans (talk) 12:42, 11 December 2007 (UTC)

Why the hell two different articles?
I don't agree with the claim that "alto" and "contralto" aren't synonymous. In the history of vocal definition the voice above the tenor was "countertenor altus" which meant a voice, higher than the tenor, which held the counterpart. This term was shortened through the years to contralto, and contralto was shortened again to alto. In the 20th century the term "countertenor" was invented for the same reason. Female singers who describe themselves as contraltos wouldn't be offended if someone had cold them alto or vice versa. From the beginning of vocal training women are sorted into soprano, mezzo and alto categories, without any concern whether they will end up singing in a choir or as soloists.

Moreover, the fact that mezzos may sing alto in the choir is not a proof that alto and contralto aren't the same thing. Baritones may sing the basso part in the choir, so aren't "basso" and "basso" the same thing?!

There can be an article which deals with the disambiguation of the term concerning the fact that it may refer to viola (as in French) etc. AdamChapman (talk) 17:05, 11 December 2007 (UTC)

 * Thank you for your comments. Perhaps one might say that all contraltos are altos, but not all altos are contraltos, because some of them are mezzos, and some countertenors. Maybe something to this effect could be added to the article as it stands. One or two points I would venture: I'm not sure about the "pedigree" of countertenor altus ->contralto ->alto (my ancient OED has the first appearance of "contralto" in 1730, defined as "a counter treble in musick" - how confusing is that?!), though my 1970 edition of the Harvard Dictionary of Music agrees with you and also equates alto and contralto as to voice; the term "countertenor" is surely not a twentieth-century invention (both of these points are discussed in the article on countertenor). I believe it was user:Nrswanson who introduced the idea of differentiating alto and contralto into the Wiki articles, so perhaps he would like to comment further.--voxclamans (talk) 18:40, 11 December 2007 (UTC)

 * Actually the article is quite correct about making a destinction between the two terms. If you read the book Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy you will realise that the term contralto does not have the same meaning or conotation as alto, although the terms have similar edimologies. Unlike alto, the term "contralto" refers to a particular voice type used in solo classical music with destinctive vocal qualities that are not contained in the term alto. Furthermore, the alto voice and the contralto voice have two destinctive ranges that are overlapping but not the same. The typical alto voice can sing higher but not as low as the contralto voice. As the article mentions, some contraltos have bigger ranges but what is not clearly stated is that many do not (even classically trained ones), with the voice stopping at E5. A choral alto should be able to sing up to an F5 or G5. Furthermore, all contraltos have very low notes that allow them to sing first tenor, and many of them do. Furthmore, the term alto is never used within the opera world, as it is viewed as a choral music term deliniating a particular vocal line and not describing the attributes of an individuals voice. Issues like timbre, vocal dexterity, etc. are not addressed within the term alto, all necessary destinctions within voice type categories in classical music. Furthermore, musical terms became more clearly defined within the Baroque period and Classical period with the development of modern notation and music theory. The term alto came to be associated within hymnody where there is only two destinctions in the upper register (I can't say female voices because both men and women sing the two inner voices). The term contralto, on the other hand, was used within the German fach system used for opera and this term came to be associated entirely with women in solo classical singing and is never used to describe a male voice. The opera cattegorization also makes seven broad categorical voice types and not four like choral music. These are: for women- soprano, mezzo soprano, and contralto. For men- countertenor, tenor, baritone, and bass. As you can see, there are many different destinctions here that choral music doesn't make, including gender destinctions. There can be both male and female altos. The same is not true for contraltos as such roles on the operatic stage are played only by women in the history of opera. Different roles were written with castrato and countertenors in mind. The term "alto" in terms of range would cover the mezzo soprano and countertenor most closely. Contralto lies somewhere between the alto and tenor range in choral music.Nrswanson (talk) 04:41, 12 December 2007 (UTC)

 * I don't know who uploaded this article, but yet it's a very good one http://www.medieval.org/emfaq/misc/voices.html (It supports my comment). It's quite silly to start differentiating between alto, contralto, etc. Perhaps there are books that do so, but this is not scientifically very accurate. First, there are some that consider contralto as a higher voice than alto (like Podles. She claims that an alto will stop on a high f, yet a contralto, like her, will be able to go up to the high b or even c). In John Stanley's book "Classical Music" it says that "alto" is an abbreviation of "contralto". Moreover, the distant between female voices is so small that it's really unnecessary to create such a complicated terminology. For example: The lowest role in Wagner’s "Ring" is Erda, who reaches down to g and up to a-flat. The highest, Brunhilda, goes down to a (only a tone above g) and up to c (only a couple of tones above c). As it says in many other related articles, in today’s operatic practice there is no distinction between mezzos and contraltos so why should there be between contraltos and altos? AdamChapman (talk) 15:20, 12 December 2007 (UTC)

 * I already explained my opinion and you haven't convinced me to change my opinion. I still think what I said before and my resources back me up.Nrswanson (talk) 22:18, 12 December 2007 (UTC)

Acceptable usage of the term "alto"
I've noticed that in some of the articles linking to this one, the word "alto" is used to describe the voice in question rather than a person. For example, "Tina possesses a dark, warm alto" or "Ms. Jones is notable for her bluesy, raspy alto" - is it just me, or does this sound awkward? Wouldn't "alto voice" be a more suitable alternative? I am unfamiliar with such usage in that context. Ministry of Silly Walks (talk) 23:33, 29 December 2007 (UTC)

 * I agree that it would be more correct to say "alto voice" than just simply alto.Ringnpassagio (talk) 23:53, 30 December 2007 (UTC)

Trombones
In the article, it says the alto trombone is the highest. According to Trombone there exists a piccolo trombone. Should this be changed? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 75.161.216.248 (talk) 01:58, 5 March 2009 (UTC)
 * There also exist bass flutes which, while not as common as alto flutes, are hardly rare. I have corrected the line.
 * I've heard contrabass flute once too, but "common instruments of their families" seems clear in this article's context. Types_of_trombones lists two instruments higher than alto but says "has never been widely used" and "extreemly rare". Sparafucil (talk) 19:17, 17 October 2012 (UTC)

No "voice range on keyboard" picture?
Is there a reason why there isn't a "voice range on keyboard" picture in this article? Almost all the other voice type articles have a picture, but not this one. I feel there should be an image so that people can have a better picture of where the typical alto voice starts and where it finishes. And also so people can have a better picture of how alto voices differ from contralto and mezzo-soprano voices. I understand that the term "alto" generally refers to choral music. But I've come across at least one site that says that the typical alto voice lies between G3 and G5. Though I could be wrong. ― C.Syde  ( talk  |  contribs ) 04:30, 19 December 2018 (UTC)

Article topic is the alto range in choral music
The only content section of this article is about the alto range "In choral music". The lead should be a summary of the topic, but instead it is a paragraph about usage of the word. Can we focus the article on the topic? Volunteer1234 (talk) 21:32, 24 May 2019 (UTC)
 * That might be fine for Alto (choir), but you seem to rather focus the topic on the article, verging on WP:Original research. Here's the start of the Harvard Dictionary of Music article: "Alto [It., high]. (1) A female voice of low range, also called contralto (2) Originally the alto was a high male voice (hence the name) which by use of the falsetto nearly reached the height of the female voice (contralto). This type of voice, also known as the counter-tenor, was especially cultivated in England, where the church music of the 16th & 17th centuries definitely implies its use…"
 * Even among those who conscientiously use "contralto" and would restrict "alto" to choral voices, I don't know any consistent enough to avoid calling Brahms' Opus 53 the Alto Rhapsody. Complicated place, the world ;-) Sparafucil (talk) 03:40, 5 June 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Alto


text:
Mount Pelée

Mount Pelée or Mont Pelée (Montagne Pelée, ; Montann Pèlé), meaning "bald mountain" or "peeled mountain" in French, is an active volcano at the northern end of Martinique, an island and French overseas department in the Lesser Antilles Volcanic Arc of the Caribbean. Its volcanic cone is composed of stratified layers of hardened ash and solidified lava. Its most recent eruption was in 1932.

The stratovolcano's 1902 eruption destroyed the town of Saint-Pierre, killing 29,000 to 30,000 people in the space of a few minutes, in the worst volcanic disaster of the 20th century. The main eruption, on 8 May 1902, left only three known survivors. Ludger Sylbaris survived because he was in a poorly ventilated, dungeon-like jail cell. Léon Compère-Léandre, living on the edge of the city, escaped with severe burns. The third was a young girl named Havivra Da Ifrile, who fled to a nearby sea cave in a boat, enduring burns from falling ash.

In 2023, it was listed as UNESCO World heritage site.

Geographical setting and description
Mount Pelée is the result of a typical subduction zone. The subduction formed the Lesser Antilles island arc, a curved chain of volcanoes approximately 850 km in length, between Puerto Rico and Venezuela, where the Caribbean Plate meets Atlantic oceanic crust belonging to the South American Plate. Other volcanoes in the island arc are also known for their volcanic activity, including Saint Vincent's La Soufrière, Guadeloupe's La Grande Soufriere volcano, Montserrat's Soufrière Hills, and the submarine volcano Kick 'em Jenny.

Geological history
Volcanologists have identified three different phases in the evolution of Mount Pelée volcano: initial, intermediate, and modern. In an initial phase, called the "Paléo-Pelée" stage, Mount Pelee was a common stratovolcano. The cone of Paléo-Pelée was composed of many layers of lava flows and fragmented volcanic debris. Remains of the Paléo-Pelée cone are still visible at the northern view at the volcano today.

A second stage, now called the intermediate phase, started around 100,000 years ago, after a long period of quiescence. This stage is grouped by the formation of the Morne Macouba lava dome, then later on, the Morne Macouba caldera. During the intermediate phase, there were several eruptions which produced pyroclastic flows like those that destroyed Saint-Pierre in the 1902 eruption. Around 25,000 years ago, a large southwest sector collapse occurred, forming a landslide. This event was similar to the eruption of Mount St. Helens in 1980.

The modern stage of the evolution of Mount Pelée has created most of the current cone, with deposits of pumice and the results of past pyroclastic flows. More than 30 eruptions have been identified during the last 5,000 years of the volcano's activity.

Three thousand years ago, following a large pumice eruption, the Étang Sec (French for Dry Pond) caldera was then formed. The 1902 eruption took place within the Étang Sec crater. This eruption formed many pyroclastic flows and produced a dome that filled the caldera. Mount Pelée continued to erupt until 4 July 1905. Thereafter, the volcano was dormant until 1929.

On 16 September 1929, Mount Pelée began to erupt again. This time, there was no hesitation on the part of authorities and the danger area was immediately evacuated. The 1929 eruption formed a second dome in the Étang Sec caldera and produced pyroclastic flows emptying into the Blanche River valley. Although there were pyroclastic flows, the activity was not as violent as the 1902 activity. It culminated in another "spine" or lava plug, albeit smaller than the 1902 plug, being emplaced at the summit. The activity ended in late 1932.

Current status
The volcano is currently active. A few volcano tectonic earthquakes occur on Martinique every year, and Mount Pelée is under continuous watch by geophysicists and volcanologists (IPGP). Before the 1902 eruption—as early as the summer of 1900—signs of increased fumarole activity were present in the Étang Sec crater. Relatively minor phreatic (steam) eruptions that occurred in 1792 and 1851 were evidence that the volcano was active. Signs of unrest are likely to precede any future eruptive activity from Mount Pelée, and its past activity (including the violent eruptions uncovered by carbon dating) is an extremely important factor for hazard assessment.

The city of Saint-Pierre was never fully rebuilt, though some villages grew up in its place. The estimated population of the Commune of Saint-Pierre in 2017 was 4,123.

On December 6, 2020, The Martinique Volcano Observatory (MVO) raised Mount Pelee's alert level to Yellow [Restless] from Green [Normal] due to an increase in seismicity under the volcano beginning in April 2019, and observations of tremors the previous month.

As far as was known, this was the first sign of activity since the end of the 1929–1932 eruption. This volcano is, of course, highly dangerous, and great vigilance of its activity is required. Whether or not it is going to enter a new eruptive period is currently unknown.

According to the MVO press release "The increase in seismicity of superficial volcanic origin (up to 4-5 km below the summit) observed since April 2019, is therefore clearly above the base level characteristic for Mount Pelée.

In April 2019, volcanic seismicity appeared at depth around and under Mount Pelée (more than 10 km below sea level). It could correspond to the arrival at depth of magmatic fluids.

Finally, new recorded tremor-type signals were observed on November 8 and 9, 2020: they could correspond to a reactivation of the hydrothermal system.

Even if, in the current state of measurements, there is no deformation of the volcano on the scale of the observation network, the appearance, in a few months, of these three different types of seismic signals of volcanic origin shows a clear change in the behavior of the volcanic system, the activity of which is increasing from the base level observed over several decades."

Biology
The Martinique volcano frog, Allobates chalcopis, is endemic to Mount Pelée, and the only species among related frogs (family Aromobatidae) endemic to an oceanic island.

Important bird area
A 9,262 ha largely forested tract, encompassing the mountain and extending to the sea on its north-western side, has been recognised as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International because it supports populations of bridled quail doves, Lesser Antillean swifts, green and purple-throated caribs, blue headed and Antillean crested hummingbirds, Caribbean elaenias, Lesser Antillean flycatchers, Lesser Antillean pewees, scaly-breasted and pearly-eyed thrashers, brown and grey tremblers, rufous-throated solitaires, Antillean euphonias, Martinique orioles, Lesser Antillean saltators and Lesser Antillean bullfinches.

Protection
On September 16, 2023, the volcanoes and forests of Mount Pelée and the pitons of northern Martinique were listed as UNESCO World Heritage Site. The volcanic mountain range represents 12% of Martinique's territory. It is the 7th natural site in France to be listed as a UNESCO World Heritage site. World Heritage status could also have a positive impact on tourism and the economy, increasing visitor numbers by 30 to 40%, according to the Martinique Nature Park.

In literature

 * The Day The World Ended by Gordon Thomas and Max Morgan Witts (Stein and Day, 1969, 306 pp). The authors used contemporary records and survivor accounts to construct a historical novel of the events and lives of residents of Martinique, leading up to and through the eruption of May 8, 1902.
 * Texaco by Patrick Chamoiseau (Gallimard, 1992. Trans. Rose-Myriam Réjouis and Val Vinokurov, Vintage International, 1998). In this novel that retraces several generations of Martinique's history, Esternome, the protagonist of the novel's first part, witnesses firsthand the destruction caused by the volcano. Marie-Sophie Laborieux, Esternome's daughter and the novel's narrator, recounts her father's experiences and also discusses the traces of this event she has seen herself, including burn scars on her father's body and ossuaries in the ruins of Saint-Pierre. The eruption and its aftermath are discussed in the section "Amour grillée" ("Barbecued Love").
 * Ti-Coyo and his shark (by Clément Richer. Trans. Gerard Hopkins) (Rupert Hart-Davis 1 January 1951) (First published 1 January 1941 as Ti-Coyo et son requin). In this humorous fable, wickedness triumphs because it is charming. Set on the exotic Caribbean island of Martinique before, during, and after the infamous eruption of Mont Pelée in 1902. Ti-Coyo, a shrewd and winning mixed race boy, rescues a wounded baby shark, which becomes his faithful companion as it grows into a monster fearful to everyone but him. With the help of this behemoth, Ti-Coyo becomes rich and wins the flaxen-haired princess of his dreams. It is the shark, too, who saves Ti-Coyo, his ill-assorted parents, and his sweetheart when Mont Pelée pours destruction over St. Pierre.

title: Mount Pelée


text:
User:Emmjade

I'm a student at Melbourne Uni studing Electrical Engineering and Physics. I don't claim to be able to write phyisics articles - there are much better qualified nerds than me out there. The electrial engineering part also implies I am completely unable to spell.

My friend warned me off this website. I should have listened.

title: User:Emmjade