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Topfreedom

Topfreedom is a cultural and political movement seeking changes in laws to allow women to be topless in public places where men are permitted to be barechested, as a form of gender equality. Specifically, the movement seeks the repeal or overturning of laws which restrict a woman's right not to have her chest covered at all times in public.

In addition, topfreedom advocates seek allowing nursing mothers to openly breastfeed in public.

Social and legal attitudes
Many societies consider women who expose their nipples and areolae as immodest and contrary to social norms. In many jurisdictions a topless woman may be cited for public lewdness, indecent exposure, public indecency or disorderly conduct. Independently from the legality of the practice, topless women may also face harassment. Topfreedom advocates seek to change community attitudes to breasts as sex objects or indecent.

Several countries in Europe have decriminalised non-sexual toplessness. Topless swimming and sunbathing on beaches has become acceptable in many parts of Europe, though the practice remains controversial in many places, and not common in most places. Many public swimming pools in Europe are owned by municipalities, which are treated as private organisations and allowed to set their dress codes.

Breastfeeding
In many countries around the world, breastfeeding in public is not unusual. During 2006–2010 and earlier, a number of news reports in the United States cited incidents where women were refused service or harassed for breastfeeding in public. In response, a majority of U.S. states have passed laws explicitly permitting nursing in public. The United States federal government enacted a law in 1999 which specifically provides that "a woman may breastfeed her child at any location in a Federal building or on Federal property, if the woman and her child are otherwise authorized to be present at the location." However, these laws generally do not apply to rules imposed by private organizations or on private property, such as restaurants, airlines, or shopping malls.

Taiwan
In support of Icelandic student Adda Smaradottir's FreeTheNipple act in public cyberspace, young women uploaded their topless photos to Facebook and protested against its Community Standards of considering women's breasts as sexual materials. Those photos and related news articles were blocked initially, but Facebook considered those photos did not violate Community Standards.

Denmark
Bathing and sunbathing in the nude (including topless) is legal on Danish beaches. Nudity and toplessness in other public outdoor places is generally also legal, unless it involves "offensive conduct" or is likely to cause public outrage. The public outrage law is rarely used in practice, but in 1972 audience members were convicted of being nude in the Royal Danish Theatre. In December 2007, a group of women and men calling themselves Topless Front swam topless in public swim baths to promote topless equality. In March 2008, after a campaign by the group, Copenhagen's Culture and Leisure Committee voted to allow topless bathing in its swimming pools. After the committee had voted, it was revealed that no laws had existed against topless bathing, effectively making the vote unnecessary. However, some public baths had (and have) restricted it themselves. Public breastfeeding is supported by the vast majority of both sexes in Denmark, is entirely legal and accepted in almost all places, except for a few private cafés and restaurants that have restricted it.

Finland
In Finland, toplessness is not illegal, yet topless women have been removed from beaches. Sandra Marins and Säde Vallarén criticized this and organized Finland's first event demanding topless equality, called Tissiflashmob (Breast flash mob). On Finland's Independence day, 6 December 2019, both Marins and Vallarén showed their breasts on live TV and it sparked a lot of conversation. Tissiflashmob 2020 was bigger than the previous one, now organized at the same time in eight different cities.

France
In France, the feminist collective Les TumulTueuses organized a topfree protest in Paris in May 2009. It is legal to sunbathe topless in France, although local regulations may ban the practice with directives about clothing. In 2020, after a police incident, topless sunbathing was defended by the French interior minister.

Greece
In Greece, toplessness is legal.

Iceland
In Iceland, toplessness is legal.

Italy
Female toplessness has been officially legalized (in a nonsexual context) in all public beaches and swimming pools throughout the country (unless otherwise specified by region, province or municipality by-laws) on 20 March 2000, when the Supreme Court of Cassation (through sentence No. 3557) determined that the exposure of the nude female breast, after several decades, is now considered a "commonly accepted behavior", and therefore, has "entered into the social costume".

Poland
In Poland in 2008–2009, two women from Szczecin including glamour model Dorota Krzysztofek, won a court battle that reasserted the women's right to sunbathe topless on public beaches. Krzysztofek, along with her female companion, were fined by local municipal officials for topless sunbathing at a public recreation area. The women refused to pay the fine and took the matter to Civil Court. Their first hearing had to be postponed due to remarkable media interest.

On November 7, 2008, judge Szczepańska upheld the city staff decision, and charged the women with indecent exposure, explaining that their personal freedoms cannot encroach on the freedoms of families with children who frequent the same recreation spot. Although topless sunbathing is not prohibited in Poland, the judge sentenced them to pay a fine of 230 zlotys (150 zlotys by different source, or €40, $55) for breaking the rules of conduct. In her rationale, the judge also said that it is not up to the defendants to teach youngsters human anatomy; however, her decision was appealed by Krzysztofek's female friend soon afterwards, with the plea of not guilty.

In 2009, the appellate court declared both women to be innocent, because the city staff were unable to prove that anyone at the beach was indignant or scandalized by their toplessness, and no complaint was ever reported. On the contrary, some visitors stood up to their defense. There were no signs at the recreation area against what is otherwise legal. The appellate court's decision was binding, but it also created an aura of ambivalence, with topless sunbathing in public declared acceptable only if nobody else including families with children formally objects to it.

Spain
There are no laws in Spain that officially prohibit public nudity (in a non-sexual context), and because of this, both topless sunbathing and naturism (the latter on a smaller scale) are frequently practiced without any issues in all beaches throughout the country, while the amount of partakers may vary depending on the location and the day. It is very common in the Balearic Islands, Canaries, Costa Brava and Costa del Sol (a few municipalities, such as Barcelona, have created by-laws to forbid public nudity, including female toplessness on their streets, not on the beach). Due to the widespread practice of topless sunbathing, the municipalities of Galdakao and L'Ametlla del Vallès decided to legalize female toplessness on their public pools (in March 2016 and June 2018, respectively), and it is tolerated in many others, like in Madrid (without the need of a specific rule). It is less common on private or condominium pools, and a few have by-laws to ban it. Moreover, there are some surveys indicating that more than 40% of the Spanish women who were interviewed (aged 18 or older) reported to have been topless on a beach at least once.

Sweden
In Sweden, toplessness is not explicitly illegal. The law usually applied to cases of nudity is about disorderly conduct (förargelseväckande beteende) – it does not say anything about how undressed one can be, so it's a matter of legal tradition, although there is a law against gender discrimination. However, private or public establishments are permitted to establish dress codes which may require women to wear tops, and deny access or remove individuals who breach these standards. In September 2007, the "Bara Bröst" group (a pun meaning both "Only Breasts" and "Bare Breasts") appeared to promote topless equality in these semi-public facilities. The group staged several events in public swim baths in September and October 2007, starting in Uppsala from which they were evicted several times, before succeeding in Sundsvall.

The group scored a victory in June 2009 when the Malmö city's sports and recreation committee approved new rules that, while requiring everybody to wear bathing suits at indoor public swimming pools, did not require women to cover their breasts. "We don't define what bathing suits men should wear so it doesn't make much sense to do it for women. And besides, it's not unusual for men to have large breasts that resemble women's breasts", said a council spokesman.

United Kingdom
According to the Crown Prosecution Service, "In the absence of any sexual context and in relation to nudity where the person has no intention to cause alarm or distress it will normally be appropriate to take no action unless members of the public were actually caused harassment, alarm or distress (as opposed to considering the likelihood of this)." Breastfeeding is a specifically protected activity.

Canada

In 1991, toplessness as an indecent act was challenged by Gwen Jacob in Guelph, Ontario, who removed her shirt and was charged with indecency. Part of her defense was the double standards between men and women. Although she was convicted, this was overturned by the Court of Appeal. This case determined that being topless is not indecent under the meaning of the Criminal Code. However it did not establish any constitutional right of equality. This case subsequently led to the acquittal of women in British Columbia and Saskatchewan who faced similar charges. Although each province and territory technically reserves its right to interpret the law as it pleases, the Ontario case has proven influential. Since the matter has not been determined by the Supreme Court of Canada, it is still possible that a woman could be convicted elsewhere in Canada, but interpretation of moral law in Canada has become increasingly liberalized. There do not appear to have been any further women charged in Canada since these cases were determined.

In February 2023, the cities of Edmonton and Calgary, both in the province of Alberta, changed their policies such that wearing bathing suit tops in city-operated pools was an individual's choice.

Mexico
The only public place in Mexico that officially allows female toplessness is Playa Zipolite (a nude beach located in the state of Oaxaca), where the practice of naturism was legalized in 2016. However, the practice of topless sunbathing (as well as naturism in some cases) is commonly tolerated on a few beaches in the state of Quintana Roo, more precisely in the Riviera Maya region (especially between the cities of Playa del Carmen and Tulum); furthermore, there are a few clothing-optional resorts made for adults only (also located in the Riviera Maya) where all men and women aged 18 (or older) can frequent the facilities without the need to wear clothes (if so they wish).

United States
In the United States, states have primary jurisdiction in matters of public morality. The topfreedom movement has claimed success in a few instances in persuading some state and federal courts to overturn some state laws on the basis of sex discrimination or equal protection, arguing that a woman should be free to expose her chest in any context in which a man can expose his. Other successful cases have been on the basis of freedom of expression in protest, or simply that exposure of breasts is not indecent (or similar terminology).

Laws and ordinances barring female toplessness are being challenged in federal courts around the nation. Each lawsuit, if it prevails at the appellate level, will legalize topfreedom in the following U.S. circuit courts of appeals (from west to east): 9 (California), 8 (Missouri) and 1 (Maryland). A federal lawsuit in the 7th Circuit (Illinois), was lost at the appellate level and the petition for review by the U.S. Supreme Court was denied. A preliminary injunction in a federal lawsuit in the 10th Circuit (Colorado), was won at the appellate level. In September 2019, after spending over $300,000, Fort Collins decided to stop defending their ordinance and repeal it. That effectively gave females of all ages the right to go topless wherever males can in the jurisdiction of the 10th Circuit (Wyoming, Utah, Colorado, New Mexico, Kansas and Oklahoma states as well as all counties and cities therein).

Australia
In Australia, indecent exposure laws only refer to the genital area, so technically both male and female toplessness is legal. However, many local councils impose their own rules, and have the power to ask topless people to leave an area. Additionally, women who go topless are sometimes issued charges such as being a public nuisance, or offensive behaviour.

On public beaches, local bylaws are not heavily enforced, and women can often sunbathe topless without legal repercussions.

Breastfeeding in public places is a legal right in Australia. Under the Sex Discrimination Act 1984, no business or service provider can discriminate against a breastfeeding woman. Women can still breastfeed even if no other food/drink is allowed in the area. If a special baby care room is available for breastfeeding, women are not required to use it unless they wish to. If someone abuses a breastfeeding woman or forces her to leave, this may come under state/territory harassment laws. These protections also include women who are expressing breast milk for their baby.

New Zealand
In New Zealand, there is no specific law prohibiting nudity in public places. If a person is nude and also exhibiting lewd and lascivious, or obscene behaviour, then they may fall afoul of laws.

The High Court of New Zealand has upheld a conviction of disorderly conduct for nudity in the street, because it was not a place where nudity was known to occur or commonplace. Being nude in the street is likely to incur a small fine if a complaint is made against the person, or if the person ignores a police order to cover themselves. However, in practice, the likelihood of being prosecuted for nudity on a public beach is low, providing the person keeps to themselves.

In 2012, a woman swam topless on Ōpunake beach. The police were called, but informed the callers that toplessness was not an offence.

In 2017, nudists used the beach at Tauranga, which caused consternation among some residents. However, the local council said there were no bylaws dealing with the issue, and that nudity was not an offence.

Argentina
Female toplessness is allowed in the official nude beaches of Puerto Escondido, located near Miramar, and Playa Querandí, located in Villa Gesell, as well as in some private naturist resorts.

On 7 February 2017, hundreds of topless women protested in Buenos Aires, Córdoba, Mar del Plata and Rosario, among other cities throughout the country. The protest was called in Spanish tetazo (a portmanteau of the Spanish word tetas, meaning "tits", and the Spanish suffix "-azo", which denotes a hitting action). The protestors objected against the "objectification" of the female body, and also disapproved the decision made by 20 police officers, who days before, had expelled from a beach located in Necochea 3 women who were topless sunbathing there.

Brazil
The Article 233 of the Chapter VI of the Title VI of the Penal Code asserts that indecent exposure (known in Portuguese as ato obsceno, meaning "obscene act") is a wrongdoing act punished with imprisonment or fine, but does not specify what are the nude parts of the human body which could be fitted on this misdemeanor. Despite this vagueness, female toplessness tends to be considered an "obscene act" by the Brazilian authorities, and the practice has been frequently repressed, including some arrests made by the police throughout the years.

Generally, the practice of topless sunbathing by women has been accepted only in official nude beaches and in some private naturist clubs. However, for many years, there has been one notable exception: the Carnival in Rio de Janeiro. During the famous two-night parades yearly held by 12 samba schools (6 on each day) at the Sambadrome Marquês de Sapucaí, the official policy is that only the genital area cannot be publicly shown (in this case all nude men and women must wear a merkin, which is known in Portuguese as tapa-sexo, roughly translated as "sex cover"). Thus, both men and women can openly expose their bare breasts and buttocks to the public during the marches without any problem.

Since the early 2010s, there are reports of some small and sporadic protests, especially in some beaches located in Rio de Janeiro. These protests are called in Portuguese toplessaços (a portmanteau of the English word "toplessness" and the Portuguese suffix "-aço", translated from the Spanish "-azo", which denotes a hitting action). In each protest, a group of women, soon after being reunited, decide to quickly take off all clothes they were wearing above the waist (including bras, bikinis or any other tops), culminating in a state of public "breast-flashing" for a few minutes before putting on their clothes again. This way, these are considered a kind of topless flash mob protests. The purpose of these protests is to claim for the official legalization of female toplessness in Brazil under the principle of gender equality.

Chile
Exposing the breasts in public is not a crime, although it is an offense applicable according to the Article 373 of the Penal Code to those who "in any way offend modesty or good customs". Similarly, the Article 495 says: "Shall be punished with a fine of one monthly tax unit (first paragraph) whoever contravenes the rules that the authority dictates to preserve public order or prevent it from being altered, unless the act constitutes a crime or simple offense".

Faced with so much inconvenience, a group of women together with the photographer and pioneer of naturism in Chile, René Rojas, managed to create the first nude beach in the country in 2000, called Playa Luna, as well as the unofficial restricted areas that were created in Playa Luna Norte (Tarapacá), Playa Luna Sur (Coliumo), Playa Escondida (Antofagasta), Playa Blanca (Tongoy) and Pichilemu, where it is possible to completely undress with total normality.

Uruguay
The practice of female toplessness is allowed in the official nude beaches of Chihuahua, located in the resort of the same name, and La Sirena,  located in the resort of Aguas Dulces.

title: Topfreedom


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List of words derived from toponyms

This is a list of English language words derived from toponyms, followed by the place name it derives from.

General

 * agate — after Achates, ancient Greek name for the river Dirillo on the Italian island of Sicily
 * Alberta clipper — a weather phenomenon named after the Canadian province of Alberta, where it originates
 * Angora goat, Angora rabbit, Angora wool (obtained from the previous two), Angora cat — named after Angora, variant or former name of Ankara, their place of origin
 * Antimacassar — after Makassar, Indonesia, which was the source of hair oil
 * Armageddon — after "mount of Megiddo", where the battle was to be fought according to myth
 * badminton — after Badminton in Gloucestershire, England
 * balkanization — after the Balkans, region in southeastern Europe similarly divided into small nations in the twentieth century
 * bangalored — after Bangalore, India; used often in the US when jobs are lost because of outsourcing; first time use by the magazine The Economist; usage: "He is sulking today because he got bangalored."
 * Bedford cord, a heavy fabric with a ribbed weave similar to corduroy; named after either Bedford, England or possibly New Bedford, Massachusetts
 * Bedlam — meaning pandemonium, after popular name/pronunciation of St Mary of Bethlehem, London's first psychiatric hospital
 * Bedlington Terrier, a breed of dog, after Bedlington, UK
 * bezant — former gold coin, and current heraldic charge, after Byzantium (now Istanbul), where the coins were made
 * bikini — two-piece bathing suit for women, after Bikini Atoll in the Marshall Islands, where atomic bombs were tested in 1946; supposedly analogous to the "explosive" effect on the male libido
 * the Blarney and Blarney Stone — Blarney Castle
 * Boeotian, an ancient Greek term for a fool, after the Boeotian people
 * bohemian — term referring to artists, writers, and other people who wished to live an unconventional, vagabond, or "gypsy" lifestyle; from Bohemia, where "gypsies" were erroneously thought to originate; see also gypsy, below
 * La Brabançonne, national anthem of Belgium — Brabant, province of Belgium
 * Bronx cheer — a noise made by the mouth to signify derision; after The Bronx, a borough of New York City
 * brummagem — goods of shoddy quality; from a local pronunciation of Birmingham, city in the United Kingdom
 * bungalow — a low building or house, from a Gujarati word meaning "Bengalese", used elliptically to mean a house built in the style of Bengal
 * Byzantine, used to describe any work, law, or organization that is excessively complex or difficult to understand, named after Byzantine Empire
 * calico — a type of cloth named after Calicut, where Europeans first obtained it; Calico cat and calico horse derive from the appearance of their mottled coat suggesting calico cloth
 * canary — a small yellow bird, originating on and named after the Canary Islands, specifically the largest island, Gran Canaria, called in Latin Insula Canaria, "island of dogs", after the wild native dogs found there
 * Capri pants — mid-calf pants named for the Italian isle of Capri, where they rose to popularity in the late 1950s and early '60s.
 * Caucasian — name for the "white race", coined by anthropologist Johann Blumenbach after Caucasus Mountains, their supposed ancestral homeland
 * chautauqua — a form of local fair, after Chautauqua, New York, where the first one was held
 * Chicago Typewriter, a nickname for the Thompson submachine gun
 * chihuahua — small dog from Chihuahua, state of Mexico
 * china — originally chinaware, as in "wares from China"
 * Chinese wall, artificial organizational barrier, derived from Great Wall of China
 * coach — a type of carriage, ultimately from Hungarian kocsi (szekér) or "carriage of Kocs", where this vehicle was first made
 * Coldstream Guards — regiment founded at Coldstream in Scotland
 * cologne — a perfume originating from Cologne, Germany.
 * Corinthian order — one of the three orders of classical architecture, after Corinth in Greece
 * Coventry (in the construction "Send to Coventry"): shunned by friends and family, after the treatment of Royalist prisoners during the English Civil War
 * Damask — material, from Damascus
 * denim — a coarse cotton fabric, from French serge de Nîmes, or "serge of Nîmes", where the cloth originated
 * derby — a stakes race limited to three-year-old steeds, named after Derby in England by way of its 12th Earl; also refers to a style of shoe and hat.
 * dollar — a unit of currency, originally from the German taler, an abbreviation of Joachimstaler ("gulden of Joachimstal"), a coin minted (1519) from silver mined near Joachimsthal, Bohemia
 * donnybrook — colloquial term for a brawl or fracas, derived from Donnybrook Fair, an annual horse fair in the Dublin suburb notorious for fighting and drunkenness
 * doolally or dolally — an adjective meaning "mad" or "eccentric" (e.g. "to go dolally"), ultimately named after Deolali, a hill station near Nashik in colonial India, referring to the apparent madness of men waiting to return to Britain after their tour of duty
 * duffel or duffle — heavy woollen cloth, hence duffel coat and duffel bag; after Duffel, a town in Belgium where it was first made
 * Dunkirk spirit, after the evacuation of Dunkirk in World War II
 * Estrela Mountain Dog — Estrela Mountains, where this dog breed is originally from
 * Fez, (also called tarboosh), a hat — Fez, a city in Morocco
 * Finlandization, the influence a large country can have on a smaller one, after Finland
 * gauze, a thin translucent open-weave fabric⏤after the city of Gaza, which is where it is thought to have originated.
 * gamboge, a yellow artist's pigment — Cambodge, French name for Cambodia
 * geyser, a hot water spring — Geysir in Iceland
 * Glasgow kiss, a slang term meaning headbutt — Glasgow, Scotland
 * Greek, not understandable ("all Greek to me") — Greek language of Greece
 * Guinea, former British gold coin, and guineafowl — Guinea region of West Africa
 * Gypsies, nomadic peoples in Europe and United States — Egypt
 * Habanera — a musical style named after Havana, Cuba
 * Hackney carriage, name for the London taxicab, probably from Hackney in London, England
 * Havana, cigar — from capital of Cuba
 * Hempenstall, a surname, after the town of Heptonstall (England)
 * Honiton, a form of lace, after the town in Devon (England) where it is produced
 * Holland, cotton or linen fabric — Holland
 * iliad — a long narrative poem, or a series of woes, trials, etc.; both derive from the Homeric epic Iliad, literally meaning "of Ilium" (or Troy)
 * Indian, the aboriginal peoples of the New World, after India
 * Indigo, colour, after India
 * Ionic order — one of the three orders of classical architecture, after Ionia in present-day Turkey
 * japanning, application of lacquer, after Japan
 * Jeans, denim trousers; Genoa
 * Jersey cattle (also tomato, milk, cream, jumper) — Jersey, one of the Channel Islands
 * Kimblewick bit, used on horses for riding — Kimble Wick, hamlet in Buckinghamshire (England)
 * Labyrinth, maze, after a legendary structure on Crete
 * Laconic, (of a person, speech, or style of writing) using very few words. From Laconia Ancient Sparta (Greece)
 * Left Bank, style of life, fashion, or "look" — "Left Bank", left bank of the Seine (facing downstream) in Paris
 * Leghorn chicken — after Leghorn, historical name for Livorno, Italy
 * Lesbian, female homosexual — Lesbos, island in Greece
 * Lipizzaner, a breed of horse — Lipica, town in Slovenia
 * Magenta, colour — named after Magenta, Lombardy, Italy
 * Marathon, long race — Marathon, Greece, town
 * Madras, lightweight cotton fabric — Madras, old name for Chennai, coastal city in southeastern India
 * Manila envelopes, Manila fiber — Manila, city in Philippines
 * Marseillaise, national anthem of France — Marseille, city in France
 * Masada, a mass suicide when conditions are hopeless, after Masada, Israel
 * Mausoleum, a large and impressive tomb — Mausoleum at Halicarnassus in Turkey
 * meander, a bend in a river — Meander, a river in Turkey
 * Mecca, ultimate destination or activity center — Mecca, holy city in Saudi Arabia
 * Mongoloid race — Mongolia, country in central Asia
 * Morocco leather — Morocco, country in north Africa
 * Muslin, a lightweight fabric — Mosul, Iraq
 * Neanderthal man, known by his fossils — Neanderthal, Germany, valley where the fossils were found
 * Nicene Creed, Christian doctrine — Nicaea, old name for İznik in Turkey
 * Olympics, worldwide games — Mount Olympus, tallest mountain in Greece
 * Ottoman (furniture), a type of stool — after the Ottoman Empire
 * Paisley (design), used in shawls — Paisley, Scotland
 * Panama hat — Panama in Central America, where it was first sold
 * Portland cement — named after the Isle of Portland, England
 * Rubicon, the point of no return — Rubicon (or Rubico), a small former river in northern Italy
 * Rhode Island Red — Chicken named after Rhode Island
 * Rugby football — Rugby School, in Rugby, Warwickshire, central England
 * Shanghaied — drugged and forced into service aboard a ship, from Shanghai, China
 * Siamese twins, conjoined twins — Siam, old name for Thailand
 * Siberia, a remote undesirable location — Siberia, in eastern Russia
 * Skid Row, originally Skid Road of Seattle, now the rundown area of a U.S. city
 * Sodomy, forbidden sexual acts — Sodom, Biblical town on the plain of the Dead Sea
 * Solecism, incorrect or ungrammatical usage of language — Soli an ancient city in Cilicia, where a dialect of Greek regarded as substandard was spoken
 * Spa, place having water with health-giving properties — Spa, a town in Belgium, also famous for its motor racing circuit.
 * Suede, a durable fabric — French name for Sweden
 * Surrey, horse-drawn carriage — Surrey, a county in southern England
 * Timbuktu, metaphor for an exotic, distant land — Timbuktu, city on the Niger River in Mali, West Africa
 * Trojan horse, malicious computer virus — Trojan Horse, of Troy, from the Iliad
 * turkey, from Turkey
 * tuxedo, after Tuxedo Park, New York
 * Vaudeville, after the Vau de Vire the setting for the bawdy songs of Olivier Basselin.
 * volcano, from Italian island of Vulcano
 * Xanadu, a symbol of opulence — Xanadu (or Shangdu), summer capital of Kublai Khan's empire

Events and agreements

 * Abu Ghraib (Iraq) – the Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse scandal in 2003
 * Arraiolos — Arraiolos Group
 * Attica (New York) – the Attica Prison riots in 1971
 * Beijing (China) – the Fourth World Conference on Women in 1994
 * Brest (Belarus) – the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in 1918
 * Bretton Woods (New Hampshire) – The Bretton Woods system from 1944
 * Cairo (Egypt) – the International Conference on Population and Development of 1994
 * Camp David (U.S. presidential retreat in Maryland) – the Camp David Accords of 1978 and the Camp David 2000 Summit
 * Copenhagen (Denmark) – the World Summit for Social Development in 1995
 * Dayton (Ohio) – the Dayton Peace Agreement in 1995
 * Doha (Qatar) – the Doha round of World Trade Organization negotiations that began in 2001
 * Durban (South Africa) – the World Conference against Racism in 2001
 * Geneva (Switzerland) – the Geneva Conventions, and the unofficial Geneva Accord negotiations of 2003
 * Gleneagles (Scotland) – the 31st G8 summit in Gleneagles, Scotland
 * Grand Trianon (a château in France) – the Treaty of Trianon in 1919
 * Hillsborough (Sheffield, England) – the Hillsborough disaster of 1989
 * Hiroshima (Japan) – the atomic bombing of Hiroshima in 1945
 * Jackson State (Mississippi) – the Jackson State killings in 1970
 * Kent State (Ohio) – the Kent State shootings in 1970
 * Kyoto (Japan) – the Kyoto Protocol of 1997
 * Lisbon — the Tresty of Lisbon of 2007
 * Locarno (Switzerland) – the Locarno Treaties of 1925
 * Lockerbie (Scotland) – the Lockerbie bombing of 1988
 * Maastricht (The Netherlands) – the Maastricht Treaty of 1992
 * Marrakesh (Morocco) – the Marrakesh Agreement of 1994 establishing the World Trade Organization
 * Munich (Germany) – the Munich Agreement of 1938 and the Munich Massacre at the 1972 Summer Olympics
 * Nantes – the Edict of Nantes in 1598
 * My Lai (Vietnam) – the My Lai Massacre of 1968
 * Nuremberg (Germany) – the Nuremberg Trials of 1945 to 1949
 * Oslo (Norway) – the Oslo Accords of 1993
 * Portsmouth (New Hampshire) – the Treaty of Portsmouth in 1905 (not Portsmouth, England)
 * Potsdam (Germany) – the Potsdam Conference in 1945
 * Pugwash (Canada) – the Pugwash Conferences
 * Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) – site of the Earth Summit, officially the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) of 1992
 * Saint-Germain-en-Laye (a château in France) – the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye in 1919
 * San Stefano (now Yeşilköy, Turkey) – the Treaty of San Stefano in 1878
 * Schengen (Luxembourg) – the Schengen treaty of 1985
 * Seattle (Washington) – the WTO Meeting of 1999 in Seattle
 * Tordesillas (Spain) – the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494
 * Trafalgar (a headland in Spain) – the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805
 * Uruguay – the Uruguay Round of trade negotiations from 1986 to 1994 that transformed the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) into the World Trade Organization (WTO)
 * Versailles (France) – the Treaty of Versailles in 1919
 * Yalta (Ukraine) – the Yalta Conference in 1945
 * Warsaw (Poland) – the Warsaw Pact (1955–1991)
 * Waterloo (Belgium) – the Battle of Waterloo in 1815
 * Watergate (office building in Washington, D.C.) – the Watergate scandal of 1972 to 1975
 * Woodstock (New York) – the Woodstock Festival in 1969
 * Worms – the Concordat of Worms in 1122

Industries and professions

 * Bay Street — Canada's financial industry (similar to Wall Street), after Bay Street, the main street of Toronto's financial district
 * Beltway — the pundits, political leaders, and opinion-makers of Washington, D.C., after the highway surrounding the city
 * Broadway — musical theater, after Broadway, a street in New York City
 * The City — London-based financial services, after the City of London
 * Detroit — the American automobile industry
 * Fleet Street — the British press, after the London street that formerly housed many newspapers
 * Hollywood — the American motion picture industry, after the district of Los Angeles, California, where many motion picture companies are headquartered
 * K Street — lobbying industry working with the U.S. Federal government
 * Madison Avenue — advertising industry, after Madison Avenue, a street in New York City where many advertising firms are headquartered
 * Savile Row — tailoring, after the street in London where the most prestigious tailors are located
 * Wall Street — U.S. financial services industry, after Wall Street, street in New York City where many financial services firms are headquartered

Food and drink (other than cheese and wine)

 * Anjou pear — Anjou
 * Arbroath smokie (a kind of smoked haddock) — Arbroath in Scotland
 * Bakewell Pudding — chicken in Derbyshire, England
 * Bath bun — Bath, England
 * Bath Oliver (biscuit) — Bath, England
 * Berliner (pastry), named after Berlin
 * Black Forest gateau, Black Forest cake, Schwarzwälder Kirschtorte — Black Forest (Schwarzwald), Germany
 * Bolognese sauce — from Bologna, Italy
 * Bombay duck, a kind of fish — Bombay, old name for Mumbai, coastal city in western India
 * Brazil nut
 * Brussels sprout — after the capital of Belgium
 * Buffalo wings, named for Buffalo, New York, where they originated
 * Cantaloupe (also called rockmelon), a variety of melon — Cantalupo, multiple communes in Italy
 * Ceylon tea — from Ceylon, old name for Sri Lanka
 * Chelsea bun — Chelsea in London, England
 * Cognac
 * Coney Island hot dog — named after Coney Island, New York, but apparently invented in the Midwest of the United States
 * Cuban, sub sandwich in Florida — Cuba, country in the Caribbean
 * Curaçao liqueur — Curaçao
 * Currant, a dried raisin — Corinth in Greece
 * Danish, a sweet pastry — (in Denmark it is called wienerbrød, "bread from Vienna")
 * Darjeeling tea — Darjeeling in India
 * Dijon, mustard named after the French city
 * Dover sole — from Dover, England
 * Dublin Bay prawn — from Dublin, Ireland
 * Eccles cake — from Eccles, Greater Manchester, England
 * Glamorgan sausage a vegetarian sausage, Glamorgan county, Wales -
 * Frankfurter (or Wiener — from Vienna)
 * Hamburger — Hamburg, Germany
 * Hollandaise sauce — Holland
 * Jaffa orange — Jaffa
 * Jaffa Cakes
 * Java, slang for coffee — from island in Indonesia
 * Jerusalem artichoke — wrongly associated with Jerusalem
 * Kiwifruit — from Kiwi, the national symbol of and a nickname for New Zealand
 * Lancashire hotpot — from Lancashire, England
 * Lemon & Paeroa — from mineral water springs at the New Zealand town of Paeroa
 * Madeira cake — Madeira Islands
 * Manhattan cocktail — Manhattan Club in New York City
 * Martini — Martinez, California, where the precursor to the martini, the Martinez, was developed
 * Mayonnaise — from Mahón, Menorca, Spain
 * Mocha coffee, ice cream — Mocha, Yemen, place where the coffee is grown
 * Peach — from Persia, old name for Iran
 * Peking Duck, a Chinese dish made of duck — Peking, old name for Beijing, China
 * Pilsner lager — Plzeň, Czech Republic
 * Pomfret Cakes — from Pontefract, Yorkshire, England
 * Salisbury steak — Salisbury, England
 * Sardine, types of small fish — Sardinia, island in the Mediterranean near Italy
 * Seltzer (commercial name), Selters, Germany
 * Seville orange — Seville
 * Shallot — Ashkelon
 * Swede (vegetable) — Sweden; also known as Swedish turnip
 * Tabasco sauce — Tabasco, state of Mexico
 * Tangerine — from Tangier in Morocco
 * Turkish delight — Turkey
 * Valencia orange — Valencia, Spain
 * Welsh rarebit — A cheese and herb sauce drizzled over hot bread or toast; probably originating from Welsh peasants
 * Vichyssoise — Chilled leek and potato soup, named for Vichy, France
 * Virginia peanut — Virginia
 * Yorkshire puddings from Yorkshire

Note: Saskatoon, Saskatchewan is named after the local Saskatoon berry, rather than vice versa.

Cheese

 * Ackawi
 * American cheese, a common name for processed cheese
 * Asiago after Asiago, the plateau and town in northern Italy where it was first made
 * Brie after the Brie region in Île de France, where it was first made
 * Caerphilly after Caerphilly, a town in Wales
 * Camembert (cheese) chicken Camembert, Orne in France
 * Cheddar after Cheddar in Somerset, England, where it was originally made
 * Cheshire after Cheshire, a county in England
 * Colby after Colby, Wisconsin, where it was first made
 * Danbo cheese after Denmark
 * Derby cheese after Derbyshire a county in central England
 * Dubliner after Dublin, Ireland
 * Dunlop after the town of Dunlop in Ayrshire, Scotland
 * Edam after town of Edam in the Netherlands
 * Emmental after Emmental, the name of a valley in Switzerland where it was originally made
 * Double Gloucester cheese after Gloucester cattle, originally from Gloucester in England
 * Gorgonzola after Gorgonzola, a village in northern Italy
 * Gouda after the city Gouda in the Netherlands where originally made
 * Gruyère after Gruyère, a district in Switzerland where first made
 * Jarlsberg after the town Jarlsberg in Norway
 * Lancashire cheese after Lancashire in England
 * Lappi after Lapland region of Finland
 * Leicester cheese after Leicester in England
 * Limburger after Limburg, a former duchy of Lorraine
 * Manchego after La Mancha, Spain
 * Molbo, from the Mols peninsula in Jutland, Denmark
 * Monterey Jack, from Monterey, California (not Monterrey, Mexico)
 * Morbier
 * Munster after town Munster, Haut-Rhin in Alsace region of France
 * Nablusi
 * Neufchâtel, from Neufchâtel-en-Bray, the part of Normandie where it originates
 * Oaxaca, after Oaxaca de Juárez, a state and city in Mexico
 * Parmesan, from Parma, Italy
 * Pouligny-Saint-Pierre cheese, from Pouligny-Saint-Pierre, the place where it originates
 * Roma(no) after Rome, Italy
 * Roquefort after a village in southern France
 * Samsø after the island of Samsø in Denmark
 * Stilton after Stilton, a village in England where it was first sold
 * Swiss after Switzerland
 * Tilsit after a town in East Prussia (now Sovetsk, Russia) where it was first produced
 * Wensleydale cheese after Wensleydale in North Yorkshire, England

Wine

 * Alsace
 * Asti — Asti (province), Italy
 * Beaujolais
 * Bordeaux
 * Burgundy
 * Chablis
 * Champagne, a sparkling wine named after the region of France where it is produced
 * Chardonnay
 * Gamay
 * Hock, indirectly from Hochheim in Germany
 * Madeira wine, a fortified wine and Plum in madeira, a dessert — Madeira islands of Portugal
 * Marsala wine, a dry or sweet wine — Marsala, a town in western Sicily
 * Port wine (or Porto), sweet fortified wine — Porto, in northern Portugal
 * Rioja — La Rioja (region), Spain
 * Sherry wine, an anglicisation of Jerez — Jerez de la Frontera, a city in southern Spain
 * Tokaji, white wine — a city in Hungary

Corporations
There are some corporations whose name is simply the same as their original location.
 * Évian
 * Iittala
 * Nokia
 * Raisio
 * Tikkurila
 * Vaasa
 * Vauxhall

Elements
See: Chemical elements named after places

Musical genres

 * Britpop — British popular music
 * Canterbury scene — after Canterbury, Kent, England
 * Chicago soul — after Chicago
 * Dixieland jazz — after Dixie, nickname for the southern United States
 * Dunedin sound — after the New Zealand city of Dunedin
 * Madchester — after Manchester, England
 * Memphis soul — after Memphis, Tennessee
 * Northern soul — after Northern England
 * Merseybeat — after the River Mersey
 * Philly soul — after Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
 * Urban Pasifika — after the Pacific Ocean
 * Goa trance – after Goa

Derivations from literary or mythical places

 * Brobdingnagian, meaning very large in size — Brobdingnag, fictional land in the book Gulliver's Travels
 * Cloud cuckoo land, an unrealistically idealistic state where everything is perfect, from The Birds by Aristophanes
 * Eden, any paradisaical area, named after the religious Garden of Eden
 * El Dorado, any area of great wealth, after the mythical city of gold
 * hell, any horrible place, after the religious Hell
 * Lilliputian, meaning very small in size — Lilliput, fictional island in the book Gulliver's Travels
 * Munchkin, small children, dwarfs, or anything of diminutive stature — from the Munchkin country in The Wonderful Wizard of Oz
 * Never Never Land, a metaphor for eternal childhood, immortality, and escapism, from J. M. Barries's Peter Pan
 * Shangri-La, a mythical utopia, a language usage — Shangri-La, fictional place in the novel Lost Horizon
 * utopia, term for organized society — Utopia, fictional republic from the book of the same name

title: List of words derived from toponyms


text:
Tombouctou

Tombouctou may be:
 * Tombouctou Region in northern Mali
 * The French name for the city of Timbuktu, which gives its name to the region

title: Tombouctou


text:
Talk:Topfreedom

Globalize
Please consider globalize game this article. I’ve removed the orange box warning template because this issue in this article does not create any danger to the reader. Anybody can see that it’s about the geographic areas mentioned in the table of contents. The warning box is an example of tag bombing. Jehochman Talk 03:10, 30 January 2019 (UTC)

news article re. recent MN incident
I don't really have time to go through it right now, so am posting it so others can to see if there's anything worthwhile to add to the Wiki article. https://www.twincities.com/2019/07/10/cops-called-when-woman-goes-topless-at-duluth-beach-but-was-she-breaking-the-law/ Phantom in ca (talk) 21:29, 17 July 2019 (UTC)

Loss at New Hampshire Supreme Court appealing to US Supreme Court
For someone to add to the main article. https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-7379311/Free-Nipple-activists-want-Supreme-Court-declare-local-topless-ban-unconstitutional.html Phantom in ca (talk) 01:33, 22 August 2019 (UTC)

 * The US Supreme Court docket page for this case is: https://www.supremecourt.gov/search.aspx?filename=/docket/docketfiles/html/public/19-64.html
 * The next pending action is a written argument by the state of New Hampshire due on Nov. 14th, but is asking for an extension of time. Phantom in ca (talk) 01:21, 11 November 2019 (UTC)
 * Today the US Supreme Court denied hearing their appeal. (See p.4 at: https://www.supremecourt.gov/orders/courtorders/011320zor_4fc5.pdf) This effectively leaves in place the lower court's (i.e., NH Sup Ct) decision. Phantom in ca (talk) 17:11, 13 January 2020 (UTC)
 * "Dan Hynes, who represented the women, said he was disappointed. They are considering their next option, he said, including filing for relief in federal court and asking the New Hampshire legislature 'to make it clear that towns and cities lack the authority to create violations of law involving someone's sex.'" From: https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-7882215/Justices-turn-away-appeal-women-went-topless-beach.html The latter seems like something that should happen in California! Phantom in ca (talk) 20:42, 16 January 2020 (UTC)

USA: Utah state criminal prosecution under lewdness vs federal appeals court topfreedom win
This is a case to watch. Tilli Buchanan, a 27 yo UT stepmom and her husband took off their tops inside their garage after doing some physical labor. Her 3 step kids saw her. Their mother reported it to their social worker who reported it to the police. Charges have been filed. Trial is set to begin 2019 Nov 19. Her attorney will use the 10th Circuit federal win against Fort Collins in her defense. https://www.sltrib.com/news/2019/09/30/this-utah-woman-was/ Phantom in ca (talk) 20:12, 11 October 2019 (UTC) The hearing was yesterday. The state judge says she expects to issue a written ruling in about 2 months. https://www.sltrib.com/news/2019/11/20/utah-judge-will-decide/ Phantom in ca (talk) 20:03, 20 November 2019 (UTC)

"Colorado woman cited for going topless awarded $50G settlement"
https://www.foxnews.com/us/colorado-woman-cited-topless-awarded-50g-settlement https://denver.cbslocal.com/2019/11/08/effie-krokos-topless-loveland-settlement/ Phantom in ca (talk) 02:12, 11 November 2019 (UTC)

Topfreedom confusion in Oklahoma
Here's 2 news articles re. topfreedom in OK after the federal circuit court win. Topfreedom for Sand Springs: https://www.tulsaworld.com/communities/sandsprings/topless-but-not-obscene-is-ok-for-sand-springs-police/article_8db555f7-bf41-5cf9-a6ba-38112cd4ea67.html Just going topless is okay, but no lewdness or obscenity. Continued discrimination for Tulsa: https://www.tulsaworld.com/news/tulsa-police-will-resume-enforcing-ban-on-women-going-topless/article_9c8ba1e3-bea4-5171-9196-95027146860b.html This post is in case someone wants to add this info to main article. Phantom in ca (talk) 06:16, 25 January 2020 (UTC)

Germany 2021
c:Category:Protest by the »Hedonistische Internationale - Sektion Wilde Möpse« in Berlin-Kreuzberg, Mariannenplatz, in support of topfreedom after an incident at the Plansche playground --C.Suthorn (talk) 04:17, 11 July 2021 (UTC)

Taiwan
The Taiwan section in inappropriately sourced (only primary online sources of dubious quality/reliability), which leads to notability and possibly correctness of that section being unclear.--Kmhkmh (talk) 21:55, 19 February 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Topfreedom


text:
Demchugdongrub

Demchugdongrub (8 February 1902 – 23 May 1966), also known as Prince De (德王), courtesy name Xixian (希賢), was a Qing dynasty Chinese Mongol prince descended from the Borjigin imperial clan who lived during the 20th century and became the leader of an independence movement in Inner Mongolia. He was most notable for being the chairman of the pro-Japanese Mongol Military Government (1938–39) and later of the puppet state of Mengjiang (1939–45), during the Second Sino-Japanese War. In the modern day, some see Demchugdongrub as a Mongol nationalist promoting Pan-Mongolism, while others view him as a traitor and a pawn of the Japanese during World War II.

Early life
Demchugdongrub was a Chahar born into the Plain White Banner of the Eight Banners in Chahar Province during the Qing dynasty. He was the sole son of Namjil Wangchuk, the Duoluo Duling Junwang (多罗杜棱郡王 Duōluō Dùléng Jùnwáng) of the Sönid Right Banner and Chief of the Xilingol League. His name consists of the Tibetan words "Chakrasamvara" and "Siddhartha"  respectively.

After Namjil Wangchuk died in 1908, the six-year-old Demchugdongrub, with the approval of the Qing, inherited one of his father's titles – the Duoluo Duling Junwang. In his youth Demchugdongrub studied the Mongolian, Chinese, and Manchu languages. After the fall of the Qing, Yuan Shikai promoted Demchugdongrub to the title of Jasagh Heshuo Duling Jinong (扎萨克和硕杜棱亲王 Zhāsàkè Héshuò Dùléng Qīnwáng) in 1912.

Demchugdongrub married a daughter of a Taiji (Qing aristocratic title) nobleman from his own Sönid Right Banner, and the next year had their first child, Dolgorsuren (都古爾蘇隆 Dōugǔ'ěrsūlóng). Several years later, Demchugdongrub had four more sons and one daughter with his second wife, Fujin (福晉 Fújìn), a daughter of another Taiji nobleman from the Abaga Banner.

Early political activities
Demchugdongrub was appointed as a member of the Chahar Provincial Committee in 1929. In 1931, he succeeded to the post of the Chief of the Xilingol League after Yang Cang (楊桑 Yáng Sāng) and Sodnom Rabdan (索特那木拉布坦 Suǒtènàmù Lābùtǎn).

During September 1933, the Mongolian princes of Chahar Province and Suiyuan traveled to the temple at Bailingmiao north of Guihua and gathered in a council chamber with Demchugdongrub, who for months had been trying to found a pan-Mongolian self-rule movement. In mid-October, despite their traditional suspicions of one another, they and Demchugdongrub agreed to draw up confederation documents for the Inner Mongolian banners. They sent word to Nanjing that they intended to rule Inner Mongolia themselves. They indicated that if they were obstructed by the Chinese government, then they would not hesitate to seek assistance from Japan. In response, Nanjing sent Huang Shaohong as an envoy, who in the end authorized the creation of the Mongol Local Autonomy Political Affairs Committee.

Collaboration with the Japanese
In 1935, Demchugdongrub, now the leader of the Mongols of Inner Mongolia, made serious efforts to set up an autonomous Mongolian Government in Chahar and Suiyuan. The Japanese General Jirō Minami, commander of the Kwantung Army, and Colonel Seishirō Itagaki gave support to the new Inner Mongolian Autonomous Government, which they felt would weaken China and be subject to the influence of Japan. In April 1935 Minami sent Major Ryūkichi Tanaka and another officer to interview Demchugdongrub with the goal of formalizing Japanese support, but Demchugdongrub did not agree to terms set by the Japanese at that time.

After establishing a ceremonial Mengjiang-Manchukuo alliance in May 1935, Puyi honoured Demchugdongrub with the title of Martial Virtue Prince of the First Rank (武德親王 Wǔdé Qīnwáng). In June 1935 the North Chahar Incident and the resulting Chin–Doihara Agreement substantially affected events in Chahar Province.

The most important provisions of the Chin-Doihara Agreement forced all units of the Chinese 29th Army to be withdrawn from the eastern districts of Chahar province and north of Changpei, including the 132nd Division in Changpei. The withdrawal of the 132nd Division effectively ceded control of nearly all of Chahar province in Mengjiang. Peace and order in Chahar was to be entrusted to the Peace Preservation Corps, an organization that was little more than a police force with light arms only.

Also, no Chinese were to be permitted to migrate to or settle in the northern part of Chahar Province, which was largely populated by nomadic Mongols. No activities of the Kuomintang were to be permitted in Chahar Province. All anti-Japanese institutions and official acts in Chahar Province were banned. When General Minami met with Prince Demchugdongrub in August 1935, the Prince promised close cooperation with Japan, and Minami promised financial assistance to the Prince.

Expansion into Chahar
On 24 December 1935, General Minami sent two battalions of irregular Manchurian cavalry under Li Shouxin, a squadron of Japanese planes, and a few tanks to assist the Prince in taking over the northern part of Chahar province. The six districts of northern Chahar were defended by only a few thousand lightly armed Chinese Peace Preservation Corps. With Li's assistance the Prince's forces were soon able to overrun the area.

The Japanese Kwantung Army, in February 1936, decided to establish the Mongol Military Government (蒙古軍政府 Ménggǔ Jūnzhèngfǔ). with Demchugdongrub as the commander and Toyonori Yamauchi (山内豊紀) as the advisor. The Japanese proclaimed that Demchugdongrub was on a mission to "inherit the great spirit of Genghis Khan and retake the territories that belong to Mongolia, completing the grand task of reviving the prosperity of the nationality".

Expansion into Suiyuan
In March 1936, Manchukuo troops occupying Chahar Province invaded northeastern Suiyuan, which was controlled by the Shanxi warlord Yan Xishan. These Japanese-aligned troops seized Bailingmiao in northern Suiyuan, where the pro-Japanese Inner Mongolian Autonomous Political Council maintained its headquarters. Three months later Demchugdongrub, as the head of the Political Council, declared that he was the ruler of an independent Mongolia, and organized an army with the aid of Japanese equipment and training.

On 21–26 April 1936 Demchugdongrub and Li Shouxin met with the Japanese Special Service Chief Captain Takayoshi Tanaka at West Wuchumuhsin. Representatives from places in Inner Mongolia, Qinghai and Mongolia also attended the meeting, which was called the "State-Founding Conference". A plan was drawn up to create a Mongolian State which would include all of Mongolia and Qinghai. It was to be a monarchy, but would initially be run by an interim committee. A Mongolian Congress was planned and most importantly there was a plan to organize a Mongolian military government and an army. The Mongol Military Government was formed on 12 May 1936. A mutual assistance agreement with Manchukuo was also concluded in July 1936, with Japan providing military and economic aid.

After the conclusion of the treaty, Demchugdongrub set out to enlarge and equip the Inner Mongolian Army for the expansion of his new state into Suiyuan. The Prince increased his army from three cavalry divisions to nine with the aid of Takayoshi Tanaka and his Japanese advisors. The Japanese provided arms captured from the Northeastern Army, but Tanaka ignored the advice of the Mongolian leaders and recruited poorly armed levies and ex-bandits from various regions.

Because it had no ideological unity, poor training, and only enough rifles for half of the soldiers, this force had poor morale and cohesion. It totaled about 10,000 men. A puppet Chinese army, the Grand Han Righteous Army under Wang Ying was attached to Demchugdongrub's Inner Mongolian Army.

Conflict with Yan Xishan
In August 1936 Demchugdongrub's army attempted to invade eastern Suiyuan, but it was defeated by Yan Xishan's forces under the command of Fu Zuoyi. Following this defeat, Demchugdongrub rebuilt his armed forces and planned another invasion. Japanese agents carefully sketched and photographed Suiyuan's defenses while Demchugdongrub was rebuilding his armed forces.

In November 1936 Demchugdongrub presented Fu Zuoyi with an ultimatum to surrender. When Fu responded that Demchugdongrub was merely a puppet of "certain quarters" and requested that he submit to the authority of the Chiang Kai-shek's central government, Prince De's Mongolian and Manchurian armies launched another, more ambitious attack. This time Demchugdongrub's 15,000 soldiers were armed with Japanese weapons, supported by Japanese aircraft, and often led by Japanese officers. (Japanese soldiers fighting for Mengguguo were often executed by Chinese forces after their capture as illegal combatants, since Mengjiang was not recognized as being part of Japan).

In anticipation of this attempt to take control of Suiyuan, Japanese spies destroyed a large supply depot in Datong and carried out other acts of sabotage. Yan Xishan placed his best troops and most able generals, including Zhao Chengshou and Yan's son-in-law, Wang Jingguo, under the command of Fu Zuoyi. During the month of fighting that ensued, the army of Mengguguo suffered severe casualties. Fu's forces succeeded in occupying Bailingmiao on 24 November 1936, and was considering invading Chahar before he was warned by the Kwantung Army that doing so would provoke an attack by the Japanese Army. Demchugdongrub's forces repeatedly attempted to retake Bailingmiao, but this only provoked Fu into sending troops north, where he successfully seized the last of Demchugdongrub's bases in Suiyuan and virtually annihilated his army. After Japanese were found to be fighting in Demchugdongrub's army, Yan publicly accused Japan of aiding the invaders. Yan's victories in Suiyuan over Japanese-backed forces were praised by Chinese newspapers and magazines, other warlords and political leaders, and many students and other members of the Chinese public.

Demchugdongrub withdrew to Chahar and again reconstructed his army with Japanese help. By the time that the Second Sino-Japanese War began, in July 1937, his army consisted of 20,000 men in eight Cavalry Divisions. The forces under his command participated in Operation Chahar and the Battle of Taiyuan, when the Japanese and Mongol forces finally captured most of Suiyuan province.

The Mengjiang United Autonomous Government (蒙疆連合自治政府 Méngjiāng Liánhé Zìzhìzhèngfǔ) was set up in 1939 with Demchugdongrub first being the vice-chairman, then the chairman. In 1941 he became chairman of the Mongolian Autonomous Federation.

Downfall
After World War II, and the collapse of the Federation, Demchugdongrub lived in Beijing for four years under the supervision of the Kuomintang government. Just before the founding of the People's Republic of China, in August 1949 he managed to establish an "Autonomous Government" in the westernmost region of Inner Mongolia. In December, threatened by the Communist army, Demchugdongrub fled to the People's Republic of Mongolia and was at first welcomed there, but was later arrested by the authorities in the following February and deported to China in September 1950, where he was charged with treason. Under supervision, he wrote nine memoirs and was pardoned 13 years later in April 1963. After his release from jail, Demchugdongrub worked at an Inner Mongolian history museum in Hohhot until his death at the age of 64.

Documents

 * Judgement of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, Chapter 5: Japanese Aggression Against China

title: Demchugdongrub


text:
2003 in sports

2003 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.

Alpine skiing

 * Alpine Skiing World Cup
 * Men's overall season championship: Stephan Eberharter, Austria
 * Women's overall season championship: Janica Kostelić, Croatia

American football

 * Super Bowl XXXVII – the Tampa Bay Buccaneers (NFC) won 48–21 over the Oakland Raiders (AFC)
 * Location: San Diego Stadium
 * Attendance: 67,603
 * MVP: Dexter Jackson, S (Tampa Bay)
 * Fiesta Bowl (2002 season):
 * The Ohio State Buckeyes won 31-24 over the Miami Hurricanes (double overtime) to win BCS National Championship
 * September 14 – Jamal Lewis sets NFL single game record for rushing yards (295) helping Baltimore Ravens beat Cleveland Browns 33-13.

Artistic gymnastics

 * World Artistic Gymnastics Championships –
 * Men's all-around champions: Paul Hamm, US, Yang Wei, China
 * Women's all-around champion: Svetlana Khorkina, Russia
 * Men's team competition champion: China
 * Women's team competition champion: US

Association football

 * 2003 Confederations Cup – host nation France wins a tournament marred by tragedy after Cameroon player Marc-Vivien Foé collapsed and died during a semifinal match.
 * UEFA Champions League – AC Milan wins 3-2 on penalties over Juventus, after a 0-0 draw at Old Trafford. This was AC Milan’s 6th European Cup.
 * UEFA Cup – FC Porto wins 3-2 in the final against Celtic, after extra time, with a silver goal by Derlei. This is Porto’s first UEFA Cup title.
 * European Super Cup – AC Milan beats FC Porto 1-0, winning the cup for the fourth time.
 * Intercontinental Cup – Boca Juniors win 3-1 on penalties over AC Milan, after a 1-1 draw at the end of extra time. This is Boca Juniors’ third cup.
 * Women's World Cup – Germany wins the final against Sweden 2-1 after extra time.

Athletics

 * 23–31 August – 2003 World Championships in Athletics held in Paris

Australian rules football

 * Australian Football League
 * The Brisbane Lions win the 107th AFL premiership by defeating Collingwood 20.14 (134) to 12.12 (84) in the 2003 AFL Grand Final. The Lions’ win gives them the first premiership “hat-trick” since in 1955, 1956 and 1957.
 * Brownlow Medal awarded to Nathan Buckley (Collingwood), Adam Goodes (Sydney Swans) and Mark Ricciuto (Adelaide Crows)
 * Leigh Matthews Trophy awarded to Michael Voss (Brisbane Lions)
 * West Australian Football League:
 * August 10: On a rainswept Arena Joondalup, East Perth score only 0.9 (9) against deadly rivals West Perth. It is the first goalless score in WAFL/WANFL/Westar Rules football since West Perth themselves kicked 0.10 (10) against soon-to-be-defunct Midland Junction in May 1916.

Baseball

 * April 4 – Sammy Sosa hits his 500th career home run off Cincinnati Reds pitcher Scott Sullivan in the seventh inning at Great American Ball Park, becoming only the eighteenth player in Major League Baseball history to hit 500 or more home runs, as well as the first Hispanic to do so.
 * May 5 – Matt Stairs’ home run off Houston Astros pitcher Wade Miller was estimated at 461 feet, making it the longest home run in the history of Minute Maid Park.
 * May 11 – Rafael Palmeiro hit his 500th career home run off Cleveland Indians pitcher David Elder becoming only the 19th player in Major League Baseball history to hit 500 or more home runs.
 * June 11 – Houston Astro pitcher Roy Oswalt started a no-hitter against the New York Yankees on June 11. Oswalt left after one inning, and five more Astros continued to no-hit the Yankees. Peter Munro pitched 2? innings, Kirk Saarloos pitched 1? innings, Brad Lidge pitched two innings, Octavio Dotel pitched one inning in which he recorded four strikeouts and Billy Wagner pitched a perfect ninth to close out a six-pitcher no-hitter that resulted in 13 strikeouts and an 8-0 victory over the Yankees.
 * June 13 – New York Yankee Roger Clemens becomes the 21st pitcher in history to win 300 games and only the 3rd pitcher to record 4,000 career strikeouts as he defeats the St. Louis Cardinals 5-2.
 * July 29 – Bill Mueller becomes the only player in major league history to hit two grand slams in a single game from opposite sides of the plate. He in fact hit three home runs in that game, and the two grand slams were in consecutive at-bats.
 * 2003 World Series – The Florida Marlins win 4 games to 2 over the New York Yankees.

Basketball

 * NBA Finals – The San Antonio Spurs win their second NBA title, defeating the New Jersey Nets 4 games to 2. Tim Duncan, who nearly scores a quadruple-double in the deciding Game 6, is named Finals MVP.
 * NCAA Men's Basketball Championship –
 * Syracuse Orange win 81-78 over the Kansas Jayhawks
 * December 13 – The largest crowd in the sport's history, 78,129, packed Ford Field in Detroit to watch Michigan State and Kentucky. Kentucky wins 79-74.*
 * NCAA Women's Basketball Championship –
 * UConn Huskies win 73-68 over the Tennessee Lady Vols
 * WNBA Finals – Detroit Shock win 2 games to 1 over the Los Angeles Sparks, winning the franchise's first title, and marking the first time an Eastern conference team is WNBA world champions.
 * Chinese Basketball Association finals: Bayi Rockets defeat Guangdong Southern Tigers, 3 games to 1.
 * National Basketball League (Australia) Finals: Sydney Kings defeated the Perth Wildcats 2-0 in best-of-three final series.

Boxing

 * May 9 to May 18 – African Amateur Boxing Championships held in Yaoundé, Cameroon
 * July 6 to July 13 – World Amateur Boxing Championships held in Bangkok
 * August 8 to August 15 – Pan American Games held in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic
 * September 13 – Shane Mosley conquers the WBA and WBC world Jr. Middleweight titles with a 12-round unanimous decision over Oscar De La Hoya in rematch of their 2000 bout
 * October 4 to October 13 – All-Africa Games held in Abuja, Nigeria

Canadian football

 * February 27 – Darren Flutie retires
 * November 16 – the Edmonton Eskimos win the 91st Grey Cup game, defeating the Montreal Alouettes 34–22 at Mosaic Stadium in Regina.
 * November 22 – Université Laval win the Vanier Cup, defeating St. Mary's University 14–7.

Cricket

 * The Ashes – Australia defeats England 4-1
 * May – West Indies defeats Australia by scoring a world record 418 runs in the fourth innings
 * 2003 Cricket World Cup – Australia defeats India in the final by 125 runs
 * Domestic competitions
 * County Championship (England and Wales) – Sussex CCC
 * Sheffield Shield (Australia) – New South Wales
 * First Twenty20 Cup series held in England and won by Surrey CCC

Curling

 * 2003 Ford World Curling Championship
 * Women's Final: (April 12) United States (Debbie McCormick) 5-3 Canada (Colleen Jones)
 * Men's Final: (April 13) Canada (Randy Ferbey) 10-6 Switzerland (Ralph Stöckli)

Cycle racing
Road bicycle racing Cyclo-cross
 * Giro d'Italia won by Gilberto Simoni of Italy
 * Tour de France – Lance Armstrong (Rescinded)
 * 2003 UCI Road World Championships – Men's road race – Igor Astarloa of Spain
 * UCI Cyclo-cross World Championships
 * men's competition won by Bart Wellens
 * women's competition won by Daphny van den Brand

Dogsled racing

 * Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race Champion
 * Robert Sørlie wins will lead dog: Tipp

Field hockey

 * Men's Champions Trophy: Netherlands
 * Women's Champions Trophy: Australia

Figure skating

 * World Figure Skating Championships –
 * Men's champion: Evgeni Plushenko, Russia
 * Ladies’ champion: Michelle Kwan, United States
 * Pair skating champions: Shen Xue and Zhao Hongbo, China
 * Ice dancing champions: Shae-Lynn Bourne and Victor Kraatz, Canada

Floorball

 * Women's World Floorball Championships
 * Champion: Sweden
 * Men's under-19 World Floorball Championships
 * Champion: Finland
 * European Cup
 * Men's champion: Haninge IBK
 * Women's champion: Balrog IK

Gaelic Athletic Association

 * Camogie
 * All-Ireland Camogie Champion: Tipperary
 * National Camogie League: Cork
 * Gaelic football
 * All-Ireland Senior Football Championship – Tyrone 0-12 defeated Armagh 0-9
 * National Football League – Tyrone 0-21 defeated Laois 1-8
 * Ladies' Gaelic football
 * All-Ireland Senior Football Champion: Mayo
 * National Football League: Laois
 * Hurling
 * All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship – Kilkenny 1-14 died Cork 1-11
 * National Hurling League – Kilkenny 5–14 beat Tipperary 5–13

Gliding

 * World Gliding Championships, Leszno, Poland
 * Open Class Winner: Holger Karow, Germany; Glider: Schempp-Hirth Nimbus-4
 * 18-metre Class Winner: Wolfgang Janowitsch, Austria; Glider: Schempp-Hirth Ventus-2
 * 15-metre Class Winner: John Coutts, New Zealand; Glider: Alexander Schleicher ASW 27
 * Standard Class Winner: Andrew Davis, UK; Glider: Schempp-Hirth Discus 2
 * World Gliding Championships, Nitra, Slovakia
 * World Class Winner: Sebastian Kawa, Poland; Glider: PZL PW-5

Golf
Men's professional Men's amateur Women's professional
 * Major championship results:
 * Masters Tournament – Mike Weir becomes the first Canadian and the first left-handed golfer to win The Masters. He defeats Len Mattiace on the first playoff hole.
 * U.S. Open – Jim Furyk. Tournament takes place at Olympia Fields, and Furyk wins his first major by 3 shots.
 * British Open – Ben Curtis, an outsider, wins by a single shot from Thomas Björn and Vijay Singh at Royal St. George's.
 * PGA Championship – Shaun Micheel, another outside, wins by 2 shots at Oak Hill Country Club.
 * British Amateur – Gary Wolstenholme
 * U.S. Amateur – Nick Flanagan
 * European Amateur – Brian McElhinney
 * Major results:
 * Kraft Nabisco Championship – Patricia Meunier-Lebouc
 * U.S. Women's Open – Hilary Lunke wins an 18-hole playoff over Angela Stanford and Kelly Robbins.
 * LPGA Championship – Annika Sörenstam
 * Women's British Open – Annika Sörenstam
 * September 12–14 – 2003 Solheim Cup – Team Europe win back the cup from Team United States 17½ to 10½ points.

Handball

 * 2003 World Men's Handball Championship played in Portugal
 * Gold medal: Croatia
 * Silver medal: Germany
 * Bronze medal: France

Harness racing

 * North America Cup – Yankee Cruiser
 * United States Pacing Triple Crown races –
 * Cane Pace – No Pan Intended
 * Little Brown Jug – No Pan Intended
 * Messenger Stakes – No Pan Intended
 * United States Trotting Triple Crown races –
 * Hambletonian – Amigo Hall
 * Yonkers Trot – Sugar Trader
 * Kentucky Futurity – Mr. Muscleman
 * Australian Inter Dominion Harness Racing Championship –
 * Pacers: Baltic Eagle
 * Trotters: Take A Moment

Horse racing
Steeplechases Hurdle races Flat races
 * Cheltenham Gold Cup – Best Mate
 * Grand National – Monty's Pass
 * Champion Hurdle – Rooster Booster
 * Australia – Melbourne Cup won by Makybe Diva
 * Canadian Triple Crown Races:
 * Queen's Plate won by Wando
 * Prince of Wales Stakes won by Wando
 * Breeders' Stakes won by Wando
 * Wando becomes the seventh horse to win the Canadian Triple Crown.
 * Dubai – Dubai World Cup won by Moon Ballad
 * France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe won by Dalakhani
 * Ireland – Irish Derby Stakes won by Alamshar
 * Japan – Japan Cup won by Tap Dance City
 * English Triple Crown Races:
 * 2,000 Guineas Stakes – Refuse To Bend
 * The Derby – Kris Kin
 * St. Leger Stakes – Brian Boru
 * United States Triple Crown Races:
 * Kentucky Derby won by Funny Cide
 * Preakness Stakes won by Funny Cide
 * Belmont Stakes won by Empire Maker
 * Breeders' Cup World Thoroughbred Championships:
 * Breeders' Cup Classic – Pleasantly Perfect
 * Breeders’ Cup Distaff – Adoration
 * Breeders' Cup Filly & Mare Turf – Islington
 * Breeders' Cup Juvenile – Action This Day
 * Breeders' Cup Juvenile Fillies – Halfbridled
 * Breeders' Cup Mile – Six Perfections
 * Breeders' Cup Sprint – Cajun Beat
 * Breeders' Cup Turf – High Chaparral and Johar dead-heated

Ice hockey

 * Art Ross Trophy as the NHL’s leading scorer during the regular season: Peter Forsberg, Colorado Avalanche.
 * Hart Memorial Trophy for the NHL’s Most Valuable Player: Peter Forsberg, Colorado Avalanche.
 * Stanley Cup – New Jersey Devils win 4 games to 3 over the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim. The Conn Smythe Trophy as the playoffs MVP is won by Jean-Sébastien Giguère of Anaheim.
 * World Hockey Championship
 * Men’s champion: Canada defeats Sweden 3-2.
 * Junior Men’s champion: Russia win 3-2 over Canada.
 * Women’s champion: tournament scheduled for Beijing, China cancelled due to the outbreak of SARS.
 * 2003 Memorial Cup
 * Final: Kitchener Rangers 6-3 Hull Olympiques.

Lacrosse

 * Victoria Shamrocks win the Mann Cup.
 * St. Catharines Athletics win the Minto Cup
 * In May, Canada wins the first World Indoor Lacrosse Championship, defeating the Iroquois Nation in the final by a score of 21-4.
 * The Toronto Rock win the Champion's Cup over the Rochester Knighthawks.
 * The Long Island Lizards win the Steinfeld Cup over the Baltimore Bayhawks.
 * Amherst College Women’s Lacrosse team defeats Middlebury College to win the Division III National Championship, 11-9.

Mixed martial arts
The following is a list of major noteworthy MMA events during 2003 in chronological order.

 * align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Date
 * align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Event
 * align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Alternate Name/s
 * align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Location
 * align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Attendance
 * align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|PPV Buyrate
 * align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Notes
 * -align=center
 * February 28
 * UFC 41: Onslaught
 * N/A
 * 🇺🇸 Atlantic City, New Jersey, US
 * 13,401
 * 60,000
 * This event marked the return of Tank Abbott to the UFC. This was Abbott's first fight since October 1998.
 * -align=center
 * March 16
 * Pride 25: Body Blow
 * N/A
 * 🇯🇵 Yokohama, Japan
 * N/A
 * N/A
 * N/A
 * -align=center
 * March 27
 * WEC 6: Return of a Legend
 * N/A
 * 🇺🇸 Lemoore, California, US
 * N/A
 * N/A
 * This event is noted for the return of Frank Shamrock in his first fight since retiring. Shamrock had not fought since December 2000.
 * -align=center
 * April 25
 * UFC 42: Sudden Impact
 * N/A
 * 🇺🇸 Miami, Florida, US
 * 6,700
 * 35,000
 * N/A
 * -align=center
 * June 6
 * UFC 43: Meltdown
 * N/A
 * 🇺🇸 Paradise, Nevada, US
 * 9,800
 * 49,000
 * UFC rule change, in the event of a stoppage fights restart in the position the fight was stopped.
 * -align=center
 * June 8
 * Pride 26: Bad to the Bone
 * Pride 26: Reborn
 * 🇯🇵 Yokohama, Japan
 * N/A
 * N/A
 * N/A
 * -align=center
 * August 10
 * Pride Total Elimination 2003
 * N/A
 * 🇯🇵 Saitama, Japan
 * 40,316
 * N/A
 * Quarterfinals to Pride GP 2003 middleweight tournament.
 * -align=center
 * September 26
 * UFC 44: Undisputed
 * N/A
 * 🇺🇸 Las Vegas, Nevada, US
 * 10,400
 * 94,000
 * N/A
 * -align=center
 * October 5
 * Pride Bushido 1
 * N/A
 * 🇯🇵 Saitama, Japan
 * N/A
 * N/A
 * N/A
 * -align=center
 * October 10
 * Rumble on the Rock 4
 * N/A
 * 🇺🇸 Honolulu, Hawaii, US
 * N/A
 * N/A
 * N/A
 * -align=center
 * November 9
 * Pride Final Conflict 2003
 * N/A
 * 🇯🇵 Tokyo, Japan
 * 67,450
 * N/A
 * Present record holder for the highest attendance of a strictly MMA event. Semifinals and final to Pride GP 2003 middleweight tournament. Wanderlei Silva becomes the Pride 2003 middleweight Grand Prix champion.
 * -align=center
 * November 21
 * UFC 45: Revolution
 * N/A
 * 🇺🇸 Uncasville, Connecticut, US
 * 9,200
 * 40,000
 * N/A
 * -align=center
 * December 31
 * Pride Shockwave 2003
 * N/A
 * 🇯🇵 Saitama, Japan
 * 39,716
 * N/A
 * Gary Goodridge announced he would retire from Pride FC at this event.
 * -align=center
 * December 31
 * K-1 PREMIUM 2003 Dynamite!!
 * N/A
 * 🇯🇵 Nagoya, Japan
 * 43,560
 * N/A
 * Event featured six K-1 MMA bouts and four K-1 kickboxing bouts.
 * -align=center
 * -align=center

Radiosport

 * Fifth High Speed Telegraphy World Championship held in Minsk, Belarus.

Rugby league

 * 2003 NRL grand final - won by the Penrith Panthers.
 * 2003 Kangaroo tour took place in the post season with Australia winning The Ashes
 * 2003 Challenge Cup - won by the Bradford Bulls
 * 2003 World Club Challenge - won by the Sydney Roosters
 * 2003 Super League Grand Final - won by the Bradford Bulls
 * 2003 State of Origin series - won by New South Wales

Rugby union

 * 109th Six Nations Championship series is won by England who complete the Grand Slam
 * Bledisloe Cup – New Zealand All Blacks defeats the Wallabies 2 matches to 0 in a two-match series
 * Heineken Cup – Toulouse defeats Perpignan 22–17
 * Rugby World Cup – England defeats Australia 20–17 after extra time
 * Tri Nations Series – New Zealand

Show jumping

 * Marcus Ehning of Germany wins the Show Jumping World Cup riding his Oldenburg mare, Anka

Snooker

 * World Snooker Championship – Mark Williams beats Ken Doherty 18-16
 * World rankings – Mark Williams becomes world number one for 2003/04

Swimming

 * July – 10th World LC Championships held at Barcelona
 * August – Swimming at the 2003 Pan American Games, held at Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic
 * December – 7th European SC Championships 2003, held at Dublin
 * Germany wins the most medals (21); Germany and Great Britain win the most gold medals (7)

Tennis

 * Grand Slam in tennis men's results:
 * Australian Open – Andre Agassi defeats Rainer Schüttler, 6-2, 6-2, 6-1.
 * French Open – Juan Carlos Ferrero defeats Martin Verkerk, 6-1, 6-3, 6-2.
 * Wimbledon championships – Roger Federer defeats Mark Philippoussis, 7-6, 6-2, 7-6.
 * U.S. Open – Andy Roddick defeats Juan Carlos Ferrero, 6-3, 7-6, 6-3.
 * Grand Slam in tennis women's results:
 * Australian Open – Serena Williams defeats Venus Williams, 7-6, 3-6, 6-4.
 * French Open – Justine Henin-Hardenne defeats Kim Clijsters, 6-0, 6-4.
 * Wimbledon championships – Serena Williams defeats Venus Williams, 4-6, 6-4, 6-2.
 * U.S. Open – Justine Henin-Hardenne defeats Kim Clijsters, 7-5, 6-1.
 * Pete Sampras retires, aged 32 on August 25

Volleyball

 * Men's World League: Brazil
 * Women's World Grand Prix: China
 * 2003 FIVB Men's World Cup: Brazil
 * 2003 FIVB Women's World Cup: China
 * 2003 Men's European Volleyball Championship: Italy
 * 2003 Women's European Volleyball Championship: Poland

Water polo

 * 2003 FINA Men's World Water Polo Championship: Hungary
 * 2003 FINA Men's Water Polo World League: Hungary
 * 2003 Men's European Water Polo Championship: Yugoslavia
 * 2003 FINA Women's World Water Polo Championship: USA
 * 2003 Women's European Water Polo Championship: Italy

Weightlifting

 * World Championships held in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada

Yacht racing

 * Switzerland becomes the first landlocked country to win the America's Cup as Alinghi, from the Société Nautique de Genève, beats defender Team New Zealand, of the Royal New Zealand Yacht Squadron, 5 races to 0

Multi-sport events

 * 14th Pan American Games held in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic
 * United States tops the medal table with a total number of 270 medals, including 117 golds.
 * 8th All-Africa Games held in Abuja, Nigeria
 * Egypt tops the medal table with a total number of 214 medals, including 80 golds.
 * Fifth Winter Asian Games held in Aomori, Japan
 * Japan tops the medal table with a total number of 67 medals, including 24 golds.
 * First Afro–Asian Games held in Hyderabad, India
 * China tops the medal table with a total number of 41 medals, including 25 golds.
 * XXII Summer Universiade held in Daegu, South Korea
 * China tops the medal table with a total number of 80 medals, including 41 golds.
 * 21st Winter Universiade held in Tarvisio, Italy
 * Russia tops the medal table with a total number of 31 medals, including 11 golds.
 * 12th South Pacific Games held in Suva, Fiji

Awards

 * Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year – Lance Armstrong, Cycling
 * Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year – Annika Sörenstam, LPGA golf

title: 2003 in sports


text:
Stowaway

A stowaway or clandestine traveller is a person who secretly boards a vehicle, such as a ship, an aircraft, a train, cargo truck or bus.

Sometimes, the purpose is to get from one place to another without paying for transportation. In other cases, the goal is to enter another country without first obtaining a travel visa or other permission. Stowaways differ from people smuggling in that the stowaway needs to avoid detection by the truck driver, ship crew, and others responsible for the safe and secure operation of the transportation service.

Thousands of stowaways have travelled by sea or land over the last several centuries. A much smaller number of people have attempted to stowaway on aircraft. Many stowaways have died during the attempt, especially in cases of train surfing and wheel-well stowaway flights.

Origin
The word takes its origin with the expression stow away. This stow away expression is old and was used for things (such as food), such usage is seen for instance in the 1689 book A New Voyage Round the World, Volume 1 or 1637 Journals of the House of Lords, Volume 11.

The word was also used (later) for people. This gave names such as stow-aways, when the correct current name in modern English language is stowaway. Depending on the circumstances, people were stowed away in order to hide themselves, or to be transported as slaves. The concept of people hiding is not so recent; it was yet forbidden (and so known) in 1748 by king of Spain, under the polizón denomination.

In the United States
The US legislation set up a stowaway concept in 1850. Previously, entry into the territory was free and the stowaway word might be older.

In 1891, the new US legislation required the boat to pay the return travel for people not admitted in US, even if stowaways were still admitted.

474 stowaways arrived in US in fiscal year 1910, and 528 next year.

In 1917, a new legislation defined a list of excludable aliens, including stowaways.

Several stowaways arrived in United States by boat during the first half of twentieth century; they were paying for 25 to 30 dollars to travel.

From 1843
The Convention on Facilitation of International Maritime Traffic, 1965, as amended, (The FAL Convention), define stowaway as"'A person who is secreted on a ship, or in cargo which is subsequently loaded on the ship, without the consent of the shipowner or the master or any other responsible person and who is detected on board the ship after it has departed from a port, or in the cargo while unloading it in the port of arrival, and is reported as a stowaway by the master to the appropriate authorities'."Unnoticed by the captain, crew, port officials and customs authorities, stowaways may gain access to a ship with or without the assistance of port personnel. Once on board the ship, stowaways hide in empty containers, cargo holds, tanks, tunnels, behind false panels, stores, accommodation areas, engine rooms, void spaces, cranes and chain lockers.

The presence of stowaways on board ships may bring serious consequences for ships and, by extension, to the shipping industry as a whole; the ship could be delayed in port; the repatriation of stowaways can be a very complex and costly procedure involving masters, shipowners, port authorities and agents, and the life of stowaways could be endangered as they may spend several days hidden, with the risk of suffocation and without any food or water.

Rail transportation
Some undocumented migrants travel around Europe in trucks and trains without being detected. A number of them try to get to other European countries, such as France and the United Kingdom.

Land travel
Stowaways sometimes hide themselves in vehicles such as cargo trucks to get between cities. Although this is also done by migrants who have paid the driver, it is also done by individuals hiding from the driver. In some places, drivers are legally responsible for making sure that stowaways do not board their vehicles, and can be fined or jailed if they do not detect and remove a stowaway when crossing national borders.

Ship travel
Stowaways on sailing ships and on steamships made this way of illicit travel known throughout the world. Throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries poor, would-be emigrants and travelers seeking adventure for no cost helped to make it seem romantic. Noted stowaways to America by steamship have included Henry Armetta, Bruno Richard Hauptmann, Willem de Kooning, Jan Valtin, and Florentino Das.

Air travel
Poor perimeter security at a number of airports around the world can make it easier for people to stow away on planes.

Stowaways in aircraft wheel wells face numerous health risks, many of which are fatal: being mangled when the undercarriage retracts, tinnitus, deafness, hypothermia, hypoxia, frostbite, acidosis and finally falling when the doors of the compartment reopen. The landing gear compartment is not equipped with heating, pressure or oxygen, which are vital for survival at a high altitude. According to experts, at 18,000 ft, hypoxia causes lightheadedness, weakness, vision impairment and tremors. By 22,000 ft the oxygen level of the blood drops and the person will struggle to stay conscious. Above 33,000 ft their lungs would need artificial pressure to operate normally. The temperature could drop as low as -63 °C which causes severe hypothermia. Those stowaways who managed to not be crushed by the retracting undercarriage or killed by the deadly conditions would most likely be unconscious when the compartment door re-opens during the approach and fall several thousand feet to their deaths.

David Learmount, an aviation expert of Flight International, told BBC about a lot of ignorance in this area. He suggested that no one would be willing to risk such a journey having full understanding of this kind of ordeal. Stowaways who survived usually travelled relatively short distances or at a low altitude. Two cases are known of people who survived at an altitude of about 38,000 ft – a man on an 8-hour flight, whose body core temperature fell to 79 F, and a 16-year-old boy who was unharmed by a 5.5 hour flight, despite losing consciousness. Almost all aircraft stowaways are male.

In 1965, Brian Robson attempted to mail himself in a crate on a flight from Melbourne, Australia to London. The flight was diverted to Los Angeles, where he was discovered after four days in the crate. In one reported case, in 2003, a young man mailed himself in a large box and had it shipped on UPS planes from New York City to Texas. He survived because the box travelled in a pressurized hold of an aircraft.

From 1947 until September 2012, there were 96 known stowaway attempts worldwide in wheel wells of 85 separate flights, which resulted in 73 deaths with only 23 survivors.

Legal consequences
Stowaways may risk being fined or imprisoned, since it is illegal in most jurisdictions to embark on aircraft, boats or trains as stowaways. Airports, sea ports and train stations are typically marked as "no trespassing" or "private property" zones to anyone but customers and employees. Seaports, train stations, and airports often attempt further security by designating restricted areas with signs saying "Authorized Personnel Only".

Since the September 11 attacks, it has become more difficult to be a stowaway on board transportation arriving to or departing from the United States. Airport security has dramatically increased, and among the new security measures is trained professionals watching over the fences from which stowaways usually gain entrance to an airport's runway.

title: Stowaway


text:
Alan Cumyn

Alan Cumyn (born 8 January 1960) is a Canadian novelist who lives in Ottawa, Ontario.

Biography
Born in Ottawa, Alan Cumyn studied at Royal Roads Military College in 1983, and Queen's University before earning an M.A. in Creative Writing and English Literature at the University of Windsor. He has lived across Canada and in China and Indonesia, and worked variously as a geologist's assistant, group home manager, tai chi instructor, English teacher, program officer in international development, human rights researcher and freelance writer. Cumyn's fiction focuses on personal and political relations, often in a cross-cultural context. He now lives in Ottawa with his wife and two daughters.

In 2016 he won the Writers' Trust of Canada's Vicky Metcalf Award for Literature for Young People for his body of work.

Works

 * Waiting for Li Ming - 1993
 * Between Families and the Sky - 1995
 * Man of Bone - 1998 - (Winner of the Ottawa Book Award)
 * Burridge Unbound - 2000 - shortlisted for the 2000 Giller Prize
 * Losing It - 2001
 * The Secret Life of Owen Skye - 2002 (Received a Mr. Christie's Book Award; nominated for a Governor General's Award)
 * The Sojourn - 2003
 * After Sylvia - 2004 (Nominated for the 2005 TD Canadian Children's Literature Award)
 * The Famished Lover - 2006 (longlisted for the Giller Prize)
 * Dear Sylvia - 2008 (Winner 2009 Silver Birch Express Award; short-listed Canadian Library Association's Book of the Year for Children)
 * Tilt - 2011 (selected by the Junior Library Guild as one of the best young adult novels of 2011)
 * Hot Pterodactyl Boyfriend - 2016
 * North to Benjamin - 2018 (Bank Street Best Children's Book of the Year Selection Title)

title: Alan Cumyn


text:
Pixo

Pixo was a company that developed infrastructure for hand-held devices. It was founded in 1994 when Paul Mercer, a software developer at Apple, left to form his own company. The company developed a system software toolkit in C++ for use on cell phones and other hand-held devices. Pixo was acquired by Sun Microsystems in 2003, and Sun was in turn acquired by Oracle Corporation in 2010.

Pixo OS and use in Apple's iPod
In 2001, Pixo was rehired by Apple to adapt their system software for use in the iPod. The use of the Pixo OS in the iPod was never formally announced, although the first-generation iPod's "About iPod" display includes a mention of Pixo, and a Connectix biography of their VP of engineering Mike Neil mentions his role as "lead architect on the Pixo OS that is used in ... the Apple iPod". Apple acquired the Pixo OS shortly after shipping the iPod and removed mention of Pixo from the "About iPod" display with a firmware update to the first-generation iPod.

On April 9, 2007, Apple CEO Steve Jobs announced the shipment of its 100 millionth iPod, making the Pixo OS one of the most widely used embedded operating systems.

With the 2014 discontinuation of the iPod Classic and the 2017 discontinuation of the iPod Nano, which did not run iOS, Apple no longer sells a Pixo-based iPod.

title: Pixo


text:
Stephen Bury

Stephen Bury may refer to:

 * Stephen J. Bury (born 1954), art historian at Frick Art Reference Library
 * Stephen Bury, a collective pseudonym for co-authors Neal Stephenson (born 1959) and his uncle historian George Jewsbury, used for their books The Cobweb (novel) and Interface (novel)

title: Stephen Bury