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Miami University

Miami University (informally Miami of Ohio or simply Miami) is a public research university in Oxford, Ohio, United States. The university was founded in 1809, making it the second-oldest university in Ohio and the 10th oldest public university (32nd overall) in the United States. Miami was one of the original eight Public Ivy schools, a group of publicly funded universities considered as providing a quality of education comparable to those of the Ivy League. The school's system comprises the main campus in Oxford, as well as regional campuses in nearby Hamilton, Middletown, and West Chester. Miami also maintains an international boarding campus, the Dolibois European Center in Differdange, Luxembourg. It is classified among "R2: Doctoral Universities – High research activity".

Miami University provides a liberal arts education; it offers more than 120 undergraduate degree programs and over 70 graduate degree programs within its 7 schools and colleges in architecture, business, engineering, humanities and the sciences.

Miami University has a long tradition of Greek life; five social Greek-letter organizations were founded at the university earning Miami the nickname "Mother of Fraternities". Today, Miami University hosts over 50 fraternity and sorority chapters, and approximately one-third of the undergraduate student population are members of the Greek community.

Miami's athletic teams compete in the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I and are collectively known as the Miami RedHawks. They compete in the Mid-American Conference in all varsity sports except ice hockey, which competes in the National Collegiate Hockey Conference.

Old Miami (1809–1873)

The foundations for Miami University were first laid by an Act of Congress signed by President George Washington, stating an academy should be Northwest of the Ohio River in the Miami Valley. The land was within the Symmes Purchase; Judge John Cleves Symmes, the land's owner, purchased it from the government with the stipulation that he set aside land for an academy. Congress granted one township to be in the District of Cincinnati to the Ohio General Assembly for the purposes of building a college, two days after Ohio was granted statehood in 1803; if no suitable location could be provided in the Symmes Purchase, Congress pledged to give federal lands to the legislature after a five-year period. The Ohio Legislature appointed three surveyors in August of the same year to search for a suitable township, and they selected a township off Four Mile Creek. The Legislature passed "An Act to Establish the Miami University" on February 2, 1809, and the state created a board of trustees; this is cited as the founding of Miami University. The township originally granted to the university was known as the "College Township," and was renamed Oxford, Ohio, in 1810.

The university temporarily halted construction due to the War of 1812. Cincinnati tried—and failed—to move Miami to the city in 1822 and to divert its income to a Cincinnati college. Miami created a grammar school in 1818 to teach frontier youth, but it was disbanded after five years. Robert Hamilton Bishop, a Presbyterian minister and professor of history, was appointed to be the first President of Miami University in 1824, stating in his inaugural speech that all teaching at Miami University should be based in the Bible. In 1829 he elaborated on that goal, explaining that he believes Christianity to be the religion of the people of the United States and that the Bible constitutes its "Standard of [...] religion". Though financed by means of a government land grant, Miami University initially was inaugurated and operated by Presbyterians, with explicit legislative encouragement for religious education having been enshrined in the Northwest Ordinance. The first day of classes at Miami was on November 1, 1824. At its opening, there were 20 students and two faculty members in addition to Bishop. The curriculum included Greek, Latin, Algebra, Geography, and Roman history; the university offered only a Bachelor of Arts. An "English Scientific Department" was started in 1825, which studied modern languages, applied mathematics, and political economy as training for more practical professions. It offered a certificate upon completion of coursework, not a diploma. The school provided public prayers twice a day and required all students to partake in a public worship on every Sunday.

Miami students purchased a printing press, and in 1827 published their first periodical, The Literary Focus. It promptly failed, but it laid the foundation for the weekly Literary Register. The Miami Student, founded in 1867, traces its foundation back to the Literary Register and claims to be the oldest college newspaper in the United States. A theological department and a farmer's college were formed in 1829; the farmer's college was not an agricultural school, but a three-year education program for farm boys. William Holmes McGuffey joined the faculty in 1826, and began his work on the McGuffey Readers while in Oxford. By 1834 the faculty had grown to seven professors and enrollment was at 234 students. Eleven students were expelled in 1835, including one for firing a pistol at another student. McGuffey resigned and became the President of the Cincinnati College, where he urged parents not to send their children to Miami.

Alpha Delta Phi opened its chapter at Miami in 1833, making it the first fraternity chapter West of the Allegheny Mountains. In 1839, Beta Theta Pi was created; it was the first fraternity formed at Miami.

In 1839 Old Miami reached its enrollment peak, with 250 students from 13 states; only Harvard, Yale, and Dartmouth were larger. President Bishop was forced to resign by the Board of Trustees in 1840, due to the failure of his appeals for unity in face of the Old School–New School controversy, which had caused factions to rise up against each other trying to take over the university's administration. Old School adherents won out by focussing on his anti-slavery beliefs, lenient disciplinary methods, and an agreement he had struck with the New School Lane Seminary, allowing students of both institutions to learn at the other. He was replaced as president by George Junkin, former President of Lafayette College, a strict Old School adherent with strong anti-Methodist and pro-slavery views; Junkin resigned in 1844, having proved to be unpopular with students. By 1847, enrollment had fallen to 137 students.

Students in 1848 participated in the "Snowball Rebellion". Defying the faculty's stance against fraternities, students packed Old Main, one of Miami's main classrooms and administrative buildings, with snow and reinforced the snow with chairs, benches and desks from the classroom. Those who had participated in the rebellion were expelled from the school and Miami's student population was more than halved. By 1873, enrollment fell further to 87 students. The board of trustees closed the school in 1873, and leased the campus for a grammar school. The period before its closing is referred to as "Old Miami."

New Miami (1885–present)

The university reopened in 1885, having paid all of its debts and repaired many of its buildings; there were 40 students in its first year. Enrollment remained under 100 students throughout the 1800s. Miami focused on aspects outside of the classics, including botany, physics, and geology departments. With its reopening a change in religious policy occurred, the school no longer required faculty to be ordained Presbyterian ministers. In 1888, Miami began inter-collegiate football play in a game against the University of Cincinnati. By the early 1900s, the state of Ohio pledged regular financial support for Miami University. Enrollment reached 207 students in 1902. The Ohio General Assembly passed the Sesse Bill in 1902, which mandated coeducation for all Ohio public schools. Miami lacked the rooms to fit all of the students expected the next year, and Miami made an arrangement with Oxford College, a women's college in the town, to rent rooms. In the same year David McDill became Miami's first non-Presbyterian president, stressing its non-denominational, but Christian nature during his inauguration. By 1905 faculty personnel belonging to Presbyterian churches constituted 13 out of 27 positions, still a relative but no longer an absolute majority.

In 1902, the Ohio legislature also authorized the establishment of the Ohio State Normal School "to provide proper theoretical and practical training for all students desiring to prepare themselves for the work of teaching." The normal school was Miami's first professional college and would evolve into the College of Education, Health, and Society. Miami's first African-American student, Nelly Craig, graduated from the Ohio State Normal School in 1905. Hepburn Hall, built in 1905, was the first women's dorm at the college. By 1907, the enrollment at the university passed 700 students and women made up about a third of the student body. Andrew Carnegie pledged $40,000 to help build a new library for the university. The McGuffey Laboratory School opened in 1910 and was soon housed with the teacher preparation students in the new McGuffey Hall, completed in 1917. McGuffey Hall was named to honor William Holmes McGuffey, author of the McGuffey Readers textbook series.

Enrollment in 1923 was at 1,500 students. In 1928, Miami founded the School of Business Administration and acquired the Oxford College for Women. The next year, the School of Fine Arts was established. By the early 1930s, enrollment had reached 2,200 students. The conservative environment found on campus called for little change during the problems of the Great Depression, and only about 10 percent of students in the 1930s were on government subsidies. During World War II, Miami changed its curriculum to include "war emergency courses" and a Navy Training School took up residence on campus. During wartime in 1943, the population of the university became majority women. Due to the G.I. Bill, tuition for veterans decreased; the enrollment at Miami jumped from 2,200 to 4,100 students. Temporary lodges were constructed to accommodate the number of students. By 1952, the student body had grown to 5,000.

In 1954, Miami created a common curriculum for all students to complete to have a base for their other subjects. By 1964, enrollment reached nearly 15,000. To accommodate the growing number of students, Miami University opened its first regional campuses at Middletown, Ohio, in 1966 and Hamilton, Ohio, in 1968. Miami founded the Dolibois European Center in Luxembourg in 1968, which would move to Differdange Castle in 1997; it is home to a study abroad program where students live with Luxembourgish host families and study under Miami professors. Miami experimented with a trimester plan in 1965, but it ultimately failed and the university reverted to a quarter system. On April 15, 1970, a student sit-in at Rowan Hall, home of Miami's Naval ROTC program, in opposition to the Vietnam War resulted in 176 students being arrested. Edgar W. King Library was completed in 1972. In 1974, the Western College for Women in Oxford was sold to Miami, and President Phillip Shriver oversaw the creation of an interdisciplinary studies college known as the Western College Program. The program was merged into the College of Arts & Science in 2007.

Responding to the Miami Tribe of Oklahoma, trustees changed the athletic teams nickname from the "Redskins" to the "RedHawks" in 1997. The School of Engineering and Applied Science (later College of Engineering and Computing) was created from the former School of Applied Science in 2003. The Farmer School of Business building was completed on the East Quad in 2009. The newest regional campus, the Miami University Voice of America Learning Center also opened in 2009 in West Chester. In 2014, the Armstrong Student Center was completed to replace the Shriver Center, which was repurposed. All campuses were closed in March 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, reopening partially that fall. Also in 2020, Miami began revitalizing its research programs and academic offerings as part of the MiamiRISE plan. This included the establishment of the Honors College in 2021.

Oxford
Miami University's main campus is in Oxford, Ohio; the city is in the Miami Valley in southwestern Ohio, about 30 miles (48 km) from Cincinnati and 34 miles (55 km) from Dayton. Development of the campus began in 1818 with a multipurpose building called Franklin Hall; Elliott Hall, built in 1825, is Miami's oldest standing building and residence hall. Miami is renowned for its campus beauty, having been called "The most beautiful campus that ever there was" by Pulitzer Prize-winning poet Robert Frost, a friend of then Miami artist-in-residence Percy MacKaye, a poet. Miami has added campus buildings, such as the Farmer School of Business building, in the style characteristic of Georgian Revival architecture, with all buildings built three stories or less, or "to human scale". Today, the area of Miami's Oxford campus consists of 2,138 acres (8 km2).

Oxford is a college town, with over 70% of the residents attending college or graduate school. Forbes ranked the city of Oxford first on its 2016 list of the best college towns in the United States. All first and second year students are required to live on campus and all dorms are three stories with basement levels. Miami University's dining options includes about 30 dining destinations on campus, including the Bell Tower Commons, Garden Commons, MapleStreet Station, Martin Commons and Western Commons dining halls, each with multiple dining options. Miami's dining services have won 52 awards since 2004. Miami University also has a Recreational Sports Center. The center has three basketball courts, an Olympic-sized pool and diving well, outdoor pursuit center, rock-climbing center, fitness room, large exercise classrooms and a weight room.

There are four museums on campus, including the Miami University Art Museum, William Holmes McGuffey Museum, and the Karl Limper Geology Museum. The Hefner Museum of Natural History, in Upham Hall, features displays of many hoofed animals and other animal mounts, shells, corals and sponges, skeletons and fossils.

Academic buildings
The original portion of campus starts at the intersection of South Campus Avenue and East High Street, where the Phi Delta Theta Gates lead into the slant walk path. In this area are the oldest academic buildings, including Hall Auditorium (Philosophy) and McGuffey Hall (Education, Family Science, Social Work), built in 1909, and Alumni Hall (Architecture), built in 1910. King Library and Harrison Hall (Political Science) are also in this area. Going eastward along East Spring Street are Irvin Hall (Classics, World Languages) and Kreger Hall (Physics) before the Armstrong Student Center, the largest building on campus. Surrounding Bishop Woods are Shideler Hall (Geography, Geology), Upham Hall (Anthropology, Comparative Religion, History, Sociology and Gerontology, Statistics), Laws Hall (Emerging Technology in Business + Design), and Hughes Laboratories (Chemistry and Biochemistry).

Buildings north of East High Street begin at the McVey Data Science Building site on Tallawanda Road. Going eastward is the campus of the College of Engineering and Computing, which includes Benton Hall (Computer Science, Software Engineering), Garland Hall, and the Engineering Building. Around North Patterson Avenue are Pearson Hall (Biology, Microbiology), the Psychology Building, and the Farmer School of Business building (Accountancy, Economics, Finance, Information Systems and Analytics, Management, Marketing).

There are four streets south of East Spring Street with academic buildings. On South Campus Avenue is the Clinical Health Sciences and Wellness facility. On Oak Street are Williams Hall (Media, Journalism, and Film) and Phillips Hall (Kinesiology and Health), in between Spring and Maple Street is McMillan Hall (Global & Intercultural Studies), and between Maple and South Patterson Avenue are the Shriver Center, Hiestand Hall (Art) and the Art Building, and the Center for Performing Arts (Music, Theatre). Also along Patterson Avenue is Bachelor Hall (English, Mathematics) before the entrance to Western Campus. Western Campus includes Boyd Hall, Hoyt Hall (IT Services), Peabody Hall (Honors College), and Presser Hall (Music).

Historic landmarks

 * William Holmes McGuffey Museum, a National Historic Landmark
 * Zachariah Price Dewitt Cabin, listed on the National Register of Historic Places
 * Elliott and Stoddard Halls, oldest dormitories in use in Ohio
 * Langstroth Cottage, a National Historic Landmark
 * Old Manse (home of the Office of ASPIRE) Presbyterian Parsonage, East High Street, listed in the Historic American Buildings Survey
 * Simpson-Shade Guest House, listed in the Historic American Buildings Survey
 * Lewis Place, home of Miami presidents
 * Tallawanda Apartments (1908–1984), acquired by the university in the 1950s and eventually razed. Home of Tuffy's Sandwich Shop and starting location of Oxford's University Historic District Walking Tour.

King Library
Edgar W. King Library was originally named the King Undergraduate Library when the south section was completed in 1966. When the north section was completed in 1972, the word "undergraduate" was dropped from its name. Prior to the construction of King Library, Alumni Library was the main university library. When King Library was completed in 1972, Alumni Library was changed to Alumni Hall. King Library is home to Miami University Libraries’ humanities, government, law, and social sciences collections as well as the Walter Havighurst Special Collections and university archives. It additionally houses King Café, the Center for Information Management, the Center for Digital Scholarship, a makerspace, and the Howe Writing Center.

In addition to King Library, the university's library system also includes the Amos Music Library in the Center for Performing Arts and the Wertz Art & Architecture Library in Alumni Hall on the Oxford campus, as well as the Rentschler Library at Miami University Hamilton and the Gardner-Harvey Library at Miami University Middletown.

Dolibois European Center
The Dolibois European Center in Differdange, Luxembourg, is included as a study abroad option for students, and only houses about 125 students per semester. It offers continuing classes pertaining to students' studies in Oxford, typically in architecture, business, French, German, history, and political science. Students live in homestays with Luxembourgish host families, and are encouraged to travel throughout Europe over weekends as well as through university-led study programs. The campus was originally based in Luxembourg City from its founding in 1968 until 1997, when it moved to Differdange Castle in the southwestern part of the country.

Regional campuses
Miami University has three satellite campuses. Miami University Middletown, located in Middletown, Ohio, was founded in 1966 as Ohio's first regional campus. Miami University Hamilton, located in Hamilton, Ohio, was established in 1968, and the Miami University Voice of America Learning Center, located in West Chester, Ohio, was established in 2009 to house the Farmer School of Business MBA program.

Miami's regional campuses are non-residential and offer a handful of bachelor's degrees, associate degrees, one certificate program, as well as beginning course work for most four-year degrees, and the MBA and MEd programs at Oxford. Combined, Miami's regional campuses enroll 4,664 students. Middletown and Hamilton compete in independent sports as members of the Ohio Regional Campus Conference, competing under the monikers "Middletown ThunderHawks" and "Hamilton Harriers".

Undergraduate
Miami University extends offers of admission to applicants after holistic review that includes examination of academic rigor and performance, admissions test scores, personal essays, and recommendations. The 2022 annual ranking of U.S. News & World Report categorizes Miami University-Oxford as "more selective." The Princeton Review gives Miami University an "Admissions Selectivity Rating" of 84.

For the Class of 2025 (enrolled fall 2021), Miami University received 29,990 applications and accepted 26,571 (88.6%). Of those accepted, 4,519 enrolled, a yield rate (the percentage of accepted students who choose to attend the university) of 17.0%. Miami University's freshman retention rate is 89.2%, with 83% going on to graduate within six years.

The enrolled first-year class of 2025 had the following standardized test scores: the middle 50% range (25th percentile-75th percentile) of SAT scores was 1180–1350, while the middle 50% range of ACT scores was 24–30.

Miami University is a college-sponsor of the National Merit Scholarship Program and sponsored 21 Merit Scholarship awards in 2020. In the 2020–2021 academic year, 28 freshman students were National Merit Scholars.

Rankings
U.S. News & World Report, in its 2021 rankings, ranked the university's undergraduate program 103rd among all national universities, and 46th among public national universities. U.S. News also ranks Miami University 3rd for "Best Undergraduate Teaching" and places Miami as the 3rd best research university in Ohio, after Case Western Reserve University and Ohio State University.

Kiplinger's Personal Finance magazine listed Miami as one of the "100 Best Values in Public Colleges" for 2015, ranking Miami 55th nationally. Miami University has appeared on the list since it was first published in 1998. Forbes ranked Miami 155th in the United States among all colleges and universities and listed it as one of "America's Best College Buys".

In March 2014, BusinessWeek ranked the undergraduate business program for the Farmer School of Business at 23rd among all U.S. undergraduate business schools and was ranked 8th among public schools. Entrepreneur ranked Miami's Institute for Entrepreneurship in its top ten undergraduate programs in the nation. The Wall Street Journal ranked Miami 22nd among state schools for bringing students directly from undergraduate studies into top graduate programs. The Journal also ranked Miami's accelerated MBA program ninth globally. Miami's accountancy program received high marks from the Public Accounting Report's rankings of accountancy programs; its undergraduate and graduate programs ranked 17th and 20th respectively.

In 1985, Richard Moll wrote a book about America's premier public universities where he describes Miami as one of America's original eight "Public Ivies".

Miami also receives high marks for its campus. Newsweek rated Miami at 19th in its 2012 list of Most Beautiful Schools and poet Robert Frost described it as "The most beautiful campus that ever there was."

Undergraduate and graduate programs
Miami is a large, primarily residential teaching university with a focus on undergraduate studies. The university offers more than 100 majors, 48 minors, and 11 co-majors.

Miami University has seven academic divisions:
 * 1) College of Arts and Science
 * 2) College of Creative Arts
 * 3) College of Education, Health, and Society
 * 4) College of Engineering and Computing
 * 5) Farmer School of Business
 * 6) Graduate School
 * 7) College of Liberal Arts and Applied Science (Miami Regionals)

The College of Arts and Science (or CAS) is the oldest and largest college at Miami, with almost half of the undergraduate student body enrollment. The CAS offers 70 majors covering a broad range of areas of study, including biological sciences, cultural studies, history, philosophy, religion, law and public policy, literature and writing, mathematics, physical sciences, media and communications, health sciences, social sciences, and world languages. The curriculum emphasizes creativity, research, and global perspectives. 10 of the 12 doctoral degrees offered by Miami are provided through the College of Arts & Science.

Miami's College of Creative Arts offers 14 majors through its five departments: Architecture and Interior Design, Art, Emerging Technology in Business & Design, Music, and Theatre. Each department has its own admission requirements, either a portfolio or audition, which are separate from the standard admissions requirements for the university. Art majors choose a concentration in areas such as ceramics, metals, photography, printmaking, sculpture, graphic design, and interior design. Music majors specify either music performance, music education, or music composition, and choose their focus, whether instrumental or vocal.

The College of Education, Health & Society offers 20 undergraduate majors spanning six departments, which include Educational Leadership, Educational Psychology, Family Science & Social Work, Kinesiology and Health, Sports Leadership and Management, and Teacher Education. As of fall 2009, nearly 3,500 full-time and part-time undergraduates were enrolled in the school.

The College of Engineering and Computing offers 10 accredited majors at the Oxford campus, and moved into a new $22 million engineering building in 2007. The college has five departments, including Chemical, Paper, and Biomedical Engineering; Computer Science, Cybersecurity, and Software Engineering; Electrical and Computer Engineering; Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering; and Interdisciplinary programs. The school also offers four master's degrees in computer science, chemical engineering, computational electrical and computer engineering, and mechanical engineering.

Miami's Farmer School of Business is a nationally recognized school of business that offers 9 majors. The school also offers graduate MBA, accountancy, and economics degrees. The Farmer School of Business (or FSB) is housed in a 210000 sqft state-of-the-art, LEED-certified building. The FSB building, opened for classes in 2009, was designed by leading revivalist architect Robert A.M. Stern.

Miami offers master's degrees in more than 50 areas of study and doctoral degrees in 12, the largest of which are doctoral degrees in psychology. To enroll in graduate courses, students must first be accepted into the Graduate School, and then into the department through which the degree is offered. Although tuition for the Graduate School is roughly the same as for an undergraduate degree, most of the graduate programs offer graduate assistantships as well as tuition waivers.

The Miami University Honors College was established in 2021 as part of the MiamiRISE strategic plan, replacing the former honors program on campus. Around 400 students are admitted to the Honors College every year and are required to produce publishable research. The Honors College is Miami's only residential college and fosters one-on-one interaction with faculty-in-residence.

Administration
An elected Board of Trustees oversees administration of the university and holds subcommittees on investment, finance and audit, and academic and student affairs. This includes oversight on programs offered by the university and financial expenditures.

The Office of the President manages Miami University's fiscal and business operations, supporting the academic and research missions across all campuses. The office works with the board of trustees to set the vision, direction, and priorities of the university, in addition to serving as a university figurehead and liaison. The 22nd and current president is Dr. Gregory P. Crawford, who entered the role in 2016. Crawford previously served as vice president and Associate Provost at the University of Notre Dame, Dean of the College of Science at Notre Dame, and as Dean of Engineering at Brown University.

Other administrative departments include that of the Provost and Executive Vice President for Academic Affairs, which includes the deans of each of the eight academic colleges and the Dolibois European Center. The Senior Vice President for Finance and Business Services and Treasurer's department oversees university finances, procurement, and audits. The office of the Vice President for Student Life, Senior Vice President for University Advancement, Vice President for Information Technology, and Senior Vice President for Enrollment Management round out the university's administrative faculty.

Student body
As of 2020, Miami University has a total enrollment of 22,971 admitted students. The Oxford campus encompasses 18,669 students, of which 16,522 are at the undergraduate and 2,147 at the graduates and professional. Within offers for admission in fall 2021, 44% of students were from Ohio, with offers for students from all 50 U.S. states, the District of Columbia and 122 countries abroad. Miami University encompasses 1,614 international students from 67 countries. Of the regularly enrolled international students, the most represented countries are typically China, Vietnam, India, Nepal, and South Korea. With a gender distribution of 49% male students and 51% female students, Miami University's gender disparity between men and women is far below the national average, making it one of the most equally balanced undergraduate institutions in the United States.

Student-run organizations
For the 2017–18 academic year, Miami had over 600 registered student organizations. These clubs and organizations run the gamut from varsity sports clubs to professional fraternities, from political and religious groups to fashion, theatre and LGBTQ+ organizations. The university recognizes the Associated Student Government (ASG) that represents student interests to faculty, administrators, and the Ohio Legislature. It is the official student government of Miami University. It has an executive branch run by a student president and 14 members of the executive cabinet who work with administrators in all areas of student life as well as academics and a legislative branch made up of 50 senators who voice student concerns, write and vote on legislation on a weekly basis.

The Miami University Marching Band is the largest student organization on campus, typically fielding around 250 to 275 students. It represents the college at all home football games, as well as at various away games, bowl games, parades, and marching band festivals.

Mock Trial
Miami University participates in the American Mock Trial Association and has won two National Championship Tournament titles, with the most recent in 2018, where Miami beat Yale University in the final round. The school has made 17 top-ten finishes. In the 2019 season, Miami sent two teams to the National Championship Tournament. Miami A earned twelve ballots in their division, just one ballot short of division champions Yale A. Miami earned honorable mentions in 2021 and 2022. In 2023, Miami failed to earn a bid to the NCT. This marked the end of the longest-running NCT streak in the American Mock Trial Association; Miami had not missed an NCT since at least 2005.

Miami has sent two competitors to Trial by Combat, a one-on-one competition for outstanding AMTA competitors.

Media organizations
Miami has a variety of media outlets. The student-run newspaper, The Miami Student, claims to have been founded in 1826, which would make it the oldest university newspaper in the United States. However, the first issue is dated May 1867, and the paper refers to itself as "the oldest college newspaper west of the Alleghenies." The Miami Student Magazine is a sister publication to the newspaper. The bi-annual publication includes feature writing and short stories. The undergraduate literature and art magazine, Inklings, is available in print and online. RedHawk Radio (WMSR) is Miami's only student radio station. Miami University Television (MUTV) is available on cable in Oxford, Ohio. UP Magazine is Miami's student-run fashion magazine that publishes an issue each semester and also maintains a blog.

Miami University Men's Glee Club
Aside from the university's student newspaper, the university's oldest and longest-running academic student organization is the Miami University Men's Glee Club. Founded in 1907 by professor Raymond H. Burke, composer of Miami's fight song and alma mater, the glee club is among the oldest and largest groups of its kind in the nation. Its roughly 80 singers are selected by audition and perform on campus and around the world.

The Glee Club has performed with major symphony orchestras, among them the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra. Throughout its history, the Glee Club has worked with renowned composers, conductors and singers such as Morten Lauridsen, Martina Arroyo, Max Rudolf, Thomas Schippers, Paul Salamunovich, A.R. Rahman, and most recently Italian tenor Alessandro Brustenghi. In 2014, the Glee Club performed a Memorial Day service at the Normandy American Cemetery and Memorial, as part of its biannual international tour, and later won the First European Prize with Great Distinction at the Concours Europeen de Chant Choral 2014 (European Choir Competition).

The Glee Club also hosts one men's a cappella singing group, The Cheezies.

Residential life
Miami University requires first and second-year students to live on campus. Elliott and Stoddard Halls, built in 1828 and 1835 respectively, are used as dormitories. They are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The campus has a total of 46 residence halls, the newest of which opened in 2018. The residence halls are organized into eight quads throughout campus.

Residence halls have representatives that participate collectively in the Residence Hall Association and the student senate.

Greek life
Miami has a long tradition of Greek life, beginning in 1832 with the founding of the Miami chapter of Alpha Delta Phi. Miami is nicknamed the Mother of Fraternities for the number of fraternities that started on its campus, including three known as the Miami Triad: Beta Theta Pi (1839), Phi Delta Theta (1848) Sigma Chi (1855). Other Greek organizations founded at Miami include Phi Kappa Tau (1906) and Delta Zeta (1902).

As of the fall of 2017, there were 2,556 sorority members and 1,544 fraternity members. Miami hosts about 50 different fraternities and sororities governed by three different student governing councils. In the 2017 fall semester, the Greek community recorded 11,847 service hours and raised $96,839 for philanthropic causes.

Miami University's office of Greek affairs was endowed with a $1 million gift from alumnus Cliff Alexander, a member of Sigma Nu; Miami believes this gift will support the Greek program well into the next century.

A spate of sorority sanctions in the 2009–10 school year reached national news. Sorority members of Miami's Alpha Xi Delta chapter and their dates at a formal held at the National Underground Railroad Freedom Center urinated throughout the venue, swore at staff, and attempted to steal drinks from the bar; an incident involving the Pi Beta Phi chapter at Miami involved similar behavior. Former University President David Hodge called the behavior "deeply troubling" and "embarrassing," and vowed "we are determined to live up to our values" in response to the incidents.

More recently, Miami's Greek system has come under fire for hazing and alcohol violations. Many groups were suspended or evicted. Among the violations was encouraging pledges to drink 100 beers and pose for inappropriate pictures, later posted on social media. In other instances, pledges were subjected to hours-long, early-morning workouts, and forbidden to shower or shave. In 2019, Miami's Delta Tau Delta chapter was suspended until 2034 and its national charter was revoked.

Miami Mergers
When two students meet at Miami, enter into a relationship, and then get married, they are called "Miami Mergers." Once graduated, the couple can register with the university's Alumni Association. According to the Josh Chapin, 14,406 Miami Merger couples received a Valentine's Day card from the association in 2022; this annual tradition started over 40 years ago.

Athletics
Miami's National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I sports teams are called the RedHawks; the program offers 18 varsity sports for men and women. They compete in the Mid-American Conference (MAC) in all varsity sports except ice hockey, which competes in the National Collegiate Hockey Conference.

Miami's athletic teams had several names before 1928, when Miami Publicity Director R.J. McGinnis coined the nickname "Redskins". In 1996, the Miami Tribe of Oklahoma, which works with the university on Native American relations, withdrew its support for the nickname. The board of trustees voted to change the nickname to the RedHawks in 1997.

The current athletic director is David Sayler, who was hired to the position in December 2012.

Football
Miami is nicknamed the "Cradle of Coaches" for the coaches that have trained through its football program, including Hall of Fame inductees Paul Brown, Carmen Cozza, Weeb Ewbank, Ara Parseghian, Earl Blaik, Woody Hayes, Bo Schembechler, and Jim Tressel, to name some from a selection of over 80. Ben Roethlisberger, a quarterback from Miami, has gone on to be a two-time Super Bowl winning quarterback for the Pittsburgh Steelers. Two former players, John Harbaugh (defensive back) and Sean McVay (wide receiver) coached their respective teams to victories in Super Bowl XLVII and Super Bowl LVI, with McVay becoming the youngest head coach to win the Super Bowl at age 36.

Miami's football team plays in Yager Stadium, a 24,286-seat football stadium on campus; they formerly played in the now demolished Miami Field. The current head coach is Chuck Martin, who was named head coach December 3, 2013. The RedHawks compete each year against the Cincinnati Bearcats for the Victory Bell, a tradition that dates back to 1888. The Battle of the Bricks is also played annually against the Ohio Bobcats. The RedHawks are 707–473–44 overall and 8–5 in bowl games as of the 2021 season, and have secured 22 conference titles. December 2, 2023, The RedHawks became the MAC Champion.

Basketball
The Miami men's basketball team has appeared in 17 NCAA basketball championship tournaments, reaching the Sweet Sixteen four times, most recently in 1999. Notable former student-athletes have included Randy Ayers, Ron Harper, Wally Szczerbiak, and Wayne Embry.

The team competes in Millett Hall and is coached by Travis Steele.

Men's ice hockey
Miami's men's varsity ice hockey team started in 1978 coached by Steve Cady. The RedHawks made the NCAA national title game in 2009, but lost in overtime to Boston University after leading much of the game. In 2019, head coach Enrico Blasi (Total record: 398–311–76) was fired after 20 seasons with the team. Despite his success with the program, the RedHawks did not have a winning record since 2015.

Since the Mid-American Conference does not include Division I men's ice hockey, Miami competed in the Central Collegiate Hockey Association (CCHA) through the 2012–2013 season. It was one of three schools from the MAC in the CCHA along with Bowling Green State University and Western Michigan University. However, starting with the 2013–2014 season, Miami and Western Michigan began competing in the National Collegiate Hockey Conference.

The men's ice hockey team plays at the Goggin Ice Center. The center has two rinks: a practice rink, and Steve Cady Arena, which is used by the hockey team. The arena has a seating capacity of 3,200, and replaced the Goggin Ice Arena in 2006.

Synchronized skating
Miami's synchronized skating team began in August 1977 as a "Precision Skating Club" at Goggin Ice Center. The program achieved varsity status by 1996. The Miami University senior synchronized skating team are the 1999, 2006, and 2009 U.S. national champions. Miami won a silver medal at the 2007 World Championships, the first medal ever won by Team USA for synchronized skating. The collegiate-level team has won 18 national titles; Miami created a junior-varsity level team beneath the senior level. Vicki Korn, after serving as the coach of Miami's program for 25 years, announced her retirement in May 2009. The head coach is Carla DeGirolamo. A 2003 graduate of Miami, she skated with the program all four of her undergraduate years and then spent seven seasons as an assistant coach.

Wrestling
At one time Miami had a competitive wrestling program, but eliminated the wrestling program, along with men's golf and tennis, in 1999 to better comply with Title IX regulations (female students made up 54% of campus but only 29% of athletes). Several members of the cut teams sued the university president, athletic director, and board of trustees, alleging that the removal of the teams violated their Fourteenth Amendment and Title IX protections. Enlisting the help of the Center for Individual Rights, the students took their case to the United States District Court for the Southern District of Ohio, where a district judge denied their claims. The students appealed to the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit, where two judges affirmed the district court's ruling.

Alumni
Miami alumni are active through various organizations and events such as Alumni Weekend. The Alumni Association has active chapters in over 50 cities. A number of Miami alumni have made significant contributions in the fields of government, law, science, academia, business, arts, journalism, and athletics, among others.

Benjamin Harrison, the 23rd President of the United States, graduated from Miami in 1852. Four Governors of Ohio graduated from Miami, including Charles Anderson (27th), James E. Campbell (38th), Andrew L. Harris (44th), and Mike DeWine (70th), who also served as a U.S. Senator for Ohio. Chung Un-chan, the 36th Prime Minister of South Korea, received his master's degree from Miami in economics in 1972. Other politicians include U.S. Senator Maria Cantwell of Washington, U.S. House of Representatives Speaker Paul Ryan of Wisconsin, and U.S. Representative Susan Brooks of Indiana.

Rita Dove, a Pulitzer Prize winner and the first African-American United States Poet Laureate, graduated summa cum laude from Miami. Political satirist and journalist P.J. O'Rourke graduated from Miami in 1969.

Prominent alumni in business include Brian Niccol, CEO of Chipotle, Marne Levine, Chief Business Officer at Facebook, C. Michael Armstrong, former chairman/CEO of AT&T, former chairman/CEO of Hughes Aircraft Co., and former chairman of the President's Export Council, Arthur D. Collins, Jr., former chairman/CEO of Medtronic, Inc., and Richard T. Farmer, founder/CEO emeritus of Cintas.

In sports, Chris Rose is a studio host with the MLB Network and NFL Network. John Harbaugh, head coach of the Baltimore Ravens, and Sean McVay, head coach of the Los Angeles Rams, both played football for Miami. Paul Brown, the partial founder of both the Cleveland Browns and the Cincinnati Bengals and a head coach for both teams graduated from the class of 1930. Miami alumni that play in professional sports leagues include Dan Boyle of the NHL, Andy Greene of the NHL, Ryan Jones of the NHL, Alec Martinez of the NHL, Reilly Smith of the NHL, Jeff Zatkoff of the NHL, Hayley Williams of the Russian Women's Hockey League, John Ely of the MLB, Adam Eaton of the MLB, golfer Brad Adamonis, Milt Stegall of the CFL, 2002 NBA All-Star Wally Szczerbiak, and NFL players Brandon Brooks, Quinten Rollins, Zac Dysert, and two-time Super Bowl-winning quarterback Ben Roethlisberger.

title: Miami University


text:
User:Texastwister

Scott Purcell
I'm currently a curriculum developer for a large computer company. I develop training on Servers, SANs, Systems Management software, and Networking devices. I also work on the development of certification programs for those products.

I'm an ordained minister and spent ten years as a minister and church planter among the churches of the Restoration Movement.

I'm also, and most importantly, a husband and father of three.

Other interests include active participation in my church, coaching my daughters in Softball, and entertaining children and adults with balloon entertainment in my part-time job.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Texastwister


text:
Index of electronics articles

This is an index of articles relating to electronics and electricity or natural electricity and things that run on electricity and things that use or conduct electricity.

0–9
16VSB – 2VSB – 32VSB – 4000 series – 4VSB – 555 timer IC – 7400 series – 8VSB

A
Absolute gain (physics) – Access control – Access time – Acoustic coupler – Adaptive communications – Adder – Adjacent-channel interference – Alarm sensor – Aliasing – Allied Electronics – Alternating current – AM radio – Amateur radio – Ambient noise level – American Radio Relay League (ARRL) – Ammeter – Ampere – Amplifier – Amplitude distortion – Amplitude modulation – Analog computer – Analog – Analog-to-digital converter – Analogue switch – Analysis of resistive circuits – Angular misalignment loss – Antenna – Antenna aperture – Antenna blind cone – Antenna gain – Antenna height above average terrain – Antenna noise temperature – Antenna theory – Aperture (antenna) – Aperture-to-medium coupling loss – Apollo Guidance Computer – Arithmetic and logical unit – Armstrong oscillator – ARRL – Articulation score – Astable – Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line – Asynchronous communications system – Asynchronous operation – Asynchronous start-stop – Atmospheric duct – Atmospheric waveguide – Attenuation – Audible ringing tone – Audio system measurements – Audiophile – Automatic call distributor – Automatic gain control – Automatic link establishment – Automatic number identification – Automatic sounding – Automatic switching system – Autovon – Availability – Avalanche diode – Azimuth

B
Backplane – Backscattering – Back-to-back connection – Backward channel – Balance return loss – Balanced line – Balancing network – Ball grid array – Band gap – Band-stop filter – Bandwidth compression – Bare particular – Barrage jamming – Baseband – Battery (electricity) – Baud – Baudot code – BCS theory – Beam diameter – Beam divergence – Beam steering – Beamwidth – Beat frequency oscillator – Bel – Biconical antenna – Big ugly dish – Bilateral synchronization – Billboard antenna – Binary classification – Binary multiplier – Binaural recording – Bipolar junction transistor – Bipolar signal – Bit inversion – Bit pairing – Bit robbing – Bit stuffing – Bit synchronous operation – Bit-count integrity – Bits per second – Black facsimile transmission – Black recording – Blanketing – Bluetooth – Blu-ray Disc – BNC connector – Boresight – Breadboard – Bremsstrahlung – Bridging loss – Broadband Internet – Broadband wireless access – Broadband – Broadcasting – Burst transmission – Busy hour – Busy signal – Bypass

C
Cable modem – Cable television – Caesium standard – Call collision – Call set-up time – Call-second – Capacitive coupling – Capacitor – Capture effect – Carbon nanotube – Card standards – Carrier-sense multiple access with collision detection – Carrier shift – Carrier system – Carrier wave – Carrier-to-receiver noise density – Carson bandwidth rule – Cassegrain antenna – Category 5 cable – Cathode ray tube – Central processing unit – Chadless tape – Channel – Channel noise level – Channel reliability – Character-count integrity – Characteristic impedance – Charge-coupled device – Chemical vapor deposition – Chirp – Chroma subsampling – Circuit breaker – Circuit noise level – Circuit reliability – Circuit restoration – Circuit switching – Circular polarization – Circulator – Citizens' band radio – Cladding – Clapp oscillator – Clean room – Clear channel – Clearing – Clipping – Clock gating – Clock signal – Closed waveguide – Closed-circuit television – CMOS – Coaxial cable – Co-channel interference – Code-division multiple access – Code word – Coherence length – Coherence time – Coherence – Coherent differential phase-shift keying – Coherer – Coilgun – Collinear antenna array – Collinear antenna array – Collins Radio – Colpitts oscillator – Combat-net radio – Combinational logic – Combined distribution frame – Common base – Common battery – Common collector – Common control – Common emitter – Commonality – Common-mode interference – Communications center – Communications satellite – Communications security – Communications system engineering – Communications system – Communications-electronics – Compact audio cassette – Compatible sideband transmission – Composite image filter – Composite video – Compulsator – Computer – Concentrator – Conditioning equipment – Conducted interference – Conduction band – Conductive coupling – Connections per circuit hour – Conservation of radiance – Constant k filter – Content delivery – Contention – Continuous Fourier transform – Continuous operation – Continuous wave – Convolution – Copper – Cord circuit – Corner reflector – Cosmic noise – Costas loop – Coulomb's law – Counter (digital) – Coupling – Covert channel – Covert listening device – CPU design – CQD – C-QUAM – Critical frequency – Cross product – Crossbar switch – Crosstalk – Crystal filter – Crystal radio receiver – Current – Current bias – Current-to-voltage converter – Cutback technique – Cutoff frequency – Cutoff wavelength

D
D region – D-4 – Data bank – Data circuit terminating equipment – Data compaction – Data integrity – Data link – Data service unit – Data terminal equipment – Data transmission circuit – Data – Datasheet – dBa – dBm – DBrn – DDR SDRAM – Degree of isochronous distortion – Delay line – Delta modulation – Demand assignment – Demand factor – Demand load – Demodulation – Demodulator – Departure angle – Design objective – Despun antenna – Deviation – Dial-up – Diamagnetism – Dielectric constant – Dielectric strength – Dielectric waveguide – Dielectric – Differential amplifier – Diffraction – Digital access and cross-connect system – Digital Audio Tape – Digital circuit – Digital filter – Digital multiplex hierarchy – Digital radio – Digital signal processing – Digital signal processor – Digital-to-analog converter – Digital transmission group – Digitizer – DIN – Diode – DIP switch – Dipole antenna – Dipole – Direct bandgap – Direct broadcast satellite – Direct current – Direct distance dialing – Direct ray – Directional antenna – Directional coupler – Directive gain – Direct-sequence spread spectrum – Discrete Fourier transform – Discrete – Dispersion-limited operation – Display device – Distortion – Distortion-limited operation – Emergency locator beacon – Distributed switching – Diurnal phase shift – Diversity reception – DOD master clock – Doping – Double-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission – Double-slit experiment – Drift – Drop and insert – Dropout – Dual access – Dual impedance – Dual in-line package – Dual-modulus prescaler – Dual-tone multi-frequency – Duobinary signal – Duplex – Duty cycle – DXCC – Dynamic range

E
Earphone – Earpiece – Earth's magnetic field – EDIF – EEPROM – Effective antenna gain contour – Effective boresight area – Effective data transfer rate – Effective Earth radius – Effective height – Effective input noise temperature – Effective isotropically radiated power – Effective monopole radiated power – Effective radiated power – Effective transmission rate – Efficiency factor – E-layer – Electric charge – Electric current – Electric field – Electric motor – Electric power transmission – Electric power – Electrical conduction – Electrical conductivity – Electrical connector – Electrical efficiency – Element – Electrical engineering – Electrical generator – Impedance – Insulation – Electrical length – Load – Electrical network – Circuit – Electrical resistance – Electrical room – Electrical signal – Electricity distribution – Electricity – Electrochemical cell – Electrochemistry – Electrode – Electrodynamics – Electrolytic capacitor – Electromagnetic environment – Electromagnetic induction – Electromagnetic interference control – Electromagnetic pulse – Electromagnetic radiation and health – Electromagnetic radiation – Electromagnetic spectrum – Electromagnetic survivability – Electromagnetism – Electrometer – Electron hole – Electron – Electronic amplifier – Electronic color code – Color code – Electronic data processing – Electronic deception – Electronic design automation – Electronic filter – Electronic imager – Electronic mixer – Electronic musical instrument – Electronic oscillator – Electronic power supply – Electronic switching system – Electronic tagging – Electronic test equipment – Electronic warfare support measures – Electronics – Electro-optic effect – Electro-optic modulator – Electro-optics – Electrostatic discharge – Electrostatics – Emergency Locator Transmitter – Emergency Position-Indicating Radio Beacon – Emitter coupled logic – End distortion – Endurability – Enhanced service – Entropy encoding – Equilibrium length – Equivalent impedance transforms – Equivalent noise resistance – Equivalent pulse code modulation noise – Error burst – Error ratio – Error-correcting code – E-skip – Examples of electrical phenomena – Extremely Low Frequency (ELF) – Eye pattern

F
Fab (semiconductors) – Semiconductor device fabrication – Facsimile converter – Fading – Fading distribution – Fail safe – Fall time – Fan-beam antenna – Farad – Faraday cage – Faraday constant – Faraday's law of induction – Far-field region – Fault – Fault management – FCC registration program – Federal Standard 1037C – Feed horn – Feedback – Ferroelectric effect – Ferromagnetism – Field (physics) – Field – Field effect transistor – Field strength – FPGA Field programmable gate array – Filled cable – Filter design – Filter (signal processing) – Flip-flop – Fluorescent lamp – Flutter – Flux – Flywheel effect – FM band – FM improvement factor – FM improvement threshold – FM radio – Forward error correction – Fourier series – Fourier transform (see also List of Fourier-related transforms) – Four-wire circuit – Four-wire terminating set – Fractal antenna – Frame – Frame rate – Frame slip – Frame synchronization – Framing bit – Freenet – Free-space loss – Freeze frame television – Frequency assignment – Frequency averaging – Frequency counter – Frequency deviation – Frequency frogging – Frequency modulation synthesis – Frequency modulation – Frequency standard – Frequency synthesiser – Frequency – Frequency-division multiplexing – Frequency-exchange signaling – Frequency-hopping spread spectrum – Frequency-shift keying – Fresnel equations – Fresnel reflection – Fresnel zone – Front-to-back ratio – Fuel cell – Fuse (electrical)

G
Gallium arsenide – Galvanic isolation – Galvanometer – Gateway – Gating – Gauss – Geiger–Müller tube – Gel electrophoresis – Gemini Guidance Computer – Gender changer – Global Positioning System – Global system for mobile communications – GNU Radio – Grade of service – Graded-index fiber – Ground constants – Ground loop – Ground plane – Ground (electricity) – Groundwave – Guided ray – Gyrator

H
Halftone characteristic – Hall effect – Hamming code – Hamming distance – Handoff – Handshake (computing) – Hard copy – Hardware register – Harmonic analysis – Harmonic oscillator – Harmonic – Hartley oscillator – H-channel – Heat sink – Helical antenna – Helmholtz coil – Henry (unit) – Hertz – Heterodyne repeater – Heterodyne – High frequency – High-performance equipment – High-speed circuit-switched data – Hop – Horn – Hot-point probe – Hybrid balance – Hybrid circuit – Hybrid coil – Hybrid coupler – Hysteresis

I
IEEE 315-1975 – IEEE 802.11 – IEEE 802.15 – IEEE 802 – Image antenna – Image impedance – Image frequency – Image rejection ratio – Image response – Impedance matching – In-band on-channel – Incidental radiator – Independent sideband – Index of cooperation – Inductive coupling – Inductive reactance – Inductor – Industrial Computers – Information transfer – Information-bearer channel – Infrared – Input/output – Insertion gain – Insertion loss – Inside plant – Integrated circuit – Intensity modulation – Intentional radiator – Intercept – Interchange circuit – Intercharacter interval – Interconnect facility – Interference – Interferometry – Intermediate-field region – Intermodulation distortion – International Electrotechnical Commission – Interoperability – Interposition trunk – Intersymbol interference – Inverse multiplexer – Inverse-square law – Ion pump – Ionosphere – ISM band – Isochronous burst transmission – Isochronous signal – Isotropic antenna

J
Jam signal – Jamming – Jansky – Jitter

K
Karnaugh map – Kendall effect – Key pulsing – Kirchhoff's circuit laws – Klystron – Knife-edge effect

L
Laser – Launch angle – Launch numerical aperture – Lead-lag effect – Leaky mode – Light bulb – Light-dependent resistor – Light-emitting diode – Lightning – Limiting – Line code – Linear-feedback shift register – Linear regulator – Lip synchronization – List of telephony terminology – Lists of video game companies – LM741 – Low-noise amplifier – Loading characteristic – Loading coil – Lobe – Local battery – Logic families – Logic gate – Logic – Log-periodic antenna – Long-haul communications – Longitudinal redundancy check – Long-tailed pair – Long-term stability – Loop – Loop gain – Loop-back – Low frequency – Low-performance equipment – Lumped element model

M
Macroelectronics – Magnet – Magnetic-core memory – Magnetic field – Magnetic flux quantum – Magnetic flux – Magnetic levitation – Magnetism – Magneto-optic effect – Magnetosphere – Magnetron – Main distribution frame – Main lobe – Manchester code – Maser – Mask work – Master frequency generator – Maximal-ratio combiner – Maximum power – Maximum usable frequency – Maxwell coil – Maxwell's demon – Maxwell's equations – m-derived filter – Mean time between outages – Mediation function – Medium frequency (MF) – Medium-power talker – Medium wave – Metal – Michelson–Morley experiment – Microelectronics – Microphone – Microwave auditory effect – Microwave oven – Microwave – MIL-STD-188 – Minimum bend radius – Mode scrambler – Mode volume – Modem – Modular synthesizer – Modulation factor – Modulation rate – Modulation – Molecular electronics – Monostable – Moore's law – Morse code – MOS Technology 6501 – MOS Technology 6502 – MOS Technology SID – MOS Technology VIC-II – Mu-law algorithm – Multicoupler – Multi-element dipole antenna – Multimeter – Multipath propagation – Multiple access – Multiple homing – Multiplex baseband – Multiplexer – Multiplexing – Multivibrator

N
N connector – Nanotechnology – Nanowire – Narrative traffic – Narrowband modem – Narrowband – National Electrical Code (US) – Natural frequency – Near-field region – Negative resistance – Negative-acknowledge character – Net gain (telecommunications) – Netlist – Network administration – Network architecture – Network management – Neural network (machine learning) – Neutral direct-current telegraph system – NI Multisim – Nickel metal hydride – Noise figure – Noise (electronics) – Noise power – Noise temperature – Noise weighting – Noise-cancelling headphone – Noise-equivalent power – Non-return-to-zero – Normalized frequency – Norton's theorem – NTSC – Nuclear electromagnetic pulse – Nuclear magnetic resonance – Null (radio) – Numbers station – Numerical aperture – Numerically controlled oscillator – Nyquist interval

O
Off-hook – Off-line – Ohm (unit) – Ohmmeter – Ohm's law – Oliver Heaviside – Omnidirectional antenna – One-way trunk – On-hook – On-line – Open circuit – Open spectrum – Operational amplifier – Optical density – Optical fiber – Optical path length – Optical spectrum – Optoelectronic – Orthogonal frequency division modulation – Orthomode transducer – Oscilloscope – Out-of-band signaling – Outside plant – Overflow – Overhead information – Overmodulation – Override – Overshoot (signal)

P
Packet switching – Packet-switching node – Paired disparity code – PAL – Par meter – Parabolic antenna – Parabolic microphone – Parallel transmission – Parasitic element (electrical networks) – Parity bit – Passband – Passive radiator – Patch bay – Path loss – Path profile – Pauli exclusion principle – PBER – PCB layout guidelines – Peak envelope power – Peltier effect – Performance measurement period – Periodic antenna – Periscope antenna – Permeability – Permittivity – Personal Locator Beacon – Phantom circuit – Phantom loop – Phase – Phase distortion – Phase jitter – Phase modulation – Phase noise – Phase perturbation – Phased array – Phase-locked loop – Phase-shift keying – Philberth-Transformer – Phone connector (audio) – Photodiode – Photoelectric effect – Photolithography – Photon – Physical layer – Pickup – PID controller – Piezoelectricity – Pin grid array – Pirate radio – Planar array – Planck constant – Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy – Point-to-point construction – Polarential telegraph system – Polarization – Polling – Polyphase system – Portable people meter – Potential difference – Potential divider – Power – Power connector – Power supply – Preamplifier – Preemphasis network – Preemphasis – Preferred values – Preventive maintenance – Primary channel – Primary line constants – Primary time standard – Principal clock – Printed circuit board – Processor register – Product detector – Programmable logic device – Propagation delay – Propagation mode – Propagation path obstruction – Propagation of schema – Proration – Pseudorandom noise – Pseudorandom number sequence – PSK31 – Pulse amplitude – Pulse duration – Pulse – Pulse-address multiple access – Pulse-code modulation – Pulsed inductive thruster – Pulse-width modulation – Push-to-talk operation – Push-to-type operation – Pyroelectricity

Q
Q code – QRP operation – Q-switching – Quadrature amplitude modulation – Quadrature – Quality assurance – Quality control – Quantum harmonic oscillator – Quartz clock – Quasi-analog signal – Queuing delay

R
Race hazard – Radar – Radiation angle – Radiation mode – Radiation pattern – Radiation resistance – Radiator – Radio beam – Radio clock – Radio electronics – Radio frequency induction – Radio frequency – Radio horizon range – Radio horizon – Radio propagation – Radio range – Radio Row, Manhattan – Radio station – Radio – RadioShack – Radiotelephone – Radioteletype – Radix-64 – Railgun – Random-access memory – Ray transfer matrix analysis – RC circuit – RC – RCA jack – RCA – Reactance – Receive-after-transmit time delay – Received noise power – Receiver – Receiver attack-time delay – Reconnaissance satellite – Record medium – Reference antenna – Reference circuit – Reference clock – Reference noise – Reference surface – Reflection coefficient – Reflections of signals on conducting lines – Reflective array antenna – Refractive index contrast – Regenerative circuit – Register transfer level – Registered jack – Relational model – Relative transmission level – Relaxation oscillator – Relay – Release time – Remote Operations Service Element protocol – Remote sensing – Repair and maintenance – Repeater – Repeating coil – Reproduction speed – Reradiation – Resistor color code – Resistor – Resonance – Response time – Responsivity – Return loss – RF connector – RF modulator – RF power margin – RF probe – RF shielding – RFID – RGB color space – Rhombic antenna – Ring current – Ring latency – Ring modulation – Ringback signal – Ringdown –

RL circuit – RLC circuit – Robot – Rogowski coil – Root mean square – Routing indicator – RS-232 – RX – Rydberg formula

S
S/PDIF – Sacrificial anode – Sampling frequency – Scalar field – Scanner – Scanning electron microscope – SCART – Schematic – Schumann resonance – Scrambler – SECAM – Second audio program – Second-order intercept point – Security management – Self-clocking signal – Self-synchronizing code – Semiautomatic switching system – Semiconductor device – Semiconductor – Sensitivity – Sensor Networks – Separate channel signaling – Serial access – Serial ATA – Serial Peripheral Interface Bus – Serial transmission – Series and parallel circuits – Shadow loss – Shannon limit – Shannon's theorem – Short circuit – Shortwave – Shot noise – Shrinking generator – Side lobe – Sideband – Sidereal time – Siemens – Signal (information theory) – Signal compression – Signal processing gain – Signal processing – Signal reflection – Signal transition – Signal-to-crosstalk ratio – Signal-to-noise ratio – Signature block – Significant condition – Silicon bandgap temperature sensor – Silicon – Simplex circuit – Simplex signaling – Sinc filter – Single frequency networks – Single-phase electric power – Single-frequency signaling – Single-polarized antenna – Single-sideband modulation – Skew (antenna) – Skin effect – Skip zone – Skywave – Slant range – Slewing – Slew rate – Slot antenna – Slow-scan television – Software-defined radio – Solar cell – Soldering – Solenoid – Sound card – Space diversity – Space tether – Spark gap – Specific detectivity – Specification – Speckle pattern – Spectral width – Spectrum – Spectrum analyzer – Speed of light – Speed of service – SPICE – Spill-forward feature – Spillover – Spin glass – Spot beam – Spread spectrum – Spurious emission – Squelch – Standard telegraph level – Standard test signal – Standard test tone – Standing wave ratio – Standing wave – Starpath Supercharger – Start signal – Start-stop transmission – Static electricity – Steady-state condition – Step-index profile – Stoletov's law – Stop signal – Stopband – Store-and-forward switching center – Stressed environment – Strobe light – Stroke speed – Subcarrier – Subtractive synthesis – Sudden ionospheric disturbance – Supercomputer – Superconductivity – Superheterodyne receiver – Superparamagnetism – Superposition theorem – Supervisory program – Suppressed carrier transmission – Surface wave – Surface-mount technology – Surveillance device – Survivability – S-Video – Switch – Switched-mode power supply – Synchronism – Synchronization – Synchronizing – Synchronous network – Synchronous optical networking – Synthesizer – System integrity – Systems control

T
Table of standard electrode potentials – Tactical communications system – Tactical communications – Tactical data information link--A – Tantalum – Tape relay – T-carrier – Technical control facility – Telecommunication – Communications – Telecommunications service – Teleconference – Telegrapher's equations – Telegraphy – Telemetry – Telephone tapping – Teletext – Teletraining – Television – Television reception – TEMPEST – Tensor – Tesla coil – Tesla patents – Test antenna – Tether propulsion – Thermal noise – Thermistor – Thévenin's theorem – Third-order intercept point – TNC connector – Three phase – Time-assignment speech interpolation – Time-division multiple access – Time-division multiplexing – Time-domain reflectometer – Time-out – Tinfoil hat – Toll switching trunk – Total harmonic distortion – Total internal reflection – Traffic intensity – Traffic shaping – Transceiver – Transcoding – Transducer – Transformer – Transient electromagnetic device – Transimpedance amplifier – Transistor radio – Transistor – Transistor-transistor logic – TTL – Transition metal – Transmission coefficient – Transmission level point – Transmission line – Transmission medium – Medium – Transmit-after-receive time delay – Transmitter attack-time delay – Transmitter – Transmitter-studio link – Transparent latch – Transponder – Transverse redundancy check – Traveling-wave tube – TRF – Triangle wave – Trimline telephone – Troposphere – Tropospheric ducting – Tropospheric wave – Tuner – Twisted pair – TX

U
Ultra high frequency – Ultra Wideband – Ultraviolet – Unavailability – Uncertainty principle – Uniform linear array – Unijunction transistor – Unintentional radiator – Uplink – Upright position (electronics) – User (telecommunications)

V
VAC – Vačkář oscillator – Vacuum tube – Valence band – Variable length buffer – Varicap – Varistor – VDC – Vector field – Veroboard – Very high frequency – Very-large-scale integration – VHSIC hardware description language – Video cassette recorder – Video Game Console – Video Game – Video teleconference – Video teleconferencing unit – Video – Vienna rectifier – Vintage amateur radio – Virtual circuit capability – Virtual circuit – Virtual ground – Voice frequency primary patch bay – Voice frequency – Volt- Voltage bias – Voltage-to-current converter – Voltmeter – Vox

W
Wardenclyffe Tower – Warner exemption – Warsaw rectifier – Watt – Wave impedance – Wave propagation – Wave – Waveform – Waveguide antenna – Waveguide – Wavelength division multiplexing – Wavelength – Wheatstone bridge – Whip antenna – White facsimile transmission – Wideband modem – Williams tube – Wink pulsing – Wire wrap – Wire – Wireless access point – Wireless community network – Wireless network – Wireless personal area network – Wireless – X-dimension of recorded spot – XLR connector

Y
Yagi antenna – Y-delta transform – YUV

Z
Zero dBm transmission level point – Zero insertion force (ZIF) – Zero-dispersion wavelength – Zigbee – Zig-zag in-line package – Zobel network – Zone melting – Z-transform

title: Index of electronics articles


text:
Crimen sollicitationis

Crimen sollicitationis (Latin for On the Manner of Proceeding in Cases of the Crime of Solicitation ) is the title of a 1962 document ("instruction") of the Holy Office codifying procedures to be followed in cases of priests or bishops of the Catholic Church accused of having used the sacrament of Penance to make sexual advances to penitents. It repeated, with additions, the contents of an identically named instruction issued in 1922 by the same office.

The 1962 document, approved by Pope John XXIII and signed by Cardinal Alfredo Ottaviani, Secretary of the Holy Office, was addressed to "all Patriarchs, Archbishops, Bishops and other Local Ordinaries, including those of Eastern Rite". It was an internal document for use by the Curia, describing how the rules in the Code of Canon Law: on dealing with such cases, were to be implemented, and directed that the same procedures be used when dealing with denunciations of homosexual, paedophile or zoophile behaviour by clerics. Dioceses were to use the instruction for their own guidance and keep it in their archives for confidential documents; they were not to publish the instruction nor produce commentaries on it.

Crimen sollicitationis remained in effect until 18 May 2001, when it was replaced by new norms promulgated by the papal motu proprio Sacramentorum sanctitatis tutela of 30 April of the same year. Normally it would have ceased to have effect with the entry into force of the 1983 Code of Canon Law, which replaced the 1917 Code on which the 1962 document was based, but it continued in use, with some necessary adaptations, while a review of it was carried out.

Applicability and scope
In line with the opening words of the document, 70 of the 74 paragraphs of which it was composed dealt with cases concerning sexual advances during the sacrament of Penance, repeatedly referring to the complainant or injured party as "the penitent" (the person confessing sins); the final four paragraphs laid down that its contents applied also to crimen pessimum (the foulest crime), namely a homosexual act, with which were equated, for penal effects, any perpetrated or attempted externally obscene act with pre-adolescent children or brute animals. Charges concerning these crimes also were to be handled according to the norms of the document, even if committed without any connection with Penance.

Media accounts sometimes presented the instruction as not concerned principally with sexual solicitation in Confession, but with denunciations of paedophilia. While it is true that such acts were covered by Crimen sollicitationis, canon lawyers have argued that the secrecy provisions of the document "would not have tied the hands of a bishop, or anyone else, who wanted to report a crime by a priest to the police".

Canon law on cases of solicitation in confession
The Code of Canon Law in force when Crimen sollicitationis was issued obliged anyone whom a priest solicited in confession to denounce him within one month and ordered that any such priest be subjected to a serious ecclesiastical punishment:

"Canon 904. Ad normam constitutionum apostolicarum et nominatim constitutionis Benedicti XIV Sacramentum Poenitentiae, 1 Iun. 1741, debet poenitens sacerdotem, reum delicti sollicitationis in confessione, intra mensem denuntiare loci Ordinario, vel Sacrae Congregationi S. Officii; et confessarius debet, graviter onerata eius conscientia, de hoc onere poenitentem monere.

Canon 2368 §1. Qui sollicitationis crimen de quo in can. 904, commiserit, suspendatur a celebratione Missae et ab audiendis sacramentalibus confessionibus vel etiam pro delicti gravitate inhabilis ad ipsas excipiendas declaretur, privetur omnibus beneficiis, dignitatibus, voce activa et passiva, et inhabilis ad ea omnia declaretur, et in casibus gravioribus degradationi quoque subiiciatur

Canon 904. In accordance with the apostolic constitutions, in particular the constitution Sacramentum Poenitentiae of Benedict XIV of 1 June 1741, a penitent must within one month denounce to the local Ordinary or the Sacred Congregation of the Holy Office a priest guilty of the crime of solicitation in confession; and a confessor must, under a grave obligation of conscience, inform a penitent of this duty.

Canon 2368 §1. Anyone who has committed the crime of solicitation dealt with in canon 904 is to be suspended from celebrating Mass and hearing sacramental confessions and, if the gravity of the crime calls for it, he is to be declared unfit for hearing them; he is to be deprived of all benefices and ranks, of the right to vote or be voted for, and is to be declared unfit for all of them, and in more serious cases he is to be reduced to the lay state."

Crimen sollicitationis indicated the procedure to be followed between a denunciation and the possible infliction of a penalty.

Outline of the letter Crimen sollicitationis

 * Preliminaries (sections 1–14)
 * Title One: First intimation of the crime (15-28)
 * Title Two: The trial (29–60)
 * Chapter I: Investigation (29–41)
 * Chapter II: Canonical regulations and cautioning of the accused (42–46)
 * Chapter III: Summoning the accused (47–54)
 * Chapter IV: Conduct of the trial, verdict and appeal (55–60)
 * Title Three: Penalties (61–65)
 * Title Four: Official communication (66–70)
 * Title Five: The most evil crime (71–74)
 * Approval by Pope John XXIII on 16 March 1962
 * Appendices:
 * Formula A: oath of office
 * Formula B: abjuration of errors
 * Formula C: absolution from excommunication
 * Formula D: delegating a person to receive a denunciation
 * Formula E: receiving a denunciation
 * Formula F: delegating a person to examine witnesses
 * Formula G: full examination of a witness (about the priest and the accuser)
 * Formula H: partial examination of a witness (about the accuser only)
 * Formula I: general examination of the accuser
 * Formula L: conclusions and proposal of the Promoter of Justice
 * Formula M: decision of the Local Ordinary
 * Formula N: admonition of the accused
 * Formula O: decree of arraignment
 * Formula P: examination of the accused
 * Formula Q: conclusions and proposal of the Promoter of Justice
 * Formula R: sentencing a convicted accused person who denies guilt
 * Formula S: sentencing a convicted accused person who admits guilt
 * Formula T: communication of the sentence to the accused

Contents
The document's title, "Instructio de modo procedendi in causis sollicitationis" (Instruction on procedure in solicitation cases), indicates that it was composed to indicate how to carry out a canonical investigation into accusations of solicitation. It described the procedures to be followed in each phase: reception of a denunciation; the course of the investigation, summoning the accused, sentencing, and the possibility of appeal.

The result of the investigation could vary:
 * if the accusation appeared to be unfounded, this was stated in the record and the documents containing the accusation were destroyed;
 * if only vague evidence emerged, the case was filed away for use if fresh evidence appeared;
 * if the evidence was strong but insufficient for arraigning the accused, he was given an admonition and the records were preserved with a view to any further developments;
 * if the evidence was strong enough, the accused person was summoned and a canonical trial took place.

Quoting canon 2368 §1 of the 1917 Code of Canon Law, then in force, Crimen sollicitationis, 61 indicated the penalties that could be imposed after conviction. These penalties, such as suspension a divinis, deprivation of an office or rank, and reduction to the lay state, were of public character, even if the trial itself had been conducted with all due secrecy. The same part of the document laid down that, in addition to those penalties, penances should be imposed on guilty priests, and those in danger of repeating their crime should be subjected to particular vigilance (64).

Except in connection with the sacrament of Penance, canon law imposed no legal obligation – though a moral one might exist – to denounce clerics guilty of engaging in or attempting a homosexual act; but the procedure described in Crimen sollicitationis was to be followed also in dealing with such accusations (71–72). And any gravely sinful external obscene act with prepubescent children of either sex or with animals engaged in or attempted by a cleric was to be treated, for its penal effects, as equivalent to an actual or attempted homosexual act (73).

Unless solicitation in connection with Confession was involved, not only the local bishop but also superiors of religious orders exempt from the jurisdiction of the local bishop could proceed, either by formal trial or non-judicially ("modo administrativo"), against members of those orders who had committed such crimes; superiors of non-exempt religious orders could also do so, but only non-judicially (74).

Trial confidentiality
Since Crimen sollicitationis was primarily concerned with offenses committed in the confessional, this "...presented particular problems of investigation, because in most cases the priest could not be interrogated fully without putting the seal of confession in danger."

Section 11 of Crimen sollicitationis outlines the required confidentiality of the investigation into accusations of the crime of solicitation. The document imposed absolute confidentiality on the trial's proceedings (explicitly excepting "what may happen to be lawfully published when this process is concluded and put into effect", the term "published" meaning "publication of the evidence" in Canon Law, or the conclusion of the "discovery phase" in a civil trial, before the verdict is rendered), both during its conduct and after any concluding verdict had been put into effect:

"Quoniam vero quod in hisce causis tractandis maiorem in modum curari et observari debet illud est ut eaedem secretissime peragantur et, postquam fuerint definitae et executioni iam traditae, perpetuo silentio premantur (Instr. Sancti Officii, 20 febr. 1867, n. 14); omnes et singuli ad tribunal quomodocumque pertinentes vel propter eorum officium ad rerum notitiam admissi arctissimum secretum, quod secretum Sancti Officii communiter audit, in omnibus et cum omnibus, sub poena excommunicationis latae sententiae, ipso facto et absque alia declaratione incurrendae atque uni personae Summi Pontificis, ad exclusionem etiam Sacrae Poenitentiariae, reservatae, inviolabiliter servare tenentur.

Since, however, in dealing with these causes, more than usual care and concern must be shown that they be treated with the utmost confidentiality, and that, once decided and the decision executed, they are covered by permanent silence (Instruction of the Holy Office, 20 February 1867,No. 14), all those persons in any way associated with the tribunal, or knowledgeable of these matters by reason of their office, are bound to observe inviolably the strictest confidentiality, commonly known as the secret of the Holy Office, in all things and with all persons, under pain of incurring automatic excommunication, ipso facto and undeclared, reserved to the sole person of the Supreme Pontiff, excluding even the Sacred Penitentiary. Ordinaries are bound by this same law, that is, in virtue of their own office; other personnel are bound in virtue of the oath which they are always to swear before assuming their duties; and, finally,those delegated, questioned or informed [outside the tribunal], are bound in virtue of the precept to be imposed on them in the letters of delegation, inquiry or information, with express mention of the secret of the Holy Office and of the aforementioned censure."

An oath of secrecy was to be taken by all members of the tribunal; violation incurred a penalty of automatic excommunication. The ecclesiastical penalty for violation of secrecy by the accused priest was automatic suspension a divinis, although he was free to discuss with his defence counsel (Section 13).

Unless violation of secrecy occurred after an explicit procedural warning given in the course of their examination (Section 13; and cf. Section 23 concerning the person denouncing solicitation: "before the person is dismissed, there should be presented to the person, as above, an oath of observing the secret, threatening the person, if there is a need, with an excommunication reserved to the Ordinary or to the Holy See"), no ecclesiastical penalties were to be imposed on the accusers and witnesses.

The oath of office to be taken by the members of the tribunal was given as Formula A:

"Spondeo, voveo ac iuro, inviolabile secretum me servaturum in omnibus et singulis quae mihi in praefato munere exercendo occurrerint, exceptis dumtaxat iis quae in fine et expeditiones [recte: expeditione] huius negotii legitime publicari contingat ... neque unquam directe vel indirecte, nutu, verbo, scriptis, aut alio quovis modo et sub quocumque colorato praetextu, etiam maioris boni aut urgentissimae et gravissimae causae, contra hanc secreti fidem quidquam commissurum, nisi peculiaris facultas aut dispensatio expresse mihi a Summo Pontifice tributa fuerit.

I do promise, vow and swear that I will maintain inviolate secrecy about each and every thing brought to my knowledge in the performance of my aforesaid function, excepting only what may happen to be lawfully published when this process is concluded and put into effect ... and that I will never directly or indirectly, by gesture, word, writing or in any other way, and under any pretext, even that of a greater good or of a highly urgent and serious reason, do anything against this fidelity to secrecy, unless special permission or dispensation is expressly granted to me by the Supreme Pontiff."

Interviewed for a television programme in 2006, canon lawyer Thomas Doyle is quoted as saying that the tight secrecy demanded for the procedure as "an explicit written policy to cover up cases of child sexual abuse by the clergy, to punish those who would call attention to these crimes by churchmen". However, regarding the programme transcript, the BBC "cannot vouch for its accuracy". Not long after the broadcast, Doyle said, "Although I was a consultant to the producers of the documentary I am afraid that some of the distinctions I have made about the 1962 document have been lost. I do not believe now nor have I ever believed it to be proof of an explicit conspiracy, in the conventional sense, engineered by top Vatican officials, to cover up cases of clergy sexual abuse."

In the study of the instruction that he revised less than two years later he stated: "According to the 1922 and 1962 documents, accusers and witnesses are bound by the secrecy obligation during and after the process but certainly not prior to the initiation of the process. There is no basis to assume that the Holy See envisioned this process to be a substitute for any secular legal process, criminal or civil. It is also incorrect to assume, as some have unfortunately done, that these two Vatican documents are proof of a conspiracy to hide sexually abusive priests or to prevent the disclosure of sexual crimes committed by clerics to secular authorities." He also remarked: "To fully understand the overriding concern for secrecy one must also understand the traditional canonical concept known as the 'Privilege of the Forum' privilegium fori which has its roots in medieval Canon Law. Basically this is a traditional privilege claimed by the institutional church whereby clerics accused of crimes were tried before ecclesiastical courts and not brought before civil or secular courts. Although this privilege is anachronistic in contemporary society, the attitude or mentality which holds clerics accountable only to the institutional church authorities is still active. This does not mean that the official Church believes that clerics accused of crimes should not to be held accountable. It means that during certain periods in history the Church has believed that it alone should have the right to subject accused clerics to a judicial process."

John L. Allen Jr. has said the secrecy was aimed rather at the protection of all involved, the accused, the victim/denouncer and the witnesses, before the verdict was passed, and for free finding of facts.

Involvement of the Holy See
A New York Times article published on 1 July 2010 said that the 1962 instruction was a restatement of that of 1922, giving the Sacred Congregation of the Holy Office authority to prosecute clergy accused of sexual abuse. According to Canon law expert Nicholas P. Cafardi, the CDF itself didn't know it had this power under Ratzinger, until 2001. "From what can be deduced from published reports, there seems to have been a power struggle going on between Cardinal Dario Castrillon Hoyos, prefect of the Congregation for the Clergy and Ratzinger at the CDF over which congregation had competency in the matter of clergy who had sexually abused minors." At a meeting in Rome in 2000, Archbishop of Adelaide, Philip Wilson, drew Vatican officials' attention to the long forgotten Crimen sollicitationis which gave CDF jurisdiction. Pope John Paul II subsequently issued Sacramentorum Sanctitatis Tutela directing that all cases of sexual abuse by priests be handled by the CDF.

Crimen sollicitationis repeated that, under pain of grave sin, any ordinary (bishop or equivalent) who received a denunciation of the crime of solicitation was to inform immediately the Holy See and the ordinary of the place of residence of the accused priest. It was for the ordinary of the place of residence to investigate the charge at the first level (in prima instantia); the Holy See reserved to itself the right to intervene at this level only "for particular and grave reasons".

The defendant did not lose the right that all members of the Church have to ask that their cases, at any level, be submitted to the Holy See; but once the trial had begun, such a recourse did not suspend the jurisdiction of the local judge, unless he learned that the Holy See had actually accepted the recourse. After sentence was passed, the defendant could appeal to the Holy See against it within ten days. If he did, any suspension from hearing confessions or exercising sacred ministry remained in force, but any other penalties imposed on him were suspended, until a decision was made on the appeal. The "promoter of justice" (the official Church prosecutor) could likewise appeal to the Holy See against a verdict in favour of the accused. This constituted an exception to the normal procedure whereby appeals against a first-level sentence are made to a designated second-level tribunal, with the case going to Rome only if the first two tribunals give discordant verdicts.

title: Crimen sollicitationis


text:
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