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USS Cumberland (1842)

The first USS Cumberland was a 50-gun sailing frigate of the United States Navy. She was the first ship sunk by the ironclad CSS Virginia.

Cumberland began in the pages of a Congressional Act. Congress passed in 1816 "An act for the gradual increase of the Navy of the United States." The act called for the U.S. to build several ships-of-the-line and several new frigates, of which Cumberland was to be one. Money issues, however, prevented Cumberland from being finished in a timely manner. It was not until Secretary of the Navy Abel Parker Upshur came to office that the ship was finished. A war scare with Britain led Upshur to order the completion of several wooden sailing ships and for the construction of new steam powered ships.

Designed by famed American designer William Doughty, Cumberland was one a series of frigates in a class called the Raritan-class. The design borrowed heavily from older American frigate designs such as Constitution and Chesapeake. Specifically, Doughty liked the idea of giving a frigate more guns than European designs called for. As a result, he called for Cumberland and her sister ships to have a fully armed spar deck, along with guns on the gun deck. The result was a heavily armed, 50-gun warship.

First Mediterranean cruise
She was launched on 24 May 1842 by Boston Navy Yard. Her first commanding officer was Captain Samuel Livingston Breese, and her first service was as flagship of the Mediterranean Squadron from 1843 to 1845 where she had among her officers men like Foote (who served as executive officer) and Dahlgren (who served as a flag aide to Commodore Joseph Smith). The ship sailed to several parts of the Mediterranean including Port Mahon (homeport for U.S. Navy ships operating in the Mediterranean at this time), Genoa, Naples, Toulon, Jaffa, and Alexandria. The cruise was largely uneventful, though there was a diplomatic scuffle with the Sultan of Morocco who refused to recognize the newly appointed American ambassador. The incident possibly was the result of the Sultan being misled by the outgoing American ambassador who did not want to leave his post. Smith cleared up the misunderstanding and the new ambassador assumed his duties. The most notable event was Foote's successful effort to ban the grog ration. He believed it was a grand success in turning sailors into harder working, upstanding men. It later became department policy in 1862 and it is still in effect to this day (with some exceptions.)

Mexican–American War
As the ship was being made ready for a second trip to the Mediterranean, the Secretary of the Navy ordered the vessel to Mexico to assist in a show of force off the coast of Vera Cruz. Here she was flagship of the Home Squadron between February and December 1846, serving in the Gulf of Mexico during the Mexican–American War under the command of Cmdre. David Conner and Capt. Thomas Dulay. Capt. French Forrest later took command when Dulay fell ill. Other notable officers in this cruise were future Civil War rivals Raphael Semmes and John Winslow. The ship oversaw the blockade of the eastern Mexican coast for most of the war. She participated in several aborted attacks on Mexican ports, before running aground on 28 July off the coast of Alvarado. The ship was freed and her ship's company later participated in a raid on Tabasco. The grounding damaged her enough to force her to retire to Norfolk for repairs. Her crew, however, stayed behind and swapped ships with the crew of the sister frigate Raritan, which had been at sea for three years. The old crew participated in the Siege of Veracruz as part of the Naval battery.

Cumberland returned to Mexico just as a ceasefire was in place. Commodore Matthew C. Perry took over as flag officer from Conner. From Cumberland, Perry was instructed by the Polk Administration to assist settlers fleeing a major Mayan insurrection (known as the Caste War of Yucatán). Perry was also ordered to enforce the Monroe Doctrine and keep Spanish and English forces from interfering. With no realistic way to assist the settlers Perry partially ignored the order when Spanish warships arrived from Cuba loaded with guns, bullets, and money. Perry left the region when he read that the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo had been ratified.

Second Mediterranean cruise
Cumberland made her second cruise to the Mediterranean from 1849 to 1851. Notable officers on board during the second and third cruises to the Mediterranean included Louis M. Goldsborough, John H. Upshur, Silas Stringham, Andrew A. Harwood, John Worden (future commanding of officer of USS Monitor), and naval surgeon Dr. Edward Squibb (co-founder of the company now known as Bristol-Myers Squibb).

Cumberland's primary mission during these two cruises was to uphold American neutrality during a very turbulent period in European history by assisting American diplomats, merchants, and increasingly large number of American missionaries. The ship made visits to La Spezia (the U.S. Navy's new overseas homeport after being expelled from Port Mahon), Naples, Trieste, and Brindisi. At one point police in Naples boarded the ship based on a false rumor that Italian nationalist Giuseppe Garibaldi was on board. The ship also sailed to the eastern half of the Mediterranean and visited Athens, Beirut, and Alexandria.

Third Mediterranean cruise

The third Mediterranean cruise departed from Boston on 8 May 1852. During the third cruise, the ship worked closely with diplomat and early environmentalist George Perkins Marsh who was serving as American ambassador to the Ottoman Empire. Marsh needed Cumberland's help in dealing with zealous Greek priests who were harassing American missionaries, notably Rev. Jonas King. Cmdre. Stringham and Marsh met with Greek monarch King Otto and stopped the harassment. Marsh needed Cumberland a second time when the powers of Europe were about to clash in the Crimean War. Stringham invited any American on board who felt they needed protection or assistance. Abd-ul-Mejid I, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, invited Stringham and Marsh for an official visit to determine the position of the U.S. in a possible war with Russia. Both Stringham and Marsh expressed their sympathies to the Sultan but maintained American neutrality on the subject.

According to the autobiography of James Edward Watters (a crew member), during the third cruise of the USS Cumberland in the Mediterranean, while the Cumberland was at Constantinople, "the Turkish garrison, in firing a salute, by mistake fired a shotted gun, the shot striking the water not a great distance from our boat. The Commodore (Stringham) said to the Captain (Goldsberry), 'Put an Officer in a boat and send him ashore to ask whether they want that salute returned the way they gave.' the officer started but was met by an Officer (of the Turkish garrison) who apologized saying it was a mistake."

The third was long even by 19th century standards. Due to a lack of sailors to man a replacement ship, SecNav James C. Dobbin did not recall Cumberland until the ship had been at sea for three years. The ship returned home to the Boston (Massachusetts) Navy Yard (also known as Charlestown Navy Yard) in June, 1855.

Conversion
From 1855 to 1857, Cumberland was razeed at the Charlestown Navy Yard in Boston. From his office in Washington, D.C., John Lenthall, the Chief of the Bureau of Construction and Repair, directed the changes to the ship. The Navy gave the vessel a completely new battery. On the spar deck, two X-inch Dahlgren gun smoothbores were placed, one at each end of the ship. On the gun deck, twenty IX-inch Dahlgren smoothbores were placed. By razeeing the ship, Cumberland got an extension of life. The Navy made her a lighter ship and thus slightly faster. Specifically, the shipyard workers removed the spar deck guns and lowered the bulwarks, decreasing the weight of the ship and reducing the crew and supply needs.

This move was assisted by the revolution in naval weapons that provided more powerful guns (and thus needing fewer guns). While steam powered ships were entering the fleet, there was still a need for all the sail ships. As late as 1860, Secretary of the Navy Isaac Toucey suggested that all Potomac-class frigates be razeed.

Africa/slave trade patrol
From 1857 to 1859, she cruised on the coast of Africa as flagship of the African Squadron patrolling for the suppression of the slave trade. Like many U.S. Navy ships in Africa, Cumberland employed a number of Krooman (indigenous Africans who lived on the western coast) to serve as scouts, interpreters, and fishermen. The ship's surgeons had to deal with a number of issues, including an outbreak of smallpox.

Cumberland boarded several dozen merchant ships. Her crew almost seized one, the schooner Cortez, after shackles and known slave trading items had been found on the deck of the schooner, a slave trading holding pen had been spotted in the distance, the ship's papers were highly suspect, and the ship was far from any port. Cumberland's boarding officer, however, chose not to seize the ship possibly realizing the legal difficulty of bringing slave traders to trial without overwhelming evidence. Cortez was later captured by HMS Arrow in 1858 off the coast of Cuba.

Otherwise, the ship served as the squadron's supply vessel providing supplies to the other three ships in the squadron, the sloops-of-war Dale, Vincennes, and Marion and served as roving diplomat along the three thousand mile coast line.

Home Squadron
After her return from Africa, Cumberland became flagship of the Home Squadron in 1860. She made a return trip to Vera Cruz, which was in the middle of a civil war. The Navy recalled her to Hampton Roads, Virginia when domestic issues in the U.S. took a turn for the worse.

American Civil War
At the outbreak of the American Civil War, Cumberland was at the Gosport Navy Yard, with orders to monitor the situation in Norfolk and Portsmouth. After the attack on Fort Sumter, the ship's company was ordered to gather up or destroy U.S. Government property. This included several crates of small arms and possibly (not yet confirmed) gold from the U.S. Customs House in Norfolk. The company was also ordered to spike all 3,000 guns at the Navy Yard within just a few hours. This latter task was impossible, given that only 100 sailors were assigned to the task. Sailors from the Yard and the barracks ship Pennsylvania boarded Cumberland as a part of the evacuation.

She was towed out of the Yard by the tug Yankee, assisted by the steam sloop Pawnee, escaping destruction when other ships there were scuttled and burned by Union forces on 20 April 1861 to prevent their capture. She sailed back to Boston for repairs. The aft 10-inch shell gun was removed and replaced with what many officers referred to as a 70-pounder rifle. This gun did not exist in the Navy's inventory at the time. It was possibly a 5.3 in, 60 pdr Parrott rifle.

She sailed back to Hampton Roads and took up station as a blockader, serving in the North Atlantic Blockading Squadron until 8 March 1862. The sloop-of-war engaged Confederate forces in several minor actions in Hampton Roads and captured many small ships in the harbor. Additionally, Cumberland was a part of the expedition that captured the forts at Cape Hatteras.

Cumberland was rammed and sunk in an engagement with the Confederate ironclad CSS Virginia (formerly USS Merrimack (1855)) at Newport News, Virginia on 8 March 1862. The engagement known as the first day of the Battle of Hampton Roads between the two ships is considered to be a turning point in the history of world naval affairs as it showed the advantage of steam-powered, armored ships over sail-powered wooden-hulled ships. Because of Cumberland, Virginia lost two of her guns, her ram, and suffered some internal damage. Congress later recognized that Cumberland did more damage to Virginia than the U.S. Navy's ironclad Monitor, which did battle with Virginia the next day.

One of the men who died aboard Cumberland was Navy chaplain John L. Lenhart, a Methodist minister. He was the first Navy chaplain to lose his life in battle.

The battle with Virginia was commemorated in a poem On Board the Cumberland that was illustrated by F. O. C. Darley, and in the song Cumberland's Crew printed in 1865 but author unknown. That song inspired a century of folk songs of the same or similar names, such as Cumberland and the Merrimac.

Salvage
Cumberland became an archaeological site the moment she sank to a watery grave, in that the federal government almost immediately solicited work from salvage companies to secure valuable items from the shipwreck.

In his memoir, When the Yankees Came, Virginia resident George Benjamin West described some post-war work on Cumberland: "After the war ... I have very often been on the boats that worked on the Cumberland, first by a German named West and then by a company of Detroit, Michigan, which purchased her from West and which brought down a great many of the [Great] Lakes divers to try to secure the $40,000 in gold said to be in an iron chest in the paymaster's stateroom. ... ... His [the German diver West's] plan, as told to me, was to start under the stern, which lay down the river, and blow a hole in her and work towards the paymaster's stateroom. He did the diving himself and did not attempt to get any wreckage save the pieces he blew out of the side and brought up on deck, and the copper bolts cut out. The difficulty he had was the foiling-in of mud and sand, and having to grope in the utter darkness. It was very dangerous, and several times he was brought up unconscious."

Occasional salvage of the shipwrecks continued into the early 20th century. In 1909, part of Cumberland's anchor chain was recovered and sent to the museum of the Confederacy in Richmond (Newport News Daily Press, 12 November 1909).

In 1981, the National Underwater and Marine Agency (NUMA) contracted with Underwater Archaeological Joint Ventures (UAJV), a private firm based in Yorktown, Virginia. UAJV team members consulted local watermen (whose oyster dredges had picked up artifacts for years) to help locate the ships. This information and a remote sensing survey led archaeologists to two significant wrecks. The recovery of numerous artifacts confirmed that these shipwrecks were most likely Cumberland and CSS Florida. Artifacts recovered included fasteners, fittings, apothecary vessels, a ship's bell (from Cumberland), cannon fuses and other ordnance items. The artifacts proved the NUMA/UAJV team had indeed found Cumberland and Florida. Most of the artifacts from this NUMA/UAJV excavation are on exhibit at the Hampton Roads Naval Museum in Norfolk, VA (Newport News Daily Press, 8 March 1987).

Cumberland today
Cumberland is currently a shipwreck under the protection of several Federal laws, including the Sunken Military Craft Act of 2005, the Abandoned Shipwreck Act of 1987, and the Territorial Clause of the U.S. Constitution (which gives the U.S. Government exclusive rights to its own property). Federal courts have upheld these laws and the U.S. Government's exclusive rights to its own ships.

Since her sinking, the ship has been the subject of many expeditions. Some of these expeditions have been in violation of Federal law and artifacts were seized by Federal agents. Many artifacts from these expeditions (both legal and illegal) are at the Hampton Roads Naval Museum.

The wreck is facing west to east, with the bow of the vessel slightly above the floor of Hampton Roads.

title: USS Cumberland (1842)


text:
Talk:List of sailing frigates of the United States Navy

Question
Not to be pedantic, but aren't all frigates "sailing" frigates? RickK 05:35 12 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * No, because you also have the modern "frigates", which are like small destroyers, hull symbol FFG. Frigate has a bit of info about them, down near the end. Stan 06:10 12 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Royal Navy fighting directions
I removed the "fighting directions" claim, as no such order was given. Luck, the size and skill of crews, and weather conditions were all additional complicating factors that made a simple comparison of the gun size and scantling thickness meaningless, and the British Admiralty knew that. Sloops have deliberately attacked heavy-frigates and won, given the right conditions, and it would be take the initiative away from captains. Additionally, he vast majority of battles in that area were one-on-one. For example, the USS Chesapeake was defeated in a mutually sought battle against the HMS Shannon Therealhazel 01:25, 21 May 2006 (UTC)

 * The fighting instruction in question referred to the American 44s, not to the smaller Chesapeake, etc. It's substantiated in Canney's Sailing Warships of the US Navy. That said, it doesn't seem relevant here. --Columbia clipper (talk) 00:43, 16 July 2009 (UTC)

Classes?
Why are these frigates listed in classes? I may be mistaken, but that seems pretty anachronistic. Ships in those days were not thought of in terms of classes - for example, I've never heard of the original 44-gun frigates referred to as "United States Class" ships in period literature. I assume this "classing" of frigates is a modern innovation, but it doesn't seem particularly helpful. It gives an impression of uniformity that wasn't there - each ship built in that period had its own individual characteristics (compare the sailing qualities of the United States and the President) even if they were built to a similar plan. On the other hand, classifying ships in terms of the number of guns they had makes more sense to me, and was the system in use at the time. Groundsquirrel13 (talk) 17:48, 11 August 2009 (UTC)

 * The concept of ship classes is anachronistic, but technically correct. A ship class, regardless of era, consists of "all ships of essentially the same design."1  Modern publications have come to list ships of earlier periods according to this admittedly latter-day convention.

 * Presently, the gun strengths of the sundry vessels are not listed because of their variance in official documents. The Constitution, for instance, was listed as 44 guns when constructed, but was rated as 50 guns by 1853.

 * 1Wikipedia, is, unfortunately the only source I can find which explicitly defines "ship class" (at both class and ship class), despite widespread use of the term with the definition this encyclopedia indicates.--Columbia clipper (talk) 23:32, 9 March 2010 (UTC)
 * According to a Navy Times article excerpted here (the original piece is no longer available online), A.D. Baker, editor of the U.S. Naval Institute's Naval Institute Guide to Combat Fleets of the World from 1977 to 2002, defined ship class in this way: "'Class' means design, characteristics, dimensions, appearance . . . it has nothing to do with type." --Columbia clipper (talk) 23:12, 23 March 2010 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Talk:Adelaide

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Tarndanya vs Tarntanya
I don't understand why both are being used in this article. Calle Widmann (talk) 09:13, 7 January 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Adelaide


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Invocation

In Western ritual magic, invocations (from the Latin verb invocare "to call on, invoke, to give") are a field involving communicating or interacting with certain incorporeal, supernatural spirits. Invocation may take the form of:

 * Supplication, prayer or spell.
 * A form of possession.
 * Command or conjuration.
 * Self-identification with certain spirits.

These forms are described below, but are not mutually exclusive. See also Theurgy.

Supplication or prayer
As a supplication or prayer, an invocation implies calling upon God, a god, goddess, or person. When a person calls upon God, a god, or goddess to ask for something (protection, a favour, or his/her spiritual presence in a ceremony) or simply for worship, this can be done in a pre-established form or with the invoker's own words or actions. An example of a pre-established text for an invocation is the Lord's Prayer.

All religions in general use invoking prayers, liturgies, or hymns; see for example the mantras in Hinduism and Buddhism, the Egyptian Coming Out by Day (aka Book of the Dead), the Orphic Hymns and the many texts, still preserved, written in cuneiform characters on clay tablets, addressed to Shamash, Ishtar, and other deities.

In Islam, invocation is a prayer of supplication or request. Muslims regard this as a profound act of worship. Muhammad is reported to have said, "Dua is the very essence of worship." One of the earliest treaties on invocations, attributed to a scholar named Khālid ibn Yazīd, has survived on a papyrus booklet dated 880-881.

As alternative to prayer
An invocation can also be a secular alternative to a prayer. On August 30, 2012, Dan Nerren, a member of the Humanist Association of Tulsa, delivered a secular invocation to open a meeting of the City Council of Tulsa. Nerren was invited to perform the invocation as a compromise following a long-running dispute with the City Council over prayers opening meetings. The invocation was written by Andrew Lovley, a member of the Southern Maine Association of Secular Humanists who had previously used the invocation in 2009 to invoke an inauguration ceremony for new city officials in South Portland, Maine.

In this usage, it is comparable to an affirmation as an alternative for those who conscientiously object to taking oaths of any kind, be it for reasons of belief or non-belief.

A form of possession
The word "possession" is used here in its neutral form to mean "a state (sometimes psychological) in which an individual's normal personality is replaced by another". This is also sometimes known as 'aspecting'. This can be done as a means of communicating with or getting closer to a deity or spirit, and as such need not be viewed synonymously with demonic possession.

In some religious traditions including Paganism, Shamanism and Wicca, "invocation" means to draw a spirit or Spirit force into one's own body and is differentiated from "evocation", which involves asking a spirit or force to become present at a given location. Again, Aleister Crowley states that

"To 'invoke' is to 'call in', just as to 'evoke' is to 'call forth'. This is the essential difference between the two branches of Magick. In invocation, the macrocosm floods the consciousness. In evocation, the magician, having become the macrocosm, creates a microcosm."

Possessive invocation may be attempted singly or, as is often the case in Wicca, in pairs - with one person doing the invocation (reciting the liturgy or prayers and acting as anchor), and the other person being invoked (allowing themselves to become a vessel for the spirit or deity). The person successfully invoked may be moved to speak or act in non-characteristic ways, acting as the deity or spirit; and they may lose all or some self-awareness while doing so. A communication might also be given via imagery (a religious vision). They may also be led to recite a text in the manner of that deity, in which case the invocation is more akin to ritual drama. The Wiccan Charge of the Goddess is an example of such a pre-established recitation. See also the ritual of Drawing Down the Moon.

The ecstatic, possessory form of invocation may be compared to loa possession in the Vodou tradition where devotees are described as being "ridden" or "mounted" by the deity or spirit. In 1995 National Geographic journalist Carol Beckwith described events she had witnessed during Vodoun possessions:

"A woman splashed sand into her eyes, a man cut his belly with shards of glass but did not bleed, another swallowed fire. Nearby a believer, perhaps a yam farmer or fisherman, heated hand-wrought knives in crackling flames. Then another man brought one of the knives to his tongue. We cringed at the sight and were dumbfounded when, after several repetitions, his tongue had not even reddened."

Possessive invocation has also been described in certain Norse rites where Odin is invoked to "ride" workers of seidr (Norse shamanism), much like the god rides his eight-legged horse Sleipnir. Indeed, forms of possessive invocation appear throughout the world in most mystical or ecstatic traditions, wherever devotees seek to touch upon the essence of a deity or spirit.

Command or conjuration
"I am Pazuzu, son of the king of the evil spirits, that one who descends impetuously from the mountains and bring the storms. That is the one I am."

Self-identification with certain spirits
Invocation can refer to taking on the qualities of the being invoked, such as the allure of Aphrodite or the ferocity of Kali. In this instance the being is literally called up from within oneself (as an archetype) or into oneself (as an external force), depending on the personal belief system of the invoker. The main difference between this type of invocation and the possessive category described above is that the former may appear more controlled, with self-identification and deity-identification mixed together. In practice, invocations may blend many or all of these categories. See for example this Hymn to Astarte from the Songs of Bilitis, first attributed to a contemporary of Sappho (but actually written by Pierre Louÿs in the 1890s):

title: Invocation


text:
Orias

In demonology, Orias (also spelled Oriax) is a Great Marquis of Hell, and has thirty legions of demons under his command. He knows and teaches the virtues of the stars and the mansions of the planets (the influence of each planet depending on the astrological sign in which it is in a specific moment and the influence of that sign on an individual depending on how the zodiac was configured at the moment of their birth or at the moment of asking a question to the astrologist); he also gives dignities, prelacies, and the favour of friends and foes, and can metamorphose a man into any shape.

The Fifty-ninth Spirit is Oriax, or Orias. He is a Great Marquis, and appeareth in the Form of a Lion, 3 riding upon a Horse Mighty and Strong, with a Serpent's Tail; 4 and he holdeth in his Right Hand two Great Serpents hissing. His Office is to teach the Virtues of the Stars, and to know the Mansions of the Planets, and how to understand their Virtues. He also transformeth Men, and he giveth Dignities, Prelacies, and Confirmation thereof; also Favour with Friends and with Foes. He doth govern 30 Legions of Spirits; and his Seal is this, etc.

title: Orias


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Talk:Occident (disambiguation)

Untitled
This page has been listed for deletion. -Smack 05:52 12 Jul 2003 (UTC)

It should be put in wiktionary if it hasn't already.
 * i just changed it to a redirect to "western world" Bueller 007 14:55, 1 April 2006 (UTC)

Requested move 30 December 2015

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: moved. There is a consensus that Western world is the primary topic for the term "Occident". Jenks24 (talk) 09:00, 11 January 2016 (UTC)

Occident → Occident (disambiguation) – a technical move to revert a previous move that removed the WP:PRIMARYTOPIC Western world. AFAIK (maybe the discussion was deleted), that had no discussion or consensus (the PRIMARYTOPIC redirect being previously G6'd leaving a lack of redirect to the primarytopic - so this move involves reinstating that redirect Occident -> Western world) when there's a clear one and a discussion could have been had to remove it. This is a technical move that has been contested. A hatnote at the target PT is adequate. The reinstatement of the PT is based on the weak other uses - a stub film, a French 4 year movement, a 19th-century periodical, a former name of a CDP (1K residents), and a WP:DABMENTION song. Widefox ; talk 02:12, 30 December 2015 (UTC)
 * Ping (recent) editors User:2602:306:cf2a:5580:b4a1:ad04:acf9:4a0a User:Graeme Bartlett User:Trappist the monk User:Bhny User:Florian Blaschke User:Proscribe Widefox ; talk 02:31, 30 December 2015 (UTC)
 * User:Coastside. Widefox ; talk 02:41, 30 December 2015 (UTC)
 * Looking at the deleted versions, I moved the page on 1 July 2012 as user:coastside said "no primary topic, so dab page should be title". On 1 April Bueller 007 had this as a redirect to "Western_world". Before then and back till 2003 there was a bit of an expanded dictionary defintion on the page. It was created by IP: 24.42.43.3 as an unencyclopedic dictionary defintion, and for 2 months in 2003 spent time as a redirect. I still agree that the primary topic, western world, is actually not often used, and people probably don't look for that. Perhaps we need to look at article view stats to see how many pick that option.  I don't think we need a defintion, as Wiktionary can do that. Graeme Bartlett (talk) 11:19, 30 December 2015 (UTC)
 * Oppose – I agree with no primary topic here. Dicklyon (talk) 23:22, 30 December 2015 (UTC)
 * Care to reason? (the article stats are below). Widefox ; talk 03:38, 31 December 2015 (UTC)

So on article popularity alone (rather that use of this term for the popular article), this is more popular than all others combined 83%:17% or roughly 5x more popular (caveat uncorrected: * less for arcane term vs commonname, ** more per the song being only a WP:DABMENTION entry). The proportion using this term for the popular article is unknown. Model a plausible estimate of lower bound of use of the dab Occident -> Western world on these assumptions: 1. discard the ** dabmention completely, 2. assume all article hits come through here (the upperbound for rivals to the primarytopic), then: 6342-1022-933-864-321:1022+933+864+321 = 3202:3140 or roughly 50%:50% as a lowerbound - so again more popular than all others combined (excluding **).
 * Although not a direct count of the use of the alternative name (potential use of a redirect to a primarytopic) the 90d article traffic is clear:
 * Occident: 6342
 * 1) Western world: 130905 * (ranked 872)
 * 2) All others combined: 26737
 * 3) Occident (film): 1022
 * 4) Maxwell, California: 933
 * 5) Occident (movement): 864
 * 6) The Occident and American Jewish Advocate: 321
 * 7) Have One on Me: 23597 ** (note also traffic peaked months ago, so taking a 30d rather than 90d would almost half this viewrate)
 * It's by far the most popular article, more popular than all others combined - a classic primarytopic per WP:PRIMARYTOPIC (even after assuming all traffic to the others goes through this dab) and has longevity (despite somewhat of an arcane term.) Widefox ; talk 03:38, 31 December 2015 (UTC)
 * Huh? Being the most popular article of a set doesn't make it primary topic for a term seldom used for that purpose. Dicklyon (talk) 06:12, 31 December 2015 (UTC)
 * Huh got evidence for "seldom used"? Obscure and primarytopic are not mutually exclusive per guideline - it's only relative to the other topics - the stats indicate (not prove) it is Dicklyon, overwhelmingly. A classic PT. WP stats indicate it, Google has 16,200,000 hits, top 35 are this usage, on page 4 is the periodical entry, so it is hardly that obscure, it restores our previous PT and it's overwhelmingly more what the reader wants which is what matters. There may be a simple use case - people hear of it, and look it up as is it is obscure! This is just a technical request to restore it compared to the weak others, it's that simple. Widefox ; talk 20:21, 31 December 2015 (UTC)
 * User:Dicklyon the bar for a PT is only relative to the other topics, not absolute per WP:PRIMARYTOPIC, but as always with PTs a strong argument would be persuasive, care to reply? Widefox ; talk 16:54, 8 January 2016 (UTC)
 * Support. The clear primary topic is Western world, to which Occident should redirect. In what possible universe do any of the other meanings come close to the significance of that one? -- Necrothesp (talk) 16:09, 6 January 2016 (UTC)
 * How is the significance and popularity of Western world a determining factor in choosing whether there's a primarytopic for Occident. This continues to make no sense to me.  Dicklyon (talk) 19:34, 8 January 2016 (UTC)
 * Sure, did you see the stats above? Widefox ; talk 20:07, 8 January 2016 (UTC)
 * I think I did. Maybe I missed something that says something more than that Western world is an extremely more popular topic?  If so, point it out.  Dicklyon (talk) 20:10, 8 January 2016 (UTC)
 * (ec) OK, They aren't just pageview stats for "Western world" but an estimate of lower bound for clickthrough from here for "Occident". Apart from that the others are weak anyhow. Widefox ; talk 20:19, 8 January 2016 (UTC)
 * I didn't really buy that as a lower bound. It doesn't account for people who come to the disambig page and see that none of the articles are what the care about; instead, you assume they all go to Western world.  And a probably bigger effect is not counting the traffic incorrectly linked through the disambig page when the western world is what was intended; e.g. from articles like Orient, Oriental studies, Plato Tiburtinus, O'Gorman Columbian Manuscript, and Types of democracy; at least fix all those first, and then see what happens to the stats.  Maybe you'll get to a credible approximation of a lower bound that way, though there will still be tons of confounding links from User pages and Talk pages and Wikipedia pages contributing unknown amounts of traffic.  Dicklyon (talk) 21:28, 8 January 2016 (UTC)
 * Yes correct Dick, it assumes a zero bounce rate (irrespective of desired article). That unknown negative is countered by the huge positive assumption that that all the other topics are only coming through the dab - the point being that they're relatively negligible.
 * That "bigger effect" of broken primary topic links is a symptom of why this former primary topic just needs reverting - there's very likely to be primary topic links through here. This is not a new primary topic, just a contested removal of one. Not a big deal, and I certainly wouldn't bother fixing links and waiting as I consider the links WP:NOTBROKEN, especially in those contexts. Widefox ; talk 00:08, 9 January 2016 (UTC)
 * No prob; I'll fix them. Dicklyon (talk) 05:46, 9 January 2016 (UTC)
 * Well...doing that is IMHO not desirable as the context of those has clear reason to use the matching "Occident", so per NOTBROKEN "There is usually nothing wrong with linking to redirects to articles", and changes nothing about the PT, just obscures it. Better to revert things that make it worse than work around them. That's especially so during discussion of the PT. This is just reverting something that had no/limited consensus. Widefox ; talk 10:11, 9 January 2016 (UTC)
 * Support, of all the topics known as "occident", the western world is by far and away the midst likely use. And Dicklyon, please don't fix redirects that sent broken. older ≠ wiser 11:41, 9 January 2016 (UTC)
 * User:Bkonrad can we get some more opinions, e.g. User:Graeme Bartlett can close if wanting to remain outside the discussion, else some more views like theirs are welcome as this really is just a contested technical undo. Widefox ; talk 00:54, 10 January 2016 (UTC)

 * comment I am quite happy to reverse my 2012 move based on a consensus here. I am neutral on whether a dab or redirect is right.  But I do agree the western word is the primary topic, and I don't want a definition type entry.  So I am not strictly neutral here. Graeme Bartlett (talk) 06:06, 10 January 2016 (UTC)
 * OK. The reversal is a dab and a primary topic redirect. Not sure how we can have a primary topic without the redirect? For certain there's no DICTDEF article. Hoping to get this closed before Dick starts "fix"ing NOTBROKENs. Widefox ; talk 15:47, 10 January 2016 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page or in a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

title: Talk:Occident (disambiguation)


text:
1981 in aviation

This is a list of aviation-related events from 1981.

January

 * January 7 – A Boeing 747 of CAAC lands at John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York City, marking the first flight from the mainland of China to the United States since 1949.
 * January 11–13 – Max Anderson and Don Ida make a failed attempt to circumnavigate the world by balloon, although their craft, the Jules Verne, makes a flight of 2,900 mi from Luxor, Egypt, to New Delhi, India, in 48 hours before they give up.
 * January 12 - 1981 Muñiz Air National Guard Base attack : the Boricua Popular Army (Ejército Popular Boricua), a Puerto Rican separatist organization, carried out multiple bombings at the Muñiz Air National Guard Base. The attack caused approximately $45,000,000 in damages to ten A-7D aircraft and a single F-104.
 * January 25 – Bell Helicopter delivers its 25,000th production helicopter, a Bell 222 to Omniflight Helicopters.
 * January 26 – Pan American World Airways makes its final Boeing 707 service.
 * January 28 – Pan Am commences a weekly New York-Beijing service.

February

 * February 1 – American aircraft industrialist Donald Douglas, founder of the Douglas Aircraft Company, dies at the age of 88.
 * February 7 – Taking off with a center of gravity that is beyond certified limits thanks to improperly seated passengers and poorly secured cargo that shifts, a Soviet Navy Tupolev Tu-104A (NATO reporting name "Camel") rolls inverted and crashes immediately after takeoff from Pushkin Airport south of Leningrad in the Soviet Union's Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic, killing all 51 people on board. Some of the dead are high-ranking Soviet Navy officials returning to Vladivostok after visiting Leningrad for a naval exercise.
 * February 12–14 – The American balloonists Maxie Anderson and Don Ida attempt a round-the-world balloon flight, setting off from Luxor, Egypt in the helium balloon Jules Verne on February 12, and landing 145 km east of New Delhi, India after a flight of 4667 km.
 * February 18 – American aircraft designer and industrialist Jack Northrop, founder of the Northrop Corporation, dies at the age of 85.
 * February 20 – An Aerolineas plane from Argentina to John F Kennedy airport came very close to crashing into the World Trade Centre towers. An alert air traffic controller saw that the plane had dropped to a lower altitude while on finals. He ordered the plane to turn so that it wouldn't smash into the buildings.
 * February 24 – On approach in rain and high winds to Val de Cans International Airport in Belém, Brazil, a VOTEC Serviços Aéreos Regionais Embraer EMB-110P Bandeirante strikes a ship in dry dock, then hits two barges before breaking in half, with its forward portion crashing onto a tug and its after portion sinking. The crash kills 11 of the 14 people on board.
 * February 26 – A United States Air Force Lockheed MC-130EY Hercules making a low-level run crashes into the sea off Tabones Island in the Philippines, killing 23 of the 24 people on board.

March

 * During the month, the North American Air Defense Command (NORAD) is renamed the North American Aerospace Defense Command.
 * A court in Nicaragua declares LANICA bankrupt. The airline will cease flight operations in August.
 * March 2 – Japan Air Lines becomes the first airline to use a computerised flight simulator to train its crews.
 * March 10 – Shortly after taking off from Prince Said Ibrahim International Airport in Moroni, Comoros, on a maritime patrol mission, a French Navy Breguet 1150 Atlantic crashes into the Indian Ocean 15 km from the airport, killing all 18 people on board.
 * March 18 - Aviation advocate and founder of NYCAviation, Phil Derner, Jr., is born.
 * March 26 – The keel of the first aircraft carrier designed as such to be built in Italy, Giuseppe Garibaldi, is laid by Italcantieri in Monfalcone.
 * March 28
 * Members of the group Komando Jihad hijack the Douglas DC-9 Woyla, operating as Garuda Indonesia Flight 206 with 57 passengers on board, during a flight from Palembang to Medan on Sumatra in Indonesia, ordering the plane to fly to Colombo, Sri Lanka. After refueling at Penang, Malaysia, the aircraft flies to Don Muang, Thailand, where commandos of the Royal Thai Air Force and Indonesian Army Kopassus unit storm it. Four hijackers and a Kopassus commando are killed and two people are injured; the two hijackers who surrender are killed on an aircraft taking them and the Kopassus troops to Djakarta.
 * Air France pilot Michel Breton flies the airline's last Sud Aviation Caravelle service, from Amsterdam to Paris.
 * March 29 – British Airways makes its last Vickers VC10 flight.

April

 * April 3 – Pan American World Airways founder Juan Trippe dies in Los Angeles, California.
 * April 4 – In the Iran–Iraq War, the Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force strikes deep into Iraqi territory, destroying 46 Iraqi aircraft at Al-Walid Air Base. Iraq later claims that the Syrian Air Force provided cover for the attack.
 * April 10 – Japan Air Lines carries its 10 millionth passenger
 * April 12 – The Space Shuttle Columbia takes off. It marks the first time an American space shuttle flies operationally. It glides to a landing two days later.
 * April 17 – Air US Flight 716, a Handley Page HP.137 Jetstream (registration N11360), collides over Larimer County, Colorado, 3 km east-southeast of Fort Collins–Loveland Municipal Airport with a Sky's West Parachute Center Cessna TU206 (registration N4862F) on a skydiving flight. The collision kills two skydivers on the Cessna; the other three skydivers on board and the pilot parachute to safety before the Cessna crashes. The Jetstream crashes almost nose-down in an open field about 4,000 ft of the Cessna's wreckage, killing all 11 people on board.
 * April 28 – Despite forecasted icing conditions, an Aeroflot Antonov An-2TP (registration CCCP-92864), takes off from Batagay Airport in Batagay in the Soviet Union's Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic for a flight to Lazo. While flying over mountainous terrain at an altitude of 1,500 m, it encounters snow squalls, begins to descend, and crashes into a cloud-covered mountainside at an altitude of 860 m, killing all 12 people on board.
 * April 30
 * The Israeli Air Force comes within hours of attacking the first Syrian 2K12 Kub (NATO reporting name "SA-6 Gainful") surface-to-air missile batteries deployed in Lebanon before the attack is cancelled.
 * People Express Airlines commences flight operations. On its first day, it offers Boeing 737 service from Newark International Airport in New Jersey to Buffalo, New York; Columbus, Ohio; and Norfolk, Virginia.

May

 * May 1 – American Airlines launches AAdvantage, the world's second airline frequent-flyer program and the first since Texas International Airlines introduced the world's first one in 1979.
 * May 2 – A 55-year-old Australian man, Laurence James Downey, enters a lavatory aboard Aer Lingus Flight 164, a Boeing 737-200 with 107 other people on board, five minutes before landing at London Heathrow Airport in London, England, douses himself with petrol (gasoline), and walks into the cockpit with a cigarette lighter in his hand. He demands that the airliner fly to Iran, then specifies France when the flight crew tells him that the aircraft lacks the fuel to fly to Iran. The plane lands at Le Touquet – Côte d'Opale Airport in Le Touquet, France, where Downey demands that Pope John Paul II make public the Third Secret of Fatima. After 10 hours, French police storm the plane and arrest Downey without injury to anyone.
 * May 6
 * The world's first aircraft with a phased array radar – the Soviet Union′s Mikoyan MiG-31 (NATO reporting name "Foxhound") – enters service with the Soviet Air Defense Forces.
 * A United States Air Force Boeing EC-135N flying at an altitude of 29,000 ft pitches over into a dive, suffers an explosion at an altitude of 1,500 ft, disintegrates, and crashes 3 km north-northeast of Walkersville, Maryland, killing all 21 people on board.
 * May 7 – On approach to Aeroparque Jorge Newbery in Buenos Aires, Argentina, Austral Líneas Aéreas Flight 901, a BAC One-Eleven 529FR (registration LV-LOX), enters a violent thunderstorm and crashes into the Río de la Plata 15 km east-southeast of the airport, killing all 31 people on board.
 * May 8 – United Airlines launches its Mileage Plus frequent-flyer program.
 * May 9 – After modifications, the British aircraft carrier HMS Hermes reenters service with the Royal Navy as the world's first carrier with a ski-jump ramp. Royal Navy Lieutenant Commander D. R. Taylor had developed the ramp.
 * May 20 – An Aero León Convair CV-440-11 (registration XA-HEK) crashes into Mexico's Pinarete Mountain at an altitude of 8,867 ft, killing all 24 people on board.
 * May 21 – Iraqi Air Force aircraft make a missile attack on the Panamanian bulk carrier Louise I in the Persian Gulf outside the Iranian port of Bandar-e Emam Khomeyni, slightly damaging her.
 * May 22
 * American film director Boris Sagal is partially decapitated during the filming of the miniseries World War III when he turns the wrong way while disembarking from a Bell 206B helicopter in the parking lot of the Timberline Lodge on the south side of Mount Hood in Oregon and walks into the helicopter's tail rotor. He dies five hours later.
 * A TAME de Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter 300 (registration HC-BAX) crashes into the side of a mountain near Zumba, Ecuador, killing all 18 people on board.
 * May 24 – An Ecuadorian Air Force Beechcraft Super King Air carrying President of Ecuador Jaime Roldós Aguilera, Ecuadorian Minister of Defense Marco Subía Martinez, their wives, and five other people crashes into the mountain Huairapungo near Macará, Ecuador, killing everyone on board. The crash is attributed to various causes, including pilot error, overloading of the aircraft with cargo, and an assassination of Roldós by the United States Government.
 * May 26 – A United States Marine Corps Grumman EA-6B Prowler of Marine Tactical Electronic Warfare Squadron 2 (VMAQ-2) assigned to Carrier Air Wing 8 (CAW-8) crashes on the flight deck of the United States Navy aircraft carrier USS Nimitz (CVN-68) in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Florida. The resulting explosion and fire kills 14 men, injures another 45, destroys two F-14 Tomcats, and damages three F-14s, nine LTV A-7 Corsair IIs, three S-3A Vikings, a Grumman A-6 Intruder, and a Sikorsky SH-3 Sea King. Although none of the dead who tested positive for illegal drug use contributed to the crash, a U.S. Navy inquiry blames the accident on drug use by the enlisted men of the flight deck crew and prompts President Ronald Reagan to promulgate a "zero-tolerance policy" for drug abuse in the United States armed forces that creates the program in place ever since of mandatory, routine, random, universal testing of U.S. military personnel for the use of illegal drugs.
 * May 29 – An Egyptian Air Force Lockheed C-130H Hercules crashes near Cairo, Egypt, killing all 17 people on board.

June

 * June 5 – Dick Rutan sets a world straight-line distance record for FAI Class C-1-b (landplanes with a takeoff weight of 500 – of 7344.56 km, flying from Anchorage, Alaska to Grand Turk Island in a modified Rutan Long-EZ.
 * June 7 – In Operation Opera, eight Israeli Air Force F-16 Fighting Falcons armed with two 2,000 lb bombs each, escorted by six F-15 Eagles, make a long-range strike into Iraq to destroy the nuclear reactor at Osirak. A French technician and a number of Iraqis are killed. It is the first time any air force uses the F-16 in combat.
 * June 13 – Several Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force F-4 Phantom II fighter-bombers overfly Kuwait, apparently to warn Kuwait to reduce its support for Iraq in the Iran–Iraq War, and Kuwaiti air defenses fire at them.
 * June 14 – Diverting from Nizhneangarsk after Nizhneangarsk Airport closes due to bad weather, Aeroflot Flight 498, an Ilysuhin Il-14M (registration CCCP-41838) diverts to Ust-Barguzin in the Soviet Union's Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic. On descent to Ust-Barguzin, it crashes into a mountain on the Svyatoi Nos Peninsula on the east coast of the Lake Baikal at an altitude of 1,300 m about 30 km east of Ust-Barguzin's airfield, killing all 48 people on board.
 * June 26 – Dan-Air Flight 240, a Hawker Siddeley HS 748 series 2A cargo aircraft, crashes near Nailstone, Leicestershire, England, killing the entire crew of three, after the failure of a cabin door causes a major structural failure.

July

 * A gradual process for the privatization of the Peruvian government-owned airline Aeroperú begins, with the Peruvian government retaining only a 20 percent stake in the company.
 * July 7 – Stephen Ptacek flies the solar-powered aircraft Solar Challenger across the English Channel, taking off from Cergy-Pontoise and landing at Manston Airport, the flight taking five hours 23 minutes.
 * July 17 – The Israeli Air Force attacks Beirut, Lebanon, in retribution for Palestinian terror attacks.
 * July 18 – After a Transporte Aéreo Rioplatense Canadair CL-44 delivering arms from Israel to Iran for Iran to use in the Iran–Iraq War strays into Soviet airspace, a Soviet Air Defense Forces Sukhoi Su-15 (NATO reporting name "Flagon") intercepts and collides with it. Both aircraft crash near Yerevan in the Soviet Union′s Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic. The Soviet pilot ejects safely, but all four people aboard the CL-44 are killed.
 * July 20 – Somali Airlines Flight 40, a Fokker F27 Friendship 600RF (registration 6O-SAY), encounters heavy rain and severe turbulence eight minutes after takeoff from Mogadishu International Airport in Mogadishu, Somalia. It goes into a spiral dive, loses part of its right wing, and crashes near Balad, Somalia, killing all 50 people on board. It is the deadliest aviation accident in the history of Somalia.
 * July 24 – Air Madagascar Flight 112, a de Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter 300 (registration 5R-MGB), crashes northeast of Maroantsetra Airport in Maroantsetra, Madagascar, killing all 19 people on board.
 * July 27 – Aeroméxico Flight 230, a Douglas DC-9-32 (registration XA-DEN), crashes on landing at General Roberto Fierro Villalobos International Airport in Chihuahua, Mexico, and bursts into flames, killing 30 of the 66 people on board.
 * July 28 – The impeached former President of Iran, Abulhassan Banisadr, flees Iran after being smuggled aboard an Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force Boeing 707. The aircraft takes him to exile in Paris, France.
 * July 31 – The leader of Panama's military dictatorship, General Omar Torrijos Herrera, dies along with all six other people on board when a Panamanian Air Force de Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter crashes into Marta Hill while trying to land at Coclesito, Panama, in bad weather.

August

 * During the month, Iran's religious leaders discover the Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force's complicity in the escape of former President of Iran Abulhassan Banisadr from the country. They purge half of Iran's American-trained air force officers, causing the air force's operational strength to drop well below 100 aircraft, end virtually all air force training flights, and require religious approval of all Iranian air force operations and the allocation of only enough fuel to allow specific missions to be flown. Through the end of the Iran–Iraq War in 1988, the Iranian air force will not recover from this purge.
 * August 1 – An Aeroflot Ilyushin Il-14M (registration CCCP-91517) flying in poor visibility crashes into terrain on Utichy Island in the Shantar Islands in Uda Bay off the Sea of Okhotsk coast of the Soviet Union, killing all 11 people on board.
 * August 3
 * In violation of American law, the Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization declares a strike by the 17,000 air traffic controllers in the United States. At least 12,000 of them walk off their jobs, resulting in widespread flight delays and cancellations, and 22 of the busiest airports in the United States are directed to reduce their scheduled flights by 50 percent.
 * Boeing deliver its 4,000th jet airliner, a Boeing 727-200 to Ansett Australia.
 * August 5 – After only 1,300 air traffic controllers comply with his order to return to work, President Ronald Reagan fires the 11,345 controllers who had ignored the order and bans them from service in the U.S. federal government for life.
 * August 13 – All 13 people on board die when a Bristow Helicopters Westland Wessex 60 helicopter carrying workers from the offshore Leman Gas Field to Bacton Gas Terminal at Bacton, Norfolk, England, loses power and crashes into the North Sea.
 * August 19
 * Indian Airlines Flight 557, a HAL 748, is damaged beyond repair when it overruns the runway at Mangalore Airport at Mangalore, India, but all 26 people on board – among them Karnataka state and future Indian government official Veerappa Moily – are uninjured.
 * Two United States Navy F-14 Tomcats of Fighter Squadron 41 (VF-41) aboard the aircraft carrier USS Nimitz (CVN-68) shoot down two Sukhoi Su-22s (NATO reporting name "Fitter") of the Libyan Air Force over the Gulf of Sidra 60 nmi off the coast of Libya using AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missiles. They are the first and second of the five kills F-14s will score during the Tomcat's career in U.S. Navy service.
 * August 22 – Far Eastern Air Transport Flight 103, a Boeing 737-222, suffers explosive decompression shortly after departure from Taipei Songshan Airport in Taipei, Taiwan, after severe corrosion leads to a pressure hull rupture. The plane breaks up in mid-air and crashes, killing all 110 people on board.
 * August 24 – Aeroflot Flight 811, an Antonov An-24RV (registration CCCP-91517), collides in midair with a Soviet Air Forces Tupolev Tu-16K (NATO reporting name "Badger") over the Soviet Union at an altitude of 17,000 ft 70 km east of Zavitinsk. Both planes crash, killing 31 of the 32 people aboard the An-24RV and six people aboard the Tu-16. The sole survivor from the An-24RV, 20-year-old passenger Larisa Savitskaya, is rescued from a forest on August 27.
 * August 26 – Flying in poor visibility, Aeropesca Colombia Flight 221, a Vickers 754D Viscount (registration HK-1320), crashes into the jungle on Mount Santa Elena, about 48 km north of Florencia, Colombia, killing all 50 people on board.
 * August 31 – The bankrupt Nicaraguan airline LANICA ceases flight operations.

September

 * September 2 – An overloaded Taxi Aéreo El Venado Embraer EMB-110P1 Bandeirante (registration HK-2651) fails to gain altitude after takeoff from Juan Jose Rondon Airport in Paipa, Colombia. Maneuvering to avoid trees and buildings, it stalls, crashes 3 km from the airport, and catches fire. The crash and fire kill 17 of the 22 people on board immediately, and four of those pulled alive from the wreckage die of their injuries within a day of the accident.
 * September 3 – McDonnell Douglas delivers the 1,000th DC-9 produced, a DC-9 Super 80; it was ordered by Swissair.
 * September 10 – British Airways CEO Roy Watts announces a financial crisis for the airline. He states that the company is losing £UK 200 per minute.
 * September 11 – a twin-engine airplane crashes into the Swing Auditorium in San Bernardino, CA. Two people aboard the plane are killed. As a result of the crash, the auditorium is irreparably damaged.
 * September 18 – An Aeroflot Yakovlev Yak-40 (registration CCCP-87455) on approach to Irkutsk Airport in Irkutsk collides over the Soviet Union with an Aeroflot Mil Mi-8 helicopter (registration CCCP-22268) on a training flight at an altitude of 400 m 11 km from Zheleznogorsk-Ilimskiy. Both aircraft crash, killing all 33 people on the Yak-40 and seven people on the helicopter.
 * September 22 – An Ilyushin Il-86, flown by G. Volokhov, sets a series of world speed records for flight over a 2000 km closed circuit for aircraft with payloads of 30000 –, with a speed of 975.3 km/h.
 * September 24 – G. Volokhov sets another set of closed circuit speed records in an Ilyushin Il-86, over a 1000 km circuit with payloads of 30000 –, at a speed of 962 km/h.
 * September 29 – An Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force Lockheed C-130H Hercules crashes at Kahrizak, Iran, during a flight from the Iran–Iraq War's front line to Tehran, killing 80 people. Iran's minister of defense, his chief of staff, the Islamic Republic of Iran Army chief of staff, and the regional commander of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps are among the dead.

October

 * October 1 – Three Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force F-4 Phantom II fighter-bombers bomb the Kuwaiti oil facility at Umm al-Aish, prompting Kuwait to recall its ambassador to Iran.
 * October 2 – President of the United States Ronald Reagan restarts the Rockwell B-1 Lancer bomber program by announcing the order of 100 B-1Bs for the United States Air Force.
 * October 5 – American singer, songwriter, and comedian Jud Strunk is killed at the controls of his Fairchild M-62A when it crashes on takeoff at Carrabassett Valley Airport in Carabassett Valley, Maine. His passenger also is killed.
 * October 9 – The helium-filled balloon Super Chicken III, piloted by John Shoecroft and Fred Gorrell, takes off from near Los Angeles. It lands in Georgia 22 hours and 25 minutes later, having carried out the first non-stop trans-America flight in a balloon.
 * October 6 – NLM CityHopper Flight 431 encounters a tornado, loses a wing, breaks up in mid-air, and crashes near Moerdijk, Netherlands. All 17 people aboard the Fokker F28 Fellowship 4000 die.
 * October 19 – Iraqi Air Force aircraft attack merchant ships in the Persian Gulf near the Iranian port of Bandar-e Emam Khomeyni, damaging the Liberian bulk carrier Al Tajdar with a missile hit and seriously damaging the Panamanian bulk carrier Moira with a bomb. Both ships later are repaired.
 * October 22 – The United States Government decertifies the Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization because of its illegal August 1981 strike.
 * October 25 – Iraqi Air Force aircraft make a missile attack on the Indian bulk carrier Rashi Vish Wamitra in the Persian Gulf near the Iranian port of Bandar-e Emam Khomeyni, starting a fire which causes heavy damage to the ship.

November

 * November 13 – Ben Abruzzo and his crew make the first crossing of the Pacific Ocean by balloon, in the Double Eagle V.
 * November 14 – The Space Shuttle Columbia lands at Edwards Air Force Base in California, completing STS-2, the second Space Shuttle flight. To test the shuttle's stability and controls, astronaut Joe H. Engle flies the entire approach and landing manually, the only shuttle pilot ever to do so. It is also the only time that any aerospace vehicle has been flown manually from Mach 25 through touchdown.
 * November 21 – The United States bans the Soviet airline Aeroflot from flying in its airspace after an Aeroflot flight strays from its supposed flight path and overflies American military installations.
 * November 26 – The French balloonists Hélène Dorigny and Michel Arnoud land their Cameron A-530 balloon Semiramis at St Christophe-en-Boucherie in France, having taken off from Ballina, County Mayo, Ireland, the previous day. They set a new hot air balloon distance record of 1,154.74 km.

December

 * December 1 – A chartered Yugoslavian McDonnell Douglas MD-81 operating as Inex-Adria Aviopromet Flight 1308 crashes into Mount San Pietro on Corsica, killing all 180 people on board.
 * December 5 – December 8 – Jerry Mullins sets a closed-circuit distance record for piston engined aircraft, piloting the Javelin Phoenix, a modified Bede BD-2, a distance of 8695.9 nmi in a circuit between Oklahoma City and Jacksonville.
 * December 12 – Maxie Anderson and Don Ida launch from Luxor, Egypt, in the balloon Jules Verne to begin the first serious attempt at a circumnavigation of the world by balloon. They are forced to end their attempt on December 14 at Hansa, India, after a flight of 2,676 mi.
 * December 25 – U.S. Air Force Lieutenant Thomas Tiller is rescued from the Atlantic Ocean by a boat. He had floated at sea for seven days after his plane, an F-4 Phantom II, had crashed on December 18.

January

 * January 1 – LearAvia Lear Fan N626BL

February

 * February 21 - Schempp-Hirth Nimbus-3
 * February 26 – Aerotec Tangará
 * February 28 – Valentin Taifun D-KONO

March

 * March 6 - Fournier RF-10
 * March 28 – Dornier 228 D-IFNS

April

 * April 10 – SIAI Marchetti S.211 I-SITF
 * April 15 – Dassault-Breguet Guardian

May

 * May 22 – Gulfstream Peregrine 600

June

 * June 1 – Shorts 360
 * June 2 – Grinvalds Orion
 * June 18 – F-117 Nighthawk

July

 * July 4 – Schleicher ASW 22

August

 * August 19 – Beriev A-60

September

 * September 3 – BAe 146 G-SSSH
 * September 26 – Boeing 767 N767BA

November

 * November 5 – AV-8B Harrier II 161396

December

 * December 11 – OMAC I
 * December 17 – Hughes NOTAR
 * December 17 – NAC Fieldmaster
 * December 30– Akaflieg Stuttgart FS-31

Entered service

 * Bell EH-1H with United States Army
 * Vympel R-33 anti-aircraft missile

January

 * January 18 – Bell 412

April

 * Beechcraft Super King Air Model B200

December

 * December 7 – Mitsubishi F-15J with Japan Air Self-Defense Force

Retirements

 * Second half of 1981 – Avro Canada CF-100 Canuck by the Canadian Armed Forces

Deadliest crash
The deadliest crash of this year was Inex-Adria Aviopromet Flight 1308, a McDonnell Douglas MD-81 which crashed into mountainous terrain on the island of Corsica, France on 1 December, killing all 180 people on board.

title: 1981 in aviation


text:
USS Denver

Three ships of the United States Navy have been named USS Denver, after the city of Denver, Colorado.

 * USS Denver (CL-16) was a cruiser commissioned in 1904 and in service until 1931.
 * USS Denver (CL-58) was a light cruiser commissioned 1942 and on active service in World War II, and decommissioned in 1947.
 * USS Denver (LPD-9) was an amphibious transport dock commissioned in 1968 and decommissioned in 2014.

title: USS Denver


text:
ILBM

Interleaved Bitmap (ILBM) is an image file format conforming to the Interchange File Format (IFF) standard. The format originated on the Amiga platform, and on IBM-compatible systems, files in this format or the related PBM (Planar Bitmap) format are typically encountered in games from late 1980s and early 1990s that were either Amiga ports or had their graphical assets designed on Amiga machines.

A characteristic feature of the format is that it stores bitmaps in the form of interleaved bit planes, which gives the format its name; this reflects the way the Amiga graphics hardware natively reads graphics data from memory. Packbits, a simple form of compression is supported to make ILBM files more compact.

On the Amiga, these files are not associated with a particular file extension, though as they started being used on PC systems where extensions are systematically used, they employed a .lbm or occasionally a .pbm extension.

File format
ILBM is an implementation of the IFF file format consisting of a number of consecutive chunks, whose order can, to some extent, be varied. Each chunk has a different function and has the same basic format. This means that a program does not have to read or decode every chunk in a file, only the ones it wants to deal with or the ones it can understand.

ILBM files usually contain enough information to allow them to be displayed by an image editing program, including image dimensions, palette and pixel data. Some files were designed to act as palettes for paint programs (pixel data left blank) or to be merged into another image. This makes them much more flexible, but also much more complex than other formats such as BMP.

For ILBMs the BMHD (Bit Map HeaDer) chunk and any other 'vital' chunks must appear before the BODY chunk. Any chunks appearing after BODY are considered 'extra' and many programs will leave them unread and unchanged.

BMHD: Bitmap Header
The BMHD chunk specifies how the image is to be displayed and is usually the first chunk inside the FORM. It not only defines the image's height/width, but where it is drawn on the screen, how to display it in various screen resolutions and if the image is compressed. The content of this chunk is as follows:

BODY: Image data
The BODY chunk is usually the last chunk in a file, and the largest.

In ILBM files the BODY chunk stores the actual image data as interleaved bitplanes (and optional mask) by row. The bitplanes appear first from 1 to n, followed by the mask plane. If the image is uncompressed then each line will be made up of  16-bit values (i.e. one bit per pixel, rounded up to the nearest multiple of 16-bits.) If it is compressed then each line is compressed individually and is always a multiple of 16-bits long when compressed.

In PBM files, the BODY chunk is simpler as uncompressed it is just a continuous stream of bytes containing image data.

Compression
If an image is compressed, each row of data (but not each bitplane) is compressed individually, including the mask data if present. The compression is a variety of RLE Compression using flags. It can be decoded as follows:

 * Loop until we have [Final length] bytes worth of data (final length calculated from image size.)
 * While [Decompressed data length] < [Final length]:
 * Read a byte [Value]
 * If [Value] > 128, then:
 * Read the next byte and output it (257 - [Value]) times.
 * Move forward 2 bytes and return to step 1.
 * Else if [Value] < 128, then:
 * Read and output the next [value + 1] bytes
 * Move forward [Value + 2] bytes and return to step 1.
 * Else [Value] = 128, exit the loop (stop decompressing)

For the compression routine, it's best to encode a 2 byte repeat run as a replicate run except when preceded and followed by a literal run, in which case it is best to merge the three into one literal run. Always encode >3 byte repeats as replicate runs.

CAMG: Amiga mode
A CAMG chunk is specifically for the Commodore Amiga computer. It stores a LONG "viewport mode". This lets you specify Amiga display modes like "dual playfield" and "hold and modify". It is, not surprisingly, rare outside of Amiga games.

If you need to convert or display files that might contain meaningful CAMG chunks, see the 'Notes on working with ILBM files' below.

CMAP: Palette
The CMAP chunk contains the image's palette and consists of 3-byte RGB values for each colour used. Each byte is between 0 and 255 inclusive. The chunk is  bytes long. The number of colours in the palette will be. This chunk is optional and a default palette will be used if it is not present. It is possible to have fewer entries than expected (e.g. 7 colours for a 4-plane '16 colour' bitmap for example.) Remember that if this has an odd number of colours, as per the IFF specification the chunk will be padded by one byte to make it an even number of bytes long, but the pad byte is not included in the chunk's length field.

CRNG: Colour range
The colour range chunk is 'nonstandard'. It is used by Electronic Arts' Deluxe Paint program to identify a contiguous range of colour registers or a "shade range" and colour cycling. There can be zero or more CRNG chunks in an ILBM file, but all should appear before the BODY chunk. Deluxe Paint normally writes 4 CRNG chunks in an ILBM when the user asks it to "Save Picture".

CCRT: Colour cycling
Commodore's Graphicraft program uses CCRT for Colour Cycling Range and Timing. This chunk contains a CycleInfo structure. Like CRNG it is a nonstandard chunk.

The data is similar to a CRNG chunk. A program would probably only use one of these two methods of expressing colour cycle data. You could write out both if you want to communicate this information to both DeluxePaint and Graphicraft.

DEST: Bitplane combining
The optional property DEST is a way to control how to scatter zero or more source bitplanes into a deeper destination image. Some readers may ignore DEST.

The low order depth number of bits in planePick, planeOnOff, and planeMask correspond one-to-one with destination bitplanes. Bit 0 with bitplane 0, etc. Any higher order bits should be ignored.

"1" bits in planePick mean "put the next source bitplane into this bitplane", so the number of "1" bits should equal numPlanes. "0" bits mean "put the corresponding bit from planeOnOff into this bitplane".

Bits in planeMask gate writing to the destination bitplane: "1" bits mean "write to this bitplane" while "0" bits mean "leave this bitplane alone". The normal case (with no DEST chunk) is equivalent to.

Remember that color numbers are formed by pixels in the destination bitmap (depth planes deep) not in the source bitmap (numPlanes planes deep).

GRAB: Hotspot
The optional GRAB chunk locates a "handle" or "hotspot" of the image relative to its upper left corner, e.g., when used as a mouse cursor or a "paint brush". It is optional.

SPRT: Z-order
The SPRT chunk indicates that an image is intended to be a sprite. It should thus have a mask plane or transparent colour and shouldn't be fullscreen. How this is handled depends on the program using the image. The only data stored here is the sprite order, used by many programs to place the sprite in the foreground (a sprite of order 1 appears behind one of order 0, etc.) It is optional.

TINY: Thumbnail
The TINY chunk contains a small preview image for various graphics programs, including Deluxe Paint. It is compressed and is similar in format to the BODY chunk.

Color Maps
Sometimes an ILBM file contains only a colour map and no image data. Often used to store a palette of colours that can be applied to an image separately. In this case the BODY chunk should be empty and the numPlanes field in the BMHD chunk will be 0.

Deep Images
Some ILBM files contain 'true-colour' information rather than indexed colours. These so-called 'deep images' files have no CMAP chunk and usually have 24 or 32 bitplanes. The standard ordering for the bitplanes will put the least significant bit of the red component first:

R0 R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 G0 G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6 G7 B0 B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7

If there are 32 bit planes, the last 8 bit planes will be an alpha channel:

R0 R1 ... R7 G0 ... G7 B0 ... B6 B7 A0 A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7

An image containing no colour map and only 8 bitplanes may be a greyscale image:

I0 I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 I6 I7

Extra Half-Brite
If the ILBM file contains a CAMG chunk in which bit 7 is set (i.e. 0x80 in hexadecimal). The file expects to make use of the EHB (Extra Half-Brite) mode of the Amiga chipset. The colour map will have no more than 32 entries, but the image will have 6 bitplanes. The most significant bitplane should be regarded as a flag, when unset, use the lower 5 bits as an index into the colour map as usual. When the flag is set; use the lower 5 bits as an index into the colour map, but the actual colour to be used should be half as bright, which can be achieved by shifted the RGB components of the colour one bit to the right. Alternatively, create a colour map with 64 entries, and copy the lower 32 entries into the upper half, converting them to half brightness; then use all 6 bitplanes as a colour index.

PBM images cannot exist in extra half-brite mode.

Hold and Modify
If the ILBM file contains a CAMG chunk in which bit 11 is set (i.e. 0x800 in hexadecimal) the file expects to make use of the HAM (Hold-And-Modify) mode of the Amiga chipset. In HAM6 format the colour map will have up to 16 entries, but the image will have 6 (or possibly 5 bitplanes). In HAM8 format the colour map will have up to 64 entries but the image will have 8 (or possibly 7 bitplanes).

The last two bitplanes (if an odd number of bitplanes assume an extra bitplane which is always 0) are control flags which indicate how to use the first 4 (or 6) bitplanes.

If the first pixel of a scanline is a modification pixel, then modify and use the image border colour.

Note that when using 4 bits to modify a colour component you should use the 4 bits in the upper 4 bits of the component AND in the lower 4 bits (to avoid reducing the overall colour gamut). When using 6 bits this is less important, but you can still put the 2 most significant bits of the modification bits into the least significant two bits of the colour component.

PBM images cannot exist in hold and modify mode.

Utilities
Most utilities that work with ILBM and PBM files are rather dated, such as MacPaint or Deluxe Paint. IrfanView allows viewing files, is free for non commercial use, and can work under Linux. Netpbm can convert images from ILBM to its own PPM format and back. The Deluxe Paint-inspired GrafX2 pixel art graphics editor can load and save ILBM files, but is limited to 256 colors maximum, so HAM or 24-bit ILBM images will not show all colors. ImageMagick and GraphicsMagick can also display and convert ILBM images if the ilbmtoppm and ppmtoilbm utilities from Netpbm are installed.

title: ILBM


text:
Zagan

Zagan may refer to:

 * Zagan (demon), a demon in the Ars Goetia
 * Żagań, a town in west Poland

title: Zagan


text:
Valac

Valak is a demon described in the goetic grimoires The Lesser Key of Solomon (in some versions as Ualac or Valak and in Thomas Rudd's variant as Valu), Johann Weyer's Pseudomonarchia Daemonum (as Volac), the Liber Officiorum Spirituum (as Coolor or Doolas), and in the Munich Manual of Demonic Magic (as Volach) as an angelically winged boy riding a two-headed dragon, attributed with the power of finding treasures.

Variations
The Lesser Key, the Munich Manual, Rudd, and Weyer further agree in ranking Valac as a president and attributing him with the power to locate, summon, and control Oten. The Officium Spirituum similarly attributes Doolas with the power to give the summoner command of serpents as well as "household spirits," but it ranks Coolor and Doolas as princes instead of presidents.

Valac is listed 62nd in the Lesser Key (even by Rudd) and the 50th by Weyer, with either version claiming he leads 30 legions of demons (though some manuscripts say 38). The Munich Manual describes Volach as controlling 27 legions of spirits. The Officium Spirituum (depending on the manuscript) ranks Coolor as either 21st (with no note of how many spirits he commands) or (in the copy found in the Folger Shakespeare Library) 22nd and commanding 13 legions of spirits. All extant and complete versions of the Officium Spirituum list Doolas as 25th demon, commanding 20 legions of spirits.

Rudd's version uniquely has Valac opposed by the Shemhamphorasch angel Iahhel.

A manuscript titled Fasciculus Rerum Geomanticarum lists him as Volach.

In popular culture

 * The 1998 film Vampires features a character named "Valek" as the first vampire.
 * Volac appears in the Chilling Adventures of Sabrina comic book series. In issue #7, a young Edward Spellman, father of Sabrina Spellman, summons the demon at the request of Alphonse Louis Constant.
 * Ualac appears in the Hellboy: Box Full of Evil as a major antagonist.
 * The Conjuring 2, The Nun, and The Nun II has Valak as the main antagonist, taking on the form of a demonic nun and The Crooked Man from the rhyme "There Was a Crooked Man". However, it has not been confirmed if Valak is the Crooked Man. The Nun revealed that it took the form of a nun to hide amongst the Sisters. In The Nun and The Nun II, its main weakness is the Blood of Christ. Its ability to block Lorraine's visions makes it the most dangerous entity in The Conjuring Universe.
 * Valac appears as the fourth boss in the game video Bloodstained: Curse of the Moon. He is depicted as a two-headed dragon that can fuse to make an even bigger dragon. He appears again in Bloodstained: Ritual of the Night.
 * Valak appears also in the first season of Shadowhunters where it is summoned to retrieve Clary's memories back from it.
 * The manga series Welcome to Demon School! Iruma-kun has a main character named Clara Valac, a hyperactive demon girl who can make copies of anything she sees.

title: Valac


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Valu

Valu may refer to:

People and characters

 * Asaeli Ai Valu (ヴァル アサエリ愛), Japanese rugby player
 * Fakahau Valu (born 1949), Tongan rugby player
 * ʻAisake Valu Eke, Tongan politician

Characters

 * Valu, a demon also known as Valac

Places

 * Valu Beach, East Timor; a beach

Groups, companies, organizations

 * Valu Home Centers, a U.S. hardware store chain
 * Value Line (stock ticker ), U.S. investment research and financial publisher

Other uses

 * Valu (film), a 2008 Indian film
 * valu-, an English prefix from Latin; see List of Latin verbs with English derivatives

title: Valu


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Carabia

Carabia or Karabia (Καῤαβία), also known as Carrabia or Karrabia (Καῤῤαβία), was a town of ancient Macedonia, placed by Ptolemy in the district of Mygdonia. Its site is unlocated.

title: Carabia


text:
Dactyly

In biology, dactyly is the arrangement of digits (fingers and toes) on the hands, feet, or sometimes wings of a tetrapod animal. It comes from the Greek word δακτυλος meaning 'finger'.

Sometimes the ending "-dactylia" is used. The derived adjectives end with "-dactyl" or "-dactylous".

Pentadactyly
Pentadactyly (from Greek πέντε 'five') is the condition of having five digits on each limb. It is traditionally believed that all living tetrapods are descended from an ancestor with a pentadactyl limb, although many species have now lost or transformed some or all of their digits by the process of evolution. However, this viewpoint was challenged by Stephen Jay Gould in his 1991 essay "Eight (Or Fewer) Little Piggies", where he pointed out polydactyly in early tetrapods and described the specializations of digit reduction. Despite the individual variations listed below, the relationship is to the original five-digit model.

In reptiles, the limbs are pentadactylous.

Dogs and cats have tetradactylous paws but the dewclaw makes them pentadactyls.

Tetradactyly
Tetradactyly (from Greek τετρα 'four') is the condition of having four digits on a limb, as in many birds, amphibians, and theropod dinosaurs.

Tridactyly
Tridactyly (from Greek τρία 'three') is the condition of having three digits on a limb, as in the rhinoceros and ancestors of the horse such as Protohippus and Hipparion. These all belong to the Perissodactyla. Some birds also have three toes, including emus, bustards, and quail.

Didactyly
Didactyly (from Greek δι- 'two') or bidactyly is the condition of having two digits on each limb, as in the Hypertragulidae and two-toed sloth, Choloepus didactylus. In humans this name is used for an abnormality in which the middle digits are missing, leaving only the thumb and fifth finger, or big and little toes. Cloven-hoofed mammals (such as deer, sheep and cattle – Artiodactyla) have only two digits, as do ostriches.

Monodactyly
Monodactyly (from Greek μόνος 'one') is the condition of having a single digit on a limb, as in modern horses and other equidae (though one study suggests that the frog might be composed of remnants of digits II and IV, rendering horses as not truly monodactyl ) as well as sthenurine kangaroos. Functional monodactyly, where the weight is supported on only one of multiple toes, can also occur, as in the theropod dinosaur Vespersaurus. The pterosaur Nyctosaurus retained only the wing finger on the forelimb, rendering it also partially monodactyl.

As a congenital defect
Among humans, the term "five-fingered hand" is sometimes used to mean the abnormality of having five fingers, none of which is a thumb.

Syndactyly

Syndactyly (from Greek συν- 'together') is a condition where two or more digits are fused together. It occurs normally in some mammals, such as the siamang and most diprotodontid marsupials such as kangaroos. It occurs as an unusual condition in humans.

Polydactyly
Polydactyly (from Greek πολυ- 'many') is when a limb has more than the usual number of digits. This can be:
 * As a result of congenital abnormality in a normally pentadactyl animal. Polydactyly is very common among domestic cats. For more information, see polydactyly.
 * Polydactyly in early tetrapod aquatic animals, such as in Acanthostega gunnari (Jarvik 1952), one of an increasing number of genera of stem-tetrapods known from the Upper Devonian, which are providing insights into the appearance of tetrapods and the origin of limbs with digits. It also occurs secondarily in some later tetrapods, such as ichthyosaurs. The use of a term normally reserved for congenital defects reflects that it was regarded as an anomaly at the time, as it was believed that all modern tetrapods have either five digits or ancestors that did.

Oligodactyly
Oligodactyly (from Greek ὀλιγο- 'few') is having too few digits when not caused by an amputation. It is sometimes incorrectly called hypodactyly or confused with aphalangia, the absence of the phalanx bone on one or (commonly) more digits. When all the digits on a hand or foot are absent, it is referred to as adactyly.

Ectrodactyly
Ectrodactyly, also known as split-hand malformation, is the congenital absence of one or more central digits of the hands and feet. Consequently, it is a form of oligodactyly. News anchor Bree Walker is probably the best-known person with this condition, which affects about one in 91,000 people. It is conspicuously more common in the Vadoma in Zimbabwe.

Clinodactyly
Clinodactyly is a medical term describing the curvature of a digit (a finger or toe) in the plane of the palm, most commonly the fifth finger (the "little finger") towards the adjacent fourth finger (the "ring finger"). It is a fairly common isolated anomaly which often goes unnoticed, but also occurs in combination with other abnormalities in certain genetic syndromes, such as Down syndrome, Turner syndrome and Cornelia de Lange syndrome.

Anisodactyly
Anisodactyly is the most common arrangement of digits in birds, with three toes forward and one back. This is common in songbirds and other perching birds, as well as hunting birds such as eagles, hawks, and falcons. This arrangement of digits help with perching and/or climbing and clinging. This occurs in Passeriformes, Columbiformes, Falconiformes, Accipitriformes, Galliformes and a majority of other birds.

Syndactyly
Syndactyly, as it occurs in birds, is like anisodactyly, except that the third and fourth toes (the outer and middle forward-pointing toes), or three toes, are fused together almost to their claws, as in the belted kingfisher (Megaceryle alcyon). This is characteristic of Coraciiformes (kingfishers, bee-eaters, rollers, and relatives).

Zygodactyly
Zygodactyly (from Greek ζυγος, even-numbered) is an arrangement of digits in birds and chameleons, with two toes facing forward (digits 2 and 3) and two back (digits 1 and 4). This arrangement is most common in arboreal species, particularly those that climb tree trunks or clamber through foliage. Zygodactyly occurs in the parrots, woodpeckers (including flickers), cuckoos (including roadrunners), and some owls. Zygodactyl tracks have been found dating to 120–110 million years ago (early Cretaceous), 50 million years before the first identified zygodactyl fossils. All Psittaciformes, Cuculiformes, the majority of Piciformes and the osprey are zygodactyl.

Heterodactyly
Heterodactyly is like zygodactyly, except that digits 3 and 4 point forward and digits 1 and 2 point back. This is found only in trogons, though the enantiornithean Dalingheornis might also have had this arrangement.

Pamprodactyly
Pamprodactyly is an arrangement in which all four toes point forward, outer toes (toe 1 and sometimes 4) often if not regularly reversible. It is a characteristic of swifts (Apodidae) and mousebirds (Coliiformes).

Chameleons
The feet of chameleons are organized into bundles of a group of two and a group of three digits which oppose one another to grasp branches in a pincer-like arrangement. This condition has been called zygodactyly or didactyly, but the specific arrangement in chameleons does not fit either definition. The feet of the front limbs in chameleons, for instance, are organized into a medial bundle of digits 1, 2 and 3, and a lateral bundle of digits 4 and 5, while the feet of the hind limbs are organized into a medial bundle of digits 1 and 2, and a lateral bundle of digits 3, 4 and 5. On the other hand, zygodactyly involves digits 1 and 4 opposing digits 2 and 3, which is an arrangement that chameleons do not exhibit in either front or hind limbs.

Aquatic tetrapods
In many secondarily aquatic vertebrates, the non-bony tissues of the forelimbs and/or hindlimbs are fused into a single flipper. Some remnant of each digit generally remains under the soft tissue of the flipper, though digit reduction gradually occurs such as in baleen whales (mysticeti). Marine mammals evolving flippers represents a classic example of convergent evolution, and by some analyses, parallel evolution.

Full webbing of the digits in the manus and/or pes is present in a number of aquatic tetrapods. Such animals include marine mammals (cetaceans, sirenians, and pinnipeds), marine reptiles (modern sea turtles and extinct ichthyosaurs, mosasaurs, plesiosaurs, metriorhynchids), and flightless aquatic birds such as penguins. Hyperphalangy, or an increase in the number of phalanges beyond ancestral mammal and reptile conditions, is present in modern cetaceans and extinct marine reptiles.

Schizodactyly
Schizodactyly is a primate term for grasping and clinging with the second and third digit, instead of the thumb and second digit.

title: Dactyly


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RSV

RSV may refer to:

Biology and medicine

 * Respiratory syncytial virus, causing respiratory disease
 * Rous sarcoma virus, causing cancer in chickens

Organisations

 * Royal Society of Victoria, a scientific society in Australia
 * RSV Media Center, a Belize broadcaster
 * Rijn-Schelde-Verolme, a former Dutch shipbuilder

Transportation

 * Minicar RSV, a US safety concept car
 * RSV, a prefix for several Aprilia motorcycles
 * Renard, Stampe & Vertongen, a prefix for several Stampe et Vertongen aircraft
 * Research Survey Vessel (ship prefix)
 * USV RSV (Marine Tech), a French unmanned remote survey vehicle

Other uses

 * Revised Standard Version, an English Bible translation

title: RSV


text:
Bram Cohen

Bram Cohen is an American computer programmer, best known as the author of the peer-to-peer (P2P) BitTorrent protocol in 2001, as well as the first file sharing program to use the protocol, also known as BitTorrent. He is also the co-founder of CodeCon and organizer of the San Francisco Bay Area P2P-hackers meeting, was the co-author of Codeville and creator of the Chia cryptocurrency which implements the proof of space-time consensus algorithm.

Early life and career
Cohen grew up in the Upper West Side of Manhattan, New York City, as the son of a teacher and computer scientist. He claims he learned the BASIC programming language at the age of 5 on his family's Timex Sinclair computer. Cohen passed the American Invitational Mathematics Examination to qualify for the United States of America Mathematical Olympiad while he attended Stuyvesant High School in New York City. He graduated from Stuyvesant in 1993 and attended SUNY Buffalo. He later dropped out of college to work for several dot com companies throughout the mid to late 1990s, the last being MojoNation, an ambitious but ill-fated project he worked on with Jim McCoy.

MojoNation allowed people to break up confidential files into encrypted chunks and distribute those pieces on computers also running the software. If someone wanted to download a copy of this encrypted file, they would have to download it simultaneously from many computers. This concept, Cohen thought, was perfect for a file sharing program, since programs like KaZaA take a long time to download a large file because the file is (usually) coming from one source (or "peer"). Cohen designed BitTorrent to be able to download files from many sources, thus speeding up the download time, especially for users with faster download than upload speeds. Thus, the more popular a file is, the faster a user will be able to download it, since many people will be downloading it at the same time, and these people will also be uploading the data to other users.

Cohen says that he has Asperger syndrome based on a self diagnosis.

BitTorrent
In April 2001, Cohen quit MojoNation and began work on BitTorrent. Cohen unveiled his ideas at the first CodeCon conference, which he and his roommate Len Sassaman created as a showcase event for novel technology projects after becoming disillusioned with the state of technology conferences.

Cohen wrote the first BitTorrent client implementation in Python, and many other programs have since implemented the protocol.

In the summer of 2002, Cohen collected free pornography to lure beta testers to use the program. BitTorrent gained its fame for its ability to quickly share large music and movie files online. Cohen has claimed he has never violated copyright law using his software. Regardless, he is outspoken in his belief that the current media business was doomed to being outmoded despite the RIAA and MPAA's legal or technical tactics, such as digital rights management. In May 2005, Cohen released a trackerless beta version of BitTorrent.

In late 2003, Cohen had a short career at Valve, working on Steam, their digital distribution system introduced for Half-Life 2.

By 2004, he had left Valve and formed BitTorrent, Inc. with his brother Ross Cohen and business partner Ashwin Navin. In 2012 he announced a beta-version of BitTorrent Live for TV broadcasting through the Internet. Cohen left BitTorrent, Inc. in a day to day capacity to co-found Chia Network in the fall of 2017.

BitTorrent and the MPAA
By mid-2005, BitTorrent, Inc. was funded by venture capitalist David Chao from Doll Capital Management, and in late 2005 Cohen and Navin made a deal with the MPAA to remove links to illegal content on the official BitTorrent website. The deal was with the seven largest studios in America. The agreement means the site will comply with procedures outlined in the Digital Millennium Copyright Act.

Chia Network
Chia Network is a company founded by Cohen in 2017 that has implemented a proof of space-time cryptocurrency called Chia. Chia is intended to avoid the waste of energy involved in proof-of-work-based cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin, and the vulnerability to state actors of proof-of-stake systems.

Chia Network has raised seed money from investors including Andreessen Horowitz. The use of storage media (hard disk and solid-state drives) as the cryptocurrency's mining medium has raised concerns over potential price surges and shortage of high-capacity storage devices, as well as radically reducing the lifetime of drives.

Personal life
As of 2008, Cohen lived in the San Francisco Bay Area of the United States, with his wife Jenna and their three children.

Cohen's hobbies include original origami and juggling up to five balls, but his main interest is in recreational mathematics. Cohen maintains a blog where he frequently discusses trust metrics with software developer Raph Levien, as well as money systems, games of skill, and other math-related topics. He is also an assembly puzzle enthusiast. He has designed several puzzles including some in conjunction with Oskar van Deventer including several gear-based puzzles such as Gear Shift and a multiple Rubik's Cube variant called Bram's Fortress. Some of Cohen's puzzle designs are available for 3-D printing via Shapeways.

Awards
Cohen has received a number of awards for his work on the BitTorrent protocol. These awards include:
 * 2004 Wired Rave Award
 * 2005 MIT Technology Review TR35 as one of the top 35 innovators in the world under the age of 35
 * 2005 Time 100 Most Influential People
 * 2006 USENIX STUG Award
 * 2010 Internet Evolution 100

title: Bram Cohen