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County Louth

County Louth (Contae Lú) is a coastal county in the Eastern and Midland Region of Ireland, within the province of Leinster. Louth is bordered by the counties of Meath to the south, Monaghan to the west, Armagh to the north and Down to the north-east, across Carlingford Lough. It is the smallest county in Ireland by land area and the 17th most populous, with just over 139,100 residents as of 2022. The county is named after the village of Louth. Louth County Council is the local authority for the county.

History
County Louth is named after the village of Louth, which in turn is named after Lugh, a god of the ancient Irish. Historically, the placename has had various spellings; Lugmad, Lughmhaigh, and Lughmhadh (see Historic Names List, for full listing). Lú is the modern simplified spelling.

The county is steeped in myth, legend and history, and is a setting in the Táin Bó Cúailnge epic. Later it saw the influence of the Vikings, as seen in the name of Carlingford Lough. They also established a longphort at Annagassan in the ninth century. At this time Louth consisted of three sub-kingdoms, each subject to separate over-kingdoms: Conaille (Ulaidh); Fir Rois (Airgialla); and, the Fir Arda Ciannachta (Midhe). The whole area became part of the O'Carroll Kingdom of Airgíalla (Oriel) early in the 12th century under Donnchad Ua Cerbaill. At the same time, the area was removed from the diocese of Armagh and the episcopal see of the Diocese of Airgíalla or Clogher was transferred to Louth c. 1130–1190.

A number of historic sites are in the county, including religious sites at Monasterboice, Mellifont Abbey and the St Mary Magdalene Dominican Friary.

The Normans occupied the Louth area in the 1180s, forming the County of Oriel (Uriel or Vriell) out of the O'Carroll kingdom. At this time the western boundary of occupation was unfixed and Monaghan was still considered part of Oriel. However, over time, Louth became differentiated as 'English' Oriel, to distinguish it from the remainder ('Irish' Oriel), outside the control of the Norman colony, which had passed into the hands of the McMahon lordship of Airgíalla.

In the early 14th century Edward Bruce made claim to the High Kingship of Ireland and led an expeditionary force to Ireland. The Scottish army was repulsed from Drogheda but laid waste to much of the Anglo-Norman colony of Ireland including Ardee and Dundalk. Edward was crowned on the hill of Maledon near Dundalk on 2 May 1316. His army was finally defeated and Edward was killed in the Battle of Faughart near Dundalk, by a chiefly local force led by John de Bermingham. He was created 1st Earl of Louth and granted estates at Ardee on 12 May 1319 as a reward for his services to the Crown in defeating the Scots. De Bermingham was subsequently killed in the Braganstown massacre on 13 June 1329 along with some 200 members of his family and household, in a feud between the Anglo-Irish families of Louth.

One of the Statutes of Kilkenny in 1465 (5 Ed. IV, cap. 3) stated "That every Irishman that dwell betwixt or amongst Englishmen in the County of Dublin, Myeth, Vriell [i.e. Oriel], and Kildare ... shall take to him an English surname of one town, as Sutton, Chester, Trym, Skryne, Corke, Kinsale; or colour, as white, blacke, browne; or arte or science, as smith or carpenter; or office, as cooke, butler ...". This was an attempt to compel Irish families in the Pale, including Louth, to adopt English surnames.

In 1189, a royal charter was granted to Dundalk after a Norman nobleman named Bertram de Verdun erected a manor house at Castletown Mount. Bertram's granddaughter Roesia de Verdun later built Castle Roche in 1236. In 1412, a royal charter was granted to Drogheda which unified the towns of Drogheda-in-Meath and Drogheda-in-Uriel (Louth) as a County in its own right, styled as 'the County of the town of Drogheda'. Drogheda continued as a County Borough until the setting up of County Councils, through the enactment of the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898, which saw all of Drogheda, including a large area south of the River Boyne, become part of an extended County Louth.

Until the late 16th century, 1596, Louth was considered part of Ulster, before becoming part of Leinster after a conference held at Faughart between the Chiefs of Ulster (Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone and Hugh Roe O'Donnell), on the Irish side, and the Ulster-born Miler Magrath, Anglican Archbishop of Cashel, and Thomas Butler, 10th Earl of Ormond on that of the English. The lands of Ballymascanlan, part of the former estates of Mellifont Abbey, were transferred from Armagh to Louth c. 1630.

The 16th and 17th centuries featured many skirmishes and battles involving Irish and English forces, as Louth was on the main route to 'the Moiry Pass' and the Ulster areas often in rebellion and as yet uncolonised. Oliver Cromwell attacked Drogheda in 1649 slaughtering the Royalist garrison and hundreds of the town's citizens. Towards the end of the same century, the armies of the warring Kings, James II and William (III) of Orange, faced off in south Louth during the build-up to the Battle of the Boyne; the battle was fought 3 km west from Drogheda. Drogheda held for James under Lord Iveagh but surrendered to William the day after the battle of the Boyne.

In 1798, the leaders of the United Irishmen included Bartholomew Teeling, John Byrne, and Patrick Byrne, all from Castletown; Anthony Marmion from Louth Town and Dundalk, Anthony McCann from Corderry; Nicholas and Thomas Markey from Barmeath, and Arthur McKeown, John Warren, and James McAllister from Cambricville. They were betrayed by informers, notably a Dr Conlan, who came from Dundalk, and an agent provocateur called Sam Turner, from Newry. Several leaders were hanged.

The Burning of Wildgoose Lodge took place on the night of 29–30 October 1816, for which 18 men were executed.

The priest and scientist Nicholas Callan (1799–1864), inventor of the first induction coil, was from Darver.

Geography
Louth, colloquially known as "The Wee County", is the smallest of Ireland's 32 counties by area. It is the 17th most populous county, making it the fourth most densely populated county on the island of Ireland. It is the smallest of Leinster's 12 counties in size and the 6th-largest by population. Louth is bordered by four counties – Meath to the south, Monaghan to the west, Armagh to the north, and Down to the northeast. It bounded to the east by the Irish sea. Dundalk is the county town and is located approximately 80 km from Belfast and 85 km from Dublin. Louth is also the northernmost county in Leinster, and the only county in the province to share a border with Northern Ireland.

Climate
Louth has a temperate oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification Cfb), with cool humid summers and mild winters, strongly influenced by Atlantic ocean currents. Coastal areas generally experience milder winters and cooler, windier summers than inland areas. Daytime highs are generally in the 18 – range throughout the county in July, with overnight lows in the 10 – range. January and February are the coldest months, with average daily minimum temperatures typically falling below 2 C.

Met Éireann records climate data for the county from their station at Boharnamoe, ca. 1 km from Ardee, in the southwest of the county. The county's record high temperature is 30.9 °C, set on 12 July 1983. The coldest temperature ever recorded in Louth was on 1 January 1979, when the temperature at Ardee fell to -15.2 °C. Due to the moderating influence of the Irish sea, the temperature at Ardee has only surpassed 30 C once since records began in 1968. Prolonged or heavy snow is rare, but most of the county will typically experience snowfall on a few days per year.

Precipitation is evenly distributed year-round, with only about 30 mm of rainfall separating the wettest months (October and November) from the driest months (March and April). There are a number of synoptic weather stations which solely record rainfall located throughout the county. The driest areas are located along the coast, with average annual rainfall at Clogherhead being 735 mm, making it one of the driest locations on the island of Ireland. The wettest areas of the county are located around the Cooley Mountains, with the stations at Omeath (1,118 mm) and Glenmore (1,203 mm) recording the most rainfall in the county.

The coastal areas of the county are particularly vulnerable to flooding and storm surges during the Winter months, and significant flood defences have been constructed along Dundalk Bay. Louth County Council's Climate Change Adaptation Strategy identified coastal and riverine flooding as the primary environmental risks to the county.

Population

According to the Central Statistics Office, 139,703 people lived in County Louth as of the 2022 census, a 7.9% increase since the 2016 census. The population density of the county is 169.1 people per square kilometre, more than double the national average, which makes Louth the second most densely populated county in the Republic of Ireland, and the fourth most densely populated county on the island of Ireland. As of 2022, Louth was also the second most urbanised county in the State, with 69.7% of the county's population living within urban areas. Under Central Statistics Office (CSO) classification, an "urban area" is a town with a population greater than 1,500. As a result, much of the county outside of the larger towns is relatively sparsely populated, with most small areas (SAs) having a population density of between 20 and 50 people per km2.

The county has two dominant population centres, Dundalk, located in the north of the county, and Drogheda, located in the south on the border with County Meath. These two towns combined comprise approximately 58.9% of the county's total population, and are the 6th- and 7th-largest urban areas in Ireland respectively. Overall, Drogheda is the larger of the two; however, the town's southern environs — home to roughly 5,000 people — are located in County Meath. Therefore, Dundalk is the largest settlement wholly located within Louth and is also the county town.

Louth has experienced a rapid rate of population growth since the 1960s, nearly doubling in size in the fifty years between the census of 1966 and that of 2016. Its rate of growth (7.9%) since the 2016 census ranks 13th of 26 counties. The sizeable population growth in the county is influenced by its location along the Dublin–Belfast corridor; with the completion of the M1 motorway in particular driving the growth of Drogheda as a commuter town of Dublin. However, the northern areas of the county along the border with Northern Ireland have experienced a slight decline since 2011.

In 2016, Louth surpassed its pre-famine (1841 Census) population, becoming one of only five counties in the State to do so. As of the 2022 census, 5.9 per cent of the county's population was reported as younger than 5 years old, 28.1 per cent were between 5 and 25, 51.8 per cent were between 25 and 65, and 14.2 per cent of the population was older than 65. Of this latter group, 4,591 people (3.3 per cent) were over the age of 80. The population was evenly split between females (50.68 per cent) and males (49.32 per cent).

In 2021, there were 1,677 births within the county, and the average age of a first time mother was 30.5.

Urban areas
The most populous towns in Louth as of the 2022 census were (population in parentheses):

Ethnicity and migration
As of the 2022 census, the population of County Louth was 85.9% white. Those who identified as White Irish constituted 76.7% of the county's population, and Irish Travellers comprised a further 0.7%. Caucasians who did not identify as ethnically Irish accounted for 8.5% of the population.

The second largest ethnic group in Louth in 2022 was black, accounting for 3.3% of the population. Of this group, virtually the entire population lived in the two largest towns, with 56.5% of Louth's black residents living in Dundalk and 36.2% living in Drogheda.

Those of Asian and Mixed Race backgrounds accounted for 2.7% (3,808 people) and 1.7% (2,333 people) of the population respectively, with the majority of these groups residing in either Drogheda or Dundalk. Around 9,000 people or 6.4% of the population did not state their ethnicity in 2022, a significant increase from 2.5% in the 2016 census.

In contrast to the other counties in the Mid-East Region, which are characterised by widespread migration from Dublin, Louth has one of the highest proportions of native residents in Ireland. Around two-thirds (64.5%) of Louth's residents were born within the county, making it the 7th most indigenous county in the State. People from elsewhere in the Republic of Ireland accounted for just 13.9% of Louth's population in 2022, compared with 49.2% in neighbouring Meath to the south. A total of 30,145 people (21.7%) were born outside of the country, up from 24,509 people (19.2%) in 2016.

The largest foreign national groups by citizenship in Louth are: British (1.69%), Polish (1.50 percent), Lithuanian (1.40 percent), Nigerian (0.97 percent), Latvian (0.89 percent) and Romanian (0.57 percent).

Irish language
The Cooley Peninsula was the last Gaeltacht outpost in Leinster. Speakers of Irish existed around Omeath and into southern Armagh up until the middle of the 20th century. The area had its own local dialect, songs, poetry and traditional customs. The dialect, known as Gaeilge Oriel, is now extinct, as the last native speaker, Anne O'Hanlon, died in 1960 at the age of 89. However, extensive recordings of the dialect were made by German linguist Wilhelm Doegen for the Royal Irish Academy in 1928. An Irish language college, Coláiste Bhríde, was originally established in Omeath in 1912, but later moved to Ranafast, County Donegal. In 2012, Coláiste Bhríde celebrated its 100th anniversary in Omeath, and locals were taught phrases in Gaeilge Oriel.

Uniquely, the Cooley Peninsula had a sizable population of Presbyterian Gaeilgeoirí in the late 18th and 19th centuries, owing to its proximity to Ulster. In 1808, Reverend William Neilson published "An introduction to the Irish language" to distribute to Presbyterian ministers in the area, as many in their congregations could not speak English.

Despite its historic Gaeltacht, Louth has the lowest percentage of Irish speakers of any county in the State. Just 31.8% of the population stated that they could speak any level of Irish in the 2022 census.

Religion

According to the Central Statistics Office (CSO), the Catholic Church is by far the largest religious institution in County Louth, with 100,077 members. Orthodox Christianity was the second largest religious denomination, with 2,598 adherents. This was followed by Islam in third, with 2,281 adherents, and Anglican denominations including the Church of Ireland, England and Episcopalian in fourth, with 2,195.

The county is located within the archdiocese of Armagh in the Roman Catholic Church, and the Archbishop of Armagh has been recognised by the Vatican as the "Primate of All Ireland" since 1353. This was replicated in the Church of Ireland following the Reformation, and the Protestant Diocese of Armagh covers the same territorial extent as the Catholic diocese. Further, the Archbishop of Armagh also has the title of Primate of All Ireland within the Church of Ireland.

As was the case in much of Ireland, there was a significant increase in the number of people stating that they were either non-religious or atheist in the 2022 Census. This demographic has increased by 202% in a little over a decade (2011 to 2022), from 5,485 to 16,556. People with no religion now account for 11.9% of the county's population, up from 8% in 2016.

The fastest growing religions in the county between 2016 and 2022 were Hinduism (107%), Orthodox Christianity (80%) and Pantheism (78%), while the most rapidly declining religions were Lutheran (−23%), Evangelicalism (−19%), Buddhism (−13%) and Apostolic or Pentecostal (−11%). Although Catholicism only recorded a 4.3% decrease, the share of County Louth's residents who identified as Catholic fell sharply from 81.8% in 2016 to 72.1% in 2022.

Louth County Council
The local authority is Louth County Council, which has its offices in Dundalk, and provides a number of services including planning, roads maintenance, fire brigade, council housing, water supply, waste collection, recycling and landfill, higher education grants and funding for arts and culture.

As of the 2019 local election, Louth has been divided into five local electoral areas, whose councillors sit in three municipal districts: Ardee (which is also a municipal district), Drogheda Rural and Drogheda Rural (which form the borough district of Drogheda), and Dundalk—Carlingford and Dundalk South (which form the municipal district of Dundalk).

Freedom of the county
The Following People and Military Units have received the Freedom of County Louth.

 * Joe Biden: 25 June 2016.

Louth Dáil constituency
For elections to Dáil Éireann, Louth is represented by the five-seat Dáil constituency of Louth which takes all in the county of Louth, and in County Meath, the electoral divisions of Julianstown and part of St. Mary's.

The Report on Dáil and European Parliament Constituencies 2007 outlined:"by extending the constituency southwards from, and in the environs of, Drogheda and taking in electoral divisions which have extensive linkages with the town. This will allow the inclusion of the town of Drogheda and hinterland areas in a single constituency." This brought the areas of the Greater Drogheda area in County Meath and their combined population of 20,375 into a single constituency.

At the 2020 general election, the constituency elected two Sinn Féin TDs (nationalist and left-wing), one Fine Gael TD (centre-right), one Labour Party TD (centre-left) and an Independent TD (formerly Fine Gael).

Places of interest

 * Carlingford Lough
 * Cooley Peninsula
 * County Museum Dundalk
 * King John's Castle (Carlingford)
 * Linn Duachaill
 * Magdalene Tower, Drogheda
 * Mellifont Abbey
 * Millmount Fort
 * Monasterboice
 * St. Laurence's Gate
 * St. Peter's Roman Catholic Church, Drogheda, where the head of St. Oliver Plunkett is housed.

Entertainment

 * Pierce Brosnan – Actor, James Bond
 * Eamonn Campbell – Member of The Dubliners
 * Andrea Corr – Singer, The Corrs
 * Caroline Corr – Musician, The Corrs
 * Jim Corr – Musician, The Corrs
 * Sharon Corr – Musician, The Corrs
 * Evanna Lynch – Actress, Harry Potter
 * Cathy Maguire – Singer/songwriter
 * John Moore – Film director
 * Pádraigín Ní Uallacháin, traditional Irish singer and academic.
 * Gerry O'Connor – Traditional Irish fiddle player
 * Colin O'Donoghue – Actor, Once Upon a Time
 * Emily Taaffe – Actor''

Military

 * James Samuel Emerson (1895–1917), British soldier and posthumous Irish recipient of the Victoria Cross,
 * Patrick Anthony Langan-Byrne, British pilot, who was an Irish flying ace of the First World War credited with Ten aerial victories.
 * Admiral Francis Leopold McClintock KCB FRS – British Royal Navy officer and Explorer
 * George Martin Lees (1898–1955), British soldier, geologist and leading authority on the geology of the Middle East.
 * Major-General Arthur Thomas Moore VC – British Soldier and Irish recipient of the Victoria Cross.
 * Albert Cashier (otherwise Jennie Irene Hodgers), was born in Clogherhead and was a soldier in the Union Army during the American Civil War
 * Lisa Smith (soldier), a former Irish soldier who converted to Islam and later travelled to Syria during the Syrian Civil War to join Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIS).
 * Anthony Coningham Sterling (1805–1871), British Army officer and historian, author of The Highland Brigade in the Crimea.
 * James Sheridan (Medal of Honor), Quartermaster United States during the American Civil War – Sailor and recipient of the Medal of Honor for action at Battle of Mobile Bay
 * Hans Moore (1834–89), British Army Major who received the Victoria Cross during the Cape Frontier Wars
 * William Kenny (1880–1936), British Soldier and Irish recipient of the Victoria Cross
 * John Barrett Captain of HMS Minotaur (1793) and HMS Africa (1781)

Politics

 * Dermot Ahern – Politician, Fianna Fáil TD for Louth
 * Paddy O'Hanlon – Former Nationalist MP for South Armagh
 * James Carroll – Politician, Fianna Fáil, member of Seanad Éireann from Louth
 * Éamonn Ceannt, Irish republican known for his role in the Easter Rising of 1916. Born Galway, raised and educated in Louth.
 * Mark Dearey – Politician, Green Party Senator from Louth
 * Damien English – Politician, of Fine Gael who has served as Minister of State since 2014.
 * John Foster, 1st Baron Oriel (1740–1828), last Speaker of the Irish House of Commons.
 * Séamus Kirk – Politician, Fianna Fáil TD for Louth
 * Tony Martin, Canadian social democratic legislator.
 * John McClintock (1770–1855), MP for Athlone 1820, for County Louth 1830–31
 * Brendan McGahon – Politician, Fine Gael TD for Louth
 * John McGahon, Fine Gael Senator
 * Michael McKevitt – Republican dissident leader
 * Arthur Morgan – Politician, Sinn Féin TD for Louth
 * T.K. Whitaker (Irish Economist)
 * William Hughes, Irish-born US senator from New Jersey.
 * John Atkinson, Judge and Politician, MP for Londonderry North

Sport

 * Thomas Byrne – Former racing driver
 * Nick Colgan – Footballer
 * Kenny Finn – Irish American soccer and Gaelic football player
 * Beatrice Hill-Lowe – Archer
 * Gary Kelly – Footballer, Leeds United
 * Robert Kearney – Irish Rugby player
 * Colin Larkin – footballer, Hartlepool United
 * Tommy Smyth – Football commentator for ESPN
 * Steve Staunton – Footballer
 * Kevin Thornton – Footballer
 * Ian Harte – Footballer

Misc

 * Fr Nicholas Joseph Callan, priest and scientist best known for his work on the induction coil.
 * George Drumgoole Coleman – Civil architect
 * Dorothy Macardle, historian.
 * Matthew O'Neill, 1st Baron Dungannon, alias Matthew Kelly, (1520–1558), born in Dundalk. Father of Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone.
 * Katherine Plunket, (1820–1932), was an Irish aristocrat from Ballymascanlan, County Louth, a prolific botanical illustrator and formerly the oldest person ever to be born and die in Ireland, at 111 years and 327 days.
 * Nano Reid, artist.
 * Peter Rice – Structural engineer.
 * Alexander Williams, artist. Born in Monaghan, raised and educated in Louth.

title: County Louth


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Flexible AC transmission system

A Flexible Alternating Current Transmission System (FACTS) is a family of Power-Electronic based devices designed for use on an Alternating Current (AC) Transmission System to improve and control Power Flow and support Voltage. FACTs devices are alternatives to traditional electric grid solutions and improvements, where building additional Transmission Lines or Substation is not economically or logistically viable.

In general, FACTs devices improve power and voltage in three different ways: Shunt Compensation of Voltage (replacing the function of capacitors or inductors), Series Compensation of Impedance (replacing series capacitors) or Phase-Angle Compensation (replacing Generator Droop-Control or Phase-Shifting Transformers). While other traditional equipment can accomplish all of this, FACTs devices utilize Power Electronics that are fast enough to switch sub-cycle opposed to seconds or minutes. Most FACTs devices are also dynamic and can support voltage across a range rather than just on and off, and are multi-quadrant, i.e. they can both supply and consume Reactive Power, and even sometimes Real Power. All of this give them their "flexible" nature and make them well-suited for applications with unknown or changing requirements.

The FACTs family initially grew out of the development of High-Voltage Direct-Current (HVDC) conversion and transmission, which used Power Electronics to convert AC to DC to enable large, controllable power transfers. While HVDC focused on conversion to DC, FACTs devices used the developed technology to control power and voltage on the AC system. The most common type of FACTs device is the Static VAR Compensator (SVC), which uses Thyristors to switch and control shunt capacitors and reactors, respectively.

History
When AC won the War of Currents in the late 19th century, and electric grids began expanding and connecting cities and states, the need for reactive compensation became apparent. While AC offered benefits with transformation and reduced current, the alternating nature of voltage and current lead to additional challenges with the natural capacitance and inductance of transmission lines. Heavily loaded lines consumed reactive power due to the line's inductance, and as transmission voltage increased throughout the 20th century, the higher voltage supplied capacitive reactive power. As operating a transmission line only at it surge impedance loading (SIL) was not feasible, other means to manage the reactive power was needed. Synchronous Machines were commonly used at the time for generators, and could provide some reactive power support, however were limited due to the increase in losses it caused. They also became less effective as higher voltage transmissions lines moved loads further from sources. Fixed, shunt capacitor and reactor banks filled this need by being deployed where needed. In particular, shunt capacitors switched by circuit breakers provided an effective means to managing varying reactive power requirements due to changing loads. However, this was not without limitations.

Shunt capacitors and reactors are fixed devices, only able to be switched on and off. This required either a careful study of the exact size needed, or accepting less than ideal effects on the voltage of a transmission line. The need for a more dynamic and flexible solution was realized with the mercury-arc valve in the early 20th century. Similar to a vacuum tube, the mercury-arc valve was a high-powered rectifier, capable of converting high AC voltages to DC. As the technology improved, inverting became possible as well and mercury valves found use in power systems and HVDC ties. When connected to a reactor, different switching pattern could be used to vary the effective inductance connected, allow for more dynamic control. Arc valves continued to dominate power electronics until the rise of solid-state semiconductors in the mid 20th century.

As semiconductors replaced vacuum tubes, the thyristor created the first modern FACTs devices in the Static VAR Compensator (SVC). Effectively working as a circuit breaker that could switch on in milliseconds, it allowed for quickly switching capacitor banks. Connected to a reactor and switched sub-cycle allowed the effective inductance to be varied. The thyristor also greatly improved the control system, allowing an SVC to detect and react to faults to better support the system. The thyristor dominated the FACTs and HVDC world until the late 20th century, when the IGBT began to match its power ratings.

Theory
The basic theory for how FACTs devices affect the AC system is based on analyzing how power transfers between two points in an AC system. This is particularly relevant to how an AC electrical grid functions, as the grid has numerous nodes (substations) that lack sources (generators) or loads. Power flow must be calculated and controlled at each node (substation bus) to ensure the grid design and topology itself does not prevent generated electricity from reaching loads, as when Transmission Lines reach dozens to hundreds of miles in length, they add significant impedance and voltage drop to the system. Given two buses, each with their own voltage magnitude and phase angle, and connected by a Transmission Line with an impedance, the current flowing between them is given by $$\bar{I}=\frac{\bar{V}_s-\bar{V}_r}{\bar{Z}_L}$$

Apparent Power flow, and thus real and reactive power, is then given by

$$\bar{S} =\bar{V}\bar{I}^*=P+jQ$$

Combining these two equations gives the real and reactive power flow as a function of voltages and impedance. This can be done relatively easily, and is done in load-flow and power analysis programs, but results in equations that are not intuitive to understand. Two approximations can be made to simplify things: assume a lossless Transmission Line (a decent assumption as very low resistance conductor is typically used) and neglecting any capacitance on the line (a fair assumption for 200kV lines and lower). This reduces the Line impedance to just a reactance, and results in the real and reactive power being

$$P_s=P_r=P=\frac{V_sV_r}{X_L}\sin(\delta)$$

$$Q_s=-Q_r=Q=\frac{V_r}{X_L}[V_s\cos(\delta)-V_r]$$

where

$$V_s$$ is the magnitude of the Sending-End Voltage, at the first bus

$$V_r$$ is the magnitude of the Receiving-End Voltage, at the second bus

$$X_L$$ is the reactance of the Transmission Line between the buses

$$\delta$$ is the phase angle difference between the sending-end and receiving end voltages

From the above equations, it can be seen that there are three variables that affect real and reactive power flow on a Transmission Line: the voltage magnitudes at either bus, the line reactance between the buses, and the voltage phase-angle difference between the buses. All FACTs devices operation on the fundamental principal that changing one or more of these variables will change the real and reactive power flow on the transmission line. Some FACTs devices will just change a single variable, while others will control all three.

It should be noted, and will be made more explicit below, that FACTs devices do not create or add real power to the system, they simply affect the circuit parameters between two points to affect how and when power flows.

Types of FACTs devices
Given that FACTs device can change up to three parameters to affect power flow (voltage, impedance, and/or phase-angle), they are often categorized by what parameter they are controlling. As the conventional devices for controlling voltage (shunt capacitors and shunt inductors) and impedance (series capacitors and load-flow reactors) are so common, FACTs devices targeting voltage and impedance parameters are categorized as shunt and series devices, respectively.

Shunt Compensation Devices
The goal shunt compensation is to connect a device in parallel with the system that will improve voltage and enable larger power flow. This is traditionally done using shunt capacitors and inductors (reactors), much like Power Factor Correction.

The most common shunt compensation device is the Static VAR Compensator (SVC). SVCs use power electronics, generally Thyristors, to switch fixed capacitors and reactors. These are referred to as Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC) and Thyristor Switched Reactor (TSR), respectively. Thyristors are fast enough that they can be switched sub-cycle, and can switch a reactor at different points each cycle to control the vars the reactor produces. When arranged to do this, the TSR is referred to as a Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR). TCRs produce large amounts of harmonics and require Filter Banks to prevent adverse effects to the system.

Another type of shunt compensation is the Static Synchronous Compensator or STATCOM. Power electronics are combined in series with a reactor to form a Voltage-Sourced Converter (VSC), which when connected to an AC system forms a STATCOM. A VSC use the same principal of power flow on a transmission line; measuring the system voltage its connected to and varying the voltage of the power electronics to cause reactive power flow in or out of the VSC. Early STATCOMs used thyristors as their power electronics and Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM) to control reactive power, but with advances in semiconductor technologies, Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBT) have replaced them.

Series Compensation Devices
Series Compensation devices change the impedance of the Transmission Line to increase or decrease power flow. Power flow is increased by adding a series capacitor to offset line inductance or decreased by adding a series load-flow reactor to add to the line inductance.

One type of series compensation is the Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC), which combines the TCR from an SVC in parallel with a traditional fixed series capacitor. As using power electronics to switch capacitors sub-cycle is not feasible due to concerns of stored charge, a TCR is used to create a variable inductance to offset the capacitor. A TCSC can be used to dynamically vary the power flow on a transmission line.

A VSC can also be used as a series compensation device if it's connected across the secondary winding of a series-connected transformer. This arrangement is referred to as a Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC), and offers the benefits of a smaller reactor than in a TCSC, and the lower harmonic production of a VSC (or Voltage-Source Inverter - VSI when used in a SSSC) compared to a TCR.

Phase Angle Compensation
Power will only flow between two points on an AC system if there is a phase angle difference between the buses. Traditionally this is controlled by generators, however in large grids this becomes ineffective for managing power flow between distant buses. Phase-Shifting Transformers (PST) are generally used for these applications and can just be a Phase-Angle Regulator (PAR) or control both phase-angle and voltage.

The most straightforward phase angle compensation device would be to replace the tap changer on PAR with thyristors to switch portions of the winding in and out, forming a Thyristor-Controlled Phase-Shifting Transformer (TCPST). However, this is generally not done as a TCPST would be considerably more expensive than a PAR. Instead, this idea is expanded to replace a Quadrature Booster with a device referred to as a Thyristor-Controlled Phase-Angle Regulator (TCPAR), also known as a Static Phase-Shifter (SPS). From the schematic, it can be seen that a TCPAR is just a Quadrature Booster with the mechanical portions of the excitor and booster transformers replaced with Power Electronics, typically Thyristors.

Another way to form a TCPAR is to separate the Excitor and Booster transformer and control their secondaries with separate sets of Power Electronics. By linking the two sets of Power Electronics through a DC bus, typically by using GTO Thyristors or IGBTs, a TCPAR can be formed. While doing this may initially seem unnecessary, by looking at the shunt and series transformers and their electronics separately, it is apparent that the shunt portion is a STATCOM, and the series portion is a SSSC. With the DC bus providing power from the shunt portion to the series portion, the device functions as a Phase-Angle regulator, however with the DC bus isolating the two side, the STATCOM can control the shunt voltage or the SSSC can control line impedance. This gives the device its name, the Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC), as it can control all three parameters that affect Power Control.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Flexible AC transmission system


text:
Phimai Historical Park

The Phimai Historical Park (อุทยานประวัติศาสตร์พิมาย) is a historical park in Thailand, covering the ancient town of Phimai and the ruins of Prasat Phimai ปราสาทพิมาย, ) the largest ancient Khmer-Hindu temple in Thailand. It is located in the town of Phimai, Nakhon Ratchasima province. It is one of the most important tourist attractions in the province.

Phimai had previously been an important town at the time of the Khmer Empire. The temple Prasat Hin Phimai, located in the center of the town, was one of the major Khmer temples in ancient Thailand, connected with Angkor by the Ancient Khmer Highway, and oriented to face Angkor as its cardinal direction.

History
The temple marks one end of the Ancient Khmer Highway from Angkor. As the enclosed area of 1020x580m is comparable with that of Angkor Wat, it is suggested to have been an important city in the Khmer Empire. Most buildings are from the late 11th to the late 12th century, built in the Baphuon, Bayon and Khmer temple style. However, even though the Khmer at that time were Hindu, the temple was built as a Buddhist temple, since the inhabitants of the Khorat area had been Buddhists as far back as the 7th century. Inscriptions name the site Vimayapura (which means city of Vimaya), which developed into the Thai name Phimai.

In the aftermath of the fall of the Ayutthaya Kingdom in 1767, attempts were made to set up five separate states, with Prince Teppipit, a son of King Borommakot, attempting to establish Phimai as one, ruling over eastern provinces including Nakhon Ratchasima. As the weakest of the five, Prince Teppipit was the first to be defeated and was executed in 1768.

The first inventory of the ruins was done in 1901 by the French geographer Etienne Aymonier. The site was put under Thai governmental protection by announcement in the Government Gazette, Volume 53, section 34, on September 27, 1936. Most of the restorations were done from 1964 to 1969 as a joint Thai-French project. The historical park, now managed by the Fine Arts Department, was officially opened by Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn on April 12, 1989.

Phimai has recently been the base of operations for the excavation of Ban Non Wat.

Khmer influence
As the northeastern part of Thailand was part of the Khmer Empire (once ruled by the Khmer empire), Phimai's architecture and cultural decorations were built in Khmer architecture. Art and architecture shown on the temple itself shows great evidence of the ancient Khmer civilization. Similar in its look and design to Angkor, it also has the same function for worshiping the gods in the Hindu religion.

Despite the fact that Phimai was built in a similar fashion to Angkor and other Khmer Buddhist temples, the religious origin of some structures within Phimai's walls are still debated. Evidence of Dvaravati influence, such as the sculpture of "the Wheel of Law" or the statue of Buddha, shows that Phimai was an important Buddhist spiritual location. Although a large quantity of Buddhist artwork has been uncovered in Phimai, evidence including the large pots that were embedded in some corners of the structure suggest that spiritual practices other than Buddhism were also practiced in Phimai. Phimai thus has been an important religious landmark for Animists, Buddhists, and Hindus.

The earliest engraved records of the Khmer is dated from the 6th century AD in the northeast of Thailand. For example, stone Sanskrit inscriptions were found along with statues and engraved images of Hindu deities, such as the image of Shiva's bull Nandin. The king during that time, Mahendravarman, ordered his men to obliterate the engraved inscription. Modern scholars debate about the possibility that evidence may have been lost.

Phimai, along with other Khmer temples in Thailand, were built mainly under the cause of the "Deveraja cult," or "the King that resembles a god." Jayavarman II was the most mentioned "devaraja." The Devaraja cult developed the belief of worshiping Shiva and the principle that the king was an avatar of Shiva. Under this principle, Khmer rulers built temples to glorify the reign of the king along with the spread of Hinduism. The 10th century was the time of the reign of king Rajendravarman II (944-968 AD), which was also a time when Khmer control was spreading into what is now northeastern Thailand. Consequently, temples in Thailand with the Kleang and Baphuon styles remain as evidence of this Khmer heritage. These structures shared the same signature of having three brick towers on a single platform, for instance the Prasat Prang Ku in Si Saket province and Ban Phuluang in Surin province.

Each individual building has its own special features or functions. For example, Prang Brahmadat was built of laterite blocks that form a square. Or Prang Hin Daeng which translates to "Red Stone Tower" which is also a square but was made of red sandstone. Or the main sanctuary built of white sandstone that is almost 32 meters long. The southern lintel has a statue of Buddha meditating with "seven hoods of naga Muchalinda." Adjacent to this is a collection of statues of devils and animals depicted from the Tantric Mahayana Buddhist scripture.

Today Phimai is a well-known tourist attraction, especially among people interested in history and archaeology. Located in the middle of Phimai is a small rectangular gallery surrounding the courtyard, which has been newly rebuilt. Within the gallery there is a pre-Angkorian Buddhist inscription that tells the story of prince Siddhartha Gautama and his journey to becoming Buddha, along with other classic Buddhist stories. The prang symbolize that the area is a sacred space.

Within Phimai’s wall
When tourists enter the area of Phimai from the old town on the south, they have to cross a river about one kilometer to the south and enter an ancient laterite landing stage which archaeologists believe stood for the bathing place for the heroine in local myths. The south gate is the city main gate, also known as the "Pratu Chai," which has recently been reconstructed by the Royal Fine Arts Department. Its size is enormous; it is said that the size is big enough for a royal elephant to enter. The Royal Fine Arts Department also built an inner gallery which shows ancient Buddhist inscriptions and small sculptures as well as pieces of wrecked architecture. The rest of Phimai remains the same only with a little restoration by the Royal Arts Department.

Architecture style
Having a lot in common with Angkor Wat, Phimai is an example of classical Khmer architecture. Ancient Khmer architects were best known for their superior use of sandstone over the traditional bricks and laterite architectures. Sandstone is used on the visible outer layer. Laterite on the other hand was used for the inner wall and other hidden parts. All the structures are huge sandstone blocks. There are many lotus-shaped roofs representing Mount Meru (Hinduism's holy mountain).

Khmer temples in general, as well as Phimai in this case, were intended to resemble the universe. The main building resembles the peak of Mount Meru at the center of the universe. The surrounding walls resemble the water and encircling mountains. The Khmer did not develop the technique of true vault architecture during their time, results in large areas at Phimai that could not be roofed over. They instead developed the use of multiple chapels separated by open-air spaces.

Construction materials
The Khmer learned how to use bricks, sandstone, and laterite effectively. They were the three principal structural materials. Builders generally cut the lintel at 45 degrees to produce a triangular wedge.

Archaeological projects
In 1998, the Origins of Angkor Project (OAP), a joint project of the Royal Thai Fine Arts Department, Anthropology Department, and the University of Otago, New Zealand, began excavations to investigate the underlying sequence. Temple construction during the Angkorian period involved the deliberate deposition of layers of fill, which can clearly be seen in the stratigraphy of the site.

title: Phimai Historical Park


text:
Dutch National Opera

The Dutch National Opera (DNO; formerly De Nederlandse Opera, now De Nationale Opera in Dutch) is a Dutch opera company based in Amsterdam, Netherlands. Its present home base is the Dutch National Opera & Ballet housed in the Stopera building, a modern building designed by Cees Dam and Wilhelm Holzbauer that opened in 1986.

It received the "Opera Company of the Year" award at the 2016 International Opera Awards.

History
The DNO was established shortly after the end of World War II as a repertory company with a permanent ensemble. In the postwar period, it toured extensively in the Netherlands from its home base in the Stadsschouwburg, a fin de siècle theatre on the Leidseplein in Amsterdam. In 1964, it was renamed De Nederlandse Operastichting. (The Dutch Opera Foundation), and the company adopted a stagione orientation, inviting different soloists and artistic teams for each new production. In 1986, the company moved to the new Stopera building, which it shares with the Dutch National Ballet, and thereafter became known as De Nederlandse Opera (DNO). In 2014, the company changed its name to De Nationale Opera (Dutch National Opera).

The DNO has its own choir of sixty singers and a technical staff of 260. The DNO historically has not had its own resident orchestra, and so various orchestras of the Netherlands, including the Netherlands Philharmonic Orchestra (NPO), the Netherlands Chamber Orchestra (NKO), the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra, the Rotterdam Philharmonic Orchestra, the Radio Filharmonisch Orkest, Residentie Orkest, Den Haag (The Hague Philharmonic), and the Asko/Schönberg ensemble have provided the orchestral forces for DNO productions.

The DNO produces on average eleven productions per year. While most performances are in the Dutch National Opera & Ballet building, the company has also performed in the Stadsschouwburg, at the Carré Theatre, and on the Westergasfabriek industrial site in Amsterdam. For many years, the June production has been organized as part of the Holland Festival and includes the participation of the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra. The DNO has lent its productions to foreign companies, such as the Metropolitan Opera, the Brooklyn Academy of Music, and the Lincoln Center Festival in New York, as well as the Adelaide Festival in Australia.

Pierre Audi was artistic director of the DNO from 1998 to 2018. In April 2017, the DNO announced the appointment of Sophie de Lint as the company's next artistic director, effective 1 September 2018.

Hartmut Haenchen was chief conductor from 1986 to 1999, in parallel with holding the title of chief conductor of the NPO. He subsequently held the title of principal guest conductor with the DNO. Subsequent chief conductors have been Edo de Waart (1999–2004) and Ingo Metzmacher (2005–2008). In March 2009, the DNO announced the appointment of Marc Albrecht as the orchestra's next chief conductor, with the 2011–2012 season, for an initial contract of four years. This return to a single chief conductor at both the DNO and the NedPhO/NKO allows for the NedPhO to become the principal opera orchestra for the DNO. Albrecht stood down as chief conductor of the DNO at the end of the 2019–2020 season.

In April 2019, the DNO announced the appointment of Lorenzo Viotti as its next chief conductor, effective with the 2021–2022 season. In April 2023, the DNO announced the scheduled conclusion of Viotti's tenure as its chief conductor at the close of the 2024–2025 season.

Chief conductors (partial list)

 * Hans Vonk (1976–1985)
 * Hartmut Haenchen (1986–1999)
 * Edo de Waart (1999–2004)
 * Ingo Metzmacher (2005–2008)
 * Marc Albrecht (2011–2020)
 * Lorenzo Viotti (2021–present)

title: Dutch National Opera


text:
DNO

DNO may refer to:
 * Danish Nurses' Organization, a trade union for nurses in Denmark
 * Director of Naval Ordnance, British Admiralty administration
 * Distribution network operator, companies licensed to distribute electricity in Great Britain
 * Dno (air base), a former air base in Russia located 4 km south of Dno
 * DNO ASA, a Norwegian oil company
 * Drang nach Osten, a term coined in the 19th century to designate German expansion into Slavic lands
 * Dutch National Opera, based in Amsterdam, the Netherlands

title: DNO


text:
User:EACH

Evan Hunt is a software engineer living in Santa Cruz, California. He works for the Internet Systems Consortium and is one of the co-authors of BIND. He can be reached via [mailto:ethanol=wiki@armory.com email] or his talk page.

title: User:EACH


text:
Static VAR compensator

In Electrical Engineering, a static VAR compensator (SVC) is a set of electrical devices for providing fast-acting reactive power on high-voltage electricity transmission networks. SVCs are part of the flexible AC transmission system device family, regulating voltage, power factor, harmonics and stabilizing the system. A static VAR compensator has no significant moving parts (other than internal switchgear). Prior to the invention of the SVC, power factor compensation was the preserve of large rotating machines such as synchronous condensers or switched capacitor banks.

The SVC is an automated impedance matching device, designed to bring the system closer to unity power factor. SVCs are used in two main situations:
 * Connected to the power system, to regulate the transmission voltage ("transmission SVC")
 * Connected near large industrial loads, to improve power quality ("industrial SVC")

In transmission applications, the SVC is used to regulate the grid voltage. If the power system's reactive load is capacitive (leading), the SVC will use thyristor controlled reactors to consume VARs from the system, lowering the system voltage. Under inductive (lagging) conditions, the capacitor banks are automatically switched in, thus providing a higher system voltage. By connecting the thyristor-controlled reactor, which is continuously variable, along with a capacitor bank step, the net result is continuously variable leading or lagging power.

In industrial applications, SVCs are typically placed near high and rapidly varying loads, such as arc furnaces, where they can smooth flicker voltage.

Principle
Typically, an SVC comprises one or more banks of fixed or switched shunt capacitors or reactors, of which at least one bank is switched by thyristors. Elements which may be used to make an SVC typically include:
 * Thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR), where the reactor may be air- or iron-cored
 * Thyristor-switched capacitor (TSC)
 * Harmonic filter(s)
 * Mechanically switched capacitors or reactors (switched by a circuit breaker)

By means of phase angle modulation switched by the thyristors, the reactor may be variably switched into the circuit and so provide a continuously variable VAR injection (or absorption) to the electrical network. In this configuration, coarse voltage control is provided by the capacitors; the thyristor-controlled reactor is to provide smooth control. Smoother control and more flexibility can be provided with thyristor-controlled capacitor switching.

The thyristors are electronically controlled. Thyristors, like all semiconductors, generate heat and deionized water is commonly used to cool them. Chopping reactive load into the circuit in this manner injects undesirable odd-order harmonics and so banks of high-power filters are usually provided to smooth the waveform. Since the filters themselves are capacitive, they also export MVARs to the power system.

More complex arrangements are practical where precise voltage regulation is required. Voltage regulation is provided by means of a closed-loop controller. Remote supervisory control and manual adjustment of the voltage set-point are also common.

Connection
Generally, static VAR compensation is not done at line voltage; a bank of transformers steps the transmission voltage (for example, 230 kV) down to a much lower level (for example, 9.0 kV). This reduces the size and number of components needed in the SVC, although the conductors must be very large to handle the high currents associated with the lower voltage. In some static VAR compensators for industrial applications such as electric arc furnaces, where there may be an existing medium-voltage busbar present (for example at 33 kV or 34.5 kV), the static VAR compensator may be directly connected in order to save the cost of the transformer.

Another common connection point for SVC is on the delta tertiary winding of Y-connected auto-transformers used to connect one transmission voltage to another voltage.

The dynamic nature of the SVC lies in the use of thyristors connected in series and inverse-parallel, forming "thyristor valves". The disc-shaped semiconductors, usually several inches in diameter, are usually located indoors in a "valve house".

Advantages
The main advantage of SVCs over simple mechanically switched compensation schemes is their near-instantaneous response to changes in the system voltage. For this reason they are often operated at close to their zero-point in order to maximize the reactive power correction they can rapidly provide when required.

They are, in general, cheaper, higher-capacity, faster and more reliable than dynamic compensation schemes such as synchronous condensers. However, static VAR compensators are more expensive than mechanically switched capacitors, so many system operators use a combination of the two technologies (sometimes in the same installation), using the static VAR compensator to provide support for fast changes and the mechanically switched capacitors to provide steady-state VARs.

title: Static VAR compensator


text:
Junker (Prussia)

The Junkers were members of the landed nobility in Prussia. They owned great estates that were maintained and worked by peasants with few rights. These estates often lay in the countryside outside of major cities or towns. They were an important factor in Prussian and, after 1871, German military, political and diplomatic leadership. The most famous Junker was Chancellor Otto von Bismarck. Bismarck held power in Germany from 1871 to 1890 as Chancellor of the German Empire. He was removed from power by Kaiser Wilhelm II. Many Junkers lived in the eastern provinces that were annexed by either Poland or the Soviet Union after World War II. Junkers fled or were expelled alongside other German-speaking populations by the incoming Polish and Soviet administrations, and their lands were confiscated. In western and southern Germany, the land was often owned by small independent farmers or a mixture of small farmers and estate owners, and this system was often contrasted with the dominance of the large estate owners of the east. Before World War II, the dividing line was often drawn at the river Elbe which was also roughly the western boundary of Slavic settlement by the Wends in the so-called Germania Slavica prior to Ostsiedlung. The term for the junker dominated East was thus Ostelbien or East Elbia. They played a prominent role in repressing the liberal movement in Germany.

Origins
Junker is derived from Middle High German Juncherre, meaning "young nobleman" or otherwise "young lord" (derivation of jung and Herr), and originally was the title of members of the higher edelfrei (immediate) nobility without or before the accolade. It evolved to a general denotation of a young or lesser noble, often poor and politically insignificant, understood as "country squire" (cf. Martin Luther's disguise as "Junker Jörg" at the Wartburg; he would later mock King Henry VIII of England as "Juncker Heintz" ). As part of the nobility, many Junker families only had prepositions such as von or zu before their family names without further ranks. The abbreviation of the title is Jkr., most often placed before the given name and titles, for example: Jkr. Heinrich von Hohenberg. The female equivalent Junkfrau (Jkfr.) was used only sporadically. In some cases, the honorific Jkr. was also used for Freiherren (Barons) and Grafen (Counts).

A good number of poorer Junkers took up careers as soldiers (Fahnenjunker), mercenaries, and officials (Hofjunker, Kammerjunker) at the court of territorial princes. These families were mostly part of the German medieval Uradel and had carried on the colonisation and Christianisation of the northeastern European territories during the Ostsiedlung. Over the centuries, they had become influential commanders and landowners, especially in the lands east of the Elbe River in the Kingdom of Prussia.

As landed aristocrats, the Junkers owned most of the arable land in Prussia. Being the bulwark of the ruling House of Hohenzollern, the Junkers controlled the Prussian Army, leading in political influence and social status, and owning immense estates worked by tenants. These were located especially in the north-eastern half of Germany (i.e. the Prussian provinces of Brandenburg, Pomerania, Silesia, West Prussia, East Prussia, and Posen). This was in contrast to the predominantly Catholic southern states such as the Kingdom of Bavaria or the Grand Duchy of Baden, where land was owned by small farms, or the mixed agriculture of the western states like the Grand Duchy of Hesse or even the Prussian Rhine and Westphalian provinces.

Junkers formed a tightly knit elite. Their challenge was how to retain their dominance in an emerging modern state with a growing middle and working class.

Modern influences
The Junkers held a virtual monopoly on all agriculture in the part of the German Reich lying east of the River Elbe. Since the Junker estates were necessarily inherited by the eldest son alone, younger sons, all well-educated and with a sense of noble ancestry, turned to the civil and military services, and dominated all higher civil offices, as well as the officer corps. Around 1900 they modernised their farming operations to increase productivity. They sold off less productive land, invested more heavily in new breeds of cattle and pigs, used new fertilisers, increased grain production, and improved productivity per worker. Their political influence achieved the imposition of high tariffs that reduced competition from U.S. grain and meat.

During World War I, Irish nationalist MP Tom Kettle compared the Anglo-Irish landlord class to the Prussian Junkers, saying, "England goes to fight for liberty in Europe and for junkerdom in Ireland."

Their political influence extended from the German Empire of 1871–1918 through the Weimar Republic of 1919–1933. It was said that "if Prussia ruled Germany, the Junkers ruled Prussia, and through it the Empire itself". A policy known as Osthilfe ("Help for the East") granted Junkers 500,000,000 marks in subsidies to help pay for certain debts and to improve equipment. Junkers continued to demand and receive more and more subsidies, which gave them more money in their pockets, thus resulting in political power. Junkers exploited a monopoly on grain by storing it to drive up the price. As more money was profited, they were able to control political offices. Junkers were able to force people to continue paying more money for their product, while keeping who they wanted in office. Through the controlling of politics behind a veil, Junkers were able to influence politicians to create a law that prohibited collecting of debts from agrarians, thus pocketing even more money and strengthening their power.

Supporting monarchism and military traditions, Junkers were seen as reactionary, anti-democratic, and protectionist by liberals and Socialists, as they had sided with the conservative monarchist forces during the Revolution of 1848. Their political interests were served by the German Conservative Party in the Reichstag and the extraparliamentary Agriculturists' League (Bund der Landwirte). This political class held tremendous power over industrial classes and government alike, especially through the Prussian three-class franchise. When German chancellor Leo von Caprivi in the 1890s reduced the protective duties on imports of grain, these landed magnates demanded and obtained his dismissal; and in 1902, they brought about a restoration of such duties on foodstuffs as would keep the prices of their own products at a high level.

"Junker" acquired its current and often pejorative sense during the 19th-century disputes over the domestic policies of the German Empire. The term was used by sociologists such as Max Weber and was even adopted by members of the landed class themselves. Chancellor Otto von Bismarck was a noted Junker, though his family hailed from the Altmark region west of the Elbe. After World War I many Prussian agriculturists gathered in the national conservative German National People's Party (DNVP). The term was also applied to Reich President Paul von Hindenburg, lord of Neudeck in West Prussia, and to the "camarilla" around him urging the appointment of Adolf Hitler as Chancellor of Germany, personified by men like Hindenburg's son Oskar and his West Prussian "neighbour" Elard von Oldenburg-Januschau, who played a vital role in the Osthilfe scandal of 1932/33.

Many World War II field marshals were also members of the Junkers, most notably Gerd von Rundstedt, Fedor von Bock, and Erich von Manstein. Many Junkers used forced labourers from Poland and the Soviet Union. Although Helmuth James Graf von Moltke formed the Kreisau Circle as part of the resistance to Nazi rule. As World War II turned against Nazi Germany, several senior Junkers in the Wehrmacht participated in Colonel Claus von Stauffenberg's assassination attempt of 20 July 1944. Fifty-eight of them either were executed when the plot failed, among them Erwin von Witzleben and Heinrich Graf von Lehndorff-Steinort, or committed suicide like Henning von Tresckow. During the advance of the Red Army in the closing months of the war and subsequently, most Junkers had to flee from the eastern territories that were turned over to the re-established Republic of Poland with the implementation of the Oder–Neisse line according to the Potsdam Agreement.

Bodenreform
After World War II, during the communist Bodenreform (land reform) of September 1945 in the Soviet Occupation Zone, later East Germany, all private property exceeding an area of 100 ha was expropriated, and then predominantly allocated to 'New Farmers' on condition that they continued farming them. As most of these large estates, especially in Brandenburg and Western Pomerania, had belonged to Junkers, the Socialist Unity Party of Germany promoted their plans with East German President Wilhelm Pieck's slogan Junkerland in Bauernhand! ("Junker land into farmer's hand!"). The former owners were accused of war crimes and involvement in the Nazi regime by the Soviet Military Administration and the SED, with many of them being arrested, brutally beaten and interned in NKVD special camps (Speziallager), while their property was plundered and the manor houses demolished. Some were executed. Many women were raped. From 1952 these individual farms were pressured by a variety of means to join together as collectives and incorporated into Landwirtschaftliche Produktionsgenossenschaften ("agricultural production comradeships", LPG) or nationalised as Volkseigene Güter ("publicly owned estates", VEG).

After German reunification, some Junkers tried to regain their former estates through civil lawsuits, but the German courts have upheld the land reforms and rebuffed claims to full compensation, confirming the legal validity of the terms within the Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany (Two Plus Four Agreement) (and incorporated into the Basic Law of the Federal Republic), by which expropriations of land under Soviet occupation were irreversible. The last decisive case was the unsuccessful lawsuit of Prince Ernst August of Hanover in September 2006, when the Federal Administrative Court decided that the prince had no right to compensation for the disseized estates of the House of Hanover around Blankenburg Castle in Saxony-Anhalt. Other families, however, have quietly purchased or leased back their ancestral homes from the current owners (often the German federal government in its role as trustee). A petition for official rehabilitation of the ousted landowners was rejected by the German Bundestag in 2008.

Notable Junkers

 * Otto von Bismarck
 * Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher
 * Manfred von Richthofen
 * Paul von Hindenburg
 * Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben
 * Christoph II von Dohna
 * Friedrich Wilhelm von Seydlitz
 * Alfred von Waldersee
 * Alfred von Schlieffen
 * Werner von Siemens
 * Leonhard Graf von Blumenthal
 * Josias von Heeringen
 * Heinrich von Kleist
 * Joseph von Eichendorff
 * Ferdinand von Schill
 * Hans Joachim von Zieten
 * Ludwig Yorck von Wartenburg
 * Heinrich Friedrich Karl vom und zum Stein
 * Helmuth von Moltke the Elder
 * Helmuth von Moltke the Younger
 * Gustav von Wangenheim
 * Alexander von Linsingen
 * Franz von Hipper
 * Karl-Jesko von Puttkamer
 * Kurt Freiherr von Hammerstein-Equord
 * Claus von Stauffenberg
 * Heinrich Graf von Einsiedel
 * Günther von Reibnitz
 * Alfred von Tirpitz
 * Erich von Falkenhayn
 * August von Mackensen
 * Henning von Tresckow
 * Walter von Brauchitsch
 * Fedor von Bock
 * Oskar von Hindenburg
 * Wilhelm von Leeb
 * Erich von Manstein
 * Hans-Jürgen von Arnim
 * Hermann von Eichhorn
 * Otto Liman von Sanders
 * Helmuth James Graf von Moltke
 * Wolfram von Richthofen
 * Peter Yorck von Wartenburg
 * Marion von Dönhoff
 * Elard von Oldenburg-Januschau
 * Veruschka von Lehndorff
 * Paul Emil von Lettow-Vorbeck
 * Kurt von Schleicher
 * Hans von Seeckt
 * Bernhard von Bülow
 * Alexander von Kluck
 * Werner von Blomberg
 * Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk
 * Eberhard von Mackensen
 * Wernher von Braun
 * Walther von Reichenau
 * Walther von Seydlitz-Kurzbach
 * Gerhard von Scharnhorst
 * August von Gneisenau
 * Carl von Clausewitz
 * Albrecht von Roon
 * Karl vom Stein zum Altenstein
 * Eugen Anton Theophil von Podbielski
 * Adolf Wild von Hohenborn
 * Erwin von Witzleben
 * Job von Witzleben (historian)
 * Ludwig Freiherr von und zu der Tann-Rathsamhausen
 * Hyazinth Graf Strachwitz von Groß-Zauche und Camminetz
 * Gottfried Graf von Bismarck-Schönhausen
 * Wessel Freytag von Loringhoven
 * Günther von Kluge
 * Ernst von Weizsacker
 * Ulrich von Hassell
 * Heinrich Graf von Lehndorff-Steinort
 * Georg von Derfflinger
 * Erich von Drygalski
 * Ludwig von Wolzogen
 * Rudolf von Bennigsen
 * Heinrich Freiherr von Lüttwitz
 * Remus von Woyrsch
 * Gerd von Rundstedt
 * Lothar von Richthofen
 * Paul Ludwig Ewald von Kleist
 * Alfried Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach
 * Ferdinand von Sammern-Frankenegg
 * Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski
 * Franz von Papen
 * Joachim von Ribbentrop
 * Franz Pfeffer von Salomon
 * Werner von Fritsch
 * Baldur von Schirach
 * Claus von Bülow
 * Friedrich Werner von der Schulenburg
 * Gustav Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach
 * Konstantin von Neurath
 * Richard von Weizsacker
 * Maximilian von Weichs
 * Friedrich Wilhelm von Lindeiner-Wildau
 * Chlodwig zu Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst
 * Georg von Hertling
 * Ferdinand von Zeppelin
 * Hans-Georg von Friedeburg
 * Robert Ritter von Greim
 * Adolf von Baeyer

title: Junker (Prussia)


text:
Talk:July 23

Henri Petain
My apologies if this has been mentioned elsewhere, but Henri Petain is shown as having died twice (1951 and 1955). Uyanga 19:49 23 Jul 2003 (UTC)

I removed the 1955 Petain entry; I believe the 1951 date to be the correct one. Zoicon5 16 Oct 2003

Ice cream cone
"1904 - In St. Louis, Missouri, Charles E. Menches invents the ice cream cone during the Louisiana Purchase Exposition." Upon reading Ice cream cone, this can be noted to be false. I'm removing it. Radagast 02:06, Jul 23, 2004 (UTC)

 * Well I impersonalised the entry on 23 July because according to this article and the links it is not all too clear who really invented the first ice cream cone. --SabineCretella 10:47, 25 July 2006 (UTC)

NMCR Day?
Can someone please provide sources to verify the existence of National My Chemical Romance Day? Otherwise, I will remove it, as it seems to be some nasty myspace speculation :) --Dark dude 17:37, 26 June 2007 (UTC)

User:Mufka changes - Comment/Discussion
Largely agree, except for removal of:
 * 1970 - Qaboos ibn Sa’id, becomes Sultan of Oman - this would be a valid inclusion here.

Holidays and observances I can take or leave

Mark5677 06:21, 13 November 2007 (UTC)
 * The reason that one was removed is because, generally, repetitive events, such as presidential elections, changes in kings, etc. are not remarkable in and of themselves. They are fairly routine.  Only in the case of assassination or resignation would they be considered notable here. I don't think that was the case with Qaboos ibn Sa’id, but I could be wrong.  -- Mufka (u) (t) (c) 13:48, 13 November 2007 (UTC)
 * From my reading of the article, Qaboos ibn Sa’id overthrew his father in 1970 and has reigned ever since. My view is that that would meet the notability criteria. Mark5677 20:12, 14 November 2007 (UTC)
 * I'll concede that the overthrow gives it some additional notability - so long as this is not the normal succession of power there. Still not sure that it matters all that much but I'll leave it alone.  -- Mufka (u) (t) (c) 03:35, 15 November 2007 (UTC)

Where is the "Deaths" section?
I can't find it on the page, if someone could please explain why it is not visible in the page itself but is on the adit page that would be great. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 79.176.218.74 (talk) 23:33, 23 July 2011 (UTC)

This parson is a noname in Iceland and sould be removed from this list

 * 1985  – Ólafur Hannesson, Icelandic television host  — Preceding unsigned comment added by Bragi H (talk • contribs) 10:10, 25 March 2013 (UTC)

Natasa Pandi
I've gone through all the list but there seems to be a serious ommission as the entry fails to mention the birthday of Greek royalty Natasa Pandi on July 23, 1982, Corfu, Greece. She is among the leading public royal figures of Europe and ranked 25th on Forbes list of the most powerful women in the world, 2013.

HRTT — Preceding unsigned comment added by Hararettius (talk • contribs) 11:00, 23 July 2013 (UTC)
 * Natasha Pandi has no article...Lectonar (talk) 11:02, 23 July 2013 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 30 April 2015
Add to births:

*1865 – Henry Norris, English businessman, politician and football club director (d. 1934)

PMOne (talk) 21:25, 30 April 2015 (UTC)
 * Yes check.svg Done Stickee (talk) 22:44, 30 April 2015 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 5 December 2019
Add an Event in year 1919: Establishment of the University of Ljubljana, oldest and largest university in Slovenia. 89.212.94.24 (talk) 22:05, 5 December 2019 (UTC)
 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done: please provide reliable sources that support the change you want to be made. The University of Ljubljana article does not clearly indicate any particular date as that of the official founding of the university. Eggishorn (talk) (contrib) 16:59, 8 December 2019 (UTC)

 * Law establishing the University was signed on 23 July 1919 by Prince Regent Aleksander Karađorđević. This date is considered as the day when University was established. https://www.uni-lj.si/university/100_years_ul/
 * Yes check.svg Done and thank you for providing the requested information. Eggishorn (talk) (contrib) 17:38, 9 December 2019 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 24 June 2020
213.217.208.130 (talk) 08:42, 24 June 2020 (UTC) 2010, One Direction was formed on the X Factor.
 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done: please provide reliable sources that support the change you want to be made. Jack Frost (talk) 10:40, 24 June 2020 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 25 June 2020
23th july 2010 one direction being formed as a group on the X factor 84.202.150.102 (talk) 00:52, 25 June 2020 (UTC)
 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done: please provide reliable sources that support the change you want to be made. aboideausapere aude 00:56, 25 June 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:July 23


text:
Turban

A turban (from Persian دوربند, durband; via Middle French turbant) is a type of headwear based on cloth winding. Featuring many variations, it is worn as customary headwear by people of various cultures. Communities with prominent turban-wearing traditions can be found in the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, the Middle East, the Balkans, the Caucasus, Central Asia, North Africa, West Africa, East Africa, and amongst some Turkic peoples in Russia.

A keski is a type of turban, a long piece of cloth roughly half the length of a traditional "single turban", but not cut and sewn to make a double-width "Double Turban" (or Double Patti).

Wearing turbans is common among Sikh men (Dastar), and infrequently women. They are also worn by Hindu monks. The headgear also serves as a religious observance, including among Shia Muslims, who regard turban-wearing as Sunnah mu’akkadah (confirmed tradition). The turban is also the traditional headdress of Sufi scholars. Muslim men might wear the turban (Imama) during prayer. Additionally, turbans have often been worn by nobility, regardless of religious background.

Styles and Wrapping Techniques: Turbans come in a variety of styles, and the method of wrapping can vary. Some turbans are simple and functional, while others are elaborate and serve ceremonial or formal purposes. The way a turban is tied can indicate the wearer's social or marital status, religious affiliation, or regional identity. Aside from cultural and religious significance, turbans are also practical headwear. They provide protection from the sun, dust, and wind. In some regions with hot climates, turbans can help keep the head cool.

History

The earliest depiction of a turban can be found on a Mesopotamian sculpture dating back to 2350 B.C.  A style of turban called a phakeolis continued to be worn in that region by soldiers of the Byzantine army in the period 400–600, as well as by Byzantine civilians as depicted in Greek frescoes from the 10th century in the province of Cappadocia in modern Turkey, where it was still worn by their Greek-speaking descendants in the early 20th century. The Islamic prophet, Muhammad, who lived 570–632, wore an Imama turban. The style of turban he introduced was a cap with a cloth tied around it; this headwear is known as Imama and was emulated by Muslim kings and scholars throughout history. Shiah clergies today wear white turbans unless they are descendants of Muhammad or Sayyid, in which case they wear a black turban. Many Muslim men choose to wear green, because it represents paradise, especially among followers of Sufism. In parts of North Africa, where blue is common, the shade of a turban can signify the tribe of the wearer.

National styles
Contemporary turbans come in many shapes, sizes and colours. Turban wearers in North Africa, the Horn of Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia, South Asia, and Philippines (Sulu) usually wind it anew for each wearing, using long strips of cloth. The cloth is usually under five meters in length. Some elaborate South Asian turbans may also be permanently formed and sewn to a foundation. Turbans can be very large or quite modest depending upon region and culture.

East Africa
Turbans are commonly worn in East Africa by Muslim clerics, as well as Ethiopian Orthodox Christian priests. The headwrap has a long presence in the region, where it was frequently sported by Sultans, Wazirs, and other aristocratic and court officials. Among these nobles are the Somali Sultans Deria Hassan of the Isaaq Sultanate, Mohamoud Ali Shire of the Warsangali, Osman Mahamuud of the Majeerteen Sultanate, and Yusuf Ali Kenadid and Ali Yusuf Kenadid of the Sultanate of Hobyo. Prominent historical Islamic leaders in the region that are known to have worn turbans include Sheikh Abadir Umar Ar-Rida. It is typically worn with a maccawiis (sarong) or a jellabiya.

Among Tumbuka nobility in Malawi and Zambia, black turbans (mphumphu) in various styles are worn by the king chikulamayembe and all chiefs below him. These turbans thus function as crowns. The practice of Tumbuka nobles wearing black turbans dates back to the late 18th century when a Swahili/Nyamwezi trades man gifted all chiefs he encouraged in the tumbuka territories black cloth, some of which he would wrap around their heads.

Arabian Peninsula
In most countries of the Arabian peninsula, a plain or checkered scarf (called ghutrah, shumagh or chefiyah), not usually described as a turban is often worn, though the Arabic Emamah tradition remains strong in Oman (see Sultan Qaboos of Oman), Sudan and some parts of the Arabian peninsula. In Yemen, the traditional Muslim Imama is worn. The colored turban, Ghabanah, is a common inherited cultural turban in the regions of Hijaz, and it still the inhabitants costume of Mecca, Madinah and Jeddah in particular. Ghabanah is the heritage uniform headwear for traders and the general community categories of the prestigious and middle-class, with the exception of religious scholars who have had their special turbans distinctiveness predominately white. The Hijazi turbans with different shapes are the extension of the turban of Islamic prophet Muhammad who lived in Mecca and Madinah. There are several types of Ghabanah, perhaps the most famous is the yellow (Halabi), made in Aleppo, characterized by different inscriptions, and wrapped on a dome-like hollow taqiyah or a Turkish fez or kalpak cap. Colorful turbans called Masar are the national headwear costume in Oman, and also are common in some regions in south of Yemen and Hadhramaut. Moreover, the white ghutrah or shumagh are commonly wrapped in Hamdaniyah style, which is also the shape of turbans in the United Arab Emirates.

Afghanistan
Turbans are part of the national dress in Afghanistan. In the Uruzgan Province, male government employees are required to wear the Imama. They are used more widely than elsewhere in the Muslim world, and are worn in a wide range of styles and colours. In the country's south-east, turbans are wrapped loosely and largely, whereas in Kabul the garment tends to be smaller and tighter. In traditional Afghan society, a related piece of extra cloth called a patu serves practical purposes, such as for wrapping oneself against the cold, to sit on, to tie up an animal or to carry water in the cap. Different ethnic groups in Afghanistan wear different lungees with different patterns, way of styling it, fabric, stripes, lengths and colouration. Males of all ethnic backgrounds generally avoid wearing bright-coloured turbans that draw attention to oneself and prefer wearing simple colors that are white, off white, gray, dark blue and black.

Navy blue is a color common more to the Sikh Nihangs, it signifies war and service, while black is associated with resistance, orange with sacrifice and martyrdom, and white with wisdom, old age, death, or peace; however during times of peace, or rallies for peace, people will usually be in war gear, blue. It is also traditionally worn by members of the Taliban.

Indian subcontinent
In India, the turban is referred to as a pagri, meaning the headdress that is worn by men and is manually tied. There are several styles, which are specific to the wearer's region or religion, and they vary in shape, size and colour. For example, the Mysore Peta, the Marathi pheta, and the Puneri Pagadi. The pagri is a symbol of honour and respect everywhere it is worn. It is a common practice to honour important guests by offering them one to wear.

Colours are often chosen to suit the occasion or circumstance: for example saffron, associated with valour or sacrifice (martyrdom), is worn during rallies; white, associated with peace, is worn by elders; and pink, associated with spring, is worn during that season or for marriage ceremonies.

In World War II, some soldiers in the Indian Army were required to wear a turban.

In Rajasthan state of India these turbans, known as Pagri or Safa, is a traditional headwear that is an integral part of the state’s cultural identity. It is typically made from cotton, silk, or a blend of fabrics and can vary in length. The Safa is usually around 9 to 11 meters long, while the Pagri can be about 21 meters. Some of the most popular turbans in Rajasthan includes Jodhpuri safa.

In Pakistan, the turban is in widespread use, especially among the rural population. It is worn in different styles and colours across the country, varying by region, e.g. in the north of the country, black and white turbans are preferred. The turban most commonly found in Pakistan is white and crestless, and worn commonly in the Pashtun belt, while in rural Punjab and Sindh, it is mostly worn by elders or feudal lords. The turban is called either a pagri or pag by Punjabis, while the Pashtuns and Sindhi's call it patkay/patko.

The Baloch people are famous for their large turbans that are worn with both ends hanging from the sides or as a loop that rests above the chest. These turbans are made with many feet of cloth that are wrapped around a cap and are mostly made with white cloth.

In Bangladesh, the turban is known as pagri, or fagri in Chittagong and Sylhet. The most common colour worn is white, and generally it is the Sufis that wear green turbans. It is also worn by elders in rural areas as a symbol of honour and respect.

The turban in Nepal is commonly worn in rural areas by males. The rural turban is called either a Pagdi or Pheta. It is common among farmers. All types of coloured clothes were used for Pheta. Historically, Gorkhali nobleman used to wear white turban called Shirpau awarded by the King of Nepal. For example; Sardar Ram Krishna Kunwar was awarded with 22 pairs of headgear called Shirpau by the Gorkhali monarch Maharajadhiraj Prithvi Narayan Shah. It was common among aristocrats in other contemporary kingdoms. Rulers and vassal lords also adapted a crest to the white turban.

Indonesia
In Indonesia, the turban-styled headdress for men is traditionally called iket (from Javanese and Sundanese language). It literally means 'to tie', the main way to attach the fabric over the head of the wearer. It is made of a square or rectangular batik cloth that is folded diagonally to form a triangle. Although there are different ways of folding and tying the fabric over the head, and therefore different shapes of iket, they can in general show the social level of the wearer and the area of origin. Its origin is not yet clearly identified, however many sources seemed to conclude that the Javanese might be influenced by turban-wearing Gujarati traders who came to Indonesia more than 500 years ago.

In other parts of Java, for practicality the iket has developed into fixed-form headdresses, called blangkon in Central Java and Yogyakarta and bendo in West Java. In East Java and Bali, the headdress is still made in traditional way and it is called udeng. The batik cloth is made stiff through a process of molding, attaching to stiff paper, and sewing. Similar to iket, blangkon and bendo come with some variations of shapes based on the areas of origin and the wearer's social rank.

Philippines
In the Philippines, the turban has a long history associated with native Austronesian (Malayo-Polynesian) cultures, and reinforced with significant cultural influences from the rest of Maritime Southeast Asia (especially Java, Borneo and Sumatra), India, Arabia, China, and Persia, through the different epochs of Philippine history.

The most common turban worn by Muslim Filipino women is called the kombong, the traditional style of hijab by Muslim women in the Davao area of Mindanao (associated with Maranao, Maguindanao, and Iranun speakers). The kombong is worn as a headwrap-turban, and is paired with the tudong or headscarf, which is ordinarily draped over the chest or shoulder, but worn over the top of the kombong for Islamic prayer, or for providing extra veiling when out of the house or barangay. A white kombong signifies that its wearer has been on the pilgrimage to Makkah, known as Hajj. The wearer of the white kombong will hence be referred to as Hadja, a title given to any Muslim woman who has been on the Hajj.

For men, the most common turban worn is called a putong, potong or pudong. The putong was historically worn by men of nearly all major ethnolinguisitc groups in the country, such as the Bisaya, Tagalog and Ilocano, before the mid-17th century, but had waned in lieu of the western hat since the coming of Catholicism in the north and subsequent colonization under Spanish and then American rule. In the precolonial period, pudong were dyed into different distinct colors to signify the social caste of its wearer. Blue was worn for the maginoo nobility class only, red putong for the maharlika warrior class, and other colors like yellow or natural hue for the timawa freeman/raiding caste, and alipin slave castes, respectively.

Today, the turban is worn primarily by Muslim Filipino men, especially by Imams and members of the ulama (Islamic scholars), but is also worn by non-Muslim groups too. Among Muslims, the putong can signify the status of its wearer. Muslim men and imams who have been on the Hajj pilgrimage have traditionally opted to wear the keffiyeh as a putong instead. This is usually bought in Saudi Arabia before returning to the Philippines, in order to signify that they are Hajji. This practice has waned in recent years due to younger jihadist militant groups in the south of the country using keffiyeh as signifiers that they are members of the extremist takfiri groups.

The pre-colonial item of clothing is also worn by non-Muslim Lumad and Cordilleran chiefs and upper class individuals in times of celebration or for specific rituals. These putong or turbans can be ornately women or designed, and act as a status symbol for the wearer.

In the southern part of the country, in the Sulu archipelago, Tausug and Yakan men wear the pis syabit, an ornate headscarf worn in a manner similar to a turban or bandana. Larger pis syabit are turban like, whereas smaller pis resemble bandanas. As with the other putong found in the Philippines, the size or visual design of the pis indicates the social-status or caste of its wearer.

On some Babuyan islands in the far north of the country, the head of the household wears a white turban, the younger males wear a red turban after their 13th birthday. The three chiefs all wear yellow turbans. It no longer has religious significance and the origin dates back to the end of the Tondo era (circa 900s – 1589). Most Babuyan settlers fled the Philippines in 1589 when Spain began to invade the Philippines. The turban was made from a type of bark cloth but now is made from cotton or silk brought over from the Philippines mainland. The turban style head dress is then cut and wrapped around the head, then tucked in front.

Vietnam
Alongside a variety of hats, turbans were also worn by the majority ethnic Vietnamese, called khăn vấn or khăn đóng in Vietnamese. Initially, they were pieces of fabric that had to be coiled every time, but starting in the 20th century, they were replaced with ready-to-wear versions already coiled. The khăn vấn was believed to have been influenced by the Cham sometime during the 18th century though similar turbans are worn by surrounding ethnic groups in Northern Vietnam and Southern China, such as the Zhuang, Hmong, and Yi people.

United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, turbans have been worn by men and women since the sixth century without ever becoming very common. Poet Alexander Pope is sometimes depicted wearing a turban, as were other notable men seen in contemporary paintings and illustrations. The common use of turbans on less formal occasions, among gentlemen at the time, reflects that their heads were closely cropped, or shaved, to allow the wearing of the elaborate wigs that were the fashion in Europe in the century from about 1650 to 1750, and when wigs were off, some kind of head cover was useful. Hence, the turban.

Now that hats are infrequently worn, turbans too are relatively uncommon. They are worn primarily by women of West Indian descent, Karinas. Some women wear them to make a statement of individuality, such as the British social entrepreneur Camila Batmanghelidjh, who usually wore a colourful matching turban and robe.

Greece
In Greece, specifically the island of Crete, the men traditionally wear a lightly knitted turban known as a sariki. The headwrap's name is borrowed from sarık, the Turkish word for turban. Today, it may be more commonly known as a kritiko mandili (Cretan kerchief). It is only found in the folklore Cretan dress and not amongst the population, with the exception of older men in remoter, mountainous villages.

Fiji
iTaukei indigenous chiefs and priests were known to have worn masi (barkcloth) coverings around their head similar to a turban, called an i-sala. However, most of the bulk and shape of the i-sala came from the bushy hair under the cloth.

Armenia
Though not common in daily apparel, turbans are sometimes worn by men ceremonially (often with beards), as a symbol of national identity during celebrations and festivals. However, before Armenia became a Christian nation, turbans were a common part of the daily apparel, just as in other Middle Eastern countries.

Other
On the Swahili Coast, turbans were frequently worn by the ruling Omani Sultans of Zanzibar and their retinue.

Tuareg Berbers, and some northern Berbers, Sahrawi, Songhai, Wodaabe, Fulani, and Hausa peoples of North and West Africa wear varieties of turbans. Tuareg Berbers often veil the face to block dust. This Tuareg-Berber turban is known as a tagelmust, and is often blue. The Bedouin tribes in North Africa sometimes wear brown-beige, white or orange turbans. Colombian politician Piedad Cordoba was known to wear turbans (or a similar headgear). Her use of turbans had made her so distinguishable to the point of having earned the nickname "the lady with the turban" in Colombian popular culture.

Kurdish people wear a turban, which they call a jamadani. It is worn in many different ways across Iraqi Kurdistan depending on the style of the locality; e.g. the Barzani Kurds are a tribe which wears the turban in a colour (red and white) and style which is typical of their clan. In most parts of South Kurdistan a black-white pattern is used for Jamadani. Mostly, Kurdish turbans consist of a length of striped cloth known as kolāḡī which is wound around a conical hat; the tassels that border the kolāḡī are allowed to hang down over the face. In modern times, many Kurds use black and white Ghutra and roll them into turbans.

Turbans have also been a type of headwear worn by women in Western countries. The wearing of such turbans by women in Western societies is less common than it was earlier in the 20th century. They are usually sewn to a foundation, so that they can be donned or removed easily. Turbans are also sometimes donned to protect hair or as a headwrap for women following cancer treatments that cause hair loss. They can also be tied together to form a rope in emergency rescue situations. In popular culture, turbans are also sometimes worn as a fashion statement. For example, American rapper Yeat wears turbans often while being photographed and filmed in public. He also has a song titled "Turban".

Sikhism
The Sikh turban, known mainly as the Dastar but also the Dumalla, is used to show others that they represent the embodiment of Sikh teachings, the love of the Guru and dogma to do good deeds. The Gurus ensured that both men and women are able to wear a turban, which shows another action of equality. Other Purposes of the turban include protecting Sikhs' long unshorn hair and keeping it clean.

Sikhs do not cut their hair, as a religious observance. The turban protects the hair and keeps it clean. As Sikhs form 1.7% of India's population and 1.5% of Canada's population, their turbans help identify them. When he institutionalized the turban as a part of the Sikh identity, Guru Gobind Singh said, "My Sikh will be recognized among millions".

Turbans were formerly associated with the upper class, and many men in the cultural elite still wear turbans. This distinction between the turban-wearing upper class (Sardars) and commoners promoted segregation and elitism. In order to eliminate the class system associated with turbans, Guru Gobind Singh declared each and every Sikh a Sardar. Modern Sikh men mainly wear four kinds of turban: Vattan Wali Turban, Amritsar Shahi Turban, Barnala Shahi and Taksali Dumala. The more traditional Turban styles are the Darbara Singh Dummala, Dastar Bunga (the original turban of the Khalsa) and the Puratan Nok Pagg.

The most common turban colors worn by Sikhs are blue, white and black, although other colors are popular as well. Blue and yellow are particularly prestigious and tend to be worn on religious events such as Vaisakhi. Meanings of the turbans are that the white turban means a saintly person leading an exemplary life, and an off-shade color of white means someone is learning in the Sikh religion. The blue turban signifies a mind as broad as the sky with no place for prejudice. The black turban serves as a reminder of the Jallianwala Bagh massacre in 1919, and represents humility. The Basanti or yellow turbans are associated with the revolutionary movement, Sardar Bhagat Singh also wore a yellow turban for this reason. Royal blue is usually worn by those who are learned in the Sikh religion and are patriotic about their traditions and culture. The colour green signifies farmers. The orange turban means courage and wisdom. The colour Gold symbolizes a sense of calm and healing that helps with anxiety and clearing the mind which significance derives from the Golden temple. Akali Nihang Sikhs decorate their blue turbans or Dumalla by wearing small weapons known as shastars in them. The turban's color may reflect association with a particular group of Sikhs, although none of the popular turban colors are exclusive to any particular group. The preferred color of the Sikh wedding is pink. All shades of this color from magenta to baby pink is used by families for the joyful occasion. Some prefer red, maroon or orange turbans for the weddings, but pink is so far the most popular. Turban colors are generally a matter of personal choice in Sikhism, with many Sikh men choosing colors based on fashion or taste, sometimes to match clothes. There are traditions associated with some colours, for instance orange and black are often worn at political protest rallies whilst red and pink turbans are worn at weddings and other celebratory events.

Christianity
In Kenya, the Akurinu, a Christian denomination, wear turbans as religious headgear. The official name of the denomination is The Kenya Foundation Of The Prophets Church or else Holy Ghost Church. Both men and women wear white turbans; children wear tunics. Some Oriental Orthodox churches such as the Coptic Orthodox Church and the Syriac Orthodox Church include turbans in the vestments for the priest.

The origin of the word akurinu is not clear. It is said by some to come from the Kikuyu question ‘Mukuri-ni’ which translates to ‘who is the redeemer?’. Others say that it comes from the growling sounds made by early adherents to the sect when possessed by the spirit, an act described as gukurina. In his book Facing Mt. Kenya, Jomo Kenyatta states that the akurinu referred to themselves as Arooti(dreamers), people of God.

The akurinu identify Joseph Ng’ang’a as the founder of the sect. It was Ng’ang’a who ascended Mount Kenya (then known as Mount Kirinyaga) with the first four akurinu prophets - Joseph Kanini, Henry Maina, Philip Mukubwa, and Lilian Njeru. It was on this ascension that the akurinu say Njeru was instructed to remove all adornments she had worn, throw them into River Nyamindi, and cover her hair. They also claim to have been instructed by God to lift their hands in the air as they pray. These two practices form an integral part of akurinu religious beliefs today.

Islam
In Islamic cultures, some men wear a turban-style headdress in emulation of Muhammad who is believed to have worn a black or white turban. It is sometimes called an Imama. The head wraps are worn in different ways and called by different names depending on the region and culture. Examples include (عمامة `emãmah) in Arabic, and the Dastar in Persian. The most preffered style is the elliptic cylindrical headwrap, with the tail hanging behind.

In Shi'a Islam, a black head wrap around a small white cap is worn by descendants of Muhammad called Sayyids, and white turbans by other well-educated persons and scholars. Sufi Muslims often wear a green head wrap around a small cap or the green head wrap alone. Members of the Dawat-e-Islami movement wear green turbans, whereas members of Sunni Dawate Islami (which broke away from Dawat-e-Islami in 1992) wear white turbans.

In Sudan, large white headdresses connote high social status. In India and Pakistan the cap is called a topi. Women of Islam typically do not wear turbans, as it is typically considered part of a man's dress, while women do typically cover their hair as part of hijab.

However, just as some Muslim women wear no headcovering, some modern Muslim women wear a turban style covering. Although it is still not as widely accepted by the more conservative Islamic communities.

Judaism
The traditional jewish turban is known as a sudra. When the Jewish High Priest served in the Tabernacle and the Temple in Jerusalem, he wore a head covering called mitznefet מִצְנֶפֶת. This word has been translated as mitre (KJV) or headdress. It was most likely a turban, as the word comes from a root meaning 'to wrap'.

In the Hebrew Bible, the turban worn by the High Priest was much larger than the head coverings of the priests and wound to make a broad, flat-topped shape resembling the blossom of a flower. The head covering of the priests was different, being wound to form a cone, called a migbahat.

The priestly crown (Hebrew tzitz צִיץ "blossom", "flower") was attached to the turban by means of two sets of blue cords: one going over the top of the head and the other around the sides of the head at the level of the ears (Exodus 39:31).

According to the Talmud, the wearing of the turban atoned for the sin of haughtiness on the part of the Children of Israel (B. Zevachim 88b).

The Jews who lived under Arab rule during the Middle Ages, notably in Islamic Spain, wore turbans and headwear not too different from their Muslim counterparts.

Some married Jewish women wear mitpaḥats as an act of modesty.

Mandaeism
Mandaean priests wear white turbans called burzinqa.

Hinduism
In Hinduism, many Rajputs wear it due to culture. It is called a Pheta. It is a cultural practice driven by the harsh summer months in India especially in the state of Rajasthan. It is also worn by the Gurjars of Rajasthan. Apart from turban; there are several other headgears and also different types of turbans used in different parts of India and people wear them when going out especially in villages.

Rastafari
Members of the Bobo Ashanti mansion of the Rastafari movement keep their hair and beards, mainly with their hair in dreadlocks, and they have been wearing turbans over their dreadlocks, which are not to be removed publicly or even not at all, so as to protect and keep their dreadlocks clean. This is called a Rasta Headwrap. Along with the turban, they have also been wearing robes since their founding in the 1950s, Since they are a relatively small population, it makes them more distinctive in appearance in Jamaica and elsewhere.

title: Turban


text:
Talk:Precedence

Untitled
Move to Wiktionary? Jwrosenzweig 19:57 23 Jul 2003 (UTC)
 * Definitely. (see Things_to_be_moved_to_Wiktionary) - Hephaestos 19:59 23 Jul 2003 (UTC)
 * Not any more. I think it's a good disambig page now. SigPig 00:42, 1 January 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Precedence