text:
Lauterbrunnen

Lauterbrunnen is a village and municipality in the Interlaken-Oberhasli administrative district in the canton of Bern in Switzerland. The municipality comprises the other villages of Wengen, Mürren, Gimmelwald, Stechelberg, and Isenfluh, as well as several other hamlets. The population of the village of Lauterbrunnen is less than that of Wengen, but larger than that of the others.

The municipality comprises the Lauterbrunnen Valley (Lauterbrunnental), located at the foot of the Bernese Alps. It is notably overlooked by the Eiger, Mönch, Jungfrau and many other high peaks. The valley, drained by the White Lütschine, comprises the Soustal, the Sefinental and the upper Lauterbrunnen Valley with Untersteinberg. The valley includes several glaciers. Together with the adjacent valley of Grindelwald, the Lauterbrunnen Valley forms part of the Jungfrau Region of the Bernese Oberland, between Interlaken and the main crest of the Bernese Alps.

Similarly to Grindelwald, Lauterbrunnen has become a major tourist destination. It is connected to Interlaken by the Bernese Oberland Railway and is the start of the Wengernalp Railway, leading to Kleine Scheidegg. The latter resort is the start of the Jungfrau Railway, the highest railway in Europe and a gateway to the Jungfrau-Aletsch protected area.

Toponymy
Lauterbrunnen was first mentioned in 1240 as "in claro fonte", a Romance language place name meaning "clear spring". By 1253, it was known to German speakers as Liuterbrunnon; the town had an alternate spelling of Luterbrunnen by 1268. While the meaning of brunnen is undoubtedly spring or fountain, there is some dispute about the meaning of lauter. Some translate it as clear, clean or bright (which compares to the earlier Romance language meaning of the place mentioned above), while others translate it as "many" or "louder". A local explanation is that the name Lauterbrunnen means "many springs", using a modern meaning of the word lauter in German; however, this could be an example of a folk etymology.

History

The oldest trace of a settlement in the area is a single Roman coin which was discovered in the Blumental.

When the Lauterbrunnen Valley first appears in the historic record, during the 13th century, it was owned by the Freiherr of Wädenswil. In 1240 the Freiherr of Wädenswil sold the Sefinen Valley to Interlaken Monastery. Over the following century, the monastery and other local lords began to expand their power in the Lauterbrunnen and neighboring valleys. However, around 1300, the Lord of Turn began to settle his Walser-speaking people in the nearby Lötschen Valley and into the highlands of the Lauterbrunnen Valley. By 1346, the Walser villages of Lauterbrunnen, Gimmelwald, Mürren, Sichellauenen and Trachsellauenen all had village governments and a certain amount of independence from the monastery. Three years later, much of the Bernese Oberland unsuccessfully rose up against monastery. When the monastery suppressed the rebellion, the Walser villages bore the brunt of the monastery's wrath.

By the 15th century, the villages of the valley were part of the large parish of Gsteig bei Interlaken (now part of Gsteigwiler). Between 1487 and 1488, the villagers in Lauterbrunnen built a filial church of the parish. In 1506, the parish appointed a full-time priest for Lauterbrunnen. In 1528, the city of Bern adopted the new faith of the Protestant Reformation and began imposing it on the Bernese Oberland. Lauterbrunnen joined many other villages and the monastery in an unsuccessful rebellion against the new faith. After Bern imposed its will on the Oberland, they secularized the monastery and annexed all the monastery lands. Lauterbrunnen became the center of a new Reformed parish.

Mines were built in the Trachsellauenen area in the upper valley beginning in the late 16th century. An iron smelter was built in Zweilütschinen (now part of Gündlischwand) in 1715 to process the iron ore from Trachsellauenen. Most of the money from the mines went to the noble landowners, and the villagers remained poor. In the 17th and 18th centuries the poverty was so widespread that many of the villagers joined mercenary regiments or emigrated. Many emigrants moved to the Carolinas in the United States.

Beginning in the late 18th century, foreign mountain climbers began to use Lauterbrunnen as a starting point for their expeditions into the nearby Alps. Initially the climbers stayed in the village rectory. However, as Lauterbrunnen's fame grew and with the completion of a road from Interlaken in 1834 and the 1890 Bernese Oberland Railway, more hotels were needed for tourists. As new hotels were built, other tourist infrastructure was also built in the village. Cable cars were built to Mürren in 1891 and to Wengen in 1893. But the most significant piece of infrastructure was the Jungfrau railway, which was built in 1912. The Jungfrau rack railway runs 9 km from Kleine Scheidegg to the highest railway station in Europe at Jungfraujoch. The railway runs almost entirely within a tunnel built into the Eiger and Mönch mountains and contains two stations in the middle of the tunnel where passengers can disembark to observe the neighboring mountains through windows built into the mountainside.

In 1909, the English brothers Walter and Arnold Lunn popularized skiing, curling and bobsledding at Lauterbrunnen. These winter sports provided a whole new group of winter tourists and converted the summer tourist industry into a year-round business. The tourist economy of Lauterbrunnen was devastated by World War I and II and the Great Depression. However, following the end of World War II, tourism rebounded. Many new vacation homes and chalets were built along with ski lifts, chair lifts and a heliport.

On 1 January 1973, the former municipality of Isenfluh merged into the municipality of Lauterbrunnen. On 31 December 2009, Amtsbezirk Interlaken, the municipality's former district, was dissolved. On the following day, 1 January 2010, it joined the newly created Verwaltungskreis Interlaken-Oberhasli.

In May 2024, it was reported the local authority had initiated a working group to explore solutions for over-tourism, drawing inspiration from Venice's trial entry fee for day trippers. One proposed measure is the introduction of a 5 to 10 Swiss franc entry fee, applicable to visitors arriving by car for the day, excluding those with pre-booked accommodations or arriving by public transport.

Geography
Lauterbrunnen lies at the bottom of a U-shaped valley that extends south and then south-westwards from the village to meet the 8 km Lauterbrunnen Wall. The Lauterbrunnen Valley (Lauterbrunnental) is one of the deepest in the Alpine chain when compared with the height of the mountains that rise directly on either side. It is a true cleft, rarely more than one kilometer in width, between limestone precipices, sometimes quite perpendicular and everywhere of extremely steep. In places the cliff walls are up to 1000 m high. It is to this form that the valley owes the numerous waterfalls from which it derives its name. The streams descending from the adjoining mountains and, on reaching the verge of the rocky walls of the valley, form cascades so high that they are almost lost in spray before they reach the level of the valley. The most famous of these is Staubbach Falls, less than one kilometer from the village of Lauterbrunnen. The 297 m high Staubbach is the highest free-falling waterfall in Switzerland. Also near Lauterbrunnen is the highest waterfall in Switzerland, the 417 m Mürrenbach Fall. Finally, the Mattenbachfall (cascade waterfall) with a height of 930 meters is Europe's highest waterfall and the third highest in the world. The Weisse Lütschine river flows through Lauterbrunnen and overflows its banks about once a year. The source of the river comes from melting snow high in the mountains, thus making it a very pure and clean source of water. Trümmelbach Falls is 3 km from Lauterbrunnen, connected by bus from the station.

Notable waterfalls in Lauterbrunnen
 * Staubbach Fall
 * Trimmelbach Falls
 * Mirrenbach Fall
 * Spissbach Falls
 * Sefinen Fall
 * Staldenbach Falls
 * Holdri Falls
 * Talbach Fall

The valley also includes many glaciers, such as the Tschingelfirn and the Rottalgletscher.

The municipality of Lauterbrunnen extends a considerable distance beyond the village and valley, with an area of. It reaches as far as the peaks of the Eiger, Mönch and Jungfrau to the east, the Gletscherhorn, Mittaghorn, Grosshorn, Breithorn and Tschingelhorn to the south, and the Gspaltenhorn and Schilthorn to the west. The Kleine Scheidegg Pass crosses over to Grindelwald to the east, whilst the Sefinenfurgge Pass crosses to Griesalp and Reichenbach im Kandertal to the west. Both passes carry hiking trails that form part of the Alpine Pass Route, a long-distance hiking trail across Switzerland between Sargans and Montreux. Besides the village of Lauterbrunnen, the municipality also includes the villages of Wengen, Mürren, Gimmelwald, Stechelberg, and Isenfluh.

Of the municipal area, 36.79 km2 or 22.4% is used for agricultural purposes, while 28.84 km2 or 17.5% is forested. Of the rest of the land, 2.31 km2 or 1.4% is settled (buildings or roads), 1.08 km2 or 0.7% is either rivers or lakes and 95.39 km2 or 58.0% is unproductive land. Of the built-up area, housing and buildings make up 0.7% and transportation infrastructure make up 0.5%. Of the forested land, 13.6% of the total land area is heavily forested and 2.0% is covered with orchards or small clusters of trees. Of the agricultural land, 3.5% is pastures and 18.9% is used for alpine pastures. All the water in the municipality is flowing water. Of the unproductive areas, 10.3% is unproductive vegetation, 31.3% is too rocky for vegetation and 16.3% of the land is covered by glaciers.

Coat of arms
The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is Per fess Argent a Semi Ibex rampant couped Sable and Vert three Piles wavy issuant from base of the first. The three stripes represent three famous waterfalls around the village.

Demographics
The village Lauterbrunnen has a population of. , 22.6% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years (2000–2010) the population has shrunk by 8.9%. Migration accounted for 6.5 percentage points of the decrease, while births and deaths accounted for 3.1.

Most of the population speaks German as their first language (, 2,483 or 85.2%). Portuguese is the second most common (143 or 4.9%) and Croatian is the third (59 or 2.0%). There are 42 people who speak French, 40 who speak Italian and 5 who speak Romansh.

, the population was 49.7% male and 50.3% female. The population was made up of 970 Swiss men (37.9% of the population) and 301 (11.8%) non-Swiss men. There were 1,011 Swiss women (39.5%) and 276 (10.8%) non-Swiss women. Of the population in the municipality, 1,221 or about 41.9% were born in Lauterbrunnen and lived there in 2000. There were 592 or 20.3% who were born in the same canton, while 386 or 13.2% were born somewhere else in Switzerland and 544 or 18.7% were born outside of Switzerland.

, children and teenagers (0–19 years old) made up 17.2% of the population, while adults (20–64 years old) made up 62.5% and seniors (over 64 years old) made up 20.2%.

, there were 1,195 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 1,420 married individuals, 208 widows or widowers and 91 individuals who were divorced.

, there were 453 households that consist of only one person and 61 households with five or more people. , a total of 1,090 apartments (40.4% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 1,414 apartments (52.4%) were seasonally occupied and 196 apartments (7.3%) were empty. , the construction rate of new housing units was 4.3 new units per 1000 residents. The vacancy rate for the municipality was 0.66%.

The historical population is given in the following chart:

Heritage sites of national significance
The cableway between Stechelberg and Schilthorn and the Trachsellauenen silver mine, which was active in the medieval to early modern periods, are listed as Swiss heritage site of national significance. The village of Gimmelwald and the Kleine Scheidegg region are both part of the Inventory of Swiss Heritage Sites.

Politics
In the 2011 federal election the most popular party was the Swiss People's Party (SVP) which received 29.6% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the Conservative Democratic Party (BDP) (21.5%), the Social Democratic Party (SP) (14.6%) and the FDP.The Liberals (14.3%). In the federal election, a total of 733 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 43.0%.

Economy
, Lauterbrunnen had an unemployment rate of 1.9%. , there were a total of 1,908 people employed in the municipality. Of these, there were 147 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 55 businesses involved in this sector. 223 people were employed in the secondary sector and there were 35 businesses in this sector. 1,538 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 195 businesses in this sector. There were 1,623 residents of the municipality who were employed in some capacity, of which females made up 43.1% of the workforce.

there were a total of 1,605 full-time equivalent jobs. The number of jobs in the primary sector was 77, of which 70 were in agriculture and 7 were in forestry or lumber production. The number of jobs in the secondary sector was 207 of which 20 or (9.7%) were in manufacturing and 124 (59.9%) were in construction. The number of jobs in the tertiary sector was 1,321. In the tertiary sector; 132 or 10.0% were in wholesale or retail sales or the repair of motor vehicles, 231 or 17.5% were in the movement and storage of goods, 687 or 52.0% were in a hotel or restaurant, 75 or 5.7% were in education and 56 or 4.2% were in health care.

, there were 360 workers who commuted into the municipality and 252 workers who commuted away. The municipality is a net importer of workers, with about 1.4 workers entering the municipality for every one leaving. Of the working population, 12.5% used public transportation to get to work, and 12.3% used a private car.

Religion
From the, 513 or 17.6% were Roman Catholic, while 1,973 or 67.7% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there were 34 members of an Orthodox church (or about 1.17% of the population), and there were 47 individuals (or about 1.61% of the population) who belonged to another Christian church. There was 1 individual who was Jewish, and 28 (or about 0.96% of the population) who were Muslim. There were 3 individuals who were Buddhist and 2 individuals who belonged to another church. 144 (or about 4.94% of the population) belonged to no church, were agnostic or atheist, and 187 individuals (or about 6.42% of the population) did not answer the question.

Climate
Between 1981 and 2010 Lauterbrunnen had an average of 136.5 days of rain or snow per year and on average received 1207 mm of precipitation. The wettest month was July during which time Lauterbrunnen received an average of 144 mm of rain or snow. During this month there was precipitation for an average of 13.8 days. The month with the most days of precipitation was June, with an average of 14.1, but with only 133 mm of rain or snow. The driest month of the year was October with an average of 78 mm of precipitation over 9.5 days.

Transport
Lauterbrunnen railway station, in the centre of Lauterbrunnen village, is served by trains of the Berner Oberland Bahn, which run to Interlaken, and by trains of the Wengernalpbahn, which run to Wengen, Kleine Scheidegg and on to Grindelwald; at Kleine Scheidegg connection can be made with the Jungfraubahn, which ascends inside the Eiger to the Jungfraujoch. The lower terminal of the Bergbahn Lauterbrunnen-Mürren, a cable car and connecting train, is adjacent to the main station and provides service to Mürren.

Besides Lauterbrunnen station, there are nine other railway stations within the municipality of Lauterbrunnen. These are Wengwald, Wengen, Allmend, Wengernalp and Kleine Scheidegg on the Wengernalpbahn, Eigergletscher on the Jungfraubahn, and Grütschalp, Winteregg and Mürren on the Bergbahn Lauterbrunnen-Mürren.

Post bus services link Lauterbrunnen village to Stechelberg and the Trümmelbach Falls, and to Isenfluh. An alternative route to Mürren is available using the bus to Stechelberg and then the Luftseilbahn Stechelberg-Mürren-Schilthorn cable car.

Education
In Lauterbrunnen about 1,155 or (39.6%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 230 or (7.9%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a Fachhochschule). Of the 230 who completed tertiary schooling, 60.0% were Swiss men, 20.9% were Swiss women, 10.0% were non-Swiss men and 9.1% were non-Swiss women.

The Canton of Bern school system provides one year of non-obligatory kindergarten, followed by six years of primary school. This is followed by three years of obligatory lower secondary school where the students are separated according to ability and aptitude. Following the lower secondary school, students may attend additional schooling or they may enter an apprenticeship.

During the 2010-11 school year, there were a total of 247 students attending classes in Lauterbrunnen. There were 3 kindergarten classes with a total of 36 students in the municipality. Of the kindergarten students, 16.7% were permanent or temporary residents of Switzerland (not citizens) and 16.7% have a different mother language than the classroom language. The municipality had 8 primary classes and 125 students. Of the primary students, 19.2% were permanent or temporary residents of Switzerland (not citizens) and 20.8% have a different mother language than the classroom language. During the same year, there were 3 lower secondary classes with a total of 65 students. There were 10.8% who were permanent or temporary residents of Switzerland (not citizens) and 10.8% have a different mother language than the classroom language. The remainder of the students attend a private or special school.

, there were 5 students in Lauterbrunnen who came from another municipality, while 45 residents attended schools outside the municipality.

Crime
In 2014 the crime rate in Lauterbrunnen was 49.2 per thousand residents. During the same period, the rate of drug crimes was 0 per thousand residents. The rate of violations of immigration, visa, and work permit laws was 6.6 per thousand residents. This rate is three times the rate in the district, as well as twice the rate in the canton.

Cultural references
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's poem "Gesang der Geister über den Wassern" ("Song of the Spirits over the Waters") was written while he stayed at the parish house near the Staubbach Falls waterfall in Lauterbrunnen.

J. R. R. Tolkien hiked from Interlaken to the Lauterbrunnen Valley while on a trip to the Continent in 1911. The landscape of the valley later provided the concept and pictorial model for his sketches and watercolours of the fictitious valley of Rivendell, the dwelling place of Elrond Half-elven and his people.

Lauterbrunnen featured in several scenes from the 1969 James Bond film On Her Majesty's Secret Service, including a car chase in which Bond (played for the only time by George Lazenby) was driven away from henchmen of Ernst Stavro Blofeld by his girlfriend Tracy di Vicenzo in a dramatic pursuit which culminated in them shaking off the pursuers in a stock car race. The 360 degree revolving restaurant Piz Gloria which crowns the Schilthorn peak was used to film Blofeld's hideout. In the movie Bond escapes from it by skiing down the mountain to reach the village of Mürren at its base.

The location features in the Forza Motorsport series of games, with a fictional track by the name of 'Bernese Alps' incorporated into the mountainside.

title: Lauterbrunnen


text:
Dschinghis Khan

Dschinghis Khan ("Genghis Khan") is a German Eurodisco pop band. It was originally formed in Munich in 1979 to compete in the Eurovision Song Contest with their song "Dschinghis Khan".

The original group consisted of six members: Louis Hendrik Potgieter, Edina Pop, Henriette Strobel, Wolfgang Heichel, Leslie Mándoki, and Steve Bender, performed from 1979 to their first disbandment in 1985.

In 2005, the surviving Dschinghis Khan members reunited to recreate the music group that had been broken up, but years later they separately organized different bands all under the brand name "Dschinghis Khan".

Beginning: 1979–1985
Dschinghis Khan was managed by German producer Ralph Siegel and choreographed by Hannes Winkler, one of the most famous German choreographers during that time. Their original eponymous song was written and produced by Siegel with lyrics by Bernd Meinunger and came in fourth place at the Eurovision Song Contest 1979 in Jerusalem. Their name is one of several possible German spellings (the most common is "Dschingis Khan") of the name of the historical figure Genghis Khan of the Mongol Empire. The only native Germans in the group were the bald-headed Karl-Heinz "Steve" Bender and Wolfgang Heichel, who brought his Dutch-born wife Henriette ( Strobel) with him. Louis Hendrik Potgieter (Genghis Khan) was South African. Edina Pop (Marika Késmárky) was a Hungarian who had started her singing career in West Germany in 1969. Leslie Mándoki, also Hungarian, had left Hungary in 1975.

In 1979, the group released the singles "Dschinghis Khan" and "Moskau". A year later, the English version of "Moskau" topped the charts in Australia for six weeks, largely thanks to Seven Network using the song as the theme music for coverage of the 1980 Summer Olympics. In an interview with Russian television presenter Alexandra Glotova, the producer of the group Dschinghis Khan, Heinz Gross, said that in the 1980s, the group was banned in the Soviet Union and was accused of anti-communism and nationalism.

Following the success of the singles "Hadschi Halef Omar", "Rom", "Pistolero", and "Loreley", Dschinghis Khan underwent an image change, with their songs becoming more folk-oriented with their fourth album, Helden, Schurken & der Dudelmoser. As a result, their popularity waned. The group released their fifth album, Corrida, which served as the soundtrack to the musical of the same name by Siegel and Meinunger. After the release of the single "Mexico", Dschinghis Khan disbanded in 1985.

Post-disbandment: 1985–1994
Following Dschinghis Khan's disbandment, the members took different paths. Mándoki became a successful musician and producer while Pop pursued a solo singing career and Bender worked as a music producer. The success of the band eventually led to Wolfgang and Henriette's divorce in 1986, with Henriette reverting to her maiden name of Strobel.

In 1986, the group reunited as "Dschinghis Khan Family", but only with original members Strobel on vocals, Mándoki on drums, and Potgieter on keyboards. The song "Wir gehör'n zusammen" led them to a national qualifying round of the Eurovision Song Contest, where they finished in second place.

In 1994, Potgieter died of AIDS in South Africa.

Reunion: 2005–2018
On 17 December 2005, Dschinghis Khan reunited at the Retro FM Festival in Moscow, with founding members Bender, Pop, Heichel, and Strobel joined by new members Stefan Track, Kaya Ebru, and Daniel Käsling. In May 2006, Bender died of cancer. The song "Wie Feuer im Wind" on the group's 2007 album 7 Leben was dedicated to both Potgieter and Bender.

In 2006, Track left the group and started his own solo project called Rocking Son. On July 15, Strobel, Heichel, and Pop were joined by the dance group The Legacy of Dschinghis Khan in a concert in Mongolia. The dance group consisted of Claus Kupreit, Corinna Günzel, Benjamin Schobel, Evi Weigand, Stefan Sauter, and Angelika Nimbach; Kurpreit would go on to become a permanent member of Dschinghis Khan. In 2014, Heichel left the group due to creative differences.

Recent developments: 2018–present
In 2018, Dschinghis Khan re-recorded "Moskau" with new lyrics for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, which was hosted in Russia. For the German and English versions, the lead vocals were performed by former US5 member Jay Khan. Alexander Malinin and his daughter Ustinya performed the Russian version, titled "Moskva". The Spanish version, titled "Moscú", was performed by Jorge Jiménez and Marifer Medrano. At the same time, Heichel teamed up with Track to record the song "We Love Football". It was revealed that Heichel gained the rights to the Dschinghis Khan name in Germany and Spain. Strobel, Pop, Kupreit, and producer Heinz Gross also own the rights to the name Dschinghis Khan, with both group patents revealing the use of their own logos. As a result, there are two disco groups operating under the name Dschinghis Khan.

On 12 September 2020, dancer and singer Johannes Kupreit died in a car accident in Germany. Tributes were paid from the members and Dschinghis Khan fans from around the world. By the end of 2020, Pop and Strobel retired from their band. Meanwhile, the Heichel and Track faction of Dschinghis Khan released the studio album Here We Go, which is a mix of new songs and self-covers.

In July 2021, Siegel sued Heichel when the latter attempted to bar him from releasing the 2018 FIFA World Cup version of "Moskau" and claimed to have full ownership of the Dschinghis Khan name. The Munich Regional Court ruled in favor of Siegel and awarded him the trademark rights to the group, citing him as the group's original creator and producer and the group's prior disbandments did not affect his ownership rights.

In 2023, the Siegel lineup was revamped with three new members: Marco Matias, Selina Kohl, and Michael Thurner.

Members

 * Ralph Siegel lineup (1979–1985)
 * Louis Hendrik Potgieter (1979–1985; died 1994)
 * Edina Pop (1979–1985)
 * Henriette Strobel (1979–1985)
 * Wolfgang Heichel (1979–1985)
 * Leslie Mándoki (1979–1985)
 * Steve Bender (1979–1981; died 2006)

 * Heinz Gross lineup (2005–2020), since 2018 in cooperation with Ralph Siegel
 * Edina Pop (2005–2020)
 * Henriette Strobel (2005–2020)
 * Wolfgang Heichel (2005–2014)
 * Steve Bender (2005; died 2006)
 * Guest singers (2005)
 * Stefan Track (2005)
 * Ebru Kaya (as Eltuya Khan) (2005)
 * Daniel Käsling (as Ögödei Khan) (2005)
 * The Legacy or The Legacy of Genghis Khan (2006–2018)
 * Claus Kupreit (as Prince Igei Khan) (2006–2018)
 * Tanja Müller (2006–2010)
 * Corinna Günzel (as Eltuya Khan) (2007–2014)
 * Evi Weigand (as Ohla Khan) (2007–2014)
 * Attila Mario Diallo (as Cash Khan) (2007–2014)
 * Benjamin Schobel (as Ögödei Khan) (2007–2011)
 * Stefan Sauter (as Yassa Khan) (2006–2011)
 * Angelika Nimbach (as Yesugan Khan) (2007–2008)
 * Johannes Kupreit (as Ögödei Khan) (2011–2018)
 * Läm Virat Phetnoi (as Yassa Khan) (2012–2018)
 * Angelika Erlacher (as Eltuya Khan) (2016–2018)
 * Claus Kupreit (as Prince Igei Khan) (2018–2020)
 * Angelika Erlacher (as Eltuya Khan) (2018–2020)
 * Läm Virat Phetnoi (as Yassa Khan) (2018–2020)
 * Johannes Kupreit (as Ögödei Khan) (2018–2020; died 2020)
 * Jan Großfeld (as Bärke Khan) (2019–2020)

 * Ralph Siegel lineup (since 2023)
 * Claus Kupreit (as Prince Igei Khan) (2023–present)
 * Angelika Erlacher (as Eltuya Khan) (2023–present)
 * Läm Virat Phetnoi (as Yassa Khan) (2023–present)
 * Marco Matias (as Batou Khan) (2023–present)
 * Selina Kohl (as Zuri Khan) (2023–present)
 * Michael Thurner (as Michael T. Khan) (2023–present)

 * Wolfgang Heichel lineup (2018, since 2023)
 * Wolfgang Heichel
 * Ralitsa Rodanovich ралица роданович (since 2023)
 * Mike Wunderlich (since 2023)

 * Stefan Track lineup (since 2006). Publications until 2018 as Rocking Son or Rocking Son of Dschinghis Khan. Website until 2016 as Rocking Son, from 2017 as Dschinghis Khan. In Russia as Dschinghis Khan since 2011 or before.
 * Stefan Track (2006–present)
 * Ebru Kaya (2006–2009)
 * Daniel Käsling (2006–2007)
 * Wolfgang Heichel (2018–2020/22)
 * Background dancers, Gefährten
 * Tanja Müller (2008)
 * Leoni Kristin Oeffinger (2011–2013)
 * Andreas Gräbe (2011-????)
 * Leila Melikova
 * Tatiana Gerisamova
 * Denis Loginov
 * Andrey Ivanoff

Discography

 * Dschinghis Khan (1979)
 * Rom (1980)
 * Viva (1980)
 * Wir sitzen alle im selben Boot (1981)
 * Helden, Schurken & der Dudelmoser (1982)
 * Corrida (1983)
 * 7 Leben (2007)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Dschinghis Khan


text:
Albion (disambiguation)

Albion is an archaic and poetic name for the island of Great Britain.

Albion may also refer to:

Fictional elements

 * Albion (Blake), a character in the poetry of William Blake
 * Albion, a High School DxD character
 * Albion, the fictional setting of Fable (video game series)
 * Albion, a place in the game Destroy All Humans! 2
 * Albion, a realm in the game Dark Age of Camelot
 * Albion, a nation of Warhammer Fantasy
 * Albion, a private security company in Watch Dogs: Legion
 * Albion, a Marvel Comics character
 * Albion, a setting in The Familiar of Zero Japanese light novels by Noboru Yamaguchi
 * Albion, a sword in Robin of Sherwood
 * Albion, a gang in Captain Earth

Games

 * Albion (video game), a 1995 game and its fictional setting
 * Albion Online, a 2017 medieval fantasy MMORPG
 * X3: Albion Prelude, a 2011 space flight simulator whose main storyline heavily features a planet named Albion (also central in the sequel X Rebirth)

Literature

 * Albion (comics), a 2005 comic-book limited series
 * Albion (novel series), a trilogy of historical novels by Patrick McCormack
 * Albion (magazine), devoted to the board game Diplomacy, published from 1969 to 1975

Music

 * The Albion Band, a former English folk band
 * Ferry Corsten or Albion, electronic music producer/DJ
 * Albion: An Anthology, a 2009 compilation album by the English folk musician and composer Chris Wood
 * Albion (Ginger Wildheart album), 2013
 * Albion (Ten album), 2014
 * "Albion" (song), a 2005 song by Babyshambles
 * "Albion", a piece for brass band by Jan Van der Roost
 * Albion, a 2013 album by Ginger Wildheart

Businesses

 * Albion Co., Ltd., a Japanese cosmetics manufacturer and distributor
 * Albion Ale House, a Grade II listed public house in Conwy, North Wales
 * Albion Brewery, also known as Albion Ale And Porter Brewing Company, a former beer brewery in San Francisco, active 1870 to 1919
 * Albion Colliery, a former coal mine in Wales
 * Albion Fine Foods, a British company owned by Vestey Holdings
 * Albion Hotel (disambiguation)
 * Hotel Albion, Portland, Oregon, United States
 * Albion Motors, a vehicle manufacturer in Glasgow, Scotland 1899–1980
 * Albion Swords, an American company manufacturing European sword replicas
 * Albion, a brand of agricultural machinery by David Brown Ltd.
 * Albion Shipping Company, a 19th-century shipping company of P Henderson & Company
 * Albion Yard, a Charles Hill & Sons shipbuilding yard in Bristol, England, 1848–1977

People

 * Albion (given name), including list of people with the name
 * Mark Albion (born 1951), American writer
 * Robert G. Albion (1896–1983), Harvard's first professor of Oceanic History

Australia

 * Albion, Queensland, a suburb of Brisbane
 * Albion, Queensland (Richmond Shire), a locality
 * Albion, Victoria, a suburb of Melbourne
 * Albion Park, New South Wales, a suburb of Shellharbour

Canada

 * Albion, British Columbia, a neighbourhood of Maple Ridge
 * Albion Falls, Ontario, a waterfall
 * Albion Township, Ontario, in the town of Caledon, in the Greater Toronto Area

United States

 * Albion, California, a census-designated place
 * Albion River, California
 * Albion, Idaho, a city
 * Albion, Illinois, a city
 * Albion Precinct, Edwards County, Illinois, a defunct precinct
 * Albion, Indiana, a town
 * Albion, Scott County, Indiana, an unincorporated community
 * Albion, Iowa, a city
 * Albion, Kansas, a ghost town
 * Albion, Maine, a town
 * Albion, Michigan, a city
 * Albion, an early name in the history of Minneapolis, Minnesota
 * Albion, Nebraska, a city
 * Albion, New Jersey, an unincorporated community
 * Albion, Orleans County, New York, a town
 * Albion (village), New York
 * Albion, Oswego County, New York, a town
 * Albion, North Carolina, an unincorporated community
 * Albion, Ohio, an unincorporated community
 * Albion, Oklahoma, a town
 * Albion, Pennsylvania, a borough
 * Albion, Rhode Island, a village and historic district in Lincoln
 * Albion (Winnsboro, South Carolina), a plantation home on the National Register of Historic Places
 * Albion, Texas, an unincorporated community
 * Albion, Washington, a town
 * Albion, Dane County, Wisconsin, a town
 * Albion (community), Wisconsin, an unincorporated community
 * Albion, Jackson County, Wisconsin, a town
 * Albion, Trempealeau County, Wisconsin, a town
 * Albion Township (disambiguation)

Elsewhere

 * Mount Albion (disambiguation)
 * Albion, Guyana, a town
 * Albion, Mauritius, a village in Rivière Noire District, Mauritius

Schools

 * Albion College, a liberal arts college in Albion, Michigan, United States
 * Albion State Normal School, a former public institution of higher learning in Albion, Idaho, United States
 * Albion High School (disambiguation)
 * Albion Academy, a former academy in Albion, Wisconsin, United States
 * The Albion Academy, a coeducational secondary school in Pendleton, Salford, England

Ships

 * List of ships named Albion
 * HMS Albion, the name of several Royal Navy ships
 * Albion-class ship of the line (1763)
 * Albion-class ship of the line (1842)
 * Albion-class landing platform dock

UK

 * Albion Rovers F.C., a Scottish Football League team from the North Lanarkshire town of Coatbridge
 * Albion Rovers F.C. (Newport), a Welsh football team from the city of Newport
 * Brighton & Hove Albion F.C., an English professional football club based in the city of Brighton & Hove, Sussex
 * Burton Albion F.C., a professional English association football club based in the town of Burton upon Trent, Staffordshire
 * Forfar Albion F.C., a Scottish football club based in Forfar, Angus
 * Ossett Albion A.F.C., an English football team in the Northern Premier League Division One North, based in Ossett, West Yorkshire
 * Plymouth Albion R.F.C., a rugby union club who play in Plymouth, England
 * Shepshed Albion F.C., a defunct English football club also known as Shepshed Charterhouse from 1975 to 1992
 * Stirling Albion F.C., a Scottish football club currently playing in the Scottish First Division
 * Tadcaster Albion A.F.C., an English football club based in Tadcaster, North Yorkshire
 * West Bromwich Albion F.C., an English professional association football club based in West Bromwich, West Midlands
 * Witton Albion F.C., an English football team in the Northern Premier League Division One North based in Northwich, Cheshire

Elsewhere

 * Albion Football Club (WRFL), an Australian rules football club based in the Melbourne suburb of Albion
 * Albion Cricket Club (Dunedin), a cricket club based in Dunedin, New Zealand
 * Albion F.C., a football club based in Montevideo, Uruguay

Transportation

 * Albion Municipal Airport, Albion, Nebraska, United States
 * Albion railway station (disambiguation)
 * Albion Road (disambiguation)
 * Albion Viaduct, a railway viaduct in Melbourne, Australia

Other uses

 * 15760 Albion, a minor planet
 * Albion Correctional Facility, a medium security women's prison in Albion, New York, United States
 * Operation Albion, a 1917 German operation to occupy the West Estonian Archipelago
 * Albion (Blake), the primeval man in William Blake's mythology
 * Alebion or Albion, a son of Poseidon in Greek mythology
 * Albion (Winnsboro, South Carolina), United States, a plantation house on the National Register of Historic Places
 * Albion (journal), a former peer-reviewed journal about British history
 * Albion: The Origins of the English Imagination, a 2002 non-fiction work by Peter Ackroyd
 * Albion, an equatorium constructed by Richard of Wallingford in 1326

title: Albion (disambiguation)


text:
National City

National City may refer to:

Places in the United States of America

 * National City, California
 * National City, Illinois
 * National City, Michigan
 * Bristol Wells Town Site (National City, Nevada), a ghost town now known as Bristol Wells

Banks

 * National City Corp., a bank formerly headquartered in Cleveland, Ohio
 * National City acquisition by PNC
 * National City Bank of New York, the precursor of Citibank

Companies

 * National City Lines, a holding company for streetcar and bus lines in the United States

Fiction

 * National City (DC Comics), a fictional city in DC Comics which is the home of Supergirl in both the comics and TV series of the same name

title: National City


text:
Workers' Opposition

The Workers' Opposition (Рабочая оппозиция) was a faction of the Russian Communist Party that emerged in 1920 as a response to the perceived over-bureaucratisation that was occurring in Soviet Russia. They advocated the transfer of national economic management to trade unions. The group was led by Alexander Shlyapnikov, Sergei Medvedev, Alexandra Kollontai and Yuri Lutovinov. It officially existed until March 1921 when it was forced to dissolve by the 10th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks), and semi-clandestinely until the subsequent 11th Congress in 1922, where its main exponents teetered dangerously on the verge of being purged for fractionist activity. In some aspects, it was close with the German council communist movement, although there is no information about direct contacts between these groups.

Emergence
The emergence of the Workers' Opposition's “ideological sources” was linked with a statement by Alexander Shlyapnikov, which appeared on November 4, 1917: in his statement, Shlyapnikov proposed expanding the Council of People's Commissars by including representatives “from all Soviet parties”. Their first public appearance as an organized group was at the 9th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks), in September 1920, when the faction not only declared its existence, but also summed up the “work to be done”.

First appearances
One of the first speeches of representatives of the "workers' opposition" - the name was coined by Lenin - took place in February 1920, during the 2nd Tula Conference of the RCP (B.), after which the group managed to get a majority of seats in the provincial committee of the party, and its leader - I. V. Kopylov - became the chairman of the new composition of the provincial committee. In response to this, the former members of the provincial committee formed the opposition, directing their activities to prove the inability the "workers' opposition" to manage the affairs of the province; in addition, they began to plan the failure of their political opponents at the next provincial party conference. This confrontation led to an intensification of the struggle within the organization itself: the party's Novosilsky District committee opposed the election of Kopylov and called for an extraordinary conference. The demand of the old guard was supported in Moscow by members of the party's central committee, who recalled Kopylov at their disposal. The conflict did not end there, because in response, the Zarechensky district committee issued a resolution requesting "to leave Kopylov to work in Tula." The Central Committee nevertheless decided to convene an extraordinary party conference in the province: a resolution evaluating the work as unsatisfactory was adopted by a majority of 185 votes against 49. In response, representatives of the “workers' opposition” Severny and Nikitin left the district committee because of their disagreement with the party line. Having been defeated in Tula, Kopylov's supporters nevertheless retained their positions in the Zarechensky district organization and the power struggle continued. At that time, support for the workers' opposition in the lower ranks of the party was quite strong: in particular, the number of Tula party organizations was halved between May and November 1920, mainly due to the exit of the local workers.

From the end of 1919 to the beginning of 1920, the workers' opposition matured along the periphery of Moscow Oblast and, by March 1920, took shape in the capital with many trade union leaders joining the group. In the same month, at a meeting of the communist faction of the All-Union Central Council of Trade Unions, Shlyapnikov proposed a formula for the separation of powers in the USSR: his simple scheme consisted in the separation of functions of trade unions, Soviets, and the Bolshevik party. According to the leader of the opposition, the party could be the responsible political state leader of the revolutionary struggle and construction, the Soviets - the form of political power, and the trade unions - the only responsible organizations of the national economy and, at the same time, the school of industrial management for workers.

Shlyapnikov's theses caused great concern within the Central Committee of the RCP (b), which saw in them the manifestation of tendencies toward syndicalism in the Soviet trade unions - that is, an attempt on the leading role of the party in the economic sphere. On March 8 and 10, 1920, at meetings of the VTsSPS and MGPSS factions, representatives of the Central Committee Nikolai Bukharin and Nikolay Krestinsky sharply criticized Shlyapnikov's ideas, accusing him of “syndicalism, guild narrowness, distrust of the Soviets and the party.” In response to such accusations, Lozovsky, who attended the meetings, noted that syndicalists denied the state itself, and Shlyapnikov had a different point of view: the opposition leader did not deny the state and did not encroach on state property; he talked only about the responsibility of trade unions for the economy and the main role of unions in Soviet industry.

In September 1920, at the 9th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks), there was a new flash of activity of supporters of the workers' opposition, which was associated with a discussion about the upper and lower classes of the party. Yuri Lutovinov formulated a number of provisions that later became part of the group's opposition program: in his speech he “fervently insisted on the immediate implementation of the broadest possible labor democracy, on the complete abolition of appointment, and on the strictest cleansing of the party.” The Bolshevik conference did not support this proposal: moreover, at the meeting it was decided to create a control commission, whose task was to prevent the factional struggle in the party. Despite such measures, the speeches of the supporters of the workers' opposition became more frequent throughout the country, and its contradictions with the course of the Central Committee intensified both in the regions and in the center. In particular, in November 1920, the Organizing Bureau of the Central Committee of the RCP (B.) was forced to pay special attention to the conflict in the Tula Provincial Committee of the RCP (B.), which flared up with renewed vigor: to clarify the circumstances, the central committee sent a special commission to the province. At the same time, in Moscow itself, the internal party struggle took on a fierce character. In the fall of 1920, playing on the problem of the upper and lower classes, the workers' opposition were able to attract the sympathy of many Bolsheviks to their program and form tangible support for their ideas among the party workers. As a result, at the end of November, at the gubernational conference, the opposition bloc was able to collect almost half of the delegates' votes: 124 against 154 people. As indicated in the Central Committee's report, "the opposition itself was extremely hostile to the common party line": subsequently, Lenin noted that it came to the point that "the conference ended in two rooms".

Start of the debate
The "trade-union debate" marked the rise of the "workers' opposition." Relying on the provisions contained in the party program adopted at the 8th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) in 1919 - primarily on the part that “trade unions should come to the total concentration of control over the entire national economy" - Shlyapnikov criticized the central committee with his like-minded comrades for “militaristic methods” of working with trade unions, specifically because during the Russian Civil War, unions were massively deprived of independence and absorbed by the government of the RSFSR.

According to Aleksei Semyonovich Kiselyov, serious disagreements with the party leadership among the trade union leaders emerged at the beginning of 1920: he saw them as the main reason for the transition to a policy of militarization of labor. At that time, the majority of trade unions believed that the prospect of the end of active hostilities required, if not a change in policy guidelines, then at least a shift in emphasis in the organization of labor - a transition to economic incentives. In particular, they advocated the improvement of the food situation of the proletariat and the development of "amateur activity" of workers within the framework of trade union organizations. Moreover, the party leadership proceeded from the assumption that in the prevailing conditions at the time of the end of the long war, reliance on conventional methods of industrial management would not be able to prevent the final collapse of the Soviet economy: they believed that emergency measures, including military ones, were necessary.

Positions of the parties
Questions about trade unions became key at meetings of the All-Union Central Council of Trade Unions on March 8, 10 and 15, 1920. According to Kiselyov, by that time in the leading circles of trade union leaders, three political groups could be identified. The first could be attributed to David Riazanov and Mikhail Tomsky, who believed that trade unions should withdraw from economic affairs and deal primarily with the organization of labor. The second group included those workers who advocated the “merging” of trade unions with the state apparatus. And the third group consisted of Shlyapnikov's supporters, who believed that trade unions should become the sole responsible organizations in the field of the national economy of the RSFSR. Thus, already in the spring of 1920, a heated discussion about trade unions began in Soviet Russia: it became open only in late 1920 - early 1921. At that time, a five-member “trade union commission” was created for the central committees, the tasks of which included both studying and verifying the practical experience of the trade unions, and developing abstracts that would express the Central Committee's point of view on this issue. However, Alexander Shlyapnikov, Yury Lutovinov and Leon Trotsky, initially included in this commission, refused to participate in it - which only aggravated the differences. Under these conditions, on December 24, the Plenum of the Central Committee decided to open a broad discussion on the question of trade unions.

On December 30, 1920, leaders of intra-party groups spoke at an expanded meeting of the communist faction of the 8th All-Russian Congress of Soviets and All-Union Central Council of Trade Unions, where they outlined their political platforms. The controversy unfolding at the meeting was accompanied by mutual accusations and almost immediately "acquired a bad character." From the beginning of January of the following year, party organizations joined in the discussion of issues: in particular, on January 3, at a meeting of the party's active in Petrograd, an “Appeal to the Party” was adopted, expressing full support for the Lenin-Zinoviev group, and Trotsky was accused of trying to split the party and professional movement, "in the desire to eliminate unions". At the same time, the resolution proposed to send representatives to the 10th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) in proportion to the number of votes cast in support of each group. In addition, a desire was expressed to send agitators to the province who were obliged to provide propaganda and organizational assistance to local supporters of the Leninist group.

Support for the “Workers' Opposition” Platform
Almost from the very beginning, the discussion on trade unions went beyond the usual discussion of the theses of various fractions - and "turned into a kind of formal revealing of party opinion." The question of the future of trade unions was brought up for discussion in district committees and district meetings of the Bolsheviks: usually, after reports of representatives of various platforms, voting was held at meetings. On the whole, the majority of Soviet communists supported the Leninist position; in particular, on January 17, 1921, eight platforms were put to a vote at a meeting of the party's Moscow committee: 76 people voted for Lenin's wording, 27 for Trotsky's ideas, 4 for the theses of the “workers' opposition”, 11 for the Group of Democratic Centralism (who wanted more Soviet autonomy), 25 for the group of Ignatians, and the remaining platforms received less than two votes. On January 25, in the Tula party organization - where Trotsky, Zinoviev and Shlyapnikov acted as rapporteurs - 582 people voted for Lenin-Zinoviev's resolution, 272 for Trotsky's and 16 delegates for Shlyapnikov's. The Petrograd party organization also supported the Leninist "Platform 10" and it gradually became apparent that the struggle in the capital was waged between the groups of Lenin—Zinoviev and Trotsky.

A more "motley" picture was observed at the county and district meetings: on January 27, in the second Zamoskvoretsky district, 59 votes were cast for "platform 10", 10 for the theses of the "workers' opposition", and seven people supported the Trotskyists; in another district of Moscow - Baumansky - in the central area, 43 people voted for Lenin's thesis, 7 for the "workers' opposition", and 4 people for Trotsky's principles. The trade unions themselves did not go around the discussion: in particular, at the congress of miners in Moscow, the platform of the "workers' opposition" gathered 61 votes in support, the "platform 10" - 137, and only eight people supported Trotsky's theses.

At the Moscow Provincial Party Conference, held on February 19, 1921, and attended by more than three hundred delegates, there was a scandal: E. N. Ignatov declared support for the platform of the “workers' opposition”, which “caused great concern” among the conference members, since until the last day Ignatov's group supported “platform 10”. The subsequent vote ended with the following result: “platform 10” received 217 votes, Trotsky's theses - 52, the platform of “workers' opposition” - 45, and the principles of “democratic centralism” - 13 votes. In the central committee of metalworkers, the “workers' opposition” generally took first place: they were given eleven out of twenty votes.

10th Congress
At the final stage of the "trade-union debate" of the Soviet Communists, to a large extent, the fate of the trade unions was no longer a cause for concern - the question of which fraction would win the upcoming 10th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) became more important. As a result, the struggle of the factions escalated into a battle for leadership in the party - which significantly affected the course of the discussion. In the event, the congress passed a secret resolution "On Party Unity" which banned factions within the party and ordered the immediate dissolution of the groups that had been previously formed. The resolution put an end to the aspirations of the Workers' Opposition and the Democratic Centralists.

Another secret resolution specially aimed at the Workers' Opposition was also passed condemning 'the syndicalist and anarchist deviation in our party', which "made further advocacy of the basic tenets of the Workers' Opposition's programme impossible". Yet the Congress shared some of its peripheral proposals, including conducting a purge of the Party and organizing better supply of workers, to improve workers' living conditions, and three of its leaders were elected to the Party Central Committee: Shlyapnikov as a full voting member, Medvedev and Kiselyov as candidate members. Nevertheless, Party leaders subsequently undertook a campaign to subordinate trade unions to the Party and to harass and intimidate those who opposed this campaign.

End of the movement
Members of the former Workers' Opposition continued to advocate their views during the period of the New Economic Policy but increasingly became politically marginalized. Nonetheless, on 5 July 1921 Kollontai took the floor before the Third Congress of the Comintern, bitterly attacking the policies of the Soviet government and warning that NEP 'threatened to disillusion workers, to strengthen the peasantry and petty bourgeoisie, and to facilitate the rebirth of capitalism'.

Shlyapnikov and his supporters also conducted discussions with Gavril Myasnikov's Workers Group, but unlike Myasnikov, were determined not to leave the ranks of the Communist Party. At the beginning of 1922, former exponents of the Workers' Opposition, such as Shlyapnikov and Medvedev, and other members of the party of working class origins signed the so-called Letter of the Twenty Two, appealing to the Comintern Executive against suppression of dissent within the Russian party and bourgeois infiltrations into the Soviet state and the party itself. Kollontai co-signed the letter, with her best friend Zoya Shadurskaia, as intellectuals of non-working-class extraction, but in February 1922 she was restrained by Trotsky and Zinoviev from speaking before the Comintern Executive on behalf of the views expressed in the appeal. Shlyapnikov, Kollontai, and Sergei Medvedev narrowly escaped expulsion from the Russian Communist Party at the party's subsequent Eleventh Congress in 1922, while two other signatories of the appeal, Flor Anisimovich Mitin (1882–1937) and Nikolái Vladimirovich Kuznetsov (1898–1937), were expelled. Kollontai later became an important diplomat and Shlyapnikov wrote memoirs.

In the latter half of the 1930s, Shlyapnikov and his closest comrades (Kollontai was not among them) were charged with involvement in a counterrevolutionary group called "Workers' Opposition" and with having linked up with the "counterrevolutionary Trotskyist–Zinovievist terrorist bloc". Despite their proclaiming themselves innocent, both Shlyapnikov and Medvedev, along with many others, were condemned to death and executed in September 1937. In her biography of Shlyapnikov Barbara Allen concludes the last chapter before epilogue, with these words: "There was no 'show trial' of the Workers' Opposition, either because it did not fit the narrative of oppositionism Stalin desired to construct or because Shlyapnikov and his closest comrades did not succumb to pressure to debase themselves and slander others in the service of the 'party'. For them, the party was not Stalin and his band, but a revolutionary political institution organised by workers in order to achieve a better life for the oppressed. This firm conviction helped them resist Stalin's rhetoric and narrative of the party's past and to imagine an alternative to his vision of socialism."

After the end of Stalinism, Shlyapnikov was rehabilitated in 1963, Medvedev in 1977. The decision annulling the latter's case for lack of evidence emphasized that "None of those judged on the Workers' Opposition case confessed guilt".

Membership
The Workers' Opposition was led by Alexander Shlyapnikov, who was also chairman of the Russian Metalworkers' Union, and it consisted of trade union leaders and industrial administrators who had formerly been industrial workers. Alexandra Kollontai, the famous socialist feminist, was the group's mentor and advocate. Other prominent members included Sergei Medvedev and Mikhail Vladimirov (leaders of the Metalworkers' Union), Alexander Tolokontsev and Genrikh Bruno (artilleries industry leaders), Mikhail Chelyshev (a member of the Party Control Commission), Ivan Kutuzov (chairman of the Textileworkers' Union), Kirill Orlov (member of the Council of Military Industry and a participant in the 1905 mutiny on the Russian battleship Potemkin), and Aleksei Kiselyov (chairman of the Miners' Union). Yuri Lutovinov, a leader of the Metalworkers' Union and of the All-Union Central Council of Trade Unions, sometimes spoke for the group, but sometimes held his own opinion.

Ideology
The Workers' Opposition advocated the role of unionized workers in directing the economy at a time when Soviet government organs were running industry by diktat and trying to exclude trade unions from a participatory role. Specifically, the Workers' Opposition demanded that unionized workers (blue and white collar) should elect representatives to a vertical hierarchy of councils that would oversee the economy. At all levels, elected leaders would be responsible to those who had elected them and could be removed from below. The Workers' Opposition demanded that Russian Communist Party secretaries at all levels cease petty interference in the operations of trade unions and that trade unions should be reinforced with staff and supplies to allow them to carry out their work effectively. Leaders of the Workers' Opposition were not opposed to the employment of "bourgeois specialists" in the economy, but did oppose giving such individuals strong administrative powers, unchecked from below. The "Workers' Opposition" based their ideas on the experience of the first months of Soviet power - a short period when the organization of production was really carried out on the basis of the self-government of the proletarians.

title: Workers' Opposition


text:
Dawson

Dawson may refer to:

People and fictional characters

 * Dawson (surname), including a list of people and fictional characters with the name
 * Dawson (given name), including a list of people and fictional characters with the name

Antarctica

 * Dawson Head, Palmer Land
 * Dawson Nunatak, Mac. Robertson Land
 * Dawson Peak, Ross Dependency

Australia

 * Division of Dawson, an electoral district in the Australian House of Representatives, in Queensland
 * Dawson River (New South Wales)
 * Dawson River (Queensland), a river in eastern Queensland, Australia
 * Dawson, South Australia, a locality and former town northeast of Peterborough

Canada

 * Dawson City, Yukon
 * Dawson (electoral district), Yukon Territory
 * Dawson Range (Yukon), in the Yukon Ranges
 * Dawson Creek, a city in northeastern British Columbia, Canada
 * Dawson Range (British Columbia)
 * Dawson Falls, British Columbia
 * Dawson, Ontario
 * Dawson Township, Ontario (disambiguation)
 * Dawson Trail (electoral district), Manitoba

Chile

 * Dawson Island, an island in the Strait of Magellan south of the city of Punta Arenas in Chile

Ireland

 * Dawson Street, Dublin

Singapore

 * Dawson, Singapore, a public housing estate in Queenstown, Singapore

United States

 * Dawson, Alabama, a small community
 * Dawson, Georgia, a city
 * Dawson, Illinois, a village
 * Dawson, Iowa, a city
 * Dawson Springs, Kentucky, formerly known as "Dawson City"
 * Dawson, Maryland, an unincorporated community
 * Dawson, Missouri, an unincorporated community
 * Dawson, Minnesota, a city
 * Dawson, Nebraska, a village
 * Dawson, New Mexico, a ghost town
 * Dawson, North Dakota
 * Dawson, Ohio, an unincorporated community
 * Dawson, Oregon, an unincorporated community
 * Dawson, Pennsylvania, a borough
 * Dawson Historic District, a national historic district located at Dawson, Fayette County, Pennsylvania
 * Dawson, Texas, a town
 * Dawson County, Georgia
 * Dawson Forest, a public-use forest located in Dawson County, Georgia
 * Dawson County, Montana
 * Dawson County, Nebraska
 * Dawson County, Texas
 * Dawson, Austin, Texas, a neighborhood
 * Camp Dawson (New Jersey), a small recreational area
 * Dawson, West Virginia
 * Camp Dawson (West Virginia), an Army National Guard facility
 * Dawson Peak, a mountain in Angeles National Forest, California
 * Dawson Township (disambiguation), two townships in the United States

Moon

 * Dawson (crater), a lunar impact crater on the far side of the Moon

Australia

 * Dawson Highway, Queensland
 * Dawson railway station, a closed station in Victoria

Canada

 * Dawson Bridge, Edmonton, Alberta
 * Old Dawson Trail, 19th century route between Thunder Bay, Ontario and Winnipeg, Manitoba

United States

 * Dawson Community Airport, Dawson County, Montana, USA
 * USS Dawson (APA-79), a US Navy World War II attack transport

Education

 * Dawson College, Quebec, Canada
 * Dawson Community College, Glendive, Montana
 * Dawson School, an historic school building located in Tulsa, Oklahoma

Buildings

 * Dawson Bank Museum, museum and historic building in Dawson, Minnesota
 * Dawson Brothers Plant, a historic factory building
 * Dawson Building, a historic building at 1851 Purchase Street in New Bedford, Massachusetts
 * Dawson Farm, a historic property located at Rockville, Montgomery County, Maryland
 * Dawson Tower, located on Kadugannawa in the Kadugannawa Pass

Sport

 * Dawson City Nuggets, a hockey team from Dawson City, Yukon Territory, Canada
 * Dawson Creek Kodiaks, a Canadian Junior ice hockey team from Dawson Creek, British Columbia, Canada
 * Dawson Creek Rage, an ice hockey team based out of Dawson Creek, British Columbia

Other uses

 * Dawson baronets, two baronetcies in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom
 * Dawson Car Company, created in 1918 by AJ Dawson, previously works manager at Hillman
 * Dawson function, a mathematical function
 * Dawson Sentinel, a newspaper from Dawson, Minnesota
 * Dawson v. Delaware, a United States Supreme Court decision about a person's rights of association and due process

title: Dawson


text:
Charles Forte, Baron Forte

Charles Carmine Forte, Baron Forte  (26 November 1908 – 28 February 2007) was an Italian-born Scottish hotelier who founded the leisure and hotels conglomerate that ultimately became the Forte Group.

Early life
Charles Forte was born as Carmine Forte in Mortale, now Monforte, Casalattico, in the province of Frosinone, Italy on 26 November 1908, eldest son of Rocco Giovanni Forte and Maria Luigia, daughter of Michelangelo Antonio Forte. His parents were distantly related. He emigrated from Italy to Scotland at the age of four with his family.

He attended Alloa Academy and then St. Joseph's College, Dumfries as a boarder, followed by two years of studies in Rome.

Early career
After Rome, Forte rejoined his family, who had moved to Weston-super-Mare, where his father ran a café with two cousins. Charles' main training at the age of 21 came in Brighton, where he managed the Venetian.

At 26, he set up his first "milk bar" in 1935, the Strand Milk Bar Ltd. Soon he began expanding into catering and hotel businesses. At the outbreak of World War II, Forte was interned in the Isle of Man due to his Italian nationality, but he was released after only three months. After the war, his company became Forte Holdings Ltd and bought the Café Royal in 1954.

In the 1950s, he also opened the first catering facility at Heathrow Airport and the first full motorway service station in the UK for cars at Newport Pagnell, Buckinghamshire, on the M1 motorway in 1959. He purchased the Hungaria Restaurant in Lower Regent St. in 1955.

Later career
Trust Houses Group Ltd and Forte Holdings were merged in 1970 to become Trust House Forte or THF. Through mergers and expansion, Forte expanded the Forte Group into a multibillion-pound business. His empire included the Little Chef and Happy Eater roadside restaurants, Crest, Forte Grand, Travelodge and Posthouse hotels, as well as the wine merchant Grierson-Blumenthal and a non-controlling majority stake in the Savoy Hotel.

The Grierson-Blumenthal stake became a legally "forced" acquisition by the group. It had been a personal holding of Charles Forte and fellow directors of the group, supplying liquor to Forte restaurants and hotels at substantial personal profit, until the prejudice to shareholders was realised in the late 1970s (including possible prosecution under the Companies Act) which obliged its acquisition as a subsidiary.

Forte was the CEO from 1971 and chairman from 1982 (when his son Rocco took over as CEO) of the Group. Happy Eater and the five Welcome Break major road service outlets were bought from Hanson Trust PLC on 1 August 1986. In the 1990s, the company increased its nominal capital and agreed to the public listed companies compliance regime to become Forte Group plc.

Forte passed full control to his son Rocco in 1993, but soon the plc was faced with a hostile takeover bid from Granada. Ultimately, Granada succeeded with a £3.9 billion tender offer in January 1996, which left the family with about £350 million in cash.

On 28 February 2007, Forte died in his sleep at his home in London, aged 98. He is buried in West Hampstead Cemetery.

Honours and awards
Forte was knighted by The Queen Mother in 1970 and created a life peer on 2 February 1982 as Baron Forte, of Ripley in the County of Surrey. He was also a knight of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta.

Family
In January 1943, Forte married Irene Mary, daughter of Giovanni Chierico, of Venice; her family ran a delicatessen on Wardour Street, Soho. Lady Forte had been apprenticed to a Mayfair couturier, where she learned sewing and gained an appreciation of quality materials. After her father's death when she was 17, she ran the family shop for three months whilst her mother was in Italy; it was destroyed by a bomb during the Blitz in 1940. From the 1950s, Forte lived with an extended family including his parents and children at Greenway Gardens in Frognal, Hampstead, London. They attended services at the Roman Catholic St. Mary's Church in nearby Holly Lane, Hampstead.

Together, they had six children, five girls and a boy:
 * The Hon. Sir Rocco John Vincent Forte (b. 1945), who was knighted in 1995. On 15 February 1986, he married Aliai Giovanna Maria Ricci in Rome. They have three children.
 * The Hon. Olga Forte CBE (b. 1947), who was married firstly to the late Count Alessandro Polizzi and secondly, in 1993, to The Hon. William Shawcross. Olga had two children with Alessandro:
 * Alexandra Polizzi, a hotelier and the presenter of Channel 5's The Hotel Inspector
 * Charlotte Polizzi (b.1973), who married TV celebrity Oliver Peyton
 * The Hon. Marie Louise Forte (b. 1950), who married Robert Alexander Burness and had two children.
 * The Hon. Irene Forte (b. 1956), who married US Ambassador John Danilovich and had three children.
 * The Hon. Giancarla Forte (b. 1959), who married Michael Ulic Anthony Alen-Buckley and had two children.

Irene, Lady Forte died 12 September 2010, and she is buried with her husband.

Lord Forte's family came from Mortale (later renamed Monforte in his honour), in the Lazio region of Southern Italy, where he retained the family home.

title: Charles Forte, Baron Forte


text:
Severus of Antioch

Severus the Great of Antioch (Σεβῆρος; ), also known as Severus of Gaza or the Crown of Syrians (تاج السوريان), was the Patriarch of Antioch, and head of the Syriac Orthodox Church, from 512 until his death in 538. He is venerated as a saint in the Oriental Orthodox Church, and his feast day is 8 February.

Early life and education
Severus was born in the city of Sozopolis in Pisidia in c. 459, or c. 465, into an affluent Christian family, however, later Miaphysite sources would assert that his parents were pagan. His father was a senator in the city, and his paternal grandfather, also named Severus, was the Bishop of Sozopolis and had attended the Council of Ephesus in 431. According to Severus' hagiography, he was named after his paternal grandfather as he had received a vision in which he was told, "the child who is for your son will strengthen Orthodoxy, and his name will be after your name".

After his father's death, in 485, Severus travelled to Alexandria in Egypt to study grammar, rhetoric, and philosophy, in both Greek and Latin. At Alexandria, he met Zacharias of Mytilene, a fellow student and friend, who persuaded him to read the works of Gregory of Nazianzus, and Basil of Caesarea, in particular his correspondence with Libanius. According to Zacharias, whilst students at Alexandria, he and Severus discovered and destroyed a hoard of pagan idols at the neighbouring city of Menouthis.

In the autumn of 486, Severus travelled to Berytus in Phoenicia and studied law and philosophy at the law school, where he was later joined by Zacharias in 487. At Berytus, Severus and Zacharias led the expulsion of necromancers and enchanters from the city, and Severus began to dedicate his free time to studying the works of the Fathers of the Church. At this time, he joined a group of students led by a certain Evagrius who prayed together at the Church of the Resurrection every evening. Severus was convinced to be baptised, as he had not yet undergone baptism due to Pisidian custom in which men could not be baptised until they had grown a beard. In 488, he was baptised at the Church of Saint Leontius at Tripolis with Evagrius as his sponsor.

Monkhood
Severus subsequently adopted an ascetic life whereby he rejected bathing and adopted fasting. He initially intended to return to Pisidia and practise law, however, after a pilgrimage to the Church of Saint Leontius in Tripolis, the head of John the Baptist at Emesa, and Jerusalem, he resolved to join Evagrius and become a monk. Severus entered the monastery of Peter the Iberian near Maiuma in Palestine, a prominent centre of non-Chalcedonianism, and remained there for several years. He later joined a monastic brotherhood in the desert near Eleutheropolis under the archimandrite Mamas. Severus practised asceticism in the desert until c. 500, at which time he became ill and was convinced to recover at the Monastery of Saint Romanus in Maiuma, where he was ordained a priest by Epiphanius, Bishop of Magydus. At Maiuma, Severus received his inheritance from his parents; he shared the property with his brothers, donated most of his share to the poor, and constructed a monastery.

On a walk outside the city, Severus came upon a hermit who left his cave to call out, "welcome to you Severus, teacher of Orthodoxy, and Patriarch of Antioch", despite never meeting Severus, the hermit thus prophesied Severus' ascension to the patriarchal throne. He remained at his monastery until 507/508, at which time Nephalius, a Chalcedonian monk, arrived at Maiuma and preached against Severus and other non-Chalcedonians. In 508, Nephalius wrote an apologia of the Council of Chalcedon, to which Severus replied in his two Orationes ad Nephalium. In the same year, Patriarch Elias of Jerusalem commissioned Nephalius to expel non-Chalcedonian monks from their monasteries in Palestine, and Severus was sent to Constantinople to complain to Emperor Anastasius.

Severus travelled to Constantinople alongside 200 non-Chalcedonian monks, and gained favour with the emperor soon after his arrival. Patriarch Macedonius II of Constantinople attempted to sway Anastasius to support the Council of Chalcedon and presented the emperor with a collection of edited excerpts from the works of Cyril of Alexandria, an important Father of the Church who had died prior to the council. Severus, however, wrote Philalethes, and refuted Macedonius as the work of Cyril presented to the emperor was shown to be taken out of context. At Constantinople, Severus became friends with Julian, Bishop of Halicarnassus. Under Severus' influence, in 510, Anastasius allowed non-Chalcedonians to retake their monasteries, and, in 510/511, the emperor issued a typos (edict) that adopted the non-Chalcedonian interpretation of the Henotikon as law. After Macedonius' deposition and his succession by Timothy I, a non-Chalcedonian, in August 511, Severus returned to his monastery in Palestine.

Patriarch of Antioch
In 512, Flavian II, Patriarch of Antioch, was deposed by Anastasius, and a synod was held at Laodicea in Syria to elect a successor. Severus was elected on 6 November and consecrated at the Great Church of Antioch on 16 November. The consecration ceremony was attended by the bishops Dionysius of Tarsus, Nicias of Laodicea, Philoxenus of Hierapolis, Peter of Beroea, Simeon of Chalcis, Marion of Sura, Eusebius of Gabbula, Silvanus of Urima, Sergius of Cyrrhus, John of Europus, Philoxenus of Doliche, and Iulianus of Salamias. During the consecration ceremony, he affirmed the councils of Nicaea, Constantinople, and Ephesus, and the Henotikon. Despite orders from Anastasius to not act or speak against the Council of Chalcedon, Severus condemned the council, as well as Pope Leo's Tome, Nestorius, Eutyches, Diodorus of Tarsus, Theodore of Mopsuestia, Ibas of Edessa, Barsauma, and Cyrus and John of Aigai. However, Severus could not be heard due to shouting and commotion, and he signed a declaration of faith at the ceremony's conclusion.

Upon his consecration, Severus had the baths at the patriarchal palace destroyed and the cooks sent away, in keeping with his abstinence from luxurious bathing and eating. He was accepted as Patriarch of Antioch by Patriarch Timothy I of Constantinople and Pope John of Alexandria, but Patriarch Elias of Jerusalem and other bishops refused to acknowledge him. Couriers taking synodical letters from Severus to Jerusalem were expelled from the city by Sabbas and a crowd congregated at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and chanted, "anathema to Severus and his fellow communicants". Within Syria, Severus was popular amongst the population of the province of Syria Prima, which had largely adopted non-Chalcedonianism, whereas the province of Syria Secunda, which was home to a large Greek population who favoured Chalcedonianism, was hostile towards Severus.

A synod was held at Tyre in Phoenicia in c. 514, at which the Council of Chalcedon and Leo's Tome was denounced, and Severus declared that the Henotikon had annulled the acts of the Council of Chalcedon. Severus began to exchange letters with Sergius the Grammarian at this time as Sergius had written to Antoninus, Bishop of Aleppo, who had asked Severus to respond. Sergius argued that the Synod of Tyre had made serious concessions to Chalcedonians, to which Severus responded with a treatise against Sergius. As patriarch, Severus and Peter, Archbishop of Apamea, were alleged to have hired Jewish mercenaries to kill 250 Chalcedonian pilgrims and leave their bodies unburied by the roadside. Chalcedonians also claimed that the monasteries that the pilgrims had fled to were set alight and the monks that had protected them were also killed. Between 514 and 518, John of Caesarea wrote an apologia of the Council of Chalcedon in response to Severus' Philalethes. Severus wrote a treatise in defence of Philalethes, and began work on a reply to John of Caesarea.

Exile and death
Following Anastasius' death and his succession by Emperor Justin I in July 518, the bishops of Syria Secunda travelled to Constantinople and clamoured for Severus' deposition. Justin demanded Severus affirmed the Council of Chalcedon, to which he refused, and the emperor subsequently ordered Irenaeus, Count of the East, to arrest Severus and cut out his tongue. Theodora, wife of Justinian, Justin's nephew and heir, discovered Justin's orders and warned Severus. On 25 September 518, Severus fled Antioch by boat to Alexandria, where he was well received by Pope Timothy III of Alexandria and the city's inhabitants. Severus' arrival in Egypt is celebrated by the Coptic Orthodox Church on 12 October. Despite his deposition, Severus did not cease to be seen as the legitimate Patriarch of Antioch by non-Chalcedonians.

During his exile in Egypt, Severus resided at the monastery of the Ennaton with Pope Timothy, and is known to have performed a number of miracles. He completed his three volume book, liber contra impium grammaticum, against John of Caesarea in c. 519. In his exile, Julian of Halicarnassus also took up residence at the monastery of the Ennaton and exchanged letters with Severus on the topic of the body of Christ. Whereas Julian had adopted aphthartodocetism, which argued that the body of Christ was incorruptible, Severus argued that the body of Christ was corruptible until the resurrection. He wrote five treatises against Julian, who responded in peri aphtharsias and an apologia. The non-Chalcedonian community was quickly divided between "Severians", followers of Severus, and aphthartodocetae, and divisions remained unresolved until 527. The Severians were also known as the Pthartolatrae.

Emperor Justinian, who succeeded his uncle Justin in 527, held a three-day synod at the Palace of Hormisdas in the spring of 532 at Constantinople to restore unity to the church through dialogue between five Chalcedonians and five or more non-Chalcedonians. The emperor invited Severus and promised immunity, however, he chose not to attend on the grounds of age and as he was accused of corruption and bribery, which he vehemently denied. In c. 534, the non-Chalcedonian community faced further division with the separation of the Themistians from the Severians. Their leader, Themistius, a deacon at Alexandria, saw himself as defending the Severan view, nevertheless, a new sect was founded after him advocating a more extreme belief of Christ's corruptibility. At the invitation of Justinian, in the winter of 534/535, Severus travelled to Constantinople alongside Peter of Apamea and the monk Zooras. At this time, Anthimus, Archbishop of Trebizond, was consecrated Patriarch of Constantinople and refused to affirm the Council of Chalcedon. Severus successfully convinced Anthimus to adopt a position in line with himself and Pope Theodosius I of Alexandria.

Severus' fortunes were quickly overturned as Pope Agapetus I of Rome arrived at Constantinople in March 536. Agapetus swayed Justinian to adopt a firm Chalcedonian position and Anthimus was replaced by Menas. Menas held a synod from 2 May to 4 June, at the conclusion of which Severus, Anthimus, Peter of Apamea, and Zooras were excommunicated. On 6 August 536, Justinian issued an edict that charged Severus, Anthimus, Peter, and Zooras with Nestorianism and Eutychianism, banned Severus' books, and banished them from the capital and all major cities. Severus fled Constantinople with the aid of Empress Theodora and returned to Egypt. He resided at the residence of Dorotheus in the city of Sakha until his death on 5 February 538. Dorotheus had Severus' body moved to the Zogag Monastery, and the relocation of his body is celebrated on 19 December.

Manichaeism
Severus of Antioch's 123rd homily is famously anti-Manichaean. It has been lost in its original Greek version but a Syriac translation has been preserved. Parts of Severus' 123rd homily was translated and presented, together with the original Syriac text, by Kugener and Cumont. In this work he mentions an unnamed book by Mani, which is possibly The Pragmateia, a Manichaean work now lost (this is however not certain; see doubts expressed in Baker-Brian 2011: 82-83). Although he opposed the Manichaeans, as he writes "From where did the Manichaeans, who are more wicked than any other, get the idea of introducing two principles, both uncreated and without beginning, that is good and evil, light and darkness, which they also call matter?", his direct citations and explanations of Manichaean beliefs are considered a valuable source by Western scholarship, as the works he cites from are otherwise lost, and his citations of Manichaean texts are among the longest we possess.

title: Severus of Antioch