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Truffle

A truffle is the fruiting body of a subterranean ascomycete fungus, one of the species of the genus Tuber. More than one hundred other genera of fungi are classified as truffles including Geopora, Peziza, Choiromyces, and Leucangium. These genera belong to the class Pezizomycetes and the Pezizales order. Several truffle-like basidiomycetes are excluded from Pezizales, including Rhizopogon and Glomus. Truffles are ectomycorrhizal fungi, so they are found in close association with tree roots. Spore dispersal is accomplished through fungivores, animals that eat fungi. These fungi have ecological roles in nutrient cycling and drought tolerance.

Some truffle species are prized as food. Edible truffles are used in Italian, French and other national haute cuisines. Truffles are cultivated and harvested from natural environments.

Black

The black truffle or black Périgord truffle (Tuber melanosporum), the second-most commercially valuable species, is named after the Périgord region in France. Black truffles associate with oaks, hazelnut, cherry, and other deciduous trees and are harvested in late autumn and winter. The genome sequence of the black truffle was published in March 2010.

Summer or Burgundy

The black summer truffle (Tuber aestivum) is found across Europe and is prized for its culinary value. Burgundy truffles (designated Tuber uncinatum, but the same species) are harvested in autumn until December and have aromatic flesh of a darker colour. These are associated with various trees and shrubs.

White
Tuber magnatum, the high-value white truffle (tartufo bianco) is found mainly in the Langhe and Montferrat areas of the Piedmont region in northern Italy, and most famously, in the countryside around the cities of Alba and Asti. A large percentage of Italy's white truffles also come from Molise.

Whitish
The "whitish truffle" (Tuber borchii) is a similar species native to Tuscany, Abruzzo, Romagna, Umbria, the Marche, and Molise. It is reportedly not as aromatic as those from Piedmont, although those from Città di Castello are said to come quite close.

Other Tuber
A less common truffle is "garlic truffle" (Tuber macrosporum).

In the U.S. Pacific Northwest, several species of truffle are harvested both recreationally and commercially, most notably, the Leucangium carthusianum, Oregon black truffle; Tuber gibbosum, Oregon spring white truffle; and Tuber oregonense, Oregon winter white truffle. Kalapuya brunnea, the Oregon brown truffle, has also been commercially harvested and is of culinary note. The Oregon white truffle is increasingly harvested due to its high quality and also exported to other countries. Oregon celebrates its traditional truffle harvesting with a 'truffle festival', combined with culinary shows and wine tastings.

The pecan truffle (Tuber lyonii) syn. texense is found in the Southern United States, usually associated with pecan trees. Chefs who have experimented with them agree "they are very good and have potential as a food commodity". Although pecan farmers used to find them along with pecans and discard them, considering them a nuisance, they sell for about $160 a pound and have been used in some gourmet restaurants.

Beyond Tuber
The term "truffle" has been applied to several other genera of similar underground fungi. The genera Terfezia and Tirmania of the family Terfeziaceae are known as the "desert truffles" of Africa and the Middle East. Pisolithus tinctorius, which was historically eaten in parts of Germany, is sometimes called "Bohemian truffle".

Geopora spp. are important ectomycorrhizal partners of trees in woodlands and forests throughout the world. Pinus edulis, a widespread pine species of the Southwest US, is dependent on Geopora for nutrient and water acquisition in arid environments. Like other truffle fungi, Geopora produces subterranean sporocarps as a means of sexual reproduction. Geopora cooperi, also known as pine truffle or fuzzy truffle, is an edible species of this genus.

Rhizopogon spp. are ectomycorrhizal members of the Basidiomycota and the order Boletales, a group of fungi that typically form mushrooms. Like their ascomycete counterparts, these fungi can create truffle-like fruiting bodies. Rhizopogon spp. are ecologically important in coniferous forests where they associate with various pines, firs, and Douglas fir. In addition to their ecological importance, these fungi hold economic value, as well. Rhizopogon spp. are commonly used to inoculate coniferous seedlings in nurseries and during reforestation.

Hysterangium spp. are ectomycorrhizal members of the Basidiomycota and the order Hysterangiales that form sporocarps similar to true truffles. These fungi form mycelial mats of vegetative hyphae that may cover 25–40% of the forest floor in Douglas fir forests, thereby contributing to a significant portion of the biomass present in soils. Like other ectomycorrhizal fungi, Hysterangium spp. play a role in nutrient exchange in the nitrogen cycle by accessing nitrogen unavailable to host plants and acting as nitrogen sinks in forests.

Glomus spp. are arbuscular mycorrhizae of the phylum Glomeromycota within the order Glomerales. Members of this genus have low host specificity, associating with a variety of plants including hardwoods, forbs, shrubs, and grasses. These fungi commonly occur throughout the Northern Hemisphere.

Members of the genus Elaphomyces are commonly mistaken for truffles.

Phylogeny
Phylogenetic analysis has demonstrated the convergent evolution of the ectomycorrhizal trophic mode in diverse fungi. The subphylum Pezizomycotina, containing the order Pezizales, is approximately 400 million years old. Within the order Pezizales, subterranean fungi evolved independently at least fifteen times. Contained within Pezizales are the families Tuberaceae, Pezizaceae, Pyronematacae, and Morchellaceae. All of these families contain lineages of subterranean or truffle fungi.

The oldest ectomycorrhizal fossils are from the Eocene about 50 million years ago. The specimens are preserved permineralized in-situ in the Eocene Okanagan Highlands Princeton chert site. This indicates that the soft bodies of ectomycorrhizal fungi do not easily fossilize. Molecular clockwork has suggested the evolution of ectomycorrhizal fungi occurred approximately 130 million years ago.

The evolution of subterranean fruiting bodies has occurred numerous times within the Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, and Glomeromycota. For example, the genera Rhizopogon and Hysterangium of Basidiomycota both form subterranean fruiting bodies and play similar ecological roles as truffle forming ascomycetes. The ancestors of the Ascomycota genera Geopora, Tuber, and Leucangium originated in Laurasia during the Paleozoic era.

Phylogenetic evidence suggests that most subterranean fruiting bodies evolved from above-ground mushrooms. Over time mushroom stipes and caps were reduced, and caps began to enclose reproductive tissue. The dispersal of sexual spores then shifted from wind and rain to utilising animals.

The phylogeny and biogeography of the genus Tuber was investigated in 2008 using internal transcribed spacers (ITS) of nuclear DNA and revealed five major clades (Aestivum, Excavatum, Rufum, Melanosporum and Puberulum); this was later improved and expanded in 2010 to nine major clades using 28S large subunits (LSU) rRNA of mitochondrial DNA. The Magnatum and Macrosporum clades were distinguished as distinct from the Aestivum clade. The Gibbosum clade was resolved as distinct from all other clades, and the Spinoreticulatum clade was separated from the Rufum clade.

The truffle habit has evolved independently among several basidiomycete genera. Phylogenetic analysis has revealed that basidiomycete subterranean fruiting bodies, like their ascomycete counterparts, evolved from above ground mushrooms. For example, Rhizopogon species likely arose from an ancestor shared with Suillus, a mushroom-forming genus. Studies have suggested that selection for subterranean fruiting bodies among ascomycetes and basidiomycetes occurred in water-limited environments.

Etymology
Most sources agree that the term "truffle" derives from the Latin term tūber or the Vulgar Latin tufera, meaning "swelling" or "lump". This then entered other languages through Old French dialects.

Ecology
The mycelia of truffles form symbiotic, mycorrhizal relationships with the roots of several tree species, including beech, birch, hazel, hornbeam, oak, pine, and poplar. Mutualistic ectomycorrhizal fungi such as truffles provide valuable nutrients to plants in exchange for carbohydrates. Ectomycorrhizal fungi cannot survive in the soil without their plant hosts. In fact, many of these fungi have lost the enzymes necessary for obtaining carbon through other means. For example, truffle fungi have lost their ability to degrade the cell walls of plants, limiting their capacity to decompose plant litter. Plant hosts can also depend on their associated truffle fungi. Geopora, Peziza, and Tuber spp. are vital in the establishment of oak communities.

Tuber species prefer argillaceous or calcareous soils that are well drained and neutral or alkaline. Tuber truffles fruit throughout the year, depending on the species, and can be found buried between the leaf litter and the soil. Most fungal biomass is found in the humus and litter layers of soil.

Most truffle fungi produce both asexual spores (mitospores or conidia) and sexual spores (meiospores or ascospores/basidiospores). Conidia can be produced more readily and with less energy than ascospores and can disperse during disturbance events. Production of ascospores is energy intensive because the fungus must allocate resources to the production of large sporocarps. Ascospores are borne within sac-like structures called asci, which are contained within the sporocarp.

Because truffle fungi produce their sexual fruiting bodies underground, spores cannot be spread by wind and water. Therefore, nearly all truffles depend on mycophagous animal vectors for spore dispersal. This is analogous to the dispersal of seeds in fruit of angiosperms. When the ascospores are fully developed, the truffle exudes volatile compounds that attract animal vectors. For successful dispersal, these spores must survive passage through the digestive tracts of animals. Ascospores have thick walls composed of chitin to help them endure the environment of animal guts.

Animal vectors include birds, deer, and rodents such as voles, squirrels, and chipmunks. Many species of trees, such as Quercus garryana, are dependent on the dispersal of sporocarps to inoculate isolated individuals. For example, the acorns of Q. garryana may be carried to new territory that lacks the necessary mycorrhizal fungi for establishment.

Some mycophagous animals depend on truffles as their dominant food source. Flying squirrels, Glaucomys sabrinus, of North America play a three-way symbiosis with truffles and their associated plants. G. sabrinus is particularly adapted to finding truffles using its refined sense of smell, visual clues, and long-term memory of prosperous populations of truffles. This intimacy between animals and truffles indirectly influences the success of mycorrhizal plant species.

After ascospores are dispersed, they remain dormant until germination is initiated by exudates excreted from host plant roots. Following germination, hyphae form and seek out the roots of host plants. Arriving at roots, hyphae begin to form a mantle or sheath on the outer surface of root tips. Hyphae then enter the root cortex intercellularly to form the Hartig net for nutrient exchange. Hyphae can spread to other root tips colonising the entire root system of the host. Over time, the truffle fungus accumulates sufficient resources to form fruiting bodies. Rate of growth is correlated with increasing photosynthetic rates in the spring as trees leaf out.

Nutrient exchange
Truffle fungi receive carbohydrates from their host plants, providing them with valuable micro- and macronutrients. Plant macronutrients include potassium, phosphorus, nitrogen, and sulfur. In contrast, micronutrients include iron, copper, zinc, and chloride. In truffle fungi, as in all ectomycorrhizae, the majority of nutrient exchange occurs in the Hartig net, the intercellular hyphal network between plant root cells. A unique feature of ectomycorrhizal fungi is the formation of the mantle on the outer surface of fine roots.

Truffles have been suggested to co-locate with the orchid species Epipactis helleborine and Cephalanthera damasonium, though this is not always the case.

Nutrient cycling
Truffle fungi are ecologically important in nutrient cycling. Plants obtain nutrients via their fine roots. Mycorrhizal fungi are much smaller than fine roots, so they have a higher surface area and a greater ability to explore soils for nutrients. Acquisition of nutrients includes the uptake of phosphorus, nitrate or ammonium, iron, magnesium, and other ions. Many ectomycorrhizal fungi form fungal mats in the upper layers of soils surrounding host plants. These mats have significantly higher carbon and fixed nitrogen concentrations than surrounding soils. Because these mats are nitrogen sinks, leaching of nutrients is reduced.

Mycelial mats can also help maintain the structure of soils by holding organic matter in place and preventing erosion. Often, these networks of mycelium provide support for smaller organisms in the soil, such as bacteria and microscopic arthropods. Bacteria feed on the exudates released by mycelium and colonise the soil surrounding them. Microscopic arthropods such as mites feed directly on mycelium and release valuable nutrients for the uptake of other organisms. Thus, truffle fungi and other ectomycorrhizal fungi facilitate a complex system of nutrient exchange between plants, animals, and microbes.

Importance in arid-land ecosystems
Plant community structure is often affected by the availability of compatible mycorrhizal fungi. In arid-land ecosystems, these fungi become essential for the survival of their host plants by enhancing the ability to withstand drought. A foundation species in arid-land ecosystems of the Southwest United States is Pinus edulis, commonly known as pinyon pine. P. edulis associates with the subterranean fungi Geopora and Rhizopogon.

As global temperatures rise, so does the occurrence of severe droughts, detrimentally affecting the survival of aridland plants. This variability in climate has increased the mortality of P. edulis. Therefore, the availability of compatible mycorrhizal inoculum can greatly affect the successful establishment of P. edulis seedlings. Associated ectomycorrhizal fungi will likely play a significant role in the survival of P. edulis with continuing global climate change.

Extraction
Because truffles are subterranean, they are often located with the help of an animal (sometimes called a truffler ) possessing a refined sense of smell. Traditionally, pigs have been used to extract truffles. Both the female pig's natural truffle-seeking and her intent to eat the truffle were thought to be due to a compound within the truffle similar to androstenol, the sex pheromone of boar saliva, to which the sow is keenly attracted. Studies in 1990 demonstrated that the compound actively recognised by both truffle pigs and dogs is dimethyl sulfide.

In Italy, the use of pigs to hunt truffles has been prohibited since 1985 because of damage caused by animals to truffle mycelia during the digging that dropped the production rate of the area for some years. An alternative to truffle pigs are dogs. Dogs offer an advantage because they do not have a strong desire to eat truffles, so they can be trained to locate sporocarps without digging them up. Pigs attempt to dig up truffles.

Fly species of the genus Suilla can also detect the volatile compounds associated with subterranean fruiting bodies. These flies lay their eggs above truffles to provide food for their young. At ground level, Suilla flies can be seen flying above truffles.

Volatile constituents
The mycelia or fruiting bodies release the volatile constituents responsible for the natural aroma of truffles or derive from truffle-associated microbes. The chemical ecology of truffle volatiles is complex, interacting with plants, insects, and mammals, which contribute to spore dispersal. Depending on the truffle species, lifecycle, or location, they include: Several truffle species and varieties are differentiated based on their relative contents or absence of sulfides, ethers or alcohols, respectively. The sweaty-musky aroma of truffles is similar to that of the pheromone androstenol that also occurs in humans. , the volatile profiles of seven black and six white truffle species have been studied.
 * Sulfur volatiles, which occur in all truffle species, such as dimethyl mono- (DMS), di- (DMDS) and tri- (DMTS) sulfides, as well as 2-methyl-4,5-dihydrothiophene, characteristic of the white truffle T. borchii and 2,4-Dithiapentane occurring in all species but mostly characteristic of the white truffle T. magnatum. Some very aromatic white truffles are notably pungent, even irritating the eye when cut or sliced.
 * Metabolites of nonsulfur amino acid constituents (simple and branched-chain hydrocarbons) such as ethylene (produced by mycelia of white truffles affecting root architecture of host tree), as well as 2-methylbutanal, 2-methylpropanal, and 2-phenylethanol (also common in baker's yeast).
 * Fatty acid-derived volatiles (C8-alcohols and aldehydes with a characteristic fungal odor, such as 1-octen-3-ol and 2-octenal). The former is derived from linoleic acid and produced by mature white truffle T. borchii.
 * Thiophene derivatives appear to be produced by bacterial symbionts living in the truffle body. The most abundant of these, 3-methyl, 4-5 dihydrothiophene, contributes to the white truffle's aroma.

Cultivation

Truffles long eluded techniques of cultivation, as Jean-Anthelme Brillat-Savarin (1825) noted:

"The most learned men have sought to ascertain the secret and fancied they discovered the seed. Their promises, however, were vain, and no planting was ever followed by a harvest. This perhaps is all right, for as one of the great values of truffles is their dearness, perhaps they would be less highly esteemed if they were cheaper."

Truffles can be cultivated. As early as 1808, attempts to cultivate truffles, known in French as trufficulture, were successful. People had long observed that truffles were growing among the roots of certain trees, and in 1808, Joseph Talon, from Apt (département of Vaucluse) in southern France, had the idea of transplanting some seedlings that he had collected at the foot of oak trees known to host truffles in their root system.

For discovering how to cultivate truffles, some sources now give priority to Pierre II Mauléon (1744–1831) of Loudun (in western France), who began to cultivate truffles around 1790. Mauléon saw an "obvious symbiosis" between the oak tree, the rocky soil, and the truffle and attempted to reproduce such an environment by taking acorns from trees known to have produced truffles and sowing them in chalky soil. His experiment was successful, with truffles found in the soil around the newly grown oak trees years later. In 1847, Auguste Rousseau of Carpentras (in Vaucluse) planted 7 ha of oak trees (again from acorns found on the soil around truffle-producing oak trees), and he subsequently obtained large harvests of truffles. He received a prize at the 1855 World's Fair in Paris.

Others imitated these successful attempts in France and Italy. In the late 19th century, an epidemic of phylloxera destroyed many of the vineyards in southern France. Another epidemic killed most of the silkworms there, too, making the fields of mulberry trees useless. Trufficulture became an important source of income for those affected. The calcareous and exposed vineyard soils were well-suited to the cultivation of truffles. By 1890, truffières (truffle plantations) covered 750 km2 of land in France, and 2,000 tonnes of truffles were produced in that year.

From the 19th century to the present, truffle production fell by 97–99% to 20–50 tonnes annually. Reasons given for this decline include the Industrial Revolution, the subsequent rural flight and the multiple European wars of the 20th century, which reduced the rural population. For example, World War I resulted in the mobilisation of 65% of the agricultural workers from the region of Lot alone. Knowledge of truffle cultivation, the soil and the seasons was lost along with the people. Another consequence was no more grazing sheep or shepherds who pruned trees for feed and fuelwood, so former truffle plantations turned into closed forests that no longer produced truffles. Truffles were once sold at weekly markets (bi-weekly in the case of a market in Martel, Lot) and in quantities of two to six tonnes in good weeks, but only Lalbenque and Limogne today have weekly truffle markets. Prices have increased so that truffles, once seen as a food of the middle class, have become a luxury.

The situation changed in the late 1960s and early 1970s, with researchers in France and Italy establishing mycorrhizas with truffle spores. Beginning from the 1980s, truffle plantations are compensating for some of the decline in wild truffles, and exist in various countries including France, Italy, Spain and Australia. About 80% of the truffles now produced in France come from specially planted truffle groves. Investments in cultivated plantations are underway in many parts of the world using controlled irrigation for regular and resilient production.

A critical phase of the cultivation is the quality control of the mycorrhizal plants. Between 7 and 10 years are needed for the truffles to develop their mycorrhizal network, and only after that do the host plants come into production. Complete soil analysis to avoid contamination by other dominant fungi and very strict control of the formation of mycorrhizae are necessary to ensure the success of a plantation. Total investment per hectare for an irrigated and barrier-sealed plantation (against wild boars) can cost up to €10,000. Considering the level of initial investment and the maturity delay, farmers who have not taken care of both soil conditions and seedling conditions are at high risk of failure.

New Zealand and Australia
The first black truffles (Tuber melanosporum) to be produced in the Southern Hemisphere were harvested in Gisborne, New Zealand in 1993.

New Zealand's first burgundy truffle was found in July 2012 at a Waipara truffle farm. It weighed 330 g and was found by the farm owner's beagle.

In 1999, the first Australian truffles were harvested in Tasmania, the result of eight years of work. Trees were inoculated with the truffle fungus to create a local truffle industry. Their success and the value of the resulting truffles has encouraged a small industry to develop.

Truffle production has expanded into the colder regions of Victoria, New South Wales and Western Australia. In 2014, over 5000 kg of truffles were harvested by Truffle Hill, Manjimup, Western Australia.

In June 2014, a grower harvested Australia's largest truffle from their property at Robertson, in the Southern Highlands of New South Wales. It was a French black périgord fungus weighing in at 1.1172 kg and was valued at over $2,000 per kilogram.

United States
Périgord truffles were first farmed in Tennessee in 2007. At its peak in the 2008–2009 season, one farm produced about 200 pounds of truffles, but Eastern filbert blight almost entirely wiped out the hazel trees by 2013 and production dropped, essentially ending the business. Eastern filbert blight similarly destroyed the orchards of other once-promising commercial farms in East Tennessee, while newer farms in California, North Carolina, Oregon, and Arkansas were started. , the Appalachian truffle (Tuber canaliculatum) was being developed as a potential market.

Uses

Because of their high price and their strong aroma, truffles are used sparingly. Supplies can be found commercially as unadulterated fresh produce or preserved, typically in a light brine.

Their chemical compounds infuse well with fats such as butter, cream, cheeses, avocados, and coconut cream.

As the volatile aromas dissipate quicker when heated, truffles are generally served raw and shaved over warm, simple foods where their flavour will be highlighted, such as buttered pasta or eggs. Thin truffle slices may be inserted into meats, under the skins of roasted fowl, in foie gras preparations, in pâtés, or in stuffings. Some speciality cheeses contain truffles, as well. Truffles are also used for producing truffle salt and truffle honey.

While chefs once peeled truffles, in modern times, most restaurants brush the truffle carefully and shave it or dice it with the skin on to make the most of the valuable ingredient. Some restaurants stamp out circular discs of truffle flesh and use the skins for sauces.

Oil
Truffle oil is used as a lower-cost and convenient substitute for truffles, to provide flavouring, or to enhance the flavour and aroma of truffles in cooking. Some products called "truffle oils" contain no truffles or include pieces of inexpensive, unprized truffle varietals, which have no culinary value, simply for show. The vast majority is oil that has been artificially flavoured using a synthetic agent such as 2,4-dithiapentane.

The scientific name is included on the ingredient list of truffle oils infused with natural truffles.

Vodka
Because more aromatic molecules in truffles are soluble in alcohol, they can carry a more complex and accurate truffle flavour than oil without synthetic flavourings. Many commercial producers use 2,4-dithiapentane regardless, as it has become the dominant flavour most consumers, unexposed to fresh truffles but familiar with oils, associate with them. Because most Western nations do not have ingredient labelling requirements for spirits, consumers often do not know if artificial flavourings have been used. It is used as a spirit in its own right, a cocktail mix or a food flavouring.

Antiquity
The first mention of truffles appears in the inscriptions of the neo-Sumerians regarding their Amorite enemy's eating habits (Third Dynasty of Ur, 2nd century BCE) and later in writings of Theophrastus in the 4th century BCE. In classical times, their origins were a mystery that challenged many; Plutarch and others thought them to be the result of lightning, warmth, and water in the soil, while Juvenal thought thunder and rain to be instrumental in their origin. Cicero deemed them children of the earth, while Dioscorides thought they were tuberous roots.

Rome and Thracia in the Classical period identified three kinds of truffles: Tuber melanosporum, T. magnificus, and T. magnatum. The Romans instead used a variety of fungus called terfez, also sometimes called a "desert truffle". Terfez used in Rome came from Lesbos, Carthage, and especially Libya, where the coastal climate was less dry in ancient times. Their substance is pale, tinged with rose. Unlike truffles, terfez have little inherent flavour. The Romans used the terfez as a flavour carrier because the terfez tends to absorb surrounding flavours. Because Ancient Roman cuisine used many spices and flavourings, the terfez may have been appropriate in that context.

Middle Ages
Truffles were rarely used during the Middle Ages. Truffle hunting is mentioned by Bartolomeo Platina, the papal historian, in 1481, when he recorded that the sows of Notza were without equal in hunting truffles, but they should be muzzled to prevent them from eating the prize.

Renaissance and modernity
During the Renaissance, truffles regained popularity in Europe and were honoured at the court of King Francis I of France. They were popular in Parisian markets in the 1780s, imported seasonally from truffle grounds, where peasants had long enjoyed them. Brillat-Savarin (1825) noted that they were so expensive they appeared only at the dinner tables of great nobles and kept women. They were sometimes served with turkey.

title: Truffle


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Yasunari Kawabata

Yasunari Kawabata was a Japanese novelist and short story writer whose spare, lyrical, subtly-shaded prose works won him the 1968 Nobel Prize in Literature, the first Japanese author to receive the award. His works have enjoyed broad international appeal and are still widely read.

Early life
Born into a well-established family in Osaka, Japan, Kawabata was orphaned by the time he was four, after which he lived with his grandparents. He had an older sister who was taken in by an aunt, and whom he met only once thereafter, in July 1909, when he was ten. She died when Kawabata was 11. Kawabata's grandmother died in September 1906, when he was seven, and his grandfather in May 1914, when he was fifteen.

Having lost all close paternal relatives, Kawabata moved in with his mother's family, the Kurodas. However, in January 1916, he moved into a boarding house near the junior high school (comparable to a modern high school) to which he had formerly commuted by train. After graduating in March 1917, Kawabata moved to Tokyo just before his 18th birthday. He hoped to pass the exams for Dai-ichi Kōtō-gakkō (First Upper School), which was under the direction of the Tokyo Imperial University. He succeeded in the exam the same year and entered the Humanities Faculty as an English major in July 1920. The young Kawabata, by this time, was enamoured of the works of another Asian Nobel laureate, Rabindranath Tagore.

One of Kawabata's painful love episodes was with Hatsuyo Itō (伊藤初代, 1906–1951), whom he met when he was 20 years old. They were engaged to be married in 1921, but only one month later Hatsuyo broke off the engagement for unclear reasons. Kawabata never completely recovered from the blow of losing her. Hatsuyo may have been the inspiration for some of his works, including the novella The Dancing Girl of Izu and several Palm-of-the-Hand Stories. She died following complications from a stroke in 1951, aged 44, but Kawabata was not informed of her death until 1955. An unsent love letter to her was found at his former residence in Kamakura, Kanagawa Prefecture, in 2014.

While still a university student, Kawabata re-established the Tokyo University literary magazine Shin-shichō (New Tide of Thought), which had been defunct for more than four years. There he published his first short story, "Shokonsai ikkei" ("A View from Yasukuni Festival") in 1921. During university, he changed faculties to Japanese literature and wrote a graduation thesis titled "A short history of Japanese novels". He graduated from university in March 1924, by which time he had already caught the attention of Kikuchi Kan and other noted writers and editors through his submissions to Kikuchi's literary magazine, the Bungei Shunju.

New writing movement
In October 1924, Kawabata, Riichi Yokomitsu and other young writers started a new literary journal Bungei Jidai (The Artistic Age). This journal was a reaction to the entrenched old school of Japanese literature, specifically the Japanese movement descended from Naturalism, while it also stood in opposition to the "workers'" or proletarian literature movement of the Socialist/Communist schools. It was an "art for art's sake" movement, influenced by European Cubism, Expressionism, Dada, and other modernist styles. The term Shinkankakuha, which Kawabata and Yokomitsu used to describe their philosophy, has often been mistakenly translated into English as "Neo-Impressionism". However, Shinkankakuha was not meant to be an updated or restored version of Impressionism; it focused on offering "new impressions" or, more accurately, "new sensations" or "new perceptions" in the writing of literature. An early example from this period is the draft of Hoshi wo nusunda chichi (The Father who stole a Star), an adaption of Ferenc Molnár's play Liliom.

Career
Kawabata started to achieve recognition for a number of his short stories shortly after he graduated, receiving acclaim for "The Dancing Girl of Izu" in 1926, a story about a melancholy student who, on a walking trip down Izu Peninsula, meets a young dancer, and returns to Tokyo in much improved spirits. The work explores the dawning eroticism of young love but includes shades of melancholy and even bitterness, which offset what might have otherwise been an overly sweet story. Most of his subsequent works explored similar themes.

In the 1920s, Kawabata was living in the plebeian district of Asakusa, Tokyo. During this period, Kawabata experimented with different styles of writing. In Asakusa kurenaidan (The Scarlet Gang of Asakusa), serialized from 1929 to 1930, he explores the lives of the demimonde and others on the fringe of society, in a style echoing that of late Edo period literature. On the other hand, his Suisho genso (Crystal Fantasy) is pure stream-of-consciousness writing. He was even involved in writing the script for the experimental film A Page of Madness.

Kawabata met his wife Hideko (née Matsubayashi) in 1925, and they registered their marriage on 2 December 1931.

In 1933, Kawabata protested publicly against the arrest, torture and death of the young leftist writer Takiji Kobayashi in Tokyo by the Tokkō special political police.

Kawabata relocated from Asakusa to Kamakura, Kanagawa Prefecture, in 1934 and, although he initially enjoyed a very active social life among the many other writers and literary people residing in that city during the war years and immediately thereafter, in his later years he became very reclusive.

One of his most famous novels was Snow Country, started in 1934 and first published in installments from 1935 through 1937. Snow Country is a stark tale of a love affair between a Tokyo dilettante and a provincial geisha, which takes place in a remote hot-spring town somewhere in the mountainous regions of northern Japan. It established Kawabata as one of Japan's foremost authors and became an instant classic, described by Edward G. Seidensticker as "perhaps Kawabata's masterpiece".

After the end of World War II, Kawabata's success continued with novels such as Thousand Cranes (a story of ill-fated love), The Sound of the Mountain, The House of the Sleeping Beauties, Beauty and Sadness, and The Old Capital.

Thousand Cranes (serialized 1949-1951) is centered on the Japanese tea ceremony and hopeless love. The protagonist is attracted to the mistress of his dead father and, after her death, to her daughter, who flees from him. The tea ceremony provides a beautiful background for ugly human affairs, but Kawabata's intent is rather to explore feelings about death. The tea ceremony utensils are permanent and forever, whereas people are frail and fleeting. These themes of impossible love and impending death are again explored in The Sound of the Mountain (serialized 1949-1954), set in Kawabata's adopted home of Kamakura. The protagonist, an aging man, has become disappointed with his children and no longer feels strong passion for his wife. He is strongly attracted to someone forbidden – his daughter-in-law – and his thoughts for her are interspersed with memories of another forbidden love, for his dead sister-in-law.

The book that Kawabata himself considered his finest work, The Master of Go (1951), contrasts sharply with his other works. It is a semi-fictional recounting of a major Go match in 1938, on which he had actually reported for the Mainichi newspaper chain. It was the last game of master Shūsai's career and he lost to his younger challenger, Minoru Kitani, only to die a little over a year later. Although the novel is moving on the surface as a retelling of a climactic struggle, some readers consider it a symbolic parallel to the defeat of Japan in World War II.

Through many of Kawabata's works the sense of distance in his life is represented. He often gives the impression that his characters have built up a wall around them that moves them into isolation. In a 1934 published work Kawabata wrote: "I feel as though I have never held a woman's hand in a romantic sense [...] Am I a happy man deserving of pity?”. Indeed, this does not have to be taken literally, but it does show the type of emotional insecurity that Kawabata felt, especially experiencing two painful love affairs at a young age.

Kawabata left many of his stories apparently unfinished, sometimes to the annoyance of readers and reviewers, but this goes hand to hand with his aesthetics of art for art's sake, leaving outside any sentimentalism, or morality, that an ending would give to any book. This was done intentionally, as Kawabata felt that vignettes of incidents along the way were far more important than conclusions. He equated his form of writing with the traditional poetry of Japan, the haiku.

In addition to fictional writing, Kawabata also worked as a reporter, most notably for the Mainichi Shimbun. Although he refused to participate in the militaristic fervor that accompanied World War II, he also demonstrated little interest in postwar political reforms. Along with the death of all his family members while he was young, Kawabata suggested that the war was one of the greatest influences on his work, stating he would be able to write only elegies in postwar Japan. Still, many commentators detect little thematic change between Kawabata's prewar and postwar writings.

Awards
As the president of Japanese P.E.N. for many years after the war (1948–1965), Kawabata was a driving force behind the translation of Japanese literature into English and other Western languages. He was appointed an Officer of the Order of Arts and Letters of France in 1960, and awarded Japan's Order of Culture the following year. In 1969, Kawabata was awarded an honorary doctorate by the University of Hawaiʻi.

Nobel Prize
Kawabata was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature on 16 October 1968, the first Japanese person to receive such a distinction. In awarding the prize "for his narrative mastery, which with great sensibility expresses the essence of the Japanese mind", the Nobel Committee cited three of his novels, Snow Country, Thousand Cranes, and The Old Capital.

Kawabata's Nobel Lecture was titled "Japan, The Beautiful and Myself" (美しい日本の私―その序説). Zen Buddhism was a key focal point of the speech; much was devoted to practitioners and the general practices of Zen Buddhism and how it differed from other types of Buddhism. He presented a severe picture of Zen Buddhism, where disciples can enter salvation only through their efforts, where they are isolated for several hours at a time, and how from this isolation there can come beauty. He noted that Zen practices focus on simplicity and it is this simplicity that proves to be the beauty. "The heart of the ink painting is in space, abbreviation, what is left undrawn." From painting he moved on to talk about ikebana and bonsai as art forms that emphasize the elegance and beauty that arises from the simplicity. "The Japanese garden, too, of course symbolizes the vastness of nature."

In addition to the numerous mentions of Zen and nature, one topic that was briefly mentioned in Kawabata's lecture was that of suicide. Kawabata reminisced of other famous Japanese authors who committed suicide, in particular Ryūnosuke Akutagawa. He contradicted the custom of suicide as being a form of enlightenment, mentioning the priest Ikkyū, who also thought of suicide twice. He quoted Ikkyū, "Among those who give thoughts to things, is there one who does not think of suicide?" There was much speculation about this quote being a clue to Kawabata's suicide in 1972, a year and a half after Mishima had committed suicide.

Death
Kawabata apparently committed suicide in 1972 by gassing himself, but several close associates and friends, including his widow, consider his death to have been accidental. One thesis, as advanced by Donald Richie, was that he mistakenly unplugged the gas tap while preparing a bath. Many theories have been advanced as to his potential reasons for killing himself, among them poor health (the discovery he had Parkinson's disease), a possible illicit love affair, or the shock caused by the suicide of his friend Yukio Mishima in 1970. Unlike Mishima, Kawabata left no note, and since (again unlike Mishima) he had not discussed significantly in his writings the topic of taking his own life, his motives remain unclear. However, his Japanese biographer, Takeo Okuno, has related how he had nightmares about Mishima for two or three hundred nights in a row, and was incessantly haunted by the specter of Mishima. In a persistently depressed state of mind, he would tell friends during his last years that sometimes, when on a journey, he hoped his plane would crash.

Selected works
Kawabata's works have been translated into languages such as English, French, German, and Turkish, Korean.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Yasunari Kawabata


text:
WX

WX may refer to:

Computing

 * wxWidgets, a GUI widget toolkit
 * Windows 10, a Microsoft operating system
 * WeChat, a Chinese social app

Other uses

 * WX notation, for Indian languages
 * Weather (WX in Morse code shorthand)
 * WX01 - WX10, NOAA Weather Radio channels
 * County Wexford, Ireland (WX on vehicle plates)
 * CityJet, an Irish airline (IATA code: WX)

title: WX


text:
To the Extreme

To the Extreme is the major label debut studio album of American rapper Vanilla Ice released on September 10, 1990 by SBK and EMI. Recorded between 1989–90, it contains Vanilla Ice's most successful single, "Ice Ice Baby". It primarily contains hip hop and pop rap tracks produced by Earthquake, Kim Sharp, Khayree, and Darryl Williams.

Following the release of an early version of the album titled Hooked by Ichiban Records, Ice was signed by SBK for $325,000 and the mixtape was re-recorded and repackaged. It was supported by the release of three official singles: "Ice Ice Baby", "Play That Funky Music" and "I Love You".

The album was met with lukewarm reviews, with some critics praising Ice's abilities and showmanship, and others the simplistic lyrics and comparisons with fellow rapper MC Hammer. The album sparked controversy due to the unlicensed samples included on the album, including "Under Pressure" by David Bowie and Queen that was later settled out of court.

Despite this, To the Extreme appeared at the top of the US Billboard 200 albums chart for sixteen consecutive weeks and was certified seven times platinum by RIAA. The lead single "Ice Ice Baby" was the first rap single to top the Billboard Hot 100. The album was certified platinum in Canada, Australia and United Kingdom selling over 15 million copies in total. Ice was selected as the opening act of MC Hammer's 1990 tour, and later embarked on his To the Extreme World Tour, performing in North America, Europe, Malaysia, Singapore, Australia and Japan in 1991, and in Latin America in 1992.

History
In early 1990, Vanilla Ice released an early version of To the Extreme under the title Hooked on the independent label Ichiban Records. "Play That Funky Music" was released as the album's first single, with "Ice Ice Baby" appearing as the B-side. The 12-inch single featured the radio, instrumental and a cappella versions of "Play That Funky Music" and the radio version and "Miami Drop" remix of "Ice Ice Baby". When a disc jockey played "Ice Ice Baby" instead of the single's A-side, the song gained more success than "Play That Funky Music". A music video for "Ice Ice Baby" was produced for $8,000. The video was financed by Vanilla Ice's manager, Tommy Quon, and shot on the roof of a warehouse in Dallas, Texas.

In 1990, Vanilla Ice signed to SBK Records, who reissued Hooked under the title To the Extreme. The reissue contained new artwork and music. "Ice Ice Baby" was given its own single, released in 1990 by SBK in the United States, and EMI Records in the United Kingdom. The SBK single contained the "Miami Drop", instrumental and radio mixes of "Ice Ice Baby" and the album version of "It's A Party". The EMI single contained the club and radio mixes of the song, and the shortened radio edit.

Music
Vanilla Ice wrote "Ice Ice Baby" at the age of 16, basing its lyrics upon the South Florida area in which he was raised. The lyrics describe a drive-by shooting and Vanilla Ice's rhyming skills. The chorus of "Ice Ice Baby" originates from the signature chant of the national African American fraternity Alpha Phi Alpha. The song's hook samples the bassline of the 1981 song "Under Pressure" by Queen and David Bowie. Freddie Mercury and David Bowie did not receive credit or royalties for the sample. In a 1990 interview, Vanilla Ice joked the two melodies were slightly different because he had added an additional note. Vanilla Ice later paid Mercury and Bowie, who have since been given songwriting credit for the sample. However, he ended up purchasing the rights to the song, because it was cheaper than licensing the sample.

The stylistic origins of "Rosta Man" are based upon reggae toasting.

Critical reception
Entertainment Weekly reviewer Dom Lombardo gave the album a B, calling the album "so consistent in its borrowings that it could be a parody, if it weren't for its total absence of wit", but concluding that "if there's about a two-to-one ratio of winners [...] to clunkers, that's not the worst track record for a debut album." Udovitch cited "Ice Ice Baby", "Play That Funky Music", "Dancin'" and "It's a Party" as the album's highlights. Robert Christgau gave the album a C− rating, writing that Vanilla Ice's "suave sexism, fashionably male supremacist rather than dangerously obscene, is no worse than his suave beats". Stephen Dalton from NME wrote, "To the Extreme is the highly competent debut from a major pop talent. Listen without prejudice." Select stated that the album "packs in just about every musical and lyrical code of rap, yet still says nothing" and that "Kids and neophytes have a right to love it, but grown-ups will find Vanilla Ice spectacularly hollow."

AllMusic reviewer Steve Huey wrote that "Ice's mic technique is actually stronger and more nimble than MC Hammer's, and he really tries earnestly to show off the skills he does have. Unfortunately, even if he can keep a mid-tempo pace, his flow is rhythmically stiff, and his voice has an odd timbre; plus, he never seems sure of the proper accent to adopt. He's able to overcome those flaws somewhat in isolated moments, but they become all too apparent over the course of an entire album."

After audiences began to view Vanilla Ice as a novelty act, his popularity began to decline. He would later regain some success, attracting a new audience outside of the mainstream audience that had formerly accepted him, and then rejected him.

Commercial performance
To the Extreme was released in the US on September 10, 1990. On the issue of October 31, 1990 the album jumped from 23 to 7 on the US Billboard 200 selling over two million copies in its first five weeks of being released. The album reached the number one spot on the week of November 10, 1990 ending a 23-week run by M.C. Hammer's Please Hammer Don't Hurt 'Em and it stayed at the top for sixteen consecutive weeks. At the time, To the Extreme was named the fastest debut album of all time selling over 6 million on 14 weeks. In the same month, was certified gold, platinum, double-platinum, triple-platinum and quadruple-platinum in the next day, becoming one of the fastest-certified albums in history.

By January 1991, it was the fastest selling album since Purple Rain (1984) reaching six million copies sold in just three months and four days. Eventually, seven million copies were shipped across the United States.

By March 1991, the album was closing in on 10.5 million units worldwide, just six months of been released. To the Extreme was the best selling hip hop album up until that time. "Ice Ice Baby" has been credited for helping diversify hip hop by introducing it to a mainstream, white audience.

In Canada, the album peaked at the number one and was certified 6 times platinum and won the Best Selling Album by a Foreign Artist at To the Extreme at the 1992 June Awards.

Track listing
The first version was released in 1989 by the independent record label Ichiban Records under the title Hooked. Vanilla Ice eventually signed to SBK Records, who reissued the album under its current name, To the Extreme, with some differences in the track list. To the Extreme contains all tracks from Hooked except for "Satisfaction", and six extra tracks: "Yo Vanilla", "Stop That Train", "Ice Is Workin' It", "Life Is a Fantasy" and "Juice to Get Loose Boy". "Havin' a Roni" was a hidden track on Hooked.

Personnel
The following people contributed on To the Extreme:
 * Vanilla Ice – vocals, lyrics, producer

Additional musicians

 * Paul Loomis – keyboards, producer, engineer, keyboard bass
 * Craig Pride – vocals

Technical personnel

 * Deshay – overdubs, beats
 * George Anderson – engineer
 * Tim Kimsey – engineer
 * Tommy Quon – executive producer
 * Kim Sharp – producer
 * Stacy Brownrigg - Engineer
 * Gary Wooten – engineer
 * Henry Falco – engineer
 * Khayree – producer
 * Janet Perr – art direction, design
 * Michael Lavine – photography
 * Darryl Williams – producer
 * Michael Sarsfield – engineer
 * David DeBerry – producer, bass, keys, programming, writer

title: To the Extreme


text:
CW

CW may stand for:

Science and technology

 * centiwatt (cW), one hundredth of a watt
 * Cω, a programming language
 * CW complex, a type of topological space
 * Carrier wave, in radio communications
 * CodeWarrior, an integrated development environment by Metrowerks
 * Constructed wetland, a man-made wetland to treat wastewater
 * Continuous wave, a method of radio transmission (telegraphy) that carries Morse code, and a microwave theory
 * ClarisWorks, an office suite now known as AppleWorks
 * Drag coefficient, a measure of air resistance commonly denoted $$\mathbf c_\mathrm w\,$$
 * Contention Window, a network traffic technique
 * chemical formula of tungsten carbide

Gaming

 * Castle Wolfenstein, a 1981 video game
 * Cube World, a video game

Publications

 * Computerworld, an information technology magazine
 * The Crimson White, a student-run newspaper of the University of Alabama

Other media

 * The CW, an American television network/programming service
 * The CW Plus, a national feed of the network
 * Creative writing, any writing that goes outside the bounds of normal professional, journalistic, academic, or technical forms of literature
 * CloverWorks, a Japanese animation studio

Companies

 * Cable & Wireless plc, a British telecommunications company
 * Camping World, an outdoor equipment retailer
 * Colonial Williamsburg
 * Curtiss-Wright, an engineering company (NYSE: CW)

Military

 * Chemical warfare, using the toxic properties of chemical substances as weapons
 * Chemical weapon, munition that uses chemicals formulated to inflict death or harm on humans
 * Chief warrant officer (when followed by a numerical designation of rank), an officer in a military organisation who is designated an officer by a warrant
 * Cold War, a state of geopolitical tension following World War II

Places

 * CW postcode area around Crewe, England
 * Canada West, an obsolete designation for the western part of Canada
 * Canada's Wonderland, an amusement park in Vaughan, Ontario, Canada
 * Cook Islands (FIPS Pub 10-4 and obsolete NATO designation), a self-governing island country in the South Pacific Ocean
 * County Carlow, in Ireland
 * Curaçao (ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code CW), a Lesser Antilles island in the southern Caribbean Sea and the Dutch Caribbean region
 * Calw, a city in southern Germany

Other uses

 * Air Marshall Islands (IATA code CW), an airline based in Majuro, in the Marshall Islands
 * Calendar week
 * Christian Worship: A Lutheran Hymnal, a hymnal used by the WELS
 * Clockwise, motion that proceeds in the same direction as a clock's hands
 * Common Worship, a liturgy of the Church of England
 * Conventional wisdom, a description of ideas that are generally accepted as true
 * Cruiserweight (boxing), a weight class in professional boxing between light heavyweight and heavyweight
 * Content warning
 * Culture war
 * C. W. Anderson (born 1970), professional wrestler
 * A suffix for the cool-white halophoshate fluorescent lamp phosphor. See here: Fluorescent-Lamp Formats

title: CW


text:
Talk:History of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan

The Islamic Republic of Afghanistan is not the same as the Islamic State of Afghanistan, is it? --Jiang


text:
Continuous wave

A continuous wave or continuous waveform (CW) is an electromagnetic wave of constant amplitude and frequency, typically a sine wave, that for mathematical analysis is considered to be of infinite duration. It may refer to e.g. a laser or particle accelerator having a continuous output, as opposed to a pulsed output.

By extension, the term continuous wave also refers to an early method of radio transmission in which a sinusoidal carrier wave is switched on and off. This is more precisely called interrupted continuous wave (ICW). Information is carried in the varying duration of the on and off periods of the signal, for example by Morse code in early radio. In early wireless telegraphy radio transmission, CW waves were also known as "undamped waves", to distinguish this method from damped wave signals produced by earlier spark gap type transmitters.

Transmissions before CW
Very early radio transmitters used a spark gap to produce radio-frequency oscillations in the transmitting antenna. The signals produced by these spark-gap transmitters consisted of strings of brief pulses of sinusoidal radio frequency oscillations which died out rapidly to zero, called damped waves. The disadvantage of damped waves was that their energy was spread over an extremely wide band of frequencies; they had wide bandwidth. As a result, they produced electromagnetic interference (RFI) that spread over the transmissions of stations at other frequencies.

This motivated efforts to produce radio frequency oscillations that decayed more slowly; had less damping. There is an inverse relation between the rate of decay (the time constant) of a damped wave and its bandwidth; the longer the damped waves take to decay toward zero, the narrower the frequency band the radio signal occupies, so the less it interferes with other transmissions. As more transmitters began crowding the radio spectrum, reducing the frequency spacing between transmissions, government regulations began to limit the maximum damping or "decrement" a radio transmitter could have. Manufacturers produced spark transmitters which generated long "ringing" waves with minimal damping.

Transition to CW
It was realized that the ideal radio wave for radiotelegraphic communication would be a sine wave with zero damping, a continuous wave. An unbroken continuous sine wave theoretically has no bandwidth; all its energy is concentrated at a single frequency, so it doesn't interfere with transmissions on other frequencies. Continuous waves could not be produced with an electric spark, but were achieved with the vacuum tube electronic oscillator, invented around 1913 by Edwin Armstrong and Alexander Meissner. After World War I, transmitters capable of producing continuous wave, the Alexanderson alternator and vacuum tube oscillators, became widely available.

Damped wave spark transmitters were replaced by continuous wave vacuum tube transmitters around 1920, and damped wave transmissions were finally outlawed in 1934.

Key clicks
In order to transmit information, the continuous wave must be turned off and on with a telegraph key to produce the different length pulses, "dots" and "dashes", that spell out text messages in Morse code, so a "continuous wave" radiotelegraphy signal consists of pulses of sine waves with a constant amplitude interspersed with gaps of no signal.

In on-off carrier keying, if the carrier wave is turned on or off abruptly, communications theory can show that the bandwidth will be large; if the carrier turns on and off more gradually, the bandwidth will be smaller. The bandwidth of an on-off keyed signal is related to the data transmission rate as: $$ B_n = B K $$ where $$B_n$$ is the necessary bandwidth in hertz, $$B $$ is the keying rate in signal changes per second (baud rate), and $$ K $$ is a constant related to the expected radio propagation conditions; K=1 is difficult for a human ear to decode, K=3 or K=5 is used when fading or multipath propagation is expected.

The spurious noise emitted by a transmitter which abruptly switches a carrier on and off is called key clicks. The noise occurs in the part of the signal bandwidth further above and below the carrier than required for normal, less abrupt switching. The solution to the problem for CW is to make the transition between on and off to be more gradual, making the edges of pulses soft, appearing more rounded, or to use other modulation methods (e.g. phase modulation). Certain types of power amplifiers used in transmission may aggravate the effect of key clicks.

Persistence of radio telegraphy
Early radio transmitters could not be modulated to transmit speech, and so CW radio telegraphy was the only form of communication available. CW still remains a viable form of radio communication many years after voice transmission was perfected, because simple, robust transmitters can be used, and because its signals are the simplest of the forms of modulation able to penetrate interference. The low bandwidth of the code signal, due in part to low information transmission rate, allows very selective filters to be used in the receiver, which block out much of the radio noise that would otherwise reduce the intelligibility of the signal.

Continuous-wave radio was called radiotelegraphy because like the telegraph, it worked by means of a simple switch to transmit Morse code. However, instead of controlling the electricity in a cross-country wire, the switch controlled the power sent to a radio transmitter. This mode is still in common use by amateur radio operators due to its narrow bandwidth and high signal-to-noise ratio compared to other modes of communication.

In military communications and amateur radio the terms "CW" and "Morse code" are often used interchangeably, despite the distinctions between the two. Aside from radio signals, Morse code may be sent using direct current in wires, sound, or light, for example. For radio signals, a carrier wave is keyed on and off to represent the dots and dashes of the code elements. The carrier's amplitude and frequency remain constant during each code element. At the receiver, the received signal is mixed with a heterodyne signal from a BFO (beat frequency oscillator) to change the radio frequency impulses to sound. Almost all commercial traffic has now ceased operation using Morse, but it is still used by amateur radio operators. Non-directional beacons (NDB) and VHF omnidirectional radio range (VOR) used in air navigation use Morse to transmit their identifier.

Radar
Morse code is all but extinct outside the amateur service, so in non-amateur contexts the term CW usually refers to a continuous-wave radar system, as opposed to one transmitting short pulses. Some monostatic (single antenna) CW radars transmit and receive a single (non-swept) frequency, often using the transmitted signal as the local oscillator for the return; examples include police speed radars and microwave-type motion detectors and automatic door openers. This type of radar is effectively "blinded" by its own transmitted signal to stationary targets; they must move toward or away from the radar quickly enough to create a Doppler shift sufficient to allow the radar to isolate the outbound and return signal frequencies. This kind of CW radar can measure range rate but not range (distance).

Other CW radars linearly or pseudo-randomly "chirp" (frequency modulate) their transmitters rapidly enough to avoid self-interference with returns from objects beyond some minimum distance; this kind of radar can detect and range static targets. This approach is commonly used in radar altimeters, in meteorology and in oceanic and atmospheric research. The landing radar on the Apollo Lunar Module combined both CW radar types.

CW bistatic radars use physically separate transmit and receive antennas to lessen the self-interference problems inherent in monostatic CW radars.

Laser physics
In laser physics and engineering, "continuous wave" or "CW" refers to a laser that produces a continuous output beam, sometimes referred to as "free-running," as opposed to a q-switched, gain-switched or modelocked laser, which has a pulsed output beam.

The continuous wave semiconductor laser was invented by Japanese physicist Izuo Hayashi in 1970. It led directly to the light sources in fiber-optic communication, laser printers, barcode readers, and optical disc drives, commercialized by Japanese entrepreneurs, and opened up the field of optical communication, playing an important role in future communication networks. Optical communication in turn provided the hardware basis for internet technology, laying the foundations for the Digital Revolution and Information Age.

title: Continuous wave


text:
Talk:Falange Española de las JONS

Symbolism And The Five Arrows
"Symbols Yoke and arrows, the symbol of the Catholic Monarchs." Actually the 5 Arrows are the symbol of the 5 Rothschild brothers. The meaning of the 5 Arrows explained at the Rothschild barons' website:

"In acknowledgement of their dynamic services, the Rothschilds were knighted by Emperor Franz I of Austria in September 1822. They and all their descendants were raised to the title of Baron. They adopted a coat of arms displaying 5 inter-connected arrows in tribute to a legend Mayer Amschel, the founder of the Rothschild dynasty, used to tell his five sons: “Taken one by one, the five arrows are easy to break. Taken together, they are resistant. Always remain united”." 83.84.100.133 (talk) 12:51, 19 February 2019 (UTC)

https://www.champagne-bdr.com/en/250-years-of-history/

Role of the Church
Could someone provide more information about the role of the Catholic Church in this group? Other entries for fascist groups make it clear how closely they worked together. --192.223.243.6 (talk) 18:37, 30 November 2012 (UTC)
 * Concur. On a larger scale, this article needs a description of their political platform. 155.213.224.59 (talk) 19:08, 6 April 2015 (UTC)

FET y de las JONS
Modified name of movement to track Spanish language entry for the Party, see http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falange_Espa%C3%B1ola_Tradicionalista_y_de_las_Juntas_de_Ofensiva_Nacional_Sindicalista — Preceding unsigned comment added by 198.103.104.11 (talk) 14:26, 31 July 2014 (UTC)

Ceased to be fascist?
"After the party was coopted by Francisco Franco and consolidated with the Carlists, it ceased to have a fascist character (to the extent Fascism is considered revolutionary) inasmuch as Franco was a Monarchist, although it retained many of the external trappings of Fascism"

Dear Dear wikipedists, what an eclectic and clever apology for Franco's dictatorial rule — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2601:7:8500:982:C4B8:E66B:E68A:9D29 (talk) 22:50, 27 October 2014 (UTC)

 * It is widely recognized as being an authoritarian conservative nationalist movement under the leadership of Franco that while emulating fascism to appeal for support from fascists in Spain and abroad in the 1930s and 1940s, did not have the radical transformative goals of fascism. The Falange is recognized as fascist during Primo de Rivera's leadership. Franco took control of the party and turned it into a Nationalist version of the Republicans' Popular Front movement, incorporating conservative, clerical, and monarchist parties into the Falange. This is not an "apology" for Franco, it is what most scholars regard his regime as, that accusation is slandering editors being apologist is not following the Wikipedia policy of assuming good faith from editors. Please be more constructive with your criticisms.--74.12.195.73 (talk) 17:15, 16 April 2015 (UTC)

Title change, violation of WP:COMMON NAME
The previous title of the article that was simply "Falange" represented WP:COMMON NAME, the current name does not represent WP:COMMON NAME, and is one of several Spanish variations of the title - this one in partial short form, another in long form, and the third in full short form (FE y de las JONS). The current title is not the common name and there has been no justification given why the previous title "Falange" is inappropriate for this article. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 70.55.9.248 (talk • contribs) 06:55, 1 February 2015

Page name move
Why was the page moved without discussion? Ogress smash! 02:13, 26 July 2015 (UTC)

 * There should be three articles:
 * Falange Española, currently redirects here
 * Falange Española de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional Sindicalista, currently Falange Española y de las JONS, which is incorrect
 * Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional Sindicalista
 * The title Falange ought to redirect to one of these; currently it redirects to the last. We also have Falangism, which is a possible rediret target. Srnec (talk) 17:33, 21 August 2015 (UTC)

Hello The name is more commonly left in its Spanish original form rather than using an English translation, even in English-language literature. Taking google books as an indicator, I get 12 hits for "Spanish Falange of the JONS" vs. nearly 40 English-language hits for "Falange Española de las JONS". If you want to move the article, please make a formal request and let others join in the discussion, weighing the arguments of WP:COMMONNAME and WP:USEENGLISH. Kind regards, --RJFF (talk) 13:25, 6 December 2015 (UTC)
 * No issues. I just moved it thinking the name was wrongly left in its Spanish form, but if it was indeed intended there is no problem. Impru20 (talk) 14:04, 6 December 2015 (UTC)
 * It would be an awkward mix of English and Spanish, as Falange and JONS are Spanish, anyway. A real English translation would be "Spanish Phalanx of the Committees for the National-Syndicalist Offensive" but this is rarely used. In this case, it is more consequent to keep the Spanish name, like the bulk of English-language literature seems to do. --RJFF (talk) 14:14, 6 December 2015 (UTC)

Comment
Which is the purpose of the article "falangism". Is it really written as an article about an ideology? I see nothing but haphazardness aside from the 27 points. Not really useful to convey any core ideology.--Asqueladd (talk) 00:43, 8 February 2020 (UTC)

Falange is not fascist. Change it.
The conception of the state have a lot of difference. Falange is municipalist and want a National-Syndicalist Repúblic of workers. It's anti-capitalist (read the books of José Antonio and Onésimo Redondo) and spanish nationalism, but it's not fascism! Fascism is autoritarian, falangism not. Fascism is from Mussolini, Falange is from José Antonio. Librepensador0808 (talk) 18:35, 25 February 2020 (UTC)
 * I think this is a case of WP:IDONTLIKEIT and WP:SOAPBOXING. I don't know where did you get the crackpot idea that "Falange" wasn't Fascist, at odds with the entire body of academia. Every authoritative scholar recognizes FE de las JONS in the scope of the Fascist momentum of the 1930s. The Fascist character of FE de las JONS is cut and dried as far as the entire corpus of sources go. As you pride yourself to be a librepensador [sic] ("freethinker") with additional "0808" stuff, you can stick to your personal views if that makes you feel better of course, but please don't distort the entry with the nonsense above.--Asqueladd (talk) 19:33, 25 February 2020 (UTC)

"Falange" listed at Redirects for discussion
The redirect [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Falange&redirect=no Falange] has been listed at redirects for discussion to determine whether its use and function meets the redirect guidelines. Readers of this page are welcome to comment on this redirect at  until a consensus is reached. 64.229.90.172 (talk) 17:59, 3 June 2023 (UTC)

The party is not dissolved.
Although the article, in my opinion, it’s correct in all, it is not where it lists the party as dissolved. The party exists and presented a full list of candidates to the 2024 European Parlament election. 38.13.40.108 (talk) 21:33, 12 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Falange Española de las JONS