text:
Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Fund

The Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Fund was an independent grant-giving foundation established in September 1997 after the death of Diana, Princess of Wales, to continue her humanitarian work in the United Kingdom and overseas. It was a registered charity under English law. The Fund closed at the end of 2012.

Establishment and funding
The Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Fund ('the Fund') was established within days of the death of Diana, Princess of Wales, on 31 August 1997, in response to the donations that poured into Kensington Palace. The general public, community groups and companies donated £34 million. £38 million was donated from sales of Elton John and PolyGram's CD of "Candle in the Wind 1997". A further £66 million were subsequently raised through investments, an eight-year programme of commercial partnerships, and proceeds from the exhibition, Diana: A Celebration, donated by Lord Spencer.

Mission and activities
During its fifteen years of operation, the Fund worked to secure sustainable improvements in the lives of the most disadvantaged people in the UK and around the world by giving grants, championing causes and lending the Fund's name and profile to charitable causes.

For its first ten years, 1997–2006, the Fund was largely a criteria-led grantmaker. Grant programmes were devised and developed on an annual basis and were open to any eligible organisation that wished to apply. During this period, the Fund spent over £60 million on helping improve the lives of displaced people, people at the margins of society, survivors of conflict and those who were dying or bereaved.

In 2006, following a consultation with the voluntary sector and a period of strategic review, the Fund decided that it would be most effective if its remaining capital was focused on a time-limited, targeted programme of work. The decision to cease operating within five-to-nine years was announced in 2007 at the launch of a new five-year Strategic Plan. The Strategic Plan set out a number of proactive grantmaking programmes, called Initiatives, which were:

 * The Palliative Care Initiative.
 * The Refugee and Asylum Seekers Initiative.
 * The Partnership Initiative, which in 2009, became two separate Initiatives: The Cluster Munitions Initiative and The Penal Reform Initiative.

Each Initiative set out to create sustainable change in their areas of focus by securing positive improvements in policy, practice and public attitudes. This systems-change approach was adopted both to establish a momentum for long-term social change and to ensure that any positive improvements secured would last for far longer that the Fund's lifetime and continue to help future generations to come.

The Palliative Care Initiative
The Fund set up its Palliative Care Initiative in 2000 to work in seven countries in sub-Saharan Africa – Kenya, Malawi, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe. By 2006, the Fund had awarded 60 grants totaling over £2.5 million to organisations working in palliative care in sub-Saharan Africa. In 2007, as part of the Fund's 2007–2012 Strategic Plan, the Palliative Care Initiative committed to spend up to a further £10 million by 2012. The Palliative Care Initiative focused on:
 * Helping to integrate palliative care into health policies.
 * Working to ensure that palliative care was included as part of medical and nursing courses.
 * Supporting organisations who were able to make more children's palliative care services available.

The Refugee and Asylum Seekers Initiative
Between 1999 and 2007, the Fund awarded over £6 million in grants to approximately 40 organisations for projects supporting young refugees and children and young people seeking asylum. The Fund pledged a further £10 million under its Strategic Plan 2007–2012 to support work aimed at ensuring that refugees and people seeking asylum in the UK are treated fairly, humanely and in accordance with international law. The Refugee and Asylum Seekers Initiative focused on:
 * Supporting advocacy and campaigning activities aimed at improving the lives of all those arriving in the UK to seek protection from persecution.
 * Initiating a collaboration of foundations working to ensure a more balanced public debate on migration and asylum issues.
 * Supporting organisations working with refugee children and young people seeking asylum to help ensure adequate care and protection.
 * Funding work to develop and increase specialised legal representation for children and young people seeking asylum.

The initiative attracted criticism from a number of individuals, including Sir Andrew Green, chairman of MigrationWatch UK, and Norman Tebbit.

The Cluster Munitions Initiative
In 2007, the Fund established the Cluster Munitions Initiative, which was initially the international arm of the Partnership Initiative, in order to build upon its previous support for the campaign against cluster munitions. The Cluster Munitions Initiative focused its resources on three areas of work:
 * Supporting the global campaign to ban cluster bombs.
 * Supporting national campaigns to ban cluster bombs.
 * Supporting the Ban Advocates Initiative – a group of ordinary civilians, all affected by cluster bombs, who came together from around the world to campaign for a worldwide ban.

The Penal Reform Initiative
The Penal Reform Initiative was established under the Fund's 2007–2012 Strategic Plan in order to encourage the use of alternative solutions to imprisonment for two of the most vulnerable groups in custody – women and children and young people.

In 2007, the Fund gave a grant of over £1.5 million to the Prison Reform Trust to run Out of Trouble, a major five-year campaign to reduce the number of children and young people in custody.

Between 1997 and 2007, the women's prison population more than doubled, and, as with children and young people, the vast majority were there for non-violent offences. In 2008, the Fund became a member of the Corston Independent Funders' Coalition (CIFC), a coalition of trusts, foundations and philanthropists set up to transform how disadvantaged women were treated by the criminal justice system.

Closure
In 2006, following a consultation with the voluntary sector and a period of strategic review, the Fund decided that it would be most effective if its remaining capital was focused on a time-limited, targeted programme of work aimed at creating sustainable improvements to the lives of disadvantaged people. The decision to close within five to nine years was announced in 2007 at the launch of a new five-year programme of work under its Strategic Plan 2007–2012.

On 31 December 2012, the Fund closed as a staffed, operational organisation, having successfully completed its programme of work aimed at improving the lives of the most disadvantaged people in the UK and around the world.

As an unincorporated trust, the Fund, as a matter of law, could not altogether cease to exist when it closed its doors on 31 December 2012. This meant that the Fund would automatically continue to receive future donations. The Directors of the Fund's Trustee Company were keen to ensure that if any money was donated to the Fund after its operations had ceased they would not be lost to charity and instead would continue to make a positive difference to people's lives.

In March 2013, The Royal Foundation became the legal owner of the Fund in order to safeguard the Fund's name and any further income donated to the Fund in the future.

In July 2020, it was reported that the money from the memorial fund was divided between Princes William and Harry and given to their independent charities.

Legal issues with Franklin Mint
In 1998, the Fund refused Franklin Mint a licence to produce Diana memorabilia, but the Mint went ahead and produced Diana merchandise anyway. The Fund sued in 2002 and lost the case because in the California courts right of publicity may only be filed on behalf of a dead person who is a Californian. Upon losing the case, the Fund was required to pay the Franklin Mint's legal costs of £3 million which, combined with other fees, caused the Memorial Fund to freeze its grants to charities. The costs to the Fund were nearly £4 million (US$6.5 million). Franklin Mint counter-sued, on grounds of malicious prosecution, claiming exemplary and punitive damages and seeking $14 million. Consequently, the Fund announced in 2003 it was "legally obliged to freeze not only new grants but payment of existing grants". The case was settled out of court in 2004 with the Fund agreeing to pay £13.5 million (US$21.5 million). Franklin Mint stated, "While the precise terms of the agreement are confidential, the goal is to release funds to excellent charitable causes which resonate with the memory of the princess". By agreement with Franklin Mint, the Fund was able to pledge £14m of grants over a period of five years.

title: Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Fund


text:
Cyril Tourneur

Cyril Tourneur (died 28 February 1626) was an English soldier, diplomat and dramatist who wrote The Atheist's Tragedy (published 1611); another (and better-known) play, The Revenger's Tragedy (1607), formerly ascribed to him, is now more generally attributed to Thomas Middleton.

Life
Little is known of Cyril Tourneur's early life. It has been suggested that he was either son of Edward Tournor of Canons, Great Parndon (Essex), or his grandson via Captain Richard Turnor, water-bailiff and subsequently lieutenant-governor of Brill in the Netherlands. However, the literary scholar Allardyce Nicoll concluded "the evidence connecting him with the Turnors of Great Parndon is of the slightest", further observing that he had "discovered not a shred of proof for associating him with any others of the numerous Turner families of this time. Turners, of course, abounded in the late sixteenth century as they abound to-day". Allardyce noted that the alleged connection of Cyril Tourneur with the Great Parndon family is not corroborated by that place's official records. He served in his youth Sir Francis Vere and Sir Edward Cecil. His literary activities seem to be concentrated in the period 1600–1613. In 1613 and 1614 he was employed in military and diplomatic service in the Low Countries. In 1625 he was appointed to be secretary to the council of war for the Cádiz Expedition. This appointment was cancelled, but Tourneur sailed in Cecil's company to Cádiz. On the return voyage from the disastrous expedition, he was put ashore at Kinsale with other sick men and died in Ireland on 28 February 1626.

Writings
A difficult allegorical poem called The Transformed Metamorphosis (1600) is Tourneur's earliest extant work; an elegy on the death of Prince Henry, son of James I of England, is the latest (1613). Tourneur's other non-dramatic works include a prose pamphlet, Laugh and Lie Down (1605), some contributions to Sir Thomas Overbury's Book of Characters and an epicede on Sir Francis Vere. This poem conveys the poet's ideal conception of a perfect knight or happy warrior.

Tourneur's primary dramatic work is The Atheist's Tragedy, or The Honest Man's Revenge which was published in 1611. A case has been made by Johan Gerritsen that Tourneur is the author of the first act of The Honest Man's Fortune (1613), a play from the Beaumont & Fletcher canon usually attributed to John Fletcher, Philip Massinger and Nathan Field. In addition there is a lost play, The Nobleman, and the lost Arraignment of London written with Robert Daborne.

Tourneur's current reputation however rests on The Atheist's Tragedy. It confidently reproduces themes and conventions which are characteristic of medieval morality plays and of Elizabethan memento mori emblems. It uses these conventions in the context of Calvin's Protestant theology. This and Tourneur's other uncontested works, show him to be "a traditional Christian moralist, with a consistent didactic bent." The play recalls Jonson's The Alchemist and Volpone in the character of Languebeau Snuffe, and may also be a response to The Revenge of Bussy D'Amboise.

As regards The Revenger's Tragedy, the play was published anonymously, and was first attributed to Cyril Tourneur by Edward Archer in 1656. The attribution was also made by Francis Kirkman in lists of 1661 and 1671. Critics supporting Tourneur's authorship attribution argued that the tragedy is unlike Middleton's other early dramatic work, and that internal evidence, including some idiosyncrasies of spelling, points to Tourneur. However, the consensus of modern scholarship attributes the play to Middleton, citing stylistic similarities to Middleton's other work and contextual evidence.

Modern stagings of The Atheist's Tragedy remain few and far between.

Works of Tourneur

 * The Atheists Tragedie; or, The Honest Mans Revenge (1611)
 * A Funeral Poeme Upon the Death of the Most Worthie and True Soldier, Sir Francis Vere, Knight.. (1609)
 * A Griefe on the Death of Prince Henrie, Expressed in a Broken Elegie ..., printed with two other poems by John Webster and Thomas Haywood as Three Elegies on the most lamented Death of Prince Henry (1613)
 * The Transformed Metamorphosis (1600), an obscure satire
 * The Nobleman, a lost play entered on the Stationers Register (Feb. 15, 1612) as "A Tragecomedye called The Nobleman written by Cyrill Tourneur", the MS. of which was destroyed by John Warburton's cook
 * Arraignment of London (1613), stated in a letter of that date from Robert Daborne to Philip Henslowe that Daborne had commissioned Cyril Tourneur to write one act of this play.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Cyril Tourneur


text:
Bill Graham

Bill Graham or Billy Graham may refer to:

Arts and entertainment

 * Billy Graham (comics) (1935–1997), American comic book artist
 * Bill Graham (director) (1926–2013), American television and film director
 * Bill Graham (musician) (1918–1975), American jazz saxophonist
 * Bill Graham (promoter) (1931–1991), American music promoter
 * Bill Graham, character in Ann Carver's Profession

Sports

 * Bill Graham (baseball) (1937–2006), American baseball player
 * Billy Graham (American boxer) (1922–1992), American boxer
 * Billy Graham (New Zealand boxer) (born 1947/1948), winner of four New Zealand titles at light welterweight
 * Bill Graham (Canadian football) (1935–2020), Canadian football player for the Hamilton Tiger-Cats
 * "Superstar" Billy Graham (1943–2023), American former professional wrestler
 * Billy Graham (born 1955), trainer of boxer Ricky Hatton
 * Billy Graham (footballer) (1914–1996), English footballer

Others

 * Billy Graham (1918–2018), American evangelist
 * Bill Graham (Australian politician) (1919–1995), Australian politician
 * Bill Graham (author) (1951–1996), Irish rock journalist and author
 * Bill Graham (Canadian politician) (1939–2022), Canadian politician, former foreign minister, former Leader of the Opposition and former interim leader of the Liberal Party of Canada

title: Bill Graham


text:
Talk:Mike Ness

Untitled
This article appears to be virtually wholly written by User:Michael. - Hephaestos 20:43 25 Jul 2003 (UTC)

The page may contain the clue to at least three dead redirects that may be intended to go to "Mainliner (Wreckage From The Past) (1981)". Here they are:
 * Mainliner (The Wreckage Of The Past) : Target of Redirect does not exist, or double-redirect: Mainliner_(The_Wreckage_of_the_Past)
 * Mainline (The Wreckage of the Past) : Target of Redirect does not exist, or double-redirect: Mainliner (The Wreckage of the Past)
 * Mainlliner (The Wreckage of the Past) : Target of Redirect does not exist, or double-redirect: Mainliner_(The_Wreckage_of_the_Past)

Somebody research it, please! Robin Patterson 21:28, 29 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * I'll refrain from expressing my thoughts about Michael's (past) behavior, and merely report that I fixed it. The correct title is Mainliner: Wreckage From the Past. Rhobite 22:58, Nov 29, 2004 (UTC)

Another State of Mind Comment
From the article: " (last sentence of paragraph) Then the band moved to 13th Floor Records in 1983 and released the album Mommy's Little Monster (1983)." " (first sentences of the following paragraph) By this time, Ness's drug addiction and self-destructive behavior had deepened to the point that the band almost broke up. The turmoil was captured on a video, Another State of Mind, which chronicled a cross-country tour. Five years passed before Social Distortion released their next album..."

After reading this article I realized I had never noticed any "turmoil" having to do with drugs on the video "Another State of Mind." I understand that there was turmoil between everybody, but this turmoil had nothing to do with alcohol or drugs, instead it was obvious that all of the band members and crew were tired of the school bus breaking down and being on the road with each other for so long. All of the members of Social Distortion (with the exception of Ness) left once the bus broke down in D.C. to go back to California. Before the other 3 members left, they did comment that Ness drinks until he passes out, no mention of drugs, and it was apparent they were going back to California out of frustration. Even if my interpretation is wrong it doesn't matter, because it is just an interpretation, as it is an interpretation of the writer of the above quote as well. I think if there was "obvious" turmoil or proof of Ness' drug use at the time (though it is well known that Heroin got the best of him eventually) then this should be allowed.

Also, "Another State of Mind" was filmed in 1982 and "Mommy's Little Monster" was recorded in 1983. The chronology of the writer's comment(s) is wrong as well. If the writer watched the video, which I doubt, he would know that Mike Ness had written the song "Another State of Mind" while on tour for the "Another State of Mind" video.

craig

wrong album?
"When the Angels Sing" is on White Light, White Heat, White Trash which was released on September 17, 1996, before Danell's death. Perhaps "Angels' Wings" is the track written for Dennis.
 * You're right, I was tired; I'll change it. Downstream 01:17, 2 August 2006 (UTC)

Easter
I removed this: "He started his way up the punk rock hall of fame by playing with greats like Danny Dean in his band Easter whom was a big aid in his life in inspiring him to go on to do Social D." Social Distortion had been around for eight years before Mike stepped in to temporarily help out Dean. Wordsplusnumber 19:31, 13 February 2007 (UTC)

Lynn or Stoneham?
It says that he was born in Stoneham, Massachusetts, raised in Orange County but he originates from Lynn, Massachusetts. So which is it!? --Saint-Paddy 01:27, 6 April 2007 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:Mike Ness 3.jpg
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Fair use rationale for Image:Mike Ness 2.jpg
Image:Mike Ness 2.jpg is being used on this article. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in this Wikipedia article constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use.

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If there is other other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on the other images used on this page. Note that any fair use images uploaded after 4 May, 2006, and lacking such an explanation will be deleted one week after they have been uploaded, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.BetacommandBot 04:28, 6 June 2007 (UTC)

WikiProject class rating
This article was automatically assessed because at least one article was rated and this bot brought all the other ratings up to at least that level. BetacommandBot 23:58, 27 August 2007 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Mike Ness


text:
William Benjamin Carpenter

William Benjamin Carpenter CB FRS (29 October 1813 – 19 November 1885) was an English physician, invertebrate zoologist, and physiologist. He was instrumental in the early stages of the unified University of London.

Life
Carpenter was born on 29 October 1813 in Exeter, the eldest son of Dr Lant Carpenter and his wife, Anna Carpenter (née Penn). His father was an important Unitarian preacher who, according to Adrian Desmond, influenced a "rising generation of Unitarian intellectuals, including James Martineau and the Westminster Review's John Bowring." From his father, Carpenter learned to believe in the essential lawfulness of creation and that explanations of the world were to be found in physical causes. He embraced this "naturalistic cosmogony" as his starting point.

Carpenter was apprenticed in 1828 to the eye surgeon John Bishop Estlin, who was also the son of a Unitarian minister. He attended lectures at Bristol Medical School, then studied at University College London between 1834 and 1835, and then went to the University of Edinburgh, where he received his MD in 1839. He was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society in 1845. In 1871, he received an LL.D. from the University of Edinburgh. On his resignation in 1879, Carpenter was appointed CB in recognition of his services to education. He died on 19 November 1885 in London, having suffered burns when the fire heating a vapour bath he was taking was accidentally upset. He was buried in a family grave in the dissenter's section on the western side of Highgate Cemetery.

Career
His graduation thesis on the nervous system of invertebrates, The Physiological Inferences to be deduced from the Structure of the Nervous System of Invertebrated Animals, won a gold medal, and led to his first books.He commenced his professional career as a physician in the Kingsdown suburb of Bristol. His work in comparative neurology was recognised in 1844 by his election as a Fellow of the Royal Society. His appointment as Fullerian Professor of Physiology at the Royal Institution in 1845 enabled him to exhibit his prowess as a teacher and lecturer. He was credited with having a gift of ready speech and luminous interpretation that placed him in the front rank of exponents, at a time when the popularisation of science was in its infancy.

He was appointed the first Swiney lecturer in Geology at the British Museum in 1847.

He worked hard as investigator, author, editor, demonstrator and lecturer throughout his life; but it was his researches in marine zoology, notably in the lower organisms, as foraminifera and crinoids, that were most valuable. This research gave an impetus to deep-sea exploration and led to Carpenter's role, alongside the naturalist Charles Wyville Thomson, in leading the exploration missions of HMS Lightning and HMS Porcupine in northern Scotland from 1868 to 1870. The analysis of the physical observations made during these first cruises allowed Carpenter to sketch a new theory of the global ocean circulation, which differed in several points from the pioneering theory of the hydrographer Matthew Fontaine Maury. Based on the context of the time, including the development of underwater telegraphy, Carpenter was the main architect in convincing both the Admiralty and the British government to undertake a large-scale oceanographic expedition in order to extend observations on a global scale. These efforts led to the HMS Challenger circumnavigation from 1872 to 1876, which was the world's first major oceanographic expedition.

He took a keen and laborious interest in the evidence adduced by Canadian geologists as to the organic nature of the so-called Eozoon canadense, discovered in the Laurentian strata, also called the North American craton, and at the time of his death had nearly finished a monograph on the subject, defending the now discredited theory of its animal origin. He was adept in the use of the microscope, and his popular treatise on it stimulated many to explore this new aid. He was awarded the Royal Medal in 1861.

Carpenter's most famous work is The Use and Abuse of Alcoholic Liquors in Health and Disease, originally published as a long-form essay in London by Charles Gilpin in March 1850. It was one of the first temperance books to promote the view that alcoholism is a disease.

In 1856 Carpenter became Registrar of the University of London, and held the office for 23 years. He gave qualified support to Charles Darwin, but he had reservations as to the application of evolution to man's intellectual and spiritual nature. He also demonstrated his commitment to the education of women, by teaching at the newly founded Bedford College, London in 1849 and 1850.

Adaptive unconscious
Carpenter is considered one of the founders of the modern theory of the adaptive unconscious. Together with William Hamilton and Thomas Laycock they provided the foundations on which adaptive unconscious is based today. They observed that the human perceptual system almost completely operates outside of conscious awareness. These same observations have been made by Hermann Helmholtz. Because these views were in conflict with the theories of Descartes, they were largely neglected, until the cognitive revolution of the 1950s. In 1874 Carpenter noticed that the more he studied the mechanism of thought, the more clear it became that it operates largely outside awareness. He noticed that the unconscious prejudices can be stronger than conscious thought and that they are more dangerous since they happen outside of conscious.

He also noticed that emotional reactions can occur outside of conscious until attention is drawn to them: "Our feelings towards persons and objects may undergo most important changes, without our being in the least degree aware, until we have our attention directed to our own mental state, of the alteration which has taken place in them."

He also asserted both the freedom of the will and the existence of the ego.

Psychical research
Carpenter was a critic of claims of paranormal phenomena, psychical research, and spiritualism, which he wrote were "epidemic delusions".

He was the author of the book Mesmerism, Spiritualism, Etc: Historically and Scientifically Considered (1877), which is seen as an early text on anomalistic psychology. According to Carpenter, Spiritualist practices could be explained by psychological factors such as hypnotism and suggestion. He rejected any occult or supernatural interpretation of hypnotism or trance-like states and insisted they were explained entirely by the physiology of the human mind. He argued that ideomotor effect (also called the Carpenter effect) could explain the phenomena of dowsing and table-turning. After experimental researches with tables, Michael Faraday credited to Carpenter the theoretical explanations for the results that he obtained.

Carpenter identified as a rationalist and a Unitarian. Although critical of spiritualism, he was interested in the subject of "thought reading". He defended the mentalist Washington Irving Bishop, whom he had experimented with, and considered such feats to be of great interest to the study of physiology. This angered his colleagues, who felt that his public support for Bishop might damage the respectability of the scientific community. He was criticized by George Romanes and T. H. Huxley for his interest in thought reading.

Carpenter was a believer in a divine first cause. Historian Shannon Delorme has noted that although he was considered a "great debunker of all humbug", his scientific thought was influenced by Unitarian culture that accommodated both materialist and teleological arguments.

Family
Carpenter married Louisa Powell in 1840 in Exeter. Louisa was born about 1814 in Exeter and died in 1887 in London. Among their children were:
 * Philip Herbert Carpenter (1852–1891), zoologist and a master at Eton College. He assisted his father and wrote extensively on fossils.
 * Joseph Estlin Carpenter (1844–1927), theologian and Unitarian.

title: William Benjamin Carpenter


text:
James Sully

James Sully (3 March 1842 – 1 November 1923) was an English psychologist, philosopher and writer.

Biography
James Sully was born at Bridgwater, Somerset, the son of J. W. Sully, a liberal Baptist merchant and ship-owner. He was educated at the Independent College in Taunton, Regent's Park College, at the University of Göttingen, where he studied under Hermann Lotze, and at the Humboldt University of Berlin, where he studied under Emil du Bois-Reymond and Hermann von Helmholtz.

Sully was originally destined for the nonconformist ministry and in 1869 became classical tutor at the Baptist College, Pontypool. In 1871, however, he adopted a literary and philosophic career. Between 1892 and 1903, he was Grote Professor of the Philosophy of Mind and Logic at University College London, where he was succeeded by Carveth Read.

An adherent of the associationist school of psychology, his views had great affinity with those of Alexander Bain. Sully wrote monographs on subjects such as pessimism, and psychology textbooks, some of the first in English, including The Human Mind (1892). His 1881 Illusions was commended by both Freud and Wundt.

Sully opened an experimental psychology laboratory at University College London in January 1898 and in 1901 was a founding member of the British Psychological Society.

Sully died in Richmond, Surrey on 1 November 1923.

Books

 * Sensation and Intuition (1874)
 * Pessimism (1877)
 * Illusions (1881; 4th ed., 1895)
 * Outlines of Psychology (1884; many editions)
 * Teacher's Handbook of Psychology (1886)
 * Studies of Childhood (1896)
 * Children's Ways (1897)
 * An Essay on Laughter (1902)
 * Italian Travel Sketches (1912)
 * My Life and Friends (1918)

Selected articles

 * "The Æsthetics of Human Character", in: The Fortnightly Review, Vol. XV, 1871.
 * "Aesthetics", in: Encyclopædia Britannica, 9th edition, 1875–1889; republished online at 1902encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 17 April 2017.

title: James Sully


text: User talk:62.252.128.7

title: User talk:62.252.128.7


text:
Sallie Mae

SLM Corporation (commonly known as Sallie Mae; originally the Student Loan Marketing Association) is a publicly traded U.S. corporation that provides consumer banking. Its nature has changed dramatically since it was set up in the early 1970s; initially a government entity that serviced federal education loans, it then became private and began offering private student loans.

The company's primary business is creating, servicing, and collecting private education loans. The company also provides online tools and resources for college planning. Sallie Mae previously originated federally guaranteed student loans under the Federal Family Education Loan Program (FFELP) and worked as a servicer and collector of federal student loans on behalf of the Department of Education. The company now offers private education loans and manages more than $12.97 billion in assets.

On April 30, 2014, Sallie Mae spun off its loan servicing operation and most of its loan portfolio into a separate, publicly traded entity called Navient Corporation. Navient is the largest servicer of federal student loans and acts as a collector on behalf of the Department of Education.

History
The Student Loan Marketing Association was originally created in 1972 as a government-sponsored enterprise (GSE) and began privatizing its operations in 1997, a process it completed at the end of 2004 when Congress terminated its federal charter, ending its ties to the government. The company provides private education loans for students and their families. These loans are not made, insured, or guaranteed by any state or federal government.

In 2005, Sallie Mae was among 53 entities that contributed the maximum of $250,000 to the second inauguration of President George W. Bush.

In August 2006, Sallie Mae acquired Upromise, a company that provides rebates to buyers of certain brands, which can be applied to college savings accounts. In May 2020, Upromise was acquired by loyalty marketing company Prodege.

On April 16, 2007, Sallie Mae announced that an investor group led by J.C. Flowers & Co. signed an agreement to purchase Sallie Mae for approximately $25 billion. Had the transaction been completed, J.C. Flowers, along with private-equity firm Friedman Fleischer & Lowe would have owned 50.2% of Sallie Mae, and Bank of America and JPMorgan Chase would each have owned 24.9%. Sallie Mae would have ceased to be a publicly traded company. The deal fell through in September 2007, with the buyers blaming adverse changes to the business's outlook as a result of the College Cost Reduction and Access Act of 2007 and the tightening of global credit markets following the 2007 subprime mortgage financial crisis. Sallie Mae subsequently began legal action, only to drop it in January 2008 upon completion of a $31 billion funding round, including funding from Bank of America.

On April 6, 2009, Sallie Mae announced that it would move 2,000 jobs back to the U.S. within the next 18 months as it shifts call center and other operations from overseas.

On March 31, 2010, Sallie Mae announced the impending layoff of 2,500 employees in response to the signing of new legislation calling for the federal government to lend directly to students, bypassing institutions like Sallie Mae.

On July 1, 2010, Sallie Mae announced that it would be moving its headquarters from Reston, Virginia, to its existing facility in Newark, Delaware.

On September 17, 2010, Sallie Mae acquired federally insured loans from Citigroup-owned Student Loan Corporation worth $28 billion.

SLM Corporation, the company that operates Sallie Mae, was formed in 2013. On February 25, 2014, Sallie Mae announced the launch of Navient, a separate entity for federal student loan servicing. On April 30, Sallie Mae legally separated from Navient, and made its primary focus private student loans, banking products, and credit cards for college students and their families.

In March 2020, the company announced Jonathan Witter, former Hilton executive, would replace Raymond Quinlan as the new CEO.

Sallie Mae announced a partnership with Mpower Financing in April 2021, to expand access to higher education for international and DACA students.

Corporate information
The Sallie Mae corporate headquarters is in Newark, Delaware. Sallie Mae also operates offices in New Castle, Delaware; Newton, Massachusetts; Indianapolis, Indiana; Salt Lake City, Utah; and Sterling, Virginia.

Corporate board
Albert Lord held the positions of vice chairman and CEO until his retirement 2013. Lord joined Sallie Mae in 1981, took over as CEO in 1995, and led the company's privatization. On May 29, 2013, the board announced Jack Remondi as Lord's successor.

Carter Franke is the current chair of Sallie Mae's board of directors, since her appointment in June 2020. Prior to Franke, Raymond J. Quinlan served in the role, having joined the board in 2014 to replace previous chairman Anthony P. Terracciano—formerly president of First Union Corporation (now Wells Fargo). Quinlan was also the chief executive office of Sallie Mae from May 2014 until March 2020, when current CEO Jonathan Witter assumed the position.

Awards
Through The Fund's work, Sallie Mae was named among BusinessWeek's Top 15 Corporate Philanthropists in 2004. The Washington Business Journal identified the company as the top local corporate philanthropist in 2005.

In the early 2010s, Kiplinger's Personal Finance recognized Sallie Mae Bank as the Best Online Savings Account, the Best Money Market Account. “the best place to stash cash,” and the Best Savings Account.

Controversies
A 60 Minutes segment (originally aired May 7, 2006) examined Sallie Mae, including its business practices. Senator Elizabeth Warren, then a professor at Harvard Law School and sharp critic of what she characterizes as unfair lending practices, questioned Sallie Mae's dual role as lender and collector of student loans.

In February 2007, New York Attorney General Andrew Cuomo launched an investigation into alleged deceptive lending practices by student loan providers, including The College Board, EduCap, Nelnet, Citibank, and Sallie Mae. On April 11, 2007, Cuomo ended his investigation of Sallie Mae and announced that Sallie Mae had voluntarily agreed to change its lending standards to satisfy a new code of conduct for student loan practices established by Cuomo, and to donate $2 million (USD) to a fund devoted to educating college-bound students about their loan options.

On October 10, 2007, documents surfaced showing that Sallie Mae was attempting to use the Freedom of Information Act to force colleges to turn over students' personal information. The university involved, the State University of New York system, was expected to decline the request and be forced to defend its position in court.

In December 2007, a class action lawsuit was brought against Sallie Mae in a Connecticut federal court alleging that the company discriminated against African American and Hispanic private student loan applicants by charging them high interest rates and fees. The lawsuit also alleged that Sallie Mae failed to properly disclose private student loan terms to unsuspecting students. New York Attorney General Andrew Cuomo, raised similar concerns about possible student loan redlining in June 2007. The lawsuit was settled and dismissed in 2011. Under the terms of the settlement, Sallie Mae agreed to make a $500,000 donation to the United Negro College Fund and the attorneys for the plaintiffs received $1.8 million in attorneys' fees.

On January 31, 2008, SLM Corporation paid $35,000,000 to settle a lawsuit for failing to adequately reserve for losses in Sallie Mae's non-traditional portfolio.

A False Claims suit was filed against Sallie Mae by former U.S. Department of Education researcher, Dr. Oberg, in 2009. The suit alleges that Sallie Mae and other lenders deliberately overcharged the U.S. government. The findings by Oberg were labeled among higher education policy analysts as the 9.5 scandal.

On February 20, 2014, Illinois Attorney General Lisa Madigan’s office announced that an investigation into Sallie Mae's debt collection practices and loan servicing practices had been opened.

On November 9, 2005, former Sallie Mae employee Michael Zahara filed a federal lawsuit against the company, alleging that it had a pattern and practice of granting forbearance in a purposeful effort to increase total student loan debt. On October 29, 2008, permission was granted to his legal counsel to withdraw from the case, citing "From counsel’s perspective, a breakdown in trust has resulted from the discovery that Relator has been arrested for extortion, the circumstances surrounding that arrest, and Relator’s failure to disclose the arrest to counsel." On March 12, 2009, the court ruled "dismissal without prejudice" because "the plaintiff has failed to obtain substitute counsel by the deadline."

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John Sterling (author)

John Sterling (20 July 1806 – 18 September 1844) was a Scottish author.

Life
He was born at Kames Castle on the Isle of Bute, the son of Edward Sterling. After studying for a year at the University of Glasgow, he in 1824 entered Trinity College, Cambridge, where he had for tutor Julius Charles Hare. At Cambridge he took part in the debates of the Cambridge Union Society, and became a member of the Cambridge Apostles, forming friendships with Frederick Denison Maurice and Richard Trench. He moved to Trinity Hall with the intention of graduating in law, but left the university without taking a degree.

During the next four years Sterling resided chiefly in London, employing himself actively in literature and making a number of literary friends. With F. D. Maurice he purchased the Athenaeum magazine in 1828 from James Silk Buckingham, but the enterprise was not a financial success. He also formed an intimacy with the Spanish revolutionist General Torrijos, in whose unfortunate expedition he took an active interest. On 2 November 1830, at Christ Church, Marylebone, Sterling married Susannah, daughter of Lieutenant-General Charles Barton (1760–1819) and his wife Susannah.

Shortly after his marriage in 1830 symptoms of tuberculosis induced Sterling to take up his residence in the island of St Vincent, where he had inherited some property, and he remained there for fifteen months before returning to England. While at St Vincent he wrote "So far as I see, the Slaves here are cunning, deceitful and idle; without any great aptitude for ferocious crimes, and with very little scruple at committing others. But I have seen them much only in very favorable circumstances. They are, as a body, decidedly unfit for freedom; and if left, as at present, completely in the hands of their masters, will never become so, unless through the agency of the Methodists." After spending some time on the Continent in June 1834, Sterling was ordained and became curate at Hurstmonceux, where his old tutor Julius Hare was vicar. Acting on the advice of his physician, he resigned his clerical duties in the following February, but, according to Carlyle, the primary cause was a divergence from the opinions of the Church. There remained to him the "resource of the pen," but, having to "live all the rest of his days as in continual flight for his very existence," his literary achievements were necessarily fragmentary.

In 1841 Sterling moved to Falmouth, and lectured to the Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society. He died at Ventnor on 18 September 1844, his wife having died in the preceding year.

Works
Sterling published in 1833 Arthur Coningsby, a novel, which attracted little attention, and his Poems (1839), the Election, a Poem (1841), and Strafford, a tragedy (1843), were not more successful. He had, however, established a connection in 1837 with Blackwood's Magazine, to which he contributed a variety of papers and several tales. Among these papers were allegorical fantasy stories such as "The Onyx Ring", "Land and Sea", "A Chronicle of England" and "The Palace of Morgana."

John Sterling's papers were given to the joint care of Thomas Carlyle and Hare. Essays and Tales, by John Sterling collected and edited, with a memoir of his life, by Julius Charles Hare, appeared in 1848 in two volumes. Carlyle was dissatisfied with the Memoir and wrote a vivid Life (1851).

Sterling corresponded with John Stuart Mill, who had attended the informal beginnings of his 'Sterling Club'.

Family
His son, Major-General John Barton Sterling (1840–1926), after entering the navy, went into the army in 1861, and had a distinguished career (wounded at Tel-el-Kebir in 1882), both as a soldier and as a writer on military subjects. He commanded the Coldstream Guards until his retirement in 1901. He was a member of the Athenaeum Club and the Royal Yacht Squadron.

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Hello. You're not by any chance an MIT student, are you? Michael Hardy 21:19 25 Jul 2003 (UTC)

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Plastic Man

Plastic Man (Patrick "Eel" O'Brian) is a superhero first appearing in Police Comics #1, originally published by Quality Comics and later acquired by DC Comics, appearing in their American comic books. Created by cartoonist Jack Cole, Plastic Man was one of the first superheroes to incorporate humor into mainstream action storytelling. This character has been published in several solo series and has interacted with other characters such as Batman and many others in the mainstream DC Universe as a member of the Justice League. He has additionally appeared in several television and video game adaptations, including a television show of his own named The Plastic Man Comedy/Adventure Show.

Publication history
Created by writer-artist Jack Cole, he first appeared in Police Comics #1 (August 1941).

One of Quality Comics' signature characters during the Golden Age of Comic Books, Plastic Man can stretch his body into any imaginable form, for example a ball or a car, etc. His adventures were known for their quirky, offbeat structure and surreal slapstick humor. When Quality Comics was shut down in 1956, DC Comics acquired many of its characters, integrating Plastic Man into the mainstream DC Universe and giving him a short-lived series in the 1960s.

The character starred in his own Saturday morning cartoon titled The Plastic Man Comedy/Adventure Show from 1979 to 1981 and was also a recurring character on Batman: The Brave and the Bold from 2008 to 2011. He was also mentioned in an episode of Justice League Unlimited but was never shown owing to ownership arguments and copyright complaints. To get around these problems, the show used Elongated Man as a replacement.

Although the character has never been a significant commercial success, Plastic Man has been a favorite character of many modern comic book creators, including writer Grant Morrison, who included him in their 1990s revival of the Justice League; Art Spiegelman, who profiled Cole for The New Yorker magazine; painter Alex Ross, who has frequently included him in covers and stories depicting the Justice League; writer-artist Kyle Baker, who wrote and illustrated an award-winning Plastic Man series; and Frank Miller, who included him in the Justice League in the comics All Star Batman and Robin the Boy Wonder and Batman: The Dark Knight Strikes Again.

Original version by Jack Cole
Plastic Man was a crook named Patrick "Eel" O'Brian. Orphaned at age 10 and forced to live on the streets, he fell into a life of crime. As an adult, he became part of a burglary ring, specializing as a safecracker. During a late-night heist at the Crawford Chemical Works, he and his three fellow gang members were surprised by a night watchman. During the gang's escape, Eel was shot in the shoulder and doused with a large drum of unidentified chemical liquid. He escaped to the street only to discover that his gang had driven off without him.

Fleeing on foot and suffering increasing disorientation from the gunshot wound and the exposure to the chemical, Eel eventually passed out on the foothills of a mountain near the city. He awoke to find himself in a bed in a mountain retreat, being tended to by a monk who had discovered him unconscious that morning. This monk, sensing a capacity for great good in O'Brian, turned away police officers who had trailed Eel to the monastery. This act of faith and kindness—combined with the realization that his gang had left him to be captured without a moment's hesitation—fanned Eel's longstanding dissatisfaction with his criminal life and his desire to reform.

During his short convalescence at the monastery, he discovered that the chemical had entered his bloodstream and caused a radical physical change. His body now had all of the properties of rubber, allowing him to stretch, bounce and mold himself into any shape. He immediately determined to use his new abilities on the side of law and order, donning a red, black and yellow (later red and yellow) rubber costume and capturing criminals as Plastic Man. He concealed his true identity with a pair of white goggles and by re-molding his face. As O'Brian, he maintained his career and connections with the underworld as a means of gathering information on criminal activity.

Plastic Man soon acquired comic-relief sidekick Woozy Winks, who was originally enchanted so that nature itself would protect him from harm. This power was eventually removed from the character and Woozy became simply a bumbling yet loyal friend to Plastic Man.

In his original Golden Age/Quality Comics incarnation, Plastic Man eventually became a member of the city police force and then the FBI. By the time he became a federal officer, he had nearly completely abandoned his Eel O'Brian identity.

Phil Foglio version
After the 1985 Crisis on Infinite Earths, a 1988–1989 four-issue Plastic Man miniseries by Phil Foglio introduced a new version of Plastic Man: Eel O'Brian, abandoned by his criminal gang after being shot and exposed to the unidentified chemical, wandered the streets as his new powers developed, frightening others and bringing the police and National Guard down on him as a dangerous monster. Eel was at first oblivious to the changes to his body, but after realizing that he was the monster at large, he used his new abilities to escape his pursuers. Eel soon became so despondent over his new condition that he attempted suicide by jumping off a bridge.

Fortunately, he was interrupted by Woozy Winks, a former mental patient who was kicked out of an institution due to lack of funding (or as Woozy put it, "something called Reaganomics"), who desired nothing more than to return to the warm safety of a straitjacket and padded room. Eel and Woozy decided to work together and capitalize on Eel's new powers to make their fortunes (Eel wanting to get rich quick, Woozy just wanting his "old room" back), but couldn't decide whether there was more money in crime or crime-fighting, and resorted to flipping a coin to choose serving the law (though Woozy had his doubts early on). Eel ended up with the name 'Plastic Man' after a reporter misinterpreted his first choice of 'Elastic Man'. Eel and Woozy set up a detective agency in New York City and go on to have various misadventures together.

JLA
Plastic Man was made a prominent member of the Justice League during Grant Morrison's run on the title. The story arc "Rock of Ages" shows Batman recruiting Eel to infiltrate Lex Luthor's Injustice League in the guise of the Joker, which he does successfully. He notably engages in combat with the goddess Circe, proving immune to her magical ability to turn humans into animals. He is later made a full-time member of the League and aids the League in several battles, including against Prometheus, Julian September, General Wade Eiling, an upgraded version of Amazo, a White Martian who assumes the identity of Bruce Wayne, and Queen Bee. During this period he becomes close friends with fellow new members Steel (due to the fact that they are both "lateral thinkers") and Zauriel (Plastic Man later implies in the JLA: Heaven's Ladder graphic novel that his Catholic upbringing is a factor behind this, and Zauriel's existence is a testament to his faith). After the extended League dissolves at the end of the "World WarIII" arc, he is the only member other than the 'Big Seven' heroes (Superman, Batman, Wonder Woman, Aquaman, The Flash, Martian Manhunter and Green Lantern) to retain full-time membership in the JLA.

Plastic Man has also been instrumental in defeating several foes by himself, such as a Jokerized version of Dr. Polaris and the 'Burning Martian' persona of J'onn J'onzz (Martian Manhunter). He has played substantial roles in nearly every major team-up and crossover featuring the League of this era: with the Titans (The Technis Imperative), Young Justice (World Without Grownups), the Justice Society of America (Virtue and Vice, where he is one of the heroes to be possessed by one of the Seven Deadly Sins), the Avengers (the JLA/Avengers crossover) and even the Looney Tunes (in the humorous Superman & Bugs Bunny miniseries). In the Tower of Babel arc, Plastic Man is frozen and shattered into pieces by Ra's al Ghul's League of Assassins, as part of an attack against the Justice League. Though he is put together again, this experience traumatizes him severely and when it is discovered that the assassins were following methods devised by Batman, Eel joins Wonder Woman and Aquaman in voting Batman out of the League. The heroes reconcile in following issues.

The fact that Plastic Man was initially in the superhero business for the money has had an effect on his character development, notably in the storyline "Divided We Fall" by Mark Waid where he, along with other Justice League members, was separated into two people, his normal "civilian" identity and his superhero persona, by the manipulative wish-granting Id. While Plastic Man devolved from a person with a sense of humor into a constantly wisecracking and almost ineffectual idiot, the now "normal" Eel O'Brian struggled with the criminal tendencies he had suppressed as he had become comfortable with his role as a superhero and wondered if he had actually changed for the better at all or this was just part of the super-hero "act". Ultimately, Eel was the driving force behind the other transformed Leaguers banding together to re-join with their superheroic selves, noting that Bruce Wayne in particular was approaching a mental breakdown as he struggled with his rage over his parents' murder – having lacked the ability to do anything about it, as Batman was the identity that had 'inherited' his skills. Eel demonstrates this to the other divided Leaguers by savagely beating Bruce Wayne with a gun in the guise of a mugger to prove Wayne's ineffectiveness, and demonstrate the degree of psychological damage he has suffered due to the split. Later, Batman comments that it was a wise move "under the circumstances". Later, Plastic Man approaches Batman for help when he learns that Eel's estranged ten-year-old son Luke has fallen in with a gang of criminals, and has inherited his father's shape-shifting abilities, possibly to an even greater degree than Plastic Man's own. Plastic Man admits to Batman that he doesn't know if he ran away from being a father because he was enjoying his new life as a hero, or because he was afraid of becoming a parent for his son. Batman later intimidates Luke into returning home, and informs Plastic Man that he is disappointed in his cowardice, imagining that Eel would have shown Luke fatherly love; in reality, Plastic Man chose only to hide in Batman's utility belt during the whole encounter with Luke.

During the story arc "The Obsidian Age", Plastic Man and the other main members of the JLA were transported through time thousands of years earlier to the beginning days of Atlantis. During a battle with the antagonists, Plastic Man was frozen and then shattered into pieces. Having no way to locate all the pieces, much less fix him, with the technology of the day, the JLA returned to their own time. There they were eventually successful in finding all the pieces and restoring Plastic Man. Plastic Man had been conscious the entire time but unable to move, which had a profoundly negative effect on his mind. He admitted he had lost his nerve and quit the JLA, hoping to live a regular life. This return to normalcy was made easier after a new encounter with his now-teenage son, which made Eel feel that the boy needed a father and a normal life. Eventually, Batman convinced Plastic Man to return to his life as a super hero again when they needed his shape-shifting skills and immunity to telepathy to defeat the Martian Manhunter, who had regressed to a racial memory of the long-forgotten 'Burning Martians' after overcoming his weakness to fire. After a few more cases, Plastic Man is present at the memorial service held after this incarnation of the Justice League officially disbands during the Infinite Crisis storyline.

52, One Year Later, Countdown and Blackest Night
In the 2006 "One Year Later" DC Comics crossover storyline that followed the "Infinite Crisis" crossover, a young man with similar appearance and powers as Plastic Man appears briefly in the superteam series Teen Titans Vol. 3, #34 written by R.J. Carter. The character wears a white costume with red goggles, similar to that of Offspring, Plastic Man's son in the earlier 1999 DC miniseries The Kingdom by Mark Waid. While the Teen Titans story itself does not identify the character, page two of a published script supposedly by writer Geoff Johns' specifies it is "Plastic Man's son, Offspring". Plastic Man's son is also shown in costume, and identified as Offspring, in the 2006 weekly series 52 in Week 35 (written by Geoff Johns, Grant Morrison, Greg Rucka and Mark Waid) when he is injured while rescuing a number of the depowered Everyman heroes. Eventually, Plastic Man and Offspring come together as father and son and briefly even had an idyllic family set up until Plastic Man was convinced that he couldn't deny his destiny as a super hero.

In Countdown to Mystery #1 (2007) written by Lilah Sturges, Plastic Man is seduced by Eclipso, being made to believe he is a joke among his fellow heroes, and the only way for him to get some respect is through Eclipso. He is later freed of this corruption by Bruce Gordon. Plastic Man makes his next appearance within the pages of Green Arrow/Black Canary #8 by Judd Winick, having been freed from a stasis tube by Green Arrow. His DNA is taken by Sivana and used to augment an amnesiac Connor Hawke, in a bid to turn the young hero into a brainwashed slave with a strong healing factor.

Plastic Man appeared for a brief period in the 2009 Justice League of America vol. 2 series written by Len Wein. After joining up with the team following the events of Final Crisis, Plastic Man has his effectiveness questioned by his teammate Dr. Light, which starts a fight between the two, which Vixen breaks up. Vixen reassigns Plastic Man to team up with Dr. Light to stop the Royal Flush Gang robbery. Though they experience some control issues between them, the Royal Flush Gang is defeated and Plastic Man and Dr. Light finally stop arguing.

During a massive battle at the Justice League Satellite in Justice League: Cry for Justice, Prometheus injected Plastic Man with a chemical that badly damaged his plastic body. The chemicals caused Eel to suffer from a condition where it took great concentration to keep himself in his usual, semi-solid state and caused him pain when he even thought about changing shape, thus leaving him in an infirm state.

In the Blackest Night crossover, while still suffering from his deteriorating state, Plastic Man had his heart torn out by the Black Lantern, Vibe, seemingly killing him. However, due to his power of near-invulnerability, he was able to survive such an attack, albeit badly wounded. Vixen states that Plastic Man was being taken care of at STAR Labs, and that he would be unable to return to the League.

Plastic Man later appeared in Justice League: Generation Lost, helping a large coalition of heroes on an unsuccessful mission to trace Maxwell Lord. He had been seemingly cured of his condition, and was shown retaining his normal shape without issue or pain.

Later, he aids the JLA on their mission into Hell, where he helps Batman defeat Geryon. The League learns Satanus' plans to use Dante's mask to become powerful. Plastic Man grabs the mask, which possesses him. The Leagues combines forces to remove the mask, which is incinerated, seemingly killing Plastic Man. It is later revealed that Zauriel transported him into another dimension before helping the League escape Hell.

The New 52
In September 2011, The New 52 rebooted DC's continuity. In this new timeline, Plastic Man is considered as one of the candidates for the United Nations-sponsored Justice League International. He is denied a spot on the team for being too unpredictable. This cameo appearance was later retconned by "Eel" O'Brian's proper New 52 introduction in Justice League (Vol. 2) #25 (February 2014).

DC Rebirth
In 2016, DC Comics implemented another relaunch of its books called "DC Rebirth" which restored its continuity to a form much as it was prior to "The New 52". In Dark Days: The Forge, Batman unveils a containment unit to Mister Terrific in The Lunar Batcave bearing the Plastic Man logo and suggests it is time to release him.

Plastic Man assists Mister Terrific into thwarting Simon Stagg's plot to open the portal to the Dark Multiverse using Metamorpho who had been transmuted to Nth Metal. While trying to get Simon Stagg to close the portal with the help of Plastic Man, Mister Terrific is sucked into the portal with Plastic Man and Metamorpho as Plastic Man shields them from the Dark Multiverse energy which he is immune to. Upon arriving on a lifeless world, they encounter Phantom Girl who has been trapped in her intangible form and who has no knowledge of sending a signal. When the four of them find a computer in the gut of a giant dead creature, they are greeted by a hologram of Tom Strong who states that they are needed to save the universe. Mister Terrific, Plastic Man, and Metamorpho learn from Phantom Girl that she was stuck in an intangible form since she was a child. After the four of them make it back to their world, Mister Terrific tries to leave the three of them at Simon Stagg's compound only to be drawn back to them. Due to the effects of the Dark Multiverse energy, Mister Terrific concludes that they can't go their separate ways due to this inescapable bond. The team goes through several adventures whilst being attacked by a figure known as Doctor Dread, who is later revealed to be Java. This revelation, coupled with the team being cured of their condition, causes everyone to split up. Plastic Man attempts to connect with his ex Angel and their son Luke, who has inherited his stretching powers. Initially reluctant, the two bond over a game of basketball and stealing the Batmobile. They are then called upon by the rest of the team to band together and save Mr. Terrifc from the Terribles, a team of their evil doppelgängers put together by Doctor Dread. Plas and Luke, now suited up in his Offspring look, work together to take down a vampiric version of Plastic Man from another dimension. Following the Terribles' defeat and imprisonment, the Terrifics officially reunite as a team, with Luke, Element Dog, and Miss Terrifics joining the roster.

Plastic Man was later recruited by Obscura to help investigate a multi-dimensional conspiracy. This led them to find that it was being committed by a group of villains called the Cabal.

Powers and abilities
Plastic Man's powers are derived from an accident in which his body was bathed in an unknown industrial chemical mixture that also entered into his bloodstream through a gunshot wound. This caused a body-wide mutagenic process that transformed his physiology. Eel exists in a fluid state, neither entirely liquid nor solid. He has complete control over his entire molecular structure. He can stretch his limbs and body to superhuman lengths and sizes. There is no known limit to how far Plastic Man can stretch his body. He can shrink himself down to a few inches tall (posed as one of Batman's utility belt pockets) or become a titan (the size of skyscrapers). He can contort his body into various positions and sizes impossible for ordinary humans, such as being entirely flat to slip under a door, using his fingers to pick conventional lock, compressing himself into a ball to ricochet off of things, and inflating his body. He can also use it for disguise by changing the shape of his face and body, contributory to his work as a sleuth. Due to his fluid state, Plastic Man can open holes in his body and turn himself into objects with mobile parts. In addition, he can alter his bodily mass and physical constitution at will, creating virtually no limit to the sizes and shapes he can contort himself into. There is nothing he cannot alter his body into, which includes basic shapes or dangerous weapons, avatars of other superheroes, and functional automobiles. These stretching capabilities grant Plastic Man agility, flexibility, and coordination far beyond the natural limits of the human body. He can alter his strength by growing or adding more muscle.

Plastic Man's powers extraordinarily augment his durability. Some stories, perhaps of anecdotal quality, have showed him susceptible to surprise attack by bullets, in one case oozing a substance similar to liquid plastic. His unique physiology makes him impervious to conventional means of harm such as bullets, blasts, and blunt force. He is also able to withstand corrosives, punctures, and concussions without sustaining any injury (although he can be momentarily stunned). Batman once mentioned that he could presumably even withstand a nuclear detonation. This is mainly due to the fact that he has full control over his density, so he can willfully increase his durability as he wishes. His bodily mass can be dispersed, but for all intents and purposes, it is invulnerable, even from many forms of magic in the DC Universe. He is able to regenerate and/or assimilate lost or damaged tissue, although he needs to be reasonably intact for this process to begin. For example, Plastic Man was once reduced to individual, separate molecules and scattered across the Atlantic Ocean for centuries. He was only capable of returning to his usual form after the rest of the League were able to gather enough of his molecules and restore approximately 80% of his body mass, after which he began to regenerate the remaining 20% on his own.

Plastic Man has proven to be insusceptible to the effects of telepathy. As stated by Batman (in JLA #88, Dec. 2003), "Plastic Man's mind is no longer organic. It's untouchable by telepathy". Plastic Man does not appear to age; if he does, it is at a rate far slower than that of normal human beings. In the aftermath of the Justice League story Arc "Obsidian Age", Plastic Man was discovered to have survived for 3,000 years scattered into separate, individual molecules on the bottom of the Atlantic Ocean without decaying or being otherwise affected at all. He can autonomically detect ultrasonic frequencies because his body will start to "ripple" when an ultrasonic frequency is triggered.

As stated by the Black Lantern corpsman Vibe, Plastic Man's internal organs (such as his heart when Black Lantern Vibe tried to rip it out) couldn't be removed, unlike many of the Black Lanterns' victims. This perhaps implies that Plastic Man is himself more like one giant, living organ than he is a "whole" made of component parts and organs, etc.

His semi-liquid form remains stable at relatively high and low temperatures, provided that the temperature change is gradual. A sudden change induces a complete change of state, creating a truly solid or truly liquid form. Plastic Man was incapacitated in the JLA story arc "Tower of Babel" when mercenaries froze and shattered his body. Once thawed and reassembled, he was physically unharmed. In the JLA story arc "Divided We Fall", Plastic Man is shown to have some weakness to extreme heat (intense heat vision attack from a Martian) and was temporarily melted. In some versions, Plastic Man is also vulnerable to chemicals such as acetone, which melts and destabilizes his malleable form, although he eventually regenerated when the chemicals are gone. A famous hindrance of Plastic Man's abilities is that the only colors he can mimic are the colors of his body and costume (i.e. red, black, yellow, white, and flesh tone), although he can use these colors in various ways, once even managing to exactly duplicate the appearance of the Flash. Whether this is an inherent flaw in his powers or a mental block has never been explained, whereas, his son, Offspring, also gained his father's powers, but is able to willfully mimic any color he chooses. During Offspring's introduction, it was revealed that Plastic Man could change color, turning his nose blue to prove to Batman that he could. This color change, however, was possible only with a great deal of Plastic Man's concentration, even for such a very small area.

Plastic Man was once a very talented professional thief, specializing as a safecracker. Although no longer a criminal, he has thorough insight into their mindset, enabling him to be an effective sleuth. He is also considered to be a lateral thinker and much smarter than he lets on.

Enemies
Plastic Man has fought many enemies in his comics:
 * Acid Tongue – A criminal who can spit acid at a target from several yards away.
 * Abba and Dabba – Two wanted con-men.
 * Ali Krim
 * Amorpho – A sentient blob of protoplasm from an unknown distant planet.
 * Archie Type – A criminal that Plastic Man was after.
 * Baldy Bushwhack
 * B. T. Tokus
 * Beauteous Bessie
 * Big Beaver
 * Bizarro – A backwards clone of Superman.
 * Blind Ali – A blind would-be assassin.
 * Boss Annova – The self-appointed king of all street crime in the city of Metropolis.
 * Brain Trust
 * Brickface – A crime boss with a segmented face.
 * Brotherhood of the Savage Caribou –
 * Bunyon O'Banyon
 * The Burning – Plastic Man was chosen by Batman to battle the Martian Manhunter when he was corrupted by The Burning.
 * Cabal – A group of villains that were behind a multi-dimensional conspiracy and ran afoul of Plastic Man and Obscura.
 * Amazo – An android that can copy the powers of the Justice League.
 * Doctor Psycho – A dwarfish telepath and an enemy of Wonder Woman.
 * Hugo Strange – A mad scientist and an enemy of Batman.
 * Per Degaton – A supervillain obsessed with time travel.
 * Queen Bee – An alien bee-themed criminal.
 * Teel –
 * Carrot-Man – A criminal that dresses up as a carrot.
 * Cauldron
 * Chatterbox – Lou Kwashus is a disc jockey-themed supervillain with a sonic weapon.
 * Cheeseface – A cheese-themed criminal who has been selling explosive bottles of milk.
 * Edam O'Grotton – Cheeseface's henchman.
 * Closets Kennedy
 * The Crab
 * Desperate Desmond
 * Doctor Dome – A supervillain in a dome-shaped helmet. He is the closest thing Plastic Man has to an arch-enemy.
 * Lynx – Doctor Dome's sidekick.
 * Professor X – A scientist who Doctor Dome used to cause havoc.
 * Doctor Forklift – A half-man, half-forklift scientist.
 * Doctor Honctoff – An evil robotics genius.
 * Bogus Men – A group of androids that were created by Doctor Honctoff.
 * Dopey Joe
 * Dr. Ameeba
 * Dr. Erudite
 * Dr. Phobia
 * Dr. Volt
 * Dollmaker – Marcel Mannequin is an extremely talented dollmaker who uses sentient dolls to commit crimes.
 * Electra
 * Even Steven – A balanced-obsessed criminal.
 * Dr. Meg LeMania – Even Steven's scientist minion.
 * Fargo Freddie, The Lava Man – An unappreciated and underpaid employee who transformed himself into living lava via active volcano.
 * Froggie Fink
 * The Gag Man
 * Goldzinger – A gold-magnetizing crook.
 * Granite Lady – A former singer who turned down all men and her skin became rock-like, due to the serum's effects.
 * The Grasshopper – An armed jewel thief who was subjected to a serum that granted him leaping abilities.
 * The Green Terror
 * Hairy Arms – A gang leader who formerly served the Axis Powers, until his own pals found out and removed him from their group.
 * Hands
 * Hate
 * The Hotrod
 * Ice Man - An ice delivery man who turned to a life of crime.
 * Killer Joe – A professional hitman.
 * King Lughead
 * King of Spades – The leader of a spade-themed gang.
 * Jack of Spades – A member of the King of Spades' gang.
 * Queen of Spades – A member of the King of Spades' gang.
 * The King Of Zing
 * Kolonel Kool – Originally an agent at the NBI named Gulliver "Gully" Foyle, Plastic Man's success there at his expense made Foyle jealous and out for revenge. Kolonel Kool took over Boss Annova's gang before being nabbed by his former co-worker.
 * Lawbook – He offers a reward to any crook who can find a way to kill Plastic Man.
 * League of Assassins – An organization of assassins.
 * Ra's al Ghul – The leader of the League of Assassins.
 * Talia al Ghul – The daughter of Ra's al Ghul and member of the League of Assassins.
 * Lex Luthor – The CEO of LexCorp and enemy of Superman who was working as the President of the United States at the time.
 * The Lobster
 * Louie The Lift
 * Lowbrow – A short and insanely confident criminal who killed Cindy Bloch.
 * Lucky 7
 * Lucius D. Dratt, Doctor Dratt – A twisted neurochemist.
 * Madam Brawn – A teacher who trains female ex-cons at her school to fight men on equal grounds. Dies in Police Comics #5.
 * Madame Merciless – A female criminal hired by Doctor Dome to hypnotize Plastic Man.
 * Madame Serpina – A sideshow entertainer-turned assassin.
 * Malleable Man – A criminal associate of Eel O'Brien who recreated the accident that gave Plastic Man his powers.
 * Man-Bat – Kirk Langstrom is a zoologist who takes a serum that transforms him into Man-Bat. After being subdued by Plastic Man, Man-Bat agreed to help him and Obscura investigate a multi-dimensional conspiracy.
 * The Mangler
 * The Master Artist
 * Max the Knife – A gang leader that went up against Marty "The Mouse" Meeker" after he was given powers by two aliens from the Redinskian race.
 * Meat By-Product – A monster spawned from a meat by-product.
 * Molder – A sculpting plastic-themed criminal who fought Plastic Man and Batman.
 * Mona Mayhem
 * The Moon Wizard
 * Mostolo
 * The Moulder
 * Mister Aqua – A former chemist who was experimenting with chemicals that turned him into living water. Woozy accidentally drank him.
 * Mr. Cat
 * Mister Green – A supervillain who became a plant-based lifeform and then, dies after reverting to human form.
 * Mr. Happiness
 * Mr. Misfit
 * (The Melancholy) Mister Morbid – A criminal who is always sad and dislikes happiness.
 * Mr. Stingker
 * Mister Uglee – A masked criminal with a terrifyingly hideous face who wanted to disfigure all other men so he would be the most handsome man in the world in comparison.
 * Mister Wheels – The elderly leader of an organized crime ring called Crime Enterprises who confined himself to a wheelchair.
 * Murray "the Swede" Schneiderman – A bank robber.
 * Number Seven
 * Ooze Brothers – Clem, Flem, and Lem are three villains who use ooze in their crimes.
 * The Owl
 * Pinkeye – An albino spy.
 * Pinky Flowers
 * Poison Ivy – A plant-themed enemy of Batman. Poison Ivy posed as Angel O'Brien to get revenge on Plastic Man.
 * Prankster – An enemy of Superman who uses pranks in his criminal activities. He once used robot duplicates of the Justice League to fool the police that Plastic Man was a criminal.
 * Professor Goodman
 * Professor Dimwit
 * Professor Spindrift
 * Ramalama –
 * Red Herring – An anthropomorphic red herring who appears to meddle with the investigations of crimes he was not involved in.
 * Remember
 * Rice O'Rooney – The "San Francisco Threat", he was considered to be the highest paid hitman in the country.
 * Robby Reed – When Robby Reed's H-Dial was rusted, he ended up turning into evil versions of some of his hero forms.
 * Rocky Goober
 * Roxanne Roller – A roller-skating villain seeking vengeance against rock stars who supposedly spurned her.
 * Rubberneck – Perry Skope villain with super-strength and suggestions of a rubbery resiliency. This character appears in the Batman: The Brave and the Bold episode "Long Arm of the Law". An action figure was created based on this sole appearance.
 * Puttyface – Mal E. Able is the partner of Rubberneck.
 * Ruby Ryder – A ruthless business woman and owner of Ruby Ryder Inc. who fought Plastic Man and Batman. She first appeared in the Batman: The Brave and the Bold episode "Bold Beginnings!".
 * SAPMALAL – Short for Society to Assassinate Plastic Man And Live A Little, they are a group who is out to eliminate Plastic Man.
 * Assassin – A member of SAPMALAL who Plastic Man poses as.
 * Ivan Byturnozov – A member of SAPMALAL.
 * Jean Le Feet – A member of SAPMALAL.
 * Lefty McGoon – A member of SAPMALAL.
 * Sir Reginald Ratfinque – A member of SAPMALAL.
 * Sadly Sadly – A man whose face is so pathetic that banks hand over money.
 * Saxon – A crook who always speaks in alliteration.
 * Skulllface –
 * Eloc – Eloc is Cole spelled backwards.
 * Skunk – AKA the B.O. Bandit, the Skunk emanated an excruciatingly foul odor as a result of having never, in his entire life, bathed.
 * Sleepy Eyes – A supervillain who puts people to sleep just by looking at them.
 * Slick Dandy
 * Sludge – A monster spawned from sludge.
 * Snuffer – A cyborg killer in the employ of Rice O'Rooney, the San Francisco hitman directed the mechanical assassin to kill Plastic Man for Boss Annova.
 * Sphinx – A super-strong crook that once tried to take over Doctor Dome's territory.
 * '''Spider - Frank Stacy is a scientist who operated as a spider-themed villain.
 * Stickyfinger – A criminal who has been sticking up a lot of people around Mammoth City.
 * Stretcho
 * Supreme Leader –
 * Toyman – A toy-themed criminal and enemy of Superman. Plastic Man once helped Superman fight Toyman.
 * Thrilla
 * Time Trapper II – Poison Ivy mind-controlled Metron to pose as Time Trapper.
 * Weasel – Mr. Waisel is a criminal who took advantage of Plastic Man's amnesia.
 * Weapons
 * Whirling Dervish – Big-toed ballet dancer turned assassin. Murdered by Pinkeye.
 * Words
 * The Yes-Man – A crime boss who only says Yes until Plastic Man forces him to say No at which time he snaps.
 * Zircon –

The Dark Knight Strikes Again
In Batman: The Dark Knight Strikes Again (2001—2002), Frank Miller's miniseries (set on DC's new Earth-31 in post-Infinite Crisis continuity), Plastic Man was betrayed and locked in Arkham Asylum for years with his body forced into a perpetual egg-like shape by a pressurizing machine. The imprisonment and confinement drove him insane, and upon his release he lashed out at those around him. He fights Elongated Man, having the upper hand until Batman brings Plastic Man to his senses with a punch to the face. Batman declares that Plastic Man is the most powerful superhero in the room. Carrie Kelley (as Catgirl) describes him as being: "Immeasurably powerful. Absolutely nuts". In this continuity, he appears with silver hair and a few wrinkles.

All Star Batman and Robin
Plastic Man appears in issue #5 All Star Batman and Robin, also written by Miller, as a founding member of a proto-Justice League along with Wonder Woman, Superman, and Green Lantern Hal Jordan.

Kyle Baker's Plastic Man
Plastic Man (2004–2006), written and illustrated by Kyle Baker, harkens back to the Jack Cole version of Plastic Man featuring Eel O'Brian tended to by a monk in a mountain retreat following the events of his normal origin story. Inspired by the monk's kindness, Eel resolves to use his powers for good, becoming the crime fighter Plastic Man, and works for the FBI. In this series, Plastic Man gets a girlfriend (FBI Special Agent Morgan, later revealed as the surgically altered fiancée named Nancy who Plas' alter ego had left in the 1940s), and adopts a Goth teenage daughter, Edwina. The series won five Eisner Awards for Best New Series, Best Title for Younger Readers, Best Writer/Artist: Humor and one Harvey Award for Best New Series.

Tangent Comics
In the Tangent Comics imprint, set on the alternate universe Earth-9, Plastic Man is a member of the Secret Six. He is scientist Gunther Ganz, whose consciousness has been transferred to a "living polymer".

JLA/Avengers
In the DC Comics/Marvel Comics intercompany crossover JLA/Avengers, Plastic Man is a member of the JLA and teams with Martian Manhunter in the Marvel locale of Wakanda, where the two encounter the Marvel characters the Wasp and the Black Panther. Plastic Man is replaced by DC Comics' Elongated Man after the merging of worlds.

Flashpoint
In the alternate timeline of the Flashpoint event, Eel O'Brian is a villain. After Heat Wave was sent to death row for killing Jason Rusch, O'Brian arrives to break him out in the flying fortress of the military Doom prison, having been hiding, disguised in the body of his cellmate Cluemaster. During the prison break, O'Brian dislikes being called "Plastic Man", when inmate Sportsmaster calls him this. While O'Brian helps him to retrieve his weapons, he discovers Heat Wave attacking the guards' control room and attempting to ram the flying prison at Cyborg's home city of Detroit. O'Brian refuses to let him destroy the city, but Heat Wave turns on him and seems to kill Plastic Man by using his flame gun to melt his body. After Heat Wave is defeated by Cyborg and imprisoned in Belle Reve, O'Brian is revealed to have survived the flame gun attack and smuggles himself into the prison in Heat Wave's new cellmate's body, where he is later shown advancing on Heat Wave.

Wednesday Comics
In the collected edition of Wednesday Comics (200 pages, DC Comics, June 2010, ISBN 1-4012-2747-3), Plastic Man is featured in a story by Evan Dorkin with art by Stephen DeStefano. Plastic Man and Woozy battle Professor Grushenko at the museum over a magic elixir with resulting hijinks.

Television

 * A "Plastic Man" pilot was planned first by Hal Seeger Productions, then by Filmation, though neither came to pass.
 * Plastic Man makes a cameo appearance in the Super Friends episode "Professor Goodfellow's G.E.E.C.", voiced by Norman Alden.
 * Plastic Man appears in The Plastic Man Comedy/Adventure Show, voiced by Michael Bell. This version is an operative of an unnamed covert agency partnered with a bumbling Hawaiian sidekick named Hula-Hula, his girlfriend Penny, and eventually his son Baby Plas. Additionally, Taylor Marks portrays Plastic Man in the syndicated version of the series.
 * Warner Bros. Animation and Cartoon Network commissioned a Plastic Man television pilot, "Puddle Trouble", in 2006, produced by Andy Suriano and Tom Kenny, with the latter also providing Plastic Man's voice, and designed and storyboarded by Stephen DeStefano. However, Cartoon Network decided not to pick up Plastic Man as a series and has never aired the episode. "Puddle Trouble" was later released on the Plastic Man: The Complete Collection DVD set.
 * Plastic Man appears in Batman: The Brave and the Bold, voiced again by Tom Kenny. This version was originally an underling of Kite Man who lived in a suburban home with his family. While joining Kite Man for a heist, Batman intervened, inadvertently caused the accident that turned O'Brian into Plastic Man, and helped him become a superhero. Additionally, an Earth-Three counterpart of Plastic Man named Rubber Man makes a non-speaking appearance in the episode "Deep Cover for Batman!" as a member of the Injustice Syndicate.
 * Plastic Man makes non-speaking cameo appearances in Young Justice. After joining the Justice League in the episode "Revelation", he joins Batman, among other Leaguers, in resigning from the group as part of a pre-planned response to U.N. secretary general Lex Luthor's restrictions against the League so they can operate as vigilantes.
 * Plastic Man appears in the Mad segment "That's What Super Friends Are For", voiced by Dana Snyder.
 * Plastic Man appears in Robot Chicken.
 * Plastic Man appears in the DC Nation Shorts, voiced again by Tom Kenny.
 * Plastic Man appears in Justice League Action, voiced again by Dana Snyder. This version is a member of the Justice League.

Film

 * Warner Bros. Pictures began development on a film centered around Plastic Man in the early 1990s, with Amblin Entertainment producing and Bryan Spicer directing. The Wachowskis wrote the screenplay in 1995.
 * Plastic Man makes a non-speaking cameo appearance in Justice League: The New Frontier.
 * Plastic Man appears in Lego DC Comics Super Heroes: Justice League vs. Bizarro League, voiced again by Tom Kenny.
 * Plastic Man appears in Scooby-Doo! & Batman: The Brave and the Bold, voiced again by Tom Kenny.
 * Kevin Smith stated at Calgary Comic and Entertainment Expo that he met with Geoff Johns and pitched an animated Plastic Man film that he wrote for DC, with Jim Parsons voicing the titular character, before the film was scrapped.
 * In December 2018, development for a new Plastic Man film was announced, with Amanda Idoko writing the screenplay and Robert Shaye as executive producer. In December 2020, it was reported that Cat Vasko was hired to rewrite Idoko's screenplay while the project is being reworked into a female-centered film.
 * Plastic Man appears in Lego DC Comics Super Heroes: The Flash, voiced again by Tom Kenny.
 * Plastic Man appears in Teen Titans Go! To the Movies, voiced by Joey Cappabianca.
 * Plastic Man appears in Injustice, voiced by Oliver Hudson.

Video games

 * Plastic Man appears as a playable character in Batman: The Brave and the Bold – The Videogame, voiced again by Tom Kenny.
 * Plastic Man appears as a character summon in Scribblenauts Unmasked: A DC Comics Adventure.
 * Plastic Man appears as a playable character in Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham, voiced by Dee Bradley Baker.
 * Plastic Man appears as a playable character in Lego DC Super-Villains, voiced by JP Karliak.

Miscellaneous

 * Plastic Man appears in the April 19, 1999 issue of The New Yorker, which included a biography of Jack Cole by Art Spiegelman. Two years later, this would be included in the latter and Chip Kidd's book Jack Cole and Plastic Man: Forms Stretched to Their Limits.
 * Plastic Man appears in the Injustice: Gods Among Us prequel comics. He speaks out against Superman's altered ethics following the Metropolis bombing, but does not get physically involved until Superman arrests his son, Luke. After rescuing Luke and other inmates from the Regime's underwater prison, Plastic Man encourages them to fight against Superman.
 * Plastic Man makes a cameo appearance in the DC Super Hero Girls episode "Welcome to Super Hero High" as a graduate of the eponymous school.
 * Plastic Man appears in the Injustice 2 prequel comic as a member of Batman's Justice League Task Force.
 * Plastic Man appears in Mad Magazine #499.

title: Plastic Man


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Pier

A pier is a raised structure that rises above a body of water and usually juts out from its shore, typically supported by piles or pillars, and provides above-water access to offshore areas. Frequent pier uses include fishing, boat docking and access for both passengers and cargo, and oceanside recreation. Bridges, buildings, and walkways may all be supported by architectural piers. Their open structure allows tides and currents to flow relatively unhindered, whereas the more solid foundations of a quay or the closely spaced piles of a wharf can act as a breakwater, and are consequently more liable to silting. Piers can range in size and complexity from a simple lightweight wooden structure to major structures extended over 1600 m. In American English, a pier may be synonymous with a dock.

Piers have been built for several purposes, and because these different purposes have distinct regional variances, the term pier tends to have different nuances of meaning in different parts of the world. Thus in North America and Australia, where many ports were, until recently, built on the multiple pier model, the term tends to imply a current or former cargo-handling facility. In contrast, in Europe, where ports more often use basins and river-side quays than piers, the term is principally associated with the image of a Victorian cast iron pleasure pier. However, the earliest piers pre-date the Victorian age.

Types
Piers can be categorized into different groupings according to the principal purpose. However, there is considerable overlap between these categories. For example, pleasure piers often also allow for the docking of pleasure steamers and other similar craft, while working piers have often been converted to leisure use after being rendered obsolete by advanced developments in cargo-handling technology. Many piers are floating piers, to ensure that the piers raise and lower with the tide along with the boats tied to them. This prevents a situation where lines become overly taut or loose by rising or lowering tides. An overly taut or loose tie-line can damage boats by pulling them out of the water or allowing them so much leeway that they bang forcefully against the sides of the pier.

Working piers
Working piers were built for the handling of passengers and cargo onto and off ships or (as at Wigan Pier) canal boats. Working piers themselves fall into two different groups. Longer individual piers are often found at ports with large tidal ranges, with the pier stretching far enough off shore to reach deep water at low tide. Such piers provided an economical alternative to impounded docks where cargo volumes were low, or where specialist bulk cargo was handled, such as at coal piers. The other form of working pier, often called the finger pier, was built at ports with smaller tidal ranges. Here the principal advantage was to give a greater available quay length for ships to berth against compared to a linear littoral quayside, and such piers are usually much shorter. Typically each pier would carry a single transit shed the length of the pier, with ships berthing bow or stern in to the shore. Some major ports consisted of large numbers of such piers lining the foreshore, classic examples being the Hudson River frontage of New York, or the Embarcadero in San Francisco.

The advent of container shipping, with its need for large container handling spaces adjacent to the shipping berths, has made working piers obsolete for the handling of general cargo, although some still survive for the handling of passenger ships or bulk cargos. One example, is in use in Progreso, Yucatán, where a pier extends more than 4 miles into the Gulf of Mexico, making it the longest pier in the world. The Progreso Pier supplies much of the peninsula with transportation for the fishing and cargo industries and serves as a port for large cruise ships in the area. Many other working piers have been demolished, or remain derelict, but some have been recycled as pleasure piers. The best known example of this is Pier 39 in San Francisco.

At Southport and the Tweed River on the Gold Coast in Australia, there are piers that support equipment for a sand bypassing system that maintains the health of sandy beaches and navigation channels.

Pleasure piers
Pleasure piers were first built in Britain during the early 19th century. The earliest structures were Ryde Pier, built in 1813/4, Trinity Chain Pier near Leith, built in 1821, Brighton Chain Pier, built in 1823. and Margate Jetty 1823/24 originally a timber built pier. Only the oldest of these piers still remains. At that time, the introduction of steamships and railways for the first time permitted mass tourism to dedicated seaside resorts. The large tidal ranges at many such resorts meant that passengers arriving by pleasure steamer could use a pier to disembark safely. Also, for much of the day, the sea was not visible from the shore and the pleasure pier permitted holidaymakers to promenade over and alongside the sea at all times. The world's longest pleasure pier is at Southend-on-Sea, Essex, and extends 1.3 miles (2.1 km) into the Thames Estuary. The longest pier on the West Coast of the US is the Santa Cruz Wharf, with a length of 2745 ft.

Providing a walkway out to sea, pleasure piers often include amusements and theatres as part of their attractions. Such a pier may be unroofed, closed, or partly open and partly closed. Sometimes a pier has two decks. Galveston Island Historic Pleasure Pier in Galveston, Texas has a roller coaster, 15 rides, carnival games and souvenir shops.

Early pleasure piers were of complete timber construction, as was with Margate which opened in 1824. The first iron and timber built pleasure pier Margate Jetty, opened in 1855. Margate pier was wrecked by a storm in January 1978 and not repaired. The longest iron pleasure pier still remaining is the one at Southend. First opened as a wooden pier in 1829, it was reconstructed in iron and completed in 1889. In a 2006 UK poll, the public voted the seaside pier onto the list of icons of England.

Fishing piers
Many piers are built for the purpose of providing boatless anglers access to fishing grounds that are otherwise inaccessible. Many "Free Piers" are available in larger harbors which differ from private piers. Free Piers are often primarily used for fishing. Fishing from a pier presents a set of different circumstances to fishing from the shore or beach, as you do not need to cast out into the deeper water. This being the case there are specific fishing rigs that have been created specifically for pier fishing which allow for the direct access to deeper water.

Belgium
In Blankenberge a first pleasure pier was built in 1894. After its destruction in the World War I, a new pier was built in 1933. It remained till the present day, but was partially transformed and modernized in 1999–2004.

In Nieuwpoort, Belgium there is a pleasure pier on both sides of the river IJzer.

Netherlands
Scheveningen, the coastal resort town of The Hague, boasts the largest pier in the Netherlands, completed in 1961. A crane, built on top of the pier's panorama tower, provides the opportunity to make a 60 m high bungee jump over the North Sea waves. The present pier is a successor of an earlier pier, which was completed in 1901 but in 1943 destroyed by the German occupation forces.

England and Wales
The first recorded pier in England was Ryde Pier, opened in 1814 on the Isle of Wight, as a landing stage to allow ferries to and from the mainland to berth. It is still used for this purpose today. It also had a leisure function in the past, with the pier head once containing a pavilion, and there are still refreshment facilities today. The oldest cast iron pier in the world is Town Pier, Gravesend, in Kent, which opened in 1834. However, it is not recognised by the National Piers Society as being a seaside pier.

Following the building of the world's first seaside pier at Ryde, the pier became fashionable at seaside resorts in England and Wales during the Victorian era, peaking in the 1860s with 22 being built in that decade. A symbol of the typical British seaside holiday, by 1914, more than 100 pleasure piers were located around the UK coast. Regarded as being among the finest Victorian architecture, there are still a significant number of seaside piers of architectural merit still standing, although some have been lost, including Margate, two at Brighton in East Sussex, one at New Brighton in the Wirral and three at Blackpool in Lancashire. Two piers, Brighton's now derelict West Pier and Clevedon Pier, were Grade 1 listed. The Birnbeck Pier in Weston-super-Mare is the only pier in the world linked to an island. The National Piers Society gives a figure of 55 surviving seaside piers in England and Wales.

title: Pier