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New York City Fire Department

The New York City Fire Department, officially the Fire Department of the City of New York (FDNY) is the full-service fire department of New York City, serving all five boroughs. The FDNY is responsible for fire suppression and fire prevention, and is a major provider of EMS services in New York City. Beyond fire suppression and EMS, the FDNY is responsible for a broad range of services, including technical rescue, CBRN defense, and structural collapse response and analysis. The FDNY is equipped with a wide variety of general-purpose and specialized Vehicles,Tools and Equipment to serve its varied missions.

The New York City Fire Department is the largest municipal fire department in both North America, and the Western Hemisphere, and the second largest in the world after the Tokyo Fire Department. The FDNY employs over 11,000 uniformed firefighting employees, 4,274 uniformed EMS employees, and 2,096 civilian employees. Its regulations are compiled in title 3 of the New York City Rules. The FDNY's motto is "New York's Bravest" for fire, and "New York's Best" for EMS. The FDNY serves more than 8.5 million residents within a 302 sqmi area.

The FDNY headquarters is located at 9 MetroTech Center in Downtown Brooklyn, and the FDNY Fire Academy is located on Randalls Island. The International Association of Fire Fighters (IAFF) locals are 94, 854, and 4959. EMS is represented by DC 37 Locals 2507 for EMTs and paramedics and Local 3621 for officers.

Organization

Like most fire departments of major cities in the United States, the New York City Fire Department is organized in a paramilitary fashion, and in many cases, echoes the structure of the police department. The department's executive staff is divided into two areas that include a civilian Fire Commissioner who serves as the head of the department and a Chief of Department who serves as the operational leader. The current NYC Fire Commissioner is Laura Kavanagh, who succeeded Daniel A. Nigro in February 2022. The executive staff includes several civilian deputy commissioners who are responsible for the many administrative bureaus within the department, along with the Chief of Department, Chief of Fire Operations, Chief of EMS, Chief Fire Marshal, Chief of Training and other staff chiefs. Staff chiefs include the seven citywide tour commanders, the Chief of Fire Prevention, and the Chief of Safety.

Operationally and geographically, the department is organized into five borough commands for each of the five Boroughs of New York City. Each borough command has a borough commander. For Manhattan, this commander is an Assistant Chief, whereas each of the other four borough commanders are deputy assistant chiefs. Within those five borough commands exists nine firefighting divisions, each of which are headed by a deputy chief, who also has several deputy chiefs to help run the division when the deputy chief is not on duty. Within each division are four to seven battalions, each led by a battalion chief. The lead battalion chief for the battalion is the battalion commander and the others are battalion chiefs. Each battalion consists of three to eight firehouses and consists of approximately 180–200 firefighters and officers. Each firehouse consists of one to three fire companies. Each fire company is led by a captain, who commands three lieutenants and twelve to twenty firefighters. Tours can be either night tours (6 p.m. – 9 a.m.) or day tours (9 a.m. – 6 p.m.). Under a swapping system called “mutuals”, most firefighters combine tours and work a 24-hour shift, followed by three days off. In one tour or shift, each company is commanded by an officer (lieutenant or captain) and is made up of four to five firefighters for engine companies, five firefighters for ladder companies, rescue companies, or squad companies, and six firefighters for the hazardous materials company.

The FDNY faces highly multifaceted firefighting challenges in many ways unique to New York. In addition to responding to building types that range from wood-frame single family homes to high-rise structures, there are many secluded bridges and tunnels, the New York City Subway system, as well as large parks and wooded areas that can give rise to brush fires.

The FDNY also responds to many other incidents such as auto accidents, auto extrications, gas emergencies, entrapments, construction accidents, high-angle rescues, trench rescues, confined space incidents, explosions, transit incidents, unstable buildings or collapses, hazardous materials incidents, medical emergencies and many more.

1648–1865
The origins of the New York City Fire Department go back to 1648 when the first fire ordinance was adopted in what was then the Dutch settlement of New Amsterdam. Peter Stuyvesant, within one year of his arrival, appointed four fire wardens to wooden chimneys of thatched-roofed wooden houses, charging a penalty to owners whose chimneys were improperly swept. The first four fire wardens were Martin Krieger, Thomas Hall, Adrian Wyser, and George Woolsey.

Hooks, ladders and buckets were financed through the collection of fines for dirty chimneys, and a fire watch was established, consisting of eight wardens which were drawn from the male population. An organisation known as the prowlers but given the nickname the rattle watch patrolled the streets with buckets, ladders and hooks from nine in the evening until dawn looking for fires. Leather shoe buckets, 250 in all, were manufactured by local Dutch shoemakers in 1658, and these bucket brigades are regarded as the beginning of the New York Fire Department.

In 1664, New Amsterdam became an English settlement and was renamed New York. The first New York fire brigade entered service in 1731 equipped with two hand-drawn pumpers which had been transported from London, England. These two pumpers formed Engine Company 1 and Engine Company 2. These were the first fire engines to be used in the American colonies, and all able-bodied citizens were required to respond to a fire alarm and to participate in the extinguishing under the supervision of the Aldermen.

The city's first firehouse was built in 1736 in front of City Hall on Broad Street. A year later, on December 16, 1737, the colony's General Assembly created the Volunteer Fire Department of the City of New York, appointing 30 men who would remain on call in exchange for exemption from jury and militia duty. The city's first official firemen were required to be "able, discreet, and sober men who shall be known as Firemen of the City of New York, to be ready for service by night and by day and be diligent, industrious and vigilant."

Although the 1737 Act created the basis of the fire department, the actual legal entity was incorporated in the State of New York on March 20, 1798 under the name of "Fire Department, City of New York."

The city's oldest fire company still in operation was organized July 10, 1772 as Hook and Ladder Co. 1. The company was disbanded in 1776 when the British Army invaded Manhattan following the Continental Army's loss at the Battle of Brooklyn and the resulting loss of Manhattan after the Landing at Kip's Bay, and most of the firefighters making up the company fled the city. Following the British Evacuation of New York in November 1783, on June 16, 1784, Mutual Hook and Ladder 1 was reorganized. The company operated continuously during the volunteer fire department days, and on the organization of the Paid System, Hook and Ladder Company No.1 was created September 8, 1865, using the same location, the same truck and the same red cap fronts as Mutual Hook and Ladder No.1 did, and nine of her twelve members had served in the old company. It was the only company that was continued with the same number and location, and might be said that Hook and Ladder Company No. 1 has had a continuous existence since June 16, 1784. The company has moved firehouses several times since its inception, and has been housed at 100 Duane Street in Tribeca since December 31, 1905, with Engine 7 and Battalion 1. The company later became the first Tower Ladder company in the city in 1964.

In 1845, the last great fire to affect Manhattan began early in the morning and was subdued that afternoon. The fire killed four firefighters, 26 civilians, and destroyed 345 buildings.

1865–1898

In 1865, the volunteer fire department was abolished by a state act which created the Metropolitan Fire District and the Metropolitan Fire Department (MFD). This effectively gave control of the fire departments in the cities of New York and Brooklyn to the Governor who appointed his Board of Commissioners. There was never any effective incorporation of the fire departments of the two cities during this period. It wasn't until the Greater City of New York was consolidated in 1898 that the two were combined under one common organization or organizational structure. The change met with a mixed reaction from the citizens, and some of the eliminated volunteers became bitter and resentful, which resulted in both political battles and street fights. The insurance companies in the city, however, finally won the battle and had the volunteers replaced with paid firefighters. The members of the paid fire department were primarily selected from the prior volunteers. All of the volunteer's apparatus, including their fire houses, were seized by the state who made use of them to form the new organization and form the basis of the current FDNY. The MFD lasted until 1870 when the Tweed Charter ended state control in the city. As a result, a new Board of Fire Commissioners was created and the original name of the Fire Department City of New York (FDNY) was reinstated.

Initially, the paid fire service only covered present day Manhattan, until the act of 1865 which united Brooklyn with Manhattan to form the Metropolitan District. The same year the fire department consisted of 13 Chief Officers and 552 Company Officers and firemen. The officers and firemen worked a continuous tour of duty, with three hours a day off for meals and one day off a month, and were paid salaries according to their rank or grade. 1865 also saw the first adoption of regulations, although they were fairly strict and straitlaced. Following several large fires in 1866 (which resulted in excessive fire losses and a rise in insurance rates), the fire department was reorganized under the command of General Alexander Shaler, and with military discipline the paid department reached its full potential which resulted in a general reduction in fire losses. In 1870, the merit system of promotion in the Fire Department was established. Southwestern Westchester County (which would later become the western Bronx) was annexed by New York in 1874; as a result, the volunteers there were phased out and replaced by the paid department. This pattern was repeated as City services expanded elsewhere.

1898–2001
On January 1, 1898, the different areas of New York were consolidated, which ushered the Fire Department into a new era. All the fire forces in the various sections were brought under the unified command of the first Commissioner in the history of the Fire Department. This same year, Richmond (now Staten Island) became a part of the City of New York. However, the volunteer units there remained in place until they were gradually replaced by paid units in 1915, 1928, 1932 and 1937, when only two volunteer units remained, Oceanic Hook & Ladder Vol Engine and Richmond Fire.

The unification of the Fire Department, which took place in 1898, would pave the way for many changes. In 1909, the Fire Department received its first piece of motorized fire apparatus. On March 25, 1911 a fire in the Triangle Shirtwaist Company killed 146 workers, most of whom were young female immigrants. Later the same year the fire college was formed to train new fire fighters, and on May 1, 1913 the Bureau of Fire Prevention was created.

In 1919, the Uniformed Firefighters Association was formed. Tower ladders and the SuperPumper System were introduced in 1965. Major apparatus of the SuperPumper System (the SuperPumper and the SuperTender) was phased out in 1982, in favor of the Maxi-Water Unit. But the 5 Satellite Units of the system, together with the Maxi-Water Unit (known as Satellite 6 since 1999) are still actively used as of 2007 for multiple alarm fires and certain other incidents. These are now called the Satellite Water System. Other technical advances included the introduction of high pressure water systems, the creation of a Marine fleet, adoption of vastly improved working conditions and the utilization of improved radio communications.

On November 23, 1965, incoming Mayor Lindsay announced the appointment of Robert O. Lowery as Fire Commissioner of the New York City Fire Department. His was the first commissioner level appointment announced by the Mayor-elect. Lowery, who was the first African American to serve as a Fire Commissioner of a major U.S. city, served in that position for more than seven years until his resignation on September 29, 1973 in order to campaign for then-Controller Abraham D. Beame, the Democratic candidate for Mayor.

In 1977, the New York City Fire Department announced that women could take the exam to become firefighters. After passing the written portion of the exam, Brenda Berkman and 89 other women subsequently failed the physical portion. It was stated by an official that their physical test was “the most difficult the department had ever administered, [and] was designed more to keep women out than to accurately assess job-related skills.” After Berkman's requests for a fairer test were ignored, she filed an ultimately successful class-action lawsuit: Brenda Berkman, et al. v. The City of New York (1982). A new test was created in which standards were changed so the test was job-related and Berkman with about 40 other women passed to enter the fire academy in 1982. (See Brenda Berkman, et al. v. The City of New York, CV-79-1813, 536 F. Supp. 177 (E.D.N.Y. 1982), aff’d Berkman v. City of New York, 705 F.2d 584 (2d Cir. 1983.))

The Waldbaum's supermarket fire was a major fire on August 2, 1978 in Sheepshead Bay, Brooklyn, New York that killed six FDNY firefighters.

On March 17, 1996, Mayor Rudy Giuliani merged the emergency medical services of the NYC Health and Hospitals Corporation into the FDNY.

September 11, 2001 attacks

On September 11, 2001, American Airlines Flight 11 and United Airlines Flight 175 were hijacked by two separate groups of five Islamic terrorists affiliated with Al Qaeda and flown into the World Trade Center's North and South Towers, respectively, causing massive damage to both towers during impact, and starting fires that caused the weakened 110-story skyscrapers to collapse within less than two hours. FDNY fire companies and EMS crews were deployed to the World Trade Center minutes after Flight 11 struck the north tower. Chief officers set up a command center in the lobby as first arriving units entered the tower and firefighters began climbing the stairs. A mobile command center was also set up outside on Vesey Street, but was destroyed when the towers collapsed. A command post was then set up at a firehouse in Greenwich Village. The FDNY deployed 121 engine companies, 62 truck companies, five rescue companies, six squad companies, 27 Chief Officers, along with many other units to the site, with more than 1,000 firefighters, EMTs and paramedics on the scene when the towers collapsed.

Many firefighters arrived at the World Trade Center without meeting at the command centers. Problems with radio communication caused commanders to lose contact with many of the firefighters who went into the towers; those firefighters were unable to hear evacuation orders. There was practically no communication with the New York City Police Department, which had helicopters at the scene. When the towers collapsed, hundreds were trapped within and 343 fire department members along with 1 fire patrolman were killed. The fatalities included First Deputy Commissioner William M. Feehan, Chief of Department Peter Ganci, Department Chaplain Mychal Judge, Battalion Chief Orio Palmer and Fire Marshal Ronald Paul Bucca. Hundreds of firefighter funerals were held in the weeks to follow, including 16 in one day on Saturday, September 29, 2001.

Following the attacks, citywide fire response times that day rose by just one minute, to an average of 5.5 minutes. Many of the surviving firefighters continued to work alternating 24-hour shifts during the rescue and recovery effort, and they were joined by other firefighters and EMS personnel from hundreds of miles around New York City. Among the arriving units were career and volunteer personnel from Upstate New York, Long Island, Connecticut, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Florida.

2002–present
In the aftermath of the September 11, 2001 attacks, the Fire Department has rebuilt itself and continues to serve the people of New York. During the Northeast Blackout of 2003, FDNY was called on to rescue hundreds of people from stranded elevators in approximately 800 Manhattan high-rise office and apartment buildings. The entire fire department was held over from the day tour to almost double the total force to 3,401 firefighters to handle the many fires which resulted, reportedly from people using candles for light.

At the beginning of the 21st century, there were 11,400 uniformed fire officers and firefighters under the command of the Chief of Department. The New York City Fire Department also employed 2800 Emergency Medical Technicians, Paramedics and Supervisors assigned to Department's EMS Command, and 1200 civilian employees.

In 2003, Mayor Bloomberg ordered the closure of six Engine Companies, four in Brooklyn (Engine 204, Engine 209, Engine 212, Engine 278), one in Manhattan (Engine 36), and one in Queens (Engine 261). In 2019 Lillian Bonsignore became the first openly gay and the first female chief of EMS Operations for the FDNY.

Laura Kavanagh is the current commissioner of the FDNY. She was appointed to the position by New York City mayor Eric Adams in February 2022 while a permanent replacement was being sought. Daniel A. Nigro retired on February 16, 2022 after serving as commissioner for 8 years.

Allegations of race discrimination
Over the years, the FDNY has faced and has settled numerous discrimination lawsuits alleging that the FDNY engages in a culture where hiring discrimination towards racial minorities and discrimination towards racial minorities employed by the FDNY by passing them over for raises and promotions is encouraged. Most notably in 2014, the City of New York made a $98 million discrimination lawsuit settlement for a lawsuit brought by the Vulcan Society, an African-American firefighter fraternal organization. There have also been investigations concerning FDNY firefighters engaging in bullying and harassing behavior of Muslim firefighters including behavior such as firefighters trying to slip pork products, which are prohibited under Islamic law, into the food of Muslim firefighters. In another case, the son of a former FDNY commissioner was hired as a firefighter despite allegedly making anti-Semitic comments.

Ideology and core competencies

The FDNY derives its name from the Tweed Charter which created the Fire Department of the City of New York. This is in contrast to most other fire departments in the U.S. where the name of the city precedes the words fire department.

Ideology

 * The FDNY ideology of aggressive interior fire attack grew naturally out of the building and population density that characterize the city.
 * The contribution of Irish and Italian Americans to the FDNY dates back to the formation of the paid fire department. During the Civil War, New York's Irish and Italian firefighters were the backbone of the 11th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment (New York Fire Zouaves), a highly decorated unit.
 * Members of the FDNY have the nickname "New York's Bravest."
 * Members of the FDNY EMS have the nickname "New York's Best."
 * In addition to firefighting, technical rescue, and hazardous materials mitigation, FDNY stations ambulances throughout the city, and supplies paramedics and EMTs.

Together with ambulances run by certain participating hospitals (locally known as voluntaries, not to be confused with volunteers) and private companies, it is known as the FDNY EMS Command, which is the largest pre-hospital care provider in the world, responding to over 1.5 million calls each year. All of the FDNY EMS Command members are also trained to the HAZMAT Operations level. A select group of 39 EMS units (18 BLS and 21 ALS) are known as Hazardous Material Tactical Units. Haz-Tac Ambulance members are trained to the level of Hazardous Materials Technician, which allows them to provide emergency medical care and decontamination in hazardous environments, in addition to their normal pre-hospital duties. Of these 39, eleven are also Rescue Paramedic Ambulances, whose crews are additionally trained for: Confined Space Rescue, Trench Rescue, Crush Injuries, and Building Collapse Rescues. Both the Rescue Medics and Haztac units operate with additional, exclusive protocols and specialized medical equipment.

Core competencies
A citywide Incident Management System plan released by the Office of the Mayor on May 14, 2004 set forth several "core competencies," which determine which agency has the authority to direct operations. FDNY core competencies include:
 * Fire suppression
 * Pre-hospital emergency medical care
 * Search and rescue
 * Structural evacuation
 * CBRNE/HAZMAT life safety and mass decontamination
 * Cause and origin, and arson investigations
 * Fire prevention inspections

Training
Located centrally at the Training Academy on Randall's Island, the Bureau of Training is responsible for all firefighter training needs for the Fire Department of New York. Initial training of all firefighter candidates undergo an 18-week academy that consists of classroom education and physical fitness performance. EMS training occurs at The FDNY EMS Academy located at Fort Totten (Queens) where EMT training is 13–18 weeks and paramedic training is 9 months.

Communications
There are two Bureau of Fire Communications Dispatch Offices: Public Safety Answering Center 1 (PSAC 1) located at 11 Metrotech Center, Brooklyn, and Public Safety Answering Center 2 (PSAC 2) located at 350 Marconi Street, Bronx. PSAC 1 covers Brooklyn, Staten Island and Citywide which is part of the Joint Operation Center as of October 2020. PSAC 2 covers the Bronx, Manhattan and Queens.

An initial call to an FDNY Communications Dispatch Office is taken by the Alarm Receipt Dispatcher (ARD), who speaks with the caller in order to determine the nature of the emergency. The ARD interrogates the caller to ascertain pertinent information and processes it into the Starfire computer system, which generates an incident and provides a recommended fire department resource response based on the information provided. This information is automatically sent to the Decision Dispatcher (DD).

When the Decision Dispatcher has made a decision as to what units will actually be assigned to the incident, unless the supervisor intervenes, the dispatcher releases the incident with assigned companies. An alarm is routed to the assigned companies, both in their respective firehouses and to the individual mobile data terminals (MDT), of each company's apparatus when it is in the field, depending on where the Starfire computer shows them to be situated. If a company/unit in a firehouse does not acknowledge the run within 30 seconds, the computer will notify the Voice Alarm Dispatcher (VAD), who will call that unit via radio in their firehouse by the dedicated intercom system. One minute after the alarm is released, it will appear on the computer screen of the radio dispatcher (Radio), who will announce the alarm and the response two times, and ask for acknowledgment from any companies assigned who have not done so by radio, voice alarm, or MDT. The radio dispatcher has a special keyboard called the Status Entry Panel (SEP), which is used to update the status of units based on information received by radio.

The entire process from initial notification until a unit is dispatched can take up to two minutes, depending on the complexity of the call, the information provided by the caller(s), and the degree of other alarm activity in the office. If a dispatch office is so busy that its incoming telephone alarm lines are all occupied or not answered within 30 seconds, the call is automatically transferred to another borough dispatch office. If an Emergency Reporting System (ERS) street fire alarm box is not answered within 60 seconds, usually because all of the alarm receipt consoles are in use, the computer automatically dispatches an engine company to the location of the physical street fire alarm box.

Any communications dispatch office in the city can take a fire or emergency call by telephone for any borough, and upon completion of information taking, the incident will automatically be routed by the Starfire computer to the Decision Dispatcher (DD) for the borough in which the incident is reported.

Fire Dispatch has a minimum staffing (Staffing Level 1), which consist of one Chief Dispatcher, who supervises five Tour Supervising Dispatchers (1 in each Borough). The TSDs supervises between 4–8 Dispatchers, depending on Borough and Time/Day. The minimum staffing may be increased based on many variables, such as: an extraordinary increase in volume of incidents, a catastrophic event, in preparation of a storm, and during large events.

Alarm receipt and transmittal
There are four ways in which fires and emergencies can be reported to the New York City Fire Department: telephone alarms; fire alarm boxes; "Class 3" alarms; verbal alarms.
 * Telephone alarms are the most common method of contacting the fire department. A telephone alarm is an alarm in which a civilian uses a telephone to dial one of three types of numbers: The first is 9-1-1, which is answered by New York City Police Department (NYPD) operators. The NYPD operators will then transfer the call to a fire department communications office. The second involves dialing "0" which routes the call to a telephone company operator, who then transfers the call to the fire dispatchers in the proper borough dispatch office. The third is a special seven-digit telephone number, which is published in each borough for the specific purpose of reporting fires. This number is a direct contact to a particular borough's fire department communications dispatch office.
 * Fire alarm boxes are the second most common method of contacting the fire department. FDNY fire alarm boxes are located on certain street corners and in certain public buildings, such as schools and hospitals, as well as along highways, on bridges, etc. These boxes primarily consist of two types: The first is the mechanical box (also commonly called a pull-box or a telegraph box), in which a spring-wound mechanism alternately opens and closes an electrical circuit, thereby rendering a coded number linked to the specific location of the box. Until the advent of the Starfire "Computer-Assisted Dispatch System" (CADS), dispatchers had to audibly count the taps from mechanical boxes when they were received in the central offices to decipher the number of the box that was pulled. Today, a "Box Alarm Readout System" (BARS) display handles that aspect of the job; The second type is the "Emergency Reporting System" (ERS) box that is equipped with buttons to notify either the FDNY or the NYPD, allowing either department's dispatcher to have direct voice communication with the reporting party. Beginning in the 1970s, ERS boxes started to replace mechanical boxes in many areas of the city, particularly where the number of false alarms involving mechanical boxes were high. In December 1994, then-Mayor Rudolph Giuliani and then-Fire Commissioner Howard Safir began a concerted effort to remove all of the mechanical and ERS boxes throughout New York City in a cost-cutting move. Facing stiff opposition from members of the city council, community groups, dispatchers, and others, the move was blocked by court order as being discriminatory against the disabled (i.e., particularly the speech- and/or hearing-impaired) who—along with the poor—might otherwise have no dependable way to report fires and emergencies if the alarm boxes were eliminated. (In addition, unlike many other cities in the world, it was noted that 117 different languages and dialects are spoken by the residents of and visitors to the city. Since, unlike telephones, a fire alarm box requires no verbal contact to indicate its exact location, a person would not have to be able to speak—at all—or to understand English in order to alert the FDNY or NYPD to a fire or other emergency. For this reason, as well, the boxes were recognized as being vital to New Yorkers' safety.) The court order to block the removal of the boxes provided a means for people to report emergencies during the 2003 blackout, when other forms of communication were cut off. The fire alarm boxes, independent of outside power, continued to function the entire time.
 * "Class 3" alarms are less common than the first two means of reporting fires. A "Class 3" alarm is one of three numerical classes of alarms given by the FDNY's Bureau of Communications to alert the fire department to automatic fire alarm systems, which are routed through commercial alarm companies. These firms monitor sprinkler systems, standpipes, smoke detectors, and internal pull-stations in non-public occupancies, such as: factories, warehouses, stores, and office buildings. When alarms are received from such accounts, these companies pass along the information to the FDNY central offices, usually by dedicated telephone circuits. The term "Class 3" was derived from the fact that the box number on such an assignment card would have a "3" preceding it, in addition to a "terminal" following it (e.g., "3-7012-4" would indicate a private alarm system in a commercial occupancy at a specific address, in the immediate vicinity of Box 7012, on the corner of Review Avenue and Laurel Hill Boulevard in Queens). In such cases, the type of alarm (e.g., sprinkler, smoke detector, interior pull-station, etc.) and an exact address—and, often, even a specific section of a building—would instantly be made available to responding units.)
 * Verbal alarms are the least common means of reporting fires or emergencies, and generally involves civilians "verbally" making such reports directly to firehouses or fire companies. This can include incidents that are observed by fire units themselves when they are away from their quarters. However, "verbal" alarms may also be reported by EMS Bureau personnel, NYPD personnel, chief officers, Department officials (e.g., commissioners, medical officers, chaplains, et al.), or civilian employees of the FDNY (e.g., communications electricians, mechanics, dispatchers, etc.), who observe fires or emergencies in the course of the performance of their duties. If a fire company is available in quarters, it will immediately respond to the incident after advising the dispatchers of the same via telephone, voice alarm, or radio. If the unit is away from its firehouse (e.g., responding to or operating at another alarm, on inspection duty, etc.) at the time, the company will either stop at the new incident and operate, or the officer will request a separate assignment (as the reporting unit is unavailable to operate). Based on the information received by the dispatchers, the appropriate action (e.g., transmitting a new box, etc.) is initiated in regard to the new incident.

When a member of the public dials 911, the caller is connected to a police department operator, who assigns the call to where it needs to go based on the information provided. Fire alarm dispatchers handle comparatively few medical calls made directly to them, since the vast majority of such incidents are routed straight to the FDNY's EMS communications office by the NYPD 9-1-1 operators. However, a medical call that requires the assistance of "first-responder"-trained fire units will have said request routed electronically to the appropriate fire alarm central office, for the assignment of the proper personnel and apparatus.
 * If it is police related, the information is sent to an NYPD radio dispatcher for the precinct or special unit concerned.
 * If it is on a bridge or in a tunnel connected to New Jersey or at Kennedy or LaGuardia Airport, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey is also notified.
 * If it is a fire, haz-mat, or rescue incident, the 9-1-1 operator transfers the call by dedicated phone line to the appropriate FDNY communications dispatch office. (Depending on the type of incident, the NYPD may notify its own Emergency Service Units to respond instead of or along with the Fire Department.)

Box numbers
Each address in the city is assigned a box number, based on the closest street, special building, or highway box. The term "box" refers to the Fire Alarm Boxes, which at one time lined street corners and in front of certain buildings. Each Fire Alarm Box was given a specific number by the FDNY's Bureau of Communications. Even if the physical fire alarm box is no longer at a specific address or street corner, the address or street corner is still assigned that fire alarm box's number. Box numbers can be duplicated in different boroughs, which is why they are always identified by borough name or numerical prefix on the computer (66 for Bronx and Manhattan, 77 for Brooklyn, 88 for Staten Island and 99 for Queens). If there is also a street address given to the dispatchers, the responding apparatus will get this information in the firehouse, over the air, and via their mobile data terminals in the rigs—in addition to the Box number. At present, there are about 16,000 physical fire alarm street boxes in New York City, with many additional special building boxes and highway boxes, as well as "dummy boxes" used for special response assignments. In addition there are two airport crash boxes, one in the LaGuardia Tower, (Queens Box 37), and one in the JFK Tower, (Queens Box 269), which can only be activated by the personnel in these towers. When either box is sounded, it brings an automatic second alarm (2–2) response of equipment, along with various special units.

Critical Information Dispatch System
Critical Information Dispatch System (CIDS, pronounced by the dispatcher as "Sids") data is transmitted to units in the firehouse and en route. It is information that is collected about a building during inspections and by public input, which would affect fire-fighting operations. For example:
 * Warehoused apartments.
 * Type and length of line stretch (or hose).
 * Number of apartment units per floor.
 * Unsafe conditions, standpipe conditions, and anything else the Bureau of Fire Communications or the FDNY Staff Chiefs deem important.

This information is printed on the fire ticket, and can be read by the dispatcher if requested. This information is also read automatically when a signal 10–75 (working fire) or higher signal is given, or when the supervising dispatcher deems it is important for the units to have it before arrival at an incident.

Radio and bell code signals
The New York City Fire Department utilizes a system of ten-code radio signals, in addition to an internal one involving "bell codes" (that their origin to the days when coded telegraph signals were sent over a closed, wired system within the Department) to transmit and relay information involving both emergency communications and general, Departmental operations. There are fifty-five "10-codes" used by the Department. There are also sub-codes specific to certain "10-codes." The FDNY is currently one of the last, large fire departments in the country using "10-Codes," as opposed to "plain English," to communicate information by radio.

Fire companies and specialty/support units
The New York City Fire Department is made up of fire companies, similar to military companies. Each fire company operates a single type of Fire apparatus, and has four shifts of firefighters and company officers. Each company responds to emergency calls from one of the city's 218 firehouses.

There are currently six different types of fire companies in the New York Fire Department, which all operate distinct types of apparatus: 197 engine companies, 143 ladder (or truck) companies, 5 rescue companies, 8 squad companies, 3 marine (or fireboat) companies, and the hazardous materials (hazmat) company. In addition to these six types of fire companies, there are numerous other specialized units that are operated by the Special Operations Command (S.O.C.), the Haz-Mat. Division, and the Marine Division. Each fire company has a specific role at the scene of an emergency.

Each type of fire company utilizes a certain type of fire apparatus, colloquially known as "rigs". Engine companies may be known as “engines” and ladder companies may be known as “trucks.”

Engine companies
FDNY engine companies are tasked with fire suppression, which includes: securing a water supply from a fire hydrant, deploying handlines, then extinguishing a fire. These units respond to other emergencies as well. The apparatus of an engine is known as a pumper truck, and carries a pump (usually 1,000–2,000 gallons per minute), a water tank (usually 500 gallons), fire hoses of varying diameters (usually 1 3/4", 2 1/2", 3 1/2" and 4") in 50' lengths, emergency medical services supplies, ground extension ladders, and an assortment of basic firefighting and rescue tools. There are 197 Engine Companies in the FDNY.

Ladder companies (truck companies)
FDNY ladder companies (also known as truck companies) are tasked with forcible entry, search and rescue, ventilation, and ladder-pipe operations at the scene of a fire. They also respond to a variety of specialized emergencies. A ladder company can operate three types of ladder trucks: a rear mounted aerial ladder truck, equipped with a 100' aerial ladder mounted at the rear of the apparatus; a tower ladder truck, equipped with either a 75' or 95' telescoping boom and bucket mounted in the center of the apparatus; and a tractor-drawn aerial ladder truck known as a "hook and ladder" truck, equipped with a 100' aerial ladder. A ladder company will be equipped with various forcible entry tools, ventilation equipment, and a variety of rescue tools, in addition to other tools and equipment to deal with an assortment of fires, technical rescues, and other emergencies, including motor vehicle accidents and other responses. There are 143 Ladder Companies in the FDNY.

Rescue companies
FDNY rescue companies are composed of specially-trained members drawn from the most experienced FDNY personnel. A rescue company is tasked with responding to and dealing with specialized fire rescue incidents that are beyond the scope and duties of a standard engine company or ladder company. Rescue companies operate rescue trucks, nicknamed "tool boxes on wheels," which carry a wide variety of specialized tools and equipment to aid in operations at technical rescue situations, such as: rope rescues, building collapse rescues, confined space rescues, trench/excavation rescues, machinery and vehicle extrication/rescues, water rescues and a variety of other technical rescue situations. They respond to all structure fires within their response district as well. There are 5 full-time rescue companies in the FDNY. Each rescue company also operates a specialized building collapse rescue vehicle. Hydraulic rescue tools (jaws of life), air bags, specialized rescue saws, specialized cutting torches, rope rescue equipment, and electric and air powered cutting, breaching, and breaking equipment, along with emergency medical services equipment, water rescue equipment, and other specialized equipment are among the equipment carried on the rescue company apparatus.
 * Rescue Company No. 1 serves Manhattan below 125th St. on the West Side, and below 116th St. on the East Side. Rescue 1's quarters are located at 530 W. 43rd St. in the Hell's Kitchen neighborhood of Midtown, Manhattan.
 * Rescue Company No. 2 serves central and northwestern Brooklyn, not including parts of Williamsburg and Greenpoint. Rescue 2's quarters are located at 1815 Sterling Pl. in the Crown Heights neighborhood of Brooklyn.
 * Rescue Company No. 3 serves the Bronx and Harlem above 125th St. on the West Side, and above 116th St. on the East Side. Rescue 3's quarters are located at 1655 Washington Ave. in the Claremont neighborhood of the Bronx.
 * Rescue Company No. 4 serves Queens, and parts of northern of Brooklyn. Rescue 4 is quartered with Engine 292 at 64–18 Queens Blvd. in the Woodside neighborhood of Queens.
 * Rescue Company No. 5 serves Staten Island and parts of southern Brooklyn. Rescue 5 is quartered with Engine 160, TSU 2, and the Chief of the 8th Division at 1850 Clove Rd., in the Grasmere neighborhood of Staten Island.

Squad companies
FDNY squad companies are also composed of specially trained firefighters of the New York Fire Department. Squad companies were initially established by the FDNY to serve as "manpower companies," to supplement the manpower and operations of engine companies and ladder companies. Today, squad companies can function as either engine companies or ladder companies at the scene of a fire or other emergencies, but they are also equipped with the same equipment and specialized tools as the rescue companies. In particular, members of a squad company are highly trained in mitigating hazardous materials (hazmat) incidents, supplementing the FDNY's single hazmat company. There are 8 Squad Companies in the FDNY:
 * Squad Company No. 1 serves northwestern, western and southern Brooklyn. Squad 1's quarters are located at 788 Union St. in the Park Slope neighborhood of Brooklyn.
 * Squad Company No. 8 serves Staten Island. Squad 8 is quartered with the Staten Island Borough Commander at 3730 Victory Blvd. in the Travis neighborhood of Staten island. Staten Island was served by Squad 1 until 2018, when Engine 154 was disbanded and Squad 8 was organized in the former quarters. Before that, Staten Island was the only borough without its own squad company.
 * Squad Company No. 18 serves Manhattan below 125th St. Squad 18's quarters are located at 132 W. 10th St. in the West Village neighborhood of Manhattan.
 * Squad Company No. 41 serves the southwestern Bronx and Manhattan above 125th St. Squad 41's quarters are located at 330 E. 150th St. in the South Bronx neighborhood of the Bronx.
 * Squad Company No. 61 serves the northeastern Bronx. Squad 61 is quartered with the Chief of the 20th Battalion at 1518 Williamsbridge Rd. in the Morris Park neighborhood of the Bronx.
 * Squad Company No. 252 serves northeastern and eastern Brooklyn. Squad 252's quarters are located at 617 Central Ave. in the Bushwick neighborhood of Brooklyn.
 * Squad Company No. 270 serves southern Queens. Squad 270 is quartered with the Chief of the 13th Division at 91–45 121st St. in the Richmond Hill neighborhood of Queens.
 * Squad Company No. 288 serves northern Queens, Greenpoint and parts of Williamsburg. Squad 288 is quartered with Haz-Mat. 1 at 56–29 68th St. in the Maspeth neighborhood of Queens.

Hazardous materials company
The FDNY hazardous materials (hazmat) company, Haz-Mat 1 (quartered in Queens), responds to all major citywide hazardous materials incidents, building collapses, contamination-related incidents, terrorism-related disasters, major emergencies, and a variety of other incidents in which their services may be needed. Like the rescue and squad companies of the FDNY, members of Haz-Mat Company 1 are experienced and specially trained to deal with hazardous situations. The Haz-Mat company operates a Haz-Mat Truck, similar to a rescue truck, which carries a variety of equipment to deal with hazardous situations. Haz-Mat 1 also operates a smaller rescue truck which carries extra equipment not carried on the company's main piece of apparatus. The Haz-Mat company is supplemented by the squad companies primarily, the rescue companies, and four HMTU engine companies whose members are certified Haz-Mat Technicians. These four engine companies, like the squad companies, also operate medium rescue trucks that carry hazmat equipment. Plugging equipment, Hazmat personal protective equipment, non sparking tools, and other equipment are carried on the Hazardous Materials apparatus.

Fireboats (marine companies)
In addition to its Engine Companies,Ladder (Truck) Companies,Squad Companies,Hazmat Company and Rescue Companies, FDNY operates three Class I fireboats as marine companies year round: A * Marine Battalion which responds on all Maritime incidents when available, and several seasonal (Typically from Mid-May through Early-October) Class II Marine Companies :
 * Marine Company No. 1 – Three Forty Three covering the Hudson River.
 * Marine Company No. 6 – Bravest covering the East River.
 * Marine Company No. 9 – Fire Fighter II covering the New York Bay.
 * 'Marine Company No. 3 covering Jamaica Bay.
 * 'Marine Company No. 4 covering Eastchester Bay.
 * 'Marine Company No. 8 covering the Staten Island Shoreline.

Three older fireboats are kept in reserve: John D. McKean, Governor Alfred E. Smith, and Kevin C. Kane. A former FDNY Marine Unit, the John J. Harvey, is notable as having returned to active service as Marine 2 on September 11, 2001, and providing firefighting services for 80 hours following the attack.

In 2010, the newly built fireboat, Three Forty Three, replaced the John D. McKean, which entered service in 1954, as Marine 1. A twin, 140-foot, vessel, Fire Fighter II, replaced Fire Fighter, dedicated in 1938, as Marine 9. The two new boats cost $60 million, funded by a grant from the Department of Homeland Security, and represented the city's first major investment in new fireboats in 50 years. The $2.4 million Bravest, commissioned on May 26, 2011, is smaller than the other two Class I boats, at 65 feet, but is able to operate in shallower waters, including those near the city's airports.

The department also has a fleet of approximately 14 smaller, class II fireboats, with ten 33-foot Rapid Response Fire, three 31-foot medical response, and one 33-foot SCUBA boats and other equipment that can be activated for use when needed.

Volunteer departments

Nine volunteer fire companies remain in New York City and respond to calls in their neighborhood, in addition to FDNY units. They are typically in more isolated neighborhoods of the city. By borough, the volunteer companies are:
 * Bronx (1) – Edgewater Park Volunteer Hose Company No. 1
 * Brooklyn (1) – Gerritsen Beach Fire Volunteers Inc.
 * Queens (5) – West Hamilton Beach VFD, Broad Channel VFD, Roxbury VFD, Rockaway Point VFD, and Point Breeze VFD
 * Staten Island (2) – Oceanic H&L Company No. 1, Richmond Engine Co. 1

The Staten Island volunteer companies are dispatched by the Staten Island Communications Office and operate on the FDNY Staten Island frequency. Broad Channel and West Hamilton Beach have teleprinters in parallel with the FDNY fire companies that also serve their area. The Brooklyn and first four volunteer companies in Queens also provide ambulance services.

The nine volunteer fire departments supplement the FDNY, however, their services have sometimes proven essential. They are especially needed in urgent events, such as storms that can cause flooding conditions that prevent FDNY companies from reaching alarms promptly. Typically, the departments respond in addition to the initial assignment dispatched by the FDNY. The volunteer departments are fully trained and operational with the apparatus and equipment they have. Therefore, when they arrive to a scene first or when needed, they will implement their operations alongside FDNY as applicable.

Other units

 * Battalion Chief Unit: A Battalion Chief Unit is a command vehicle tasked with the responsibility of delivering a Battalion Chief to fires and other emergency incidents. Once on the scene of any Emergency, the vehicle then takes on the role of a Command Vehicle, utilizing its radios and MDT equipment. There are 53 Firefighting Battalion Chief Units as well as the Special Operations/Rescue,Marine,Safety and HazMat Battalion Chief Units in the FDNY.
 * Division Chief Unit: A Division Chief Unit, like a Battalion Chief Unit, is a command vehicle tasked with the responsibility of delivering a Division Chief to fires and other emergency incidents. Once on the scene of any Emergency, the vehicle then takes on the role of a Command Vehicle, utilizing its radios and Mobile Data Terminal (MDT) equipment. There are 14 Division Chief Units in the FDNY.
 * Mask Service Unit (M.S.U.): The Mask Service Unit is a vehicle which has equipment that refills the air bottles used by firefighters to breathe in a fire.
 * Recuperation and Care Unit (R.A.C.): A Recuperation and Care Unit utilizes a vehicle that is specially outfitted with equipment that will enable it to provide rehabilitation to firefighters on a major incident. Typically the RAC unit responds to the All Hands and Above, but more frequently responds to 2nd Alarms.
 * Field Communications Unit (Field Comm.): The Field Communications Unit utilizes a vehicle that is specially equipped with communication equipment, such as telephones, broadband internet, and mobile radios along with other equipment. Its main responsibility is to provide communication support to the on scene Incident Commander at major incidents.
 * Satellite Unit (Sat.U.): A Satellite Unit utilizes a special fire vehicle equipped with extra 4.5 inch large diameter hose, 6 inch diameter suction hose, foam agent and a high-volume deluge gun to support the operations of other fire units on scene. Satellite units respond as part of the second alarm response, and Staten Island first alarms.
 * Tactical Support Unit (T.S.U.): A Tactical Support Unit utilizes a 4x4 vehicle equipped with generators and a variety of high intensity lights to aid firefighters during low light conditions. Additional specialized equipment, such as extrication tools and a six-person Avon boat, are also carried on this vehicle.
 * Thawing Unit: The Thawing Units are vehicles that carry a portable steam-generating boiler; its high-pressure steam is used to thaw frozen hydrants, connections, and hoselines, and used to keep equipment on the fireground, such as aerial ladders, free of ice. There is only one thawing unit per borough.
 * Brush Fire Unit: A Brush Unit utilizes a vehicle that is a four-wheel-drive, all-terrain unit that is used to reach hilly, remote, and marshy areas, in order to extinguish fires involving weeds, grass, and other vegetation. Along with regular firefighting equipment, it carries its own water, in addition to rakes, shovels, and backpack extinguishers.
 * Ambulance: The New York City Fire Department staffs Emergency medical technician (EMT) Basic Life Support (BLS) and Paramedic Advanced Life Support (ALS) ambulances to provide emergency medical services to the city of New York. These are commonly referred to by the slang term bus.
 * Haz-Tac Ambulance: The 39 EMS Units are known as the Hazardous Material Tactical Units (Haz-Tac Ambulances), and are trained to the Haz Mat Technician level. This allows them to provide emergency medical care and decontamination in hazardous environments, in addition to their normal 911 duties.
 * Rescue Medic: An Advanced Life Support (ALS) or paramedic ambulance that is trained to the Haz Mat Technician level, and are also trained as Rescue Medical Technicians, specializing in medical care in adverse environments. The members of rescue medic units receive an extra 12% speciality pay.
 * EMS Conditions Unit: A EMS Conditions Vehicle utilizes a vehicle that is assigned to an Emergency Medical Service supervisor. An Emergency Medical Service supervisor oversees ambulances within their assigned area.
 * Haz Tac Battalion Unit: The Haz Tac Battalion Unit utilizes a vehicle that is assigned to an Emergency Medical Service supervisor. This Officer is the Captain of the FDNY EMS SOC unit. The Officer is trained as a Hazmat Technician and as Rescue Technician. The unit responds to speciality assignments in order to oversee the medical management at special assignments, and the overall operation of the Haz Tac Battalion.
 * Haz Tac Officer's Unit: The Haz Tac Officer's Unit utilizes a vehicle that is assigned to an Emergency Medical Service supervisor. This Officer is trained as a Hazmat Technician and as Rescue Technician. The unit responds to specialty assignments in order to oversee the medical management at special assignments. There are two units that cover the entire City of New York 24/7.
 * EMS MERV: A EMS MERV is a vehicle that is assigned to all major medical emergencies within its borough. The Major Emergency Response Vehicle is capable of treating multiple patients at a time.
 * EMS MRTU: A EMS MRTU is a vehicle that is assigned to medical emergencies that have multiple patients. The Mobile Respiratory Treatment Unit is capable of providing multiple patients that require respiratory assistance.
 * EMS LSU:EMS LSUs are vehicles assigned to all medical emergencies that have multiple patients. The Logistical Support Unit carries a surplus of certain medical supplies used at MCIs.
 * EMS Response Physician: A Fire Department EMS Medical Director who is an Emergency Physician with specialized training in Hazardous Material, Technical Rescue, and other specialized prehospital skills, such as on-scene limb amputations. The Response Physician responds to major Mass Casualty Incidents, or as part of the Rescue Medical Task Force for patients requiring technical rescue or prolonged extrication. There are nine EMS response physicians throughout the city who go by the radio designation Car 5M ("5 Mary Car").

Ranks
Below insignia and ranks are attributed to this citation, unless specifically referenced by another source. Fire and EMS officers holding the same title wear the same insignia unless otherwise noted. This department uses Military style insignia for the Shirt Collar, Bugle Insignia for the Dress Collar and Stripes for the Dress Sleeves.

Note: In place of bugles, captains and lieutenants assigned to ladder companies are signified by axes, rescue companies by Lyle guns, squad companies by crossed ladders and stacked tip nozzles, and marine companies by bugles with an anchor.

Union representation
The Department's lieutenants, captains, battalion chiefs, deputy chiefs, medical officers and supervising fire marshals are represented by the Uniformed Fire Officers Association (UFOA), Firefighters, Fire Marshals, Marine Engineers, Marine Pilots, and Marine Wipers are represented by the Uniformed Firefighters Association (UFA), and Fire Alarm Dispatchers, Supervising Fire Alarm Dispatchers, and Chief Fire Alarm Dispatchers are represented by the Uniformed Fire Alarm Dispatchers Benevolent Association—all three of which are locals of the International Association of Fire Fighters (IAFF). EMTs, Paramedics and Fire Protection Inspectors are represented by the Uniformed EMTs, Paramedics & Fire Inspectors and EMS Officers are represented by the Uniformed EMS Officers Union, both of which are locals of District Council 37.

Literature
The Fire Department of New York has appeared a number of times within literature. "Report from Engine Co. 82", "20,000 Alarms", and "The Last Men Out: Life on the Edge at Rescue 2 Firehouse" are three of the most famous pieces of FDNY literature. In addition to memorials, the FDNY has produced a number of educational materials. One of these books is the 177 page "Fire Department of New York- Forcible Entry Reference Guide- Techniques and Procedures".

Film and television
The New York City Fire Department has also appeared in numerous films and television shows. One of the earliest was the 1972 documentary Man Alive: The Bronx is Burning, for BBC Television. It was screened in the United Kingdom on September 27, 1972, and followed firefighters from a firehouse in the South Bronx: Battalion 27, Ladder 31 and Engine 82. It chronicled the appalling conditions the firefighters worked in with roughly one emergency call per hour, and the high rates of arson and malicious calls. The documentary focused heavily on firefighter Dennis Smith, who served in the South Bronx area and went on to write Report from Engine Co. 82 and a number of other books. He has become a prominent speaker on firefighting policy.

In 1984 and 1989, the comedy films Ghostbusters and Ghostbusters II used a firehouse for external shots of the Ghostbusters' headquarters building. Ladder Company 8's house at 14 North Moore Street in Tribeca was reportedly chosen because writer Dan Aykroyd knew the area and liked the building. The interior of the Ghostbusters base was shot in a Los Angeles studio, and in Fire Station No. 23, a decommissioned Los Angeles firehouse. Ladder 8 has the sign from Ghostbusters II mounted on the wall inside the house; fans of the franchise frequently stop by to take photos of the building and ask to pose with the sign.

In 1991, FDNY firefighter Brian Hickey and his brother Raymond produced a documentary entitled Firefighters: Brothers in Battle. The film features footage of fires and rescues throughout the five boroughs of New York City, including the Happy Land Social Club fire which killed 87 persons, dramatic rescues from a crashed airplane off of La Guardia Airport, and footage and interviews at Medal Day 1991. Raymond died of cancer in 1993 and Brian was killed on 9/11 while operating at the World Trade Center. Brian last served as the Captain of Rescue Company 4 in Queens.

The 2002 documentary film 9/11 is footage of the 9/11 attacks filmed by FDNY James Hanlon, a firefighter from Ladder Co. 1, and brothers Jules and Gedeon Naudet. It follows members of Engine 7/Ladder 1 and Battalion 1 on Duane Street in Lower Manhattan. The 2005 film Brotherhood: Life in the FDNY, focuses on Squad 252 in Brooklyn, Rescue 1 in Manhattan and Rescue 4 in Queens.

The 2002 Sesame Street video Elmo Visits the Firehouse revolves around Elmo paying a visit to Engine Company 58, Ladder Company 26 of the FDNY to learn all about how firefighters do their jobs and how to "get low and go", after a fire at Hooper's Store scares him.

A 2006 PBS documentary called Taking The Heat features the struggle of women to join the FDNY, and Brenda Berkman's part in it.

Television series about FDNY have included Rescue Me, which ran from 2004 to 2011 and depicted the fictional life of firefighters in an FDNY firehouse. The NBC drama Third Watch ran from 1999 to 2005 and provided a fictionalized and dramatized depiction of the firefighters and paramedics of the FDNY and police officers of the New York City Police Department.

In 2015, the twenty-seventh season of The Amazing Race featured a tribute to the FDNY's 150th anniversary.

The 2019 the semi-autobiographical film King of Staten Island, directed by and starring Pete Davidson, makes reference to Davidson's father, Staten Island firefighter Scott Matthew Davidson while exploring the impact of his death in the September 11 attacks on his son.

title: New York City Fire Department


text:
Lectio difficilior potior

Lectio difficilior potior (Latin for "the more difficult reading is the stronger") is a main principle of textual criticism. Where different manuscripts conflict on a particular reading, the principle suggests that the more unusual one is more likely the original. The presupposition is that scribes would more often replace odd words and hard sayings with more familiar and less controversial ones, than vice versa. Lectio difficilior potior is an internal criterion, which is independent of criteria for evaluating the manuscript in which it is found, and that it is as applicable to manuscripts of a roman courtois, a classical poet, or a Sanskrit epic as it is to a biblical text.

The principle was one among a number that became established in early 18th-century text criticism, as part of attempts by scholars of the Enlightenment to provide a neutral basis for discovering an urtext that was independent of the weight of traditional authority.

History
Erasmus expressed the idea in his Annotations to the New Testament in the early 1500s: "And whenever the Fathers report that there is a variant reading, that one always appears to me to be more esteemed (by them is the one) which at first glance seems the more absurd-since it is reasonable that a reader who is either not very learned or not very attentive was offended by the specter of absurdity and changed the text."

According to Paolo Trovato, who cites as source Sebastiano Timpanaro, the principle was first codified by Jean Leclerc in 1696 in his Ars critica. It was also laid down by Johann Albrecht Bengel, as "proclivi scriptioni praestat ardua", in his Prodromus Novi Testamenti Graeci Rectè Cautèque Adornandi, 1725, and employed in his Novum Testamentum Graecum, 1734. It was widely promulgated by Johann Jakob Wettstein, to whom it is often attributed.

Usefulness
Many scholars considered the employment of lectio difficilior potior an objective criterion that would even override other evaluative considerations. The poet and scholar A. E. Housman challenged such reactive applications in 1922, in the provocatively titled article "The Application of Thought to Textual Criticism".

On the other hand, taken as an axiom, the principle lectio difficilior produces an eclectic text, rather than one based on a history of manuscript transmission. "Modern eclectic praxis operates on a variant unit basis without any apparent consideration of the consequences", Maurice A. Robinson warned. He suggested that to the principle "should be added a corollary, difficult readings created by individual scribes do not tend to perpetuate in any significant degree within transmissional history".

A noted proponent of the superiority of the Byzantine text-type, the form of the Greek New Testament in the largest number of surviving manuscripts, Robinson would use the corollary to explain differences from the Majority Text as scribal errors that were not perpetuated because they were known to be errant or because they existed only in a small number of manuscripts at the time.

Most textual-critical scholars would explain the corollary by the assumption that scribes tended to "correct" harder readings and so cut off the stream of transmission. Thus, only earlier manuscripts would have the harder readings. Later manuscripts would not see the corollary principle as being a very important one to get closer to the original form of the text.

However, lectio difficilior is not to be taken as an absolute rule either but as a general guideline. "In general the more difficult reading is to be preferred" is Bruce Metzger's reservation. "There is truth in the maxim: lectio difficilior lectio potior ('the more difficult reading is the more probable reading')", write Kurt and Barbara Aland.

However, for scholars like Kurt Aland, who follow a path of reasoned eclecticism based on evidence both internal and external to the manuscripts, "this principle must not be taken too mechanically, with the most difficult reading (lectio difficillima) adopted as original simply because of its degree of difficulty". Also, Martin Litchfield West cautions: "When we choose the 'more difficult reading'... we must be sure that it is in itself a plausible reading. The principle should not be used in support of dubious syntax, or phrasing that it would not have been natural for the author to use. There is an important difference between a more difficult reading and a more unlikely reading".

Responding to Tetyana Vilkul's review of his 2003 critical edition of the Primary Chronicle (PVL), Donald Ostrowski (2005) phrased the principle as follows: 'The more difficult reading is preferred to a smoother reading, except, again, where a mechanical copying error would explain the roughness. The rationale is that a copyist is more likely to have tried to make a rough reading smoother than to have made a smooth reading more difficult to understand.'

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Lectio difficilior potior


text:
James Hunt

James Simon Wallis Hunt (29 August 1947 – 15 June 1993) was a British racing driver who won the Formula One World Championship in. After retiring from racing in 1979, Hunt became a media commentator and businessman until his death.

Beginning his racing career in touring car racing, Hunt progressed into Formula Three, where he attracted the attention of the Hesketh Racing team and soon came under their wing. Hunt's often reckless and action-packed exploits on track earned him the nickname "Hunt the Shunt" (shunt, as a British motor-racing term, means "crash"). Hunt entered Formula One in, driving a March 731 entered by the Hesketh Racing team. He went on to win for Hesketh, driving their own Hesketh 308 car, in both World Championship and non-championship races, before joining the McLaren team at the end of. In his first year with McLaren, Hunt won the 1976 World Drivers' Championship, and he remained with the team for a further two years, although with less success, before moving to the Wolf team in early. Following a string of races in which he failed to finish, Hunt retired from driving halfway through the 1979 season.

After retiring from motor racing, he established a career as a motor racing commentator for the BBC. He died from a heart attack when he was 45.

Early life
Hunt was born in Belmont, Surrey, the second child of Wallis Glynn Gunthorpe Hunt (1922–2001), a stockbroker, and Susan (Sue) Noel Wentworth Hunt. He had an elder sister, Sally, three younger brothers, Peter, Timothy and David, and one younger sister, Georgina. Wallis Hunt was descended on his mother's side from the industrialist and politician Sir William Jackson, 1st Baronet. Hunt's family lived in a flat in Cheam, Surrey, moved to Sutton when he was 11 and then to a larger home in Belmont. He attended Westerleigh Preparatory School, St Leonards-on-Sea Sussex and later Wellington College.

Hunt first learned to drive on a tractor on a farm in Pembrokeshire, Wales, while on a family holiday, with instruction from the farm's owner, but he found changing gears frustrating because he lacked the required strength. Hunt passed his driving test one week after his seventeenth birthday, at which point he said his life "really began". He also took up skiing in 1965 in Scotland, and made plans for further ski trips. Before his eighteenth birthday, he went to the home of Chris Ridge, his tennis doubles partner. Ridge's brother Simon, who raced Minis, was preparing his car for a race at Silverstone that weekend. The Ridges took Hunt to see the race, which began his obsession with motor racing.

Mini racing
Hunt's racing career started off in a racing Mini. He first entered a race at the Snetterton Circuit in Norfolk, but race scrutineers prevented him from competing, deeming the Mini to have many irregularities, which left Hunt and his team mate, Justin Fry, upset. Hunt later brought the necessary funding from working as a trainee manager of a telephone company to enter three events. At this point Fry made the decision to part company with the team, owing to the irregularities and modifications that were happening to the cars they were using.

Formula Ford
Hunt graduated to Formula Ford in 1968. He drove a Russell-Alexis Mark 14 car bought through a hire-purchase scheme. In his first race at Snetterton, Hunt had lost 15 hp from an incorrect engine ignition setting, but managed to finish fifth. Hunt took his first win at Lydden Hill and also set the lap record on the Brands Hatch short circuit.

Formula Three
In 1969, Hunt raced in Formula Three with a budget, provided by Gowrings of Reading, which bought a Merlyn Mark 11A. Gowrings intended to run the car in the final two races of 1968. Hunt won several races and achieved regular high-placed finishes, which led to the British Guild of Motoring Writers awarding him a Grovewood Award as one of the three drivers judged to have promising careers.

Hunt was involved in a controversial incident with Dave Morgan during a battle for second position in the Formula Three Daily Express Trophy race at Crystal Palace on 3 October 1970. Having banged wheels earlier in a very closely fought race, Morgan attempted to pass Hunt on the outside of South Tower Corner on the final lap, but instead the cars collided and crashed out of the race. Hunt's car came to rest in the middle of the track, minus two wheels. Hunt got out, ran over to Morgan and furiously pushed him to the ground, which earned him severe official disapproval. Both men were summoned by the RAC and after hearing evidence from other drivers, Hunt was cleared by a tribunal and Morgan was given a 12-month suspension of his racing licence, but was subsequently allowed to progress to Formula Atlantic in 1971. Hunt later met with John Hogan and racing driver Gerry Birrell to obtain sponsorship from Coca-Cola.

Hunt's career continued in the works March team for 1972. His first race at Mallory Park saw him finish third, but he was told by race officials he had been excluded from the results, as his engine was deemed to be outside the regulations. The car, however, passed tests at the next two races at Brands Hatch. In these races, Hunt finished fourth and fifth respectively. He collided with two cars at Oulton Park but finished third at Mallory Park after a long duel with Roger Williamson. The cars did not appear at Zandvoort, but Hunt still attended the race as a spectator.

In May 1972, it was announced by the team that he had been dropped from the STP-March Formula 3 team and replaced by Jochen Mass. When Hunt attempted to contact March, he was unable to get any response from his employers. Hunt decided to consult Chris Marshall, his former team manager, who explained that a spare car was available. This followed a period characterised by a series of mechanical failures. Hunt decided, against the express instructions of March director Max Mosley, to race at Monaco in a March from a different team. This had been vacated by driver Jean-Claude Alzerat, after Hunt's own March had first broken down and then been hit by another competitor in a practice lap.

1973–1975: Hesketh
Hesketh purchased a March 731 chassis, and it was developed by Harvey Postlethwaite. The team was initially not taken seriously by rivals, who saw the Hesketh team as party goers enjoying the glamour of Formula One. However, the Hesketh March proved much more competitive than the works March cars, and their best result was second place at the 1973 United States Grand Prix. Hunt also made a brief venture into sports car racing at the 1973 Kyalami Nine Hours, driving a Mirage M6 along with Derek Bell, finishing second.
 * 1973

After the season's end, Hunt was awarded with the Campbell Trophy from the RAC marking his performance in Formula One as the best by a British driver. For the season, Hesketh Racing built a car, inspired by the March, called the Hesketh 308, but an accompanying V12 engine never materialised. Hunt's first test of the car came at Silverstone and found it more stable than its predecessor, the March 731. Hunt was retained on a £15,000 salary. The Hesketh team captured the public imagination as a car without sponsors' markings, a teddy-bear badge and a devil-may-care team ethos, which belied the fact that their engineers were highly competent professionals. In Argentina, Hunt qualified fifth and led briefly before being overtaken by Ronnie Peterson before Hunt spun off the track and eventually retired due to engine failure. In South Africa, Hunt retired from fifth place with a broken driveshaft. Hunt's season highlight was a victory at the BRDC International Trophy non-championship race at Silverstone, against the majority of the regular F1 field. Hunt finished sixth in Brazil and retired with an engine failure in South Africa. In Spain, Hunt led the first six laps before colliding with a barrier with the same cause of retirement in Monaco. He had a further two retirements in Belgium and Sweden, both of which were due to mechanical failures. Hunt's first win came in the 1975 Dutch Grand Prix at Zandvoort. He finished fourth in the Championship that year, but Lord Hesketh had run out of funds and could not find a sponsor for his team. With little time left before the season, Hunt was desperately looking for a drive until Emerson Fittipaldi left McLaren and joined his brother's Copersucar-Fittipaldi outfit. With no other top drivers available, the team management signed Hunt to McLaren – in a deal brokered by Marlboro's John Hogan – for the next season on a contract involving a $50,000 retainer and a good share of the prize money.
 * 1974
 * 1975

1976–1978: McLaren
The season proved to be one of the most dramatic and controversial on record. While Hunt's performances in the Hesketh had drawn considerable praise, there was some speculation as to whether he could really sustain a championship challenge. Now a works McLaren driver, he dispelled many doubters at the first race in Brazil, where, in a hastily rebuilt McLaren M23, he landed pole position in the last minutes of qualifying. Over the course of the year he would drive the McLaren M23 to six Grands Prix wins, but with superior reliability reigning world champion and main rival Niki Lauda had pulled out a substantial points lead in the first few races of the season. Hunt's first race win of 1976, at the fourth race of the season, the Spanish Grand Prix, resulted in disqualification for driving a car adjudged to be 1.8 cm too wide. The win was later reinstated upon appeal, but it set the tone for an extraordinarily volatile season. At the British Grand Prix, Hunt was involved in a first corner incident on the first lap with Lauda which led to the race being stopped and restarted. Hunt initially attempted to take a spare car, however this was disallowed, and during this time the original race car was repaired, eventually winning the restarted race. Hunt's victory was disallowed on 24 September by a ruling from the FIA after Ferrari complained that Hunt was not legally allowed to restart the race.
 * 1976

Lauda sustained near-fatal injuries in an accident at the following round, the German Grand Prix at the Nürburgring. Hunt dominated the restarted Nürburgring race, building an immediate lead and remaining unchallenged to the chequered flag.

Lauda's injuries kept him out of the following two races, allowing Hunt to close the gap in the championship chase. At Zandvoort, Hunt overtook Ronnie Peterson on the 12th lap and resisted pressure from John Watson to win. At the Italian Grand Prix, the big story was Lauda's miraculous return from his Nürburgring accident. At a circuit that should have suited Hunt's car, the Texaco fuel McLaren were using was tested and although apparently legal, their cars, and those of the Penske team, were judged to contain a higher octane level than allowed. Subsequently, both teams were forced to start from the rear of the grid. While trying to make his way up the field, Hunt spun off, and Lauda finished fourth. At the next round in Canada, Hunt found out that he had been disqualified from the British Grand Prix and Lauda had been awarded the victory and thus received three additional points. A furious Hunt drove a very hard race at the challenging Mosport Park circuit and won. At the penultimate round in the United States at the daunting Watkins Glen track, Hunt started from pole and took victory after a close battle with Jody Scheckter. This set the stage for the final round in Japan. Hunt's late season charge pulled him to just three points behind Lauda. The sliding scale of points for the top six finishers meant that Hunt needed to finish fourth (worth 3 points) or better to overtake Lauda in the championship. Lauda needed to earn two points fewer than Hunt, or better, to stay ahead. McLaren team manager Alastair Caldwell had taken advantage of the gap between the final two races to hire the Fuji circuit – a track hosting its first Grand Prix and therefore unknown to all the teams – for an exclusive McLaren test. After a few laps the gearbox seized, bringing the test to a premature close, but the team had had the advantage of acclimatising themselves to the new circuit. Conditions for the race itself were torrentially wet. Lauda retired early on in the race, unable to blink because of facial burns from his accident in Germany. After leading most of the race Hunt suffered a puncture, then had a delayed pitstop and finally received mixed pit signals from his team. But he managed to finish in third place, scoring four points, enough for him to win the World Championship by one point. Hunt was the last British Formula One champion until Nigel Mansell won the 1992 championship for Williams. He was, relatively, one of the cheapest F1 World Champions ever, having signed at the last minute for $200,000 – a scenario similar to that of 1982 champion Keke Rosberg.

Before the start of 1977, Hunt attended a gala function at the Europa Hotel in London where he was awarded the Tarmac Trophy, along with two cheques, for £2000 and £500 respectively, a magnum of champagne and other awards. The presentation was made by the Duke of Kent. Hunt made an acceptance speech after the event which was considered "suitably gracious and glamorous". The media were critical of Hunt as he attended the event dressed in jeans, T-shirt and a decrepit windbreaker.
 * 1977

Before the South African Grand Prix, Hunt was confronted by customs officials who searched his luggage, finding no illegal substances except a publication that contravened the strict obscenity laws of South Africa. Hunt was later released, and tested at Kyalami where his McLaren M26 suffered a loose brake caliper which cut a hole in one of the tyres. He recovered and put the car on pole position. The race saw Hunt suffer a collision with Jody Schekter's Wolf and another with Patrick Depailler's Tyrrell, but he still managed to finish fourth.

The season did not start well for Hunt. The McLaren M26 was problematic in the early part of the season, during which Niki Lauda, Mario Andretti and Jody Scheckter took a considerable lead in the Drivers' Championship. Towards the end of the year Hunt and the McLaren M26 were quicker than any rival combination other than Mario Andretti and the Lotus 78. Hunt won in Silverstone after trailing the Brabham of John Watson for 25 laps. He then took a further victory at Watkins Glen. At the Canadian Grand Prix, Hunt retired after a collision with team-mate Jochen Mass and was fined $2000 for assaulting a marshal and $750 for walking back to the pit lane in an "unsafe manner". In Fuji, Hunt won the race but did not attend the podium ceremony resulting in a fine of $20,000. He finished fifth in the World Drivers' Championship.

Before the season Hunt had high hopes to win a second world championship; however, in this season he scored only eight world championship points. Lotus had developed effective ground effect aerodynamics with their Lotus 79 car and McLaren were slow to respond. The M26 was revised as a ground effect car midway through the season but it did not work, and without a test driver to solve the car's problems, Hunt's motivation was low. His inexperienced new team-mate Patrick Tambay even outqualified Hunt at one race. In Germany, Hunt was disqualified for taking a shortcut to allow for a tyre change.
 * 1978

Hunt was also greatly affected by Ronnie Peterson's fatal crash in the 1978 Italian Grand Prix. At the start of the race there was a huge accident going into the first corner. Peterson's Lotus was pushed into the barriers and burst into flames. Hunt, together with Patrick Depailler and Clay Regazzoni, rescued Peterson from the car, but Peterson died one day later in hospital. Hunt took his friend's death particularly hard and for years afterwards blamed Riccardo Patrese for the accident. Video evidence of the crash has since shown that Patrese did not touch Hunt or Peterson's cars, nor did he cause any other car to do so. Hunt believed that it was Patrese's muscling past that caused the McLaren and Lotus to touch, but Patrese argues that he was already well ahead of the pair before the accident took place.

1979: Walter Wolf Racing
For, Hunt had resolved to leave the McLaren team. Despite his poor season in 1978 he was still very much in demand. Harvey Postlethwaite persuaded Hunt to join Walter Wolf Racing – a one-car team where he would have found an atmosphere similar to the one he had experienced at Hesketh at the beginning of his career. Again he had high hopes to win races and compete for the world championship in what would be his last, and ultimately brief, Formula One season. The team's ground effect car was uncompetitive and Hunt soon lost any enthusiasm for racing. Hunt could only watch as Jody Scheckter won the World Drivers' Championship that year driving the Ferrari 312T4.

At the first race in Argentina, he felt the car was difficult to handle and on a fast lap, the front wing became detached striking his helmet. In the race, Hunt retired due to an electrical fault. In Brazil, he retired on lap 6 due to instability under braking caused by a loose steering rack. During qualifying in South Africa, the brakes on his car failed. He managed not to collide with the wall, but only finished 8th in the race. He retired at the Spanish Grand Prix after 26 laps. At Zolder, a new Wolf WR8 was raced but Hunt crashed into a barrier hard enough to bounce back onto the track. After failing to finish the 1979 Monaco Grand Prix, the race where six years previously he had made his debut, Hunt made a statement on 8 June 1979 to the press announcing his immediate retirement from F1 competition, citing his situation in the championship, and was replaced by future world champion Keke Rosberg. Despite going into retirement, he continued to work to promote his personal sponsors Marlboro and Olympus. According to Peter Warr, Hunt had been badly affected by the Ronnie Peterson accident in Monza the year before and his heart was no longer in it. Warr recalled Hunt telling him that he discovered that if he nudged the car up against the barrier and give it a squirt of throttle in second gear, it would break a driveshaft. "At Monaco, four laps into the race, James stopped up the hill by Rosie's bar, with a broken driveshaft. Then he told us he was retiring."

Commentary career
Soon after retirement, in 1979, Hunt was approached by Jonathan Martin, the head of BBC television sport, to become a television commentator alongside Murray Walker on the BBC 2 Formula One racing programme Grand Prix. After a guest commentary at the 1979 British Grand Prix, Hunt accepted the position and continued for thirteen years until his death. During his first live broadcast at the 1980 Monaco Grand Prix, Hunt placed his plaster-cast leg into Walker's lap and drank two bottles of wine during the broadcast. Hunt regularly went into the booth minutes before a race started, which concerned Martin, who believed that Hunt was "a guy that lived on adrenaline."

In the commentary booth, the producers supplied only one microphone to Walker and Hunt, to avoid them talking over each other. On one occasion, Hunt wanted the microphone and went up to Walker, who had continued for longer than expected, and grabbed him by the collar, with Walker having his fist near to Hunt. On another occasion, Hunt grabbed the microphone cord and cracked it like a whip, which yanked the microphone out of Walker's hand. His insights and dry sense of humour brought him a new fanbase. He often heavily criticised drivers he did not think were trying hard enough – during the BBC's live broadcast of the 1989 Monaco Grand Prix he described René Arnoux's comments that non-turbo cars did not suit the Frenchman's driving skills as "bullshit". He also had a reputation for speaking out against back-markers who held up race leaders.

Other than Arnoux, Hunt's other frequent targets included Andrea de Cesaris, Philippe Alliot, Jean-Pierre Jarier and Riccardo Patrese. Hunt criticised Jean-Pierre Jarier for blocking leaders, calling him "pig ignorant", a "French wally" and having a "mental age of ten" during live broadcasts. Hunt further suggested that Jarier should be banned from racing "for being himself".

Hunt did not want his commentaries broadcast in South Africa during the apartheid years but when he could not stop this from happening, he gave his fees to black-led groups working to overthrow apartheid.

Hunt also commented on Grand Prix racing in newspaper columns which were published in The Independent and elsewhere, and in magazines.

Attempted comebacks
In 1980, Hunt nearly made a comeback with McLaren at the United States Grand Prix West, asking for $1 million for the race. This opportunity came about when regular driver Alain Prost broke his wrist during practice for the previous round in South Africa, and the French rookie was not fully fit to drive at Long Beach. The team's main sponsor, Marlboro, offered half the figure but negotiations ended after Hunt broke his leg while skiing. In 1982 Bernie Ecclestone, owner of the Brabham team, offered Hunt a salary of £2.6 million for the season but was rejected by Hunt. In 1990, Hunt was in financial trouble with the loss of £180,000 investing in Lloyd's of London and considered a comeback with the Williams team. He had tested on the Paul Ricard Circuit a few months prior to test modern cars and was several seconds off the pace and believed he would be physically prepared. Hunt attempted to persuade John Hogan, VP Marketing of Philip Morris Europe, to support the possible comeback, and presented him with bank statement for proof of being indebted.

Other projects
Hunt made a brief appearance in the 1979 British silent slapstick comedy The Plank, as well as co-starring with Fred Emney in a Texaco Havoline TV advertisement. He also made a posthumous appearance on ITV's Police Camera Action! special Crash Test Racers in 2000; this was one of many interviews to be aired posthumously. Hunt also competed in an exhibition race to mark the opening of the new Nürburgring in May 1984. Despite having no licence to ride a motorcycle, he accepted, instead of his usual fee, the then-new 1980 electric start Triumph Bonneville he had contracted to advertise on behalf of the struggling Triumph motorcycle workers' co-operative. With journalistic mirth, he turned up at the press launch with his foot in plaster.

Hunt was hired by John Hogan as an adviser and tutor to drivers who were sponsored by Marlboro, instructing them in the tactics of driving and the approach to racing. Mika Häkkinen and Hunt had discussions about not only racing but about life in general.

Personal life
Early in their careers, Hunt and Niki Lauda were friends off the track. Lauda occasionally stayed at Hunt's flat when he had nowhere to sleep for the night. In his autobiography To Hell and Back, Lauda described Hunt as an "open, honest to God pal." Lauda admired Hunt's burst of speed, while Hunt admired Lauda's capacity for analysis and rigour. In the spring of 1974, Hunt moved to Spain on the advice of the International Management Group. Whilst living there as a tax exile, Hunt was the neighbour of Jody Scheckter, and they also came to be very good friends, with Hunt giving Scheckter the nickname Fletcher after the crash-prone bird in the book Jonathan Livingston Seagull. Another close friend was Ronnie Peterson who was a quiet and shy man, whilst Hunt was the opposite, but their contrasting personalities made them very close off the track. It was Hunt who discovered Gilles Villeneuve, whom he met after being soundly beaten by him in a Formula Atlantic race in 1976. Hunt then arranged for the young Canadian to make his Grand Prix debut with McLaren in 1977.

Hunt was involved in a relationship with Taormina Rieck (known as Ping by her friends) from the age of 15. Rieck separated from Hunt in May 1971, which left Hunt not seeing his family or friends for long periods of time. Hunt met his first wife, Suzy Miller, in 1974 in Spain. A few weeks after their initial meeting, he proposed. The couple married on 18 October 1974 at the Brompton Oratory in Knightsbridge. By the end of 1975, Suzy had left Hunt for the actor Richard Burton.

In 1982, Hunt moved to Wimbledon. In September that year, he met his second wife, Sarah Lomax, while she was on a holiday in Spain with friends. Hunt started dating Lomax when she arrived back in Britain, and they dated throughout the winter. Hunt and Lomax were married on 17 December 1983 in Marlborough, Wiltshire. Hunt arrived late for the service, with proceedings delayed further when his brother Peter went to a shop to purchase a tie for him. The marriage resulted in two children, Tom and Freddie, the latter of whom is also a racing driver.

On a visit to Doncaster, Hunt was arrested for an assault, which was witnessed by two police officers, and was released on bail after two hours with the charges against him later being dropped. Hunt and Lomax separated in October 1988 but continued to live together for the best interests of their children. They were divorced in November 1989 on the grounds of adultery committed by Hunt.

Hunt met Helen Dyson in the winter of 1989 in a restaurant in Wimbledon, where she worked as a waitress. Dyson was 18 years Hunt's junior and worried about her parents' reactions to him. Hunt kept the relationship secret from friends. The relationship brought new happiness to Hunt's life, among other factors which included his clean health, his bicycle, his casual approach to dress, his two sons and his Austin A35 van. The day before he died, Hunt proposed to Dyson via telephone.

Death
Hunt died in his sleep on the morning of 15 June 1993 of a heart attack at his home in Wimbledon. He was 45 years old.

At his funeral service, the pallbearers included his father Wallis, his brothers Tim, Peter and David, and his friend Anthony 'Bubbles' Horsley. They carried the coffin out of the church and into the hearse, which drove two miles to Putney Vale Crematorium, where he was cremated. After the service, most of the mourners went to Peter Hunt's home to open a 1922 claret, the year of Wallis Hunt's birth. The claret had been given to him by James on his 60th birthday in 1982.

Legacy
Hunt was known as a fast driver with an aggressive, tail-happy driving style, but one prone to spectacular accidents, hence his nickname of Hunt the Shunt. In reality, while Hunt was not necessarily any more accident-prone than his rivals in the lower formulae, the rhyme stuck and stayed with him. In the book James Hunt: The Biography, John Hogan said of Hunt: "James was the only driver I've ever seen who had the vaguest idea about what it actually takes to be a racing driver." Niki Lauda stated that "We were big rivals, especially at the end of the [1976] season, but I respected him because you could drive next to him—2 centimetres, wheel-by-wheel, for 300 kilometres or more—and nothing would happen. He was a real top driver at the time."

After winning the world championship in 1976, Hunt inspired many teenagers to take up motor racing, and he was retained by Marlboro to give guidance and support to up and coming drivers in the lower formulae. In early 2007, Formula One driver and 2007 World Champion Kimi Räikkönen entered and won a snowmobile race in his native Finland under the name James Hunt. Räikkönen has openly admired the lifestyles of 1970s race car drivers such as Hunt. Hunt's name was lent to the James Hunt Racing Centre in Milton Keynes when it opened in 1990.

A Celebration of the Life of James Hunt was held on 29 September 1993 at St James's Church, Piccadilly. The service was attended by 600 people and on 29 January 2014 James Hunt was inducted into the Motor Sport Hall of Fame.

Helmet
Hunt's helmet featured his name in bold letters along with blue, yellow and red stripes on both sides and room for the sponsor Goodyear, all set on a black background. Additionally, the blue, yellow and red bands resemble his Wellington College school colours. During his comeback year to Formula One in 2012, 2007 World Champion Kimi Räikkönen sported a James Hunt painted helmet during the Monaco Grand Prix. Räikkönen repeated the tribute at the 2013 Monaco Grand Prix.

In popular culture
The 1976 F1 battle between Niki Lauda and James Hunt was dramatised in the 2013 film Rush, in which Hunt was played by Chris Hemsworth. In the film, Lauda said of Hunt's death, "When I heard he'd died aged 45 of a heart attack I wasn't surprised, I was just sad". He also said that Hunt was one of the very few people he liked, a smaller number he respected and the only one he had envied.

Complete British Saloon Car Championship results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap.)

Complete Formula One World Championship results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position, races in italics indicate fastest lap) * Hunt was initially disqualified due to his car being deemed illegal, but later reinstated after McLaren successfully appealed the decision.

Formula One non-championship results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap)

title: James Hunt


text:
Prasanthi Nilayam

Prasanthi Nilayam (14.16517°N, 77.81167°W, 800 m above sea level ) is the main ashram and Samadhi Mandir of Sathya Sai Baba located in the town of Puttaparthi in, Sri Sathya Sai district Andhra Pradesh, India. Sathya Sai Baba was born in Puttaparthi. "Prasanthi Nilayam" means literally "Abode of the Highest Peace." Sathya Sai Baba gave daily darshan to his devotees in this ashram. Sathya Sai Baba was usually present in Prasanthi Nilayam from early June to the middle of March.

History
At the age of seventeen, Sathya Sai Baba told one devotee, "The Sai Pravesh (the advent of Sai) will transform that region into Prasanti Pradesh (a region of highest peace). There will rise a bhavan (mansion)! Lakhs of people from all over India, why only India, from all over the world, will come and wait there for Sai darshan!"

In 1944, a mandir was built to facilitate the growing number of Sai Baba devotees. It is now commonly referred to as the "old mandir." Prasanti Nilayam was inaugurated on 23 November 1950, the 24th birthday of Sathya Sai Baba and its construction lasted about two years "Sathya Sai Baba can be said to be the architect and engineer who directed the entire work for construction", says Narayana Kasturi. Sathya Sai Baba supervised the construction, acquiring of equipment, and watched over the devotees who constructed the ashram." Heavy girders for the central prayer hall was transported from Tiruchirappalli by train to Penukonda and then had to be brought over the district road, sixteen miles long." The mandir was painted blue, yellow, and pink "communicating the message of the harmony of spirit, intellect, and heart respectively; for blue stands for spirit, yellow for intellect, and pink for heart (love). The rich harmony of the three does result in Santi (peace) and Prasanti (supreme peace); and that really is the message of the Prasanti Mandir." In October 1957, a hospital was inaugurated on the hill behind the ashram."

Poornachandra Auditorium was built in 1973 where cultural programmes, conferences and yagnas during Dasara take place." It can seat around 15,000 people in the 60 x 40-metre area. Sathya Sai Baba's living quarters are upstairs above the stage."

The Sarva Dharma Stupa, a 50 ft high pillar celebrating the unity of all religions, was built in November 1975 to mark the advent of the Avatar." Sai Kulwant Hall with a seating capacity of about 20,000 is where daily darshan took place. Sai Kulwant Hall is between Sathya Sai Baba's residence (Yajur Mandir) and the Prasanti Mandir. The carved icons of Rama, Sita, Lakshmana, and Hanuman were installed by Sathya Sai Baba on 30 September 1999.

The Prasanti Nilayam ashram hosts many mandirs including a Ganesha Mandir, Subramanya Mandir, Gayatri Mandir, a meditation tree planted by Sai Baba in 1950, an eternal heritage museum, Chaitanya Jyoti museum ), multiple canteens, cricket ground, indoor sports stadium, super specialty hospital, educational institutions, shopping complex, administration buildings, devotee quarters, accommodation rooms and halls. There is a branch office of the State Bank of India in Prasanti Nilayam."

Climate
The climate is generally hot and dry throughout the year, summer temperatures ranging from 30 - 40 C and winter 20 - 27 C.

Road
Puttaparthi is well connected by road to all parts of Anantapur district, the district headquarters Anantapur (84 km), Hyderabad (441 km), Bangalore (154 km) and Chennai (375 km), by state-run APSRTC buses. KSRTC buses also ply from Bangalore.

Rail
Puttaparthi has a railway station named as Sri Sathya Sai Prasanthi Nilayam. The Railway station was inaugurated and became functional on November 23, 2000; Sathya Sai Baba's 74th birthday. It is about 8.6 km to the west of the ashram and 4 km south of the neighboring village of Kothacheruvu. This station falls under the Bangalore Division of the South Western Railway and lies on the Bangalore–Guntakal railway line. Travel time between the Rail station and Puttaparthi is approximately 15–25 minutes through various modes of transportion; cabs, autorickshaws and APSRTC buses. The town is connected directly by train to Bangalore, Secunderabad, Chennai, Vishakapatnam, Vijayawada, Coimbatore, Mumbai, New Delhi, Bhuvaneshwar and Kolkata. Sri Sathya Sai Prasanthi Nilayam railway station is the 5th busiest station in Bangalore division of SWR.

Air
Puttaparthi has an airport which is 6 km from the ashram. It is owned by the Sri Sathya Sai Central Trust and is spread over 450 acre of land, housing a runway that is 2,230 metres long. The airport is closed to normal domestic flights, the nearest functional airport is the Kempegowda International Airport at Devanahalli, a suburb of Bangalore which is about 119 km from Puttaparthi.

title: Prasanthi Nilayam