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Perforation

A perforation is a small hole in a thin material or web. There is usually more than one perforation in an organized fashion, where all of the holes collectively are called a perforation. The process of creating perforations is called perforating, which involves removing bits of the workpiece with a tool. Old-fashioned lick-and-stick postage stamps are perforated. When a tool makes small cuts in the material (without removing anything) it is called 'rouletting', because that tool often resembles a roulette wheel, with blades around the edge. Raffle tickets are a good example of rouletting.

Perforations are usually used to allow easy separation of two sections of the material, such as allowing paper to be torn easily along the line. Packaging with perforations in paperboard or plastic film is easy for consumers to open. Other purposes include filtrating fluids, sound deadening, allowing light or fluids to pass through, and to create an aesthetic design.

Various applications include plastic films to allow the packages to breathe, medical films, micro perforated plate and sound and vapor barriers.

Pins and needles

Rotary pinned perforation rollers are precision tools that can be used to perforate a wide variety of materials. The pins or needles can be used cold or heated. Cold perforation tools include needle punches.

There are a handful of manufacturers that specialize in hot and cold needle perforation tooling and equipment. In materials that have elasticity this can result in a "volcano" hole that is preferred in many applications.

Pinned rollers can be made from a variety of materials, including plastic, steel, and aluminum.

In more brittle films, cold perforation can cause slitting rather than creating a round hole, which can jeopardize the material's integrity under pressure. The solution to this is often heating the pin; i.e. hot pin perforation. Hot perforation melts a hole in the material, causing a reinforced ring around the hole. Hot needle perforation also assists when high density pin patterns are utilized, as the heat aids the perforation of the material.

Die and punch
Die and punch sets can be used for thicker materials or materials that require large holes; this process is the most common for metalworking. The workpiece is sheared by pressing (either by machine or hand tool) the punch through the workpiece and into the die. The middle section of the workpiece is scrap; commonly known as the chad in paper and similar materials. The punch and die are shaped to produce the desired shaped hole. The clearance (the distance between the outside circumference of the punch and the inner circumference of the die) must be properly maintained to ensure a clean cut. Burrs are produced on the side of the workpiece that is against the die.

Common applications are fruit and vegetable bags, hole punching and ticket punching.

Laser perforation
Laser cutting can place many precise holes in a web. Laser perforations look similar in many respects to hot needle perforations. However, laser systems are expensive. The big advantage of laser perforation is the consistency of the hole size, compared to mechanical perforation. This is very important in modified atmosphere packaging for fresh produce. The laser perforation is often carried out on roll slitting machines (slitter rewinder) as the printed material is slit down to the finished roll size.

Applications
Perforation frequently refers to the practice of creating a long series of holes or slits so that paper or plastics can be torn more easily along a given line: this is used in easy-open packaging. Since the creation of perforation devices in the 1840s and 1850s, it has seen use in several areas.

Postage stamps are one common application of this, where small round holes are cut in lines to create individual pieces. Perforations on stamps are rather large, in the order of a millimeter, in comparison other perforated materials often have smaller holes.

It is common for cheque-books, notebooks and legal pads to have perforations making it easier to tear out individual pages or leaves. Perforation is used in ways to separate loose leaf (or even a form of graph paper from a ringed binder). A fine perforation next to the rings allows the page to be separated from the book with no confetti.

Screwcaps on glass or plastic bottles are sealed with a ring at the bottom of the cap attached by perforation. Twisting the cap has the effect of rupturing the material between the perforations and indicating that the original seal has been broken.

The edges of film stock are perforated to allow it to be moved precise distances at a time continuously. Similarly, punched cards for use in looms and later in computers input and output devices in some cases were perforated to ensure correct positioning of the card in the device, and to encode information.

Perforation of steel strips is used in the manufacture of some zesters and rasps.

Historically, perforation patterns other than linear were used to mark stamps. A series of patents had been issued in the late 19th century for perforation machines to be used on rail lines for ticketing. Libraries and private collections used similar perforating stamps to mark ownership of books. End sheets, title pages, and image plates were punched with the namesake of the collection. Today, similarly elaborate perforation patterns continue to be used in orienteering.

Bread bags for some bread often have micro-perforations in the plastic, which is supposed to keep the bread fresh by releasing excess moisture. Similarly, bags of concrete use small perforations to allow air to escape while they are being filled.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Perforation


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Moxa, Thuringia

The municipality of Moxa forms part of the Saale-Orla district in Thuringia, Germany.

title: Moxa, Thuringia


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State religion

A state religion (also called official religion) is a religion or creed officially endorsed by a sovereign state. A state with an official religion (also known as confessional state), while not a secular state, is not necessarily a theocracy. State religions are official or government-sanctioned establishments of a religion, but the state does not need to be under the control of the clergy (as in a theocracy), nor is the state-sanctioned religion necessarily under the control of the state.

Official religions have been known throughout human history in almost all types of cultures, reaching into the Ancient Near East and prehistory. The relation of religious cult and the state was discussed by the ancient Latin scholar Marcus Terentius Varro, under the term of theologia civilis (lit. 'civic theology'). The first state-sponsored Christian church was the Armenian Apostolic Church, established in 301 CE. In Christianity, as the term church is typically applied to a place of worship for Christians or organizations incorporating such ones, the term state church is associated with Christianity as sanctioned by the government, historically the state church of the Roman Empire in the last centuries of the Empire's existence, and is sometimes used to denote a specific modern national branch of Christianity. Closely related to state churches are ecclesiae, which are similar but carry a more minor connotation.

In the Middle East, the majority of states with a predominantly Muslim population have Islam as their official religion, though the degree of religious restrictions on citizens' everyday lives varies by country. Rulers of Saudi Arabia use religious power, while Iran's secular presidents are supposed to follow the decisions of religious authorities since the 1979 Islamic Revolution. Turkey, which also has Muslim-majority population, became a secular country after Atatürk's Reforms, although unlike the Russian Revolution of the same time period, it did not result in the adoption of state atheism.

The degree to which an official national religion is imposed upon citizens by the state in contemporary society varies considerably; from high as in Saudi Arabia and Iran, to none at all as in Greenland, Denmark, England, Iceland, and Greece (in Europe, the state religion might be called in English, the established church).

Types
The degree and nature of state backing for denomination or creed designated as a state religion can vary. It can range from mere endorsement (with or without financial support) with freedom for other faiths to practice, to prohibiting any competing religious body from operating and to persecuting the followers of other sects. In Europe, competition between Catholic and Protestant denominations for state sponsorship in the 16th century evolved the principle Cuius regio, eius religio (states follow the religion of the ruler) embodied in the text of the treaty that marked the Peace of Augsburg in 1555. In England, Henry VIII broke with Rome in 1534, being declared the Supreme Head of the Church of England, the official religion of England continued to be "Catholicism without the Pope" until after his death in 1547.

In some cases, an administrative region may sponsor and fund a set of religious denominations; such is the case in Alsace-Moselle in France under its local law, following the pre-1905 French concordatory legal system and patterns in Germany.

State churches
A state church (or "established church") is a state religion established by a state for use exclusively by that state. In the case of a state church, the state has absolute control over the church, but in the case of a state religion, the church is ruled by an exterior body; for example, in the case of Catholicism, the Vatican has control over the church. As of 2024, there are only five state churches left.

Disestablishment
Disestablishment is the process of repealing a church's status as an organ of the state. In a state where an established church is in place, opposition to such a move may be described as antidisestablishmentarianism. This word is, however, most usually associated with the debate on the position of the Anglican churches in the British Isles: the Church of Ireland (disestablished in 1871), the Church in Wales (disestablished in 1920), and the Church of England itself (which remains established in England).

Buddhism
Governments where Buddhism, either a specific form of it, or Buddhism as a whole, has been established as an official religion:
 * 🇧🇹 Bhutan: The Constitution defines Buddhism as the "spiritual heritage of Bhutan". The Constitution of Bhutan is based on Buddhist philosophy. It also mandates that the Druk Gyalpo (King) should appoint the Je Khenpo and Dratshang Lhentshog (The Commission for Monastic Affairs).

(a) The Je Khenpo as Chairman; (b) The Five Lopons of the Zhung Dratshang; and (c) The Secretary of the Dratshang Lhentshog who is a civil servant.
 * Article 3, Spiritual Heritage
 * Buddhism is the spiritual heritage of Bhutan, which promotes the principles and values of peace, non-violence, compassion and tolerance.
 * The Druk Gyalpo is the protector of all religions in Bhutan.
 * It shall be the responsibility of religious institutions and personalities to promote the spiritual heritage of the country while also ensuring that religion remains separate from politics in Bhutan. Religious institutions and personalities shall remain above politics.
 * The Druk Gyalpo shall, on the recommendation of the Five Lopons, appoint a learned and respected monk ordained in accordance with the Druk-lu, blessed with the nine qualities of a spiritual master and accomplished in ked-dzog, as the Je Khenpo.
 * His Holiness the Je Khenpo shall, on the recommendation of the Dratshang Lhentshog, appoint monks blessed with the nine qualities of a spiritual master and accomplished in ked-dzog as the Five Lopons.
 * The members of the Dratshang Lhentshog shall comprise:
 * The Zhung Dratshang and Rabdeys shall continue to receive adequate funds and other facilities from the State.

 * 🇰🇭 Cambodia: The Constitution declared Buddhism as the official religion of the country. About 98% of Cambodia's population is Buddhist.
 * 🇲🇲 Myanmar: Section 361 of the Constitution states that "The Union recognizes special position of Buddhism as the faith professed by the great majority of the citizens of the Union." The 1961 State Religion Promotion and Support Act requires : to teach Buddhist lessons in schools, to give priority to Buddhist monasteries in founding of primary schools, to make Uposatha days holidays during Vassa months, to broadcast Buddhist sermons by State media on Uposatha days, and other promotion and supports for Buddhism as State Religion.
 * 🇱🇰 Sri Lanka: The constitution of Sri Lanka states under Chapter II, Article 9, "The Republic of Sri Lanka declares Buddhism as the state religion and accordingly it shall be the duty of the Head of State and Head of Government to protect and foster the Buddha Sasana".

In some countries, Buddhism is not recognized as a state religion, but holds special status:
 * 🇹🇭 Thailand: Article 67 of the Thai constitution: "The State should support and protect Buddhism". In supporting and protecting Buddhism, the State should promote and support education and dissemination of dharmic principles of Theravada Buddhism, and shall have measures and mechanisms to prevent Buddhism from being undermined in any form. The State should also encourage Buddhists to participate in implementing such measures or mechanisms.
 * Laos: According to the Lao Constitution, Buddhism is given special privilege in the country. The state respects and protects all the lawful activities of Buddhism.
 * Kalmykia (Russia): The local Government supports Buddhism and also encourages Buddhist teachings and traditions. It also builds various Buddhist temples and sites. Various efforts are taken by the Government for the revival of Buddhism in the republic.

Christianity
The following states recognize some form of Christianity as their state or official religion or recognize a special status for it (by denomination):

Non-denominational Christianity

 * 🇼🇸 Samoa: In June 2017, Parliament voted to amend the wording of Article1 of the constitution, thereby making Christianity the state religion. Part 1, Section (1)(3) reads "Samoa is a Christian nation founded on God the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit." The status of the religion had previously only been mentioned in the preamble, which Prime Minister Tuilaepa Aiono Sailele Malielegaoi considered legally inadequate.
 * 🇿🇲 Zambia: The preamble to the Zambian Constitution of 1991 declares Zambia to be "a Christian nation", while also guaranteeing freedom of religion.

Catholicism
Jurisdictions where Catholicism has been established as a state or official religion:
 * 🇨🇷 Costa Rica: Article 75 of the Constitution of Costa Rica confirms that "The Catholic and Apostolic Religion is the religion of the State, which contributes to its maintenance, without preventing the free exercise in the Republic of other forms of worship that are not opposed to universal morality or good customs."
 * Holy See: It is an elective, theocratic (or sacerdotal), absolute monarchy ruled by the Pope, who is also the Vicar of Christ. The highest state functionaries are all Catholic clergy of various national origins. It is the sovereign territory of the Holy See (Sancta Sedes) and the location of the Pope's official residence, referred to as the Apostolic Palace.
 * 🇱🇮 Liechtenstein: The Constitution of Liechtenstein describes the Catholic Church as the state religion and enjoying "the full protection of the State". The constitution does however ensure that people of other faiths "shall be entitled to practice their creeds and to hold religious services to the extent consistent with morality and public order".
 * 🇲🇹 Malta: Article 2 of the Constitution of Malta declares that "the religion of Malta is the Catholic and Apostolic Religion".
 * 🇲🇨 Monaco: Article 9 of the Constitution of Monaco describes the "Catholic, and apostolic religion" as the religion of the state.

Jurisdictions that give various degrees of recognition in their constitutions to Roman Catholicism without establishing it as the State religion:
 * 🇦🇩 Andorra
 * 🇦🇷 Argentina: Article 2 of the Constitution of Argentina explicitly states that the government supports the Roman Catholic Apostolic Faith, but the constitution does not establish a state religion. Before its 1994 amendment, the Constitution stated that the President of the Republic must be a Roman Catholic.
 * East Timor: While the Constitution of East Timor enshrines the principles of freedom of religion and separation of church and state in Section 45 Comma 1, it also acknowledges "the participation of the Catholic Church in the process of national liberation" in its preamble (although this has no legal value).
 * 🇸🇻 El Salvador: Although Article 3 of the Constitution of El Salvador states that "no restrictions shall be established that are based on differences of nationality, race, sex or religion", Article 26 states that the state recognizes the Catholic Church and gives it legal preference.
 * 🇬🇹 Guatemala: The Constitution of Guatemala recognises the juridical personality of the Catholic Church. Other churches, cults, entities, and associations of religious character will obtain the recognition of their juridical personality in accordance with the rules of their institution.
 * 🇮🇹 Italy: The Constitution of Italy does not establish a state religion, but recognizes the state and the Catholic Church as "independent and sovereign, each within its own sphere". The Constitution additionally reserves to the Catholic faith singular position in regard to the organization of worship, as opposed to all other confessions.
 * 🇵🇦 Panama: The Constitution of Panama recognizes Catholicism as "the religion of the majority" of citizens but does not designate it as the official state religion.
 * 🇵🇾 Paraguay: The Constitution of Paraguay recognizes the Catholic Church's role in the nation's historical and cultural formation.
 * 🇵🇪 Peru: The Constitution of Peru recognizes the Catholic Church as an important element in the historical, cultural, and moral formation of Peru and lends it its cooperation.
 * 🇵🇱 Poland: The Constitution of Poland states that "The relations between the Republic of Poland and the Roman Catholic Church shall be determined by international treaty concluded with the Holy See, and by statute."
 * 🇪🇸 Spain: The Constitution of Spain of 1978 abolished Catholicism as the official state religion, while recognizing the role it plays in Spanish society.

Eastern Orthodoxy
The jurisdictions below give various degrees of recognition in their constitutions to Eastern Orthodoxy, but without establishing it as the state religion:
 * 🇬🇷 Greece: The Church of Greece is recognized by the Greek Constitution as the prevailing religion in Greece. However, this provision does not give exclusivity of worship to the Church of Greece, while all other religions are recognized as equal and may be practiced freely.
 * 🇧🇬 Bulgaria: In the Bulgarian Constitution, Eastern Orthodoxy is recognized as "the traditional religion" of the Bulgarian people, but the state itself remains secular.
 * 🇨🇾 Cyprus: The Constitution of Cyprus states: "The Autocephalous Greek-Orthodox Church of Cyprus shall continue to have the exclusive right of regulating and administering its own internal affairs and property in accordance with the Holy Canons and its Charter in force for the time being and the Greek Communal Chamber shall not act inconsistently with such right."
 * 🇫🇮 Finland: Both the Finnish Orthodox Church and the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland are "national churches".
 * Georgia: The Georgian Orthodox Church has a constitutional agreement with the state, the constitution recognizing "the special role of the Apostolic Autocephalous Orthodox Church of Georgia in the history of Georgia and its independence from the state". (See also Concordat of 2002)

Protestantism
The following states recognize some form of Protestantism as their state or official religion:

Anglicanism
The Anglican Church of England is the established church in England as well as all three of the Crown Dependencies:
 * 🏴 England: The Church of England is the established church in England, but not in the United Kingdom as a whole. It is the only established Anglican church worldwide. The Anglican Church in Wales, the Scottish Episcopal Church and the Church of Ireland are not established churches and they are independent of the Church of England. The British monarch is the titular Supreme Governor of the Church of England. The 26 most senior bishops in the Church of England are Lords Spiritual and have seats in the House of Lords of the Parliament of the United Kingdom.
 * Bailiwick of Guernsey: The Church of England is the established church in the Bailiwick of Guernsey, and the leader of the Church of England in the territory is the Dean of Guernsey.
 * 🇮🇲 Isle of Man: The Church of England is the established church on the Isle of Man. The Bishop of Sodor and Man is an ex officio member of the Legislative Council (the upper house of Tynwald).
 * 🇯🇪 Jersey: The Church of England is the established church in Jersey, and the leader of the church on the island is the Dean of Jersey, a non-voting member of the States of Jersey.

Calvinism

 * 🏴 Scotland: The Church of Scotland is the national church, but not the United Kingdom as a whole. Whilst it is the national church, it 'is not State controlled' and the monarch is not the 'supreme governor' as in the Church of England.
 * 🇹🇻 Tuvalu: The Church of Tuvalu is the state religion, although in practice this merely entitles it to "the privilege of performing special services on major national events". The Constitution of Tuvalu guarantees freedom of religion, including the freedom to practice, the freedom to change religion, the right not to receive religious instruction at school or to attend religious ceremonies at school, and the right not to "take an oath or make an affirmation that is contrary to his religion or belief".

Lutheranism
Jurisdictions where a Lutheran church has been fully or partially established as a state recognized religion include the Nordic States. Jurisdictions that give various degrees of recognition in their constitutions to Lutheranism without establishing it as the state religion:
 * 🇩🇰 Denmark: Section 4 of the Constitution of Denmark confirms the Church of Denmark as the established church.
 * 🇫🇴 Faroe Islands: The Church of the Faroe Islands is the state church of the Faroe Islands, an autonomous administrative division within the Danish Realm.
 * 🇬🇱 Greenland: The Church of Denmark is the state church of Greenland, an autonomous administrative division within the Danish Realm.
 * 🇮🇸 Iceland: The Constitution of Iceland confirms the Church of Iceland as the state church of Iceland.
 * 🇳🇴 Norway: Until 2012, the Church of Norway was not a separate legal entity from the government. It was disestablished and became a national church, a legally distinct entity from the state with special constitutional status. The King of Norway is required by the Constitution to be a member of the Church of Norway, and the church is regulated by special canon law, unlike other religions.
 * 🇫🇮 Finland: The Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland has a special relationship with the Finnish state, its internal structure being described in a special law, the Church Act. The Church Act can be amended only by a decision of the synod of the Evangelical Lutheran Church and subsequent ratification by the Parliament of Finland. The Church Act is protected by the Constitution of Finland and the state cannot change the Church Act without changing the constitution. The church has the power to tax its members. The state collects these taxes for the church, for a fee. On the other hand, the church is required to give a burial place for everyone in its graveyards. The President of Finland also decides the themes for intercession days. The church does not consider itself a state church, as the Finnish state does not have the power to influence its internal workings or its theology, although it has a veto in those changes of the internal structure which require changing the Church Act. Neither does the Finnish state accord any precedence to Lutherans or the Lutheran faith in its own acts.
 * 🇸🇪 Sweden: The Church of Sweden was the state church of Sweden between 1527 when King Gustav Vasa broke all ties with Rome and 2000 when the state officially became secular. Much like in Finland, it does have a special relation to the Swedish state unlike any other religious organizations. For example, there is a special law that regulates certain aspects of the church and the members of the royal family are required to belong to it in order to have a claim to the line of succession. A majority of the population still belongs to the Church of Sweden.

Other/mixed

 * 🇦🇲 Armenia: The Armenian Apostolic Church has a constitutional agreement with the State: "The Republic of Armenia shall recognise the exclusive mission of the Armenian Apostolic Holy Church, as a national church, in the spiritual life of the Armenian people, in the development of their national culture and preservation of their national identity."
 * 🇩🇴 Dominican Republic: The constitution of the Dominican Republic specifies that there is no state church and provides for freedom of religion and belief. A concordat with the Holy See designates Catholicism as the official religion and extends special privileges to the Catholic Church not granted to other religious groups. These include the legal recognition of church law, use of public funds to underwrite some church expenses, and complete exoneration from customs duties.
 * 🇭🇹 Haiti: While Catholicism has not been the state religion since 1987, a 19th-century concordat with the Holy See continues to confer preferential treatment to the Catholic Church, in the form of stipends for clergy and financial support to churches and religious schools. The Catholic Church also retains the right to appoint certain amounts of clergy in Haiti without the government's consent.
 * 🇭🇺 Hungary: The preamble to the Hungarian Constitution of 2011 describes Hungary as "part of Christian Europe" and acknowledges "the role of Christianity in preserving nationhood", while Article VII provides that "the State shall cooperate with the Churches for community goals." However, the constitution also guarantees freedom of religion and separation of church and state.
 * 🇳🇮 Nicaragua: The Nicaraguan Constitution of 1987 states that the country has no official religion, but defines "Christian values" as one of the "principles of the Nicaraguan nation".
 * 🇵🇹 Portugal: Although Church and State are formally separate, the Catholic Church in Portugal still receives certain privileges.

Islam
Many Muslim-majority countries have constitutionally established Islam, or a specific form of it, as a state religion. Proselytism (converting people away from Islam) is often illegal in such states.
 * 🇦🇫 Afghanistan: Officially, Afghanistan has continuously been an Islamic state under various constitutions since at least 1987.
 * 🇩🇿 Algeria: "Islam shall be the religion of the State."
 * 🇧🇩 Bangladesh: Article (2A) of the Constitution of Bangladesh declares: "Islam is the state religion of the republic".
 * 🇧🇭 Bahrain: "The religion of the State is Islam."
 * Brunei: Article 3 of the Constitution of Brunei: "The official religion of Brunei Darussalam shall be the Islamic Religion..."
 * 🇩🇯 Djibouti: Article 1 of the Constitution of Djibouti: "Islam is the Religion of the State."
 * 🇪🇬 Egypt: Article 2 of the Egyptian Constitution of 2014: "Islam is the religion of the State".
 * 🇮🇷 Iran: Article 12 of the Constitution of Iran: "The official religion of Iran is Islam and the Twelver Ja'farî school [in usul al-Dîn and fiqh], and this principle will remain eternally immutable." Islam has been Iran's state religion since 1501 dating back to the Safavid dynasty and has continued ever since, excluding the period of breaks in the Pahlavi dynasty.
 * 🇮🇶 Iraq: Article 2 of the Constitution of Iraq: "Islam is the official religion of the State and is a foundation source of legislation..."
 * 🇯🇴 Jordan: Article 2 of the Constitution of Jordan: "Islam is the religion of the State and Arabic is its official language."
 * 🇰🇼 Kuwait: Article 2 of the Constitution of Kuwait: "The religion of the State is Islam and Islamic Law shall be a main source of legislation."
 * 🇱🇾 Libya: Article 1 of the Libyan interim Constitutional Declaration: "Islam is the Religion of the State and the principal source of legislation is Islamic Jurisprudence (Shari'a)."
 * 🇲🇾 Malaysia: Article 3 of the Federal Constitution of Malaysia: "Islam is the religion of the Federation; but other religions may be practised in peace and harmony in any part of the Federation."
 * 🇲🇻 Maldives: Article 10 of the Maldives's Constitution of 2008: "The religion of the State of the Maldives is Islam. Islam shall be the one of the bases of all the laws of the Maldives."
 * 🇲🇷 Mauritania: Article 5 of the Constitution of Mauritania: "Islam is the religion of the people and of the State."
 * 🇲🇦 Morocco: Article 3 of the Constitution of Morocco: "Islam is the religion of the State, which guarantees to all the free exercise of beliefs [cultes]."
 * 🇴🇲 Oman: Article 2 of the Constitution of Oman: "The religion of the State is Islam and Islamic Sharia is the basis for legislation."
 * 🇵🇰 Pakistan: Article 2 of the Constitution of Pakistan: "Islam shall be the State religion of Pakistan."
 * Palestine: Article 4 of the Basic Law of the State of Palestine: "Islam is the official religion in Palestine. Respect and sanctity of all other heavenly religions shall be maintained."
 * 🇶🇦 Qatar: Article 1 of the Constitution of Qatar: "Qatar is an independent sovereign Arab State. Its religion is Islam and Shari'a law shall be a main source of its legislations."
 * 🇸🇦 Saudi Arabia: Article 1 of the Basic Law of Saudi Arabia: "The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is a sovereign Arab Islamic State. Its religion is Islam."
 * Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic: Article 2 of the Constitution of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic declares that Islam is the state religion and law origin.
 * 🇸🇴 Somalia: Article 2 of the Provisional Constitution of the Federal Republic of Somalia: "Islam is the religion of the State."
 * 🇦🇪 United Arab Emirates: Article 7 of the Constitution of the United Arab Emirates: "Islam shall be the official religion of the Union."
 * 🇾🇪 Yemen: Article 2 of the Constitution of Yemen: "Islam is the religion of the state, and Arabic is its official language."

In some countries, Islam is not recognized as a state religion, but holds special status:

 * 🇹🇯 Tajikistan: Although there is a separation of religion from politics, certain aspects of law also privilege Islam. One such law declares "Islam to be a traditional religion of Tajikistan, with more rights and privileges given to Islamic organizations than to religious groups of non-Muslim origin".
 * 🇹🇳 Tunisia: Article 5 of the Constitution declares that "Tunisia is part of the Muslim world, and the state alone must work to achieve the goals of pure Islam in preserving honourable life of religious freedom". Although, Islam has been given special privileges by the Constitution, though it is no longer the state religion.
 * 🇹🇲 Turkmenistan: The Constitution claims to uphold a secular system in which religious and state institutions are separate. However, in Turkmenistan, the state actively privileges a form of traditional Islam. The culture, including Islam, is a key facet, contributes to the Turkmen national identity. The state encourages the conceptualization of "Turkmen Islam".
 * 🇺🇿 Uzbekistan: Since independence, Islam has taken on an altogether new role in the nation-building process in Uzbekistan. The government affords Islam in special status and declared it as a national heritage and a moral guideline.

Judaism

 * 🇮🇱 Israel is defined in several of its laws as a "Jewish and democratic state" (medina yehudit ve-demokratit). However, the term "Jewish" is a polyseme that can describe the Jewish people as either an ethnic or a religious group. The debate about the meaning of the term "Jewish" and its legal and social applications is one of the most profound issues with which Israeli society deals. The problem of the status of religion in Israel, even though it is relevant to all religions, usually refers to the status of Judaism in Israeli society. Thus, even though from a constitutional point of view Judaism is not the state religion in Israel, its status nevertheless determines relations between religion and state and the extent to which religion influences the political center. The Law of Return, passed on 5 July 1950, gives the global Jewish diaspora the right to relocate to Israel and acquire Israeli citizenship. Section - (1) of that law declares that "Every Jew has the right to come to this country as an Oleh"('immigrant'). In the Law of Return, the State of Israel gave effect to the Zionist movement's "credo" which called for the establishment of Israel as a Sovereign Jewish state with Democratic setups, ideals and values. The State of Israel supports religious institutions, particularly Orthodox Jewish ones, and recognizes the "religious communities" as carried over from those recognized under the British Mandate—in turn derived from the pre-1917 Ottoman system of millets. These are Jewish and Christian (Eastern Orthodox, Latin Catholic, Gregorian-Armenian, Armenian-Catholic, Syriac Catholic, Chaldean, Melkite Catholic, Maronite Catholic, and Syriac Orthodox). The fact that the Muslim population was not defined as a religious community does not affect the rights of the Muslim community to practice their faith. At the end of the period covered by the 2009 U.S. International Religious Freedom Report, several of these denominations were pending official government recognition; however, the Government has allowed adherents of not officially recognized groups the freedom to practice. In 1961, legislation gave Muslim Shari'a courts exclusive jurisdiction in matters of personal status. Three additional religious communities have subsequently been recognized by Israeli law: the Druze (prior under Islamic jurisdiction), the Evangelical Episcopal Church, and followers of the Baháʼí Faith.

Political religions
In some countries, there is a political ideology sponsored by the government that may be called political religion.

Multiple religion recognition

 * 🇨🇳 China: The government of China officially espouses state atheism, and officially recognizes only five religions: Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Christianity (Catholicism and Protestantism). Despite limitations on certain forms of religious expression and assembly, religion is not banned, and religious freedom is nominally protected under the Chinese constitution. Among the general Chinese population, there are a wide variety of religious practices. The Chinese government's attitude to religion is one of skepticism and non-promotion.
 * 🇫🇷 France: The local law in Alsace-Moselle accords official status to four religions in this specific region of France: Judaism, Roman Catholicism, Lutheranism and Calvinism. The law is a remnant of the Napoleonic Concordat of 1801, which was abrogated in the rest of France by the law of 1905 on the separation of church and state. However, at the time, Alsace-Moselle had been annexed by Germany. The Concordat, therefore, remained in force in these areas, and it was not abrogated when France regained control of the region in 1918. Therefore, the separation of church and state, part of the French concept of Laïcité, does not apply in this region.
 * 🇮🇩 Indonesia is officially a presidential republic and a unitary state that does not declare or designate a state religion. Officially, the government recognizes six religions: Islam, Protestantism, Catholicism, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Confucianism, as well as traditional and indigenous beliefs. Pancasila comes from the Jakarta Charter whose first article was changed from "Divinity, with the obligation to carry out Islamic law for its adherents" to "the One Divinity", to respect other religions. The Constitution of Indonesia guarantees freedom of religion and the practice of other religions and beliefs, including traditional animistic beliefs. Indonesians who are practicing other unrecognized religions such as Sikhs and Jains are often counted as "Hindu" while Indonesians practicing Orthodoxy are often counted as "Christian" for governmental purposes. Atheism, although not prosecuted, is discouraged by the state ideology of Pancasila. In addition, the province of Aceh receives a special status and a higher degree of autonomy, in which it may enact laws (qanuns) based on the Sharia and enforce it, especially to its Muslim residents.
 * 🇱🇧 Lebanon: There are 18 officially recognized religious groups in Lebanon, each with its own family law legislation and set of religious courts. Under the terms of an agreement known as the National Pact between the various political and religious leaders of Lebanon, the president of the country must be a Maronite, the Prime Minister must be a Sunni, and the Speaker of Parliament must be a Shia.
 * 🇱🇺 Luxembourg is a secular state, but the Grand Duchy recognizes and supports several denominations, including the Catholic Church, Greek Orthodox, Russian Orthodox, Romanian Orthodox, Serbian Orthodox, Anglican and some Protestantism denominations as well as to Jewish congregations.
 * 🇳🇵 Nepal is a secular nation, and secularism in Nepal under the interim constitution (Part 1, Article 4) is defined as "religious and cultural freedom, along with the protection of religion and culture handed down from time immemorial." That is, "the state government is bound for protecting and fostering Hindu religion" while maintaining "religious" and "cultural" freedom throughout the nation as fundamental rights.
 * 🇷🇺 Russia: Though a secular state under the constitution, Russia is often said to have Russian Orthodoxy as the de facto national religion, despite other minorities: "The Russian Orthodox Church is de facto privileged religion of the state, claiming the right to decide which other religions or denominations are to be granted the right of registration".

Islam in Russia is recognized under the law and by Russian political leaders as one of Russia's traditional religions, Islam is a part of Russian historical heritage, and is subsidized by the Russian government. The position of Islam as a major Russian religion, alongside Orthodox Christianity, dates from the time of Catherine the Great, who sponsored Islamic clerics and scholarship through the Orenburg Assembly.

 * 🇸🇬 Singapore is officially a secular country and does not have a state religion, and has been named in one study as the "most religiously diverse nation in the world", with no religious group forming a majority. However, the government gives official recognition to ten different religions, namely Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Taoism, Sikhism, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Jainism, and the Baháʼí Faith, and Singapore's penal code explicitly prohibits "wounding religious feelings". The Jehovah's Witnesses and Unification Church are also banned in Singapore, as the government deems them to be a threat to national security.
 * 🇨🇭 Switzerland is officially secular at the federal level but 24 of the 26 cantons support both the Swiss Reformed Church and the Roman Catholic Church in various ways.
 * 🇹🇷 Turkey: The Republic of Turkey is officially a secular country. None of the past and the latest constitutions recognizes an official religion nor promotes any. But; the Directorate of Religious Affairs, an official state institution established by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in 1924, expresses opinions only on religious matters regarding Sunni institutions. The directorate regulates the operation of the country's hundreds of thousands of registered mosques and employs local and provincial imams (who are civil servants) who are appointed and paid by the state, whilst other sects of Islam with a sizeable minority such as Alevism are not being regulated nor being funded by the directorate.

In addition, the Treaty of Lausanne explicitly guarantees the security and protection of both Greek and Armenian Orthodox Christian minorities and the Turkish-Jews. Their religious institutions are being recognized officially by the state.

 * Vietnam is officially atheist (although sometimes also referred as atheist-Buddhist), but recognizes only 38 religious organizations and one dharma practice.

Roman religion and Christianity
In Rome, the office of Pontifex Maximus came to be reserved for the Emperor, who was occasionally declared a god posthumously, or sometimes during his reign. Failure to worship the Emperor as a god was at times punishable by death, as the Roman government sought to link emperor worship with loyalty to the Empire. Many Christians and Jews were subject to persecution, torture and death in the Roman Empire because it was against their beliefs to worship the Emperor.

In 311, Emperor Galerius, on his deathbed, declared a religious indulgence to Christians throughout the Roman Empire, focusing on the ending of anti-Christian persecution. Constantine I and Licinius, the two Augusti, by the Edict of Milan of 313, enacted a law allowing religious freedom to everyone within the Roman Empire. Furthermore, the Edict of Milan cited that Christians may openly practice their religion unmolested and unrestricted, and provided that properties taken from Christians be returned to them unconditionally. Although the Edict of Milan allowed religious freedom throughout the Empire, it did not abolish nor disestablish the Roman state cult (Roman polytheistic paganism). The Edict of Milan was written in such a way as to implore the blessings of the deity.

Constantine called up the First Council of Nicaea in 325, although he was not a baptized Christian until years later. Despite enjoying considerable popular support, Christianity was still not the official state religion in Rome, although it was in some neighboring states such as Armenia, Iberia, and Aksum.

Roman religion (Neoplatonic Hellenism) was restored for a time by the Emperor Julian from 361 to 363. Julian does not appear to have reinstated the persecutions of the earlier Roman emperors.

Catholic Christianity, as opposed to Arianism and other ideologies deemed heretical, was declared to be the state religion of the Roman Empire on 27 February 380 by the decree De fide catolica of Emperor Theodosius I.

Han dynasty Confucianism
In China, the Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE) advocated Confucianism as the de facto state religion, establishing tests based on Confucian texts as an entrance requirement into government service—although, in fact, the "Confucianism" advocated by the Han emperors may be more properly termed a sort of Confucian Legalism or "State Confucianism". This sort of Confucianism continued to be regarded by the emperors, with a few notable exceptions, as a form of state religion from this time until the collapse of the Chinese monarchy in 1912. Note, however, there is a debate over whether Confucianism (including Neo-Confucianism) is a religion or purely a philosophical system.

Yuan dynasty Buddhism
During the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty of China (1271–1368 CE), Tibetan Buddhism was established as the de facto state religion by the Kublai Khan, the founder of the Yuan dynasty. The top-level department and government agency known as the Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs (Xuanzheng Yuan) was set up in Khanbaliq (modern Beijing) to supervise Buddhist monks throughout the empire. Since Kublai Khan only esteemed the Sakya sect of Tibetan Buddhism, other religions became less important. Before the end of the Yuan dynasty, 14 leaders of the Sakya sect had held the post of Imperial Preceptor (Dishi), thereby enjoying special power.

Golden Horde and Ilkhanate
The Mongol rulers Ghazan of Ilkhanate and Uzbeg of Golden Horde converted to Islam in 1295 CE because of the Muslim Mongol emir Nawruz and in 1313 CE because of Sufi Bukharan sayyid and sheikh Ibn Abdul Hamid respectively. Their official favoring of Islam as the state religion coincided with a marked attempt to bring the regime closer to the non-Mongol majority of the regions they ruled. In Ilkhanate, Christian and Jewish subjects lost their equal status with Muslims and again had to pay the poll tax; Buddhists had the starker choice of conversion or expulsion.

Other states

 * The State of Deseret was an unrecognised provisional state of the United States, proposed in 1849, by Mormon settlers in Salt Lake City. The provisional state existed for slightly over two years, but attempts to gain recognition by the United States government floundered for various reasons. The Utah Territory which was then founded was under Mormon control, and repeated attempts to gain statehood met resistance, in part due to concerns that the principle of separation of church and state conflicted with the practice of members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints placing their highest value on "following counsel" in virtually all matters relating to their church-centered lives. The state of Utah was eventually admitted to the union on 4January 1896, after the various issues had been resolved.
 * Kingdom of Hawaii: From 1862 to 1893 the Church of Hawaii, an Anglican body, was the official state and national church of the Kingdom of Hawaii.
 * Japanese Empire: see details in the State Shintō article.
 * 🇳🇱 Netherlands: Article 133 of the 1814 Constitution stipulated the Sovereign Prince should be a member of the Reformed Church; this provision was dropped in the 1815 Constitution. The 1815 Constitution also provided for a state salary and pension for the priesthood of established religions at the time (Protestantism, Catholicism and Judaism). This settlement, nicknamed de zilveren koorde (the silver cord), was abolished in 1983.
 * 🇳🇵 Nepal was the world's only Hindu state until 2015, when the new constitution declared it a secular state. Proselytizing remains illegal.
 * Ottoman Empire: the Millet system (مِلَّة) was the independent court of law pertaining to "personal law" under which a confessional community (a group abiding by the laws of Muslim Sharia, Christian Canon law, or Jewish Halakha) was allowed to rule itself under its own laws.
 * 🇪🇸 Spain: Spain formerly was a Catholic confessional state under Francisco Franco, but currently is a non-confessional state.
 * 🇸🇩 Sudan had Islam as the official religion during the rule of Omar al-Bashir according to the Constitution of Sudan of 2005. It was declared a secular state in September 2020.
 * 🇹🇳 Tunisia: Article 5 of the Constitution declares that "Tunisia is part of the Muslim world, and the state alone must work to achieve the goals of pure Islam in preserving honourable life of religious freedom". Although, Islam has been given special privileges by the Constitution, though it is no longer the state religion.
 * Tokugawa shogunate sanctioned Buddhism and Confucianism as the state religions. Buddhism became an arm of the shogunate, and temples were used for population registration. Distinctive schools of Japanese Buddhism such as Zen, Pure Land, and Nichiren structured Japanese religious life until the 19th century. Confucian Zhu Xi's teaching became a major intellectual force, and the Four Books became available to virtually every educated person.

Former confessional states
Note: This only includes states that abolished their state religion themselves, not states with a state religion that were conquered, fell apart or otherwise disappeared.

title: State religion


text:
User:Sben

S. Ben Melhuish

title: User:Sben


text:
Plague pit

A plague pit is the informal term used to refer to mass graves in which victims of the Black Death were buried. The term is most often used to describe pits located in Great Britain, but can be applied to any place where bubonic plague victims were buried.

Origin
The plague which swept across China, Middle East, and Europe in the 14th century is estimated to have killed between one-third and two-thirds of Europe's population. Disposal of the bodies of those who died presented huge problems for the authorities, and eventually the normal patterns of burial and funerary observance broke down.

Major plague outbreaks
Plague pits were used especially often during major plague outbreaks, such as the London epidemic of 1665. Graveyards rapidly filled and parishes became strained; for example the number of deaths in the parish of St Bride's Church, Fleet Street, in 1665 was almost six times normal.

title: Plague pit


text:
MJD

MJD may refer to:

 * Modified Julian Date, see
 * Machado–Joseph disease
 * Maurice Jones-Drew, former NFL running back
 * Mizo Janata Dal, an Indian political party
 * Moenjodaro Airport (IATA: MJD), Sindh, Pakistan
 * Democratic Progressive Party, Chinese transliteration of "Minjindang"

title: MJD


text:
El

EL, El or el may refer to:

Fictional entities

 * El, a character from the manga series Shugo Chara! by Peach-Pit
 * Eleven (Stranger Things) (El), a fictional character in the TV series Stranger Things
 * El, family name of Kal-El (Superman) and his father Jor-El in the Superman dynasty
 * E.L. Faldt, character in the road comedy film Road Trip

Music

 * Él Records, an independent record label from the UK founded by Mike Alway
 * Él (Lucerito album), a 1982 album by Lucerito
 * "Él", Spanish song by Rubén Blades from the album Caminando
 * "Él" (Lucía song), the Spanish entry performed by Lucía in the Eurovision Song Contest 1982

Other media

 * Él, 1926 autobiographical novel by Mercedes Pinto
 * Él (film), a 1953 film by Luis Buñuel based on the 1926 novel
 * Él (visual novel), a 1991 Japanese adult visual novel

Companies and organizations

 * Estée Lauder Companies (NYSE:EL), American cosmetics manufacturer
 * EssilorLuxottica (Euronext Paris:EL), French-Italian eyewear conglomerate
 * NIST Engineering Laboratory, a NIST laboratory since 2010

Science and technology

 * El (crater), a crater on Ganymede
 * Electroluminescence, in physics
 * Electroluminescent display, a display made with electroluminescent material
 * Electrum (El), an alloy of gold and silver
 * Encephalitis lethargica, a neurological disease
 * Equilibrium level, the height in the atmosphere at which a rising parcel of air reaches surrounding air of the same temperature
 * El (number), a pronunciation of the symbol for the number eleven in some duodecimal system notations

Computing

 * .el, a computer file extension used for Emacs Lisp source code
 * Enciclopedia Libre Universal en Español, a spin-off project of the Spanish Wikipedia
 * Erase Line (ANSI), an ANSI X3.64 escape sequence
 * Unified Expression Language, a feature of the JavaServer Pages software technology

Sport

 * Eastern League (disambiguation), a Class AA League in Minor League Baseball
 * Euroleague Basketball, highest level tier and most important professional club basketball competition in Europe
 * UEFA Europa League, formerly the UEFA Cup, a competition for eligible European football clubs

Transportation

 * Acura EL, an automobile
 * Air Nippon (former IATA code: EL), a former Japanese regional airline
 * Ellinair (former IATA code: EL), a former Greek airline
 * Erie Lackawanna Railway (reporting mark: EL), US
 * Elevated railway
 * Chicago "L", the rapid transit system in Chicago, US
 * El, one name of the elevated railway system on SEPTA, the Market–Frankford Line, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, US

Language

 * Al- or "El-" (ال), Arabic prefix meaning "the" (definite article in Arabic), used in many family names
 * El (Cyrillic) (Л, л), a letter of the Cyrillic alphabet
 * Greek language (ISO 639-1 language code EL)
 * L (spelled-out version), a letter in the Latin alphabet

People

 * EL (rapper) (born 1983), stage name of Elorm Adablah, a Ghanaian rapper and sound engineer
 * El DeBarge (born 1961), music artist
 * El Franco Lee (1949–2016), American politician
 * Ephrat Livni (born 1972), American street artist

Other uses

 * El (deity), Semitic word for "god" and proper name of certain deities
 * Party of the European Left, a political party
 * Greece (EU VAT identification: EL)

title: El


text:
Talk:List of recurring The Simpsons characters

"List of celebrities in The Simpsons" listed at Redirects for discussion
The redirect [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_celebrities_in_The_Simpsons&redirect=no List of celebrities in The Simpsons] has been listed at redirects for discussion to determine whether its use and function meets the redirect guidelines. Readers of this page are welcome to comment on this redirect at  until a consensus is reached. Xeroctic (talk) 15:23, 14 June 2024 (UTC)


text:
JD

JD or jd may refer to:

Arts and entertainment

 * JD (film), a 2016 Bollywood film
 * J.D. (Scrubs), nickname of Dr. John Dorian, fictional protagonist of the comedy-drama Scrubs
 * JD Fenix, a character from the Gears of War video game series
 * John Durairaj or JD, titular character of the 2021 Indian film Master, played by Vijay
 * J. D.'s Revenge, 1976 motion picture
 * Jade Dynasty (video game), a 2007 fantasy MMORPG
 * Just Dance (video game series), video game series
 * "J.D.", an episode of the sixth season of Fear the Walking Dead

Businesses and organizations

 * JD.com, a Chinese electronic commerce company
 * Jack Daniel's, a whiskey brand, distilled in Tennessee, US
 * Janata Dal, a political party in India
 * John Deere, an agricultural machinery manufacturer
 * JD Edwards, a former computer software company
 * JD Sports, a UK retail company
 * JD Wetherspoon, a UK pub and restaurant chain
 * Justdial, an Indian local search agency
 * Dawson State Jail, operated by the Corrections Corporation of America and owned by the Texas Department of Criminal Justice
 * Justice Democrats, an American political action committee
 * Jnana Deepa, Institute of Philosophy and Theology, Pontifical Athenaeum, Pune, India
 * Beijing Capital Airlines (IATA code JD), a Chinese airline

People

 * J. D. Tippit (1924–1963), an American police officer
 * J Dilla (1974–2006), also known as Jay Dee, a late hip-hop producer
 * Jaydee (born 1958), stage name for Robin Albers, a Dutch house music producer and DJ
 * Jermaine Dupri (born 1972), rapper/music producer also known as JD
 * John Doe/Jane Doe, a placeholder name for a party whose true identity is unknown or must be withheld
 * Jonathan Davis (born 1971), American musician/singer from the nu metal band Korn
 * Jonathon Douglass (born 1981), Australian Christian musician/singer at the Hillsong Church in Sydney, Australia
 * Joseph D. Sami, one half of the Indian filmmaking duo J. D.–Jerry
 * J. D. Drew American baseball player.
 * Lee Jae-dong (born 1990), professional video game player
 * JD Hammer (born 1994), American Major League Baseball pitcher for the Philadelphia Phillies
 * J. D. Beresford (1873–1947), English writer
 * JD Bertrand (born 2000), American football player
 * J. D. Dillard, American director, screenwriter, and producer
 * J. D. Frank, actor and mixed martial artist who played the Green and White Power Ranger
 * J. D. Jones (born 1936), American firearms and cartridge designer, firearms writer, and president of SSK Industries
 * J. D. McDuffie (1938–1991), American racing driver
 * J. D. Power (born 1931), Founder of J.D. Power and Associates
 * J. D. Roth (born 1968), television personality
 * J. D. Salinger (1919–2010), American author
 * Jadeveon Clowney (born 1993), American football defensive end
 * J. D. Vance (born 1984), United States senator from Ohio

Other uses

 * Juris Doctor (J.D.), a law degree
 * Jamesville-DeWitt Central School District, New York
 * Jason "J. D." Dean, a character and the main love interest in Heathers
 * Java Decompiler, computer programmer's tool to decompile Java class files
 * Jersey Devil, a cryptozoological animal
 * Job description, an abbreviation for a person's nature of job or terms of reference (TOR)
 * Jordanian dinar, the currency of Jordan (unofficially abbreviated "JD")
 * Journal of Discourses, a historical periodical of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
 * Julian day, the Julian day number (JDN) plus the decimal fraction of the day
 * Jury duty
 * Juvenile delinquency

title: JD


text:
User talk:Paul Musgrave

The WikiProject Universities Newsletter: Issue I (September 2007)
The September 2007 issue of the WikiProject Universities newsletter has been published. You may read the newsletter, change the format in which future issues will be delivered to you, or unsubscribe from this notification by following the link. Thank you for your continued support of WikiProject Universities! --  Noetic  Sage  19:44, 8 October 2007 (UTC)

The WikiProject Universities Newsletter: Issue II (October 2007)
The October 2007 issue of the WikiProject Universities newsletter has been published. You may read the newsletter, change the format in which future issues will be delivered to you, or unsubscribe from this notification by following the link. Thank you for your continued support of WikiProject Universities! — Noetic  Sage  19:59, 30 October 2007 (UTC)

The WikiProject Universities Newsletter: Issue III (November 2007)
The November 2007 issue of the WikiProject Universities newsletter has been published. You may read the newsletter, change the format in which future issues will be delivered to you, or unsubscribe from this notification by following the link. Thank you for your continued support of WikiProject Universities!  Noetic  Sage  19:57, 1 December 2007 (UTC)

The WikiProject Universities Newsletter: Issue IV (December 2007)
The December 2007 issue of the WikiProject Universities newsletter has been published. You may read the newsletter, change the format in which future issues will be delivered to you, or unsubscribe from this notification by following the link. Thank you for your continued support of WikiProject Universities!  Noetic  Sage  23:21, 30 December 2007 (UTC)

The WikiProject Universities Newsletter: Issue V (January 2008)
The January 2008 issue of the WikiProject Universities newsletter has been published. You may read the newsletter, change the format in which future issues will be delivered to you, or unsubscribe from this notification by following the link. Thank you for your continued support of WikiProject Universities! — Noetic  Sage  21:57, 3 February 2008 (UTC)

WikiProject Universities Newsletter: Issue VI (February 2008)
The February 2008 issue of the WikiProject Universities newsletter has been published. You may read the newsletter, change the format in which future issues will be delivered to you, or unsubscribe from this notification by following the link. Thank you for your continued support of WikiProject Universities! — Delivered on 19:21, 5 March 2008 (UTC) by MiszaBot (talk)

WikiProject Universities Newsletter: Issue VII (March 2008)
The March 2008 issue of the WikiProject Universities newsletter has been published. You may read the newsletter, change the format in which future issues will be delivered to you, or unsubscribe from this notification by following the link. Thank you for your continued support of WikiProject Universities! — Delivered on 18:01, 31 March 2008 (UTC) by MiszaBot (talk)

WikiProject Universities Newsletter: Issue VIII (April 2008)
The April 2008 issue of the WikiProject Universities newsletter has been published. You may read the newsletter, change the format in which future issues will be delivered to you, or unsubscribe from this notification by following the link. Thank you for your continued support of WikiProject Universities! — Delivered on 21:32, 2 May 2008 (UTC) by MiszaBot (talk)

title: User talk:Paul Musgrave


text:
User talk:Rosser~enwiki

Greetings! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. You can sign your name with ~. If you have questions or doubts of any sort, do not hesitate to post them on the Village Pump, somebody will respond ASAP. Other helpful pages include: Have fun! --Jiang 05:33, 9 Aug 2003 (UTC)
 * Welcome, newcomers
 * Manual of style
 * Naming conventions

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Rosser. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Rosser~enwiki that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name. If you think you might own all of the accounts with this name and this message is in error, please visit Special:MergeAccount to check and attach all of your accounts to prevent them from being renamed.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 02:27, 20 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 18:15, 22 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Rosser~enwiki


text:
LD

LD may refer to:

Arts and entertainment

 * Lighting designer, a person in charge of lighting in theatre

Film and television

 * Lorraine "L.D." Delacorte, a character on the TV series Degrassi
 * Larry David, sometimes referred to as L.D. on the television show Curb Your Enthusiasm
 * Latin Disciples, a fictional gang in television series Day Break
 * Living Dangerously, an Extreme Champion Wrestling pay-per-view event (ECW PPV)
 * Low-definition television (LDTV)
 * "-LD", a United States call sign suffix signifying a low-power digital television station

Music

 * Lil Dicky (born 1988), American rapper
 * Little Doses, a Scottish alternative rock band
 * Luis Dubuc (born 1985), American musician
 * LD (rapper), British rapper
 * Lemon Demon, American musical project and band

Businesses and organizations

 * Air Hong Kong (IATA code LD)
 * Light Dragoons, a British Army cavalry regiment
 * Línea Turística Aereotuy (IATA code LD)
 * Louis Dreyfus Company, a French commodities trading firm

Contract law

 * Liability damages
 * Liquidated damages

Currencies

 * Liberian dollar, the currency of Liberia
 * Libyan dinar, the currency of Libya
 * Liberty dollar (private currency), produced in the US

Products

 * LD (cigarette), a brand of cigarette

Places

 * LD postcode area, also known as the Llandrindod Wells postcode area, in Wales
 * Lakshadweep, India (ISO 3166-2 code LD)
 * County Longford, Ireland (code LD)

Politics

 * Liberal democracy, a form of government based on rule of the people (democracy) tempered by the rule of law and natural rights (liberalism)
 * Lincoln–Douglas debate, a form of debate
 * Liberal Democrats (UK), a UK political party
 * Lord, a peer of the realm in the United Kingdom

Astronomy

 * Lilian day, a variant of the Julian day
 * Lunar distance (astronomy), the distance between the Earth and the Moon, used a general measure of distance

Biology and medicine

 * Lactate dehydrogenase, an enzyme in plants and animals
 * Lateral dorsal nucleus of thalamus, an anatomic structure of the brain
 * Learning disability, a condition that can impair learning through standard methods
 * Lethal dose, an indication of the lethal toxicity of a given substance or type of radiation
 * Licensed Dietitian
 * Linkage disequilibrium, in genetics, when alleles occur together more often than they would by chance
 * Lucid dreaming, a dream in which one is conscious of dreaming as it is happening

Electronics and computing

 * ld, an instruction on a Z80 CPU
 * ld (Unix), the linker command on Unix and Unix-like systems
 * Laser diode, semiconductor laser-emitting device
 * LaserDisc, an obsolete optical disc video/data format and predecessor to DVD
 * Levenshtein distance, a string metric for measuring the difference between two sequences.
 * Line Dubbed, a term for unlicensed copies of films with an audio track, which has been ripped from the line out connection of a projector
 * Linked data, a method of publishing structured data so that it can be interlinked and become more useful
 * The 'Linked Document' in the NISO standard Content Profile/Linked Document, a data serialisation format
 * Listening device, used in covert investigations

Telecommunications

 * Long-distance calling, a telephone call charged at a higher rate
 * Loop Disconnect dialing

Other

 * (chemistry) D/L nomenclature, used in naming chemical compounds
 * (linguistics) Language Development, the changes that take place in language, speech & communication in the context of children's development
 * (manufacturing) Linz-Donawitz process, a widely-used process in Basic oxygen steelmaking
 * (mathematics) Binary logarithm, $$\mathrm{ld}(x)=\log_2(x)$$, from the Latin logarithmus dualis
 * (military) Laser designator, used by the military for targeting
 * (physics) London dispersion force, weak intermolecular forces

Other uses

 * (communications) Lincoln–Douglas debate format
 * (sociology) Long-distance relationship
 * (sports) Line drive, in baseball
 * (sports) Ludum Dare, a game development competition

title: LD


text:
TJD

TJD may refer to:

 * Temporomandibular joint dysfunction
 * Julian day
 * Trayce Jackson-Davis, American basketball player

title: TJD


text:
SkyTrain

SkyTrain or Skytrain may refer to:

Urban transport

 * SkyTrain (Metro Manila), a proposed people mover in Metro Manila, Philippines
 * SkyTrain (Vancouver), a rapid transit system in Metro Vancouver, Canada
 * Accra Skytrain, a proposed rail network in Accra, Ghana
 * BTS Skytrain, a rapid transit system in Bangkok, Thailand

Airport transport

 * Skytrain (Miami International Airport), a people mover at Miami International Airport, United States
 * ATL Skytrain, a people mover at Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport, United States
 * Changi Airport Skytrain, a people mover at Singapore Changi Airport, Singapore
 * Düsseldorf SkyTrain, a people mover at Düsseldorf Airport, Germany
 * PHX Sky Train, a people mover at Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport, United States
 * Soekarno–Hatta Airport Skytrain, a people mover at Soekarno–Hatta International Airport, Indonesia

Air transport

 * Douglas C-47 Skytrain also known as the Dakota, a military transport developed from the Douglas DC-3 airliner
 * McDonnell Douglas C-9 Skytrain II, a military transport developed from the Douglas DC-9 airliner
 * Skytrain, a transatlantic service by Laker Airways

Other uses

 * Sky Train, a 1976 album by Barry Miles
 * Skytrain Ice Rise, a large ice rise in the Filchner-Ronne ice shelf of Antarctica

title: SkyTrain


text:
Talk:Figure-eight knot (ropes)

Scope
Removed description of figure-eight loop that belongs under its own entry. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 64.40.59.42 (talk) 05:53, 9 August 2003

Title
Figure of eight? RickK 07:55, 9 Aug 2003 (UTC)
 * At 11:22, 26 June 2002 (i.e., before that comment by R...K) Josh Grosse (talk · contribs) summarized an edit with
 * More on math - are we sure figure-of-eight is the more standard name?
 * in the 1st of 2 edits that used "figure-8 knot" (in fleshing out a reference to the knot-theory construct) and then used "Figure-eight knot (mathematics)" (to lk to the article he started by moving that content out of the article accompanying this talk page).  R...K's comment came next.   Until now, the closest to a direct response has been  saying in their contrib at Talk:Figure eight knot that
 * it appears to me that "figure-of-eight knot" is just as common as "figure eight knot" for the real world object. So I've taken advantage of this difference in terminology to direct stuff appropriately.
 * That's a casual observation, or perhaps simply a gut opinion, on the facts, followed by specification of a course of action (now in effect), based on it. (Recently, i obliquely objected, proposing to change the titling, in my contrib to that section.) Here's some evidence on the facts:
 * Google (the hyphens make no difference):
 * about 4,820 for "figure of eight knot" tie OR rope.
 * about 16,900 for "figure eight knot" tie OR rope.
 * about 409 for "figure of eight knot" "knot theory" OR mathematics OR topology.
 * about 6,390 for "figure eight knot" "knot theory" OR mathematics OR topology.
 * My 1958 Merrian-Webster unabridged (now in its golden anniversary year!) lists only "figure of eight knot", but treats "figure eight" as a variant of the adjective "figure of eight".
 * 1976 M-W Coll. and 1981 American Heritage do not recognize "figure of eight" at all, but include the knot as a meaning of "figure eight".
 * I would welcome evidence bearing on my tentative conclusions that
 * "figure of eight" has become an archaic expression for either sense,
 * the different ratios of its uses probably reflects a longer tradition and insignificant obsolescence in the literature on knots, in contrast to increased interest in, and improved technology for, topological topics (e.g. four color theorem)
 * given that virtually all users interested in the figure-8 as a topological entity are aware of the physical knot (and the rest will be unsurprised to learn of it), while many (perhaps most) interested in the physical knot are likely to be surprised and confused to learn that higher mathematics can deal with knots (other than perhaps analyzing strength and failure modes!), the combination of about 3-fold greater frequency and the principle of least astonishment suggest renaming Figure-of-eight knot to Figure-eight knot, with a HatNote Dab to Figure-eight knot (mathematics), and
 * there is no need for "equal disambiguation".
 * As to the "of", i'm boldly renaming Figure-of-eight knot to Figure-eight knot (ropes), pending opportunity for others to comment on moving it, as primary topic, to Figure-eight knot --Jerzy•t 06:59, 15 October 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:Figure-eight knot (ropes)


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Talk:Hutt Valley

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Would it be possible for you to include the origin of the word HUTT. Thanks. Adrian Pingstone 06:42, 9 Aug 2003 (UTC)
 * will do - erm, have done! [[User:Grutness|Grutness hello? [[Image:Grutness.jpg|30px|]]]]

title: Talk:Hutt Valley


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User:Melody

Bold text Megan aka Melody is a newbie Wikipedian whose goals are to edit (boldy, as instructed) while learning the subtle ettiquette of the wiki way of life.

Intends to add and edit on a variety of material including, philosophy, literature, psychology and artificial intelligence

title: User:Melody