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Gulf of Aqaba

The Gulf of Aqaba (خَلِيج الْعَقَبَة) or Gulf of Eilat (מפרץ אילת) is a large gulf at the northern tip of the Red Sea, east of the Sinai Peninsula and west of the Arabian Peninsula. Its coastline is divided among four countries: Egypt, Israel, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia. The northernmost coral reef in the world is situated near the Eilat shore.

Geography
The gulf is east of the Sinai Peninsula and west of the Arabian Peninsula. With the Gulf of Suez to the west, it extends from the northern portion of the Red Sea. It reaches a maximum depth of 1850 m in its central area: the Gulf of Suez is significantly wider but less than 100 m deep.

The gulf measures 24 km at its widest point and stretches some 160 km north from the Straits of Tiran to where Israel meets Egypt and Jordan.

Like the coastal waters of the Red Sea, the gulf is one of the world's premier sites for diving. The area is especially rich in coral and other marine biodiversity and has both accidental shipwrecks and vessels deliberately sunk in an effort to provide a habitat for marine organisms and bolster the local dive tourism industry.

Cities
At this northern end of the gulf are three important cities: Taba in Egypt, Eilat in Israel, and Aqaba in Jordan. They are strategically important commercial ports and popular resorts for tourists seeking to enjoy the warm climate. Further south, Haql is the largest Saudi Arabian city on the gulf. On Sinai, Sharm el-Sheikh and Dahab are the major centres.

The largest population center is Aqaba, with a population of 148,398 (2015), followed by Eilat with a population of 50,724 (2020).

Extent
The International Hydrographic Organization defines the southern limit of the gulf as "A line running from Ràs al Fasma Southwesterly to Requin Island (27.95°N, 34.6°W) through Tiran Island to the Southwest point thereof and thence Westward on a parallel (27°54'N) to the coast of the Sinaï Peninsula".

Geology
The gulf is one of two gulfs created by the Sinai Peninsula's bifurcation of the northern Red Sea, the Gulf of Suez lying to the west of the peninsula and the Gulf of Aqaba to its east. Geologically, the gulf forms the southern end of the Dead Sea Transform. It contains three small pull-apart basins, the Elat Deep, Aragonese Deep and Dakar Deep, formed between four left lateral strike-slip fault segments. Movement on one of these faults caused the 1995 Gulf of Aqaba earthquake.

History

Trade across the Red Sea between Thebes' port of Elim and Elat at the head of the gulf is documented as early as the Fourth Dynasty of Egypt. Expeditions crossing the Red Sea and heading south to Punt are mentioned in the fifth, the sixth, the eleventh, the twelfth and the eighteenth dynasties of Egypt, when Hatshepsut built a fleet to support the trade and journeyed south to Punt in a six-month voyage. Thebes used Nubian gold or Nub from her conquests south into Kush to facilitate the purchase of frankincense, myrrh, bitumen, natron, juniper oil, linen, and copper amulets for the mummification industry at Karnak. Egyptian settlements near Timna at the head of the gulf date to the Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt.

At the northern edge, the ancient city of Ayla (in present-day Aqaba) was a commercial hub for the Nabateans. The Romans built the Via Traiana Nova, which joined the King's Highway at Aqaba and connected Africa to Asia and the Levant and Red Sea shipping.

Aqaba was a major Ottoman port, connected to Damascus and Medina by the Hejaz railway. During World War I, the Battle of Aqaba was the key battle that ended a 500-year Ottoman rule over the region of Syria.

Fauna
In general, the fauna in the Red Sea represents the fauna in the waters of the Indian Ocean, except that many species cannot penetrate it due to salinity and temperature limitations and some are only found in the southern part of the Red Sea. A large part of the species in the Red Sea are endemic and the proportion of several groups reaches about 30%. It is possible that some of them developed during the Tethys Sea period. The endemic species are more suitable to the conditions in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Eilat and therefore thrive there more than the oceanic species.

Tourism
The gulf is one of the most popular diving destinations in the world. About 250,000 dives are performed annually in Eilat's 11 km coastline, and diving represents 10% of the tourism income of this area.

The Landscape of Wadi Rum to the east of the northern edge of the gulf is a popular destination. Other destinations are the ruins of the iron-age civilization of Ayla in the city of Aqaba, the site of the World War I Battle of Aqaba, led by Lawrence of Arabia.

Whales, orcas, dolphins, dugongs, and whale sharks live in the gulf as well.

title: Gulf of Aqaba


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Talk:Social welfare function

non sequitir
Taken from the text:

''Often choice of such a function is considered part of political economy. The choice may be a matter of tolerances versus preferences, or some broader political or ethical issue that may be resolveable within economics at all. ''

''A related issue is the need of individual capital for rest and recreation, which prevents anyone from actually maximimizing their total income. This renders moot many of the balanced growth assumptions of macro-economics: Unless a uniform social welfare function is chosen across an entire society, growth is not balanced. Due in part to this concern, more direct means of measuring well-being than "total incomes" or GDP are required by modern human development theory.''

Amartya Sen makes the point more directly:

Without answering this question, income and welfare are only indirectly related.

These paragraphs seem like a complete non sequitir from the previous material, which is comprehensible. It does not aid me, nor I imagine anybody else, in understanding what a social welfare function is.

 * That is not the sole concern of the article. This is not a textbook, so the nature of what "is" is is up for debate.  While the above text is weak I think, the question of how one selects such a social welfare function, whether "income" is actually a valid indicator of welfare, and the ability of the society to optimize such a function at all (given need for rest, recreation, etc.) must be in there.  As it is, the article has a POV problem in assuming that incomes are in fact indicators of general welfare, as the article claims this is the purpose of a social welfare function, and that idea is unchallenged in the text now.  While the text provided for balance was weak, it had some merits:  notably, it cited Amartya Sen who is the foremost welfare economics guru, it asked the question about the relation between wealth and "living as we would like" very directly, it mentioned the other issues.  It should be rewritten and the existing claim that social welfare functions actually do what the intro says they do should be qualified.  If you wish to write a textbook, go write one at this address.  Else, accomodate the views of a wider range of people, some of whom seem not to believe in this "function" or offer valid challenges to its usefulness. EofT

Talk:Social Choice and Individual Values
Announcement: The above is the discussion tab for a new article Social Choice and Individual Values. Input is welcome through the article, the Talk page, or to me. The plan is to gather comment, corrections, or suggestions for probably at least a couple of weeks, make final changes, then go from there. Links to related articles (including the present one) would come after revision. Thanks for your help.

Thomasmeeks 22:59, 27 May 2006 (UTC)

What's up with those boxes?
Are they necessary? radek 21:33, 24 April 2007 (UTC)

 * They might at least be handy for different uses and readers, including:
 * examples or digressions that might be interesting in themselves but unboxed might interrupt the flow for some readers
 * material more detailed than a typical footnote which might otherwise be overlooked to the disadvantage of the reader
 * more technical stuff, like an appendix of an article, except more accessible. --Thomasmeeks 09:17, 30 August 2007 (UTC)

Interpretation of Sen's Gini-based function
It is widely overlooked that also Sen's proposal of a social welfare function based on the Gini index has a concrete interpretation: It is the expected value of the minimum of the incomes of two randomly selected persons. In other words: If we pick two persons (independently and uniformly) at random and take the smaller of the two incomes, the average value of this is Sen's function.

This leads to a straightforward generalization of Sen's function if we use k>2 instead of 2 persons: W := expected value of the minimum of the incomes of k randomly selected persons. The higher k, the more weight is put on the small incomes.

Sounds like a textbook - Introduction/Welfare economics
I'm relatively new here, so I may be wrong, but the introductory three paragraphs reads more like a textbook rather than an encyclopedic article. I had to read it twice to grasp the content. Thanks. --Ratha K (talk) 10:23, 22 May 2013 (UTC)

Gabriel morin
Propriétaire Gabriel6666 (talk) 07:54, 10 May 2017 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Social welfare function


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Theon of Alexandria

Theon of Alexandria (Θέων ὁ Ἀλεξανδρεύς; c. AD 335) was a Greek scholar and mathematician who lived in Alexandria, Egypt. He edited and arranged Euclid's Elements and wrote commentaries on works by Euclid and Ptolemy. His daughter Hypatia also won fame as a mathematician.

Life
Little is known about the life of Theon. He made predictions and observations of solar and lunar eclipses in 364 which show he was active at that time, and he is said to have lived during the reign of Theodosius I (379–395).

The Suda, a tenth-century Byzantine encyclopedia, calls Theon a "man of the Mouseion". However, both the Library of Alexandria and the original Mouseion were destroyed in the first century BC and according to classical historian Edward J. Watts, Theon was probably the head of a school called the "Mouseion", which was named in emulation of the Hellenistic Mouseion that had once included the Library of Alexandria, but which had little other connection to it. Theon's school was exclusive, highly prestigious, and doctrinally conservative. Neither Theon nor his daughter Hypatia seems to have had any connections to the militant Iamblichean Neoplatonists who taught in the Serapeum of Alexandria and instead preferred Plotinian neoplatonism.

Theon was the father of the mathematician Hypatia, who succeeded him as head of his school Theon dedicated his commentary on the Almagest to a boy named Epiphanius, who may have been his son. Also, in his commentary on the Almagest he states that his daughter Hypatia contributed to Book III of the Almagest stating "the edition having been prepared by the philosopher, my daughter Hypatia."

A lunar crater, Theon Junior, now bears Theon's name.

Edited works
It is known that Theon edited the Elements of Euclid. He may also have edited some other works by Euclid and Ptolemy, although here the evidence is less certain. The editions ascribed to Theon are:
 * Euclid's Elements. Theon's edition of the Elements was the only known version until Francois Peyrard discovered an older copy of the Elements in the Vatican Library in 1808. Comparison of the two versions show that Theon's edition attempts to remove difficulties that might be felt by learners in studying the text. Hence he amplified Euclid's text whenever he thought that an argument was too brief; attempted to standardise the way that Euclid wrote; and he corrected mistakes in the text, although occasionally he introduced his own errors. Thomas Little Heath notes on Theon's edits include, "remarkably close approximations (stated in sexagesimal fractions)".
 * Ptolemy's Handy Tables. A collection of astronomical tables originally compiled by Ptolemy. It has often been claimed in modern times that Theon edited this text. However, none of the surviving manuscripts mention Theon, and the evidence suggests that the surviving tables must be very similar to the tables Ptolemy provided.   It has, however, been thought possible that his daughter Hypatia edited (or verified) the Handy Tables, since the Suda refers to her work on the "Astronomical Canon".
 * Euclid's Optics. Euclid's work on optics survives in two versions, and it has been argued that one version may be an edition by Theon.

Commentaries
Of his commentaries, those which are extant are:
 * Commentary on the Data of Euclid. This work is written at a relatively advanced level as Theon tends to shorten Euclid's proofs rather than amplify them.
 * Commentary on the Optics of Euclid. This elementary-level work is believed to consist of lecture notes compiled by a student of Theon.
 * Commentary on the Almagest. Originally a commentary on all thirteen books of Ptolemy's Almagest, but now missing book 11 and most of book 5. The commentary is a reworking of Theon's own lecture notes, and is useful chiefly for including information from lost works by writers such as Pappus. It is also useful for Theon's account of the Greek method of operating with the sexagesimal system as it was applied to calculations.
 * Great Commentary on Ptolemy's Handy Tables. This work partially survives. It originally consisted of 5 books, of which books 1–3 and the beginning of book 4 are extant. It describes how to use Ptolemy's tables and gives details on the reasoning behind the calculations.
 * Little Commentary on Ptolemy's Handy Tables. This work survives complete. It consists of one book and is intended as a primer for students. In this work Theon mentions that certain (unnamed) ancient astrologers believed that the precession of the equinoxes, rather than being a steady unending motion, instead reverses direction every 640 years, and that the last reversal had been in 158 BC. Theon describes but did not endorse this theory. This idea inspired Thābit ibn Qurra in the 9th century to create the theory of trepidation to explain a variation which he (incorrectly) believed was affecting the rate of precession.
 * Commentary on Aratus. Some extant scholia on the Phaenomena of Aratus are attributed doubtfully to Theon.

Original works
Among Theon's lost works, the Suda mentions On Signs and Observation of Birds and the Sound of Crows; On the Rising of the Dog[-Star]; and On the Inundation of the Nile.
 * Treatise on the Astrolabe. Both the Suda and Arabic sources attribute to Theon a work on the astrolabe. This work has not survived, but it may have been the first ever treatise on the astrolabe, and it was important in transmitting Greek knowledge on this instrument to later ages. The extant treatises on the astrolabe by the 6th century Greek scholar John Philoponus and by the 7th century Syriac scholar Severus Sebokht draw heavily on Theon's work.
 * Catoptrics. The authorship of this treatise, ascribed to Euclid, is disputed. It has been argued that Theon wrote or compiled it. The Catoptrics concerns the reflection of light and the formation of images by mirrors.

title: Theon of Alexandria


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Frank Sturgis

Frank Anthony Sturgis (December 9, 1924 – December 4, 1993), born Frank Angelo Fiorini, was one of the five Watergate burglars whose capture led to the end of the presidency of Richard Nixon.

He served in several branches of the United States military and in the Cuban Revolution of 1958, worked as an undercover operative for the Central Intelligence Agency, and was alleged to be involved in the assassination of John F. Kennedy.

Early life and military service
When still a child, his family moved to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. On October 5, 1942, in his senior year of high school, 17-year-old Frank Angelo Fiorini joined the United States Marine Corps and served under Colonel "Red Mike" Merritt A. Edson in the First Marine Raider Battalion in the Pacific Theater during the Second World War.

"On April 14, 1942, William Donovan, as Coordinator of Information (forerunner of the Office of Strategic Services), activated units charged with gathering intelligence, harassing the Japanese through guerrilla actions, identifying targets for the Army Air Force to bomb, and rescuing downed Allied airmen." This was what led to Stilwell's Chinese forces, Wingate's Raiders, and Merrill's Marauders involvement in the war, and Frank got trained in guerrilla tactics and gathering intelligence, which became useful in his later events.

Honorably discharged as a corporal in 1945, he enrolled at Virginia Polytechnic Institute but left college and joined the Norfolk Police Department on June 5, 1946. He soon discovered a corrupt payoff system and brought it to the attention of his superiors, who told him to overlook the illegal activities. On October 5, 1946, he had a confrontation with his sergeant and resigned the same day. For the next 18 months, he managed the Havana-Madrid tavern in Norfolk that catered to foreigners, mostly Cuban merchant seamen.

On November 9, 1947, Fiorini joined the United States Naval Reserve at the Norfolk Naval Air Station and learned to fly while still working at the tavern. He was honorably discharged on August 30, 1948, and joined the United States Army the next day. He was sent immediately to West Berlin, where the USSR had closed the land routes during the Berlin Blockade, and he became a member of General Lucius Clay's honor guard. Two weeks after the USSR reopened the land routes on May 11, 1949, Fiorini was honorably discharged. As a Marine Raider, Fiorini had worked behind enemy lines gathering intelligence, and during his Army tenure in Berlin and Heidelberg, he had a top secret clearance and worked in an intelligence unit whose primary target was the Soviet Union. Fiorini started to believe Russia was a threat, and he became a lifelong militant. Returning to Norfolk in 1952, he took a job managing the Cafe Society tavern, then partnered with its owner, Milton Bass, to co-purchase and manage The Top Hat Nightclub in Virginia Beach.

On September 23, 1952, Frank Fiorini filed a petition in the Circuit Court of the City of Norfolk, Virginia, to change his name to Frank Anthony Sturgis, adopting the surname of his stepfather Ralph Sturgis, whom his mother had married in 1937. His new name closely resembled that of Hank Sturgis, the fictional hero of E. Howard Hunt's 1949 novel, Bimini Run, whose life parallels Frank Sturgis's life from 1942 to 1949 in certain salient respects.

Moves to Cuba, joins Castro forces
In 1956, Sturgis moved to Cuba, and went to Mexico, Venezuela, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Panama and Honduras. Sturgis moved to Miami in 1957, where the Cuban wife of his uncle Angelo Vona introduced him to former Cuban president Carlos Prío, who joined with other Cubans opposing dictator Fulgencio Batista to plot their return to power. Now Frank had gotten together with an old friend, Richard Sanderlin who was also a Norfolk, Virginia native. Once they had relocated to Miami, Florida, they began an arms and munition smuggling operation into Cuba, bound for the rebels of Fidel Castro. They were sending money to Mexico to support Fidel Castro, whose July 26 Movement had arranged a meeting between CIA Inspector General Lyman Kirkpatrick and their representatives in 1957 by Pepín Bosch, an executive of the Bacardi Corporation. Prio asked Sturgis to go to Cuba to join up with Castro and to report back to the exiled powers in Miami, so he went down and met with Castro. While Richard Sanderlin traveled to the Sierra Maestra Mountains in Oriente Province Cuba, where he began training the Castro rebels, in military strategy, tactics, weapon handling, and hand to hand fighting.

In 1958, Frank made contact with the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) in Cuba at the US Consulate in Santiago. He worked as an informer for the agency with his control officer Sam Jenis. Sturgis also became involved running guns to Cuba, along with mobster Santo Trafficante, and not surprisingly was arrested for illegal possession of arms, but released without charge. In 1959, Sturgis had contact with casinos in Cuba and some say met Lewis McWillie, mobster Traficante's man in Cuba, and the manager of the Tropicana Casino who by his own testimony was a known acquaintance of Jack Ruby.

Sturgis met up with Castro and his 400 rebels in the Sierra Maestra mountains. Sturgis offered to train Castro's troops in guerrilla warfare. Castro accepted the offer, but he also had an immediate need for guns and ammunition, so Sturgis became a gunrunner. Using money from anti-Batista Cuban exiles in Miami and some suspect the CIA, Sturgis purchased boatloads of weapons and ammunition from CIA weapons expert Samuel Cummings' International Armament Corporation in Alexandria, Virginia. Sturgis explained later that he chose to throw in with Castro rather than Prío because Fidel was a soldier, a man of action, whereas Prío was a politician, more a man of words.

In March 1958, Sturgis opened a training camp in the Sierra Maestra mountains, where he taught Che Guevara and other 26th of July Movement rebel soldiers guerrilla warfare. When Castro seized power, a rebel firing squad on San Juan Hill executed 71 of their opponents on January 11, 1959, into an awaiting 40-foot (12.2 m) ditch that had been opened with a bulldozer. Although Sturgis did not take part in the execution, he was photographed afterwards holding a rifle on top of the covered mass grave. His friend Richard Sanderlin, completed the training of Raul Castros Second Front, and led a guerrilla band into combat operations against the Cuban army of Batista.

Castro then appointed Sturgis gambling czar and director of security and intelligence for the air force, in addition to his position as a captain in July 26 Movement. Sturgis went to Miami on June 2, 1959, with Alan McDonald while "supervising the investigation of several American gamblers with criminal records that operate casinos in Havana." They requested from Metropolitan Criminal Intelligence Supervisor Frank Kappel information on "Meyer and Jake Lansky, Joe Silesi aka Joe Rivers and Santos Trafficante," that was provided to them six days later after the Cuban government sent an official written request. He was introduced to two men that were transported to Cuba from Venezuela to assist in the organization of the revolution and Frank saw they were clearly communist. He began to sound out those that he knew were anti-communist including Camilo Cienfuegos, as he knew leaders like Raúl Castro and Che Guevara were communist, but he was unsure about Fidel Castro. Sturgis defected the following month with Revolutionary Air Force chief Commandant Pedro Luis Díaz Lanz and they joined the anti-Castro exile opposition.

Sturgis participated with him a few months later in an anti-Castro leaflet-dropping raid over Cuba. Sturgis formed the Anti-Communist Brigade which Hans Tanner in his book "Counter-Revolutionary Agent", says the organization was "being financed by dispossessed hotel and gambling owners" from Cuba. The Border Patrol in Miami reported that Sturgis was involved in a CIA operation being financed by Sergio Rojas (former Cuban Ambassador to Great Britain) to overthrow Castro. It has been claimed, with little in the way of evidence, that Sturgis was involved in helping the CIA organize the Bay of Pigs Invasion, for whose ultimate failure he blamed President Kennedy. Sturgis recruited 19 year old Marita Lorenz, who was close to Fidel Castro, and she took CIA pills, which she hid in her face cream, to poison Castro, but the plot failed. According to Lorenz, she met Sturgis again before the Kennedy assassination in 1963 with others planning a big event. Lorenz stated that she joined Sturgis traveling to Dallas after the meeting. Lorenz later testified about this Kennedy assassination plot before the House Select Committee on Assassinations (HSCA).

Sturgis was claimed to be a member of Operation 40, a CIA-sponsored counterintelligence group composed of Cuban exiles. The group was formed to seize control of the Cuban government after the Bay of Pigs Invasion. The operation was concentrating on Cuba and were operating out of Mexico.

Despite his claimed involvement in numerous CIA sponsored operations including the Bay of Pigs invasion, the 1975 Rockefeller Commission succinctly states that "Frank Sturgis was not an employee or agent of the CIA either in 1963 or at any other time."

Watergate burglary 1972

On June 17, 1972, Sturgis, Virgilio González, Eugenio Martínez, Bernard Barker and James W. McCord, Jr. were arrested while installing electronic listening devices in the national Democratic Party campaign offices located at the Watergate office complex in Washington. The White House office telephone number of CIA officer E. Howard Hunt was found in address books of the burglars. Reporters were able to link the break-in to the White House. The burglars had successfully entered into the same location several weeks earlier, but returned to fix a malfunctioning device and to photograph more documents. Bob Woodward, a reporter working for The Washington Post was told by a source (Deep Throat) who was employed by the government that senior aides of President Richard Nixon had paid the burglars to obtain information about his political opponents.

Sturgis was portrayed in All the President's Men, the 1976 film retelling the events of the Watergate scandal, by Ron Hale.

Prison and later investigations
In January 1973, Sturgis, Hunt, Gonzalez, Martinez, Barker, G. Gordon Liddy and James W. McCord were convicted of conspiracy, burglary and wiretapping.

Sturgis was convicted in 1973 with Max Gonzalez and Jerry Buchanan in a federal court in Miami (73-597-CR-CA) of transporting cars stolen in Texas into Mexico. This prompted Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) Acting Regional Director David W. Costa to send a letter to Judge C. Clyde Atkins on March 10, 1975, indicating that Sturgis had been covertly cooperating with the DEA. Sturgis served 14 months in the minimum security federal prison in Eglin, Florida. After leaving prison, Sturgis served as a Miami police informant and continued providing intelligence on the anti-Castro activities of Dr. Orlando Bosch.

St. George's article was published in True magazine in August 1974. Sturgis claims that the Watergate burglars had been instructed to find a particular document in the Democratic Party offices. This was a "secret memorandum from the Castro government" that included details of CIA covert actions. Sturgis said "that the Castro government suspected the CIA did not tell the whole truth about these operations even to American political leaders". In response to Sturgis' repeated braggadocio to the news media, the CIA issued a public statement on May 30, 1975, indicating that he had never been connected with them "in any way."

In an interview with New York Daily News reporter Paul Meskil on June 20, 1975, Sturgis stated, "I was a spy. I was involved in assassination plots and conspiracies to overthrow several foreign governments including Cuba, Panama, Guatemala, the Dominican Republic, and Haiti. I smuggled arms and men into Cuba for Castro and against Castro. I broke into intelligence files. I stole and photographed secret documents. That's what spies do."

Sturgis was denied a pardon by President Jimmy Carter.

JFK conspiracy allegations
Sturgis has been the subject of various allegations regarding the assassination of President John F. Kennedy. He also made claims that other individuals were involved in the assassination of Kennedy.

Early allegations: Sturgis as one of the "three tramps"
The Dallas Morning News, the Dallas Times Herald, and the Fort Worth Star-Telegram photographed three transients under police escort near the Texas School Book Depository shortly after the assassination of Kennedy. The men later became known as the "three tramps". According to Vincent Bugliosi, allegations that these men were involved in a conspiracy originated from theorist Richard E. Sprague who compiled the photographs in 1966 and 1967, and subsequently turned them over to Jim Garrison during his investigation of Clay Shaw. Appearing before a nationwide audience on the December 31, 1968, episode of The Tonight Show, Garrison held up a photo of the three and suggested they were involved in the assassination. Later, in 1974, assassination researchers Alan J. Weberman and Michael Canfield compared photographs of the men to people they believed to be suspects involved in a conspiracy and said that two of the men were Watergate burglars Hunt and Sturgis. Comedian and civil rights activist Dick Gregory helped bring national media attention to the allegations against Hunt and Sturgis in 1975 after obtaining the comparison photographs from Weberman and Canfield. Immediately after obtaining the photographs, Gregory held a press conference that received considerable coverage and his charges were reported in Rolling Stone and Newsweek.

The Rockefeller Commission reported in 1975 that they investigated the allegation that Hunt and Sturgis, on behalf of the CIA, participated in the assassination of Kennedy. The final report of that commission stated that witnesses who testified that the "derelicts" bore a resemblance to Hunt or Sturgis "were not shown to have any qualification in photo identification beyond that possessed by an average layman". Their report also stated that FBI Agent Lyndal L. Shaneyfelt, "a nationally-recognized expert in photoidentification and photoanalysis" with the FBI photographic laboratory, had concluded from photo comparison that none of the men were Hunt or Sturgis. In 1979, the House Select Committee on Assassinations reported that forensic anthropologists had again analyzed and compared the photographs of the "tramps" with those of Hunt and Sturgis, as well as with photographs of Thomas Vallee, Daniel Carswell, and Fred Lee Chrisman. According to the committee, only Chrisman resembled any of the tramps but determined that he was not to be in Dealey Plaza on the day of the assassination. In 1992, journalist Mary La Fontaine discovered the November 22, 1963, arrest records that the Dallas Police Department had released in 1989, which named the three men as Gus W. Abrams, Harold Doyle, and John F. Gedney. According to the arrest reports, the three men were "taken off a boxcar in the railroad yards right after President Kennedy was shot", detained as "investigative prisoners", described as unemployed and passing through Dallas, then released four days later.

Sturgis makes his own allegations
In 1976, Sturgis claimed that he was assigned to investigate any possible role that Cuban exiles may have played in the assassination of Kennedy. He stated that his investigation revealed that ten weeks prior to the assassination, Jack Ruby met with Fidel Castro in Havana, Cuba to discuss "the removal of the President" in order to neutralize the threat of invasion by the United States. According to Sturgis, others at the meeting included Raúl Castro, Che Guevara, Ramiro Valdés and "an Argentine woman who is believed to have been a Russian KGB agent". He said that Ruby had also made several trips to Havana in the months before the assassination in order to arrange deals in which arms would be sold to Cuba and in which illegal drugs from Cuba would be smuggled into the United States. Sturgis also claimed that Lee Harvey Oswald was involved in the conspiracy, and that other governments either were involved in the conspiracy or knew of the conspiracy. He said that his investigation did not reveal that Cuban exiles were involved in the assassination.

Sturgis declined to specifically identify the sources of his information, but noted he said that they included members of the "anti-Castro Cuban underground." He further claimed that associates of his involved in intelligence had independently confirmed his report. According to Sturgis, his report was made in early 1964 and that it was given to "certain American intelligence agencies, including the Senate Internal Security Committee." He said that he did not know if it had been forwarded to the Warren Commission. Similarly, Sturgis said that information about the 1964 reports had been provided to the Rockefeller Commission as well as the Church Committee's intelligence subcommittee chaired by Richard Schweiker, but that he did not know if they received the actual reports.

Sturgis stated he was revealing that he made the reports in order to refute "the leftist element in the country" who claimed the CIA was involved in the assassination of Kennedy. Jack Ruby's brother, Earl, responded to the allegations as "outlandish," "ridiculous," and "absolutely false".

In a 1977 television interview conducted by Bill O'Reilly, Sturgis indicated that Alexander Butterfield had notable "associations" with CIA officials, associating himself with the position taken by L. Fletcher Prouty who had made headlines nationwide with his allegation that Butterfield was operating on behalf of the CIA.

Marita Lorenz: Sturgis with Oswald
In September 1977, Marita Lorenz told Paul Meskil of the New York Daily News that she met Oswald in the fall of 1963 at an Operation 40 safe house in the Little Havana section of Miami. According to Lorenz, she met him again before the Kennedy assassination in 1963 in the house of Orlando Bosch, with Sturgis, Pedro Luis Díaz Lanz, and two other Cubans present. She said the men studied Dallas street maps and that she suspected that they were planning on raiding an arsenal. Lorenz stated that she joined the men traveling to Dallas in two cars and carrying "rifles and scopes", but flew back to Miami the day after they arrived. In response to her allegations, Sturgis said he did not recall ever meeting Oswald and reiterated his previous denials of being involved in a conspiracy to kill Kennedy.

On October 31, 1977, Sturgis was arrested in Lorenz's apartment after Lorenz told police that Sturgis threatened her in an attempt to force her to change her testimony to federal investigators. In an interview with Steve Dunleavy of the New York Post shortly after he posted bail, Sturgis said that he believed communist agents had pressured Lorenz into making the accusations against him. Later that week in Manhattan Criminal Court, charges against Sturgis were dropped after the prosecutor told the judge that his office found no evidence of coercion or harassment. Recapping the series of events, Timothy Crouse of The Village Voice described Sturgis and Lorenz as "two of the most notoriously unreliable sources in America".

Posthumous allegations: Hunt's "deathbed confession"
After the death of Hunt in 2007, John Hunt and David Hunt revealed that their father had recorded several claims about himself and others being involved in a conspiracy to assassinate John F. Kennedy. In the April 5, 2007, issue of Rolling Stone, John Hunt detailed a number of individuals implicated by his father including Sturgis, as well as Cord Meyer, David Sánchez Morales, David Atlee Phillips, William Harvey and an assassin he termed "French gunman grassy knoll" who many presume was Lucien Sarti. The two sons alleged that their father cut the information from his memoirs, American Spy: My Secret History in the CIA, Watergate and Beyond, to avoid possible perjury charges. According to Hunt's widow and other children, the two sons took advantage of Hunt's loss of lucidity by coaching and exploiting him for financial gain. The Los Angeles Times said they examined the materials offered by the sons to support the story and found them to be "inconclusive".

Portugal, 1980: Camarate Affair
Sturgis is also linked to the assassination, on December 4, 1980, of Portuguese prime minister Francisco de Sá Carneiro and 6 other people aboard a Cessna aircraft, in what became known as the Camarate affair. He was named by two of his alleged accomplices, Fernando Farinha Simões and José Esteves, in a written confession, as the person who pressed the button of the detonator to activate the bomb on the plane.

Later life
In 1979, Sturgis traveled to Angola to help rebels fighting the communist government, which was supported by Cuba and the Soviet Union, and to teach guerrilla warfare. In 1981 he went to Honduras to train the US backed Contras who were fighting Nicaragua's Sandinista government, which was supported by Cuba and the Soviet Union; the Army of El Salvador; and the Honduras death squads. He made a second trip to Angola and trained rebels in the Angolan bush for Holden Roberto. He interacted with Venezuelan terrorist Carlos the Jackal. In 1989 he visited Yassir Arafat in Tunis. Arafat shared elements of his peace plan, and Sturgis was debriefed by the CIA on his return.

In an obituary published December 5, 1993, The New York Times quoted Sturgis' lawyer, Ellis Rubin, as saying that Sturgis died of cancer a week after he was admitted to a veterans' hospital in Miami, five days shy of his 69th birthday. It was reported that doctors diagnosed lung cancer that had spread to his kidneys, and that he was survived by a wife, Jan, and a daughter named Autumn.

title: Frank Sturgis


text:
Semipalmated plover

The semipalmated plover (Charadrius semipalmatus) is a small plover. Charadrius is a Late Latin word for a yellowish bird mentioned in the fourth-century Vulgate. It derives from Ancient Greek kharadrios a bird found in ravines and river valleys (kharadra, "ravine"). The specific semipalmatus is Latin and comes from  semi, "half" and palma, "palm". Like the English name, this refers to its only partially webbed feet.

Description
This species weighs a mean 47.4 g (1.7 oz.) for males and 46.1 g (1.6 oz.) for females, with body masses ranging from 37.6-54.7 g (1.3-1.9 oz.). and measures 17 - 19 cm in length with a 12 - 13 cm mean wing length. Adults have a grey-brown back and wings, a white belly, and a white breast with one black neckband. They have a brown cap, a white forehead, a black mask around the eyes and a short orange and black bill.

Habitat
Their breeding habitat is open ground on beaches or flats across northern Canada and Alaska. They nest on the ground in an open area with little or no plant growth.

They are migratory and winter in coastal areas of the southern United States, the Caribbean and much of South America. They are extremely rare vagrants to western Europe, and have been found in Tierra del Fuego and the Isles of Scilly. Their true status may be obscured by the difficulty in identifying them from the very similar ringed plover of Eurasia, of which it was formerly considered a subspecies.

Behavior
Semipalmated plovers forage for food on beaches, tidal flats and fields, usually by sight. They eat insects (such as the larvae of long-legged and beach flies, larvae of soldier flies and shore flies, mosquitoes, grasshoppers and Ochtebius beetles), spiders, crustaceans (such as isopods, decapods and copepods) and worms (such as polychaetes). They also consume small molluscs including bivalves and gastropods, including snails such as coffee bean snails and Odostomia laevigata. These opportunistic feeders also feed on berries or seeds from grasslands or cultivated fields. This bird resembles the killdeer but is much smaller and has only one band. Since the semipalmated plover nests on the ground, it uses a "broken-wing" display to lure intruders away from the nest, in a display similar to the related killdeer.

title: Semipalmated plover


text:
User:Gotcha~enwiki

New to Wikipedia, trying to get the hang of it.

title: User:Gotcha~enwiki


text:
Simon Kuznets

Simon Smith Kuznets (Семён Абра́мович Кузне́ц; April 30, 1901 – July 8, 1985) was a Russian-born American economist and statistician who received the 1971 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences "for his empirically founded interpretation of economic growth which has led to new and deepened insight into the economic and social structure and process of development."

Kuznets made a decisive contribution to the transformation of economics into an empirical science and to the formation of quantitative economic history.

Early life
Simon Kuznets was born in 1901 in Pinsk, Russian Empire, in modern Belarus, to a Lithuanian-Jewish family. He was one of three brothers, the other being Solomon and George. He completed his schooling, first at the Rivne, then, Kharkiv Realschule of Ukraine. In 1918, Kuznets entered the Kharkiv Institute of Commerce where he studied economic sciences, statistics, history and mathematics under the guidance of professors P. Fomin (political economy), A. Antsiferov (statistics), V. Levitsky (economic history and economic thought), S. Bernstein (probability theory), V. Davats (mathematics), and others. Basic academic courses at the Institute helped him to acquire "exceptional" erudition in economics, as well as in history, demography, statistics and natural sciences. According to the institute's curriculum, development of national economies had to be analyzed in the wider context of changes in "connected spheres" and with the involvement of proper methods and empirical data. There, he began to study economics, and became exposed to Joseph Schumpeter's theory of innovation and the business cycle.

At the turn of the decade, the normal work in the institute was interrupted by the events of the Civil War; reorganizations were undertaken by the Soviet authorities in the sphere of the higher education. There is no precise information whether Kuznets continued his studies at the institute, but it is known that he joined the Department of Labor of UZHBURO (South Bureau) of the Central Council of Trade Unions. There, he published his first scientific paper, "Monetary wages and salaries of factory workers in Kharkov in 1920"; he explored the dynamics of different types of wages by industries in Kharkov and income differentiation, depending on the wage system.

Emigration to the United States
In 1922, the Kuznets family emigrated to the United States. Kuznets then studied at Columbia University under the guidance of Wesley Clair Mitchell. He graduated with a B.S. in 1923, M.A. in 1924, and Ph.D. in 1926. As his magister thesis, he defended his essay "Economic system of Dr. Schumpeter, presented and analyzed", written in Kharkiv. From 1925 to 1926, Kuznets spent time studying economic patterns in prices as the Research Fellow at the Social Science Research Council. It was this work that led to his book "Secular Movements in Production and Prices", defended as a doctoral thesis and published in 1930.

In 1927, he became a member of the research staff of the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER), where he worked until 1961. From 1931 until 1936, Kuznets was a part-time professor at the University of Pennsylvania. In 1937 he was elected as a fellow of the American Statistical Association. He was elected to the Pi Gamma Mu social science honor society chapter at the University of Pennsylvania and actively served as a chapter officer in the 1940s; becoming a full-time professor from 1936 until 1954. In 1954, Kuznets moved to Johns Hopkins University, where he was professor of political economy until 1960. From 1961 until his retirement in 1970, Kuznets taught at Harvard.

Apart from that, Kuznets collaborated with a number of research organizations and government agencies. From 1931 to 1934, at Mitchell's behest, Kuznets took charge of the NBER's work on U.S. national income accounts, giving the first official estimation of the US national income. In 1936, Kuznets took the lead in establishing the Conference on Research, Income and Wealth, which brought together government officials and academic economists, engaged in the development of the U.S. national income and product accounts, and in 1947 helped to establish its international counterpart, the International Association for Research in Income and Wealth.

During the Second World War, between 1942 and 1944, Kuznets became the associate director of the Bureau of Planning and Statistics of the War Production Board. He took part in work to assess the country's capacity to expand military production. Researchers used national income accounting, together with a rough form of linear programming, to measure the potential for increased production and the resources from which it would come, and to identify the materials that were binding constraints on expansion.

After the war, he worked as an advisor for the governments of China, Japan, India, Korea, Taiwan, and Israel in the establishment of their national systems of economic information. Kuznets cooperated with the Growth Center of Yale University, the Social Science Research Council (SSRC). He guided extensive research, holding a number of positions in research institutions, such as the Chairman of the Falk Project for Economic Research in Israel, 1953–1963; member of the board of trustees and honorary chairman, Maurice Falk Institute for Economic Research in Israel, from 1963; and chairman, Social Science Research Council Committee on the Economy of China, 1961–1970.

Kuznets was elected as the President of the American Economic Association (1954), President of the American Statistical Association (1949), an honorable member of the Association of Economic History, the Royal Statistical Society of England and a member of the Econometric Society, the International Statistical Institute, the American Philosophical Society, the Royal Swedish Academy and a corresponding member of the British Academy. He was awarded the Medal of Francis Walker (1977).

Simon Kuznets died on July 8, 1985, at the age of 84. In 2013 The Kharkiv National University of Economics, where he studied in 1918–1921 was named after him; Simon Kuznets Kharkiv National University of Economics.

Impact on economics
His name is associated with the formation of modern economic science as an empirical discipline, the development of statistical methods of research and the emergence of quantitative economic history. Kuznets is credited with revolutionising econometrics, and this work is credited with fueling the so-called Keynesian revolution.

Kuznets' views and scientific methodology were highly influenced by methodological settings received by him in Kharkiv and fully shared by Mitchell for the statistical, inductive construction of hypotheses in economics and its empirical testing. Kuznets treated a priori and speculative conceptions with deep skepticism. At the same time, Kuznets tended to analyze economy in connection with the wider context of historical situation, demographic, and social processes, a method that was peculiar to the Kharkiv academics at the beginning of the 20th century. Kuznets was influenced by the work of such leading theorists as Joseph A. Schumpeter (who probed the relationship between technological change and business cycles), A. C. Pigou (who identified circumstances under which markets failed to maximize economic welfare), and Vilfredo Pareto (who propounded a law governing the distribution of income among households). Kuznets was closely familiar with the economics of Russia and Ukraine of the early 20th century. In the 1920s, he reviewed and translated the papers of Kondratiev, Slutsky, Pervushin, Weinstein. who were then little known in the West.

Historical series of economic dynamics and Kuznets cycles, or "long swings"
The first major research project in which Kuznets was involved was the study of long series of economic dynamics in the USA undertaken in the mid-1920s. The collected data covered the period from 1865 to 1925, and for some indices achieved 1770. Applying for the analysis of time series approximating Gompertz and logistic curves, Kuznets found that the characteristics of the curves with reasonable accuracy described the majority of economic processes. Fitting trend curves to data and analysis of the time series, comparison of theoretical and empirical levels, allowed him to identify medium-term extended cycles of economic activity, which lasted 15–25 years and had an intermediate position between the Kondratyev "long waves" and short business cycles. Aspiring to determine the nature of these cycles, Kuznets analyzed the dynamics of population, the construction industry performance, capital, national income data and other variables. These movements became known among economists and economic historians as "Kuznets cycles", and alternatively as "long swings" in the economy's growth rate (following the work of Moses Abramovitz [1912–1999]).

National income accounts
In 1931, at Mitchell's behest, Kuznets took charge of the NBER's work on U.S. national income accounts. In 1934, an assessment of the national income of the United States for the period 1929–1932 was given; further, it was extended to 1919–1938, and then, until 1869. Although Kuznets was not the first economist to try this, his work was so comprehensive and meticulous that it set the standard in the field. (He explicitly notes his work as an update of W. I. King's 1930 "The National income and Its Purchasing Power" in https://www.nber.org/system/files/chapters/c4231/c4231.pdf, as well as the contribution of Lillian Epstein, Elizabeth Jenk, and Edna Ehrenberg, the first of which had also contributed to King's 1930 book.)

Kuznets had success to solve numerous problems ranging from lack of sources of information and bias assessments, to the development of the theoretical concept of national income. Kuznets achieved a high precision in calculations. His works allowed us to analyze the structure of the national income, and expose to detailed study a number of specific problems of the national economy. Improved methods for calculating the national income and related indicators have become classics and formed the basis of the modern system of national accounts. Having analyzed the distribution of income among different social groups, Kuznets put forward the hypothesis that in countries, which were on the early stages of economic development, income inequality increased first, but as far as national economy was growing, it tended to decrease. This assumption formed the basis of so-called "Kuznets curve" empirical conception.

Kuznets helped the U.S. Department of Commerce to standardize the measurement of GNP. He disapproved, however, of its use as a general indication of welfare, writing that "the welfare of a nation can scarcely be inferred from a measure of national income."

Exploring the formation of the national income, Kuznets studied proportions between output and income, consumption and savings, etc. After analyzing the long-term data sets of economic conditions for 20 countries, Kuznets revealed long-term trends in capital / output ratios, shares of net capital formation, net investment, and so on. Collected and systematized data allowed exposing to empirical testing a number of existing hypotheses. In particular, this concerned premises of the Keynes theory – Keynes' 1936 absolute income hypothesis.

The hypothesis gave birth to what would become the first formal consumption function. However, Kuznets shook the economic world by finding that Keynes' predictions, while seemingly accurate in short-run cross-sections, broke down under more rigorous examination. In his 1942 tome Uses of National Income in Peace and War, published by the National Bureau of Economic Research, Kuznets became the first economist to show that the Absolute Income Hypothesis gives inaccurate predictions in the long run (by using time-series data). Keynes had predicted that as aggregate income increases, so will marginal savings. Kuznets used new data to show that, over a longer span of time (1870s – 1940s) the savings ratio remained constant, despite large changes in income. This paved the way for Milton Friedman's permanent income hypothesis, and several more modern alternatives such as the life-cycle hypothesis and the relative income hypothesis.

Economic growth
By the end of the Second World War Kuznets moved into a new research area, related to the tie between changes in income and growth. He proposed a research program that involved extensive empirical studies on the four key elements of economic growth. The elements were demographic growth, growth of knowledge, in-country adaptation to growth factors, and external economic relations between the countries. The general theory of economic growth should explain the development of advanced industrial countries, and the reasons that prevent the development of backward countries, include both market and planned economies, large and small, developed and developing countries, consider the impact on growth of foreign economic relations.

He collected and analyzed statistical indicators of economic performance of 14 countries in Europe, the U.S. and Japan for 60 years. Analysis of the materials led to the advancement of a number of hypotheses relating to various aspects of the mechanism of economic growth, concerning the level and variability of growth, structure of the GNP and distribution of labor, the distribution of income between households, the structure of foreign trade. Kuznets founded the historically grounded theory of economic growth. The central theme of these empirical studies is that the growth of the aggregated product of the country necessarily implies a profound transformation of the whole of its economic structure. This transformation affects many aspects of economic life – the structure of production, sectoral and occupational structure of employment, the division of occupations among family and market activities, the income structure, size, age structure and spatial distribution of the population, cross-country flows of goods, capital, labor and knowledge, the organization of industry and governmental regulation. Such changes, in his opinion, are essential for overall growth and, once started, shape, constrain or support the subsequent economic development of the country. Kuznets made a profound analysis of the impact on economic growth by demographic processes and characteristics.

His major thesis, which argued that underdeveloped countries of today possess characteristics different from those that industrialized countries faced before they developed, helped put an end to the simplistic view that all countries went through the same "linear stages" in their history and launched the separate field of development economics – which now focused on the analysis of modern underdeveloped countries' distinct experiences.

Kuznets curve
Among his several observations which sparked important theoretical research programs was the Kuznets curve, an inverted U-shaped relation between income inequality and economic growth (1955, 1963). In poor countries, economic growth increased the income disparity between rich and poor people. In wealthier countries, economic growth narrowed the difference. By noting patterns of income inequality in developed and underdeveloped countries, he proposed that as countries experienced economic growth, the income inequality first increases and then decreases. The reasoning was that in order to experience growth, countries had to shift from agricultural to industrial sectors. While there was little variation in the agricultural income, industrialization led to large differences in income. Additionally, as economies experienced growth, mass education provided greater opportunities which decreased the inequality and the lower income portion of the population gained political power to change governmental policies. He also discovered the patterns in savings-income behavior which launched the life-cycle-permanent-income hypothesis of Modigliani and Friedman. He conducted his research for many years and finally published his findings in 1963.

Historical and economic works of the 1970s
In his historical and economic studies of the 1970s, Kuznets expressed the idea of an interaction between science and technology (innovations), and institutional shifts, as well as the role of factors external to the economy, such as those caused by the moral and political climate in society, and their impact on the progress and results of economic growth.

Selected publications

 * "Secular Movements in Production and Prices: Their Nature and Their Bearing upon Cyclical Fluctuations". (New York and Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1930).
 * "National Income and Capital Formation, 1919–1935". (1937)
 * "National Income and Its Composition, 1919–1938". (1941) Assisted by Lillian Epstein and Elizabeth Jenks https://www.nber.org/chapters/c4224
 * "Economic Growth and Income Inequality". American Economic Review 45 (March): 1–28. (1955)
 * "Quantitative aspects of the economic growth of nations, VIII: The distribution of income by size", Economic Development and Cultural Change, 11, pp. 1–92. (1963)
 * "Modern Economic Growth: Rate, Structure, and Spread". (1966)
 * "Toward a Theory of Economic Growth, with Reflections on the Economic Growth of Modern Nations". (1968)
 * "Economic Growth of Nations: Total Output and Production Structure". (1971)
 * "Population, Capital and Growth". (1973)

title: Simon Kuznets


text:
DVS

DVS may refer to:
 * D.V.S*, an American electronic music producer/ guitarist named Derek VanScoten
 * Developing Virtue Secondary School, Talmage, California, USA

Organizations and companies

 * Descriptive Video Service, a United States producer of video for the visually impaired
 * Deutsche Verkehrsfliegerschule, an organization that trained pilots for the Nazi Luftwaffe
 * Digital Video Systems, a German digital cinema company
 * DVS Records, a Dutch record label
 * DVS Shoes
 * D.V.S. Senior Honor Society, an honor society at Emory University, Atlanta, USA

Technology and science

 * Digital vinyl system, technology and software for DJs to emulate records through digital music
 * Divinyl sulfide, an organic compound
 * Distributed vibration sensing, a viber optical sensing
 * Dynamic vapor sorption, a physical chemistry method that measures how a sample absorbs a solvent
 * Dynamic vision sensor, a neuromorphic digital camera, which responds to local changes in brightness
 * Dynamic voltage scaling, a power management technique in computer architecture

title: DVS


text:
Talk:Chelicerata

Untitled
Ref: ITIS 82697

I think giving ITIS reference numbers for groups is probably a bad idea. We are not specifically following their taxonomy, which is often idiosyncratic though not for this particular group, and so there is no particular reason to single them out this way. -- Josh Grosse

 * I was actually emulating other group pages which use the ITIS scheme (eg Clover) and following the standards at WikiProject Tree of Life which recommend that we cite our references at the bottom of the table, in the form "Ref:   YYYY-MM-DD". 'ITIS' is simply one kind of reference, there's nothing to stop us adding more references underneath (e.g. from NCBI or the "Tree of Life Web Project").  By including it we aren't really singling it out and saying it's the one and only "canonical" reference by including it at the bottom.   We should definitely include as many backup references as possible.   At the very least we should note the ITS number as backup reference in the Talk page.  -- Lexor 02:02 25 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * Pointing to things like ITIS and NCBI can be useful, but I don't think it makes sense when the classification is well-known and relatively well established. Just about any taxonomy base that covers arthropods would be a valid source here, not to mention printed materials - if someone wants to double check the system, they need only open an invertebrate zoology text or type Chelicerata into a search engine.  If we want our references to be helpful, we should only include helpful ones.  What might be worth including here is a sitation to the original definition of the taxon, if we can find it. -- Josh Grosse

 * Fair enough, but in that case, we should update the WikiProject Tree of Life page and/or discuss the policy on Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Tree of Life to reflect this, because the current template/policy on that page suggests that references are part of the standard template format/style. --Lexor 07:24 25 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Assessment comment
Substituted at 11:24, 29 April 2016 (UTC)

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Outdated page
The internal phylogeny of the group has greatly changed since this article was revised. Merostomata is no longer valid and Chelicerata has been divided into several clades that include many stem-genera. An important article with more than 8000 views should be fixed already. This article is where most of the changes have taken place. Pinging, the reviewer of this page. I will not mention the nominator out of respect for him. Super  Ψ   Dro  20:47, 9 October 2018 (UTC)
 * I agree that this article needs the phylogeny updated. Peter coxhead (talk) 20:51, 9 October 2018 (UTC)
 * Agreed. I have included an updated cladogram based on the paper in question in the Eurypterid article (scroll down to classification) which should give you some clue as to what needs to be updated in regards to the phylogeny. In regard to other related articles, I also think that many important changes need to be made with the Xiphosura as that group does not appear to be phylogenetically valid. I would also suggest new articles on Prosomapoda, Dekatriata and Xiphosurida, with the other intermediate clades being discussed in these as well (Sclerophorata can be discussed in Dekatriata, Euchelicerata in Chelicerata). Ichthyovenator (talk) 21:19, 9 October 2018 (UTC)
 * Xiphosura is still a valid clade that contains Xiphosurida and the paraphyletic family Kasibelinuridae and possibly Maldybulakia. Anyways, the xiphosurans need a lot of work since most of the genera are only redirects (including Xiphosurida). Super   Ψ   Dro  21:46, 9 October 2018 (UTC)
 * Ah okay, still many animals referred to currently as "xiphosurans" here on Wikipedia will need to be updated as some have ended up outside the Xiphosurida + Kasibelinuridae clade. Ichthyovenator (talk) 22:03, 9 October 2018 (UTC)
 * I guess the "Synziphosurine" page should be deleted... Super   Ψ   Dro  22:07, 9 October 2018 (UTC)
 * Should probably be redirected either to "Xiphosura" or "Prosomapoda", yes. I've updated the phylogeny in the infoboxes of Xiphosura and Chelicerata and created articles for Dekatriata and Prosomapoda that can be expanded later down the line. This article still needs a massive update (as does Xiphosura) and we need to figure out what to do with Merostomata. Ichthyovenator (talk) 20:24, 10 October 2018 (UTC)
 * Simply redirect Merostomata to Xiphosura and remove the useless links that link to it (which are mostly in eurypterids). I think that at the moment Xiphosura it is not a priority because it is less important than Chelicerata and it has always been that way anyways... But I think a good place to start is Bellinurina (it seems to be short). The prosomapod stem-genera should also be fixed since most of them are redirects. Super   Ψ   Dro  20:37, 10 October 2018 (UTC)
 * Yes, but there might be content to salvage from the article and put into others? I haven't read it yet. Main priorities should be this article (Chelicerata) and expanding the new Prosomapoda and Dekatriata, especially with information on phylogeny and classification. Ichthyovenator (talk) 20:50, 10 October 2018 (UTC)
 * The history could be moved to Xiphosura, but it is too short and I do not think it can be included so suddenly. The etymology of the group could also serve. There does not seem to be anything relevant for Eurypterida. Super   Ψ   Dro  20:57, 10 October 2018 (UTC)
 * I can set out to try and fix up Xiphosura and the basal prosomapods but I'll be pretty busy over the course of next week with other stuff. One thing that you could do in the meantime is to figure out how to amend the List of xiphosuran genera that you've worked on. I imagine that many of the genera included are no longer within the Xiphosura as per Lamsdell 2013? Ichthyovenator (talk) 15:40, 12 October 2018 (UTC)
 * In fact I removed them a few weeks ago from the list. I would also like to participate in the expansion of the basal prosomapods once I finish with Adelophthalmoidea and Offacolus. Super   Ψ   Dro  16:18, 12 October 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Chelicerata


text:
Apparent wind

Apparent wind is the wind experienced by a moving object.

Definition of apparent wind
The apparent wind is the wind experienced by an observer in motion and is the relative velocity of the wind in relation to the observer.

The velocity of the apparent wind is the vector sum of the velocity of the headwind (which is the velocity a moving object would experience in still air) plus the velocity of the true wind. The headwind is the additive inverse of the object's velocity; therefore, the velocity of the apparent wind can also be defined as a vector sum of the velocity of the true wind minus the velocity of the object.

Apparent wind in sailing
In sailing, apparent wind is the speed and direction of wind indicated by a wind instrument (anemometer) on a moving craft (on water, land or ice) in undisturbed air. It is composed of the combined speeds and directions of the craft and wind observed by a stationary wind instrument—the true wind. A true wind coming from the bow increases the apparent wind induced by the speed of the craft, coming from the stern it decreases apparent wind, and coming from the side the apparent wind angle and speed change according to the combined speed and direction of each the craft and the true wind. Apparent wind is important to sailors in order to set sail angle with respect to the wind and to anticipate how much power the wind will generate on a point of sail. Apparent wind differs in speed and direction from the true wind that is experienced by a stationary observer and composed of the true wind speed (TWS) and true wind direction (TWD) or the TWS and true wind angle (TWA) relative to the boat if it were stationary. In nautical terminology, apparent wind is measured in knots and degrees.

Note that a number of additional factors come into play when converting the measurements from the masthead anemometer into the true wind if a high degree of accuracy is required, including the following:
 * Leeway (or drift on power vessels) - Factors like water currents or slipping sideways due to wind (leeway) mean that the direction a craft is pointing often does not exactly match its actual direction of travel. This must be corrected for when converting apparent wind angle to true wind direction. The same effect is found when the craft is altering course.
 * Mast twist - the rigging loads often put a significant amount of torsion on the mast, especially if the rig has runners, so it is twisted along its length
 * Mast rotation - many racing multihulls have a mast that can be rotated, so the anemometer reading needs to be corrected by the angle of rotation of the mast
 * Heel angle - this is a simple trigonometric correction
 * Upwash from the sails - the airflow around the top of the mast is distorted by the presence of the sails. This effect varies with the sails set at the time, the wind speed and the point of sail, but is noticed by the true wind angle changing from port to starboard tack, and the true wind speed changing from when beating to running
 * Boat motions - as the masthead is so distant from the centre of motion of the craft, inertial effect on both the wind vane and the anemometer cups can be significant when the craft is moving, especially when pitching and rolling
 * Wind shear - there can be a significant change in both wind speed and direction between the water's surface and the top of the mast, especially in conditions of unstable, light airs. The wind instruments are just measuring conditions at the masthead, and these are not necessarily the same at all heights

In the presence of a current, the true wind is considered to be that measured on the craft drifting with the water over the bottom, and wind with respect to the sea bed as the ground or geographical wind.

Instruments
The apparent wind on board (a boat) is often quoted as a speed measured by a masthead transducer containing an anemometer and wind vane that measures wind speed in knots and wind direction in degrees relative to the heading of the boat. Modern instrumentation can calculate the true wind velocity when the apparent wind and boat speed and direction are input.

Implications on sailing speeds
In sailboat racing, and especially in speed sailing, apparent wind is a vital factor, when determining the points of sail a sailboat can effectively travel in. A vessel traveling at increasing speed relative to the prevailing wind will encounter the wind driving the sail at a decreasing angle and increasing velocity. Eventually, the increased drag and diminished degree of efficiency of a sail at extremely low angles will cause a loss of accelerating force. This constitutes the main limitation to the speed of wind-driven vessels and vehicles.

Windsurfers and certain types of boats are able to sail faster than the true wind. These include fast multihulls and some planing monohulls. Ice-sailors and land-sailors also usually fall into this category, because of their relatively low amount of drag or friction.

The AC72 foiling catamarans used in the America's Cup are an example of this phenomenon, as the boats sail through the water at up to double the environmental wind speed. The effect of this is to radically change the apparent wind direction when sailing "downwind". In these boats the forward speed is so great that the apparent wind is always forward—at an angle that varies between 2 and 4 degrees to the wing sail. This means that AC72's are effectively tacking downwind, although at a greater angle than the normal 45-degree upwind angle, usually between 50 and 70 degrees.

Other areas of relevance
In fixed-wing aircraft, apparent wind is what is experienced on board, and it determines the necessary speeds for take-off and landing. Aircraft carriers generally steam directly upwind at maximum speed, in order to increase apparent wind and reduce the necessary take-off velocity. Land-based airport traffic, as well as most mid-sized and large birds generally take off and land facing upwind for the same reason.

Calculating apparent velocity and angle
$$A = \sqrt{W^2 + V^2 + 2WV\cos{\alpha}}$$

Where: The above formula is derived from the Law of cosines and using $$\cos(\alpha') = \cos(180^\circ-\alpha) = -\cos(\alpha)$$.
 * $$V$$ = velocity (boat speed over ground, always ≥ 0)
 * $$W$$ = true wind velocity (always ≥ 0)
 * $$\alpha$$ = true pointing angle in degrees (0 = upwind, 180 = downwind)
 * $$A$$ = apparent wind velocity (always ≥ 0)

The angle of apparent wind ($$\beta$$) can be calculated from the measured velocity of the boat and wind using the inverse cosine in degrees ($$\arccos$$)

$$ \beta = \arccos \left( \frac{W\cos \alpha+V}{A} \right) = \arccos \left( \frac{W\cos \alpha+V}{\sqrt{W^2 + V^2 +2WV\cos{\alpha}}} \right)$$

If the velocity of the boat and the velocity and the angle of the apparent wind are known, for instance from a measurement, the true wind velocity and direction can be calculated with:

$$W = \sqrt{A^2 + V^2 - 2AV\cos{\beta}}$$

and

$$ \alpha = \arccos \left( \frac{A\cos \beta-V}{W} \right) = \arccos \left( \frac{A\cos \beta-V}{\sqrt{A^2 + V^2 -2AV\cos{\beta}}} \right)$$

Note: Due to quadrant ambiguity, this equation for $$ \alpha $$ is only valid when the apparent winds are coming from the starboard direction (0° < β < 180°). For port apparent winds (180° < β < 360° or 0° > β > -180°), the true pointing angle (α) has the opposite sign:

$$ \alpha = -\arccos \left( \frac{A\cos \beta-V}{W} \right) = -\arccos \left( \frac{A\cos \beta-V}{\sqrt{A^2 + V^2 -2AV\cos{\beta}}} \right)$$

title: Apparent wind


text:
Upland sandpiper

The upland sandpiper (Bartramia longicauda) is a large sandpiper, closely related to the curlews. Older names are the upland plover and Bartram's sandpiper. In Louisiana, it is also colloquially known as the papabotte. It is the only member of the genus Bartramia. The genus name and the old common name Bartram's sandpiper commemorate the American naturalist William Bartram. The species name  longicauda is from Latin longus, "long" and caudus, "tail". The name "Bartram's sandpiper" was made popular by Alexander Wilson, who was taught ornithology and natural history illustration by Bartram.

Description
An adult is roughly 12 in long with a 26 in wingspan. The average weight is 6 oz. This odd bird has a small dove-like head on a long neck. It is heavily marbled black and brown on the back and wings. The neck is streaked with dark brown which continues down to the breast and on to the flanks. The belly and undertail coverts are white. The tail is quite long for a sandpiper. The upland also sports a white eye-ring and long yellow legs.

Range
They breed from eastern Alaska south east of the Rocky Mountains through Montana to northern Oklahoma and then northeast to Pennsylvania, New England and extreme southern Quebec and Ontario. There are also local breeding populations in northeast Oregon and west central Idaho. They winter in northeastern Argentina, Uruguay and southern Brazil. It is an extremely rare vagrant to the South Pacific, with one record each from Australia and New Zealand.

Habitat
Even though they are sandpipers, they prefer open country with tall grasses to coastal habitat. They are also found at airports, blueberry farms and abandoned strip mines in the east. Their true core range and habitat is in the northern midwest United States.

Behavior and diet
Upland sandpipers forage in fields, picking up food by sight. They are frequently sighted on fence posts and even telephone poles. When an "uppy" alights, it holds its wings up for a few seconds. They are constantly scanning the horizon for intruders. The upland sandpiper's diet includes grasshoppers, crickets, weevils, beetles, moths, ants, flies, bugs, centipedes, millipedes, spiders, snails and earthworms. It also eats some grains and seeds.

Every year, between September and October, some upland sandpipers migrate to Ozogoche lagoons, in southern Ecuador. Hundreds of them swoop down and dive into the icy waters of the lagoons, where they die of hypothermia. The explanation for this behavior is uncertain.

Breeding
Upland sandpipers can sometimes be found in small, loose nesting colonies. The breeding season is from early-to-late summer; nests are located on the ground in dense grass. The female lays 4 eggs. Both parents look after the young and may perform distraction displays to lure predators away from the nest or young birds.

Call
Upland sandpipers can be identified by a distinctive call, sometimes called a "wolf whistle", which features a long, ascending whistle followed by a second rising and/or falling call. These sounds are often made while the bird is landing or while flying high.

Conservation
The numbers of these birds increased as forests were cleared in the early 19th century, but declined sharply in the late 19th century due to hunting. They are now regularly present in Midwestern North America but populations are scattered in the east.

Loss of prairie habitat is a concern. Also, livestock grazing has been found to reduce the number of nests in a field. Controlled burns may benefit this species as they feed on low-growing plants that are more easily spotted after a fire.

title: Upland sandpiper


text:
User talk:Gotcha~enwiki

Hello there Gotcha, welcome to Wikipedia! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. If you ever need editing help visit How does one edit a page or how to format them visit our manual of style. Experiment at Sandbox. If you need pointers on how we title pages visit Naming conventions. If you have any other questions about the project then check out Help or add a question to the Village pump.

I lived in Lisbon for a few months this spring, and got a chance to go up to Evora for a weekend. What a beautiful town! I loved going out to see the megaliths in the countryside. I think that the Evora page in Wikipedia needs some work... ESP 01:16 25 Jul 2003 (UTC)

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title: User talk:Gotcha~enwiki