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Windshield

The windshield (North American English) or windscreen (Commonwealth English except Canada) of an aircraft, car, bus, motorbike, truck, train, boat or streetcar is the front window, which provides visibility while protecting occupants from the elements. Modern windshields are generally made of laminated safety glass, a type of treated glass, which consists of, typically, two curved sheets of glass with a plastic layer laminated between them for safety, and bonded into the window frame.

Motorcycle windshields are often made of high-impact polycarbonate or acrylic plastic.

Usage
Windshields protect the vehicle's occupants from wind and flying debris such as dust, insects, and rocks, and provide an aerodynamically formed window towards the front. UV coating may be applied to screen out harmful ultraviolet radiation. However, this is usually unnecessary since most auto windshields are made from laminated safety glass. The majority of UV-B is absorbed by the glass itself, and any remaining UV-B together with most of the UV-A is absorbed by the PVB bonding layer.

On motorbikes their main function is to shield the rider from wind, though not as completely as in a car, whereas on sports and racing motorcycles the main function is reducing drag when the rider assumes the optimal aerodynamic configuration with their body in unison with the machine and does not shield the rider from wind when sitting upright.

Safety

Early windshields were made of ordinary window glass, but that could lead to serious injuries in the event of a crash. A series of crashes led up to the development of stronger windshields. The most notable example of this is the Pane vs. Ford case of 1917 that decided against Pane in that he was only injured through reckless driving. They were replaced with windshields made of toughened glass and were fitted in the frame using a rubber or neoprene seal. The hardened glass shattered into many mostly harmless fragments when the windshield broke. These windshields, however, could shatter from a simple stone chip. "Triplex" glass laminating, however, had been available for windshields in France from 1911 and in Britain from 1912; it was adopted as an accessory by some high-end American auto manufacturers beginning in 1913, and from 1919 to 1929 Henry Ford ordered the use of laminated glass on all of his vehicles.

Modern, glued-in windshields contribute to the vehicle's rigidity, but the main force for innovation has historically been the need to prevent injury from sharp glass fragments. Almost all nations now require windshields to stay in one piece even if broken, except if pierced by a strong force.

The urethane sealant is protected from UV in sunlight by a band of dark dots called a frit around the edge of the windshield. The darkened edge transitions to the clear windshield with smaller dots to minimize thermal stress in manufacturing. The same band of darkened dots is often expanded around the rearview mirror to act as a sunshade.

On a rainy day, water refraction on aircraft windshields can mislead pilots into believing that they are flying at a higher altitude than they actually are due to the horizon appearing lower than it is. This can result in undershooting the runway and become a safety hazard.

Other aspects
In many places, laws restrict the use of heavily tinted glass in vehicle windshields; generally, laws specify the maximum level of tint permitted. Some vehicles have noticeably more tint in the uppermost part of the windshield to block sunglare.

In aircraft windshields, an electric current is applied through a conducting layer of tin(IV) oxide to generate heat to prevent icing. A similar system for automobile windshields, introduced on Ford vehicles as "Quickclear" in Europe ("InstaClear" in North America) in the 1980s and through the early 1990s, used this conductive metallic coating applied to the inboard side of the outer layer of glass. Other glass manufacturers utilize a grid of micro-thin wires to conduct the heat especially on the later European Ford Transit vans. These systems are more typically utilized by European auto manufacturers such as Jaguar and Porsche.

The use of thermal glass prevents some navigation systems from functioning correctly, as the embedded metal blocks the satellite signal. The RF signal tends to flow along the metal wires or layer so very little radiation can pass. This can be resolved by using an external antenna. Mobile telephones can also have problems; thermal glass typically allows only 0.001 (1‰, or one per mille) of the signal to pass, whereas a concrete wall with rebars allows up to 0.100 (10%, or 100‰) of the signal to pass.

Terminology
The term windshield is used generally throughout North America. The term windscreen is the usual term in the British Isles and Australasia for all vehicles. In the US windscreen refers to the mesh or foam placed over a microphone to minimize wind noise, while a windshield refers to the front window of a car. In the UK, the terms are reversed, although generally, the foam screen is referred to as a microphone shield, and not a windshield.

Sports or racing cars would sometimes have aero screens, which were small semi-circular or rectangular windshields. These were often mounted in pairs behind a foldable flat windshield. Aero screens are usually less than 8 in in height. They are known as aero screens because they only deflect the wind. The twin aeroscreen setup (often called Brooklands) was popular among older sports and modern cars in vintage style.

A wiperless windshield is a windshield that uses a mechanism other than wipers to remove snow and rain from the windshield. The concept car Acura TL features a wiperless windshield using a series of jet nozzles in the cowl to blow pressurized air onto the windshield. Also several glass manufacturers have experimented with nano type coatings designed to repel external contaminants with varying degrees of success but to date none of these have made it to commercial applications.

Certification
Certification of a windshield is necessary to ensure safety. Different counties have made different set of rule that all windshield manufacturers need to comply under Motor Vehicle Acts. Some of the most know certifications are US DOT, EU ECE, Chinese CCC, South African SABS and Indian BIS standards. These certification ensures safety, reliability and quality of a product as per respective legal requirements.

Repair of stone-chip and crack damage
According to the US National Windshield Repair Association, many types of stone damage can be successfully repaired. Whether the windshield can be repaired always depends upon four factors: the size, type, depth and location of the damage.

Size and depth
Repair of cracks up to 2.4 in is within permissible limits; automobile glass with more severe damage needs to be replaced. However, this is dependent on local laws. If a crack extends to the edge of the panel then this would compromise the structural integrity of the windshield. Aircraft windshields are designed in such a way that even if a crack were to extend all the way across the panel, the structural integrity is maintained via multiple failsafe methods in both frame and the glass plies. A sacrificial outer layer that cracks rather than devitrifies is the first failsafe.

Type
Circular bullseyes, linear cracks, crack chips, dings, pits and star-shaped breaks can be repaired without removing the glass, eliminating the risk of leaking or bonding problems sometimes associated with replacement.

Location
Some damages are very difficult to repair, or cannot be repaired:
 * on inside of the windshield
 * deep damage on both layers of glass due to solar absorption or oxidation.
 * damage over rain sensor or internal radio antenna
 * complex multiple cracks
 * very long cracks (i.e. over 18 - 24 in long)
 * contaminated cracks
 * edge cracks

In cracked windshield repair, air is removed from the damaged area on the windshield with a specified vacuum injection pump. Then using the injection pump, the clear adhesive resin is injected to replace the air in the windshield crack. The resin is then cured with an ultraviolet light. When done properly, the damaged area’s strength is restored, as is 90–95% of the clarity.

Replacement
Windshields that cannot be repaired have to be replaced. Replacement of a windshield typically takes less than an hour. To ensure the vehicle is safe to drive, time values called the Safe Drive Away Time have been established. Windshields which have been replaced must cure or bond sufficiently until they are able to withstand the forces of a crash. Knowing the minimum time needed to cure the glass bonding adhesives is therefore important. This safe drive away time (SDAT) or minimum drive away time (MDAT) refers to the time required until a windshield installation or glass replacement is considered safe to drive again. Criteria are specified in U.S. Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards 212/208 (see FMVSS) to ensure the reliability of adhesive systems. Typically the SDAT is verified with crash tests as well as with high-speed laboratory test methods.

Consumers may be unaware that the MDAT or SDAT time is focused on safety and not necessarily on the quality, durability, or warranty of the installation. Care must be taken not to drive the vehicle prior to the SDAT/MDAT.

Airbags deploy at speeds up to 200 mph and in some cases exert tremendous force on the windshield. Occupants can impact the airbag just 50 ms after initial deployment. Depending on vehicle design, airbag deployment and/or occupant impact into the airbag may increase forces on the windshield, dramatically in some cases. Forces of occupants on the airbags - and hence the potential forces on the windshield - are lower for belted occupants. As consequence, adhesive suppliers usually inform their customers about the level of security achieved:

1) Example: Security exceeding FMVSS 212/208 belted

2) Example: Security exceeding FMVSS 212/208 unbelted

With the advent of quick-cure adhesives, mobile windshield replacements have become more prevalent. Often the temperature and humidity cannot be controlled for mobile installations. For most common glass adhesives the ideal environment is 70 F and 50% humidity. Variations from the ideal curing environment can increase the time needed for a sufficiently safe bond to form. Because of the variables and difficulties involved in mobile windshield replacement, many vehicle manufacturers do not recommend this method of installations.

Disposal
Waste disposal of laminated glass is no longer permitted in a landfill in most European countries as the End of Life Vehicles Directive (ELV) is implemented. A study by Surrey University and Pilkington Glass proposes that waste laminated glass be placed into a separating device such as a rolling mill where the glass is fragmented and the larger cullet is mechanically detached from the inner film. The application of heat then melts the laminating plastic, usually, polyvinyl butyral "PVB" enabling both the glass and the interior film to be recycled. The PVB recycling process is a simple procedure of melting and reshaping it. One possible method of recycling of simple automotive laminated windshields could involve heating the windshield to above the melting point of the PVB interlayer and then separating the glass plies. This depends chiefly on the differential melting points of PVB and glass and is not suitable for other interlayer materials such as silicone based materials.

title: Windshield


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Talk:High Court of Chivalry

I remember reading in a book about heraldry a long time ago that the ruling stopped the theatre company using the coat of arms on the company seal yet allowed it to continue to use the coat of arms upon the safety curtain of the theatre until such time as the safety curtain was replaced as a result of normal replacement due to wear.

"About the Court of Chivalry " is broken.

 * Fixed. Thanks.
 * James F. (talk) 12:29, 5 Sep 2004 (UTC)

Appeal
To which court would appeals (theoretically) be directed? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 86.2.122.83 (talk) 19:37, 8 September 2009 (UTC)
 * To the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. I have added new text to that effect. Lyndwood (talk) 01:56, 12 January 2011 (UTC)
 * I have amended Andrew Gwilliam's new wording to try to reflect the fact that, although appeals lie to the Privy Council since 1832 there haven't actually been any (yet). Lyndwood (talk) 08:00, 6 October 2011 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:High Court of Chivalry


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Nizam Peerwani

Nizam Peerwani is the chief medical examiner for Tarrant County, Texas. Locally, he is notable for his role in the David Koresh–Mount Carmel incident in Waco, Texas and in the trial of Chante Jawan Mallard for the murder of Gregory Glenn Biggs.

Among his work includes the evaluation of genocide and human rights violations within Rwanda. He testified to the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda regarding the forensic team's findings. Peerwani was an advance team member in the evaluation of genocide within Bosnia-Herzegovina. Peerwani was honored in October 2006 by Physicians for Human Rights for his human rights work.

Peerwani is a graduate of the American University of Beirut (MD '76). He completed his residency in pathology at Baylor University Medical Center in Dallas, and is board certified in clinical, anatomic and forensic pathology.

title: Nizam Peerwani


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Lori Berenson

Lori Helene Berenson (born November 13, 1969) is an American who served a 20-year prison sentence for collaboration with a guerrilla organization in Peru in 1996. Berenson was convicted of collaborating with the Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement (MRTA), a group accused of trying to overthrow the Peruvian government by force, considered to be a terrorist organization by the Peruvian government, and on the U.S. State Department's official "terrorist organization" list from 1997–2001. Her arrest and conviction, and the circumstances surrounding her trials, drew considerable attention in both the United States and Peru.

Early life and education
Berenson was born and raised in New York City to Rhoda and Mark Berenson, both college professors. After graduating from LaGuardia High School of Music and Art, she enrolled at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in the fall of 1987. On her web site, she states that she volunteered for soup kitchens and blood banks and also worked as a mother's helper in the Hamptons as a teenager. While an undergraduate at MIT, she volunteered with the Committee in Solidarity with the People of El Salvador (CISPES). She dropped out of MIT in 1988 as a sophomore majoring in archeology and anthropology and continued to volunteer for CISPES. Later, she went to El Salvador and became secretary and interpreter for Leonel González, a leader of the Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN), during negotiations that achieved peace in 1992. FMLN was at that time an umbrella organization associated with various leftist guerrilla organizations and the Salvadoran Communist Party and working to overthrow the Salvadoran military dictatorship. FMLN transitioned during the peace process in order to become a legal political party. González (aka Salvador Sánchez Cerén) was the President of El Salvador.

Activities in Peru and arrest
In Peru, Berenson met members of the Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement (MRTA), a group accused of committing terrorist attacks in Peru including kidnapping, bank robberies, extortion, hostage taking, and assassinations. Berenson initially denied knowing that they were MRTA members. After acknowledging that her associates were members she maintained that she did not know the group was planning to conduct an attack on Peru’s Congress or planning any other act of violence.

Berenson obtained press credentials for herself and her photographer to the Congress of Peru to interview some of its members and attend sessions where she took notes and sketched a seating plan. Afterwards, the media reported these to be "false journalist credentials". Berenson and those who supported her contended that she was on assignment from two U.S. publications, Modern Times and Third World Viewpoint, to work as a free-lance journalist writing articles about the effects of poverty on women in Perú. Her photographer, Nancy Gilvonio, was actually the wife of Néstor Cerpa, the MRTA second-in-command — although Berenson maintained she was unaware of this connection, saying that she knew her only as a Bolivian photographer. Berenson had entered the main Congress building with Gilvonio several times during 1995 to interview members of Congress. Gilvonio was alleged to have provided the information she collected to the MRTA including detailed information on the floor plans of Congress, its security and members. The alleged plan was for the MRTA to invade the Congress building, kidnap the legislators, and exchange the hostages for MRTA prisoners.

On November 30, 1995, Berenson and Gilvonio were arrested on a public bus in downtown Lima. Berenson was accused of being a leader of the MRTA, which had been officially classified as a terrorist group by the government.

Within hours after Berenson's arrest, the government launched an all-night siege of the MRTA safe house in an upscale neighborhood in Lima which Berenson had co-rented with an associate. At the end of the siege, three MRTA guerrillas and one police officer had died and 14 guerrillas were captured. The upper floors of the house were found to contain an "arsenal of weapons" and ammunition including 3,000 sticks of dynamite. Diagrams, notes, weapons, and police and military uniforms found at the safe house suggested that the group was planning to seize members of Congress and trade them for captured guerrillas. Police also seized a floor plan and a scale architectural model of the Congress building. After being taken to the house siege, in which Berenson claims she was used as a human shield by the Peruvian police, both women were taken to the DINCOTE (División Nacional Contra el Terrorismo, or National Counterterrorism Division).

Berenson said that she was unaware of what was happening on the upper floors and had even moved out some months prior to her arrest. She denied knowing of the presence of either the weaponry or the guerrillas, and she also denied knowing that the documents she prepared would be used for terrorism. She later admitted that she had learned that her associates were MRTA members and she said: "It might not have been intentional, but the bottom line is: I did collaborate with them." In the same interview she maintained that she had not been aware that weapons were being amassed in the upper floors of her house which she had sublet to the MRTA members, and she also maintained that she was unaware that violent actions were being planned at the Congress, stating that "at that time in Fujimori's dictatorship, Congress was the only place that there was some sort of democratic process."

On January 8, 1996, the DINCOTE hosted a news event in which they showed Berenson to the press. At the event, she shouted in Spanish, with her fists clenched to her sides, in a statement to the local reporters:

"I am to be condemned for my concern about the conditions of hunger and misery which exists in this country. Here nobody can deny that in Perú there is much injustice. There is an institutionalized violence that has killed the people's finest sons and has condemned children to die of hunger. If it is a crime to worry about the subhuman conditions in which the majority of this population lives, then I will accept my punishment. But this is not a love of violence! This is not to be a criminal terrorist because in the MRTA there are no criminal terrorists! It is a revolutionary movement!

I love this nation. I love this nation and although this love is going to make (cost) me years in prison, I will never stop loving, and never will lose the hope and confidence that there will be a new day of justice in Perú!"

The image of Berenson defiantly shouting to the press continues to make her unpopular in Peru. Her supporters later offered the explanation that her vehement defense of MRTA came about because she was angry over the treatment of a wounded cell mate and that she was instructed by authorities to shout in order to be heard.

Trials
After she was tried in 1996 and sentenced to life imprisonment, Berenson became, as The Guardian put it, a "cause celèbre for human rights campaigners and a symbol for leftwing social activists around the world", except in Peru, where parties and newspapers across the political spectrum condemned her actions, and criticized the unwillingness of European and American media, even progressive ones, to apply the label "terrorist" to citizens of "First World" countries.

Elements of her trial were criticized in statements from institutions ranging from the US State Department to Amnesty International to be violations of human rights and lacking in impartiality, provoking controversy in the United States and other countries. In particular, she was allegedly denied the right to examine the government's evidence and witnesses.

In accordance with anti-terrorism legislation enacted during a state of emergency declared by the authoritarian  government of President Alberto Fujimori, Berenson was tried in a closed courtroom by a military tribunal on a charge of treason against the fatherland for leadership of a terrorist organization. This charge did not require Peruvian citizenship as an element.

The proceedings were conducted by a hooded military judge who spoke through a voice distortion apparatus (judges often concealed their identities to protect themselves from assassination). On January 11, 1996, six weeks after her arrest and three days after her presentation to the media, Berenson was convicted of all charges and sentenced to life in prison without parole. An appeal lodged against the conviction was dismissed on January 30. Due to the nature of the closed military court, human rights campaigners protested her conviction and disputed the fairness of the proceedings.

In February 1999, after three years of fact-finding, the U.N. Working Group on Arbitrary Detention found that Ms. Berenson had been arbitrarily deprived of her liberty in violation of various articles of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, of which Peru is a signatory. According to the Carter Center among the violations of international legal standards and due process, "Ms. Berenson's trial was in a secret military court, where her lawyer was not allowed to cross-examine witnesses or challenge evidence," and former president Carter stated directly that he was "deeply concerned that Lori Berenson has not been afforded her rights of due process by law."

In 2000, following a change of government in Peru and after years of political pressure from the United States and the human rights community, Peru's Supreme Military Council overturned Berenson's treason conviction and life sentence and remanded her case to the civilian court for retrial. On June 20, 2001, a three-judge panel convicted Berenson of collaboration with terrorists, but ruled she was not a terrorist. She was sentenced to 20 years, with consideration given for time already served under her prior conviction.

In 2002, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights of the Organization of American States condemned the system under which Berenson was tried. Alleging violations of the American Convention on Human Rights, to which Peru is a party, Berenson's case was referred to the Inter-American Court of Human Rights of the Organization of American States when the government of Peru refused to accept the Commission's recommendations.

On November 25, 2004, the Inter-American Court upheld the conviction and sentence. The Court did condemn the judicial system under which Berenson was originally tried, and also condemned Berenson's earlier incarceration at Yanamayo Prison. Peruvian President Alejandro Toledo hailed the verdict, and The New York Times noted that few Peruvians have any sympathy for Berenson.

Efforts to free Berenson
Over the years, there were several efforts made on behalf of Berenson, stemming from concerns she did not obtain a fair trial or was not receiving humanitarian treatment, or simply to obtain her release. Various endeavors came from Presidents Jimmy Carter, Bill Clinton, and George W. Bush.

According to her release website, in 1998, Amnesty International issued a press release declaring Berenson to be a political prisoner. Amnesty criticized the Peruvian anti-terrorism legislation, stating that, "it is unacceptable for hundreds of political prisoners like Berenson not to be able to exercise their basic human right to a fair and public hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal."

In December 1996, the MRTA seized the Japanese Ambassador's residence in Lima and demanded that MRTA prisoners be released in exchange for the release of their hostages. MRTA leader Nestor Cerpa, Nancy Gilvonio's husband, led the takeover of the Embassy. Berenson was third on a list of MRTA prisoners whose release was sought by the hostage-takers. After 126 days, the standoff ended in a raid by Peruvian special forces in which all hostage-takers were killed. Two military personnel, commander EP Juan Valer Sandoval and captain EP Raúl Jiménez Chávez, and one of the seventy-two hostages, Carlos Giusti, were also killed.

On July 21, 1999, the United States House of Representatives voted against an amendment sponsored by US Rep. Maxine Waters described as "to express the sense of Congress concerning support for democracy in Peru and the release of Lori Berenson". The vote failed 189 to 234.

In January 2002 Thomas Gumbleton, Bishop of Archdiocese of Detroit and founder of Pax Christi USA, visited with Berenson to work with Peruvian government officials "for her release."

Columns were written for American newspapers, such as The Washington Post and The New York Times, calling on the US to pressure Peru to free Berenson. Other writers, however, took the contrary position, including the Wall Street Journal online edition. Her parents had a short independent film made in protest against her earlier military trial, and her story was reported on several top television news shows. Her parents continued to work for her release and their website provided regular updates on Berenson's situation.

Imprisonment
Berenson spent her early years in prison at facilities high in the Andes, the first of which the Inter-American Court ruled is operated inhumanely. The Yanamayo prison where Berenson was initially held for about three years lies at about 3800 m above sea level near Lake Titicaca in the Puno Region, in southern Peru.

On October 7, 1998, Berenson was moved to another prison in Socabaya. She remained there until August 31, 2000, when she was transferred to the women's prison of Chorrillos in Lima. Then, on December 21, 2001, she was relocated to the maximum-security Huacariz Penitentiary in Cajamarca, 560 km north of Lima.

In February 2002, Berenson took part in a 25-day hunger strike of "political prisoners" in an attempt to influence the government of Peru to improve prison conditions and revise its anti-terrorism laws. The strike ended without reaching its goals, though less than a year later, Peru revised many of those laws.

In October 2003, Berenson married Aníbal Apari Sánchez, 40, whom she had met in 1997 when they were both incarcerated at Yanamayo prison. Apari Sánchez was convicted of being a member of the MRTA. When he was released in 2003 on conditional liberty (parole) in Lima, his travel was restricted, and he was accordingly not present at the wedding in Cajamarca and had to be represented by his father. Later he was allowed conjugal visits. Apari Sánchez is now a practicing attorney in Lima and directs a non-governmental organization (NGO) that assists individuals formerly imprisoned on charges of assisting or being members of the MRTA in their rehabilitation into society. He is also co-founder of a political party, Patria Libre, that participated in the 2011 national elections.

From 2003 through 2008 Berenson worked in and co-managed the bakery at Huacariz Prison which served the inmate population and the Cajamarca community.

Periodically, through her web page entitled "Lori's Words," Berenson issued advice to youth as well as criticism of the policies of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, the war in Iraq, the "American Way of Life," the Peruvian "political class," and allegations of maltreatment and torture of prisoners. Berenson's commentaries on capitalism, globalism, and the environmental impact of mining companies have also appeared on the Internet. In addition, her commentaries have been read on the Prison Radio Project, a San Francisco-based radio and activist project that produces the commentaries of several political prisoners.

On September 16, 2008, her father announced that she was pregnant with her first child. In January 2009, Berenson was transferred to a prison in Lima owing to a serious back problem which complicated her pregnancy. In May 2009, she gave birth to a boy, whom she named Salvador, and who lived with her while she was in prison. In Peru, children are allowed to remain with their incarcerated mothers until age 3.

Release
Peru's Justice Minister Victor García Toma on May 3, 2010, stated that "I don't think Lori Berenson can create harm for society, but she has created anger among citizens," and recommended that the remaining five years of her sentence be commuted and that she be expelled from Peru to the U.S., indicating that his recommendation was based on a legal and political analysis of the circumstances.

On May 25, 2010, after serving 15 years, Berenson was granted a conditional release, with the judge stating that she would have to remain in Peru on parole for the remaining five years of her sentence, but would be freed from prison.

Berenson's attorneys submitted documents to the court indicating that she "recognized she committed errors" by associating herself with the MRTA. She was freed two days later, a release which attracted a media circus. She was driven to an apartment in the upscale Miraflores area of Lima, where her new neighbors welcomed her by shouting "terrorist" at her. Berenson's parents indicated that she would separate from Apari and raise her son, Salvador, as a single mother. Peru's Minister of Justice, García Toma, stated that the Cabinet might commute Berenson's sentence and expel her from the country.

With protesters gathering daily outside her Lima apartment building, lighting candles and demanding that she be either deported from Peru or reimprisoned, Berenson sent a letter to President Alan García acknowledging her "criminal responsibility for terrorist collaboration", and further writing, "I would also like to say that I very much regret the harm I have caused Peruvian society, and I ask forgiveness from people who have been affected by my actions or words." She then requested that her sentence be commuted so she could return to the United States.

On June 8, 2010, former U.S. president Bill Clinton, speaking while on a visit to Peru, expressed his support for Berenson's release, stating "I'm glad Lori Berenson was released ... when I was president, I worked for that."

Peru's state attorney for counterterrorism, Julio Galindo, appealed Berenson's parole, depicting her as a calculating, unrepentant extremist who posed a continuing threat to the Peruvian public. On August 16, 2010, Berenson appeared before the appeals court to request she be allowed to remain free on parole. In responding to Galindo's allegations, she stated that she was not a threat to society:"... I was sentenced for the crime of collaboration with terrorism, and I did collaborate with the MRTA. I have never been a leader, nor a militant. I have never participated in acts of violence nor of bloodshed, nor have I killed anyone. And what I would like to clarify here is that I know that my mere participation, even though it was secondary in one incident, if it contributed to the violence in society, I am deeply sorry and I regret it ... I was in prison for almost 15 years. I have reflected a great deal over it, and I understand that violence did harm to society; I understand it and I regret that I participated in it. I believe that things, a better society, are achieved by building and not by destroying ... Also, I have a different vision of life. It has been almost 15 years. I am now a 40-year-old woman. I left home when I was young. But I have a family who have sacrificed everything for me, and I would like to pay them back somehow. And more than that, I have a child, a 15-month-old son and he is a child I would like to be close to, like any mother. I would like to bring up my son to be a good man. That is now my objective."

On August 18, 2010, the appeals court annulled Berenson's parole and returned her to prison while technical aspects of the parole were considered. On November 5, a Peruvian judge ordered that she be released from prison. On November 8, she was again released on parole, still required to remain in Peru until her sentence ended. In January 2011, an appeals court rejected a prosecutor's attempt to revoke her parole. Berenson and her attorney told reporters that the ruling was final and could not be appealed by prosecutors, ending eight months of legal uncertainty.

Constitutional law expert Mario Amoretti, while agreeing that the ruling should be final, remarked that the state conceivably could file a challenge, claiming some constitutional violation, but he said he didn't see grounds for such an appeal. Berenson was required to remain in Peru on supervised parole until her 20-year sentence ended in 2015, unless the sentence was commuted by the President. When he was President, Alan García said he would consider a commutation only after the legal case had run its course.

In December 2011, a Peruvian court issued Berenson a three-week travel permit to visit her family in New York City. Authorities at the airport initially blocked her leaving, prompting fresh calls from her lawyer for Peruvian authorities to respect the decision of the Peruvian judiciary. She finally arrived on December 20. After spending Christmas and New Year's Day visiting her parents in New York, she returned to Lima, Peru on January 6, 2012. She remained on parole until the completion of her 20-year sentence on November 29, 2015, whereupon she was permitted to leave Peru permanently.

At midnight on December 2, 2015, Berenson left Lima on a flight to New York.

In popular culture
The 2021 novel The Gringa by American author Andrew Foster Altschul is based on Berenson.

title: Lori Berenson


text:
Household Words

Household Words was an English weekly magazine edited by Charles Dickens in the 1850s. It took its name from the line in Shakespeare's Henry V: "Familiar in his mouth as household words."

History
During the planning stages, titles originally considered by Dickens included The Robin, The Household Voice, The Comrade, The Lever, and The Highway of Life.

Household Words was published every Saturday from March 1850 to May 1859. Each number cost a mere tuppence, thereby ensuring a wide readership. The publication's first edition carried a section covering the paper's principles, entitled "A Preliminary Word":

We aspire to live in the Household affections, and to be numbered among the Household thoughts, of our readers. We hope to be the comrade and friend of many thousands of people, of both sexes, and of all ages and conditions, on whose faces we may never look. We seek to bring to innumerable homes, from the stirring world around us, the knowledge of many social wonders, good and evil, that are not calculated to render any of us less ardently persevering in ourselves, less faithful in the progress of mankind, less thankful for the privilege of living in this summer-dawn of time.

A longer version of the publication's principles appeared in newspapers such as The Argus in September 1850.

Theoretically, the paper championed the cause of the poor and working classes, but in fact it addressed itself almost exclusively to the middle class. Only the name of Dickens, the journal's "conductor", appeared; articles were unsigned (although authors of serialised novels were identified) and, in spite of its regularly featuring an "advertiser", the paper was unillustrated.

To boost slumping sales Dickens serialised his own novel, Hard Times, in weekly parts between 1 April and 12 August 1854. It had the desired effect, more than doubling the journal's circulation and encouraging the author, who remarked that he was, "three–parts mad, and the fourth delirious, with perpetual rushing at Hard Times".

That Dickens owned half of the company and his agents, John Forster and William Henry Wills, owned a further quarter of it was insurance that the author would have a free hand in the paper. Wills was also appointed associate editor and, in December 1849, Dickens's acquaintance, writer and poet Richard Henry Horne was appointed sub-editor at a salary of "five guineas a week". In 1859, however, owing to a dispute between Dickens and the publishers Bradbury and Evans over their refusal to print his "personal statement" regarding his divorce in their other magazine, Punch, publication ceased and Household Words was replaced by All the Year Round, over which Dickens had greater control.

The journal contained a mixture of fiction and nonfiction. A large amount of the non-fiction dealt with the social issues of the time.

Serialized works
Prominent works that were serialised in Household Words include:

 * A Child's History of England by Charles Dickens, published 25 January 1851 – 10 December 1853
 * Cranford, North and South, and My Lady Ludlow by Elizabeth Gaskell
 * "The Song of the Western Men" by Robert Stephen Hawker
 * The Dead Secret and A Rogue's Life by Wilkie Collins

Collaborative works
Dickens also collaborated with other staff writers on a number of Christmas stories and plays for seasonal issues of the magazine. These included:

 * The Seven Poor Travellers in the Extra Christmas Number (14 December 1854) with Wilkie Collins, Eliza Lynn Linton, Adelaide Anne Procter (under the name "Mary Berwick"), and George Augustus Henry Sala.
 * The Holly Tree Inn in the Extra Christmas Number (15 December 1855) with Wilkie Collins, William Howitt, Harriet Parr, and Adelaide Anne Procter.
 * The Wreck of the Golden Mary in the Extra Christmas Number (6 December 1856) with Wilkie Collins, Percy Hetherington Fitzgerald, Adelaide Anne Procter, Harriet Parr, and Rev. James White.
 * The Frozen Deep, a play written with Wilkie Collins and initially performed in the converted schoolroom of Dickens's London residence, Tavistock House (6 January 1857).
 * The Lazy Tour of Two Idle Apprentices, a non-seasonal collaboration (3–31 October 1857) with Wilkie Collins
 * The Perils of Certain English Prisoners in the Extra Christmas Number (7 December 1857) with Wilkie Collins
 * "A House to Let" in the Extra Christmas Number (7 December 1858) with Elizabeth Gaskell and Adelaide Anne Procter.

Other contributors to Household Words included James Payn, John Hollingshead, Harriet Martineau, Frances Shayle George, William Duthie and Henry Morley.

A complete key to who wrote what and for how much in Household Words was compiled in 1973 by Anne Lohrli, using an analysis of the office account book maintained by Dickens's subeditor, W. H. Wills.

title: Household Words


text:
In-joke

An in-joke, also known as an inside joke or a private joke, is a joke with humour that is understandable only to members of an ingroup; that is, people who are in a particular social group, occupation, or other community of shared interest. It is, therefore, an esoteric joke, only humorous to those who are aware of the circumstances behind it.

Typically, inside jokes use a reference in the punchline to imply that which is associated with the reference. Often, this reference refers to the punchline of another joke which was already heard by the ingroup.

In-jokes may exist within a small social clique, such as a group of friends, or extend to an entire profession or other relatively large group. When the ingroup only includes people which heard the previous portion of a comedic set, the type of inside joke is known as a callback.

An example is:
 * Q: What's yellow and equivalent to the axiom of choice?
 * A: Zorn's lemon.

Individuals not familiar with the mathematical result Zorn's lemma are unlikely to understand the joke. The joke is a pun on the name of this result.

Ethnic or religious groups may also have in-jokes.

Philosophy
In-jokes are cryptic allusions to shared common ground that act as selective triggers; only those who share that common ground are able to respond appropriately. An in-joke may be used to build community, sometimes at the expense of outsiders. Part of the power of an in-joke is that its audience knows that many do not understand it.

An in-joke can also be used as a subtext, where people in the know may find humor in something not explicitly spoken. They may even apologize for doing so to a rookie, directly or indirectly stating that what they were laughing at was an in-joke.

title: In-joke


text:
Talk:Myalgia

The picture
Either he's putting it on for the camera, or someone should phone an ambulance. It just doesn't look genuine :-) — Preceding unsigned comment added by 93.97.48.95 (talk) 01:07, 11 August 2012 (UTC)

 * This is unnecessarily rude. Please be kinder in the future. 162.237.194.208 (talk) 22:48, 6 December 2023 (UTC)

He deserves an Oscar!! — Preceding unsigned comment added by 202.156.42.231 (talk) 15:44, 5 August 2013 (UTC)

Deleted the photo since it does not distinguish this pain from anything else; the image is arbitrary and does not furnish the viewer with anything more than a distraction

Myalgic Encephalomyelitis
Is "Myalgia" the same as Myalgic Encephalomyelitis or are they different conditions? The Rod 05:21, 7 January 2006 (UTC)

 * i'm pretty sure they're different - i was diagnosed with myalgia last year but the doctor is adamant that i won't get M.E. - i think that M.E. is much more severe as it involves constant fatigue as well, whereas myalgia is just having problems with muscles [[User : han] han] 17:35, 5 April 2006 (UTC)
 * You don't get ME through myalgia. It's a post-viral disease, with myalgia as a consequence. Guido den Broeder (talk) 10:02, 17 December 2007 (UTC)

Myalgia is one of the many features of chronic fatigue syndrome, originally called "myalgic encephalomyelitis" (although there is little proof of -itis in either the brain or the spinal cord). The term without modifiers just simply means "pain in muscle". JFW | T@lk  21:26, 5 April 2006 (UTC)
 * Myalgic encephalomyelitis is still the WHO's official name for this disease. CFS is a working diagnosis. There is no proof that the name ME is wrong. Guido den Broeder (talk) 10:02, 17 December 2007 (UTC)

Except for the absence of significant inflammatation of brain and spinal cord in most autopsies of ME patients. JFW | T@lk  18:50, 24 December 2007 (UTC)

Added to the List 2006-11-24
Some items of relevance I thought people should know. Tetanus vaccine can induce myalgia as can sudden cessation (known on the street as 'going cold turkey') of opioids (at abusive doses). I should probably mention that in patients taking β1-blockers this is not just possible but probably with tetanus vaccine. DrMorelos 18:51, 24 November 2006 (UTC)

 * Injection site pain is a common adverse event with any vaccine and is not specific to tetanus nor is it "myalgia" in the usual sense since. Looking at  and the package inserts for ADACEL ( toxoid), Baytet, and Boostrix , I don't see any mention of any interaction with beta blockers.  The injection site pain event is usually on the order of 10-20%.  Myalgia is mentioned in the Boostrix package insert as having been reported in uncontrolled postmarketing studies, but it's not an AE that took place in clinical trials involving 3,080 subjects.Somedumbyankee (talk) 23:42, 23 May 2008 (UTC)

Tryptophan supplements
Can't myalgia also be caused by taking Tryptophan supplements (although I believe they are now banned in the US)? --Marshmellis (talk) 22:26, 4 August 2008 (UTC)

Zocor is not a good medicine.
It can worsen the muscle state not improve it. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 46.113.184.161 (talk) 15:39, 26 November 2010 (UTC)

title: Talk:Myalgia


text:
Superstructure

A superstructure is an upward extension of an existing structure above a baseline. This term is applied to various kinds of physical structures such as buildings, bridges, or ships.

Aboard ships and large boats
On water craft, the superstructure consists of the parts of the ship or a boat, including sailboats, fishing boats, passenger ships, and submarines, that project above her main deck. This does not usually include its masts or any armament turrets. Note that, in modern times, turrets do not always carry naval artillery. They can also carry missile launchers and/or antisubmarine warfare weapons.

The size of a watercraft's superstructure can have many implications in the performance of ships and boats, since these structures can alter their structural rigidity, their displacements, and/or stability. These can be detrimental to any vessel's performance if they are taken into consideration incorrectly.

The height and the weight of superstructure on board a ship or a boat also affects the amount of freeboard that such a vessel requires along its sides, down to her waterline. In broad terms, the more and heavier superstructure that a ship possesses (as a fraction of her length), the less the freeboard that is needed.

Bridges
The span of a bridge, the portion that directly receives the live load, is referred to as the superstructure. In contrast, the abutment, piers, and other support structures are called  the 'substructure'.

Earthquake protection
In order to improve the response during earthquakes of buildings and bridges, the superstructure may be separated from its foundation by various civil engineering mechanisms or machinery. All together, these implement the system of earthquake protection called base isolation.

title: Superstructure


text:
Minimal polynomial

Minimal polynomial can mean:
 * Minimal polynomial (field theory)
 * Minimal polynomial of 2cos(2pi/n)
 * Minimal polynomial (linear algebra)

title: Minimal polynomial


text:
Henri Vieuxtemps

Henri François Joseph Vieuxtemps ( 17 February 1820 – 6 June 1881) was a Belgian composer and violinist. He occupies an important place in the history of the violin as a prominent exponent of the Franco-Belgian violin school during the mid-19th century. He is also known for playing what is now known as the Vieuxtemps Guarneri del Gesù, a violin of superior workmanship.

Biography
Vieuxtemps was born in Verviers, Belgium (then part of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands), son of a weaver and amateur violinist and violin-maker. He received his first violin instruction from his father and a local teacher and gave his first public performance at the age of six, playing a concerto by Pierre Rode. Soon he was giving concerts in various surrounding cities, including Liège and Brussels where he met the violinist Charles Auguste de Bériot, with whom he began studies.

In 1829, Bériot took him to Paris where he made a successful concert debut, again with a concerto by Rode, but he had to return the next year because of the July Revolution and Bériot's marriage to his mistress Maria Malibran and departure on concert tour. Back in Brussels, Vieuxtemps continued developing his violin technique on his own, his musicianship deepened by playing with the deeply musical mezzo-soprano Pauline Viardot, Malibran's sister. A tour of Germany in 1833 brought friendship with Louis Spohr and with Robert Schumann, who compared the boy to Niccolò Paganini. During the following decade he visited various European cities, impressing with his virtuosity not only audiences but also famous musicians such as Hector Berlioz and Paganini himself, whom he encountered at his London debut in 1834.

He had aspirations of becoming a composer as well and, having already taken lessons with the respected Simon Sechter in Vienna, spent the winter of 1835–1836 studying composition with Anton Reicha in Paris. His first violin concerto, later published as Concerto No. 2, dates from this time.

His Violin Concerto No. 1 was acclaimed when he played it in Saint Petersburg on his second visit in 1840 and in Paris the next year; Berlioz found it "a magnificent symphony for violin and orchestra". Based in Paris, Vieuxtemps continued to compose with great success and perform throughout Europe. With the pianist Sigismond Thalberg, he performed in the United States.

In early 1846 he visited the English city of Leeds where he met and offered to tutor George Haddock whilst he performed in London. Haddock and Vieuxtemps became friends and he would stay with Haddock when visiting and performing in Leeds.

He was particularly admired in Russia where he resided permanently between 1846 and 1851 as a court musician of Tsar Nicholas I and soloist in the Imperial Theatre. He founded the violin school of the Saint Petersburg Conservatory and guided the formation of a "Russian school" of violinists. In 1871, he returned to his native country to accept a professorship at the Royal Conservatory of Brussels, where his most illustrious pupil was Eugène Ysaÿe.

A paralytic stroke disabled his right arm two years later and he moved to Paris again, his violin class being taken over by Henryk Wieniawski. Although he seemed to be gradually recovering from his stroke, another one in 1879 ended his career as a violinist for good. He spent his last years in a sanatorium in Mustapha Supérieur, Algeria, where his daughter and her husband had settled, and continued to compose, though frustrated by his inability to play or, far from the musical centres of Europe, even hear his music played by others.

The bulk of Vieuxtemps' compositions were for his own instrument, including seven concertos and a variety of short salon pieces, though towards the end of his life, when he had to give up the violin, he often turned to other instruments, writing two cello concertos, a viola sonata and three string quartets among other things. It is because of his seven violin concertos, however, that Vieuxtemps is generally known to audiences and musicians around the world. Through his own concertos and his advocacy of the concertos of Beethoven (he also played Beethoven's sonatas and string quartets) and Mendelssohn, he added a more classical dimension to the violin repertoire which had tended towards technically brilliant but often shallow variations and fantasies on popular operatic themes. Vieuxtemps never indulged in sheer virtuosity for its own sake, like some of his predecessors. Eugène Ysaÿe quotes him as saying "Not runs for the sake of runs – sing, sing!"

Vieuxtemps del Gesù
Vieuxtemps is also known for owning and playing what is now referred to as the Vieuxtemps Guarneri del Gesù, a violin, built in 1741, that is considered one of the finest examples of the craftsmanship of Giuseppe Guarneri and which is considered to be without defect despite its continued use over many years. The "del Gesù" (literally "of Jesus") refers to the manufacture by Bartolomeo Giuseppe Guarneri who incorporated the nomina sacra, I.H.S. (iota-eta-sigma) and a Roman Cross in the labels he affixed to his work. At Vieuxtemps' funeral the violin was carried upon a pillow behind the hearse carrying the body. The instrument was later played by noted violin masters like Yehudi Menuhin, Itzhak Perlman and Pinchas Zukerman. In January 2012 the instrument was purchased, by a private collector, for an undisclosed sum and lifetime use of it bequeathed to violinist Anne Akiko Meyers.

Honours

 * Knight of the Order of Leopold.

Major works

 * For a complete listing, see List of compositions by Henri Vieuxtemps.

 * Concertante
 * Violin Concerto No. 1 in E major, Op. 10 (1840)
 * Les arpèges (Caprice) in D major for violin and orchestra (or piano) with cello obligato, Op. 15 (c.1845)
 * Violin Concerto No. 2 in F-sharp minor "Sauret", Op. 19 (1836)
 * Violin Concerto No. 3 in A major, Op. 25 (1844)
 * Violin Concerto No. 4 in D minor, Op. 31 (c.1850)
 * Fantasia appassionata for violin and orchestra, Op. 35 (c.1860)
 * Violin Concerto No. 5 in A minor "Le Grétry", Op. 37 (1861)
 * Ballade et polonaise de concert for violin and orchestra, Op. 38 (c.1858)
 * Duo brilliant in A major for violin, cello (or viola) and orchestra or piano, Op. 39 (1864?)
 * Cello Concerto No. 1 in A minor, Op. 46 (1877)
 * Violin Concerto No. 6 in G major, Op. 47 (1865) (Op. 1 posthumous)
 * Violin Concerto No. 7 in A minor "À Jenő Hubay", Op. 49 (1870) (Op. 3 posthumous)
 * Cello Concerto No. 2 in B minor, Op. 50 (1879) (Op. 4 posthumous)
 * Allegro de concert for violin and orchestra, Op. 59 (Op. 13 posthumous); movement I of the unfinished Violin Concerto No. 8

 * Chamber music
 * String Quartet No. 1 in E minor, Op. 44 (1871)
 * String Quartet No. 2 in C major, Op. 51 (Op. 5 posthumous)
 * String Quartet No. 3 in B♭ major, Op. 52 (Op. 6 posthumous)

 * Violin and piano
 * 3 Romances sans paroles, Op. 7 (1841)
 * 4 Romances sans paroles, Op. 8 (c.1845)
 * Violin Sonata in D major, Op. 12 (1843)
 * Souvenir d'Amérique, Variations burlesques sur "Yankee Doodle", Op. 17 (1843)
 * Souvenir de Russie (Fantasie), Op. 21 (c.1845)
 * 6 Morceaux de salon, Op. 22 (1847?)
 * 3 Morceaux de salon, Op. 32 (c.1850)
 * Bouquet américain, 6 Variations sur mélodies populaires, Op. 33 (c.1855)
 * 3 Feuilles d'album, Op. 40 (1864)
 * Old England, Caprice on 16th- and 17th-Century English Airs, Op. 42 (1865)
 * Suite in B Minor, Op. 43 (1871)
 * Voix intimes, 6 pensées melodiques, Op. 45 (1876)
 * Voies de cœurs, 6 pièces, Op. 53 (Op. 7 posthumous)
 * Fantaisies brilliantes, Op. 54 (Op. 8 posthumous)
 * Salut à l'Amérique (Greeting to America), Op. 56 (Op. 10 posthumous)
 * Impressions et réminiscences de Pologne, Op. 57 (Op. 11 posthumous)

 * Viola
 * Élégie in F minor for viola (or cello) and piano, Op. 30 (1848)
 * Viola Sonata in B♭ major, Op. 36 (1863)
 * Capriccio "Hommage à Paganini" in C minor for viola solo, Op. 55 (Op. 9 posthumous)
 * Sonate inachevée (Allegro et Scherzo) in B♭ major for viola and piano, Op. 60 (Op. 14 posthumous)

title: Henri Vieuxtemps


text:
Talk:Free flight (model aircraft)

Added link to Wakefield history. Just figured what the Summary space is for.

Cleaned up the introduction to assume less. Expanded description of indoor models. I suggest that subsidiary pages be created for the categories of model. -- This page definitely deserves creation of descriptive pages for the categories of model, with some illustrative imagary. Perhaps the following organization would work:

- Gliders (towline and hand-launched, perhaps indoor and outdoor combined)

- Outdoor rubber (with sections on Wakefield, unlimited rubber, scale, and the "odd" categories.

- Outdoor power (with sections on F1C, scale, quarter scale, and the others together

- Indoor (with sections on the FAI events, the scale events, and the other events)

Somewhere there should be links to the various history sites, the various national governing body sites, and the special interest group sites. -- David Erbach (June 2006)

A walkalong glider is stable in flight but is sustained by an updraft from a paddle held by the pilot who follows and steers the plane. How about adding another category under "Gliders", say "towline, hand-launched and walkalongs"? -- pgr0

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 1 one external link on Free flight (model aircraft). Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20030809070124/http://www.btinternet.com:80/~kaynes/Wakebook/wkbkhome.htm to http://www.btinternet.com/~kaynes/Wakebook/wkbkhome.htm

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true to let others know.

Cheers. —cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 15:07, 17 October 2015 (UTC)

title: Talk:Free flight (model aircraft)


text:
Talk:Queen's University at Kingston

Correct student enrolment
Universities Canada (https://www.univcan.ca/universities/facts-and-stats/enrolment-by-university/) and Queen's own Planning and Budgeting site (http://www.queensu.ca/planningandbudget/institutional-data/enrolment) peg the instiution's enrolment at over 27,000. Perhaps they are using a different way of calculating enrolment.

However, Queen's Common University Data Ontario gives a different number, at around 23,000. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 50.64.2.22 (talk) 05:33, 23 October 2017 (UTC)

"The Tea Room" listed at Redirects for discussion
An editor has asked for a discussion to address the redirect The Tea Room. Please participate in the redirect discussion if you wish to do so. DMacks (talk) 16:17, 10 October 2019 (UTC)

Requested move 28 January 2020

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.

The result of the move request was: moved. (closed by non-admin page mover)  NNADI GOOD LUCK  ( Talk | Contribs ) 22:04, 16 February 2020 (UTC)

– So that Queen's University (disambiguation) can be moved here per WP:NOPRIMARY. It is not at all clear that this Queen's University should be the primary topic over Queen's University Belfast kingboyk (talk) 07:21, 28 January 2020 (UTC)
 * Queen's University → Queen's University at Kingston
 * Queen's University (disambiguation) → Queen's University
 * Oppose. The Canadian university is the WP:PTOPIC for "Queen's University". The university in Kingston has consistently received much higher |Queen%27s_University_Belfast page views than the university in Belfast, and Google Trends data shows consistently higher search interest for the university in Kingston than the university in Belfast. feminist (talk) 07:42, 28 January 2020 (UTC)
 * Obviously I don't agree that the Canadian University IS the primary topic, which you appear to be presenting as fact; it is up for debate and I assert that there is no primary topic.
 * The figures you appear to me to fall way short of demonstrating primacy, which requires "with respect to usage that it is highly likely — much more likely than any other single topic, and more likely than all the other topics combined — to be the topic sought when a reader searches for that term" (emphasis mine). The numbers show that Queen's in Canada attracts more interest than Queen's in Belfast, but it's something like 3 to 1, not 10 to 1 - and that's not including the other Queen's besides Kingston and Belfast. My view is that the stats provided do not prove that it is highly likely that people searching for Queen's want the Canadian institution; merely, let's say, it's more likely than not. There is ambiguity.
 * Furthermore, whilst this will likely be region dependent and isn't particularly scientific, when I Google "Queen's University" I get Belfast as the top result (even on Google Canada in incognito mode).
 * The guidelines also say that "A topic is primary for a term with respect to long-term significance if it has substantially greater enduring notability and educational value than any other topic associated with that term". The 2 main universities of this name are of a similar vintage (19th century) and have significant student bodies (in the 20-30,000 range). Belfast is ranked higher (see Queen%27s_University and Queen%27s_University_Belfast), but the Canadian institution is larger. It's pretty much a tie.
 * I am suggesting that with 5 universities called Queen's, 2 of them of similar stature and age, and all of them having full, official names which are not "Queen's University" ("Queen's University at Kingston", "Queen's University Belfast", "Queens University of Charlotte) etc), it is in the interest's of readers for Queen's University to be a disambiguation page. --kingboyk (talk) 08:32, 28 January 2020 (UTC)
 * The Canadian university gets more page views than |Queen%27s_University_Belfast|Queens_University_of_Charlotte|Queen%27s_University_of_Ireland|Queens_University_(Bangladesh) all articles combined on Queen's University (disambiguation). 3 to 1 is "much more likely" by most definitions of the term. Also, Google doesn't really allow you to search for region-specific results. Specify for Canadian results on DuckDuckGo, and Queen's University Kingston dominates. feminist (talk) 14:44, 28 January 2020 (UTC)

 * Support - QUB and QUK are both well-established, and the conditions for WP:TOPIC do not seem to be met by Kingston (and not by Belfast either), and there are other Queen's cases, so I think a clear case for a disambiguation page, and each Queen's to be at its own distinct page.  The numbers do not support the current position.  In Europe, for example, I suspect Queen's of Belfast is much better known, and more likely to be searched (as someone who could name a couple of dozen North American universities, at least, I'd never even heard of Kingston, had to search it out), and probably a mirror of this in N. America.  This is the sort of situation for which we have DISAMB pages.SeoR (talk) 09:26, 28 January 2020 (UTC)
 * Support. The Kingston one is the primary topic in North America. The Belfast one is the primary topic in the UK. Neither is the primary topic worldwide. -- Necrothesp (talk) 14:01, 29 January 2020 (UTC)
 * Weak support the Kingston one gets less than double the views of the Belfast one [|Queen%27s_University_Belfast|Queens_University_of_Charlotte|Queen%27s_University_of_Ireland|Queens_University_(Bangladesh)] which probably isn't enough for the "much more than any other" and when I Google Queen's University I get most results for the Belfast one but the Kingston one is there however that might be partly due to my location.  Crouch, Swale  ( talk ) 17:50, 29 January 2020 (UTC)
 * Support. This is entirely informed by individual regional experiences. My first thought was that it describes all of the universities in Queens, New York. BD2412  T 05:17, 11 February 2020 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page or in a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

Requested move 18 February 2020

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.

The result of the move request was: NOT MOVED. This discussion happened very quickly after the previous move request, and since this discussion failed to develop a clear consensus one way or the other after having been relisted, I also considered the comments from the previous discussion, which did form a reasonably clear consensus in favour of the current title. Ivanvector (Talk/Edits) 16:04, 5 March 2020 (UTC)

Queen's University at Kingston → Queen's University (Kingston, Ontario) – While I'm not opposed in principle to the legitimacy of moving this to a disambiguated title, the title that actually resulted from the earlier discussion is not the right one on WP:ENGVAR grounds. "Queen's University at Kingston" is not its proper name, or even its common name, in any context whatsoever, so it's not the right choice on "proper name" grounds — but even if "at Kingston" is meant purely as a disambiguator, that's a characteristically British construction not reflective of Canadian speech. Canadians never speak of "[Institution] at [City]", except in a couple of very isolated unusual cases where that actually is the thing's proper name — if we have to disambiguate something by location, we say that it's in the city, not "at" it. So the appropriate new title here is parenthetical disambiguation by location, not an inaccurate proper name with an "at" in it. I accept that it was a good faith request by a speaker of British English, but as a Canadian university this article's title and text should preference Canadian usage over British usage. Bearcat (talk) 00:04, 18 February 2020 (UTC) —Relisting. — Nnadigoodluck 🇳🇬 18:19, 25 February 2020 (UTC)
 * Comment The 'Ontario' part is a little unnecessary, '... (Kingston)' or '..., Kingston' would be be enough. Sleath56 (talk) 00:49, 18 February 2020 (UTC)
 * Support move. The current title of "Queen's University at Kingston" makes absolutely no sense in Canadian English. Flibirigit (talk) 02:59, 18 February 2020 (UTC)
 * Support move as proposed or in the alternative, support moving back to the previous title. I just saw that this had been moved. From the American perspective, the Queen's University in Ontario is more notable than the one in Belfast, because the Ontario university was responsible for creating the software that in turn was commercialized and licensed to create Westlaw.  --Coolcaesar (talk) 03:33, 18 February 2020 (UTC)
 * From my American perspective, "Queen's University" sounds enough like "Queens University" to make me first think of the various universities in Queens. BD2412  T 04:03, 18 February 2020 (UTC)
 * From my British perspective, "Queen's University" means Queen's University Belfast. Narky Blert (talk) 09:17, 18 February 2020 (UTC)
 * Coolcaesar, I'm not proposing that we move this back to the original title, and in fact would oppose that if somebody were to propose it — the rule here isn't "what's the primary topic to American lawyers", it's "what's the primary topic to the world in general", and there is a North American vs. European dichotomy here where the likely primary topic is indeed Kingston to some readers and Belfast to others. Bearcat (talk) 10:20, 18 February 2020 (UTC)
 * Oppose I'm not sure what the proposer is suggesting in that its not "a proper name," but "Queen's University at Kingston" is literally the institution's formal and legal name. Its in the governing document of the university (see Queen's University royal charter from 2011), where it states in section 12 of the royal charter, "Corporate name changed to "Queen’s University at Kingston" (from Queen's College at Kingston, amended in the Statutes of Canada, 1912, c.138, s. 1.). I mean, I personally don't really have an opinion on the matter (don't really care about whether its a parenthesis or "at"), but if the proposal is based off the idea that "at Kingston," is not its proper name, I'd have to oppose it, as that is not the case.. at all. Leventio (talk) 05:20, 18 February 2020 (UTC)
 * It doesn't matter what it says in the university's charter — for Wikipedia's purposes, the common name that people would actually use in everyday speech is the canonical title that takes precedence over any overly formalized alternative. Regardless of what the university's constitution does or doesn't say, the proper name for our purposes is always the thing the general public would call it — so if Joe Blow on the sidewalk wouldn't say "Queen's University at Kingston", then that's not the appropriate title for our article about it. Bearcat (talk) 10:14, 18 February 2020 (UTC)
 * Well this seems to be a matter of misinterpretation than. I assumed by proper name, you meant the institution's formal name, and not a "proper name" for a Wiki article (based off WP:COMMONNAME I assume). I'll retract my opposition to it than. Leventio (talk) 10:19, 18 February 2020 (UTC)

 * Oppose Currently Official name like Queens University of Charlotte.-- Moxy 🍁 05:47, 18 February 2020 (UTC)
 * Our naming conventions on Wikipedia are not governed by the thing's official name, they're governed by the thing's common name. The thing people would call it on the sidewalk trumps what is or isn't in its constitution, not vice versa. Bearcat (talk) 23:37, 23 February 2020 (UTC)

 * Support. Generally I would prefer natural disambiguation, however the legal name (Queen's University at Kingston) is quite unnatural in Canadian English and is not very recognizible – even to those familiar with the topic (WP:NAMINGCRITERIA). BLAIXX 17:18, 18 February 2020 (UTC)
 * Oppose. Since it's the legal name there's absolutely no problem with using it when we need disambiguation. Also, I'm not sure why the proposer thinks this is "a characteristically British construction"! It really isn't. It would sound odd to us Brits too. It's actually far more common in Eastern European languages like Polish. So no, this has absolutely nothing to do with anyone being a "speaker of British English". -- Necrothesp (talk) 13:29, 19 February 2020 (UTC)
 * Our naming conventions on Wikipedia are not governed by the thing's official name, they're governed by the thing's common name. The thing people would call it on the sidewalk trumps what is or isn't in its constitution, not vice versa. Bearcat (talk) 23:37, 23 February 2020 (UTC)
 * Indeed. But when disambiguation is needed (as it is here) then defaulting to the official name is often better than using a convoluted disambiguator. That serves no one. Also, your proposal was inaccurate as it suggested that the current title was a "characteristically British construction", which is, as I have pointed out as a native speaker of British English, utter rubbish. This is merely the official name in Canadian English. -- Necrothesp (talk) 10:26, 24 February 2020 (UTC)
 * I would hardly call the city (Kingston, Ontario) a "convoluted disambiguator", I think it is quite logical. Don't get too hung up on the exact wording of the nomination, even if the nominator was wrong about British English. Now it's clear that the current title is awkward and unnatural in both variants of English! BLAIXX 18:40, 25 February 2020 (UTC)
 * Well, it is very clear that British English does use "at" in many places in speech where Canadian English would use a different preposition instead. But I digress. The thing is, invoking the city's name parenthetically is hardly a "convoluted disambiguator" — in fact, it's far more "convoluted" to invoke "natural disambiguation" as a reason to force a title that virtually nobody would recognize as the normal name of the topic in everyday speech. In an ideal world, either everything would have a unique name and we'd have no disambiguation conflicts at all, or there would be some other way of handling disambiguation so that all the Queen's Universities could be titled just "Queen's University" without actually colliding — but in the world we actually do live in, there's no reason whatsoever why an officialese name that virtually nobody would recognize as a normal or expected way of referring to the topic is in no way more "natural" than an alternative that is much more consistent with the "common name followed by a parenthetical clarifier" way that our readers expect a topic with a non-unique name to be disambiguated. Bearcat (talk) 13:49, 26 February 2020 (UTC)
 * And still you insist that it's common British English. I really do not know where you've got that from. If a native speaker can't convince you that it isn't (and that I've moved a number of articles about Eastern European buildings because it isn't instinctive usage in any variety of English) then I give up. About the rest I maintain my stance that use of the official name is best if we need to disambiguate per WP:NATURAL. -- Necrothesp (talk) 14:50, 26 February 2020 (UTC)
 * And I maintain my stance that WP:COMMONNAME is the final word in any naming disagreement. The thing the average reader would recognize as the usual name of the subject in everyday speech takes precedence over official forms, not vice versa. Parenthetical disambiguation is not "unnatural". Bearcat (talk) 19:28, 4 March 2020 (UTC)

 * Comment As the name was approved by the Queen of Canada, it cannot be said to be "characteristically British". Narky Blert (talk) 15:47, 19 February 2020 (UTC)
 * Oppose. If "Queen's University at Kingston" is indeed the university's legal name, it should be used per WP:NATURAL. – Anne drew  18:38, 25 February 2020 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. <b style="color:red">Please do not modify it.</b> Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page or in a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

 * I did, however, create a redirect to this article at Queen's University (Kingston, Ontario). Ivanvector (Talk/Edits) 16:21, 5 March 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Queen's University at Kingston


text: Talk:Swedish (language)

title: Talk:Swedish (language)


text:
Melodrama

A modern melodrama is a dramatic work in which the plot, typically sensationalized and for a very strong emotional appeal, takes precedence over detailed characterization. Melodramas typically concentrate on dialogue that is often bombastic or excessively sentimental, rather than action. Characters are often flat, and written to fulfill established character archetypes. Melodramas are typically set in the private sphere of the home, focusing on morality and family issues, love, and marriage, often with challenges from an outside source, such as a "temptress", a scoundrel, or an aristocratic villain. A melodrama on stage, filmed, or on television is usually accompanied by dramatic and suggestive music that offers further cues to the audience of the dramatic beats being presented.

In scholarly and historical musical contexts, melodramas are Victorian dramas in which orchestral music or song was used to accompany the action. The term is now also applied to stage performances without incidental music, novels, films, television, and radio broadcasts. In modern contexts, the term "melodrama" is generally pejorative, as it suggests that the work in question lacks subtlety, character development, or both. By extension, language or behavior which resembles melodrama is often called melodramatic; this use is nearly always pejorative.

Etymology
The term originated from the early 19th-century French word mélodrame. It is derived from Greek μέλος mélos, "song, strain" (compare "melody", from μελωδία melōdia, "singing, song"), and French drame, drama (from Late Latin drāma, eventually deriving from classical Greek δράμα dráma, "theatrical plot", usually of a Greek tragedy).

Characteristics
The relationship of melodrama compared to realism is complex. The protagonists of melodramatic works may be ordinary (and hence realistically drawn) people who are caught up in extraordinary events or highly exaggerated and unrealistic characters. With regard to its high emotions and dramatic rhetoric, melodrama represents a "victory over repression". Late Victorian and Edwardian melodrama combined a conscious focus on realism in stage sets and props with "anti-realism" in character and plot. Melodrama in this period strove for "credible accuracy in the depiction of incredible, extraordinary" scenes. Novelist Wilkie Collins is noted for his attention to accuracy in detail (e.g. of legal matters) in his works, no matter how sensational the plot.

Melodramas put most of their attention on the victim. A struggle between good and evil choices, such as a man being encouraged to leave his family by an "evil temptress". Other stock characters are the "fallen woman", the single mother, the orphan, and the male who is struggling with the impacts of the modern world. The melodrama examines family and social issues in the context of a private home, with its intended audience being the female spectator; secondarily, the male viewer can enjoy the onscreen tensions in the home being resolved. Melodrama generally looks back at ideal, nostalgic eras, emphasizing "forbidden longings".

Origins
The melodrama approach was revived in the 18th- and 19th-century French romantic drama and the sentimental novels that were popular in both England and France. These dramas and novels focused on moral codes in regards to family life, love, and marriage, and they can be seen as a reflection of the issues brought up by the French Revolution, the industrial revolution and the shift to modernization. Many melodramas were about a middle-class young woman who experienced unwanted sexual advances from an aristocratic miscreant, with the sexual assault being a metaphor for class conflict. The melodrama reflected post-industrial revolution anxieties of the middle class, who were afraid of both aristocratic power brokers and the impoverished working class "mob".

In the 18th century, melodrama was a technique of combining spoken recitation with short pieces of accompanying music. Music and spoken dialogue typically alternated in such works, although the music was sometimes also used to accompany pantomime.

The earliest known examples are scenes in J. E. Eberlin's Latin school play Sigismundus (1753). The first full melodrama was Jean-Jacques Rousseau's Pygmalion, the text of which was written in 1762 but was first staged in Lyon in 1770. Rousseau composed the overture and an Andante, but the bulk of the music was composed by Horace Coignet.

A different musical setting of Rousseau's Pygmalion by Anton Schweitzer was performed in Weimar in 1772, and Goethe wrote of it approvingly in Dichtung und Wahrheit. Pygmalion is a monodrama, written for one actor.

Some 30 other monodramas were produced in Germany in the fourth quarter of the 18th century. When two actors were involved, the term duodrama could be used. Georg Benda was particularly successful with his duodramas Ariadne auf Naxos (1775) and Medea (1775). The sensational success of Benda's melodramas led others to compose similar works, including Mozart who spoke approvingly of Benda's music and later himself used two long melodramatic monologues in his opera Zaide (1780).

Other later and better-known examples of the melodramatic style in operas are the grave-digging scene in Beethoven's Fidelio (1805) and the incantation scene in Weber's Der Freischütz (1821).

After the English Restoration of Charles II in 1660 which lifted the Puritan ban on theatre, most British theatres were prohibited from performing "serious" drama but were permitted to show comedy or plays with music. Charles II issued letters patent to permit only two London theatre companies to perform "serious" drama. These were the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane and Lisle's Tennis Court in Lincoln's Inn Fields, the latter of which moved to the Theatre Royal, Covent Garden in 1720 (now the Royal Opera House). The two patent theatres closed in the summer months. To fill the gap, the Theatre Royal, Haymarket became a third patent theatre in London in 1766.

Further letters patent were eventually granted to one theatre in each of several other English towns and cities. Other theatres presented dramas that were underscored with music and, borrowing the French term, called it melodrama to get around the restriction. The Theatres Act 1843 finally allowed all the theatres to play drama.

19th century: operetta, incidental music, and salon entertainment
In the early 19th century, opera's influence led to musical overtures and incidental music for many plays. In 1820, Franz Schubert wrote a melodrama, Die Zauberharfe ("The Magic Harp"), setting music behind the play written by G. von Hofmann. It was unsuccessful, like all Schubert's theatre ventures, but the melodrama genre was at the time a popular one. In an age of underpaid musicians, many 19th-century plays in London had an orchestra in the pit. In 1826, Felix Mendelssohn wrote his well-known overture to Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream, and later supplied the play with incidental music.

In Verdi's La Traviata, Violetta receives a letter from Alfredo's father where he writes that Alfredo now knows why she parted from him and that he forgives her ("Teneste la promessa..."). In her speaking voice, she intones the words of what is written, while the orchestra recapitulates the music of their first love from Act I: this is technically melodrama. In a few moments, Violetta bursts into a passionate despairing aria ("Addio, del passato"): this is opera again.

In a similar manner, Victorians often added "incidental music" under the dialogue to a pre-existing play, although this style of composition was already practiced in the days of Ludwig van Beethoven (Egmont) and Franz Schubert (Rosamunde). (This type of often-lavish production is now mostly limited to film (see film score) due to the cost of hiring an orchestra. Modern recording technology is producing a certain revival of the practice in theatre, but not on the former scale.) A particularly complete version of this form, Sullivan's incidental music to Tennyson's The Foresters, is available online, complete with several melodramas, for instance, No. 12 found here. A few operettas exhibit melodrama in the sense of music played under spoken dialogue, for instance, Gilbert and Sullivan's Ruddigore (itself a parody of melodramas in the modern sense) has a short "melodrame" (reduced to dialogue alone in many productions) in the second act; Jacques Offenbach's Orpheus in the Underworld opens with a melodrama delivered by the character of "Public Opinion"; and other pieces from operetta and musicals may be considered melodramas, such as the "Recit and Minuet" in Gilbert and Sullivan's The Sorcerer. As an example from the American musical, several long speeches in Lerner and Loewe's Brigadoon are delivered over an accompaniment of evocative music. The technique is also frequently used in Spanish zarzuela, both in the 19th and 20th centuries, and continued also to be used as a "special effect" in opera, for instance Richard Strauss's Die Frau ohne Schatten.

In Paris, the 19th century saw a flourishing of melodrama in the many theatres that were located on the popular Boulevard du Crime, especially in the Gaîté. All this came to an end, however, when most of these theatres were demolished during the rebuilding of Paris by Baron Haussmann in 1862.

By the end of the 19th century, the term melodrama had nearly exclusively narrowed down to a specific genre of salon entertainment: more or less rhythmically spoken words (often poetry) – not sung, sometimes more or less enacted, at least with some dramatic structure or plot – synchronized to the accompaniment of music (usually piano). It was looked down on as a genre for authors and composers of lesser stature (probably also why virtually no realizations of the genre are still remembered) - though there are examples by Robert Schumann (Ballads for Declaration, 1850s) and Richard Strauss for narrator and piano (Enoch Arden (1897). The English composer Stanley Hawley made many such settings, some of which were performed at the first season of the Henry Wood Proms in London. It was probably also at this time when the connotation of cheap overacting first became associated with the term. As a cross-over genre-mixing narration and chamber music, it was eclipsed nearly overnight by a single composition: Schoenberg's Pierrot Lunaire (1912), where Sprechgesang was used instead of rhythmically spoken words, and which took a freer and more imaginative course regarding the plot prerogative.

Opera
The great majority of operas are melodramas. The emotional tensions are both communicated and amplified by the appropriate music. The majority of plots involve characters overcoming or succumbing to larger than life events of war, betrayal, monumental love, murder, revenge, filial discord, or similar grandiose occurrences. Most characters are simplistically drawn with clear distinctions between virtuous and evil ones, and character development and subtlety of situations is sacrificed. Events are arranged to fit the character's traits best to demonstrate their emotional effects on the character and others.

The predominance of melodrama in Donizetti's bel canto works, Bellini, and virtually all Verdi and Puccini is clear with examples too numerous to list. The great multitude of heroines needing to deal with and overcome situations of love impossible in the face of grandiose circumstances is amply exemplified by Lucia, Norma, Leonora, Tosca, Turandot, Mimi, Cio-Cio-San, Violetta, Gilda, and many others.

Czech
Within the context of the Czech National Revival, the melodrama took on a specifically nationalist meaning for Czech artists, beginning roughly in the 1870s and continuing through the First Czechoslovak Republic of the interwar period. This new understanding of the melodrama stemmed primarily from such nineteenth-century scholars and critics as Otakar Hostinský, who considered the genre to be a uniquely "Czech" contribution to music history (based on the national origins of Georg Benda, whose melodramas had nevertheless been in German). Such sentiments provoked a large number of Czech composers to produce melodramas based on Czech romantic poetry, such as the Kytice of Karel Jaromír Erben.

The romantic composer Zdeněk Fibich in particular championed the genre as a means of setting Czech declamation correctly: his melodramas Štědrý den (1874) and Vodník (1883) use rhythmic durations to specify the alignment of spoken word and accompaniment. Fibich's main achievement was Hippodamie (1888–1891), a trilogy of full-evening staged melodramas on the texts of Jaroslav Vrchlický with multiple actors and orchestra, composed in an advanced Wagnerian musical style. Josef Suk's main contributions at the turn of the century include melodramas for two-stage plays by Julius Zeyer: Radúz a Mahulena (1898) and Pod Jabloní (1901), both of which had a long performance history.

Following the examples of Fibich and Suk, many other Czech composers set melodramas as stand-alone works based on the poetry of the National Revival, among them Karel Kovařovic, Otakar Ostrčil, Ladislav Vycpálek, Otakar Jeremiáš, Emil Axman, and Jan Zelinka. Vítězslav Novák included portions of melodrama in his 1923 opera Lucerna, and Jaroslav Ježek composed key scenes for the stage plays of the Osvobozené divadlo as melodrama (most notably the opening prologue of the anti-Fascist farce Osel a stín (1933), delivered by the character of Dionysus in bolero rhythm). Czech melodramas' practice tapered off after the Nazi Protectorate.

Victorian
The Victorian stage melodrama featured six stock characters: the hero, the villain, the heroine, an aged parent, a sidekick, and a servant of the aged parent engaged in a sensational plot featuring themes of love and murder. Often the good but not very clever hero is duped by a scheming villain, who has eyes on the damsel in distress until fate intervenes at the end to ensure the triumph of good over evil. Two central features were the coup de théàtre, or reversal of fortune, and the claptrap: a back-to-the-wall oration by the hero which forces the audience to applaud.

English melodrama evolved from the tradition of populist drama established during the Middle Ages by mystery and morality plays, under influences from Italian commedia dell'arte as well as German Sturm und Drang drama and Parisian melodrama of the post-Revolutionary period. A notable French melodramatist was Pixérécourt whose La Femme à deux maris was very popular.

The first English play to be called a melodrama or 'melodrame' was A Tale of Mystery (1802) by Thomas Holcroft. This was an example of the Gothic genre, a previous theatrical example of which was The Castle Spectre (1797) by Matthew Gregory Lewis. Other Gothic melodramas include The Miller and his Men (1813) by Isaac Pocock, The Woodsman's Hut (1814) by Samuel Arnold and The Broken Sword (1816) by William Dimond.

Supplanting the Gothic, the next popular subgenre was the nautical melodrama, pioneered by Douglas Jerrold in his Black-Eyed Susan (1829). Other nautical melodramas included Jerrold's The Mutiny at the Nore (1830) and The Red Rover (1829) by Edward Fitzball (Rowell 1953). Melodramas based on urban situations became popular in the mid-nineteenth century, including The Streets of London (1864) by Dion Boucicault; and Lost in London (1867) by Watts Phillips, while prison melodrama, temperance melodrama, and imperialist melodrama also appeared – the latter typically featuring the three categories of the 'good' native, the brave but wicked native, and the treacherous native.

The sensation novels of the 1860s, and 1870s not only provided fertile material for melodramatic adaptations but are melodramatic in their own right. A notable example of this genre is Lady Audley's Secret by Elizabeth Braddon adapted, in two different versions, by George Roberts and C.H. Hazlewood. The novels of Wilkie Collins have the characteristics of melodrama, his best-known work The Woman in White being regarded by some modern critics as "the most brilliant melodrama of the period".

The villain is often the central character in melodrama, and crime was a favorite theme. This included dramatizations of the murderous careers of Burke and Hare, Sweeney Todd (first featured in The String of Pearls (1847) by George Dibdin Pitt), the murder of Maria Marten in the Red Barn and the bizarre exploits of Spring Heeled Jack. The misfortunes of a discharged prisoner are the theme of the sensational The Ticket-of-Leave Man (1863) by Tom Taylor.

Early silent films, such as The Perils of Pauline had similar themes. Later, after silent films were superseded by the 'talkies', stage actor Tod Slaughter, at the age of 50, transferred to the screen the Victorian melodramas in which he had played a villain in his earlier theatrical career. These films, which include Maria Marten or Murder in the Red Barn (1935), Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street (1936) and The Ticket of Leave Man (1937) are a unique record of a bygone art-form.

Generic offshoots

 * Northrop Frye saw both advertising and propaganda as melodramatic forms which the cultivated cannot take seriously.
 * Politics at the time calls on melodrama to articulate a world-view. Thus Richard Overy argues that 1930s Britain saw civilization as melodramatically under threat -  "In this great melodrama Hitler's Germany was the villain; democratic civilization the menaced heroine"; - while Winston Churchill provided the necessary larger-than-life melodramatic hero to articulate back-to-the-wall resistance during The Blitz.

Modern
Classic melodrama is less common than it used to be on television and in movies in the Western world. However, it is still widely popular in other regions, particularly in Asia and in Hispanic countries. Melodrama is one of the main genres (along with romance, comedy and fantasy) used in Latin American television dramas (telenovelas), particularly in Venezuela, Mexico, Colombia, Argentina and Brazil, and in Asian television dramas, South Korea, Japan, Taiwan, China, Pakistan, Thailand, India, Turkey and (in a fusion of the Hispanic and Asian cultures) the Philippines. Expatriate communities in the diaspora of these countries give viewership a global market.

Film
Melodrama films are a subgenre of drama films characterized by plots that appeal to the heightened emotions of the audience. Melodramatic films commonly use plots that involve crises of human emotion, failed romance or friendship, strained familial situations, tragedy, illness, neuroses, or emotional and physical hardship. The stock characters present in melodrama films include victims, couples, virtuous and heroic characters, and suffering protagonists (usually heroines). These characters are faced with tremendous social pressures, threats, repression, fears, improbable events or difficulties with friends, community, work, lovers, or family. Following the typical melodramatic format, the characters work through their difficulties and surmount the problems.

A common point of plot tension sees characters feeling trapped by the typical melodramatic settings of the domestic sphere of the home or small town. Filmmakers often add flashbacks to expand the otherwise constant settings of melodramatic films.

Feminism in film melodrama
Feminists have noted four categories of themes in the film melodrama: those with a female patient, a maternal figure, an "impossible love", and the paranoid melodrama.

Most film melodramas from the 1930s and 1940s, at the time known as "weepies" or "tearjerkers", were adaptations of women's fiction, such as romance novels and historical romances. Drawing from a shared history with women's fiction, melodramatic films often concentrate on female perspectives and desires. From the 1930s until the late 1960s, Hays Code restrictions on the inclusion of "licentious" content in films would restrict the portrayal of female desire in the American film melodrama.

Notable melodramatic films
During the 1940s, the British Gainsborough melodramas were successful with audiences.

In the 1950s, films by director Douglas Sirk, such as All That Heaven Allows (1955) and Written on the Wind (1956), are representative of the genre. Many later melodramatic filmmakers cite Sirk and his works as significant influences.

In the 1970s, Rainer Werner Fassbinder, who was influenced by Sirk, contributed to the genre by engaging with issues within the cultural subconscious, addressing class in The Merchant of Four Seasons (1971) and Mother Küsters Goes to Heaven (1975), sexual orientation and codependency in The Bitter Tears of Petra von Kant (1972) and racism, xenophobia, and ageism in Fear Eats the Soul (1974).

Melodramas like the 1990s TV Moment of Truth movies targeted audiences of American women by portraying the effects of alcoholism, domestic violence, rape and the like. Typical of the 90's melodrama is Anjelica Huston's 1999 film Agnes Browne.

Todd Haynes' 2002 film Far from Heaven is a more recent take on the melodrama.. Contemporary director Pedro Almodovar has also taken many inspirations from the melodramatic genre and directors like Sirk.

title: Melodrama


text:
Palmer Method

The Palmer Method of penmanship instruction was developed and promoted by Austin Palmer in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It was intended to simplify the earlier "Spencerian method", which had been the main handwriting learning method since the 1840s. The Palmer Method soon became the most popular handwriting system in the United States.

Under the method, students were taught to adopt a uniform system of cursive writing with rhythmic motions.

History
The method developed around 1888 and was introduced in the book Palmer's Guide to Business Writing (1894). Palmer's method involved "muscle motion" in which the more proximal muscles of the arm were used for movement, rather than allowing the fingers to move in writing. In spite of opposition from the major publishers, this textbook enjoyed great success: in 1912, one million copies were sold throughout the United States. The method won awards, including the Gold Medal at the Panama Pacific Exposition in San Francisco, in 1915, and the Gold Medal at the Sesquicentennial Exposition in Philadelphia, in 1926.

Proponents of the Palmer Method emphasized its plainness and speed, that it was much faster than the laborious Spencerian Method, and that it allowed the writer to compete effectively with the typewriter. To educators, the method's advocates emphasized regimentation, and that the method would thus be useful in schools to increase discipline and character, and could even reform delinquents.

The Palmer Method began to fall out of popularity in the 1950s and was eventually supplanted by the Zaner-Bloser Method, which sought to teach children print writing (also called "manuscript printing") before teaching them cursive, in order to provide them with a means of written expression as soon as possible, and thus develop writing skills. The D'Nealian Method, introduced in 1978, sought to address problems raised by the Zaner-Bloser Method, returning to a more cursive style of print writing. The Palmer company stopped publishing in the 1980s.

Legacy
In radar engineering, a Palmer Scan is a scanning technique that produces a scanning beam by moving the main antenna and its feed in a circular motion. The name was derived from the looping circles practiced by students of the Palmer Method.

title: Palmer Method


text:
Creative evolution

Creative evolution may refer to:

 * Theistic evolution
 * Creative Evolution (book), a book by Henri Bergson

title: Creative evolution


text:
User:Paul Stansifer

Interests: computer science (especially programming languages), philosophy and graphic design.

I used to be known as User:Paullusmagnus, but I decided to use my real name.

I'm pretty much inactive, but only because I'm distracted by other things; it's not that I don't love you folks. It's better to email me than use my talk page.

Powers of Ten
I made some images to visualize orders of magnitude in length: Paul Stansifer/Size comparison. Someone really cool (84user) revised them and expanded them: User:84user/Size_comparison.

Barnstars
I dunno if I'm "offically" allowed to give these or not, but whatever the case... I hereby give you this shiny rotating barnstar and the equally-shiny Graphic Designer's Barnstar for your part in creating the way-cool Wikipedia logo :-) multima 01:54, 14 June 2006 (UTC)

Proxy commentary
I don't actually agree with this, but ... no one else made it, so I had to. Okay, I kinda like it, too.

(If you don't get it, it's a reference to a joke T-shirt)

I agree to multi-license all my contributions, with the exception of my user pages, as described below:

title: User:Paul Stansifer