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Mathura

Mathura is a city and the administrative headquarters of Mathura district in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. It is located 57.6 km north of Agra, and 146 km south-east of Delhi; about 14.5 km from the town of Vrindavan, and 22 km from Govardhan. In ancient times, Mathura was an economic hub, located at the junction of important caravan routes. The 2011 Census of India estimated the population of Mathura at 441,894.

In Hinduism, the birthplace of Krishna, one of the main deities in that religion, is believed to be located in Mathura at the Krishna Janmasthan Temple Complex. It is one of the Sapta Puri, the seven cities considered holy by Hindus, also is called Mokshyadayni Tirth. The Kesava Deo Temple was built in ancient times on the site of Krishna's birthplace (an underground prison). Mathura was the capital of the kingdom of Surasena, ruled by Kamsa, the maternal uncle of Krishna. Mathura is part of the Krishna circuit (Mathura, Vrindavan, Barsana, Govardhan, Kurukshetra, Dwarka and Bhalka). Krishna Janmashtami is grandly celebrated in Mathura every year.

Mathura has been chosen as one of the heritage cities for the Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana scheme of Government of India.

History
Traditionally it is believed that it was founded by Shatrughna after killing Yadava Lavana at the site of Madhuvana. According to Ramayana it was founded by Madhu (a man of the Yadu tribe). Later on Madhu's son Lavanasura was defeated by Satrughana. Madhu says all the territory of Mathura belongs to Abhiras. Mathura, which lies at the centre of the cultural region of Braj has an ancient history and is also believed to be the homeland and birthplace of Krishna, who belonged to the Yadu dynasty. According to the Archaeological Survey of India plaque at the Mathura Museum, the city is mentioned in the oldest Indian epic, the Ramayana. In the epic, the Ikshwaku prince Shatrughna slays a demon called Lavanasura and claims the land. Afterwards, the place came to be known as Madhuvan as it was thickly wooded, then Madhupura and later Mathura. The most important pilgrimage site in Mathura was Katra ('market place'), now referred to as Krishna Janmasthan ('the birthplace of Krishna'). Excavations at the site revealed pottery and terracotta dating to the sixth century BCE, the remains of a large Buddhist complex, including a monastery called Yasha Vihara of the Gupta period, as well as Jain sculptures of the same era.

Ancient history
Archaeological excavations at Mathura show the gradual growth of a village into an important city during the Vedic age. The earliest period belonged to the Painted Grey Ware culture (1100–500 BCE), followed by the Northern Black Polished Ware culture (700–200 BCE). Mathura derived its importance as a center of trade due to its location where the northern trade route of the Indo-Gangetic Plain met with the routes to Malwa (central India) and the west coast. Archaeologists have discovered a fragment of Mathura red sandstone from Rakhigarhi - a site of Indus Valley civilisation dated to third millennium BCE - which was used as a grindstone; red sandstone was also a popular material for historic period sculptures.

By the sixth century BCE Mathura became the capital of the Surasena Kingdom. The city was later ruled by the Maurya empire (fourth to second centuries BCE). Megasthenes, writing in the early third century BCE, mentions Mathura as a great city under the name Μέθορα (Méthora). It seems it never was under the direct control of the following Shunga dynasty (2nd century BCE) as not a single archaeological remain of a Shunga presence were ever found in Mathura.

The Indo-Greeks may have taken control, direct or indirect, of Mathura some time between 180 BCE and 100 BCE, and remained so as late as 70 BCE according to the Yavanarajya inscription, which was found in Maghera, a town 17 km from Mathura. The opening of the 3 line text of this inscription in Brahmi script translates as: "In the 116th year of the Yavana kingdom..." or '"In the 116th year of Yavana hegemony" ("Yavanarajya") However, this also corresponds to the presence of the native Mitra dynasty of local rulers in Mathura, in approximately the same time frame (150 BCE—50 BCE), possibly pointing to a vassalage relationship with the Indo-Greeks.

Indo-Scythians
After a period of local rule, Mathura was conquered by the Indo-Scythians during the first century BCE. The Indo-Scythian satraps of Mathura are sometimes called the "Northern Satraps", as opposed to the "Western Satraps" ruling in Gujarat and Malwa. However, Indo-Scythian control proved to be short lived, following the reign of the Indo-Scythian Mahakshatrapa ("Great Satrap") Rajuvula, c. 10–25 CE. The Mora Well inscription of Mahakshatrapa Rajuvula, of the early decades of the first century CE, found in a village seven miles from Mathura, stated that images pratima(h) of the blessed (bhagavatam) five Vrishni heroes, were installed in a stone shrine of a person called Tosa. The heroes were identified from a passage in the Vayu Purana as Samkarsana, Vasudev, Pradyumna, Samba, and Aniruddha. The English translation of the inscription read:-

". . . of the son of mahakṣatrapa Rāṃjūvula, svāmi . . . The images of the holy paṃcavīras of the Vṛṣṇis is... the stone shrine... whom the magnificent matchless stone house of Toṣā was erected and maintained... five objects of adoration made of stone, radiant, as it were with highest beauty..."

The Mathura inscription of the time of Mahakshatrapa Rajuvula's son, Mahakshatrapa Sodasa recorded erection of a torana (gateway), vedika (terrace) and chatuhsala (quadrangle) at the Mahasthana (great place) of Bhagavat Vasudeva. Several male torsos representing the Vrisni heroes were also found in a shrine in Mora dating to the time of Mahakshatrapa Sodasa.

Kushan Empire
During the rule of the great Kushanas, art and culture flourished in the region and reached new heights and is now famously known as the Mathura School of Art. The Kushans took control of Mathura some time after Mahakshatrapa Sodasa, although several of his successors ruled as Kushans vassals, such as the Indo-Scythian "Great Satrap" Kharapallana and the "Satrap" Vanaspara, both of whom paid allegiance to the Kushans in an inscription at Sarnath, dating to the third year of the reign of the Kushan emperor Kanishka the Great c. 130 CE. Mathuran art and culture reached its zenith under the Kushan dynasty which had Mathura as one of its capitals. The preceding capitals of the Kushans included Kapisa (modern Bagram, Afghanistan), Purushapura (modern Peshawar, Pakistan) and Takshasila/Sirsukh/ (modern Taxila, Pakistan). Mathura ateliers were most active during the epoch of the great Kushan emperors Kanishka, Huvishka, Vasudeva whose reign represents the Golden Age of Mathura sculpture. During the third century, Nagas ruled Mathura after decline of Kushan Empire.

Gupta Empire
In the reign of Chandragupta Vikramaditya, a magnificent temple of Vishnu was built at the site of Katra Keshavadeva. Kalidasa, hailed as the greatest poet and dramatist in Sanskrit, in the fourth-fifth century CE mentioned the groves of Vrindavan and Govardhan hill as:

"'...the king of Mathura, whose fame was acknowledged in song even by the devatas... At that moment, though still in Mathura, it appears as if Ganga has merged with Yamuna at the Sangam... In a Vrindavan garden which is superior even to Kubera's garden, known as Chaitra-ratha... You can, as well, during rains, look at the dancing peacocks, while sitting in a pleasant cave of the Goverdhan Mountain'"

Chinese Buddhist Monk Faxian mentions the city as a centre of Buddhism about 400 CE. He found the people were very well off, there were no taxes other than for those on farmers who tilled the royal land. He found that people did not kill animals, no one consumed wine, and did not eat onion or garlic. He found that engraved title deeds were issued to land owners. Visiting priests were provided with accommodation, beds, mats, food, drinks and clothes to perform scholarly works.

Harsha Empire
Xuanzang, who visited the city in 634 CE, mentions it as Mot'ulo, recording that it contained twenty Buddhist monasteries and many Hindu temples. Later, he went east to Thanesar, Jalandhar in the eastern Punjab, before climbing up to visit predominantly Theravada monasteries in the Kulu valley and turning southward again to Bairat and then Mathura, on the Yamuna river.

Early Middle Ages
The famous female Alvar saint, Andal visualised going to a pilgrimage which began at Mathura, then proceeded to Gokul, the Yamuna, the pool of Kaliya, Vrindavan, Govardhan, and finished at Dwarka. The eleventh century Kashmiri poet, Bilhana visited Mathura and Vrindavan after leaving Kashmir en route to Karnataka.

High Middle Ages
The city was sacked and many of its temples destroyed by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1018 CE. The capture of Mathura by Maḥmūd Ibn Sebüktegīn is described by the historian al-Utbi (Abu Nasr Muhammad ibn Muhammad al Jabbaru-l 'Utbi) in his work Tarikh Yamini as follows:

"The wall of the city was constructed of hard stone, and two gates opened upon the river flowing under the city, which were erected upon strong and lofty foundations, to protect them against the floods of the river and rains. On both sides of the city there were a thousand houses, to which idol temples were attached, all strengthened from top to bottom by rivets of iron, and all made of masonry work; and opposite to them were other buildings, supported on broad wooden pillars, to give them strength."

"In the middle of the city there was a temple larger and firmer than the rest, which can neither be described nor painted. The Sultan thus wrote respecting it :— ' If any should wish to construct a building equal to this, he would not be able to do it without expending an hundred thousand thousand red dinars, and it would occupy two hundred years, even though the most experienced and able workmen were employed.' Among the idols there were five made of red gold, each five yards high, fixed in the air without support. In the eyes of one of these idols there were two rubies, of such value, that if any one were to sell such as are like them, he would obtain fifty thousand dinars. On another, there was a sapphire purer than water, and more sparkling than crystal; the weight was four hundred and fifty miskals. The two feet of another idol weighed four thousand four hundred miskals, and the entire quantity of gold yielded by the bodies of these idols, was ninety-eight thousand three hundred miskals. The idols of silver amounted to two hundred, but they could not be weighed without breaking them to pieces and putting them into scales. The Sultan gave orders that all the temples should be burnt with naphtha and fire, and levelled with the ground."

The temple at Katra was sacked by Maḥmūd Ibn Sebüktegīn. A temple was built to replace it in 1150 CE. The Mathura prasasti (Eulogistic Inscription) dated Samvat (V.S.) 1207 (1150 CE), said to have been found in 1889 CE at the Keshava mound by Anton Fuhrer, German Indologist who worked with the Archaeological Survey of India, recorded the foundations of a temple dedicated to Vishnu at the Katra site:

"Jajja, who carried the burden of the varga, together with a committee of trustees (goshtijana), built a large temple of Vishnu, brilliantly white and touching the clouds."

Jajja was a vassal of the Gahadavalas in charge of Mathura, and the committee mentioned in the prasasti could have been of an earlier Vaishnava temple. The temple built by Jajja at Katra was destroyed by the forces of Qutubuddin Aibak, though Feroz Tughlaq (r. 1351–88 CE) was also said to have attacked it. It was repaired and survived till the reign of Sikandar Lodi (r. 1489–1517 CE).

In the twelfth century, Bhatta Lakshmidhara, chief minister of the Gahadavala king Govindachandra (r. 1114–1155 CE), wrote the earliest surviving collection of verses in praise of the sacred sites of Mathura in his work Krtyakalpataru, which has been described as "the first re-statement of the theory of Tirtha-yatra (pilgrimage)". In his Krtyakalpataru, Bhatta Lakshmidhara devoted an entire section (9) to Mathura.

Later on the city was sacked again by Sikandar Lodi, who ruled the Sultanate of Delhi from 1489 to 1517 CE. Sikandar Lodi earned the epithet of 'Butt Shikan', the 'Destroyer of Idols'. Ferishta recorded that Sikandar Lodi was a staunch Muslim, with a passion for vandalising heathen temples:

"He was firmly attached to the Mahomedan religion, and made a point of destroying all Hindu temples. In the city of Mathura he caused masjids and bazaars to be built opposite the bathing-stairs leading to the river, and ordered that no Hindus should be allowed to bathe there. He forbade the barbers to shave the beards and heads of the inhabitants, in order to prevent the Hindus following their usual practices at such pilgrimages."

In Tarikh-i Daudi, of 'Abdu-lla (written during the time of Jahangir) said of Sikandar Lodi:

"He was so zealous a Musulman that he utterly destroyed divers places of worship of the infidels, and left not a vestige remaining of them. He entirely ruined the shrines of Mathura, the mine of heathenism, and turned their principal Hindu places of worship into caravanserais and colleges. Their stone images were given to the butchers to serve them as meat-weights, and all the Hindus in Mathura were strictly prohibited from shaving their heads and beards, and performing their ablutions. He thus put an end to all the idolatrous rites of the infidels there; and no Hindu, if he wished to have his head or beard shaved, could get a barber to do it. Every city thus conformed as he desired to the customs of Islam."

Vallabhacharya and Chaitanya Mahaprabhu arrived in the Braj region, in search of sacred places that had been destroyed or lost. In Shrikrsnashrayah, that make up the Sodashagrantha, Vallabha said of his age:

"The Malechchhas (non-Hindus in this context) have surrounded all the holy places with the result that they have become infected with evil. Besides, the holy people are full of sorrow. At such a time Krishna alone is my way."

Late Middle Ages
The Portuguese, Father Antonio Monserrate (1536 CE-1600 CE), who was on a Jesuit mission at the Mughal Court during the times of Akbar, visited Mathura in 1580–82, and noted that all temples built at sites associated with the deeds of Krishna were in ruins:-

"It (Mathura) used to be a great and well populated city, with splendid buildings and a great circuit of walls. The ruins plainly indicate how imposing its buildings were. For out of these forgotten ruins are dug up columns and very ancient statues, of skilful and cunning workmanship. Only one Hindu temple is left out of many; for the Musalmans have completely destroyed all except the pyramids. Huge crowds of pilgrims come from all over India to this temple, which is situated on the high bank of the Jomanis (Yamuna)..."

The Keshavadeva temple was rebuilt by the Bundela Rajput Rajah Vir Singh Deo at a cost of thirty-three lakh rupees when the gold was priced at around ₹ 10/- per tola. And the grand structure of the temple in Mathura was regarded a "wonder of the age".

The Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb, built the Shahi-Eidgah Mosque during his rule, which is adjacent to Shri Krishna Janmabhoomi believed to be over a Hindu temple. He also changed the city's name to Islamabad. In 1669, Aurangzeb issued a general order for the demolition of Hindu schools and temples, in 1670, specifically ordered the destruction of the Keshavadeva temple. Saqi Mustaid Khan recorded:

"On Thursday, 27th January/15 Ramzan (27 January 1670)... the Emperor as the promoter of justice and overthrower of mischief, as a knower of truth and destroyer of oppression as the zephyr of the garden of victory and the reviver of the faith of the Prophet, issued orders for the demolition of the temple situated in Mathura, famous as the Dehra of Kesho Rai. In a short time by the great exertions of his officers, the destruction of this strong foundation of infidelity was accomplished and on its site a lofty mosque was built by the expenditure of a large sum... Praised be the august God of the faith of Islam, that in the auspicious reign of this destroyer of infidelity and turbulence, such a wonderful and seemingly impossible work was successfully accomplished."

"On seeing this instance of the strength of the emperor's faith and the grandeur of his devotion to God, the proud Rajas were stifled, and in amazement they stood like images facing the wall. The idols, large and small, set with costly jewels, which had been set up in the temple, were brought to Agra, and buried under the step of the mosque of the Begum Shahib in order to be continuously trodden upon. The name of Mathura was changed to Islamabad."

The Muslim conquest resulted in the destruction of all Buddhist, Jain, and Hindu temples and monuments in and around Mathura. Buddhism, already in decline, never revived, and for the next four hundred years the Jains and Hindus were unable to erect any temples that were not sooner or later demolished. Many of the sites that had been places of religious importance were abandoned and gradually sank beneath the earth. But some of them were not forgotten, owing to the persistence of oral tradition, the refashioning of a temple into a mosque, or the presence of humble shrines, some of which housed sculptural fragments of earlier buildings. Several of them have survived as places of significance in the modern pilgrimage circuit.

"The rebellion in Mathurá district seems to have gained ground. 'On the 14th Rajab, 1080, [28 November 1669], his Majesty left Dihlí for Akbarábád, and almost daily enjoyed the pleasures of the chase. On the 21st Rajab, whilst hunting, he received the report of a rebellion having broken out at Mauza' Rewarah, Chandarkah, and Surkhrú. Hasan 'Ali Khán was ordered to attack the rebels at night, which he did, and the firing lasted till 12 o'clock the next day. The rebels, unable longer to withstand, thinking of the honour of their families, now fought with short arms, and many imperial soldiers and companions of Hasan ’Alí were killed. Three hundred rebels were sent to perdition, and two hundred and fifty, men and women, caught. Hasan ’Alí, in the afternoon, reported personally the result of the fight, and was ordered to leave the prisoners and the cattle in charge of Sayyid Zain ul-'Abidin, the jágirdár of the place. Çaf Shikan Khán also (who after ’Abdunnabí's death had been appointed Faujdár of Mathura) waited on the emperor, and was ordered to tell off two hundred troopers to guard the fields attached to the villages, and prevent soldiers from plundering and kidnapping children. Námdár Khán, Faujdár of Murádábád, also came to pay his respects. Çafshikan Khán was removed from his office, and Hasan 'Ali Khán was appointed Faujdár of Mathura, with a command of Three Thousand and Five Hundred, 2000 troopers, and received a dress of honour, a sword, and a horse. * * * On the 18th Sha'bán [1st January, 1670), his Majesty entered Agrah. Kokilá Ját, the wicked ringleader of the rebels of District*......, who had been the cause of ’Abdunnabí's death and who had plundered Parganah Sa'dábád, was at last caught by Hasan ’Alí Khán and his zealous peshkár, Shaikh Razíuddin, and he was now sent with the Shaikh to Agrah, where by order of his Majesty he was executed. Kokila's son and daughter were given to Jawahir Khán Nazir [a eunuch]. The girl was later married to Shah Quli, the well-known Chelah; and his son, who was called Fázil, became in time so excellent a Hafiz [one who knows the Qorán by heart], that his Majesty preferred him to all others and even chaunted passages to him. Shaikh Razíuddin, who had captured Kokila, belonged to a respectable family in Bhagalpur, Bihár, and was an excellent soldier, administrator, and companion; he was at the same time so learned, that he was ordered to assist in the compilation of the Fatáwá i 'Alamgiri [the great code of Muhammadan laws]. He received a daily allowance of three rupees.'+ (Haásir i ’Alamgiri, pp. 92 to 91.) Hasan ’Alí Khán retained his office from 1080 to Sha'bán 1087 (October, 1676), when Sulțán Qulí Khán was appointed Faujdír of Mathurá.", Asiatic Society of Bengal, Proceedings

Early Modern History
According the biographer of Raja Jai Singh, Atmaram, when Jai Singh was campaigning against the Jat Raja Churaman Singh, he bathed at Radha kund on the full moon of Kartik, went to Mathura in the month of Shravan in 1724, and performed the marriage of his daughter on Janmashtami. He then undertook a tour of the sacred forests of Braj, and, on his return to Mathura, founded religious establishments and celebrated Holi.

Pilgrimage by the Family of Peshwa of Maratha Empire
During the period of the expansion of Maratha Empire, pilgrimage to the holy places in the north became quite frequent. Pilgrims required protection on the way and took advantage of the constant movement of troops that journeyed to and back from their homeland for military purposes. That is how the practice arose of ladies accompanying military expeditions. The mother of Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao, Kashitai performed her famous pilgrimage for four years in the north, visiting Mathura, Prayag, Ayodhya, Banaras, and other holy places.

Religious heritage
Mathura is a holy city in Hinduism and is considered the heart of Brij Bhoomi, the land of Krishna. The twin-city to Mathura is Vrindavan.

There are many places of historic and religious importance in Mathura and its neighbouring towns.

Krishna Janmasthan Temple Complex is an important group of temples built around what is considered to be the birthplace of Krishna. The temple complex contains Keshav Deva temple, Garbha Griha shrine, Bhagavata Bhavan and the Rangabhoomi where the final battle between Krishna and Kamsa took place.

The Dwarkadheesh Temple is one of the largest temples in Mathura. Vishram Ghat at the bank of river Yamuna is said to be the place were Krishna had rested after killing Kamsa.

Other notable Hindu religious sites and heritage locations includes the Gita Mandir, Govind Dev temple, ISKCON temple, Kusum Sarovar, Naam yog Sadhna Mandir, Peepleshwar Mahadeo Temple and Yum Yamuna Temple

Kankali Tila brought forth many treasures of Jain art. The archaeological findings testify the existence of two Jain temples and stupas. Numerous Jain sculptures, Ayagapatas (tablet of homage), pillars, crossbeams and lintels were found during archaeological excavations. Some of the sculptures are provided with inscriptions that report on the contemporary society and organisation of the Jain community.

Most sculptures could be dated from the second century BC to the 12th century CE, thus representing a continuous period of about 14 centuries during which Jainism flourished at Mathura. These sculptures are now housed in the Lucknow State Museum and in the Mathura Museum.

The Mathura Museum is notable for archaeological artefacts, especially those from the Kushan and Gupta empires. It has sculptures associated with Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism.

Festivals
Krishna Janmashtami is grandly celebrated every year in Mathura. Every year 3 to 3.5 million devotees celebrate Janmashtami in Mathura, with the maximum number of devotees visiting the Keshav Deva temple and the Dwarkadheesh temple. Devotees generally observe a fast and break it at midnight when Krishna was believed to have been born. Devotional songs, dance performances, bhog and aartis are observed across Mathura-Vrindavan.

Geography
Mathura is located at 27.28°N, 77.41°W. It has an average elevation of 174 metres (570 feet).

Climate
Mathura has a hot semi-arid climate (BSh) under the Köppen climate classification.

Demographics
The 2011 census of India estimates the population of Mathura to be 441,894, with a decadal growth rate of 22.53 per cent. Males account for 54% (268,445) and females for 46% (173,449) of this population. Sex ratio of Mathura is 858 females per 1000 males, which has increased from 840 (2001). However, national sex ratio is 940. Population density in 2011 has increased from 621 per km2 in 2001 to 761 per km2. Mathura has an average literacy rate of 72.65 per cent which has increased from 61.46 per cent (2001) but still lower than the national average of 74.04 per cent. Male and female literacy rate are 84.39 and 58.93 per cent respectively. 15.61 per cent of Mathura's population is under 6 years of age. This figure was 19.56 per cent in 2001 census.

Languages
According to the 2011 census on Mathura NPP, 95.4% of the people identified as Hindi speakers, 2.6% as Urdu speakers and 1.4% as speakers of Braj Bhasha (the local dialect). The city also lies within the cultural region of Braj.

Government and politics
Actress turned political leader, Hema Malini is the sitting MP of holy constituency Mathura in Uttar Pradesh.

Rail
Mathura Junction railway station is situated on the major Delhi-Mumbai rail route. Both Central Railway and Western Railway routes pass through Mathura. Trains from NCR (north-central railway) to ER (eastern railway) also pass through the Mathura junction. Mathura Cantt railway station is a major route for eastern and central railway.

Important trains that originate/terminate at Mathura are:
 * 12177/Howrah – Mathura Chambal Express.

Road
Mathura is well-connected by road to the rest of India. National Highway NH-19(previously NH-2) from Delhi to Kolkata, with diversion for Chennai also passes through Mathura. Yamuna Expressway from Greater-Noida to Agra (165 km 6 lane access controlled express highway) also passes through, providing good connectivity to Noida, Agra, Kanpur and Lucknow.

Tram
A tram network has been proposed in the city, which would make Mathura the second only city in India (besides Kolkata) to have a functional tram transport. In 2017, the local MLA Shrikant Sharma announced that the trams will be operational in Mathura and Vrindavan by 2018.

Air
Currently the city has no airport. The nearest airports are the Agra Airport (about 60 km away) and the Delhi Airport (about 160 km away) with major national and international air routes.The under-construction Jewar Airport in Greater Noida is approximately 75 km from Mathura and is expected to be country's largest airport when fully operational. Land has been earmarked, and construction is in progress near the Yamuna Expressway, with plans to open in the next five years with regular flights to major national and international air routes in future.

In 2012, the then civil aviation minister Ajit Singh suggested Mathura's name for the site of a new greenfield international airport to the then chief minister of Uttar Pradesh, Akhilesh Yadav. Mathura's name came to note when a group of ministers terminated the plan of building Taj International Airport at Agra.

Strategic importance
I Corps (Strike Formation) within the Indian Army's Central Command is based in Mathura, hosting Strike I Corps headquarters in a large classified area in the outskirts of the city known as Mathura Cantonment (Central Command is headquartered in Lucknow). It hosts Strike Infantry units, air defence units, armoured divisions, engineer brigades, artillery Units, and classified units of Strategic Forces Command. The I Corps is primarily responsible for the western borders of India. In 2007 during Exercise Ashwamedha, all the armoured, artillery, and infantry divisions performed a simulation of an overall NBC (nuclear-chemical-biological) environment. The aim was to show operational ability in high intensity, short duration and 'sudden' battle

Industries
Mathura Refinery located in the city is one of the biggest oil refineries of Asia with a refining capacity of 8.0 million tonnes per year. This oil refinery of Indian Oil Corporation Ltd. is a technologically advanced oil refinery and provides local employment opportunities as well. Its main focus is to meet the demands from the NCR. The refinery had undertaken projects to upgrade its diesel and gasoline units to bring Sulphur levels down by nearly 80 per cent

Media and communications
The city has a local station of the All India Radio.

Educational institutions

 * GLA University
 * Sachdeva Institute of Technology
 * Sanskriti University
 * U.P. Pt. Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Veterinary Science University and Cattle Research Institute

title: Mathura


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Talk:Canoe Polo Links

Wikipedia isn't a link farm. Any good links should be in the article not a separate page. Rmhermen 04:45, 29 Jul 2003 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Canoe Polo Links


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Michelotti

Michelotti is an Italian surname, derived from the given name Michele. Notable people with the surname include:

 * Biordo Michelotti (1352–1398), Italian mercenary soldier leader
 * Giovanni Michelotti (1921–1980), Italian automotive designer
 * (1812–1898), Italian naturalist
 * Maria Domenica Michelotti (born 1952), Captain Regent of San Marino

title: Michelotti


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Brownie

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 * Chocolate brownie, a baked good

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title: Brownie


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Malacañang Palace

Malacañang Palace (Palasyo ng Malakanyang, ; Palacio de Malacañán), officially known as Malacañan Palace, is the official residence and principal workplace of the President of the Republic of the Philippines. It is located in the Manila district of San Miguel, along Jose P. Laurel Street though it is commonly associated with Mendiola Street nearby. The term Malacañang is often used as a metonym for the president, their advisers, and the Office of the President of the Philippines. The sprawling Malacañang Palace complex includes numerous mansions and office buildings designed and built largely in the bahay na bato and neoclassical styles. Among the presidents of the present Fifth Republic, only Gloria Macapagal Arroyo actually lived in the main palace as both her office and her residence, with all others residing in nearby properties that form part of the larger palace complex. The palace has been seized several times as a result of protests starting with the People Power Revolution of 1986, the 1989 coup attempt (when the palace was buzzed by T-28 Trojans), the 2001 Manila riots, and the EDSA III riots.

The original structure was built in 1750 by don Luis José Rocha Camiña, a physician and Spaniard in the galleon trade, who built it as a summer house with his wife, Gregoria Tuason de Zaballa, daughter of don Antonio Tuason & doña Justa de Zaballa. It is located in San Miguel, along the Pasig River. The Rocha property was built of stone and described as being a relatively modest country house (although modern-day Rochas say it was not small and in fact had a ballroom) with a bath house on the river and gardens, all enclosed by a stone fence. The latter was probably a nipa-roofed and bamboo-enclosed structure built on the water, away from the gaze of passing boats. It was easily accessible from Intramuros and Binondo by boat, carriage, or horseback. Malacañan was purchased by the state in 1825 as the summer residence for the Spanish governor-general upon Colonel José Miguel Formento's death.

Following an earthquake on June 3, 1863, which destroyed the governor-general's official residence, the Palacio del Gobernador in the walled city of Intramuros, Malacañan became the official seat of power of Spanish colonial rule. The use of the palace as the official state residence of colonial rulers was continued after sovereignty over the islands was ceded to the United States in 1898. General Wesley Merritt was the first American governor to make use of the estate as his residence.

Since 1863, the palace has been occupied by eighteen Spanish governors-general, fourteen American military and civil governors, and later the presidents of the Philippines. The palace had been enlarged and refurbished several times since 1750; the grounds were expanded to include neighboring estates, and many buildings were demolished and constructed during the Spanish and American periods. Its posts were strengthened, roof tiles replaced with corrugated iron sheets, balconies repaired, and both the exterior and interior were beautified. More recently, between 1978 and 1979, the palace building was drastically remodeled and extensively rebuilt by First Lady Imelda Marcos during the tenure of Ferdinand Marcos. Malacañang was the only major government building in Manila to survive heavy artillery bombing during the Second World War. The palace continues to be the centerpiece of the upscale district of San Miguel, spared by the war.

Etymology
The earliest document to address the building's roots was the Compendio de la Historia de Filipinas written in 1877 by Spanish historian Felipe de Govantes, in which he stated that the term Malacañán meant "place of the fisherman". This was again referenced in the 1895 Historia general de Filipinas by José Montero y Vidal and the Historia de Filipinas by Manuel Artigas y Cuerva in 1916. In 1972, Ileana Maramag in her work on Malacañan history supplied the Tagalog word: mamalakáya, which means fisherman. The original denomination for the location is believed to be Mamalakáya-han, with the Tagalog suffix -han meaning "place of", later simplified by the Spanish colonial authorities as Malacañán and adapted according to the Spanish orthography.

Spelling
During the Spanish colonial era, Spanish-language books that were published at the time spelled the word as Malacañang. The name was changed to "Malacañan" during the American occupation of the Philippines from 1898 until 1946, supposedly for ease of pronunciation despite the fact that "-ng" as a final sound is very familiar in the English language. However, after the inauguration of President Ramon Magsaysay on December 30, 1953, the Philippine government reverted the name to Malacañang in honor of the palace's historical roots. During the administration of Corazon Aquino, for historical reasons, government policy was introduced to distinguish between both terms; while "Malacañan Palace" refers to the official residence of the president, "Malacañang" is addressed as the office of the president. Currently, the heading Malacañan Palace is reserved for official documents personally signed by the president, while those delegated to and signed by subordinates use the heading Malacañang.

Spanish colonial era
The Spanish captains-general (before the independence of New Spain, from which the Philippines was directly governed) and the later governors-general originally resided at the Palacio del Gobernador (Governor's Palace) fronting the city square in the walled city of Intramuros in Manila. Malacañang Palace was originally built as a casita (or country house) in 1750, made of adobe and wood, with interiors panelled with the finest narra and molave. It sits on 16-hectare land owned by Spanish aristocrat don Antonio V. Rocha. It was subsequently sold to Col. José Miguel Formento on November 16, 1802, for a sum of a thousand pesos. Later, it was sold to the government upon his death in January 1825. With its expansive gardens and lazy verandah overlooking the placid Pasig River, Malacañan became the temporary summer home of governors-general, escaping the hectic bustle and unbearable heat of Intramuros.

An earthquake on June 3, 1863, destroyed the Palacio del Gobernador, and thereafter, Malacañang became the governor-general's official residence. Rafaél de Echagüe y Bermingham, previously governor of Puerto Rico, became the first Spanish governor-general to reside in the palace. Finding the place too small, he expanded the estate with a wooden two-story addition to the back of the original structure. He also added stables, carriage sheds, a boat landing for river-borne visitors, and smaller buildings for aides, guards, and porters.

An 1869 earthquake necessitated speedy repairs with more extensive reconstruction and expansion, further undertaken between 1875 and 1879 after subsequent earthquakes, typhoons and a fire caused graver structural damage. Posts and supports were repaired or replaced. Balconies were reinforced. Roofing was replaced with galvanized iron to lighten structural load and cornices were added for additional flair. The interior was also refurbished.

In 1880, an earthquake occurred, necessitating more repairs. This time, porticos were added to the façade to shelter waiting carriages. In 1885, a flagpole was installed in front of the palace. Decaying woodwork, stuck shell windows, leaking roofs, loose kitchen tiles, and drooped stables were some of the remaining deterioration due to numerous natural phenomena. An additional 22,000 pesos was spent for renovation and reconstruction.

By the end of Spanish rule in 1898, Malacañang Palace was a rambling complex of mostly wooden buildings that had sliding capiz windows, patios and azoteas.

American colonial rule

When the Philippines came under American sovereignty following the Spanish–American War, Malacañang Palace became the residence of the American governors-general, starting with General Wesley Merritt, the first American military governor to reside at the palace in 1898. William Howard Taft became the first civil governor to reside there in 1901. They and subsequent governors-general continued to improve and enlarge the palace, buying more land and reclaiming more of the Pasig River. Left and right wings were added. An azotea facing the river was joined to the existing azotea. A staircase was transferred to the center of the foyer with galleries built around the stairway where the public could circulate during crowded receptions. The ground floor was raised above the flood line, and workers replaced wood with concrete, beautified the interiors with hardwood panelling and added intricate chandeliers.

Commonwealth Era

The complex became the official residence of the president of the Philippines upon the establishment of the Commonwealth of the Philippines on November 15, 1935. President Manuel L. Quezon became the first Filipino resident of the palace. It has been the Philippine president's official residence ever since. One major improvement addressed during the American period was flood control. Quezon tackled the flooding problem around Malacañang by reclaiming 15 feet of the Pasig River bank and building a concrete wall. He also converted the ground floor (bodega) into a social hall. In addition to that, the Americans used shutters similar to Japanese shoji (made of opalescent shell) to soften the intensity of the tropical sunlight.

Emilio Aguinaldo, recognized as the first Filipino president but of the revolutionary government, the First Philippine Republic, established during the Spanish rule, did not reside but was later taken to the palace by the Americans as a political prisoner for a few weeks in 1901 after his capture in Palanan, Isabela. He resided in his private home as president, now the Aguinaldo Shrine, in Kawit, Cavite. Malacañang Palace survived the Second World War, the only major government building left standing after the Bombing of Manila. Only the southwest side of the palace—which would have been the State Dining Room and its service area—was damaged by shelling. During the Second World War, in 1942, the Japanese turned Malacañang into a gilded prison, having served as the official residence of the Japanese-installed President of the Second Philippine Republic, Jose P. Laurel. Quezon moved the seat of government to Corregidor, the headquarters of General Douglas MacArthur.

Efforts of Macapagal
By the time President Diosdado Macapagal moved to the palace, it required immense repair and restoration works. His wife, Eva Macapagal, initiated a massive beautification project that drove sidewalk vendors away from the grounds and turned muddy areas into landscaped gardens.

Later years

The longest residents of the palace were President Ferdinand Marcos and his wife, Imelda, who resided there from December 1965 to February 1986. Following a student uprising that nearly breached the palace gates in the early 1970s, Martial Law was declared, and the palace complex and its surrounding neighborhood was closed to the public.

The Pasig River had developed a foul odor by the 1970s and became a breeding ground for mosquitoes. Between 1978 and 1979, Imelda Marcos oversaw the reconstruction of the palace. The palace was expanded with the façades on all four sides moved forward. The presidential quarters were enlarged on the front along J.P. Laurel Street, destroying the small garden and driveway leading to the private entrance, while a new dining room and expanded guest suites were built on the main entrance front. On the side facing the river, the Ceremonial Hall was built to replace the azoteas, veranda and pavilion. A larger presidential bedroom was constructed on the remaining side, with a disco at roof level. The layout of the old rooms was retained, although the rooms themselves were enlarged and new bedroom suites inserted in what had been part of the garden.

The old palace was gutted almost entirely, not only to meet the needs of the presidential family, but also because the buildings had been weakened by patch up renovations over a century that had resulted in unstable floors and leaking roofs. The building was now made of poured concrete, concrete slabs, steel girders and trusses, all concealed under ornate hardwood floors, panels and ceilings. It was fully bullet-proofed, cooled by central air-conditioning with filters, and had an independent power supply. Architect Jorge Ramos oversaw the reconstruction, which was closely supervised by Imelda Marcos. The refurbished palace was inaugurated on May 1, 1979–the Marcos' silver wedding anniversary.

Several changes were implemented to further beautify Malacañang Palace. The servants' quarters building (now the Premier Guest House) was transformed, and the veranda overlooking the Pasig River was walled up to become the new Maharlika Hall. Across the river, a guest house was constructed. It was situated on the grounds of Malacañang Golf Club and was called Bahay Pangarap (Dream House).

When Marcos was overthrown in the 1986 People Power Revolution, the palace complex was stormed by protesters who roamed the grounds. The international media subsequently exposed the excesses of the Marcos family that the latter had left at the palace before fleeing to Hawaii, including Imelda's infamous collection of thousands of shoes. Some of these excesses included 15 square feet of a sunken bathtub with a mirrored ceiling and an altar with a 19th-century religious statuary of ivory with gold-embroidered robes. The main palace was later reopened to the public and was converted into a museum for three years.

In an effort to distance herself from her predecessor, President Corazon Aquino chose to live in the nearby Arlegui Mansion but held government affairs in the Executive Building. Her successor, President Fidel Ramos, followed suit. After the Second EDSA Revolution, security in the palace was tightened due to attempts against the government. Ramos' wife, Amelita Ramos, restored Bahay Pangarap, which became an extension of the Malacañang Ceremonial Hall. The chapel was also retained, despite Ramos being a Protestant.

President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo, who had once resided in Malacañang during the term of her late father, President Diosdado Macapagal, chose to live again in the main palace after her accession in 2001.

Former presidents Benigno Aquino III, Rodrigo Duterte and president Bongbong Marcos chose to reside in the Bahay Pangarap (renamed Bahay ng Pagbabago or Bahay Pagbabago ).

Malacañang Palace
Malacañang Palace is the main palace and the most recognizable building in the complex. It contains 10 current main existing halls, some restored from historical times.

Entrance Halls
Official visitors to Malacañang Palace use the Entrance Hall. Its floor and walls are of beige Philippine marble. Straight from the entrance hall are the doors to the Grand Staircase leading to the state reception rooms. To its left is the Palace Chapel and the passage to the right leads to Heroes Hall.

The doors leading to the Grand Staircase depict the Philippine mythology of Malakas (Strong) and Maganda (Beautiful), the first Filipino man and woman, who emerged from a large bamboo stalk. The present resin doors were installed in 1979, replacing wrought iron and painted glass doors from the American period depicting Lapu-Lapu and the other Mactan chieftains who felled Ferdinand Magellan.

A pair of lions used to stand guard on each side of the doors to the Grand Staircase. The lions were originally at the vestibule of the Ayuntamiento Building in Intramuros. They were apparently discarded during the 1978–79 renovations. Wooden benches dating back to the American regime that were in the Hall were transferred to the private entrance that lead directly to the living quarters of the palace.

Heroes Hall
From the Entrance Hall, viewers walk through a mirrored passage hung with about 40 small paintings of famous Filipinos painted in 1940 by Florentino Macabuhay. The adjoining large room was originally the Social Hall, intended for informal gatherings. It was renamed Heroes Hall by First Lady Eva Macapagal, who commissioned Guillermo Tolentino to sculpt busts of national heroes.

In 1998, the National Centennial Commission installed three large paintings specially commissioned for the place. The one in the vestibule is by Carlos Valino, while the two others are by a group of artists headed by Karen Flores and Elmer Borlongan.

The painting in the vestibule is chronologically the second of the three, depicting events of the Propaganda Movement (led by Marcelo H. Del Pilar, José Rizal, and others) and the Philippine Revolution from the formation of the Katipunan by Andrés Bonifacio, to the sewing of the Philippine flag, the Proclamation of Independence at Kawit, and the Malolos Congress. At Heroes Hall itself are the other two paintings.

For viewers entering from the vestibule, the painting on the left shows key events from the earliest times (arrival of the ancient Filipinos and the Manunggul Jar) through Lapu-Lapu and the death of Magellan, the Moro resistance to Spanish rule, the Basi Revolt, and Gabriela Silang, to the 1872 martyrdom of the priests Gomez, Burgos and Zamora.

The painting on the right begins with the Battle of Tirad Pass and Gregorio del Pilar and other events of the Philippine–American War, the Independence Movement under Osmeña and Quezon, events of the Japanese occupation, and the presidents of the Philippines all the way to the Marcoses, President Corazon Aquino, and President Fidel V. Ramos.

The Hall, as large as the Ceremonial Hall directly above, received a mirrored ceiling in 1979 and for the rest of the Marcos era was used not only for meetings and informal gatherings but also for state dinners in honor of visiting heads of state. Dinner was usually followed by a cultural presentation, after which formal toasts were offered by the president and the guest of honor.

Grand Staircase

Past the Malakas and Maganda doors of the Entrance Hall is the Grand Staircase, made of the finest Philippine hardwood and carpeted in red. Its walls are made of tiny pieces of wood, assembled to simulate sawali panels. These were put up in 1979 replacing the stucco and hardwood panels. At the top of the stairs is the landing that serves as vestibule to the Reception Hall.

The Spanish and American governors-general and Philippine presidents and their visitors used this staircase. The staircase was narrower before the Marcos reconstruction. There is a story that José Rizal's mother, Teodora Alonzo, went up these stairs on her knees to beg the Governor General Camilo Polavieja for her son's life.

A legacy of the Spanish regime are unsigned portraits of Spanish conquistadores Hernando Cortés, Sebastian del Cano, Ferdinand Magellan, and Christopher Columbus, hanging at the balcony around the stairs. At the end of the balcony a harvest scene by Fernando Amorsolo hangs.

A large painting of Nereids (sea nymphs) by noted Spanish artist Joaquín Sorolla used to hang in place of the Luna. A case of Marcos war medals, subsequently alleged to be fake, took its place towards the end of the Marcos regime. The case continued to be on display, empty, for some years thereafter.

To the left, as viewers reach the top of the stairs, is the famous 'The Blood Compact', painted by Juan Luna in 1886, still in its original carved frame. It was given to the government in return for the artist's scholarship in Spain. The door on the left leads to the private quarters of the presidential families. This wing contained the private dining and living rooms and two guest suites, used for meetings and waiting rooms between 1986 and 2001, while presidents Corazon Aquino and Fidel Ramos lived at the Arlegui Guest House and President Estrada lived at the Premier Guest House. President Arroyo and her family lived in this wing. The door straight ahead leads to a corridor that surrounds the inner court within the private quarters.

Reception Hall

Visitors assemble in this room prior to a program or state function at the Ceremonial Hall beyond, or while waiting to be received by the president or the first lady at the Study Room or the Music Room to its left, or before entering the State Dining Room on the right.

This room was the largest in the palace before the 1979 renovation. The most prominent features of the Reception Hall are the three large Czech chandeliers bought in 1937 by President Quezon. During the Second World War, they were carefully disassembled prism by prism and hidden for safe-keeping. They were taken out and reassembled after the war.

Official portraits of all Philippine presidents are on the walls, from Emilio Aguinaldo, president of the Malolos Republic, to Rodrigo Duterte, painted by Fernando Amorsolo, García Llamas and other noted artists. The first portrait of President Arroyo in this hall was a photograph taken by Rupert Jacinto. That of President Fidel Ramos is unique on three counts – it is on a narra plank rather than on canvas, the likeness as well as the decorations along the sides are painstakingly singed on the wood, and it was a gift of the artist, Gaycer Masilang, a prisoner serving a life sentence.

An elaborate ceiling was installed in the 1930s, carved by noted sculptor Isabelo Tampingco who depicted vases of flowers against a lattice background. Large mirrors, gilt sofas and armchairs, and Chinese bronze pedestals holding plant and flower arrangements decorate the Hall. The Tampingco woodwork was curved and in some eyes gave the room a coffin shape. This is supposedly why in the 1979 renovation, the Tampingcos were replaced with two facing balconies.

Rizal Ceremonial Hall

This room, also known as the ballroom, is the largest in the palace today. It is used for state dinners and large assemblies, notably the mass oath takings of public officials begun by President Ramos. The upholstered benches are lined up for guests on such occasions. When the room is used for state dinners, the benches are removed and round tables are set in place. Orchestras sometimes play from the minstrels' galleries at two ends of the hall.

Three large wood and glass chandeliers illuminate the Hall. Carved and installed in 1979 by the famous Juan Flores of Betis, Pampanga, the chandeliers are masterpieces of Philippine artistry in wood.

The hall used to be much smaller and was in effect merely an extension of the Reception Hall. It had a concave ceiling similar to those of old Philippine homes, and glass doors opening to verandas on three sides overlooking the Pasig River and Malacañang Park. Many an al fresco party was held here, with round tables set on the azoteas and verandah for dinner and the Ceremonial Hall, doors thrown open, cleared for dancing. Fireworks lit the skies promptly at midnight from the park across the river at New Year's Eve parties. The azoteas (covered patios), verandas and the intimate pavilion in the middle were combined in 1979 into the present enormous Ceremonial Hall.

A recurring palace ritual is the presentation of credentials when a new ambassador arrives. During the Marcos administration and prior to the 1979 renovation, new ambassadors presented their credentials in a ceremony. A flourish of trumpets accompanied the arriving ambassador as he mounted the Grand Staircase and marched the full length of the Reception Hall. The yellow-gold curtains to the old Ceremonial Hall were parted to reveal the president standing alone at the far end, with members of the Cabinet lined up on the left. The ambassador presented his documents of credence to the president, who handed them to the foreign secretary. The president then delivered his welcome speech and offered a champagne toast to the head of state of the ambassador's home country. The ambassador then delivered his response, offered a toast to the president, and after small talk, left in another burst of trumpets.

Presidents Corazon Aquino and Ramos were less formal, receiving new ambassadors in the Music Room without ceremony. The old rituals were revived by President Estrada. Am arriving diplomat disembarks from his car at General Solano Street and boards what the presidential staff calls a "chariot", a luxurious open jeep where the occupant stands on a red carpet holding onto a stout bar while progressing up J.P. Laurel Street to the palace grounds. He receives military honors in the garden outside the main entrance and to fanfare, is escorted up to the Reception Hall. He marches through two columns of guards in gala uniform to present his credentials to the waiting president.

State Dining Room

The State Dining Room is used mainly for Cabinet meetings. Before the 1935–37 renovations, this room was the ballroom of the palace. This is where presidents dined with state guests and official visitors. A long adjustable table could accommodate up to about fifty guests. The president would sit at the center of the table and the first lady across from him. The finest glassware (Irish Waterford and French St. Gobain) and china (Limoges and Meissen) in the collection were brought out on special occasions. The chandeliers are Spanish, from the Ayuntamiento Building in Manila, as are the gilded mirrors installed within since the Spanish regime.

Two paintings dominate the room. The larger is a fiesta scene by National Artist Carlos "Botong" Francisco – a pair of tinikling dancers, a serenade, churchgoers, boatmen, and other vignettes of rural life. Commissioned for the Manila Hotel, it originally hung in one of the hotel lobbies but was transferred to Malacañang Palace in 1975. The other painting is an early Amorsolo rural scene.

The room was widened and a mirrored ceiling installed in 1979. Previously, there was a long dining table at center and the decorations consisted of heavy crimson velvet curtains, large gilded mirrors and elaborate chandeliers.

Beyond is a smaller room just as long but narrower than the dining room called the Viewing Room. The room was intended for Cabinet meetings and film showings. The room proved rather small and was rarely used as such. It was more frequently used to hold buffets for people meeting in the State Dining Room. Another result of the 1979 renovation, this room occupies what was before a veranda overlooking the palace driveway and garden.

The State Dining Room is also where Emilio Aguinaldo was kept prisoner after his capture by the Americans in Palanán, Isabela in 1901. One of the most dramatic scenes in Palace history occurred here. In The Good Fight, President Quezon wrote that "in April 1901, I had walked down the slopes of Mariveles Mountain, a defeated soldier, emaciated from hunger and lingering illness, to place myself at the mercy of the American Army." Suffering from malaria, he was also instructed to verify that Aguinaldo had in fact been captured. In Quezon's words, "I was ushered into the office of General Arthur MacArthur, the father of the hero of the Battle of the Philippines. ... [The interpreter]... told General MacArthur in English what I had said in Spanish, namely, that I was instructed by General Mascardo to find out if General Aguinaldo had been captured. The American General, who stood erect and towered over my head, raised his hand without saying a word and pointing to the room across the hall, made a motion for me to go in there. Trembling with emotion, I slowly walked through the hall toward the room hoping against hope that I would find no one inside. At the door two American soldiers in uniform, with gloves and bayonets, stood on guard. As I entered the room, I saw General Aguinaldo the man whom I had considered as the personification of my own beloved country, the man whom I had seen at the height of his glory surrounded by generals and soldiers, statesmen and politicians, the rich and the poor, respected and honored by all. I now saw that same man alone in a room, a prisoner of war! It is impossible for me to describe what I felt, but as I write these lines, forty-two years later, my heart throbs as fast as it did then. I felt that the whole world had crumbled; that all my hopes and dreams for my country were gone forever! It took me some time before I could collect myself, but finally, I was able to say in Tagalog, almost in a whisper, to my General: Good evening, Mr. President."

Presidential Study

The Presidential Study is the official office of the president, equivalent to the United States' Oval Office of the White House. Formerly known as the Rizal Room, this is where presidents from Quezon to Marcos and then Ramos received their daily stream of callers. It is currently on the second floor of the palace itself, while the old Executive Office at Kalayaan Hall (the old Executive Building) has been renamed the Quezon Executive Office.

The presidential desk is the same in use since the Commonwealth of the Philippines. It was used by all presidents from Quezon to Marcos, who use it officially until 1978 when he used his private study. Marcos had an ornately carved top added to the desk in 1969. It was restored by President Ramos, used by President Joseph Estrada, and restored once more by President Arroyo. She made the study into a conference room with the Council of State table of the Commonwealth as centerpiece, until she finally restored the room to its original function as the president's office. There is a large chandelier in the study from the 1935–1937 renovations. Behind the presidential study is a small conference room called the Study Conference Room.

Music Room

The room's usage changed over the years. It started as a bedroom during the American period before being turned to a library and reception room during the Commonwealth; after the war, it eventually became the Music Room. First ladies customarily received callers in this room. A Luna masterpiece, 'Una Bulaqueña' used to hang above the grand piano. 'A Cellist,' painted by Miguel Zaragoza, hangs as its pendant across the room above the sofa. The wall niches now hold Chinese trees and flowers made of semi-precious stones, where there used to be Guillermo Tolentino sculptures representing the different fine arts and later, large Ming and Qing porcelain vases. A supposed Michelangelo, a stone head, was once in the room.

Imelda Marcos decorated the room in mint green. She would sit on the antique French sofa and the visitors on the armchairs. On rare occasions, small concerts were held here, featuring famous Filipino and foreign musicians.

The room immediately behind the Music Room was set up by Imelda Marcos as her office. It later became President Fidel Ramos' private office. The room beyond was originally a small sitting room and was converted by President Joseph Estrada into his own office. President Arroyo decided to use the room as her office at first. Today, the room is used by the president to receive visitors.

Private quarters
New presidential couples took their pick of the available bedrooms, each President frequently avoiding the bedroom of his predecessor.

A president with many children or grandchildren usually had problems, particularly when a foreign head of state arrived, expecting to be invited to stay in the palace, such as when Indonesian President Sukarno visited President Quirino shortly after the war, like many personalities who have stayed beforehand in Malacañang over the years. It is recounted that the Prince of Wales, later King Edward VIII, dropped by in the 1920s to play polo. American and Asian heads of state have stayed at Malacañang Palace on visits to Manila.

With three grown children, leaky roofs, noisy air conditioners, and cramped space, the Marcos family decided to expand the palace in 1978. The bedrooms of the president and the first lady were enlarged and suites were built for their children Ferdinand, Jr., Imee, Irene, and their niece Aimee. The private living room was expanded and the entire private quarters generally added to or enlarged resulting in the present-day structure.

Bedroom Suites The bedroom suites open from the former private dining room, between which is a small sky-lit room that used to be a courtyard. These are furnished with large canopy beds, gilded wardrobes and the like. The King's Room leads to the balcony over the main entrance, from which Pope John Paul II blessed a waiting crowd during his 1981 Philippine visit and which President Arroyo has said was her bedroom as the young daughter of President Diosdado Macapagal.

The rooms are large, furnished expensively, and impressive, but are not quite the stupendous rooms that 'in comparison make Versailles Palace look like a hovel,' as a foreign observer declared.

The Spanish-period Malacañang Palace probably centered on the small, open-roofed inner court that leads to all areas of the private quarters. The rooms opening to the Grand Staircase were the Dining and Living Rooms and guest suites of the Marcos period. These became meeting rooms during the Ramos and Estrada administrations and reverted to being the private quarters of the presidential family under President Arroyo.

Reception Room This was the family dining room of Presidential families until the 1979 renovation. It used to have a magnificent coffer ceiling in the Filipino-Spanish style. The famous painting of Fabián de la Rosa, Planting Rice, used to hang on one wall. Other paintings, notably those by Fernando Amorsolo, were here and in the adjoining room.

The room beyond was used by the Marcos family variously as a private living room and a chapel. It became Meeting Room No. 1 in the Corazon Aquino, Ramos, and Estrada presidencies. A large Botong Francisco painting of dancers is on one wall. Brought from the Manila Hotel, this artwork is a pair to the one in the State Dining Room.

Discothèque The third floor added in 1979 has a roof garden and a discothèque. Reached by elevator, the disco is immediately above President Marcos' bedroom. It was complete with strobe and infinity lights, fog equipment, and the latest in music equipment then. A wide waterfall-fountain plays on the terrace outside the disco and steps lead up to a rooftop helipad. It has apparently been disused since 1986. During the Macapagal-Arroyo administration, it was renovated into a music hall.

Paranormal activity
Alleged paranormal activity has been reported as occurring in the palace, including one that some identified to be the long deceased valet of President Quezon, who occasionally ministered to favored guests.

Kalayaan Hall

The old Executive Building, now Kalayaan Hall, has become the oldest structure of the Palace compound after the 1978 demolition and reconstruction of the main Palace building. It was built in 1921 by Governor-General Francis Burton Harrison. Once the primary office building in the Palace complex until the end of Ramon Magsaysay's presidency, it was renovated and named Maharlika Hall in the 1970s. Subsequently, it came to be known as Kalayaan Hall after Corazon Aquino became President in 1986 to commemorate the People Power Revolution.

Presidential Museum and Library

The Presidential Museum and Library, formerly Malacañang Museum, the official repository of memorabilia of the president of the Philippines, is located in Kalayaan Hall. It was established in 2004 when the Presidential Museum and Malacañang Library were merged into the Malacañang Museum, then renamed to its present name in 2010. The Gallery of Presidents features exhibits and galleries showcasing the heritage of the presidents beginning from Emilio Aguinaldo to the present. It is composed of objects and memorabilia – including clothing, personal effects, gifts, publications and documents of former presidents as well as the artwork and furniture from the palace collections.

Former Presidential Museum
Prior to 2004, the Presidential Museum was a distinct entity from the Malacañang Library. The Quezon, Osmeña, Roxas, Quirino, Magsaysay, and García Rooms of the Presidential Museum under the Ramos and Estrada administrations occupied the suites formerly allotted to the Marcos children (Ferdinand, Jr., Imee and Irene) which open from the inner court corridor. Most of these rooms were added in 1978 when the José P. Laurel Street in front of the palace was moved forward.

New Executive Building

On the other side of the palace grounds, beyond the president's residence is the New Executive Building. This was the administration building of San Miguel Corporation until it was bought by the government. President Manuel L. Quezon first proposed the purchase of the nearby San Miguel Brewery as additional office space in 1936. President Ferdinand E. Marcos initiated plans to transform it into an integral part of the palace, the former San Miguel Brewery buildings were demolished upon the expansion in 1978–79, paving way to a park near the San Miguel Church. However, it was in 1989 under President Corazon C. Aquino that its reconstruction and refurbishing as the New Executive Building took place.

Its architectural elements deliberately pay homage to the palace of the Third Republic of the Philippines. Its utilitarian nature, however, made possible much needed additional administrative space, although its newness and lack of proximity to the palace led to the resumption of the use of the palace itself by Aquino's successors, Presidents Ramos and Estrada. Currently, it houses the Office of the Presidential Spokesperson, Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office, Presidential Communications Operations Office, and the Malacañang Press Briefing Room. Across the street is a Spanish colonial period house, renamed as Bahay Ugnayan (Ugnayan House), that became the office of Presidential Complaint Center and the 8888 Citizens' Complaint Center. It now serves as a museum for Marcos Jr. and his campaign to presidency.

Mabini Hall

The current Administration Building or Mabini Hall on Ycaza Street is the large structure to the left upon entering Gate 4. It began as the Budget Building upon the creation of the Budget Commission (now the Department of Budget and Management) in 1936. After World War II, it temporarily housed the Supreme Court, as the Ayuntamiento building was destroyed during the Battle for Manila in February 1945. After the war, it was later expanded with wings and top floors added. It houses the office of the executive secretary, some units of the Department of Budget and Management, and offices of presidential assistants and advisers. Some offices in this building, particularly those of the Office of Media Affairs, were invaded by an unruly mob on the evening of February 25, 1986, during the storming of Malacañang that capped the People Power Revolution. After it was gutted in a fire in 1992, plans to demolish it and build a high-rise building in its place were completely dropped due to budgetary constraints. President Fidel V. Ramos supervised its reconstruction into a spartan but well-ventilated and lit office complex, and renamed it Mabini Hall, after Apolinario Mabini.

Bonifacio Hall
The Premier Guest House (now Bonifacio Hall), the glass-fronted building across the garden from the palace's main entrance, was originally built by the American governors-general as servants' quarters to screen off Malacañang from the brewery (San Miguel) next door. The building was remodeled into the Premier Guest House in 1975 for use during the IMF-World Bank Boards of Governors Meeting.

The building, separate from the palace itself, became the temporary residence of the Marcos family while the main palace was being reconstructed in 1978–1979, when repairs were made to the palace after a fire in 1982, and when the air purification system was being improved in 1983. President Corazon C. Aquino used this building as her office from 1986 to 1992. The Ramos administration relegated this building to secondary status despite its integration into the New Executive Building. It was renovated in 1998 as a residence and office for President Joseph Estrada and his family. The bedroom of Estrada and his wife was on the second floor, where President Marcos' bedroom and President Corazon Aquino's office were. President Estrada's office was on the ground floor.

The front of the building facing the garden is a two-story high reception area, with a staircase in the center that leads to the corridor above. The president's office was on the ground floor, near the stairs. On the floor above were bedrooms and the family dining room.

In 2003, President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo renamed this building Bonifacio Hall in honor of Andrés Bonifacio. The private office of President Benigno S. Aquino III was located at the Aquino Room in Bonifacio Hall. After the building's structural integrity was called into question, Aquino's office was temporarily moved to the Presidential Study on June 21, 2011.

Malacañang Park and Bahay Pagbabago

Malacañang Park, directly across the river from Malacañang Palace, adjoins the Mabini Shrine and the former quarters of the Presidential Security Command and of the National Intelligence and Security Agency. It features a Recreation Hall, a small golf course and the guesthouse Bahay Pangarap.

The park was created when the rice fields and grasslands of Pandacan on the south bank of the Pasig River were acquired on orders of President Quezon in 1936–1937. Intended as a recreational retreat, it contained three buildings: a recreation hall used for official entertaining, a community assembly hall for conferences with local government officials, and a rest house (now the Bahay ng Pagbabago; which served as the official residence of presidents Benigno Aquino III and Rodrigo Duterte during their respective tenures) directly opposite the palace across the Pasig River, which would serve as the venue for informal activities and social functions of the president and his or her family. The buildings, constructed by the Bureau of Public Works, were designed by Juan M. Arellano and Antonio Toledo. In addition to the buildings are a putting green, stables, and shell tennis courts.

It is now the official residence of current President Bongbong Marcos, who has lived there since June 30, 2022.

Other buildings
Satellite facilities outside the palace proper but within the gated palace complex include a television station, two churches and various other guesthouses in addition to the Premier Guest House.
 * Laperal Mansion or the Arlegui Guest House is a remodeled and enlarged 1930s mansion located along Arlegui Street, half a block away. When World War II broke out, it served at one point as the residence of the speaker of the National Assembly established by the Japanese puppet state, Second Philippine Republic, Benigno S. Aquino, Sr., the grandfather of former Philippine president Benigno S. Aquino III. When the war ended, it served temporarily as the National Library. Around the early postwar era that the Laperal family acquired the property. In 1975, the property was seized by the presidential security forces under Marcos for "security reasons". The house became the office of the Presidential Economic Staff (precursor of today's National Economic and Development Authority) before former First Lady Imelda Marcos decided to expand the house to grander proportions to become a guesthouse, giving the building two turrets when it used to have one.

 * After the 1986 People Power Revolution, Corazon Aquino as a symbolic counterpoint to the opulence of the Marcos regime refused to live in the palace as her predecessors have, choosing instead to stay at the Arlegui Guest House. Her successor, Fidel V. Ramos, followed suit and also resided in Arlegui. During Gloria Macapagal Arroyo’s term, the house became the Office of the Press Secretary.

 * Legarda Mansion was built in 1937 by Filomena Roces y de Legarda, one of the first art deco houses built in Manila. In this house, Alejandro Legarda, the son of Doña Filomena, lived with his wife Ramona Hernández, and their four children. Doña Ramona was well known for her lavish parties. The Legarda house is a tribute to Doña Ramona, who was known be the nickname "Moning", as it houses La Cocina de Tita Moning, a fine dining restaurant that aims to recreate the wonderful parties of Manila's most elegant era, using heirloom recipes of the Legardas, served on antique china, glassware, and silverware. The house includes living room with paintings by Félix Resurrección Hidalgo and Juan Luna, don Alejandro's collection of antique radio equipment, a dressing room showcasing the memorabilia of the Legarda women, and the dining room where banquets are held.

 * Goldenberg Mansion
 * Teus Mansion

 * Valdés Mansion along San Rafael St. in San Miguel, near the Plaza Avilés/Freedom Park. Unlike the aforementioned mansions, the house has not been maintained. Nevertheless, it currently serves as one of the offices of the palace security.
 * Presidential Broadcast Staff Radio Television Malacañang (PBS-RTVM) was organized in 1986 following the peaceful EDSA revolt. Before 1986, the organisation that existed was Radio-Television-Movies, and adjunct of the National Media Production Centre which was based in Malacañang. In 1987, Executive Order Nº. 297 dated July 25, 1987, was signed and issued by President Corazon C. Aquino, creating the Office of the Press Secretary and cites under Section 14 (Attached agencies) the creation of the Presidential Broadcast Staff (Radio-Television Malacañang).

 * Executive Order No. 297 designated the PBS-RTVM as the entity with the sole responsibility and exclusive prerogative to decide on policy / operational matters concerning the television medium as it is utilised for the official documentation of all the president's activities for news dissemination purposes and video archiving.

 * PBS-RTVM is involved in television coverage and documentation, and news and public affairs syndication of all the activities of the president, either live or delayed telecast, by national or local, government or private collaborating networks.

 * San Miguel Church was established by the Jesuits in 1603 adjacent to the Tripa de Gallina (river bend) and became a parish church in 1611. The church also ministered to Japanese Christians fleeing persecution under the Tokugawa Shogunate in 1615, and since many of these exiles belonged to the samurai, or the warrior class, the church was dedicated to Saint Michael. It was moved to its present location in 1783 under the Parish of Quiapo. The present church, erected in 1918, is notable for the symmetry of its twin bell towers, following the model of European Baroque architecture. The church was declared as the National Shrine of Saint Michael, the Archangel in 1986.

Gardens

The extensive grounds of Malacañang comprise one of the few parks in Manila, with tropical shrubbery, century-old acacia trees, and even a balete tree or two. The acacias are festooned with the cactus like 'Queen of the Night.' The broad lawns, lush trees and greenery indicate how Manila may have been when it was less populous and times were more leisurely.

The public garden now known as 'Freedom Park' fronts the Administration and Executive Buildings. It has statues symbolizing the four freedoms (religion, expression, want and fear), that were brought to Malacañang from the Manila International Fair of the 1950s. The statues were long forgotten at the cogon field that was then Rizal Park, when First Lady Eva Macapagal retrieved them. An Art Deco fountain from the 1930s still flows near the main Palace entrance. Cannons and lamp posts dating from the Spanish Regime accent odd corners.

A bamboo teahouse, built in 1948 as a rest house, no longer exists, but it used to be by the river near where the swimming pool is now located.

At the main entrance is the large balete tree with a reputed resident kapre. Usually lit with capiz shell globe lights, it is hung with multicolored star lanterns during Christmas. One time only, it was lit with thousands of flickering fireflies, captured from some distant towns where fireflies still abounded and released as a grand ephemeral gesture of a present for the then first lady.

Security
The palace is protected by the Presidential Security Group, as well as the Armed Forces of the Philippines and the Philippine National Police.

Marker from the National Historical Commission of the Philippines
The marker of Malacanan Palace was installed in 1941 at Malacañang Palace site, San Miguel, Manila. It was installed by Philippines Historical Committee (now National Historical Commission of the Philippines).

title: Malacañang Palace


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User talk:Jodan

Hello

Jodan

Hello Jodan, welcome to Wikipedia. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian. You can learn more on the how to edit page. The naming conventions and style guide pages are also useful. There is a sandbox which you can use to experiment in. If you have any questions, see the help pages or add a question to the village pump. Angela 19:45, 29 Jul 2003 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jodan


text:
Ebonite

Ebonite is a brand name for a material generically known as hard rubber, obtained via vulcanizing natural rubber for prolonged periods. Ebonite may contain from 25% to 80% sulfur and linseed oil. Its name comes from its intended use as an artificial substitute for ebony wood. The material has also been called vulcanite, although that name formally refers to the mineral vulcanite.

Charles Goodyear's brother, Nelson Goodyear, experimented with the chemistry of ebonite composites. In 1851, he used zinc oxide as a filler. Hugh Silver was responsible for giving it its name.

Properties

The sulfur percentage and the applied temperatures and duration of vulcanizing are the main variables that determine the technical properties of the hard rubber polysulfide elastomer. The occurring reaction is basically addition of sulfur at the double bonds, forming intramolecular ring structures, so a large portion of the sulfur is highly cross-linked in the form of intramolecular addition. As a result of having a maximum sulfur content up to 40%, it may be used to resist swelling and minimize dielectric loss. The strongest mechanical properties and greatest heat resistance is obtained with sulfur contents around 35% while the highest impact strength can be obtained with a lower sulfur content of 30%. The rigidity of hard rubber at room temperature is attributed to the van der Waals forces between the intramolecular sulfur atoms. Raising the temperature gradually increases the molecular vibrations that overcome the van der Waals forces making it elastic. Hard rubber has a content mixture dependent density around 1.1 to 1.2. When reheated hard rubber exhibits shape-memory effect and can be fairly easily reshaped within certain limits. Depending on the sulfur percentage hard rubber has a thermoplastic transition or softening temperature of 70 to 80 °C.

The material is brittle, which produces problems in its use in battery cases for example, where the integrity of the case is vital to prevent leakage of sulfuric acid. It has now been generally replaced by carbon black-filled polypropylene.

Ultraviolet and daylight exposure
Under the influence of the ultraviolet portion of daylight, hard rubber oxidizes. Subsequent exposure to moisture bonds water with free sulfur on the surface, creating sulfates and sulfuric acid at the surface that are very hygroscopic. The sulfates condense water from the air, forming a hydrophilic film with favorable wettability characteristics on the surface. These aging processes will gradually discolor the surface grayish green to brown and cause rapid deterioration of electric surface resistivity.

Contamination
Contaminated ebonite was problematic when it was used for electronics. During manufacturing the ebonite was rolled between metal foil sheets, which were peeled off, leaving traces of metal behind. For electronic use the surface was ground to remove these metal particles.

Applications
Hard rubber was used in early 20th century bowling balls; however, it was phased out in favor of other materials (the Ebonite name remains as a trade name for one of the major manufacturers of polymer balls). It has been used in electric plugs, tobacco pipe mouthpieces (in competition with Lucite), fishing reels, hockey pucks, fountain pen bodies and nib feeds, saxophone and clarinet mouthpieces, as well as complete humidity-stable clarinets. Hard rubber is often seen as the wheel material in casters. It is also commonly used in physics classrooms to demonstrate static electricity, because it is at or near the negative end of the triboelectric series.

Hard rubber was used in the cases of automobile batteries for years, thus establishing black as their traditional colour even long after stronger modern plastics like polypropylene were substituted. It was used for decades in hair combs made by Ace, now part of Newell Rubbermaid, although the current models are known to be produced solely with plastics.

Ebonite is used as an anticorrosive lining for various (mainly storage) vessels that contain diluted hydrochloric acid. It forms bubbles when storing hydrofluoric acid at temperatures above room temperature, or for prolonged durations.

title: Ebonite


text:
Mackenzie River husky

Mackenzie River husky describes several overlapping historical populations of Arctic and sub-Arctic sled dog originally bred to support fur traders for Hudson's Bay Company and later prospectors during the Klondike Gold Rush. A mixture of native sled dogs and European freighting dogs, Mackenzie River huskies were prized for their ability to haul heavy loads long distances in the snow with minimal care. Since the advent of modern mechanized travel in the Arctic, moving cargo by dogsled has become nearly obsolete and only small populations of these dogs still exist.

Appearance
The Mackenzie River husky stands 26 to 29 in in height and weighs 63 to 104 lb. Usually long-coated, they are rangy, deep-chested and long-legged, built for heavy freighting in single file through deep snow. Their colors are the usual northern-dog range of black and white, shades of grey and sable, tan, blond, and red.

Behavior
Contemporary sources described the Mackenzie River Husky as a solid and dependable dogs, rarely aggressive towards humans but prone to scuffles with other dogs. They make poor watchdogs but enjoy their work as sled dogs. The Mackenzie River Husky is more friendly than the Siberian Husky, who looks a bit reserved.

History
The Mackenzie River husky breed emerged in the mid-1800s during a demand for larger, stronger sled dogs. At this time, Hudson's Bay Company administrator George Simpson provided incentives to reduce staffing and improve efficiency, encouraging mushers to demand larger, stronger dogs capable of longer distances and heavier cargoes. To meet this demand, dog mushers began intentionally mixing indigenous North American sled dogs with European drafting breeds, such as mastiffs, Newfoundland Dogs, Saint Bernards and similar breeds. The term Mackenzie River husky has been applied to various dog populations in the Arctic and sub-Arctic regions of Canada and Alaska.

Custom dictated the naming of freight dogs by place of origin, and 19th century writers described numerous distinct types of huskies throughout northern Canada and Alaska. The most notable were the dogs of the Hudson's Bay Company's Mackenzie River District. By the 1860s, the Mackenzie River Huskies were prized throughout northern Canada and Alaska. The sudden influx of prospectors during the Klondike Gold Rush further solidified the Mackenzie River husky reputation but also created name confusion as newcomers were unable to discern between the various dog populations and often defaulted to calling all freighting sled dogs Mackenzie River Husky regardless of point of origin. To further complicate the matter, breeds like the Alaskan Malamute had not yet been formally recognized and generally all remotely indigenous sled dogs were termed huskies, husky being a phonological permutation of the French word Esquimaux (English: Eskimo). Writer and musher Hudson Stuck discusses this in his 1914 autobiography, saying: "Many years ago the Hudson Bay voyageurs bred some selected strains of imported dog with the Indian dogs of those parts, or else did no more than carefully select the best individuals of the native species and bred from them exclusively—it is variously stated—and that is the accepted origin of the 'husky.' The malamute and the husky are the two chief sources of the white man's dog teams, though cross-breeding with setters and pointers, hounds of various sorts, mastiffs, Saint Bernards, and Newfoundlands has resulted in a general admixture of breeds, so that the work dogs of Alaska are a heterogenous lot today. It should also be stated that the terms 'malamute' and 'husky' are very generally confused and often used interchangeably."Populations were in decline following the Klondike Gold Rush, but the Mackenzie River Husky began to decline significantly in the 1950s and 1960s with the introduction of mechanized Arctic travel in combination with the Canadian government's attempts to eradicate native dog teams. Today, very few of these dogs exist.

title: Mackenzie River husky