text:
Al-Sumayriyya

Al-Sumayriyya (السُميريه, Katasir in Canaanite times, Someleria during Crusader rule), was a Palestinian village located six kilometers north of Acre that was depopulated after it was captured by the Israel Defense Forces during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. The ruins of the village are today in the outskirts of the Israeli moshav of Regba.

History
Tall al-Sumayriyya contains carved stones, a mosaic floor, tombs, columns, and stone capitals. Khirbat Abu 'Ataba has an Islamic shrine and ceramic fragments.

In the Crusader era, it was mentioned in 1277 under the name of Somelaria. At the time, the village belonged to the Templars. In the hudna of 1283 between Al Mansur Qalawun and the Crusaders, Al-Sumayriyya was still under Crusader rule  while in 1291 it had come under Mamluk control.

A building with a court-yard, measuring 60,5 by 57 meters, dating from the Crusader era, has been noted in the village, and a 13th-century glass-factory has been excavated.

Ottoman era
It was mentioned in the Ottoman defter for the year 1555-6, named Summayriyah, located in the Nahiya of Akka of the Liwa of Safad, and with its land designated as Sahi land, that is, land belonging to the Sultan.

In 1738 Richard Pococke passed by the place, which he called Semmars. He thought the name came from "St. Mary's", and noted the remains of a wall of hewn stone, which he thought had belonged to a convent.

A map by Pierre Jacotin from Napoleon's invasion of 1799 showed the place, named as El Esmerieh.

In 1875 Victor Guérin found the village had 400 Muslim inhabitants. In 1881, the PEF's Survey of Western Palestine  described the place as a village of "mud and stone houses, containing about 200 [..] Moslems, situated on the plain, surrounded by a few clumps of olives and figs and arable land; two or three cisterns are in the village, the aqueduct near brings good water."

A population list from about 1887 showed the village to have about 270 inhabitants; all Muslims.

British Mandate era
In the 1922 census of Palestine conducted by the British Mandate authorities Semariyeh had a population of 307; 300 Muslims and 7 Christians, where all the  Christians were Maronite. This had increased in the 1931 census to 392, 390 Muslims, 1 Christian and 1 Jew, in a total of 92  houses.

Al-Sumayriyya had an elementary school for boys, which was founded in 1943. In 1945, it had an enrollment of 60 students. One mosque which remains.

In 1944/1945 the village had a population of 760 Muslims, with a total of 8,542 dunams of land. Of this, 6,854 dunams were allocated to grain crops; 354 dunams were irrigated or planted with orchards, while 28 dunams were built-up (urban) land.

1948, and aftermath
At the beginning of 1945, al-Sumayriyya's 760 inhabitants were all Arab Muslims. The inhabitants fled as a result of the 14 May 1948 assault on the village by the Carmeli Brigade during Operation Ben-Ami, one day before the official outbreak of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. The village - along with neighbouring al-Bassa and al-Zib which were also captured in the offensive - was subsequently destroyed, except its mosque.

Lohamei HaGeta'ot and Shomrat are both on village land. Morris writes that Bustan HaGalil was built near its site, however, Khalidi writes that Bustan HaGalil is on the land of Al-Manshiyya. Shavey Tziyon and Regba are close to the northern borders of Al-Sumayriyya, but were established on land that used to belong to Mazra'a.

title: Al-Sumayriyya


text:
Environment of Hong Kong

The ecology of Hong Kong is mostly affected by the results of climatic changes. Hong Kong's climate is seasonal due to alternating wind direction between winter and summer.

Hong Kong has been geologically stable for millions of years. Flora and fauna in Hong Kong are altered by climatic change, sea level alternation, and human impact.

Climate
Hong Kong has a subtropical climate, which is additionally influenced by the monsoon in spring. The average daily maximum temperatures range from 19 to 32 degrees, depending on the season. There are hot, humid summers and temperate, dry winters. With daily highs of 33 °C, it is warmest from late May to mid-September. Over 2200 liters of rain per square meter fall annually - 80% of it between May and September. Of these, June and August are the wettest months, with rain falling on almost four out of seven days. With only one rainy day per week in January and December, these are the driest months. Between late May and mid-September, typhoons and violent thunderstorms can occasionally occur.

Land
The total land area of Hong Kong is 1,076 square kilometres, but about 75% of this land is open countryside, which contains more than 2600 species of vascular plants, about 450 species of birds, about 200 species of butterflies, about 100 species of dragonflies, 40 species of mammals, 80 species of reptiles and more than 20 species of amphibians, including some that are endemic to the territory.

Species richness in Hong Kong
Hong Kong is considered rich in species variety. The number of bird species in Hong Kong is fully one-third of that in China along with one-sixth as many butterflies species, according to surveys.

The horseshoe crabs Tachypleus tridentatus and Carcinoscorpius rotundicauda are found in Hong Kong's waters, and there are reported sighting of Tachypleus gigas.

Mangroves
Mangroves are habitats of enclosed intertidal mud flats with greatly reduced wave action, located near sources of fresh water. Popular mangrove habitats in Hong Kong are located along Deep Bay, such as Pak Nai and Tsim Bei Tsui, where salinity is very low under the influence of fresh water from the Pearl River, and along some mud flats where salinity is lowered by surrounding streams, such as Three Fathoms Cove and Ting Kok. Trees living in this habitat are called mangrove trees.

The following are sites of mangroves in Hong Kong:

 * Deep Bay
 * Hebe Haven
 * Hoi Ha Wan
 * Kei Ling Ha
 * Long Harbour
 * Pui O
 * Tai Ho Wan
 * Tai O
 * Tai Tam Harbour
 * Tolo Harbour
 * Tung Chung

Rocky shores
The tidal range of Hong Kong is about 2.5 metres and the distribution of species situated in this region must be tolerant of conditions when the shore is covered with seawater at high tide and when the shore is directly exposed to the air at low tide, for hours or days. Species may adapt to these varying conditions by successfully exploiting narrow vertical zones along the rocky shore.

The species inhabiting Hong Kong's rocky coastal areas vary depending the exposure to the wave action from the sea. The sessile filter-feeding organisms inhabit the wave-exposed shoreline. They are able to attach on the rock surface and remove food particles in the turbulent water, while the mobile herbivores and carnivores prefer the sheltered shores. The varieties of organisms also varies with the season, especially in Hong Kong where oceanic currents change through the year. For instance, very few erect foliose macro-algae can tolerate Hong Kong's summer heat, but they are common in winter.

The following are the sites of rocky shores in Hong Kong:
 * Luk Keng
 * Kei Ling Ha Lo Wai
 * Cape D'Aguilar Marine Reserve

Streams
There are two kinds of freshwater habitats: lentic (still, or very slow moving) water, such as lakes, ponds, ditches, and lotic (flowing) water, such as rivers, streams.

There are three main factors to differentiate the habitats in Hong Kong: variability of current, amount of detritus and variable oxygen content. These factors influence animals' various adaptive responses. They have to attach themselves to the surfaces, become predominantly detritus feeders and have a mechanism for obtaining maximum oxygen supply.

The following are the list of rivers in Hong Kong:
 * Wa Mei Shan
 * Lam Tsuen River
 * Shing Mun River

Sandy shores
The following are the site of sandy shores in Hong Kong:

 * Starfish Bay

General
In 1989, the Hong Kong government realised that Hong Kong was in danger of becoming a vast, densely populated city. Due to the growth of the economy and business sectors, the water, waste and air pollution cause an adverse effect on the balance of ecology in Hong Kong.

Factories, farms and restaurants in the New Territories dump large amounts of sewage and even untreated waste into the streams and the sea. It makes the New Territories' streams be 'no better than open sewers'. This severe damage is irreversible and the creatures in the sea are the direct victims.

The pink dolphin is one of the victims. Under threat from chemical pollution, increased sea traffic and the destruction of much of the natural shoreline for land reclamation, the number of pink dolphins has dramatically declined with the city's ongoing development.

The nature reserve and birds in Mai Po Marsh are also victims. They are threatened by pig sewage flooding as well as the increased pollution from Shenzhen. Yet according to World Wide Fund for Nature Hong Kong the number of the endangered black-faced spoonbills wintering in Mai Po has risen from roughly 35 in the late 1980s to 152 after 10 years. About 400 have been spotted after 2000. Estimates on how many of these birds remain in the wild vary from 1,000 to 2,000.

The oyster farms have been throttled by a mixture of pollution and competition from cheaper oyster cultivation across the border in China.

Air pollution
Air pollution is another serious problem. Smoke-belching factories, intense construction and large numbers of diesel vehicles have led to dangerous levels of particulate matter and nitrogen dioxide. It's not only the flora and fauna that are affected – humans are too. Cases of asthma and bronchial infections have soared in recent years, and doctors place the blame squarely on poor air quality.

Thermal pollution
According to a Baptist University study, daily average minimum temperatures have increased by 0.02 degrees (Celsius) annually between 1965 and 2003, due to the urban heat island effect, which traps heat during the daytime and releases it at night. Average daily maximum temperatures have fallen by 0.014 degrees each year, as air pollution blocks solar radiation. Resulting increased nighttime ambient temperatures incite families to use domestic air-conditioning, which further compounds the problem.

Research has shown that the ambient air-temperature in urban areas can be some 5 °C higher than non built-up areas. The Hong Kong Polytechnic University commissioned NASA to take a high-resolution thermal image of urban Hong Kong by satellite at 22:40 on 4 August 2007, which showed at least a four-degree difference between the coolest areas and the "urban heat islands". The variations are attributable to greater absorbency of man-made materials, and building density that restrict air-flow. The affected area had expanded into Hung Hom since January, when the first image was taken.

"Wall effect"
There has been increasing concern since 2006 over the "wall effect" caused by uniform high-rise developments that adversely impact air circulation. Due to the density of Hong Kong's population and the economies of scale of mass developments, there is the tendency of new private tower block developments with 10 to over 100 towers, ranging from 30 to 70 stories high. Developers of housing estates are financially motivated to maximise the view, at the expense of the free flow of air. Huge wall-like estates along the waterfront are often constructed.

In-fill developments are typically constructed by smaller developers with less capital. These will be smaller in scale, and less prone to the wall effect.

Environmental group Green Sense expressed concern that their survey on 155 housing estates found 104 have a 'wall-like' design. It cited estates in Tai Kok Tsui and Tseung Kwan O as the "best examples". In May 2007, citing concern over developments in West Kowloon, and near Tai Wai and Yuen Long railway stations, some legislators called for a law to stop developers from constructing tall buildings that adversely affect airflow in densely populated areas, but the bid failed. In 2007, residents of Tai Kok Tsui, increasingly aware of the problem, have been lobbying against the further proliferation of such high-rises in their area that threaten the last air corridor.

Destruction of habitat

 * Encroachment of the green belt
 * Effect of the Building Waste Levy

Illegal hunting of species by mainland Chinese
With increasing affluence of mainland Chinese, some of them become affable to some luxury flora and fauna, like Podocarpus macrophyllus (Cantonese: lo hon chung) and Cuora trifasciata (Cantonese: kam chin kwai). Some luxury species are becoming increasingly rare in South China due to increased hunting, and hunters turn to Hong Kong.

Introduction of non-indigenous species
Most of the introduced species do little harm to the ecology of Hong Kong. However, some species are invasive and cause massive damage to the ecology and/or economy of Hong Kong.

Examples are the pinewood nematode from North America and pine-needle scale insect from Taiwan, which together virtually eliminated the native Pinus massoniana in the 1970s and 1980s.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Environment of Hong Kong


text:
User talk:Abi0472

Hi Jim,

Good work at combining the articles, although there are some problems of cohesion in the paragraphs and the content of this article which I think we will still need to work on.

About the photo, I've actually emailed the website to ask for permission, so it is alright to put on the website.

Also, I think it is a good idea to add in subtitles to better separate out the work. What do you think?

Abbie

Hi Abi, and welcome.

There is already an article on Chinese White Dolphin, so I'm going to move your content to that to avoid duplication, hope tht's OK jimfbleak 17:35 14 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * sorry, the image you have used appears to be copyright, so I have to delete it. If you have the permission of the copyright owner, or it is your picture, please note that it should have been uploaded as a jpeg anyway,

Jim

title: User talk:Abi0472


text:
Suruh

Suruh (سروح), was a Palestinian Arab hamlet, located 28.5 km northeast of Acre. It became depopulated in the 1948 Arab-Israeli war.

History
Suruh contained two khirbats ("sites of ruins") with a variety of ancient artifacts, including cisterns, and rock-hewn tombs.

Ottoman era
An 1875 visitor, Victor Guérin, describes it as a ruin, which he called Khurbet Seroueh. Guérin noted; "These ruins cover the summit of the hill. At the highest point we observed the remains of a very ancient square tower, measuring fourteen paces on each side, the lower courses consisting of very large blocks, roughly squared and without cement. The interior is full of similar blocks, piled up in confusion, in the midst of which terebinths and pomegranates have taken root. Near this tower a few old houses served as an asylum to four families of Metawileh. On the lintel of the door of one of these houses a square cross inscribed in a circle can still be traced. The terraces of another house are supported in the interior by arched arcades in good cut stone of Roman, or at least Byzantine, date. There are also the remains of numerous houses which have been destroyed, a dozen cisterns cut in the rock, a column lying on the ground, and the fragment of a sarcophagus."

In 1881, the PEF's Survey of Western Palestine (SWP) described  Suruh as "a small village, containing about ninety Moslems, situated on a ridge, with olives and arable land round; there are three rock-cut cisterns. The residents  lived by agriculture and raising live-stock.

British Mandate era
In the 1945 statistics the population Tarbikha, Al-Nabi Rubin and Suruh together was 1000 Muslims,  and they  had a total of 18,563  dunams of land. 619 dunams were plantations and irrigable land, 3,204 used for cereals, while 112 dunams were built-up (urban) land.

1948, and aftermath
During the 1948 Arab-Israeli war, the inhabitants of Suruh, the neighbouring hamlet of Nabi Rubin and the main village of Tarbikha, were given expulsion orders by Israeli forces. A predominantly Sunni Muslim hamlet, Suruh and Nabi Rubin were satellite hamlets of Tarbikha, a largely Shi'ite village. Most of Suruh's inhabitants and those the neighbouring localities ended up leaving to Lebanon.

In 1992 the village site was described: "Only rubble, trees, cactuses, shrubs, and weeds are visible. Most of the site is used for grazing."

title: Suruh


text:
HAL/S

HAL/S (High-order Assembly Language/Shuttle)  is a real-time aerospace programming language compiler and cross-compiler for avionics applications used by NASA and associated agencies (JPL, etc.). It has been used in many U.S. space projects since 1973 and its most significant use was in the Space Shuttle program (approximately 85% of the Shuttle software was coded in HAL/S). It was designed by Intermetrics in 1972 for NASA and delivered in 1973. HAL/S is written in XPL, a dialect of PL/I. Although HAL/S is designed primarily for programming on-board computers, it is general enough to meet nearly all the needs in the production, verification, and support of aerospace and other real-time applications. According to documentation from 2005, it was being maintained by the HAL/S project of United Space Alliance.

Goals and principles
The three key principles in designing the language were reliability, efficiency, and machine-independence. The language is designed to allow aerospace-related tasks (such as vector/matrix arithmetic) to be accomplished in a way that is easily understandable by people who have spaceflight knowledge, but may not necessarily have proficiency with computer programming.

HAL/S was designed not to include some constructs that were thought to be the cause of errors. For instance, there is no support for dynamic memory allocation. The language provides special support for real-time execution environments.

Some features, such as "GOTO" were provided chiefly to ease mechanical translations from other languages. (page 82)

"HAL" was suggested as the name of the new language by Ed Copps, a founding director of Intermetrics, to honor Hal Laning, a colleague at MIT. On the Preface page of the HAL/S Language Specification, it says,

A proposal for a NASA standard ground-based version of HAL named HAL/G for "ground" was proposed, but the coming emergence of the soon to be named Ada programming language contributed to Intermetrics' lack of interest in continuing this work. Instead, Intermetrics would place emphasis on what would be the "Red" finalist which would not be selected.

Host compiler systems have been implemented on an IBM 360/370, Data General Eclipse, and the Modcomp IV/Classic computers. Target computer systems have included IBM 360/370, IBM AP-101 (space shuttle avionics computer), Sperry 1819A/1819B, Data General Nova and Eclipse, CII Mitra 125, Modcomp II and IV, NASA Std. Spacecraft Computer-l and Computer-2, ITEK ATAC 16M (Galileo Project), and since 1978 the RCA CDP1802 COSMAC microprocessor (Galileo Project and others).

Syntax
HAL/S is a mostly free-form language: statements may begin anywhere on a line and may spill over the next lines, and multiple statements may be fitted onto the same line if required. However, non-space characters in the first column of a program line may have special significance. For instance, the letter 'C' in the first column indicates that the whole line is a comment and should be ignored by the compiler.

One particularly interesting feature of HAL/S is that it supports, in addition to a normal single line text format, an optional three-line input format in which three source code lines are used for each statement. In this format, the first and third lines are usable for superscripts (exponents) and subscripts (indices). The multi-line format was designed to permit writing of HAL/S code that is similar to mathematical notation.

As an example, the statement $$x = a^2 + b_i^2$$ could be written in single-line format as: X = A ** 2 + B$(I) ** 2 Exponentiation is denoted by two asterisks, as in PL/I and Fortran. The subscript $$i$$ is denoted by a dollar sign, with the subscript expression enclosed in parentheses. The same code fragment could be written in multiple-line format as: E      2     2 M X = A  + B S            I In the example, the base line of the statement is indicated by an 'M' in the first column, the exponent line is indicated by an 'E', and the subscript line is indicated by an 'S'.

Example
The following is a simple HAL/S program. Every program begins with a labeled  statement; the label consists of an identifier followed by a colon. All variables must be declared in the  group, which precedes any executable statements. Every program ends with a  delimiting statement.

SIMPLE: PROGRAM; C CODE IN THIS TYPEFACE IS C  HAL/S SOURCE DECLARE PI CONSTANT (3.14159266); DECLARE R SCALAR; READ(5) R;  WRITE(6) PI R**2; CLOSE SIMPLE;

Data types
HAL/S has native support for integers, floating point scalars, vector, matrices, booleans and strings of 8-bit characters, limited to a maximum length of 255. Structured types may be composed using a  statement.

title: HAL/S


text:
Talk:Victoria Peak

I moved the following from the article, because it reads like an excerpt from a HK Tourist Board brochure, meaning it's not encyclopedic and is probably copyrighted. Vicki Rosenzweig 17:39 14 Jul 2003 (UTC)

" Victoria Peak High above Hong Kong Island on the 'back of the Dragon', Victoria Peak is the City of Life's premier visitor attraction, providing magnificent harbour and city views. Arriving late afternoon enables you to experience the dazzling panorama of Hong Kong Island, the harbour, Kowloon and the hills beyond. Later, you can thrill to the neon-dotted skyline by night. What's more, The Peak offers visitors a multitude of fantastic entertainment, dining and shopping options.

Peak Tram. The best way to get to the top is via the Peak Tram, a funicular railway that carves a steep 396-metre swathe up the lush mountainside. The tram has been in operation since 1888, and once competed with sedan chairs as the most popular way up. Try to get seats at the front of the tram on the right-hand side for the journey skyward. The only way to describe the views from this vantage point is "simply breathtaking".

Peak Tower & Peak Galleria Thrilling indoor entertainment is housed in the Peak Tower and Peak Galleria. Attractions include a hi-tech virtual-reality ride, the Peak Explorer, as well as a showcase of weird and wonderful artefacts at the Ripley's Believe It Or Not! Odditorium. Then, rub shoulders with the famous at world-renowned Madame Tussaud's wax portraits museum. With around 100 astoundingly life-like wax figures means getting up close and personal with Jackie Chan and Arnold Schwarzenegger has never been easier. And let's not forget dining. There are several mouth-watering options on the Peak, including Cafe Deco Bar & Grill and Movenpick Marche Restaurant. All impress hungry visitors with their international menus and outstanding views.

Peak Walks The Peak is the perfect location to embark on several trails. For a spectacular circular walk that takes about one hour, turn right out of the Peak Tower and head for Lugard Road. To climb to even greater heights, stroll up Mount Austin Road to Victoria Peak Garden, then venture down to Aberdeen or return to entral via Old Peak Road.

How to get there: 1. Take bus no. 15C at Star Ferry Pier to Garden Road (Tram Terminal) (HK$3.2; runs daily : 10am - 11:45pm). 2. Take bus no. 12S at Admiralty MTR station (West) to Garden Road (Peak Tram Station)(HK$2.5; runs daily : 10am - 12mn). 3. Take maxicab No.1 (HK$7.4) from Central (Lung Wui Road near Hong Kong City Hall) runs daily (6:30am - 12mn). 4. Take bus no.15 (HK$9.2) from Central (Exchange Square) Bus Terminus runs daily (6:15am - 12:15am)."

Dumb question: why have photos of a waterfall, the walking trail, the view of the relatively empty south side of the island, and the tram, and not have a photo of the view that made the Peak famous - the north side of the island? --Robert Merkel 23:48 15 Jul 2003 (UTC)

The pics are too huge; only a smaller version of the peak tower should be kept. Is that tram picture an acknowleded copyright vio? --Jiang 23:59 15 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * I've been there. Trust me, the view from the tower is a heck of a lot more interesting than a view of it. --Robert Merkel 06:33 16 Jul 2003 (UTC)

shall it be moved to Victoria Peak, Hong Kong ? kt2 07:34 16 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * That's where it originally was. Mav moved it here. --Jiang

Are there other things called Victoria Peak? If not then why the comma title? --mav 07:41 16 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Some images of and from Victoria Peak and of one of the contributors to this article are in the Press coverage:

 * CNN TechWatch video, August 4, 2003, CNN International Tech Watch aired a segment on the Wikipedia and the Hong Kong University student project.

Patrick 11:08, 4 Aug 2003 (UTC)

 * The first one is a Motion Simulator. While the latter is the first computer-operated entertainment ride in Hong Kong, and is a "train journey" through scenes of the Hong Kong's early history.

Somehow this sentence in the Peak Tower section seems to be out of place. Probably an orphan left behind by some copy editors. Kowloonese 01:16, 26 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * The most special food may be the Japanese-style pancakes of “Ice-Queen” because this kind of pancake is served in a few places only and it is one of the most popular snacks and desserts in Hong Kong.

Are these Japanese-style pancakes the same as the crepes found on the streets of Tokyo? If it is, then it is a fad copied from Paris. Kowloonese 01:21, 26 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Picture addition
A night time view would be nice. Skinnyweed 00:17, 14 May 2006 (UTC)

Victoria "Peak"
In this context, does peak only mean "tip of the mountain"? Or does it refer to the entire mountain? I'm asking because the Chinese term, 太平山頂, means "Tai Ping Shan Tip". But I always thought of Victoria Peak as the entire geological formation rather than just the summit. --tess 23:45, 5 March 2007 (UTC)

 * Exactly, you have pointed out a good point. Victoria Peak refers only to the mountain, NOT its peak alone. In traditional chinese, it should be "太平山" or its older and kinkier name "扯旗山" (which literally translates to "Flag Raising" and in turn transliterated as a Cantonese slang literally meaning "gettting a woody"/"getting a hard-on"/"getting a stiffie"/"being stiff"/"getting penis erection.")

 * Thus, the Peak should actually be "The Peak of Victoria Peak" hahahaha XD lol. The mountain should therefore be simply called "太平山"/"扯旗山" only.

 * The mountain was just stupidly and tediusly named; that's all; I don't blame anyone for confusing that fact for I've only JUST noticed.

 * I'll correct the much-deserved error NOW!! hehehe :P.

 * --WiKID Daryl (talk) 21:58, 7 July 2008 (UTC)

I think the right way for writing the name is 太平顶山, not 太平山 — Preceding unsigned comment added by 93.149.24.108 (talk) 07:43, 8 June 2018 (UTC)
 * Have a source? And, by the way, it's Hong Kong, where traditional characters are the official language, so 頂, not 顶.  sirlanz 08:10, 8 June 2018 (UTC)

Lead picture
I think the night time panorama is stunning - but it doesn't actually show the peak (only a view from the peak). Is there a suitable photo which depicts the peak itself? Pstuart84 Talk 16:48, 29 April 2008 (UTC)

 * This article is confused; "Victoria Peak" is the entire mountain while "the Peak" should literally be the "Peak of Victoria Peak".
 * However, this article seems to be conveying details of "The Peak" but not so much the mountain rane itself. Someone needs to sort this out...
 * --WiKID Daryl (talk) 16:58, 8 July 2008 (UTC)

Changed lead picture
The lead picture should show what the article is about, in this case Victoria Peak, not Hong Kong. It is a good picture so I replace one below.User-duck (talk) 08:25, 20 January 2018 (UTC)

Suggest Switch to HK English
Since this article is related to HK, I suggest switching the note to editors to say "use Hong Kong English", rather than EngvarB. Kdm852 (talk) 09:37, 4 December 2018 (UTC)
 * Would you care to justify that by demonstrating any aspect of the article as it appears so far which would transgress Hong Kong English norms if editors simply use British English? sirlanz 10:05, 4 December 2018 (UTC)

Too much promotion isn’t ?
—> Residential Area —> Changes in Neighbourhood These two new added has talked too much about prices which is not needed and related to the introduction of the Victoria Peak.

I suggest those to be deleted. Shanpeak (talk) 16:31, 26 March 2022 (UTC)

Agree, it should be removed because it is not necessary SerayIlolo (talk) 16:57, 26 March 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Victoria Peak


text:
Al-Tall, Acre

Al-Tall (التلّ), was a Palestinian village 14 km northeast of Acre in the British Mandate District of Acre. Depopulated as a result of military assault and capture during the 1947-1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine as part of Operation Operation Ben-Ami by the Carmeli Brigade of the Israel Defense Forces.

History
The twin villages of Al-Tall and nearby Al-Nahr were both sites of ancient settlements atop the tel of Kabri. Recent excavations indicate habitation back to the eighteenth century BC.

Ottoman era
In the Ottoman period, a mill was shown here on   Pierre Jacotin´s map from 1799. In 1875, the French explorer Victor Guérin visited the village, which he called Et-Tell. He described it: "Below the village extend fresh and verdant gardens where the water flows and murmurs incessantly in little canals, and where lofty poplars and great nut-trees, which recall Europe, mingle with the trees of Palestine. Near here is a mill, worked by water falling from a higher basin, which acts as a reservoir for a spring as abundant as that of Ras el 'Ain. After leaving the mill, the water forms a stream which fertilises the adjacent orchards. This raised and broad reservoir, whence the water escapes by an opening made for the purpose in the edge of the reservoir, is of modern construction, as is shown by the stones; but its first building must be ancient, because it is difficult to believe that the ancients should have neglected to get all the advantage possible from so important a spring."

In 1881 the PEF's Survey of Western Palestine described the village as "A stone and adobe village, containing about 200 Moslems, with figs,  olive, pomegranate, and mulberry trees  and gardens;  there are two streams of water at this village." The layout of the village was rectangular. Its houses were built from stone and concrete or from mud.

A population list from about 1887 showed that Nahret Tell had about 275 inhabitants, all Muslim.

British era
In 1944/1945, the population of Al-Tall was 300.

Israeli rule
Al-Tall was captured by the Carmeli Brigade during Operation Ben-Ami. Following the war the area was incorporated into the State of Israel, but the village's land has not been incorporated into any municipality or village.

According to the Palestinian historian Walid Khalidi, the remaining structures on the village land were in 1992: "The site is covered with the rubble of stone houses and is overgrown with wild grass. One stone house still stands but its facade is missing and it is about to crumble. Cactuses and fig trees grow on the southern slopes of the site. There are four identifiable Roman and Byzantine tombs in the cemetery that lies on the northern slopes, a Christ-thorn tree stands in its midst. Recent excavations has uncovered several ancient graves, and the place has been turned into an archaeological site."

In 1993, when A. Petersen visited the place, the only structure he found standing was a cistern, known as Birket al-Mafshukh, located north of the tell. In 1881, it had been described as a "birket of masonry, and a large perennial spring, with a stream flowing from it to the sea; the stream is called the Nahr Mefshukh; gives a very plentiful supply of water." According to Petersen, the birkat was "rectangular with a semi-circular extension at the west end."

title: Al-Tall, Acre


text:
Science in the medieval Islamic world

Science in the medieval Islamic world was the science developed and practised during the Islamic Golden Age under the Abbasid Caliphate of Baghdad, the Umayyads of Córdoba, the Abbadids of Seville, the Samanids, the Ziyarids and the Buyids in Persia and beyond, spanning the period roughly between 786 and 1258. Islamic scientific achievements encompassed a wide range of subject areas, especially astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. Other subjects of scientific inquiry included alchemy and chemistry, botany and agronomy, geography and cartography, ophthalmology, pharmacology, physics, and zoology.

Medieval Islamic science had practical purposes as well as the goal of understanding. For example, astronomy was useful for determining the Qibla, the direction in which to pray, botany had practical application in agriculture, as in the works of Ibn Bassal and Ibn al-'Awwam, and geography enabled Abu Zayd al-Balkhi to make accurate maps. Islamic mathematicians such as Al-Khwarizmi, Avicenna and Jamshīd al-Kāshī made advances in algebra, trigonometry, geometry and Arabic numerals. Islamic doctors described diseases like smallpox and measles, and challenged classical Greek medical theory. Al-Biruni, Avicenna and others described the preparation of hundreds of drugs made from medicinal plants and chemical compounds. Islamic physicists such as Ibn Al-Haytham, Al-Bīrūnī and others studied optics and mechanics as well as astronomy, and criticised Aristotle's view of motion.

During the Middle Ages, Islamic science flourished across a wide area around the Mediterranean Sea and further afield, for several centuries, in a wide range of institutions.

Context and history

The Islamic era began in 622. Islamic armies eventually conquered Arabia, Egypt and Mesopotamia, and successfully displaced the Persian and Byzantine Empires from the region within a few decades. Within a century, Islam had reached the area of present-day Portugal in the west and Central Asia in the east. The Islamic Golden Age (roughly between 786 and 1258) spanned the period of the Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258), with stable political structures and flourishing trade. Major religious and cultural works of the Islamic empire were translated into Arabic and occasionally Persian. Islamic culture inherited Greek, Indic, Assyrian and Persian influences. A new common civilisation formed, based on Islam. An era of high culture and innovation ensued, with rapid growth in population and cities. The Arab Agricultural Revolution in the countryside brought more crops and improved agricultural technology, especially irrigation. This supported the larger population and enabled culture to flourish. From the 9th century onwards, scholars such as Al-Kindi translated Indian, Assyrian, Sasanian (Persian) and Greek knowledge, including the works of Aristotle, into Arabic. These translations supported advances by scientists across the Islamic world. Islamic science survived the initial Christian reconquest of Spain, including the fall of Seville in 1248, as work continued in the eastern centres (such as in Persia). After the completion of the Spanish reconquest in 1492, the Islamic world went into an economic and cultural decline. The Abbasid caliphate was followed by the Ottoman Empire (c. 1299–1922), centred in Turkey, and the Safavid Empire (1501–1736), centred in Persia, where work in the arts and sciences continued.

Fields of inquiry
Medieval Islamic scientific achievements encompassed a wide range of subject areas, especially mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. Other subjects of scientific inquiry included physics, alchemy and chemistry, ophthalmology, and geography and cartography.

Alchemy and chemistry
The early Islamic period saw the establishment of theoretical frameworks in alchemy and chemistry. The sulfur-mercury theory of metals, first found in Sirr al-khalīqa ("The Secret of Creation", c. 750–850, falsely attributed to Apollonius of Tyana), and in the writings attributed to Jabir ibn Hayyan (written c. 850–950), remained the basis of theories of metallic composition until the 18th century. The Emerald Tablet, a cryptic text that all later alchemists up to and including Isaac Newton saw as the foundation of their art, first occurs in the Sirr al-khalīqa and in one of the works attributed to Jabir. In practical chemistry, the works of Jabir, and those of the Persian alchemist and physician Abu Bakr al-Razi (c. 865–925), contain the earliest systematic classifications of chemical substances. Alchemists were also interested in artificially creating such substances. Jabir describes the synthesis of ammonium chloride (sal ammoniac) from organic substances, and Abu Bakr al-Razi experimented with the heating of ammonium chloride, vitriol, and other salts, which would eventually lead to the discovery of the mineral acids by 13th-century Latin alchemists such as pseudo-Geber.

Astronomy and cosmology

Astronomy became a major discipline within Islamic science. Astronomers devoted effort both towards understanding the nature of the cosmos and to practical purposes. One application involved determining the Qibla, the direction to face during prayer. Another was astrology, predicting events affecting human life and selecting suitable times for actions such as going to war or founding a city. Al-Battani (850–922) accurately determined the length of the solar year. He contributed to the Tables of Toledo, used by astronomers to predict the movements of the sun, moon and planets across the sky. Copernicus (1473–1543) later used some of Al-Battani's astronomic tables.

Al-Zarqali (1028–1087) developed a more accurate astrolabe, used for centuries afterwards. He constructed a water clock in Toledo, discovered that the Sun's apogee moves slowly relative to the fixed stars, and obtained a good estimate of its motion for its rate of change. Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201–1274) wrote an important revision to Ptolemy's 2nd-century celestial model. When Tusi became Helagu's astrologer, he was given an observatory and gained access to Chinese techniques and observations. He developed trigonometry as a separate field, and compiled the most accurate astronomical tables available up to that time.

Botany and agronomy

The study of the natural world extended to a detailed examination of plants. The work done proved directly useful in the unprecedented growth of pharmacology across the Islamic world. Al-Dinawari (815–896) popularised botany in the Islamic world with his six-volume Kitab al-Nabat (Book of Plants). Only volumes 3 and 5 have survived, with part of volume 6 reconstructed from quoted passages. The surviving text describes 637 plants in alphabetical order from the letters sin to ya, so the whole book must have covered several thousand kinds of plants. Al-Dinawari described the phases of plant growth and the production of flowers and fruit. The thirteenth century encyclopedia compiled by Zakariya al-Qazwini (1203–1283) – ʿAjā'ib al-makhlūqāt (The Wonders of Creation) – contained, among many other topics, both realistic botany and fantastic accounts. For example, he described trees which grew birds on their twigs in place of leaves, but which could only be found in the far-distant British Isles. The use and cultivation of plants was documented in the 11th century by Muhammad bin Ibrāhīm Ibn Bassāl of Toledo in his book Dīwān al-filāha (The Court of Agriculture), and by Ibn al-'Awwam al-Ishbīlī (also called Abū l-Khayr al-Ishbīlī) of Seville in his 12th century book Kitāb al-Filāha (Treatise on Agriculture). Ibn Bassāl had travelled widely across the Islamic world, returning with a detailed knowledge of agronomy that fed into the Arab Agricultural Revolution. His practical and systematic book describes over 180 plants and how to propagate and care for them. It covered leaf- and root-vegetables, herbs, spices and trees.

Geography and cartography

The spread of Islam across Western Asia and North Africa encouraged an unprecedented growth in trade and travel by land and sea as far away as Southeast Asia, China, much of Africa, Scandinavia and even Iceland. Geographers worked to compile increasingly accurate maps of the known world, starting from many existing but fragmentary sources. Abu Zayd al-Balkhi (850–934), founder of the Balkhī school of cartography in Baghdad, wrote an atlas called Figures of the Regions (Suwar al-aqalim). Al-Biruni (973–1048) measured the radius of the earth using a new method. It involved observing the height of a mountain at Nandana (now in Pakistan). Al-Idrisi (1100–1166) drew a map of the world for Roger, the Norman King of Sicily (ruled 1105–1154). He also wrote the Tabula Rogeriana (Book of Roger), a geographic study of the peoples, climates, resources and industries of the whole of the world known at that time. The Ottoman admiral Piri Reis (c. 1470–1553) made a map of the New World and West Africa in 1513. He made use of maps from Greece, Portugal, Muslim sources, and perhaps one made by Christopher Columbus. He represented a part of a major tradition of Ottoman cartography.

Mathematics

Islamic mathematicians gathered, organised and clarified the mathematics they inherited from ancient Egypt, Greece, India, Mesopotamia and Persia, and went on to make innovations of their own. Islamic mathematics covered algebra, geometry and arithmetic. Algebra was mainly used for recreation: it had few practical applications at that time. Geometry was studied at different levels. Some texts contain practical geometrical rules for surveying and for measuring figures. Theoretical geometry was a necessary prerequisite for understanding astronomy and optics, and it required years of concentrated work. Early in the Abbasid caliphate (founded 750), soon after the foundation of Baghdad in 762, some mathematical knowledge was assimilated by al-Mansur's group of scientists from the pre-Islamic Persian tradition in astronomy. Astronomers from India were invited to the court of the caliph in the late eighth century; they explained the rudimentary trigonometrical techniques used in Indian astronomy. Ancient Greek works such as Ptolemy's Almagest and Euclid's Elements were translated into Arabic. By the second half of the ninth century, Islamic mathematicians were already making contributions to the most sophisticated parts of Greek geometry. Islamic mathematics reached its apogee in the Eastern part of the Islamic world between the tenth and twelfth centuries. Most medieval Islamic mathematicians wrote in Arabic, others in Persian.

Al-Khwarizmi (8th–9th centuries) was instrumental in the adoption of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system and the development of algebra, introduced methods of simplifying equations, and used Euclidean geometry in his proofs. He was the first to treat algebra as an independent discipline in its own right, and presented the first systematic solution of linear and quadratic equations. Ibn Ishaq al-Kindi (801–873) worked on cryptography for the Abbasid Caliphate, and gave the first known recorded explanation of cryptanalysis and the first description of the method of frequency analysis. Avicenna (c. 980–1037) contributed to mathematical techniques such as casting out nines. Thābit ibn Qurra (835–901) calculated the solution to a chessboard problem involving an exponential series. Al-Farabi (c. 870–950) attempted to describe, geometrically, the repeating patterns popular in Islamic decorative motifs in his book Spiritual Crafts and Natural Secrets in the Details of Geometrical Figures. Omar Khayyam (1048–1131), known in the West as a poet, calculated the length of the year to within 5 decimal places, and found geometric solutions to all 13 forms of cubic equations, developing some quadratic equations still in use. Jamshīd al-Kāshī (c. 1380–1429) is credited with several theorems of trigonometry, including the law of cosines, also known as Al-Kashi's Theorem. He has been credited with the invention of decimal fractions, and with a method like Horner's to calculate roots. He calculated π correctly to 17 significant figures.

Sometime around the seventh century, Islamic scholars adopted the Hindu–Arabic numeral system, describing their use in a standard type of text fī l-ḥisāb al hindī, (On the numbers of the Indians). A distinctive Western Arabic variant of the Eastern Arabic numerals began to emerge around the 10th century in the Maghreb and Al-Andalus (sometimes called ghubar numerals, though the term is not always accepted), which are the direct ancestor of the modern Arabic numerals used throughout the world.

Medicine

Islamic society paid careful attention to medicine, following a hadith enjoining the preservation of good health. Its physicians inherited knowledge and traditional medical beliefs from the civilisations of classical Greece, Rome, Syria, Persia and India. These included the writings of Hippocrates such as on the theory of the four humours, and the theories of Galen. al-Razi (c. 865–925) identified smallpox and measles, and recognized fever as a part of the body's defenses. He wrote a 23-volume compendium of Chinese, Indian, Persian, Syriac and Greek medicine. al-Razi questioned the classical Greek medical theory of how the four humours regulate life processes. He challenged Galen's work on several fronts, including the treatment of bloodletting, arguing that it was effective. al-Zahrawi (936–1013) was a surgeon whose most important surviving work is referred to as al-Tasrif (Medical Knowledge). It is a 30-volume set mainly discussing medical symptoms, treatments, and pharmacology. The last volume, on surgery, describes surgical instruments, supplies, and pioneering procedures. Avicenna (c. 980–1037) wrote the major medical textbook, The Canon of Medicine. Ibn al-Nafis (1213–1288) wrote an influential book on medicine; it largely replaced Avicenna's Canon in the Islamic world. He wrote commentaries on Galen and on Avicenna's works. One of these commentaries, discovered in 1924, described the circulation of blood through the lungs.

Optics and ophthalmology

Optics developed rapidly in this period. By the ninth century, there were works on physiological, geometrical and physical optics. Topics covered included mirror reflection. Hunayn ibn Ishaq (809–873) wrote the book Ten Treatises on the Eye; this remained influential in the West until the 17th century. Abbas ibn Firnas (810–887) developed lenses for magnification and the improvement of vision. Ibn Sahl (c. 940–1000) discovered the law of refraction known as Snell's law. He used the law to produce the first Aspheric lenses that focused light without geometric aberrations.

In the eleventh century Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen, 965–1040) rejected the Greek ideas about vision, whether the Aristotelian tradition that held that the form of the perceived object entered the eye (but not its matter), or that of Euclid and Ptolemy which held that the eye emitted a ray. Al-Haytham proposed in his Book of Optics that vision occurs by way of light rays forming a cone with its vertex at the center of the eye. He suggested that light was reflected from different surfaces in different directions, thus causing objects to look different. He argued further that the mathematics of reflection and refraction needed to be consistent with the anatomy of the eye. He was also an early proponent of the scientific method, the concept that a hypothesis must be proved by experiments based on confirmable procedures or mathematical evidence, five centuries before Renaissance scientists.

Pharmacology

Advances in botany and chemistry in the Islamic world encouraged developments in pharmacology. Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes) (865–915) promoted the medical uses of chemical compounds. Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis) (936–1013) pioneered the preparation of medicines by sublimation and distillation. His Liber servitoris provides instructions for preparing "simples" from which were compounded the complex drugs then used. Sabur Ibn Sahl (died 869) was the first physician to describe a large variety of drugs and remedies for ailments. Al-Muwaffaq, in the 10th century, wrote The foundations of the true properties of Remedies, describing chemicals such as arsenious oxide and silicic acid. He distinguished between sodium carbonate and potassium carbonate, and drew attention to the poisonous nature of copper compounds, especially copper vitriol, and also of lead compounds. Al-Biruni (973–1050) wrote the Kitab al-Saydalah (The Book of Drugs), describing in detail the properties of drugs, the role of pharmacy and the duties of the pharmacist. Ibn Sina (Avicenna) described 700 preparations, their properties, their mode of action and their indications. He devoted a whole volume to simples in The Canon of Medicine. Works by Masawaih al-Mardini (c. 925–1015) and by Ibn al-Wafid (1008–1074) were printed in Latin more than fifty times, appearing as De Medicinis universalibus et particularibus by Mesue the Younger (died 1015) and as the Medicamentis simplicibus by Abenguefit (c.  997 – 1074) respectively. Peter of Abano (1250–1316) translated and added a supplement to the work of al-Mardini under the title De Veneris. Ibn al-Baytar (1197–1248), in his Al-Jami fi al-Tibb, described a thousand simples and drugs based directly on Mediterranean plants collected along the entire coast between Syria and Spain, for the first time exceeding the coverage provided by Dioscorides in classical times. Islamic physicians such as Ibn Sina described clinical trials for determining the efficacy of medical drugs and substances.

Physics

The fields of physics studied in this period, apart from optics and astronomy which are described separately, are aspects of mechanics: statics, dynamics, kinematics and motion. In the sixth century John Philoponus (c. 490 – c.  570) rejected the Aristotelian view of motion. He argued instead that an object acquires an inclination to move when it has a motive power impressed on it. In the eleventh century Ibn Sina adopted roughly the same idea, namely that a moving object has force which is dissipated by external agents like air resistance. Ibn Sina distinguished between "force" and "inclination" (mayl); he claimed that an object gained mayl when the object is in opposition to its natural motion. He concluded that continuation of motion depends on the inclination that is transferred to the object, and that the object remains in motion until the mayl is spent. He also claimed that a projectile in a vacuum would not stop unless it is acted upon. That view accords with Newton's first law of motion, on inertia. As a non-Aristotelian suggestion, it was essentially abandoned until it was described as "impetus" by Jean Buridan (c. 1295–1363), who was likely influenced by Ibn Sina's Book of Healing.

In the Shadows, Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī (973–1048) describes non-uniform motion as the result of acceleration. Ibn-Sina's theory of mayl tried to relate the velocity and weight of a moving object, a precursor of the concept of momentum. Aristotle's theory of motion stated that a constant force produces a uniform motion; Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī (c. 1080 – 1164/5) disagreed, arguing that velocity and acceleration are two different things, and that force is proportional to acceleration, not to velocity.

The Banu Musa brothers, Jafar-Muhammad, Ahmad and al-Hasan (c. early 9th century) invented automated devices described in their Book of Ingenious Devices. Advances on the subject were also made by al-Jazari and Ibn Ma'ruf.

Zoology

Many classical works, including those of Aristotle, were transmitted from Greek to Syriac, then to Arabic, then to Latin in the Middle Ages. Aristotle's zoology remained dominant in its field for two thousand years. The Kitāb al-Hayawān (كتاب الحيوان, English: Book of Animals) is a 9th-century Arabic translation of History of Animals: 1–10, On the Parts of Animals: 11–14, and Generation of Animals: 15–19.

The book was mentioned by Al-Kindī (died 850), and commented on by Avicenna (Ibn Sīnā) in his The Book of Healing. Avempace (Ibn Bājja) and Averroes (Ibn Rushd) commented on and criticised On the Parts of Animals and Generation of Animals.

Significance
Muslim scientists helped in laying the foundations for an experimental science with their contributions to the scientific method and their empirical, experimental and quantitative approach to scientific inquiry. In a more general sense, the positive achievement of Islamic science was simply to flourish, for centuries, in a wide range of institutions from observatories to libraries, madrasas to hospitals and courts, both at the height of the Islamic golden age and for some centuries afterwards. It did not lead to a scientific revolution like that in Early modern Europe, but such external comparisons are probably to be rejected as imposing "chronologically and culturally alien standards" on a successful medieval culture.

title: Science in the medieval Islamic world


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Tarbikha

Tarbikha (تربيخا), was a Palestinian Arab village. It was located 27 km northeast of Acre in the British Mandate District of Acre that was captured and depopulated by the Israel Defense Forces during the 1948 Arab-Israeli war. The inhabitants of this village were, similar to the inhabitants of Southern Lebanon, Shia Muslims.

History
Three sarcophagi were found on the south side of the village. A semi-circular pool, cisterns and tombs were also found.

Tarbikha was located on the site of the Crusaders Tayerebika, from which it derived its name. In 1183 it was noted that Godfrey de Tor sold the land of the village to Joscelin III. In 1220 Jocelyn III's daughter Beatrix de Courtenay and her husband Otto von Botenlauben, Count of Henneberg, sold their land, including Tayerbica, to the Teutonic Knights.

Ottoman era
Tarbikha was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire in 1517 with the rest of Palestine, and by 1596 it was part of  the  nahiya (subdistrict) of Tibnin under the Liwa of Safad, with a population of 88. It paid taxes on a number of crops, including wheat, olives and barley, as well as on goats, beehives and a press that was used for processing either olives or grapes.

In the late nineteenth century, the village of Tarbikha was described as being built of stone and situated on a ridge. The population was estimated at being around 100, and they lived by cultivating olives. During this period Tarbikha was a part of the Beirut province. Only after World War I, when the borders between Lebanon and Palestine were delineated by the British and French, did Tarbikha come under Palestinian administration.

British Mandate era
In the 1931 census of Palestine, conducted by the British Mandate authorities, Tarbikha had a population of 674; 1 Christian and the rest Muslims, in a total of 149 houses.

The village had two mosques, and an elementary school, founded after 1938, which had an enrollment of 120 students in the mid-1940s. It also had a customs office and a police station for monitoring the Lebanese border.

In the 1945 statistics the village population was counted together with that of Suruh and Al-Nabi Rubin, together they had 1000 Muslim inhabitants and a total of 18,563 dunams of land. Of this, a total of 3,200 dunums allocated to cereals, while 619 dunums were irrigated or used for orchards, while 112 dunams were built-up (urban) area.

1948 war and aftermath
The town was assaulted during Operation Hiram by the Oded Brigade on 30 October 1948. The population was ordered to leave for Lebanon in early November. The military did not let the Arabs gather the crops they planted; rather the military allowed the Jews of the kibbutz Tarbikha to gather the crops and left the villages unguarded, which allowed any passerby access to the items in the unguarded village. The village lands of Tarbikha were settled by Jewish immigrants from Hungary and Romania as part of the policy of Judaisation of Northern Israel.

The Palestinian historian Walid Khalidi, described the village remaining structures in 1992: "About twenty houses from the village are now occupied by the residents of Moshav Shomera. Some of the roofs have been remodeled and given a gabled form. Stones from the original houses embellish the roof of the central shelter of the moshav."

In 1994, the refugees from the seven villages, who had been classified as Palestinian refugees since 1948, were granted Lebanese citizenship.

title: Tarbikha