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User:Angela/1000

 Angela's first thousand edits

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Pope Dioscorus I of Alexandria

Dioscorus I (Διόσκορος Α΄ ὁ Ἀλεξανδρείας), also known as Dioscorus the Great, was the pope of Alexandria and patriarch of the See of St. Mark who was deposed by the Council of Chalcedon in 451. He was recognized as patriarch by the Coptic Church until his death. He died in Gangra, Paphlagonia, in September 454. He is venerated as a saint by the Coptic and other Oriental Orthodox Churches.

Early life
Dioscorus was a Coptic from Alexandria. Dioscorus served as the dean of the Catechetical School of Alexandria, and was the personal secretary of Cyril of Alexandria, whom he accompanied to the Council of Ephesus in 431. He eventually rose to the position of archdeacon.

Opposition to Nestorius
In his struggle against Nestorius, Cyril explained the union between the divine and human natures of Christ as "inward and real without any division, change, or confusion." He rejected the Antiochene theory of "indwelling,", or "conjunction" or "close participation", as insufficient. Thus the Alexandrian formula adopted by Cyril and Dioscorus was, in Greek,, which translates into "one nature of God the Word Incarnate", by which Cyril meant "one nature"—that Christ is at once God and man. On the other hand, the Antiochene formula was "two natures after the union", or "in two natures", which translates to. This formula explained Christ as existing in two natures, God and man.

Nestorius was condemned and deposed by the First Council of Ephesus, which approved of the Second Epistle of Cyril to Nestorius.

Patriarch of Alexandria
Dioscorus succeeded Cyril as Patriarch of Alexandria in the summer of 444. According to the deacon Ischyrion, Dioscorus had laid waste property, inflicted fines and exile, and bought up and sold at a high price the wheat sent by the government to Libya. According to Cyril's nephew, a priest named Athanasius, from the outset of his episcopate, Dioscorus harassed him and his brother by using influence with the court, so that the brother died of distress, and Athanasius, with his aunts, sister-in-law, and nephews, were bereft of their homes by the patriarch's malignity. Such accusations were readily made, and some allowance made for wrongs done by his agents that may have been in some cases unfairly called his acts. Still, it is but too likely that there was sufficient truth in them to demonstrate the effect on his character of elevation to a post of almost absolute power.

Reception of Eutyches
Eutyches was an archimandrite in Constantinople. In his opposition to Nestorianism, he seemed to take an equally extreme, although opposite view. Eutyches claimed to be a faithful follower of Cyril. In November 448, Flavian, Bishop of Constantinople held a synod regarding a point of discipline connected with the province of Sardis. Eutyches had been accusing various personages of covert Nestorianism, and at the end of the session of this synod one of those inculpated, Eusebius, Bishop of Dorylaeum, brought the question forward, and proffered a counter charge of heresy against the archimandrite. Eutyches was summoned to clarify his position regarding the nature of Christ. Finding his response unsatisfactory, the synod condemned and exiled Eutyches.

Eutyches appealed against this decision, labeling Flavian a Nestorian, and received the support of Dioscorus. In his famous Tome, Pope Leo I confirmed Flavian's theological position but as he concluded that Eutyches had erred through ignorance, he also requested that Eutyches should be readmitted if he repented.

"Robber synod"
Through the influence of the court official Chrysaphius, the godson of Eutyches, in 449, Emperor Theodosius II convened the Second Council of Ephesus. In remembrance of Cyril's role during the council of 431, the emperor asked Dioscorus to preside over the meetings. The council subsequently decided to reinstate Eutyches and to depose Flavian, as well as Eusebius of Dorylaeum, Theoderet of Cyrrus, Ibas of Edessa, and Domnus II of Antioch. Leo's legates protested but were ignored. Flavian was brutally treated, kicked, beaten, imprisoned, and soon exiled, and died from the effect of his injuries, three days after his deposition. He was regarded as a martyr for the doctrine of "the two natures in the one person" of Christ. Anatolius, who had been the agent (apocrisiarius) of Dioscorus at Constantinople, was appointed his successor.

Dioscorus and his council proceeded to depose Theodoret and several other bishops. Pope Leo called the council a "robber synod" and declared its decisions void. In the spring of 450 at Nicaea, Dioscorus, while on his way to the court, he caused ten bishops whom he had brought from Egypt to sign a document excommunicating Pope Leo.

Theodosius supported the council's decisions until he died on 28 July 450. His sister Pulcheria returned to power and made the officer Marcian her consort and emperor. She consulted with Pope Leo on convoking a new council, gathering signatures for his Tome to be introduced as the basic paper for the new council, but also insisted, against Leo's wishes, that the council should be held not in Italy but in the East. Meanwhile, the new imperial couple brought Flavian's remains back to Constantinople and exiled Eutyches to Syria.

Council of Chalcedon
The Council of Chalcedon in October 451 dealt with the Christological views of Eutyches but also with Dioscorus' views and earlier behaviour; specifically, his condemnation of the bishop Flavian in Ephesus II was questioned. When, at the Council of Chalcedon, he was asked why he had deposed Flavian, he, according to the minutes of Chalcedon, responded, "Flavian was deposed for this reason, that he spoke of two natures after the union. But I have quotations from the holy fathers Athanasius, Gregory and Cyril saying in numerous places that one should not speak of two natures after the union".

At the council, Dioscorus expressed a willingness to condemn Eutyches. According to the minutes of the council of Chalcedon, Dioscorus stated: "If Eutyches holds opinions contrary to the doctrines of the church, he deserves not only punishment but hell fire. For my concern is for the apostolic faith and not for any human being."

The council deposed Dioscorus and other bishops that had been responsible for the decisions of 449 for violations of canon law rather than of heresy; Dioscorus had not attended the council of Chalcedon from the third session onward despite an imperial call to do so, which was a deposable offence. According to the minutes of the council of Chalcedon, Dioscorus had given the reason of ill health for his nonattendance from the third session. However, historical accounts from the Eastern Orthodox Church note that Dioscorus was put under solitary arrest. As a result, he was condemned, but by an underwhelming amount (more than half the bishops present for the previous sessions did not attend his condemnation), and all of his decrees were declared null. Empress Pulcheria (Marcian's wife) told Dioscorus "In my father's time, there was a man who was stubborn (referring to St. John Chrysostom) and you are aware of what was made of him", to which Dioscorus famously responded "And you may recall that your mother prayed at his tomb, as she was bleeding of sickness". Pulcheria is said to have slapped Dioscorus in the face, breaking some of his teeth, and ordered the guards to confine him, which they did pulling his beard hair. Dioscorus is said to have put these in a box and sent them back to his Church in Alexandria noting "this is the fruit of my faith." Marcian responded by exiling Dioscorus to Gangra.

Exile
Following Dioscorus's deposition and exile, an Alexandrian priest named Proterius was appointed Patriarch in his stead, with the approval of the emperor. When Proterius returned to Alexandria, he was met by a riot. The native Christians continued to support Dioscorus as the legitimate Patriarch.

Dioscorus died in exile in 454. When the news reached Egypt, his supporters assembled and elected Timothy, a disciple of his, to be the new Patriarch. Timothy immediately went into hiding, but was recognized among the Coptic inhabitants of the countryside, creating the split between the Coptic and the Melchite (i.e. Royal) Church.

Legacy
Oriental Orthodox Churches remain in disagreement with Eastern Orthodox and Catholic churches regarding Dioscorus's character and positions. He is considered a saint by the Coptic, Syriac, and other Oriental Orthodox Churches, while Eastern Orthodox and Catholic churches have frequently deemed him a heretic.

Certain modern theologians suggest that both Leo and Dioscorus were orthodox in their agreement with Saint Cyril's Twelve Chapters, even though both have been (and still are) considered heretical by some. Some commentators like Anatolius and John S. Romanides argue that Dioscorus was not deposed for heresy but for "grave administrative errors" at Ephesus II, among which they mention his restoration of Eutyches, his attack on Flavian, and afterwards, his excommunication of Pope Leo I. Defenders of Dioscorus argue that Eutyches was orthodox at the time of his restoration and only later lapsed into heresy, that Flavian was a Nestorian, and that Pope Leo had supported Nestorianism.

Another controversial aspect of Dioscorus's legacy is the accusation, frequently levelled by Chalcedonian churches, that the Oriental Orthodox Churches accept Eutychianism. They deny this charge, arguing that they reject both the Monophysitism of Eutyches, whom they consider a heretic, as well as Dyophysitism espoused by the Council of Chalcedon, which they equate with Nestorianism, for a doctrine they term miaphysitism, or that in Jesus Christ, divinity and humanity exist as "one incarnate nature" (physis), as opposed to the orthodox Chalcedonian teaching of a divine and a human nature united in the one person (hypostasis) of Jesus Christ, fully God and fully man, a doctrine called the "hypostatic union".

In recent times, Oriental Orthodox churches have engaged in ecumenical dialogue with Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches on the issues of Dioscorus's day. In May 1973 Pope Shenouda III of Alexandria visited Pope Paul VI in Rome and declared a common faith in the nature of Christ, the issue which caused the schism of the church in the Council of Chalcedon. A similar declaration was reached between the Oriental and Eastern Orthodox churches in 1990 in Geneva, in which both agreed in condemnation of the Nestorian and Eutychian "heresies" and in rejection of interpretations of ecumenical councils which do not fully agree with the Horos of the Third Ecumenical Council and the letter (433) of Cyril of Alexandria to John of Antioch. They also agreed to lift the anathemas and condemnations of the past. In the summer of 2001, the Coptic Orthodox and Greek Orthodox Patriarchates of Alexandria agreed to mutually recognize baptisms performed in each other's churches.

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Foreign relations of Nauru

Nauru, following independence from the United Kingdom, became a sovereign, independent republic on 31 January 1968. Nauru has established diplomatic relations with a number of nations, including most of its Pacific neighbors with which it maintains economic, cultural and administrative ties.

Membership in international organizations
Nauru was admitted to the United Nations on 14 September 1999. Nauru's application to the United Nations was questioned by the People's Republic of China due to Nauru's close diplomatic and trade links to Taiwan. Nevertheless, Nauru was granted UN full membership.

Nauru became a full member of the Commonwealth of Nations in May 1999. Since independence, Nauru had been a special member of the Commonwealth prior to 1999, but having fallen behind in payments, reverted to Special Member status on 1 July 2005, with no authoritative power. It then returned to be a full member again in June 2011.

Additionally outside the region, Nauru is a member or participant of the ACP (Lomé Convention), the Alliance of Small Island States, the Asian Development Bank, the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP), the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the G-77, the International Civil Aviation Organization, the International Maritime Organization, the ITU, and the International Olympic Committee.

Nauru is notable for its lack of membership in several major international organizations. Nauru is one of only seven UN members that is not a member of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and one of 12 not part of the International Finance Corporation. Nauru also is not a member of the International Development Association and has no society associated with the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement. Finally, as with many other nations in Oceania, Nauru is not a member of the International Hydrographic Organization.

Membership in regional organizations
Regional cooperation through various multilateral organizations is a key element in Nauru's foreign policy. The country also hosted the regional meeting that resulted in the Nauru Agreement Concerning Cooperation in the Management of Fisheries of Common Interest whose eight signatories (including Nauru) collectively controls 25–30% of the world's tuna supply and approximately 60% of the western and central Pacific tuna supply. Additionally, Nauru is a full member of the Pacific Islands Forum, the South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission, the Pacific Regional Environment Programme and the Secretariat of the Pacific Community.

Hosting refugees
In 2001 Nauru became host to approximately 867 refugees, mostly Afghan, who were intercepted while attempting to enter Australia illegally. This exchange was one of many which were collectively known as Australia's Pacific Solution. In February 2008, the last of the refugees were resettled in Australia.

Diplomatic relations
List of countries which Nauru maintains diplomatic relations with:

Other countries
Nauru has diplomatic relations with most states in Oceania. It also has ties with most major industrial countries, including Japan, the Republic of Korea, the Russian Federation, France, the UK, Germany, Spain, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the United States of America and South Africa. Nauru has diplomatic relations with the European Union, most of its member states and a few other states in Europe, including the Holy See (Vatican City).

In 1995, Nauru broke off relations diplomatic relations with France to protest French nuclear testing in the Pacific. Relations were resumed in 1997.

Nauru established diplomatic relations with Kosovo on 23 April 2008, which ended 13 November 2019 as Nauru withdrew its recognition.

Nauru established diplomatic relations with Abkhazia and South Ossetia on 15 December 2009.

Relations with partially recognised states
Nauru has used its position as a member of the United Nations to gain financial support from both the Republic of China (ROC) and the People's Republic of China (PRC) by changing its position on the political status of Taiwan. During 2002, Nauru signed an agreement to establish diplomatic relations with the PRC on 21 July. Nauru accepted $130m from the PRC for this diplomatic move. In response, the ROC severed diplomatic relations with Nauru two days later. Nauru later re-established links with the ROC on 14 May 2005, and diplomatic ties with the PRC were officially severed on 31 May 2005. Similarly, Nauru recognized the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic on 12 August 1981. Then, on 15 September 2000, Nauru withdrew recognition of the SADR, and signed accords with Morocco on the phosphates area, which are running out in the island. In 2008, Nauru recognized Kosovo as an independent country, but withdrew its recognition in 2019. Additionally, in 2009, Nauru became only the fourth country to recognize the breakaway republics of Abkhazia and South Ossetia, which are both claimed by Georgia. Russia was reported to be giving Nauru $50m in humanitarian aid in return.

Missions in Nauru

 * Australia (High Commission)
 * People's Republic of China (Embassy)

Nauru and the Commonwealth of Nations
Nauru has been an independent republic in the Commonwealth of Nations since 1968.

title: Foreign relations of Nauru


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Alexander Cambridge, 1st Earl of Athlone

Alexander Cambridge, 1st Earl of Athlone (Alexander Augustus Frederick William Alfred George; born Prince Alexander of Teck; 14 April 1874 – 16 January 1957), was a member of the extended British royal family, as a great-grandson of King George III, a brother of Queen Mary, uncle to the Kings Edward VIII and George VI, and the husband of Princess Alice of Albany. He was a British Army commander, who served as Governor-General of the Union of South Africa and Governor General of Canada.

Prince Alexander was born in London to Francis, Duke of Teck and Princess Mary Adelaide of Cambridge and was educated at Eton College and the Royal Military College, Sandhurst. In 1904, he married Princess Alice of Albany and rose in the military ranks through his service on the western front of the First World War, receiving numerous honours and decorations.

A cousin and also brother-in-law of King George V, Alexander relinquished his German titles in 1917, including that of Prince of Teck in the Kingdom of Württemberg, and was elevated to the peerage as the Earl of Athlone. In 1923, the King appointed Lord Athlone as Governor-General of South Africa, on the recommendation of British prime minister Stanley Baldwin, and he occupied the viceregal post until 1930. Athlone then served as Chancellor of the University of London until, in 1940, his nephew George VI appointed him as Governor General of Canada,   on the recommendation of Canadian prime minister William Lyon Mackenzie King. He occupied the post until 1946. Athlone helped galvanise the Canadian war effort and was a host to British and American statesmen during the Second World War.

After returning to the United Kingdom, Athlone sat on the organising committee for the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II, his great-niece. He died at Kensington Palace in 1957 and was interred in the Royal Burial Ground, Frogmore.

Early life, education, and military career

Prince Alexander of Teck was born at Kensington Palace on 14 April 1874, the fourth child and third son of Prince Francis, Duke of Teck, and Princess Mary Adelaide, Duchess of Teck. Although his mother was a granddaughter of King George III and first cousin to Queen Victoria, Athlone, as the son of a prince of Teck in Württemberg, was styled from birth as His Serene Highness and held the title Prince Alexander of Teck. He was known, however, to his family and friends as Alge, derived from the first two letters of Alexander and George, and was characterised as a meticulous individual with a quick, but short-lived, temper and an ability to be cautious and tactful.

When Prince Alexander was nine years old, his parents fled the United Kingdom for continental Europe to escape their high debts. They stayed there for two years. The Prince remained at Eton College before moving on to the Royal Military College, Sandhurst. In October 1894, having completed his officer's training, Prince Alexander was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the 7th Queen's Own Hussars, and shortly after served in the Second Matabele War. He was mentioned in despatches during the conflict and, after its cessation, was appointed on 8 December 1898 by Queen Victoria as a Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order. He received a promotion to lieutenant in June 1899 and to captain the following April. For his actions in the Second Boer War, Alexander was, in April 1901, appointed by King Edward VII as a Companion of the Distinguished Service Order.

The announcement came on 16 November 1903 that Prince Alexander had become engaged to his second cousin once removed, Princess Alice of Albany, daughter of Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany, and thus a granddaughter of Queen Victoria and niece of the then soon-to-be Governor General of Canada, Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn. The two were wed at St. George's Chapel, in Windsor Castle, on 10 February 1904 and, six days later, in celebration of the wedding, the Prince was promoted to the grade of a Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order. The couple thereafter had three children: Princess May of Teck, born 1906; Prince Rupert of Teck, born 1907; and Prince Maurice Francis George of Teck. Maurice, however, lived only for less than six months, between 29 March and 14 September 1910.

In the same year, Prince Alexander was appointed Chairman of Middlesex Hospital.

First World War
Prior to the outbreak of the Great War in 1914, Prince Alexander, who had been promoted to major in January 1911 and was a brevet lieutenant-colonel commanding the 2nd Regiment of Life Guards, was nominated by the British Prime Minister H. H. Asquith to serve as Governor General of Canada. However, the Prince was called up for active service with his regiment. taking him to battle in France and Flanders. He was promoted to the rank of lieutenant colonel, with the temporary rank of brigadier-general, in December 1915. For his service on the battlefields, in June 1917 Prince Alexander was appointed by his brother in law, King George V, as a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George.

During the war, anti-German sentiment throughout the British Empire led the King to change the name of the royal house from the Germanic House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha to the more English House of Windsor, while simultaneously renouncing all Germanic titles for himself and all members of the Royal Family. Through a royal warrant issued on 14 July 1917, Alexander, along with his brother, Prince Adolphus, Duke of Teck, similarly relinquished all of his German titles, styles, and honours, choosing instead the name of Cambridge, after his grandfather, Prince Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge. Alexander was then known simply as Sir Alexander Cambridge (being entitled to the honorific Sir through his knighthoods in the Royal Victorian Order and the Order of the Bath), until, on 7 November 1917, the King created him Earl of Athlone and Viscount Trematon. Athlone had declined a marquessate, as he thought the title did not sound British enough. Athlone's wife retained her royal style and title, while their surviving children became the Lady May Cambridge and Rupert Cambridge, Viscount Trematon. Rupert was to inherit the title of Earl of Athlone, but he died on 15 April 1928 following a car crash, ten days shy of his twenty-first birthday, meaning the third creation of the title became extinct with the death of the first earl.

Post-war career and Governor-General of the Union of South Africa
Following the cessation of hostilities in Europe in 1918, Athlone was promoted to the brevet rank of colonel in June 1919, and retired from the army that November, with the honorary rank of brigadier-general. He took up posts in the civilian world, continuing at Middlesex Hospital. Because of his experience there, he was appointed in 1921 to chair an investigative committee on the needs of doctors. Known as the Athlone Committee, its work resulted in the creation of post-graduate schools for medical education and research, such as the Royal Postgraduate Medical School at Hammersmith Hospital and the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine. In March 1922, he was promoted to the rank of colonel in the Regular Army Reserves, retaining his honorary rank of brigadier-general, and, in 1937, was appointed chair of a committee of inquiry into the arrangements for "recruitment, training and registration and terms and conditions of service" for nurses.

For their London residence, the Athlones used the grace and favour apartments of Princess Alice's mother, the late Duchess of Albany, in the Clock House at Kensington Palace and, in 1923, they acquired a country residence, Brantridge Park, in West Sussex.

In December of the same year, Athlone was appointed by the King as both an honorary major-general and as the Governor-General of the Union of South Africa, replacing his wife's cousin, Prince Arthur of Connaught. He arrived in Pretoria in January 1924 and was immediately at work with his viceregal duties, opening the newly finished parliament building, just weeks before his South African prime minister, Jan Smuts, suddenly advised him to prorogue the legislature.

In the ensuing election—the running of which forced Athlone to cancel the planned tour of Prince Edward, Prince of Wales —the National Party won a majority of seats in the House of Assembly, meaning Athlone appointed the party's leader, James Barry Munnik Hertzog, as his new prime minister. At the time, Afrikaner nationalism was increasing in the dominion, and Hertzog was a republican who promoted the secession of South Africa from the British Empire. As such, he proposed the country adopt its own flag over the Union Flag. Athlone, however, proved sympathetic and tactful, and resolved the issue by advancing a flag that was unique to South Africa, but which still contained the Union Flag within it, despite opposition from numerous Afrikaners. He also gained popularity with South Africans of all races through his frequent tours of the country, performing a number of ceremonial duties, including opening Pioneers' Park in Johannesburg.

For his service to the Crown in South Africa, Athlone was appointed by George V as a Knight Companion of the Order of the Garter, on 17 April 1928, and, upon his return to the UK, was made on 4 August 1931 the Governor and Constable of Windsor Castle. The following year, he was also selected as the Chancellor of the University of London, which post he held until 1955.

In 1937 he led the Ministry of Health and Board of Education Interim Report of the Interdepartmental Committee on Nursing Services, also known as The Athlone Report. It looked at nursing recruitment, retention and skills and included Dame Ellen Musson

In January 1939, Athlone was appointed president of The Football Association. The move represented the first time the FA had appointed someone that was not a football administrator to the position.

Governor General of Canada

In Canada in the late 1930s, there had been calls from government circles and the media alike for the King to appoint a Canadian-born individual as governor general. However, with the rush to fill the post after the unexpected death (on February 11, 1940) of the incumbent viceroy, Lord Tweedsmuir, and with the country embroiled in the Second World War, Canadian prime minister William Lyon Mackenzie King advised King George VI that the time was not right for such a change in viceregal tradition.

Instead, it was George's uncle, the Earl of Athlone, whose name Mackenzie King put forward and the Earl accepted. Subsequently, Athlone, along with his wife and his aide-de-camp, Alastair Windsor, Earl of Macduff, voyaged to Canada to take up his position, their liner using a submarine-evading zig-zag pattern across the Atlantic Ocean to Halifax, Nova Scotia. After travelling on to Ottawa by train, Athlone was sworn in during a ceremony in the Senate chamber on 21 June 1940. The Athlones' three grandchildren, Anne, Richard, and Elizabeth (children of their daughter May), lived with them in Canada for the duration of the war.

Athlone immediately made himself active in the support of the war effort, travelling across the country and focusing much of his attention on the troops, either those training at military facilities or those injured and in hospital. Viewing his position as governor general as a link between Canadians and their monarch, Athlone also communicated in speeches that the King stood with them in their fight against Adolf Hitler and the Nazi regime.

The war was brought close to home for the Athlones also because many of those belonging to displaced European royal families sought refuge in Canada and resided at or near the royal and viceroyal residence, Rideau Hall. Among the royal guests were Crown Prince Olav and Crown Princess Märtha of Norway; Grand Duchess Charlotte and Prince Felix of Luxembourg; King Peter II of Yugoslavia; King George II of Greece; Empress Zita of Bourbon-Parma (Austria-Hungary) and her daughters; as well as Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands and her daughter, Princess Juliana. Further, in December 1941, British prime minister Winston Churchill arrived at the residence, where he presided over British Cabinet meetings via telephone from his bed.

It was Athlone's duty to play host at Quebec City to his prime minister, still Mackenzie King, as well as Churchill and President of the United States Franklin D. Roosevelt, who all gathered to take part in what would become known as the Quebec Conferences, with the first taking place between 17 and 24 August 1943 at the viceregal residence in La Citadelle, and the second occurring from 12 to 16 September 1944 at the Château Frontenac. It was at these meetings that the four men discussed the Allied strategies that would eventually lead to victory over Nazi Germany and Japan. When Germany fell on 8 May 1945 and Japan on 15 August of the same year, Athlone led the national celebrations held on Parliament Hill and elsewhere. He thereafter spoke in speeches about Canada's future being marked not by war but by a strong role in reconstruction and reconciliation.

During his time as the Canadian viceroy, Athlone also lent his status to various charitable and other social events, and mounted a number of activities of his own, such as tobogganing parties and skating lessons on the grounds of Rideau Hall, as well as skiing in Gatineau Park. When he departed Canada at the end of his time as the King's representative, Athlone left as a legacy the Athlone Fellowship, awarded by the Engineering Institute of Canada.

Post-viceregal life
After Lord Athlone's replacement as governor general was appointed on 21 March 1946, he returned to the United Kingdom to retirement, taking up residence again in a grace and favour apartment at Kensington Palace and, on 1 September of that year, resigning as colonel of the 7th Queen's Own Hussars. He did not completely remove himself from public activity, however, and was, along with his Canadian viceregal successor, Lord Alexander of Tunis, appointed to the committee charged with organising the coronation in 1953 of Athlone's great-niece, Queen Elizabeth II, and continued to sit as Chancellor of the University of London until 1955.

The Earl of Athlone died at Kensington on 16 January 1957 at the age of 82, and was interred in the Royal Vault at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, on 19 January before being transferred to the Royal Burial Ground at Frogmore on 15 May 1957. He was the last surviving great-grandchild of George III.

Honours

 * Orders
 * 1888 – 14 July 1917: Grand Cross of the Order of the Württemberg Crown
 * 🇬🇧 8 December 1898 – 16 February 1901: Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order (KCVO)
 * 🇬🇧 16 February 1901 – 16 January 1957: Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order (GCVO)
 * 🇬🇧 19 April 1901: Companion of the Distinguished Service Order (DSO)
 * 1904 – 14 July 1917: Knight of the Order of the Rue Crown
 * 22 July 1904 – 14 July 1917: Grand Cross with Crown in Ore of the House Order of the Wendish Crown
 * 🇬🇧 5 August 1904 – 16 January 1957: Knight of Justice of the Venerable Order of St John (KStJ)
 * 🇬🇧 19 June 1911 – 16 January 1957: Knight Grand Cross of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath (civil division) (GCB)
 * 🇬🇧 4 June 1917 – 6 November 1923: Companion of the Most Distinguished Order of St Michael and St George (CMG)
 * 🇬🇧 6 November 1923 – 24 June 1936: Knight Grand Cross of the Most Distinguished Order of St Michael and St George (GCMG)
 * 🇬🇧 24 June 1936 – 16 January 1957: Grand Master of the Most Distinguished Order of St Michael and St George
 * 🏴 17 April 1928 – 16 January 1957: Knight Companion of the Most Noble Order of the Garter (KG)

 * Appointments
 * 🇬🇧 29 June 1931 – 16 January 1957: Privy Counsellor (PC)
 * 🏴 1936 – 1957: Regimental Colonel of the Life Guards
 * 🏴 4 August 1931 – 16 January 1957: Governor and Constable of Windsor Castle
 * 1937 – 16 January 1957: Fellow of the Royal Society
 * 🇨🇦 21 June 1940 – 12 April 1946: Chief Scout for Canada
 * 🇨🇦 1940 – 16 January 1957: Honorary Member of the Royal Military College of Canada Club

 * Medals
 * 🇬🇧 1897: British South Africa Company Medal
 * 🇬🇧 1897: Queen Victoria Diamond Jubilee Medal
 * 🇬🇧 1901: Queen's South Africa Medal
 * 🇬🇧 1902: King Edward VII Coronation Medal
 * 🇬🇧 1911: King George V Coronation Medal
 * 🇬🇧 1919: 1914–15 Star
 * 🇬🇧 1919: British War Medal
 * 🇬🇧 1919: Victory Medal
 * 🇬🇧 1935: King George V Silver Jubilee Medal
 * 🇬🇧 1937: King George VI Coronation Medal
 * 🇬🇧 1945: 1939–45 Star
 * 🇬🇧 1945: War Medal 1939–1945
 * 🇨🇦 1947: Canadian Volunteer Service Medal
 * 🇬🇧 1953: Queen Elizabeth II Coronation Medal

 * Awards
 * 🇬🇧 1896: Mentioned in Despatches
 * 🇬🇧 1915: Mentioned in Despatches
 * 🇬🇧 1915: Mentioned in Despatches
 * 🇬🇧 1 January 1935: Royal Victorian Chain

 * Foreign honours and decorations
 * 🇸🇪 1909 – 16 January 1957: Commander Grand Cross of the Royal Order of the Polar Star
 * 🇧🇪 24 October 1915 – 16 January 1957: Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold
 * 🇧🇪 24 February 1916: Military Cross
 * 🇫🇷 9 December 1916: Grand Officer of the National Order of the Legion of Honour
 * 14 January 1918 – 16 January 1957: Knight 1st Class with Swords of the Imperial Order of Saint Anna
 * 🇫🇷 16 April 1918: Croix de guerre

Honorary military appointments

 * 🇬🇧 3 June 1910 – 16 January 1957: Personal Aide-de-Camp to the King (ADC)
 * 🇬🇧 1936 – 1957: Colonel of the Life Guards
 * 🇿🇦 1930 – 16 January 1957: Colonel-in-Chief of the Duke of Edinburgh's Own Rifles
 * 🇨🇦 21 June 1940 – 12 April 1946: Colonel of the Governor General's Horse Guards
 * 🇨🇦 21 June 1940 – 12 April 1946: Colonel of the Governor General's Foot Guards
 * 🇨🇦 21 June 1940 – 12 April 1946: Colonel of the Canadian Grenadier Guards

Honorific eponyms

 * Awards
 * 🇿🇦 South Africa: Athlone Institute Bursary Project Fund, Paarl

 * Geographic locations
 * Alberta: Athlone, Edmonton
 * Newfoundland and Labrador: Athlone
 * 🇿🇦 South Africa: Athlone, Cape Town

 * Buildings
 * 🇿🇦 South Africa: Athlone Power Station, Cape Town
 * 🇿🇦 South Africa: Athlone Stadium, Cape Town

 * Schools
 * Alberta: Athlone Elementary School, Edmonton
 * Manitoba: Athlone School, Winnipeg
 * 🇿🇦 South Africa: Athlone House, Queen's College, Queenstown
 * 🇿🇦 South Africa: Athlone Boys High School, Johannesburg
 * 🇿🇦 South Africa: Athlone Institute, Paarl


text:
Edmund Wilson

Edmund Wilson Jr. (May 8, 1895 – June 12, 1972) was an American writer, literary critic and journalist. He is widely regarded as one of the most important literary critics of the 20th century. Wilson began his career as a journalist, writing for publications such as Vanity Fair and The New Yorker. He helped to edit The New Republic, served as chief book critic for The New Yorker, and was a frequent contributor to The New York Review of Books. Notable works include Axel's Castle (1931), described by Joyce Carol Oates as "a groundbreaking study of modern literature." Oates writes that Wilson "encroached fearlessly on areas reserved for academic 'experts': early Christianity in The Dead Sea Scrolls (1955), native American civilization in Apologies to the Iroquois (1960), and the American Civil War in Patriotic Gore (1962)." He also authored a novel, I Thought of Daisy (1929) and a collection of short stories, Memoirs of Hecate County (1946). He was a friend of many notable figures, including F. Scott Fitzgerald, Ernest Hemingway, John Dos Passos and Vladimir Nabokov. His dream for a Library of America series of national classic works came to fruition through the efforts of Jason Epstein after Wilson's death. He was a two-time winner of the National Book Award and received the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1964.

Early life
Wilson was born in Red Bank, New Jersey. His parents were Edmund Wilson Sr., a lawyer who served as New Jersey Attorney General, and Helen Mather (née Kimball). Wilson attended The Hill School, a college preparatory boarding school in Pottstown, Pennsylvania, graduating in 1912. At Hill, Wilson served as the editor-in-chief of the school's literary magazine, The Record. From 1912 to 1916, he was educated at Princeton University, where his friends included F. Scott Fitzgerald and war poet John Allan Wyeth. Wilson began his professional writing career as a reporter for the New York Sun, and served in the army with Base Hospital 36 from Detroit, Michigan, and later as a translator during the First World War. His family's summer home at Talcottville, New York, known as Edmund Wilson House, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1973.

Career
Wilson was the managing editor of Vanity Fair in 1920 and 1921, and later served as associate editor of The New Republic and as a book reviewer for The New Yorker and The New York Review of Books. His works influenced novelists Upton Sinclair, John Dos Passos, Sinclair Lewis, Floyd Dell, and Theodore Dreiser. He served on the Dewey Commission that set out to fairly evaluate the charges that led to the exile of Leon Trotsky. He wrote plays, poems, and novels, but his greatest influence was literary criticism.

Axel's Castle: A Study in the Imaginative Literature of 1870–1930 (1931) was a sweeping survey of Symbolism. It covered Arthur Rimbaud, Auguste Villiers de l'Isle-Adam (author of Axël), W. B. Yeats, Paul Valéry, T. S. Eliot, Marcel Proust, James Joyce, and Gertrude Stein.

In 1931, monitoring the Coal War in Harlan County, with Mary Heaton Vorse and Malcolm Cowley he was run out of Kentucky by nightriders.

In 1932, Wilson pledged his support to the Communist Party USA's candidate for President, William Z. Foster, signing a manifesto in support of CPUSA policies; however, Wilson did not identify personally as a communist. In his book To the Finland Station (1940), Wilson studied the course of European socialism, from the 1824 discovery by Jules Michelet of the ideas of Vico to the 1917 arrival of Vladimir Lenin at the Finland Station of Saint Petersburg to lead the Bolsheviks in the Russian Revolution.

In an essay on the work of horror writer H. P. Lovecraft, "Tales of the Marvellous and the Ridiculous", Wilson condemned Lovecraft's tales as "hackwork". Wilson is also well known for his heavy criticism of J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings, which he referred to as "juvenile trash", saying "Dr. Tolkien has little skill at narrative and no instinct for literary form." He had earlier dismissed the work of W. Somerset Maugham in vehement terms (without, as he later boasted, having troubled to read the novels generally regarded as Maugham's finest, Of Human Bondage, Cakes and Ale and The Razor's Edge).

In 1964, Wilson was awarded The Edward MacDowell Medal by The MacDowell Colony for outstanding contributions to American culture.

Wilson lobbied for the creation of a series of classic U.S. literature similar to France's Bibliothèque de la Pléiade. In 1982, ten years after his death, The Library of America series was launched. Wilson's writing was included in the Library of America in two volumes published in 2007.

Peers and relationships
Wilson's critical works helped foster public appreciation for several novelists: Ernest Hemingway, John Dos Passos, William Faulkner, F. Scott Fitzgerald, and Vladimir Nabokov. He was instrumental in establishing the modern evaluation of the works of Charles Dickens and Rudyard Kipling. Wilson was a friend of the novelist and playwright Susan Glaspell as well as the philosopher Isaiah Berlin.

He attended Princeton with Fitzgerald, a year-and-a-half his junior. In 1936 in the "Crack-Up" essays, Fitzgerald referred to Wilson as his "intellectual conscience ... [f]or twenty years". After Fitzgerald's early death (at the age of 44) from a heart attack in December 1940, Wilson edited two books by Fitzgerald (The Last Tycoon and The Crack-Up) for posthumous publication, donating his editorial services to help Fitzgerald's family. Wilson was also a friend of Nabokov, with whom he corresponded extensively and whose writing he introduced to Western audiences. However, their friendship was marred by Wilson's cool reaction to Nabokov's Lolita and irretrievably damaged by Wilson's public criticism of what he considered Nabokov's eccentric translation of Pushkin's Eugene Onegin.

Wilson had multiple marriages and affairs.
 * His first wife was Mary Blair, who had been in Eugene O'Neill's theatrical company. Their daughter, Rosalind Baker Wilson, was born on September 19, 1923.
 * His second wife was Margaret Canby. After her death in a freak accident two years after their marriage, Wilson wrote a long eulogy to her and said later that he felt guilt over having neglected her. Wilson, despondent over Canby's death, moved to a rundown townhouse at 314 East 53rd Street in Manhattan for several years.
 * From 1938 to 1946, he was married to Mary McCarthy, who like Wilson was well known as a literary critic. She enormously admired Wilson's breadth and depth of intellect, and they collaborated on numerous works. In an article in The New Yorker, Louis Menand wrote, "The marriage to McCarthy was a mistake that neither side wanted to be first to admit. When they fought, he would retreat into his study and lock the door; she would set piles of paper on fire and try to push them under it." This marriage resulted in the birth of their son, Reuel Wilson (born December 25, 1938).
 * His fourth wife was Elena Mumm Thornton (previously married to James Worth Thornton). Their daughter, Helen Miranda Wilson, was born February 19, 1948.

He wrote many letters to Anaïs Nin, criticizing her for her surrealistic style, because it was opposed to the realism that was then deemed correct writing, and he ended by asking for her hand — "I would love to be married to you, and I would teach you to write" — which she took as an insult. Except for a brief falling-out following the publication of I Thought of Daisy, in which Wilson portrayed Edna St. Vincent Millay as Rita Cavanaugh, Wilson and Millay remained friends throughout life.

Cold War
Wilson was also an outspoken critic of US Cold War policies. He refused to pay his federal income tax from 1946 to 1955 and was later investigated by the Internal Revenue Service. After a settlement, Wilson received a $25,000 fine, rather than the original $69,000 sought by the IRS. He received no jail time. In his book The Cold War and the Income Tax: A Protest (1963), Wilson argued that as a result of competitive militarization against the Soviet Union, the civil liberties of Americans were being paradoxically infringed under the guise of defense from Communism. For those reasons, Wilson also opposed involvement in the Vietnam War.

Selected by John F. Kennedy to receive the Presidential Medal of Freedom, Wilson, in absentia, was officially awarded the medal on December 6, 1963, by President Lyndon Johnson. However, Wilson's view of Johnson was decidedly negative. Historian Eric F. Goldman writes in his memoir The Tragedy of Lyndon Johnson that when Goldman, on behalf of Johnson, invited Wilson to read from his writings at a White House Festival of the Arts in 1965, "Wilson declined with a brusqueness that I never experienced before or after in the case of an invitation in the name of the President and First Lady."

For the academic year 1964–65, he was a Fellow on the faculty in the Center for Advanced Studies at Wesleyan University.

"Edmund Wilson regrets..."
Throughout his career, Wilson often answered fan mail and outside requests for his time with this form postcard:

"'Edmund Wilson regrets that it is impossible for him to: Read manuscripts, write articles or books to order, write forewords or introductions, make statements for publicity purposes, do any kind of editorial work, judge literary contests, give interviews, conduct educational courses, deliver lectures, give talks or make speeches, broadcast or appear on television, take part in writers' congresses, answer questionnaires, contribute to or take part in symposiums or 'panels' of any kind, contribute manuscripts for sales, donate copies of his books to libraries, autograph books for strangers, allow his name to be used on letterheads, supply personal information about himself, supply photographs of himself, supply opinions on literary or other subjects'."

Literary criticism

 * Axel's Castle: A Study in the Imaginative Literature of 1870–1930, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1931
 * The Triple Thinkers: Ten Essays on Literature, Harcourt, Brace & Co, 1938
 * The Wound and the Bow: Seven Studies in Literature, Riverside Press, 1941; ebook
 * The Boys in the Back Room, Colt Press, 1941
 * The Shock of Recognition: The Development of Literature in the U.S. Recorded by the Men Who Made It (editor), Modern Library, 1943, Illustrations (one-volume edition) by Robert F. Hallock
 * Volume I. The Nineteenth Century
 * Volume II. The Twentieth Century
 * The Triple Thinkers: Twelve Essays on Literary Subjects, Farrar, Straus & Co., 1948; ebook
 * Classics and Commercials: A Literary Chronicle of the Forties, Farrar, Straus & Co, 1950; 1999 pbk edition 2019 ebook edition
 * The Shores of Light: A Literary Chronicle of the Twenties and Thirties, Farrar, Straus & Young, 1952
 * Eight Essays, Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1954; 2019 ebook edition
 * The Scrolls from the Dead Sea, Fontana, 1955
 * Patriotic Gore: Studies in the Literature of the American Civil War, New York, NY: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1962
 * The Bit Between My Teeth: A Literary Chronicle of 1950–1965, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1966
 * The Dead Sea Scrolls, 1947–1969, Oxford University Press, 1969
 * Window on Russia: For Use of Foreign Readers, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1972
 * The Devils and Canon Barham; Ten Essays on Poets, Novelists and Monsters, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1973; ebook
 * The Portable Edmund Wilson, ed. Lewis M. Dabney, Viking Press, 1983
 * The Forties: From Notebooks and Diaries of the Period, ed. Leon Edel, Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1983; ebook
 * From the Uncollected Edmund Wilson, ed. Janet Groth, Ohio University Press, 1995
 * The Edmund Wilson Reader, ed. Lewis M. Dabney, Da Capo Press, 1997 ISBN 0306808099
 * Literary Essays and Reviews of the 1920s & 30s: The Shores of Light, Axel's Castle, Uncollected Reviews ed. Lewis M. Dabney, Library of America, 2007
 * Literary Essays and Reviews of the 1930s & 40s: The Triple Thinkers, The Wound and the Bow, Classics and Commercials, Uncollected Reviews, ed. Lewis M. Dabney, Library of America, 2007

Political writings

 * The American Jitters: A Year of the Slump, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1932
 * The Undertaker's Garland (with John Peale Bishop), Alfred A. Knopf, 1922
 * Travels In Two Democracies, Harcourt Brace, 1936
 * To the Finland Station: A Study in the Writing and Acting of History, Doubleday, 1940
 * Europe without Baedeker: Sketches among the Ruins of Italy, Greece and England, 1947
 * Red, Black, Blond, and Olive: Studies in Four Civilizations: Zuni, Haiti, Soviet Russia, Israel, Oxford University Press, 1956
 * The American Earthquake: A Documentary of the Twenties and Thirties (A Documentary of the Jazz Age, the Great Depression, and the New Deal), Doubleday, 1958
 * Apologies to the Iroquois, Vintage, 1960
 * The Cold War and the Income Tax: A protest, Farrar, Straus & Co., 1964
 * O Canada: An American's Notes on Canadian Culture, Farrar, Straus & Co., 1965
 * Letters on Literature and Politics, ed. Elena Wilson, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1977

Poetry

 * Poets, Farewell!, Charles Scribners's Sons, 1929
 * Night Thoughts, Farrar, Straus and Cudahy, 1961

Memoirs and diaries

 * A Piece of My Mind: Reflections at Sixty, Farrar, Straus & Cudahy, 1956
 * A Prelude: Landscapes, characters and conversations from the earlier years of my life, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1967
 * Upstate: Records and Recollections of Northern New York, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1971
 * The Twenties: From Notebooks and Diaries of the Period, ed. Leon Edel, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1975
 * The Thirties: From Notebooks and Diaries of the Period, ed. Leon Edel, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1980
 * The Forties: From Notebooks and Diaries of the Period, ed. Leon Edel, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1983
 * The Fifties: From Notebooks and Diaries of the Period, ed. Leon Edel, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1986
 * The Sixties: The Last Journal 1960–1972, ed. Lewis M. Dabney, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1993
 * Edmund Wilson: The Man in Letters, ed. Janet Groth, Ohio University Press, 2001
 * Dear Bunny, Dear Volodya: The Nabokov-Wilson Letters, 1940-1971, ed. Simon Karlinsky, University of California Press, 1979, revised and expanded 2001

Fiction

 * "Galahad", 1927 (short story)
 * I Thought of Daisy, 1929 (novel)
 * Memoirs of Hecate County, Doubleday, 1946 (short stories)

Plays

 * Cyprian's Prayer 1924
 * The Crime in the Whispering Room 1927
 * This Room and This Gin and These Sandwiches 1937 (original title "A Winter in Beech Street")
 * Beppo and Beth 1937
 * The Little Blue Light 1950
 * Five Plays 1954 collects Cyprian's Prayer, The Crime in the Whispering Room, This Room and This Gin and These Sandwiches, Beppo and Beth, and The Little Blue Light.
 * Dr. McGrath 1967
 * The Duke of Palermo 1969
 * Osbert's Career, or the Poet's Progress 1969

title: Edmund Wilson