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Two-body problem

In classical mechanics, the two-body problem is to predict the motion of two massive objects which are abstractly viewed as point particles. The problem assumes that the two objects interact only with one another; the only force affecting each object arises from the other one, and all other objects are ignored.

The most prominent example of the classical two-body problem is the gravitational case (see also Kepler problem), arising in astronomy for predicting the orbits (or escapes from orbit) of objects such as satellites, planets, and stars. A two-point-particle model of such a system nearly always describes its behavior well enough to provide useful insights and predictions.

A simpler "one body" model, the "central-force problem", treats one object as the immobile source of a force acting on the other. One then seeks to predict the motion of the single remaining mobile object. Such an approximation can give useful results when one object is much more massive than the other (as with a light planet orbiting a heavy star, where the star can be treated as essentially stationary).

However, the one-body approximation is usually unnecessary except as a stepping stone. For many forces, including gravitational ones, the general version of the two-body problem can be reduced to a pair of one-body problems, allowing it to be solved completely, and giving a solution simple enough to be used effectively.

By contrast, the three-body problem (and, more generally, the n-body problem for n ≥ 3) cannot be solved in terms of first integrals, except in special cases.

Gravitation and other inverse-square examples
The two-body problem is interesting in astronomy because pairs of astronomical objects are often moving rapidly in arbitrary directions (so their motions become interesting), widely separated from one another (so they will not collide) and even more widely separated from other objects (so outside influences will be small enough to be ignored safely).

Under the force of gravity, each member of a pair of such objects will orbit their mutual center of mass in an elliptical pattern, unless they are moving fast enough to escape one another entirely, in which case their paths will diverge along other planar conic sections. If one object is very much heavier than the other, it will move far less than the other with reference to the shared center of mass. The mutual center of mass may even be inside the larger object.

For the derivation of the solutions to the problem, see Classical central-force problem or Kepler problem.

In principle, the same solutions apply to macroscopic problems involving objects interacting not only through gravity, but through any other attractive scalar force field obeying an inverse-square law, with electrostatic attraction being the obvious physical example. In practice, such problems rarely arise. Except perhaps in experimental apparatus or other specialized equipment, we rarely encounter electrostatically interacting objects which are moving fast enough, and in such a direction, as to avoid colliding, and/or which are isolated enough from their surroundings.

The dynamical system of a two-body system under the influence of torque turns out to be a Sturm-Liouville equation.

Inapplicability to atoms and subatomic particles
Although the two-body model treats the objects as point particles, classical mechanics only apply to systems of macroscopic scale. Most behavior of subatomic particles cannot be predicted under the classical assumptions underlying this article or using the mathematics here.

Electrons in an atom are sometimes described as "orbiting" its nucleus, following an early conjecture of Niels Bohr (this is the source of the term "orbital"). However, electrons don't actually orbit nuclei in any meaningful sense, and quantum mechanics are necessary for any useful understanding of the electron's real behavior. Solving the classical two-body problem for an electron orbiting an atomic nucleus is misleading and does not produce many useful insights.

Reduction to two independent, one-body problems
The complete two-body problem can be solved by re-formulating it as two one-body problems: a trivial one and one that involves solving for the motion of one particle in an external potential. Since many one-body problems can be solved exactly, the corresponding two-body problem can also be solved.

Let $x_{1}$ and $x_{2}$ be the vector positions of the two bodies, and m1 and m2 be their masses. The goal is to determine the trajectories $x_{1}(t)$ and $x_{2}(t)$ for all times t, given the initial positions $x_{1}(t = 0)$ and $x_{2}(t = 0)$ and the initial velocities $v_{1}(t = 0)$ and $v_{2}(t = 0)$.

When applied to the two masses, Newton's second law states that

where F12 is the force on mass 1 due to its interactions with mass 2, and F21 is the force on mass 2 due to its interactions with mass 1. The two dots on top of the x position vectors denote their second derivative with respect to time, or their acceleration vectors.

Adding and subtracting these two equations decouples them into two one-body problems, which can be solved independently. Adding equations (1) and ($$) results in an equation describing the center of mass (barycenter) motion. By contrast, subtracting equation (2) from equation (1) results in an equation that describes how the vector $r = x_{1} − x_{2}$ between the masses changes with time. The solutions of these independent one-body problems can be combined to obtain the solutions for the trajectories $x_{1}(t)$ and $x_{2}(t)$.

Center of mass motion (1st one-body problem)
Let $$\mathbf{R} $$ be the position of the center of mass (barycenter) of the system. Addition of the force equations (1) and (2) yields $$m_1 \ddot{\mathbf{x}}_1 + m_2 \ddot{\mathbf{x}}_2 = (m_1 + m_2)\ddot{\mathbf{R}} = \mathbf{F}_{12} + \mathbf{F}_{21} = 0$$ where we have used Newton's third law $F_{12} = −F_{21}$ and where $$\ddot{\mathbf{R}} \equiv \frac{m_{1}\ddot{\mathbf{x}}_{1} + m_{2}\ddot{\mathbf{x}}_{2}}{m_{1} + m_{2}}.$$

The resulting equation: $$\ddot{\mathbf{R}} = 0$$ shows that the velocity $$\mathbf{v} = \frac{dR}{dt}$$ of the center of mass is constant, from which follows that the total momentum $m_{1} v_{1} + m_{2} v_{2}$ is also constant (conservation of momentum). Hence, the position $R(t)$ of the center of mass can be determined at all times from the initial positions and velocities.

Displacement vector motion (2nd one-body problem)
Dividing both force equations by the respective masses, subtracting the second equation from the first, and rearranging gives the equation $$ \ddot {\mathbf{r}} = \ddot{\mathbf{x}}_{1} - \ddot{\mathbf{x}}_{2} = \left( \frac{\mathbf{F}_{12}}{m_{1}} - \frac{\mathbf{F}_{21}}{m_{2}} \right) = \left(\frac{1}{m_{1}} + \frac{1}{m_{2}} \right)\mathbf{F}_{12} $$ where we have again used Newton's third law $F_{12} = −F_{21}$ and where $r$ is the displacement vector from mass 2 to mass 1, as defined above.

The force between the two objects, which originates in the two objects, should only be a function of their separation $r$ and not of their absolute positions $x_{1}$ and $x_{2}$; otherwise, there would not be translational symmetry, and the laws of physics would have to change from place to place. The subtracted equation can therefore be written: $$\mu \ddot{\mathbf{r}} = \mathbf{F}_{12}(\mathbf{x}_{1},\mathbf{x}_{2}) = \mathbf{F}(\mathbf{r})$$ where $$\mu$$ is the reduced mass $$\mu = \frac{1}{\frac{1}{m_1} + \frac{1}{m_2}} = \frac{m_1 m_2}{m_1 + m_2}.$$

Solving the equation for $r(t)$ is the key to the two-body problem. The solution depends on the specific force between the bodies, which is defined by $$\mathbf{F}(\mathbf{r})$$. For the case where $$\mathbf{F}(\mathbf{r})$$ follows an inverse-square law, see the Kepler problem.

Once $R(t)$ and $r(t)$ have been determined, the original trajectories may be obtained $$\mathbf{x}_1(t) = \mathbf{R} (t) + \frac{m_2}{m_1 + m_2} \mathbf{r}(t)$$ $$\mathbf{x}_2(t) = \mathbf{R} (t) - \frac{m_1}{m_1 + m_2} \mathbf{r}(t)$$ as may be verified by substituting the definitions of R and r into the right-hand sides of these two equations.

Two-body motion is planar
The motion of two bodies with respect to each other always lies in a plane (in the center of mass frame).

Proof: Defining the linear momentum $p$ and the angular momentum $L$ of the system, with respect to the center of mass, by the equations $$\mathbf{L} = \mathbf{r} \times \mathbf{p} = \mathbf{r} \times \mu \frac{d\mathbf{r}}{dt},$$

where $$ is the reduced mass and $r$ is the relative position $r_{2} − r_{1}$ (with these written taking the center of mass as the origin, and thus both parallel to $r$) the rate of change of the angular momentum $L$ equals the net torque $N$ $$\mathbf{N} = \frac{d\mathbf{L}}{dt} = \dot{\mathbf{r}} \times \mu\dot{\mathbf{r}} + \mathbf{r} \times \mu\ddot{\mathbf{r}} \ ,$$ and using the property of the vector cross product that $v × w = 0$ for any vectors $v$ and $w$ pointing in the same direction,

$$ \mathbf{N} \ = \ \frac{d\mathbf{L}}{dt} = \mathbf{r} \times \mathbf{F} \ ,$$ with $F = μ dr/dt$.

Introducing the assumption (true of most physical forces, as they obey Newton's strong third law of motion) that the force between two particles acts along the line between their positions, it follows that $r × F = 0$ and the angular momentum vector $L$ is constant (conserved). Therefore, the displacement vector $r$ and its velocity $v$ are always in the plane perpendicular to the constant vector $L$.

Energy of the two-body system
If the force $F(r)$ is conservative then the system has a potential energy $U(r)$, so the total energy can be written as $$E_\text{tot} = \frac{1}{2} m_1 \dot{\mathbf{x}}_1^2 + \frac{1}{2} m_2 \dot{\mathbf{x}}_2^2 + U(\mathbf{r}) = \frac{1}{2} (m_1 + m_2) \dot{\mathbf{R}}^2 + {1 \over 2} \mu \dot{\mathbf{r}}^2 + U(\mathbf{r})$$

In the center of mass frame the kinetic energy is the lowest and the total energy becomes $$E = \frac{1}{2} \mu \dot{\mathbf{r}}^2 + U(\mathbf{r})$$ The coordinates $x_{1}$ and $x_{2}$ can be expressed as $$ \mathbf{x}_1 = \frac{\mu}{m_1} \mathbf{r}$$ $$ \mathbf{x}_2 = - \frac{\mu}{m_2} \mathbf{r}$$ and in a similar way the energy E is related to the energies $E_{1}$ and $E_{2}$ that separately contain the kinetic energy of each body: $$\begin{align} E_1 & = \frac{\mu}{m_1} E = \frac{1}{2} m_1 \dot{\mathbf{x}}_1^2 + \frac{\mu}{m_1} U(\mathbf{r}) \\[4pt] E_2 & = \frac{\mu}{m_2} E = \frac{1}{2} m_2 \dot{\mathbf{x}}_2^2 + \frac{\mu}{m_2} U(\mathbf{r}) \\[4pt] E_\text{tot} & = E_1 + E_2 \end{align}$$

Central forces
For many physical problems, the force $F(r)$ is a central force, i.e., it is of the form $$\mathbf{F}(\mathbf{r}) = F(r)\hat{\mathbf{r}}$$ where $r = |r|$ and $r̂ = r/r$ is the corresponding unit vector. We now have: $$\mu \ddot{\mathbf{r}} = {F}(r) \hat{\mathbf{r}} \ ,$$ where F(r) is negative in the case of an attractive force.

title: Two-body problem


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Spring Racing Carnival

The Spring Racing Carnival is the name of an Australian Thoroughbred horse racing series held annually in Melbourne during October and November.

The Carnival and its status in the wider community
Although racing in Australia is held every day except Good Friday and Christmas Day, the Group One races in Melbourne are held almost exclusively throughout the carnival, which is traditionally placed between the football and cricket seasons. During the winter (where football is dominant), and summer (where cricket is dominant), racing takes a 'back seat' position in relation to the cricket or football in terms of media coverage and attendances. However, in spring and autumn, the mass media turns its attention to the racing. There is also an Autumn Racing Carnival, a time where Group One races are also held.

Economic impact
The Spring Racing Carnival is a major contributor to the Victorian economy. According to a study conducted by market research company IER, the 2022 Spring Racing Carnival was estimated to have delivered $422.1 million in gross economic benefit to Victoria in 2022, with the Spring Racing Carnival contributing more than $3.6 billion in gross economic benefit to Victoria in the past decade, almost $1 billion more than the Australian Open tennis reported for the same period.

The 2017 Spring Racing Carnival injected $444.5 million into the Victorian economy, and created jobs for more than 20,000 staff and contractors, in addition to providing boosts to the retail and hospitality sectors.

The 2018 Spring Racing Carnival provided an economic return to the state of $447.6 million, with the event also directly employing more than 21,000 staff and contractors who worked for more than 800 companies in the lead-up and during the event.

The 2019 Spring Racing Carnival has been credited with injecting US$196.2 million directly into the Victorian economy; when considering total spending by all attendees at the Spring Racing Carnival, the event generated a gross economic benefit of US$521.8 million.

Sweeps
The carnival, and particularly the Melbourne Cup attracts the interest of many people otherwise uninterested in horse racing, and special forms of very low-stake gambling are often used for this event. One common form for groups such as office staff is the "sweep", where each participant adds a small fee to a "pot" and draws the name of a horse like a raffle. Prize money is distributed to the person who draws the winning horse (occasionally smaller prizes are awarded to placegetters and the last-placing horse). A more complex and high-stakes form of the sweep is the "Calcutta", often held as a fundraising event for community organisations, which begins as in the sweep (though usually with a much higher initial stake), but which allows ticket holders to trade their tickets through an auction system.

Special guests
For the fashion part of the Spring Racing Carnival many special guests over the years have come to the races. Paris Hilton, Nicky Hilton, Carson Kressley, Eva Longoria, Sarah Jessica Parker, Kim Cattrall, Naomi Campbell, Nicole Kidman, Gigi Hadid and Hilary Swank.

Carnival race meetings
The Spring Racing Carnival is made up of meetings held by the metropolitan clubs, where Group One races take place, and also at Geelong and Bendigo. With numerous group races during August and September at metropolitan tracks Flemington, Caulfield and Moonee Valley, the Spring Racing Carnival officially starts on the Group 1 Turnbull Stakes Day at Flemington, one week after the AFL Grand Final. The Spring Racing Carnival officially ends on the final day of the carnival at Sandown in mid-November.

Caulfield Carnival
The Melbourne Racing Club holds three race meetings at Caulfield Racecourse, each with major Group one races.
 * The Caulfield Guineas, Caulfield Thousand Guineas and Caulfield Stakes is held on the Saturday three weeks before the Victoria Derby. Other group races are held on this day, including the Toorak Handicap and Herbert Power Stakes.
 * The Ladies Day Vase and Blue Sapphire Stakes are held on the Wednesday following the Saturday Caulfield Guineas.
 * The Caulfield Cup is held on the Saturday on the weekend following the Guineas meeting.

Geelong Carnival
The Geelong Racing Club hosts its Group 3 Geelong Cup at the Geelong Racecourse on the Wednesday between the Caulfield Cup and Cox Plate. The meeting also has a couple of Listed races, The 3YO Geelong Classic and The Rosemont Stud Stakes. The day is a public holiday in Geelong's metropolitan area.

Moonee Valley Carnival
The Moonee Valley Racing Club holds a two-day carnival at the Moonee Valley Racecourse. The Manikato Stakes is held on the Friday night following the Caulfield Cup. The club's highlight is the Weight for Age Cox Plate race held on the next day with a host of other Group races including the Moonee Valley Gold Cup, Crystal Mile and Moonee Valley Vase.

Bendigo Carnival
The Bendigo Jockey Club hosts its Group 3 Bendigo Cup on the Wednesday between the Cox Plate and the VRC Derby Day.

Melbourne Cup Carnival
The Victoria Racing Club's meetings attract the most attention from the media and the wider community.
 * The Victoria Derby is held on the Saturday before the Melbourne Cup. It is a set-weights race for three-year-old horses.  Other well known races on this day include the Cantala Stakes, Empire Rose Stakes and Hotham Handicap (the winner of this receiving a final spot in the Melbourne Cup field). Traditionally, the Melbourne Cup field is announced following the conclusion of the last race on this day.
 * The Melbourne Cup handicap race is held on the first Tuesday in November, and is a public holiday in Melbourne, but the Cup is witnessed by those all around Australia as well as internationally.
 * The VRC Oaks race is held on the Thursday following the Cup. It is a three-year-old fillies race, and traditionally the race meeting has been known as 'ladies' day'.
 * The Mackinnon Stakes is held on the Saturday following the Oaks, and traditionally it has been known as 'family day'. Other notable races run on this day are the VRC Sprint Classic and VRC Queen Elizabeth Stakes.

Sandown Carnival
The Melbourne Racing Club holds the last official meeting of the Spring Racing Carnival at Sandown Racecourse. This day includes the Group 2 Sandown Guineas and the Group 2 Zipping Classic and occurs in mid November, one week after Mackinnon Stakes day.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Spring Racing Carnival


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User talk:Artoo~enwiki

Testing my talk, don't kill me.

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Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

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title: User talk:Artoo~enwiki


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Semipalmated sandpiper

The semipalmated sandpiper (Calidris pusilla) is a very small shorebird. The genus name is from Ancient Greek kalidris or skalidris, a term used by Aristotle for some grey-coloured waterside birds. The specific pusilla is Latin for "very small".

It is sometimes separated with other "stints" in Erolia, but, although these apparently form a monophyletic group, the present species' old genus Ereunetes had been proposed before Erolia.

Description
It is a small sandpiper, 15–18 cm (5.9-7.1 in) long and weighing around 18-51.5 g (0.6-1.8 oz). Wingspan ranges from 13.8 to 14.6 in (35-37 cm). Adults have black legs and a short, stout, straight dark bill. The body is dark grey-brown on top and white underneath. The head and neck are tinged light grey-brown. This bird can be difficult to distinguish from other similar tiny shorebirds, in particular the western sandpiper; these are known collectively as "peeps" or "stints".

Breeding and habitat
Their breeding habitat is the southern tundra in Canada and Alaska near water. They nest on the ground. The male makes several shallow scrapes; the female chooses one and adds grass and other material to line the nest. The female lays 4 eggs; the male assists in incubation. After a few days, the female leaves the young with the male; the young feed themselves.

These birds forage on mudflats, picking up food by sight and feel (bill). They mainly eat aquatic insects and their larvae, spiders, snails, worms and crustaceans. Semipalmated sandpipers rely heavily on horseshoe crab eggs during spring migration. Females will also eat small mammal bones as an extra source of calcium during egg laying.

Status and migration
They are long distance migrants and winter in coastal South America, with some going to the southern United States and the Caribbean. They migrate in flocks which can number in the hundreds of thousands, particularly in favoured feeding locations such as the Bay of Fundy and Delaware Bay. This species is a rare but regular vagrant to western Europe.

Although very numerous, these birds are highly dependent on a few key stopover habitats during their migration, notably Mary's Point and Johnson's Mills along Shepody Bay, an arm of the Bay of Fundy. During the months of July and August, the Nature Conservancy of Canada runs an information center about these shorebirds in Johnson's Mills, New Brunswick.

Identification

 * Jonsson, Lars & Peter J. Grant (1984) Identification of stints and peeps British Birds 77(7):293-315

title: Semipalmated sandpiper


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List of years in Canada

This is a list of years in Canada.

 * Prehistory to 1 BC
 * 1st millennium
 * 1000s (11th century)
 * 1100s (12th century)
 * 1200s (13th century)
 * 1300s (14th century)
 * 1400s (15th century)
 * 1500s (16th century)
 * 1600s: 1600s - 1610s - 1620s - 1630s - 1640s - 1650s - 1660s - 1670s - 1680s - 1690s
 * 1700s: 1700 - 1701 - 1702 - 1703 - 1704 - 1705 - 1706 - 1707 - 1708 - 1709
 * 1710s: 1710 - 1711 - 1712 - 1713 - 1714 - 1715 - 1716 - 1717 - 1718 - 1719
 * 1720s: 1720 - 1721 - 1722 - 1723 - 1724 - 1725 - 1726 - 1727 - 1728 - 1729
 * 1730s: 1730 - 1731 - 1732 - 1733 - 1734 - 1735 - 1736 - 1737 - 1738 - 1739
 * 1740s: 1740 - 1741 - 1742 - 1743 - 1744 - 1745 - 1746 - 1747 - 1748 - 1749
 * 1750s: 1750 - 1751 - 1752 - 1753 - 1754 - 1755 - 1756 - 1757 - 1758 - 1759
 * 1760s: 1760 - 1761 - 1762 - 1763 - 1764 - 1765 - 1766 - 1767 - 1768 - 1769
 * 1770s: 1770 - 1771 - 1772 - 1773 - 1774 - 1775 - 1776 - 1777 - 1778 - 1779
 * 1780s: 1780 - 1781 - 1782 - 1783 - 1784 - 1785 - 1786 - 1787 - 1788 - 1789
 * 1790s: 1790 - 1791 - 1792 - 1793 - 1794 - 1795 - 1796 - 1797 - 1798 - 1799
 * 1800s: 1800 - 1801 - 1802 - 1803 - 1804 - 1805 - 1806 - 1807 - 1808 - 1809
 * 1810s: 1810 - 1811 - 1812 - 1813 - 1814 - 1815 - 1816 - 1817 - 1818 - 1819
 * 1820s: 1820 - 1821 - 1822 - 1823 - 1824 - 1825 - 1826 - 1827 - 1828 - 1829
 * 1830s: 1830 - 1831 - 1832 - 1833 - 1834 - 1835 - 1836 - 1837 - 1838 - 1839
 * 1840s: 1840 - 1841 - 1842 - 1843 - 1844 - 1845 - 1846 - 1847 - 1848 - 1849
 * 1850s: 1850 - 1851 - 1852 - 1853 - 1854 - 1855 - 1856 - 1857 - 1858 - 1859
 * 1860s: 1860 - 1861 - 1862 - 1863 - 1864 - 1865 - 1866 - 1867

Post-Confederation timeline

 * 1860s: 1867 - 1868 - 1869
 * 1870s: 1870 - 1871 - 1872 - 1873 - 1874 - 1875 - 1876 - 1877 - 1878 - 1879
 * 1880s: 1880 - 1881 - 1882 - 1883 - 1884 - 1885 - 1886 - 1887 - 1888 - 1889
 * 1890s: 1890 - 1891 - 1892 - 1893 - 1894 - 1895 - 1896 - 1897 - 1898 - 1899
 * 1900s: 1900 - 1901 - 1902 - 1903 - 1904 - 1905 - 1906 - 1907 - 1908 - 1909
 * 1910s: 1910 - 1911 - 1912 - 1913 - 1914 - 1915 - 1916 - 1917 - 1918 - 1919
 * 1920s: 1920 - 1921 - 1922 - 1923 - 1924 - 1925 - 1926 - 1927 - 1928 - 1929
 * 1930s: 1930 - 1931 - 1932 - 1933 - 1934 - 1935 - 1936 - 1937 - 1938 - 1939
 * 1940s: 1940 - 1941 - 1942 - 1943 - 1944 - 1945 - 1946 - 1947 - 1948 - 1949
 * 1950s: 1950 - 1951 - 1952 - 1953 - 1954 - 1955 - 1956 - 1957 - 1958 - 1959
 * 1960s: 1960 - 1961 - 1962 - 1963 - 1964 - 1965 - 1966 - 1967 - 1968 - 1969
 * 1970s: 1970 - 1971 - 1972 - 1973 - 1974 - 1975 - 1976 - 1977 - 1978 - 1979
 * 1980s: 1980 - 1981 - 1982 - 1983 - 1984 - 1985 - 1986 - 1987 - 1988 - 1989
 * 1990s: 1990 - 1991 - 1992 - 1993 - 1994 - 1995 - 1996 - 1997 - 1998 - 1999
 * 2000s: 2000 - 2001 - 2002 - 2003 - 2004 - 2005 - 2006 - 2007 - 2008 - 2009
 * 2010s: 2010 - 2011 - 2012 - 2013 - 2014 - 2015 - 2016 - 2017 - 2018 - 2019
 * 2020s: 2020 - 2021 - 2022 - 2023 - 2024

title: List of years in Canada


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Magnum, P.I.

Magnum, P.I. is an American crime drama television series starring Tom Selleck as Thomas Magnum, a private investigator (P.I.) living on Oahu, Hawaii. The series ran from December 11, 1980, to May 1, 1988, during its first-run broadcast on the American television network CBS. Magnum, P.I. consistently ranked in the top 20 U.S. television programs in the Nielsen ratings during the first five years of its original run, finishing as high as number three for the 1982–83 season. The series entered syndication in 1986 under the title Magnum in order to differentiate reruns from new episodes still airing under the original title on CBS.

A remake series of the same name was ordered to series on May 11, 2018, and premiered on September 24, 2018 on CBS.

Premise
Thomas Sullivan Magnum IV is a private investigator played by Tom Selleck. He lives in the guesthouse of a 200 acre beachfront estate called Robin's Nest, in Hawaii, at the invitation of its owner, Robin Masters. Ostensibly this is quid pro quo for Magnum's services based upon his expertise in security; the pilot and several early episodes suggest Magnum had done Masters a favor of some kind, possibly when Masters hired him for a case. Masters is rarely depicted and is the celebrated author of several dozen lurid novels. His voice, heard only in five episodes, was provided by Orson Welles (one last appearance was provided by a different actor, Red Crandell).

Magnum lives a luxurious life on the estate and operates as a P.I. on cases that suit him. The only thorn in the side of his near-perfect lifestyle is Jonathan Quayle Higgins III, played by John Hillerman. An ex-British Army regimental sergeant major, he is on the surface a stern, by-the-book caretaker of Robin's Nest, whose strict ways often conflict with Magnum's more easygoing methods. He patrols Robin's Nest with his two highly-trained "lads", Dobermans named Zeus and Apollo. Magnum has free use of the guesthouse and the car, a Ferrari 308 GTS Quattrovalvole, but as a humorous aside in various episodes, often has to bargain with Higgins for use of estate amenities such as the tennis courts, wine cellar, and expensive cameras.

The relationship between Magnum and Higgins is initially cool, but as the series progresses, an unspoken respect and fondness of sorts grows between them. Many episodes dedicate more screen time to this "odd couple" pairing after the relationship proved popular with fans. A recurrent theme throughout the last two seasons, starting in the episode "Paper War", involves Magnum's sneaking suspicion that Higgins is actually Masters, since he opens Masters's mail, calls Masters's Ferrari "my car", etc. This suspicion is neither proved nor disproved, although in at least one episode Higgins is shown alone in a room, picking up a ringing phone and talking to Masters, indicating they are different people.

Aside from Higgins, Magnum's two main companions on the islands are Theodore "T.C." Calvin (Roger E. Mosley), who runs a one-person local helicopter charter and tour van service, "Island Hoppers", and often finds himself persuaded by Magnum to fly him during various cases, and Orville Wilbur Richard "Rick" Wright (Larry Manetti), who refuses to use his Wright brothers-esque given name of Orville and owns a local bar. In the pilot episode, this was "Rick's Cafe Americain", inspired by Casablanca, with Rick appearing in suitable 1930s attire. After completing the pilot, though, executives felt that audiences would be unable to fully connect with this element. Instead, Rick moved to running the plush, beachside King Kamehameha Club, which has exclusive membership and Higgins on the board of directors. Magnum often strolls around the club, using its facilities and running up an ever-unpaid tab, further fueling the Magnum-Higgins feud. T.C. and Rick are both former Marines from VMO-2 with whom Magnum, a former member of the United States Navy SEALs and Naval Intelligence officer, served in the Vietnam War. The series was one of the first to deal with Vietnam veterans as "human beings" and not as shell-shocked killers, and was praised by many ex-servicemen groups for doing so. Magnum often dupes or bribes T.C. and Rick into aiding him on his cases, much to their frustration. T.C., whose assistance often involves the use of his helicopter, often tells Magnum, "gas money. All I need is gas money", referring to the high cost of the helicopter's fuel.

Magnum comes and goes as he pleases, works only when he wants, and has almost unlimited use of the Ferrari and many other luxuries of the estate. He keeps a mini-refrigerator with a seemingly endless supply of beer ("altbier"), wears his father's treasured Rolex GMT Master wristwatch, and is surrounded by countless beautiful women, who are often victims of crime, his clients, or otherwise connected to the cases he solves.

Other characteristics specific to Magnum are his thick moustache, baseball caps (usually a Detroit Tigers or VMO-2 cap), a rubber chicken, and a variety of colorful Aloha shirts. Nearly every episode is narrated, in voice-over, by Magnum at various points. At the end of the seventh season, Magnum was to be killed off, to end the series. Following an outcry from fans who demanded a more satisfactory conclusion, an eighth season was produced to bring Magnum "back to life" and round off the series.

Main cast

 * Tom Selleck as Thomas Magnum
 * Roger E. Mosley as Theodore "T.C." Calvin
 * Larry Manetti as Orville "Rick" Wright
 * John Hillerman as Jonathan Higgins

Recurring characters

 * Lieutenant Yoshi Tanaka: A homicide-division police lieutenant with the Honolulu police department (Kwan Hi Lim), he has a slight Lieutenant Columbo-like enigmatic quality, characterized by his casual dress and ironic sense of humor. He is also, like Magnum, a Detroit Tigers fan. He appeares in Seasons 2–8.
 * Agatha Chumley: Higgins's stereotypically English ladyfriend (Gillian Dobb), who seems to have a crush on Higgins. Her first appearance was in the episode "Black on White". She appeared in Seasons 3–8.
 * Colonel "Buck" Greene: A Marine Corps aviator and intelligence officer (Lance LeGault), who is often Magnum's nemesis in seasons 2–8. LeGault also played John W. Newton, aka "Delta One", in episode 9 of season 1, "Missing in Action".
 * Carol Baldwin: An assistant district attorney (Patty McCormack in season 1, followed by Kathleen Lloyd in seasons 3–8); before playing Carol Baldwin, Lloyd guest starred in the episode "Almost Home" (season 3, episode 11) as Bridget Archer.
 * Lieutenant "Mac" MacReynolds: A doughnut-munching Office of Naval Intelligence (ONI) lieutenant (Jeff MacKay), killed by a car bomb planted by "Ivan", a Russian KGB officer. Mac returns as a ghost for four episodes ("Mac's Back", "Limbo", "Infinity and Jelly Doughnuts" and "Pleasure Principle") and later as a lookalike character. In the pilot, MacKay portrayed "Ski", a guard at the entrance gate of Pearl Harbor. He appeared in Seasons 1–3 and 7–8.
 * Jim Bonnick: A con man and an ex-Navy pilot who was released on a medical discharge (Jeff MacKay); he is Mac Reynolds's lookalike. In at least one episode ("Mac's Back"), MacKay appeared in both roles. He appeared in Seasons 5–8.
 * Francis "Icepick" Hofstetler: An American loan shark and major underworld figure from Chicago, and a quasi-father figure to Rick Wright (Walter Chotzen and later Elisha Cook Jr.).
 * Dr. Ibold, M.D. "Doc Ibold": A minor character (Glenn Cannon) who appeared in episodes when the script called for a physician. First referred to as "Script Writer #1", he was known for prescribing opiates for any and all ailments. He appeared in Seasons 2–8. Cannon also played Dr. Bernard Kessler in Episode 1.7, "Never Again...Never Again".
 * Michelle Hue: The love of Magnum's life (Marta DuBois); she and Magnum married in Vietnam but the devoutly Catholic Michelle had the marriage annulled after her first husband, a North Vietnamese general who was presumed dead, resurfaced. Magnum had believed that Michelle was killed during the 1975 evacuation of Saigon. She appeared in Seasons 2–8.
 * Lily Catherine Hue: Daughter to Magnum and Michelle Hue (Kristen Carreira). Michelle entrusts Lily to Magnum's care but doesn't reveal that she is his daughter. Although she was raised as the daughter of General Hue, Lily Catherine learned Magnum-related things from Michelle, such as "Detroit Tigers" and "Rick, T.C., Thomas". By "Resolutions" (May 1988), General Hue's enemies had killed Hue, Michelle, and Michelle's second husband, Edward Durant. Lily Catherine was presumed dead and was reunited with Magnum, who returned to his career as a Naval Intelligence officer to protect her. She appears in seasons 7-8.
 * Lieutenant (later Lieutenant Commander) Maggie Poole: The successor of the deceased Mac Reynolds (Jean Bruce Scott), she dislikes her superior, Marine Corps Colonel Greene. She appeared in Seasons 3–8.
 * Luther H. Gillis: A mock film noir St. Louis private eye with a Boston accent (Eugene Roche), whose deception, dissembling, and disturbing capacity for violence Magnum almost always underestimates or overlooks. Gillis provided the narration in the five episodes in which he appeared in Seasons 4–8.
 * Lieutenant Nolan Page: A hard-nosed, no-nonsense Honolulu Police Department lieutenant with a New York accent (Joe Santos), he assists Magnum on several cases.He appeared in Seasons 7-8
 * Moki: The bartender of the King Kamehameha Club in Season 1; later replaced by Keoki, he appeared in Seasons 1–2.
 * Keoki: The bartender/server of the King Kamehameha Club starting in season 2. He is arrested in season 4 by Lt. Tanaka for robbing the club in the episode "I Witness". He appeared in seasons 2–4.
 * Bryant Calvin, T.C.'s son in seasons 7 and 8, played by Shavar Ross.

Setting

Robin's Nest (21.32492°N, -157.67953°W) is the fictional beach front estate on the island of Oahu, Hawaii, which serves as the residence of the main characters. In the series, it is owned by renowned novelist Robin Masters, who employs Jonathan Higgins as the estate's caretaker and Thomas Magnum as its security expert. Higgins resides in the estate's main house while Magnum occupies the guest house.

In reality, the 3 acre beachfront property was on Oahu's east shore at 41-505 Hawaii Route 72, near Waimanalo Beach, Hawaii ( 21.325°N, -157.68°W ). Called "Pahonu" ("turtle enclosure" in Hawaiian), it was also known as "The Anderson Estate" after its longtime owner, politician Eve G. Anderson. The grounds were used for hundreds of years to raise green sea turtles for the Hawaiian royal family and include a 500-by-50-foot stone wall that surrounds the former turtle-raising pond. Since 1978, the turtle pond has been on the National Register of Historic Places listings in Hawaii. A residential estate since the early 1930s, comprising an 11000 ft2 main house, a boathouse (which in the series appears as the guesthouse Magnum occupies), a gatehouse, and private tennis court.

Owned in January 2014 by Cox Communications heiress Barbara Cox Anthony, it was placed on the market with Sotheby's for $15.75 million and sold for $8.7 million in March 2015. In April 2018, the estate was demolished by its new owner former President Barack Obama.

Many of the indoor scenes of Magnum, P.I. were filmed on the old Hawaii Five-O soundstage, as the network did not wish for its Hawaiian production facilities to go to waste after Hawaii Five-O ended its run.

Through the years, fans of the show have noted commonalities in the settings of time and space (the so-called fictional TV universe) between Magnum, P.I. and Hawaii Five-O. For example, in Season 1, Episode 5, "Thank Heavens for Little Girls, and Big Ones Too", Higgins calls Five-O to report a theft. In Season 1, Episode 6, "Skin Deep", Magnum gets on the radio pretending he's with the police and asks: "Billy, this is McGarrett of Five-O. Is David Norman armed?" The producers of Magnum, P.I. unsuccessfully attempted to convince Jack Lord to make a cameo.

In a 2013 episode of the Hawaii Five-0 remake, the characters "sing" the Magnum, P.I. theme song while discussing which person most resembled the characters on that program. The purported connection between the programs appears to be preserved in the remakes, as explained by their creators in TV Guide, where plans for a crossover were announced as well as acknowledgment of the coexistence of Magnum with Hawaii Five-0 in the same TV universe. A Hawaii Five-0 and Magnum P.I. crossover event aired on CBS in January 2020, with the Hawaii Five-0 episode "Ihea 'oe i ka wa a ka ua e loku ana?" (Hawaiian for "Where were you when the rain was pouring?") followed by the Magnum P.I. episode "Desperate Measures".

Theme music
The original theme music for the opening credits of the pilot episode was a mid-tempo jazzy piece by Ian Freebairn-Smith. This music was also used for the next nine regular episodes.

Beginning in Episode 12, it was replaced by a more up tempo theme typical of 1980s action series by Mike Post and Pete Carpenter with guitar by Larry Carlton. This theme had been used during the show and over the closing credits from Episode 8. A longer version of this second theme ("Theme from Magnum P.I.", 3:25 in duration) credited to Post was released as a single by Elektra Records in 1982 and featured on the Billboard Hot 100 chart that same year, peaking at No. 25 on May 8, 1982. This version also appeared on Post's 1982 album Television Theme Songs.

Cars
Robin Masters' cars (with license plate)
 * "ROBIN 1"
 * 1979 Ferrari 308 GTS - season 1
 * 1981 Ferrari 308 GTSi - seasons 2–6
 * 1984 Ferrari 308 GTS QuattroValvole - seasons 7–8
 * (all these cars were red/Rosso Corsa)

 * "ROBIN 2"
 * 1980 Audi 5000 - seasons 1–4 (×2, with one blown up in s01e05)
 * 1985 Audi 5000 - seasons 5–8
 * 1974 Jaguar XJ (seen only in s04e618)
 * (all these sedans were in various shades of dark grey)

 * "ROBIN 3"
 * 1980 GMC Jimmy Sierra (full size C/K-series) — season 1–3
 * 1983 GMC S15 Jimmy (mid-size S-series) — seasons 4–6
 * 1984 Jeep Cherokee (XJ Model) — seasons 7–8
 * (all these SUVs were in shades of brown, with red stripe on the C/K & large yellow stripe on the S15)

 * "Robin 23"
 * 1981 Ferrari 308 GTSi in dark green/Verde Pino – seen only in the episode "Summer School" (s06e13). This car was provided by Robin Masters for his visiting nephew, 'R.J.'.
 * "56E-478"; regular/non-vanity license plate
 * 1978 Ferrari 308 GTS (seen in the pilot, and all episodes' opening credits)

Others
 * Island Hoppers (TC's) van — Volkswagen Type 2 (T3)
 * Rick's convertible — Mercedes-Benz R107 and C107. Col. Buck Green referred to it as a 450SL when Rick went missing, but he was also seen in 380 SL (s02e06) and a 560 SL (s07e17). Rick also drove at least one Corvette, a 1978 C3, in which Thomas and Rick drive side-by-side on a two-lane byway (s01e01). Rick drove the Mercedes from the middle of Season 2 through to the end of the series.
 * Rick's Datsun 280ZX. Rick drove this car when the series started until the middle of season 2, after which he drove the Mercedes.
 * Magnum's Beetle — 1966 Volkswagen Beetle convertible. In 1979, having just opened up his private investigator business, Magnum drove a battered blue Volkswagen Beetle convertible, with a rusted driver's side door.
 * Magnum's Jaguar — 1969 Jaguar E-Type. Magnum drove a red Jaguar XKE convertible, in very poor condition, in the episode "Blind Justice" (s05e07) after Higgins cut him off from using the Ferrari.
 * The Bentley — 1937 Bentley 3.5 Litre Drophead Coupe (Gurney Nutting body). When Magnum and Higgins visit England in the Season 6 opener, when Robin Masters had just bought a new estate, "Robin's Keep", Magnum drives the old Bentley, the only car included with the estate. The car was previously driven by James Bond in the unofficial 1983 movie Never Say Never Again.

Aircraft

 * Island Hoppers (TC's) helicopter — MD Helicopters MD 500 (various models)
 * Ken Enderlin Charters — N9267F is a Hughes Model 369HS built in 1975, Construction Number (C/N) 1150778S, in the episodes "Dream a Little Dream" and "Missing Melody".

Development and production
Development of Magnum, P.I. was originally slated at ABC, which aired other Glen A. Larson series The Hardy Boys/Nancy Drew Mysteries (1977–1979) and Battlestar Galactica (1978–1979). In January 1979, ABC cancelled both series, and development on Magnum, P.I. Larson then took the series over to CBS.

Selleck's contract commitment to the Magnum, P.I. series famously cost him the role of Indiana Jones in the first Indiana Jones film, Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981), which went to Harrison Ford. Selleck was unable to take the part of Jones as Magnum was due to start filming in March 1980. Owing to the 1980 AFTRA/Screen Actors Guild strike, production of Magnum was delayed until December 1980, which would have allowed Selleck to play Jones.

In the 1986–87 season 7 of Magnum, P.I., Selleck was brought in as a producer and the program was moved from its Thursday night slot on CBS to Wednesday, which increased its slumping ratings from competing with The Cosby Show (1984–1992) on NBC.

Crossovers

 * "Ki'is Don't Lie" — Magnum works with the Simon brothers to recover a stolen Hawaiian artifact that's supposedly cursed. The plot concludes on Simon & Simon in the episode "Emeralds Are Not a Girl's Best Friend".
 * "Novel Connection" — Jessica Fletcher comes to Hawaii when an attempt is made on the lives of Robin's guests. The plot concludes on Murder, She Wrote in the episode "Magnum on Ice".

For re-run and overseas purposes, the first half of these crossovers (the Magnum episode) also had alternate endings filmed, which wrapped the story up in a single episode and so allowed repeat showings as "stand-alone" stories rather than two-part crossovers.

One mooted crossover from later in the series' run was with the CBS vigilantism drama The Equalizer, starring Edward Woodward as the retired spy Robert McCall. According to Equalizer executive producer Coleman Luck, interviewed for a special-feature documentary on The Equalizer, the crossover was proposed by Universal Television and was opposed by the Equalizer production staff.

In 1992, three years after the conclusion of Magnum, a script was written for a potential crossover with Donald P. Bellisario's next show, NBC's Quantum Leap, in which Dr. Sam Beckett (Scott Bakula) would "leap" into the body of Thomas Magnum. It is unknown whether any original cast members from Magnum were slated to appear in the episode or how far production had progressed, though test footage does exist of the attempted recreation of Tom Selleck's famous fourth-wall breaking "eyebrow" shot from the opening credits with Bakula in the role.

Home media
Universal Pictures Home Entertainment has released all eight seasons of Magnum, P.I. on DVD in Region 1, 2 and 4. On October 1, 2013, Universal released Magnum, P.I. - The Complete Series on DVD in Region 1. The 42-disc set features all 162 episodes of the series as well as bonus features.

On December 12, 2016, in the United Kingdom, the complete series was released in HD on Blu-ray.

In Australia, Madman Entertainment has re-released all eight seasons on DVD from November 18, 2015 - June 20, 2018, followed by "The Complete Series" on October 9, 2019.

 * Region 2 release dates refer to the United Kingdom market only.

* Includes the crossover Season 2 episode from Simon & Simon titled "Emeralds Are Not a Girl's Best Friend".

** Includes the crossover Season 3 episode from Murder, She Wrote titled "Magnum On Ice".

*** Includes the bonus Season 5 episode from The Rockford Files titled "White on White and Nearly Perfect" featuring Tom Selleck.

**** Includes bonus episodes from The A-Team, Season 2 titled "Diamonds 'n' Dust" and Knight Rider, Season 2, titled "Brother's Keeper".

Awards
Selleck won an Emmy in 1984 for his portrayal of the title character. Three years later, co-star John Hillerman also won an Emmy. In 1981, series creators and writers Glen A. Larson and Donald P. Bellisario received an Edgar Award from the Mystery Writers of America for Best Episode in a TV Series.

Golden Globe Awards
Magnum, P.I. was nominated for multiple Golden Globe Awards:

Detroit Tigers incident
On September 16, 2017, a group of 45 men dressed as Thomas Magnum were ejected from a Detroit Tigers game for smoking and catcalling women in the park. The story quickly became one of international interest as the group, from nearby Allen Park, Michigan gave dozens of interviews to newspapers, magazines, radio stations, podcasts and more.

Proposed sequels
In October 2013, Selleck said Tom Clancy had planned to write a screenplay for a Magnum, P.I. film in the 1990s, with Universal Pictures interested in producing it. The project remained unmaterialized.

In September 2016, ABC began developing a sequel from Leverage creator John Rogers and producer Eva Longoria centering on Lily "Tommy" Magnum, which never made it to series.

Remake
In October 2017, CBS announced they had issued a pilot commitment for a remake of the series, to be developed by Peter M. Lenkov, who has helped remake other series like Hawaii Five-0 and MacGyver for the network. CBS officially ordered the pilot three months later, along with one for a reboot of another hit 1980s television series for the network, Cagney & Lacey, as well as one for 1990s favorite Murphy Brown. On February 20, 2018, actor Jay Hernandez was cast as Thomas Magnum.

title: Magnum, P.I.


text: User talk:80.132.28.207

title: User talk:80.132.28.207


text:
Adkins v. Children's Hospital

Adkins v. Children's Hospital, 261 U.S. 525 (1923), is a United States Supreme Court opinion that federal minimum wage legislation for women was an unconstitutional infringement of liberty of contract, as protected by the due process clause of the Fifth Amendment.

Adkins was overturned in West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish.

Facts
In 1918, Congress passed a law to set minimum wages for women and children in the District of Columbia. As in other cases, the question was one of balancing the police power of Congress to regulate working and living conditions with the right of individuals to conduct their own affairs without legislative interference. Children's Hospital and a female elevator operator at a hotel brought the case to prevent enforcement of the act by Jesse C. Adkins and the two other members of a wage board.

Judgment
The Court's decision, by Justice Sutherland, was that previous decisions (Muller v. Oregon, 208 U.S. 412 (1908) and Bunting v. Oregon, 243 U.S. 426 (1917)) did not overrule the holding in Lochner v. New York, 198 U.S. 45 (1905), which protected freedom of contract. The previous decisions, he noted, addressed maximum hours. The present case addressed a minimum wage. The maximum-hour laws left the parties free to negotiate about wages, unlike the present law, which restricted the employer's side of the negotiation. The Court argued that if legislatures were permitted to set minimum wage laws, they would be permitted to set maximum wage laws. Sutherland asserted: "'The statute now under consideration is attacked upon the ground that it authorizes an unconstitutional interference with the freedom of contract included within the guaranties of the due process clause of the Fifth Amendment. That the right to contract about one's affairs is a part of the liberty of the individual protected by this clause is settled by the decisions of this court and is no longer open to question. ... There is, of course, no such thing as absolute freedom of contract. It is subject to a great variety of restraints. But freedom of contract is, nevertheless, the general rule and restraint the exception, and the exercise of legislative authority to abridge it can be justified only by the existence of exceptional circumstances. Whether these circumstances exist in the present case constitutes the question to be answered.'"

Sutherland cited the changes that had occurred in the years since Muller, particularly the Nineteenth Amendment, which guaranteed the right to vote for women. He notes that Muller and other cases had emphasized differences between men and women as justifying special protection for women, but "[in] view of the great—not to say revolutionary—changes which have taken place since [Muller], in the contractual, political, and civil status of women, culminating in the Nineteenth Amendment, it is not unreasonable to say that these differences have now come almost, if not quite, to the vanishing point."

Taft
Chief Justice Taft, dissenting, argued that there was no distinction between minimum wage laws and maximum hour laws since both were essentially restrictions on contract. He noted that Lochner's limitations seemed to have been overruled in Muller and Bunting.

"'Legislatures in limiting freedom of contract between employee and employer by a minimum wage proceed on the assumption that employees, in the class receiving least pay, are not upon a full level of equality of choice with their employer and in their necessitous circumstances are prone to accept pretty much anything that is offered. They are peculiarly subject to the overreaching of the harsh and greedy employer. The evils of the sweating system and of the long hours and low wages which are characteristic of it are well known. Now, I agree that it is a disputable question in the field of political economy how far a statutory requirement of maximum hours or minimum wages may be a useful remedy for these evils, and whether it may not make the case of the oppressed employee worse than it was before. But it is not the function of this court to hold congressional acts invalid simply because they are passed to carry out economic views which the court believes to be unwise or unsound.

'Legislatures which adopt a requirement of maximum hours or minimum wages may be presumed to believe that when sweating employers are prevented from paying unduly low wages by positive law they will continue their business, abating that part of their profits, which were wrung from the necessities of their employees, and will concede the better terms required by the law, and that while in individual cases, hardship may result, the restriction will inure to the benefit of the general class of employees in whose interest the law is passed, and so to that of the community at large.

'The right of the Legislature under the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments to limit the hours of employment on the score of the health of the employee, it seems to me, has been firmly established.'"

Holmes
Justice Holmes, also dissenting, noted that there were many other constraints on contract (such as blue laws and usury laws). He cited the standard that he had put forth in Lochner: if a reasonable person could see a power in the Constitution, the Court should defer to legislation that used such a power.

"'When so many intelligent persons, who have studied the matter more than any of us can, have thought that the means are effective and are worth the price it seems to me impossible to deny that the belief reasonably may be held by reasonable men. If the law encountered no other objection than that the means bore no relation to the end or that they cost too much I do not suppose that anyone would venture to say that it was bad. I agree, of course, that a law answering the foregoing requirements might be invalidated by specific provisions of the Constitution. For instance it might take private property without just compensation. But in the present instance the only objection that can be urged is found within the vague contours of the Fifth Amendment, prohibiting the depriving any person of liberty or property without due process of law. To that I turn.

'The earlier decisions upon the same words in the Fourteenth Amendment began within our memory and went no farther than an unpretentious assertion of the liberty to follow the ordinary callings. Later that innocuous generality was expanded into the dogma, Liberty of Contract. Contract is not specially mentioned in the text that we have to construe. It is merely an example of doing what you want to do, embodied in the word liberty. But pretty much all law consists in forbidding men to do some things that they want to do, and contract is no more exempt from law than other acts. Without enumerating all the restrictive laws that have been upheld I will mention a few that seem to me to have interfered with liberty of contract quite as seriously and directly as the one before us. Usury laws prohibit contracts by which a man receives more than so much interest for the money that he lends. Statutes of frauds restrict many contracts to certain forms. Some Sunday laws prohibit practically all contracts during one-seventh of our whole life. Insurance rates may be regulated. ...

'I confess that I do not understand the principle on which the power to fix a minimum for the wages of women can be denied by those who admit the power to fix a maximum for their hours of work. I fully assent to the proposition that here as elsewhere the distinctions of the law are distinctions of degree, but I perceive no difference in the kind or degree of interference with liberty, the only matter with which we have any concern, between the one case and the other. The bargain is equally affected whichever half you regulate. ...

'This statute does not compel anybody to pay anything. It simply forbids employment at rates below those fixed as the minimum requirement of health and right living. It is safe to assume that women will not be employed at even the lowest wages allowed unless they earn them, or unless the employer's business can sustain the burden. In short the law in its character and operation is like hundreds of so-called police laws that have been upheld. I see no greater objection to using a Board to apply the standard fixed by the Act than there is to the other commissions with which we have become familiar or than there is to the requirement of a license in other cases. ...

'The criterion of constitutionality is not whether we believe the law to be for the public good. We certainly cannot be prepared to deny that a reasonable man reasonably might have that belief in view of the legislation of Great Britain, Victoria and a number of the States of this Union. The belief is fortified by a very remarkable collection of documents submitted on behalf of the appellants, material here, I conceive, only as showing that the belief reasonably may be held. In Australia the power to fix a minimum for wages in the case of industrial disputes extending beyond the limits of any one State was given to a Court, and its President wrote a most interesting account of its operation. 29 Harv. Law Rev. 13. If a legislature should adopt what he thinks the doctrine of modern economists of all schools, that 'freedom of contract is a misnomer as applied to a contract between an employer and an ordinary individual employee,' Ibid. 25, I could not pronounce an opinion with which I agree impossible to be entertained by reasonable men. If the same legislature should accept his further opinion that industrial peace was best attained by the device of a Court having the above powers, I should not feel myself able to contradict it, or to deny that the end justified restrictive legislation quite as adequately as beliefs concerning Sunday or exploded theories about usury. I should have my doubts, as I have them about this statute—but they would be whether the bill that has to be paid for every gain, although hidden as interstitial detriments, was not greater than the gain was worth: a matter that it is not for me to decide.'"

title: Adkins v. Children's Hospital


text:
16VSB

16VSB is an abbreviation for 16-level vestigial sideband modulation, capable of transmitting four bits (24=16) at a time.

How it works
Other slower but more rugged forms of VSB include 2VSB, 4VSB, and 8VSB. 16VSB is capable of twice the data capacity of 8VSB; while 8VSB delivers 19.39 Mbit/s (Megabits per second) in a 6-MHz television channel, 16VSB could deliver 38.78 Mbit/s, while making the sacrifice of being more prone to transmission error.

History
While 8VSB is the ATSC digital broadcast modulation format, 16VSB was planned for cable distribution. 16VSB is about twice as susceptible to noise, therefore less suitable than 8VSB for broadcast, but well suited to the signal-to-noise ratio of hybrid fiber-coax distribution, allowing twice as much programming in a 6-MHz channel.

Technological obsolescence
As of 2007, a majority of cable companies have chosen to extend their existing quadrature amplitude modulation-based systems to carry digital television rather than adopting any form of VSB. It is probable that 16VSB has been replaced by Digital Transmission Standard For Cable Television a cable standard that defines 64QAM and 256QAM transmission for digital cable.

title: 16VSB


text:
Immortal

Immortality is the ability to live forever, or eternal life.

Immortal or Immortality may also refer to:

Film

 * The Immortals (1995 film), an American crime film
 * Immortality, an alternate title for the 1998 British film The Wisdom of Crocodiles
 * Immortality (2016 film), an Iranian experimental drama film
 * Immortal (2004 film), a French science fiction film by Enki Bilal
 * Immortals (2011 film), an American mythical action film
 * Immortal (2015 film), an Iranian drama film
 * Immortal (2022 film), a Finnish action film
 * The Immortals (2015 film), an Indian documentary film
 * The Immortal (2018 film), a Vietnamese fantasy film
 * The Immortal (2019 film), an Italian crime film

Literature

 * Immortals, the elected members of the Académie Française
 * Immortal (Buffy novel), a 1999 Buffy the Vampire Slayer novelization by Christopher Golden and Nancy Holder
 * Immortal (Image Comics), a comic book superhero character from the Image Comics series Invincible
 * Immortal (trilogy), a series of three science fiction graphic novels
 * Immortals (anthology), a 1998 anthology edited by Jack Dann and Gardner Dozois
 * Immortality (novel), a 1990 novel by Milan Kundera
 * "The Immortal" (short story), a 1949 short story by Jorge Luis Borges
 * The Immortals (Barjavel novel), a 1973 novel by René Barjavel
 * The Immortals (Hickman novel), a 1996 novel by Tracy and Laura Hickman
 * The Immortals (The Edge Chronicles), a novel in Paul Stewart and Chris Riddell's Edge Chronicles series
 * The Immortals (series), a fantasy series by Tamora Pierce
 * The Immortals (novel series), a fantasy series by Alyson Noel
 * The Immortals, by James Gunn, the inspiration of the television series The Immortal
 * Thirty-Six Immortals of Poetry, a group of medieval Japanese poets

Military

 * Immortals (Achaemenid Empire)
 * Immortals (Sasanian Empire)
 * Immortals (Byzantine Empire)
 * Immortals, a nickname for the Napoleonic Old Guard
 * Immortal 32, a nickname for the Siege of the Alamo relief force
 * Akali Nihungs, Sikh warriors of whom the former part of the name literally means "immortals"

Artists and labels

 * Immortal (band), a Norwegian black metal musical group
 * The Immortals (band), a Belgian techno group
 * Immortal Records, a record label
 * Immortal Technique (born 1978), Peruvian born American rapper and urban activist
 * Roger Nichols (recording engineer) (1944–2011), American recording engineer, nicknamed "The Immortal"

Albums

 * Immortal (Ann Wilson album), 2018
 * Immortal (Anthem album), 2006
 * Immortal (Beth Hart album), 1996
 * Immortal (Bob Catley album), 2008
 * Immortal (Cynthia Clawson album), 1986
 * Immortal (D'espairsRay album), 2009
 * Immortal (For Today album), a 2010 Christian metalcore album
 * Immortal (Immortal EP), 1991 black metal album
 * Immortal (Lorna Shore album), 2020 deathcore album
 * Immortal (Michael Jackson album), 2011
 * Immortal (Pyramaze album), 2008
 * Immortal (Sarah Geronimo album) or Music and Me, a 2009 pop album
 * Immortal (Tim Dog album), 2003
 * Immortal? (Arena album), 2000
 * Immortals (album), a 2017 album by Firewind

Songs

 * Immortal (The Crüxshadows EP), 2008
 * "Immortal" (21 Savage song), 2019
 * "Immortal" (J. Cole song), a 2016 song from 4 Your Eyez Only
 * "Immortal" (Kid Cudi song), a 2013 single on the album Indicud
 * "Immortal", a song by Adema from Insomniac's Dream
 * "Immortal", a song by Atreyu from The Beautiful Dark of Life
 * "Immortal", a song by Clutch from Pure Rock Fury
 * "Immortal", a song by Dream Evil from In the Night
 * "Immortal", a song by Elley Duhé
 * "Immortal", a song by Lil Gotit from the album Hood Baby 2
 * "Immortal", a song by Lord from Fallen Idols
 * "Immortal", a song by Marina and the Diamonds from the album Froot
 * "Immortal", a song by Riot V from Unleash the Fire
 * "Immortal", a song by Simi from the album Omo Charlie Champagne, Vol. 1
 * "Immortal", a song by The Rasmus from Hide from the Sun
 * "Immortal", a song by Thomas Bergersen from Illusions
 * "Immortal", a song by War of Ages from Return to Life
 * "Immortals" (song), a 2014 song by Fall Out Boy
 * "Immortals", a song by Hieroglyphics from The Kitchen
 * "The Immortals" (song), a 2011 single by Kings of Leon from Come Around Sundown
 * "I Feel Immortal", a 2010 song by Tarja recorded by Kerli under the title "Immortal"
 * "Immortality" (Pearl Jam song), a 1995 single on the album Vitalogy
 * "Immortality" (Celine Dion song), a 1998 single on the album Let's Talk About Love
 * "Immortality", a 1975 single by Lesley Gore from the album Love Me by Name

Sports

 * Immortal (professional wrestling), a heel pro wrestling stable
 * Immortals (esports), esports organization founded in 2015
 * Martín Dihigo (1906-1971), also called The Immortal, Cuban professional baseball player
 * The Immortals (rugby league), the name given to the greatest rugby league players in Australia

Television

 * Immortal (Highlander), sword-wielding characters from the Highlander film and television series
 * "Immortality (Fringe)", a 2011 episode of Fringe
 * The Immortal (1970 TV series), a 1970–1971 American television series
 * The Immortal (2000 TV series), a 2000–2001 Canadian television series
 * The Immortal (Buffyverse), a character in the Buffy the Vampire Slayer universe
 * Imortal, a 2010 Philippine TV series
 * "The Immortals" (NCIS), an episode of NCIS
 * "Immortality" (CSI: Crime Scene Investigation), the series finale of CSI: Crime Scene Investigation
 * Immortality (TV series), an upcoming Chinese television series based on the BL xianxia novel The Husky and His White Cat Shizun
 * Immortals (TV series), a 2018 Turkish web series

Video Games

 * Immortal (MUD), an administrator or developer on a MUD
 * The Immortal (video game), a 1990 isometric action-adventure game
 * The Immortals, a fictional group in the 2024 action-adventure game Prince of Persia: The Lost Crown
 * Immortality (video game), a 2022 cinematic video game

Other uses

 * Immortal (comics), various characters and series
 * Immortal: The Invisible War, a table top, role-playing game by Ran Valerhon
 * Immortal Game, a chess game played in 1851 by Adolf Anderssen against Lionel Kieseritzky
 * Eight Immortals, a group of legendary xian ("immortals") in Chinese mythology
 * Immortels, the members of the Académie Française

title: Immortal


text:
Talk:Atoll

[Untitled]
Don't know about plagiarism but it lacks a real description of a typical atoll itself, such as the presence of a fresh water lens floating in the permeable coral material above sea level. Significant to human habitation. Lukunor 00:27, 11 December 2013 (UTC)

What is the deal with the first bit of this page? This is absolutely NOT right and makes no sense at all.

"An atoll is an cat of coral that runs around wildly a lagoon partially or completely."

I don't know much about atolls, which is why I was looking at this page, could somebody who knows about this sort of thing fix this? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 99.21.55.93 (talk) 04:37, 9 December 2009 (UTC)

 * Are you talking about pictorial plagiarism? This article is one of the one(s) that should not be confused with the OT story of Noah and his Ark, nor any of the historically accurate points along the evolutionary time line of today's human beings AND it is one of the one(s) not to be confused with this article NOT because it requires your interpretation of biblical stories such as Adam and Eve to be read as the appearance of an organism that reproduces sexually (ie the appearance of a species divided into genders as opposed to the first appearance of gendered Human) but rather the not to be confused warning is due to the visual semblance of atoll forming to the evolutionary event of eukaroytic cells begatting it's organelles (such as the currently recognized mitochrondria.) I am not sure there is a fix for your problems, other than a yet-to-live red-lettered link to a specific interpretation of a synopsis to the Noah's Ark story with which this article is not to be, confused with. -Dirtclustit (talk) 18:48, 5 October 2015 (UTC)

Bikini Atoll
is the famous bikini atoll a coral atoll? If it is, perhaps mention it

This page has a great deal of text that appears to be extensively (if not entirely) plagerized from some old textbook (the style is very olde English). Beyond the section describing (in some places incorrectly) the relationship between volcanoes and atolls, the next two sections on volcanoes and diatoms bear NO relationship to the subject of atolls. I suggest complete removal of the page (owing to lack of attribution), returning to the earliest, single line definition to refleshed from there. Marshman 02:25 26 Jul 2003 (UTC)

I've since replaced the old plagerized stuff with new content to cover the subject Marshman 17:41 28 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Marshman, you have done good job on the article, it is certainly an improvement over what was orginally here. I just have a query about the statement that atolls are limited to the oceanic basins of the Pacific and Indian oceans. I thought they could also be found in the Atlantic ocean such as Rocas Atoll of the coast of Brazil. -- Popsracer 00:08 29 Jul 2003 (UTC)

I am starting a new paragraph on atoll distribution and admit to being a bit out on a limb there. I woulld want to know more about Rocas Atoll and perhaps a few others associated with the Great Barrier Reef before proceeding down the interesting road of the relationship between atolls and oceanic hot-spots. Any help appreciated. Your catches on my contribution have been right on. Marshman 00:49, 29 Jul 2003 (UTC) I found some papers on Rocas Atoll and others in the Atlantic. These are not without controversy about whether or not true atolls, but a good case can be made. I'll work something up 24.94.86.252 02:58, 29 Jul 2003 (UTC)...That's me, my log-in timed-out I guess Marshman 03:00, 29 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Some contributors are wandering off the subject, or are not aware of the definition of an atoll. The amount of land area is not pertinent. Indeed, Christmas Atoll has the largest land area of any atoll, and that fact makes it less of a true atoll than atolls with very little land above sea level. There are no or perhaps only one or two true atolls in the Atlantic. This fact is widely debated. A few islands appear close to being atolls, and some scientists accept them as such. Bermuda is not one of these. Submerged banks are somewhat of a problem because they deviate from the ideal form, but if their mode of formation is correct as per Darwin, then these are either atolls or submerged atolls. - Marshman 04:54, 28 Apr 2005 (UTC)

The confusion about largest this and largest that results because someone missed a critical point in the definitions: the size of an atoll is the sum of its reef and lagoon areas (not lagoon and "land" areas). Land on atolls is material thrown by waves onto the reef, and therefore typically counted as part of reef area. Knowing land area (important obviously to human inhabitants) is of no value in these calculations. However a large lagoon, because it is typically surrounded by a reef, does indicate a large atoll. - Marshman 18:05, 28 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Coral island
What is the difference between coral island and atoll? -Indolences 18:01, 27 March 2007 (UTC)

Northernmost atoll & strict definitions
Several authorities on the Florida Keys claim that Marquesas Key between Key West and the Dry Tortugas is the Northernmost atoll. See, for example, http://www.nwrc.usgs.gov/factshts/047-02.pdf ("Marquesas Atoll") Verify?

Also, do prehistoric meteor strikes ever qualify as atolls, or is an atoll strictly a volcanic/erosion formation? —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 65.216.235.42 (talk) 17:18, 5 April 2007 (UTC). No, they don't Atolls are erosion on volcanic islands, well as the article explains. Feel free to make an account, just click the link and get started! Also wikipedia has a place for questions but its not talk pages like this. Reedman72 04:08, 5 April 2014 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Reedman72 (talk • contribs)

Largest Atolls by total size
I tried to list the largest atolls by total area, including the submerged ones (their inclusion may be a matter of dispute, though). Most of the size information is from, and I tried to complete the list of the largest atolls from other sources. From, I did not use the Amirantes Bank (3951 km²), which is obviously not an atoll, but has atolls on it. I am not certain about the atoll status of all entries in the list. If you are certain that one or another is not an atoll in the geomorphological sense at any stage of development, please explain (if possible with sources) and delete the entry.--Ratzer 09:02, 18 May 2007 (UTC)

Caicos Islands?
Are the Caicos Island an atoll by any chance? The spatial arrangement of the islands would suggest it (large islands along the northern rim, and smaller islets and reefs in the south). It would be the largest atoll of the world, measured by land size, and among the 10 largest by total size.--Ratzer 13:34, 18 May 2007 (UTC)
 * What do you mean by "measured by land size, and among the 10 largest by total size"? I just checked and Kiritimati is bigger than these islands. -Indolences 13:56, 18 May 2007 (UTC)
 * I also checked. About Kiritimati, widely differing land area figures are in circulation, one of about 388 km², and another of 642 km², as I found out just now. Judging from satellite images, the lower figure seems more plausible. For the Caicos Islands, I put a well researched land area figure of 589.5 km² in the article.--Ratzer 19:54, 18 May 2007 (UTC)
 * Source? -Indolences 20:15, 18 May 2007 (UTC)
 * Source: (I should have put this one as a reference in the article, and I shall still do it), plus some searching on maps and in gazetteers (among them ) which islands belong to the Turks Islands and which ones to the Caicos Islands.--Ratzer 21:41, 18 May 2007 (UTC)
 * Wait this isn't just one big island? Otherwise it doesn't count. -Indolences 18:00, 24 May 2007 (UTC)
 * Aldabra is also not just one big island, but four big islands. Nevertheless, it is generally accepted that Aldabra is an atoll.--Ratzer 10:04, 15 August 2007 (UTC)

The first picture on the article is not a good example of an atoll. To someone not familiar with reefs they may get it confused with a fringing reef and not portion of an atoll.Why not just put a picture of a full view of an atoll. The biddler 22:14, 12 September 2007 (UTC)ThebiddlerThe biddler 22:14, 12 September 2007 (UTC)

Atoll island formation
This article describes how a volcanic island subsides and coral reefs form to just under the water surface (barrier reef stage) but it doesn't really describe how the islands form. What is the incentive for the coral to grow above the water? Does there have to be a sea-level change large enough that the exposed coral can accumulate wind-borne sediment and bird detritus? Would that change have to be large enough that the nascent island wouldn't be swept clean by storm surges? Some details on this would be very useful! Franamax (talk) 18:46, 12 October 2008 (UTC)

Opposite question (maybe) inspired by the case of Tuvalu vs. Global Warming, were rising sea level is destroying life on the atoll: how can one tell whether it is the sea level that is rising or if the atoll is subsiding (or both)? --WikestLink (talk) 16:22, 13 November 2008 (UTC)

Fishing industry in the Maldives has a very nice section on atoll formation would be great here.205.200.169.138 (talk) 16:39, 13 February 2009 (UTC)

Formation
I find the explanation of atoll formation wanting. The graphic shows the centre of a volcanic island "subsiding", while the outside remains virtually unaffacted. What geological process could cause that to happen? That part seems not to be explained. 86.152.243.81 (talk) 13:56, 10 April 2010 (UTC)
 * In the text, it is explained that atolls form when the rate that the island is sinking is less than the rate of growth in the coral ring around the island. Is the text unclear? --Danger (talk) 15:45, 10 April 2010 (UTC)
 * My point is that the graphic does not show the island sinking uniformly. It shows the centre collapsing but the sides, to which the ring of coral is anchored, remaining roughly at the same level. I can't see it explained anywhere how or why that should happen, and I'm afraid I don't understand how your reply addresses this question. 86.165.23.205 (talk) 02:14, 11 April 2010 (UTC).

To the author: The opening paragraph of the "Atoll" article indicates that the atoll ring forms above the rim of the caldera. In fact, the fringing reef begins to form on rock where the flank of the volcano meets the ocean (any of the young Hawaiian islands) and then builds upward upon itself as the island gradually sinks and/or erodes and/or sea rises (ie Kosrae w/narrow fringing reef and mangrove channels, then Pohnpei w/barrier reef & lagoon & extensive mangroves, then Chuuk w/barrier reef & lagoon and numerous small remnant volcanic islands left from the original massif). Coral can anchor itself better upon the hard surface of older coral reef than on the shifting sands drifting lagoon-side of the reef or on the volcanic sediments (mud) at the foot of old volcanic slopes. Also there was a recent publication pointing out that the whole thing is not a steady continuum as sometimes relative sea level rise exceeds the growth rate of the corals and there are fits, starts, stops, uplifts, and restarts. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Ksfriday (talk • contribs) 05:30, 19 October 2014 (UTC)

"National Monuments"
This last section of the article mentions absolutely nothing about atolls and I deem it unnecessary. However when I tried to delete this irrelevant section, it was reverted back to the previous edit and I was given a message about vandalizing the article. So, can someone please impart on me the relevance of the last section(Nation Monuments), rewrite it to make sense, or delete it for me.

Thanks 134.71.148.189 (talk) 17:20, 7 June 2010 (UTC)

Formation: how can coral end up above sea level?
I ask the same question asked by Franamax in Oct 2008 without getting an answer: how can coral end up above sea water? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 173.33.80.7 (talk) 01:42, 19 March 2012 (UTC)
 * The live corals themselves can't grow above sea level, but wind and waves throw up debris (dead coral, shells, etc) over the reef. Eventually there is enough debris above sea level for vegetation to grow in it. Sea birds also bring in nutrients in the form of guano. The vegetation helps bind the land together. The island is never more than a few meters above sea level (unless sea level falls).86.144.114.34 (talk) 21:50, 8 July 2015 (UTC)

About the first sentence
"An atoll is a coral island (or islands) that encircles a lagoon partially or completely."

This definition is fundamentally wrong and completely contrast to modern definitions in Usage section. Basically, an atoll is no way a coral island but a kind of coral reef. The definition should be "Atoll is a kind of coral reef including a coral rim enclosing a lagoon.", not "an atoll is a coral island". Coral island(s) lies on the coral rim, hence it's a part of the whole atoll, not the atoll itself. Please review this. Autumnyear (talk) 03:35, 30 January 2013 (UTC)
 * So I have to correct this by myself. I have added two good sources to the all important first sentence since the old definition is fundamentally wrong when mixing the coral reef with islands built on it. Atoll is a kind of coral reef (the others are mainly barrier reef, fringing reef and table reef or patch reef). There may be coral islands (low and flat, in many case are cays) built on the coral reef, so islands are parts of the whole atoll, not the atoll itself. Autumnyear (talk) 14:26, 12 February 2013 (UTC)

About Distribution and size subsection
In this subsection one finds this verbiage stream: Atoll islands are low lying, with their elevations less than 5 meters (9).

What might be the meaning or purpose of the characters " (9)" ? It cannot be 5-meters converted to feet, because that would be 16-feet. The "9" cannot be reference #9, because that spreadsheet from The Geological Society of America does not provide any data on the "elevations" of atolls. If someone can provide a "units" for the "9", or a purpose, then I won't suggest we delete it. P.S.: I do not know how to determine quickly which user inserted the "(9)" in order to ask them 'why'. James Rodriguez 10:13, 24 May 2015 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Jrodor (talk • contribs)

OK this "9" was fixed by user neodop on 23 May 2020, changed to 16-feet. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 75.37.20.83 (talk) 06:55, 18 January 2021 (UTC)

Double atoll
Can an atoll exist within another, larger atoll? If so, are there any examples? 32ieww (talk) 03:26, 4 January 2017 (UTC) 32ieww (talk) 03:26, 4 January 2017 (UTC)

External links modified
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 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20090301125355/http://fdsys.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/WCPD-2009-01-12/pdf/WCPD-2009-01-12.pdf to http://fdsys.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/WCPD-2009-01-12/pdf/WCPD-2009-01-12.pdf

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Digital files of citations / sources
Hi,

I have digital files that i can share of sources that I cited. Just contact me. Paul H. (talk) 03:04, 31 March 2021 (UTC)

The atoll nations
There is something I'd like to know which isn't found in this article. Perhaps if could be included. And this is; which nations depend entirely or almost entirely on atolls? I think including this information would emphasise the importance of atolls, in that some nations would never have existed without them. The Maldives, Kiribati, the Marshall Islands, etc. Ypna (talk) 01:37, 11 September 2021 (UTC)

And additionally, languages, cultures, ethnicities, species, and subspecies, that would never have existed without their atolls. Ypna (talk) 20:19, 11 September 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Atoll


text:
Guess Who

Guess Who may refer to:

 * Guess Who (B. B. King album), 1972
 * Guess Who (Slim Whitman album), 1971
 * Guess Who (EP), a 2021 EP by South Korean girl group Itzy
 * Guess Who (film), a 2005 romantic comedy starring Bernie Mac, Ashton Kutcher and Zoë Saldaña
 * Guess Who (rapper), a Romanian hip hop artist
 * Guess Who?, a guessing game made popular by the Milton Bradley Company
 * "Guess Who", a Goodie Mob song from their debut album, Soul Food (1995)
 * "Guess Who", a 1966 Tages song from their album Tages 2
 * The Guess Who, a rock band from Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada

title: Guess Who


text:
Collodion

Collodion is a flammable, syrupy solution of nitrocellulose in ether and alcohol. There are two basic types: flexible and non-flexible. The flexible type is often used as a surgical dressing or to hold dressings in place. When painted on the skin, collodion dries to form a flexible nitrocellulose film. While it is initially colorless, it discolors over time. Non-flexible collodion is often used in theatrical make-up. Collodion was also the basis of most wet-plate photography until it was superseded by modern gelatin emulsions.

History
In 1846, Louis-Nicolas Ménard and Florès Domonte discovered that cellulose nitrate could be dissolved in ether. They devised a mixture of ether as the solvent and ethanol as a diluent that rendered cellulose nitrate into a clear gelatinous liquid. Collodion was first used medically as a dressing in 1847 by the Boston physician John Parker Maynard. The solution was dubbed "collodion" (from the Greek κολλώδης (kollodis), gluey) by Dr. A.A. Gould of Boston, Massachusetts.

Wet-plate collodion photography

In 1851, Frederick Scott Archer, an Englishman, discovered that collodion could be used as an alternative to egg white (albumen) on glass photographic plates. Collodion reduced the exposure time necessary for making an image. This method became known as the 'wet-plate collodion' or 'wet collodion' method. Collodion was relatively grainless and colorless, and allowed for one of the first high-quality duplication processes, also known as negatives. This process also produced two types of positives: the ambrotype and the tintype (also known as ferrotype).

The process required great skill and included the following steps:
 * Clean the glass plate (extremely well)
 * In the light, pour "salted" (iodide, bromide) collodion onto the glass plate, tilting it so it reaches each corner. The excess is poured back into the bottle.
 * Take the plate into a darkroom or orange tent (the plate is sensitive only to blue light) and immerse the plate in a silver nitrate sensitising bath (for 3–5 minutes)
 * Lift the plate out of the bath, drain and wipe the back, load it into a plate holder and protect from light with a dark slide.
 * Load the plate holder into the camera, withdraw the dark slide and expose the plate (can range from less than a second to several minutes)
 * Develop the plate (using a ferrous sulfate based developer)
 * Fix the plate (with potassium cyanide or sodium thiosulfate)

All of this was done in a matter of minutes, and some of the steps in (red) safelight conditions, which meant that the photographer had to carry the chemicals and a portable darkroom with him wherever he went. After these steps the plate needed rinsing in fresh water. Finally, the plate was dried and varnished using a varnish made from sandarac, alcohol and lavender oil.

Dark tents to be used outdoors consisted of a small tent that was tied around the photographer's waist. Otherwise a wheelbarrow or a horse and covered wagon were used.

Dry collodion plates
Richard Hill Norris, a doctor of medicine and professor of physiology at Queen's College, Birmingham (a predecessor college of Birmingham University), is generally credited with the first development of dry collodion plate when in 1856 he took out a new patent for a dry plate used in photography in which the emulsion was coated with gelatine or gum arabic to preserve its sensitivity. Another method, using tannin, invented by Major C. Russell in 1861, followed and in 1864 W.E. Bolton and E.J. Sayce mixed silver bromide with collodion, so that by the mid-1860s the wet-plate process was being replaced.

Medical

 * Many wart-remover preparations consist of acetic acid and salicylic acid in an acetone collodion base used in the treatment of warts by keratolysis.
 * Nitrocellulose (pyroxylin) solution is also used in liquid bandage products.
 * EEG electrodes are commonly attached to the patient's scalp with rigid collodion for long-term treatment

Other uses

 * Non-flexible collodion is used in theatrical makeup for various effects. When applied to the skin, it shrinks as the solvent (usually ether or alcohol) evaporates, causing wrinkles and is used to simulate old age, or scars.
 * Collodion is used in the cleaning of optics such as telescope mirrors. The collodion is applied to the surface of the optic, usually in two or more layers. Sometimes a piece of thin cloth is applied between the layers, to hold the collodion together for easy removal. After the collodion dries and forms a solid sheet covering the optic, it is carefully peeled away, taking contamination with it.
 * Collodion is a pure type of pyroxylin used to embed specimens which will be examined under a microscope.
 * While in Paris, René Dagron became familiar with the collodion wet plate and collodion-albumen dry plate processes which he would later adapt to his microfilm and Stanhope production techniques.
 * Collodion was used by Alfred Nobel in his development of blasting gelatin, a more powerful, flexible, and water resistant variation of his already-successful dynamite.
 * Some types of nail polish also contain collodion.

title: Collodion


text:
Talk:The Guess Who

Guess Who and CanCon
Canadian content regulations were not enacted until 1972, long after The Guess Who were an established band with many hits. Prior to that, it was difficult (though obviously not impossible) for Canadian bands to break through on Canadian radio, as the Canadian music distribution system was largely controlled by American record companies promoting American or British acts. Canadian bands also had to obtain work visas to tour in the US or the UK, which made things a little more complicated in terms of getting one's international career off the ground. (Partly because work visas would only be granted to musicians of a certain professional stature -- and because it was difficult to get a career started in Canada, it was hard to achieve that stature...)

So yes, being a in Canadian rock band in the 60s put one at somewhat of a disadvantage career-wise. That the Guess Who succeeded and thrived in this environment is a testament to both their work ethic, and to the quality of their music. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 172.137.89.6 (talk) 21:52, 29 July 2006 (UTC)

"The Fake Guess Who" and other recent edits
As per the discussion above titled Cleanup time, the section about the "Fake Guess Who" could use a cleanup, and I've made those changes. We don't need a blow-by-blow of every member during this time period in the band's history, especially since the section was longer than others and contained less credible sources and insignificant media coverage. Mentioning a "revolving lineup of musicians" should suffice for the main article section. The "List of Guess Who members" article can provide the long list of band members if people are looking for that information. This seems to have already been the established consensus above and I made changes to address this issue in the article as well. I also added more credible sources throughout the article that address this aspect of the band's history, including Billboard and Winnipeg Free Press. User FlightTime reverted these changes and requested that I discuss these matters here. I look forward to engaging in that conversation. - Mennowiki — Preceding unsigned comment added by Mennowiki (talk • contribs) 10 October 2021 (UTC)

NOT a cover band
Who writes these lies? The false label 'Cover Band' should be removed. Garry Peterson is an original member of The Guess Who, and he has been the band's drummer for most of it's existence. The other original members of The Guess Who left the group under their own choosing. 'Cover Band' usually refers to a group that performs songs originally recorded by VARIOUS other artists, but the current 'The Guess Who' performs ONLY 'The Guess Who' songs. 204.26.30.5 (talk) 00:29, 30 December 2023 (UTC)
 * I agree and have changed the wording. Whatever disagreements there are or have been (don't know, don't care), they are clearly not a "cover band" if they contain original or longstanding members.  If they have been described as a "cover band", that can be included with proper sourcing and attribution. Ghmyrtle (talk) 08:29, 30 December 2023 (UTC)
 * I believe all this new wording of this biography,demeaning Garry Peterson and diminishing his contribution to this band is done by Bachman/Cummings’”people”.This has all come about since this ridiculous law suit.This bio completely changed in 3 months.Completely biased and not historically accurate .Cummings broke up the band to go on his own because he thought he “was” the band.Left everyone,financially and musically devastated.Garry almost lost everything because of greed and ego. 2603:9000:D101:85F3:DC48:F344:96E4:A470 (talk) 09:32, 11 February 2024 (UTC)
 * Why is "people" in quotes? Are you implying they are bots> 70.27.178.218 (talk) 22:59, 18 May 2024 (UTC)

Bias/ Poorly Sourced Biography
I have some suggestions for the biography section. It uses some persuasive language that could be fixed and also isn't sourced very well.

The Guess Who was a Canadian rock band formed in Winnipeg, Manitoba in 1965.

''' -'Was' should be changed to 'is' as the band is still currently touring and putting out records. There are multiple sources that confirm this but here are two examples: '''

 https://www.bandsintown.com/a/5757-the-guess-who

 https://digital.abcaudio.com/news/guess-who-are-full-love-new-album-plein-damour

'' The band found their greatest success in the late 1960s and early 1970s, under the leadership of singer/keyboardist Burton Cummings and guitarist Randy Bachman, with hit songs including "American Woman", "These Eyes", and "No Time". ''

''' The above paragraph is missing a source and is written using persuasive language (“greatest success” is subjective). Would it be better to say “The band experienced significant commercial success in the late 1960s and early 1970s with popular singles such as 'American Woman', 'These Eyes', and 'No Time'” ? '''

'' The Guess Who officially broke up in 1975, although a nostalgia-oriented lineup former bassist Jim Kale has toured and recorded under The Guess Who name since 1978, often performing as a ghost band without any original band members on stage. ''

''' The source for this section is an opinion piece and is presented as fact. I think a more reliable source is needed or this part needs to be changed/ improved. '''

SpiritedSea (talk) 14:26, 15 March 2024 (UTC)

 * Please review MOS:ENGVAR -  FlightTime  ( open channel ) 14:32, 15 March 2024 (UTC)
 * Your points in order:
 * The current band is simply using the name, which use is disputed and the subject of a legal challenge. Wikipedia should not state in any way that this incarnation is a continuation of the band that broke up in 1975.
 * The paragraph about greatest success etc. is in the lead, and is supported with text and sources in the body. It is not a "subjective" opinion, it is verfiable by statistics such as record sales, chart places etc. Lard Almighty (talk) 15:12, 15 March 2024 (UTC)
 * Thanks for the reply. I do understand your point however I think overall this creates confusion. If it is only about The Guess Who from 1965-1975 then should it not be indicated that is the case? If there are two separate entities then wouldn’t there be two separate pages? Also, if there is still one of the original members in the current version, then couldn’t it be argued that it is a continuation of the same band? I do see that there is a section regarding the legal dispute but with how the information is currently presented it is biased to favor one side. SpiritedSea (talk) 18:07, 15 March 2024 (UTC)
 * It is in dispute. It is not Wikipedia's job to decide that dispute.  The band exists, tours and releases music.  This should be reflected more clearly in the article, rather than choosing sides, as it does now.2002:620D:3AF:0:652B:ED98:8A83:DFFA (talk) 19:52, 10 May 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:The Guess Who


text:
4VSB

4VSB is an abbreviation for 4-level vestigial sideband modulation, a type of radio transmission capable of transmitting two bits of information (22=4) at a time. Other faster but less rugged forms include 8VSB and 16VSB. While 2VSB is more rugged, it is also slower.

title: 4VSB


text:
2VSB

In telecommunications, 2VSB is an abbreviation for 2-level vestigial sideband modulation, a transmission method capable of transmitting one bit (21=2) at a time.

Other faster but less rugged forms include 4VSB, 8VSB, and 16VSB.

title: 2VSB


text:
Collective trade mark

A collective trademark, collective trade mark, or collective mark is a trademark owned by an organization (such as an association), used by its members to identify themselves with a level of quality or accuracy, geographical origin, or other characteristics set by the organization.

Collective trademarks are exceptions to the underlying principle of trademarks in that most trademarks serve as "badges of origin"; they indicate the individual source of the goods or services. A collective trademark, however, can be used by a variety of traders, rather than just one individual concern, provided that the trader belongs to the association.

Collective trademarks differ from certification marks. The main difference is that collective trademarks may be used by particular members of the organization which owns them, while certification marks may be used by anybody who complies with the standards defined by the owner of the particular certification mark. All these factors are being completely at the level of intellectual property.

Regulations on use
National trademark laws in some countries (such as Finland, Germany, Hungary and Switzerland) provide for the filing of the regulations as an additional requirement for registration of the collective trademark.

The regulations shall normally specify:
 * the name and seat of the organization,
 * information on the members authorized to use the collective trademark, including their names, addresses and seats,
 * the conditions of membership,
 * the conditions of use of the collective trademark,
 * the prescriptions relating to the control of the use of the collective trademark,
 * the order of proceedings against unauthorized use of the collective trademark.

The main purpose of the regulations is to protect consumers against misleading practices.

International treaties
Many jurisdictions have been required to amend their trademark legislation in order to accommodate the requirement of protection of collective marks under TRIPs. Art. 7 bis of the Paris Convention also requires signatories "to accept for filing and to protect collective marks belonging to associations the existence of which is not contrary to the law of the country of origin, even if such organizations do not possess an industrial or commercial establishment."

Examples
Examples of collective trademarks include:
 * the "CA" device used by the Institute of Chartered Accountants;
 * the mark "CPA", used to indicate members of the Society of Certified Public Accountants; and,
 * the marks of various confederated lobby groups.

Related cases

 * The Parma Ham case [1991] RPC 251, in which the  Consorzio del Prosciutto di Parma sued for passing off their unregistered collective mark;
 * Association of Certified Public Accountants v. Trade Secretary [1998] 1 WLR 164.

title: Collective trade mark


text:
NYRA

NYRA is an abbreviation for the following groups:
 * National Youth Rights Association, a United States youth rights organization
 * New York Racing Association, The NY State franchisee which runs racing operations at three New York State Thoroughbred racecourses; Aqueduct, Belmont Park and Saratoga Racecourse.

title: NYRA