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Peninsula campaign

The Peninsula campaign (also known as the Peninsular campaign) of the American Civil War was a major Union operation launched in southeastern Virginia from March to July 1862, the first large-scale offensive in the Eastern Theater. The operation, commanded by Major General George B. McClellan, was an amphibious turning movement against the Confederate States Army in Northern Virginia, intended to capture the Confederate capital of Richmond. Despite the fact that Confederate spy Thomas Nelson Conrad had obtained documents describing McClellan's battle plans from a double agent in the War Department, McClellan was initially successful against the equally cautious General Joseph E. Johnston, but the emergence of the more aggressive General Robert E. Lee turned the subsequent Seven Days Battles into a humiliating Union defeat.

McClellan landed his army at Fort Monroe and moved northwest, up the Virginia Peninsula. Confederate Brigadier General John B. Magruder's defensive position on the Warwick Line caught McClellan by surprise. His hopes for a quick advance foiled, McClellan ordered his army to prepare for a siege of Yorktown. Just before the siege preparations had been completed, the Confederates, now under the direct command of Johnston, began a withdrawal toward Richmond. The first heavy fighting of the campaign occurred during the Battle of Williamsburg in which the Union troops managed some tactical victories, but the Confederates continued their withdrawal. An amphibious flanking movement to Eltham's Landing was ineffective in cutting off the Confederate retreat. During the Battle of Drewry's Bluff, an attempt by the US Navy to reach Richmond by way of the James River was repulsed.

As McClellan's army reached the outskirts of Richmond, a minor battle occurred at Hanover Court House, but it was followed by a surprise attack by Johnston at the Battle of Seven Pines or Fair Oaks. The battle was inconclusive, with heavy casualties, but it had lasting effects on the campaign. Johnston was wounded by a Union artillery shell fragment on May 31 and replaced the next day by the more aggressive Robert E. Lee, who reorganized his army and prepared for offensive action in the final battles of June 25 to July 1, which are popularly known as the Seven Days Battles. The result was that the Union army was unable to enter Richmond, and both armies remained intact.

Military situation
On August 20, 1861, Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan formed the Army of the Potomac, with himself as its first commander. During the summer and fall, McClellan brought a high degree of organization to his new army, and greatly improved its morale by his frequent trips to review and encourage his units. It was a remarkable achievement, in which he came to personify the Army of the Potomac and reaped the adulation of his men. He created defenses for Washington that were almost impregnable, consisting of 48 forts and strong points, with 480 guns manned by 7,200 artillerists.

On November 1, 1861, Gen. Winfield Scott retired and McClellan became general in chief of all the Union armies. The president expressed his concern about the "vast labor" involved in the dual role of army commander and general in chief, but McClellan responded, "I can do it all."

On January 12, 1862, McClellan revealed his intentions to transport the Army of the Potomac by ship to Urbanna, Virginia, on the Rappahannock River, outflanking the Confederate forces near Washington, and proceeding 50 mi overland to capture Richmond. On January 27, Lincoln issued an order that required all of his armies to begin offensive operations by February 22, Washington's birthday. On January 31, he issued a supplementary order for the Army of the Potomac to move overland to attack the Confederates at Manassas Junction and Centreville. McClellan immediately replied with a 22-page letter objecting in detail to the president's plan and advocating instead his Urbanna plan, which was the first written instance of the plan's details being presented to the president. Although Lincoln believed his plan was superior, he was relieved that McClellan finally agreed to begin moving, and reluctantly approved. On March 8, doubting McClellan's resolve, Lincoln called a council of war at the White House in which McClellan's subordinates were asked about their confidence in the Urbanna plan. They expressed their confidence to varying degrees. After the meeting, Lincoln issued another order, naming specific officers as corps commanders to report to McClellan (who had been reluctant to do so prior to assessing his division commanders' effectiveness in combat, even though this would have meant his direct supervision of twelve divisions in the field).

Before McClellan could implement his plans, the Confederate forces under General Joseph E. Johnston withdrew from their positions before Washington on March 9, assuming new positions south of the Rappahannock, which completely nullified the Urbanna strategy. McClellan retooled his plan so that his troops would disembark at Fort Monroe, Virginia, and advance up the Virginia Peninsula to Richmond. However, McClellan came under extreme criticism from the press and the Congress when it was found that Johnston's forces had not only slipped away unnoticed, but had for months fooled the Union Army through the use of Quaker Guns.

A further complication for the campaign planning was the emergence of the first Confederate ironclad warship, CSS Virginia, which threw Washington into a panic and made naval support operations on the James River seem problematic. In the Battle of Hampton Roads (March 8–9, 1862), Virginia defeated wooden U.S. Navy ships blockading the harbor of Hampton Roads, Virginia, including the frigates USS Cumberland and USS Congress on March 8, calling into question the viability of any of the wooden ships in the world. The following day, the USS Monitor ironclad arrived at the scene and engaged with the Virginia, the famous first duel of the ironclads. The battle, although inconclusive, received worldwide publicity. After the battle, it was clear that ironclad ships were the future of naval warfare. Neither ship severely damaged the other; the only net result was keeping Virginia from attacking any more wooden ships.

On March 11, 1862, Lincoln removed McClellan as general-in-chief, leaving him in command of only the Army of the Potomac, ostensibly so that McClellan would be free to devote all his attention to the move on Richmond. Although McClellan was assuaged by supportive comments Lincoln made to him, in time he saw the change of command very differently, describing it as a part of an intrigue "to secure the failure of the approaching campaign."

Union
The Army of the Potomac had approximately 50,000 men at Fort Monroe when McClellan arrived in late March, but this number grew to 121,500 before hostilities began. The army was organized into three corps and other units, as follows:
 * II Corps, Brig. Gen. Edwin V. Sumner commanding: divisions of Brig. Gens. Israel B. Richardson and John Sedgwick
 * III Corps, Brig. Gen. Samuel P. Heintzelman commanding: divisions of Brig. Gens. Fitz John Porter, Joseph Hooker, and Charles S. Hamilton
 * IV Corps, Brig. Gen. Erasmus D. Keyes commanding: divisions of Brig. Gens. Darius N. Couch, William F. "Baldy" Smith, and Silas Casey
 * 1st Division of the I Corps, Brig. Gen. William B. Franklin commanding
 * Reserve infantry commanded by Brig. Gen. George Sykes
 * Cavalry commanded by Brig. Gen. George Stoneman
 * The garrison of Fort Monroe, 12,000 men under Maj. Gen. John E. Wool; Wool was quickly transferred to another department for duty in Baltimore after the War Department realized that he technically outranked McClellan.

Confederate
On the Confederate side, Johnston's Army of Northern Virginia (newly named as of March 14) was organized into three wings, each composed of several brigades, as follows:
 * Left Wing, Maj. Gen. D. H. Hill commanding: brigades of Brig. Gen. Robert E. Rodes, Winfield S. Featherston, Jubal A. Early, and Gabriel J. Raines
 * Center Wing, Maj. Gen. James Longstreet commanding: brigades of Brig. Gens. A. P. Hill, Richard H. Anderson, George E. Pickett, Cadmus M. Wilcox, Raleigh E. Colston, and Roger A. Pryor
 * Right Wing, Maj. Gen. John B. Magruder commanding: division of Brig. Gen. Lafayette McLaws (brigades of Brig. Gens. Paul J. Semmes, Richard Griffith, Joseph B. Kershaw, and Howell Cobb) and division of Brig. Gen. David R. Jones (brigades of Brig. Gens. Robert A. Toombs and George T. Anderson)
 * Reserve force commanded by Maj. Gen. Gustavus W. Smith
 * Cavalry commanded by Brig. Gen. J. E. B. Stuart

However, at the time the Army of the Potomac arrived, only Magruder's 11,000 men faced them on the Peninsula. The bulk of Johnston's force (43,000 men) were at Culpeper, 6,000 under Maj. Gen. Theophilus H. Holmes at Fredericksburg, and 9,000 under Maj. Gen. Benjamin Huger at Norfolk. In Richmond, General Robert E. Lee had returned from work on coastal fortifications in the Carolinas and on March 13 became the chief military adviser to Confederate President Jefferson Davis.

Forces in the Shenandoah Valley played an indirect role in the campaign. Approximately 50,000 men under Maj. Gens. Nathaniel P. Banks and Irvin McDowell were engaged chasing a much smaller force under Stonewall Jackson in the Valley Campaign. Jackson's expert maneuvering and tactical success in small battles kept the Union men from reinforcing McClellan, much to his dismay. He had planned to have 30,000 under McDowell to join him.

Magruder had prepared three defensive lines across the Peninsula. The first, about 12 mi north of Fort Monroe, contained infantry outposts and artillery redoubts, but was insufficiently manned to prevent any Union advance. Its primary purpose was to shield information from the Union about a second line extending from Yorktown to Mulberry Island. This Warwick Line consisted of redoubts, rifle pits, and fortifications behind the Warwick River. By enlarging two dams on the river, the river was turned into a significant military obstacle in its own right. The third defensive line was a series of forts at Williamsburg, which waited unmanned for use by the army if it had to fall back from Yorktown.

Movement to the Peninsula and the siege of Yorktown
{{legend|#ff0000|Confederate}} {{legend|#0000ff|Union}}

McClellan's army began to sail from Alexandria on March 17. It was an armada that dwarfed all previous American expeditions, transporting 121,500 men, 44 artillery batteries, 1,150 wagons, over 15,000 horses, and tons of equipment and supplies. An English observer remarked that it was the "stride of a giant."

With the Virginia still in operation, the U.S. Navy could not assure McClellan that they could protect operations on either the James or the York, so his plan of amphibiously enveloping Yorktown was abandoned, and he ordered an advance up the Peninsula to begin April 4.

On April 5, the IV Corps of Brig. Gen. Erasmus D. Keyes made initial contact with Confederate defensive works at Lee's Mill, an area McClellan expected to move through without resistance. Magruder, a fan of theatrics, set up a successful deception campaign. By moving one company in circles through a glen, he gained the appearance of an endless line of reinforcements marching to relieve him. He also spread his artillery very far apart and had it fire sporadically at the Union lines. Federals were convinced that his works were strongly held, reporting that an army of 100,000 was in their path. As the two armies fought an artillery duel, reconnaissance indicated to Keyes the strength and breadth of the Confederate fortifications, and he advised McClellan against assaulting them. McClellan ordered the construction of siege fortifications and brought his heavy siege guns to the front. In the meantime, Gen. Johnston brought reinforcements for Magruder.

McClellan chose not to attack without more reconnaissance and ordered his army to entrench in works parallel to Magruder's and besiege Yorktown. McClellan reacted to Keyes's report, as well as to reports of enemy strength near the town of Yorktown, but he also received word that the I Corps, under Maj. Gen. Irvin McDowell, would be withheld for the defense of Washington, instead of joining him on the Peninsula as McClellan had planned. In addition to the pressure of Jackson's Valley campaign, President Lincoln believed that McClellan had left insufficient force to guard Washington and that the general had been deceptive in his reporting of unit strengths, counting troops as ready to defend Washington when they were actually deployed elsewhere. McClellan protested that he was being forced to lead a major campaign without his promised resources, but he moved ahead anyway. For the next 10 days, McClellan's men dug while Magruder steadily received reinforcements. By mid April, Magruder commanded 35,000 men, barely enough to defend his line.

Although McClellan doubted his numeric superiority over the enemy, he had no doubts about the superiority of his artillery. The siege preparations at Yorktown consisted of 15 batteries with more than 70 heavy guns. When fired in unison, these batteries would deliver over 7,000 pounds of ordnance onto the enemy positions with each volley.

On April 16, Union forces probed a point in the Confederate line at Dam No. 1, on the Warwick River near Lee's Mill. Magruder realized the weakness of his position and ordered it strengthened. Three regiments under Brig. Gen. Howell Cobb, with six other regiments nearby, were improving their position on the west bank of the river overlooking the dam. McClellan became concerned that this strengthening might impede his installation of siege batteries. He ordered Brig. Gen. William F. "Baldy" Smith, a division commander in the IV Corps, to "hamper the enemy" in completing their defensive works.

At 3 p.m., four companies of the 3rd Vermont Infantry crossed the dam and routed the remaining defenders. Behind the lines, Cobb organized a defense with his brother, Colonel Thomas Cobb of the Georgia Legion, and attacked the Vermonters, who had occupied the Confederate rifle pits. Unable to obtain reinforcements, the Vermont companies withdrew across the dam, suffering casualties as they retreated. At about 5 p.m., Baldy Smith ordered the 6th Vermont to attack Confederate positions downstream from the dam while the 4th Vermont demonstrated at the dam itself. This maneuver failed as the 6th Vermont came under heavy Confederate fire and were forced to withdraw. Some of the wounded men were drowned as they fell into the shallow pond behind the dam.

For the remainder of April, the Confederates, now at 57,000 and under the direct command of Johnston, improved their defenses while McClellan undertook the laborious process of transporting and placing massive siege artillery batteries, which he planned to deploy on May 5. Johnston knew that the impending bombardment would be difficult to withstand, so began sending his supply wagons in the direction of Richmond on May 3. Escaped slaves reported that fact to McClellan, who refused to believe them. He was convinced that an army whose strength he estimated as high as 120,000 would stay and fight. On the evening of May 3, the Confederates launched a brief bombardment of their own and then fell silent. Early the next morning, Heintzelman ascended in one of Lowe's observation balloons and found that the Confederate earthworks were empty.

McClellan was stunned by the news. He sent cavalry under Brig. Gen. George Stoneman in pursuit and ordered Brig. Gen. William B. Franklin's division to reboard Navy transports, sail up the York River, and cut off Johnston's retreat.

Williamsburg
By May 5, Johnston's army was making slow progress on muddy roads and Stoneman's cavalry was skirmishing with Brig. Gen. J.E.B. Stuart's cavalry, Johnston's rearguard. To give time for the bulk of his army to get free, Johnston detached part of his force to make a stand at a large earthen fortification, Fort Magruder, straddling the Williamsburg Road (from Yorktown), constructed earlier by Magruder. The Battle of Williamsburg was the first pitched battle of the Peninsula campaign, in which nearly 41,000 Union and 32,000 Confederates were engaged.

Brig. Gen. Joseph Hooker's 2nd Division of the III Corps was the lead infantry in the Union Army advance. They assaulted Fort Magruder and a line of rifle pits and smaller fortifications that extended in an arc southwest from the fort, but were repulsed. Confederate counterattacks, directed by Maj. Gen. James Longstreet, threatened to overwhelm Hooker's division, which had contested the ground alone since the early morning while waiting for the main body of the army to arrive. Hooker had expected Baldy Smith's division of the IV Corps, marching north on the Yorktown Road, to hear the sound of battle and come in on Hooker's right in support. However, Smith had been halted by Sumner more than a mile away from Hooker's position. He had been concerned that the Confederates would leave their fortifications and attack him on the Yorktown Road.

Longstreet's men did leave their fortifications, but they attacked Hooker, not Smith or Sumner. The brigade of Brig. Gen. Cadmus M. Wilcox applied strong pressure to Hooker's line. Hooker's retreating men were aided by the arrival of Brig. Gen. Philip Kearny's 3rd Division of the III Corps at about 2:30 p.m. Kearny ostentatiously rode his horse out in front of his picket lines to reconnoiter and urged his men forward by flashing his saber with his only arm. The Confederates were pushed off the Lee's Mill Road and back into the woods and the abatis of their defensive positions. There, sharp firefights occurred until late in the afternoon.

Brig. Gen. Winfield S. Hancock's 1st Brigade of Baldy Smith's division, which had marched a few miles to the Federal right and crossed Cub's Creek at the point where it was dammed to form the Jones's Mill pond, began bombarding Longstreet's left flank around noon. Maj. Gen. D. H. Hill, commanding Longstreet's reserve force, had previously detached a brigade under Brig. Gen. Jubal A. Early and posted them on the grounds of the College of William & Mary. Splitting his command, Early led two of his four regiments through the woods without performing adequate reconnaissance and found that they emerged not on the enemy's flank, but directly in front of Hancock's guns, which occupied two abandoned redoubts. He personally led the 24th Virginia Infantry on a futile assault and was wounded by a bullet through the shoulder.

Hancock had been ordered repeatedly by Sumner to withdraw his command back to Cub Creek, but he used the Confederate attack as an excuse to hold his ground. As the 24th Virginia charged, D. H. Hill emerged from the woods leading one of Early's other regiments, the 5th North Carolina. He ordered an attack before realizing the difficulty of his situation—Hancock's 3,400 infantrymen and eight artillery pieces significantly outnumbered the two attacking Confederate regiments, fewer than 1,200 men with no artillery support. He called off the assault after it had begun, but Hancock ordered a counterattack. After the battle, the counterattack received significant publicity as a major, gallant bayonet charge and McClellan's description of Hancock's "superb" performance gave him the nickname, "Hancock the Superb."

Confederate casualties at Williamsburg were 1,682, Union 2,283. McClellan miscategorized his first significant battle as a "brilliant victory" over superior forces. However, the defense of Williamsburg was seen by the South as a means of delaying the Federals, which allowed the bulk of the Confederate army to continue its withdrawal toward Richmond.

Eltham's Landing (or West Point)
After McClellan ordered Franklin's division to turn Johnston's army with an amphibious operation on the York River, it took two days just to board the men and equipment onto the ships, so Franklin was of no assistance to the Williamsburg action. But McClellan had high hopes for his turning movement, planning to send other divisions (those of Brig. Gens. Fitz John Porter, John Sedgwick, and Israel B. Richardson) by river after Franklin's. Their destination was Eltham's Landing on the south bank of the Pamunkey River across from West Point, a port on the York River, which was the terminus of the Richmond and York River Railroad. The landing was close to a key intersection on the road to New Kent Court House that was being used by Johnston's army on the afternoon of May 6.

Franklin's men came ashore in light pontoon boats and built a floating wharf to unload artillery and supplies. The work was continued by torchlight through the night and the only enemy resistance was a few random shots fired by Confederate pickets on the bluff above the landing, ending at about 10 p.m.

Johnston ordered Maj. Gen. G. W. Smith to protect the road to Barhamsville and Smith assigned the division of Brig. Gen. William H. C. Whiting and Hampton's Legion, under Col. Wade Hampton, to the task. On May 7, Franklin posted Brig. Gen. John Newton's brigade in the woods on either side of the landing road, supported in the rear by portions of two more brigades (Brig. Gens. Henry W. Slocum and Philip Kearny). Newton's skirmish line was pushed back as Brig. Gen. John Bell Hood's Texas Brigade advanced, with Hampton to his right.

As a second brigade followed Hood on his left, the Union troops retreated from the woods to the plain before the landing, seeking cover from the fire of Federal gunboats. Whiting employed artillery fire against the gunboats, but his guns had insufficient range, so he disengaged around 2 p.m. Union troops moved back into the woods after the Confederates left, but made no further attempt to advance. Although the action was tactically inconclusive, Franklin missed an opportunity to intercept the Confederate retreat from Williamsburg, allowing it to pass unmolested.

Norfolk and Drewry's Bluff
President Lincoln witnessed part of the campaign, having arrived at Fort Monroe on May 6 in the company of Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton and Secretary of the Treasury Salmon P. Chase on the Treasury Department's revenue cutter Miami. Lincoln believed that the city of Norfolk was vulnerable and that control of the James was possible, but McClellan was too busy at the front to meet with the president. Exercising his direct powers as commander in chief, Lincoln ordered naval bombardments of Confederate batteries in the area on May 8 and set off in a small boat with his two Cabinet secretaries to conduct a personal reconnaissance on shore. Troops under the command of Maj. Gen. John E. Wool, the elderly commander of Fort Monroe, occupied Norfolk on May 10, encountering little resistance.

After the Confederate garrison at Norfolk was evacuated, Commodore Josiah Tattnall III knew that CSS Virginia had no home port and he could not navigate her deep draft through the shallow stretches of the James River toward Richmond, so she was scuttled on May 11 off Craney Island to prevent her capture. This opened the James River at Hampton Roads to Federal gunboats.

The only obstacle that protected Richmond from a river approach was Fort Darling on Drewry's Bluff, overlooking a sharp bend on the river 7 mi down river from the city. The Confederate defenders, including marines, sailors, and soldiers, were supervised by Navy Cmdr. Ebenezer Farrand and by Army Captain Augustus H. Drewry, the owner of the property that bore his name. The eight cannons in the fort, including field artillery pieces and five naval guns, some salvaged from the Virginia, commanded the river for miles in both directions. Guns from the CSS Patrick Henry, including an 8 in smoothbore, were just upriver and sharpshooters gathered on the river banks. An underwater obstruction of sunken steamers, pilings, debris, and other vessels connected by chains was placed just below the bluff, making it difficult for vessels to maneuver in the narrow river.

On May 15, a detachment of the U.S. Navy's North Atlantic Blockading Squadron, under the command of Commander John Rodgers steamed up the James River from Fort Monroe to test the Richmond defenses. At 7:45 a.m., the USS Galena closed to within 600 yd of the fort and anchored, but before she could open fire, two Confederate rounds pierced the lightly armored vessel. The battle lasted over three hours and during that time, Galena remained almost stationary and took 45 hits. Her crew reported casualties of 14 dead or mortally wounded and 10 injured. Monitor was also a frequent target, but her heavier armor withstood the blows. Contrary to some reports, the Monitor, despite its squat turret, did not have difficulty bringing its guns to bear and fired steadily against the fort. The USS Naugatuck withdrew when her 100-pounder Parrott rifle exploded. The two wooden gunboats remained safely out of range of the big guns, but the captain of the USS Port Royal was wounded by a sharpshooter. Around 11 a.m. the Union ships withdrew to City Point.

The massive fort on Drewry's Bluff had blunted the Union advance just 7 mi short of the Confederate capital. Rodgers reported to McClellan that it was feasible for the Navy to land troops as close as 10 mi from Richmond, but the Union Army never took advantage of this observation.

Armies converge on Richmond
Johnston withdrew his 60,000 men into the Richmond defenses. Their defensive line began at the James River at Drewry's Bluff and extended counterclockwise so that his center and left were behind the Chickahominy River, a natural barrier in the spring when it turned the broad plains to the east of Richmond into swamps. Johnston's men burned most of the bridges over the Chickahominy and settled into strong defensive positions north and east of the city. McClellan positioned his 105,000-man army to focus on the northeast sector, for two reasons. First, the Pamunkey River, which ran roughly parallel to the Chickahominy, offered a line of communication that could enable McClellan to get around Johnston's left flank. Second, McClellan anticipated the arrival of McDowell's I Corps, scheduled to march south from Fredericksburg to reinforce his army, and thus needed to protect their avenue of approach.

The Army of the Potomac pushed slowly up the Pamunkey, establishing supply bases at Eltham's Landing, Cumberland Landing, and White House Landing. White House, the plantation of W.H.F. "Rooney" Lee, son of General Robert E. Lee, became McClellan's base of operations. Using the Richmond and York River Railroad, McClellan could bring his heavy siege artillery to the outskirts of Richmond. He moved slowly and deliberately, reacting to faulty intelligence that led him to believe the Confederates outnumbered him significantly. By the end of May, the army had built bridges across the Chickahominy and was facing Richmond, straddling the river, with one third of the Army south of the river, two thirds north. (This disposition, which made it difficult for one part of the army to reinforce the other quickly, would prove to be a significant problem in the upcoming Battle of Seven Pines). On May 18, McClellan reorganized the Army of the Potomac in the field and promoted two major generals to corps command: Fitz John Porter to the new V Corps and William B. Franklin to the VI Corps. The army had 105,000 men in position northeast of the city, outnumbering Johnston's 60,000, but faulty intelligence from the detective Allan Pinkerton on McClellan's staff caused the general to believe that he was outnumbered two to one. Numerous skirmishes between the lines of the armies occurred from May 23 to May 26. Tensions were high in the city, particularly following the earlier sounds of the naval gun battle at Drewry's Bluff.

Hanover Court House
While skirmishing occurred all along the line between the armies, McClellan heard a rumor that a Confederate force of 17,000 was moving to Hanover Court House, north of Mechanicsville. If this were true, it would threaten the army's right flank and complicate the arrival of McDowell's reinforcements. A Union cavalry reconnaissance adjusted the estimate of the enemy strength to be 6,000, but it was still cause for concern. McClellan ordered Porter and his V Corps to deal with the threat.

Porter departed on his mission at 4 a.m. on May 27 with his 1st Division, under Brig. Gen. George W. Morell, the 3rd Brigade of Brig. Gen. George Sykes's 2nd Division, under Col. Gouverneur K. Warren, and a composite brigade of cavalry and artillery led by Brig. Gen. William H. Emory, altogether about 12,000 men. The Confederate force, which actually numbered about 4,000 men, was led by Col. Lawrence O'Bryan Branch. They had departed from Gordonsville to guard the Virginia Central Railroad, taking up position at Peake's Crossing, 4 mi southwest of the courthouse, near Slash Church. Another Confederate brigade was stationed 10 mi north at Hanover Junction.

Porter's men approached Peake's Crossing in a driving rain. At about noon on May 27, his lead element skirmished briskly with the Confederates until Porter's main body arrived, driving the outnumbered Confederates up the road in the direction of the courthouse. Porter set out in pursuit with most of his force, leaving three regiments to guard the New Bridge and Hanover Court House Roads intersection. This movement exposed the rear of Porter's command to attack by the bulk of Branch's force, which Porter had mistakenly assumed was at Hanover Court House.

Branch also made a poor assumption—that Porter's force was significantly smaller than it turned out to be—and attacked. The initial assault was repulsed, but Martindale's force was eventually almost destroyed by the heavy fire. Porter quickly dispatched the two regiments back to the Kinney Farm. The Confederate line broke under the weight of thousands of new troops and they retreated back through Peake's Crossing to Ashland.

The estimates of Union casualties at Hanover Court House vary, from 355 (62 killed, 233 wounded, 70 captured) to 397. The Confederates left 200 dead on the field and 730 were captured by Porter's cavalry. McClellan claimed that Hanover Court House was yet another "glorious victory over superior numbers" and judged that it was "one of the handsomest things of the war." However, the reality of the outcome was that superior (Union) numbers won the day in a disorganized fight, characterized by misjudgments on both sides. The right flank of the Union army remained secure, although technically the Confederates at Peake's Crossing had not intended to threaten it. And McDowell's Corps did not need its roads kept clear because it never arrived—the defeat of Union forces at the First Battle of Winchester by Stonewall Jackson in the Shenandoah Valley caused the Lincoln administration to recall McDowell to Fredericksburg.

A greater impact than the actual casualties, according to Stephen W. Sears, was the effect on McClellan's preparedness for the next major battle, at Seven Pines and Fair Oaks four days later. During the absence of Porter, McClellan was reluctant to move more of his troops south of the Chickahominy, making his left flank a more attractive target for Johnston. He was also confined to bed, ill with a flare-up of his chronic malaria.

Seven Pines (or Fair Oaks)

Johnston knew that he could not survive a massive siege of Richmond and decided to attack McClellan. His original plan was to attack the Union right flank, north of the Chickahominy River, before McDowell's corps, marching south from Fredericksburg, could arrive. However, on May 27, Johnston learned that McDowell's corps had been diverted to the Shenandoah Valley and would not be reinforcing the Army of the Potomac. He decided against attacking across his own natural defense line, the Chickahominy, and planned to capitalize on the Union army's straddle of the river by attacking the two corps south of the river, leaving them isolated from the other three corps north of the river.

If executed correctly, Johnston would engage two thirds of his army (22 of its 29 infantry brigades, about 51,000 men) against the 33,000 men in the III and IV Corps. The Confederate attack plan was complex, calling for the divisions of A.P. Hill and Magruder to engage lightly and distract the Union forces north of the river, while Longstreet, commanding the main attack south of the river, was to converge on Keyes from three directions. The plan had an excellent potential for initial success because the division of the IV Corps farthest forward, manning the earthworks a mile west of Seven Pines, was that of Brig. Gen. Silas Casey, 6,000 men who were the least experienced in Keyes's corps. If Keyes could be defeated, the III Corps, to the east, could then be pinned against the Chickahominy and overwhelmed.

The complex plan was mismanaged from the start. Johnston issued orders that were vague and contradictory and failed to inform all of his subordinates about the chain of command. On Longstreet's part, he either misunderstood his orders or chose to modify them without informing Johnston, changing his route of march to collide with Hill's, which not only delayed the advance, but limited the attack to a narrow front with only a fraction of its total force. Exacerbating the problems on both sides was a severe thunderstorm on the night of May 30, which flooded the river, destroyed most of the Union bridges, and turned the roads into morasses of mud.

The attack got off to a bad start on May 31 when Longstreet marched down the Charles City Road and turned onto the Williamsburg Road instead of the Nine Mile Road. Huger's orders had not specified a time that the attack was scheduled to start and he was not awakened until he heard a division marching nearby. Johnston and his second-in-command, Smith, unaware of Longstreet's location or Huger's delay, waited at their headquarters for word of the start of the battle. Five hours after the scheduled start, at 1 p.m., D.H. Hill became impatient and sent his brigades forward against Casey's division.

Casey's line buckled with some men retreating, but fought fiercely for possession of their earthworks, resulting in heavy casualties on both sides. The Confederates only engaged four brigades of the thirteen on their right flank that day, so they did not hit with the power that they could have concentrated on this weak point in the Union line. Casey sent for reinforcements but Keyes was slow in responding. Eventually the mass of Confederates broke through, seized a Union redoubt, and Casey's men retreated to the second line of defensive works at Seven Pines.

Hill, now strengthened by reinforcements from Longstreet, hit the secondary Union line near Seven Pines around 4:40 p.m. Hill organized a flanking maneuver to attack Keyes's right flank, which collapsed the Federal line back to the Williamsburg Road. Johnston went forward on the Nine Mile Road with three brigades of Whiting's division and encountered stiff resistance near Fair Oaks Station, the right flank of Keyes's line. Soon heavy Union reinforcements arrived. Brig. Gen. Edwin V. Sumner, II Corps commander, heard the sounds of battle from his position north of the river. On his own initiative, he dispatched a division under Brig. Gen. John Sedgwick over the sole remaining bridge. The treacherous "Grapevine Bridge" was near collapse on the swollen river, but the weight of the crossing troops helped to hold it steady against the rushing water. After the last man had crossed safely, the bridge collapsed and was swept away. Sedgwick's men provided the key to resisting Whiting's attack.

At dusk, Johnston was wounded and evacuated to Richmond. G.W. Smith assumed temporary command of the army. Smith, plagued with ill health, was indecisive about the next steps for the battle and made a bad impression on President Davis and General Lee, Davis's military adviser. After the end of fighting the following day, Davis replaced Smith with Lee as commander of the Army of Northern Virginia.

On June 1, the Confederates under Smith renewed their assaults against the Federals, who had brought up more reinforcements and fought from strong positions, but made little headway. The fighting ended about 11:30 a.m. when the Confederates withdrew. McClellan arrived on the battlefield from his sick bed at about this time, but the Union Army did not counterattack.

Both sides claimed victory with roughly equal casualties—Union casualties were 5,031 (790 killed, 3,594 wounded, 647 captured or missing), Confederate 6,134 (980 killed, 4,749 wounded, 405 captured or missing). McClellan's advance on Richmond was halted and the Army of Northern Virginia fell back into the Richmond defensive works. The battle was frequently remembered by the Union soldiers as the Battle of Fair Oaks Station because that is where they did their best fighting, whereas the Confederates, for the same reason, called it Seven Pines.

The Seven Days Battles

Despite claiming victory at Seven Pines, McClellan was shaken by the experience. He redeployed all of his army except for the V Corps south of the river, and although he continued to plan for a siege and the capture of Richmond, he lost the strategic initiative and never regained it.

Lee used the month-long pause in McClellan's advance to fortify the defenses of Richmond and extend them south to the James River at Chaffin's Bluff. On the south side of the James River, defensive lines were built south to a point below Petersburg. The total length of the new defensive line was about 30 mi. To buy time to complete the new defensive line and prepare for an offensive, Lee repeated the tactic of making a small number of troops seem larger than they really were. McClellan was also unnerved by Jeb Stuart's audacious (but otherwise militarily pointless) cavalry ride completely around the Union army (June 13–15).

The second phase of the Peninsula campaign took a negative turn for the Union when Lee launched fierce counterattacks just east of Richmond in the Seven Days Battles (June 25 – July 1, 1862). Although none of these battles were significant Confederate tactical victories (and the Battle of Malvern Hill on the last day was a significant Confederate defeat), the tenacity of Lee's attacks and the sudden appearance of Stonewall Jackson's "foot cavalry" on his western flank unnerved McClellan, who pulled his forces back to a base on the James River. Lincoln later ordered the army to return to the Washington, D.C., area to support Maj. Gen. John Pope's army in the northern Virginia campaign and the Second Battle of Bull Run. The Virginia Peninsula was relatively quiet until May 1864, when Maj. Gen. Benjamin Butler again invaded as part of the Bermuda Hundred campaign.

title: Peninsula campaign


text:
Pamphlet

A pamphlet is an unbound book (that is, without a hard cover or binding). Pamphlets may consist of a single sheet of paper that is printed on both sides and folded in half, in thirds, or in fourths, called a leaflet or it may consist of a few pages that are folded in half and saddle stapled at the crease to make a simple book.

For the "International Standardization of Statistics Relating to Book Production and Periodicals", UNESCO defines a pamphlet as "a non-periodical printed publication of at least 5 but not more than 48 pages, exclusive of the cover pages, published in a particular country and made available to the public" and a book as "a non-periodical printed publication of at least 49 pages, exclusive of the cover pages". The UNESCO definitions are, however, only meant to be used for the particular purpose of drawing up their book production statistics.

Etymology
The word pamphlet for a small work (opuscule) issued by itself without covers came into Middle English c. 1387 as pamphilet or panflet, generalized from a twelfth-century amatory comic poem with an old flavor, Pamphilus, seu de Amore ("Pamphilus: or, Concerning Love"), written in Latin. Pamphilus's name is derived from the Greek name Πάμφιλος, meaning "beloved of all". The poem was popular and widely copied and circulated on its own, forming a slim codex.

History

Its modern connotations of a tract concerning a contemporary issue was a product of the heated arguments leading to the English Civil War; this sense appeared in 1642. In some European languages, this secondary connotation, of a disputatious tract, has come to the fore: compare libelle, from the Latin libellus, denoting a "little book".

Pamphlets functioned in place of magazine articles in the pre-magazine era, which ended in the mid-nineteenth century. There were hundreds of them in the United States alone. They were a primary means of communication for people interested in political and religious issues, such as slavery. Pamphlets never looked at both sides of a question; most were avowedly partisan, trying not just to inform but to convince the reader.

Purpose
Pamphlets can contain anything from information on kitchen appliances to medical information and religious treatises. Pamphlets are very important in marketing because they are cheap to produce and can be distributed easily to customers. Pamphlets have also long been an important tool of political protest and political campaigning for similar reasons.

A pamphleteer is a historical term for someone who produces or distributes pamphlets, especially for a political cause.

Collectibility
Due to their ephemeral nature and to the wide array of political and religious perspectives given voice by the format's ease of production, pamphlets are prized by many book collectors. Substantial accumulations have been amassed and transferred to ownership of academic research libraries around the world.

Particularly comprehensive collections of American political pamphlets are housed at New York Public Library, the Tamiment Library of New York University, and the Jo Labadie collection at the University of Michigan.

Commercial uses
The pamphlet has been widely adopted in commerce, particularly as a format for marketing communications. There are numerous purposes for pamphlets, such as product descriptions or instructions, corporate information, events promotions or tourism guides and they are often used in the same way as leaflets or brochures.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Pamphlet


text:
Family Affair

Family Affair is an American sitcom starring Brian Keith and Sebastian Cabot that aired on CBS from September 12, 1966, to March 4, 1971. The series explored the trials of well-to-do engineer and bachelor Bill Davis (Keith) as he attempted to raise his brother's orphaned children in his luxury New York City apartment. Davis' traditional English gentleman's gentleman, Mr. Giles French (Cabot), also had adjustments to make as he became saddled with the responsibility of caring for 15-year-old Cissy (Kathy Garver) and the six-year-old twins, Jody (Johnny Whitaker) and Buffy (Anissa Jones).

Family Affair ran for 138 episodes in five seasons. The show was created and produced by Edmund Hartmann and Don Fedderson, also known for My Three Sons and The Millionaire.

Storyline
Indiana native William "Bill" Davis is a successful civil engineer who develops major projects all over the world. A wealthy bachelor, Bill lives in a large apartment in Manhattan's Upper East Side, and has a British manservant, Giles French (usually called "Mr. French" or just "French"), as his valet.

A year prior to the series, Bill's brother Bob and his wife Mary were killed in a car crash in Indiana, orphaning their three children – teenager Cissy, and younger twins Jody and Buffy. His other relatives believe that Bill is the one most capable of supporting them, so the three move in with him in New York. Consequently, Bill's bachelor lifestyle gets turned upside down.

Initially, "Uncle Bill" is none too pleased to have the three youngsters living with him, but he soon grows fond of them. Mr. French, who effectively becomes a nanny in addition to his valet duties, is also flustered by the erratic situation at first, but he, too, develops an affinity for them. Over time, the bachelor, the butler, and the three orphans find themselves becoming a close-knit family.

Other characters
When Sebastian Cabot became ill, Giles' brother, Nigel "Niles" French (John Williams) was introduced. He worked for the Davis family for nine episodes in 1967, while Giles was said to be touring with the Queen in the Commonwealth countries. In the final season, Bill hired a part-time housekeeper, Emily Turner (Nancy Walker), to assist Mr. French.

Various other characters were also seen regularly, including several acquaintances of Mr. French who are in service (most notably Miss Faversham, played by Heather Angel), colleagues of Bill's, and friends of Cissy's.

Production
Due to Don Fedderson's strong track record, Family Affair was sold to CBS even before the pilot had been filmed.

As Fedderson's other program, My Three Sons, had done for Fred MacMurray, Family Affair used a 60-day production schedule to accommodate Brian Keith. All of his scenes for the season would be shot in two 30-day blocks, while his co-stars would fill in after the actor's work was completed. This enabled Fedderson to harness movie stars like Keith and MacMurray into television commitments, while still enabling each to make motion pictures. As a result, each season had a single director for each of the 30-odd scripts.

Since the show's child actors (Whitaker and Jones) could only legally work eight hours a day, scenes with them were shot first, and as a result the cast and crew were often filming as many as four episodes at the same time.

Due to the popularity of the series with girls, Buffy's doll, "Mrs. Beasley" (which she often carried with her), was marketed as a Mattel talking toy in the United States. Mattel went on to produce two additional dolls, as well, patterned after Buffy: the "Tutti"-sized Buffy and larger "Small Talk Buffy" (talking doll), both of which featured accompanying miniature Mrs. Beasley dolls.

Opening
The theme song was composed by veteran television composer Frank DeVol. The opening featured credits appearing over a kaleidoscopic view of a multicolored array of gems and precious stones.

Most of the episodes in the fifth season opened with either Sebastian Cabot or the twins saying, "Good evening, so nice of you to join us," and closing the episode saying, "It's been very good of you to watch and we do hope to see you again next week on Family Affair."

Cast

 * Brian Keith as Bill Davis - The part was first offered to Glenn Ford, who turned it down. Keith also held part ownership of the show.
 * Sebastian Cabot as Giles French
 * Kathy Garver as Catherine "Cissy" Davis - Garver was cast at the last minute, in the middle of shooting the pilot, after the actress originally cast for the part gained 15 pounds on a trip to Europe. No scenes were filmed with Garver's predecessor.
 * Johnny Whitaker as Jonathan "Jody" Davis - Keith suggested Whitaker for the role. Jody and Buffy were originally supposed to be different ages, but after seeing how good Whitaker looked with Anissa Jones, who had already been cast, the producers decided to change them to twins.
 * Anissa Jones as Ava Elizabeth "Buffy" Davis
 * Heather Angel as Miss Faversham, Mr. French's friend
 * John Williams as Nigel "Niles" French (season 1)
 * John Hubbard as Ted Gaynor, Bill's business partner (season 1)
 * Betty Lynn as Miss Lee, Bill's secretary (seasons 1–2)
 * Sherry Alberoni as Sharon James, Cissy's girlfriend (seasons 1–3)
 * Karl Lukas as Scotty Parker, the doorman (seasons 1–3)
 * Gregg Fedderson (producer Don Fedderson's son) as Gregg Bartlett, Cissy's boyfriend (seasons 2–5) - While working on the show Fedderson started dating actress Kathy Garver in real life.
 * Nancy Walker as Emily Turner (season 5)

Notable guest stars

 * John Agar (episode 1.28)
 * Herbert Anderson (episode 4.1)
 * Dana Andrews (episode 4.2)
 * Joan Blondell (episode 2.13)
 * Lynn Borden
 * Richard Bull as the apartment manager
 * Terry Burnham (episode 2.15) as Ingrid, (episode 4.4) as Rita Stone
 * Veronica Cartwright (episode 3.27)
 * Jackie Coogan (episode 2.7)
 * Henry Corden (episode 1.8)
 * Brian Donlevy (episode 1.15)
 * Jamie Farr (episode 3.27) as a hippie
 * Paul Fix (episode 4.15)
 * Leif Garrett (episode 5.15)
 * Linda Kaye Henning (episode 5.9)
 * Kathleen Richards (episode 5.20)
 * Sterling Holloway (episode 1.19) as Mr. Frack, the window-washer
 * James Hong
 * Clint Howard (episode 5.10)
 * Martha Hyer (episode 2.14)
 * Kym Karath (episode 5.22) as Wynn Cartter
 * Andrea King (episode 1.17)
 * Patric Knowles (episode 2.3)
 * Anna Lee (episode 2.3)
 * June Lockhart (episode 3.5)
 * Myrna Loy (episode 1.20) as a maid candidate
 * Keye Luke (episode 1.18)
 * Ida Lupino (episode 4.12)
 * Ann McCrea
 * Lee Meriwether
 * Erin Moran
 * Butch Patrick (episode 3.2)
 * Larry Pennell
 * Eve Plumb (episode 3.7) as Eve, a terminally-ill girl who lives in the apartment building
 * Robert Reed (episode 1.14) as professor Julian Hill
 * Pippa Scott (episode 2.30)
 * Doris Singleton (episode 2.29)
 * Ann Sothern (episode 2.17)
 * Vic Tayback as a police officer
 * Joyce Van Patten (episode 5.11)

Post-series
Anissa Jones (who played Buffy) died of a drug overdose in 1976, aged 18. Sebastian Cabot (who played Mr. French) died of a stroke in 1977, aged 59. Brian Keith (who played Uncle Bill) died by gunshot suicide in 1997, aged 75, two months after the suicide of his daughter, and an undetermined amount of time after he was diagnosed with cancer.

Home media
MPI Home Video (under license from the Don Fedderson estate) has released all five seasons of Family Affair on DVD in Region 1.

Remake television series
A remake of Family Affair aired on The WB from September 12, 2002 to March 13, 2003. The remake was produced by Sid & Marty Krofft Pictures, Pariah Films, and Turner Television. Gary Cole played the role of "Uncle Bill" Davis and Tim Curry played Mr. Giles French. Fifteen episodes were produced, including the one-hour pilot, but only thirteen episodes were aired by The WB.

Planned spinoff television series
A Travis Hunt production titled Aunt Cissy and starring Cissy actress Kathy Garver was announced in the second quarter of 2019 as "a new family comedy that is not exactly a sequel to Family Affair... but it has elements of the premise of that classic TV series, plus a few surprises." Several episodes were shot in late 2019.

Appearances in other media
Gold Key Comics, an imprint of Western Publishing, published four issues of a Family Affair comic book series from January to October 1970.

Merchandising efforts centered on Anissa Jones' "Buffy" character. Several books were published, including the 1970 hardback Family Affair: Buffy Finds a Star by Gladys Baker Bond and Buffy's Cookbook. There were dolls (Mattel's "Small Talk Buffy" and Mrs. Beasley, Buffy's doll on the show) and various other toys.

A Mrs. Beasley doll, with her glasses missing, appears in the music video for the song "California Tuffy" by the Geraldine Fibbers.

In Police Academy 2: Their First Assignment, gang leader Zed (Bobcat Goldthwait) is seen tearfully watching the show in his hideout.

The 1982 the L.A. musical group Angel and the Reruns released a song named "Buffy Come Back" dealing with the "Buffy" actress Anissa Jones' teenage drug overdose.

title: Family Affair


text:
Talk:Pat Robertson

Suggesting move-protection
As much as I really don't lament the passing of, WP's rules are there for a reason. I had to undo a move vandalization-- some passing admin might wanna consider breaking out the green lock, 's all I'm sayin'. Xterra1 13:21, 8 June 2023 (UTC)

 * This was the first instance of page move vandalism, so it isn’t necessary now. - 🔥𝑰𝒍𝒍𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑭𝒍𝒂𝒎𝒆 (𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒌)🔥 13:26, 8 June 2023 (UTC)
 * Fair enough; I hadn't checked the edit log before I made that comment. Plus, I'd just woke up. Heh, guess that's why I don't have the blockhammer! :-P -Xterra1 15:08, 8 June 2023 (UTC)
 * Agreed, he is no longer in the category of 'living persons' such protections would no longer seem to apply. BeefsteakMaters (talk) 16:35, 8 June 2023 (UTC)
 * Assuming that by "protections" you mean contentious material, BLP can (and should) still apply. We don't throw those kinds of protections out the window immediately upon someone's death.  Generally, it's up to editorial consensus based on the situation and the material in question (WP:BDP).   Butler Blog   (talk) 16:47, 8 June 2023 (UTC)
 * Correct. BLP applies to living and recently deceased people. - 🔥𝑰𝒍𝒍𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑭𝒍𝒂𝒎𝒆 (𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒌)🔥 16:50, 8 June 2023 (UTC)

 * Your comment itself is a BLP attack, and I've redacted it.  Let's refrain from editorializing like this, please, as this encourages others to escalate it even further.  Dennis Brown - 2¢ 22:05, 8 June 2023 (UTC)
 * Was just stating my own opinion, so...whatever. Sorry for violating policy, I guess. Whatever the case, I wouldn't have taken my opinions to the article itself. Mainly saying "Hey, I share the negative opinion of the guy, but let's not vandalize the article to express it" on the talk page, like, y'know, you're *supposed to*. Xterra1 22:19, 8 June 2023 (UTC)
 * That's why I didn't make a big deal of it, but yes. Just as I'm supposed to say something when someone expresses opinions like that ;) Dennis Brown - 2¢ 22:33, 8 June 2023 (UTC)
 * Can we make where only extended confirmed user or only administers can move the page? Cwater1 (talk) 19:41, 19 June 2023 (UTC)
 * Not sure the point. No recent page move vandalism. - 🔥𝑰𝒍𝒍𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑭𝒍𝒂𝒎𝒆 (𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒌)🔥 19:42, 19 June 2023 (UTC)
 * I think it has to be enough times. Just wondering though. Cwater1 (talk) 19:44, 19 June 2023 (UTC)
 * When it comes to protection, the general rule is you try to just block the one editor if that is the problem. Typically by the third instance (the same person or not) we protect.  Sometimes quicker if it is obvious that it is going to be (or is) a target for vandalism.  That applies to more or less any kind of protection.  Dennis Brown - 2¢ 15:51, 29 June 2023 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 9 June 2023
Under the controversies section, I request that this is added to the article.

'''Robertson also expressed support for Ivory Coast President Laurent Gbagbo, claiming he was the victim of voter fraud in the 2010 election. ''' I would add that after the sentence that mentions his support for Charles Taylor and Mobutu. 217.180.201.156 (talk) 19:45, 9 June 2023 (UTC)

 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done for now: Adding this material to the article would constitute undue weight. If you can find more significant coverage in reliable sources that discuss this, the proposed addition could be worth discussing. — SamX [talk · contribs] 04:28, 10 June 2023 (UTC)

This sentence makes no sense
The following sentence (n.53) makes no sense: 'Robertson added that Jerusalem is a "spiritual symbol that must not be given away" because "Jesus Christ the Messiah will come down to the part of Jerusalem that the Arabs want," and this would be "not good."' As it stands, it alleges that PR is opposed to the Second Coming happening at Jerusalem. Can you Wikipeople write English? 145.224.21.211 (talk) 01:07, 27 July 2023 (UTC)

 * You could have made your point just fine without adding insults to it. Please review the civility policy.  Butler Blog   (talk) 01:18, 27 July 2023 (UTC)
 * I do not see anything particularly wrong with that sentence in the article. The text (quote and all) is taken almost exactly from the referenced source. There are not many ways to summarize what Robertson said. Any better phrasing would only come after finding a better source than what was used and one which had the full text of Robertson's remarks. Whether the text of the article "alleges that PR is opposed to the Second Coming happening at Jerusalem" (your statement) appears to be your conclusion, not necessarily that of Robertson, nor that of the WP article writer. The reader can determine for himself what Robertson might have meant by his remarks. --L.Smithfield (talk) 06:02, 27 July 2023 (UTC)

Hypocrisy on Sex Before Marriage
Despite being a stalwart against sex before marriage Robertson married his wife six months after impregnating her, lied about it and worse. This should very definitely be added to the Family and relationships section. https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1987/10/09/no-big-deal-for-robertson/09870d6b-2a44-4d14-8438-cb101c2ce1c3/ 2404:440C:27BF:7338:E9A2:8A9F:B60F:8491 (talk) 10:06, 15 January 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Pat Robertson


text:
Bombay Natural History Society

The Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS), founded on 15 September 1883, is one of the largest non-governmental organisations in India engaged in conservation and biodiversity research. It supports many research efforts through grants and publishes the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. Many prominent naturalists, including the ornithologists Sálim Ali and S. Dillon Ripley, have been associated with it.

History
British hunters in Bombay organized a hunting group around 1811, their activities included riding with foxhounds and shooting. A Bombay Hunt was supported by Sir Bartle Frere from 1862. A natural history society was begun, possibly as spinoff from the Bombay Geographical Society, in 1856 by Doctors Don (of Karachee), Andrew Henderson Leith (surgeon), George Buist, and Henry John Carter along with Lawrence Hugh Jenkins, then a registrar of the Supreme Court. The group did not last more than three years. On 15 September 1883 eight men interested in natural history met at Bombay in the Victoria and Albert Museum (now Bhau Daji Lad Museum) and:

"constituted themselves as the Bombay Natural History Society. They proposed to meet monthly and exchange notes, exhibit interesting specimens and otherwise encourage each other."

According to E. H. Aitken (the first honorary secretary, September 1883-March 1886), Dr G. A. Maconachie was the fons et origo (Latin for "source and origin") of the society. The other founders were Dr D. MacDonald, Col. C. Swinhoe, Mr J. C. Anderson, Mr J. Johnston, Dr Atmaram Pandurang and Dr Sakharam Arjun. Mr H. M. Phipson (second honorary secretary, 1886–1906) was a part of the founding group. He lent a part of his wine shop at 18 Forbes Street to the BNHS as an office.

In 1911, R. C. Wroughton, a BNHS member and forest officer, organised a survey of mammals making use of the members spread through the Indian subcontinent to provide specimens. This was perhaps the first collaborative natural history study in the world. It resulted in a collection of 50,000 specimens in 12 years. Several new species were discovered, 47 publications were published, and the understanding of biogeographic boundaries was improved.

In the early years, the Journal of the BNHS reviewed contemporary literature from other parts of the world. The description of ant-bird interactions in German by Erwin Stresemann was reviewed in a 1935 issue leading to the introduction of the term anting into English.

Today the BNHS is headquartered in the specially constructed 'Hornbill House' in southern Mumbai. It sponsors studies in Indian wildlife and conservation, and publishes a four-monthly journal, Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, as well as a quarterly magazine, Hornbill.

BNHS is the partner of BirdLife International in India. It has been designated as a 'Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation' by the Department of Science and Technology. Its headquarter is in Mumbai and has one regional centre at Wetland Research and Training Centre, near Chilika Lake, Odisha.

BNHS logo
The BNHS logo is the great hornbill, inspired by a great hornbill named William, who lived on the premises of the Society from 1894 until 1920, during the honorary secretaryships of H. M. Phipson until 1906 and W. S. Millard from 1906 to 1920. The logo was created in 1933, the golden jubilee year of the Society's founding.

William
According to H. M. Phipson, William was born in May 1894 and presented to the Society three months later by H. Ingle of Karwar. He reached his full length (4.25 ft) by the end of his third year. His diet consisted of fruit (like plantains and wild figs) and also of live mice, scorpions, and plain raw meat, which he ate with relish. He apparently did not drink water, nor use it for bathing. William was known for catching tennis balls thrown at him from a distance of some 30 feet with his beak.

In his obituary of W. S. Millard, Sir Norman Kinnear made the following remarks about William: Every visitor to the Society's room in Appollo Street will remember the great Indian Hornbill, better known as the "office canary" which lived in a cage behind Millard's chair in Phipson & Co.'s office for 26 years and died in 1920. It is said its death was caused by swallowing a piece of wire, but in the past "William" had swallowed a lighted cigar without ill effects and I for my part think that the loss of his old friend was the principal cause.

National Dragonfly festival
The festival was started in 2018 in order to inform the public about integral role played by dragonflies in our environment.The Bombay Natural History Society has been organising the festival since then in association with WWF India, United Nations Development Programme, United Nations Environment Programme and National Biodiversity Board of India. The local events which are the part of this nationwide festival are also organised by WWF India in association with various state agencies. The "Thumbimahotsavam" is a state butterfly festival of Kerala which is organised as a part of National Dragonfly festival.

Asian Waterbird census
The Asian waterbird census is an annual exercise undertaken in India by Bombay Natural History Society in association with Wetlands International, in which enthusiastic birdwatchers count the birds by observing them near their respective breeding grounds.The exercise is a part of 'International waterbird census', an international exercise. It also aims to create awareness regarding bird species as well as health of the wetlands, which are facing severve threat amidst anthropogenic disturbance. It is conducted in the month of January every year.

Education Programmes

The BNHS Programme Department, currently led by Mr Asif N. Khan is an integral component of the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS), focuses on education, research, and outreach initiatives.

title: Bombay Natural History Society


text:
BNHS

BNHS may refer to:
 * Belfast Natural History Society, Northern Ireland
 * Birmingham Natural History Society, England
 * Bombay Natural History Society, India

Schools

 * Balayan National High School, Balayan, Batangas, Philippines
 * Bata National High School, a public high school in Bacolod, Negros Occidental, Philippines
 * Balibago National High School, Santa Rosa City, Laguna, Philippines
 * Belvidere North High School, Belvidere, Illinois, United States
 * Byron Nelson High School, Trophy Club, Texas, United States

bagnen national high school

title: BNHS


text:
Eugene Airport

Eugene Airport, also known as Mahlon Sweet Field, is a public airport 7 miles (11 km) northwest of Eugene, in Lane County, Oregon, United States. Owned and operated by the City of Eugene, it is the fifth-largest airport in the Pacific Northwest.

The terminal building has "A" gates on the upper level and "B" gates, ticketing, and baggage claim on the lower level. The airport has an expanded air cargo facility and three fixed-base operators (FBOs) to handle general aviation. In 2023, the Eugene Airport handled 1,719,629 passengers, a 9.2% increase from the previous year.

The airport was named for Mahlon Sweet (1886–1947), a Eugene automobile dealer who was a strong supporter of aviation and pushed to get the now-defunct Eugene Air Park built in 1919, followed by the current airfield in 1943.

In 2010, a new airport rescue and firefighting facility was built.

EUG covers 2,600 acres (1,052 ha) of land.

History
At the request of Mahlon Sweet, the original Eugene Air Park was built in 1919 at what is now the southeast corner of West 18th Avenue and Chambers Street (44.039°N, -123.116°W). This first airstrip took care of all aviation operations until the modern Mahlon Sweet Field opened in 1943. The original site ceased operations in the summer of 1956.

During World War II, the airfield was used by the United States Army Air Forces. The December 1951 C&GS diagram shows three runways forming an asterisk: the 026-deg runway was 5229 ft in length, the 111-deg was 5205 ft, and the 158-deg was 3999 ft.

Historical service

 * United Airlines was the first airline to serve Eugene. In June 1944, they began Douglas DC-3s service, which flew to Portland, Seattle, Los Angeles, and San Francisco with various stops en route. United eventually upsized to larger aircraft, which included the Boeing 727-100s, 727-200s, 737-200s, 737-300s, and 737-500s into the airport nonstop to Denver, Los Angeles, San Francisco, and Portland.
 * West Coast Airlines began Douglas DC-3 service to Eugene in 1947. Later West Coast operated Piper Navajos, Fairchild F-27s, and Douglas DC-9-10s to the airport before merging with Bonanza Airlines and Pacific Air Lines to form Air West in 1968. Shortly before the merger, West Coast was operating DC-9s to San Francisco via Medford and nonstop to Portland continuing to Seattle (Boeing Field), Boise, and Salt Lake City.
 * Air West was renamed Hughes Airwest in 1970 with each airline serving Eugene with Douglas DC-9-10s and McDonnell Douglas DC-9-30s. In summer 1968 Air West was flying Spokane-Pasco-Yakima-Portland-Eugene-Medford-San Francisco-Fresno-Las Vegas with a DC-9 and had a nonstop DC-9 to San Francisco. By summer 1980, Hughes Airwest had become all-jet and was flying nonstop DC-9s to Los Angeles, San Francisco, Seattle, Boise and Pasco with direct DC-9s to Denver, Tucson, Redding, Redmond, Klamath Falls, and Yakima.

In 1970 Alaska airlines flew the Boeing 707 to Eugene for flights to Russia via Portland Seattle and anchorage

 * The original Frontier Airlines began a pair of Boeing 737-200 one stop direct flights to Denver via Salt Lake City in July 1979. That December, Frontier rerouted its Denver service via a stop in Boise.
 * Eureka, CA-based commuter air carrier Century Airlines began flights to Crescent City, Eureka, Portland, Sacramento, and San Francisco out of Eugene in December 1979.
 * Portland, Oregon-based commuter air carrier Air Oregon began serving the airport in the late 1970s and by 1981 was operating Fokker F27 Friendship and Fairchild Swearingen Metroliner propjets on flights to Portland, Seattle, San Francisco, Sacramento, Reno, Eureka, Redding, Medford, Redmond, Pendleton, and North Bend.
 * Republic Airlines acquired Hughes Airwest in September 1980 and continued to operate DC-9s to the airport but reduced the frequency formerly operated by Hughes Airwest to Los Angeles, San Francisco, Seattle, Pasco, Yakima, Redmond, and Klamath Falls, and ended all flights to Boise and Denver. During summer 1984, the airline had just two nonstop routes to San Francisco and Portland, and by spring 1985, Republic had left Eugene.
 * Horizon Air acquired Air Oregon in 1981 and began serving Eugene with flights to Portland, Seattle, and other destinations with Fairchild F-27s and Fairchild Swearingen Metroliners. Horizon Air has continued to serve the airport for 35 years.
 * In fall 1984, Cascade Airways began serving the airport with BAC One-Elevens, HS-748s and Beechcraft 1900Cs. Cascade operated BAC One-Elevens nonstop to Portland and Medford, and also flew the British twin jet direct to Seattle, Spokane, and Calgary from Eugene.
 * In 1985, American Airlines began direct, one stop McDonnell Douglas MD-80 service to Dallas/Fort Worth and Chicago via Portland on July 2.
 * Also in 1985, Cascade Airways was continuing to operate HS-748s and Beechcraft 1900Cs to Portland and other cities after ending its BAC One-Eleven service to the airport.
 * Pacific Southwest Airlines (PSA) began three BAe 146-200 flights a day to San Francisco in December, 1985.
 * On August 24, 1986, the original Frontier Airlines ceased operations and filed for bankruptcy, ending its flights to Denver.
 * Continental Airlines began Boeing 737-300 service to Eugene in April 1987, picking up Frontier Airlines' previous service to Denver. Frontier's service to the airport ended when the airline filed for bankruptcy the previous year and was acquired by Continental's parent company, the Texas Air Corporation.
 * After its acquisition of Pacific Southwest Airlines, USAir (later renamed US Airways) flew BAe 146-200s from the airport in 1989 to Los Angeles, San Francisco and Medford.
 * Also in 1989, United Express operated by North Pacific Airlines was flying Embraer EMB-120 Brasilias and BAe Jetstream 31s to Portland and Seattle.
 * American Airlines flew three daily Boeing 737-200 flights to its San Jose (SJC) hub from December 2, 1988 until September 10, 1993.
 * Delta Connection operated by SkyWest Airlines flew Canadair CRJ-200s nonstop to Salt Lake City from March 1995 until 1998, when it dropped the route due to a fleet shortage.
 * In 1999, Air Wisconsin operating as United Express was flying BAe 146s nonstop to Denver in addition to nonstop United Boeing 727-200s on the same route.
 * America West Express operated by Mesa Airlines started CRJ-200 flights to Phoenix in September 1999.
 * Delta Connection operated by SkyWest Airlines resumed Canadair CRJ-200 regional jet service to Salt Lake City on May 1, 2004, with $1.2 million of incentives offered by various public and private sources to kick-start service.
 * United Airlines flew Boeing 737s to San Francisco until January 6, 2003 (United Flight 1423 was the last Boeing 737 flight operated by the airline out of Eugene until United briefly resumed mainline service in 2008). United had previously served Eugene with Boeing 727-100s and 727-200s as well.
 * SkyWest Airlines took over for United, flying Canadair CRJ-200s and operating as United Express to San Francisco on January 7, 2003.
 * America West Express operated by Mesa Airlines also started flights to Las Vegas in March 1, 2003.
 * Horizon Air, a subsidiary of Alaska Airlines, flew nonstop to Los Angeles from June 4, 2007 until June 6, 2010. The airline continues to operate flights to Portland and Seattle with the Bombardier Q400 propjet which is the largest and fastest member of the Dash 8 regional turboprop airliner family.
 * In 2005, the crosswind runway was removed and replaced with Runway 16L/34R, 6000 ft long parallel to the primary runway 16R/34L.
 * United Airlines resumed Boeing 737 flights to San Francisco in March 2008 but ended them the following August.
 * Delta Connection operated by ExpressJet Airlines flew Embraer ERJ-145s nonstop to Los Angeles until September 1, 2008, when Delta ended its contract with ExpressJet on the Eugene-LAX route.
 * Allegiant Air began flying McDonnell Douglas MD-80s nonstop to Phoenix/Mesa in October 2008 in addition to its nonstop MD-80s to Las Vegas.
 * Allegiant Air launched twice weekly MD-80 flights nonstop to Los Angeles on June 3, 2010.
 * Allegiant Air announced Eugene's first nonstop service to Hawaii in 2012. Launched on November 17, 2012, the once a week Boeing 757-200 to Honolulu was the largest scheduled passenger airliner at Eugene. Allegiant later ended nonstop service to Honolulu from Eugene; it continues to fly mainline jets nonstop to Las Vegas, Los Angeles, Oakland, and Phoenix/Mesa.
 * On February 18, 2013, the current version of Frontier Airlines announced new Eugene–Denver service three times per week scheduled from May 16 to September 8. Frontier Airlines subsequently ceased all service to Eugene.
 * In April 2013, American Airlines announced twice-daily Canadair CRJ-200 flights to Los Angeles (LAX) flown by Skywest Airlines operating as American Eagle, to begin June 2013.
 * In November 2015, Alaska Airlines began daily Bombardier Dash 8 flights to San Jose (SJC) flown by Horizon Air.
 * In June 2016, United Airlines began mainline service to San Francisco International Airport flown by Airbus A319s and A320s.
 * In April 2017, Delta Connection operated by SkyWest Airlines began daily service to Seattle/Tacoma International Airport flown by Canadair CRJ-700 regional jets.

Current service
Horizon Air doing business under the name Alaska Airlines operates Embraer E175s to Eugene from Seattle–Tacoma and Los Angeles. they have also expanded to service San Diego, California

Allegiant Air flies Airbus A319 and A320s to Las Vegas, Los Angeles, Oakland, and Phoenix-Mesa, and Santa Ana.

American Eagle (SkyWest Airlines) Canadair CRJ-700s fly nonstop to Phoenix-Sky Harbor; American mainline service to Dallas/Fort Worth began in 2021, operated by[Airbus A319 and A320.

Delta Connection (SkyWest Airlines) Embraer E175s fly to Salt Lake City and Seattle-Tacoma. Delta Airlines also serves the airport with mainline aircraft.

United Airlines flies the Airbus A320 and Boeing 737 nonstop to Denver and San Francisco, and United Express (SkyWest Airlines) Airbus A319s fly to Denver and San Francisco.

In May 2021, Avelo Airlines launched service to Bob Hope Airport in Burbank, California, using 737-700s and -800s. They later launched service to Palm Springs from Eugene using their 737-700s.

In late August 2021, Southwest Airlines began Boeing 737 service to their Focus Cities of Oakland, California, and Las Vegas, Nevada. Service to San Jose, California began on June 5, 2022, & Denver, Colorado began on June 11, 2022.

General aviation
There is one fixed-base operator on field that caters to general aviation, Atlantic Aviation. Atlantic specializes in maintenance and working on larger general aviation aircraft like Gulfstreams and Learjets. They are the only on-airport company that has fuel trucks. There is also a general aviation self-serve fuel station located on the field.

Eugene Flight Center, a flight school and charter operation, operates on the north end of the airport. They offer charter and aerial photography flights as well as flight instruction. Fairbanks Aircraft Service LLC is collocated with Eugene Flight Center and offers general aviation maintenance and repair services.

Mahlon Sweet is also home to the Lane Community College Flight Academy. LCC's Flight Technology Center provides flight instruction for private, commercial, instrument, multi-engine and flight instructor. Their fleet includes several Cessna 152s, a few Piper Warrior IIs, Piper Arrow IV, and a Piper Seminole. Lane Aviation Academy is located at the southern end of Mahlon Sweet Field. The Aviation Maintenance Technician program is one of the oldest FAA Pt. 147 approved AMT schools in continuous operation. The AMT program also operates a Pt. 145 Approved Repair Station. During the two-year program the students are taught all aspects of aircraft and helicopter maintenance and repair in preparation to pass the written and oral and practical exams to obtain FAA Airframe and Powerplants (A&P) certificates.

Parking

The parking facility is attended 24 hours a day and contains 237 short-term and more than 1000 long-term parking spaces in the main lot, with an additional 582 spaces in the overflow lot.

Incidents and accidents

 * On January 24, 1933, a Pacific Air Transport Ford Trimotor on a cargo flight crashed on takeoff, killing 2 out of the 3 occupants on board.
 * On May 2, 1986, a Horizon Air Fairchild Metroliner was hijacked during a flight from Eugene to Portland. The flight was carrying 12 passengers and two pilots when it was hijacked by Douglas Burton Thomas, an unemployed Oklahoma man who was checking into a rehabilitation center in Eugene. The pilots convinced the hijacker to allow the plane to stop in Hillsboro, where the pilot left the plane and called the FBI. The hijacker held passengers and crew hostage on the aircraft while he demanded fuel, drinking water, and four parachutes and threatened to kill one passenger or blow up the plane if these demands were not met. During negotiations with the FBI, four of the passengers were released shortly and the remainder about half an hour later. This left the hijacker alone on the aircraft, however he surrendered about 15 minutes later. It was later discovered that the hijacker had boarded the aircraft without a ticket.

title: Eugene Airport


text:
Thomas Smith (diplomat)

Sir Thomas Smith (23 December 1513 – 12 August 1577) was an English scholar, parliamentarian and diplomat.

Early life
Born at Saffron Walden in Essex, Smith was the second son of John Smith of Walden by Agnes, daughter of John Charnock of Lancashire. The Smiths of Essex are said to be descendants of Sir Roger de Clarendon, an illegitimate son of the Black Prince. He was educated at Queens' College, Cambridge, where he became a Fellow in 1530, and, in 1533, was appointed a public reader or professor. He lectured in the schools on natural philosophy, and on Greek in his own College. In 1540, Smith went abroad, and, after studying in France and Italy and taking a degree in law at the University of Padua, he returned to Cambridge in 1542.

He took the lead in the reform of the pronunciation of Greek, his views being universally adopted after considerable controversy. He and his friend, Sir John Cheke, were the great classical scholars of the time in England. In January 1543/44 he was appointed the first Regius Professor of Civil Law. He was vice-chancellor of the university the same year. In 1547, he became Provost of Eton College and Dean of Carlisle Cathedral.

Sir Thomas was an early convert to Protestantism, which brought him into prominence when Edward VI came to the throne. During the protectorate of Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset, he entered public life and was made the Secretary of State, and was sent on an important diplomatic mission to Brussels. In 1548, he was knighted. On the accession of Queen Mary I he lost all his offices, but in the reign of her sister, Elizabeth I, he was prominently employed in public affairs.

He was returned as Member of Parliament for Liverpool in 1559. It became clear that he supported the religious settlement and Confessions of Westminster (1560), sitting on two committees of Inquiry. When an expert handler of the son of the King of Sweden visiting Westminster, he was sent in 1562 as ambassador to France as an emerging diplomatic talent; he remained in France from September 1562 with experienced envoy Sir Nicholas Throckmorton.

In 1572, Smith again went to France in the same capacity for a short time. However Smith came to dagger blows with Throckmorton over character and policy differences. He finally returned home in disgrace after suffering illness in April 1566. Nonetheless, Smith remained one of Elizabeth's most trusted Protestant counsellors. He had long been a friend of Sir William Cecil. Ennobled as Lord Burghley, Cecil appointed Smith to the Privy Council, only a month before he was elected to Commons as a knight of the shire for Essex. Smith, a prime mover behind the Conformity Bills, sought to restrain extremism and secure a subsidy from his fellow members. But when he proposed that the bishops be consulted, the puritan William Fleetwood defeated his motion. As a Privy Councillor he was influential on a number of committees. He spoke on the Treason Bill on the floor of the house, and examined witnesses to the Catholic plot led by the Duke of Norfolk. He was noted as upholding a religious objection to torture. His outstanding work elevated him to the higher ministerial echelons: in 1572 he was appointed Chancellor of the Order of the Garter and in July, principal secretary.

Failed colony in Ireland
In 1571, Elizabeth I granted Smith 360,000 acres of East Ulster. The lands were to be used to plant English settlers in an effort to control areas claimed by Clandeboye O'Neill territory and thus control the native Irish. The grant included all of the area known today as North Down and the Ards, apart from the southern tip of the Ards peninsula which was controlled by the Anglo-Norman Savage family.

Unfortunately for Smith, the booklet he printed to advertise his new lands was read by the Clandeboye O'Neill chief, Sir Brian MacPhelim, who just a few years earlier had been knighted by Elizabeth. Furious at what he saw as her "duplicity" in secretly arranging for the colonisation of unsettled areas claimed by O'Neill, he burned down all the major buildings in the area. The owners objected, but could do nothing. This made it difficult for the plantation to take hold. Then launching a wave of attacks on these early English settlers when they arrived, the O'Neills scorched the land Smith was to develop, burning abbeys, monasteries and churches, and leaving Clandeboye "totally waste and void of inhabitants".

Smith, who was also a Member of Parliament for Essex in 1571 and 1572, died on 12 August 1577 at Hill Hall in Essex.

Marriages and heirs
Smith married twice. First he wed Elizabeth Carkeke, daughter of a London printer, April 15, 1548; she died in 1553. His second marriage, which took place July 23, 1554, was to Philippa Wilford, the widow of Sir John Hampden of Great Hampden, Buckinghamshire, and the daughter of the London merchant Henry Wilford. She died 15 June 1578.

Smith had no issue by either marriage, although he had one illegitimate son named Thomas, who was killed during the failed Ards settlement. His heirs were his younger brother, George, and George's son, Sir William Smith (died 12 December 1626) of Theydon Mount, Essex. Sir William Smith's daughter, Frances Smith, married Sir Matthew Brend, owner of the land on which the first and second Globe Theatres were built. Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford, was brought up in Smith's house and his early education was supervised by him.

Smith left his books to Queen's College, Cambridge, except a few volumes that he had given to rector of Theydon Mount. He made provision for finishing the building of Hill Hall in his will, and a monument for himself and his wife (designed by Richard Kyrbie). Lady Phillipa Smith's will details some of the furnishings of Hill Hall.

Works
Sir Thomas Smith's book De Republica Anglorum: the Maner [sic] of Gouernement [sic] or Policie [sic] of the Realme [sic] of England, written between 1562 and 1565, was first published in 1583. In it, he described England as a mixed government and a commonwealth, and stated that all commonwealths are of mixed character.

Smith also authored De recta & emendata lingvæ Anglicæ scriptione, dialogus (Correct and Improved English Writing, a Dialogue, 1568).

title: Thomas Smith (diplomat)


text:
Greg Hollingshead

Gregory Hollingshead, CM (born February 25, 1947) is a Canadian novelist. He was formerly a professor of English at the University of Alberta, and he lives in Toronto, Ontario.

He is a graduate of the University of Toronto Schools and the University of Toronto.

His 1995 short story collection The Roaring Girl won the Governor General's Award for English-language fiction at the 1995 Governor General's Awards. His 1998 novel The Healer won the Rogers Writers' Trust Fiction Prize and was shortlisted for the Giller Prize. He was named a Member of the Order of Canada in 2012.

As a professor with the Department of English & Film Studies, Hollingshead taught creative writing classes for 30 years; he retired as emeritus in 2005. From 2000 to 2018, he directed the Writing Studio at the Banff Centre.

Early life and education
Greg Hollingshead was born in Toronto, Ontario, on February 25, 1947, and he grew up in Woodbridge, Ontario. He graduated from the University of Toronto in 1968 with a Bachelor of Arts in English. Hollinghead's first publication was in a 1968 anthology of poets from the House of Anansi called TO Now.

Hollingshead later went back to university to complete his Master of Arts in English at the University of Toronto, and by 1975, he had earned his Ph.D. from the University of London.

Career
Hollingshead published his first collection of stories, Famous Players, in 1982. In 1992, he had completed another two publications, White Buick and Spin Dry, and by 1995, he was awarded the Governor General's Award for Fiction for his story collection, The Roaring Girl.

The Healer, his second novel, was published in 1998 and was nominated for the Giller Prize; it won him the Rogers Writers' Trust Fiction Prize. His third novel, Bedlam, was published in 2004 and was listed for several awards, including the Grant MacEwan Author's Award, the Georges Bugnet Award, and the Edmonton Book Prize.

Works

 * Famous Players (1982)
 * White Buick (1992, winner of the 1993 Howard O'Hagan Award for Short Fiction and shortlisted for the 1993 Commonwealth Writers' Prize in Canada and Caribbean Region)
 * Spin Dry (1992, winner of the 1993 Georges Bugnet Award for the Novel and shortlisted for the 1993 Smithbooks/Books in Canada First Novel Award)
 * The Roaring Girl (1995, winner of the 1995 Governor General's Award for Fiction and the winner of the 1996 Howard O'Hagan Award for Short Fiction)
 * The Healer (1998, selected in the 1998 Maclean's Five Best Books of Fiction, shortlisted for the 1998 Giller Prize, winner of the 1999 Rogers Writers' Trust Fiction Prize and the 1999 Georges Bugnet Award for the Novel)
 * Bedlam (2004, selected for the 1994 Globe 100 Books of the Year, shortlisted for the 1994 Commonwealth Prize for Best Book in Caribbean and Canada Region, shortlisted for the 2005 Grant MacEwan Author's Award, shortlisted for the 2005 Georges Bugnet Award, shortlisted for the 2005 City of Edmonton Book Prize, longlisted for the 2005 IMPAC Dublin Literary Award)
 * Act Normal (2015)

Awards

 * Howard O'Hagan Award for Short Fiction (1993, 1996)
 * Georges Bugnet Award for the Novel (1993, 1999)
 * Governor General's Award for Fiction (1995)
 * Maclean's Five Best Books of Fiction (1998)
 * Rogers Writers' Trust Fiction Prize (1998)
 * Globe 100 Books of the Year (2004)
 * Lieutenant Governor of Alberta Gold Medal for Excellence in the Arts (2007)
 * Queen Elizabeth II Diamond Jubilee Medal (2012)
 * Writers' Guild of Alberta Golden Pen Award for Lifetime Achievement (2016)

title: Greg Hollingshead


text:
Ibex

An ibex (: ibex, ibexes or ibices) is any of several species of wild goat (genus Capra), distinguished by the male's large recurved horns, which are transversely ridged in front. Ibex are found in Eurasia, North Africa and East Africa.

Taxonomy
The name ibex comes from Latin, borrowed from Iberian or Aquitanian, akin to Old Spanish bezerro, 'bull', modern Spanish becerro, 'yearling'. Ranging in height from 27 to(-) and weighing 200 to(-) for males, ibex can live up to 20 years. Three closely related varieties of goats found in the wild are not usually called ibex: the markhor, western tur, and eastern tur.

A male ibex is referred to as a buck, a female is a doe, and young juveniles are called kids. An ibex buck is commonly larger and heavier than a doe. The most noticeable difference between the sexes is the larger size of a buck's horns. The doe grows a pair of smaller, thinner horns which develop considerably more slowly than those of a buck. The ibex's horns appear at birth and continue to grow through the rest of its life.

Known Ibex
Species of wild goats that are called ibex are:

 * The Asian ibex also known as the Siberian ibex (Capra sibirica) is a wild goat inhabiting long mountain systems in central Asian deserts and the northwestern Himalayas. The animal is 80–100 cm high at shoulder, and weighs an average 60 kg. The adult males have long pointed beards and scimitar-shaped horns with prominent ridges on the frontal surface. The coat is dark brown with greyish underparts, and a dorsal stripe runs from the neck to tail. Adult males also have grey saddle patches on their backs. The species exhibits sexual dimorphism, as the females are smaller with small straight horns that are widely separated at the base. Asiatic ibex is widely distributed over an area stretching from the Hindu Kush Mountains in Afghanistan to Sayan Mountains in Mongolia. The animals are found most frequently at elevations ranging from 3000 to 5300 m above sea level, but are also known to occur in areas as low as 1000 m in the Altai Mountains. They have a predilection for rugged terrain as an anti-predator strategy.
 * The Alpine Ibex (Capra ibex) is found in the European Alps. Alpine ibex are found in France, Bulgaria, Austria, Switzerland, Italy, Germany and Slovenia, and have been introduced to ranches in the United States, Canada and Argentina.
 * The Iberian ibex (Capra pyrenaica), formerly called Spanish ibex, is restricted to mountainous enclaves of the Iberian Peninsula, in Spain, Portugal and including in the French Pyrenees, but in the past it also occurred in southern France. There are approximately 50,000 Spanish ibex on the Iberian Peninsula. Two of its subspecies went extinct, although one, the Pyrenean Ibex, was cloned in 2003 but the resulting individual died very quickly.
 * The Nubian ibex (Capra nubiana) inhabits the desert regions of the Middle East, as well as the Itbay region of Sudan and Egypt. They are the smallest ibex species and adapted for arid environments with a tan color, white underbelly and rump, black legs, and dark tail. This species is Vulnerable, with less than 4,500 individuals in the wild. The population is declining through most of its range.
 * The Walia or Ethiopian ibex (Capra walie) is found in the Semien Mountains of the Ethiopian Highlands, where it has recently been upgraded from critically endangered to endangered. It is sometimes considered a subspecies of Alpine Ibex. The Ibex was also a national emblem of the Axumite Empire.
 * The wild goat (Capra aegagrus), also known as West Asian ibex, is found in Turkey and the Caucasus in the west to Turkmenistan, Afghanistan and Pakistan in the east, and is the ancestor of the domestic goat.

History
Evidence of the ibex is widely present in the archaeological record, particularly in the Near East and Mediterranean regions. Ibex motifs are very common on cylinder seals and pottery, both painted and embossed. Excavations from Minoan Crete at Knossos, for example, have yielded specimens from c. 1800 BCE, including one cylinder seal depicting an ibex defending himself from a hunting dog. From the similar age a gold jewelry ibex image was found at the Akrotiri archaeological site on Santorini in present day Greece.

An Iron Age Capra ibex specimen was recovered at the Aq Kupruk Archaeological site in present day Afghanistan, illustrating either domestication or hunting of the ibex by these early peoples. However, archaeological records of ibex can be difficult to separate from those of domestic goats. Earlier evidence of domestication or hunting of the ibex was found identified through DNA analysis of the contents of the stomach of Ötzi, the natural mummy of a Chalcolithic man discovered in the  Ötztal Alps in 1991, who lived between 3400 and 3100 BCE. According to DNA reconstruction, the man's penultimate meal contained ibex. There is a myth that says Ibex used to have wings in a time and they used to fly back in dates, by time their wings disappeared and they started climbing the mountain.

In Yemen, the ibex is a longstanding symbol of national identity, representing many positive attributes of the Yemeni people. Numbers of the animal – primarily the Nubian ibex – declined significantly from the late 20th century, due to hunting. In 2022, activists and intellectuals urged the declaration of an annual National Ibex Day, on 22 January, along with calls for greater protection of the animal.

Further Information:

Rescue from extinction
When firearms spread in the 15th century, the large population of ibex that spanned many of Europe's mountains decreased as they became easy targets for hunters. The ibex was often hunted for its meat, with other body parts used for medicine. The ibex horns were highly sought-after as a remedy for impotence, while its blood was used for treating kidney stones.

The relentless hunting of the ibex might have led to its extinction were it not for the foresight of the dukes of Savoy. Charles-Felix, Duke of Savoy and King of Sardinia, banned the hunting of the ibex across his estates of the Gran Paradiso after being persuaded by a report on the animal's endangered state. The ban was implemented on 12 September 1821 and its law was soon extended to the rest of the kingdom. In 1856, Victor Emmanuel II, succeeding Charles-Felix as the king, inducted the Gran Paradiso as a protected hunting estate along with appointed gamekeepers to patrol the area.

title: Ibex