text:
Podiatrist

A podiatrist is a medical professional devoted to the treatment of disorders of the foot, ankle, and related structures of the leg. The term originated in North America but has now become the accepted term in the English-speaking world for all practitioners of podiatric medicine. The word chiropodist was previously used in the United States, but it is now regarded as antiquated.

In the United States, podiatrists are educated and licensed as Doctors of Podiatric Medicine (DPM). The preparatory education of most podiatric physicians—similar to the paths of traditional physicians (MD or DO)—includes four years of undergraduate work, followed by four years in an accredited podiatric medical school, followed by a three- or four-year hospital-based podiatry residency. Optional one- to two-year fellowship in foot and ankle reconstruction, surgical limb salvage, sports medicine, plastic surgery, pediatric foot and ankle surgery, and wound care is also available. Podiatric medical residencies and fellowships are accredited by the Council on Podiatric Medical Education (CPME). The overall scope of podiatric practice varies from state to state with a common focus on foot and ankle surgery.

In many countries, the term podiatrist refers to allied health professionals who specialize in the treatment of the lower extremity, particularly the foot. Podiatrists in these countries are specialists in the diagnosis and nonsurgical treatment of foot pathology. In some circumstances, these practitioners will further specialise and, following further training, perform reconstructive foot and ankle surgery. In the United States, a podiatrist or podiatric surgeon shares the same model of medical education as osteopathic physicians (DO) and doctors of medicine (MD) with 4 years of medical school and 3-4 years of surgical residency focusing on the lower extremity.

Medical Group Management Association (MGMA) data shows that a general podiatrist with a single specialty earns a median salary of $230,357, while one with a multi-specialty practice type earns $270,263. However, a podiatric surgeon is reported to earn with a single specialty, with the median at $304,474 compared to that of multi-specialty podiatric surgeons of $286,201. First-year salaries around $150,000 with performance and productivity incentives are common if working as an associate. Private practice revenues for solo podiatrists vary widely, with the majority of solo practices grossing between $200,000 and $600,000 before overhead.

Podiatric specialties
Podiatrists treat a wide variety of foot and lower extremity conditions through nonsurgical and surgical approaches. The American Board of Podiatric Medicine (ABPM) offers a comprehensive board qualification and certification process in podiatric medicine and orthopedics. Subspecialties of podiatry include:

 * Reconstructive surgery
 * General podiatry
 * Podiatric medicine
 * Podiatric orthopedics
 * Podiatric sports medicine
 * Lower extremity plastic surgery
 * High-risk wound care
 * Podiatric rheumatology
 * Neuropodiatry
 * Oncopodiatry (podiatric oncology)
 * Podiatric vascular medicine
 * Podiatric dermatology
 * Podoradiology
 * Podiatric gerontology
 * Podiatric diabetology (limb salvage and wound care)
 * Podopediatrics
 * Forensic podiatry

Podiatry assistant
In Australia, podiatry assistant Certificate IV in Allied Health Assistance qualification. The podiatry assistant work as a part of a podiatric medical team in both clinical and nonclinical settings. Common professional accreditation pathways to becoming a podiatric assistant include:

 * Podiatric nurse
 * Foot carer/nurse
 * Podiatry support worker
 * Podiatry technician
 * Podiatry hygienist
 * Foot health professional
 * Podiatric surgical nurse
 * Foot hygienist
 * Foot health practitioner
 * Podiatric medical assistant

Podiatric surgery
Podiatric surgery is concerned with the diagnosis and surgical treatment of disorders of the foot and ankle:

 * Structural deformities, including bunions, hammertoes, flat feet, high arches, and bone spurs
 * Heel pain
 * Nerve entrapment
 * Joint degeneration and arthrosis
 * Skin and nail conditions
 * Congenital deformities such as clubfoot and polydactyly
 * Trauma, including fractures and dislocations
 * Ankle fractures
 * Deformity correction/reconstruction for things like malunion, limb length discrepancy, Charcot neuroarthropathy
 * Joint fusions for arthritis and other painful joint destructive conditions in the foot and ankle
 * Total ankle replacements
 * Total or hemi-joint replacements

Responsibilities
Podiatrists' roles include dealing with the conditions resulting from bone and joint disorders such as arthritis and soft-tissue and muscular pathologies as well as neurological and circulatory diseases.

Podiatrists are also able to diagnose and treat any complications of the above which affect the lower limb, including skin and nail disorders, corns, calluses and ingrown toenails. Foot injuries and infections gained through sport or other activities are also diagnosed and treated by podiatrists.

Podiatrists scope of practice within Australia allows them to;

- Refer for a range of diagnostic imaging: x-ray, ultrasound, MRI etc.

- Assess a range of special patient groups including, paediatric patients, older patients, high-risk patients, sporting patients.

- Assess and treat a wide range of musculoskeletal injuries, including, fractures (acute & bone stress injuries), tendon pathologies (Achilles tendiopathy, posterior tibial tendon dysfunction, tibalis posterior tendonitis etc), plantar heel pain (plantar fasciopathy/fasciitis), ankle sprains, chronic ankle instability, foot/ankle/knee arthritis, medial tibial stress syndroms (MTSS / "shin splints").

- Utilise a range of therapeutic modalities including, exercise prescription, electrotherapies (shockwave, TENS, laser therapy, ultrasound), orthoses, footwear prescriptions, pharmacological prescriptions (for endorsed prescribers).

- Perform partial nail avulsion surgeries (to treat ingrown toenails).

- Inject local anaesthetics.

- Perform routine & general nail care treatments.

- Assess & manage pediatric pathologies.

- Assess & manage high-risk patient groups in both private and hospital settings, including; perform neurovascular assessments, diabetic wound care.

United States
In the United States, medical and surgical care of the foot and ankle is mainly provided by two groups of professionals: podiatrists (Doctor of Podiatric Medicine or DPM) and orthopedists (MDs or DOs). The first two years of podiatric medical school is similar to training that either Doctors of Medicine (M.D.) or Doctors of Osteopathic Medicine (D.O.) receive, but with an emphasized scope on foot, ankle, and lower extremity. To enter a college of podiatric medicine, the student must first complete at least three years or 90 semester hours of college credit at an accredited institution. Biology, chemistry, organic chemistry, physics (all science courses require a lab) and English are among the required subjects. Over 95% of the students who enter a college of podiatric medicine have a bachelor's degree. Many have also completed some graduate study. Before entering a college of podiatric medicine, the student must take the MCAT (Medical College Admissions Test). In 2019, the average MCAT score for matriculants was 499.6 and the average undergraduate cGPA was 3.3. There are 11 colleges of podiatric medicine in the United States. They all receive accreditation from the Council on Podiatric Medical Education, which is recognized by the U.S. Secretary of Education and the Council on Higher Education Accreditation. All of the colleges grant the degree of Doctor of Podiatric Medicine (DPM).

The four-year podiatric medical school is followed by a hospital based residency, which is hands-on post-doctoral training. Their residency model was standardized to 3-years of post-graduate training in 2011 (with some programs lasting 4 years in length), and the residency is now known as the Podiatric Medicine and Surgery Residency (PMSR) with almost all now having an added Reconstructive Rearfoot and Ankle (RRA) credential. Podiatric residents rotate through core areas of medicine and surgery. They work alongside their MD and DO counterparts in such rotations as emergency medicine, internal medicine, infectious disease, behavioral medicine, physical medicine and rehabilitation (PM&R), vascular surgery, general surgery, orthopedic surgery, plastic surgery, dermatology and podiatric surgery and medicine. Fellowship training is available after residency in such fields such as foot and ankle traumatology, lower extremity reconstruction, or limb salvage.

Upon completion of their residency, podiatrists can decide to become board certified by a number of specialty boards including the American Board of Podiatric Medicine (ABPM) and/or the American Board of Foot and Ankle Surgery (ABFAS), which are both approved by the profession's accrediting agency, the CPME, and both have been certifying podiatrists since the 1970s. Though the ABPM and ABFAS are more common, other boards not recognized by CPME are challenging the status quo confer board qualified/certified status. The American Board of Multiple Specialties in Podiatry (ABMSP) is one additional option and has been certifying podiatrists since 1998.

The DPM superseded the historical DSC (Doctor of Surgical Chiropody) degree in the 1960s.

Australia
Australian podiatrists complete an undergraduate degree of Bachelor of Podiatry or Bachelor of Podiatric Medicine ranging from 3 to 4 years of education. The first 2 years of this program are generally focused on various biomedical science subjects including anatomy, medical chemistry, biochemistry, physiology, pathophysiology, sociology and patient psychology, similar to the medical curriculum and that of other allied health disciplines.

The following two years will then be spent focusing on podiatry specific areas such as podiatric biomechanics and human gait, podiatric orthopaedics or the non-surgical management of foot abnormalities, pharmacology and prescribing, general medicine, general pathology, local and general anaesthesia, and surgical procedural techniques such as partial and total nail avulsions, matricectomy, cryotherapy, wound debridement and care, enucleation, and other cutaneous and electro-surgical procedures such as electro-desiccation, fulagaration and electrosection. During the initial two years of study, podiatry students begin clinical placements, practicals and skills labs which give them exposure to a wide range of patients and treatment modalities. For example; diabetic foot assessments, gait & biomechanical assessments, orthoses manufacture, clinical history taking, diagnostic imaging and general podiatry care.

Other topics studied in the final years of the degree include, podiatric sports medicine, exercise prescription & rehabilitation, advanced wound care and paediatric podiatry (paediatric gait, growth & developmental disorders).

Postgraduate courses in podiatric therapeutics and prescribing are required for having endorsements in scheduled medicines.

The Australian Podiatry Association supports Career Framework credentials, that recognise advanced competencies and clinical skills of podiatrists in Australia. The purpose is to provide an enhanced career progression beyond initial training that is both clear and transparent to consumers and the profession. In awarding the credential, the APodA can verify podiatrists have demonstrated and provided evidence of competency in their clinical interest area and undergone a rigorous assessment process.

The APodA currently awards credentials in two clinical interest areas: - Paediatrics - Sports/Biomechanics

The curriculum and assessment of The APodA Career Framework has been structured around the CanMEDS framework. CanMEDS is a universally recognised and adopted physician competency framework. A credentialled podiatrist will therefore personify and seamlessly integrate the competencies of all seven CanMEDS Roles:

 * 1) Medical Expert
 * 2) Communicator
 * 3) Collaborator
 * 4) Leader
 * 5) Health Advocate
 * 6) Scholar
 * 7) Professional

Only current APodA members are eligible to promote their credentialling. That is, the title is only available to be used by active members of the Australian Podiatry Association.

All podiatrists are required to register with Australian Health Practitioner Regulation Agency (AHPRA) prior to be licensed to practice in Australia. Registration is required annually and there is a minimum registration standard that includes; - Completing 20 hours of continuing professional development (CPD) hours (additional hours are required for podiatric surgeons and podiatrists who are endorsed to prescribe scheduled medicines). - Having current professional indemnity insurance. - Having current CPR, First Aid & Anaphylaxis training.

Podiatric surgery in Australia
Podiatric surgeons are specialist podiatrists who have completed extensive, post-graduate medical and surgical training and perform reconstructive surgery of the foot and ankle. The qualifications of podiatric surgeons are recognised by Australian state and federal governments. It is an approved specialty by the AHPRA. Podiatric surgeons are included within both the Health Insurance Act and the National Health Act. The Podiatry Board of Australia recognizes 3 pathways to attain specialist registration as a Podiatric Surgeon:
 * Fellowship of the Australasian College of Podiatric Surgeons
 * Doctor of Podiatric Surgery, University of Western Australia
 * Eligibility for Fellowship of the Australasian College of Podiatric Surgeons

Podiatric surgical qualifications are a post-graduate speciality of the podiatric profession. Before attaining a podiatric surgical fellowship qualification, a podiatrist must complete an extensive training program, including:
 * 1) Bachelor of Applied Science degree, majoring in Podiatry (4 years)
 * 2) Minimum of 2 years post-graduate clinical practice
 * 3) Master of Podiatry (2 years full-time university degree)
 * 4) A 3-stage surgical fellowship training under supervision of the ACPS (4 to 6 years)
 * 5) International residency training (usually in the UK and USA)
 * 6) Demonstrated mastery of knowledge in foot and ankle surgery by passing oral and written examinations administered by the ACPS

New Zealand
Only one university, Auckland University of Technology (AUT), offers training to become a podiatrist. Podiatrists must have a Bachelor of Health Science majoring in podiatry from AUT, or an overseas qualification recognised by the Podiatrists Board of New Zealand, be registered with the Podiatrists Board of New Zealand and have a current Annual Practising Certificate.

Canada
In Canada, the definition and scope of the practice of podiatry varies provincially. For instance, in some provinces like British Columbia and Alberta, the standards are the same as in the United States where the Doctor of Podiatric Medicine (DPM) is the accepted qualification.

Quebec, too, has recently changed to the DPM level of training, although other academic designations may also register. Also in Quebec, in 2004, Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières started the first program of Podiatric Medicine in Canada based on the American definition of podiatry. In the prairie and Atlantic provinces, the standard was originally based on the British model now called podiatry (chiropody). That model of podiatry is currently the accepted model for most of the world including the United Kingdom, Australia and South Africa.

The province of Ontario has been registering Chiropodists since July 1993 (when the Ontario Government imposed a cap on new podiatrists). If a registered podiatrist from outside of Ontario relocates to Ontario they are required to register with the province and practice as a chiropodist. Podiatrists who were practising in Ontario previous to the imposed provincial cap were 'grandfathered' and allowed to keep the title of podiatrist as a subclass of chiropody. The scope of these 'grandfathered' (mostly American trained) podiatrists includes boney procedures of the forefoot and the ordering of x-rays in addition to the scope of the chiropodist.

In Ontario, podiatrists are required to have a "Doctor of Podiatric Medicine/DPM" degree (a post-baccalaureate, four-year degree), where the majority of chiropodists currently practising hold a post-secondary diploma in chiropody, although many also have some university level schooling or a baccalaureate degree in the sciences or in another field. Podiatrists may bill OHIP for their services; chiropodists may not. Podiatrists may "communicate a diagnosis" to their patients (or to their patients' representatives) and perform surgical procedures on the bones of the forefoot; chiropodists may do neither.

Chiropodists and podiatrists are regulated by the College of Chiropodists of Ontario, which had 594 chiropodists and 65 podiatrists registered as of 29 July 2015.

The only English-speaking Chiropody program in Canada, in which also has a working Chiropody Clinic on campus for students to treat patients under the supervision of licensed Chiropodists is The Michener Institute. According to The Michener Institute website, Chiropody is a branch of medical science that involves the assessment and management of foot and lower limb disorders. This includes the management of a wide variety of disorders, injuries, foot deformities, infections and local manifestations of systemic conditions. A Chiropodist is a primary care professional practising in podiatric medicine in Ontario that specializes in assessment, management and prevention of diseases and disorders of the foot. An essential member of the inter professional healthcare team, the Chiropodist is skilled in assessing the needs of their patients and of managing both chronic and acute conditions affecting foot and lower limb function. As a primary care provider capable of independent clinical practice, these skills are often practised independent of medical referral and medical supervision.

United Kingdom
In the UK, podiatrists usually undertake a 3-year undergraduate Bachelor of Science (Podiatry). Podiatric Surgeons usually undertake fellowships and postgraduate studies. The scope of practice of a podiatrist falls into four key categories:
 * General clinics
 * Biomechanics
 * High-risk patient management
 * Surgery.

There are two levels of surgical practice. As part of general podiatric care, podiatrists as HPC (Health Professions Council)-registered practitioners are involved with nail-and-minor-soft-tissue surgical procedures and qualified to administer local anaesthetics.

From 1 August 2012, the HPC is being rebranded to the HCPC (Health & Care Professions Council) as they are expanding their remit to include Social Workers. The old term of "State Registered" has been defunct for some time and is no longer used since the creation of the HPC.

Some podiatrists go on to develop and train as podiatric surgeons, who surgically manage bone and joint disorders within the foot. It is to this latter group (Podiatric Surgeons) that the guidelines apply. Fellowship requires a minimum of six-years postgraduate training. This includes a two- or three-year surgical residency with an approved centre. Podiatric surgeons acquire comprehensive knowledge of related subjects including pharmacology, regional anaesthetic techniques and radiographic interpretation, as well as in-depth knowledge of foot surgery. The Surgical Faculty of the College of Podiatrists has set the standards for fellowship.

In 2019, a 23% drop in podiatry students in the UK was reported. The Conference of Postgraduate Medical Deans called for full payment of their tuition fees and the introduction of a maintenance grant for healthcare students.

title: Podiatrist


text:
Lagger

Lagger is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:

 * Ed Lagger (1912–1981), American baseball player
 * Goffredo Lagger (1901–?), Italian biathlete
 * Peter Lagger (1930–1979), Swiss bass singer

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Lagger


text:
World Youth Chess Championship

The World Youth Chess Championship is a FIDE-organized worldwide chess competition for boys and girls under the age of 8, 10, 12, 14, 16 and 18. Twelve world champions are crowned every year. Since 2015, the event has been split into "World Cadets Chess Championship" (categories U8, U10 and U12) and "World Youth Chess Championship" (categories U14, U16 and U18).

Unofficial U18 Cadets

 * {| class="sortable wikitable"

! Year !! Location !! Boys
 * 1974 || 🇫🇷 Pont St. Maxence (FRA) || 🏴 Jonathan Mestel (ENG)
 * 1975 || 🇫🇷 Creil (FRA) || 🏴 David Goodman (ENG)
 * 1976 || 🇫🇷 Wattignies (FRA) || 🇮🇱 Nir Grinberg (ISR)
 * }
 * 1976 || 🇫🇷 Wattignies (FRA) || 🇮🇱 Nir Grinberg (ISR)
 * }
 * }
 * }

Official U17 Cadets

 * {| class="sortable wikitable"

! Year !! Location !! Boys
 * 1977 || 🇫🇷 Cagnes-sur-Mer (FRA) || 🇮🇸 Jon Arnason (ISL)
 * 1978 || 🇳🇱 Sas van Gent (NLD) || 🏴 Paul Motwani (SCT)
 * 1979 || 🇫🇷 Belfort (FRA) || 🇦🇷 Marcelo Javier Tempone (ARG)
 * 1980 || 🇫🇷 Le Havre (FRA) || Valery Salov
 * }
 * 1979 || 🇫🇷 Belfort (FRA) || 🇦🇷 Marcelo Javier Tempone (ARG)
 * 1980 || 🇫🇷 Le Havre (FRA) || Valery Salov
 * }
 * }

Under-16

 * {| class="sortable wikitable"

! Year !! Location !! Boys !! Girls
 * 1981 || 🇦🇷 Embalse, Córdoba (ARG)(†) || 🏴 Stuart Conquest (ENG) || 🇭🇺 Susan Polgar (HUN)
 * 1982 || 🇪🇨 Guayaquil (ECU) || Evgeny Bareev || not held
 * 1983 || 🇨🇴 Bucaramanga (COL) || Alexey Dreev || not held
 * 1984 || 🇫🇷 Champigny-sur-Marne (FRA) || Alexey Dreev || 🇭🇺 Ildikó Mádl (HUN)
 * 1985 || 🇮🇱 Petah Tikva (ISR) || 🇨🇱 Eduardo Rojas Sepulveda (CHL) || Mirjana Marić
 * 1986 || 🇦🇷 Río Gallegos (ARG) || Vladimir Akopian || 🇧🇬 Katrin Aladjova (BGR)
 * 1987 || 🇦🇹 Innsbruck (AUT) || 🇮🇸 Hannes Stefánsson (ISL) || Alisa Galliamova
 * 1988 || 🇷🇴 Timișoara (ROU) || Alexei Shirov || Alisa Galliamova
 * 1989 || 🇵🇷 Aguadilla (PRI) || Sergei Tiviakov || 🇵🇱 Krystyna Dąbrowska (POL)
 * 1990 || 🇸🇬 Singapore (SGP) || Konstantin Sakaev || Tea Lanchava
 * 1991 || 🇧🇷 Guarapuava (BRA) || 🏴 Dharshan Kumaran (ENG) || Nino Khurtsidze
 * 1992 || 🇩🇪 Duisburg (DEU) || 🇮🇱 Ronen Har-Zvi (ISR) || 🇲🇩 Almira Skripchenko (MDA)
 * 1993 || 🇸🇰 Bratislava (SVK) || Đào Thiên Hải || 🇦🇲 Elina Danielian (ARM)
 * 1994 || 🇭🇺 Szeged (HUN) || 🇭🇺 Peter Leko (HUN) || 🇺🇦 Natalia Zhukova (UKR)
 * 1995 || 🇧🇷 Guarapuava (BRA) || 🇭🇷 Hrvoje Stević (HRV) || Rusudan Goletiani
 * 1996 || 🇪🇸 Cala Galdana (ESP) || 🇮🇱 Alik Gershon (ISR) || 🇺🇦 Anna Zozulia (UKR)
 * 1997 || 🇦🇲 Yerevan (ARM) || 🇷🇴 Levente Vajda (ROU) || 🇨🇳 Xu Yuanyuan (CHN)
 * 1998 || 🇪🇸 Oropesa del Mar (ESP) || 🇺🇿 Ibragim Khamrakulov (UZB) || 🇨🇳 Wang Yu (CHN)
 * 1999 || 🇪🇸 Oropesa del Mar (ESP) || 🇩🇪 Leonid Kritz (DEU) || Sopiko Khukhashvili
 * 2000 || 🇪🇸 Oropesa del Mar (ESP) || Zviad Izoria || Sopiko Khukhashvili
 * 2001 || 🇪🇸 Oropesa del Mar (ESP) || Konstantine Shanava|| Nana Dzagnidze
 * 2002 || 🇬🇷 Heraklio (GRC) || Levan Pantsulaia || 🇷🇺 Tamara Chistiakova (RUS)
 * 2003 || 🇬🇷 Halkidiki (GRC) ||🇧🇦 Borki Predojević (BIH) || 🇷🇺 Polina Malysheva (RUS)
 * 2004 || 🇬🇷 Heraklio (GRC) || 🇮🇱 Maxim Rodshtein (ISR) || Bela Khotenashvili
 * 2005 || 🇫🇷 Belfort (FRA) || 🇺🇸 Alex Lenderman (US) || 🇸🇮 Anna Muzychuk (SVN)
 * 2006 || Batumi || 🇵🇱 Jacek Tomczak (POL) ||Sopiko Guramishvili
 * 2007 || 🇹🇷 Kemer/Antalya (TUR) || 🇷🇴 Ioan-Cristian Chirilă (ROU) || Keti Tsatsalashvili
 * 2008 || Vũng Tàu || 🇮🇳 Adhiban Baskaran (IND) || Nazí Paikidze
 * 2009 || 🇹🇷 Antalya (TUR) || 🇮🇳 S. P. Sethuraman (IND) || 🇵🇪 Deysi Cori (PER)
 * 2010 || 🇬🇷 Porto Carras (GRC) || 🇵🇱 Kamil Dragun (POL) || 🇧🇾 Nastassia Ziaziulkina (BLR)
 * 2011 || 🇧🇷 Caldas Novas (BRA) || 🇵🇪 Jorge Cori (PER) || 🇧🇾 Nastassia Ziaziulkina (BLR)
 * 2012 || 🇸🇮 Maribor (SVN) || 🇷🇺 Urii Eliseev (RUS) || 🇷🇺 Anna Styazhkina (RUS)
 * 2013 || Al-Ain || 🇮🇳 Murali Karthikeyan (IND) || 🇨🇳 Gu Tianlu (CHN)
 * 2014 || 🇿🇦 Durban (ZAF) || 🇦🇷 Alan Pichot (ARG) || 🇸🇮 Laura Unuk (SVN)
 * 2015 || 🇬🇷 Porto Carras (GRC) || 🇩🇪 Roven Vogel (DEU) || 🇬🇷 Stavroula Tsolakidou (GRC)
 * 2016 || 🇷🇺 Khanty-Mansiysk (RUS) ||🇦🇲 Haik M. Martirosyan (ARM) || 🇮🇳 Hagawane Aakanksha (IND)
 * 2017 || 🇺🇾 Montevideo (URY) ||🇷🇺 Andrey Esipenko (RUS) || 🇺🇸 Annie Wang (US)
 * 2018 || 🇬🇷 Halkidiki (GRC) || 🇦🇲 Shant Sargsyan (ARM) || 🇩🇪 Annmarie Muetsch (DEU)
 * 2019 || 🇮🇳 Mumbai (IND) || 🇷🇺 Rudik Makarian (RUS) || 🇷🇺 Leya Garifullina (RUS)
 * 2020
 * Online
 * 🇩🇪 Frederik Svane (DEU)
 * 🇮🇳 Rakshitta Ravi (IND)
 * 2021
 * Online
 * 🇷🇺 Volodar Murzin (RUS)
 * 🇰🇿 Xeniya Balabayeva (KAZ)
 * 2022 || 🇷🇴 Mamaia (ROU) || 🇮🇳 Pranav Anand (IND) || 🇲🇳 Munkhzul Davaakhuu (MNG)
 * 2023 || 🇮🇹 Montesilvano (ITA) || 🇵🇱 Jakub Seemann (POL) || 🇨🇳 Wang Chuqiao (CHN)
 * }
 * (†) The girls tournament was held separately, in Westergate, England.
 * 2006 || Batumi || 🇵🇱 Jacek Tomczak (POL) ||Sopiko Guramishvili
 * 2007 || 🇹🇷 Kemer/Antalya (TUR) || 🇷🇴 Ioan-Cristian Chirilă (ROU) || Keti Tsatsalashvili
 * 2008 || Vũng Tàu || 🇮🇳 Adhiban Baskaran (IND) || Nazí Paikidze
 * 2009 || 🇹🇷 Antalya (TUR) || 🇮🇳 S. P. Sethuraman (IND) || 🇵🇪 Deysi Cori (PER)
 * 2010 || 🇬🇷 Porto Carras (GRC) || 🇵🇱 Kamil Dragun (POL) || 🇧🇾 Nastassia Ziaziulkina (BLR)
 * 2011 || 🇧🇷 Caldas Novas (BRA) || 🇵🇪 Jorge Cori (PER) || 🇧🇾 Nastassia Ziaziulkina (BLR)
 * 2012 || 🇸🇮 Maribor (SVN) || 🇷🇺 Urii Eliseev (RUS) || 🇷🇺 Anna Styazhkina (RUS)
 * 2013 || Al-Ain || 🇮🇳 Murali Karthikeyan (IND) || 🇨🇳 Gu Tianlu (CHN)
 * 2014 || 🇿🇦 Durban (ZAF) || 🇦🇷 Alan Pichot (ARG) || 🇸🇮 Laura Unuk (SVN)
 * 2015 || 🇬🇷 Porto Carras (GRC) || 🇩🇪 Roven Vogel (DEU) || 🇬🇷 Stavroula Tsolakidou (GRC)
 * 2016 || 🇷🇺 Khanty-Mansiysk (RUS) ||🇦🇲 Haik M. Martirosyan (ARM) || 🇮🇳 Hagawane Aakanksha (IND)
 * 2017 || 🇺🇾 Montevideo (URY) ||🇷🇺 Andrey Esipenko (RUS) || 🇺🇸 Annie Wang (US)
 * 2018 || 🇬🇷 Halkidiki (GRC) || 🇦🇲 Shant Sargsyan (ARM) || 🇩🇪 Annmarie Muetsch (DEU)
 * 2019 || 🇮🇳 Mumbai (IND) || 🇷🇺 Rudik Makarian (RUS) || 🇷🇺 Leya Garifullina (RUS)
 * 2020
 * Online
 * 🇩🇪 Frederik Svane (DEU)
 * 🇮🇳 Rakshitta Ravi (IND)
 * 2021
 * Online
 * 🇷🇺 Volodar Murzin (RUS)
 * 🇰🇿 Xeniya Balabayeva (KAZ)
 * 2022 || 🇷🇴 Mamaia (ROU) || 🇮🇳 Pranav Anand (IND) || 🇲🇳 Munkhzul Davaakhuu (MNG)
 * 2023 || 🇮🇹 Montesilvano (ITA) || 🇵🇱 Jakub Seemann (POL) || 🇨🇳 Wang Chuqiao (CHN)
 * }
 * (†) The girls tournament was held separately, in Westergate, England.
 * 2019 || 🇮🇳 Mumbai (IND) || 🇷🇺 Rudik Makarian (RUS) || 🇷🇺 Leya Garifullina (RUS)
 * 2020
 * Online
 * 🇩🇪 Frederik Svane (DEU)
 * 🇮🇳 Rakshitta Ravi (IND)
 * 2021
 * Online
 * 🇷🇺 Volodar Murzin (RUS)
 * 🇰🇿 Xeniya Balabayeva (KAZ)
 * 2022 || 🇷🇴 Mamaia (ROU) || 🇮🇳 Pranav Anand (IND) || 🇲🇳 Munkhzul Davaakhuu (MNG)
 * 2023 || 🇮🇹 Montesilvano (ITA) || 🇵🇱 Jakub Seemann (POL) || 🇨🇳 Wang Chuqiao (CHN)
 * }
 * (†) The girls tournament was held separately, in Westergate, England.
 * 2023 || 🇮🇹 Montesilvano (ITA) || 🇵🇱 Jakub Seemann (POL) || 🇨🇳 Wang Chuqiao (CHN)
 * }
 * (†) The girls tournament was held separately, in Westergate, England.
 * (†) The girls tournament was held separately, in Westergate, England.

World Infant Cup

 * {| class="sortable wikitable"

! Year !! Location !! Boys
 * 1979 || 🇲🇽 Durango (MEX) || Miroljub Lazić
 * 1980 || 🇲🇽 Mazatlán (MEX) || 🇵🇪 Julio Granda (PER)
 * 1981 || 🇲🇽 Xalapa (MEX) || 🇦🇪 Saeed Ahmed Saeed (ARE)
 * 1984 || 🇦🇷 Lomas de Zamora (ARG) || 🇪🇸 Lluís Comas Fabregó (ESP)
 * }
 * 1981 || 🇲🇽 Xalapa (MEX) || 🇦🇪 Saeed Ahmed Saeed (ARE)
 * 1984 || 🇦🇷 Lomas de Zamora (ARG) || 🇪🇸 Lluís Comas Fabregó (ESP)
 * }
 * }

Boys & Girls

 * {| class="sortable wikitable"

! Year !! Location !! Boys !! Girls
 * 1985 || 🇦🇷 Lomas de Zamora (ARG) || 🇺🇸 Ilya Gurevich (US) || 🇦🇷 Sandra Villegas (ARG)
 * 1986 || 🇵🇷 San Juan (PRI) || 🇫🇷 Joël Lautier (FRA) || 🇭🇺 Zsofia Polgar (HUN)
 * 1987 || 🇵🇷 San Juan (PRI) || Miroslav Marković || 🏴 Cathy Haslinger (ENG)
 * 1988 || 🇷🇴 Timișoara (ROU) || 🇮🇱 Eran Liss (ISR) || Tea Lanchava
 * 1989 || 🇵🇷 Aguadilla (PRI) || 🇧🇬 Veselin Topalov (BGR) || Anna Segal
 * 1990 || 🇺🇸 Fond du Lac (US) || 🇭🇺 Judit Polgár (HUN) || Diana Darchia
 * 1991 || 🇵🇱 Warsaw (POL) || 🇵🇱 Marcin Kamiński (POL) || 🇷🇴 Corina Peptan (ROU)
 * 1992 || 🇩🇪 Duisburg (DEU) || 🇧🇾 Jurij Tihonov (BLR) || 🇦🇲 Elina Danielian (ARM)
 * 1993 || 🇸🇰 Bratislava (SVK) || 🇷🇺 Vladimir Malakhov (RUS) || 🏴 Ruth Sheldon (ENG)
 * 1994 || 🇭🇺 Szeged (HUN) || 🇮🇱 Alik Gershon (ISR) || Rusudan Goletiani
 * 1995 || 🇧🇷 São Lourenço (BRA) || Valeriane Gaprindashvili || 🇨🇳 Xu Yuanyuan (CHN)
 * 1996 || 🇪🇸 Cala Galdana (ESP) || 🇦🇲 Gabriel Sargissian (ARM) || 🇨🇳 Wang Yu (CHN)
 * 1997 || 🇫🇷 Cannes (FRA) || 🇷🇺 Sergey Grigoriants (RUS) || Ana Matnadze
 * 1998 || 🇪🇸 Oropesa del Mar (ESP) || 🇨🇳 Bu Xiangzhi (CHN) || 🇷🇺 Nadezhda Kosintseva (RUS)
 * 1999 || 🇪🇸 Oropesa del Mar (ESP) || 🇺🇦 Zahar Efimenko (UKR) || 🇨🇳 Zhao Xue (CHN)
 * 2000 || 🇪🇸 Oropesa del Mar (ESP) || 🇺🇦 Alexander Areshchenko (UKR) || 🇮🇳 Humpy Koneru (IND)
 * 2001 || 🇪🇸 Oropesa del Mar (ESP) || 🇭🇺 Viktor Erdős (HUN)|| Salome Melia
 * 2002 || 🇬🇷 Heraklio (GRC) || 🇸🇮 Luka Lenič (SVN) || 🇱🇻 Laura Rogule (LVA)
 * 2003 || 🇬🇷 Halkidiki (GRC) ||🇧🇾 Sergei Zhigalko (BLR) || 🇷🇺 Valentina Gunina (RUS)
 * 2004 || 🇬🇷 Heraklio (GRC) || 🇷🇺 Ildar Khairullin (RUS) || 🇮🇳 Dronavalli Harika (IND)
 * 2005 || 🇫🇷 Belfort (FRA) || Lê Quang Liêm || 🇷🇺 Elena Tairova (RUS)
 * 2006 || Batumi || 🇦🇿 Vasif Durarbayli (AZE) ||🇵🇱 Klaudia Kulon (POL)
 * 2007 || 🇹🇷 Kemer/Antalya (TUR) || 🇷🇺 Sanan Sjugirov (RUS) || Nazí Paikidze
 * 2008 || Vũng Tàu || 🇮🇳 Santosh Gujrathi Vidit (IND) || 🇮🇳 Padmini Rout (IND)
 * 2009 || 🇹🇷 Antalya (TUR) || Jorge Cori Tello || 🇮🇱 Marsel Efroimski (ISR)
 * 2010 || 🇬🇷 Porto Carras (GRC) || 🇦🇿 Kanan Izzat (AZE) || 🇰🇿 Dinara Saduakassova (KAZ)
 * 2011 || 🇧🇷 Caldas Novas (BRA) || 🇷🇺 Kirill Alekseenko (RUS) || 🇷🇺 Aleksandra Goryachkina (RUS)
 * 2012 || 🇸🇮 Maribor (SVN) || 🇺🇸 Kayden Troff (US) || 🇮🇳 M. Mahalakshmi (IND)
 * 2013 || Al-Ain || 🇨🇳 Li Di (CHN) || 🇬🇷 Stavroula Tsolakidou (GRC)
 * 2014 || 🇿🇦 Durban (ZAF) || 🇨🇳 Liu Yan (CHN) || 🇨🇦 Qiyu Zhou (CAN)
 * 2015 || 🇬🇷 Porto Carras (GRC) || 🇺🇿 Shamsiddin Vokhidov (UZB)  || 🇮🇳 R. Vaishali (IND)
 * 2016 || 🇷🇺 Khanty-Mansiysk (RUS) ||🇷🇺 Semen Lomasov (RUS) ||🇨🇳 Zhu Jiner (CHN)
 * 2017 || 🇺🇾 Montevideo (URY) ||🇲🇳 Batsuren Dambasuren (MNG) ||🇮🇳 Jishitha D (IND)
 * 2018 || 🇬🇷 Halkidiki (GRC) || 🇪🇸 Pedro Antonio Ginés Esteo (ESP) || 🇨🇳 Ning Kaiyu (CHN)
 * 2019 || 🇮🇳 Mumbai (IND) || 🇦🇿 Aydin Suleymanli (AZE) || 🇰🇿 Meruert Kamalidenova (KAZ)
 * 2020
 * Online
 * 🇮🇳 D Gukesh (IND)
 * 🇳🇱 Eline Roebers (NLD)
 * 2021
 * Online
 * 🇹🇷 Ediz Gurel (TUR)
 * 🇭🇺 Zsóka Gaál (HUN)
 * 2022 || 🇷🇴 Mamaia (ROU) || 🇮🇳 Ilamparthi A R (IND) || 🇰🇿 Zarina Nurgaliyeva (KAZ)
 * 2023 || 🇮🇹 Montesilvano (ITA) || 🇵🇱 Pawel Sowinski (POL) || 🇰🇿 Afruza Khamdamova (KAZ)
 * }
 * 2008 || Vũng Tàu || 🇮🇳 Santosh Gujrathi Vidit (IND) || 🇮🇳 Padmini Rout (IND)
 * 2009 || 🇹🇷 Antalya (TUR) || Jorge Cori Tello || 🇮🇱 Marsel Efroimski (ISR)
 * 2010 || 🇬🇷 Porto Carras (GRC) || 🇦🇿 Kanan Izzat (AZE) || 🇰🇿 Dinara Saduakassova (KAZ)
 * 2011 || 🇧🇷 Caldas Novas (BRA) || 🇷🇺 Kirill Alekseenko (RUS) || 🇷🇺 Aleksandra Goryachkina (RUS)
 * 2012 || 🇸🇮 Maribor (SVN) || 🇺🇸 Kayden Troff (US) || 🇮🇳 M. Mahalakshmi (IND)
 * 2013 || Al-Ain || 🇨🇳 Li Di (CHN) || 🇬🇷 Stavroula Tsolakidou (GRC)
 * 2014 || 🇿🇦 Durban (ZAF) || 🇨🇳 Liu Yan (CHN) || 🇨🇦 Qiyu Zhou (CAN)
 * 2015 || 🇬🇷 Porto Carras (GRC) || 🇺🇿 Shamsiddin Vokhidov (UZB)  || 🇮🇳 R. Vaishali (IND)
 * 2016 || 🇷🇺 Khanty-Mansiysk (RUS) ||🇷🇺 Semen Lomasov (RUS) ||🇨🇳 Zhu Jiner (CHN)
 * 2017 || 🇺🇾 Montevideo (URY) ||🇲🇳 Batsuren Dambasuren (MNG) ||🇮🇳 Jishitha D (IND)
 * 2018 || 🇬🇷 Halkidiki (GRC) || 🇪🇸 Pedro Antonio Ginés Esteo (ESP) || 🇨🇳 Ning Kaiyu (CHN)
 * 2019 || 🇮🇳 Mumbai (IND) || 🇦🇿 Aydin Suleymanli (AZE) || 🇰🇿 Meruert Kamalidenova (KAZ)
 * 2020
 * Online
 * 🇮🇳 D Gukesh (IND)
 * 🇳🇱 Eline Roebers (NLD)
 * 2021
 * Online
 * 🇹🇷 Ediz Gurel (TUR)
 * 🇭🇺 Zsóka Gaál (HUN)
 * 2022 || 🇷🇴 Mamaia (ROU) || 🇮🇳 Ilamparthi A R (IND) || 🇰🇿 Zarina Nurgaliyeva (KAZ)
 * 2023 || 🇮🇹 Montesilvano (ITA) || 🇵🇱 Pawel Sowinski (POL) || 🇰🇿 Afruza Khamdamova (KAZ)
 * }
 * 2019 || 🇮🇳 Mumbai (IND) || 🇦🇿 Aydin Suleymanli (AZE) || 🇰🇿 Meruert Kamalidenova (KAZ)
 * 2020
 * Online
 * 🇮🇳 D Gukesh (IND)
 * 🇳🇱 Eline Roebers (NLD)
 * 2021
 * Online
 * 🇹🇷 Ediz Gurel (TUR)
 * 🇭🇺 Zsóka Gaál (HUN)
 * 2022 || 🇷🇴 Mamaia (ROU) || 🇮🇳 Ilamparthi A R (IND) || 🇰🇿 Zarina Nurgaliyeva (KAZ)
 * 2023 || 🇮🇹 Montesilvano (ITA) || 🇵🇱 Pawel Sowinski (POL) || 🇰🇿 Afruza Khamdamova (KAZ)
 * }
 * 2022 || 🇷🇴 Mamaia (ROU) || 🇮🇳 Ilamparthi A R (IND) || 🇰🇿 Zarina Nurgaliyeva (KAZ)
 * 2023 || 🇮🇹 Montesilvano (ITA) || 🇵🇱 Pawel Sowinski (POL) || 🇰🇿 Afruza Khamdamova (KAZ)
 * }
 * }

Under-12 winners

 * {| class="sortable wikitable"

! Year !! Location !! Boys !! Girls
 * 1986 || 🇵🇷 San Juan (PRI) || 🏴 Dharshan Kumaran (ENG) || 🇵🇷 Dalines Borges (PRI)
 * 1987 || 🇵🇷 San Juan (PRI) || 🇮🇸 Hedinn Steingrimsson (ISL) || 🇺🇸 Yvonne Krawiec (US)
 * 1988 || 🇷🇴 Timișoara (ROU) || 🇭🇺 Judit Polgár (HUN) || 🇨🇳 Zhu Chen (CHN)
 * 1989 || 🇵🇷 Aguadilla (PRI) || 🇵🇱 Marcin Kamiński (POL) || Diana Darchia
 * 1990 || 🇺🇸 Fond du Lac (US) || Boris Avrukh || 🇷🇴 Corina Peptan (ROU)
 * 1991 || 🇵🇱 Warsaw (POL) || 🇧🇷 Rafael Leitão (BRA) || 🇵🇱 Dalia Blimke (POL)
 * 1992 || 🇩🇪 Duisburg (DEU) || Giorgi Bakhtadze || 🇵🇱 Iweta Radziewicz (POL)
 * 1993 || 🇸🇰 Bratislava (SVK) || 🇷🇺 Evgeny Shaposhnikov (RUS) || 🇷🇺 Eugenia Chasovnikova (RUS)
 * 1994 || 🇭🇺 Szeged (HUN) || 🇦🇲 Levon Aronian (ARM) || Nguyen Thi Dung
 * 1995 || 🇧🇷 São Lourenço (BRA) || 🇫🇷 Étienne Bacrot (FRA) || 🇱🇹 Viktorija Čmilytė (LTU)
 * 1996 || 🇪🇸 Cala Galdana (ESP) || 🇵🇱 Kamil Mitoń (POL) || 🇷🇺 Alexandra Kosteniuk (RUS)
 * 1997 || 🇫🇷 Cannes (FRA) || 🇷🇺 Alexander Riazantsev (RUS) || 🇨🇳 Zhao Xue (CHN)
 * 1998 || 🇪🇸 Oropesa del Mar (ESP) || 🇦🇿 Teimour Radjabov (AZE) || 🇮🇳 Humpy Koneru (IND)
 * 1999 || 🇪🇸 Oropesa del Mar (ESP) || 🇨🇳 Wang Yue (CHN) || Nana Dzagnidze
 * 2000 || 🇪🇸 Oropesa del Mar (ESP) || 🇮🇳 Deep Sengupta (IND) || 🇮🇷 Atousa Pourkashiyan (IRN)
 * 2001 || 🇪🇸 Oropesa del Mar (ESP) || 🇺🇦 Sergey Karjakin (UKR)|| 🇨🇳 Shen Yang (CHN)
 * 2002 || 🇬🇷 Heraklio (GRC) || 🇷🇺 Ian Nepomniachtchi (RUS) || 🇨🇳 Tan Zhongyi (CHN)
 * 2003 || 🇬🇷 Halkidiki (GRC) ||🇨🇳 Wei Chenpeng (CHN) || 🇨🇳 Ding Yixin (CHN)
 * 2004 || 🇬🇷 Heraklio (GRC) || 🇨🇳 Zhao Nan (CHN) || 🇵🇱 Klaudia Kulon (POL)
 * 2005 || 🇫🇷 Belfort (FRA) || 🇮🇳 Srinath Narayanan (IND) || Meri Arabidze
 * 2006 || Batumi || 🇦🇲 Robert Aghasaryan (ARM) ||Mariam Danelia
 * 2007 || 🇹🇷 Kemer/Antalya (TUR) || 🇺🇸 Daniel Naroditsky (US) || 🇮🇱 Marsel Efroimski (ISR)
 * 2008 || Vũng Tàu || 🇮🇳 Sayantan Das (IND) || 🇨🇳 Zhai Mo (CHN)
 * 2009 || 🇹🇷 Antalya (TUR) || 🇦🇺 Bobby Cheng (AUS) || 🇮🇷 Sarasadat Khademalsharieh (IRN)
 * 2010 || 🇬🇷 Porto Carras (GRC) || 🇨🇳 Wei Yi (CHN) || 🇺🇦 Iulija Osmak (UKR)
 * 2011 || 🇧🇷 Caldas Novas (BRA) || 🇮🇳 Karthikeyan Murali (IND) || 🇰🇿 Zhansaya Abdumalik (KAZ)
 * 2012 || 🇸🇮 Maribor (SVN) || 🇺🇸 Samuel Sevian (US) || 🇮🇳 R. Vaishali (IND)
 * 2013 || Al-Ain || 🇦🇲 Aram Hakobyan (ARM) || 🇨🇳 Zhao Shengxin (CHN)
 * 2014 || 🇿🇦 Durban (ZAF) || Nguyễn Anh Khôi || 🇺🇸 Jennifer Yu (US)
 * 2015 || 🇬🇷 Porto Carras (GRC) || 🇦🇿 Mahammad Muradli (AZE) || 🇧🇬 Nurgyul Salimova (BGR)
 * 2016 || Batumi || 🇺🇸 Nikhil Kumar (US) || 🇷🇺 Bibisara Assaubayeva (RUS)
 * 2017 || 🇧🇷 Poços de Caldas (BRA) || 🇺🇸 Vincent Tsay (US) || 🇮🇳 Divya Deshmukh (IND)
 * 2018 || 🇪🇸 Santiago de Compostela (ESP) ||🇮🇳 Gukesh D (IND) ||🇮🇳 Savitha Shri B (IND)
 * 2019 || 🇨🇳 Weifang (CHN) || 🇺🇸 Zhou Liran (US) || 🇷🇺 Galina Mikheeva (RUS)
 * 2020
 * Online
 * 🇺🇸 Dimitar Mardov (US)
 * 🇺🇸 Alice Lee (US)
 * 2021
 * Online
 * 🇺🇦 Ihor Samunenkov (UKR)
 * 🇺🇸 Alice Lee (US)
 * 2022 || Batumi || Artem Uskov || 🇮🇳 Shubhi Gupta (IND)
 * 2023 || 🇪🇬 Sharm El Sheikh (EGY) || Khuong Duy Dau || 🇱🇰 Devindya Oshini Gunawardhana (LKA)
 * }
 * 2008 || Vũng Tàu || 🇮🇳 Sayantan Das (IND) || 🇨🇳 Zhai Mo (CHN)
 * 2009 || 🇹🇷 Antalya (TUR) || 🇦🇺 Bobby Cheng (AUS) || 🇮🇷 Sarasadat Khademalsharieh (IRN)
 * 2010 || 🇬🇷 Porto Carras (GRC) || 🇨🇳 Wei Yi (CHN) || 🇺🇦 Iulija Osmak (UKR)
 * 2011 || 🇧🇷 Caldas Novas (BRA) || 🇮🇳 Karthikeyan Murali (IND) || 🇰🇿 Zhansaya Abdumalik (KAZ)
 * 2012 || 🇸🇮 Maribor (SVN) || 🇺🇸 Samuel Sevian (US) || 🇮🇳 R. Vaishali (IND)
 * 2013 || Al-Ain || 🇦🇲 Aram Hakobyan (ARM) || 🇨🇳 Zhao Shengxin (CHN)
 * 2014 || 🇿🇦 Durban (ZAF) || Nguyễn Anh Khôi || 🇺🇸 Jennifer Yu (US)
 * 2015 || 🇬🇷 Porto Carras (GRC) || 🇦🇿 Mahammad Muradli (AZE) || 🇧🇬 Nurgyul Salimova (BGR)
 * 2016 || Batumi || 🇺🇸 Nikhil Kumar (US) || 🇷🇺 Bibisara Assaubayeva (RUS)
 * 2017 || 🇧🇷 Poços de Caldas (BRA) || 🇺🇸 Vincent Tsay (US) || 🇮🇳 Divya Deshmukh (IND)
 * 2018 || 🇪🇸 Santiago de Compostela (ESP) ||🇮🇳 Gukesh D (IND) ||🇮🇳 Savitha Shri B (IND)
 * 2019 || 🇨🇳 Weifang (CHN) || 🇺🇸 Zhou Liran (US) || 🇷🇺 Galina Mikheeva (RUS)
 * 2020
 * Online
 * 🇺🇸 Dimitar Mardov (US)
 * 🇺🇸 Alice Lee (US)
 * 2021
 * Online
 * 🇺🇦 Ihor Samunenkov (UKR)
 * 🇺🇸 Alice Lee (US)
 * 2022 || Batumi || Artem Uskov || 🇮🇳 Shubhi Gupta (IND)
 * 2023 || 🇪🇬 Sharm El Sheikh (EGY) || Khuong Duy Dau || 🇱🇰 Devindya Oshini Gunawardhana (LKA)
 * }
 * 2020
 * Online
 * 🇺🇸 Dimitar Mardov (US)
 * 🇺🇸 Alice Lee (US)
 * 2021
 * Online
 * 🇺🇦 Ihor Samunenkov (UKR)
 * 🇺🇸 Alice Lee (US)
 * 2022 || Batumi || Artem Uskov || 🇮🇳 Shubhi Gupta (IND)
 * 2023 || 🇪🇬 Sharm El Sheikh (EGY) || Khuong Duy Dau || 🇱🇰 Devindya Oshini Gunawardhana (LKA)
 * }
 * 2022 || Batumi || Artem Uskov || 🇮🇳 Shubhi Gupta (IND)
 * 2023 || 🇪🇬 Sharm El Sheikh (EGY) || Khuong Duy Dau || 🇱🇰 Devindya Oshini Gunawardhana (LKA)
 * }
 * }

Under-10 winners

 * {| class="sortable wikitable"

! Year !! Location !! Boys !! Girls
 * 1986 || 🇵🇷 San Juan (PRI) || 🇨🇦 Jeff Sarwer (CAN) || 🇨🇦 Julia Sarwer (CAN)
 * 1987 || 🇵🇷 San Juan (PRI) || 🇺🇸 John Viloria (US) || 🇺🇸 Suzanna Urminska (US)
 * 1988 || 🇷🇴 Timișoara (ROU) || 🇺🇸 John Viloria (US) 🇭🇳 Horge Hasbun (HND)
 * 🇷🇴 Corina Peptan (ROU)
 * 1989 || 🇵🇷 Aguadilla (PRI) || 🇮🇩 Irwin Irnandi (IDN) || 🇧🇬 Antoaneta Stefanova (BGR)
 * 1990 || 🇺🇸 Fond du Lac (US) || 🇺🇸 Nawrose Farh Nur (US) || 🇪🇨 Evelyn Moncayo Romero (ECU)
 * 1991 || 🇵🇱 Warsaw (POL) || 🇫🇷 Adrien Leroy (FRA) || 🇷🇴 Carmen Voicu (ROU)
 * 1992 || 🇩🇪 Duisburg (DEU) || 🏴 Luke McShane (ENG) || 🇦🇿 Parvana Ismaïlova (AZE)
 * 1993 || 🇸🇰 Bratislava (SVK) || 🇫🇷 Étienne Bacrot (FRA) || Ana Matnadze
 * 1994 || 🇭🇺 Szeged (HUN) || 🇷🇺 Sergey Grishchenko (RUS) || 🇺🇦 Svetlana Cherednichenko (UKR)
 * 1995 || 🇧🇷 São Lourenço (BRA) || 🇷🇺 Boris Grachev (RUS) || 🇷🇴 Alina Motoc (ROU)
 * 1996 || 🇪🇸 Cala Galdana (ESP) || 🇮🇳 Pentala Harikrishna (IND) || 🇷🇺 Maria Kursova (RUS)
 * 1997 || 🇫🇷 Cannes (FRA) || 🇮🇷 Javad Alavi (IRN) || 🇮🇳 Humpy Koneru (IND)
 * 1998 || 🇪🇸 Oropesa del Mar (ESP) || 🇷🇺 Evgeny Romanov (RUS) || 🇷🇺 Vera Nebolsina (RUS)
 * 1999 || 🇪🇸 Oropesa del Mar (ESP) || 🇷🇺 Dmitry Andreikin (RUS) || 🇺🇦 Kateryna Lahno (UKR)
 * 2000 || 🇪🇸 Oropesa del Mar (ESP) || Nguyễn Ngọc Trường Sơn || 🇨🇳 Tan Zhongyi (CHN)
 * 2001 || 🇪🇸 Oropesa del Mar (ESP) || 🇭🇺 Tamas Fodor (HUN)|| 🇨🇳 Tan Zhongyi (CHN)
 * 2002 || 🇬🇷 Heraklio (GRC) || 🇦🇿 Eltaj Safarli (AZE) || 🇭🇷 Lara Stock (HRV)
 * 2003 || 🇬🇷 Halkidiki (GRC) ||🇷🇺 Sanan Sjugirov (RUS) || 🇨🇳 Hou Yifan (CHN)
 * 2004 || 🇬🇷 Heraklio (GRC) || 🇨🇳 Yu Yangyi (CHN) || Meri Arabidze
 * 2005 || 🇫🇷 Belfort (FRA) || 🇮🇳 Sahaj Grover (IND) || 🇨🇳 Wang Jue (CHN)
 * 2006 || Batumi || 🇮🇳 Koushik Girish (IND) ||🇮🇳 Choletti Sahajasri (IND)
 * 2007 || 🇹🇷 Kemer/Antalya (TUR) || 🇨🇳 Wang Tongsen (CHN) || 🇷🇺 Anna Styazhkina (RUS)
 * 2008 || Vũng Tàu || 🇵🇱 Jan-Krzysztof Duda (POL) || 🇷🇺 Aleksandra Goryachkina (RUS)
 * 2009 || 🇹🇷 Antalya (TUR) || 🇨🇳 Bai Jinshi (CHN) || 🇦🇿 Gunay Mammadzada (AZE)
 * 2010 || 🇬🇷 Porto Carras (GRC) || 🇨🇦 Jason Cao (CAN) || 🇲🇳 Nomin-Erdene Davaademberel (MNG)
 * 2011 || 🇧🇷 Caldas Novas (BRA) || 🇨🇳 Zhu Yi (CHN) || 🇷🇺 Alexandra Obolentseva (RUS)
 * 2012 || 🇸🇮 Maribor (SVN) || Nguyễn Anh Khôi || 🇮🇳 Nutakki Priyanka (IND)
 * 2013 || Al-Ain || 🇺🇸 Awonder Liang (US) || 🇮🇳 Saina Salonika (IND)
 * 2014 || 🇿🇦 Durban (ZAF) || 🇮🇳 Nihal Sarin (IND) || 🇮🇳 Divya Deshmukh (IND)
 * 2015 || 🇬🇷 Porto Carras (GRC) || 🇮🇳 R. Praggnanandhaa (IND) || 🇮🇳 Ravi Rakshitta (IND)
 * 2016 || Batumi || 🇷🇺 Ilya Makoveev (RUS) || 🇺🇸 Rochelle Wu (US)
 * 2017 || 🇧🇷 Poços de Caldas (BRA) || 🇺🇸 Zhou Liran (US) || 🇨🇳 Wei Yaqing (CHN)
 * 2018 || 🇪🇸 Santiago de Compostela (ESP) ||🇨🇳 Jin Yueheng (CHN) || 🇮🇩 Samantha Edithso (IDN)
 * 2019 || 🇨🇳 Weifang (CHN) || 🇷🇺 Savva Vetokhin (RUS) || 🇺🇸 Alice Lee (US)
 * 2020
 * Online
 * 🇮🇷 Sina Movahed (IRN)
 * 🇺🇸 Omya Vidyarthi (US)
 * 2021
 * Online
 * 🇹🇷 Yağız Kaan Erdoğmuş (TUR)
 * 🇷🇺 Diana Preobrazhenskaya (RUS)
 * 2022 || Batumi || 🇫🇷 David Lacan Rus (FRA) || Nika Venskaya
 * 2023 || 🇪🇬 Sharm El Sheikh (EGY) || 🇰🇿 Danis Kuandykuly (KAZ) || 🇨🇳 Tianhao Xue (CHN)
 * }
 * 2008 || Vũng Tàu || 🇵🇱 Jan-Krzysztof Duda (POL) || 🇷🇺 Aleksandra Goryachkina (RUS)
 * 2009 || 🇹🇷 Antalya (TUR) || 🇨🇳 Bai Jinshi (CHN) || 🇦🇿 Gunay Mammadzada (AZE)
 * 2010 || 🇬🇷 Porto Carras (GRC) || 🇨🇦 Jason Cao (CAN) || 🇲🇳 Nomin-Erdene Davaademberel (MNG)
 * 2011 || 🇧🇷 Caldas Novas (BRA) || 🇨🇳 Zhu Yi (CHN) || 🇷🇺 Alexandra Obolentseva (RUS)
 * 2012 || 🇸🇮 Maribor (SVN) || Nguyễn Anh Khôi || 🇮🇳 Nutakki Priyanka (IND)
 * 2013 || Al-Ain || 🇺🇸 Awonder Liang (US) || 🇮🇳 Saina Salonika (IND)
 * 2014 || 🇿🇦 Durban (ZAF) || 🇮🇳 Nihal Sarin (IND) || 🇮🇳 Divya Deshmukh (IND)
 * 2015 || 🇬🇷 Porto Carras (GRC) || 🇮🇳 R. Praggnanandhaa (IND) || 🇮🇳 Ravi Rakshitta (IND)
 * 2016 || Batumi || 🇷🇺 Ilya Makoveev (RUS) || 🇺🇸 Rochelle Wu (US)
 * 2017 || 🇧🇷 Poços de Caldas (BRA) || 🇺🇸 Zhou Liran (US) || 🇨🇳 Wei Yaqing (CHN)
 * 2018 || 🇪🇸 Santiago de Compostela (ESP) ||🇨🇳 Jin Yueheng (CHN) || 🇮🇩 Samantha Edithso (IDN)
 * 2019 || 🇨🇳 Weifang (CHN) || 🇷🇺 Savva Vetokhin (RUS) || 🇺🇸 Alice Lee (US)
 * 2020
 * Online
 * 🇮🇷 Sina Movahed (IRN)
 * 🇺🇸 Omya Vidyarthi (US)
 * 2021
 * Online
 * 🇹🇷 Yağız Kaan Erdoğmuş (TUR)
 * 🇷🇺 Diana Preobrazhenskaya (RUS)
 * 2022 || Batumi || 🇫🇷 David Lacan Rus (FRA) || Nika Venskaya
 * 2023 || 🇪🇬 Sharm El Sheikh (EGY) || 🇰🇿 Danis Kuandykuly (KAZ) || 🇨🇳 Tianhao Xue (CHN)
 * }
 * 2020
 * Online
 * 🇮🇷 Sina Movahed (IRN)
 * 🇺🇸 Omya Vidyarthi (US)
 * 2021
 * Online
 * 🇹🇷 Yağız Kaan Erdoğmuş (TUR)
 * 🇷🇺 Diana Preobrazhenskaya (RUS)
 * 2022 || Batumi || 🇫🇷 David Lacan Rus (FRA) || Nika Venskaya
 * 2023 || 🇪🇬 Sharm El Sheikh (EGY) || 🇰🇿 Danis Kuandykuly (KAZ) || 🇨🇳 Tianhao Xue (CHN)
 * }
 * 2022 || Batumi || 🇫🇷 David Lacan Rus (FRA) || Nika Venskaya
 * 2023 || 🇪🇬 Sharm El Sheikh (EGY) || 🇰🇿 Danis Kuandykuly (KAZ) || 🇨🇳 Tianhao Xue (CHN)
 * }
 * }

Under-8 winners

 * {| class="sortable wikitable"

! Year !! Location !! Boys !! Girls
 * 2006
 * Batumi
 * 🇮🇳 Chennamsetti Mohineesh (IND)
 * 🇮🇳 Ivana Maria Furtado (IND)
 * 2007 || 🇹🇷 Kemer/Antalya (TUR) || 🇷🇺 Konstantin Savenkov (RUS) || 🇮🇳 Ivana Maria Furtado (IND)
 * 2008 || Vũng Tàu || Tran Minh Thang || 🇰🇿 Zhansaya Abdumalik (KAZ)
 * 2009 || 🇹🇷 Antalya (TUR) || 🇮🇷 Aryan Gholami (IRN) || 🇨🇳 Chu Ruotong (CHN)
 * 2010 || 🇬🇷 Porto Carras (GRC) || 🇦🇿 Abdulla Gadimbayli (AZE) || 🇨🇳 Li Yunshan (CHN)
 * 2011 || 🇧🇷 Caldas Novas (BRA) || 🇺🇸 Awonder Liang (US) || 🇰🇿 Bibisara Assaubayeva (KAZ)
 * 2012 || 🇸🇮 Maribor (SVN) || 🇺🇿 Nodirbek Abdusattorov (UZB) || 🇮🇷 Motahare Asadi (IRN)
 * 2013 || Al-Ain || 🇮🇳 R. Praggnanandhaa (IND) ||  🇨🇦 Harmony Zhu (CAN)
 * 2014 || 🇿🇦 Durban (ZAF) ||🇷🇺 Ilya Makoveev (RUS) || 🇲🇳 Davaakhuu Munkhzul (MNG)
 * 2015 || 🇬🇷 Porto Carras (GRC) || 🇮🇳 Bharath Subramaniyam (IND) || Nguyen Le Cam Hien
 * 2016 || Batumi || 🇹🇲 Shageldi Kurbandurdyew (TKM)  || 🇰🇿 Aisha Zakirova (KAZ)
 * 2017 || 🇧🇷 Poços de Caldas (BRA) || 🇺🇸 Emrikian Aren C (US) || Alserkal Rouda Essa
 * 2018 || 🇪🇸 Santiago de Compostela (ESP) || 🇺🇸 Yuvraj Chennareddy (US) || 🇨🇳 Zhao Yunqing (CHN)
 * 2019 || 🇨🇳 Weifang (CHN) || 🇷🇺 Artem S. Lebedev (RUS) || 🇨🇳 Yuan Zhilin (CHN)
 * 2020
 * Not held
 * 2021
 * Not held
 * 2022 || Batumi || 🇫🇷 Marc Llari (FRA) || 🇮🇳 Charvi A (IND)
 * 2023 || 🇪🇬 Sharm El Sheikh (EGY) || Roman Shogdzhiev || 🏴 Bodhana Sivanandan (ENG)
 * }
 * 2016 || Batumi || 🇹🇲 Shageldi Kurbandurdyew (TKM)  || 🇰🇿 Aisha Zakirova (KAZ)
 * 2017 || 🇧🇷 Poços de Caldas (BRA) || 🇺🇸 Emrikian Aren C (US) || Alserkal Rouda Essa
 * 2018 || 🇪🇸 Santiago de Compostela (ESP) || 🇺🇸 Yuvraj Chennareddy (US) || 🇨🇳 Zhao Yunqing (CHN)
 * 2019 || 🇨🇳 Weifang (CHN) || 🇷🇺 Artem S. Lebedev (RUS) || 🇨🇳 Yuan Zhilin (CHN)
 * 2020
 * Not held
 * 2021
 * Not held
 * 2022 || Batumi || 🇫🇷 Marc Llari (FRA) || 🇮🇳 Charvi A (IND)
 * 2023 || 🇪🇬 Sharm El Sheikh (EGY) || Roman Shogdzhiev || 🏴 Bodhana Sivanandan (ENG)
 * }
 * 2021
 * Not held
 * 2022 || Batumi || 🇫🇷 Marc Llari (FRA) || 🇮🇳 Charvi A (IND)
 * 2023 || 🇪🇬 Sharm El Sheikh (EGY) || Roman Shogdzhiev || 🏴 Bodhana Sivanandan (ENG)
 * }
 * 2022 || Batumi || 🇫🇷 Marc Llari (FRA) || 🇮🇳 Charvi A (IND)
 * 2023 || 🇪🇬 Sharm El Sheikh (EGY) || Roman Shogdzhiev || 🏴 Bodhana Sivanandan (ENG)
 * }
 * 2023 || 🇪🇬 Sharm El Sheikh (EGY) || Roman Shogdzhiev || 🏴 Bodhana Sivanandan (ENG)
 * }
 * }

title: World Youth Chess Championship


text:
LPB

LPB may stand for:

Companies

 * Latino Public Broadcasting, a non-profit organization that is funded by the Corporation for Public Broadcasting in the United States
 * Lesotho PostBank, a bank in Lesotho
 * Louisiana Public Broadcasting, a state-run, viewer-supported network of PBS member stations serving the U.S. state of Louisiana
 * LPB (bank), a Lithuanian bank, previously known as "Latvijas Pasta Banka"

Places

 * El Alto International Airport in La Paz, Bolivia, which is assigned IATA airport code LPB
 * Logistics Park Bozhurishte, a logistics and industrial park located near Sofia, the capital of Bulgaria
 * Luang Prabang, a city in Laos

Sports

 * Colombian Professional Baseball League, known in Spanish as Liga Profesional de Béisbol Colombiano (LPB)
 * Liga Portuguesa de Basquetebol, the Portuguese national basketball league
 * Liga Profesional de Baloncesto, former name of the Venezuelan national basketball league (1993–2019)
 * Liga Profesional de Baloncesto (Panama), the top professional basketball league in Panama

Science and technology

 * Linear Power Booster, signal amplifier by Electro-Harmonix
 * Lipopolysaccharide binding protein, protein that binds to Lipopolysaccharide for presentation to receptors
 * Liquid packaging board, a multi-ply paperboard
 * Loss Prevention Bulletin, published by the UK Institution of Chemical Engineers
 * Low plasticity burnishing, a method of surface enhancement/metal improvement

Slang

 * Low-Ping Bastard, a term used to refer to players in multiplayer online games with low latency, and thus low lag

title: LPB


text:
AXP

AXP may refer to:

 * Alpha AXP, later known as DEC Alpha, a 64-bit instruction set architecture developed by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC)
 * Anomalous X-ray pulsar
 * American Express, whose NYSE ticker symbol is "AXP"
 * Alexandra Parade railway station, United Kingdom, whose National Rail code is "AXP"
 * Alpha Chi Rho, a fraternity whose Greek letters resemble "ΑΧΡ"
 * Automotive X Prize
 * The Atheist Experience
 * Athlon XP, an AMD processor
 * Architectural Experience Program
 * Aerial Xpress, a pro wrestling tag team of Scorpio Sky and Quicksilver
 * Spring Point Airport, whose IATA airport code is "AXP"

title: AXP


text:
Independent Baptist

Independent Baptist churches (also called Independent Fundamental Baptist or IFB) are Christian congregations, generally holding to conservative (primarily fundamentalist) Baptist beliefs. Although some Independent Baptist churches refuse affiliation with Baptist denominations, various Independent Baptist Church denominations have been founded. The word "biblical" or "independent" often appears in the name of the church or association of churches.

History

The modern Independent Baptist tradition began in the late 19th and early 20th centuries among local denominational Baptist congregations whose members were concerned about the advancement of modernism and theological liberalism into national Baptist denominations and conventions in the United States and the United Kingdom.

In response to the concerns, some local Baptist churches separated from their former denominations and conventions and reestablished the congregations as Independent Baptist churches. In other cases, the more conservative members of existing churches withdrew from their local congregations and set about establishing new Independent Baptist churches.

Although some Independent Baptist churches refuse affiliation with Baptist denominations, various Independent Baptist Church denominations have been founded. There is the World Baptist Fellowship founded in 1933 at Fort Worth, Texas by J. Frank Norris. Doctrinal differences in the latter led to the founding of the Baptist Bible Fellowship International in 1950 and the Independent Baptist Fellowship International in 1984. Various independent Baptist Bible colleges were also founded.

Beliefs
The beliefs are mainly Baptist and fundamentalist. They refuse any form of ecclesial authority other than that of the local church. Great emphasis is placed on the literal interpretation of the Bible as the primary method of Bible study as well as the biblical inerrancy and the infallibility of their interpretation. Dispensationalism is common among Independent Baptists. They are opposed to any ecumenical movement with denominations that do not have the same beliefs. Many IFB churches adhere to only using the King James Version, a position known as King James Onlyism.

Demographics
Members of Independent Baptist churches comprised 2.5% of the United States adult population, according to a 2014 survey by the Pew Research Center.

Sexual abuse
In 2018, an investigation by the Fort Worth Star-Telegram identified 412 abuse allegations in 187 independent fundamental Baptist (IFB) churches and institutions across in United States and Canada, with some cases reaching as far back as the 1970s.

In November 2023, Investigation Discovery released Let Us Prey: A Ministry of Scandals, a 4 part documentary, highlighting sexual abuse and cover up within the Independent Baptist movement.

title: Independent Baptist


text:
Tournay

Tournay may refer to:

 * Tournai, a municipality in the Belgian province of Hainaut, Wallonia
 * Tournai-sur-Dive, a commune in the Orne department in northwestern France
 * Tournay, Hautes-Pyrénées, a commune of the Hautes-Pyrénées département in southwestern France
 * Tournay-sur-Odon, a commune of the Calvados département in northwestern France
 * Tournay, Wallonia, a district of the municipality of Neufchâteau, Luxembourg Province, Belgium

title: Tournay


text:
Battle of Fleurus

There have been four battles fought near the town of Fleurus in Belgium:

 * The Battle of Fleurus (1622) in the Thirty Years' War
 * The Battle of Fleurus (1690) in the Nine Years' War
 * The Battle of Fleurus (1794) in the French Revolutionary Wars
 * The Battle of Ligny (Battle of Fleurus, 1815) in the Napoleonic Wars

title: Battle of Fleurus


text:
User:Marknew

Talk page | Sandbox

title: User:Marknew


text:
Reform Party of the United States of America

The Reform Party of the United States of America (RPUSA), generally known as the Reform Party USA or the Reform Party, is a centrist political party in the United States, founded in 1995 by Ross Perot.

Perot believed Americans were disillusioned with the state of politics as being corrupt and unable to deal with vital issues. After he received 18.9 percent of the popular vote as an independent candidate in the 1992 presidential election, he founded the Reform Party and presented it as a viable alternative to Republicans and Democrats. As the Reform Party presidential nominee, Perot won 8.4 percent of the popular vote in the 1996 presidential election. Although he did not receive a single electoral vote, no other third-party or independent candidate has since managed to receive as high a share of the popular vote.

The party has nominated other presidential candidates over the years, including Pat Buchanan and Ralph Nader. Its most significant victory came when Jesse Ventura was elected Governor of Minnesota in 1998, although he left the party shortly into his term. Donald Trump was a member of the Reform Party during his brief 2000 presidential campaign. In around the year 2000, party infighting and scandals led to a major decline in the party's strength. Beginning with Buchanan's poor showing in the 2000 election, no Reform Party presidential nominee since 1996 has been able to gather 1 percent of the popular vote.

Ross Perot's 1992 presidential election campaign
The party grew out of Ross Perot's efforts in the 1992 presidential election, where—running as an independent—he became the first non-major party candidate since 1912 to have been considered viable enough to win the presidency. Perot received attention for focusing on fiscal issues such as the federal deficit and national debt; government reform issues such as term limits, campaign finance reform, and lobbying reform; and issues on trade. A large part of his following was grounded in the belief he was addressing vital problems largely ignored by the two major parties.

A Gallup poll showed Perot with a slim lead; however, on July 19, he suspended his campaign, accusing Republican operatives of threatening to sabotage his daughter's wedding. He was accused by Newsweek of being a "quitter" in a well-publicized cover-page article. After resuming his campaign on October 1, Perot was dogged by the "quitter" moniker and other allegations concerning his character. On Election Day, many voters were confused as to whether Perot was actually still a candidate. He ended up receiving about 18.9 percent of the popular vote, a record level of popularity not seen in an independent candidate since former President Theodore Roosevelt ran on the "Bull Moose" Progressive Party ticket in 1912. He continued being politically involved after the election, turning his campaign organization (United We Stand America) into a lobbying group. One of his primary goals was the defeat of the North American Free Trade Agreement during this period.

Foundation and rise of the party
In 1995, Republicans took control of the House of Representatives, largely on the strength of the "Contract with America", which recognized and promised to deal with many of the issues Perot's voters had mobilized to support in 1992. However, two of the major provisions (Constitutional amendments for term limits and the balanced budgets) failed to secure the two-thirds congressional majorities required to be submitted to the states.

Dissatisfied, the grassroots organizations that had made Perot's 1992 candidacy possible began to band together to found a third party intended to rival the Republicans and Democrats. For legal reasons, the party ended up being called the "Reform Party" ("Independent Party" was preferred, but already taken, as were several variants on the name). A drive to get the party on the ballot in all fifty states succeeded, although it ended with lawsuits in some regions over state ballot access requirements. In a few areas, minor parties became incorporated as state party organizations.

Nomination campaign
At first, when the 1996 election season arrived, Perot held off from entering the contest for the Reform Party's presidential nomination, calling for others to try for the ticket. The only person who announced such an intention was Dick Lamm, former Governor of Colorado. After the Federal Election Commission indicated only Perot and not Lamm would be able to secure federal matching funds—because his 1992 campaign was as an independent—Perot entered the race. Some were upset that Perot changed his mind because, in their view, Perot overshadowed Lamm's run for the party nomination. This built up to the beginning of a splinter within the movement, when it was alleged certain problems in the primary process—such as many Lamm supporters not receiving ballots, and some primary voters receiving multiple ballots—were Perot's doing. The Reform Party claimed these problems stemmed from the petition process for getting the Reform Party on the ballot in all of the states since the party claimed they used the names and addresses of petition signers as the basis of who received ballots. Primary ballots were sent by mail to designated voters. Eventually, Perot was nominated for president and he chose economist Pat Choate as his vice presidential running mate. The results of the party's presidential primary were: Perot 32,145, Lamm 17,121.

Exclusion from the debates
Between 1992 and 1996, the Commission on Presidential Debates changed its rules regarding how candidates could qualify to participate in the presidential debates. As Perot had previously done very well in debates, it was a decisive blow to the campaign when the Commission ruled that he could not participate on the basis of somewhat vague criteria — such as that a candidate was required to have already been endorsed by "a substantial number of major news organizations," with "substantial" being a number to be decided by the commission on a case-by-case basis. Perot could not have qualified for the debates in 1992 under these rules, and was able to show that various famous U.S. presidents would likewise have been excluded from the modern debate by the Commission on Presidential Debates.

Despite legal action by the Perot team, and an 80 percent majority of Americans supporting his participation in the debates, the Commission refused to budge and Perot was reduced to making his points heard via a series of half-hour "commercials". In the end, Perot and Choate won 8 percent of the vote.

1997
By October 1997, factional disputes began to emerge with the departure of a group that believed Perot had rigged the 1996 party primary to defeat Lamm. These individuals eventually established the "American Reform Party" (ARP). The ARP is actually a minor political action committee. Then chairman, Roy Downing, said the split came about when it was "...discovered [that the Reform Party] was a top-down party instead of a bottom-up organization." Although members of the group attempted to persuade former Colorado Governor Dick Lamm – Perot's chief rival for the nomination – to run for president as an Independent, he declined, pointing out that he had promised before running that he would not challenge the party's decision. During this time, Perot himself chose to concentrate on lobbying efforts through United We Stand America.

American Reform Party
When the ARP was founded, Jackie Salit noted in the Christian Science Monitor: "At its founding meeting in Kansas City in 1997, the 40 black delegates in the room, led by the country's foremost African-American independent – Lenora Fulani – represented the first time in US history that African-Americans were present at the founding of a major national political party."

The ARP has yet to organize in more than a few states. In the 2000, 2004, and 2008 elections, the American Reform Party supported Ralph Nader for president. The ARP is not a political party in the conventional sense. It does not have ballot access in any state, and it does not run candidates. It supports third-party candidates and independents who support the primary principles of the Party's platform.

About 2010–2011, the party shifted from a relatively centrist platform to a Tea Party-style fiscal conservative one. In the 2012 presidential election, the ARP endorsed Republican Party nominee Mitt Romney against incumbent president Barack Obama. In the 2016 presidential election, the Party endorsed the Republican candidate Donald Trump.

Affiliates

 * In New York State, the Integrity Party is an ARP affiliate. The group, led by Darren Johnson, used the state's fusion election system in cross-endorsing a Democratic sheriff candidate, Vincent Demarco, in Suffolk County, helping him narrowly win the election. The party had also run a host of other candidates and attempted to go statewide in 2006, fielding Phoebe Legere as a candidate in the 2006 New York gubernatorial election. Legere and the party did not qualify for the November ballot.
 * The Reform Party of Northern Mariana Islands was an affiliate of the ARP. The group was founded by former governor Froilan Tenorio, who was dissatisfied with the Democratic Party. The territory-level party was notable for electing a member to the Northern Mariana Islands Senate in the 1999 general elections, their first and only elected official. The party would lose their only elected official in the 2003 general elections and would cease political activities afterwards.

Mid-term elections of 1998
In 1998, the Reform Party received a boost when Jesse Ventura was elected Governor of Minnesota. According to the League of Women Voters, the Reform Party USA obtained more votes nationwide in 1998 than did any other third party in America (without those garnered by Ventura). Counting Ventura's performance, Reformers took in more votes than all other third parties in the United States combined, establishing the Reform Party as America's third-largest party.

2000 presidential election
The Reform Party's presidential nominee for the 2000 election was due federal matching funds of $12.5 million (~$ in ), based on Perot's 8 percent showing in 1996. Early on, there was a failed effort to draft Ron Paul.

Donald Trump entered the race briefly, giving television interviews outlining his platform. Trump was progressive on social issues, and supported allowing openly gay soldiers in the military, saying: "it would not disturb me". Trump considered himself a conservative, but criticized Pat Buchanan, saying: "I'm on the conservative side, but Buchanan is Attila the Hun." He withdrew from the race citing the party's infighting, as did Jesse Ventura and the Minnesota Reform Party. Donald Trump stated: "So the Reform Party now includes a Klansman, Mr. Duke, a neo-Nazi, Mr. Buchanan, and a communist, Ms. Fulani. This is not company I wish to keep." "Mr. Duke" was a reference to David Duke, a former Grand Wizard of the Knights of the Ku Klux Klan.

Pat Buchanan decided to leave the Republican Party because: "The Republican Party at the national level has ceased to be my party. This divorce began around the end of the Cold War when President (George) Bush declared it to be a New World-order party and began intervening all over the world. While he and I were allies and friends during the Cold War, I just felt that once the Cold War was over the United States should return to a more traditional non-intervention foreign policy."

After a bitter fight, Pat Buchanan secured the Reform Party's presidential nomination over John Hagelin of the Natural Law Party. Hagelin and an anti-Buchanan faction walked out and held a separate convention across the street, where they nominated Hagelin as the party's presidential candidate. The dispute went to the courts and the FEC decided that Buchanan was the legitimate nominee and awarded him $12.6 million in campaign funds. Buchanan's vice presidential running mate was Ezola B. Foster. Buchanan got 449,225 votes, 0.4 percent of those voting, and the party lost its matching funds for 2004.

In 2002, Buchanan returned to the Republican Party.

2004 presidential election
By the October 2003, National Convention, the Reform Party had only begun rebuilding, but several former state organizations had elected to rejoin now that the interference from the Freedom Parties was gone. They increased their ranks from 24 to 30 states and managed to retrieve ballot access for seven of them. (Buchanan's poor showing in 2000 had lost ballot access for almost the entire party.)

Because of organizational and financial problems in the party, it opted to support the independent campaign of Ralph Nader as the best option for an independent of any stripe that year. While the endorsement generated publicity for Nader and the Reform Party, the party was only able to provide Nader with seven ballot lines down from the 49 of 51 guaranteed ballot lines the party had going into the 2000 election.

Activities of the party in 2005
In 2005, a dispute arose: the number of National Committee members required under the party's by-laws to call meetings of the National Committee, and the executive committee did so. These members came from several states including Texas, Michigan, and Florida. At both meetings, it was determined that a national convention would be called and held in Tampa, Florida. The chairman at the time and National Committee members from Arizona, California, and Oklahoma boycotted the National and executive committee meetings, claiming the meetings were illegitimate. As a result, those states held a second convention in Yuma, Arizona.

In response to a suit filed by the group that met in Tampa, leaders of the Reform Party filed a Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO) complaint claiming the Tampa group were extremists and guilty of conspiracy.

2006 candidates
In 2006, the Reform Party nominated candidates in Arizona, and petitioned to regain ballot access in several other states where state Reform Party organizations were active. The Reform Party of Kansas nominated a slate of candidates, led by Iraq War veteran Richard Ranzau. In Colorado's 4th congressional district, "fiscal conservative" Eric Eidsness (a former assistant U.S. Environmental Protection Agency administrator and Navy veteran) ran on the Reform Party ticket. He received 11.28 percent of the vote, five times the winning candidate's margin of victory; he later switched his affiliation to the Democratic Party. The Florida Reform Party granted use of its ballot line for governor to Max Linn of Florida Citizens for Term Limits (a Republican-leaning organization) in the 2006 Florida gubernatorial election. Linn retained professional campaign staff with connections to the Perot and Ventura campaigns, but received only 1.9 percent of the vote. By March 2007, the Reform Party had ballot access for the 2008 presidential election in four states (Florida, Kansas, Louisiana, Mississippi) and had already started petitioning in an additional four.

2008 National Convention
The Reform Party held its 2008 National Convention in Dallas, July 18–20.

At the national convention, Ted Weill of Mississippi was nominated to be the party's 2008 presidential candidate. Frank McEnulty of California, the 2008 presidential candidate of the New American Independent Party, was nominated to be the party's 2008 vice-presidential candidate. David Collison of Texas was elected national chairman of the party. However, the party could not announce the results of the national convention on its web site until October because of a court order obtained by a dissident faction associated with the Independence Party of New York. Therefore, the Weill/McEnulty ticket appeared on the ballot only in Mississippi, in which it received 481 votes.

An erroneous news report was broadcast by ABC News that stated the party had endorsed John McCain. Frank MacKay of the dissident Independence Party of New York faction had made the endorsement, not the Reform Party USA. Reform Party USA Reference David Collison, the Reform Party's chairman, said during a 2009 interview, "Do you believe that any legitimate national party would endorse the Republican candidate for President rather than have a candidate of their own?"

The candidates for the nomination included:

 * Alan Keyes, a former diplomat and Republican candidate
 * Frank McEnulty who eventually became the vice presidential nominee
 * Ted Weill, an activist from Mississippi who eventually became the presidential nominee
 * Daniel Imperato, who later joined the Libertarian Party
 * Gene Chapman, a blogger from Denton, Texas

2009 legal action
A long-standing feud in the party involved John Blare, of the Reform Party of California, and the Reform Party officers.

On December 4, 2009, a New York Federal judge heard MacKay v Crews on the question of who are the legal Reform Party officers. On December 16, 2009, the judge ruled in favor of David Collison's faction.

Collison said: "After over two years of litigation in Texas and New York, it is my profound pleasure to announce that US District Court Judge Joseph Bianco of the Eastern District of New York has ruled in our favor, and has further reinforced the 2008 ruling of Judge Carl Ginsberg of the 193rd District Court in Texas."

2010
In January 2010, Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) operations officer Charles S. Faddis announced his support of the party in The Baltimore Sun: "I have decided to throw in my lot with the Reform Party of the United States." Faddis later left the party, and ran in 2016 for Maryland's 5th congressional district as a Republican.

In February 2010, former Reform Party Chairman Pat Choate emerged to discuss the appeal of the Tea Party movement, contrasting it with Ross Perot's party, saying: "The difference with the Tea Party is it's been heavily pushed by a bunch of talk-show conservatives. You have the Republican Party attempting to use this as a means to pull independents or conservative independents to their policies, to their agenda."

In February, Congressional candidates filed to run as Reform Party candidates in all four of Mississippi's congressional districts, but none for any statewide offices. Among these were Barbara Dale Washer, Tracella Lou O'Hara Hill, and Anna Jewel Revies.

In April 2010, former Vice President Dan Quayle condemned the Reform Party on CBS, saying: "Many remember the Reform Party of the 1990s, which formed around the candidacy of Ross Perot. I sure do, because it eliminated any chance that President George H.W. Bush and I would prevail over Bill Clinton and Al Gore in 1992. Speaking on behalf of the Bush-Quayle campaign, to this day we firmly believe that Perot cost the Republican Party the White House."

Pat Choate in an April 28, 2010 interview with Monmouth University's student newspaper remained suspicious of the Tea Party movement, saying: "At these [Tea Party] events, a professional Republican always speaks. What to me is questionable is that the Tea Parties endorse candidates, but never endorse Democrats—they seem to be a front for the Republican Party. We were seen as very serious. Perot gave millions, we fielded candidates, and we were a real threat to the status quo. The media treats the Tea Parties as a sign of dissatisfaction, and views them skeptically."

Kristin M. Davis, the Manhattan madam involved in the Eliot Spitzer scandal, announced on June 27, 2010, that she was running for governor on an independent line in New York State using the name, Reform Party without Reform Party authorization after failing to secure the Libertarian Party nomination. Davis condemned the Democrats and Republicans for catering to wealthy white males, saying: "Where are the women, the Hispanics, the African-Americans, and the gay people? We must reject their tired old thinking...."

On June 29, 2010, Reform Party National Committee chairman David Collison delivered Davis a cease-and-desist notice demanding that she immediately change the name under which she was seeking to run for governor. Davis made no attempt to obtain permission to run as an official Reform Party candidate, and therefore withdrew her use of the Reform Party name. Davis was not a member of the Reform Party. Davis changed her Independent Ballot Line name and filed as an independent candidate by obtaining the required signatures needed in New York State to run for governor on the "Anti-Prohibition" line.

2012 presidential election
The Reform Party held its 2012 National Convention in Philadelphia, August 11–12, 2012.

At the national convention, the Reform Party nominated Andre Barnett from New York for president and Ken Cross from Arkansas for vice president. Among those who sought the presidential nomination before dropping out several months prior to the convention were former Savannah State University football coach Robby Wells, economist Laurence Kotlikoff, historian Darcy Richardson, and former Louisiana Governor Buddy Roemer.

2016 presidential election
The Reform Party co-nominated the American Delta Party's presidential and vice-presidential candidates Rocky de la Fuente and Michael Steinberg as their 2016 presidential ticket. However, in 2016, De La Fuente ran as a Democrat in the presidential and U.S. Senate primaries too.

2020 presidential election
On June 20, 2020, during a virtual convention, the Reform Party again nominated Rocky de la Fuente for president. De la Fuente defeated three other recognized candidates, Max Abramson, Souraya Faas, and Ben Zion (formerly the nominee for the Transhumanist Party). Darcy Richardson from Florida was nominated for vice president.

2024 presidential election
In September 2023, the Reform Party lost its ballot access in Florida, leaving the party with no state ballot lines. On their party convention on May 23, 2024, the Reform Party nominated the Kennedy Jr./Shanahan ticket for president and vice president respectively. The Reform Party filed paperwork for re-qualification in May 2024, which would place Kennedy and Shanahan on the ballot in Florida.

Platform
The Reform Party platform includes the following:

 * Maintaining a balanced budget, eventually passing a Balanced Budget Amendment and changing budgeting practices, and paying down the federal debt
 * Campaign finance reform, including strict limits on campaign contributions and the outlawing of political action committees
 * Enforcement of existing immigration laws and opposition to illegal immigration
 * Opposition to free trade agreements like the North American Free Trade Agreement and Central America Free Trade Agreement, and a call for withdrawal from the World Trade Organization
 * Term limits on U.S. Representatives and Senators
 * Direct election of the United States President by popular vote and other election system reforms
 * Federal elections held on weekends or Election Day (on a Tuesday) made a national holiday

A noticeable absence from the Reform Party platform has been social issues, including abortion and gay rights. Reform Party representatives had long stated beliefs that their party could bring together people from both sides of these issues, which they consider divisive, to address what they considered to be more vital concerns as expressed in their platform. The idea was to form a large coalition of moderates; that intention was overridden in 2001 by the Buchanan takeover which rewrote the RPUSA Constitution to include platform planks opposed to any form of abortion. The Buchananists, in turn, were overridden by the 2002 Convention which reverted the Constitution to its 1996 version and the party's original stated goals.

Active state affiliates
The party's active state affiliates are:
 * Reform Party of California
 * Reform Party of Montana
 * Reform Party of New Jersey (reorganized in 2010)
 * Reform Party of North Carolina
 * Reform Party of New York State
 * Reform Party of Tennessee
 * Reform Party of Texas
 * Reform Party of Virginia
 * Reform Party of Wisconsin


text:
Saint-Simon

Saint-Simon or Saint Simon can refer to:

Canada

 * Saint-Simon, New Brunswick, a settlement in Gloucester County, New Brunswick
 * Saint-Simon, Quebec, a municipality in southwestern Quebec on the Yamaska River in Les Maskoutains Regional County Municipality
 * Saint-Simon-les-Mines, Quebec, a municipality in the Municipalité régionale de comté de Beauce-Sartigan in Quebec, Canada
 * Saint-Simon-de-Rimouski, Quebec, a parish municipality in the Les Basques Regional County Municipality in the Bas-Saint-Laurent region of Quebec

France

 * Saint-Simon, Aisne, in the Aisne département
 * Saint-Simon, Cantal, in the Cantal département
 * Saint-Simon, Charente, in the Charente département
 * Saint-Simon, Lot, in the Lot département
 * Saint-Simon-de-Bordes, in the Charente-Maritime département
 * Saint-Simon-de-Pellouaille, in the Charente-Maritime département

United States

 * St. Simons, Georgia

Organizations

 * Saint-Simon Foundation, a defunct French think tank

People

 * Simon the Zealot, one of the apostles of Jesus, canonized
 * Simon the Athonite, or Simon the Myrrhbearer, founder of Simonopetra, the monastery of Mount Athos, canonized
 * Simon of Cyrene, the man who carried the cross of Jesus as Jesus was taken to his crucifixion, canonized
 * Louis de Rouvroy, duc de Saint-Simon, courtier in the court of Louis XIV and writer of memoirs thereof
 * Claude Henri de Rouvroy, comte de Saint-Simon, utopian socialist and originator of Saint-Simonism
 * San Simón, a Latin American folk saint
 * Simon the Tanner, after whom the cave church in Egypt is named

title: Saint-Simon


text:
USSR Chess Championship

The USSR Chess Championship was played from 1921 to 1991. Organized by the USSR Chess Federation, it was the strongest national chess championship ever held, with eight world chess champions and four world championship finalists among its winners. It was held as a round-robin tournament with the exception of the 35th and 58th championships, which were of the Swiss system.

Most wins

 * Six titles: Mikhail Botvinnik, Mikhail Tal
 * Four titles: Tigran Petrosian, Viktor Korchnoi, Alexander Beliavsky
 * Three titles: Paul Keres, Leonid Stein, Anatoly Karpov

List of winners

 * {|class="wikitable"

! Edition !! Date !! Place !! Winner !! Score !! width=700| Notes this tournament was later recognized as the first USSR championship. Peter Romanovsky 14½/20 (+12−3=5) after he emigrated to Canada and was declared a nonperson. 4/5 (+4−1=0), and 3½/4 (+3−0=1) Ilya Rabinovich 12/19 (+9−4=6) Igor Bondarevsky 13½/19 (+10−2=7) 23 Mar–29 Apr 1941, Leningrad/Moscow, 13½/20 (+9−2=9) Alexander Kotov 12/18 (+10−4=4) David Bronstein 13/19 (+8−1=10) Mikhail Tal ||10/13 10/13 Alexander Zaitsev 12½/19 (+6=13) Mikhail Tal ||9½/15 (+6−2=7) 9½/15 (+6−2=7) Iosif Dorfman || 9½/15 (+4−0=11) 9½/15 (+4−0=11) Vitaly Tseshkovsky 11/17 (+6−1=10) Alexander Beliavsky 10½/17 (+6−2=9) Lev Psakhis 12½/17 (+9−1=7) Mikhail Gurevich Alexander Chernin 11/19 (+6−3=10) 11/19 (+5−2=12) Garry Kasparov 11½/17 (+6−0=11) Leonid Yudasin Evgeny Bareev Alexey Vyzmanavin 8½/13 (+4−0=9) 8½/13 (+6−2=5) 8½/13 (+5−1=7)
 * 1 ||4–24 Oct 1920 || Moscow
 * Alexander Alekhine || 12/15 (+9−0=6)
 * Known as the All-Russian Chess Olympiad at the time,
 * Known as the All-Russian Chess Olympiad at the time,
 * 2 ||8–24 Jul 1923 || Petrograd
 * Peter Romanovsky ||10/12 (+9−1=2)
 * 3 ||23 Aug–15 Sep 1924 || Moscow
 * Efim Bogoljubov || 15/17 (+13−0=4)
 * 4 ||11 Aug–6 Sep 1925 ||Leningrad
 * Efim Bogoljubov ||14/19 (+11−2=6)
 * 5||26 Sep–25 Oct 1927 || |Moscow
 * Fedor Bogatyrchuk
 * 4 ||11 Aug–6 Sep 1925 ||Leningrad
 * Efim Bogoljubov ||14/19 (+11−2=6)
 * 5||26 Sep–25 Oct 1927 || |Moscow
 * Fedor Bogatyrchuk
 * 5||26 Sep–25 Oct 1927 || |Moscow
 * Fedor Bogatyrchuk
 * Fedor Bogatyrchuk
 * 14½/20 (+10−1=9)
 * All of Bogatyrchuk's tournament results were erased from Soviet records
 * 6 || 2–20 Sep 1929 || Odessa
 * Boris Verlinsky || 5½/8 (+4−1=3),
 * Boris Verlinsky || 5½/8 (+4−1=3),
 * The tournament was conducted in three stages.
 * 7 || 10 Oct–11 Nov 1931 || Moscow
 * Mikhail Botvinnik || 13½/17 (+12−2=3)
 * 8|| 16 Aug–9 Sep 1933 || Leningrad
 * Mikhail Botvinnik || 14/19 (+11−2=6)
 * 9 || 7 Dec 1934–2 Jan 1935 || Leningrad
 * Grigory Levenfish
 * Mikhail Botvinnik || 14/19 (+11−2=6)
 * 9 || 7 Dec 1934–2 Jan 1935 || Leningrad
 * Grigory Levenfish
 * 9 || 7 Dec 1934–2 Jan 1935 || Leningrad
 * Grigory Levenfish
 * 12/19 (+8−3=8)
 * 10 || 12 Apr–14 May 1937 || Tbilisi
 * Grigory Levenfish || 12½/19 (+9−3=7)
 * 11 || 15 Apr–16 May 1939 || Leningrad
 * Mikhail Botvinnik || 12½/17 (+8−0=9)
 * 12|| 5 Sep–3 Oct 1940 || Moscow
 * Andor Lilienthal
 * 11 || 15 Apr–16 May 1939 || Leningrad
 * Mikhail Botvinnik || 12½/17 (+8−0=9)
 * 12|| 5 Sep–3 Oct 1940 || Moscow
 * Andor Lilienthal
 * 12|| 5 Sep–3 Oct 1940 || Moscow
 * Andor Lilienthal
 * 13½/19 (+8−0=11)
 * Mikhail Botvinnik won the Absolute Championship,
 * 13 || 21 May–17 Jun 1944 || Moscow
 * Mikhail Botvinnik || 12½/16 (+11−2=3)
 * 14 || 1 Jun–3 Jul 1945 || |Moscow
 * Mikhail Botvinnik ||15/17 (+13−0=4)
 * 15 ||2 Feb–8 Mar 1947 || Leningrad
 * Paul Keres || 14/19 (+10−1=8)
 * 16||10 Nov–13 Dec 1948 || Moscow
 * David Bronstein
 * 15 ||2 Feb–8 Mar 1947 || Leningrad
 * Paul Keres || 14/19 (+10−1=8)
 * 16||10 Nov–13 Dec 1948 || Moscow
 * David Bronstein
 * 16||10 Nov–13 Dec 1948 || Moscow
 * David Bronstein
 * David Bronstein
 * 12/18 (+7−1=10)
 * 17 || 16 Oct–20 Nov 1949 || Moscow
 * Vasily Smyslov
 * 17 || 16 Oct–20 Nov 1949 || Moscow
 * Vasily Smyslov
 * 13/19 (+9−2=8)
 * 18 || 10 Nov–12 Dec 1950 || Moscow
 * Paul Keres || 11½/17 (+8−2=7)
 * 19 || 11 Nov–14 Dec 1951 || Moscow
 * Paul Keres ||12/17 (+9−2=6)
 * 20 || 29 Nov–29 Dec 1952 || Moscow
 * Mikhail Botvinnik ||13½/19 (+9−1=9)
 * Botvinnik defeated Mark Taimanov in a playoff +2−1=3.
 * 21 || 7 Jan–7 Feb 1954 || Kiev
 * Yuri Averbakh || 14½/19 (+10−0=9)
 * 22 || 11 Feb–15 Mar 1955 || Moscow
 * Efim Geller || 12/19 (+10−5=4)
 * Geller defeated Vasily Smyslov in a playoff +1=6.
 * 23 || 10 Jan–15 Feb 1956 || Leningrad
 * Mark Taimanov || 11½/17 (+8−2=7)
 * Taimanov defeated Boris Spassky and Yuri Averbakh in a playoff.
 * 24 || 20 Jan–22 Feb 1957 || Moscow
 * Mikhail Tal ||14/21 (+9−2=10)
 * 25 || 12 Jan–14 Feb 1958 ||Riga
 * Mikhail Tal ||12½/18 (+10−3=5)
 * 26 || 9 Jan–11 Feb 1959 || Tbilisi
 * Tigran Petrosian ||13½/19 (+8−0=11)
 * 27 || 26 Jan–26 Feb 1960 || Leningrad
 * Viktor Korchnoi ||14/19 (+12−3=4)
 * 28 || 11 Jan–11 Feb 1961 ||Moscow
 * Tigran Petrosian ||13½/19 (+9−1=9)
 * 29 ||16 Nov–12 Dec 1961 ||Baku
 * Boris Spassky ||14½/20 (+10−1=9)
 * 30 || 21 Nov–20 Dec 1962 ||Yerevan
 * Viktor Korchnoi || 14/19 (+10−1=8)
 * 31 || 23 Nov–27 Dec 1963 || Leningrad
 * Leonid Stein || 12/19 (+6−1=12)
 * Stein defeated Boris Spassky and Ratmir Kholmov in a playoff.
 * 32 ||25 Dec 1964–27 Jan 1965 || Kiev
 * Viktor Korchnoi ||15/19 (+11−0=8)
 * 33 || 21 Nov–24 Dec 1965 || Tallinn
 * Leonid Stein ||14/19 (+10−1=8)
 * 34 ||28 Dec 1966 – 2 Feb 1967 ||Tbilisi
 * Leonid Stein ||13/20 (+8−2=10)
 * 35 ||7–26 Dec 1967 ||Kharkiv
 * Lev Polugaevsky
 * 28 || 11 Jan–11 Feb 1961 ||Moscow
 * Tigran Petrosian ||13½/19 (+9−1=9)
 * 29 ||16 Nov–12 Dec 1961 ||Baku
 * Boris Spassky ||14½/20 (+10−1=9)
 * 30 || 21 Nov–20 Dec 1962 ||Yerevan
 * Viktor Korchnoi || 14/19 (+10−1=8)
 * 31 || 23 Nov–27 Dec 1963 || Leningrad
 * Leonid Stein || 12/19 (+6−1=12)
 * Stein defeated Boris Spassky and Ratmir Kholmov in a playoff.
 * 32 ||25 Dec 1964–27 Jan 1965 || Kiev
 * Viktor Korchnoi ||15/19 (+11−0=8)
 * 33 || 21 Nov–24 Dec 1965 || Tallinn
 * Leonid Stein ||14/19 (+10−1=8)
 * 34 ||28 Dec 1966 – 2 Feb 1967 ||Tbilisi
 * Leonid Stein ||13/20 (+8−2=10)
 * 35 ||7–26 Dec 1967 ||Kharkiv
 * Lev Polugaevsky
 * 32 ||25 Dec 1964–27 Jan 1965 || Kiev
 * Viktor Korchnoi ||15/19 (+11−0=8)
 * 33 || 21 Nov–24 Dec 1965 || Tallinn
 * Leonid Stein ||14/19 (+10−1=8)
 * 34 ||28 Dec 1966 – 2 Feb 1967 ||Tbilisi
 * Leonid Stein ||13/20 (+8−2=10)
 * 35 ||7–26 Dec 1967 ||Kharkiv
 * Lev Polugaevsky
 * 34 ||28 Dec 1966 – 2 Feb 1967 ||Tbilisi
 * Leonid Stein ||13/20 (+8−2=10)
 * 35 ||7–26 Dec 1967 ||Kharkiv
 * Lev Polugaevsky
 * 35 ||7–26 Dec 1967 ||Kharkiv
 * Lev Polugaevsky
 * Lev Polugaevsky
 * The tournament was a 126-player Swiss.
 * 36 ||30 Dec 1968–1 Feb 1969 ||Alma-Ata
 * Lev Polugaevsky
 * Lev Polugaevsky
 * 12½/19 (+7−1=11)
 * Polugaevsky defeated Zaitsev in a playoff +2−1=3.
 * 37 || 6 Sep–12 Oct 1969 ||Moscow
 * Tigran Petrosian ||14/22 (+6−0=16)
 * Petrosian defeated Polugaevsky in a playoff held in Feb 1970 by +2=3.
 * 38 || 25 Nov–28 Dec 1970 || Riga
 * Viktor Korchnoi ||16/21 (+12−1=8)
 * 39 ||15 Sep–17 Oct 1971 || Leningrad
 * Vladimir Savon || 15/21 (+9−0=12)
 * 40 || 16 Nov–19 Dec 1972 || Baku
 * Mikhail Tal || 15/21 (+9−0=12)
 * 41 || 1–27 Oct 1973 || Moscow
 * Boris Spassky ||11½/17 (+7−1=9)
 * 42 || 30 Nov–23 Dec 1974 || Leningrad
 * Alexander Beliavsky
 * 40 || 16 Nov–19 Dec 1972 || Baku
 * Mikhail Tal || 15/21 (+9−0=12)
 * 41 || 1–27 Oct 1973 || Moscow
 * Boris Spassky ||11½/17 (+7−1=9)
 * 42 || 30 Nov–23 Dec 1974 || Leningrad
 * Alexander Beliavsky
 * 42 || 30 Nov–23 Dec 1974 || Leningrad
 * Alexander Beliavsky
 * 42 || 30 Nov–23 Dec 1974 || Leningrad
 * Alexander Beliavsky
 * 43 || 28 Nov–22 Dec 1975 || Yerevan
 * Tigran Petrosian || 10/15 (+6−1=8)
 * 44
 * 26 Nov–24 Dec 1976 || Moscow
 * Anatoly Karpov || 12/17 (+8−1=8)
 * 45 || 28 Nov–22 Dec 1977 || Leningrad
 * Boris Gulko
 * 26 Nov–24 Dec 1976 || Moscow
 * Anatoly Karpov || 12/17 (+8−1=8)
 * 45 || 28 Nov–22 Dec 1977 || Leningrad
 * Boris Gulko
 * 45 || 28 Nov–22 Dec 1977 || Leningrad
 * Boris Gulko
 * A playoff, held in 1978, was drawn +1−1=4.
 * 46 || 1–28 Dec 1978 || Tbilisi
 * Mikhail Tal
 * Mikhail Tal
 * 11/17 (+5−0=12)
 * 47 || 29 Nov–27 Dec 1979 || Minsk
 * Efim Geller || 11½/17 (+6−0=11)
 * 48 || 25 Dec 1980–21 Jan 1981 || Vilnius
 * Lev Psakhis
 * 48 || 25 Dec 1980–21 Jan 1981 || Vilnius
 * Lev Psakhis
 * 48 || 25 Dec 1980–21 Jan 1981 || Vilnius
 * Lev Psakhis
 * 10½/17 (+8−4=5)
 * 49 || 27 Nov–22 Dec 1981 || Frunze
 * Garry Kasparov
 * 49 || 27 Nov–22 Dec 1981 || Frunze
 * Garry Kasparov
 * 12½/17 (+10−2=5)
 * 50 || 2–28 Apr 1983 || Moscow
 * Anatoly Karpov || 9½/15 (+5−1=9)
 * 51 || 2–28 Apr 1984 || Lviv
 * Andrei Sokolov || 12½/17 (+8−0=9)
 * 52 || 22 Jan–19 Feb 1985 || Riga
 * Viktor Gavrikov
 * 51 || 2–28 Apr 1984 || Lviv
 * Andrei Sokolov || 12½/17 (+8−0=9)
 * 52 || 22 Jan–19 Feb 1985 || Riga
 * Viktor Gavrikov
 * 52 || 22 Jan–19 Feb 1985 || Riga
 * Viktor Gavrikov
 * 11/19 (+4−1=14)
 * 53 || 4–28 Feb 1986 || Kiev
 * Vitaly Tseshkovsky || 11/17 (+6−1=10)
 * 54 || 4–29 Mar 1987 || Minsk
 * Alexander Beliavsky || 11/17 (+7−2=8)
 * Beliavsky defeated Valery Salov in a playoff +2=2.
 * 55 || 25 Jul–19 Aug 1988 || Moscow
 * Anatoly Karpov
 * Alexander Beliavsky || 11/17 (+7−2=8)
 * Beliavsky defeated Valery Salov in a playoff +2=2.
 * 55 || 25 Jul–19 Aug 1988 || Moscow
 * Anatoly Karpov
 * Anatoly Karpov
 * 11½/17 (+6−0=11)
 * 56 || 22 Sep–16 Oct 1989 || Odessa
 * Rafael Vaganian || 9/15 (+5−2=8)
 * 57 || 18 Oct–3 Nov 1990 || Leningrad
 * Alexander Beliavsky
 * 57 || 18 Oct–3 Nov 1990 || Leningrad
 * Alexander Beliavsky
 * 57 || 18 Oct–3 Nov 1990 || Leningrad
 * Alexander Beliavsky
 * 8½/13 (+5−1=7)
 * 58 || 1–13 Nov 1991 || Moscow
 * Artashes Minasian || 8½/11 (+7−1=3)
 * Minasian won this Swiss-style tournament on tiebreak over Elmar Magerramov.
 * }
 * Minasian won this Swiss-style tournament on tiebreak over Elmar Magerramov.
 * }

Publications

 * Mark Taimanov, Bernard Cafferty, Soviet Championships, London, Everyman Chess, 1998 (ISBN 978-1-85744-201-4)

title: USSR Chess Championship


text:
Sound quality

Sound quality is typically an assessment of the accuracy, fidelity, or intelligibility of audio output from an electronic device. Quality can be measured objectively, such as when tools are used to gauge the accuracy with which the device reproduces an original sound; or it can be measured subjectively, such as when human listeners respond to the sound or gauge its perceived similarity to another sound.

The sound quality of a reproduction or recording depends on a number of factors, including the equipment used to make it, processing and mastering done to the recording, the equipment used to reproduce it, as well as the listening environment used to reproduce it. In some cases, processing such as equalization, dynamic range compression or stereo processing may be applied to a recording to create audio that is significantly different from the original but may be perceived as more agreeable to a listener. In other cases, the goal may be to reproduce audio as closely as possible to the original.

When applied to specific electronic devices, such as loudspeakers, microphones, amplifiers or headphones sound quality usually refers to accuracy, with higher quality devices providing higher accuracy reproduction. When applied to processing steps such as mastering recordings, absolute accuracy may be secondary to artistic or aesthetic concerns. In still other situations, such as recording a live musical performance, audio quality may refer to proper placement of microphones around a room to optimally use room acoustics.

Digital audio
Digital audio is stored in many formats. The simplest form is uncompressed PCM, where audio is stored as a series of quantized audio samples spaced at regular intervals in time. As samples are placed closer together in time, higher frequencies can be reproduced. According to the sampling theorem, any bandwidth-limited signal (that does not contain a pure sinusoidal component), bandwidth B, can be perfectly described by more than 2B samples per second, allowing perfect reconstruction of the bandwidth-limited analog signal. For example, for human hearing bandwidth between 0 and 20 kHz, audio must be sampled at above 40 kHz. Due to the need for filtering out ultrasonic frequencies resulting from the conversion to an analog signal, in practice slightly higher sample rates are used: 44.1 kHz (CD audio) or 48 kHz (DVD).

In PCM, each audio sample describes the sound pressure at an instant in time with a limited precision. The limited accuracy results in quantization error, a form of noise that is added to the recording. To reduce quantization error, more precision can be used in each measurement at the expense of larger samples (see audio bit depth). With each additional bit added to a sample, quantization error is reduced by approximately 6 dB. For example, CD audio uses 16 bits per sample, and therefore it will have quantization noise approximately 96 dB below the maximum possible sound pressure level (when summed over the full bandwidth)

The amount of space required to store PCM depends on the number of bits per sample, the number of samples per second, and the number of channels. For CD audio, this is 44,100 samples per second, 16 bits per sample, and 2 channels for stereo audio leading to 1,411,200 bits per second. However, this space can be greatly reduced using audio compression. In audio compression, audio samples are processed using an audio codec. In a lossless codec audio samples are processed without discarding information by packing repetitive or redundant samples into a more efficiently stored form. A lossless decoder then reproduces the original PCM with no change in quality. Lossless audio compression typically achieves a 30-50% reduction in file size. Common lossless audio codecs include FLAC, ALAC, Monkey's Audio and others.

If additional compression is required, lossy audio compression such as MP3, Ogg Vorbis or AAC can be used. In these techniques, lossless compression techniques are enhanced by processing audio to reduce the precision of details that are unlikely or impossible for human hearing to perceive using principles from psychoacoustics. After the removal of these details, lossy compression can be applied to the remainder to greatly reduce the file size. Lossy audio compression therefore allows a 75-95% reduction in file size, but runs the risk of potentially reducing audio quality if important information is mistakenly discarded.

title: Sound quality


text:
1st arrondissement of Paris

The 1st arrondissement of Paris (Ier arrondissement) is one of the 20 arrondissements of the capital city of France. In spoken French, this arrondissement is colloquially referred to as le premier (the first). It is governed locally together with the 2nd, 3rd and 4th arrondissement, with which it forms the 1st sector of Paris (Paris-Centre).

Also known as Louvre, the arrondissement is situated principally on the right bank of the River Seine. It also includes the west end of the Île de la Cité. The locality is one of the oldest areas in Paris, the Île de la Cité having been the heart of the city of Lutetia, conquered by the Romans in 52 BC, while some parts on the right bank (including Les Halles) date back to the early Middle Ages.

It is the least populated of the city's arrondissements and one of the smallest by area, with a land area of only 1.83 km2 (0.705 sq. miles, or 451 acres). A significant part of the area is occupied by the Louvre Museum and the Tuileries Gardens. The Forum des Halles is the largest shopping mall in Paris. Much of the remainder of the arrondissement is dedicated to business and administration.

Demography
The area now occupied by the first arrondissement attained its peak population in the period preceding the re-organization of Paris in 1860. In 1999, the population was 16,888, while the arrondissement hosted 63,056 jobs, making it one of the most active for business after the 2nd, 8th, and 9th.

Quarters
Each of the 20 Paris arrondissements is divided into four quarters (quartiers). The table below lists the four quarters of the 1st arrondissement:

figures from 1999 French census

Economy
Korean Air's France office is in the 1st arrondissement.

At one time Air Inter's head office was located in the first arrondissement. When Minerve, an airline, existed, its head office was in the first arrondissement.

Education
In terms of state-operated schools, the first arrondissement has two nursery schools (écoles maternelles), two primary schools (écoles élémentaires), one école polyvalente, one high school (collège), and one sixth-form college (lycée).

The state-operated nursery schools are École Maternelle Auxerrois and École Maternelle Sourdiere. The state-operated primary schools are École Élémentaire Arbre Sec and École Élémentaire D'Argenteuil. The arrondissement has one école polyvalente, École Polyvalente Cambon. Collège Jean-Baptiste Poquelin is the sole state-operated high school in the arrondissement. Lycée Professionnel Commercial Pierre Lescot is the sole state-operated sixth-form college in the first arrondissement.

Private primary and secondary institutions in the arrondissement include École Élémentaire Privée Notre-Dame-Saint-Roch, École du 2nd Degré Professionnel Privée Pigier, and École Technologique Privée de Dessin Technique et Artistique Sornas.

Places of interest

 * Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel, at the eastern end of the Axe historique ("grand historic axis")
 * Banque de France headquarters
 * Colonne Médicis
 * Comédie-Française
 * Crédit Foncier de France historical headquarters
 * The Louvre
 * Galerie Véro-Dodat
 * Les Halles
 * Musée des Arts Décoratifs
 * Musée de la Mode et du Textile
 * Musée de la Publicité
 * Musée du Barreau de Paris
 * Musée Grévin – Forum des Halles
 * Musée des Lunettes et Lorgnettes Pierre Marly
 * Palais Royal
 * Hôtel de Vendôme
 * Hôtel de Rambouillet (former building)
 * Hôtel Ritz Paris
 * La Sainte-Chapelle
 * La Samaritaine
 * Tuileries Garden
 * Galerie nationale du Jeu de Paume
 * Musée de l'Orangerie

Bridges

 * Pont Neuf
 * Pont des Arts

Streets and squares

 * Avenue de l'Opéra (partial)
 * Rue Molière
 * Rue de Rivoli (partial)
 * Place Vendôme and the Vendôme Column

title: 1st arrondissement of Paris