text:
Constitutional amendment

A constitutional amendment is a modification of the constitution of a polity, organization or other type of entity. Amendments are often interwoven into the relevant sections of an existing constitution, directly altering the text. Conversely, they can be appended to the constitution as supplemental additions (codicils), thus changing the frame of government without altering the existing text of the document.

Most constitutions require that amendments cannot be enacted unless they have passed a special procedure that is more stringent than that required of ordinary legislation. Examples of such special procedures include supermajorities in the legislature, or direct approval by the electorate in a referendum, or even a combination of two or more different special procedures. A referendum to amend the constitution may also be triggered in some jurisdictions by popular initiative.

Australia and Ireland provide examples of constitutions requiring that all amendments are first passed by the legislature before being submitted to the people; in the case of Ireland, a simple majority of those voting at the electorate is all that is required, whereas a more complex set of criteria must be met in Australia (a majority of voters in a majority of states is also necessary). Switzerland has procedure similar to that of Australia.

The special procedures for the amendment of some constitutions have proven to be so exacting, that of proposed amendments either few (eight Amendments out of 44 proposed in Australia), or none (as in Japan) have been passed over a period of several decades. In contrast, the former constitution of the U.S. state of Alabama was amended 977 times between its adoption in 1901 and its replacement by the current constitution in 2022.

Form of changes to the text
There are a number of formal differences, from one jurisdiction to another, in the manner in which constitutional amendments are both originally drafted and written down once they become law. In some jurisdictions, such as Ireland, Estonia, and Australia, constitutional amendments originate as bills and become laws in the form of acts of parliament. This may be the case notwithstanding the fact that a special procedure is required to bring an amendment into force. Thus, for example, in Ireland and Australia although amendments are drafted in the form of Acts of Parliament they cannot become law until they have been approved in a referendum. By contrast, in the United States a proposed amendment originates as a special joint resolution of Congress that does not require the President to sign and that the President can not veto.

The manner in which constitutional amendments are finally recorded takes two main forms. In most jurisdictions, amendments to a constitution take the form of revisions to the previous text. Thus, once an amendment has become law, portions of the original text may be deleted or new articles may be inserted among existing ones. The second, less common method, is for amendments to be appended to the end of the main text in the form of special articles of amendment, leaving the body of the original text intact. Although the wording of the original text is not altered, the doctrine of implied repeal applies. In other words, in the event of conflict, an article of amendment will usually take precedence over the provisions of the original text, or of an earlier amendment. Nonetheless, there may still be ambiguity whether an amendment is intended to supersede or to supplement an existing article in the text.

An article of amendment may, however, explicitly express itself as having the effect of repealing a specific existing article. The use of appended articles of amendment is most famous as a feature of the United States Constitution, but it is also the method of amendment in a number of other jurisdictions, such as Venezuela.

Under the 1919 German Weimar Constitution, the prevailing legal theory was that any law reaching the necessary supermajorities in both chambers of parliament was free to deviate from the terms of the constitution, without itself becoming part of the constitution. This very wide conception of "amendment" eased the rise of Adolf Hitler to power; it was consequently explicitly ruled out in the postwar 1949 constitution, which allows amendments only by explicitly changing the constitution's text.

Ethiopia
The Constitution of Ethiopia can only be modified by a two-thirds majority of the country's regions, and a two-thirds majority of a joint session of the Federal Parliamentary Assembly in accordance with Article 105. The constitution's Chapter Three (describing both Human and democratic rights) and the constitution's Articles 104 and 105 are almost unamendable since they require the total consensus of the federal regional states and two-thirds of each house of Parliament. In Ethiopia's federal experience, each regional state is equal and has the right to veto amendments to the aforementioned articles.

South Africa
The Constitution of South Africa can be amended by an Act of Parliament, but special procedures and requirements apply to the passage of constitutional amendments. A bill amending the Constitution must be introduced in the National Assembly, and cannot contain any provisions other than constitutional amendments and directly related matters.

At least 30 days before a constitutional amendment bill is introduced in the National Assembly, the person or committee introducing the amendment must publish it for public comment, submit it to the provincial legislatures, and, if it does not have to be passed by the National Council of Provinces (NCOP), submit it to the NCOP for debate. When the bill is introduced, the comments received must be tabled in the National Assembly, and in the NCOP when appropriate.

All amendments must be passed by an absolute two-thirds supermajority in the National Assembly (the lower house); as the Assembly has 400 members this requires 267 members to vote for the amendment. Most amendments do not have to be considered by the NCOP (the upper house). Amendments of the Bill of Rights, and amendments affecting the role of the NCOP, the "boundaries, powers, functions or institutions" of the provinces or provisions "dealing specifically with provincial matters" must also be passed by the NCOP with a supermajority of at least six of the nine provinces. If an amendment affects a specific province, it must also be approved by the legislature of the province concerned. Section 1, which defines South Africa as "one, sovereign, democratic state" and lists its founding values, is a specially entrenched clause and can only be amended by an absolute three-quarters supermajority in the National Assembly and six of the provinces in the NCOP.

Once an Act is passed by the National Assembly, and by the NCOP if necessary, it must be signed and assented to by the President. As with any other Act of Parliament, by default an amendment comes into effect when it is published in the Government Gazette, but the text of the amendment may specify some other date of commencement, or allow the President to specify one by notice in the Gazette.

Brazil
The Constitution of Brazil states various terms on how it can be amended. Article 60 lies within "Section VIII: The Legislative Process, Subsection 2: Amendments to the Constitution". The following is detailed therein: "Constitutional amendments may be proposed by:
 * I. at least one-third of the members of the Chamber of Deputies or the Federal Senate;
 * II. the President of the Republic;
 * III. more than one-half of the Legislative Assemblies of units of the Federation, each manifesting its decision by a simple majority of its members.

§1°. The Constitution cannot be amended during a federal intervention, state of defence or stage of siege. §2°. A proposed amendment shall be debated and voted on in each Chamber of the National Congress, in two rounds, and shall be considered approved if it obtains three-fifths of the votes of the respective members in both rounds. §3°. A Constitutional amendment shall be promulgated by the Executive Committees of the Chamber of Deputies and Federal Senate, taking the next sequential number. §4°. No proposed constitutional amendment shall be considered that is aimed at abolishing the following:
 * I.  the federalist form of the National Government;
 * II. direct, secret, universal and periodic suffrage;
 * III. separation of powers;
 * IV. individual rights and guarantees.

§5°. The subject of a defeated or prejudiced proposed Constitutional amendment may not be made the subject of another proposed amendment in the same legislative session." Article 60 is the only article prescribed under Subsection 2 of Section 8 in the Brazilian constitution.

Federal constitution
Article Five of the United States Constitution describes the process whereby the federal Constitution may be altered. Twenty-seven amendments have been added (appended as codicils) to the Constitution.

Amendment proposals may be adopted and sent to the states for ratification by either:
 * A two-thirds (supermajority) vote of members present—if a quorum exists—in both the Senate and the House of Representatives of the United States Congress; or
 * A majority vote of state delegations at a national convention called by Congress at the request of the legislatures of at least two-thirds (at present 34) of the states. (This method has never been used.)

All 33 amendment proposals that have been sent to the states for ratification since the establishment of the Constitution have come into being via the Congress. State legislatures have however, at various times, used their power to apply for a national convention in order to pressure Congress into proposing a desired amendment. For example, the movement to amend the Constitution to provide for the direct election of senators began to see such proposals regularly pass the House of Representatives only to die in the Senate from the early 1890s onward. As time went by, more and more state legislatures adopted resolutions demanding that a convention be called, thus pressuring the Senate to finally relent and approve what later became the Seventeenth Amendment for fear that such a convention—if permitted to assemble—might stray to include issues above and beyond just the direct election of senators.

To become an operative part of the Constitution, an amendment, whether proposed by Congress or a national constitutional convention, must be ratified by either:
 * The legislatures of three-fourths (at present 38) of the states; or
 * State ratifying conventions in three-fourths (at present 38) of the states.

Congress has specified the state legislature ratification method for all but one amendment. The ratifying convention method was used for the Twenty-first Amendment, which became part of the Constitution in 1933.

Since the turn of the 20th century, amendment proposals sent to the states for ratification have generally contained a seven-year ratification deadline, either in the body of the amendment or in the resolving clause of the joint resolution proposing it. The Constitution does not expressly provide for a deadline on the state legislatures' or state ratifying conventions' consideration of proposed amendments. In Dillon v. Gloss (1921), the Supreme Court affirmed that Congress—if it so desires—could provide a deadline for ratification. An amendment with an attached deadline that is not ratified by the required number of states within the set time period is considered inoperative and rendered moot.

A proposed amendment becomes an official Article of the Constitution immediately once it is ratified by three-fourths of the States. The Article usually goes into force at this time too, though it may self-impose a delay before that happens, as was the case of the Eighteenth Amendment. Every ratified Amendment has been certified or proclaimed by an official of the federal government, starting with the Secretary of State, then the Administrator of General Services, and now the Archivist of the United States, with the Archivist currently being responsible for certification under. The certification document usually contains a list of the States that ratified the Amendment. This certification is just used by the federal government to keep an official record and archive of the Amendment for its own purposes, and does not actually have any legal effect on the Amendment.

State constitutions
State constitutions in the U.S. are amended on a regular basis. In 19 states, the state constitutions have been amended at least 100 times.

Amendments are often necessary because of the length of state constitutions, which are, on average, three times longer than the federal constitution, and because state constitutions typically contain extensive detail. In addition, state constitutions are often easier to amend than the federal constitution.

Individual states differ in the difficulty of constitutional amendments. Some states allow for initiating the amendment process through the action of the state legislature or by popular initiative.

California
There are three methods for proposing an amendment to the California State Constitution: by the legislature, by constitutional convention, or by voter initiative. A proposed amendment must be approved by a majority of voters.

With the legislative method, a proposed amendment must be approved by an absolute supermajority of two-thirds of the membership of each house.

With the convention method, the legislature may, by a two-thirds absolute supermajority, submit to the voters at a general election the question whether to call a convention to revise the Constitution. If the majority of the voters vote yes on that question, within six months the Legislature shall provide for the convention. Delegates to a constitutional convention shall be voters elected from districts as nearly equal in population as may be practicable. The constitution does not provide any rules for the operation of the constitutional convention.

With the initiative method, an amendment is proposed by a petition signed by voters equal in number to 8% of the votes for all candidates for governor at the last gubernatorial election. The proposed amendment is then submitted to the voters at a general or special election.

New York
There are two methods of proposing amendments to the New York Constitution. All proposed amendments must be approved by a majority of voters in a referendum.

With the legislative method, an amendment proposal must be published for three months, then approved by an absolute majority of the members of each of the two houses, and approved again in a succeeding term of the houses, with an election intervening. Finally, the amendment proposal must be submitted to the people, and for ratification must be approved by a simple majority.

With the convention method, a constitutional convention must be convened by a majority vote of voters in a general election (referendum) on the question.

Tennessee
There are two methods for proposing amendments to the Tennessee State Constitution: through the legislature and by constitutional convention. Proposed amendments must be approved by a majority of voters in a referendum.

With the legislative method, the Tennessee General Assembly passes a resolution calling for an amendment and stating its wording. This must pass in three separate readings on three separate days, with an absolute majority on all readings. It does not require the governor's approval. It must then be published at least six months before the next legislative election in newspapers of wide and general circulation. (This is done by precedent but is not required by law.) After the election, the proposed amendment must go through the same procedure (absolute majority on three separate readings). Then it is put on the ballot as a referendum in the next gubernatorial election. To be ratified it must again achieve an absolute majority of those voting in the gubernatorial election.

With the convention method, the legislature can put on any ballot the question of whether to call a constitutional convention. It must be stated whether the convention is limited or unlimited—that is, whether it can only amend the current constitution or totally abolish it and write a new one. If limited, the call must state which provisions of the current constitution are to be subject to amendment, and the subsequent convention, if approved, is limited to considering only amendments to the provisions specified in the call. The proposed amendments must then be submitted to the electorate and approved by a majority of those voting in the election. A constitutional convention cannot be held more frequently than once every six years.

Texas
The only method for proposing an amendment to the Texas State Constitution is through the legislature, either in regular or special session. The governor may call a special session, and specify the agenda for the session. To become part of the constitution, proposed amendments must be approved by a majority of voters in a referendum. Texas has had six different constitutions and the current constitution, adopted in 1876, has been amended 474 times.

A proposed amendment must be approved by an absolute supermajority of two-thirds of the elected membership of each house of the legislature. It is submitted to the voters in an election specified by the legislature. The wording of an explanatory statement that will appear on the ballot must be approved by the Texas Attorney General and printed in newspapers. The full text of the amendment must be posted by all county clerks for 30 days before the election.

Washington
The only method for proposing an amendment to the Washington State Constitution is through the legislature and can originate in either branch. The proposal must be approved by a two-thirds majority of the legislature. The proposed amendment is placed on the ballot at the next general election and must be approved by a majority of the voters.

Australia
The procedure for amending the Constitution of Australia is detailed in section 128 of the Constitution. Firstly, a bill amending the Constitution must be passed by both houses of the Parliament of Australia by an absolute majority (at least 76 of the 151 members of the House of Representatives and at least 39 of the 76 members of the Senate). If one house passes the bill while the other refuses, it may attempt to pass the bill again. If the second house again refuses to pass it, the Governor-General (presumably on the advice of the Prime Minister) may still submit the proposed change for referendum.

Following this, Australians then vote on the proposal. For a referendum to succeed both of the following must be achieved

 * 1) A majority of states (New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, Western Australia, South Australia and Tasmania) must agree to the proposal.
 * 2) A majority of the combined votes of all of Australia must agree to the proposal.

The double majority is a major factor in why since 1906 out of 44 referendums only 8 have been successful.

China
In the Communist-ruled People's Republic of China, the Constitution of the People's Republic of China states how to be amended under Article 64 of "Chapter III: The Structure of the State". It says the following: "Amendments to the Constitution are to be proposed by the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress or by more than one-fifth of the deputies to the National People's Congress and adopted by a majority vote of more than two-thirds of all the deputies to the Congress."

India
The Indian constitution can be amended in 3 ways:

 * 1) By Simple Majority of the Parliament
 * 2) * This method is used to amend those parts of the constitution outside the purview of Article 368 of the constitution.
 * 3) * It is used in amending the following provisions:
 * 4) ** Formation of new states, alteration of boundaries of states, changing names of states and alteration of areas of states
 * 5) ** Creation/Abolition of Legislative Councils in states
 * 6) ** Changing salaries and allowances of judges of Supreme Court and High Court
 * 7) ** Laws regarding citizenship
 * 8) Through procedure mentioned in Article 368 of the Constitution
 * 9) * This again is done in 2 ways -
 * 10) ** By Special Majority of the Parliament
 * 11) *** Special majority implies :
 * 12) **** A majority of the 'total membership' of the Parliament (i.e., each houses separately) and
 * 13) **** A majority of 2/3rd of members present and voting
 * 14) ** By Special Majority of the Parliament and consent of states
 * 15) *** This requires
 * 16) **** Special majority in each house of the Parliament and
 * 17) **** Consent of half of the state legislatures
 * 18) *** This method is used for amending those provisions affecting states' interests. e.g.: Representation of states in Parliament, distribution of legislative powers between the union and states etc.

Since its commencement in 1950, Indian constitution has been amended 105 times, as of August 2021. Supreme Court in Kesavananda Bharati Case held that parliament's power to amend is not unlimited, and it can not amend the basic structure of the constitution. The 'basic structure' includes the supremacy of the Constitution, the rule of law, Independence of the judiciary, doctrine of separation of powers, federalism, secularism, sovereign democratic republic, the parliamentary system of government, the principle of free and fair elections, welfare state, etc.

Indonesia
The Constitution of Indonesia states that it can be amended corresponding to Article 37 of "Chapter XVI: Constitutional Amendments" within the document. Proposal to amend the constitution must submitted by one-thirds members of the People's Consultative Assembly. Two-thirds of the members of the People's Consultative Assembly must be present: any proposed amendment requires a simple majority of the entire People's Consultative Assembly membership. The form of the unitary state cannot be changed.

Japan
The Constitution of Japan states that it can be amended corresponding to Article 96 of "Chapter IX: Amendments" within the document. It says the following: "Amendments to this Constitution shall be initiated by the Diet, through a concurring vote of two-thirds or more of all the members of each House and shall thereupon be submitted to the people for ratification, which shall require the affirmative vote of a majority of all votes cast thereon, at a special referendum or at such election as the Diet shall specify." "Amendments when so ratified shall immediately be promulgated by the Emperor in the name of the people, as an integral part of this Constitution."

Japan has used this Constitution since Saturday, 3 May 1947. It was adopted and implemented as the most quintessential doctrine of Japanese governance following the Second World War and the Sino-Japanese war. As a result, in order to ensure that Japan would not be a source of future aggression, a special portion was written into the document in the form of "Article 9: Renunciation of War". It describes as follows: "Aspiring sincerely to an international peace based on justice and order, the Japanese people forever renounce war as a sovereign right of the nation and the threat or use of force as means of settling international disputes." "In order to accomplish the aim of the preceding paragraph, land, sea, and air forces, as well as other war potential, will never be maintained. The right of belligerency of the state will not be recognized."

Even though these two paragraphs are not expressly protected by an eternity clause, many Japanese people argue that it needs to be interpreted as being irrevocable due to the significant and precise nature of the article.

Philippines
Under the common interpretation of the Constitution, amendments can be proposed by one of three methods: a People's Initiative, a Constituent Assembly or a Constitutional Convention.

Taiwan
Article 174 of the Constitution of the Republic of China is codified with the law: "Amendments to the Constitution shall be made in accordance with one of the following procedures: 1. Upon the proposal of one-fifth of the total number of the delegates to the National Assembly and by a resolution of three-fourths of the delegates present at a meeting having a quorum of two-thirds of the entire Assembly, the Constitution may be amended. 2. Upon the proposal of one-fourth of the Members of the Legislative Yuan and by a resolution of three-fourths of the Members present at a meeting having a quorum of three-fourths of the Members of the Yuan, an amendment may be drawn up and submitted to the National Assembly by way of referendum. Such a proposed amendment to the Constitution shall be publicly published half a year before the National Assembly convenes."

This was changed beginning in the 1990s and Article 12 of the constitutional amendments must be approved by Taiwan's parliament and referendums voted by the citizens residing in the ROC free area.

Turkey
The Constitution of Turkey details, through Provisional Article 175 under "I. Amending the Constitution, participation in elections and referenda" of "Part Seven: Final Provisions" "Amendment to the Constitution shall be proposed in writing by at least one-third of the total number of members of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey. Bills to amend the Constitution shall be debated twice in the Plenary. The adoption of a bill for an amendment shall require a three-fifths majority of the total number of members of the Assembly by secret ballot." "The consideration and adoption of bills for the amendments to the Constitution shall be subject to the provisions governing the consideration and adoption of laws, with the exception of the conditions set forth in this Article." "The President of the Republic may send back the laws on the amendments to the Constitution to the Grand National Assembly of Turkey for reconsideration. If the Assembly readopts, by a two-thirds majority of the total number of members, the law sent back by the President of the Republic without any amendment, the President of the Republic may submit the law to referendum." "If a law on the amendment to the Constitution is adopted by a three-fifths or less than two-thirds majority of the total number of members of the Assembly and is not sent back by the President of the Republic to the Assembly for reconsideration, it shall be published in the Official Gazette and be submitted to referendum." "A law on the Constitutional amendment adopted by a two- thirds majority of the total number of members of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey directly or upon the sending back of the law by the President of the Republic or its articles deemed necessary may be submitted to a referendum by the President of the Republic. A law on the amendment to the Constitution or the related articles that are not submitted to referendum shall be published in the Official Gazette." "Entry into force of the laws on the amendment to the Constitution submitted to referendum shall require the affirmative vote of more than half of the valid votes cast." "The Grand National Assembly of Turkey, in adopting the law on the Constitutional amendment shall also decide on which provisions shall be submitted to referendum together and which shall be submitted individually, in case the law is submitted to referendum." "Every measure including fines shall be taken by law to secure participation in referenda, general elections, by-elections and local elections."

The Turkish constitution was adopted and implemented in 1982. , it had been amended 21 times. Every amendment which has been approved into the document was passed by the people through a constitutional referendum that occurred in 2017. This means that all twenty-one amendments were added at the same time. Due to the contents that it would exponentially extend presidential tenure as well as controversies about electoral misconduct, the referendum was intensely controversial. Global attention was drawn to it both before and after the results were finalized for the same reasons.

European Union
The Treaties of the European Union are a set of international treaties between member states that describe the constitutional basis of the European Union. Prior to the Treaty of Lisbon's entry into force in 2009, there was only one procedure for the revision of the treaties on which the EU is based: the convening of an intergovernmental conference. Since 2009, Article 48 of the Treaty on European Union has laid down two procedures for the revision of the treaties.
 * Ordinary revision: this relates to key changes in relation to the competences of the EU and requires the convening of an intergovernmental conference to adopt proposals for amendments by consensus. All EU countries have to ratify the treaty amendments for them to enter into force.
 * Simplified revision: where the proposed amendments relate to the EU's policies and its internal actions, the European Council unanimously adopts a decision on the amendments having consulted the commission, the Parliament and the European Central Bank (if the amendment concerns monetary matters). The new treaty provisions only enter into force following their ratification by all EU countries according to their own constitutional procedures.

Albania
The Constitution of Albania states its terms for being amending under Article 177 within "Part 17: Amending The Constitution". "1. An initiative for amending the Constitution may be taken by not less than one-fifth of the members of the Assembly." "2. No amendment to the Constitution may take place when extraordinary measures are in effect." "3. A proposed amendment is approved by not less than two-thirds of all members of the Assembly." "4. The Assembly may decide, by two-thirds of all its members, that the proposed constitutional amendments be voted on in a referendum. The proposed constitutional amendment becomes effective after ratification by referendum, which takes place not later than 60 days after its approval by the Assembly." "5. An approved constitutional amendment is submitted to referendum when one-fifth of the members of the Assembly request it." "6. The President of the Republic cannot return for re-consideration a constitutional amendment approved by the Assembly." "7. An amendment approved by referendum is promulgated by the President of the Republic and becomes effective on the date provided for in it." "8. An amendment of the Constitution cannot be made unless a year has passed since the rejection by the Assembly of a proposed amendment on the same issue or three years have passed from its rejection by referendum."

Article 177 is the only article under this part of the Albanian constitution.

Austria
The Constitution of Austria is unusually liberal in terms of constitutional amendments. Any piece of parliamentary legislation can be designated as "constitutional law", i.e., as a part of the constitution if the required supermajority and other formalities for an amendment are met. An amendment may take the form of a change of the Bundes-Verfassungsgesetz, the centerpiece of the constitution, a change to another constitutional act, a new constitutional act, or of a section of constitutional law in a non-constitutional act. Furthermore, international treaties can be enacted as constitutional law, as happened in the case of the European Convention of Human Rights. Over the decades, frequent amendments and, in some cases, the intention to immunize pieces of legislation from judicial review, have led to much "constitutional garbage" consisting of hundreds of constitutional provisions spread all over the legal system. This has led to calls for reform.

A majority of two-thirds in the National Council is all that is required for an amendment to take effect. Only in the case of a fundamental change (Gesamtänderung) of the constitution a confirmation by referendum is required. Since 1945, this has only happened once when Austria's accession to the European Union was approved by popular vote.

If a constitutional amendment limits the powers of the states, a two-thirds majority in the Federal Council of Austria is required as well. Depending on the matter on hand, two-thirds of the Federal Councilors present (attendance of one-half of all Councilors is required), or two-thirds of all Federal Councilors must approve. If the amendment would change articles 34 or 35, the majority of councilors of at least four of the nine states is an additional requirement.

Belgium
The Constitution of Belgium can be amended by the federal legislative power, which consists of the King (in practice, the Federal Government) and the Federal Parliament. In order to amend the Constitution, the federal legislative power must declare the reasons to revise the Constitution in accordance with Article 195. This is done by means of two so-called Declarations of Revision of the Constitution, one adopted by the Chamber of Representatives and the Senate, and one signed by the King and the Federal Government.

Following this declaration, the Federal Parliament is automatically dissolved and a new federal election must take place. This makes it impossible to amend the Constitution unless an election has intervened. Following the election, the new Federal Parliament can amend those articles that have been declared revisable. Neither Chamber can consider amendments to the Constitution unless at least two-thirds of its members are present and the Constitution can only be amended if at least two-thirds of the votes cast are in favour of the amendment.

Bosnia and Herzegovina
In the Article X, defining the amendment procedure, the Constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina states that it can be amended by a decision of the Parliamentary Assembly, including a two-thirds majority of those present and voting in the House of Representatives. The Constitution does not say who has the right, and under what rules, to present the amendments to the Parliamentary Assembly. Also, in the paragraph 2 of the Article X, the Constitution states that the rights and freedoms, as seen in the Article II, cannot be derogated, as well as the paragraph 2 itself.

The Constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina was amended once, in 2009, to include the outcome of the Brcko District final award. Several constitutional reforms were attempted between 2006 and 2014, to ensure its compliance with the case law of the European Convention on Human Rights in the Sejdić and Finci v. Bosnia and Herzegovina and following cases (Zornic, Pilav) regarding ethnic- and residence-based discrimination in passive electoral rights for the Presidency and House of Peoples.

Bulgaria
Under the current Constitution of Bulgaria (1991), there are two procedures for amendment, depending on the part of the constitution to be amended:
 * Normal amendment procedure (Articles 153–156): the Parliament can amend the Constitution for minor issues with a three-quarters majority, or two-thirds majority upon reintroduction in parliament after two months. This shall be done in three successive readings.
 * Special amendment procedure (Articles 157–163): this procedure is the only way to revise the international borders of Bulgaria; change the form of government in the country; change the form in which the Constitution and international treaties are applied in Bulgaria (Article 5) or suspend citizens' rights. When such amendment is needed, the Constitution envisages an election for Great National Assembly, which consists of 400 deputies, with 200 elected by proportional vote and 200 elected by the first-past-the-post method. Then the amendments to the Constitution are passed by two-thirds majority in three successive readings.

Czech Republic
Passage of a constitutional act in the Czech Republic can only be accomplished through the agreement of three-fifths of all Deputies and Senators present at the time the proposed act is laid before each house of Parliament. It is the only type of legislation that does not require the signature of the President to become law. Furthermore, it is the only type of legislation the President cannot veto.

Denmark
The Constitution of Denmark provides an example of multiple special procedures that must be followed. After an amendment has been approved by parliament, a general election must be held; the new parliament must then approve the amendment again before it is finally submitted to a referendum. There is also a requirement that at least forty percent of eligible voters must vote at the referendum in order for an amendment to be validly passed.

Estonia
The Constitution of Estonia can only be modified by three-fifths majority in two successive complements of Parliament, and a referendum for certain chapters.

Finland
Amendments or revisions to the Constitution of Finland (including replacement) can be proposed by the Government or by any member of Parliament. These must first be approved by a majority of Parliament, and then after a parliamentary election by a two-thirds supermajority.

A proposal can be declared by a five-sixths supermajority of Parliament as “urgent,” after this it can be approved by two-thirds immediately – without an election. This second procedure is also used for emergency laws that temporarily deviate the Constitution.

France
Amendments to the Constitution of France must first be passed by both houses with identical terms, and then need approval either by a simple majority in a referendum or by a three-fifths majority of the two houses of the French parliament jointly convened in Congress.

Germany
The Federal Republic of Germany uses a basic law as its constitution. The Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany states its terms for amending under Article 79 of the document. "This Basic Law may be amended only by a law expressly amending or supplementing its text. In the case of an international treaty regarding a peace settlement, the preparation of a peace settlement, or the phasing out of an occupation regime, or designed to promote the defense of the Federal Republic, it shall be sufficient, for the purpose of making clear that the provisions of this Basic Law do not preclude the conclusion and entry into force of the treaty, to add language to the Basic Law that merely makes this clarification." "Any such law shall be carried by two thirds of the Members of the Bundestag and two thirds of the votes of the Bundesrat." "Amendments to this Basic Law affecting the division of the Federation into Länder, their participation on principle in the legislative process, or the principles laid down in Articles 1 and 20 shall be inadmissible."

The third paragraph was made by its framers to protect the country against a future totalitarian regime such as that of Nazi Germany. This is an example of the eternity clause in constitutional designing.

Greece
The Constitution of Greece is amendable through the terms which mentioned under Article 110 beneath "Section II: Revision of the Constitution" of "Part Four: Special, Final, and Transitional Provisions".

Ireland
The Constitution of Ireland can only be modified by referendum, following proposal approved by the lower and upper houses of the Oireachtas, amongst citizens entitled to vote for the President. The amendment succeeds by simple majority, and no quorum is required.

Italy
Article 138 of the Constitution provides for the special procedure through which the Parliament can adopt constitutional laws (including laws to amend the Constitution of Italy). Constitutional laws start by following the ordinary legislative procedure, which requires both houses of parliament to approve the law in the same text, with a simple majority (i.e. the majority of votes cast). However, after having been approved for the first time, they need to be voted for by both houses a second time, which can happen no sooner than three months after the first. In this second reading, no new amendments to the bill may be proposed: the bill must be either approved or rejected in its entirety.

The constitutional law needs to be approved by at least a majority of MPs in each house (absolute majority) in its second reading. Depending on the results of this second vote, the constitutional law may then follow two different paths. The form of republic may not be revised (art. 139 of the Constitution).
 * If the bill is approved by a qualified majority of two-thirds of members in each house, it can be immediately promulgated by the President of the Republic and become law.
 * If the bill is approved by a majority of members in each house, but not enough to reach the qualified majority of two-thirds, it does not immediately become law. Instead, it must be first be published in the Official Gazette (the official journal where all Italian laws are published). Within three months after its publication, a constitutional referendum may be requested by either 500,000 voters, five regional councils, or one-fifth of the members of a house of parliament. If no constitutional referendum has been requested after the three months have elapsed, the bill can be promulgated and becomes law. If a constitutional referendum is requested, in order to become law the bill must be approved by a majority of votes cast by the whole electorate. No quorum is required, meaning that the referendum turnout has no effect on its validity (unlike in other forms of referendums in Italy).

Only four constitutional referendums have ever been held in Italy: in 2001 and 2020 (in which the constitutional laws were approved), and in 2006 and 2016 (in which they were rejected).

The Netherlands
To change the Constitution of the Netherlands the legislature must pass a law by simple majority proposing to change the constitution (voorstelwet, lit. proposed law). The lower house must then be dissolved and after elections the proposal is considered again. To actually change the constitution the change must be passed by 2/3 majority in both houses of parliament.

Poland
The Constitution of Poland says the following under Article 235 of "Chapter XII: Amending the Constitution" within it:

"1. A bill to amend the Constitution may be submitted by the following: at least one-fifth of the statutory number of Deputies; the Senate; or the President of the Republic." "2. Amendments to the Constitution shall be made by means of a statute adopted by the Sejm and, thereafter, adopted in the same wording by the Senate within a period of 60 days." "3. The first reading of a bill to amend the Constitution may take place no sooner than 30 days after the submission of the bill to the Sejm." "4. A bill to amend the Constitution shall be adopted by the Sejm by a majority of at least two-thirds of votes in the presence of at least half of the statutory number of Deputies, and by the Senate by an absolute majority of votes in the presence of at least half of the statutory number of Senators." "5. The adoption by the Sejm of a bill amending the provisions of Chapters I, II or XII of the Constitution shall take place no sooner than 60 days after the first reading of the bill." "6. If a bill to amend the Constitution relates to the provisions of Chapters I, II or XII, the subjects specified in para. 1 above may require, within 45 days of the adoption of the bill by the Senate, the holding of confirmatory referendum. Such subjects shall make application in the matter to the Marshal of the Sejm, who shall order the holding of a referendum within 60 days of the day of receipt of the application. The amendment to the Constitution shall be deemed accepted if the majority of those voting express support for such amendment." "7. After conclusion of the procedures specified in paras 4 and 6 above, the Marshal of the Sejm shall submit the adopted statute to the President of the Republic for signature. The President of the Republic shall sign the statute within 21 days of its submission and order its promulgation in the Journal of Laws of the Republic of Poland (Dziennik Ustaw)."

Portugal
The Constitution is amendable through the terms prescribed under "Title II: Revision of the Constitution" of "Part IX: Guaranteeing and Revision of the Constitution" between Articles 284 and 289.

Romania
The Constitution of Romania mentions and outlines the terms by which it can be amended in "Article 150: Amendment Initiative", "Article 151: Amendment Procedure", and "Article 152: Limits to Constitutional Amendments". All three articles are written under "Title VII: Amendment of the Constitution" of the document.

Russia
The Constitution of Russia was created by the Russian Federation in 1993. It can be amended in correspondence with Articles 134 through 137 of "Chapter 9: Constitutional Amendments and Revision of the Constitution" under the document. In 2008, certain amendments were proposed which extended the terms of the President of the Russian Federation and State Duma members from four to six years and four to five years in duration respectively. These constitutional amendments are the first truly substantial amendments to the country's constitution added into the Russian constitution fifteen years prior to its adoption and implementation fifteen years earlier.

Serbia
The Constitution of Serbia states its terms for being amended between Articles 203 to 205 under "Part 9: Amending The Constitution" within the document. Even though the Serbian constitution can be amended, this has never happened even once ever since the document was adopted and implemented in 2006 when Montenegro declared its independence from Serbia after an independence referendum was won. This brought the state of Serbia-Montenegro to an end.

Spain
The Constitution of Spain can be amended through the procedures detailed between Articles 166 to 169 under "Part X: Constitutional Amendment" of the document. Additional details are provided between Sections 71 to 76 within the document as well.

Sweden
The Swedish Constitution consists of four fundamental laws: the Instrument of Government, the Act of Succession, the Freedom of the Press Act, and the Fundamental Law on Freedom of Expression.

The Instrument of Government, under "Chapter 8. Acts of law and other provisions", articles 14 to 17, states that in order to amend the fundamental laws, the Riksdag must take two identical decisions, and that these decisions must be separated by a general election. At least nine months shall elapse between the first submission of the amendment proposal and the date of the election, unless an exception is granted by the Committee on the Constitution with a majority of five sixths of its members.

One third of members of the Riksdag can also call for a binding referendum on a draft constitutional measure which already passed the first vote.

United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, devoid of a written constitution and exercising pure parliamentary sovereignty, the final authority on all quasi-constitutional matters is ultimately the parliament itself (the legislature), by a simple majority. This means that when the legislature wishes to make changes to constitutional matters (i.e. relating to the machinery of government), there can be no entrenchment clause or special procedure which can stand in its way. Although consideration must be given to the Human Rights Act which supersedes all legislation, the act can itself be repealed or amended by a simple majority of Parliament. Despite clauses such as those in the Scotland Act 2016, which proclaims that Scotland's devolved government cannot be abolished except by a referendum, legal commentators have noted that the Parliament of the United Kingdom may set aside such a requirement by a simple majority. Such purported entrenchment clauses are thus little more than expressions of hope and sentiment on the part of a parliament.

A similar situation could be found in the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 (FTPA), which, prior to its repeal by the Dissolution and Calling of Parliament Act 2022, purported to restrict the ability of a Prime Minister on a whim to dissolve Parliament and hold a general election, as was formerly the case before the enactment of FTPA and is the case again since its repeal. In 2019, this requirement was annulled by simple majority through the passing of the Early Parliamentary General Election Act 2019, allowing a snap election to be held. This power of Parliament may be seen by some as a weakness of entrenchment clauses in the British system, but others contend it represents an unbridled democratic power of the electorate to effect rapid and dramatic change. Thus in the British system no parliament can bind its successor, it cannot pass an effective entrenchment clause seeking to tie the hand of future governments.

Inadmissible amendments
Some constitutions use entrenched clauses to restrict the kind of amendment to which they may be subject. This is usually to protect characteristics of the state considered sacrosanct, such as the democratic form of government or the protection of human rights. Amendments are often totally forbidden during a state of emergency or martial law.

 * Under Article 79 (3) of the German Basic Law, modification of the federal nature of the country, or abolition or alteration of Article 1 (human dignity, human rights, immediate applicability of fundamental rights as law) or Article 20 (democracy, republicanism, rule of law, social nature of the state) is forbidden. This is in order to prevent a recurrence of events like such as the Nazi Gleichschaltung, when Hitler used formally legal constitutional law to de facto abolish the constitution.
 * Article 139 of the Constitution of Italy states that "the republican form cannot be subject to constitutional revision".
 * Article 4 of the Constitution of Turkey states that the "provision of Article 1 of the Constitution establishing the form of the state as a Republic, the provisions in Article 2 on the characteristics of the Republic, and the provision of Article 3 shall not be amended, nor shall their amendment be proposed".
 * Article Five of the United States Constitution, ratified in 1788, prohibited any amendments before 1808 which would affect the foreign slave trade, the tax on the slave trade, or the direct taxation provisions of the constitution. The foreign slave trade was outlawed by an act of Congress rather than by a constitutional amendment shortly after this clause expired in 1808. Also, any amendment affecting the equal representation of states in the Senate must be approved by every State. If the Corwin Amendment had passed, any future amendment to the Constitution "interfering with the domestic institutions of the state" (e.g., slavery) would have been banned.
 * Chapter 6, Article 120, section c of the Constitution of Bahrain prohibits "an amendment to Article 2 [State Religion, Shari'a, Official Language] of this Constitution, and it is not permissible under any circumstances to propose the amendment of the constitutional monarchy and the principle of inherited rule in Bahrain, as well as the bicameral system and the principles of freedom and equality established in this Constitution".
 * Article 121 of the Constitution of Norway provides that amendments must not "contradict the principles embodied in this Constitution, but solely relate to modifications of particular provisions which do not alter the spirit of the Constitution".
 * Section 284 of Article 18 of the Alabama State Constitution states that legislative representation is based on population: any amendments are precluded from changing that.
 * Part 4, Section, Article 288 of the Constitution of Portugal contains a list of 15 items that amendments "must respect".
 * The Supreme Court of India in the Kesavananda Bharati case held that no constitutional amendment can destroy the basic structure of the Constitution of India.
 * Article 60 of the current 1988 Constitution of Brazil forbids amendments that intend to abolish individual rights or to alter the fundamental framework of the State: the Separation of Powers and the Federal Republic.
 * Article 152 of the Constitution of Romania on the "limits of revision" prohibits amendments regarding the independence and territorial integrity of Romania, the independence of justice, the republican form of government, political pluralism, and the official language. It also forbids amendments which restrict civil rights and liberties.
 * Under Article 175 of the Constitution of Morocco as promulgated after a referendum in 2011, no revision may apply to the provisions concerning the Muslim religion, the monarchical form of the State, the democratic choice of the Nation or the established fundamental rights and liberties written in the present Constitution. In particular no change may be brought to the articles naming Islam the state religion or to those detailing the functions of the King as Amir al-Mu'minin (Commander of the Faithful).
 * Chapter XVI, Article 37(5) of the Indonesian Constitution states that the form of the unitary state cannot be changed.

title: Constitutional amendment


text:
Minnesota Farmer–Labor Party

The Minnesota Farmer–Labor Party (FLP) was a left-wing American political party in Minnesota between 1918 and 1944. The FLP largely dominated Minnesota politics during the Great Depression. It was one of the most successful statewide third party movements in United States history and the longest-lasting affiliate of the national Farmer–Labor movement. At its height in the 1920s and 1930s, FLP members included three Minnesota governors, four United States senators, eight United States representatives and a majority in the Minnesota legislature.

In 1944, Hubert H. Humphrey and Elmer Benson worked to merge the party with the state's Democratic Party, forming the contemporary Minnesota Democratic–Farmer–Labor Party.

History
The Minnesota Farmer–Labor Party emerged from the Non-Partisan League (NPL), which had expanded from North Dakota into Minnesota in 1918, and the Union Labor Party (ULP) of Duluth, Minnesota, which was founded in February 1918. In 1919, the NPL reorganized as the Working People's Non-Partisan League (WPNPL). In February 1920, the ULP joined the WPNPL.

The FLP ran on a platform of farmer and labor union protection, government ownership of certain industries, and social security laws.

In 1936, the FLP was informally allied with the New Deal coalition and supported the reelection of President Franklin Roosevelt. Roosevelt was building a national coalition and wanted a solid base in Minnesota, where the Democrats were a weak third party. Roosevelt had a deal with Governor Olson whereby the FLP would get federal patronage, and in turn the FLP would work to block a third-party ticket against Roosevelt in 1936.

One of the primary obstacles of the party, besides constant vilification on the pages of local and state newspapers, was the difficulty of uniting the party's divergent base and maintaining political union between rural farmers and urban laborers who often had little in common other than the populist perception that they were an oppressed class of hardworking producers exploited by a small elite. A powerful pro-Communist element wanted fusion during World War II to ensure solidarity between the USSR and the USA, as partners against the Nazis.

According to political scientist George Mayer: The farmer approached problems as a proprietor or petty capitalist. Relief to him meant a mitigation of conditions that interfered with successful farming. It involved such things as tax reduction, easier access to credit, and a floor under farm prices. His individualist psychology did not create scruples against government aid, but he welcomed it only as long as it improved agricultural conditions. When official paternalism took the form of public works or the dole, he openly opposed it because assistance on such terms forced him to abandon his chosen profession, to submerge his individuality in the labor crew, and to suffer the humiliation of the bread line. Besides, a public works program required increased revenue, and since the state relied heavily on the property tax, the cost of the program seemed likely to fall primarily on him.

At the opposite end of the seesaw sat the city worker, who sought relief from the hunger, exposure, and disease that followed the wake of unemployment. Dependent on an impersonal industrial machine, he had sloughed off the frontier tradition of individualism for the more serviceable doctrine of cooperation through trade unionism. Unlike the depressed farmer, the unemployed worker often had no property or economic stake to protect. He was largely immune to taxation and had nothing to lose by backing proposals to dilute property rights or redistribute the wealth. Driven by the primitive instinct to survive, the worker demanded financial relief measures from the state.

The New Deal farm programs made the American Farm Bureau Federation the main organization for farmers. It was hostile to the FLP, leaving the FLP without power regarding farm economics.

The Minnesota Democratic Party, led by Hubert Humphrey, was able to absorb the Farmer–Labor Party on April 15, 1944, creating the Minnesota Democratic–Farmer–Labor Party. Humphrey and his team expelled the Communist element from the new organization.

Governors of Minnesota

 * Floyd B. Olson (1931–1936)
 * Hjalmar Petersen (1936–1937)
 * Elmer Austin Benson (1937–1939)

Lieutenant Governors of Minnesota

 * Henry M. Arens (1931–1933)
 * Konrad K. Solberg (1933–1935)
 * Hjalmar Petersen (1935–1936)
 * Gottfrid Lindsten (1937–1939)

Attorneys General of Minnesota

 * Harry H. Peterson (1933–1936)
 * William S. Ervin (1936–1939)

Minnesota State Treasurers

 * C. A. Halverson (1937–1939)

United States Senators

 * Henrik Shipstead (1923–1941); later became a Republican
 * Magnus Johnson (1923–1925)
 * Elmer Austin Benson (1935–1937)
 * Ernest Lundeen (1937–1940)

United States Representatives

 * William Leighton Carss (1919–1921, 1925–1929)
 * Ole J. Kvale (1923–1929)
 * Knud Wefald (1923–1927)
 * Paul John Kvale (1929–1939)
 * Henry M. Arens (1933–1935)
 * Magnus Johnson (1933–1935)
 * Ernest Lundeen (1933–1937); had previously served as a Republican Representative (1915–1917), also served in the Senate
 * Francis Shoemaker (1933–1935)
 * Rich T. Buckler (1935–1943)
 * John T. Bernard (1937–1939)
 * Dewey Johnson (1937–1939)
 * Henry Teigan (1937–1939)
 * Harold Hagen (1943–1955); served as a Republican after 1945

Speakers of the Minnesota House of Representatives

 * Charles Munn (1933–1935)
 * Harold H. Barker (1937–1939)

Minnesota State Legislators

 * Samuel H. Bellman (1935–1938)
 * Willard F. Bennett (1933–1943)
 * John W. Cox (1935–1938)

Local Politicians

 * William A. Anderson, Mayor of Minneapolis (1931–1933)
 * Thomas E. Latimer, Mayor of Minneapolis (1935–1937)
 * William Mahoney, Mayor of St. Paul (1932–1934)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Minnesota Farmer–Labor Party


text:
Prana

In yoga, Ayurveda, and Indian martial arts, prana (, ; the Sanskrit word for breath, "life force", or "vital principle") permeates reality on all levels including inanimate objects. In Hindu literature, prāṇa is sometimes described as originating from the Sun and connecting the elements.

Five types of prāṇa, collectively known as the five vāyus ("winds"), are described in Hindu texts. Ayurveda, tantra and Tibetan medicine all describe prāṇa vāyu as the basic vāyu from which the other vāyus arise.

Prana is divided into ten main functions: The five Pranas – Prana, Apana, Udana, Vyana and Samana – and the five Upa-Pranas – Naga, Kurma, Devadatta, Krikala and Dhananjaya.

Pranayama, one of the eight limbs of yoga, is intended to expand prana.

Etymology
V.S. Apte provides fourteen different meanings for the Sanskrit word  (प्राण) including breath or respiration; the breath of life, vital air, principle of life (usually plural in this sense, there being five such vital airs generally assumed, but three, six, seven, nine, and even ten are also spoken of); energy or vigour; the spirit or soul.

Of these meanings, the concept of "vital air" is used by Bhattacharyya to describe the concept as used in Sanskrit texts dealing with pranayama, the manipulation of the breath. Thomas McEvilley translates prāṇa as "spirit-energy". The breath is understood to be its most subtle material form, but is also believed to be present in the blood, and most concentrated in semen and vaginal fluid.

Scholars are divided on the original meanings of prana and apana. Some, like Böhtlingk, argue that originally prana meant inbreathing, while apana meant outbreathing. Others, like Deussen, claim the opposite, stating that prana meant outbreathing and apana meant inbreathing. However, they agree that in later times, these two terms came to refer to air located in different parts of the body, with prana associated with the upper parts and apana with the lower parts.

Early references
The ancient concept of prāṇa is described in many Hindu texts, including Upanishads and Vedas. Prāṇa is typically divided into constituent parts, particularly when concerned with the human body. While not all early sources agree on the names or number of these divisions, the most common list from the Mahabharata, the Upanishads, Ayurvedic and Yogic sources includes five classifications, often subdivided. This list includes prāṇa (inward moving energy), apāna (outward moving energy), vyāna (circulation of energy), udāna (energy of the head and throat), and samāna (digestion and assimilation).

Early mention of specific prāṇas often emphasized prāṇa, apāna and vyāna as "the three breaths". This can be seen in the proto-yogic traditions of the Vratyas among others. Texts like the Vaikānasasmārta utilized the five prāṇas as an internalization of the five sacrificial fires of a panchāgni homa ceremony.

Vedas and Upanishads
One of the earliest references to prāṇa is from the 3,000-year-old Chandogya Upanishad, but many other Upanishads use the concept, including the Katha, Mundaka and Prasna Upanishads. The concept is elaborated upon in great detail in the literature of haṭha yoga, tantra, and Ayurveda.

The Atharvaveda describes prāṇa: 'When they had been watered by Prana, the plants spake in concert: 'thou hast, forsooth, prolonged our life, thou hast made us all fragrant.' (11.4–6) 'The holy (âtharvana) plants, the magic (ângirasa) plants, the divine plants, and those produced by men, spring forth, when thou, O Prâna, quickenest them (11.4–16). 'When Prâna has watered the great earth with rain, then the plants spring forth, and also every sort of herb.' (11.4–17) 'O Prâna, be not turned away from me, thou shall not be other than myself! As the embryo of the waters (fire), thee, O Prâna, do bind to me, that I may live.' (11.4)

The Upanishads, particularly the Yoga Upanishads, discuss various breaths with specific names and functions. Prana is consistently regarded as the primary breath, akin to breath in English, while apana is associated with carrying off excrement. The Prashna Upanishad first described prana governing upper body functions and apana controlling lower functions, based on the concept of distinct airs or gases governing bodily functions. Aitareya Upanishad also support this division of breaths, associating prana with the nasal region and apana with the abdominal region.

Bhagavad Gita
The Bhagavad Gita verse 4.27 describes the yoga of self-control as the sacrifice of the actions of the senses and of prāṇa in the fire kindled by knowledge. More generally, the conquest of the senses, the mind, and prāṇa is seen as an essential step on the yogin's path to samadhi, or indeed as the goal of yoga. Thus, for example, the Malinivijayottaratantra 12.5–7 directs the seeker "who has conquered posture, the mind, prāṇa, the senses, sleep, anger, fear, and anxiety" to practise yoga in a beautiful, undisturbed cave.

Vāyus
One way of categorizing prāṇa is by means of vāyus. Vāyu means "wind" or "air" in Sanskrit, and the term is used in a variety of contexts in Hindu philosophy. Prāṇa is considered the basic vāyu from which the other vāyus arise, as well as one of the five major vāyus. Prāṇa is thus the generic name for all the breaths, including the five major vāyus of prāṇa, apāna, uḍāna, samāna, and vyāna. The Nisvasattvasamhita Nayasutra describes five minor winds, naming three of these as nāga, dhanamjaya, and kurma; the other two are named in the Skandapurana (181.46) and Sivapurana Vayaviyasamhita (37.36) as devadatta and krtaka.

Nadis

Indian philosophy describes prana flowing in nadis (channels), though the details vary. The Brhadaranyaka Upanishad (2.I.19) mentions 72,000 nadis in the human body, running out from the heart, whereas the Katha Upanishad (6.16) says that 101 channels radiate from the heart. The Vinashikhatantra (140–146) explains the most common model, namely that the three most important nadis are the Ida on the left, the Pingala on the right, and the Sushumna in the centre connecting the base chakra to the crown chakra, enabling prana to flow throughout the subtle body.

When the mind is agitated due to our interactions with the world at large, the physical body also follows in its wake. These agitations cause violent fluctuations in the flow of prana in the nadis.

Pranayama
Prāṇāyāma is a common term for various techniques for accumulating, expanding and working with prana. Pranayama is one of the eight limbs of yoga and is a practice of specific and often intricate breath control techniques. The dynamics and laws of Prana were understood through systematic practice of Pranayama to gain mastery over Prana.

Many pranayama techniques are designed to cleanse the nadis, allowing for greater movement of prana. Other techniques may be utilized to arrest the breath for samadhi or to bring awareness to specific areas in the practitioner's subtle or physical body. In Tibetan Buddhism, it is utilized to generate inner heat in the practice of tummo.

In Ayurveda and therapeutic yoga, pranayama is utilized for many tasks, including to affect mood and aid in digestion. A. G. Mohan stated that the physical goals of pranayama may be to recover from illness or the maintenance of health, while its mental goals are: "to remove mental disturbances and make the mind focused for meditation".

According to Theos Bernard, the ultimate aim of pranayama is the suspension of breathing, "causing the mind to swoon". Swami Yogananda writes, "The real meaning of Pranayama, according to Patanjali, the founder of Yoga philosophy, is the gradual cessation of breathing, the discontinuance of inhalation and exhalation".

Similar concepts
Similar concepts exist in various cultures, including the Latin anima ("breath", "vital force", "animating principle"), Islamic and Sufic ruh, the Greek pneuma, the Chinese qi, the Polynesian mana, the Amerindian orenda, the German od, and the Hebrew ruah. Prāṇa is also described as subtle energy or life force.

title: Prana


text:
New Jersey Route 122

Route 122 is a short, 2.42 mi state highway in Warren County, New Jersey. The route runs from Warren County Route 678 and Pursel Street in Phillipsburg to an intersection with U.S. Route 22 (US 22) in Pohatcong Township. The route is a former alignment of US 22, designated in 1926, however, until 1993, the route was designated U.S. Route 22 Alternate. After 1993, the route was decommissioned and replaced by County Route 678 (CR 648) and Route 122.

Route description
Route 122 begins at an intersection with Pursel Street as a county-maintained continuation of Warren County Route 678 in Phillipsburg. The highway progresses eastward as South Main Street, heading through residential homes along the Delaware River. At an intersection with Kent Street, it makes a gradual bend to the east, passing under Norfolk Southern's Lehigh Line, and then intersecting with Warren County Route 642 (Carpentersville Road).

Continuing eastward along South Main Street, it enters Pohatcong Township where state maintenance begins. At first, the road passes residential homes; continuing eastward, the highway enters a large residential district, with homes surrounding the highway for several blocks. At the intersection with County Route 519 (Saint James Avenue), the two routes head along a wrong-way concurrency, running along New Brunswick Avenue, passing the residential district and several schools. At that point, the residential district becomes more commercial, with County Route 519 heading to the south along Third Avenue. The route continues eastward along New Brunswick Avenue, returning to the residential portions of Pohatcong Township. The route continues eastward, interchanging partially with U.S. Route 22, where the highway terminates. I-78 is located south of where the route ends. New Brunswick Avenue continues ahead without a designation. New Brunswick Avenue continues named Dumont Avenue, it continues until it reaches County Road 519.

History
Route 122 originated as an alignment of U.S. Route 22, and a remnant of Route 28, which was designated in 1926 as part of the highway system as the Phillipsburg–Easton Bridge. The route continued as U.S. Route 22 until the completion of the bypass in 1938 around Phillipsburg, which US 22 was transferred to the bypass. The former alignment became U.S. Route 22 Alternate, lasting through the 1953 state highway renumbering. The route continued to run from the Phillipsburg–Easton Bridge to US 22, until 1993, when US 22 Alternate was decommissioned and replaced by Route 122 and County Route 678. The route was first named Chester Avenue, it was then named Route 29. In 1915, the New Jersey established its first highway department, thus, giving funding to localities to improve their roads. Later, it was renamed Route 22.

title: New Jersey Route 122


text:
New Jersey Route 124

Route 124 is a state highway in the northern part of New Jersey in the United States that is 14.74 mi long. It is the eastern section of what used to be Route 24 before that road was realigned to its current freeway alignment. The western end is at an intersection with U.S. Route 202 (US 202) and County Route 510 (CR 510) in Morristown, Morris County; the eastern end continues as CR 603 on Springfield Avenue at the border between Maplewood and Irvington in Essex County. The route runs through suburban areas of Morris County, passing through Madison and Chatham. It interchanges with Route 24 on the border of Millburn, Essex County and Summit, Union County and serves as a frontage road for that route. Upon splitting from Route 24, Route 124 continues east through Springfield Township, Union Township, and Maplewood to its eastern terminus.

The alignment of today's Route 124 was first designated as a part of pre-1927 Route 5 in 1916, a route that was to run from Delaware, Warren County to Newark. In 1927, this portion of the route became a part of Route 24, a route that was to run from Phillipsburg to Newark. A freeway, which is the current alignment of Route 24, was proposed for this portion of the route in the 1950s that was approved in 1960. Route 24 was moved to the new freeway between the John F. Kennedy Parkway on the Millburn/Summit border and Interstate 78 (I-78) in 1972, with Route 124 being designated along the former alignment of Route 24 east of this point. In 1992, the Route 24 freeway was completed between I-287 in Hanover Township and the John F. Kennedy Parkway. As a result, Route 124 was extended west along the former Route 24 to U.S. Route 202 in Morristown.

Morris County

Route 124 begins at the intersection of US 202 and CR 510 at the Park Place square in the downtown of Morristown, Morris County. From here, it heads to the southeast as South Street, a two-lane undivided road that passes businesses. At the intersection with CR 663, the road widens to four lanes. A short distance later, CR 601 continues southeast on South Street and Route 124 bears left to head east on Madison Avenue, coming to an interchange with Interstate 287. Past this interchange, the road passes Morristown Memorial Hospital and continues through mainly commercial areas with some homes. At the intersection with Normandy Parkway, the route turns to the southeast and enters Morris Township, where it narrows to two lanes again, with NJ Transit’s Morristown Line running a short distance to the northeast of the route near the Morris County Golf Club. Route 124 continues into more residential areas and crosses into Madison.

Here, the route passes near some business parks before intersecting CR 636, where it is briefly a four-lane road. Past this intersection, the road passes between residential neighborhoods to the northeast and Drew University to the southwest. Route 124 crosses over the Morristown Line near James Park and becomes Main Street, heading southeast through the commercial downtown of Madison. Here, the road intersects CR 647 and CR 608. Past the Rosedale Avenue intersection, the route heads into a mix of residential and business areas. Route 124 enters Chatham at the intersection with Brooklake Road/Division Avenue. In the center of the town, the route intersects CR 638 and CR 607 before continuing east.

Essex and Union counties

Route 124 crosses the Passaic River and runs along the border of Millburn, Essex County, to the north and Summit, Union County, coming to a large interchange with the Route 24 freeway and CR 649 (John F. Kennedy Parkway). Here, the route becomes a frontage road for the Route 24 freeway that has two lanes in each direction. The road passes to the south of The Mall at Short Hills before running through the Canoe Brook Country Club. It heads southeast into wooded residential neighborhoods and intersects Union CR 657, where the Route 124 frontage road has ramps to Route 24. A short distance later, the route passes an overpass to nowhere that crosses over Route 24 at Brantwood Drive which was closed and walled off. The Route 124 frontage road has since eliminated the intersection at Brantwood Drive. In 2013, City of Summit vacated the 50-foot public right of way of the old road section from Route 124 into the current Brantwood Drive. In a short distance, Route 124 intersects CR 608, at which point the route has an eastbound ramp to eastbound Route 24 and a westbound ramp from westbound Route 24. Past this intersection, the Route 124 frontage road along Route 24 ends and the route becomes a two-lane undivided road called South Service Road that closely parallels the north side of Route 24, passing under the Morristown Line. The route heads past businesses and forms the border of Millburn to the north and Springfield Township, Union County to the south, coming to an intersection with CR 512 near an interchange with Route 24. There is a direct ramp from westbound Route 124 to Route 24 a short distance to the northwest of this intersection.

From here, the route passes more commercial establishments as a four-lane road, heading farther from Route 24, before crossing CR 527. At this intersection, Route 124 entirely enters Springfield Township and becomes Morris Avenue, passing a mix of residences and businesses. The route passes under I-78 without an interchange and becomes a two-lane road that passes through the downtown of Springfield, eventually widening to four lanes again. In this area, it intersects CR 635. Route 124 comes to a circular junction with Route 82 and CR 577. Here, Route 82 continues southeast on Morris Avenue, CR 509 Spur heads south, and CR 577 heads north. Route 124, meanwhile, briefly splits into a one-way pair here. The eastbound direction heads south on Meisel Avenue before turning north along Maple Avenue while the westbound direction follows Springfield Avenue. The two directions of Route 124 rejoin and follow four-lane divided Springfield Avenue northeast to a crossing of the Rahway River and a partial interchange with I-78. Here, there are ramps from the local lanes of eastbound I-78 to both directions of Route 124, to the local lanes of westbound I-78 and Route 24 from both directions of Route 124, and to the express lanes of westbound Interstate 78 from westbound Route 124.

Past this interchange, the route enters Union Township and continues east through developed areas, intersecting CR 638 before narrowing into a two-lane undivided road and intersecting CR 630. It continues through more urban commercial areas before intersecting CR 630 again. At this point, Route 124 crosses into Maplewood, Essex County and becomes a three-lane road with a center left-turn lane that is locally maintained. This road heads east through the downtown of Maplewood, coming to an intersection with CR 601. A short distance later, the Route 124 designation ends at the border of Maplewood and Irvington. From this point, Springfield Avenue continues east as CR 603, which heads toward Newark and ends at CR 510, which follows Springfield Avenue for a short distance before becoming Market Street.

History
What is modern-day Route 124 was created as part of two turnpikes; the Morris Turnpike, running from Elizabeth to Newton, and the Springfield and Newark Turnpike, from Springfield to Newark. The road was later incorporated into the William Penn Highway, which ran from Jersey City to Pittsburgh, before being designated as a part of pre-1927 Route 5, a route that was legislated in 1916 to run from Delaware in Warren County east to Newark. In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering, this portion of pre-1927 Route 5 became a part of Route 24, a road that was to run from Phillipsburg to Newark. In the 1950s, plans were made to bypass this portion of Route 24 with a freeway running from Interstate 287 in Hanover Township to Interstate 78 in Springfield Township; this was approved of in 1960. This freeway was completed between Interstate 78 and the John F. Kennedy Parkway in 1972. The Route 24 designation was moved to the new freeway and Route 124 was designated along the former alignment of Route 24 east of this point, which included frontage roads built where the new freeway ran along the old alignment of the road. Following the completion of the Route 24 freeway to Interstate 287 in 1992, Route 124 was extended west along the former alignment of Route 24 between the John F. Kennedy Parkway and U.S. Route 202 in Morristown. In 2002, maintenance of the portion of Route 124 in Maplewood was transferred to the municipality from the New Jersey Department of Transportation.

title: New Jersey Route 124


text:
New Jersey Route 139

Route 139 is a state highway in Jersey City, New Jersey in the United States that heads east from the Pulaski Skyway over Tonnele Circle to the state line with New Jersey and New York in the Holland Tunnel, which is under the Hudson River, to New York City. The western portion of the route is a two-level highway that is charted by the New Jersey Department of Transportation (NJDOT) as two separate roadways: The 1.45 mi lower roadway (Route 139) between U.S. Route 1/9 (US 1/9) over Tonnele Circle and Interstate 78 (I-78) at Jersey Avenue, and the 0.83 mi upper roadway (Route 139U or Hoboken Avenue) running from County Route 501 (John F. Kennedy Boulevard) and ending where it joins the lower highway as part of the 12th Street Viaduct, which ends at Jersey Avenue. The lower roadway is listed on the federal and NJ state registers of historic places since 2005. The eastern 1.32 mi of the route includes the Holland Tunnel approach that runs concurrent with Interstate 78 on the one-way pair of 12th Street eastbound and 14th Street westbound. Including the concurrency, the total length of Route 139 is 2.77 mi.

What is now Route 139 was originally the northernmost part of the Route 1 Extension. Route 25 replaced Route 1 in the 1927 renumbering. In 1953 renumbering, Route 25 was changed back to U.S. Route 1, which had been previously rerouted to cross the Hudson River when the George Washington Bridge opened in 1931. Route 25 from the Pulaski Skyway over Tonnele Circle to the Holland Tunnel became U.S. Route 1/9 Business. By the 1990s, U.S. Route 1/9 Business was replaced by Route 139. NJDOT assigned it the number 139 because it appears to look similar to “1&9,” with the ‘3’ looking like an ampersand (&).

NJDOT began a rehabilitation program for the lower and upper levels of the highway in 2005. The renovation work for the 12th Street and 14th Street viaducts was completed in 2010. Renovation of the upper roadway, including the Hoboken Avenue Viaduct, and Conrail Viaduct on the lower roadway was expected to be completed by 2016.

Route description
Route 139 is essentially three distinct, but connected highways: the upper level, the lower level, and the Holland Tunnel approach (the Interstate 78 concurrency). NJDOT officially charts the lower and upper levels as independent highways, with the lower level considered Route 139 with a notation that the highway then coincides with I-78, and the upper level considered Route 139U, while not signed as such.

Lower level
The lower level of Route 139 is a four-lane freeway with its western end at U.S. Route 1/9 a continuation of the Pulaski Skyway over Tonnele Circle. A direct ramp, known as the Tonnele Circle Viaduct, passes over the circle, to connect westbound traffic with southbound U.S. Route 1/9 Truck, which quickly connects to Route 7 that leads to Interstate 280. Northbound U.S. Route 1/9 Truck connects through the circle to eastbound traffic. The skyway soon ends with eastbound and westbound ramps at a cut in Bergen Hill and the four-lane highway passes under John F. Kennedy Boulevard. The road turns to the southeast as Conrail's National Docks Branch and Long Dock Tunnel crosses over the Bergen Arches, an abandoned Erie Railroad right-of-way. The highway then enters an enclosed open cut, running under the upper level of Route 139 as it passes through the Hudson Palisades; this section is known as the Depressed Highway. The covered roadway is naturally ventilated, with wide openings on the south side of the eastbound lanes (facing the parallel Bergen Arches right-of-way to the south), and ventilation bays over the westbound lanes. The road re-emerges under Palisade Avenue and splits into two viaducts, one eastbound and one westbound, which merge with Interstate 78 just west of Jersey Avenue at the Holland Tunnel approach.

Upper level
The upper level of Route 139 (also known as State Highway and Hoboken Avenue Viaduct) begins at an intersection with County Route 501 (Kennedy Boulevard), which connects to Bayonne and Union City. The road heads to the southeast through urban residential and commercial areas as a four-lane undivided road, coming to an intersection with Collard Street. Just past this, the route becomes a four-lane divided road, which is separated by ventilation bays from the lower roadway, with the eastbound lanes running above the lower level of Route 139. It continues between the Heights district to the north and the Journal Square district to the south. It crosses several streets, including County Route 646 (St. Pauls Avenue), County Route 617 (Summit Avenue), County Route 663 (Central Avenue), and County Route 644 (Oakland Street). The road meets Concord Street, where there is an eastbound left lane exit and a westbound intersection. After the intersection with Palisade Avenue, the upper level of Route 139 splits and merges with the lower level with a westbound ramp, which has a westbound entrance from the local Hoboken Avenue, and an eastbound ramp.

Viaducts
The four-lane 12th Street and 14th Street viaducts, completed in 1927 and 1951 respectively, carry Upper Route 139 between Jersey Avenue at Boyle Plaza and the cut into Bergen Hill under Palisade Avenue. Ramps from the western end of 12th Street Viaduct connect to the upper level roadway at the top of Bergen Hill at the Palisade Avenue intersection. Westbound ramp on north side is separated from the main highway by a reinforced concrete retaining wall; the eastbound ramp on south side is supported by reinforced concrete deck arch spans. The western end of 12th Street Viaduct transitions from two-way to one-way, four-lane eastbound traffic just east of the connection with the westbound 14th Street Viaduct. NJDOT undertook a $92 million project to renew the viaducts. The reason for this project was that the viaducts were structurally deficient. The steel beams on the viaducts had deteriorated and the concrete was just extra weight. The project included replacement of the concrete deck, retrofitting for earthquakes, repair of the substructure and superstructure, and construction of a shoulder on westbound 14th Street Viaduct. The rehabilitated viaducts were to also feature ornamental designs to recall the historical significance of the two viaducts. This project was completed in 2010.

I-78 concurrency
The elevated westbound Interstate 78 diverges from 14th Street Viaduct of Route 139 one block west of Jersey Avenue. A viaduct for eastbound Interstate 78 runs along south side of eastern section of the 12th Street Viaduct. The highway merges with Route 139 at eastern terminus of 12th Street Viaduct. From here, Route 139 continues east concurrent with that route and passes through business areas as a one-way pair that follows six-lane 12th Street eastbound and six-lane 14th Street westbound. This segment of the route is under the jurisdiction of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey and this area is also known as Boyle Plaza. The first intersection is with Jersey Avenue, which heads to Downtown Jersey City and Hoboken. It intersects with the one-way northbound County Route 633 (Erie Street) next before crossing one-way southbound County Route 635 (Grove Street). After Grove Street, the road crosses County Route 637 (Luis Muñoz Marín Boulevard) near the Newport Centre Mall just to the south. Past this intersection, the eastbound traffic comes to the toll plaza for the Holland Tunnel. From here, the concurrency enters the Holland Tunnel under the Hudson River, which carries two lanes in each direction. Route 139 ends at the New Jersey and New York state line within the tunnel and Interstate 78 continues into New York City.

At no point in the I-78 concurrency approaching the Holland Tunnel is the road signed as Route 139. The first time the route is signed westbound is at the split with I-78, and the last time it’s signed eastbound is before it merges with I-78. Even in New York, approaching the tunnel, I-78 is signed with the entrance but Route 139 is not.

Early years and route numbering
What is now the lower level of Route 139 was originally designated as the northernmost part of Route 1 Extension, which was authorized by the New Jersey Legislature in 1922, a route that was to extend the existing Route 1 from Elizabeth to the Holland Tunnel in Jersey City. When the U.S. Highway System was established in 1926, this road was also designated as part of U.S. Route 1. In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering, this highway became part of Route 25, a route that was to run from the Ben Franklin Bridge in Camden to the Holland Tunnel.

In the 1953 state highway renumbering, Route 25 designation was changed to U.S. Route 1/9 Business from the Pulaski Skyway over Tonnele Circle to the Holland Tunnel. By the 1990s, U.S. Route 1/9 Business was renumbered to NJ Route 139. Along with the Pulaski Skyway, most of the Route 139 lower level became a contributing property to the Route 1 Extension historic district listed with the state and federal registers of historic places in 2005.

The Newark Bay Extension of the New Jersey Turnpike for Interstate 78 was opened in 1956 to provide access from the New Jersey Turnpike to the Holland Tunnel. Route 139 and I-78 were designated as concurrent where the roads joined at the Holland Tunnel approach near Jersey Avenue all the way to the New York state line in the Holland Tunnel.

Holland Tunnel and Pulaski Skyway connections
As part of the Holland Tunnel project, the New Jersey Interstate Bridge and Tunnel Commission and the New York State Bridge and Tunnel Commission widened the four blocks of 12th and 14th Streets in Jersey City from Jersey Avenue to Provost Street. 12th Street was widened west of Grove Street to 100 ft, with the remaining block, at the toll plaza, being 160 ft wide. 14th Street, and the two blocks of Jersey Avenue carrying westbound traffic to the 12th Street Viaduct, were widened to 100 ft.

The two-way, 12th Street Viaduct from Jersey Avenue to the top of Bergen Hill was opened July 4, 1927. The four-lane, westbound, 1800 ft, 14th Street Viaduct, which was connected to the 12th Street Viaduct, was opened on February 13, 1951. The Port of New York Authority, which superseded the two state tunnel commissions and took over authority for the Holland Tunnel in 1930, built the 14th Street Viaduct in order to avoid the turns to and from Jersey Avenue, but turned over authority over the viaduct to the New Jersey State Highway Commission. The western end of 12th Street Viaduct was transitioned from two-way traffic to one-way, four-lane, eastbound traffic just east of the connection with the westbound 14th Street Viaduct. It was widened on the southern side between span nos. 1-24 on the eastern end to accommodate the merge in 1956 with the eastbound New Jersey Turnpike extension, I-78.

In 1928, the completed lower level portion of the highway, along with Route 1 Extension on the eastern side of the Passaic River, was opened as the first part of the eventual high-speed connection between the Holland Tunnel and Newark. The upper level of Route 139 (Hoboken Avenue Viaduct), which provided a multi-lane thoroughfare from Palisades Avenue to John F. Kennedy Boulevard, was also opened.

The high-speed freeway connection was completed with the opening of the Pulaski Skyway in 1932. The Pulaski Skyway ramp at its eastern terminus was eventually replaced with two long outside ramps that were dedicated for eastbound and westbound traffic from the cut in Bergen Hill just west of John F. Kennedy Boulevard. On September 14, 1938, a direct ramp, known as the Tonnele Circle Viaduct, opened over Tonnele Circle to connect westbound traffic with southbound U.S. Route 1/9 Truck, which quickly connects to Route 7 that leads to Interstate 280.

Later years
The Bergen Arches Expressway was proposed in 1989 by Governor Thomas Kean to connect the Jersey City waterfront with a new railroad line, which would provide access to the Meadowlands Sports Complex. This four-lane road was to follow an abandoned railroad line known as the Bergen Arches. This proposed highway was strongly supported by Jersey City Mayor Bret Schundler, who felt that the road could bring further development, as well as provide traffic relief to the four-lane Route 139. In 1998, this project was allocated $26 million in the federal Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century. Both Jersey City mayor candidates in 2001 supported a transit line instead of a highway along the Bergen Arches. Plans for a highway along the Bergen Arches were dropped in 2002 as leaders of Jersey City, including Mayor Glenn Dale Cunningham, favored mass transit.

In a controversial move in 2011, Governor Chris Christie directed the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey to divert money originally earmarked for the Access to the Region's Core rail project to highway projects. The agency agreed to pay $1.8 billion to partially fund rehabilitation to the Pulaski Skyway and Route 139, and other projects that it considers part of the larger distribution network in the Port of New York and New Jersey.

The Route 139 project rehabilitated the eastbound side of Hoboken Avenue Viaduct and resurfaced the westbound roadway. There were operational improvements at several intersections on the upper roadway, replacing all overpasses. It also replaced the deck and rehabilitated the superstructure of the Conrail Viaduct. The total project cost was estimated at $180–200 million and was expected to be completed by 2016, then later pushed back to 2019. The Pulaski Skyway reopened in mid-2018, and the lower level of Route 139 was temporarily restored to four lanes in December 2018, but was partially closed again in early 2019. Improvements added to Route 139's lower level in 2019 included new lighting and new pavement markings.

title: New Jersey Route 139


text:
New Jersey Route 140

Route 140 is a 0.96 mi state highway in Carneys Point Township, Salem County, New Jersey, United States. It is a short east–west connector in Deepwater between U.S. Route 130 (US 130; Shell Road) and both the New Jersey Turnpike and U.S. Route 40 (Wiley Road) in Carneys Point near the Delaware Memorial Bridge. It is completely concurrent with County Route 540 (CR 540). Because of its close proximity to these major arteries (as well as Interstate 295 or I-295), there are numerous truck stops, motels, and diners along this highway, despite its short .96 mi length. Also, the main entrance to the DuPont Chamber Works facility is located at the end on US Route 130.

Route description
Route 140 begins at U.S. Route 130 in the community of Deepwater, New Jersey. The route heads eastward as Hawks Bridge Road, passing through forestry east of the DuPont riverside factory. The large portion of forestry breaks up into a large clearing. In this large clearing, Route 140 passes between two truck stops. The route continues, intersecting with the on-ramps to Interstate 295. Route 140 then crosses over the interstate and settles back on land. From there, Route 140 crosses to the north of another truck stop and intersects with County Route 551 (South Pennsville-Auburn Road). Intersecting with local off-ramps, the route crosses by some businesses before interchanging with the New Jersey Turnpike and U.S. Route 40. The route continues a short distance after the interchange, terminating at Wiley Road, where it continues as County Route 540.

History
Route 140 was first legislated by the New Jersey State Legislature in 1973 as a state highway from U.S. Route 130 to U.S. Route 40. The eastern two-thirds was state-maintained because of the Interstate 295 and the New Jersey Turnpike interchanges. The route remained unnumbered however. In 1977, the western third (U.S. Route 130 to Interstate 295) was taken over by the state and the route was designated Route 140 and has remained the same since the legislation.

title: New Jersey Route 140