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Folger Shakespeare Library

The Folger Shakespeare Library is an independent research library on Capitol Hill in Washington, D.C., United States. It has the world's largest collection of the printed works of William Shakespeare, and is a primary repository for rare materials from the early modern period (1500–1750) in Britain and Europe. The library was established by Henry Clay Folger in association with his wife, Emily Jordan Folger. It opened in 1932, two years after his death.

The library offers advanced scholarly programs and national outreach to K–12 classroom teachers on Shakespeare education. Other performances and events at the Folger include the award-winning Folger Theatre, which produces Shakespeare-inspired theater; Folger Consort, the early-music ensemble-in-residence; the O.B. Hardison Poetry Series; the PEN/Faulkner Reading Series; and numerous other exhibits, seminars, talks and lectures, and family programs. It also has several publications, including the Folger Library editions of Shakespeare's plays, the journal Shakespeare Quarterly, the teacher resource books Shakespeare Set Free, and catalogs of exhibitions. The Folger is also a leader in methods of preserving rare materials.

The library is privately endowed and administered by the Trustees of Amherst College. The library building is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

History
Standard Oil of New York executive Henry Clay Folger, a graduate of Amherst College and Columbia University, was an avid collector of Shakespeareana, beginning in 1889 with the purchase of a 1685 Fourth Folio. Toward the end of World War I, he and his wife Emily Jordan Folger began searching for a location for a Shakespeare library based on their collection. They chose a location adjacent to the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C. The land was then occupied by townhouses, and Folger spent several years buying the separate lots. The site was designated for expansion by the Library of Congress, but in 1928, Congress passed a resolution allowing its use for Folger's project.

The cornerstone of the library was laid in May 1930, but Folger died soon afterward. The bulk of Folger's fortune was left in trust, with Amherst College as administrator, for the library. Early members of the board included Amherst graduate and former president Calvin Coolidge, second chairman of the Board of Trustees. Because of the stock market crash of 1929, Folger's estate was smaller than he had planned, although still substantial. Emily Folger, who had worked with her husband on his collection, supplied the funds to complete the project. The library opened on April 23, 1932, the anniversary of what is believed to be Shakespeare's date of birth. Emily Folger remained involved in its administration until shortly before her death in 1936. In 2005, the Folger Board of Governors undertook administration of the Folger under the auspices of the Amherst Board of Trustees, though the Amherst board continues to manage the Folger's budget.

The Folger's first official reader was B. Roland Lewis, who later published The Shakespeare Documents: Facsimiles, Transliterations, Translations, and Commentary based on his research. The first fellowships were distributed in 1936. Early Folger exhibitions featured enticing items in the collection, including Ralph Waldo Emerson's copy of Shakespeare's works, an Elizabethan lute, and Edwin Booth's Richard III costume. Current practices for Folger exhibitions did not begin until 1964, when the first exhibition curated on site opened. During the Second World War, 30,000 items from the Folger collection were transported under guard to Amherst College's Converse Library, where they were stored for the duration of the war in case of an enemy attack on Washington, D.C.

Many of the Folger's current public events and programs began in the 1970s under the leadership of director O.B. Hardison. Under his direction, the Folger's theater was brought up to Washington, D.C. fire code, permitting performances by the Folger Theatre Group, the library's first professional company. The Folger Poetry Series also began in 1970. Hardison formed the Folger Institute, which coordinates academic programs and research at the Library. Folger Consort, the Library's early music ensemble, began performances in 1977.

The first Director of the Library, from 1940 to 1946, was Joseph Quincy Adams Jr.

Buildings and grounds
The main Folger building was designed by architect Paul Philippe Cret. The white marble exterior includes nine street-level bas-reliefs of scenes from Shakespeare's plays created by the sculptor John Gregory, an aluminum replica of a statue of Puck by Brenda Putnam, as well as many inscriptions personally selected by Henry Folger. The large Art Deco window and door grilles are aluminum.

Inside, the building is designed in a Tudor style with oak paneling and plaster ceilings. The Elizabethan Theatre lobby contains the original marble Puck statue (restored and moved indoors in 2001), and architectural painting by muralist Austin M. Purves Jr. The two reading rooms (one added in the early 1980s) are reserved for use by scholars who have obtained advance permission. Public spaces include the large exhibition gallery, a gift shop, and an Elizabethan theatre.

Architecture
Henry Folger's search for an architect began with an acquaintance, Alexander B. Trowbridge, who had redesigned a home in Glen Cove, Long Island, in the old English style the Folgers were eager to feature in their Library. Folger contracted Trowbridge in 1928, but Trowbridge preferred to consult, rather than be the primary architect, and so recommended French émigré Paul Phillippe Cret. Trowbridge and Cret shared a similar vision for the design of the Library—a neoclassical building that stripped the facade of any decorative elements. Though the Folgers had initially desired an entirely Elizabethan building, they ultimately agreed that a neoclassical building would blend with other existing buildings on Capitol Hill. To retain an Elizabethan quality on the exterior of the building, Cret and Trowbridge proposed to decorate the facade with scenes from Shakespeare's works. Currently, the relief sculptures includes scenes from Henry IV, Hamlet, Macbeth, King Lear, Julius Caesar, The Merchant of Venice, A Midsummer Night's Dream, Richard III, and Romeo and Juliet.

In 1959, the Folger contracted Harbeson, Hough, Livingston, and Larson, a Philadelphia firm that succeeded Cret's, to design a new wing by building over a rear parking lot. The additions also yielded a roof garden on top of the new wing. A second Folger building, the Haskell Center, opened in 2000 across Third Street from the original building. The nineteenth-century office building was adapted by architect Andrew K. Stevenson to house the library's education and public programs staffs.

The Folger currently maintains a row of townhouses on Third Street to provide housing for scholars, readers, fellows, participants in Folger Institute programs, and other visitors.

Reading Room

The Reading Room officially opened in January 1933 and today contains reference works for easy accessibility to readers. From 1977 to 1983, the Folger Shakespeare Library was renovated. Design was provided by Hartman-Cox Architects. During this renovation, it included the addition of new book stacks, renovation of office spaces, and an expansion to the Reading Room. A second, more modern reading room dedicated as the Theodora Sedgwick Bond-William Ross Bond Memorial Reading Room was completed in 1982. Upon Gail Kern Paster's retirement as director of the Folger in 2011, the original reading room was renamed the Gail Kern Paster Reading Room.

Henry Folger wanted the Library's reading room to feel at once like a private home and the Great Hall of an English college. It features stained-glass windows and a large stone fireplace which has never been used. The large stained-glass window overlooking what is now the Gail Kern Paster Reading Room was designed and created by Nicola D'Ascenzo, who depicted the familiar "Seven Ages of Man" soliloquy from As You Like It.

Elizabethan Theatre
Initially, the Elizabethan Theatre was not intended for theatrical performance. The original model was the Fortune Playhouse, and then the Globe Theatre; these models proved difficult to replicate exactly, and the Folgers ultimately decided to incorporate features from multiple theaters to give visitors a general picture of a theater during the Elizabethan era. Before Folger Theatre productions began, the Elizabethan Theatre was used for concert performances and academic lectures. The theater, which seats around 260, has no pit. Painted on the ceiling is a well-known quote from As You Like It: "All the world's a stage, and all the men and women merely players."

The first theatrical performance in the Elizabethan Theatre was a 1949 production of Julius Caesar by the Amherst Masquers. The Folger Theatre Group formed in 1970 when the Elizabethan Theatre became compliant with Washington, D.C. fire safety laws. Early productions included Dionysus Wants You!, which adapted The Bacchae into a rock musical, and Twelfth Night.

Elizabethan Garden
At the east end of the building is an Elizabethan Garden featuring plants from Shakespeare's plays, opened in 1989 amid the four magnolias planted by Emily Jordan Folger in 1932. In 2003, several sculptures by Greg Wyatt based on Shakespeare's plays joined the Elizabethan plants in the garden.

West garden
Sculptor Brenda Putnam was hired in May 1930 to design a sculpture of Puck for a garden on the west side of the building. Decades of exposure weakened the statue, and after Puck's right hand was found across the street at the Library of Congress in 2000, the original piece was moved. It now sits above the entrance to the Elizabethan Theatre, and an aluminum statue replaced the original in the garden.

The west garden's lawn shrank during the 1959 additions to the library, when part of its space was paved for a new staff parking area.

Collection
The Folger houses the world's largest collection of Shakespeare-related material, from the 16th century to the present. The library is best known for its 82 copies of the 1623 First Folio (of which only 235 known copies survive) and over 200 quartos of Shakespeare's individual plays. Not restricted to Shakespeare, the Folger owns the world's third largest collection of English books printed before 1641, as well as substantial holdings of continental and later English imprints. The collection includes a wealth of items related to performance history: 250,000 playbills, 2,000 promptbooks, costumes, recordings and props. It also holds upwards of 90,000 paintings, prints, drawings, photographs, sculptures and other works of art.

The Folger's first catalog of its collection began in 1935, when Edwin Willoughby, a scholar of library science and the First Folio, began to catalog the book collection based on Alfred W. Pollard and Gilbert Richard Redgrave's Short-Title Catalogue. Though Willoughby developed a unique classification system based on the Folger's needs, in the late 1940s the Folger adopted that of the Library of Congress. In 1996, Folger staff and readers were given access to Hamnet, the collection's online catalog; the site became available to the public in 2000. Hamnet was retired in June 2022.

Printed books

In all, the library collection includes more than 250,000 books, from the mid 15th century—when the printing press was invented—to the present day. In addition to its 82 First Folios, 229 early modern quartos of Shakespeare's plays and poems and 119 copies of the Second, Third, and Fourth Folios, the Folger holds some 7,000 later editions of Shakespeare from the 18th century to present, in more than 70 different languages. Beyond its Shakespearean texts, the library's collection includes over 18,000 early English books printed before 1640 and another 29,000 printed between 1641 and 1700. The library holds 35,000 early modern books printed on the European continent, about 450 of which are incunabula. The topics of these texts vary widely, ranging across literature, politics, religion, technology, military history and tactics, medicine, and over 2,000 volumes on the Protestant Reformation.

Manuscripts
The Folger holds some 60,000 manuscripts (from Elizabeth I and John Donne to Mark Twain and Walt Whitman). These handwritten documents date from the 15th to the 21st century and cover a variety of subjects: documents related to performance history and literature, personal correspondences, wills, love letters, and other materials of daily life. Notable manuscripts include the earliest known staging diagram in England, a list of quotations George Eliot compiled while writing Middlemarch, the 18th-century Shakespeare forgeries of William Henry Ireland, and the papers of legendary 18th-century actor David Garrick.

The Folger hosts Early Modern Manuscripts Online (EMMO), an IMLS-grant funded project to digitize and transcribe English manuscripts from the 16th and 17th centuries in a freely available digital collection. EMMO holds conferences, paleography classes, "transcrib-athons", and other events at the Folger and elsewhere.

Highlights of the collection
Significant items in the Folger's collection include:
 * The only extant complete copy of Shakespeare's Titus Andronicus first quarto, published in 1594
 * The False Folio
 * The Macro Manuscript, a unique source for the three early morality plays: The Castle of Perseverance, Mankind and Wisdom. The manuscript also contains the earliest known staging diagram for any play in England.
 * The Dering Manuscript, a single-play redaction of Henry IV, Part 1 and Henry IV, Part 2 that is the earliest known manuscript for any of Shakespeare's works.
 * The Ashbourne portrait, the basis of several Oxfordian arguments
 * Henry VIII's childhood copy of Cicero's De officiis, bearing an inscription in his hand, "Thys boke is myne Prynce Henry"
 * The Trevelyon Miscellany of 1608, an oversized illustrated manuscript of 594 pages, depicting everything from the mundanities of daily life to biblical stories to contemporary political history
 * The earliest Sieve Portrait of Queen Elizabeth I
 * Thirteen of John Donne's letters detailing the personal crisis he faced upon marrying Anne More without her father's permission
 * Thousands of pages of letters to and from prolific 18th-century actor David Garrick
 * A large and significant collection of letters, mostly sent to the influential German Shakespeare scholar F. A. Leo (1820-1898), many of which related to the early history of the German Shakespeare Society, as well as a selection of German-language documents relating to Shakespeare. This collection was organized and edited by Werner Habicht.

Research and education
Programs for advanced scholars, faculty, graduate students, and undergraduates are provided by the Folger Institute. Programs for K–12 teachers and students are provided by the Education department.

Folger Institute
The Folger Institute has served as the focus of scholarly research at the Folger since 1970. The Folger offers long- and short-term fellowships for advanced researchers across all disciplines, and hosts the two-week Amherst-Folger Undergraduate Fellowship program every January. The Institute holds a variety of colloquia, courses, workshops, and conferences for faculty, graduate students, and secondary educators. Scholarly programs run by the Folger Institute include the Folger Institute Consortium, a group that shares research and other resources among over 40 universities, the Center for Shakespeare Studies, which seeks depth and diversity in Shakespeare scholarship, and the Center for the History of British Political Thought, which promotes continued scholarship of three hundred years of British politics.

Education
Educational outreach at the Folger began in the early 1970s; today, the Folger Education department continues those early efforts with a variety of programs for K–12 students and teachers that emphasize an active learning approach to Shakespeare. Teachers gather at the Folger for day-long and month-long programs to work to incorporate Shakespeare and performance in the classroom. The department also publishes a variety of materials for classroom use. Student programs include workshops, local residency initiatives, and a high school fellowship program during which students study Shakespeare at the Folger. The Emily Jordan Folger Children's Shakespeare Festival, founded in 1980, allows elementary students to perform every spring. The Secondary School Shakespeare Festival, founded the following year, brings students from grades 7–12 to perform half-hour collections of Shakespeare scenes in the Folger theater.

Teaching Shakespeare Institute
The Teaching Shakespeare Institute (TSI) is an intensive four-week summer study program for middle- and high-school teachers hosted annually by the Folger Shakespeare Library's Education Department, with funding from the National Endowment for the Humanities. TSI participants work with experts to study a small number of Shakespearean plays in terms of scholarship, performance, and the classroom. 50 teachers participated in the inaugural program in 1984, but the annual number is now capped at 25. By 2015, over 775 teachers had gone through the program.

Performances and events
The Folger Shakespeare Library's cultural and arts programs include Folger Theatre, Folger Consort, the O.B. Hardison Poetry Series and the PEN/Faulkner Foundation, as well as additional talks, screenings, lectures and exhibitions.

Folger Theatre
Folger Theatre performs a season of Shakespeare-inspired theater, featuring the works of Shakespeare as well as contemporary plays inspired by his works. Since its inception in 1992, Folger Theatre has staged over half of the plays in Shakespeare's First Folio. Productions have received 135 nominations for a Helen Hayes Award and won 23, including Outstanding Resident Play for its renditions of Measure for Measure (2007), Hamlet (2011) and The Taming of the Shrew (2013). From 1982-2021, the Folger Theatre's Artistic Producer was Janet Alexander Griffin. In 2021, Karen Ann Daniels was named Director of Programming and Artistic Director. Performances occur in the theater at the east end of the building.

Folger Consort
Folger Consort is the library's resident early music ensemble, founded in 1977 by its artistic directors Robert Eisenstein and Christopher Kendall. The Consort performs medieval music, Renaissance music, and baroque music in its concert series. The Consort performs regularly at the Elizabethan Theatre, at the Washington National Cathedral and at the Music Center at Strathmore. The Consort also holds seminars, discussions, and radio broadcasts. Since 2006, Folger Consort has won Best Classical Chamber Ensemble five times at the Washington Area Music Awards.

O.B. Hardison Poetry Series
Since 1970, the Folger has hosted contemporary poets for readings, moderated conversation, and Q&As in what is now called the O.B. Hardison Poetry series, after former director of the Folger, O.B. Hardison Jr. Past poets involved in the series include Octavio Paz, Gwendolyn Brooks, Allen Ginsberg, W. S. Merwin, Adrienne Rich, Yusef Komunyakaa, James Merrill, Frank Bidart, Robert Pinsky, Derek Walcott, Hayden Carruth, Rita Dove, Seamus Heaney, Sterling Brown, Denise Levertov, June Jordan, Lawrence Ferlinghetti, Sonia Sanchez, and James Dickey. Between 1991 and 2009, the series also awarded the O. B. Hardison Jr. Poetry Prize, which was awarded by the library to a U.S. poet who has published at least one book within the last five years, has made important contributions as a teacher, and is committed to furthering the understanding of poetry.

PEN/Faulkner
In conjunction with the PEN/Faulkner Foundation, the Folger hosts the PEN/Faulkner Reading Series, which brings contemporary authors to the Folger for public readings of fiction. The Folger also hosts the annual PEN/Faulkner Award for Fiction readings, which celebrate the year's finalists and winners.

Digital resources
The Folger offers several online tools to assist in research and scholarship, including the following:
 * The Digital Image Collection (also known as "LUNA"), which provides over 80,000 images of the collection, including manuscripts, books and art. The images in the collection are available under a Creative Commons license.
 * Folgerpedia, the Folger's in-house wiki; a collaboratively-edited encyclopedia providing information about the institution, the collection, and other relevant information
 * "All Shakespeare's works", online editions of Shakespeare's plays and poems
 * Early Modern Manuscripts Online, images of manuscripts and promotes transcribing paleography

Leadership
To date, seven directors and three acting directors have overseen Library affairs. Michael Witmore, a scholar with particular interest in the digital analysis of Shakespeare's texts, became the Folger's seventh director on July 1, 2011.

 * 1) William A. Slade (1931–1934)
 * 2) Joseph Quincy Adams (1934–1936, acting; 1936–1946, director)
 * 3) James McManaway (1946–1948, acting)
 * 4) Louis Booker Wright (1948–1968)
 * 5) Philip A. Knachel (1968–1969, acting)
 * 6) O.B. Hardison Jr. (1969–1983)
 * 7) Philip A. Knachel (1983–1984, acting)
 * 8) Werner Gundersheimer (1984–2002)
 * 9) Gail Kern Paster (2002–2011)
 * 10) Michael Witmore (2011–2024)
 * 11) Dr. Farah Karim Cooper (2024- )

title: Folger Shakespeare Library


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Talk:LDraw

Request Feedback / Support
I'm not sure that I did the right thing by listing so much software. Would it be best to just list the editors and then mention that converters and viewers are available on the LDraw website? Paullusmagnus 15:32 30 Jun 2003 (UTC)

Request Clarification
free software: does this refer to Freeware or Free Software?

LDraw books
There have been a couple of books about LDraw - would it be appropriate to mention or link to them here? Elliot Pratt 03:18, 10 March 2007 (UTC)
 * yes, I think so. Some may have actually sold well enough to merit articles of their own .. "Lego Builder's Guide" (which only peripherally mentions LDraw but still...) by Allan Bedford supposedly is in its 4th printing. I don't know the run sizes though. ++Lar: t/c 13:40, 11 March 2007 (UTC)
 * I agree, there are several good books about LDraw. Although maybe LBG may be better mentioned somewhere on the LEGO page? Maybe Allan deserves his own page too. RoscoHead 03:39, 12 March 2007 (UTC)
 * The two I had in mind are 'LDraw Power Tools' and 'Virtual Lego'. I wouldn't count LBG as an LDraw book, but it worth mentioning somewhere (the Lego article probably) along with 'Getting Started With Lego Trains'. What format should the link or mention take?Elliot Pratt 12:05, 12 March 2007 (UTC)
 * ISBN number is the best if you have it. Mediawiki has magic so that if you just say ISBN 012345689 (with the correct nubmer of digits, I think either 9 or 12, depending) it creates a link to a generic (non vendor specific) page where interested readers can pursue the matter further. See ISBN. (To find ISBN's: A search via Google on the title and ISBN usually although not always works.) ++Lar: t/c 16:07, 12 March 2007 (UTC)
 * Thanks for the advice (and the ISBN linking below). I have included the capitalised spelling of 'Lego' in the references, because that's how it is presented in the book titles. Please feel free to correct to 'Lego' if that is what is appropriate here. I'm just not sure, but thought it better to get the references in first, and sort out the exact presentation later. Anyway, thanks again! Elliot Pratt 09:04, 14 March 2007 (UTC)

ISBN linking

 * This is powertools: ISBN 978-1-931836-76-0
 * and this is Virtual: ISBN 978-1-886411-94-4

gives
 * This is powertools: ISBN 978-1-931836-76-0
 * and this is Virtual: ISBN 978-1-886411-94-4

Hope that helps. ++Lar: t/c 16:07, 12 March 2007 (UTC)

Too many external links
The external links really need to be moved to a dedicated wiki or added to LDraw.org instead of listing them here on Wikipedia. There's way too many of them. SharkD (talk) 06:25, 15 November 2008 (UTC)

Potential reference
A potential reference for improvement of this article is at:. - Ryk72 'c.s.n.s.' 13:15, 18 February 2015 (UTC)

Online services
It would be great if we could mention some of the various online model sharing services that support LDraw models. ➧ datumizer   ☎  02:27, 4 July 2021 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 03:39, 4 July 2021 (UTC)
 * LDraw Icons on Taskbar.jpg

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:LDraw


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Feldberg (Black Forest)

At 1493 m the Feldberg in the Black Forest is the highest mountain in Baden-Württemberg, and the highest in Germany outside of the Alps and Bavaria. The local municipality of Feldberg was named after the mountain.

Environment
The Feldberg is situated southeast of Freiburg im Breisgau and is surrounded by the municipalities of Hinterzarten (northeast), Titisee (east), Menzenschwand (south), Bernau (also south) and Todtnau (southwest). About two kilometres southeast of the summit lies the village of Feldberg (1277 m).

Between the main peak (1493 m, also known as the Höchste or "Highest", and its subpeak, the Seebuck (1448 m), just under 2 km away, is a saddle, the Grüble, from which a wide spur, the Baldenweger Buck (1460 m) branches off. The saddle initially descends gently and then ever more steeply into the valleys on either side. From the Seebuck the Feldberg drops steeply away to the northeast into the Feldsee, a lake of glacial origin at about 1000 m altitude. Deeply incised valleys run northwest towards Freiburg (the Zastler and St Wilhelmer valleys) and southwest towards Basel (Wiesental valley).

The main car park below the Seebuck can be reached from the B317 (federal highway) running from Titisee to Lörrach (near Basel) over the Feldberg Pass. A train service of the Three Lakes Railway serves the station of Feldberg-Bärental, at 967 m, the highest DB station on standard gauge track. A bus service connects with the station. The Seebuck, which is topped by an old transmission tower, the Feldberg Tower, once a radio tower, since 2013 a ham museum can be reached from the valley station in Feldberg-Ort on a short chairlift. From this point the summit of the Feldberg is about 2 km away. It is only accessible to the public on foot or by bicycle.

The numerous point-to-point radio systems of the Bundeswehr and the American and French armies dating from the Cold War period have been since taken down. Today Feldberg is marked by the old and new television towers and the Bismarck monument on the Seebuck.

Altogether there are more than 28 ski lifts and slopes around the Feldberg. The actual summit itself is situated outside the skiing areas. Several cross-country skiing trails around the peak and around Herzogenhorn opposite are popular with cross-country skiers. The whole area, with ski-runs of Alpine character, is popular for ski touring.

Nature reserves
Most of the Feldberg area has the status of a nature reserve due to its subalpine vegetation. The Feldberg Nature Reserve is the oldest and largest in Baden-Württemberg and has been under the charge of a full-time ranger since 1989. Since 2001 it has been the responsibility of the Southern Black Forest Nature Conservation Centre, based in the Haus der Natur ("Nature House"), to look after the reserve. They have a permanent, interactive exhibition and a comprehensive programme with events in the reserve. In 2005, a new nature trail was established immediately behind the house.

Views
The Feldberg offers one of the most extensive panoramic views in Germany – especially in winter when there is a temperature inversion. In the west, on the far side of the Upper Rhine Graben, can be seen the entire Vosges range, from the Ballon d'Alsace to Mont Donon and Mont Sainte-Odile. Beyond that the southern Palatinate Forest can sometimes be seen. To the north is the Hornisgrinde; to the northeast the entire chain of the Swabian Jura, including the Lemberg, and, to its right, the Hegau volcanoes.

To the south, the Alps can be seen from the Alpspitze and Zugspitze in the east to the Allgäu Alps, Verwall Alps, Silvretta, Säntis, Glarus Alps, Urner Alps, Bernese Alps and Mont Blanc in the west. In front of the Western Alps and, particularly right of Mont Blanc, can be seen the Swiss Jura, with their highest point, the Chasseral. Thus the view sweeps from the Italian Mont Blanc to southwest Germany and from Austria to France.

Geology
The mountain's bedrock of gneiss is around one billion years old. The Feldberg region was uplifted three times and then eroded again. What exists today can be called the "third Feldberg". The "first Feldberg" was formed in the Precambrian as part of an orogen and was then completely eroded away. The "second Feldberg" arose during the Devonian and Carboniferous, as part of the Variscan orogeny. It, too, was eroded away, and, during the Mesozoic and Early Triassic, beds of Bunter sandstone, Muschelkalk, Keuper, Lias, Dogger and Malm were deposited in the resulting sedimentation space. Some of these sediments are maritime deposits from intercontinental oceans; the others are of continental origin. The "third" and current Feldberg was formed during the Alpine orogeny in the Tertiary. Since then these sediments have been steadily removed through water processes and aeolian erosion, and today little but the bedrock remains.

Glacial morphology
During the height of the Würm glaciation a glacier, 1,000 km2 in area, covered the Black Forest. As a result, a lot of glacial influence can be seen in the region. There are several features that relate to the glacial morphology of the Feldberg. Firstly, there is the Feldsee. This tarn formed in the hollow that was scoured out by the ice pushing down the headwall of the cirque. Gradually the ice created a bowl that now holds the 33-metre-deep Feldsee. A moraine on the shores of the Feldsee testifies to this process.

The Feldseemoor, a few metres away, is also a remnant of the ice age. Here the terminal moraine of the "mini glacier" can be seen from the Feldsee. It has impounded water and formed a bog. The glacial history of the Würm stage, 10,000–11,000 years ago, at the Feldberg evolved as follows: The emergence of the Feldsee happened as the "Feldberg glacier" spread out. The adjacent Feldseemoor was the next stage. The glaciers then formed a moraine at Waldhof. This was exceeded once more at the Falkau, which marks its maximum extent. After that, the glacier retreated again.

Climate
Feldberg features a subalpine climate (Köppen: Dfc), for that its summers are mild enough to have less than four months with an average mean temperature above 10º Celsius. The annual mean temperature is around 3.9 °C (30-year mean from 1981–2010), up 0.6 °C compared with the period from 1961–1990; their temperature gradients are lower than those in adjacent valleys. During winter, there are long periods of sunshine, due to the low condensation point. This also means that the Feldberg has relatively mild winters; the surrounding valleys having noticeably colder temperatures. The lowest temperature ever recorded was −30.7 °C on 10 February 1956. The average rain/snowfall amount is 1637 mm per year which is very high compared with Germany as a whole. On 97% of the survey marks of the German Weather Service lower figures are reported. Over the years snowfall has been reported in every calendar month. On average the Feldberg is covered in snow for 157 days per year. Because of its exposed location, wind speeds of hurricane force – up to 130 km/h – are possible throughout the year.

Vegetation
As its name suggests, the Feldberg's summit is not wooded. However, the sharp transition to forest illustrates it is no natural border. Even the top of the mountain does not reach the tree line which, in this region, would lie at around 1,650–1,700 metres.

Many of the open areas are habitats for specialised species of flora; these include bogs, moors, rock faces and snow fields. Below the summit the mountain is covered by mixed forest consisting of naturally growing European beech, European rowan, European spruce, European silver fir and cultivated North American species Douglas fir. Human activity has resulted in forest clearings, such as the large open areas around every hamlet.

That is attributable to the intensive cattle farming in this region, which limits forest growth. Today one comes across both pioneer species like European Rowans and different sorts of shrubs there. On many places there are primeval forests being left to its own resources. A characteristic of the vegetation represent the moors.

Summer
Today tourism is the main source of income in the Feldberg region.

The mountain has several managed huts and inns – the Baldenweger Hut, Rinken Hut, Zastler Hut, St. Wilhelmer Hut and Todtnauer Hut – for the benefit of walkers that are linked by footpaths. These include the Felsenweg ("Rock Way") and the Alpiner Pfad ("Alpine Path") which run through some of the last landscapes in the Black Forest that still have an Alpine character. The 12-kilometre-long Feldberg Steig ("Feldberg Path") runs around the summit and the Feldsee. In addition there are metalled roads to the inns and other facilities around the peak.

Winter

Feldberg is the biggest winter skiing resort in Germany outside of the Alps. The first ski lift was originally built in 1907 in the Feldberg area. Today, there are around 14 ski lifts (including five at the Seebuck, among them a six-seater chairlift) and over 50 km of downhill runs up to a "black" level of difficulty. When there is sufficient snow, even a terrain park may be created. At the valley station are several garages for piste bashers and other equipment. There is a mountain rescue post below the old TV tower.

There are also many Nordic ski trails around the peak; two of which are the highest ones of Baden-Württemberg. Part of the cross-country skiing trail from Schonach to Belchen runs between Feldberg and Seebuck.

Alpine dangers
The Feldberg, like many low mountain ranges, is often underestimated in terms of its alpine dangers. Its easy accessibility by public transport, car and cable car suggests that it is not dangerous and, consequently, visitors may be inappropriately equipped or dressed. The main dangers in the Feldberg region are sudden falls in temperature, storms or slipping on smooth, icy ground. Near tall structures such as the transmission masts there is the danger falling ice. In fog or mist, orientation is clearly much more difficult. Often visibility is reduced to just a few metres. Marked paths outside the wooded areas are lined with poles to assist navigation.

Every winter there are several large avalanches in the Feldberg region. The mountainsides of the Zastler valley are particularly prone, but they also occur on leeward slopes like the Feldseekessel at Seebuck, the Herzogenhorn and the Baldenweger Buck. Snowfall driven by western winds forms cornices on the downwind sides of ridges (e. g. the Zastler Wechte), which can break off. Several fatal avalanche burials have happened, the last in January 2015 which left two dead. There are no special avalanche reports issued for the Black Forest.

Television towers
During the Cold War there were many antennas on a military tower at the summit, but these were removed some years ago. Today, there is a large TV / radio transmission mast, used by the regional broadcasting station, SWR (Southwest Broadcasting). In addition, the mountain is recognisable from its Bismarck Monument, in honour of the famous 19th-century chancellor of Germany, Otto von Bismarck.

Meteorological station
At the top of the mountain (where weather has been surveyed since 1915) is a weather station that has been in operation since 1937, run by the German Meteorological Service (WMO code number: 10908). Next to the observatory is a weather radar.

title: Feldberg (Black Forest)


text:
Wryneck

The wrynecks (genus Jynx) are a small but distinctive group of small Old World woodpeckers. Jynx is from the Ancient Greek iunx, the Eurasian wryneck.

These birds get their English name from their ability to turn their heads almost 180°. When disturbed at the nest, they use this snake-like head twisting and hissing as a threat display. It has occasionally been called "snake-bird" for that reason.

Like the true woodpeckers, wrynecks have large heads, long tongues, which they use to extract their insect prey, and zygodactyl feet, with two toes pointing forward and two backwards, but they lack the stiff tail feathers that the true woodpeckers use when climbing trees, so they are more likely than their relatives to perch on a branch rather than an upright trunk. The sexes have a similar appearance.

Their bills are shorter and less dagger-like than in the true woodpeckers, but their chief prey is ants and other insects, which they find in decaying wood or almost bare soil. They reuse woodpecker holes for nesting, rather than making their own holes. The eggs are white, as with many hole nesters.

The two species have cryptic plumage, with intricate patterning of greys and browns. The adult moults rapidly between July and September, although some moult continues in its winter quarters.

Taxonomy and etymology
The woodpeckers are an ancient bird family consisting of three subfamilies, the wrynecks, the piculets and the true woodpeckers, Picinae. DNA sequencing and phylogenetic analysis show that the wrynecks are a sister clade to other woodpeckers including the Picinae and probably diverged early from the rest of the family.

The wryneck subfamily Jynginae has one genus, Jynx, introduced in 1758 by Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of his Systema Naturae. Linnaeus placed a single species in the genus, the Eurasian wryneck (Jynx torquilla), which is therefore the type species. The genus name Jynx is from the Ancient Greek name for the Eurasian wryneck, ιυγξ, iunx, and ruficollis is from the Latin rufus, "rufous" and collum "neck". The English "wryneck" refers to the habit of birds in this genus of twisting and writhing their necks when agitated. It was first recorded in 1585. The red-throated wryneck was first identified by German ornithologist Johann Georg Wagler in 1830. It is also known as the rufous-necked wryneck or red-breasted wryneck.

The two wrynecks form a superspecies that probably separated early in their evolution from the piculets, although there has subsequently been only limited divergence between the Jynx species.

Fossil record
The woodpecker family appears to have diverged from other Piciformes about fifty million years ago, and a 2017 study considered that the split between Jynx and other woodpeckers occurred about 22.5million years ago. A fossil dating from the early Miocene, more than twenty million years ago, consisting of the distal end of a tarsometatarsus had some ‘’Jynx’’-like features, but was classed as an early piculet. By the Pliocene (five million years ago) woodpeckers were similar to those now extant. Fossil wrynecks are known from Europe in the Pleistocene, between 2.6million and 11,700 years ago.

Species
The two species in Jynx are restricted to the Palearctic biogeographic realm and Africa. The Eurasian wryneck breeds across temperate Europe and Asia, and one of only two Old World woodpeckers to undertake long-distance migration mainly wintering in sub-Saharan Africa and tropical Asia. The rufous-necked wryneck has a disjunct distribution confined to sub-Saharan Africa. It is resident, although there may be local movements and post-breeding dispersal. Both wrynecks have several geographical subspecies.

{{Species table/row }} }}
 * name= Eurasian wryneck|binomial=Jynx torquilla
 * image=File:Wryneck by Pepe Reigada.jpg|image-size=180px |image-alt=
 * authority-name=Linnaeus |authority-year=1758 |authority-not-original=
 * range= Palearctic from the Arctic Circle south to Spain, Algeria, Morocco, southern Siberia, Central Asia, Japan and southern China. Winters south of the Sahara from Senegal in the west to Ethiopia in the east, and in tropical South and Southeast Asia.
 * range-image=File:Jynx torquilla distr.png
 * range-image-size=180px
 * size={{convert|17|cm|in|abbr=on}}. {{convert|26|to|50|g|oz|abbr=on}} {J. t. tschusii.
 * habitat=Open countryside and gardens, especially with some old trees.
 * hunting=Mainly ants
 * iucn-status= LC
 * population=
 * direction=
 * subspecies={{Collapsible list |expand=yes |title=Six subspecies |bullets=on
 * J. t. torquilla Linnaeus, 1758
 * J. t. chinensis Hesse, 1911
 * J. t. himalayana Vaurie, 1959
 * J. t. mauretanica Rothschild, 1909
 * J. t. sarudnyi Loudon, 1912
 * J. t. tschusii Kleinschmidt, 1907

title: Wryneck


text:
Nicole Brossard

Nicole Brossard (born November 27, 1943) is a French-Canadian formalist poet and novelist. Her work is known for exploration of feminist themes and for challenging masculine-oriented language and points of view in French literature.

She lives in Outremont, a suburb of Montreal, Canada.

Early life
Brossard was born in Montreal, Quebec. She attended Collège Marguerite Bourgeoys and the Université de Montréal.

Career
Brossard wrote her first collection in 1965, Aube à la saison. The collection L'Echo bouge beau marked a break in the evolution of her poetry that included an open and active participation in many literary and cultural events, including poetry recitals.

In 1975, she participated in a meeting of writers on women, after which she began to take an activist role in the feminist movement, and to write poetry with a more personal and subjective tone. Her writing includes sensual, aesthetic and feminist political content.

Brossard co-founded a feminist newspaper, Les têtes de pioches, with France Théoret. She wrote a play Le nef des sorcières (first performed in 1976).

In 1982, she founded a publishing house: L'Intégrale éditrice. Brossard's poetry collection, Double Impression, won the 1984 Governor General's Award. In 1987 her romance novel, Le désert mauve, was published.

The Nicole Brossard archives are located in downtown Montreal at the Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec. and at Library and Archives Canada.

In April 2019, Brossard was announced as the 2019 Griffin Lifetime Recognition Award recipient.

Awards

 * 1974: Governor General's Award for Poetry
 * 1984: Governor General's Award for Poetry
 * 1991: Prix Athanase-David
 * 1991: Harbour Festival Prize
 * 2019: America Award in Literature for a lifetime contribution to international writing

Selected bibliography

 * Aube à la saison - 1965
 * Mordre en sa chair - 1966
 * L'écho bouge beau - 1968
 * Suite logique - 1970
 * Un livre - 1970 (translated in English as A Book)
 * Le centre blanc - 1970
 * Mécanique jongleuse - 1974 (translated in English as Day-Dream Mechanics; winner of the 1974 Governor General's Award for Poetry)
 * La partie pour le tout - 1975
 * Sold-Out, étreinte / illustration - (1973) 1977
 * L'amèr ou le Chapitre effrité - 1977(translated in English as These Our Mothers)
 * French kiss, étreinte / exploration - (1974) 1979
 * Les sens apparent - 1980 (translated in English as Surfaces of Sense)
 * Amantes - 1980 (translated in English as Lovhers; nominated for a Governor General's Award)
 * Journal intime - 1984
 * Double impression - 1984 (winner of the 1984 Governor General's Award for Poetry)
 * Domaine d'écriture - 1985
 * La lettre aérienne - 1985 (translated in English as The Aerial Letter)
 * Le désert mauve - 1987 (translated in English as Mauve Desert)
 * L'amer - 1988
 * Installations: avec sans pronoms - 1989
 * A tout regard - 1989
 * La nuit verte du parc labyrinthe - 1992
 * Langues obscures - 1992
 * Baroque d'aube - 1995 (translated in English as Baroque at Dawn)
 * Vertige de l'avant-scène - 1997 (nominated for a Governor General's Award)
 * Au présent des veins - 1999
 * Musée de l'os et de l'eau - 1999 (translated into English as Museum of Bone and Water; nominated for a Governor General's Award;)
 * Hier - 2001 (translated in English as Yesterday, at the Hotel Clarendon)
 * Cahier de roses & de civilisation - 2003 (nominated for a Governor General's Award)

 * English translations
 * These Our Mothers- 1983; translated by Barbara Godard
 * Baroque at Dawn - 1997
 * Museum of Bone and Water - 2005
 * Fluid Arguments - 2005
 * Yesterday, at the Hotel Clarendon - 2006
 * Picture Theory - 2006
 * Mauve Desert - 2006
 * Notebook of Roses and Civilization - 2007; translation by Robert Majzels and Erín Moure, shortlisted for the 2008 Canadian Griffin Poetry Prize
 * Fences in Breathing - 2009
 * Nicole Brossard: Selections - 2010; edited by Jennifer Moxley for the series: Poets for the Millennium from University of California Press
 * White Piano - 2013; translation by Robert Majzels and Erín Moure, shortlisted for the 2014 Best Translated Book Award

title: Nicole Brossard


text:
Ynglinga saga

Ynglinga saga (modern ) is a Kings' saga, originally written in Old Norse by the Icelandic poet and historian Snorri Sturluson about 1225. It is the first section of his Heimskringla. It was first translated into English and published in 1844 by Samuel Laing.

Snorri Sturluson based his work on an earlier Ynglingatal which is attributed to the Norwegian 9th-century skald Þjóðólfr of Hvinir, and which also appears in Historia Norwegiae. It tells the most ancient part of the story of the House of Ynglings (Scylfings in Beowulf). Snorri described the descent of the kings of Norway from this royal house of Sweden.

Ynglinga saga is the first part of Snorri's history of the ancient Norse kings, the Heimskringla. Interwoven in this narrative are references to important historical events.

The saga deals with the arrival of the Norse gods to Scandinavia and how Freyr founded the Swedish Yngling dynasty at Uppsala. Then the saga follows the line of Swedish kings until Ingjald (Ingjald illråde), after which the descendants settled in Norway and became the ancestors of the Norwegian King Harald Fairhair.

Swithiod the Great
The saga begins with a description of the "earth's circle" inhabited by human race and divided by great seas running into the land from the "out-ocean". The Black Sea divides the earth into three parts: Asia in the east, Europe in the west and "Swithiod the Great, or the Cold" in the north. The saga distinguishes between Swithiod the Great (literally "Sweden the Great"), where the opening scenes are laid, and Sweden proper, in Scandinavia, where the Yingling's reign starts. These lands differ in a metaphorical sense as well, since the former is also called Godheim or the home of gods, while the latter is called Mannheim or the place where people live.

Swithiod the Great is a vast territory populated by many "races of men", and divided from other lands by a large mountain ridge going from northeast to southwest. This mountain ridge (probably referring to the Ural Mountains) lies "outside of all inhabited lands" but its southern part is not far to "Turkland" (probably Khazaria). On the southern side of the mountains runs the river Tanais, formerly known as Tanaquisl or Vanaquisl (the modern day Don), which falls into the Black Sea and marks the border between Europe and Asia.

Vanaland and Asaland
People on the Tanais live in a country called Vanaland or Vanaheim. East of the river, in Asia, stretches a country called Asaland or Asaheim. The main city of Asaland is Asgaard, where Odin is a chief. Twelve temple priests, called Diar, direct sacrifices in Asgaard and also judge the people, who serve and obey them. Odin is a great warrior, who conquers many kingdoms in all parts of the world, never losing a battle. His men are used to receive his blessing before going into battle, and to call upon his name when fighting, in order to inspire themselves. Odin wages war against Vanaland people, but cannot win over them. After doing great damage to each other, both sides agree to a truce and exchange hostages. Thus the best people of Vanaland are sent to Asaland as hostages: Njord the Rich, with his son Frey and daughter Freya as well as the wisest man in Vanaland called Kvase. The people of Asaland, in their turn, send a wise man called Mime along with a stout handsome man called Hone, who is allegedly very suitable to become a chief, to Vanaland. Hone is immediately made a chief in Vanaland, but people there realize how bad he actually is at taking decisions when not advised by Mime. They decapitate Mime and send his head to Asaland, where Odin smears it with herbs and sings incantations over it giving it the power to speak and reveal many secrets to Odin.

Arrival of Odin in Scandinavia
Odin has a foresight about the new dwelling place in the north and goes there "with all the gods and a great many other people", leaving his two brothers, Vilje and Ve, to rule in Asgaard. First, Odin and his companions wander westwards to Gardarike and from there - south to Saxland, where Odin's sons start to rule. Odin goes towards the sea in the north, settles in an island called Odinsö in Fyen and sends Gefion to discover new lands to the north, in Scandinavia. When she reaches the possessions of king Gylve, he grants her a plowable field. After having four sons with a giant in Jotunheim, Gefion turns them into a yoke of oxen and makes them plow the field breaking out a piece of land into the ocean close to Odinsö. This land is called Sealand, where Gefion dwells and marries Skjold, an Odin's son.

When Odin hears of how prosperous the lands to the east of Gylve's possessions are, he goes there. Despite the opposition of Gylve, Asaland people take the upper hand, make piece with him and remain on those lands. Odin settles at the Maelare lake, in the Old Sigtun, builds a temple there and sets his men to rule in the neighboring places around.

Odin's Personality
Odin is described as a great sorcerer in the saga. He can shape-shift, speaks only in verse, and lies so well that everything he says seems true. He strikes enemies blind and deaf and when his own men fight they go berserk and cannot be harmed. Odin has a ship Skidbladnir that can be folded together like a cloth. He relies on two talking ravens to gather intelligence, and he keeps Mime's head by him which tells him the news from other worlds. Odin teaches magic, runes and incantations. He can even awaken the dead from the earth and cause death or disease to anyone. People worship Odin and the other twelve chiefs from Asaland as their gods.

Death of Odin
Odin establishes the laws that have been previously observed in Asaland: dead men should be burned with their belongings, a mound should be raised to memorize distinguished men, sacrifices should be held on special days in winter and in summer. Short before his death, Odin says he is going to Godheim (the other name of "Swithiod the Great" in the saga). He dies in his bed in Swithiod and is burned with honor. Snorri says: "The Swedes believed that he was gone to the ancient Asgaard, and would live there eternally".

Frey
Njord starts to rule over the Swedes after Odin. During this time, marked by peace and prosperity, all the gods die. When Njord dies himself, Frey takes the power and makes Upsal his capital. Frey has also another name, Yngvi, which is started to be used as an honorific title by his descendants. Thus they are called Ynglinger. When Frey dies of illness, his men keep it in secret and place his body into a great mound with three windows. People think Frey is still alive and continue to pay tribute to him, putting gold through the one window, silver through the other one and copper coins through the third one. The Swedes eventually discover the truth but do not burn the Frey's body, since they believe the peaceful time goes on thanks to his presence in Sweden. They treat him as a god and sacrifice to him.

Fjolne
Frey's son Fjolne inherits the power and peacefully rules over the Swedes until he visits a great celebration in the house of Fredfrode, a ruler of Leidre. There Fjolne accidentally falls into a big vessel with mead and drowns himself.

Swegde
Swegde, Fjolne's son, takes the kingdom, but decides to seek Godheim and Odin, so he sets out on a 5-year travel for that. Swegde comes to Turkland and then to the Great Swithiod. He does not find Odin, but gets a wife in Vanaland called Vana, who gives birth to their son Vanlande. When Swegde returns to Sweden with his family he is still determined to seek Godheim. During his second journey Swegde meets a dwarf, who tricks him into entering a big hollow stone, where Swegde is trapped forever.

Vanlande
Vanlande becomes a king in Upsal. As a great warrior, he ventures out to many lands and gets a wife in Finland called Driva. They have a son Visbur, but then Vanlande leaves his family for a long time. Driva sends Visbur to Sweden and asks the witch Huld to either force Vanlande to return to Finland or kill him with her witchcraft. Vanlande does not return, and thus is killed in his sleep by the Mara.

Visbur
Visbur succeeds his father and marries the daughter of Aude the Rich, who gives birth to their two sons Gisle and Ond. However, Visbur leaves his family and takes another wife, with whom he has a son Domald. Gisle and Ond grow up and demand their mother's dower of Visbur, but he refuses to pay. They revenge by burning Visbur in his own house, assisted by the Huld's sorcery.

Domald
After his fathers's death, Domald becomes a king. His rule is marked by great famine and distress, and Swedes make many offerings of sacrifice in a hope to end the times of scarcity. When they see that nothing helps they sacrifice Domald himself to the gods.

Domar and his son Dygve
Then the Domald's son, called Domar, reigns peacefully over the Swedes for a long time. When he dies in Upsal his body is moved to Fyrisvold and burned on the river bank. The power is taken by his son Dygve of whom "nothing is said", according to the saga, except for that he dies then "in his bed".

Dag
King Dygve is succeeded by his son Dag, who is so wise that he can understand the language of birds. To get news he uses a sparrow, which is killed with a stone one day, in a farm called Varva, in Reidgotaland. Infuriated Dag plunders Varva out of revenge and kills many people there. On his way back Dag crosses a river at a place called Skjotan's Ford, where a slave worker throws a hayfork at the Dag's troop, killing the king instantly.

Agne
The kingdom is taken by the Dag's son Agne, a powerful warrior, who leads his army to Finland to subdue the land. After killing a Finnish chief Froste together with many of his men in a great battle, Agne marauds Finland and brings Froste's daughter Skjalv with her brother Loge to Stoksund. There he marries Skjalv, who begs him to make a funeral feast to commemorate her father. Agne gets very drunk during the feast and falls asleep in a tent under a high tree, while wearing a golden ornament around his neck - the legacy of king Visbur. Froste's daughter fastens a noose under the ornament and lets her men hang Agne on a branch of that tree. Skjalv sails away after murdering her husband and Agne is buried at that place, which is called Agnefet afterwards.

Brothers Alric and Eric
Agne is succeeded by his sons Alric and Eric, who both become kings at the same time. Outstanding horsemen, they like to compete over who rides better. While riding out far away onto distant fields, the brothers seemingly crush each other's heads with a headgear and die.

Brothers Yngve and Alf
Alric's sons Yngve and Alf become kings of Sweden afterwards. Yngve, a renowned warrior, is handsome, cheerful and admired by everyone. In contrast to his brother, Alf is shy, unfriendly and never takes part in military expeditions. Alf's wife Bera is attracted to Yngve and spends much time in his company, which makes Alf very jealous. Alf strikes his brother with a sword, before Bera's eyes, but the dying Yngve manages to lethally wound Alf too. Both brothers fall dead and are buried in Fyrisvold.

Hugleik
Alf's son Hugleik inherits the power and quietly rules in the kingdom of the Swedes, until a powerful sea-king Hake comes with many warriors to attack the country. King Hugleik gathers a great army to oppose him, but loses a battle at Fyrisvold. Hake kills Hugleik together with two of his sons in the battle and becomes king of Sweden. Hake remains in Sweden while his troops are going abroad on viking expeditions. Meanwhile the sons of Yngve, Jorund and Eric, are cruising in their warships, marauding Denmark. They capture Gudlog, a king from Halogaland, bring him to Stromones and hang him there, which makes them very famous and celebrated. After hearing that king Hake's troops are abroad, Jorund and Eric gather a strong force to advance towards Upsal against Hake, who meets them at Fyrisvold and a great battle takes place there. In spite of having a smaller army, Hake fights bravely and kills Eric, forcing Jorund with his men flee to their ships. However, king Hake himself is mortally wounded in the battle and knows that his days are numbered. He orders a warship to be loaded with bodies of his warriors together with their weapons, and to be taken out to the sea. A pyre is made on the ship, where Hake is burned while not being quite dead.

Jorund
Jorund remains in Upsal and rules over the country. He leads his army to Denmark, plundering Jutland and Lymfjord, but in Oddesund he stumbles on Gylog, a son of the late king Gudlog, with a great force. Gylog, assisted by multitudes of local people, wins over Jorund in a battle, captures him and orders him to be hanged on a gallows. Thus Gylog revenges his father's death on Jorund.

On
Jorund's son On, a wise and quiet man, becomes a king of the Swedes and rules peacefully in Upsal until Halfdan, a son of the Danish king Frode Mikellati, comes to Sweden with his army. On flees to Gotland, yielding the kingdom to Halfdan, who remains there as a new king for 25 years. When Halfdan dies, On returns to Upsal while being already 60 years old and sacrifices his own son to Odin, who tells him that he will live 60 years more. King On rules in Upsal for 25 years until Ole the Bold, a Halfdan's nephew, attacks the kingdom. On flees to Gotland for the second time, losing the throne to Ole, who reigns over Sweden for 25 years. When Ole is killed by Starkad the Old, On comes back to Upsal and rules over the kingdom for another 25 years. Then he sacrifices his second son to Odin, who promises that On's life will last as long as he gives one of his sons to Odin every tenth year. On keeps living and sacrificing his sons until only one of them remains, whom he also wants to give to Odin, but Swedes do not let it happen. Therefore On finally dies at an extremely old age.

Egil
Tunne, an On's slave working as his counselor and treasurer, hides much of the On's treasures in the earth. As soon as Egil, the only remaining son of On, inherits the throne he reduces Tunne to the rank of an ordinary slave. The deeply offended Tunne runs away with some other slaves, digs up the On's treasures, shares it among his men and becomes their chief. Joined by gangs of local robbers they plunder the country and kill many people, compelling Egil to lead his army against the mutinous slave. However, Tunne suddenly attacks Egil's field camp at night, forcing the king's men to flee to the forest and causing even more damage to the country. Egil assembles an army again, but suffers a heavy defeat from the forces of Tunne. After losing a series of battles to Tunne, the king flees the country and comes to Sealand in Denmark, promising to pay to Frode the Bold in return for his help. Frode gives his army with some of the best warriors to Egil. King Egil, assisted by Danes, defeats Tunne and rules three years over Sweden, sending King Frode great presents every year in acknowledgement of his help, but does not pay scatt to the Danes. Egil dies of a mortal wound inflicted by a runaway bull and is buried in a mound at Upsal.

Ottar
Egil's son Ottar succeeds to the kingdom after his father but does not continue to keep up a friendship with King Frode. Frode's messengers come to demand the scatt promised by Egil, which Ottar refuses to pay. As a punishment, the Sweden is ravaged by the Danes who kill many people and take captives there. In revenge, King Ottar sails to Denmark with his warriors when Frode is away on an expedition, and desolates the country. When Ottar is plundering the Vend district of Lymfjord, Danish earls Vatt and Faste bring their army there to fight off the Swedes. As a result of a great battle, Ottar is defeated and killed, and the Danes leave his body on a mound for wild beasts and ravens to tear at it.

The remaining chapters of the saga describe the rule of Yngling dynasty down to the Rongvald the Mountain-High.

title: Ynglinga saga


text:
Miranda NG

Miranda NG is an open-source multiprotocol instant messaging application, designed for Microsoft Windows. Miranda NG is free software distributed under the GNU GPL-2.0-or-later.

History
In May 2012 Miranda IM was forked to Miranda NG (New Generation). The reasons were a shift in the development team and the slow-paced development of the original Miranda IM. The main differences between the original client and the fork are: a switch to Visual Studio 2010's compiler, dropping support for Windows 95/98/ME and non-Unicode plugins, and the fact that the core and plugins development was combined and that they share a unified repository.

the latest version of Miranda NG is 0.96.3, released on 9 June 2023.

Architecture
Miranda IM provides a basic client framework, GUI, and an advanced plugin architecture. Support for various IM protocols and additional features is implemented through optional plugins, some of which come bundled with Miranda IM by default; the rest (over 500) were in the past available on the official addons site. Unused protocols can be removed.

Features

 * Customized look and function according to each individual's needs.
 * Management and organization of hundreds of IM buddies on many IM networks
 * Contact renaming
 * Full message archive database
 * Simple recall or deletion with the DB Tool or History Sweeper plugin.
 * Contact details or photos visible with mouseover. (Needs additional plugin)
 * No advertising
 * Compact and portable: with few plugins
 * Security/Privacy: Saves history on hard disk
 * Low memory footprint

Connectivity
The protocol plugins included with Miranda IM are AIM, Gadu-Gadu, ICQ, IRC, Microsoft Messenger service (a.k.a. MSN, .NET, Live, etc.), XMPP (& Google Talk), and Yahoo! Messenger. Other protocols available via plugins include Bonjour Fetion, Facebook Messenger, Inter-Asterisk eXchange, Lotus Sametime, NetSend, Myspace, Tencent QQ, SIP, Skype (requires Skype), Tlen.pl, Xfire.

Early days
Miranda IM was first started by Roland Rabien (figbug) on 2 February 2000. At that time, it was a minimalist ICQ clone and officially called Miranda ICQ. The first public release, version 0.0.1, was released on 6 February 2000. This release used LibICQ, had no support for message history, database, and plugins, and had a distribution size of less than 100 KB.

A major new feature of version 0.0.4 was the MegaHAL chat bot, which enabled automatic chatting between Miranda and other ICQ users. Plugin support was added with version 0.0.6. Logger Plugin was the first plugin bundled with the official release.

Version 0.1.x
After the release of version 0.0.6.1 on 26 December 2000, the original developers left, and Richard "cyreve" Hughes took over the project. His first release, version 0.1.0.0 on 8 April 2001 was improved through a major rewrite. The split message dialog bundled with this release became the first messaging module to be put into a plugin. The .Net Messenger Service protocol plugin appeared around the time of version 0.1.1.0 release becoming the second messaging protocol to be supported by Miranda. This was also the first official release to support language pack translations. Miranda hence had multi-protocol, multi-language instant messenger features.

After v0.1.0.0, Miranda plugin development grew rapidly. With version 0.1.2.1 (28 February 2002), there were approximately 50 plugins available. At the time the new Lizard plugin enabled skinning support; the only time Miranda supported skins. Lizard development stopped soon after, due to the instability it caused.

Version 0.2.x
After the mysterious disappearance of cyreve in June 2002, the developers Martin Öberg (Strickz), Robert Rainwater (rainwater), Sam K (egoDust), and Lyon Lim (lynlimz) took over the project. The MSN protocol was taken over by Rako Shizuka who also developed the first version of Yahoo! Messenger protocol, which was the third protocol supported by Miranda. The Yahoo! plugin was closed source, and lost reliability as the official Yahoo! Messenger protocol changed over time – it was later re-written by new developer Gennady Feldman.

The first of the non-IM plugins, including RSS News and Weather, were released within this period. These added a contact to contact list for the purpose of displaying information to the user rather than chatting.

Discussion about renaming of the program and removal of ICQ from the core began about this time. Due to the increase of protocol support, the project was officially renamed to Miranda IM on 17 December 2002.

The first release under the new name occurred on 1 February 2003, about three years after the beginning of the project, and a bug fix version came two weeks later.

Version 0.3.x
The major change in version 0.3, released on 23 June 2003, was the removal of ICQ from the core into a plugin. From now on, Miranda could run without the ICQ application being installed. The project moved to a new site at www.miranda-im.org, featuring a new discussion board and file listing.

Protocol plugins bundled in version 0.3 included ICQ, MSN, AIM, and XMPP. The Yahoo! protocol was not included in the package. IRC support was added later by Jörgen Persson (m8rix) to the official release of version 0.3.1, on August 8, 2003.

Another major change was the removal of the Send-Receive Messaging Module from the core into a plugin, SRMM. This reduced the size of the executable file and encouraged rapid development of messaging modules. During this period many variations (including SRAMM, SRMM_mod, etc.) offered different new features and improvements over the standard implementation.

ZDNet.be reviewed release 0.3, complimenting its "effortless" contact importing, low memory usage, and extensive variety of plugins, and stating, "Miranda is a strong recommendation for people who have a system tray populated by several IM applications."

Version 0.4.x
Version 0.4 of Miranda IM was released on 7 April 2005. This was the first version to have Yahoo! protocol bundled with the official release. Other major changes included the removal of contact list and database module from the core into plugins. As a result, there were 4 variations of contact list modules: the original clist_classic, multi-window contact list clist_mw, modern contact list clist_modern, and nicer contact list with extensive UI customization clist_nicer. Other popular plugins released within this period included tabbed message window (tabsrmm and scriver), HTML based message log support IE view, scripting plugin mbot, and the meta contact plugin.

Version 0.5.x
Version 0.5 of Miranda IM was released on 28 July 2006. This is the first version to have Unicode support available as a download option for Windows NT, 2000 and XP users. Another new feature is the introduction of AIM Oscar, first released in early 2006, allowing users to transfer files and receive away messages. This version also provided more support for avatars among the various protocols.

Version 0.6.x
Version 0.6 of Miranda IM was released on December 29, 2006. This version introduced UPnP support to improve file transfer and direct connect reliability through routers. Other changes included improved support for UTF-8 strings, improved tabbed options support, and numerous bug fixes.

Version 0.7.x
Version 0.7 of Miranda IM was released on 1 October 2007. Key changes included integrated font and icon services, a rewritten menu engine, and a release notifier. One large change is a new way to uniquely identify plugins and the interfaces they implement which may break backward compatibility in the future.

A 2008 CNET review gave the program 4 out of 5 stars, noting that though the interface is "plain", the program supports most IM protocols in one package. Features favored in the review included its centralized personal information management, "numerous" window behavior controls, and configurable hotkeys.

Techzine.nl reviewed this version, listing its positive attributes as "support for many protocols; small and fast; a lot of plug-ins and skins; many settings" and writing it "will not look bad on your computer. Especially if you are looking for a simple client on a USB stick then Miranda IM is a good choice." On the other hand, "if you are using WLM (Windows Live Messenger) and you find the settings of the program hard, [we] can not recommend Miranda IM. The typical things like WLM's smilies, sounds, winks and games are not standard. You do get that functionality by the wide choice of skins and plug-ins, but for that you do some research and setting work."

Authors Lui and Chan in Software Development Rhythms describe using Miranda IM's plugin architecture to copy, modify, and test existing plugins in order to develop "NAMMIK", a scriptable ICQ chatting bot used to interview people; they refer to Miranda IM's architecture as "simple and flexible".

Version 0.8.x
Version 0.8 of Miranda IM was released on 17 June 2009. It included a new Account Manager which supports multiple accounts per protocol (doing away with DLL renaming), built-in SSL support, various enhancements and bugfixes for the core and plugins.

A PCWorld Magazine review of version 0.8.16 noted its addon capability, but stated, "Miranda's user interface leaves something to be desired" while referring to its login status icons, wishing for easier management and grouping of contacts, easy blocking/reporting of spammers, and ultimately recommending it "for those who use only surface capabilities of instant messengers."

Version 0.9.x
Version 0.9 of Miranda IM was released on 24 August 2010. It consists of many new features focused on improving Unicode support and overall protocol improvements. It is also the first Miranda IM version to feature an official 64-bit build.

Version 0.10.x
Version 0.10 of Miranda IM was released on 18 July 2012. It consists of enhancements to Miranda IM 0.9.x including improved language support and improved networking support.

After years of being self-hosted, version 0.10.80 was transferred to SourceForge on 25 April 2018.

title: Miranda NG