text:
Talk:Ratite

Omnivory section - over-zealous editing?
Quote: - "Ratite chicks tend to be more omnivorous at 4 metres (13 ft)." What is this meant to mean? I suspect a block of text has been removed here, leaving 2 sentence fragments. Someone could check the history for an errant deletion? Liam Proven (talk) 13:28, 25 September 2009 (UTC)

Relation between mammals and ratite evolution
someone added some sentences on how ratites developed in Gondwana because mammals "evolved in the northern hemisphere." First of all this is wrong Gondwana had mammals, secondly, there isn't anything about lack of mammalian predators allowing the evolution of ratites (except in specific cases like in NZ) in the ref at end of the paragraph, and as this is a fairly substantial claim made without reference to published references I am deleting it. Amdurbin (talk)

oops, I misread the citing, it's a book that I haven't checked, but since the claims made are based on the fundemental assumption that there were "fewer" mammals in the southern hemisphere is wrong, and the paragraph is wrong in other ways, eg

"The existence of mammalian predators alongside smaller flightless birds has proven disastrous to these populations as evidenced by local and widespread extinctions of some Ratite species as these predators were introduced to different islands. Most Ratites evolved into larger and faster animals to escape the limited number of predators. Kiwis are an exception to this rule as they coped with predators by being secretive forest dwellers."

Kiwis didn't evolve in response to mammalian predators...what is evidence for ratites evolved into larger and faster animals specifically to escape a 'limited' number of predators...first sentence here implies that 'island ratites had trouble with introduced mammals' (humans included?) is evidence for ratites requiring absence of mammals to evolve...etc. so it still needs deletion Amdurbin (talk)

Merged Struthioniformes into Ratite
I have merged the page Struthioniformes here, since the two were talking about the same group, and ratite appears to be the common name. It may be that I made the move in the wrong direction, though, and somebody more familiar with birds should confirm which name is in wider use. Some of the content has been removed, but it was a survey of the particular species included here, and so is repeated on their pages. I am not sure where the moas fit into the suborders given here.

 * If the terms Struthioniformes and Ratites are synonymous, shouldn't this be stated in the article?

 * I don't think that merging Struthioniformes with Ratites was a good idea. All of my other sources strongly suggest that all of the ratites, ostriches, elephant birds, emus, moas, rheas, kiwis, etc, all belong to their own seperate orders.--Mr Fink 17:22, 7 June 2006 (UTC)

 * Yes, I have come to the same conclusion. While molecular data apparently works either way, there is still Palaeotis. And if this bird is correctly identified as a "proto-ostrich" (and everything suggests it is), it means that its ancestors must have flown to Europe. This does not very well fit into the "one order fits all" aproach. Paleobiogeography tentatively suggests an African origin for the entire group (if it is indeed monophyletic), because the volant paleognaths are all known from Europe and South America, and because the largest diversity appears to have radiated out of Africa (the Struthioniformes sensus stricto, i.e. the ostriches and Palaeotis). Check also http://biology-web.nmsu.edu/houde/Palaeotis.pdf; I have expanded the article to deal with this and will sooner or later add something on ratite evolution pending the accumulation of enough references. Dysmorodrepanis 13:59, 6 October 2006 (UTC)
 * Forget the "out-of-Africa" scenario. Ostriches appear to be the youngest extant ratite lineage. Current research points towards the ratite morphotype being neotenic and highy apomorphic. There appear to be several ways to achieve flightlessness in birds, such as sheer gigantism (Columbiformes, Galliformes), exaptation (Rallidae), "pure" adaptation (seabirds such as penguins), and neoteny (ratites). Dysmorodrepanis 13:27, 8 February 2007 (UTC)

Changing article text below:

 * Kiwi are notable for laying the largest eggs in relation to body-size of any bird.

To:

 * Kiwi are notable for laying eggs that are very large in relation to their body size. A kiwi egg may equal 15 to 20 percent of the body mass of a female kiwi.

Reference: Kiwi Myths
 * Myth 6: Kiwi lay the biggest egg in the world, in proportion to their body size
 * Although the female kiwi undoubtedly has to cope with a monstrous egg that equals 15 - 20 per cent of her body mass, she is not the most heavily burdened female in the bird world. Small seabirds, such as storm petrels, have proportionately bigger eggs – up to 30 per cent of their weight – and they have to fly with it on board.

Tabor 23:19, 22 Apr 2005 (UTC)

"Stroppy"
The kiwi is described as "stroppy." I can't seem to find a meaning for this word. Is it from New Zealand English? Wachholder0 15:21, 20 November 2005 (UTC)

Stroppy: Obstreperous, noisily and stubbornly defiant (Brit). [dmelliott: 20060304]

Characteristics
Could the types be presented in some logical order, presumably size?

Could all the same information capsules be presented for each type: height, weight, egg size, habitat, behaviour (ostriches are extremely agressive, while, though not small, the emu is shy, and the kiwi is "stroppy"), etc. Presumably, this is a comparative section. [dmelliott 20060304]

Extinct species - NZ settlement
While current thinking on NZ pre-European settlement is moving towards an understanding that the first settlers arrived in the 13th century, this is not universally accepted in the mainstream. Some (eg Jim Williams (Ngāi Tahu), of Otago University) would still place the earliest settlement at around 850 AD. DNA analysis of kiore (Polynesian rats) indicates that the rats were in New Zealand about 2000 years ago. This points to a very early landfall, as they must have been brought here by humans, but the belief that there was actual settlement here at that time or earlier is the province of off-the-wall alternative New Age theorists. Copey 2 23:13, 21 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Strengthens the case of two subsequent colonizations by Polynesians and should be discussed in some Maori- and/or moa-related article. FWIW, the present state of the debate is actually a rewind to some 30 years ago, when it was debated whether the "moa-hunter culture" in the strict sense was actually the first immigration wave only, which might have survived longer on the Chatham Islands (as the Moriori) after they became displaced by the second wave on the mainland. The "blitzkrieg" scenario of moa extinction, according to the two-wave scenario, was merely finishing off an already-depleted population of these birds. Dysmorodrepanis 13:05, 8 February 2007 (UTC):
 * I think that postulating the Moriori as an ancestral state is wrong because it ignores the strongly divergent environmental conditions between the NZ mainland and Chathams that constrained the evolution of the respective societies (See Diamond's "Collapse" for a good discussion). Also see http://www.pnas.org/content/105/22/7676.full for the most up-to-date research on using kiore to date Polynesian expansion and colonization- it agrees with a date of ~1300 for colonization.  Also the 2000 BP date was using radiocarbon data, not DNA.  See kiore and refs therein.
 * whoopsAmdurbin (talk) —Preceding undated comment added 02:08, 22 April 2009 (UTC).

Hybrids
Does anybody know of any instance of hybridization between ratites (Emu X Cassowary, Ostrich X Rhea, Greater Rhea X Lesser Rhea, etc.)? I have searched the internet endlessly and have found nothing on the subject. Has it been tried by ratite farmers? If nobody knows, I would at least like to hear opinions on the matter.

I have been checking this entry daily for weeks and still no answer. PLEASE!!!!!!! the next person to look at this discussion, write your opinion.
 * Try asking the specialists at Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Birds or at Reference desk/Science. Circeus 16:35, 7 July 2006 (UTC)

 * Thank you. I will.

Identify Ratites as an order
I suggest changing the first sentence to identify ratites as an "order" rather than a "diverse group." Ratites are an order of birds, and the article does not even suggest this fact until the discussion of its evolution. r3 13:28, 4 September 2006 (UTC)

 * This is actually a good thing. E.g. the fossil record of ostriches strongly suggests against ratite monphyly. To say that "cladistic" evidence (cladistics is a method of interpretation, not of gathering data) for any hypothesis is "strong" is seriously flawed. At present, nobody would really admit to have a solution for the problem; bad choice of outgroups and bad methodology in general have hampered taxonomic research in this group perhaps more than in any other bird clade, and few characters can really considered synapomorphic (as opposed to paleognaths, which by now are a bit better grounded in evidence). Olson, no lightweight exactly, in 1985 argued rather strongly for a closer relationship between ostriches and herons, if one can imagine that (and if, really only because herons have become also quite difficult to place more recently). "Ratites" ATM seem to be mono-or polyphyletic, with the case for the former perhaps a bit stronger, but even paraphyly cannot be wholly discounted. Dysmorodrepanis 20:35, 21 September 2006 (UTC)

 * Wow, I got ill, spent a year in the hospital and came back and the controversy is still unsolved. I put in a statement synopsisizing (sic) the controversy with three references supporting both ends. Let me know what you think. Or even better if it can be improved on. speednat (talk) 02:13, 14 June 2012 (UTC)

Fictional ratities
Is there any actual source that describes Chocobo as ratites? Or is the the assumption of fans based on the fact that it's a flightless bird? If the later, how do you know it's not a Mihirung or something? As this article illustrates, there are many, many forms of flightless birds besides ratites.Dinoguy2 15:52, 4 September 2006 (UTC)

Some chocobos are capable of flight. This would seem to preclude their being ratites. I suspect it's just a guess. In earlier FF games, Chocobos were often thought to be more like large chickens, not the ostrich-like representation in the later and more graphically capable games. M0ffx 15:40, 3 October 2006 (UTC)

Actually, I got the idea that they're a ratite from the Wiki article on Chocobos, but if they fly, which, yeah, some species do, then I guess they don't qualify. :) Perhaps it's a different genus, or something. What do I know from avis chocobii? :) -- Unsigned

Calling chocobos ratites is based on them being large, flightless birds with powerful legs for both running and kicking, all traits which are shared by the ostrich (which is the fastest living two-legged terrestial animal, and might even make a good riding animal in real life if not for its temperament). However, they differ from ratites in a number of morphological aspects, notably the shape of the beak and tail. The top of a chocobo's body is concave with a smooth curve from neck to tail, while the top of a ratite's body is convex and then turns upward at a sharp corner when you reach the neck.

Wee, applying rigorous scientific analysis to fictional species is fun! -- Milo

Phrasing
"Extinct by 1500 due to hunting by human settlers, who arrived around 1000, although at least one species may have survived past this date and maybe was seen by early European settlers."

"At least" can't go with "may" like this. What's the currently accepted theory - were they all dead or weren't they? Aaadddaaammm 21:55, 7 February 2007 (UTC)

 * Of course it can (even the last "maybe" can, though it's probably factually wrong). There is uncertainty on whether there was moa survival until European contact, and there is uncertainty concerning the number of species that would have remained at that time. Current mainstream opinion answers with "probably not, but barely so, though the possibility cannot be discounted" and "one". There simply is no accepted theory, only a working hypothesis supported by the majority of researchers. The problem is that the most likely candidate for late survival would not have been encountered by Europeans in any case until later, because it would have survived only because of the remoteness of its habitat. So we're dealing with a hypothesis at present not supportable by the available evidence because that simply does not touch it; the point is that even if the Lesser Megalapteryx survived until after European contact, its eventual demise would most likely not have been witnessed by Europeans, and hardly so by Maori either (The "moa" legends are just that: legends that quite obviously do not refer to a critter encountered within living memory). Eyewitness reports are discountable due to (usually) the place and habitat being wrong. What would be needed is a post-contact radiocarbon date; no such material has been found to date. We do not even know where the last population of the Lesser Megalapterxy lived exactly (i.e., where to search caves for remains). Dysmorodrepanis 13:19, 8 February 2007 (UTC)

Farming
Can the different Ratites (Ostrich, Emu, Rhea) be kept together in the same enclosure, or free range?. - 01:28, 25 February 2007 (UTC)

Systematics
I'm having a lot of trouble understanding the systematics section. First, it was only from the discussion that I figured out that the ratites might not be monophyletic.

In view of that, can we say anything on speculations about closer relatives, such as the herons mentioned above?

"DNA analysis appears to show that the ratites diverged from one another too recently to share a common Gondwanian ancestor" Recent divergence means recent common ancestry, so it's consistent with a common Gondwanan ancestor. Should that say "diverged from each other too long ago"?

"However, recent analysis of genetic variation between the ratites conflicts with this [Gondwanan monophyly]: DNA analysis […] suggests that the kiwi are more closely related to the cassowaries than the moa." I don't see what which ratite is closest to the kiwi has to do with the monophyly of the whole group. And I think the sentence would be better as "the kiwi are more closely related to the cassowaries than the moa is", but I didn't change it because it might mean "the kiwi are more closely related to the cassowaries than to the moa".

I think more needs to be said about Palaeotis, at least that it could fly.

"Research continues, but at present the ratites are perhaps the one group of modern birds for which no robust theory of their evolution and paleobiogeography exists." Does that mean that perhaps no robust theory exists, or definitely no robust theory exists and perhaps the ratites are the only group without such a theory? I'd have trouble believing the latter—the AOU says incertae sedis about several groups.

"Struthioniformes sensu stricto": Can't we call this "Struthionidae" independent of all controversies? —JerryFriedman 04:37, 23 May 2007 (UTC)

Long-held Assumptions Of Flightless Bird Evolution Challenged By New Research

 * Sciencedaily.com

What does this mean
In the intro section it says
 * Most parts of the former Gondwana have ratites, or have had until the fairly recent past. Their closest living relatives are the tinamous of South America

What does it mean? I understand that there are living Ratite's so presumably it means the closed living relatives of some particular prehistoric ratite species? Billlion (talk) 11:22, 23 November 2008 (UTC)

This sentence makes no sense at all!
Under "behavior - reproduction" there is this sentence, "Ostriches are the only ratites where they female incubates, and with them, they share the duties, with the males incubating at night. Kiwis stand out as the exception with a monogamous relationship."

It makes no sense to me at all and I would correct it except I have no clue what to correct it to.

Can an expert or someone with the proper knowledge please correct this sentence and provide a citation?

Thanks. 98.247.77.63 (talk) 13:13, 26 May 2009 (UTC)
 * fixed, based on reference in Great_spotted_kiwi. David Woodward (talk) 10:28, 7 July 2021 (UTC)

Struthioniformes and the other ratites being seperated
supposedly, I have read, from people here, that struthioniformes, rheiformes, apterygiformes, casuariiformes, Lithornithiformes, aepyornithformes, dinornithiformes, are all seperate orders, wheras in the past some of these were below struthioniformes. I can't find a source for this to verify. can someone point me in the right direction speednat (talk) 00:08, 7 July 2009 (UTC)

 * The classification of birds is controversial with regard to which families should be elevated to the order level, but the List_of_birds page describes the families Struthionidae, Rheidae, Casuariidae, and Apterygidae as all being part of the order Strutioniformes. As far as I can tell, the taxonomy on the List of birds page uses the terms ratite and Struthioniformes synonymously, which is why I changed the redirect for Struthioniformes back to this page, rather than to the Struthionidae family / Struthio genus article which it linked to before. I am going to add a short paragraph to this article's introduction explaining this. MathEconMajor (talk) 17:13, 11 September 2009 (UTC)
 * There is little controversy in order-level ratite classification, as far as I know. The various ratite groups certainly are quite distinct, and the strong support for the rhea-tinamou clade fixes things. Read through all the current literature on ratites, and you'll see a multiple-order classification. Even popular encyclopedias like those on animals by National Geographic, Firefly, and the universities of California and Melbourne use a five-order classification. Why is Wikipedia so far behind? innotata Talk Contribs 00:05, 6 November 2009 (UTC)

Moa, tinamous, implications for Ratites
New research has the extinct moa species as being most closely related to the tinamous rather than to other ratites. Big implications for this article. First the NZ Herald version, then the paper it derives from:

http://www.nzherald.co.nz/science/news/article.cfm?c_id=82&objectid=10623539

http://sysbio.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/59/1/90

Kahuroa (talk) 04:23, 3 February 2010 (UTC)

"Most of them now extinct"
Surely that's true of any group of animals, such as, say, the reptiles, and is not notable. Perhaps "many of them recently extinct"? 81.131.32.148 (talk) 09:36, 10 March 2010 (UTC)

Notes and references
It makes a lot of sense to have separate lists of footnotes and references when one has numerous citations to different pages of the same source(s). Then one can substitute a long list of notes with short entries and a short list of references with long entries for a long list of references with long entries.

However, it really does not make sense to have separate lists of notes and references when there is only a single entry for each source in the notes list. Then the notes list is simply redundant, and just makes it harder for the reader to go from the point in the text where the citation occurs to the reference entry. WolfmanSF (talk) 03:36, 10 February 2011 (UTC)

"Continental drift"
In the Evolution section:

"The longstanding story of ratite evolution was that they share a common flightless ancestor that lived in Gondwana, whose descendants were isolated from each other by continental drift,..."

This should say plate tectonics, as it does later in the section. Continental drift was an early 20th Century theory that the continents drifted around on the ocean. It's not the same as plate tectonics, which is the currently accepted theory. 24.59.58.64 (talk) 02:12, 25 March 2023 (UTC)

Monophyletic vs Polyphyletic and the Place of Tinamous
In the article ratites are described as a polyphyletic group which excludes the tinamous, but I would argue that due to genetic evidence of their place in the clade, it makes more sense to describe ratites as a mostly flightless monophyletic group including the tinamous as the flighted exception which illustrate that flightlessness evolved convergently within the clade multiple times. 204.58.180.206 (talk) 19:48, 10 February 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Ratite


text:
Desdemona

Desdemona is a character in William Shakespeare's play Othello (c. 1601–1604). Shakespeare's Desdemona is a Venetian beauty who enrages and disappoints her father, a Venetian senator, when she elopes with Othello, a Moorish Venetian military prodigy. When her husband is deployed to Cyprus in the service of the Republic of Venice, Desdemona accompanies him. There, her husband is manipulated by his ensign Iago into believing she is an adulteress, and, in the last act, she is murdered by her estranged spouse.

Role in Othello

In the play's first act, Desdemona has eloped with Othello, a Moor in the service of the Venetian Republic. Before the Duke of Venice, his councilmen, and her father, she proclaims her love for Othello and defends her choice. Her father reluctantly accepts the union but warns Othello that she will someday deceive him. When Othello is sent to Cyprus in the line of duty, Desdemona accompanies him with his ensign's wife, Emilia, attending her.

In act 2, Othello's lieutenant, Cassio, is disgraced in a brawl and falls from Othello's favor. Iago suggests to Cassio that he importune Desdemona to intercede for him, which she does. Meanwhile, Iago persuades Othello that Desdemona has formed an illicit relationship with Cassio. However, many critics argue that the first seed of doubt is not issued from Iago but by Desdemona's father: ""Look to her, Moor, if thou hast eyes to see. She hath deceived her father and may thee." (1.3)"

It is Desdemona's assurance and confidence in the honor and strength of the love she bears for Othello that inspires her boldness. Yet the passion of her love both arouses and unnerves her husband too, adding to the seeds of fear and suspicion.

When Emilia's husband Iago sees Desdemona's handkerchief, he steals it and forbids Emilia to disclose its whereabouts to Desdemona. Iago plants the article in Cassio's room. Eventually, Othello sees Cassio with the handkerchief and accepts it as confirmation of Desdemona's infidelity. Desdemona is concerned over the loss of the handkerchief but maintains that its loss will not cause Othello to grow angry. Emilia is more cynical, especially after Othello violently asks to see it. Desdemona is confused over her husband's behavior, which culminates in his striking her in public and calling her a whore.

Desdemona is deeply upset by her husband's attacks but continues to assert her love. In the final act, Othello tells her that he knows she has been unfaithful, and is going to kill her. Despite Desdemona's claims of innocence, Othello refuses to believe her, and when he tells her that Cassio has been killed, Desdemona cries out. Othello becomes enraged and strangles Desdemona, ignoring her pleas for mercy. When her maid Emilia rushes into the room, Desdemona rises weakly to defend Othello, then dies.

Eventually, Othello learns of Desdemona's faithfulness after Emilia exposes Iago's true nature before being stabbed to death by Iago, and out of complete remorse, Othello commits suicide, but only after angrily stabbing Iago (though not fatally) as retribution for his lies against Desdemona. Desdemona's cousin Lodovico then orders that Iago be tortured and executed.

Performance history
The role has attracted notable actresses through the centuries and has the distinction of being the first role performed professionally by Margaret Hughes, the first actress to appear on an English public stage.

In a 1951 film version, Suzanne Cloutier played Desdemona opposite Orson Welles. The film won the grand prize Palme d'Or at the 1952 Cannes Film Festival.

In a 1966 British film version, Maggie Smith played the character opposite Laurence Olivier. The film holds the record for the most Academy Award nominations given to a Shakespeare film adaptation. Maggie Smith and co-stars Olivier, Frank Finlay (Iago), and Joyce Redman (Emilia) all received acting nominations.

In a 1995 film version, Irène Jacob played the character opposite Laurence Fishburne.

There have been numerous screen modernisations of the play. In O (2001), Julia Stiles played a character based on Desdemona in a version of Othello set in a contemporary high school. A 2001 British made-for-television film featuring Keeley Hawes as Desdemona "Dessie" Brabant also updates the action, picturing John Othello (Eamonn Walker) and Ben Jago (Christopher Eccleston) as high ranking Metropolitan Police officers. In 2006, Omkara, a Bollywood version of Othello, Dolly Mishra (Desdemona) was played by Kareena Kapoor.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Desdemona


text:
Socialist Education Movement

The Socialist Education Movement (, abbreviated 社教运动 or 社教運動), also known as the Four Cleanups Movement was a 1963–1965 movement launched by Mao Zedong in the People's Republic of China. Mao sought to remove reactionary elements within the bureaucracy of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), saying that "governance is also a process of socialist education."

Goals
During the 1960s, Mao's view of class struggle focused on two distinct dimensions. One level was class struggle within society to avoid revisionism, a process which required socialist education. The second level was struggle within the Party itself to address bureaucratism and the fear that Party bureaucrats might become a new bourgeoisie.

Thus, the goal of the socialist education movement was to "purify politics, purify economics, purify the organization, and purify thought" in opposition to revisionism. Mao sought to make Communist Party cadres closer to the people and to increase revolutionary consciousness among younger people who had grown up after the founding of the People's Republic of China.  He described the movement as "lifting the lid" on class struggle in rural China and exposing the ox-demons and snake-spirits working against socialism.

Course
During the Socialist Education Movement, higher level cadres were sent around the country to investigate the relationships between local cadres and the people. Urban young people were also encouraged to visit rural areas during breaks from school to learn about the conditions of rural people. Approximately 3.5 million officials and students were sent into rural China to implement the movement.

In rural China, mobile film projectionist units showed films and slideshows that emphasized class struggle and encouraged audience members to discuss bitter experiences onstage. Films termed "emphasis films" were released to support the aims of the Socialist Education Movement, and the film version of The White-Haired Girl was re-released to coincide with the campaign as well.

The campaign had immediate difficulties. Higher level cadres often did not want to be sent to rural areas of China. In a technique described as "turning away the spearpoint," local cadres often sought to blame problems on former landlords or those who had been criticized during the 1957 Anti-Rightist Campaign.

Aftermath
The Socialist Education Movement is regarded as the precursor of the Cultural Revolution. Mao became frustrated with resistance to the Socialist Education Movement and the experience further developed his view that the relationship between cadres and the people needed to be improved. When the Cultural Revolution began, rural regions had not yet completed the Socialist Education Movement, and the committees in charge of it converted into Cultural Revolution leading groups.

Following the Socialist Education Movement, the relationship between Mao and Chinese President Liu Shaoqi, Chairman Mao's potential successor, deteriorated.

Some Chinese sources state that the Socialist Education Movement resulted in 77,560 deaths, with 5,327,350 people being persecuted.

A positive outcome of the campaign was that urban youth gained greater experience with the conditions of life in rural China.

title: Socialist Education Movement


text:
Peptide hormone

Peptide hormones are hormones whose molecules are peptides. Peptide hormones have shorter amino acid chain lengths than protein hormones. These hormones have an effect on the endocrine system of animals, including humans. Most hormones can be classified as either amino acid–based hormones (amine, peptide, or protein) or steroid hormones. The former are water-soluble and act on the surface of target cells via second messengers; the latter, being lipid-soluble, move through the plasma membranes of target cells (both cytoplasmic and nuclear) to act within their nuclei.

Like all peptides, peptide hormones are synthesized in cells from amino acids according to mRNA transcripts, which are synthesized from DNA templates inside the cell nucleus. Preprohormones, peptide hormone precursors, are then processed in several stages, typically in the endoplasmic reticulum, including removal of the N-terminal signal sequence and sometimes glycosylation, resulting in prohormones. The prohormones are then packaged into membrane-bound secretory vesicles, which can be secreted from the cell by exocytosis in response to specific stimuli (e.g. an increase in Ca2+ and cAMP concentration in cytoplasm).

These prohormones often contain superfluous amino acid residues that were needed to direct folding of the hormone molecule into its active configuration but have no function once the hormone folds. Specific endopeptidases in the cell cleave the prohormone just before it is released into the bloodstream, generating the mature hormone form of the molecule. Mature peptide hormones then travel through the blood to all of the cells of the body, where they interact with specific receptors on the surfaces of their target cells.

Some neurotransmitters are secreted and released in a similar fashion to peptide hormones, and some "neuropeptides" may be used as neurotransmitters in the nervous system in addition to acting as hormones when released into the blood.

When a peptide hormone binds to a receptor on the surface of the cell, a second messenger appears in the cytoplasm, which triggers signal transduction leading to the cellular responses.

Some peptides (angiotensin II, basic fibroblast growth factor-2, parathyroid hormone-related protein) also interact with intracellular receptors located in the cytoplasm or nucleus by an intracrine mechanism.

Partial list of peptide hormones in humans

 * 1) Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
 * 2) Adropin
 * 3) Amylin
 * 4) Angiotensin
 * 5) Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)
 * 6) Calcitonin
 * 7) Cholecystokinin (CCK)
 * 8) Gastrin
 * 9) Ghrelin
 * 10) Glucagon
 * 11) Glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP)
 * 12) Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1)
 * 13) Growth hormone
 * 14) Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
 * 15) Insulin
 * 16) Leptin
 * 17) Luteinizing hormone (LH)
 * 18) Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)
 * 19) Oxytocin
 * 20) Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
 * 21) Prolactin
 * 22) Renin
 * 23) Somatostatin
 * 24) Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
 * 25) Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)
 * 26) Vasopressin, also called arginine vasopressin (AVP) or anti-diuretic hormone (ADH)
 * 27) Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP)
 * 28) Somatotropin (GH1)
 * 29) Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone 1 (GNRH1)
 * 30) Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone 2 (GNRH2)
 * 31) Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone (GHRH)
 * 32) Parathyroid Hormone Like Hormone (PTHLH)
 * 33) Corticotropin Releasing Hormone (CRH)
 * 34) Anti-Müllerian Hormone (AMH)
 * 35) Chorionic Somatomammotropin Hormone 1 (CSH1)
 * 36) Chorionic Somatomammotropin Hormone 2 (CSH2)
 * 37) Pro-Melanin Concentrating Hormone (PMCH)
 * 38) Resistin (RETN)

title: Peptide hormone


text:
List of fictional dinosaurs

This list of fictional dinosaurs is subsidiary to the list of fictional animals and is a collection of various notable non-avian dinosaur characters that appear in various works of fiction. It is limited to well-referenced examples of dinosaurs and related prehistoric reptiles in literature, film, television, comics, animation, video games and mythology, and applies only to non-avian dinosaur species that lived from the Triassic Period until the end of the Cretaceous.

title: List of fictional dinosaurs


text:
Zhang Liao

Zhang Liao (169 – late 222), courtesy name Wenyuan, was a Chinese military general serving under the warlord Cao Cao in the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. He served briefly in the state of Cao Wei, founded by Cao Cao's successor Cao Pi, in the early Three Kingdoms period before his death. Formerly a subordinate of other warlords such as Ding Yuan, Dong Zhuo and Lü Bu, Zhang Liao joined Cao Cao around 198 after Lü Bu's downfall at the Battle of Xiapi. Since then, he participated in many of Cao Cao's military campaigns, including those against Yuan Shao's heirs and the Wuhuan tribes from 201 to 207. He is best known for his pivotal role in the Battle of Xiaoyao Ford in 214–215, in which he successfully defended Hefei from the forces of the warlord Sun Quan.

Chen Shou, who wrote the third-century historical text Sanguozhi, named Zhang Liao as one of the Five Elite Generals of his time, alongside Yu Jin, Zhang He, Yue Jin and Xu Huang.

Early career and service under Lü Bu
Zhang Liao was from Mayi County (馬邑縣), Yanmen Commandery, which is present-day Shuocheng District, Shuozhou, Shanxi. He was a descendant of Nie Yi (聶壹), but his family name had been changed from Nie to Zhang to avoid association with his disgraced ancestor. When he was young, he served as a minor official in his home commandery, and experienced many frontier skirmishes against rebellious Donghu people during his youth.

Towards the end of the Eastern Han dynasty, Ding Yuan, the Inspector of Bing Province, heard of Zhang Liao's combat skills and hired him as an assistant officer. Ding Yuan ordered Zhang Liao to lead troops from Bing Province to the imperial capital, Luoyang, to assist the General-in-Chief, He Jin. He Jin then sent him on a mission to Hebei, where Zhang Liao managed to recruit over 1,000 men to serve in He Jin's army.

When Zhang Liao returned to Luoyang, the warlord Dong Zhuo had seized control of Luoyang in the aftermath of He Jin's assassination, and replaced He Jin as the de facto head of the Han central government. Zhang Liao and his 1,000 troops then joined Dong Zhuo's army. In 192, after Lü Bu betrayed and killed Dong Zhuo, Zhang Liao served as one of his deputies and became a Cavalry Commandant (騎都尉).

About a month after he killed Dong Zhuo, Lü Bu came under attack by Dong Zhuo's followers, who were led by Li Jue and Guo Si. They defeated him and forced him out of the imperial capital, Chang'an. Zhang Liao accompanied Lü Bu as they headed east and wandered around central and northern China until mid 195, when the warlord Liu Bei offered Lü Bu shelter in Xu Province. In 196, Lü Bu betrayed his host and seized control of Xu Province, after which he appointed a 27-year-old Zhang Liao as the Chancellor of Lu State (魯國; around present-day Qufu, Shandong). Despite technically a subordinate of Lü Bu, Zhang Liao was formally independent from Lü Bu as he holds office as prefect of Beidi at that time.

In 198, Lu Bu's men were ordered to buy military horses. However, all the gold was plundered by Liu Bei's army on the way. Therefore Zhang Liao fought Liu Bei's forces along with Gao Shun, which prompted Liu Bei to ask Cao Cao reinforcement, Cao Cao dispatched Xiahou Dun to help Liu Bei. However, Gao Shun and Zhang Liao first jointly defeated Xiahou Dun, and then jointly defeated Liu Bei at Peicheng.

Service under Cao Cao
In 198, the warlord Cao Cao, who controlled the Han central government and the figurehead Emperor Xian, defeated Lü Bu at the Battle of Xiapi and executed him. Zhang Liao surrendered to Cao Cao and became one of his subordinates. He was commissioned as a General of the Household (中郎將) and received the peerage of a Secondary Marquis (關內侯). He was promoted to Major-General (裨將軍) later for his contributions in battle.

Persuading Chang Xi to surrender
In early 201, after Cao Cao defeated his northern rival Yuan Shao at the Battle of Guandu, he first sent Zhang Liao to pacify the various counties in Lu State (魯國; around present-day Qufu, Shandong), and then ordered him and Xiahou Yuan to lead an army to attack a minor warlord Chang Xi (昌豨) in Donghai Commandery (東海郡; around present-day Linyi, Shandong). Zhang Liao and Xiahou Yuan had besieged Chang Xi for months but were unable to defeat him and their supplies were running out, so they considered retreating.

Zhang Liao told Xiahou Yuan: "Over the past several days, whenever we attacked Chang Xi, I noticed he paid careful attention to me. He is also running short of arrows. I suspect he is having doubts, therefore he isn't doing his best to resist us. Wouldn't it be better if I manage to persuade him to surrender?" He then sent a message to Chang Xi and asked to speak to him. When Zhang Liao met Chang Xi, he told the latter that Cao Cao rewarded those who submitted to him. Convinced by Zhang Liao, Chang Xi agreed to surrender to Cao Cao. Zhang Liao then went to Chang Xi's home alone and visited his family. Chang Xi was delighted and he followed Zhang Liao and Xiahou Yuan back to meet Cao Cao.

When Cao Cao heard about how Zhang Liao persuaded Chang Xi to surrender, he scolded Zhang Liao: "This isn't what a great general should do." Zhang Liao replied: "I was certain that Chang Xi wouldn't dare to harm me because he knows that I am authorised by the imperial court and also because he is influenced by the prestige of you, my lord."

Campaigns against Yuan Shao's heirs and the Wuhuan
In 202, Zhang Liao accompanied Cao Cao to attack Yuan Shao's sons Yuan Tan and Yuan Shang at Liyang (黎陽; northwest of present-day Xun County, Henan). He was promoted to acting Central Resolute General (中堅將軍) for his contributions in battle. Later on, he followed Cao Cao to attack Yuan Shang at Ye (鄴; in present-day Handan, Hebei) but were unable to conquer the city so they retreated in mid 203.

After Cao Cao returned to the imperial capital, Xu (許; present-day Xuchang, Henan), he sent Zhang Liao and Yue Jin to lead an army to conquer Yin'an County (陰安縣; north of present-day Qingfeng County, Henan) and relocate its residents to the south of the Yellow River.

In early 204, Zhang Liao followed Cao Cao to attack Yuan Shang at Ye again and they succeeded in capturing the city this time. Zhang Liao also led troops to the Zhao State (趙國; around present-day Neiqiu County, Hebei) and Changshan State (常山國; around present-day Shijiazhuang, Hebei) in Ji Province, where he persuaded the Heishan bandits and other opposing forces to surrender to Cao Cao.

In 205, Zhang Liao accompanied Cao Cao to attack Yuan Tan at Nanpi County and they defeated Yuan Tan. After the battle, Zhang Liao led an army to the coastal regions and defeated bandit forces led by Liu Yi (柳毅) from Liaodong. When he returned to Ye after the campaign, Cao Cao came out of the city and personally welcomed him back. Zhang Liao was reassigned to serve as General Who Defeats Bandits (盪寇將軍).

In around 206, Cao Cao sent Zhang Liao to counter the unrest in some counties in Jiangxia Commandery (present-day eastern Hubei). Zhang Liao achieved success and returned to his garrison at Linying (臨潁; present-day Linying County, Henan). He was promoted from a Secondary Marquis to a Marquis of a Chief Village (都亭侯).

In 207, Zhang Liao followed Cao Cao on a campaign against Yuan Shang, who had allied with the Wuhuan tribes in northern China. When Cao Cao was preparing to attack the enemy in Liucheng (柳城; present-day Xingcheng, Liaoning), Zhang Liao warned him that Jing Province's Governor Liu Biao take advantage of his absence from Xu to send Liu Bei to attack Xu and take control of the capital. However, Cao Cao felt that Liu Biao would not send Liu Bei to attack Xu because he did not trust Liu Bei, so he proceeded with the campaign against Yuan Shang and the Wuhuan. When they encountered the enemy, Zhang Liao displayed great fervour and strongly urged Cao Cao to launch an attack. Cao Cao was so impressed with Zhang Liao that he passed him his personal signal flag. Zhang Liao led the assault on the Wuhuan at White Wolf Mountain (白狼山; near present-day Lingyuan, Liaoning), defeated them and executed the Wuhuan chieftain Tadun.

Suppressing a mutiny and a rebellion
Around 208, when Cao Cao was preparing to attack Jing Province, he ordered Zhang Liao to garrison at Changshe (長社; present-day Changge, Henan) and wait to mobilise. During the mobilisation, some soldiers started a mutiny and set fire to the camp at night and caused panic. Zhang Liao told his subordinates: "Don't make any move yet. There isn't a single company whose members are all involved in the mutiny, so the mutineers must be trying to cause chaos and make everyone else join them." He ordered all the soldiers who were not involved in the mutiny to remain in their positions and sit down, and then led his personal guards to the main command post to restore order. The leaders of the mutiny were identified and executed.

During the Battle of Red Cliffs, Zhang Liao were stationed in Changsha In 209, after the Battle of Red Cliffs, Chen Lan (陳蘭) and Mei Cheng (梅成) started a rebellion in Lu County (六縣; in present-day Lu'an, Anhui). Cao Cao sent two separate forces to suppress the rebellion: Yu Jin and Zang Ba to attack Mei Cheng; Zhang Liao, with Zhang He and Niu Gai (牛蓋) as his deputies, to attack Chen Lan. Mei Cheng pretended to surrender to Yu Jin, and then led his men to join Chen Lan at Mount Tianzhu as soon as Yu Jin and Zang Ba left. The paths leading up the mountain were narrow and dangerous to travel on.

When Zhang Liao wanted to attack the rebels, his subordinates advised him against it because of the hazardous terrain. However, Zhang Liao said: "This is where one-to-one fighting will take place. Only the courageous can advance forward." He then ordered his troops to make camp at the foot of the mountain. They attacked the rebels later, defeated them, and killed Chen Lan and Mei Cheng.

When Cao Cao was assessing the respective contributions of his generals in the campaign, he said, "The General Who Defeats Bandits (Zhang Liao) was the one who ascended the mountain, travelled through hazardous terrain, and defeated Chen Lan and Mei Cheng." As rewards for his success, Zhang Liao was granted acting imperial authority and given additional taxable households in his marquisate.

Battle of Xiaoyao Ford and aftermath
When Cao Cao retreated after being defeated by Sun Quan and Liu Bei at the Battle of Red Cliffs in the winter of 208–209, he left behind Zhang Liao, Yue Jin and Li Dian with about 7,000 troops to guard Hefei from attacks by Sun Quan.

Around 214, before Cao Cao went on a campaign against the warlord Zhang Lu in Hanzhong Commandery, he instructed Xue Ti (薛悌) to pass a sealed letter to the three generals at Hefei. He wrote "Open when the enemy comes" on the envelope.

Later that year, Sun Quan led about 100,000 troops to attack Hefei, so they opened the letter. It read: "If Sun Quan comes, Generals Zhang and Li will go out to fight the enemy while General Yue will defend the fortress. Xue Ti will stay out of the battle." They were confused after reading the letter.

Zhang Liao told Yue Jin and Li Dian: "Our lord is away on a campaign. By the time his reinforcements reach here, we are already done for. So he is actually instructing us to take advantage of the situation – when the enemy has just arrived and isn't fully gathered yet – to attack them and devastate their morale so we can calm our men and strengthen our defences. Victory or defeat, it all depends on this battle. Why are the two of you still hesitating?" The three generals then worked together and recruited over 800 elite soldiers that night and prepared for battle the following day.

At dawn, Zhang Liao donned his armour, carried a ji, and led his men to attack the enemy formation. He killed tens of enemy soldiers and two officers, shouted his own name, and broke through the barriers until he reached Sun Quan's command post. Sun Quan was shocked and his subordinates were all unsure of what to do. He then went to the top of a knoll, armed himself with a long ji, and stood there. He did not dare to move when Zhang Liao challenged him to come down and fight him.

When Sun Quan saw that Zhang Liao did not have many soldiers left with him, he ordered his forces to surround Zhang and his men. However, Zhang Liao fought fiercely and succeeded in breaking out of the encirclement with a few of his men. His remaining men, who were still trapped by the enemy, shouted: "General, are you abandoning us?" Zhang Liao then turned back and fought his way into the encirclement and succeeded in rescuing his remaining men.

Sun Quan and his men were all stunned by Zhang Liao's valour and did not dare to stand in his way. The skirmish lasted from dawn to the afternoon, and the morale of Sun Quan's army had fallen significantly. Zhang Liao returned to Hefei fortress and strengthened his defences. The defenders felt much more at ease and were very impressed with him.

Sun Quan was unable to conquer Hefei after several days so he withdrew his forces. While Sun Quan was retreating, Zhang Liao suddenly launched a surprise attack and inflicted a crushing defeat on the enemy at Xiaoyao Ford (逍遙津). He came very close to capturing Sun Quan a few times during the battle. Cao Cao was very impressed with Zhang Liao and promoted him to General Who Attacks the East (征東將軍).

In 217, when Cao Cao launched another campaign against Sun Quan, he passed by Hefei along the way, visited the site of the Battle of Xiaoyao Ford, and spent a long time in reflection at the location. He increased the number of troops under Zhang Liao's command and then relocated Zhang's unit to a garrison at Juchao (居巢; in present-day Chaohu, Anhui).

Battle of Fancheng
In 219, when Cao Cao's general Cao Ren was being besieged at Fancheng (樊城; present-day Fancheng District, Xiangyang, Hubei) by Liu Bei's general Guan Yu, Cao Cao was away at the Hanzhong Campaign so he ordered his generals to lead troops from their respective garrisons to reinforce Cao Ren.

Around the time, Sun Quan had pledged allegiance to Cao Cao, so Zhang Liao was able to lead his forces from Juchao to help Cao Ren. However, before Zhang Liao reached Fan, Cao Cao's general Xu Huang had already defeated Guan Yu and lifted the siege on Fancheng.

Zhang Liao rendezvoused with Cao Cao, who had returned after being defeated in the Hanzhong Campaign, at Mobei (摩陂; in present-day Jia County, Henan). Cao Cao rode in a carriage and went out to personally receive Zhang Liao. He then relocated Zhang Liao to the garrison at Chen Commandery (陳郡; around present-day Zhoukou, Henan).

Service under Cao Pi
Cao Cao died in early 220 and was succeeded by his son Cao Pi as the King of Wei (魏王). Cao Pi promoted Zhang Liao to General of the Vanguard (前將軍) and awarded him with 1,000 rolls of silk and 10,000 hu of grain.

When Sun Quan renounced his allegiance to Wei, Cao Pi ordered Zhang Liao to garrison at Hefei again to guard against possible attacks from Wu, and increased his marquis rank to Marquis of a Chief District (都鄉侯). Cao Pi also gave Zhang Liao's mother a carriage, sent soldiers to serve as guards in Zhang Liao's residence, and invited Zhang Liao's mother to visit Luoyang. When Zhang Liao's mother arrived, Cao Pi went out of the city and received her. All the officials who were there lined the path and paid respect to her.

In late 220, Cao Pi usurped the throne from Emperor Xian, ended the Eastern Han dynasty, and established the state of Cao Wei with himself as the new emperor. After his coronation, Cao Pi promoted Zhang Liao from a district marquis to a county marquis under the title "Marquis of Jinyang" (晉陽侯) and increased the number of taxable households in his marquisate to 2,600.

In 221, Zhang Liao travelled to the palace in Luoyang for an audience with Cao Pi, who brought him to a newly constructed hall and asked him for his opinion on how to conquer Wu. Cao Pi compared Zhang Liao to Shao Hu (召虎). He also had a new mansion constructed for Zhang Liao and invited Zhang Liao's mother to live there. All the foot soldiers who accompanied Zhang Liao in the battles against Wu were reassigned to the huben (虎賁; "rapid as tigers") unit of the Imperial Guards.

In 221, after Sun Quan pledged allegiance to Wei again, Cao Pi reassigned Zhang Liao from Hefei to the garrison at Yongqiu (雍丘; present-day Qi County, Henan), where Zhang Liao fell sick. When Cao Pi learnt that Zhang Liao was ill, he sent Liu Ye to visit Zhang Liao and bring along an imperial physician to treat him. He also ordered the huben guards to serve as messengers to constantly update him on Zhang Liao's condition – to the point where these messengers frequently encountered each other along the way while they were travelling between Cao Pi and Zhang Liao's locations. Later on, before Zhang Liao had recovered, Cao Pi visited him, held his hand, gave him an imperial robe as a gift, and ordered his servants to prepare imperial cuisine for Zhang Liao. Zhang Liao returned to the garrison after his condition improved significantly.

Death

In 222, after Sun Quan broke ties with Wei and declared himself the independent ruler of his Eastern Wu state, Cao Pi ordered Zhang Liao and Cao Xiu to lead a naval fleet to Hailing (海陵; around present-day Taizhou, Jiangsu), directly facing Wu territory across the river.

Sun Quan was afraid when he heard that Zhang Liao was there, and he warned his generals: "Zhang Liao may be ill, but he is still a foe to be reckoned with. Be careful!"

Zhang Liao and the other Wei generals initially defeated the Wu forces led by Lü Fan, but the battle eventually turned in favor of the Wu forces, and the Wei forces withdrew. Afterward, however, his condition worsened, and he died not long later in Jiangdu (江都; present-day Jiangdu District, Yangzhou, Jiangsu).

Cao Pi cried when he learnt of Zhang Liao's death. He awarded Zhang Liao the posthumous title "Marquis Gang" (剛侯), which literally means "resolute marquis". In 225, in commemoration of Zhang Liao and Li Dian for their contributions at the Battle of Xiaoyao Ford in 214–215, Cao Pi issued an imperial decree: "During the Battle of Hefei, Zhang Liao and Li Dian defeated an enemy force of 100,000 with only 800 foot soldiers. There had never been anything like this before in the history of warfare. They can be referred to as our state's 'claws and teeth' for their success in breaking the enemy's morale. I hereby increase the number of taxable households in Zhang Liao and Li Dian's marquisates by 100 each, and award a son of each of them the title of a Secondary Marquis."

Family
Zhang Liao had an elder brother, Zhang Fan (張汎), who was awarded the title of a marquis in 220 before Cao Pi ended the Han dynasty. Zhang Liao's son, Zhang Hu (張虎), succeeded his father as the next Marquis of Jinyang and held the rank of a Lieutenant-General (偏將軍) in Wei. After Zhang Hu died, his son, Zhang Tong (張統), inherited the peerage. Zhang Liao probably had at least one other son apart from Zhang Hu, because that (unnamed) son of his who received the title of a Secondary Marquis (關內侯) in 225 per Cao Pi's decree was most probably not Zhang Hu.

In Romance of the Three Kingdoms
Zhang Liao is featured as a character in the 14th-century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, which romanticises the events before and during Three Kingdoms period. While his fictionalised persona is generally similar to its historical counterpart, some fictitious elements were included in the novel to enhance his image as a loyal and righteous general.

See the following for other fictitious stories in the novel which involve Zhang Liao:

 * Battle of Xiapi
 * List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms
 * List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms
 * Battle of Dongkou

title: Zhang Liao


text:
List of fictional birds

This list of fictional birds is subsidiary to the list of fictional animals. Ducks, penguins and birds of prey are not included here, and are listed separately at list of fictional ducks, list of fictional penguins, and list of fictional birds of prey. For non-fictional birds see List of individual birds.

Anseriformes (waterfowl)
See also List of fictional ducks and List of fictional ducks in animation

Sphenisciformes (penguins)
See List of fictional penguins

Cathartiformes (New World vultures)
See List of fictional birds of prey

Accipitriformes (hawks, eagles, and Old World vultures)
See List of fictional birds of prey

Strigiformes (owls)
See List of fictional birds of prey

Falconiformes (falcons and caracaras)
See List of fictional birds of prey

Unspecified birds

 * The eponymous protagonists from Angry Birds
 * Birdie the Early Bird from the McDonald's commercials
 * Buzby, a yellow bird of unspecified species in advertisements for British Telecom in the late 1970s/early 1980s
 * Harvey Beaks from the show of the same name.
 * Patana Tufillo from 31 Minutos
 * The Phillie Phanatic, the mascot of the Philadelphia Phillies
 * Pino, the Dutch counterpart of Big Bird in Sesamstraat
 * Wattoo Wattoo, an oval-shaped black and white bird in Wattoo Wattoo Super Bird
 * Woodstock, a bird of unknown species in the Charles M. Schulz's Peanuts comic strip.
 * Multiple characters from Night in the Woods, such as Jeremy "Germ Warfare" Warton or Pastor Kate Young

Fictional bird species

 * Chocobo, a bird in the Final Fantasy series
 * Jayhawk, part "jay" and part "hawk" this bird is the mascot of the Kansas Jayhawks sports teams and has roots in Kansas lore
 * The Jubjub Bird from Lewis Carroll's poem "Jabberwocky"
 * Breegulls, of which Kazooie is one, from the Banjo-Kazooie series
 * Loftwings, flying mountable birds based on shoebills featured in The Legend of Zelda: Skyward Sword
 * Mockingjay, central bird that is part of the Hunger Games trilogy
 * Porgs, a species of penguin or puffin-like birds that live on Ach-To in Star Wars: The Last Jedi
 * The Roly-Poly Bird from Roald Dahl's children books The Enormous Crocodile and The Twits
 * The Snip Snip Bird in 64 Zoo Lane
 * Tinga Tinga Birds from Tinga Tinga Tales
 * Twitter Bird, the mascot of Twitter
 * Weatherbird, the mascot of the St. Louis Post-Dispatch; identified as a dicky-bird, a generic term for a small bird.

Humans transformed into birds

 * The six brothers turned into birds in German fairytale The Six Swans
 * The eleven siblings cursed by their queenly stepmother in The Wild Swans
 * Princess Odette, a human with a curse that turns her into a swan during the day in The Swan Princess
 * The Swan Maiden, a magical bird who turns into a beautiful woman in several folktales
 * Willy, a boy-turned-sparrow and main character in Willy the Sparrow

title: List of fictional birds


text:
Talk:Amputation

Alien
Why is there a picture of an alien in the beginning of this article? 71.255.253.219 04:03, 6 September 2006 (UTC)

 * Things like that is considered vandalism and should be deleted and reported ASAP. Montgomery' 39 17:44, 23 June 2008 (UTC)  —Preceding unsigned comment added by Montgomery '39 (talk • contribs)

foot
Is the picture of the infected foot really necessary? I suspect some readers will find it extremely disturbing. And it doesn't seem to add anything to the article. I suggest it be removed. -Danorris 03:49, 20 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * I agree. But I think a suitable replacement picture should be found before it is deleted.DanP 18:17, 20 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Removed—it really was disturbing, and added nothing to the text. If no suitable picture is available, then by definition the article goes without.  —Simon 00:51, 27 July 2005 (UTC)

inquiry into first picture
who is the girl in the picture? it might be relevant whether her amputation was done deliberately or was necessary.Evilbu 22:48, 7 March 2006 (UTC)

Accidental Amputation
No word on accidental amputation? Mines... industrial accidents... etc.? What about the effects of such accidents... shock, blood loss, etc.?Angrynight 15:24, 3 May 2006 (UTC)

Amputechture
I am a fan of The Mars Volta, and I read on a forum about their album's title that amputechture was a filmy substance that builds up after an amputation. Is this true?
 * No, it is a made up word.

It is amputation and architecture. As in artistic amputation. MM

Body integrity identity disorder
Is it worth mentioning Body integrity identity disorder here? I actually came to this page looking for it because I didn't remember what the disorder was called.142.59.135.116 06:33, 13 December 2006 (UTC)

I agree, it should be. MM

Dog
Are the pictures of the dog necessary? I don't think that they add anything to the page. I could understand if they illustrated improvement after an amputation, next do a brief description, but as it is it appears like someones pet that they want on the internet... MM

Everyone likes cute animals, hopefully that can make them feel less disturbed by some of the other photos.

misinformation
only saudi arabia of all Islamic countries preform amputation as a punishment for crimes. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 217.54.184.83 (talk) 22:05, 20 January 2007 (UTC).

minor amputations or mutilations as a ritual accomplishment =?= circumcision
"In some cultures and religions, minor amputations or mutilations are considered a ritual accomplishment." Does this include circumcision? If so, it should be internally linked to within the text or under see also. Regards, —KNcyu38 (talk • contribs) 19:31, 14 March 2007 (UTC)

 * Nevermind, just saw it has been added and reverted already. —KNcyu38 (talk • contribs) 13:10, 15 March 2007 (UTC)

Contradiction of the Dactyly article
This article contradicts the Dactyly article, which says:

Hypodactyly is having too few digits when not caused by an amputation.

Then when you click on the link, it tells you that the condition is caused by "the removal of a body extremity by trauma (also referred to as avulsion) or surgery". Keshidragon 22:55, 24 March 2007 (UTC)

Well...then remove the reference in the aputation article....the other page should be right. Patrick Flynn

 * I'm sorry, but I don't see the contradition. When you have to few digits not due to amputation (i.e., congenitally) then it's hypodactyly.  When you have a body extremity (including fingers) removed by trama or surgery, then it's amputation (that is, too few fingers due to amputation).  In one case, you are born with it, in the other it's a surgical procedure, and the hypodactyly article is simply making it clear that too fingers due to amputation does not count as hypodactyly.  Where's the contradition there? Edhubbard 08:52, 29 March 2007 (UTC)

More detail?
I know very little about how wikipedia actually works, so I hope I don't violate any rules of wikipedia here. The only edits I've done on other articles have been basic grammar corrections.

I go to wikipedia for a quick refernce on everything. So I ended up here when I found out my brother-in-law is about to have his left leg amputated and I wanted some idea of what was involved. I came to wikipedia, as always, for a basic idea of what this involves, and I've found it a shade wanting. How the process actually works and side-effects (other than phantom limb) are entirely untouched. This article even includes a dead link to "transected". I have no idea what "transected" means.

While I know this page isn't a FAQ, allow me to propose some ideas that could be addressed: What does amputation actually involve? In the dark ages we propbably just cut everything off with an axe, but I'd imagine times have changed. This doesn't seem to be addressed in the article. And a couple more points:

While the article mentions the side-effect of phantom limbs, I'd imagins there are a lot more side-effects. Can these be discussed in the article?

How does the circulovasculatory system compensate for a loss in distribution area?

I didn't see anything in the article about how amputation in actually performed. I think the article would do well to point out how amputation is done now as well in the past.

I don't mean this as a criticism at all. The article as a whole sticks to NPOV, and has a lot of detail, but I feel that it really could be expanded and I'm not qualified to do it.

I'm going to whack ~ a few times and hope that's hope I actually 'sign' this comment. 75.163.180.24 06:21, 5 May 2007 (UTC)

As a Physio interested in learning more about amputations, in order to treat a patient with a trans-femoral amputation, I started my search here, and feel that there are quite a few topics missing. I would like to know more about the surgery involved - how are the muscles reattached, what are the considerations when deciding where to cut (other than to remove all damaged/infected tissue), what happens to the nerve endings, how is a good blood supply maintained in the stump (does a capilliary bed form naturally or is it constructed)? etc. I had understood that peripheral vascular disease was the main cause of amputation - this cause is not cited (or is sepsis with peripheral necrosis the same thing - perhaps UK v US language?) The list of famous amputees does not seem to include anyone who has lost limbs due to PVD. When looking up PVD when I first came across it at Uni, I remember a shocking picture of a patient who had just had a bilateral upper limb amputation, whose 'friend' had rigged up a devise to enable him to smoke, using a metal coathanger - this might be an appropriate addition to the article if anyone knows where to find it. I understand that neuroma can be a problem with amputation - could there be a link to this topic perhaps? Also, are the flesh coloured foam coverings used over prosthetic lower limbs also called cosmeses as they don't seem to be the same thing as described in the article, as they are fairly basic and only really give the prosthesis a basically similar shape to a natural limb, and they still look artificial even at a distance? My patient says that the walls of the amputees clinic are covered with awe inspiring pictures of people wearing prosthetic limbs using climbing walls, fixing lorries (soldiers)etc - could some positive images like these be included?Skphysio (talk) 14:19, 29 August 2009 (UTC)

Amputation and Islamic Law
I changed "some Islamic authourities are calling for a moratorium upon [corporal punishment] until equality, welfare and social justice exist in the Muslim world, as stealing out of desperation, deprivation or adverse social circumstances should not be punished" (emphasis mine), since the italicised clause did not seem to derive from the article cited. Based on the cited article about an Islamic scholar, I replaced the italicised clause with, "pending developments in Islamic law." --72.150.58.61 (talk) 00:04, 15 January 2008 (UTC)

Copyediting needed?
I'm wondering why there is a copyedit tag on this page. Sure, it may need some additional information, but the article is on the whole fairly well written IMO. I'm removing the copyedit tag for the time being, as I see no real reason for it to remain. If you want additional information to be added, please use the appropriate tag.KaylaraOwl (talk) 19:42, 8 April 2008 (UTC)

List
The list is getting a bit long - I propose splitting it off into a separate article or turning it into a category. The 'in fiction' section needs each to be sourced and to be thinned out to the most notable. Brilliantine (talk) 19:43, 11 September 2008 (UTC)

straw poll for image adition
This article has no images. Please vote: --Enric Naval (talk) 05:14, 12 March 2009 (UTC)
 * A - amputated begging
 * B - amputated soldier trying a phrostetic limb
 * C - brutal torture with amputation
 * D - none of these images is adequate

Olegwiki (talk) 06:18, 20 September 2010 (UTC)
 * D - We could go with B in a pinch but I am sure there are better images out there. I believe that A and C are inappropriate as general illustrations of the concept. What we need is a simple, clear image showing a person with an amputation. - EronTalk 05:21, 12 March 2009 (UTC)
 * If you new Russian you would understand that C (Kersnovskaya's picture) is not a picture of either torture or amputation but it is putting a broken arm of a prisoner in a plaster cast! Yes, it is painful since it is being performed without anethestization. Kersnovskaya worked as a nurse in a prison camp and helped to perform such procedures.

 * These are the only ones I could find in Commons :( Maybe in a couple years there will be better ones... --Enric Naval (talk) 07:01, 12 March 2009 (UTC)
 * What about all those three-legged dog pictures? Okay, I'm kidding. I agree there is not a lot on Commons but there may be other free pictures out there. Or perhaps some Wikipedian with an amputation (or who knows someone) could get a picture and contribute it. (After all, there seems to be no shortage of people willing to offer up pictures of their genitals to illustrate the appropriate articles...) - EronTalk 16:36, 12 March 2009 (UTC)

At the end I went ahead and added two images that I hadn't noticed when I opened the straw poll:

Can someone move them around a bit so they don't break the format? I'm not very good at placing photographies.... --Enric Naval (talk) 08:15, 29 April 2009 (UTC)
 * File:Hans_von_Gersdorff_-_amputation.jpg woodcut of an amputation in a 1537 book, in the history section.
 * File:JohnMcFall-Manchester-20070513.jpg Atlethe with above-knee amputation, with a prosthetic leg, sprinter and winner of a gold medal at Paralympic World Cup

Another possibility
Fences and windows (talk) 00:53, 13 May 2009 (UTC)

And here's some from Flickr:
 * US civil war, amputated foot
 * Malaysian boy with double lower leg amputation
 * US civil war, amputated forearm
 * US civil war, all four limbs lost to frostbite
 * I would've suggested this, but it looks like someone has been playing with photoshop, so a no-no. Fences and windows (talk) 01:03, 13 May 2009 (UTC)

Could Neoplasm..
Could neoplasm be changed to cancer? I know it's the same thing but not everybody knows what a neoplasm is.- BennyK95 - Talk  23:09, October 8 2009 (UTC)

Notable amputee of person
I took the liberty to delete "Jamel Debbouze— Popular French actor and comedian; lost his right hand while crossing a railway in childhood." from the notable amputee list. Jamel Debouzze lost the use of his arm in this accident, but wasn't amputated. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 1001Bob (talk • contribs) 21:58, 7 December 2009 (UTC)

Iran
Googling amputation iran gives a good bunch of recent amputations of thieves in Iran. As recently as 2008 the NYT reported that amputation was a legal punishment since 1979. If this punishment is outlawed in Iran, then please cite sources for the outlawing. --Enric Naval (talk) 13:39, 23 November 2010 (UTC)

Notable amputees
Doc James (talk · contribs · email) 16:33, 11 January 2011 (UTC)
 * Joseph Trumpeldor; an early Zionist activist; lost his arm in 1904, during the Russo-Japanese War.
 * Sir Roden Cutler VC; 32nd Governor of New South Wales; lost his leg after injuries sustained during World War II
 * Rick Allen—drummer for the band Def Leppard; lost his left arm in a car accident.
 * Arthur Askey—comedian; had both legs amputated due to circulatory disease.
 * Walid bin 'Attash—member of Al-Qaeda; lost his right leg fighting the Northern Alliance in 1997.
 * Douglas Bader—Royal Air Force fighter pilot during World War II; lost both legs performing low-flying aerobatics, but continued to fly and even engaged in escape attempts as a POW of the Germans.
 * Alexey Maresyev—Russian fighter pilot during World War II; lost both legs after being shot down in a dog fight; returned to the front a year later and continued flying completing 86 combat missions; awarded Hero of the Soviet Union Gold Star.
 * Lucien Bouchard—Canadian politician and Quebec nationalist; lost a leg to necrotizing fasciitis.
 * Mariana Bridi Costa—Brazilian model and beauty queen; suffered several amputations in a failed attempt to save her life. Lost all of both hands and feet. Died at age 20 on January 24, 2009 of septicemia resulting from Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection that quickly spread throughout her body.
 * Jim Byrnes—American actor; lost both legs above the knee in a vehicle accident.
 * Roberto Carlos—Brazilian singer; had the lower half of his left leg slashed off by a train wheel in his teenage years.
 * Ronald D. Castille—Chief Justice of the Pennsylvania State Supreme Court and former Philadelphia District Attorney; lost his leg in the Vietnam War.
 * Lars Grael—Brazilian windsurfing champion; his right leg was sliced off by a private boat's chopper engine in a sea accident.
 * Wagner Montes—Brazilian journalist and politician; his motorbike crushed the lower half of his right leg against a lamppost.
 * Max Cleland—former U.S. Senator; lost both legs and right forearm following injuries inflicted by a fellow soldier's grenade in the Vietnam War.
 * Richard Collier—American Football Player; lost left leg after a shooting incident in Jacksonville, Florida.
 * Denzil Connick the co-founder and secretary of the South Atlantic Medal Association formed in 1997. He served with 3 PARA during the 1982 Falklands War and lost a leg during the Battle of Mount Longdon.
 * Dadullah—Taliban military commander; lost a leg fighting against Soviet occupation in the 1980s.
 * James Doohan—Canadian actor best known as Montgomery Scott on Star Trek; lost right middle finger in friendly fire incident on Juno Beach during the Normandy landings.
 * Dave Dravecky—Major League Baseball pitcher with the San Diego Padres and San Francisco Giants; lost left arm to cancer complications.
 * Tammy Duckworth—American politician; lost both legs in the Iraq War.
 * Graham Edwards—Australian politician; lost both legs in the Vietnam War.
 * Rahm Emanuel—White House Chief of Staff; lost part of his finger to a meat slicer while an employee at Arby's as a teenager.
 * George Eyser American gymnast, he competed in the 1904 Summer Olympics, earning six medals in one day, including three gold and two silver medals. Eyser competed with a wooden prosthesis for a left leg.
 * Lindsay Ess—quadruple amputee and teacher at Virginia Commonwealth University
 * Ella Fitzgerald—American jazz musician; lost leg to diabetes
 * Terry Fox—Canadian athlete and cancer treatment activist; lost a leg to cancer.
 * Edward M. Kennedy, Jr.- American entrepreneur, investment banker and lawyer. Son of the late Senator Edward M. Kennedy, Sr.. He lost rignt leg due to cancer.
 * Khujo Goodie—rapper, member of the hip hop group Goodie Mob, lost bottom right leg in a car accident
 * Zach Gowen—American professional wrestler; lost a leg to cancer as a child.
 * Bethany Hamilton—American surfer; lost an arm to a shark attack.
 * Robert David Hall—American actor, lost both legs due to a vehicle accident with a semi.
 * Burkhard Heim—German theoretical physicist; lost both hands in a laboratory explosion.
 * Lord Uxbridge—British; lost his leg during the Battle of Waterloo
 * Daniel Ken Inouye—Medal of Honor recipient, U.S. Senator; World War II war hero; lost his right arm due to battle wounds.
 * Tony Iommi—guitarist for Black Sabbath; lost the tips of middle and ring fingers in an industrial accident at 17.
 * Stonewall Jackson—Confederate general during the American Civil War; had his left arm amputated by Dr. Hunter McGuire on May 2, 1863 only to die eight days later on May 10, 1863.
 * Peter Lalor—Australian politician and leader of the Eureka Stockade rebellion, a battle often characterised as the "birth of democracy" in Australia. Had his left arm amputated due to injuries sustained during the uprising.
 * Matthias Lanzinger—Austrian Alpine skier; lost leg after fracturing his shin and fibula during a World Cup Super-G run at Kvitfjell, Norway.
 * Harold Lloyd—American film actor and producer, most famous for his silent comedies. Lost his right thumb and index finger during an accident on the set of Haunted Spooks.
 * Bruce Marshall—Scottish novelist and author; lost leg as a result of wounds suffered in World War I.
 * Kyle Maynard, an American motivational speaker and athlete.
 * Heather Mills—ex-wife of former Beatle Paul McCartney as well as an activist and former model; lost left leg six inches below the kneecap in an accident where she was hit by a police motorcycle.
 * Aimee Mullins—American model and athlete; lost both legs due to congenital disease.
 * Horatio Nelson—(England) British Naval commander during Napoleonic war. Lost right arm and eye during various sea battles. Defeated Villeneuve during the Battle of Trafalgar.
 * Oscar Pistorius—South African sprinter; lost both legs due to a congenital disorder.
 * Hans-Ulrich Rudel—German; WWII pilot, leg amputated below the knee.
 * Daniel Scioli—former Vicepresident of Argentina; lost right arm during a boat race.
 * Eric Shinseki—Incumbent Secretary of Veterans Affairs, retired U.S. Army four-star general, and Army Chief of Staff during early stages of the War on Terrorism and Iraq War; lost part of foot in a land mine explosion during Vietnam War.
 * Daniel Sickles—American Politician and Civil War General; lost his leg during the Battle of Gettysburg.
 * Darío Silva—Uruguayan footballer; lost his right leg after a car accident.
 * Deke Slayton—Mercury Seven astronaut; lost a finger as a child in a farming accident.
 * Claus von Stauffenberg — German Colonel who lost his right hand during World War II; mastermind behind a failed attempt to assassinate Hitler;
 * Edward Teller — Physicist; lost his leg from the knee down after he jumped from a train station platform trying to catch a train.
 * John Tester —U.S. Senator; as a child, lost the middle, index, and ring finger on his left hand in an accident while working with a meat grinder.
 * Fred Titmus, former English Test cricketer and professional footballer, who lost four toes while swimming, when his foot got caught up with a boat propeller.
 * Lee Van Cleef —American actor; lost the tip of his middle finger on his right hand while building a playhouse for his daughter.
 * Kerry Von Erich American wrestler "The Texas Tornado", lost right foot in motorcycle accident but continued his wrestling career with a prosthetic foot.
 * Pyotr Nikolayevich Vlasov—Russian photographer; lost his left thumb, index finger, and middle finger, as well as an inch of his right index finger, when dynamite exploded in his hands in the coal mine where he worked as a teenager during World War II.
 * Paul Wittgenstein — Austrian-born pianist, brother of philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein; lost right arm during World War I.
 * Alex Zanardi—Italian car racing driver; lost both legs in a CART car accident at Lausitzring then returned to race in the World Touring Car Championship.
 * Natalie du Toit — South African swimmer, after George Eyser, became the second amputee ever to qualify for the Olympics, where she placed 16th in the 10 km Marathon.
 * Patrick Watson— Canadian broadcaster, author, commentator and television writer, producer and director, lost his left leg above the knee in 1960 following an accident.
 * Amy Palmiero-Winters — American ultramarathon runner; first amputee to compete on a senior able-bodied nationals team in any sport, took 19th place at the 2010 World 24-Hour Championship after running 129 miles in 24 hours, winner of the 2010 Sullivan Award and a 2010 ESPY, first amputee to finish the Western States Endurance Race; missing one lower leg and foot due to a motorcycle accident.
 * Raissa Laurel - A Filipina law student and one of the victim of the 2010 bar examination blast in Manila, Philippines. She lost both lower legs after the bombing incident.
 * Josh Sundquist — American Paralympic ski racer, best-selling author, motivational speaker, and YouTube personality; lost his leg to childhood cancer.

This article is a stub
Okay, not really. But wouldn't that be great? Justintbassett (talk) 16:08, 24 May 2011 (UTC)
 * Actually, no. Not only is the article, factually, not a stub, but thinking that it would be funny is offensive to the 1.7 million people in the U.S. (and certainly more worldwide) who are amputees .  These people are soldiers, firefighters, police officers, people with diabetes and hundreds of thousands of average people who have lost limbs in horrific circumstances.  This a medical article, and is not the place for schoolboy humor. Edhubbard (talk) 21:23, 24 May 2011 (UTC)

I don't see a problem with stubs — Preceding unsigned comment added by 107.3.18.107 (talk) 06:12, 25 May 2013 (UTC)

Merge proposal
A merge has been requested. I am new to wikipedia, so I dont know the proper polite protocol to do this. But I would like to ask, how is this page different from the page on "amputation"?

Should this page be merged?

Shon Lee (talk) 05:24, 16 May 2011 (UTC) formatted and assisted by Cliff (talk) 15:10, 26 May 2011 (UTC)
 * I think the merge is a good idea, neither article is too long, and the information in each article complements the other very well. Cliff (talk) 15:20, 26 May 2011 (UTC)

 * What page merge to what page? -- Doc James (talk · contribs · email) 15:21, 26 May 2011 (UTC)
 * Found it merge away. Doc James  (talk · contribs · email) 15:22, 26 May 2011 (UTC)
 * Thanks doc, didn't realize that the merge isn't clear here. The proposal is to merge Traumatic amputation to Amputation. Cliff (talk) 15:32, 26 May 2011 (UTC)

 * My verge was reverted because Cliff thought I lost too much information. I understand the need for discussion, so here is a few thoughts I have about what I have done and what I might have missed. The causes, classification, and treatment sections of [traumatic amputation] is very well covered in [amputation] so, I believe no significant loss of information there. I left out the Indications - Contraindications section.I cant find the source it was referencing. I think that section needs a lot more work. For the Epidemiology section, I added a statistic similar to the first statistic in the traumatic amputation article from a different source, and I neglected the second one about distribution of amputees on profession. I might have missed out some advances in amputation outlined in the introduction as well.Shon Lee (talk) 17:08, 26 May 2011 (UTC)
 * I oppose the merge. The concept of traumatic amputation is much different than the condition of medical amputation done under controlled circumstances. --Arcadian (talk) 13:10, 2 June 2011 (UTC)
 * I think if you remove the advances in medical amputation, the section about social amputation, the "treatments section", which is mostly covered in the amputations article, the remaining article would be so short that we should merge it anyway. Maybe give it a subsection in amputation. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Shon Lee (talk • contribs) 19:11, 2 June 2011 (UTC)
 * Support a merge (possibly a subsection - subsections for above knee, below knee and arm amputations would also be useful). I've been editing a lot of Paralympic athletes pages, including those of several traumatic amputees. All have been wikilinked to amputation rather than traumatic amputation. Sportygeek (talk) 22:12, 6 February 2013 (UTC)
 * The content of the article is in entirety contained within this article. As the merge request has been placed for over two years I can only conclude that there have been no significant objections. In this light I have completed the merge. LT90001 (talk) 11:00, 26 August 2013 (UTC)

WikiProject
I added WikiProject Medicine, with Quality = B, Importance = High. I would've put it at Top Importance, but I figured that that would be too bold, given that I was just adding a WikiProject. Okay?--Solomonfromfinland (talk) 14:29, 10 February 2014 (UTC)
 * I meant WikiProject Disability.--Solomonfromfinland (talk) 02:26, 11 February 2014 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 3 one external links on Amputation. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20120922034320/http://www.breitbart.com/article.php?id=D8PJM6B80&show_article=1 to http://www.breitbart.com/article.php?id=D8PJM6B80&show_article=1
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20090815043547/http://www.rte.ie:80/sport/2002/0122/aussierules.html to http://www.rte.ie/sport/2002/0122/aussierules.html
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20120315165548/http://magma.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0501/resources_who.html to http://magma.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0501/resources_who.html

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the —cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 10:15, 25 August 2015 (UTC)

Epidemiology
There were 1,285,000 persons in the U.S. living with the limb loss (excluding fingers and toes) in 1996. 50,000 new amputations every year in USA based on information from National Center for Health Statistics.

In 2015, there were 1.5 million amputees in the USA.

Another source: There are nearly 2 million people living with limb loss in the United States. (Source: Ziegler‐Graham K, MacKenzie EJ, Ephraim PL, Travison TG, Brookmeyer R. Estimating the Prevalence of Limb Loss in the United States: 2005 to 2050. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation2008;89(3):422‐9.) Approximately 185,000 amputations occur in the United States each year. (Source: Owings M, Kozak LJ, National Center for Health S. Ambulatory and Inpatient Procedures in the United States, 1996. Hyattsville, Md.: U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics; 1998.) -

—  Ark25  (talk) 20:27, 20 December 2015 (UTC)

Amputation in popular culture

 * The Pobble Who Has No Toes by Edward Lear. Eastmain (talk • contribs) 21:17, 6 April 2019 (UTC)

"some countries", really? Not Islamic countries with sharia?
They are not "some countries". They are Islamic countries that are ruled with sharia. Refer to them as what they are. They aren't just random countries. You cannot refer to human rights violation as "some countries" and their diverse cultural laws. This is human rights violation by the sharia law of Islamic countries.

All cats are british (talk) 14:00, 16 April 2022 (UTC)

 * Sharia Law is a vague term that applies to both criminal and non-criminal law. There are countries using Sharia law that do not use amputation as punishment, and frankly a discussion of the scope that this topic may need is outside the realm of the opening paragraph of an article about amputation. -Tax Fraud! [she/they] (talk | contrib.) 19:52, 17 April 2022 (UTC)

Then don't list the countries if you're not going to mention their religious law. All cats are british (talk) 22:52, 17 April 2022 (UTC)

They all are Islamic countries, not some random countries. Interesting how other language Wikipedia articles on amputation mention that they are Islamic countries? All cats are british (talk) 22:58, 17 April 2022 (UTC)

 * What other wikis do is irrelevant to this article. However, since it seems to be such a contentious point, I will remove the list of countries from the leading paragraph. -Tax Fraud! [she/they] (talk | contrib.) 16:41, 18 April 2022 (UTC)

Better now All cats are british (talk) 17:57, 18 April 2022 (UTC)

Archaeologists find successful amputee from about 31,000 years ago
There is no section on history in the article. Perhaps it would be a good addition, especially in light of this new study.

Peaceray (talk) 18:37, 9 September 2022 (UTC)
 * Ritual amputations of fingers are apparently depicted in many cave paintings as well. Jarble (talk) 00:30, 26 December 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Amputation


text:
Refractory period (physiology)

Refractoriness is the fundamental property of any object of autowave nature (especially excitable medium) not responding to stimuli, if the object stays in the specific refractory state. In common sense, refractory period is the characteristic recovery time, a period that is associated with the motion of the image point on the left branch of the isocline $$\dot{u} = 0$$ (for more details, see also Reaction–diffusion and Parabolic partial differential equation).

In physiology, a refractory period is a period of time during which an organ or cell is incapable of repeating a particular action, or (more precisely) the amount of time it takes for an excitable membrane to be ready for a second stimulus once it returns to its resting state following an excitation. It most commonly refers to electrically excitable muscle cells or neurons. Absolute refractory period corresponds to depolarization and repolarization, whereas relative refractory period corresponds to hyperpolarization.

Electrochemical usage
After initiation of an action potential, the refractory period is defined two ways: The absolute refractory period coincides with nearly the entire duration of the action potential. In neurons, it is caused by the inactivation of the Na+ channels that originally opened to depolarize the membrane. These channels remain inactivated until the membrane hyperpolarizes. The channels then close, de-inactivate, and regain their ability to open in response to stimulus.

The relative refractory period immediately follows the absolute. As voltage-gated potassium channels open to terminate the action potential by repolarizing the membrane, the potassium conductance of the membrane increases dramatically. K+ ions moving out of the cell bring the membrane potential closer to the equilibrium potential for potassium. This causes brief hyperpolarization of the membrane, that is, the membrane potential becomes transiently more negative than the normal resting potential. Until the potassium conductance returns to the resting value, a greater stimulus will be required to reach the initiation threshold for a second depolarization. The return to the equilibrium resting potential marks the end of the relative refractory period.

Cardiac refractory period
The refractory period in cardiac physiology is related to the ion currents that, in cardiac cells as in nerve cells, flow into and out of the cell freely. The flow of ions translates into a change in the voltage of the inside of the cell relative to the extracellular space. As in nerve cells, this characteristic change in voltage is referred to as an action potential. Unlike that in nerve cells, the cardiac action potential duration is closer to 100 ms (with variations depending on cell type, autonomic tone, etc.). After an action potential initiates, the cardiac cell is unable to initiate another action potential for some duration of time (which is slightly shorter than the "true" action potential duration). This period of time is referred to as the refractory period, which is 250ms in duration and helps to protect the heart.

In the classical sense, the cardiac refractory period is separated into an absolute refractory period and a relative refractory period. During the absolute refractory period, a new action potential cannot be elicited. During the relative refractory period, a new action potential can be elicited under the correct circumstances.

The cardiac refractory period can result in different forms of re-entry, which are a cause of tachycardia. Vortices of excitation in the myocardium (autowave vortices) are a form of re-entry. Such vortices can be a mechanism of life-threatening cardiac arrhythmias. In particular, the autowave reverberator, more commonly referred to as spiral waves or rotors, can be found within the atria and may be a cause of atrial fibrillation.

Neuronal refractory period
The refractory period in a neuron occurs after an action potential and generally lasts one millisecond. An action potential consists of three phases.

Phase one is depolarization. During depolarization, voltage-gated sodium ion channels open, increasing the neuron's membrane conductance for sodium ions and depolarizing the cell's membrane potential (from typically -70 mV toward a positive potential). In other words, the membrane is made less negative. After the potential reaches the activation threshold (-55 mV), the depolarization is actively driven by the neuron and overshoots the equilibrium potential of an activated membrane (+30 mV).

Phase two is repolarization. During repolarization, voltage-gated sodium ion channels inactivate (different from the closed state) due to the now-depolarized membrane, and voltage-gated potassium channels activate (open). Both the inactivation of the sodium ion channels and the opening of the potassium ion channels act to repolarize the cell's membrane potential back to its resting membrane potential.

When the cell's membrane voltage overshoots its resting membrane potential (near -60 mV), the cell enters a phase of hyperpolarization. This is due to a larger-than-resting potassium conductance across the cell membrane. This potassium conductance eventually drops and the cell returns to its resting membrane potential.

Recent research has shown that neuronal refractory periods can exceed 20 milliseconds. Furthermore, the relation between hyperpolarization and the neuronal refractory was questioned, as neuronal refractory periods were observed for neurons that do not exhibit hyperpolarization. The neuronal refractory period was shown to be dependent on the origin of the input signal to the neuron, as well as the preceding spiking activity of the neuron.

The refractory periods are due to the inactivation property of voltage-gated sodium channels and the lag of potassium channels in closing. Voltage-gated sodium channels have two gating mechanisms, the activation mechanism that opens the channel with depolarization and the inactivation mechanism that closes the channel with repolarization. While the channel is in the inactive state, it will not open in response to depolarization. The period when the majority of sodium channels remain in the inactive state is the absolute refractory period. After this period, there are enough voltage-activated sodium channels in the closed (active) state to respond to depolarization. However, voltage-gated potassium channels that opened in response to repolarization do not close as quickly as voltage-gated sodium channels; to return to the active closed state. During this time, the extra potassium conductance means that the membrane is at a higher threshold and will require a greater stimulus to cause action potentials to fire. In other words, because the membrane potential inside the axon becomes increasingly negative relative to the outside of the membrane, a stronger stimulus will be required to reach the threshold voltage, and thus, initiate another action potential. This period is the relative refractory period.

Skeletal muscle refractory period
The muscle action potential lasts roughly 2–4 ms and the absolute refractory period is roughly 1–3 ms, shorter than other cells.

title: Refractory period (physiology)


text:
Talk:Spork

Merger proposal
Back in September 2021, user tagged lusikkahaarukka as a merge candidate to this page, but didn't take the process any further by tagging the proposed merge target page (i.e. here) or initiating the discussion on this talk page. Since this half-initiated merge proposal keeps popping up in my article alerts, I'm finishing the proposal process despite personally opposing the merge for the following reason: lusikkahaarukka is a "folding spoon-fork combination" consisting of a fork and spoon that are attached together from the handle by a rivet. It is not "a spoon-like shallow scoop with two to four fork-like tines". The two items might serve a similar purpose, but are distinct in design. -Ljleppan (talk) 09:47, 8 February 2022 (UTC)
 * Closing, given no case and an uncontested objection; distinct designs. Klbrain (talk) 10:42, 13 March 2022 (UTC)

"Katy t3h PeNgU1N oF d00m"
Does "Katy t3h PeNgU1N oF d00m" "copypasta" have enough cultural relevance to be mentioned in "In popular culture" section? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 217.114.224.0 (talk) 15:13, 8 July 2022 (UTC)

Alternate name
Sometimes, the utensil is also called a "foon". Could you add the alternate name to this article? 216.154.17.101 (talk) 17:31, 28 April 2024 (UTC)

"ClockworkSoul/Templates" listed at Redirects for discussion
The redirect [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ClockworkSoul/Templates&redirect=no ClockworkSoul/Templates] has been listed at redirects for discussion to determine whether its use and function meets the redirect guidelines. Readers of this page are welcome to comment on this redirect at  until a consensus is reached. Dsuke1998AEOS (talk) 19:16, 9 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Spork


text:
Bachelor of Commerce

A Bachelor of Commerce (BCom or B Com) is an undergraduate degree in business, management, economics or accounting, awarded in Canada, Australia, India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Ireland, New Zealand, Ghana, South Africa, Myanmar, Egypt, and additional Commonwealth countries.

Bachelor of Commerce
The Bachelor of Commerce degree is designed to provide students with a wide range of managerial skills, while building competence in a particular area of business; see aside listing. For a comparison with other business degrees, see.

Most universities, therefore, plan the degree such that in addition to their major, students are exposed to general business principles, taking courses in accounting, finance, economics, business management, human resources and marketing. Programs often require foundational courses in business statistics and mathematics, and information systems.

Depending on the institution, a formal academic major may or may not be established. Regardless, a Bachelor of Commerce degree requires students to take the majority of their courses in business-related subjects, including the aside, among others.

Bachelor of Commerce (Honours)
The Honours Bachelor of Commerce (HonsBCom or BComm (Hons) or HBCom) is further advanced. The degree has a specialization aspect, analogous to the BBA, developing the student's business skills and/or providing in-depth knowledge of the field.

It requires additional academic courses to be completed, and usually with higher academic performance standards, and may also require a researched thesis component. It often serves as an abridgement (or entry requirement) between the undergraduate program and postgraduate programs, including the Master of Commerce (M.Com. or M.Comm.) and the Master of Business Administration (MBA) degrees.

It may consist of a four-year program or of a one-year program taken subsequent to a three-year Bachelor's degree; the one-year program is typically focused exclusively on a single subject-area.

Duration
The curriculum generally lasts three years in Australia, New Zealand, India (Some universities in India like Delhi University offers four year course under NEP 2020 ), Malta, South Africa, some parts of Canada, and Hong Kong. The curriculum requires four years of study in the Republic of Ireland, the majority of Canada, Egypt, Ghana, the Philippines, the Netherlands, Sri Lanka and Nepal.

In South Africa, New Zealand, Australia, Pakistan and some universities in India, the BCom (Hons) degree is considered an additional postgraduate qualification, whereas in Malta, an additional year of study is not considered a postgraduate qualification.

In Pakistan, BCom is generally a 2-year duration degree, whereas BS Commerce, formerly known as BCom (Hons) in the country, is a 4-year duration degree.

History
The Bachelor of Commerce degree was first offered at the University of Birmingham. The University's School of Commerce was founded by William Ashley, an Englishman from Oxford University, who was the first professor of Political Economy and Constitutional History in the Faculty of Arts at the University of Toronto. Ashley left Toronto in 1892, spent a few years at Harvard University, and then went back to England to the new University of Birmingham where he founded the School of Commerce. Ashley began the programme which was the forerunner of many other BCom degree programmes throughout the British Empire.

Eighteenth-century economists had divided the English economy into three sectors: agriculture, manufacturing, and commerce. Commerce included the transport, marketing and financing of goods. The Birmingham programme in commerce included economic geography, economic history, general economics, modern languages, and accountancy.

title: Bachelor of Commerce