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Carmine

Carmine –also called cochineal (when it is extracted from the cochineal insect), cochineal extract, crimson lake, or carmine lake – is a pigment of a bright-red color obtained from the aluminium complex derived from carminic acid. Specific code names for the pigment include natural red 4, C.I. 75470, or E120. Carmine is also a general term for a particularly deep-red color.

Etymology

The English word "carmine" is derived from the French word carmin (12th century), from Medieval Latin carminium, from Persian قرمز qirmiz ("crimson"), which itself derives from Middle Persian carmir ("red, crimson"). The Persian term carmir is likely cognate with Sanskrit krimiga ("insect-produced"), from krmi ("worm, insect"). The Persian word for "worm, insect" is kirm, and in Iran (Persia) the red colorant carmine was extracted from the bodies of dead female insects such as Kermes vermilio and cochineal. The form of the term may also have been influenced in Latin by minium ("red lead, cinnabar"), said to be of Iberian origin.

The word "carmine" has been used as a color name as early as 1799. It is a popular food color, used in yogurt, candy, gelatin, meat, and beverages including fruit juices.

History
Female Dactylopius coccus (cochineal) insects were used for their red coloring power as early as 700 BC. American civilizations (from the American continent) crushed the bugs present on cacti to extract the carmine they contain. Carmine pigment was extensively used by the Aztec civilization to dye textiles. It was imported later to Europe during the 16th century.

Red is a color often associated with power and social status. Through the centuries, red has been worn by tribal chiefs, kings and queens, and military officers.

Cochineal was a major source of income for the Spanish Crown. By weight, it was a far more valuable commodity than sugar, making it especially lucrative for overseas trade. As part of the triangular trade, its production and consumption were intertwined with slavery.

In European markets, the Spanish Crown had a monopoly on cochineal until 1820 when the French learned to cultivate them. Later, German and British scientists created a synthetic red dye that competed with carmine. The combination of these factors contributed to the end of the Spanish monopoly and considerably lowered the price of carmine, making it accessible to a wider audience.

Production
The pigment is produced from carminic acid, which is extracted from some scale insects such as the cochineal scale (Prima), and certain Porphyrophora species (Armenian cochineal and Polish cochineal). Attempts have been made to farm cochineal.

Carmine is a colorant used in the manufacture of artificial flowers, paints, crimson ink, rouge and other cosmetics, and some medications.

Synthetic carminic acid is complex and expensive to produce. Therefore, natural cochineal carmine is predominant on the market. Its instability presents challenges for use in art and textiles, but this is less of a hindrance in the context of cosmetics.

Preparation
To prepare carmine, the powdered scale insect bodies are boiled in an ammonia or sodium carbonate solution. After separating the insoluble matter, the extract is treated with alum to precipitate the red solid. This precipitate is called "carmine lake" or "crimson lake". Purity of color is ensured by the absence of iron. Stannous chloride, citric acid, borax, or gelatin may be added to modify the precipitation. The traditional crimson color is affected not only by carminic acid but also by choice of its chelating metal salt ion. For shades of purple, lime is added to the alum.

To obtain 1 pound of red dye, 70,000 cochineal insects are required.

Identification and characteristics
Scientists can detect the presence of carminic acid through liquid chromatography and a diode array detector combined with a mass spectrometer with a quadruple-time-of-flight analyzer (LC-DAD-QTOF). The process is used for identifying carmine in works of art.

Scientific methods can also distinguish among the different species of cochineal used in artworks.

Wavelength
As confirmed by reflectance spectroscopy, carmine reflects mostly red light. Its hue ranges from 497 nm for a dark purplish red and 612 nm for a vibrant red.

Hue
Carmine's hue is dependent on the metallic ions present in the pigment. For instance, carmine combined with zinc or aluminum yields a crimson hue.

Translucence
The translucence of carmine depends on its binding medium. Mixed with oil, carmine remains translucent and adequate for glazes. Combined with tempera or glue, carmine turns opaque.

Value
On the Munsell color scale, carmine's value can range between 3.32 and 6.35.

Permanence
Carmine is a fugitive color, whose fading is influenced by different factors such as light, humidity, or even the color of the glass of a frame. It is highly sensitive to light and tends to fade into brownish tones.

In painting, its durability depends on the type of binding. For instance, pigments are more stable if mixed with linseed oil rather than with gum arabic. It is especially sensitive to light in watercolor. Carmine can be stabilized when precipitated with alum and when combined with tin salt mordants.

Notable occurrences in art
Carmine was used in dyeing textiles and in painting since antiquity. Numerous examples are found among Inca remains such as textile artifacts. The Aztecs also used carmine.

In Europe, the 16th century Italian painter Jacopo Tintoretto used carmine in several of his paintings, the most notable being Portrait of Vincenzo Morosini (1575-80) and Christ Washing the Feet of the Disciples(1575-80).

Carmine was also used by nineteenth-century artists such as Vincent van Gogh in Bedroom in Arles (1889). The floor of the bedroom is painted with carmine cochineal lake, geranium lake and indigo. This produced a reddish color, which over time changed to blueish.

Analysis of J. M. W. Turner's palettes found that he used cochineal carmine. The fading of this pigment affected the appearance of the sky in The Fighting Temeraire (1839).

Architecture
Carmine red has been used in military cartography at least since the 17th century. Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban, General Engineer of France, recommended the use of this red pigment to represent fortifications (ramparts, wood timbers, and brick buildings being reddish). This made buildings more distinct on maps

Cosmetics
Carmine is present in numerous cosmetics because of its red color. This use has continued from antiquity to the present. It can be found in lipstick, eye shadow, nail polish. It may cause allergies.

Histology
Carmine can be used in histology, as Best's carmine to stain glycogen, mucicarmine to stain acidic mucopolysaccharides, and carmalum to stain cell nuclei. In these applications, it is applied together with a mordant, usually an Al(III) salt.

Medicine
Cochineal, the insect used to make carmine, also has medical properties that were exploited by the Aztecs. It is said to help cure wounds when mixed with vinegar and applied to lesions. Aztecs used it to clean teeth.

United States
In January 2006, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) evaluated a proposal that would require food products containing carmine to list it by name on the ingredient label. It was also announced that the FDA will separately review the ingredient labels of prescription drugs that contain colorings derived from carmine. A request from the Center for Science in the Public Interest urging the FDA to require ingredient labels to explicitly state that carmine is derived from insects and may cause severe allergic reactions and anaphylactic shock was declined by the FDA. Food industries were aggressively opposed to the idea of writing "insect-based" on the label, and the FDA agreed to allow "cochineal extract" or "carmine".

European Union
In the European Union (EU), the use of carmine in foods is regulated under the European Commission's directives governing food additives in general and food dyes in particular and listed under the names Cochineal, Carminic acid, Carmines and Natural Red 4 as additive E 120 in the list of EU-approved food additives. The directive governing food dyes approves the use of carmine for certain groups of foods only and specifies a maximum amount which is permitted or restricts it to the quantum satis.

The EU-Directive 2000/13/EC on food labeling mandates that carmines (like all food additives) must be included in the list of ingredients of a food product with its additive category and listed name or additive number, that is either as Food colour carmines or as Food colour E 120 in the local language(s) of the market(s) the product is sold in.

, EFSA has changed the way they allow use of Carmine E120 for pharmaceutical products. The EFSA had raised concerns over the increasing number of allergic reactions to carmine derived from insects (E120.360), when used within the British Pharmacopoeia. Pharmaceutical products which had previously contained insect-derived carmine, have been replaced with a synthesized version of the food colorant. Internal studies have shown that the new formulations of popular anti-nausea and weight-gain liquid medication had a significantly lower risk in terms of allergic reactions. The new formulation is known to be of plant origin, using calcium oxide to gauge color depth.

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Church in Wales

The Church in Wales (Yr Eglwys yng Nghymru) is an Anglican church in Wales, composed of six dioceses.

The Archbishop of Wales does not have a fixed archiepiscopal see, but serves concurrently as one of the six diocesan bishops. The position is currently held by Andy John, Bishop of Bangor, since 2021.

Unlike the Church of England, the Church in Wales is not an established church. Disestablishment took place in 1920 under the Welsh Church Act 1914.

As a province of the Anglican Communion, the Church in Wales recognises the Archbishop of Canterbury as a focus of unity but without any formal authority. A cleric of the Church in Wales can be appointed to posts in the Church of England, including the See of Canterbury; a former Archbishop of Canterbury, Rowan Williams, was from Wales and served as Archbishop of Wales before his appointment to Canterbury.

Official name
The Church in Wales (Yr Eglwys yng Nghymru) adopted its name by accident. The Welsh Church Act 1914 referred throughout to "the Church in Wales", the phrase being used to indicate the part of the Church of England within Wales. At a convention (of the Welsh Church) held in Cardiff in October 1917, Mr Justice Sankey said that, while the name "the Church of Wales" appealed to him, he advised that there were good legal reasons why the name "the Church in Wales" should be adopted, at least at first, in order to follow the wording in the act. The matter was therefore left at that convention for the second Governing Body to decide at its first session.

History
Christianity in Wales can be traced back to the Romano-British culture and an organised episcopal church has had continuous existence in Wales since that time. The age of the saints in the 6th and 7th centuries was marked by the establishment of monastic settlements throughout the country, by religious leaders such as Saint David, Illtud, Padarn and Saint Teilo. This was the period when the Welsh people developed a shared national identity, arising from their language and religious beliefs.

The Welsh refused to co-operate with Augustine of Canterbury's mission to the Anglo-Saxons. However, a combination of other Celtic dioceses reconciling with the Holy See and the conquest of Wales by Edward I meant that from the Middle Ages, the Welsh dioceses were part of the Province of Canterbury and also in communion with the See of Rome until the English Reformation. Afterward they were part of the Church of England until disestablishment in 1920, as during the reign of Henry VIII, Wales was incorporated into the legal realm of the Kingdom of England.

Disestablishment
During the 19th century, Nonconformist churches grew rapidly in Wales, and eventually the majority of Welsh Christians were Nonconformists, although the Church of England remained the largest single denomination. By the mid-19th century the failure to appoint a Welsh-speaking bishop to any Welsh diocese for 150 years caused real resentment; disestablishment was seen as a way to assert national and linguistic identity.

Under the influence of Nonconformist politicians such as David Lloyd George, the Welsh Church Act 1914 was passed by the Liberal Government to separate Anglicanism in Wales from the Church of England. The bill was fiercely resisted by members of the Conservative Party and blocked in the House of Lords, but it was eventually passed under the provisions of the Parliament Act 1911.

The opposition to disestablishment was led by the Conservative politician F. E. Smith, who characterised the disestablishment bill as "a Bill which has shocked the conscience of every Christian community in Europe." In response to this description, the writer G. K. Chesterton penned the satirical poem "Antichrist, or the Reunion of Christendom: An Ode" containing the memorable retort "Chuck It, Smith".

The act both disestablished and disendowed the "Church in Wales", the term used to define the part of the Church of England which was to be separated. Disestablishment meant the end of the church's special legal status, and Welsh bishops were no longer entitled to sit in the House of Lords as Lords Spiritual. As the Church in Wales became independent of the state, tithes were no longer available to the church, leaving it without a major source of income.

Disendowment, which was even more controversial than disestablishment, meant that the endowments of the Church in Wales were partially confiscated, and redistributed to the University of Wales and local authorities. This process was carried out by the Welsh Church Commissioners in accordance with the principles set out in the Welsh Church Act 1914. Endowments before 1662 were to be confiscated; those of later date were to remain. This was justified by the theory that the pre-1662 endowments had been granted to the national church of the whole population, and hence belonged to the people as a whole rather than to the Church in Wales; understandably, this reasoning was hotly contested. The date 1662 was that of the Act of Uniformity following the Restoration; it was after this point that Nonconformist congregations began to develop and the Church of England ceased to be a comprehensive national church. Although secularisation of the cathedrals had previously been suggested, the Church in Wales retained all the ancient church buildings and the privilege of conducting legal marriages without reference to the civil registrar.

Due to the outbreak of World War I in 1914, the Suspensory Act 1914 was passed at the same time as the Welsh Church Act 1914, meaning that the act would not be implemented for the duration of the war. Disestablishment finally came into effect in 1920. The Church in Wales adopted a written constitution, which has been revised from time to time, and elected a Governing Body which initially met once a year, but now meets twice annually. The Governing Body has ultimate authority "to approve liturgies, review organizational structures, and secure firm fiscal resources for the mission and ministry of the church". The Church in Wales was one of the first members of the Anglican Communion to adopt synodical government.

Since 1920
Parishes overlapping the border were allowed to vote either to accede to the Church in Wales or to continue in the Church of England; so the line of disestablishment is not the same as the border between the two countries. A few districts in the former counties of Monmouthshire, Radnorshire and Flintshire remain attached to parishes in the Dioceses of Hereford and Chester and consequently they are part of the Church of England. A complete English rural deanery with the generalised name March containing Oswestry and areas to the north-west of Shrewsbury, was transferred from its historic setting in the Diocese of St Asaph to be consistent with the civil border there. The churches of St Mary, Caernarfon, and Llangadwaladr, Anglesey, were transferred from the Diocese of Chester to that of Bangor.

Today, the Church in Wales is fully independent of both the state and the Church of England. It is an independent member of the Anglican Communion, as are the Church of Ireland and the Scottish Episcopal Church.

In the first years of the 21st century, the Church in Wales has begun to engage in numerous debates. These particularly concern the appointment of women to the episcopate and the provincial recognition of the equal statuses of the Welsh and English languages in all aspects of church life.

Membership
Following disestablishment in 1920, the Church in Wales initially fared better than the Nonconformist churches, which suffered a decline during the late 20th century. In 1960 the Church claimed to have 182,854 communicants, an increase on the comparable figure of 155,911 for 1945,  although a reduction on the figure of 196,389 Easter communicants in 1938. The Anglican Church does not have "a single definition of 'membership' in the Church in Wales." In 2006 the average weekly attendance was recorded at 6,780 aged under 18 and 39,490 aged over 18. The highest attendance was at Easter, with 68,120 at worship (68,837 in 2007). In 2014, the attendance in the Church in Wales was 52,021 at Easter: a decline of about 16,000 members since 2007, but an increase from 2013. Also, in 2014, nineteen churches were closed or made redundant. Overall, in 2014, the Church in Wales reported 152,000 attenders in its parishes and congregations, compared to 105,000 in 2013. In 2018, the number of communicants during Easter was 46,163 and the number of persons on the Electoral Roll was 42,441.

From 2015 statistics, when all "other major acts of worship" are included, the church reported having 206,000 total attenders. "Such additional services, which include civic services, family services, Remembrance, Carol and Christingle services, registered a total attendance of some 206,000 in 2015, compared with 152,000 in 2014." In 2017, "parishes recorded 210,000 people attending other types of traditional worship, which might include civic services, family services, Remembrance, Carol and Christingle services."

In 2000, membership figures taken as a percentage of the population was 1.6%. Between 1996 and 2016 the number of signed-up Church in Wales members dropped from 91,247 to 45,759 or 1.5% out of a total population of 3,113,150 The number of Church in Wales members on the "Electoral Roll" dropped further to 42,441 by 2018 or 1.4% out of the total Welsh population of 3,187,203   The Anglican church claims to be the largest denomination in Wales.

Structure

The polity of the Church in Wales is episcopal church governance, which is the same as other Anglican churches.

Prior to 1920, there were four dioceses in Wales, all part of the Province of Canterbury and each led by its own bishop:

 * The Diocese of Bangor
 * The Diocese of St Asaph
 * The Diocese of St Davids
 * The Diocese of Llandaff

Two additional dioceses were created soon after the disestablishment of the Church in Wales:

 * The Diocese of Monmouth in 1921
 * The Diocese of Swansea and Brecon in 1923

Monmouth was created from one of the archdeaconries of Llandaff diocese, largely following the boundaries of the traditional (pre-1974) county of Monmouthshire. Swansea and Brecon was created from the eastern part of the St Davids diocese, largely corresponding to the present day city and county of Swansea and the traditional counties of Breconshire and Radnorshire (now part of the county of Powys).

Each diocese is divided into two or three archdeaconries, with 15 of these in total. Each has an archdeacon, who is responsible to the bishop for its administration. The archdeaconries are further divided into deaneries.

Each diocese has its own cathedral, the "mother church" of the diocese and the seat of the bishop - literally, as the cathedral holds the 'cathedra', the bishop's chair. In the cathedral are held important events such as the enthronement of a new bishop and the ordination of priests and deacons. Each cathedral has a dean, appointed to manage the cathedral, with the assistance of the chapter. Together with the archdeacons, the dean of the cathedral is one of the most prominent clerics of the diocese, after the bishop. The chapter is composed of the dean and a number of canons selected from among the clerics of the diocese.

Diocesan and episcopal coats of arms
The following episcopal coats of arms are those each bishop is privileged to carry whilst in office. The diocesan coat of arms is identical to the episcopal version except that it is not surmounted by the mitre. With the introduction of the new logos for many of the diocese, their strict use has fallen away during recent years (generally since 2006 onwards) and, as such, the coats of arms are often used synonymously.

Archbishop
Until 1920 the Welsh church was part of the Church of England and under the metropolitical jurisdiction of the archbishop of Canterbury. Since independence in 1920, the Church in Wales has been led by the Archbishop of Wales, who is both the metropolitan bishop and primate. The archbishop of Wales is elected from the currently seated diocesan bishops and continues as a diocesan after election. Although it is not necessary for every see in the Church in Wales to be filled before an archbishop may be elected, if the vacancy in a see is caused by the resignation of the archbishop, or it arises within 14 days thereafter, the vacant see must be filled before an archbishop can be elected. In an archiepiscopal vacancy, the senior bishop by date of appointment is acting archbishop.

A former Archbishop of Wales, Rowan Williams, became the first Welsh-born Archbishop of Canterbury. He was consecrated and enthroned as Bishop of Monmouth in 1992 and as Archbishop of Wales in 1999. He was appointed by the Queen (his appointment having been proposed by the Crown Appointments Commission) as Archbishop of Canterbury in July 2002. He left the Ppost in December 2012.

Diocesan bishops
Unlike bishops in the Church of England, each bishop of the Church in Wales is elected by an "electoral college" which consists of all diocesan bishops of the church (including the archbishop), and clerical and lay representatives of all of the dioceses of the Church in Wales. The composition of the electoral college is weighted so that the diocese in which a vacancy occurs is entitled to twice the number of clerical and lay electors compared with other individual dioceses. If no candidate who is considered by the electoral college obtains the support of the necessary two-thirds majority of the electors within the three consecutive days of deliberation which are allowed, the decision passes to the bench of bishops. This has occurred on two recent occasions. In 2013 the Church in Wales officially agreed to the ordination of women as bishops, after a previous proposal for their ordination failed in 2008.

In descending order of seniority, as of 17 October 2023 (after Davies' election to St Davids), the bench of Welsh bishops consists of:
 * Andy John, Bishop of Bangor and Archbishop of Wales
 * Gregory Cameron, Bishop of St Asaph
 * Cherry Vann, Bishop of Monmouth
 * John Lomas, Bishop of Swansea and Brecon
 * Mary Stallard, Bishop of Llandaff
 * Dorrien Davies, Bishop of St Davids

In addition, it has been announced that David Morris is to become Assistant Bishop of Bangor and titular Bishop of Bardsey in summer 2024.

In cases where a see is vacant due to the death or translation of a bishop, episcopal acts such as ordinations and confirmations are carried out by the archbishop or by another bishop appointed for that purpose by the archbishop.

, four of the bishops used the Welsh name of their See as their episcopal signature (Bangor, Llanelwy for St Asaph, Tyddewi for St Davids, and Mynwy for Monmouth); Landav derives from the Latin Landavensis and the then-Bishop of Swansea and Brecon was Archbishop (who signs as Cambrensis, Latin for 'of Wales').

Assistant bishops
Assistant bishops may be appointed within the Church in Wales. Although there have been several assistant bishops in the diocese of Llandaff, in practice assistant bishops have been appointed in other dioceses only when the diocesan bishop is the archbishop for the time being, in order to assist them with diocesan episcopal functions. As archbishop, Barry Morgan had an Assistant Bishop of Llandaff: from April 2009 to April 2017 that post was held by David Wilbourne. See also: Assistant Bishop of St Asaph. On 26 January 2022, it was announced that Mary Stallard had been appointed Assistant Bishop of Bangor, to assist Andy John in his diocesan duties while he also serves as Archbishop of Wales; her consecration took place on 26 February 2022 at Bangor Cathedral.

A provincial assistant bishop was appointed in 1996 to provide episcopal ministry to congregations which could not accept the ministry of bishops who ordained women. The role was analogous to the office of Provincial episcopal visitor in the Church of England. David Thomas held the position for twelve years, retiring in 2008. At that time the Bench of Bishops decided that it would not continue to appoint a specific bishop to minister to those who reject the ordination of women as priests. This point was reiterated by Barry Morgan at the Governing Body of the Church in Wales in September 2013, during the debate on whether or not the Church in Wales would ordain women to the episcopate.

Historically, there have been suffragan bishops both before and since disestablishment, including two Bishops of Swansea and one Bishop of Maenan. From 1946 until his death in 1953, Richard William Jones (Archdeacon of Llandaff and Rector of Peterston-super-Ely) was "Assistant Bishop of Wales".

Representative Body
The Representative Body of the Church in Wales is responsible for the care of the church's property and for funding many of the activities of the church, including support for clergy stipends and pensions. Its somewhat misleading title - unlike the Governing Body, it is not a representative decision-making body - is derived from the fact that under the Welsh Church Act 1914 the bishops, clergy and laity were required to set up a body to "represent" them and to hold property which was transferred to them by the Welsh Church Commissioners.

Governing Body
The Governing Body is responsible for decisions that affect the church's faith, order and worship. It also has powers to make regulations for the general management and good government of the church and its property and affairs. The Governing Body is the supreme legislature of the Church in Wales, broadly speaking the Parliament of the Church in Wales. It usually meets twice a year to receive reports and make decisions on matters brought before it.

Worship and liturgy
The Church in Wales as a whole tends to be predominantly High Church, meaning that many of the traditions are inherited from the Oxford Movement in more rural dioceses such as St Davids and Bangor and especially in the industrial parishes of Llandaff and Monmouth. Although the province tends more toward liberal and Anglo-Catholic positions in theology and liturgy, it also has a tradition of evangelicalism, especially in the southern parts of Wales, and the university town of Aberystwyth. In the 1960s there was a revival of evangelicalism within the Church in Wales and the Evangelical Fellowship of the Church in Wales exists to support such members of the church.

Book of Common Prayer
An Act of Parliament passed in the year 1563, entitled "An Act for the Translating of the Bible and the Divine Service into the Welsh Tongue," ordered that the Old and New Testament, together with the Book of Common Prayer, were to be translated into Welsh. A translation by Richard Davies, bishop of St Davids and the scholar William Salesbury was published in 1567 by Humphrey Toy as Y Llyfr Gweddi Gyffredin. A new revision — based on the 1662 English prayer book and probably by George Griffith, Bishop of St Asaph - was published in 1664. The 1662 prayer book and its Welsh equivalent continued to be used, even after the Church in Wales was disestablished in 1920.

The Church in Wales began revising the Book of Common Prayer in the 1950s. The first material authorised for experimental use was a lectionary in 1956, followed by a baptism and confirmation service in 1958, an order for Holy Matrimony in 1960, and an order for the Burial of the Dead in 1962. These did not however enjoy widespread use. In 1966 an experimental order for the Holy Eucharist was authorised. This was the first to enjoy widespread use. Revision continued throughout the 60s and 70s, with an experimental version of morning and evening prayer in 1969. In 1971 a definitive version of baptism and confirmation was authorised, replacing the equivalent in the 1662 Book of Common Prayer. This was followed in 1974 with a definitive order for the Burial of the Dead, and in 1975 with a definitive order for Holy Matrimony. It was hoped that a new Book of Common Prayer for the Church in Wales would be produced in 1981. However, in 1979 a definitive version of the Holy Eucharist failed to gain a two-thirds majority in the House of Clergy and the House of Laity at the Governing Body. A light revision of the 1966 experimental Eucharist was approved by the Governing Body, and the Book of Common Prayer for use in the Church in Wales was authorised in 1984. This Prayer Book is unique in that it is in traditional English. The Church in Wales first considered a modern language Eucharist in the early 70s but this received a lukewarm reception. A modern language Eucharist (The Holy Eucharist in modern language) was authorised alongside the new prayer book in 1984, but this did not enjoy widespread use. In 1990 new initiation services were authorised, followed in 1992 by an alternative order for morning and evening prayer in 1994 by an alternative order for the Holy Eucharist, in 1995 by the alternative calendar lectionary and collects, and in 1998 an order for compline was produced. These enjoyed widespread use. In 2003 a new calendar and collects was made part of the Book of Common Prayer for use in the Church in Wales. This was followed in 2004 by an order for the Holy Eucharist, services for Christian initiation in 2006 and in 2009 by daily prayer. Experimental services continued, with an ordinal produced in 2004, Ministry to the Sick and Housebound in 2007, healing services in 2008, funeral services in 2009, and in 2010 marriage services which became part of the Book of Common Prayer in 2013. The ordinal was made part of the prayer book the following year. In 2017 prayers for a child were released, together with a Revised Order for Confirmation, the latter authorised for five years experimental use following the bench of Bishops' decision to admit unconfirmed children and adults to communion. In 2018 Times and Seasons was released. All of these were published on line. The following year Funeral Services became part of the Book of Common Prayer, and additional prayers for different events in life were launched (Blessing of a home, prayers for victims of crime etc.).

Other publications
Discontinued publications which frequently provided articles of sub-academic quality were Province, Yr Haul â'r Gangell, and Y Llan. Bi-annual news from the Governing Body meeting is released in Highlights. News is predominantly circulated on the Church in Wales' provincial and diocesan websites, and in various diocesan magazines.

Doctrine and practice
Central to the teaching of the Church in Wales is the life, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. The basic teachings of the church, or catechism, include:
 * Jesus Christ is fully human and fully God. He died and was resurrected from the dead.
 * Jesus continues to provide the way to eternal life for those who believe.
 * The Old and New Testaments were written by people "under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit". The Apocrypha are additional books that are used in Christian worship, but not for the formation of doctrine.
 * The two great and necessary sacraments are Holy Baptism and Holy Eucharist
 * Other sacramental rites are confirmation, holy orders, matrimony, reconciliation of a penitent, and anointing of the sick.
 * Belief in heaven, hell, and Jesus' return in glory.

The balance of Scripture, tradition and reason as authority for faith and practice is traced to the work of Richard Hooker, a sixteenth-century apologist. In Hooker's model, Scripture is the primary means of arriving at doctrine, and things stated plainly in Scripture are accepted as true. Issues that are ambiguous are determined by tradition, which is checked by reason.

Ordination of women
A proposal to ordain women as priests was introduced and debated in 1995 after it had failed to secure a two-thirds majority in 1994. The ordination of women to the priesthood was approved by the two-thirds majority in 1996. The Church in Wales has ordained women as priests since 1997. Prior to 1997, women were permitted to serve as deacons. The first deaconess was consecrated in 1884. In 2013, the church voted to allow women to serve as bishops. In 2016, Joanna Penberthy was elected the first woman bishop in the church. Penberthy was enthroned as Bishop of St Davids on 11 February 2017. As of 2020, following the enthronement of Cherry Vann as Bishop of Monmouth, there were three women bishops, and three men bishops, sitting on the Welsh Bench of Bishops. This situation was maintained in 2021, with John Lomas having been elected as Bishop of Swansea and Brecon following the resignation of John Davies. In 2022, Stallard's consecration as Assistant Bishop of Bangor meant that a majority of the active bishops in the Church in Wales was female, a situation presumed to be a first in any Anglican church. Although a Twitter feed suggested that Stallard had joined the "Bench" of bishops, this was a loose use of terminology, as the "Bench" consists of the Archbishop and the other diocesan bishops.

Same-sex unions and LGBT clergy
Beginning in the 1980s, the Church in Wales embarked on an increasingly open stand on various issues including economic justice, the ordination of women and inclusion of homosexual people. In some areas, such as human sexuality, the church establishment has faced resistance from congregations. In 2005, the church allowed gay priests to enter into civil partnerships. "In the wake of civil partnerships, the Welsh Bishops sought legal advice, and told gay partnered clergy that they were welcome, as well as gay ordination candidates." Speaking on such partnerships, it was communicated that "The Church in Wales has no formal view on whether people in civil partnerships who are in a sexual relationship can serve as clergy. If the issue arises, it is up to the relevant Bishop to decide." Therefore, the Welsh church does not require abstinence for clergy in civil unions. Regarding transgender issues, an officer announced that the church believes transgender people "should be acknowledged and celebrated in their new gender." Currently, "the Church has published prayers that may be said with a couple following the celebration of a [same-sex] civil partnership or civil marriage."

Currently, "the Church in Wales is much more liberal on this issue [than the Church of England]" and is discussing the possibility of blessing or performing same-sex marriages. In 2018, the Welsh Bishops released a statement saying it was "unjust" to not offer formal provision for same-sex marriages and civil partnerships. Following the bishops' announcement, the General Synod voted in favour of requesting formal provision for same-sex couples. The Welsh Church has decided to move forward with possibly offering same-sex marriage and blessing rites for same-sex unions. The Diocese of St Asaph provides a chaplaincy and services for LGBT people. Jeffrey John, who is openly gay and in a civil partnership, was nearly elected bishop of Llandaff when he "won more than half of a Church in Wales electoral college, but fell short of the two-thirds majority required." As of 2020, the Church in Wales has consecrated a bishop, Cherry Vann, who is openly lesbian and in a civil partnership.

"The Anglican Church in Wales took the first steps towards allowing clergy to celebrate same sex marriage in its churches when more than half its Governing Body voted in favour of the move." In the 2016 results, 52% of the Governing Body voted in favour of allowing same-sex marriages in church. "Members of the Church in Wales Governing Body voted 61 in favour of gay marriages in church, nine in favour of blessing gay partnerships and 50 for making no change." As a result of the majority support for same-sex couples, but not a two-thirds majority needed to create a same-sex marriage ceremony, the church's Bench of Bishops affirmed members in same-sex relationships and "published a series of prayers which may be said with a couple following the celebration of a civil partnership or civil marriage." The service, in Form One, gives God thanks "for [the two people] who have found such love and companionship in each other, that it has led them to dedicate their lives in support of one another." In September 2021, the Church in Wales voted to "formally bless same-sex couples" instead (by way of debate and compromise) – but still not legally recognising same-sex marriage within titles of the Church officially.

Ecumenical relations
Following the similar step taken by the Church of England in 1932, and other Anglican provinces, the Church in Wales entered into intercommunion with the Old Catholics in 1937. The Church in Wales has also been a member of the Porvoo Communion since September 1995. Because of the Anglo-Catholic dominance, relations with the Free Churches (formerly known during establishment times as Nonconformists), ecumenical progress has been slower in Wales than in England. The Church in Wales is a member of the Covenanted Churches in Wales. A covenant (with church unity as an ultimate goal) was signed by the Church in Wales, the Methodist Church, the Presbyterian Church of Wales, the United Reformed Church, and some Baptist churches in 1982 under the title of Enfys ("rainbow").

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Church in Wales


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Antonio B. Won Pat International Airport

Antonio B. Won Pat International Airport, also known as Guam International Airport, is an international airport located in Tamuning and Barrigada, 3 mi east of the capital city of Hagåtña (formerly Agana) in the United States territory of Guam. The airport is a hub for Asia Pacific Airlines and for United Airlines, serving as the latter's Pacific Ocean hub. It is also the home of the former Naval Air Station Agana, and is the only international airport in the territory. The airport is named after Antonio Borja Won Pat, the first delegate from Guam to the United States House of Representatives, and is operated by the A.B. Won Pat International Airport Authority, Guam (GIAA, Aturidat Puetton Batkon Airen Guahan Entenasionat), an agency of the Government of Guam.

Military use
The airport was built by the Japanese Navy about 1943, calling the military airfield Guamu Dai Ni (Guam No. 2) as part of their defense of the Marianas. After the island was recaptured by American forces in 1944, it was renamed Agana Airfield, due to the proximity of the town. After being repaired by Seabees of the 5th Construction Brigade in October 1944, the United States Army Air Forces Seventh Air Force used the airfield as a base for the 11th Bombardment Group, which flew B-24 Liberator bombers from the station until being moved to Okinawa in July 1945. With the reassignment of the heavy bombers, the 41st Photographic Reconnaissance Squadron flew long-range reconnaissance aircraft (F-4 P-38 Lightnings) from the field until January 1946.

After the war, the USAAF used the airfield for fighter defense of the Marianas (21st Fighter Group), (549th Night Fighter Squadron) until early 1947 and as a transport hub (9th Troop Carrier Squadron). In 1947, the USAAF turned over the airfield to the United States Navy, which consolidated its facilities with those at the closing Harmon Air Force Base in 1949, and operated Naval Air Station Agana until it was closed by the 1993 Base Realignment and Closure Commission.

Civilian use
Travel to Guam was restricted to military personnel with a security clearance until 1962. During these early years, a single Quonset hut served as Guam's air terminal. The lifting of this travel restriction spurred the development of the airport; its International Air Terminal opened in March 1967 and accommodated its first tour group from Japan two months later. Operations of the terminal were passed onto the Government of Guam's Department of Commerce in 1969. In 1975, the Guam International Airport Authority (GIAA) was created as a separate agency. After NAS Agana was closed in April 1995, GIAA took over the entire airport's operations.

A new passenger terminal building was opened in 1982, and the current, much larger terminal building was opened in phases between 1996 and 1998.

After a period of seasonal charters, the first regular flight to Mainland China from Guam was established in 2014. The United Airlines service to Shanghai Pudong Airport began on October 29, 2014.

Project Hulo'
In July 2017, the A.B. Won Pat International Airport Authority launched its Vision Hulo' campaign, which includes around $167 million in capital improvement projects to help boost services and operation for the airport. The projects are set to increase the airport's passenger capacity, which already annually serves 3.55 million departing and transiting passengers. The projects include the relocation of bulky baggage screenings, additional security lanes, the expansion of parking spaces, and more.

A $110 million international arrivals corridor, the largest in the project, is the airport's newest capital improvement project. The third level corridor will finally put the airport compliance with federal regulations by the U.S. Transportation Security Administration in 2005, in response to 9/11, by separating arriving international passengers with departing passenger and allowing the airport to finally remove the semi-permanent barriers and reclaim full use of the concourse.

In the initial months of the COVID-19 pandemic in Guam, flights to and from Guam stopped, except for United Airlines, which maintained daily service to Honolulu and thrice-weekly service to Narita. A year later in April 2021, limited flights were being conducted by United Airlines, Philippine Airlines and Jin Air.

Customs, immigration, and security inspections
Arrival passenger inspection is conducted by the U.S. Customs and Border Protection (immigration only) and Guam Customs and Quarantine Agency. Departure security checks are conducted by the U.S. Transportation Security Administration.

Customs
Because Guam is outside the United States customs jurisdiction, passengers from all arrival flights go through Guam Customs and Quarantine Agency inspection. Passengers bound for Honolulu, which is currently the only Stateside flight, go through a normal U.S. Customs and Border Protection customs inspection upon arrival.

Immigration
The U.S. Customs and Border Protection inspects all arriving passengers from foreign points.

Passengers arriving from the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, a separate U.S. immigration jurisdiction with slightly different visa requirements, are pre-inspected there for admissibility to Guam. Nonstop passengers bound for Honolulu are pre-inspected at Guam's boarding gate for admissibility to the United States because of the Guam and Northern Mariana Islands Visa Waiver Program, which allows visa-free entry to Guam for tourists from Australia, Brunei, mainland China, Hong Kong (with a Hong Kong Identity Card), Japan, Malaysia, Nauru, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan (with a Republic of China passport with a National ID number and a valid Republic of China national identity card), and United Kingdom (with a British Citizen passport or a British National Overseas passport).

For U.S. citizens, passports are not required to enter Guam from the Northern Mariana Islands; other forms of identification proving admissibility are accepted. Passports are required for those transiting a foreign country between the United States and Guam.

Transit passengers, except from Honolulu and the Northern Mariana Islands, are also inspected by the U.S. Customs and Border Protection before being allowed to proceed to their connecting gate. Because all onward flights depart Guam's customs jurisdiction, no baggage claim is necessary.

Security
The Transportation Security Administration conducts security inspection for departing passengers and all transit passengers.

Transit passengers who arrive from the United States or the Northern Mariana Islands are screened by Transportation Security Administration at their origins, so they are not screened again in Guam.

Guam–Honolulu passengers who have onward connections must go through Transportation Security Administration inspection again in Honolulu because they will have come into contact with their checked baggage during U.S. customs inspection there.

Facilities
The airport covers 1657 acre at an elevation of 305 ft above sea level. It has 2 asphalt runways:
 * Runway 6L/24R: 12,017 x 150 ft (3,663 x 46 m.), Surface: Asphalt, ILS/DME equipped, with approved GPS and VOR/DME approaches.
 * Runway 6R/24L: 10,014 x 150 ft (3,052 x 46 m.), Surface: Asphalt, ILS/DME equipped, with approved GPS approaches.

For the 12-month period ending February 28, 2022, the airport had 24,804 aircraft operations, an average of 68 per day: 65% general aviation, 1% air taxi, 27% commercial airline and 7% military. At that time, there were 42 aircraft based at this airport: 25 single-engine and 4 multi-engine airplanes as well as 13 jets.

Passenger terminal
The current passenger terminal's first phase was completed on September 10, 1996. The 550000 sqft terminal included a new customs and immigration hall and a 710 space parking lot. In August 1998, the second phase of the current passenger terminal opened. The expansion program that opened the current terminal had a cost of $741 million.

The terminal has three levels. The basement level houses arrival facilities, including customs and baggage claim. The basement also houses the GIAA Airport Police and GIAA Arcade offices and the Hafa Adai Gardens. The apron level (the departure level) houses the ticketing counters. The third floor houses the departure gates, immigration facilities, and GIAA administrative offices. The front of the airport displays stylized latte stone motifs; the latte stone is an icon of modern CHamoru identity.

Since all flights require customs or immigration inspection, the airport's post-security concourse and gate area was not designed to separate arriving and departing passengers. The only normal passenger entrance is through security and the only normal exit is through immigration. Except for the few gates designated for Honolulu arrivals, which route passengers directly to customs, all other gates do not have a separate arrival corridor. Arrival passengers walk directly into the gates waiting area, and in the past could actually purchase food or merchandise before entering the immigration hall.

The original design is said to be compliant with security standards at the time of opening. However, after the September 11, 2001 attacks, the U.S. government began to require separation of uninspected arrival passengers. The airport initially used a system of chairs, moving sidewalks, retractable belts and security/police staffing to usher arriving passengers from the gate to the immigration hall without coming into physical contact with departing passengers. In recent years, semi-permanent movable walls separate much of the length of the terminal building into two halves, decreasing the need for human staffing and those lighter objects previously in use.

There are 2 lounges available to passengers at Guam. One is the Sagan Bisita Lounge and the other is the United Club.

Old terminal building
The old terminal served as the corporate headquarters of Continental Micronesia until late 2010. The 220000 sqft, $43 million Commuter Terminal was dedicated on January 19, 1982. At the time of opening, the Guamanian people referred to the terminal as a "white elephant,” believing that the terminal was so large that it would never be fully used. After the current terminal building opened, the old terminal building became the Commuter Terminal (serving Freedom Air and Pacific Island Aviation). By 2003, the Guam International Airport Authority moved commuter airlines out of the Commuter Terminal and leased the entire facility to Continental Micronesia.

Other facilities

 * Cargo facilities are located between the main terminal and the commuter terminal.
 * Japan Airlines opened a flight crew training center at GUM in October 2013. JAL trains Boeing 737 and Boeing 767 pilots at the airport, including touch-and-go operations during off-peak hours.
 * The airport can handle multiple larger aircraft, including the former world's largest, the Antonov An-225.
 * United Airlines opened a new City Ticket Office location on the airport grounds in 2017.

Accidents and incidents
Several fatal accidents have occurred on and near Guam over the years. In total, 367 deaths occurred from 6 different aircraft accidents.

 * On August 6, 1997, Korean Air Flight 801, a Boeing 747-300, crashed as it was attempting to land at the airport. Of the 254 people on board, 229 were killed.
 * On June 10, 2009, Jetstar Airways Flight 20 flying from Kansai International Airport to Gold Coast Airport experienced a small fire in the cockpit apparently caused by a fault in the heating system. The fire was quickly extinguished by the pilots who subsequently diverted the plane to Guam. All 203 people on board were unharmed in the incident. The Australian Transport Safety Bureau determined the cause of the fire to be an overheat related to the use of a polysulfide sealant in the electrical connections to the windshield.


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World War II in Albania

In Albania, World War II began with its invasion by Italy in April 1939. Fascist Italy set up Albania as its protectorate or puppet state. The resistance was largely carried out by Communist groups against the Italian (until 1943) and then German occupation in Albania. At first independent, the Communist groups united in the beginning of 1942, which ultimately led to the successful liberation of the country in 1944.

The Center for Relief to Civilian Populations (Geneva) reported that Albania was one of the most devastated countries in Europe. 60,000 houses were destroyed and about 10% of the population was left homeless.

Background
Germany annexed Austria, and moved against Czechoslovakia without notifying Mussolini in advance, so the Italian dictator decided in early 1939 to proceed with his own annexation of Albania. Italy's King Victor Emmanuel III criticised the plan to take Albania as an unnecessary risk.

Rome, however, delivered Tiranë an ultimatum on March 25, 1939, demanding that it accede to Italy's occupation of Albania. King Zog refused to accept money in exchange for countenancing a full Italian takeover and colonisation of Albania, and on April 7, 1939, Mussolini's troops, led by General Alfredo Guzzoni, invaded Albania, attacking all Albanian ports simultaneously. There were 65 units in Sarandë, 40 at Vlorë, 38 in Durrës, 28 at Shëngjin and 8 more at Bishti i Pallës. The original Italian plans for the invasion called for up to 50,000 men supported by 137 naval units and 400 airplanes. Ultimately the invasion force grew to 100,000 men supported by 600 airplanes.

In Durrës, a force of only 360 Albanians, mostly gendarmes and townspeople, led by Abaz Kupi, the commander of the gendarmerie in Durrës, and Mujo Ulqinaku, a marine official, tried to halt the Italian advance. Equipped only with small arms and three machine guns, they succeeded in keeping the Italians at bay for several hours. Then a large number of small tanks were unloaded from Italian ships and resistance crumbled. Within five hours Italian troops had captured the city. By 1:30 pm on the first day, all Albanian ports were in Italian hands.

Unwilling to become an Italian puppet, King Zog, his wife, Queen Geraldine Apponyi, and their infant son Skander fled to Greece and eventually to London. On April 12, the Albanian parliament voted to unite the country with Italy. The Albanian parliament voted to depose Zog and unite the nation with Italy "in personal union" by offering the Albanian crown to Victor Emmanuel III and the Italians set up a fascist government under Shefqet Verlaci and soon absorbed Albania's military and diplomatic service into Italy's. On April 15, 1939, Albania withdrew from the League of Nations, from which Italy had resigned in 1937. On June 3, 1939, the Albanian foreign ministry was merged into the Italian foreign ministry. The Albanian military was placed under Italian command and formally merged into the Italian Army in 1940. Additionally, the Italian Blackshirts formed four legions of Albanian Fascist Militia, initially recruited from Italian colonists living in Albania, but later also from ethnic Albanians.

Upon invading, Galeazzo Ciano tried to reinforce an impression of benevolence with a number of initial gestures aimed more at public relations than at addressing any of Albania's profound social and economic problems. One of Ciano's first moves was to distribute food and clothing in some of the poor areas and to release political prisoners. He personally distributed 190,000 gold francs to the needy in Tirana, Shkodra, Vlora, Gjirokastra, Saranda, Korçë and Kukës. Because the money was given directly to the poor, bypassing the usual bureaucracy, it did some good. The Italians also contributed greatly to infrastructure, agriculture, and chrome and hydrocarbon exploration, in which Albania was rich. The Italians hoped that extensive investment in Albania would bring both economic and political benefits. Despite a weak domestic economy, Mussolini guaranteed the Albanians 22 million pounds over five years for economic development, considerably more than the 8.2 million Rome had spent since the early 1920s. Initial reports of Italian activity were quite favourable. Ruth Mitchell commented at the end of April 1939, "What a great improvement there is in the condition of the people already. The whole atmosphere had become brisker and more enterprising; now at least there is hope." Even the German minister Eberhard von Pannwitz, perpetually critical of the Italians, commented favorably on the Italian tempo, which he likened to the tempo in Austria after the Anschluss. The new construction projects brought in large amounts of capital and employed many Albanians. The government began letting Italians take technical positions in Albania's civil service, and also began allowing Italian settlers to enter Albania. This largely affected the Albanians' attitude towards the Italian invaders and the locals greeted them with more respect and liking.

Italian puppet state
In spite of Albania's long-standing protection and alliance with Italy, on 7 April 1939 Italian troops invaded Albania, five months before the start of the Second World War. The Albanian armed resistance proved ineffective against the Italians and, after a short defense, the country was occupied. On 9 April 1939, Zog I fled to Greece.

In an effort to win Albanian support for Italian rule, Galeazzo Ciano and the Fascist regime encouraged Albanian irredentism towards Kosovo and Chameria. Despite Francesco Jacomoni's assurances of Albanian support in view of the promised "liberation" of, Albanian enthusiasm for the war was distinctly lacking. The few Albanian units raised to fight during the developments of the Greco-Italian War (1940–1941) alongside the Italian Army mostly "either deserted or fled in droves". Albanian agents recruited before the war, are reported to have operated behind Greek lines and engaged in acts of sabotage but these were few in number. Support for the Greeks, although of limited nature, came primarily from the local Greek populations who warmly welcomed the arrival of the Greek forces in the southern districts.

One of Mussolini's plans for the Italian protectorate of Albania was to italianize its citizens.

Origin of Communism
Faced with an agrarian and mostly Muslim society monitored by King Zog's security police, Albania's Communist movement attracted few adherents in the interwar period. In fact, the country had no fully-fledged Communist Party before World War II. After Fan Noli fled in 1924 to Italy and later the United States, several of his leftist protégés migrated to Moscow, where they affiliated themselves with the Balkan Confederation of Communist Parties and through it the Communist International (Comintern), the Soviet-sponsored association of international communist parties. In 1930, the Comintern dispatched Ali Kelmendi to Albania to organise communist cells. However, Albania had no working class on which the communists could rely for support. Paris became the Albanian communists' hub until Nazi deportations depleted their ranks after the fall of France in 1940.

Enver Hoxha's and Mehmet Shehu's early years
Enver Hoxha and a veteran of the Spanish Civil War, Mehmet Shehu, eventually rose to become the most powerful figures in Albania for decades after the war. The dominant figure of modern Albanian history, Enver Hoxha rose from obscurity. Born in 1908 to a Tosk landowner from Gjirokastër who returned to Albania after working in the United States, Hoxha attended the country's best college-preparatory school, the National Lycée in Korçë. In 1930 he attended the university at Montpellier in France, but lost an Albanian state scholarship for neglecting his studies. He subsequently moved to Paris and Brussels. After returning to Albania in 1936 without having earned a degree, he taught French for years at his former lycée and participated in a communist cell in Korçë. He later went to Tirana and when the Albanian Communist Party was formed in November 1941, he was appointed as the general secretary of the party, a post he kept until his death in 1985.

Shehu, also a Tosk, studied at Tirana's American Vocational School. He went on to a military college in Naples but was expelled for left-wing political activity. In Spain Shehu fought in the Garibaldi International Brigade and became a commander of one of the brigade's battalions. After the Spanish conflict was over, he was captured and interned in France. He returned to Albania in 1942 and soon became a prominent figure. During the conflict, he won a reputation for his command abilities with the partisans. In his memoirs published in 1984, British Special Operations Executive David Smiley wrote:

"Mehmet Shehu was a short, wiry, dark sallow-faced man of about thirty who seldom smiled except at other people's misfortunes. He spoke good English, was very capable and had far more military knowledge than most other Albanians.... He had a reputation for bravery, courage, ruthlessness, and cruelty--he had boasted that he personally cut the throats of seventy Italian carabinieri who had been taken prisoner. I got along with him at first, for as soldiers we had something in common; but he did little to conceal his dislike for all things British, and my relations with him deteriorated."

Beginning of Albanian Communist and Fascist parties and National Liberation Movement
After the invasion of Albania by Italy in April 1939, 100,000 Italian soldiers and 11,000 Italian colonists settled in the country. Initially the Albanian Fascist Party received support from the population, mainly because of the unification of Kosovo and other Albanian-populated territories with Albania proper after the conquest of Yugoslavia and Greece by the Axis powers in the spring 1941. Benito Mussolini boasted in May 1941 to a group of Albanian fascists that he had achieved the Greater Albania long desired by Tirana nationalists. The Albanian Fascist Party of Tefik Mborja had strong support among the population after the Albania annexation of Kosovo.

Several groups were led by Baba Faja Martaneshi, former gendarmerie officer Gani bey Kryeziu, communist Mustafa Gjinishi, and rightist politician Muharrem Bajraktari. An attempt to unite those groups in one organization was undertaken by Major Abaz Kupi, by now a democratic politician, who created an underground organisation called the Unity Front. This front, which increased in numbers within several months, was crushed in April 1941 after the defeat of Yugoslavia and Greece. Some of its members passed over to the collaborationist camp, some were arrested, and some others fled to the mountains. The warfare ceased for a while.

In November 1941, the small Albanian Communist groups established an Albanian Communist Party in Tirana of 130 members under the leadership of Hoxha and an eleven-man Central Committee. The party at first had little mass appeal, and even its youth organisation netted few recruits.

The resistance in Albania became active after the defeats of the Italian forces in the war with Greece, which started on 28 October 1940. Originally the slogan of building the "Greater Albania", into which the Italians promised to incorporate a substantial part of Greek Epirus (Cameria), allowed collaborationist authorities to mobilise several thousand volunteers for the army (besides regular troops). The collapse of the Italian offensive in Greece caused a crisis among the regular troops, who refused to take part in further fights, as well as in volunteer units, which dispersed; some soldiers made for the mountains. Eventually, the number of combat groups and partisan detachments, reinforced by deserters from the army, had grown to dozens, with over 3,000 men. In November in Lezhë, a town near the port of Shëngjin on Adriatic coast, mutinous soldiers who refused further service in Italian units fought a battle with an Italian punitive expedition, killing 19 and badly wounding 30 Italians, before retreating to the mountains. In the same month a partisan detachment laid an ambush for an Italian transport column en route to Gjirokastër. Several Italians were killed. On 17 May 1941 in Tirana a young man called Vasil Laçi attempted to assassinate king Victor Emmanuel III by shooting at him. However he failed and was shortly after executed.

In mid-1942, however, the Party called on young people to fight for the liberation of their country from Italy. This increased the number of new recruits by many young people eager for freedom. In September 1942, the party organised a popular front organisation, the National Liberation Movement (NLM), from a number of resistance groups, including several that were strongly anti-Communist. During the war, the NLM's Communist-dominated partisans, in the form of the National Liberation Army, ignored warnings from the Italian occupiers that there would be reprisals for guerrilla attacks. Such reprisals would elicit a desire for revenge, and new recruits. On 17–22 February 1943 in the village of Labinot, the first nationwide conference of ACP took place. The estimation of the political and military situation in the country pointed to the need to create a homogeneous national liberation army. A decision concerning warfare tactics also was taken; it recommended that commanders of units conduct actions with bigger forces. On 17 May, twelve partisan detachments under the homogeneous command carried out an attack on the Italian garrison in Leskovik, which protected an important road junction. Partisans encircled the town in a tight ring and undertook the offensive. Over 1,000 Italians held the town. The battle lasted three days. The commander of the garrison had demanded air support, but before the support arrived, partisans seized the town. The Italians lost several hundred soldiers and considerable quantities of weapons and equipment. At the end of June the Italians started a punitive expedition against partisans in the region of Mallakastra and Tepelenë. Two thousand partisans took up defensive positions on mountain passes. In the first clash the Italians were forced back, but they renewed the action on 14 July with tanks, artillery and aircraft. After four days of fighting, the partisans had suffered heavy losses and retreated to higher parts of the mountains. In general from May to July the Italians lost thousands and many were wounded.

After March 1943, the NLM formed its first and second regular battalions, which subsequently became brigades, to operate along with existing smaller and irregular units. Resistance to the occupation grew rapidly as signs of Italian weakness became apparent. At the end of 1942, guerrilla forces numbered no more than 8,000 to 10,000. By the summer of 1943, when the Italian effort collapsed, almost all of the mountainous interior was controlled by resistance units.

The NLM formally established the National Liberation Army (NLA) in July 1943 with Spiro Moisiu as its military chief and Enver Hoxha as its political officer. It had 20,000 regular soldiers and guerrillas in the field by the end of that year. However, the NLA's military activities in 1943 were directed as much against the party's domestic political opponents, including prewar liberal, nationalist, and monarchist parties, as against the occupation forces.

Nationalist resistance
A nationalist resistance to the Italian occupiers emerged in October 1942. Ali Këlcyra and Mit’hat Frashëri formed the Western-oriented and anti-communist Balli Kombëtar (National Front). This movement recruited supporters from both the large landowners and peasantry. They supported the creation of Greater Albania by Italians and called for the creation of a republic and the introduction of economic and social reforms, opposing King Zog's return. Their leaders acted conservatively, however, fearing that the occupiers would carry out reprisals against them or confiscate the landowners' estates. The nationalistic Gheg chieftains and the Tosk landowners often came to terms with the Italians, and later the Germans, to prevent the loss of their wealth and power. The Balli Kombëtar, which had fought against the Italians, was threatened by the superior forces of the LNC and the Yugoslav Partisans, who were backed by the Allies.

Among prominent Balli Kombëtar commanders were Safet Butka and Hysni Lepenica. Butka had been interned in Italy for two years until he was released in August 1942 and allowed to return to Albania. He then took to the mountains and became an outstanding leader of the Balli Kombëtar movement in the Korçë area. The nucleus of his guerrilla group, 70 seasoned and highly experienced fighters, could in an emergency become a thousand men strong. The Butka group had been giving valuable assistance to the fighters at Vlorë and had recovered from the military depots in the villages of Dardhe, Suli, Gračani, Progri, Pleshishti, and Verbinj all the agricultural production (corn, tobacco, wool, etc.) which the Italians had requisitioned and restored to its owners. His forces attacked Italians on Floq in January 1943, Vithkuq in March 1943. The fighting that took place with general commander Hysni Lepenica during August 1942 in Dukat, Mavrovë, Vadicë, Drashovicë and Llakatund with the help of Allied aviation resulted in victory. After Italian capitulation, Communists and Ballists sought the peaceful surrender of all remaining Italian forces. However Hysni Lepenica, instructed by the Central Committee of the National Front, went to Gërhot, where the Italian division "Ferrara" was located to take their weapons as agreed with the division general, but after Tilman's intervention the division general attacked Lepenica's group. At the battle of Gjorm that resulted in a decisive victory for the Albanians and the death of Italian Colonel Clementi, Lepenica committed suicide when he heard that clashes between the Communists and Ballists had started. In the autumn of 1943, Nazi Germany occupied all of Albania after Italy was defeated. Fearing reprisals from larger forces, the Balli Kombëtar made a deal with the Germans and formed a "neutral government" in Tirana with which it continued its war with the LNC and the Yugoslav Partisans.

The Balli Kombëtar were also active in Kosovo and Macedonia. Their forces were mainly centered in Mitrovica, Drenica, and Tetovo. However the Balli Kombëtar in these regions were more aggressive than the Ballists of Albania.

With the Germans driven out by the Yugoslav Partisans, and the Albanian communists claiming victory in Albania, Yugoslav leader Josip Broz Tito ordered the collection of weapons in Kosovo and the arrest of prominent Albanians. This was not well received among Albanians. Combined with the passions felt about Kosovo, it inflamed an insurrection. On 2 December 1944, Ballists from the Drenica region attacked the Trepča mining complex and other targets. Similarly in Kičevo, Gostivar and Tetovo, the remaining Ballists tried to remain in control of the region after the Yugoslav Partisans announced victory. The insurrection was later crushed and Ballist leaders were either imprisoned, exiled or killed due to their co-operation with the Nazis. Ballists were also active in Montenegro and Sandžak fighting the Chetniks in the area.

Between Italian surrender and German occupation
With the overthrow of Benito Mussolini's fascist regime and Italy's surrender in 1943, the Italian military and police establishment in Albania buckled. Five Italian divisions were disarmed by the Germans, but many Italians soldiers evaded capture and flocked to the guerrilla forces; the sixth Italian division in Albania (41st Infantry Division Firenze) went over to the Resistance. The communists took control of most of Albania's southern cities, except Vlorë, which was a Balli Kombëtar stronghold, and nationalists attached to the NLM gained control over much of the north.

British agents working in Albania during the war fed the Albanian resistance fighters with false information that the Allies were planning a major invasion of the Balkans and urged the disparate Albanian groups to unite their efforts. In August 1943, the Allies convinced communist and Balli Kombëtar leaders to sign the Mukje Agreement that would coordinate their guerrilla operations. The two groups eventually ended all collaboration, however, over a disagreement on the postwar status of Kosovo. The communists supported returning the region to Yugoslavia after the war with the hope that Tito would cede Kosovo back to Albania peacefully, while the nationalist Balli Kombëtar advocated keeping the province.

Mukje agreement
The Mukje Agreement was a treaty signed on August 2, 1943, in the Albanian village of Mukje between the nationalist Balli Kombëtar and the communist National Liberation Movement. The two forces would work together in fighting off Italy's control over Albania. However, a dispute arose concerning Kosovo. Whereas the Balli Kombetar proposed to fight for the integration of Kosovo into Albania, the Communist representatives objected fiercely. The Balli Kombetar labelled the partisans traitors to Albania and often called them "Tito's dogs" while the partisans accused the Balli Kombetar of collaborating with the Axis powers, thus igniting a war between the two that lasted a year.

German occupation
After the neutral government was formed, Ballist forces in collaboration with Germans fought the Communists extensively. Balli Kombëtar captured Struga in Macedonia after defeating the partisan garrison.

Tirana was liberated by the partisans on 17 November 1944 after a 20-day battle. The partisans entirely liberated Albania from German occupation on 29 November 1944. The National Liberation Army, which in October 1944 consisted of 70,000 regulars, also took part in the war alongside the antifascist coalition. The Albanian partisans also helped in the liberation of Kosovo, and assisted Tito's communist forces in liberating part of Montenegro and southern Bosnia and Herzegovina. By that time, the Soviet Army was also entering neighboring Yugoslavia, and the German Army was retreating from Greece into Yugoslavia.

Provisional Communist administration
The communist partisans had regrouped and gained control of much of southern Albania in January 1944. However, German attacks drove them out of certain areas until June. On May 29 the members of the National Liberation Front (as the movement was by then called) held the Congress of Përmet, which chose an Anti-Fascist Council of National Liberation to act as Albania's administration and legislature. Hoxha became the chairman of the council's executive committee and the National Liberation Army's supreme commander. The communist partisans defeated the last Balli Kombëtar forces in southern Albania by mid-summer 1944 and encountered only scattered resistance from the Balli Kombëtar when they entered central and northern Albania by the end of July. The British military mission urged the remnants of the nationalists not to oppose the communists' advance, and the Allies recalled their representatives with them to Italy. They did not evacuate nationalist leaders, although many fled.

Before the end of November, the main German troops had withdrawn from Tirana, and the communists took control by attacking it. A provisional government, which the communists had formed at Berat in October, administered Albania with Enver Hoxha as prime minister.

Aftermath
Albania stood in an unenviable position after World War II. The NLF's strong links with Yugoslavia's communists, who also enjoyed British military and diplomatic support, guaranteed that Belgrade would play a key role in Albania's postwar order. The Allies never recognized an Albanian government in exile or King Zog and failed to raise the question of Albania or its borders at any of the major wartime conferences. No reliable statistics on Albania's wartime losses exist, but the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration reported about 30,000 Albanian war dead, 200 destroyed villages, 18,000 destroyed houses, and about 100,000 people left homeless. Albanian official statistics claim somewhat higher losses.

Furthermore, thousands of Cham Albanians were driven out of Greece and accused of collaborating with the Axis occupation forces.

During the Nazi occupation, most Jews in Albania proper were saved. During the Axis occupation of Kosovo, Albanian collaborators persecuted Serb and Montenegrin settlers. Between 70,000 and 100,000 were expelled or transferred to concentration camps in Pristina and Mitrovica while nearly 10,000 are estimated to have been killed by the Vulnetari and other Albanian paramilitaries.

Foreign participation
There were a significant number of foreign citizens who participated in Albanian resistance during World War II. They were composed mostly of Italian soldiers who wished to continue the war against Nazi Germany, but other people from different nationalities participated also.

Italian participation
Albanian resistance began in 1940 with small çetas but it became a significant force in 1942. Even during this period there were small groups of Italian soldiers who deserted the fascist army and joined the Albanian partisans. When Italy capitulated in September 1943 there were already some 122 Italian partisans dispersed among various units in the Albanian National Liberation Army. When Italy capitulated there were some 100,000 Italian soldiers in Albania. They were from the Firenze, Parma, Perugia, Arezzo, Brennero divisions and other small independent units.

Many Italian forces surrendered to the advancing German army. Most of them were sent to concentration camps or for forced labour in Albania in the service of the German army, and there were also mass killings of Italian officers, mostly from the Perugia Division centred in Gjirokastër. Its general, Ernesto Chiminello, together with 150 officers, were executed in Saranda. Some other 32 officers were also killed in Kuç area three days later.

Some Italians took refuge in the mountains of Albania, while about 15,000 Italian soldiers surrendered to Albanian partisans. Some Italian troops led by Arnaldo Azzi, ex-commander of Firenze Division, created CITM, (Comando Italiano Truppe alla Montagna) (Italian Command of the Troops in the Mountains). Its objective was to resist German troops with help from the Albanian Partisans. They managed to create some units of Italian soldiers under their command, but these troops were dispersed in the months of October–November 1943, by the German winter offensive. The officers of this command were attached to British missions in Albania and were repatriated to Italy in August 1944.

There were also some 2,150 Italians who expressed their desire to continue the fight dispersed among Albanian partisan units. Some 472 Italian fighters were dispersed among Partisan shock brigades. A group of 137 men who created the Antonio Gramsci Battalion were attached to the First Shock Brigade and the Matteotti unit was attached to Third Shock Brigade. Some 401 were engaged in logistics roles and another 1,277 were attached to local commands. During the period 1943–1945 there were other units of Italian fighters among Albanian partisans, such as the 6th Battalion of the Fifth Shock Brigade, composed of some 200 Italians.

Wehrmacht deserters
Part of the German force which occupied Albania was composed of Wehrmacht recruits from the Caucasus region. The first Wehrmacht deserters went to Albanian Partisan units at the end of 1943 during the German winter offensive, but their numbers grew in the summer of 1944 during the German summer offensive. There was a great flow of Wehrmacht deserters during the end of conflict to Albania from September to October 1944 as German forces began withdrawing from Albania. In August 1944 a new unit was formed, Third Shock Brigade, from some 40 Wehrmacht deserters (mostly Armenians and Turkmen). Another 70 Armenians created their own unit attached to the First Shock Brigade in September 1944. There were also other small groups of Wehrmacht deserters dispersed among Albanian partisan forces, composed of Germans, Austrians, Frenchmen, Czechs and Poles.

Allied links and assistance

The British had tried mounting liaison operations into Italian-occupied Albania in early 1941, from what was then neutral Yugoslavia. These attempts were quickly abandoned after the Germans and Italians overran Yugoslavia. Thereafter, no attempt was made to contact Albanian resistance groups until 17 April 1943, when M.O.4, a branch of the liaison organisation SOE, dispatched a mission commanded by Lieutenant Colonel "Billy" MacLean, with Major David Smiley as his second-in-command. Rather than drop "blind" into Albania, the mission was dropped into North-West Greece, where British parties were already operating with Greek guerrillas. From there, they made their way into Albania on foot or on mules.

After several false starts, the mission made contact with the NLM. The first supply drop of arms and equipment was received on 27 June. The bulk of the stores received in this and subsequent drops were donated to the NLM, who were the dominant group in Southern Albania, and were used to equip the "First Partisan Brigade".

Later in 1943, SOE increased the size of the mission to Albania. The new commander was Brigadier Edmund Frank Davies of the Royal Ulster Rifles (nicknamed "Trotsky" at Sandhurst because of the "disciplined bolshevism" in his character), with Lieutenant Colonel Arthur Nicholls as Chief of Staff. MacLean and Smiley were withdrawn to SOE's new base at Bari in southern Italy to report. Although they noted that the Communist-led NLM appeared to be more interested in securing political power after the war than fighting the Germans, they recommended that SOE continue to supply them, while attempting to achieve agreement between the NLM and the other resistance movements.

In January 1944, the Germans attacked and overran the British mission HQ. Brigadier Davies was captured, while Lieutenant Colonel Nicholls died of exposure and post-operative shock after leading the survivors to safety.

During the remainder of 1944, SOE continued to supply the NLM, despite complaints from MacLean and Smiley, now running liaison parties with Abaz Kupi's group and the Balli Kombëtar in northern Albania, that the NLM were using these arms against their political opponents rather than the Germans. Smiley, MacLean and Julian Amery were evacuated to Italy at the end of October. SOE refused to evacuate Abaz Kupi on the same boat. He made his own escape from the country, and picked up by a Royal Naval vessel in the Adriatic.

title: World War II in Albania


text:
Hagåtña, Guam

Hagåtña, formerly Agana or Agaña, is a coastal village and the capital of the United States territory of Guam. From the 18th through mid-20th century, it was Guam's population center, but today, it is the second smallest of the island's 19 villages in both area and population. However, it remains one of the island's major commercial districts in addition to being the seat of government.

Etymology
"Hagåt" (also romanized as haga', with a glottal stop instead of a syllable-final "t") means "blood" in the Chamorro language. The suffix "-ña" can be translated as either the possessive pronouns his, hers or its in English (cognate to -nya in Malay, and niya in Tagalog), or a signification of greater comparative degree, similar to some uses of the English suffix "-er". There is much speculation that the indigenous peoples originally migrated from the village of Agat/Hagåt. Therefore, "Hagåtña" can be translated "his or her blood" possibly meaning "related to him, her or it", or it could be translated to what might roughly mean "more Hagåt", as in, an extension of the village of Hagåt. It could also mean "better Hagåt", or "more than, surpassing or superior to Hagåt" in a sense of being "more Hagåt than Hagåt itself". In 1998, the Guam Legislature changed the name from "Agana" back to the original Chamorro/Chamoru form. However, the name of the neighboring village Agana Heights remains unchanged.

Geography
Hagåtña is located at the mouth of the Hagåtña River on Guam's west coast. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 1 square mile (2.6 km²). It is (by direction of travel) the westernmost state or territorial capital city of the United States. The village is bounded by the sandy beaches of Agana Bay to the north, the Hagåtña River and associated wetlands to the east, and a cliff (above which is the village of Agana Heights) to the South. Several high-rise office buildings are in the center of the village, while the western portion of the city known as Anigua is more residential. Unlike many villages, central Hagåtña is divided into city blocks with shops and small restaurants throughout the center of the village. Highly populated residential areas in the villages of Mongmong-Toto-Maite, Sinajana, and Agana Heights surround Hagåtña.

Climate
The city has a tropical rainforest climate (Köppen: Af) similar to that found in the Amazon Basin. Rainfall is high especially from June to November, reaching 978 mm in a single month in August 1997, whilst the year 2004 was the wettest in history with 3539 mm.

History

Hagåtña was a prominent village before Guam's colonization by the Spanish. In 1668, the first Spanish missionary, Padre San Vitores arrived on the island. The family of Chief Kepuha donated land in Hagåtña enabling San Vitores to build the first church (Dulce Nombre de Maria Cathedral-Basilica) on Guam.

Under Spanish rule, and particularly the Spanish-Chamorro Wars, much of the indigenous population of Guam and other Mariana Islands was forced to relocate to the city. The remains of buildings from the Spanish administration can be seen in the Plaza de España located beside the cathedral of the Archdiocese of Agana. The remains of the Spanish Governor's Palace is here and is closer to the Department of Education than the Cathedral.

After Guam was ceded by Spain to the United States in the Spanish–American War of 1898, Agana remained the seat of government under U.S. Naval Administration. By 1940, the city's population had grown to about 10,000 containing nearly half of the island's residents. Villages had been established nearby for immigrants from the Caroline Islands.

Guam was captured by Japanese forces on December 8, 1941. The Japanese, renamed Guam Ōmiya-jima (ja.: 大宮島) or Great Shrine Island, and Agana Akashi (ja.: 明石) or Bright Stone. During Guam's 1944 liberation from the Japanese during World War II, the city was heavily damaged by U.S. naval bombardment. Many former residents settled in other parts of Guam after the war. As part of Guam's reconstruction plan, the U.S. Navy constructed new straight city streets that passed through existing lots and created many plots of land with multiple owners. This has hindered the development of the city to the present day. In December 1944 Guam was the scene of the Agana race riot, between black and white servicemen stationed on the island.

Today, despite a resident population of about 1,000 (less than 1% of Guam's total), the city remains the seat of the territorial government. Its historic sites are major attractions for visitors. Hagåtña is served by Antonio B. Won Pat International Airport in Tamuning and Barrigada.

Culture
As Guam's historic population and administrative center, many traditional celebrations take place in Hagåtña. On December 8, Santa Marian Kamalen, Patroness of the Mariana Islands, is honored with a procession in which a statue of the patroness is pulled on a cart amid the prayers of thousands of the island's Catholics. Guam's most celebrated patriotic holiday, Liberation Day, is on July 21. The annual Liberation Day Parade takes place on Marine Corps Drive in Hagåtña. In addition to the historic sites at the Plaza de España and the Basilica, Latte Stone Park and the Chamorro Village shopping area offer further information about the island's history and culture.

Demographics
The U.S. Census Bureau has the municipality a single census-designated place.

Infrastructure and government
The island's capital, the legislature, the governor's office and other government offices are in Hagåtña. The Government House (Guma I Taotao Guam), traditionally the governor's official residence, is situated above the cliff but technically within the city limit of Hagåtña. Adelup Point is the home of the Ricardo J. Bordallo Governor's Complex.

The Guam Department of Corrections operates the Hagåtña Detention Facility in Hagåtña.

Notable federal government agencies in Hagåtña include the District Court of Guam at 520 West Soledad Avenue, the United States Attorney at Sirena Plaza, 108 Hernan Cortez, Suite 500, and the United States Postal Service Post Office at 223 West Chalan Santo Papa.

Twin towns and sister cities
Hagåtña is twinned with:
 * 🇲🇽 Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico
 * 🇵🇭 Quezon City, Philippines, since October 2000
 * 🇵🇭 Malolos, Bulacan, Philippines
 * 🇵🇭 Legazpi, Albay, Philippines

Public schools
The Guam Department of Education serves the entire island of Guam.

Hagåtña residents are zoned to:
 * Carlos L. Taitano Elementary School (Sinajana)
 * Jose L. G. Rios Middle School (Piti)
 * John F. Kennedy High School (Tamuning)

In regards to the Department of Defense Education Activity (DoDEA), Hagatna is divided between two school transportation zones. People living north of Guam Highway 4 are zoned to Andersen Elementary and Andersen Middle School, while people living south of Guam Highway 4 are zoned to McCool Elementary and McCool Middle School. Guam High School is the island's sole DoDEA high school.

Private schools
Private schools in Hagåtña include:
 * Academy of Our Lady of Guam (Catholic girls' high school in Hagåtña)
 * Harvest Christian Academy (Christian school in Mong Mong Toto Maite)

Public libraries
The Guam Public Library System operates the Nieves M. Flores Memorial Library at 254 Martyr Street in Hagåtña.

Sites of interest

 * Gregorio D. Perez Marina (formerly, Agana Boat Basin)
 * Agana Shopping Center
 * Chamorro Village
 * Chief Quipuha Park
 * Dulce Nombre de Maria Cathedral Basilica
 * Fort Santa Agueda
 * Guam Congress Building
 * Guam Museum
 * Latte Stone Park
 * Paseo Stadium
 * Plaza de España
 * Ricardo J. Bordallo Governor's Complex
 * San Antonio Bridge (Tollai Achote)
 * Sirena Park

Notable people

 * Sian Proctor, commercial astronaut
 * Jason Cunliffe, Guam international footballer.
 * Ann Curry, journalist. Born in Agaña.
 * Venancio Roberto, two-day Governor of Guam.
 * Kimberley Santos, Miss World 1980 (succeeded).
 * Frank Camacho, mixed martial artist

title: Hagåtña, Guam


text:
Adam Leonard (singer-songwriter)

Adam Leonard (born 27 March 1969) is an English singer-songwriter working mainly in the folk, psychedelic and electronic music fields. His style is often described as lo-fi and the subject matter of his songs somewhat unconventional. Since his debut album How Music Sounds in 2003, he has released many EPs, albums and mini-albums on various small labels. Live performances, which have so far been limited to the UK (Manchester, London and Northern Ireland) are as intriguing as they are rare. In 2008 he opened for British folk musician Steve Ashley. He regularly collaborates with other musicians, most notably Pat Gubler (P.G. Six), Ashley Cooke (Pulco), Gareth Davies, and Steven Collins of The Owl Service, a band for which Leonard provided vocals for their 2010 album The View From A Hill. At the close of 2010, a limited edition album entitled Nature Recordings was released on vinyl only by the London label The Great Pop Supplement. In 2011, Leonard provided the soundtrack to Claudia Heindel's award-winning independent film, Lucky Seven. In 2012, Nature Recordings was issued on CD by Manchester-based label The Northwestern Series.

In 2013 Leonard formed Invaderband, a four-piece "Artrock/Garagerock/Krautrock" group and began gigging locally around Northern Ireland, including a slot at Other Voices in 2014. Occasional solo gigs still took place, including opening for Nick Harper.

Leonard was the winner of UK City of Culture 2013 Resonate Award for Best Song ("My Love").

In 2014, he embarked on the Octopus Project releasing eight albums over an eight-month period. In 2015, Invaderband released two singles ("The Implausible Man" and "Attack of the Pod People"), the latter making the BBC 6 Music playlist in December 2015. Invaderband's debut album was released in January 2017. In September 2017, the Invaderband album was shortlisted for the Northern Ireland Music Prize

In 2018, Leonard released a solo 7" single "Entkommen", on the Polytechnic Youth label, and also collaborated with Irish/French/New York band, Warriors Of The Dystotheque, on the I Know You'll Never Die EP released by Dublin's Reckless Records. The two main tracks were remixed by Le Galaxie and Richard March of Bentley Rhythm Ace.

In January 2021 a new Invaderband album was announced via invaderband.com. The first single from the album 'I Won't Remember You' was released on March 12

Invaderband's 2nd album "Peter Gabriel" was released September 2021. The sleeve was a painting of Peter Gabriel by Luke Haines. The band played the Other Voices festival in November and the album received national radio play in the UK and Ireland, favourable reviews, and ended up in a number of ‘Best albums of 2021’ lists

Leonard's solo electronic album "Rendlesham" was released on cassette by The Dark Outside late 2021, and on vinyl by Polytechnic Youth July 2022. The album was reviewed by The Quietus and Fortean Times

Selected discography

 * How Music Sounds album, 2003 (Real Wood, RW010)
 * How Real Is Real? mini-album, 2004 (Apport)
 * Sgt. Pepper remake, 2005 (joint release by Real Wood/Bottled Music, BOTLP22).
 * Leonardism album, 2007 (RW021) (Real Wood, RW021)
 * It Happened on a Day 10" EP, 2007 (Great Pop Supplement, GPS23)
 * Dan & Headless Bill – REDLIP mini-album, 2008 (Real Wood) – reissued by Folkwit Records, 2011
 * To Give Up You Have To Bloody Start Live EP, 2008 (Real Wood, RW023)
 * Nature Recordings vinyl LP, 2010 (Great Pop Supplement, GPS64)
 * The View From A Hill, with The Owl Service, 2010 (Rif Mountain, RM-004)
 * Nature Recordings CD album, 2012 (The Northwestern Series, Pendle 01)
 * The Man Of Lists with Pulco, 2012 (Folkwit Records, f0079)
 * Click Click Drone EP (by Echoes In Rows), 2013 (Tectona Grandis, TEAK01)
 * Songs For Abandoned Tube Stations by Relycs, 3-track cassette EP, 2013 (No label)
 * Sightings EP, as A Farewell To Hexes, 2013 (Tectona Grandis, TEAK02)
 * Yesterday, Perhaps (Songs Of The Kitchen Cynics) V/A compilation, 2013 (Les Enfants Du Paradiddle, ENF100)
 * Octopus Part 1 download album, 2014 (self-release via bandcamp)
 * Octopus Part 2 download album, 2014 (self-release via bandcamp)
 * Octopus Part 3 download album, 2014 (self-release via bandcamp)
 * Octopus Part 4 download album, 2014 (self-release via bandcamp)
 * Octopus Part 5 download album, 2014 (self-release via bandcamp)
 * Octopus Part 6 download album, 2015 (self-release via bandcamp)
 * Octopus Part 7 download album, 2015 (self-release via bandcamp)
 * Octopus Part 8 download album, 2015 (self-release via bandcamp)
 * Invaderband "The Implausible Man" 2 track CD single, 2015 (self-release)
 * Invaderband "Attack of the Pod People" 3 track CD single, 2015 (self-release)
 * Last Night I Dreamt Of Hibrihteselle with Richard Moult, 2015 (Wild Silence, WS008/WS09)
 * Invaderband "Invaderband" – self-titled debut album (LP/CD) (Tectona Grandis, TEAK005LP / TEAK005CD), 2017
 * Entkommen Parts 1 & 2 - 7" single (Polytechnic Youth, PY64), 2018
 * Octopus Part 9 download album, 2018 (self-release via bandcamp)
 * I Know You'll Never Die EP with Warriors Of The Dystotheque (Reckless Records, RR38), 2018
 * Things In The Shadows EP with Warriors Of The Dystotheque (Glasstone Records), 2019
 * Rooms album from United Bible Studies, 2019 (currently unreleased)
 * It's Another Christmas - single, (self-release via bandcamp) 2019
 * The Isolation Tapes V/A compilation (Castles In Space, CIS062MC), 2020
 * Invaderband "I Won't Remember You" single (Tectona Grandis, TEAK09), 2021
 * Invaderband "Handcuffed Man Shoots Himself" single (Tectona Grandis, TEAK10), 2021
 * A Farewell To Hexes "Rendlesham" (TDO Cassettes, TDO042), 2021
 * Invaderband "Peter Gabriel" album (Tectona Grandis, TEAK11), 2021
 * Invaderband "Cheese Slices" single (Tectona Grandis, TEAK14), 2022
 * A Farewell To Hexes "Rendlesham" (Polytchnic Youth, PY160), 2022
 * Echoes In Rows  'Click Click Drone' mini-album (Tectona Grandis, TEAK16), 2022
 * Octopus Part 10 download album (self-release via bandcamp), 2022
 * Adam Leonard  'Dark Dog' 7" single (Western Hemlock, WH002), 2022

title: Adam Leonard (singer-songwriter)