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Lingayen Gulf

Lingayen Gulf is a large gulf on northwestern Luzon in the Philippines, stretching 56 km. It is framed by the provinces of Pangasinan and La Union and sits between the Zambales Mountains and the Cordillera Central. The Agno River and the Balili River drain into Lingayen Gulf.

Geography

The gulf has numerous islands, the most famous of which are in the Hundred Islands National Park. This tourist attraction features 123 islands, the majority of which are small in size. The largest island is Cabarruyan Island, which constitutes the municipality of Anda, Pangasinan, followed by Santiago Island at the mouth of the Gulf.

The shore from Labrador to San Fabian is characterized by a long grey-sand beach. Other well-known beaches are at Bonuan-Tondaligan, Bolinao and San Fernando City. The waters of Lingayen Gulf are murky due to its sandy bottom. Coral reefs were all but destroyed by dynamite fishing, although efforts are made to restore some, especially inside the Hundred Islands National Park.

A number of cities are found along the gulf's coast such as Dagupan and Alaminos in Pangasinan, and San Fernando City, the capital of La Union. Lingayen, the capital of Pangasinan, also lies on the shores of the gulf.

River sources
The gulf has five major river sources. Flowing from the province of Pangasinan in the south are the Agno, Dagupan and Angalacan-Bued rivers. From the east in the province of La Union flow the Aringay and Bauang rivers.

History

During World War II, Lingayen Gulf proved a strategically important theatre of war between American and Japanese forces. On 22 December 1941, the Japanese 14th Army under Lieutenant General Masaharu Homma landed on the eastern part of the gulf at San Fernando City, Bauang, Santiago, Caba, Aringay, Agoo, and Santo Tomas, where they engaged in a number of relatively minor skirmishes with the defenders, a poorly equipped contingent of predominantly Filipino and American troops, and managed to successfully invade and occupy the gulf. Following the defeat, the next day General MacArthur issued the order to retreat from Luzon and withdraw to Bataan. For the next three years, the gulf remained under Japanese occupation prior to the Lingayen Gulf landings.

At 09:30 on 9 January 1945, the U.S. 6th Army conducted an amphibious landing on the gulf, following a devastating naval bombardment, with 68,000 troops landing on the first day alone, and a total of 203,608 in following landings along a 20 mi beachhead, stretching from Sual, Lingayen, and Dagupan (XIV Corps) in the west, and San Fabian (I Corps) into the east.

Despite the Americans' success in driving out the Japanese army encamped at the gulf, the Americans suffered relatively heavy losses, particularly on their convoys due to Japanese kamikaze suicide attacks. From 13 December 1944 through 13 January 1945, a total of 24 ships were sunk and 67 damaged by kamikaze planes, including the battleships USS Mississippi (BB-41) and USS Colorado (BB-45) (accidentally hit by friendly fire), the heavy cruiser USS Louisville, the light cruiser USS Columbia (CL-56), and the minesweepers USS Long (DMS-12) and USS Hovey (DMS-11).

Following the amphibious landings, Lingayen Gulf was turned into a vast supply depot for the rest of the war to support the American and Filipino assaults on Manila and the rest of Luzon, and from there to Okinawa.

Commemoration

On January 9, 2008, Gov. Amado Espino Jr. and Vice Gov. Marlyn Primicias-Agabas established an annual commemoration to honor the war veterans. The resolution named January 9 as Pangasinan Veterans' Day. On the 63rd anniversary of the Lingayen Gulf landings, President Fidel Ramos (a West Point graduate) appealed to U.S. President George W. Bush on behalf of 24,000 surviving war veterans to pass two legislative bills pending since 1968 in the U.S. House of Representatives — the Filipino Veterans’ Equity Act of 2006 and the Filipino Veterans’ Equity of 2005 sponsored by former Senator Daniel Inouye.

Economy
Fishing and salt-making are the primary industries on Lingayen Gulf. In fact, the name Pangasinan literally means "place where salt is made". Salt is collected from seawater through evaporation, leaving the crystalline salt behind.

Lingayen Gulf is also home to the 1200 megawatt Sual Power Station, the Philippines largest coal power plant.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Lingayen Gulf


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Chatham

Chatham may refer to:

Canada

 * Chatham Islands (British Columbia)
 * Chatham Sound, British Columbia
 * Chatham, New Brunswick, a former town, now a neighbourhood of Miramichi
 * Chatham (electoral district), New Brunswick, a former provincial electoral district
 * Chatham Parish, New Brunswick
 * Roman Catholic Diocese of Chatham, New Brunswick
 * Chatham Township, Ontario, a former township
 * Chatham, a community in Chatham-Kent, Ontario

England

 * Chatham, Kent, a town
 * Chatham Dockyard, frequently referred to simply as "Chatham"
 * Chatham Historic Dockyard, a maritime museum that occupies part of the site of Chatham Dockyard
 * Chatham (UK Parliament constituency), existed 1832–1950
 * Chatham (ward), in the London Borough of Hackney
 * Chatham Green, Essex

United States

 * Chatham, Alaska, known after its Chatham Seaplane Base
 * Chatham, Connecticut, the name for East Hampton, Connecticut up to 1915
 * Chatham, Florida, an unincorporated community within Everglades National Park
 * Chatham County, Georgia, a coastal county
 * Chatham, Illinois, a village
 * Chatham, Chicago, Illinois, a neighborhood
 * Chatham, Iowa
 * Chatham, Bracken County, Kentucky
 * Chatham, Louisiana
 * Chatham, Massachusetts, a town on Cape Cod
 * Chatham (CDP), Massachusetts, village in the town
 * Chatham, Michigan, a village
 * Chatham, Mississippi
 * Chatham, New Hampshire, a town
 * Chatham Borough, New Jersey
 * Chatham Township, New Jersey, a township that adjoins the borough
 * Chatham (town), New York
 * Chatham (village), New York
 * Chatham County, North Carolina
 * Chatham, Licking County, Ohio, an unincorporated community
 * Chatham, Medina County, Ohio, an unincorporated community
 * Chatham, Pennsylvania
 * Chatham, Virginia, a town
 * Chatham Township (disambiguation)
 * Chatham Manor, a mansion in Virginia that was built between 1768 and 1771
 * Chatham Square, New York City
 * Chatham Strait, Alaska
 * Chatham Village (Pittsburgh), Pennsylvania, a National Historic Landmark and community in Pittsburgh

Elsewhere

 * Chatham, Caerphilly, a location in Wales
 * Chatham Island (Western Australia), Australia
 * Chatham Island, Chile
 * a former name for San Cristóbal Island, Galapagos, Ecuador
 * Chatham Island (Andaman and Nicobar Islands), India
 * Chatham Islands, New Zealand
 * Chatham Island, New Zealand, the largest island in the group
 * Chatham, Hilversum, a mini mall in Hilversum in the Netherlands

People

 * Chatham (surname)
 * Chatham Roberdeau Wheat (1826–1862), American and Confederate officer, politician, lawyer and mercenary
 * William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham (1708–1778), British statesman, known toponymically as Chatham
 * John Pitt, 2nd Earl of Chatham (1756–1835), British statesman and general

Businesses

 * Chatham (grocer), a defunct US grocery chain in Michigan
 * Chatham Motor Car Company
 * Chatham Manufacturing Company
 * Chatham Theatre, New York City
 * The Chatham, Monte Carlo, Monaco, a bar

Military

 * HMS Chatham, fifteen ships of the Royal Navy
 * USS Chatham, four ships of the U.S. Navy
 * Raid on the Medway, also known as Battle of Chatham, a decisive Dutch naval attack during the Second Anglo-Dutch War
 * CFB Chatham, Chatham, New Brunswick, Canada, a former Canadian Forces base

Schools

 * Chatham University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States, a private university
 * Chatham High School (disambiguation), various schools in the United States and one in Australia
 * Chatham Grammar School for Girls, Kent, England

Transportation

 * Chatham Road, Tsim Sha Tsui East, Hong Kong
 * Chatham railway station (disambiguation)

Other uses

 * Earl of Chatham and Baron Chatham, extinct titles in the Peerage of Great Britain
 * Chatham (film), directed by Daniel Adams
 * Chatham (horse), Australian thoroughbred racehorse that raced from 1931 to 1934

title: Chatham


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User talk:Thepurpleblob

Greetings! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. If you have questions or doubts of any sort, do not hesitate to post them on the Village Pump, somebody will respond ASAP. Other helpful pages include: Have fun! --Jiang 13:35 17 Jul 2003 (UTC)
 * Welcome, newcomers
 * How does one edit a page
 * Manual of style
 * Naming conventions

British Rail Class 37 37025
Another editor has added the "prod" template to the article British Rail Class 37 37025, suggesting that it be deleted according to the proposed deletion process. All contributions are appreciated, but the editor doesn't believe it satisfies Wikipedia's criteria for inclusion, and has explained why in the article (see also What Wikipedia is not and Notability). Please either work to improve the article if the topic is worthy of inclusion in Wikipedia or discuss the relevant issues at Talk:British Rail Class 37 37025. If you remove the prod template, the article will not be deleted, but note that it may still be sent to Articles for deletion, where it may be deleted if consensus to delete is reached. --TruthbringerToronto (Talk | contribs) 03:36, 9 December 2006 (UTC)

RfD nomination of British Rail Class 37 37025
I have nominated for discussion. Your opinions on the matter are welcome; please participate in the discussion by adding your comments at the discussion page. Thank you.  BG  7   14:39, 26 April 2008 (UTC)

British Rail Class 37 37025 listed at Redirects for discussion
An editor has asked for a discussion to address the redirect British Rail Class 37 37025. Since you had some involvement with the British Rail Class 37 37025 redirect, you might want to participate in the redirect discussion if you have not already done so. Pkbwcgs (talk) 16:39, 5 September 2018 (UTC)

title: User talk:Thepurpleblob


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Talk:Limousin

Comment
Chaudra pas oblidar que lo Lemosin administratiu e los Lemosin istorique diferen un pauc, sens oblidar lo Lemosin linguistic, jos dialecte dau nòrd -occitan que se perseguis en defòra daus limites actuaus dins lo 2/3 nòrd dau Peiregòrd(despartament de Dordonha). La pita mapa en rotge dau Lemosin merca los limites administratius de la region Lemosin emb los tres despartaments frances de Nauta -Vinhana(87), Corrèza(19), Cruesa(23). Au niveu dialectau chau apondre lo terç nòrd dau despartament de Dordonha(24)e una benda estrecha de la Charenta lemosina(17) a l'Est d'Angolesme.

 * Although the comment above resembles Catalan a great deal, it is not Catalan; my guess is Occitan. Mathglot (talk) 08:02, 11 July 2015 (UTC)

External links modified
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title: Talk:Limousin


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Northfield

Northfield may refer to:

United Kingdom

 * Northfield, Aberdeen, Scotland
 * Northfield, Edinburgh, Scotland
 * Northfield, Birmingham, England
 * Northfield (Kettering BC Ward), Northamptonshire, England

United States

 * Northfield, Connecticut
 * Northfield, Illinois
 * Northfield, Indiana
 * Northfield, Maine
 * Northfield, Massachusetts, a New England town
 * Northfield (CDP), Massachusetts, a census-designated place in the town
 * Northfield, Michigan, an unincorporated community
 * Northfield, Minnesota
 * Northfield, New Jersey
 * Northfield, New Hampshire
 * Northfield, Ohio
 * Northfield, Vermont, town
 * Northfield (CDP), Vermont, the main settled area in the town
 * Northfield (village), Vermont, smaller village within the CDP; no longer incorporated
 * Northfield, Wisconsin, town
 * Northfield (community), Wisconsin, unincorporated community

Elsewhere

 * Northfield, South Australia
 * Northfield Parish, New Brunswick, Canada
 * Northfield, Nova Scotia (disambiguation), several places in Canada
 * Northfield, Quebec, in the city of Gracefield, Canada

Education

 * Northfield Academy, secondary school in Aberdeen, Scotland
 * Northfield Mount Hermon School, boarding school in Massachusetts towns of Northfield and Gill
 * Northfield School & Sports College, comprehensive secondary school in Billingham, England
 * Northfield School of the Liberal Arts, classical Christian school in Wichita, Kansas
 * PAREF Northfield School, an all-boys private school in the Philippines

Companies

 * Northfield Laboratories

Other uses

 * "Northfield", hymn by Jeremiah Ingalls

title: Northfield


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Talk:Medusa (disambiguation)

I believe that this should be moved to Medusa (disambiguation) and Medusa (mythology) be moved to Medusa. User:Gracefool has also suggested this on talk:Medusa (mythology). -Sean Curtin 01:45, Aug 27, 2004 (UTC)

 * I agree wholeheartedly with this. I'm surprised anyone ever thought otherwise and that it hasn;t been fixed yet. DreamGuy 07:37, July 13, 2005 (UTC)
 * support -Irpen 07:02, July 17, 2005 (UTC)
 * support. –Hajor 04:50, 19 July 2005 (UTC)
 * Support. violet/riga (t) 14:23, 19 July 2005 (UTC)

This article has been renamed as the result of a move request. violet/riga (t) 14:23, 19 July 2005 (UTC)

Film distributors
It would be good to see an article within this heading for Medusa Distibution, the old film distributor who released a lot of horror and cult movies in the 70s and 80s. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 193.39.157.76 (talk) 12:32, 16 September 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:Medusa (disambiguation)


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Human hair color

Human hair color is the pigmentation of human hair follicles and shafts due to two types of melanin: eumelanin and pheomelanin. Generally, the more melanin present, the darker the hair. Its tone depends on the ratio of black or brown eumelanin to yellow or red pheomelanin. Melanin levels can vary over time, causing a person's hair color to change, and one person can have hair follicles of more than one color. Some hair colors are associated with some ethnic groups because of the observed higher frequency of particular hair colors within their geographical region, e.g. straight, dark hair amongst East Asians, Southeast Asians, Polynesians, some Central Asians, and Native Americans; a large variety of dark, fair, curly, straight, wavy or bushy amongst Europeans, West Asians, some Central Asians, and North Africans; and curly, dark, and uniquely helical hair amongst Sub Saharan Africans. Bright red hair is found in some European populations, and hair turns gray, white, or "silver" with age.

Genetics and biochemistry of hair color

The full genetic basis of hair color is complex and not fully understood. Regulatory DNA is believed to be closely involved in pigmentation in humans in general, and a 2011 study by Branicki et al. identified 13 DNA variations across 11 different genes that could be used to predict hair color.

Two types of pigment give hair its color, black-brown eumelanin and reddish-brown/reddish-yellow pheomelanin, synthesized by melanocytes. Inside the melanocytes, tyrosine is converted into L-DOPA and then L-dopaquinone, which in turn is formed into pheomelanin or eumelanin.

Different hair color phenotypes arise primarily as a result of varying ratios of these two pigments in the human population, although Europeans show the greatest range in pigmentation overall. In addition, other genetic and environmental factors can affect hair color in humans; for instance, mutations in the melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R) gene can lead to red or auburn hair, and exposure to ultraviolet radiation can damage hair and alter its pigmentation. Ultraviolet radiation (UV radiation) triggers greater synthesis of several compounds, including pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC), α-MSH, and ACTH, the result being increased eumelanin production. UV radiation most commonly comes from the sun, and thus populations from places closer to the equator tend to have darker hair, because eumelanin is generally more photoprotective than pheomelanin.

Pheomelanin colors hair orange and red. Eumelanin, which has two subtypes of black or brown, determines the darkness of the hair color; more black eumelanin leads to blacker hair and more brown eumelanin to browner hair. All human hair has some amount of both pigments. Over 95% of melanin content in black and brown hair is eumelanin. Pheomelanin is generally found in elevated concentrations in blond and red hair, representing about one-third of total melanin content. If there is no black eumelanin, the result is strawberry blond. Blond hair results from small amounts of brown eumelanin with no black eumelanin.

Natural hair colors
Natural hair color can be black, brown, blonde and red.

Color shade scale
The Fischer–Saller scale, named after Eugen Fischer and Karl Saller is used in physical anthropology and medicine to determine the shades of hair color. The scale uses the following designations: A (very light blond), B to E (light blond), F to L (blond), M to O (dark blond), P to T (light brown to brown), U to Y (dark brown to black) and Roman numerals I to IV (red) and V to VI (red-blond).

Black hair
Black hair or jet black hair is the darkest hair color. It has large amounts of eumelanin and is denser than other hair colors and is the commonly seen hair color in Asia and Africa due the fact that the people in these regions tend to have lower levels of tyrosinase in their bodies. Black eumelanin secretion causes the hair to turn black, which indicates that the MC1R is in the active state. Jet black hair, the darkest shade will not have a warm, neutral tone but a sheen which can seem almost blue, like the iridescence of a raven's wing; hence, sometimes referred to as raven-black. Jet black hair appears to have reflective silver color in bright sunlight.

Brown hair
Brown hair is the second most common human hair color, after black. Brown hair is characterized by higher levels of eumelanin and lower levels of pheomelanin. Of the two types of eumelanin (black and brown), brown-haired people have brown eumelanin; they also usually have medium-thick strands of hair. Brown-haired girls or women of European, West Asian or North African descent are often known as brunettes.

Chestnut hair is a hair color which is a reddish shade of brown hair. In contrast to auburn hair, the reddish shade of chestnut is darker. Chestnut hair is common among the native peoples of Northern, Central, Western, and Eastern Europe and is also found in Asia Minor, West Asia and North Africa.

Auburn hair

Auburn hair ranges along a spectrum of light to dark red-brown shades. The chemicals which cause auburn hair are eumelanin (brown) and pheomelanin (red), with a higher proportion of red-causing pheomelanin than is found in average brown hair. It is most commonly found in individuals of Northern and Western European descent, but is extant in West and Central Asia and North Africa also. It can also be the result of a mutation in the melanocortin 1 receptor gene.

Red hair
Red hair ranges from light strawberry blond shades to titian, copper, and completely red. Red hair has the highest amounts of pheomelanin, around 67%, and usually low levels of eumelanin. At 1–2% of the west Eurasian population, it is the least common hair color in the world. It is most prominently found in the British Isles and in Udmurtia. Scotland has the highest proportion of redheads; 13 percent of the population has red hair and approximately 40 percent carry the recessive redhead gene. Red hair can also occur in Southern Europe, West Asia, North Africa and Central Asia.

Blond hair
Blond (sometimes blonde for women) hair ranges from pale white (platinum blond) to dark gold blond. Strawberry blond, a mixture of blond and red hair, is a much rarer type containing the most pheomelanin. Blond hair can have almost any proportion of pheomelanin and eumelanin, but has only small amounts of both. More pheomelanin creates a more golden or strawberry blond color, and more eumelanin creates an ash or sandy blond color. Blond hair is most commonly found in Northern and Northeastern Europeans and their descendants but can be found spread around most of Europe and also among West Asians and North Africans at lower frequencies. Studies in 2012 showed that naturally blond hair of Melanesians is caused by a recessive mutation in tyrosinase-related protein 1 (TYRP1). In the Solomon Islands, 26% of the population carry the gene; however, it is absent outside of Oceania.

Gray and white hair
Gray or white hair is not caused by a true gray or white pigment, but is due to a lack of pigmentation and melanin. The clear hairs appear as gray or white because of the way light is reflected from the hairs. Gray hair color typically occurs naturally as people age (see aging or achromotrichia below).

Marie Antoinette syndrome is a proposed phenomenon in which sudden whitening is caused by stress. It has been found that some hairs can become colored again when stress is reduced.

Aging or achromotrichia
Children born with some hair colors may find it gradually darkens as they grow. Many blond, light brown, or red haired infants experience this. This is caused by genes being turned on and off during early childhood and puberty.

Changes in hair color typically occur naturally as people age, eventually turning the hair gray and then white. This is called achromotrichia. Achromotrichia normally begins in the early to mid-twenties in men and late twenties in women. More than 60 percent of Americans have some gray hair by age 40. The age at which graying begins seems almost entirely due to genetics. Sometimes people are born with gray hair because they inherit the trait.

The order in which graying happens is usually: nose hair, hair on the head, beard, body hair, eyebrows.

Hair coloring
Hair color can be changed by a chemical process. Hair coloring is classed as "permanent" or "semi-permanent".

Permanent hair color means that the hair's structure has been chemically altered until it is eventually cut away. This does not mean that the synthetic color will remain permanently. During the process, the natural color is removed, one or more shades, and synthetic color has been put in its place. All pigments wash out of the cuticle. Natural color stays in much longer and artificial will fade the fastest (depending on the color molecules and the form of the dye pigments).

Permanent hair color gives the most flexibility because it can make hair lighter or darker as well as changing tone and color, but there are negatives. Constant (monthly or six-weekly) maintenance is essential to match new hair growing in to the rest of the hair, and to remedy fading. A one-color permanent dye creates a flat, uniform color across the whole head, which can look unnatural and harsh, especially in a fair shade. To combat this, the modern trend is to use multiple colors—usually one color as a base with added highlights or lowlights in other shades.

Semi-permanent color washes out over a period of time—typically four to six weeks, so root regrowth is less noticeable. The final color of each strand is affected by its original color and porosity, so there will be subtle variations in color across the head—more natural and less harsh than a permanent dye. However, this means that gray and white hair will not dye to the same color as the rest of the head (in fact, some white hair will not absorb the color at all). A few gray and white hairs will blend in visually, but semi-permanent dye alone will not usually give the desired result where there is a lot of gray or white hair present. Sometimes a mixture of dyes is used while hair is greying: semi-permanent as a base color, with permanent highlights.

Semi-permanent hair color cannot lighten hair. Hair can only be lightened using chemical lighteners, such as bleach. Bleaching is always permanent because it removes the natural pigment.

"Rinses" are a form of temporary hair color, usually applied to hair during a shampoo and washed out again the next time the hair is washed.

title: Human hair color


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Nottingham (disambiguation)

Nottingham is a city in England, and the county town of Nottinghamshire.

Nottingham may also refer to:

United Kingdom

 * Nottingham (UK Parliament constituency), 1295–1885
 * Nottingham (European Parliament constituency), 1979–1994

United States

 * Nottingham, Indiana
 * Nottingham, Maryland
 * Nottingham, Prince George's County, Maryland
 * Nottingham, New Hampshire
 * Nottingham, New Jersey
 * Nottingham, Ohio
 * Nottingham, West Virginia
 * Nottingham Township, Harrison County, Ohio
 * Nottingham Township, Pennsylvania
 * East Nottingham Township, Pennsylvania
 * West Nottingham Township, Pennsylvania
 * Livermore, California, formerly Nottingham

People

 * Earl of Nottingham, a title in the Peerage of England, including a list of men who have borne this title
 * Edward Nottingham (born 1948), United States federal judge
 * Jacob Nottingham, American baseball player
 * Wayne B. Nottingham, physics professor at Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Ships

 * HMS Nottingham, various Royal Navy ships
 * MV Nottingham (1941), a merchant ship sunk in 1941
 * MV Nottingham (1949), a merchant ship scrapped in 1971
 * Nottingham, an East Indiaman

Fiction

 * Sheriff of Nottingham, the fictional villain in the Robin Hood legend
 * Ian Nottingham, a character from the Witchblade comic and television series
 * Robin Hood (2010 film) (original title: Nottingham)

Other uses

 * Nottingham (HM Prison), a Category B men's prison in Nottingham, England
 * Nottingham (speedway), a 1930s motorcycle racing team
 * Nottingham Cooperative, a housing cooperative in Madison, Wisconsin
 * "Nottingham Lace", a song by guitarist Buckethead from the 2005 album Enter the Chicken
 * Nottingham system, a modification of the Bloom–Richardson grading system for breast tumors

title: Nottingham (disambiguation)


text:
Oakdale

Oakdale or Oak Dale may refer to:

Australia

 * Oakdale, New South Wales
 * Oakdale, Queensland, a locality in the South Burnett Region

Canada

 * Rural Municipality of Oakdale No. 320, Saskatchewan
 * Oakdale Golf & Country Club, North York, Toronto, Ontario, Canada

United Kingdom

 * Oakdale, Caerphilly
 * Oakdale, Dorset

United States

 * Oakdale, California
 * Oakdale, Connecticut
 * Oakdale, Illinois
 * Oakdale, Indiana
 * Oakdale, Iowa
 * Oak Dale, Howard County, Iowa
 * Oakdale, Louisiana
 * Oakdale, Louisville, Kentucky
 * Oakdale, a neighborhood in Dedham, Massachusetts
 * Oakdale, Holyoke, Massachusetts
 * Oakdale, West Boylston, Massachusetts
 * Oakdale, Minnesota
 * Oakdale, Missouri
 * Oakdale, Nebraska
 * Oakdale, New York
 * Oakdale, Pennsylvania
 * Oakdale, Tennessee
 * Oakdale, Texas
 * Oak Dale, Texas
 * Oakdale, Wisconsin
 * Oakdale (town), Wisconsin
 * Oakdale Township (disambiguation), any of several townships within the United States
 * Toyota Oakdale Theatre, in Wallingford, Connecticut

Historical sites

 * Oakdale Historic District (Mobile, Alabama)
 * Oakdale Historic District (Fort Wayne, Indiana)
 * Oakdale School (Madison, Indiana)
 * Oakdale District, listed on the NRHP in Louisville, Kentucky
 * Oakdale Manor, the former home of early 20th century Maryland Governor Edwin Warfield
 * Oakdale Village Historic District, listed on the NRHP in West Boylston, Massachusetts
 * Oakdale Cotton Mill Village, in Jamestown, North Carolina
 * South Oakdale Historic District, in Medford, Oregon
 * Oakdale (Pennsbury Township, Pennsylvania), a historic home
 * Oakdale Public School, in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania
 * Oakdale (Floyd, Virginia), a historic home and farm
 * Governor Joseph Johnson House (also known as Oakdale), in Bridgeport, West Virginia

Fictional U.S. places

 * Oakdale, Illinois, the fictional setting for the soap opera As the World Turns
 * Oakdale, Texas (Wishbone TV series)

title: Oakdale


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Earl of Winchilsea

Earl of Winchilsea is a title in the Peerage of England. It has been held by the Finch-Hatton family of Kent, and united with the title of Earl of Nottingham under a single holder since 1729.

The Finch family is believed to be descended from Henry FitzHerbert, Lord Chamberlain to Henry I (r. 1100–1135). The name change to Finch came in the 1350s after marriage to an heiress of the Finch family. The Herbert family of Wales, Earls of Aylesford, Earls of Pembroke, share common ancestry but bear differenced arms.

A later member of the family, Sir William Finch, was knighted in 1513. His son Sir Thomas Finch (died 1563), was also knighted for his share in suppressing Sir Thomas Wyatt's insurrection against Queen Mary I, and was the son-in-law of Sir Thomas Moyle, some of whose lands Finch's wife inherited. Thomas's eldest son Moyle Finch represented Weymouth, Kent and Winchelsea in the House of Commons. In 1611 he was created a baronet, of Eastwell in the County of Kent.

In 1660 the 3rd Earl of Winchilsea was created Baron FitzHerbert of Eastwell, Kent, in recompense for his efficient aid in the Restoration of the Monarchy.

History
Sir Moyle Finch, 1st Baronet of Eastwell, married Elizabeth Heneage, only daughter of Sir Thomas Heneage (1532–1595), Vice-Chamberlain of the Household to Queen Elizabeth I. After Sir Moyle's death in 1614, Elizabeth and her sons made considerable efforts to have the family's status elevated. On 8 July 1623, Elizabeth was raised to the Peerage of England as Viscountess Maidstone, and on 12 July 1628 she was further honoured when she was made Countess of Winchilsea. Lady Winchilsea and Sir Moyle Finch's youngest son, the Hon. Sir Heneage Finch, served as Speaker of the House of Commons and was the father of Heneage Finch, who was created Earl of Nottingham in 1681.

Sir Moyle Finch was succeeded in the baronetcy by his eldest son Theophilus, the 2nd Baronet (1573–1619). He sat as Member of Parliament for Great Yarmouth but died childless circa 1619. He was succeeded by his younger brother Thomas, the 3rd Baronet. He represented Winchelsea and Kent in the House of Commons. In 1634, he also succeeded his mother as the second Earl of Winchilsea.

The third Earl, son of the second, supported the Restoration in 1660 and was thanked for his efforts the same year when he was created Baron FitzHerbert of Eastwell, in the County of Kent, in the Peerage of England.

The third earl's eldest son, William Finch, Viscount Maidstone, predeceased his father, but his son Charles succeeded as fourth Earl. He served as President of the Board of Trade and as Lord Lieutenant of Kent. His wife Anne Finch, Countess of Winchilsea, was a well-known poet.

The fourth Earl had no children and the titles passed to his uncle, Heneage Finch, 5th Earl of Winchilsea. He had earlier represented Hythe in Parliament.

The fifth Earl was also childless and was succeeded by his half-brother, John Finch, 6th Earl of Winchilsea. He never married, and on his death in 1729 the Barony of FitzHerbert of Eastwell became extinct.The remaining titles passed to his second cousin, Daniel Finch, 2nd Earl of Nottingham, who became the 7th Earl of Winchilsea as well (see below for earlier history of this branch of the family). He was the eldest son of The Lord Chancellor of England, Heneage Finch, 1st Earl of Nottingham. He was a noted statesman and served as First Lord of the Admiralty, Secretary of State for the Southern Department, Secretary of State for the Northern Department and as Lord President of the Council.

His son the 8th Earl of Winchilsea was also a politician and held office as First Lord of the Admiralty and as Lord President of the Council. The 8th Earl was childless and was succeeded by his nephew, the 9th Earl, son of the Hon. William Finch, second son of the 2nd Earl of Nottingham. The 9th Earl was Lord Lieutenant of Rutland for many years and was also an influential figure in the history of cricket.

The 9th Earl died unmarried and was succeeded by his first cousin once removed, the 10th Earl, son of George Finch-Hatton (1747–1823) (who had assumed the additional surname of Hatton), son of the Hon. Edward Finch, fifth son of the 2nd Earl of Nottingham, and his wife the Hon. Anne Hatton, who was the daughter of Christopher Hatton, 1st Viscount Hatton (see the Viscount Hatton) and a relation of the famous Sir Christopher Hatton. The 10th Earl is famous for his duel with the Duke of Wellington, who was Prime Minister at the time. The duel, which was over the issue of Catholic emancipation and related to insulting remarks made by the Earl, took place at Battersea Fields on 21 March 1829. Both men deliberately aimed wide and Winchilsea apologised. His son the 11th Earl had represented Northamptonshire North in Parliament as a Tory. He died without surviving male issue and was succeeded by his half-brother, the 12th Earl, who had sat briefly as Conservative Member of Parliament for Lincolnshire South and for Spalding. He was succeeded by his younger brother, the 13th Earl. , the titles are held by his great-great-grandson, the 17th Earl of Winchilsea and 12th Earl of Nottingham (the title having descended from father to son), who succeeded in 1999.

Other members
The Hon. Sir Heneage Finch was the third and youngest son of Sir Moyle Finch, 1st Baronet and the Countess of Winchilsea. He served as Speaker of the House of Commons from 1625 to 1628. His son was Heneage Finch, later 1st Earl of Nottingham, was a prominent lawyer and politician and served as Lord Chancellor of England from 1675 to 1682. He was created a baronet, of Raunston in the County of Buckingham, in the Baronetage of England in 1660 and in 1673 he was raised to the Peerage of England as Baron Finch of Daventry in the County of Northampton. In 1681, he was further honoured when he was made Earl of Nottingham, also in the Peerage of England. He was succeeded by his son, Daniel Finch, 2nd Earl of Nottingham, who in 1729 succeeded his second cousin as the 7th Earl of Winchilsea. See above for further history of the titles.

Several other members of the Finch family have also gained distinction. John Finch, 1st Baron Finch of Fordwich, was the son of Sir Henry Finch, younger brother of Sir Moyle Finch, 1st Baronet of Eastwell. Later the Hon. Heneage Finch, younger brother of the 2nd Earl of Nottingham, was made the 1st Earl of Aylesford in 1714.

The Hon. Edward Finch, the fifth son of the 1st Earl of Nottingham, was a composer and sat as Member of Parliament for Cambridge University. He later took holy orders and served as Prebendary of York and Canterbury. The Hon. Edward Finch-Hatton, fifth son of the 2nd Earl of Nottingham, sat as Member of Parliament for Cambridge University from 1727 to 1768.

The Hon. Denys Finch Hatton, brother of the 14th Earl and nephew to Harold Heneage, moved to East Africa and became a noted pilot and hunter, and a close friend of writer Karen Blixen. In the award winning film "Out of Africa" he was famously portrayed by Robert Redford opposite Meryl Streep.

The Hon. Harold Heneage Finch-Hatton, fourth son of the 10th Earl, represented Newark in the House of Commons and later wrote books about Australia. The town of Finch Hatton, Queensland in Australia is believed to be named after him.

The earldom of 1628 is sometimes written Winchelsea, after the modern spelling of the town (and Cinque Port) in East Sussex.

Family seat and motto
The ancestral family seat of Earls of Winchilsea was at Eastwell Park old manor house, until the last 6th Earl of Winchilsea died, then the title and estate was inherited by his cousin, Daniel Finch, the 2nd Earl of Nottingham who also become 7th Earl of Winchilsea.The now 7th Earl of Winchilsea and 2nd Earl of Nottingham built the magnificent Burley on the Hill house, the new palatial residence was built to replace Eastwell as the new seat of Earls of Winchilsea and Nottingham. The 7th Earl chose Burley's location to be nearer to his wife's family (the Hattons) at Kirby Hall. Burley served as the family seat until the unmarried 9th Earl of Winchilsea sought and obtained an act of Parliament to break the entail of the estate, and left Burley house to his illegitimate son, George Finch, rather than to his first cousin and his son the future 10th Earl. Then Eastwell Park became the family seat again for George William Finch-Hatton, 10th Earl of Winchilsea, 5th Earl of Nottingham. Eastwell Manor had previously been rebuilt by Bonomi into a substantial residence for the 10th Earl's parents, George Finch-Hatton esq and Lady Elizabeth Murray. The Eastwell estate, near Ashford, Kent, was lived in by the Earls of Winchilsea until the mid-1860s, when the 11th Earl had to leave the property due to financial difficulties; it was later occupied by Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh, the second son of Queen Victoria. It was sold in 1890s by the 12th Earl. Haverholme Priory was an estate in Lincolnshire, inherited by the 10th Earl from his childless aunt and uncle in law, Sir Jenison Gordon. After the Eastwell estate was let go, Haverholme Priory became the family seat for the 12th Earl and 13th Earl of Winchilsea until it was eventually sold and demolished in 1920s.The Kirby Hall estate, near Corby, Northamptonshire was inherited by Edward Finch-Hatton, through his mother Anne Hatton, Countess of Winchilsea, sole heiress to Viscount Hatton, then went to his eldest son George Finch-Hatton esq, in turned went to his son the 10th Earl and so forth. The Hatton estate is still (2024) owned by the present Earl of Winchilsea, although the palatial hall – now partially de-roofed – is no longer lived in by the family. Kirby hall itself and the adjacent gardens are today administered by English Heritage.

The Finch family motto is Nil conscire sibi ("Conscious of no evil"), the Hatton motto is Virtus tutissima cassis ("Virtue is the safest helmet").

Finch baronets, of Eastwell (1611)

 * Sir Moyle Finch, 1st Baronet (died 1614)
 * Sir Theophilus Finch, 2nd Baronet (c. 1573–c. 1619)
 * Sir Thomas Finch, 3rd Baronet (1578–1639) (succeeded as Earl of Winchilsea in 1634)

Earls of Winchilsea (1628) and Nottingham (1681)

 * Other titles (1st holder onwards): Viscount Maidstone (Eng 1623)
 * Other titles (3rd-6th Earls): Baron FitzHerbert of Eastwell (Eng 1660, extinct 1729)
 * Other titles (7th Earl onwards): Baron Finch of Daventry (Eng 1673)

 * Elizabeth Finch, 1st Countess of Winchilsea, 1st Viscountess Maidstone (1556–1634)
 * Thomas Finch, 2nd Earl of Winchilsea, 2nd Viscount Maidstone (1578–1639)
 * Heneage Finch, 3rd Earl of Winchilsea, 3rd Viscount Maidstone, 1st Baron FitzHerbert of Eastwell (c. 1635–1689)
 * William Finch, Viscount Maidstone (1652–1672)
 * Charles Finch, 4th Earl of Winchilsea, 4th Viscount Maidstone, 2nd Baron FitzHerbert of Eastwell (1672–1712)
 * Heneage Finch, 5th Earl of Winchilsea, 5th Viscount Maidstone, 3rd Baron FitzHerbert of Eastwell (1657–1726)
 * John Finch, 6th Earl of Winchilsea, 6th Viscount Maidstone, 4th Baron FitzHerbert of Eastwell (1683–1729)
 * Daniel Finch, 7th Earl of Winchilsea, 2nd Earl of Nottingham (1647–1730)
 * Daniel Finch, 8th Earl of Winchilsea, 3rd Earl of Nottingham (c. 1709–1769)
 * George Finch, 9th Earl of Winchilsea, 4th Earl of Nottingham (1752–1826)
 * George William Finch-Hatton, 10th Earl of Winchilsea, 5th Earl of Nottingham (1791–1858)
 * George James Finch-Hatton, 11th Earl of Winchilsea, 6th Earl of Nottingham (1815–1887)
 * George William Heneage Finch-Hatton, Viscount Maidstone (1852–1879)
 * Murray Edward Gordon Finch-Hatton, 12th Earl of Winchilsea, 7th Earl of Nottingham (1851–1898)
 * George Edward Henry Finch-Hatton, Viscount Maidstone (1882–1892)
 * Henry Stormont Finch-Hatton, 13th Earl of Winchilsea, 8th Earl of Nottingham (1852–1927)
 * Guy Montagu George Finch-Hatton, 14th Earl of Winchilsea, 9th Earl of Nottingham (1885–1939)
 * Christopher Guy Heneage Finch-Hatton, 15th Earl of Winchilsea, 10th Earl of Nottingham (1911–1950)
 * Christopher Denys Stormont Finch-Hatton, 16th Earl of Winchilsea, 11th Earl of Nottingham (1936–1999)
 * Daniel James Hatfield Finch-Hatton, 17th Earl of Winchilsea, 12th Earl of Nottingham (born 1967)

The heir apparent is the present holder's elder son Tobias Joshua Stormont Finch-Hatton, Viscount Maidstone (born 1998).

Earls of Nottingham (1681)

 * Heneage Finch, 1st Earl of Nottingham (1621–1682)
 * Daniel Finch, 2nd Earl of Nottingham (1647–1730) (succeeded as Earl of Winchilsea in 1729)

title: Earl of Winchilsea


text:
Countess of Winchilsea

Countess of Winchilsea is a title given to the wife of the Earl of Winchilsea. Women who have held the title include:

 * Elizabeth Finch, 1st Countess of Winchilsea (1556–1634)
 * Anne Finch, Countess of Winchilsea (1661–1720)
 * Essex Finch, Countess of Nottingham (c. 1652–1684)
 * Frances Finch, Countess of Winchilsea and Nottingham (c. 1690–1734)
 * Georgiana Finch-Hatton, Countess of Winchilsea (1791–1835)
 * Emily Georgiana Finch-Hatton, Countess of Winchilsea (1809-1848)
 * Fanny-Margaretta Finch-Hatton, Countess of Winchilsea (1820-1909)
 * Constance Finch-Hatton, Countess of Winchilsea (1823–1878)
 * Margaretta Finch-Hatton, Countess of Winchilsea (1885–1952)

title: Countess of Winchilsea


text:
Odessa (disambiguation)

Odessa (commonly spelled Odesa) is the third-largest city in Ukraine.

Odessa may also refer to:

Brazil

 * Nova Odessa

Canada

 * Odessa, Ontario
 * Odessa Lake (Ontario), in Eastern Ontario
 * Odessa, Saskatchewan

Ukraine

 * Odesa Oblast, the eponymous region of the third largest city in Ukraine
 * Nova Odesa ("New Odesa"), a town

United States

 * Odessa, Delaware
 * Odessa, Florida
 * Lake Odessa, Michigan
 * Odessa, Minnesota
 * Odessa, Missouri
 * Odessa, Nebraska
 * Odessa, New York
 * Odessa, Oregon
 * Odessa, Texas
 * Odessa, Washington
 * Odessa, West Virginia
 * Odessa Township (disambiguation), multiple places

People with the name

 * Odessa (given name) (including a list of people with the name)

Film or TV

 * "Odessa", the second episode of the mini-series Heroes Reborn

Music albums

 * Odessa (Bee Gees album), 1969
 * Odessa (The Handsome Family album), 1994

Songs

 * "Odessa (City on the Black Sea)", by the Bee Gees (1969)
 * "Odessa", by Aesop Rock from Appleseed (1999)
 * "Odessa", by Animals as Leaders from Weightless (2011)
 * "Odessa", by Caribou from Swim (2010)

Other uses

 * ODESSA, a supposed organisation of former members of the Nazi SS that most historians claim is a myth
 * Odessa (Wild ARMs 2), a fictional terrorist organisation from the PlayStation role-playing game Wild ARMs 2
 * Odessa (yacht), Volvo Ocean 60 class
 * Typhoon Odessa (1985), storm in the Pacific

title: Odessa (disambiguation)


text:
Ogden

Ogden may refer to:

Canada

 * Ogden, Calgary, in Calgary, Alberta
 * Ogden, Quebec, a small municipality in the Eastern Townships
 * Ogdensville, British Columbia or Ogden City, alternate names for gold rush-era Seymour Arm, British Columbia
 * Ogden, British Columbia, an unincorporated locality in the Bridge River Country of British Columbia
 * Ogden Point, a landmark breakwater, lighthouse and port facility in Victoria, British Columbia
 * Ogden, Nova Scotia

England

 * Ogden, West Yorkshire

United States

 * Ogden, Arkansas
 * Ogden, Illinois
 * Ogden, Indiana
 * Ogden, Iowa
 * Ogden, Kansas
 * Ogden, Missouri
 * Ogden, New York
 * Ogden, North Carolina
 * Ogden, Ohio
 * Ogden, Utah (The largest city with the name)
 * Ogden Central Station
 * Ogden, West Virginia
 * Ogden Township, Michigan
 * Mount Ogden, Utah
 * Ogden Avenue, Chicago, Illinois
 * Ogden Theatre, Denver, Colorado
 * The Ogden, a condominium tower in Las Vegas, Nevada

Rivers

 * River Ogden, Lancashire, England, United Kingdom
 * Ogden Creek, a tributary of Back Creek in New Jersey, United States
 * Ogden River, Utah, United States

Ships

 * USS Ogden (PF-39), commissioned in 1943, and received three battle stars for World War II service; named after Ogden, Utah
 * USS Ogden (LPD-5), an Austin-class amphibious transport dock; also named after Ogden, Utah

Other uses

 * Ogden (name), a surname and given name
 * Ogden (horse), a British-American Thoroughbred racehorse
 * Ogden (hyperelastic model), used in continuum mechanics
 * Ogden tables, actuarial tables produced by the United Kingdom Government Actuary's Department
 * Ogden's lemma, a generalization of the pumping lemma for context-free languages

title: Ogden


text:
Media ecology

Media ecology theory is the study of media, technology, and communication and how they affect human environments. The theoretical concepts were proposed by Marshall McLuhan in 1964, while the term media ecology was first formally introduced by Neil Postman in 1968.

Ecology in this context refers to the environment in which the medium is used – what they are and how they affect society. Neil Postman states, "if in biology a 'medium' is something in which a bacterial culture grows (as in a Petri dish), in media ecology, the medium is 'a technology within which a [human] culture grows.'" In other words, "Media ecology looks into the matter of how media of communication affect human perception, understanding, feeling, and value; and how our interaction with media facilitates or impedes our chances of survival. The word ecology implies the study of environments: their structure, content, and impact on people. An environment is, after all, a complex message system which imposes on human beings certain ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving."

Media ecology argues that media act as extensions of the human senses in each era, and communication technology is the primary cause of social change. McLuhan is famous for coining the phrase, "the medium is the message", which is an often-debated phrase believed to mean that the medium chosen to relay a message is just as important (if not more so) than the message itself. McLuhan proposed that media influence the progression of society, and that significant periods of time and growth can be categorized by the rise of a specific technology during that period.

Additionally, scholars have compared media broadly to a system of infrastructure that connect the nature and culture of a society with media ecology being the study of "traffic" between the two.

Marshall McLuhan
In 1934, Marshall McLuhan enrolled as a student at Cambridge University, a school which pioneered modern literary criticism. During his studies at Cambridge, he became acquainted with one of his professors, I.A. Richards, a distinguished English professor, who would inspire McLuhan's later scholarly works. McLuhan admired Richards' approach to the critical view that English studies are themselves nothing but a study of the process of communication. Richards believed that "words won't stay put and almost all verbal constructions are highly ambiguous". This element of Richards' perspective on communication influenced the way in which McLuhan expressed many of his ideas using metaphors and phrases such as "The Global Village" and "The Medium Is the Message", two of his most well-known phrases that encapsulate the theory of media ecology. McLuhan used the approaches of Richards, William Empson, and Harold Innis as an "entrée to the study of media". However, it took many years of work before he was able to successfully fulfill their approaches. McLuhan determined that "if words were ambiguous and best studied not in terms of their 'content' but in terms of their effects in a given context and if the effects were often subliminal, the same might be true of other human artifacts, the wheel, the printing press, the telegraph and the TV". This led to the emergence of his ideas on media ecology.

In addition to his scholarly work, McLuhan was also a well known media personality of his day. He appeared on television shows, in magazine articles, and even had a small cameo in the movie Annie Hall. Few theories receive the kind of household recognition that media ecology received, due directly to McLuhan's role as a pop culture icon. He was an excellent debater and public speaker, but his writing was not always what would normally pass in academia.

Neil Postman
Inspired by McLuhan, Neil Postman founded the Program in Media Ecology at New York University in 1971, as he further developed the theory McLuhan had established. According to Postman, media ecology emphasizes the environments in which communication and technologies operate and spread information and the effects these have on the receivers. "Such information forms as the alphabet, the printed word, and television images are not mere instruments which make things easier for us. They are environments – like language itself, symbolic environments within which we discover, fashion, and express humanity in particular ways."

Postman focused on media technology, process, and structure rather than content and considered making moral judgments the primary task of media ecology. "I don't see any point in studying media unless one does so within a moral or ethical context." Postman's media ecology approach asks three questions: What are the moral implications of this bargain? Are the consequences more humanistic or antihumanistic? Do we, as a society, gain more than we lose, or do we lose more than we gain?

Walter Ong
Walter J. Ong was a scholar with a master's degree in English who was once a student of McLuhan at the Saint Louis University. The contributions of Ong standardized and gave credibility to the field of media ecology as worthy of academic scholarship. Ong explored the changes in human thought and consciousness in the transition from a dominant oral culture to a literate one in his book Orality and Literacy.

Ong's studies have greatly contributed to developing the concept of media ecology. Ong has written over 450 publications, many of which focused on the relation between conscious behavior and the evolution of the media, and he received the Media Ecology Association's Walter Benjamin Award for Outstanding Article for his paper, "Digitization Ancient and Modern: Beginnings of Writing and Today's Computers".

North American, European and Eurasian versions
Media ecology is a contested term within media studies for it has different meanings in European and North American contexts. The North American definition refers to an interdisciplinary field of media theory and media design involving the study of media environments. The European version of media ecology is a materialist investigation of media systems as complex dynamic systems. In Russia, a similar theory was independently developed by Yuri Rozhdestvensky. In more than five monographs, Rozhdestvensky outlined the systematic changes which take place in society each time new communication media are introduced, and connected these changes to the challenges in politics, philosophy and education. He is a founder of the vibrant school of ecology of culture.

The European version of media ecology rejects the North American notion that ecology means environment. Ecology in this context is used "because it is one of the most expressive [terms] language currently has to indicate the massive and dynamic interrelation of processes and objects, beings and things, patterns and matter". Following theorists such as Felix Guattari, Gregory Bateson, and Manuel De Landa, the European version of media ecology (as practiced by authors such as Matthew Fuller and Jussi Parikka) presents a post-structuralist political perspective on media as complex dynamical systems.

Other contributions
Along with McLuhan, Postman and Harold Innis, media ecology draws from many authors, including the work of Walter Ong, Lewis Mumford, Jacques Ellul, Félix Guattari, Eric Havelock, Susanne Langer, Erving Goffman, Edward T. Hall, George Herbert Mead, Margaret Mead, Claude Lévi-Strauss, Benjamin Lee Whorf, and Gregory Bateson.

Assumptions of the theory

 * Media are infused in every act and action in society.
 * Media fix our perceptions and organize our experiences.
 * Media tie the world together.

These three assumptions can be understood as: media are everywhere all the time; media determine what we know and how we feel about what we know; and media connect us to others. Communication media have penetrated the lives of almost all people on the planet, arranging people into an interconnected human community.

McLuhan's media history
Marshall McLuhan defined media as anything requiring use of the human body. Under this definition, both computers and clothing can be identified as media. When a media is introduced it is adapted to human senses so that it becomes an extension of the individual, and its capabilities influence the whole of society, leading to change. McLuhan states that there are three inventions that transformed the world: the phonetic alphabet, by virtue of its ability to make speech visible, which McLuhan argues gave rise to the discipline of rhetoric in ancient time and to the study of language and poetics, which was also known as grammar. The printing press in the nineteenth century and the telegraph led to both the modern newspaper and also to journalism as an academic pursuit. The introduction of broadcasting in the form of radio, following on the heels of mass circulation newspapers, magazines, as well as the movies, resulted in the study of mass communication. Due to these technologies, the world was taken from one era into the next. In order to understand the effects of symbolic environment, McLuhan splits history into four periods: the Tribal Age, the Literacy Age, the Print Age, and the Electronic Age.

McLuhan states that, in order to study media effectively, one must study not only content but also the whole cultural environment in which media thrives. He argues that using a detached view allows the individual to observe the phenomenon of the whole as it operates within the environment. The effects of media - speech, writing, printing, photograph, radio or television – should be studied within the social and cultural spheres impacted by this technology. McLuhan argues that all media, regardless of content, acts on the senses and reshapes sensory balance, further reshaping the society that created it. This differs from the viewpoints of scholars such as Neil Postman, who argue that society should take a moral view of new media whether good or bad. McLuhan further notes that media introduced in the past brought gradual changes, which allowed people and society some time to adjust.

Tribal age
The first period in history that McLuhan describes is the Tribal Age. To McLuhan, this was a time of community, with the ear being the dominant sense organ. With everyone able to hear at the same time, listening to someone in a group was a unifying act, deepening the feeling of community. In this set up, McLuhan argues, everything was more immediate, more present, and fostered more passion and spontaneity.

Literacy age
The second age McLuhan outlines is the Literacy Age, beginning with the invention of writing. To McLuhan, this was a time of private detachment, with the eye being the dominant sense organ. Turning sounds into visible objects radically altered the symbolic environment. Words were no longer alive and immediate, they were able to be read over and over again. Even though people would read the same words, the act of reading made communication an individual act, leading to more independent thought. Tribes didn't need to come together to get information anymore.

Print age
The third stage McLuhan describes is the Print Age, when individual media products were mass-produced due to the invention of the printing press. It gave the ability to reproduce the same text over and over again. With printing came a new visual stress: the portable book, which allowed people to carry media so they could read in privacy isolated from others. Libraries were created to hold these books and also gave freedom to be alienated from others and from their immediate surroundings.

Electronic age
Lastly, McLuhan describes the Electronic Age, otherwise included under the information age, as an era of instant communication and a return to an environment with simultaneous sounds and touch. It started with a device created by Samuel Morse's invention of the telegraph and led to the telephone, the cell phone, television, internet, DVD, video games, etc. This ability to communicate instantly returns people to the tradition of sound and touch rather than sight. McLuhan argues that being able to be in constant contact with the world becomes a nosy generation where everyone knows everyone's business and everyone's business is everyone else's. This phenomenon is called the global village.

Later scholars have described the growth of open access and open science, with their potential for highly distributed and low cost publishing reaching much larger audiences, as a potential "de-professionalizing force".

Updating the ages
Robert K. Logan is professor emeritus of physics at the University of Toronto and Chief Scientist of the Strategic Innovation Lab at the Ontario College of Art and Design. He worked collaboratively with Marshall McLuhan at the University of Toronto, co-publishing various works and producing his own works, heavily inspired by McLuhan. Logan updates the era of communications, adding two new eras: In addition, through the study of media ecology, it is argued that through technological advancements in media, many societies have become a "participatory culture". Tom Valcanis argues that this is very easily witnessed by looking at the rise of Apple's iPhone. "If the technology is the medium in which a culture grows, the interactive and user oriented nature of these technologies have given rise to a participatory and 'mash-up' culture in which the ways of producing and accessing content are deconstructed, uploaded, mixed, converged, and reconstructed through computers and smartphones mediated by online platforms; it becomes a 'participatory culture'..."
 * 1) Age of nonverbal mimetic communication (characteristic of archaic Homo sapiens)
 * 2) Age of orality
 * 3) Age of literacy
 * 4) Age of electric mass media
 * 5) Age of digital interactive media, or 'new media'

'The medium is the message'
"The medium is the message" is the most famous insight from McLuhan, and is one of the concepts that separates the North American theory from the European theory. Instead of emphasizing the information content, McLuhan highlighted the importance of medium characteristics which can influence and even decide the content. He proposed that it is the media format that affects and changes on people and society.

For example, traditional media is an extension of the human body, while the new media is the extension of the human nervous system. The emergence of new media will change the equilibrium between human sensual organs and affect human psychology and society. The extension of human senses will change our thoughts and behaviors and the ways we perceive the world. That's why McLuhan believed when a new medium appears, no matter what the concrete content it transmits, the new form of communication brings in itself a force that causes social transformation.

We are accustomed to thinking the message is separate from a medium. McLuhan saw the message and the medium to mean the same thing. The audience is normally focused on the content and overlooks the medium. What we forget is that the content cannot exist outside of the way that it is mediated. McLuhan recognized that the way media work as environments is because we are so immersed in them. "It is the medium that has the greatest impact in human affairs, not specific messages we send or receive." The media shape us because we partake in them over and over until they become a part of us.

Different mediums emphasize different senses and encourage different habits, so engaging in this medium day after day conditions our senses. Different forms of media also affect what their meaning and impact will be. The form of medium and mode of information determines who will have access, how much information will be distributed, how fast it will be transmitted, how far it will go, and, most importantly, what form it will be displayed. With society being formed around the dominant medium of the day, the specific medium of communication makes a remarkable difference.

The metaphor
The key elements to media ecology have been largely attributed to Marshall McLuhan, who coined the statement "the medium is the message". Levinson furthers McLuhan's statement by stating that "the way we communicate, often taken for granted, often determines what we communicate, and therein just about everything else in life and society". McLuhan gave a center of gravity, a moral compass to media ecology which was later adapted and formally introduced by Neil Postman

The very foundation for this theory is based on a metaphor that provides a model for understanding the new territory, offers a vocabulary, and indicates in which directions to continue exploring. As Carlos Scolari states, "the configuration of media ecology in the 1960s and 1970s was part of a broader process of the general application of the ecological metaphor to the social sciences and humanities in the postwar period. There is still a scholarly debate over who coined the phrase "the medium is the message". Author Niall Stephens argues that while most attribute the metaphor to Marshall McLuhan, it is better directed to Neil Postman, who helped popularize McLuhan under the banner of "media ecology".

Scholar Janet Sternberg has a different take on the metaphor- using her own metaphor to make sense of it all. Sternberg applies the Chinese "yin/ yang" metaphor to media ecology as a means of better understanding the divergence among scholars. She states that there are two basic intellectual traditions that can be distinguished in the field: the "yang" tradition of studying media as environments, focusing on mass communication and on intrapersonal communication and the "yin" tradition is studying environments as media, emphasizing interpersonal communication.

Connection to general systems theory
While general systems theory originated in 1928 in the Ph.D. thesis of Ludwig von Bertalanffy. Robert Logan summarizes a general system as "one that is composed of interacting and interrelated components such as an understanding of it must entail considering the general system as a whole and not as a collection of individual components".

Logan argues that general systems theory, as well as cybernetics, complexity theory, and emergent dynamics, and media ecology "cross pollinate each other" in that, "a general system is a medium" due to the non-linear aspects of messages and that general systems are "quasi-deterministic".

This thinking is in line with McLuhan who once wrote, "A new medium is never an addition to an old one, nor does it leave the old one in peace. It never ceases to oppress the older media until it finds new shapes and positions for them."

Global village
Marshall McLuhan used the phrase global village to characterize an end to isolation: "humans can no longer live in isolation, but rather will always be connected by continuous and instantaneous electronic media". McLuhan addresses the idea of a global village in his book The Gutenberg Galaxy saying, "Such is the character of a village or, since electric media, such is also the character of global village. And it is the advertising and PR community that is most aware of this basic new dimension of global interdependence".

Technology, especially electronic media in today's age, makes the world increasingly interconnected. Socially, economically, politically, culturally, what happens in one part of the world has a ripple effect into other countries.

This seems like a common sense idea today, where the internet makes it possible to check news stories around the globe, and social media connects individuals regardless of location. However, in McLuhan's day, the global village was just becoming possible due to technology like television and long-distance phone calls. This concept has become one of the most prolific and understandable ideas to come out of media ecology, and has spurred significant research in many areas. It is especially relevant in today's society, where the internet, social media, and other new media have made the world a smaller place, and today many researchers give McLuhan credit for his foresight.

Of note is McLuhan's insistence that the world becoming a global village should lead to more global responsibility. Technology has created an interconnected world, and with that should come concern for global events and occurrences outside one's own community. Postman builds on this concept with the idea of teaching the narrative of 'Spaceship Earth' where students are taught the importance of everyone taking care of planet earth as a fragile system of diversity both biological and cultural; however, the original person to coin the term 'Spaceship Earth' was futurist Buckminster Fuller, who once said, "I've often heard people say: 'I wonder what it would feel like to board a spaceship,' and the answer is very simple. What does it feel like? That's all we have experienced. We're all astronauts on a little spaceship called earth."

Critics do worry though, that in creating a truly global village, some cultures will become extinct due to larger or more dominant cultures imposing their beliefs and practices.

The idea of the global village helps to conceptualize globalization within society. Michael Plugh writes, "[The] village is an environment produced both by technological change and human imagination of this globalized environment."

Additionally, the rise in media communication technology has uniformed the way individuals across the globe process information. Plugh says, "Where literate societies exchange an 'eye for an ear,' according to McLuhan, emphasizing the linear and sequential order of the world, electronic technology retrievers the total awareness of environment, characteristic of oral cultures, yet to an extended or 'global' level."

Hot vs. cool media
McLuhan developed an idea called hot and cold media. Hot media is high-definition communication that demands little involvement from the audience and concentrates on one sensory organ at a time. This type of media requires no interpretation because it gives all the information necessary to comprehend. Some examples of hot media include radio, books, and lectures. Cool media is media that demands active involvement from the audience, requiring the audience to be active and provide information by mentally participating. This is multi-sensory participation. Some examples of cool media are TV, seminars, and cartoons.

"McLuhan frequently referred to a chart that hung in his seminar room at the University of Toronto. This was a type of shorthand for understanding the differences between hot and cool media, characterized by their emphasis on the eye or the ear."
 * Eye: left hemisphere (hot) controls right side of the body; visual; speech; verbal; analytical; mathematical; linear; detailed; sequential; controlled; intellectual; dominant worldly;quantitative; active; sequential ordering
 * Ear: right hemisphere (cool) controls the left side of the body; spatial; musical; acoustic; holistic; artistic; symbolic; simultaneous; emotional; creative; minor; spiritual; qualitative; receptive; synthetic; gestalt; facial recognition; simultaneous comprehension; perception of abstract patterns

Laws of media
Another aspect of media ecology is the laws of media, which McLuhan outlined with his son Eric McLuhan to further explain the influence of technology on society. The laws of media theory are depicted by a tetrad, which poses questions about various media, with the goal of developing peoples' critical thinking skills and to prepare people for "the social and physical chaos" that accompany every technological advancement or development. There is no specific order to the laws of media, as the effects occur simultaneously and form a feedback loop: technology impacts society, which then impacts the development of technology. The four effects, as depicted in the tetrad of media effects are:
 * Enhancement: What does the medium enhance? Media can enhance various social interactions, such as the telephone, which reduced the need for face-to-face interactions.
 * Obsolescence: What does the medium obsolesce? Technological advancements can render older media obsolete, as television did for the radio. This does not necessarily mean that the older medium is completely eradicated however, as radio, for example, is still in use today.
 * Retrieval: What does the medium retrieve? New media can also spur a restoration of older forms of media, which the new forms may not be able to incorporate into their new technologies. For example, the Internet has promoted new forms of social conversations, which may have been lost through television.
 * Reversal: What will the medium reverse? When a medium is overwhelmed due to its own nature, "pushed to the limit of its potential," it ceases to have functional utility and can cause a reversion to older media.

Technological determinism
A significant criticism of this theory is a result of its deterministic approach. Determinism insists that all of society is a result of or effected by one central condition. In some cases the condition can be language (linguistic determinism), religion (theological determinism), financial (economic determinism). In the case of McLuhan, Postman and Media Ecology, technology is the sole determinant for society and by breaking up time in measures of man's technological achievements they can be classified as technological determinism. According to Postman, "The printing press, the computer, and television are not therefore simply machines which convey information. They are metaphors through which we conceptualize reality in one way or another. They will classify the world for us, sequence it, frame it, enlarge it, reduce it, argue a case for what it is like. Through these media metaphors, we do not see the world as it is. We see it as our coding systems are. Such is the power of the form of information." Postman has also stated that "a medium is a technology within which a culture grows; that is to say, it gives form to a culture's politics, social organization, and habitual ways of thinking".

Scholars such as Michael Zimmer view McLuhan and his "Medium is the Message" theory as a prime example of technological determinism:

...an overarching thread in media ecological scholarship, exemplified by McLuhan's (1964/1994) assertion that "the medium is the message", the technological bias of a medium carries greater importance than the particular message it is delivering. McLuhan saw changes in the dominant medium of communication as the main determinant of major changes in society, culture, and the individual. This McLuhanesque logic, which rests at the center of the media ecology tradition, is often criticized for its media determinism. Seeing the biases of media technologies as the primary force for social and cultural change resembles the hard technological determinism of the embodied theory of technological bias.

The critics of such a deterministic approach could be theorists who practice other forms of determinism, such as economic determinism. Theorists such as John Fekete believes that McLuhan is oversimplifying the world "by denying that human action is itself responsible for the changes that our socio-cultural world is undergoing and will undergo, McLuhan necessarily denies that a critical attitude is morally significant or practically important."

Lance Strate, on the other hand, argues that McLuhan's theories are in no way deterministic. "McLuhan never actually used the term, "determinism," nor did he argue against human agency. In his bestselling book, The Medium is the Message, he wrote, "there is absolutely no inevitability as long as there is a willingness to contemplate what is happening" (McLuhan & Fiore, 1967, p. 25). John Culkin (1967) summed up McLuhan's position with the quote, "we shape our tools and thereafter they shape us", suggesting a transactional approach to media." This statement from Strate would define McLuhan and Media Ecology as "soft determinism" opposed to "hard determinism" with the difference being that "hard determinism" indicates that changes to society happen with no input or control from the members of that society, whereas "soft determinism" would argue that the changes are pushed by technology but free will and agency of the members of society ultimately have a chance to influence the outcome.

While ideas of technological determinism generally have negative connotations, technology philosopher Peter-Paul Verbeek argued that technologies are "inherently moral agents" and their development is a "moral enterprise".

Disruptions to existing systems
While advancing technologies allow for the study of media ecology, they also frequently disrupt the existing system of communication as they emerge. In general, four types of disruption can occur within the study of media ecology.
 * 1) New Technologies
 * 2) New Audiences
 * 3) New Authority
 * 4) New Rhetoric

One example where this can be seen is in do-it-yourself education. Advancing technologies have also expanded access to do-it-yourself (DIY) education. DIY education can be defined to include "any attempt to decentralize or disrupt traditional place-based educational models through the sometimes collective, other times individual use of digital media". Through an analysis of media ecology the impact of these new technologies on society can better be understood.

Mobility and modality
Various scholars have examined media ecology theory from different perspectives to gain a better understanding of this theory in the 21st century. Sternberg used the yin/yang metaphor as their interpretation of the theory, while Julia Hildebrand and John Dimmick, among others, introduce modality as a path to expand the media ecology theor y. Contributing to a modern rhetoric for contextualizing media ecology in the era of the internet, social media, and technological advancements.

Hildebrand extends the concept of 'mediated mobilities', introduced by Emily Keightley and Anna Reading, to illustrate the similarities between the fields of media ecology and mobility research and propose a "Modal Medium Theory" as a combination of both studies. Both fields place an emphasis on the materiality and the structure that make up the environments media is accessed through. In the modern era, this includes not only the physical machines used for communication, but also the virtual environments messages are sent through and how they affect the quality of the message sent. They also explore the relations between an entity that is sent, the medium used for delivery, and how that medium can influence the environment. Entity can refer not only to subjects, but also objects, information, or situations that are shared. She looks into the article by Lance Strate as a basis for her case. In 1999, Lance Strate states media ecology theory is "the study of media environments, the idea that technology and techniques, modes of information and codes of communication play a leading role in human affairs". Hildebrand explained that Strate's concept of media ecology extends beyond the study of information and communication technology to include technology in a broader sense. This includes materiality and mobility of media environments, interconnecting Media Ecology with Mobility Processes. Hildebrand points out that, "[e]nvironments are created and shaped by different media and modes and the physical, virtual, and mental processes and travels they generate".

Similar to media ecology, mobilities research discusses a "flow" that shapes the environment, and creates contact zones. Dimmick furthers this explanation with the concept of interstices as the intersection of communication environments and issues of mobility. He quotes two scholars, Hemment and Caronia, to contextualize his new word. Hemment argues that mobile technologies create a place out of space and time, a kind of "nonspace" or "nonplace" considering they are independent from the variables of space and time. Caronia notes that such technologies extend media to creating empty space and places.

The medium is not the message
McLuhan's critics state the medium is not the message. They believe that we are dealing with a mathematical equation where medium equals x and message equals y. Accordingly, x = y, but really "the medium is the message" is a metaphor not an equation. His critics also believe McLuhan is denying the content altogether, when really McLuhan was just trying to show the content in its secondary role in relation to the medium. McLuhan says technology is an "extension of man" and when the way we physically sense the world changes, how we perceive it will also collectively change, but the content may or may not affect this change in perception. McLuhan said that the user is the content, and this means that the user must interpret and process what they receive, finding sense in their own environments.

One of McLuhan's high-profile critics was Umberto Eco. Eco comes from background in semiotics, which goes beyond linguistics in that it studies all forms of communication. He reflected that a cartoon of a cannibal wearing an alarm clock as a necklace was counter to McLuhan's assertion that the invention of clocks created a concept of time as consistently separated space. While it could mean this it could also take on different meanings as in the depiction of the cannibal. The medium is not the message. An individual's interpretation can vary. Believing this to be true Eco says, "It is equally untrue that acting on the form and content of the message can convert the person receiving it." In doing this Eco merges form and content, the separation of which is the basis of McLuhan's assertion. McLuhan does not offer a theory of communication. He instead investigates the effects of all media mediums between the human body and its physical environment, including language.

Others
The North American variant of media ecology is viewed by numerous theorists such as John Fekete and Neil Compton as meaningless or "McLuhanacy". According to Compton, it had been next to impossible to escape knowing about McLuhan and his theory as the media embraced them. Compton wrote, "it would be better for McLuhan if his oversimplifications did not happen to coincide with the pretensions of young status-hungry advertising executives and producers, who eagerly provide him with a ready-made claque, exposure on the media, and a substantial income from addresses and conventions." Theorists such as Jonathan Miller claim that McLuhan used a subjective approach to make objective claims, comparing McLuhan's willingness to back away from a "probe" if he did not find the desired results to that of an objective scientist who would not abandon it so easily. These theorists against McLuhan's idea, such as Raymond Rosenthal, also believe that he lacked the scientific evidence to support his claims: "McLuhan's books are not scientific in any respect; they are wrapped however in the dark, mysterious folds of the scientific ideology." Additionally, As Lance Strate said: "Other critics complain that media ecology scholars like McLuhan, Havelock, and Ong put forth a "Great Divide" theory, exaggerating, for example, the difference between orality and literacy, or the alphabet and hieroglyphics.

New media
Many ecologists are using media ecology as an analytical framework, to explore whether the current new media has a "new" stranglehold on culture or are they simply extensions of what we have already experienced. The new media is characterised by the idea of web 2.0. It was coined in 2003 and popularized by a media consultant, Tim O'Reilly. He argues that a particular assemblage of software, hardware and sociality have brought about 'the widespread sense that there's something qualitatively different about today's Web. This shift is characterised by co-creativity, participation and openness, represented by software that support for example, wiki-based ways of creating and accessing knowledge, social networking sites, blogging, tagging and 'mash ups'. The interactive and user-oriented nature of these technologies have transformed the global culture into a participatory culture which proves Neil Postman's saying "technological change is not additive; it is ecological".

As new media power takes on new dimension in the digital realm, some scholars begin to focus on defending the democratic potentialities of the Internet on the perspective of corporate impermeability. Today, corporate encroachment in cyberspace is changing the balance of power in the new media ecology, which "portends a new set of social relationships based on commercial exploitation". Many social network websites inject customized advertisements into the steady stream of personal communication. It is called commercial incursion which converts user-generated content into fodder for marketers and advertisers. So the control rests with the owners rather than the participants. It is necessary for online participants to be prepared to act consciously to resist the enclosure of digital commons.

There is some recent research that puts the emphasis on the youth, the future of the society who is at the forefront of new media environment. Each generation, with its respective worldview, is equipped with certain media grammar and media literacy in its youth. As each generation inherits an idiosyncratic media structure, those born into the age of radio perceive the world differently from those born into the age of television. The nature of new generation is also influenced by the nature of the new media.

According to the media ecology theory, analyzing today's generational identity through the lens of media technologies themselves can be more productive than focusing on media content. Media ecologists employ a media ecology interpretative framework to deconstruct how today's new media environment increasingly mirrors the values and character attributed to young people. Here are some typical characteristics of the new generation: first, it is "the world's first generation to grow up thinking of itself as global. The internet and satellite television networks are just two of the myriad technologies that have made this possible." Second, "there may actually be no unified ethos". With "hundreds of cable channels and thousands of computer conferences, young generation might be able to isolate themselves within their own extremely opinionated forces".

Education
In 2009 a study was published by Cleora D'Arcy, Darin Eastburn and Bertram Bruce entitled "How Media Ecologies Can Address Diverse Student Needs". The purpose of this study was to use Media Ecology in order to determine which media is perceived as the most useful as an instructional tool in post-secondary education. This study specifically analyzed and tested "new media" such as podcasts, blogs, websites, and discussion forums with other media, such as traditional text books, lectures, and handouts. Ultimately comparing "hot" and "cold" media at today's standard of the terms. The result of the study, which included student surveys, indicated that a mixture of media was the most "valued" method of instruction, however more interactive media enhanced student learning.

Transmedia Storytelling in Education as A Practice of Media Ecology

Further expanding Media Ecology Theory into modern-day communication. Anna A. Novikova analyzes recent transmedia storytelling strategies used in education through the perspective of media ecology. In "Transmedia Storytelling in Education as a Practice of Media Ecology", Novikova highlights how advancements in technology and world events, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, have increased the need for media literacy and technological skills in adapting educational processes. She suggests that McLuhan's concepts are reflected in how transmedial storytelling helps audiences broaden their worldviews and accepted norms. Transmedial stories developed from the input of an author and the input of students creates an environment based on connections among participants in the communication process, the participants' involvement and the conceptualization of traditional values, and the creation of new values. Novikova suggests the transmedia environment is an extension of McLuhan's statement "the medium is the message" and the New Media Era. She acknowledges challenges this education strategy faces, such as the risk of presenting students with too much information, reducing retention and meaning by possibly presenting the information out of context.

title: Media ecology