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Firestorm

A firestorm is a conflagration which attains such intensity that it creates and sustains its own wind system. It is most commonly a natural phenomenon, created during some of the largest bushfires and wildfires. Although the term has been used to describe certain large fires, the phenomenon's determining characteristic is a fire with its own storm-force winds from every point of the compass towards the storm's center, where the air is heated and then ascends.

The Black Saturday bushfires, the 2021 British Columbia wildfires, and the Great Peshtigo Fire are possible examples of forest fires with some portion of combustion due to a firestorm, as is the Great Hinckley Fire. Firestorms have also occurred in cities, usually due to targeted explosives, such as in the aerial firebombings of London, Hamburg, Dresden, and Tokyo, and the atomic bombing of Hiroshima.

Mechanism
A firestorm is created as a result of the stack effect as the heat of the original fire draws in more and more of the surrounding air. This draft can be quickly increased if a low-level jet stream exists over or near the fire. As the updraft mushrooms, strong inwardly-directed gusty winds develop around the fire, supplying it with additional air. This would seem to prevent the firestorm from spreading on the wind, but the tremendous turbulence created may also cause the strong surface inflow winds to change direction erratically. Firestorms resulting from the bombardment of urban areas in the Second World War were generally confined to the areas initially seeded with incendiary devices, and the firestorm did not appreciably spread outward.

A firestorm may also develop into a mesocyclone and induce true tornadoes/fire whirls. This occurred with the 2002 Durango fire, and probably with the much greater Peshtigo Fire. The greater draft of a firestorm draws in greater quantities of oxygen, which significantly increases combustion, thereby also substantially increasing the production of heat. The intense heat of a firestorm manifests largely as radiated heat (infrared radiation), which may ignite flammable material at a distance ahead of the fire itself. This also serves to expand the area and the intensity of the firestorm. Violent, erratic wind drafts suck movables into the fire and as is observed with all intense conflagrations, radiated heat from the fire can melt asphalt, some metals, and glass, and turn street tarmac into flammable hot liquid. The very high temperatures ignite anything that might possibly burn, until the firestorm runs low on fuel.

A firestorm does not appreciably ignite material at a distance ahead of itself; more accurately, the heat desiccates those materials and makes them more vulnerable to ignition by embers or firebrands, increasing the rate of fire spotting. During the formation of a firestorm many fires merge to form a single convective column of hot gases rising from the burning area and strong, fire-induced, radial (inwardly directed) winds are associated with the convective column. Thus the fire front is essentially stationary and the outward spread of fire is prevented by the in-rushing wind.

Characterization of a firestorm
A firestorm is characterized by strong to gale-force winds blowing toward the fire, everywhere around the fire perimeter, an effect which is caused by the buoyancy of the rising column of hot gases over the intense mass fire, drawing in cool air from the periphery. These winds from the perimeter blow the fire brands into the burning area and tend to cool the unignited fuel outside the fire area so that ignition of material outside the periphery by radiated heat and fire embers is more difficult, thus limiting fire spread. At Hiroshima, this inrushing to feed the fire is said to have prevented the firestorm perimeter from expanding, and thus the firestorm was confined to the area of the city damaged by the blast.

Large wildfire conflagrations are distinct from firestorms if they have moving fire fronts which are driven by the ambient wind and do not develop their own wind system like true firestorms. (This does not mean that a firestorm must be stationary; as with any other convective storm, the circulation may follow surrounding pressure gradients and winds, if those lead it onto fresh fuel sources.) Furthermore, non-firestorm conflagrations can develop from a single ignition, whereas firestorms have only been observed where large numbers of fires are burning simultaneously over a relatively large area, with the important caveat that the density of simultaneously burning fires needs to be above a critical threshold for a firestorm to form (a notable example of large numbers of fires burning simultaneously over a large area without a firestorm developing was the Kuwaiti oil fires of 1991, where the distance between individual fires was too large).

The high temperatures within the firestorm zone ignite most everything that might possibly burn, until a tipping point is reached, that is, upon running low on fuel, which occurs after the firestorm has consumed so much of the available fuel within the firestorm zone that the necessary fuel density required to keep the firestorm's wind system active drops below the threshold level, at which time the firestorm breaks up into isolated conflagrations.

In Australia, the prevalence of eucalyptus trees that have oil in their leaves results in forest fires that are noted for their extremely tall and intense flame front. Hence the bush fires appear more as a firestorm than a simple forest fire. Sometimes, emission of combustible gases from swamps (e.g., methane) has a similar effect. For instance, methane explosions enforced the Peshtigo Fire.

Weather and climate effects
Firestorms will produce hot buoyant smoke clouds of primarily water vapor that will form condensation clouds as it enters the cooler upper atmosphere, generating what is known as pyrocumulus clouds ("fire clouds") or, if large enough, pyrocumulonimbus ("fire storm") clouds. For example, the black rain that began to fall approximately 20 minutes after the atomic bombing of Hiroshima produced in total 5–10 cm of black soot-filled rain in a 1–3 hour period. Moreover, if the conditions are right, a large pyrocumulus can grow into a pyrocumulonimbus and produce lightning, which could potentially set off further fires. Apart from city and forest fires, pyrocumulus clouds can also be produced by volcanic eruptions due to the comparable amounts of hot buoyant material formed.

On a more continental and global extent, away from the direct vicinity of the fire, wildfire firestorms that produce pyrocumulonimbus cloud events have been found to "surprisingly frequently" generate minor "nuclear winter" effects. These are analogous to minor volcanic winters, with each mass addition of volcanic gases additive in increasing the depth of the "winter" cooling, from near-imperceptible to "year without a summer" levels.

Pyro-cumulonimbus and atmospheric effects (in wildfires)
A very important but poorly understood aspect of wildfire behavior are pyrocumulonimbus (pyroCb) firestorm dynamics and their atmospheric impact. These are well illustrated in the Black Saturday case study below. The "pyroCb" is a fire-started or fire-augmented thunderstorm that in its most extreme manifestation injects huge abundances of smoke and other biomass-burning emissions into the lower stratosphere. The observed hemispheric spread of smoke and other biomass-burning emissions has known important climate consequences. Direct attribution of the stratospheric aerosols to pyroCbs only occurred in the last decade.

Such an extreme injection by thunderstorms was previously judged to be unlikely because the extratropical tropopause is considered to be a strong barrier to convection. Two recurring themes have developed as pyroCb research unfolds. First, puzzling stratospheric aerosol-layer observations—and other layers reported as volcanic aerosol can now be explained in terms of pyroconvection. Second, pyroCb events occur surprisingly frequently, and they are likely a relevant aspect of several historic wildfires.

On an intraseasonal level it is established that pyroCbs occur with surprising frequency. In 2002, at least 17 pyroCbs erupted in North America alone. Still to be determined is how often this process occurred in the boreal forests of Asia in 2002. However, it is now established that this most extreme form of pyroconvection, along with more frequent pyrocumulus convection, was widespread and persisted for at least two months. The characteristic injection height of pyroCb emissions is the upper troposphere, and a subset of these storms pollutes the lower stratosphere. Thus, a new appreciation for the role of extreme wildfire behavior and its atmospheric ramifications is now coming into focus.

Background
The Black Saturday bushfires are some of Australia's most destructive and deadly fires that fall under the category of a "firestorm" due to the extreme fire behavior and relationship with atmospheric responses that occurred during the fires. This major wildfire event led to a number of distinct electrified pyrocumulonimbus plume clusters ranging roughly 15 km high. These plumes were proven susceptible to striking new spot fires ahead of the main fire front. The newly ignited fires by this pyrogenic lightning further highlight the feedback loops of influence between the atmosphere and fire behavior on Black Saturday associated with these pyroconvective processes.

Role that pyroCbs have on fire in case study
The examinations presented here for Black Saturday demonstrate that fires ignited by lightning generated within the fire plume can occur at much larger distances ahead of the main fire front—of up to 100 km. In comparison to fires ignited by burning debris transported by the fire plume, these only go ahead of the fire front up to about 33 km, noting that this also has implications in relation to understanding the maximum rate of spread of a wildfire. This finding is important for the understanding and modeling of future firestorms and the large scale areas that can be affected by this phenomenon.

As the individual spot fires grow together, they will begin to interact. This interaction will increase the burning rates, heat release rates, and flame height until the distance between them reaches a critical level. At the critical separation distance, the flames will begin to merge and burn with the maximum rate and flame height. As these spot fires continue to grow together, the burning and heat release rates will finally start to decrease but remain at a much elevated level compared to the independent spot fire. The flame height is not expected to change significantly. The more spot fires, the bigger the increase in burning rate and flame height.

Importance for continued study of these firestorms
Black Saturday is just one of many varieties of firestorms with these pyroconvective processes and they are still being widely studied and compared. In addition to indicating this strong coupling on Black Saturday between the atmosphere and the fire activity, the lightning observations also suggest considerable differences in pyroCb characteristics between Black Saturday and the Canberra fire event. Differences between pyroCb events, such as for the Black Saturday and Canberra cases, indicate considerable potential for improved understanding of pyroconvection based on combining different data sets as presented in the research of the Black Saturday pyroCb's (including in relation to lightning, radar, precipitation, and satellite observations).

A greater understanding of pyroCb activity is important, given that fire-atmosphere feedback processes can exacerbate the conditions associated with dangerous fire behavior. Additionally, understanding the combined effects of heat, moisture, and aerosols on cloud microphysics is important for a range of weather and climate processes, including in relation to improved modeling and prediction capabilities. It is essential to fully explore events such as these to properly characterize the fire behavior, pyroCb dynamics, and resultant influence on conditions in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere (UTLS). It is also important to accurately characterize this transport process so that cloud, chemistry, and climate models have a firm basis on which to evaluate the pyrogenic source term, pathway from the boundary layer through cumulus cloud, and exhaust from the convective column.

Since the discovery of smoke in the stratosphere and the pyroCb, only a small number of individual case studies and modeling experiments have been performed. Hence, there is still much to be learned about the pyroCb and its importance. With this work scientists have attempted to reduce the unknowns by revealing several additional occasions when pyroCbs were either a significant or sole cause for the type of stratospheric pollution usually attributed to volcanic injections.

City firestorms
The same underlying combustion physics can also apply to man-made structures such as cities during war or natural disaster.

Firestorms are thought to have been part of the mechanism of large urban fires, such as accompanied the 1755 Lisbon earthquake, the 1906 San Francisco earthquake and the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake. Genuine firestorms are occurring more frequently in California wildfires, such as the 1991 wildfire disaster in Oakland, California, and the October 2017 Tubbs Fire in Santa Rosa, California.

During the July–August 2018 Carr Fire, a deadly fire vortex equivalent in size and strength to an EF-3 tornado spawned during the firestorm in Redding, California and caused tornado-like wind damage. Another wildfire which may be characterized as a firestorm was the Camp Fire, which at one point travelled at a speed of up to 76 acres per minute, completely destroying the town of Paradise, California within 24 hours on November 8, 2018.

Firestorms were also created by the firebombing raids of World War II in cities like Hamburg and Dresden. Of the two nuclear weapons used in combat, only Hiroshima resulted in a firestorm. In contrast, experts suggest that due to the nature of modern U.S. city design and construction, a firestorm is unlikely after a nuclear detonation.

Firebombing
Firebombing is a technique designed to damage a target, generally an urban area, through the use of fire, caused by incendiary devices, rather than from the blast effect of large bombs. Such raids often employ both incendiary devices and high explosives. The high explosive destroys roofs, making it easier for the incendiary devices to penetrate the structures and cause fires. The high explosives also disrupt the ability of firefighters to douse the fires.

Although incendiary bombs have been used to destroy buildings since the start of gunpowder warfare, World War II saw the first use of strategic bombing from the air to destroy the ability of the enemy to wage war. London, Coventry, and many other British cities were firebombed during the Blitz. Most large German cities were extensively firebombed starting in 1942, and almost all large Japanese cities were firebombed during the last six months of World War II. As Sir Arthur Harris, the officer commanding RAF Bomber Command from 1942 through to the end of the war in Europe, pointed out in his post-war analysis, although many attempts were made to create deliberate man-made firestorms during World War II, few attempts succeeded:

""The Germans again and again missed their chance, ...of setting our cities ablaze by a concentrated attack. Coventry was adequately concentrated in point of space, but all the same there was little concentration in point of time, and nothing like the fire tornadoes of Hamburg or Dresden ever occurred in this country. But they did do us enough damage to teach us the principle of concentration, the principle of starting so many fires at the same time that no fire fighting services, however efficiently and quickly they were reinforced by the fire brigades of other towns could get them under control.""

- Arthur Harris

According to physicist David Hafemeister, firestorms occurred after about 5% of all fire-bombing raids during World War II (but he does not explain if this is a percentage based on both Allied and Axis raids, or combined Allied raids, or U.S. raids alone). In 2005, the American National Fire Protection Association stated in a report that three major firestorms resulted from Allied conventional bombing campaigns during World War II: Hamburg, Dresden, and Tokyo. They do not include the comparatively minor firestorms at Kassel, Darmstadt or even Ube into their major firestorm category. Despite later quoting and corroborating Glasstone and Dolan and data collected from these smaller firestorms: "based on World War II experience with mass fires resulting from air raids on Germany and Japan, the minimum requirements for a firestorm to develop are considered by some authorities to be the following: (1) at least 8 pounds of combustibles per square foot of fire area (40 kg per square meter), (2) at least half of the structures in the area on fire simultaneously, (3) a wind of less than 8 miles per hour at the time, and (4) a minimum burning area of about half a square mile."

- Glasstone and Dolan (1977).

21st-century cities in comparison to World War II cities
Unlike the highly combustible World War II cities that firestormed from conventional and nuclear weapons, a FEMA report suggests that due to the nature of modern U.S. city design and construction, a firestorm is unlikely to occur even after a nuclear detonation because highrise buildings do not lend themselves to the formation of firestorms because of the baffle effect of the structures, and firestorms are unlikely in areas whose modern buildings have totally collapsed, with the exceptions of Tokyo and Hiroshima, because of the nature of their densely-packed "flimsy" wooden buildings in World War II.

There is also a sizable difference between the fuel loading of World War II cities that firestormed and that of modern cities, where the quantity of combustibles per square meter in the fire area in the latter is below the necessary requirement for a firestorm to form (40 kg/m2). Therefore, firestorms are not to be expected in modern North American cities after a nuclear detonation, and are expected to be unlikely in modern European cities.

Similarly, one reason for the lack of success in creating a true firestorm in the bombing of Berlin in World War II was that the building density, or builtupness factor, in Berlin was too low to support easy fire spread from building to building. Another reason was that much of the building construction was newer and better than in most of the old German city centers. Modern building practices in the Berlin of World War II led to more effective firewalls and fire-resistant construction. Mass firestorms never proved to be possible in Berlin. No matter how heavy the raid or what kinds of firebombs were dropped, no true firestorm ever developed.

Nuclear weapons in comparison to conventional weapons
The incendiary effects of a nuclear explosion do not present any especially characteristic features. In principle, the same overall result with respect to destruction of life and property can be achieved by the use of conventional incendiary and high-explosive bombs. It has been estimated, for example, that the same fire ferocity and damage produced at Hiroshima by one 16-kiloton nuclear bomb from a single B-29 could have instead been produced by about 1,200 tons/1.2 kilotons of incendiary bombs from 220 B-29s distributed over the city; for Nagasaki, a single 21 kiloton nuclear bomb dropped on the city could have been estimated to be caused by 1,200 tons of incendiary bombs from 125 B-29s.

It may seem counterintuitive that the same amount of fire damage caused by a nuclear weapon could have instead been produced by smaller total yield of thousands of incendiary bombs; however, World War II experience supports this assertion. For example, although not a perfect clone of the city of Hiroshima in 1945, in the conventional bombing of Dresden, the combined Royal Air Force (RAF) and United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) dropped a total of 3441.3 tons (approximately 3.4 kilotons) of ordnance (about half of which was incendiary bombs) on the night of 13–14 February 1945, and this resulted in "more than" 2.5 sqmi of the city being destroyed by fire and firestorm effects according to one authoritative source, or approximately 8 sqmi by another.

In total about 4.5 kilotons of conventional ordnance was dropped on the city over a number of months during 1945 and this resulted in approximately 15 sqmi of the city being destroyed by blast and fire effects. During the Operation MeetingHouse firebombing of Tokyo on 9–10 March 1945, 279 of the 334 B-29s dropped 1,665 tons of incendiary and high-explosive bombs on the city, resulting in the destruction of over 10,000 acres of buildings—16 sqmi, a quarter of the city.

In contrast to these raids, when a single 16-kiloton nuclear bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, 4.5 sqmi of the city was destroyed by blast, fire, and firestorm effects. Similarly, Major Cortez F. Enloe, a surgeon in the USAAF who worked with the United States Strategic Bombing Survey (USSBS), said that the 21-kiloton nuclear bomb dropped on Nagasaki did not do as much fire damage as the extended conventional airstrikes on Hamburg.

American historian Gabriel Kolko also echoed this sentiment:

"During November 1944 American B-29's began their first incendiary bomb raids on Tokyo, and on 9 March 1945, wave upon wave dropped masses of small incendiaries containing an early version of napalm on the city's population....Soon small fires spread, connected, grew into a vast firestorm that sucked the oxygen out of the lower atmosphere. The bomb raid was a 'success' for the Americans; they killed 125,000 Japanese in one attack. The Allies bombed Hamburg and Dresden in the same manner, and Nagoya, Osaka, Kobe, and Tokyo again on May 24....in fact the atomic bomb used against Hiroshima was less lethal than massive fire bombing....Only its technique was novel—nothing more....There was another difficulty posed by mass conventional bombing, and that was its very success, a success that made the two modes of human destruction qualitatively identical in fact and in the minds of the American military. "I was a little fearful", [Secretary of War] Stimson told [President] Truman, "that before we could get ready the Air Force might have Japan so thoroughly bombed out that the new weapon would not have a fair background to show its strength." To this the President "laughed and said he understood.""

This break from the linear expectation of more fire damage to occur after greater explosive yield is dropped can be easily explained by two major factors. First, the order of blast and thermal events during a nuclear explosion is not ideal for the creation of fires. In an incendiary bombing raid, incendiary weapons followed after high-explosive blast weapons were dropped, in a manner designed to create the greatest probability of fires from a limited quantity of explosive and incendiary weapons. The so-called two-ton "cookies", also known as "blockbusters", were dropped first and were intended to rupture water mains, as well as to blow off roofs, doors, and windows, creating an air flow that would feed the fires caused by the incendiaries that would then follow and be dropped, ideally, into holes created by the prior blast weapons, such as into attic and roof spaces.

On the other hand, nuclear weapons produce effects that are in the reverse order, with thermal effects and "flash" occurring first, which are then followed by the slower blast wave. It is for this reason that conventional incendiary bombing raids are considered to be a great deal more efficient at causing mass fires than nuclear weapons of comparable yield. It is likely this led the nuclear weapon effects experts Franklin D'Olier, Samuel Glasstone and Philip J. Dolan to state that the same fire damage suffered at Hiroshima could have instead been produced by about 1 kiloton/1,000 tons of incendiary bombs.

The second factor explaining the non-intuitive break in the expected results of greater explosive yield producing greater city fire damage is that city fire damage is largely dependent not on the yield of the weapons used, but on the conditions in and around the city itself, with the fuel loading per square meter value of the city being one of the major factors. A few hundred strategically placed incendiary devices would be sufficient to start a firestorm in a city if the conditions for a firestorm, namely high fuel loading, are already inherent to the city (see Bat bomb).

The Great Fire of London in 1666, although not forming a firestorm due to the single point of ignition, serves as an example that, given a densely packed and predominantly wooden and thatch building construction in the urban area, a mass fire is conceivable from the mere incendiary power of no more than a domestic fireplace. On the other hand, the largest nuclear weapon conceivable (more than a gigaton blast yield) will be incapable of igniting a city into a firestorm if the city's properties, namely its fuel density, are not conducive to one developing. It's worth remembering that such a device would still destroy any city in the world today from its shockwave alone, as well as irradiate the ruins to the point of uninhabitability. A device so large could even vaporize the city (and the crust beneath) all at once without such damage qualifying as a "firestorm".

Despite the disadvantage of nuclear weapons when compared to conventional weapons of lower or comparable yield in terms of effectiveness at starting fires, for the reasons discussed above, one undeniable advantage of nuclear weapons over conventional weapons when it comes to creating fires is that nuclear weapons undoubtedly produce all their thermal and explosive effects in a very short period of time. That is, to use Arthur Harris's terminology, they are the epitome of an air raid guaranteed to be concentrated in "point in time".

In contrast, early in World War II, the ability to achieve conventional air raids concentrated in "point of time" depended largely upon the skill of pilots to remain in formation, and their ability to hit the target whilst at times also being under heavy fire from anti-aircraft fire from the cities below. Nuclear weapons largely remove these uncertain variables. Therefore, nuclear weapons reduce the question of whether a city will firestorm or not to a smaller number of variables, to the point of becoming entirely reliant on the intrinsic properties of the city, such as fuel loading, and predictable atmospheric conditions, such as wind speed, in and around the city, and less reliant on the unpredictable possibility of hundreds of bomber crews acting together successfully as a single unit.

Potential firestorms
Portions of the following fires are often described as firestorms, but that has not been corroborated by any reliable references:

 * Great Fire of Rome (64 AD)
 * Great Fire of London (1666)
 * Great Chicago Fire (1871)
 * Peshtigo Fire (1871)
 * San Francisco earthquake (1906)
 * Great Kantō earthquake (1923)
 * Tillamook Burn (1933–1951)
 * Second Great Fire of London (1940)
 * Ash Wednesday bushfires (1983)
 * Yellowstone fires (1988)
 * Canberra bushfires (2003)
 * Okanagan Mountain Park Fire (2003)
 * Black Saturday bushfires (2009)
 * Fort McMurray wildfire (2016)
 * Predrógâo Grande wildfire (2017)
 * Carr Fire (2018)
 * 2021 British Columbia wildfires (2021)

title: Firestorm


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Arundel, Quebec

Arundel is a township municipality in Quebec, Canada, located 18 km south of Mont Tremblant.

Arundel was settled by Scottish and Irish immigrants in the mid-19th century who established subsistence farming operations and worked the forests in winter.

Today most of the land is reserved for agricultural use despite strong growth in the region. Much of Arundel borders the Rouge River.

Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Arundel had a population of $578$ living in $290$ of its $402$ total private dwellings, a change of NaN% from its 2016 population of $563$. With a land area of 63.45 km2, it had a population density of in 2021.

Population trend:
 * Population in 2021: 578 (2016 to 2021 population change: 2.7%)
 * Population in 2016: 563
 * Population in 2011: 604
 * Population in 2006: 601
 * Population in 2001: 555
 * Population in 1996: 533
 * Population in 1991: 555

Private dwellings occupied by usual residents: 290 (total dwellings: 402)

Mother tongue:
 * French as first language: 44%
 * English as first language: 54%
 * Other as first language: 2%

Education
Sir Wilfrid Laurier School Board is the English-language school board of the town. Schools serving the town:
 * Arundel Elementary School
 * Sainte Agathe Academy (for high school only) in Sainte-Agathe-des-Monts

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Arundel, Quebec


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User:Cajie

Full Name : Cajetan Barretto Country of Birth : India

title: User:Cajie


text:
User talk:CalRis25

Greetings! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. You can sign your name with ~. If you have questions or doubts of any sort, do not hesitate to post them on the Village Pump, somebody will respond ASAP. Other helpful pages include: Have fun! --Jiang 11:36, 5 Aug 2003 (UTC)
 * Welcome, newcomers
 * Manual of style
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WikiProject Constellations
I see that you are listed as a contributor for this project. Because the project is incomplete, I would like to find out what the current plans are for the project. Much work is still needed, particularly for constellations in the southern sky. I believe we need to do the following: On my user page, I have posted a few ideas for standardisation and I would like some feedback. --  B.d.mills  (T, C)
 * 1) Complete the infobox for each constellation.
 * 2) Standardise the format for each constellation.

title: User talk:CalRis25


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Talk:Vocational education

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
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Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 12:31, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

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/ref?
I don't know if it's vandalism or a mistake, but this article begins with "/ref" and seems to be missing the first sentence(s). Laznip (talk) 00:30, 13 October 2021 (UTC)

Remove Template:Educational research
'''Hello Friends. I want to improve on this article. I have the following documents to work with''' 1. https://www.mcser.org/journal/index.php/mjss/article/view/1763/1767. 2. https://openriver.winona.edu/eie/vol21/iss1/3/Emekagozie (talk) 12:24, 25 May 2022 (UTC)

The Template:Educational research box should be removed from this article for the reasons discussed here: Template talk:Educational research Sda030 (talk) 15:41, 13 February 2022 (UTC)

Add this section to "overview"
Participation in technical and vocational education and training (TVET) for young adults remains low in many parts of the world. Some progress can be observed in vocational educational enrolment between 2000 and 2020 in Central Asia, Central and Eastern Europe, as well as in East Asia and the Pacific with up to 15% of 15-24 years enrolled in TVET programs. In the lowest income countries, however, and in regions such as sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, enrolment in TVET has remained low and stagnant at only around 1% of the age group. It is important to recall that vocational skills development is not restricted to formal education and training and that youth in the significant informal economies of many countries may have access to traditional apprenticeships or informal skills development. Yet, data from the International Labour Organization indicate that more than one in five youth (16-24) worldwide are not in education, training, or employment, two thirds of whom are young women. (International Commission on the Futures of Education 2021: Reimagining our Futures Together. A New Social Contract for Education, UNESCO, Paris.) Lisa Rechelle (talk) 08:09, 2 May 2023 (UTC)

Proposed merge of TVET (technical and vocational education and training) into Vocational education
The articles appear to have the same subject and scope. Daask (talk) 18:52, 10 April 2024 (UTC)
 * Support - TVET seems to be a term used by UNESCO to describe what is more broadly known as vocational education. Cordless Larry (talk) 19:02, 10 April 2024 (UTC)

"Woodshop" listed at Redirects for discussion
The redirect [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Woodshop&redirect=no Woodshop] has been listed at redirects for discussion to determine whether its use and function meets the redirect guidelines. Readers of this page are welcome to comment on this redirect at  until a consensus is reached.  cogsan (nag me)  (stalk me) 19:07, 27 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Vocational education


text:
User talk:Cajie

Greetings! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. You can sign your name with ~. If you have questions or doubts of any sort, do not hesitate to post them on the Village Pump, somebody will respond ASAP. Other helpful pages include: Have fun! --Jiang 11:36, 5 Aug 2003 (UTC)
 * Welcome, newcomers
 * Manual of style
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title: User talk:Cajie


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User talk:Plaudite~enwiki

Greetings! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. You can sign your name with ~. If you have questions or doubts of any sort, do not hesitate to post them on the Village Pump, somebody will respond ASAP. Other helpful pages include: Have fun! --Jiang 11:41, 5 Aug 2003 (UTC)
 * Welcome, newcomers
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 * Thank you! Plaudite 11:45, 5 Aug 2003 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Plaudite. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Plaudite~enwiki that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name. If you think you might own all of the accounts with this name and this message is in error, please visit Special:MergeAccount to check and attach all of your accounts to prevent them from being renamed.

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Renamed
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text:
Elliott wave principle

The Elliott wave principle, or Elliott wave theory, is a form of technical analysis that financial traders use to analyze financial market cycles and forecast market trends by identifying extremes in investor psychology and price levels, such as highs and lows, by looking for patterns in prices. Ralph Nelson Elliott (1871–1948), an American accountant, developed a model for the underlying social principles of financial markets by studying their price movements, and developed a set of analytical tools in the 1930s. He proposed that market prices unfold in specific patterns, which practitioners today call Elliott waves, or simply waves. Elliott published his theory of market behavior in the book The Wave Principle in 1938, summarized it in a series of articles in Financial World magazine in 1939, and covered it most comprehensively in his final major work Nature's Laws: The Secret of the Universe in 1946. Elliott stated that "because man is subject to rhythmical procedure, calculations having to do with his activities can be projected far into the future with a justification and certainty heretofore unattainable".

Foundation
The Elliott wave principle posits that collective trader psychology, a form of crowd psychology, moves between optimism and pessimism in repeating sequences of intensity and duration. These mood swings create patterns in the price movements of markets at every degree of trend or time scale.

In Elliott's theory, market prices alternate between an impulsive, or motive, phase, and a corrective phase on all time scales of trend, as the illustration shows. Impulses are always subdivided into a set of five lower-degree waves, alternating again between motive and corrective character, so that waves 1, 3, and 5 are impulses, and waves 2 and 4 are smaller retraces of waves 1 and 3 respectively. Corrective waves subdivide into three smaller-degree waves starting with a five-wave counter-trend impulse, a retrace, and another impulse. In a bear market the dominant trend is downward, and the pattern is reversed—five waves down and three up. Motive waves always move with the trend, while corrective waves move against it.

Wave degree
The Elliott wave principle states that markets grow from small price movements by linking Elliot wave patterns to form larger five-wave and three-wave structures that exhibit self-similarity, applicable on all timescales. Each level of such timescales is called the degree of the wave, or price pattern. Each degree of waves consists of one full cycle of motive and corrective waves. Waves 1, 3, and 5 of each cycle are motive in character, while waves 2 and 4 are corrective. The majority of motive waves assure forward progress in the direction of the prevailing trend, in bull or bear markets, but yielding an overall principle of growth of a market.

The overall movement of a wave one degree higher is upward in a bullish trend. After the initial five waves forward and three waves of correction, the sequence is repeated on a larger degree and the self-similar fractal geometry continues to unfold. The completed motive pattern comprises 89 waves, followed by a completed corrective pattern of 55 waves.

Each degree of a pattern in a financial market has a name. Practitioners use symbols for each wave to indicate both function and degree. Numbers are used for motive waves, and letters for corrective waves (shown in the highest of the three idealized series of wave structures or degrees). Degrees are not strictly defined by absolute size or duration, but by form. Waves of the same degree may be of very different size or duration.

While exact time spans may vary, the customary order of degrees is reflected in the following sequence: Some analysts specify additional smaller and larger degrees.
 * Grand supercycle: multi-century
 * Supercycle: multi-decade (about 40–70 years)
 * Cycle: one year to several years, or even several decades under an Elliott extension
 * Primary: a few months to two years
 * Intermediate: weeks to months
 * Minor: weeks
 * Minute: days
 * Minuette: hours
 * Subminuette: minutes

Wave personality and characteristics
Elliott wave analysts (or Elliotticians) hold that each individual wave has its own signature or characteristic, which typically reflects the psychology of the moment. Understanding those personalities is key to the application of the wave principle; they are defined below. (Definitions assume a bull market in equities; the characteristics apply in reverse in bear markets.)

Pattern recognition and fractals
Elliott's market model relies heavily on looking at price charts. Practitioners study developing trends to distinguish the waves and wave structures, and discern what prices may do next; thus the application of the Wave Principle is a form of pattern recognition.

The structures Elliott described meet the common definition of a fractal (self-similar patterns appearing at every degree of trend). Elliott wave practitioners argue that just as naturally occurring fractals often expand and grow more complex over time, the model shows that collective human psychology develops in natural patterns, via buying and selling decisions reflected in market prices: "It's as though we are somehow programmed by mathematics. Seashell, galaxy, snowflake or human: we're all bound by the same order." Critics, however, argue it is a form of pareidolia.

Wave rules and guidelines
A correct Elliott wave count must observe three rules: A common guideline called "alternation" observes that in a five-wave pattern, waves 2 and 4 often take alternate forms; a simple sharp move in wave 2, for example, suggests a complex mild move in wave 4. Alternation can occur in impulsive and corrective waves. Elliott observed that alternate waves of the same degree must be distinctive and unique in price, time, severity, and construction. All formations can guide influences on market action. The time period covered by each formation, however, is the major deciding factor in the full manifestation of the Rule of Alternation. A sharp counter-trend correction in wave 2 covers a short distance in horizontal units. This should produce a sideways counter-trend correction in wave 4, covering a longer distance in horizontal units, and vice versa. Alternation provides analysts a notice of what not to expect when analyzing wave formations.
 * Wave 2 never retraces more than 100% of wave 1.
 * Wave 3 cannot be the shortest of the three impulse waves, namely waves 1, 3 and 5.
 * Wave 4 never enters the price territory of wave 1

Corrective wave patterns unfold in forms known as zigzags, flats, or triangles. In turn these corrective patterns can come together to form more complex corrections. Similarly, a triangular corrective pattern is formed usually in wave 4, but very rarely in wave 2, and is the indication of the end of a correction.

Fibonacci relationships
R. N. Elliott's analysis of the mathematical properties of waves and patterns eventually led him to conclude that "The Fibonacci Summation Series is the basis of The Wave Principle". Numbers from the Fibonacci sequence surface repeatedly in Elliott wave structures, including motive waves (1, 3, 5), a single full cycle (8 waves), and the completed motive (89 waves) and corrective (55 waves) patterns. Elliott developed his market model before he realized that it reflects the Fibonacci sequence. "When I discovered The Wave Principle action of market trends, I had never heard of either the Fibonacci Series or the Pythagorean Diagram".

The Fibonacci sequence is also closely connected to the Golden ratio (1.618). Practitioners commonly use this ratio and related ratios to establish support and resistance levels for market waves, namely the price points which help define the parameters of a trend. See Fibonacci retracement.

Finance professor Roy Batchelor and researcher Richard Ramyar, a former Director of the United Kingdom Society of Technical Analysts and formerly Global Head of Research at Lipper and Thomson Reuters Wealth Management, studied whether Fibonacci ratios appear non-randomly in the stock market, as Elliott's model predicts. The researchers said the "idea that prices retrace to a Fibonacci ratio or round fraction of the previous trend clearly lacks any scientific rationale". They also said "there is no significant difference between the frequencies with which price and time ratios occur in cycles in the Dow Jones Industrial Average, and frequencies which we would expect to occur at random in such a time series".

After Elliott
Following Elliott's death in 1948, other market technicians and financial professionals continued to use the wave principle and provide forecasts to investors. Charles Collins, who had published Elliott's "Wave Principle" and helped introduce Elliott's theory to Wall Street, stated that Elliott's contributions to technical analysis were as significant as those of Charles Dow.

Hamilton Bolton, founder of The Bank Credit Analyst, espoused wave analysis to a wide readership in the 1950s and 1960s in his annual market commentaries and forecasts.

Bolton introduced the wave principle to A. J. Frost (1908–1999), who provided weekly financial commentary on the Financial News Network in the 1980s. Over the course of his lifetime Frost's contributions to the field were of great significance and today the Canadian Society of Technical Analysts awards the A. J. Frost Memorial Award to someone each year who has also made a significant contribution to the field of technical analysis.

Additional notable discoveries of new rules and new wave patterns were discovered after Ralph Nelson Elliott published his original work. Glenn Neely, who published Elliott Waves in Motion in 1988 and Mastering Elliott Wave in 1990, used Elliott wave theory to present the first scientific and objective approach to market forecasting. Around 1980, Neely devoted his career to Elliott wave research and a couple years later, applied what he learned by teaching the application of Elliott wave principle in real-time market analysis. Over time, Neely's teaching method evolved to include his own wave theory called Neowave (which is an extension of Elliott wave). The additional Neowave theory and rules help correct the contradictions created in Elliott wave theory which consists of different rules defining simple impulse patterns of the stock market waves. Under Neowave theory, the major new wave patterns discovered are: neutral triangle, diametric formation, symmetrical formation, extracting triangle, 3rd-extension terminal with 5th failure, and reverse alternation.

Adoption and use
Robert Prechter found Elliott's work while employed as a market technician at Merrill Lynch in the 1970s. His self-published market newsletter prominently featured his Elliott wave analysis during the bull market of the 1980s and giving his views exposure among followers of technical analysis.

Criticism
Benoit Mandelbrot, who developed mathematical models of market pricing based on fractal geometry, expressed caution about the validity of wave models: "But Wave prediction is a very uncertain business. It is an art to which the subjective judgment of the chartists matters more than the objective, replicable verdict of the numbers. The record of this, as of most technical analysis, is at best mixed."

Robert Prechter had previously stated that ideas in an article by Mandelbrot "originated with Ralph Nelson Elliott, who put them forth more comprehensively and more accurately with respect to real-world markets in his 1938 book The Wave Principle".

Critics warn that the wave principle is too vague to be useful, since practitioners cannot consistently identify the beginning or end of waves, resulting in forecasts prone to subjective revisions. Technical analyst David Aronson wrote: "The Elliott wave principle, as popularly practiced, is not a legitimate theory, but a story, and a compelling one that is eloquently told by Robert Prechter. The account is especially persuasive because EWP has the seemingly remarkable ability to fit any segment of market history down to its most minute fluctuations. I contend this is made possible by the method's loosely defined rules and the ability to postulate a large number of nested waves of varying magnitude. This gives the Elliott analyst the same freedom and flexibility that allowed pre-Copernican astronomers to explain all observed planet movements even though their underlying theory of an Earth-centered universe was wrong."

Some analysts consider the Elliott wave principle as too dated to be applicable in today's markets, as explained by financial market analyst Glenn Neely, author of Mastering Elliott Wave: "Elliott wave was an incredible discovery for its time. But, as technologies, governments, economies, and social systems have changed, the behavior of people has also. These changes have affected the wave patterns R. N. Elliott discovered. Consequently, strict application of orthodox Elliott wave concepts to current day markets skews forecasting accuracy. Markets have evolved, but Elliott has not."

title: Elliott wave principle


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User talk:RamonJD

Greetings! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. You can sign your name with ~. If you have questions or doubts of any sort, do not hesitate to post them on the Village Pump, somebody will respond ASAP. Other helpful pages include: Have fun! --Jiang 11:48, 5 Aug 2003 (UTC)
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title: User talk:RamonJD


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Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum

The Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (CIL) is a comprehensive collection of ancient Latin inscriptions. It forms an authoritative source for documenting the surviving epigraphy of classical antiquity. Public and personal inscriptions throw light on all aspects of Roman life and history. The Corpus continues to be updated in new editions and supplements.

CIL also refers to the organization within the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities responsible for collecting data on and publishing the Latin inscriptions. It was founded in 1853 by Theodor Mommsen and is the first and major organization aiming at a comprehensive survey.

Aim
The CIL collects all Latin inscriptions from the whole territory of the Roman Empire, ordering them geographically and systematically. The earlier volumes collected and published authoritative versions of all inscriptions known at the time—most of these had been previously published in a wide range of publications. The descriptions include images of the original inscription if available, drawings showing the letters in their original size and position, and an interpretation reconstructing abbreviations and missing words, along with discussion of issues and problems. The language of the CIL is Latin.

Beginnings
In 1847 a committee was created in Berlin with the aim of publishing an organized collection of Latin inscriptions, which had previously been described piecemeal by hundreds of scholars over the preceding centuries. The leading figure of this committee was Theodor Mommsen (who wrote several of the volumes covering Italy). Much of the work involved personal inspections of sites and monuments in an attempt to replicate the original as much as possible. In those cases where a previously cited inscription could no longer be found, the authors tried to get an accurate reading by comparing the versions of the published inscription in the works of previous authors who had seen the original. The first volume appeared in 1863.

Current status
The CIL presently consists of 17 volumes in about 70 parts, recording approximately 180,000 inscriptions. Thirteen supplementary volumes have plates and special indices. The first volume, in two sections, covered the oldest inscriptions, to the end of the Roman Republic; volumes II to XIV are divided geographically, according to the regions where the inscriptions were found. The other volumes cover other topics. Volume XVII, for instance, is entirely devoted to milestones. A volume XVIII is planned, which will contain the Carmina Latina Epigraphica (Latin verse inscriptions). A two-volume "Index of Numbers", correlating inscription numbers with volume numbers, was published in 2003.

The Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities (BBAW) continues to update and reprint the CIL.

Index
List of volume with the date of first publication.

 * Vol. I: Inscriptiones Latinae antiquissimae ad C. Caesaris mortem (1893)
 * Vol. II: Inscriptiones Hispaniae Latinae (1892)
 * Vol. III: Inscriptiones Asiae, provinciarum Europae Graecarum, Illyrici Latinae (1873)
 * Vol. IV: Inscriptiones parietariae Pompeianae, Herculanenses Stabianae (1871)
 * Vol. V: Inscriptiones Galliae Cisalpinae Latinae (1872)
 * Vol. VI: Inscriptiones Urbis Romae Latinae (1876)
 * Vol. VII: Inscriptiones Britanniae Latinae (1873)
 * Vol. VIII: Inscriptiones Africae Latinae (1881)
 * Vol. IX: Inscriptiones Calabriae, Apuliae, Samnii, Sabinorum, Piceni Latinae (1883)
 * Vol. X: Inscriptiones Bruttiorum, Lucaniae, Campaniae, Siciliae, Sardiniae Latinae (1883)
 * Vol. XI: Inscriptiones Aemiliae, Etruriae, Umbriae Latinae (1888)
 * Vol. XII: Inscriptiones Galliae Narbonensis Latinae (1888)
 * Vol. XIII: Inscriptiones trium Galliarum et Germaniarum Latinae (1899)
 * Vol. XIV: Inscriptiones Latii veteris Latinae (1887)
 * Vol. XV: Inscriptiones Urbis Romae Latinae. Instrumentum domesticum (1891)
 * Vol. XVI: Diplomata militaria (1936)
 * Vol. XVII: Miliaria Imperii Romani (1986)

title: Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum


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User talk:B1000

Greetings! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. You can sign your name with ~. If you have questions or doubts of any sort, do not hesitate to post them on the Village Pump, somebody will respond ASAP. Other helpful pages include: Have fun! --Jiang 12:04, 5 Aug 2003 (UTC)
 * Welcome, newcomers
 * Manual of style
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title: User talk:B1000


text:
Talk:August 5

Tecumseh
1812 Tecumseh item: http://www.michmarkers.com/Pages/S0100.htm, among others
 * Go ahead and add it. --Jiang

Can someone confirm National Mustard Day ?
National Mustard Day was added by an Anon.User under "Holidays and observances". Can someone either confirm/authenicate this, or delete the red link, please ? Thanks. -- PFHLai 19:58, 2004 Aug 8 (UTC)

Pink Floyd's First Album On August 5
I am writing this to ask why Pink Floyd’s first album should be removed for the August 5 page. Are you deputing the fact that The Piper at the Gates of Dawn did not come out on this day. Well check The Piper at the Gates of Dawn Wikipedia page if you want to check the facts. Also you might say that this is just trivial and of no importance to the page, I would have to disagree with that statement because it is not. On that day Pink Floyd revolutionized Psychedelic music and eventually Progressive Rock. So in short it is important and should be there. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 72.74.208.196 (talk) 14:05, 28 December 2009 (UTC)

 * Please read WP:DOY. This sounds like a fine item for Portal:Music/Anniversaries/August, but not for this page unless you're arguing this album fits "major works of art and architecture recognized on a global scale".  IMO, it better fits (from the list of not notable items) "Dates that pertain to television programs, movies, books, video games, etc. - this is not notable on a global scale (exceptions include the breaking of world records for sales, etc.)."  Perhaps others might comment. -- Rick Block (talk) 17:46, 28 December 2009 (UTC)

 * Well Mr. Block it seems that you have not been checking your facts because that album charted all over the globe.--72.74.208.196 (talk) 18:55, 28 December 2009 (UTC)
 * I didn't see this discussion before removing the entry (because I've removed so many like it in the past), but it doesn't belong anyway. For the most part, no album release is sufficiently notable for inclusion on a date page.  They don't rise to the level of long-term global notability required for inclusion.  Charting all over the globe is not enough.  It is not an historic event.  It's not much more than trivia.  -- Mufka (u) (t) (c) 12:54, 29 December 2009 (UTC)

Oak Creek Sikh Temple Attack in 2012
Hi - I am new to Wikipedia editing and I would like to understand why my edit to the history page for August 5th, specifically the addition of the Oak Creek Sikh Temple attack, was removed. I believe my edit was corrected to have proper format and it fits the guidelines because it is a significant crime. I also note a similar crime event, the Charleston A.M.E. Church attack, is currently listed on the history page for June 17th. Thanks! 94608Katsu (talk) 06:50, 6 August 2015 (UTC)

"National Underwear Day"
This is clearly a commercial promotion. Should be deleted. --Richardson mcphillips (talk) 19:45, 5 August 2016 (UTC)
 * so no problem with deletion? --Richardson mcphillips (talk) 15:02, 12 August 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:August 5


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Malus

Malus ( or ) is a genus of about 32–57 species of small deciduous trees or shrubs in the family Rosaceae, including the domesticated orchard apple, crab apples and wild apples.

The genus is native to the temperate zone of the Northern Hemisphere.

Description

Apple trees are typically 4 – talI at maturity, with a dense, twiggy crown. The leaves are 3 – long, alternate, simple, with a serrated margin. The flowers are borne in corymbs, and have five petals, which may be white, pink, or red, and are perfect, with usually red stamens that produce copious pollen, and a half-inferior ovary; flowering occurs in the spring after 50–80 growing degree days (varying greatly according to subspecies and cultivar).

Many apples require cross-pollination between individuals by insects (typically bees, which freely visit the flowers for both nectar and pollen); these are called self-sterile, so self-pollination is impossible, making pollinating insects essential.

A number of cultivars are self-pollinating, such as 'Granny Smith' and 'Golden Delicious', but are considerably fewer in number compared to their cross-pollination dependent counterparts.

Several Malus species, including domestic apples, hybridize freely.

The fruit is a globose pome, varying in size from 1 – in diameter in most of the wild species, to 6 cm in M. sylvestris sieversii, 8 cm in M. domestica, and even larger in certain cultivated orchard apples. The centre of the fruit contains five carpels arranged star-like, each containing one or two seeds.

Subdivisions and species
36 species and 4 hybrids are accepted. The genus Malus is subdivided into eight sections (six, with two added in 2006 and 2008). The oldest fossils of the genus date to the Eocene (Lutetian), which are leaves belonging to the species Malus collardii and Malus kingiensis from western North America (Idaho) and the Russian Far East (Kamchatka), respectively.

Species
36 species and four natural hybrids are accepted:

 * Malus angustifolia (Aiton) Michx. – southern crabapple
 * Malus asiatica Nakai – Chinese pearleaf crabapple
 * Malus baccata (L.) Borkh. – Siberian crabapple
 * Malus brevipes – shrub apple
 * Malus coronaria (L.) Mill. – sweet crabapple
 * Malus crescimannoi Raimondo
 * Malus daochengensis C.L.Li
 * Malus domestica (Suckow) Borkh. – domestic or orchard apple
 * Malus doumeri (Bois) A.Chev. – Taiwan crabapple
 * Malus florentina (Zuccagni) C.K.Schneid. – Florentine crabapple, hawthorn-leaf crabapple
 * Malus fusca (Raf.) C.K.Schneid. – Oregon or Pacific crabapple
 * Malus halliana Koehne – Hall crabapple
 * Malus honanensis Rehder
 * Malus hupehensis (Pamp.) Rehder – tea crabapple
 * Malus ioensis (Alph.Wood) Britton – prairie crabapple
 * Malus jinxianensis J.Q.Deng & J.Y.Hong
 * Malus kansuensis (Batalin) C.K.Schneid. – Calva crabapple
 * Malus komarovii (Sarg.) Rehder
 * Malus leiocalyca S.Z.Huang
 * Malus mandshurica (Maxim.) Kom. ex Skvortsov
 * Malus muliensis T.C.Ku
 * Malus niedzwetzkyana – Niedzwetzky's Apple
 * Malus ombrophila Hand.-Mazz.
 * Malus orientalis Uglitzk.
 * Malus prattii (Hemsl.) C.K.Schneid. – Pratt's crabapple
 * Malus prunifolia (Willd.) Borkh. – plum-leaf crabapple, Chinese crabapple
 * Malus rockii Rehder – native to China and Bhutan
 * Malus sikkimensis (Wenz.) Koehne – Sikkim crabapple
 * Malus spectabilis (Aiton) Borkh. – Asiatic apple, Chinese crabapple
 * Malus spontanea (Makino) Makino
 * Malus sylvestris (L.) Mill. – European crabapple
 * Malus toringo (Siebold) de Vriese (syns. Malus sargentii, Malus sieboldii) – Sargent crabapple, Toringo crabapple, or Siebold's crabapple
 * Malus toringoides (Rehder) Hughes – cut-leaf crabapple
 * Malus transitoria (Batalin) C.K.Schneid. – cut-leaf crabapple
 * Malus trilobata (Labill. ex Poir.) C.K.Schneid. – Lebanese wild apple, erect crabapple, or three-lobed apple tree
 * Malus turkmenorum Juz. & Popov (syn. Malus sieversii) – wild ancestor of cultivated species Malus domestica
 * Malus yunnanensis (Franch.) C.K.Schneid. – Yunnan crabapple
 * Malus zhaojiaoensis N.G.Jiang
 * Hybrids
 * Malus × floribunda Siebold ex Van Houtte – Japanese flowering crabapple
 * Malus × kaido (Wenz.) Pardé (syn. Malus × micromalus) – midget crabapple
 * Malus × soulardii (L.H.Bailey) Britton
 * Malus × zumi (Matsum.) Rehder

Formerly placed here

 * Macromeles tschonoskii (Maxim.) Koidz. (as Malus tschonoskii (Maxim.) C.K.Schneid.) – Chonosuki crabapple and pillar apple

Selected artificial hybrids

 * Malus × sublobata – yellow autumn crabapple (M. asiatica × M. toringo)

Fossil species
After
 * Malus collardii Axelrod, North America (Idaho), Eocene
 * Malus kingiensis Budants, Kamchatka Peninsula, Russia, Eocene
 * Malus florissantensis (Cockerell) MacGinitie Green River Formation, North America (Colorado) Eocene
 * Malus pseudocredneria (Cockerell) MacGinitie Green River Formation, North America (Colorado) Eocene
 * Malus idahoensis R.W.Br. North America (Idaho), Miocene
 * Malus parahupehensis J.Hsu and R.W.Chaney Shanwang, Shandong, China, Miocene
 * Malus antiqua Doweld Romania, Pliocene
 * Malus pseudoangustifolia E.W.Berry North America (South Carolina), Pleistocene

Cultivation
Crabapples are popular as compact ornamental trees, providing blossom in spring and colourful fruit in autumn. The fruits often persist throughout winter. Numerous hybrid cultivars have been selected.

Some crabapples are used as rootstocks for domestic apples to add beneficial characteristics. For example, the rootstocks of Malus baccata varieties are used to give additional cold hardiness to the combined plants for orchards in cold northern areas.

They are also used as pollinizers in apple orchards. Varieties of crabapple are selected to bloom contemporaneously with the apple variety in an orchard planting, and the crabs are planted every sixth or seventh tree, or limbs of a crab tree are grafted onto some of the apple trees. In emergencies, a bucket or drum bouquet of crabapple flowering branches is placed near the beehives as orchard pollenizers.

Because of the plentiful blossoms and small fruit, crabapples are popular for use in bonsai culture.

Cultivars
These cultivars have won the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:-

 * 'Adirondack'
 * 'Butterball'
 * 'Comtesse de Paris'
 * 'Evereste'
 * 'Jelly King'='Mattfru'
 * 'Laura'
 * Malus × robusta 'Red Sentinel'
 * 'Sun Rival'

Other varieties are dealt with under their species names.

Toxicity
The seeds contain cyanide compounds.

Uses
Crabapple fruit is not an important crop in most areas, being extremely sour due to malic acid (which like the genus derives from the Latin name mālum), and in some species woody, so is rarely eaten raw. In some Southeast Asian cultures, they are valued as a sour condiment, sometimes eaten with salt and chilli or shrimp paste.

Some crabapple varieties are an exception to the reputation of being sour, and can be very sweet, such as the 'Chestnut' cultivar.

Crabapples are an excellent source of pectin, and their juice can be made into a ruby-coloured preserve with a full, spicy flavour. A small percentage of crabapples in cider makes a more interesting flavour. As Old English Wergulu, the crab apple is one of the nine plants invoked in the pagan Anglo-Saxon Nine Herbs Charm, recorded in the 10th century.

Applewood gives off a pleasant scent when burned, and smoke from an applewood fire gives an excellent flavour to smoked foods. It is easier to cut when green; dry applewood is exceedingly difficult to carve by hand. It is a good wood for cooking fires because it burns hot and slow, without producing much flame. Applewood is used to make handles of hand saws; in the early 1900s 2,000,000 board feet of applewood were used annually for this purpose.

title: Malus


text:
User talk:Ffransoo

Greetings! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. You can sign your name with ~. If you have questions or doubts of any sort, do not hesitate to post them on the Village Pump, somebody will respond ASAP. Other helpful pages include: Have fun! --Jiang 12:27, 5 Aug 2003 (UTC)
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ArbCom elections are now open!
MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 08:51, 23 November 2015 (UTC)

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Risch algorithm

In symbolic computation, the Risch algorithm is a method of indefinite integration used in some computer algebra systems to find antiderivatives. It is named after the American mathematician Robert Henry Risch, a specialist in computer algebra who developed it in 1968.

The algorithm transforms the problem of integration into a problem in algebra. It is based on the form of the function being integrated and on methods for integrating rational functions, radicals, logarithms, and exponential functions. Risch called it a decision procedure, because it is a method for deciding whether a function has an elementary function as an indefinite integral, and if it does, for determining that indefinite integral. However, the algorithm does not always succeed in identifying whether or not the antiderivative of a given function in fact can be expressed in terms of elementary functions.

The complete description of the Risch algorithm takes over 100 pages. The Risch–Norman algorithm is a simpler, faster, but less powerful variant that was developed in 1976 by Arthur Norman.

Some significant progress has been made in computing the logarithmic part of a mixed transcendental-algebraic integral by Brian L. Miller.

Description
The Risch algorithm is used to integrate elementary functions. These are functions obtained by composing exponentials, logarithms, radicals, trigonometric functions, and the four arithmetic operations (+ − × ÷). Laplace solved this problem for the case of rational functions, as he showed that the indefinite integral of a rational function is a rational function and a finite number of constant multiples of logarithms of rational functions. The algorithm suggested by Laplace is usually described in calculus textbooks; as a computer program, it was finally implemented in the 1960s.

Liouville formulated the problem that is solved by the Risch algorithm. Liouville proved by analytical means that if there is an elementary solution $g$ to the equation $g′ = f$ then there exist constants $α_{i}$ and functions $u_{i}$ and $v$ in the field generated by $f$ such that the solution is of the form

 * $$ g = v + \sum_{i<n} \alpha_i \ln (u_i) $$

Risch developed a method that allows one to consider only a finite set of functions of Liouville's form.

The intuition for the Risch algorithm comes from the behavior of the exponential and logarithm functions under differentiation. For the function $f e^{g}$, where $f$ and $g$ are differentiable functions, we have

 * $$ \left(f \cdot e^g\right)^\prime = \left(f^\prime + f\cdot g^\prime\right) \cdot e^g, \, $$

so if $e^{g}$ were in the result of an indefinite integration, it should be expected to be inside the integral. Also, as

 * $$ \left(f \cdot(\ln g)^n\right)^\prime = f^\prime \left(\ln g\right)^n + n f  \frac{g^\prime}{g} \left(\ln g\right)^{n - 1} $$

then if $(ln g)^{n}$ were in the result of an integration, then only a few powers of the logarithm should be expected.

Problem examples
Finding an elementary antiderivative is very sensitive to details. For instance, the following algebraic function (posted to sci.math.symbolic by Henri Cohen in 1993 ) has an elementary antiderivative, as Wolfram Mathematica since version 13 shows (however, Mathematica does not use the Risch algorithm to compute this integral):

 * $$ f(x) = \frac{x}{\sqrt{x^4 + 10 x^2 - 96 x - 71}},$$

namely:

 * $$\begin{align} F(x) = - \frac{1}{8}\ln &\,\Big( (x^6+15 x^4-80 x^3+27 x^2-528 x+781) \sqrt{ x^4+10 x^2-96 x-71} \Big. \\ & {} - \Big .(x^8 + 20 x^6 - 128 x^5 + 54 x^4 - 1408 x^3 + 3124 x^2 + 10001) \Big) + C. \end{align}$$

But if the constant term 71 is changed to 72, it is not possible to represent the antiderivative in terms of elementary functions, as FriCAS also shows. Some computer algebra systems may here return an antiderivative in terms of non-elementary functions (i.e. elliptic integrals), which are outside the scope of the Risch algorithm. For example, Mathematica returns a result with the functions EllipticPi and EllipticF. This integral was solved by Chebyshev (and in what cases it is elementary), but the strict proof for it was ultimately done by Zolotarev.

The following is a more complex example that involves both algebraic and transcendental functions:

 * $$f(x) = \frac{x^2+2x+1+ (3x+1)\sqrt{x+\ln x}}{x\,\sqrt{x+\ln x}\left(x+\sqrt{x+\ln x}\right)}.$$

In fact, the antiderivative of this function has a fairly short form that can be found using substitution $$u = x + \sqrt{x + \ln x}$$ (SymPy can solve it while FriCAS fails with "implementation incomplete (constant residues)" error in Risch algorithm):

 * $$F(x) = 2 \left(\sqrt{x+\ln x} + \ln\left(x+\sqrt{x+\ln x}\right)\right) + C.$$

Some Davenport "theorems" are still being clarified. For example in 2020 a counterexample to such a "theorem" was found, where it turns out that an elementary antiderivative exists after all.

Implementation
Transforming Risch's theoretical algorithm into an algorithm that can be effectively executed by a computer was a complex task which took a long time.

The case of the purely transcendental functions (which do not involve roots of polynomials) is relatively easy and was implemented early in most computer algebra systems. The first implementation was done by Joel Moses in Macsyma soon after the publication of Risch's paper.

The case of purely algebraic functions was solved and implemented in Reduce by James H. Davenport, though for simplicity it could only deal with square roots and repeated square roots and not general Radicals or other non-quadratic algebraic relations between variables.

The general case was solved and almost fully implemented in Scratchpad, a precursor of Axiom, by Manuel Bronstein, and is now being developed in Axiom's fork, FriCAS. However, the implementation did not include some of the branches for special cases completely. Currently, there is no known full implementation of the Risch algorithm.

Decidability
The Risch algorithm applied to general elementary functions is not an algorithm but a semi-algorithm because it needs to check, as a part of its operation, if certain expressions are equivalent to zero (constant problem), in particular in the constant field. For expressions that involve only functions commonly taken to be elementary it is not known whether an algorithm performing such a check exists or not (current computer algebra systems use heuristics); moreover, if one adds the absolute value function to the list of elementary functions, it is known that no such algorithm exists; see Richardson's theorem.

Note that this issue also arises in the polynomial division algorithm; this algorithm will fail if it cannot correctly determine whether coefficients vanish identically. Virtually every non-trivial algorithm relating to polynomials uses the polynomial division algorithm, the Risch algorithm included. If the constant field is computable, i.e., for elements not dependent on $x$, the problem of zero-equivalence is decidable, then the Risch algorithm is a complete algorithm. Examples of computable constant fields are $Q$ and $Q(y)$, i.e., rational numbers and rational functions in $y$ with rational number coefficients, respectively, where $y$ is an indeterminate that does not depend on $x$.

This is also an issue in the Gaussian elimination matrix algorithm (or any algorithm that can compute the nullspace of a matrix), which is also necessary for many parts of the Risch algorithm. Gaussian elimination will produce incorrect results if it cannot correctly determine if a pivot is identically zero.

title: Risch algorithm


text:
Samnium

Samnium (Sannio) is a Latin exonym for a region of Southern Italy anciently inhabited by the Samnites. Their own endonyms were Safinim for the country (attested in one inscription and one coin legend) and Safineis for the people. The language of these endonyms and of the population was the Oscan language. However, not all the Samnites spoke Oscan, and not all the Oscan-speakers lived in Samnium.

Ancient geographers were unable to relay a precise definition of Samnium's borders. Moreover, the areas it included vary depending on the time period considered. The main configurations are the borders it had during the floruit of the Oscan speakers, from about 600 BC to about 290 BC, when it was finally absorbed by the Roman Republic.

The original territory of Samnium should not be confused with the later territory of the same name. Rome's first Emperor, Augustus, divided Italy into 11 regions. Although these entities only served administrative purposes, and were identified with the sole numeral, by scholarly convention the Regio IV has been dubbed "Samnium". Ancient Samnium had actually been divided into three of the Augustan regions.

Etymology
Etymologically the name Samnium is generally recognized to be a form of the name of the Sabines, who were Umbrians. From Safinim, Sabinus, Sabellus and Samnis an Indo-European root can be extracted, *sabh-, which becomes Sab- in Latino-Faliscan and Saf- in Osco-Umbrian: Sabini and *Safineis. The eponymous god of the Sabines, Sabus, seems to support this view. The Greek terms, Saunitai and Saunitis, remain outside the group. Nothing is known of their origin.

At some point in prehistory, a population speaking a common language extended over both Samnium and Umbria. Salmon conjectures that it was common Italic and puts forward a date of 600 BC, after which the common language began to separate into dialects. This date does not necessarily correspond to any historical or archaeological evidence; developing a synthetic view of the ethnology of proto-historic Italy is an incomplete and ongoing task.

The linguist Julius Pokorny carries the etymology somewhat further back. Conjecturing that the -a- was altered from an -o- during some prehistoric residence in Illyria he derives the names from an o-grade extension *swo-bho- of an extended e-grade *swe-bho- of the possessive adjective, *s(e)we-, of the reflexive pronoun, *se-, "oneself" (the source of English self). The result is a set of Indo-European tribal names (if not the endonym of the Indo-Europeans): Germanic Suebi and Semnones, Suiones; Celtic Senones; Slavic Serbs and Sorbs; Italic Sabelli, Sabini, etc., as well as a large number of kinship terms. The general concept is "our own kith and kin", Pokorny's von eigener Art ("of our own kind"), Gesamtheit der eigenen Leute ("the totality of our own people"), Liebe ("love"), Sippegenossen ("clan comrades"), Sippenangehörigen ("clan members"), and the like.

Historical geography
Samnium mostly lay on the Apennine area; it was delimited by Latium to the north, by Lucania to the south, by Campania to the west, and by Apulia to the east. The principal cities of the region were Bovaiamom, renamed Bovianum by Latins (today: Bojano or Boiano) and Maleventum (Maloenton in Oscan), which was later renamed Beneventum by the Romans (today: Benevento). For most of their history the Samnites were landlocked, but during a brief period they controlled parts of both coasts of the Italian peninsula.

The Samnites were composed of at least four tribes: the Pentri (capital: Bovianum), the Caraceni (principal cities: Cluviae, the modern Casoli, and Juvanum, the ruins of which are spread between Torricella Peligna and Montenerodomo), the Caudini (capital: Caudium, today Montesarchio) and the Hirpini (main cities: Beneventum, Abellinum, Aquilonia). They may have later been joined by the Frentani (capital Larinum, the modern Larino).

History
The earliest written record of the people is a treaty with the Romans from 354 BC, which set their border at the Liris River. Shortly thereafter the Samnite Wars broke out; they won an important battle against the Roman army in 321 BC, and their imperium reached its peak in 316 BC after further gains from the Romans. By 290 BC, the Romans were able to break the Samnites' power after some hard-fought battles. The Samnites were one of the Italian peoples that allied with King Pyrrhus of Epirus during the Pyrrhic War. After Pyrrhus left for Sicily, the Romans invaded Samnium and were crushed at the Battle of the Cranita hills, but after the defeat of Pyrrhus, the Samnites could not resist on their own and surrendered to Rome. Some of the Samnites joined and aided Hannibal during the Second Punic War, but most stayed loyal. The Samnites and several other Italic people rebelled against Rome and started the Social War (91–87 BC), after Romans refused to grant them Roman Citizenship. The war lasted almost three years, and resulted in a Roman victory. However, Samnites and other Italic tribes were granted Roman citizenship, to avoid another war. The Samnites supported the Populares in the civil war against Lucius Cornelius Sulla, but unfortunately for them, Sulla ended up winning the war and was declared the dictator of Rome. Sulla ordered all those who went against him to be punished. Thousands of people in Rome and all over Italy were brutally hunted down and killed. Samnites, who were one of the most prominent supporters of the Populares, were punished so severely that it was recorded "some of their cities have now dwindled into villages, some indeed being entirely deserted." Samnites did not play any prominent role in history after this, and they eventually became Latinized and assimilated into the Roman World

Rulers of the Samnites

 * Gaius Pontius c. 320s BC
 * Gellius Egnatius c. 296 BC

Uprising against Sulla

 * Gaius Papius Mutilus 90–89 with:
 * Pontius Telesinus – Samnite commander to Papius

Roman citizens

 * Pontius Pilate – the 5th Prefect of the Roman province of Judaea from AD 26–36.

Catholic Popes

 * Pope Felix IV

title: Samnium


text:
Wolfgang Schüssel

Wolfgang Schüssel (born 7 June 1945) is an Austrian politician. He was Chancellor of Austria for two consecutive terms from February 2000 to January 2007. While being recognised as a rare example of an active reformer in contemporary Austrian politics, his governments were also highly controversial from the beginning, starting with the fact that he formed a coalition government with Jörg Haider's Freedom Party of Austria (FPÖ) on both occasions. In 2011, he retired from being an active member of parliament due to a multitude of charges of corruption against members of his governments.

Early life, education, and start in politics
Born in Vienna, Schüssel attended that city's Schottengymnasium, a well known Roman Catholic gymnasium for boys, where he took his Matura exams in 1963. He went on to study at the University of Vienna, receiving a doctorate in law in 1968.

Schüssel was secretary of the parliamentary group of the Austrian People's Party from 1968 to 1975. From 1975 to 1991, he was secretary general of the Austrian Business Federation, a sub-organization of the Austrian People's Party.

Minister in the "Grand Coalition"
He became Minister for Economic Affairs on 24 April 1989 in a coalition government under Chancellor Franz Vranitzky (SPÖ) formed by the Social Democratic Party (SPÖ) and the Austrian People's Party (ÖVP).

On 22 April 1995, at the 30th Party Congress of the ÖVP, Schüssel staged a leadership coup and ousted Erhard Busek as chairman of the Austrian People's Party. He also replaced the party's ministers in the governing coalition.

On 4 May 1995, Schüssel replaced Busek as vice-chancellor in Franz Vranitzky's fourth government, and also took over as Minister for Foreign Affairs. He held the same posts in Chancellor Vranitzky's fifth Cabinet, as well as the first cabinet of Chancellor Viktor Klima's (SPÖ).

The Schüssel I government
In the 1999 election, Schüssel's ÖVP finished third, trailing Jörg Haider's Freedom Party (FPÖ) by 415 votes. After a series of talks to renew the grand coalition with the SPÖ failed, Schüssel sought a coalition with the Freedom Party.

Jörg Haider, as leader of the larger party, would typically have been the presumptive chancellor, with Schüssel remaining vice chancellor. However, it was apparent that Haider was too controversial to serve in the government, let alone lead it. The FPÖ thus agreed to support Schüssel as chancellor, and Haider did not join the cabinet. Schüssel was sworn in on 4 February 2000, with Haider's successor as FPÖ leader, Susanne Riess-Passer, as vice chancellor. His government was the first in 30 years not to be led by the SPÖ.

Schüssel's government was immediately highly controversial due to the inclusion of the Freedom Party. Schüssel was perceived as having breached the long-standing cordon sanitaire against right-wing populist parties in Europe. This and the association of Haider with the government sparked widespread criticism both domestically and internationally. The Guardian reported that, during the decisive days of Schüssel's negotiations, caretaker Chancellor Viktor Klima had "urged fellow EU leaders to help influence the coalition bargaining."

The ÖVP had been a member of every government from 1945 to 1970 and from 1986 onwards, but even in opposition had never been completely excluded from power. The post-war tradition of consensus-building meant that representatives of all major interest groups in the country were to be consulted before any policy was enacted. Schüssel, however, broke with that tradition in order to rapidly implement the reforms he felt necessary. This was received poorly by many Austrians, who considered the consensus-building approach to be an unwritten part of the constitution. Between 2000 and 2002, there were weekly protests throughout Vienna against the government, dubbed the Donnerstagsdemonstrationen (Thursday demonstrations).

The "EU Sanctions"
The Schüssel government was received poorly by governments internationally, including those of the fourteen other European Union member states, due to its cooperation with the FPÖ. An initiative was organised, with encouragement from much of the Austrian left-wing, to express international disapproval. Because nothing in the legal framework of the European Union enabled official action to be taken, informal "sanctions" were imposed – for several months, many other national leaders engaged in social and diplomatic ostracism of the Schüssel government, refusing any unnecessary interaction. Participants included French president Jacques Chirac, German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder, and leading Belgian politicians. Government supporters frequently blamed the SPÖ and President Thomas Klestil for this campaign, accusing them of disloyalty to Austria.

After several months without any change in the situation, a delegation of high-ranking EU diplomats – Martti Ahtisaari, Marcelino Oreja and Jochen Frowein – was sent to Austria to examine the political situation and determine whether the so-called "sanctions" could be lifted. Their report did not find conditions that would permit EU members to institute any official measures under EU law, but did present proposals for how EU law could be modified to resolve such a situation in the future. These proposals were incorporated in the Treaty of Nice, ratified in 2001. Following the report, EU leaders quietly "lifted" the sanctions and returned to normalcy during the summer of 2000, despite the situation in Austria remaining unchanged.

The Schüssel II government
By the summer of 2002, a series of setbacks in local and regional elections had resulted in considerable internal strife in the FPÖ. When the leading figures of the more pragmatic wing of the party, Vice-Chancellor Susanne Riess-Passer and Finance Minister Karl-Heinz Grasser, announced their resignations, Schüssel called early elections. The ÖVP recorded its best result since 1983, winning 42.3% of votes cast and overtaking the SPÖ for the first time since 1966. After negotiating with both the SPÖ and The Greens, Schüssel decided to renew the coalition with the FPÖ, which had won just 10% of votes. On 28 February 2003 Schüssel was sworn in as Chancellor for a second time.

In April 2005, the FPÖ effectively split into two parties. The bulk of the party, including Haider, the FPÖ cabinet ministers, and most of the FPÖ parliamentary caucus, formed the Alliance for the Future of Austria (BZÖ), while most party members and state branches remained with the old party. Despite this change, Schüssel continued the coalition, which served out the remainder of the legislative term.

In the 2006 legislative election, the ÖVP lost many of the voters it had won over in 2002, and fell back to second place against the SPÖ. In addition, the BZÖ won just 7 seats, leaving the outgoing government well short of a majority. While a three-party coalition with both the FPÖ and BZÖ would reach a slim majority, Schüssel stated after the election that a coalition with either party "would not be reasonable". The SPÖ and ÖVP began the process of negotiating a grand coalition. Schüssel served as caretaker Chancellor until the new government was sworn in on 11 January 2007; he also served briefly as acting Minister of the Interior following the death of Liese Prokop on 31 December 2006.

President of the European Council, 2006
Austria succeeded the United Kingdom as holder of the Presidency of the European Council on 1 January 2006. In the presence of German Chancellor Angela Merkel, Schüssel promised to lead the European Union "hand in hand" with Germany, and Merkel promised that Germany would do everything to "help" Austria during its presidency and make it a success. Schüssel also stated that Austria needed "some friends of the presidency". This led to Brussels diplomats describing the Austrian presidency as "the small German presidency", according to French newspaper Le Figaro.

Chairman of the ÖVP Parliamentary Group, 2006–2008
Following the 2006 election, Schüssel became chairman of the ÖVP Parliamentary Group. He announced after the September 2008 election that he would continue to sit in parliament only as a backbencher; Josef Pröll was to replace him as chairman of the ÖVP Parliamentary Group. In addition to his parliamentary work, Schüssel served on the Commission of Eminent Persons on The Role of the IAEA to 2020 and Beyond, chaired by Ernesto Zedillo, whose report Reinforcing the Global Nuclear Order for Peace and Prosperity was launched in June 2008.

In 2011, Schüssel retired from parliament due to massive charges of corruption against members of the governments led by him originating from the Telekom Austria Affair.

Policies
The government's attempts at achieving a balanced budget (called "Nulldefizit") – while being more successful than most of its contemporary initiatives abroad – failed. Changes involved a mixture of raising taxes and fees on the one hand and cost-cutting measures on the other which proved highly visible and prompted significant criticism. For example, the Austrian education system suffered considerably, shown by the PISA study released in 2004: many salaries and expensive projects were cut at universities, even though the government proclaimed it would bring teaching and research to a "world-class" level. Cost-cutting in the security sector was blamed for an increase in crime.

At the same time, Schüssel's government increased public spending in certain areas. For example, the new "Kindergeld" (children money) to help families replaced the old "Karenzgeld", which was dependent on the recipient standing in employment. This change was a nod to the Freedom Party, which had campaigned for this measure.

The decision to replace the old Draken fighter planes of the Bundesheer with 18 Eurofighters (originally 24 were ordered, this number was reduced after the 2002 floods) was seen as waste of money by the opposition, most of all because of the attempts to save money in almost every area of the public administration. The government's arguments for this was that the Austrian State Treaty, according to which Austria needs to be able to defend herself, is to be read to imply that Austria must be in complete control of her air space. The opposition argued that this goal could have been reached in a much cheaper way.

Starting from around 2030, the unfavorable structure of the population pyramid had been forecast create a ratio of active to retired workers of 1:1. Schüssel's pension reform made provision for this in the reduction of future pensions and raising of the retirement age. Schüssel's reform of the Austrian pension system is more broad-sweeping and thus more likely to be effective than all previous reforms in this area combined. Demographics experts insisted that it ideally should have gone further, whereas the SPÖ and the Austrian Federation of Trade Unions (ÖGB) protested heavily and argued that the pension losses, limited by Schüssel to 10% and later reduced to 5%, were excessive. Such measures laid the groundwork for later military reform and pension reform. Mandatory military service to reduce to six months or even its abolition. From 2005 onwards, corporate tax was cut to 25% to stimulate investment and economic growth. This was an example of harmonization toward neighbouring taxes as recent EU and Schengen area member Slovakia had consistently lower tax rates. However, critics argued that such a tax advantage for firms was unfair to many sole traders.

Life after politics
Since his retirement from Austrian politics, Schüssel has held paid and unpaid positions, including the following:

Corporate boards

 * Investcorp, member of the European Advisory Board (since 2011)
 * RWE, member of the supervisory board (since 2010)
 * Deutsche Vermögensberatung (DVAG), member of the advisory board
 * Lukoil, member of the board of directors (2019–2022)
 * MTS, member of the board of directors (2018–2019)

Non-profit organizations

 * Konrad Adenauer Foundation, chairman of the board of trustees (since 2015)
 * United Europe, president (since 2013)
 * World Economic Forum (WEF), member of the Global Agenda Council on Public Finance and Social Protection Systems
 * DER Dialog Europe-Russia, member of the board (since 2011)
 * Foreign Policy and United Nations Association of Austria (ÖAGVN), president (since 2008)
 * Bertelsmann Stiftung, member of the board of trustees (2007 to 2016)
 * Allensbach Institute, member of the board of trustees
 * Broader European Leadership Agenda (BELA), member of the advisory board
 * Club of Madrid, Member
 * Gesellschaft für Außenpolitik, member of the international advisory board
 * Wilfried Martens Centre for European Studies, member of the Honorary Board
 * Austrian Society for China Studies (ÖGCF), member of the Presidium
 * European Council on Foreign Relations (ECFR), member
 * European Policy Centre (EPC), program chair "European Politics and Institutions"
 * Global Leadership Foundation, member

When the European People's Party (EPP) membership of Hungarian party Fidesz was suspended in 2019, EPP president Joseph Daul appointed Schüssel – alongside Herman van Rompuy and Hans-Gert Pöttering – to a group of high-level experts who were mandated to monitor Fidesz's compliance with EPP values.

Honours and awards

 * 7 July 1995: Grand Cross of the Order of Isabella the Catholic
 * 1996: Grand Cross of the Royal Norwegian Order of Merit
 * 8 June 2000: Grand Cross with Diamonds of the Order of Merit of the Principality of Liechtenstein
 * 2004: Grand Cross of the Order of the Star of Romania
 * 2006: Grand Cross of Order of Merit of the Republic of Hungary
 * 20 January 2006: Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Republic of Poland ("for outstanding achievements in the development of Polish-Austrian cooperation, for their involvement in activities on behalf of those affected by the Third Reich")
 * 2007: Order of Merit of Baden-Württemberg
 * 2007: Bavarian Order of Merit
 * Honorary Citizen of Tirana, Albania.

title: Wolfgang Schüssel