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Max Wertheimer

Max Wertheimer (April 15, 1880 – October 12, 1943) was a psychologist who was one of the three founders of Gestalt psychology, along with Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Köhler. He is known for his book, Productive Thinking, and for conceiving the phi phenomenon as part of his work in Gestalt psychology.

Wertheimer became interested in psychology and studied under Carl Stumpf at the University of Berlin. Wertheimer then went on to obtain his PhD in 1904 under Oswald Külpe, at the University of Würzburg and then began his intellectual career teaching at the Institute for Social Research at Frankfurt University. For a short time, he left Frankfurt to work at the Berlin Psychological Institute, but returned in 1929 as a full professor. Wertheimer eventually joined the faculty of The New School in New York, a position he held until his death.

Early life (1880-1903)
Max Wertheimer was born on April 15, 1880, in Prague, then part of Austria-Hungary. He was born to Wilhelm and Rosa Wertheimer, second to his brother Walter. Wilhelm Wertheimer was an educator and financier. Rosa Wilhelm, born Rosa Zwicker, had a rich classical education. The Wertheimers were active in the Jewish community in which they lived. The Wertheimer household was extremely intellectual, therefore Max received education from both his parents; he engaged in political and educational discussions at home, as well as taking piano and violin lessons. After he received one of Baruch Spinoza's books as a gift, he developed an interest in philosophy. He felt that he and Spinoza shared a culture and common traits.

Wertheimer began his formal education aged five, at a private elementary school maintained by the Piarist order of the Roman Catholic Church. It was not uncommon at this time for Jewish children in central Europe to receive educations from the Catholic Church. Aged ten, he graduated from the Piarist Grammar School and enrolled in the Royal Imperial New City German State High School, where he could expect to obtain a degree that would qualify him for admittance to a university. Due to the diverse courses offered by the university, he began to contemplate his future, and realized his deep fascination with philosophy. He first began to study law at Charles University, where he also explored philosophy, and other fields such as music, physiology, and psychology. After a year, Max left and enrolled in University of Berlin where he shifted his study to philosophy. At Berlin, Max was able to work in the company of figures such as Carl Stumpf, Friederich Schumann, Georg Elias Müller, and Erich von Hornbostel. Later on, in 1903, he gained his PhD from the University of Würzburg. There he completed research on the lie detector.

The Years in Frankfurt and Berlin (1910-1933)
Max Wertheimer began his academic career at the Psychological Institute in Frankfurt, later to become the University of Frankfurt. From 1910 to 1916 he worked there and conducted pioneering experiments in the perception of motion and phi phenomenon. Wertheimer first founded his Gestalt theory before World War I, publishing his research on perception in "Experimental Studies on Motion Vision" in 1912. During World War I Wertheimer was a research psychologist with the Prussian Artillery Testing Commission, the center of which was located in the Bavarian Quarter of Berlin, close to Albert Einstein's house. Wertheimer's friendship with Einstein began at this time, in his visits he attempted to understand the Gestalt-like processes Einstein had used to conceive the theory of relativity. In the war years Wertheimer also became friends with physicist Max Born. After the war, Wertheimer united with Born and Einstein to negotiate the release of the rector and some professors at the University of Berlin who were being held by students and soldiers making socialist demands from the university.

After the war, he further advanced his Gestalt theory in collaboration with Wolfgang Kohler, Kurt Koffka, and others through the Weimar years. He left Frankfurt from 1916 to 1929 to work at the Berlin Psychological Institute. He gave lectures and pursued his research on perception and gestalt in the University of Berlin. In 1923, while teaching in Berlin, Wertheimer married Anna Caro (called Anni), a physician's daughter, with whom he had four children: Rudolf (who died in infancy, 1924), Valentin (1925–1978), Michael (1927–2022) and Lise (born 1928, Lisbeth Rosa). He returned to Frankfurt in 1929 as a full professor, where he stayed until 1933.

The Years after Leaving Germany (1933-1943)
In 1933, the change in Germany's government convinced Wertheimer to leave Germany; he heard Adolf Hitler's declarations and he felt his Jewish roots placed him in danger. The Wertheimer family joined other German emigres and moved to the United States. The Wertheimers' emigration was arranged through the U.S. consulate in Prague, and he and his wife and their children arrived in New York harbor on September 13, 1933. The family became citizens as well; that's why Max Wertheimer is referred to as a German-American psychologist. Along with his move to America, Wertheimer accepted a professional position at age fifty-three at the New School for Social Research in New York City. The New School had been founded only fourteen-years before when he gained the opportunity to teach courses there, remaining at the New School for the last decade of his life. From 1934-1940, Wertheimer wrote four major papers, philosophical essays on the topics of truth, ethics, democracy, and freedom which are all commonly grounded on gestalt ideas of the whole and its parts, and the importance of looking at the "total situation."

In America he remained in touch with his European colleagues, many of whom had also emigrated to America. Koffka was teaching at Smith College; Köhler at Swarthmore College; and Lewin at Cornell University and the University of Iowa. Although in declining health, Wertheimer continued to work on his research of problem-solving, what he preferred to call "productive thinking." Max and Anna Wertheimer divorced in 1942. He completed his only book, Productive Thinking in late September 1943. He died from a heart attack just three weeks after the book's completion at his home in New Rochelle, New York. Wertheimer is interred in Beechwoods Cemetery, also in New Rochelle. He was the father of Michael Wertheimer, also a psychologist.

Phi phenomenon
Max Wertheimer began the formal founding of Gestalt psychology in 1910 as he began experiments on the phi phenomenon. He published these experiments in a paper titled "Experimental Studies on the Perception of Movement". The phi phenomenon is apparent movement caused by alternating light positions. Wertheimer illustrated this phenomenon on an apparatus he built that utilized two discrete lights on different locations. Although the lights are stationary, flashing the lights at succeeding time intervals causes the retina to perceive the light as moving. Wertheimer worked with partners Koffka and Köhler to collect data which ultimately led to their launch of the Gestalt movement. Their findings further demonstrated that the quality of the whole is different from the sum of the parts. The explanation of the phi phenomena was that movement is perceived because the eye itself moves in response to the successive flashes of light. The movement an observer experiences is based on feedback from the moving eye. The researchers maintained that human perception is prone to such illusions and they speculated that it is more meaningful to connect close-together events than to keep them artificially separate.

Productive thinking
As a Gestalt theorist, Max Wertheimer was interested in perception, but additionally interested in thought. These ideas formed the basis of his posthumously published book, Productive Thinking (1945). Wertheimer was interested in making a distinction between reproductive thinking and productive thinking. Reproductive thinking is associated with repetition, conditioning, habits or familiar intellectual territory. Productive thinking is the product of new ideas and breakthroughs. Productive thinking is insight-based reasoning. Wertheimer argued that only insightful reasoning could bring true understanding of conceptual problems and relationships. Wertheimer encouraged training in traditional logic. He believed traditional logic stimulated thinking. However, he believed that logic alone did not give rise to productive thinking. He believed creativity was also crucial to engage in productive thinking. In Productive Thinking, similar to his lectures, Wertheimer used concrete examples to illustrate his principles. Wertheimer used these illustrations to demonstrate the transition from S1, a state where nothing really seems to make sense, to S2, where everything seems clear and the concept grasped. He points out in "Productive Thinking" that solving a problem by blind obedience to rules prevents real understanding of the problems. He believes that this blind obedience forestalls a person from uncovering the solution. Max Wertheimer's ideas of productive thinking are of continuing relevance in modern ideas of schemas, plans, and knowledge structures today.

Gestalt theory
Wertheimer developed his Gestalt theory in 1910 while he was on board a train from Vienna for a vacation in Germany's Rhineland. Gestalt, in the closest English definition of the term, is translated potentially as configuration, form, holistic, structure, and pattern. According to Gestalt psychology, perception is a whole. In this sense, perception can shape vision and the other senses. In addition, the theory also maintained that the whole is not only greater than its components but also different from those components. By 1920, Wertheimer added the position that the properties of any parts are governed by the structural laws of the whole. Later efforts to discover such laws had limited success. Wertheimer's work on gestalt psychology with his colleagues at The New School was seen as an opposition and alternative to the behavioral approach to psychology.

Wertheimer started the cognitive school of psychology. His ideas also challenged structuralism and atomism, in that he and other gestalt psychologists were more concerned about the whole rather than small structures or fragments of an object.

Four major papers from 1934 to 1940
After leaving Germany, Wertheimer was preoccupied with the dilemmas of his time. He wrote four major papers on values he felt were threatened: truth, ethics, democracy and freedom, respectively. In 1934 Wertheimer published "On Truth", in which he made a distinction between Truth (T), which is understood within its full situation, and piecemeal truth (t) :"A thing may be true in the piecemeal sense, and false, indeed a lie, as a part in its whole." He believed in the importance of the "will to truth" and the need look at the "total situation" in order to live justly.

in 1935 he wrote "Some Problems in the Theory of Ethics. Wertheimer thought poor ethics were primarily a sickness of logic, a result of "piecemeal" thinking, more than it was a result of a person's inner drive toward destruction. The third paper, "On the Concept of Democracy" was published in 1937.

In 1940 the fourth of these papers was published, this one on the topic of freedom, titled "A Story of Three Days." It was published in Freedom: Its Meaning, a collected works by many famous thinkers on the topic of freedom. A synthesis of the ideas that he wrote about in the first three papers, this one was written in the style of an autobiographical parable, like the sort of narrative seen in a pilgrim's progress. It is Wertheimer's "final affirmation of faith in the power of Gestalt, of the will to truth and justice, to lead the world into a post-Hitler era of freedom".

Publications

 * Wertheimer, M. (1922). Untersuchungen zur Lehre von der Gestalt, I: Prinzipielle Bemerkungen [Investigations in Gestalt theory: I. The general theoretical situation]. Psychologische Forschung, 1, 47–58.
 * Wertheimer, M. (1923). Untersuchungen zur Lehre von der Gestalt, II. [Investigations in Gestalt Theory: II. Laws of organization in perceptual forms]. Psychologische Forschung, 4, 301–350.
 * Wertheimer, M. (1934). "On Truth." Social Research. The Johns Hopkins University Press. 1 (2): 135-146
 * Wertheimer, M. (1935). "Some Problems in the Theory of Ethics." Social Research. 2 (3)
 * Wertheimer. M. (1937). "On the Concept of Democracy" in M. Ascoli & F. Lehmann (Ed.), Political and Economic Democracy. W. W. Norton and Company.
 * Wertheimer, M. (1938a). The general theoretical situation. In W. D. Ellis (Ed.), A source book of Gestalt psychology (pp. 12–16). London, England: Routledge & Kegan Paul. (Original work published 1922)
 * Wertheimer, M. (1938b). Gestalt theory. In W. D. Ellis (Ed.), A source book of Gestalt psychology (pp. 1–11). London, England: Routledge & Kegan Paul. (Original work published 1924)
 * Wertheimer, M. (1938c). Laws of organization in perceptual forms. In W. D. Ellis (Ed.), A source book of Gestalt psychology (pp. 71–94). London, England: Routledge & Kegan Paul. (Original work published 1923)
 * Wertheimer, M. (1940). "A Story of Three Days" in R.N. Anshen (Ed.), Freedom: Its Meaning. Harcourt, Brace and Company, Inc.
 * Wertheimer, M. (1945). Productive thinking. New York, NY: Harper.
 * Wertheimer, M. (1959). Productive thinking. 2nd ed., New York, NY: Harper
 * Wertheimer, M. (1959). Productive thinking. 2nd ed., New York, NY: Harper

title: Max Wertheimer


text:
Wolfgang Köhler

Wolfgang Köhler (21 January 1887 – 11 June 1967) was a German psychologist and phenomenologist who, like Max Wertheimer and Kurt Koffka, contributed to the creation of Gestalt psychology.

During the Nazi regime in Germany, he protested against the dismissal of Jewish professors from universities, as well as the requirement that professors give a Nazi salute at the beginning of their classes. In 1935 he left the country for the United States, where Swarthmore College in Pennsylvania offered him a professorship. He taught with its faculty for 20 years, and did continuing research. A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Köhler as the 50th most cited psychologist of the 20th century.

Early life
Köhler was born in the port city of Reval (now Tallinn), Governorate of Estonia, Russian Empire. His family was ethnic German, and shortly after his birth, they moved to Germany.

Education
In the course of his university education, Köhler studied at the University of Tübingen (1905–06), the University of Bonn (1906–07) and the University of Berlin (1907–09). While a student at the latter, he focused on the link between physics and psychology, in the course of which he studied with two leading scholars in those fields, Max Planck and Carl Stumpf, respectively. He completed his Ph.D. thesis (titled Akustische Untersuchungen [Acoustic investigations]) in 1909. His dissertation addressed certain aspects of psychoacoustics; Köhler had Stumpf as his advisor.

Gestalt psychology
In 1910–13, he was an assistant at the Psychological Institute in Frankfurt in which he worked with fellow psychologists Max Wertheimer and Kurt Koffka. He and Koffka functioned as subjects for Wertheimer's now-famous studies of apparent movement (or the phi phenomenon), which led them in turn to conclusions about the inherent nature of vision. They collaborated on the founding of a new holistic attitude toward psychology called Gestalt theory (from the German word for "shape" or "form"), aspects of which are indebted to the earlier work of Stumpf (Köhler's teacher) and Christian von Ehrenfels (whose lectures at the University of Prague Wertheimer had attended).

In an introduction to the book, The Task of Gestalt Psychology, Carroll Pratt emphasizes Köhler's irritation at misinterpretation of his famous quote, "The whole is different from the sum of its parts". Though perhaps a simple error made in translation, many lectures in textbooks of modern-day psychology refer to Gestalt theory by saying "the whole is greater than the sum of its parts". When the word 'different' is used, as Köhler originally stated, it implies that the whole bears no resemblance to the parts creating it. Most psychologists, however, understand "greater" to mean that the relationship between the parts is itself a significant part of the whole, something that is not present in the other parts if simply summed up. Example: if all the parts of a car are laid out on the floor of a garage, they do not make up a car. Only when the factor of assembly is added to the parts, do they become a car.

Problem solving
In 1913, Köhler left Frankfurt for the island of Tenerife in the Canary Islands, where he had been named the director of the Prussian Academy of Sciences anthropoid research station. He worked there for six years, during which he wrote a book on problem solving titled The Mentality of Apes (1917). In this research, Köhler observed how chimpanzees solve problems, such as that of retrieving bananas when positioned out of reach. He found that they stacked wooden crates to use as makeshift ladders, in order to retrieve the food. If the bananas were placed on the ground outside of the cage, they used sticks to lengthen the reach of their arms. Köhler concluded that the chimps had not arrived at these methods through trial-and-error (which American psychologist Edward Thorndike had claimed to be the basis of all animal learning, through his law of effect), but rather that they had an insight, in which, having realized the answer, they proceeded to carry it out in a way that was, in Köhler's words, "unwaveringly purposeful."

This is one of the prominent findings from the research done on apes. Köhler's work on the mentality of apes was seen as a turning point in the psychology of thinking. He believed that people underestimated the influence of a number of external conditions on such higher animals. In his book, The Mentality of Apes, Köhler explains that he was inspired to work with the chimpanzees for two main reasons. The first was because the "structure of their brains is more closely related to the chemistry of the human body and brain-structure than to the chemical nature of the lower apes and their brain development". He was intrigued that human traits could be observed in the everyday behaviours of this animal. Secondly, he wanted to study the chimps to gain knowledge of the nature of intelligent acts.

In the early stages of observing chimps, it was clear that the examinations should not be considered characteristic for each member of this species. Köhler recognized that, as in humans, chimpanzees demonstrated considerable differences in the intellectual field. Chimps demonstrated that they were able to grasp the objects around them in a variety of fashions. This is incorporated in their everyday playing behaviours. For this reason, it was not necessary to use experimental tests to introduce chimps to handle matter. In his book, The Mentality of Apes, Köhler describes how the apes use their hands, saying "large, powerful and flexible hands are natural links between himself and the world of things, and he attains the necessary amount of muscular force and co-ordination at an earlier age than the human child".

Köhler made most of his observations during the first six months of 1914, while working with Mr. Teuber. They provided the animals with problems that would be difficult but not impossible for the chimps to solve.

The conclusions drawn from the experiments with apes were that these animals exhibit insight and that they demonstrate intelligent behaviour that is common in humans. Köhler states that these findings hold true for every member of the species. He describes that "the correlation between intelligence and the development of the brain is confirmed". Köhler points out that a downfall of educational psychology at the time of the experiments with apes was that it had yet to create a test that was capable of assessing how far mentally healthy and mentally-ill children could go in particular situations. Köhler believed that studies of this type could be performed on young children, and that future research should focus on these possibilities. He stated that: "where the lack of human standards makes itself so much felt, I should like to emphasize particularly the importance and- if the anthropoids do not deceive us- the fruitfulness of further work in this direction".

Criticism of introspection
In his book titled Gestalt Psychology, Köhler criticized the concepts of introspection, a sub-discipline in psychology that was dominant in Germany throughout the late 1800s and early 1900s. Stemming from the ideas of the structuralist psychologists, introspection was defined as the self-reporting of conscious thoughts and sensations. It was believed that consciousness could be understood by breaking its elements down into basic parts.

Köhler was quick to dismiss this train of thought. He claimed that the introspectionists were too subjective in their methodologies and did not test for reliability in their findings. For example, the description of sensing the colour red made by one individual may not be the same as the description of another. Where the introspectionists failed was their inability to adequately replicate particular findings. If one person was tested for sensations regarding the colour red, these descriptions were simply shared among followers of the discipline. These descriptions were automatically taken as valid, and no further testing of a particular sensation took place. In addition to this, Köhler claimed that introspection did not focus on immediate problems regarding direct human experience. He believed that an important goal of empirical science was to obtain objective results that apply to almost everyone. The introspectionists, according to Köhler, did not consider objective experience a key point in their science.

Opinions on behaviorism
Köhler was also vocal in his stance against behaviorism, another competing school of thought in North America. At the time, behaviourism focused solely on overt acts that were easily observable and measurable. Inner thoughts, feelings, and processes that occurred between the presentation of a stimulus and the onset of behaviour were considered part of a black box not easily understood. This black box, which could be described as cognition today, was not accessible and therefore should be discarded from psychology as being something unimportant. Köhler criticized the behaviourists' dismissal of direct experience. They said that it was not measurable, and therefore did not contribute to the furthering of human understanding.

Köhler analyzed the difference between overt and covert behaviours. He argued that the behaviourists focused solely on overt behaviours in order to make inferences concerning human functioning. Using his background in physiology, Köhler suggested that covert behaviours (such as heart rate and blood pressure) could offer additional insight into how we function and interact with the environment. In Gestalt Psychology, Köhler describes advancements made in physiological research and the tools created to measure covert behaviours. Covert behaviours such as increased heart rate could provide additional insight into how people interact with particular stimuli. The behaviourists, according to Köhler, never adequately utilized these new instruments to make sound inferences on human behaviour.

Köhler argued against the idea that direct experience was not measurable or usable. Drawing upon his personal experience and interest in the field of physics, Köhler posed the example of two physicists observing a galvanometer (an instrument that detects and measures electric current) and making inferences based on the information it provides. According to Köhler, behaviourists act in a similar way when observing behaviours. One behaviourist will observe a behaviour and share results, leading to an extension of these findings by others in the field. While behaviourism denies direct experience, Köhler suggests that behaviourists are unknowingly accepting it in this regard. Just as the galvanometer is independent of the physicist, so is the subject from the behaviourist. Direct experience results in the observation of phenomena and leads to results. In this regard, he felt that the standpoint of the behaviourists appears somewhat paradoxical.

Berlin Psychological Institute
Köhler returned to Germany in 1920, and soon after was appointed the acting director, and then (as Carl Stumpf's successor) professor and director of the Psychological Institute at the University of Berlin, where he remained until 1935. In those fifteen years, his accomplishments were considerable, including, for example, the directorship of the school's prestigious graduate program in psychology; the co-founding of an influential journal about perceptual psychology, titled Psychologische Forschung (Psychological Research: Journal of Psychology and its Neighboring Fields); and the authorship of an early book titled Gestalt Psychology (1929), written especially for an American audience. During the 1920s and early 1930s psychology reached a high point at the institute. Aside from Köhler, many other influential minds were at work. Max Wertheimer was part of the institute from 1916 to 1929, until he left to take a position in Frankfurt. In addition, Kurt Lewin remained at the institute until 1933 (the year of his resignation). Köhler also had many well-known assistants at the institute, including Karl Duncker, whose work revolved around problem solving and induced movement. Von Lauenstein, another assistant of Köhler, is known mainly for his investigation of time errors and memory. Finally, von Restorff is best known for her collaboration efforts with Köhler on both the isolation effect and theory of recall.

Nazi Germany
The Nazi party, led by Adolf Hitler, rose to power on January 30, 1933. The regime started practicing discriminatory policies against Jews, and dismissed any professors with a Jewish background from German universities. Max Planck, the well-known physicist, petitioned Hitler to stop the dismissal of Jewish professors, stressing their importance regarding scientific contributions. Hitler has been quoted as responding to Planck, "if the dismissal of Jewish scientists means the annihilation of contemporary German science, then we shall do without science for a few years".

Köhler did not make a public stand against the Nazi regime until the end of April 1933. During the beginning of that month, he still expressed ambivalence as to how serious a threat was posed by the regime. He was wary, but did not become more active against the Nazis until they forced the dismissal of Karl Planck, another well-known experimental physicist. On April 28, 1933, Köhler wrote an article titled "Gespräche in Deutschland" (Conversations in Germany). It was written for the Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung and is officially the last published article that openly attacked the Nazi Regime during their reign.

After the article was published, Köhler expected immediate arrest. But, the Nazis did not come for him. Even four months after the article was originally published, reprints were still being distributed. Köhler received numerous letters from Jews and non-Jews, expressing their gratitude and admiring his courage. To strengthen his stance against the Nazis, Köhler also sought assistance from his colleagues. To his disappointment, many of his colleagues refused to become involved in the anti-Nazi movement. Some suggested the Nazis would not be able to take over the large and complex German political system. In addition, some colleagues argued that Köhler's resistance fell outside their particular spheres of influence. In turn, they could contribute nothing.

On November 3, 1933, the Nazi government demanded that professors begin their lectures by giving the Nazi salute. Köhler thought this was a violation of his own beliefs and told his students that he was unable to engage in such an act. His explanation was met with applause, from both Nazi sympathizers and rebels alike. His situation at the institute began to deteriorate more quickly after this statement. In December 1933, Nazi officials stood outside Köhler's seminar room. As students left, the officials stopped them and examined their student cards. Although Köhler did not interfere, he later contacted the institute rector, Eugen Fischer, complaining that an unannounced raid had occurred. After much disagreement and several more unannounced inspections of his students, Köhler took the situation further since his wishes were not being considered nor respected. He requested retirement from the institution in May 1934. This drew the attention of the Ministry and they would finally intervene in July 1934 by running an investigation of the interactions between Köhler and the rector as well as the personal attacks he received from the German student organizations.

Later life
After being left out of important decision making of the Psychological Institute of the University of Berlin and losing important assistants, who represented new points of view, Köhler found it impossible to continue his work. Köhler officially resigned from the Psychological Institute of the University of Berlin and emigrated to the USA in 1935. He was offered a professorship at Swarthmore College, where he served on the faculty for twenty years.

In 1956, he became a research professor at Dartmouth College. Soon after, he also served as the president of the American Psychological Association. He lectured freely in the United States and made yearly visits to the Free University of Berlin. Here, he acted as an adviser for the faculty. He kept the psychologists in touch with American psychology by collaborating with them in research and enthusiastically engaging in discussions with them. He died in 1967 in Enfield, New Hampshire.

Family life
Köhler married the painter and sculptor Thekla Achenbach in 1912. They had two children in Germany (Claus, born 1912 and Marianne, born 1913) and two more when they lived in Tenerife (Peter, born 1915 and Martin, born 1918). This marriage ended in divorce and in 1927 he married Lili Harlemann by whom he had a daughter, Karin (born 1928).

Legacy and honors

 * 1928, elected International Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
 * 1939, elected member of the American Philosophical Society
 * 1947, elected member of the United States National Academy of Sciences
 * 1956, Distinguished Scientific Contributions Award of the American Psychological Association.
 * In 1967 the Association planned to give him its gold medal, but he died before it could be awarded.
 * The Wolfgang Köhler Primate Research Center was established at Leipzig Zoo as a project of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, directed by Michael Tomasello and Josep Call.

Books by Köhler
These are the editions in English:

 * 1925. The mentality of apes, transl. from the 2nd German edition by Ella Winter. London: Kegan, Trench and New York: Harcourt, Brace and World. Original was Intelligenzprüfungen an Anthropoiden, Berlin 1917. 2nd German edition was titled Intelligenzprüfungen an Menschenaffen, Berlin: Springer 1921. Liveright 1976 reprint: ISBN 978-0871401083
 * 1929. Gestalt psychology. New York: Liveright. London: Bell 1930. A heavily revised translation into German, Psychologische Probleme, was published in 1933 by Springer, Berlin.
 * 1938. The place of value in a world of facts. New York: Liveright. Norton reprint 1976: ISBN 978-0871401076
 * 1940. Dynamics in psychology. New York: Liveright.
 * 1947. Gestalt psychology: an introduction to new concepts in modern psychology. New York: Liveright. A revised edition of the 1929 book. Norton 1992 reprint: ISBN 978-0871402189
 * 1969. The task of gestalt psychology. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691086149
 * 1971. Henle, Mary (ed). The selected papers of Wolfgang Köhler. New York: Liveright. ISBN 978-0871402530

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Wolfgang Köhler


text:
Steve McCaffery

Steven McCaffery (born January 24, 1947) is a Canadian poet and scholar who was a professor at York University. He currently holds the David Gray Chair at the University at Buffalo, The State University of New York. McCaffery was born in Sheffield, England and lived in the UK for most of his youth attending University of Hull.

He moved to Toronto in 1968. In 1970, he began to collaborate with fellow poets Rafael Barreto-Rivera, Paul Dutton, and bpNichol, forming the sound-poetry group,  The Four Horsemen. Some of McCaffery's poetry attempts to break language from the logic of syntax and structure to create a purely emotional response. He has created three-dimensional structures of words and has released a number of sound and video works, often in collaboration with other poets.

with Four Horsemen (Rafael Barreto-Rivera, Paul Dutton, Steve McCaffery, bpNichol)

 * Nada Canadada – 1972 (vinyl LP); reïssued 1977 (cassette); reïssued 2018 (vinyl LP)
 * Horse d'Oeuvres - 1975 (book)
 * Live In The West – 1977 (vinyl LP)
 * A Little Nastiness – 1980 (book)
 * Bootleg – 1981 (cassette)
 * The Prose Tattoo – 1983 (book)
 * 2 Nights – 1988 (cassette)

Critical studies and reviews of McCaffery's work

 * Rational geomancy

title: Steve McCaffery


text:
Talk:Straits of Johor

LoC
Here's the Library of Congress LCSH taxonomy for the Strait:

(C) 151  Johor Strait   [sp 98-5445] 451   UF Johore Strait 451   UF Selat Johor 451   UF Selat Tebrau 451   UF Tebrau Reach 550   BT Straits--Malaysia 550   BT Straits--Singapore 551   RT Singapore Strait

UF = "Use for"

Bill 21:02, 1 Aug 2003 (UTC)

Map?
A map of the area would help to put the place in context

title: Talk:Straits of Johor


text:
Zbigniew Rybczyński

Zbigniew Rybczyński (born 27 January 1949) is a Polish filmmaker, director, cinematographer, screenwriter, creator of experimental animated films, and multimedia artist who has won numerous prestigious industry awards both in the United States and internationally including the 1982 Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film for Tango.

He has taught cinematography and digital cinematography, and has worked as a researcher of blue and greenscreen compositing technology at Ultimatte Corporation. He is renowned for his innovative audiovisual techniques and for his pioneering experimentation in the field of new image technology.

In March 2009, Rybczyński returned to Poland, taking up residence in Wrocław, where he set up the Center for Audiovisual Technologies (CeTA) at the site of the city's historic Feature Film Studio. The center, which officially opened in January 2013, includes a state-of-the-art studio designed by Rybczyński for the production of multi-layer film images, and an institute for research into images and visual technologies.

After Rybczyński discovered and publicized corruption in CeTA, he was fired and subsequently declared the renunciation of his Polish citizenship.

Early life and career
Rybczyński was born in Łódź, Poland. He grew up in Warsaw, where he attended a secondary-level art school and then worked briefly at the |Studio Miniatur Filmowych (1968-1969). He studied cinematography at the Łódź Film School (1969-1973); his thesis films were Take Five and Plamuz. During his studies, he became a founding member of the Film Form Workshop (Warsztat Formy Filmowej), the most important Polish neo avant-garde group. He also honed his film-making skills working as a cinematographer for young directors like Andrzej Barański, Piotr Andrejew, Wojciech Wiszniewski, and Filip Bajon on shorts, documentaries and educational films, and on Grzegorz Królikiewicz's feature-length The Dancing Hawk (Tańczący Jastrząb). His films from the period include: The Talk (Rozmowa, TV) and Gropingly (Po Omacku) by Andrejew, Videocassette (Wideokaseta) by Bajon, and ''Wanda Gościmińska. Włókniarka'' by Wiszniewski. From 1973 to 1980, Rybczyński made his own films at the Se-Ma-For Studio in Łódź. He established the Dr. Stanzl special effects studio in Vienna for the Austrian public TV station ORF, and worked there from 1977 to 1980. During the political unrest in Poland in 1980, he was the head of the founders' committee of the Se-Ma-For studio branch of Solidarity.

Emigration to the United States
In 1982, during the martial law period, he managed to arrange a job contract that enabled him to leave Poland for Vienna, where he applied for political asylum. The following year, he and his family emigrated to the US, where they lived in Los Angeles and then New York. The first works he made in the US were the short experimental videos "The Day Before" and "The Discreet Charm of the Diplomacy", both made in 1984 on a commission from NBC's The New Show. In 1985, he launched his own studio – ZBIG VISION – in New York, which he subsequently outfitted with the latest video, computer and HDTV technology. It was in this studio that he made his most important American films, including Steps (1987), The Fourth Dimension (1988), The Orchestra (1990), Manhattan (1991), and Kafka (1992), which were showered with enthusiastic critical acclaim and numerous awards. In the, US he also made short music-based pieces that added to his popularity and acclaim. Between 1984 and 1989, he made more than 30 music videos for such artists as Mick Jagger, Yoko Ono, Lou Reed, Simple Minds, Cameo, Art of Noise, Chuck Mangione, Pet Shop Boys, Lady Pank, The Alan Parsons Project, Supertramp, and Rush. One of them – "Imagine" (1986), made for John Lennon's composition – was the first music video ever made using high-definition technology.

In 1994, Rybczyński moved to Germany, where he co-founded the Centrum Für Neue Bildgestaltung, an experimental film center in Berlin, and later worked in Cologne. He returned to Los Angeles in 2001, where he worked for the Ultimatte Corporation and continued his research in the area where art, science, and digital technology intersect working out new standards for moving images. Among the results of Rybczyński's long-term research and experimentation are his inventions in the field of electronic-image technology, for which he holds several US patents, and which are widely used in the film and TV industries.

In March 2009, Rybczyński returned to Poland, taking up residence in Wrocław, where he set up the Center for Audiovisual Technologies (CeTa) at the site of the city's historic Feature Film Studio. The center, which officially opened in January 2013, includes a state-of-the-art studio designed by Rybczyński for the production of multi-layer film images, and an institute for research into images and visual technologies.

Rybczyński was a professor at the Academy of Media Arts Cologne (1998-2001), and has also taught at many other art and film schools, including the National Film School in Łódź, Columbia University in New York, and Yoshiba University of Art and Design in Tokyo.

In 2014, Rybczyński settled on a two acre ranch near Tucson, Arizona. Together with his wife, Dorota Zglobicka who is also a filmmaker, Zbig created Gila Monster Studios. Currently, they are in pre-production for their upcoming feature film, The Designer.

Awards
Rybczyński has won numerous prestigious awards at international film festivals including Oberhausen (1981), Tampere (1982), Kraków (1981), and the Golden Gate Award at the San Francisco International Film Festival (1993). He won the Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film in 1983 for his film Tango, the first-ever Oscar awarded to a Polish artist. (The awards ceremony was notable for Rybczyński, as after he left the ceremony to step outside for a smoke, he was barred entry by a security guard even though he was holding an Oscar statuette. A scuffle ensued, and Rybczyński was arrested. His summation of the event was that "success and failure are quite intertwined.")

He has also received three MTV Video Music Awards, three American Video Awards, three Monitor Awards (1984-1987), an MTV Video Vanguard Award for "being visionary in the field of music video" (1985–86), a Billboard Music Video Award (1986), a Silver Lion at the Cannes Advertising Film Festival (1987), an Emmy Award (1990), a Prix Italia (1990), and the Grand Prize at the International Electronic Cinema Festival, Tokyo-Montreux (1990 and 1992). In 2010, he received a Lifetime Achievement Award for his contributions to the development of international cinematic art at the Batumi International Art-House Film Festival (BIAFF) in Georgia.

In 1999, Rybczyński was honored with a star in the Łódź Walk of Fame. In 2008, the Łódź Film School awarded him an honorary doctorate "for outstanding artistic skill and innovation in the cinematic arts and for the creative use of the potentials of art, technology and science". In the same year, Poland's Minister of Culture and National Heritage awarded him the Medal for Merit to Culture – Gloria Artis for Cultural Achievements, and he also received the prestigious Katarzyna Kobro Award for artistic achievement.

Rybczyński's first solo exhibition – "A Treatise on the Visual Image", shown in 2009 at Art Stations in Poznań, the WRO Art Center in Wrocław, and the Center of Contemporary Art Znaki Czasu in Toruń – focused attention on his unique artistic and scientific achievements, presenting his work in the context not only of film, but of contemporary fine arts.

Rybczyński was also active in an avant-garde group "Warsztat Formy Filmowej", and had cooperated with Se-Ma-For Studios in Łódź, where he authored a series of short films, including: Plamuz (1973), Zupa (1974) and Nowa książka (1975).

After winning the Academy Award for Tango, Rybczyński moved to New York and embarked on a career directing music videos in the early years of MTV. Rybczyński created dozens of music videos for artists including Art of Noise, Mick Jagger, Simple Minds, Pet Shop Boys, Chuck Mangione, The Alan Parsons Project, Yoko Ono, Lou Reed, Supertramp, Rush, Propaganda, and Lady Pank. His clip for John Lennon's Imagine was created as a showpiece for HDTV technology. Rybczyński won several MTV Awards, including the coveted Video Vanguard Award for his radical contributions to the form.

Rybczyński is a recognized pioneer in HDTV technology. In 1990, he produced the HDTV program The Orchestra for the Japanese market. This suite of classical music videos won many awards (including the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Special Visual Effects). The program, created in HDTV, was broadcast in standard resolution by PBS as part of their Great Performances series in the US, as HDTV was not widely available to viewers until a decade later. Segments of this program are regularly featured on the Classic Arts Showcase channel in the U.S.

Frustrated with the quality of available chroma key technology — the process of removing a specific color frequency from film and video that had become essential to his work — Rybczyński began to author his own chromakey software in the 1990s. This led to an R&D position with the Los Angeles Ultimatte Corporation, longtime industry leaders in chromakey technology.

1983

 * Angst - Austrian serial killer film starring Erwin Leder

1984

 * "Sign of the Times" - music video for Grandmaster Flash from They Said It Couldn't Be Done, 4:25, Elektra/Asylum Records
 * "The Real End" - music video for Rickie Lee Jones from The Magazine, 4:47, Warner Bros.
 * "All That I Wanted" - music video for Belfegore from their eponymous album, 4:15, Elektra Records
 * "Diana D" - music video for Chuck Mangione, 4 min, CBS Records
 * "Close (To the Edit)" - music video for Art of Noise, 4:30, Island Records
 * "The Discreet Charm of the Diplomacy" - experimental short video, 2:56, The New Show NBC TV
 * "The Day Before" - experimental short video, 1:38, The New Show NBC TV

1985

 * "Lose Your Love" - music video for Blancmange, 3:54, Warner Bros.
 * "Alive and Kicking" - music video for Simple Minds, 5:25, A&M Records
 * "Ultimo Ballo" - music video for Angel and Maimone, 4:50, Virgin Records
 * "Midnight Mover" - music video for Accept, 3:10, Epic Records
 * "Minus Zero" - music video for Lady Pank, 3:55, MCA Records
 * "She Went Pop" - music video for I Am Siam, 4:10, Columbia Records
 * "Hot Shot" - music video for Jimmy Cliff, 3:55, CBS Records
 * "P-Machinery" - music video for Propaganda, 3:45, Island Records
 * "Who Do You Love" - music video for Bernard Wright, 4:15, Capitol Records

1986

 * "Imagine" - experimental HDTV film, 4:20, music by John Lennon, Rebo/Rybczynski Productions
 * "Candy" - HDTV music video for Cameo, 4:20, Polygram Records, Rebo Productions
 * "The Original Wrapper" - music video for Lou Reed, 4:40, RCA Records
 * "I Can't Think About Dancing" - music video for Missing Persons, 4 min, Capitol Records
 * "Sex Machine" - music video for Fat Boys, 4 min, Tin Pan Apple/Sutra Records
 * "All the Things She Said" - music video for Simple Minds, 4:15, Virgin Records
 * "Hell in Paradise" - music video for Yoko Ono, 3:30, OnoVideo/Polygram Records
 * "Stereotomy" - music video for The Alan Parsons Project, 4:10, Arista Records
 * "OPPORTUNITIES" - music video for Pet Shop Boys, 3:40, EMI Records

1987

 * "Let's Work" - HDTV music video for Mick Jagger, 4:05, CBS Records
 * "Why Should I Cry?" - HDTV music video for Nona Hendryx, 4 min, EMI Records, Rebo Productions
 * "Keep Your Eye On Me" - HDTV music video for Herb Alpert, 5:15, A&M RECORDS, Rebo Productions
 * Steps - experimental video/35mm film, 26 min, Zbig Vision, KCTA-TV (PBS), Channel Four
 * "I'm Beggin' You" - music video for Supertramp, 4 min, A&M Records
 * "Time Stand Still" - music video for Rush, 3:30, Polygram Records
 * "Something Real" - music video for Mr. Mister, 4:10, BMG Music
 * "Dragnet 1987" - music video for Art of Noise, 3 min, Chrysalis Records

1988

 * Fluff - opening sequence video, 1:47, HDTV, RAI
 * The Duel - a tribute to G.Melies, 4:08, HDTV, Telegraph
 * Blue Like You - HDTV music video for Étienne Daho, 3:41, Virgin Records
 * The Fourth Dimension - experimental 35 mm film, 27 min, Zbig Vision, Rai 3, Canal+, and KTCA-TV (PBS)

1989

 * Capriccio no.24 - experimental HDTV film, 6:18, TVE's The Art of Video
 * You Better Dance - HDTV music video for The Jets, 3:34, MCA Records
 * Cowbell - HDTV music video for Takeshi Itoh, 4 min, CBS Records
 * GMF Groupe - promo, 2:03, HDTV, Zbig Vision and Ex Nihilo

1990

 * The Orchestra - HDTV long film, 57:11, Zbig Vision and Ex Nihilo, coproduced by NHK, Canal+, and PBS Great Performances.
 * Video Hits One - 17 network IDs for VH1

1991

 * Manhattan - experimental HDTV film, 28 min, Zbig Vision and NHK Enterprises USA, Inc.
 * Washington - experimental HDTV film, 28 min, Zbig Vision and NHK Enterprises USA, Inc.

1992

 * Kafka - HDTV long film, 52:16, Télémax, Les Editions Audiovisuelles
 * Curtains - opening sequence for Tonight Show, 0:34, HDTV, NBC TV

2004

 * Une odyssée Tunisian movie

2011

 * The Vision, 2011, co-director Dorota Zgłobicka, Zbig Vision, Polska

title: Zbigniew Rybczyński


text:
Talk:Ageplay

Too much focus on sexual ageplay
I would like to point out that not ALL Ageplay is BDSM or sexually related. Ageplay is in fact a lifestyle of it's own. The fact that it is an off shoot of BDSM, and remains in that category, is what people use to label it a fetish. Ageplay of itself is simply when a person feels younger than they truly are. It is not always necessary to have two people in an Ageplay scene. Ageplay can be as simple as sucking your thumb, or playing a board game, or as complex as having a whole lifestyle based on that of an actual child, including childlike clothing, bedtimes, rules, etc. (Not with an actual child of course). Many Ageplayers out there feel the need to be taken care of. The ways they like to be taken care of vary as there are so many people in this world. Some enjoy cuddling and watching cartoons, and others like getting into trouble and being punished (or need to be). Infantilism, a branch of Ageplay, shows clearly what I mean by needing to be taken care of. An Infantilist generally gives up all control and gives full responsibility to their caregiver. They need to be bathed, clothed, fed, changed (if they are into the diaper scene, Diaper Lovers, Bedwetters, etc.), and over all nurtured.

This article needs to be redone, since much of it is taken from http://www.fact-index.com/a/ag/ageplay.html
 * Wrong. Look at the bottom of that page: This article is from Wikipedia. All text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License.  That page was taken from here, not vice-versa.  Fact-index.com is one of several ad-supported mirrors of Wikipedia. NTK 15:38, 11 Dec 2004 (UTC)

I agreed - there was nothing wrong with the description of sexual ageplay, but it's only one type of ageplay (I'm not convinced that ageplay belongs solely under "sexuality", either). Rewrote the article for a more thorough explanation of different kinds of ageplayers, and may try to better categorise it later on. Thysien 18:49, 4 September 2005 (UTC)

____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________ Some links to non-sexual ageplay sites now exist most namely Foster Forest and Lakeside states to help those who might want more information on that type of ageplay and it's role play aspects. ____________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________

 * I agree the article is too focused on sexual ageplay and doesn't cover other types of ageplay enough. It doesn't even mention kids playing grownups, that's probably the type of ageplay most people know about... --TiagoTiago (talk) 02:41, 29 October 2009 (UTC)

Peer reveiw of another article
Good day.

I started a peer review on Infantilism and since it is related to age play, I am hoping some of the editors of this article will kindly help in the peer review.

Thank you in advance.

--OrbitOne 17:13, 25 March 2006 (UTC)

Im very upset that so many think that the "Daddy Dom" lifestyle is only age play. It is NOT! Some people do live this 24/7 and they are actually in a regresed lifestyle that is healthy and possitive for them. How Infantilism and age play got misconstruded with the Daddy Dom is beyond me. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Gyspy Running (talk • contribs) 06:00, 11 December 2008 (UTC)

Massive Edit?
Why was this article edited so drastically and without discussion? Anybody got a clue?

Here is a link to the previous version of the article, which I'm sure anyone would agree is better than a very brief definition of terms and a few links: http://web.archive.org/web/20060515073043/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ageplay

Linking to "Daddy's girl fetish" as an explanation of sexual ageplay is patently ridiculous, for instance. There is a wide variety of roles and fantasies exhibited by those who do sexual ageplay. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Andchimeras (talk • contribs) 19:11, 28 December 2007 (UTC)

Neologism?
I tried to find some references that use this term. There's some news articles regarding online environments such as Second Life -

I don't think they should be added to the article, as they're mostly off-topic, and the usage of the terms is rather POV (suggesting that age play is "abuse" of "virtual children", in the case of the BBC), but I thought I would list them here to show evidence of usage of the word. Mdwh (talk) 23:33, 18 October 2008 (UTC)

Age regrestion fetish merge
While I did not propose it, I think it is ago idea. Ageplay is the name that participates give Age regression fetish. Also while there might be salvageable information in Age regression fetish, as it stands it tries to make a false difference between the two. as a stand alone plage at best it should be a redirect to Ageplay --Roguebfl (talk) 04:47, 29 December 2008 (UTC)
 * Lacking studies that map ageplay as a practice or ageplayers as a population, a better argument for the merger might be that "age regression fetish" is a misnomer, since  fetishes apply to objects, and age regression is not an object. BitterGrey (talk) 03:31, 31 December 2008 (UTC)

needs more work
i already started it, btu it needs much more work, specially on the part about non-secual ageplay --TiagoTiago (talk) 00:39, 29 January 2010 (UTC)

Age Play never has had any relation at all to Pedophilia
I don't think pedophilia has any relevance in this article at all. Saying something is "not" something doesn't really belong in an article. Age Play is not driving a monster truck, either. But we don't need to say it in the article. Sure, there may be some people out there who commonly confuse Age Play with driving monster trucks, but I do not see that we cater to saying everything under a sun something is not. You do not define something by listing out everything it is *not*, but rather, what it is. Move to delete reference to pedophilia as having nothing to do with the article.

In Age Play the individual wants to *become* or *be* or *roleplay* a younger or older person, not 'get involved with' a younger or older person, e.g., Ephebophilia or Teleiophilia. 71.226.11.248 (talk) 07:28, 22 May 2014 (UTC)
 * And I say keep. the Difference is many people's first reaction is to associate the two things, hence the refutation is relevant where as none confuses it with driving a monster truck --Roguebfl (talk) 17:15, 12 December 2016 (UTC)

Unverifiable edits
Daddy tallica, all content on Wikipedia must be verifiable. You keep adding your own personal commentary to the article without any sources. Your edits also violate our neutrality policy because they express your opinion in Wikipedia's voice. You've already broken the three-revert rule by reverting four times; if you revert again, you will be reported and blocked. KateWishing (talk) 13:09, 21 June 2015 (UTC)

Why I removed the paragraph on whether ageplay involves sexual attraction to "biologically underage people" and it's possible negative side effects.
I removed the following paragraph from the article because of several problems I will explain in depth: "Ageplay does not involve the sexual attraction to biologically underage people. Many people (both outsiders of the community and ex-members of it) are concerned that the association of children’s looks, behaviours and voices with sexual arousal may, over time, prompt individuals to develop sexual attraction to minors."

The first problem is that it's not clear what "biologically underage people" means. The term underage is primarily a legal one and it's exact meaning depends on the situation and the laws applicable thereof which depend on the jurisdiction one is present in. So for example, underage can have different meaning when it comes to drinking vs sexual consent vs gambling, etc. There is no such thing as "biological underage". Age of consent or age of majority are not set strictly by some scientific research that such and such an age is when the majority of individuals are able to give handle whatever activity is being regulated here. Rather, they are largely subjective and/or arbitrary decision by lawmakers. In the case of sexually underage people, while there is a definitive end to puberty in teenagers/adults, it may not be at the at the time said person reaches the age of consent but could be later or earlier. The second set of problems is with the statement "Many people (both outsiders of the community and ex-members of it) are concerned that the association of children’s looks, behaviors and voices with sexual arousal may, over time, prompt individuals to develop sexual attraction to minors.". This statement seems to be conflating those who ageplay as pubescent teens with those who ageplay and prepubescent children, toddlers, or babies. There is a key difference between prepubescent children and and pubescent teenagers in that the former has strong evidence supporting the notion that sexual attraction to prepubescent children is biologically abnormal whereas with underage teenagers, the limited evidence currently available does not suggest that. While it may be illegal for an adult to have sex with a underage teen, this is based on the legal claim, which may not be actually true in certain cases, that the teen is unable to give informed consent. It is not based on scientific evidence that being attracted to at least somewhat sexual developed underage teenagers is biologically abnormal, which is more of a cultural product. Thus when it says "association of children’s looks, behaviors and voices with sexual arousal may, over time, prompt individuals to develop sexual attraction to minors.", it conflating prepubescent age play and it's possible effects on creating abnormal sexual attraction to prepubescent with sexual attracted to sexually developed but underage teens, which no scientific studies support as being abnormal, regardless of whether it's harmful to the underage teen if an adult acts on such an attraction or not. There is also the issue of why people age play, something this sentence does not properly address. For those that ageplay with a partner dressed and acting like a prepubescent child or baby, it's generally not about a sexual attraction to minors since real pedophiles would not find an adult playing a child or baby a suitable substitute for actually children, in general. With ageplay involving someone dressed as underage teenager, it may be about qualities such as innocence rather the specifically the underage look or it may be a legal way to fantasize about being with an underage teen without actually engaging in statutory rape, much like watching barely porn is a legal way to indulged such fantasies without the illegality actual underage porn performers would bring. So if underage teenager ageplay is the result of already present attraction to underage teens and such attraction is biologically normal then there is no risk of creating a sexual attraction as it would already exist. It might cause some who practice such ageplay to develop feelings of guilt and such due to the in many western cultures, many people mistakenly think that science shows such attractions be abnormal and thus feel guilt them. Obviously the deciding line between normal and abnormal attraction in this context is fuzzy currently due to limited research on the subject. We just don't know at what stage of sexual development does the average person start to find persons of their preferred gender(s) sexually attractive. In summery, if the paragraph was to go back in, it would need to be sourced and reworded. It would need to be make clear that for some in the community it does not involve sexually attraction to prepubescent children or for some (but not all) still developing underage teens, as some do indeed use it as a means to legally address sexual attraction to underage teens. Concerns by non-members and ex-members about creating a abnormal sexual attraction to either prepubescent children in some individuals from prepubescent child/baby ageplay should sourced and addressed separately from concerns about underage teenage ageplay which may be largely moot or irrelevant since their is no consensus among sex abuse researchers that such attraction is problematic in and of itself or that it will likely lead to statutory rape. --Notcharliechaplin (talk) 01:27, 13 July 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Ageplay


text:
Glyceride

Glycerides, also known as acylglycerols, are esters formed from glycerol and fatty acids, and are generally very hydrophobic.

Glycerol has three hydroxyl functional groups, which can be esterified with one, two, or three fatty acids to form mono-, di-, and triglycerides. These structures vary in their fatty acid alkyl groups as they can contain different carbon numbers, different degrees of unsaturation, and different configurations and positions of olefins.

Vegetable oils and animal fats contain mostly triglycerides, but are broken down by natural enzymes (lipases) into mono and diglycerides and free fatty acids and glycerol.

Soaps are formed from the reaction of glycerides with sodium hydroxide. The product of the reaction is glycerol and salts of fatty acids. Fatty acids in the soap emulsify the oils in dirt, enabling the removal of oily dirt with water.

Partial glycerides are esters of glycerol with fatty acids, where not all the hydroxyl groups are esterified. Since some of their hydroxyl groups are free their molecules are polar. Partial glycerides may be monoglycerides (two hydroxyl groups free) or diglycerides (one hydroxyl group free). Short chain partial glycerides are more strongly polar than long chain partial glycerides, and have excellent solvent properties for many hard-to-solubilize drugs, making them valuable as excipients in improving the formulation of certain pharmaceuticals. The most common forms of acylglycerol are triglycerides, having high caloric value and usually yielding twice as much energy per gram as carbohydrate.

Acylglyceride linkage
An acylglyceride linkage is the covalent bond between the organic acid groups (such as fatty acid) and one of the three hydroxyl groups of glycerol.

title: Glyceride


text:
User:Smithbj

OVEN OPERATION SHEET
=Purpose = The purpose of this document is to provide written instructions for altemater

1.0	Scope The scope of this documet covers oven OS206D-LH-28/115 and its subassemblies 1.1	References 1.2	Documents

206D-XH-28/115	ATP 2510-0038     HOT FOOD OVEN FINAL ASSEMBLY (206D) 2520-0041	INNER LINER ASS'Y             2520-0200	HOT FOOD OVEN S/A 2520-0280	BRACKET ASS'Y                 2530-0010	HEATER ELEMENT ASS'Y  2575-0171	PLATE ASS'Y, MTG. B6129	       GASKET ASS'Y                   C6128	        GASKET C61433	       INSULATION C61449	       PANEL ASS'Y, BACK C61496	       INSULATOR C61497	       INSULATION D61445	       LINER, OUTER W/A D61447	       DOOR ASS'Y     260029-00-A    packaging procedure 1.	ASSEMBLY PROCEDURE

1.1.	Paint Inner liner 1.1.1.	If not already painted, paint the outside of inner liner with Glyptal per print 2520-0040. 1.1.2. Remove overspay with paint thinner.

 * 1)     test
 * 2)     test
 * 3)   test
 * 4)    test
 * 5)   test

The End

title: User:Smithbj


text:
Romanian Academy

The Romanian Academy (Academia Română ) is a cultural forum founded in Bucharest, Romania, in 1866. It covers the scientific, artistic and literary domains. The academy has 181 active members who are elected for life.

According to its bylaws, the academy's main goals are the cultivation of Romanian language and Romanian literature, the study of the national history of Romania and research into major scientific domains. Some of the academy's fundamental projects are the Romanian language dictionary (Dicționarul explicativ al limbii române), the dictionary of Romanian literature, and the treatise on the history of the Romanian people.

History
On the initiative of C. A. Rosetti, the Academy was founded on April 1, 1866, as Societatea Literară Română. The founding members were illustrious members of the Romanian society of the age.

The name changed to Societatea Academică Romînă in 1867, and finally to Academia Română in 1879, during the reign of Carol I.

The founding members of the Academy:

The Presidents of the Academy:

Library
Established in 1867, the Bibilioteca Academiei Române has a collection of over seven million books and collections of drawings, engravings, maps, and coins. The Academy also operates its own publishing house.

title: Romanian Academy


text:
Dallas Area Rapid Transit

Dallas Area Rapid Transit (DART) is a transit agency serving the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex of Texas. It operates buses, light rail, commuter rail, and high-occupancy vehicle lanes in Dallas and twelve of its suburbs. In, the system had a ridership of , or about per weekday as of.

DART was created in 1983 to replace a municipal bus system and funded expansion of the region's transit network through a sales tax levied in member cities. DART Light Rail began operation in 1996 and operates over 93 mi of track. It was the longest light rail system in the United States until 2022, when it was surpassed by Los Angeles Metro Rail with the opening of the K Line.

DART jointly operates the Trinity Railway Express commuter rail line between Dallas and Fort Worth, with Trinity Metro. The agency also operates the Dallas Streetcar and provides funding for the non-profit M-Line Trolley.

Precursor agencies
The Dallas Transit System (DTS) was a public transit service operated by the city of Dallas, from 1964 to 1983. DTS was formed by the consolidation of various privately owned transit companies and streetcar lines. Prior to DTS, the company was formerly known as the Dallas Railway and Terminal Company when Dallas had an extensive streetcar system that spanned from Oak Cliff to North Dallas. The name was changed shortly after the last streetcar ran in January 1956. DART formally took over operations of the DTS in 1988.

In 2000, DART employees restored a 1966 DTS bus to its original state.

Creation of DART
DART was created on August 13, 1983, as a regional replacement for the DTS (Although the name "Dallas Area Rapid Transit" was intended to reflect the new agency's coverage of the greater Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex, its acronym DART almost immediately evoked comparisons to San Francisco's Bay Area Rapid Transit system, known as BART). Citizens of 15 area cities had voted to levy a 1% sales tax to join the system by the time it began transit services in 1984 (though the formal acquisition of the Dallas Transit System wouldn't be complete until 1988).

In 1985, member cities Carrollton and Farmers Branch held elections to pull out of DART, though the measures failed. But shifting suburban politics and a loss of confidence in DART management after voters declined to support DART's measure to incur long term debt in 1988 led to seven more pullout votes, two of which (Flower Mound and Coppell) were successful. Just one suburb joined DART – the tiny community of Buckingham, which was later annexed by DART member city Richardson.

Financial scandal
In December 2007, DART revealed it was facing a $1 billion shortfall in funds earmarked for the Blue Line rail service to Rowlett and Orange Line rail service to Irving, and the DFW Airport.

In January 2008, DART announced it would divert monies from rail lines being built in Dallas. When Dallas officials protested, DART president and executive director Gary Thomas—who had known about the shortfall for at least eight months—announced the agency would borrow more money.

In late January 2008, DART Board chair Lynn Flint Shaw, who was also treasurer of Dallas Mayor Tom Leppert's "Friends of Tom Leppert" fund-raising committee, resigned from her DART post. In February, she surrendered to the police on charges of forgery. On March 10, Shaw and her husband, political analyst Rufus Shaw, were found dead in their home in what turned out to be a murder suicide.

2016 shooting
On July 7, 2016, one DART officer was among several people shot in a mass shooting targeting police officers providing security at a Black Lives Matter protest. One of the officers, identified as seven-year veteran Brent Thompson, died from his injuries and became the first DART officer to be killed in the line of duty since the department's inception.

New bus network
On January 24, 2022, DART's bus network, which had dated back to DART's 1983 incorporation, was completely overhauled. The overhaul, branded as DARTzoom, was intended to improve the bus system's service reach, frequency, and hours of operation. All DARTzoom local routes would be available 5 AM to midnight, seven days a week. The centerpiece of the system was 22 "core frequent" routes, which would be available from 4 AM to 1 AM with 20-minute headways for most of the day and 15-minute headways during peak periods.

DARTzoom saw many short or low-use routes consolidated or removed, and bus stops were re-organized to be a constant distance apart. Eliminated routes were usually replaced with GoLink zones. The system also introduced a new route numbering scheme, which assigned route numbers and colors based on a route's frequency, rather than the previous network's type designations. Only one route (883, a shuttle route sponsored by the University of Texas at Dallas) retained its original designation.

To celebrate the new network and allow riders time to adjust, all rides on the new network were free for the first week of operation.

DART Light Rail
The DART light rail system comprises 93 mi between its four lines – the, the , the and the. With 43,400 weekday boardings in 2020, DART Light Rail had the 5th highest ridership of light rail systems in United States. The system uses light rail trains manufactured by Kinki Sharyo, with all trains being converted to "Super" LRVs (SLRVs) which feature level boarding (especially convenient for strollers and wheelchairs) and higher passenger capacity.

Before the 1983 election, DART had a plan for 160 mi of rail. After the election, the plan was pared down to 147 mi when Duncanville, Grand Prairie and Mesquite, which would have had rail lines, opted to not join the agency. DART chose light rail transit as its primary mode of rail transportation in 1984. The plan was pared down again to 93 mi before the 1988 bond vote. After the vote, the agency again pared the regional rail system to 84 mi: 66 mi of light rail and 18 mi of commuter rail.

The following lines are maintained by DART:
 * (Opened in 1996, completed in its current state in 2002)
 * (Opened in 1996, completed in its current state in 2016)
 * (Opened in 2009, completed in its current state in 2010)
 * (Opened in 2012, completed in its current state in 2021)
 * Silver Line (Approved for construction in 2006, planned opening no later than mid-2026)

McKinney Avenue Transit Authority
DART also assists in the operation of the M-Line Trolley, with joint operating funding given to the McKinney Avenue Transit Authority along with the Uptown Improvement District.

Dallas Streetcar
In May 2013, DART began construction on a 1.6 mi streetcar line which will operate between downtown Dallas and Oak Cliff by way of the Houston Street Viaduct. Phase one of the streetcar line, running between Union Station in Dallas and Methodist Dallas Medical Center in Oak Cliff, opened on April 13, 2015. The line was expanded to its current length in August 2016 with the addition of the 6th Street and Bishop Arts stops.

Trinity Railway Express
The (TRE) commuter rail line connects downtown Dallas with downtown Fort Worth. The TRE, created in 1996 by an interlocal agreement between DART and Trinity Metro, connected the cities' centers by rail for the first time since the 1930s, excluding Amtrak's Texas Eagle.

The TRE commuter line has an average weekday ridership of 7,300 passengers per day and is the fifteenth most-ridden commuter rail system in the country. In 2012, the TRE carried a total of 2.3 million passengers.

Silver Line
The Silver Line is an under-construction commuter rail service that will run from Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport to Plano along the former Cotton Belt route. It is expected to commence service in 2026.

DCTA A-train

The Denton County Transportation Authority (DCTA) built its A-train commuter rail service in partnership with DART and the TRE. The DCTA leases the right-of-way for its 21 mi commuter line from DART, and coordinates with DART to provide connecting service between the A-train and DART's Green Line. The DCTA also leased Budd diesel rail cars from the TRE for its initial service. The A-train operates between downtown Denton and Trinity Mills station, where a transfer to the Green Line is available. Through its partnerships with DART and TRE, DCTA sells "Regional" fare passes which include access to DART and TRE service.

Buses
As of 2024, DART operates 73 bus routes, as well as several express routes and shuttle buses.

Most trips in the DART system are carried by the bus network. In the 2022 fiscal year, DART had 72,400 bus trips per average weekday, 54% of the system's total 134,810 trips.

Fleet
DART's fleet initially consisted of diesel buses. In 1998, the agency began using liquefied natural gas buses alongside them as part of a broader environmental initiative.

In October 2012, DART introduced a new fleet of 123 low-floor 14-to-17-passenger buses for On-Call, FLEX, and low-capacity routes. The buses were manufactured by ARBOC Specialty Vehicles.

From 2013 to 2017, DART would replace most of its bus fleet with 459 NABI 40LFW buses running off compressed natural gas. The CNG fleet was further bolstered in 2019 with the addition of 41 New Flyer Xcelsior XN40 buses.

DART introduced electric buses to its fleet in 2018. The seven Proterra Catalyst buses were originally used for the DLink shuttle in downtown Dallas. When the shuttle was eliminated in 2019, the electric buses were moved to normal routes; they are currently used on route 28 (Singleton). In 2023, DART ordered an additional Proterra bus, this time a ZX5 Max, as a trial for long-range electric buses; it is currently used on route 20 (Northwest Highway). Electric buses are denoted with a unique yellow-and-green livery.

Routes
Since the 2022 system redesign, DART has three types of routes: local, express, and shuttle. Local routes are further categorized by frequency.

Facilities
DART runs its bus system similar to the hub-and-spoke model some airlines use, with specified bus-only facilities that serve as timepoints and transfer locations for multiple routes. Many (though not all) of these facilities include park-and-ride lots, air-conditioned waiting areas, vending machines, and bathrooms. Most rail stations also serve as transfer locations for bus routes, albeit with fewer connecting routes and amenities.
 * Addison Transit Center (Addison)
 * Bernal/Singleton Transfer Location (West Dallas)
 * Cockrell Hill Transfer Location (Cockrell Hill)
 * East Transfer Center (Downtown Dallas, near Pearl/Arts District)
 * Glenn Heights Park and Ride (Glenn Heights)
 * Jack Hatchell Transit Center (Plano)
 * J. B. Jackson Transit Center (Fair Park)
 * Lake Ray Hubbard Transit Center (Garland)
 * Malcolm X Boulevard Transfer Location (South Dallas)
 * North Irving Transit Center (Irving)
 * Northwest Plano Park and Ride (Plano)
 * Red Bird Transit Center (South Dallas)
 * South Garland Transit Center (Garland)
 * West Transfer Center (Downtown Dallas, near West End)

DART On-Call
In 2003, DART launched a premium on-call shuttle service to replace many low-use DART bus routes. The service allowed riders to schedule trips to and from any location within designated zones, though it required trips to be scheduled one hour in advance. DART On-Call operated only on non-holiday weekdays.

It was first opened in some North Dallas and Plano neighborhoods and, in late 2005, was expanded to Glenn Heights. When the service was retired in 2021, DART On-Call served north central Plano, eastern Rowlett, Farmers Branch, North Dallas, Lakewood, Richardson, Lake Highlands, and Glenn Heights.

FLEX
Introduced in 2008, FLEX was a hybrid of on-call and fixed-route services. The service augmented six routes with designated FLEX areas surrounding the route. A bus could be diverted to any location within its corresponding area, so long as time permitted.

In order to request FLEX service, a passenger needed to pay System fare, which cost double the typical fare. Pickups within a FLEX area needed to be scheduled an hour in advance, though drop-offs within an area could be requested at time of boarding.

GoLink
In February 2018, GoLink was introduced as a modernized on-demand service, similar to ridesharing apps. While similar to DART On-Call, GoLink allows booking through DART's GoPass app (over-the-phone booking is still available), and it does not require trips to be scheduled one hour in advance. GoLink trips are included in DART passes, and they can also be booked individually. The service was developed in association with Uber; riders are given the choice between hailing an UberPool and a vehicle from DART's own fleet (both at the same fare).

GoLink gradually replaced DART On-Call and FLEX services, which were eventually discontinued in 2021. The service was further expanded in 2022 to complement the revised bus network, replacing many less-traveled routes that were not carried over from the previous network.

Trips can be scheduled in 34 zones throughout DART's service area, each of which connect to designated rail and bus stations. Travel between zones is not permitted, though some zones overlap at designated Transfer Areas. Service is available from 5 AM to midnight every day, except for the Inland Port Connect zone in southern Dallas County, which is only available from 5 AM to 8 PM on weekdays. (This discrepancy is because Inland Port Connect is operated by STAR Transit, not DART itself.)

Paratransit
DART provides ADA-compliant paratransit for its member cities. Patrons with physical, cognitive, or visual disabilities can schedule curb-to-curb trips to nearby passenger facilities, such as park-and-rides or rail stations. If the disabilities are severe enough that the patron cannot use DART's rail or bus services at all, they are able to schedule trips to any location within the member cities.

Collin County Transit
Collin County Transit provides curb-to-curb service to elderly, disabled, and low-income residents of Celina, Lowry Crossing, McKinney, Melissa, Princeton, and Prosper for a fixed fare. DART operates this service on behalf of the McKinney Urban Transit District (MUTD).

Ridership and financial performance
Average daily ridership for DART has been in the vicinity of 200,000 riders per day over the last couple decades. In the 1st quarter of 1998, DART's weekday ridership averaged 211,000 riders per day system-wide. Ridership has risen and fallen since then; total ridership, including ridership, has been as high as 248,500 average weekday riders in the 3rd quarter of 2008, and as low as 194,700 average weekday riders in the 1st quarter of 2010. However, after a year-long study in 2012 that counted passenger counts through both the existing manual method and a new automated counting system, DART concluded it has been underreporting rail ridership by more than 15 percent each year. In the 4th quarter of 2012, DART reported an average weekday ridership of 252,900. In the fourth quarter of 2014, DART reported total ridership had declined to 233,900 weekday riders.

Overall, DART is one of the lowest-performing transit systems in the U.S., when measured against comparable peer cities, for number of passenger trips, operating cost per mile, and fare recovery rate. In 2016, in addition to rider's fare payments, taxpayers paid $5.90 for each trip taken. In 2022, about 3% of DART's operating income came from passenger fares, compared to 61% from local sales taxes and 18% from COVID-19 relief grants.

In addition to fares and sales tax revenue, DART has raised funds by issuing bonds. Following a referendum in 2000, DART was given the authority to issue $2.9 billion in bonds over a 15-to-20 year period. In 2012, a court ruled that DART could exceed this limit so long as the debt is not solely backed by sales taxes. The most recent bond issue occurred in 2021, consisting of two series for a total of $1 billion.

Member cities
In addition to the cities that voted to join DART at its creation, any city that adjoins a DART member city is eligible to join.

Member cities fund DART with a 1% sales tax earmarked to the Dallas Metropolitan Transit Authority (the legal name of the DART's tax district). Texas law limits municipal sales taxes to 2% total, which prevents many cities from joining without sacrificing local sales taxes.

DART is capable of establishing service to locations in non-member cities through special agreements. For example, DART serves Eastfield College, which is within the city limits of non-DART member Mesquite, as it is a part of the Dallas College system.

List of DART member cities
All current members of DART are charter members, having joined during the 1983 vote.

Original cities that declined DART
These cities were part of the 1983 membership election and declined to join DART. Unless otherwise noted, these cities are still eligible to join DART.

Eligible cities that are not members of DART
These cities are eligible to join DART as they are adjacent to either Dallas or another DART member city, but they have not joined. With the exception of Parker, this is because they are unable to levy the 1% sales tax required for membership without cutting existing taxes.

Executive directors

 * Maurice Carter 1982–1984
 * George Bonna (Interim) 1984–1985
 * Ted Tedasco 1985–1986
 * John Hoeft (Interim) 1986
 * Charles Anderson 1986–1992
 * Tony Venturato (Interim) 1992
 * Jack Evans 1992
 * Victor Burke (Interim) 1993
 * Roger Snoble 1993–2001
 * Gary Thomas 2001–2021
 * David Leininger (Interim) 2021
 * Nadine Lee 2021–Present

title: Dallas Area Rapid Transit


text:
Skoptsy

The Skoptsy (скопцы; скопец "eunuch") were a sectarian cult within the larger Spiritual Christianity movement in the Russian Empire. They were best known for practising emasculation of men, the mastectomy and female genital mutilation of women in accordance with their teachings against sexual lust. The term "Skoptsy" is a descriptive one used by the Russian Orthodox Church. The sect emerged in the late 18th century. It reached the peak of its popularity in the early 20th century, with a claimed million members living in the Russian Empire. The Skoptsy was essentially wiped out by the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin.

Beliefs and practices

Skoptsy is a plural of skopets, at the time the Russian term for "castrate" (in contemporary Russian, the term has become restricted to referring to the sect, in its generic meaning replaced by the loanwords yévnukh е́внух, i.e. eunuch, and kastrat кастрат).

The Skoptsy referred to themselves as the "White Doves" (белые голуби). Their aim was to perfect the individual by eradicating original sin, which they believed had come into the world by the first coitus between Adam and Eve. They believed that human genitals were the true mark of Cain, and that the true message of Jesus Christ included the practice of castration, that Jesus himself had been a castrate, and that his example had been followed by the apostles and the early Christian saints.

They believed that human genitals were a mark of original sin, and that after the expulsion from the Garden of Eden, Adam and Eve had the halves of the forbidden fruit grafted onto their bodies, forming testicles and breasts. Thus, the removal of these sexual organs restored the Skoptsy to the pristine state before the original sin. The Skoptsy maintained that they were fulfilling Christ's counsel of perfection in Matthew 19:12 and 18:8–9.

There were two kinds of castration: the "lesser seal" and the "greater seal". For men, the "lesser seal" meant the removal of the testicles only, while the "greater seal" involved either removal of the penis or emasculation (removal of both penis and testicles). Men who underwent the "greater seal" used a cow-horn when urinating. The castrations and emasculations were originally performed with a red-hot iron, called the 'fiery baptism'. However, the skoptsy later transitioned to using knives or razors, with the iron serving only to stop the bloodflow. They also twisted the scrotum, destroying the seminal vesicles and stopping the flow of semen.

In women, the Skoptsy removed the nipples or the whole breasts. Occasionally, they simply scarred the breasts. They also often removed the labia minora and clitoris. They did not use anesthetics.

The operations were generally performed by elders. During the operation, they said the phrase "Christ is risen!"

History
The Skoptsy movement emerged in the 1760s from the flagellant sect of the Khlysty. Its founder was a runaway peasant, later known by the name of Kondratiy Ivanovich Selivanov, a former adherent of a Khlysty sect  of one Akulina Ivanovna in the Oryol Governorate. Selivanov had started his own sect in the village of Sosnovka near Morshansk, styling himself "Son of God" and "Redeemer": The community of Selivanov's followers, numbered at 246 people, were put on trial in 1772. Selivanov was convicted of having persuaded thirteen other peasants to castrate themselves. He initially escaped, but was apprehended in 1775 and exiled to Nerchinsk, Siberia.

His followers organized to locate and free him. He was found living in Irkutsk, and managed to escape and move to Moscow in 1795. In 1797, he moved to Saint Petersburg where, according to Skoptsy accounts, he was interviewed by Tsar Paul I. He claimed to be the Tsar's father, Peter III (who had been assassinated in 1762), following which Paul I had him confined to the madhouse at Obukhov hospital.

He was released in 1802. For the next eighteen years, until 1820, he lived in Saint Petersburg, in the house of one of his disciples. He received double homage as Christ and tsar, identifying himself as both Tsar Peter III and as Christ Returned. Peter had been popular among the Raskolniks (schismatics, or dissidents) because he granted them liberty of conscience, and among the peasants because when pillaging the convents he divided their lands among the labourers. Selivanov claimed the title "God of Gods and King of Kings", and announced his accomplishment of the salvation of believers through castration.

Selivanov succeeded in gaining followers even among the upper classes of Saint Petersburg. When the Governor General of Saint Petersburg, Mikhail Miloradovich, learned that two of his nephews, as well as several members of the guards regiments and sailors, were members of the sect, he asked the imperial government to intervene. Eventually, in June 1820, it was decided to once again arrest Selivanov, and confine him to Spaso-Evfimiev monastery (Monastery of Saint Euthymius) in Suzdal, where he remained until his death in 1832, allegedly his hundredth year. During his stay in Suzdal, his followers continued to plead for his release. Although this was denied, Selivanov was free to receive visitors in the monastery, and his followers worshipped him there. He also left writings, known under the title The Message (Послание) and Harvest (Страды), as well as nine letters addressed to the priest Sergeyev.

Despite the furious investigations of the Third Department (the tsar's secret police), Skoptisism did not disappear after Selivanov's death, and scandals continued to arise. The sect established a presence in Saint Petersburg, Moscow, Morshansk and Odessa, and later in Bukarest and Iași in Romania, where members of the sect had fled due to the persecution by Russian authorities. By 1866, the sect was reported as having 5,444 members (3,979 men and 1,465 women). Although Skoptisism prescribed castration as a precondition for entering paradise, only a minority of members (703 men and 100 women) had undergone bodily mutilation. Alexandre Dumas, père, writes about the sect, calling them scopsis, towards the end of his account of his journey through Caucasia, "Le Caucase, Memoires d'un Voyage", 1858, where he met them in Georgia. In the book The Idiot, Fyodor Dostoevsky mentions that the home of Parfyon Semyonovich Rogozhin is rented to Skoptsy tenants. Dostoevsky also mentions Skoptsy in the 1872 novel Demons and the 1880 novel The Brothers Karamazov.

Repressive measures were tried along with ridicule: male Skoptsy were dressed in women's clothes and paraded wearing fools' caps through the villages. In 1876, 130 Skoptsy were deported. To escape prosecution some of the sect emigrated, mostly to Romania, where some of them mixed with old believer exiles known as Lipovans. Romanian writer I.L. Caragiale acknowledges that toward the end of the 19th century all the horse-powered cabs in Bucharest were driven by Russian Skoptsy (Scopiţi in Romanian). Though the law was strict in Russia—every eunuch was compelled to register—Skoptsism did not abate in its popularity. The Skoptsy became known as moneylenders, and a bench known as the "Skoptsy's Bench" stood in St. Petersburg for many years.

The Skoptsy may have had as many as 100,000 followers in the early 20th century, although repression continued and members of the sect were put on trial. Increased repression and collectivization under the Soviet Union reduced the numbers to a reported few thousand in 1929, when the authorities staged a widely publicized mass trial against the sect.

Leon Trotsky, in a report from Romania in 1913, wrote about the Skoptsy in the Dobruja region who worked as horse-cab drivers and played a predominant role in the local horse trade. Patrick Leigh Fermor in The Broken Road describes his encounters (in 1933/4) with two "Skapetz" (sic) in a Bucharest tavern and as a passenger in their horse-drawn cabs: "They conversed in oddly high-pitched voices in a language that sounded at first like Bulgarian but soon turned out to be—judging by its shifting vowels and liquid sounds—Russian."

Olivia Manning in The Great Fortune (1960) describes the Skoptsy carriage drivers of Bucharest based on her visit in 1939.

According to the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, the sect still operated within the USSR in 1947. It is believed to have mostly disappeared by the 1970s, although there are controversial reports of surviving communities in Latvia in the 1990s.

title: Skoptsy