text:
Talk:Overseas Chinese

Overseas Whites
I find it shocking there is so much info about the ethnic Chinese in other countries, down to numbers and habits (there's a dedicated page for each country!), whilst I don't see much attention to the white populations in non-white countries.

81.111.120.73 (talk) 04:49, 21 March 2010 (UTC)

 * Why are you that triggered that there are arguably "more" articles in chinese diaspora? Non british white people who migrated to white people majority america from Greece, Italy, Ireland, Etc are fairly represented too.......And what do you suggest? To not talk about it if it is ever covered more than white people diaspora. I don't see the valid point as Wikipedia is a global website.

120.17.210.36 (talk) 00:05, 4 February 2019 (UTC)

 * For the very simple reason that there is "White" people don't usually consider themselves part of a global "white" population group, but define themselves in terms of their nationality instead.
 * Some white people do see themselves through this prism as do other non-whites. Perhaps the term European or Caucasian is better suited, say using European-American, like there is African-American, rather than 'White'.
 * Do all Han people see themsevles in a united group? It's still pretty diverse collection linguastically and based on apperance, nevermind the politics. Han seems to be quite a fluid term that has changed over time, depending on the ruling entity, it's just like say not all Arab people consider themselves Arabic, and originally coming from the deserts of Saudi Arabia.

 * Furthermore, how do you define a "white country"? Only in the West? Clearly Sweden would fit the bill, but what about say, Latin America? Would you consider Panama a "white country"? What about Brazil? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 116.14.42.212 (talk • contribs) 16:30, 19 May 2013

 * Go here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=imhUmLtlZpw (Martin Jacques: Understanding the rise of China) Western aka The Fallen Roman Empire aka Caucasian and the Chinese have DIFFERENT histories. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Jing345 (talk • contribs) 17:13, February 7, 2014

Is Chinese an ethno-lingusitic group or not, like Arabic? What is the Chinese concept of ethnicity, it doesn't seem to match the western sense.

Missing overseas Chinese
There are more Chinese than article's stats, are these population index are up to date? Also where are these Chinese in Korea?--KSentry(talk) 12:43, 20 June 2010 (UTC)

Non-Han minorities
Does this article include non-Han ethnic groups. For instance, this includes Chinese nationals that are ethnic Koreans? I think most 'overseas Chinese' and mainlanders, wouldn't include minorities if they immigrated abroad? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 1.29.12.193 (talk) 03:34, 27 December 2014 (UTC)

Inclusion of Mongolian peoples
Some Chinese patriots consider Mongolians to be part of the Chinese nation. This is inspite that some Mongolian groups, such as Hazara in Afghanistan or Buryatians and Klamyks in Russia have never been goverend by a Chinese entity, however are Mongolians (and Tuvans) to be included in the lost diaspora? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 1.29.12.193 (talk) 03:36, 27 December 2014 (UTC)

Northern Ireland Flag
Some has twice removed the Northern Ireland flag template ( undefined) from the infobox. Re-inserted. Please do not remove. Qwerta369 (talk) 09:14, 8 June 2010 (UTC)

 * You can (and should, instead of blindly reverting) use the page history function to see who it was. In this case, it was User:O Fenian, whose stated reason for removing it was that it's a historical flag no longer in use. I'd suggest contacting that editor directly at his talk page, since I'm guessing that, like myself, none of the other regular editors who watch this talk page and contribute content to the article have any informed (or even uninformed) opinion on the matter. cab (talk) 09:18, 8 June 2010 (UTC)

 * Hi. If User:O Fenian has a problem with the Northern Ireland flag template ( undefined), he should seek to "fix" the template itself or see Template Talk:Country_data_Northern_Ireland, rather than removing the template from articles.  I have sent him a message on his talk page. Qwerta369 (talk) 09:23, 8 June 2010 (UTC)

 * This article has not had a flag for quite some time, see the history of the article. That is because Northern Ireland does not have a flag. See Flag of Northern Ireland. There is no need for me to "fix" any template, since it is still in use for some sporting contexts and it will cause an uproar. For further information on this see Manual of Style (icons). If you object to the lack of a flag I recommend you contact the Northern Ireland Assembly and ask them to create a new one, since until there is a new flag one will not be appearing in this article. O Fenian (talk) 10:25, 8 June 2010 (UTC)

 * O Fenian. Please see Template Talk:Country_data_Northern_Ireland.  The issue of whether this flag should remain or be changed has been discussed at length and the consensus is that it should remain.  If you do not agree, please seek a new consensus.  Since your issue appears to be with the flag contained within the Northern Ireland flagcountry template and not with the flagcountry template itself, I have reinserted this template.  All other countries in the infobox have their respective template.  Please do not revert.  You may also wish to read WP:POV.  Qwerta369 (talk) 10:34, 8 June 2010 (UTC)

 * No, I have explained why that is a red herring. See guideline Manual of Style (icons), Flag of Northern Ireland, Northern Ireland flags issue, and even the British Prime minister's spokesman saying "The position in relation to Northern Ireland was that it did not have a national flag" (striking due to currently dead link), and British government papers saying "The Ulster flag and the Cross of St. Patrick have no official status". Northern Ireland does not have a flag, the only breach of WP:POV is using that flag in this article. O Fenian (talk) 10:39, 8 June 2010 (UTC)

 * O Fenian. I suggest that you discuss this on Template Talk:Country_data_Northern_Ireland if you are unhappy with the flag used in the Northern Ireland flagcountry template. Qwerta369 (talk) 10:42, 8 June 2010 (UTC)

 * That template is irrelevant as to whether the flag can be used in this article, as I have explained. I have also explained what you need to do if you want Northern Ireland to have a flag, contact tbe Northern Ireland Assembly. O Fenian (talk) 10:45, 8 June 2010 (UTC)

 * In particular you may wish to look at this edit (and the discussion it is in). A change to the template has been ruled out due to the sporting use, but an administrator says "If you think that the flag is inappropriate for that set of articles, just remove the string from Northern Ireland elections. You don't need to change anything else". Yet bizarrely you say no I need to change the template, instead of doing what he says. O Fenian (talk) 10:47, 8 June 2010 (UTC)

 * There is also WP:IRISH FLAGS. I have now provided links to two guidelines about not using the flag, provided two reliable sources saying Northern Ireland does not have a flag, and have also directed you to two Wikipedia articles about the flag and problems associated with it. I do not accept "you need to go the template talk page to amend it" as an argument any more, I am sorry. O Fenian (talk) 10:50, 8 June 2010 (UTC)

The infoboxm, and its Northern Irish flag or lack thereof (presently: lack) has been moved to Template:Overseas Chinese infobox, following along with the practise of similar articles like Japanese diaspora (Template:Japanese ethnicity). Please feel free to continue your discussion at Template talk:Overseas Chinese infobox, and request protection for that template if necessary to avert an edit war. Cheers, cab (talk) 11:14, 8 June 2010 (UTC)

Chinese in France
Hello, I have a new source claiming that there are 600,000 to 700,000 overseas Chinese people in France, whereas this article says 230,000. However this source is in French. Will you still take it into consideration? Thank you in advance for your reply. Source : http://www.slate.fr/story/23827/chinois-de-france-ne-veut-rien-dire —Preceding unsigned comment added by Yakuzanodon (talk • contribs) 08:33, 2 September 2010 (UTC)
 * Most numbers that came from "News sites" are highly unreliable, as they tend to exaggerate things. An example of this would Angola in which a News article claims there are 100k Chinese there, yet the real number is well below 10k and most of them are temporary workers. A real reliable number would be either from France National Bureau of Statistics itself or to a lesser extend, the Chinese Oversea compatriots statistics.--LLTimes (talk) 18:42, 2 September 2010 (UTC)
 * I see but statistics based on ethnic origins are normally forbidden in France; the INSEE does not make any. These figures were estimated by Pierre Picquart, who is a specialist in China, in his book L'Empire chinois. This source has also been used by the very famous newspaper Le Figaro and the magazine Réforme . Even the article about Chinese people in France on the French wiki uses these figures. Yakuzanodon (talk) 07:34, 3 September 2010 (UTC)
 * I've justified what I stated but still, you won't reply. May I know why? Yakuzanodon (talk) 19:07, 9 September 2010 (UTC)

Overseas --> Chinese Diaspora?
I'd like to see consistency in this. It's weird to see one ethnic group be called "X Diaspora" while this article is "Overseas Chinese" instead of "Chinese Diaspora". Red Card For You (talk) 02:13, 9 October 2010 (UTC)

 * This is not the only outlier. See Non-resident Indian and Person of Indian Origin (which uses an even more cumbersome official government term), Iranian citizens abroad, Cuban exile. Quigley (talk) 02:23, 9 October 2010 (UTC)

 * Unless there's an ulterior purpose I suggest we move all of them to match "X Diaspora". I'll take the liberty of doing it.  Red Card For You (talk) 03:13, 9 October 2010 (UTC)

 * Wait. I'm not familiar enough, but I did ask the creator of this article (other knowledgeable editors should be consulted also; at least submit a move request), who is still an active editor and who chose this name, to explain. It could be used more than 'Chinese diaspora', be the preferred language of the scholarly literature, or be more or less inclusive than a 'diaspora'. Quigley (talk) 03:25, 9 October 2010 (UTC)

 * I got the note. Pretty strongly against the move, since no one in China is going to have any clue what a "diaspora" is.  There's just no Chinese term for the word "diaspora" so if you use that term, no English-speaking Chinese person in China is going to have any clue what you are talking about.  One other point is that being an "overseas Chinese" is an legal status in both Mainland China and Taiwan.  There are also a thousand different controversies involving naming that you really don't want to get into.

 * Also, I think that the same thing is true for Indians (although I'll be glad to hear any corrections). I've heard Indians talk a lot about NRI's, whereas my guess is that most Indians are not going to have a clue what a diaspora is.

Roadrunner (talk) 04:30, 11 October 2010 (UTC)

Yes, actual English usage is preferred as a guide to article titles, rather than Wikipedian attempts at standardisation. Formulations like "Fooian diaspora", "Fooian exiles", "Fooian emigrants", "Fooians abroad", etc. have subtly different meanings, and the whole point of WP:NC(CN) is that the scholars and writers who study these subjects have a better idea than three random Internet users who show up at a Wikipedia talk page about how to refer to all of these different populations. Compare:
 * --- 255,000 Google Books hits
 * --- 19,000 Google Books hits

Or for that matter:
 * --- 39,000 Google Books hits
 * --- 9,500 Google Books hits (of which a sizable proportion appear to be using the term to mean "Fooian diaspora IN America" rather than "Americans living outside of America")

And:
 * --- 56,000 Google Books hits
 * --- 2,300 Google Books hits

Regards, cab (call) 08:50, 9 October 2010 (UTC)

 * I too think the move is unnecessary. Diaspora is not just a synonym for overseas: from the article: "In all cases, the term diaspora carries a sense of displacement; that is, the population so described finds itself for whatever reason separated from its national territory, and usually its people have a hope, or at least a desire, to return to their homeland at some point,", So it is used for example for the Jewish diaspora or the Palestinian diaspora but not usually to describe people of Chinese descent living outside China.-- JohnBlackburne wordsdeeds 11:03, 9 October 2010 (UTC)

 * I think its a very bad idea since "Overseas Chinese" is the standard term that people are familiar with. If you go to someone in China and talk to them about "Overseas Chinese" they know what you are talking about whereas if you talk about a "Chinese Diaspora" they are going to have no clue what a "diaspora" is.  I don't even know how to translate the term "diaspora" into Chinese.

 * Yes this may create a lot of inconsistency because different ethnic groups have different terminology. But there are usually a lot of minefields in the naming, and there are usually extremely good reasons for the names being what they are.

Roadrunner (talk) 04:23, 11 October 2010 (UTC)

Diaspora carries a connotation of historical context: Groups of emigrants being forced out or fleeing. That is certainly not the case for all overseas Chinese who chose to emigrate for various reasons. Since diaspora does not entirely represent overseas Chinese I am going to edit it out. Feel free to put it back in with an explanation or something to clarify the reasoning behind this choice. Thank you. 11/20/2018 9:06 AM PST.

Use of "PRC"
The term "PRC is used in conflicting ways here. In the 1st paragrah, it's meant to include HK and Macau. Further down, it's used to mean Mainland China.

I propose changing the top paragraph to be neutral. (I know there's a whole debate on using of "PRC" and "Mainland," but I think it's largely irrelevent here.)

The top is also clunky and wordy, and I propose changing it to this more concise version that just gets to the point of the definition of the term.

"Overseas Chinese are people of Chinese birth or descent who live outside Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan or other regions with a Chinese majority. People of partial Chinese ancestry may also consider themselves Overseas Chinese." Pumpkin888 (talk) 17:48, 21 December 2010 (UTC)
 * That's fine. Either do that or use the term "Greater China Area", which means the same thing as what you've written.  Hong Qi Gong (Talk - Contribs) 14:19, 22 December 2010 (UTC)

Info Box
Why are there pictures of people without any labels? I think those pictures are not notable to the article and should be removed.71.251.43.92 (talk) 06:36, 6 March 2011 (UTC)

Peru, Panama, India
Peru has been brought up before:

These country numbers are based on the ROC commission figures and they look wrong. Peru especially. It's rare to see a Chinese immigrant in Peru. The historical immigrants came in the 1800s so they became part of the melting pot. There may be over a million people with Chinese ancestry in Peru but they in no way identify as Chinese like someone in the US or Malayasia so to group the Peruvian number with these other figures is misleading. Panama I think is the same case. I really wish to see the Peruvian number corrected because it inflates the count by over a million.

The Chinese in India article gives 20k.

Moneyboats (talk) 03:23, 14 April 2011 (UTC)

Possible to add another column?
I don't know how to do this but is is possible to add a country population column so we can easily check some of the percentage math?

Moneyboats (talk) 03:41, 14 April 2011 (UTC)

White Australia policy
This article goes to some lengths to talk about semi-recent racially motivated attacks against ethnic Chinese living in countries where they are a minority. It even briefly mentions the discrimination faced in North America. However it is probably just as note-worthy that one of the countries where Chinese now live as a large proportion (Australia) once had racially motivated government policy directed (predominantly) towards the Chinese. I might see if I can integrate this into the article myself at some point.--Senor Freebie (talk) 03:09, 31 May 2011 (UTC)

Overseas Chinese is not an accurate term
In China, they have an expression haiwai huaqiao which became translated as overseas chinese in English. But those are Chinese citizens living abroad, they are expatriates. Citizens of the US or other countries that are of Chinese descent are NOT "overseas Chinese" and may be offended by such terms. I was reading an article about my hometown san francisco and it referred to persons of Chinese descent. But when I clicked on the term it linked to this page. Being of CHinese extraction but a full red blooded tax paying American girl, I felt hurt and bewildered, and hope that someone can correct this item. I am new to Wikipedia and not sure exactly how to go about doing this but will give it a try,please forgive me if I am doing it wrong. Thanks guys Capigu (talk) 07:58, 10 June 2011 (UTC)

The term you are looking for is actually "huayi", which is ethnic Chinese populations living outside the Sinosphere. They are ethnic Chinese (fully or in part) regardless of nationality. The term "Overseas Chinese" unfortunately, does not draw such a fine distinction between huaqiao (which as you correctly identified, refers to PRC-citizen expats) and huayi. However, that is the term most people are familiar with. So your hurt feelings and bewilderment are of little relevance to the correctness of the term as commonly understood. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 116.14.42.212 (talk • contribs) 16:30, 19 May 2013

 * yeah, so huaqiao is chinese nationals abroad whereas huayi includes foreign-born "chinese". but what, then, is the term (in chinese) for JUST the latter?

 * it comes up a LOT in mixed groups. someone asks, in chinese, "is that person chinese?" and you wanna reply "no, he's chinese-american" or "he's 2d generation", but not so specific.  i feel like there must be a good term in chinese for this, i.e. "foreign-born" or the like.

 * the chinese-ams i know use "huaqiao" to mean this specifically (i.e. EXCLUDING chinese nationals), but since that's incorrect at its core, i dunno how widespread such use is. if anything, i've told them to AT LEAST switch to "huayi".... 66.30.47.138 (talk) 13:02, 8 August 2020 (UTC)

What about those of only partial Chinese descent? And what of those Chinese who first immigrated/displaced to say Jamaica and then they or a generation or two, migrated to the USA, doe's that make them overseas Jamaicans or Chinese, or both? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 1.29.12.193 (talk) 03:55, 27 December 2014 (UTC)

also, the article on Chinese British says that the 'overseas Chinese' population of Russia is the third largest such population. Given that Russia and China share a land border, the word 'overseas' is clearly wrong. 134.153.14.79 (talk) 13:21, 23 September 2019 (UTC)

Chinese in Angola - Wikileaks
There is a state department cable from Angola that gives the base number of Chinese in Angola:

"The Chinese presence looms large in Angola. Although exact numbers are elusive, a minimum of 50,000 Chinese are in the country; most other estimates are markedly higher."

http://wikileaks.org/cable/2010/02/10LUANDA84.html#

This is a second source that supports the first source from the WSJ. So I remove the dubious tag.

Novacidadedekilamba (talk) 19:09, 5 July 2012 (UTC)

Chinese in Ghana
I have reverted the edit of 6,000 to 20,000 thousand ethnic Chinese in Ghana, which doesn't sit well. There is no reason why there can't be 750,000 ethnic Chinese inhabiting Ghana. After all Ghana is the 5th most peaceful country in Africa and has the biggest economy out of the 4 African countries ranked before Ghana on the 2012 Global Peace Index. For this reason, any investors from Asia, Europe, North America, Central America, South America, Carribean, Middle East (i.e. Arab Gulf states), and Oceania mostly choose Ghana as their place to work, to do business and for foreign direct investment on the African continent. The source introduced by Novacidadedekilamba who just recently joined Wikipedia (Welcome to Wikipedia by the way) is not a study coming from Ghana (i.e. a reliable and well respected Independent Ghanaian national daily newspaper), and as the source provided by Novacidadedekilamba is not solely focused on Ghana, while the source from ModernGhana (a Independent Ghanaian national daily newspaper) which is a well respected and reliable news source of solely Ghanaian news in Ghana and its news information and studies are solely focused on Ghana. MarkMysoe (talk) 09:02, 10 July 2012 (UTC)

 * Academic sources are still better than news outlets. Your Ghanaian source is dubious at best since it's a bit extreme to suggest that a mere 10,000 - 20,000 in 2010 went up to 750,000 (perhaps the number is on Chinese tourist, misinterpreted?). Ghanian census would be better if you have one.--LLTimes (talk) 18:37, 11 July 2012 (UTC)

Chinese Civil War
I think one of the factor that contribute to the Chinese diaspora is inclusive of Chinese Civil War. the Communist Party China and Kuomintang when the nationalist lost the war in 1949 many Chinese to South East Asia, traveling by boats and ships, this explain why the Chinese made up 75% of Singapore today, and 25% of Malaysia's Population.

Malaysia gain independence in the year 1957 and 1963 East Malaysia and Singapore. And later 1965 Singapore was separated from Malaysia.

refer to Chinese Civil war article and i need some help on improving this article based on the Chinese civil war.

Captain2123 (talk) 12:59, 8 December 2012 (UTC)

Hoa Chinese
In the Assimilation part, i think the content is quite misleading and confusing. The Vietnamese people intentionally have adopted Chinese culture in term of clothing, language, traditions, politic system for thousands of year, not from Chinese immigrants, same things to Korea and Japan. Also the reference doesn't represent any idea related to Vietnam? Who gave in? I request a modification to this section. Ho Cam Dao is undoubtedly Sino-Vietnamese pronunciation, no different to other Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary. Sino-Vietnamese dominates 60- 80% of Vietnamese vocabulary. Hiraki (talk) 06:25, 22 May 2013 (UTC + 10)

The Chart doesn't work
The categories don't match up when the chart is sorted. (96.24.118.128 (talk) 21:09, 14 June 2013 (UTC))

Definition of Huaren
I doubt many Chinese and otherwise would consider, say a Tibetan or Uyghur person of the PRC who has migrated (not fled) to another a country a Huaren or overseas Chinese? Say that Tibetan went to the States, she or he would be considered Tibetan-American, not Chinese-American? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 161.43.217.70 (talk) 04:38, 4 December 2014 (UTC)

Chinese in Egypt
This number is tagged as dubious and I agree. There's nothing else on the Internet supporting the wide estimate provided by the newspaper article.

Agreement to remove it? Thorougpod (talk) 16:59, 17 October 2013 (UTC)

Chinese in Russia
Why is the figure used is taken from data assembled by Taiwanese state agency while more relevant estimations exist, like the one mentioned in this http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_people_in_Russia#CITEREFZayonchkovskaya2004 article? 46.216.109.175 (talk) 02:07, 21 October 2013 (UTC)

Chinese in Indonesia
The number of Chinese population in Indonesia : https://www.facebook.com/notes/yayi-haidar-aqua/setelah-hegemoni-ekonomi-kini-saatnya-etnis-cina-berkuasa-penuh-di-ri/10152174951296126 — Preceding unsigned comment added by 139.193.7.81 (talk) 02:57, 13 July 2015 (UTC)

There are some people who constantly change the Indonesian statistics to 10 million based on an unreliable Taiwanese source. Please stop doing that and the official Indonesian census of 2.8 million should be the correct one.

This wikipedia Indonesian Chinese figure has been changed many times in the past. Please follow official figure from Indonesian government which is 2.8 million and not some unsubstantiated figure from Taiwan or some amateurs.

2405:9800:B900:4904:8133:A2D4:2AFF:BDFA (talk) 01:42, 2 June 2022 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 1 one external link on Overseas Chinese. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20090317060519/http://www.hup.harvard.edu:80/features/reference/panenc/huaqiao.html to http://www.hup.harvard.edu/features/reference/panenc/huaqiao.html

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true to let others know.

Cheers. —cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 07:48, 28 August 2015 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 1 one external link on Overseas Chinese. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive http://web.archive.org/web/20131018051535/http://www.ocac.gov.tw/download.asp?tag=P&file=DownFile/File_17979.pdf&no=17979 to http://www.ocac.gov.tw/download.asp?tag=P&file=DownFile/File_17979.pdf&no=17979

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true or failed to let others know (documentation at ).

Cheers.—cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 14:35, 23 April 2016 (UTC)

Chinese in India
The figure for Chinese in India is off given that Refugees in India, gives a figure of 150,000 Tibetan refugees in India. This is a likely source of contention by nationalist on both sides, i.e. "we are Tibetans, not Chinese" and "they are not Han, so are not Chinese". Does someone bolder and braver than me want to wade into this.--KTo288 (talk) 07:44, 19 March 2017 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 21 external links on Overseas Chinese. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20160812014710/https://www.statistics.gov.my/index.php?r=column%2FcthemeByCat&cat=155&bul_id=OWlxdEVoYlJCS0hUZzJyRUcvZEYxZz09&menu_id=L0pheU43NWJwRWVSZklWdzQ4TlhUUT09 to https://www.statistics.gov.my/index.php?r=column%2FcthemeByCat&cat=155&bul_id=OWlxdEVoYlJCS0hUZzJyRUcvZEYxZz09&menu_id=L0pheU43NWJwRWVSZklWdzQ4TlhUUT09
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20160304082553/http://www.nptd.gov.sg/portals/0/news/population-in-brief-2014.pdf to http://www.nptd.gov.sg/portals/0/news/population-in-brief-2014.pdf
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20140224061845/http://convergencia.uaemex.mx/rev38/38pdf/LIZCANO.pdf to http://convergencia.uaemex.mx/rev38/38pdf/LIZCANO.pdf
 * Corrected formatting/usage for http://www.ocac.gov.tw/download.asp?tag%3DP%26file%3DDownFile%2FFile_17979.pdf%26no%3D17979
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20081204231050/http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/panama/ch_pa01.htm to http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/panama/ch_pa01.htm
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20080401110233/http://www.worldbusinesslive.com/research/article/648273/the-worlds-successful-diasporas/ to http://www.worldbusinesslive.com/research/article/648273/the-worlds-successful-diasporas/
 * Added tag to http://bbs.huanqiu.com/shidaizhongguo/thread-2715-1-1.html
 * Added tag to http://po-qianjun.woku.com/article/4663688.html
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20100902182747/http://www.iol.co.za/index.php?from=rss_Asia&set_id=1&click_id=126&art_id=nw20070831094150283C984737 to http://www.iol.co.za/index.php?from=rss_Asia&set_id=1&click_id=126&art_id=nw20070831094150283C984737
 * Added archive https://archive.is/20120711131410/http://business.blogs.cnn.com/2011/11/01/report-half-of-chinas-rich-want-to-leave/ to http://business.blogs.cnn.com/2011/11/01/report-half-of-chinas-rich-want-to-leave/
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20120528112204/https://english.gov.cn/2012-04/09/content_2109393.htm to http://english.gov.cn/2012-04/09/content_2109393.htm
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20140606224233/http://users.polisci.wisc.edu/schatzberg/ps362/Sautman2007.pdf to http://users.polisci.wisc.edu/schatzberg/ps362/Sautman2007.pdf
 * Added tag to https://wikileaks.org/cable/2009/04/09WINDHOEK118.htm
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20160812014710/https://www.statistics.gov.my/index.php?r=column%2FcthemeByCat&cat=155&bul_id=OWlxdEVoYlJCS0hUZzJyRUcvZEYxZz09&menu_id=L0pheU43NWJwRWVSZklWdzQ4TlhUUT09 to https://www.statistics.gov.my/index.php?r=column%2FcthemeByCat&cat=155&bul_id=OWlxdEVoYlJCS0hUZzJyRUcvZEYxZz09&menu_id=L0pheU43NWJwRWVSZklWdzQ4TlhUUT09
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20111113150435/https://www.singstat.gov.sg/pubn/popn/population2011.pdf to http://www.singstat.gov.sg/pubn/popn/population2011.pdf
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20130618234559/http://article.joinsmsn.com/news/article/article.asp?total_id=5682737&ctg=1200 to http://article.joinsmsn.com/news/article/article.asp?total_id=5682737&ctg=1200
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20120909231625/http://frontpagemag.com/2012/joseph-puder/the-growing-chinese-israeli-relationship/2/ to http://frontpagemag.com/2012/joseph-puder/the-growing-chinese-israeli-relationship/2/
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20131222095738/http://www.bqdoha.com/2013/12/population-qatar to http://www.bqdoha.com/2013/12/population-qatar
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20110530011450/http://212.42.101.100:8088/nacstat/sites/default/files/3.1.pdf to http://212.42.101.100:8088/nacstat/sites/default/files/3.1.pdf
 * Added archive https://archive.is/20120523184704/http://pxweb2.stat.fi/database/StatFin/vrm/vaerak/vaerak_fi.asp to http://pxweb2.stat.fi/database/StatFin/vrm/vaerak/vaerak_fi.asp
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20081024120028/http://www.adevarul.ro/articole/2005/chinezii-din-romania-polul-est-european-al-civilizatiei-asiatice.html to http://www.adevarul.ro/articole/2005/chinezii-din-romania-polul-est-european-al-civilizatiei-asiatice.html
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20081204231050/http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/panama/ch_pa01.htm to http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/panama/ch_pa01.htm
 * Added archive https://archive.is/20120628225923/http://celade.cepal.org/cgibin/RpWebEngine.exe/PortalAction?&MODE=MAIN&BASE=CPVBLZ2000&MAIN=WebServerMain.inl to http://celade.cepal.org/cgibin/RpWebEngine.exe/PortalAction?&MODE=MAIN&BASE=CPVBLZ2000&MAIN=WebServerMain.inl
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20100312065306/http://www.guilainet.com/ to http://www.guilainet.com/

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 09:55, 5 December 2017 (UTC)

Requested move 4 March 2018

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: consensus not to move the page at this time, per the discussion below. Dekimasu よ! 21:35, 10 March 2018 (UTC)

Overseas Chinese → Chinese diaspora – This move is for consistency as both Korean diaspora and Japanese diaspora use the term diaspora instead of "overseas". AquilaXIII (talk) 05:47, 4 March 2018 (UTC)

 * Oppose per WP:COMMONNAME . Even on Wikipedia there appears to be a mix of naming conventions in this topic area (e.g. Non Resident Nepali, Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin, Overseas Filipino), so the WP:CONSISTENCY argument does not strike me as strong enough to override the heavy dominance of "Overseas Chinese" in the literature. 59.149.124.29 (talk) 02:38, 5 March 2018 (UTC)
 * Oppose as above In ictu oculi (talk) 08:57, 6 March 2018 (UTC)
 * Oppose as above, per WP:COMMONNAME. Wefk423 (talk) 09:42, 6 March 2018 (UTC)
 * Oppose, as above, per WP:COMMONNAME but also "Diaspora has come to refer particularly to historical mass dispersions of an involuntary nature"Keizers (talk) 23:05, 6 March 2018 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page or in a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

User Km151kk edit warring and vandalising the page
Please see below sections and respond accordingly. Ibadibam (talk) 23:09, 11 May 2019 (UTC)

(1) Vandalising of Australia figure
A user, Km151kk is repeatedly edit warring and vandalising the Overseas Chinese article by changing the population figure for Australia. The population figures in the Overseas Chinese article relate to the population of a country with Chinese ancestry (ie, ethnicity), not, the population which was born in the People's Republic of China.

You are continuously changing the figure for Australia to the PRC-born population.

Please see the 2016 Australian Bureau of Statistics official census source as cited on the article:

1) https://quickstats.censusdata.abs.gov.au/census_services/getproduct/census/2016/quickstat/036

Scroll down to the heading 'People — cultural & language diversity' and then look at the first subheading under that section - 'Ancestry'.

Ancestry, top responses	Australia English	7,852,224 Australian	7,298,243 Irish	2,388,058 Scottish	2,023,470 Chinese	1,213,903	3.9

Every couple of days, the user attempts to change the figure to the population in Australia which was born in China.

These continuous edits constitute vandalism of the article, which relates to the Chinese diaspora in each country (ie the population in each country with Chinese ancestry). The figure used for each country is that of the population of that country with Chinese ancestry, not the figure for the Chinese-born population of each country.

To be clear, this conduct should stop right away to avoid a banning or semi-protected status to the article to prevent edit-warring.--StormcrowMithrandir (talk) 11:48, 2 May 2019 (UTC)

(2) Repeated Undiscussed moves of article to Overseas Han Chinese
User Km151kk is now moving the article from Overseas Chinese to Overseas Han Chinese repeatedly (every day) when the article refers to persons of all Chinese ethnicities outside China. Various users are having to repeatedly move the article back to Overseas Chinese. This is extreme edit warring and vandalism of the article. A look at the user's contributions page reveals that the user continuously vandalises the Overseas Chinese article (numerous edits which are all reverted) and does not edit any other wiki pages.

User Km151kk needs to be banned in order to stop this repeated severe vandalism of this article.StormcrowMithrandir (talk) 22:47, 11 May 2019 (UTC)

Bandung Conference
Where in the final communiqué of the Bandung Conference does it say that “overseas Chinese owed primary loyalty to their home nation, rather than to China”? I can only find “Zhou Enlai announced at  the Bandung Conference in 1955 that  the Chinese government would offer a nationality agreement similar to that of Indonesia to any country with which China had diplomatic relations”  – Kaihsu (talk) 10:49, 18 June 2020 (UTC)

Vandalism by user MrStephenLeon
Editors will have noted the recent edit warring by user MrStephenLeon.

This user continues to attempt to add figures to the infobox population table without citations. In particular, the user has now on more than 15 occasions attempted to insert a figure for the number of Mexicans of Chinese ancestry that is many times more than can be supported in any source, and has not even included a citation.

Worse than this, on the page Chinese immigration to Mexico, the user has made a claim that there are 1.9 or 2.3 million Mexicans of Chinese ancestry (when the only source cited on that page that gives a figure says 70,000) and has included citations which when opened, do NOT give a figure for the population of Mexicans of Chinese ancestry - the user included the citations on that page purely to mislead in circumstances where they have no relation or support to the number claimed.

It goes without saying that unsourced figures will be deleted as they are against Wikipedia policy. Furthermore, in light of the above conduct, any attempts by the user MrStephenLeon to add statistical figures to this page will be scrutinised very carefully. Stormcrow Mithrandir  00:34, 23 January 2022 (UTC)

unnecessary paragraph
in the section titled "Waves of emigration in late Qing Dynasty" why does this article randomly start talking about height variation, it doesn't seem relevant. Badpagenoticer (talk) 23:42, 24 August 2022 (UTC)

Picture Bamboo Network
I wonder whether the values in the Figure with caption "Share of economy and population held by Chinese people" are reliable. The linked source in the Wikimedia Commons page is nothing like a peer-reviewed scientific article nor official statistics, it's a Powerpoint presentation that does not cite any sources. Otrebor81 (talk) 16:55, 12 January 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Overseas Chinese


text:
Talk:Sodium nitrate

Untitled
It is still being mined in Chile and in Argentina. jj My can of SPAM lists sodium nitrite as an ingredient, not sodium nitrate. Can someone with more chemistry background clarify the reference to SPAM in this article? Thanks. Samw 01:53 30 Jun 2003 (UTC)
 * OK, thanks for removing the SPAM reference. Samw 17:57, 2 Sep 2003 (UTC)

Why is there a picture of sodium nitrite on this page?

health problems
I've read that this substance is known to cause cancers, etc. Is there enough info/consensus on that to include it as at least a possiblility?

Have a look at this link about sodium nitrate claiming it does cause cancer. Apparently they tried to ban it in the 70's but to no avail. http://www.truthpublishing.com/grocerywarning.html

 * That link doesn't look too reputable. Looks like product spam and outlandish claims to me. Besides, (and once again, it's listed right above this entry) you're talking about sodium nitrite, not sodium nitrate. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 97.82.247.200 (talk) 10:48, 3 September 2007 (UTC)

Speaking of "not too reputable," the "Oh it's healthy, dont' worry about it!" section that follows was almost completely citation free, so I axed it. If you want it back in, cite your sources. 129.137.218.171 (talk) 23:50, 19 June 2012 (UTC) Ubiquitousnewt "The studies indicating a link between dietary ingestion of nitrates and nitrites were conducted using extremely high doses in lab rats(No cite). These levels are impossible to attain in the human diet(No cite).  Now it is thought that the carcinogenic risk is inconclusive at best (No cite).  In their recent (2011) book, Bryan and Loscalzo (Nitrates and Nitrites in Human Health and Disease) quote Powlson (2008)(No cite), et al. and Ward, et al.(No cite) that there is "...no consistent relationship...between nitrate/nitrite exposure and risk of cancer and other adverse health consequences", and that "formation of N-Nitroso compounds are independent of nitrate/nitrite dietary intake"(No cite).  The presence of antioxidants in the diet, for example from intake of fruits and vegetables, effectively neutralizes the risk of nitrosamine "(No cite)

Although nitrites remain, sodium nitrate seems all but gone from commercial hot dogs in the U.S.. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2602:306:CF99:2080:6CA6:BD6E:14B3:EF3 (talk) 19:38, 12 August 2015 (UTC)

This section has multiple problems. There are conflicting statements. "Studies have shown a link between increased levels of nitrates and increased deaths from certain diseases..." and "...have been linked to gastric cancer and oesophageal cancer." conflict with "...no studies have conclusively linked nitrates and nitrites to cancer or any other form of diseases." Also the last statement in the section refers to "such legal scrutiny" when no legal scrutiny was ever mentioned. 104.51.149.199 (talk) 13:27, 8 April 2016 (UTC)

I agree. The second paragraph contradicts the first. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2602:306:CF99:2080:B430:EAEB:98E1:1075 (talk) 19:35, 1 November 2016 (UTC)

 * This news article from BBC presents what seems to be a mostly unbiased view of the topic. It also names some scientists whose research could be used for more citations: https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20190311-what-are-nitrates-in-food-side-effects
 * Sounds like there is more research to be done, and it is difficult to measure nitrate intake in the diet because the amounts found naturally in vegetables can vary greatly. But there is some evidence sodium nitrate can increase cancer risk when added to meats. Tea and crumpets (talk) 02:44, 9 March 2023 (UTC)

Saltpeter
Just wondering about the references to it also being known as 'saltniggers' and 'salt penis'...? I can't find anything to corroborate these statements, and find them highly unlikely. Don Donald (talk) 12:32, 9 January 2008 (UTC)
 * With out references, I believe the edits witch have changed the name to be vandalism.R00m c (talk) 20:44, 9 January 2008 (UTC)

I removed this from the article as it should have been here:R00m c (talk) 20:44, 9 January 2008 (UTC)
 * The first paragraph of this article where it names sodium nitrate as salt peter is in error. Salt peter is potassium nitrate KNO3. The confusion comes from the use of the term Chile saltpeter for sodium nitrate. The two are not interchangable. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 207.96.37.198 (talk • contribs) 08:08, January 2, 2008
 * Do you have any references of this being the cases? The article of Potassium nitrate indicates as your say, however it is unreferenced as well.R00m c (talk) 20:44, 9 January 2008 (UTC)

Sexual Inhibitions
My grandfather told me that during WWII (he was stationed in Alaska) the Army put Saltpeter into the food in order to reduce the libido of the troops. I looked at the article for a confirmation of this use and it doesn't mention anything about that potential side effect. Saltpeter can also refer to potassium nitrate, which specifically says that's nonesense. 69.140.156.40 21:24, 23 July 2006 (UTC)

This is a commonly heard story, but the best evidence is that it is a myth. The notion that saltpeter reduces sexual desires or performance is contradicted by scientific evidence. And the claims that it was put in the food of soldiers or sailors at various times and places around the world is contradicted by historical evidence. Still, many people repeat this story and repeat it second-, third-, fourth-, and nth-hand.

https://www.mcgill.ca/oss/article/history-you-asked/what-saltpeter-used-and-it-true-it-reduces-certain-carnal-urges Inter lingua  15:36, 13 December 2022 (UTC)

migraines
sodium nitrates, according to many migraine drug companies and migraine prevention websites, have been found to cause migraines. These sources also say this chemical can be found in deli meats cheese and therefore pizza.

 * Unless you have any real source, I wouldn't believe this for a second. People make all kinds of spurious correlations without any real data, and this is made especially more difficult to believe when the nitrate anion (NO3-) is present in most vegetables as well.  Migraines are a poorly understood phenomena and without proper study (meaning, real sources) this is nothing more than anecdotal fluff. Ψαμαθος 10:26, 16 August 2007 (UTC)

Fertilizer
Isn't NaNO3 used as fertilizer? If you can confirm, please add to applications. ike9898 19:26, 29 August 2006 (UTC)

As Potasium is a needed by plants and the sodium concentration is high enough in the soil Potasium nitrat is prefered in fertilizer. But most of the fertilizers only give the amount of Sodium oxide and Potasium oxide and the abount of available nitrogen, and with this numbers to determin which atoms form a crystal and which not is nearly impossible without x-ray crystalography.--Stone 21:07, 29 August 2006 (UTC)

^^Yes, NaNO3 can be used a fertilizer. I purchased some as such recently, but as far as nitrogen to weight ratio is concerned, it is a terrible choice. Ammonium nitrate or urea are generally used as nitrogen sources. If it is a mixed fertilizer, good luck figuring out what ingredients are present. Dormroomchemist 06:02, 27 September 2007 (UTC)

Pure Sodium and Potassium Nitrate are illegal in us is it not? -Danny Abbott

^^No, not at all. You can still buy it very rarely in pharmacies (I found it with salt substitutes once) as some old fashioned remedy. I've purchased both locally, and completely legally. Dormroomchemist 06:02, 27 September 2007 (UTC)

Phase Change Material
Evaluation of regenerative phase change drywalls: low-energy buildings application K. Darkwa, International Journal of Energy Research Volume 23, Issue 14, Pages 1205 - 1212--Stone 14:50, 15 February 2007 (UTC)

Carcinogenic Potential
The substance Sodium Nitrate, and the related Sodium nitrite are not themselves carcinogenic; they are in fact antioxidants, like a few of the vitamins. However, when foods containing them are cooked at very high temperatures, compounds called nitrosamines, which are carcinogenic, are formed. (That page linked to above is nothing but an inflammatory advertisement for a book, and also strangely doesn't even mention nitrate or -ite.) Now the problem I am having is that this is rather off-topic, so I don't really want to add it to the article, along with the citation I have (below, and the same as the one at Curing (food preservation)), but misinformation of the form "NaNO3 causes cancer" keeps cropping up. Does anyone have any advice here? Should I just put the off-topic stuff on to prevent the bad stuff? Josh Caswell 24.41.69.134 06:57, 9 May 2007 (UTC)
 * National Academy of Sciences - National Research Council Academy of Life Sciences. "The Health Effects of Nitrate, Nitrite and N-Nitroso Compounds". Washington DC: National Academy Press, 1981.

I have added a section Food safety issues. It cites two world class authorities. I could have cited more if I'd had time. I have attempted to present it in a non-controversial way in accordance with WP policy. I hope this will answer the need for such a section here (it was what I came looking for, found nothing, so had to write it myself!) and so satisfy the need of some for non-encyclopedic and emotional thrashing such as "(I entered my two cents and expressed my heartbreaking loss of faith in wikipedia.)" Trev M (talk) 01:21, 7 March 2010 (UTC)

I find evidence of nitrite causing nitrosamines, but little to nothing for nitrates. Seeing that on this page is a flag for me... — Preceding unsigned comment added by 97.119.142.182 (talk) 01:32, 10 August 2013 (UTC)

The acronym NOC is introduced in the Health Concerns section but never defined as far as I can see. Matt2h (talk) 05:38, 31 December 2013 (UTC)

NaNO3
According to this safety data sheet of 7631-99-4 Sodium Nitrate, it says quote: "Carcinogenicity:

IARC: No component of this product present at levels greater than or equal to 0.1% is identified as probable, possible or confirmed human carcinogen by IARC"

Can anyone verify?

https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/MSDS/MSDS/DisplayMSDSPage.do?country=PH&language=en&productNumber=NISTRM8569&brand=SIAL&PageToGoToURL=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sigmaaldrich.com%2Fcatalog%2Fsearch%3Fterm%3D7631-99-4%26interface%3DCAS%2520No.%26N%3D0%26mode%3Dpartialmax%26lang%3Den%26region%3DPH%26focus%3Dproduct

WikiProject Food and drink Tagging
This article talk page was automatically added with WikiProject Food and drink banner as it falls under Category:Food or one of its subcategories. If you find this addition an error, Kindly undo the changes and update the inappropriate categories if needed. The bot was instructed to tagg these articles upon consenus from WikiProject Food and drink. You can find the related request for tagging here. Maximum and careful attention was done to avoid any wrongly tagging any categories, but mistakes may happen... If you have concerns, please inform on the project talk page -- TinucherianBot (talk) 01:25, 4 July 2008 (UTC)

History
I added a sentence about an event in 1825. I think it is important to understand when in history Chile saltpeter was important. The sentence about 1825 has a source, but there are several problems with this source. I hope somebody can replace it with more reliable sources and more information. --LA2 (talk) 14:08, 16 January 2010 (UTC)

I would like to add new data on the health effects of dietary inorganic nitrate that have emerged over the past 15 years. It is now clear that nitrate can be metabolized in our bodies to form the highly bioactive messenger nitric oxide (NO). NO is normally generated endogenously and plays an important role in physiological regulation of blood pressure, immunity and more. Green leafy vegetables contain considerable amounts of nitrate which is metabolized in vivo to form nitrite and the NO. Ingestion of inorganic nitrate lowers blood pressure, inhibits platelet aggregation and protects against tissue damage caused by ischemia (low oxygen). In animal models administration of nitrate or nitrite protect against heart attack and stroke. Thus, a new paradigm is emerging, suggesting overall beneficial effects of dietary nitrate as opposed to the detrimental health effects traditionally ascribed to this anion. Reference: Lundberg JO, Weitzberg E, Gladwin MT. The nitrate-nitrite-nitric oxide pathway in physiology and therapeutics. Nature Rev Drug Discov. 2008 Feb;7(2):156-67. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 90.229.167.9 (talk) 19:39, 28 October 2010 (UTC)

Nitric acid via Sodium Nitrite
Sodium nitrate must be first converted to nitrite to form nitric acid? Nonsense.

First of all, nitric acid can be easily distilled from a mixture of sodium nitrate and sulfuric acid in vacuum with no production of nitrogen oxides. Second, sulfuric acid is an excellent polar solvent and dissolves sodium nitrate forming free sodium and nitrate ions. Sulfuric acid is also an excellent source of protons (it is an acid after all), so in the mixture of sulfuric acid and sodium nitrate there is an equilibrium concentration of nitric acid, which is the least ionic of all the species present.

Distillation of sodium nitrate with sulfuric acid at one bar (atmospheric pressure) results in some thermal decomposition of nitric acid to form mixed nitrogen oxides and oxygen:

 * 4 HNO3 → 4 NO2 + 2 H2O + O2

 * 2 NO2 → 2 NO + O2

Due to the importance of the industrial synthesis of nitric acid, this system has been well studied and a considerable volume of literature exists about the mechanisms of the reactions.

This section of the article does not properly represent the characteristics of an ionic solute dissolved in an ionizing solvent and needs to be cleaned up to bring the text more into agreement with what is actually happening in a complex chemical system.

In the absense of negative commentary, I will make these changes in mid-June 2016. Norm Reitzel (talk) 13:03, 28 May 2016 (UTC)

 * I've written the nitric acid via nitrite route out, there isn't doubt. I will notify the contributor. Ambix (talk) 19:51, 28 May 2016 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Sodium nitrate


text:
Eric Temple Bell

Eric Temple Bell (7 February 1883 – 21 December 1960) was a Scottish-born mathematician and science fiction writer who lived in the United States for most of his life. He published non-fiction using his given name and fiction as John Taine.

Early life and education
Eric Temple Bell was born in Peterhead, Aberdeen, Scotland as third of three children to Helen Jane Lyall and James Bell Jr. His father, a factor, relocated to San Jose, California, in 1884, when Eric was fifteen months old. After his father died on 4 January 1896, the family returned to Bedford, England.

Bell was educated at Bedford Modern School, where his teacher Edward Mann Langley inspired him to continue the study of mathematics. Bell returned to the United States, by way of Montreal, in 1902. He received degrees from Stanford University (1904), the University of Washington (1908), and Columbia University (1912) (where he was a student of Cassius Jackson Keyser).

Career
Bell was part of the faculty first at the University of Washington and later at the California Institute of Technology. While at the University of Washington, he taught Howard P. Robertson and encouraged him to enroll at Cal Tech for his doctoral studies.

Bell researched number theory; see in particular Bell series. He attempted—not altogether successfully—to make the traditional umbral calculus (understood at that time to be the same thing as the "symbolic method" of Blissard) logically rigorous. He also did much work using generating functions, treated as formal power series, without concern for convergence. He is the eponym of the Bell polynomials and the Bell numbers of combinatorics.

In 1924 Bell was awarded the Bôcher Memorial Prize for his work in mathematical analysis. In 1927, he was elected to the National Academy of Sciences. He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1937. He died in 1960 in Watsonville, California.

Fiction and poetry
During the early 1920s, Bell wrote several long poems. He also wrote several science fiction novels by the pseudonym John Taine, which independently invented some of the earliest devices and ideas of science fiction. His novels later also serialised in magazines. Basil Davenport, writing in The New York Times, described Taine as "one of the first real scientists to write science-fiction [who] did much to bring it out of the interplanetary cops-and-robbers stage". But he concluded that "[Taine] is sadly lacking as a novelist, in style and especially in characterization".

Writing about mathematics
Bell wrote a book of biographical essays titled Men of Mathematics (one chapter of which was the first popular account of the 19th century mathematician Sofya Kovalevskaya), which is still in print. He originally wrote it under the title The Lives of Mathematicians, but the publishers, Simon and Schuster, cut about a third of it (125,000 words), and, in order to tie in with their book Men of Art (by Thomas Craven), gave it the title Men of Mathematics which he did not like. The book inspired notable mathematicians including Julia Robinson, John Forbes Nash, Jr., and Andrew Wiles to begin careers in mathematics. However, historians of mathematics have disputed the accuracy of much of Bell's history. In fact, Bell does not distinguish carefully between anecdote and history. He has been much criticized for romanticizing Évariste Galois. For example: "[E. T.] Bell's account [of Galois's life], by far the most famous, is also the most fictitious". His treatment of Georg Cantor, which reduced Cantor's relationships with his father and with Leopold Kronecker to stereotypes, has been criticized even more severely.

While this book was under printing, he also wrote and had published another book, The Handmaiden of the Sciences. Bell's later book Development of Mathematics has been less famous, but his biographer Constance Reid finds it has fewer weaknesses. His book on Fermat's Last Theorem, The Last Problem, was published the year after his death and is a hybrid of social history and the history of mathematics. It inspired mathematician Andrew Wiles to solve the problem.

In his book about Paul Erdős, titled The Man Who Loved Only Numbers, Paul Hoffman wrote:

Non-fiction books

 * An Arithmetical Theory of Certain Numerical Functions, Seattle Washington, The University, 1915, 50p. PDF/DjVu copy from Internet Archive.
 *  The Cyclotomic Quinary Quintic, Lancaster, Pennsylvania, The New Era Printing Company, 1912, 97p.
 * Algebraic Arithmetic, New York, American Mathematical Society, 1927, 180p.
 * Debunking Science, Seattle, University of Washington book store, 1930, 40p.
 * The Queen of the Sciences, Stechert, 1931, 138p.
 * Numerology, Baltimore: The Williams & Wilkins Co., 1933, 187p.
 * Reprint: Westport, CT: Hyperion Press, 1979, ISBN 0-88355-774-6, 187p. – "Reprint of the ed. published by Century Co., New York"
 * The Search for Truth, Baltimore, Reynal and Hitchcock, 1934, 279p.
 * Reprint: Williams and Wilkins Co, 1935
 * The Handmaiden of the Sciences, Williams & Wilkins, 1937, 216p.
 * Man and His Lifebelts, New York, Reynal & Hitchcock, 1938, 340p.
 * Reprint: George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1935, 2nd printing 1946
 * Reprint: Kessinger Publishing, 2005
 * Men of Mathematics, New York, Simon & Schuster, 1937, 592p.
 * Reprint: Touchstone (Simon & Schuster paperback), 1986. ISBN 0671628186
 * The Development of Mathematics, New York, McGraw–Hill, 1940, 637p.
 * Second Edition: New York, McGraw–Hill, 1945, 637p.
 * Reprint: Dover Publications, 1992
 * The Magic of Numbers, Whittlesey House, 1946, 418p.
 * Reprint: New York, Dover Publications, 1991, ISBN 0-486-26788-1, 418p.
 * Reprint: Sacred Science Institute, 2006
 * Mathematics: Queen and Servant of Science, McGraw-Hill, 1951, 437p.
 * The Last Problem, New York, Simon & Schuster, 1961, 308p.
 * Reprint: Mathematical Association of America, 1990, ISBN 0-88385-451-1, 326p.

Scholarly papers

 * "Arithmetical paraphrases". In: Transactions of the American Mathematical Society 22, 1921, pp. 1–30 and 198–219
 * "Arithmetical equivalents for a remarkable identity between theta functions". In: Mathematische Zeitschrift 13, 1922, pp. 146–152
 * "Existence theorems on the numbers of representations of odd integers as sums of 4t + 2 squares". In: Crelles Journal 163, 1930, pp. 65–70
 * "Exponential numbers". In: The American Mathematical Monthly 41, 1934, pp. 411–419

Novels

 * The Purple Sapphire (1924)
 * The Gold Tooth (1927)
 * Quayle's Invention (1927)
 * Green Fire (1928)
 * The Greatest Adventure (1929)
 * The Iron Star (1930)
 * The White Lily (1930)
 * The Time Stream (1931)
 * Seeds of Life (1931)
 * Before the Dawn (1934)
 * Tomorrow (1939)
 * The Forbidden Garden (1947)
 * The Cosmic Geoids and One Other (1949)
 * The Crystal Horde (1952)
 * G.O.G. 666 (1954)

Poetry

 * The Singer (1916)

title: Eric Temple Bell


text:
HKL

HKL may refer to:

 * Handball Korea League
 * Hattha Kaksekar, a Cambodian microfinance organization
 * Helsinki City Transport
 * Hongkong Land, a land developer in Hong Kong
 * Kuala Lumpur Hospital (Malay: Hospital Besar Kuala Lumpur)
 * Miller index (hkℓ), describing crystal lattice planes

title: HKL


text:
Helsinki City Transport

Helsinki City Transport or HKL (Finnish: Helsingin kaupungin liikennelaitos, Swedish: Helsingfors stads trafikverk, abbreviated to HST) is the official city-owned public transport company in Helsinki, Finland. It operates the Helsinki Metro. HKL's bus operations were merged with another city-owned company, Suomen Turistiauto, to form a new bus company called Helsingin Bussiliikenne, which has since been acquired by Koiviston Auto. Until the founding of HSL in January 2010, HKL was responsible for the planning and organization of all public transport in Helsinki. The majority of HKL's operations, excluding certain parts of the Metro operations, were moved to Metropolitan Area Transport Ltd in February 2022.

title: Helsinki City Transport


text:
Seawater

Seawater, or sea water, is water from a sea or ocean. On average, seawater in the world's oceans has a salinity of about 3.5% (35 g/L, 35 ppt, 600 mM). This means that every kilogram (roughly one liter by volume) of seawater has approximately 35 g of dissolved salts (predominantly sodium and chloride  ions). The average density at the surface is 1.025 kg/L. Seawater is denser than both fresh water and pure water (density 1.0 kg/L at 4 C) because the dissolved salts increase the mass by a larger proportion than the volume. The freezing point of seawater decreases as salt concentration increases. At typical salinity, it freezes at about -2 C. The coldest seawater still in the liquid state ever recorded was found in 2010, in a stream under an Antarctic glacier: the measured temperature was -2.6 C.

Seawater pH is typically limited to a range between 7.5 and 8.4. However, there is no universally accepted reference pH-scale for seawater and the difference between measurements based on different reference scales may be up to 0.14 units.

Salinity

Although the vast majority of seawater has a salinity of between 31 and 38 g/kg, that is 3.1–3.8%, seawater is not uniformly saline throughout the world. Where mixing occurs with freshwater runoff from river mouths, near melting glaciers or vast amounts of precipitation (e.g. monsoon), seawater can be substantially less saline. The most saline open sea is the Red Sea, where high rates of evaporation, low precipitation and low river run-off, and confined circulation result in unusually salty water. The salinity in isolated bodies of water can be considerably greater still – about ten times higher in the case of the Dead Sea. Historically, several salinity scales were used to approximate the absolute salinity of seawater. A popular scale was the "Practical Salinity Scale" where salinity was measured in "practical salinity units (PSU)". The current standard for salinity is the "Reference Salinity" scale with the salinity expressed in units of "g/kg".

Density
The density of surface seawater ranges from about 1020 to 1029 kg/m3, depending on the temperature and salinity. At a temperature of 25 °C, the salinity of 35 g/kg and 1 atm pressure, the density of seawater is 1023.6 kg/m3. Deep in the ocean, under high pressure, seawater can reach a density of 1050 kg/m3 or higher. The density of seawater also changes with salinity. Brines generated by seawater desalination plants can have salinities up to 120 g/kg. The density of typical seawater brine of 120 g/kg salinity at 25 °C and atmospheric pressure is 1088 kg/m3.

pH value
The pH value at the surface of oceans in pre-industrial time (before 1850) was around 8.2. Since then, it has been decreasing due to a human-caused process called ocean acidification that is related to carbon dioxide emissions: Between 1950 and 2020, the average pH of the ocean surface fell from approximately 8.15 to 8.05.

The pH value of seawater is naturally as low as 7.8 in deep ocean waters as a result of degradation of organic matter in these waters. It can be as high as 8.4 in surface waters in areas of high biological productivity.

Measurement of pH is complicated by the chemical properties of seawater, and several distinct pH scales exist in chemical oceanography. There is no universally accepted reference pH-scale for seawater and the difference between measurements based on different reference scales may be up to 0.14 units.

Chemical composition
Seawater contains more dissolved ions than all types of freshwater. However, the ratios of solutes differ dramatically. For instance, although seawater contains about 2.8 times more bicarbonate than river water, the percentage of bicarbonate in seawater as a ratio of all dissolved ions is far lower than in river water. Bicarbonate ions constitute 48% of river water solutes but only 0.14% for seawater. Differences like these are due to the varying residence times of seawater solutes; sodium and chloride have very long residence times, while calcium (vital for carbonate formation) tends to precipitate much more quickly. The most abundant dissolved ions in seawater are sodium, chloride, magnesium, sulfate and calcium. Its osmolarity is about 1000 mOsm/L.

Small amounts of other substances are found, including amino acids at concentrations of up to 2 micrograms of nitrogen atoms per liter, which are thought to have played a key role in the origin of life.

Microbial components
Research in 1957 by the Scripps Institution of Oceanography sampled water in both pelagic and neritic locations in the Pacific Ocean. Direct microscopic counts and cultures were used, the direct counts in some cases showing up to 10 000 times that obtained from cultures. These differences were attributed to the occurrence of bacteria in aggregates, selective effects of the culture media, and the presence of inactive cells. A marked reduction in bacterial culture numbers was noted below the thermocline, but not by direct microscopic observation. Large numbers of spirilli-like forms were seen by microscope but not under cultivation. The disparity in numbers obtained by the two methods is well known in this and other fields. In the 1990s, improved techniques of detection and identification of microbes by probing just small snippets of DNA, enabled researchers taking part in the Census of Marine Life to identify thousands of previously unknown microbes usually present only in small numbers. This revealed a far greater diversity than previously suspected, so that a litre of seawater may hold more than 20,000 species. Mitchell Sogin from the Marine Biological Laboratory feels that "the number of different kinds of bacteria in the oceans could eclipse five to 10 million."

Bacteria are found at all depths in the water column, as well as in the sediments, some being aerobic, others anaerobic. Most are free-swimming, but some exist as symbionts within other organisms – examples of these being bioluminescent bacteria. Cyanobacteria played an important role in the evolution of ocean processes, enabling the development of stromatolites and oxygen in the atmosphere.

Some bacteria interact with diatoms, and form a critical link in the cycling of silicon in the ocean. One anaerobic species, Thiomargarita namibiensis, plays an important part in the breakdown of hydrogen sulfide eruptions from diatomaceous sediments off the Namibian coast, and generated by high rates of phytoplankton growth in the Benguela Current upwelling zone, eventually falling to the seafloor.

Bacteria-like Archaea surprised marine microbiologists by their survival and thriving in extreme environments, such as the hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor. Alkalotolerant marine bacteria such as Pseudomonas and Vibrio spp. survive in a pH range of 7.3 to 10.6, while some species will grow only at pH 10 to 10.6. Archaea also exist in pelagic waters and may constitute as much as half the ocean's biomass, clearly playing an important part in oceanic processes. In 2000 sediments from the ocean floor revealed a species of Archaea that breaks down methane, an important greenhouse gas and a major contributor to atmospheric warming. Some bacteria break down the rocks of the sea floor, influencing seawater chemistry. Oil spills, and runoff containing human sewage and chemical pollutants have a marked effect on microbial life in the vicinity, as well as harbouring pathogens and toxins affecting all forms of marine life. The protist dinoflagellates may at certain times undergo population explosions called blooms or red tides, often after human-caused pollution. The process may produce metabolites known as biotoxins, which move along the ocean food chain, tainting higher-order animal consumers.

Pandoravirus salinus, a species of very large virus, with a genome much larger than that of any other virus species, was discovered in 2013. Like the other very large viruses Mimivirus and Megavirus, Pandoravirus infects amoebas, but its genome, containing 1.9 to 2.5 megabases of DNA, is twice as large as that of Megavirus, and it differs greatly from the other large viruses in appearance and in genome structure.

In 2013 researchers from Aberdeen University announced that they were starting a hunt for undiscovered chemicals in organisms that have evolved in deep sea trenches, hoping to find "the next generation" of antibiotics, anticipating an "antibiotic apocalypse" with a dearth of new infection-fighting drugs. The EU-funded research will start in the Atacama Trench and then move on to search trenches off New Zealand and Antarctica.

The ocean has a long history of human waste disposal on the assumption that its vast size makes it capable of absorbing and diluting all noxious material. While this may be true on a small scale, the large amounts of sewage routinely dumped has damaged many coastal ecosystems, and rendered them life-threatening. Pathogenic viruses and bacteria occur in such waters, such as Escherichia coli, Vibrio cholerae the cause of cholera, hepatitis A, hepatitis E and polio, along with protozoans causing giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis. These pathogens are routinely present in the ballast water of large vessels, and are widely spread when the ballast is discharged.

Other parameters
The speed of sound in seawater is about 1,500 m/s (whereas the speed of sound is usually around 330 m/s in air at roughly 101.3 kPa pressure, 1 atmosphere), and varies with water temperature, salinity, and pressure. The thermal conductivity of seawater is 0.6 W/mK at 25 °C and a salinity of 35 g/kg. The thermal conductivity decreases with increasing salinity and increases with increasing temperature.

Origin and history
The water in the sea was thought to come from the Earth's volcanoes, starting 4 billion years ago, released by degassing from molten rock. More recent work suggests much of the Earth's water may come from comets.

Scientific theories behind the origins of sea salt started with Sir Edmond Halley in 1715, who proposed that salt and other minerals were carried into the sea by rivers after rainfall washed it out of the ground. Upon reaching the ocean, these salts concentrated as more salt arrived over time (see Hydrologic cycle). Halley noted that most lakes that do not have ocean outlets (such as the Dead Sea and the Caspian Sea, see endorheic basin), have high salt content. Halley termed this process "continental weathering".

Halley's theory was partly correct. In addition, sodium leached out of the ocean floor when the ocean formed. The presence of salt's other dominant ion, chloride, results from outgassing of chloride (as hydrochloric acid) with other gases from Earth's interior via volcanos and hydrothermal vents. The sodium and chloride ions subsequently became the most abundant constituents of sea salt.

Ocean salinity has been stable for billions of years, most likely as a consequence of a chemical/tectonic system which removes as much salt as is deposited; for instance, sodium and chloride sinks include evaporite deposits, pore-water burial, and reactions with seafloor basalts.

Human impacts
Climate change, rising levels of carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere, excess nutrients, and pollution in many forms are altering global oceanic geochemistry. Rates of change for some aspects greatly exceed those in the historical and recent geological record. Major trends include an increasing acidity, reduced subsurface oxygen in both near-shore and pelagic waters, rising coastal nitrogen levels, and widespread increases in mercury and persistent organic pollutants. Most of these perturbations are tied either directly or indirectly to human fossil fuel combustion, fertilizer, and industrial activity. Concentrations are projected to grow in coming decades, with negative impacts on ocean biota and other marine resources.

One of the most striking features of this is ocean acidification, resulting from increased CO2 uptake of the oceans related to higher atmospheric concentration of CO2 and higher temperatures, because it severely affects coral reefs, mollusks, echinoderms and crustaceans (see coral bleaching).

Seawater is a means of transportation throughout the world. Every day plenty of ships cross the ocean to deliver goods to various locations around the world. Seawater is a tool for countries to efficiently participate in international commercial trade and transportation, but each ship exhausts emissions that can harm marine life, air quality of coastal areas. Seawater transportation is one of the fastest growing human generated greenhouse gas emissions. The emissions released from ships pose significant risks to human health in nearing areas as the oil and gas released from the operation of merchant ships decreases the air quality and causes more pollution both in the seawater and surrounding areas.

Another human use of seawater that has been considered is the use of seawater for agricultural purposes. In areas with higher regions of sand dunes, such as Israel, the use of seawater for irrigation of plants would eliminate substantial costs associated with fresh water when it is not easily accessible. Although it is not typical to use salt water as a means to grow plants as the salt gathers and ruins the surrounding soil, it has been proven to be successful in sand and gravel soils. Large-scale desalination of seawater is another factor that would contribute to the success of agriculture farming in dry, desert environments. One of the most successful plants in salt water agriculture is the halophyte. The halophyte is a salt tolerant plant whose cells are resistant to the typically detrimental effects of salt in soil. The endodermis forces a higher level of salt filtration throughout the plant as it allows for the circulation of more water through the cells. The cultivation of halophytes irrigated with salt water were used to grow animal feed for livestock; however, the animals that were fed these plants consumed more water than those that did not. Although agriculture from use of saltwater is still not recognized and used on a large scale, initial research has shown that there could be an opportunity to provide more crops in regions where agricultural farming is not usually feasible.

Human consumption
Accidentally consuming small quantities of clean seawater is not harmful, especially if the seawater is taken along with a larger quantity of fresh water. However, drinking seawater to maintain hydration is counterproductive; more water must be excreted to eliminate the salt (via urine) than the amount of water obtained from the seawater itself. In normal circumstances, it would be considered ill-advised to consume large amounts of unfiltered seawater.

The renal system actively regulates the levels of sodium and chloride in the blood within a very narrow range around 9 g/L (0.9% by mass).

In most open waters concentrations vary somewhat around typical values of about 3.5%, far higher than the body can tolerate and most beyond what the kidney can process. A point frequently overlooked in claims that the kidney can excrete NaCl in Baltic concentrations of 2% (in arguments to the contrary) is that the gut cannot absorb water at such concentrations, so that there is no benefit in drinking such water. The salinity of Baltic surface water, however, is never 2%. It is 0.9% or less, and thus never higher than that of bodily fluids. Drinking seawater temporarily increases blood's NaCl concentration. This signals the kidney to excrete sodium, but seawater's sodium concentration is above the kidney's maximum concentrating ability. Eventually the blood's sodium concentration rises to toxic levels, removing water from cells and interfering with nerve conduction, ultimately producing fatal seizure and cardiac arrhythmia.

Survival manuals consistently advise against drinking seawater. A summary of 163 life raft voyages estimated the risk of death at 39% for those who drank seawater, compared to 3% for those who did not. The effect of seawater intake on rats confirmed the negative effects of drinking seawater when dehydrated.

The temptation to drink seawater was greatest for sailors who had expended their supply of fresh water and were unable to capture enough rainwater for drinking. This frustration was described famously by a line from Samuel Taylor Coleridge's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner:

Although humans cannot survive on seawater, some people claim that up to two cups a day, mixed with fresh water in a 2:3 ratio, produces no ill effect. The French physician Alain Bombard survived an ocean crossing in a small Zodiak rubber boat using mainly raw fish meat, which contains about 40% water (like most living tissues), as well as small amounts of seawater and other provisions harvested from the ocean. His findings were challenged, but an alternative explanation was not given. In his 1948 book The Kon-Tiki Expedition, Thor Heyerdahl reported drinking seawater mixed with fresh in a 2:3 ratio during the 1947 expedition. A few years later, another adventurer, William Willis, claimed to have drunk two cups of seawater and one cup of fresh per day for 70 days without ill effect when he lost part of his water supply.

During the 18th century, Richard Russell advocated the medical use of this practice in the UK, and René Quinton expanded the advocation of this practice to other countries, notably France, in the 20th century. Currently, it is widely practiced in Nicaragua and other countries, supposedly taking advantage of the latest medical discoveries.

Most oceangoing vessels desalinate potable water from seawater using processes such as vacuum distillation or multi-stage flash distillation in an evaporator, or, more recently, reverse osmosis. These energy-intensive processes were not usually available during the Age of Sail. Larger sailing warships with large crews, such as Nelson's HMS Victory, were fitted with distilling apparatus in their galleys. Animals such as fish, whales, sea turtles, and seabirds, such as penguins and albatrosses, have adapted to living in a high-saline habitat. For example, sea turtles and saltwater crocodiles remove excess salt from their bodies through their tear ducts.

Mineral extraction
Minerals have been extracted from seawater since ancient times. Currently the four most concentrated metals – Na, Mg, Ca and K – are commercially extracted from seawater. During 2015 in the US 63% of magnesium production came from seawater and brines. Bromine is also produced from seawater in China and Japan. Lithium extraction from seawater was tried in the 1970s, but the tests were soon abandoned. The idea of extracting uranium from seawater has been considered at least from the 1960s, but only a few grams of uranium were extracted in Japan in the late 1990s. The main issue is not one of technological feasibility but that current prices on the uranium market for uranium from other sources are about three to five times lower than the lowest price achieved by seawater extraction. Similar issues hamper the use of reprocessed uranium and are often brought forth against nuclear reprocessing and the manufacturing of MOX fuel as economically unviable.

The future of mineral and element extractions
In order for seawater mineral and element extractions to take place while taking close consideration of sustainable practices, it is necessary for monitored management systems to be put in place. This requires management of ocean areas and their conditions, environmental planning, structured guidelines to ensure that extractions are controlled, regular assessments of the condition of the sea post-extraction, and constant monitoring. The use of technology, such as underwater drones, can facilitate sustainable extractions. The use of low-carbon infrastructure would also allow for more sustainable extraction processes while reducing the carbon footprint from mineral extractions. Another practice that is being considered closely is the process of desalination in order to achieve a more sustainable water supply from seawater. Although desalination also comes with environmental concerns, such as costs and resources, researchers are working closely to determine more sustainable practices, such as creating more productive water plants that can deal with larger water supplies in areas where these plans weren't always available. Although seawater extractions can benefit society greatly, it is crucial to consider the environmental impact and to ensure that all extractions are conducted in a way that acknowledges and considers the associated risks to the sustainability of seawater ecosystems.

Standard
ASTM International has an international standard for artificial seawater: ASTM D1141-98 (Original Standard ASTM D1141-52). It is used in many research testing labs as a reproducible solution for seawater such as tests on corrosion, oil contamination, and detergency evaluation.

Ecosystems
The minerals found in seawater can also play an important role in the ocean and its ecosystem's food cycle. For example, the Southern Ocean contributes greatly to the environmental carbon cycle. Given that this body of water does not contain high levels of iron, the deficiency impacts the marine life living in its waters. As a result, this ocean is not able to produce as much phytoplankton which hinders the first source of the marine food chain. One of the main types of phytoplankton are diatoms which is the primary food source of Antarctic krill. As the cycle continues, various larger sea animals feed off of Antarctic krill, but since there is a shortage of iron from the initial phytoplankton/diatoms, then these larger species also lack iron. The larger sea animals include Baleen Whales such as the Blue Whale and Fin Whale. These whales not only rely on iron for a balance of minerals within their diet, but it also impacts the amount of iron that is regenerated back into the ocean. The whale's excretions also contain the absorbed iron which would allow iron to be reinserted into the ocean’s ecosystem. Overall, one mineral deficiency such as iron in the Southern Ocean can spark a significant chain of disturbances within the marine ecosystems which demonstrates the important role that seawater plays in the food chain.

Upon further analysis of the dynamic relationship between diatoms, krill, and baleen whales, fecal samples of baleen whales were examined in Antarctic seawater. The findings included that iron concentrations were 10 million times higher than those found in Antarctic seawater, and krill was found consistently throughout their feces which is an indicator that krill is in whale diets. Antarctic krill had an average iron level of 174.3mg/kg dry weight, but the iron in the krill varied from 12 to 174 mg/kg dry weight. The average iron concentration of the muscular tissue of blue whales and fin whales was 173 mg/kg dry weight, which demonstrates that the large marine mammals are important to marine ecosystems such as they are to the Southern Ocean. In fact, to have more whales in the ocean could heighten the amount of iron in seawater through their excretions which would promote a better ecosystem.

Krill and baleen whales act as large iron reservoirs in seawater in the Southern Ocean. Krill can retain up to 24% of iron found on surface waters within its range. The process of krill feeding on diatoms releases iron into seawater, highlighting them as an important part of the ocean's iron cycle. The advantageous relationship between krill and baleen whales increases the amount of iron that can be recycled and stored in seawater. A positive feedback loop is created, increasing the overall productivity of marine life in the Southern Ocean.

Organisms of all sizes play a significant role in the balance of marine ecosystems with both the largest and smallest inhabitants contributing equally to recycling nutrients in seawater. Prioritizing the recovery of whale populations because they boost the overall productivity in marine ecosystems as well as increasing iron levels in seawater would allow for a balanced and productive system for the ocean. However, a more in depth study is required to understand the benefits of whale feces as a fertilizer and to provide further insight in iron recycling in the Southern Ocean. Projects on the management of ecosystems and conservation are vital for advancing knowledge of marine ecology.

Environmental impact and sustainability
Like any mineral extraction practices, there are environmental advantages and disadvantages. Cobalt and Lithium are two key metals that can be used for aiding with more environmentally friendly technologies above ground, such as powering batteries that energize electric vehicles or creating wind power. An environmentally friendly approach to mining that allows for more sustainability would be to extract these metals from the seafloor. Lithium mining from the seafloor at mass quantities could provide a substantial amount of renewable metals to promote more environmentally friendly practices in society to reduce humans' carbon footprint. Lithium mining from the seafloor could be successful, but its success would be dependent on more productive recycling practices above ground. There are also risks that come with extracting from the seafloor. Many biodiverse species have long lifespans on the seafloor, which means that their reproduction takes more time. Similarly to fish harvesting from the seafloor, the extraction of minerals in large amounts, too quickly, without proper protocols, can result in a disruption of the underwater ecosystems. Contrarily, this would have the opposite effect and prevent mineral extractions from being a long-term sustainable practice, and would result in a shortage of required metals. Any seawater mineral extractions also risk disrupting the habitat of the underwater life that is dependent on the uninterrupted ecosystem within their environment as disturbances can have significant disturbances on animal communities.

title: Seawater