text:
Graft

Graft or grafting may refer to:

 * Graft (politics), a form of political corruption
 * Graft, Netherlands, a village in the municipality of Graft-De Rijp

Science and technology

 * Graft (surgery), a surgical procedure
 * Grafting, the joining of plant tissues
 * Grafting (chemistry), chemical modification of surface
 * Grafting (decision trees), in computer science, adding nodes to a decision tree

Art and entertainment

 * Graft (1915 serial), a film serial
 * Graft (1931 film), featuring Boris Karloff
 * Graft (Paine), a sculpture by Roxy Paine, National Gallery of Art Sculpture Garden, Washington, D.C.
 * Graft (rapper), a British rapper

Other uses

 * Grafting (knitting), the joining of two knitted fabrics
 * Graft (architects), an architecture firm

title: Graft


text:
James Carnegie, 3rd Duke of Fife

James George Alexander Bannerman Carnegie, 3rd Duke of Fife (23 September 1929 – 22 June 2015) was a British landowner, farmer and peer. He was the grandson of Louise, Princess Royal, a daughter of King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra. As a female-line great-grandson of a British sovereign, he did not carry out royal or official duties or receive any funds from the Civil List. He was the second cousin of Queen Elizabeth II and Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon, and King Harald V of Norway. Through his maternal grandfather, he was also a descendant of William IV and Dorothea Jordan.

Early life
The Duke was the only son of the 11th Earl of Southesk (1893–1992) and his wife, Princess Maud (1893–1945), the younger daughter of the 1st Duke of Fife and Louise, Princess Royal. One of his godparents was George V, his mother's maternal uncle, who was represented at the christening by his eldest son and heir, the Prince of Wales.

The Duke was educated at Ludgrove, Gordonstoun School, and at the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester. He served with the Scots Guards in Malaya in 1948–50. He served as vice patron of the Braemar Royal Highland Society and of the British Olympic Association.

Duke of Fife
The Dukedom of Fife was first granted in 1889 to the Duke's grandfather, the 6th Earl of Fife, by Queen Victoria on his marriage to Princess Louise of Wales, the eldest daughter of the Prince of Wales. In April 1900, the first Duke received a new patent as Duke of Fife and Earl of Macduff in the Peerage of the United Kingdom, this time with a special remainder to his daughters by Princess Louise and their male issue. As the only surviving children of the Duke and Princess Louise were two daughters, the dukedom passed to Princess Alexandra of Fife, who became Princess Arthur of Connaught.

On 26 February 1959, the duke succeeded his maternal aunt, Princess Arthur of Connaught, Duchess of Fife, as Duke of Fife and Earl of Macduff, because her only child, Alastair, 2nd Duke of Connaught and Strathearn, had predeceased her. On 16 February 1992 the third Duke also succeeded his father as Earl of Southesk and as chief of the Clan Carnegie.

He lived at Elsick House, on his estate near Stonehaven in Kincardineshire and also farmed the family estate around Kinnaird Castle, Brechin. His interests included sports cars, driving a Ford Zephyr 6 in the 1955 Monte Carlo Rally.

Tsar Nicholas II
In the 1990s, Fife's mitochondrial DNA (mDNA) was used to help identify bones recovered in Siberia in 1979 as the remains of Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, who was killed in 1918 by the Communists along with his wife and children. Queen Alexandra, the Duke of Fife's maternal great-grandmother, was the older sister of Nicholas II's mother, Dagmar. The test required a female line descendant, as mDNA is passed unchanged from mother to child, unless there is a mutation. In Fife's case, mDNA from Queen Alexandra passed to his grandmother, Louise, Princess Royal, and then to his mother, Princess Maud, and then to him. Fife's mDNA was a 98.5% match with the bones, a rare imperfect match that scientists suspected was caused by a genetic mutation on the Russian side called a heteroplasmy. In 1994, the remains of Nicholas's younger brother, Grand Duke Georgy Alexandrovich, were exhumed in Saint Petersburg. The mDNA from Grand Duke Georgy also revealed the heteroplasmy, confirming the theory of the mutation and conclusive proof that the bones indeed belonged to the last tsar of Russia.

Marriage and family
As a young man, the Duke's name was variously linked with Princess Margaret, ballerina Mary Drage, and sportswoman Divina Galica.

On 11 September 1956, the then Lord Carnegie married The Hon. Caroline Dewar (born 12 February 1934), the elder daughter of the 3rd Baron Forteviot at St Ninian's Cathedral, Perth, Scotland. Guests at the wedding included Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother. The reception was held at the Dewar family residence, Dupplin Castle.

The marriage produced three children before they divorced in 1966:
 * Son (stillborn 4 April 1958)
 * Lady Alexandra Clare Carnegie (born 20 June 1959), who married Mark Fleming Etherington on 11 May 2001. They have one daughter:
 * Amelia Mary Etherington (born 24 December 2001).
 * David Carnegie, 4th Duke of Fife (born 3 March 1961), who married Caroline Anne Bunting on 16 June 1987, and succeeded as the 4th Duke of Fife in 2015. They have three sons, including Charles Duff Carnegie, Earl of Southesk (born 1989), heir to the dukedom.

Other titles
In addition to being 3rd Duke of Fife, he was also:
 * 12th Earl of Southesk (Peerage of Scotland)
 * 3rd Earl of Macduff (Peerage of the United Kingdom)
 * 12th Lord Carnegie of Kinnaird (Peerage of Scotland)
 * 12th Lord Carnegie, of Kinnaird and Leuchars (Peerage of Scotland)
 * 4th Baron Balinhard of Farnell in the County of Forfar (Peerage of the United Kingdom)
 * 9th Carnegie Baronet (Baronetage of Nova Scotia)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: James Carnegie, 3rd Duke of Fife


text:
Benzone

Benzone may refer to:
 * Phenylbutazone (a drug for which Benzone is a trade name)
 * Benzophenone-n, a class of compounds derived from benzophenone, including
 * Oxybenzone
 * Dioxybenzone
 * and mostly used in sunscreens

title: Benzone


text:
Maurice Garin

Maurice-François Garin (3 March 1871 – 19 February 1957) was an Italian-French road bicycle racer best known for winning the inaugural Tour de France in 1903, and for being stripped of his title in the second Tour in 1904 along with eight others, for cheating. He was of Italian origin but adopted French nationality on 21 December 1901.

Family life

Garin was born the son of Maurice-Clément Garin and Maria Teresa Ozello in Arvier, in the French-speaking Aosta Valley in north-west Italy, close to the French border. The name Garin was the most common in the native village of Maurice, called "Chez-les-Garin", belonging to five of the seven families. They had four daughters and five sons, of whom Maurice was the first son.

In 1885 the family left Arvier to work on the other side of the Alps, almost to the Belgian border.

Garin worked as a chimney sweep. He later moved to France. By the age of 15, he was living in Reims as a chimney sweep. He moved to Charleroi in Belgium but by 1889 he was back in France, at Maubeuge.

Garin's younger brother, Joseph-Isidore, died in 1889. The father died shortly afterwards in Arvier. Garin's brothers François and César stayed in northern France and, with Maurice, opened a cycle shop in the lower end of the boulevard de Paris in Roubaix in 1895. Brothers César and Ambroise also competed as professional cyclists.

Garin moved to Lens, Pas-de-Calais in 1902 and lived there the rest of his life. He bought his first bicycle for 405 francs, twice what a forge worker would earn in a week of 12-hour days, in 1889. Racing did not interest him but he did ride round the town fast enough to be called a madman – le fou.

Until 2004, it was said that Garin had taken French nationality when he was 21, in 1892 but in 2004, the reporter Franco Cuaz found the naturalizing act and Garin took French nationality 21 December 1901.

Amateur racing
He began racing in northern France in the same year when the secretary of the cycling club at Maubeuge persuaded him to enter a regional race, Maubeuge-Hirson-Maubeuge, over 200 km. Garin finished fifth despite suffering from the sun and decided to ride more.

His first win was in 1893, in Namur-Dinant-Givet in Belgium. He had sold his first bike and bought a lighter one – still 16 kg but with pneumatic tyres – for 850 old French francs (approx €3,000 at 2008 values). The race was over 102 km. He was leading by Dinant when he punctured. Spotting a soigneur waiting with a spare bike for a rival, Garin rested his own against the wall of a bridge, grabbed the soigneur's spare bike and rode off. At the finish, winning with ten minutes over the field, he gave back the bike and recovered his own the next day where he had left it.

Professional racing
Garin became a professional by chance. He planned to ride a race at Avesnes-sur-Helpes, 25 km from where he lived. He arrived to find it was only for professionals. Not allowed to compete, he waited until the riders had left, raced after them and passed them all. He fell off twice but finished ahead of the racers. The crowd was enthusiastic but the organisers less so. They refused to pay him the 150 francs (approx €525 at 2008 values) due to the real winner, so spectators raised 300 francs (approx €1,050 at 2008 values) among themselves. Garin became a professional.

His first true professional win was in a 24-hour race in Paris in 1893. It was held on the Champ de Mars, site of the Eiffel Tower. The riders competed, as was the custom, behind a succession of pacers. The event took place in February and the cold drove out riders one after the other. Garin rode 701 km in 24 hours, beating the only other rider to finish by 49 km. While other riders would consume much strong red wine, Garin chose a more apt diet, and said he had survived on:

 * 19 litres of hot chocolate
 * seven litres of tea
 * eight cooked eggs
 * a mix of coffee and champagne
 * 45 cutlets
 * five litres of tapioca
 * two kilos of rice
 * and oysters.

In 1894 he won a 24-hour race in Liège, Belgium, and the following year set an hour record for cycling behind pacers.

The first Paris–Roubaix was in 1896; Garin came third, 15 minutes behind Josef Fischer. He would have come second had he not been knocked over by a crash between two tandems, one of them ridden by his pacers. Garin "finished exhausted and Dr Butrille was obliged to attend the man who had been run over by two machines," said the race historian, Pascal Sergent.

In 1897 he won Paris–Roubaix, beating the Dutchman Mathieu Cordang in the last two kilometres of the velodrome at Roubaix. Sergent said:

"As the two champions appeared they were greeted by a frenzy of excitement and everyone was on their feet to acclaim the two heroes. It was difficult to recognise them. Garin was first, followed by the mud-soaked figure of Cordang. Suddenly, to the stupefaction of everyone, Cordang slipped and fell on the velodrome's cement surface. Garin could not believe his luck. By the time Cordang was back on his bike, he had lost 100 metres. There remained six laps to cover. Two miserable kilometres in which to catch Garin. The crowd held its breath as they watched the incredible pursuit match. The bell rang out. One lap, there remained one lap. 333 metres for Garin, who had a lead of 30 metres on the Batave."

"A classic victory was within his grasp but he could almost feel his adversary's breath on his neck. Somehow Garin held on to his lead of two metres, two little metres for a legendary victory. The stands exploded and the ovation united the two men. Garin exulted under the cheers of the crowd. Cordang cried bitter tears of disappointment."

In 1898 he won Paris–Roubaix again, this time by 20 minutes, and in 1901 he won the second edition of Paris–Brest–Paris, finishing almost two hours ahead of Gaston Rivierre after covering 1,208 km in 52h 11m 1s. He started by chasing another Frenchman, Lucien Lesna, who rode the first 600 km at 28kmh and had two hours' lead at Brest. At Rennes he stopped for a bath to recover from the tiredness, filth and heat, then found he could not get racing again into the headwind. Garin passed him at Mayenne and Lesna gave up shortly afterwards with 200 km to go. Garin finished 19h 11m better than Charles Terront ten years earlier.

In 1902 Garin won Bordeaux–Paris, a race of 500 km from south-west France.

1903 Tour de France
The Tour de France began to promote a new daily sports newspaper, L'Auto ahead of the largest paper in France, Le Vélo, which sold 80,000 copies a day. Some of Le Vélo's advertisers had disagreed with the paper's support for Alfred Dreyfus, a soldier found guilty on trumped up charges of selling secrets to the Germans but eventually acquitted after being sent to Devil's Island. The Tour was to promote their new rival paper, L'Auto.

The editor, Henri Desgrange, planned a five-week race from 31 May to 5 July. This proved too daunting and only 15 entered. Desgrange cut the length to 19 days and offered a daily allowance.

The race began at the Au Reveil Matin café at a crossroads in Montgeron, south of Paris, and ended in Ville-d'Avray, another suburb, having circuited France in six days of racing over 2,428 km. One stage, between Nantes and Paris, was 471 km. Sixty riders started at an entry fee of 10 francs – €87.50 today with inflation – and 21 finished. Garin won 3,000 francs (approx €10,500 at 2008 values) for finishing first in 94h 33m 14s, or 6,125 francs (approx €21,500 at 2008 values) in all with his other prizes. Lucien Pothier was second and Fernand Augereau third.

Pierre Chany wrote: "In the town which adopted Maurice Garin, at Lens, an immense procession was organised with the participation of all the notables of the region. Before leaving Paris on Monday evening, the day after the race finished, the winner paid a visit, out of politeness, to Henri Desgrange and, in a gesture without precedent, pulled a sheet of paper from his pocket. It was an article 'in order to simplify the interview', he explained! There he gave his feelings during the race, gave his opinion on the formula by which the race was run, gave a word of congratulation to his rivals."

Garin's written note said:

"The 2,500 km that I've just ridden seem a long line, grey and monotonous, where nothing stood out from anything else. But I suffered on the road; I was hungry, I was thirsty, I was sleepy, I suffered, I cried between Lyon and Marseille, I had the pride of winning other stages, and at the controls I saw the fine figure of my friend Delattre, who had prepared my sustenance, but I repeat, nothing strikes me particularly."

"But wait! I'm completely wrong when I say that nothing strikes me, I'm confusing things or explaining myself badly. I must say that one single thing struck me, that a single thing sticks in my memory: I see myself, from the start of the Tour de France, like a bull pierced by banderillas, who pulls the banderillas with him, never able to rid himself of them."

1904 Tour de France
Garin also won the 1904 Tour de France, by a small margin over Lucien Pothier, but was subsequently stripped of the title which was awarded to Henri Cornet. The race aroused a passion among spectators, who felled trees to hold back rivals and beat up others at night outside St-Étienne. Garin was one of the mob's victims. Pierre Chany wrote:

"In the climb of the col de la République, leaving St-Étienne, supporters of the regional rider, Faure, assault the Italian, Gerbi. He is thrown to the ground, beaten like plaster. He escapes with a broken finger..."

"... A bunch of fanatics wielded sticks and shouted insults, setting on the other riders: Maurice and César Garin got a succession of blows, the older brother [Maurice] was hit in the face with a stone. Soon there was general mayhem: 'Up with Faure! Down with Garin! Kill them!' they were shouting. Finally cars arrived and the riders could get going thanks to pistol shots. The aggressors disappeared into the night."

Garin said: "I'll win the Tour de France provided I'm not murdered before we get to Paris."

Misbehaviour was rife too between riders and nine were thrown out during the race for, among other things, riding in or being pulled by cars. There were claims, too, that the organisers had allowed Garin to break rules – at one stage being given food where it was not permitted by its chief official – because his sponsor, La Française, had a financial stake in the race.

The French cycling union, the Union Vélocipédique Française, heard from dozens of competitors and witnesses and in December disqualified all the stage winners and the first four finishers: Garin, Pothier, César Garin, and Hippolyte Aucouturier. The UVF did not say precisely what had happened and the details were lost when Tour archives were transported south in 1940 to avoid the German invasion and never seen again. Stories spread of riders spreading tacks on the road to delay rivals with punctures, of riders being poisoned by each other or by rival fans. Lucien Petit-Breton said he complained to an official that he had seen a rival hanging on to a motorcycle, only to have the cheating rider pull out a revolver.

Tales were also said to include 'Garin taking a train', a claim confirmed by a cemetery attendant looking after his grave who, as a boy, heard Garin tell his stories as an old man. In December 1904 Garin was stripped of his title and banned for two years.

Retirement
Garin retired from cycling and ran his garage in Lens until his death. The garage is still there, although wholly changed from Garin's era. An unnamed writer recalled:

"I remember Maurice Garin well. I met him and talked to him almost every day because we lived in the same area, 200 m from each other, at Lens. Le Père Garin, as my father and grandfather called him used to bring out a chair in fine weather and sit in the doorway of the little office of the service station he owned at 116 rue de Lille in Lens, under the sign for Antar fuel and oil. My barber was in the neighbouring house and I used to go there once a month to have a crew cut, [couper en brosse] which was the fashion in those days. My friends and I were aged seven to ten and on our one-speed bikes we used to pin numbers on our back... and we never missed riding past Maurice Garin in a tight group so that he would see. It's strange that nobody thought to take a picture of me, the little kid, alongside the first great champion of the biggest race in the world. But life's like that."

"Maurice Garin was far from an adulated hero, even less a rich champion (he spent his retirement running the service station), and I don't remember any special celebration in his honour. Television crews didn't come from home and abroad to interview him. [They showed no interest] until he died in 1957. And the rue de Lille, where he lived, still hasn't been renamed the rue Maurice Garin."

Garin kept his interest in cycling. He returned just once to his birthplace, in 1949, to see the Tour pass through. He began a professional team under his name after the Second World War. The Dutchman Piet van Est won Bordeaux–Paris in 1950 and 1952 in the team's red and white jersey. On the Tour's 50th anniversary in 1953, Garin was among several old stars waiting at the finish as part of a celebration.

Death and commemoration
In 1933 the Stade Vélodrome Maurice Garin was built in Lens, and named in his honour.

In 1938 Garin was awarded the gold medal of Physical Education by the Minister of Sport for France, Leo Lagrange.

Garin is remembered as a short, determined man, even authoritarian. As an old man he became confused. His biographer, Franco Cuaz, said: "... He [Garin] wandered through Lens asking 'Where is the control? Where is the control?' as his mind brought back images of the hotels where riders signed check sheets in the first Tours."

"... He regularly ended up at the town's police station, from where he was escorted back home. Often he was far from home, without knowing where he was or where he was going."

In 2003 a street was named after him in Maubeuge on the 100th anniversary of his 1903 win in the Tour de France.

In 2004 Les Amis de Paris–Roubaix placed a cobblestone on his grave, a traditional trophy for winners of the Paris–Roubaix race.

In Arvier, the village in Italy where he was born, there is a monument in his honour. His biographer, Franco Cuaz, said: "Every year, the municipality sends me French people who want to see the house where he was born. It's like a pilgrimage."

Career achievements
Source:

Major results

 * 1893
 * Dinant-Namur-Dinant
 * Paris 80km (vélodrome)

 * 1894
 * Liège 24hr (vélodrome)
 * Paris-Saint-Malo

 * 1895
 * 24hr Arts libéraux de Paris (vélodrome)
 * Guingamp-Morlaix-Guingamp
 * World record 500km behind human pacer on the road 15h 2m 32s

 * 1896
 * Paris-Le Mans
 * Paris-Mons
 * Liège-Thuin
 * 3rd Paris–Roubaix

 * 1897
 * Paris–Roubaix
 * Paris-Royan
 * Paris-Cabourg
 * Tourcoing-Béthune-Tourcoing

 * 1898
 * Paris–Roubaix
 * Tourcoing-Béthune-Tourcoing
 * Valenciennes-Nouvion-Valenciennes
 * Douai-Doullens-Douai
 * 50km Ostend (vélodrome)
 * 2nd Bordeaux–Paris

 * 1899
 * 3rd Bordeaux–Paris
 * 3rd Bol d'Or (vélodrome)

 * 1900
 * 2nd Bordeaux–Paris
 * 2nd d Bol d'Or
 * 3rd Paris–Roubaix

 * 1901
 * Paris–Brest–Paris

 * 1902
 * Bordeaux–Paris

 * 1903
 * Tour de France
 * Jersey yellow.svgr overall classification
 * Winner 3 stages

title: Maurice Garin


text:
Friends General Conference

Friends General Conference (FGC) is an association of Quakers in the United States and Canada made up of 16 yearly meetings and 12 autonomous monthly meetings. "Monthly meetings" are what Quakers call congregations; "yearly meetings" are organizations of monthly meetings within a geographic region. FGC was founded in 1900.

FGC-affiliated meetings are typically in the "unprogrammed" Quaker tradition, though there are some Friends churches with pastors. "Unprogrammed" means that worship is based on silent waiting for the Spirit's inspiration, without a pastor or a prepared order of worship. As of 2022, there are approximately 32,000 members in over 650 congregations (called meetings or churches).

Friends (Quakers) affiliated with FGC tend to be theologically liberal and more socially progressive than Friends in other branches of Quakerism in North America, though FGC welcomes Friends with diverse experiences and points of view.

FGC's programs include an annual week-long conference called "The Gathering," on-line retreats and worship opportunities, resources for meetings in becoming anti-racist spiritual communities, spiritual mentorship for youth and young adults, book publishing and sales, religious education materials, interfaith relations, and websites for meetings.

The main offices for FGC are in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

History
FGC's history can be traced back to conferences held by several Quaker organizations between 1868 and 1900, including the First Day School Conference, the Friends Union for Philanthropic Labor, the Friends Religious Conference, the Friends Educational Conference, and the Young Friends Association. These groups officially joined together as Friends General Conference at Chautauqua, New York, in August 1900.

FGC has held a conference either every year or every other year, usually at a different college each time, simply called Friends General Conference (FGC). In the late 1970s in order to make a distinction between FGC as an organization and the annual conference, the conference began to be called the Gathering. In recent years, the Gathering has been held several times on the west coast rather than the East or Midwest.

List of all conferences and locations

Structure and governance
As of May 2022, the governing body for FGC is a Central Committee made up of 111 Friends, 54 of whom are appointed by affiliated yearly and monthly meetings. It meets once a year in the fall, usually October. There is also an Executive Committee made up of officers, clerks of sub-committees, yearly meeting representatives, and at-large members which meets three times a year.

Central Committee is uniquely responsible for:
 * Making final policy decisions affecting the Friends General Conference organization and program
 * Approving the annual budget
 * Making changes in the corporate by-laws

Executive Committee can make any decisions other than these to keep the organization functioning throughout the year.

The work of FGC is carried out by staff and several hundred volunteers. It is managed by a General Secretary (similar to an Executive Director) who provides spiritually grounded leadership, adhering to the vision statement, minute of purpose, and objectives determined by Central Committee.

In 2021, FGC had a budget of US$1.6 million and assets of US $6,241,856.

The Gathering
A key program of FGC is the annual Gathering for all ages, traditionally held at a different college every July. Before the pandemic, the event attracted between 800 and 1,500 attenders from around the world, with most participants coming from the United States and Canada. During the height of the pandemic, 2020 through 2022, it was held virtually. Starting in 2023 a hybrid Gathering was implemented. The event features 40–60 mostly week-long workshops and a slate of both Quaker and non-Quaker plenary speakers. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. offered a plenary presentation in 1958. In addition to workshops and plenary sessions, the Gathering features concerts for all ages. Renowned folk singer Pete Seeger performed in 1997. There are programs for children, youth, and young adults.

Since the 1990s the Friends General Conference annual gathering has implemented a unique golf cart transit system on campus. Volunteer cart drivers will drive anyone with mobility impairment anywhere on campus between 7:00 a.m. and 10:00 p.m. each day of the conference, plus limited after-hours midnight movie runs and 6:00 a.m. shuttle connection runs as needed. Staffers are to answer the dedicated Golf Cart Central cell phone and then dispatch volunteer drivers at all hours between 7:00 and 10:00. All priority riders take a card with the Central phone number, so that if they ever try to walk 1/2 mile but it turns out that they only can walk 1/4 mile that day, they can call for a ride. Cart drivers may also move parents dropping off their children at children's programs, travelers moving their luggage to or from shuttle buses and then they can move anybody else, because certain people's mobility can change on an excessively hot and humid afternoon. Drivers are trained to never judge whether someone is able-bodied just because they are not visibly disabled. Volunteer golf cart driver training takes about one hour. Safety and diplomacy are emphasized. Typically 30 volunteer drivers, six dispatcher shifts per day and six to eight golf carts combine to move up to 100 priority riders around campus.

title: Friends General Conference


text:
Monsieur Zenith

Monsieur Zenith the Albino is an ambiguous villain created by writer Anthony Skene for the "Sexton Blake" series of detective pulp fiction.

Zenith is an albino, world-weary gentleman thief, originally Romanian nobility but in exile for undetermined reasons. He is full of an ennui which can only be relieved by opium, danger and adventure. Zenith sets himself against Blake not out of avarice but for the joy of the game, and treats Blake with sportsmanship rather than anger or hatred.

Zenith is influenced as much by the anti-heroes of Gothic fiction as he is by the master villains of 20th century pulp fiction, notably Fantômas. Zenith remains one of Blake's most popular adversaries.

M. Zenith was an important influence in the creation of the fantasy character Elric of Melniboné. Elric's creator Michael Moorcock in turn influenced the re-publication of Skene's sole novel, Monsieur Zenith: The Albino (ISBN 0861301099), for which he wrote an introduction, and reused the characters in The Metatemporal Detective.

A new collection of five original Zenith short stories, Zenith Lives!: Tales of M.Zenith, the Albino, edited by Stuart Douglas, was published in April 2012 by Obverse Books as Book 4 of The Obverse Quarterly. It includes stories by Stuart Douglas, Sexton Blake scholar Mark Hodder, Paul Magrs, George Mann (a story set in his steampunk universe which also features a crossover character from Mann's Doctor Who novel, Paradox Lost), and Michael Moorcock (featuring Seaton Begg, an alternate version of Sexton Blake).

Other uses

 * Zenith is mentioned (but does not appear) in the BBC serial Sexton Blake and the Demon God.
 * Zenith is briefly mentioned in Kim Newman's novel Dracula Cha Cha Cha as a possible leader of anti-vampire murders in Rome.
 * Zenith (identified with Elric) appears in Alan Moore and Kevin O'Neill's The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen: Black Dossier as a member of Les Hommes Mysterieux, a French version of Britain's League.
 * Zenith is the eponymous albino who opposes Sherlock Holmes and John Watson in The Albino's Treasure by Stuart Douglas, part of Titan Publishing's Further Adventures of Sherlock Holmes series of pastiche novels.

title: Monsieur Zenith


text:
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title: User:Cjmnyc/Sandbox


text:
Jim Corbett National Park

Jim Corbett National Park is a national park in India located in the Nainital district of Uttarakhand state. The first national park in India, it was established in 1936 during the British Raj and named Hailey National Park after William Malcolm Hailey, a governor of the United Provinces in which it was then located. In 1956, nearly a decade after India's independence, it was renamed Corbett National Park after the hunter and naturalist Jim Corbett, who had played a leading role in its establishment and had died the year before. The park was the first to come under the Project Tiger initiative.

Corbett National Park comprises 520.8 km2 area of hills, riverine belts, marshy depressions, grasslands and a large lake. The elevation ranges from 1300 to 4000 ft. Winter nights are cold but the days are bright and sunny. It rains from July to September. The park has sub-Himalayan belt geographical and ecological characteristics. Dense moist deciduous forest mainly consists of Shorea robusta (the sal tree), haldu, peepal, rohini and mango trees. Forest covers almost 73 per cent of the park, while 10 per cent of the area consists of grasslands. It houses around 110 tree species, 50 species of mammals, 580 bird species and 25 reptile species.

An ecotourism destination, the park contains 617 different species of plants and a diverse variety of fauna. The increase in tourist activities, among other problems, continues to present a serious challenge to the park's ecological balance.

History
Some areas of the park were formerly part of the princely state of Tehri Garhwal. The forests were cleared by the Uttarakhand Forest Department to make the area less vulnerable to Rohilla invaders. The Raja of Tehri formally ceded a part of his princely state to the East India Company in return for their assistance in ousting the Gurkhas from his domain. The Buksas—a tribe from the Terai—settled on the land and began growing crops, but in the early 1860s they were evicted with the advent of British rule.

Efforts to save the forests of the region began in the 19th century under Major Ramsay, the British officer who was in-charge of the area during those times. The first step in the protection of the area began in 1868 when the British forest department established control over the land and prohibited cultivation and the operation of cattle stations. In 1879 these forests were constituted into a reserve forest where restricted felling was permitted.

In the early 1900s, several Britishers, including E. R. Stevans and E. A. Smythies, suggested the setting up of a national park on this soil. The British administration considered the possibility of creating a game reserve there in 1907. It was only in the 1930s that the process of demarcation for such an area got underway. A reserve area known as Hailey National Park covering 323.75 km2 was created in 1936, when Sir Malcolm Hailey was the Governor of United Provinces, and Asia's first national park came into existence. Hunting was not allowed in the reserve, only timber cutting for domestic purposes was permitted. Soon after the establishment of the reserve, rules prohibiting the killing and capture of mammals, reptiles and birds within its boundaries were passed.

The reserve was renamed Ramganga National Park in 1954–1955 and was again renamed in 1955–1956 to Corbett National Park after author and naturalist Jim Corbett. The park fared well during the 1930s under an elected administration. But during the Second World War, it suffered from excessive poaching and timber cutting. Over time, the area in the reserve was increased to 797.72 km2 were added in 1991 as a buffer zone to the Corbett Tiger Reserve. The 1991 addition included the entire Kalagarh forest division, assimilating the 301.18 km2 area of Sonanadi Wildlife Sanctuary as a part of the Kalagarh division. It was chosen in 1974 as the location for launching the Project Tiger wildlife conservation project. The reserve is administered from its headquarters in the Nainital district.

Corbett National Park is one of the thirteen protected areas covered by the World Wide Fund For Nature under their Terai Arc Landscape Program. The program aims to protect three of the five terrestrial flagship species, the tiger, the Asian elephant and the Indian rhinoceros by restoring wildlife corridors to link 13 protected areas of Nepal and India and to enable wildlife migration.

Geography

Jim Corbett National Park is located partly along Doon Valley between the Lesser Himalaya in the north and the Siwalik Hills in the south; it has a sub-Himalayan belt structure. The upper tertiary rocks are exposed towards the base of the Shiwalik range and hard sandstone units form broad ridges. Characteristic longitudinal valleys, geographically termed Doons, or Duns can be seen formed along the narrow tectonic zones between lineaments. The elevation of the region ranges between 360 m and 1040 m. It has numerous ravines, ridges, minor streams and small plateaus with varying aspects and degrees of slope. The park encompasses the Patli Dun valley formed by the river Ramganga. Its present area is 1288.31 km2 including a 822 km2 core zone and 466.31 km2 of buffer area.

Climate
The weather in the park is temperate compared to most other protected areas of India. The temperature may vary from 5 C to 30 C during the winter and some mornings are foggy. Summer temperatures normally do not rise above 40 C. Rainfall ranges from light during the winter to heavy during the monsoonal summer.

Flora
Tree density inside the reserve is higher in the areas of Sal forests and lowest in the Anogeissus–Acacia catechu forests. Total tree basal cover is greater in Sal dominated areas of woody vegetation. Healthy regeneration in sapling and seedling layers is occurring in the Mallotus philippensis, Jamun and Diospyros spp. communities, but in the Sal forests the regeneration of sapling and seedling is poor. A research survey in the 1970s recorded 488 different plant species; in 2023, 617 species were noted, including 110 tree species. A profile of the reserve compiled by the Wildlife Institute of India, listed the sal tree (S. robusta), Adina cordifolia, Anogeissus latifolia, Bauhinia rausinosa, Cassia fistula, and M. philippensis as the notable tree species.

Fauna
More than 586 species of resident and migratory birds have been sighted, including the crested serpent eagle, blossom-headed parakeet and the red junglefowl, owls and nightjars. 33 species of reptiles including the Indian python, seven species of amphibians, seven species of fish and 36 species of dragonflies have also been recorded.

Mammals are represented by the Indian elephant, Indian leopard, Bengal tiger, jungle cat, fishing cat and leopard cat. barking deer, sambar deer, hog deer and chital, sloth bear and Asiatic black bear, Indian gray mongoose, otters, yellow-throated marten, Himalayan goral, Indian pangolin, langur and rhesus macaque. Marsh crocodiles and gharials were released into Ramganga river. Thick jungle, the Ramganga river and plentiful prey make this reserve an ideal habitat for predators. The tigers in the park kill large animals like water buffalo and even sub apex-sized elephants when other prey is scarce.

Ecotourism

Though the main focus is protection of wildlife, the reserve management has also encouraged ecotourism. In 1993, a training course covering natural history, visitor management and park interpretation was introduced to train nature guides. A second course followed in 1995 which recruited more guides for the same purpose. This allowed the staff of the reserve, previously preoccupied with guiding the visitors, to carry out management activities uninterrupted.

The Indian government has organised workshops on ecotourism in Corbett National Park and Garhwal region to ensure that the local citizens profit from tourism while the park remains protected. According to Riley & Riley (2005): "Best chances of seeing a tiger to come late in the dry season- April to mid-June-and go out with mahouts and elephants for several days."

As early as 1991, the Corbett National Park played host to 3237 tourist vehicles carrying 45,215 visitors during the main tourist seasons between 15 November and 15 June. This heavy influx of tourists has led to visible stress signs on the natural ecosystem. Excessive trampling of soil has led to reduction in plant species and resulted in reduced soil moisture. Tourists have increasingly used fuel wood for cooking. This fuel wood is obtained from nearby forests resulting in greater pressure on the ecosystem. Additionally, tourists have also reportedly caused problems by making noise, littering, and causing disturbances in general.

Other attractions

 * Dhikala is situated at the fringes of Patli Dun valley. There is a rest house, which was built hundred of years ago. Kanda ridge forms the backdrop, and from Dhikala, there are views of the valley.
 * Kalagarh Dam is located in the south-west of the wildlife sanctuary. Many migratory waterfowl come here in the winters.
 * Corbett Falls is a 20 m water fall situated 25 km from Ramnagar, and 4 km from Kaladhungi, on the Kaladhungi–Ramnagar highway. The falls are surrounded by dense forests.
 * Garjiya Devi Temple is sacred to Garjiya Devi and is mostly visited during the Kartik Purnima (November – December). It is located on the bank of the river Kosi, amidst the hilly terrains of Uttarakhand, nearby Garjiya village, at a distance of 14 km. from Ramnagar, Uttarakhand, India.

In popular culture
The 2005 Bollywood movie Kaal has a plot set in the Jim Corbett National Park. The movie was filmed at the park as well.

In August 2019, Prime Minister of India Narendra Modi appeared in a special episode of Discovery Channel's show Man vs Wild with the host Bear Grylls, where he trekked the jungles and talked about nature and wildlife conservation with Grylls. The episode was filmed in Jim Corbett National Park and broadcast in 180 countries along India.

Past
A major incident in the history of the reserve followed the construction of a dam at the Kalagarh river and the submerging of 80 km2 of prime low lying riverine area. The consequences ranged from local extinction of swamp deer to a massive reduction in hog deer population. The reservoir formed due to the submerging of land has also led to an increase in aquatic fauna and has additionally served as a habitat for winter migrants.

Two villages situated on the southern boundary were shifted to the Firozpur–Manpur area situated on Ramnagar–Kashipur highway during 1990–93; the vacated areas were designated as buffer zones. The families in these villages were mostly dependent on forest products. With the passage of time, these areas began to show signs of ecological recovery. Vines, herbs, grasses and small trees began to appear, followed by herbaceous flora, eventually leading to natural forest type. It was observed that grass began to grow on the vacated agricultural fields and the adjoining forest areas started recuperating. By 1999–2002 several plant species emerged in these buffer zones. The newly arisen lush green fields attracted grass eating animals, mainly deer and elephants, who slowly migrated towards these areas and even remained during the monsoon.

There were 109 cases of poaching recorded in 1988–89. This figure dropped to 12 reported cases in 1997–98.

In 1985, David Hunt, a British ornithologist and birdwatching tour guide, was killed by a tiger in the park.

Present
The reserve habitat faces threats from invasive species such as the exotic weeds Lantana, Parthenium and Cassia. Natural resources like trees and grasses are exploited by the local population while encroachment of at least of 13.62 ha by 74 families has been recorded.

The villages surrounding the park are at least 15–20 years old and no new villages have come up in the recent past. The increasing population growth rate and the density of population within 1 km to 2 km from the park present a challenge to the management of the reserve. Incidents of killing cattle by tigers and leopards have led to acts of retaliation by the local population in some cases. The Indian government has approved the construction of a 12 km stone masonry wall on the southern boundary of the reserve where it comes in direct contact with agricultural fields.

In April 2008, the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) expressed serious concern that protection systems have weakened, and poachers have infiltrated into this park. Monitoring of wild animals in the prescribed format has not been followed despite advisories and observations made during field visits. Also, the monthly monitoring report of field evidence relating to tigers has not been received since 2006. NTCA said that in the "absence of ongoing monitoring protocol in a standardised manner, it would be impossible to forecast and keep track of untoward happenings in the area targeted by poachers." A cement road has been built through the park against a Supreme Court order. The road has become a thoroughfare between Kalagarh and Ramnagar. Constantly increasing vehicle traffic on this road is affecting the wildlife of crucial ranges like Jhirna, Kotirau and Dhara. The Kalagarh irrigation colony that takes up about 5 km2 of the park is yet to be vacated despite a 2007 Supreme Court order.

Ecosystem valuation
An economic assessment study of Jim Corbett Tiger Reserve estimated its annual flow benefits to be ₹14.7 billion (1.14 lakh / hectare). Important ecosystem services included gene-pool protection (₹10.65 billion), provisioning of water to downstream districts of Uttar Pradesh (₹1.61 billion), water purification services to the city of New Delhi (₹550 million), employment for local communities (₹82 million), provision of habitat and refugia for wildlife (₹274 million) and sequestration of carbon (₹214 million).

title: Jim Corbett National Park


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1985 Governor General's Awards

Each winner of the 1985 Governor General's Awards for Literary Merit was selected by a panel of judges administered by the Canada Council for the Arts.

title: 1985 Governor General's Awards


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Talk:Urbanization

Article Excessively Negative/Biased Against Urbanization
I find this article places excessive emphasis on the problems and challenges of urbanization, with far less mention of the positive aspects such as lower greenhouse gas emissions, agglomeration effects and knowledge spillovers, and higher standards of living in urbanized areas in the developing world. I recommend substantial edits and/or rewrites. DP2023 (talk) 17:32, 5 July 2023 (UTC)

 * Agree, it reads like an argumentative essay. The second paragraph’s opening line is “Urbanization is often responsible for the myriad of modern problems facing humanity.” LaggyMcStab (talk) 05:45, 21 November 2023 (UTC)

Distinction between "organic" and "planned"
"Urbanization occurs either organically or planned as a result of individual, collective and state action."

If "organically" is taken to mean that people commit urbanising acts with an explicit basis of "we should increase the proportion of population living in urban places" as an end goal in itself − then nothing is "organic". If it is about committing urbanising acts for a more ultimate purpose − then everthing is "organic" and not "planned".

Can this be clarified? Y. Dongchen (talk) 06:04, 5 March 2024 (UTC)

The rise of urban cities
Explain 39.44.91.184 (talk) 15:31, 24 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Urbanization


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James Franklin Jeffrey

James Franklin Jeffrey (born February 8, 1946) is an American diplomat who served most recently as the United States Special Representative for Syria Engagement and the Special Envoy to the International military intervention against ISIL.

He has held senior assignments in Washington, D.C., and abroad, including as United States Ambassador to Iraq (2010–2012); United States Ambassador to Turkey (2008–2010); Deputy National Security Advisor (2007–2008); and United States Ambassador to Albania (2002–2004). In 2010 Jeffrey was appointed to the highest rank in the U.S. Foreign Service, Career Ambassador. From 1969 to 1976, Jeffrey was a U.S. Army infantry officer, with service in Germany and Vietnam.

Jeffrey is a visiting fellow at the Washington Institute for Near East Policy, a member of the CIA External Advisory Board, a member of the American Council on Germany, and a member of the Council on Foreign Relations. He serves on the advisory board for America Abroad Media. He is a frequent commentator on broader foreign policy, national security, and economic trends.

Early life and education
Jeffrey was born in Saugus, Massachusetts, in 1946. He received a BA in History from Northeastern University in 1969, and an MBA from Boston University Graduate School of Management in 1977. Jeffrey also holds a diploma in the French language from the University of Paris. In addition to his native English, he speaks German, Turkish, and French.

European security affairs
Jeffrey joined the US Foreign Service in 1977. After a training assignment in Tunis, Tunisia he was posted to Sofia, Bulgaria, where he served as the on-site U.S. representative during a hijacking of a Turkish Air Flight with five U.S. businessmen taken as hostages, in May 1981. Jeffrey then served on assignments in Adana and Ankara, Turkey as a political-military officer, from 1983 to 1987.

Jeffrey served in Munich, Germany, during the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the reunification of Germany, from 1989 to 1991, including as acting principal officer during the first Gulf War, and liaison to Radio Free Europe. He then was selected as the US State Department's coordinator for the Conference for Security and Cooperation in Europe (now OSCE). Jeffrey later served as the Deputy Presidential Special Advisor for Bosnia Implementation, working to put into place the Dayton Accords.

Middle East affairs
In 1996 Jeffrey was selected as Deputy Chief of Mission to the American Embassy Kuwait, and served during Operation Desert Fox and the evacuation of Embassy Kuwait. In 1999 he returned to Turkey, as Deputy Chief of Mission. After serving as Ambassador to Albania from 2002 to 2004, he was selected by Secretary of State Colin Powell and Ambassador John Negroponte to bridge the transition from the Coalition Provisional Authority to the new U.S. Embassy in Baghdad, and subsequently served as Deputy Chief of Mission from 2004 to 2005. He served as Chargé d'Affaires in Baghdad before returning to Washington to serve as Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice’s Special Advisor for Iraq from 2006 to 2007. Jeffrey then served as Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary for Near Eastern Affairs, covering broader Middle East policy matters, including co-chairing the Interagency Iran Policy Group.

President George W. Bush nominated Jeffrey as Ambassador to Turkey in 2008, where he served in his fourth and final assignment to Turkey until 2010. President Barack Obama nominated him to serve as Ambassador to Iraq in 2010. Jeffrey oversaw its expansion into the largest Embassy in the world with almost 16,000 employees and an annual budget of over $6 billion, and worked with the U.S. military to ensure a successful transition to a civilian lead. According to Voice of America, after this successful transition, Iraq is now increasingly coming under the control of Iran.

Deputy National Security Adviser
In the summer of 2007, Jeffrey was selected to serve on detail to the White House as Assistant to the President and Deputy National Security Adviser for President George W. Bush, serving as acting National Security Adviser on Bush's 2007 and 2008 trips to the Pacific nations.

Trump administration
Jeffrey was amongst 50 Republican national security officials who in August 2016 signed a letter stating Donald Trump was not "qualified to be President and Commander-in-Chief" and "would put at risk our country’s national security and well-being", so would not be voting for him.

Nevertheless, in 2018 the Trump administration appointed Jeffrey United States Special Representative for Syria Engagement and in 2019 also Special Presidential Envoy for the Global Coalition to Counter the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant. Since assuming the posts he often visited Turkey to discuss the events relating to the Syrian Civil War,  and also supported the presence of Turkish forces in Idlib.

In a 2020 interview, Jeffrey acknowledged that he and other officials misled senior Trump administration officials over the number of troops in Syria.

Recognition
Jeffrey has received the Secretary of State's Distinguished Service Award on two occasions, in 2010 and 2012, as well as the Secretary of State's Career Service Award in 2012, and the Distinguished Honor Award in 2005. Secretary Leon Panetta presented him with the Department of Defense Medal for Distinguished Civilian Service in 2011, and CIA Director David Petraeus awarded Jeffrey the Director's Medal in 2012. He received Boston University's School of Management Award for Distinguished Service in 2006, and the American Bar Association's Award for Promoting Rule of Law Worldwide in 2004. His military awards include the Bronze Star.

Personal life
Jeffrey is married, has two children, and is a resident of Virginia.

title: James Franklin Jeffrey


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Amazon.ca First Novel Award

The Amazon.ca First Novel Award, formerly the Books in Canada First Novel Award, is a Canadian literary award, co-presented by Amazon.ca and The Walrus to the best first novel in English published the previous year by a citizen or resident of Canada. It has been awarded since 1976.

The First Novel Award was founded by the literary magazine Books in Canada. Between 1976 and 1994, the award was sponsored by SmithBooks. During this period, the award was known as the SmithBooks/Books in Canada First Novel Award. When SmithBooks was acquired by Chapters, it became the Chapters/Books in Canada First Novel Award.

The award was reorganized when Books in Canada was acquired by Adrian and Olga Stein in 1995. The Steins retained a first novel editor, introduced a comprehensive first novel review program, and formalized the adjudication process.

Amazon first signed on as a sponsor of the award in 2001, with the award presented as the amazon.ca/Books in Canada First Novel Award through the 2000s. Full administration of the award was taken over by Amazon in 2009 and its name was changed to the current incarnation. The Amazon.com arrangement saw the prize award initially doubled to $10,000, and then increased to its current amount of $40,000, with shortlisted finalists each receiving over $6,000.

Winners and nominees
At different times in its history, the award has been presented early in the year for works published in the preceding year, late in the year for works published in the same year as the presentation, or mid-year for an eligibility period that straddled parts of both years. For clarity, the list below is organized by the year of presentation rather than the year of publication eligibility.

title: Amazon.ca First Novel Award


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Brian Hutton, Baron Hutton

James Brian Edward Hutton, Baron Hutton, PC (29 June 1932 – 14 July 2020) was a British Lord Chief Justice of Northern Ireland and Lord of Appeal in Ordinary.

Background
Hutton was born in Belfast in 1932, the son of a railways executive. He won a scholarship to Shrewsbury School and Balliol College, Oxford (BA jurisprudence, 1953) before returning to Belfast to become a barrister (after study at Queen's University Belfast), being called to the Bar of Northern Ireland in 1954. He began working as junior counsel to the Attorney General for Northern Ireland in 1969.

He became a Queen's Counsel in 1970. From 1979 to 1989, he was (as Sir Brian Hutton) a High Court judge. In 1989, he became Lord Chief Justice of Northern Ireland, becoming a member of the Privy Council of Northern Ireland, before moving to England to become a Lord of Appeal in Ordinary 6 January 1997. He was consequently granted a life peerage as Baron Hutton, of Bresagh in the County of Down.

Judge
On 30 March 1994, as Lord Chief Justice of Northern Ireland, he dismissed Private Lee Clegg's appeal against his controversial murder conviction. On 21 March 2002 Lord Hutton was one of four Law Lords to reject David Shayler's application to use a "public interest" defence as defined in section 1 of the Official Secrets Act 1989 at his trial.

Lord Hutton represented the Ministry of Defence at the inquest into the killing of 14 civil rights marchers on Bloody Sunday. Later, he publicly reprimanded Major Hubert O'Neil, the coroner presiding over the inquest, when O'Neil accused the soldiers who opened fire during the incident of murder, as this contradicted the findings of the Widgery Tribunal.

Hutton also came to public attention in 1999 during the extradition proceedings of former Chilean dictator Gen. Augusto Pinochet. Pinochet had been arrested in London on torture allegations by request of a Spanish judge. Five Law Lords, the UK's highest court, decided by a 3–2 majority that Pinochet was to be extradited to Spain. The verdict was then overturned by a panel of seven Law Lords, including Lord Hutton on the grounds that Lord Hoffmann, one of the five Law Lords, had links to human rights group Amnesty International which had campaigned for Pinochet's extradition.

In 1978, he defended the UK at the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) in the case of Ireland v United Kingdom, when the ECHR decided that the five techniques used in Northern Ireland were "inhuman and degrading" and breached the European Convention on Human Rights, but did not amount to torture. The ECHR also found that the practice of internment in Northern Ireland had not breached the convention. He sentenced 10 men to 1,001 years in prison on the word of "supergrass" informer Robert Quigley, who was granted immunity in 1984.

Lord Hutton was appointed by Tony Blair's government to chair the inquiry on the circumstances surrounding the death of scientist David Kelly. The inquiry commenced on 11 August 2003. Many observers were surprised when he delivered his report on 28 January 2004 and cleared the British government in large part. His criticism of the BBC was regarded by some as unduly harsh; one critic commented that he had given the "benefit of judgement to virtually everyone in the government and no-one in the BBC.". In response to the verdict, the front page of The Independent newspaper consisted of one word, "Whitewash?"

Peter Oborne wrote in The Spectator in January 2004: "Legal opinion in Northern Ireland, where Lord Hutton practised for most of his career, emphasises the caution of his judgments. He is said to have been habitually chary of making precedents. But few people seriously doubt Hutton's fairness or independence. Though [he is] a dour Presbyterian, there were spectacular acquittals of some very grisly IRA terrorist suspects when he was a judge in the Diplock era."

Lord Hutton retired as a Law Lord on 11 January 2004. He remained a member of the House of Lords until retiring under the House of Lords Reform Act 2014 on 23 April 2018.

He died on 14 July 2020 at the age of 88.

Styles

 * Mr James Brian Edward Hutton (1932–1969)
 * Mr James Brian Edward Hutton, QC (1970–1978)
 * Sir James Brian Edward Hutton (1979–1989)
 * The Rt. Hon. Sir James Brian Edward Hutton (1989–1997)
 * The Rt. Hon. Lord Hutton, PC (1997–2020)

title: Brian Hutton, Baron Hutton


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Web colors

Web colors are colors used in displaying web pages on the World Wide Web; they can be described by way of three methods:  a color may be specified as an RGB triplet,  in hexadecimal format (a hex triplet) or according to its common English name in some cases. A color tool or other graphics software is often used to generate color values. In some uses, hexadecimal color codes are specified with notation using a leading number sign (#). A color is specified according to the intensity of its red, green and blue components, each represented by eight bits. Thus, there are 24 bits used to specify a web color within the sRGB gamut, and 16,777,216 colors that may be so specified.

Colors outside the sRGB gamut can be specified in Cascading Style Sheets by making one or more of the red, green and blue components negative or greater than 100%, so the color space is theoretically an unbounded extrapolation of sRGB similar to scRGB. Specifying a non-sRGB color this way requires the  function call. It is impossible with the hexadecimal syntax (and thus impossible in legacy HTML documents that do not use CSS).

The first versions of Mosaic and Netscape Navigator used the X11 color names as the basis for their color lists, as both started as X Window System applications. Web colors have an unambiguous colorimetric definition, sRGB, which relates the chromaticities of a particular phosphor set, a given transfer curve, adaptive whitepoint, and viewing conditions. These have been chosen to be similar to many real-world monitors and viewing conditions, to allow rendering to be fairly close to the specified values even without color management. User agents vary in the fidelity with which they represent the specified colors. More advanced user agents use color management to provide better color fidelity; this is particularly important for Web-to-print applications.

Hex triplet
A hex triplet is a six-digit (or eight-digit), three-byte (or four-byte) hexadecimal number used in HTML, CSS, SVG, and other computing applications to represent colors. The bytes represent the red, green, and blue components of the color. The optional fourth byte refers to alpha channel. One byte represents a number in the range 00 to FF (in hexadecimal notation), or 0 to 255 in decimal notation. This represents the least (0) to the most (255) intensity of each of the color components. Thus web colors specify colors in the 24-bit RGB color scheme. The hex triplet is formed by concatenating three bytes in hexadecimal notation, in the following order: For example, consider the color where the red/green/blue values are decimal numbers: red=123, green=58, blue=30 (a hardwood brown color). The decimal numbers 123, 58, and 30 are equivalent to the hexadecimal numbers 7B, 3A, and 1E, respectively. The hex triplet is obtained by concatenating the six hexadecimal digits together, 7B3A1E in this example.
 * Byte 1: red value (color type red)
 * Byte 2: green value (color type green)
 * Byte 3: blue value (color type blue)
 * Byte 4 (optional): alpha value

If any one of the three color values is less than 10 hex (16 decimal), it must be represented with a leading zero so that the triplet always has exactly six digits. For example, the decimal triplet 4, 8, 16 would be represented by the hex digits 04, 08, 10, forming the hex triplet 040810.

The number of colors that can be represented by this system is 166 or 2563 or 224 = 16,777,216.

Shorthand hexadecimal form
An abbreviated, three (hexadecimal)-digit or four-digit form can be used, but can cause errors if software or maintenance scripts are only expecting the long form. Expanding this form to the six-digit form is as simple as repeating each digit: 09C becomes 0099CC as presented on the following CSS example:

This shorthand form reduces the palette to 4,096 colors, equivalent of 12-bit color as opposed to 24-bit color using the whole six-digit form (16,777,216 colors). This limitation is sufficient for many text-based documents.

Converting RGB to hexadecimal
RGB values are usually given in the 0–255 range; if they are in the 0–1 range, the values are multiplied by 255 before conversion. This number divided by sixteen (integer division; ignoring any remainder) gives the first hexadecimal digit (between 0 and F, where the letters A to F represent the numbers 10 to 15. See hexadecimal for more details). The remainder gives the second hexadecimal digit. For instance, the RGB value 58 (as shown in the previous example of hex triplets) divides into 3 groups of 16, thus the first digit is 3. A remainder of ten gives the hexadecimal number 3A. Likewise, the RGB value 201 divides into 12 groups of 16, thus the first digit is C. A remainder of nine gives the hexadecimal number C9. This process is repeated for each of the three color values.

Conversion between number bases is a common feature of calculators, including both hand-held models and the software calculators bundled with most modern operating systems. Web-based tools specifically for converting color values are also available.

HTML color names
Recent W3C specifications of color names distinguishes between basic and extended colors. In HTML and XHTML, colors can be used for text, background color, frame borders, tables, and individual table cells.

Basic colors
The basic colors are 16 colors defined in the HTML 4.01 specification, ratified in 1999, as follows (names are defined in this context to be case-insensitive):

These 16 were labelled as sRGB and included in the HTML 3.0 specification, which noted they were "the standard 16 colors supported with the Windows VGA palette."

Extended colors

Extended colors are the result of merging specifications from HTML 4.01, CSS 2.0, SVG 1.0 and CSS3 User Interfaces (CSS3 UI).

Several colors are defined by web browsers. A particular browser may not recognize all of these colors, but as of 2005, all modern, general-use, graphical browsers support the full list of colors. Many of these colors are from the list of X11 color names distributed with the X Window System. These colors were standardized by SVG 1.0, and are accepted by SVG Full user agents. They are not part of SVG Tiny.

The list of colors shipped with the X11 product varies between implementations and clashes with certain of the HTML names such as green. X11 colors are defined as simple RGB (hence, no particular color space), rather than sRGB. This means that the list of colors found in X11 (e.g., in /usr/lib/X11/rgb.txt) should not directly be used to choose colors for the web.

The list of web "X11 colors" from the CSS3 specification, along with their hexadecimal and decimal equivalents, is shown below. Compare the alphabetical lists in the W3C standards. This includes the common synonyms: aqua (HTML4/CSS 1.0 standard name) and cyan (common sRGB name), fuchsia (HTML4/CSS 1.0 standard name) and magenta (common sRGB name), gray (HTML4/CSS 1.0 standard name) and grey.

CSS colors
The Cascading Style Sheets specification defines the same number of named colors as the HTML 4 spec, namely the 16 HTML colors, and 124 colors from the Netscape X11 color list for a total of 140 names that were recognized by Internet Explorer (IE) 3.0 and Netscape Navigator 3.0. Blooberry.com notes that Opera 2.1 and Safari 1 also included Netscape's expanded list of 140 color names, but later discovered 14 names not included with Opera 3.5 on Windows 98.

In CSS 2.1, the color 'orange' (one of the 140) was added to the section with the 16 HTML4 colors as a 17th color. The CSS3.0 specification did not include orange in the "HTML4 color keywords" section, which was renamed as "Basic color keywords". In the same reference, the "SVG color keywords" section, was renamed "Extended color keywords", after starting out as "X11 color keywords" in an earlier working draft. The working draft for the level 4 color module combines the Basic and Extended sections together in a simple "Named Colors" section.

 * }

CSS 2, SVG and CSS 2.1 allow web authors to use system colors, which are color names whose values are taken from the operating system, picking the operating system's highlighted text color, or the background color for tooltip controls. This enables web authors to style their content in line with the operating system of the user agent. The CSS3 color module has deprecated the use of system colors in favor of CSS3 UI System Appearance property, which itself was subsequently dropped from CSS3.

The CSS3 specification also introduces HSL color space values to style sheets:

CSS also supports the special color, which represents an alpha value of zero; by default,   is rendered as an invisible nominal black:. It was introduced in CSS1 but its scope of use has expanded over the versions.

CSS Color 4
Level 4 of the CSS Color specification introduced several new CSS color formats.

Besides new ways to write colors, it also introduces the concept of mixing colors in a non-sRGB color space, a first step towards fixing a well-known issue in color gradients. Some sections explaining color theory and common operations like gamut mapping are also added to aid implementation.

Device independent color
CSS Color 4 introduces several different formats for device independent color that can display the entirety of visible color (in a capable screen), including:
 * Lab and LCH
 * OKLab and OKLCH (preferred over Lab/LCH)
 * XYZ (D50 or D65 [default])

Predefined color spaces
A number of RGB spaces with gamuts that are wider than sRGB are also introduced through the new  function:
 * Display P3
 * Prophoto
 * REC.2020
 * Adobe 1998 RGB

A linearized variant of sRGB is also defined for color mixing.

Other formats
On 21 June 2014, the CSS WG added the color RebeccaPurple to the Editor's Draft of the Colors module level 4, to commemorate Eric Meyer's daughter Rebecca, who died on 7 June 2014, her sixth birthday.

 * }

CSS4 also introduces the HWB color model as an alternative to HSL/HSV.

CSS Color 5
The draft CSS Color 5 specification introduces syntax for mixing and manipulating existing colors, including:
 * A  function for mixing colors
 * Relative color syntax for manipulating components of an existing color

Custom color spaces are also supported via ICC profiles. This allows the use of CMYK on web pages.

Web-safe colors
In the mid-1990s, many displays were only capable of displaying 256 colors, dictated by the hardware or changeable by a "color table". When a color was found (e.g., in an image) that was not available, a different one had to be used. This was done by either using the closest color or by using dithering.

There were various attempts to make a "standard" color palette. A set of colors was needed that could be shown without dithering on 256-color displays; the number 216 was chosen partly because computer operating systems customarily reserved sixteen to twenty colors for their own use; it was also selected because it allowed exactly six equally spaced shades of red, green, and blue (6 × 6 × 6 = 216), each from 00 to FF (including both limits).

The list of colors was presented as if it had special properties that render it immune to dithering, but on 256-color displays applications could actually set a palette of any selection of colors that they chose, dithering the rest. These colors were chosen specifically because they matched the palettes selected by various browser applications. There were not very different palettes in use in different browsers.

"Web-safe" colors had a flaw in that, on systems such as X11 where the palette is shared between applications, smaller color cubes (5×5×5 or 4×4×4) were allocated by browsers—the "web-safe" colors would dither on such systems. Different results were obtained by providing an image with a larger range of colors and allowing the browser to quantize the color space if needed, rather than suffer the quality loss of a double quantization.

Through the 2000s, use of 256-color displays in personal computers dropped sharply in favour of 24-bit (TrueColor) displays, and the use of "web-safe" colors has fallen into practical disuse.

The "web-safe" colors do not all have standard names, but each can be specified by an RGB triplet: each component (red, green, and blue) takes one of the six values from the following table (out of the 256 possible values available for each component in full 24-bit color).

The following table shows all of the "web-safe" colors. One shortcoming of the web-safe palette is its small range of light colors for webpage backgrounds, whereas the intensities at the low end of the range, such as the two darkest, are similar to each other, making them hard to distinguish. Values flanked by "*" (asterisk) are part of the "really safe palette;" see Safest web colors, below.

Safest web colors
Designers were encouraged to stick to these 216 "web-safe" colors in their websites because there were a lot of 8-bit color displays when the 216-color palette was developed. David Lehn and Hadley Stern discovered that only 22 of the 216 colors in the web-safe palette are reliably displayed without inconsistent remapping on 16-bit computer displays. They called these 22 colors "the really safe palette"; it consists largely of shades of green, yellow, and cyan.

Color selection
Some browsers and devices do not support colors. For these displays or blind and colorblind users, Web content depending on colors can be unusable or difficult to use.

Either no colors should be specified (to invoke the browser's default colors), or both the background and all foreground colors (such as the colors of plain text, unvisited links, hovered links, active links, and visited links) should be specified to avoid black on black or white on white effects.

Color contrast
The Web Content Accessibility Guidelines recommend a contrast ratio of at least 4.5:1 between the relative luminance of text and its background color or at least 3:1 for large text. Enhanced accessibility requires contrast ratios greater than 7:1.

However, addressing accessibility concerns is not simply a matter of increasing the contrast ratio. As a report to the Web Accessibility Initiative indicates, dyslexic readers are better served by contrast ratios below the maximum. The recommendations they refer to of off-black (#0A0A0A) on off-white (#FFFFE5) and black (#000000) on creme (#FAFAC8) have contrast ratios of 11.7:1 and 20.3:1 respectively. Among their other color pairs, brown (#282800) on dark green (#A0A000) has a contrast ratio of 3.24:1, which is less than the WCAG recommendation, dark brown (#1E1E00) on light green (#B9B900) has a contrast ratio of 4.54:1 and blue (#00007D) on yellow (#FFFF00) has a contrast ratio of 11.4:1. The colors named in the report use different color values than the web colors of the same name.

title: Web colors


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Supporters' trust

In British sports, a supporters' trust is a formal, democratic and not-for-profit organisation of fans who attempt to strengthen the influence of supporters over the running of the club they support. There are over 140 supporters' trusts across England, Wales and Scotland and the majority of these are affiliated to football clubs, however trusts also exist for Rugby league and Rugby Union clubs.

With government and with cross-party support, Supporters Direct was established to encourage the formation of supporters' trusts to promote democratic supporter ownership. Supporters Direct encourages these bodies to be formed as Industrial and Provident Societies (IPSs) and assists with their formation, legal and start-up costs.

Supporters' trusts were commonly founded in response to financial crises which threaten the future of a team, as was the case at Chesterfield, Lincoln City, York City, and Real Oviedo. Their involvement has reportedly ensured the survival of over 20 different clubs entering into administration, particularly during the period of crisis as a result of the collapse of ITV Digital. Supporters' trusts are now more commonly founded in order to increase influence at clubs through a financial stake in the club.

The first trust established was at Northampton Town in January 1992. The largest is the Manchester United Supporters Trust, which used to be known as Shareholders United and currently has over 200,000 members. Other large trusts such as Newcastle United Supporters Trust (NUST) With over 10,000 members,Leeds, Exeter City, Dundee United, Reading, Spurs and Glasgow Rangers have between 3,000 and 7,000 members.

Methods for influencing clubs
The main objective of a supporters' trust is to provide a vehicle for fans to influence the running of their club. This is achieved by a number of different strategies, including gaining control by fundraising to finance the acquisition of shares in the club or direct board representation.

Club ownership
The most effective method of influencing the running of a club is club ownership. In the UK more than 110 supporters' trusts currently hold equity within their football clubs while supporters' trusts have outright or majority ownership or control at two Football League clubs.

Board representation
Over 40 football clubs currently have supporter representation within the boards of their football clubs, such as the Rangers Supporters Trust at Rangers F.C., Lincoln City Supporters' Trust at Lincoln City F.C., ArabTRUST at Dundee United F.C., the Oldham Athletic Supporters Trust and the Swans Trust at Swansea City A.F.C. The Bluebirds Trust at Barrow AFC have a board representation and are fundraising to purchase shares. However their formation is different from the vast majority of Trusts, they are not born from crisis but success; Barrow AFC were a members owned club but voted to become a privately owned club. Barrow-born Texan businessman Paul Casson of Casson-Mark (C-Mark) Corp. purchased the club in the Summer of 2014. In Real Oviedo's case, when the club was about to go bankrupt, the club started putting shares up for sale to people across the world to help the club. Thousand of people invested, including 2nd richest man Carlos Slim and Youtuber Spencer Owen (aka Spencer F.C). As was the case for Ebbsfleet United.

About 100 football trusts currently have shares in their clubs.

There are many Rugby League supporters' trusts currently in the UK who run and operate their respective clubs, such as Rochdale Hornets for example, likewise, so do some rugby union clubs, for example Friends of Newport Rugby, representing Newport RFC.

title: Supporters' trust


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My Pedagogic Creed

"My Pedagogic Creed" is an article written by John Dewey and published in School Journal in 1897. The article is broken into five sections, with each paragraph beginning "I believe." It has been referenced over 4100 times, and continues to be referenced, as a testament to the lasting impact of the article's ideas.

What education is
According to John Dewey's article "My Pedagogic Creed" (1897), education is only as individual as our society allows it to be. We (people) are unconsciously trained from birth. Our social consciousness, our cultural ways and what we value are a mock up of a collective social being, according to Dewey. We are all a product of our social surroundings from birth through adulthood and death. Eventually we "become an inheritor of the funded capital of civilization." Dewey exerts that individual best is achieved in the spirit of and for the greater good. "Through these demands he is stimulated to act as a member of a unity, to emerge from his original narrowness of action and feeling and to conceive of himself from the standpoint of the welfare of the group to which he belongs." As a member of society, we are confined to language and its meanings, but also empowered by it.

Dewey believes that "the educational process has two sides." Psychological and sociological impacts are two sides of the education process that go hand-in-hand; "neither can be subordinated to the other or neglected without evil results following." Psychology provides the foundation of education while sociology provides the scenario. Unless what is taught and how we teach relates to students' lives, it can become stressful. Even good grades are not indicative of authentic learning. Students may become disenfranchised. Psychology and social dynamics must exist in conjunction with each other to create a truly internal experience. It is important to know what is happening in the world-at-large, according to Dewey. One must also look at the student's world to ensure success relevant to their own realm of accomplishment. "We must also be able to project them into the future to see what their outcome and end will be." Dewey holds that we must look into the individual future of every student and see what their own outlook is and how we can get there—not a collective outlook defined by blanket societal expectations of success by every person. Dewey states, "To know what a power really is we must know what its end, use, or function is." In sum, a student cannot achieve power over their future until they know what their future can be. Teachers cannot prepare students for a future we cannot foretell as a result of ever-changing technology. People can truly prepare for the future by empowering students. In Dewey's words, "To prepare him for the future life means to give him command of himself." Hands-on learning that utilizes the senses and capacity of the student creates the most success, intrinsically and externally. Dewey believes "that the individual who is to be educated as a social individual and that society is an organic union of individuals." Demonstration of this success shows a psychological process. Utilizing the skills derived from effective psychological learning, social factors can be successfully recognized and addressed.

What the school is
Education is a social process. According to the creed, it should not be used for the purposes of preparation for living in the future. Dewey said, "I believe that education, therefore, is a process of living and not a preparation for future living." We can build a child's self-esteem in not only the classroom but in all aspects of his or her life. Education must always stay true to children and align with their reality in order to be true. Dewey argues that some children are over labeled and misunderstood because we take away authentic experiences by not relating education to natural human order. More importantly he emphasizes, "Existing life is so complex that the child cannot be brought into contact with it without either confusion or distraction... and he becomes either unduly specialized or else disintegrated."

Dewey believes that education and school ought to be an extension of home. Personal background is psychological and gives way to new ideas. This is summed up in the quote, "It is the business of the school to deepen and extend his sense of the values bound up in his home life." In schools currently, the information is given, lessons are learned and habits are formed, similar to the banking model of education criticised by Paulo Freire in his 1970 book Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Dewey states that this is not effective. Working together is vital to unity and success. He states, "The present educational systems, so far as they destroy or neglect this unity, render it difficult or impossible to get any genuine, regular moral meanings." We need to see school as a social experience, according to this creed. The teacher is the guide and chooses what relevant experience will guide each child through the education process. When it comes to assessment, Dewey states that grading should be relevant to the child's own progress. Exams are to be used for social ordering rather than individual upkeep.

The subject-matter of education
Following suit with his other theories, Dewey believes that subject matter should reflect students' real lives. Schools focus on too many subjects, which may not reflect the students' actual experiences. The child's own activities should determine curriculum. For example, students are often given literature lessons at the beginning of the learning experience, when it is the sum of events, making the subject relevant for the end of learning; This gives the student time to shape his or her own views before being told how history or someone else has seen something. It should be given at the end as a summative reflection.

We need to let children be constructive and pave their own paths, according to Dewey. "I believe that the only way to make a child conscious of his social heritage is to enable him to perform those fundamental types of activity which makes civilization what it is." Dewey takes on a constructive point of view. He says that at times vocations may be more relevant and should be main subjects. In order to learn formal subjects, students need to be relaxed. Dewey explains that in order to achieve that, they must be comfortable with what they have learned up to that point. All subjects are relevant to life.

The nature of method

 * 1) Dewey asserts that active participation far surpasses passive learning. Action must come before anything else. We create children's negative perceptions of school. Ideas come from movement. Symbols give an inaccurate and incomplete view of the big picture. They impact the student's ability to think authentically.
 * 2) Envisioning the message helps with retention. Imagery is so important in generating relevancy to one's life.
 * 3) It is the teacher's job to pay attention to student's blooming interests and expand on them for a one of a kind learning experience. Interest is power and we must harbor that interest.
 * 4) Welcome emotions in education. They are part of the important aspects of learning.

The school and social progress
In Dewey's words, "education is the fundamental method of social progress and reform." Social consciousness shapes individual perceptions. Society also has an obligation to reform education. As a society we are responsible for one another. "I believe it is the business of every one interested in education to insist upon the school as the primary and most effective instrument of social progress and reform in order that society may be awakened to realize what the school stands for, and aroused to the necessity of endowing the educator with sufficient equipment properly to perform his task." Education is the perfect combination of art and science. Dewey sees that we must use individuality for the greater good. Dewey recognizes that teaching is noble and selfless. Teachers show us our way.

title: My Pedagogic Creed


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Pasteurellosis

Pasteurellosis is an infection with a species of the bacterial genus Pasteurella, which is found in humans and other animals.

Pasteurella multocida (subspecies P. m. septica and P. m. multocida) is carried in the mouth and respiratory tract of various animals, including pigs. It is a small, Gram-negative bacillus with bipolar staining by Wayson stain. In animals, it can originate in fulminant septicaemia (chicken cholera), but is also a common commensal.

Until taxonomic revision in 1999, Mannheimia spp. were classified as Pasteurella spp., and infections by organisms now called Mannheimia spp., as well as by organisms now called Pasteurella spp., were designated as pasteurellosis. The term "pasteurellosis" is often still applied to mannheimiosis, although such usage has declined.

Types
The several forms of the infection are:
 * Skin/subcutaneous tissue disease is a septic phlegmon that develops classically in the hand and forearm after a cat bite. Inflammatory signs are very rapid to develop; in 1 or 2 hours, edema, severe pain, and serosanguineous exudate appear. Fever, moderate or very high, can be seen, along with vomiting, headache, and diarrhea. Lymphangitis is common. Complications are possible, in the form of septic arthritis, osteitis, or evolution to chronicity.
 * Sepsis is very rare, but can be as fulminant as septicaemic plague, with high fever, rigors, and vomiting, followed by shock and coagulopathy.
 * Pneumonia disease is also rare and appears in patients with some chronic pulmonary pathology. It usually presents as bilateral consolidating pneumonia, sometimes very severe.
 * Zoonosis, pasteurellosis can be transmitted to humans through cats.

Other locations are possible, such as septic arthritis, meningitis, and acute endocarditis, but are very rare.

Diagnosis
Diagnosis is made with isolation of Pasteurella multocida in a normally sterile site (blood, pus, or cerebrospinal fluid).

Treatment
As the infection is usually transmitted into humans through animal bites, antibiotics usually treat the infection, but medical attention should be sought if the wound is severely swelling. Pasteurellosis is usually treated with high-dose penicillin if severe. Either tetracycline or chloramphenicol provides an alternative in beta-lactam-intolerant patients. However, it is most important to treat the wound.

Animals
P. multocida causes numerous pathological conditions in domestic animals. It often acts with other infectious agents, such as Chlamydia and Mycoplasma species and viruses. Environmental conditions (transportation, housing deficiency, and bad weather) also play a role.

These diseases are considered caused by P. multocida, alone or associated with other pathogens:
 * Shipping fever in cattle and sheep ("shipping fever" may also be caused by Mannheimia haemolytica, in the absence of P. multocida,  and M. haemolytica serovar A1 is known as the most common cause of the disease.  The pathologic condition commonly arises where the causative organism becomes established by secondary infection, following a primary bacterial or viral infection, which may occur after stress, e.g. from handling or transport. )
 * Enzootic pneumonia of sheep (and goats, with frequent intervention of M. haemolytica)
 * Fowl cholera (chicken and other domestic poultry and cage birds)
 * Enzootic pneumonia and atrophic rhinitis of pigs
 * Pasteurellosis of chinchillas
 * Pasteurellosis of rabbits
 * Pasteurellosis is suspected to be the cause of recurrent mass mortality of Saiga antelopes.

title: Pasteurellosis