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Jungle cat

The jungle cat (Felis chaus), also called reed cat and swamp cat is a medium-sized cat native to the Middle East, the Caucasus, South and Southeast Asia and southern China. It inhabits foremost wetlands like swamps, littoral and riparian areas with dense vegetation. It is listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List, and is mainly threatened by destruction of wetlands, trapping and poisoning.

The jungle cat has a uniformly sandy, reddish-brown or grey fur without spots; melanistic and albino individuals are also known. It is solitary in nature, except during the mating season and mother-kitten families.

Adults maintain territories by urine spraying and scent marking. Its preferred prey is small mammals and birds. It hunts by stalking its prey, followed by a sprint or a leap; the ears help in pinpointing the location of prey. Both sexes become sexually mature by the time they are one year old; females enter oestrus from January to March. Mating behaviour is similar to that in the domestic cat: the male pursues the female in oestrus, seizes her by the nape of her neck and mounts her. Gestation lasts nearly two months. Births take place between December and June, though this might vary geographically. Kittens begin to catch their own prey at around six months and leave the mother after eight or nine months.

The species was first described by Johann Anton Güldenstädt in 1776 based on a specimen caught in a Caucasian wetland. Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber gave the jungle cat its present binomial name and is therefore generally considered as binomial authority. Three subspecies are recognised at present.

Taxonomic history
The Baltic-German naturalist Johann Anton Güldenstädt was the first scientist who caught a jungle cat near the Terek River at the southern frontier of the Russian empire, a region that he explored in 1768–1775 on behalf of Catherine II of Russia. He described this specimen in 1776 under the name "Chaus".

In 1778, Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber used chaus as the species name and is therefore considered the binomial authority. Paul Matschie in 1912 and Joel Asaph Allen in 1920 challenged the validity of Güldenstädt's nomenclature, arguing that the name Felis auriculis apice nigro barbatis was not a binomen and therefore improper, and that "chaus" was used as a common name rather than as part of the scientific name.

In the 1820s, Eduard Rüppell collected a female jungle cat near Lake Manzala in the Nile Delta. Thomas Hardwicke's collection of illustrations of Indian wildlife comprises the first drawing of an Indian jungle cat, named the "allied cat" (Felis affinis) by John Edward Gray in 1830. Two years later, Johann Friedrich von Brandt proposed a new species under the name Felis rüppelii, recognising the distinctness of the Egyptian jungle cat. The same year, a stuffed cat was presented at a meeting of the Asiatic Society of Bengal that had been caught in the jungles of Midnapore in West Bengal, India. J. T. Pearson, who donated the specimen, proposed the name Felis kutas, noting that it differed in colouration from Felis chaus. Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire described a jungle cat from the area of Dehra Dun in northern India in 1844 under the name Felis jacquemontii in memory of Victor Jacquemont.

In 1836, Brian Houghton Hodgson proclaimed the red-eared cat commonly found in Nepal to be a lynx and therefore named it Lynchus erythrotus; Edward Frederick Kelaart described the first jungle cat skin from Sri Lanka in 1852 and stressed upon its close resemblance to Hodgson's red cat. William Thomas Blanford pointed out the lynx-like appearance of cat skins and skulls from the plains around Yarkant County and Kashgar when he described Felis shawiana in 1876.

Nikolai Severtzov proposed the generic name Catolynx in 1858, followed by Leopold Fitzinger's suggestion to call it Chaus catolynx in 1869. In 1898, William Edward de Winton proposed to subordinate the specimens from the Caucasus, Persia and Turkestan to Felis chaus typica, and regrouped the lighter built specimens from the Indian subcontinent to F. c. affinis. He renamed the Egyptian jungle cat as F. c. nilotica because Felis rüppelii was already applied to a different cat. A skin collected near Jericho in 1864 led him to describe a new subspecies, F. c. furax, as this skin was smaller than other Egyptian jungle cat skins. A few years later, Alfred Nehring also described a jungle cat skin collected in Palestine, which he named Lynx chrysomelanotis. Reginald Innes Pocock reviewed the nomenclature of felids in 1917 and classified the jungle cat group as part of the genus Felis. Another subspecies, Felis chaus fulvidina, was named by Oldfield Thomas in 1928.

During an expedition to Afghanistan in the 1880s, mammal skins were collected and later presented to the Indian Museum. One cat skin without a skull from the area of Maimanah in the country's north was initially identified as of Felis caudata, but in the absence of skins for comparison the author was not sure whether his identification was correct. In his revision of Asiatic wildcat skins collected in the Zoological Museum of Berlin, the German zoologist Zukowsky reassessed the Maimanah cat skin, and because of its larger size and shorter tail than caudata skins proposed a new species with the scientific name Felis (Felis) maimanah. Zukowsky assumed that the cat inhabits the region south of the Amu Darya River. The Russian zoologist Ognev acknowledged Zukowsky's assessment but also suggested that more material is needed for a definite taxonomic classification of this cat. In his posthumously published monograph about skins and skulls of the genus Felis in the collection of the Natural History Museum, the British taxonomist Pocock referred neither to Zukowsky's appraisal nor to jungle cat skins from Afghanistan. The British natural historian Ellerman and zoologist Morrison-Scott tentatively subordinated the Maimanah cat skin as a subspecies of Felis chaus.

In 1969, the Russian biologist Heptner described a jungle cat from the lower course of the Vakhsh River in Central Asia and proposed the name Felis (Felis) chaus oxiana.

In the 1930s, Pocock reviewed the jungle cat skins and skulls from British India and adjacent countries. Based mainly on differences in fur length and colour he subordinated the zoological specimens from Turkestan to Balochistan to F. c. chaus, the Himalayan ones to F. c. affinis, the ones from Cutch to Bengal under F. c. kutas, and the tawnier ones from Burma under F. c. fulvidina. He newly described six larger skins from Sind as F. c. prateri, and skins with shorter coats from Sri Lanka and southern India as F. c. kelaarti.

Classification
In 2005, the authors of Mammal Species of the World recognized 10 subspecies as valid taxa. Since 2017, the Cat Specialist Group considers only three subspecies as valid. Geographical variation of the jungle cat is not yet well understood and needs to be examined. The following table is based on the classification of the species provided in Mammal Species of the World. It also shows the synonyms used in the revision of the Cat Classification Task Force:

Phylogeny
In 2006, the phylogenetic relationship of the jungle cat was described as follows:

The jungle cat is a member of the genus Felis within the family Felidae.

Results of an mtDNA analysis of 55 jungle cats from various biogeographic zones in India indicate a high genetic variation and a relatively low differentiation between populations. It appears that the central Indian F. c. kutas population separates the Thar F. c. prateri populations from the rest and also the south Indian F. c. kelaarti populations from the north Indian F. c. affinis ones. The central Indian populations are genetically closer to the southern than to the northern populations.

Characteristics
The jungle cat is a medium-sized, long-legged cat, and the largest of the extant Felis species. The head-and-body length is typically between 59 and 76 cm. It stands nearly 36 cm at shoulder and weighs 2 –. Its body size decreases from west to east; this was attributed to greater competition from small cats in the east. Its body size shows a similar decrease from the northern latitudes toward the tropics. Sexually dimorphic, females tend to be smaller and lighter than males. The face is long and narrow, with a white muzzle. The large, pointed ears, 4.5 – in length and reddish brown on the back, are set close together; a small tuft of black hairs, nearly 15 mm long, emerges from the tip of both ears. The eyes have yellow irides and elliptical pupils; white lines can be seen around the eye. Dark lines run from the corner of the eyes down the sides of the nose and a dark patch marks the nose. The skull is fairly broad in the region of the zygomatic arch; hence the head of this cat appears relatively rounder.

The coat, sandy, reddish brown or grey, is uniformly coloured and lacks spots; melanistic and albino individuals have been reported from the Indian subcontinent. White cats observed in the coastline tracts of the southern Western Ghats lacked the red eyes typical of true albinos. A 2014 suggested that their colouration could be attributed to inbreeding. Kittens are striped and spotted, and adults may retain some of the markings. Dark-tipped hairs cover the body, giving the cat a speckled appearance. The belly is generally lighter than the rest of the body and the throat is pale. The fur is denser on the back compared to the underparts. Two moults can be observed in a year; the coat is rougher and lighter in summer than in winter. The insides of the forelegs show four to five rings; faint markings may be seen on the outside. The black-tipped tail, 21 to 36 cm long, is marked by two to three dark rings on the last third of the length. The pawprints measure about 5 ×; the cat can cover 29 to 32 cm in one step. There is a distinct spinal crest. Because of its long legs, short tail and tuft on the ears, the jungle cat resembles a small lynx. It is larger and more slender than the domestic cat.

Distribution and habitat
The jungle cat is found in the Middle East, the Caucasus, the Indian subcontinent, central and Southeast Asia, Sri Lanka and in southern China. A habitat generalist, the jungle cat inhabits places with adequate water and dense vegetation, such as swamps, wetlands, littoral and riparian areas, grasslands and shrub. It is common in agricultural lands, such as fields of bean and sugarcane, across its range, and has often been sighted near human settlements. As reeds and tall grasses are typical of its habitat, it is known as "reed cat" or "swamp cat". It can thrive even in areas of sparse vegetation, but does not adapt well to cold climates and is rare in areas where snowfall is common. Historical records indicate that it occurs up to elevations of 2310 m in the Himalayas. It shuns rainforests and woodlands.

In Turkey, it has been recorded in wetlands near Manavgat, in the Akyatan Lagoon on the southern coast and near Lake Eğirdir. In the Palestinian territories, it was recorded in the Nablus, Ramallah, Jericho and Jerusalem Governorates in the West Bank during surveys carried out between 2012 and 2016.

In Iran, it inhabits a variety of habitat types from plains and agriculture lands to mountains ranging from elevations of 45 to 4178 m in at least 23 of 31 provinces of Iran. In Pakistan, it was photographed in Haripur, Dera Ismail Khan, Sialkot Districts and Langh Lake Wildlife Sanctuary.

In India, it is the most common small wild cat. In Nepal, it was recorded in alpine habitat at elevations of 3000-3300 m in Annapurna Conservation Area between 2014 and 2016.

In Malaysia, it was recorded in a highly fragmented forest in the Selangor state in 2010.

A few jungle cat mummies were found among the cats in ancient Egypt.

Ecology and behaviour
The jungle cat is typically diurnal and hunts throughout the day. Its activity tends to decrease during the hot noon hours. It rests in burrows, grass thickets and scrubs. It often sunbathes on winter days. Jungle cats have been estimated to walk 3 – at night, although this likely varies depending on the availability of prey. The behaviour of the jungle cat has not been extensively studied. Solitary in nature, it does not associate with conspecifics, except in the mating season. The only prominent interaction is the mother-kitten bond. Territories are maintained by urine spraying and scent marking; some males have been observed rubbing their cheeks on objects to mark them.

Leopards, tigers, bears, crocodiles, dholes, golden jackals, fishing cats, large raptors and snakes are the main predators of the jungle cat. The golden jackal in particular can be a major competitor to jungle cats. When it encounters a threat, the jungle cat will vocalise before engaging in attack, producing sounds like small roars – a behavior uncommon for the other members of Felis. The meow of the jungle cat is also somewhat lower than that of a typical domestic cat. The jungle cat can host parasites such as Haemaphysalis ticks and Heterophyes trematode species.

Diet and hunting
Primarily a carnivore, the jungle cat prefers small mammals such as gerbils, hares and rodents. It also hunts birds, fishes, frogs, insects and small snakes. Its prey typically weighs less than 1 kg, but occasionally includes mammals as large as young gazelles. The jungle cat is unusual in that it is partially omnivorous: it eats fruits, especially in winter. In a study carried out in Sariska Tiger Reserve, rodents were found to comprise as much as 95% of its diet.

The jungle cat hunts by stalking its prey, followed by a sprint or a leap; the sharp ears help in pinpointing the location of prey. It uses different techniques to secure prey. The cat has been observed searching for musk rats in their holes. Like the caracal, the jungle cat can perform one or two high leaps into the air to grab birds. It is an efficient climber as well. The jungle cat has been clocked at 32 km/h. It is an efficient swimmer, and can swim up to 1.5 km in water and plunge into water to catch fish.

Reproduction
Both sexes become sexually mature by the time they are one year old. Females enter oestrus lasting for about five days, from January to March. In males, spermatogenesis occurs mainly in February and March. In southern Turkmenistan, mating occurs from January to early February. The mating season is marked by noisy fights among males for dominance. Mating behaviour is similar to that in the domestic cat: the male pursues the female in oestrus, seizes her by the nape of her neck and mounts her. Vocalisations and flehmen are prominent during courtship. After a successful copulation, the female gives out a loud cry and reacts with aversion towards her partner. The pair then separate.

Gestation lasts nearly two months. Births take place between December and June, though this might vary geographically. Before parturition, the mother prepares a den of grass in an abandoned animal burrow, hollow tree or reed bed. Litters comprise one to five kittens, typically two to three kittens. Females can raise two litters in a year. Kittens weigh between 43 and 55 g at birth, tending to be much smaller in the wild than in captivity. Initially blind and helpless, they open their eyes at 10 to 13 days of age and are fully weaned by around three months. Males usually do not participate in the raising of kittens; however, in captivity, males appear to be very protective of their offspring. Kittens begin to catch their own prey at around six months and leave the mother after eight or nine months. The lifespan of the jungle cat in captivity is 15 to 20 years; this is possibly higher than that in the wild.

Generation length of the jungle cat is 5.2 years.

Threats
Major threats to the jungle cat include habitat loss such as the destruction of wetlands, dam construction, environmental pollution, industrialisation and urbanisation. Illegal hunting is a threat in Turkey and Iran. Its rarity in Southeast Asia is possibly due to high levels of hunting. Since the 1960s, populations of the Caucasian jungle cat living along the Caspian Sea and in the Caucasus range states have been rapidly declining. Only small populations persist today. There has been no record in the Astrakhan Nature Reserve in the Volga Delta since the 1980s. It is rare in the Middle East. In Jordan, it is highly affected by the expansion of agricultural areas around the river beds of Yarmouk and Jordan rivers, where farmers hunted and poisoned jungle cats in retaliation for attacking poultry. It is also considered rare and threatened in Afghanistan. India exported jungle cat skins in large numbers, until this trade was banned in 1979; some illegal trade continues in the country, in Egypt and Afghanistan.

In the 1970s, Southeast Asian jungle cats still used to be the most common wild cats near villages in certain parts of northern Thailand and occurred in many protected areas of the country. However, since the early 1990s, jungle cats are rarely encountered and have suffered drastic declines due to hunting and habitat destruction. Today, their official status in the country is critically endangered. In Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam, jungle cats have been subject to extensive hunting. Skins are occasionally recorded in border markets, and live individuals, possibly taken from Myanmar or Cambodia, occasionally turn up in the Khao Khieo and Chiang Mai zoos of Thailand.

Conservation
The jungle cat is listed under CITES Appendix II. Hunting is prohibited in Bangladesh, China, India, Israel, Myanmar, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Thailand and Turkey. But it does not receive legal protection outside protected areas in Bhutan, Georgia, Laos, Lebanon, Nepal, Sri Lanka and Vietnam.

title: Jungle cat


text:
Talk:Trimurti

Untitled
I've never seen the th spelling before, and google says:

 * Searched the web for Trimurthi. Results 1 - 10 of about 353. Search took 0.08 seconds.

Did you mean: Trimurti

 * Searched the web for OMGTrimurti.  Results 1 - 10 of about 9,820. Search took 0.09 seconds.

Mkweise 19:38 19 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Who is "Robare"? Unlinked, the name is mentioned once and never again. Sloppy!

Would it be possible to include dates for the historical material, please? I'm trying to follow up on the development of concepts of divine Trinity generally, and terms like the Brahmapa period convey nothing to me. (Sorry to be Eurocentric.)—Copey--203.109.252.196 03:00, 30 January 2006 (UTC)

Who is Freda Matchett
From the article: Freda Matchett characterizes the Trimurti system as one of "several frameworks into which various divine figures can be fitted at different levels."

Why should the world care about how this Freda Matchett characterizes an idea/entity that has been around for thousands of years? This looks like a clever marketing strategy to somehow lend credibility to this person. Please note that the above line does not really add anything significant to the article. The statement does not even make any sense. The fact that only western books are referred here is very sad.

—Preceding unsigned comment added by Ram7890 (talk • contribs) 06:21, 13 May 2010 (UTC)

I don't know much about Hinduism, but that sentence about Matchett seemed very out of place to me, especially to be in the beginning of the article. I think that it is just that somebody read this book about this lady, or perhaps she put it there herself, and since the rest of this article does not mention her, I think it is without question out of place in the lede.

I agree, why should this thousand-year old topic be introduced by a sentence including some lady who wrote a book, and who, when searched for on google.com, only returns results that are from Wikipedia and not from elsewhere?

I'm going to just move this sentence to the bottom of the page, where it will continue to be out of place (not to mention, it doesn't really make sense and could be interpreted several ways!), but because of the wiki-bureacracy it is like impossible to delete sentences that are referenced. I would like it to be deleted completely though if it were just my decision. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Makeswell (talk • contribs) 05:00, 6 July 2010 (UTC)

It has been moved to the section, "Evolution of the concept", yet it's still very out of place and likely a very insignificant view to quote from, is there anything on wikipedia that enables us to delete sentences that come from people who aren't very well-qualified. Also, the sentence doesn't clearly make sense, and if there are other gods being fit into the triune, which is what the sentence might be suggesting, then perhaps the names of those gods should be given as well. Overall I think, for the benefit of the general reader, this sentence should be destroyed in a Shiva-like act of Backspace, Backspace, Backspace. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Makeswell (talk • contribs) 05:04, 6 July 2010 (UTC)

64.136.49.228
This is a fairly common fallacy, that precedence provides causationMikereichold 05:30, 16 February 2006 (UTC)

Contradiction
The intro asserts that Trimurti is similar to the unforgetable "traditional view" of the Christian Trinity, yet the illustrative quote from Swami Sivananda describes a view that corresponds to modalism, which was rejected as heretical in the third century. Is there some other source that illustrates this differently, so as to justify the statement in the intro? TCC (talk) (contribs) 22:31, 12 May 2006 (UTC)

TCC is correct - the article compares the Trimurti to a Modalist account of the Trinity, which is starkly heretical. It seems to me that the question of similarities between the Trimurti and the Christian Trinity admits of enough subtleties that it ought not to be thrown into the introduction like this. Consequently, I'm deleting the follwing sentences from the article: "A somewhat similar symbolization exists in the Christian trinity of God as the Father, Son and Holy Ghost. However the interpretation and philosophy behind the Christian and Hindu concepts of the trinity differ." If someone feels that comparisons between the religions ought to be included, I think they should flesh that subject out into its own subsection. Innocent76 (talk) 05:14, 4 August 2008 (UTC)

Article flawed
(Maitri Upanishad 5.2): "That part of Him which is characterized by tamas is called Rudra. That part of Him which belongs to rajas is Brahma. That part of Him which belongs to sattva is Vishnu."

Isn't this nuff to clarify the origins of trimurthi? Maitri upanishad is an upanishad derived from Krishna(or Black) Yajur Veda.

Max muller noted the difference in grammatical pecularities thus testified it belongs to an early period.

As for the article from catholic.com, it has certain errors as Brahma wasn't a duplicated god, but is same as Prajapathi, whose aspects by no means differ from that of Brahma of trimurti. Also, Brahma wasn't an impersonal deity, what he is referring to might be a reference to BRAHMAN.

Changes in the article should be made as soon as possible to reflect this.

Brahman is the Supreme Being, pervading all others. Vaishnav say Vishnu is Brahman. Saiva say Shiva is Brahman. Upanishads say that brahman is represented by these three. Ved vyaas revealed both upanishads as well as puranas, where puranas were written for laymen. Vaishnavs hold Vishnu Puraana as real authority while Saivas hold Shiva Puranaa as real authority. There are also brahma puraana if im not mistaken. Thus the hypothesis is misconceived.

I'm removing the opinion of non-hindus because its a mere allegation, with no sufficient proof.

Questioning the prevalence of the trimurti
I would like to introduce a couple of references that will question the extent to which the trimurti system actually represents a major force in Hindu thinking, as opposed to a Western "packaging" of some Hindu ideas. I mention this prior to doing so because it is possible that this material will not be familiar to other other editors. Currently the article lead has an unsorced linkage between the trimurti and Smarta tradition, which as far as I know is unfounded. Orthodox Smarta practice involves worship of five primary deities with the option for substitution of an ishta devata of the worshippers choice. Also, there are simply not very many references to the trimurti system in Indian literature, according to Winternitz. I would like to put out a call for all the regular editors on this article to assist me in locating references that will pin down the prevalence of this concept in Hindu sources, as opposed to Western sources. Buddhipriya 00:12, 29 April 2007 (UTC)

 * That sounds like an excellent idea, though I have no idea where to start. IPSOS (talk) 14:24, 29 April 2007 (UTC)

 * In my own search for references in older Hindu sources, the only one that comes up as as an unambiguous reference prior to contact with Western influences is now cited in the article (Kūrma Purana, 1.6; 1.9; 1.26).  There may be more, but I need help in locating them.  I would like to find when references to the Trimurti first appeared in Western literature and suspect that it may have had something to do with the Theosophical Society, but I am not familiar with their literature.  Buddhipriya 17:10, 29 April 2007 (UTC)

just to let you guys no trimurti is sanskrit, in enlish it means three ways, because brahman and Shiva and vishnu are one

umm once again its me, trimurti is sanskrit

Another source for evolution of the concept
I have located another good source for evolution of the concept in The Cultural Heritage of India and will add some citations to it which are along the same lines of the other debunking material that has previously been added. We are now down to a fairly well-sourced but shorter article. I think we have enough material on the origin of the idea now so some adjustment to the sections will help get the new material in. Buddhipriya 19:06, 8 June 2007 (UTC)

Redundancies
The introduction mentions the three persons, their names and roles multiple redundant times. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Paul Murray (talk • contribs) 01:26, 27 May 2008 (UTC)

So who believes this?
So this article states that 3 of the 4 major Hindu groups reject the Trimurti and a scan of the Shaktism article doesn't mention the concept at all. Do any Hindus actually believe this? Has it just become a popular idea in the West because of comparisons drawn to the Christian Trinity?--Lairor (talk) 07:41, 2 October 2008 (UTC)
 * In case you haven't yet been given any clarification, the three major hindu sects reject this. But majority of hindus are non-denominational. leaflord (talk) 19:30, 24 July 2009 (UTC)

 *
 * Austerlitz -- 88.75.211.138 (talk) 15:55, 13 November 2008 (UTC)

Biased Image
Consider this imagefor deletion as it eulogises shiva over other members of Trimurti. Since this is a neutral article we need to remove this image though it is within the shaivism paragraph.-Brahmadutta (talk) 11:57, 8 August 2014 (UTC)

External links modified
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Regarding confusion with Bramhan and Bramha

 * However, this argument overlooks the obvious correlation of Brahmā with Brahman. The identification of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva as one being is strongly emphasized in the Kūrma Purāṇa, wherein 1.6 Brahman is worshipped as Trimurti; 1.9 especially inculcates the unity of the three gods, and 1.26 relates to the same theme.

At article, second last paragraph, Bramha is compared with Bramhan. Above mentioned shlokas (1.6 and 1.9 and 1.26 do not confuse Bramha with Bramhan). It just seems to be the view of the editor.  killer bee    10:01, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Trimurti


text:
Hermes (spacecraft)

Hermes was a proposed spaceplane designed by the French Centre National d'Études Spatiales (CNES) in 1975, and later by the European Space Agency (ESA). It was superficially similar to the American Boeing X-20 Dyna-Soar and the larger Space Shuttle.

In January 1985, CNES proposed to proceed with Hermes development under the auspices of the ESA. Hermes was to have keyed a crewed spaceflight program launched by an Ariane 5 launch vehicle. In November 1987, the project was approved for pre-development from 1988 to 1990, after which authorisation for full development was required. However, the project experienced numerous delays and funding issues.

In 1992, Hermes was cancelled due to high cost and unachievable performance, as well as a partnership with the Russian Aviation and Space Agency (RKA) which reduced the need for an independent spaceplane. As a result, no Hermes shuttles were ever built. During the 2010s, it was proposed to resurrect the Hermes vehicle as a partially reusable air-launched spaceplane launch system, known as SOAR.

Origins
During the 1960s and 1970s, there was increasing recognition by European nations that more international cooperation would be necessary for large space projects. In 1973, the European Space Research Organisation (ESRO) — a precursor to the European Space Agency (ESA) — commenced development of a heavy expendable launch system later named the Ariane. The French space agency Centre National D'études Spatiales (CNES), desired greater autonomy to avoid overreliance upon NASA, and envisaged a European-built human-capable space vehicle that would operate in conjunction with other ESA assets such as Ariane.

In 1976, CNES commenced studies into a crewed version of Ariane. Two different concepts included a capsule and a glider. In 1983, CNES opted to focus on a space plane that would deliver greater convenience, comfort, and cost-effectiveness. A space plane would simplify recovery by having the necessary cross-range manoeuvrability to reach a given point on the Earth within a single day, while providing for a less challenging re-entry environment for the crew and payload. Reusability would also reduce the cost of successive missions. Critical technologies identified included thermal protection, environmental controls, life support systems, aerodynamics, and power.

During the mid-1980s, in addition to the Columbus Man-Tended Free Flyer (an independent European space station) and the Ariane 5 heavy launch vehicle, CNES championed the development and production of the Space Shuttle as a European initiative akin to the reusable space vehicle programs of the Soviet Union's Buran and the US Space Shuttle.

Selection

On 18 October 1985, CNES appointed French aerospace company Aérospatiale as the primary contractor for Hermes, the name that had been given to the spacecraft. French aircraft manufacturer Dassault-Breguet was awarded responsibility for the aerodynamic and aerothermal aspects of the design. Arianespace was responsible for the Ariane 5 launcher and a strong candidate to manage operation of the infrastructure for Hermes.

On 25 October 1985, the proposal for Hermes was presented to the partner nations of the ESA. A deadline of March 1987 was set for the 'Europeanisation' of the programme, under which portions of work for Hermes was assigned. The work share was attributed 15% to West Germany, 13% to Italy, 7% to Belgium, 5% to the Netherlands, 4% each to the United Kingdom, Spain, and Sweden, and 2% or less to Switzerland, Austria, Denmark and Ireland. Potential participation by Norway and Canada was mooted. France held a 50 percent share of the work, although CNES was open to further redistribution of the work dependent upon individual partners increasing their stake in the programme. Early on, there was optimism that securing the funding from ESA members to proceed would not be difficult.

In November 1987, the ESA issued its approval. As envisaged, by 1995 Hermes would enable the ESA to service the planned Columbus Man-Tended Free Flyer (MTFF) (the MTFF was restructured and ultimately manufactured as the Columbus module of the International Space Station). Development of Hermes was to proceed in two phases:

Phase 1: Study and pre-development.
Phase 1 was scheduled to end in 1990. Its plans called for the capability to lift 6 astronauts and 4,550 kg of cargo, but after the Challenger disaster, an ejection capacity was added to give astronauts at least a small chance of survival in case of catastrophe. Accordingly, the six seats were curtailed to three regular ejection seats, which were chosen over an ejectable crew capsule that would have offered an escape option at heights above 28 km. The cargo capacity was reduced to 3,000 kg. Hermes would not be able to place objects into orbit because its cargo hold could not be opened, That option was abandoned due to weight concerns.

Although Hermes was originally viewed as fully reusable (up to 30 re-entries before major service), the limited capacity of the Ariane 5 launcher forced it to leave the Resource Module in orbit. A new resource module would be attached to the Hermes and the entire structure would be launched again.

Phase 1 was not completed until the end of 1991 and by then the political climate had changed considerably. The Iron Curtain had been lifted and the Cold War was ending. As a result, ESA commenced a year-long "reflection" period to determine whether it still made sense for Europe to build its own space shuttle and space station or if new partners could be found to share cost and development. Officially, Phase 1 completed at the end of 1992.

Phase 2: Final development, manufacture & initial operations.
Phase 2 never began, after ESA and the Russian Aviation and Space Agency (RKA) agreed to cooperate on future launchers and a replacement space station for Mir. Economic concerns prevented RKA from participating in a future launcher program, but at this point ESA's crew transport needs were reoriented towards the capsule system (as opposed to the glider system of Hermes) called for by the joint Russian/European designs.

When both Russia and ESA joined with NASA to build the International Space Station, the need for a European crew transport system was eliminated because Russian and American needs were already satisfied. Accordingly, ESA abandoned the Hermes project.

Design
Hermes was intended as a reusable launch system to transport astronauts and moderate-size cargo payloads into low Earth orbit (LEO) and back. Hermes bears a resemblance to other reusable launch vehicles such as the Space Shuttle. However, unlike the Space Shuttle, Hermes could not carry heavy cargoes as that role was to be performed by the uncrewed Ariane 5. Hermes was envisioned to transport a maximum of three astronauts along with a 3,000 kg pressurized payload. The launch weight would be up to 21,000 kg, the practical upper limit of an extended Ariane 5 launcher.

Hermes was to be launched as the upper stage of the Ariane 5. Prior to the 1986 redesign, Hermes was a single spaceplane containing (front to back) a crew compartment for six, an airlock, an unpressurized cargo hold similar to Buran's and the Shuttle's, and a service module. After the 1986 Challenger accident it was substantially redesigned. The crew cabin shrank to carry three astronauts, with the cargo hold pressurized and unable to carry or retrieve satellites. Hermes now consisted of two separate sections: the vehicle itself and a cone-shaped Resource Module having a docking mechanism attached to the vehicle's rear, which was detached and discarded prior to re-entry. Only the crewed vehicle would re-enter Earth's atmosphere and be re-used. The Resource Module and the launcher would be expended. When launching the Hermes, the Ariane 5 would have had its upper stage replaced by the space plane and an adaptor to mate the vehicle to the main cryogenic stage. The equipment bay of the launcher would also be removed and the spaceplane would perform all guidance and control functions. The development of the Ariane 5 was strongly influenced by the requirements of Hermes, such as the extra aerodynamic loads along with an increased reliability factor of 0.9999, while retaining minimal impact on the launcher's commercial competitiveness on non-Hermes missions.

In comparison to the Space Shuttle, Hermes was substantially smaller. It did not share the ogival planform of the Shuttle, instead opting for a highly-swept delta wing complete with wingtip devices, similar to the proposed Boeing X-20 Dyna-Soar spacecraft. Like the Shuttle, the pressurised cabin could seat more than five people, two of whom would serve as pilots, while the unpressurised aft cargo bay would have been fitted with large doors spanning the length of the bay along the fuselage. The vehicle would have been powered by a pair of 2,000N-thrust liquid propellant rocket motors identical to those used on the L4 low-energy upper stage of the Ariane 5.

Aerodynamic control would have been provided via a total of seven flight control surfaces, the wingtip rudders, trailing edge elevon/air brakes, and a body-mounted flap; these surfaces would have been controlled via quadruplex-redundant digital flight controls and actuated via triplex-redundant hydraulics. Mission management would have been performed via three general-purpose computers, a monitoring computer, and three digital databuses. Electrical power was to be provided by a motor that would have used liquid oxygen-liquid hydrogen along with ten US-built fuel cells. The environmental control and life support systems supply pressurisation of the cabin, along with air, water, and warmth, to support the crew for a maximum of 40 days, although may have been potentially extendable to enable 90 day missions. Hermes could have operated autonomously for up to one month, and would be able to remain docked with an orbiting space station for a maximum of 90 days.

According to CNES, Hermes would have been subject to more extreme re-entry conditions than the Space Shuttle due to its smaller size exposing the vehicle to higher aerothermal pressures. The baseline thermal protection, was to withstand temperatures of 1,400-1,600 °C for a minimum of 20 minutes and studied by Dassault and SEP, would have consisted of carbon elements with an anti-oxidant coating applied to portions of the nose and leading edges of the wings, while thermal tiles were to have covered the underside of the wing and fuselage. These tiles would have employed thin, reinforced ceramic-carbon honeycomb composite insulating layers separated by thin sheets of metal alloy to reflect the heat; an alternative concept for the tiles would have employed higher metallic portions in place of ceramics. The upper surfaces of the vehicle would have been subject to less heat than the lower surfaces, and used flexible blanket-like low-density, glassfibre-ceramic layers.

The shape of Hermes had been effectively frozen by November 1985. It was refined by subsonic wind tunnel testing in the Onera, constrained by the requirements of subsonic flight. In order to gather valuable data in the face of Europe's lack of experience, Dassault proposed validating the aerodynamic properties of the vehicle by completing a 1.4-tonne, 1-scale aerothermal demonstrator, named Maia, to be launched by an Ariane 4 for re-entry studies.

Mission profiles and infrastructure
Four typical missions were projected for Hermes:
 * Hosting onboard experiments while in an equatorial 800 km altitude orbit
 * Flights to NASA's space station Freedom at a 28.5° inclination orbit
 * Flights to ESA's space station Columbus at a 60° orbit.
 * Flights to ESA's uncrewed remote sensing Polar Platform at a 98° 500 km orbit

After each mission, Hermes would be refurbished at a dedicated facility in Europe. Around 40 days prior to a launch date, the vehicle would be transported on a specially-modified Airbus A300 airliner to its launch site in Kourou, French Guiana, where it would be integrated with its payload and installed atop an Ariane 5 rocket prior to being transferred to the launch pad. Mission control was to be based at Toulouse, France. During a typical mission, communications and tracking would have been performed by a planned European network of data relay satellites with coverage across 75% of a Hermes mission at a 28.5° orbit at an altitude of 400 km.

Following a mission, Hermes would land at Istres-Le Tubé Air Base near Istres. Other potential landing sites were mooted, including Guiana Space Centre, Martinique Aimé Césaire International Airport on the island of Fort de France and unspecified airstrips in Bermuda. In the event of an aborted launch during the first 84 seconds, Hermes would be able to return to Kourou. A later abort would likely necessitate a water landing in the Atlantic Ocean, after which the vehicle would need to be retrieved by a recovery ship. Other emergency landing strips were to be designated, dependent upon the specifics of each mission.

Mockups and models
A full scale mockup was built in 1986, and was shown in 1987 at Le Bourget in May, followed by Madrid in September and Toulouse during October - November. The following year (1988) the mockup was shown at Strasbourg in Abril, Hanover in May, and Bordeaux in December. With the end of the project in 1993, this mockup was transferred to ENSICA (École nationale supérieures d'ingénieurs de construction aéronautique) in 1996. In 2005 it was brought to Le Bourget to await a possible restoration project.

A 1/7 scale model built by EADS is shown since 2002 at the Bordeaux–Mérignac Airport.

In media

 * A 1994 The Simpsons episode called Deep Space Homer features a Hermes inspired shuttle design.
 * The 2015 film The Martian  features a ship named Hermes, although the design is radically different from the shuttle design in real life, and is designed for interplanetary travel.
 * The 2017 film Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets ' s novelization mentions Hermes as the shuttle used by ESA during its first expedition to the International Space Station (identified as "Alpha").

title: Hermes (spacecraft)


text:
Jim Finks

James Edward Finks (August 31, 1927 – May 8, 1994) was an American football and Canadian football player, coach, and executive.

Early life and playing career
Finks was born in St. Louis, Missouri, attended high school in Salem, Illinois, and attended college at the University of Tulsa. After being selected as a 12th-round pick of the Pittsburgh Steelers in the 1949 NFL draft, he played for several years as a defensive back and quarterback, retiring after the 1955 season. He was also drafted by the Cincinnati Reds in 1948 to play catcher and accepted that position before moving to the Pittsburgh Steelers to play football.

College coaching and CFL career
Finks served as an assistant coach under Terry Brennan at the University of Notre Dame in 1956, after which he went on to the Calgary Stampeders of the Canadian Football League, where he served as a player/coach before becoming the general manager on October 31, 1957. Finks turned the Stampeders into a winning team. He signed many of the players that made Calgary the winningest team in the CFL during the 1960s, though the team did not win a Grey Cup title until 1971. He also signed quarterback Joe Kapp, who would also later play under Finks in the NFL.

NFL front office career
In 1964, Finks was named the general manager of the Minnesota Vikings. In 1968, Minnesota won its first NFL Central Division Championship, marking the start of a dynasty that produced 11 division championship teams and four Super Bowl appearances in the following 14 years. In 1969, the Vikings won 12 of 14 games and claimed the NFL championship before losing to the American Football League's Kansas City Chiefs 23–7 in Super Bowl IV.

The Vikings team that Finks put together was powered by a dynamic defensive front four, popularly known as The "Purple People Eaters". The first member of the unit, defensive end Jim Marshall, came to the Vikings in a 1961 trade before Finks arrived. In 1964, the new general manager added two potential stars to the line: end Carl Eller as a first-round pick in the NFL Draft, and tackle Gary Larsen in a trade. He completed "The Purple People Eaters" in 1967 by picking Alan Page in the draft.

In 1967, Norm Van Brocklin resigned as head coach and Finks immediately hired Bud Grant, who had been a successful coach of the Winnipeg Blue Bombers of the CFL for 10 seasons. That year, Finks also brought in a new quarterback, Joe Kapp, from the CFL. Kapp had played for the Calgary Stampeders when Finks was its general manager. During the 1969 NFL championship season, Kapp passed for a record seven touchdowns against the Baltimore Colts and was a major contributor to his team's success.

In 1972, Finks made another daring trade with the New York Giants, this time to bring back Fran Tarkenton, the quarterback he had traded in 1967. In 1973, the Vikings defeated the Dallas Cowboys for the NFC championship but lost to the Miami Dolphins 24–7 in Super Bowl VIII. It turned out to be the last game with the Vikings for Finks, who that season was named the NFL Executive of the Year. Finks, who had been named a club vice-president in 1972 as a reward for his brilliant work, resigned in May 1974, reportedly because the Vikings refused to award him the stock that had been held by Van Brocklin and also because of the decision by NFL Commissioner Pete Rozelle to have all team owners have offices.

Chicago Bears
Finks joined the Chicago Bears as executive vice-president and general manager. Owner George Halas had made most of the football decisions himself for most of the time since joining the team in 1920 (when it was the Decatur Staleys), even after buying the team in 1921 and overseeing its move to Chicago. However, he finally saw the need to modernize and gave Finks complete control of football operations. Finks spent the 1974 season studying the Bears player talent as well as opposition players from all around the NFL. The next year, he began employing the same formula he used so well in Minnesota to improve the Bears' talent pool.

The Bears under Finks improved. By 1977, they reached the playoffs for the first time since 1963. They were a playoff team again in 1979 with a 10–6 record, best-ever for the Finks-led Bears. But Finks' tenure in Chicago ended suddenly in 1982 when he resigned because Halas did not consult him in the hiring of Mike Ditka as head coach. However, he did stay with the Bears until after the 1983 Draft. By the time he left the Bears he held a minor portion of the franchise, which he relinquished when he resigned.

Finks contributed to one of the most dominant NFL teams of the 1980s. The 1985 Bears went over 15–1 in the regular-season and shut out both the New York Giants and Los Angeles Rams in playoff games leading to the Super Bowl.

After leaving the Bears, Finks joined the Chicago Cubs as president and chief executive officer in September 1983. He remained through the 1984 season when the Cubs captured the 1984 National League's Eastern Division crown.

His record as GM with the Bears from 1974 to 1983 (Including 1983 because that was his last draft) was 65 wins – 80 losses

Later career
On January 14, 1986, Finks took charge of a New Orleans Saints team that never had experienced a winning season in its 19-year history. His first move was to hire a new coach, Jim Mora. Success came more quickly for Finks in New Orleans than it had in either Minnesota or Chicago. In just his second season, the Saints won 12 games for their first winning season ever. Finks was named NFL Executive of the Year for the second time.

When NFL Commissioner Pete Rozelle retired in 1989, Finks was the leading candidate to replace him. He was the only candidate put forward for the job by a six-owner search committee (Wellington Mara, Lamar Hunt, Art Modell, Robert Parins, Dan Rooney, and Ralph Wilson). However, a group of 11 newer owners who wanted more of a voice in the selection process abstained from voting, preventing Finks from receiving the 19 votes necessary to become Commissioner. Six months later, a second meeting was held and it ended with 13 votes for Finks and 13 for attorney Paul Tagliabue. At a third meeting, a compromise was reached by the two groups that would make Tagliabue Commissioner and Finks president in charge of football operations. However, Finks declined this position and Tagliabue was elected by an undisclosed number of votes.

Death
Finks died in 1994 in Metairie, Louisiana from lung cancer. Jim Finks was inducted to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1995. Finks enshrinement was based substantially on achievements with the Minnesota Vikings, Chicago Bears and New Orleans Saints franchises. He had also previously built the Vikings and Bears into Super Bowl teams—and the Saints became winners for the first time in franchise history. His longest tenure was spent with the Minnesota Vikings. His son Jim Finks, Jr. authored the 2009 book COLORS: Pro Football Uniforms of the Past and Present.

title: Jim Finks


text:
Law Society of England and Wales

The Law Society of England and Wales (officially The Law Society) is the professional association that represents solicitors for the jurisdiction of England and Wales. It provides services and support to practising and training solicitors, as well as serving as a sounding board for law reform. Members of the Society are often consulted when important issues are being debated in Parliament or by the executive. The Society was formed in 1825.

The Hall of The Law Society is in Chancery Lane, London, but it also has offices in Cardiff to deal with the Wales jurisdiction and the Senedd, and Brussels, to deal with European Union law.

A president is elected annually to serve for one year. The current president is Nick Emmerson.

The Law Society has nothing to do with barristers in England and Wales. The relevant professional body for barristers is the General Council of the Bar.

History
The London Law Institution, the predecessor to the Law Society, was founded in 1823 when many London Solicitors came together to raise the reputation of the profession by setting standards and ensuring good practice. 'London' was dropped from the title in 1825 to reflect the fact that the Law Institution had national aspirations.

The Society was founded on 2 June 1825, when a committee of management was appointed. The Society acquired its first royal charter in 1831 as The Society of Attorneys, Solicitors, Proctors and others not being Barristers, practising in the Courts of Law and Equity of the United Kingdom. A new Charter in 1845 defined the Society as an independent, private body servicing the affairs of the profession like other professional, literary and scientific bodies. By further Royal Charter in 1903 the name of the Society was changed to simply "The Law Society". The Society first admitted women members in 1922.

In 1949, the Law Society was given the responsibility of legal aid by the Legal Aid and Advice Act 1949. The function was passed to the Legal Aid Board by Legal Aid Act 1988.

In July 2013, the Association of Women Solicitors (AWS), a national organisation working with and representing women solicitors in the United Kingdom, merged with the Law Society to form its Women Lawyers Division. Although merged, the AWS will operate separately from the Law Society.

Discipline
In 1834, the Society first initiated proceedings against dishonest practitioners. By 1907, the Society possessed a statutory disciplinary committee and was empowered to investigate solicitors' accounts and to issue annual practising certificates. In 1983, the Society established the Office for the Supervision of Solicitors to deal with complaints about solicitors. Complaints regarding the conduct of solicitors are now dealt with by the Solicitors Regulation Authority (SRA). However, complaints regarding poor service are the remit of the Legal Ombudsman.

Legal education
The Solicitors Act 1860 enabled the Society to create a three-tier examination system. In 1903, the Society established its own Law Society School of Law, which later merged with tutorial firm Gibson and Weldon to become the independent College of Law. By 1922 The Law Society required a compulsory academic year for all clerks.

Regulatory body status
Following the recommendations of the Clementi Review The Law Society split its representative and regulatory functions.

Complaints from the public are handled by the Legal Ombudsman which is a single portal for complaints by the public made against all providers of legal services including the Bar, licensed conveyancers etc., but excluding unqualified will-writers.

The regulatory body for solicitors is the Solicitors Regulation Authority. It is a Board of The Law Society although it regulates and enforces regulation completely independently of the Law Society. The Law Society remains the approved regulator, although following the Legal Services Act 2007 a new body, the Legal Services Board (currently chaired by Dr Helen Phillips ) oversees all the approved regulators including the Bar Council, which has also divested its regulatory functions into the Bar Standards Board.

The Law Society of England and Wales is a Designated Professional Body under the Financial Services & Markets Act 2000.

The Hall of The Law Society
Located at 113 Chancery Lane The Hall of The Law Society is the principal building of the society. Built in 1832 the building is Grade II* listed. The architect was Lewis Vulliamy. An extension in 1902-04 was designed by Charles Holden. In addition to offices for its staff, the building is used for Law Society conferences and events and parts of the building are available on a private hire basis for events.

Past presidents
• 2023- Nick Emmerson (179th president)

• 2022-23 Lubna Shuja (178th president)

• 2021-22 I. Stephanie Boyce (177th president)

• 2020–21 David Greene (176th president)

• 2019–20 Simon Davis (175th president)

• 2018–19 Christina Blacklaws (174th president)

• 2017–18 Joe Egan

• 2016–17 Robert Henry Glanville Bourns, DL

• 2015–16 Jonathan Robert Saville Smithers

• 2014–15 Andrew Howard Arthur Caplen

• 2013–14 Nicholas Peter Fluck

• 2012–13 Lucy Ann Scott-Moncrieff (later CBE)

• 2011–12 John Prier Wotton

• 2010–11 Linda Karen Hadfield Lee

• 2009–10 Robert Alan Heslett

• 2008–09 Paul Henry Marsh

• 2007–08 William Andrew Myers Holroyd (later CBE)

• 2006–07 Fiona Woolf (later DBE)

• 2005–06 Kevin Joseph Martin

• 2004–05 Edward Nally

• 2003–04 Peter John Williamson

• 2002–03 Carolyn Kirby

• 2001–02 David Angus McIntosh

• 2000–01 Thomas Michael Napier

• 1999–2000 Robert Sayer

• 1998–99 Michael Robert Mathews

• 1997–98 Phillip Sycamore (later CBE)

• 1996–97 John Anthony Girling

• 1995–96 Martin John Patrick Mears

• 1994–95 Richard Charles Elly, FRSA, DL

• 1993–94 Rodger John Pannone, DL

• 1992–93 Mark Hebberton Sheldon (later CBE)

• 1991–92 Philip Thomas Ely (later OBE)

• 1990–91 John Anthony Holland (later knighted)

• 1989–90 David Ward

• 1988–89 Sir Richard Kennedy Harvey Gaskell

• 1987–88 Sir John Derek Richardson Bradbeer, OBE, TD

• 1986–87 Sir John Michael Wickerson

• 1985–86 Sir Colin Alan Bettridge Leslie

• 1984–85 Sir Arthur Hugh Hoole

• 1983–84 Sir Christopher Raynor Hewetson

• 1982–83 Sir William Maxwell Harries Williams

• 1981–82 Sir Denis Alfred Marshall

• 1980–81 Sir Jonathan Dennis Clarke

• 1979–80 Sir John Chalmer Stebbings

• 1978–79 Sir John Chance Palmer

• 1977–78 Sir Richard Kenneth Denby

• 1976–77 Sir David Napley

• 1975–76 Sir Edmund Naylor Liggins, TD

• 1974–75 Sir Edward Henry Sibbald Singleton

• 1973–74 Sir Martin Llewellyn Edwards

• 1972–73 Sir Desmond Heap

• 1971–72 Sir William Oscar Carter

• 1970–71 Sir Godfrey William Rowland Morley, OBE, TD

• 1969–70 Sir Robert Frederick Payne

• 1968–69 Sir Henry Edmund Sargant

• 1967–68 Sir John Renwick, JP

• 1966–67 Sir Charles Hilary Scott

• 1965–66 Sir Derek Percy Hilton, MBE

• 1964–65 Sir Robert John Formby Burrows

• 1963–64 Sir Ronald Long

• 1962–63 Sir Henry Brailsford Lawson

• 1961–62 Sir Arthur John Driver

• 1960–61 Colonel Sir Denys Theodore Hicks

• 1959–60 Sir Sydney Charles Thomas Littlewood

• 1958–59 Sir Leslie Ernest Peppiatt

• 1957–58 Sir Ian David Yeaman

• 1956–57 Edwin Herbert, Baron Tangley

• 1955–56 Sir Walter Charles Norton

• 1954–55 Frederic Hubert Jessop

• 1953–54 Sir William Charles Crocker

• 1952–53 Sir Dingwall Latham Bateson

• 1951–52 Sir Geoffrey Abdy Collins

• 1950–51 Sir Leonard Stanistreet Holmes

• 1949–50 Sir Harold Nevil Smart

• 1947-48 Sir William Alan Gillett

• 1946–47 Sir Douglas Thornbury Garrett

• 1945–46 Sir Hugh Matheson Foster, TD

• 1944–45 Sir Arthur Croke Morgan

• 1943–44 Sir Ernest Edward Bird

• 1942–43 Sir George Stanley Pott

• 1940

• 1939–40 Randle Fynes Wilson Holme

• 1938–39 Sir William Waymouth Gibson

• 1937–38 Sir Francis Edward James Smith

• 1936–37 Sir Hubert Arthur Dowson

• 1934–35

• 1933–34 Sir Reginald Ward Poole

• 1932–33

• 1931–32 Sir Philip Hubert Martineau

• 1930–31 Sir John Roger Burrow Gregory

• 1929–30 Walter Henry Foster

• 1928–29 Sir Robert Mills Welsford

• 1927–28 Sir Cecil Coward

• 1926–27

• 1925–26 Sir Herbert Gibson, Bt

• 1924–25

• 1923–24 Sir Robert William Dibdin

• 1922–23 Sir Arthur Copson Peake

• 1917-18 Samuel Garrett

• 1914 Hugh F. Silverwood

• 1906/7 Henry Attlee (father of prime minister Clement Attlee)

• 1904–05 Thomas Rawle

• 1902–03 Sir Albert Rollit

• 1901–02 Sir Henry Fowler

• 1897 William Godden

• late 1890s Arthur Melmoth Walters

• 1895 John Wreford Budd

• 1893 Richard Pennington

• 1891–92 William Melmoth Walters

• 1890–91 Robert Cunliffe

• 1888 Benjamin Lake

• 1886–87 (Sir) Henry Watson Parker

• 1883 Sir Thomas Paine

• 1881 Charles Claridge Druce

• 1880

• 1879 Nathaniel Tertius Lawrence

• 1878—1879 John Hollams

• 1877 Edward Frederick Burton

• 1876 Henry Thomas Young

• 1875 George Burrow Gregory

• 1874 Francis Thomas Bircham

• 1873

• 1872–1873 Park Nelson

• 1871

• 1870 William Ford

• 1869 Edward Lawrance

• 1868 John Henry Bolton

• 1866

• 1865 Edward Savage Bailey

• 1861/2 Joseph Maynard

• 1860 William Strickland Cookson

• 1859

• 1858–59 John Young

• 1852

• 1851 John Swarbreck Gregory

• 1849

• 1848 Benjamin Austen

• 1847 Charles Ranken

• 1846 Edward Rowland Pickering

• 1845 Michael Clayton

• 1844

• 1842 and 1843 Edward Foss

• 1841/2 Edward Archer Wilde

Standard Conditions of Sale
The "Standard Conditions of Sale" are issued by the Law Society to provide a standard set of rules and expectations for the sale and purchase of residential property in England and Wales. As a contractual instrument they are intended "to create legal rights and legal obligations" on the part of both parties to a transaction. The fifth (current) edition was initially published in 2011, and was revised in 2018. The majority of residential property sales are subject to these conditions.

title: Law Society of England and Wales


text:
Afghan Museum

The Afghan Museum (German: Afghanisches Museum) was private museum of culture and cultural history of Afghanistan, situated in the historic and picturesque Speicherstadt (warehouse district) of Hamburg, Germany. The museum's mandate was to bring the authentic and traditional aspects of Afghan culture to life.

History
This private museum was opened in March 1998 by lawyer and businessman Nek Mohamad Pirzad, his family and friends and was closed in December 2011

Interior and contents
The artistic design for the museum was led by Mr. Hessan, an Afghan artist living in Germany. The museum housed displays how a cobbler repairs worn out shoes, tandoori bread is baked, a carpet-maker ties knots for a large Afghan carpet with the famous Elephantfoot pattern. Exhibitions displayed a look inside a tea house and a Turkmen tent called yurt, or under an Afghan veil (chadri). Reproductions of the great fortress of Bost, Qala-e-Bost, in Lashkar Gah, the big Buddhas of Bamyan, and the minaret of Jam are represented.

The store offered green tea flavoured with cardamom, roasted chick peas, raisins, mulberries, Afghan jewellery and clothes were sold.

Visitors
The museum took part in the Long Night of Museums of Hamburg.

title: Afghan Museum


text:
Singing telegram

A singing telegram is a message that is delivered by an artist in a musical form. Singing telegrams are historically linked to normal telegrams, but tend to be humorous. Sometimes the artist is in costume or formal clothing.

Western Union, the American telegraph company, began offering singing telegram services in 1933. That July 28, a fan sent Hollywood singing star Rudy Vallee a birthday greeting by telegram. George P. Oslin (1899–1996), the Western Union public relations director, decided this would be a good opportunity to make telegrams, which had been associated with deaths and other tragic news, into something more popular. He asked a Western Union operator, Lucille Lipps, to sing the message over the telephone, and this became the first singing telegram. While Oslin created the singing telegram because he thought "that messages should be fun," he recalled that he "was angrily informed I was making a laughingstock of the company."

As relatively few telegram recipients had telephones, most telegrams, including singing telegrams, were first delivered in person. The popularization of the telephone in the 1960s reduced telegrams in general. By 1972, Western Union was receiving a small number of requests for singing telegrams and was seeking regulatory approval on a state-by-state basis to eliminate the offering. Western Union suspended its singing telegram service in 1974, but independent singing telegram companies, specializing in often costumed personal delivery of gift messages, have kept up the tradition.

Variants
A DIY singing telegram is a specially written song all about the person in karaoke DVD form, so that any singer anywhere in the world can deliver the fully personalised singing telegram.

Kissogram
A kissogram, also called kissagram (short for kissing telegram), is a message delivered along with a kiss, usually arranged as a fun surprise for a person for a special occasion. Message deliverers can be hired either by themselves, or as part of an agency. A kissogram is usually presented by a performer dressed in a costume or uniform such as a police officer, nurse, French maid or nun. This term was used in the TV program Doctor Who during the early 2010s to describe the profession of The Doctor's companion Amy Pond.

Stripogram
A stripogram or strippergram is a form of message delivery in which a stripper will perform a striptease while singing or dancing. This type of entertainment became popular in the 1970s in the US and spread to Europe during the 1980s. Typically a Strip-O-Gram is most often a form of gift given for a birthday, anniversary or bachelor party. A common practice is for the stripper-gram to be dressed in an outfit of one kind or another and to act out some charade connected with this, before commencing their act – for example a police officer 'arresting' somebody, a lawyer pretending to serve papers, a jilted bride and so on (sometimes this charade will be relevant to something the intended 'victim' has experienced, such as a divorce, or brush with the law). Usually a Strip-o-gram entertainer is accompanied by a chaperone, who plays her music, holds on to the money, tips and secures her safety, unlike an escort, who comes alone and does more of a one on one with the celebrant. Nowadays some agencies or performers do both to secure a bigger pay out.

title: Singing telegram


text:
Brownsea Island

Brownsea Island is the largest of the islands in Poole Harbour in the county of Dorset, England. The island is owned by the National Trust with the northern half managed by the Dorset Wildlife Trust. Much of the island is open to the public and includes areas of woodland and heath with a wide variety of wildlife, together with cliff top views across Poole Harbour and the Isle of Purbeck.

The island was the location of an experimental camp in 1907 that led to the formation of the Scout movement the following year. Access is by public ferry or private boat; in 2017 the island received 133,340 visitors. The island's name probably comes from Old English Brūnoces īeg = "Brūnoc's island".

Geography
Brownsea Island lies in Poole Harbour opposite the town of Poole in Dorset, England. It is the largest of eight islands in the harbour. The island can be reached by one of the public ferries or by private boat. There is a wharf and a small dock near the main castle. The island is 1+1/2 mi long and 3/4 mi wide and consists of 500 acre of woodland (pine and oak), heathland and salt-marsh.

The entire island, except the church and a few other buildings which are leased or managed by third parties, is owned by the National Trust. Most of the buildings are situated near the small landing stage. The northern portion of the island is a Nature Reserve managed by Dorset Wildlife Trust and an important habitat for birds; this part of the island has limited public access. A small portion to the southeast of the island, along with Brownsea Castle, is leased to the John Lewis Partnership for use as a holiday hotel by partners, and is not open to the public.

The island forms part of the Studland civil parish within the Dorset unitary authority. It is within the South Dorset constituency of the House of Commons. Until 31 January 2020, it was also within the South West England constituency of the European Parliament.

Ecology
Brownsea Island has built up on a bare sand and mud bank deposited in the shallow harbour. Ecological succession has taken place on the island to create topsoil able to support ecosystems.

The nature reserve on the island is leased from the National Trust by Dorset Wildlife Trust. This reserve includes a brackish lagoon and area of woodland. Other ecosystems on the island include salt marsh, reedbed, two freshwater lakes, alder carr, coniferous woodland, deciduous woodland and arboretum. In the past invasive species such as rhododendrons, also non-native, were introduced to the island, but the trusts have cleared many areas. The entire island is designated a Site of Special Scientific Interest.

Wildlife
The island is one of the few places in southern England where indigenous red squirrels survive, largely because non-native grey squirrels have never been introduced to the island. The Brownsea red squirrel population is the only population known in the UK to carry the human form of the bacteria stem Mycobacterium leprae that causes leprosy in humans. Brownsea also has a small ornamental population of peacocks. The island has a heronry, in which both grey heron and little egret nest.

There is a large population of non-native sika deer on the island. In the past the numbers have been higher than the island can sustain and have overgrazed. To try to limit damage to trees and other vegetation by deer, areas of the island have been fenced off to provide areas of undamaged woodland to allow other species such as red squirrels to thrive.

The lagoon is noted for the large population of common tern and sandwich tern in summer, and a very large flock of avocets in winter, when more than 50 per cent of the British population (over 1500) can be present.

Some imported stonework and statuary on the island serves as a habitat for a Mediterranean land snail, Papillifera bidens.

Early history
The first records of inhabitants on Brownsea Island occurred in the 9th century, when a small chapel and hermitage were built by monks from Cerne Abbey near Dorchester. The chapel was dedicated to St Andrew and the only resident of the island was a hermit, who may have administered to the spiritual welfare of sailors passing through Poole Harbour. In 1015, Canute led a Viking raid to the harbour and used Brownsea as a base to sack Wareham and Cerne Abbey. In the 11th century the owner of the island was Bruno, who was Lord of the Manor of Studland. Following his invasion of England, William the Conqueror gave Studland, which included Brownsea, to his half-brother, Robert de Mortain. In 1154, King Henry II granted the Abbot of Cerne the right of wreck for the island and the abbey continued to control the interests of Brownsea for the following 350 years.

Tudor period and Civil War
After the dissolution of the monasteries, control of Brownsea passed to the Crown. Henry VIII recognised the island's strategic importance of guarding the narrow entrance to the expanding port of Poole. As part of a deterrent to invasion forces from Europe, the island was fortified in 1547 by means of a blockhouse, which became known as Brownsea Castle. In the following centuries, the island passed into the hands of a succession of various owners.

In 1576, Queen Elizabeth I made a gift of Brownsea to one of her court favourites and rumoured lover, Sir Christopher Hatton. During the English Civil War, Poole sided with Parliament and garrisoned Brownsea Castle. Colonel Thomas Pride, the instigator of Pride's Purge– the only military coup d'état in English history – was stationed on the island in 1654. Sir Robert Clayton, a Lord Mayor of London and wealthy merchant became owner in the mid-1650s and after his death in 1707 the island was sold to William Benson, a Whig Member of Parliament and architect. He converted the castle into a residence and was responsible for introducing many varieties of trees to the island.

Industrial plans
In 1765 Sir Humphrey Sturt, a local landowner and MP purchased the island, which in turn passed to his sons. Sturt expanded the castle and records suggest that he spent £50,000 on enhancing the island's gardens. Sir Augustus John Foster, a retired British diplomat, bought the island in 1840. Foster experienced bouts of depression and died in Brownsea Castle in 1848 when he slit his throat. In 1852 Brownsea was again up for sale and was sold for £13,000. It was purchased by William Waugh, a former Colonel in the British Army in the belief he could exploit the white clay deposits on the island to manufacture high-quality porcelain.

A three-storey pottery was built in southwest corner of the island together with a tramway to transport the clay from clay pits in the north. He hoped the clay would be of the same quality as the nearby Furzebrook clay, but it turned out to be suitable only for sanitary ware. The company employed more than 200 people, but by 1887 the venture closed owing to a lack of demand and the poor quality of the clay.

Traces of these activities remain today, mainly as building foundations and pottery fragments. Waugh was also responsible for expanding the number of buildings on the island – creating the now ruined village of Maryland (named after Waugh's wife), as well as adding a new gatehouse and tower in the Tudor style. Waugh also paid for the construction of a new pier, adorned with castellated watch towers. Another large expenditure was the construction of St Mary's church, built in the Gothic style, and also named after his wife. The foundation stone was laid by Sir Harry Smith in 1853 and construction was completed a year later. Inside the church there is a monument to Waugh as well as the tomb of the late owner Charles van Raalte. Part of the church is dedicated to the Scouting movement and the flags of the Scout and Girl Guide movements line either side of the main altar.

After falling heavily into debt the Waughs fled to Spain. The island was acquired by creditors and sold in 1873 to George Cavendish-Bentinck, who added Jersey cows to Brownsea and expanded the island's agriculture. He filled the island with several Italian Renaissance sculptures, some of which still decorate the church and the quay. The 1881 census recorded a total population of 270 people on the island, the majority of whom provided a labour force for the pottery works. After his death, the island was sold to Kenneth Robert Balfour in 1891. Following the introduction of electric lighting, the castle was gutted by fire in 1896. It was subsequently rebuilt, and in 1901 Balfour put the island up for sale.

20th century
The island was purchased by wealthy stockbroker Charles van Raalte who used the island as a residential holiday retreat. During this time the castle was renovated and served as host to famous visitors such as Guglielmo Marconi. Robert Baden-Powell, a close friend of the van Raaltes, hosted an experimental camp for boys on the island in the summer of 1907. Brownsea was largely self-supporting, with a kitchen garden and a dairy herd. Many of the pottery factory workers had stayed on after it closed, farming and working for the owners.

Charles van Raalte died in Calcutta in February 1908 and his wife eventually sold the island in 1925. In 1927 it was purchased at auction by Mary Bonham-Christie for £125,000. A recluse by nature, she ordered a mass eviction of the island's residents to the mainland. Most of the island was abandoned and gradually reverted to natural heath and woodland. In 1934, a wild fire caused devastation after burning for a week. Much of the island was reduced to ashes, and the buildings to the east were only saved by a change of wind direction. Traumatised by the event, Bonham-Christie banned all public access to the island for the rest of her life.

During the Second World War large flares were placed on the western end of the island to mislead Luftwaffe bombers away from the port of Poole. The decoy saved Poole and Bournemouth from 1000 t of German bombs, but the deserted village of Maryland was destroyed. In April 1961, Bonham-Christie died at 98 years old and her grandson gave the island to the Treasury to pay her death duties. Concerned the island could be sold to commercial developers, a campaign was started by local conservationist, Helen Brotherton, with the aim of purchasing the island to protect its natural habitats.

The National Trust subsequently agreed to take over responsibility for the island if enough funds were raised and in 1962 it purchased Brownsea for £100,000. Work was carried out to prepare the island for visitors; tracks were cleared through areas overgrown with rhododendrons and firebreaks were created to prevent repetition of the 1934 fire. The Dorset Wildlife Trust leased a nature reserve on the north of the island, the Scout and Guide Movements were allowed to return and the castle was renovated and leased to the John Lewis Partnership for use as a staff hotel. The island was opened to the public in May 1963 by Olave, Lady Baden-Powell, the Chief Guide, at a ceremony attended by members of the 1907 camp. Soon after Brownsea Island was opened to the public, it was attracting more than 10,000 visitors a year. Larger boats means that today the island attracts some 110,000 visitors annually.

Since 1964 the island has been host to the Brownsea Open Air Theatre, annually performing the works of William Shakespeare. The island has a visitor centre and museum, displaying the island's history. There is also a newly located shop and cafe, with one holiday cottage on the quay. At the Scout camp at the southwest of the Island there is an outdoor centre and a trading post shop which is focused on the Scout movement.

21st century
The Dorset Wildlife Trust operates on the island from The Villa, previously the island vicarage. The island has a single post box that is emptied each day. In October 2008, the island was featured on BBC One's annual Autumnwatch programme.

There is an annual round-the-island swim of 4+1/2 mi run by the RLSS Poole Lifeguards.

Scouting
From 1 August until 8 August 1907, Robert Baden-Powell held an experimental camp on the island, to test out his Scouting ideas. He gathered 21 boys of mixed social backgrounds (from boys' schools in the London area and a section of boys from the Poole, Parkstone, Hamworthy, Bournemouth, and Winton Boys' Brigade units) and held a week-long camp. The boys took part in activities such as camping, observation, woodcraft, chivalry, lifesaving and patriotism. Following the successful camp, Baden-Powell published his first book on the Scouting movement in 1908, Scouting for Boys, and the international Scouting movement grew rapidly.

Boy Scouts continued to camp on the island until the 1930s, when all public access to the island was forbidden by the island's owner. After ownership of the island transferred to the National Trust, a permanent 20 ha Scout camp site was opened in 1963 by Olave Baden-Powell.

In August 2007, 100 years after the first experimental camp, Brownsea Island was the focus of worldwide celebrations of the centenary of Scouting. Four camps were set up on the island including a replica of the original 1907 camp, and hundreds of Scouts and Girl Guides from 160 countries travelled to the island to take part in the celebrations. Also present on the Island that day were 17 descendants of Baden-Powell.

Twinning
Brownsea Island is twinned with:
 * 🇫🇷 Île de Tatihou, France

title: Brownsea Island


text:
Apical

Apical means "pertaining to an apex". It may refer to:

 * Apical ancestor, refers to the last common ancestor of an entire group, such as a species (biology) or a clan (anthropology)
 * Apical (anatomy), an anatomical term of location for features located opposite the base of an organism or structure
 * Apical (chemistry), a position in certain molecular geometries in chemistry
 * Apical (dentistry), direction towards the root tip of a tooth
 * Apical consonant, a consonant produced with the tip of the tongue
 * Apical dendrite, a type of dendrite found on pyramidal neurons
 * Apical dominance, the phenomenon whereby the main, central stem of a plant is dominant over other side stems
 * Apical membrane, in cell biology the surface of a plasma membrane that faces inward to the lumen
 * Apical meristem, or apex, on a flower

title: Apical


text:
Biopreparat

The All-Union Science Production Association Biopreparat (Биопрепарат, lit: "biological preparation") was a Soviet agency created in April 1974, which spearheaded the largest and most sophisticated offensive biological warfare program the world has ever seen. It was a vast, ostensibly civilian, network employing 30–40,000 personnel and incorporating five major military-focused research institutes, numerous design and instrument-making facilities, three pilot plants and five dual-use production plants. The network pursued major offensive research and development programs which genetically engineered microbial strains to be resistant to an array of antibiotics. In addition, bacterial agents were created with the ability to produce various peptides, yielding strains with wholly new and unexpected pathogenic properties.

Origins
The origins of the Biopreparat network are closely connected with the creation in the 1950s by the USSR, under the leadership of Nikita Sergeevich Khrushchev, of biological warfare mobilisation facilities hidden within newly built civil production plants. The construction of the first major dual-use plant, the Berdsk Chemical Factory, located 26 km south of Novosibirsk, began in 1957 in response to a decree by the USSR Council of Ministers on the development of the Soviet chemical and microbiological industry. A second dual-use facility, the Omutninsk Chemical Factory, located in Vostochnyi, 150 km north-east of Kirov, was created in accordance with a decree issued on the 2 August 1958 by the CPSU and the Council of Ministers. The idea behind the new plants was that in the event of wartime emergency they could switch from the output of civil microbiological products to the production of military biological agents. Both the Berdsk and the Omutninsk facilities were transferred to Biopreparat upon its creation in 1974.

Another key institution which Biopreparat was to draw heavily upon for the recruitment of scientific personnel with knowledge of biological weapons was the Scientific-Research Technical Bureau (Nauchno-issledovatel'skoe tekhnicheskoe byuro or NITB). It was created in August 1958 under the USSR Ministry of Defence's Fifteenth Administration, which at this time managed the Soviet Union's BW programme. NITB had the task of developing technology for use in the creation of dual-use pharmaceutical and microbiological enterprises. It also had the responsibility of maintaining the military components of the Soviet dual-use facilities in a constant state of readiness. Most of the key staff members at NITB were transferred to Biopreparat in 1974.

Establishment
On the 24 April 1974, the USSR's Main Administration of the Microbiological Industry (Glavmikrobioprom) issued Order 131 DSP which created the All-Union Science Production Association Biopreparat. On the 26 June 1974, a number of the Soviet Union's existing dual-use BW facilities were transferred to the new agency. These included the Berdsk Chemical Factory and the Omutninsk Chemical Factory. The Biopreparat project was reportedly initiated by academician Yuri Anatol'evich Ovchinnikov, who convinced General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev that development of biological weapons was necessary. The research at Biopreparat constituted a violation of the terms of the Biological Weapons Convention of 1972, which outlawed biological weapons.

Exposure in the West
Biopreparat 's research and development (R&D) programmes were from the very outset subject to extraordinary levels of secrecy and compartmentalization. The first significant intelligence reaching the West regarding the nature and extent of this Soviet covert BW effort resulted from the defection to the UK in October 1989 of a high-level Biopreparat scientist, Vladimir Artemovich Pasechnik (1937–2001). The latter was able to provide a detailed account of the vast scope of Moscow's clandestine program. As a result of Pasechnik's testimony, British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and US President George H. W. Bush were able to apply pressure on Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev to open up Russia's germ warfare facilities to a team of outside inspectors. When the inspectors toured four of the sites in 1991, they were met with denials and evasions. Production tanks, the purpose of which seemed to be to manufacture large quantities of hazardous materials, were clean and sterile when presented to inspectors. Laboratories had been stripped of equipment before being presented to inspectors.

Pasechnik's revelations that the program was much greater in scope than previously suspected were confirmed in 1992 with the travel to the United States of Colonel Kanatzhan Baizakovich Alibekov (b. 1950). The latter, who subsequently adopted the name of Ken Alibek, had served as First Deputy Director of Biopreparat from 1988 to 1992. Alibekov later wrote the book Biohazard (1999) detailing publicly his extensive inside knowledge of the structure, goals, operations and achievements of Biopreparat. He was also featured in the October 13, 1998 episode of Frontline entitled "Plague War".

Changing role of Biopreparat, 1985 - present
Biopreparat had three distinct, and, at times overlapping, phases of its existence. From its origins in April 1974 through to the collapse of the Soviet Union in December 1991, and indeed for some undetermined time thereafter, it was engaged in a major offensive BW research programme. It also maintained five dual-use manufacturing plants. In March 1985, with the election by the Politboro of Mikhail Gorbachev as General Secretary of the CPSU, Biopreparat increased in size and political importance and began to emerge also as a major player with regard to the civil biopharmaceutical sector. By 1988, in this second phase, the Biopreparat network incorporated no less than 40 facilities, operating in 15 different cities and had control of domestic production of vaccines, antibiotics and other essential medicines. It was precisely at this moment that Alibekov emerged as a key interlocutor between Biopreparat and a number of Western pharmaceutical companies. In the third and final phase during the 2000s, Biopreparat was divested of control of nearly all R&D institutes and manufacturing facilities. Henceforward, it assumed a highly diminished role, focused on export control and other matters and only maintained a small headquarters staff.

Operations
Biopreparat was a system of nominally civilian, research and design institutes, pilot plants and dual-use manufacturing facilities located mainly at sites in European Russia, in which a small army of scientists and technicians worked on bacterial and viral pathogens with a view to developing a new generation of biological weapons. It incorporated capacity with the potential to produce weaponized anthrax in the Soviet Union and was a leader in the development of new bioweapons technologies.

Facilities
The project incorporated the following R&D, design, pilot plant and production facilities:
 * All-Union Scientific-Research Design Institute of Applied Biochemistry (VNIIbiokhimmashproekt), Moscow
 * All-Union Scientific-Research Institute of Applied Microbiology (VNII PM), Obolensk
 * All-Union Institute of Highly Pure Biochemical Preparations (VNII OChB), Leningrad
 * All-Union Scientific-Research Institute of Molecular Biology (VNII MB), Kol'tsovo
 * Institute of Immunology, Lyubuchany
 * Experimental Design Bureau of Precision Biological Engineering (OKB TBM), Kirishi
 * Experimental Design Bureau of Automation Equipment (OKBA), Yoshkar-Ola
 * Stepnogorsk Scientific Experimental-Industrial Base (SNOPB), Stepnogorsk, northern Kazakhstan
 * Berdsk Scientific Experimental-Industrial Base (BNOPB), Berdsk
 * Omutninsk Scientific Experimental Industrial Base (ONOPB), Omutninsk
 * Berdsk Chemical Factory, Berdsk
 * Omutninsk Chemical Factory, Omutninsk

Pathogens
Research was conducted on a range of bacterial and viral pathogens with a view to their potential weaponization. These included:
 * Bacillus anthracis (the causative agent of anthrax)
 * Yersinia pestis (the causative agent of plague)
 * Francisella tularensis (the causative agent of tularaemia)
 * Brucella sp. (the causative agent of Brucellosis)
 * Smallpox virus
 * Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus
 * Marburg virus
 * Machupo virus

The only reliable data with regard to production capacity of weaponised agents concerns SNOPB (Stepnogorsk). Here, the plant is estimated to have incorporated capacity for the production of around 300 metric tonnes of weaponized B. anthracis spores per ten-month production cycle.

Directors
Major General (Reserves) Vsevolod Ivanovich Ogarkov (April 1974–1979)

Colonel (Reserves) Anatolii Anatol'evich Miklashevskii (1979)

Lieutenant General (Reserves) Yurii Tikhonovich Kalinin (1980 – April 2001)

First Deputy Directors
Major General (Reserves) Anatoliy Vorobyev (1978–1988)

Colonel (Reserves) Kanatzhan Alibekov (1988–1992)

title: Biopreparat


text:
CCCP (disambiguation)

СССР (Союз Советских Социалистических Республик —СССР; Soyuz Sovetskih Socialisticheskih Respublik, SSSR in Latin script) is a Russian abbreviation for the Soviet Union or Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).

CCCP may also refer to:

 * C.C.C.P. (band), a German synthpop group
 * CCCP Fedeli alla linea, an Italian band formed in 1982
 * California Code of Civil Procedure
 * Carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenyl hydrazone, a toxic ionophore and decoupler of the respiratory chain
 * Combined Community Codec Pack, a software pack for Microsoft Windows to play multimedia content
 * Climate Change and Carbon Plan, a strategic plan adopted by the Oregon Board of Forestry to set high level goals for addressing climate action through forest management policy.

title: CCCP (disambiguation)