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Charlestown, Boston

Charlestown is the oldest neighborhood in Boston, Massachusetts, in the United States. Also called Mishawum by the Massachusett, it is located on a peninsula north of the Charles River, across from downtown Boston, and also adjoins the Mystic River and Boston Harbor waterways. Charlestown was laid out in 1629 by engineer Thomas Graves, one of its earliest settlers, during the reign of Charles I of England. It was originally a separate town and the first capital of the Massachusetts Bay Colony.

Charlestown became a city in 1848 and was annexed by Boston on January 5, 1874. With that, it also switched from Middlesex County, to which it had belonged since 1643, to Suffolk County. It has had a substantial Irish-American population since the migration of Irish people during the Great Irish Famine of the 1840s. Since the late 1980s, the neighborhood has changed dramatically because of its proximity to downtown and its colonial architecture. A mix of yuppie and upper-middle-class gentrification has influenced much of the area, as it has in many of Boston's neighborhoods, but Charlestown still maintains a strong Irish-American population.

In the 21st century, Charlestown's diversity has expanded dramatically, along with growing rates of the very poor and very wealthy. Today Charlestown is a largely residential neighborhood, with much housing near the waterfront, overlooking the Boston skyline. Charlestown is home to many historic sites, hospitals and organizations, with access from the Orange Line Sullivan Square or Community College stops or the I-93 expressway.

History

Thomas and Jane Walford were the original English settlers of the peninsula between the Charles and the Mystic. They were given a grant by Sir Robert Gorges, with whom they had settled at Wessagusset (Weymouth) in September 1623 and arrived at what they called Mishawaum in 1624. John Endicott, first governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony, sent William, Richard and Ralph Sprague to Mishawaum to lay out a settlement. Thomas Walford, acting as an interpreter with the Massachusett Indians, negotiated with the local sachem Wonohaquaham for Endicott and his people to settle there. Although Walford had a virtual monopoly on the region's available furs, he welcomed the newcomers and helped them in any way he could, unaware that his Episcopalian religious beliefs would cause him to be banished from Massachusetts to Portsmouth, New Hampshire within three years.

Originally a Puritan English city during the Colonial era, Charlestown proper was founded in 1628 and settled July 4, 1629, by Thomas Graves, Increase Nowell, Simon Hoyt, the Rev. Francis Bright, and the Spragues (Ralph, Richard, & William Sprague), among some 100 others who preceded the Great Migration. John Winthrop's company stopped here for some time in 1630, before deciding to accept the invitation of William Blaxton to settle across the Charles River with him on the Shawmut peninsula. This was the first act in the foundation of the city of Boston. The territory of Charlestown was initially quite large. From it, Woburn was separated in 1642, Malden in 1649 (including what is now Melrose and Everett) and Stoneham in 1725. South Medford, the land south of the Mystic River (now surrounded by Somerville), was known as "Mistick Field" and was transferred from Charlestown to Medford in 1754. This grant also included the "Charlestown Wood Lots" (the Medford part of the Middlesex Fells), and part of what was at the time Woburn (now Winchester). Other parts of Medford were transferred to Charlestown in 1811. Still-rural Somerville was split off in 1842 as Charlestown was urbanizing. Everett, Burlington, Arlington and Cambridge also acquired areas originally allocated to Charlestown. Landfill operations eliminated the narrow Charlestown Neck that connected the northwest end of the Charlestown Peninsula to the mainland at Sullivan Square.

On June 17, 1775, the Charlestown Peninsula was the site of the Battle of Bunker Hill, named for a hill at the northwest end of the peninsula near Charlestown Neck. British troops unloaded at Moulton's Point and much of the battle took place on Breed's Hill, which overlooked the harbor from about 400 yards off the southern end of the peninsula. Charlestown, including its wharves and dockyards, was almost completely torched during the battle by British forces. The town was not appreciably rebuilt until the end of hostilities but, in 1786, the first bridge across the Charles River connected Boston with Charlestown. An 87 acre Navy Yard was established in 1800; Charlestown State Prison opened in 1805. The Bunker Hill Monument was erected between 1827 and 1843 using Quincy granite brought to the site by a combination of purpose-built railway and barge. Notable businesses included the Bunker Hill Breweries (1821) and Schrafft's candy company (1861).

The Charlestown Branch Railroad opened in 1840 to Sweet's Wharf. Tudor Wharf was the departure point for the ships of the Tudor Ice Company.

Around the 1860s an influx of Irish immigrants arrived in Charlestown. The area long remained an Irish and Catholic stronghold similar to South Boston, Somerville, and Dorchester, to the extent that the informal demonym "Townie" continues to imply the working-class Irish, as opposed to newer immigrants.

During the Civil War, over 26,000 men joined the Union Army and Navy at the Navy Yard, which was also responsible for constructing some of the most famous vessels of the conflict: the Merrimack, the Hartford, and the Monadnock. Following the war, the city commissioned Martin Milmore to construct its civil war memorial, dedicated in 1872 and still standing in the community's Training Field.

The city developed a water supply from the Mystic Lakes and, on October 7, 1873, a vote was held to determine whether Charlestown should leave Middlesex County and join Boston as part of Suffolk County. Out of its 32,040 residents, 2240 voted in support of the merger and 1947 opposed. Boston residents also approved the question, 5,960–1,868. Charlestown's separate city government was dissolved the next year.

During the early 1960s, the city initiated plans to demolish and redevelop sixty percent of the housing in Charlestown. In 1963, the Boston Redevelopment Authority (BRA) held a town meeting to discuss their development plans with the community. The BRA's dealings with Boston's West End had created an atmosphere of distrust towards urban renewal in Boston, and Charlestown residents opposed the plan by an overwhelming majority. By 1965, the plan had been reduced to tearing down only eleven percent of the neighborhood, as well as the removal of the elevated rail tracks.

Throughout the 1960s until the mid-1990s, Charlestown was infamous for its Irish Mob presence. Charlestown's McLaughlin Brothers were involved in a gang war with neighboring Somerville's Winter Hill Gang, during the Irish Mob Wars of the 1960s. In the late 1980s, however, Charlestown underwent a massive Yuppie gentrification process similar to that of the South End. Drawn to its proximity to downtown and its colonial, red-brick, row-house housing stock, similar to that of Beacon Hill, many yuppie and upper-middle-class professionals moved to the neighborhood. In the late 1990s, additional gentrification took place, similar to that in neighboring Somerville. Today the neighborhood is a mix of yuppies, upper-middle-class and middle-class residents, housing projects, and a large working-class Irish-American demographic and culture that is still predominant.

One of the oldest neighborhoods of Boston, Charlestown is home to the Bunker Hill Monument and historic Charlestown Navy Yard. Charlestown today is a mainly residential neighborhood with an institutional presence. Major institutions include Bunker Hill Community College, Spaulding Rehabilitation Center, and a facility of Massachusetts General Hospital. Many commercial ventures line the Mystic River along Medford Street and Terminal Street. The Navy Yard, home to USS Constitution, is now part of the Boston National Historical Park, which marks the southern edge of the neighborhood. The waterfront has two marinas, Constitution Marina and Shipyard Quarters Marina.

Geography
Charlestown is located north of downtown Boston on a peninsula extending southeastward between the Charles River and the Mystic River.

City Square in the southern part of Charlestown was the location of the city hall before annexation by Boston. It is also the terminus of the Charlestown Bridge and the former Warren Bridge, and was formerly a stop on the Charlestown Elevated. The Central Artery was built between 1951 and 1954, routing elevated ramps through City Square. The Central Artery North Area (CANA) project moved these underground, into the City Square Tunnel, making way for a revitalized surface park.

The .17 acre Thompson Square is located at the confluence of Main Street, Dexter Row, Green Street, and Austin Street. Thompson Square station was formerly a stop on the Charlestown Elevated.

A small portion of Charlestown is north of the Mystic River, containing the northern approach to the Malden Bridge and now the entrance to Encore Boston Harbor (which made jurisdiction over the casino a matter of dispute). This land was formerly a peninsula, but landfill has more completely connected it to the mainland of Everett. This boundary was part of the original 1649 separation of Malden from Charlestown, where the Penny Ferry operated at the time; the first bridge opened on the site in 1787.

Two small hills mostly covered in residential buildings fill the interior of the neighborhood: Bunker Hill, which is more northerly, and Breed's Hill, which is the site of the Bunker Hill Monument. Bunker Hill was named after George Bunker, who had owned it during early settlement in the 1600s.

Arts and culture
Charlestown has many places of historical interest, some of which are included along the northern end of Boston's Freedom Trail. The Freedom Trail ends at the Bunker Hill Monument commemorating the famous Battle of Bunker Hill, an early major battle in the American Revolutionary War. Launched in 1797, the USS Constitution is the oldest commissioned vessel in the US Navy and the oldest warship in the world still afloat. Today it is docked in the Charlestown Navy Yard, today part of the National Park Service. Charlestown was also the location from which Paul Revere began his famous "midnight ride" before the Battles of Lexington and Concord. A restaurant opened in 1780 and still in operation, Warren Tavern, claims to have been one of Revere's favorite taverns. Of Charlestown's churches, St. Mary's (1887–1893) is considered one of the masterpieces of Patrick Keely. In St. John's Episcopal Church, on Devens Street, the central stained glass above the altar is a notable work of William James McPherson, a Boston designer who later designed the stained glass for the Connecticut State Capitol.

The Warren Tavern first opened in 1780. It is located at 2 Pleasant Street. The building was one of the first built after the Battle of Bunker Hill. The Tavern took its name from Joseph Warren, American Patriot who played a key role in the American Revolution and was killed in the Battle of Bunker Hill. It was Warren who directed Paul Revere and William Dawes to send the message to Samuel Adams and John Hancock that the British were setting out to raid the town of Concord. Warren's friend Captain Eliphelet Newell decided to build a tavern named after his friend. George Washington visited the tavern when he came to Massachusetts to visit his friend Benjamin Frothingham. After the Tavern was closed in 1813, the building served other purposes, and then was saved in the 1970s. The Tavern was reopened in 1972.

The Constitution Yacht Charter is located on Boston Harbor.

Demographics
According to the U.S. Census Bureau in its 2007–2011 report, the population of Charlestown is 16,685, comprising 7,843 males and 8,842 females. The largest age group is 25 to 29 years (14.6%), the second-largest is 30 to 34 (12.3%), and the third-largest is 35 to 39 (9.7%).

The majority of the population is white at 12,587 (75.4%). Minorities include Black or African at 1,227 (7.4%), Asian at 1,253 (7.5%), Hispanic or Latino at 1,227 (7.4%), and those of two or more races at 371 (2.2%). In recent years, the percentage of minorities living in Charlestown has increased from 4.9% of the population in 1990 to 23.5% in 2010. The population consists of 15.9% who are foreign born, 48.5% of whom are naturalized citizens, and 51.5% who are not.

The median household income is $89,017, and the median family income is $100,725. The median income for whites is $103,652; that for Blacks or African Americans, $12,143; for Hispanics or Latinos, $30,833; for Asians, $61,875; and for others, $16,876.

Seventeen percent of the population and 37% of the children live below the Federal Poverty Line. Of married couples, 32.4% are living in poverty with families. Of male householders with no wife present, 3.4% live in poverty; and of female householders with no husband, 64.2% live in poverty.

Race and ancestry
According to the 2012–2016 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates, the largest ancestry groups in ZIP Code 02129 are:

Government and infrastructure
The Massachusetts Department of Correction operated the Charlestown State Prison from 1805 until its closure in 1955. The former prison site is occupied by Bunker Hill Community College.

The Boston Navy Yard was located in Charlestown from 1801 until it was closed in 1974.

The United States Postal Service operates the Charlestown Post Office.

Education
Boston's Charlestown neighborhood is served by the Boston Public Schools system. There are also private educational institutions within the neighborhood.

Primary and secondary schools

 * Harvard-Kent Elementary School
 * Clarence R. Edwards Middle School
 * Warren-Prescott K–8 School
 * Charlestown High School

Colleges and universities

 * Bunker Hill Community College's main campus
 * MGH Institute of Health Professions, a graduate school founded by Massachusetts General Hospital
 * Cambridge College

Public libraries
Boston Public Library operates the Charlestown Branch. The library first opened in the Warren Institution for Savings building on January 7, 1862. The library moved to a larger space in the new Charlestown City Hall in 1869. In 1913 the branch moved to the intersection of Monument Avenue and Monument Square, in proximity to the Bunker Hill Monument. The branch moved to its current location in 1970.

Housing policy
The Bunker Hill Public Housing has divided Bunker Hill Street into two Charlestowns. The housing development company Corcoran-SunCal plans to make changes and replace the 1,100 affordable units. "While preserving the affordable units, Corcoran-SunCal will also create approximately 1,700 additional market and moderate-rate units". This company will allow all current residents to move back into the housing complex. According to Project Manager Sarah Barnet, "by creating both affordable and market rate housing at the site the area will become a more thriving section of the neighborhood, a destination area for residents from all over a Charlestown and a high quality place for people to live".

Healthcare

 * Mass General: Charlestown Healthcare Center – MGH Charlestown Healthcare Center is a part of Massachusetts General Hospital. MGH Charlestown has been providing the Charlestown community since 1968. MGH Charlestown works closely with local school and community organizations to provide programs that truly benefit Charlestown's culturally diverse populations.
 * Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital – outpatient facility.
 * NEW Health Charlestown – substance abuse facility with counselors and physicians.

Transportation
The Interstate 93 as the "Northern Expressway viaduct" travels roughly northwest–southeast and passes through the Sullivan Square area. The Interstate act as a boundary of Charlestown neighborhood with points heading west with only two roads heading westward: Cambridge Street in the north and Austin Street/Gilmore Bridge to the south. US 1 diverges with Interstate 93 at the Leonard P. Zakim Bunker Hill Memorial Bridge where US 1 becomes a toll road and passes below Paul Revere Park and City Square before becoming the Tobin Bridge to the City of Chelsea across the Mystic River. State routes passing through Charlestown include 38 to the City of Somerville and 99 to the City of Everett. The sole city-owned road linking the neighborhood Charleston with Downtown Boston is North Washington Street to the Southwest.

According to the Census from 2010 to 2014, 53.7% of the population will drive to work and 30.0% will take a some form of public transportation to get to their jobs and Charlestown is well served by public transportation as it is accessible by several forms of public transportation, including train, bus and ferry.

The train transportation is the MBTA Orange Line, the Community College station, located near Bunker Hill Community College and serves the center of the town; and the Sullivan Square station, located on what was once a narrow neck of land referred to as the Charlestown Neck.

Two bus lines serve Charlestown. Both routes start at Sullivan Square. and travel to the Financial District of downtown Boston. The 93 bus goes from Sullivan Station, downtown via Bunker Hill Street and Haymarket Station. The 92 bus runs from Assembly Square Mall, downtown via Sullivan Square Station, Main Street and Haymarket Station.

Charlestown is also accessible via the Charlestown Navy Yard Ferry Terminal where the MBTA operates a ferry between the Navy Yard and Long Wharf (near the New England Aquarium), making this a popular choice among both commuters and tourists. The Boston Harborwalk and the Freedom Trail pass through the neighborhood.

Films

 * Portions of the 1994 film Blown Away were shot in Charlestown and nearby in Boston Harbor
 * Scenes in Celtic Pride (1996) were filmed in Charlestown
 * In Good Will Hunting (1997), the character Dr. Sean Maguire teaches psychology in Charlestown's Bunker Hill Community College
 * Monument Ave. (1998) about an Irish-American criminal
 * Mystic River (2003), was partly filmed in Charlestown
 * Portions of The Departed (2006) were filmed in Charlestown (standing in for South Boston)
 * The Town (2010) is about bank robbers from Charlestown

Television

 * The 2019 television series City on a Hill is based in Charlestown

Music

 * The minatory song The Boston Burglar from the 1880s, about a bank robber, contains the lines:

 * The Bunker Hill housing development, an area known for its crime and drug use, is featured on the front cover of Blood for Blood's 2004 album Serenity.

Video games

 * In Fallout 4, a post-apocalyptic Charlestown is featured as a major part of the game.
 * In Assassin's Creed 3, Connor Kenway must assassinate a target during the Battle of Bunker Hill.

Notable people

 * Charles R. Adams (1834–1900), Charlestown native, opera singer
 * Charles B. Atwood (1849–1895), born in Charlestown, architect who designed the Reliance Building, among others
 * William Austin (1778–1841), born in Charlestown, state legislator and author
 * Richard Austin (1598–1638), born in Titchfield, Hampshire, England, and died in Charlestown, Middlesex, Massachusetts; emigrated to "New England" on the Bevis
 * Loammi Baldwin (1780–1838), civil engineer
 * Albert Gallatin Blanchard (1810–1891), born in Charlestown, Confederate general in the American Civil War
 * Marion Howard Brazier (1850–1935), journalist, editor, lecturer, clubwoman
 * Shano Collins (1885–1955), baseball player for Boston Red Sox and for 1917 and 1919 World Series teams of Chicago White Sox
 * Thomas Dalton (1794–1883), and his wife Lucy, African American abolitionists and education activists
 * Samuel Dexter (1761–1816), prominent lawyer and cabinet member under John Adams
 * James Frothingham (1786–1864), portrait artist
 * Nathaniel Gorham (1738–1796), a member of the Continental Congress
 * Matt Grzelcyk (b. 1994), NHL hockey player for the Boston Bruins
 * John Harvard (1607–1638), English benefactor and namesake of Harvard University
 * Robert Haswell (1768–c.1801), maritime trader and officer in the United States Navy during the Quasi-War with France
 * Oliver Holden (1765–1831), composer of hymns
 * Charles Wilson Killam (1871–1961), professor of architectural construction and engineering at Harvard University, born in Charlestown
 * Howie Long (b. 1960), Pro Football Hall of Famer and television commentator
 * Samuel F. B. Morse (1791–1872), inventor of the telegraph and Morse code
 * Woolson Morse (1858–1897), early Broadway composer
 * Jack O'Callahan (b. 1957), part of the 1980 Miracle On Ice team. Played for the Chicago Blackhawks and New Jersey Devils in the NHL.
 * John Boyle O'Reilly (1844–1890), Irish-born poet, journalist and fiction writer, lived in Charlestown on Winthrop Square
 * Alice May Bates Rice (1868–?), opera singer
 * Robert Sedgwick (c.1611–1656), English merchant, first major general of the Massachusetts Bay Colony and first governor General of Jamaica
 * Matthew Sherman, Mayor of San Diego 1891–1893, born in Charlestown
 * Daniel C. Stillson (1830–1899), inventor of the Stillson pipe wrench
 * John Hanson Twombly (1814–1893), President of the University of Wisconsin, Methodist minister

title: Charlestown, Boston


text:
Bic Runga

Briolette Kah Bic Runga (born 13 January 1976), recording as Bic Runga, is a New Zealand singer-songwriter and multi-instrumentalist pop artist. Her first three studio albums debuted at number one on the New Zealand Top 40 Album charts. Runga has also found success internationally in Australia, Ireland and the United Kingdom with her 1997 song "Sway".

Early life
Runga was born in Christchurch. Her mother, Sophia Tang, was a Chinese Malaysian lounge singer in Malaysia when she met Joseph Te Okoro Runga, a Māori ex-serviceman. They moved to New Zealand to live. Runga is of Ngāti Kahungunu descent. Regarding her name, she explains: "'You say it Bec, rather than Bic. ... It's Chinese, it's a strange vowel sound which doesn't seem to translate in Australia. It means the colour of jade, which might mean green.'"

Runga grew up in Hornby, Christchurch, surrounded by a musically inclined family, and started recording songs with her sisters, Boh and Pearl, when she was four years old. Runga's older sister Boh was the vocalist in the New Zealand rock group Stellar, while Pearl is a session singer.

She learned how to play drums at the age of eleven, and guitar at about fourteen. Runga also learned to play the keyboard around this time. She attended Cashmere High School, joining high school bands and performing with local jazz groups by her mid-teens.

1993–1997: Early career and Drive
Under the name of "Love Soup", Runga and Kelly Horgan entered the 1993 Smokefreerockquest in Christchurch, winning third place and a music contract with Pagan Records. Using a QE II Arts Council grant, Runga recorded the first Drive EP in Wellington. Unsatisfied with the direction that her music was being taken, she moved to Auckland in 1994 and spent a year writing and performing.

In 1995, she sent a new demo of "Drive" to Sony Music, who signed Runga in September of that year and bought her Wellington recordings from Pagan Records. Sony had her re-record the song with more instruments, but it was eventually her demo that was used on the upcoming album. It entered the Top 10 in New Zealand and won her the APRA Silver Scroll award in 1996.

Runga then released "Bursting Through", the first single from her upcoming album, also entitled Drive. The success of the singles led to the release of her debut album, Drive, in 1997. Runga's song "Sway", along with a duet with Dan Wilson of Semisonic called "Good Morning Baby", were used in the films American Pie, and Cruel Intentions. Six singles were released from the album, while "Sway" was released in New Zealand, Australia, the United Kingdom, and Germany.

Runga has recorded two songs called "Drive". The first was her own, which appeared on her debut album of the same name. The second was a 1999 collaboration with fellow New Zealanders Strawpeople, providing guest vocals for their cover of The Cars' classic 1984 hit.

2000–2008: Beautiful Collision and Birds
In 2000, Runga toured with Tim Finn and Dave Dobbyn, resulting in a release of a live album in November 2000, titled Together in Concert: Live. It peaked at number 2 on the New Zealand charts and has been certified 3× platinum. Runga released her second solo album, Beautiful Collision in 2002. It entered the New Zealand charts at number one and has been certified 10× platinum in New Zealand.

Her third studio album, Birds, was released in New Zealand on 28 November 2005. New Zealand artists Neil Finn (piano) and Anika Moa (backing vocals) contributed to the album. The first single, "Winning Arrow", was released on the same day. It was her third consecutive studio album to enter the New Zealand charts at number one. Birds was certified triple platinum.

Runga played a 'Vietnamese lounge singer' in the 2005 film Little Fish, and covered Gene Pitney's "Something's Gotten Hold of My Heart" for the soundtrack. In the 2006 New Year Honours, Runga was appointed a Member of the New Zealand Order of Merit, for services to music.

In November 2008, Runga released Try to Remember Everything which is a collection of unreleased, new and rare Bic Runga recordings from 1996 to 2008. The album was certified Gold in New Zealand on 14 December 2008, selling over 7,500 copies.

2011–2015: Belle and Anthology
Runga contributed to the score and soundtrack to New Zealand filmmaker Roseanne Liang's debut feature film My Wedding and Other Secrets (2011). In addition to featuring "Say After Me" from Birds, the film also included two tracks ("Hello Hello" and "This Girl's Prepared for War") from her fourth album Belle.

Belle was released in November 2011. Runga completed a 17 date tour across New Zealand and 13 dates across Ireland, United Kingdom and Australia.

A greatest hits album, Anthology, was released on 1 December 2012.

In June 2015, Runga released a new single titled "Dreamed a Dream". This was a collaboration with Hollie Fullbrook of Tiny Ruins, with whom she toured New Zealand in June and July 2015. As well as solo performances by both artists, these shows included covers of songs by Simon & Garfunkel, Yoko Ono, Francoise Hardy, Donovan and Fleetwood Mac.

2016–present: Close Your Eyes and New Zealand Music Hall of Fame
In October 2016, it was announced that Runga would release an album of consisting of ten covers and two original tracks titled Close Your Eyes. "Close Your Eyes" was released on 14 October 2016 as a single.

In November 2016, Runga was inducted into the New Zealand Music Hall of Fame. Recorded Music CEO Damian Vaughan said "Bic is one of our most loved and treasured recording artists, her songs are instantly recognizable and have been part of the fabric of New Zealand for more than 20 years. We're honoured to present Bic with the 2016 Legacy Award and induct her into the NZ Music Hall of Fame".

Personal life
Runga's partner is drummer Kody Nielson. She has three children. She has two sisters who are also musicians, Pearl Runga and Boh Runga.

Honours
In the 2006 New Year Honours Runga was appointed a Member of the New Zealand Order of Merit for services to music.

Studio albums

 * Drive (1997)
 * Beautiful Collision (2002)
 * Birds (2005)
 * Belle (2011)
 * Close Your Eyes (2016)

Compilation albums

 * Try to Remember Everything (2008)
 * Anthology (2012)

Live albums

 * Together in Concert: Live (with Tim Finn and Dave Dobbyn) (2000)
 * Live in Concert with the Christchurch Symphony (with The Christchurch Symphony) (2003)

With Opossom

 * Electric Hawaii (2012)

New Zealand Music Awards
The New Zealand Music Awards are presented annually by Recorded Music NZ recognising outstanding artistic and technical achievements in the recording field.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Bic Runga


text:
Kai

Kai or KAI may refer to:

Fictional entities

 * Kai (name), includes list of fictional characters called Kai
 * The Kai, a fictional society in the Lone Wolf gamebooks
 * Cobra Kai, a fictional Karate dojo in The Karate Kid movies and Cobra Kai streaming television series.
 * Dragon Ball Z Kai, revised version of the anime series Dragon Ball Z

Music

 * Kai (band), an Asian-American R&B musical group
 * Kai (Canadian singer) (Alessia De Gasperis-Brigante, born 1990), Canadian singer-songwriter
 * Kai (musician, born 1993), musician in the Japanese metal band Esprit D'Air and English rock band The Sisters of Mercy
 * Kai (musician, born 1981), (Jung Ki-yeol), South Korean singer and actor
 * Kai (entertainer, born 1994) (Kim Jong-in), member of the South Korean-Chinese boy group Exo
 * Kai (EP), the eponymous debut extended play by Korean singer Kai of EXO
 * Kai, drummer in the Japanese rock band The Gazette
 * Kai, a compilation album in the Dir En Grey discography (2001)
 * "Kai", song by the Future Sound of London, from their 1994 album, ISDN
 * Kai, a kind of overtone singing in the Altai Republic and Khakassia

Businesses and organizations

 * Korea Aerospace Industries, a South Korean aerospace company
 * PT Kereta Api Indonesia, Indonesian railway operator
 * KAI Commuter, an Indonesian commuter rail operator
 * Communist Workers' International (German: Kommunistische Arbeiter-Internationale), a council communist international
 * Studio Kai, a Japanese animation studio

People

 * Kai (name) includes lists of people with the given name and surname
 * Kayı (tribe) or Kai tribe, an Oghuz Turkic people
 * Kai (wrestler) (Atsushi Sakai, born 1983), Japanese professional wrestler
 * Kai the Hatchet-Wielding Hitchhiker, hitchhiker Caleb McGillvary, subject of a viral video and a Netflix documentary

Places

 * Kai, Iran, a village in West Azerbaijan Province, Iran
 * Kai Islands, Indonesia
 * Kaï, Mali, a small town and commune
 * Kai Province, an old Japanese province
 * Kai, Yamanashi, a Japanese city
 * Kaizhou District, formerly Kai County, Chongqing Municipality, China

Other uses

 * Kai (conjunction), in Greek, Coptic and Esperanto
 * KaiOS, a mobile operating system for keypad feature phones
 * Kai Restaurant, Arizona
 * kai, ISO 639-3 language code for Karekare language
 * Kanaanäische und Aramäische Inschriften, standard source for text of Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions not contained in Tanakh or Old Testament
 * Kai stingaree (Urolophus kaianus), a species of stingray in the family Urolophidae
 * Kai, a cultivar of Karuka
 * Kai, in Māori cuisine and New Zealand cooking, a term widely used to refer to food
 * Kai, short for Kai Ken, a Japanese dog breed named after the Kai Province

title: Kai


text:
Talk:Outline of library and information science

Untitled
I believe that first priority should be given to:

 * writing practical articles on research methodology, such as
 * how to use a library and its services,
 * how to find and evaluate information on the Internet, and

 * teaching and giving advice to those creating and using Wikipedia on
 * linking and organizing Wikipedia articles, and
 * searching Wikipedia for information.

Also, notice that many of the articles in this list are written from a computer science point of view, and need to be broadened to include other formats.

GUllman
 * I am not sure that most of the WP people really want to be taught by us how to make and use WP--Librarians do have some special knowledge, but it's not necessarily recognized here.
 * As for practical library user instruction, we need a separate section, and an overall name--preferably one that won't conflict or arouse antagonism. Perhaps, quite simply, "Library Help" DGG 02:44, 23 September 2006 (UTC)

I know little about info sci but this seems to be a far more useful page than the Library and information science page. Why not link this page to the main page rather than the current link? Or even better still, why not add the hierarchical tree of links from this page to the info sci page. Maybe edit the info sci page down to a very brief summary and list the internal links. Anything else (including lists of associations) could go into seperate articles. That is my 2 cents worth on a topic I know nothing about. user:mydogategodshat

 * The short answer is that I'm following the example that has been set up for the other subject categories. There is no real information on this page; it's just a list of articles and potential articles, and who knows how large it will grow. Some of the "List of ... topics" and "Wikipedia:... basic topics" pages such as List of mathematics topics have grown so large that the page cannot be edited.
 * Depending on what they want to look up, people should have a choice whether they want to read a broad overview of a field they know nothing about, such as Library and Information Science, or choose from a list of specific topics, such as Library and Information Science basic topics. If they want to do the first one, they choose the links on the Main Page. If they want to do the second, they should use the Lists of articles by category page, which I just finished rewriting and organizing.  I think that both of these, along with the List of reference tables, should be given equal prominance on the Main Page.GUllman 18:24 23 Jun 2003 (UTC)

 * These are incredible lists: someone has been very busy. I will add a marketing list and a management list. How do you get around the problem of incompleteness? Hundreds of articles are added every day. Is there some automatic algorism that keeps the lists up to date? And why arn't these list more visible on the main page? I didnt know they existed. They are extremely useful and deserve easier access. - - user:mydogategodshat

 * I agree the Lists of articles by category should be more prominent (but of course, I'm biased). They aren't more well-known because none of them are complete and because they are all edited by hand. Someone just picks their favorite subject and adds existing and new articles until they get tired of doing it.
 * I know of two proposals for doing this automatically:
 * Category_experiment seems to have been an experiment where a computer tried to find all the articles related to Philosophy by following links.
 * http://meta.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_categories_in_Wikipedia which proposes that every article includes a hidden code so the wiki software can understand what general "field of study" the article falls under.

 * GUllman
 * I have decided to add links to list of management topics and list of marketing topics to all the marketing and management articles I have written and will write in the future. - user:mydogategodshat
 * I have decided to add links to list of management topics and list of marketing topics to all the marketing and management articles I have written and will write in the future. - user:mydogategodshat

Information science Pioneers in North America
Source: http://www.libsci.sc.edu/bob/ISP/isp.htm

There should be an article about each of them!

Notability?
Thanks for reminding us of this list, from http://www.libsci.sc.edu/bob/ISP/isp.htm, part of an ASIST project, hosted by U S Carolina School of Lib and Inf Sci. I had heard about the project, but forgotten. Some of them are indeed notable, like Bush. Most of the notable ones would also be claimed as library pioneeers, like Billings ; these two, appropriately, have articles already. Others may be suitable for a specialized subject directory, but hardly here. All we could do for most is summarize the inf in the ASIST project. I suggest that we simply add a link, for a more complete list, see ...   [User:GUllman]], you made the suggestion, do you perhaps want to shorten the list a little? DGG 02:44, 23 September 2006 (UTC)

A
 * Andrew Adolphe Aines

B
 * Thomas Campbell Bagg
 * Dale Burdette Baker
 * Joseph Becker
 * Lodewyk Bendikson
 * Marsden S. Blois
 * Harold Borko
 * Charles Percy Bourne
 * Helen Louise Brownson

C
 * Verner Warren Clapp
 * Pauline Atherton Cochrane
 * Russell Cleven Coile
 * Evan Jay Crane
 * Carlos Albert Cuadra
 * Ann T. Curran

D
 * Watson Davis
 * Melvin Sherman Day
 * James Louis Dolby

E
 * Arthur W. Elias

F
 * Bernard M. Fry
 * Steve Furth
 * Herman Fussler

G
 * Fielding Hudson Garrison
 * Cloyd Dake Gull

H
 * Laurence Bedford Heilprin
 * Madeline M. (Berry) Henderson
 * Herman H. Henkle
 * Mary Herner
 * Saul Herner
 * Karl F. Heumann
 * Don Hillman
 * Joseph Hilsenrath

J
 * Eugene Bernard Jackson

K
 * Allen Kent
 * Myer Mike Kessler
 * Frederick Gridley Kilgour
 * Donald Ward King
 * Manfred Kochen
 * John W. Kuipers

L
 * Arthur Becket Lamb
 * Sanford Vincent Larkey
 * Milton Oliver Lee
 * Ferdinand Francis Leimkuhler
 * Jr. Lide, David Reynolds
 * Ben-Ami Lipetz
 * Alfred James Lokta

M
 * Melvin Earl (Bill) Maron
 * Herbert Menzel
 * Calvin Northrup Mooers
 * Jack Cassius Morris
 * John Wallace Murdock

P
 * William J. Paisley
 * Austin McDowell Patterson
 * James Whitney Perry
 * Eugene Barnum Power
 * Derek DeSolla Price

R
 * Malcom Rigby
 * Frank Bradway Rogers
 * Alexander Rudolph

S
 * Claire Kelly Schultz
 * Atherton Seidell
 * Winifred Sewell
 * Ralph Robert Shaw
 * Gustavus Simpson
 * Herman Skolnik
 * Gerald J. Sophar
 * Charles H. Stevens
 * Roger Kent Summit

T
 * Seymour Irving Taine
 * Fred Alonzo Tate
 * Vernon Dale Tate
 * Mortimer Taube
 * Robert Saxton Taylor
 * Yeram Sarkis Touloukian

V
 * George E. Vladutz

W
 * Israel Warheit
 * Warren Sr. Weaver
 * Herbert S. White
 * William Joseph Wiswesser
 * Harold A. Wooster

Rename proposal for this page and all the pages of the set this page belongs to
See the proposal at the Village pump

The Transhumanist 09:20, 4 July 2008 (UTC)

Guidelines for outlines
Guidelines for the development of outlines are being drafted at Outlines.

Your input and feedback is welcomed and encouraged.

The Transhumanist 00:31, 24 May 2009 (UTC)

The "History of" section needs links!
Please add some relevant links to the history section.

Links can be found in the "History of" article for this subject, in the "History of" category for this subject, or in the corresponding navigation templates. Or you could search for topics on Google - most topics turn blue when added to Wikipedia as internal links.

The Transhumanist 00:31, 24 May 2009 (UTC)

Quick explanation of Wikipedia outlines
"Outline" is short for "hierarchical outline". There are two types of outlines: sentence outlines (like those you made in school to plan a paper), and topic outlines (like the topical synopses that professors hand out at the beginning of a college course). Outlines on Wikipedia are primarily topic outlines that serve 2 main purposes: they provide taxonomical classification of subjects showing what topics belong to a subject and how they are related to each other (via their placement in the tree structure), and as subject-based tables of contents linked to topics in the encyclopedia. The hierarchy is maintained through the use of heading levels and indented bullets. See Outlines for a more in-depth explanation. The Transhumanist 00:07, 9 August 2015 (UTC)

Requested move 28 June 2022

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

Outline of library science → Outline of library and information science – Library and information science is a well established, interdisciplinary field of study that have numbers of overlapping concepts and terms that are leant upon to understand the subject. I feel renaming this page would help align this better as well as better capturing the content that is currently on this page, with a mix of library and information science-related topics. Jamzze (talk) 20:04, 28 June 2022 (UTC)

 * Support It makes sense and fits with the LIS sidebar template. Gusfriend (talk) 12:57, 5 July 2022 (UTC)

The discussion above is closed. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.


text:
Workers' compensation

Workers' compensation or workers' comp is a form of insurance providing wage replacement and medical benefits to employees injured in the course of employment in exchange for mandatory relinquishment of the employee's right to sue his or her employer for the tort of negligence. The trade-off between assured, limited coverage and lack of recourse outside the worker compensation system is known as "the compensation bargain.” One of the problems that the compensation bargain solved is the problem of employers becoming insolvent as a result of high damage awards. The system of collective liability was created to prevent that and thus to ensure security of compensation to the workers.

While plans differ among jurisdictions, provision can be made for weekly payments in place of wages (functioning in this case as a form of disability insurance), compensation for economic loss (past and future), reimbursement or payment of medical and like expenses (functioning in this case as a form of health insurance), and benefits payable to the dependents of workers killed during employment.

General damage for pain and suffering and punitive damages for employer negligence are generally not available in workers' compensation plans, and negligence is generally not an issue in the case.

Origin and international comparison
Laws regarding workers compensation vary, but the Workers' Accident Insurance system put into place by Prussian Chancellor Otto von Bismarck in 1884 with the start of Workers' Accident Laws is often cited as a model for the rest of Europe and, later, the United States. After the early Prussian experiments, the development of compensation laws around the world was in important respects the result of transnational networks among policymakers and social scientists. Thus while different countries have their own unique history of workers' compensation, compensation laws developed around the world as a global phenomenon, with each country's deliberation on compensation laws being informed by deliberation in other countries.

Statutory no-fault compensation
Workers' compensation statutes are intended to eliminate the need for litigation and the limitations of common law remedies by having employees give up the potential for pain- and suffering-related awards in exchange for not being required to prove tort (legal fault) on the part of their employer. The laws provide employees with monetary awards to cover loss of wages directly related to the accident as well as to compensate for permanent physical impairments and medical expenses.

The laws also provide benefits for dependents of those workers who are killed in work-related accidents or illnesses. Some laws also protect employers and fellow workers by limiting the amount an injured employee can recover from an employer and by eliminating the liability of co-workers in most accidents. In the United States, state statutes establish this framework for most types of employment, while federal statutes are limited to federal employees or to workers employed in some significant aspect of interstate commerce.

The exclusive remedy provision states that workers' compensation is the sole remedy available to injured workers, thus preventing employees from also making tort liability claims against their employers.

Common law remedies
In common law nations, the system was motivated by an "unholy trinity" of tort defenses available to employers, including contributory negligence, assumption of risk, and the fellow servant rule.

Common law imposes obligations on employers to provide a safe workplace, provide safe tools, give warnings of dangers, provide adequate co-worker assistance (fit, trained, suitable "fellow servants") so that the worker is not overburdened, and promulgate and enforce safe work rules.

Claims under the common law for worker injury are limited by three defenses afforded employers:

 * The Fellow Servant Doctrine is that employer can be held harmless to the extent that injury was caused in whole or in part by a peer of the injured worker.
 * Contributory negligence allows an employer to be held harmless to the extent that the injured employee failed to use adequate precautions required by ordinary prudence.
 * Assumption of risk allows an employer to be held harmless to the extent the injured employee voluntarily accepted the risks associated with the work.

Australia
As Australia experienced a relatively influential labour movement in the late 19th and early 20th century, statutory compensation was implemented very early in Australia. Each territory has its own legislation and its own governing body.

A typical example is Work Safe Victoria, which manages Victoria's workplace safety system. Its responsibilities include helping employees avoid workplace injuries occurring, enforcing Victoria's occupational and safety laws, providing reasonably priced workplace injury insurance for employers, assisting injured workers to return to the workforce, and managing the workers' compensation scheme by ensuring the prompt delivery of appropriate services and adopting prudent financial practices.

Compensation law in New South Wales has recently (2013) been overhauled by the state government. In a push to speed up the process of claims and to reduce the amount of claims, a threshold of 11% WPI (whole person impairment) was implemented for physical injuries and 15% for psychiatric injuries

Workers' compensation regulators for each of the states and territories are as follows:
 * Australian Capital Territory – Work Safe Act
 * New South Wales – State Insurance Regulatory Authority (formerly WorkCover NSW)
 * Northern Territory – NT Work Safe
 * Queensland – The Workers' Compensation Regulator (formerly Q-COMP)
 * South Australia – ReturnToWork SA (from 1 July 2015)
 * Tasmania – WorkCover Tasmania
 * Victoria – WorkSafe Victoria
 * Western Australia – WorkCover WA

Every employer must comply with the state, territory or commonwealth legislation, as listed below, which applies to them:
 * Federal legislation – Safety, Rehabilitation and Compensation Act 1988
 * New South Wales – Workers Compensation Act 1987 and the Workplace Injury Management and Workers Compensation Act 1998
 * Northern Territory – Work Health and Safety (National Uniform Legislation) Regulations
 * Australian Capital Territory – Workers Compensation Act 1951
 * Queensland – Workers Compensation and Rehabilitation Act 2003
 * South Australia – Workers Rehabilitation and Compensation Act 1986
 * Tasmania – Workers Rehabilitation and Compensation Act 1988
 * Victoria – Workplace Injury Rehabilitation and Compensation Act 2013
 * Western Australia – Workers Compensation and Injury Management Act 1981

Brazil
The National Social Insurance Institute (in Portuguese, Instituto Nacional do Seguro Social – INSS) provides insurance for those who contribute. It is a public institution that aims to recognize and grant rights to its policyholders. The amount transferred by the INSS is used to replace the income of the worker taxpayer when he or she loses the ability to work due to sickness, disability, age, death, involuntary unemployment, or even pregnancy or imprisonment. During the first 15 days, the worker's salary is paid by the employer. After 15 days, the salary is paid by the INSS, as long as the employee is unable to work. Although the worker's income is guaranteed by the INSS, the employer is still responsible for any loss of working capacity, temporary or permanent, when found negligent or when its economic activity involves risk of accidents or developing labour-related diseases.

Canada
Workers' compensation was Canada's first social program to be introduced as it was favoured by both workers' groups and employers hoping to avoid lawsuits. The system arose after an inquiry by Ontario Chief Justice William Meredith, who outlined a system in which workers were to be compensated for workplace injuries if they gave up their right to sue their employers. It was introduced in the various provinces at different dates. Ontario and Nova Scotia were first and second in 1915, Manitoba in 1916, British Columbia in 1917, Alberta and New Brunswick in 1918, and Saskatchewan adopted the program in 1930. It remains a provincial responsibility, and thus the rules vary from province to province. In some provinces, such as in Ontario's Workplace Safety and Insurance Board, the program also has a preventative role ensuring workplace safety. In British Columbia, the occupational health and safety mandate (including the powers to make regulation, inspect and assess administrative penalties) is legislatively assigned to the Workers' Compensation Board of British Columbia (WorkSafeBC). In most provinces, the workers' compensation board or commission remains concerned solely with insurance. The workers' compensation insurance system in every province is funded by employers based on their payroll, industry sector, and history of injuries (or lack thereof) in their workplace (usually referred to as "experience rating").

Germany
The German worker's compensation law of 6 July 1884, initiated by Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, was passed only after three attempts and was the first of its kind in the world. Similar laws passed in Austria in 1887, Norway in 1894, and Finland in 1895.

The law paid indemnity to all private wage earners and apprentices, including those who work in the agricultural and horticultural sectors and marine industries, family helpers and students with work-related injuries, for up to 13 weeks. Workers who are totally disabled get continued benefits at 67 per cent after 13 weeks, paid by the accident funds, financed entirely by employers.

The German compensation system has been taken as a model for many nations.

India
The Workmen's Compensation Act 1923 was introduced on 5 March 1923. It includes employer's liability compensation and amount of compensation and covers employees under the Workmen Compensation Act, the Fatal Accident Act and common law. Amended by The Employee’s Compensation (Amendment) Act, 2017

Italy
In Italy, workers' compensation insurance is mandatory and is provided by the Istituto nazionale per l'assicurazione contro gli infortuni sul lavoro.

Japan
Workers' accident compensation insurance is paired with unemployment insurance and referred to collectively as labour insurance. Workers' accident compensation insurance is managed by the Labor Standards Office.

Malaysia
The Workmen's Compensation Act, 1952 is modelled on the United Kingdom's Workmen's Compensation Act 1906. Adopted before Malaysia's independence from the UK, it is now used only by non-Malaysian workers, since citizens are covered by the national social security scheme.

Mexico
The Mexican Constitution of 1917 defined the obligation of employers to pay for illnesses or accidents related to the workplace. It also defined social security as the institution to administer the right of workers, but only in 1943 was the Mexican Social Security Institute (IMSS) created. IMSS manages the Work Risks Insurance in a vertically integrated fashion, including registration of workers and firms, collection, classification of risks and events, and medical and rehabilitation services. A reform in 1997 defined that contributions are related to the experience of each employer. Public sector workers are covered by social security agencies with corporate and operative structures similar to those of IMSS.

New Zealand
In New Zealand, all companies that employ staff and in some cases others, must pay a levy to the Accident Compensation Corporation, a Crown entity, which administers New Zealand's universal no-fault accidental injury scheme. The scheme provides financial compensation and support to citizens, residents, and temporary visitors who have suffered personal injuries.

United Kingdom
Great Britain followed the German model. Joseph Chamberlain, leader of the Liberal Unionist party and coalition with the Conservatives, designed a plan that was enacted under the Salisbury government in 1897. The Workmen's Compensation Act 1897 was a key domestic achievement, although it only covered certain named industries (eg railways, laundries). It served its social purpose at no cost to the government, since compensation was paid for by insurance which employers were required to take out. The system operated from 1897 to 1946. It was expanded to include industrial diseases by the Workmen's Compensation Act 1906 and replaced by a state compensation scheme under the National Insurance (Industrial Injuries) Act 1946. Since 1976, this state scheme has been set out in the UK's Social Security Acts.

Work related safety issues in the UK are supervised by the Health and Safety Executive (HSE), who provide the framework by which employers and employees are able to comply with statutory rules and regulations.

Employer duties enforced by the HSE include protecting the health and safety of workers at workplace, risk assessment and training of workers. If an employer fails to fulfil these responsibilities, resulting in injury to an employee, then the employee has a legal right to make a workers' compensation claim against the employer and to sue their employer.

With the exception of the following, all employers are obliged to purchase compulsory Employer's Liability Insurance in accordance with the Employer's Liability (Compulsory Insurance) Act 1969. The current minimum limit of indemnity required is £5,000,000 per occurrence. Market practice is to usually provide a minimum £10,000,000 with inner limits to £5,000,000 for certain risks, e.g. workers on oil rigs and acts of terrorism.

These employers do not require Employer's Liability Insurance:
 * local authorities (other than parish councils)
 * joint boards or committees whose members include members of local authorities
 * police authorities
 * nationalised industries or their subsidiaries
 * certain bodies which are financed out of public funds
 * employers of crews on offshore installations, ships or hovercraft, if they are covered instead with a mutual insurance association of ship owners or ship owners and others
 * a health service body or NHS Trust

"Employees" are defined as anyone who has entered into or works under a contract of service or apprenticeship with an employer. The contract may be for manual labour, clerical work or otherwise, it may be written or verbal and it may be for full-time or part-time work.

These persons are not classed as employees and, therefore, are exempt:
 * persons who are not employees (for example independent contractors who are not the employees of the person engaging them)
 * people employed in any activity which is not a business (such as domestic servants)
 * people who are related to the employer – husband, wife, father, mother, grandfather, grandmother, stepfather, stepmother, son, daughter, grandson, granddaughter, stepson, stepdaughter, brother sister, half-brother or half-sister
 * people who are not normally resident in the United Kingdom and who are working there for fewer than 14 consecutive days.

Employees need to establish that their employer has a legal liability to pay compensation. This will principally be a breach of a statutory duty or under the tort of negligence. If the employer is insolvent or no longer in existence, then compensation can be sought directly from the insurer under the terms of the Third Parties (Rights against Insurers) Act 2010.

For the history of worker's compensation in the UK, see Workmen's Compensation Act 1897 and following acts.

United States
In the United States, some form of workers' compensation is typically compulsory for almost all employers in most states (depending upon the features of the organization), with the notable exception of Texas as of 2018. Regardless of compulsory requirements, businesses may purchase insurance voluntarily, and in the United States policies typically include Part One for compulsory coverage and Part Two for non-compulsory coverage. In many states, employers that can prove they have sufficient funds to cover their workers' compensation liabilities are allowed to engage in self-insurance, a term meaning forgoing the purchase of insurance. By 1949, every state had enacted a workers' compensation program.

In most states, workers' compensation claims are handled by administrative law judges, who often act as triers of fact.

Workers' compensation statutes which emerged in the early 1900s were struck down as unconstitutional until 1911 when Wisconsin passed a law that was not struck down; by 1920, 42 states had passed workers' compensation laws.

title: Workers' compensation


text:
Application framework

In computer programming, an application framework consists of a software framework used by software developers to implement the standard structure of application software.

Application frameworks became popular with the rise of graphical user interfaces (GUIs), since these tended to promote a standard structure for applications. Programmers find it much simpler to create automatic GUI creation tools when using a standard framework, since this defines the underlying code structure of the application in advance. Developers usually use object-oriented programming (OOP) techniques to implement frameworks such that the unique parts of an application can simply inherit from classes extant in the framework.

Examples
Apple Computer developed one of the first commercial application frameworks, MacApp (first release 1985), for the Macintosh. Originally written in an extended (object-oriented) version of Pascal termed Object Pascal, it was later rewritten in C++. Another notable framework for the Mac is Metrowerks' PowerPlant, based on Carbon. Cocoa for macOS offers a different approach to an application framework, based on the OpenStep framework developed at NeXT.

Since the 2010s, many apps have been created with the frameworks based on Google's Chromium project. The two prominent ones are Electron and the Chromium Embedded Framework.

Free and open-source software frameworks exist as part of the Mozilla, LibreOffice, GNOME, KDE, NetBeans, and Eclipse projects.

Microsoft markets a framework for developing Windows applications in C++ called the Microsoft Foundation Class Library, and a similar framework for developing applications with Visual Basic or C#, named .NET Framework.

Several frameworks can build cross-platform applications for Linux, Macintosh, and Windows from common source code, such as Qt, wxWidgets, Juce, Fox toolkit, or Eclipse Rich Client Platform (RCP).

Oracle Application Development Framework (Oracle ADF) aids in producing Java-oriented systems.

Silicon Laboratories offers an embedded application framework for developing wireless applications on its series of wireless chips.

MARTHA is a proprietary software Java framework that all of the RealObjects software is built on.

title: Application framework


text:
Three musketeers (game)

Three Musketeers is an abstract strategy board game by Haar Hoolim. It was published in Sid Sackson's A Gamut of Games (2011). Like the traditional game fox and geese, it uses the principle of unequal forces; the two players neither use the same types of pieces nor the same rules, and their victory conditions are different.

Equipment

 * Twenty-five tokens (such as checkers or poker chips), twenty-two light and three dark.
 * A board marked out as a 5 by 5 grid.

Rules
One player takes the part of the three musketeers, the other of Cardinal Richelieu's men ("the enemy"). The musketeer player sets up their tokens in two opposite corners and in the center space; the enemy places tokens in all remaining board spaces:

The players take turns moving one piece, beginning with the musketeer player. The musketeer player must move a musketeer to any orthogonally (non-diagonal) adjacent space occupied by an enemy piece, removing that enemy piece from the game. Next, the enemy must move one enemy piece to any orthogonally adjacent empty space.

The enemy wins if it forces all three musketeers to the same row or column. The musketeers win if on their turn they cannot move due to a lack of adjacent enemy pieces.

title: Three musketeers (game)


text:
Talk:Festival of San Fermín

Initial comments with no section
Why remove the sentence about the parody with the bus at the end of the festival? - David Stewart 03:25 23 Jun 2003 (UTC)
 * RESPECT! Billster — Preceding unsigned comment added by 62.253.219.130 (talk • contribs) 08:59, 19 July 2005 (UTC)

 * The fiestas of San Fermin however, does not only consist of the people running infront of the bulls, but there are plenty more events which attract many people. One of these events is known as the "charangas" which is when several groups of music leave everyday at six o clock from the bull ring and parade down the streets of Pamplona,they are followed by people dancing behind them,(anyone is welcome to join). San Fermin in general is a non stop of events from the fireworks display which goes on everyday at 11pm, to one of the biggest fairs in Europe, and the many concerts of different type of music which are played everyday in the city. (194.80.240.66 08:33, 10 October 2007 (UTC))

The real danger

 * The encierro begins...The event is dangerous. Since 1924, 15[1] people have been killed

The provided source says nothing about the people killed. This one does:

And also points to the real danger in that debauched revelrie that Sanfermines are: Falling from the wall of Pamplona.

 * "Un hombre joven sin identificar falleció el domingo al precipitarse al vacío desde una muralla de 30 metros de altura que rodea el casco viejo de Pamplona...En las fiestas de San Fermín de 2007, un joven estadounidense y su pareja española perdieron la vida en la misma zona, cuando se precipitaron accidentalmente al río desde la parte amurallada de la ciudad."

Three deaths in two years in a row from drunkards falling from the wall (Pamplona was a fortress, and most of the walls remain). I can remember several other similar deaths (a girl drowning in the Arga river after falling, another drunkard falling to death...) in 2005 and in previous years, but I can not find an online reference. The real danger are not the bulls, but the mix of a high wall and drunk people fooling around, unable in their alcoholic stupor to see the danger.

 * "Todo el mundo está borracho"..."Everyone is drunk"

...of course they are. Many locals leave the city during the Sanfermines. I understand them very well. Randroide (talk) 08:51, 7 July 2008 (UTC)

 * The source. 6 dead in 12 years falling drunkard/drugged from the City Wall Randroide (talk) 10:32, 24 August 2010 (UTC)

Only 1000 people attend?
That doesn't seem like a lot. Of course, I have never attended. Is that number a mistake? Vorenus (talk) 17:42, 2 April 2009 (UTC)

Who wrote this?
They really need to check their facts- and the "song " is completely wrong. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Gsaindon (talk • contribs) 22:13, 6 July 2009 (UTC)

Old times section - who wrote this?
The whole "Old times" section feels really un-encyclopedic, and all its points are missing citations. NigeriaNoKamisama (talk) 16:43, 10 February 2017 (UTC)

Song
The song is:

 * Uno de enero, dos de febrero,
 * tres de marzo, cuatro de abril,
 * cinco de mayo, seis de junio,
 * siete de julio, ¡SAN FERMÍN!

 * A Pamplona hemos de ir,
 * con una media, con una media
 * a pamplona hemos de ir
 * con una media y un calcetín.

— Preceding unsigned comment added by 88.2.225.212  (talk • contribs) 08:43, 10 July 2009 (UTC)

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In popular culture
I want to add an "In popular culture" section in the article — Preceding unsigned comment added by Galib x360 (talk • contribs) 09:09, 12 April 2020 (UTC)
 * What would you put there? --evrik (talk) 06:53, 7 June 2020 (UTC)

Requested move 30 May 2020

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.

The result of the move request was: Moved. Although only one participant made any argument for the move, there has been no opposition. (non-admin closure) – Thjarkur (talk) 22:22, 13 June 2020 (UTC)

San Fermín → Festival of San Fermin – Better name --evrik (talk) 01:38, 30 May 2020 (UTC) —Relisting. Mdaniels5757 (talk) 21:23, 6 June 2020 (UTC)

 * Not without an accent it isn't. 98.143.75.50 (talk) 14:37, 1 June 2020 (UTC)
 * Relister comment Do you have a response to the unregistered user above? --Mdaniels5757 (talk) 21:23, 6 June 2020 (UTC)
 * with or withiut the accent is okay with me. --evrik (talk) 00:14, 7 June 2020 (UTC)
 * Support Festival of San Fermín (correct spelling) because the current article title makes it sound like it's about the saint. buidhe 22:09, 6 June 2020 (UTC)
 * Support this.--Ortizesp (talk) 06:10, 7 June 2020 (UTC)
 * Support Festival of San Fermín (correct spelling) In ictu oculi (talk) 07:51, 7 June 2020 (UTC)

 * The discussion above is closed. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.

title: Talk:Festival of San Fermín


text:
Universal Pantheist Society

The Universal Pantheist Society is one of the world's first official organizations dedicated to the promotion and understanding of modern pantheism. The Society does not require its members to hold to any particular creed about Pantheism and recognizes that there are a variety of beliefs that fall under the title pantheism. The Society encourages individuals in finding ways of spiritual practice in keeping with the general spirit of pantheism. Its motto is "We seek renewed reverence for the Earth and a vision of Nature as the ultimate context for human existence..."

Background
The Universal Pantheist Society seeks to bring together Pantheists of various traditions and understandings, believing that standing together can help create a stronger community and provide greater intellectual stimulation for its participants.

The Society, founded in 1975, was the first organization to recognize Pantheism as a religion (organized under U.S. 501(c)(3) statutes). It is a membership organization that has been serving Pantheists worldwide since 1975. The UPS social networking site welcomes all varieties of pantheists, religious naturalists, eco-humanists and other like-minded advocates.

Pantheism (Gr. pan=all, theos=God), is the title used to denote any paradigm that postulates 'God is all' Pantheism identifies the Universe (Nature) with God. Various forms of pantheism have religious foundations; others have been based upon naturalistic, scientific, or poetic points of view.

Pantheist Vision publication
The society is overseen by a board of directors and publishes a Journal, Pantheist Vision, which presents articles relating to the modern philosophy and practice of pantheism. Edited by Society co-founder Harold Wood, the Journal, a quarterly publication, features member-submitted articles, personal interpretations of pantheism from both members and notable figures, book reviews and essays by the editor. There are also occasionally special publications a recommended Pantheist reading list and book store.

title: Universal Pantheist Society


text:
User:Tridy

Geology, athletics and stock markets.

title: User:Tridy


text:
Breakthrough (board game)

Breakthrough is an abstract strategy board game invented by Dan Troyka in 2000 and made available as a Zillions of Games file (ZRF). It won the 2001 8x8 Game Design Competition, even though the game was originally played on a 7x7 board, as it is trivially extensible to larger board sizes.

Rules
The board is initially set up as shown on the first diagram. To play the game on a different-sized board, just fill the two front and two back rows with pieces; the board need not be square.

Choose a player to go first; then play alternates, with each player moving one piece per turn.

A piece may move one space straight or diagonally forward if the target square is empty. In the second diagram, the white piece on c5 can move into any of the marked squares.

A piece may move into a square containing an opponent's piece if and only if that square is one step diagonally forward. The opponent's piece is removed and the player's piece replaces it. For example, the black piece can capture either the white piece e2 or the one on g2; it would replace them if it chose to capture. Note that capturing is not compulsory, nor is it "chained" as in checkers; a player can only capture one piece in a turn.

The first player to reach the opponent's home row — the one farthest from the player — is the winner. If all the pieces of a player are captured, that player loses. A draw is impossible because pieces can only move ahead (or be captured), and the piece closest to the opponent's home row always has at least one forward diagonal move available.

Strategy
Although the rules are quite simple (and were the simplest rules in the 2001 8x8 Game Design Competition), the strategy is complex and sophisticated. Generally, an effective offensive strategy is to recognize and attack "pivotal" pieces which are in positions to block multiple routes to victory. An effective defense is to arrange multiple blocking pieces in a blocking pattern (since a single defending piece can not effectively block a single attacking piece).

Game Solving
Smaller variants of the game have been solved:
 * 6x5 : second player win
 * 5x5 : second player win
 * 3x7 : second player win

title: Breakthrough (board game)


text:
Glossary of ring theory

Ring theory is the branch of mathematics in which rings are studied: that is, structures supporting both an addition and a multiplication operation. This is a glossary of some terms of the subject.

For the items in commutative algebra (the theory of commutative rings), see Glossary of commutative algebra. For ring-theoretic concepts in the language of modules, see also Glossary of module theory.

For specific types of algebras, see also: Glossary of field theory and Glossary of Lie groups and Lie algebras. Since, currently, there is no glossary on not-necessarily-associative algebra structures in general, this glossary includes some concepts that do not need associativity; e.g., a derivation.

A
Amitsur complex: The Amitsur complex of a ring homomorphism is a cochain complex that measures the extent in which the ring homomorphism fails to be faithfully flat.

Artinian: A left Artinian ring is a ring satisfying the descending chain condition for left ideals; a right Artinian ring is one satisfying the descending chain condition for right ideals. If a ring is both left and right Artinian, it is called Artinian. Artinian rings are Noetherian rings.

associate: In a commutative ring, an element a is called an associate of an element b if a divides b and b divides a.

automorphism: A ring automorphism is a ring isomorphism between the same ring; in other words, it is a unit element of the endomorphism ring of the ring that is multiplicative and preserves the multiplicative identity. An algebra automorphism over a commutative ring R is an algebra isomorphism between the same algebra; it is a ring automorphism that is also R-linear.

Azumaya: An Azumaya algebra is a generalization of a central simple algebra to a non-field base ring.

B
bidimension: The bidimension of an associative algebra A over a commutative ring R is the projective dimension of A as an (Aop ⊗R A)-module. For example, an algebra has bidimension zero if and only if it is separable.

boolean: A boolean ring is a ring in which every element is multiplicatively idempotent.

Brauer: The Brauer group of a field is an abelian group consisting of all equivalence classes of central simple algebras over the field.

C
category: The category of rings is a category where the objects are (all) the rings and where the morphisms are (all) the ring homomorphisms.

centre: An element r of a ring R is central if xr = rx for all x in R. The set of all central elements forms a subring of R, known as the centre of R. A central algebra is an associative algebra over the centre. A central simple algebra is a central algebra that is also a simple ring.

centralizer: The centralizer of a subset S of a ring is the subring of the ring consisting of the elements commuting with the elements of S. For example, the centralizer of the ring itself is the centre of the ring. The double centralizer of a set is the centralizer of the centralizer of the set. Cf. double centralizer theorem.

characteristic: The characteristic of a ring is the smallest positive integer n satisfying nx = 0 for all elements x of the ring, if such an n exists. Otherwise, the characteristic is 0. The characteristic subring of R is the smallest subring (i.e., the unique minimal subring). It is necessary the image of the unique ring homomorphism Z → R and thus is isomorphic to Z/n where n is the characteristic of R.

change: A change of rings is a functor (between appropriate categories) induced by a ring homomorphism.

Clifford algebra: A Clifford algebra is a certain associative algebra that is useful in geometry and physics.

coherent: A left coherent ring is a ring such that every finitely generated left ideal of it is a finitely presented module; in other words, it is coherent as a left module over itself.

commutative: A ring R is commutative if the multiplication is commutative, i.e. rs = sr for all r,s ∈ R. A ring R is skew-commutative ring if xy = (−1)ε(x)ε(y)yx, where ε(x) denotes the parity of an element x. A commutative algebra is an associative algebra that is a commutative ring. Commutative algebra is the theory of commutative rings.

D
derivation: A derivation of a possibly-non-associative algebra A over a commutative ring R is an R-linear endomorphism that satisfies the Leibniz rule. The derivation algebra of an algebra A is the subalgebra of the endomorphism algebra of A that consists of derivations.

differential: A differential algebra is an algebra together with a derivation.

direct: A direct product of a family of rings is a ring given by taking the cartesian product of the given rings and defining the algebraic operations component-wise.

divisor: In an integral domain R, an element a is called a divisor of the element b (and we say a divides b) if there exists an element x in R with ax = b. An element r of R is a left zero divisor if there exists a nonzero element x in R such that rx = 0 and a right zero divisor or if there exists a nonzero element y in R such that yr = 0. An element r of R is a called a two-sided zero divisor if it is both a left zero divisor and a right zero divisor.

division: A division ring or skew field is a ring in which every nonzero element is a unit and 1 ≠ 0.

domain: A domain is a nonzero ring with no zero divisors except 0. For a historical reason, a commutative domain is called an integral domain.

E
endomorphism: An endomorphism ring is a ring formed by the endomorphisms of an object with additive structure; the multiplication is taken to be function composition, while its addition is pointwise addition of the images.

enveloping algebra: The (universal) enveloping algebra E of a not-necessarily-associative algebra A is the associative algebra determined by A in some universal way. The best known example is the universal enveloping algebra of a Lie algebra.

extension: A ring E is a ring extension of a ring R if R is a subring of E.

exterior algebra: The exterior algebra of a vector space or a module V is the quotient of the tensor algebra of V by the ideal generated by elements of the form x ⊗ x.

F
field: A field is a commutative division ring; i.e., a nonzero ring in which each nonzero element is invertible.

filtered ring: A filtered ring is a ring with a filtration.

finitely generated: A left ideal I is finitely generated if there exist finitely many elements a1, ..., an such that I = Ra1 + ... + Ran. A right ideal I is finitely generated if there exist finitely many elements a1, ..., an such that I = a1R + ... + anR. A two-sided ideal I is finitely generated if there exist finitely many elements a1, ..., an such that I = Ra1R + ... + RanR. A finitely generated ring is a ring that is finitely generated as Z-algebra.

finitely presented: A finitely presented algebra over a commutative ring R is a (commutative) associative algebra that is a quotient of a polynomial ring over R in finitely many variables by a finitely generated ideal.

free: A free ideal ring or a fir is a ring in which every right ideal is a free module of fixed rank. A semifir is a ring in which every finitely generated right ideal is a free module of fixed rank. The free product of a family of associative is an associative algebra obtained, roughly, by the generators and the relations of the algebras in the family. The notion depends on which category of associative algebra is considered; for example, in the category of commutative rings, a free product is a tensor product. A free ring is a ring that is a free algebra over the integers.

G
graded: A graded ring is a ring together with a grading or a graduation; i.e, it is a direct sum of additive subgroups with the multiplication that respects the grading. For example, a polynomial ring is a graded ring by degrees of polynomials.

generate: An associative algebra A over a commutative ring R is said to be generated by a subset S of A if the smallest subalgebra containing S is A itself and S is said to be the generating set of A. If there is a finite generating set, A is said to be a finitely generated algebra.

H
hereditary: A ring is left hereditary if its left ideals are all projective modules. Right hereditary rings are defined analogously.

I
ideal: A left ideal I of R is an additive subgroup of R such that aI ⊆ I for all a ∈ R. A right ideal is a subgroup of R such that Ia ⊆ I for all a ∈ R. An ideal (sometimes called a two-sided ideal for emphasis) is a subgroup that is both a left ideal and a right ideal.

idempotent: An element r of a ring is idempotent if r = r.

integral domain: "integral domain" or "entire ring" is another name for a commutative domain; i.e., a nonzero commutative ring with no zero divisors except 0.

invariant: A ring R has invariant basis number if Rm isomorphic to Rn as R-modules implies m = n.

irreducible: An element x of an integral domain is irreducible if it is not a unit and for any elements a and b such that x = ab, either a or b is a unit. Note that every prime element is irreducible, but not necessarily vice versa.

J
Jacobson: The Jacobson radical of a ring is the intersection of all maximal left ideals. A Jacobson ring is a ring in which each prime ideal is an intersection of primitive ideals.

K
kernel: The kernel of a ring homomorphism of a ring homomorphism f : R → S is the set of all elements x of R such that f(x) = 0. Every ideal is the kernel of a ring homomorphism and vice versa.

Köthe: Köthe's conjecture states that if a ring has a nonzero nil right ideal, then it has a nonzero nil ideal.

L
local: A ring with a unique maximal left ideal is a local ring. These rings also have a unique maximal right ideal, and the left and the right unique maximal ideals coincide. Certain commutative rings can be embedded in local rings via localization at a prime ideal. A localization of a ring : For commutative rings, a technique to turn a given set of elements of a ring into units. It is named Localization because it can be used to make any given ring into a local ring. To localize a ring R, take a multiplicatively closed subset S that contains no zero divisors, and formally define their multiplicative inverses, which are then added into R. Localization in noncommutative rings is more complicated, and has been in defined several different ways.

M
minimal and maximal: A left ideal M of the ring R is a maximal left ideal (resp. minimal left ideal) if it is maximal (resp. minimal) among proper (resp. nonzero) left ideals. Maximal (resp. minimal) right ideals are defined similarly. A maximal subring is a subring that is maximal among proper subrings. A "minimal subring" can be defined analogously; it is unique and is called the characteristic subring.

matrix: A matrix ring over a ring R is a ring whose elements are square matrices of fixed size with the entries in R. The matrix ring or the full matrix ring of matrices over R is the matrix ring consisting of all square matrices of fixed size with the entries in R. When the grammatical construction is not workable, the term "matrix ring" often refers to the "full" matrix ring when the context makes no confusion likely; for example, when one says a semsimple ring is a product of matrix rings of division rings, it is implicitly assumed that "matrix rings" refer to "full matrix rings". Every ring is (isomorphic to) the full matrix ring over itself. The ring of generic matrices is the ring consisting of square matrices with entries in formal variables.

monoid: A monoid ring.

Morita: Two rings are said to be Morita equivalent if the category of modules over the one is equivalent to the category of modules over the other.

N
nearring: A nearring is a structure that is a group under addition, a semigroup under multiplication, and whose multiplication distributes on the right over addition.

nil: A nil ideal is an ideal consisting of nilpotent elements. The (Baer) upper nil radical is the sum of all nil ideals. The (Baer) lower nil radical is the intersection of all prime ideals. For a commutative ring, the upper nil radical and the lower nil radical coincide.

nilpotent: An element r of R is nilpotent if there exists a positive integer n such that r = 0. A nil ideal is an ideal whose elements are nilpotent elements. A nilpotent ideal is an ideal whose power Ik is {0} for some positive integer k. Every nilpotent ideal is nil, but the converse is not true in general. The nilradical of a commutative ring is the ideal that consists of all nilpotent elements of the ring. It is equal to the intersection of all the ring's prime ideals and is contained in, but in general not equal to, the ring's Jacobson radical.

Noetherian: A left Noetherian ring is a ring satisfying the ascending chain condition for left ideals. A right Noetherian is defined similarly and a ring that is both left and right Noetherian is Noetherian. A ring is left Noetherian if and only if all its left ideals are finitely generated; analogously for right Noetherian rings.

null: null ring: See.

O
opposite: Given a ring R, its opposite ring Rop has the same underlying set as R, the addition operation is defined as in R, but the product of s and r in Rop is rs, while the product is sr in R.

order: An order of an algebra is (roughly) a subalgebra that is also a full lattice.

Ore: A left Ore domain is a (non-commutative) domain for which the set of non-zero elements satisfies the left Ore condition. A right Ore domain is defined similarly.

P
perfect: A left perfect ring is one satisfying the descending chain condition on right principal ideals. They are also characterized as rings whose flat left modules are all projective modules. Right perfect rings are defined analogously. Artinian rings are perfect.

polynomial: A polynomial ring over a commutative ring R is a commutative ring consisting of all the polynomials in the specified variables with coefficients in R. A skew polynomial ring
 * Given a ring R and an endomorphism σ ∈ End(R) of R. The skew polynomial ring R[x; σ] is defined to be the set $\{a_{n}x^{n} + a_{n−1}x^{n−1} + ... + a_{1}x + a_{0} | n ∈ N, a_{n}, a_{n−1}, ..., a_{1}, a_{0} ∈ R\}$, with addition defined as usual, and multiplication defined by the relation xa = σ(a)x ∀a ∈ R.

prime: An element x of an integral domain is a prime element if it is not zero and not a unit and whenever x divides a product ab, x divides a or x divides b. An ideal P in a commutative ring R is prime if P ≠ R and if for all a and b in R with ab in P, we have a in P or b in P. Every maximal ideal in a commutative ring is prime. An ideal P in a (not necessarily commutative) ring R is prime if P ≠ R and for all ideals A and B of R, AB ⊆ P implies A ⊆ P or B ⊆ P. This extends the definition for commutative rings. prime ring : A nonzero ring R is called a prime ring if for any two elements a and b of R with aRb = 0, we have either a = 0 or b = 0. This is equivalent to saying that the zero ideal is a prime ideal (in the noncommutative sense.) Every simple ring and every domain is a prime ring.

primitive: A left primitive ring is a ring that has a faithful simple left R-module. Every simple ring is primitive. Primitive rings are prime. An ideal I of a ring R is said to be primitive if R/I is primitive.

principal: A principal ideal : A principal left ideal in a ring R is a left ideal of the form Ra for some element a of R. A principal right ideal is a right ideal of the form aR for some element a of R. A principal ideal is a two-sided ideal of the form RaR for some element a of R.

principal: A principal ideal domain is an integral domain in which every ideal is principal. A principal ideal ring is a ring in which every ideal is principal.

Q
quasi-Frobenius: quasi-Frobenius ring : a special type of Artinian ring that is also a self-injective ring on both sides. Every semisimple ring is quasi-Frobenius.

quotient ring or factor ring : Given a ring R and an ideal I of R, the quotient ring is the ring formed by the set R/I of cosets $\{a + I : a ∈ R\}$ together with the operations (a + I) + (b + I) = (a + b) + I and (a + I)(b + I) = ab + I. The relationship between ideals, homomorphisms, and factor rings is summed up in the fundamental theorem on homomorphisms.

R
radical: The radical of an ideal I in a commutative ring consists of all those ring elements a power of which lies in I. It is equal to the intersection of all prime ideals containing I.

ring: A set R with two binary operations, usually called addition (+) and multiplication (×), such that R is an abelian group under addition, R is a monoid under multiplication, and multiplication is both left and right distributive over addition. Rings are assumed to have multiplicative identities unless otherwise noted. The additive identity is denoted by 0 and the multiplicative identity by 1. (Warning: some books, especially older books, use the term "ring" to mean what here will be called a rng; i.e., they do not require a ring to have a multiplicative identity.) A ring homomorphism : A function f : R → S between rings (R, +, ∗) and (S, ⊕, ×) is a ring homomorphism if it satisfies
 * f(a + b) = f(a) ⊕ f(b)
 * f(a ∗ b) = f(a) × f(b)
 * f(1) = 1
 * for all elements a and b of R.

ring isomorphism : A ring homomorphism that is bijective is a ring isomorphism. The inverse of a ring isomorphism is also a ring isomorphism. Two rings are isomorphic if there exists a ring isomorphism between them. Isomorphic rings can be thought as essentially the same, only with different labels on the individual elements.

rng: A rng is a set R with two binary operations, usually called addition (+) and multiplication (×), such that (R, +) is an abelian group, (R, ×) is a monoid, and multiplication is both left and right distributive over addition. A rng that has an identity element is a "ring". A rng of square zero is a rng in which xy = 0 for all x and y.

S
self-injective: A ring R is left self-injective if the module RR is an injective module. While rings with unity are always projective as modules, they are not always injective as modules.

semiperfect: A semiperfect ring is a ring R such that, for the Jacobson radical J(R) of R, (1) R/J(R) is semisimple and (2) idempotents lift modulo J(R).

semiprimary: A semiprimary ring is a ring R such that, for the Jacobson radical J(R) of R, (1) R/J(R) is semisimple and (2) J(R) is a nilpotent ideal.

semiprime: A semiprime ring is a ring where the only nilpotent ideal is the trivial ideal $\{0\}$. A commutative ring is semiprime if and only if it is reduced. An ideal I of a ring R is semiprime if for any ideal A of R, An ⊆ I implies A ⊆ I. Equivalently, I is semiprime if and only if R/I is a semiprime ring.

semiprimitive: A semiprimitive ring or Jacobson semisimple ring is a ring whose Jacobson radical is zero. Von Neumann regular rings and primitive rings are semiprimitive, however quasi-Frobenius rings and local rings are usually not semiprimitive.

semiring: A semiring : An algebraic structure satisfying the same properties as a ring, except that addition need only be an abelian monoid operation, rather than an abelian group operation. That is, elements in a semiring need not have additive inverses.

semisimple: A semisimple ring is an Artinian ring R that is a finite product of simple Artinian rings; in other words, it is a semisimple left R-module.

separable: A separable algebra is an associative algebra whose tensor-square admits a separability idempotent.

serial: A right serial ring is a ring that is a right serial module over itself.

Severi–Brauer: The Severi–Brauer variety is an algebraic variety associated to a given central simple algebra.

simple: A simple ring is a non-zero ring that only has trivial two-sided ideals (the zero ideal, the ring itself, and no more) is a simple ring. A simple algebra is an associative algebra that is a simple ring.

singular submodule: The right (resp. left) R-module M has a singular submodule if it consists of elements whose annihilators are essential right (resp. left) ideals in R. In set notation it is usually denoted as $\mathcal$(M) = $\{m ∈ M | ann(m) ⊆_{e} R\}$.

subring: A subring is a subset S of the ring (R, +, ×) that remains a ring when + and × are restricted to S and contains the multiplicative identity 1 of R.

symmetric algebra: The symmetric algebra of a vector space or a module V is the quotient of the tensor algebra of V by the ideal generated by elements of the form x ⊗ y − y ⊗ x. The graded-symmetric algebra of a vector space or a module V is a variant of the symmetric algebra that is constructed by taking grading into account.

Sylvester domain: A Sylvester domain is a ring in which Sylvester's law of nullity holds.

T
tensor: The tensor product algebra of associative algebras is the tensor product of the algebras as the modules with component multiplication The tensor algebra of a vector space or a module V is the direct sum of all tensor powers V⊗n with the multiplication given by tensor product.

trivial: A trivial ideal is either the zero or the unit ideal. The trivial ring or zero ring is the ring consisting of a single element 0 = 1.

U
unit: unit or invertible element : An element r of the ring R is a unit if there exists an element r such that rr = rr = 1. This element r is uniquely determined by r and is called the multiplicative inverse of r. The set of units forms a group under multiplication.

unity: The term "unity" is another name for the multiplicative identity.

unique: A unique factorization domain or factorial ring is an integral domain R in which every non-zero non-unit element can be written as a product of prime elements of R.

uniserial: A right uniserial ring is a ring that is a right uniserial module over itself. A commutative uniserial ring is also called a valuation ring.

V
von Neumann regular element: von Neumann regular element : An element r of a ring R is von Neumann regular if there exists an element x of R such that r = rxr. A von Neumann regular ring: A ring for which each element a can be expressed as a = axa for another element x in the ring. Semisimple rings are von Neumann regular.

W
Wedderburn–Artin theorem: The Wedderburn–Artin theorem states that a semisimple ring is a finite product of (full) matrix rings over division rings.

Z
zero: A zero ring: The ring consisting only of a single element 0 = 1, also called the trivial ring. Sometimes "zero ring" is used in an alternative sense to mean rng of square zero.

title: Glossary of ring theory


text:
Talk:Glossary of ring theory

Idempotent
Regarding idempotent - isn't an element e of a ring idempotent if there exists some natural number n (not necessarily 2) such that e^n = e? -- Schnee 12:57, 6 Aug 2003 (UTC)

I've never seen the term defined that way. Perhaps you are confusing this with nilpotent? -- Toby Bartels 03:05, 24 Aug 2003 (UTC)

TBOMK, "idempotent" means e^2 = e, "nilpotent" means e^n = 0. Revolver — Preceding undated comment added 21:32, 25 November 2003 (UTC)

Of course, if x^2=1, then for all n, x^2n=1 and so x^(2n+1)=x. So Schnee's remark follows for odd n (only). Mousomer 26 Jan 2004

Rng
I've never heard of a "rng"; rather, the definition given for "rng" is what I've always considered a ring, and the definition given for "ring" is what I'd call a ring with identity, or a ring with $$1\ne0$$. c.f. for example Dummit & Foote. 68.252.195.169 07:41, 27 January 2007 (UTC)

 * Many important terms are missing, but I am afraid that I am not able to compete it. -- Wshun — Preceding undated comment added 04:16, 23 June 2003 (UTC)

Please cite your source for the word rng, which as I mentioned earlier is the customary definition of a ring. S. A. G. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 152.163.253.98 (talk) 14:21, 10 May 2004 (UTC)

Zero divisor
Regarding your "If a ring has a Zero divisor which is also a unit, then the ring has no other elements and is the trivial ring", this doesn't make sense given your condition on a zero divisor that there exist a nonzero element such that... A one-element ring can't have a nonzero element and therefore can't have a zero divisor. What would be true is that no ring element can be both a zero divisor and a unit. Vaughan Pratt 22:57, 24 November 2006 (UTC)

 * Removed. –Pomte 17:58, 13 April 2008 (UTC)

2007-02-1 Automated pywikipediabot message
--CopyToWiktionaryBot 16:38, 1 February 2007 (UTC)

Algebraic structures over Rngs
OK, so if I buy into this horrible idea of defining rings to have an identity (ideals aren't even subrings!), then what am I supposed to search for if I want a module defined over a rng? 129.107.61.162 (talk) 23:14, 22 April 2009 (UTC)

Every Ideal has 1 ?!?
"A subset S of the ring (R,+,*) which remains a ring when + and * are restricted to S and contains the multiplicative identity 1 of R is called a subring of R." So, every subring contains 1. ... "A left ideal I of R is a subring of R....." So every ideal is equal to R. Some native speaker should change this. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 88.70.40.178 (talk) 20:42, 1 May 2009 (UTC)

title: Talk:Glossary of ring theory


text:
Karelia Watson

Watson was a software program released by Karelia Software for the Macintosh on November 27, 2001, which provided Internet content through a familiar Mac OS X-like interface through the use of plug-ins.

Plug-ins were programmed in the Objective-C language using the Cocoa frameworks included with the Mac OS X operating system.

On September 18, 2002, Apple bundled a similar program, Sherlock 3, with Mac OS X v10.2. Advocates of Watson claim that Apple copied the features of Watson without permission, compensation, or attribution. Apple, however, claims that a Watson-like program was simply the natural evolution of Sherlock 2.

At Sun Microsystems' JavaOne conference in June 2004, Sun announced that they had licensed the Watson technology and were porting it to the Java programming language under the name Project Alameda. On October 5, development of the Cocoa-based version of Watson ceased. On November 24, Dan Wood, Karelia owner and Watson lead developer, made the last version of Watson available free of charge by posting a registration code on his blog.

title: Karelia Watson