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Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly

Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly (Johan t'Serclaes Graaf van Tilly; Johann t'Serclaes Graf von Tilly; Jean t'Serclaes de Tilly ; February 1559 – 30 April 1632) was a field marshal who commanded the Catholic League's forces in the Thirty Years' War. From 1620–31, he had an unmatched and demoralizing string of important victories against the Protestants, including White Mountain, Wimpfen, Höchst, Stadtlohn and the Conquest of the Palatinate. He destroyed a Danish army at Lutter and sacked the Protestant city of Magdeburg, which caused the death of some 20,000 of the city's inhabitants, both defenders and non-combatants, out of a total population of 25,000.

Tilly was then crushed at Breitenfeld in 1631 by the Swedish army of King Gustavus Adolphus. A Swedish arquebus bullet wounded him severely at the Battle of Rain, and he died two weeks later in Ingolstadt. Along with Duke Albrecht von Wallenstein of Friedland and Mecklenburg, he was one of two chief commanders of the Holy Roman Empire’s forces in the first half of the war.

Early years
Johann Tserclaes was born on February 1559 in Castle Tilly, Walloon Brabant, now in Belgium, then the Spanish Netherlands. Johann Tserclaes was born into a devoutly Catholic Brabantine family; and, after having received a Jesuit education in Cologne, he joined the Spanish Army at age fifteen and fought under Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma in his campaign against the Dutch forces rebelling in the Eighty Years' War and participated in the successful Siege of Antwerp in 1585. After this he joined in the Holy Roman Empire's campaign against the Ottoman Turks in Hungary and Transylvania as a mercenary in 1600 and through rapid promotion became a field marshal in only five years. When the Turkish Wars ended in 1606, he remained in the service of Rudolf II in Prague until he was appointed commander of the Catholic League forces by Bavaria under Maximilian I, Duke of Bavaria in 1610.

Campaign in Bohemia
As commander of the forces of the Catholic League he fought against the Bohemian rebels following the Defenestration of Prague, by which time he had trained his soldiers in the Spanish Tercio system, which featured musketeers supported by deep ranks of pikemen. A force of 25,000 soldiers, including troops of both the Catholic League and the Emperor scored an important victory against Christian of Anhalt and Count Thurn at the decisive Battle of White Mountain west of Prague on 8 November 1620. Half of the enemy forces were killed or captured, while the Catholic League lost only 700 men. This victory was vital in crushing resistance to the Emperor in Bohemia, as it allowed Prague to be captured several days later.

Campaign in Germany
Next he turned west and marched through Germany, but was defeated at the Battle of Mingolsheim on 27 April 1622. He then joined with the Spanish general Duke Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba – not to be confused with the famous Spanish general of the same name from the Italian Wars in Italy at the end of the 15th century – and was victorious at the Battle of Wimpfen against George Fredrick, Margrave of Baden-Durlach on 6 May; this victory occurred after the enemies’ ammunition tumbril was hit by cannon fire and exploded.

He was successful again at the Battle of Höchst on 20 June and was made a count (Graf in German) for this victory. These three battles in two months allowed him to capture the city of Heidelberg following an eleven-week siege on 19 September. Christian the Younger of Brunswick, whom he had already defeated at Höchst, raised another army, but again lost to him at the Battle of Stadtlohn, where 13,000 out of his army of 15,000 were lost, including fifty of his high-ranking officers. Together with the complete surrender of Bohemia in 1623, this ended virtually all resistance in Germany. This caused King Christian IV of Denmark to enter the Thirty Years' War in 1625 to protect Protestantism, and also in a bid to make himself the primary leader of Northern Europe. Count Tilly besieged and captured Münden on 30 May 1626, whereupon local and refugee Protestant ministers were thrown into the river Werra, but could not lay a siege to Kassel.

Tilly fought the Danes at the Battle of Lutter on 26–27 August 1626, in which his highly disciplined infantry charged the enemy lines four times, breaking through. This led him to win decisively, destroying more than half the fleeing Danish army, which was uncharacteristic of the warfare of the time. Denmark was forced to sue for peace at the Treaty of Lübeck. This disrupted the balance of power in Europe resulting in Swedish involvement in 1630 under their redoubtable leader, the brilliant King and field general Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, who had been trying to dominate the Baltic for the previous ten years in wars with Poland, then a continental power of note.

Sack of Magdeburg
While Gustavus Adolphus landed his army in Mecklenburg and was in Berlin, trying to make alliances with the leaders of Northern Germany, Tilly laid siege to the city of Magdeburg on the Elbe, which promised to support Sweden. The siege began on 20 March 1631 and Tilly put his subordinate Gottfried Heinrich Graf zu Pappenheim in command while he campaigned elsewhere. After two months of laying siege, and after the fall of Frankfurt an der Oder to the Swedes, Pappenheim finally convinced Tilly, who had brought reinforcements, to storm the city on 20 May with 40,000 men under the personal command of Pappenheim. The assault was successful and the walls were breached, but the commanders supposedly lost control of their soldiers. A massacre of the populace ensued in which roughly 20,000 of the 25,000 inhabitants of the city perished by sword and the fire which destroyed most of the city, then one of the largest cities in Germany and about the size of Cologne or Hamburg.

Many historians consider it unlikely that he ordered the city torched. Magdeburg was a strategically vital city of the Elbe and was needed as a resupply center for the looming fight against the Swedes. Although extremely opposed to the Reformation movement, Tilly was an experienced commander and would have recognized the strategic importance of the city. Additionally, he sent a proposal of surrender to Magdeburg days before the final assault, after the capture of the Toll redoubt. However, the city's mayor rejected the offer, expecting a Swedish relief force to arrive soon. When the slaughter began, and no escape was possible, the children of the city were formed in procession and marched across the marketplace singing Luther's hymn Erhalt uns, Herr, bei deinem Wort whose opening verse translates as "Lord keep us steadfast in thy Word, Curb Pope and Turk who by the sword, would wrest the kingdom from thy Son, and set at naught all he hath done." The children were slain without mercy, but whether by order from Tilly or not remains debated in some quarters. Tilly afterwards reportedly wrote to the Emperor, "Never was such a victory since the storming of Troy or of Jerusalem. I am sorry that you and the ladies of the court were not there to enjoy the spectacle."

Campaign against the Swedes and death
Following Magdeburg, Tilly engaged the army of Gustavus Adolphus at the Battle of Breitenfeld on 17 September 1631, near the city of Leipzig, which he had reached after laying waste to Saxony. In the battle he was outmaneuvered by King Gustavus Adolphus and suffered 27,000 casualties. The Swedes’ maneuvering and accurate, rapid artillery fire caused his troops to break and flee. He withdrew, and political rivalries prevented Wallenstein from coming to his aid, so he turned to defence. He defeated the Swedes at Bamberg on 9 March 1632. While attempting to prevent the Swedes from crossing into Bavaria over the Lech near Rain am Lech, he was wounded early in the Battle of Rain on 15 April by a 90-gram arquebus bullet (not, as erroneously reported, by a culverin cannon ball), which shattered his right thigh, and died of osteomyelitis (bone infection) fifteen days later in Ingolstadt at the age of 73 on 30 April 1632. His tomb is in Altötting, Upper Bavaria.

Descendants
Fraternal descendants include Antonio Octavio Tserclaes de Tilly (1646–1715) and Claude Frédéric t'Serclaes, Count of Tilly (1648-1723). Antonio was a general and nobleman in service of Spain, while his younger brother Claude fought in service of the army of the Dutch Republic. A sister or daughter, Albertina, of this Prince Antonio Octavio, would be the first root for the Spanish ducal title, Dukes of Tserclaes, bestowed in July 1856 by Queen Isabella II of Spain to members of the Pérez de Guzmán family, living in Jerez and Seville, Spain.

Fictional appearances

 * Tilly is mentioned in Bertolt Brecht's Mother Courage and Her Children: in the scene in which his funeral is held, Mother Courage famously says "I don't care if this funeral is a historical event, to me the mutilation of my daughter's face is a historical event."
 * Tilly and the sack of Magdeburg are mentioned in the novel The Hangman's Daughter.
 * Tilly is depicted in First Breitenfeld and in the Battle of Rain in the novel 1632.

title: Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly


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Henry Bunbury (caricaturist)

Henry William Bunbury (1 July 1750 – 7 May 1811) was an English caricaturist. The second son of Sir William Bunbury, 5th Baronet (see Bunbury baronets), of Mildenhall, Suffolk, he came of an old Norman family. He was educated at Westminster School and St Catharine's College, Cambridge, and soon showed a talent for drawing, especially for humorous subjects. He temporarily left Cambridge to embark on a tour of Europe, during which time he may have studied in Rome; he returned to school in 1771 but is not known to have completed a degree. His European travels inspired a series of caricatures mocking foreigners, notably his La Cuisine de la Poste, exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1770.

His more serious efforts were no great success, but his caricatures are as famous as those of his contemporaries Thomas Rowlandson and James Gillray, good examples being his A Long Story (1782), Country Club (1788), and Barber's Shop (1803). Most of his caricatures are described in detail in the Catalogue of Political and Personal Satires Preserved in the Department of Prints and Drawings in the British Museum. He was a popular character, and the friend of most of the notabilities of his day, whom he never offended by attempting political satire; his easy circumstances and social position (he was commissioned as lieutenant-colonel of the West Suffolk Militia on 26 August 1788, and was appointed equerry to the Duke of York and Albany in 1787) allowed him the leisure to practise his talents.

The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography describes his A Long Minuet as Danced at Bath as the most successful of his lifetime, using an "innovative story-telling" format that is considered a forerunner to the comic strip. His caricatures were regularly reissued, even as he turned his attention to other subjects: he finished half of a commissioned set of 48 drawings of Shakespearean works before abandoning the series in 1796, and after the death of his wife and eldest son he took up oil painting.

In August 1771 he married Catherine, eldest daughter of Kane William Horneck (an officer in the Royal Engineers) and his wife Hannah Muggles. Bunbury and Catherine's second son Henry Bunbury succeeded to the baronetcy.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Henry Bunbury (caricaturist)


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Digital piano

A digital piano is a type of electronic keyboard instrument designed to serve primarily as an alternative to the traditional acoustic piano, both in how it feels to play and in the sound it produces. Digital pianos use either synthesized emulation or recorded samples of an acoustic piano, which are played through one or more internal loudspeakers. They also incorporate weighted keys, which recreate the feel of an acoustic piano. Some digital pianos are designed to also look like an upright or grand piano. Others may be very simple, without a stand.

While digital pianos may sometimes fall short of acoustic ones in feel and sound, their advantages include being smaller, weighing much less, and costing less than an acoustic piano. In addition, they do not need to be tuned, and their tuning can be modified to match the tuning of another instrument (e.g. a pipe organ). Like other electronic musical instruments, they can be connected to an amplifier or a PA system to produce a sound loud enough for a large venue or, at the other extreme, may be heard through headphones only. Some digital pianos can emulate other sounds besides the piano, the most common ones being pipe organ, electric piano, Hammond organ, and harpsichord. Digital pianos are often used in music schools and music studios as a replacement for traditional instruments.

Features
Similar to a traditional acoustic piano, the defining feature of a digital piano is a musical keyboard with 88 keys. The keys are weighted to simulate the action of an acoustic piano and are velocity-sensitive so that the volume and timbre of a played note depends on how hard the key is pressed.

Instruments with fewer keys, and those with keys that are unweighted (similar to electric organs and synthesizers) or not velocity-sensitive tend to be called electronic or digital keyboards rather than digital pianos. Instruments that less accurately simulate the feel of an acoustic piano may be described as semi-weighted, while those that are more accurate may be said to possess hammer action. Some digital pianos incorporate actual hammers to better simulate a grand piano's touch.

In a typical digital piano with hammer action, as the key (1) is depressed, a cam (4) underneath the key presses on one end of a hammer (5), lifting the hammer weight (6). A retaining hook (2) with a cushion is provided so the key does not rise above its resting position.

The shape, size, and weight of the hammer affects the touch of the key, as does the placement of the sensor(s) (7), pivots (8), and the design of the mechanical linkage between the key cam and the hammer. To make the keybed more compact, many digital keyboards use a pivot point in the rear and hammers underneath the keys, as illustrated.

Digital pianos typically use analog sensors for their keyboard action, as opposed to digital sensors of a regular electronic keyboard and synthesizer. These sensors work in a similar way to those in analog joysticks found on video game controllers, where velocity input is converted from the key movement as well, not just the initial pressure of the key sensor.

Other common features include:
 * Volume control; line-out audio connections; headphone output
 * Additional instrument sounds
 * MIDI implementation (most provide General MIDI, which offers 128 instrument sounds and 9 drum kits)
 * Features to assist in learning (such as illuminated keys) and composition (such as a built-in sequencer)
 * Transposition

Piano emulation
In general, the sounds produced by a digital piano are based on sampling, by which acoustic piano sound samples are stored in ROM. The samples are usually created using high-quality pianos, professional microphones, and high-quality preamps in a professional recording studio. Usually multiple samples are available for the same keystroke, attempting to reproduce the diversity of sounds heard on an acoustic piano. However, sample-based digital pianos have limitations on the faithfulness with which they simulate acoustic pianos. Because samples are taken for only a limited number of intensity levels, digital pianos usually lack the continuous timbral changes that characterize acoustic pianos. They may also lack the harmonic tones that result when certain combinations of notes are sounded, and the natural reverberation that is heard when an acoustic piano is played percussively. They often lack the incidental acoustic noises associated with piano playing, such as the sounds of pedals being depressed and the associated machinery shifting within the piano, which some consider a benefit. These limitations apply to most acoustic instruments and their sampled counterparts, the difference often being described as "visceral".

Many digital pianos, especially those that resemble acoustic pianos, have built-in pedals that function much as those on acoustic pianos. Commercially available pedal switches, commonly used for regular electronic keyboards, can also be used, especially on portable models. On an acoustic piano the sustain pedal lifts the dampers for all strings, allowing them to resonate naturally with the notes played. Only high-end professional digital pianos can reproduce this sympathetic resonance effect.

Earlier digital pianos, such as those produced in the 1990s, often had polyphony limited to 32 or 64 notes.

Some digital piano implementations, like Roland V-Piano, Yamaha MODUS, Casio Celviano Grand Hybrid, and the software-based Pianoteq, use mathematical models based on acoustic pianos to generate sound, which brings the ability to generate sounds that vary more freely depending on how the keys have been struck, in addition to allow a more realistic implementation of the distinctive resonances and acoustical noises of acoustic pianos.

Other instruments
Most digital pianos can produce a variety of different piano timbres. For example, a digital piano may have settings for a grand piano, an upright piano, a tack piano, a harpsichord and various electric piano models such as the Fender Rhodes, the Yamaha CP70, the Wurlitzer, and the Yamaha DX7. It may also emulate other keyboard instruments, including organ, harmonium, and clavichord. Some digital pianos also incorporate other basic "synthesizer" sounds such as guitars, string ensemble, brass instruments, woodwinds and drum kits.

Some high-end digital pianos that offer a wide range of instrument sounds similar to electronic keyboards are known as ensemble digital pianos, or just ensemble pianos.

MIDI features
Digital pianos usually offer a MIDI connection, allowing them to control or be controlled by other electronic instruments and sequencers. They may also have an external storage slot to save and load MIDI data, which the piano can play automatically, allowing it to function as a player piano. Some have a built-in sequencer to aid in composition.

Most digital pianos can be connected to a computer. With appropriate software such as scorewriters, digital audio workstations and sequencers, the computer can handle sound generation, mixing of tracks, music notation, musical instruction, and other music composition tasks.

Form factors
The physical form of a digital piano can vary considerably.

Traditional type
Traditional digital pianos are designed to resemble the console of an electronic organ or a spinet harpsichord but usually having a stand rather than fully enclosed lower section. Some models are based on the casework of traditional upright pianos with a fully enclosed bottom part and metallic weighted sustain and soft pedals that resemble traditional piano pedals. An opposite and 2000s-era trend is to produce an instrument which has a unique and distinctive appearance, unobtainable with a conventional wooden-cabinet instrument. These instruments have a modern appearance, with a sleek plastic cabinet that makes no attempt to emulate traditional instruments. Yamaha, Kawai and Casio make models which are designed to stand against a wall and are far shallower from keyboard to back than any possible acoustic upright design, as well as a shorter height.

Traditional digital pianos, due to their form, offer less portability than the other types, and are mainly designed for use in a single place (e.g. home, classrooms or studios), and are not intended for mobility such as on stage or for live performance.

Upright type
These are a sub-type of traditional digital pianos that offer a more classical design which closely resemble an acoustic upright piano. The most expensive models may appear similar in their outer appearance and height to a full-size upright piano. Upright digital pianos are mainly intended for home use and are usually more expensive than the other types, due to the expensive wooden case. Some models, especially the higher-end, more expensive ones, often use wooden keyboards, as opposed to regular plastic keyboards.

Grand type
An uncommon form of digital piano that resembles a grand piano, usually with a more precision keyboard action and high-quality sound system built into the unit's cabinet in a similar manner as the strings on a grand piano. These pianos are mostly high-end novelty models offered by only small number of manufacturers, and often have higher prices than an average acoustic piano.

Stage piano
Another common form is the stage piano, designed for use with live performances, professional audio, or in a recording studio. This type of digital piano normally makes no attempt to imitate the physical appearance of an acoustic piano, rather resembling a generic synthesizer or music workstation. A distinguishing feature of most stage pianos is a lack of internal loudspeakers and amplification - it is normally assumed that a powerful keyboard amplifier or PA system will be used. However, some stage pianos are equipped with powered speakers.

Portable type
Yet another form is the portable digital piano which often combines the capabilities of stage pianos, but with additional features similar to a conventional home keyboard. These digital pianos are mostly designed for various purposes such as home, studio, classroom, stage or personal use. It is similar in form to a stage piano, but much lighter in weight, and having a more compact size. Unlike stage pianos, portable digital pianos were commonly equipped with built-in amplification and loudspeakers, usually has lower cost than other types, and its sound quality was often comparable or similar to that of a conventional keyboards due to a simpler sound synthesis system, though some models, often utilize a similar sound generation system as the more advanced model lineups of the same manufacturer. Many of them also contain a wide assortment of sounds, like one would expect from an electronic keyboard, including sound effects and drum kits. Also like conventional keyboards, these digital pianos often feature an automated "rhythm section" function which is controlled by playing chords with the left hand.

Most portable digital pianos could be freely fitted in a regular keyboard stand like a stage piano, while some types also come equipped with a dedicated matching stand which, when assembled, will have a slight resemblance to a console digital piano.

Portable digital pianos, for the sake of lower production cost, were often equipped with a less complex system for the weighted keys. As a result, the feel of the keys is usually much less realistic than other digital pianos. However, it still retain the emulated weight mechanism (lower keys are heavier than higher ones), though not as precise as more expensive pianos, but far more true to life than a keyboard. Furthermore, certain models include synthetic ivory-like keys as opposed to standard plastic keys.

Hybrid type
Hybrids are a type of high-performance digital piano that incorporate actual piano action and high-quality modeled samples of an acoustic piano. This type of digital piano was first popularized by Roland in the 1980s, with their flagship stage piano at the time, RD-1000.

Piano module
There are also digital piano modules, which are simply keyboardless sound modules chiefly containing piano samples. To use these modules, they are typically connected to a MIDI controller keyboard, and the output signal from the module is plugged into a keyboard amplifier or PA system. One early example of a digital piano module is Roland's 1986 MKS-20 digital piano module.

Pianoteq is a software synthesizer which shares some characteristics with piano modules.

Manufacturers
Well-known manufacturers of digital pianos include Dynatone, Casio, Clavia, Dexibell, Kawai, Korg, Kurzweil, Orla (company), Roland, Suzuki, and Yamaha.

title: Digital piano


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Homeowner association

A homeowner association (or homeowners' association, abbreviated HOA, sometimes referred to as a property owners' association or POA), or a homeowner community, is a private association-like entity in the United States, Canada, the Philippines and certain other countries often formed either ipso jure in a building with multiple owner-occupancies, or by a real estate developer for the purpose of marketing, managing, and selling homes and lots in a residential subdivision. The developer will typically transfer control of the association to the homeowners after selling a predetermined number of lots.

Generally any person who wants to buy a residence within the area of a homeowners association must become a member, and therefore must obey the governing documents including articles of incorporation, CC&Rs (covenants, conditions and restrictions) and by-laws, which may limit the owner's choices in exterior design modifications (e.g., paint colors). Homeowner associations are especially active in urban planning, zoning and land use, decisions that affect the pace of growth, the quality of life, the level of taxation and the value of land in the community.

Most homeowner associations are incorporated, and are subject to state statutes that govern non-profit corporations and homeowner associations. State oversight of homeowner associations varies from state to state; some states, such as Florida and California (see Davis–Stirling), have a large body of HOA law. Other states, such as Massachusetts, have virtually no HOA law. Homeowners associations are commonly found in residential developments since the passage of the Davis–Stirling Common Interest Development Act in 1985. In Canada, homeowner associations are subject to stringent provincial regulations and are thus quite rare compared to the United States. However in recent decades, HOA's have infrequently been created in new subdivision developments in Alberta and Ontario.

The fastest-growing form of housing in the United States today are common-interest developments (CIDs), a category that includes planned unit developments of single-family homes, condominiums, and cooperative apartments. Since 1964, HOAs have become increasingly common in the United States. The Community Associations Institute trade association estimated that in 2010, HOAs governed 24.8 million American homes and 62 million residents. Throughout the rest of the world, homeowner associations—though they do exist in some neighborhoods—are uncommon.

History
Some of the first HOAs were formed early in the 20th century in Los Angeles County, beginning with the Arroyo Seco Improvement Association in Pasadena founded around 1905 and the Los Feliz Improvement Association in Los Angeles founded in 1916. These were the children of deed restrictions in a new kind of planned subdivision, and they established the national legal precedent for zoning districts exclusively for upscale, single-family residences. Private restrictions normally included provisions such as minimum required costs for home construction and the exclusion of all non-Caucasians, and sometimes non-Christians as well, from occupancy, except domestic servants.

Early covenants and deed restrictions were established to control the people who could buy in a development. In the early postwar period after World War II, many were defined to exclude African Americans and, in some cases, Jews, with Asians also excluded on the West Coast. For example, a racial covenant in a Seattle, Washington, neighborhood stated, "No part of said property hereby conveyed shall ever be used or occupied by any Hebrew or by any person of the Ethiopian, Malay or any Asiatic race." In 1948, the United States Supreme Court ruled such covenants unenforceable in Shelley v. Kraemer. However, private contracts effectively kept them alive until the Fair Housing Act of 1968 prohibited such discrimination.

By requiring approval of tenants and new owners, HOAs still have the potential to permit less formalised discrimination.

According to Donald R. Stabile, the explosion in the number of CIDs (many of which were based on homeowners' associations) was strongly influenced by a 1964 publication (TB 50) by the Urban Land Institute. This technical bulletin was funded by the National Association of Home Builders and by certain federal agencies: the FHA, the United States Public Health Service, the Office of Civil Defense, the Veterans Administration, and the Urban Renewal Administration.

In 1963, the FHA had approved federal home mortgage insurance exclusively for condominiums or for homes in subdivisions that had a qualifying homeowner association. The rationale was that developers wanted to get around density laws. The effect, however, was to divert investment from multi-family housing and home construction or renovation in the inner cities. This accelerated the middle-class exodus to the suburbs and into common-interest housing. The rapid expansion of federally subsidized highways under federal programs made access to new areas easy.

In the 1970s, a growing scarcity of land for suburban development resulted in escalating land costs, prompting developers to increase the density of homes on the land. In order to do this while still retaining a suburban look, they clustered homes around green open areas maintained by associations. These associations provided services that formerly had been provided by municipal agencies funded by property taxes. Residents of such development also had to pay their local taxes. Accordingly, local governments began promoting subdivision development as a means of improving their cash flow.

In an effort to control water pollution, the U.S. Clean Water Act of 1977 required that all new real estate developments had to detain storm water so that flow to adjoining properties was not greater than the pre-development runoff. As a result, nearly all residential developments had to construct detention or retention areas to hold excess storm water until it could be released at the pre-development flow level. Since these detention areas serve multiple residences, they are almost always designated as "common" areas. This requirement was a reason for developers to establish a homeowner association. Although these areas can be placed on an individual homeowner's lot, eliminating the need for an association, some U.S. municipalities now require these areas to be part of a common area to ensure an entity, rather than an individual or the municipality itself, has maintenance responsibility. Real estate developers have frequently established homeowner associations to maintain such common areas. Having established the HOA, the developers have expanded their scope, giving them authority to regulate changes to residences, landscaping and maintenance requirements, color of houses, etc., a variety of other requirements and amenities that the developers believe will make their project more desirable to the market.

Industry
The Community Associations Institute (CAI) is a trade association of individuals and businesses that sell supplies or services to HOAs, and is dominated by lawyers and homeowner association managers. The CAI does not represent homeowners associations. It lobbies the legislatures of states that have HOAs in order to promote legislation beneficial to its interests.

Operation
Although in some cases membership in an HOA may be voluntary for a property owner, in the majority of cases membership in an HOA is mandatory. Once an owner purchases property within the subdivision, that owner becomes a mandatory member of the HOA, and must pay assessments to, and abide by the rules of, the HOA.

In return, the owner/member is permitted to participate in the HOA's governance and use the amenities offered by the HOA, provided that they are current on assessments (or on a payment plan to become current). Once an owner sells or otherwise transfers interest in all the property owned within the HOA, the owner ceases to be a member of the HOA and loses all rights previously held.

Governance
Usually HOAs are structured as private corporations or private unincorporated associations (commonly as non-profit ones). HOAs are governed by federal and state statutes applicable to corporations (or unincorporated associations if so structured), as well as the HOA's own "governing documents".

The HOA's governing documents generally "run with the land", which means that all current and future owners of property within the HOA will be bound by them as a condition of property ownership. They usually include:

 * The covenants, conditions, and restrictions (CC&Rs) of the subdivision. These are likely the most important documents affecting the subdivision and are usually created when the subdivision is initially formed, and as such are often recorded in the official property records of the county or other jurisdiction where the subdivision is located. Commonly the CC&Rs specify what types of structures can be placed on a lot (e.g. an upscale community may prohibit mobile homes or travel trailers and require minimum sizes on dwellings, along with offsets from the property line where building is prohibited) and other property restrictions (e.g. no animals except for traditional household pets, no operation of commercial business).
 * The HOA's Articles of Incorporation and Bylaws.
 * In some cases the documents may include board-enacted rules as authorized (expressly or implicitly) by the CC&Rs.

Generally CC&Rs are enforceable as legal documents. However, there are instances where a CC&R is rendered illegal by later enacted state or federal law and therefore is no longer enforceable. For example, a developer-drafted covenant giving the developer sole rights to amend the CC&Rs was declared unenforceable as a matter of public policy in at least one state, where the developer attempted to amend years after he had sold all the property. That state's legislature later codified that public policy. Other examples include CC&Rs which prohibited sales of property to certain racial groups; the Fair Housing Act rendered all of these also to be unconstitutional and unenforceable.

Board of directors
The HOA will be governed by a board of directors.

Initially, the board is composed of developer-appointed members, in order to maintain the character of the community that the developer has for it. As the percentage of ownership shifts from the developer toward owners, the corresponding percentage changes from developer-appointed members to homeowners elected at an annual meeting, and ultimately the board will consist solely of homeowner-elected members.

Usually, the board (or parts of it) will be elected at an annual meeting of the homeowners, as specified in the Bylaws. In order to avoid an owner of multiple lots (who likely own the lots for resale or rental property) controlling the HOA's operation (to the detriment of those owners who only own a single lot or two contiguous lots as a current or future residence or vacation home), the Bylaws may limit all owners (regardless of the number of lots owned) to one or two votes per owner.

Depending on the state, board meetings may be required to be open to the public, except in instances where a board may enter into an "executive session" for discussion on confidential matters (e.g. discussions with its attorney on an upcoming lawsuit).

The board of directors makes decisions regarding the HOA, including management of the HOA's finances, protecting the HOA's real and intangible assets (generally the amenities provided which were the basis for inducing people to purchase lots), and enforcing the governing documents. Boards of directors have a fiduciary duty to the property owners; violation of that duty may result in liability for individual directors, and as such the HOA will often adopt an ethics code for the board members to ensure they act ethically and in accordance with their responsibilities. To gain a clear understanding of the responsibilities of the HOA board, community members need to read their association's CC&Rs, Articles of Incorporation and Bylaws, and other rules.

Association management
Many HOAs (especially larger ones with more upscale amenities) hire management companies to handle the governing duties of the association.

Management services are typically divided into three categories: financial only, full management, and on-site management. Financial services typically cover administration of bank accounts, bookkeeping, assessment collection, and the HOAs budget. Full management typically includes the financial services plus help with board meetings (keeping minutes, agendas, etc.), board elections, and maintenance duties (obtaining contractor bids, etc.). On-site management typically includes all of the full management services plus direct assistance to homeowners with an assigned manager to the HOA.

Education requirements for managers varies from state to state, with some requiring certification under all circumstances and others having a more lenient approach. For instance, while California does not require HOA managers to be certified, it does require that managers meet certain educational requirements to claim certification.

Powers
Through its board an HOA will provide some level of amenities (though differing greatly between HOAs), regulate activities within a development, levy assessments, and may (if authorized by CC&Rs or a state legislature) impose fines for noncompliance.

Depending on the governing documents, HOA boards may create committees, such as an "architectural control committee" (this is a very common one, and frequently this committee has the ultimate authority to approve or deny a building request), a pool committee, a neighborhood watch committee, etc.

Depending on the governing documents or state law, the HOA may have the authority to place liens on a property (for non-payment of assessments and/or noncompliance with CC&Rs, an example would be the costs to remove a noncompliant structure such as a mobile home on a lot restricted to "site built" housing) and to, ultimately, foreclose on it.

Homeowners have the ability to defend against such actions, and are usually entitled to sue HOAs for contractual or statutory violations, or for a legal determination as to the enforceability of a provision in the governing documents. However, because HOAs are private associations, they are not considered "state actors" subject to constitutional constraints, and therefore homeowners cannot sue for civil rights violations under 42 U.S.C. 1983.

The major power of the HOA is the ability to compel property owners to pay a share of common expenses for the overall maintenance of the HOA and the amenities, usually proportionate to the ownership interests (either by unit or based on square footage). These expenses generally arise from the operation and maintenance of common property, which vary dramatically depending on the type of association. An HOA may have, in addition to a regular assessment, a "special" assessment for unexpected expenses (such as for road maintenance).

The assessment may be paid monthly, quarterly, or annually; generally the more amenities provided the more frequent the assessment must be paid. Some associations operate little or no common property, and the expenses relate solely to enforcement of use restrictions or assumed services. Others are effectively private towns, with elaborate amenities including private roads, street lights, services, utilities, commonly owned buildings, pools, and even schools. Assessments paid to homeowner associations in the United States amount to billions of dollars a year, but are not classed as property taxes.

When determining what the assessment should be, it is important to consider what funds are required. There should always be a minimum of two funds: an operating fund and a reserve fund. The operating fund is used to pay for the operating expenses of the association. A reserve fund is used to pay for the infrequent and expensive common area assets maintenance, repair and replacement costs. The reserve fund is crucial for reducing the chances of a special assessment (mentioned in the risks below). Obtaining a reserve study is recommended to help determine and set the reserve contribution rate which is included in the regular monthly assessment.

Effects
According to a 2019 study in the Journal of Labor Economics, "houses in HOAs have prices that are on average at least 4%, or $13,500, greater than observably similar houses outside of HOAs. The HOA premium correlates with the stringency of local land use regulation, local government spending on public goods, and measures of social attitudes toward race." The study also found that people in HOA neighborhoods "are on average more affluent and racially segregated than those living in other nearby neighborhoods."

For homeowners
The benefits that a homeowner association (HOA) provides to homeowners vary depending on the specific regulations and practices of the HOA. Individuals may also benefit more or less depending on their political standing in the association and the degree to which the community's decisions match their preferences. In the 1994 court case Nahrstedt v. Lakeside Village Condominium Assn., the California Supreme Court noted: "'...Owners associations 'can be a powerful force for good or for ill' in their members' lives. Therefore, anyone who buys a unit in a common interest development with knowledge of its owners association's discretionary power accepts 'the risk that the power may be used in a way that benefits the commonality but harms the individual.''"

Benefits to homeowners may include maintenance and management services, provision of recreational amenities such as pools and parks, insurance coverage, enforcement of community appearance standards which may lead to higher property values, and the opportunity for members to plan development in accordance with community values.

Disadvantages to homeowners may include the financial burden of association fees, punitive fines, and costs of maintaining appearance standards; restrictions on property use and personal autonomy; and the potential for mismanagement by the board, including the possibility of arbitrary or heavy-handed enforcement of rules.

For the municipality
Many municipalities have welcomed HOAs in the belief that they may reduce operational costs for the local government. Since the homeowners sometimes pay for roads, parks, and other services within the development, the local government may believe it can gain revenue from property taxes from owners in a development that costs the municipality little or nothing.

A 2009 study of California HOAs suggested that this assumption was partially true, but that the overall effect of HOAs on municipalities was mixed. While HOAs did offset the costs of city governments to a small degree, they also reduced overall tax revenues because their members, insulated from the larger community, tended to vote down taxes that the city required to fund services. This led to an overall decrease in government expenditures that disproportionately affected those citizens who did not reside in an HOA.

As the study noted, "'...critics of private governments claim that HOAs erode support for public institutions. Those who join can bypass the public system: homeowners who fear crime do not have to vote for tax dollars to attack the root of the problem; they can build a gate to keep the criminals out. Opponents maintain that the erosion of public support, reflected at the ballot box, leads to further deterioration of municipal services and reductions in local revenues. Nonmembers experience a reduction in public service levels and may be worse off. At the extreme, homeowners associations may contribute to sentiments of secession and withdrawal from the public sector.'"

For real estate developers
Real estate developers establish HOAs in the belief that they can contribute to the developer's ability to build and sell units profitably. Providing common amenities may enable developers to build at a higher density, if the local government has encouraged such results. In addition, by relieving municipalities of the costs of road and utility maintenance, developers may obtain more favorable terms. Ordinarily, the developer retains some control over the HOA until a specified number of units are sold, and the covenants, conditions, and restrictions of the HOA are put in place to further this goal.

The potential disadvantage to a developer is that they may be exposed to liability to the HOA for poor construction, misleading marketing, or other problems. In these cases, the HOA may sue the developer.

Regulations
Homeowner associations have been criticized for having excessively restrictive rules and regulations on how homeowners may conduct themselves and use their property. Some maintain that homeowner association leaders have limited financial incentive to avoid indulging in rigid or arbitrary behavior, and unless people begin to leave in droves, it will have little effect on the value of a board member's home.

In The Voluntary City, published by the libertarian Independent Institute, Donald J. Boudreaux and Randall G. Holcombe argue that homeowners associations do not necessarily have advantages over traditional governments. They note that the association's creator, e.g. a developer, has an incentive to set up a government structured in such a way as to maximize profits and thus increase the selling price of the property. If a certain decision would increase the selling price of certain parcels and decrease the selling price of others, the developer will choose the option that yields his project the highest net income. This may result in suboptimal outcomes for the homeowners.

Criticisms
Some scholars and officials of the AARP have charged that, in a variety of ways, HOAs suppress the rights of their residents. Due to court decisions, describing HOAs as a kind of private entity, HOA boards of directors are not bound by constitutional restrictions on governments—although they are de facto a level of government. Homeowners who believe a breach of duty has occurred by the board of directors may run for the board at the next election or, in extreme cases, sue the association at personal expense.

Corporation and homeowner association laws provide a limited role for HOA homeowners. Unless either statutory law or the corporation's governing documents reserve a particular issue or action for approval by the members, corporation laws provide that the activities and affairs of a corporation shall be conducted and "all corporate powers shall be exercised" by or under the direction of the board of directors. Many boards are operated outside of their state's non-profit corporation laws. Knowledge of corporate laws and state statutes is essential to properly managing an HOA.

Once notified by a homeowner, attorney or other government official that an HOA organization is not meeting the state's statutes, the board has the responsibility to correct their governance. Certain states, such as Texas, permit misdemeanor charges to be filed against a noncompliant board and permit lawsuits to be filed against the board and the HOA. In some instances, a known failure to rectify the board's governance to meet the state's statutes can open the board's members to personal liability as most insurance policies indemnifying the board members against legal action do not cover willful misconduct.

HOAs establish a new community as a municipal corporation. Voting in an HOA is based on property ownership, Only property owners are eligible to vote. Renters are prohibited from directly voting for the unit, although they can deal directly with their landlords under their lease contract, since that is the party who has responsibility to them.

Additionally, voting representation is equal to the proportion of ownership, not to the number of people. The majority of property owners may be absentee landlords, whose values or incentives may not be aligned with the tenants'. However, some HOAs limit owners of multiple properties to one or two votes regardless of the number of lots owned, so absentee owners do not end up controlling the HOA to the detriment of residents who only own a single lot or two contiguous lots as a current or future residence or vacation home.

Homeowners have challenged political speech restrictions in associations that federal or state constitutional guarantees as rights, claiming that certain private associations are de facto municipal governments and should therefore be subject to the same legal restrictions.

Several court decisions have held that private actors may restrict individuals' exercise of their rights on private property. A 2007 decision in New Jersey held that private residential communities had the right to place reasonable limitations on political speech, and that in doing so, they were not acting as municipal governments. With few exceptions, courts have rejected claims that private actors are subject to constitutional limitations in a manner comparable to courts and police.

In 2002, the 11th Circuit Court of Appeals, in Loren v. Sasser, declined to extend Shelley beyond racial discrimination and disallowed a challenge to an association's prohibition of "for sale" signs. In Loren, the court ruled that outside the racial covenant context, it would not view judicial enforcement of a private contract as state action, but as private action, and accordingly would disallow any First Amendment relief.

In the Twin Rivers case, a group of homeowners collectively called The Committee for a Better Twin Rivers sued the association, for a mandatory injunction permitting homeowners to post political signs and strike down the political signage restrictions by the association as unconstitutional. The appeals court held the restrictions on political signs unconstitutional and void, but the appeals court was reversed when the New Jersey Supreme Court overturned the appellate court's decision in 2007 and reinstated the decision of the trial court.

In some HOAs, the developer may have multiple votes for each lot it retains, but the homeowners are limited to only one vote per lot owned. This has been justified on the grounds that it allows residents to avoid decision costs until major questions about the development process already have been answered and that as the residual claimant, the developer has the incentive to maximize the value of the property.

Board misconduct
The New Jersey Department of Community Affairs reported these observations of Association Board conduct: "'It is obvious from the complaints [to DCA] that that [home]owners did not realize the extent association rules could govern their lives.'" "'Curiously, with rare exceptions, when the State has notified boards of minimal association legal obligation to owners, they dispute compliance. In a disturbing number of instances, those owners with board positions use their influence to punish other owners with whom they disagree. The complete absence of even minimally required standards, training or even orientations for those sitting on boards and the lack of independent oversight is readily apparent in the way boards exercise control'" "Overwhelmingly ... the frustrations posed by the duplicative complainants or by the complainants' misunderstandings are dwarfed by the pictures they reveal of the undemocratic life faced by owners in many associations. Letters routinely express a frustration and outrage easily explainable by the inability to secure the attention of boards or property managers, to acknowledge no less address their complaints. Perhaps most alarming is the revelation that boards, or board presidents desirous of acting contrary to law, their governing documents or to fundamental democratic principles, are unstoppable without extreme owner effort and often costly litigation."

Certain states are pushing for more checks and balances in HOAs. The North Carolina Planned Community Act, for example, requires a due process hearing to be held before any homeowner may be fined for a covenant violation. It also limits the amount of the fine and sets other restrictions.

California law has strictly limited the prerogatives of boards by requiring hearings before fines can be levied and then reducing the size of such fines even if the owner-members do not appear. In California, any rule change made by the board is subject to a majority affirmation by the membership if only five percent of the membership demand a vote. This part of the civil code also ensures that any dissenting individual who seeks a director position must be fully represented to the membership and that all meetings be opened and agenda items publicized in advance. In states like Massachusetts, there are no laws to prohibit unilateral changes to the documents by the association board.

Double taxation
Most homeowners are subject to property taxation, whether or not said property is located in a planned unit development governed by a homeowners association. Such taxes are used by local municipalities to maintain roads, street lighting, parks, etc. In addition to municipal property taxes, individuals who own private property located within planned unit developments are subject to association assessments that are used by the development to maintain the private roads, street lighting, landscaping, security, and amenities located within the planned unit development.

A non-HOA property owner pays taxes to fund street repairs performed by the city. The HOA property owners pay these same taxes, and benefit from their use of public roads, etc. without the local government (i.e. taxpayers) having to pay for the HOA's private roads, etc. which the non-HOA property owner cannot use. The proliferation of planned unit developments has resulted in a cost savings to local governments in two ways. One, by requiring developers to build 'public improvements' such as parks, passing the cost of maintenance of the improvements to the common-interest owners; and two, by planned-unit developments being responsible for the cost of maintaining infrastructures that would normally be maintained by the municipality.

Financial risk for homeowners
In some U.S. states (such as Texas) an HOA can foreclose a member's house without any judicial procedure in order to collect special assessments, fees and fines, or otherwise place an enforceable lien on the property which, upon the property's sale, allows the HOA to collect otherwise unpaid assessments.

A case in point involves a soldier who, in 2008, was informed his fully paid-for $300,000 home in Frisco, Texas, had been foreclosed on and sold for $3,500 by his HOA over unpaid dues of $800 while he was serving in Iraq. In 2010, the case was settled and the soldier regained ownership of the home. Federal laws protecting military personnel from civil action may have been his defense; however, a gag order prevents details from being known.

Other states, like Florida, require a judicial hearing. Foreclosure without a judicial hearing can occur when a "power of sale clause" exists in a mortgage or deed of trust.

A self-published report by a professor at the University of Washington disputes the claim that HOAs protect property values, stating, based on a survey of Harris County, Texas (which had an unusual legal regime regarding foreclosures): "Although HOA foreclosures are ostensibly motivated by efforts to improve property values, neither foreclosure activity nor HOAs appear linked with the above average home price growth."

Homeowners association boards can also collect special assessments from its members in addition to set fees, sometimes without the homeowners' direct vote on the matter, though most states place restrictions on an association's ability to do so. Special assessments often require a homeowner-vote if the amount exceeds a prescribed limit established in the association's by-laws.

In California, for example, a special assessment can be imposed by a board, without a membership vote, only when the total assessment is five percent or less of the association's annual budget. Therefore, in the case of a 25-unit association with a $100,000 annual operating budget, the board could only impose a $5,000 assessment on the entire population ($5,000 divided by 25 units equals $200 per unit). A larger assessment would require a majority vote of the members.

In some exceptional cases, particularly in matters of public health or safety, the amount of special assessments may be at the board's discretion. If, for example there is a ruptured sewer line, the Board could vote a substantial assessment immediately, arguing that the matter affects public health and safety. In practice, however, most boards prefer that owners have a chance to voice opinions and vote on assessments.

Increasingly, HOAs handle large amounts of money. Embezzlement from associations has occurred occasionally, as a result of dishonest board members or community managers, with losses up to millions of dollars. Again, California's Davis–Stirling Act, which was designed to protect owners, requires that boards carry appropriate liability insurance to indemnify the association from any wrongdoing. The large budgets and expertise required to run such groups are a part of the arguments behind mandating manager certification (through Community Association Institute, state real estate boards, or other agencies).

In 2006, the AARP voiced concern that homeowners associations pose a risk to the financial welfare of their members. They have proposed that a homeowners "Bill of Rights" be adopted by all 50 states to protect seniors from rogue HOAs.

Prevention of financial risks
Many HOAs introduce regular accounting audits to mitigate homeowners' financial risks. In the framework of such an inspection, an independent third-party CPA (Certified Public Accountant) conducts a comprehensive analysis of an association's financial records and accounting procedures, to determine whether they are accurate, legitimate and compliant with Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) or other reporting frameworks. Upon completion of the planned auditing procedures, a CPA issues an official report that states an opinion regarding the organization's financial health.

Audit obligations
In the US, auditing requirements vary from state to state, as well as from HOA to HOA. Some associations are obliged to audit their financial statements on an annual basis or once every few years. For others, it is enough to conduct a review, a compilation or an agreed-upon procedures engagement.

The HOA's budget, size and terms prescribed in covenants and bylaws often act as decisive factors when determining whether an audit is obligatory for a particular board.

Audit frequency
An audit at the end of each fiscal year is deemed to be a good rule of thumb. However, the need for an unscheduled examination can arise in cases of major changes, like a transition to a new board or management company, implementation of a large-scale improvement project, receipt of a significant sum of money under unusual circumstances, suspicion of fraud or embezzlement, or other misconduct.

Auditing process
The auditing process for HOAs can be divided into four stages:

Planning
An HOA board makes an initial inquiry to an accounting specialist about the need to conduct an audit. A consultation is held to negotiate the objectives, timeframe, report deadlines, and cost of the examination.

Risk assessment
A CPA determines what obstacles can float up when testing the association's accounting procedures and preparing financial statements, gauges the significance of potential problems, and finds ways to overcome them. To collect the necessary information and evaluate an HOA's financial performance, the auditor interviews board members at their office, monitors the main day-to-day operations, tests their security, and performs analytical procedures.

The auditee must provide the CPA with the most recent audit report, copies of annual tax returns, current and ensuing year's budget, board minutes, covenants, bylaws, and other internal documents.

The CPA tests internal controls for incoming and outgoing transactions, the maintenance of a reserve fund, the appropriateness of financing of major contracts and improvement projects, the proper disposal of funds acquired in legal cases and under other extraordinary circumstances, and the availability and accuracy of journal entries of receipts and disbursements. These issues are given the most attention, since they have the strongest influence on an HOA's financial health.

Also, an auditor reaches out to third-party organizations to verify the HOA's transactions on both sides:

 * Account confirmations are requested from banks to check whether the association's operational and reserve accounts contain the claimed sums.
 * The same is done for loans. A CPA verifies loan balances, interest rates, repayment terms and other important details.
 * The HOA association's attorney is contacted to check whether the association is involved in any legal cases.

Fieldwork
The auditor conducts a profound analysis to establish relationships between the association's income statement and balance sheet. The previous year's results are compared with the current results.

Since it is impossible to cover all of an HOA's transactions in an audit, a CPA selects a sample of transactions and scrutinizes details. For example, they can use a sample of outgoing transactions to verify invoices and make sure all the funds were spent as intended and properly documented.

Also, an auditor can verify bank statements, reconciliations, payroll records, canceled checks, loan statements, approved contracts and leases, proof of real estate and equipment ownership, records on capital assets, supplies and inventories. If the HOA's actual financial performance deviates from the planned indicators, the auditee must provide evidence that fluctuations are not due to the board's negligence or misconduct.

Reporting
An audit report states the CPA's opinion on the HOA's financial health and its compliance with accounting documents and with generally accepted standards. There are three types of audit reports:

 * Unqualified opinion: in all respects, the HOA's financial statements are accurate, legitimate, reflect the actual activity of the association and comply with GAAP.
 * Qualified opinion: minor misrepresentations or deviations from GAAP were found in the HOA's accounting papers. This does not significantly influence its overall financial performance, and mistakes are easy to correct.
 * Adverse opinion: accounting violations that point to fraud or the board's blatant negligence were detected.

One more option is a disclaimer of opinion, a document compiled when a CPA is unable to issue an audit report due to conflicting interests with an HOA, non-provision of the requested financial documents, or significant uncertainty in the association's accounting operations.

Improvement recommendations in an audit report can be used to fix the board's past mistakes, establish internal discipline, and adopt more effective accounting practices. Also, audited financial statements serve as evidence of the board's good faith and sound strategies when reporting to unit owners, investors, potential real estate buyers, tenants and other interested parties.

Repeat audits
The need for a repeat audit may arise if the board has received an adverse opinion and wants to restore its good name in the eyes of shareholders and investors. After issues revealed in the initial audit are fixed, a repeat examination is conducted according to the standard scenario.

Limits to powers
In June 2012, the Supreme Court of Virginia ruled in the case Shadowood Condominium Association et al. v. Fairfax County Redevelopment and Housing Authority that an HOA's power to fine owners for rule violations (including being in arrears) is limited to those expressly provided in the HOA's valid governing documents (e.g. the HOA's Bylaws).

Prior to the Telecommunications Act of 1996, HOAs could limit or prohibit installation of satellite dishes. Many communities still have these rules in their CC&Rs, but after October 1996, they are no longer enforceable. With a few exceptions, any homeowner may install a satellite dish of a size of one meter or smaller in diameter (larger dishes are protected in Alaska). While HOAs may encourage that dishes be placed as inconspicuously as possible, the dish must be allowed to be placed where it may receive a usable signal.

Many HOAs have restrictive covenants preventing a homeowner from installing an OTA (over-the-air) rooftop antenna. These restrictions are also no longer enforceable, except in some instances. For example: the antenna may be installed at any location unless it imposes upon common property. Also, the antenna must be of a design to receive local, not long-distance signals and must not extend any higher than twelve feet above the top roof-line of the home, unless an exception is granted by the HOA due to extenuating terrestrial interference.

In Florida, state law prohibits covenants and deed restrictions from prohibiting "Florida-Friendly Landscaping," a type of xeriscaping. In spite of the law, at least one homeowner has faced harassment and threat of fines from a homeowners association for having insufficient grass after landscaping his yard to reduce water usage. Similar legislation was introduced and passed by the legislature in Colorado but was vetoed by governor Bill Owens. Residents in Colorado have continued to call for regulation to protect xeriscaping, citing HOAs that require the use of grasses that consume large quantities of water and threaten fines for those who do not comply with the covenants.

Alternative to CIDs
An alternative to CIDs is the multiple-tenant income property (MTIP). CIDs and MTIPs have fundamentally different forms of governance. In a CID, dues are paid to a nonprofit association. In an MTIP, ground rents are paid to a landowner, who decides how to spend it.

In both cases, certain guidelines are set out by the covenant or the lease contract. In the latter scenario, the landowner has a stronger incentive to maximize the value of all the governed property in the long term (because they are the residual claimant of it all) and to keep the residents happy, since their income is dependent on their continued patronage. These factors are cited as arguments in favor of MTIPs.

title: Homeowner association


text:
User talk:Pizza Puzzle/ban

I found a link to this on John Owens' most wanted list. Well, I thought that I'd consummate it. 172 10:15 27 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * Well, since there is a page here now, have to find something to discuss on it, how about discussing making Pizza Puzzle an admin, so he doesn't have any reason to complain about protected pages? כסיף Cyp 10:24 27 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Click here for sufficient demonstration that PP=Adam. Evercat put an incredible amount of work into proving the Lir/PP connection, linking him to his innumerable past identities, such as Adam, Bridget, Lir, Vera Cruz, Susan Mason, and Dietary Fiber. Due to Evercat's work, I moved PP from suspected of being Lir to known to being Lir on John Owen's most wanted list 172 17:03, 31 Jul 2003 (UTC)

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I favor his banning. Let me explain this in terms of the Lir cycle. Adam's history of contributions follows a cyclical pattern. He gets banned. Then, he establishes a new user name. He starts off as a constructive, extremely active contributor editing hundreds of articles. Then he starts misbehaving. His bad behavior worsens. He then focuses all his efforts on a personal crusade. He finally gets banned. And so the cycle continues. I think that banning him sooner rather than later will usher in the constructive part of the cycle. Let him start afresh with a new identity. When he gets a new user name, hiding his identity gives him an incentive to behave, which he hasn't been doing lately. In fact, I suspect that PP already has a new user name (I won't state it since I'm uncertain) who is well behaved. If that's correct, Lir is already laying the groundwork for an eventual banning of the PP incarnation by establishing a less tarnished persona. In effect, banning Lir whips him in to shape, albeit temporarily. 172 17:03, 31 Jul 2003 (UTC)

title: User talk:Pizza Puzzle/ban


text:
Tityus

Tityus may refer to:

 * A giant from Greek mythology (see Tityos)
 * A genus of scorpions (see Tityus (genus))

Art

 * The Punishment of Tityus (Michelangelo)
 * Tityus (Titian)
 * Tityos (Ribera)

title: Tityus


text:
George Rodney, 1st Baron Rodney

Admiral George Brydges Rodney, 1st Baron Rodney, KB (bap. 13 February 1718 – 24 May 1792), was a British naval officer. He is best known for his commands in the American War of Independence, particularly his victory over the French at the Battle of the Saintes in 1782. It is often claimed that he was the commander to have pioneered the tactic of breaking the line.

Rodney came from a distinguished but poor background, and went to sea at the age of fourteen. His first major action was the Second Battle of Cape Finisterre in 1747. He made a large amount of prize money during the 1740s, allowing him to purchase a large country estate and a seat in the House of Commons of Great Britain. During the Seven Years' War, Rodney was involved in a number of amphibious operations such as the raids on Rochefort and Le Havre and the Siege of Louisbourg. He became well known for his role in the capture of Martinique in 1762. Following the Peace of Paris, Rodney's financial situation stagnated. He spent large sums of money pursuing his political ambitions. By 1774 he had run up large debts and was forced to flee Britain to avoid his creditors. He was in a French jail when war was declared in 1778. Thanks to a French benefactor, Rodney was able to secure his release and return to Britain where he was appointed to a new command.

Rodney successfully relieved Gibraltar during the Great Siege and defeated a Spanish fleet during the 1780 Battle of Cape St. Vincent, known as the "Moonlight Battle" because it took place at night. He then was posted to the Jamaica Station, where he became involved in the controversial 1781 capture of Sint Eustatius. Later that year he briefly returned home suffering from ill health. During his absence the British lost the crucial Battle of the Chesapeake leading to the surrender at Yorktown.

To some, Rodney was a controversial figure, accused of an obsession with prize money. This was brought to a head in the wake of his taking of Saint Eustatius, for which he was heavily criticised in Britain. Orders for his recall had been sent when Rodney won a decisive victory at the Battle of the Saintes in April 1782, ending the French threat to Jamaica.

Rodney accompanied the future King William IV on his visit (April 1783) to Cuba. There the prince conferred with Captain General Luis de Unzaga to reach the preliminaries of peace conditions that would later recognize the birth of the United States of America. On his return to Britain, Rodney was made a peer and was awarded an annual pension of £2,000. He lived in retirement until his death in 1792.

Early life
George Brydges Rodney was born either in Walton-on-Thames or in London, though the family seat was Rodney Stoke, Somerset. He was most likely born sometime in January 1718. He was baptised in St Giles-in-the-Fields on 13 February 1718. He was the third of four surviving children of Henry Rodney and Mary (Newton) Rodney, daughter of Sir Henry Newton. His father had served in Spain under the Earl of Peterborough during the War of the Spanish Succession, and on leaving the army served as captain in a marine corps which was disbanded in 1713. A major investment in the South Sea Company ruined Henry Rodney and impoverished the family. In spite of their lack of money, the family was well-connected by marriage. It is sometimes claimed that Henry Rodney had served as commander of the Royal Yacht of George I and it was after him that George was named, but this had been discounted more recently.

George was educated at Harrow School, and left as one of the last King's letter boys to join the Royal Navy, having been appointed, by warrant dated 21 June 1732, a junior officer on board HMS Sunderland (1724).

Early career
After serving aboard Sunderland, Rodney switched to Dreadnought where he served from 1734 to 1737 under Captain Henry Medley who acted as a mentor to him. Around this time he spent eighteen months stationed in Lisbon, a city he would later return to several times. He then changed ships several times, taking part in the navy's annual trip to protect the British fishing fleet off Newfoundland in 1738.

He rose swiftly through the ranks of the navy helped by a combination of his own talents and the patronage of the Duke of Chandos. While serving on the Mediterranean station he was made lieutenant in HMS Dolphin (1731), his promotion dating 15 February 1739. He then served on Namur, the flagship of the Commander-in-Chief Sir Thomas Mathews.

Captain
The War of the Austrian Succession had broken out by this point, and in August 1742, Rodney had his first taste of action when he was ordered by Matthews to take a smaller vessel and launch a raid on Ventimiglia, where the Spanish army had stockpiled supplies and stores ready for a planned invasion of Britain's ally the Republic of Genoa, which he successfully accomplished. Shortly after this, he attained the rank of post-captain, having been appointed by Matthews to HMS Plymouth (1708) on 9 November. He picked up several British merchantmen in Lisbon to escort them home, but lost contact with them in heavy storms. Once he reached Britain his promotion was confirmed, making him one of the youngest Captains in the navy.

After serving in home waters learning about convoy protection he was appointed to the newly built Ludlow Castle which he used to blockade the Scottish coast during the Jacobite Rebellion in 1745. Two of Rodney's midshipman aboard Ludlow Castle were Samuel Hood, later to become a distinguished sailor, and Rodney's younger brother James Rodney. In 1746 he obtained command of the 60-gun HMS Eagle (1745). After some time spent blockading French-occupied Ostend and cruising around the Western Approaches, where on 24 May he took his first prize a 16-gun Spanish privateer, Eagle was sent to join the Western Squadron.

Battle of Cape Finisterre

The Western Squadron was a new strategy by Britain's naval planners to operate a more effective blockade system of France by stationing the Home Fleet in the Western Approaches, where they could guard both the English Channel and the French Atlantic coast.

Eagle continued to take prizes while stationed with the Squadron being involved directly, or indirectly, in the capture of sixteen enemy ships. After taking one of the captured prizes to Kinsale in Ireland, Eagle was not present at the First Battle of Cape Finisterre when the Western Squadron commanded by Lord Anson won a significant victory over the French. While returning from Ireland, Eagle fell in with a small squadron under Commodore Thomas Fox which sighted a French merchant convoy heading for the Bay of Biscay. In total around 48 merchantmen were taken by the squadron, although Rodney ignored an order of Fox by pursuing several ships which had broken away from the rest in an attempt to escape managing to capture six of them. Afterwards Eagle rejoined the Western Squadron now under the command of Edward Hawke.

On 14 October 1747 the ship took part in the Second Battle of Cape Finisterre, a victory off Ushant over the French fleet. The French were trying to escort an outgoing convoy from France to the West Indies and had eight large ships-of-the-line while the British had fourteen smaller ships. Rodney was at the rear of the British line, and Eagle was one of the last British ships to come into action engaging the French shortly after noon. Initially Eagle was engaged with two French ships, but one moved away. Rodney engaged the 70-gun Neptune for two hours until his steering wheel was struck by a lucky shot, and his ship became unmanageable. Rodney later complained that Thomas Fox in Kent had failed to support him, and testified at Fox's court martial. The British took six of the eight French ships, but were unable to prevent most of the merchant convoy escaping, although much of it was later taken in the West Indies.

The two Battles of Cape Finisterre had proved a vindication of the Western Squadron strategy. Rodney later often referred to "the good old discipline" of the Western Squadron, using it as an example for his own views on discipline. For the remainder of the war Rodney took part in further cruises, and took several more prizes. Following the Congress of Breda, an agreement was signed at the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ending the war. Rodney took his ship back to Plymouth where it was decommissioned on 13 August 1748. Rodney's total share of prize money during his time with Eagle was £15,000 giving him financial security for the first time in his life.

Commander
On 9 May 1749 he was appointed governor and commander-in-chief of Newfoundland, with the rank of Commodore, it being usual at that time to appoint a naval officer, chiefly on account of the fishery interests. He was given command of HMS Rainbow (1747) and had two smaller ships under his overall command. It was extremely difficult for naval officers to secure commands in peacetime, and Rodney's appointment suggests that he was well regarded by his superiors. Rodney's role as Governor was rather limited. Each summer a large British fishing fleet sailed for Newfoundland, where it took part in the valuable cod trade. The fleet then returned home during the winter. Rodney oversaw three such trips to Newfoundland between 1749 and 1751.

Around this time Rodney began to harbour political ambitions and gained the support of the powerful Duke of Bedford and Lord Sandwich. He stood unsuccessfully in a 1750 by-election in Launceston. He was elected MP for Saltash, a safe seat controlled by the Admiralty, in 1751. After his third and final trip to Newfoundland in the summer of 1751, Rodney sailed home via Spain and Portugal, escorting some merchantmen. Once home he fell ill, and was then unemployed for around ten months. During this time he oversaw the development of an estate at Old Alresford in Hampshire, which he had bought with the proceeds of his prize money.

In 1753 he married his first wife, Jane Compton (1730–1757), sister of Charles Compton, 7th Earl of Northampton. He had initially been undecided whether to marry Jane or her younger sister Kitty whom he had met in Lisbon during his various visits to the city, where their father Charles Compton was consul. The marriage proved happy, and they had three children together before she died in January 1757. From 1753 Rodney commanded a series of Portsmouth guard ships without actually having to go to sea before the onset of the Seven Years' War.

Seven Years' War

The first fighting broke out in North America in 1754, with competing British and French forces clashing in the Ohio Country. Despite this fighting formal war wasn't declared in Europe until 1756 and opened with a French attack on Minorca, the loss of which was blamed on Admiral John Byng who was court-martialled and executed. He was shot on the quarterdeck of HMS Monarch (1747), which until recently had been commanded by Rodney. Rodney excused himself from serving on the court martial by pleading illness. While Rodney disapproved of Byng's conduct, he thought the death sentence excessive and unsuccessfully worked for it to be commuted.

Louisbourg
Rodney had in 1755 and 1756, taken part in preventive cruises under Hawke and Edward Boscawen. In 1757, he took part in the expedition against Rochefort, commanding the 74-gun ship of the line HMS Dublin (1757). After an initial success, the expedition made no serious attempt on Rochefort and sailed for home. Next year, in the same ship, he was ordered to serve under Boscawen as part of an attempt to capture the strategic French fortress of Louisbourg in North America. He was given the task of carrying Major General Jeffery Amherst, the expedition's commander to Louisbourg. On the way Rodney captured a French East Indiamen, and took it into Vigo. This action saw the beginning of criticism of Rodney that he was obsessed with prize money ahead of strategic importance, with some claiming he spent two weeks or more in Vigo making sure of his prize money instead of carrying Amherst to Louisbourg. This appears to be untrue, as Rodney sailed within four days from Vigo.

Rodney and his ship played a minor role in the taking of Louisburg, which laid the way open for a British campaign up the St Lawrence River the following year, and the fall of Quebec. In August 1758 Rodney sailed for home in charge of six warships and ten transports carrying the captured garrison of Louisbourg who were being taken to Britain as prisoners of war.

Le Havre
On 19 May 1759 he became a rear admiral, and shortly afterwards he was given command of a small squadron. The admiralty had received intelligence that the French had gathered at Le Havre, at the mouth of the River Seine, a large number of flat-bottomed boats and stores which were being collected there for an invasion of the British Isles. After drawing up plans for an attack on Le Havre, Lord Anson briefed Rodney in person. The operation was intended to be a secret with it being implied that Rodney's actual destination was Gibraltar. This soon became impossible to maintain as Rodney tried to acquire pilots who knew the Normandy coast.

Rodney received his final orders on 26 June, and by 4 July he was off Le Havre. His force included six bomb-vessels which could fire at a very high trajectory. In what become known as the Raid on Le Havre, he bombarded the town for two days and nights, and inflicted great loss of war-material on the enemy. The bomb ships fired continuously for fifty two hours, starting large fires. Rodney then withdrew to Spithead, leaving several ships to blockade the mouth of the Seine. Although the attack hadn't significantly affected French plans, it proved a morale boost in Britain. In August Rodney was again sent to Le Havre with similar orders but through a combination of weather and improved French defences he was unable to get his bomb-vessels into position, and the Admiralty accepted his judgement that a further attack was impossible. The invasion was ultimately cancelled because of French naval defeats at the Battle of Lagos and Battle of Quiberon Bay.

From 1759 and 1761 Rodney concentrated on his blockade of the French coast, particularly around Le Havre. In July 1760, with another small squadron, he succeeded in taking many more of the enemy's flat-bottomed boats and in blockading the coast as far as Dieppe.

Martinique
Rodney was elected MP for Penryn in 1761. Lord Anson then selected him to command the naval element of a planned amphibious attack on the lucrative and strategically important French colony of Martinique in the West Indies, promoting him over the heads of a number of more senior officers. A previous British attack on Martinique had failed in 1759. The land forces for the attack on Martinique were to be a combination of troops from various locations including some sent out from Europe and reinforcements from New York City, who were available following the Conquest of Canada which had been completed in 1760. During 1761 Martinique was blockaded by Sir James Douglas to prevent reinforcements or supplies from reaching it. In 1762 he was formally appointed commander-in-chief of the Leeward Islands Station.

Within the first three months of 1762, Monckton and he had reduced the important island of Martinique, while both Saint Lucia and Grenada had surrendered to his squadron. During the siege of Fort Royal (later Fort de France) his seamen and marines rendered splendid service on shore. Afterwards Rodney's squadron, amounting to eight ships of the line joined the British expedition to Cuba bringing the total number of ships of the line to 15 by the end of April 1762. However he was later criticised for moving his ships to protect Jamaica from attack by a large Franco-Spanish force that had gathered in the area, rather than waiting to support the expedition as he had been ordered.

Following the Treaty of Paris in 1763, Admiral Rodney returned home having been during his absence made Vice-Admiral of the Blue and having received the thanks of both Houses of Parliament. In the peace terms Martinique was returned to France.

Years of peace

In 1764, Rodney was created a baronet, and the same year he married Henrietta, daughter of John Clies of Lisbon. From 1765 to 1770, he was governor of Greenwich Hospital, and on the dissolution of parliament in 1768 he successfully contested Northampton at a ruinous cost. When appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Jamaica Station in 1771, he lost his Greenwich post, but a few months later received the office of Rear-Admiral of Great Britain. Until 1774, he held the Jamaica command, and during a period of quiet, was active in improving the naval yards on his station. Sir George struck his flag with a feeling of disappointment at not obtaining the governorship of Jamaica, and was shortly after forced to settle in Paris. Election expenses and losses at play in fashionable circles had shattered his fortune, and he could not secure payment of the salary as Rear-Admiral of Great Britain. In February 1778, having just been promoted Admiral of the White, he used every possible exertion to obtain a command to free himself from his money difficulties. By May, he had, through the splendid generosity of his Parisian friend Marshal Biron, effected the latter task, and accordingly he returned to London with his children. The debt was repaid out of the arrears due to him on his return. The story that he was offered a French command is fiction.

American War of Independence
In London, he suggested to Lord George Germain that George Washington could "certainly be bought – honours will do it".

Moonlight Battle
Rodney was appointed once more commander-in-chief of the Leeward Islands Station late in 1779. His orders were to relieve Gibraltar on his way to the West Indies. He captured a Spanish convoy of 22 vessels off Cape Finisterre on 8 January 1780. Eight days later at the Battle of Cape St. Vincent he defeated the Spanish Admiral Don Juan de Lángara, taking or destroying seven ships. He then brought some relief to Gibraltar by delivering reinforcements and supplies.

Battle of Martinique
On 17 April he fought an action off Martinique with the French Admiral Guichen which, owing to the carelessness of some of Rodney's captains, was indecisive.

Capture of St Eustatius

Following the outbreak of the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War between Britain and the Dutch Republic Rodney, acting under orders from London, captured the valuable Dutch island of St Eustatius on 3 February 1781. Rodney had already identified several individuals on the island who were aiding the Americans, such as "... Mr Smith at the House of Jones – they (the Jews of St. Eustatius, Caribbean Antilles) cannot be too soon taken care of – they are notorious in the cause of America and France..." The island was also home to a Jewish community who were mainly merchants with significant international trading and maritime commercial ties. The Jews were estimated to have been at least 10% of the permanent population of St. Eustatius.

Rodney immediately arrested and imprisoned 101 Jews in the warehouses of the lower city. He summarily deported 31 adult Jews to the island of Saint Kitts. Rodney looted Jewish personal possessions and even tore out the linings of the clothes of his captives in search of hidden valuables; this alone yielded him 8,000 pounds. When Rodney realised that the Jews might be hiding additional treasure, he dug up their local cemetery. Even large quantities of non-military trading goods belonging to Britisih merchants on the island were arbitrarily confiscated. This resulted in Rodney being entangled in a series of costly lawsuits for the rest of his life. Still, the wealth Rodney acquired on St. Eustatius exceeded his expectations.

Controversy and Yorktown
Rodney wrote to his family with promises of a new London home; to his daughter "the best harpsichord money can purchase". He confidently wrote of a marriage settlement for one of his sons and a soon-to-be purchased commission in the Foot Guards for another son. Rodney also wrote of a dowry for his daughter to marry the Earl of Oxford and noted he would have enough to pay off the young prospective bridegroom's debts.

Other Royal Navy officers scathingly criticised Rodney for his actions. In particular, Viscount Samuel Hood suggested that Rodney should have sailed to intercept a French fleet under Rear Admiral Francois Joseph Paul de Grasse, travelling to Martinique. The French fleet instead turned north and headed for the Chesapeake Bay of Virginia and Maryland.

Rodney's delay at St. Eustatius was not the first time he had taken the opportunity to capture prizes over the immediate and expeditious fulfillment of his military duties. During the Seven Years' War Rodney had been ordered to Barbados to link up with Admiral Sir George Pocock and the Earl of Albemarle for an attack on Cuba. Instead, Rodney sent valuable ships off in search of prizes. In 1762, Rodney, after the fall of Martinique, quarreled with the army over prize money. During Rodney's command in Jamaica, 1771–1774, the Earl of Sandwich feared that Rodney might provoke a war with Spain to obtain prize money.

Plundering the wealth of St. Eustatius and capturing many prizes over a number of months, Rodney further weakened his fleet by sending two ships-of-the-line to escort his treasure ships to England, though both were in need of major repair. Nevertheless, he is both blamed and defended for the subsequent disaster at Yorktown. His orders as naval commander in chief in the eastern Caribbean were not only to watch de Grasse but also to protect the valuable sugar trade. Rodney had received intelligence earlier that de Grasse would send part of his fleet before the start of the hurricane season to relieve the French squadron at Newport and to co-operate with Washington, returning in the fall to the Caribbean. The other half of de Grasse's fleet, as usual, would escort the French merchantmen back across the Atlantic. Rodney accordingly made his dispositions in the light of this intelligence. Sixteen of his remaining twenty-one battleships would go with Hood to reinforce the squadron at New York under Sir Thomas Graves, while Rodney, who was in ill health, returned to England with three other battleships as merchant escorts, leaving two others in dock for repair. Hood was well satisfied with these arrangements, informing a colleague that his fleet was "fully equal to defeat any designs of the enemy." What Rodney and Hood could not know was that at the last moment de Grasse decided to take his entire fleet to North America, leaving the French merchantmen to the protection of the Spanish. The result was a decisive French superiority in battleships during the subsequent naval campaign, when the combined fleets of Hood and Graves were unable to relieve the British army of Charles Cornwallis, who was then establishing a base on the York River. This left Cornwallis no option but to surrender, resulting a year later in British recognition of American Independence. Although Rodney's actions at St. Eustatius and afterwards contributed to the British naval inferiority in the Battle of the Chesapeake, the real reason for the disaster at Yorktown was the inability of Britain to match the resources of the other naval powers of Europe.

Battle of the Saintes
After a few months in England, restoring his health and defending himself in Parliament, Sir George returned to his command in February 1782, and a running engagement with the French fleet on 9 April led up to his crowning victory at the Battle of the Saintes off Dominica, when on 12 April with thirty-five sail of the line he defeated the Comte de Grasse, who had thirty-three sail. The French inferiority in numbers was more than counterbalanced by the greater size and superior sailing qualities of their ships, yet four French ships of the line were captured (including the flagship) as well as one destroyed after eleven hours' fighting.

This important battle saved Jamaica and ruined French naval prestige, while it enabled Rodney to write: "Within two little years I have taken two Spanish, one French and one Dutch admirals." A long and wearisome controversy exists as to the originator of the manoeuvre of "breaking the line" in this battle, but the merits of the victory have never seriously been affected by any difference of opinion on the question. A shift of wind broke the French line of battle, and the British ships took advantage of this by crossing in two places; many were taken prisoner including the Comte de Grasse.

From 29 April to 10 July he sat with his fleet at Port Royal, Jamaica while his fleet was repaired after the battle.

Recall
In a 15 April letter to Lord George Germain, who unknown to Rodney had recently lost his position, he wrote "Permit me most sincerely to congratulate you on the most important victory I believe ever gained against our perfidious enemies, the French". The news of Rodney's victories reached England on 18 May 1782 via HMS Andromache and boosted national morale in Britain and strengthened the pro-war party, who wished to carry on the fight. George III observed to the new Prime Minister Lord Shelburne that he "must see that the great success of Lord Rodney's engagement has so far roused the nation, that the peace which would have been acquiesced in three months ago would now be a matter for complaint".

Rodney was preparing to sail to meet the enemy off Cape Haitien when HMS Jupiter (1778) arrived from England, not only relieving him of duty, but also bringing his replacement: Admiral Hugh Pigot. This bizarre exchange was largely the result of changing politics in Britain: Rodney was a Tory placed in charge of the fleet by a Tory government... but the Whigs were now in power. That said, at 64 years of age, he was perhaps due for retirement. However, Pigot and the command to retire was dispatched on 15 May, three days before the news of the victory at the Battle of the Saintes reached the Admiralty. A cutter sent by the Admiralty on 19 May failed to catch the Jupiter so Rodney's fate was sealed.

Rodney quietly quit his quarters on the Formidable and returned to England in more modest quarters on HMS Montagu (1779).

Nepotism and self-interest
Rodney was unquestionably a most able officer, but he was also vain, selfish and unscrupulous, both in seeking prize money, and in using his position to push the fortunes of his family, although such nepotism was common (not to say normal) at the time. He made his son a post-captain at fifteen, and his assiduous self-interest alienated his fellow officers and the Board of Admiralty alike. Naval historian Nicholas A. M. Rodger describes Rodney as possessing weaknesses with respect to patronage "which destroyed the basis of trust upon which alone an officer can command." It must be remembered that he was then prematurely old and racked by disease.

Retirement and death
Rodney arrived home in August to receive unbounded honour from his country. He had already been created Baron Rodney of Rodney Stoke, Somerset, by patent of 19 June 1782, and the House of Commons had voted him a pension of £2000 a year. From this time he led a quiet country life until his death in London. He was succeeded as 2nd Baron by his son, George (1753–1802).

In 1782 Rodney was presented with the Freedom of the City of Cork, Ireland. The National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, London, holds the gold presentation box that the City of Cork gave him on 16 September 1782.

Rodney died in 1792, and was buried in the church of St Mary the Virgin, Old Alresford, in Hampshire, which adjoins his family seat. There is a memorial to him within St Paul's Cathedral.

Legacy
In February 1783, the government of Jamaica commissioned John Bacon, a renowned British sculptor, to create a statue of Admiral Lord Rodney, as an expression of their appreciation. The Assembly spent $5,200 on the statue alone and a reputed $31,000 on the entire project. Bacon sourced the finest marble from Italy to create the Neo-classical sculpture of the Admiral, dressed in a Roman robe and breastplate. On its completion, the statue was fronted with cannons taken from the French flagship, Ville de Paris, in the battle. The truly huge monument, known as the Rodney Temple stands in Spanish Town, Jamaica, next to the Governor's House.

In late 1782 and early 1783 a large number of existing taverns renamed themselves "The Admiral Rodney" in admiration of the victory. Admiral Rodney's Pillar was constructed on the peak of Breidden Hill to commemorate his victories.

In St. Paul's Cathedral crypt, there is a memorial to Rodney designed by Charles Rossi.

At least four serving warships of the Royal Navy have been named HMS Rodney in his honour.

Two British public schools, Churcher's College and Emanuel School, have houses named after him.

Due to his popularity with citizens of Newfoundland as governor, small round-bottomed wooden boats, propelled by oars and/or sails, are often referred to as a "Rodney" up to the present day in Newfoundland.

In 1793, following Rodney's death, Scotland's Bard, the poet Robert Burns (1759–1796), published a poem "Lines On The Commemoration Of Rodney's Victory" commemorating the Battle of the Saintes. The poem opens with the lines:
 * "Instead of a Song, boy's, I'll give you a Toast;
 * "Here's to the memory of those on the twelfth that we lost!-
 * "That we lost, did I say?-nay, by Heav'n, that we found;
 * "For their fame it will last while the world goes round. “

Places named after Rodney

 * Rodney Street, Liverpool
 * Rodney Street, Edinburgh
 * Rodney Bay, Saint Lucia, the Caribbean
 * Rodney County, New Zealand
 * Rodney Gardens, Perth, Scotland
 * Cape Rodney, North Island, New Zealand
 * Rodney, Ontario, Canada
 * Admiral Rodney – Pub, Worcestershire
 * Admiral Rodney - Pub, Criggion Lane, Powys
 * Admiral Lord Rodney - Pub, Colne, Lancashire
 * Admiral Rodney - Hotel, Horncastle, Lincolnshire
 * Admiral Rodney - Pub, Sheffield
 * Rodney Inn - Pub, Helston, Cornwall
 * The Admiral Rodney Inn - Criggion, Powys (in sight of Rodney's Pillar monument on Breidden Hill)
 * The Admiral Rodney Inn - Pub, Hartshorne, Swadlincote, Derbyshire.
 * The Admiral Rodney - Pub, Prestbury, Cheshire
 * The Lord Rodney - Pub, Keighley, West Yorkshire
 * The Admiral Rodney - Pub, Calverton, Nottinghamshire
 * The Rodney Hotel - Hotel, Clifton, Bristol
 * Admiral Rodney - Pub, Wollaton, Nottinghamshire

title: George Rodney, 1st Baron Rodney