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Fatema Mernissi

Fatema Mernissi (فاطمة مرنيسي; 27 September 1940 – 30 November 2015) was a Moroccan feminist writer and sociologist.

Biography
Fatema Mernissi was born on 27 September 1940 in Fez, Morocco. She grew up in the harem of her affluent paternal grandmother along with various female kin and servants. She received her primary education in a school established by the nationalist movement, and secondary level education in an all-girls school funded by the French protectorate. In 1957, she studied political science at the Sorbonne in Paris and later at Brandeis University in the US, where she gained her doctorate in 1974.

She returned to work at the Mohammed V University in Rabat and taught at the Faculté des Lettres between 1974 and 1981 on subjects such as methodology, family sociology and psychosociology. Further, she was a research scholar at the University Institute for Scientific Research at the same university.

Mernissi's Beyond the Veil: Male-Female Dynamics in Muslim Society was written for her PhD thesis and later published as a book which recognizes the power of Muslim women in relation to the Islamic faith. Mernissi is known for her sociopolitical approaches towards discussing gender and sexual identities, specifically those in Morocco and other Muslim countries. She is regarded as an influential feminist figure, as she was a renowned public speaker, scholar, teacher, writer, and sociologist. Mernissi died in Rabat on 30 November 2015.

Publications and their influence
Mernissi's first monograph, Beyond the Veil, was published in 1975. A revised edition was published in Britain in 1985 and in the US in 1987. Beyond the Veil has become a classic, especially in the fields of anthropology and sociology, on women in the Arab World, the Mediterranean area or Muslim societies in general.

As an Islamic feminist, Mernissi was largely concerned with Islam and women's roles, analyzing the historical development of Islamic thought and its modern manifestations. Through a detailed investigation of the nature of the succession to Muhammad, she cast doubt on the validity of some of the hadith (sayings and traditions attributed to him), and therefore the subordination of women that she sees in Islam, but not necessarily in the Qur'an.

In 1984, she contributed the text "The merchant's daughter and the son of the sultan" to the anthology Sisterhood Is Global: The International Women's Movement Anthology, edited by Robin Morgan. Her most famous book as an Islamic feminist, The Veil and the Male Elite: A Feminist Interpretation of Islam, is a quasi-historical study of the role of the wives of Muhammad. It was first published in French in 1987 and translated into English in 1991. The book was subsequently banned in Morocco, Iran, and the Arab states of the Persian Gulf.

As a sociologist, Mernissi mainly undertook field work in Morocco. On several occasions in the late 1970s and early 1980s, she conducted interviews in order to map prevailing attitudes to women and their work. She did sociological research for UNESCO and ILO as well as for the Moroccan government. In the same period, Mernissi contributed articles to periodicals and other publications on women in Morocco and women and Islam from a contemporary as well as from a historical perspective.

Her work has been cited as an inspiration by other Muslim feminists, such as those who founded Musawah and others. For Doing Daily Battle: Interviews with Moroccan Women (1991), she interviewed peasant women, women labourers, clairvoyants and maidservants. In 1994, Mernissi published a fictional memoir, Dreams of Trespass: Tales of a Harem Girlhood (in the US, the book was originally titled The Harem Within: Tales of a Moroccan Girlhood, and is still known by that title in the UK).

A recurring topic in her writings is the fictional character Scheherazade of Arabian Nights. Her article, The Satellite, the Prince, and Scheherazade: The Rise of Women as Communicators in Digital Islam explores cases in which women take part in online media, while Digital Scheherazades in the Arab World covers the topics of online activities shifting cultural ways. In these essays, she mentions how technology is quickly spreading – one of the main sources being the World Wide Web – and analyses the roles and contributions of women in this movement.

She wrote extensively about life within harems, gender, and public and private spheres. Size 6: The Western Women’s Harem, is an essay from her book, Scheherazade Goes West: Different Cultures, Different Harems that discusses the repression and pressures women in different societies face merely based on their physical appearance. Whether she analyzes women in Moroccan society or in the West, she claims that they must live up to stereotypical, culturally imposed standards, such as dress sizes. Mernissi compares the clothing size 6 to harems and states that these Western practices isolate and mistreat women.

Ethnocentrism: Beyond the Veil
In 1975, Fatima Mernissi's first book, Beyond the Veil, was published, and it was considered revolutionary. Mernissi broke down the ethnocentric stereotypes Western society had developed towards Islam, especially Muslim women. She distinguished Muslim women from the homogenized group of ‘third-world women’ that Western feminism had created. Mernissi also fought to overcome Western assumptions that Muslim women were helpless victims of both their religion and the men of their religion. Western stereotypes ostracized Muslim men who did not fit the white, masculine, hegemonic mold dominating the first world society, developing racist ideas towards a religion that was believed to oppress women.

However, Mernissi pointed out that Muslim women were not victims of their religious practices any more than Western women were victims of the patriarchy; both groups of women were oppressed by specific social institutions within a religion or society created to profit from the marginalization of others. Furthermore, Mernissi explained that Western women were veiled, just as Muslim women were, yet Western veils were much more discreet. She argued that youth and beauty veiled Western women, and once a woman no longer had these, she was hardly recognized by society.

Mernissi broke down the ethnocentric approach Western Feminism had been utilizing and wrote to bring more clarity to the diversity necessary within the global Feminine movement. Mernissi's legacy is revolutionary because she created a space within an initially predominantly Western movement that allowed Muslim women to participate without compromising their religious practices. Mernissi's work highlighted how Western feminism could be detrimental to the empowerment of women around the globe if it lacked an intersectional approach to women's issues.

Intersectionality: The Forgotten Queens of Islam
In the book The Forgotten Queens of Islam, Fatima Mernissi uses an intersectional approach to understand the positions of women throughout early Islamic history through social and political identities that created modes of discrimination. Her aim was to bring to light the significant contributions that women had made throughout early Islamic history and debunk the misconceptions about the absence of women as political and authoritative figures. She does this by exploring the leadership roles that women were involved in throughout Islamic history and alters the way women are portrayed in historiographies. She claims that women held powerful political positions despite religious titles that were given to men. This is exemplified through the many historical accounts that she provides about fifteen women and the active roles that they played in pre-modern Islam politics.

For instance, the role that female slaves played in leading slave revolts against religious rulers without the use of violence (Mernissi, 1994). Moreover, Mernissi distinguishes between “Political Islam,” the period where radical change occurred and women's roles were disregarded or forgotten, and “Rislala Islam,” where women's lives were transformed (Mernissi, 1994). She was fundamental in contributing to the overall academic literature on women's visibility in Islamic history outside of their traditional roles by highlighting their involvement in politics, religion, and cultural change.

Gender Roles: Women’s Rebellion & Islamic Memory
In the book Women's Rebellion & Islamic Memory, Fatima Mernissi analyzes the role of women in relation to the world of contemporary Islam. In her work, she explores the idea of sexual identity and gender roles in the Islamic world and helps to redefine the narrative surrounding it. Mernissi discusses some of the most prominent issues to do with the status of Muslim women, such as the masking of women's contribution to the economies of Arab states (Mernissi, 1996). Furthermore, Mernissi delves into different demographic, including education and literacy. She uses this to help explain the importance of these factors not only for the empowerment of women in Islam, but also for their health (Mernissi, 1996).

Furthermore, Mernissi analyzes the role of the state in gender roles as well as the outcome of a state that ultimately supports inequality. She ultimately argues that the freedom from these controlling traditions and expectations of women is the only way for the Arab world to develop. Mernissi's work is extremely influential in Islamic feminism, intersectionality, and global feminism, by focusing on issues surrounding Muslim women in the Arab world. This book, in particular, was able to bring light to specific issues that women deal with in the Islamic world, such as issues of sexual identity and gender roles, and the effects these can have on women's empowerment and health.

Islam and Democracy: Fear of the Modern World
In her book, Islam and Democracy: Fear of the Modern World, Fatima Mernissi employs a transnational approach to analyse the socio-political context of the Arab-Islamic world shortly after the Gulf war. She debates whether the established fundamentalism dominating the Middle East could ever be compatible with the democratic processes used in Western societies. Mernissi raises questions around the uncertainty Muslims feel towards a form of government that is “unislamic” and may compromise their Islamic way of life, including morals and values, such as modesty. Moreover, she explores issues such as the fear of the Islamic religion, democracy, the United Nations Charter, freedom of thought and individualism (Mernissi, 2002).

For instance, she looked at how fundamentalism controlled what a woman would be able to wear, so a democratic society that freed women to dress as they pleased could appear threatening to a hyper-masculine culture. She contests that a living democracy should allow for the legal and constitutional ability to disagree with the state. Mernissi then suggests ways in which progressive Muslims, including feminists, who choose to advocate for democracy and resist fundamentalism should draw from the same sacred texts as those who seek to oppress them, in order to prove that Islam is not fundamentally against women.

Awards and legacy
Mernissi's works focus on providing a voice for oppressed and marginalized women. She brings to light the contributions of women to the economy and acknowledges the roles that affect how females are viewed within Islamic cultures. Throughout her career, Mernissi was an avid spokesperson regarding women's rights and equality, while also embracing the Islamic faith. She uses historical religious research to make claims for her modern feminist stances.

In 2003, Mernissi was awarded the Prince of Asturias Award, along with Susan Sontag. Mernissi's acceptance speech, The Cowboy or Sinbad?, covered the topic of globalization, and was recognized for her pensive take, considering both the issue and effects of culture. In 2004, she was awarded the Erasmus Prize, alongside Sadik Al-Asm and Abdolkarim Soroush. For this award, she was recognized for her sociocultural impact, since it was dedicated to "Religion and Modernity". In 2017, The Middle East Studies Association created the Fatema Mernissi Book Award to "recognize outstanding scholarship in studies of gender, sexuality, and women’s lived experience".

Mernissi's legacy can be greatly attributed to her scholarly and literary contributions to the early Islamic feminist movement. Mernissi tackled issues such as Eurocentrism, intersectionality, transnationalism and global feminism in her publications and public lectures. The New York Times quoted her in an obituary: "Not only have the sacred texts always been manipulated, but manipulation of them is a structural characteristic of the practice of power in Muslim societies,” Fatema Mernissi, The Veil and the Male Elite: A Feminist Interpretation of Women’s Rights in Islam (1991)

Edited by Mernissi

 * 1989: Doing Daily Battle: Interviews with Moroccan Women, translated by Mary Jo Lakeland. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.

title: Fatema Mernissi


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Pitch control

A variable speed pitch control (or vari-speed) is a control on an audio device such as a turntable, tape recorder, or CD player that allows the operator to deviate from a standard speed (such as 33, 45 or even 78 rpm on a turntable), resulting in adjustments in pitch. The latter term "vari-speed" is more commonly used for tape decks, particularly in the UK. Analog pitch controls vary the voltage being used by the playback device; digital controls use digital signal processing to change the playback speed or pitch. A typical DJ deck allows the pitch to be increased or reduced by up to 8%, which is achieved by increasing or reducing the speed at which the platter rotates.

Turntable or CD playing speed may be changed for beatmatching and other DJ techniques, while pitch shift using a pitch control has myriad uses in sound recording.

Vari-speed in consumer cassette decks
Superscope, Inc. of Sun Valley added vari-speed as a feature of portable cassette decks in 1975. The C-104 and C-105 models incorporated this feature.

Superscope trademarked the name Vari-Speed in 1974. The trademark category was Computer & Software Products & Electrical & Scientific Products. The trademark goods and Services use was Magnetic tape recorders and reproducers. The trademark expired in 1995.

DJ pitch usage
For DJs the possibility to alter the pitch on their turntables or CD players is standard. On the Technics SL-1200 turntables there both has been the possibility of changing the pitch +/− 8% and models where you could change the pitch +/− 16%. This has become the standard amongst DJs and most software that emulates a DJ setup have their pitch control often standard at +/− 8%. With the possibility to change it to +/− 16% and some other values. By changing the pitch the DJ can alter the BPM of a record within this limited range. This is a key component for beatmatching, enabling the DJ to get two records to play at the same BPM thereby synchronising the beat for the dancers.

Reset button
On Technics SL-1200 turntables, pressing the Reset button returns the pitch to a fixed preset value of +/−0% regardless of the pitch control position.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Pitch control


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Talk:Pitch control

Is there any chance of confusing this with the pitch control in an aircraft? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 195.137.39.195 (talk • contribs)
 * In four years, I doubt it. Zephyrad 13:53, 17 August 2007 (UTC)

Re: 78rpm
To my knowledge, no turntable that played at 78rpm ever came with a pitch control, and no turntable with a pitch control ever played at 78rpm; the two technologies were ships passing in the night. Again, I wish non-tech people would NOT try to edit technical articles. Zephyrad 13:53, 17 August 2007 (UTC)

 * Technics SL-1200MK4 had both. Rootless 16:18, 15 September 2007 (UTC)

 * Yes, but this is a unique model (and it appears it was sold only in Japan?). Thanks for the mention. Zephyrad 21:09, 15 September 2007 (UTC)

 * I've seen Numark DJ turntables (TT200 and TT500) that can do 78 RPM. Also, Google search for "78 rpm dj turntable" gave me this as a the second link. Rootless 10:22, 16 September 2007 (UTC)

 * OK, added the speed in; I am convinced. ;-) Thanks for the info. Zephyrad 10:38, 16 September 2007 (UTC)

 * I don't care whether 78RPM is mentioned in this article, but you're welcome. Rootless 13:06, 16 September 2007 (UTC)

Why does a pitch control work "in reverse"?
I was looking why, traditionally, it appears a pitch control has to move up to make music go slower (rather counter-intuitive to me). Does anyone know why this is? It might be an interesting fact to add to the article.

 * The forward direction of rotation of the record being clockwise. -Reticuli 2605:A000:1301:906F:604B:55D3:63AC:A1AD (talk) 15:11, 25 May 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Pitch control


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Solitary

Solitary is the state of being alone or in solitude. The term may refer to:

 * Solitary (album), 2008 album by Don Dokken
 * Solitary (2020 film), a British sci-fi thriller film
 * Solitary (upcoming film), an American drama film
 * "Solitary" (Lost), a 2004 episode of the TV series Lost
 * Solitary (TV series), a reality show made by FOX
 * Solitary animal, an animal that does not live with others in its species
 * Solitary confinement, a form of imprisonment
 * Solitary Mountain, a mountain in Yukon, Canada
 * A hermit in many Christian religious orders

title: Solitary


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List of countries by rail transport network size

This list of countries by rail transport network size based on length of rail lines.

Definition
For the purposes of this page, railway has been defined as a fixed route laid with rails along which wagons can be transported. Wagons may be powered by various means and may be used to transport people or goods. Temporary lines laid for a specific purposes are not considered unless specified. Countries include the nations listed in the List of sovereign states along with reference ISO 3166 codes which list ISO 3166-1 numeric three-digit country codes which are maintained by the United Nations Statistics Division.

Countries with active network

 * Notes

Former operators
🇧🇲 bermuda, a British overseas territory, had a railway operating from 1931 to 1948.


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History of calendars

The history of calendars covers practices with ancient roots as people created and used various methods to keep track of days and larger divisions of time. Calendars commonly serve both cultural and practical purposes and are often connected to astronomy and agriculture. Archeologists have reconstructed methods of timekeeping that go back to prehistoric times at least as old as the Neolithic. The natural units for timekeeping used by most historical societies are the day, the solar year and the lunation. Calendars are explicit schemes used for timekeeping. The first historically attested and formulized calendars date to the Bronze Age, dependent on the development of writing in the ancient Near East. In 2000 AD, Victoria, Australia, a Wurdi Youang stone arrangement could date back more than 11,000 years. In 2013, archaeologists unearthed ancient evidence of a 10,000-year-old calendar system in Warren Field, Aberdeenshire. This calendar is the next earliest, or "the first Scottish calendar". The Sumerian calendar was the next earliest, followed by the Egyptian, Assyrian and Elamite calendars.

The Vikram Samvat has been used by Hindus and Sikhs. One of several regional Hindu calendars in use on the Indian subcontinent, it is based on twelve synodic lunar months and 365 solar days. The lunar year begins with the new moon of the month of Chaitra. This day, known as Chaitra Sukhladi, is a restricted (optional) holiday in India. A number of ancient and medieval inscriptions used the Vikram Samvat. Although it was purportedly named after the legendary king Vikramaditya Samvatsara (‘Samvat’ in short), ‘Samvat’ is a Sanskrit term for ‘year’. Emperor Vikramaditya of Ujjain started Vikram Samvat in 57 BC and it is believed that this calendar follows his victory over the Saka in 56 B.C.

A larger number of calendar systems of the ancient East appear in the Iron Age archaeological record, based on the Assyrian and Babylonian calendars. This includes the calendar of the Persian Empire, which in turn gave rise to the Zoroastrian calendar as well as the Hebrew calendar.

Calendars in antiquity were usually lunisolar, depending on the introduction of intercalary months to align the solar and the lunar years. This was mostly based on observation, but there may have been early attempts to model the pattern of intercalation algorithmically, as evidenced in the fragmentary 2nd-century Coligny calendar. Nevertheless, the Roman calendar contained very ancient remnants of a pre-Etruscan 10-month solar year.

The Roman calendar was reformed by Julius Caesar in 45 BC. The Julian calendar was no longer dependent on the observation of the new moon but simply followed an algorithm of introducing a leap day every four years. This created a dissociation of the calendar month from the lunation.

Sub-Saharan African calendars can vary in days and weeks depending on the kingdom or tribe that created it.

In the 11th century in Persia, a calendar reform led by Khayyam was announced in 1079, when the length of the year was measured as 365.24219858156 days. Given that the length of the year is changing in the sixth decimal place over a person's lifetime, this is outstandingly accurate. For comparison the length of the year at the end of the 19th century was 365.242196 days, while at the end of the 20th century it was 365.242190 days.

The Gregorian calendar was introduced as a refinement of the Julian calendar in 1582, and is today in worldwide use as the "de facto" calendar for secular purposes.

Etymology
The term calendars itself is taken from the calends, the term for the first day of the month in the Roman calendar, related to the verb calare "to call out", referring to the calling or the announcement that the new moon was just seen. Latin calendarium meant "account book, register", as accounts were settled and debts were collected on the calends of each month.

The Latin term was adopted in Old French as calendier and from there into Middle English as calender by the 13th century. The spelling calendar is from Early Modern English.

Prehistory
A number of prehistoric structures have been proposed as having had the purpose of timekeeping (typically keeping track of the course of the solar year). This includes many megalithic structures, and reconstructed arrangements going back far into the Neolithic period.

In Victoria, Australia, a Wurdi Youang stone arrangement could date back more than 11,000 years. This estimate is based on the inaccuracy of the calendar, which is consistent with how the Earth's supposed orbit is thought to have changed during that time. The site is found near the world's oldest known site of permanent aquaculture.

A mesolithic arrangement of twelve pits and an arc found in Warren Field, Aberdeenshire, Scotland, dated to roughly 8,000 BC, has been described as a lunar calendar and was dubbed the "world's oldest known calendar" in 2013.

A ceramic artefact from Bulgaria, known as the Slatino furnace model, dated to roughly 5,000 BC, has been pronounced by local archaeologists and media to be the oldest known calendar representation, a claim not endorsed in mainstream views.

The Vučedol culture archeological findings in Vinkovci in modern-day Croatia included a ceramic vessel dated to 2,600 BC bearing inscribed ideograms of celestial objects, that was interpreted as an astral calendar, the oldest one in Europe that shows the year starting at the dusk of the first day of spring.

Ancient Near East
The ancient Sumerian calendar, roughly dated to 2,100 BC, divided a year into 12 lunar months of 29 or 30 days. Each month began with the sighting of a new moon. Sumerian months had no uniform name throughout Sumer because of the religious diversity. This resulted in scribes and scholars referring to them as "the first month", "the fifth month", etc. To keep the lunar year of 354 days in step with the solar year of 365.242 days an extra month was added periodically, much like a Gregorian leap year. There were no weeks in the Sumerian calendar. Holy days and time off from work were usually celebrated on the first, seventh and fifteenth of each month. In addition to these holy days, there were also feast days which varied from city to city.

Babylonia and Persia
Although the earliest evidence of Iranian calendrical traditions is from the second millennium BC, predating the appearance of the Iranian prophet Zoroaster, the first fully preserved calendar is that of the Achaemenids. Throughout recorded history, Persians have been keen on the idea and importance of having a calendar. They were among the first cultures to use a solar calendar and have long favoured a solar over lunar and lunisolar approaches. The sun has always been a symbol in Iranian culture and is closely related to the folklore regarding Cyrus the Great.

Old Persian calendar
Old Persian inscriptions and tablets indicate that early Iranians used a 360-day calendar based on the solar observation directly and modified for their beliefs. Days were not named. The months had two or three divisions depending on the phase of the moon. Twelve months of 30 days were named for festivals or activities of the pastoral year. A 13th month was added every six years to keep the calendar synchronized with the seasons.

Zoroastrian calendar
The first calendars based on Zoroastrian cosmology appeared in the later Achaemenid period (650 to 330 BC). They evolved over the centuries, but month names changed little until now.

The unified Achaemenid Empire required a distinctive Iranian calendar, and one was devised in Egyptian tradition, with 12 months of 30 days, each dedicated to a yazata (Eyzad), and four divisions resembling the Semitic week. Four days per month were dedicated to Ahura Mazda and seven were named after the six Amesha Spentas. Thirteen days were named after Fire, Water, Sun, Moon, Tiri and Geush Urvan (the soul of all animals), Mithra, Sraosha (Soroush, yazata of prayer), Rashnu (the Judge), Fravashi, Bahram (yazata of victory), Raman (Ramesh meaning peace), and Vata, the divinity of the wind. Three were dedicated to the female divinities, Daena (yazata of religion and personified conscious), Ashi (yazata of fortune) and Arshtat (justice). The remaining four were dedicated to Asman (lord of sky or Heaven), Zam (earth), Manthra Spenta (the Bounteous Sacred Word) and Anaghra Raocha (the 'Endless Light' of paradise).

Modifications by Parthians, Ardashir I, Hormizd I, Yazdgerd III
The Parthians (Arsacid dynasty) adopted the same calendar system with minor modifications, and dated their era from 248 BC, the date they succeeded the Seleucids. Their names for the months and days are Parthian equivalents of the Avestan ones used previously, differing slightly from the Middle Persian names used by the Sassanians. For example, in Achaemenid times the modern Persian month 'Day' was called Dadvah (Creator), in Parthian it was Datush, and the Sassanians named it Dadv/Dai (Dadar in Pahlavi).

When in April of AD 224 the Parthian dynasty fell and was replaced by the Sasanid, the new king, Ardashir I, abolished the official Babylonian calendar and replaced it with the Zoroastrian. This involved a correction to the places of the gahanbar, which had slipped back in the seasons since they were fixed. These were placed eight months later, as were the epagemonai, the 'Gatha' or 'Gah' days after the ancient Zoroastrian hymns of the same name. Other countries, such as the Armenians and Choresmians, did not accept the change.

The formation of the current Persian calendar in the 11th century
Toghril Beg, the founder of the Seljuq dynasty, had made Esfahan the capital of his domains and his grandson Malik-Shah was the ruler of that city from 1073. An invitation was sent to Khayyam from Malik-Shah and from his vizier Nizam al-Mulk asking Khayyam to go to Esfahan to set up an Observatory there. Other leading astronomers were also brought to the Observatory in Esfahan and for 18 years Khayyam led the scientists and produced work of outstanding quality. During this time Khayyam led work on compiling astronomical tables and he also contributed to calendar reform in 1079.

Cowell quotes the Calcutta Review No 59: "When the Malik Shah determined to reform the calendar, Omar was one of the eight learned men employed to do it, the result was the Jalali era (so called from Jalal-ud-din, one of the king's names) – 'a computation of time,' says Gibbon, 'which surpasses the Julian, and approaches the accuracy of the Gregorian style.'"

Khayyam measured the length of the year as 365.24219858156 days. Two comments on this result. Firstly it shows an incredible confidence to attempt to give the result to this degree of accuracy. We know now that the length of the year is changing in the sixth decimal place over a person's lifetime. Secondly it is outstandingly accurate. For comparison the length of the year at the end of the 19th century was 365.242196 days, while today it is 365.242190 days.

Classical Greece
The Greeks, as early as the time of Homer, appear to have been familiar with the division of the year into the twelve lunar months but no intercalary month Embolimos or day is then mentioned. Independent of the division of a month into days, it was divided into periods according to the increase and decrease of the moon. Thus, the first day or new moon was called Noumenia. The month in which the year began, as well as the names of the months, differed among the states, and in some parts even no names existed for the months, as they were distinguished only numerically, as the first, second, third, fourth month, etc.

The ancient Athenian calendar was a lunisolar calendar with 354-day years, consisting of twelve months of alternating length of 29 or 30 days. To keep the calendar in line with the solar year of 365.242189 days, an extra, intercalary month was added in the years: 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, 19 of the 19-years Metonic cycle. See About the structure of the Attic Calendar The Athenian months were called Hekatombion, Metageitnion, Boedromion, Pyanepsion, Maimakterion, Poseidon, Gamelion, Anthesterion, Elaphebolion, Munychion, Thargelion, and Skirophorion. The intercalary month usually came after Poseidon, and was called second Poseidon. See also: Athenian Calendar. A reconstruction of the Attic Calendar is given by Academy of Episteme.

In addition to their regular, "festival" calendar, the Athenians maintained a second, political calendar. This "conciliar" calendar divided the year into "prytanies", one for each of the "phylai", the subdivisions of Athenian citizens. The number of phylai, and hence the number of prytanies, varied over time. Until 307 BC, there were 10 phylai. After that the number varies between 11 and 13 (usually 12). Even more confusing, while the conciliar and festival years were about the same length in the 4th century BC, such was not regularly the case earlier or later. Documents dated by prytany are frequently very difficult to assign to a particular equivalent in the Julian calendar.

The table of Greek Olympiads, following the four-year cycles between the Olympic Games from 1 July 776 BC, continued until the end of the 4th century AD. The Babylonian Era of Nabonassar, beginning on 26 February 747 BC, was used by the Greeks of Alexandria. It was later known in the Middle Ages from the works of Ptolemy.

Hellenistic period
The Greek calendars were greatly diversified by the Hellenistic period, with separate traditions in every Greek state. Of primary importance for the reconstruction of the regional Greek calendars is the calendar of Delphi, because of the numerous documents found there recording the manumission of slaves, many of which are dated both in the Delphian and in a regional calendar.

The Macedonian Era of the Seleucids, which began with the conquest of Babylon by Seleucus I Nicator in 312 BC. It became widely used in the Levant. The Jews knew it as the "era of contracts", and used it in Europe until the 15th century.

The Roman Republican calendar numbered years based on the sitting consuls. References to the year of consulship were used in both conversation and official records. Romans from the same family often had the same praenomen, which sometimes makes it difficult to distinguish them, and there were two consuls at any one time, each of whom might sometimes hold the appointment more than once, meaning that it was (and is) necessary to be well educated in history to understand the references. The Romans had an eight-day week, with the market-day falling every eight days. It was called a nundinum or 'nine-day' in inclusive counting.

Most of the regional Hindu calendars are inherited from a system standardized in classical Hindu astronomy as adopted via Indo-Greek transmission in the final centuries BC, and reformed by Gupta era astronomers such as Aryabhata and Varāhamihira.

China
Before the Spring and Autumn period (before 770 BC), the Chinese calendars were solar calendars. In the so-called five-phase calendar, the year consists of 10 months and a transition, each month being 36 days long, and the transitions 5 or 6 days. During the Warring States period (~475–220 BC), the primitive lunisolar calendars were established under the Zhou Dynasty, known as the six ancient calendars. The months of these calendars begin on the day with the new moon, with 12 or 13 months (lunations) in a year. The intercalary month is placed at the end of the year. In Qin China, the Qin calendar was introduced. It follows the rules of Zhuanxu's calendar, but the months order follows the Xia's calendar.

Vedic and Pre-Vedic Era /Ancient India
Timekeeping was important to Vedic rituals, and Jyotisha was the Vedic-era field of tracking and predicting the movements of astronomical bodies in order to keep time, in order to fix the day and time of these rituals, which were developed around the end of 2nd millennium BC as mentioned in "Sathapatha Brahmana". This study was one of the six ancient Vedangas, or ancillary science connected with the Vedas – the scriptures of Hinduism, which was quoted by 5th-century BC scholar Yaska. The ancient extant text on Jyotisha is the Vedanga-Jyotisha, which exists in two editions, one linked to Rigveda and other to Yajurveda. The Rigveda version is variously attributed to sage Lagadha, and sometimes to sage Shuci. The Yajurveda version credits no particular sage, has survived into the modern era with a commentary of Somakara, and is the more studied version.

The Jyotisha text Brahma-siddhanta, probably composed in the 5th century AD, discusses how to use the movement of planets, sun and moon to keep time and calendar. This text also lists trigonometry and mathematical formulae to support its theory of orbital, predict planetary positions and calculate relative mean positions of celestial nodes and apsides. The text is notable for presenting very large integers, such as 4.32 billion years as the lifetime of the current universe.

Water clock and sun dials are mentioned in many ancient Hindu texts such as the Arthashastra. The Jyotisha texts present mathematical formulae to predict the length of day time, sun rise and moon cycles.

The modern Hindu calendar, sometimes referred to as Panchanga, is a collective term for the various lunisolar calendars traditionally used in Hinduism. They adopt a similar underlying concept for timekeeping, but differ in their relative emphasis on the moon cycle or the sun cycle, the names of months and when they consider the New Year to start. The ancient Hindu calendar is similar in conceptual design to the Jewish calendar, but different from the Gregorian calendar. Unlike the Gregorian calendar which adds additional days to the lunar month to adjust for the mismatch between twelve lunar cycles (354 lunar days) and nearly 365 solar days, the Hindu calendar maintains the integrity of the lunar month, but inserts an extra full month according to complex rules, every few years, to ensure that the festivals and crop related rituals fall in the appropriate season.

The Hindu calendars have been in use in the Indian subcontinent since ancient times, and remain in use by the Hindus in India and Nepal, particularly to set Hindu festival dates. Early Buddhist and Jain communities of India adopted the ancient Hindu calendar, later Vikrami calendar and then local Buddhist calendars. Buddhist and Jain festivals continue to be scheduled according to a lunar system in the luni-solar calendar.

Roman Empire
The old Roman year had 304 days divided into 10 months, beginning with March. However the ancient historian Livy gave credit to the second early Roman king Numa Pompilius for devising a calendar of 12 months. The extra months Ianuarius and Februarius had been invented, supposedly by Numa Pompilius, as stop-gaps. Julius Caesar realized that the system had become inoperable, so he effected drastic changes in the year of his third consulship. The New Year in 709 AUC began on 1 January and ran over 365 days until 31 December. Further adjustments were made under Augustus, who introduced the concept of the "leap year" in 757 AUC (AD 4). The resultant Julian calendar remained in almost universal use in Europe until 1582, and in some countries until as late as the twentieth century.

Marcus Terentius Varro introduced the Ab urbe condita epoch, assuming a foundation of Rome in 753 BC. The system remained in use during the early Middle Ages until the widespread adoption of the Dionysian era in the Carolingian period.

In the Roman Empire, the AUC year could be used alongside the consular year, so that the consulship of Quintus Fufius Calenus and Publius Vatinius could be determined as 707 AUC (or 47 BC), the third consulship of Caius Julius Caesar, with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, as 708 AUC (or 46 BC), and the fourth consulship of Gaius Julius Caesar as 709 AUC (or 45 BC).

The seven-day week has a tradition reaching back to the ancient Near East, but the introduction of the "planetary week" which remains in modern use dates to the Roman Empire period (see also names of the days of the week).

Christian Europe
The oldest calendar of saints of the Church of Rome was compiled in the mid-4th century, under Pope Julius I or Pope Liberius. It contained both pagan and Christian festivals. The oldest extant manuscript of the early Christian calendar is the so-called Calendar of Filocalus, produced in AD 354. A more extensive martyrology was compiled by Jerome in the early 5th century. Jean Mabillon published a calendar of the church of Carthage made in ca. AD 483. The Anno Domini epoch is introduced in the 6th century. Extant calendars of the early medieval period are based on Jerome's system of numbering of the years of the Metonic cycle, later called the Golden Numbers. A Carolingian-era calendar published by Luc d'Achery is entitled Incipit Ordo Solaris Anni cum Litteris a S. Hieronymo superpositis, ad explorandum Septimanae Diem, et Lunae Aetatem investigandam in unoquoque Die per xix Annos. ("here begins the order of the solar year with the letters placed by Saint Jerome, for the purpose of finding the day of the week and the age of the Moon for any day within [the cycle of] 19 years"). The Leiden Aratea, a Carolingian copy (dated 816) of an astronomical treatise of Germanicus, is an important source for the transmission of the ancient Christian calendar to the medieval period.

In the 8th century, the Anglo-Saxon historian Bede the Venerable used another Latin term, "ante uero incarnationis dominicae tempus" ("the time before the Lord's true incarnation", equivalent to the English "before Christ"), to identify years before the first year of this era. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, even Popes continued to date documents according to regnal years, and usage of AD only gradually became common in Europe from the 11th to the 14th centuries. In 1422, Portugal became the last Western European country to adopt the Anno Domini system.

The Icelandic calendar was introduced in the 10th century. While the ancient Germanic calendars were based on lunar months, the new Icelandic calendar introduced a purely solar reckoning, with a year having a fixed number of weeks (52 weeks or 364 days). This necessitated the introduction of "leap weeks" instead of the Julian leap days.

In 1267, the medieval scientist Roger Bacon stated the times of full moons as a number of hours, minutes, seconds, thirds, and fourths (horae, minuta, secunda, tertia, and quarta) after noon on specified calendar dates. Although a third for $1/60$ of a second remains in some languages, for example Arabic ثالثة, the modern second is further divided decimally.

Rival calendar eras to Anno Domini remained in use in Christian Europe. In Spain, the "Era of the Caesars" was dated from Octavian's conquest of Iberia in 39 BC. It was adopted by the Visigoths and remained in use in Catalonia until 1180, Castille until 1382 and Portugal until 1415.

For chronological purposes, the flaw of the Anno Domini system was that dates have to be reckoned backwards or forwards according as they are BC or AD. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, "in an ideally perfect system all events would be reckoned in one sequence. The difficulty was to find a starting point whence to reckon, for the beginnings of history in which this should naturally be placed are those of which chronologically we know least." For both Christians and Jews, the prime historical date was the Year of Creation, or Annus Mundi. The Eastern Orthodox Church fixed the date of Creation at 5509 BC. This remained the basis of the ecclesiastical calendar in the Greek and Russian Orthodox world until modern times. The Coptic Church fixed on 5500 BC. Later, the Church of England, under Archbishop Ussher in 1650, would pick 4004 BC.

Islamic calendar
The Islamic calendar is based on the prohibition of intercalation (nasi') by Muhammad, in Islamic tradition dated to a sermon held on 9 Dhu al-Hijjah AH 10 (Julian date: 6 March 632). This resulted in an observationally based lunar calendar shifting relative to the seasons of the solar year.

During the Mughal rule, land taxes were collected from Bengali people according to the Islamic Hijri calendar. This calendar was a lunar calendar, and its new year did not coincide with the solar agricultural cycles. According to some sources, Mughal Emperor Akbar asked his royal astronomer Fathullah Shirazi to create a new calendar by combining the lunar Islamic calendar and solar Hindu calendar already in use, and this was known as Fasholi shan (harvest calendar). According to Amartya Sen, Akbar's official calendar "Tarikh-ilahi" with the zero year of 1556 AD was a blend of pre-existing Hindu and Islamic calendars. It was not used much in India outside of Akbar's Mughal court, and after his death the calendar he launched was abandoned. However, adds Sen, there are traces of the "Tarikh-ilahi" that survive in the Bengali calendar. Some historians attribute the Bengali calendar to the 7th-century Hindu king Shashanka.

Other
The ancient Taichu calendar of China was refined in the medieval period. The Dàmíng Calendar, created in the Liang dynasty by Zu Chongzhi, introduced the equinoxes. The use of a syzygy to determine the lunar month was first described in the Tang dynasty Wùyín Yuán Calendar.

The Yuan dynasty (13th/14th century) Shòushí calendar used spherical trigonometry to find the length of the tropical year. This calendar had a 365.2425-day year, identical to the Gregorian calendar.

A number of other epichoric calendars are tentatively reconstructed for the medieval period. Such reconstructions are mostly limited to a list of month names, as is the case with the pre-Christian Germanic calendar as well as with the Bulgar calendar, which was supposedly in use among the Bulgars in the 10th century, as reconstructed from the 15th-century Nominalia of the Bulgarian khans.

Ethiopian Calendar
The Ge'ez or Ethiopian Calendar is a calendar originating from the Ethiopian Empire. It is the liturgical year for Ethiopian and Eritrean Christians belonging to the Orthodox Tewahedo Churches and closely follows the Coptic Christian calendar.

A useful chart providing all the equivalents can be found in Chaîne's book on chronology in Ethiopia and Egypt, and can easily be consulted online at the Internet Archive, from page 134 to page 172.

Nigerian Calendars
The Igbo calendar is the traditional calendar system of the Igbo people from present-day Nigeria. The calendar has 13 months in a year (afo), 7 weeks in a month (onwa), and 4 days of Igbo market days (afor, nkwo, eke, and orie) in a week (izu) plus an extra day at the end of the year, in the last month. The name of these months was reported by Onwuejeogwu (1981). The Yoruba calendar is a calendar used by the Yoruba people of southwestern and north central Nigeria and southern Benin. The calendar has a year beginning on the last moon of May or first moon of June of the Gregorian calendar. The new year coincides with the Ifá festival. The traditional Yoruba week has four days. The four days that are dedicated to the Orisa.

Ghana/West African
The Akan Calendar is a Calendar created by the Akan people (a Kwa group of West Africa) who appear to have used a traditional system of timekeeping based on a six-day week (known as nnanson "seven-days" via inclusive counting). The Gregorian seven-day week is known as nnawɔtwe (eight-days). The combination of these two system resulted in periods of 40 days, known as adaduanan (meaning "forty days").

Xhosa Calendar
The traditional isiXhosa names for months of the year poetically come from names of stars, plants, and flowers that grow or seasonal changes that happen at a given time of year in Southern Africa.

The Xhosa year traditionally begins in June and ends in May when the brightest star visible in the Southern Hemisphere, Canopus, signals the time for harvesting.

Mesoamerica
Of all the ancient calendar systems, the Maya and other Mesoamerican systems are the most complex. The Mayan calendar had two years, the 260-day Sacred Round, or tzolkin, and the 365-day Vague Year, or haab. The Sacred Round of 260 days is composed of two smaller cycles: the numbers 1 through 13, coupled with 20 different day names: Imix, Ik, Akbal, Kan, Chicchan, Cimi, Manik, Lamat, Muluc, Oc, Chuen, Eb, Ben, Ix, Men, Cib, Caban, Eiznab, Cauac, and Ahau. The Sacred Round was used to determine important activities related to the gods and humans: name individuals, predict the future, decide on auspicious dates for battles, marriages, and so on.

The two cycles of 13 and 20 intermesh and are repeated without interruption: the cycle would begin with 1 Imix, then 2 Ik, then 3 Akbal and so on until the number 13 was reached, at which point the number cycle was restarted so 13 Ben would be followed by 1 Ix, 2 Men and so on. This time Imix would be numbered 8. The cycle ended after 260 days, with the last day being 13 Ahau.

The Vague Year of 365 days is similar to the modern Gregorian calendar, consisting of 18 months of 20 days each, with an unlucky five-day period at the end. The Vague Year had to do primarily with the seasons and agriculture, and was based on the solar cycle. The 18 Maya months are known, in order, as: Pop, Uo, Zip, Zotz, Tzec, Xuc, Yaxkin, Mol, Chen, Yax, Zac, Ceh, Mac, Kankin, Maun, Pax, Kayab and Cumku. The unlucky five-day period was known as Uayeb, and was considered a time which could hold danger, death and bad luck.

The Vague Year began with the month of Pop. The Maya 20-day month always begins with the seating of the month, followed by days numbered 1 to 19, then the seating of the following month, and so on. This ties in with the Maya notion that each month influences the next. The Maya new year would start with 1 Pop, followed by 2 Pop, all the way through to 19 Pop, followed by the seating of the month of Uo, written as 0 Uo, then 1 Uo, 2 Uo and so on. These two cycles coincided every 52 years. The 52-year period of time was called a "bundle" and was similar to a modern-day century.

Modern calendars
While the Gregorian calendar is now in worldwide use for secular purposes, various medieval or ancient calendars remain in regional use for religious or social purposes, including the Julian calendar, the Hebrew calendar, the Islamic calendar, various Hindu calendars, the Zoroastrian calendar, etc.

There are also various modern calendars that see limited use, either created for the use of new religious movements or reformed versions of older religious calendars, or calendars introduced by regionalist or nationalist movements.

 * Javanese calendar (1633)
 * Jōkyō calendar (1685)
 * French Republican calendar (1793)
 * Baháʼí calendar (1873)
 * Solar Hijri calendar (1925)
 * Pataphysical calendar (1949)
 * Indian national calendar (1957)
 * Discordian calendar (1963)
 * Juche calendar (1997)

title: History of calendars


text:
1955 Governor General's Awards

In Canada, the 1955 Governor General's Awards for Literary Merit were the nineteenth such awards. The awards in this period had no monetary prize but were an honour for the authors.

Winners

 * Fiction: Lionel Shapiro, The Sixth of June (filmed as D-Day the Sixth of June).
 * Poetry or Drama: Wilfred Watson, Friday's Child.
 * Non-Fiction: N.J. Berrill, Man's Emerging Mind.
 * Non-Fiction: Donald G. Creighton, John A. Macdonald, The Old Chieftain.
 * Juvenile: Kerry Wood, The Map-Maker.

title: 1955 Governor General's Awards


text:
1956 in Afghanistan

The following lists events that happened during 1956 in Afghanistan.

Incumbents

 * Monarch – Mohammed Zahir Shah
 * Prime Minister – Mohammed Daoud Khan

Events

 * January 27 – King Zahir approves the new cabinet still headed by Mohammad Daud Khan, a king's cousin, who also holds the portfolio of defense; Naim Khan, another king's cousin, continues as Foreign Minister and Second Deputy Premier; Ali Mohammad Khan becomes First Deputy Premier. Daud has thus finally succeeded in ousting from the government the supporters of Gen. Mohammad Arif, Minister of Defense, who was dismissed and put under arrest at the beginning of December 1955. At the same time more than 70 other persons, both army officers and civilians, were also arrested.
 * January 28, 1956 – A joint Soviet-Afghan statement says that the U.S.S.R. will ensure delivery of "equipment and materials" on account of the $100,000,000 credit granted in December 1955, and will also grant "other services connected with technical assistance in building certain installations" in many branches of Afghan economy. According to Pakistani sources, $40,000,000 of the Soviet credits is earmarked for arms from the U.S.S.R. and Czechoslovakia and $60,000,000 for building airports and roads.
 * March 21–22 – On his way to India, Anastas Mikoyan stays in Kabul.
 * July 1956 – The Swedish citizen Gunnel Gummeson and her American boyfriend Peter Winant disappear in Afghanistan on their way home from India.
 * July 1956 – Adnan Menderes, the Turkish prime minister, pays a visit to Afghanistan.
 * August 1956 – Maj. Gen. Iskander Mirza, the president of Pakistan, stays four days in the Afghan capital. It is believed that both Menderes and Mirza discussed at Kabul the possibility of Afghanistan's joining the Baghdad Pact, the problems of the Pathan or Pakhtu tribesmen, and their aspiration for a "Pakhtunistan" state.
 * November 1956 – Mohammad Daud, the Afghan prime minister, visits Karachi, Pakistan. No mention is made thereafter in Afghan official statements of the "Pakhtunistan" question, that is, Afghan plans to create a separate state for Pakhtu-speaking peoples in Pakistan.

title: 1956 in Afghanistan


text:
1956 Governor General's Awards

In Canada, the 1956 Governor General's Awards for Literary Merit were the twentieth such awards. The awards in this period had no monetary prize but were an honour for the authors.

Winners

 * Fiction: Adele Wiseman, The Sacrifice.
 * Poetry or Drama: Robert A.D. Ford, A Window on the North.
 * Non-Fiction: Pierre Berton, The Mysterious North.
 * Non-Fiction: Joseph Lister Rutledge, Century of Conflict.
 * Juvenile: Farley Mowat, Lost in the Barrens.

title: 1956 Governor General's Awards


text:
Talk:Chapter 11, Title 11, United States Code

Stats dates
If current year stats are going to be given, the actual stats date should also be provided. RedWolf 06:36, Nov 22, 2003 (UTC)

Chapter numbers
This is chapter 11 and I see articles for 7 and 13, but why is there no chapter 9?? Georgia guy 17:42, 26 May 2005 (UTC)

 * If you've got an idea for an article on Chapter 9 then by all means, please create one! (This coming from a practitioner that has never seen a real live one but would like to) Flawiki 01:50, 27 May 2005 (UTC)

http://www.wefreedebt.com

Contrast with Europe
Request: I'd love for a knowledgeable person to compare and contrast Chapter 11 with the bankruptcy practices in Europe. I believe I've heard that there have been protests to the WTO that the US is sheltering its businesses from fair competition because Chapter 11 is allegedly excessively lenient compared to European bankruptcy law. Tempshill 20:57, 31 January 2006 (UTC)

Airline industry
"All airline analysts agree that the United States airline industry's unprofitability (as a whole) is due to excess seat capacity, and that the solution is for at least two major airlines to be allowed to perish. However, the rules for a Chapter 11 bankruptcy make this an unlikely outcome."

I have decided to delete these sentences. Saying that all airline analysts agree on this is simply untrue. Many analysts says that it is some legacy airline's high costs compared with newer Low Coast Airlines that contribute to the industry's profit problems.

 * I agree with the above striking of that all industry analysist agree about excess seating capacity. Loss-leader pricing is what's causing the implosion of the airlines. And loss-leader pricing is king in the airline industry because ticket prices have to keep coming down in accordance with middle-class income. So really, as usual, the airlines are proving to be the usual "economic indicators" they've been historically and a testament to the health of our people.

 * Moving on; I deleted the section on how important 11 is for airlines in-that it helps them defer airplane lease payments. Payments on their equipment pails in comparison to the fear in airline managements eyes when they see they actually have to live up to the terms of a labor contract they signed last year. Then comes fuel. Equipment leasing is not of such high importance that it deserves comment in this article.--XB70Valyrie (talk) 06:09, 19 May 2012 (UTC)

Bankruptcy Wide Wikipedia Reorganization Suggestion
Because there is substantial overlap between all of the bankruptcy chapters, perhaps we could place the relevant parts of the general provisions (essentially everything in chapters 1, 2, 3, and 5) into the main U.S. Bankruptcy article, and put the specific provisions about each chapter (11, 13, 15, and 9) into their own respective sections. Is there support for this? LH 05:14, 2 April 2007 (UTC)

Capitalization
I checked the wikipedia style manual and I'm still uncertain. In legal writing the word "chapter" is not capitalized in reference to bankruptcies. It's "the company is restructuring under chapter 11" not "the company is restructuring under Chapter 11." However, in some business writing the C is capitalized. That said, can someone point me, or others, to a style reference. If one doesn't exist, perhaps one should be created.LH 02:05, 6 July 2007 (UTC)

The statistics for Business chapter 13 filings are misleading
I briefly scanned the source that was cited for the bankruptcy filing statistics in 2003 and 2004. Although the source does use the term Business filing and lists the quoted numbers for Chapter 13 business debtors, the fact is that businesses are not eligible to file for bankruptcy protection under Chapter 13. Chapter 13 is solely for individuals. I couldn't figure out what Business filings meant in the context of the source document, but I think that the Chapter 13 statistics to business filings should be removed as they incorrectly imply that a business debtor can file for bankruptcy protection under Chapter 13. Please clarify the statistics for me or correct me if I'm wrong. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 149.68.76.226 (talk) 02:25, 15 October 2007 (UTC)

Merge from Section 1110
The result was merge into Chapter 11, Title 11, United States Code. -- Debate   木  15:20, 5 July 2008 (UTC)

I don't think that one section of Chapter 11 needs its own article, so therefore I propose that the Section 1110 page be merged here. Any thoughts? --Eastlaw (talk) 10:10, 10 December 2007 (UTC)
 * I agree completely.LH (talk) 02:58, 11 December 2007 (UTC)

I am removing the seven month old merger tags as stale. As the merger is clearly not controversial, I'd suggest that anyone who is willing to put a little bit of effort in should simply go ahead and do it. Debate  木  15:14, 5 July 2008 (UTC)
 * Nevermind, the other article is so small I'll be bold and do it myself... Debate   木  15:20, 5 July 2008 (UTC)

Filing Court District for Washington Mutual bankruptcy
- the source for the bankruptcy top 15 list - doesn't make mention of the filing court district for the Washington Mutual bankruptcy (or any other, for that matter). Any ideas? TerraFrost 17:06, 1 October 2008 (UTC)
 * It is in Delaware--Judge Walrath. Judge Walrath is one of the two pre-extension members of the Delaware Bankruptcy Court. LH (talk) 02:52, 17 October 2008 (UTC)

First paragraph seems focussed on chapter 7, not chapter 11
Reading through the first paragraph, it seems like all the information you get about chapter 11 (the subject of the article) is "it's a form of bankruptcy", whereas the bulk of the paragraph talks about what appears to be chapter 7. Perhaps the paragraph is misworded or perhaps the focus of the paragraph is wrong, but from a newcomer's perspective, it seems off. Ordinarily, I'd try to fix it myself, but I don't have the technical knowledge to really do adequate job of re-working that paragraph. William McVey (talk) 16:01, 14 November 2008 (UTC) William McVey

 * Yeah, definitely wrong. Looks like the defs for 7 and 11 got merged together by mistake.  While I don't have much technical knowledge either, I'm going to take a crack at it.  It could hardly be made worse.  Mkcmkc (talk) 14:02, 23 November 2008 (UTC)

Does not follow
I'm reading the "Details" section, where there is a brief statement about creditors being heard, compliance with bankruptcy law, fair and equitable treatment.

Immediately following this, the article begins talking about executory contracts, with no warning that contracts might be disputed in bankruptcy. While I actually expect that they will be, I have no idea who disputes what, and why, as it pertains to contracts, so I am wholly unprepared for a narrower discussion of executory contracts. The discussion goes on to mention "rejecting", but I don't know what is under consideration for acceptance/rejection. The bankruptcy itself? The execution of the contract?

DudeFromWork (talk) 00:42, 14 February 2009 (UTC)
 * Good point. I'll try to fix it. LH (talk) 19:16, 14 February 2009 (UTC)

Implication of Automatic Stay to customer warranty?
I recently made a major purchase from a company that later went into Chapter 11. The product was in gross exception to the guarantee of the warranty, and I think it would be a tremendous interest to readers of this article what the implication of Chapter 11 is to their warranty. It's obvious that a lawsuit is going to be postponed until emergence, but what happens to the warranty then? Garykempen (talk) 16:19, 30 March 2009 (UTC)

Rename: Title 11, Chapter 11
Shouldn't this article really be called "Title 11, Chapter 11, United States Code". The bankruptcy code is Title 11. Then, the code is broken into various chapters (see: http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode11/usc_sup_01_11.html). I think it's confusing to people if the less relevant part (the chapter) is listed before the title. Jeff Carr (talk) 20:25, 2 June 2009 (UTC)
 * Interesting point. I'm unaware if any other topics have similar naming conventions. Title 11, Chapter 11, United States Code doesn't exist (right now), and that should redirect here, or, as you say, this should redirect there. I would ask at WP:Signpost, and if that answer isn't satisfactory maybe to RfC. It's a good point, but it will affect a lot of articles, so it's worth getting right. LH (talk) 06:51, 5 June 2009 (UTC)

Title 11 of the United States Code - Bankruptcy
this section is confusing to me Full Decent (talk) 14:14, 16 June 2009 (UTC)

In popular culture
Some people, especially non-US residents, notice jokes pertaining to chapter 11 in popular media and wonder what the joke is about. Maybe we should create a new page or a section in the current one to explain the reason for this being used as a synonym for bankruptcy in the media? (ex. Spaceballs) Dudyk (talk) 08:47, 31 August 2009 (UTC)

Section 363
I am requesting information on Section 363 of Chapter 11. This was used by General Motors. Full Decent (talk) 17:57, 23 October 2009 (UTC)
 * 363 is a big section. You're referring to 363(f), also known as "free and clear" sales. They're not unique to chapter 11, although they are certainly the most important in chapter 11s. We don't have very much information on that provision. I might add some in if I get some time. It probably should be a part of the main Bankruptcy in the United States article and not the chapter 11 one specifically. LH (talk) 17:22, 31 October 2009 (UTC)

Largest bankruptcies (Table)
The list of lagest bankruptcies needs some help. Companies go bankrupt due to lack of assests (as compared to debt) so just listing their assets at time of death isn't very meaning full.

Sugestions I have are

Or List debts and asets

Larek (talk) 17:14, 5 August 2010 (UTC)

"First day motion"
I'm looking at an article that mentions a company's "first day motions", which as in this comment, is currently a redlink.

I can see why the link is there, since I wasn't sure what a first day motion was either and would have found it useful if the link was active. Poking around the net, I found a source that says a first-day motion is

A request to a US bankruptcy court made on the first day following a borrower's filing for chapter 11 bankruptcy. First-day motions typically deal with matters that will allow the company entering bankrutpcy to continue to operate by providing court consent to matters such as payment of suppliers.

This article seems like the most likely home for this information.

What I'd like to do is create the redirect first-day motion pointing to someplace in this article (and of course correct the punctuation in the original article), but I don't consider myself a SME on Chapter 11 bankruptcy, nor am I sure the above source is considered sufficiently reliable. Would anyone like to assist or even "just do it" ? Thanks, NapoliRoma (talk) 22:06, 1 January 2011 (UTC)

Need to add Bildisco decision and the legislation passed to reverse that decision
That decision voided a CBA but Congress slammed the court by reversing that decision by added!Lingust (talk) 03:08, 17 May 2011 (UTC)e

Still biased towards US
We have Chapter 11 in other countries too, you know. Unfortunately IANAL so I'm not qualified to fix the article. 90.199.75.119 (talk) 02:00, 12 February 2012 (UTC)

Recapitalization / valuation issues
The article needs more discussion of valuation and recapitalization issues.--Nrdly101 (talk) 00:23, 4 November 2020 (UTC)


text:
Talk:Mahavira

Infobox picture
Wouldn't it make more sense to have as the main infobox picture a photo of a temple statue of Mahavira? It would be more representative of the subject, since the statues/icons as per John E Cort (and many others) are supposed to represent the transhuman perfection of the liberated Tirthankaras. Closer at hand for the purposes of Wikipedia, it would also be the most familiar image of Mahavira: or at least more familiar than the present one. Even a painted image of Mahavira in either padmasana or karyotsarga (the standing pose) would be more representative than the current image, which strikes me as an obscure, strange choice. 103.211.18.45 (talk) 21:59, 9 August 2023 (UTC)

Founder of Jainism
"Mahavira is erroneously called the founder of Jainism, but Jains believe that the 23 previous tirthankaras also espoused it." - This belief does nothing to inform the reader whether or not historically speaking, Mahavira was the founder of the religion. Setting Jain tradition, literature, cosmogony, and theology aside, do historians generally hold that Mahavira founded Jainism? If so, I believe this should be included in the lead. Chronikhiles (talk) 12:27, 6 October 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Mahavira


text:
Wikipedia:List of Wikipedians by number of edits in July 2003

Here is a list of the 200 Wikipedians who have made the most edits on the wiki during the month of July in 2003. This gives some impression of who has recently been the heaviest contributors -- although only very roughly so, since many of the edits of those high in the list will be spelling corrections, part of an edit war, correcting their own mistakes, or successively saving each small change where others would use the preview option. Someone who created a number of long new pages or major additions might well occur much lower. Also, people who often edit when not logged in will appear in the combined category "Anonymous IP" with all other anonymous contributors.