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Peggy Hill

Margaret Joseph "Peggy" Hill ( Platter) is a fictional character in the Fox animated series King of the Hill, voiced by Kathy Najimy. She is the matriarch of the Hill family and the wife of the series protagonist Hank Hill, mother to Robert Jeffrey "Bobby" Hill, and aunt to Luanne Platter.

Fictional character biography
The character of Peggy was born in Billings, Montana to cattle ranchers. She moved to Texas during high school, where she meets future husband Hank Hill. She is 5'7". She wears glasses and is generally seen wearing sleeveless blouses and culottes. She wears a size 16½ shoe on her left foot, and a size 16 on her right. Her disproportionately enormous feet are the one trait she is deeply insecure about, despite it being stated by a doctor that such feet give her exceptional confidence, perfect posture, and incredible athletic ability. She is a gifted pitcher in softball, and talented in other sports as well, including roller derby. She is also skilled at playing the dice-based word game Boggle and once won the Texas State Boggle Championship.

Within the household, Peggy provides a voice of reason and a buffer between Hank and Bobby, who have difficulty relating to each other. Peggy has taken Hank to task about their relationship, or the lack thereof. Peggy's devotion to family extends to her niece Luanne, whom she thinks of as a daughter. Peggy freely encourages Bobby and Luanne to express themselves, sometimes to Hank's distress. Peggy's high opinion of herself is often quite an annoyance to her family and friends. She usually considers herself smarter than everyone she meets and knows; more attractive than Luanne, Nancy, and many other more conventionally attractive women; and constantly takes credit for things she has never done. She also assumes that everyone else thinks as highly of her as she herself does.

She believes that she can do anything if she commits herself. This often gets her into trouble, as she takes the philosophy too literally. Peggy often plunges into things, disregarding her own complete lack of skill; for example, during the episode "Phish and Wildlife," she walks onto a crime scene expecting to become part of the investigation just because she is "on a roll." Her inability to understand the potential consequences of her actions has led to the harm of those around her.

Peggy prides herself as a cook, although others consider her cooking to be average. Her family dinners are a regular rotation of a few menu items: Frito pie with Wolf Brand Chili on Mondays; fried pork chops on Tuesdays; and on Wednesdays "Spa-Peggy" and meatballs, the one dish which, according to Hank, "she's kind of made her own," though it is simply spaghetti with meatballs with "just the right amount of sugar and grated parmigiana cheese." She is also proud of her Apple Brown Betty to which she adds a spoonful of orange juice.

As the series progresses, it puts increasing emphasis on Peggy's superiority complex. As her egotism grows to extremes, other characters become more aware of it but seem to tolerate Peggy's behavior. Hank truly loves Peggy and usually tolerates her ego. But at one point, he has enough of Peggy's ego and directly confronts Peggy after she attacks Randy Travis in public, claiming he stole a song she wrote. Ironically, Randy Travis did indeed steal the song, but because Peggy often takes credit for things she never did, not even her own husband could believe her.

Peggy's desire for importance and excellence often reveals a competitive side, leading to pettiness when she feels overshadowed. During the episode, "Goodbye Normal Jeans," Peggy begins to feel threatened by Bobby when she discovers that his newfound talent for domestic skills is out-shined by her own son. She began trying and failing to outdo him, all culminating in her stealing the Thanksgiving turkey he prepared. These traits can also make her susceptible to manipulation if her ego is stroked. In "Death and Texas", a death row prisoner tricked her into smuggling cocaine into prison after he pretended to be a former student of hers. Even though the man was almost as old as she was, she was too blinded by his praise to see the truth.

Despite this, Peggy is a kind person at heart who often works from the best motives. She is completely devoted to her husband and family. She refers to Hank as the love of her life and has demonstrated her love for and protectiveness of him several times. However, Peggy makes no secret of her contempt for her father-in-law, Cotton Hill, particularly because of his neglectful, cruel behavior toward Hank. Cotton shows even more disrespect towards Peggy herself, including only referring to her as "Hank's wife" instead of her name. She dislikes him so much that she accepts his offer to literally dance on his grave. This hatred between the two even continues when Cotton is on his deathbed. While Hank is out of the room, Peggy tells Cotton exactly what she thinks of him just before he dies. When Hank returns, she lies and says Cotton said kind things about Hank before his passing.

Family
Earlier episodes such as "I Remember Mono" and "Transnational Amusements Presents: Peggy's Magic Sex Feet" depicted Peggy's parents living nearby and being on speaking terms with her, with her mother as a homemaker. This changed in later episodes (beginning with "A Rover Runs Through It", which depict Peggy's mother as emotionally cold towards her, her father as constantly speaking in riddles, and both of them living in Montana). These later episodes suggest that Peggy left her parents behind when she went to Texas. Both depictions show Mrs. Platter as being critical, unappreciative, and dismissive of her daughter.

Peggy thinks of Luanne as a surrogate daughter and does her best to give her guidance and encourage her, always wanting the best for her. With this in mind, Peggy is openly critical of Luanne's choice to get involved with Lucky, who Peggy views as not being good enough for Luanne. At first, Peggy sabotages Lucky's efforts to better himself by getting a GED. But, in the end, Peggy accepted the relationship, realizing that Lucky made Luanne happy and that Lucky was a genuinely good man. She is very protective of Luanne, and has defended her niece from her abusive and alcoholic mother, Leanne.

Peggy also has a brother named Hoyt, who is Luanne's father. She lied to Luanne by telling her that Hoyt was working on an oil rig when he was actually in prison. When Hoyt returns to Arlen, Peggy tried to help him out and gave him money, but eventually realized Hoyt was an incorrigible criminal and would destroy the entire family. Hank then tricked Hoyt into committing an obvious crime and convinced him to confess to it along with an earlier robbery. This would send him to prison for life, but maintain Luanne's false impression of her father as a good and hard-working man. Peggy and Hank then told Luanne that Hoyt had accepted "a lifetime contract" to work on an oil rig.

Jobs
At the start of the series, Peggy works as a substitute teacher at Arlen High School and Tom Landry Middle School, typically teaching Spanish. Briefly, she works as a full-time teacher at a catholic school by pretending to be a nun. A running gag in the show is her overconfidence in speaking the language, when she in fact speaks it poorly and doesn't understand it as well as she believes she does. For example, in "Lupe's Revenge" her poor understanding of the language caused her to mistakenly bring a young Mexican girl back to Texas after a school field trip across the Mexican border, confusing the child by saying "Yo vivo en México", which means "I live in Mexico" in Spanish, with "Viva México", which means "Long live Mexico". Her own egotism makes her believe she is better at speaking it than native Mexicans. Peggy often remarks she won the "Substitute Teacher Of The Year" three years in a row. But for the third year, she claimed an award for the school itself that was really for Hank.

In the third season, she starts writing a column for a local newspaper, the Arlen Bystander and is occasionally seen sub-editing. In season 11, she gets dismissed from the newspaper after writing a scathing piece about a local real estate agent, but she is subsequently hired by the real estate agent, where she works for the rest of the series. She is a somewhat successful real estate agent who is prepared to go to extraordinary measures to make a deal, including overzealous self-promotion on her part.

Character analysis
Although Peggy is often cited as "the hated wife and mother of adult animated TV" due to her arrogance and character flaws, Austin Jones argues that she is one of the shows most complex characters, and a "keen satire on the way Southern suburbia mollifies women with talent into embittered sidekick roles to mediocre men".

According to Jo Johnson, Peggy differs from the usual depiction of women in adult animated sitcoms due to the fact that she is both a mother and homemaker while also being employed. In most other animated sitcoms, such as The Simpsons, regular employment is "bestowed upon male breadwinners or single unattractive females". Johnson argues that Peggy's ability to comfortably juggle her role at home with a career "sets her apart from other animated mothers".

Lara Karaian states that the characters of King of the Hill represent stereotypes of working class southern communities. They describe Peggy as the "liberal feminist of her southern town", and is "someone who stands by her man while still remaining a strong and independent Texas woman", comparing her to Hillary Clinton.

title: Peggy Hill


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Coital alignment technique

The coital alignment technique sex position is used primarily as a variant of the missionary position and is designed to maximize clitoral stimulation during sexual intercourse. This is achieved by combining the "riding high" variation of the missionary position with pressure-counterpressure movements performed by each partner in rhythm with coitus.

Technique
When used as a variant of the missionary position, the male lies above the female but moves upward along the woman's body, until his erection, which would otherwise point "up," is pointing "down", the dorsal side of the penis now pressing against the clitoris. As opposed to the missionary position, the male's body moves downward (relative to the female's) during the inward stroke, and upward for the outward stroke. She may also wrap her legs around his. Sexual movement is focused in the pelvises, without leverage from the arms or legs. The rocking upward stroke (where the female leads) and downward stroke (where the male leads) of sexual movement builds arousal that partners let develop and peak naturally.

The woman on top variant is known as the reverse coital alignment technique.

History of studies
The technique for coital alignment was first defined by American psychotherapist Edward Eichel, and the original study was published by Eichel, De Simone Eichel, and Kule in 1988 in the Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy.

Since then, the topic has been studied several times in the same journal. A 1992 report by Kaplan and her sex therapist trainees described the team's cursory trial of the CAT, acknowledging that they may have resorted to old routines after only a few attempts out of fear of disappointing their partners. Their call for other sex therapists to give the technique more rigorous testing instigated a series of controlled studies by Hurlbert and colleagues reporting statistically significant results in the treatment of female hypoactive sexual desire.

In 2005, Eichel asserted that "... the three classic problems of sexual "dysfunction" have been redefined as interdependent parts of ONE behavioral syndrome - the problems are NOT "diseases" ... [t]he "cure" is a fundamental change in sexual technique". In his concluding paragraph, Eichel wrote that "[t]he CAT model provides a fundamental matrix for the analysis of classic sex problems and other subtle, but widespread, sex-related health problems."

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Coital alignment technique


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Will Durant

William James Durant (November 5, 1885 – November 7, 1981) was an American historian and philosopher, best known for his 11-volume work, The Story of Civilization, which contains and details the history of Eastern and Western civilizations. It was written in collaboration with his wife, Ariel Durant, and published between 1935 and 1975. He was earlier noted for The Story of Philosophy (1926), described as "a groundbreaking work that helped to popularize philosophy".

Durant conceived of philosophy as total perspective or seeing things sub specie totius (i.e., "from the perspective of the whole")—a phrase inspired by Spinoza's sub specie aeternitatis, roughly meaning "from the perspective of the eternal". He sought to unify and humanize the great body of historical knowledge, which had grown voluminous and become fragmented into esoteric specialties, and to vitalize it for contemporary application. As a result of their success, he and his wife were jointly awarded the Pulitzer Prize for General Nonfiction in 1968 and the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1977.

Early life
William James Durant was born in North Adams, Massachusetts, to French-Canadian Catholic parents, Joseph Durant and Mary Allard, who had been part of the Quebec emigration to the United States.

After graduating from St. Peter's Preparatory School in Jersey City, New Jersey, in 1903, Durant enrolled at Saint Peter's College (now Saint Peter's University), also in Jersey City, where he graduated in 1907. Historian Joan Rubin writes of that period, "Despite some adolescent flirtations, he began preparing for the vocation that promised to realize his mother's fondest hopes for him: the priesthood. In that way, one might argue, he embarked on a course that, while distant from Yale's or Columbia's apprenticeships in gentility, offered equivalent cultural authority within his own milieu."

In 1905, he began experimenting with socialist philosophy, but, after World War I, he began recognizing that a "lust for power" underlay all forms of political behavior. However, even before the war, "other aspects of his sensibility had competed with his radical leanings," notes Rubin. She adds that "the most concrete of those was a persistent penchant for philosophy. With his energy invested in Baruch Spinoza, he made little room for the Russian anarchist Mikhail Bakunin. From then on, writes Rubin, "his retention of a model of selfhood predicated on discipline made him unsympathetic to anarchist injunctions to 'be yourself.'... To be one's 'deliberate self,' he explained, meant to 'rise above' the impulse to 'become the slaves of our passions' and instead to act with 'courageous devotion' to a moral cause."

Teaching career
From 1907 to 1911, Durant taught Latin and French at Seton Hall University in South Orange, New Jersey.

After leaving Seton Hall, Durant was a teacher at Ferrer Modern School from 1911 to 1913. Ferrer was "an experiment in libertarian education," according to the Who's Who of Pulitzer Prize Winners. Alden Freeman, a supporter of the Ferrer Modern School, sponsored him for a tour of Europe.

In 1913, he resigned his post as teacher and married the 15-year-old Ariel Kaufman; they had one daughter, Ethel, and a "foster" son, Louis, whose mother was Flora—Ariel's sister. To support themselves, he began lecturing in a Presbyterian church for $5 and $10; the material for the lectures became the starting point for The Story of Civilization.

By 1914, he began to reject "intimations of human evil," notes Rubin, and to "retreat from radical social change." She summarizes the changes in his overall philosophy: "Instead of tying human progress to the rise of the proletariat, he made it the inevitable outcome of the laughter of young children or the endurance of his parents' marriage. As Ariel later summarized it, he had concocted, by his mid-30s, 'that sentimental, idealizing blend of love, philosophy, Christianity, and socialism which dominated his spiritual chemistry' the rest of his life.

The attributes ultimately propelled him away from radicalism as a substitute faith and from teaching young anarchists as an alternative vocation. Instead, late in 1913 he embarked on a different pursuit: the dissemination of culture."

Durant was director and lecturer at the Labor Temple School in New York City from 1914 to 1927 while pursuing a PhD at Columbia University that he completed in 1917, the year he also served as an instructor in philosophy.

Writing career
In 1908, Durant worked as a reporter for Arthur Brisbane's New York Evening Journal. At the Evening Journal, he wrote several articles on sexual criminals.

In 1917, while working on a doctorate in philosophy at Columbia University, he wrote his first book, Philosophy and the Social Problem. He discussed the idea that philosophy had not grown because it had refused to confront the actual problems of society. He received his doctorate from Columbia that same year. He was also an instructor at the university.

The Story of Philosophy
The Story of Philosophy originated as a series of Little Blue Books (educational pamphlets aimed at workers) and because it was so popular, it was republished as a hardcover book by Simon & Schuster in 1926 and became a bestseller, giving the Durants the financial independence that allowed them to travel the world several times and spend four decades writing The Story of Civilization. Will left teaching and began work on the 11-volume Story of Civilization.

The Story of Civilization

Throughout their writing of The Story of Civilization, the Durants strove to create what they called "integral history." They opposed the "specialization" of history, an anticipatory rejection of what some have called the "cult of the expert." Their goal was to write a "biography" of a civilization, in this case, the history of the West. Not only would it describe the usual history of the Western world's wars, the history of politics and biographies of people of greatness and villainy, but also the history of the Western world's culture, art, philosophy, religion, and the rise of mass communication. Much of The Story considers the living conditions of everyday people throughout the 2500-year period that their "story" of the West covers. These volumes also bring an unabashedly moral framework to their accounts, constantly stressing the "dominance of the strong over the weak, the dominance of the clever over the simple." The Story of Civilization is the most successful historiographical series in history. In the 1990s, an unabridged audiobook production of all 11 volumes was produced by Books On Tape and it was read by Alexander Adams (Grover Gardner).

For Rousseau and Revolution (1967), the 10th volume of The Story of Civilization, the Durants were awarded the Pulitzer Prize for literature. In 1977, it was followed by one of the two highest awards which was ever granted to civilians by the United States government, the Presidential Medal of Freedom, awarded by Gerald Ford. The Durants received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement in 1976.

The first volume of The Story of Civilization series, titled Our Oriental Heritage (1935), is divided into an introduction and three books. The introduction takes the reader through the different aspects of civilization (economical, political, moral and mental). Book One is dedicated to the civilizations of the Near East (Sumeria, Egypt, Babylonia, Assyria, Judea and Persia). Book two is titled "India and Her Neighbors." Book three moves deeper into the east, where the Chinese Civilization flourishes and Japan starts to find its place on the world's political map.

Other works
On April 8, 1944, Durant was approached by two leaders of the Jewish and Christian faiths, Meyer David and Christian Richard, about starting "a movement, to raise moral standards." He suggested instead that they start a movement against racial intolerance and outlined his ideas for a "Declaration of Interdependence". The movement for the declaration, Declaration of INTERdependence, Inc., was launched at a gala dinner at the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel on March 22, 1945, attended by over 400 people including Thomas Mann and Bette Davis. The Declaration was read into the Congressional Record on October 1, 1945, by Ellis E. Patterson.

Throughout his career, Durant made several speeches, including "Persia in the History of Civilization", which was presented as an address before the Iran-America Society in Tehran, Iran, on April 21, 1948, and it had been intended for inclusion in the Bulletin of the Asia Institute (formerly, the Bulletin of the American Institute for Persian, then Iranian, Art and Archaeology), Vol. VII, no. 2, which never saw publication.

Rousseau and Revolution was followed by a slender volume of observations which was titled The Lessons of History, which was both a synopsis of the series as well as an analysis of human history.

Though Ariel and Will had intended to carry the work on The Story of Civilization into the 20th century, at their now very advanced age, they expected the 10th volume to be their last. However, they went on to publish a final volume, their 11th, The Age of Napoleon in 1975. They also left notes behind for a 12th volume, The Age of Darwin, as well as an outline of a 13th volume, The Age of Einstein, which would have taken The Story of Civilization to 1945.

Three posthumous works by Durant have been published in recent years, The Greatest Minds and Ideas of All Time (2002), Heroes of History: A Brief History of Civilization from Ancient Times to the Dawn of the Modern Age (2001) and Fallen Leaves (2014).

Final years
The Durants shared an intense love for one another as they explained in their Dual Autobiography. After Will entered the hospital, Ariel stopped eating, and she died on October 25, 1981. Though their daughter, Ethel, and their grandchildren strove to conceal the news of Ariel's death from the ailing Will, he found out that she had died while he was watching the evening news, and he died two weeks later, two days after his 96th birthday, on November 7, 1981. Will was buried beside Ariel in the Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery, in Los Angeles.

Writing about Russia
In 1933, he published Tragedy of Russia: Impressions from a Brief Visit and soon afterward, he published The Lesson of Russia. A few years after the books were published, the social commentator Will Rogers read them and he described a symposium which he had attended which included Durant as one of the contributors to it. He later wrote of Durant, "He is just about our best writer on Russia. He is the most fearless writer that has been there. He tells you just what it's like. He makes a mighty fine talk. One of the most interesting lecturers we have, and a fine fellow."

Writing about India
In 1930, Durant visited British India to collect information for The Story of Civilization. While in India, Durant was shocked by the poverty and instances of starvation he witnessed, to the point where he took a period of time off from his intended goal to write a short book titled The Case for India about the "conscious and deliberate bleeding of India" by Britain. He also stated that "I began to feel that I had come upon the greatest crime in all history." when learning of the plight of India. In The Case for India, Durant wrote that "The British conquest of India was the invasion and destruction of a high civilization by a trading company utterly without scruple or principle, careless of art and greedy of gain, over-running with fire and sword a country temporarily disordered and helpless, bribing and murdering, annexing and stealing, and beginning their career of illegal and 'legal' plunder which has now gone on ruthlessly for one hundred and seventy-three years."

Personal views
On his personal religious beliefs, Durant wrote that “I am prepared to have you put me down as an atheist, since I have reluctantly abandoned belief in a personal and loving God. But I am loathe to leave the word God out of my life and creed.”, adding that he was “a Christian in the literal and difficult sense of sincerely admiring the personality of Christ and making a persistent effort to behave like a Christian.”

Reception
While Durant's work was well received by popular audiences, its academic reception was more critical. Classics scholar Moses Finley criticised Durant's The Life of Greece on a number of grounds, including the book's racial essentialism and support for the great man theory of history.

Selected bibliography
Will Durant's full bibliography can be found online.
 * 1917. Philosophy and the Social Problem. New York: Macmillan.
 * 1926. The Story of Philosophy. New York: Simon & Schuster.
 * 1927. Transition. New York: Simon & Schuster.
 * 1929. The Mansions of Philosophy. New York: Simon & Schuster.
 * 1930. The Case for India. New York: Simon & Schuster.
 * 1931. A Program for America. New York: Simon & Schuster.
 * 1931. Adventures in Genius. New York: Simon & Schuster.
 * 1932. On the Meaning of Life. New York: Ray Long and Richard R. Smith.
 * 1933. The Tragedy of Russia: Impressions From a Brief Visit. New York: Simon & Schuster.
 * 1936. The Foundations of Civilisation. New York: Simon & Schuster.
 * 1953. The Pleasures of Philosophy. New York: Simon & Schuster.
 * 1968. (with Ariel Durant) The Lessons of History. New York: Simon & Schuster.
 * 1970. (with Ariel Durant) Interpretations of Life. New York: Simon & Schuster.
 * 1977. (with Ariel Durant) A Dual Autobiography. New York: Simon & Schuster.
 * 2001. Heroes of History: A Brief History of Civilization from Ancient Times to the Dawn of the Modern Age. New York: Simon & Schuster.
 * 2002. The Greatest Minds and Ideas of All Time. New York: Simon & Schuster.
 * 2003. An Invitation to Philosophy: Essays and Talks on the Love of Wisdom. Promethean Press.
 * 2008. Adventures in Philosophy. Promethean Press.
 * 2014. Fallen Leaves. New York: Simon & Schuster.

Little Blue Books contributions

 * 1922. A Guide to Plato. Girard, Kansas: Haldeman-Julius Company.
 * 1922. The Story of Aristotle's Philosophy. Girard, Kansas: Haldeman-Julius Company.
 * 1923. A Guide to Francis Bacon. Girard, Kansas: Haldeman-Julius Company.
 * 1924: A Guide to Schopenhauer. Girard, Kansas: Haldeman-Julius Company.
 * 1924. A Guide to Spinoza. Girard, Kansas: Haldeman-Julius Company.
 * 1924. The Philosophy of Immanuel Kant. Girard, Kansas: Haldeman-Julius Company.
 * 1924. The Story of Friedrich Nietzsche's Philosophy. Girard, Kansas: Haldeman-Julius Company.
 * 1924. Voltaire and the French Enlightenment. Girard, Kansas: Haldeman-Julius Company.
 * 1925. Anatole France: The Man and His Work. Girard, Kansas: Haldeman-Julius Company.
 * 1925. Contemporary American Philosophers: Santayana, James and Dewey. Girard, Kansas: Haldeman-Julius Company.
 * 1925. Contemporary European Philosophers: Bergson, Croce and Bertrand Russell. Girard, Kansas: Haldeman-Julius Company.
 * 1925. The Philosophy of Herbert Spencer. Girard, Kansas: Haldeman-Julius Company.
 * 1928. (with Clarence Darrow) Are We Machines? Girard, Kansas: Haldeman-Julius Company.

The Story of Civilization

 * 1935. Our Oriental Heritage. New York: Simon & Schuster.
 * 1939. The Life of Greece. New York: Simon & Schuster.
 * 1944. Caesar and Christ. New York: Simon & Schuster.
 * 1950. The Age of Faith. New York: Simon & Schuster.
 * 1953. The Renaissance. New York: Simon & Schuster.
 * 1957. The Reformation. New York: Simon & Schuster.
 * 1961. (with Ariel Durant) The Age of Reason Begins. New York: Simon & Schuster.
 * 1963. (with Ariel Durant) The Age of Louis XIV. New York: Simon & Schuster.
 * 1965. (with Ariel Durant) The Age of Voltaire. New York: Simon & Schuster.
 * 1967. (with Ariel Durant) Rousseau and Revolution. New York: Simon & Schuster.
 * 1975. (with Ariel Durant) The Age of Napoleon. New York: Simon & Schuster.

title: Will Durant


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Talk:Elasticity

I guess I disagree with the current definition of elasticity, because of two factors:
 * 1) Elasticity theory (or simply elasticity) is a branch of physics, not simply a relationship between two variables.
 * 2) In elasticity, the relationship between stress and strain is approximated as proportional, but is often non-linear in real life. The current definition hardwires proportionality into the definition.

I'm happy to have a list of interesting forms of elasticity in economics, but let's defer exact definitions for those articles. -- hike395 04:48 23 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * OK, I made an edit, let's see how people like it. The new material seemed specific to economics, so I placed it under the subsection for economics, then restored the physics part. As I was writing, I thought of another issue, which is that, in general, a proportional effect between two variables is not called elasticity (i.e., the definition as proposed was overly general). For example, in statistics, linear regression is used to discover such proportional effects, but I've never heard that called elasticity.

 * So, I suspect that the definition as proposed is an economics term, so I put the prose under the economics section. Given that, we may want to consider leaving this article as a pure disambiguation page, and putting the definition into elasticity (economics). -- hike395

 * I do not agree with many points mentioned above. First of all, elasticity originated as, and is fundamentally a mathematical concept. It was discovered/developed by a French mathematician, a woman, if my memory serves me right. It is a measurement of the resposiveness of a dependant variable, given a change (usually a small change) in an independent variable. It is true that physicists were the first to employ the concept, but economists were not far behind. From a mathemetician's point of view, the only difference is that economists use variables such as price and quantity demanded, whereas the physicist uses variables like length and stress. The simplest form of the equation is the pecentage change in the dependant variable divided by the percentage change in the independent variable. It is sometimes refered to as the proportional change in the effected variable that results from the change in the causal variable. This is a linear approximation : a more accurate measurement is (d dep / dep) / (d in / in) . Where: d=derivitive; dep=dependant variable ; in=independent variable (or if you prefer, (d dep / d in) * ( in / dep)). These are general formulas that can be used in any discipline, anyhere that you want to measure the responsiveness of one variable to another.mydogategodshat 08:17, 7 Aug 2003 (UTC)

 * The problem is the current usage of elasticity in physics, which is broader than what you state, above. It's more than a linear relationship between variable, and it's even more than a single mathematical concept. It's an entire field of study (also called continuum mechanics). For example, take a look at the Table of Contents for Mathematical Foundations of Elasticity by Marsden and Hughes, starting at . Note that the title of this standard (Dover) book implies that elasticity is separate from mathematics. Note that the linear form of elasticity is only derived in Chapter 4.

 * For more support, take a look inside of The Theory of Elasticity by Lifshitz & Landau (an old, standard text in the field) . Note the first sentence of the first chapter, that states "The mechanics of solid bodies, regarded as continuous media, forms the theory of elasticity". Look at the Table of Contents in, where the book discussed cracks (dislocations) in Chapter 4, visco-elasticity in Chapter 5. The field really does transcend a linear relationship between two variables.

Sadly, the edits made today are not factually accurate. In physics, an inelastic collision or material is something that simply fails to obey an elasticity law. Conversely, a material can have a huge tensile strength and is said to be elastic if it obeys the linear stress-strain relationship. Under the definition of the article, this material would be called inelastic, because it deforms very little under the applied stress.

I cannot think of a way of rescuing the new material. But, I'll hold off on reverting, if someone else thinks they can fix it. -- hike395 01:04, 31 May 2004 (UTC)

Bold Change
I'm going to merge the current content here into the disambiguation page at elastic, and then I will make this page redirect there. That page has been undergoing cleanup as well. Any comments or objections should go on my talk page, please. -  Corbin  Be excellent  22:39, 2 July 2006 (UTC)

Primary topic
Should not "Elasticity (physics)" be the primary topic? --Mezze stagioni (talk) 13:35, 31 March 2020 (UTC)

 * Unequivocally yes!!! This is the fourth or fifth math and physics concept page with a clearly defined primary topic that uses an unnecessary and confusing DAB rather than go directly to the primary topic. Check out matrix!! Totally absurd. Footlessmouse (talk) 19:18, 4 December 2020 (UTC)
 * From my reading of our DAB policy, due to the overwhelming historical and educational significance of one of the topics (physics) over all the others requires that the page "Elasticity" be the physics topic, while a hatnote differentiates it from the other common topic, "economics" and a second hat note points to the DAB page for "other uses". There is a clear primary topic and only one other significant alternative, so the hat notes are what policy say should be used here. Footlessmouse (talk) 19:35, 4 December 2020 (UTC)

 * Agree this is a clear primary topic, per WP:PRIMARYTOPIC WP:PT2, does anyone want to look at the usage to see if WP:PT1 is satisfied so making the discussion/decision easier. Widefox ; talk 18:28, 17 July 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Elasticity


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100 Mile House

100 Mile House is a district municipality located in the South Cariboo region of central British Columbia, Canada.

History
100 Mile House was originally known as Bridge Creek House, named after the creek running through the area. Its origins as a settlement go back to the time when Thomas Miller owned a collection of ramshackle buildings serving the traffic of the gold rush as a resting point for travellers moving between Kamloops and Fort Alexandria, which was 98 mi north of 100 Mile House farther along the Hudson's Bay Brigade Trail. It acquired its current name during the Cariboo Gold Rush where a roadhouse was constructed in 1862 at the 100 mi mark up the Old Cariboo Road from Lillooet.

In 1930, Lord Martin Cecil left England to come to 100 Mile House and manage the estate owned by his father, the 5th Marquess of Exeter. The estate's train stop on the Pacific Great Eastern (now BC Rail leased and operated by Canadian National) railway is to the west of town and called Exeter. The town, which at the time consisted of the roadhouse, a general store, a post office, telegraph office, and a power plant, had a population of 12. The original roadhouse burned down in 1937.

100 Mile House is on Secwepemc unceded territory. The nearest Secwepemc band is the Tsq'escen for which a geographic reference point is the Canim Lake Reserve.

Demographics
In the 2021 Canadian census conducted by Statistics Canada, 100 Mile House had a population of 1,928 living in 907 of its 974 total private dwellings, a change of NaN% from its 2016 population of 1,918. With a land area of 53.01 km2, it had a population density of in 2021.

Religion
According to the 2021 census, religious groups in 100 Mile House included:
 * Irreligion (1,035 persons or 58.0 percent)
 * Christianity (630 persons or 35.3 percent)
 * Sikhism (95 persons or 5.3 percent)

Economy
At present, 100 Mile House is the primary service centre for the South Cariboo and has a population of approximately 2,000. The service area has a population roughly ten times the size of the town. It includes the communities of Lac la Hache, Forest Grove, Lone Butte, Horse Lake, Bridge Lake, 70 Mile House, Canim Lake, and 108 Mile Ranch, and is the largest residential centre between Kamloops and Williams Lake.

The primary industries of 100 Mile House are forestry and ranching. Log home building and tourism are also an important part of the community.

Tourism
100 Mile House is a centre for outdoor activities and is becoming increasingly known for its richness of bird life. The surrounding area features hundreds of lakes for boating and fishing including 101 Mile Lake, 103 Mile Lake, Lac La Hache, Canim Lake, Horse Lake, Green Lake, Bridge Lake and Sheridan Lake. The Cariboo ski marathon attracts a large and international field of cross-country (Nordic) skiers.

The surrounding communities have various activities for residents and visiting tourists, including rodeos and an extensive trail system. This area is known for outdoor activities including hiking, snowmobiling, cross country skiing, and ATV riding. There are government campgrounds at Green Lake, Bridge Lake and Lac La Hache. There are also many private campsites around the area that also offer cabin and fishing boat rentals and RV hook-ups.

Transportation
100 Mile House was located historically along the Cariboo Road. Until 2002, it was served by BC Rail's daily dayliner service between Vancouver and Prince George. Until 2013, 100 Mile House was served by Greyhound Canada. Today, the town is served by the 100 Mile House Regional Transit System and by Adventure Charters intercity bus service four times a week in each direction. The area is also served by BC Transit Health Connections. The town is home to the 100 Mile House Airport with no scheduled services and is located near the larger South Cariboo Regional Airport.

Nearby locations

 * North of 100 Mile House is Lac la Hache (26 km), 150 Mile House (77 km), Williams Lake (91 km), and McLeese Lake (135 km).
 * Also located north of 100 Mile House is Quesnel (210 km) and Prince George (329 km).
 * Southeast of 100 Mile House is the Interlakes area and Bridge Lake (56 km).
 * South of the town is 70 Mile House (40 km), Clinton (72 km), Cache Creek (112 km), Spences Bridge (159 km), and Vancouver (456 km).

Climate
100 Mile House has a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb) with mild summers combined with cool nights, along with cold, but not very cold winters for its latitude. In spite of the moderation that comes from its relative proximity to the Pacific Ocean, extreme winter temperatures can occasionally occur, with a record low of -48 C. 100 Mile House is located in a rain shadow of the coastal mountains, resulting in reduced precipitation, much of it falling as snow.

Sports
100 Mile House is home to the 100 Mile House Wranglers who play hockey in the Kootenay International Junior Hockey League. They are a junior 'A' team and play their home games at the South Cariboo Rec Centre.

title: 100 Mile House


text:
Talk:Coital alignment technique

Poor choice of image?
As I understand it, the man and woman keep their legs relatively straight. So the image chosen (which is described as "missionary" and has both participants' legs spread) doesn't seem entirely appropriate. Jonathan Harford (talk) 17:12, 20 December 2008 (UTC)

I'm removing the "tiny pants" comment. Upon further investigation, the item in question is an open condom wrapper, not that this needs to be noted either. bigelectric June 30 2009

 * can't make heads or tails of the image. Cramyourspam (talk) 07:08, 2 February 2019 (UTC)

Is it real?
This entry is illiterate. I also have a suspicion that it's not really a serious entry, but hey ho - each to their own. GRAHAMUK 04:54 23 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * A google search turned up serious discussion, so the referent does appear to exist. Hopefully, some kind heterosexual (i.e. not me - won't teach granny to suck eggs) will come along and de-stub this. - Montréalais

 * LOL. Hmmm, where can I get some of these here "orgasims"? Or does that mean they're faked? GRAHAMUK 05:16 23 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * For what it's worth, my money is on it being a serious entry. Without wanting to be too detailed, we've tried this and it pretty much works as described, though as Calieber notes this may not be true for everyone. I will work n this article as I note a few things that are worth adjusting - the image is incorrect (it really doesn't matche the description) and the description itself is far too functional to be of any interest or use. It reads like a car manual. Kouros 12:18, 28 August 2006 (UTC)

 * I heard of this position way before 2000. But the article credits Cosmo with coming up with it.MrBlondNYC 22:09, 16 April 2006 (UTC)

 * I think the Cosmo article that this article references needs to be tracked down or the reference should be removed. We don't even know what year it was published. --Beefyt 05:13, 18 June 2006 (UTC)

Far fetch
NPOV -- it can't be stimulating to every girl, or inevitably give massive orgasms. --Calieber 03:12, 28 Sep 2003 (UTC)

Yes and no. It does physically directly stimulate the clitoris. Whether or not the woman enjoys direct clitoral stimulation or if this will generate massive orgasms is certainly an individual thing. Olias7 (talk) 17:18, 30 June 2009 (UTC)

Subset of missionary
So CAT is basically one kind of missionary position right? I was wondering whether to include it as a variant at missionary position. It certainly looks like missionary. Sarsaparilla (talk) 14:16, 10 January 2008 (UTC)

It doesn't necessarily have to be the missionary position. There seems to be some confusion as to this technique, perhaps revolving around the entry stating that the clitoris is stimulated by the "base of the penis". Obviously if the male is penetrating, then no part of the penis is physically able to contact the clitoris. Basically to do this technique, the male penetrates to the point where his mons pubis area is snugly against the female's clitoris, then both partners move their pelvises while maintaing that contact, rather than having these areas separate in the more usual "in-out" sort of penetration. The legs don't need to be relatively straight as mentioned above, and to specifically refer to the positions in the "List of sexual positions" entry, this could be done in the "missionary", "cowgirl" or "lotus" positions. Olias7 (talk) 17:14, 30 June 2009 (UTC)

Reverse CAT
Flyer22 thanks for your question and for picking me up. I'm happy to concede Eichel defined CAT (I think it said devised previously). CAT can be reversed so the woman is on top, sources 1, 2, 3, 4 and the book Sex: Reference to Go: Playful Positions to Spice Up Your Love Life By Dawn Harper  Flat Out  let's discuss it  03:15, 6 August 2014 (UTC)

 * Regarding my statement here, thanks for this and this. I've heard of the reverse coital alignment technique, but hardly is it cited as the coital alignment technique. So, per WP:Due weight, it's helpful that you changed the text to use the word primarily so that it reads as "used primarily as variant of the missionary position." I don't think that the sites you provided above count as WP:Reliable sources, but the Dawn Harper book you cited is good enough. And, yes, the reference regarding Eichel states "devised" (well, it's meant to state that; it instead states "dervised," a typo), but devised can mean "invent." Flyer22 (talk) 04:22, 6 August 2014 (UTC)

Assessment comment
Substituted at 12:00, 29 April 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Coital alignment technique


text:
Talk:National Diet

Grapics doesn't match description.
The grapics of both houses doesnt match their descriptions each. Can somebody look into that who knows the current situation of both houses. Thanks. G Utopia (talk) 14:50, 3 September 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:National Diet


text:
South Cariboo Regional Airport

South Cariboo Regional Airport or 108 Mile Ranch Airport is a registered aerodrome located 5.3 NM northwest of 108 Mile Ranch, British Columbia, Canada.

The airport is the regional aerodrome for the South Cariboo Regional District, handling over 2,000 movements a year. It provides facilities for commercial passenger service, MEDEVAC, flight training and corporate traffic.

Facilities and aircraft
South Cariboo Regional Airport contains one asphalt paved runway:

 * Runway 15/33 measuring 5293 x

In 2011, the airport had a total of 963 plane arrivals and departures; 72 of these were medevacs.

The airport is located within walking distance of two resorts and an 18-hole PGA golf course.

Events
Each year, the airport hosts Airport Day. This event was created for locals to enjoy aviation activities and learn more about the aviation industry and, in particular, the airport as a valuable south Cariboo asset.

title: South Cariboo Regional Airport


text:
Flat-coated Retriever

The Flat-coated Retriever is a gun dog breed originating from England. It was developed as a retriever both on land and in the water.

Appearance
The Flat-Coated Retriever breed standard calls for males to be 23 - 25 in tall at the withers, with a recommended weight of 60–80 lb (27–36 kg), and for females to be 22 - 24 in, with a recommended weight of 55–75 lb (25–34 kg). The Flat-Coated Retriever has strong muscular jaws and a relatively long muzzle. Its head is unique to the breed and is described as being "of one piece" with a minimal stop and a backskull of about the same length as the muzzle. It has almond-shaped, dark brown eyes with an intelligent, friendly expression. The ears are pendant, relatively small, and lie close to the head. The occiput (the bone at the back of the skull) is not to be accentuated (as it is in setters, for example) with the head flowing smoothly into a well-arched neck. The topline is strong and straight with a well-feathered tail of moderate length held straight off the back. This breed should be well angulated front and rear, allowing for open, effortless movement. The Flat-Coated Retriever comes in three colors – black (most common), liver, and yellow. Although yellow is a disqualifier in conformation, they can compete in other venues.

Temperament
While they will protect their owners and property with an assertive bark, they are unlikely to back up such noise with actual aggression. Because of their excellent sense of smell, combined with their boundless energy and eagerness to please their masters, they are sometimes used as drug-sniffer dogs. They are used in the breeding program for The Guide Dogs for the Blind Association in the UK, both as a breed and as cross-breeds with the Labrador Retriever.

Paddy Petch, author of The Complete Flat-Coated Retriever, refers to these dogs as the "Peter Pan" of the retriever breeds, given they never quite grow up.

History
Originating in the mid-19th century in England, the Flat-Coated Retriever gained popularity as a gamekeeper’s dog. Part of its ancestry is thought to have come from stock imported from North America from the now extinct St. John's water dog, but this is unverified. Canadian seafarers are thought to have brought Newfoundlands to British ports, and they factored into the ancestry of the Flat-Coated Retriever. Collie-type dogs may have been added to increase the breed's trainability along with the Newfoundland for strength and Setter blood for enhanced scenting ability. The first examples of the breed were introduced around 1860, but the final type was only established 20 years later.

After its introduction into the U.S., the Flat-Coated Retriever began to quickly gain in popularity as a gun dog, and from 1873 when the breed became a "stable type" according to the American Kennel Club until 1915 when it was officially recognised as a breed, their number grew rapidly. However, soon after, their popularity began to decrease, eclipsed by the Golden Retriever, which was actually bred in part from the Flat-Coated Retriever, along with other breeds. By the end of World War II, so few Flat-Coated Retrievers remained, the breed's survival was uncertain. However, beginning in the 1960s, careful breeding brought the population back and the breed gained in popularity again, for both the sport of conformation showing, and as a companion pet. Today, the Flat-Coated Retriever enjoys a modest popularity and is moving ahead as a breed through attentive breeding for the conformation, health, multipurpose talent, and exceptional temperament that are its hallmarks. It has yet to return in substantial numbers to field competition.

In 2011, 'Sh Ch. Vbos The Kentuckian' (aka Jet), a 9.5-year-old Flat-Coated Retriever from South Queensferry, near Edinburgh, Scotland, won Best in Show at Crufts. Almanza Far and Flyg (a.k.a. Simon), from Oslo, Norway, won the Gundog Group at Crufts in 2007. Before that in 2003, a Swedish dog 'Inkwells Named Shadow' had also won the Gundog Group. The last UK dog to win the Gundog Group at Crufts was "Sh Ch Gayplume Dream-maker" in 2002. In 2022 Crufts, Baxer ‘Ch. Almanza Backseat Driver’, a 6-year-old liver flat-coated retriever from Oslo Norway, won the Best in Show. The previous other Flat-Coated Retriever to win Best in Show at Crufts was 'Ch. Shargleam Blackcap' in 1980. These wins have contributed to the breed's popularity in Europe and the United Kingdom.

Health
A 2024 UK study found a life expectancy of 11.7 years for the breed compared to an average of 12.7 for purebreeds and 12 for crossbreeds.

The most common types of tumours in the Flat-coated Retriever are cutaneous histiocytomas and soft-tissue sarcomas. A health survey of purebred dogs in the UK from 2004 showed approximately 50% of Flat-Coated Retrievers death were due to some form of cancer.

title: Flat-coated Retriever


text:
Konkordiaplatz

The Konkordiaplatz or Concordia Place (French: Place de la Concorde), is a flat area of snow and ice lying just to the south of the Jungfrau in the Bernese Alps in the Swiss canton of Valais. It is the junction of four large glaciers coming down from the Aletschfirn, the Jungfraufirn, the Ewigschneefäld and the Grüneggfirn. The main Aletsch Glacier originates from Konkordiaplatz. The Konkordiaplatz Charter was signed by the municipalities located in the Jungfrau-Aletsch Protected Area UNESCO World Heritage site, vowing to retain the aesthetic beauty of the region.

Naming
Concordia is the Latin word for harmony, literally "with (one) heart". It was the name of the Roman goddess of agreement, understanding, and marital harmony. British mountaineer John Frederick Hardy dubbed the location at the convergence of the several glaciers Place de la Concorde of Nature.

The name Concordia was then given to other places where two or more glaciers meet, or large glaciated areas, such as Concordia in the Karakoram, and Concordia Station in Antarctica.

Geography
Konkordiaplatz is located at an altitude between 2,700 and 2,800 metres, covering an area of approximately 2 km2. The depth of snow and ice is more than 900 metres. It is surrounded by the Dreieckhorn (south), the Fiescher Gabelhorn (east), the Grünhorn (north-east) and the Kranzberg (subpeak of the Jungfrau) and Trugberg (north).

The area is uninhabited but the Konkordia Hut lies above the glacier, on the western slope of Gross Wannenhorn.

title: Konkordiaplatz


text:
Slate (disambiguation)

Slate is a type of rock, often used for roofing.

Slate may also refer to:

Places

 * Slate, Virginia, an unincorporated community in the United States
 * Slate, West Virginia, an unincorporated community in the United States
 * Slate Run, a tributary of Pine Creek in Pennsylvania

People

 * Slate (surname)

Arts, entertainment, and media

 * Slate (magazine), an online publication
 * "Slate", a song by Uncle Tupelo from the album Anodyne
 * Slates (EP), an EP by The Fall

Government and politics

 * Slate (elections), a group of candidates in a multi-seat or multi-position election
 * SLATE (1958–1966), a campus political party at the University of California, Berkeley

Electronics and internet

 * HP Slate 500, a Windows 7 tablet computer manufactured by Hewlett-Packard
 * Slate PC, a Microsoft Tablet PC running Windows 7
 * Slate phone, a smartphone form factor
 * Slate tablet, a tablet computer form factor
 * SLATES, the business impacting capabilities of Web 2.0
 * Pixel Slate, a Google tablet computer

Other technologies

 * Slate (writing), a board for writing on
 * Slate board (clapperboard), a device used during film production
 * Slate (broadcasting), a title card listing important metadata of a television program
 * Slate and stylus, tools used by blind persons to write and read

Other uses

 * Slate (typeface), a neo-grotesque typeface
 * Slate gray, a color
 * Slate turkey, a breed of domestic fowl

title: Slate (disambiguation)


text:
Emirate

An emirate is a territory ruled by an emir, a title used by monarchs or high officeholders in the Muslim world. From a historical point of view, an emirate is a political-religious unit smaller than a caliphate. It can be considered equivalent to a principality in non-Muslim contexts.

Currently in the world, there are two emirates that are independent states (Kuwait and Qatar), one state ruled by an unrecognised emirate (Afghanistan), and a state that consists of a federation of seven emirates (the United Arab Emirates). A great number of previously independent emirates around the world are now part of larger states, as can be seen in Nigeria.

Etymology
Etymologically, emirate or amirate (إمارة imārah, plural: إمارات imārāt ) is the quality, dignity, office, or territorial competence of any emir (prince, commander, governor, etc.). In English, the term is pronounced or  in British English and  or  in American English.

Monarchies
The United Arab Emirates is a federal state that comprises seven federal emirates, each administered by a hereditary emir, these seven forming the electoral college for the federation's president and prime minister.

As most emirates have either disappeared, been integrated in a larger modern state, or changed their rulers' styles, e.g. to malik (Arabic for "king") or sultan, such true emirate-states have become rare.

Provinces
Furthermore, in Arabic the term can be generalized to mean any province of a country that is administered by a member of the ruling class, especially of a member (usually styled emir) of the royal family, as in Saudi Arabian governorates.

List of present emirates
Current emirates with political autonomy are listed below:

Arabian Peninsula

 * 🇰🇼 Kuwait (since 14 May 1961)
 * 🇶🇦 Qatar (since 3 December 1971)
 * (since 2 December 1971):
 * Abu Dhabi
 * Ajman
 * Dubai
 * Fujairah
 * Ras al-Khaimah
 * Sharjah
 * Umm al-Quwain

Central Asia

 * Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (since 15 August 2021; unrecognized)

List of former and integrated emirates
These are the emirates that have either ceased to exist, are not recognized and hold no real power, or were integrated into another country and preserved as "traditional states". They are arranged by location and in order of the date of the first leader styled "emir."

North Africa

 * Emirate of Nekor, Rif region of modern Morocco 710–1019
 * Emirate of Ifriqiya, Aghlabid Ifriqiya within modern Tunisia, Algeria, Sicily, Morocco, and Libya 800–909
 * Emirate of Tunis, Hafsid Ifriqiya within modern Tunisia, Algeria, and Libya 1229–1574
 * Zab Emirate, modern Algeria circa 1400 (short-lived)
 * Emirate of Trarza, modern southwest Mauritania 1640s–1910s
 * Emirate of Cyrenaica, modern eastern Libya 1949–1951 (became the Kingdom of Libya)

Ethiopia

 * Emirate of Harar, eastern Ethiopia 1647–1887

Ghana

 * Zabarma Emirate, northeastern Ghana 1860s–1897

Niger

 * Emirate of Say, southwestern Niger 19th century– (integrated)

Nigeria

 * Fika Emirate, northeastern Nigeria 15th century– (integrated)
 * Gwandu Emirate, northwestern Nigeria 15th century to 2005 (integrated and then deposed)
 * Kebbi Emirate, northwestern Nigeria 1516– (integrated)
 * Borgu Emirate, westcentral Nigeria, formed from Bussa Emirate 1730–1954 and Kaiama Emirate 1912–54, unified 1954– (integrated)
 * Gumel Emirate, northcentral Nigeria 1749– (integrated)
 * Yauri Emirate, northwestern Nigeria 1799– (integrated)
 * Gombe Emirate, northeast Nigeria 1804– (integrated)
 * Kano Emirate, northcentral Nigeria 1805– (integrated)
 * Bauchi Emirate, northeast Nigeria 1805– (integrated)
 * Daura Emirate, northcentral Nigeria off and on 1805– (integrated)
 * Katsina Emirate, northcentral Nigeria 1806– (integrated)
 * Katagum Emirate, northcentral Nigeria 1807– (integrated)
 * Zaria Emirate, northcentral Nigeria 1808– (integrated)
 * Potiskum Emirate, northeastern Nigeria 1809– (integrated)
 * Adamawa Emirate, eastern Nigeria and formerly into western Cameroon 1809– (integrated where preserved)
 * Ilorin Emirate, southwestern Nigeria 1817– (integrated)
 * Muri Emirate, eastcentral Nigeria 1817– (integrated)
 * Kazaure Emirate, northcentral Nigeria 1819– (integrated)
 * Lapai Emirate, central Nigeria 1825– (integrated)
 * Suleja Emirate, central Nigeria 1828– (integrated)
 * Agaie Emirate, westcentral Nigeria 1832– (integrated)
 * Bida Emirate, westcentral Nigeria 1856– (integrated)
 * Kontagora Emirate, northcentral Nigeria 1858– (integrated)
 * Borno Emirate, northeastern Nigeria 1900– (integrated)
 * Dikwa Emirate, northeast Nigeria 1901– (integrated)
 * Biu Emirate, northeast Nigeria 1920– (integrated)

Arabia

 * Emirate of Mecca, Western Arabia 967–1916
 * Uyunid Emirate, the modern Arabian Peninsula 1076–1253
 * Jabrids Emirate, Eastern and center Arabia 1417–1524
 * Emirate of Al-Uyaynah central Arabia 1446–1760
 * Bani Khalid Emirate, Eastern Arabia 1669–1796
 * Emirate of Beihan, modern southern Yemen 1680–1967
 * Emirate of Diriyah, mainly in modern Saudi Arabia and the UAE 1727–1818
 * Emirate of Nejd, center and eastern Arabia 1818–91
 * Emirate of Dhala, modern southern Yemen early 19th century to 1967
 * Emirate of Jabal Shammar, northcentral Arabia 1836–1921
 * Emirate of Nejd and Hasa, central Arabia 1902–21
 * Idrisid Emirate of Asir, Jizan in modern southwestern Saudi Arabia 1906–34
 * Emirate of Bahrain, 1971–2002 (before it was under a hakim; after under a malik)
 * Emirates of Saudi Arabia, the thirteen provinces of Saudi Arabia

Central Asia

 * Emirate of Bukhara, modern Uzbekistan 1785–1920
 * Khotan Emirate, 1933 northwest China, merged into First East Turkestan Republic

South Asia

 * Emirate of Afghanistan, Afghanistan 1823–1929
 * Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (1996–2001), first period of Taliban rule in Afghanistan (overthrown)
 * Islamic Emirate of Kunar, southern Afghanistan 1991–1991
 * Emirate of Multan
 * Habbarid Emirate

Near East

 * Emirate of Mosul (see list of emirs for more), modern Iraq 905–1096, 1127–1222, 1254–1383, 1758–1918
 * Emirate of Melitene, modern central Turkey mid-ninth century to 934
 * Emirate of Amida, modern Eastern Turkey 983–1085
 * Karaman Emirate, south-central Anatolia 1250–1487
 * Emirate of Aydin, state composed of Oghuz Turks in modern Turkey from the early 14th century to 1390
 * Emirate of Dulkadir, modern Turkey 1337–1522
 * Emirate of Erzincan, 14–15th centuries
 * Emirate of Ramazan, modern Turkey 1352–1608
 * Emirate of Mount Lebanon, modern Lebanon 1516–1842
 * Timurid Emirates, Timur's empire and the minor emirates left behind after the fall of the Timurid dynasty in the Middle East, 1526-c.1550
 * Soran Emirate, modern northern Iraq 1816–35
 * Az Zubayr, town in Basra Governorate, Iraq during 16th century
 * Emirate of Transjordan, modern Jordan 1921–46
 * Islamic Emirate of Byara, modern Kurdistan Region, Iraq, 2001–2003

Caucasus

 * The Emirate of Armenia, Caucasus 637–884
 * Emirate of Darband, Dagestan 869–1075
 * Emirate of Tbilisi, modern Georgia 736–1080, nominally to 1122
 * North Caucasian Emirate, Chechnya and Dagestan in the Caucasus 1919–1920
 * Caucasus Emirate, Caucasus 2007–2017 (unrecognized)

Iberia

 * Emirate of Córdoba, modern Spain and Portugal 756–929 (title changed to caliph in 929)
 * Emirate of Badajoz, modern Portugal and western Spain 1009–1151
 * Emirate of Almería, region of Almería and Cartagena in modern Spain off and on 1013–1091
 * Emirate of Jerez, towns of Jerez de la Frontera and Arcos de la Frontera in modern southern Spain 1145–1147
 * Emirate of Granada, modern southern Spain 1228–1492

Mediterranean region

 * Emirate of Crete, Crete, modern Greece, 824 or 827/828 to 961
 * Emirate of Bari, city of Bari in southern Italy 847–871
 * Emirate of Malta, 870–1091
 * Emirate of Sicily, Sicily 965–1072
 * Emirate of Qatansáar,city of Catanzaro in southern Italy 903-1050

title: Emirate


text:
Tornado warning

A tornado warning (SAME code: TOR) is a public warning that is issued by weather forecasting agencies to an area in the direct path of a tornado, or a severe thunderstorm capable of producing one, and advises individuals in that area to take cover. Modern weather surveillance technology such as Doppler weather radar can detect rotation in a thunderstorm, allowing for early warning before a tornado develops. They are also commonly issued based on reported visual sighting of a tornado, funnel cloud, or wall cloud, typically from weather spotters or the public, but also law enforcement or local emergency management. When radar is unavailable or insufficient, such ground truth is crucial. In particular, a tornado can develop in a gap of radar coverage, of which there are several known in the United States.

A warning should not be confused with a tornado watch, issued in the United States by the Storm Prediction Center (SPC) and in other countries by applicable regional forecasting agencies or national severe weather guidance centers, which only indicates that conditions are favorable for the formation of tornadoes. Although a tornado warning is generally a higher alert level than a tornado watch, in the U.S., it can be surpassed by a higher-level alert—structured as wording that can be added to the official warning product—to warn the public of intense tornadoes affecting a densely populated area.

A tornado watch is not required for a warning to be issued; tornado warnings are occasionally issued when a tornado watch is not active (i.e. when a severe thunderstorm watch is active, or when no watches are in effect), if a severe thunderstorm develops and has a confirmed tornado or strong rotation.

Early history
In April 1899, the Chicago Tribune wrote to the United States Weather Bureau via a news article posing the question on why tornado warnings are not sent out via telegraphs or even the telephone to warn the local population in the path. Cleveland Abbe responded by saying "it is certain that if any such arrangement were possible, the Weather Bureau would have done this many years ago" along with "we must remember that the destructive areas of tornadoes, and even of thunderstorms, are so small that the chance of being injured is exceedingly slight" and that "we do not attempt to prevent that which is inevitable".

The first official tornado forecast—and tornado warning—was made by United States Air Force Capt. (later Col.) Robert C. Miller and Major Ernest Fawbush, on March 25, 1948. The first such forecast came after the events that occurred five days earlier on March 20, 1948; Miller – a California native who became stationed at Tinker Air Force Base three weeks earlier – was assigned to work the late shift as a forecaster for the base's Air Weather Service office that evening, analyzing U.S. Weather Bureau surface maps and upper-air charts that failed to note atmospheric instability and moisture content present over Oklahoma that would be suitable for producing thunderstorm activity, erroneously forecasting dry conditions for that night. Thunderstorms soon developed southwest of Oklahoma City, and at 9:30 p.m., forecasters from Will Rogers Airport sent a warning to Tinker that the storm encroaching the city was producing wind gusts of 92 mph and a "Tornado South on Ground Moving NE!" Base personnel received an alert written by the staff sergeant on duty with Miller, minutes before the twister struck Tinker several minutes later around 10:00 p.m., damaging several military aircraft (with total damage estimated at $10 million) that could not be secured in time before it crossed the base grounds.

Following an inquiry the next day before a tribunal of five generals who traveled to Tinker from Washington, D.C., who ruled that the March 20 tornado was an "act of God ... not forecastable given the present state of the art", base commander Gen. Fred Borum tasked Miller and Fawbush to follow up on the board's suggestion to consider methods of forecasting tornadic thunderstorms. Over the next three days, Miller and Fawbush studied reports and charts from previous tornado events to determine the atmospheric conditions favorable for the development of tornadic activity, in an effort to predict such events with some degree of accuracy. At the time, there had not been studies on how tornadoes formed; however, military radars were being adapted for forecasting use, allowing forecasters to see the outlines of storms but not their internal attributes such as rotation. Miller and Fawbush's findings on atmospheric phenomenon present in past outbreaks would aid in their initial forecast, as the day's surface and upper-air analysis charts determined the same conditions present on March 20 were present on the 25th, concluded that central Oklahoma would have the highest risk for tornadoes during the late-afternoon and evening.

Borum, who had put together a severe weather safety plan for base personnel, then suggested that Miller and Fawbush issue a severe thunderstorm forecast, and then asked the men if they would issue a tornado forecast based on the similarities between the conditions that produced the tornado which hit the base five days earlier, which they were reluctant to do. Fawbush wrote the forecast message that Miller would type and issued it to base operations at 2:50 p.m. as thunderstorms were approaching from North Texas. Defying the high odds against two tornadoes hitting the same area in five days, one hit the Tinker campus around 6:00 p.m., to the surprise of Miller (who left the base an hour earlier, believing their forecast would not pan out), who found out about the storm (produced by two thunderstorms that merged to the southwest of Tinker) via a radio report. Miller and Fawbush would not put out another tornado forecast until March 25, 1949, when they successfully predicted tornadic activity would occur in southeastern Oklahoma.

Miller and Fawbush soon would distribute their tornado forecasts to the American Red Cross and Oklahoma Highway Patrol, after giving William Maughan, chief meteorologist at the U.S. Weather Bureau's Oklahoma City office (who provided them with additional archived weather data to help fine-tune their forecasts), permission to relay their forecasts to those agencies. The relative accuracy of the forecasts restarted a debate over their reliability and whether military or civilian agencies should have jurisdiction over the issuance of weather warnings. The USAF had pioneered tornado forecasting and tornado warnings, although John P. Finley had developed the first experimental tornado forecasts in 1885. Two years later, he and other officials with the agency were prohibited by the United States Signal Service's weather service from using the word "tornado" in forecasts. They were instead directed to refer to "severe local storms". This position on tornado forecasting would be shared by the U.S. Weather Bureau after its formation in 1890, fearing that tornado forecasts were insufficiently reliable and that such warnings would incite panic among the public. The side effect of this policy was that the lack of warning resulted in a steady increase in the number of tornado-related fatalities through the 1950s, with some events prior to 1948 (such as the deadliest tornado in U.S. history, the Tri-State Tornado in March 1925, and the Glazier–Higgins–Woodward tornadoes in April 1947) having death tolls well over 100.

In 1938, the Weather Bureau rescinded its ban on the usage of the word "tornado" in weather products disseminated to emergency management personnel. The Bureau would develop a network of volunteer storm spotters in the early 1940s during World War II, to provide warning of tornadoes to workers in munitions plants and strategic factories. The ban on issuing tornado warnings to the general public would not be revoked until Chief of Bureau Francis W. Reichelderfer officially lifted the ban in a Circular Letter issued on July 12, 1950, to all first order stations: "Weather Bureau employees should avoid statements that can be interpreted as a negation of the Bureau's willingness or ability to make tornado forecasts", and that a "good probability of verification" exist when issuing such forecasts due to the difficulty in accurately predicting tornadic activity. The American Meteorological Society agreed to have Miller and Fawbush present their methodology for forecasting tornadoes during the organization's 1950 meeting in St. Louis; after garnering press coverage for their successful prediction of past tornadoes, AMS representatives decided to open the presentation to the public.

The Air Force began issuing severe weather forecasts relayed to Weather Bureau offices and emergency personnel in tornado-prone regions through the formation of the Severe Weather Warning Center in 1951, before the Bureau's contention that the USAF intruded on its responsibility to relay such forecasts led to the SWWC limiting the release of its tornado forecasts to military personnel; however, the move to prohibit the USAF from widespread releasing of tornado forecasts led to disapproval and heavy criticism from Oklahoma media outlets, given the agency's continued refusal to provide public tornado warnings. The Weather Bureau issued its first experimental public tornado forecast in March 1952, which proved inaccurate and was released too late to become widely available for public consumption; however, a forecast issued the following evening managed to predict an outbreak of tornadoes across most of the warned seven-state area (from Texas to Indiana).

Even after the U.S. Weather Bureau lifted their ban on tornado warnings, the Federal Communications Commission continued to ban television and radio outlets from broadcasting tornado warnings on-air for the same reasoning cited in the Bureau's abolished ban. Broadcast media followed this ban until 1954, when meteorologist Harry Volkman broadcast the first televised tornado warning over WKY-TV (now KFOR-TV) in Oklahoma City, due to his belief that the banning of tornado warnings over broadcast media cost lives. Through an alert issued by the USAF Severe Weather Warning Center, Volkman opted to interrupt regular programming to warn viewers of a reported tornado approaching the Oklahoma City area; although station management and U.S. Weather Bureau officials were displeased with his move, WKY-TV received numerous telephone calls and letters thanking Volkman for the warning.

Definition
A tornado warning is issued when any of the following conditions has occurred:
 * a tornado is reported on the ground, or
 * a funnel cloud has been reported, or
 * strong low-level rotation is indicated by weather radar, or
 * a waterspout is headed for landfall.

A tornado warning means there is immediate danger for the warned area and immediate surrounding locations from the severe thunderstorm producing (or likely to produce) a tornado, if not from the relatively narrow tornado itself. Persons in the path of a warned storm are urged to immediately seek shelter in a basement, cellar, safe room or a sturdy above-ground room in the center section of a home or building (such as a bathroom or closet). In addition to the likelihood of a tornado, generally (but not always), a tornado warning also indicates that the parent severe thunderstorm has the likelihood of producing straight-line winds and/or large hail exceeding regional severe criterion as well as intense lightning, heavy rainfall and/or, through associated rain accumulations, flash flooding. (The classifiable criteria for a severe thunderstorm vary by country; e.g., in the United States, a thunderstorm is considered severe if it produces winds exceeding 58 mph and/or hailstones larger than 1 in in diameter.) A tornado warning therefore implies that it is also a severe thunderstorm warning. Conversely, a severe thunderstorm warning, either in its entirety or sectionally, can be replaced by a tornado warning if a storm exhibits credible characteristics of tornadogenesis from radar and ground observations.

Tornado warnings are issued by weather forecasting agencies based on mesocyclone and debris signatures identifiable on Doppler weather radar, and/or ground truth from storm spotters of signs of tornadogenesis (including wall clouds, funnel clouds and low-level mesocyclonic rotation) and of observed tornadoes. Skywarn, a U.S.-based international spotter program that provides training to citizens on how to spot severe weather phenomena, is offered by forecasting agencies in several countries including the National Weather Service (NWS) in the United States. Used in tandem with Doppler weather radar information, eyewitness reports can be very helpful for warning the public of an impending tornado, especially when used for ground truthing. Other spotter groups such as the Amateur Radio Emergency Service, news media, local law enforcement agencies, emergency management organizations, cooperative observers; members of the general public also relay information to forecasting agencies for ground truthing.

When a warning is issued, people in the storm's path are advised to use local broadcast media, weather radio, weather app alert notifications and/or SMS notifications to receive warnings and updated storm information. In some tornado-prone regions, tornado sirens, if present, are usually activated within the specified warning region or an entire municipality—varying in coverage based on if a local siren network maintains a sector-organized relay structure—to inform people that a tornado has been sighted or may be forming nearby. Because sirens are generally difficult to hear indoors, residents are advised against completely depending on them as a method of receiving warnings. Local police or fire departments may dispatch crews not assigned to an existing emergency call to travel within a designated area to warn residents to take tornado safety precautions if sirens are disabled due to technical problems or are not present, while automated phone calls may be made to residents for the same purpose in some areas should such disruptions occur.

Advances in technology, both in identifying conditions and in distributing warnings effectively, have been credited with reducing the death toll from tornadoes. The average warning times have increased substantially from -10 to -15 minutes in 1974 to about 15 minutes (in some cases, the lead time can extend to more than an hour's warning of impending tornadoes). In the United States, the tornado death rate has declined from 1.8 deaths per million people per year in 1925 to only 0.11 per million in 2000. Much of this change is credited to improvements in the tornado warning system, via the various advances in the detection of severe local storms, along with an increase in reports visually confirming severe weather activity via storm spotters, public officials and citizens.

United States
In the United States, tornado warnings are issued by local Weather Forecast Offices of the National Weather Service, which, in conjunction with the Storm Prediction Center, maintains a multi-tier public warning system to disseminate probabilistic outlooks and alerts for tornadoes:
 * 1) Convective Outlook (categorical and probabilistic forecasts issued at least twice per day to describe threats of general or severe convective storms; severe thunderstorm outlooks for the Day 1 and Day 2 periods include charts and maps assessing tornado probabilities)
 * 2) Public Severe Weather Outlook (issued when a significant or widespread severe thunderstorm/tornado outbreak is expected or, particularly from November to March, when strong tornadoes are forecast to occur after nightfall)
 * 3) Tornado Watch
 * 4) PDS Tornado Watch (upgraded wording indicating the likelihood of a significant tornado outbreak and/or a credible threat of strong to violent tornadoes within the watch area)
 * 5) Tornado Warning
 * 6) PDS Tornado Warning
 * 7) Tornado Emergency

Local NWS forecast offices utilize WarnGen software integrated into the Advance Weather Interactive Processing System (AWIPS) to generate the warning statement, which is disseminated through various communication routes accessed by the media and various agencies, on the internet, to NOAA satellites, and over NOAA Weather Radio; additionally, the National Weather Service has the option of requesting activation of the Emergency Alert System (EAS) to interrupt television and radio broadcasts to get the bulletin out quickly. Warnings for tornadoes and severe thunderstorms are outlined in polygonal shapes for map-based weather hazard products distributed to the main agency, individual forecast office websites and the Storm Prediction Center (including open-source APIs available for free use to public weather websites and mobile apps), based on the storm's projected path as determined by Doppler radar at the time of the warning's issuance. In NWS text products, warnings are usually illustrated by individual counties, parishes or other county-equivalent jurisdictions (sections or the entirety thereof, and in list format if it covers more than one jurisdiction), particularly dependent on the jurisdiction's total land area. Prior to October 2007, warnings were issued by the National Weather Service on a per-county basis. SPC and NWS products as well as severe weather alert displays used by some television stations, and desktop and mobile radar software typically highlight tornado warnings with a red or purple polygon or filled county/parish/equivalent jurisdiction outline. (Since the late 2010s, Baron Services broadcast radar software and some public commercial radar software, such as GRLevelX, have used custom polygon coloring to denote tornado warnings based on impact level: usually, purple to indicate warnings for a confirmed tornado and inlined black-on-purple to indicate tornado emergencies.)

The NWS has the option of adding intensified wording to tornado warning products and update statements issued as a Severe Weather Statement (SVS)—"particularly dangerous situation" (PDS) or "tornado emergency"—when a severe threat to human life and considerable or catastrophic property damage from a visually observed or radar-detected large tornado is imminent or ongoing. Tornado emergencies and PDS tornado warnings—which, when warranted, are usually issued when a large tornado is expected to impact a populated area—typically include action statements indicating that the tornado is extremely dangerous and life-threatening, and capable of significant if not total property destruction and severe injury or death from the intense winds and projectile debris; tornado warnings that have the "tornado emergency" wording typically incorporate a combination of the emergency and PDS phrasing above the text's basis (or "hazard") statement.

In March 2012, as part of its implementation of a multi-tier Impact Based Warning (IBW) system to notify the public and emergency management officials of the severity of specific severe weather phenomena, the NWS Weather Forecast Offices in Wichita and Topeka, Kansas, and Springfield, St. Louis and Kansas City/Pleasant Hill, Missouri, began incorporating categorical tornado and damage threat indicators for visually confirmed and radar-indicated tornadoes that appear at the bottom of the text products for tornado warnings and associated Severe Weather Statements providing updated storm information. The categorical criteria—which are applicable to all NWS Weather Forecast Offices, primarily those operating within the agency's Central and Southern Region divisions—were introduced to further communicate to the public and prevent complacency of the threat of tornadoes. The NWS expanded the threat and damage indicators to 33 additional Central Region WFOs in March 2013; eight additional offices operating within the Eastern, Southern and Western Region divisions began using the IBW indicators in March 2014. The entire agency began using the format in 2016; IBW formatting was fully implemented for other individual warning bulletins in July 2021, when all NWS offices incorporated damage threat indicators into severe thunderstorm warnings. The threat indicators consist of four coded taglines, ascending by observational level and damage threat:
 * Radar Indicated – Doppler weather radar indicates the thunderstorm is exhibiting mesocyclonic circulation supportive of tornado formation; generally requires no visual confirmation of a tornado at the time the initial warning or a subsequent severe weather statement is issued. Hazard statements will classify the tornadic rotation as "radar indicated" or "radar-indicated rotation" in the bulletin text when identifying the source of the hazard.
 * Observed – Tornado is visually confirmed by storm spotters, law enforcement or other emergency personnel, or detected on radar in concert with an observed intense velocity couplet and/or debris signature. Hazard statements within the bulletin text will indicate a "damaging tornado."
 * Considerable (originally "Significant" during the 2012 Kansas and Missouri tests) – Typically reserved for PDS tornado warnings, it indicates credible evidence exists (through visual or radar confirmation) that a tornado capable of producing considerable damage is imminent or ongoing. As with warnings containing the "observed" tag, bulletins with this indicator will classify a "damaging tornado" in the hazard statement.
 * Catastrophic – Generally reserved for warnings containing Tornado Emergency wording, it indicates reliable sources have confirmed a violent tornado posing a severe threat to human life and catastrophic property damage is occurring. In most instances, bulletins with this indicator will classify a "deadly tornado" in the hazard statement.

In April 2023, U.S. Sen. Roger Wicker (R–MS) introduced the Tornado Observation Research Notification and Deployment to Operations (TORNADO) Act, The bill would establish a Hazard Risk Communication Office to propose improvements in the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)’s methods for predicting severe weather events and communicating weather alerts to the public—requiring NOAA to coordinate with government and emergency management to optimize collection and sharing of storm survey data, implement high-resolution probabilistic tornado forecast guidance systems, and make recommendations for revisions to the Enhanced Fujita Scale.

Canada
In Canada, Environment and Climate Change Canada issues tornado warnings through regional Meteorological Service offices based in Vancouver, Edmonton, Winnipeg, Toronto, Montreal and Dartmouth for specified municipalities and census subdivisions. Although issuance criteria are similar to the U.S. National Weather Service, Meteorological Service-issued tornado warnings can include areas not in the immediate approximate path of the tornadic thunderstorm but are in an environment conducive to tornado development from adjacent thunderstorms during the warning timeframe (similar to but covering a smaller total area than tornado watches issued by the U.S. Storm Prediction Center).

Warnings are disseminated to the public through broadcast and online media outlets, and Weatheradio Canada; depending on storm severity and regional office discretion, the warning may require activation of depending on storm severity and regional office discretion, the warning may require activation of the National Public Alerting System (Alert Ready) (Système national d'alertes à la population [En Alerte]) and feeding provincial alerting systems (such as Alberta Emergency Alert and SaskAlert) to distribute the alert to local broadcast media and cellular phones. Separately, Emergency Management Ontario—upon implementing the system in 2008—issues red alerts for sections of the province under an Environment Canada-issued tornado warning, and can sometimes override the tornado warning if local government or media outlets participate in the program.

Australia
In Australia, tornado warnings are issued by regional offices of the Bureau of Meteorology (BOM) based in Melbourne Docklands, Adelaide, Darwin, Perth and Brisbane. BOM-issued tornado warnings are outlined as either a broad-based warning, covering expected impacts within a weather reporting area, or as a detailed warning, when a thunderstorm is within weather-watch radar range and includes a map depicting any existing thunderstorms and the forecast direction of movement for up to 60 minutes. Warnings are disseminated to the public through terrestrial and online media outlets, and through activation of Emergency Alert Australia to distribute the alert to local broadcast media (led by the Standard Emergency Warning Signal tone), SMS messaging and automated landline phone calls.

Tornado Alert sirens and Fire Tornado Alert sirens part of the Emergency Alert Australia plan, HHEM His Highness Emergency Management plan, Emergency Management Australia plan, HH government plan and the Australian Government plan.

Tornado alert
For many years until the early 1980s, an intermediate type of tornado advisory known as a tornado alert was defined by the National Weather Service and issued by the agency's local forecast offices, indicating that tornado formation was imminent. In theory, tornado alerts covered situations such as visible rotation in clouds and certain other phenomena which are portents of funnel cloud formation. The National Weather Service's use of this advisory began to decline after 1974, although it was still listed on public information materials issued by various media outlets, local NWS offices and other entities for another decade or so.

The criteria which called for tornado alerts in the past now generally result in a tornado warning with clarifying verbiage specifying that the warning was issued because rotation was detected in one way or another, that a wall cloud has formed or a tornado has been spotted or detected. The preferred response to both the tornado alerts and warnings is to take shelter immediately, so distinguishing them could be seen as splitting hairs, especially since storm prediction methods have improved.

The tornado alert was finally eliminated outright because it was made largely obsolete by the advent of Doppler weather radar, which can detect rotational funnel cloud formations earlier than is typically possible by trained spotters and members of the public. With fewer false-positives, radar also helped reduce public confusion over storm types, strengths and precise locations. The last tornado alert to be officially issued was discussed in earnest following the 1974 Super Outbreak.

Fire tornado warning
On August 15, 2020, for the first time in history, the National Weather Service issued a tornado warning for pyrocumulonimbus capable of causing a fire tornado for southeastern Lassen County, California, which was being affected by the Loyalton Fire.

Tornado emergency
The National Weather Service has the option of issuing a tornado emergency, a severe weather statement with unofficial, enhanced wording that is disseminated when a large, extremely violent tornado is about to impact a densely populated area. This category of weather statement is the highest and most urgent level relating to tornadoes, albeit an unofficial alert product. The first tornado emergency was declared on May 3, 1999, when an F5 tornado struck southern portions of the Oklahoma City metropolitan area, causing major damage exceeding $1 billion. In some cases, such as an F3 tornado that struck the Indianapolis, Indiana metropolitan area on September 20, 2002, a tornado emergency has been declared within the initial issuance of the tornado warning. Not all confirmed tornadoes will be considered a "tornado emergency", and such statements are commonly declared when it is believed that the tornado is at a severity in which it would cause a significant threat to life and property.

Examples
Below are several examples of a tornado warning issued. The audio files on the right are for Greensburg, Kansas, and upstate South Carolina.

Tornado Warning KSC111-127-197-160300- /O.NEW.KTOP.TO.W.0043.190816T0233Z-190816T0300Z/

BULLETIN - EAS ACTIVATION REQUESTED Tornado Warning National Weather Service Topeka KS 933 PM CDT Thu Aug 15 2019

The National Weather Service in Topeka has issued a

Northeastern Morris County in east central Kansas... Southwestern Wabaunsee County in east central Kansas...  Northwestern Lyon County in east central Kansas...
 * Tornado Warning for...

 * Until 1000 PM CDT.

Vista, moving southeast at 20 mph.
 * At 932 PM CDT, a confirmed tornado was located 7 miles east of Alta

HAZARD...Damaging tornado and golf ball size hail.

SOURCE...Weather spotters confirmed tornado.

IMPACT...Flying debris will be dangerous to those caught without shelter. Mobile homes will be damaged or destroyed. Damage to roofs, windows, and vehicles will occur. Tree damage is likely.

northeastern Morris, southwestern Wabaunsee and northwestern Lyon Counties.
 * This tornadic thunderstorm will remain over mainly rural areas of

PRECAUTIONARY/PREPAREDNESS ACTIONS...

To repeat, a tornado is on the ground. TAKE COVER NOW! Move to a basement or an interior room on the lowest floor of a sturdy building. Avoid windows. If you are outdoors, in a mobile home, or in a vehicle, move to the closest substantial shelter and protect yourself from flying debris.

&&

LAT...LON 3886 9647 3898 9636 3887 9618 3881 9624 3869 9613 3863 9633 TIME...MOT...LOC 0232Z 309DEG 18KT 3882 9635

TORNADO...OBSERVED HAIL...1.75IN

$$

Gargan

also � 712 WFUS53 KGRR 250022 TORGRR MIC081-250045- /O.NEW.KGRR.TO.W.0004.230825T0022Z-230825T0045Z/

BULLETIN - EAS ACTIVATION REQUESTED Tornado Warning National Weather Service Grand Rapids MI 822 PM EDT Thu Aug 24 2023

The National Weather Service in Grand Rapids has issued a

Central Kent County in southwestern Michigan...
 * Tornado Warning for...

 * Until 845 PM EDT.

was located near Grand Rapids, moving southeast at 40 mph.
 * At 821 PM EDT, a severe thunderstorm capable of producing a tornado

HAZARD...Tornado and quarter size hail.

SOURCE...Radar indicated rotation.

IMPACT...Flying debris will be dangerous to those caught without shelter. Mobile homes will be damaged or destroyed. Damage to roofs, windows, and vehicles will occur. Tree damage is likely.

Grand Rapids, Kentwood, East Grand Rapids, and Rockford around 825 PM EDT. Gerald R. Ford International Airport around 830 PM EDT. Lowell around 835 PM EDT.
 * This dangerous storm will be near...

PRECAUTIONARY/PREPAREDNESS ACTIONS...

TAKE COVER NOW! Move to a basement or an interior room on the lowest floor of a sturdy building. Avoid windows. If you are outdoors, in a mobile home, or in a vehicle, move to the closest substantial shelter and protect yourself from flying debris.

&&

LAT...LON 4315 8567 4309 8531 4281 8531 4282 8535 4300 8579 TIME...MOT...LOC 0021Z 299DEG 35KT 4304 8564

TORNADO...RADAR INDICATED MAX HAIL SIZE...1.00 IN

$$

DUKE

227 WFUS51 KRLX 021515 TORRLX WVC007-013-015-019-039-067-087-021545- /O.NEW.KRLX.TO.W.0009.240402T1515Z-240402T1545Z/

BULLETIN - EAS ACTIVATION REQUESTED Tornado Warning National Weather Service Charleston WV 1115 AM EDT Tue Apr 2 2024

The National Weather Service in Charleston West Virginia has issued a

Southeastern Calhoun County in north central West Virginia... Western Nicholas County in southeastern West Virginia...  Northeastern Kanawha County in central West Virginia...  Southwestern Braxton County in north central West Virginia...  Southern Roane County in central West Virginia...  Clay County in north central West Virginia...  Northwestern Fayette County in southeastern West Virginia...
 * Tornado Warning for...

 * Until 1145 AM EDT.

tornadoes and extensive straight line wind damage were located along a line extending from 6 miles east of Kenna to near Coal Fork to 7 miles southwest of Marmet, moving east at 70 mph.
 * At 1115 AM EDT, severe thunderstorms capable of producing both

HAZARD...Tornado.

SOURCE...Radar indicated rotation.

IMPACT...Flying debris will be dangerous to those caught without shelter. Mobile homes will be damaged or destroyed. Damage to roofs, windows, and vehicles will occur. Tree damage is likely.

Chesapeake, Marmet, Belle, Clendenin, Cedar Grove, East Bank, Glasgow, Pratt, Coal Fork, and Pinch around 1120 AM EDT. Montgomery, Smithers, Powellton, Amma, and Glen around 1125 AM  EDT. Clay, Gauley Bridge, Wallback, and Big Otter around 1130 AM EDT.
 * These dangerous storms will be near...

Other locations impacted by these tornadic storms include Widen, Nebo, Frametown, Strange Creek, Wilsie, Bickmore, Tariff, Procious, Servia, and Muddlety.

PRECAUTIONARY/PREPAREDNESS ACTIONS...

TAKE COVER NOW! Move to a basement or an interior room on the lowest floor of a sturdy building. Avoid windows. If you are outdoors, in a mobile home, or in a vehicle, move to the closest substantial shelter and protect yourself from flying debris.

Motorists should not take shelter under highway overpasses. If you cannot safely drive away from the tornado, as a last resort, either park your vehicle and stay put, or abandon your vehicle and lie down in a low lying area and protect yourself from flying debris.

&&

LAT...LON 3818 8162 3836 8154 3861 8153 3861 8152 3868 8153 3871 8079 3843 8074 3816 8088     3816 8160 TIME...MOT...LOC 1515Z 266DEG 71KT 3866 8155 3837 8154 3815 8164

TORNADO...RADAR INDICATED MAX HAIL SIZE...<.75 IN

$$

30

Below is an example of tornado warning for a pyrocumulonimbus capable of causing a fire tornado. This was the first time a tornado warning was issued for an event of this type.

000 WFUS55 KREV 152135 TORREV CAC035-152230- /O.NEW.KREV.TO.W.0001.200815T2135Z-200815T2230Z/

BULLETIN - EAS ACTIVATION REQUESTED Tornado Warning National Weather Service Reno NV 235 PM PDT Sat Aug 15 2020

The National Weather Service in Reno has issued a

Southeastern Lassen County in northern California...
 * Tornado Warning for...

 * Until 330 PM PDT.

capable of producing a fire induced tornado and outflow winds in excess of 60 mph was located south of Chilcoot, and is nearly stationary.
 * At 228 PM PDT, a pyrocumulonimbus from the Loyalton Wildfire is

HAZARD...Tornado.

SOURCE...Radar indicated rotation.

IMPACT...Extreme fire behavior with strong outflow winds capable of downing trees and starting new fires. This is and extremely dangerous situation for fire fighters.

of southeastern Lassen County in the vicinity of the fire.
 * This tornadic pyrocumulonimbus will remain over mainly rural areas

PRECAUTIONARY/PREPAREDNESS ACTIONS...

TAKE COVER NOW! Move to a basement or an interior room on the lowest floor of a sturdy building. Avoid windows. If you are outdoors, in a mobile home, or in a vehicle, move to the closest substantial shelter and protect yourself from flying debris.

&&

LAT...LON 3975 12012 3972 12007 3970 12014 3971 12015 3973 12015 TIME...MOT...LOC 2128Z 240DEG 0KT 3972 12013

TORNADO...RADAR INDICATED HAIL...<.75IN

$$

WH

Below is an example of an Environment Canada-issued tornado warning for southeastern Saskatchewan. As with all emergency warnings in Canada, a French-language version would immediately follow.

344 WFCN13 CWWG 262334 TORNADO WARNING UPDATED BY ENVIRONMENT CANADA AT 5:34 PM CST TUESDAY 26 JUNE 2012.

TORNADO WARNING FOR: R.M. OF WHEATLANDS INCLUDING MORTLACH AND PARKBEG R.M. OF CARON INCLUDING CARONPORT AND CARON R.M. OF MOOSE JAW INCLUDING PASQUA AND BUSHELL PARK CITY OF MOOSE JAW.

TORNADO WARNING ENDED FOR: R.M. OF RODGERS INCLUDING CODERRE AND COURVAL R.M. OF HILLSBOROUGH INCLUDING CRESTWYND AND OLD WIVES LAKE.

DISCUSSION
AT 5:30 PM CST, PUBLIC REPORTS A TORNADO CURRENTLY ON THE GROUND WEST OF MOOSE JAW. RADAR INDICATES THE SEVERE THUNDERSTORM ASSOCIATED WITH THIS TORNADO IS CURRENTLY JUST SOUTH OF MORTLACH AND IS SLOWLY TRACKING NORTHEASTWARDS TOWARDS THE CITY OF MOOSE JAW.

title: Tornado warning