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Talk:List of folk musicians

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Seems eurocentric, why NAm musicians mainstream and others not? -- Viajero 14:46 1 Jul 2003 (UTC)

I agree. In terms of folk in the traditional sense, the are infinitely many small folk artist all over the world which make up what true folk is. a lot of these artists could be classified as folk-rock, folk-pop, or have folk roots, but I see a number that i wouldnt classify as true folk. The other issue is that there are so many incredible folk artists all over the world that no one would be able to add them all, it would take nearly infinetly long! should there be a notice at the start of the list that just highlights that this is in no way exhaustive?!

Someone typed this into the edit window for the non-existing Dick Gaughan article. I think this refers to this list but I don't know anything about the topic. Andris 14:23, Jul 30, 2004 (UTC) Dick Gaughan is Scottish, not Irish. Please re-classify this. Now there is an article and he is clearly Scottish. Tiles 07:10, 2 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Searching for more
Is there a better way than Google or Yahoo to search for 'folk musician' or similar on the list to improve these links? I just added Stan Rogers to the Canada section and given Canada's continuing high profile in folk music it seems that there should be much more. Kickstart70 20:15, 1 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * What about Amazon.com? Tiles 07:10, 2 Nov 2004 (UTC)

For American artists I suggest: http://www.ibiblio.org/keefer/pf_frset.htm

For Celtic artists I suggest: http://www.slipcue.com/music/international/celtic/albums/A_01.html

For UK artists, up to 1999, I suggest: http://www.piper-kj.demon.co.uk/diary.htm  (click on "recordings")

For general world artists I suggest: http://www.folksylinks.it/index.html Ogg 08:36, 6 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Jack Orion
To the best of my knowledge there is no such group as Jack Orion. There is a notable album by Bert Jansch called "Jack Orion". That is probably the source of the error. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Ogg (talk • contribs) 07:57, 4 January 2005 (UTC)

There is a band called Jack O'Ryan Band from Tyneside who were originally called Jack Orion for a very short time Then they altered the spelling of the band's name to Jack O'Ryan band when they realised the content of traditional irish songs and tunes their set consisted of. More information about the Jack O'Ryan Band can be obtained from the website www.folkstomp.com. The name Jack O'Ryan Band was actually chosen by the brother of the bass player (Terence Greener, after a drunken night at the Cumberland Arms, Byker.) — Preceding unsigned comment added by 92.233.254.158 (talk) 22:57, 25 April 2008 (UTC)

Ireland
Ireland is listed twice, with mostly the same performers — Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.46.22.195 (talk) 23:38, 9 August 2005 (UTC)

What is "Folk"?
This list seems to be using a very loose definition of "folk" - to find, for instance, Joan Armatrading or even Billy Bragg included in the UK section is rather odd. While a few of the UK performers listed under "England" are interpreters of traditional material (Norma Waterson, Peter Bellamy, John Kirkpatrick, June Tabor etc), not one is a genuine traditional source singer or performer, as far as I am aware. Where are Walter Pardon, Fred Jordan, Jinky Wells, Scan Tester, Billy Pigg, Walter Bulwer, to name but a few? Perhaps further subdivisions of the list are needed (but then how do you categorise a performer whose material is mainly traditional but makes occasional forays into contemporary compositions? Or who writes their own material very much in a traditional vein? Or who arranges a traditional song/tune in a folk-rock style? Or a mainstream performer who happens to record one traditional song?) SiGarb 17:53, 1 September 2005 (UTC)

Not all folk musicians perform traditional material; Christine Lavin, the Roches, and Suzanne Vega are all singer-songwriters. Woody Guthrie performed original material, so do his son and granddaughter. Dar Williams, to the best of my knowledge, has never performed a traditional song. Folk music (at least in the case of the US, England, Ireland, and Canada) is (usually) acoustic based music rooted in a traditional sound. The majority of folk performers active today are singer-songwriters. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.46.22.195 (talk) 22:27, 5 September 2005 (UTC)

Here's a bit of fun, read -> Folkies. Ogg 12:44, 13 November 2005 (UTC)
 * Nice one! But nothing about "fingers-in-the-ear", tankards, beards and other archetypes? And don't banjo players, melodeon players, accordionists etc traditionally vie for unpopularity with bodhran players...? ( "What do you call someone who hangs around with musicians? - A drummer/banjo player/bagpiper/accordionist etc etc" ) BTW, does the total lack of wikilinks indicate that you're expecting the article to be a candidate for speedy deletion? SiGarb 17:20, 13 November 2005 (UTC)

Karen Tweed
Karen Tweed was listed under Finland. I believe she is English, of Irish descent. She plays a lot of Scandinavian music as part of Swåp, and with Timo Alakotila and others on her album "May Monday", but equally she has a huge Irish repertoire and also plays English & French contemporary compositions, Scottish, Northumbrian etc etc. She has also recorded an album called "Faerd" of music from the Faroe Islands. So where does that place her in this simplistic list? SiGarb 18:07, 1 September 2005 (UTC)

Patrick Wolf
I am sure Patrick Wolf is a fine musician, and yes there is a website calling him a genius, but in what sense is he a folk muscian? The article gives no hint. Should he be in psych-folk, or punk instead? Ogg 19:24, 11 November 2005 (UTC)

Northumbria
Does Northumbria really require its own category distinct from England, especially since only a tiny minority of acts listed have a Wikipedia page. FrFintonStack 18:37, 25 August 2006 (UTC)

adding info
I have added the name of a singer (Robin Roberts) in the United States, General category. the name appears in black type. I am new here; how do I create lines of info about her? (I mean, keystroke by keystroke, friends.) I notice that the names with no info yet are in red; the ones in blue have info about them. What do I do next?GrannyTanny (talk) 18:28, 26 July 2008 (UTC)

Criteria needed
I've removed the following as not qualifying for classification as folk music artists: Beau Brummels, Buffalo Springfield, Byrds, Crosby Stills Nash & Young, Grateful Dead, Moby Grape, Turtles and Violent Femmes. To me, all of these are clearly rock, folk-rock or something related, but not folk music by any traditional definition. While I appreciate their folk connections and have been a fan of each of them for many years, to me it seems to be stretching the definition far too much to include them.

I'm currently in the process of editing the List of Singer-Songwriters, which at one time overflowed with similarly blurred entries. Fortunately, that list has a secondary listing to accommodate those who are singer-songwriters in the sense that they sing and write songs but whose primary notability is as vocalists-writers for groups. Even there, some additional criteria was needed, namely notable solo experience, otherwise every band in the world that performs and records its own material would have to be included.

Similarly, criteria is needed for the folk list or over time it's bound to become a useless hodge podge. In that regard, I would suggest that we try to keep the list limited to individuals and groups whose primary genre/notability is folk. Given that, the Grateful Dead would not belong here, though Grateful Dawg (Jerry Garcia and David Grisman) clearly would. I would appreciate hearing from others. Thanks. Allreet (talk) 19:18, 23 April 2009 (UTC)

Dates of (birth-death) added as comments.
Dear fellow editors, I am leaving the present message, out of courtesy to other editors interested in this article. I was surprised to see dates of (birth-death) added alongside some of the names in this list; it would appear that, historically, this was done mainly for some of the entries in the sublists for Canada, Scotland and the United States. These added comments seem unnecessary to me, since:
 * names can only be included if the person has an article or is referenced by an external link (as per WP:LISTPEOPLE);
 * therefore, dates of (birth-death) can readily be found via these internal/external links;
 * in at least one case (Garnet Rogers), the added birth date diverges from that recorded in the article itself;

From a practical point of view, these dates (and other comments, which should really be located in the articles themselves) take space and therefore preclude the columns from being compacted for efficient presentation on the page (see List of singer-songwriters as an example). The case of Garnet Rogers also demonstrates that the added comments could introduce errors and thus cause confusion to the reader.

I am therefore removing these details, since they are clearly redundant: they seem to serve little purpose and there is no section in the present talk page recording an earlier discussion and agreement to include them. Of course, if anyone has a different view, then please let's discuss this here, by all means, as there may well be an excellent reason for having these dates, even though I can't see it. Thank you. With kind regards; Patrick. ツ Pdebee.(talk)(guestbook) 11:43, 9 March 2016 (UTC)
 * This update to confirm I have now applied the above changes. I have also adjusted the width of all columns to the following standard:  , thereby making this article adopt the same layout as the List of singer-songwriters. Thank you.
 * With kind regards;
 * Patrick. ツ Pdebee.(talk)(guestbook) 15:37, 9 March 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:List of folk musicians


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Postal

Postal may refer to:

Places

 * The Italian name for Burgstall, South Tyrol in northern Italy
 * Postal, Missouri
 * Postal Square
 * Postal Museum (Liechtenstein), a postal museum in Vaduz, Liechtenstein

People

 * Fred Postal, former co-owner of the Washington Senators of the American League
 * Paul Postal (born 1936), American linguist

Arts and entertainment

 * Postal (franchise), a series of computer games launched in 1997
 * Postal (video game), first entry in the series
 * Postal (film), a 2007 Uwe Boll-directed film based on the Postal computer game
 * Postal (comics), a comic book series written by Matt Hawkins and Bryan Hill

Other uses

 * Postal code
 * Postal service, mail

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Postal


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Anglo-German Fellowship

The Anglo-German Fellowship was a membership organisation that existed from 1935 to 1939, and aimed to encourage friendly relations between the United Kingdom and Germany. It was sometimes perceived as being allied to Nazism. Previous groups in Britain with the same aims had been wound up when Adolf Hitler came to power.

Origins
In a 1935 speech, the Prince of Wales (later Edward VIII) had called for a closer understanding of Germany in order to safeguard peace in Europe, and in response Sir Thomas Moore, a Conservative Member of Parliament, suggested setting up a study group of pro-German MPs. The AGF, which has been in gestation for about a year, was established in September 1935 with Lord Mount Temple as chairman, and political secretary and historian Philip Conwell-Evans and businessman Ernest Tennant as honorary secretaries. Tennant was a friend of Joachim von Ribbentrop, German Ambassador to Britain. The group's stated aims were to foster political, professional, commercial and sporting links with Germany, but Mount Temple stated publicly that membership of the society did not assume support for Nazism or anti-Semitism.

An application was made to the Board of Trade on 26 July 1935 for "a licence directing an association about to be formed under the name of The Anglo-German Fellowship". The objectives of the proposed association were given as:

"To promote good fellowship between Great Britain and Germany and their respective peoples.

To study and consider the problems affecting the relations existing between Great Britain and Germany, with a view to the enhancing and promoting friendship between such countries and their respective peoples."

Membership
The organisation was aimed at the influential in society, and the membership was initially led by businessmen keen to promote commercial links. Members included Bank of England director Frank Cyril Tiarks, Admiral Sir Barry Domvile, Prince von Bismarck, Governor of the Bank of England Montagu Norman, Geoffrey Dawson editor of The Times. "Corporate membership" was also available for leading companies who wished to show their support for co-operation with Germany and this was taken out by such leading organisations as Price Waterhouse, Unilever, Dunlop Rubber, Thomas Cook & Son, the Midland Bank and Lazard Brothers amongst others.

Several Members of Parliament, mostly from the Conservative Party, joined the group: they included Sir Peter Agnew, Lawrence Dundas, 2nd Marquess of Zetland, Ernest Bennett, Sir Robert Bird, Robert Tatton Bower, Douglas Douglas-Hamilton, Marquess of Clydesdale, Robert Vaughan Gower, Thomas "Loel" Guinness, Norman Hulbert, Archibald James, Alfred Knox, John Macnamara, Sir Thomas Moore, Assheton Pownall, Frank Sanderson, Duncan Sandys, Admiral Murray Sueter, Charles Taylor and Ronald Tree.

Members of the House of Lords to hold membership included Lord Brocket, Lord Galloway, the Earl of Glasgow, Lord Mount Temple, Lord Londonderry, Lord Nuffield, Lord Redesdale, Lord Rennell, the Duke of Wellington, and Josiah, Baron Stamp.

By 1937, the group seems to have had 347 members.

Activities
The AGF's sister organization in Berlin was the Deutsch-Englische Gesellschaft. Neither group had an avowed mission to Nazify Britain. Instead, the two groups would unite, to host grand dinners at which leading German figures noted for their Anglophilia or their familial links to the United Kingdom, such as Rudolf Hess, von Ribbentrop, General Werner von Blomberg, the Duke of Brunswick and the Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, would be guests of honour.

However, the organisation did have a pro-Nazi leaning, as well as a number of fascist members. The spies Guy Burgess and Kim Philby, seeking to disguise their Communist affiliations, joined the AGF in the knowledge that it was widely perceived as allied to the far right.

Reaction to Nazi antisemitism
Lord Mount Temple resigned in November 1938 as chairman of the AGF because of the treatment of the German Jews by the Nazis. Following his resignation he told the press: "Although I have resigned from the chair of the Anglo-German Fellowship, I still remain a member of the fellowship. I wrote my letter of resignation yesterday, to be read at the council meeting this morning. In the letter I stated that I was resigning from the chairmanship because of the treatment of the Jews in Germany and the attitude of the Germans towards the Catholic and Lutheran communities. One hopes that times may become better in the future and that the good work of building up friendship between the two nations may be resumed."

The Council of the Anglo-German Fellowship met in London and released a statement: "The Council deeply regrets the events which have set back the development of better understanding between the two nations. The Council will, however, steadily prosecute its efforts to maintain contact with Germany as being the best means of supporting the Prime Minister in his policy of appeasement, and as being the most useful way of encouraging those friendly relations upon which peace depends..."

Closure
At the time of the Munich Crisis in 1938 Ernest Tennant recorded that the feeling in the organisation was that they should close. However, they approached the UK Foreign Office for advice. Tennant reported that Lord Vansittart recommended their staying active, which they did until the outbreak of the Second World War.

However, this claim was later refuted by Vansittart. He responded that he queried the claim with the intermediary between the Fellowship and the Foreign Office, Conwell Evans, who reported that he had met with Lord Halifax on the matter.

In the House of Commons on 7 September 1939 Vyvyan Adams MP asked the Home Secretary what the Government is doing to "deal with" organisations such as the Fellowship. To this, Sir John Anderson reported to the house that "the Anglo-German Fellowship has entirely suspended its activities".

title: Anglo-German Fellowship


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Talk:Tulipmania

I guess no one noticed this, but there is also a tulipomania page, which is linked on the tulip page. Adam Bishop 14:57 1 Jul 2003 (UTC)

title: Talk:Tulipmania


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Sriharikota

Sriharikota is a barrier island off the Bay of Bengal coast located in the Shar Project settlement of Tirupati district in Andhra Pradesh, India. It houses the Satish Dhawan Space Centre, one of the two satellite launch centres in India (the other being Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station, Thiruvananthapuram). Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) launches satellites using multistage rockets such as the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle and the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle from Sriharikota. Sriharikota is selected by ISRO because of its proximity to the equator, it gives extra centripetal force from the rotation of Earth.

Location
Sriharikota is partly located in Sullurpeta mandal and partly located in Tada mandal in Tirupati District in Andhra Pradesh. The island separates Pulicat Lake from the Bay of Bengal. The nearest town and railway station is Sullurpeta which is 16 km west of Sriharikota and nearest city is Tirupati. A 16 km elevated road connects Sriharikota to the mainland.

Climate
The climate of Sriharikota is tropical wet and dry ( Aw ; bordering on  As ) in the Köppen–Geiger climate classification system. Sriharikota has hot summers and mild winters. Summers can reach up to 38 degrees Celsius, while winters can reach down to 20 degrees Celsius. Since Sriharikota is only 105 km north of Chennai, its climate is similar to that of Chennai.

title: Sriharikota


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Criminal conversion

Criminal conversion is a crime, limited to parts of common law systems outside England and Wales, of exerting unauthorized use or control of someone else's property, at a minimum personal property, but in some jurisdictions also applying to types of real property, such as land (to squatting or holding over) or to patents, design rights and trademarks. It differs from theft in that it does not include the element of intending to deprive the owner of permanent possession of that property. As such, it is a lesser offense than the crime of theft. Criminal conversion specifies a type of conversion in that it involves criminal law, not civil law.

An example might be tapping someone's secured wireless LAN or public utility line (which could also amount to theft of services). Another example might be taking a joy ride in a car, never intending to keep it from the owner. Some have redefined such conduct as a specific type of theft, or another offence such as taking without owner's consent.

Note that the "unauthorized" use may begin after a period of authorized use, where, for example, a person rents a car then keeps it for an extra week without permission from the rental company. Another common example occurs when a person fails to report finding lost goods (including animals), intending only to keep them until someone asks for their return. When the intent becomes one of keeping the property, it is a theft.

Fraudulent conversion
The two-pronged definition of fraudulent conversion is "conversion that is committed by the use of fraud, either by obtaining the property, or in withholding it".

In England and Wales, the term fraudulent conversion was superseded by the identically named offences under the Larceny Act 1901 and sections 20 and 21 of the Larceny Act 1916.

The former offence of fraudulent conversion was replaced by an offence of theft, contrary to section 1(1) of the Theft Act 1968, from which it slightly differs.

Notes and references

 * Notes
 * References

title: Criminal conversion


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Frank Cyril Tiarks

Frank Cyril Tiarks OBE (also known as F. C. Tiarks) (9 July 1874 – 7 April 1952) was an English banker.

Family
He was son of Henry Frederick Tiarks (23 December 1832 - 18 October 1911), banker, partner in J. Henry Schröder & Co. in London, and wife Agnes Morris (1840 - 5 February 1923), adopted daughter of Alexander Schlüsser, partner in J. Henry Schröder & Co. in London, paternal grandson of Johann Gerhard Tiarks, chaplain of the Duchess of Kent.

Biography
Educated on HMS Britannia 1887–1889, and served as midshipman in the Royal Navy 1889–1894. Resigned his commission following the death of his elder brother, to join his father in business. Among his appointments were a directorship of the Bank of England (1912–1945); a partnership in J. Henry Schröder & Co.; a partnership in the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (1917–1948); and High Sheriff of Kent for 1927. He was created an Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire.

He served in World War I under Sir William Reginald Hall, Director of Naval Intelligence, in Room 40 Admiralty, as Lieut.-Cmdr.

Of German descent himself, like his wife, he was also listed as a member of the Anglo-German Fellowship, of the British Union of Fascists but also in Hitler's 'Black Book'.

Marriage and issue
Tiarks married in Hamburg, Germany, on 18 November 1899 Emmie "Emmy" Marie Franziska Brödermann (15 February 1875 – 27 July 1943), daughter of Eduard Matthias Brödermann, merchant, and wife Ramona Luisa Clara Ignacia Störzel. They had :

 * Henry Frederic Tiarks (1900 - 1995) m. Lady Millicent Taylour, had issue
 * Ramona Maria Clara Tiarks (1902 - 1991)
 * Edward Mathias Tiarks (1904 - 1929) died in flying accident.
 * Myra Emmy Tiarks (1910 - 2006)
 * Peter Frank Tiarks MC (1910 - 1975) married firstly to Pamela (Silvertop) Clarke, secondly to Lady Henrietta Finch-Hatton, had issue (his will pr. London, 19 Aug at £318,036)

His granddaughter, Henrietta Tiarks, The Dowager Duchess of Bedford, is the widow of the fourteenth Duke of Bedford. He is also first cousin third removed of Mark Phillips.

After his death, his will was proved at £222,830 on 8 July 1952.

title: Frank Cyril Tiarks


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Sounding rocket

A sounding rocket or rocketsonde, sometimes called a research rocket or a suborbital rocket, is an instrument-carrying rocket designed to take measurements and perform scientific experiments during its sub-orbital flight. The rockets are used to launch instruments from 48 to 145 km (30 to 90 miles) above the surface of the Earth, the altitude generally between weather balloons and satellites; the maximum altitude for balloons is about 40 km (25 miles) and the minimum for satellites is approximately 121 km (75 miles). Certain sounding rockets have an apogee between 1,000 and 1,500 km (620 and 930 miles), such as the Black Brant X and XII, which is the maximum apogee of their class. Sounding rockets often use military surplus rocket motors. NASA routinely flies the Terrier Mk 70 boosted Improved Orion, lifting 270–450-kg (600–1,000-pound) payloads into the exoatmospheric region between 97 and 201 km (60 and 125 miles).

Etymology
The origin of the term comes from nautical vocabulary to sound, which is to throw a weighted line from a ship into the water to measure the water's depth. The term itself has its etymological roots in the Romance languages word for probe, of which there are nouns sonda and sonde and verbs like sondear which means "to do a survey or a poll". Sounding in the rocket context is equivalent to "taking a measurement".

Design

The basic elements of a sounding rocket are a solid-fuel rocket motor and a science payload. Larger, higher altitude rockets have two to three stages to increase efficiency and payload capability. The freefall part of the flight is an elliptic trajectory with vertical major axis allowing the payload to appear to hover near its apogee. The average flight time is less than 30 minutes; usually between five and 20 minutes. The rocket consumes its fuel on the first stage of the rising part of the flight, then separates and falls away, leaving the payload to complete the arc and return to the ground under a parachute.

Advantages
Sounding rockets are advantageous for some research because of their low cost, relatively short lead time (sometimes less than six months) and their ability to conduct research in areas inaccessible to either balloons or satellites. They are also used as test beds for equipment that will be used in more expensive and risky orbital spaceflight missions. The smaller size of a sounding rocket also makes launching from temporary sites possible, allowing field studies at remote locations, and even in the middle of the ocean, if fired from a ship.

Meteorology

Weather observations, up to an altitude of 75 km, are done with rocketsondes, a kind of sounding rocket for atmospheric observations that consists of a rocket and radiosonde. The sonde records data on temperature, moisture, wind speed and direction, wind shear, atmospheric pressure, and air density during the flight. Position data (altitude and latitude/longitude) may also be recorded.

Common meteorological rockets are the Loki and Super Loki, typically 3.7 m tall and powered by a 10 cm diameter solid fuel rocket motor. The rocket motor separates at an altitude of 1500 m and the rest of the rocketsonde coasts to apogee (highest point). This can be set to an altitude of 20 km to 113 km.

Research
Sounding rockets are commonly used for:
 * Research in aeronomy, the study of the upper atmosphere, which requires this tool for in situ measurements in the upper atmosphere.
 * Ultraviolet and X-ray astronomy, which require being above the bulk of the Earth's atmosphere.
 * Microgravity research which benefits from a few minutes of weightlessness on rockets launched to altitudes of a few hundred kilometers.
 * Remote sensing of Earth resources uses sounding rockets to get an essentially instant synoptic view of the geographical area under observation.

Dual use
Due to the high military relevance of ballistic missile technology, there has always been a close relationship between sounding rockets and military missiles. It is a typical dual-use technology, which can be used for both civil and military purposes. During the Cold War, the Federal Republic of Germany cooperated on this topic with countries that had not signed the Non-Proliferation Treaty on Nuclear Weapons at that time, such as Brazil, Argentina and India. In the course of investigations by the German peace movement, this cooperation was revealed by a group of physicists in 1983. The international discussion that was thus set in motion led to the development of the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) at the level of G7 states. Since then, lists of technological equipment whose export is subject to strict controls have been drawn up within the MTCR framework.

Operators and programs

 * Andøya Space Center in Norway operates two sounding rocket launch sites, one at Andøya and one at Svalbard. Has launched sounding rockets since 1962.
 * Poker Flat Research Range is owned by the University of Alaska Fairbanks.
 * The British Skylark sounding rocket programme began in 1955 and was used for 441 launches from 1957 to 2005. Skylark 12, from 1976, could lift 200 kg to 575 km altitude.
 * The British also developed the Falstaff sounding rocket as a part of the Chevaline program. There were eight launches between 1969 and 1979 from the Woomera Test Range, Australia.
 * ISRO's VSSC developed the Rohini sounding rockets series starting in 1967 that reached altitudes of 500 km
 * Delft Aerospace Rocket Engineering from the Delft University of Technology operates the Stratos sounding rocket program, which reached 21.5 km in 2015.
 * Evolution Space operates the Gold Chain Cowboy sounding rocket with launch to 124.5 km on April 22, 2023.
 * The Australian Space Research Institute (ASRI) operates a Small Sounding Rocket Program (SSRP) for launching payloads (mostly educational) to altitudes of about 7 km.
 * Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST) launched a Sounding Rocket (Vyom) in May, 2012, which reached an altitude of 15 km. Vyom Mk-II is in its conceptual design stage with an objective to reach 70 km altitude with 20 kg payload capacity.
 * The University of Queensland operates Terrier-Orion sounding rockets (capable of reaching altitudes in excess of 300 km) as part of their HyShot hypersonics research.
 * Iranian Space Agency operated its first sounding rocket in February 2007.
 * UP Aerospace operates the SpaceLoft XL sounding rocket that can reach altitudes of 225 km.
 * TEXUS and MiniTEXUS, German rocket programmes at Esrange for DLR and ESA microgravity research programmes.
 * Astrium operates missions with sounding rockets on a commercial basis, as prime contractor to ESA or the German Aerospace Centre (DLR).
 * MASER, Swedish rocket programme at Esrange for ESA microgravity research programmes.
 * MAXUS, German-Swedish rocket programme at Esrange for ESA microgravity research programmes.
 * Pakistan's SUPARCO launched Rehbar series of sounding rockets, based on American Nike-Cajun series of rockets, from 1962 to 1971.
 * REXUS, German-Swedish rocket programme at Esrange for DLR and ESA student experiment programmes.
 * The NASA Sounding Rocket Program.
 * The JAXA operates the sounding rockets S-Series: S-310 / S-520 / SS-520.
 * United States/New Zealand company Rocket Lab developed the highly adaptable Ātea series of sounding rockets to carry 5–70 kg payloads to altitudes of 250 km or greater, launched once on 30 November 2009.
 * The Meteor rockets were built in Poland between 1963 and 1974.
 * The Kartika I rocket was built and launched in Indonesia by LAPAN on 1964, becoming the fourth sounding rocket in Asia, after those from Japan, China and Pakistan.
 * The Soviet Union developed an extensive program using rockets such as the M-100, the most used ever; its successor by its successor state, Russia, is the MR-20 and later the MR-30.
 * Brazil has been launching its own sounding rockets since 1965. The largest and most current family of rocket are the Sonda, which are the R&D basis for Brazil's soon-to-be-launched VLS satellite launcher. Other rockets include the VSB-30
 * The Paulet I rocket was built and launched in Peru by The National Commission for Aerospace Research and Development (CONIDA) on 2006, becoming the first sounding rocket of the country and the third rocket in South America, after those from Brazil and Argentina.
 * The Experimental Sounding Rocket Association (ESRA) is a non-profit organization based in the United States which has operated the Intercollegiate Rocket Engineering Competition (IREC) since 2006.
 * ONERA in France launched a sounding rocket named Titus, developed for observation of the total solar eclipse in Argentina on November 12, 1966. Titus was a two-stage rocket with a length of 11.5 m, a launch weight of 3.4 tons, and a diameter of 56 cm. It reached a maximum height of 270 kilometers. It was launched twice in Las Palmas, Chaco during the eclipse, in collaboration with the Argentine space agency CNIE.
 * German Aerospace Center's Mobile Rocket Base (DLR MORABA) designs, builds and operates a variety of sounding rocket types and custom vehicles in support for national and international research programs.
 * Interstellar Technologies is a Japanese company that is developing the experimental MOMO sounding rocket.

title: Sounding rocket


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Talk:Upper Canada

First paragraph cumbersome
The first paragraph would be incomprehensible to anyone not living in Ontario or familiar with its geography. A map of Upper Canada would eliminate the need for this cumbersome description of boundaries. Upper Canada = Ontario (less HBCo lands beyond the Hudson's Bay watershed). Notwithstanding all the misinformation, the north shore of Lake Superior and of Lake Huron (within the Great Lakes watershed) have always formed part of Upper Canada), but for practical purposes there is no need to go into this as Upper Canada 1791-1840 was the pioneer period of southern Ontario. Later consolidation of Empire Ontario into Northern Ontario is well explained in the Ontario article, and need not be repeated in the Upper Canada article. The bibliography I added may help others to improve this article which is still pretty weak. --BrentS 00:51, 19 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * I agree a map would help, but also it need dates and legislation causing the formation and cessation. Cafe Nervosa | talk  01:01, 30 November 2005 (UTC)
 * A simple map would really help. --Luis Fernandes, Feb.1, 2005

A British North American colony
Upper Canada is best described as a British North American colony created by statute of the Parliament of the United Kingdom in 1791 and governed by a governor and legislative assembly. Prior to that it was the pays d'en haut of New France and part of the Province of Quebec (1763-1791). Upper Canada was a political and judicial unit, like any other British colony (Nova Scotia, Barbados, New South Wales), not some vague geographical territory. Ontario celebrated its bicentennial in 1984, that date chosen mainly because it coincided with the end of the American Revolution and the influx of Loyalist refugees and military personnel. We need to know our history better, folks.--BrentS 01:01, 19 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Origin of Name needed
Some info on the etymology or origin of the name "Upper Canada" is needed. I was under the impression it was named so because it was on the upper part of the Great Lakes watershed / St. Lawrence Seaway. I do not want to add this info without proper documentation, though. This would serve to clear up the ocassionally held public view that the British were somehow expressing, in this name, a sense of superiority over the French in "Lower" Canada.

 * Yes. Upper Canada and Lower Canada relate to their location along the river-lake system. Lower Canada, although higher in latitude, is more importantly lower in altitude, with much of the St. Lawrence River near sea level. Upper Canada is higher in altitude, some 180 feet above sea level at Lake Ontario, and much higher for Lakes Erie and Huron, and higher still for Lake Superior. GBC 23:04, 28 November 2006 (UTC)

 * Well, actually I don't think the lakes played so much a part. The St. Lawrence was the major thoroughfare there and the Lower Canada was accessible first, and the Upper Canada was accessible farther upstream - hence 'Upper'. It's not so much about altitude or headwaters, per se, because that wouldn't have been the language used to describe/explain it at the time, but rather the language of travel time/distance would have been an explanatory factor, if you want it historically and contextually situated. 2001:569:7D1E:7100:957C:DABD:A601:A051 (talk) 05:11, 4 July 2020 (UTC)
 * That last comment is a bit bizarre. The fact that rivers flow downwards (in terms of altitude) is not newly understood in the last 200 years; that is where "upstream" and "downstream" come from, etymologically. Newimpartial (talk) 14:32, 4 July 2020 (UTC)

Defacement
Removed trolling comments left by vandals. Bwryan2006 16:27, 1 February 2007 (UTC)

Merger
I suggested this merger because, according to the article for Canada West, Canada West is the exact same geographical entity as Upper Canada, merely renamed once becoming part of the Province of Canada. Having a seperate article for an alternate name is absurd. Howa0082 23:44, 7 August 2007 (UTC)
 * Support. There is very little information about this topic, and most of the info found about this is under the name Upper Canada or briefly mentions CW as a minor note. Readers will get more information about the topic if these articles were merged.Z1720 07:39, 10 August 2007 (UTC)

 * I think Canada West should be merged into the Province of Canada article instead. The Upper Canada article only applies up to the year 1841, while the Province of Canada article deals with the history of both Upper and Lower Canada (Canada East and West) from 1841 until 1867. — Kelw (talk) 00:49, 13 August 2007 (UTC)

 * Yes merge with the Province of Canada article, not Upper Canada. Make a cross reference Canada West see Province of Canada. Canada West could be a full section in the Province of Canada article.--BrentS 04:01, 16 August 2007 (UTC)

 * Agree. "Canada West" should not redirect here. Canada West refers specifically to the territory coterminous to Upper Canada, during the period of the existence of the Province of Canada. It should redirect to Province of Canada. Király-Seth (talk) 17:52, 23 November 2012 (UTC)

 * Agree. It's just the same province with a different name, although have West Canada redirect to the paragraph describing the name change in the Upper Canada article. Delta40 talk 05:05, 2 September 2007 (UTC)
 * Let's merge it with the Upper Canada. The articles are basically one in the one same, despite the name difference. --Axe27 18:45, 4 September 2007 (UTC)
 * Merge the bloody thing! The onyl difference between the two is a name change. Wikitank 02:14, 13 November 2007 (UTC)

 * It is now merged as a part of (and with a redirect to) Upper Canada. It has its own section entitled Canada West. Wikitank 02:21, 13 November 2007 (UTC)

Merger 2 Discussion
An article on Canada East, requiring substantial rewrite, would seem sensible to include in this article. Have created section to receive the article once it is edited to match format of this one. --Haruth (talk) 04:53, 28 February 2010 (UTC)

 * Wouldn't it make more sense to discuss Canada East in the article about Lower Canada? After all, Lower Canada, not Upper Canada, became Canada East. //Essin (talk) 13:39, 31 March 2010 (UTC)

 * I stongly oppose the merger. I would think that the two articles should go to the Province of Canada article if anywhere.  I'd never come to this article to read about Canada West as Upper and Lower Canada both ceased with the Act of Union 1840.Argolin (talk) 06:27, 12 January 2012 (UTC)

Upper Peninsula
I don't think it's correct that "until 1797 it included the Upper Peninsula of the State of Michigan." Yes, British forces remained at Fort Mackinac (and probably other places in the Upper Peninsula) long after the war was over, but it was obvious to everyone that according to the Treaty of Paris, that region was part of the United States, not Quebec or Upper Canada. Indefatigable (talk) 04:31, 10 January 2008 (UTC)

 * Hello Indefatiguable. The present borders of the State of Michigan were actually apart of the Province of Quebec from 1783-1791 (and apart of the Province of Upper Canada from 1791-1797).  Yep.  'Tis true ... strange but true!  It was the first of many Canada-US border disputes that we Canadians lost.  Ole 1797 was the very first of many "short-ends-of-the-stick" that we Canucks got stuck with :)

 * ArmchairVexillologistDon (talk) 07:16, 10 January 2008 (UTC)

Michigan as part of Upper Canada
Where is the proof that any part of Michigan formed part of Upper Canada until 1797? Find a reputable source by a major historian. This is complete fantasy. The British made no such claim. The boundary was fixed by the Treaty of Paris (1783) and the only subsequent adjustments were in New Brunswick and the Ontario-Minnesota border. The British might have lingered a bit on a couple of islands just as they lingered at Grand Portage, Minnesota but they never claimed that they owned this land. They acknowledged that it was American territory. Please remove this bit about Michigan. Upper Canada = Southern Ontario + the watersheds of Lake Huron, Lake Superior and the Ottawa River. Any watersheds flowing into James Bay and Hudson's Bay were not part of Upper Canada.

1774 map presentation awkward
There needs to be some comment on the 1774 map. It can lead readers to confusion. It includes land that after 1789 would constitute the Northwest Territory of the United States, and it includes land that after 1791 would be called Lower Canada.Dogru144 (talk) 09:08, 16 May 2012 (UTC)

title: Talk:Upper Canada


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Castle Hill, Mere

Castle Hill, also called Mere Castle, was a medieval fortification built by Richard, the Earl of Cornwall, in 1253 on a hill overlooking the town of Mere, Wiltshire, England. The castle was constructed in stone, with six towers, inner buildings and gates. It was abandoned in the 14th century and stripped of its stone and metalwork. Only earthworks remain in the 21st century.

Construction
The village of Mere was a small and unimportant settlement in the early 13th century. In 1243 Richard, the Earl of Cornwall, acquired the manor. Richard was the brother of Henry III and immensely rich. In 1253 he began to build a castle at Mere.

The castle was built on Long Hill, a chalk ridge overlooking the village; the hill was flattened and scarped, with a 5 m deep ditch cut into the west side. As archaeologist Phil Mcmahon describes, documentary sources imply the castle was "a rectangular stone-built structure with six towers, incorporating a hall, an inner and outer gate, a deep well and a chapel", and it may have resembled a smaller version of Framlingham Castle. The castle was probably entered from the west, with a possible road running up the south side of the hill. At the same time the village was expanded into a planned town with an unofficial market. The castle was renovated in 1300, possibly in response to the threat of rebellion in England at the time.

Decline
Richard's son Edmund inherited the property, but on his death it was taken back by the Crown. Edward II gave it to his royal favourite, Piers Gaveston, whom he made Earl of Cornwall. Edward II and Gaveston fell from power in 1327 and John, Edward's second son, took possession as the new Earl of Cornwall. Edward III then reacquired the castle, which became a permanent part of the Duchy of Cornwall.

During the 14th century, however, the castle had declined and became abandoned. In 1398 Richard II had the lead taken from the castle roofs for reuse at Portchester Castle. In 1660, visitors' accounts imply that the stonework had all been dismantled, and 18th-century accounts suggest that this was reused for construction work in the town below, which had prospered from the wool and later linen trade.

21st century
In the 21st century the site is protected under law as a scheduled monument. It is owned by the Duchy of Cornwall, and leased to the local parish council. A flagpole, which is illuminated at night, and a memorial to the 43rd (Wessex) Infantry Division are located on the castle site. A ceremony is held at the castle site each Easter.

Archaeological investigation
Archaeological excavations of the site were carried out in 1887 by T. H. Baker and C. N. Wyld, but most of the results of their work were subsequently lost.

title: Castle Hill, Mere


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Emilia Galotti

Emilia Galotti is a play in five acts by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729–1781), which premiered on 8 March 1772 in Brunswick ("Braunschweig" in German). The work is a classic example of German bürgerliches Trauerspiel (bourgeois tragedy). Other works in this category include Schiller's Kabale und Liebe and Hebbel's Maria Magdalene. The story is based upon the Roman myth of Verginia.

Emilia Galotti is a drama of the Enlightenment, though it doesn't precisely follow the standard French model of the era. Although love is a central theme, in reality Emilia Galotti is primarily a political commentary. The arbitrary style of rule by the aristocracy is placed in stark contrast to the new and enlightened morality of the bourgeoisie. The more feudal ideas of love and marriage thus come into conflict with the growing tendency to marry for love, rather than family tradition and power. This combination results in a rather explosive situation. It was made into a film in 1958.

Characters

 * Emilia Galotti
 * Odoardo Galotti, father of Emilia Galotti
 * Claudia Galotti, mother of Emilia Galotti
 * Pirro, servant of the Galottis
 * Hettore Gonzaga, prince of Guastalla
 * Marinelli, chamberlain of the prince
 * Camillo Rota, one of the prince's advisors
 * Conti, a painter
 * Count Appiani
 * Countess Orsina
 * Angelo, a robber
 * Battista, servant of Gonzaga

Plot
Set in Italy, Emilia Galotti tells the story of a virtuous young woman of the bourgeoisie. The absolutist prince of Guastalla, Hettore Gonzaga, becomes obsessed with the idea of making Emilia his lover after their first meeting. He thus gives his conniving Chamberlain, Marinelli, the right to do anything in his power to delay the previously arranged marriage between Emilia and Count Appiani. Marinelli then hires criminals who shortly thereafter murder the count on his way to the wedding. Emilia is quickly brought to safety in the prince's nearby summer residence. Unlike her mother Claudia, Emilia does not yet recognise the true implications of the scheme. A few moments later, Countess Orsina, the prince's former mistress, comes to the residence as well. Out of frustration over her harsh rejection by the prince, she attempts to convince Odoardo, Emilia's father, to avenge Count Appiani by stabbing the prince to death. Odoardo, however, hesitates in agreeing to this proposal and decides to leave the revenge in the hands of God. Emilia, who must remain under the protection of the prince due to another intrigue on Marinelli's behalf, attempts to convince her father to kill her in order to maintain her dignity in light of the prince's exertions to seduce her. The father agrees and stabs her, but immediately feels appalled by his deed. In the end Odoardo leaves the matter to the prince. He subsequently decides that Marinelli is responsible for the catastrophe and has him banned from his court. Ultimately, Emilia's father recognises God as the absolute authority.

Theme
Lessing's work of course comprises an attack against the nobility and its powers. Lessing depicts aristocrats as having unfair powers in society and as ruining the happiness of the emerging middle class. With the play, Lessing directs criticism at the tyranny of the reigning class.

Criticism
Music historian Charles Burney, arriving in Vienna in 1772, attended a performance of Emilia Galotti. "I should suppose this play to have been well acted; there were energy and passion, and many speeches were much applauded." But the Englishman was surprised by the "impious oaths and execrations" of the script: "The interlocutors curse, swear, and call names, in a gross and outrageous manner. I know not, perhaps, the exact ideas annexed by the Germans to the following expressions, of "Mein Gott," "Gott verdamm ihn," etc., but they shocked my ears very frequently." Still, Burney was impressed by the piece: "There is an original wildness in the conduct and sentiments of this piece which renders it very interesting."

In Arthur Schopenhauer's The Art of Literature, he criticised Emilia Galotti as a play with a "positively revolting" end.

In literature
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe refers to Emilia Galotti in his novel The Sorrows of Young Werther (Die Leiden des jungen Werthers), which was published in 1774.

They had laid Werther on the bed: his head was bound up, and the paleness of death was upon his face. His limbs were motionless; but he still breathed, at one time strongly, then weaker—his death was momently expected.

He had drunk only one glass of the wine. Emilia Galotti lay open upon his bureau.

The detail of Emilia Galotti's presence in the room, like many of the details of Werther, was taken from the 1772 suicide of Goethe's acquaintance Karl Wilhelm Jerusalem.

title: Emilia Galotti


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Tengu

Tengu (天狗,, lit. 'Heavenly Dog') are a type of legendary creature found in Shinto belief. They are considered a type of yōkai (supernatural beings) or Shinto kami (gods or spirits). The Tengu were originally thought to take the forms of birds of prey and a monkey deity, and they were traditionally depicted with human, monkey, and avian characteristics. Sarutahiko Ōkami is considered to be the original model of Konoha-Tengu (a supernatural creature with a red face and long nose), which today is widely considered the Tengu's defining characteristic in the popular imagination. He is the Shinto monkey deity who is said to shed light on Heaven and Earth. Some experts theorize that Sarutahiko was a sun god worshiped in the Ise region prior to the popularization of Amaterasu.

Buddhism long held that the Tengu were disruptive demons and harbingers of war. Their image gradually softened, however, into one of protective, if still dangerous, spirits of the mountains and forests. Tengu are associated with the ascetic practice of Shugendō, and they are usually depicted in the garb of its followers, the yamabushi.

Image

The tengu in art appears in a variety of shapes. It usually falls somewhere in between a large, monstrous bird and a wholly anthropomorphized being, often with a red face or an unusually large or long nose. Early depictions of tengu show them as kite-like beings who can take a human-like form, often retaining avian wings, heads, or beaks. The tengu's long nose seems to have been conceived in the 14th century, likely as a humanization of the original bird's bill. This feature allies them with the Sarutahiko Ōkami, who is described in the 720 CE text the Nihon Shoki with a similar nose measuring seven hand-spans in length. In village festivals, the two figures are often portrayed with identical red phallic-nosed mask designs.

Some of the earliest representations of tengu appear in Japanese picture scrolls, such as the Tenguzōshi Emaki (天狗草子絵巻), painted c. 1296, which parodies high-ranking priests by endowing them with the hawk-like beaks of tengu demons.

Tengu are often pictured as taking the shape of some sort of priest. Beginning in the 13th century, tengu came to be associated in particular with yamabushi, the mountain ascetics who practice Shugendō. The association soon found its way into Japanese art, where tengu are most frequently depicted in the yamabushi's unique costume, which includes a distinctive headwear called the  tokin and a pompom sash (結袈裟). Due to their priestly aesthetic, they are often shown wielding the khakkhara, a distinct staff used by Buddhist monks, called a shakujō in Japanese.

Tengu are commonly depicted holding a magical feather fan (羽団扇). According to legend, tengu taught Minamoto no Yoshitsune to fight with the "war-fan" and "the sword". In folk tales, these fans sometimes can grow or shrink a person's nose, but usually, they have attributed the power to stir up great winds. Various other strange accessories may be associated with tengu, such as a type of tall, one-toothed geta sandal often called tengu-geta.

Origins
The term tengu and the characters used to write it are borrowed from the name of a fierce demon from Chinese folklore called tiāngǒu though this still has to be confirmed. Chinese literature assigns this creature a variety of descriptions, but most often it is a fierce and anthropophagous canine monster that resembles a shooting star or comet. It makes a noise like thunder and brings war wherever it falls. One account from the Shù Yì Jì (述異記, "A Collection of Bizarre Stories"), written in 1791, describes a dog-like tiāngǒu with a sharp beak and an upright posture, but usually tiāngǒu bear little resemblance to their Japanese counterparts.

The 23rd chapter of the Nihon Shoki, written in 720, is generally held to contain the first recorded mention of tengu in Japan. In this account a large shooting star appears and is identified by a Buddhist priest as a "heavenly dog", and much like the tiāngǒu of China, the star precedes a military uprising. "9th year, Spring, and month, 23rd day. A great star floated from East to West, and there was a noise like that of thunder. The people of that day said that it was the sound of the falling star. Others said that it was earth-thunder. Hereupon the Buddhist Priest Bin said:—"It is not the falling star, but the Celestial Dog, the sound of whose barking is like thunder.". When it appeared, there was famine".—(Nihon Shoki) Although the Chinese characters for tengu are used in the text, accompanying phonetic furigana characters give the reading as amatsukitsune (heavenly fox). M. W. de Visser speculated that the early Japanese meaning for the characters used to write Tengu may represent a conglomeration of two Chinese spirits: the tiāngǒu and the fox spirits called huli jing before the nuances of meaning were expanded to include local Japanese kami, therefore the true Tengu in appearance.

Some Japanese scholars have speculated that the tengu's image derives from that of the Hindu eagle deity Garuda, who was pluralized in Buddhist scripture as one of the major races of non-human beings. Like the tengu, the garuda are often portrayed in a human-like form with wings and a bird's beak. The name tengu seems to be written in place of that of the garuda in a Japanese sutra called the Emmyō Jizō-kyō (延命地蔵経), but this was likely written in the Edo period, long after the tengu's image was established. At least one early story in the Konjaku Monogatari describes a tengu carrying off a dragon, which is reminiscent of the garuda's feud with the nāga serpents. In other respects, however, the tengu's original behavior differs markedly from that of the garuda, which is generally friendly towards Buddhism. De Visser has speculated that the tengu may be descended from an ancient Shinto bird-demon which was syncretized with both the garuda and the tiāngǒu when Buddhism arrived in Japan. However, he found little evidence to support this idea.

A later version of the Kujiki, an ancient Japanese historical text, writes the name of Amanozako, a monstrous female deity born from the god Susanoo's spat-out ferocity, with characters meaning tengu deity (天狗神). The book describes Amanozako as a raging creature capable of flight, with the body of a human, the head of a beast, a long nose, long ears, and long teeth that can chew through swords. An 18th-century book called the Tengu Meigikō (天狗名義考) suggests that this goddess may be the true predecessor of the tengu, but the date and authenticity of the Kujiki, and of that edition, in particular, remain disputed.

Evil spirits and angry ghosts

The Konjaku Monogatarishū, a collection of stories published in the late Heian period, contains some of the earliest tales of tengu, already characterized as they would be for centuries to come. These tengu are the troublesome opponents of Buddhism, who mislead the pious with false images of the Buddha, carry off monks and drop them in remote places, possess women in an attempt to seduce holy men, rob temples, and endow those who worship them with unholy power. They often disguise themselves as priests or nuns, but their true form seems to be that of a kite.

Throughout the 12th and 13th centuries, accounts continued of tengu attempting to cause trouble in the world. They were now established as the ghosts of angry, vain, or heretical priests who had fallen on the "tengu-realm" (天狗道, tengudō). They began to possess people, especially women and girls, and speak through their mouths (kitsunetsuki). Still the enemies of Buddhism, the demons also turned their attention to the royal family. The Kojidan tells of an Empress who was possessed, and the Ōkagami reports that Emperor Sanjō was made blind by a tengu, the ghost of a priest who resented the throne.

One notorious tengu from the 12th century was himself the ghost of an emperor. The Hōgen Monogatari tells the story of Emperor Sutoku, who was forced by his father to abandon the throne. When he later raised the Hōgen Rebellion to take back the country from Emperor Go-Shirakawa, he was defeated and exiled to Sanuki Province in Shikoku. According to legend he died in torment, having sworn to haunt the nation of Japan as a great demon, and thus became a fearsome tengu with long nails and eyes like a kite's.

In stories from the 13th century, tengu began to abduct young boys as well as the priests they had always targeted. The boys were often returned, while the priests would be found tied to the tops of trees or other high places. All of the tengu's victims, however, would come back in a state near death or madness, sometimes after having been tricked into eating animal dung.

The tengu of this period were often conceived of as the ghosts of the arrogant, and as a result, the creatures have become strongly associated with vanity and pride. Today the Japanese expression tengu ni naru ("becoming a tengu") is still used to describe a conceited person.

Great and small demons

In the Genpei Jōsuiki, written in the late Kamakura period, a god appears to Go-Shirakawa and gives a detailed account of tengu ghosts. He says that they fall onto the tengu road because, as Buddhists, they cannot go to Hell, yet as people with bad principles, they also cannot go to Heaven. He describes the appearance of different types of tengu: the ghosts of priests, nuns, ordinary men, and ordinary women, all of whom in life possessed excessive pride. The god introduces the notion that not all tengu are equal; knowledgeable men become daitengu (大天狗), but ignorant ones become kotengu (小天狗).

The philosopher Hayashi Razan lists the greatest of these daitengu as Sōjōbō of Kurama, Tarōbō of Atago, and Jirōbō of Hira. The demons of Kurama and Atago are among the most famous tengu.

A section of the Tengu Meigikō, later quoted by Inoue Enryō, lists the daitengu in this order:
 * Sōjōbō (僧正坊) of Mount Kurama
 * Tarōbō (太郎坊) of Mount Atago
 * Jirōbō (二郎坊) of the Hira Mountains
 * Sanjakubō (三尺坊) of Mount Akiha
 * Ryūhōbō (笠鋒坊) of Mount Kōmyō
 * Buzenbō (豊前坊) of Mount Hiko
 * Hōkibō (伯耆坊) of Mount Daisen
 * Myōgibō (妙義坊) of Mount Ueno (Ueno Park)
 * Sankibō (三鬼坊) of Itsukushima
 * Zenkibō (前鬼坊) of Mount Ōmine
 * Kōtenbō (高天坊) of Katsuragi
 * Tsukuba-hōin (筑波法印) of Hitachi Province
 * Daranibō (陀羅尼坊) of Mount Fuji
 * Naigubu (内供奉) of Mount Takao
 * Sagamibō (相模坊) of Shiramine
 * Saburō (三郎) of Mount Iizuna
 * Ajari (阿闍梨) of Higo Province

Daitengu are often pictured in a more human-like form than their underlings, and due to their long noses, they may also be called hanatakatengu (鼻高天狗). Kotengu may conversely be depicted as more bird-like. They are sometimes called Karasu-Tengu (烏天狗), or koppa- or konoha-tengu (木葉天狗, 木の葉天狗). Inoue Enryō described two kinds of tengu in his Tenguron: the great daitengu, and the small, bird-like konoha-tengu who live in Cryptomeria trees. The konoha-tengu are noted in a book from 1746 called the Shokoku Rijin Dan (諸国里人談), as bird-like creatures with wings two meters across which were seen catching fish in the Ōi River, but this name rarely appears in literature otherwise.

Creatures that do not fit the classic bird or yamabushi image are sometimes called tengu. For example, tengu in the guise of wood-spirits may be called guhin (occasionally written kuhin) (狗賓), but this word can also refer to tengu with canine mouths or other features. The people of Kōchi Prefecture on Shikoku believe in a creature called shibaten or shibatengu (シバテン, 芝天狗), but this is a small childlike being who loves sumō wrestling and sometimes dwells in the water, and is generally considered one of the many kinds of kappa. Another water-dwelling tengu is the kawatengu (川天狗) of the Greater Tokyo Area. This creature is rarely seen, but it is believed to create strange fireballs and be a nuisance to fishermen.

Protective spirits and deities

In Yamagata Prefecture among other areas, thickets in the mountains during summer, there are several tens of tsubo of moss and sand that were revered as the "nesting grounds of tengu," and in mountain villages in the Kanagawa Prefecture, they would cut trees at night and were called "tengu daoshi" (天狗倒し, tengu fall), and mysterious sounds at night of a tree being cut and falling, or mysterious swaying sounds despite no wind, were considered the work of mountain tengu. It is also theorized that shooting a gun three times would make this mysterious sound stop. Besides this, in the Tone District, Gunma Prefecture, there are legends about the "tengu warai" (天狗笑い, tengu laugh) about how one would hear laughter out of nowhere, and if one simply presses on further, it'd become an even louder laugh, and if one tries laughing back, it'd laugh even louder than before, and the "tengu tsubute" (天狗礫, tengu pebble) (said to be the path that tengu go on) about how when walking on mountain paths, there would be a sudden wind, the mountain would rumble, and stones would come flying, and places tengu live such as "tenguda" (天狗田, tengu field), "tengu no tsumetogi ishi" (天狗の爪とぎ石, tengu scratching stone), "tengu no yama" (天狗の山, tengu mountain), "tengudani" (天狗谷, tengu valley), etc., in other words, "tengu territory" (天狗の領地) or "tengu guest quarters" (狗賓の住処). In Kanazawa's business district Owari in Hōreki 5 (1755), it is said that a "tengu tsubute" (天狗つぶて) was seen. In Mt. Ogasa, Shizuoka Prefecture, a mysterious phenomenon of hearing the sound of hayashi from the mountains in the summer was called "tengubayashi" (天狗囃子), and it is said to be the work of the tengu at Ogasa Jinja. On Sado Island (Sado, Niigata Prefecture), there were "yamakagura" (山神楽, mountain kagura), and the mysterious occurrence of hearing kagura from the mountains was said to be the work of a tengu. In Tokuyama, Ibi District, Gifu Prefecture (now Ibigawa), there were "tengu taiko" (天狗太鼓), and the sound of taiko (drums) from the mountains was said to be a sign of impending rain.

The Shasekishū, a book of Buddhist parables from the Kamakura period, makes a point of distinguishing between good and bad tengu. The book explains that the former are in command of the latter and are the protectors, not opponents, of Buddhism – although the flaw of pride or ambition has caused them to fall onto the demon road, they remain the same good, dharma-abiding persons they were in life.

The tengu's unpleasant image continued to erode in the 17th century. Some stories now presented them as much less malicious, protecting and blessing Buddhist institutions rather than menacing them or setting them on fire. According to a legend in the 18th-century Kaidan Toshiotoko (怪談登志男), a tengu took the form of a yamabushi and faithfully served the abbot of a Zen monastery until the man guessed his attendant's true form. The tengu's wings and huge nose then reappeared. The tengu requested a piece of wisdom from his master and left, but he continued, unseen, to provide the monastery with miraculous aid.

In the 18th and 19th centuries, tengu came to be feared as the vigilant protectors of certain forests. In the 1764 collection of strange stories Sanshu Kidan (三州奇談), a tale tells of a man who wanders into a deep valley while gathering leaves, only to be faced with a sudden and ferocious hailstorm. A group of peasants later tell him that he was in the valley where the guhin live, and anyone who takes a single leaf from that place will surely die. In the Sōzan Chomon Kishū (想山著聞奇集), written in 1849, the author describes the customs of the wood-cutters of Mino Province, who used a sort of rice cake called kuhin-mochi to placate the tengu, who would otherwise perpetrate all sorts of mischief. In other provinces a special kind of fish called okoze was offered to the tengu by woodsmen and hunters, in exchange for a successful day's work. The people of Ishikawa Prefecture have until recently believed that the tengu loathe mackerel, and have used this fish as a charm against kidnappings and hauntings by the mischievous spirits.

Tengu are worshipped as beneficial kami (gods or revered spirits) in various regions. For example, the tengu Saburō of Izuna is worshipped on that mountain and various others as Izuna Gongen (飯綱権現), one of the primary deities in Izuna Shugen, which also has ties to fox sorcery and the Dakini of Tantric Buddhism. Izuna Gongen is depicted as a beaked, winged figure with snakes wrapped around his limbs, surrounded by a halo of flame, riding on the back of a fox and brandishing a sword. Worshippers of tengu on other sacred mountains have adopted similar images for their deities, such as Sanjakubō (三尺坊) or Akiba Gongen (秋葉権現) of Akiba and Dōryō Gongen (道了権現) of Saijō-ji Temple in Odawara.

In popular folk tales
Tengu appear frequently in the orally transmitted tales collected by Japanese folklorists. As these stories are often humorous, they tend to portray tengu as ridiculous creatures who are easily tricked or confused by humans. Some common folk tales in which tengu appear include:

 * "The Tengu's Magic Cloak" (天狗の隠れみの): A boy looks through an ordinary piece of bamboo and pretends he can see distant places. A tengu, overwhelmed by curiosity, offers to trade it for a magic straw cloak that renders the wearer invisible. Having duped the tengu, the boy continues his mischief while wearing the cloak. Another version of this story tells of an ugly old man who tricks a tengu into giving him his magical cloak and causes mayhem for his fellow villagers. The story ends with the tengu regaining the coat through a game of riddle exchange and punishes the man by turning him into a wolf.
 * "The Old Man's Lump Removed" (瘤取り爺さん): An old man has a lump or tumor on his face. In the mountains he encounters a band of tengu making merry and joins their dancing. He pleases them so much that they want him to join them the next night, and offer a gift for him. In addition, they take the lump off his face, thinking that he will want it back and therefore have to join them the next night. An unpleasant neighbor, who also has a lump, hears of the old man's good fortune and attempts to repeat it, and steal the gift. The tengu, however, simply gives him the first lump in addition to his own, because they are disgusted by his bad dancing, and because he tried to steal the gift.
 * "The Tengu's Fan" (天狗の羽団扇) A scoundrel obtains a tengu's magic fan, which can shrink or grow noses. He secretly uses this item to grotesquely extend the nose of a rich man's daughter and then shrinks it again in exchange for her hand in marriage. Later he accidentally fans himself while he dozes, and his nose grows so long it reaches heaven, resulting in painful misfortune for him.
 * "The Tengu's Gourd" (天狗の瓢箪): A gambler meets a tengu, who asks him what he is most frightened of. The gambler lies, claiming that he is terrified of gold or mochi. The tengu answers truthfully that he is frightened of a kind of plant or some other mundane item. The tengu, thinking he is playing a cruel trick, then causes money or rice cakes to rain down on the gambler. The gambler is of course delighted and proceeds to scare the tengu away with the thing he fears most. The gambler then obtains the tengu's magic gourd (or another treasured item) that was left behind.

Martial arts

During the 14th century, the tengu began to trouble the world outside of the Buddhist clergy, and like their ominous ancestors the tiāngǒu, the tengu became creatures associated with war. Legends eventually ascribed to them great knowledge in the art of skilled combat.

This reputation seems to have its origins in a legend surrounding the famous warrior Minamoto no Yoshitsune. When Yoshitsune was a young boy going by the name of Ushiwaka-maru, his father, Yoshitomo, was assassinated by the Taira clan. Taira no Kiyomori, head of the Taira, allowed the child to survive on the grounds that he be exiled to the temple on Mount Kurama and become a monk. But one day in the Sōjō-ga-dani Valley, Ushiwaka encountered the mountain's tengu, Sōjōbō. This spirit taught the boy the art of swordsmanship so that he might bring vengeance on the Taira.

Originally the actions of this tengu were portrayed as another attempt by demons to throw the world into chaos and war, but as Yoshitsune's renown as a legendary warrior increased, his monstrous teacher came to be depicted in a much more sympathetic and honorable light. In one of the most famous renditions of the story, the Noh play Kurama Tengu, Ushiwaka is the only person from his temple who does not give up an outing in disgust at the sight of a strange yamabushi. Sōjōbō thus befriends the boy and teaches him out of sympathy for his plight.

Two stories from the 19th century continue this theme: In the Sōzan Chomon Kishū, a boy is carried off by a tengu and spends three years with the creature. He comes home with a magic gun that never misses a shot. A story from Inaba Province, related by Inoue Enryō, tells of a girl with poor manual dexterity who is suddenly possessed by a tengu. The spirit wishes to rekindle the declining art of swordsmanship in the world. Soon a young samurai appears to whom the tengu has appeared in a dream, and the possessed girl instructs him as an expert swordsman.

In popular culture
Tengu continue to be popular subjects in modern fiction, both in Japan and other countries. They often appear among the many characters and creatures featured in Japanese cinema, animation, comics, role-playing games, and video games.

 * The Unicode emoji character U+1F47A (👺) represents a tengu, under the name "Japanese Goblin".
 * The Touhou Project series prominently features tengu as a species of youkai within the setting. No less than five named characters are tengu, three of which are recurring characters, and one of which is a major character.
 * In Gargoyles the gargoyles of the Ishimaru Clan are modeled after the Tengu and in-universe were their inspiration.
 * In Yugioh the Great Long Nose card is modeled after the Tengu.
 * Nuzleaf and Shiftry from the Pokémon franchise are based on the tengu.
 * The tengu featured in the 2013 movie 47 Ronin, with their lord played by Togo Igawa.
 * Tactics features a shinto onmyoji who spends his life searching for a tengu, whom he names Haruka and another tengu named Sugino. Each tengu represents a different type: Haruka is a "black" tengu who was born as such and is more powerful than "white" Sugino, who is noted to be a former human priest who grew too arrogant and is worshipped as a mountain god. They primarily appear as humans with wings.
 * In Around the World in Eighty Days, Passepartout joins a circus in Japan where he dresses as a tengu (spelled Tingou in the book).
 * In Ghost of Tsushima, the "Mythic Quest" Curse of Uchitsune features a man with a tengu mask as the main antagonist of the Quest. In the "Legends Mode" Tengus are an enemy type that can also summon crows to attack players.
 * Tengu Man is a boss in the 1996 video game Mega Man 8.
 * In the 2003 television series of Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, an ancient mystical sword wielded by the great Tengu Shredder came into the possession of modern Tokyo ninja clan of the Foot and ended up in the hands of the four title characters. An ancient amulet called the Heart of Tengu gave the Utrom Shredder, and later Karai, command over the five Mystic Foot ninja. In Season Five: Ninja Tribunal, the original demonic Tengu Shredder who had possessed the original ninja master Oroku Saki millennia ago, returned to remake the modern world in his twisted image, but was ultimately destroyed by the Ninja Turtles' combined strength as mystical dragons and the spirit of Hamato Yoshi.
 * In Sekiro: Shadows Die Twice, the sickly, elderly leader of the Ashina, Isshin Ashina, dresses up as a Tengu when sneaking out to kill the rival government's assassins and ninjas. While wearing this disguise, the game refers to him as "The Tengu of Ashina".
 * In the 2020 video game Genshin Impact, the character Kujou Sara is a tengu, and other tengu (as well as other youkai) play a significant role in the history of the fictional nation of Inazuma, which is in turn based off of Japanese culture and mythology.

title: Tengu


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Giuseppe Ungaretti

Giuseppe Ungaretti (8 February 1888 – 2 June 1970) was an Italian modernist poet, journalist, essayist, critic, academic, and recipient of the inaugural 1970 Neustadt International Prize for Literature. A leading representative of the experimental trend known as Ermetismo ("Hermeticism"), he was one of the most prominent contributors to 20th century Italian literature. Influenced by symbolism, he was briefly aligned with futurism. Like many futurists, he took an irredentist position during World War I. Ungaretti debuted as a poet while fighting in the trenches, publishing one of his best-known pieces, L'allegria ("The Joy").

During the interwar period, Ungaretti worked as a journalist with Benito Mussolini (whom he met during his socialist accession), as well as a foreign-based correspondent for Il Popolo d'Italia and Gazzetta del Popolo. While briefly associated with the Dadaists, he developed Hermeticism as a personal take on poetry. After spending several years in Brazil, he returned home during World War II, and was assigned a teaching post at the University of Rome, where he spent the final decades of his life and career.

Early life
Ungaretti was born in Alexandria, Egypt into a family from the Tuscan city of Lucca. Ungaretti's father worked on digging the Suez Canal, where he suffered a fatal accident in 1890. His widowed mother, who ran a bakery on the edge of the Sahara, educated her child on the basis of Roman Catholic tenets.

Giuseppe Ungaretti's formal education began in French, at Alexandria's Swiss School. It was there that he became acquainted with Parnassianism and Symbolist poetry, in particular with Gabriele d'Annunzio, Charles Baudelaire, Jules Laforgue, Stéphane Mallarmé and Arthur Rimbaud. He also became familiar with works of the Classicists Giacomo Leopardi and Giosuè Carducci, as well as with the writings of maverick author Giovanni Pascoli. This period marked his debut as a journalist and literary critic, with pieces published Risorgete, a journal edited by anarchist writer Enrico Pea. At the time, he was in correspondence with Giuseppe Prezzolini, editor of the influential magazine La Voce. A regular visitor of Pea's Baracca Rossa ("Red House"), Ungaretti was himself a sympathizer of anarchist-socialist circles. He abandoned Christianity and became an atheist. It was not until 1928 that he returned to the Catholic faith.

In 1912, the 24-year-old Giuseppe Ungaretti moved to Paris, France. On his way there, he stopped in Rome, Florence and Milan, meeting face to face with Prezzolini. Ungaretti attended lectures at the Collège de France and the University of Paris, and had among his teachers was philosopher Henri Bergson, whom he reportedly admired. The young writer also met and befriended French literary figure Guillaume Apollinaire, a promoter of Cubism and a forerunner of Surrealism. Apollinaire's work came to be a noted influence on his own. He was also in contact with the Italian expatriates, including leading representatives of Futurism such as Carlo Carrà, Umberto Boccioni, Aldo Palazzeschi, Giovanni Papini and Ardengo Soffici, as well as with the independent visual artist Amedeo Modigliani.

World War I and debut
Upon the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Ungaretti, like his Futurist friends, supported an irredentist position, and called for his country's intervention on the side of the Entente Powers. Enrolled in the infantry a year later, he saw action on the Northern Italian theater, serving in the trenches. In contrast to his early enthusiasm, he became appalled by the realities of war. The conflict also made Ungaretti discover his talent as a poet, and, in 1917, he published the volume of free verse Il porto sepolto ("The Buried Port"), largely written on the Kras front. Although depicting the hardships of war life, his celebrated L'Allegria was not unenthusiastic about its purpose (even if in the poem "Fratelli", and in others, he describes the absurdity of the war and the brotherhood between all the men); this made Ungaretti's stance contrast with that of Lost Generation writers, who questioned their countries' intents, and similar to that of Italian intellectuals such as Soffici, Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, Piero Jahier and Curzio Malaparte.

By the time the 1918 armistice was signed, Ungaretti was again in Paris, working as a correspondent for Benito Mussolini's paper Il Popolo d'Italia. He published a volume of French-language poetry, titled La guerre ("The War", 1919). In 1920, Giuseppe Ungaretti married the Frenchwoman Jeanne Dupoix, with whom he had a daughter, Ninon (born 1925), and a son, Antonietto (born 1930).

During that period in Paris, Ungaretti came to affiliate with the anti-establishment and anti-art current known as Dadaism. He was present in the Paris-based Dadaist circle led by Romanian poet Tristan Tzara, being, alongside Alberto Savinio, Julius Evola, Gino Cantarelli, Aldo Fiozzi and Enrico Prampolini, one of the figures who established a transition from Italian Futurism to Dada. In May 1921, he was present at the Dadaist mock trial of reactionary author Maurice Barrès, during which the Dadaist movement began to separate itself into two competing parts, headed respectively by Tzara and André Breton. He was also affiliated with the literary circle formed around the journal La Ronda.

Hermeticism and fascism
The year after his marriage, Ungaretti returned to Italy, settling in Rome as a Foreign Ministry employee. By then, Mussolini had organized the March on Rome, which confirmed his seizure of power. Ungaretti joined in the National Fascist Party, signing the pro-fascist Manifesto of the Italian Writers in 1925. In his essays of 1926–1929, republished in 1996, he repeatedly called on the Duce to direct cultural development in Italy and reorganize the Italian Academy on fascist lines. He argued: "The first task of the Academy will be to reestablish a certain connection between men of letters, between writers, teachers, publicists. This people hungers for poetry. If it had not been for the miracle of Blackshirts, we would never have leaped this far." In his private letters to a French critic, Ungaretti also claimed that fascist rule did not imply censorship. Mussolini, who did not give a favorable answer to Ungaretti's appeal, prefaced the 1923 edition of Il porto sepolto, thus politicizing its message.

In 1925, Ungaretti experienced a religious crisis, which, three years later, made him return to the Roman Catholic Church. Meanwhile, he contributed to a number of journals and published a series of poetry volumes, before becoming a foreign correspondent for Gazzetta del Popolo in 1931, and traveling not only to Egypt, Corsica and the Netherlands, but also to various regions of Italy.

It was during this period that Ungaretti introduced Ermetismo, baptized with the Italian-language word for "Hermeticism". The new trend, inspired by both Symbolism and Futurism, had its origins in both Il porto sepolto, where Ungaretti had eliminated structure, syntax and punctuation, and the earlier contributions of Arturo Onofri. The style was indebted to the influence of Symbolists from Edgar Allan Poe to Baudelaire, Rimbaud, Mallarmé and Paul Valéry. Alongside Ungaretti, its main representatives were Eugenio Montale and Salvatore Quasimodo.

Despite the critical acclaim he enjoyed, the poet faced financial difficulties. In 1936, he moved to the Brazilian city of São Paulo, and became a Professor of Italian at São Paulo University. It was there that, in 1939, his son Antonietto died as a result of a badly performed appendectomy.

World War II and after
In 1942, three years after the start of World War II, Ungaretti returned to Axis-allied Italy, where he was received with honors by the officials. The same year, he was made a Professor of Modern Literature at the University of Rome. He continued to write poetry, and published a series of essays. By then, Hermeticism had come to an end, and Ungaretti, like Montale and Quasimodo, had adopted a more formal style in his poetry. At Rome, Ungaretti mentored the poet Elio Filippo Accrocca, whose work was greatly influenced by Ungaretti's.

At the close of the war, following Mussolini's downfall, Ungaretti was expelled from the faculty owing to his fascist connections, but reinstated when his colleagues voted in favor of his return. Affected by his wife's 1958 death, Giuseppe Ungaretti sought comfort in traveling throughout Italy and abroad. He visited Japan, the Soviet Union, Israel and the United States. In 1964, he gave a series of lectures at Columbia University in New York City, and, in 1970, was invited by the University of Oklahoma to receive its Books Abroad Prize. During this last trip, Ungaretti fell ill with bronchopneumonia, and, although he received treatment in New York City, died while under medical supervision in Milan. He was buried in Campo Verano (Rome).

Poetry
L'Allegria, previously called L'Allegria di Naufragi, is a decisive moment of the recent history of Italian literature: Ungaretti revises with novel ideas the poetic style of the poètes maudits (especially the broken verses without punctation marks of Guillaume Apollinaire's Calligrammes and the equality between verse and a single word), connecting it with his experience of death and pain as a soldier at war. The hope of brotherhood between all the people is expressed strongly, together with the desire of searching for a renovated "harmony" with the universe, impressive in the famous verses of Mattina:

A famous poem regarding the First World War is Soldati (soldiers), which emblematically and emotionally describes their feelings of uncertainty and fear:

In the successive works he studied the importance of the poetic word (marked by Hermeticism and symbolism), as the only way to save the humanity from the universal horror, and was searching for a new way to recuperate the roots of the Italian classical poetry. His last verses are on the poem l'Impietrito e il Velluto, about the memory of the bright universe eyed Dunja, an old woman that was house guest of his mother in the time of his childhood. Here is the end:

Legacy
Although Ungaretti parted company with Ermetismo ("Hermeticism"), his early experiments were continued for a while by poets such as Alfonso Gatto, Mario Luzi and Leonardo Sinisgalli. His collected works were published as Vita di un uomo ("The Life of a Man") at the time of his death.

Two of Ungaretti's poems ("Soldiers – War – Another War" and "Vanity") were made into song by American composer Harry Partch (Eleven Intrusions, 1949–50); and eleven poems were set by the French-Romanian composer Horațiu Rădulescu in his cycle End of Kronos (1999). Fragments of his poetry are set by composer Michael Mantler in Cerco un Paese Innocente, a work recorded in 1994.

Austrian-Hungarian composer Iván Eröd used his poems in four of his works: "Tutto ho perduto" Op. 12 (1965), "Canti di Ungaretti" Op. 55 (1988), "Vox lucis" Op. 56 (1988–89) and in his last work "Canti di un Ottantenne" Op. 95 (2019), completed only several days before his death in June 2019.

Published volumes

 * Il porto sepolto ("The Buried Port", 1916 and 1923)
 * La guerra ("The War", 1919 and 1947)
 * Allegria di naufragi ("The Joy of Shipwrecks", 1919)
 * L'allegria ("The Joy", 1931)
 * Sentimento del tempo ("The Feeling of Time", 1933)
 * Traduzioni ("Translations", 1936)
 * Poesie disperse ("Scattered Poems", 1945)
 * Il dolore ("The Pain", 1947)
 * La terra promessa ("The Promised Land", 1950)
 * Un grido e paesaggi ("A Shout and Landscapes", 1952)
 * Il taccuino del vecchio ("The Old Man's Notebook", 1960)
 * Vita di un uomo ("The Life of a Man", 1969)

title: Giuseppe Ungaretti


text:
Timeline of Quebec history

This article presents a detailed timeline of Quebec history. Events taking place outside Quebec, for example in English Canada, the United States, Britain or France, may be included when they are considered to have had a significant impact on Quebec's history.

 * 1533 and before
 * 1534 to 1607
 * 1608 to 1662
 * 1663 to 1759
 * 1760 to 1773
 * 1774 to 1790
 * 1791 to 1840
 * 1841 to 1866
 * 1867 to 1899
 * 1900 to 1930
 * 1931 to 1959
 * 1960 to 1981
 * 1982 to present

title: Timeline of Quebec history


text:
Intelligence and Security Committee of Parliament

The Intelligence and Security Committee of Parliament (ISC) is a statutory joint committee of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, appointed to oversee the work of the UK intelligence community.

The committee was established in 1994 by the Intelligence Services Act 1994, and its powers were reinforced by the Justice and Security Act 2013.

Work of the committee
The committee's statutory remit (under the Justice and Security Act 2013) is to examine the expenditure, administration, policy and operations of the security and intelligence Agencies; the Secret Intelligence Service (MI6), the Security Service (MI5) and Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) and Defence Intelligence in the Ministry of Defence, the Office for Security and Counter-Terrorism (OSCT) in the Home Office and the intelligence-related work of the Cabinet Office including the Joint Intelligence Organisation (JIO) and the National Security Secretariat (NSS).

The members of the committee are notified under the Official Secrets Act 1989 and are given access to highly classified material in carrying out their duties. The committee holds evidence sessions with government ministers and senior officials (for example, the heads of the security and intelligence agencies), expert witnesses such as academics and journalists, and other interested parties. It also considers written evidence from the intelligence and security agencies and relevant government departments.

The work of the committee is invariably conducted in secret. The committee produces an annual report which focuses on administration and finance, and special reports on operational or policy issues which it considers are of particular concern. The government is required to respond to the committee's reports within 60 days. The committee published five reports in 2018 – a report examining the 2017 UK terror attacks, two reports on detainee mistreatment and rendition, a report on diversity and inclusion in the UK intelligence community and an annual report. In 2019 the committee published a statement on 5G suppliers and was due to publish a report on Russia but was unable to do so because the prime minister did not confirm that the report could be published before Parliament dissolved for the 2019 general election.

Unlike a select committee, the ISC shares its reports with the government and agencies it oversees in advance of publication. This is to ensure that no details which might damage national security are published. Each report is subject to four stages: requests for factual amendments; requests for redactions; contested requests for redactions (where the committee is unwilling to accept an initial redaction request, representatives of the agencies must appear to argue the case); and confirmation from the prime minister that the document no longer contains any details damaging to national security. By convention, the prime minister has 10 working days in which to examine the report and confirm that there are no national security issues outstanding. Once that certification is received the committee makes administrative arrangement to lay the report before Parliament.

Structure
The ISC is unusual, being a statutory committee rather than a normal parliamentary select committee. Originally constituted under the Intelligence Services Act 1994 the committee was reformed, and its powers expanded by the Justice and Security Act 2013. The committee has an independent secretariat of analysts and investigators and an independent webpage.

The degree to which it is independent was historically questioned by journalists and privacy groups such as Liberty although the ISC itself says it is independent because it is composed of cross-party MPs and peers and operates in a non-partisan manner. The ISC gained stronger powers under the Justice and Security Act 2013 and is no longer appointed by the prime minister: as a result its reports since then have been seen as independent.

Membership
Parliament appoints the nine members from both the House of Commons and the House of Lords, after considering nominations from the prime minister, made following discussion with the Leader of the Opposition. The committee elect their own chair from amongst the members. Serving ministers are not allowed to be members, but members may previously have held ministerial positions. Members of the committee cease to be members when Parliament is dissolved, and new members are appointed after the new Parliament convenes.

Malcolm Rifkind was chair until 24 February 2015, when he resigned following a sting by journalists involving a bogus Chinese company and his suspension from the Conservative Party. Former Attorney General Dominic Grieve was elected by the committee as his replacement on 15 September 2015 when it reconvened after the 2015 general election. He was re-elected as chair by the committee on 23 November 2017 when it reconvened after the June 2017 general election.

On 15 July 2020, it was reported that Chris Grayling had failed to secure the nomination as chair of the committee. Acting against the Conservative Whip, Julian Lewis was elected chair by the members of the ISC. As a consequence, he had the Conservative Whip temporarily removed. A 'senior government source' told the BBC that Lewis "has been told by the chief whip that it is because he worked with Labour and other opposition MPs for his own advantage". Grayling subsequently resigned from the committee on 28 August. Bob Stewart has been appointed as Grayling's replacement.

The membership of the committee for the 2019–2024 Parliament is as follows:

The Russia report
The "Russia report" is the Intelligence and Security Committee's report into allegations of Russian interference in British politics, including alleged Russian interference in the 2016 Brexit referendum. According to the report, there is substantial evidence that Russian interference in British politics is commonplace. According to the Guardian, the main points of the report are:
 * UK government failed to investigate evidence of successful interference in democratic processes
 * 'Credible open-source commentary' suggesting Russia sought to influence Scottish independence referendum
 * Russian influence in the UK is 'the new normal'
 * Links between Russian elite and UK politics
 * Intelligence community 'took its eye off the ball' on Russia
 * UK's paper-and-pencil voting system makes direct interference harder
 * Defending UK's democratic processes is a 'hot potato'
 * Errors in Salisbury poisoning and weapons watchdog hack do not diminish Moscow threat
 * New legislation needed to replace outdated spy laws.

The inquiry began in November 2017, and a 50-page report was completed in March 2019. The report thereafter went through a process of redaction by intelligence and security agencies and was sent to Prime Minister Boris Johnson on 17 October 2019. Johnson's government refused to publicly release the report before the general election in December 2019. A number of legal actions were undertaken to try to force the government to publish it: one brought by the widow of the murdered Russian dissident Alexander Litvinenko, and another brought by the Bureau of Investigative Journalism.

Prime Minister Johnson approved its release on 13 December 2019, the day after the general election, Johnson pledged in Prime Minister's Questions in February 2020 that the report would be released, but that it could not be released until the Intelligence and Security Committee (which disbanded following the dissolution of parliament ahead of the election) was reconstituted; a former chair of the committee, Dominic Grieve, said that this was an "entirely bogus" reason for delaying publication. Grieve stated that the time between approval of release and publication was typically 10 days. By June 2020, the report had still not been released, and the Intelligence and Security Committee had not been convened, the longest gap since the committee's creation in 1994. This prompted a cross-party group of 30 MPs to urge the committee to be reconstituted and the report to be published, writing that serious issues of "transparency and integrity" of the democratic process were raised by the withholding of the report.

The full report was released on Tuesday 21 July 2020 at 1030 BST.