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A. P. Herbert

Sir Alan Patrick Herbert CH (known as A. P. Herbert; 24 September 1890 – 11 November 1971), was an English humorist, novelist, playwright, law reformist, and, from 1935 to 1950, an independent Member of Parliament for Oxford University.

Born in Ashtead, Surrey, he attended Winchester College and New College, Oxford, receiving a starred first in jurisprudence in 1914. He joined the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve as a seaman in the First World War, becoming an officer in the Royal Naval Division. He fought in Gallipoli and on the Western Front, as a battalion adjutant in 1917, before injury removed him from the front line. After the war he published The Secret Battle and in 1924 joined the staff of Punch. As an MP he campaigned for private-member rights, piloted the Matrimonial Causes Act 1937 through Parliament, opposed Entertainments Duty and campaigned against the Oxford Group. He joined the River Emergency Service in 1938, captaining a boat on the River Thames in the Second World War as a petty officer in the Royal Naval Auxiliary Patrol. In 1943, he joined a parliamentary commission on the future of the Dominion of Newfoundland.

Early life and education
Herbert was born at Ashtead Lodge, Ashtead, Surrey, on 24 September 1890. His father, Patrick Herbert Coghlan Herbert (1849–1915), was a civil servant (assistant secretary of the Judicial and Public Department) in the India Office, of Irish origin, and his mother, Beatrice Eugenie (née Selwyn), was the daughter of Sir Charles Jasper Selwyn, a Lord Justice of Appeal. His two younger brothers both died in battle: Owen William Eugene, Second lieutenant, Royal Field Artillery, killed at Mons in 1914, and Sidney Jasper, Captain R.N., killed 1941 aboard HMS Hood. His mother died of tuberculosis when he was eight, shortly before he left for The Grange in Folkestone, a preparatory school.

Herbert then attended Winchester College, winning the King's Medal for English Verse and the King's Medal for English Speech, presented by Prime Minister H. H. Asquith. He took an active part in the college debating and Shakespeare societies. As a Winchester student, Herbert sent verses to the offices of Punch and received notes of encouragement and suggestions from the editor, Owen Seaman. Herbert was also Captain of Houses, one of the college's three football divisions.

Herbert went to New College, Oxford as an exhibitioner. He made his first public speech at the Kensington branch of the Tariff Reform League, speaking extempore on home rule. His first contribution to Punch was printed on 24 August 1910: a set of verses entitled "Stones of Venus". He went up to Oxford in October and made his first speech at the Oxford Union in November. His work began appearing not only in Punch, but in The Observer, the Pall Mall Gazette and Vanity Fair.

Herbert received a "not very good Second" in Honour Moderations, and apparently disenchanted with Classics, changed his degree to Law. He went into lodgings with Walter Monckton and others and was good friends with the notables Duff Cooper, Harold Macmillan and Philip Guedalla. Herbert finished at Oxford in 1914 with "a very good First" in Jurisprudence. He then decided to join his friend Jack Parr as a volunteer at Oxford House in Bethnal Green for a year. He spent the time "doing what I could:" washing dishes, sweeping floors, running errands and collecting money.

First World War service, 1914–1918
On 5 September 1914, Herbert enlisted at Lambeth Pier as an ordinary seaman in the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve, which later became one of the constituent bodies of the Royal Naval Division. In early October, news reached him that his brother, Owen Herbert, had been posted "missing, believed killed" in the retreat from Mons. Herbert reached the rank of acting leading seaman before being commissioned as a sub-lieutenant in early 1915, when he was posted to Hawke Battalion of the Royal Naval Division (later to come under army command as part of the 63rd (Royal Naval) Division).

"C" and "D" companies of the Hawke Battalion left for Gallipoli in early 1915, briefly stopping in Malta before arriving at the Moudros on 17 May, and finally reaching Gallipoli on 27 May. Herbert took command of No. 11 Platoon, "C" Company, composed mostly of Tynesiders and also two men from a remote Durham mining town. A week after his arrival, the battalion suffered heavy casualties at the Third Battle of Krithia. In July 1915, Herbert went down with illness and had to spend time recovering in a military hospital. When he was passed "fit for light duty", he was seconded to the Naval Intelligence Division at Whitehall. It was then that he decided to rent No. 12 Hammersmith Terrace as a dwelling.

In summer 1916, when he was passed fit for duty, Herbert returned to Hawke Battalion at their base camp in Abbeville, where he was made assistant adjutant. The battalion moved to the front line at Souchez in July 1916, and in mid-November it took part in an attack on Beaucourt-sur-l'Ancre during the Battle of the Ancre, which saw almost the entire battalion wiped out. Herbert was one of only two officers to come out unscathed from the attack. When the battalion returned to the front line at Pozières in February 1917, Herbert was made the battalion's adjutant, but he was later injured from shrapnel during an attack on Gavrelle, west of Arras.

On medical leave back in England after the injury, Herbert began writing his first book, The Secret Battle, which he finished "in a few weeks". He was elected a member of the Savage Club and raised by Punch to the "exclusive group of its contributors who were allowed to attach their initials to their work." On 2 October 1918, Herbert sailed from Liverpool in a convoy for Alexandria, as assistant to the Commodore. After arriving at Port Said, he was given a free pass to Cairo and allowed to make a number of unaccompanied incursions inland. He was able to visit several places on the North African coast, and from Tunis took a train to Constantine, Algeria and then to Algiers. On 11 November, he went by train from Oran to Tlemcen. Exactly at 11 am, he heard that the Armistice had been signed. As he wrote, "I must have been the only Englishman for at least 80 miles."

Herbert was granted shore leave at Gibraltar and took the chance to travel to Seville, then to Córdoba. He arrived in Madrid on 22 November and dined with the Embassy's naval attaché, Captain John Harvey, as well as Filson Young and others, before making the return journey to Gibraltar.

Interwar career, 1918–1935
The Secret Battle was recommended to Methuen Publishing by E. V. Lucas and announced in their spring list in 1919. It was "read all night" by Prime Minister Lloyd George, who brought it to the attention of Churchill, then Secretary of State for War. Montgomery saw it as "the best story of front line war" and Herbert himself believed that court-martial arrangements were subsequently "altered in some way" as a result of the book. However, the book had no great commercial success, which his biographer Reginald Pound puts down to the fact that "Readers, it seems, were tired of war as a dramatic theme."

Herbert was called to the Bar by Inner Temple in 1919 and entered the chambers of Leslie Scott. He was joined by two Oxford friends, Walter Monckton and Henry Strauss, who were called on the same day. Although he spent time at Inner Temple, he never practised law and did not enter a legal career. He later said he was "forever sorry" not to be "of the proud and faithful brotherhood who serve the laws of England."

Unable to sustain himself on Punch's "eccentric rates of payment", Herbert wrote his second book, The House by the River, in two months. It was published in 1920. He handed his literary business to A. P. Watt, who sold the American rights to The House by the River and published a collection of his prose submissions to Punch under the title Light Articles Only.

In January 1924, Owen Seaman, the editor of Punch, invited Herbert to join its staff. Herbert accepted and his accession meant he would receive a salary of £50 a week. In 1925, Herbert attended the Third Imperial Press Conference on behalf of Punch, where he made his first speech in front of a large audience in Melbourne, where it was described as "delectably witty" by Sir Harry Brittain.

In 1926, Herbert was invited by Nigel Playfair to write "an entertainment" for the Lyric Theatre, Hammersmith. The result was Riverside Nights, performed at the Lyric in April 1926. His next play, The White Witch, was performed at Haymarket Theatre in September 1926.

Early parliamentary career, 1935–1939
Herbert first encountered Parliament in 1934, when he brought the Kitchen Committee of the House of Commons to court for selling liquor without a licence. Hewart, LCJ ruled that the court would not hear the complaint because the matter fell within parliamentary privilege. Since the decision was never challenged in a higher court, it led to a unique situation of uncertainty as to "the extent to which statute law applies to either House of Parliament." The following year Herbert published Uncommon Law, and Hewart contributed a generous introduction.

Herbert first had the idea of standing for Parliament a few weeks before the 1935 general election, when he ran into Frederick Lindemann, who had just been rejected as Conservative candidate for Oxford University. Herbert decided to stand as an Independent, aided by Frank Pakenham as his election agent. Herbert wrote an "unconventional" 5,000-word election address, which included the statement, "Agriculture: I know nothing about agriculture."

Herbert was elected as an Independent supporter of the National Government. Defying the advice of more experienced members, including Austen Chamberlain, he made his maiden speech on 4 December 1935, the second day of the opening session of the new Parliament. He protested to Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin on a motion that would give precedence to government bills over private member's bills. He went into the "No" lobby alongside the members of the Independent Labour Party and fellow University member Eleanor Rathbone, but the motion was passed by 232 to 5. Churchill praised Herbert for his "composure and aplomb" and famously said: "Call that a maiden speech? It was a brazen hussy of a speech. Never did such a painted lady of a speech parade itself before a modest Parliament." During the speech, Herbert promised to introduce his Matrimonial Causes Bill into law by the end of the Parliament.

Herbert's novel Holy Deadlock (1934) deals at length with the inconsistencies of English divorce law. Malavika Rajkotia writes that "This novel sparked off the first divorce law reform movement in England, which led to the passing of the Matrimonial Causes Act 1937". In 1936, Herbert failed to be drawn in the private members' ballot but managed to get the Conservative Rupert De la Bère to sponsor the bill. On 20 November, Herbert made a speech in its favour and it passed its second reading by 78 votes to 12. It was given a third reading in the House of Lords on 19 July 1937 and passed by 79 votes to 28. It was passed, somewhat strengthened by the House of Lords, in 1938 as the Matrimonial Causes Act 1937. It allowed divorce to be given without requiring proof of adultery, but fake adulteries and bizarre rules about collusion persisted until the Divorce Reform Act 1969 came into force in 1971.

During the prewar period, Herbert drafted a number of bills that were printed on the Order Paper, including a Betting and Bookmakers Bill, a Public Refreshment Bill and a Spring (Arrangements) Bill, which was written in verse. Herbert made numerous attacks on the Entertainments Duty, which had been introduced as a "temporary, war-time tax" in 1916. In his campaign against the duty, Herbert worked closely with William Mabane, and they made some headway when in 1939 the Chancellor of the Exchequer Sir John Simon reduced the duty. Herbert also spoke out against the proposed Population (Statistics) Bill in 1937 by making a speech that was received with "loud laughter" in the Commons chamber, making it, according to Punch, "an astonishing occasion". Herbert and others brought in several amendments to the bill before it reached the statute book in 1938.

Herbert was also a fervent opponent of the Oxford Group and its leader, Frank Buchman. In particular, he opposed the use of "Oxford" in its name and its supposed association with the University of Oxford. He was supported by the university in his endeavours, particularly by the Oxford Union, which unanimously passed a resolution in support of him. Support for Herbert was also expressed by H. A. L. Fisher, the Warden of New College, Oxford, and Douglas Veale, the Registrar of the University of Oxford.

Second World War service, 1939–1945
On 3 November 1938, Herbert enrolled himself and his boat, the Water Gipsy, in the River Emergency Service, which was under the control of the Port of London Authority. Over the summer of 1939, he had taken part in exercises involving simulated air raids and casualty retrieval. In early September 1939, the River Emergency Service reported to its war stations. Herbert's own crew consisted of Darcy Braddell, vice-president of the Royal Institute of British Architects, Victor Pasmore, Magnus Pyke and John Pudney. At the sounding of the first air-raid siren in London in 1939, the Water Gipsy was anchored off the Speaker's Steps by Westminster Bridge. A number of MPs left the Commons following the sirens and cheered the Water Gipsy as the only naval vessel in sight before they saluted it.

During the Second World War, Herbert was the only non-commissioned officer in the House of Commons, and he wore his uniform on any and every occasion during the war. He turned down efforts to persuade him to apply for a commission, although he once appeared before a selection board against his will. He also turned down the offer of a role in Churchill's war cabinet when asked by saying, "No, thank you, sir. I'm quite happy where I am."

Herbert was sent to Newfoundland and Labrador in 1943 with Derrick Gunston and Charles Ammon as members of a parliamentary commission to investigate the future of the dominion. Of the alternatives, he supported independence, rather than Confederation with Canada.

Later parliamentary career, 1945–1950
After his re-election in the 1945 general election on 5 July, Herbert noted of the new Parliament that "the surge of Socialism into the House of Commons was something to see." The Labour Party, under Clement Attlee, had won 393 seats and the Conservatives had won only 197. Herbert said of the newly elected Labour MPs, "Arrogance, I am sorry to say, remained. There was such a concerto of nastiness and hate and imbecile yelling, that I thanked God, many times, that I was an Independent and could be silent without disloyalty". Herbert campaigned to ensure that the newly elected MPs realised the significance of private members' time. He prepared a number of private member's bills, including ones covering betting reform, legal aid for the poor, a fairer voting system, and the abolition of decree nisi. However, he was unsuccessful in his first attempt to guarantee private members' time, which was restored later in the Parliament.

In autumn 1945, George Orwell had the essay Notes on Nationalism published in the magazine Polemic and named Herbert as one of the followers of "neo-Toryism", who were marked by a "desire not to recognise that British power and influence have declined." Herbert's biographer, Reginald Pound, noted, "APH would have rejected the Tory affiliation, though his inclinations were with the Right."

From July 1945 to 1946, Herbert worked on the libretto for Charles B. Cochran's new musical, Big Ben. It opened at the Adelphi Theatre on 17 July 1946 and was watched on its opening night by Churchill, Montgomery, Attlee and Herbert, but Cochran himself was too ill to attend. During its first three months, it took an average of £4,000 a week at the box office, but the running costs were also high and so there was no fortune in it for Cochran or for Herbert. Its run was over at the end of 1946, after 172 performances. Cochran commissioned Herbert to write another musical, Bless the Bride, which opened at the Adelphi on 26 April 1947. It ran for two-and-a-quarter years, was the source of "an accretion of cash" for Herbert, and was Cochran's most successful musical. It includes the hit song 'Ma Belle Marguerite'.

Herbert sat on the Supreme Court Committee on Practice and Procedures, chaired by Raymond Evershed, investigating the cost of litigation. He also chaired the Literary Sub-Committee of the 1948 Summer Olympics in London, which judged the literary compositions of 29 nations in their own languages. He accepted an invitation to serve on the Council of the Festival of Britain to be held in 1951. At the time, he was already a member of the Thames Conservancy Board, a trustee of the National Maritime Museum, president of the Inland Waterways Association and a vice president of the Pedestrians' Association for Road Safety. In addition he authored a critical study of royal commissions for the Institute of Economic Affairs, which was dismissed for its "light touch". Herbert commented: "Had it included graphs and tables and been written in a heavy style it would have been accepted as a major contribution to the practice of sound administration."

Herbert was re-elected in the 1945 general election and continued as an MP until University seats were abolished in 1950 under the Representation of the People Act 1948. Herbert's last speech, on 23 November 1949, was strongly in favour of the Festival of Britain. He was knighted in 1945 in Winston Churchill's Resignation Honours. The Times noted "his individual niche in the parliamentary temple as the doughty vindicator of the private member's rights, including not least the right to legislate."

In 1951, Herbert published a memoir of his service in the House of Commons: Independent Member (Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Co., Inc., 1951). Ten years later he was the subject of a This Is Your Life TV programme in 1961, when he was surprised by Eamonn Andrews.

Personal life
Herbert first met his future wife, Gwendolyn Harriet Quilter, daughter of Harry Quilter, in the summer of 1914. They became engaged in December 1914 and were married in the first week of 1915 by Frederic Iremonger, Vicar of St James the Great in Bethnal Green. Herbert wore his formal dress uniform as an Acting Leading Seaman for the wedding. They spent their honeymoon in a room in Fulham Road.

Gwendolyn lived to the age of 97, dying in 1986. Lady Herbert was elected in 1966 as the first President of Hammersmith Chess Club and was a well-known face on the chess circuit. They had four children: Crystal, Lavender, Jocelyn and John.

The Thames
Herbert loved the River Thames. He lived beside it at Hammersmith, West London. He was a member of the Thames Conservancy Board and a Freeman of the Company of Watermen and Lightermen.

In 1966, he wrote a book, The Thames (Weidenfeld & Nicolson), in which he explored the "machinery" of the river in all its aspects.

Death
In the last days of 1970, Herbert was taken to Middlesex Hospital in Fitzrovia, after a seizure that affected his left side and arm. Within six weeks, he was home again, but over many months his physical powers waned. In August 1971, he wrote his last letter to The Times, an appeal for parliamentary good manners in refraining from "witty derision of the literary exertions of Mr Harold Wilson" and of the "marine activities" of Edward Heath. By then, he was describing himself as "a recumbent nuisance".

A. P. Herbert died on 11 November 1971. Obituaries were published in The Times and in Punch. The Times accompanied its obituary notice with a leading article, saying he had done "more than any man of his day to add to the gaiety of the nation."

A memorial service on 6 December in the church of St Martin-in-the-Fields which was "crowded to overflowing". On 7 December, the Congressional Record of the US House of Representatives appeared with four pages of tributes to Herbert by congressmen from Ohio, Missouri, West Virginia and Wisconsin. Robert H. Land, chief of the Reference Department of the Library of Congress, later said that there was "[no] record or recollection of a similar tribute to another English writer in the proceedings of Congress."

References by other authors
In a 1957 article entitled "Over Seventy", lamenting the decline of the humorist, P. G. Wodehouse wrote: "I want to see an A. P. Herbert on every street corner, an Alex Atkinson in every local."

The title of Alexandra Fuller's 2001 memoir Don't Let's Go to the Dogs Tonight: An African Childhood is taken from a Herbert quote, "Don't let's go to the dogs tonight, for Mother will be there."

"Misleading cases"

Starting in 1910, he contributed regularly to Punch. One series of his that it took was Misleading Cases in the Common Law – the work for which he is best remembered. These were satirical pieces in the form of "law reports" or "legal judgments" on various aspects of the English legal and judicial system. Many featured the exploits of Albert Haddock, a tireless and veteran litigant. One of the best-known and most colourful is Board of Inland Revenue v Haddock, also known as "The Negotiable Cow". Even the title is a humorous allusion to the entirely serious "Smith's Leading Cases". Herbert often referred to himself as "A. P. Haddock" in skits in Punch magazine, whether or not these had a courtroom setting.

Thanks to their realism, Herbert's satires were on several occasions mistakenly reported by newspapers, both in Britain and elsewhere, as factual. One of the "cases", supposedly establishing a novel crime of "doing what you like", was sharply criticised by an American law review article, whose author failed to note its entire absurdity. As such, Herbert's contributions are examples of the literary technique known as false document. Whereas in these fictitious law reports, the fictitious judges and lawyers regularly cited various real and venerable authorities, such as Henry de Bracton, they were prone also to citing texts of Herbert's own imagining, such as "Wedderburn on Water Courses" and "A. Capone's Handbook for Bootleggers".

More importantly, the cases were Herbert's vehicles for law-reform work. Beneath their satire, they often made cogent legal or political points that tied into his personal crusades against obsolescent legislation. Although fictional, they are consequently sometimes quoted in judicial decisions, and are also the subject of academic research.

Over his lifetime Herbert published five collections, entitled Misleading Cases in the Common Law, More Misleading Cases, Still More Misleading Cases, Codd's Last Case and Bardot M.P.?. Stray cases also appear in his collections of miscellaneous humorous essays, such as General Cargo. Virtually all the cases were assembled into two omnibus volumes, Uncommon Law in 1935 and More Uncommon Law in 1982. A shorter selection, Wigs at Work, appeared in 1966.

The BBC successfully adapted these for television, as three series of A P Herbert's Misleading Cases (1967, 1968 and 1971), with Roy Dotrice as Haddock and Alastair Sim as the judge, Mr Justice Swallow.

Novels and other writings
Herbert wrote eight novels, including The Water Gipsies (1930) and Number Nine (1951), about a post-war civil service, a weekend selection and 15 plays, including the light operas Tantivy Towers (1931) and Big Ben (1946), and the comedy Bless the Bride (1947), which ran for two-and-a-quarter years in London.

Herbert published three comic epistolary novels featuring a slangy flapper named Topsy: The Trials of Topsy (1928) Topsy, MP (1929), and Topsy Turvy (1947). They originated as letters published in Punch, and were published together in 1949 as The Topsy Omnibus, and later in a bowdlerized edition, The Voluble Topsy, 1928-1947 (2023).

In addition to his fiction, Herbert wrote What a Word! in 1935, continuing his campaign in Punch for better use of English, including a section on "Plain English", more than a decade ahead of Sir Ernest Gowers's more celebrated work. Characteristically, Herbert uses humour to make his serious points about good writing. He authored the lyrics of the patriotic song "Song of Liberty", set in 1940 to the music of Edward Elgar's Pomp and Circumstance March No. 4. In 1944, a set of posters by Eric Kennington, a personal friend, called Seeing It Through, were accompanied by Herbert poems. They describe the work of certain professionals in London in the war. After the war he wrote a booklet, "The War Story of Southend Pier", detailing when the pier was taken over by the Royal Navy in World War II.

In 1967, Herbert published Sundials Old and New; or, Fun with the Sun; a book describing in detail his long fascination with and experiments in sundial technology. In the book, he describes all manner of sundials, and recounts many of his experiments in designing and building different models, including a few that could be used to tell your position on the earth as well as the local time.

In 1970 Herbert published A.P.H., His Life and Times, dedicated to "My dear wife, for our 56th anniversary".

Selected filmography

 * Tell England (1931)
 * Waltz Time (1933)

General

 * The Secret Battle, 1919, Methuen (A novel about a soldier executed for cowardice)
 * The House by the River, 1921, Methuen (A novel about a war poet who commits a murder.) Film: House by the River (1950)
 * Little Rays of Moonshine (1921), also known as Light articles only (1922)
 * The Man About Town (1923)
 * The Old Flame (1925)
 * Misleading Cases in the Common Law (1927)
 * Honeybubble & Co. (1928)
 * Topsy, M.P., 1929, Ernest Benn
 * The Water Gipsies, 1930, Methuen
 * No Boats on the River, 1932, Methuen
 * What a Word!, 1935, Methuen
 * Holy Deadlock, 1934, Methuen
 * Uncommon Law, 1935, Methuen; 1969 (new edition), Methuen
 * Mild and Bitter, 1936, Methuen
 * The Ayes Have It: The Story of the Marriage Bill, 1937, Methuen
 * Sip!: Swallow! (1938)
 * General Cargo (1940)
 * A Better Sky: Or, Name This Star (1944) Astronomy
 * The War Story of Southend Pier, 1945, County Borough of Southend-on-Sea
 * The Point of Parliament (1946)
 * Topsy Turvy (1947)
 * The Topsy Omnibus, 1949, Ernest Benn
 * Independent Member, 1950, Methuen; republished October 1970 (ISBN 0-09-308880-9)
 * Number Nine, 1951, Methuen (ISBN 978-1125619834)
 * Codd's Last Case, 1952, Methuen
 * Why Waterloo?, 1952, Methuen
 * Made for Man, 1958, Methuen (Novel)
 * Look Back and Laugh (1960)
 * Bardot, M.P., 1964, Methuen
 * The Thames (1966), Weidenfeld & Nicolson
 * Wigs at Work, 1966
 * Sundials Old and New: Or, Fun with the Sun, 1967, Methuen
 * The Singing Swan: A Yachtsman's Yarn, 1968 (Novel)
 * In The Dark; The Summer Time Story and The Painless Plan, 1970, The Bodley Head
 * A.P.H., His Life and Times, 1970, Heinemann
 * More Uncommon Law, 1982
 * The voluble Topsy, with an introduction by Kate Macdonald, Bath, United Kingdom : Handheld Press, 2023, ISBN 978-1-912766-46-8

Drama and musicals

 * Double Demon, an Absurdity in One Act (1926)
 * The Red Pen, radio opera, music by Geoffrey Toye, BBC broadcast, 7 February 1927
 * Fat King Melon and Princess Caraway: A Drama in Five Scenes (1927), music arranged by Dennis Arundell
 * Derby Day: A Comic Opera in Three Acts [1931], music by Alfred Reynolds
 * Tantivy Towers: A Light Opera in Three Acts (1931), music by Thomas Dunhill
 * Home and Beauty, (1937) coronation revue, music by Nicholas Brodzsky, produced by C B Cochran, Adelphi Theatre
 * Big Ben: A Light Opera in Two Acts (1946), music by Vivian Ellis
 * Bless the Bride: A Light Opera in Two Acts (1947), music by Vivian Ellis

Poetry

 * A.T.I. 'There is no need for alarm' (1944) with drawings by John Nicolson
 * Play Hours with Pegasus (1912)
 * Half-hours at Helles (1916)
 * The Bomber Gypsy, and Other Poems (1919)
 * The Wherefore and the Why; Some New Rhymes for Old Children (1921)
 * Laughing Ann, and Other Poems (1925)
 * Plain Jane (1927) Poems and plays in verse
 * Ballads for Broadbrows (1930)
 * A Book of Ballads, Being the Collected Light Verse of A. P. Herbert (1931)
 * Let Us be Glum [1941]
 * Siren Song (1941)
 * Well, Anyhow... or Little Talks (1942)
 * Bring Back the Bells (1943)
 * Less Nonsense! (1944)
 * Light the Lights (1945)
 * Leave my Old Morale Alone (1948) Includes: Siren song / Let us be glum / Bring back the bells / Well, Anyhow... or Little Talks / Less nonsense! / Light the lights
 * Full Enjoyment and Other Verses (1952)
 * Silver Stream: A Beautiful Tale of Hare & Hound for Young & Old (1962)
 * The Spider

Styles

 * 1890–1914: Mr Alan Patrick Herbert
 * 1914–1914: Ordinary Seaman A. P. Herbert
 * 1914–1914: Able Seaman A. P. Herbert
 * 1914–1915: Acting Leading Seaman A. P. Herbert
 * 1915–1918: Sub-Lieutenant A. P. Herbert RNVR
 * 1918–1935: Mr A. P. Herbert
 * 1935–1939: A. P. Herbert MP
 * 1939–1945: Petty Officer A. P. Herbert MP
 * 1945–1950: Sir A. P. Herbert MP
 * 1950–1970: Sir A. P. Herbert
 * 1970–1971: Sir A. P. Herbert CH

title: A. P. Herbert


text:
Crime in Estonia

Estonia is a relatively safe country, and the risk of being a victim of crime in Estonia is small by international standards. As in other post-Soviet states, crime has increased in the 1990s, but then it has gradually decreased in the 21st century.

Murder
In 2020, Estonia had a murder rate of 2.8 per 100,000 population. This was the third highest rate among European Union countries, behind Latvia (4.9) and Lithuania (3.5); nevertheless lower than the global average of 6.1 victims per 100,000 people (in 2017). In 2022 there were a total of 18 murders which was the lowest number since regaining independence.

The murder rate was considerably higher in the 1990s and the 2000s. An average of 9.4 people per 100,000 per year were killed in Estonia between 1999 and 2001.

Organised crime
Organized crime is characterized by a loose alliance of mobster groups, principally of Russian origins, with a wide range of different rackets: prostitution, motor vehicle theft, drug trafficking, and previously also "providing" workers to building contracts in Finland, where the criminal organizations were confiscating a share of workers' wages. Although small, the mafia is hierarchical and well-organized, which has enabled its survival.

The Common Fund
The Common Fund (ühiskassa) is a traditional umbrella organisation of criminal groups, a trade union of sorts which settles conflicts and establishes the boundaries of the spheres of interest of the various groups. In 2003, the Common Fund had been dominated for about 15 years by Nikolai Tarankov of Russian heritage and KGB training. However, Tarankov was killed by his godson in 2016. The Common Fund pays for lawyers of caught members, purchases and delivers packages to imprisoned members and covers other expenses. Such "insurance" increases the loyalty of the members.

In 2005, the Estonian Central Criminal Police noticed a decline in revenues of the Common Fund, leading to capture of several high-ranking members. The decline has been attributed to changes in Estonian society, particularly those experienced in the lead-up to accession to European Union.

In 2010s, the police have been successful in disrupting the operations of the Obtshak by arresting high-ranking members. One of the kingpins, Assar Paulus, was convicted in 2016 for founding a criminal organization and funding drug trafficking. The gang got its income through illegal debt collection and extortion, and some members committed tax fraud, drug crimes and violent crimes. In general, violent crime and protection rackets have become a thing of the past: it is no longer necessary for ordinary businessmen to pay protection money. Instead, the mafia is more involved in drug trade and white-collar crime such as tax fraud. Also, many former mafia "businessmen" have moved to legitimate business.

Fraud
Aarni Neuvonen is the largest ever perpetrator of employment fraud in Estonia. He is known for having collected money with promise of overseas jobs from thousands of people and disappearing after having caused over (estimated) 10 million of EEK of damages in 1993. Avo Viiol was convicted for embezzlement in 2003. The neologism viioldama, has become a slang verb meaning "to embezzle".

Drugs
The illegal drug trade's turnover in Estonia according to 2008 estimates might be several billion EEK. According to the opinion of senior superintendent of narcotic crimes department at North Police Prefecture only 1% of the whole amount of drugs on the market is confiscated in Estonia. In 2011, the EUROPOL Trafficking Unit designated the Baltic states and Kaliningrad as a transit hub for drug trafficking in and out of Russia.

Corruption
In 2008, Transparency International has measured the Corruption Perception Index for Estonia to be at 6.6 (CI 6.2–6.9), ranking it 27th in a list of 180 countries. In comparison, neighbouring Sweden was ranked 1st–3rd with a CPI at 9.3 (CI 9.2–9.4), Finland 5th–6th with a CPI at 9.0 (CI 8.4–9.4), Russia 147th–150th with a CPI at 2.1 (CI 1.9–2.5), and Latvia 52nd with a CPI at 5.0 (CI 4.8–5.2). Higher index means perception of more transparency and less corruption. As of 2014 the Corruption Perception Index for Estonia is 6.9, placing it at the 26th position (in the context of EU above France and below Austria). In 2022 Estonia ranked 14th.

A total of 326 corruption-related offenses were identified and registered in 2008, considerably below the number registered in 2006, when 511 instances of corruption were found, but 17% higher than in 2007, and slightly higher than in 2003. These accounted for just 0.6% of all criminal offenses.

Foreign investors do not consider corruption as a main problem of doing business in Estonia. In general, the public sector is transparent and has good compliance with anti-corruption initiatives and demonstrates adherence to ethical principles on the cultural level.

In February 2012, the government passed an anti-corruption act in order to further improve transparency in the public sector, such as asset disclosure by government officials. Public trust in the electoral system is high. However, the government still faces challenges in combating corruption. Local-level government corruption still remains a problem, and public awareness of corruption-prevention needs to be raised.

Human trafficking
According to Interpol in 2002, since the fall of the Soviet Union the largest group of prostitutes working in Finland has consisted of trafficked women from Estonia and Russia.

The 2012 "Trafficking in Persons Report" issued by the US Trafficking state department repeats the claims of previous years that Estonia is "source, transit, and destination" for adult human trafficking, and that Estonia fails to comply with their minimum standards for eliminating trafficking. It now adds that the government "is making significant efforts to do so". Trafficking is now treated as a serious matter by the Estonian government, which enacted a law in 2012 criminalizing trafficking in persons with penalties of up to 15 years imprisonment. The Estonian government identified 56 victims in 2011; 39 women, 17 men, and no children; 37 were sex trafficking victims, 19 were labor trafficking.

The report also states that the Estonian government funds ($US42k) an active anti-trafficking hotline, and that it has increased funding ($US158k) for anti-trafficking victim care and that it maintains a "strong and supportive" relationship with organisations active in anti-trafficking. To this end the government has published a victim identification guide in Estonian and Russian, for use by law enforcement officials. The government has distributed anti-trafficking material at tourism and job fairs. Consular officials have visited schools to discuss dangers of trafficking. The government has also co-ordinated efforts in trafficking-reduction/elimination with other countries and has taken various other anti-trafficking measures.

Crime dynamics
Estonia is currently one of the safest and stablest countries in Europe, but between the 1990s and the 2000s, organized crime prevailed and it was characterized by a loose alliance of mobster groups, principally of Russian origins, with a wide range of different rackets: prostitution, motor vehicle theft, drug trafficking, and previously also "providing" workers to building contracts in Finland, where the criminal organizations were confiscating a share of workers' wages. Although small size, the Estonian mafia was hierarchical and well-organized, which has enabled its survival to this day, albeit to a much more modest form. Also, the murder rate was considerably higher than ever during the same period in Estonia; for example, an average of 9.4 people per 100,000 per year were killed in Estonia between 1999 and 2001. According to statistics published in Britain in 2008 relating to the period 1991–2001, the number of crimes increased by 84% from 1991 to 2001. The number of discovered drug-related crimes increased by 21 between 1997 and 2001. Overall, crime has fallen precipitously between 1995 and 2010, by close to 70%.

Jewellery robberies
In December 2006, it was estimated that residents of Estonia were responsible for 140 robberies of jewellery and watch stores in Finland, the Netherlands, Portugal, Italy, Spain, France, Germany, the United Kingdom, Denmark, and Sweden during the three years prior. The value of the lost property is estimated to be 25 million euros. In 2012, Le gang des Estoniens was tried in France for robbing several jeweller's shops in Paris.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Crime in Estonia


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Ulf Timmermann

Ulf Béla Timmermann (, ; born 1 November 1962 in East Berlin) is a German former shot putter who broke the world record several times during the 1980s, and is the first and one of only four people to ever throw over 23 metres (along with Randy Barnes, Joe Kovacs and Ryan Crouser).

Timmermann was born in Berlin to an athletic family and took up shot put at 13. He broke his first world record in 1985 with a throw of 22.62 meters. On 22 May 1988 he became the first person to throw over 23 meters with a throw of 23.06 meters at Chania, Greece.

He won gold for East Germany at the 1988 Olympics in Seoul, ahead of Randy Barnes of the U.S. The fourth place throw at this competition would have won every previous Olympics in the shot put. At the 1992 Olympics, he represented Germany, but finished a disappointing fifth. He left competition afterwards.

Timmermann is the farthest thrower of all time in the shot put using the glide technique. He also passed 22 metres in 16 different competitions. His coach was Werner Goldmann who is currently coaching shot put and discus throw in Berlin.

title: Ulf Timmermann


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Content moderation

On Internet websites that invite users to post comments, content moderation is the process of detecting contributions that are irrelevant, obscene, illegal, harmful, or insulting, in contrast to useful or informative contributions, frequently for censorship or suppression of opposing viewpoints. The purpose of content moderation is to remove or apply a warning label to problematic content or allow users to block and filter content themselves.

Various types of Internet sites permit user-generated content such as comments, including Internet forums, blogs, and news sites powered by scripts such as phpBB, a Wiki, or PHP-Nuke etc. Depending on the site's content and intended audience, the site's administrators will decide what kinds of user comments are appropriate, then delegate the responsibility of sifting through comments to lesser moderators. Most often, they will attempt to eliminate trolling, spamming, or flaming, although this varies widely from site to site.

Major platforms use a combination of algorithmic tools, user reporting and human review. Social media sites may also employ content moderators to manually inspect or remove content flagged for hate speech or other objectionable content. Other content issues include revenge porn, graphic content, child abuse material and propaganda. Some websites must also make their content hospitable to advertisements.

In the United States, content moderation is governed by Section 230 of the Communications Decency Act, and has seen several cases concerning the issue make it to the United States Supreme Court, such as the current Moody v. NetChoice, LLC.

Supervisor moderation
Also known as unilateral moderation, this kind of moderation system is often seen on Internet forums. A group of people are chosen by the site's administrators (usually on a long-term basis) to act as delegates, enforcing the community rules on their behalf. These moderators are given special privileges to delete or edit others' contributions and/or exclude people based on their e-mail address or IP address, and generally attempt to remove negative contributions throughout the community. They act as a good invisible backbone, underpinning the social web in a crucial but undervalued role.

Facebook
As of 2017, Facebook had increased the number of content moderators from 4,500 to 7,500 in 2017 due to legal and other controversies. In Germany, Facebook was responsible for removing hate speech within 24 hours of when it was posted. As of 2021, according to Frances Haugen, the number of Facebook employees responsible for content moderation was much smaller.

If you have a new Page on Facebook, you can manage the following moderation settings:

 * Comment ranking: See the most relevant comments on your public posts first.
 * Profanity filter: You can choose whether to block profanity from your Page, and to what degree. Facebook determines what to block by using the most commonly reported words and phrases marked as offensive by the community.
 * Country restrictions: You can choose to show your Page to people in certain countries or hide it from people in others. If no countries are listed, your Page will be visible to everyone.
 * Age restrictions: When you select an age restriction for your Page, people younger than the age won't be able to see your Page or its content.
 * Keyword blocklist: Hide comments containing certain words from your timeline.
 * Tag review: Review tags people add to your posts before the tags appear on Facebook.
 * Blocking: Once you block someone, that person can no longer see things that you post on your timeline, tag your Page, invite your Page to events or groups or start a conversation with your Page.
 * Inbox comment moderation: Manage comment moderation for Inbox from Meta Business Suite

Twitter
Social media site Twitter has a suspension policy. Between August 2015 and December 2017 it suspended over 1.2 million accounts for terrorist content in an effort to reduce the number of followers and amount of content associated with the Islamic State. Following the acquisition of Twitter by Elon Musk in October 2022, content rules have been weakened across the platform in an attempt to prioritize free speech. However, the effects of this campaign have been called into question.

Commercial content moderation
Commercial Content Moderation is a term coined by Sarah T. Roberts to describe the practice of "monitoring and vetting user-generated content (UGC) for social media platforms of all types, in order to ensure that the content complies with legal and regulatory exigencies, site/community guidelines, user agreements, and that it falls within norms of taste and acceptability for that site and its cultural context."

While at one time this work may have been done by volunteers within the online community, for commercial websites this is largely achieved through outsourcing the task to specialized companies, often in low-wage areas such as India and the Philippines. Outsourcing of content moderation jobs grew as a result of the social media boom. With the overwhelming growth of users and UGC, companies needed many more employees to moderate the content. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, tech companies began to outsource jobs to foreign countries that had an educated workforce but were willing to work for cheap.

As of 2010, employees work by viewing, assessing and deleting disturbing content. Wired reported in 2014, they may suffer psychological damage  In 2017, the Guardian reported secondary trauma may arise, with symptoms similar to PTSD. Some large companies such as Facebook offer psychological support and increasingly rely on the use of artificial intelligence to sort out the most graphic and inappropriate content, but critics claim that it is insufficient. In 2019, NPR called it a job hazard.

Facebook
Facebook has decided to create an oversight board that will decide what content remains and what content is removed. This idea was proposed in late 2018. The "Supreme Court" at Facebook is to replace making decisions in an ad hoc manner.

User moderation
User moderation allows any user to moderate any other user's contributions. Billions of people are currently making decisions on what to share, forward or give visibility to on a daily basis. On a large site with a sufficiently large active population, this usually works well, since relatively small numbers of troublemakers are screened out by the votes of the rest of the community.

User moderation can also be characterized by reactive moderation. This type of moderation depends on users of a platform or site to report content that is inappropriate and breaches community standards. In this process, when users are faced with an image or video they deem unfit, they can click the report button. The complaint is filed and queued for moderators to look at.

title: Content moderation


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Talk:Content moderation

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 15 March 2021 and 2 April 2021. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Mt105cs115.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 04:21, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

Untitled
I wonder how the system used here at Wikipedia fits in with all this...

Not suitable for children?
Wikipedia is allowed to make such opinionated comments?

Status?
Is anyone actively working on the overall content of this article? I think there are some improvements that we can make, and I am happy to try to help if no one else has time to do. Uberveritas 07:24, 15 December 2006 (UTC)

- I wanted to inquire again to see if anyone is working on this article. I see some work that needs to be done. Also, while Slashdot is referenced many times across the internet, I think we need to see some additional examples. Slashdot is one example of many types of moderation system. I think a new structure should be created for this article. (Uberveritas 06:05, 15 May 2007 (UTC))

If you are still around, Uberveritas, why not go ahead and edit the article directly? After all this time you should feel justified to do so. Or, if you still have doubts, propose the changes in this page first. --213.227.18.42 (talk) 22:31, 27 October 2011 (UTC)

Facilitation.com ?
I removed the link to facilitaiton.com. It just looks like plainful spam to me. Feel free to reverse if I missed something. --Iv 14:12, 9 May 2007 (UTC)

Is the Electric Frontier Foundation relevant here?
Can somebody explain why the we link to the EFF advocacy site? While I don't doubt that it's germane to blogging in general, I don't see how it directly relates to moderation systems. Kansan (talk) 17:21, 25 October 2011 (UTC)

Moderation not on internet
Only internet moderation is mentioned here and it only refers to deleting messages and banning users. I think moderation is much more than just that and is quite a complex subject. The concept of off-topic is not even mentioned but other are "irrelevant, obscene, illegal, or insulting with regards to useful or informative contributions." Well, the most importante function of a Moderator is to make sure that posts are on topic, for a start. Other factors are secondary. Also, what about moderating a debate on a radio program, for instance? Yes, more work needs be done here. --213.227.18.42 (talk) 22:31, 27 October 2011 (UTC)

 * As for moderating off-topic comments, that would fall under the word "irrelevant", which is in there, as you mentioned. Also, moderating debates is an entirely different thing, and the only thing it has in common with moderating systems is the word "moderating". This article is specifically about moderating comments. Kansan (talk) 19:30, 28 October 2011 (UTC)

title: Talk:Content moderation


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Urban ecology

Urban ecology is the scientific study of the relation of living organisms with each other and their surroundings in an urban environment. An urban environment refers to environments dominated by high-density residential and commercial buildings, paved surfaces, and other urban-related factors that create a unique landscape. The goal of urban ecology is to achieve a balance between human culture and the natural environment.

Urban ecology is a recent field of study compared to ecology. Currently, most of the information in this field is based on the easier to study species of mammals and birds. To close the gap in knowledge, attention should be paid to all species in the urban space like insects and fish. This study should also expand to suburban spaces with its unique mix of development and surrounding nature. The methods and studies of urban ecology is a subset of ecology. The study of urban ecology carries increasing importance because more than 50% of the world's population today lives in urban areas. It is also estimated that within the next 40 years, two-thirds of the world's population will be living in expanding urban centers. The ecological processes in the urban environment are comparable to those outside the urban context. However, the types of urban habitats and the species that inhabit them are poorly documented which is why more research should be done in urban ecology.

History
Historically, ecology has focused on natural environments, but by the 1970s many ecologists began to turn their interest towards ecological interactions taking place in and caused by urban environments. In the nineteenth century, naturalists such as Malthus, De Candolle, Lyell, and Darwin found that competition for resources was crucial in controlling population growth and is a driver of extinction. This concept was the basis of evolutionary ecology. Jean-Marie Pelt's 1977 book The Re-Naturalized Human, Brian Davis' 1978 publication Urbanization and the diversity of insects, and Sukopp et al.'s 1979 article "The soil, flora and vegetation of Berlin's wastelands" are some of the first publications to recognize the importance of urban ecology as a separate and distinct form of ecology the same way one might see landscape ecology as different from population ecology. Forman and Godron's 1986 book Landscape Ecology first distinguished urban settings and landscapes from other landscapes by dividing all landscapes into five broad types. These types were divided by the intensity of human influence ranging from pristine natural environments to urban centers.

Early ecologists defined ecology as the study of organisms and their environment. As time progressed urban ecology was recognized as a diverse and complex concept which differs in application between North America and Europe. The European concept of urban ecology examines the biota of urban areas, the North American concept has traditionally examined the social sciences of the urban landscape, as well as the ecosystem fluxes and processes, and the Latin American concept examines the effect of human activity on the biodiversity and fluxes of urban ecosystems. A renaissance in the development of urban ecology occurred in the 1990s that was initiated by the US National Science in funding two urban long-term ecological research centers and this promoted the study of urban ecology.

The field of urban ecology is rapidly expanding, with an increasing number of dedicated research centers emerging. Among the pioneers are the Urban Ecology Research Laboratory (UERL) at the University of Washington, established in 2001, and the Urban Ecology Laboratory (LEU) at the Costa Rican Distance University, founded in 2008. The UERL in Washington specializes in analyzing urban landscape patterns, ecosystem functions, modeling land cover changes, and developing scenarios for urban adaptation within the state. In contrast, Costa Rica's LEU holds distinction as the world's first research center exclusively devoted to studying tropical urban ecosystems. Research conducted there spans various facets of urban ecology, including biodiversity, the impacts of climate change on cities and their surrounding areas (particularly tropical highlands), and the intricate interactions between human activities and urban environments.

Methods
Since urban ecology is a subfield of ecology, many of the techniques are similar to that of ecology. Ecological study techniques have been developed over centuries, but many of the techniques use for urban ecology are more recently developed. Methods used for studying urban ecology involve chemical and biochemical techniques, temperature recording, heat mapping remote sensing, and long-term ecological research sites.

Chemical and biochemical techniques
Chemical techniques may be used to determine pollutant concentrations and their effects. Tests can be as simple as dipping a manufactured test strip, as in the case of pH testing, or be more complex, as in the case of examining the spatial and temporal variation of heavy metal contamination due to industrial runoff. In that particular study, livers of birds from many regions of the North Sea were ground up and mercury was extracted. Additionally, mercury bound in feathers was extracted from both live birds and from museum specimens to test for mercury levels across many decades. Through these two different measurements, researchers were able to make a complex picture of the spread of mercury due to industrial runoff both spatially and temporally.

Other chemical techniques include tests for nitrates, phosphates, sulfates, etc. which are commonly associated with urban pollutants such as fertilizer and industrial byproducts. These biochemical fluxes are studied in the atmosphere (e.g. greenhouse gases), aquatic ecosystems and soil nematodes. Broad reaching effects of these biochemical fluxes can be seen in various aspects of both the urban and surrounding rural ecosystems.

Temperature data and heat mapping
Temperature data can be used for various kinds of studies. An important aspect of temperature data is the ability to correlate temperature with various factors that may be affecting or occurring in the environment. Oftentimes, temperature data is collected long-term by the Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research (OAR), and made available to the scientific community through the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Data can be overlaid with maps of terrain, urban features, and other spatial areas to create heat maps. These heat maps can be used to view trends and distribution over time and space.

Remote sensing

Remote sensing is the technique in which data is collected from distant locations through the use of satellite imaging, radar, and aerial photographs. In urban ecology, remote sensing is used to collect data about terrain, weather patterns, light, and vegetation. One application of remote sensing for urban ecology is to detect the productivity of an area by measuring the photosynthetic wavelengths of emitted light. Satellite images can also be used to detect differences in temperature and landscape diversity to detect the effects of urbanization.

LTERs and long-term data sets
Long-term ecological research (LTER) sites are research sites funded by the government that have collected reliable long-term data over an extended period of time in order to identify long-term climatic or ecological trends. These sites provide long-term temporal and spatial data such as average temperature, rainfall and other ecological processes. The main purpose of LTERs for urban ecologists is the collection of vast amounts of data over long periods of time. These long-term data sets can then be analyzed to find trends relating to the effects of the urban environment on various ecological processes, such as species diversity and abundance over time. Another example is the examination of temperature trends that are accompanied with the growth of urban centers. There are currently two active urban LTERs: Central Arizona-Phoenix (CAP), first launched in 1997 and housed at Arizona State University and Minneapolis-St. Paul Metropolitan Area (MSP). The Baltimore Ecosystem Study (BES) was originally funded in 1998 as an urban LTER but as is no longer funded by the National Science Foundation as of 2021.

Urban effects on the environment
Humans are the driving force behind urban ecology and influence the environment in a variety of ways - urbanization being a key example. Urbanization is tied to social, economic and environmental processes. There are six core aspects: air pollution, ecosystems, land use, biogeochemical cycles, water pollution, solid waste management, and the climate. Urbanization was driven by migration into cities and the rapid environmental implications that came with it; increased carbon emissions, energy consumption, impaired ecology; all primarily negative. Despite the impacts, the perception of urbanization at present is shifting from challenges to solutions. Cities are home to an abundant amount of financially well-off, knowledgeable and innovative initiators who are increasing the involvement of science in urban policy processes and concepts. The intersection of the multiple processes/integrated systems approach which can easily emerge within a city, includes five characteristics that can emphasize this fundamental shift at a low cost. These solutions are integrated, comprehensive, multifunctional approaches that speak to the social, economic, and cultural contexts of cities. They take into account the chemical, biophysical, and ecological aspects that define urban systems, including lifestyle choices that are interlinked with the culture of a city. However, despite adapting the opportunities that a city can participate in, the results of the concepts that researchers have developed remains uncertain.

Modification of land and waterways
Humans place high demand on land not only to build urban centers, but also to build surrounding suburban areas for housing. Land is also allocated for agriculture to sustain the growing population of the city. Expanding cities and suburban areas necessitate corresponding deforestation to meet the land-use and resource requirements of urbanization. Key examples of this are Deforestation in the United States and Europe.

Along with manipulation of land to suit human needs, natural water resources such as rivers and streams are also modified in urban establishments. Modification can come in the form of dams, artificial canals, and even the reversal of rivers. Reversing the flow of the Chicago River is a major example of urban environmental modification. Urban areas in natural desert settings often bring in water from far areas to maintain the human population and will likely have effects on the local desert climate. Modification of aquatic systems in urban areas also results in decreased stream diversity and increased pollution.

Trade, shipping, and spread of invasive species

Both local shipping and long-distance trade are required to meet the resource demands important in maintaining urban areas. Carbon dioxide emissions from the transport of goods also contribute to accumulating greenhouse gasses and nutrient deposits in the soil and air of urban environments. In addition, shipping facilitates the unintentional spread of living organisms, and introduces them to environments that they would not naturally inhabit. Introduced or alien species are populations of organisms living in a range in which they did not naturally evolve due to intentional or inadvertent human activity. Increased transportation between urban centers furthers the incidental movement of animal and plant species. Alien species often have no natural predators and pose a substantial threat to the dynamics of existing ecological populations in the environment into which they are introduced. Invasive species are successful when they are able to have proliferate reproduction due to short life cycles, contain or adapt to have traits that suit the environment and appear in high densities. Such invasive species are numerous and include house sparrows, ring-necked pheasants, European starlings, brown rats, Asian carp, American bullfrogs, emerald ash borer, kudzu vines, and zebra mussels among numerous others, most notably domesticated animals. Brown rats are a highly invasive species in urban environments, and are commonly seen in the streets and subways of New York City, where they pose multiple negative effects to infrastructure, native species and human health. Brown rats carry several types of parasites and pathogens that can possibly infect humans and other animals. In New York City a genetic study exploring genome wide variation concluded that multiple rats were originally from Great Britain. In Australia, it has been found that removing Lantana (L. camara, an alien species) from urban green spaces can have negative impacts on bird diversity locally, as it provides refugia for species like the superb fairy (Malurus cyaneus) and silvereye (Zosterops lateralis), in the absence of native plant equivalents. Although, there seems to be a density threshold in which too much Lantana (thus homogeneity in vegetation cover) can lead to a decrease in bird species richness or abundance.

Positive effect
Some urban animals can have a positive impact on the lives of humans. Studies show that the presence of domestic animals can reduce stress, anxiety and loneliness. Additionally some urban animals act as predators to animals like insects, etc., that can be harmful to humans Also urban species can serve many more purposes including agriculture, transport, and protection.

Negative effect
Some urban species have a negative impact on humans. For example, pests' urine fecal matter, and skin fragments can spread germs if ingested by humans Diseases caused by pests or insects can be fatal. They include: salmonella, meningitis, Weil's disease, Lyme disease, etc. Some people are allergic to certain insects like bees, wasps and therefore being exposed to them will cause serious allergic responses (rashes for example).

According to Seth Magle, attacks from wildlife in an urban setting, while rare are detrimental to societal views on wildlife. Due to media coverage of these rare attacks, urban populations assume these interactions as more common than they really are which further affects the tolerance of urban wildlife.

Human effects on biogeochemical pathways
Urbanization results in a large demand for chemical use by industry, construction, agriculture, and energy providing services. Such demands have a substantial impact on biogeochemical cycles, resulting in phenomena such as acid rain, eutrophication, and global warming. Furthermore, natural biogeochemical cycles in the urban environment can be impeded due to impermeable surfaces that prevent nutrients from returning to the soil, water, and atmosphere.

Demand for fertilizers to meet agricultural needs exerted by expanding urban centers can alter chemical composition of soil. Such effects often result in abnormally high concentrations of compounds including sulfur, phosphorus, nitrogen, and heavy metals. In addition, nitrogen and phosphorus used in fertilizers have caused severe problems in the form of agricultural runoff, which alters the concentration of these compounds in local rivers and streams, often resulting in adverse effects on native species. A well-known effect of agricultural runoff is the phenomenon of eutrophication. When the fertilizer chemicals from agricultural runoff reach the ocean, an algal bloom results, then rapidly dies off. The dead algae biomass is decomposed by bacteria that also consume large quantities of oxygen, which they obtain from the water, creating a "dead zone" without oxygen for fish or other organisms. A classic example is the dead zone in the Gulf of Mexico due to agricultural runoff into the Mississippi River.

Just as pollutants and alterations in the biogeochemical cycle alter river and ocean ecosystems, they exert likewise effects in the air. Some stems from the accumulation of chemicals and pollution and often manifests in urban settings, which has a great impact on local plants and animals. Because urban centers are often considered point sources for pollution, local plants have adapted to withstand such conditions.

Urban effects on climate
Urban environments and outlying areas have been found to exhibit unique local temperatures, precipitation, and other characteristic activity due to a variety of factors such as pollution and altered geochemical cycles. Some examples of the urban effects on climate are urban heat island, oasis effect, greenhouse gases, and acid rain. This further stirs the debate as to whether urban areas should be considered a unique biome. Despite common trends among all urban centers, the surrounding local environment heavily influences much of the climate. One such example of regional differences can be seen through the urban heat island and oasis effect.

Urban heat island effect

The urban heat island is a phenomenon in which central regions of urban centers exhibit higher mean temperatures than surrounding urban areas. Much of this effect can be attributed to low city albedo, the reflecting power of a surface, and the increased surface area of buildings to absorb solar radiation. Concrete, cement, and metal surfaces in urban areas tend to absorb heat energy rather than reflect it, contributing to higher urban temperatures. Brazel et al. found that the urban heat island effect demonstrates a positive correlation with population density in the city of Baltimore. The heat island effect has corresponding ecological consequences on resident species. However, this effect has only been seen in temperate climates.

Greenhouse gases
Emissions of greenhouse gases allow humans to inhabit the earth because they capture heat from the sun to make the climate adequate. In 1896, Swedish scientist Svante Arrhenius established that fossil fuels caused carbon dioxide emissions (the most abundant and harmful greenhouse gas). In the 20th century, American climate scientist James E. Hansen concluded that Greenhouse effect is changing the climate for the worse.

Carbon dioxide is the most abundant greenhouse gas and accounts for 3/4 of emissions. It is emitted by burning coal, oil, gas, wood, and other organic material. Another greenhouse gas is methane. it can come from landfill, natural gases, and or petroleum industries. Nitrous oxide accounts for about 6% of the emissions, and can come from fertilizers, manure, burning of agricultural residues, and or fuel. Finally, fluorinated gases account for 2% of greenhouse gas emissions and can come from refrigerants, solvents, etc. The excessive emission of greenhouse gases is responsible for much of the harm that can be observed today including global warming, respiratory diseases due to pollution, extinction or migration of certain species, etc. These issues can be reduced if not resolved by eliminating the use of fossil fuels in favor of renewable energy sources.

Acid rain and pollution
Processes related to urban areas result in the emission of numerous pollutants, which change corresponding nutrient cycles of carbon, sulfur, nitrogen, and other elements. Ecosystems in and around the urban center are especially influenced by these point sources of pollution. High sulfur dioxide concentrations resulting from the industrial demands of urbanization cause rainwater to become more acidic. Such an effect has been found to have a significant influence on locally affected populations, especially in aquatic environments. Wastes from urban centers, especially large urban centers in developed nations, can drive biogeochemical cycles on a global scale.

Urban environment as an anthropogenic biome
The urban environment has been classified as an anthropogenic biome, which is characterized by the predominance of certain species and climate trends such as urban heat island across many urban areas. Examples of species characteristic of many urban environments include, cats, dogs, mosquitoes, rats, flies, and pigeons, which are all generalists. Many of these are dependent on human activity and have adapted accordingly to the niche created by urban centers. However, the large number of wild species being discovered in urban areas around the world suggest that a bewildering diversity of life is able to call urban areas their home. The relationship between urbanisation and wildlife diversity may not be as straightforward as previously imagined. This change in imagination has been possible due to coverage of a much larger number of cities in varied parts of the world that now show that past trends and assumptions were largely due to a bias in coverage of cities in temperate, developed countries.

Biodiversity and urbanization
Research in countries of temperate areas indicates that, on a small scale, urbanization often increases the biodiversity of non-native species while reducing that of native species. This normally results in an overall reduction in species richness and increase in total biomass and species abundance. Urbanization reduces diversity on a large scale in cities of developed countries, but in tropical and subtropical cities, despite the high human densities, can retain very high diversity if small patches of habitats are retained across the city. Even domestic urban and suburban properties near high density city centres can support well over a thousand macro-organism species, many of which are often native. These urban landscapes can also support many complex ecosystem interactions. However, urbanization disrupts many other species interactions that would occur in undeveloped natural habitat.

Urban stream syndrome is a consistently observed trait of urbanization characterized by high nutrient and contaminant concentration, altered stream morphology, increased dominance of dominant species, and decreased biodiversity The two primary causes of urban stream syndrome are storm water runoff and wastewater treatment plant effluent.

Changes in diversity
Diversity is normally reduced at intermediate-low levels of urbanization but is always reduced at high levels of urbanization. These effects have been observed in vertebrates and invertebrates while plant species tend to increase with intermediate-low levels of urbanization but these general trends do not apply to all organisms within those groups. For example, McKinney's (2006) review did not include the effects of urbanization on fishes and of the 58 studies on invertebrates, 52 included insects while only 10 included spiders. There is also a geographical bias as most of the studies either took place in North America or Europe.

The effects of urbanization also depend on the type and range of resources used by the organism. Generalist species, those that use a wide range of resources and can thrive under a large range of living conditions, are likely to survive in uniform environments. Specialist species, those that use a narrow range of resources and can only cope with a narrow range of living conditions, are unlikely to cope with uniform environments. There will likely be a variable effect on these two groups of organisms as urbanization alters habitat uniformity. Endangered plant species have been reported to occur throughout a wide range of urban ecosystems, many of them being novel ecosystems.

A study of 463 bird species reported that urban species share dietary traits. Specifically, urban species were larger, consumed more vertebrates and carrion, and fed more frequently on the ground or aerially, and also had broader diets than non‐urban species.

Cause of diversity change
The urban environment can decrease diversity through habitat removal and species homogenization—the increasing similarity between two previously distinct biological communities. Habitat degradation and habitat fragmentation reduces the amount of suitable habitat by urban development and separates suitable patches by inhospitable terrain such as roads, neighborhoods, and open parks. Although this replacement of suitable habitat with unsuitable habitat will result in extinctions of native species, some shelter may be artificially created and promote the survival of non-native species (e.g. house sparrow and house mice nests). Urbanization promotes species homogenization through the extinction of native endemic species and the introduction of non-native species that already have a widespread abundance. Changes to the habitat may promote both the extinction of native endemic species and the introduction of non-native species. The effects of habitat change will likely be similar in all urban environments as urban environments are all built to cater to the needs of humans.

Wildlife in cities are more susceptible to suffering ill effects from exposure to toxicants (such as heavy metals and pesticides). In China, fish that were exposed to industrial wastewater had poorer body condition; being exposed to toxicants can increase susceptibility to infection. Humans have the potential to induce patchy food distribution, which can promote animal aggregation by attracting a high number of animals to common food sources; “this aggregation may increase the spread of parasites transmitted through close contact; parasite deposition on soil, water, or artificial feeders; and stress through inter‐ and intraspecific competition.” The results of a study performed by Maureen Murray (et al.), in which a phylogenetic meta-analysis of 516 comparisons of overall wildlife condition reported in 106 studies was performed, confirmed these results; “our meta‐analysis suggests an overall negative relationship between urbanization and wildlife health, mainly driven by considerably higher toxicant loads and greater parasite abundance, greater parasite diversity, and/or greater likelihood of infection by parasites transmitted through close contact.”

The urban environment can also increase diversity in a number of ways. Many foreign organisms are introduced and dispersed naturally or artificially in urban areas. Artificial introductions may be intentional, where organisms have some form of human use, or accidental, where organisms attach themselves to transportation vehicles. Humans provide food sources (e.g. birdfeeder seeds, trash, garden compost) and reduce the numbers of large natural predators in urban environments, allowing large populations to be supported where food and predation would normally limit the population size. There are a variety of different habitats available within the urban environment as a result of differences in land use allowing for more species to be supported than by more uniform habitats.

Ways to improve urban ecology: civil engineering and sustainability
Cities should be planned and constructed in such a way that minimizes the urban effects on the surrounding environment (urban heat island, precipitation, etc.) as well as optimizing ecological activity. For example, increasing the albedo, or reflective power, of surfaces in urban areas, can minimize urban heat island, resulting in a lower magnitude of the urban heat island effect in urban areas. By minimizing these abnormal temperature trends and others, ecological activity would likely be improved in the urban setting.

Need for remediation
Urbanization has indeed had a profound effect on the environment, on both local and global scales. Difficulties in actively constructing habitat corridors and returning biogeochemical cycles to normal raise the question as to whether such goals are feasible. However, some groups are working to return areas of land affected by the urban landscape to a more natural state. This includes using landscape architecture to model natural systems and restore rivers to pre-urban states.

It is becoming increasingly critical that conservation action be enacted within urban landscapes. Space in cities is limited; urban infill threatens the existence of green spaces. Green spaces that are in close proximity to cities are also vulnerable to urban sprawl. It is common that urban development comes at the cost of valuable land that could host wildlife species. Natural and financial resources are limited; a larger focus must be placed on conservation opportunities that factor in feasibility and maximization of expected benefits. Since the securing of land as a protected area is a luxury that cannot be extensively implemented, alternative approaches must be explored in order to prevent mass extinction of species. Borgström et al. 2006 hold that urban ecosystems are especially prone to "scale mismatch" whereby the right course of action is heavily dependent on species size. For some species conservation can be achieved in a single isolated garden because their small size permits a large population, e.g. soil microorganisms. Meanwhile, that is the wrong scale for species that are more mobile and/or larger, e.g. pollinators and seed dispersers, which will require larger and/or connected spaces.

The need to pursue conservation outcomes in urban environments is most pronounced for species whose global distribution is contained within a human-modified landscape. The fact is that many threatened wildlife species are prevalent among land types that were not originally intended for conservation. Of Australia's 39 urban-restricted threatened species, 11 species occur at roadsides, 10 species occur in private lands, 5 species occur in military lands, 4 species in schools, 4 species in golf courses, 4 species at utility easements (such as railways), 3 species at airports and 1 species at hospitals. The spiked rice flower species Pimelea spicata persists mainly at a golf course, while the guinea-flower hibbertia puberula glabrescens is known mainly from the grounds of an airport. Unconventional landscapes as such are the ones that must be prioritized. The goal in the management of these areas is to bring about a “win-win” situation where conservation efforts are practiced while not compromising the original use of the space. While being near to large human populations can pose risks to endangered species inhabiting urban environments, such closeness can prove to be an advantage as long as the human community is conscious and engaged in local conservation efforts.

Species reintroduction
Reintroduction of species to urban settings can help improve the local biodiversity previously lost; however the following guidelines should be followed in order to avoid undesired effects.

 * 1) No predators capable of killing children will be reintroduced to urban areas.
 * 2) There will be no introduction of species that significantly threaten human health, pets, crops or property.
 * 3) Reintroduction will not be done when it implies significant suffering to the organisms being reintroduced, for example stress from capture or captivity.
 * 4) Organisms that carry pathogens will not be reintroduced.
 * 5) Organisms whose genes threaten the genetic pool of other organisms in the urban area will not be reintroduced.
 * 6) Organisms will only be reintroduced when scientific data support a reasonable chance of long-term survival (if funds are insufficient for the long-term effort, reintroduction will not be attempted).
 * 7) Reintroduced organisms will receive food supplementation and veterinary assistance as needed.
 * 8) Reintroduction will be done in both experimental and control areas to produce reliable assessments (monitoring must continue afterwards to trigger interventions if necessary).
 * 9) Reintroduction must be done in several places and repeated over several years to buffer for stochastic events.
 * 10) People in the areas affected must participate in the decision process, and will receive education to make reintroduction sustainable (but final decisions must be based on objective information gathered according to scientific standards).

Sustainability

With the ever-increasing demands for resources necessitated by urbanization, recent campaigns to move toward sustainable energy and resource consumption, such as LEED certification of buildings, Energy Star certified appliances, and zero emission vehicles, have gained momentum. Sustainability reflects techniques and consumption ensuring reasonably low resource use as a component of urban ecology. Techniques such as carbon recapture may also be used to sequester carbon compounds produced in urban centers rather continually emitting more of the greenhouse gas. The use of other types of renewable energy like bioenergy, solar energy, geothermal energy, and wind energy would also help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

Green Infrastructure Implementation
Urban areas can be converted to areas that are more conducive to hosting wildlife through the application of green infrastructure. Although the opportunities of green infrastructure (GI) to benefit human populations have been recognized, there are also opportunities to conserve wildlife diversity. Green infrastructure has the potential to support wildlife robustness by providing a more suitable habitat than conventional, “grey” infrastructure as well as aid in stormwater management and air purification. GI can be defined as features that were engineered with natural elements or natural features. This natural constitution helps prevent wildlife exposure to man-made toxicants. Although research on the benefits of GI on biodiversity has increased exponentially in the last decade, these effects have rarely been quantified. In a study performed by Alessandro Filazzola (et al.), 1,883 published manuscripts were examined and meta-analyzed in reference to 33 relevant studies in order to determine the effect of GI on wildlife. Although there was variability in the findings, it was determined that the implementation of GI improved biodiversity compared to conventional infrastructure. In some cases, GI even preserved comparable measures of biodiversity to natural components.

Urban green space
A barrier associated with finding the right amount of urban green space is the variety of space needed by different species to complete their life cycles. This is also compounded with the man-made barriers neighboring green spaces that can restrict movement of certain species from other urban green spaces located nearby.

Increasing Wildlife Habitat Connectivity

The implementation of wildlife corridors throughout urban areas (and in between wildlife areas) would promote wildlife habitat connectivity. Habitat connectivity is critical for ecosystem health and wildlife conservation yet is being compromised by increasing urbanization. Urban development has caused green spaces to become increasingly fragmented and has caused adverse effects in genetic variation within species, population abundance and species richness. Urban green spaces that are linked by ecosystem corridors have higher ecosystem health and resilience to global environmental change. Employment of corridors can form an ecosystem network that facilitates movement and dispersal. However, planning these networks requires a comprehensive spatial plan.

One approach is to target “shrinking” cities (such as Detroit, Michigan, USA) that have an abundance of vacant lots and land that could be repurposed into greenways to provide ecosystem services (although even cities with growing populations typically have vacant land as well). However, even cities with high vacancy rates sometimes can present social and environmental challenges. For instance, vacant land that stands on polluted soils may contain heavy metals or construction debris; this must be addressed before the repurposing. Once land has been repurposed for ecosystem services, avenues must be pursued that could allow this land to contribute to structural or functional connectivity.

Structural connectivity refers to parts of the landscape that are physically connected. Functional connectivity refers to species-specific tendencies that indicate interaction with other parts of the landscape. Throughout the City of Detroit, spatial patterns were detected that could promote structural connectivity. The research performed by Zhang “integrates landscape ecology and graph theory, spatial modeling, and landscape design to develop a methodology for planning multifunctional green infrastructure that fosters social-ecological sustainability and resilience”. Using a functional connectivity index, there was found to be a high correlation between these results (structural and functional connectivity), suggesting that the two metrics could be indicators of each other and could guide green space planning.

Although urban wildlife corridors could serve as a potential mitigation tool, it is important that they are constructed so as to facilitate wildlife movement without restriction. As humans may be perceived as a threat, the success of the corridors is dependent on human population density proximity to roads. In a study performed by Tempe Adams (et al.), remote-sensor camera traps and data from GPS collars were utilized to assess whether or not the African elephant would use narrow urban wildlife corridors. The study was performed in three different urban-dominated land use types (in Botswana, South Africa) over a span of two years.

The results of the study indicated that elephants tended to move through unprotected areas more quickly, spending less time in those areas. Using vehicular traffic as a measure of human activity, the study indicated that elephant presence was higher during times when human activity was at a minimum. It was determined that “formal protection and designation of urban corridors by the relevant governing bodies would facilitate coexistence between people and wildlife at small spatial scales.” However, the only way this co-existence could be feasible is by creating structural connectivity (and thus promoting functional connectivity) by implementing proper wildlife corridors that facilitate easy movement between habitat patches. The usage of green infrastructure that is connected to natural habitats has been shown to reap greater biodiversity benefits than GI implemented in areas far from natural habitats. GI close to natural areas may also increase functional connectivity in natural environments.

Roadkill Mitigation

In the United States, roadkill takes the lives of hundreds of thousands to hundreds of millions of mammals, birds and amphibians each year. Roadkill mortality has detrimental effects on the persistence probability, abundance and genetic diversity of wildlife populations (more so than reduced movement through habitat patches). Roadkill also has an effect on driver safety. If green areas cannot be reserved, the presence of wildlife habitats in close proximity to urban roads must be addressed. The optimal situation would be to avoid constructing roads next to these natural habitats, but other preventative measures can be pursued to reduce animal mortality. One way these effects could be mitigated is through implementation of wildlife fencing in prioritized areas. Many countries utilize underpasses and overpasses combined with wildlife fencing to reduce roadkill mortality in an attempt to restore habitat connectivity. It is unrealistic to try to fence entire road networks because of financial constraints. Therefore, areas in which the highest rates of mortality occur should be focused on.

Indigenous knowledge
Urban sprawl is one of many ways that Indigenous people's land is taken and developed in cities of the global north, thus the intimate knowledge of the native area (ecology) is often lost due to the effects of colonization or because the land has been majorly altered. Urban development occurs around areas where Indigenous Peoples lived as these areas are easy for transport and the natural environmental is fruitful. When developing areas of urban land, consideration should go towards the intimate levels of knowledge held by Indigenous Peoples and the biocultural and linguistic diversity of the place. Urban ecology follows western science frameworks and compartmentalizes nature. Urban ecology has the opportunity to be viewed in an interconnected and holistic way, through "Two-Eyed Seeing" and be inclusive of the Traditional Ecological Knowledge held by the local Indigenous Peoples of the area.

Urban restoration ecology would be enriched by partnerships with the local Indigenous Peoples, if done in a respectful way that addresses the currently inequitable relationship. Non-indigenous people can support their local Indigenous communities by learning about the history of the land and ecosystems that is being restored or studied. Ecological restoration built with strong Indigenous partnerships benefits the Indigenous culture and identity, as well as all urban dwellers.

Summary
Urbanization results in a series of both local and far-reaching effects on biodiversity, biogeochemical cycles, hydrology, and climate, among other stresses. Many of these effects are not fully understood, as urban ecology has only recently emerged as a scientific discipline and more research remains to be done. Research on cities outside the US and Europe remains limited. Observations on the impact of urbanization on biodiversity and species interactions are consistent across many studies but definitive mechanisms have yet to be established. Urban ecology constitutes an important and highly relevant subfield of ecology, and further study must be pursued to more fully understand the effects of human urban areas on the environment.

title: Urban ecology


text:
Rhea Tregebov

Rhea Tregebov (born 1953) is a Canadian poet, novelist and children's writer who lives in Vancouver, British Columbia. In her work as teacher and editor, she has mentored and inspired generations of Canadian poets. Her poetry is characterized by a strong poetic voice, intellectual honesty, and a compassionate engagement with the extraordinary lived experience of “ordinary” life. An early influence was Pablo Neruda: “And it was at that age … Poetry arrived/in search of me. […] there I was without a face/and it touched me.” (from “Poesía”). Tregebov is also the author of two novels, Rue des Rosiers and The Knife-Sharpener’s Bell, as well as five popular children’s picture books.

Background
Born in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan and raised in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Tregebov attended the University of Manitoba, Cornell, and Boston universities. She lived in Toronto, working as a freelance writer, editor, and Creative Writing Instructor. She taught Continuing Education for Ryerson University and was on faculty at the Banff Centre for the Arts. In January 2005 she has hired by the Creative Writing Program at the University of British Columbia, where she was promoted to Associate Professor in 2012. At UBC she specialized in poetry, writing for children, and translation. In June 2017, she retired from UBC; she currently is an Associate Professor Emerita.

Poetry

 * Remembering History – 1982 (winner of the Pat Lowther Award), ISBN 0-919349-16-1
 * No One We Know – 1986, ISBN 0-920544-44-4
 * The Proving Grounds – 1991, ISBN 1-55065-018-1
 * Mapping the Chaos – 1995, ISBN 1-55065-070-X
 * The Strength of Materials – 2001, ISBN 0-919897-76-2
 * (alive): Selected and new poems – 2004, ISBN 0-919897-98-3
 * All Souls' 2012 ISBN 9781550653380
 * Talking to Strangers 2024 ISBN 9781550656565

Children's books

 * The Extraordinary Ordinary Everything Room – 1991, ISBN 0-929005-24-4
 * The Big Storm – 1992, ISBN 1-55074-081-4
 * Sasha and the Wiggly Tooth – 1993, ISBN 0-929005-51-1
 * Sasha and the Wind – 1996, ISBN 0-929005-84-8
 * What-If Sara – 1999, ISBN 1-896764-22-3

Novels

 * The Knife Sharpener's Bell – 2009, ISBN 978-1-55050-408-8
 * Rue des Rosiers – 2019, ISBN 978-1-55050-699-0

title: Rhea Tregebov