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Cyrenaics

The Cyrenaics or Kyrenaics (Κυρηναϊκοί), were a sensual hedonist Greek school of philosophy founded in the 4th century BCE, supposedly by Aristippus of Cyrene, although many of the principles of the school are believed to have been formalized by his grandson of the same name, Aristippus the Younger. The school was so called after Cyrene, the birthplace of Aristippus. It was one of the earliest Socratic schools. The Cyrenaics taught that the only intrinsic good is pleasure, which meant not just the absence of pain (as it did for Epicurus), but positively enjoyable sensations. Of these, momentary pleasures, especially physical ones, are stronger than those of anticipation or memory. Further, they recognized the value of social obligation and that pleasure could be gained from altruistic behaviour. The school died out within a century and was replaced by the philosophy of Epicureanism.

History of the school
The history of the Cyrenaic school begins with Aristippus of Cyrene, who was born around 435 BCE. He came to Athens as a young man and became a pupil of Socrates. We have only limited knowledge of his movements after the execution of Socrates in 399 BCE, although he is said to have lived for a time in the court of Dionysius of Syracuse.

It is uncertain precisely which doctrines ascribed to the Cyrenaic school were formulated by Aristippus. Diogenes Laërtius, based on the authority of Sotion and Panaetius, provided a long list of books said to have been written by Aristippus. However, Diogenes also wrote that Sosicrates had stated that Aristippus had written nothing. Among Aristippus' pupils was his daughter, Arete of Cyrene, and among her pupils was her son Aristippus the Younger. It was he, according to Aristocles, who created a comprehensive system. At the least, however, it can be said that the foundations of Cyrenaic philosophy were ideas originated by the elder Aristippus, refined by Arete, and then further refined by Aristippus the Younger.

After the time of the younger Aristippus, the school broke up into different factions, represented by Anniceris, Hegesias, and Theodorus, who all developed rival interpretations of Cyrenaic doctrines, many of which were responses to the new system of hedonistic philosophy laid down by Epicurus. By the middle of the 3rd century BC, the Cyrenaic school was obsolete; Epicureanism had largely displaced its Cyrenaic rivals.

Philosophy
The Cyrenaics were hedonists and held that pleasure was the supreme good in life, especially physical pleasure, which they thought more intense and more desirable than mental pleasures. Pleasure is the only good in life and pain is the only evil. Socrates had held that virtue was the only human good, but he had also accepted a limited role for its utilitarian side, allowing pleasure to be a secondary goal of moral action. Aristippus and his followers seized upon this, and made pleasure the sole final goal of life, denying that virtue had any intrinsic value.

Epistemology
The Cyrenaics were known for their skeptical theory of knowledge. They reduced logic to a basic doctrine concerning the criterion of truth. They thought that we can know with certainty our immediate sense-experiences (for instance, that I am having a sweet sensation now) but can know nothing about the nature of the objects that cause these sensations (for instance, that the honey is sweet). They also denied that we can have knowledge of what the experiences of other people are like.

All knowledge is of one's own immediate sensation. These sensations are motions which are purely subjective, and are painful, indifferent or pleasant, according as they are violent, tranquil or gentle. Further they are entirely individual, and can in no way be described as being of the world objectively. Feeling, therefore, is the only possible criterion of knowledge and of conduct. Our ways of being affected are alone knowable. Thus the sole aim for everyone should be pleasure.

Ethics
Cyrenaicism deduces a single, universal aim for all people which is pleasure. Furthermore, all feeling is momentary and homogeneous. It follows that past and future pleasure have no real existence for us, and that among present pleasures there is no distinction of kind. Socrates had spoken of the higher pleasures of the intellect; the Cyrenaics denied the validity of this distinction and said that bodily pleasures, being more simple and more intense, were preferable. Momentary pleasure, preferably of a physical kind, is the only good for humans. When it comes to pain the Cyrenaics held the opinion that pain which occurs suddenly is more difficult to endure than pain that can be foreseen.

However some actions which give immediate pleasure can create more than their equivalent of pain. The wise person should be in control of pleasures rather than be enslaved to them, otherwise pain will result, and this requires judgement to evaluate the different pleasures of life. Regard should be paid to law and custom, because even though these things have no intrinsic value on their own, violating them will lead to unpleasant penalties being imposed by others. Likewise, friendship and justice are useful because of the pleasure they provide. Thus the Cyrenaics believed in the hedonistic value of social obligation and altruistic behavior. Like many of the leading modern utilitarians, they combined with their psychological distrust of popular judgments of right and wrong, and their firm conviction that all such distinctions are based solely on law and convention, the equally unwavering principle that the wise person who would pursue pleasure logically must abstain from that which is usually thought wrong or unjust. This idea, which occupies a prominent position in systems like those of Jeremy Bentham, Volney, and even William Paley, was clearly of prime importance to the Cyrenaics.

Later Cyrenaics
The later Cyrenaics, Anniceris, Hegesias, and Theodorus, all developed variations on the standard Cyrenaic doctrine. For Anniceris, pleasure is achieved through individual acts of gratification which are sought for the pleasure that they produce, but Anniceris laid great emphasis on the love of family, country, friendship and gratitude, which provide pleasure even when they demand sacrifice. Hegesias believed that eudaimonia is impossible to achieve, and hence the goal of life becomes the avoidance of pain and sorrow. Conventional values such as wealth, poverty, freedom, and slavery are all indifferent and produce no more pleasure than pain. For Hegesias, Cyrenaic hedonism was simply the least irrational strategy for dealing with the pains of life. For Theodorus, the goal of life is mental pleasure not bodily pleasure, and he placed greater emphasis on the need for moderation and justice. He was also famous for being an atheist. To some extent these philosophers were all trying to meet the challenge laid down by Epicureanism.

The philosophy of the Cyrenaics around the time of Hegesias of Cyrene evolved in a way that has similarities with Pyrrhonism, Epicurianism and also Buddhism. In fact, there are striking similarities with the tenets of Buddhism, in particular the Four Noble Truths and the concept of Dukkha or "suffering". Coincidentally, the rulers of Cyrene around the time Hegesias flourished, the Ptolemaic king of Egypt Ptolemy II Philadelphus and from 276 BC the independent king Magas of Cyrene, are both claimed to have been recipients of Buddhist missionaries from the Indian king Ashoka according to the latter's Edicts. It is therefore sometimes thought that Hegesias may have been directly influenced by Buddhist teachings through contacts with the alleged missionaries sent to his rulers in the 3rd century BC.

Other influences
The Cyrenaic ideal was alien to Christianity, and, in general, subsequent thinkers found it an ideal of hopeless pessimism. Yet in much later times it has found expression in many ethical and literary works, and it is common also in other ancient non-Hellenic literature. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, there are quatrains in the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam and pessimistic verses in the book of Ecclesiastes which might have been uttered by Aristippus. So in Byron and Heine there is the same tendency to seek relief from the intellectual cul-de-sac in frankly aesthetic satisfaction. Thus Cyrenaicism did not entirely vanish with its absorption in Epicureanism.

title: Cyrenaics


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A Tenured Professor

A Tenured Professor (1990) is a satirical novel by Canadian-American economist and Harvard professor emeritus John Kenneth Galbraith about a liberal university teacher who sets out to change American society by making money and then using it for the public good. Set at Harvard mainly during the Reagan administration, the plot and all the characters that appear in the story are entirely fictitious.

Plot summary
The book chronicles the rise to fame of one Montgomery Marvin, a professor of economics who, as an academic teacher, keeps a low profile but who nevertheless is given tenure quite early in his career. While outwardly concerning himself with unspectacular research focusing on "Mathematical Paradigms in an Approach to Refrigerator Pricing" (which is also the title of his Ph.D. thesis), Marvin's extracurricular activities centre on becoming very rich in a very short time. For that purpose, Marvin has devised a new formula—a stock forecasting model by means of which he and his wife can cash in on people's euphoria, greed and, as they call it, dementia. Eventually, while everyone loses money in the wake of the "Black Monday" stock market crash of October 19, 1987, the Marvins gain an awful lot. (See also Michael Milken and leveraged buyout.)

They decide to spend their money wisely, according to their liberal agenda. Intent on strictly observing the code of business ethics, they start to make use of the "positive power of wealth" and embark on a life of philanthropy. They fund a number of chairs in peace studies to be established at, of all places, military academies. They also secure legislation by which companies are required to label their products according to the percentage of female executives employed by them. After they have launched several of their projects, their operations are increasingly considered un-American and officially put under surveillance. But whatever will happen - Marvin knows that he will be able to nourish his family, as he has been accorded tenure.

A Tenured Professor was republished as paperback by Houghton Mifflin in 2001 (ISBN 0-618-15455-8).

Reception
A New York Times reviewer commented: "Watching Mr. Galbraith's Tenured Professor and his wife shake up Harvard and cut up the corporate world makes for a lively satire".

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: A Tenured Professor


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Mesite

The mesites (Mesitornithidae) are a family of birds that are part of a clade (Columbimorphae) that include Columbiformes and Pterocliformes. They are smallish flightless or near flightless birds endemic to Madagascar. They are the only family with more than two species in which every species is threatened (all three are listed as vulnerable).

Description
The mesites are forest and scrubland birds that feed on insects and seeds; brown and white-breasted mesites forage on the ground, gleaning insects from underneath leaves as well as low vegetation. The subdesert mesite uses its long bill to probe in the soil. Other birds, such as drongos and flycatchers, will follow mesites to catch any insects they flush out or miss. Mesites are vocal birds, with calls similar to a passerine song, used for territorial defence. Two or three white eggs are laid in a stick-built nest located in a bush or on a low branch. The Mesitornis species are monogamous while Monias benschi is polygamous and, unlike the other two, shows significant sexual dichromatism.

Systematics
There are two genera, Mesitornis (2 species) and Monias (subdesert mesite).

Historically, mesites' phylogenetic relationships were not very clear; they have been allied with the Gruiformes, Turniciformes and Columbiformes.

Recent phylogenomic studies support Pterocliformes (sandgrouse) as the sister group of mesites while some more recent studies place this clade with another clade constituted of Columbiformes and Cuculiformes (cuckoos).

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Abigor

Abigor is an Austrian black metal band formed in 1993. They are named after an upper demon of war in Christian demonology.

History
The band was formed in 1993 by Peter Kubik and Thomas Tannenberger. After the release of several demos, original vocalist Tharen (Alexander Opitz) left the band and was replaced by Silenius (Michael Gregor), who recorded vocals for all Abigor releases but left in 1998 while their fifth album Channeling the Quintessence of Satan was being recorded. Thurisaz who had been in the thrash metal band Lost Victim together with T.T. in the 1980s, joined the band and replaced the vocals of Silenius on the album. In late 1999, T.T. left the band for various reasons (ranging from personal problems to being fed up with what once was the "scene"). After his departure, Abigor released two more albums before breaking up in 2003.

In April 2006, P.K. and T.T. reformed the band, and a year later, Fractal Possession was released. The band was scheduled to release a split EP in 2008 with French black metal group Blacklodge. In connection with this release, Abigor was supposedly cooperating with Norwegian experimental artist Zweizz.

The band's earlier works were loosely inspired by J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings. The album cover on Orkblut – The Retaliation is a collage of 2 paintings originally made by Lord of the Rings fantasy artist Ian Miller, while the album cover on Channeling the Quintessence of Satan was originally made by the German printmaker/artist Albrecht Dürer. (The Knight, Death and the Devil, 1514)

Most of Abigor releases were released by Napalm Records.

In a 2007 interview, P.K. explained the band's songwriting process: "'T.T. and I are responsible for the music, A.R. will do the lyrics and vocals, that's how it works. I create riffs and record it, T.T. too, we send us files, create rough song-structures till we're satisfied with the result of a song/album 'concept' then we start the recordings at T.T.'s Hell-Lab Studio.'"In 2014, Silenius rejoined as a session musician, before becoming a permanent member again in 2020.

Personnel

 * Thomas Tannenberger – bass, drums, guitar (1993–1999, 2006–present)
 * Peter Kubik – guitar, bass (1993–2003, 2006–present)
 * Michael Gregor - vocals (1994-1999, session musician 2014-2020, 2020-present)

Former members

 * Alexander Opitz – vocals (1993–1994) keyboards (1993–1998)
 * Thurisaz – vocals (1999–2001)
 * Moritz Neuner – drums (1999–2003)
 * Stefano Fiori – vocals (2001–2003)
 * Lukas Lindenburger – drums (2006)
 * Sethnacht Eligor – vocals (2006)
 * Arthur Rosar – vocals (2006–2014)

Albums

 * Verwüstung – Invoke the Dark Age (1994)
 * Nachthymnen (From the Twilight Kingdom) (1995)
 * Opus IV (1996)
 * Supreme Immortal Art (1998)
 * Channeling the Quintessence of Satan (1999)
 * Satanized (A Journey Through Cosmic Infinity) (2001)
 * Fractal Possession (2007)
 * Time Is the Sulphur in the Veins of the Saint – An Excursion on Satan's Fragmenting Principle (2010)
 * Leytmotif Luzifer (The 7 Temptations of Man) (2014)
 * Höllenzwang (Chronicles of Perdition) (2018)
 * Four Keys to a Foul Reich (2019)
 * Totschläger – (A Saintslayer's Songbook) (2020)
 * Taphonomia Aeternitatis (Gesänge im Leichenlicht der Welt) (2023)

EPs

 * Orkblut – The Retaliation (1995, re-released 2006)
 * Apokalypse (1997)
 * Structures of Immortality (7" vinyl, 1998)
 * In Memory... (2000)
 * Shockwave 666 (Dark Horizon Records, 2004)

Demos

 * Ash Nazg... (1993)
 * Lux Devicta Est (1993)
 * In Hate and Sin (1994)
 * Promo Tape II/94 (1994)
 * Moonrise (1994)

Re-issues

 * Origo Regium 1993–1994 (demos re-release, 1998)
 * Nachthymnen + Orkblut (remastered two albums on one CD, 2004)
 * Verwüstung + Opus IV (remastered double CD, 2004)

title: Abigor


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Chair

A chair is a type of seat, typically designed for one person and consisting of one or more legs, a flat or slightly angled seat and a back-rest. It may be made of wood, metal, or synthetic materials, and may be padded or upholstered in various colors and fabrics.

Chairs vary in design. An armchair has armrests fixed to the seat; a recliner is upholstered and features a mechanism that lowers the chair's back and raises into place a footrest; a rocking chair has legs fixed to two long curved slats; and a wheelchair has wheels fixed to an axis under the seat.

Etymology
Chair comes from the early 13th-century English word chaere, from Old French chaiere ("chair, seat, throne"), from Latin cathedra ("seat").

History
The chair has been used since antiquity, although for many centuries it was a symbolic article of state and dignity rather than an article for ordinary use. "The chair" is still used as the emblem of authority in the House of Commons in the United Kingdom and Canada, and in many other settings. In keeping with this historical connotation of the "chair" as the symbol of authority, committees, boards of directors, and academic departments all have a 'chairman' or 'chair'. Endowed professorships are referred to as chairs. It was not until the 16th century that chairs became common. Until then, people sat on chests, benches, and stools, which were the ordinary seats of everyday life. The number of chairs which have survived from an earlier date is exceedingly limited; most examples are of ecclesiastical, seigneurial or feudal origin.

Chairs were in existence since at least the Early Dynastic Period of Egypt (c. 3100 BC). They were covered with cloth or leather, were made of carved wood, and were much lower than today's chairs – chair seats were sometimes only 10 in high. In ancient Egypt, chairs appear to have been of great richness and splendor. Fashioned of ebony and ivory, or of carved and gilded wood, they were covered with costly materials, magnificent patterns and supported upon representations of the legs of beasts or the figures of captives. Generally speaking, the higher ranked an individual was, the taller and more sumptuous was the chair he sat on and the greater the honor. On state occasions, the pharaoh sat on a throne, often with a little footstool in front of it.

The average Egyptian family seldom had chairs, and if they did, it was usually only the master of the household who sat on a chair. Among the better off, the chairs might be painted to look like the ornate inlaid and carved chairs of the rich, but the craftsmanship was usually poor.

The earliest images of chairs in China are from 6th-century Buddhist murals and stele, but the practice of sitting in chairs at that time was rare. It was not until the 12th century that chairs became widespread in China. Scholars disagree on the reasons for the adoption of the chair. The most common theories are that the chair was an outgrowth of indigenous Chinese furniture, that it evolved from a camp stool imported from Central Asia, that it was introduced to China by Christian missionaries in the 7th century, and that the chair came to China from India as a form of Buddhist monastic furniture. In modern China, unlike Korea or Japan, it is no longer common to sit at floor level.

In Europe, it was owing in great measure to the Renaissance that the chair ceased to be a privilege of state and became a standard item of furniture for anyone who could afford to buy it. Once the idea of privilege faded the chair speedily came into general use. Almost at once the chair began to change every few years to reflect the fashions of the day.

Thomas Edward Bowdich visited the main Palace of the Ashanti Empire in 1819, and observed chairs engrossed with gold in the empire. In the 1800s, chairs became more common in American households and usually there was a chair provided for every family member to sit down to dinner. By the 1830s, factory-manufactured “fancy chairs” like those by Sears, Roebuck, and Co. allowed families to purchase machined sets. With the Industrial Revolution, chairs became much more available.

The 20th century saw an increasing use of technology in chair construction with such things as all-metal folding chairs, metal-legged chairs, the Slumber Chair, moulded plastic chairs and ergonomic chairs. The recliner became a popular form, at least in part due to radio and television. In the 1930s, stair lifts were commercially available to help people suffering from Polio and other diseases to navigate stairs.

The modern movement of the 1960s produced new forms of chairs: the butterfly chair (originally called the Hardoy chair), bean bags, and the egg-shaped pod chair that turns. It also introduced the first mass-produced plastic chairs such as the Bofinger chair in 1966. Technological advances led to molded plywood and wood laminate chairs, as well as chairs made of leather or polymers. Mechanical technology incorporated into the chair enabled adjustable chairs, especially for office use. Motors embedded in the chair resulted in massage chairs.

Materials
Chairs can be made from wood, metal, or other strong materials, like stone or acrylic. In some cases, multiple materials are used to construct a chair; for example, the legs and frame may be made from metal and the seat and back may be made from plastic. Chairs may have hard surfaces of wood, metal, plastic, or other materials, or some or all of these hard surfaces may be covered with upholstery or padding. The design may be made of porous materials, or be drilled with holes for decoration; a low back or gaps can provide ventilation. The back may extend above the height of the occupant's head, which can optionally contain a headrest. Chairs can also be made from more creative materials, such as recycled materials like cutlery and wooden play bricks, pencils, plumbing tubes, rope, corrugated cardboard, and PVC pipe.

In rare cases, chairs are made out of unusual materials, especially as a form of art or experimentation. Raimonds Cirulis, a Latvian interior designer, created a volcanic hanging chair that is handmade out of volcanic rock. Peter Brenner, a Dutch-born German designer, has created a chair made from lollipop sugar – 60 lbs of confectioners' sugar.

Design and ergonomics
Chair design considers intended usage, ergonomics (how comfortable it is for the occupant), as well as non-ergonomic functional requirements such as size, stacking ability, folding ability, weight, durability, stain resistance, and artistic design.

Seat height
Ergonomic design distributes the weight of the occupant to various parts of the body. This is done by having an easily adjustable seat height. A seat that is higher results in dangling feet and increased pressure on the underside of the knees ("popliteal fold"). It may also result in no weight on the feet which means more weight elsewhere. A lower seat may shift too much weight to the "seat bones" ("ischial tuberosities"). Gas springs are attached to the body of the chair in order to give height adjustment and more comfort to the user.

Some chairs have foot rests. Around 15% of women and 2% of men need foot rests, even at the 16 in chair height. A stool or other simple chair may have a simple straight or curved bar near the bottom for the sitter to place their feet on.

Actual chair dimensions are determined by measurements of the human body or anthropometric measurements. The two most relevant anthropometric measurement for chair design is the popliteal height and buttock popliteal length.

For someone seated, the popliteal height is the distance from the underside of the foot to the underside of the thigh at the knees. It is sometimes called the "stool height". The term "sitting height" is reserved for the height to the top of the head when seated. For American men, the median popliteal height is 16.3 in and for American women it is 15.0 in. The popliteal height, after adjusting for heels, clothing and other issues, is used to determine the height of the chair seat. Mass-produced chairs are typically 17 in high.

Researchers such as Mary Blade and Galen Cranz found that sitting on the edge of a high stool with feet on the floor is less harmful for the lower back than sitting up straight on a conventional chair.

Reclining angle
Different types of chairs can have a variety of seating positions, depending on the intended task. Typically, chairs intended for people completing work or dining can only recline very slightly (otherwise the occupant is too far away from the desk or table). Dental chairs are necessarily reclined. Research has shown that the best seated posture is a reclined posture of 100°–110°. In order to recline, the back-rest may be independently adjustable. A reclining seat and back will reduce the load on the occupant's back muscles. In general, if the occupant is supposed to sit for a long time, weight needs to be taken off the seat area and thus "easy" chairs intended for long periods of sitting are generally at least slightly reclined.

Back and head support
The back of the chair will support some of the weight of the occupant, reducing the weight on other parts of the body. Some back-rests support only the lumbar region, while shoulder height back-rests support the entire back and shoulders. Headrests support the head as well and are important in vehicles for preventing "whiplash" neck injuries in rear-end collisions where the head is jerked back suddenly. Reclining chairs typically have at least shoulder-height back-rests to shift weight to the shoulders.

Padding
There may be cases where padding is not desirable, such as chairs that are intended primarily for outdoor use. Where padding is not desirable, contouring may be used instead. A contoured seat pan attempts to distribute weight without padding. By matching the shape of the occupant's buttocks, weight is distributed and maximum pressure is reduced.

Armrests
A chair may or may not have armrests; chairs with armrests are termed "armchairs". In French, a distinction is made between fauteuil and chaise, the terms for chairs with and without armrests, respectively. In Germany, an armchair was once called a  Krankensessel , or sick-chair, because it was intended for people who were too ill to stand or sit without extra support.

If present, armrests will support part of the body weight through the arms if the arms are resting on the armrests. Elbow rest height is used to determine the height of the armrests. Armrests should support the forearm and not the sensitive elbow area. Hence in some chair designs, the armrest is not continuous to the chair back, but is missing in the elbow area. Armrests further have the function of making entry and exit from the chair easier (but from the side it becomes more difficult).

Seat size and legroom
For someone seated, the buttock popliteal length is the horizontal distance from the back most part of the buttocks to the back of the lower leg. This anthropometric measurement is used to determine the seat depth. Mass-produced chairs are typically 15 - 17 in deep.

Additional anthropometric measurements may be relevant to designing a chair. Hip breadth is used for chair width and armrest width. The buttock-knee length is used to determine "leg room" between rows of chairs. "Seat pitch" is the distance between rows of seats. In some airplanes and stadiums the leg room (the seat pitch less the thickness of the seat at thigh level) is so small that it is sometimes insufficient for the average person.

Types of chairs
A wide variety of chairs have emerged throughout the ages, some based on formal usages, and others based on domestic needs, and some based on needs within the workplace or various professions.

Office chair
An office chair is one used by employees within an office. Modern office chairs are usually adjustable and wheeled. Caster wheels are attached to the feet of chairs to give more mobility.

Dining room chair
A dining room chair is a specific type of design, used around a dining room table. It can be found in most ordinary residential homes, and also may appear in formal settings, such as any formal event or reception that includes a formal meal or banquet.

Work chair
A work chair is a specialized chair, adapted to the needs of a particular profession or setting. For example, a designing chair will be used for designers who sit at high easels; it will usually have added height.

Rocking chair
Some chairs have two curved bands of wood (also known as rockers) attached to the bottom of the legs. They are called rocking chairs.

Kneeling chair
A kneeling chair adds an additional body part, the knees, to support the weight of the body. A sit-stand chair distributes most of the weight of the occupant to the feet. Many chairs are padded or have cushions. Padding can be on the seat of the chair only, on the seat and back, or also on any arm rests or foot rest the chair may have. Padding will not shift the weight to different parts of the body (unless the chair is so soft that the shape is altered). However, padding does distribute the weight by increasing the area of contact between the chair and the body, and thus reducing the amount of pressure at any given point. By contrast, a hard wood chair feels hard because the contact point between the occupant and the chair is small. In lieu of padding, flexible materials, such as wicker, may be used instead with similar effects of distributing the weight.

Seats
Chair seats vary widely in construction and may or may not match construction of the chair's back (back-rest).

Some systems include:
 * Center seats where a solid material forms the chair seat
 * Solid wood, may or may not be shaped to human contours
 * Wood slats, often seen on outdoor chairs
 * Padded leather, generally a flat wood base covered in padding and contained in soft leather
 * Stuffed fabric, similar to padded leather
 * Metal seats of solid or open design
 * Molded plastic
 * Stone, often marble
 * Open center seats where a soft material is attached to the tops of chair legs or between stretchers to form the seat
 * Wicker, woven to provide a surface with give to it
 * Leather, may be tooled with a design
 * Fabric, simple covering without support
 * Tape, wide fabric tape woven into seat, seen in lawn chairs and some old chairs
 * Caning,
 * Rush, wrapped from rush, heavy paper, strong grasses, or hand twisted while wrapped with cattails to form the seat, usually in a pattern of four trapezoids meeting in the center, and on rare occasions, in elaborate patterns
 * Reed,
 * Rawhide
 * Splint, ash, oak or hickory strips are woven
 * Metal, Metal mesh or wire woven to form seat

Standards and specifications
Design considerations for chairs have been codified into standards. ISO 9241, "Ergonomic requirements for office work with visual display terminals (VDTs) – Part 5: Workstation layout and postural requirements", is the most common one for modern chair design.

There are multiple specific standards for different types of chairs. Dental chairs are specified by ISO 6875. Bean bag chairs are specified by ANSI standard ASTM F1912-98. ISO 7174 specifies stability of rocking and tilting chairs. ASTM F1858-98 specifies plastic lawn chairs. ASTM E1822-02b defines the combustibility of chairs when they are stacked.

The Business and Institutional Furniture Manufacturer's Association (BIFMA) defines ANSI/BIFMA X5.1 (titled: General-Purpose Office Chairs – Tests) for testing of commercial-grade chairs. It requires: The specification further defines heavier "proof" loads that chairs must withstand. Under these higher loads, the chair may be damaged, but it must not fail catastrophically.
 * chair back strength of 150 lbs
 * chair stability if weight is transferred completely to the front or back legs
 * leg strength of 75 lbs applied 1 in from the bottom of the leg
 * seat strength of 225 lbs dropped from 6 in above the seat
 * seat cycle strength of 100,000 repetitions of 125 lbs dropped from 2 in above the seat

Large institutions that make bulk purchases will reference these standards within their own even more detailed criteria for purchase. Governments will often issue standards for purchases by government agencies (e.g. Canada's Canadian General Standards Board CAN/CGSB 44.15M on "Straight Stacking Chair, Steel" or CAN/CGSB 44.232-2002 on "Task Chairs for Office Work with Visual Display Terminal").

Chairs may be rated by the length of time that they may be used comfortably – an 8-hour chair, a 24-hour chair, and so on. Such chairs are specified for tasks which require extended periods of sitting, such as for receptionists or supervisors of a control panel.

Accessories
In place of a built-in footrest, some chairs come with a matching ottoman. An ottoman is a short stool that is intended to be used as a footrest but can sometimes be used as a stool. If matched to a glider chair, the ottoman may be mounted on swing arms so that the ottoman rocks back and forth with the main glider.

A chair cover is a temporary fabric cover for a side chair. They are typically rented for formal events such as wedding receptions to increase the attractiveness of the chairs and decor. The chair covers may come with decorative chair ties, a ribbon to be tied as a bow behind the chair. Covers for sofas and couches are also available for homes with small children and pets. In the second half of the 20th century, some people used custom clear plastic covers for expensive sofas and chairs to protect them.

Chair pads are cushions for chairs. They contain cotton or foam for padding. Some are decorative. In cars, they may be used to increase the height of the driver. Orthopedic back-rests provide support for the back. Car seats sometimes have built-in and adjustable lumbar supports. These can also be used on kitchen chairs.

Chair mats are mats meant to cover different types of flooring. They are usually made from plastic. This allows chairs on wheels to roll easily over the carpet and protects the carpet or floor. They come in various shapes, some specifically sized to fit partially under a desk.

Remote control bags can be draped over the arm of easy chairs or sofas and used to hold remote controls for home cinemas. They are counter-weighted so as to not slide off the arms under the weight of the remote controls.

Chair glides are attached to the feet of chairs to prevent them from scratching or snagging on the floor.

An antimacassar is a cloth covering for a headrest to protect the fabric and enable easy washing.

As sculptural and art forms
Christo created Wrapped Chair in 1961 with found objects (chairs), lacquer, canvas, rope, and paint. It is an early work showing his and his wife Jeanne Claude’s iconic style of partially or wholly hiding objects within wrapped cloth and ropes. Their work developed into large-scale public site-specific artworks and environmental art, which the pair are most well known for. For Wrapped Chair, Christo plays with the identity of the object by concealing parts and revealing others. There are multiple variations of this work and similar ones involving chairs displayed at museums around the world, including a similar work titled Two Wrapped Chairs from 1961.

In the same year that Christo created Wrapped Chair, Pablo Picasso also created La Chaise. Made of painted sheet metal, Picasso’s sculptural chair exemplifies what many artists love about the chair as a subject: the contrast of form and function.

One and Three Chairs, 1965, is a conceptual artwork created by Joseph Kosuth. The work is an assemblage of a manufactured chair, the photo of said chair, and the dictionary definition of the word chair. This work changes each time it is installed, since the location selects and photographs the chair for installation. A dominating part of Kosuth’s work is the impersonal aspect of all the parts since his artistic hand is not easily seen in the pre-made objects presented. The Broken Chair is a monumental sculpture in wood, constructed of 5.5 tons of wood, 12 m high standing across the street from the Palace of Nations in Geneva. It has broken leg symbolizing opposition to land mines and cluster bombs. In 2001, Steve Mann exhibited a chair sculpture at San Francisco Art Institute. The chair had spikes that retracted when a credit card was inserted to download a seating license. Later other museums and galleries were equipped with the "Pay to Sit" chair, with a global central seating license server located in Toronto. The first sitting session was free, with a database of persons who had already used their free session.

In a performance piece at the 2012 Republican National Convention, Clint Eastwood addressed an empty chair, as if it represented President Barack Obama (meant to be construed as MIA or ineffectual). The address was controversial, with critics describing it as bizarre and supporters describing it as poignant. Japanese designer Tokujin Yoshioka has created several chairs as art forms such as "Honey-pop": honey-comb paper chair (2001), "Pane chair": natural fiber chair (2006), "Venus": natural crystal chair (2007).

New York industrial designer Ian Stell creates steel and wood kinetic sculptures that transform into chairs, including Roll Bottom Chair (2016) that turns into a secretariat desk and Loop that transforms into two interlocking chairs when expanded (2015).

Cultural significance
In Welsh culture, an eisteddfod is a festival with several ranked competitions, including in poetry and music. The term eisteddfod, which is formed from two Welsh morphemes: eistedd, meaning 'sit', and fod, meaning 'be', means, according to Hywel Teifi Edwards, "sitting-together." Edwards further defines the earliest form of the eisteddfod as a competitive meeting between bards and minstrels, in which the winner was chosen by a noble or royal patron.

In language

 * If someone "nearly fell off their chair" after being informed about something, it was because they were very shocked or surprised.
 * An orchestra awards the best player in a particular section a "chair" or "principal seat" based on ability. The first chair of the section plays the solos, and in string sections, determines the bowings. In professional orchestras, the first chair player receives higher pay. It is also common for this position to be known as "first stand" or "first desk", a reference to the portable lectern on which the musicians put their sheet music. However, the person who is first chair in the first violin section is usually referred to as the concertmaster in the US or leader in the UK.
 * In academia, an endowed chair is a prestigious appointment for a professor, paid for by a dedicated funding source.
 * A chair is the highest officer of an organized group, such as the chair of the board, the head of the Board of Directors in a company or non-profit organization.
 * "Musical chairs" is a common party game, and a colloquial expression to describe people shuffling from seat to seat, around different locations, or from one job title to another.
 * In American slang, to say someone will "get the chair" is to say that they will be executed by an electric chair. Alternatively, it can be a metaphor for other harsh punishment.

title: Chair


text:
Botis

Botis, sometimes Otis, is a demon described in the Lesser Key of Solomon (as the seventeenth spirit) and the Pseudomonarchia Daemonum (as the ninth spirit) as a President and an Earl who initially appears as a viper before changing into a sword-toting, fanged, and horned human who discusses matters past, present, and future; brings favor from allies and enemies, and rules 60 legions of demons. In the Munich Manual of Demonic Magic, Botis appears as Otius, and is mostly identical except that he is a preses and Count, appears in the more humanoid form to begin with, and rules only 36 legions of demons. In the Grand Grimoire, Botis appears as a subordinate of Agaliarept. According to Rudd, Botis is opposed by the Shemhamphorasch angel Lauviah.

title: Botis


text:
Otis

Otis may refer to:

Film and television

 * Otis (film), a direct-to-DVD 2008 American comedy horror film
 * "Otis" (The Jeffersons), a television episode
 * "Otis" (Prison Break), a television episode

Music

 * Otis (Brian McFadden album), 2019
 * Otis (Mojo Nixon album), 1990
 * "Otis" (song), by Jay-Z and Kanye West, 2011
 * "Otis", a song by Magma from Merci, 1985
 * "Otis", a song by Medeski Martin & Wood from Notes from the Underground, 1992
 * "Otis", a song by The Durutti Column from 24 Hour Party People (soundtrack), 2002
 * "Otis", a song by John Medeski from A Different Time, 2013

People and fictional characters

 * Otis (given name), a list of people and fictional characters
 * Otis (surname), a list of people
 * Otis (wrestler), a ring name of American professional wrestler Nikola Bogojević (born 1991)
 * Otis family, an American political family
 * Otis, American rapper in the duo Axe Murder Boyz

United States

 * Otis, Colorado, a Statutory Town
 * Otis, Indiana, an unincorporated community
 * Otis, Iowa, a neighborhood of Cedar Rapids
 * Otis, Kansas, a city
 * Otis, Louisiana, an unincorporated community
 * Otis, Maine, a town
 * Otis, Massachusetts, a town
 * Otis, Oregon, an unincorporated community
 * Otis, Wisconsin, an unincorporated community
 * Otis Peak, a mountain in Colorado
 * Otis Air National Guard Base, Cape Cod, Massachusetts

Antarctica

 * Mount Otis, Marie Byrd Land

Other uses

 * Otis Worldwide, American manufacturer of elevators, escalators, and related systems
 * Otis College of Art and Design, in Los Angeles, California, US
 * Otis Hotel, a historic building in Spokane, Washington, US
 * Otis (bird), a genus of bustard
 * List of storms named Otis, various tropical cyclones baring the name

title: Otis


text:
Talk:Chair

Merge?
cat cat cat Wikipedia is not a dictionary. Please copy this to Wiktionary. --mav 07:15 7 Jul 2003 (UTC)
 * My apologies. I'm just lernin' see?  Does your comment refer to the article in its current state or to the dictionary style entry? --sugarfish 00:31 8 Jul 2003 (UTC)
 * You could turn the furniture part into an encyclopedia. You know - the history and development of the chair, various styles -Windsor, ladderback, caned, wicker, leather, recliners, thrones, the socioeconomics of chairs, etc. Rmhermen 00:40 8 Jul 2003 (UTC)
 * You seem to know more than I! :) I think I will leave the chair alone and keep to things that I know about. --sugarfish 03:43 8 Jul 2003 (UTC)

I dont think babies go good with sugar Merge with chair has been made. Should this article be deleted? --Jiang 07:08, 11 Aug 2003 (UTC)

Made it an article again with a lot more content. History section from with a light copyedit. Samw 17:50, 25 Oct 2003 (UTC)

Just anyone can edit these? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 193.156.161.150 (talk) 10:08, 10 September 2020 (UTC)

Gordon, I'm full. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 222.153.183.4 (talk) 04:51, 3 December 2023 (UTC)

Uses
How about other uses for chairs? Step-stools and substitute tables even though they aren't designed for that. But I don't think it's important enough....--Macrowiz 01:00, 10 July 2005 (UTC)

Special types of chairs
The article list of chairs was already split out from this article. Do we need the section "special types of chairs". I suggest that be moved to list of chairs. Samw 00:02, 11 July 2005 (UTC)

Picture
The "Massachusetts bus" picture is really bad. You can barely see the benches in the actual picture and serves to show nothing but a bus stop with some unusual benches. I propose deleting it, although I don't think I should do it right off the bat without a general agreement. --207.118.7.99 05:41, 11 December 2006 (UTC)

Chair Parts
Has anyone noticed the list of chair parts is missing 'Legs'?

 * I've deleted the whole section; it was pointless as is with a trivial list of parts. Samw 03:12, 1 May 2007 (UTC)

 * It messes up the image below it, I added a small line to fix that, although it's not exactly complete. —Preceding unsigned comment added by RockPunchX69 (talk • contribs) 18:26, 2 November 2007 (UTC)

 * I would like to see a picture with the technical terms for chair parts - not so much "legs" but what do you call the cross-pieces in the back of a wooden chair when you need to describe what broke over the phone, for example? 202.78.155.231 (talk) 00:29, 23 May 2009 (UTC)

The fitness gram pacer test is a multitask aerobic exercise

First picture
I replaced the picture of the "lolchair" with a less goofy one. The "smiling chair" just invited people to create their own "interesting" captions. Joyous! | Talk 01:01, 4 December 2007 (UTC)

 * I'm gonna give it another chance, and I'll personally monitor any of said captions. RockPunchX69 | Talk

 * Do you really think it's a better picture for the lead of the article? A big part of the chair is covered by the table. With the other picture, you can see all of the parts. Joyous! | Talk 00:02, 7 December 2007 (UTC)

 * One of the main things that it has is the ventilation hole, which emphasizes on the modernity of it. —Preceding unsigned comment added by RockPunchX69 (talk • contribs) 11:56, 7 December 2007 (UTC)

Office chairs
I think the article needs a picture of an office chair. In my experience this general type of chair (office chair or computer chair, adjustable, with five wheels) is in very common use nowadays. The other pictures in the article are fine but collectively somewhat archaic, at least in some parts of the world. I searched for "office chair" at Commons and found a picture, so I think I'll put it in. --Coppertwig (talk) 23:53, 27 December 2007 (UTC)

Greek chair
(From Chair circa 9 January 2008 14:43 GMT) "The earliest known form of Greek chair, going back to five or six centuries BCE, had a back but stood straight up, front and back."

What exactly does that mean? The sentence really makes no sense to me and to many other people reading it. By the way, this article was mentioned in a recent Cyanide and Happiness comic.

--Logoskakou (talk) 14:45, 9 January 2008 (UTC)

 * This was cut&pasted from the original 1911 Britannica article. See:  .  Feel free to update. Samw (talk) 01:49, 10 January 2008 (UTC)

 * Is it a good idea to repeat bad information? Just because it was in an (outdated) encyclopedia doesn't mean it should be included on Wikipedia. Acording to the Britannica, the 5th Century BC Greek chair is called a klismos (name not included in this article).  That chair is quoted as having "four curving, splayed legs and curved back rails with a narrow concave backrest between them."  This doesn't sound like straight up, nor front and back.  I would love to personally try to rewrite that sentence/section, but for the life of me I can't make heads or tails of the meaning, and I'm not up on how to write for Wikipedia. On that note, is (nearly) direct copy and paste a standard of Wikipedia? If so, that's discouraging... Andrew Donnelly (talk) 07:49, 22 March 2008 (UTC)

 * if i'm not mistaken, that greek chair is called a 'klismos' or 'klysmos'.Toyokuni3 (talk) 15:55, 4 July 2008 (UTC)

Chair terms
i think one or more diagrams labelling the typical parts of various chairs is in order. crest rail, seat rail, stiles, splats, lateral stretchers, medial stretchers, etc.Toyokuni3 (talk) 15:58, 4 July 2008 (UTC)
 * Agreed. CFLeon (talk) 23:23, 28 April 2009 (UTC)

Deck chairs on the Titanic?
do you think that's really the connotation of that phrase? i've always thought of it in terms of making trivial changes in the face of impending disaster. analogous to putting a bandaid on a cancer.Toyokuni3 (talk) 15:01, 7 July 2008 (UTC)

Naming of parts
What's the name of the connecting thingy that sometimes goes between the legs? 91.107.168.187 (talk) 23:49, 30 September 2008 (UTC)
 * stretcher (furniture). Toyokuni3 (talk) 04:16, 1 October 2008 (UTC)

What are the things sometimes at the foot of the legs, usually to protect floors or keep the leg of wooden chairs from splitting? I've always called them 'casters', but looking it up, 'caster' refers to wheels. CFLeon (talk) 23:23, 28 April 2009 (UTC)
 * stretcher or braces Blackash (talk) 12:29, 14 July 2009 (UTC)
 * No, a brace is the crosspiece BETWEEN the legs. I'm talking about the little (nowadys usually metal or plastic) pieces on the feet, that touch the floor. CFLeon (talk) 01:55, 5 May 2010 (UTC)

What the?
I've noticed a lot of recent editing that keeps reappearing at the top of the page.. Someone name-calling, a few examples being a person called Eric being labeled as 'hood' and a few other people being referred to as 'crybabies' and 'fat'... I edited it out, and fixed a heading that had been changed to 'Chair turds - mustache'. Also fixed a few obviously vandalized lines about chairs being donkeys and a few more references to 'turds'. Not sure what to do in the future if this person decides to, say, erase the entire article and replace it with this nonsense.. Sparkstarthunderhawk (talk) 00:05, 2 February 2009 (UTC)

 * If you click the "history" tab at the top of the article's page, you can see who has made each separate edit. It's also VERY easy to repair an erased article.  I'll put more details on your talk page, if you'll give me a minute.  Joyous! | Talk 00:28, 2 February 2009 (UTC)

Japanese chairs
How about a mention of Japanese chairs that have no legs? Axl ¤  [Talk]  20:49, 30 September 2011 (UTC)

Pitch
The use of the term seat pitch in the article is correct, but the term pitch has additional uses in the context of seating. For example, back pitch refers to the slope of a backrest (e.g. 20°) relative to vertical, seat pan pitch the slope of a pan (e.g. 5°) relative to horizontal. I suggest the distinctions be made. —Catsquisher (talk) 17:50, 3 March 2012 (UTC)

History of the chair
Um... this whole section is just copy/pasted from a furniture catalogue. And I see no reason that this catalogue should have any authority on the history of the chair, however well cited. Maybe I'm missing some cardinal wikipedia rule, that anything you find online can be cited as fact? (And, equally, copy and pasted?) 74.64.120.57 (talk) 03:47, 14 July 2012 (UTC)

(Okay, that was an exaggeration -- not the "whole" section). 74.64.120.57 (talk) 03:53, 14 July 2012 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 4 one external links on Chair. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20120425091649/http://www.bornrich.com:80/hanging-chair-made-volcanic-rock.html to http://www.bornrich.com/hanging-chair-made-volcanic-rock.html
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20070207105358/http://webstore.ansi.org:80/ansidocstore/product.asp?sku=ASTM+F1912%2D98 to http://webstore.ansi.org/ansidocstore/product.asp?sku=ASTM+F1912%2D98
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20061101231709/http://www.cartalk.com/content/columns/Archive/1996/June/05.html to http://www.cartalk.com/content/columns/Archive/1996/June/05.html
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20061018205214/http://www.chiroeco.com/article/1996/1996.php3?article=050696f2&menu=050696 to http://www.chiroeco.com/article/1996/1996.php3?article=050696f2&menu=050696

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true to let others know.

Cheers.—cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 06:40, 8 February 2016 (UTC)

Not all seats are chairs
"Seat" is one taxonomic rank below "furniture," and below "seat" on one single rank are the different types of seats—stools, benches, fixed seats, thrones, settees, sofas, love seats, etc., and chairs. Thus not all seats are chairs; a piece of furniture that is not free-standing with a back, a seat, and legs or other free support is not a chair. I therefore removed from the opening section all mention of seats that are not chairs.Wordwright (talk) 23:37, 8 August 2018 (UTC)

HELLO GORDON
From Wikipedia, the free online encyclopedia that anyone from Black Mesa can edit! — Preceding unsigned comment added by 45.4.20.172 (talk) 02:47, 4 April 2021 (UTC)

One of the basic pieces of furniture, a chair is a type of seat. Its primary features are two pieces of a durable material, attached as back and seat to one another at a 90° or slightly greater angle, with usually the four corners of the horizontal seat attached in turn to four legs—or other parts of the seat's underside attached to three legs or to a shaft about which a four-arm turnstile on rollers can turn—strong enough to support the weight of a person who sits on the seat (usually wide and broad enough to hold the lower body from the buttocks almost to the knees) and leans against the vertical back (usually high and wide enough to support the back to the shoulder blades). The legs are typically high enough for the seated person's thighs and knees to form a 90° or lesser angle.[1][2] Used in a number of rooms in homes (e.g. in living rooms, dining rooms, and dens), in schools and offices (with desks), and in various other workplaces, chairs may be made of wood, metal, or synthetic materials, and either the seat alone or the entire chair may be padded or upholstered in various colors and fabrics. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 78.17.95.7 (talk) 19:23, 14 May 2020 (UTC)

 * I love it when people have their fun on talk pages rather than on live articles when they're featured in popular media. Compared to the way fans of HLVR:AI have been treating the page for All Dogs Go to Heaven 2, this is unintrusive and kinda cute. — Frosty  Beep   22:57, 17 May 2020 (UTC)
 * Agreed. Talk pages should be used for this stuff, instead of articles. Slambo 312 (talk) 15:49, 14 October 2021 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 31 August 2020
Gordon Feetman dies on a 1937 wooden rocking chair.

-Benrey   :) 65.117.211.99 (talk) 04:11, 31 August 2020 (UTC)
 * Red question icon with gradient background.svg Not done: it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a "change X to Y" format and provide a reliable source if appropriate. Cannolis (talk) 05:20, 31 August 2020 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 5 November 2020
Please remove the "Cockfighting chair" subsection/paragraph. I've added an entry to the list of chairs based on this section and its sources. The section in this article is out of place, and even if it was to remain it would need reworking to avoid both plagiarizing a source and stating things unsupported by the sources. Chaz smith (talk) 00:46, 5 November 2020 (UTC)

After this I actually had enough edits to do it myself... so done. Chaz smith (talk) 00:50, 5 November 2020 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 24 May 2021
Old one was funnier and more informative, maybe fit it with teh new one?

A chair is a piece of furniture with a raised surface used to sit on, commonly for use by one person. Chairs are most often supported by four legs and have a back;[1][2] however, a chair can have three legs or could have a different shape.[3] A chair without a back or arm rests is a stool,[4] or when raised up, a bar stool.[5] A chair with arms is an armchair[6] and with folding action and inclining footrest, a recliner.[7] A permanently fixed chair in a train or theater is a seat[8] or, in an airplane, airline seat;[9] when riding, it is a saddle[10] and bicycle saddle,[11] and for an automobile, a car seat[12] or infant car seat.[13] With wheels it is a wheelchair[14] and when hung from above, a swing.[15] A chair for more than one person is a couch, sofa, settee, or "loveseat";[16] or a bench.[17] A separate footrest for a chair is known as an ottoman,[18] hassock[19] or pouffe.[20]

The chair is known for its antiquity and simplicity, although for many centuries it was an article of state and dignity rather than an article of ordinary use. "The chair" is still extensively used as the emblem of authority in the House of Commons in the United Kingdom[21] and Canada,[22] and in many other settings. 222.164.64.91 (talk) 01:03, 24 May 2021 (UTC)
 * Red question icon with gradient background.svg Not done: it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a "change X to Y" format and provide a reliable source if appropriate. Ben  ❯❯❯  Talk  01:16, 24 May 2021 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 24 September 2021
A chair is a piece of furniture with a raised surface used to sit on, commonly for use by one person. Chairs are most often supported by four legs and have a back; however, a chair can have three legs or could have a different shape.

A chair without a back or arm rests is a stool, or when raised up, a bar stool. A chair with arms is an armchair and with folding action and inclining footrest, a recliner. A permanently fixed chair in a train or theater is a seat or, in an airplane, airline seat; when riding, it is a saddle and bicycle saddle, and for an automobile, a car seat or infant car seat. With wheels it is a wheelchair and when hung from above, a swing.

A chair for more than one person is a couch, sofa, settee, or "loveseat"; or a bench. A separate footrest for a chair is known as an ottoman, hassock or pouffe. DONTFCKWITHTHESCIENCETEAM (talk) 13:21, 24 September 2021 (UTC)
 * Red question icon with gradient background.svg Not done: it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a "change X to Y" format and provide a reliable source if appropriate. ScottishFinnishRadish (talk) 13:28, 24 September 2021 (UTC)
 * I see that username. Oh boy. It's All Dogs Go to Heaven 2 all over again. Slambo 312 (talk) 13:30, 29 October 2021 (UTC)
 * Hello, Gordon! Swirvl (talk) 01:17, 16 July 2023 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 12 October 2021
Jayesharjun (talk) 13:49, 12 October 2021 (UTC) This article is about furniture. For other uses, see Chair (disambiguation).

Chair, circa 1772, mahogany, covered in modern red morocco leather, height: 97.2 cm, Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City) One of the basic pieces of furniture, a chair is a type of seat. Its primary features are two pieces of a durable material, attached as back and seat to one another at a 90° or slightly greater angle, with usually the four corners of the horizontal seat attached in turn to four
 * Red question icon with gradient background.svg Not done: it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a "change X to Y" format and provide a reliable source if appropriate. ScottishFinnishRadish (talk) 14:17, 12 October 2021 (UTC)

"Chair toss" listed at Redirects for discussion
An editor has identified a potential problem with the redirect Chair toss and has thus listed it for discussion. This discussion will occur at Redirects for discussion/Log/2022 April 15 until a consensus is reached, and readers of this page are welcome to contribute to the discussion. Steel1943 (talk) 17:05, 15 April 2022 (UTC)

Possible edit
Current: chairs may be made of wood, metal, or synthetic materials

Possible change: chairs may be made of wood, metal, or synthetic materials (e.g plastic) Rocksok (talk) 13:34, 6 May 2022 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 01:06, 22 November 2022 (UTC)
 * Aeron chair JN.jpg

Semi-protected edit request on 8 July 2023
2A02:C7F:5096:CE00:CD0F:1A9:579A:F8A1 (talk) 20:24, 8 July 2023 (UTC) chair is cool Not done: Nthep (talk) 20:30, 8 July 2023 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 16 July 2023
A chair is a piece of furniture with a raised surface used to sit on, commonly for use by one person. Chairs are most often supported by four legs and have a back;[1][2] however, a chair can have three legs or could have a different shape.[3] A chair without a back or arm rests is a stool,[4] or when raised up, a bar stool.[5] A chair with arms is an armchair[6] and with folding action and inclining footrest, a recliner.[7] A permanently fixed chair in a train or theater is a seat[8] or, in an airplane, airline seat;[9] when riding, it is a saddle[10] and bicycle saddle,[11] and for an automobile, a car seat[12] or infant car seat.[13] With wheels it is a wheelchair[14] and when hung from above, a swing.[15] A chair for more than one person is a couch, sofa, settee, or "loveseat";[16] or a bench.[17] A separate footrest for a chair is known as an ottoman,[18] hassock[19] or pouffe.[20]

The chair is known for its antiquity and simplicity, although for many centuries it was an article of state and dignity rather than an article of ordinary use. "The chair" is still extensively used as the emblem of authority in the House of Commons in the United Kingdom[21] and Canada,[22] and in many other settings. Swirvl (talk) 01:14, 16 July 2023 (UTC)
 * Red question icon with gradient background.svg Not done: it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a "change X to Y" format and provide a reliable source if appropriate. Deauthorized. (talk) 01:53, 16 July 2023 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 10 January 2024
Slight typo in the history section.

"Thomas Edward Bowdich visited the main Palace of the Ashanti Empire in 1819, and observed chairs engrossed with gold in the empire.[14] In the 1880s, chairs became more common in American households and usually there was a chair provided for every family member to sit down to dinner. By the 1830s, factory-manufactured “fancy chairs” like those by Sears, Roebuck, and Co. allowed families to purchase machined sets. With the Industrial Revolution, chairs became much more available.[13]"

1880s should be changed to 1820s. Tr1x13P0ny (talk) 01:51, 10 January 2024 (UTC)
 * Red question icon with gradient background.svg Not done: it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a "change X to Y" format and provide a reliable source if appropriate. Geardona (talk to me?) 01:53, 10 January 2024 (UTC)
 * "From Benches to Barstools" writes it as "From the 1800s..." and so I've changed it as such. Recon  rabbit  16:15, 10 January 2024 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 4 May 2024
Hello,

I'm interested in contributing to the article on Chair, particularly regarding the section titled "As sculptural and art forms." I noticed that there's a request for expansion, specifically regarding works earlier than the 21st century. I'd like to offer my assistance in fulfilling this request by adding relevant content and examples predating the 21st century.

My proposed edits include:

Researching and adding information about historical chairs that have significance as sculptural or artistic pieces. Providing descriptions and context for these chairs to enhance readers' understanding of their artistic value. Citing reliable sources to support the added information and ensure accuracy. I believe these edits will help enrich the article and provide a more comprehensive overview of chairs as sculptural and art forms throughout history.

Thank you for considering my request. I'm eager to contribute to the improvement of the article.

Sincerely, Furni Scripter Furni Scripter (talk) 08:15, 4 May 2024 (UTC)
 * Red question icon with gradient background.svg Not done: it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a "change X to Y" format and provide a reliable source if appropriate. Liu1126 (talk) 11:24, 4 May 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Chair


text:
Morax (demon)

In demonology, Morax is a Demon, Great Earl, and President of Hell, having thirty (thirty-two, according to other authors) legions of demons under his command. He teaches Astronomy and all other liberal sciences, and gives good and wise familiars that know the virtues of all herbs and precious stones. This profile of the demon can be seen in Pseudomonarchia Daemonum (Johann Weyer, 1577) as well as in Goetia (S.L. MacGregor Mathers, 1904).

He is depicted both as a man with the head of a bull, as well as a bull with the head of a man.

It has been proposed that Morax is related to the Minotaur which Dante places in Hell (Inferno, Canto xii). See Fred Gettings, Dictionary of Demons (1988)

His name seems to come from Latin 'morax': that which delays, that which stops.

Other spellings: Foraii, Marax, Farax.

title: Morax (demon)


text:
Talk:TARDIS

Tethered Aerial Release Developed In Style
I came to this page expecting to see a mention of this acronym - as per 'The Next Doctor'. Should I try to squeeze in a reference? If so where would be best? 1.43.41.96 (talk) 14:05, 8 September 2023 (UTC)

Conceptual history: Police box exterior origins
I haven't edited the article directly because I know there have been some past issues relating to a certain writer and the extent of their contribution to the early history of Doctor Who, but I'm not sure about the accuracy of the following sentence from Conceptual history section.

"The idea for the police-box disguise came from a BBC staff writer, Anthony Coburn, who rewrote the programme's first episode from a draft by C. E. Webber."

This sites two sources, one of them being Howe, David J.; Stephen James Walker (2003). The Television Companion: The Unofficial and Unauthorised Guide to Doctor Who. I do not have access to this book. The second is a BBC News article where Jason Onion (a fan builder of a TARDIS replica) says that Anthony Coburn states that the police box design originated from Anthony Coburn. However, the above sentence was already in the TARDIS Wikipedia page before this article was written – is it not possible that Mr Onion's information comes from this page itself?

Furthermore, I have in front of me Hearn, M. (2013) Doctor Who: The Vault: Treasures from the First 50 Years. This states that, while Anthony Coburn invented the name TARDIS while writing an Unearthly Child, the idea for the police box appearance of the "ship" is already cited in a document from May 1963, which would have been before Anthony Coburn did his draft of the first episode (The Giants was originally the first story, until it was scrapped in June 1963, which is when Coburn's story was brought forward and his draft of An Unearthly Child written). A copy of the document can be found in the BBC archives as page 1, page 2 and page 3. This would mean that credit for the Police Box exterior should go to Wilson, Webber and Newman, unless Coburn came up with the idea independently as well? However, it seems more likely to me that accounts of Coburn coming up with the Police Box idea came from him or others claiming credit after the fact or, perhaps more likely, misremembering. The Professor (talk) 15:25, 1 January 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:TARDIS


text:
Theophylline/ephedra/hydroxyzine

Theophylline/ephedra/hydroxyzine (trade name Marax) is a drug that was used for the treatment of asthma. It was a combination of theophylline, ephedra, and hydroxyzine, and taken by mouth. It is no longer manufactured in the US due to approval of ephedra being withdrawn by the FDA.

title: Theophylline/ephedra/hydroxyzine


text:
Naberius

The demon Naberius was first mentioned by Johann Weyer in 1583. He is supposedly the most valiant Marquess of Hell, and has nineteen legions of demons under his command. He makes men cunning in all arts (and sciences, according to most authors), but especially in rhetoric, speaking with a hoarse voice. He also restores lost dignities and honors, although to Johann Weyer, he procures the loss of them.

Description
Naberius appears as a three-headed dog or a raven. He has a raucous voice, but presents himself as eloquent and amiable. He teaches the art of gracious living. He has also been depicted as a crow or a black crane.

Concerning his name, it is unclear if there is an association with the Greek Cerberus. It is said that in 1583, Johann Weyer considers both of them to be the same demon. He claimed: Naberius [Naberus], alias Cerberus, is a valiant marquesse, showing himself in the form of a crow, when he speaks with a hoarse voice: he makes a man amiable and cunning in all arts, and special in rhetoric, he procures the loss of prelacies and dignities: nineteen legions hear (and obey) him.

Other spellings include Cerberus, Cerbere, and Naberus.

title: Naberius