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1838 in music

This article is about music-related events in 1838.

Events

 * March 7 – Jenny Lind, the "Swedish Nightingale", debuts at the Royal Swedish Opera
 * November 8 – The ailing Polish-born composer and pianist Frédéric Chopin begins an uncomfortable (but compositionally productive) winter living with his lover, French novelist George Sand, on the Mediterranean island of Majorca in the abandoned Carthusian monastery of Valldemossa. Here he writes his 24 Preludes (Op. 28).
 * Giovanni Ricordi buys Giuseppe Verdi's copyrights.

Popular music

 * "Annie Laurie", words (1688) William Douglas, music Lady John Scott (Alicia Ann Spottiswoode)
 * "'Tis Home Where'er the Heart Is" – words by Robert Dale Owen, music by John Hill Hewitt
 * "A Life on the Ocean Wave" - words by Epes Sargent, music by Henry Russell

Classical music

 * William Sterndale Bennett – Piano Concerto No. 4, Op. 19
 * Johanna Kinkel – Das Schloss Boncort, Op.9 (published under J. Mathieux )
 * Franz Lachner – Frauenliebe und -leben
 * Franz Liszt
 * 'Études d'exécution transcendante d'après Paganini'
 * Grand galop chromatique
 * Carl Loewe – 4 Fabellieder, Op.64
 * Felix Mendelssohn – String Quartets Op. 44, No. 3 in D Major and No. 5 in E-Flat Major
 * Robert Schumann
 * Kinderszenen, Op. 15
 * Kreisleriana, Op. 16
 * Louis Spohr
 * String Quintet No.5, Op.106
 * 3 Duette pour deux soparano & piano, Op.108

Opera

 * Hector Berlioz – Benvenuto Cellini
 * Albert Grisar – Lady Melvil
 * Louis Spohr – Der Matrose

Births

 * January 6 – Max Bruch, German composer (died 1920)
 * March 21 – Wilma Neruda, Moravian-born violinist (died 1911)
 * July 9 – Philip Bliss, American Gospel composer (died 1876)
 * October 25 – Georges Bizet, French composer (died 1875)

Deaths

 * January 13 – Ferdinand Ries, composer and pianist (born 1784)
 * March 2 – Ludwig Abeille, composer (born 1761)
 * March 24 – Thomas Attwood, organist and composer (b. 1765)
 * April 29 – Joseph von Henikstein, patron of the arts and friend of Mozart (b. 1768)
 * May 28 – Thomas Busby, English composer (b. 1755)
 * July 28 – Bernhard Henrik Crusell, clarinet player and composer (b. 1775)
 * August 17 – Lorenzo Da Ponte, librettist
 * August 21 – Adelbert von Chamisso, lyricist (born 1781)
 * December 26 – Franciszek Lessel, composer (born 1780)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: 1838 in music


text:
1837 in music

This article is about music-related events in 1837.

Events

 * March 31 – Franz Liszt and Sigismond Thalberg play a musical 'duel' at a charity event for refugees of the Italian war of independence at the home of Countess Belgiojoso.
 * June 11 – Prussian Copyright Act protecting for the first time performances of concert music
 * Pauline Viardot (as Pauline García) makes her concert debut at the age of sixteen.

Publications

 * François-Joseph Fétis – Traité du chant en choeur (Paris)

Published popular music

 * "Hark, Brothers, Hark", words and music by John Hill Hewitt
 * "Woodman, Spare That Tree!", words by George Pope Morris, music by Henry Russell

Classical music

 * Charles-Valentin Alkan – 3 Morceaux dans le genre pathétique, Op. 15
 * Ludwig Berger – 15 Etudes, Op.33
 * Charles-Auguste de Bériot – Violin Concerto No. 1, Op.16
 * Hector Berlioz – Grande Messe des Morts
 * Frédéric Chopin
 * Hexaméron: Variation No. 6
 * Nocturne in C minor, B. 108
 * Largo in E-flat major, B. 109
 * Impromptu No. 1, Op. 29
 * Scherzo No. 2, Op. 31
 * Piano Sonata No. 2, Op. 35, III
 * Fanny Ellsler – 3 Airs de Ballet
 * Adolf von Henselt
 * Romance, Op. 10
 * Variations de concert sur le motif de l'opéra 'L'elisir d'amore', Op. 1
 * Franz Liszt
 * Grandes études, S. 137
 * Album d'un voyageur, S. 156
 * Hexaméron, S. 392
 * Soirées musicales de Rossini, S. 424
 * 12 Lieder von Franz Schubert, S. 558
 * Felix Mendelssohn
 * 6 Gesänge, Op.34
 * Piano Concerto No. 2 in D minor, Op. 40
 * Psalm 42 for choir and orchestra, Op. 42
 * 6 Lieder, Op. 50
 * String Quartet No. 4 in E minor
 * Carl Gottlieb Reissiger
 * 3 String Quartets, Op.111
 * 4 Gesänge, Op.117
 * Robert Schumann
 * Davidsbündlertänze, Op. 6
 * Études symphoniques, Op. 13
 * Johann Strauss Sr. – Cachucha-Galopp, Op.97
 * Sigismond Thalberg
 * 12 Etudes, Op.26
 * Grand Fantasia on 'God save the Queen' and 'Rule Britannia', Op.27

Opera

 * Daniel Auber – The Black Domino (with libretto by Eugène Scribe)
 * Gaetano Donizetti – Roberto Devereux
 * Mikhail Glinka – Ruslan and Lyudmila (composition began, premiered in 1842)
 * Albert Lortzing – Zar und Zimmermann
 * Gaspare Spontini – Agnes von Hohenstaufen

Births

 * January 2 – Mily Balakirev, Russian pianist, conductor and composer (d. 1910)
 * January 12 – Adolf Jensen, German pianist, composer and music teacher (d. 1879)
 * January 27 – Carlotta Ferrari, composer (died 1907)
 * February 23 – Rosalía de Castro, lyricist (died 1885)
 * March 12 – Alexandre Guilmant, organist (died 1911)
 * March 15 – Célestine Galli-Marié, operatic mezzo-soprano, the original Carmen (d. 1905)
 * April 13 – Julius Weissenborn, German bassoonist, music teacher and composer (d. 1888)
 * April 18 – Armand Silvestre, librettist (died 1901)
 * May 23 – Józef Wieniawski, pianist (died 1912)
 * June 1 – Ferdinand Quentin Dulcken, English (later American) pianist and composer (d. 1901)
 * June 25 – Josef Werner, composer (died 1922)
 * July 6 – Władysław Żeleński, composer (died 1921)
 * July 30 – Signe Hebbe, operatic soprano (d. 1925)
 * August 24
 * Théodore Dubois, organist and composer (d. 1924)
 * Adolf Wilbrandt, writer and lyricist (died 1911)
 * September 19 – Adolf Gustaw Sonnenfeld, composer (died 1914)
 * December 7 – Édouard Mangin, musician (died 1907)
 * December 9 – Emile Waldteufel, pianist and composer (d. 1915)
 * December 24 – Cosima Wagner, daughter of Franz Liszt and wife of Richard Wagner (d. 1930)
 * December 30 – Ida Marie Lipsius, music writer (d. 1927)
 * date unknown
 * Kate Santley, actress and singer (d. 1923)
 * La Serneta, flamenco singer (d. 1910)

Deaths

 * January 23 – John Field, pianist and composer (b. 1782)
 * February 10 – Aleksandr Pushkin, Russian poet and librettist (born 1799)
 * April 9 – Polly Cuninghame, ballet dancer (b. c. 1785)
 * May 5
 * Niccolò Antonio Zingarelli, composer (b. 1752)
 * Salvatore Fighera, composer (b. 1771)
 * June 16 – Valentino Fioravanti, opera buffa composer (b. 1764)
 * July 28 – Joseph Schubert, violinist and composer (b. 1754)
 * August 6 – Johann Nepomuk Schelble, composer (b. 1789)
 * October 6 – Jean François Lesueur, composer (b. 1760/1763)
 * October 11 – Samuel Wesley, organist and composer, son of hymn-writer Charles Wesley
 * October 17 – Johann Nepomuk Hummel, composer (b. 1778)
 * October 28 – Jean-Blaise Martin, opera singer (b. 1768)
 * date unknown
 * Franz Joseph Antony, organist and choral composer (b. 1790)
 * Jean Théodore Latour, composer for piano (b. 1766)
 * Christina Rahm, opera singer (b. c. 1760)

title: 1837 in music


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Ernest Lundeen

Ernest Lundeen (August 4, 1878 – August 31, 1940) was an American lawyer and politician who represented Minnesota in the United States House of Representatives from 1917 to 1919 and 1933 to 1937 and the United States Senate from 1937 until his death in 1940. He was a member of the Republican Party before joining the Minnesota Farmer–Labor Party, and he opposed American involvement in World War I and World War II. He was also affiliated with the Nazi Party of Germany.

A veteran of the Spanish–American War, he got his beginning in politics when he served in the Minnesota House of Representatives from the 42nd district, between 1911 and 1914. Originally elected as a Republican, he represented Minnesota's 5th congressional district for a single term between 1917 and 1919, and he would go on to lose renomination in 1918 due to his opposition to American entry into World War I. He was killed in a plane crash near Lovettsville, Virginia, on the afternoon of August 31, 1940, along with 24 others. At the time of his death, he was the subject of a probe by the Federal Bureau of Investigation due to his ties to Nazi Germany.

Early life and education
Ernest Lundeen was born on August 4, 1878 on his father's homestead in Brooklyn Township near Beresford, Lincoln County, Dakota Territory. His father, C. H. Lundeen, was an early pioneer who was credited with the naming of Brooklyn Township and the establishment of the school and other local institutions.

Most of Ernest Lundeen's siblings died during a diphtheria epidemic during the 1880s. In 1896, Lundeen and his family moved from their Brooklyn homestead to Harcourt, Iowa, and then to Minnesota. Lundeen served in the United States Army in the 12th Minnesota Volunteer Regiment during the Spanish–American War.

In 1901, Lundeen graduated from Carleton College and studied law at the University of Minnesota Law School. In 1906, he was admitted to the Minnesota bar.

Early political career (191136)
Lundeen served in the nonpartisan Minnesota House of Representatives from 1911 to 1914.

United States House of Representatives (191719)
Lundeen first ran for Congress in 1914 but was unsuccessful.

In 1916, Lundeen was elected to represent Minnesota's 5th congressional district, based in Minneapolis, in the 65th United States Congress. He was one of 50 representatives to vote against the declaration of war against Germany on April 6, 1917. He continued to oppose the war while it was being fought. Owing to his opposition, he lost renomination for the Republican primary in 1918 to the eventual winner, Walter Newton. Once, while he was making a speech about foreign policy, a crowd in Ortonville, Minnesota carried him off a speech platform and forced him into a car of a departing train.

Unsuccessful bids for office
In the 1920s, Lundeen was repeatedly unsuccessful in his runs for political office:

 * Lundeen ran for the same seat again in 1920 but failed to win the Republican nomination. He ran in the general election as an independent candidate but finished third with 10.0% of the total vote.
 * In 1922, Lundeen challenged incumbent United States Senator Frank B. Kellogg for the Republican nomination for Senate. He received 123,765 votes in the Republican primary (33.54% of the total).
 * In 1923, Lundeen ran in the special election for United States Senate but finished seventh out of nine candidates in the Republican primary, winning only 5,851 votes (3.40% of the total).
 * In 1924, Lundeen ran successfully for Chief Justice of the Minnesota Supreme Court.
 * By 1926, Lundeen had switched his affiliation to the Minnesota Farmer–Labor Party and ran in that year's election for Minnesota's 10th congressional district. As the Farmer–Labor nominee in this more rural and exurban district, he finished a distant second to incumbent Republican Godfrey G. Goodwin with 34.5% of the total vote.
 * In 1930, Lundeen was the Farmer–Labor nominee for United States Senate, challenging incumbent Republican Thomas D. Schall. He finished third behind Schall and Democratic nominee Einar Hoidale with 22.89% of the vote.

United States House of Representatives (193337)
Lundeen was elected to the U.S. House again in 1932 and served in the 73rd and 74th Congresses.

In 1934, during the 73rd Congress, Lundeen sponsored the Workers' Unemployment Insurance Bill. The bill embodied a far-reaching unemployment insurance and social insurance program formulated by the Communist Party in 1930 and openly and vigorously advocated by the party for the next several years. Despite the bill's Communist origins, the party mustered considerable support for it, including from union locals, international unions, and state labor federations. The bill attracted support from liberals dissatisfied with the less generous and much less radical Wagner-Lewis Bill (which became the Social Security Act). With Lundeen's help, a subcommittee of the Labor Committee heard testimony from 80 witnesses on the benefits of the bill and the suffering of the unemployed. Many were Communists, including Party chairman Earl Browder. The bill was narrowly voted out of the Labor Committee, but it was killed by House leadership, which wanted no competition for Wagner-Lewis.

1936 election
In 1936, the Farmer–Labor Party nominated Floyd B. Olson, the popular incumbent Governor of Minnesota, for the open United States Senate seat vacated by Schall's death. However, Olson died of stomach cancer at the age of 44 on August 22. The state central committee of the Farmer–Labor Party selected Lundeen to run in his place, and he won a landslide election over Republican Theodore Christianson.

Term in office
He served from January 3, 1937, in the 75th and 76th Congresses until his death. Initially, his Communist sympathies remained strong: in 1936, then Senator-elect Lundeen addressed a meeting of the "Friends of the Soviet Union" at Madison Square Garden as Tovarishchi ("Comrades"). But he remained isolationist and was later denounced by the group as a reactionary.

Lundeen's isolationist views led him to be sympathetic to Nazi Germany. He had close ties to George Sylvester Viereck, a leading Nazi agent in the U.S. Viereck, after giving the Senator millions of dollars in bribes, often used Lundeen's office, and "sometimes dictated speeches for Lundeen, openly using the Senator's telephones to obtain material from Hans Thomsen at the [German] embassy." Some of these speeches were pro-German and pro-isolationist. Viereck would then have Lundeen's staff print thousands, and in some cases, even millions of copies of the speeches, which would then be distributed to the public. During his first term in the House of Representatives, he contributed to Viereck's American Weekly.

He was the chair and founder of the Islands for War Debts Committee, which urged the seizure of British territories in the West Indies in order to pay off British debts to the United States from WWI. It was likely an isolationist public relations tactic, reminding Americans that the United States should not lend more assistance to a country who was already in debt to them.

On June 14, 1939, Lundeen joined a civilian and press delegation aboard USS Hammann for its sea trials off Fire Island. The ship reached a maximum speed of 40 knots, came to a complete stop in 58 seconds, and then travelled in reverse at 20 knots. Lundeen said the experience was "astounding" and that the test showed that American ship designers "need bow to none."

While in office, he required his aides to pay him a portion of their paychecks, threatening to fire them if they did not comply.

He strongly opposed the Selective Training and Service Act of 1940.

Death and FBI investigation
On the afternoon of August 31, 1940, Lundeen was a passenger on Flight 19 of Pennsylvania Central Airlines, flying from Washington, D.C. to Detroit. The plane crashed near Lovettsville, Virginia, and all 25 persons on board were killed. Also on board were "a Special Agent of the FBI, a second FBI employee, and a prosecutor from the Criminal Division of the U.S. Department of Justice." The Civil Aeronautics Board launched an investigation regarding the cause of the crash. It lasted a week, and provided no definite answers.

In 2022, Rachel Maddow released a podcast series titled Ultra, which explored Lundeen's complicity in Nazi Germany's intelligence and propaganda operations in the U.S. during the 12 to 18 months immediately preceding America's entry into World War II. At the time of his death, the FBI was investigating Lundeen's ties to George Sylvester Viereck, a top Nazi spy working in the US to spread pro-Hitler and anti-Semitic propaganda.

After the plane crash, Lundeen's wife Norma Lundeen tried to clear his name by covering up his involvement with the Nazi regime. Within two days after the crash, she travelled to his office in the Capitol to retrieve the "Viereck files". Within the year after the tragedy, the story that Lundeen's speeches had been written by Viereck had been reported by several journalists. Norma Lundeen tried to prevent that narrative by claiming that "no one wrote [her] husband's speeches" and threatening to sue one of the journalists who was reporting on it. Viereck's defense called her as a witness during his trial. She then falsely testified that she indeed took the Viereck files, but the files were gone due to a burglary that had taken place at their residence. It was later discovered that the files were actually stored in the Lundeen family archives.

title: Ernest Lundeen


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Kangxi Emperor

The Kangxi Emperor (4 May 1654 – 20 December 1722), also known by his temple name Emperor Shengzu of Qing, personal name Xuanye, was the third emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the second Qing emperor to rule over China proper. His reign of 61 years makes him the longest-reigning emperor in Chinese history and one of the longest-reigning rulers in history. He is considered one of China's greatest emperors.

The third son of the Shunzhi Emperor, Kangxi was enthroned at the age of seven while actual power was held for six more years by the Four Regents nominated by his father. After assuming personal rule, Kangxi's attempt to revoke the fiefdoms of feudal princes sparked the Revolt of the Three Feudatories, which he suppressed. He also forced the Kingdom of Tungning in Taiwan and Mongols in the north and northwest to submit to Qing rule, and launched an expedition that incorporated Tibet into the empire. Domestically, he initially welcomed the Jesuits and the propagation of Catholicism in China, but tolerance came to an end as a result of the Chinese Rites controversy. Later in his reign, Kangxi became embroiled in a prolonged succession dispute. He died in 1722 at the age of 68 and was succeeded by his fourth son, who assumed the throne as the Yongzheng Emperor.

The Kangxi Emperor's reign brought about long-term stability and relative wealth after years of war and chaos. He initiated the period known as the High Qing era (or the "Prosperous Era of Kangxi and Qianlong"), which lasted for several generations after his death. His court also accomplished such literary feats as the compilation of the Kangxi Dictionary, the Complete Tang Poems poetry anthology, and the Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China.

Early reign
Born on 4 May 1654 to the Shunzhi Emperor and Empress Xiaokangzhang in Jingren Palace, the Forbidden City, Beijing, the Kangxi Emperor was originally given the Chinese name Xuanye (Manchu transliteration: hiowan yei). He was enthroned at the age of seven (or eight by East Asian age reckoning), on 7 February 1661. However, his era name "Kangxi", only started to be used on 18February 1662, the first day of the following lunar year.

Sinologist Herbert Giles, drawing on contemporary sources, described the Kangxi Emperor as "fairly tall and well proportioned, he loved all manly exercises, and devoted three months annually to hunting. Large bright eyes lighted up his face, which was pitted with smallpox."

Before the Kangxi Emperor came to the throne, Grand Empress Dowager Zhaosheng (in the name of Shunzhi Emperor) had appointed the powerful men Sonin, Suksaha, Ebilun, and Oboi as regents. Sonin died after his granddaughter became Empress Xiaochengren, leaving Suksaha at odds with Oboi in politics. In a fierce power struggle, Oboi had Suksaha put to death and seized absolute power as sole regent. The Kangxi Emperor and the rest of the imperial court acquiesced to this arrangement.

In the spring of 1662, the regents ordered a Great Clearance in southern China that evacuated the entire population from the seacoast to counter a resistance movement started by Ming loyalists under the leadership of Taiwan-based Ming general Zheng Chenggong, also titled Koxinga.

In 1669, the Kangxi Emperor had Oboi arrested with the help of his grandmother Grand Empress Dowager Zhaosheng, who had raised him. and began taking personal control of the empire. He listed three issues of concern: flood control of the Yellow River; repair of the Grand Canal; the Revolt of the Three Feudatories in south China. The Grand Empress Dowager influenced him greatly and he took care of her himself in the months leading up to her death in 1688.

Kangxi's relatives from the Han Chinese Banner Tong 佟 clan of Fushun in Liaoning falsely claimed to be related to the Jurchen Manchu Tunggiya 佟佳 clan of Jilin, using this false claim to get themselves transferred to a Manchu banner in the reign of Kangxi emperor.

Army

The main army of the Qing Empire, the Eight Banners Army, was in decline under the Kangxi Emperor. It was smaller than it had been at its peak under Hong Taiji and in the early reign of the Shunzhi Emperor; however, it was larger than in the Yongzheng and Qianlong emperors' reigns. In addition, the Green Standard Army was still powerful with generals such as Tuhai, Fei Yanggu, Zhang Yong, Zhou Peigong, Shi Lang, Mu Zhan, Shun Shike and Wang Jingbao.

The main reason for this decline was a change in system between the Kangxi and Qianlong emperors' reigns. The Kangxi Emperor continued using the traditional military system implemented by his predecessors, which was more efficient and stricter. According to the system, a commander who returned from a battle alone (with all his men dead) would be put to death, and likewise for a foot soldier. This was meant to motivate both commanders and soldiers alike to fight valiantly in war because there was no benefit for the sole survivor in a battle.

By the Qianlong Emperor's reign, military commanders had become lax and the training of the army was deemed less important as compared to during the previous emperors' reigns.

Revolt of the Three Feudatories
After the Qing takeover of China in 1644, large parts of the south and west were given as fiefs to three Ming generals who aided the Qing; in 1673 the three feudatories were controlled by Wu Sangui, Geng Jingzhong, and Shang Zhixin. Going against the advice of most of his advisors, Kangxi attempted to force the feudal princes to give up their lands and retire to Manchuria, sparking a rebellion that lasted eight years. For years afterwards Kangxi ruminated on his mistakes and blamed himself in part for the loss of life during the revolt.

Wu Sangui's forces overran most of southwest China and he tried to ally himself with local generals such as Wang Fuchen. The Kangxi Emperor employed generals including Zhou Peigong and Tuhai to suppress the rebellion, and also granted clemency to common people caught up in the war. He intended to personally lead the armies to crush the rebels but his subjects advised him against it. The Kangxi Emperor used mainly Han Chinese Green Standard Army soldiers to crush the rebels while the Manchu Banners took a backseat. The revolt ended with victory for Qing forces in 1681.

Taiwan
In 1683, the naval forces of the Ming loyalists on Taiwan—organized under the Zheng dynasty as the Kingdom of Tungning—were defeated off Penghu by 300-odd ships under the Qing admiral Shi Lang. Koxinga's grandson Zheng Keshuang surrendered Tungning a few days later and Taiwan became part of the Qing Empire. Zheng Keshuang moved to Beijing, joined the Qing nobility as the "Duke Haicheng" (海澄公), and was inducted into the Eight Banners as a member of the Han Plain Red Banner. His soldiers—including the rattan-shield troops (藤牌營, tengpaiying)—were similarly entered into the Eight Banners, notably serving against Russian Cossacks at Albazin.

A score of Ming princes had joined the Zheng dynasty on Taiwan, including Prince Zhu Shugui of Ningjing and Prince Honghuan (朱弘桓), the son of Zhu Yihai. The Qing sent most of the 17 Ming princes still living on Taiwan back to mainland China, where they spent the rest of their lives. The Prince of Ningjing and his five concubines, however, committed suicide rather than submit to capture. Their palace was used as Shi Lang's headquarters in 1683, but he memorialized the emperor to convert it into a Mazu temple as a propaganda measure in quieting remaining resistance on Taiwan. The emperor approved its dedication as the Grand Matsu Temple the next year and, honoring the goddess Mazu for her supposed assistance during the Qing invasion, promoted her to "Empress of Heaven" (天后 Tianhou) from her previous status as a "heavenly consort" (天妃 Tianfei). Belief in Mazu remains so widespread on Taiwan that her annual celebrations can gather hundreds of thousands of people; she is sometimes even syncretized with Guanyin and the Virgin Mary.

The end of the rebel stronghold and capture of the Ming princes allowed the Kangxi Emperor to relax the Sea Ban and permit resettlement of the Fujian and Guangdong coasts. The financial and other incentives to new settlers particularly drew the Hakka, who would have continuous low-level conflict with the returning Punti people for the next few centuries.

Russia

In the 1650s, the Qing Empire engaged the Tsardom of Russia in a series of border conflicts along the Amur River region, which concluded with the Qing gaining control of the area after the Siege of Albazin.

The Russians invaded the northern frontier again in the 1680s. A series of battles and negotiations culminated in the Treaty of Nerchinsk of 1689, by which a border was agreed between Russia and China.

Mongolia
The Inner Mongolian Chahar leader Ligdan Khan, a descendant of Genghis Khan, opposed and fought against the Qing until he died of smallpox in 1634. Thereafter, the Inner Mongols under his son Ejei Khan surrendered to the Qing and he was given the title of Prince (Qin Wang, 親王). The Inner Mongolian nobility now became closely tied to the Qing royal family and intermarried with them extensively. Ejei Khan died in 1661 and was succeeded by his brother Abunai. After Abunai showed disaffection with Manchu Qing rule, he was placed under house arrest in 1669 in Shenyang and the Kangxi Emperor gave his title to his son Borni.

Abunai bided his time then, with his brother Lubuzung, revolted against the Qing in 1675 during the Revolt of the Three Feudatories, with 3,000 Chahar Mongol followers joining in on the revolt. The revolt was put down within two months, the Qing defeating the rebels in battle on 20 April 1675, killing Abunai and all his followers. Their title was abolished, all Chahar Mongol royal males were executed even if they were born to Manchu Qing princesses, and all Chahar Mongol royal females were sold into slavery except the Manchu Qing princesses. The Chahar Mongols were then put under the direct control of the Qing Emperor unlike the other Inner Mongol leagues which maintained their autonomy.

The Outer Khalkha Mongols had preserved their independence, and only paid tribute to the Qing Empire. However, a conflict between the houses of Jasagtu Khan and Tösheetü Khan led to a dispute between the Khalkha and the Dzungars over the influence of Tibetan Buddhism. In 1688, the Dzungar chief, Galdan Boshugtu Khan, attacked the Khalkha from the west and invaded their territory. The Khalkha royal families and the first Jebtsundamba Khutuktu crossed the Gobi Desert and sought help from the Qing Empire in return for submission to Qing authority. In 1690, the Dzungars and Qing forces clashed at the Battle of Ulan Butung in Inner Mongolia, in which the Qing eventually emerged as the victor.

In 1696 and 1697 the Kangxi Emperor personally led campaigns against the Dzungars in the early Dzungar–Qing War. The western section of the Qing army defeated Galdan's forces at the Battle of Jao Modo and Galdan died in the following year.

Manchu Hoifan and Ula rebellion against the Qing

In 1700, some 20,000 Qiqihar Xibe were resettled in Guisui, modern Inner Mongolia, and 36,000 Songyuan Xibe were resettled in Shenyang, Liaoning. The relocation of the Xibe from Qiqihar is believed by Liliya M. Gorelova to be linked to the Qing's annihilation of the Manchu clan Hoifan (Hoifa) in 1697 and the Manchu tribe Ula in 1703 after they rebelled against the Qing; both Hoifan and Ula were wiped out.

Tibet
In 1701, the Kangxi Emperor ordered the reconquest of Kangding and other border towns in western Sichuan that had been taken by the Tibetans. The Manchu forces stormed Dartsedo and secured the border with Tibet and the lucrative tea-horse trade.

The Tibetan desi (regent) Sangye Gyatso concealed the death of the 5th Dalai Lama in 1682, and only informed the emperor in 1697. He moreover kept relations with Dzungar enemies of the Qing. All this evoked the great displeasure of the Kangxi Emperor. Eventually Sangye Gyatso was toppled and killed by the Khoshut ruler Lha-bzang Khan in 1705. As a reward for ridding him of his old enemy the Dalai Lama, the Kangxi Emperor appointed Lha-bzang Khan Regent of Tibet. The Dzungar Khanate, a confederation of Oirat tribes based in parts of what is now Xinjiang, continued to threaten the Qing Empire and invaded Tibet in 1717. They took control of Lhasa with a 6,000 strong army and killed Lha-bzang Khan. The Dzungars held on to the city for three years and at the Battle of the Salween River defeated a Qing army sent to the region in 1718. The Qing did not take control of Lhasa until 1720, when the Kangxi Emperor sent a larger expedition force there to defeat the Dzungars.

Muslims
The Kangxi Emperor incited anti-Muslim sentiment among the Mongols of Qinghai (Kokonor) in order to gain support against the Dzungar Oirat Mongol leader Galdan. Kangxi claimed that Chinese Muslims inside China such as Turkic Muslims in Qinghai were plotting with Galdan, who he falsely claimed converted to Islam. Kangxi falsely claimed that Galdan had spurned and turned his back on Buddhism and the Dalai Lama and that he was plotting to install a Muslim as ruler of China after invading it in a conspiracy with Chinese Muslims. Kangxi also distrusted Muslims of Turfan and Hami.

Chinese nobility
The Kangxi Emperor granted the title of Wujing Boshi (五經博士; Wǔjīng Bóshì) to the descendants of Shao Yong, Zhu Xi, Zhuansun Shi, Ran family (Ran Qiu, Ran Geng, Ran Yong), Bu Shang, Yan Yan (disciple of Confucius), and the Duke of Zhou's offspring.

Economic achievements

The contents of the national treasury during the Kangxi Emperor's reign were:
 * 1668 (7th year of Kangxi): 14,930,000 taels
 * 1692: 27,385,631 taels
 * 1702–1709: approximately 50,000,000 taels with little variation during this period
 * 1710: 45,880,000 taels
 * 1718: 44,319,033 taels
 * 1720: 39,317,103 taels
 * 1721 (60th year of Kangxi, second last of his reign): 32,622,421 taels

The reasons for the declining trend in the later years of the Kangxi Emperor's reign were a huge expenditure on military campaigns and an increase in corruption. To fix the problem, the Kangxi Emperor gave Prince Yong (the future Yongzheng Emperor) advice on how to make the economy more efficient.

Cultural achievements

During his reign, the Kangxi Emperor ordered the compilation of a dictionary of Chinese characters, which became known as the Kangxi Dictionary. This was seen as an attempt by the emperor to gain support from the Han Chinese scholar-bureaucrats, as many of them initially refused to serve him and remained loyal to the Ming dynasty. However, by persuading the scholars to work on the dictionary without asking them to formally serve the Qing imperial court, the Kangxi Emperor led them to gradually taking on greater responsibilities until they were assuming the duties of state officials.

In 1700, on the Kangxi Emperor's order, the compilation of a vast encyclopedia known as the Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China (completed during the reign of his successor Yongzheng), and a compilation of Tang poetry, the Complete Tang Poems.

The Kangxi Emperor also was interested in Western technology and wanted to import them to China. This was done through Jesuit missionaries, such as Ferdinand Verbiest, whom the Kangxi Emperor frequently summoned for meetings, or Karel Slavíček, who made the first precise map of Beijing on the emperor's order.

From 1711 to 1723, Matteo Ripa, an Italian priest sent to China by the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples, worked as a painter and copper-engraver at the Qing court. In 1723, he returned to Naples from China with four young Chinese Christians, in order to groom them to become priests and send them back to China as missionaries. This marked the beginning of the Collegio dei Cinesi, sanctioned by Pope Clement XII to help the evangelization of Christianity in China. This Chinese Institute was the first school of Sinology in Europe, which would later develop to become the Istituto Orientale and the present day Naples Eastern University.

The Kangxi Emperor was also the first Chinese emperor to play a western musical instrument. Thomas Pereira taught him how to play the harpsichord, and he employed Karel Slavíček as court musician. Slavíček was playing Spinet; later the emperor would play on it himself. China's famed blue and white porcelain probably reached its zenith during the Kangxi Emperor's reign.

Christianity

In the early decades of the Kangxi Emperor's reign, Jesuits played a large role in the imperial court. With their knowledge of astronomy, they ran the imperial observatory. Jean-François Gerbillon and Thomas Pereira served as translators for the negotiations of the Treaty of Nerchinsk. The Kangxi Emperor was grateful to the Jesuits for their contributions, the many languages they could interpret, and the innovations they offered his military in gun manufacturing and artillery, the latter of which enabled the Qing Empire to conquer the Kingdom of Tungning.

The Kangxi Emperor was also fond of the Jesuits' respectful and unobtrusive manner; they spoke the Chinese language well, and wore the silk robes of the elite. In 1692, when Pereira requested tolerance for Christianity, the Kangxi Emperor was willing to oblige, and issued the Edict of Toleration, which recognized Catholicism, barred attacks on their churches, and legalized their missions and the practice of Christianity by the Chinese people.

However, controversy arose over whether Chinese Christians could still take part in traditional Confucian ceremonies and ancestor worship, with the Jesuits arguing for tolerance and the Dominicans taking a hard-line against foreign "idolatry". The Dominican position won the support of Pope Clement XI, who in 1705 sent Charles-Thomas Maillard de Tournon as his representative to the Kangxi Emperor, to communicate the ban on Chinese rites. Through de Tournon, the Pope insisted on sending his own representative to Beijing to oversee Jesuit missionaries in China. Kangxi refused, wanting to keep missionary activities in China under his final oversight, managed by one of the Jesuits who had been living in Beijing for years.

On 19 March 1715, Pope Clement XI issued the papal bull Ex illa die, which officially condemned Chinese rites. In response, the Kangxi Emperor officially forbade Christian missions in China, as they were "causing trouble".

Succession disputes
A prolonged struggle between various princes emerged during the Kangxi Emperor's reign over who should inherit the throne – the Nine Lords' War (九子奪嫡).

In 1674 the Kangxi Emperor's first spouse, Empress Xiaochengren, died while giving birth to his second surviving son Yinreng, who at the age of two was named crown prince – a Han Chinese custom, to ensure stability during a time of chaos in the south. Although the Kangxi Emperor left the education of several of his sons to others, he personally oversaw the upbringing of Yinreng, grooming him to be a perfect successor. Yinreng was tutored by the mandarin Wang Shan, who remained devoted to him, and spent the later years of his life trying to persuade the Kangxi Emperor to restore Yinreng as the crown prince.

Yinreng proved to be unworthy of the succession despite his father showing favoritism towards him. He was said to have beaten and killed his subordinates, and was alleged to have had sexual relations with one of his father's concubines, which was deemed incest and a capital offence. Yinreng also purchased young children from Jiangsu to satisfy his pedophiliac pleasure. In addition, Yinreng's supporters, led by Songgotu, gradually formed a "Crown Prince Party" (太子黨), that aimed to help Yinreng get the throne as soon as possible, even if it meant using unlawful methods.

Over the years, the Kangxi Emperor kept constant watch over Yinreng and became aware of his son's many flaws, while their relationship gradually deteriorated. In 1707, the emperor decided that he could no longer tolerate Yinreng's behavior, which he partially mentioned in the imperial edict as "never obeying ancestors' virtues, never obliged to my order, only doing inhumanity and devilry, only showing maliciousness and lust", and decided to strip Yinreng of his position as crown prince. The Kangxi Emperor placed his oldest surviving son, Yinzhi, in charge of overseeing Yinreng's house arrest. Yinzhi, an unfavored Shu son, knowing he had no chance of being selected, recommended the eighth prince, Yinsi, and requested his father to order Yinreng's execution. The Kangxi Emperor was enraged and stripped Yinzhi of his titles. The emperor then commanded his subjects to cease debating the succession issue, but despite this and attempts to reduce rumours and speculation as to who the new crown prince might be, the imperial court's daily activities were disrupted. Yinzhi's actions caused the Kangxi Emperor to suspect that Yinreng might have been framed, so he restored Yinreng as crown prince in 1709, with the support of the 4th and 13th princes, and on the excuse that Yinreng had previously acted under the influence of mental illness.

In 1712, during the Kangxi Emperor's last inspection tour of the south, Yinreng, who was put in charge of state affairs during his father's absence, tried to vie for power again with his supporters. He allowed an attempt at forcing the Kangxi Emperor to abdicate when his father returned to Beijing. However, the emperor received news of the planned coup d'etat, and was so angry that he deposed Yinreng and placed him under house arrest again. After the incident, the emperor announced that he would not appoint any of his sons as crown prince for the remainder of his reign. He stated that he would place his Imperial Valedictory Will inside a box in the Palace of Heavenly Purity, which would only be opened after his death.

Seeing that Yinreng was completely disavowed, Yinsi and some other princes turned to support the 14th prince, Yinti, while the 13th prince supported Yinzhen. They formed the so-called "Eighth Lord Party" (八爺黨) and "Fourth Lord Party" (四爺黨).

Death and succession
Following the deposition of the crown prince, the Kangxi Emperor implemented groundbreaking changes in the political landscape. The 13th prince, Yinxiang, was placed under house arrest as well for cooperating with Yinreng. The eighth prince Yinsi was stripped of all his titles and only had them restored years later. The 14th prince Yinti, whom many considered to be the most likely candidate to succeed the Kangxi Emperor, was sent on a military campaign during the political conflict. Yinsi, along with the ninth and tenth princes, Yintang and Yin'e, pledged their support to Yinti.

In the evening of 20 December 1722, just before his death, the Kangxi Emperor called seven of his sons to assemble at his bedside. They were the third, fourth, eighth, ninth, tenth, sixteenth and seventeenth princes. After the Kangxi Emperor died, Longkodo announced that the emperor had selected the fourth prince, Yinzhen, as the new emperor. Yinzhen ascended to the throne and became known as the Yongzheng Emperor. The Kangxi Emperor was entombed at the Eastern Tombs in Zunhua, Hebei.

A legend concerning the Kangxi Emperor's will states that he chose Yinti as his heir, but Yinzhen forged the will in his own favour. It has, however, long been refuted by serious historians. Yinzhen, later the Yongzheng Emperor, has attracted many rumours, and some novel-like private books claim he did not die of illness but was assassinated by a swordswoman, Lü Siniang (呂四娘), the granddaughter of Lü Liuliang, though this is never treated seriously by scholars.

Personality and achievements

The Kangxi Emperor was a great consolidator of the Qing dynasty. The transition from the Ming dynasty to the Qing was a cataclysm whose central event was the fall of the capital Beijing to the peasant rebels led by Li Zicheng, then to the Manchus in 1644, and the installation of the five-year-old Shunzhi Emperor on their throne. By 1661, when the Shunzhi Emperor died and was succeeded by the Kangxi Emperor, the Qing conquest of China proper was almost complete. Leading Manchus were already using Chinese institutions and mastering Confucian ideology, while maintaining Manchu culture among themselves. The Kangxi Emperor completed the conquest, suppressed all significant military threats and revived the central government system inherited from the Ming with important modifications.

The Kangxi Emperor was a workaholic, rising early and retiring late, reading and responding to numerous memorials every day, conferring with his councilors and giving audiences – and this was in normal times; in wartime, he might be reading memorials from the warfront until after midnight or even, as with the Dzungar conflict, away on campaign in person.

The Kangxi Emperor devised a system of communication that circumvented the scholar-bureaucrats, who had a tendency to usurp the power of the emperor. This Palace Memorial System involved the transfer of secret messages between him and trusted officials in the provinces, where the messages were contained in locked boxes that only he and the official had access to. This started as a system for receiving uncensored extreme-weather reports, which the emperor regarded as divine comments on his rule. However, it soon evolved into a general-purpose secret "news channel." Out of this emerged a Grand Council, which dealt with extraordinary, especially military, events. The council was chaired by the emperor and manned by his more elevated Han Chinese and Manchu household staff. From this council, the mandarin civil servants were excluded – they were left only with routine administration.

The Kangxi Emperor managed to woo the Confucian intelligentsia into co-operating with the Qing government, despite their deep reservations about Manchu rule and loyalty to the Ming. He appealed to this very sense of Confucian values, for instance, by issuing the Sacred Edict in 1670. He encouraged Confucian learning and made sure that the civil service examinations were held every three years even during times of stress. When some scholars, out of loyalty to the Ming, refused to take the exams, he hit upon the expedient of a special exam to be taken by nomination. He personally sponsored the writing of the Ming Official History, the Kangxi Dictionary, a phrase-dictionary, a vast encyclopedia and an even vaster compilation of Chinese literature. To promote his image as a "sage ruler," he appointed Manchu and Chinese tutors with whom he studied the Confucian classics and worked intensively on Chinese calligraphy.

In the one military campaign in which he actively participated, against the Dzungar Mongols, the Kangxi Emperor showed himself an effective military commander. According to Finer, the emperor's own written reflections allow one to experience "how intimate and caring was his communion with the rank-and-file, how discriminating and yet masterful his relationship with his generals".

As a result of the scaling down of hostilities as peace returned to China after the Manchu conquest, and also as a result of the ensuing rapid increase of population, land cultivation and therefore tax revenues based on agriculture, the Kangxi Emperor was able first to make tax remissions, then in 1712 to freeze the land tax and corvée altogether, without embarrassing the state treasury (although the dynasty eventually suffered from this fiscal policy, as this preserved tax rates in perpetuity, preventing later emperors from adjusting the fiscal system and hindering attempts at modernisation).

Empress

 * Empress Xiaochengren (孝誠仁皇后) of the Hešeri clan (赫舍里氏; 3 February 1654 – 6 June 1674)
 * Chenghu (承祜; 4 January 1670 – 3 March 1672), second son
 * Yunreng (允礽), Prince Limi of the First Rank (理密親王; 6 June 1674 – 27 January 1725), seventh (second) son

 * Empress Xiaozhaoren (孝昭仁皇后) of the Niohuru clan (鈕祜祿氏; 1653 – 18 March 1678)
 * Empress Xiaoyiren (孝懿仁皇后) of the Tunggiya clan (佟佳氏; ? – 24 August 1689)
 * Eighth daughter (13 July 1683 – 6 August 1683)
 * Miscarriage (August 1689)

 * Empress Xiaogongren (孝恭仁皇后) of the Uya clan (烏雅氏; 28 April 1660 – 25 June 1723)
 * Yinzhen (胤禛), the Yongzheng Emperor (雍正帝; 13 December 1678 – 8 October 1735), 11th (fourth) son
 * Yinzuo (胤祚; 5 March 1680 – 15 June 1685), 14th (sixth) son
 * Seventh daughter (5 July 1682 – September 1682)
 * Princess Wenxian of the First Rank (固倫溫憲公主; 10 November 1683 – August/September 1702), ninth daughter
 * Married Shun'anyan (舜安顏; ? – 1724) of the Manchu Tunggiya clan in October/November 1700
 * 12th daughter (14 June 1686 – February/March 1697)
 * Yunti (允禵), Prince Xunqin of the Second Rank (恂勤郡王; 10 February 1688 – 16 February 1755), 23rd (14th) son

Imperial Noble Consort

 * Imperial Noble Consort Quehui (愨惠皇貴妃) of the Tunggiya clan (佟佳氏; September/October 1668 – 24 April 1743)
 * Imperial Noble Consort Jingmin (敬敏皇貴妃) of the Janggiya clan (章佳氏; ? – 20 August 1699)
 * Yinxiang (胤祥), Prince Yixian of the First Rank (怡賢親王; 16 November 1686 – 18 June 1730), 22nd (13th) son
 * Princess Wenke of the Second Rank (和碩溫恪公主; 31 December 1687 – 27 July 1709), 13th daughter
 * Married Cangjin (蒼津) of the Mongol Onnigud Borjigin clan in August/September 1706
 * Princess Dunke of the Second Rank (和碩敦恪公主; 3 February 1691 – 2 January 1710), 15th daughter
 * Married Dorji (多爾濟; ? – 1720) of the Mongol Khorchin Borjigin clan in January/February 1709 and had issue (one daughter)

 * Imperial Noble Consort Dunyi (惇怡皇貴妃) of the Gūwalgiya clan (瓜爾佳氏; 3 December 1683 – 30 April 1768)
 * 18th daughter (17 November 1701 – November 1701)

Noble Consort

 * Noble Consort Wenxi (溫僖貴妃) of the Niohuru clan (鈕祜祿氏; 14 February 1661 – 19 December 1694)
 * Yun'e (允䄉), Duke of the Second Rank (輔國公; 28 November 1683 – 18 October 1741), 18th (10th) son
 * 11th daughter (24 October 1685 – June/July 1686)

Consort

 * Consort Hui (慧妃) of the Khorchin Borjigin clan (博爾濟吉特氏; ? – 30 May 1670)
 * Consort Hui (惠妃) of the Ula-Nara clan (葉赫那拉氏; ? – 1 May 1732)
 * Chengqing (承慶; 21 March 1670 – 26 May 1671), third son
 * Yunzhi (允禔), Prince of the Fourth Rank (貝子; 12 March 1672 – 7 January 1735), fifth (first) son

 * Consort Yi (宜妃) of the Gorolo clan (郭絡羅氏; 1660 – 2 October 1733), personal name was Nalanzhu (納蘭珠)
 * Yunki (允祺), Prince Hengwen of the First Rank (恆溫親王; 5 January 1680 – 10 July 1732), 13th (fifth) son
 * Yuntang (允禟), Prince of the Fourth Rank (貝子; 17 October 1683 – 22 September 1726), 17th (ninth) son
 * Yinzi (胤禌; 8 June 1685 – 22 August 1696), 20th (11th) son

 * Consort Rong (榮妃) of the Magiya clan (馬佳氏; ? – 26 April 1727)
 * Chengrui (承瑞; 5 November 1667 – 10 July 1670), first son
 * Saiyinchahun (賽音察渾; 24 January 1672 – 6 March 1674), fourth son
 * Princess Rongxian of the First Rank (固倫榮憲公主; 20 June 1673 – 29 May 1728), third daughter
 * Married Örgen (烏爾袞; ? – 1721) of the Mongol Barin Borjigin clan in June/July 1691 and had issue (a son)
 * Changhua (長華; 11 May 1674 – ?), sixth son
 * Changsheng (長生; 10 September 1675 – 27 April 1677), eighth son
 * Yunzhi (允祉), Prince Chengyin of the Second Rank (誠隱郡王; 23 March 1677 – 10 July 1732), 10th (third) son

 * Consort Ping (平妃) of the Hešeri clan (赫舍里氏; ? – 18 July 1696)
 * Yinji (胤禨; 23 February 1691 – 30 March 1691), 24th son

 * Consort Liang (良妃) of the Wei clan (衛氏; 1662 – 29 December 1711)
 * Yunsi (允禩), Prince Lian of the First Rank (廉親王; 29 March 1681 – 5 October 1726), 16th (eighth) son

 * Consort Xuan (宣妃) of the Khorchin Borjigin clan (博爾濟吉特氏; ? – 12 September 1736), personal name Chenglian (成蓮)
 * Consort Cheng (成妃) of the Daigiya clan (戴佳氏; ? – 18 December 1740)
 * Yunyou (允佑), Prince Chundu of the First Rank (淳度親王; 19 August 1680 – 18 May 1730), 15th (seventh) son

 * Consort Shunyimi (順懿密妃) of the Wang clan (王氏; ? – 19 November 1744)
 * Yunxu (允禑), Prince Yuke of the Second Rank (愉恪郡王; 24 December 1693 – 8 March 1731), 25th (15th) son
 * Yunlu (允祿), Prince Zhuangke of the First Rank (莊恪親王; 28 July 1695 – 20 March 1767), 26th (16th) son
 * Yinxie (胤祄; 15 May 1701 – 17 October 1708), 28th (18th) son

 * Consort Chunyuqin (純裕勤妃) of the Chen clan (陳氏; ? – 12 January 1754)
 * Yunli (允禮), Prince Guoyi of the First Rank (果毅親王; 24 March 1697 – 21 March 1738), 27th (17th) son

 * Consort Ding (定妃) of the Wanlioha clan (萬琉哈氏; January/February 1661 – 24 May 1757)
 * Yuntao (允祹), Prince Lüyi of the First Rank (履懿親王; 18 January 1686 – 1 September 1763), 21st (12th) son

Concubine

 * Concubine An (安嬪) of the Li clan (李氏)
 * Concubine Jing (敬嬪) of the Wanggiya clan (王佳氏)
 * Concubine Duan (端嬪) of the Dong clan (董氏; ? – 1702)
 * Second daughter (17 April 1671 – March/April 1673)

 * Concubine Xi (僖嬪) of the Hešeri clan (赫舍里氏; ? – 31 October 1702)
 * Concubine Tong (通嬪) of the Ula-Nara clan (那拉氏; 1664 – 1 August 1744)
 * Princess Chunque of the First Rank (固倫純慤公主; 20 March 1685 – 22 April 1710), 10th daughter
 * Married Ts'ering (策棱; ? – 1750) of the Mongol Khalkha Borjigin clan in June/July 1706 and had issue (one son)

 * Concubine Xiang (襄嬪) of the Gao clan (高氏; ? – 14 August 1746), personal name Zaiyi (在儀)
 * Yinji (胤禝; 25 October 1702 – 28 March 1704), 29th (19th) son
 * 19th daughter (30 March 1703 – February/March 1705)
 * Yunyi (允禕), Prince Jianjing of the Third Rank (簡靖貝勒; 1 September 1706 – 30 June 1755), 30th (20th) son

 * Concubine Jin (謹嬪) of the Sehetu clan (色赫圖氏; 2 August 1682 – 23 April 1739)
 * Yunhu (允祜), Prince Gongqin of the Third Rank (恭勤貝勒; 10 January 1712 – 12 February 1744), 32nd (22nd) son

 * Concubine Jing (靜嬪) of the Shi clan (石氏; 13 December 1689 – 10 July 1758)
 * Yunci (允祁), Prince Cheng of the Third Rank (誠貝勒; 14 January 1714 – 31 August 1785), 33rd (23rd) son

 * Concubine Xi (熙嬪) of the Chen clan (陳氏; April/May 1690 – 1 February 1737)
 * Yunxi (允禧), Prince Shenjing of the Second Rank (慎靖郡王; 27 February 1711 – 26 June 1758), 31st (21st) son

 * Concubine Mu (穆嬪) of the Chen clan (陳氏; ? – 1727)
 * Yunbi (允秘), Prince Xianke of the First Rank (𫍯恪親王; 5 July 1716 – 3 December 1773), 34th (24th) son
 * Yinyuan (胤禐; 2 March 1718), 35th son

Noble Lady

 * Noble Lady Yi (伊貴人) of the Yi clan (易氏; ? – 1728)
 * Noble Lady Bu (布貴人) of the Joogiya clan (兆佳氏; ? – 21 February 1717)
 * Princess Duanjing of the Second Rank (和碩端靜公主; 9 June 1674 – March/April 1710), fifth daughter
 * Married Ga'erzang (噶爾臧; 1675–1722) of the Mongol Kharchin Ulanghan clan in November/December 1692, and had issue (one daughter)

 * Noble Lady (貴人) of the Nara clan (那拉氏)
 * Wanfu (萬黼; 4 December 1675 – 11 March 1679), ninth son
 * Yinzan (胤禶; 10 April 1679 – 30 April 1680), 12th son

 * Noble Lady (貴人) of the Gorolo clan (郭絡羅氏), personal name was Buyinzhu (布音珠)
 * Princess Kejing of the First Rank (固倫恪靖公主; 4 July 1679 – March/April 1735), sixth daughter
 * Married Dondob Dorji (敦多布多爾濟; ? – 1743) of the Mongol Khalkha Borjigin clan in December 1697/January 1698 and had issue (three sons)
 * Yinju (胤䄔; 13 September 1683 – 17 July 1684), 19th son

 * Noble Lady (貴人) of the Yuan clan (袁氏; ? – 25 September 1719)
 * Princess Quejing of the Second Rank (和碩愨靖公主; 16 January 1690 – 1736), 14th daughter
 * Married Sun Chengyun (孫承運; ? – 1719) in 1706

Mistress

 * Mistress (格格) of the Zhang clan (張氏)
 * First daughter (23 December 1668 – November 1671)
 * Fourth daughter (16 March 1674 – January/February 1679)

 * Mistress (格格) of the Wang clan (王氏)
 * 16th daughter (27 November 1695 – October/November 1707)

 * Mistress (格格) of the Liu clan (劉氏)
 * 17th daughter (12 January 1699 – December 1700 or January 1701)

 * Mistress (格格) of the Niohuru clan (鈕祜祿氏)
 * 20th daughter (20 November 1708 – January/February 1709)

Fiction

 * The Great Kangxi Emperor, a historical novel by Eryue He which romanticises the Kangxi Emperor's life.
 * The Deer and the Cauldron, a wuxia novel by Jin Yong. In the novel, the Kangxi Emperor and the protagonist, Wei Xiaobao, become close friends in their childhood. Wei Xiaobao helps the emperor consolidate his rule over the Qing Empire and plays an important role in how significant historical events of the Kangxi era unfold.
 * Seven Swords Descend from Mount Heaven, a wuxia novel by Liang Yusheng. In the novel, the Kangxi Emperor discovers that his father, the Shunzhi Emperor, has become a monk in a monastery on Mount Wutai. He orders a close aide to kill his father in order to consolidate power, and later attempts to erase evidence of the murder.

Video games

 * Age of Empires III: The Asian Dynasties: The Kangxi Emperor is featured as the Chinese leader in this real-time strategy game.
 * Call Me Emperor: Kangxi is featured as a minister in this Strategy Click-RPG game.

Bibliography and further reading

 * Finer, S. E. (1997). The History of Government from the Earliest Times. ISBN 0-19-822904-6 (three-volume set, hardback)
 * Ch. 3, "Kangxi's Consolidation," in Jonathan D. Spence, The Search for Modern China (New York: Norton; 3rd, 2013), pp. 48–71.
 * Finer, S. E. (1997). The History of Government from the Earliest Times. ISBN 0-19-822904-6 (three-volume set, hardback)
 * Ch. 3, "Kangxi's Consolidation," in Jonathan D. Spence, The Search for Modern China (New York: Norton; 3rd, 2013), pp. 48–71.
 * Ch. 3, "Kangxi's Consolidation," in Jonathan D. Spence, The Search for Modern China (New York: Norton; 3rd, 2013), pp. 48–71.
 * Ch. 3, "Kangxi's Consolidation," in Jonathan D. Spence, The Search for Modern China (New York: Norton; 3rd, 2013), pp. 48–71.
 * Ch. 3, "Kangxi's Consolidation," in Jonathan D. Spence, The Search for Modern China (New York: Norton; 3rd, 2013), pp. 48–71.
 * Ch. 3, "Kangxi's Consolidation," in Jonathan D. Spence, The Search for Modern China (New York: Norton; 3rd, 2013), pp. 48–71.
 * Ch. 3, "Kangxi's Consolidation," in Jonathan D. Spence, The Search for Modern China (New York: Norton; 3rd, 2013), pp. 48–71.
 * Ch. 3, "Kangxi's Consolidation," in Jonathan D. Spence, The Search for Modern China (New York: Norton; 3rd, 2013), pp. 48–71.
 * Ch. 3, "Kangxi's Consolidation," in Jonathan D. Spence, The Search for Modern China (New York: Norton; 3rd, 2013), pp. 48–71.
 * Ch. 3, "Kangxi's Consolidation," in Jonathan D. Spence, The Search for Modern China (New York: Norton; 3rd, 2013), pp. 48–71.

title: Kangxi Emperor


text:
1805 in music

This is a list of music-related events in 1805.

Events

 * April 7 – Beethoven's Symphony No. 3, Eroica, has its public premiere at the Theater an der Wien in Vienna under his baton, marking the beginning of his middle period.
 * November 20 – Beethoven's only opera Fidelio in its original form (known retrospectively as Leonore) is premiered at the Theater an der Wien in Vienna.
 * Louis Spohr is appointed musical director to the court of Gotha.
 * Niccolò Paganini begins touring Europe.

Classical music

 * Ludwig van Beethoven
 * Piano Concerto No.4, Op. 58
 * Leonora Overture No.2, Op. 72a
 * Erlkönig, WoO 131
 * ETA Hoffmann – Piano Sonatas
 * Franz Krommer – Concerto for Oboe in F Major, Op. 52
 * Louis Spohr
 * 2 String Quartets, Op. 4
 * Violin Concerto No. 3, Op. 7
 * Joseph Wölfl
 * Piano Sonata in C minor, Op. 25
 * Three Piano Sonatas, Op. 33

Opera

 * Michele Carafa – Il Fantasma
 * Luigi Cherubini – Faniska
 * James Hook – The Soldier's Return

Births

 * January 7 – Philip Klitz, composer (d. 1854)
 * February 22 – Robert Reinick, lyricist and artist (died 1852)
 * March 5 – Théodore Labarre, harpist and composer (d. 1870)
 * March 17 – Manuel García, singer and music teacher (d. 1906)
 * May 14 – Johan Peter Emilius Hartmann, composer (d. 1900)
 * July 8 – Luigi Ricci, opera composer (d. 1859)
 * July 27 – Luigi Felice Rossi, composer and musicologist (d. 1863)
 * October 28 – John Thomson, composer (d. 1841)
 * November 1 – Alessandro Nini, composer (d. 1880)
 * November 14 – Fanny Mendelssohn, pianist and composer (d. 1847)

Deaths

 * January 23 – Wenzel Pichl, composer (b. 1741)
 * February 4 – Johann George Tromlitz, flautist (b. 1725)
 * April – Emerico Lobo de Mesquita, organist, conductor, composer and music teacher (b. 1746)
 * April 28 – Peter Pelham, harpsichordist, organist and composer (b. 1721)
 * May 9 – Friedrich Schiller, librettist and poet (born 1759)
 * May 10 – Johann Evangelist Haydn, tenor, brother of Joseph Haydn and Michael Haydn (b. 1743)
 * May 28 – Luigi Boccherini, composer (b. 1743)
 * August – Ann Griffiths, hymn-writer (b. 1776)
 * November – Hamoir, dancer and theatre director
 * December 18 – Gennaro Astarita, opera composer (b. c.1745)

title: 1805 in music


text:
Prebisch–Singer hypothesis

In economics, the Prebisch–Singer hypothesis (also called the Prebisch–Singer thesis) argues that the price of primary commodities declines relative to the price of manufactured goods over the long term, which causes the terms of trade of primary-product-based economies to deteriorate. , recent statistical studies have given support for the idea. The idea was developed by Raúl Prebisch and Hans Singer in the late 1940s; since that time, it has served as a major pillar of dependency theory and policies such as import substitution industrialization (ISI).

Theory
A common explanation for this supposed phenomenon is that manufactured goods have a greater income elasticity of demand than primary products, especially food. Therefore, as incomes rise, the demand for manufactured goods increases more rapidly than demand for primary products.

In addition, primary products have a low price elasticity of demand, so a decline in their prices tends to reduce revenue rather than increase it.

This theory implies that the very structure of the global market is responsible for the persistent inequality within the world system. This provides an interesting twist on Wallerstein's neo-Marxist interpretation of the international order which faults differences in power relations between 'core' and 'periphery' states as the chief cause for economic and political inequality (However, the Prebisch-Singer thesis also works with different bargaining positions of labour in developed and developing countries). As a result, the hypothesis enjoyed a high degree of popularity in the 1960s and 1970s with neo-Marxist developmental economists and even provided a justification for an expansion of the role of the commodity futures exchange as a tool for development.

Singer and Prebisch noticed a similar statistical pattern in long-run historical data on relative prices, but such regularity is consistent with a number of different explanations and policy stances. Later in his career, Prebisch argued that, due to the declining terms of trade primary producers face, developing countries should strive to diversify their economies and lessen dependence on primary commodity exports by developing their manufacturing industry

The hypothesis has lost some of its relevance in the last 30 years, as exports of simple manufactures have overtaken exports of primary commodities in most developing countries outside of Africa. For this reason, much of the recent research focuses less on the relative prices of primary products and manufactured goods, and more on the relationship between the prices of simple manufactures produced by developing countries and of complex manufactures produced by advanced economies.

In 1998, Singer argued that the thesis he pioneered has joined the mainstream: One indication of this is that the PST is now incorporated, both implicitly and explicitly, in the advice given by the Bretton Woods Institutions to developing countries. They are warned to be prudent even when export prices are temporarily favourable and to guard against currency overvaluation and Dutch Disease, with all the unfavourable impact on the rest of the economy and all the dangers of macroeconomic instability which a sudden boom in a major export sector could imply. They are warned to remember that the outlook for commodity prices is not favourable and that windfalls will tend to be temporary, with the subsequent relapse likely to be greater than the temporary windfall. This is exactly the warning which the PST would give.

Recent statistical research has given the idea qualified support.

Criticism
During the 2000s commodities boom, the terms of trade of most developing countries improved, while east Asia (which exports mostly manufactured goods) saw deteriorating terms of trade—the opposite of what the hypothesis generally predicts.

Critics argue that it is not possible to compare the prices of manufactured goods over time because they change rapidly. The price relationship of Prebisch–Singer does not take into account technological change. The important thing is not the price of the goods but the service provided by said goods. For example, in 1800 an American worker could buy a candle that provided one hour of light for six hours of work. But in 1997 an American worker could buy an hour of light provided by a light bulb with barely half a second of work. That is to say, the invention of Edison improved by other North Americans managed to reduce the price drastically. Another case that we can see are personal computers that provide the service of calculations per second. Since the 1970s computers doubled their capacity of calculations per second every two years for the same amount of constant dollars. The fall in price is so rapid, that it has been necessary to invent new words because of the immense growth in the capacity of computers. First they were measured in bytes, then, kilobytes, megabytes, terabytes, yottabytes, etc ... Today's harvesters harvest many more hectares per hour than they did half a century ago, but they also have a geo-satellite system, combined with a chip that allows to improve productivity; plus air-conditioned, hermetic cabinets, which prevent dust intake and improve the quality of life of the operator, as well as radio and DVD player to improve his comfort. These examples suffice to show that if we correct the imports/exports price relationships by technological change, we will obtain a conclusion opposite to that of Prebisch–Singer. It is therefore argued that the peripheral countries that export commodities benefit from trade with the central powers to a greater extent than they do, because by incorporating the new technologies incorporated into manufactures they multiply their productivity. In fact, we can easily find examples of a reduction in the gap in GDP per capita between rich and poor countries when the latter open to free trade. Such is the case of Argentina and England between 1875 and 1930. Or China and USA between 1980 and 2018, or many other countries.

History
Prebisch's lectures from 1945 to 1949 revealed the development of the theoretical strands of his argument. What he did not have was a statistical argument. In February 1949, Hans Singer, then working in the United Nations Department of Economic Affairs in New York City, published a paper titled "Post-war Price Relations between Under-developed and Industrialized Countries", which suggested that the terms of trade of underdeveloped countries had declined significantly between 1876 and 1948. Inspired by this, Raúl Prebisch presented a paper of his own discussing the decline at the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbeans second annual meeting, in Havana in May 1949.

Therefore, the statistical argument about the long-term trend in terms of trade of underdeveloped countries must be attributed to Singer. However, both seem to have independently invented similar explanations, stressing that the terms of trade moved against the 'borrowing' (i.e., underdeveloped) and in favour of the 'investing' (i.e., developed) countries. However, Prebisch specifically deals with the economic cycle and highlights to a greater extent than Singer the reasons for the different behaviour of wages in developed and underdeveloped countries, and received much greater recognition for his work, in part because of efforts by industrialized countries like the United States to distance themselves from his work.

Other sources

 * Ocampo, José Antonio, and Parra, María Angela. (2003) The Terms of Trade for Commodities in the Twentieth Century.
 * United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2005) Trade and Development Report Chapter 3: Evolution of the Terms of Trade and its Impact on Developing Countries.

Prebisch–Singer hypothesis

title: Prebisch–Singer hypothesis


text:
1806 in music

This is a list of music-related events in 1806.

Events

 * Gioachino Rossini becomes the youngest member of the Philharmonics Society of Bologna, where he starts studying composition
 * Carl Czerny publishes his first composition at the age of 15.
 * The marimba is described for the first time by Juan Domingo Juarros, a Spanish historian, in his Compendium of the History of Guatemala.
 * Johann Simon Mayr founds a new music school at Bergamo, Italy. Gaetano Donizetti is one of its first pupils.
 * Marcussen & Søn, Danish organ-building firm, founded.
 * The poem "Twinkle Twinkle Little Star" is published in Rhymes for the Nursery; it would later be made into a popular song of the same name.

Classical music

 * Ludwig van Beethoven
 * Symphony No. 4
 * Piano Concerto No. 4
 * Violin Concerto
 * 3 String Quartets, Op. 59
 * 32 Variations in C minor
 * Johann Nepomuk Hummel
 * 7 Hungarian Dances
 * 12 Minuets
 * Carl Maria Von Weber – Concertino for Horn and Orchestra
 * Joseph Wölfl – Piano Concerto No. 5 "Grand Concerto Militaire", Op. 43

Opera

 * Étienne Méhul – Uthal

Births

 * January 3 – Henriette Sontag, operatic soprano (d. 1854)
 * January 27 – Juan Crisóstomo Arriaga, "the Spanish Mozart" (d. 1826)
 * August 17 – Johann Kaspar Mertz, guitarist and composer (d. 1856)
 * September 2 – Josef Gusikov, klezmer musician (d. 1837)
 * November 4 – Anders Selinder, dancer and choreographer (d. 1874)
 * December 4 – Johann Friedrich Franz Burgmüller, composer (d. 1874)

Deaths

 * January 30 – Vicente Martín y Soler, opera and ballet composer (b. 1754)
 * February 18 - Brigida Banti, operatic soprano (b. 1755)
 * February 23 – John Alcock, composer (b. 1715)
 * February 24 – Tommaso Giordani, composer (b. c. 1738)
 * March 23 – George Pinto, composer (b. 1785)
 * June 14 – Domenico Guardasoni, operatic tenor (b. c.1731)
 * August 10 – Michael Haydn, composer (b. 1737)
 * date unknown
 * José de Larrañaga, organist and composer (b. 1728)
 * Charles Le Picq, dancer and choreographer (b. 1744)

title: 1806 in music


text:
1807 in music

This is a list of music-related events in 1807.

Events

 * Muzio Clementi begins negotiating for British publication rights to the music of Ludwig van Beethoven

Classical music

 * Ludwig van Beethoven
 * Piano Concerto No.4, Op.58 (Premiered in March in Vienna)
 * Piano Concerto in D major, Op. 61a
 * Coriolan, Op.62
 * Symphony No.5, Op. 67 (composition begins)
 * Mass in C, Op. 86
 * 6 Ecossaises, WoO 83
 * Johann Baptist Cramer
 * Piano Concerto No.5, Op. 48
 * Studio per il pianoforte, Op. 50, Book 2
 * Anton Eberl – Piano Quintet in G minor, Op. 41
 * Joseph Eybler – Omnes de Saba venient
 * Johann Nepomuk Hummel – Hélène and Paris (ballet)
 * Franz Krommer – Harmonie in F major, Op.57
 * Wenzel Thomas Matiegka – Serenade for Flute, Viola and Guitar, Op. 26
 * Antoine Reicha
 * Grand Quintet, Op. 106
 * Trio for 3 Cellos
 * Ferdinand Ries – Cello Sonata in A major, Op. 21
 * Louis Spohr
 * Violin Concerto No.5, Op. 17
 * Potpourri No.2, Op. 22
 * Fantasia for Harp, Op. 35
 * Variations sur 'Je suis encore dans mon printemps', Op. 36
 * Daniel Steibelt – Harp Concerto
 * Carl Maria Von Weber – Symphony No. 1

Published popular music

 * Thomas Moore – Irish melodies (music by John Andrew Stevenson)

Opera

 * Etienne-Nicolas Méhul – Joseph (Premiered December 15 in Paris)
 * Gaspare Spontini – La Vestale (The Vestal Virgin) (first performed in Paris, Libretto by Etienne Jouy.)

Births

 * January 6 – Ludwig Erk, music teacher and composer (died 1883)
 * January 11 – Charles Jefferys, music publisher and lyricist (died 1865)
 * January 23 – Joseph Casavant, manufacturer of pipe organs (d. 1874)
 * February 14 – Ernest Legouvé, librettist and dramatist (died 1903)
 * February 15 – Ignacy Feliks Dobrzyński, Polish symphonist (d. 1867)
 * February 27 – Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, lyricist and poet (died 1882)
 * March 7 – Adolph Methfessel, German composer (d. 1878)
 * March 30 – Henrik Rung, composer (d. 1871)
 * June 6 – Adrien-François Servais, cellist (d. 1866)
 * September 11 – Ignaz Lachner (d. 1895)
 * October 15 – Jan van Boom, composer (died 1872)
 * October 21 – Hilarión Eslava, composer (died 1878)
 * October 22 – Nikolay Bakhmetev, composer (died 1891)
 * date unknown
 * James P. Clarke, composer (d. 1877)
 * Henriette von Schorn, lyricist and poet (died 1869)

Deaths

 * February 25 – Jeanne-Marie Marsan, actress and singer (b. 1746)
 * March 1 – Niel Gow, fiddler (b. 1727)
 * March 11 – Anton Eberl, pianist, composer and music teacher (b. 1765)
 * March 27 – Michele Mortellari, composer (born c. 1750)
 * June 15 – Charles Bernardy, dancer and choreographer (b. 1724)
 * June 16 – John Skinner, songwriter (b. 1721)
 * December 21 – John Newton, author of the hymn, Amazing Grace (b. 1725)

title: 1807 in music


text:
1808 in music

This is a list of music-related events in 1808.

Events

 * December 20 – The original Covent Garden Theatre in London is destroyed by a fire, along with most of the scenery, costumes and scripts.
 * December 22 – Beethoven concert of 22 December 1808: Ludwig van Beethoven conducts and plays piano in a marathon benefit concert at the Theater an der Wien in Vienna consisting entirely of first public performances of works by him including the Symphony No. 5, Symphony No. 6, Piano Concerto No. 4 and Choral Fantasy.
 * Harvard University forms its own orchestra.
 * Ignaz Schuppanzigh's Schuppanzigh Quartet enters the employment of Count Andrey Razumovsky.
 * Ignaz Assmayer becomes organist of St Peter's Abbey, Salzburg.

Popular Music

 * "Believe Me, if All Those Endearing Young Charms", part of the Irish Melodies by poet Thomas Moore and composer (Sir) John Andrew Stevenson

Classical music

 * Ludwig van Beethoven
 * Symphony No. 5, Op. 67 (completed)
 * Symphony No. 6, Op. 68
 * Cello Sonata No. 3, Op. 69
 * Piano Trios Op. 70 (including the "Ghost" Piano Trio)
 * Fantasia in C minor, Op. 80
 * 2 Marches for Military Band, WoO 18-19
 * "Andenken", WoO 136
 * Bernhard Henrik Crusell – Clarinet Concerto no. 2
 * Johann Nepomuk Hummel – Piano Sonata No.4, Op. 38
 * Etienne Mehul – Symphony No.1 in G minor
 * Ferdinand Ries
 * Piano Quartet, Op. 13
 * Cello Sonata, Op. 20
 * Cello Sonata, Op. 21
 * Quintet or Septet, Op. 25
 * Piano Sonata, Op. 26
 * Violin Sonata No. 19 in D minor, Op. 83
 * Alessandro Rolla
 * Viola Concertino in E-flat major, BI 328
 * Divertimento for Viola and String Quartet, BI 330
 * Louis Spohr
 * 2 Duos for 2 Violins, Op. 9
 * String Quartet No.4, Op. 15 No.1
 * Potpourri No.4, Op. 24
 * Clarinet Concerto No.1, Op. 26
 * Violin Concerto No.6, Op. 28
 * Symphonie concertante No.1, Op. 48
 * Carl Maria von Weber
 * 7 Variations sur un thème original, Op. 9
 * Momento capriccioso, Op. 12
 * 6 Lieder, Op. 15
 * Grand potpourri, Op. 20
 * Grande polonaise, Op. 21
 * Silvana, J.87 (opera)

Births

 * February 14 – Michael Costa, Italian-born conductor and composer (died 1884)
 * February 28 – Elias Parish Alvars, English-born arranger and harpist (died 1849)
 * March 24 – Maria Malibran, French-born Spanish soprano (died 1836)
 * April 10 – Auguste Franchomme, French cellist and composer (died 1884)
 * May 15 – Michael William Balfe, Irish composer (died 1870)
 * October 24 – Ernst Richter, German musical theorist (died 1879)
 * December 26 – Albert Grisar, Belgian composer (died 1869)

Deaths

 * February 29 – Carlos Baguer, Spanish composer (born 1768)
 * April 4 – Carlo Gozzi, Venetian lyricist and playwright (born 1720)
 * May 14 – Robert Broderip, English organist and composer
 * May 22 – Edmund Ayrton, English organist (born 1734)
 * July 20 – François-Hippolyte Barthélémon, French violinist (born 1741)
 * September 29 – Paul Wranitzky, Moravian composer (born 1756)
 * date unknown – Gaétan Vestris, French ballet dancer (born 1729)

title: 1808 in music


text:
Talk:Frederick, Prince of Wales

Untitled
I can't see any reason why this article should have been moved from "Frederick, Prince of Wales" - the most commonly used name. As with all other princes and princesses, his middle names can be (and are) mentioned in the text. I intend to move it back unless anyone has any objection. Deb 17:46 1 Jul 2003 (UTC)

I've always seen him referred to as Frederick Lewis. john 19:10 1 Jul 2003 (UTC)

I doubt that you've always seen him referred to as "Frederick Lewis". "Frederick Louis" is equally common, and just plain "Frederick" is more common than either. Deb 20:42 1 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * Indeed, I've seen "Frederick Louis". I can't recall too many sightings of just plain "Frederick", which was my point.  Most of the early hits on '"Frederick" "Prince of Wales" -Lewis -Louis' on Google are for James I's eldest son Henry Frederick, but that might only mean I'm excluding instances where "Lewis" or "Louis" is mentioned at some point, but not in the title.  There are certainly more hits for "Frederick, Prince of Wales" than for "Frederick Lewis, Prince of Wales" or "Frederick Louis, Prince of Wales"... but, of course, google isn't really a good source for this.  Other encyclopedias and major historical works would seem to be a better source.

 * The Britannica article is titled "Frederick Louis, Prince of Wales". The 1911 Britannica titles his article "Frederick Louis".  The Encyclopedia of World History.  The Columbia Encyclopedia article is also "Frederick Louis", and refers to him as such in all the other articles referring to him.  Looking through the first ten results of a search of historical journals on JSTOR for "Frederick" and "Prince of Wales", one finds results for both "Frederick Louis" and "Frederick" (no "Frederick Lewis").  On these grounds, I'd support a move to "Frederick Louis", but not one to merely "Frederick", since he is commonly referred to with his middle name. john 21:11 1 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * Further: Linda Colley's Britons refers to him in the index as "Frederick Lewis". It seems to me there's no reason not to include additional information when the fellow was commonly referred to by the longer name.  But perhaps other opinions should be sought. john 03:43 2 Jul 2003 (UTC)

In view of the quantity of research I've done into the subject, I would have to dispute your findings, and I do believe the move was quite unnecessary. However, as someone's now gone to the trouble of changing all the links to the new title of the article, I shan't bother changing it back. Deb 19:34 2 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * What quantity of research is that? Could you provide references?  I was perhaps too strong in my earlier comments, and I've certainly seen him referred to as "Frederick, Prince of Wales", but usually in more informal discussions of him.  All the encyclopedia articles on him that I've found list him as "Frederick Louis".  As such, it seems like Frederick Louis (or Lewis) is more appropriate.  After all, Gladstone is sometimes called "William Gladstone" and sometimes "William Ewart Gladstone", but we have the article at the latter, because he's referred to as both, and it's better to give more information. john 19:43 2 Jul 2003 (UTC)

I think the reason we have Gladstone at "William Ewart Gladstone" is because he is referred to by his full name (or at any rate as "W.E.Gladstone") at least as often as he is referred to as "William Gladstone". That's not true in the case at issue. We don't generally have princes and princesses listed by their full names (except where necessary for disambiguation), because the middle names are rarely used.

By renaming the article "Frederick Lewis", the person who did so (and I know it wasn't you) has made it less likely that people will find it on their first attempt at searching, simply because of the confusion over "Lewis" and "Louis". The comparison with entries in printed encyclopaedias is not appropriate, because they are searched alphabetically. Wikipedia is not. Deb 21:52 2 Jul 2003 (UTC)

P.S. See my user page to understand my other comment.

Hmm... book on famous people from Wales, eh? I'd note that it's possible (although I'm not certain of it), that I was the one who moved it to "Frederick Lewis". If so, I apologize. I shouldn't have done so without consulting first. In any event, I'm still not sure what should be done here. On the one hand, I still think he's referred to as "Frederick Lewis" or "Frederick Louis" at least as often as "Frederick". On the other hand, the fact that there's two spellings is problematic (too bad he was christened in Hanover, eh?). Getting back to Google, "Frederick Louis, Prince of Wales" gives 356 hits; "Frederick Lewis, Prince of Wales" gives 141 hits; and "Frederick, Prince of Wales" gives 1,310 hits, of which only 130 seem to be short for "Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales". So, if you'd like to move it back, although I'm still not completely comfortable with it, I'd be willing to help change the links back, and such. john 00:15 3 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * Well, I would like to move it back, but I'm not sure I can face it, especially if it's going to cause further controversy. I'll just go off and ponder, if you don't mind. Deb 19:46 3 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * Sure. At this point, I don't especially care.  As I said, I'll help with fixing links, if you decide you want to move it. john 23:44 3 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * Okay, I'm not as tired as I was last night, so I've made a start. Deb 17:26 4 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Prince of Wales?
I don't understand the statement:

 * Frederick Lewis, Prince of Wales was the only man of that name ever to hold the title Prince of Wales.

According to Charles, Prince of Wales, he also has the title Prince of Wales. Could someone with some knowledge of the subject elaborate. --enceladus 08:47, 2 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * "Only man of that name" means the only Frederick to be the Prince of Wales (there have been quite a few Princes of Wales).
 * James F. (talk) 11:16, 2 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * Need to actually start reading what is written and not what I think is written there. Thanks. --enceladus 22:36, 2 Sep 2004 (UTC)

Changed Lewis to Louis, because I thought it was just a mistake, but then I see here that there's been discussion about it. Well, I can't say authoritatively or anything, but Britannica and other references do say Louis. Everyking 18:22, 11 Sep 2004 (UTC)

Killed by a ball
There are lots of references to Frederick being killed by a cricket ball, and only slightly fewer that mention a tennis ball. But as our own article on tennis mentions, tennis is known to have been invented in the mid 1800s, 100 years or more after Frederick's death. So I've edited to reflect these facts. - dmmaus 10:47, 6 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Tennis is in Shakespere, Ever hear of the Tennis Court Oath in Paris, 1789? Paul, in Saudi 10:54, 6 Apr 2005 (UTC)]]

Oh, yes. I see now the tennis article refers only to lawn tennis. Real tennis has a much longer history. Re-editing this article to explain more clearly. - dmmaus 03:30, 7 Apr 2005 (UTC)

The whole story is apocryphal, at any rate. The ODNB notes:

 * However, in March 1751 he was taken ill after superintending his workmen at Kew, ‘complaining of a violent pain in his side’ (Newman, ‘Leicester House politics’, Camden Miscellany, 195); he suffered this, with feverishness and fainting, for two weeks. On Wednesday 20 March 1751 he was pronounced ‘quite safe’ (ibid., 198) by his physicians, but about 9.30 p.m., at Leicester House, he felt ill again and soon afterwards ‘laid his head upon his pillow and without a convulsion sigh or groan or the least movement—rattled in his throat and was dead in three minutes’ (ibid.). His death was subsequently blamed on a burst abscess in one lung, perhaps the result of an old sporting injury, from which has arisen the legend that Frederick died soon after being hit by a cricket or tennis ball.

john k 05:07, 7 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Even better. Thanks for clearing that up properly. - dmmaus 08:39, 7 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Titles and styles
I've tagged the "titles and styles" section with an unreferencedsection template. What evidence is there that he was styled "Prince Frederick of Hanover" rather than "Duke Frederick of Brunswick-Lueneberg" in the period 1707-1714? And the article on Duke of Gloucester says he was styled by that title from 1718 until he was created Duke of Edinburgh. Opera hat (talk) 14:38, 7 August 2008 (UTC)

New file File:Frederick Lewis, Prince of Wales by Philip Mercier.jpg
Recently the file File:Frederick Lewis, Prince of Wales by Philip Mercier.jpg (right) was uploaded and it appears to be relevant to this article and not currently used by it. If you're interested and think it would be a useful addition, please feel free to include it. Dcoetzee 06:57, 8 April 2009 (UTC)

Story of first child
The story of the birth of the first child, the "she-mouse" Augusta, appears to contain a contradiction in timing. The reference given indeed states that the birth took place in July, but the first child is said in all other sources to have been born on August 31 of that year! I don't think this is possible. --NellieBlyMobile (talk) 14:59, 17 December 2012 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 2 one external links on Frederick, Prince of Wales. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20150623215338/http://www.gazettes-online.co.uk/ViewPDF.aspx?pdf=6741&gpn=2 to http://www.gazettes-online.co.uk/ViewPDF.aspx?pdf=6741&gpn=2
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20150623205944/http://www.gazettes-online.co.uk/ViewPDF.aspx?pdf=6494 to http://www.gazettes-online.co.uk/ViewPDF.aspx?pdf=6494

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true to let others know.

Cheers. —cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 08:54, 28 August 2015 (UTC)

'Epigram' source
Early refs:
 * Notes and Queries referencing Memories of the Last Ten Years of the Reign of George the Second by Walpole (Appendix)
 * Literary Gazette.

All the best: Rich Farmbrough, 08:26, 1 April 2019 (UTC).

 * Still not clear whether the epigram was anonymous, and the reference to Thackeray is a distraction. Valetude (talk) 09:09, 16 February 2022 (UTC)

Post-nominal letters
The Post-nominal letters, as they appear now, do not appear in the common way in Wikipedia. They should be changed to Template:Post-nominals. Thank you. Duke of Somewhere (talk) 12:12, 7 January 2021 (UTC)

Image in infobox

One editor keeps going around replacing long-standing images of royalty without consensus. In this case, the picture of Prince Frederick had been in the infobox for a decade. The editor in question replaced this image with the one on the right. It could be problematic if the image keeps changing. Векочел (talk) 16:30, 12 March 2022 (UTC)

 * From what I can see the image you want though it’s been in the infobox for some time it had just as much consensus as the image I put. There was no talk page conversation. Even the editor who added to the infobox in 2010 didn’t even right a edit summary. Just because no one changed it doesn’t mean there was consensus. Orson12345 (talk) 16:32, 13 March 2022 (UTC)

 * Based on the painting alone the painting on the right is artistically better. And looks toward the text which always looks better. Orson12345 (talk) 16:35, 13 March 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Frederick, Prince of Wales


text:
1809 in music

Events

 * June 15 – Mozart's Requiem is performed at a memorial service for Joseph Haydn at the Schottenkirche, Vienna.
 * Stalybridge Old Band formed in the north of England, perhaps the first civilian brass band in the world.

Classical music

 * Ludwig van Beethoven
 * Piano Concerto No.5, Op. 73 ("Emperor")
 * "Harp" Quartet in E-flat Major, Op. 74
 * 6 Songs, Op. 75
 * Six variations on an original theme (the Turkish March from The Ruins of Athens) in D major, Op. 76
 * Fantasia for Piano in G minor, Op. 77
 * Piano Sonata No. 24 in F-sharp major, Op. 78
 * Piano Sonata No. 25 in G major, Op. 79
 * Four Ariettas and a Duet, Op. 82
 * Egmont, Op .84 (incidental music for the play by Goethe)
 * Die laute Klage, WoO 135 (or 1815)
 * Lied aus der Ferne, WoO 137
 * Der Jüngling in der Fremde, WoO 138
 * Der Liebende, WoO 139
 * François-Joseph Gossec – Symphonie à 17 parties
 * Johann Nepomuk Hummel – Salve Regina, WoO 18
 * Etienne Mehul – Symphony No. 1 in G minor
 * Ferdinand Ries
 * Symphony No. 1 in D major, Op. 23
 * Clarinet Trio in B-flat major, Op. 28
 * Clarinet Sonata, Op. 29
 * String Quartet, Op. 70 No.2
 * Piano Trio, Op. 28

 * Carl Maria von Weber
 * 6 Pièces, Op. 10a
 * Serenade, J.65
 * Andante e rondo ongarese, J.79

Opera

 * Gaspare Spontini – Fernand Cortez

Births

 * January 20 – Sebastián Iradier, composer (died 1865)
 * February 3 – Felix Mendelssohn, composer (died 1847)
 * March 19 – Fredrik Pacius, conductor and composer (died 1891)
 * March 31 – Otto Lindblad, composer (died 1864)
 * April 13 – Aleksander Mirecki, violinist (died 1882)
 * August 6 – Alfred Tennyson, lyricist and poet (died 1892)
 * August 21 – Hanna Brooman, composer, translator and educator (died 1887)
 * August 30 – Adolf Friedrich Hesse, composer (died 1863)
 * October 2 – Anton Emil Titl, composer (died 1882)
 * October 12 – John Liptrot Hatton, composer, conductor, pianist and singer (died 1886)
 * October 15 – Aleksey Koltsov, lyricist and poet (died 1842)
 * October 21 – Daniel Friedrich Eduard Wilsing, composer (died 1893)
 * October 22 – Federico Ricci, opera composer (died 1877)
 * November 16 – Leopoldine Blahetka, pianist and composer (died 1885)
 * November 26 – Auguste-François Morel, composer (died 1881)

Deaths

 * January 29 – Luigi Antonio Sabbatini, composer and music theorist (born 1732)
 * February – Francesco Azopardi, composer (born 1748)
 * March 7 – Johann Georg Albrechtsberger, organist, composer and music teacher (born 1736)
 * April 17 – Johann Christian Kittel, organist and composer (born 1732)
 * April 18 – Birgitte Winther, opera singer (born 1751)
 * May 1 – Gottlieb Konrad Pfeffel, librettist and writer (born 1736)
 * May 31 – Joseph Haydn, composer (born 1732)
 * July 2 or (3) – Joseph Quesnel, composer and writer (born 1746)
 * July 24 – Johann Gottfried Eckard, pianist and composer (born 1735)
 * September 21 – Alexander Reinagle, composer, organist, and theater musician (born 1736)
 * December 31 – Franz Ignaz Beck, composer (born 1734)

title: 1809 in music


text:
1810 in music

This is a list of music-related events in 1810.

Events

 * April 27 - Ludwig van Beethoven composed one of his most popular compositions piano piece Für Elise
 * Friedrich Kuhlau leaves Hamburg for Copenhagen to avoid conscription into Napoleon's army.
 * Work begins on the San Carlo Opera House at Naples.

Classical music

 * Ludwig van Beethoven
 * March for Military Band, WoO 20
 * Polonaise for Military Band, WoO 21
 * Ecossaise for Military Band, WoO 22
 * Ecossaise for Military Band, WoO 23
 * Bagatelle No. 25 in A minor for piano, "Für Elise", WoO 59
 * 25 Irish Songs, WoO 152
 * 26 Welsh Songs, WoO 155
 * Egmont, Op. 84, overture and incidental music (first performed, composed 1809)
 * 3 Lieder, Op. 83
 * String Quartet No. 11 in F minor, "Serioso", Op. 95
 * Piano Sonata #26 (Les Adieux)
 * Joseph Eybler – Die vier letzen Dinge (oratorio)
 * Johann Nepomuk Hummel – Flute Sonata in D major, Op. 50
 * Friedrich Kuhlau – Piano Concerto in C major, Op. 7
 * Etienne Mehul – Symphony No. 4 in E major
 * Ferdinand Ries
 * Violin Concerto No. 1 in E minor, Op. 24
 * Piano Trio, Op. 28
 * Bernard Romberg – Trauer-Symphonie, Op .23
 * Louis Spohr
 * Clarinet Concerto No.2, Op. 57
 * Violin Concerto No.10, Op. 62
 * Christoph Bernard Verspoell – "Menschen, die ihr wart verloren"
 * Carl Maria von Weber – Piano Concerto No. 1 in C major, Op. 11

Opera

 * Johann Nepomuk Hummel – Mathilde von Guise
 * Gioacchino Rossini – La Cambiale di Matrimonio
 * Carl Maria von Weber – Silvana

Publications

 * Johann Christoph Kuhnau – Die blinden Tonkünstler

Births

 * February 3 – Ludwig August Frankl, lyricist and poet (died 1894)
 * February 5 – Ole Bull, Norwegian violinist (died 1880)
 * February 22 – Frédéric Chopin, composer, pianist (died 1849)
 * February 8 – Norbert Burgmüller, composer (died 1836)
 * March 15 – Carl Linger (died 1862)
 * May 2 – Hans Christian Lumbye, Danish composer (died 1874)
 * May 5 – Eugène Cormon, librettist (died 1903)
 * May 18 – Francesco Maria Piave, Italian librettist (died 1876)
 * May 20 – Sara Augusta Malmborg, singer, pianist and painter (died 1860)
 * June 7 – Friedrich Julius Hammer, poet and librettist (died 1862)
 * June 8 – Robert Schumann, composer (died 1856)
 * June 9 – Otto Nicolai, composer and conductor (died 1849)
 * June 17 – Ferdinand Freiligrath, lyricist and poet (died 1876)
 * June 19 – Ferdinand David, editor and musician (died 1873)
 * August 6 – Giorgio Ronconi, operatic baritone (died 1890)
 * August 12 – Alfred Novello, music publisher (died 1896)
 * September 22 – Paul Barroilhet, operatic baritone (died 1871)
 * October 18 – Giovanni Matteo Mario, operatic tenor (died 1883)
 * October 24 – Carl Baermann, composer (died 1885)
 * November 7 – Ferenc Erkel, opera composer (died 1893)
 * November 16 – Friedrich Wilhelm Kücken, conductor and composer (died 1882)

Deaths

 * January 7 – Joseph Lipavsky, composer
 * March 29 – John Garth, composer (born 1721)
 * April 8 – Venanzio Rauzzini, castrato singer, composer, pianist and teacher (born 1746)
 * July 19 – Joseph Stephenson, composer of West Gallery music (born 1723)
 * November 19 – Jean-Georges Noverre, ballet master (born 1727)
 * November 27 – Francesco Bianchi, opera composer (born 1752)
 * date unknown
 * Margaretha Christina Åbergsson, ballet dancer
 * Anna Davia, opera singer (born 1743)
 * Domenico Fischietti, composer (born 1725)

title: 1810 in music


text:
Guy V. Howard

Guy Victor Howard (November 28, 1879 – August 20, 1954) was an American politician.

Early life
Guy Victor Howard was born in Minneapolis, Minnesota in 1879. He attended public schools, Minneapolis School of Business, and Georgetown University in Washington, D.C. Howard served as a clerk in the post office in the United States House of Representatives from 1897 to 1901. He worked in the insurance business in Minneapolis in 1901, and was a presidential elector on the Republican ticket in 1916.

United States Senate
Howard was elected on November 3, 1936, to the United States Senate from Minnesota as a Republican. He was elected to fill the vacancy caused by the death of Thomas D. Schall and served from November 4, 1936, to January 3, 1937, in the 74th congress. He did not seek election for the full term beginning in 1937.

Later life
After the Senate, Howard returned to the insurance business and died in Minneapolis on August 20, 1954. He was interred in Lakewood Cemetery.

title: Guy V. Howard


text:
Magnus Johnson

Magnus Johnson (September 19, 1871 – September 13, 1936) was an American politician. He served in the United States Senate and United States House of Representatives from Minnesota as a member of the Farmer–Labor Party. Johnson is the only Swedish-born person to serve in the U.S. Senate.

Biography
Johnson was born near Karlstad, Sweden, and his family moved to La Crosse, Wisconsin, United States, in 1891. They moved to Meeker County, Minnesota, in 1893.

He worked as a millhand and lumberjack, became a farmer, and by 1913 was the leader of the Minnesota branch of the American Society of Equity and Vice President of the Equity-owned Equity Co-operative Grain Exchange and Farmers' Terminal Packing Co. He served in both the Minnesota House of Representatives and the Minnesota Senate before being elected to the U.S. Senate on the Farmer-Labor ticket, to fill the seat opened because of the death of Knute Nelson. Johnson served in the Senate from July 16, 1923, to March 3, 1925, in the 68th congress. He lost his bid for reelection in 1924. He was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives and served March 4, 1933, to January 3, 1935, in the 73rd congress, winning one of the general ticket seats. Subsequently, he resumed agricultural pursuits and served as state supervisor of public stockyards 1934–1936. He was an unsuccessful candidate for the Farmer-Labor nomination for Governor of Minnesota in 1936.

Johnson died in Litchfield, where he had gone for medical treatment, on September 13, 1936, and his interment is in Dassel Community Cemetery in Dassel, Minnesota.

A son of his, Francis Austin Johnson (1904–1989) is the creator of the World's Biggest Ball of Twine; the twine ball rests under an enclosed pagoda in Darwin Township, Minnesota. He is interred in the same cemetery, near his father.

title: Magnus Johnson


text:
1811 in music

Events

 * None listed

Classical music

 * Ludwig van Beethoven
 * Piano Trio No. 7 (the "Archduke")
 * Die Ruinen von Athen ("The Ruins of Athens")
 * Johann Nepomuk Hummel – 12 German Dances and Coda for Redout-Deutsche
 * Peter Casper Krossing – Symphony in C minor
 * Giacomo Meyerbeer – Gott und die Natur (oratorio)
 * Franz Xaver Wolfgang Mozart – Piano Concerto No. 1 in C major opus 14
 * George Onslow – Duo for Piano 4 hands no 1 in E minor
 * Ferdinand Ries
 * Horn Sonata, Op. 34
 * 3 Violin Sonatas, Op. 38
 * Piano Concerto No.2, Op. 42
 * String Quintet, Op. 68
 * Concerto for 2 Horns, WoO 19
 * Joseph Wölfl – Piano Concerto No. 6 in D major "Le coucou", Op. 49

Opera

 * Carl Maria von Weber – Abu Hassan

Births

 * January 21 – Mademoiselle Ambroisine, ballet dancer (d. 1882)
 * February 4 – Aristide Cavaillé-Coll, organ builder (d. 1899)
 * March 13 – Camille-Marie Stamaty, composer and pianist (d. 1870)
 * March 23 – Carl Gottfried Wilhelm Taubert, composer (d. 1891)
 * May 22 – Giulia Grisi, operatic soprano (d. 1869)
 * July 19 – Vincenz Lachner, composer (d. 1893)
 * August 5 – Ambroise Thomas, opera composer (d. 1896)
 * August 25 – August Gottfried Ritter, organist and composer (d. 1885)
 * August 31 – Adolfina Fägerstedt, ballerina (d. 1902)
 * September – Charles Frederick Hempel, organist and composer (d. 1867)
 * September 29 – Adam Darr, guitarist, singer and composer (d. 1866)
 * October 16 – Gaetano Capocci, conductor and composer (d. 1898)
 * October 22 – Franz Liszt, pianist and composer (d. 1886)
 * October 24 – Ferdinand Hiller, pianist, composer and conductor (d. 1885)
 * November 11 – François Delsarte, operatic tenor and singing teacher (d. 1871)
 * November 26 – Franz Brendel, music critic (d. 1868)
 * December 8 – Louis Schindelmeisser, clarinettist, conductor and composer (d. 1864)
 * December 23 – Yevdokiya Rostopchina, lyricist and noble (died 1858)
 * undated – Francis Hartwell Henslowe, public servant and composer (died 1878)
 * probable – James Hill, folk musician (d. 1853)

Deaths

 * February 27 – Joseph Leutgeb, horn virtuoso, 78
 * March 19 – František Adam Míča, composer, 65
 * April 15 – Ernest Louis Muller, composer
 * May 12 – Louis-Charles-Joseph Rey, composer and cellist, 72
 * July 13 – Pierre Laujon, chansonnier (b. 1727)
 * July 19 – Christian Gotthilf Tag, composer
 * August 18 – Johann Heinrich Zang, composer
 * August 20 – Dorothea Wendling, operatic soprano, 75
 * September 6
 * Julien-Amable Mathieu, composer
 * Ignaz Fränzl, violinist and composer, 75
 * September 14 – Johanna Löfblad, actress and singer (b. 1733)
 * December 7 – Ignaz Spangler, composer
 * date unknown
 * John Antes, composer, 71
 * Barbara Ployer, pianist (b. 1765)
 * Louis-Abet Deffroy de Reigny, composer
 * Sir Peter Beckford, English peerage, patron of Muzio Clementi, 70
 * Thomas Ebdon, composer and organist (b. 1738)

title: 1811 in music