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Cetinje

Cetinje is a town in Montenegro. It is the former royal capital (prijestonica / приjестоница) of Montenegro and is the location of several national institutions, including the official residence of the president of Montenegro. According to the 2023 census, the town had a population of 12,460 while the Cetinje Municipality had 14,465 residents. Cetinje is the centre of Cetinje Municipality. The city rests on a small karst plain surrounded by limestone mountains, including Mount Lovćen, the legendary mountain in Montenegrin historiography. Cetinje was founded in the 15th century and became a cradle of the culture of Montenegro. Its status as the honorary capital of Montenegro is due to its heritage as a long-serving former capital of Montenegro.

Name
In Montenegrin, Bosnian, Croatian, and Serbian, it is known as Cetinje (archaically Цетинѣ / Cetině); in Italian as Cettigne; in Greek as Κετίγνη (Ketígni); in Turkish as Çetine; and in Albanian as Cetina.

According to the written data, by the end of the XVII century, down the plain flowed the River Cetina, so that part of the town was called by that river Cetinjsko polje (The field of Cetinje). In Cetinjsko polje, at that time there used to be a small inhabited village, by which the later newly created town got name Cetinje. In the historical documents, Cetinje is mentioned for the first time in 1440.

Founding

Cetinje was founded in 1482, when Ivan Crnojević moved his capital from Obod above the Crnojević River to deeper into the hills to a more easily defended location in a field at the foot of Mount Lovćen. He had his court built at the new location that year and also founded a monastery (dedicated to the Mother of Christ) as a personal endowment in 1484. His court and the monastery are the first recorded renaissance buildings in Montenegro. Crnojević was forced to move the seat of the Eparchy of Zeta from Vranjina to Cetinje due to the Ottoman invasions, in 1485. The town was named after the Cetina river.

The bishopric of Zeta was elevated to a metropolitanate in Cetinje. It was later to play an important part in both the religious and national life. The Crnojević printing house, the first printing house in southeastern Europe, was active between 1493 and 1496 in Cetinje. Zeta was first put under Ottoman rule in 1499, then annexed by the Ottomans in 1514, organized into the Sanjak of Montenegro.

Early modern period
In the next two centuries, the development of Cetinje stagnated. It was very often subject to attack by Venice and the Ottomans. The city therefore endured many privations in the course of the 16th and 17th centuries.

During this period the court and the monastery of the Crnojevići dynasty were destroyed. It was only at the end of the 17th century, in 1697, that Cetinje began to flourish again under the rule of the Petrović dynasty, refounded by Danilo Petrović.

Modern period
Leading the wars of liberation and strengthening the unity in the country occupied Danilo and his successors, so they were unable to devote enough effort to the further development of Cetinje. It was only during the rule of Petar II Petrović Njegoš that far greater progress was made. In 1838 his new royal residence called Biljarda (Billiard house) was built. Cetinje was enlarged by building new houses that gradually led to genuine urbanization. Many modern buildings designed for foreign consulates were built due to the newly established relations with various European countries, including the French, Russian, British, Italian and Austro-Hungarian consulates.

Cetinje made great progress under the rule of Prince Nikola I Petrović when numerous public edifices were built. Those include the first hotel, called 'Lokanda', then the new Prince's palace, the Girls' Institute and the hospital. This period also saw the first tenancy houses. In the 1860 census Cetinje had 34 households. After initially holding off Ottoman incursions in 1852 and 1853, Cetinje was captured by Ottoman Omar Pasha's forces during the Montenegrin–Ottoman War of 1861–62. Ottoman rule over Montenegro did not last much more than a decade however, as 14 years later the "Great War", the third successive contest between the two nations, ended in Montenegrin victory, with most previously-Montenegrin territory returning to their control.

Montenegrin independence was recognized at the Congress of Berlin of 1878 and consequently Cetinje became the capital of a European country. Between 1878 and 1914 Cetinje flourished in every sense. Many renowned intellectuals from other South-Slavic parts came to stay there and made a contribution to the cultural, educational and every other aspect of life. Montenegro was proclaimed a kingdom in 1910. This had a great effect on Cetinje's development. At this time the Government House, the symbol of state power, was built. The population census from the same year recorded a massive growth in the world's smallest capital, registering 5,895 inhabitants.

In the Interwar period, Cetinje expanded its territory, as it was now a centre of the Zeta region. But when it was decided by the Parliament of Montenegro that the administrative organs should be located in Titograd (previously and presently Podgorica), Cetinje went through a harsh crisis. By building certain industrial sections and at the same time neglecting the development of the city's traditional and potential cultural and tourist capacities, the chance to create a strong basis for more solid prosperity was lost.

When Communist forces captured Cetinje in November 1944 the only population that stayed in the town were people who believed they have no reason to fear or hide from anybody. Still, as soon as Communists captured Cetinje, in the night of 13 November 1944, they shot without any trial 28 citizens of Cetinje. They were all summarily executed at "New Cemetery" of Cetinje in Humci.

On 12 August 2022, a mass shooting occurred in Cetinje, in which eleven people died, including the perpetrator, and six others were injured. It is Montenegro's deadliest mass shooting.

Administration
Cetinje is governed by mayor and the Old Royal Capital Government. Since December 2021, the mayor of Old Royal Capital Cetinje is Nikola Đurašković (SDP).

National institutions
Although Podgorica is the capital of Montenegro, Cetinje is the seat of numerous national institutions of Montenegro. The official residence of the president of Montenegro is in Cetinje, called the Blue Palace owing to the colour of its walls. Cetinje is the seat of Montenegrin, National Museum of Montenegro, National library and State archives.

Administrative and operational bodies
Administrative and operational bodies of local administration are secretaries, administrations, directorates, managements and services. There are six secretariats in the Old Royal Capital Cetinje: The Secretariat for Local Government, The Secretariat of Finance and Enterprise Development, The Secretariat of Spatial Planning and Environment Protection, The Secretariat for Utilities and Transport, The Secretariat for Culture and Sport and The Secretariat for Social Affairs and Youth. Other administrative bodies are Management of public revenue, Directorate for Property, Directorate of Investment and Development and Center for Information System. Operational bodies are Mayor's Service, Service of Chief Administrator, The City Manager's Service, Public relations Bureau, Common Affairs Service, Protection service and Communal Police.

City Parliament
Skupština Prijestonice Cetinje is the Parliament of Old Royal Capital Cetinje. Local parliament is made up of 33 deputies, or odbornici (councillors) in Montenegrin. It is elected by universal ballot and is presided over by a speaker called the Predsjednik Skupštine (President of Parliament).

Local subdivisions
There are two city settlements in the Old Royal Capital – Cetinje and Rijeka Crnojevića.

Old Royal Capital Cetinje is divided into 23 local community bodies (mjesne zajednice) in which the citizens participate in decisions on matters of relevance to the local community.

Settlements
The prijestonica of Cetinje is divided into two urban settlements: Cetinje and Rijeka Crnojevića, and 92 rural settlements: Bajice, Barjamovica, Bijele Poljane, Bjeloši, Bobija, Boguti, Bokovo, Češljari, Čevo, Dide, Dobrska Župa, Dobrsko Selo, Dodoši, Donja Zaljut, Donje Selo, Dragomi Do, Drušići, Dubovik, Dubovo, Dugi Do, Dujeva, Đalci, Đinovići, Erakovići, Gađi, Gornja Zaljut, Gornji Ceklin, Grab, Gradina, Građani, Izvori, Jankovići, Jezer, Kobilji Do, Kopito, Kosijeri, Kranji Do, Kućišta, Lastva, Lipa, Lješev Stub, Majstori, Malošin Do, Markovina, Meterizi, Mikulići, Milijevići, Mužovići, Njeguši, Obzovica, Očinići, Oćevići, Ožegovice, Pačarađe, Pejovići, Petrov Do, Poda, Podbukovica, Prediš, Prekornica, Prentin Do, Prevlaka, Proseni Do, Radomir, Raičevići, Resna, Riječani, Rokoči, Rvaši, Ržani Do, Smokovci, Šinđon, Štitari, Tomići, Trešnjevo, Trnjine, Uba, Ubli, Ublice, Ugnji, Ulići, Velestovo, Vignjevići, Vojkovići, Vrba, Vrela, Vuči Do, Zabrđe, Začir, Zagora, Žabljak Crnojevića and Žanjev Do.

Geography
Cetinje is situated in the karst field (Cetinje field) of about 7 km2, with average height above sea level of 671 m. It is 12 km of airline far from Adriatic Sea and 15 km from Skadar Lake. Now, it is on the main road Podgorica-Cetinje-Budva, which makes it open to the inside of Montenegro and Montenegrin coast.

Climate
Cetinje has an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfb), with relatively dry and warm summers, and mild and wet winters.

Cetinje is well known for its plentiful precipitations, and is one of the rainiest towns in Europe with around 3,300 mm of precipitation annually. Although abundant in precipitation, the Cetinje field and its surroundings do not have water flows on the surface and water sources are scarce. This is a consequence of the karst configuration and its geologic structure.

Demographics
According to the Montenegro statistical office, in 2023 in the town of Cetinje lived 12,460 inhabitants. According to the number of inhabitants, Cetinje is one of the medium units of local government in Montenegro. Cetinje Municipality has a population of 14,465.

Religion
Source: Statistical Office of Montenegro - MONSTAT, Census 2011

Public works
After the decades of stagnation, the new city government began a lot of projects with the intention to revitalise the infrastructure, business and to gain a higher promotion of Cetinje in cultural, touristic and other parts. Some of that projects were the reconstruction of Cetinje Historical Core (Main Street – Njegoševa, Main Town Square, Students' Square), Beautiful Cetinje (first energy-efficiency project in Montenegro), reconstruction of the City Market, valorisation of Lipa Cave, renovation of the first hospital building in Montenegro, building a completely new utilities system, construction of a new main road at the entrance to the town, the largest fine arts university complex in the region etc. During the past period, Cetinje became first Montenegrin city which is covered by the free wi-fi signal.

Promotion
To promote Cetinje as not only cultural and artist capital of Montenegro but the whole region too, during 2012 and 2013 the city government organized events in which participated globally famous artists such as Pierce Brosnan, Marina Abramović, Gerard Depardieu, Nicholas Lyndhurst and Rem Koolhaas, who were guests of Cetinje during that period.

The most significant project for the future is a cable-car from Kotor to Cetinje, and tender was launched in August 2016.

Transport
Cetinje is connected to Podgorica and Budva through three-lane motorways. Both towns are about 30 km away from Cetinje. Another road to Podgorica is built on the coast of Skadar lake.

There is also a historic old road from Cetinje to Kotor, which is not of premium quality, but which overlooks the Bay of Kotor. As of Spring 2018, this was being upgraded.

Previously there was a railway line from Cetinje to Bar along the banks of Lake Skadar, which transported both passengers and cargo. There are no remains of this railway line.

Tivat Airport is 50 km away, and there are regular flights to Belgrade and Zürich, and dozens of charter planes land daily at Tivat airport during the summer season.

Podgorica Airport is 55 km away, and it has regular flights to major European destinations throughout the year.

Culture

Cetinje has been the cultural and educational centre of Montenegro for five centuries. There are five republic institutions: Đurđe Crnojević Central National Library, the National Museum of Montenegro, the Archives of Montenegro, the Republic Institute for Preserving Cultural Heritage and the Zetski Dom Montenegrin Royal National Theatre. All these institutions keep, process, and provide public access to enormous literary treasure, and protect both mobile and immobile cultural monuments throughout Montenegro. The oldest – and for a long time the most important – cultural institution in the town is the monastery of Cetinje.

Architecture and urban heritage

The onset and development of Cetinje, as a relatively young city, with its old historical core draws a lot of attention to urban and architectural heritage, on its construction and development influenced stormy historical, social and economic events in the country.

Cetinje, as a settlement has existed for 500 years, which is not much compared to the development of the coastal agglomeration of the ancient period in the immediate surrounding. However, these five centuries – the whole history of a people, who, through the development of city recorded moments of their origin, ascent, stagnation and downs.

For Cetinje as urban agglomeration, can be said to have formed suddenly, which makes it very specific. In fact, since the seventies of the nineteenth century, for almost fifty years, there was, in the urban context, designed and typological characteristic areas formed with urban type residential home ground floor and storey house with developed attic, created and developed in closed urban blocks, where line of life in them was street – house – garden. Along with the development of this type of urban city blocks and residential buildings, has developed substantial public architecture of the city, which was built under the great influence of foreign builders with the application of various architectural styles and which then and now, is a representative architectural backbone of the city.

Between the two world wars, which characterized by the loss of Montenegrin statehood and noticeable stagnation of the architectural development of the city, Cetinje continues the tradition of formed, then already traditional type of urban residential houses and closed urban blocks, but they build the first modern multi-storey residential buildings for collective housing, and modern public institutions necessary for the then social life.

In the fastest and most important period of the development of Cetinje, since the seventies of the nineteenth century until the First World War, which was then the smallest European old capital, was created and developed city on the principles the European metropolises of that time in whose architectural activity of the city was engaged many foreign architects, engineers, builders and craftsmen. The development of Cetinje in this period was followed by many important historical and social events. So the second half of the nineteenth century in the development of Cetinje marked period of state power and its pursuit of the European culture and international recognition. Recognition of Montenegro as an independent state, at the Berlin Congress in 1878., on the basis of which greatly expanded, he began a period of rapid creation of a national, economic, social, cultural, societal and spatial superstructure which caused increasing of economic power and the reorganization and improvement of the state apparatus and the authorities. During this period, Cetinje, as the old royal capital, gains in an even greater national and international significance and experiencing its rapid socio – economic, institutional, and urban development.

Without taking into consideration possibility and efforts which Cetinje is realized as spatially small and young city, it occupies an important place in terms of conceptual, social and urban transformation of other cities in Montenegro, particularly since the second half of the nineteenth century until the First World War.

On the basis of that and the facts about today's relatively preserved old urban heritage, is justified the fact which Cetinje ranks among the cities with significant architectural heritage.

Printing houses in Cetinje

Cetinje has a rich publishing and printing tradition. The Printing House of Crnojevići (1492–1496) and the books published there are of great importance for Montenegrin culture and history as well as for the culture of other Orthodox Balkan peoples. Its greatest contribution refers to spreading Cyrillic type. Thus, it represents an important link in a chain of world culture. There were a number of printing houses that continued this great printing tradition. These are: Njegoš Printing House, which operated between 1833 and 1839 and the State Printing House which was founded in 1858. It was renamed in 1952. Since then it has been known as Obod.

Since their foundation to the present day, Cetinje printing houses have published over 3,000 books, a major contribution to the Montenegrin cultural heritage. The first Montenegrin literary and scientific annual, Grlica (Turtledove), was published in 1835, while the first Montenegrin newspaper, 'The Montenegrin', was established in 1871. Since then, sixty different newspapers and over thirty magazines have been published. In 1914, as a town of fewer than 6,000 inhabitants, Cetinje supported six different daily newspapers.

Libraries

The oldest libraries of Montenegro, where the oldest books and documentation of great value are preserved, are located at Cetinje. This makes Cetinje internationally recognized as well. The oldest library among these is the Library of Cetinje Monastery, which was founded by the end of the 15th century at the time when the Printing House of Crnojevići started operating. Today, seventy-five old manuscripts written in Cyrillic, then four incunabula, and many old liturgical books are kept there.

The first public reading room in Montenegro known as The Reading Room of Cetinje was founded in 1896. Since its founding it has been the cultural centre of Montenegro. The fruitful activity of this reading room was continued by the Town Library and the Njegoš reading room, which offers over 63,000 books and volumes of periodicals.

The school libraries of Cetinje also have a long tradition. The library of the oldest school at Cetinje today known as Njegoš Elementary School dates back to 1834, the library of the clerical college and the Carica Marija Girls' Institute dates back to 1869, and the library of the Gymnasium to 1880.

Museums

Museums in Cetinje include:

 * Museum of the Cetinje Monastery
 * State Museum
 * "Petar Petrovic Njegoš" Museum
 * Ethnographic Museum
 * Electric Industry Museum
 * History Museum
 * Art Museum
 * Money Museum

All these except the Museum of the Cetinje Monastery, the Money Museum and Electric Industry Museum are integrated in one institution called the National Museum of Montenegro. Numerous museums and the huge fund of museum items that are kept there established Cetinje's reputation as a museum town.

Cetinje has always been a cultural centre. Every second year the international art exhibition called Cetinje Biennial is held there. Its founder is Prince Nikola Petrović, great-grandson to King Nikola I.

Main sights
Cetinje has a number of attractions, including Cetinje Monastery, Vlaška church (built in 1450, with its fence made out of barrels of captured enemy rifles), Biljarda, several museums, Zetski dom royal theatre and historic foreign embassies. Many of the old embassies and other administrative buildings are now schools of various kinds, and the town has many young people.

Close to Cetinje (about 5 km) the Lipa cave (Lipska pecina) is situated, one of the biggest caves in the former Yugoslavia. Its entrance is located in the village of Lipa and it ends in the mountains directly over the Adriatic Sea. After project of Municipality of Cetinje and company 'Lipa Cave', the cave is restored and opened for public in July 2015. Today the cave is one of the biggest tourist attractions in Cetinje and Montenegro, similar to Postojna Cave in Slovenia.

One of the most visited destinations of Cetinje is the mausoleum of Petar II Petrović-Njegoš on the mountain Lovćen. The mausoleum is accessible by car from Cetinje, which is 13 km away. Apart from the surrounding natural environment of beech, oak and linden tree forests, there is a unique freshness of Lovćen national park. The mausoleum is situated at the Jezerski vrh (Jezerski peak), in the height of 1660 m, and it officially represents the highest mausoleum in the world.

In the past few years there has been a plan of enlisting the old historic core of the city of Cetinje as a UNESCO world heritage site. With this, Cetinje hopes to rebuild and restore the old historic core and the façades of its buildings. Cetinje is becoming more and more popular with tourists so the locals started painting their houses in vivid colors, the local government started quite a number of projects to restore the buildings, the markets and façades of the city of Cetinje.

Religion

Cetinje is also the seat of the Eparchy of Montenegro and the Littoral of the Serbian Orthodox Church, and Montenegrin Orthodox Church.

Seat of the Eparchy of Montenegro and the Littoral is situated in Cetinje Monastery. Seat of the Montenegrin Orthodox Church is situated in the Chapel in Gruda quarter.

Festivals
Today, Cetinje is home of one of the most popular cultural events in Montenegro – 'Summer at the Old Royal Capital'. It is the artist festival with almost 100 events, which held yearly, from June to September. During that period, visitors can attend the gigs of regional artist stars at the most significant city locations, but in the villages too. During the 'Summer at the Old Royal Capital', there are festivals like 'Royal Fest' (hard rock, alternative), 'Cetinje Jazz Fest', 'Espressivo' (classical music), 'Cucka jeka' (Kobilji Do), 'Riječka noć' (Rijeka Crnojevića), 'Njeguško ljeto' (Lovćen and Njeguši), 'Folklor' etc. Events during the 'Summer at the Old Royal Capital' attend about 50,000 visitors.

There are more festivals and events during the whole year, like 'Christmas Concerts' (7/8 January), Independence Day event (21 May), 'MIT Fest' (alternative theatre festival) etc.

Sport
The most popular sports in Cetinje are football, handball and basketball.

Football
Football in Cetinje has a very long tradition associated with FK Lovćen Cetinje, oldest football club in Montenegro. FK Lovćen was founded on 20 June 1913. It is one of the most successful football clubs in Montenegro.

The best results in the past were achieved before WW2, when they won few Montenegrin Championships, and in 1956 in qualifications for the first national league. In 1947, Lovćen was juvenile club champion. FK Lovćen now competes in the Montenegrin First League. During the season 2013/14, Lovćen won second place. On 21 May 2014, Lovćen won the Montenegrin Cup, which was the first national trophy in the club's history.

Another club from Cetinje is FK Cetinje, formed in 1975. They play in the Montenegrin Third League and share the Stadion Sveti Petar Cetinjski with Lovćen.

Handball
Formed at 1949, Handball club "Lovćen" is among oldest handball clubs in Montenegro. During the decades, especially from 80's until today, Lovćen became most successful Montenegrin men's handball club, but the most trophied team from Old Royal Capital Cetinje. There is huge number of great Montenegrin, Yugoslav and European players which produced handball school of Lovćen.

From the 1988 until today, Lovćen played 23 seasons in the First Handball League of SFR Yugoslavia, FR Yugoslavia and Montenegro. Five times, club from Cetinje won the champions' title – in the seasons 1999/00, 2000/01, 2006/07, 2011/12 and 2012/13.

Most trophies in the club history, Lovćen won in the national Cup. Club from Cetinje holds 2 winner titles in the Cup of FR Yugoslavia and five in the Montenegrin Cup. Lovćen hold Cup trophies from the seasons 2001/02, 2002/03, 2008/09, 2009/10, 2010/11, 2011/12, 2012/13.

Lovćen is member of Regional SEHA League since its inception. Today, Lovćen is the only SEHA League member from Montenegro. In their first SEHA League season, Lovćen made surprising result, with final placement on 6th position. Year after that, Lovćen finished season on the same table position. In the season 2013/14, because of new SEHA League criteria, SRC Lovćen hall was reconstructed, with changing capacity from 1,500 to 2,020.

Handball club Lovćen is permanent member of European handball competitions since 1997. The greatest result Lovćen made during the EHF Champions League 2000/01 when they participated in the quarterfinals against THW Kiel. Until today, Lovćen played 65 games in European Competitions.

"B" team of Lovćen is HC Cepelin-Lovćen, which in past competed in First league. Today, Cepelin-Lovćen is playing in Second league.

Basketball
Basketball club Lovćen is one of the oldest sport clubs in Cetinje. It was founded in 1947. The best results were achieved in 1997/98 season, when it was scored at the 6th place of the National basketball league. This provided participation at international competition "Radivoje Korac Cup." Today, it competes in the first A league of Montenegro. Second club is BC Cetinje, formed in 1997.

Other sports
During the past, in Cetinje existed Volleyball club "Lovćen". It competed in Republic League and was among best Montenegrin clubs in that sport. VC "Lovćen" is not active anymore.

Today, there are dozens of active clubs. Table-tennis club "Lovćen" is among two most successful table tennis clubs in Montenegro during last four decades. Other clubs are Racing team "Lovćen", Judo club "Crnogorac", Karate club "Lovćen", Boxing club "Lovćen", Women basketball club "Lovćen" and others.

Venues
Cetinje has a number of sporting venues. The main sporting venues on Cetinje are:

 * Stadion Sveti Petar Cetinjski, with capacity of 5,192 seats.
 * Sports Center Cetinje, a multi functional indoor sport facility. It has a capacity of 2,020 seats.
 * New small football field of FK Lovćen, with capacity of 1,000 seats with lights for night games.

Notable people

 * Ivan Crnojević – Lord of Zeta and the founder of Cetinje
 * Đurađ Crnojević – last Montenegrin medieval Lord of Zeta
 * Arsenije III Čarnojević, Patriarch of Peć
 * Danilo I Petrović-Njegoš – Metropolitan of Cetinje and the founder of the House of Petrović-Njegoš
 * Sava Petrović – Prince-Bishopric of Montenegro
 * Arsenije Plamenac – Metropolitan of Cetinje
 * Petar I Petrović-Njegoš – Prince-Bishopric of Montenegro
 * Petar II Petrović-Njegoš – Prince-Bishop of Montenegro, poet and philosopher
 * Prince Danilo I – Prince of Montenegro
 * Nikola I Petrović-Njegoš – King of Montenegro
 * Milena of Montenegro – Queen of Montenegro
 * Elena of Montenegro, Queen of Italy
 * Princess Milica of Montenegro
 * Princess Anastasia of Montenegro
 * Danilo II, Crown Prince of Montenegro
 * Princess Anna of Montenegro
 * Prince Mirko of Montenegro
 * Princess Zorka of Montenegro
 * Princess Xenia of Montenegro
 * Princess Vjera of Montenegro
 * Mirko Petrović-Njegoš – was a Montenegrin military commander, politician and poet
 * Krsto Zrnov Popovic, officer of the Montenegrin Army
 * George, Crown Prince of Serbia
 * Alexander I of Yugoslavia
 * Branko Kostić – Yugoslav politician, businessman, university professor
 * Dado, painter
 * Petar Lubarda, painter
 * Milo Milunović, painter
 * Dimitrije Popović, painter, sculptor, philosopher
 * Miloš Vušković, painter, illustrator and caricaturist
 * Dragoljub Đuričić, percussionist
 * Žarko Laušević, actor
 * Frédéric Rossif – French film and television director
 * Slavko Perović, politician
 * Miodrag Perunović, boxer, European amateur champion
 * Goran Vujević, Yugoslav volleyball player and Olympic champion
 * Milutin Pajević, former football player and manager
 * Nikola Jovanović, former football player
 * Mirko Stojanović, former football player
 * Veselin Vujović, former handball player
 * Vuko Borozan, handball player, National Team Montenegro, Vardar
 * Veselin Vujović, former handball player, Olympic and World champion, IHF World Player of the Year
 * Veljko Uskoković, water polo player, Olympic bronze medalist and European champion
 * Žarko Marković, handball player
 * Draško Mrvaljević, handball player
 * Aleksandar Bogdanović – politician
 * Petar Kapisoda, handball player
 * Filip Kapisoda, male model and celebrity
 * Milica Dabović, basketball player, Olympic bronze medalist and European champion
 * Miloš Karadaglić – classical guitarist
 * Ana Dabović, basketball player, Olympic bronze medalist and European champion
 * Miloš Nikić, volleyball player and European champion
 * Danka Kovinić – tennis player
 * Marija Vuković - athlete specializing in the high jump

Twin towns – sister cities
Cetinje is twinned with:

 * 🇷🇴 Alba Iulia, Romania
 * 🇮🇹 Gaeta, Italy
 * 🇹🇷 Gaziantep, Turkey
 * 🇫🇷 Dijon, France
 * Dubrovnik, Croatia
 * 🇺🇦 Kharkiv, Ukraine
 * 🇷🇺 Kostroma, Russia
 * 🇨🇾 Larnaca, Cyprus
 * 🇷🇸 Mali Iđoš, Serbia
 * Maribor, Slovenia
 * 🇬🇷 Nafplio, Greece
 * 🇧🇦 Novo Sarajevo (Sarajevo), Bosnia and Herzegovina
 * 🇩🇪 Nürnberg, Germany
 * Rijeka, Croatia
 * 🇮🇹 Santa Severina, Italy
 * 🇦🇱 Shkodër, Albania
 * 🇷🇴 Sinaia, Romania
 * Split, Croatia
 * 🇮🇹 Spoleto, Italy
 * 🇧🇦 Velika Kladuša, Bosnia and Herzegovina
 * 🇧🇬 Veliko Tarnovo, Bulgaria
 * 🇭🇺 Visegrád, Hungary
 * 🇷🇸 Vranje, Serbia
 * 🇬🇷 West Achaea, Greece
 * 🇮🇹 Siena, Italy

title: Cetinje


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Chinese opera

Traditional Chinese opera, or Xiqu, is a form of musical theatre in China with roots going back to the early periods in China. It is an amalgamation of various art forms that existed in ancient China, and evolved gradually over more than a thousand years, reaching its mature form in the 13th century, during the Song dynasty (960–1279). Early forms of Chinese theater are simple; however, over time, various art forms such as music, song and dance, martial arts, acrobatics, costume and make-up art, as well as literary art forms were incorporated to form traditional Chinese opera. Performers had to practice for many years to gain an understanding of the roles. Exaggerated features and colors made it easier for the audience to identify the roles portrayed.

There are over a hundred regional branches of traditional Chinese opera today. In the 20th century, the Peking opera emerged in popularity and has come to known as the "national theatre" of China, but other genres like Yue opera, Cantonese opera, Yu opera, kunqu, qinqiang, Huangmei opera, pingju, and Sichuan opera are also performed regularly before dedicated fans. Their differences are mainly found in the music and topolect; the stories are often shared and borrowed. With few exceptions (such as revolutionary operas and to some extent Shanghai operas) the vast majority of Chinese operas (including Taiwanese operas) are set in China before the 17th century, whether they are traditional or newly written.

For centuries, Chinese opera was the main form of entertainment for both urban and rural residents in China as well as the Chinese diaspora. Its popularity declined sharply in the second half of the 20th century as a result of both political and market factors. Language policies discouraging topolects in Taiwan and Singapore, official hostility against rural religious festivals in China, and de-Sinicization in Taiwan have all been blamed for the decline of various forms in different times, but overall the two major culprits were Cultural Revolution — which saw traditional culture systematically erased, innumerable theatre professionals viciously persecuted, and younger generation raised with far lesser exposure to Chinese opera – and modernization, with its immense social impact and imported values that Chinese opera has largely failed to counter. The total number of regional genres was determined to be more than 350 in 1957, but in the 21st century the Chinese government could only identify 162 forms for its intangible cultural heritage list, with many of them in immediate danger of disappearing. For young people, Chinese opera is no longer part of the everyday popular music culture, but it remains an attraction for many older people who find in it, among other things, a national or regional identity.

Six dynasties to Tang
An early form of Chinese drama is the Canjun Opera (參軍戲, or Adjutant Play) which originated from the Later Zhao Dynasty (319–351). In its early form, it was a simple comic drama involving only two performers, where a corrupt officer, Canjun or the adjutant, was ridiculed by a jester named Grey Hawk (蒼鶻). The characters in Canjun Opera are thought to be the forerunners of the fixed role categories of later Chinese opera, particularly of its comic chou (丑) characters.

Various song and dance dramas developed during the Six Dynasties period. During the Northern Qi Dynasty, a masked dance called the Big Face (大面, which can mean "mask", alternatively daimian 代面, and it was also called The King of Lanling, 蘭陵王), was created in honour of Gao Changgong who went into battle wearing a mask. Another was called Botou (撥頭, also 缽頭), a masked dance drama from the Western Regions that tells the story of a grieving son who sought a tiger that killed his father. In The Dancing Singing Woman (踏謡娘), which relates the story of a wife battered by her drunken husband, the song and dance drama was initially performed by a man dressed as a woman. The stories told of in these song-and-dance dramas are simple, but they are thought to be the earliest pieces of musical theatre in China, and the precursors to the more sophisticated later forms of Chinese opera.

These forms of early drama were popular in the Tang dynasty where they further developed. For example, by the end of the Tang Dynasty the Canjun Opera had evolved into a performance with more complex plot and dramatic twists, and it involved at least four performers. The early form of Chinese theatre became more organized in the Tang dynasty with Emperor Xuanzong (712–755), who founded the "Pear Garden" (梨园/梨園; líyuán), the first academy of music to train musicians, dancers and actors. The performers formed what may be considered the first known opera troupe in China, and they performed mostly for the emperors' personal pleasure. To this day operatic professionals are still referred to as "Disciples of the Pear Garden" (梨园弟子 / 梨園弟子, líyuán dìzi).

Song to Qing
By the Song Dynasty, Canjun Opera had become a performance that involved singing and dancing, and led to the development of Zaju (雜劇). Forms such as the Zaju and Nanxi (南戏) further matured in the Song dynasty (960–1279) and Yuan dynasty (1279–1368). Acts based on rhyming schemes and innovations such as specialized roles like Dan (旦, dàn, female), Sheng (生, shēng, male), Hua (花, huā, painted-face) and Chou (丑, chŏu, clown) were introduced into the opera. Although actors in theatrical performances of the Song Dynasty strictly adhered to speaking in Classical Chinese onstage, during the Yuan Dynasty actors speaking or performing lyrics in the vernacular tongue became popular on stage.

In the Yuan poetic drama, only one person sang for all of the four acts, but in the poetic dramas that developed from Nanxi during the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), all the characters were able to sing and perform. A playwright Gao Ming late in the Yuan dynasty wrote an opera called Tale of the Pipa which became highly popular, and became a model for Ming dynasty drama as it was the favorite opera of the first Ming emperor Zhu Yuanzhang. The presentation at this point resembled the Chinese opera of today, except that the librettos were then very long. The operatic artists were required to be skilled in many fields; according to Recollections of Tao An (陶庵夢憶) by Zhang Dai, performers had to learn how to play various musical instruments, singing and dancing before they were taught acting.

The dominant form of the Ming and early Qing dynasties was Kunqu, which originated in the Wu cultural area. A famous work in Kunqu is The Peony Pavilion by Tang Xianzu. Kunqu later evolved into a longer form of play called chuanqi, which became one of the five melodies that made up Sichuan opera. Currently Chinese operas continue to exist in 368 different forms, the best known being Beijing opera, which assumed its present form in the mid-19th century and was extremely popular in the latter part of the Qing dynasty (1644–1911).

In Beijing opera, traditional Chinese string and percussion instruments provide a strong rhythmic accompaniment to the acting. The acting is based on allusion: gestures, footwork, and other body movements express such actions as riding a horse, rowing a boat, or opening a door. Spoken dialogue is divided into recitative and Beijing colloquial speech, the former employed by serious characters and the latter by young females and clowns. Character roles are strictly defined, and each character have their own elaborate make-up design. The traditional repertoire of Beijing opera includes more than 1,000 works, mostly taken from historical novels about political and military struggles.

1912–1949
At the turn of the 20th century, Chinese students returning from abroad began to experiment with Western plays. Following the May Fourth Movement of 1919, a number of Western plays were staged in China, and Chinese playwrights began to imitate this form. The most notable of the new-style playwrights was Cao Yu (b. 1910). His major works—Thunderstorm, Sunrise, Wilderness, and Peking Man—written between 1934 and 1940, have been widely read in China.

The Republican Era saw the rise of Yue opera and all female Yue Opera troupes in Shanghai and Zhejiang. A woman-centric form, with all female casts and majority female audience members, plots were often love stories. Its rise was related to the changing place of women in society.

In the 1930s, theatrical productions performed by traveling Red Army cultural troupes in Communist-controlled areas were consciously used to promote party goals and political philosophy. By the 1940s, theater was well established in the Communist-controlled areas.

1949–1985
In the early years of the People's Republic of China, development of Peking opera was encouraged; many new operas on historical and modern themes were written, and earlier operas continued to be performed. As a popular art form, opera has usually been the first of the arts to reflect changes in Chinese policy. In the mid-1950s, for example, it was the first to benefit under the Hundred Flowers Campaign, such as the birth of Jilin opera.

In 1954 there were approximately 2000 government-sponsored opera troupes working throughout China each consisting of 50-100 professional performers. Despite its popularity, Peking opera made up a small percentage of these troupes. After the Chinese Communist Revolution a new genre emerged known as Schinggo opera which encompassed the revolutionary energy of the current sociopolitical climate. This operatic style built its foundation from the folk traditions of the rural community while also becoming influenced by European music.

Opera may be used as commentaries on political affairs, and in November 1965, the attack on Beijing deputy mayor Wu Han and his historical play Hai Rui Dismissed from Office as anti-Mao, signaled the beginning of the Cultural Revolution. During the Cultural Revolution, most opera troupes were disbanded, performers and scriptwriters were persecuted, and all operas were banned except the eight "model operas" that had been sanctioned by Jiang Qing and her associates. Western-style plays were condemned as "dead drama" and "poisonous weeds", and were not performed. After the fall of the Gang of Four in 1976, Beijing Opera enjoyed a revival and continued to be a very popular form of entertainment, both on stage and television.

Present
In the 21st century, Chinese opera is seldom publicly staged except in formal Chinese opera houses. It may also be presented during the lunar seventh month Chinese Ghost Festival in Asia as a form of entertainment to the spirits and audience. More than thirty famous pieces of Kunqu opera continue to be performed today, including The Peony Pavilion, The Peach Blossom Fan, and adaptions of Journey to the West, Romance of the Three Kingdoms.

In 2001, Kunqu was recognized as Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity by United Nations Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization (UNESCO)

Costume and make-up

Face paint plays a significant role in portraying the internal complexities of the performer's character with hundreds of combinations of colours and patterns. Below are some general meanings which may be further focused on extremely specific details depending on the facial location of the colour.

 * Red – bravery, fidelity, loyalty, chastity
 * Black – impatience, straightforwardness, vulgarity, rudeness
 * White – cunning, treachery, villainy, betrayal
 * Blue – ferocity, courage, uncontrollability, cruelty, violence
 * Yellow – cleverness, secretiveness, mystery, evil
 * Purple – loyalty, filial piety, age
 * Green – bravery, purpose, an evil spirit
 * Gold and silver – godhood, divinity, the supernatural (monsters, spirits, demons)

Musical characteristics
The musical components of Chinese opera are created as an inseparable entity from voice and dance/movement. Both the musicians and the actors contribute to composing musical accompaniment. This collaborative process is reflected within the production by the immaculate synchronicity between the actors' movements and the sounds of the orchestra. The musicians are required to flawlessly support the actors with sound, often waiting for vocal cues or physical signals such as the stomp of a foot. Traditionally, musicians often performed from memory – a feat made even more impressive considering pieces or sections of compositions were subject to infinite variations and often repeated.

The orchestra utilized a pentatonic scale until a 7-note scale was introduced by Mongolia during the Yuan Dynasty. The two extra notes functioned similarly to accidentals within western notation.

Instruments
The instruments in the orchestra were divided into two categories:

 * wen – string and wind instruments: characterized as clear, soft, or gentle and typically used during vocal pieces.
 * wu – percussive instruments: led dancing and movement, kettle drum "conducts" the whole orchestra, gongs signal audience to sit, appearance of female lead, anger, and fighting.

String
Traditional Chinese string instruments used in Chinese Opera include:
 * Gaohu
 * Erhu
 * Pipa
 * Sanxian
 * Yangqin
 * Yueqin
 * Jinghu
 * Jing erhu
 * Banhu
 * Erxian

Percussion
Traditional Chinese percussion instruments used in Chinese Opera include:
 * Paiban
 * Bo
 * Bangu
 * Daluo
 * Xiaoluo

Woodwind
Traditional Chinese woodwind instruments used in Chinese Opera include:
 * Dizi
 * Suona
 * Sheng
 * Guan

In popular culture
An update in January 2022 for the game Genshin Impact includes a story quest that features a musical number from the character Yun Jin that is in the style of Chinese opera The Divine Damsel of Devastation, which went viral as it was the first time many people around the world have heard Chinese opera. Even Yang Yang, the Chinese voice of Yun Jin, was surprised about it.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Chinese opera


text:
National Research Council Canada

The National Research Council Canada (NRC; Conseil national de recherches Canada) is the primary national agency of the Government of Canada dedicated to science and technology research and development. It is the largest federal research and development organization in Canada.

The Minister of Innovation, Science, and Economic Development (currently, François-Philippe Champagne) is responsible for the NRC.

Mandate
NRC is an agency of the Government of Canada, and its mandate is set out in the National Research Council Act.

Under the Act, the NRC is responsible for: Over 5,000 people across Canada are employed by the NRC. In addition, the NRC also employs guest workers from universities, companies, and public and private-sector organizations.
 * Undertaking, assisting or promoting scientific and industrial research in fields of importance to Canada;
 * Providing vital scientific and technological services to the research and industrial communities;
 * Investigating standards and methods of measurement;
 * Working on the standardization and certification of scientific and technical apparatus, instruments and materials used or usable by Canadian industry;
 * Operating and administering any astronomical observatories established or maintained by the Government of Canada;
 * Establishing, operating and maintaining a national science library; and
 * Publishing and selling or otherwise distributing such scientific and technical information as the Council deems necessary.

Between World War I and II
The National Research Council was established in 1916, under the pressure of World War I, to advise the government on matters of science and industrial research. In 1932, laboratories were built on Sussex Drive in Ottawa and the Medical Research Committee was formed with Dr. Frederick Banting as the inaugural Chair.

With the impetus of World War II, the NRC grew rapidly and for all practical purposes, became a military science and weapons research organization. It undertook a number of important projects, which included participation with the United States and United Kingdom, in the development of chemical and germ warfare agents, the explosive RDX, the proximity fuse, radar, and submarine detection techniques. A special branch, known as the Examination Unit, was involved with cryptology and the interception of enemy radio communications. According to the Canadian Security Intelligence Service website, the NRC headquarters in Ottawa "was a prime espionage target" during the Cold War. The NRC was also engaged in atomic fission research at the Montreal Laboratory, and later the Chalk River Laboratories in Ontario.

Post-World War II
Post-WWII, the NRC reverted to its pre-war civilian role, and a number of wartime activities were spun off to newly formed organizations. Military research continued under a new organization, the Defence Research Board, while inventions with commercial potential were transferred to the newly formed Canadian Patents and Development Limited; and atomic research went to the newly created Atomic Energy of Canada Limited. Foreign signals intelligence gathering officially remained with the agency when, by Order in Council, the Examination Unit became the Communications Branch of the NRC in 1946. The CBNRC was transferred to the Department of National Defence in 1975, and renamed the Communications Security Establishment. During the 1950s, the medical research funding activities of the NRC were handed over to the newly formed Medical Research Council of Canada.

By 1960, the Medical Research Committee had separated from the National Research Council, forming the Medical Research Council of Canada (which dissolved upon the creation of the Canadian Institutes of Health Research [ and the initial withdrawal from the National Reserve in 1997 (see Budget Implementation Act 1997), which was invested for three years and became life, along with CIHR in 2000 (see CIHR Act).

On 1 May 1978, with the rapid post-war growth of Canadian universities, the NRC's role in university research funding in the natural sciences was passed under the GOSA Act to the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada.

Under financial pressure in the 1980s, the federal government produced what popularly became known as the Neilson Report, which recommended across-the-board financial cuts to all federal government organizations, including the NRC. This led to staff and program cutbacks. By 1985, however, two entities emerged from the National Research Council: the Social Science and Humanities Research Council (see SSHRC Act) and the Natural Science and Engineering Research Council (See NSERC Act). The emergence of these Councils, for all material reasons, took over funding from the Federal Government and is responsible for relaying that to Academic Institutions, Academic hospitals and Research Institutions under the Agreement on the Administration of Agency Grants and Awards by Research Institutions, administered by a Secretariat (on the Responsible Conduct of Research).

21st century
In 2000, there were about 1000 NRC researchers with PhDs conducting research in many areas.

Recovery was slow, but the NRC has managed to regain its status as Canada's single most important scientific and engineering research institution among many other Canadian government scientific research organizations.

As President of the National Research Council Canada, chemist Arthur Carty revitalized the organization. In 2004, he left the NRC when then prime minister Paul Martin appointed him as independent, non-partisan advisor on science and technology.

In April 2010 Mr. John McDougal of Edmonton, Alberta was appointed President of the NRC by the Stephen Harper Government

Around June 2014, the NRC was reportedly penetrated by Chinese state-sponsored hackers.

The tenure of John McDougall as President of the NRC (2010–2016) was marked by a number of controversies. His presidency was characterized by a dramatic drop in publications and patents, by significant cuts in scientific staff, and by a 23-month period during which NRC management was aware that the organization was contaminating the water table outside its fire-safety testing facility in Mississippi Mills, Ontario, with perfluorinated chemicals used in firefighting foams and did not inform that community's inhabitants. John McDougall's departure – signalled by a sudden, three-line email to employees in March 2016 announced that he was going on personal leave. During this time Maria Aubrey, Vice President of the NRC, filled the role as Acting President. Effective August 24, 2016, Iain Stewart became the new President of the NRC. The details regarding McDougall's personal leave were not publicly disclosed.

Under Minister of Science Kirsty Duncan, the Trudeau government changed the focus of the NRC, to develop partnerships with private and public-sector technology companies, both nationally and internationally. Under the previous federal Minister of State (Science and Technology), Gary Goodyear, the NRC became in the words of one wag a "toolbox for industry" and dented basic-research infrastructure.

In August 2020 under Minister of Innovation, Science and Industry Navdeep Bains and President Iain Stewart, the NRC announced it was building the Biologics Manufacturing Centre, a facility that can produce vaccines and other biologics. The construction of the facility was started as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, and Canada's inability to produce COVID-19 Vaccines. The facility is expected to open in July 2021, and will have a vaccine manufacturing capacity of 2 million does per month. In February 2021, the Canadian government has signed a memorandum of understanding with Novavax to pursue manufacturing its NVX-CoV2373 vaccine at the Biologics Manufacturing Centre.

In September 2020, President Iain Stewart was shuffled to the troubled Public Health Agency of Canada, and in December 2020 Bains named Mitch Davies to fill the vacancy.

In October 2021, Iain Stewart returned to his position as President of the National Research Council.

In January 2024, Mitch Davies was appointed as President of the National Research Council following the retirement of Iain Stewart.

Divisions and portfolios
Divisions of the NRC include:
 * Digital Technologies
 * Artificial intelligence
 * Bioinformatics
 * Blockchain
 * Computer vision and graphics
 * Cybersecurity
 * Data analysis and modelling
 * Human–computer interaction
 * Internet of things
 * Natural language processing
 * Emerging Technologies
 * Advanced Electronics and Photonics
 * Herzberg Astronomy and Astrophysics
 * Metrology
 * Nanotechnology
 * Security and Disruptive Technologies
 * Engineering
 * Construction
 * Energy, Mining and Environment
 * Ocean, Coastal and River Engineering
 * Life Sciences
 * Aquatic and Crop Resource Development
 * Human Health Therapeutics
 * Medical Devices
 * Clinical Trial Material Facility Project
 * Transportation and Manufacturing
 * Aerospace
 * Automotive and Surface Transportation
 * Industrial Research Assistance Program
 * Secretary General
 * Business and Professional Services
 * Corporate Services and Finance
 * Biologics Manufacturing Centre (BMC) Project

Programmes
Areas of research and development at NRC include:
 * aerospace engineering and manufacturing
 * astronomy
 * high-throughput DNA sequencing
 * photonics
 * biotechnology
 * nanotechnology

At one point in January 2018 the NRC had over 30 approved programs, including the following.

Facilities
The following are the NRC's various research centres and their areas of R&D:
 * Advanced Electronics and Photonics Research Centre – semiconducting materials and photonic device design
 * Aerospace Research Centre – design, manufacturing, performance and maintenance of air and space vehicles
 * Aquatic and Crop Resource Development Research Centre – sustainability of foods and other bio-product sectors
 * Automotive and Surface Transportation Research Centre – eco-friendly and more economical vehicles
 * Canadian Campus for Advanced Materials Manufacturing (CCAMM) – a joint initiative with the Xerox Research Centre of Canada (XRCC).
 * Centre for Research and Applications in Fluidic Technologies (CRAFT) – in vitro diagnostics, regenerative medicine, and precision medicine.
 * Collaboration Centre for Clean Energy Transition – in partnership with the University of British Columbia
 * Collaborative Unit for Translational Research – in partnership with CHU Sainte-Justine; treatment, analytics, and diagnoses for mothers and children.
 * Construction Research Centre – building materials and regulations, fire safety, infrastructure and more
 * Cybersecurity Collaboration Consortium – in partnership with the Canadian Institute for Cybersecurity (University of New Brunswick); cybersecurity research and its applications in security, privacy, and safety.
 * Digital Technologies Research Centre – artificial intelligence, bioinformatics, blockchain, computer vision, cybersecurity, data analytics, language processing
 * Energy, Mining and Environment Research Centre – reducing environmental risks and increasing "global competitiveness in the energy and mining sectors."
 * Herzberg Astronomy and Astrophysics Research Centre – observatories and other astronomy and astrophysics infrastructure
 * Human Health Therapeutics Research Centre – advanced therapeutics, vaccines and diagnostics technologies
 * Karluk Collaboration Space – ocean engineering, technology, and science.
 * Medical Devices Research Centre – medical diagnostic technology
 * Metrology Research Centre – measurement research and metrological services
 * Nanotechnology Research Centre – nanotechnology
 * NRC-Fields Mathematical Sciences Collaboration Centre
 * NRC-uOttawa Joint Centre for Extreme Photonics – in partnership with the University of Ottawa
 * Ocean, Coastal and River Engineering Research Centre
 * Security and Disruptive Technologies Research Centre – facilities and technical support for nanotechnologies, advanced materials, photonics and quantum technologies

Former facilities:
 * Chalk River Laboratories
 * Montreal Laboratory

Algal Carbon Conversion Flagship Program
The goal of the Algal Carbon Conversion Pilot Program was to develop of an algae system to recycle carbon emissions from the oil sands. It contained plans for a $19-million facility to be constructed in Alberta, in partnership between the NRC, Canadian Natural Resources, and Pond Biofuels.

In 2008, researchers from five I-CAN organizations were developing a Carbon Algae Recycling System (CARS) to "feed waste heat and flue gas containing from industrial exhaust stacks to micro-algae growing in artificial ponds." The "Algal Carbon Conversion", is related to prior interests of NRC President John McDougall, as he previously headed Innoventures, a company involved in lobbying for the development of an algae system to recycle carbon emissions.

The NRC was not involved in this area of research prior to the arrival of McDougall.

Canadian Wheat Improvement Flagship
The Canadian Wheat Improvement Program is a "strategic collaboration with Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (AAFC), the University of Saskatchewan’s Crop Development Centre and the province of Saskatchewan." With a budget of approximately $97 million (2013–2018), the Canadian Wheat Alliance will be conducting research on improving the yield of Canadian wheat crops and on the most efficient use of chemical fertilizers. Working with breeders and scientists at the Crop Development Centre and at AAFC, they will be integrating long-term research with genetic improvement of wheat.

Gallium Nitride Electronics Program
Gallium nitride (GaN) is a semiconductor commonly used in light-emitting diodes. The GaN Electronics Program supports partner research and development activities with a goal of ensuring that GaN technology will create wealth and a greener future for Canadians. The NRC is the only Canadian foundry for GaN electronics, and offers both normally-on and normally-off devices. The GaN500v2 Foundry Design Kit was released on June 28, 2014.

Industrial Research Assistance Program (NRC-IRAP)
The NRC Industrial Research Assistance Program (NRC-IRAP) was introduced in the 1950s to support product developments in small to medium-sized businesses. The NRC provides grants and financial support to business' looking to bring new and innovative technologies to the market.

Some of the many innovations by NRC personnel included the artificial pacemaker, development of canola (rapeseed) in the 1940s, the Crash Position Indicator in the 1950s, and the Cesium Beam atomic clock in the 1960s.

Since 1974, Paul Barton of PSB Speakers used the NRC's world-class measurement facilities, their anechoic chamber. By the 1980s, more companies began to use this resource, develop it further, and tested their loudspeakers at the NRC. Electrical engineer, Floyd E. Toole, who worked at the NRC was at the centre of this research. By the year 2000, most companies had their own sound chambers, but Barton continued to use the NRC's facilities. In about 1990, PSB and other Canadian companies worked with the NRC on Athena to evaluate digital signal processing (DSP) for loudspeaker design.

"The metal walls of the NRC’s anechoic chamber are located about a foot and a half from the internal walls that surround it. The whole chamber is suspended on springs. This makes it a building within the M-37 building. The purpose of all this is to provide a completely isolated environment that, according to Barton, registers a noise level that is less than 0dB. (0dB is a statistical average of the lowest level of human hearing.) Wedges made from fibreglass are inside the chamber, and they help create the reflection-free environment. No sound gets in, none gets out, and what occurs within gets completely absorbed with nary a bounce."

From 2002 to 2006, John R. McDougall, who was appointed President of the NRC in 2010, was a member of the NRC-IRAP Advisory Board. In 2011, Bev Oda, the Minister of International Cooperation, and Gary Goodyear, Minister of State (Science and Technology), announced the grant recipients. These included small to medium-sized businesses, such as, Nortek Solutions a privately owned Canadian software company. They received a $30,000 grant from the NRC to hire a young graphics design graduate to work on their "CUROS" people management software. Oasys Healthcare, a company that provides "innovative audio and video solutions for the medical marketplace" received a $13,000 NRC grant for its new technology for operating rooms. Jeffrey Ross Jewellery's product called Dimples, imprints fingerprints in silver using an innovative process and material, developed through a NRC $35,750 grant.

Flight dynamics
NRC's fleet of research and test aircraft

The NRC has a fleet of nine aircraft for their research purposes: NRC's past fleet of research and test aircraft
 * Bell 412 – Advanced Systems Research Aircraft and 4-DOF simulator
 * Bell 205 (205A-1) – 4-DOF simulator
 * Bell 206 (206B) – Rotary trainer and advanced vision studies
 * Canadair CT-133 Silver Star (Mk 3) – Vintage fighter jet
 * Convair 580 – Multi-purpose flying laboratory
 * Falcon 20 (Mystère 20) – Aerospace, geoscience testing and micro gravity testing
 * Twin Otter (Series 200) – Atmospheric and biospheric studies, and for flight mechanics and flight systems development
 * Harvard (4) – Trainer and experimental platform for avionics research

Former aircraft include other models of the nine listed above and the following: Research aircraft
 * Extra 300 (300L) – studying pilot perception in a dynamic environment and trainer (Retired in 2019)
 * C-45 – Atmospheric studies (retired in 1992)
 * Bell 47 – Fly by wire and icing studies (last of 3 retired in the mid-1990s)
 * Canadair North Star – Similar work as the Convair 580. (Retired 1974)
 * de Havilland Canada DHC-5 Buffalo – High wing super STOL aircraft joint project with United States Air Force
 * de Havilland Canada DHC-1 Chipmunk
 * Beechcraft Queen Air – Retired from fleet pre 1980
 * NRC tailless glider

Nobel Prizes
Several Nobel laureates have been associated with the NRC at various points of their careers, including:
 * Sir Geoffrey Wilkinson, who spent his time at the NRC in the Montreal and the Chalk River laboratories (1942–1946)
 * Dudley R. Herschbach, formerly an NRC visiting student, Nobel Prize in Chemistry
 * John Polanyi, formerly an NRC postdoctoral Fellow, Nobel Prize in Chemistry
 * Rudolph A. Marcus, formerly an NRC postdoctoral Fellow, Nobel Prize in Chemistry
 * Sir Harold Kroto, formerly an NRC postdoctoral Fellow, Nobel Prize in Chemistry
 * Bertram Brockhouse, who conducted atomic research at Chalk River from 1950 to 1952, and worked at the NRC laboratories in Ottawa (1944–1947)
 * Sir John Pople, Nobel Prize in Chemistry
 * Sir John Cockcroft, Nobel Prize in Physics
 * Gerhard Herzberg, formerly a Director of the Division of Pure Physics, Nobel Prize in Chemistry
 * Donna Strickland, formerly a Research Associate, Nobel Prize in Physics

Harper government
Under the tenure of Prime Minister Stephen Harper, Canadian Government research organizations began to restrict the ability of government scientists to communicate with the public. This includes restricting scientists within the NRC to communicate with the public through non-scientist communications personnel. Harper's focus as an economist was on his action plan: creating jobs and building the economy. There were widespread concerns that the progress in development was at the cost of the environment.

In 2012, the federal government moved "to defund government research centres in the High Arctic." In the same year National Research Council environmental scientists "were barred from discussing their work on snowfall with the media.

"'Scientists for the governmental agency Environment Canada, under threat of losing their jobs, were banned from discussing their research without political approval. Mentions of federal climate change research in the Canadian press have dropped 80 per cent. The union that represents federal scientists and other professionals has, for the first time in its history, abandoned neutrality to campaign against Mr. Harper."

The appointment by Harper's Minister of State (Science and Technology) Gary Goodyear of John McDougall as President of the NRC was followed by several controversies:

In 2011, President John McDougall began to oversee a change in research focus away from basic research and towards industry-relevant research. This included the development of multiple programs which shifted the research budget out of existing projects and into a number of focused programs. In October 2012, John McDougall and his appointment, Dr. Ian Potter (VP Business Management), served termination notices to all of the NRC's Business Development Officer's (BDOs) across Canada, which ultimately impacted the majority of the NRC's intellectual property management, patenting, and business development activities conducted at the various NRC's research centres in Canada.

The transformation of the NRC into a research and technology organization that focuses on "business-led research" was part of the Harper government's Economic Action Plan. On 7 May 2013, the NRC launched its new "business approach" in which it offered four business lines: strategic research and development, technical services, management of science and technology infrastructure and NRC-Industrial Research Assistance Program (IRAP). With these services, the NRC intended to shorten the gap between early stage research and development and commercialization.

During his tenure as president, there was a drop in research publications and new patents from the NRC as the scientific staff was cut significantly. An article published in April 2016 and based on information from the office of the Minister of Science gave the following figures for the period 2011–2015: "In the five years from 2011 through 2015, the number of studies in academic journals were 1,889, 1,650, 1,204, 1,017 and 549, respectively. (Figures from 2010 and earlier are generally in the 1,200 to 1,300 range.) The number of patents over the period 2011 to 2014 (with no figure available for 2015) are: 205, 251, 128 and 112, respectively. The years before 2011 averaged 250 to 300 patents per year."

In 2014 the NRC's computer network was the target of a cyber attack by Chinese infiltrators, which resulted in the NRC's IT network being shut down for an extended period of time.

In September 2016, the office of the Minister of Science released figures showing that from 2010 to 2015, the number of research officers at the NRC fell by 26 per cent, and the number of scientists and engineers of all kinds fell by 22 per cent.

McDougall's tenure as president included the period during which the NRC contaminated the water table in the Eastern Ontario community of Mississippi Mills, without informing its inhabitants. In January 2014, NRC employees at the fire-safety testing facility in Mississippi Mills were told to start drinking bottled water. In December 2015, 23 months later, residents of Mississippi Mills with homes near the facility were warned by the NRC that their well-water was contaminated with toxic chemicals called perfluorinated alkyl substances, often found in firefighting foam. In July 2016, Acting President Maria Aubrey formally acknowledged that the NRC's National Fire Laboratory was the source of the groundwater contamination in Mississippi Mills. In December 2016, it was reported that owners of homes near the lab in Mississippi Mills were launching a multi-million dollar lawsuit against the NRC over water contamination.

In March 2016, John McDougall sent a three-sentence email to NRC employees, announcing that he was going on personal leave. Subsequently, NRC management announced that two major projects he had led would be abandoned: re-branding the NRC as "CNRCSolutions" – though colourful "CNRCSolutions" T-shirts and "branding books" had already been distributed, and re-organizing its three research divisions into five research divisions.

Effective August 24, 2016 under Kirsty Duncan, Iain Stewart became the new President of the NRC. The details regarding McDougall's personal leave were not publicly disclosed.

Bill C-38
Bill C-38 angered many people who opposed unregulated industrial growth. They argued that science was being gutted and silenced to open the way for development in ecologically sensitive areas in the north.

In June 2012, the federal opposition made a motion in parliament, "That, in the opinion of the House, Canadian scientific and social science expertise is of great value and, therefore, the House calls on the Government to end its muzzling of scientists; to reverse the cuts to research programs at Environment Canada, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Library and Archives Canada, National Research Council Canada, Statistics Canada, and the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada; and to cancel the closures of the National Council of Welfare and the First Nations Statistical Institute."

Thirty Meter Telescope
Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT) is a proposed extremely large telescope (ELT) that has become controversial due to its planned location on Mauna Kea, which is considered sacred land according to the native Hawaiians, on the island of Hawaii in the United States. On April 6, 2015, Prime Minister Stephen Harper announced that Canada would commit $243.5 million over a period of 10 years. The telescope's enclosure was designed by Dynamic Structures Ltd. in British Columbia.

In an online petition, a group of Canadian academics have called on Prime Minister Justin Trudeau, together with Navdeep Bains (then Minister of Innovation, Science and Economic Development) and Kirsty Duncan (then Minister Of Science) to divest Canadian funding from the project. On July 20, 2019, an online petition titled "A Call to Divest Canada's Research Funding for the Thirty Meter Telescope on Mauna Kea" has been posted on Change.org.

Agencies with special relationships with the NRC
Specialized agencies and services which have branched out of the NRC include:
 * Canadian Space Agency
 * Defence Research and Development Canada
 * Atomic Energy of Canada Limited
 * Canadian Institutes of Health Research
 * Communications Security Establishment
 * Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council

title: National Research Council Canada


text:
Talk:Dynamo theory

Removed this paragraph since I don't think it is true. Dynamos generate static dipole magentic fields.

 * The internal electrical convection currents are similar to those, involving water vapor, within a thunderstorm. These currents are called telluric currents. The magnetic field move these static currents, though the fields alternate constantly from pole to pole. The geomagnetic fields lead the telluric currents, usually.

Dynamo on a larger scale
With respect to energy generation couldn't a dynamo-based "appropriate technology" (see Wiki entry on this) be even better than "solar" (at least for many situations), from the standpoint that "the sun wouldn't even need to shine" (not all the time) to generate some electrical current with a "dynamo" device. The "bicycle hub" units are OK, but I think the scale could be larger and the device would remain "appropriate". Peace, Ken Hausle - kjh-es.com. 12:44 pm (eastern) Charlotte, NC. KenH Wrong sort of dynamo Stevelinton (talk) 23:35, 21 August 2010 (UTC)

OK then, let me propose an alternative energy option using a Capstone turbine (or equivalent) to use whatever fuel is available at the time for electrical energy. A solar contribution would be fine but it is not sufficient for what is needed. Micro-turbines are dynamos that will play a role in the future. We need distributed generation. Signed by me: Ken Hausle on this day December 22, 2019 9:30 EST - 122219. Peace. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.68.83.237 (talk) 02:32, 23 December 2019 (UTC)

References to georeactor theory
Dr. Herndon's theories regarding the existance of a georeactor are significant and should be included in this topic. Wikipedia can benefit greatly by contributions from the best experts in the field. These contributions should not be construed by editors as 'self promotion'. Dr. Herndon has a detailed understanding in the field of geophysics and has collaborated with many of the top scientists in the field. DAEdgerley Ph.D. (talk) 05:45, 5 June 2008 (UT

Are ocean currents the cause
From The Sunday Times June 14, 2009 Oceans charge up new theory of magnetism

"A radical new idea may revolutionise our understanding of one of the most vital forces on Earth

Jonathan Leake

Earth's magnetic field, long thought to be generated by molten metals swirling around its core, may instead be produced by ocean currents, according to controversial new research published this week.

It suggests that the movements of such volumes of salt water around the world have been seriously underestimated by scientists as a source of magnetism.

If proven, the research would revolutionise geophysics, the study of the Earth’s physical properties and behaviour, in which the idea that magnetism originates in a molten core is a central tenet.

Earth’s magnetic field is vital for life, extending tens of thousands of miles into space and protecting the planet against radiation that would otherwise burn away the atmosphere and oceans.... -snip- "

For more information go to

http://www.iop.org/News/news_35352.html / http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/39469/ / http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/1367-2630/11/6/063015 —Preceding unsigned comment added by Rpauli (talk • contribs) 05:16, 15 June 2009 (UTC)

Description of Dynamo
There is a lot of high octane information here, but we need a better opening that describes the basics. I propose the following though I am happy to defer to those better acquainted with the physics.

A dynamo requires a molten outer core that contains iron and flows in convective loops, as well as a solid inner core that also contains iron. The magnetic field results from the interaction between the flowing and stationary iron. Since the flow can change in time, so can the magnetic field; it is not fixed like bar magnet. The field shifts slowly so that the difference between magnetic north and true north (defined by axis of rotation) changes measurably during a human life span. Changes in the dynamo also drive geomagnetic reversals, (wiki ref) when the north magnetic pole weakens then reestablishes in the south and visa versa, which occur at irregular intervals ranging from hundreds of thousands to tens of millions of years.

The magnetic field created by the dynamo, does a lot more than your compasses work and provide navigation for migrating birds. The convective heat flow necessary for plate tectonics is what drives the dynamo. Without this convective churning there would be no continents, no mountains, and our planet would be covered with water. So there is a strong tie between the long term existence of a dynamo and life as we know it.

Of the eight planets, only the terrestrial planets (the first four) have iron cores. Of these, Mercury and Venus do not have dynamos, and have no magnetic fields. Mars appears to have had a dynamo in the past, but the convective movement has stopped. Currently, Earth is the only plant in our solar system that has a magnetic pole. R Stillwater (talk) 22:47, 28 October 2008 (UTC) —Preceding unsigned comment added by R Stillwater (talk • contribs) 22:42, 28 October 2008 (UTC)

 * There's a lot wrong with that proposal, eg. Jupiter has a stronger mag field, thought be due to metallic hydrogen not iron. See Magnetosphere_of_Jupiter. - Rod57 (talk) 09:51, 22 May 2018 (UTC)

Conflict with Lentz's law ?
The "Iron Dynamo"theory for the Earth's magnetism conflicts with a basic law of electricity and magnetism. It is called Lenz's Law. When a conductor moves in a magnetic field a current is induced in the conductor. The induced current will generate a magnetic field. The polarity of the magnetic field generated is opposite to the magnetic field which caused the current to be generated. In simple terms a magnetic field change cannot create a current that in turn creates a magnetic field that supports the original change. It such a thing was possible, it would be the magnetic equivalent of perpetual motion. No application of Maxwell's mathematics can change the laws of electricity and magnetism. [Lenz's Law is included in all elementary textbooks explaining electricity and magnetism.] Wilf James 11:30 GMT 10 February 2009 —Preceding unsigned comment added by 86.11.15.76 (talk) 11:36, 10 February 2009 (UTC)

 * The power for the dynamo ultimately comes from the rotation of the Earth and the heat sources in the inner core. The effect of Lentz's law is that the moving conductors "carry" the magnetic field with them. The complex motions in the rotating convecting fluid then twist the field up in all sorts of strange ways, and complex and unexpected behaviour follows. Lentz's law is not being violated. Stevelinton (talk) 23:35, 21 August 2010 (UTC)

ohmic decay
Need a link for ohmic decay RJFJR (talk) 19:40, 9 November 2009 (UTC)

Einstein
It may seem surprising that I downgraded the apparently well-sourced statement about Einstein to a rumor in a footnote. However, I have some inside knowledge on this. The statement was originally made in The earth's magnetic field : its history, origin, and planetary perspective by Merrill and McElhinny, and because of its source has been repeated many times in reliable publications. However, Merrill himself recently realized that he didn't know where he got this statement from, and hasn't been able to find a source. See also footnote 23 for Chapter 2 in Our Magnetic Earth by Merrill. RockMagnetist (talk) 13:38, 16 October 2011 (UTC)

Coriolis force
Please explain in more detail (ideally with images as well as words) how the Coriolis force changes convection currents in the outer core into rolls of electric currents. Jray310 (talk) 10:07, 15 May 2016 (UTC)

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2016 suggestion that the moon is significant via tidal forces
The Moon thought to play a major role in maintaining Earth's magnetic field (based on The deep Earth may not be cooling down) says tidal forces could provide the energy to keep the Earths core hot and moving. Has this been confirmed or debunked ? - Rod57 (talk) 09:36, 22 May 2018 (UTC)

Updating "Numerical models" section
I propose adding more detailed information about numerical dynamo modelling. I will be adding new information to the current section to try to achieve this. I will also add three figures, but if they crowd the page too much, it may be better to leave the page without them. Rojasmar (talk) 23:46, 14 March 2019 (UTC)

सक्रिय चर्चाएँ
सक्रिय चर्चाएँ 106.76.93.43 (talk) 21:46, 7 January 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Dynamo theory


text:
Heimrad Prem

Heimrad Prem (27 May 1934 – 19 February 1978) was a German painter born in Roding, Oberpfalz. From 1949 to 1952 he studied decorative painting at Schwandorf and then studied painting with Josef Oberberger and sculpture with Toni Stadler at the Akademie der Bildenden Künste, Munich until 1956. While studying painting with Ernst Schumacher at the Hochschule der Künste, Berlin, he formed Gruppe SPUR with Lothar Fischer, Helmut Sturm, and Hans-Peter Zimmer. After meeting Asger Jorn, SPUR joined the Situationist International.

In 1960 he won a scholarship of the Kulturpreises im Bundesverband der Deutschen Industrie, Cologne. From 1960 to 1962 he co-edited the magazine SPUR. In 1961 he visited Orkelljunga, Sweden with Sturm, Zimmer and Dieter Kunzelmann staying with Jørgen Nash. In 1962 the SPUR group was expelled from the Situationist International, but they continued to work with Nash and others. In 1963 he worked on the SPUR collaborative works: "Canale Grande Crescente" for the exhibition "Visione e Colore" in the Palazzo Grassi, Venice, the SPUR-Bau joint contribution to the exhibition "Nouveaux Espaces", Biennale Paris, and the "SPUR room" in the country house of Willi Bleicher with Munich.

His first solo exhibition in the Galerie van de Loo, Munich was also in 1963. In 1965 the group SPUR fused with Wir to form the group Geflecht (Network). After a short stay in South Sweden, Prem organised the organization of "white celebration" near Munich and began to paint under the influence of drugs.

After his first suicide attempt in 1971 he traveled in Italy, Turkey and Iran. In 1975 he became a joint founder of the artists' community Kollektiv Herzogstrasse. He became a lecturer at the winter academy in the Schloss Kißlegg. In 1976 he had a special exhibition at the Haus der Kunst, Munich. The following year he exhibited in Copenhagen.

Following this, he continued to exhibit work mainly in Germany.

Heimrad Prem committed suicide in 1978 in Munich.

title: Heimrad Prem


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32VSB

32VSB is an acronym for 32-level vestigial sideband modulation, capable of transmitting five bits (25=32) at a time.

32VSB is rarely used, because receivers have more trouble distinguishing between so many fine levels of modulation. It can, however, be useful in situations such as short last mile coaxial cable runs, which bring fiber to the curb systems into the home as regular cable TV, cable modem, and cable telephone services.

Other slower but more rugged forms include 2VSB, 4VSB, 8VSB, and 16VSB.

title: 32VSB