text:
Henry Alford (theologian)

Henry Alford (7 October 1810 – 12 January 1871) was an English churchman, theologian, textual critic, scholar, poet, hymnodist, and writer.

Life
Alford was born at 25 Alfred Place, Bedford Square, London

"of a Somersetshire family, which had given five consecutive generations of clergymen to the Anglican church. Alford's early years were passed with his widowed father, who was curate of Steeple Ashton in Wiltshire. He was a precocious lad, and before he was ten had written several Latin odes, a history of the Jews and a series of homiletic outlines. After a peripatetic school course he went up to Cambridge in 1827 as a scholar of Trinity in 1827. In 1832 he was 34th wrangler and 8th classic, and in 1834 was made a fellow of Trinity."

Service
"He had already taken orders, and in 1835 began his eighteen years' tenure of the vicarage of Wymeswold in Leicestershire, from which seclusion the twice-repeated offer of a colonial bishopric failed to draw him. He was Hulsean lecturer at Cambridge in 1841–1842, and steadily built up a reputation as scholar and preacher, which would have been enhanced but for his discursive ramblings in the fields of minor poetry and magazine editing."

In 1844, he joined the Cambridge Camden Society (CCS) which published a list of do's and don'ts for church layout which they promoted as a science. He commissioned A.W.N. Pugin to restore St Mary's church. He also was a member of the Metaphysical Society, founded in 1869 by James Knowles.

"In September 1853 Alford moved to Quebec Street Chapel, Marylebone, London, where he had a large and cultured congregation. In March 1857 Lord Palmerston advanced him to the deanery of Canterbury, where, till his death [...], he lived the same strenuous and diversified life that had always characterized him."

Personal life
Henry Alford married his cousin Frances (Fanny) Oke Alford on 10 March 1835 in Curry Rivel, Somerset. They had four children, all born in Wymeswold, of whom both the sons died in childhood. The first was Clement Henry Oke, who died in 1844, aged 11 months; the second was his elder brother Ambrose Oke, who died in Babbacombe, Torquay aged 10, on 31 August 1850.

Henry and Francis' two daughters were:

Henry Alford was the friend of many of his eminent contemporaries, and was much loved for his amiable character. He was buried at St Martin's Church, Canterbury. A description of the funeral and a tribute to Dean Alford were published in The Times. "The inscription on his tomb, chosen by himself, is Diversorium Viatoris Hierosolymam Proficiscentis ('the lodging place of a traveller on his way to Jerusalem')."

Frances Alford died in Middlesex on 18 November 1878.

Published works
"Alford was a talented artist, as his picture-book The Riviera (1870) shows, and he had abundant musical and mechanical talent. Besides editing the works of John Donne, he published several volumes of his own verse, The School of the Heart (1835), The Abbot of Muchelnaye (1841), The Greek Testament. The Four Gospels (1849), and a number of hymns, the best-known of which are 'Forward! be our watchword,' 'Come, ye thankful people, come', and 'Ten thousand times ten thousand.' He translated the Odyssey, wrote a well-known manual of idiom,A Plea for the Queen's English (1863), and was the first editor of the Contemporary Review (1866–1870)."

"His chief fame, however, rests on his monumental edition of the New Testament in Greek (8 vols.), on which he worked from 1841 to 1861. In this work he first brought before English students a careful collation of the readings of the chief manuscripts and the researches of the ripest continental scholarship of his day. Philological rather than theological in character, it marked an epochal change from the old homiletic commentary, and though more recent research, patristic and papyral, has largely changed the method of New Testament exegesis, Alford's work is still a quarry where the student can dig with a good deal of profit."

See Alford's Law for an example. Alford subsequently published the New Testament for English Readers (4 vols., Rivingtons, 1868). "His Life, written by his widow, appeared in 1873 (Rivingtons)."

title: Henry Alford (theologian)


text:
Michael Jeffery

Major General Philip Michael Jeffery, (12 December 1937 – 18 December 2020) was a senior Australian Army officer and vice-regal representative. He was the 28th governor of Western Australia from 1993 to 2000, and the 24th governor-general of Australia, serving from 2003 to 2008.

From Perth, Western Australia, Jeffery graduated from the Royal Military College, Duntroon, and served in the Malayan Emergency and the Vietnam War, being awarded the Military Cross during the latter conflict.

Jeffery was at various stages commander of the Special Air Service Regiment and the 1st Division, and subsequently Deputy Chief of General Staff, before retiring from active service in 1993. After serving for seven years as Governor of Western Australia, Jeffery was appointed Governor-General of Australia in 2003, following the resignation of Peter Hollingworth. He was the first career Australian Army officer to hold the position, and was succeeded by Quentin Bryce.

Early life and military career
Jeffery was born in Wiluna, Western Australia, on 12 December 1937, and was educated at Kent Street Senior High School. At 16 he left Perth to attend the Royal Military College, Duntroon, in Canberra.

After graduating in 1958, he served in a number of junior positions before being posted to Malaya in 1962 for operational service. From 1966 to 1969 he served in Papua New Guinea. During this posting, he married Marlena Kerr of Sydney, with whom he had three sons and a daughter. This was followed by a tour of duty in the Vietnam War, during which he was awarded the Military Cross (MC).

In 1972, Jeffery was promoted to lieutenant colonel, commanding the 2nd Battalion of the Pacific Islands Regiment from 1974 to 1975. He assumed command of the Special Air Service Regiment (SASR) in Perth from 7 January 1976 until 22 October 1977, and was then promoted to colonel as the first Director of the Army's Special Action Forces in 1979.

From 1982 to 1983, Jeffery headed Australia's national counter-terrorist co-ordination authority. In 1985 he was promoted to major general, being appointed to command the 1st Division the following year. In 1990 he became Deputy Chief of the General Staff and in 1991 he was appointed Assistant Chief of the General Staff for Materiel.

Jeffery retired from the army in 1993, and was appointed to the ceremonial position of Honorary Colonel of the SASR.

Governor of Western Australia (1993–2000)
In November 1993, Jeffery was appointed Governor of Western Australia and in June 1996 he was appointed a Companion of the Order of Australia (AC). He was appointed a Commander of the Royal Victorian Order (CVO) on 1 April 2000.

During his seven years in the post he made a number of public statements of his conservative views on marriage, sex and education. He received some criticism from the Labor opposition and sections of the media for appearing to take positions on political issues.

Governor-General of Australia (2003–2008)
Following the resignation of Peter Hollingworth as Governor-General of Australia, Prime Minister John Howard announced on 22 June 2003 that he had chosen Jeffery to succeed Hollingworth. He was formally appointed by Elizabeth II, Queen of Australia and sworn in on 11 August 2003, becoming the first Australian career soldier to become governor-general.

Jeffrey has represented Australia at multiple royal weddings, including the Wedding of Frederik, Crown Prince of Denmark, and Mary Donaldson and the Wedding of Prince Charles and Camilla Parker Bowles.

In 2005, Jeffery became a co-patron of the private, non-profit Australia China Friendship and Exchange Association (ACFEA), founded by Chinese-Australian businessman Chau Chak Wing. The organization promoted bilateral and international dialogue, particularly between China and Australia, having established the annual Imperial Springs International Forum in 2014.

On 8 April 2005, Jeffery represented Australia at the funeral of Pope John Paul II.

In 2007, in his position as governor-general, Jeffery was appointed as the colonel-in-chief of the Royal Australian Army Medical Corps, succeeding the previous colonel-in-chief, Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother.

Jeffery was the Chief Scout of Australia.

Jeffery left Yarralumla prior to the swearing-in of his successor, Quentin Bryce, the former Governor of Queensland. Bryce was sworn in on 5 September 2008.

Career after office
On 23 October 2012, at the National Farmers' Federation Congress in Canberra, Prime Minister Julia Gillard announced the appointment of Jeffery as Australia's first Advocate for Soil Health. Gillard noted that, as Governor-General, Jeffery had a passion for regional development and the future of our rural industries, a commitment he continued after leaving office. Prime Minister Tony Abbott extended Jeffery's appointment as the national Advocate for Soil Health until December 2014, indicating Jeffery would continue to raise public awareness of the role soil plays in underpinning sustainable productivity, delivering quality ecosystem services and helping to meet global challenges including food security and climate change.

In June 2020, Jeffery stepped down from this role, now the Patron of the Soil Cooperative Research Centre, due to illness.

Honours and awards
Unit Award:

Personal life
Jeffery was a Christian. He died on 18 December 2020, at the age of 83.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Michael Jeffery


text:
Captain Corelli's Mandolin

Captain Corelli's Mandolin, released simultaneously in the United States as Corelli's Mandolin, is a 1994 novel by the British writer Louis de Bernières, set on the Greek island of Cephalonia during the Italian and German occupation of the Second World War. In 2003, the novel was listed at number 19 on the BBC's survey The Big Read.

Synopsis
Dr. Iannis resides on the Greek island of Cephalonia with his daughter Pelagia, who has acquired medical knowledge through her observations of her father's practice. Pelagia becomes romantically involved with a young fisherman named Mandras, and they become engaged just as war breaks out. Mandras decides to join the fight on the front lines, leaving Pelagia anxiously awaiting his letters, which never arrive. Meanwhile, Carlo Guercio fights alongside the Italian forces invading Albania and witnesses the tragic death of his beloved friend Francesco, for whom he harbors deep affection, at the hands of the Greek army.

In 1941, Italian and German soldiers are posted to Cephalonia, where they are ostracized by the locals. Pelagia is determined to hate them, especially when a young captain by the name of Antonio Corelli is domiciled with her. Mandras comes home from the war and Pelagia realizes she no longer loves him. Mandras leaves for the Greek mainland, where he joins the communist partisan organisation ELAS. ELAS is cruel towards the civilian population and more frequently attacks other partisan groups for being ideologically different than the Axis' occupying forces.

When Italy surrenders, their former German allies turn on them. After defeating the Italian division, the German soldiers on Cephalonia carry out a massive execution. Corelli's life is saved by Carlo Guercio, who shields him with his body when they face execution by firing squad. Guercio dies, and the wounded Corelli is aided by a Greek back to Pelagia's house. Corelli has to stay hidden from the Germans, whose orders are to kill any surviving Italians.

As soon as he is well enough, Corelli escapes to Italy, promising Pelagia that he will return as soon as the war ends and then they will be married. Corelli leaves Antonia, his mandolin, with Pelagia for safekeeping.

The war eventually ends and Communists take over the island. Dr Iannis is considered an intellectual, therefore suspect, and is sent to a camp along with some of his friends who protest against his treatment. Mandras returns, indoctrinated with Communist ideologies and having learned to read. He has read Pelagia's letters and knows that she does not love him, so he tries unsuccessfully to rape her. Mandras' mother realizes what almost happened and repudiates her own son. Ashamed, he commits suicide. Mandras' mother comforts Pelagia and for the remainder of her life, remains close with Pelagia.

Some time after, a baby girl is left on Pelagia's doorstep, whom Pelagia adopts. Dr Iannis comes home, traumatised. The baby girl, whom Pelagia has named Antonia, grows up and marries. Antonia later has a son who is named Iannis in honor of the doctor.

Many years later, Corelli, now a famous mandolin player, visits Pelagia one last time.

Real story and precedents
Bernières has denied that the character of Corelli is based on Amos Pampaloni who was then an Italian artillery captain in Cephalonia, despite the many similarities in their stories. Pampaloni survived execution, joined the Greek People's Liberation Army, the Partisans in the Greek civil war, and fought with them in Epirus for fourteen months. Pampaloni was interviewed by The Guardian newspaper in 2000 and expressed the view that the novel misrepresented the Greek partisan movement.

The novel also shows some similarities to Bandiera bianca a Cefalonia, a novel by Marcello Venturi published in 1963, translated in English as The White Flag (1969).

Reception
The Orlando Sentinel called Corelli's Mandolin a "radically traditionalist" novel, "a good nourishing tale full of true things, historical and psychological, spiced with opinion and contrariness, with not one dollop of regard for artistic fashion."

The Cleveland Plain Dealer praised the multiple emotional levels of the novel, remarking, "Like Puccini, de Bernières can evoke golden narrative, full of both pain and gladness."

Gene Hyde wrote, "To defy Sisyphus and rebel against the absurd, especially in the face of war, is an excruciatingly difficult and noble task. The beauty of Bernières' unique and deeply moving novel is his insistence that our hope lies in these seemingly quixotic impulses."

Awards

 * 1995 – Commonwealth Writers Prize for Best Book
 * 2003 – 19th place on The Big Read

Radio
The novel was adapted as four 45-minute radio plays from 17–20 September 2007 on BBC Radio 4, having been chosen as a popular "Book of the Week" on the same station some years earlier. The episode titles were "A Pea in the Ear," "Invasion of the Italians," "Looking for Snails" and "Earthquake." It was narrated by Tom Goodman-Hill, with Celia Meiras as Pelagia, Stephen Greif as Dr Iannis, Daniel Philpott as Corelli. The mandolin music for it was composed and performed by Alison Stephens, and the production was produced and directed by David Hunter. Other cast members included:
 * Carlo – Anthony Psaila
 * Mandras – Chris Pavlo
 * Velisarios – Alexi Kaye Campbell
 * Father Arsenios – Alex Zorbas
 * Lemoni – Ania Gordon
 * Drosoula – Anna Savva
 * Hector – Nitin Ganatra
 * Officer – Simon Treves

Film
A film version of Captain Corelli's Mandolin was released in 2001, with Nicolas Cage as the Italian Captain Corelli, John Hurt as Dr Iannis, and Penélope Cruz as his daughter, Pelagia. The film, directed by John Madden, also starred Christian Bale and Irene Papas.

Theatre
In 2011, the Mercury Theatre in Colchester, England, and the Kote Marjanishvili Theatre of Tbilisi, Georgia, produced an adaptation of the novel written by Mike Maran and directed by Levan Tsuladze. This production combined live actors and puppetry. It had its premiere in Georgia at the Tbilisi International Festival in October 2011, before transferring to the Mercury.

A new stage adaptation by Rona Munro and directed by Melly Still previews at the Leicester Curve from 13 to 20 April 2019 before opening at the Rose Theatre, Kingston (23 April to 12 May), and touring to Theatre Royal, Bath (14 to 18 May), Birmingham Repertory Theatre (29 May to 15 June), King's Theatre, Edinburgh (18 to 22 June) and Theatre Royal, Glasgow (25 to 29 June). Following its UK tour, the production transferred to London's West End at the Harold Pinter Theatre from 4 July to 31 August 2019 starring Alex Mugnaioni as Captain Antonio Corelli and Madison Clare as Pelagia.

title: Captain Corelli's Mandolin


text:
Druk Tsenden

"Druk Tsenden" (འབྲུག་ཙན་དན, ; "The Thunder Dragon Kingdom") is the national anthem of Bhutan. Adopted in 1953, the lyrics were written by Dolop Droep Namgay and possibly translated into English by Dasho Gyaldun Thinley. The accompanying music was composed by Aku Tongmi.

History
Despite claims made in Brozović's Enciklopedija (1999) and many subsequent authors, who attribute the authorship of the national anthem to Gyaldun Thinley, father of the former Prime Minister Jigme Thinley, there are many who believe that the words and the national anthem itself were penned by Dorji Lopen Dolop Droep Namgay of Talo, Punakha. The Dorji Lopen is the most senior of the four senior Lopens in Bhutan's religious establishment, and often serves as the Deputy Je Khenpo. Dolop Droep Namgay maintained close personal and working relations with the third King of Bhutan, Jigme Dorji Wangchuck, during whose reign Gyaldun Thinley served in various capacities.

It is possible that Gyaldun Thinley may have been involved in working closely with Dolop Droep Namgay and translating the lyrics into English. It is also highly likely that he (and/or his son Jigme Thinley who served in many important government and political capacities since the 1990s) was one of the persons of first contact for Dalibor Brozović who attributed Gyaldun Thinley as the author of the lyrics; however, many regard Dolop Droep Namgay as the author.

Aku Tongmi was educated in Shillong, India and had recently been appointed leader of the military brass band when the need for an anthem rose at the occasion of a state visit from the Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru. His original score was inspired by the Bhutanese folk tune "The Unchanging Lotus Throne" (Thri nyampa med pa pemai thri). The melody has twice undergone changes by Tongmi's successors as band leaders. The original lyrics were 12 lines, but were shortened to the present six-line version in 1964 by a secretary to the king.

As the anthem is inspired by a folk tune, there is a choreography to it as well, originally directed by Tongmi.

In 1953, His majesty the king Jigme Dorji Wangchuk ordered to compose a national anthem for Bhutan. So, the lyrics, choreography and tune were then composed taking the national anthem of England and India as a references.

Lyrics
The lyrics to the national anthem are inscribed in the Constitution of Bhutan.

title: Druk Tsenden


text:
National anthem of Bolivia

The national anthem of Bolivia (Himno Nacional de Bolivia), also known as "Bolivianos, el Hado Propicio" ("'Bolivians, a Propitious Fate'") and originally titled the "Canción Patriótica" ("Patriotic Song"), was adopted in 1851. José Ignacio de Sanjinés, a signer of both the Bolivian Declaration of Independence and the first Bolivian Constitution, wrote the lyrics. The music was composed by an Italian, Leopoldo Benedetto Vincenti.

It is a march in 4/4 time, although it is popularly sung in 12/8. It was premiered in the city of La Paz, in front of the Palacio de Gobierno, at noon on 18 November 1845, by about 90 instrumentalists belonging to the military bands of the 5th, 6th and 8th battalions. That day, the fourth anniversary of the Battle of Ingavi was celebrated with several acts of extraordinary magnitude, a highlight of which was the opening of the.

In 1851, during the government of General Manuel Isidoro Belzu, the national anthem of Bolivia was made official by a supreme decree. It was then printed for distribution in schools. It has since been performed and sung in all official school functions.

Background
In the city of Chuquisaca (modern Sucre) in 1835, the composition called "Marcha Nacional" ("National March") came to light, the first national anthem, the work of the Peruvian teacher Pedro Ximénez Abril Tirado, who was the chapelmaster of Chuquisaca Cathedral. This composition did not become official, quite possibly due to the creation, organization and subsequent elimination of the Peru–Bolivian Confederation (1836–1839).

The original scores are found in the Historical Archive of Chuquisaca Cathedral, where they are part of the musical heritage of Bolivia. A piano performance, performed by the teacher María Antonieta García Meza de Pacheco, exists in a compilation on CD as a tribute to the work of Ximenez Abrill Tirado.

National anthem
Once the independence and sovereignty of Bolivia were consolidated in the Battle of Ingavi on 18 November 1841, the need for a patriotic song was noted again because General José Ballivián, then president of Bolivia, noted that small bands of the Army were not managing to conquer popular fervor by performing inherited Spanish marches and popular pieces.

It was under these circumstances that Ballivián learned of the visit to Chile of Italian teacher and composer Leopoldo Benedetto Vincenti, whom he invited in 1844 to exercise the position of general director of bands of the Bolivian army and to compose, under contract, the music of the "Canción Patriótica" ("Patriotic Song"), under which name it was to be known at the time. Vincenti arrived in La Paz in September 1844 and found the musical bands in a dire state, as could be established in his family letters. His work was exhausting; many times, he went to bed dressed to go to the barracks at dawn. The trials were long and pressing. Vincenti rejected one text after another; it was then that lawyer and poet José Ignacio Sanjinéz presented him with the verses of what is now the Bolivian national anthem, originally written in Spanish.

In the La Paz Plaza Murillo at noon on 18 November 1845, after Te Deum was performed at the Cathedral of La Paz in honor of the Battle of Ingavi, the military bands of the Battalions 5th, 6th and 8th played, for the first time, the chords of the Bolivian national anthem. Ballivián came out excited to one of the balconies of the Palacio Quemado, profusely congratulating the performance.

That same night, simultaneously, the was premiered in a lyrical-musical program, a central part of which was the interpretation of the "Canción Patriótica". The new theatre was packed: the president of the republic, José Ballivián, attended with his cabinet; prefectural, municipal, and public authorities gathered.

Lyrics
The first verse and chorus are usually performed at official events. If brevity is required, only the chorus may be performed.

title: National anthem of Bolivia


text:
National anthem of Bosnia and Herzegovina

The national anthem of Bosnia and Herzegovina was composed in 1998 by Dušan Šestić and was adopted provisionally in 1999, before being officialized in 2001. It has no official lyrics, though unofficial lyrics have been written for it.

Following the Dayton Agreement that ended the Bosnian War in the mid-1990s, Bosnian state symbols were mandated to be inclusive of the country's main ethnic groups and not make any overt references to a specific one. The Bosnian national anthem that was in use at the time was considered to be insufficiently inclusive towards all of the country's ethnic groups and thus the United Nations, which oversaw the country as part of the Dayton Agreement, decided to replace it with an instrumental one, which was considered by it to be more inclusive. In the two decades since its inception, various attempts have been made to adopt lyrics for it, most recently in 2018, but due to political disagreements, none have been successful as yet.

The Bosnian and Herzegovinian anthem is one of very few national anthems to be protected under copyright. The copyright to the anthem is owned by the state of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Background
The national anthem was adopted provisionally by the UN's High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina on 25 June 1999 by the promulgation of the Law on the National Anthem of Bosnia and Herzegovina, replacing the previous national anthem, "Jedna si jedina", which was not particularly well-liked the country's Serb and Croat communities. The Bosnian government itself formally adopted it in 2001, and it has reportedly been in use along with the flag and coat of arms since 10 February 1998.

Bosnian Serb composer Dušan Šestić from Banja Luka composed the melody, to which initially there were no lyrics under the working title "Intermeco" ("Intermezzo"), which is commonly referred to as its title although it was never officially adopted as such. Šestić was denounced by some Serbs who disliked that he had written the national anthem of a state whose existence they were opposed to, whereas some Croats and Bosniaks disliked that a Serb had composed the national anthem as opposed to a member of their ethnicity.

Due to its length, an abridged version omitting several bars near the middle of the piece is often played at occasions requiring brevity.

Lyrics

Since 2007, various attempts have been made to have lyrics adopted for the Bosnian national anthem. Lyrics written by Šestić, the original composer, and Benjamin Isović were proposed in June 2008 and accepted by a parliamentary commission in February 2009. The 2008 lyrics emphasize national unity and a focus on the future, rather than emphasizing the past or ethnic differences. Though he was reportedly supposed to be paid 17,000 Euros by the state split with Isović for his role in writing new lyrics, Šestić had not yet received compensation as of 2015. The decision still requires approval of the Council of Ministers of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Parliamentary Assembly of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The proposed lyrics do not mention the two administrative entities or the constitutional nations that make up the state, leading to some opposition, and end with the line "We are going into the future, together!". As part of the consideration process, a recording of the lyrics was sung for a government committee by Dragica Panić Kašanski, a musicologist.

A lyrical adoption was again proposed in 2016, but those were not approved either. In February 2018, a renewed effort for an adoption of lyrics was initiated, though due to the ethnically-fragmented nature of Bosnian politics, it is unlikely to succeed in light of several other similar attempts being made and never approved. Some have suggested using the words from the Serbo-Croatian poem "Emina" as the lyrics for the national anthem, due to its connection to Bosniaks, Croats, and Serbs alike.

Reception
According to a 2011 survey conducted of the Bosnian population, Bosnians' attitudes towards their country's national anthem were shown to be sharply split along ethnic lines, with Bosniaks generally liking the national anthem, Croats being ambivalent towards it, and Serbs overwhelmingly disliking it, even booing it at some performances, refusing to stand for it, and displaying three-fingered salutes. In some cases, the Bosnian and Herzegovinian national anthem is not played in Republika Srpska even at events where others are played.

Controversy
In the late 2000s, commentators noted an aesthetic similarity of the Bosnian and Herzegovinian national anthem to Elmer Bernstein's instrumental piece "Faber College Theme" that serves as the introductory music to the 1978 film National Lampoon's Animal House, leading to accusations of plagiarism and calls for the composition to be replaced as a result. The composer Dušan Šestić defended himself against accusations of plagiarism, saying that he could not have plagiarized Bernstein's work as he was unaware of the latter's composition.


text:
Robert Lowe

Robert Lowe, 1st Viscount Sherbrooke, GCB, PC (4 December 1811 – 27 July 1892), British statesman, was a pivotal conservative spokesman who helped shape British politics in the latter half of the 19th century. He held office under William Ewart Gladstone as Chancellor of the Exchequer between 1868 and 1873 and as Home Secretary between 1873 and 1874. Lowe is remembered for his work in education policy, his opposition to electoral reform and his contribution to modern UK company law. Gladstone appointed Lowe as Chancellor expecting him to hold down public spending. Public spending rose, and Gladstone pronounced Lowe "wretchedly deficient"; most historians agree. Lowe repeatedly underestimated the revenue, enabling him to resist demands for tax cuts and to reduce the national debt instead. He insisted that the tax system be fair to all classes. By his own main criterion of fairness — that the balance between direct and indirect taxation remain unchanged — he succeeded. Even in his time, however, this concept of fiscal incidence was obsolescent.

Early life
Lowe was born in Bingham, Nottinghamshire, England, the second son of the Reverend Robert Lowe (rector of St Mary and All Saints, Bingham). His mother was Ellen, the daughter of the Rev. Reginald Pyndar. Lowe had albinism, and his sight was so weak that initially it was thought he was unfit to be sent to school.

In 1822, he went to a school at Southwell, then Latin House, Risley, and in 1825 to Winchester as a commoner. In Lowe's fragment of autobiography he shows an unpleasing picture of the under-feeding and other conditions of the school life of the time. The languages of Latin and Greek were the main subjects of study and Lowe records that both were easy for him.

Lowe then attended University College, Oxford, and enjoyed the change; there as a pupil of Benjamin Jowett he gained a first class degree in Literae Humaniores and a second class in mathematics, besides taking a leading part in the Union debates.

In 1835, he won a fellowship at Magdalen, but vacated it on marrying, on 26 March 1836, Georgiana Orred (d. 1884). Lowe was for a few years a successful tutor at Oxford, but in 1838 was disappointed at not being elected to the professorship of Greek at the University of Glasgow.

Australia
In 1841 Lowe moved to London to read for the Bar, but his eyesight showed signs of serious weakness, and, acting on medical advice, he sailed to Sydney in the colony of New South Wales, where he set to work in the law courts. On 7 November 1843 he was nominated by Sir George Gipps, the Governor of New South Wales, to a seat in the New South Wales Legislative Council replacing Robert Jones who had to resign from the Council due to insolvency.

Owing to a difference of opinion with Gipps, Lowe resigned from the council on 9 September 1844, but was elected in April 1845 for Counties of St Vincent and Auckland. Lowe held that seat until 20 June 1848 and was elected for City of Sydney in July 1848, a seat he held until November 1849.

Lowe soon made his mark in the political world by his clever speeches, particularly on finance and education; and besides obtaining a large legal practice, he was involved with the founding and was one of the principal writers for the Atlas newspaper.

In 1844, Lowe defended a Royal Navy captain, John Knatchbull, on a charge of murdering a widowed shopkeeper named Ellen Jamieson; he was one of the earliest to raise in a British court the plea of moral insanity (unsuccessfully). Knatchbull was hanged on 13 February 1844. Lowe and his wife adopted Mrs. Jamieson's two orphaned children, Bobby and Polly Jamieson.

On 27 January 1850, the Lowes and the two Jamieson children sailed to England.

Early years
Lowe's previous university reputation and connections combined with his colonial experience stood him in good stead; The Times was glad to employ him, and, as one of its ablest leader-writers, he made his influence widely felt. In 1852, he was returned to Parliament for Kidderminster in the Liberal interest. In the House of Commons, his acute reasoning made a considerable impression, and, under successive Liberal ministries (1853–1858), he obtained official experience as Secretary to the Board of Control and Vice-President of the Board of Trade. During his time there, he saw the Joint Stock Companies Act 1856 passed – the first nationwide codification of company law in the world. He has been referred to as "the father of modern company law". This status was again referred to in the presentation by Lord Sainsbury of the second reading leading up to the new United Kingdom Companies Act 2006: "'One hundred and fifty years ago, my predecessor Robert Lowe, later First Viscount Sherbrooke, brought forward the Bill that created the joint stock limited liability company. It was the first nationwide codification of company law in the world, and he has recently been described as 'the father of modern company law'. Our company law continues to have an excellent record. Since 1997 new incorporations have risen by over 60 per cent and the number of foreign firms incorporating in the UK has more than quadrupled. No doubt this is because, according to the World Bank's assessment, it is quicker and cheaper for companies to set up in the UK than in any other EU member state.'"

In 1859, Lowe went to the Education Office as Vice-President of the Committee of the Council on Education in Lord Palmerston's ministry; there he pursued a vigorous policy, insisting on payment by results, and bringing in the revised code (1862), which embodied this principle and made an examination in "the three R's" the test for grants of public money. He felt then, and still more after the Reform Act of 1867, that "we must educate our masters," and he rather scandalized his old university friends by the stress he laid on physical science as opposed to classical studies. Considerable opposition was aroused by the new regime at the Education Office, and, in 1864, Lowe was driven to resign by an adverse vote in Parliament with reference to the way in which inspectors' reports were "edited." This was the result of the strong feelings that had been aroused against Lingen's administration of the Education Office.

Reform
Lord Palmerston had been a towering opponent to widening democratic participation and his death in October 1865 opened the way to the Russell–Gladstone reform ministry, which introduced the Reform Bill of 1866. Lowe carried on his former Prime Minister's views, as part of the Canning and Peel Liberal school. Moreover, he had been heavily shocked by his experiences of the comparatively developed union movement in his time in Australia in a less rigid class system. He had already made known his objections to the advance of "democracy", notably in his speech in 1865 on Sir Edward Baines's Borough Franchise Bill. He was not invited to join the new ministry. Lowe retired into what Bright called the "Cave of Adullam", and with other Liberals and Whig peers (known collectively as the 'Adullamites' ) opposed the bill in a series of brilliant speeches, which raised his reputation as an orator to its highest point and helped to cause government's downfall.

However, Benjamin Disraeli who led the subsequent Conservative government proposed his own Reform Bill, which by splitting the parties succeeded to become the Reform Act 1867. As he said in the third reading of the Bill, Lowe thought any step towards democracy was bad because it engendered "a right existing in the individual as opposed to general expediency… numbers as against wealth and intellect". So the bill contained "the terms of endless agitation".

Proponents of the Bill argued a lower property qualification would give the vote to respectable members of the working class. But Lowe thought: the elite of the working classes you are so fond of, are members of trades unions... founded on principles of the most grinding tyranny not so much against masters as against each other... It was only necessary that you should give them the franchise, to make those trades unions the most dangerous political agencies that could be conceived; because they were in the hands, not of individual members, but of designing men, able to launch them in solid mass against the institutions of the country.

Being a man of company law, Robert Lowe saw unions as a threat to the order, which as he drafted, allowed only for social participation through investment of capital, not investment of labour. As it was the case that participation in Parliament was also only possible through possession of property, Lowe was fearful that a change in one part of the world he understood would lead to another, ending in unforeseeable chaos.

This principle of equality which you have taken to worship, is a very jealous power; she cannot be worshipped by halves, and like the Turk in this respect, she brooks no rival near the throne. When you get a democratic basis for your institutions, you must remember that you cannot look at that alone, but you must look at it in reference to all your other institutions. When you have once taught the people to entertain the notion of the individual rights of every citizen to share in the Government, and the doctrine of popular supremacy, you impose on yourselves the task of re-modelling the whole of your institutions, in reference to the principles that you have set up...

Lowe concluded his speech with considerable flair.

You must take education up the very first question, and you must press it on without delay for the peace of the country. Sir, I was looking to-day at the head of the lion which was sculptured in Greece during her last agony after the battle of Chaeronea, to commemorate that event, and I admired the power and the spirit which portrayed in the face of that noble beast the rage, the disappointment, and the scorn of a perishing nation and of a down-trodden civilization, and I said to myself, "O for an orator, O for an historian, O for a poet, who would do the same thing for us!" We also have had our battle of Chaeronea; we too have had our dishonest victory. That England, that was wont to conquer other nations, has now gained a shameful victory over herself; and oh! that a man would rise in order that he might set forth in words that could not die, the shame, the rage, the scorn, the indignation, and the despair with which this measure is viewed by every cultivated Englishman who is not a slave to the trammels of party, or who is not dazzled by the glare of a temporary and ignoble success!

Gladstone Ministry
In spite of the fact that his appeals did not prevent the passing of the Second Reform Act, Robert Lowe beat Walter Bagehot in the next election to become the first Member of Parliament (MP) for the London University, a new constituency created by the very Act he opposed. In 1868 he accepted office in the Gladstone Cabinet as Chancellor of the Exchequer, an office that he described in the following terms in the House of Commons on 11 April 1870: "The Chancellor of the Exchequer is a man whose duties make him more or less of a taxing machine. He is entrusted with a certain amount of misery which it is his duty to distribute as fairly as he can."

Lowe was a rather cut-and-dried economist, who prided himself that during his four years of office he took twelve millions off taxation; but later opinion has hardly accepted his removal of the shilling registration duty on corn (1869) as good statesmanship, and his failures are remembered rather than his successes. His proposed tax of a halfpenny a box on Lucifer matches in 1871 (for which he suggested the epigram ex luce lucellum, "out of light a little profit") roused a storm of opposition, and had to be dropped. In 1873 he was transferred to the Home Office, but in 1874 the government resigned.

Later years
Lowe spoke against the Royal Titles Bill 1876 at East Retford and implied that Queen Victoria had been responsible for the bill's introduction. As a result, when the Liberals returned to power in 1880, Victoria made it clear that she would not accept any ministry that included Lowe. Nevertheless, he was raised to the peerage as Viscount Sherbrooke, of Sherbrooke in the County of Surrey (a peerage that would become extinct on his death), against the express wishes of Queen Victoria, but with the backing of William Gladstone. In 1885, he was also further honoured by being created Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath. But from 1875 till his death at Warlingham, Surrey, his health was constantly failing, and by degrees he figured less and less in public life. He became a supporter of the Liberal Unionist party in 1886.

During the 1870s the following epitaph was suggested for him by one of the wits of his day: Here lies poor old Robert Lowe;

Where he's gone to I don't know;

If to the realms of peace and love,

Farewell to happiness above;

If, haply, to some lower level,

We can't congratulate the devil.

Lowe was delighted with this, and promptly translated it into Latin, as follows: Continentur hac in fossa

Humilis Roberti ossa;

Si ad coelum evolabit,

Pax in coelo non restabit;

Sin in inferis jacebit,

Diabolum ejus poenitebit.

On his death he was buried in Brookwood Cemetery.

Australian federal electoral division
The Division of Lowe, a now abolished Australian electoral division located in Sydney, was named after him.

Own works

 * Poems of a Life (1884)

title: Robert Lowe


text:
Fatshe leno la rona

"Fatshe leno la rona" ("Blessed Be This Noble Land") is the national anthem of Botswana. The music was composed by Kgalemang Tumediso Motsete, who also authored the song's Setswana lyrics. It was adopted when the country became independent in 1966. Since independence, the song is sung occasionally during the country's important events such as Kgotla meetings, independence celebrations and other national events. The national anthem is highly respected to an extent that when it is sung movements are not allowed, people stand at attention, and security officers, like the police and soldiers, salute as a show of respect.

History

From the late 19th-century until the height of decolonisation during the 1960s, Bechuanaland (as it was then known) was a protectorate of the United Kingdom within its colonial empire. In the run up to independence, proposals for the national symbols for the future country were made. Although the flag and the coat of arms were straightforward choices, the selection of the national anthem became a source of contention. Despite its popularity, "Fatshe leno la rona" was reportedly not the frontrunner because its composer – Kgalemang Tumediso Motsete, who possessed "a music degree from London" – was the co-founder and leader of the opposition Botswana People's Party (BPP), which at the time was a radical faction. Instead, the government wanted to maintain "Morena boloka Sechaba sa Etsho" ("Lord protect the nation of the world") as the anthem after independence. Although the latter song was considered by some government officials to be a "colonial song", it was in fact embraced by nationalists in the south of the continent in their struggle against colonialism, as well as in South Africa during the apartheid era.

In an interview with the national newspaper Mmegi, fellow BPP co-founder Motsamai Mpho stated that "Fatshe leno la rona" was written in 1962. He stated that Motsete had penned the anthem in Ghana, where he was inspired by the songs of liberation from that country. Indeed, Mpho asserts that himself, Motsete, and three others affiliated with the BPP were the first people to sing the anthem while returning home on a flight from a Pan-Africanist conference held in Accra that same year.

According to the biographer of Gobe Matenge, a former Permanent Secretary in the Ministry of Home Affairs, he was one of several civil servants – including the future vice president Peter Mmusi – that compelled the Motswana government to adopt "Fatshe leno la rona" as the anthem of the independent nation. In order to ascertain the opinion of the general public on the matter, the government transmitted all of the contending hymns over Radio Botswana. However, Matenge's group was able to obtain recordings of these songs for themselves and air them in front of quasi-town hall gatherings held in major settlements like Lobatse, Molepolole, and Mafikeng, in addition to the capital Gaborone. They strategically played "Fatshe leno la rona" as the last song – which in theory would increase the likelihood that the audience would remember the tune – while having their organisers add words of praise for it in an attempt to sway the crowd's opinion in favour of that hymn. At the end of the exercise, they would circulate a boilerplate form letter articulating the author's viewpoint of "Fatshe leno la rona" being their favourite candidate for national anthem. This was done because of the low levels of literacy in Botswana at the time. Of the multitude of letters sent to the Department of Information and Broadcasting, the vast majority of them expressed an inclination towards the aforementioned song.

However, this account has been disputed by George Winstanley, the first clerk to the Cabinet after independence. He insists that stories about how the government was pressured into ratifying "Fatshe leno la rona" are simply inaccurate, especially in light of the fact that the civil servants who supposedly did this were merely "junior executive officers" at the time. Rather, Winstanley remembers how Seretse Khama initially leaned towards selecting "Morena" ("Lord keep the nation of the world"), before he convinced Khama to select a hymn that was "unique to Botswana". Khama's deputy Quett Masire recalled how the future president wanted an anthem that was enduring and would transcend the political spectrum, so that it would not be changed when another political party assumed power in the future.

A total of seven hymns were shortlisted as finalists for the new national anthem. Motsete actually made another submission – "Botswana Fatshe le Lentle" (meaning "Botswana, a Beautiful Country") – in addition to "Fatshe leno la rona"; the two compositions finished runner-up and winner, respectively. The latter was officially adopted in 1966, the year the country gained independence. One of the first public occasions where the anthem was played was at the flag hoisting ceremony at midnight on 30 September 1966, marking the end of British rule over Botswana.

Modern day
The anthem is normally sung in four part vocal harmony. It is performed at events, both at tribal and at national level. For instance, it is sung before traditional village meetings (kgotla).

Lyrics
The lyrics of "Fatshe leno la rona" alludes to God and his standing as the bestower of the nation's land. It also promotes values such as love of the country, and accord among the different ethnic groups residing in the state. The author is saying that this land is a gift from our forefathers and pleads that it must remain peaceful. He further suggests that the people of Botswana should work collectively to build up the nation, both men and women. He does not only call for cooperation but also commitment. Finally, the song echoes how beautiful the name Botswana is, expressly noting that this beauty is from the unity and stability of Botswana.

A usual rendition of the anthem consists of the first verse followed by the chorus; however the second verse and chorus may also be performed as well.

title: Fatshe leno la rona


text:
Kamphaeng Phet province

Kamphaeng Phet (กำแพงเพชร, ) is a province in upper central Thailand. It borders the provinces of Sukhothai to the north; Phitsanulok to the northeast; Phichit to the east; Nakhon Sawan to the south; and Tak to the west and northwest, covering over 8607.49 km2 and is the fourth-largest provinces in central Thailand. Kamphaeng Phet has the Ping River flow through is main river of the province, making river flats make up much of the east of the province, while the west is mountainous which is part of Dawna Range and it covered with plentifully forest. Kamphaeng Phet known its natural environment and has a long history. National and historical parks in the province include Kamphaeng Phet Historical Park, Khlong Lan National Park, and Mae Wong National Park.

Toponymy
In Thai or Lao kamphaeng means 'wall' and phet (from Sanskrit vájra) means 'diamond'. The name means 'wall as hard as diamond'. This wall served as a defensive line to protect the Ayutthaya Kingdom from what is now modern-day Burma. The old name was Khao Kampeng, referring to a 'mountain wall' between the two countries.

Geography
The main river is the Ping, a major tributary of the Chao Phraya River. River flats make up much of the east of the province, while the west is mountainous and covered with forests. The total forest area is 1,997 km2 or 23.5 percent of provincial area.

One of the provinces best-known products is bananas, especially the kluai khai, a small, round, sweet banana. Banana festivals are held every year to thank the spirits for the harvest.

National parks
There area three national parks make up region 12 (Nakhon Sawan) of Thailand's protected areas.
 * Mae Wong National Park, 894 km2
 * Khlong Wang Chao National Park, 747 km2
 * Khlong Lan National Park, 300 km2

Wildlife sanctuary

 * Khao Sanam Phriang Wildlife Sanctuary, 101 km2

History
Kamphaeng Phet was already a royal city in the Sukhothai Kingdom in the 14th century, then known under its old name Chakangrao. It formed an important part of the defence system of the kingdom, as well as of the later Ayutthaya Kingdom.

Symbols
The provincial seal shows the city walls surmounted by diamonds, since the city name means 'diamond wall' (from the shape of the ramparts of the old city wall). The provincial tree is the areca nut palm (Acacia catechu), and the provincial flower the bullet wood (Mimusops elengi). Golden belly barb (Hypsibarbus wetmorei) is provincial fish, since it is a fish found in the Ping river especially in the area of Kamphaeng Phet.

Provincial government
The province is divided into 11 districts (amphoes). These are further divided into 78 subdistricts (tambons) and 823 villages (mubans).

Local government
As of 26 November 2019 there are: one Kamphaeng Phet Provincial Administration Organisation (ongkan borihan suan changwat) and 25 municipal (thesaban) areas in the province. Kamphaeng Phet, Pang Makha and Nong Pling have town (thesaban mueang) status. Further 22 subdistrict municipalities (thesaban tambon). The non-municipal areas are administered by 64 Subdistrict Administrative Organisations - SAO (ongkan borihan suan tambon).

Human achievement index 2022
Since 2003, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in Thailand has tracked progress on human development at sub-national level using the Human achievement index (HAI), a composite index covering all the eight key areas of human development. National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB) has taken over this task since 2017.

Notable residents

 * Tossapol Himmapan: singer
 * Saman Sorjaturong: WBC & IBF light flyweight world champion
 * Kaeo Pongprayoon: 2012 Summer Olympics silver medalist
 * Chatchai Budprom: footballer
 * Wattana Playnum: footballer
 * Supattra Pairoj: volleyball player
 * Somporn Yos: footballer

Popular culture
Kamphaeng Phet was mentioned in crime fiction Sarawat Yai as the backdrop of the whole story. It was adapted into a television drama of the same name twice on Channel 7, in 1994 and 2019. In the versions of both television dramas, Kamphaeng Phet was changed to be called Phra Kamphaeng (พระกำแพง, ).

title: Kamphaeng Phet province


text:
Carolyn S. Shoemaker

Carolyn Jean Spellmann Shoemaker (June 24, 1929 – August 13, 2021) was an American astronomer and a co-discoverer of Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9. She discovered 32 comets (then a record for the most by an individual) and more than 500 asteroids.

Having earned degrees in history, political science, and English literature, she had little interest in planetary science until she met and married geologist Eugene Merle Shoemaker. Her career in astronomy began when she demonstrated good stereoscopic vision, a particularly valuable quality for looking for objects in near-Earth space. Despite the fact that her degrees were not in science, having that visual ability motivated the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) to hire her as a research assistant on a team led by her husband. She went on to making record-setting discoveries in the field of astronomy, as well as being awarded honorary degrees and many professional awards.

Personal life
Shoemaker was born on June 24, 1929, in Gallup, New Mexico, to Hazel and Leonard Spellmann. Her family then moved to Chico, California, where she and her brother Richard grew up. She earned bachelor's and master's degrees in history, political science, and English literature from Chico State.

When her brother attended Caltech, his roommate was a young graduate student named Eugene "Gene" Shoemaker. Carolyn first met him in the summer of 1950 at her brother's wedding. After graduating, Shoemaker had moved to New Jersey to begin work toward his doctoral degree at Princeton University. He had flown back to California to serve as Richard's best man. When Shoemaker returned to his studies at Princeton, Carolyn and he maintained a pen pal relationship and later both attended a two-week camping trip on the Cumberland Plateau. They were married on August 18, 1951 and had three children: Christy, Linda, and Patrick (Pat).

The Shoemaker family lived in Grand Junction, Colorado, Menlo Park, California, and Pasadena, California, before settling down in Flagstaff, Arizona, where she and her husband worked together at the Lowell Observatory. In 1997, Carolyn and Gene were involved in a car crash in Australia. Gene was killed instantly, while Carolyn sustained severe injuries.

Shoemaker died at age 92, after a fall on August 13, 2021.

Carolyn never really considered herself a scientist, although she absorbed a large amount of geology and astronomy from her husband. She was a forthright person, gifted with inordinate patience and a fine sense of humour. Before the Jupiter impacts, a reporter asked her what would happen if all the comet’s fragments were to hit Earth instead. “We would all die,” she answered. The interviewer explained that this was for a children’s programme, then posed the question again. Carolyn’s second answer: “We would all be very uncomfortable.”

Careers
Shortly after her marriage, the first job she held was teaching the seventh grade. Unsatisfied with the teaching profession, she quit to raise a family. Mary Chapman, author of Shoemaker's biography for the USGS Astrogeology Center, wrote "Carolyn is a warm, caring, and extremely patient woman, but her skills were better suited for a non-teaching environment." After her children had grown up and moved out, Shoemaker sought work. In her youth, she had never been interested in scientific topics. She had taken one course in geology, but found it extremely boring. However, she reportedly told others that, "listening to Gene explaining geology made what she had thought was a boring subject into an exciting and interesting pursuit of knowledge".

At the suggestion of her husband, she began studying astronomy from a student at Lowell Observatory. Then she began working as a field assistant for her husband. She worked on his search program mapping and analyzing impact craters.

Carolyn Shoemaker started her astronomical career in 1980, at age 51, searching for Earth-crossing asteroids and comets at California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, and the Palomar Observatory, San Diego, California. That year, Shoemaker was hired at the United States Geological Survey (USGS) as a visiting scientist in the astronomy branch, and then in 1989 began work as an astronomy research professor at Northern Arizona University. She concentrated her work on searching for comets and planet-crossing asteroids. Teamed with astronomer David H. Levy, the Shoemakers identified Shoemaker-Levy 9, a fragmented comet with an orbit that intersected that of Jupiter, on March 24, 1993.

In the 1980s and 1990s, Shoemaker used film taken at the wide-field telescope at the Palomar Observatory, combined with a stereoscope, to find objects that moved against the background of fixed stars.

Following recovery from the injuries she suffered in the 1997 automobile crash in which her husband was killed, she resumed her work at the Lowell Observatory with Levy. She was actively involved in astronomical observation work until at least 2002. Shoemaker had been credited with discovering or co-discovering 32 comets and over 500 asteroids.

Awards and honors
The Hildian asteroid 4446 Carolyn, discovered by colleague Edward Bowell at Lowell Observatory in 1985, was named in her honor. In 1988, Shoemaker received the Rittenhouse Medal of the Rittenhouse Astronomical Society. In 1995, she received the Scientist of the Year Award, also from the Rittenhouse Astronomical Society.

In 1996, Shoemaker received an honorary doctorate degree from the Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona and the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration Exceptional Scientific Achievement Medal. In 1998, the U.S. National Academy of Sciences named both of the Shoemakers as the recipients of the James Craig Watson Medal.

The Carolyn Shoemaker formation within Gale crater, forms part of the broader Mount Sharp group was named after her. The formation is the layer of rocks that forms the strata within Glen Torridon - the layer of phyllosilicate rocks which was one of the primary objectives of the Mars Science Laboratory rover Curiosity during its ascent of Aeolis Mons.

List of discovered minor planets
Shoemaker is tied with Takeshi Urata for place on the Minor Planet Center's list of most discoveries with 377 numbered minor planets between the years 1980 and 1994.

title: Carolyn S. Shoemaker


text:
Brazilian National Anthem

The "Brazilian National Anthem" (Hino Nacional Brasileiro) was composed by Francisco Manuel da Silva in 1831 and had been given at least two sets of unofficial lyrics before a 1922 decree by president Epitácio Pessoa gave the anthem its definitive, official lyrics, by Joaquim Osório Duque-Estrada, after several changes were made to his proposal, written in 1909.

The anthem's lyrics have been described as Parnassian in style and Romantic in content.

History
The melody of the Brazilian national anthem was composed by Francisco Manuel da Silva, and was presented to the public for the first time in April 1831. On 7 April 1831, the first Brazilian Emperor, Pedro I, abdicated the Crown and days later left for Europe, leaving behind the then-five-year-old Emperor Pedro II.

From the Brazilian proclamation of independence in 1822 until the 1831 abdication, an anthem that had been composed by Pedro I himself, celebrating the country's independence (and that now continues to be an official patriotic song, the Independence Anthem), was used as the national anthem. In the immediate aftermath of the abdication of Pedro I, the anthem composed by him fell in popularity.

Francisco Manuel da Silva then seized this opportunity to present his composition, and the anthem written by him was played in public for the first time on 13 April 1831. On that same day, the ship carrying the former Emperor left the port of Rio de Janeiro. The date of April 13 now appears in official calendars as the Day of the Brazilian National Anthem.

As to the actual date of composition of the music presented in April 1831, there is controversy among historians. Some hold that Francisco Manuel da Silva composed the music in the last four months of 1822 to commemorate Brazil's independence (declared on 7 September 1822), others hold that the hymn was written in early 1823 and others consider the evidence of composition dating back to 1822 or 1823 unreliable, and hold that the Anthem presented on 13 April 1831 was written in 1831, and not before. In any event, the Anthem remained in obscurity until it was played in public on 13 April 1831. In style, the music resembles early Romantic Italian music such as that of Gioachino Rossini.

Initially, the music composed by Francisco Manuel da Silva was given lyrics by Appeals Judge Ovídio Saraiva de Carvalho e Silva not as a national anthem, but as a hymn commemorating the abdication of Pedro I and the accession of Pedro II to the Throne. It was known during this early period as "April 7 Hymn". The lyrics by Ovídio Saraiva soon fell out of use, given that they were considered poor, and even offensive towards the Portuguese. The music, however, continued enjoying sustained popularity and by 1837 it was played, without lyrics, in all public ceremonies.

Although no statute was passed during the imperial period to declare Francisco Manuel da Silva's musical composition as the national anthem, no formal enactment was considered necessary for the adoption of a national anthem. A national anthem was seen as resulting from praxis or tradition. Thus, by 1837, when it was played in all official solemnities, Francisco Manuel da Silva's composition was already the de facto Brazilian National Anthem.

A new set of lyrics was proposed in 1841, to commemorate the coming of age and Coronation of Emperor Pedro II; those lyrics, popular but also considered poor, were soon abandoned as well, this time by order of Emperor Pedro II, who specified that in public ceremonies the anthem should be played with no lyrics. Emperor Pedro II directed that Francisco Manuel da Silva's composition, as the national anthem of the Empire of Brazil, should be played, without lyrics, on all occasions when the monarch presented himself in public, and in solemnities of military or civilian nature; the composition was also played abroad in diplomatic events relating to Brazil or when the Brazilian Emperor was present.

During the Empire of Brazil era, the U.S. composer and pianist Louis Moreau Gottschalk, then residing in Rio de Janeiro, composed two nationalistic works of classical music based on the Brazilian National Anthem that achieved great popularity at the time: the Brazilian Solemn March ("Marcha Solene Brasileira", in the modern Portuguese spelling or "Marcha Solemne Brazileira", in the original spelling in force at the time of composition ) and the Great Triumphal Fantasy on the Brazilian National Anthem ("Grande Fantasia Triunfal sobre o Hino Nacional Brasileiro"). The former was dedicated to Emperor Pedro II, and the latter was dedicated to his heiress presumptive, the Princess Imperial Isabel. Those works are in the vein of similar compositions written at the time in other nations, such as Charles Gounod's Fantasy on the Russian National Anthem. The Grand Triumphal Fantasy, long forgotten, resurfaced in popularity in 1985, at the dawn of Brazil's New Republic, during the country's re-democratization process after the military dictatorship that ruled the country from 1964 to 1985, when it was played to accompany the funeral cortège of president-elect Tancredo Neves.

After the Proclamation of the Republic in 1889, the new republican rulers held a contest in order to choose a new anthem; the contest was won by Leopoldo Miguez, with lyrics by Medeiros e Albuquerque. After protests against the adoption of the proposed new anthem, however, the head of the Provisional Government, Deodoro da Fonseca, formalized Francisco Manuel da Silva's composition as the national anthem, while the composition by Miguez and Medeiros e Albuquerque was declared the Anthem of the Proclamation of the Republic. Deodoro himself was said to prefer the old anthem to the new composition. The Decree of the Provisional Government (Decree No. 171 of 1890) confirming Francisco Manuel da Silva's composition, that had served as the National Anthem of the Empire of Brazil, as the National Anthem of the new Republic, was issued on 20 January 1890.

In the early days of the new Federal Republic, the National Anthem continued without official lyrics, but several lyrics were proposed, and some were even adopted by different states of Brazil. The lack of uniform, official lyrics would only be terminated in 1922, during the celebrations of the first centennial of the Proclamation of Independence, when an adapted version of Joaquim Osório Duque Estrada's lyrics, first proposed in 1909, were deemed official.

The official lyrics of the Brazilian National Anthem were proclaimed by decree of president Epitácio Pessoa (Decree No. 15,761 of 1922), issued on 6 September 1922, at the height of the celebrations of the Independence Centennial. This presidential decree was issued in accordance with authorization contained in a legislative decree adopted by the National Congress of Brazil on 21 August 1922. Furthermore, as allowed by said legislative decree, and before the President of the Republic issued his decree proclaiming the official adoption of Joaquim Osório Duque Estrada's lyrics as the official lyrics of the National anthem, the Federal Government finalized the purchase of the lyrics written by Duque Estrada, signing with the composer the contract that transferred all the rights of authorship over the said lyrics to the Federal Union, and paying the agreed price of Rs5:000$ (five contos of réis).

On 7 September 1922, on the exact day of the Independence Centennial, radio broadcasts began in Brazil, and the first broadcast was the performance of the National Anthem with the new lyrics, followed by the speech by president Epitácio Pessoa, the first radio address by a Brazilian president.

The national anthem is considered by the current Constitution of Brazil, adopted in 1988, to be one of the four national symbols of the country, along with the Flag, the Coat of Arms and the National Seal. The legal norms currently in force concerning the national anthem are contained in a statute passed in 1971 (Law No. 5,700 of 1 September 1971), regulating the national symbols. This law regulates in great detail the form of the national anthem and how and when it is to be played.

The music of the national anthem was originally intended to be played by symphonic orchestras; for the playing of the anthem by bands, the march composed by Antão Fernandes is included in the instrumentation. This adaptation, long in use, was made official by the 1971 statute regulating national symbols. This same statute also confirmed as official the traditional vocal adaptation of the lyrics of the national anthem, in F major, composed by Alberto Nepomuceno.

Due to the fact that the traditional vocal adaptation composed by Alberto Nepomuceno for Joaquim Osório Duque Estrada's lyrics of the national anthem was made official in 1971, other vocal arrangements (as well as other instrumental arrangements departing from the one recognized in law) are unofficial. Because of that, for the remainder of the Military Dictatorship era (that lasted until 1985), the playing of the anthem with any artistic arrangement that departed from the official orchestration and vocal adaptation was prohibited, and there was strict vigilance regarding the use of the National Symbols and the enforcement of this norm. Since the redemocratization of the country, far greater artistic liberty has been allowed regarding renderings of the national anthem. Singer Fafá de Belém's interpretation of the national anthem (initially criticized during the final days of the Military Dictatorship, but now widely accepted), is an example of that. In any event, although the use of different artistic arrangements for the anthem is now allowed (and although the statutory norms that prohibited such arrangements are no longer enforced, on the grounds of constitutional freedom of expression), a rendering of the national anthem is only considered fully official when the statutory norms regarding the vocal adaptation and orchestration are followed. However, the traditional vocal adaptation composed by Alberto Nepomuceno was so well established by the time it became official that the interpretations of the national anthem that depart from the official orchestration or from the official vocal adaptation are few. Indeed, although other arrangements are now allowed, the traditional form tends to prevail, so that, with few exceptions, even celebrity singers tend to only lend their voices to the singing of the official vocal adaptation by Alberto Nepomuceno.

The anthem is sung in Brazil's official national language, the Portuguese language.

Lyrics
The song consists of two consecutive stanzas. The adoption in 1922 of lyrics containing two stanzas thus created the present situation of the music of the anthem being played twice so as to allow for the singing of both stanzas.

Brazilian law stipulates that the music needs to be played only once in instrumental renditions of the anthem without vocal accompaniment (thus, in instrumental renditions without vocal accompaniment, the playing of the music twice is optional), but both stanzas must be sung in vocal performances.

Certain renditions of the anthem exist for sporting events which vary in length and composition. For example, FIFA matches only have the first three paragraphs of the first stanza followed by the ending instrumental. The Olympic Games uses a version where the first and last sections of the first verse are used, followed by the chorus and the ending. Otherwise an official rendition of the anthem consists of the introductory section, the first verse, chorus, and ending. The second stanza is usually omitted from most official occasions.

In the lyrics, the opening line's mention of the Ipiranga river refers to the stream near (and now part of) the city of São Paulo where Prince Dom Pedro, the future Emperor Dom Pedro I of Brazil, declared Brazilian independence from Portugal.

(*) The passages in quotation marks were extracted from Gonçalves Dias' poem "Canção do exílio".

title: Brazilian National Anthem


text:
Urushiol

Urushiol is an oily mixture of organic compounds with allergenic properties found in plants of the family Anacardiaceae, especially Toxicodendron spp. (e.g., poison oak, Chinese lacquer tree, poison ivy, poison sumac), Comocladia spp. (maidenplums), Metopium spp. (poisonwood), and also in parts of the mango tree as well as the fruit of the cashew tree.

In most individuals, urushiol causes an allergic skin rash on contact, known as urushiol-induced contact dermatitis.

The name urushiol is derived from the Japanese word for the lacquer tree, Toxicodendron vernicifluum (漆). The oxidation and polymerization of urushiol in the tree's sap in the presence of moisture allows it to form a hard lacquer, which is used to produce traditional Chinese, Korean, and Japanese lacquerware.

History
Although urushiol-containing lacquers and their skin-irritating properties were well known in East Asia for several millennia beforehand, its first recorded Western texts were in 1624 by John Smith where he initially likened poison ivy to English ivy. He did not classify it as a poison at first due to the speed with which its rash disappeared and Smith hypothesized that there may actually be medicinal uses for the plant. In the 18th and 19th centuries, many experiments were done in this area to determine whether or not this theory was true. Because medicine was dominated by plant-based treatments at the time, physicians were hopeful that the strong effect this chemical produced on the body could be effective in some way.

André-Ignace-Joseph Dufresnoy was one of the first to come up with a medicinal use for this chemical in 1780 when he boiled poison ivy to produce an infusion for internal use. This led to a distilled extract of poison ivy which he prescribed to many people suffering from skin problems and even paralysis. He claimed this treatment to have yielded several positive results.

For many years, poison ivy was thought to fall into the Rhus genus; however, in the 1900s, it was reclassified into a more appropriate genus, Toxicodendron, meaning poison tree. There were many documented cases of irritations and allergic reactions from the plant, and its prevalence in medicinal use quickly dwindled. After this new categorization, scientists began attempts to determine what it was that rendered plants of this genus noxious, starting with a hypothesis of a volatile oil present in the plants.

While this proved incorrect, Rikou Majima from Japan was able to determine that the chemical urushiol was the irritant. Further, he determined that the substance was a type of alkyl catechol, and due to its structure it was able to penetrate the skin and survive on surfaces for months to years. Urushiol's ability to polymerise into a hard glossy coating is the chemical basis for traditional lacquerware in many Asian countries. After urushiol comes in contact with oxygen, under certain conditions it becomes a black lacquer and has been named urushi lacquer.

Characteristics
Urushiol in its pure form is a pale-yellow liquid with a density of about 0.968 g/mL and a boiling point of 200 C. It is soluble in diethyl ether, acetone, ethanol, carbon tetrachloride, and benzene.

Urushiol is a mixture of several closely related organic compounds. Each consists of a catechol substituted in the 3 position with a hydrocarbon chain that has 15 or 17 carbon atoms. The hydrocarbon group may be saturated or unsaturated. The exact composition of the mixture varies, depending on the plant source. Whereas western poison oak urushiol contains chiefly catechols with C17 side-chains, poison ivy and poison sumac contain mostly catechols with C15 sidechains.

The likelihood and severity of allergic reaction to urushiol is dependent on the degree of unsaturation of the hydrocarbon chain. Less than half of the general population experience a reaction with the saturated urushiol alone, but over 90% do so with urushiol that contains at least two degrees of unsaturation (double bonds). Longer side chains tend to produce a stronger reaction.

Urushiol is an oleoresin contained within the sap of poison ivy and related plants, and after injury to the plant, or late in the fall, the sap leaks to the surface of the plant, where under certain temperature and humidity conditions the urushiol becomes a blackish lacquer after being in contact with oxygen. Urushi lacquer is very stable. It is able to withstand disturbances from alkali, acid, and alcohol, while also being able to resist temperatures of over 300 °C. However, the lacquer can be degraded by UV rays from the sun and other sources.

Within the United States, urushiol-containing plants are widely distributed. Poison ivy can be found in all states except California, Alaska, and Hawaii. Poison Oak can be found on the west coast or in some states in the southeast, while poison sumac can be found only in the eastern half of the country.

These plants all have distinguishing features that will help in identification. Poison ivy always grows with groups of three glossy, pointed leaflets. Poison oak has a similar appearance, but with larger and more rounded lobes, with a light, velvety pubescence and grow in groups of 3, 5, or 7. Poison sumac grows in groups of 7 to 13 leaflets, always an odd number. The leaflets are ovate-lanceolate and glossy.

Allergic response and treatment
Before the urushiol has been absorbed by the skin, it can be removed with soap and water. Substantial amounts of urushiol may be absorbed within minutes. Once urushiol has penetrated the skin, attempting to remove it with water is ineffective. After being absorbed by the skin, it is recognized by the immune system's dendritic cells, otherwise called Langerhans cells. These cells then migrate to the lymph nodes, where they present the urushiol to T-lymphocytes and thus recruit them to the skin, and the T-lymphocytes cause pathology through the production of cytokines and cytotoxic damage to the skin. This causes the painful rash, blisters, and itching.

Once this response starts, only a few treatments, such as cortisone or prednisone, are effective. Medications that can reduce the irritation include antihistamines (diphenhydramine (Benadryl) or cetirizine (Zyrtec)). Other treatments include applying cold water or calamine lotion to soothe the pain and stop the itching.

Research conducted on urushiol by Mahmoud ElSohly led to the development of PDC-APB, a candidate for a vaccine against skin irritation from poison ivy.

Mechanism of action

To cause an allergic dermatitis reaction, the urushiol is first oxidized to create two double-bonded oxygens on the chemical. It then reacts with a protein nucleophile to trigger a reaction within the skin. Dermatitis is mediated by an acquired immune response. Urushiol is too small a molecule to directly activate an immune response. Instead, it attaches to certain proteins of the skin, where it acts as a hapten, leading to a type IV hypersensitivity reaction.

Hydrocortisone, the active ingredient in cortisone, works to alleviate this condition by stopping the release of chemicals that cause the dermatitis reaction. Hydrocortisone itself does not react with urushiol in any way.

title: Urushiol


text:
Allah Peliharakan Sultan

"Allah Peliharakan Sultan" (Jawi: ; "God Bless the Sultan") is the national anthem of Brunei Darussalam. The anthem is sung in Malay, the national language of the country. It was written by Pengiran Haji Mohamed Yusuf bin Pengiran Abdul Rahim (later bestowed with the title Yang Amat Mulia Pengiran Setia Negara Pengiran Haji Mohamed Yusuf bin Pengiran Abdul Rahim), better known by his pen name Yura Halim, and composed by Haji Awang Besar bin Sagap in 1947. The song was adopted in 1951 as the national anthem of the British protectorate of Brunei. It was adapted as the national anthem of Brunei Darussalam upon independence from the United Kingdom, and was sung as the national anthem of the independent state at the stroke of midnight 1 January 1984.

Usage
The national anthem is played each morning early breakfast on radio and television by Radio Televisyen Brunei (RTB) and at the station opening and station closedown of its transmission for the day.

title: Allah Peliharakan Sultan


text:
Ralph Lingen, 1st Baron Lingen

Ralph Robert Wheeler Lingen, 1st Baron Lingen (19 December 1819 – 22 July 1905) was an English civil servant.

Background and education
Lingen was born in Birmingham, where his father was in business. He was the grandson of Ralph Lingen, Fellow of Wadham College, Oxford, and was a descendant of Elisabeth de Burgh (d. 1522). Lingen was first educated at Bridgnorth Grammar School and then became a scholar of Trinity College, Oxford, in 1837. He won the Ireland (1838) and Hertford (1839) scholarships; and after taking a first-class in Literae Humaniores (1840), was elected a fellow of Balliol (1841). He subsequently won the Chancellor's Latin Essay (1843) and the Eldon Law Scholarship (1846).

Career
After teaching as an assistant master at Rugby School he entered the Inns of Court as a Barrister at Lincoln's Inn. He was called to the bar in 1847; but instead of practising as a barrister, he accepted an appointment in the Education Office. It was in this role that he became involved with the 1847 Blue Books episode in 1847-8 within which his disdain of the Welsh became apparent.

After a short period he was chosen in 1849 to succeed Sir James Kay-Shuttleworth as its secretary or chief permanent official. He retained this position till 1869. The Education Office of that day had to administer a somewhat chaotic system of government grants to local schools, and Lingen was conspicuous for his fearless discrimination and rigid economy, qualities which characterized his whole career. When Robert Lowe (Lord Sherbrooke) became, as vice-president of the council, his parliamentary chief, Lingen worked congenially with him in producing the Revised Code of 1862 which incorporated "payment by results"; but the education department encountered adverse criticism, and in 1864 the vote of censure in parliament which caused Lowe's resignation, founded (but erroneously) on an alleged "editing" of the school inspectors' reports, was inspired by a certain antagonism to Lingen's as well as to Lowe's methods.

Shortly before the introduction of Forster's Education Act of 1870, Lingen was transferred to the post of permanent secretary of the treasury. In this office, which he held till 1885, he proved a most efficient guardian of the public purse, and he was a tower of strength to successive chancellors of the exchequer. It used to be said that the best recommendation for a secretary of the treasury was to be able to say "No" so disagreeably that nobody would court a repetition. Lingen was at all events a most successful resister of importunate claims, and his undoubted talents as a financier were most prominently displayed in the direction of parsimony. In 1885 he retired. He had been made a CB in 1869 and a KCB in 1878, and on his retirement he was raised to the peerage as Baron Lingen, of Lingen in the County of Hereford. In 1889 he was made one of the first aldermen of the new London County Council, but he resigned in 1892 with increasing deafness. His portrait contains the heraldic arms of Trinity College and not his personal arms which are recorded in Burke's Peerage and around his neck hangs his KCB order of knighthood.

Personal life
In 1852 Lord Lingen married Emma Hutton (1826-1908), daughter of Robert Hutton. There were no children from the marriage. He died on 22 July 1905, aged 85, and was buried in Brompton Cemetery, London. The grave lies on the western side of the central enclosed roundel. The peerage died with him.

Lady Emma Lingen died in January 1908 and is buried with him.

title: Ralph Lingen, 1st Baron Lingen


text:
Ditanyè

"Ditanyè" (usually written "Le Ditanyè" ), also known as "L'Hymne de la victoire" ("The Anthem of Victory", "Burkina Faso fãag-m-meng yɩɩlle"; ) or "Une Seule Nuit" ("One Single Night" ), is the national anthem of Burkina Faso. Former president Thomas Sankara, also a jazz guitarist, wrote the lyrics. The composer of the melody is unknown, but it has also been attributed to Sankara.

It was adopted during his presidency in a decree issued on 2 August 1984, effective midnight on 4 August 1984, the first anniversary of Sankara's accession to the presidency. The decree also renamed the country from Upper Volta to its current name. The anthem replaced the "Hymne National Voltaïque", the national anthem of Upper Volta.

Lyrics
The first verse and chorus are considered to be the official lyrics, and are performed at most official occasions.

title: Ditanyè


text:
James Kay-Shuttleworth

Sir James Phillips Kay-Shuttleworth, 1st Baronet (20 July 1804 – 26 May 1877, born James Kay) of Gawthorpe Hall, Lancashire, was a British politician and educationist. He founded a further-education college that would eventually become Plymouth Marjon University.

Early life
He was born James Kay at Rochdale, Lancashire, the son of Robert Kay and the brother of Joseph Kay and Sir Edward Ebenezer Kay.

Career
At first engaged in a Rochdale bank, he became in 1824 a medical student at the University of Edinburgh. He settled in Manchester about 1827 and was instrumental in setting up the Manchester Statistical Society. He worked for the Ardwick and Ancoats Dispensary. While still known simply as Dr James Kay, he wrote The Moral and Physical Condition of the Working Class Employed in the Cotton Manufacture in Manchester (1832), which Friedrich Engels cited in The Condition of the Working Class in England. The experience he gained of the conditions of the poor in Lancashire factory districts, along with his interest in economic science, led to an appointment in 1835 as poor law commissioner in Norfolk and Suffolk and later in the London districts. In 1839, he became first secretary of a committee formed by the Privy Council to administer the Government grant for public education in Britain.

In 1840, he founded with E. Carleton Tufnell the Battersea Normal College for the training of teachers of pauper children. This became St John's College, Battersea, which later merged to form the College of St Mark and St John and moved to Plymouth. In 2012, it gained full university status as the University of St Mark & St John. The original college was the first training college for schoolteachers; today's system of national school education, with public inspection, trained teachers and the support of state as well as local funds, is largely due to its founders' initiative.

Later life
A breakdown in health led him to resign his post on the committee in 1849, but recovery allowed him an active part in the central relief committee instituted under Lord Derby during the Lancashire cotton famine of 1861–1865. He was created a baronet of Gawthorpe Hall in the County Palatine of Lancaster in 1849. Until the end of his life he interested himself in the movements of the Liberal Party in Lancashire and in the progress of education. His Physiology, Pathology and Treatment of Asphyxia became a standard textbook. He also wrote numerous papers on public education. He was a key figure in the foundation of the Girls' Public Day School Company and a member of its council until shortly before his death.

Personal life
In 1842, he married Janet Shuttleworth (born 9 November 1817, half-sister of Marianne North), assuming by royal licence his bride's name and arms. His wife had inherited the estate centred on Gawthorpe Hall in Padiham at the age of four months.

They had five children. His eldest son, Sir Ughtred James Kay-Shuttleworth (1844–1939), became a well-known Liberal politician, as MP for Hastings from 1869 to 1880 and for the Clitheroe division of Lancashire from 1885 to 1902, when he was created Baron Shuttleworth. He was Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster in 1886, and secretary to the Admiralty between 1892 and 1895.

Charlotte Brontë visited the Kay-Shuttleworths twice at Gawthorpe Hall in 1850 and again in 1855. She was also introduced to Elizabeth Gaskell by the Kay-Shuttleworth's, when both women were invited to stay at their rented home in the Lake District in 1850.

James Kay-Shuttleworth died in 1877 in London and is buried in Brompton Cemetery, London.

External resources

 * James Kay-Shuttleworth Papers at the John Rylands Library, Manchester.

title: James Kay-Shuttleworth


text:
Burundi Bwacu

"Burundi Bwacu" ("Our Burundi") is the national anthem of Burundi. Written in the Kirundi language by a group of writers led by Jean-Baptiste Ntahokaja, a Catholic priest, and composed by Marc Barengayabo, it was adopted upon independence in 1962.

title: Burundi Bwacu


text:
Henri-Alexandre Wallon

Henri-Alexandre Wallon (23 December 1812 – 13 November 1904) was a French historian and statesman whose decisive contribution to the creation of the Third Republic led him to be called the "Father of the Republic". He was the grandfather of psychologist and politician Henri Wallon.

Early life
Wallon was born at Valenciennes, Nord on 23 December 1812.

Career
Devoting himself to a literary career, in 1840 he became professor at the École Normale Supérieure under the patronage of Guizot, whom he succeeded as professor at the Faculté des Lettres in 1846. His works on slavery in the French colonies (1847) and on slavery in antiquity (1848; new edition in 3 vols., 1879) led to his being placed, after the Revolution of 1848, on a commission for the regulation of labour in the French colonial possessions, and in November 1849 he was elected to the Legislative Assembly by the department of the Nord. He resigned in 1850, disapproving of the measure for the restriction of the suffrage adopted by the majority. In the same year he was elected a member of the Académie des Inscriptions, of which he became perpetual secretary in 1873.

Under the empire he withdrew altogether from political life, and occupied himself entirely with his duties as a professor of history and with historical writings, the most original of which is a biography, Richard II, épisode de la rivalité de la France et de l'Angleterre (2 vols., 1864). Although remaining a republican, he exhibited decided clerical leanings in his Jeanne d'Arc (2 vols., 1860; 2nd ed., 1875); La Vie de Notre Seigneur Jésus (1865) – a reply to the Vie de Jésus of E. Renan; and Saint Louis et son temps (1871; 4th ed., 1892), which still ranks among hagiographical works.

Returning to politics after the Franco-Prussian War, Wallon was re-elected by the department of the Nord in 1871, took an active part in the proceedings of the Assembly, and finally immortalized himself by carrying his proposition for the establishment of the Republic with a president elected for seven years, and then eligible for re-election, which, after violent debates, was adopted by the Assembly on 30 January 1875. "Ma proposition," he declared, "ne proclame pas la République, elle la fait." Upon the definitive establishment of the Republic, Wallon became Minister of Public Instruction, and effected many useful reforms, but his views were too conservative for the majority of the Assembly, and he retired in May 1876. He had been chosen a life senator in December 1875.

Returning to his historical studies, Wallon produced four works of great importance, though less from his part in them as author than from the documents which accompanied them:
 * La Terreur (1873)
 * Histoire du tribunal révolutionnaire de Paris avec le journal de ses actes (6 vols., 1880–1882)
 * La Révolution du 31 mai et le fédéralisme en 1793 (2 vols., 1886)
 * Les Représentants du peuple en mission et la justice révolutionnaire dans les départements (5 vols., 1880–1890).

Besides these he published a number of articles in the Journal des savants; for many years he wrote the history of the Académie des Inscriptions in the collection of Memoirs of this academy, and he composed obituary notices of his colleagues, which were inserted in the Bulletin.

Death
On his death on 13 November 1904, Henri Wallon was interred in the Cimetière du Montparnasse in Paris.

title: Henri-Alexandre Wallon


text:
User talk:82.43.131.95

Nomination of Joseph Blakesley for deletion
A discussion is taking place as to whether the article Joseph Blakesley is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.

The article will be discussed at Articles for deletion/Joseph Blakesley until a consensus is reached, and anyone, including you, is welcome to contribute to the discussion. The nomination will explain the policies and guidelines which are of concern. The discussion focuses on high-quality evidence and our policies and guidelines.

Users may edit the article during the discussion, including to improve the article to address concerns raised in the discussion. However, do not remove the article-for-deletion notice from the top of the article until the discussion has finished. JMWt (talk) 05:39, 10 November 2023 (UTC)

title: User talk:82.43.131.95