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Johann Christoph Friedrich Bach

Johann Christoph Friedrich Bach (21 June 1732 – 26 January 1795) was a German composer and harpsichordist, the fifth son of Johann Sebastian Bach, sometimes referred to as the "Bückeburg Bach".

Born in Leipzig in the Electorate of Saxony, he was taught music by his father, and also tutored by his distant cousin Johann Elias Bach. He studied at the St. Thomas School, and some believe he studied law at the university there, but there is no record of this. In 1750, William, Count of Schaumburg-Lippe appointed Johann Christoph harpsichordist at Bückeburg, and in 1759, he became concertmaster. While there, Bach collaborated with Johann Gottfried Herder, who provided the texts for six vocal works; the music survives for only four of these.

Bach wrote keyboard sonatas, symphonies, oratorios, liturgical choir pieces and motets, operas and songs. Because of Count Wilhelm's predilection for Italian music, Bach had to adapt his style accordingly, but he retained stylistic traits of the music of his father and of his brother, C. P. E. Bach.

He married the singer Lucia Elisabeth Münchhausen (1728–1803) in 1755 and the Count stood as godfather to his son Wilhelm Friedrich Ernst Bach. J.C.F. educated his son in music as his own father had, and Wilhelm Friedrich Ernst went on to become music director to Frederick William II of Prussia.

In April 1778 he and Wilhelm travelled to England to visit Johann Christian Bach. J. C. F. Bach died 1795 in Bückeburg, aged 62.

Assessment
The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica says of him "He was an industrious composer, ... whose work reflects no discredit on the family name." He was an outstanding virtuoso of the keyboard, with a reasonably wide repertory of surviving works, including twenty symphonies, the later ones influenced by Haydn and Mozart; hardly a genre of vocal music was neglected by him.

A significant portion of J. C. F. Bach's output was lost in the WWII destruction of the Staatliches Institut für Musikforschung in Berlin, where the scores had been on deposit since 1917. Musicologists Hansdieter Wohlfahrth, who catalogued his works, and Ulrich Leisinger consider Bach a transitional figure in the mold of his half-brother C. P. E., his brother Johann Christian, the Grauns (Carl and Johann), and Georg Philipp Telemann, with some works in the style of the high Baroque, some in a galant idiom, and still others which combine elements of the two, along with traits of the nascent classical style.

Works
"BR-JCFB" denotes "Bach-Repertorium Johann Christoph Friedrich Bach". "Wf" denotes "wohlfahrt verzeichnis". Bach Digital Work (BDW) pages contain information about individual compositions.

Keyboard works
Two Sonatas from "Musikalisches Vielerley" collection of works made by CPE Bach – not after 1770. "Six easy Sonatas for Clavier or Pianoforte" – composed before December 26, 1783. Three Sonatas and Sonatina from "Musikalische Nebenstunden" Collection of works made by JCF Bach – Not after 1787/88 "Three easy Sonatas for Clavier of Pianoforte" – composed before October 1788, published in 1789 Six easy Sonatas – composed around 1785 – perhaps composed for Christoph Ernst Abraham Albrecht von Boineburg, at that time the judiciary in Rinteln. Six Sonatas – composed around 1785 – probably like A 16 – 21 for C.E.A.A von Boineburg. Seven Sonatas – Composed before around and not after March 1789, only one Sonata survived. Five Pieces from "Musikalisches Vielerley" – not after 1770 Seventy pieces from "Musikalische Nebenstunden" – The keyboard pieces belong to different genre traditions and are likely to come from different creative periods. (Wf XII/13) Five Pieces – composed around 1745/49, at least before taking up service in Bückeburg. Six fugues – published under Telemann name – not after 1758
 * BR-JCFB A 1 \ Keyboard Sonata in F major (Wf XI/1)
 * BR-JCFB A 2 \ Keyboard Sonata in C major (Wf XI/2)
 * BR-JCFB A 3 \ No. 1 – Keyboard Sonata in C major (Wf XI/3.1)
 * BR-JCFB A 4 \ No. 2 – Keyboard Sonata in F major (Wf XI/3.2)
 * BR-JCFB A 5 \ No. 3 – Keyboard Sonata in E major (Wf XI/3.3)
 * BR-JCFB A 6 \ No. 4 – Keyboard Sonata in D major (Wf XI/3.4)
 * BR-JCFB A 7 \ No. 5 – Keyboard Sonata in A major (Wf XI/3.5)
 * BR A 8 \ Keyboard Sonata in E-flat major (Wf XI/3.6)
 * BR-JCFB A 9 \ Keyboard Sonata in C major (Wf XI/4)
 * BR-JCFB A 10 \ Keyboard Sonata in G major (Wf XI/5)
 * BR-JCFB A 11 \ Keyboard Sonata in F major (Wf XI/6)
 * BR-JCFB A 12 \ Keyboard Sonatina in A minor (Wf XI/7)
 * BR-JCFB A 13 \ No. 1 – Keyboard Sonata in D major (Wf XI/8.1)
 * BR-JCFB A 14 \ No. 2 – Keyboard Sonata in A major (Wf XI/8.2)
 * BR-JCFB A 15 \ No. 3 – Keyboard Sonata in E major (Wf XI/8.3)
 * BR-JCFB A 16 \ No. 1 – Keyboard Sonata in D major
 * BR-JCFB A 17 \ No. 2 – Keyboard Sonata in A major
 * BR-JCFB A 18 \ No. 3 – Keyboard Sonata in F major (Wf XI/9)
 * BR-JCFB A 19 \ No. 4 – Keyboard Sonata in B-flat major
 * BR-JCFB A 20 \ No. 5 – Keyboard Sonata in G major
 * BR-JCFB A 21 \ No. 6 – Keyboard Sonata in E-flat major
 * BR-JCFB A 22 – 25 \ 4 Keyboard Sonatas (lost)
 * BR-JCFB A 26 \ No. 5 – Keyboard Sonata in E-flat major
 * BR-JCFB A 27 \ No. 6 – Keyboard Sonata in F major
 * BR-JCFB A 28–30, A 32–34 \ 6 Keyboard Sonatas (lost)
 * BR-JCFB A 31 \ Keyboard Sonata in D major
 * BR-JCFB A 35 – 37 \ 3 Keyboard Sonatas (lost)
 * BR-JCFB A 38 – 39 \ 2 Keyboard Sonatas (lost)
 * BR-JCFB A 40 \ keyboard Sonata for 4 hands in A major (Wf XIII/1) – around 1786
 * BR-JCFB A 41 \ keyboard Sonata for 4 hands in C major (Wf XIII/2) – perhaps around 1791
 * BR-JCFB A 42 – 43 \ 2 Sonatas for 2 keyboards (lost)
 * BR-JCFB A 44 \ Variations in A major (Wf XII/1) (lost)
 * BR-JCFB A 45 \ Allegretto in G major with 18 Variations on "Ah vous dirais-je Maman" (Wf XII/2) – Composed around 1785/90 – originally comprised only 13 variations and was later expanded by 5 variations.
 * BR-JCFB A 46 \ Minuet for dance and Trio in D major (Wf XII/3)
 * BR-JCFB A 47 \ Alla polacca in G major (Wf XII/7)
 * BR-JCFB A 48 \ Minuet and Trio in F major (Wf XII/4)
 * BR-JCFB A 49 \ Two minuets for dance in D major (Wf XII/5)
 * BR-JCFB A 50 \ Alla polacca in F major (Wf XII/6)
 * BR-JCFB A 51 \ Allegro in C major
 * BR-JCFB A 52 \ Minuet in C major (BWV deest)
 * BR-JCFB A 53 \ Andante in G major
 * BR-JCFB A 54 \ March in G major
 * BR-JCFB A 55 \ Allegretto in F major
 * BR-JCFB A 56 \ Minuet alternating between F major and B-flat major
 * BR-JCFB A 57 \ Polonaise in F major
 * BR-JCFB A 58 \ Allegretto in D major
 * BR-JCFB A 59 \ March in D major
 * BR-JCFB A 60 \ Schwäbisch (Swabian) in D major (kind of folk dance)
 * BR-JCFB A 61 \ Minuet in D major and Trio in G major
 * BR-JCFB A 62 \ Angloise in G major
 * BR-JCFB A 63 \ Villanella in C major
 * BR-JCFB A 64 \ Scherzo in C major
 * BR-JCFB A 65 \ Allegro moderato in G major
 * BR-JCFB A 66 \ Minuet in G major and Trio in C major
 * BR-JCFB A 67 \ Polonaise in G major
 * BR-JCFB A 68 \ March in G major
 * BR-JCFB A 69 \ Angloise and trio in G major
 * BR-JCFB A 70 \ Allegro F major
 * BR-JCFB A 71 \ Schwäbisch F major
 * BR-JCFB A 72 \ Minuet in F major and Trio in B-flat major
 * BR-JCFB A 73 \ Allegro in D minor
 * BR-JCFB A 74 \ Angloise in F major
 * BR-JCFB A 75 \ Minuet in C major
 * BR-JCFB A 76 \ March in G major
 * BR-JCFB A 77 \ March in D major and Trio in G major
 * BR-JCFB A 78 \ Allegro in G major
 * BR-JCFB A 79 \ Minuet and Trio in G major
 * BR-JCFB A 80 \ Allegro in B-flat major
 * BR-JCFB A 81 \ Villanella in D major
 * BR-JCFB A 82 \ Angloise in D major and Trio in G major
 * BR-JCFB A 83 \ March in G major
 * BR-JCFB A 84 \ Villanella in B-flat major
 * BR-JCFB A 85 \ Angloise in B-flat major
 * BR-JCFB A 86 \ Presto in G minor
 * BR-JCFB A 87 \ Allegro in E-flat major
 * BR-JCFB A 88 \ Adagio in C minor
 * BR-JCFB A 89 \ March in E-flat major
 * BR-JCFB A 90 \ Minuet in E-flat major and Trio in B-flat major
 * BR-JCFB A 91 \ Polonaise in E-flat major
 * BR-JCFB A 92 \ Angloise in E-flat major and Trio in B-flat major
 * BR-JCFB A 93 \ March in E-flat major
 * BR-JCFB A 94 \ Minuet alternating between E-flat major and C minor
 * BR-JCFB A 95 \ Allegro in E minor
 * BR-JCFB A 96 \ Minuet alternating between A major and E major
 * BR-JCFB A 97 \ Angloise in D major
 * BR-JCFB A 98 \ Angloise in D major
 * BR-JCFB A 99 \ Minuet in D major and Trio in A major
 * BR-JCFB A 100 \ Musette in G major
 * BR-JCFB A 101 \ Solfeggio in G major
 * BR-JCFB A 102 \ Angloise in D major
 * BR-JCFB A 103 \ Minuet in G major and Trio in D major
 * BR-JCFB A 104 \ Polonaise in D major
 * BR-JCFB A 105 \ March in D major
 * BR-JCFB A 106 \ Andante in E major
 * BR-JCFB A 107 \ Angloise in A major
 * BR-JCFB A 108 \ Solfeggio in D major
 * BR-JCFB A 109 \ Angloise in G major
 * BR-JCFB A 110 \ March in B-flat major
 * BR-JCFB A 111 \ Schwäbisch in F major
 * BR-JCFB A 112 \ Angloise in B-flat major
 * BR-JCFB A 113 \ Schwäbisch in D major
 * BR-JCFB A 114 \ Polonaise in E-flat major
 * BR-JCFB A 115 \ Minuet in E-flat major and Trio in B-flat major
 * BR-JCFB A 116 \ Schwäbisch in C major
 * BR-JCFB A 117 \ Minuet and Trio in C major
 * BR-JCFB A 118 \ Angloise in F major
 * BR-JCFB A 119 \ Alla Polacca in C major
 * BR-JCFB A 120 \ Minuet in F major and Trio in F minor
 * BR-JCFB A 121 \ Polonaise in G major (Wf XII/8)
 * BR-JCFB A 122 \ Minuet in F major (Wf XII/9)
 * BR-JCFB A 123 \ Polonaise in F major (Wf XII/10)
 * BR-JCFB A 124 \ Minuet in G major (Wf XII/11)
 * BR-JCFB A 125 \ Minuet in A major (Wf XII/12)
 * BR-JCFB A Inc1 \ Partia (Allegro) in C major – around 1745 (BWV deest)
 * BR-JCFB A Inc2 \ Fugue for keyboard in G minor (lost) – based on G minor fugue from WTC I by JS Bach
 * BR-JCFB A Inc3 \ Fugue for keyboard in E minor (lost)
 * BR-JCFB A Inc4 \ Fugue for keyboard in C major (lost)
 * BR-JCFB A Inc5 \ Fugue for keyboard in F major (TWV 30:27) – based on fugue – Wq 119.3 by CPEB
 * BR-JCFB A Inc6 \ Fugue for keyboard in D major (lost)
 * BR-JCFB A Inc7 \ Fugue for keyboard in C major (lost)
 * BR-JCFB A Inc8 \ Galanterie-Stücke for keyboard

Chamber music
The "Sonatas" denotes the Trio Sonata form. Two trios for two Violins and Basso Continuo – Composed before December 23, 1768. Six Sonatas for Keyboard and flute (violin) – one of the most widely performed work by composer – published 1777 versions 16b and 18b were versions made after the published collection, meaning that 16a and 18a are those found in the collection Two Sonatas for keyboard and violin from Musikalische Nebenstunden Three Sonatas for keyboard and flute (violin) – composed around 1770/80 Six Sonatas with keyboard – composed around 1780 not before 1777 – for Keyboard, Flute, Violin and Viola Six Quartet for Flute, Violin, Viola and Basso Continuo – composed around 1768/69 and not before 1766 Six Quartet for 2 Violins, viola and Basso Continuo – composed in England around 1778
 * BR-JCFB B 1 \ Cello Sola in A major (Wf X/3)(1770)
 * BR-JCFB B 2 \ Cello Solo in G major (Wf X/1)
 * BR-JCFB B 3a \ Trio for traverso flute, violin & bc in A major (Wf VII/1)
 * BR-JCFB B 3b \ Trio for traverso flute and keyboard in A major (Wf VII/1)
 * BR-JCFB B 4 \ Trio for flute, viola & bc in E minor
 * BR-JCFB B 5 – 10 \ Six Trios for two Flutes and Basso continuo – composed by May 1, 1770 – lost.
 * BR-JCFB B 11 \ Trio for 2 violins & b.c. in A major (Wf VII/2)
 * BR-JCFB B 12 \ Trio for 2 violins & b.c. in F major (Wf VII/3)
 * BR-JCFB B 13 \ Trio for 2 violins & b.c. (lost)
 * BR-JCFB B 14 \ Trio for keyboard and violin/flute in E-flat major (Wf VIII/2)
 * BR-JCFB B 15 \ Flute Sonata No. 1 in D minor (Wf VIII/3.1)
 * BR-JCFB B 16 \ Flute Sonata No. 2 in D major (Wf VIII/3.2) – two versions 16a and 16b.
 * BR-JCFB B 17 \ Flute Sonata No. 3 in C major (Wf VIII/3.3)
 * BR-JCFB B 18 \ Flute Sonata No. 4 in C major (Wf VIII/3.4) – two versions 18a and 18b.
 * BR-JCFB B 19 \ Flute Sonata No. 5 in A major (Wf VIII/3.5)
 * BR-JCFB B 20 \ Flute Sonata No. 6 in C major (Wf VIII/3.6)
 * BR-JCFB B 21 \ Sonata in G major (Wf IX/2)
 * BR-JCFB B 22 \ Sonata in D major (Wf IX/3)
 * BR-JCFB B 23 – 24 \ 2 Flute Sonatas (lost)
 * BR-JCFB B 25 \ Sonata in F major (Wf VIII/1)
 * BR-JCFB B 26 \ Violin Sonata in F major (incomplete)
 * BR-JCFB B 27 \ Violin Sonata in D major (incomplete)
 * BR-JCFB B 28 \ Sonata for Keyboard and Violin in G major (Wf IX/1) (lost)
 * BR-JCFB B 29a \ Sonata for keyboard and flute/violin in D major (Wf VII/4)
 * BR-JCFB B 29b \ Sonata for Harpsichord concertato and flute/violin and Violoncello in D major (Wf VII/4) – later version
 * BR-JCFB B 30 \ Sonata No. 1 (lost)
 * BR-JCFB B 31 \ Sonata No. 2 in G major (Wf VII/5)
 * BR-JCFB B 32 \ Sonata No. 3 in A major (Wf VII/6)
 * BR-JCFB B 33 \ Sonata No. 4 (lost)
 * BR-JCFB B 34 \ Sonata No. 5 in C major (Wf VII/7)
 * BR-JCFB B 35 \ Sonata No. 6 (lost)
 * BR-JCFB B 36 \ Sonata in A major (Keyboard, Cello) (Wf X/4) (lost)
 * BR-JCFB B 37 \ Quartet No. 1 in D major (Wf VI/1)
 * BR-JCFB B 38 \ Quartet No. 2 in G major (Wf VI/2)
 * BR-JCFB B 39 \ Quartet No. 3 in C major (Wf VI/3)
 * BR-JCFB B 40 \ Quartet No. 4 in D major (Wf VI/4)
 * BR-JCFB B 41 \ Quartet No. 5 in F major (Wf VI/5)
 * BR-JCFB B 42 \ Quartet No. 6 in B-flat major (Wf VI/6)
 * BR-JCFB B 43 \ String Quartet No. 1 in E-flat major
 * BR-JCFB B 44 \ String Quartet No. 2 in B-flat major
 * BR-JCFB B 45 \ String Quartet No. 3 in A major
 * BR-JCFB B 46 \ String Quartet No. 4 in D major
 * BR-JCFB B 47 \ String Quartet No. 5 in G major
 * BR-JCFB B 48 \ String Quartet No. 6 in F major
 * BR-JCFB B 49 \ (Wind) Septet for Oboe, 2 Clarinets, 2 Bassoons and 2 Horns in E-flat major (Wf IV/1) (lost)
 * BR-JCFB B 50 – 53 \ 4 Marches for wind band (lost)
 * BR-JCFB B Inc1 \ Trio Sonata for 2 violins & b.c. in B-flat major (Wf XX/3)
 * BR-JCFB B Inc2 \ Trio Sonata for 2 flutes & b.c. in C major (lost)
 * BR-JCFB B Inc3 \ Cello Sonata in D major (Wf X/2) (lost)
 * BR-JCFB B Inc4 \ Violin Sonata (lost)

Orchestral works
Seven Symphonies – composed before December 23, 1768 Three Symphonies – composed by 1770 Three Symphonies à 6- composed until 1770 Six Symphonies à 8 or à 10 – composed by 1792 Six Keyboard Concerto – Composed in England around 1778 or immediately after his return.
 * BR-JCFB C 1 \ Symphony in D major (Wf I/5) (lost)
 * BR-JCFB C 1b \ Symphony in D major – keyboard reduction (Wf I/5)
 * BR-JCFB C 2 – 3 \ 2 Symphonies (lost)
 * BR-JCFB C 4 \ Symphony in D minor (Wf I/3)
 * BR-JCFB C 5 \ Symphony in F major (Wf I/1)
 * BR-JCFB C 6 \ Symphony in B-flat major (Wf I/2)
 * BR-JCFB C 7 \ Symphony in E major (Wf I/4)
 * BR-JCFB C 8 – 9 \ 2 Symphonies(lost)
 * BR-JCFB C 10 \ Symphony in C major (Wf I/6)
 * BR-JCFB C 11 \ Symphony in D major (Wf I/8) (lost)
 * BR-JCFB C 12 \ Symphony in G major (Wf I/7) (lost)
 * BR-JCFB C 13 \ Symphony in D major (Wf I/9) (lost)
 * BR-JCFB C 14 \ Symphony in E-flat major (Wf I/10)
 * BR-JCFB C 15 – 17 \ 3 Symphonies (lost)
 * BR-JCFB C 18 \ Symphony (lost)
 * BR-JCFB C 19 \ Symphony no. 2 in D major (Wf I/11) (lost)
 * BR-JCFB C 20 \ Symphony no. 3 in F major (Wf I/12) (lost)
 * BR-JCFB C 21 \ Symphony no. 4 in D major (Wf I/13) (lost)
 * BR-JCFB C 22 \ Symphony no. 5 in C major (Wf I/14) (lost)
 * BR-JCFB C 23 \ Symphony no. 6 in G major (Wf I/15)
 * BR-JCFB C 24 \ Symphony in E-flat major (Wf I/18) (lost)
 * BR-JCFB C 25 \ Symphony in E-flat major (Wf I/19) (lost)
 * BR-JCFB C 26 \ "Grand Symphony" in D major (Wf I/16) (lost)
 * BR-JCFB C 27 \ Symphony in C major (Wf I/17) (lost)
 * BR-JCFB C 28 \ Symphony in B-flat major (Wf I/20) – composed until August 1794
 * BR-JCFB C 29 \ Keyboard Concerto no. 1 in E-flat major (incorrectly attributed to JCB (Warb YC 90)
 * BR-JCFB C 30a \ Keyboard Concerto no. 2(Orchestral version) in A major – until mid-May 1768 (Incorrectly attributed to CPE Bach and JC Bach) H383 and H490, Warb YC 91
 * BR-JCFB C 30b \ Keyboard Concerto no 2. (Keyboard solo) in A major – until mid-May 1768 (Incorrectly attributed to CPE Bach and JC Bach) H383,H384
 * BR-JCFB C 31 \ Keyboard Concerto "London No. 1" in G major
 * BR-JCFB C 32 \ Keyboard Concerto "London No. 2" in F major
 * BR-JCFB C 33 \ Keyboard Concerto "London No. 3" in D major
 * BR-JCFB C 34 \ Keyboard Concerto "London No. 4" in E-flat major
 * BR-JCFB C 35 \ Keyboard Concerto "London No. 5" in B-flat major
 * BR-JCFB C 36 \ Keyboard Concerto "London No. 6" in C major
 * BR-JCFB C 37 \ Harpsichord Concerto in E major – 1782 (Wf II/1)
 * BR-JCFB C 38 \ Keyboard Concerto (1766) (lost)
 * BR-JCFB C 39 \ Keyboard Concerto (1788) (lost)
 * BR-JCFB C 40 \ Harpsichord Concerto in F major – 1782 (Wf II/4)
 * BR-JCFB C 41 \ Harpsichord Concerto in D major – around 1780/85 (Wf II/2)
 * BR-JCFB C 42 \ Keyboard Concerto in A major (Wf II/3) (lost)
 * BR-JCFB C 43 \ "Concerto Grosso" in E-flat major – before September 1792 (Wf II/5) (1792)
 * BR-JCFB C 44 \ Concerto for Keyboard and Viola in E-flat major – around 1790 (wf S. 152)
 * BR-JCFB C 45 \ Concerto for Keyboard and Oboe in E-flat major (Wf III) (lost)
 * BR-JCFB C 46 \ Keyboard Concerto in C major – identity of composer is uncertain – before 1749

Vocal works
Liturgical Works Oratorios Cantata
 * BR-JCFB D 1 \ Die Pillgrimme auf Golgatha – incorrectly attributed to CPE Bach H 862
 * BR-JCFB D 2a \ Original version Der Tod Jesu (Wf XIV/1) – (BWV 244/3, 244/62) – Performed April 13, 1770
 * BR-JCFB D 2b \ Later version Der Tod Jesu (Wf XIV/1) – erformed April 8, 1784
 * BR-JCFB D 3a \ Original version Die Auferstehung und Himmelfahrt Jesu (Wf XIV/10) – Performed April 19, 1772
 * BR-JCFB D 3b \ Later version Die Auferstehung und Himmelfahrt Jesu (Wf XIV/10) – around 1785
 * BR-JCFB D 4 \ Die Hirten bey der Krippe Jesu (Wf XIV/9) (lost)
 * BR-JCFB D 5a \ Early version Die Kindheit Jesu (Wf XIV/2) – performed February 11, 1773
 * BR-JCFB D 5b \ Revised version Die Kindheit Jesu (Wf XIV/2) – around 1784/85
 * BR-JCFB D 6a \ Original version Die Auferweckung Lazarus (Wf XIV/3) – performed April 23, 1773
 * BR-JCFB D 6b \ Later version Die Auferweckung Lazarus (Wf XIV/3) – around 1785/90
 * BR-JCFB D 7 \ Der Fremdling auf Golgotha (Wf XIV/7) (lost)
 * BR-JCFB D 8a \ Mosis Mutter und ihre Tochter (Wf XVII/3) (incomplete) – before February 1788
 * BR-JCFB D 8b \ Keyboard reduction Mosis Mutter und ihre Tochter (Wf XVII/3) (incomplete) – before February 1788

Mass/ Mass set/ Magnificat
 * BR-JCFB E 1a \ Miserere
 * BR-JCFB E 1b \ Miserere

Cantatas
 * BR-JCFB F 1 \ Pfingstkantate (Wf XIV/4) (lost)
 * BR-JCFB F 2 \ Sieh, Bückeburg, was Gott an Dir getan (lost)
 * BR-JCFB F 3 \ Himmelfahrts-Musik (Wf XIV/8)
 * BR-JCFB F 4 \ Michaels Sieg (Wf XIV/5)
 * BR-JCFB F 5 \ Nun, teures Land, der Herr hat dich erhört (lost)
 * BR-JCFB F 6 \ Singet dem Herrn ein neues Lied (Wf XIV/11) (lost)
 * BR-JCFB F 7 \ Gott wird deinen Fuß nicht gleiten lassen (Wf XIV/12)
 * BR-JCFB F Inc1 \ Funeral Music for Count Philipp Ernst (lost)
 * BR-JCFB F Inc2 \ Heut ist der Tag des Dankens, ihr Völker (lost)

Arias, cantatas and incidental music
 * BR-JCFB G 1 \ Luci amate ah non piangete (Wf XVIII/8)
 * BR-JCFB G 2 – 11 \ 10 Italian Arias (lost)
 * BR-JCFB G 12 – 26 \ 15 Italian Cantatas (lost)
 * BR-JCFB G 27 \ L'Inciampo (Wf XVIII/2)
 * BR-JCFB G 28 – 44 \ 18 Italian Cantatas (lost)
 * BR-JCFB G 45 \ Scenes for Il pastor fido (lost)
 * BR-JCFB G 46 \ Cassandra (Wf XVIII/1)
 * BR-JCFB G 47 \ Die Amerikanerin (Wf XVIII/3)
 * BR-JCFB G 48 \ Ino (Wf XVIII/4)
 * BR-JCFB G 49 \ Prokris und Cephalus (Wf XVIII/6)
 * BR-JCFB G 50 \ Pygmalion (Wf XVIII/5)
 * BR-JCFB G 51 \ Ariadne auf Naxos (lost)
 * BR-JCFB G 52 \ Brutus (Wf XVII/1) (lost)
 * BR-JCFB G 53 \ Philoktetes (Wf XVII/2) (lost)
 * BR-JCFB G Inc1 \ Stimmt an, greift rasch in eure Saiten (lost)
 * BR-JCFB G Inc2 \ Va crescendo il mio tormento

Songs
 * BR-JCFB H 1 \ Lied: Ein dunkler Feind (Wf XIX/1.1)
 * BR-JCFB H 2 \ Lied: Die Gespenster (Wf XIX/1.2)
 * BR-JCFB H 3 \ Lied: Die Zeit (Wf XIX:/1.3)
 * BR-JCFB H 4 \ Lied: Der Sieg über sich selbst (Wf XIX/1.4)
 * BR-JCFB H 5 \ Lied: Der Nachbarin Climene (Wf XIX/1.5)

Other works in Wohlfarth's catalogue

 * Wf V \ Sextet for piano, winds & strings in C major (see Johann Christian Bach WarB B 78)
 * Wf XV/1 \ Ich lieg und schlafe ganz mit Frieden
 * Wf XV/2 \ Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme, chorale motet on the hymn by Philipp Nicolai
 * Wf XV/3 \ Dem Erlöser
 * Wf XV/4 \ Unsere Auferstehung durch die Auferstehung Jesu
 * Wf XVI/1 \ 5 Geistliche Lieder
 * Wf XVI/2 \ 50 Geistliche Lieder
 * Wf XVIII/7 \ O, wir bringen gerne dir
 * Wf XVIIII/2 \ 24 Lieder
 * Wf XX/1 \ Keyboard Concerto in C minor
 * Wf XX/2 \ Keyboard Concerto in G major
 * Wf XX/4 \ Fugue for keyboard in C minor
 * Wf XXI/1 \ Arrangement of CPE Bach's "Weynachtslied"
 * Wf XXI/2 \ Arrangement of CPE Bach's "Dancklied"
 * Wf XXI/3 \ Arrangement of CPE Bach's "Der thätige Glaube"

Works not referenced in any catalogue
 * Cello Sonata in G major

title: Johann Christoph Friedrich Bach


text:
Johann Christian Bach

Johann Christian Bach (5 September 1735 – 1 January 1782) was a German composer of the Classical era, the youngest son of Johann Sebastian Bach. He received his early musical training from his father, and later from his half-brother, Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach in Berlin. After his time in Berlin he made his way to Italy to study with famous Padre Martini in Bologna. While in Italy, J.C. Bach was appointed as an organist at the Milan Cathedral. In 1762 he became a composer to the King’s Theatre in London where he wrote a number of successful Italian operas and became known as "The English Bach". He is responsible for the development of the sinfonia concertante form. He became one of the most influential figures of the classical period, influencing compositional styles of prolific musicians like Haydn and Mozart.

Life
Johann Christian Bach was born to Johann Sebastian and Anna Magdalena Bach in 1735 in Leipzig, Germany. His father, Johann Sebastian Bach, instructed him in his early musical training. After his father's death, he moved to Berlin to pursue his studies with his half-brother Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, who was twenty-one years his senior and, at the time, was considered to be the most musically gifted of Bach's sons.

In 1754 he moved to Italy to study with Padre Martini in Bologna. He was appointed as an organist at Milan Cathedral in 1760. During his time in Italy, he converted from Lutheranism to Catholicism, supposedly due to political reasons. He devoted most of his time composing church music, including music for a Requiem Mass and a Te Deum and Latin Mass settings. His first major work was a Mass, which received an excellent performance and acclaim in 1757. In 1762, Bach travelled to London to première three operas at the King's Theatre, including Orione on 19 February 1763. In 1764 or 1765, the castrato Giusto Fernando Tenducci, who became a close friend, created the title role in his opera Adriano in Siria at King's.

That established his reputation in England, and he became music master to Queen Charlotte. In 1766, Bach met soprano Cecilia Grassi (1746-1791), who was eleven years his junior, and married her shortly thereafter. They had no offspring. J. C. Bach performed symphonies and concertos at the Hanover Square Rooms. This was London's premier concert venue in the heart of fashionable Mayfair. The surrounding Georgian homes offered a well-to-do clientele for his performances. One of London's primary literary circles, which included Jane Timbury, Robert Gunnell Esq., Lord Beauchamp, and the Duchess of Buccleuch, was acquainted with Bach, and members were regular attendees at his events.

In 1777, he won a landmark case, Bach v Longman, which established that (in English law) copyright law applied to musical scores. Even before then, Bach demanded a proper credibility for his compositions almost at the same time upon his arrival to London in 1762. He was granted an exclusive right to publish his music for 14 years.

By the late 1770s, both his popularity and finances were in decline. By the time of Bach's death on New Year's Day 1782, he had become so indebted (in part due to his steward embezzling his money), that Queen Charlotte stepped in to cover the expenses of the estate and provided a life pension for Bach's widow. He was buried in the graveyard of St. Pancras Old Church, London.

Legacy
In the fourth volume of Charles Burney's General History of Music there is an account of J. C. Bach's career.

There are two others named Johann Christian Bach in the Bach family tree, but neither was a composer.

In 1764, Bach met with Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, who was aged eight at the time and was in London during the Mozart family grand tour. Bach then spent five months teaching Mozart in composition. Bach is widely regarded as having a strong influence on the young Mozart, with scholars such as Téodor de Wyzewa and Georges de Saint-Foix describing him as "The only true teacher of Mozart". Mozart arranged three sonatas from Bach's Op. 5 into keyboard concertos, and in later life Mozart "often acknowledged the artistic debt he owed" to Johann Christian. Upon hearing of Bach's death in 1782, Mozart commented, "What a loss to the musical world!"

J.C. Bach had an immense influence on Mozart. In fact, Mozart’s partiality to wind instruments in his early symphonies were influenced by Bach. As J.C. Bach believed that wind instruments should be carriers of their own melodic material and not just act as doubled instruments, Mozart followed suit. J.C. Bach’s influence on Mozart was so grand that the theme of the slow movement of Mozart’s Concerto K414 contains a reference to the overture of Bach’s opera, La calamita de cuori.

J.C. Bach is responsible for the development of a distinct Classical musical form known as Sinfonia concertante. This genre emerged s a musical form from the Baroque concerto grosso. Sinfonia concertante influenced many of Bach’s contemporaries, like Mozart and Haydn, and provided a framework for further compositions.

The Bach-Abel concerts were a series of public concerts that eventually gave way to the development of modern day concert series. In collaboration with his friend and German virtuoso viola da gamba player, Johann Christian Bach and Carl Friedrich Abel created these subscription concerts, which were the first of its kind in Europe. These concerts first started at Abel's residence but an increase in popularity led to these concerts being held at larger venues.

These concerts were not only the first of its kind to be a subscription concert but also would feature a program as well. In terms of programming, these concerts would feature new works by Bach and Abel and new contemporary music at the time - these concerts also gave a platform for newer musical artists, such as Haydn, to feature their works on a public stage. Because these concerts required a subscription, they cultivated a regular audience as the audience members prepaid for that season's concert series. Furthermore, the Bach-Abel concerts allowed the middle class greater access to live classical music. Previously, live music performances were limited to private, aristocratic settings; however, these subscription concerts were made available to the wider public, allowing middle class people to engage in the arts and society. The status of the Bach-Abel concerts decreased in popularity and ended due to changing musical tastes and Bach's death.

Works The works of J. C. Bach are given 'W' numbers, from Ernest Warburton's Thematic catalog of his works (New York City: Garland Publishing, 1999). Bach's compositions include eleven operas, as well as chamber music, orchestral music and compositions for keyboard.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Johann Christian Bach


text:
Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly

Prince Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly (baptised 27 December 1761 – 26 May 1818) was a Russian Field Marshal who figured prominently in the Napoleonic Wars.

Barclay was born into a Baltic German family from Livland. His father was the first of his family to be accepted into the Russian nobility. Barclay joined the Imperial Russian Army at a young age in 1776. He served with distinction in the Russo-Turkish War (1787–92), the Russo-Swedish War (1788–90), and the Kościuszko Uprising (1794).

In 1806, Barclay began commanding in the Napoleonic Wars, distinguishing himself at the Battle of Pułtusk that same year. He was wounded at the Battle of Eylau in 1807 while his troops were covering the retreat of the Russian army. Because of his wounds, he was forced to leave command. The following year, he carried out successful operations in the Finnish War against Sweden. Barclay led a large number of Russian troops approximately 100 km across the frozen Gulf of Bothnia in winter during a snowstorm. For his accomplishments, Barclay de Tolly was appointed Governor-General of the Grand Duchy of Finland. From 20 January 1810 to September 1812 he was the Minister of War of the Russian Empire.

When the French invasion of Russia began in 1812, Barclay de Tolly was commander of the 1st Army of the West, the largest Army to face Napoleon. Barclay initiated a scorched earth policy from the beginning of the campaign, though this made him unpopular among Russians. After the Battle of Smolensk failed to halt the French and discontent among Russians continued to grow, Alexander I appointed Mikhail Kutuzov as Commander-in-Chief, though Barclay remained in charge of the 1st Army. However, Kutuzov continued the same scorched earth retreat up to Moscow where the Battle of Borodino took place nearby. Barclay commanded the right wing and center of the Russian army for the battle. After Napoleon's retreat, the eventual success of Barclay's tactics made him a hero among Russians. He became Commander-in-Chief in 1813 after the battle of Bautzen, replacing Wittgenstein (who had been appointed after Kutuzov's death early in 1813) and led the taking of Paris, for which he was made a Field Marshal. His health later declined and he died on a visit to Germany in 1818.

Early life and family
Michael Andreas was born to Gotthard Barclay de Tolly (1734–1781) and his wife Margarethe Elisabeth von Smitten (1733-1771). The Barclay de Tolly family were German-speaking descendants of the Scottish Clan Barclay. Their ancestor, Peter Barclay, belonged to the Towie or Tolly branch of the family and settled in Rostock in 1621; his son later moved to Riga in Livonia. Michael Andreas was born in Pamūšis in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and raised in Beckhof, Livonia, which was his mother's family estate. The commonly accepted birth date of 27 December 1761 is actually the day of his baptism in the Lutheran church of the town of Zaumel.

Michael Andreas's grandfather, Wilhelm Barclay de Tolly, served as the mayor of Riga, while his father served in the Russian army before being admitted into the ranks of the Russian nobility by the Tsar. From 1765, the young Barclay de Tolly grew up in St. Petersburg and was raised by his aunt. This was a common occurrence among the German Protestants, and it gave the young man an exposure to higher society unavailable in the Baltic provinces.

The future field marshal started his active service in the Imperial Russian Army in 1776, and he would spend the rest of his life with the military. He had two brothers who also served in the Russian army: Axel Heinrich Barclay de Tolly, a Major General of Engineers, and Erich Johann Barclay de Tolly, a Major of Artillery.

Service history
Barclay was enlisted in the Pskov Carabineer Regiment on 13 May 1776, and he achieved the rank of a cornet by May 1778. In the same year, he joined the Imperial jaeger regiments, and with his unit was assigned to the army of Prince Potemkin. In 1788–1789, during the Russo-Turkish War (1787–92), Barclay served under the command of Victor Amadeus of Anhalt-Bernburg-Schaumburg-Hoym. During this campaign, he distinguished himself in the taking of Ochakov and Akkerman. For his role in the capture of Ochakov, he was personally decorated by Prince Potemkin.

In 1789, during the Russo-Swedish War, he was transferred to the Finnish front. Four years later, he fought in the Polish Campaign of 1794, and was decorated for his role in the capture of Vilnius. He was a lieutenant colonel by 1794 after serving as aide-de-camp to various senior officers in several campaigns. In that year, he was appointed commander of the Estland Jaeger Corps, and three years later commander of the 4th Jaeger Regiment, becoming its chief in 1799, soon after being promoted to general major for his service in Poland.

In the war of 1806 against Napoleon, Barclay took a distinguished part in the Battle of Pultusk (December 1806) and was wounded at the Battle of Eylau (7 February 1807), where his conduct won him promotion to the rank of lieutenant general. After a period of convalescence, Barclay returned to the army and in 1808 commanded operations against the Swedes during the Finnish War. In 1809, he successfully marched over the frozen Gulf of Bothnia, which allowed him to surprise the enemy and seize Umeå in Sweden. For this exploit, immortalized by the Russian poet Baratynsky, he was made full general and Governor-General of Finland. A year later, he became Minister of War, retaining the post until 1813.

Napoleon's invasion
During Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812, Barclay assumed the supreme command of the 1st Army of the West, the largest of the Russian armies facing Napoleon. He used a strategy of retreat leaving behind scorched earth from the beginning of the campaign in order to draw the French supply lines deep into Russian territory and retreated to the village of Tsaryovo-Zaimishche between Moscow and Smolensk, although some consider the strategy merely a confluence of diverse circumstances and not attributable to the will of one man.

Nevertheless, the Russians keenly opposed the appointment of a non-Russian as commander-in-chief. His rivals spread rumors of his being Napoleon's agent, and the populace condemned him as a coward. Barclay was forced by his subordinates and the Tsar to engage Napoleon at Smolensk (17–18 August 1812). Napoleon forced Barclay to retreat when he threatened Barclay's only escape route. After the loss of the "Holy City" of Smolensk, the outcry of officers and civilians grew to a point where the Tsar could no longer ignore it. He appointed Kutuzov, previously a general at the battle of Austerlitz, as the over-all commander of the Russian forces. Barclay remained General of the 1st Army of the West.

Barclay commanded the right flank at the Battle of Borodino (7 September 1812) with great valour and presence of mind, and during the celebrated council at Fili advised Kutuzov to surrender unfortified Moscow to the enemy. His illness made itself known at that time and he was forced to leave the army soon afterwards.

After Napoleon was driven from Russia, the eventual success of Barclay's tactics made him a romantic hero, misunderstood by his contemporaries and rejected by the court. His popularity soared, and his honour was restored by the tsar.

Conquest of France
Barclay was re-employed in the field and took part in the German Campaign of 1813 and the French Campaign of 1814, which ended the War of the Sixth Coalition (1812–1814).

After Kutuzov's death, he once again became commander-in-chief of the Russian forces at the Battle of Bautzen (21 May 1813), and in this capacity he served at Dresden (26–27 August 1813), Kulm (29–30 August 1813) and Leipzig (16–19 October 1813). In the latter battle, he commanded a central part of the Allied forces so effectively that the tsar bestowed upon him the title of count. Barclay took part in the invasion of France in 1814 and commanded the taking of Paris, receiving the baton of a Field Marshal in reward. In 1815 he again served as commander-in-chief of the Russian army, which after the Hundred Days occupied France, and he was made a prince at the close of the war. As his health grew worse, he left the military and settled down in his Jõgeveste manor (German exonym: Beckhof, Polish: Tepelshof) (in what is now southern Estonia).

Legacy
Barclay de Tolly died at Insterburg (Chernyakhovsk), East Prussia, on 26 May 1818 (14 May, Old Style) on his way from his Livonian manor to Germany, where he wanted to renew his health. His and his wife Helene Auguste Eleonore von Smitten's remains were embalmed and put into the mausoleum built to a design by Apollon Shchedrin and Vasily Demut-Malinovsky in 1832 in Jõgeveste.

A grand statue of him was erected in front of Kazan Cathedral, St Petersburg at the behest of Emperor Nicholas I. He is also commemorated by a modern statue in Riga, a full-size bronze-mounted statue by Vladimir Surovtsev in Chernyakhovsk, a bust monument in Tartu, and the so-called "Barclay's leaning house" in Tartu (which was acquired by his widow after his death).

Personal life and family
In 1791, Michael married his cousin, Auguste Helena Eleonora von Smitten (1770–1828), daughter of Hinrich Johann von Smitten (1731–1782) and Renata Helena von Stackelberg (1749–1786). After the extinction of the Barclay de Tolly princely line with his son Magnus on 29 October 1871 (17 October, Old Style), Alexander II allowed the field marshal's sister's grandson through female lineage, Alexander von Weymarn, to assume the title of Prince Barclay de Tolly-Weymarn on 12 June 1872 (31 May, Old Style).

Awards and decorations

 * Russian Empire:
 * Order of St. Andrew (7 September 1813)
 * Order of St. George - Barclay de Tolly was the second of four full Knights of St. George in the history of the Order. This includes his contemporary, Kutuzov
 * 1st class (19 August 1813, no. 11) - "For the defeat of the French at the Battle of Kulm 18 August 1813"
 * 2nd class bol.kr. (21 October 1812, no. 44) - "For his part in the Battle of Borodino on 26 August 1812"
 * 3rd class (8 January 1807, no. 139) - "In the great reward of bravery and courage, rendered in the battle against the French troops on December 14th at Pultusk, where he commanded the vanguard ahead pravago flank, with a special skill and prudence kept the enemy at all times of battle and overturned Nadezhda"
 * 4th class (16 September 1794, no. 547) - "For outstanding courage, rendered against the Polish insurgents in the capture of fortifications and by the mountains. Villeneuve"
 * Gold Sword for Bravery with diamonds and laurels with the inscription" for 20 January 1814" (1814)
 * Order of St. Vladimir, 1st class (15 September 1811), 2nd class (7 March 1807), 4th class (12 July 1788)
 * Order of St. Alexander Nevsky (9 September 1809); diamonds added (9 May 1813)
 * Order of St. Anna, 1st class (7 March 1807)
 * Golden Cross for taking Ochakov (7 December 1788)
 * Cross "For the victory of Eylau" (1807)
 * Kingdom of Prussia:
 * Order of the Red Eagle (1807)
 * Order of the Black Eagle (1813)
 * Austrian Empire:
 * Commander of the Military Order of Maria Theresa (1813)
 * Kingdom of Sweden:
 * Order of the Sword, 1st class (1814)
 * Kingdom of France:
 * Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour (1815)
 * Order of Saint Louis, 1st class (1816)
 * United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland:
 * Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (1815)
 * Sword with diamonds (1816)
 * United Kingdom of the Netherlands:
 * Military William Order, 1st class (1815)
 * Kingdom of Saxony:
 * Military Order of St. Henry, 1st class (1815)

Commemoratives and legacy

 * The Nesvizhskiy 4th Grenadier regiment (the General-Field Marshal Prince Barklay-de-Tolli, Mikhail Bogdanovich's) was named for the Prince in 1880s.
 * He was also the namesake of a short-lived Russian fortress in the Hawaiian Islands.
 * A statue of Barclay de Tolly was erected in 2001 in the Esplanade gardens in Riga, evoking an earlier 1913 monument that was melted down for military use during World War I.
 * Whereas his lineage as a Baltic-Scottish Baron (and as such: Non-Russian) had caused him to be derided by Russian historians in the late 19th and throughout the 20th century in favor of Kutuzov, his image as a leader has undergone a positive reassessment in recent years.
 * The main-belt asteroid 4524 Barklajdetolli, discovered by Lyudmila Zhuravleva in 1981, was named in his honor.
 * In the West Siberian river shipping company MRF RSFSR (Barnaul) operated steam tug Barclay.
 * "Barclay de Tolly" was the name given in 1820 to Raroia island in the Tuamotus, French Polynesia.

In 2013, JSC Aeroflot-Russian Airlines received the Boeing 777-300ER aircraft manufactured by the Boeing Corporation, named in honor of the outstanding Russian military leader - M. Barclay de Tolly.

title: Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly


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2000 Canadian federal election

The 2000 Canadian federal election was held on November 27, 2000, to elect members to the House of Commons of Canada of the 37th Parliament of Canada. Prime Minister Jean Chrétien's Liberal Party won a third majority government.

Since the previous election of 1997, small-c conservatives had begun attempts to merge the Reform Party of Canada and the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada as part of the United Alternative agenda. During that time, Jean Charest stepped down as leader of the Progressive Conservatives and former Prime Minister Joe Clark took over the party and opposed any union with the Reform Party. In the spring of 2000, the Reform Party became the Canadian Alliance, a political party dedicated to uniting conservatives together into one party. Former Reform Party leader Preston Manning lost in a leadership race to Stockwell Day who became leader of the new Canadian Alliance party.

The federal government called an early election after being in office for just over three years (with a maximum allowed mandate of five years). The governing Liberal Party of Canada won a third consecutive majority government, winning more seats than in 1997. The Canadian Alliance only made minor gains, and an Eastern breakthrough did not happen. The Bloc Québécois, New Democratic Party and the Progressive Conservatives all suffered slight losses.

This was the last election as of in which an incumbent government successfully defended its parliamentary majority. It was also the last election in which a single party won more than 40% of the popular vote, although the Conservative Party under Stephen Harper in 2011 (39.62%) and the Liberal Party under Justin Trudeau in 2015 (39.47%) would both come close. This was the only election contested by the Canadian Alliance and the last by the Progressive Conservatives (as they both merged into the Conservative Party of Canada in 2003). This was also the first election in which Nunavut was its own separate territory (before, it was part of the Northwest Territories).

Campaign
On October 22, 2000, Prime Minister and Liberal Party leader Jean Chrétien advised Governor General Adrienne Clarkson to dissolve parliament and call an election scheduled for November 27, 2000. This move has been viewed by commentators as an attempt to stem a possible rise of support to the newly formed Canadian Alliance, to stop the leadership ambitions of Paul Martin, and to capitalize on the nostalgia created by the recent death of Pierre Elliot Trudeau. At the time of the election, the Canadian economy was strong and there were few immediate negative issues, as the opposition parties were not prepared for the campaign.

The major issue in the election was health care which had risen in public opinion polls to be the most important issue for Canadians.

The public was largely uninterested in the election, with commentators stating that voters expected a repeat of previous regionally divided elections that offered little chance of a change of government.

The Liberals' final television advertisement, according to Stephen Clarkson's The Big Red Machine, "emphasized the contrast between [the Liberals and the Canadian Alliance] while warning voters about [PC leader] Joe Clark's claim that he would form a coalition with the Bloc Québécois in a minority government. The ad told Canadians not to take risks with other parties but to choose a strong, proven team".

Liberal Party
The Liberal Party entered the election with a record of ending the budgetary deficit, making major reductions in federal spending (such as by cuts to the civil service, privatization of crown corporations), creating new environmental regulations, and increasing spending beginning on social programs beginning in 1998 after the budget deficit had ended and a surplus had been achieved. The Liberal Party came under attack by opposition parties for irregularities in the Department of Human Resources' Transition Job Fund program, but Chrétien managed to capably defend the government's actions. Chrétien was directly attacked by the opposition parties for alleged corrupt involvement from the Prime Minister's Office (PMO) in providing funding to local projects in Chrétien's riding of Saint-Maurice. The Liberal Party focused its attacks on the Canadian Alliance, accusing it of being a dangerous right-wing movement that was dangerous to national unity. The Liberal Party's most tense problem was the ongoing leadership feud within the Liberal Party between Chrétien and Finance Minister Paul Martin who wanted to replace Chrétien as Liberal leader and Prime Minister.

Strategy
Due to the regionalized nature of previous elections, the Liberal Party designed its election strategy along regional lines, aiming to take every seat in Ontario, winning seats in Quebec from the Bloc Québécois, and winning seats in Atlantic Canada, while attempting to minimize losses in Western Canada to the Canadian Alliance.

Chrétien only spent parts of nine days campaigning in the West, including only two stops in the province of Alberta, both in the city of Edmonton while visiting the province of British Columbia only three times, and only in the cities of Victoria and Vancouver.

The Liberal Party focused its effort in regaining support in Atlantic Canada, where the party had suffered serious losses in the 1997 election to the New Democratic Party and Progressive Conservative Party due to the Liberal government's imposition of quotas on Atlantic Canadian cod fisheries and the government's cuts to unemployment insurance benefits. Chrétien gained support during the campaign from former New Brunswick Premier Frank McKenna and former Chrétien government minister and then the current Premier of Newfoundland and Labrador, Brian Tobin resigned as Premier and ran as a Liberal Party candidate in his province. During the campaign, Chrétien apologized to Atlantic Canadians for the negative impact of employment insurance reforms which had caused hardship in Atlantic Canada.

In Quebec, the Liberal Party benefited from the collapse of support for the Progressive Conservative Party, after the PCs' popular Québécois leader Jean Charest had resigned in 1998 and was replaced by former Prime Minister Joe Clark who was unpopular in Quebec which resulted in three PC members from Quebec defecting to join the Liberal Party prior to the election. In Quebec the recently passed Clarity Act by the federal government was controversial in that it demanded a clear and concise question on a new referendum on sovereignty. Chrétien defended the Clarity Act and attacked sovereigntist Quebec premier and former Bloc Québécois leader Lucien Bouchard, challenging him to hold another referendum on sovereignty under the new laws, as Chrétien expected that the sovereigntists would lose such a referendum. The Liberal Party promised a number of government projects in Quebec to woo Quebec voters to the Liberal Party.

The Liberal Party appealed to Canada's most populous province of Ontario by acting to restore funding that its government had cut in the 1990s in order to cut the deficit of the 1990s. The Liberal government established a health accord with all premiers in September 2000 that involved major projected increases to public health care spending. Overall, the Liberals increased their number of seats in the House of Commons from 155 seats to 172 seats. They also won the popular vote in their former stronghold of Quebec for the first time since 1980, though they narrowly fell short of winning the most seats in the province, winning 36 seats to the Bloc's 38.

Canadian Alliance

The Canadian Alliance (the common short form name of Canadian Reform Conservative Alliance) was a new political party in the election, having been created only months earlier as the successor to the Reform Party of Canada, a party founded as a Western Canada protest party which sought to become a national party in the 1990s. Reform Party leader Preston Manning was deeply disappointed with the Reform Party's failure to spread eastward in the 1997 election, as the Reform Party lost its only seat in Ontario in that election. Reform identified vote-splitting with its rival conservative movement, the Progressive Conservative Party as the cause for the Liberals' 1997 election victory, and Manning proposed the solution of a merger of the Reform and Progressive Conservative parties. This agenda by the Reform Party to unite the two parties was called the United Alternative which began in 1998, and ultimately resulted in the Alliance.

The new party subsequently elected Stockwell Day as leader over Manning. The Alliance had hoped to use the 2000 election to eclipse the PC party in Ontario and Eastern Canada. The Alliance dedicated its campaign to demonstrating that the party was a national party and not as western-based as its predecessor had been perceived as. Day's more media friendly and "easy going" persona was expected to appeal to more Ontario voters than Manning's reputation as a policy wonk, and after the United Alternative project had integrated the successful Provincial PCs in the party, the Canadian Alliance was hoping for major improvements.

The Alliance campaigned on: cutting taxes by reducing the Federal taxation rate to two lower tax brackets, an end to the federal gun registration program, and importance of family values. The campaign was dogged by accusations: introducing a two-tier health care—the party would allow private health care to exist alongside the public medicare system; and for threatening the protection of gay rights and abortion rights. The latter accusations tended to focus on the party's residual direct democracy provisions in their platform. The accusations against his party platform, along with Day's relative inexperience compared to decades-experienced fixtures like Clark and Chrétien, led to the party fading from contention.

While they did not force the Liberals into minority government or finally eclipse the PC party, they did retain their official opposition status, and increased their numbers in the House of Commons by six seats, from 60 to 66. The Alliance ended up winning only two Ontario ridings. On election night, controversy arose when a CBC producer's gratuitously sexist comment about Stockwell Day's daughter-in-law, Juliana Thiessen-Day, was accidentally broadcast on the Canadian networks' pooled election feed from Day's riding.

Bloc Québécois
The Bloc Québécois suffered from the unpopular decision of its provincial counterpart, the ruling Parti Québécois government's agenda to merge the communities surrounding Quebec City into one community. Many Québécois were angered by this decision and voted in protest against the Bloc or chose not to vote at all to demonstrate their frustration. Bloc leader Gilles Duceppe received negative media attention after he decided to personally appoint candidate Noël Tremblay to run in the riding of Chicoutimi—Le Fjord in spite of the Bloc's riding association's selection of Sylvain Gaudreault to run in the riding. The Bloc's 177 page platform was criticized as being far too large, and few copies were distributed and few internet users accessed the platform because of its length and it was rarely discussed during the campaign. Instead, the Bloc produced large numbers of copies of small booklets that outlined the policies within the large platform. The Bloc campaigned to try to win over previous supporters of the PC Party. This campaign strategy failed, as the Bloc lost seats to the Liberal Party due to the collapse of Quebec support for the Progressive Conservative Party, whose voters shifted to the Liberal Party. The Bloc won in 38 ridings, six ridings fewer than in the 1997 election.

New Democratic Party
The New Democratic Party suffered badly in the campaign due to the drop in support for the provincial New Democratic parties over the preceding decade and amid a scandal in 2000 facing British Columbia's NDP Premier Glen Clark who was forced to resign as Premier. Matters were made worse for the federal NDP after Saskatchewan's NDP Premier Roy Romanow resigned in 2000 after the party lost seats in the 1999 Saskatchewan provincial election, and afterwards suggested that the federal NDP should merge with the Liberal Party. In Nova Scotia, the provincial NDP lost seats in its 1999 election while the NDP government of the Yukon had been recently defeated. As Canada's major social democratic political party, it relied on support from the labour movement, but recent strains between the NDP and the Canadian Auto Workers union and the Canadian Labour Congress had weakened the party's base of support. The party had received little media attention during the election and 2000 as a whole, due to the media's focus on Canada's newest political party, the Canadian Alliance, the political comeback of former Prime Minister Joe Clark to the leadership of the Progressive Conservative Party, and the leadership feud within the Liberal Party between Jean Chrétien and Paul Martin. The NDP did not expect to do well in the election and aimed to win thirty-two "must-win" seats.

The NDP's platform and campaign focused on protecting medicare while attacking the Liberal Party for its tax cuts to wealthy Canadians and corporations. The NDP's focus on attacking the Liberals failed to recognize the surging support for the Canadian Alliance in the province of Saskatchewan, where the NDP had hoped to gain seats. The NDP failed to galvanize support, as it remained low in support in polling results throughout most of the election campaign. NDP leader Alexa McDonough performed badly in the French-language debate due to her not being fluent in French. In the English-language debate, McDonough attacked Alliance leader Stockwell Day for favouring two-tier health care and attacked Liberal leader Jean Chrétien for giving out tax cuts to the wealthy rather than funding Canada's public health care system.

Progressive Conservative Party
The Progressive Conservative Party aimed to regain its former place in Canadian politics under the leadership of former Prime Minister Joe Clark. The PC Party had a very disappointing election, recording its lowest ever share of the national vote, falling from 20 to 12 seats, and being almost exclusively confined to the Maritime provinces. It won the 12 seats needed for Official party status in the House of Commons, however.

Results

!style="text-align:center;" rowspan="2" colspan="2"|Party !style="text-align:center;" rowspan="2"|Party leader !style="text-align:center;" rowspan="2"|Candidates !style="text-align:center;" colspan="4"|Seats !style="text-align:center;" colspan="3"|Popular vote
 * - style="background-color:#CCCCCC"
 * - style="background-color:#CCCCCC"
 * style="text-align:center;" |1997
 * style="text-align:center;" | Dissol.
 * style="text-align:center;" |Elected
 * style="text-align:center;" |% Change
 * style="text-align:center;" |#
 * style="text-align:center;" |%
 * style="text-align:center;" |Change

 * style="text-align:left;" | Jean Chrétien
 * style="text-align:right;" |301
 * style="text-align:right;" |155
 * style="text-align:right;" |161
 * style="text-align:right;" |172
 * style="text-align:right;" |+11.0%
 * style="text-align:right;" |5,252,031
 * style="text-align:right;" |40.85%
 * style="text-align:right;" |+2.39pp

 * style="text-align:left;" | Stockwell Day
 * style="text-align:right;" |298
 * style="text-align:right;" |60
 * style="text-align:right;" |58
 * style="text-align:right;" |66
 * style="text-align:right;" |+10.0%
 * style="text-align:right;" |3,276,929
 * style="text-align:right;" |25.49%
 * style="text-align:right;" |+6.13pp1

 * style="text-align:left;" | Gilles Duceppe
 * style="text-align:right;" |75
 * style="text-align:right;" |44
 * style="text-align:right;" |44
 * style="text-align:right;" |38
 * style="text-align:right;" |-13.6%
 * style="text-align:right;" |1,377,727
 * style="text-align:right;" |10.72%
 * style="text-align:right;" |+0.05pp

 * style="text-align:left;" | Alexa McDonough
 * style="text-align:right;" |298
 * style="text-align:right;" |21
 * style="text-align:right;" |19
 * style="text-align:right;" |13
 * style="text-align:right;" |-38.1%
 * style="text-align:right;" |1,093,868
 * style="text-align:right;" |8.51%
 * style="text-align:right;" |-2.54pp

 * style="text-align:left;" | Joe Clark
 * style="text-align:right;" |291
 * style="text-align:right;" |20
 * style="text-align:right;" |15
 * style="text-align:right;" |12
 * style="text-align:right;" |-40.0%
 * style="text-align:right;" |1,566,998
 * style="text-align:right;" |12.19%
 * style="text-align:right;" |-6.65pp

 * style="text-align:left;" | Joan Russow
 * style="text-align:right;" |111
 * style="text-align:right;" |-
 * style="text-align:right;" |-
 * style="text-align:right;" |-
 * style="text-align:right;" |-
 * style="text-align:right;" |104,402
 * style="text-align:right;" |0.81%
 * style="text-align:right;" |+0.38pp

 * style="text-align:left;" | Marc-Boris St-Maurice
 * style="text-align:right;" |73
 * style="text-align:right;" |*
 * style="text-align:right;" |-
 * style="text-align:right;" |-
 * style="text-align:right;" |*
 * style="text-align:right;" |66,258
 * style="text-align:right;" |0.52%
 * style="text-align:right;" |*

 * style="text-align:left;" colspan="2" |Independent and No Affiliation
 * style="text-align:right;" |86
 * style="text-align:right;" |1
 * style="text-align:right;" |4
 * style="text-align:right;" |-
 * style="text-align:right;" |-100%
 * style="text-align:right;" |55,036
 * style="text-align:right;" |0.43%
 * style="text-align:right;" |-0.04pp

 * style="text-align:left;" | Paul T. Hellyer
 * style="text-align:right;" |70
 * style="text-align:right;" |-
 * style="text-align:right;" |-
 * style="text-align:right;" |-
 * style="text-align:right;" |-
 * style="text-align:right;" |27,103
 * style="text-align:right;" |0.21%
 * style="text-align:right;" |+0.08pp

 * style="text-align:left;" | Neil Paterson
 * style="text-align:right;" |69
 * style="text-align:right;" |-
 * style="text-align:right;" |-
 * style="text-align:right;" |-
 * style="text-align:right;" |-
 * style="text-align:right;" |16,577
 * style="text-align:right;" |0.13%
 * style="text-align:right;" |-0.16pp

 * style="text-align:left;" | Sandra L. Smith
 * style="text-align:right;" |84
 * style="text-align:right;" |-
 * style="text-align:right;" |-
 * style="text-align:right;" |-
 * style="text-align:right;" |-
 * style="text-align:right;" |12,068
 * style="text-align:right;" |0.09%
 * style="text-align:right;" |-

 * style="text-align:left;" | Miguel Figueroa
 * style="text-align:right;" |52
 * style="text-align:right;" |*
 * style="text-align:right;" |-
 * style="text-align:right;" |-
 * style="text-align:right;" |*
 * style="text-align:right;" |8,776
 * style="text-align:right;" |0.07%
 * style="text-align:right;" |*

 * style="text-align:left;" colspan="4" |Vacant
 * style="text-align:right;" |-
 * style="text-align:center;" colspan="5" |
 * style="text-align:left;" colspan="3" |Total
 * style="text-align:right;" |1,808
 * style="text-align:right;" |301
 * style="text-align:right;" |301
 * style="text-align:right;" |301
 * style="text-align:right;" |±0.0%
 * style="text-align:right;" |12,857,773
 * style="text-align:right;" |100%
 * style="text-align:right;" |-
 * style="text-align:left;" colspan="11" |Sources: Elections Canada Web Site History of Federal Ridings since 1867
 * }
 * style="text-align:left;" colspan="11" |Sources: Elections Canada Web Site History of Federal Ridings since 1867
 * }
 * }

Notes:

"% change" refers to change from previous election

* – Party did not nominate candidates in the previous election

1 – percentage change from Reform Party of Canada in previous election.

Results by province
Source: Elections Canada

Gains and losses
The following seats changed allegiance from the 1997 election:

 * Liberal to Alliance
 * Lanark—Carleton
 * Provencher
 * Renfrew—Nipissing—Pembroke
 * Richmond

 * Liberal to NDP
 * Windsor—St. Clair

 * Alliance to PC
 * Calgary Centre

 * Bloc to Liberal
 * Beauharnois—Salaberry
 * Bonaventure—Gaspé—Îles-de-la-Madeleine—Pabok
 * Frontenac—Mégantic
 * Laval East
 * Louis-Hébert
 * Portneuf
 * Quebec East

 * NDP to Liberal
 * Beauséjour—Petitcodiac
 * Bras d'Or—Cape Breton
 * Churchill River
 * Halifax West
 * Sydney—Victoria
 * Yukon

 * NDP to Alliance
 * Kamloops, Thompson and Highland Valleys
 * Regina—Lumsden—Lake Centre
 * Saskatoon—Rosetown—Biggar

 * PC to Liberal
 * Burin—St. George's
 * Chicoutimi
 * Compton—Stanstead
 * Madawaska—Restigouche
 * Markham
 * Shefford
 * Tobique—Mactaquac
 * West Nova

 * PC to Bloc
 * Sherbrooke

 * Independent to Liberal
 * York South—Weston

10 closest ridings
1.Champlain, QC: Marcel Gagnon (BQ) def. Julie Boulet (Lib) by 15 votes

2.Laval Centre, QC: Madeleine Dalphond-Guiral (BQ) def. Pierre Lafleur (Lib) by 42 votes

3.Leeds—Grenville, ON: Joe Jordan (Lib) def. Gord Brown (CA) by 55 votes

4.Saskatoon—Rosetown—Biggar, SK: Carol Skelton (CA) def. Dennis Gruending (NDP) by 68 votes

5.Yukon, YT: Larry Bagnell (Lib) def. Louise Hardy (NDP) by 70 votes

6.Tobique—Mactaquac, NB: Andy Savoy (Lib) def. Gilles Bernier (PC) by 150 votes

7.Regina—Lumsden—Lake Centre, SK: Larry Spencer (CA) def. John Solomon (NDP) by 161 votes

8.Regina—Qu'Appelle, SK: Lorne Nystrom (NDP) def. Don Leier (CA) by 164 votes

9.Palliser, SK: Dick Proctor (NDP) def. Don Findlay (CA) by 209 votes

10.Matapédia—Matane, QC: Jean-Yves Roy (BQ) def. Marc Bélanger (Lib) by 276 votes

11.Cardigan, PE: Lawrence MacAulay (Lib) def. Kevin MacAdam (PC) by 276 votes

title: 2000 Canadian federal election


text:
Divergent boundary

In plate tectonics, a divergent boundary or divergent plate boundary (also known as a constructive boundary or an extensional boundary) is a linear feature that exists between two tectonic plates that are moving away from each other. Divergent boundaries within continents initially produce rifts, which eventually become rift valleys. Most active divergent plate boundaries occur between oceanic plates and exist as mid-oceanic ridges.

Current research indicates that complex convection within the Earth's mantle allows material to rise to the base of the lithosphere beneath each divergent plate boundary. This supplies the area with huge amounts of heat and a reduction in pressure that melts rock from the asthenosphere (or upper mantle) beneath the rift area, forming large flood basalt or lava flows. Each eruption occurs in only a part of the plate boundary at any one time, but when it does occur, it fills in the opening gap as the two opposing plates move away from each other.

Over millions of years, tectonic plates may move many hundreds of kilometers away from both sides of a divergent plate boundary. Because of this, rocks closest to a boundary are younger than rocks further away on the same plate.

Description

At divergent boundaries, two plates move away from each other and the space that this creates is filled with new crustal material sourced from molten magma that forms below. The origin of new divergent boundaries at triple junctions is sometimes thought to be associated with the phenomenon known as hotspots. Here, exceedingly large convective cells bring very large quantities of hot asthenospheric material near the surface, and the kinetic energy is thought to be sufficient to break apart the lithosphere.

Divergent boundaries are typified in the oceanic lithosphere by the rifts of the oceanic ridge system, including the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the East Pacific Rise, and in the continental lithosphere by rift valleys such as the famous East African Great Rift Valley. Divergent boundaries can create massive fault zones in the oceanic ridge system. Spreading is generally not uniform, so where spreading rates of adjacent ridge blocks are different, massive transform faults occur. These are the fracture zones, many bearing names, that are a major source of submarine earthquakes. A seafloor map will show a rather strange pattern of blocky structures that are separated by linear features perpendicular to the ridge axis. If one views the seafloor between the fracture zones as conveyor belts carrying the ridge on each side of the rift away from the spreading center the action becomes clear. Crest depths of the old ridges, parallel to the current spreading center, will be older and deeper... (from thermal contraction and subsidence).

It is at mid-ocean ridges that one of the key pieces of evidence forcing acceptance of the seafloor spreading hypothesis was found. Airborne geomagnetic surveys showed a strange pattern of symmetrical magnetic reversals on opposite sides of ridge centers. The pattern was far too regular to be coincidental as the widths of the opposing bands were too closely matched. Scientists had been studying polar reversals and the link was made by Lawrence W. Morley, Frederick John Vine and Drummond Hoyle Matthews in the Morley–Vine–Matthews hypothesis. The magnetic banding directly corresponds with the Earth's polar reversals. This was confirmed by measuring the ages of the rocks within each band. The banding furnishes a map in time and space of both spreading rate and polar reversals.

Examples

 * Mid-Atlantic Ridge
 * Red Sea Rift
 * Baikal Rift Zone - incipient plate boundary
 * East African Rift - incipient plate boundary
 * East Pacific Rise
 * Gakkel Ridge
 * Galapagos Rise
 * Explorer Ridge
 * Juan de Fuca Ridge
 * Pacific-Antarctic Ridge
 * West Antarctic Rift System
 * Southeast Indian Ridge

Other plate boundary types

 * Convergent boundary
 * Transform boundary

title: Divergent boundary


text:
Belili

Belili was a Mesopotamian goddess. This name refers both to a sister of Dumuzi known from some of the texts pertaining to his death, and to a primordial deity paired with Alala and listed in enumerations of ancestors of Anu. There is no consensus among researchers if they should be considered one and the same.

Name
Belili's name has no plausible etymology in Sumerian or any Semitic language, and based on its structure it has been compared to other divine names whose origin also remains a mystery, such as Alala, Aruru, Bunene and Zababa. Belili is also attested as an ordinary given name, one of the so-called banana names known from both Mesopotamia and Elam. Names with this structure are particularly common in the earliest Akkadian documents from Gasur (later known as Nuzi). It has been proposed that such names, both divine and ordinary, originate in a substrate language (so-called "proto-Euphratic"), but this conclusion is not universally accepted, and Gonzalo Rubio points out that they might simply represent a naming pattern among speakers of Akkadian. Manfred Krebernik suggests that they were a type of hypocorism (pet name).

The proposal that the theonym Belili was a contracted or corrupted form of the epithet Belet-ili is regarded as baseless today.

Character
Belili appears in two distinct roles in Mesopotamian texts, as a sister of Dumuzi and as a primordial deity counted among the ancestors of Anu. Andrew R. George and Wilfred G. Lambert consider the sister of Dumuzi and the ancestor of Anu to be the same goddess. However, according to Manfred Krebernik, it is uncertain if Belili the sister of Dumuzi and Belili the primordial deity were related in any way.

Sister of Dumuzi
An explicit reference to the Belili as Dumuzi's sister is only present in the myth Ishtar's Descent, though they appear together in other texts as well. Other deities considered to be Dumuzi's relatives were Geshtinanna, well attested as his sister, and their mother Duttur. Belili is described as a mourner in the incantation series Šurpu, which might be a reference to her relation to Dumuzi.

It has been argued that similar to Belet-Seri, Belili was understood as the Akkadian counterpart of Geshtinanna. However, Manfred Krebernik considers Belili and Gesthinanna to be two independent goddesses each of whom could be described as Dumuzi's sister. Furthermore, both of them appear in separate roles in the myth Dumuzi's Dream.

Primordial deity
In lists of the sky god Anu's ancestors, Belili was typically paired with Alala, and together they occupy the final place in multiple documents enumerating such deities. This most likely indicates they could be regarded as Anu's parents. In the incantation series Udug Hul they appear in an enumeration of primeval deities: "Dūri, Dāri; Laḫmu, Laḫamu; Engur, Ningarra; Alāla; Bēlili." A single god list (K 4349) equates them with each other. According to Andrew R. George, this pair is also present in an unpublished hymn dedicated to the city of Borsippa. However, they were not associated with each other in other contexts, and according to Wilfred G. Lambert it is possible that they only came to be regarded as a couple because of both of their names being iterative.

Worship
Belili was commonly worshiped alongside Dumuzi. E-Arali (Sumerian: "house, netherworld"), a well known shrine dedicated to this god located in his cult center Bad-tibira, also occurs as a location dedicated to Belili in the Canonical Temple List. Another temple dedicated to both of them was the E-erra (Sumerian: "house of lament"), though its location is unknown.

A temple dedicated to Belili, the Ekadimma, was located in Babylon. In a single administrative text it is paired with a sparsely attested temple of Shara for unknown reasons. Andrew R. George used its absence from the Canonical temple List to estimate the date of this document's composition as the second half of the Kassite period, since it postdates the foundation of Dur-Kurigalzu, but makes no mention of temples commonly listed in sources from Babylonia and Assyria from the late second and first millennium BCE, postdating the fall of the Kassite dynasty. Belili was also worshiped in Esagil complex, in this case sharing a cultic seat with Alala.

Some temples dedicated to Belili alone are also known from the Canonical Temple List, but their locations are unknown. They include the E-TIN-na, possibly to be read as Ekurunna, "house of liquor," and the Euruku, "house, pure city."

Mythology
Belili is attested in a number of literary texts dealing with the death of Dumuzi. In Dumuzi's Dream, Dumuzi wants to hide in her house while being chased by demons. Belili agrees and offers him water, but later she has to leave, which lets the pursuers enter her house and take Dumuzi to the underworld. She is described as an old woman. Geshtinanna appears in the same myth in a different role. In Ishtar's Descent, a late Akkadian reinterpretation of an earlier Sumerian myth, Belili listens to the laments heard when Dumuzi dies and has to enter the underworld. The term used to describe these sounds is ikkillu, "an inarticulate cry expressing suffering of high intensity."

In the Desert by the Early Grass, a collection of laments dedicated to temporarily dying gods mourned by their respective mothers or sisters, mentions Belili alongside Amashilama, Ninazimua, Geshtinanna and three deities whose names are not preserved.

title: Belili


text:
Lilin

Lilin (לילין) were hostile night spirits that attacked men in ancient Mesopotamian religion and Jewish folklore.

Judaism
In Jewish mythology, Lilin is a term for night spirits.

Biblical apocrypha
In the Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch, lilin come from the desert and they are similar to shedim.

title: Lilin


text:
Talk:Glimpses of World History

A feature which is unique in historical literature, atleast by Indian authors if not in the world, is the parallel analysis of various civilizations in the same frame of time - to compare the 'civilized' Roman kings watching their subjects being gored to death in the colliseum with their queens; and the so called 'barbarian' king Ashoka was renunciating war after Kalinga - A master's touch.

sp

Its impossible for Sonia Gandhi to have subsidised this book when it was first published- so many decades off!!!!Anyway, whoever subsidised the book is an irrelevant detail]I am surprised how long such an error could remain.

-- It shud have been written "The book is published by Oxford and currently being subsidised by Sonia Gandhi." and i dont feel that it is irrelevant becos it is one among the many things which illustrate the dynastic nature of the Nehru family. -- I agree but that does not have anything to do with the book as such. It can be taken up elsewhere in some political section.

title: Talk:Glimpses of World History


text:
Unix File System

The Unix file system (UFS) is a family of file systems supported by many Unix and Unix-like operating systems. It is a distant descendant of the original filesystem used by Version 7 Unix.

Design
A UFS volume is composed of the following parts:

 * A few blocks at the beginning of the partition reserved for boot blocks (which must be initialized separately from the filesystem)
 * A superblock, containing a magic number identifying this as a UFS filesystem, and some other vital numbers describing this filesystem's geometry and statistics and behavioral tuning parameters
 * A collection of cylinder groups. Each cylinder group has the following components:
 * A backup copy of the superblock
 * A cylinder group header, with statistics, free lists, etc., about this cylinder group, similar to those in the superblock
 * A number of inodes, each containing file attributes
 * A number of data blocks

Inodes are numbered sequentially, starting at 0. Inode 0 is reserved for unallocated directory entries, inode 1 was the inode of the bad block file in historical UNIX versions, followed by the inode for the root directory, which is always inode 2 and the inode for the lost+found directory which is inode 3.

Directory files contain only the list of filenames in the directory and the inode associated with each file. All file metadata are kept in the inode.

History and evolution
Early Unix filesystems were referred to simply as FS. FS only included the boot block, superblock, a clump of inodes, and the data blocks. This worked well for the small disks early Unixes were designed for, but as technology advanced and disks grew larger, moving the head back and forth between the clump of inodes and the data blocks they referred to caused thrashing. Marshall Kirk McKusick, then a Berkeley graduate student, optimized the V7 FS layout to create BSD 4.2's FFS (Fast File System) by inventing cylinder groups, which break the disk up into smaller chunks, with each group having its own inodes and data blocks.

The intent of BSD FFS is to try to localize associated data blocks and metadata in the same cylinder group and, ideally, all of the contents of a directory (both data and metadata for all the files) in the same or nearby cylinder group, thus reducing fragmentation caused by scattering a directory's contents over a whole disk.

Some of the performance parameters in the superblock included number of tracks and sectors, disk rotation speed, head speed, and alignment of the sectors between tracks. In a fully optimized system, the head could be moved between close tracks to read scattered sectors from alternating tracks while waiting for the platter to spin around.

As disks grew larger and larger, sector-level optimization became obsolete (especially with disks that used linear sector numbering and variable sectors per track). With larger disks and larger files, fragmented reads became more of a problem. To combat this, BSD originally increased the filesystem block size from one sector to 1 K in 4.0 BSD; and, in FFS, increased the filesystem block size from 1 K to 8 K. This has several effects. The chance of a file's sectors being contiguous is much greater. The amount of overhead to list the file's blocks is reduced, while the number of bytes representable by any given number of blocks is increased.

Larger disk sizes are also possible, since the maximum number of blocks is limited by a fixed bit-width block number. However, with larger block sizes, disks with many small files will waste space, since each file must occupy at least one block. Because of this, BSD added block-level fragmentation, also called block suballocation, tail merging, or tail packing, where the last partial block of data from several files may be stored in a single "fragment" block instead of multiple mostly empty blocks.

The work on Berkeley FFS was widely adopted by other Unix vendors, and the family of filesystems derived from it are collectively known as UFS.

Implementations
Vendors of some proprietary Unix systems, such as SunOS / Solaris, System V Release 4, HP-UX, and Tru64 UNIX, and open Unix derived systems like illumos, have adopted UFS. Most of them adapted UFS to their own uses, adding proprietary extensions that may not be recognized by other vendors' versions of Unix. Many have continued to use the original block size and data field widths as the original UFS, so some degree of read compatibility remains across platforms. Compatibility between implementations as a whole is spotty at best.

As of Solaris 7, Sun Microsystems included UFS Logging, which brought filesystem journaling to UFS, which is still available in current versions of Solaris and illumos. Solaris UFS also has extensions for large files and large disks and other features.

In 4.4BSD and BSD Unix systems derived from it, such as FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD, and DragonFlyBSD, the implementation of UFS1 and UFS2 is split into two layers: an upper layer that provides the directory structure and supports metadata (permissions, ownership, etc.) in the inode structure, and lower layers that provide data containers implemented as inodes. This was done to support both the traditional FFS and the LFS log-structured file system with shared code for common functions. The upper layer is called "UFS", and the lower layers are called "FFS" and "LFS". In some of those systems, the term "FFS" is used for the combination of the FFS lower layer and the UFS upper layer, and the term "LFS" is used for the combination of the LFS lower layer and the UFS upper layer.

Kirk McKusick implemented block reallocation, a technique that reorders the blocks in the file system just before the writes are done to reduce fragmentation and control file system aging. He also implemented soft updates, a mechanism that maintains the file system consistency without limiting the performance in the way the traditional sync mode did. This has the side effect of reducing the requirement of file system checking after a crash or power failure. To overcome the remaining issues after a failure, a background fsck utility was introduced.

In UFS2, Kirk McKusick and Poul-Henning Kamp extended the FreeBSD FFS and UFS layers to add 64-bit block pointers (allowing volumes to grow up to 8 zebibytes), variable-sized blocks (similar to extents), extended flag fields, additional 'birthtime' stamps, extended attribute support and POSIX1.e ACLs. UFS2 became the supported UFS version starting with FreeBSD 5.0. FreeBSD also introduced soft updates and the ability to make file system snapshots for both UFS1 and UFS2. These have since been ported to NetBSD, but eventually soft updates (called soft dependencies in NetBSD) was removed from NetBSD 6.0 in favor of the less complex file system journaling mechanism called WAPBL (also referred as logging), which was added to FFS in NetBSD 5.0. OpenBSD has supported soft updates since version 2.9 and has had UFS2 (FFS2) support (no ACLs) since version 4.2. OpenBSD has now made UFS2 the default UFS version and will be included with the 6.7 release. Since FreeBSD 7.0, UFS also supports filesystem journaling using the gjournal GEOM provider. FreeBSD 9.0 adds support for lightweight journaling on top of soft updates (SU+J), which greatly reduces the need for background fsck, and NFSv4 ACLs.

FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD, and DragonFly BSD also include the Dirhash system, developed by Ian Dowse. This system maintains an in-memory hash table to speed up directory lookups. Dirhash alleviates a number of performance problems associated with large directories in UFS.

Linux includes a UFS implementation for binary compatibility at the read level with other Unixes, but since there is no standard implementation for the vendor extensions to UFS, Linux does not have full support for writing to UFS. The native Linux ext2 filesystem was inspired by UFS1 but does not support fragments and there are no plans to implement soft updates. (In some 4.4BSD-derived systems, the UFS layer can use an ext2 layer as a container layer, just as it can use FFS and LFS.)

NeXTStep, which was BSD-derived, also used a version of UFS. In Apple's Mac OS X, it was available as an alternative to HFS+, their proprietary filesystem. However, as of Mac OS X Leopard, it was no longer possible to install Mac OS X on a UFS-formatted volume. In addition, one cannot upgrade older versions of Mac OS X installed on UFS-formatted volumes to Leopard; upgrading requires reformatting the startup volume. There was a 4 GB file limit for disks formatted as UFS in Mac OS X. As of Mac OS X Lion, UFS support was completely dropped.

title: Unix File System


text:
Punk in Drublic

Punk in Drublic is the fifth studio album by the American punk rock band NOFX. It was released on July 19, 1994, through Epitaph Records. The title is a spoonerism of "Drunk in Public".

Punk in Drublic is NOFX's most successful album to date, peaking at number 12 on Billboard's Heatseekers chart. The album has received positive reviews and is now considered a classic punk album by fans and critics alike. Six years after its release, it became the band's only gold record for sales of over 500,000 copies in the United States. Worldwide, the record has sold over 1 million copies.

Reception and legacy
The AllMusic review by Stephen Thomas Erlewine awards the album 4.5 stars and states: "The quartet didn't change their approach at all — at their core, they remain a heavy, speed-addled, hook-conscious post-hardcore punk group — but their songwriting has improved, as has their attack."

Accolades
* denotes an unordered list

The album was a big influence on Blink-182's Cheshire Cat (1995), Unwritten Law's Oz Factor (1996), Lagwagon's Let's Talk About Feelings (1998), Sum 41's All Killer No Filler (2001) and Anti-Flag's The General Strike (2012).

NOFX

 * Fat Mike - vocals, bass
 * Eric Melvin - guitar
 * El Hefe - guitar
 * Herb Reath Stinks - drums

Additional personnel

 * Mark Curry - additional vocals in "Perfect Government"
 * Kim Shattuck - additional vocals in "Lori Meyers"
 * Chris Dowd - trombone in "Dig"
 * Kenny Lyon - additional guitars
 * Mr. Rojers - steel drums in "My Heart Is Yearning"
 * New Jew Revue - gang vocals in "The Brews"
 * Ryan Greene; Fat Mike - producers
 * Ryan Greene - mixing, engineer
 * Steve Kravac - assistant engineer

Album notes

 * The song "Jeff Wears Birkenstocks" was written about Jeff Abarta an Epitaph Records employee. In 2017, the Birkenstock company produced a short-form documentary about how the song came together that includes new interviews on the subject with Jeff and Fat Mike. Jeff later founded a band called Punk Is Dead that performs punk rock covers of Grateful Dead songs, and currently plays bass in Total Massacre as "Jeff Massacre."
 * "Linoleum" is referenced in the Pilot episode of One Tree Hill, when protagonist Lucas Scott notices a NOFX sticker on one of Peyton Sawyer's folders, he sings the line "that's me inside your head."
 * Track 17 contains a hidden track starting at 5:29, after three minutes of silence; guitarist El Hefe performs impressions of cartoon characters, such as Yosemite Sam and Popeye.
 * The song "Jeff Wears Birkenstocks?" is included in the EA Sports video game NCAA Football 06.
 * The song "Linoleum" was released as DLC for the music video game Guitar Hero World Tour.
 * The song "Linoleum" was also featured in the soundtrack for the game Grind Session.
 * "Linoleum" is also covered by hardcore-punk band Shai Hulud, post-third wave ska band Streetlight Manifesto on their 2010 album 99 Songs of Revolution, Bad Astronaut, August Burns Red and Frank Turner
 * The song "Lori Meyers" was covered by Aiden as a hidden track on their album Knives.
 * The song "Dying Degree" was covered by Evergreen Terrace on their cover album Writer's Block.
 * The song "Leave It Alone" references another song, "Bringing In the Sheaves", written in 1874 by Knowles Shaw. It is a popular American gospel song strongly associated with Protestant Christians. Despite this fact, both credited songwriters, Fat Mike and Eric Melvin are Jewish.
 * The song "Leave It Alone" was also featured in the soundtrack for the game Watch Dogs 2.

title: Punk in Drublic


text:
Folklorama

Folklorama is an event that runs for two weeks each August in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. Visitors to the festival are invited to sample cuisine and celebrate the cultural and ethnic heritage of people from dozens of cultures who have made Winnipeg their home. Folklorama is the world's largest and longest-running multicultural festival.

Each culture has an assigned venue, known as a pavilion. Typically there are over 40 pavilions presented throughout the city, with half operating in week one and half in week two of the festival. Each pavilion presents a show featuring the song and dance of their culture, along with trademark ethnic cuisine and a cultural display. Some pavilions also incorporate additional services such as henna tattoo application, steel pan drum workshops, and some have late night parties. Most pavilions provide imported cultural beverage.

Folklorama provides exposure to cultural groups and brings in thousands of tourists each year, adding to the city's economy. It is the largest and longest-running festival of its kind in the world. The Folk Arts Council of Winnipeg is the organizing body of Folklorama.

History
Folklorama was first held in August 1970, as a Centennial Folk Festival sponsored jointly by the City of Winnipeg and the Folk Arts Council of Manitoba. It was originally intended to be a one-time occurrence in celebration of Manitoba's centennial. It was deemed such a success that it became an annual event. The first festival was only a week long, featuring 21 different cultures. The Indian, Greek, Portuguese, Ukraine, and the Africa/Caribbean Pavilions were one of the festival's original six pavilions; it drew approximately 50,000 people across 75,000 separate pavilion visits. The festival adopted its current two-week format in 1988, with half of the pavilions open in each week.

The Folklorama logo was designed by Andy Stout who won the provincial logo contest in 1980. The 4 figures in the logo represent people from the four corners of the globe, who are intertwined, with arms raised in celebration. The festival's mascot, the Folklorama Llama, was created in 1986.

Until 1989, pavilions would have a mayor and a queen. The queen would be in the running for the Miss Folklorama pageant at the closing ceremony of the Festival. The Miss Folklorama pageant was not a beauty pageant but a "contest of ethnic preservation and presentation", as the pavilion queens were scored based on 40% knowledge of culture and country, 40% on participation and 20% on poise and personality. Since 1990, pavilions now feature two adult ambassadors and two youth ambassadors, neither of whom must be of a specific gender.

The 50th edition of the Folklorama festival was in 2019. There were 22 pavilions in the first week including: African, Argentina "Tango", Budapest-Hungaria, Caribbean, Celtic Ireland, Chile, Egyptian, El Salvador, Ethiopian, First Nations, German, Greek, India, Israel "Shalom Square", Korean, España-Spain, Portugal, Scandinavian, Serbian/Beograd, Slovenija, Ukraine "Spirt of the Ukraine", and the United Kingdom. There were 23 pavilions in the second week, including: Africa/Caribbean, Brazilian, Canadien-Français, Chilean, Chinese, Croatian "Zagreb", Hungary-Pannonia, Irish, Italian, Japanese, Métis, Mexican, Scotland, Philippines "Pearl of the Orient", Portuguese "Casa do Minho", Polish, Punjab, Romanian, Russian, Serbian "Kolo", South Sudanese, Tamil, and Ukraine-Kyiv.

Folklorama was cancelled in 2020 and 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, but resumed in 2022 with 24 pavilions and a 14% increase in attendance over 2019. In 2023, the number of pavilions offered increased to 40.

Program areas
Throughout the year, Folklorama is sustained by its Ethno-Cultural Arts Division and programs: Folklorama at Home, Folklorama at School, Folklorama at Work, and Folklorama at Play.

Statistics

 * On average, Folklorama receives approximately 400,000 pavilion visits each year. The 2022 Festival received 168,516 pavilion visits to 24 pavilions. The majority of those who attend the Festival visit more than one pavilion.
 * About 21% of pavilion visitors come from outside of Winnipeg.
 * Typically, more than 3,000 entertainers perform at more than 1,500 shows throughout the two-week Festival.
 * On average, 600,000 meals are served and 1,000,000 beverages are poured before the conclusion of the Festival.
 * Approximately 20,000 volunteers participate to make Folklorama possible.
 * Folklorama has an economic impact of about $14.7 million on the Manitoba economy.

title: Folklorama


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Talk:Tuvaluan language

Untitled
What does "Nuclear Polynesian language" mean? -- RickK
 * "Nuclear" is a subfamily of the Polynesian languages; I believe "Polynesian Outlier languages" is a nother one. See the taxobox at Maori language, for example. -- pne 17:27, 24 Jun 2004 (UTC)

"Tuvaluan is a Nuclear Polynesian language of the Ellicean group spoken in Tuvalu. It has common words with other Polynesian languages"

This is true for all Polynesian languages. It would be interesting to point out differences rather than similarities. Apokrif 14:13, 28 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 8 September 2020 and 18 December 2020. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Lauraz12345.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 11:49, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

Infobox
I've added the infobox along the side. The info's from the Ethnologue website. It's my first box, feel free to spruce it up.--Stella luna 02:37, 23 July 2006 (UTC)

Tuvaluan Scouting
Can someone render "Be Prepared", the Scout Motto, into Tuvaluan? Thanks! Chris 06:55, 8 August 2007 (UTC)

Tuvaluan phonology
Niko Besnier (2000. Tuvaluan: A Polynesian Language of the Central Pacific. London: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-02456-0, p. 609) as well as Geoff and Jenny Jackson (1999. An introduction to Tuvaluan. Suva: Oceania Printers, pp.6-7, ) both state that the labial fricative phonemes of Tuvaluan are labio-dental, and not bilabial. Only the voiced labial fricative may "in casual speech, sometimes" be bilabial, according to Besnier (who uses the term labio-labial). This, however, is not the norm. Besnier's field research was mostly done on Nukulaelae. During my own almost twelve-year-long linguistic field research on Funafuti, I have never heard the labial fricatives being realised as [ɸ] and [β] but always as [f] and [v]. The phoneme /h/ is still in general, not limited, use in the Nanumea and Nanumaga dialects, especially in the speech of older speakers, including in some loanwords (Besnier, op. cit., pp. 609-610). Manuelatolua (talk) 17:26, 28 February 2012 (UTC). The native name of this language is "Te Ggana Tuuvalu" (southern dialects), or "Te Gagana Tuuvalu" (northern dialects). The southern dialects have a geminate =[ŋ], whereas the northern ones have the (original) partially reduplicated form. The southern variant "ggana" is the result of the deletion of the first vowel between the two identical consonants. The author of this article seems to prefer Niko Besnier's orthography (employing double letters), not the one proposed by the Tuvalu Language Board (TLB, employing macrons and apostrophies), and consequently the name Tuvalu should be spelled "Tuuvalu" in Tuvaluan because, phonetically speaking, the first vowel is long (phonemically speaking, it is a sequence of two identical vowels).Manuelatolua (talk) 11:57, 29 February 2012 (UTC)

Articles
According to the article, Tuvaluan possesses three articles, not four. I don't know which theory of grammar the article follows, but "a zero article" is something that doesn't exists. Hence there are three, not four. You might as well say that languages without articles (Latin, Russian etc.) have any number of "zero articles". You might also say that languages, which possess a definite article but not an indefinite one have a "zero indefinite article". Am I the only one to think this is nonsense? All the best 85.220.22.139 (talk) 16:04, 10 August 2013 (UTC)

title: Talk:Tuvaluan language