text:
Beer pong

Beer pong, also known as Beirut, is a drinking game in which players throw a ping pong ball across a table with the intent of landing the ball in a cup of beer on the other end. The game typically consists of opposing teams of two or more players per side with 6 or 10 cups set up in a triangle formation on each side. Each team then takes turns attempting to throw ping-pong balls into the opponent's cups. If the team "makes" a cup - that is, the ball lands in it, and stays in it - the contents of the cup are consumed by the other team and the cup is removed from the table. The first team to eliminate all of the opponent's cups is the winner.

Venues
Beer pong is played at parties, bars, and at colleges and universities, along with other venues such as tailgating at sporting events.

Origin and name

The game was originally believed to have evolved from the original beer pong played with paddles which is generally regarded to have had its origins within the fraternities of Dartmouth College in the U.S. in the 1950s and 1960s, where it has since become part of the social culture of the campus. The original version resembled an actual ping pong game with a net and one or more cups of beer on each side of the table. Eventually, a version without paddles was invented and the names Beer Pong and Beirut were adopted in some areas of the United States sometime in the 1980s. In some places, Beer Pong refers to the version of the game with paddles, and Beirut to the version without.

Bucknell University's student-run newspaper, The Bucknellian, claims Delta Upsilon fraternity members at Bucknell created "Throw Pong", a game very similar to beer pong, during the 1970s, and that "Throw Pong" was then brought to Lehigh University by fraternity brothers who visited Bucknell and this led to the creation of the version of beer pong that is played today.

The origin of the name "Beirut" is disputed. A 2004 op-ed article in The Daily Princetonian, the student newspaper at Princeton University, suggested that the name was possibly coined at Bucknell or Lehigh University around the time of the Lebanese Civil War. Beirut, the capital of Lebanon, was the scene of much fighting during the war, particularly mortar fire.

Teams
Beer pong is usually played with two teams of two to four players each. Each team begins the game by standing at either end of the table behind their rack of cups.

Playing field
Although the game is typically played on either a ping pong table or a folding banquet table, enthusiasts may create a personalized table for use by friends and visitors. In general, this will be a plywood board cut to proper size, sometimes painted with sports, school, or fraternity symbols and given a liquid-proof coating. Some companies sell tables, including portable and inflatable tables. However, the game can be played on any flat surface.

Equipment

The most common cups used are 18 USfloz disposable plastic cups (such as red Solo cups) with ridge-lines which can be used precisely to measure the amount of beer to be poured into the cup. On each side of the table, teams assemble equilateral triangles with a convergence point focusing on the other team. Games typically use ten cups. Each team usually also has a separate cup of water used to rinse off the ball.

Alcohol
An inexpensive pale lager or light beer of 3.2–5% ABV is sometimes preferred because of the large quantities consumed during the course of several games. Sometimes under house rules, there might be cups of other liquors used during the game. For non-drinkers, the game may be played without beer, as is done at Utah State University, where alcohol is not allowed on campus; root beer is used instead. For sanitary reasons, the game may also be played with cups of water that players do not drink from, instead drinking from a separate cup of beer or alcohol.

Game play

Traditionally, the game of beer pong has been played by countless variations of rule sets. In recent years, organizations such as The World Series of Beer Pong have put forth "official" rules. Typically, players abide by a uniform set of "house rules" which are often consistent within one university or region of the country (e.g. "West Coast rules") or may vary on a "house-by-house" basis. Number of cups, bouncing, re-racking, amount of alcohol, distance shots must be taken from, etc. may all vary. All house rules should be posted or verbally stated and understood by both teams before the game starts.

The order of play varies - both players on one team can shoot, followed by both players on the other team, or players on opposite teams can alternate back and forth. A cup that is made must immediately have its contents drunk and be removed from play. Some rule sets allow for "re-racking" (also known as "reforming", "rearranging", "consolidation", and other names), which is a rearrangement of a team's remaining cups after some have been removed. The formations, number of cups, when to rearrange and so on, depend on the rule set. For example, a team with three remaining cups may ask the other team to "re-rack" the cups into a single triangle formation.

Common house rules allow players to 'finger' or blow the ball out of the cup if the ball spins around the inner rim. Another common house rule states that if a team makes both shots during their turn, a 'rollback' occurs allowing each player on that team to shoot again. In the World Series of Beer Pong rules, only a single-ball 'rollback' occurs resulting in a three cup maximum that can be made per turn.

Before shooting, teams may dunk the ping pong balls into cups of water in order to wash off the balls. However, research has shown that the wash cups can still hold bacteria such as E. coli. As a result, players may put water in the cups instead of beer, keeping a separate beer on the side to drink from.

Shot techniques

The most common throwing technique is the arc shot, where one grasps the ping pong ball with the tips of the thumb and forefinger, holds the arm at an angle with the ball upwards, then throws using a gentle elbow motion holding the upper arm parallel with the table.

Some players throw "fastball" style which uses more of a hard chopping motion to send the ball in a more direct line toward the intended target cup. A fastball shot may be favorable if house rules dictate that a cup knocked over is removed from the table, in which case a fastball can eliminate multiple cups if thrown hard enough.

A bounce shot is performed by bouncing the ball towards the cups. Depending on house rules, if the other team has the opportunity to swat away a bounced ball, a bounce shot may be worth more than one cup.

Winning the game
If a team makes their last cup, the other team loses unless they can make all of their remaining cups; this is called a rebuttal or redemption. If the losing team can hit their redemption shots, then the game is forced into overtime where three cups are used instead of the normal ten cups.

Another 'house rule' can be stated before or during the game in the midst of a shutout. A shutout in beer pong occurs if one team makes all ten of their cups and the opposite team makes none of their cups. If the shutout does occur, the losing team must do whatever the two teams decided on, such as going streaking (naked lap) or drinking a large quantity of beer.

Also depending on 'house rules', there are other ways to end the game. Cups that were accidentally left in the rack after being made are known as death/kill cups. These cups will immediately end the game if made again.

Health effects
The game may have several associated health risks. As with any activity involving alcohol, beer pong may cause players to become drunken or even intoxicated enough to suffer alcohol poisoning. Some writers have mentioned beer pong as contributing to "out of control" college drinking.

The supposed cleaning effects of the water "dunk" cup may be offset by bacteria in the cups. During the COVID-19 pandemic, a group of young people in Denmark were thought to have contracted the virus as a result of playing a version of the game where they held the table tennis balls in their mouths and spat them into the cups.

Legal restrictions

Some municipalities and states have attempted to ban beer pong from bars or in general because of the belief that it encourages binge drinking (see Health effects above). In Oxford, Ohio, where Miami University is located, the city council tried to ban the game from being played outdoors. In Arlington, Virginia and Champaign-Urbana, Illinois, bar owners were told to stop allowing the game to be played in their establishments. In the fall of 2007, Georgetown University officially banned all beer pong paraphernalia such as custom-built tables and the possession of many ping-pong balls.

Time magazine ran an article on July 31, 2008, "The War Against Beer Pong", which noted legal restrictions and bans on the game in colleges and elsewhere.

In many states, players have taken to placing water in cups to hold organized beer pong tournaments legally in bars. Some examples can be found in Michigan, Massachusetts, North Carolina, and Pennsylvania.

Tournaments and leagues
Beer pong tournaments are held in the United States at the local, regional, and national levels.

The World Series of Beer Pong (WSOBP) is the largest beer pong tournament in the world. WSOBP IV, held in January 2009 at the Flamingo Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas, Nevada, had a $50,000 grand prize and over 800 participants from the US and Canada. WSOBP V, held in January 2010, had over 1,000 participants including teams from Ireland, Scotland, Germany and Japan. The World Beer Pong Tour has stops in various cities and cash prizes as well.

A more common organization of beer pong games are leagues which operate on a local or regional level. Ordinarily, a group of pong enthusiasts will create teams (partnerships) and play weekly against each other. Sometimes, the leagues have websites, rankings and statistics, while others have been started by college students with the goal of intramural competition such as at University of California, Santa Barbara with the "Isla Vista Beer Pong League", and at New York University.

Media
The Wall Street Journal, Time and other media outlets have reported on the increase in businesses selling beer pong paraphernalia, such as tables, mats, cups, or clothes. Last Cup: Road to the World Series of Beer Pong is a documentary which follows some competitive players as they prepare for the WSOBP II and ultimately compete against one another for the $20,000 grand prize. This documentary, directed by Dan Lindsay, premiered at the CineVegas film festival on June 13, 2008. Rick Reilly wrote an entire column about The World Series of Beer Pong IV for ESPN The Magazine.

The Associated Press cited the game and other drinking games as a factor in deaths of college students.

Time magazine recently had an article on the popularity of beer pong and posted a video on their website. In both, players claimed beer pong was a sport, rather than a game—similar to billiards and darts.

The game has been a recurring segment on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon, with host Fallon playing against female celebrity guests such as Betty White, Serena Williams, Anna Kournikova, Charlize Theron and Jessica Alba.

The Colbert Report featured a segment on the CDC study hoax.

Road Trip: Beer Pong, a sequel to the 2000 comedy Road Trip, featured the game prominently. Agnes Scott College, where most of the movie was filmed, did not want to be listed in the credits after complaints from students.

Publishing
On August 29, 2009, Chronicle Books published The Book of Beer Pong, a 200-page fully illustrated guide to the game.

Bud pong
Bud pong was the branded version of beer pong that brewer Anheuser-Busch said involved the drinking of water, not Budweiser or any other beer. In the summer of 2005, the company began marketing "bud pong" kits to its distributors. Francine I. Katz, vice president for communications and consumer affairs, was reported in The New York Times as saying that bud pong was not intended for underage drinkers because promotions were held in bars, not on campuses. And it did not promote binge drinking, she said, because official rules call for water to be used, not beer.

The New York Times quoted a bartender at a club near Clemson University as saying she had worked at several bud pong events and had "never seen anyone playing with water. It's always beer. It's just like any other beer pong."

Some expressed incredulity at Anheuser-Busch's public statements. Henry Wechsler, director of the College Alcohol Study at the Harvard School of Public Health, said: "Why would alcohol companies promote games that involve drinking water? It's preposterous," while advertising news site Adjab opined that "someone playing bud pong with water is about as likely as a teenage kid using the rolling paper he bought at the convenience store to smoke tobacco."

However, the practice of playing with water has become increasingly common on college campuses, due to the cost saving effects. Instead of drinking the beer from a glass each time a player sinks a shot, the player simply takes a shot of liquor or a sip from their own drink each time the opposing team scores. This is usually done when there isn't enough beer to accommodate a large number of games during the party.

Video games
In July 2008, JV Games Inc. released a downloadable video game for the Wii console called Frat Party Games: Beer Pong. The ESRB rated it suitable for ages 13 and up, but after this was questioned by Connecticut's attorney general, the game was renamed Frat Party Games: Pong Toss and all references to alcohol were removed.

In 2013, a Beer Pong Master arcade machine was launched by Bay Tek Games, where players throw balls into empty plastic cups at the far end of the machine, attempting to extinguish their electric lights. The next year, Bay Tek released a family entertainment variant called Sink It, where it shares the same purpose, but awards tickets after the game session.

title: Beer pong


text:
Paphiopedilum

Paphiopedilum, often called the Venus slipper, is a genus of the lady slipper orchid subfamily Cypripedioideae of the flowering plant family Orchidaceae. The genus comprises some 80 accepted taxa including several natural hybrids. The genus is native to Southeast Asia, the Indian Subcontinent, southern China, New Guinea and the Solomon and Bismarck Islands. The type species of this genus is Paphiopedilum insigne.

The species and their hybrids are extensively cultivated, and are known as either paphiopedilums, or by the abbreviation paphs in horticulture.

Due to their popularity, Paphiopedilums have been ruthlessly gathered and poached from the wild, making them very rare or extinct there. As soon as a new species or population is discovered, poachers will take the plants for orchid collectors who pay large sums of money. Habitat destruction is an additional factor contributing to their rarity.

Description
Paphiopedilum species naturally occur among humus layers as terrestrials on the forest floor, while a few are true epiphytes and some are lithophytes. These sympodial orchids lack pseudobulbs. Instead, they grow robust shoots, each with several leaves; some are hemicryptophytes. The leaves can be short and rounded or long and narrow and typically have a mottled pattern. When older shoots die, newer ones take over. Each new shoot only blooms once when it is fully grown, producing a raceme between the fleshy, succulent leaves. The roots are thick and fleshy. Potted plants form a tight lump of roots that, when untangled, can be up to 1 m long.

Members of this genus are considered highly collectible by orchid fanciers due to the curious and unusual form of their flowers. Along with Cypripedium, Mexipedium, Phragmipedium and Selenipedium, the genus is a member of the subfamily Cypripedioideae, commonly referred to as the "lady's-slippers" or "slipper orchids" due to the unusual shape of the pouch-like labellum of the flower. The pouch traps insects seeking nectar, and to leave again they have to climb up past the staminode, behind which they collect or deposit pollinia. Orchids of this genus are notoriously difficult to propagate by tissue culture; as of 2016, commercial cultivation is almost exclusively seed-based. This means every plant is unique. Members of this genus have unusual stomata. Whereas most land plants' stomata have guard cells with chloroplasts in their cytoplasm (including those of closely related Phragmipedium slipper orchids), Paphiopedilum stomata do not. This difference results in simpler, but weaker control of stomatal function. For example, most plants close their stomata in response to either blue or red light, but Paphiopedilum guard cells only respond to blue light. The fact that they lack chloroplasts has made them valuable to researchers investigating stomatal function. For example, it enabled the discovery of intracellular events that precede stomatal closure.

In horticulture
The paphiopedilums are among the most widely cultivated and hybridized of orchid genera. Spectacular new species are being discovered every now and then; for example the golden slipper orchid (P. armeniacum), discovered in 1979 and described in 1982, amazed growers of orchids by the extraordinary beauty of its golden flowers. In addition, growers have bred thousands of interspecific hybrids and registered them with the Royal Horticultural Society in London over the years.

Paphiopedilums are terrestrial and evergreen in growth habit, and by careful selection of species and hybrids, it is possible to have a flowering period extending over nine months of the year. They can be grown indoors, as long as conditions that mimic their natural habitats are created. Most species thrive in moderate to high humidity (50–70%), moderate temperatures ranging from 13 to 35 degrees Celsius and low light of 12,000 to 20,000 lux. Modern hybrids are typically easier to grow in artificial conditions than their parent species.

Taxonomy and systematics
The genus name Paphiopedilum was established by Ernst Hugo Heinrich Pfitzer in 1886; it is derived from Paphos (a city in Cyprus, a place sacred to Aphrodite. It was said she landed at the site when rose from the sea as her birth.) and Ancient Greek pedilon "slipper". No paphiopedilum occurs on Cyprus – at least not as the genus is understood today. But it was long mixed up with its Holarctic relative Cypripedium, which grows in the Mediterranean region. Paphiopedilum was made a valid taxon in 1959, but its use has become restricted to eastern Asian species in our time.

Subdivisions
The genus Paphiopedilum has been divided into several subgenera, and then further into sections and subsections:
 * Subgenus Parvisepalum
 * Subgenus Brachypetalum
 * Subgenus Polyantha
 * Section Mastigopetalum
 * Section Polyantha
 * Section Mystropetalum
 * Subgenus Paphiopedilum
 * Section Stictopetalum
 * Section Paphiopedilum
 * Section Ceratopetalum
 * Section Cymatopetalum
 * Section Thiopetalum
 * Subgenus Sigmatopetalum
 * Section Spathopetalum
 * Subsection Macronidium
 * Subsection Spathopetalum
 * Section Blepharopetalum
 * Section Mastersianum
 * Section Punctatum
 * Section Barbata
 * Subsection Lorapetalum
 * Subsection Chloroneura
 * Section Planipetalum
 * Section Venustum
 * Subgenus Cochlopetalum
 * Subgenus Megastaminodium
 * Subgenus Laosianum

Selected species
There are more than 550 taxa in this genus, including some 80 valid species. Some notable species and their natural hybrids are listed here, together with some assorted varieties and forms:
 * Paphiopedilum acmodontum (Philippines)
 * Paphiopedilum adductum
 * Paphiopedilum × affine (P. appletonianum × P. villosum) (Vietnam)
 * Paphiopedilum appletonianum (Hainan to Indochina)
 * Paphiopedilum × areeanum (P. barbigerum × P. villosum var. annamense) (China: SE Yunnan)
 * Paphiopedilum argus (Philippines: Luzon)
 * Paphiopedilum armeniacum – Golden slipper orchid
 * Paphiopedilum armeniacum fma. markii
 * Paphiopedilum barbatum – Penang slipper orchid (Peninsular Thailand to Sumatra)
 * Paphiopedilum barbigerum
 * Paphiopedilum bellatulum – Egg-in-a-nest orchid (SE Yunnan, Guizhou, S Guangxi to Indochina)
 * Paphiopedilum bougainvilleanum (Solomon Islands)
 * Paphiopedilum bougainvilleanum var. bougainvilleanum (Solomon Islands: North Solomons)
 * Paphiopedilum bougainvilleanum var. saskianum (Solomon Islands: South Solomons)
 * Paphiopedilum bullenianum (Malesia)
 * Paphiopedilum bullenianum var. bullenianum (W Malaysia)
 * Paphiopedilum bullenianum var. celebesense (Sulawesi to Maluku)
 * Paphiopedilum × burbidgei (P. dayanum × P. javanicum var. virens) (Borneo)
 * Paphiopedilum callosum (Indochina to NW Peninsular Malaysia)
 * Paphiopedilum callosum var. callosum (Indochina) (including f. albinum, P. viniferum)
 * Paphiopedilum callosum var. potentianum (Thailand)
 * Paphiopedilum callosum var. warnerianum (Peninsular Thailand to NW Peninsular Malaysia)
 * Paphiopedilum canhii
 * Paphiopedilum charlesworthii
 * Paphiopedilum ciliolare
 * Paphiopedilum concolor
 * Paphiopedilum × cribbii Averyanov (S Vietnam)
 * Paphiopedilum × dalatense (P. callosum × P. villosum var. annamense) (Vietnam)
 * Paphiopedilum dayanum (Borneo)
 * Paphiopedilum delenatii
 * Paphiopedilum dianthum
 * Paphiopedilum × dixlerianum (P. callosum × P. wardii) (Myanmar)
 * Paphiopedilum druryi (S India)
 * Paphiopedilum emersonii
 * Paphiopedilum × expansum ( P. hennisianum × P. philippinense) (Philippines)
 * Paphiopedilum exul (Peninsular Thailand)
 * Paphiopedilum fairrieanum (E Himalaya to Assam)
 * Paphiopedilum × fanaticum (P. malipoense × P. micranthum) (S China)
 * Paphiopedilum fowliei
 * Paphiopedilum × frankeanum (P. superbiens × P. tonsum) (Sumatra)
 * Paphiopedilum gigantifolium (SC Sulawesi)
 * Paphiopedilum glanduliferum (NW New Guinea)
 * Paphiopedilum glaucophyllum
 * Paphiopedilum godefroyae (Peninsular Thailand)
 * Paphiopedilum gratrixianum
 * Paphiopedilum × grussianum (P. dianthum × P. hirsutissimum var. esquirolei) (China: Guangxi)
 * Paphiopedilum hangianum Perner & O.Gruss (Yunnan to Vietnam) (including f. album, P. singchii)
 * Paphiopedilum haynaldianum (Philippines: Luzon, Negros)
 * Paphiopedilum helenae Aver. (N Vietnam: Cao Bang Province ) (includes P. delicatum)
 * Paphiopedilum hennisianum (C Philippines)
 * Paphiopedilum henryanum (SE Yunnan, Guangxi to N Vietnam)
 * Paphiopedilum × herrmannii (P. helenae × P. hirsutissimum var. esquirolei) (Vietnam)
 * Paphiopedilum hirsutissimum (Assam to S China)
 * Paphiopedilum hirsutissimum var. chiwuanum (China: Yunnan)
 * Paphiopedilum hirsutissimum var. esquirolei (Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi to N & E Indochina)
 * Paphiopedilum hirsutissimum var. hirsutissimum (Assam to Myanmar)
 * Paphiopedilum hookerae (Borneo)
 * Paphiopedilum hookerae var. hookerae (Borneo: Sarawak, W. Kalimantan)
 * Paphiopedilum hookerae var. volonteanum (Borneo: Sabah)
 * Paphiopedilum insigne (Assam: Meghalaya)
 * Paphiopedilum intaniae (Sulawesi)
 * Paphiopedilum javanicum (Sumatra, Borneo to Lesser Sunda Islands)
 * Paphiopedilum javanicum var. javanicum (Sumatra to Lesser Sunda Islands)
 * Paphiopedilum javanicum var. virens (Borneo: Sabah to N Sarawak)
 * Paphiopedilum × kimballianum (P. dayanum × P. rothschildianum) (Borneo: Mt. Kinabalu)
 * Paphiopedilum kolopakingii (Borneo: C Kalimantan)
 * Paphiopedilum lawrenceanum (Borneo - Sarawak, Sabah)
 * Paphiopedilum liemianum (N. Sumatra)
 * Paphiopedilum × littleanum (P. dayanum × P. lawrenceanum) (Borneo)
 * Paphiopedilum lowii (W & C Malesia)
 * Paphiopedilum lowii var. lowii (W & C Malaysia)
 * Paphiopedilum lowii var. lynniae (Borneo)
 * Paphiopedilum lowii var. richardianum (Sulawesi)
 * Paphiopedilum malipoense – Jade slipper orchid (including P. jackii)
 * Paphiopedilum mastersianum (Lesser Sunda Islands to Maluku)
 * Paphiopedilum mastersianum var. mastersianum (Maluku: Ambon, Buru)
 * Paphiopedilum mastersianum var. mohrianum (Lesser Sunda Islands: Flores)
 * Paphiopedilum × mattesii (P. barbatum × P. bullenianum) (Peninsular Malaysia)
 * Paphiopedilum micranthum – Silver slipper orchid, hard-leaved pocket orchid
 * Paphiopedilum micranthum var. eburneum
 * Paphiopedilum micranthum var. glanzeanum (Albinistic form)
 * Paphiopedilum niveum (Peninsular Thailand to N Peninsular Malaysia)
 * Paphiopedilum ooii Koop. ; Borneo (Sabah)
 * Paphiopedilum papilio-laoticus Schuit., Luang Aphay & Iio ; Laos
 * Paphiopedilum papuanum (New Guinea)
 * Paphiopedilum parishii (Assam to W Yunnan)
 * Paphiopedilum × pereirae (P. exul × P. niveum) (Peninsular Thailand)
 * Paphiopedilum × petchleungianum (P. dianthum × P. villosum) (China: SE Yunnan)
 * Paphiopedilum philippinense (Philippines to N Borneo)
 * Paphiopedilum philippinense var. philippinense (Philippines to N Borneo)
 * Paphiopedilum philippinense var. roebelenii (Philippines: Luzon)
 * Paphiopedilum × powellii (P. callosum × P. exul) (Peninsular Thailand)
 * Paphiopedilum × pradhanii (P. fairrieanum × P. venustum) (E Himalaya)
 * Paphiopedilum primulinum (Sumatra: S Aceh)
 * Paphiopedilum primulinum var. primulinum
 * Paphiopedilum primulinum var. purpurascens
 * Paphiopedilum purpuratum (S China to Hainan)
 * Paphiopedilum purpuratum var. hainanense (Hainan)
 * Paphiopedilum purpuratum var. purpuratum (China: Yunnan, Hong Kong, Guangdong)
 * Paphiopedilum randsii (Philippines: N Mindanao)
 * Paphiopedilum rhizomatosum (Myanmar)
 * Paphiopedilum robinsonianum (Central Sulawesi)
 * Paphiopedilum rothschildianum (NW Borneo on ultramafic soil)
 * Paphiopedilum saccopetalum (China: SE Guanxi)
 * Paphiopedilum sanderianum (NW Borneo: Gunung Mulu)
 * Paphiopedilum sangii (N Sulawesi)
 * Paphiopedilum schoseri (Sulawesi to Maluku)
 * Paphiopedilum × shipwayae (P. dayanum × P. hookerae). (Borneo)
 * Paphiopedilum × siamense (P. appletonianum × P. callosum) (Thailand)
 * Paphiopedilum spicerianum
 * Paphiopedilum × spicerovenustum (P. spiceranum × P. venustum) (Assam)
 * Paphiopedilum stonei (Borneo: Sarawak)
 * Paphiopedilum stonei var. platyphyllum (Borneo: Sarawak)
 * Paphiopedilum stonei var. stonei (Borneo: S Sarawak)
 * Paphiopedilum sugiyamanum (Borneo: Sabah)
 * Paphiopedilum sukhakulii (NE Thailand)
 * Paphiopedilum supardii (Borneo: SE Kalimantan)
 * Paphiopedilum superbiens (N & W Sumatra)
 * Paphiopedilum thaianum (Thailand)
 * Paphiopedilum tigrinum (including P. smaragdinum)
 * Paphiopedilum tonsum (Rchb.f.) Stein (N & W Sumatra) (including f. alboviride)
 * Paphiopedilum tranlienianum (Vietnam)
 * Paphiopedilum tranlienianum f. alboviride (Vietnam)
 * Paphiopedilum urbanianum
 * Paphiopedilum usitanum (Philippines)
 * Paphiopedilum vejvarutianum (Thailand: Kanchanaburi)
 * Paphiopedilum × venustoinsigne (P. insigne × P. venustum) (Assam)
 * Paphiopedilum venustum (E Nepal to NE Bangladesh)
 * Paphiopedilum victoria-mariae (W Sumatra)
 * Paphiopedilum victoria-regina (including P. chamberlainianum)
 * Paphiopedilum × vietenryanum (P. gratrixianum × P. henryanum) (China: Yunnan)
 * Paphiopedilum vietnamense Gruss & Perner (Vietnam)
 * Paphiopedilum villosum (Assam to S China)
 * Paphiopedilum villosum var. annamense (Yunnan and Guangxi to Indochina)
 * Paphiopedilum villosum var. boxallii (Myanmar)
 * Paphiopedilum villosum var. villosum (Assam to Thailand) (including P. densissimum)
 * Paphiopedilum violascens (N & E New Guinea, Manus Island)
 * Paphiopedilum wardii Summerh. – Rainbow orchid (SW Yunnan to Myanmar) (including f. alboviride)
 * Paphiopedilum wardii var. teestaensis (China: SW Yunnan)
 * Paphiopedilum × wenshanense (P. bellatulum × P. concolor, including P. × conco-bellatulum)
 * Paphiopedilum wentworthianum (Solomon Islands)
 * Paphiopedilum wilhelminae (C New Guinea)

Conservation
All Paphiopedilum species are listed under Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), meaning that commercial international trade in wild-sourced specimens is prohibited, while non-commercial trade is regulated.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Paphiopedilum


text:
Mont-Saint-Michel

Mont-Saint-Michel (Norman: Mont Saint Miché; Saint Michael's Mount) is a tidal island and mainland commune in Normandy, France.

The island lies approximately 1 km off France's north-western coast, at the mouth of the Couesnon River near Avranches and is 7 ha in area. The mainland part of the commune is 393 ha in area so that the total surface of the commune is 400 ha. , the island had a population of 29.

The commune's position—on an island just a few hundred metres (yards) from land—made it accessible at low tide to the many pilgrims to its abbey, and defensible as the incoming tide stranded, drove off, or drowned would-be assailants. The island remained unconquered during the Hundred Years' War. A small garrison fended off a full attack by the English in 1433. Louis XI recognised the benefits of its natural defence and turned it into a prison. The abbey was used regularly as a prison during the Ancien Régime.

Mont-Saint-Michel and its surrounding bay were inscribed on the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites in 1979 for its unique aesthetic and importance as a Catholic site. It is visited by more than three million people each year. Over 60 buildings within the commune are protected in France as historical monuments.

In 2023, President Macron marked 1,000 years of the abbey, and the success of the hydraulic dam project and the elevated pedestrian bridge in restoring water flow in the bay, making the mount an island again.

Formation
Now a rocky tidal island, the mount occupied dry land in prehistoric times. As sea levels rose, erosion reshaped the coastal landscape, and several outcrops of granite emerged in the bay, having resisted the wear and tear of the ocean better than the surrounding rocks. These included Lillemer, Mont Dol, Tombelaine (the island just to the north), and Mont Tombe, later called Mont-Saint-Michel.

Mont-Saint-Michel consists of leucogranite which solidified from an underground intrusion of molten magma about, during the Cambrian period, as one of the younger parts of the Mancellian granitic batholith. Early studies of Mont-Saint-Michel by French geologists sometimes describe the leucogranite of the Mont as "granulite", but this granitic meaning of granulite is now obsolete.

The mount has a circumference of about 960 m and its highest point is 92 m above sea level.

Tides
The tides vary greatly, at roughly 14 m between highest and lowest water marks. Popularly nicknamed "St. Michael in peril of the sea" by medieval pilgrims making their way across the flats, the mount can still pose dangers for visitors who avoid the causeway and attempt the hazardous walk across the sands from the neighbouring coast.

Polderisation and occasional flooding have created salt marsh meadows that were found to be ideally suited to grazing sheep. The well-flavoured meat that results from the diet of the sheep in the pré salé (salt meadow) makes agneau de pré-salé (salt meadow or salt marsh lamb) a local specialty that may be found on the menus of restaurants that depend on income from the many visitors to the mount.

Tidal island
The connection between Mont-Saint-Michel and the mainland has changed over the centuries. Previously connected by a tidal causeway uncovered only at low tide, this was converted into a raised causeway in 1879, preventing the tide from scouring the silt around the mount. The coastal flats have been polderised to create pastureland, decreasing the distance between the shore and the island, and the Couesnon river has been canalised, reducing the dispersion of the flow of water. These factors have all encouraged silting-up of the bay.

In June 2006, the French prime minister and regional authorities announced a €200 million project (Projet Mont-Saint-Michel) to build a hydraulic dam using the waters of the Couesnon and the tides to help remove the accumulated silt, and to make Mont-Saint-Michel an island again. The construction of the dam began in 2009. The project included the removal of the causeway and its visitor car park. Since April 2012, the new car park on the mainland has been located 2.5 km from the island. Visitors can walk or use shuttles to cross the causeway.

In July 2014, the new bridge, by architect Dietmar Feichtinger, was opened to the public. The light bridge allows waters to flow freely around the island and improves the efficiency of the now-operational dam. The bridge, which cost €209 million, was opened by President François Hollande.

On rare occasions, tidal circumstances produce an extremely high "supertide". The new bridge was completely submerged on 21 March 2015 by the highest sea level, a once-in-18-years occurrence, as crowds gathered to snap photos.

From the 8th century onward
Before the construction of the first monastic establishment in the 8th century, the island was called Mont Tombe (tumba). According to a legend, the archangel Michael appeared in 708 to Aubert of Avranches, the bishop of Avranches, and instructed him to build a church on the rocky islet.

Unable to defend his kingdom against the assaults of the Vikings, the king of the Franks agreed to grant the Cotentin peninsula and the Avranchin, including Mont-Saint-Michel traditionally linked to the city of Avranches, to the Bretons in the Treaty of Compiègne. This marked the beginning of a brief period of Breton possession of the Mont. In fact, these lands and Mont-Saint-Michel were never really included in the duchy of Brittany. Around 989–990 these traditional bishoprics, dependent of the archbishopric of Rouen and that had been left vacant during the time of the Viking raids, regained their bishops.

The mount gained strategic significance again in 933 when William I Longsword annexed the Cotentin Peninsula from the weakened Duchy of Brittany. This made the mount definitively part of Normandy, and is depicted in the Bayeux Tapestry, which commemorates the Norman Conquest. Harold Godwinson is pictured on the tapestry rescuing two Norman knights from the quicksand in the tidal flats during the Breton–Norman war. Norman ducal patronage financed the spectacular Norman architecture of the abbey in subsequent centuries.

In 1067, the monastery of Mont-Saint-Michel gave its support to William the Conqueror in his claim to the English throne. This he rewarded with properties and grounds on the English side of the Channel, including a small island off the southwestern coast of Cornwall which was modelled after Mont-Saint-Michel and became a Norman priory named St Michael's Mount of Penzance.

During the Hundred Years' War, English forces unsuccessfully besieged Mont-Saint-Michel (which was under French control) twice. The first siege started in 1423, and was lifted the next year. In 1433, an English force equipped with wrought-iron bombards and under the command of Thomas Scales, 7th Baron Scales again besieged the island. It was likewise lifted the next year. Scales's men abandoned two bombards they had used during the siege on 17 June 1434; they were recovered by the French and are currently on display.

When Louis XI of France founded the Order of Saint Michael in 1469, he intended that the abbey church of Mont-Saint-Michel become the chapel for the order, but because of its great distance from Paris, his intention could never be realized.

The wealth and influence of the abbey extended to many daughter foundations, including St Michael's Mount in Cornwall. Its popularity and prestige as a centre of pilgrimage waned with the Reformation, and by the time of the French Revolution there were scarcely any monks in residence. The abbey was closed and converted into a prison, initially to hold clerical opponents of the republican regime. High-profile political prisoners followed. By 1836, influential figures—including Victor Hugo—had launched a campaign to restore what was seen as a national architectural treasure. The prison was closed in 1863.

In 1872 French architect of historic monuments Édouard Corroyer was responsible for assessing the condition of Mont-Saint-Michel. It took him about two years to convince his minister to classify it as a historic monument, and it was officially declared as such in 1874. From then on Corroyer, a member of the Academy of Fine Arts, devoted fifteen years of his life to the restoration of "la Merveille". Under his direction, gigantic works were undertaken, starting with the most urgent. He wrote four works on the building and his name remains forever attached to the resurrection of Mont-Saint-Michel.

During the occupation of France in World War II, German soldiers occupied Mont-Saint-Michel, where they used St. Aubert church as a lookout post. The island was a major attraction for German tourists and soldiers, with around 325,000 German tourists from July 18, 1940, to the end of the occupation of France.

After the Allies' initial D-Day invasion of Normandy that began on June 6, 1944, many exhausted German soldiers retreated to strongholds like Mont-Saint-Michel. On August 1, 1944, a single American soldier – Private Freeman Brougher of Pennsylvania and the 72nd Publicity Service Battalion – reached and liberated Mont-Saint-Michel accompanied by two British reporters, Gault MacGowan of the New York Sun and Paul Holt with the London Daily Express. Jubilant crowds of locals greeted Brougher, Holt and MacGowan, and Brougher signed the Golden Book, the island's record of visiting nobility, at the mayor's invitation. The abbey was also used as a prison for the first time since the French Revolution when male collaborators with the Germans were jailed there.

Mont-Saint-Michel and its bay were added to the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites in 1979, listed with criteria such as cultural, historical, and architectural significance, as well as human-created and natural beauty.

In June 2023, President Emmanuel Macron visited Mont-Saint-Michel to mark the 1,000-year anniversary of the abbey. He stated that the changes since the hydraulic dam and the new bridge opened have lessened the silting, making it an island again.

Abbey design

In the 11th century, William of Volpiano, the Italian architect who had built Fécamp Abbey in Normandy, was chosen by Richard II, Duke of Normandy, to be the building contractor. He designed the Romanesque church of the abbey, daringly placing the transept crossing at the top of the mount. Many underground crypts and chapels had to be built to compensate for this weight. These formed the basis for the supportive upward structure that can be seen today. Today Mont-Saint-Michel is seen as a building of Romanesque architecture.

Robert de Thorigny, a great supporter of Henry II of England, who was also Duke of Normandy, reinforced the structure of the buildings and built the main façade of the church in the 12th century. In 1204, Guy of Thouars, regent for the Duchess of Brittany, as vassal of the King of France, undertook a siege of the Mount. After setting fire to the village and massacring the population, he beat a retreat under the powerful walls of the abbey. The fire which he lit extended to the buildings, and the roofs fell prey to the flames. Horrified by the cruelty of his Breton ally, Philip Augustus offered Abbot Jordan a grant for the reconstruction of the abbey in the new Gothic architectural style.

Charles VI is credited with adding major fortifications to the abbey-mount, building towers, successive courtyards, and strengthening the ramparts.

Administration

The islet belongs to the French commune of Le Mont-Saint-Michel, in the département of Manche, in Normandy. The nearest significant town, with an SNCF train station, is Pontorson, with a population of slightly over 4,000. Mont-Saint-Michel belongs to the Organization of World Heritage Cities.

Population

Up to 20,000 people visit the city during the summer months. Among the 43 inhabitants, five were monks and seven nuns.

The Monastic Fraternities of Jerusalem
Since June 2001, following the appeal addressed to them in 2000 by Jacques Fihey, Bishop of Coutances and Avranches, a community of monks and nuns of the Monastic Fraternities of Jerusalem, sent from the mother-house of St-Gervais-et-St-Protais in Paris, have been living as a community on Mont-Saint-Michel. They replaced the Benedictine monks who returned to the mount in 1966. They are tenants of the centre for national monuments and are not involved in the management of the abbey.

The community has seven sisters and four brothers. Their life revolves around prayer, work and fraternal life. The community meets four times a day to recite the liturgical office in the abbey, or in the crypt of Notre-Dame des Trente Cierges in winter. In this way, the building keeps its original purpose as a place of prayer and singing the glory of God. The presence of the community attracts many visitors and pilgrims who come to join in the various liturgical celebrations.

In 2012, the community undertook the renovation of a house on the mount, the Logis Saint-Abraham, which is used as a guest house for pilgrims on retreat.

People and places of note

 * Robert of Torigni, famous abbot of the mount;
 * The Duke of Chartres (later Louis-Philippe I) came to demolish the "iron cage";
 * Louis Auguste Blanqui, political prisoner in the mount;
 * Armand Barbès, political prisoner in the mount;
 * La Mère Poulard, famous restaurant;
 * Anne Boutiaut Poulard, creator of the Omelette de la mère Poulard.
 * Tiphaine Raguenel, Breton noblewoman and astrologer.

Economy
The Mont-Saint-Michel has long "belonged" to some families who shared the businesses in the town and succeeded to the village administration. Tourism is almost the sole source of income of the commune. Tourism brought about $63 million to the small island in 2014. There are about 50 shops for three million tourists. About 25 people sleep every night on the mount, monks included, except for those in hotels. The main institutions are shared by:
 * Eric Vannier, owner of the group Mère Poulard (holding half of restaurants, shops, hotels and three museums);
 * Jean-Yves Vételé, CEO of Sodetour (five hotels, a supermarket and shops—all extramural—including Mercury Barracks);
 * Patrick Gaul, former elected official, hotelier and intramural restaurateur;
 * Independent merchants.

Twin towns and sister cities

 * Hatsukaichi, Hiroshima, Japan, where Itsukushima Shrine, another UNESCO World Heritage Site, is located.

Historically, Mont-Saint-Michel was the Norman counterpart of St Michael's Mount in Cornwall, UK, which was given to the Benedictines, the religious order of Mont-Saint-Michel, by Edward the Confessor in the 11th century. The two mounts share the same tidal island characteristics and a similar conical shape, though Mont-Saint-Michel is much taller.

Modern pilgrimage
During the medieval period, pilgrims walked from Italy, Germany and England, as well as other parts of France. Such devotees were known as Miquelots. Modern pilgrims can follow the same routes. Ten hiking trails have been created that enable pilgrims from various European countries to retrace the path their ancestors may have taken during a medieval pilgrimage.

Cinema
Part of the action in Helen MacInnes's 1943 film thriller Assignment in Brittany takes place at the Mont, including a dramatic nighttime chase across the sands. In Peter Jackson's 2003 film The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King, Gondor's capital city, Minas Tirith, is modelled on Mont-Saint-Michel.

The site appears in the 2004 film Mickey, Donald, Goofy: The Three Musketeers.

The town and castle in the 2010 Disney hit film Tangled are based on Mont-Saint-Michel.

Terrence Malick's 2013 film To the Wonder features the abbey in its opening scenes.

Mindwalk is a 1990 feature film directed by Bernt Capra, adapted from his short story based on The Turning Point, a nonfiction book by physicist Fritjof Capra, his brother. Two friends, a poet and a politician, meet a physicist while exploring Mont-Saint-Michel, and engage in unexpectedly deep conversation.

Books
The climax of the 2016 young adult novel The Inquisitor's Tale takes place in and around Mont-Saint-Michel, as the protagonists race over the causeway to the Abbey, pursued by the King's men.

Video games
Mont-Saint-Michel is a World Wonder in Civilization VI. Mont-Saint-Michel is featured in Onimusha 3: Demon Siege in which the abbey is overrun by demons in both the 16th and 21st centuries and subsequently destroyed.

A fictionalized version of the island, Beaumont-Saint-Denis, serves as the location for Sniper Elite 5's third mission. The castle is also the inspiration for the site of the climactic final battle in the air combat video game The Sky Crawlers: Innocent Aces, in which it is an abandoned enemy fortress with still-operational anti-air turrets; it also inspired Dark Souls'  New Londo Ruins.

Television
Mont-Saint-Michel appears at the end of the opening credits of The Walking Dead: Daryl Dixon, showing protagonists Daryl Dixon and Laurent looking out at it across zombie-infested tidelands. In "Deux Amours," it's revealed that Mont-Saint-Michel is the location of the Nest, their ultimate destination. In "Coming Home," Daryl's group finally reaches it.

The Mont-Saint-Michel–inspired village and castle from Tangled return in Rapunzel's Tangled Adventure and Tangled: Before Ever After.

title: Mont-Saint-Michel


text:
Edwin Muir

Edwin Muir CBE (15 May 1887 – 3 January 1959) was a Scottish poet, novelist and translator. Born on a farm in Deerness, a parish of Orkney, Scotland, he is remembered for his deeply felt and vivid poetry written in plain language and with few stylistic preoccupations.

Biography
Muir was born at the farm of Folly in Deerness, the same parish in which his mother was born. The family then moved to the island of Wyre, followed by a return to the Mainland, Orkney. In 1901, when he was 14, his father lost his farm, and the family moved to Glasgow. In his autobiography he wrote, "I'm an Orkneyman, a good Scandinavian". His parents and two brothers died within a few years. As a young man he worked in unpleasant jobs in factories and offices, including working in a factory that turned bones into charcoal. "He suffered psychologically in a most destructive way, although perhaps the poet of later years benefitted from these experiences as much as from his Orkney 'Eden'."

In 1919, Muir married Willa Anderson, and the couple moved to London. About this, Muir wrote simply 'My marriage was the most fortunate event in my life'. Edwin and Willa worked together on many translations; these were issued under their joint names. Notable among them were their translation of works by Franz Kafka. They had translated The Castle within six years of Kafka's death. In Belonging, her memoir of Edwin Muir, Willa describes the method of translation they adopted in their Kafka translations:

"'We divided the book in two, Edwin translated one half and I the other, then we went over each other's translations as with a fine-tooth comb.'"

Willa was the more able linguist and the major contributor. Willa recorded in her journal that "It was ME" and that Edwin "only helped". Between 1924 and the start of the Second World War their translations financed their life together. They produced acclaimed English translations of Kafka, Lion Feuchtwanger, Gerhart Hauptmann, Sholem Asch, Heinrich Mann, and Hermann Broch. In 1958, Edwin and Willa were granted the first Johann-Heinrich-Voss Translation Award. Many of their translations of German novels are still in print.

Between 1921 and 1923, Muir lived in Prague, Dresden, Italy, Salzburg and Vienna; he returned to the UK in 1924. Between 1925 and 1956, Muir published seven volumes of poetry which were collected after his death and published in 1991 as The Complete Poems of Edwin Muir. From 1927 to 1932 he published three novels, and in 1935 he came to St Andrews, where he produced his controversial Scott and Scotland (1936). In 1939 in St Andrews, Muir had a religious experience and from then onwards thought of himself as Christian, seeing Christianity as being as revolutionary as socialism. From 1946 to 1949 he was Director of the British Council in Prague and Rome. 1950 saw his appointment as Warden of Newbattle Abbey College (a college for working-class men) in Midlothian, where he met fellow Orcadian poet, George Mackay Brown. He was awarded a CBE in the 1953 Coronation Honours. In 1955 he was made Norton Professor of English at Harvard University. He returned to Britain in 1956 and died in 1959 in Cambridge. He was buried in Swaffham Prior, Cambridgeshire.

A memorial bench was erected in 1962 to Muir in Swanston, Edinburgh, where he spent time during the 1950s. His wife wrote a memoir of their life together in 1967. She lived for another eleven years and died on the Isle of Bute.

Work
His childhood in remote and unspoiled Orkney represented an idyllic Eden to Muir, while his family's move to the city corresponded in his mind to a deeply disturbing encounter with the "fallen" world. Muir came to regard his family's movement from Orkney to Glasgow as a movement from Eden to Hell. The emotional tensions of that dichotomy shaped much of his work and deeply influenced his life. The following quotation expresses the basic existential dilemma of Muir's life:

"'I was born before the Industrial Revolution, and am now about two hundred years old. But I have skipped a hundred and fifty of them. I was really born in 1737, and till I was fourteen no time-accidents happened to me. Then in 1751 I set out from Orkney for Glasgow. When I arrived I found that it was not 1751, but 1901, and that a hundred and fifty years had been burned up in my two-days' journey. But I myself was still in 1751, and remained there for a long time. All my life since I have been trying to overhaul that invisible leeway. No wonder I am obsessed with Time.' (Extract from Diary 1937–39.)"

His psychological distress led him to undergo Jungian analysis in London. A vision in which he witnessed the creation strengthened the Edenic myth in his mind, leading him to see his life and career as the working-out of an archetypal fable. In his Autobiography he wrote, "the life of every man is an endlessly repeated performance of the life of man...". He also expressed his feeling that our deeds on Earth constitute "a myth which we act almost without knowing it". Alienation, paradox, the existential dyads of good and evil, life and death, love and hate, and images of journeys and labyrinths are key elements in his work.

His Scott and Scotland advanced the claim that Scotland can create a national literature only by writing in English, an opinion that placed him in direct opposition to the Lallans movement of Hugh MacDiarmid. He had little sympathy for Scottish nationalism.

In 1965 a volume of his selected poetry was edited and introduced by T. S. Eliot.

Legacy
In an appreciation of Muir's poetry in Texas Quarterly, the critic Kathleen Raine wrote in 1961: "Time does not fade [Muir's poems], and it becomes clear that their excellence owes nothing to the accidental circumstances of the moment at which the poet wrote, or we read, his poems; they survive, as it were, a change of background, and we begin to see that whereas the 'new' movements of this or that decade lose their significance when the scene changes and retain only a historical interest, Edwin Muir, a poet who never followed fashion, has in fact given more permanent expression to his world than other poets who deliberately set out to be the mouth-pieces of their generation."

Similarly, Joseph H. Summers, in a retrospective assessment in the Massachusetts Review, called Muir's achievement in poetry and prose "larger than the merely literary. He did not share in the modern attempts to deify poetry, or language, or even the human imagination. Implicit in all of his works is the recognition that there are things more important than literature—life and love, the physical world, the individual spirit within its body: those things in which the religious man recognizes the immediate work of God. Muir's triumph was less in the technological realm of communication than in the vastly more difficult realm of sensitivity, perception, wisdom, the things which he communicated. It was a triumph made possible only, in the familiar paradox, by humility."

Works

 * We Moderns: Enigmas and Guesses, under the pseudonym Edward Moore, London, George Allen & Unwin, 1918
 * Latitudes, New York, B. W. Huebsch, 1924
 * First Poems, London, Hogarth Press, 1925
 * Chorus of the Newly Dead, London, Hogarth Press, 1926
 * Transition: Essays on Contemporary Literature, London, Hogarth Press, 1926
 * The Marionette, London, Hogarth Press, 1927
 * The Structure of the Novel, London, Hogarth Press, 1928
 * John Knox: Portrait of a Calvinist, London, Jonathan Cape, 1929
 * The Three Brothers, London, Heinemann, 1931
 * Poor Tom, London, J. M. Dent & Sons, 1932
 * Variations on a Time Theme, London, J. M. Dent & Sons, 1934
 * Scottish Journey London, Heinemann in association with Victor Gollancz, 1935
 * Journeys and Places, London, J. M. Dent & Sons, 1937
 * The Present Age from 1914, London, Cresset Press, 1939
 * The Story and the Fable: An Autobiography, London, Harrap, 1940
 * The Narrow Place, London, Faber, 1943
 * The Scots and Their Country, London, published for the British Council by Longman, 1946
 * The Voyage, and Other Poems, London, Faber, 1946
 * Essays on Literature and Society, London, Hogarth Press, 1949
 * The Labyrinth, London, Faber, 1949
 * Collected Poems, 1921–1951, London, Faber, 1952
 * An Autobiography, London : Hogarth Press, 1954
 * Prometheus, illustrated by John Piper, London, Faber, 1954
 * One Foot in Eden, New York, Grove Press, 1956
 * New Poets, 1959 (edited), London, Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1959
 * The Estate of Poetry, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1962
 * Collected Poems, London and New York, Oxford University Press, 1965
 * The Politics of King Lear, New York, Haskell House, 1970

Translations by Willa and Edwin Muir

 * Power by Lion Feuchtwanger, New York, Viking Press, 1926
 * The Ugly Duchess: A Historical Romance by Lion Feuchtwanger, London, Martin Secker, 1927
 * Two Anglo-Saxon Plays: The Oil Islands and Warren Hastings, by Lion Feuchtwanger, London, Martin Secker, 1929
 * Success: A Novel by Lion Feuchtwanger, New York, Viking Press, 1930
 * The Castle by Franz Kafka, London, Martin Secker, 1930
 * The Sleepwalkers: A Trilogy by Hermann Broch, Boston, MA, Little, Brown & Company, 1932
 * Josephus by Lion Feuchtwanger, New York, Viking Press, 1932
 * Salvation by Sholem Asch, New York, G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1934
 * The Hill of Lies by Heinrich Mann, London, Jarrolds, 1934
 * Mottke, the Thief by Sholem Asch, New York, G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1935
 * The Unknown Quantity by Hermann Broch, New York, Viking Press, 1935
 * The Jew of Rome: A Historical Romance by Lion Feuchtwanger, London, Hutchinson, 1935
 * The Loom of Justice by Ernst Lothar, New York, G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1935
 * Night over the East by Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn, London, Sheed & Ward, 1936
 * The Pretender by Lion Feuchtwanger, New York, The Viking Press, 1937
 * Amerika by Franz Kafka, New York, Doubleday/New Directions, 1946
 * The Trial by Franz Kafka, London, Martin Secker, 1937, reissued New York, The Modern Library, 1957
 * Metamorphosis and Other Stories by Franz Kafka, Harmondsworth, Penguin Books, 1961.

title: Edwin Muir