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Pentathlon

A pentathlon is a contest featuring five events. The name is derived from Greek: combining the words pente (five) and -athlon (competition). The first pentathlon was documented in Ancient Greece and was part of the Ancient Olympic Games. Five events were contested over one day for the Ancient Olympic pentathlon, starting with the long jump, javelin throwing, and discus throwing, followed by the stadion (a short foot race) and wrestling. Pentathletes were considered to be among the most skilled athletes, and their training was often part of military service—each of the five events in the pentathlon was thought to be useful in war or battle.

With the revival of the Olympic Games in the modern era, the pentathlon returned in two formats. The athletics pentathlon was a modern variation on the original events, with a competition over five track and field events. The modern pentathlon, invented by Pierre de Coubertin (father of the Modern Olympics), was a variation on the military aspect of the Ancient pentathlon. It focused on the skills required by a late-19th-century soldier, with competitions in shooting, swimming, fencing, equestrianism, and cross country running. A prominent aspect of modern pentathlons is the point system, whereby each competitor is awarded a certain number of points based on their performance in each specific event. The overall winner is the competitor with the highest point total at the end of the five pentathlon events.

Ancient Olympics
The first documented pentathlon occurred in 708 BC in Ancient Greece at the Ancient Olympic Games, and was also held at the other Panhellenic Games. The name derives from Greek words for "five competitions". The event proved popular and lent itself to illustrations on ancient Greek pottery. It also featured in Greek mythology; the mythical hero Perseus fulfilled an oracle's prophecy by accidentally killing Acrisius with a discus while competing in the pentathlon. In mythology, Jason is credited with inventing the pentathlon, and he declared his friend Peleus the first winner of the event, after his victory in the wrestling. The wide variety of skills needed to compete meant that pentathletes were held in high esteem as physical specimens: in Rhetoric, Aristotle remarked "a body capable of enduring all efforts, either of the racecourse or of bodily strength ... This is why the athletes in the pentathlon are most beautiful". 1912 Olympic gold medal winner Ferdinand Bie referenced that story after completing the events.

By the 77th Olympics, the athletic event was usually ordered into the triagmos (long jump, javelin throw, and discus throw), followed by the stadion foot race, and wrestling as the final event. Unlike modern athletics, the first three events did not appear as individual events outside the pentathlon format. Other variations on the format included boxing or pankration instead of the stadion race.

Modern Olympics
The pentathlon made its return as an Olympic event at the 1906 Games in Athens, consisting of a standing long jump, discus throw (ancient style), javelin throw, 192-metre run, and a Greco-Roman wrestling match.

The 1912 Summer Olympics saw the introduction of two new types of the pentathlon. The first was the classic pentathlon, an athletics competition which was a variation on the Ancient Olympic pentathlon, comprising the long jump, javelin throw, 200 metres, discus throw, and a 1500 metres race. The competition featured at the 1920 and 1924 Summer Olympics but was discontinued thereafter.

The second type of pentathlon introduced at the 1912 Olympics was the modern pentathlon, a sport invented by Pierre de Coubertin and modeled on the Ancient Olympic ideal of testing skills required by a soldier. Working from the template of a 19th-century soldier fighting behind enemy lines, the contest comprises épée fencing, pistol shooting, freestyle swimming, show jumping on the back of an unfamiliar horse allocated in a draw, and a cross country run. Competitors score points based on their performance in each event and the winner is the one with the highest total points at the end of the fifth competition. The men's individual competition has been held at every Olympic Games since 1912, and a women's competition was introduced in the 2000 Summer Olympics. Also, a men's team event was held between 1952 and 1992.

An athletics pentathlon event for women was introduced at the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, featuring the 80 metres hurdles, shot put and high jump on the first day, with long jump, and 200 metres on the second day. The 1976 and 1980 Summer Olympics versions changed the format from 80 to 100 metres hurdles, and 200 to 800 metres. The event was discontinued in 1984, when it was replaced by the heptathlon.

Ancient pentathlon

The format for the Ancient Olympic pentathlon varied in schedule and events. The stadion event was occasionally replaced by boxing or pankration. The discus throw was competed in the Greek style—the athletes would throw the discus from a raised platform. The long jump was aided by the use of halteres; stone weights which athletes would hold and swing to help propel themselves further. The stadion race was generally around 190 metres long, the length of the Stadium at Olympia.

Modern pentathlon

The sport is governed by the International Modern Pentathlon Union (UIPM) and, in addition to the contests held at the Olympics, a world championships is held in non-Olympic years.

For much of its history, the modern pentathlon remained largely unchanged from the original events featured at the 1912 Olympics. However, in the 2000 Summer Olympics the 300 m freestyle swimming race was reduced to 200 m, and the 4000 m cross country race was reduced to 3000 m.

The fencing (épée) event is the only one in which competitors face off directly against each other, with each competitor having to fence each of the opponents once. The épée duel lasts up to one minute; the winner is the first to land a hit, but the bout is drawn if the minute elapses with both opponents unscathed. The riding discipline involves show jumping over a 350–450 m course with 12 to 15 obstacles. Competitors are paired with horses in a draw 20 minutes before the start of the event. The shooting discipline involves using a 4.5 mm air pistol in the standing position from 10 metres distance at a stationary target.

However, in 2009 the UIPM proposed that the running and shooting events should be combined into a single event, similar to the biathlon. Some commentators have suggested that the sport should be renamed as a "tetrathlon", given the number of competitions, but the sporting body emphasizes that five distinct skills are still applied in the course of the competition. The 'combined' event is the last event of the pentathlon program, and consists of a continuous shoot-run race. Competitors are ordered at the start line by their cumulative point standing from the three previous event, making the race a chase event for overall placing. As of 2012, the format of the combined event is a 4x800 run loop, with a 10m air pistol component at the beginning of each loop. Competitors have to hit the target 5 times before continuing on to the next run loop. In 2011, the UIPM introduced laser shooting in the combined event to replace traditional pellets.

Athletics pentathlons
Given that there are a large number of track and field events, there have been numerous pentathlons featuring a variety of events.

Classic pentathlon
The Classic pentathlon was contested in Olympic Games from 1906 through 1924. In the 1912 Olympic Games, Jim Thorpe won both the pentathlon and decathlon titles, only to have them later taken away for professionalism. His titles were restored some 70 years later by the International Olympic Committee.

In the United States, this version of the pentathlon was contested as an Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) championship event until 1978. With the breakup of the AAU, as a result of the Amateur Sports Act of 1978, track and field came under separate leadership. The Athletics Congress (TAC) (now USA Track & Field), chose to drop the pentathlon, as well as several other multi-event contests, as national championship events at the senior level, although it is recognised at the 11–12 and 13–14 age groups as national championship events. The last National AAU Pentathlon Championships was held in Honolulu, Hawaii in 1978.

Pentathlons are used at high school athletics and in other one-day meetings for time constraints. The events are separated by age and sex, but the five events are the same for both – sprint hurdles, long jump, shot put, high jump, and middle distance run. At the U12 level, the sprint hurdles are 80 metres (30"), the shot put weighs six pounds, and the middle-distance run being 1500 metres for boys and 800 metres for girls. At the U14 level, the sprint hurdles are 100 metres (33" for boys, 30" for girls), and the shot put is 4 kg (about three pounds heavier) for boys.

Indoor pentathlon
For each event, points are given based on a standard. These points can be calculated at the USATF website. The indoor pentathlon is held over a one-day period. Each athlete completes one event at the same time, then there is a 30-minute break until the next event.

Currently, Nafissatou Thiam holds the world record of 5055 points, which occurred on March 3, 2023 in Istanbul, Turkey.

The International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF), the world governing body for athletics, has a women's pentathlon contest at the World Indoor Championships in Athletics. The athletes competing in the format are usually heptathlon specialists, as the events are very similar to that combined event. Until 2000, men also contested the indoor pentathlon.

The men's pentathlon was added to the IAAF list of indoor world records in 1990, at the same time as the men's heptathlon.

Paralympic pentathlon

The events contested at the Summer Paralympics varied according to whether the athletes were visually impaired, amputees or spinal disorders. The events shown on the right are taken from the schedule for the 2004 Summer Paralympics. No pentathlon events were held in the 2012 Summer Paralympics.

Military and naval pentathlon
By the middle of the 20th century, many of the skills in the modern pentathlon were becoming less relevant to the modern soldier (such as fencing and horse riding). A French army officer, Captain Henri Debrus, adapted a military training method into a five event competition. The five events are: shooting, obstacle running, obstacle swimming, throwing, and cross country running.

The sport is governed by the International Military Sports Council (CISM) and an annual world championships has been held since 1950.

Aeronautical pentathlon
Aeronautical pentathlon is a sporting event at some multi-sport events, such as the Military World Games. Despite the name, the sport has six events: shooting, fencing, orienteering, basketball skills, obstacle course, and swimming. The idea is to prepare athletes for evading enemy soldiers. It is generally only participated by military Air Forces, and its first appearance at the Military World Games was in 2010.

title: Pentathlon


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User:Michaeln

A wikipedia home-page of sorts.

I am an Associate Professor at ANU.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Michaeln


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Talk:Katie Price

Semi-protected edit request on 16 August 2023
OsianMorganLover (talk) 22:55, 16 August 2023 (UTC) edit information regarding family(Daniel is her full brother, not half, as they share the same father)

 * Done. The sources do not say anything about either sibling being half. Thanks for point this out. -- Escape Orbit  (Talk) 08:00, 17 August 2023 (UTC)

"Jordan (Katie Price) (Katie Andre)" listed at Redirects for discussion
The redirect [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jordan_(Katie_Price)_(Katie_Andre)&redirect=no Jordan (Katie Price) (Katie Andre)] has been listed at redirects for discussion to determine whether its use and function meets the redirect guidelines. Readers of this page are welcome to comment on this redirect at  until a consensus is reached. Steel1943 (talk) 00:57, 16 February 2024 (UTC)

"Jordan and Peter Meet" listed at Redirects for discussion
The redirect [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jordan_and_Peter_Meet&redirect=no Jordan and Peter Meet] has been listed at redirects for discussion to determine whether its use and function meets the redirect guidelines. Readers of this page are welcome to comment on this redirect at  until a consensus is reached. Steel1943 (talk) 01:01, 16 February 2024 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 28 February 2024
“Adding to filmography-Katie price featured in Celebrity - A 21st Century Story. Jeremy vine show. The one show as guest.” 2A02:C7C:A858:FC00:59D6:6361:9CE1:DC19 (talk) 20:38, 28 February 2024 (UTC)
 * ❌ Do you have a reliable source? Thanks. Martinevans123 (talk) 21:17, 28 February 2024 (UTC)
 * If you look it up on bbc it comes up with episode one which features Katie price.
 * She has also featured twice on Jeremy vine which can be found on the internet. 2A02:C7C:A858:FC00:5CA9:D7D9:480B:68D1 (talk) 14:56, 2 March 2024 (UTC)
 * If you wanted to add these appearances, you'd need to provide the supporting sources. Thanks. Martinevans123 (talk) 19:19, 20 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Katie Price


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Stadion (running race)

Stadion or stade (στάδιον) was an ancient running event and also the building in which it took place, as part of Panhellenic Games including the Ancient Olympic Games. The event was one of the five major Pentathlon events and the premier event of the gymnikos agon (γυμνικὸς ἀγών "nude competition").

From the years 776 to 724 BC, the stadion was the only event at the Olympic Games. The victor (the first of whom was Coroebus of Elis) gave his name to the entire four-year Olympiad, allowing modern knowledge of nearly all of them.

The stadion was named after the building in which it took place. This word became stadium in Latin, which became the English "stadium". The race also gave its name to the unit of length, the stadion. There were other types of running events, but the stadion was the most prestigious; the winner was often considered to be the winner of an entire Games. Though a separate event, the stadion was also part of the ancient Pentathlon.

At the Olympic Games, the stadion (building) was big enough for 20 competitors, and the race was a 200 yd sprint, but the original stadion track in Olympia measures approximately 210 yd. The race began with a trumpet blow, with officials (the ἀγωνοθέται agonothetai) at the start to make sure there were no false starts. There were also officials at the end to decide on a winner and to make sure no one had cheated. If the officials decided there was a tie, the race would be re-run. Runners started the race from a standing position, probably with their arms stretched out in front of them, instead of starting in a crouch like modern runners. They ran naked on a packed earth track. By the fifth century, the track was marked by a stone-starting line, the balbis. Advancements in this stone starting block led to it having a set of double grooves (10 – apart) in which the runner placed his toes. The design of these grooves were intended to give the runner leverage for his start.

title: Stadion (running race)


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Hansel and Gretel

"Hansel and Gretel" (Hänsel und Gretel ) is a German fairy tale collected by the Brothers Grimm and published in 1812 as part of Grimms' Fairy Tales (KHM 15). It is also known as Little Step Brother and Little Step Sister.

Hansel and Gretel are siblings who are abandoned in a forest and fall into the hands of a witch who lives in a bread, cake, and sugar house. The witch, who has cannibalistic intentions, intends to fatten Hansel before eventually eating him. However, Gretel saves her brother by pushing the witch into her own oven, killing her, and escaping with the witch's treasure.

Set in medieval Germany, "Hansel and Gretel" has been adapted into various media, including the opera Hänsel und Gretel by Engelbert Humperdinck, which was first performed in 1893.

Editions
From the pre-publication manuscript of 1810 (Das Brüderchen und das Schwesterchen) to the sixth edition of Kinder- und Hausmärchen (Grimm's Fairy Tales) in 1850, the Brothers Grimm made several alterations to the story, which progressively gained in length, psychological motivation, and visual imagery, but also became more Christian in tone, shifting the blame for abandonment from a mother to a stepmother associated with the witch.

In the original edition of the tale, the woodcutter's wife is the children's biological mother, but she was also called "stepmother" from the 4th edition (1840). The Brothers Grimm indeed introduced the word "stepmother", but retained "mother" in some passages. Even their final version in the 7th edition (1857) remains unclear about her role, for it refers to the woodcutter's wife twice as "the mother" and once as "the stepmother".

The sequence where the duck helps them across the river is also a later addition. In some later versions, the mother died from unknown causes, left the family, or remained with the husband at the end of the story. In the 1810 pre-publication manuscript, the children were called "Little Brother" and "Little Sister", then named Hänsel and Gretel in the first edition (1812). Wilhelm Grimm also adulterated the text with Alsatian dialects, "re-appropriated" from August Stöber's Alsatian version (1842) in order to give the tale a more "folksy" tone.

Goldberg notes that although "there is no doubt that the Grimms' Hänsel und Gretel was pieced together, it was, however, pieced together from traditional elements," and its previous narrators themselves had been "piecing this little tale together with other traditional motifs for centuries." For instance, the duck helping the children cross the river may be the remnant of an old traditional motif in the folktale complex that was reintroduced by the Grimms in later editions.

Plot
Hansel and Gretel are the young children of a poor woodcutter. When a famine settles over the land, the woodcutter's second wife tells him to take the children into the woods and leave them there to fend for themselves. The woodcutter opposes the plan, but his wife repeats her demands until he reluctantly agrees. They are unaware that in the children's bedroom, Hansel and Gretel have overheard them. After the parents have gone to bed, Hansel sneaks out of the house and gathers as many shiny white pebbles as he can, then returns to his room, reassuring Gretel that God will not forsake them.

The next day, the children's stepmother gives them small pieces of bread before she and their father take them into the woods. As the family walks deeper, Hansel leaves a trail of white pebbles. After their parents abandon them, the children stay in the woods until night falls and the moonlight reveals the white pebbles shining in the dark. The children then safely follow the trail back home, much to their stepmother's rage. Once again, provisions become scarce and the stepmother angrily orders her husband to take the children further into the woods and leave them there. Hansel attempts to gather more pebbles, but finds his stepmother has locked the door.

The following morning, the children's stepmother gives them smaller pieces of bread, before she and their father take them back into the woods. As the family treks, Hansel leaves a trail of bread crumbs for him and Gretel to follow back home. However, after they are once again abandoned, the children find that the birds have eaten the crumbs and they are lost in the woods. After three days of wandering, the children follow a dove to a clearing in the woods, and discover a cottage with bread walls, a cake roof, and sugar windows. Hungry and tired, the children begin to eat the house, when the door opens and the elderly woman that lives there emerges and takes the children inside, giving them delicious food to eat and soft beds to sleep in. What the children do not know is that their kind hostess is an evil witch who had built the bread house to lure them inside so she can cook and eat them.

The next morning, the witch locks Hansel in a stable and enslaves Gretel. The witch feeds Hansel regularly to fatten him up, but serves Gretel nothing but crab shells. The witch then tries to touch Hansel's finger to see how fat he has become, but he cleverly offers a thin bone he found in the cage. As the witch's eyes are too weak to notice the deception, she is fooled into thinking Hansel is still too thin for her to eat. After four weeks of this, the witch grows impatient and decides to eat Hansel anyway.

She prepares the oven for Hansel, but decides she is hungry enough to eat Gretel, too. She coaxes Gretel to the open oven and asks her to lean over in front of it to see if the fire is hot enough. Gretel, sensing the witch's intent, pretends she does not understand what the witch means. Frustrated, the witch demonstrates, and Gretel instantly shoves her into the hot oven, slams and bolts the door shut, leaving the witch to burn to death. Gretel frees Hansel from the stable and the pair discover boxes full of pearls and precious stones. Putting the jewels into their pockets, the children set off for home. A white duck (or swan in some versions) ferries them across an expanse of water, and at home they find only their father; his wife had died from an unknown cause. The children's father had spent all his days missing them, and is delighted to see them safe and sound.

With the witch's wealth, the children and their father all live happily ever after.

Variants
Folklorists Iona and Peter Opie indicate that "Hansel and Gretel" belongs to a group of European tales especially popular in the Baltic regions, about children outwitting ogres into whose hands they have involuntarily fallen.

ATU 327A tales
"Hansel and Gretel" is the prototype for the fairy tales of the type Aarne–Thompson–Uther (ATU) 327A. In particular, Gretel's pretense of not understanding how to test the oven ("Show Me How") is characteristic of 327A, although it also appears traditionally in other sub-types of ATU 327. As argued by Stith Thompson, the simplicity of the tale may explain its spread into several traditions all over the world.

A closely similar version is "Finette Cendron", published by Marie-Catherine d'Aulnoy in 1697, which depicts an impoverished king and queen deliberately losing their three daughters three times in the wilderness. The cleverest of the girls, Finette, initially manages to bring them home with a trail of thread, and then a trail of ashes, but her peas are eaten by pigeons during the third journey. The little girls then go to the mansion of a hag, who lives with her husband the ogre. Finette heats the oven and asks the ogre to test it with his tongue, so that he falls in and is incinerated. Thereafter, Finette cuts off the hag's head. The sisters remain in the ogre's house, and the rest of the tale relates the story of Cinderella.

In the Russian Vasilisa the Beautiful, the stepmother likewise sends her hated stepdaughter into the forest to borrow a light from her sister, who turns out to be Baba Yaga, a cannibalistic witch. Besides highlighting the endangerment of children (as well as their own cleverness), the tales have in common a preoccupation with eating and with hurting children: The mother or stepmother wants to avoid hunger, and the witch lures children to eat her house of candy so that she can then eat them.

In a variant from Flanders, The Sugar-Candy House, siblings Jan and Jannette get lost in the woods and sight a hut made of confectionary in the distance. When they approach, a giant wolf named Garon jumps out of the window and chases them to a river bank. Sister and brother ask a pair of ducks to help them cross the river and escape the wolf. Garon threatens the ducks to carry him over, to no avail; he then tries to cross by swimming. He sinks and surfaces three times, but disappears in the water on the fourth try. The story seems to contain the "child/wind" rhyming scheme of the German tale.

In a French fairy tale, La Cabane au Toit de Fromage ("The Hut with the Roof made of Cheese"), the brother is the hero who deceives the witch and locks her up in the oven.

In the first Puerto Rican variant of "The Orphaned Children", the brother pushes the witch into the oven.

Other folk tales of ATU 327A type include the French "The Lost Children", published by Antoinette Bon in 1887, or the Moravian "Old Gruel", edited by Maria Kosch in 1899.

The Children and the Ogre (ATU 327)
Structural comparisons can also be made with other tales of ATU 327 type ("The Children and the Ogre"), which is not a simple fairy tale type but rather a "folktale complex with interconnected subdivisions" depicting a child (or children) falling under the power of an ogre, then escaping by their clever tricks.

In ATU 327B ("The Brothers and the Ogre"), a group of siblings come to an ogre's house who intends to kill them in their beds, but the youngest of the children exchanges the visitors with the ogre's offspring, and the villain kills his own children by mistake. They are chased by the ogre, but the siblings eventually manage to come back home safely. Stith Thompson points the great similarity of the tales types ATU 327A and ATU 327B that "it is quite impossible to disentangle the two tales".

ATU 327C ("The Devil [Witch] Carries the Hero Home in a Sack") depicts a witch or an ogre catching a boy in a sack. As the villain's daughter is preparing to kill him, the boy asks her to show him how he should arrange himself; when she does so, he kills her. Later on, he kills the witch and goes back home with her treasure. In ATU 327D ("The Kiddlekaddlekar"), children are discovered by an ogre in his house. He intends to hang them, but the girl pretends not to understand how to do it, so the ogre hangs himself to show her. He promises his kiddlekaddlekar (a magic cart) and treasure in exchange for his liberation; they set him free, but the ogre chases them. The children eventually manage to kill him and escape safely. In ATU 327F ("The Witch and the Fisher Boy"), a witch lures a boy and catches him. When the witch's daughter tries to bake the child, he pushes her into the oven. The witch then returns home and eats her own daughter. She eventually tries to fell the tree in which the boy is hiding, but birds fly away with him.

Further comparisons
The initial episode, which depicts children deliberately lost in the forest by their unloving parents, can be compared with many previous stories: Montanus's "The Little Earth-Cow" (1557), Basile's "Ninnillo and Nennella" (1635), Madame d'Aulnoy's "Finette Cendron" (1697), or Perrault's "Hop-o'-My-Thumb" (1697). The motif of the trail that fails to lead the protagonists back home is also common to "Ninnillo and Nennella", "Finette Cendron" and "Hop-o'-My-Thumb", and the Brothers Grimm identified the latter as a parallel story.

Finally, ATU 327 tales share a similar structure with ATU 313 ("Sweetheart Roland", "Foundling-Bird", "Okerlo") in that one or more protagonists (specifically children in ATU 327) come into the domain of a malevolent supernatural figure and escape from it. Folklorist Joseph Jacobs, commenting on his reconstructed proto-form of the tale ("Johnnie and Grizzle"), noticed the "contamination" of the tale with the story of "The Master Maid", later classified as ATU 313. ATU 327A tales are also often combined with stories of ATU 450 ("Little Brother and Sister"), in which children run away from an abusive stepmother.

Analysis
According to folklorist Jack Zipes, the tale celebrates the symbolic order of the patriarchal home, seen as a haven protected from the dangerous characters that threaten the lives of children outside, while it systematically denigrates the adult female characters, which are seemingly intertwined between each other. The death of the mother or stepmother soon after the children kill the witch suggests that they may be metaphorically the same woman. Zipes also argues that the importance of the tale in the European oral and literary tradition may be explained by the theme of child abandonment and abuse. Due to famines and lack of birth control, it was common in medieval Europe to abandon unwanted children in front of churches or in the forest. The death of the mother during childbirth sometimes led to tensions after remarriage, and Zipes proposes that it may have played a role in the emergence of the motif of the wicked stepmother.

Linguist and folklorist Edward Vajda has proposed that these stories represent the remnant of a coming-of-age, rite of passage tale extant in Proto-Indo-European society. Psychologist Bruno Bettelheim argues that the main motif revolves around dependence, oral greed, and destructive desires that children must learn to overcome, after they arrive home "purged of their oral fixations". Others have stressed the satisfying psychological effects of the children vanquishing the witch or realizing the death of their wicked stepmother.

Stage and musical theater
The fairy tale has spawned a multitude of adaptations for the stage, with one of the most notable being Engelbert Humperdinck's opera Hänsel und Gretel. It is primarily based upon the Grimm's version, although it omits the deliberate abandonment of the children, and is notable for kickstarting the adaptions depicting the witch's house being made of gingerbread and candy instead of plain bread.

A contemporary reimagining of the story, Mátti Kovler's musical fairytale Ami & Tami, was produced in Israel and the United States and subsequently released as a symphonic album.

Literature
Several writers have drawn inspiration from the tale, such as Robert Coover in "The Gingerbread House" (Pricksongs and Descants, 1969), Anne Sexton in Transformations (1971), Garrison Keillor in "My Stepmother, Myself" in "Happy to Be Here" (1982), and Emma Donoghue in "A Tale of the Cottage" (Kissing the Witch, 1997). Adam Gidwitz's 2010 children's book A Tale Dark & Grimm and its sequels In a Glass Grimmly (2012), and The Grimm Conclusion (2013) are loosely based on the tale and show the siblings meeting characters from other fairy tales. Terry Pratchett mentions gingerbread cottages in several of his books, mainly where a witch had turned wicked and 'started to cackle', with the gingerbread house being a stage in a person's increasing levels of insanity. In The Light Fantastic, the wizard Rincewind and Twoflower are led by a gnome into one such building after the death of the witch and warned to be careful of the doormat, as it is made of candy floss. In 2014, Neil Gaiman wrote an expanded retelling of "Hansel and Gretel", with illustrations by Lorenzo Mattotti.

Film and television

 * Hansel and Gretel: An Opera Fantasy, a 1954 stop-motion animated theatrical feature film directed by John Paul and released by RKO Radio Pictures.
 * The Bewitched episode "Hansel and Gretel in Samanthaland" has Tabitha Stephens magically switching places with Hansel and Gretel, and her mother, Samantha, entering the fairy tale to rescue her from the child-eating witch. The episode features Bobo Lewis as the stepmother, Billie Hayes as the witch, and Richard X. Slattery as a policeman.
 * A 1983 episode of Shelley Duvall's Faerie Tale Theatre starred Ricky Schroder as Hansel and Joan Collins as the stepmother/witch.
 * The story was adapted into a Grimm's Fairy Tale Classics episode; while mostly faithful to the original source material, it depicts the witch as transforming into a scary winged skeletal monster before the protagonists trick her into flying into her burning oven and sealing her in it.
 * Hansel and Gretel, a 1983 TV special directed by Tim Burton.
 * Hansel and Gretel, a 1987 American/Israeli musical film directed by Len Talan with David Warner, Cloris Leachman, Hugh Pollard and Nicola Stapleton. Part of the 1980s film series Cannon Movie Tales.
 * Elements from the story were used in the 1994 horror film Wes Craven's New Nightmare for its climax.
 * A Happily Ever After: Fairy Tales for Every Child episode puts a Latin American spin on the fairy tale and renames the protagonists "Hanselito" and "Gretelita". This adaptation features the voices of Cheech Marin as the Father, Liz Torres as the Stepmother, and Rosie Perez as the Witch.
 * Elements from the story were used in the 1999 black comedy film Freeway II: Confessions of a Trickbaby.
 * In The Grim Adventures of Billy & Mandy episode segment "Nursery Crimes", Grim transports Billy and Mandy into an enchanted book to make them play the eponymous "Hansel and Gretel" in his own telling, which goes awry with the duo deviating from the plot and interacting with other fairy tale characters instead.
 * In 2012, the German broadcaster RBB released an episode "Hänsel und Gretel" as part of its series Der rbb macht Familienzeit.
 * Hansel & Gretel: Witch Hunters (2013) by Tommy Wirkola with Jeremy Renner and Gemma Arterton, (USA, Germany). The film follows the adventures of Hansel and Gretel who became adults.
 * Gretel & Hansel, a 2020 American horror film directed by Oz Perkins in which Gretel is a teenager while Hansel is still a little boy.
 * Secret Magic Control Agency (2021) is an animated retelling of the fairy tale by incorporating comedy and family genres.
 * A Tale Dark & Grimm (2021) is a Netflix computer-animated series based on the novel of the same name by Adam Gidwitz, which, in turn, is a loose retelling of the story mixed with other Grimm fairy tales.
 * The Grimm Variations (2024) is a Netflix anime series which features a retelling of the story featuring elements of science fiction.

Computer programming
Hansel and Gretel's trail of breadcrumbs inspired the name of the navigation element breadcrumbs that allows users to keep track of their locations within programs or documents.

Video games

 * Hansel & Gretel and the Enchanted Castle (1995) by Terraglyph Interactive Studios is an adventure and hidden object game. The player controls Hansel, tasked with finding Prin, a forest imp, who holds the key to saving Gretel from the witch.
 * Gretel and Hansel (2009) by Mako Pudding is a browser adventure game. Popular on Newgrounds for its gruesome reimagining of the story, it features hand painted watercolor backgrounds and characters animated by Flash.
 * Fearful Tales: Hansel and Gretel Collector's Edition (2013) by Eipix Entertainment is a HOPA (hidden object puzzle adventure) game. The player, as Hansel and Gretel's mother, searches the witch's lair for clues.
 * In the online role-playing game Poptropica, the Candy Crazed mini-quest (2021) includes a short retelling of the story. The player is summoned to the witch's castle to free the children, who have been imprisoned after eating some of the candy residents.

title: Hansel and Gretel


text:
Crassulaceae

The Crassulaceae (, from Latin crassus, thick), also known as the stonecrop family or the orpine family, are a diverse family of dicotyledon flowering plants characterized by succulent leaves and a unique form of photosynthesis, known as Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM). Flowers generally have five floral parts. Crassulaceae are usually herbaceous but there are some subshrubs, and relatively few treelike or aquatic plants. Crassulaceae are a medium-sized monophyletic family in the core eudicots, among the order Saxifragales, whose diversity has made infrafamilial classification very difficult. The family includes approximately 1,400 species and 34–35 genera, depending on the circumscription of the genus Sedum, and distributed over three subfamilies. Members of the Crassulaceae are found worldwide, but mostly in the Northern Hemisphere and southern Africa, typically in dry and/or cold areas where water may be scarce, although a few are aquatic.

Crassulaceae are mainly perennial and have huge economic importance, internationally, as collectible, indoor and garden plants. Many species in the family have a bizarre, alien and intriguing appearance, with interesting textures, growths or even "furry" coverings, and are quite hardy, typically needing only minimal care. Still, many others have a more typical, "conventional" rosette form, something reflected in many common names, such as 'black rose' often referring to Aeonium arboreum var. 'Swartzkopf' or var. 'Merlot'. Well-known genera and species include the many forms of Crassula ovata ('jade plant', 'money plant' or 'friendship tree'), Kalanchoe blossfeldiana (florists' or supermarket-kalanchoe); Cotyledon, such as 'Chalk Fingers' and 'Pig’s Ear', Sempervivum such as cobweb houseleek (or hen-and-chicks) and S. calcareum, and Aeonium such as A. haworthii (and its popular variegate 'Kiwi'), A. arboreum, canariense, urbicum; Monanthes, Umbilicus (pennywort), Bryophyllum, Echeveria, Sedum and Dudleya.

Description
General: Crassulaceae is a family of morphologically diverse terrestrial perennial, rarely annual or hapaxanthic (flowering once in a lifetime), flowering plants that demonstrate xerophytic adaptations, with thick succulent leaves, a thick waxy cuticle and Crassulacean acid metabolism. Crassulaceae are generally herbaceous but there are some subshrubs, and relatively few treelike, epiphytic (growing on surface of plants), scandent (vine like) or aquatic plants. Most species are herbaceous leaf succulents, with regular 5 part (pentamerous or fivemerous) flowers, isomerous free carpels and one or two whorls of stamens.

Vegetative: Stems are sometimes succulent, as may also be the underground caudices (rootstock), and may form rhizomes or corms. Bulbils may form along the stem or leaf margins. The leaf arrangement is opposite and decussate or alternate and spiral, and they are frequently aggregated into rosettes. The leaf shape is simple (rarely pinnate) and usually entire, or crenate to broadly lobed, sometimes dentate or more deeply incised, glabrous (smooth) or tomentose. In cross section the leaf blades are flat or round. They may be sessile or petiolate. Stipules are absent. New plants often form easily from vegetative parts that fall off the parent plant.

Reproductive: The inflorescence is usually terminal to lateral with many-flowered thyrses of cymes, less commonly spikes, racemes or panicles, rarely few to single flowered and axillary. The inflorescence is often many-branched and bracteate. The flower clusters are red, yellow, or white.

The flowers are often apopetalous (separate corolla segments), pentamerous (five-parted), actinomorphic (radially symmetrical), except for the zygomorphic Tylecodon grandiflorus, with one to two whorls of 4–20 sepals that are usually as many as or twice as many as the number of petals and two whorls of stamens, five in each whorl (i.e. as many as or twice the number of petals), with their filaments either free or fused to the petals at the base and sometimes unequal. Anthers are basifixed and open lengthwise. The flowers are bisexual, less commonly unisexual (more or less dioecious). Ovaries superior to partially inferior, with carpels equal to the number of petals, each forming a single locule, superior, free or almost so, basally with a small to conspicuous basal nectary scale, gradually tapering to a short to long style with few to many ovules. The fruit is usually capsular with dehiscent follicles, opening along the carpal suture and many seeded. The seeds are small (1.5–3 mm), smooth, elongate, papillate to longitudinally ridged, and generally brownish.

However, a number of genera (e.g. Sempervivum, Aeonium) are polymerous (3-32), have basally fused or partially fused corolla segments, where the petals may form a corolla tube of varying length (e.g. Kalanchoe, Cotyledon), or have only a single whorl of 5 stamens (e.g. Crassula, Tillaea), while Sedum includes much of the morphological diversity within the family as a whole. Although the typical number of floral plants is four or five, a number of genera, such as Sempervivum and Jovibarba, demonstrate polymery (at least ten or greater parts).

Genome
Chromosome numbers are highly variable. The original base chromosome number is x=8, decreasing to 7 in Crassula. In Sedoideae, the base number increases to 9 in the Kalanchoe clade, but Kalanchoe have x=17 or 18 (or a multiple),and is probably of polyploid origin, derived from a tetraploid Cotyledon like taxon. In the Telephium sensu Hart clade the base number has increased to 12 and higher. Of the subclades within Telephium, the first (Hylotelephium sensu Thiede & Eggli: Hylotelphium, Orostachys and Sinocrassula) has x=12, and of the Rhodiola clade Phedimus has x=16 and Umbilcus x=24, representing another episode of polyploidy. Within Sempervivum, Sedum series Rupestre (Petrosedum) has x=28. Within the Leucosedum, most taxa are diploid, with 2x=12, 14 but includes two subclades, one with x=6 or 7, the other x=6, but a few have 14 or 16. Acre includes a wide variety of chromosome numbers from x=6 to 270, and occasionally larger and displays widespread polyploidy. Aeonium includes some Sedum species with x=8, while the remaining taxa are x=18. The core of this clade is probably polyploid from an ancestor with x=8.

Phytochemistry
Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM photosynthesis) is named after the family, because the pathway was first discovered in crassulacean plants. It is one of the few families that still has CAM as an active, photosynthetic pathway, and is unique in which all its members are known to possess CAM.

Taxonomy
Originally described by Saint-Hilaire (1805) as Crassuleae, and therefore has his name as the botanical authority. Authority has also, at times, been given to De Candolle (DC), who first used the term "Crassulaceae" in 1815. He later placed the family among the Dicotyledons.

One of the most complete treatments was Alwin Berger's revision in 1930. At that time the family comprised about 1,500 species, distributed over six subfamilies and 33 genera. Circumscription of the family has remained relatively stable, with the exception of the placement of the genus Penthorum, which has at times been placed either in its own monogeneric family, Penthoraceae, or in the Saxifragaceae. When Penthorum was separated from Crassulaceae, the latter became a natural monophyletic group. Some later authors, such as Cronquist, included only 900 species. Thiede and Eggli (2007), in their treatment of the family, describe 34 genera with about 1,410 species. The size of the genera varies considerably, from Sedum, the largest with 300–500 species, to the smallest, which are monotypic. Estimates of the number of species has varied between 1500 (Berger 1930) and 900 (Cronquist 1981).

Molecular phylogenetics has shown that morphological characters and chromosome numbers are so labile in the family, with rampant polyploidy and aneuploidy, that they cannot be used reliably to infer evolution, even at low taxonomic levels, with few exceptions. For instance Prometheum and Rosularia have been segregated from Sedum by their basic chromosome numbers.

Crassulaceae is a medium size monophyletic grouping within the core eudicots. Originally considered a primitive member of the Rosidae, in the order Saxifragales, it is now placed, with that order as a superrosid under the classification system of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group. There, the Saxifragales are a sister group to the rosids. Classification within the family is difficult and complex because many of the species hybridize readily, both in the wild and in cultivation, and the family is morphologically, cytologically and geographically diverse. As a result, generic boundaries have been considered unclear with frequent intergradation of characteristics between taxa, which may represent recurrent adaptation to xeric habitats.

Phylogeny
Crassulaceae has been considered a part of the order Saxifragales by most modern authors, including Cronquist (1981), Takhtajan (1987), and Thorne (1992), based on phenotypic features, but subsequently confirmed by molecular methods. The place of Crassulaceae within Saxifragales has varied over time, as molecular data accumulates. The number of families within Saxifragales varies depending on the delimitation of individual families. Here, 14 families are shown in a cladogram, according to the Angiosperm Phylogeny Website, situating Crassulaceae as sister to the Haloragaceae sensu lato, and thus forming one of two subclades of the core Saxifragales.

Biogeography and evolution
Crassulaceae evolved approximately 100–60 million years ago in southern Africa with the two most basal phylogenetic branches (Crassula, Kalanchoe) representing the predominantly southern African members. Other sources suggest that Crassulaceae evolved approximately 70 million years ago together with Haloragaceae sensu lato (Penthoraceae, Haloragaceae). The family is considered to have had a gradual evolution, with a basal split between Crassuloideae and the rest of the family (Kalanchoideae, Sempervivoideae). The Sempervivoideae subsequently dispersed north to the Mediterranean region, and from there to Eastern Europe and Asia (Sempervivum and Leucosedum clades), with multiple groups spreading over the three continents of the Northern Hemisphere. Two lineages from the European Crassulaceae eventually dispersed to North America and underwent subsequent diversification. The Aeonium clade dispersed from northern Africa to adjacent Macaronesia.

Distinct centers of speciation developed in Macaronesia (Aeonium clade), Mexico (Sedum and Echeverioideae in clade 7), and southeastern Asia (Sedum sarmentosum, and S. morissonensis in Acre clade). On arrival in the Northern hemisphere the Sempervivoideae reached its greatest diversity. Conversely, few representatives of the Crassulaceae occur in South America and Australia. Sedum species are found in most of these regions, generally grouped with genera endemic to that region. For instance the North African S. jaccardianum and S. modestum (Aeonium) are a sister group to the endemic Macaronesian species in that clade. The Macaronesian archipelago appears to have been reached by Crassulaceae at least three times. Once by the ancestor of Aeonium and Monanthes, most likely from the Western Mediterranean region, with the closest extant relatives of these two genera (Sedum caeruleum, S. pubescens), coming from this region (Aeonium clade). The second migration was by an ancestor of a clade of three Sedum species (S. nudum, S. lancerotense and S. fusiforme (Acre clade)), which appear to have originated in Mexico. The third occurrence likely involved the ancestor of a lineage within the genus Umbilicus (Rhodiola clade). The Macronesian flora include three genera from the Sempervivoideae, Aeonium, Aichryson and Monanthes (Aeonium clade), together with several Sedum spp. and one species of Umbilicus (Rhodiola). North America was reached at least twice, once by an ancestor of Parvisedum and Dudleya, and once by a subclade of Acre. For a mapping of morphological features and biogeography on the phylogenetic tree, see Fig. 3.

Chromosome numbers have played a limited role in elucidating evolution, but suggest a core of x=8, with subsequent polyploidy. For a mapping of chromosome numbers on the phylogenetic tree, see Fig. 4.

History
When Carl Linnaeus published his Species Plantarum in 1753 only a few genera, included in the modern circumscription of Crassulaceae were described; the type genus Crassula (10 species), Tillaea (3), Cotyledon (6), Sempervivum (6), Rhodiola (1) and Sedum (15). By 1777, Rhodiola had been submerged into Sedum, only to be separated again in the twentieth century.

While the family can fairly easily be recognised, identifying its constituent genera has been far more problematic. For an extensive history of subfamily Sedoideae, see. Saint-Hilaire's original description in 1805 included seven genera, as did De Candolle (1815). In a much more extensive treatment in 1828, he divided the Crassulaceae into the two groups, Isostemonae and Diplostemonae (i.e. haplostemony vs. obdiplostemony) on the basis of the number of staminal whorls. The former corresponded to the modern Crassuloideae. Two lineages, six subfamilies, and 33 genera of Crassulaceae were described by Berger in 1930:

Lineages, subfamilies, biogeography, No. genera, type genus (No. species in genus)
 * Crassula (Southern hemisphere)
 * Crassuloideae S Africa 5 Crassula (300)
 * (Crassula, Dinacria, Rochea, Vauanthes, Pagella)
 * Kalanchiodeae S Africa, Madagascar 3 Kalanchoe (200)
 * (Kalanchöe, Bryophyllum, Kitchingia)
 * Cotyledonoideae S Africa, Mediterranean 6 Cotyledon (30)
 * (Cotyledon, Adromischus, Umbilicus, Chiastophyllum, Pistorina, Mucizonia)
 * Sedum (Northern hemisphere)
 * Echeveroideae Mexico 5 Echeveria (150)
 * (Echeveria, Villadia, Altamiranoa, Pachyphytum, Lenophyllum)
 * Sempervivoideae Mediterranea, Macaronesia 5 Sempervivum (25)
 * (Sempervivum, Aeonium, Greenovia, Monanthes, Aichryson)
 * Sedoideae N hemisphere, S America, N & E Africa 11 Sedum (500)
 * (Sedum (since including Diamorpha), Rosularia, Orostachys, Pseudosedum, Hypagophytum, Afrovivella, Sempervivella, Sinocrassula)

Each of these contained one of the largest genera. Though various revisions since have proposed simpler schemes, such as Borisova (1939, revised 1969). Berger's classification has proven practical and been the most widely used, although some of the subfamilies are polyphyletic. Berger's classification depended on biogeography and a number of morphological characteristics (primarily the number and arrangement of floral parts (haplostemonous androecia, polymery), the degree of sympetaly, and phyllotaxis) which are now recognized as being of limited value due to extensive homoplasy, having evolved independently many times, and hence provides little useful information, only two of the subfamilies proving monophyletic. Berger used sympetaly to define the group of Kalanchiodeae, Cotyledonoideae and Echeveroideae, but it also occurs in taxa within Crassuloideae and Sedoideae. Berger also placed all species with polymery into his Sempervivoideae, but it occurs in two different clades, Sempervivum and Aeonium. Although five of his six subfamilies appeared to be morphologically and geographically defined, the Sedoideae were problematic, being an artificial construction containing all taxa which could not be fitted into the other subfamilies (catch-all).

Sedoideae contained three centres of diversity, East Asia, the Mediterranean region and North America, with the greatest in E. Asia. Only a few taxa, such as Rhodiola and Hylotelephium, occurring in all three regions. About 120 species were found in Europe and adjacent parts of North Africa and West Asia, and 400 in Eastern and central Asia.

Within Sedoideae, the large cosmopolitan typical genus Sedum (ca. 500 species), accounts for much of these issues, together with several smaller genera. Sedum refers to herbaceous, predominantly perennial species with alternate and entire leaves, a single subaxial hydathode and pentamerous obdiplostemous flowers with free petals. Most systematic treatments of the genus have resulted in conflicting classifications and evolutionary relationships within the Sedoideae. Attempts to resolve this have followed two opposing positions, lumping and splitting. Either accepting one artificial large catch-all polyphyletic genus, sensu lato (Sedum s.l.), or splitting it into many smaller genera, sensu stricto (Sedum s.l.). In the 1930s, Berger represented the splitting school of thought segregating genera such as Orostachys, Rosularia, Pseudosedum and Sempervivella. In contrast, Fröderströmm favoured retaining a broader construct of Sedum, recognising only Pseudosedum. In more recent times Ohba (1978) proposed the narrower view, segregating Rhodiola, Hylotelephium and Prometheum, among other genera. Ohba then subdivided the old world taxa of his now reduced Sedum into five subgenera:
 * subgenus Aizoon
 * subgenus Balfouria
 * subgenus Spathulata
 * subgenus Sedum
 * subgenus Telmissa

Grulich (1984) continued this process, proposing Aizopsis (subgenus Aizoon), Asterosedum (subgenus Spathulata), Petrosedum (subgenus Sedum series Rupestria) and Oreosedum (subgenus Sedum series Alba) as separate genera. As many as 32 segregate genera have been published, and most Eurasian crassulacean species were originally included in Sedum, but subsequently segregated (see Sempervivoideae).

Subsequently, various revisions have proposed fewer subfamilies. Takhtajan (1987) initially submerged Sempervivoideae in Sedoideae and Cotyledonoideae in Kalanchiodeae to produce four, but  later (1997) only three, Crassuloideae, Kalanchoideae and Sedoideae. Thorne (1992) also proposed three (Sedoidea, Cotyledonoidea, Crassuloidea),  and then two (2000), Crassuloideae and Sempervivoideae.

Molecular phylogenetics
Prior to the use of molecular methods of classification, attempts to replace Berger's system were largely unsuccessful. Subsequently, Hart and colleagues (1995) proposed two subfamilies, based on molecular phylogenetic data with chloroplast DNA, based on 49 species in 26 genera, which identified seven clades, named for constituent genera or species. Hart utilized a hierarchical system of subfamilies, tribes and subtribes, based on molecular, geographical and morphological criteria, including embryology, pollen morphology and phytochemistry. The basal split at subfamily level, separates the haplostemonous (single series of stamens, equal in number to petals) African Crassuloideae with opposite leaves, from the Sedeae without these characteristics (obdiplostemonous, two whorls of stamens, twice as many as petals).
 * Subfamily Crassuloideae Berger Type: Crassula 2 South African genera (250 species)
 * Subfamily Sedoideae Berger Type: Sedum
 * Tribe Kalanchoeae 't Hart Type: Kalanchoe 5 S African genera (250 spp.)
 * Tribe Sedeae 't Hart Type: Sedum
 * Subtribe Telephiinae 't Hart Type: Hylotelephium 8 Asian genera (150 spp.)
 * Subtribe Sedinae 't Hart Type: Sedum 18 Northern hemisphere genera (700 spp.)

These clades were (1–7):
 * 1) Crassula/Crassuloideae, the basal divergence, corresponds to Berger's subfamily of that name and are haplostemonous, but this feature is homoplasious. Confined to southern Africa, except for aquatic species, which are cosmopolitan.
 * 2) Kalanchoe/Kalanchoeae, the second divergence, corresponds to Berger's Kalanchoideae (Kalanchoe, Bryophyllum, Kitchingia) and the 2 S. African members of Cotyledonoideae (Adromischus, Cotyledon), together with Tylecodon which was segregated from Cotyledon in 1978. It was characterized by 4- or 5-merous flowers, connate petals and seeds, together with leaves that are flat, crenate or dentate (toothed), often petiolate and decussate. Chromosome number x=9. Within the clade, Adromischus forms the basal divergence, followed by Cotyledon/Tylecodon as sister to Kalanchoe.
 * 3) Telephium/Telephiinae include members of Cotyledonoideae (Umbilicus), together with some Sedoideae genera (including Hylotelephium) and two of Ohba's five subgenera of Sedum (Aizoon and Spathulata) and are usually obdiplostemonous, 5-merous flowers with free petals, flat and often crenate or dentate leaves ("flat leaved Asian Sedum") and have tubers, tuberous roots or woody or thickened rhizomes (monopodial or sympodial). In this respect many species share leaf features with the Kalanchoeae and Hart considered that the Telephiinae "bridge the gap" between the African Kalanchoeae and the Northern hemisphere Sedinae. Distribution predominantly East Asia, with Umbilicus being Mediterranean.
 * 4) Sempervivum includes the montane/alpine Eurasian Sempervivum, its nominative genus, together with Sedum from the same region, including Sedum series Rupestria. Sempervivum is closely related to Jovibarba, which some authors place within the former genus.
 * 5) Leucosedum, i.e. "White Sedum", from Sedum album, is polygeneric and includes additional Cotyledonoideae and Eurasian Sedoideae, including Sedum album and other species of Sedum subgenus Gormania. The other genera are thought to have evolved from the Sedum lineage in this clade, including Dudleya and Sedella (N America) and Rosularia, Prometheum and Pistorina (Eurasia). This grouping of 5–7 genera accounts for about 200 species. Some Sedum subgenus Sedum species also place here. Leucosedum species are found throughout the arid southwest United States and Mexico, as well as Eurasia.
 * 6) Aeonium is predominantly Macaronesian Sempervivoideae (Aeonium, Aichryson, Greenovia and Monanthes), from a N African ancestor, and N. African Sedum. Berger grouped the genera of that subfamily on the basis of polymerous flowers, but this is not restricted to this clade.
 * 7) Acre, with about 7 genera and 500 species is the most taxon rich clade in the Crasulaceae. It includes the American subfamily Echeveroideae and Sedum from Asia, Europe and Macaronesia, Mexico and Africa, including Sedum acre and Sedum subgenus Sedum. The strong representation of Sedum in this large clade accounts for it comprising a third of the diversity of the family. Two subclades consist of the N American and Macaronesian taxa, the other Eurasian.

The last subtribe, the Sedinae, represents the last four clades (4–7) and contained half of the genera and species of Crassulaceae, including Sedum, which is represented in all four clades, and the bulk of clades 5 and 7. In addition to Sedum, 16 other genera are recognised. Aeonium is basal divergence, followed by Sempervivum, with Leucosedum and Acre as sister groups. The Sedinae were very diverse, making phenotypic circumscription impossible. A similar problem exists for each of its subclades. Given the realisation that Sedum s.l. was a highly artificial construction, there was support for reducing it by describing a number of segregate genera. Ohba (1995) proposed that Sedum s.s. should be restricted to clade 7, or at most clades 5–7, continuing some of the premolecular work in this direction, newly describing a number of Asian genera in addition to this reduced Sedum.:

The general phylogenetic topology described by 't Hart et al. (1995) was confirmed in a larger study of 112 species of Crassulaceae sampled from 33 genera, and all six recognized subfamilies, using the chloroplast gene matK. The Telephium clade, which had only been weakly supported, was seen as probably containing several subclades. A similar conclusion was seen in a further but more focussed study of East Asian Sedoideae that examined the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of nuclear ribosomes of 74 taxa. This region includes about 300 species of Sedoideae, and most genera segregated from Sedum. However the Telephium clade of Ham was recognised as actually consisting of four separate clades, of which the two largest were named Hylotelephium and Rhodiola. The former are distinguished by being autumn flowering, while the remaining Sedeae bloom in spring and early summer. This analysis also confirmed the separate identity of most of the genera previously segregated from Sedum. A second ITS study of 69 taxa in ten Asian genera resolved Telephium into just these two larger clades.
 * Hylotelephium
 * Orostachys
 * Aizopsis
 * Phedimus
 * Rhodiola
 * Prometheum
 * Rosularia
 * Balfouria
 * Sinocrassula
 * Meterostachys
 * Pseudosedum

Hart's taxonomic classification was revised by Thiede and Eggli (2007) to define three molecularly defined subfamilies, corresponding to the major clades, Crassuloideae, Kalanchoöideae and Sempervivoideae, and 34 genera. Although some authors prefer the older term Sedoideae for Sempervivoideae, Sempervivoideae has taxonomic priority. The earliest branching subfamily is the Crassuloideae (2 genera), followed by the Kalanchoöideae (4 genera). Both of these represent the genera of southern Africa. The remaining six clades are segregated into the five tribes of the large temperate climate subfamily Sempervivoideae, with about thirty genera. These are Telephiae, Umbilicicae, Semperviveae, Aeonieae and Sedeae. Sedeae is the largest of these and contains two sister clades, Leucosedum and Acre The Sempervivoideae contain many familiar horticultural plants, such as Sedum. The phylogenetic relationships between the subfamilies are shown in the cladogram.

Crassuloideae Burnett
Crassuloideae is the smallest subfamily, representing a single monophyletic clade (Crassula), defined by haplostemonous androecia (characterized by a single whorl of stamens, the number of which equals the number of sepals, petals and carpels, and alternating with the petals). Although cosmopolitan in distribution, the center of diversity is southern Africa, with only the aquatic species being found more widely. It consists of two genera and about 250–300 species (Berger's other four genera (Dinacria, Pagella, Rochea, Vauanthes) having been subsumed into a larger Crassula s.l.). Crassula is morphologically diverse and up to 20 sections based on phenotypic features have been described. One of these, Tillaea, has at times been considered a separate genus. Hypagophytum is a monotypic genus, alternatively considered under Sempervivoideae.
 * Crassula L. (including Tillaea L. ) c. 200 spp.
 * Hypagophytum A.Berger 1 sp.

Kalanchoöideae A.Berger
Kalanchoöideae is the next smallest subfamily, characterised by flower parts in fours. It represents Berger's Kalanchiodeae and Cotyledonoideae, in part. It is distributed in Madagascar and tropical Africa, with four genera and about between 130–240 species. It is characterised by fused corollas, chromosome number x=9 and mostly southern African distribution. The boundaries between Kalanchoe, Bryophyllum and Kitchingia have remained unclear, and the latter two genera are more commonly treated as sections of Kalanchoe:
 * Adromischus Lem.
 * Cotyledon L.
 * Kalanchoe Adans. (including Bryophyllum Adans., Kitchingia Adans. )
 * Tylecodon Toelken

Sempervivoideae Arn.
Sempervivoideae is the largest and taxonomically most complex subfamily, distributed in temperate climates, with about 20–30 genera, and divided into five tribes, of which Sedeae contains two distinct clades, Leucosedum and Acre:
 * Telephieae
 * Umbiliceae
 * Semperviveae
 * Aeonieae
 * Sedeae

Distribution and habitat
The family Crassulaceae has a cosmopolitan distribution, particularly Crassula, though rare in South America and Australia, predominantly in the temperate and subtropical regions of the Northern hemisphere and Africa. The main centers of diversity being Mexico and south-western USA (about 300 species), Southern Africa (about 250 species), the Mediterranean region (about 177 species) and adjacent Macaronesia archipelago (200 species), and south-eastern Asia (about 200 species), especially the Himalayas. The Mediterranean region includes 12 genera. The greatest diversity is in southern Africa and Madagascar where the Crassula and Kalanchoe clades are confined.

Habitat
Crassulaceae are found predominantly in semi-arid rocky habitats with monsoonal patterns of precipitation and high humidity, while some genera (e.g. Sempervivum) occur primarily in arid mountainous habitats and higher altitudes. Although their succulent leaves and Crassulacean acid metabolism allow them to adapt to a variable water supply, they are not found in true desert areas. Some lineages have adapted to semi-aquatic and seasonally aquatic areas (Crassula, Tillaea, Sedella) while Echeveria and Aichryson are found in moist, cool forest areas.

Ecology
While most Crassulaceae are perennial, Tillaea are annuals, and annual species are also found among Aichryson, Crassula, Sedum and Monanthes.

Cultivation
Many Crassulaceae species are cultivated as pot plants or in rock gardens and borders.

Toxicity
Some species are toxic to animals, such as those of Cotyledon and Tylecodon, e.g. Tylecodon wallichii. All species of Kalanchoe are toxic, particularly to livestock in Australia and South Africa, where alternative forage is scarce, with the flowers containing the highest concentration of cardiotoxins, the active ingredient being bufadienolides (named for their digoxin-like effect on Bufo toads). Illness in domestic pets has also been reported, Kalanchoe blossfeldiana being a popular Christmas time decorative household plant.

Uses
Although no species have a role as crops, they are popular horticultural commodities as ornamental plants e.g. Kalanchoe, while others (e.g. Crassula helmsii) may also have a nuisance role as weeds.

Books

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Chapters

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Historical

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Websites

 * (see also Angiosperm Phylogeny Website)
 * , in Flora of China online vol. 8
 * , in Flora of China online vol. 8

title: Crassulaceae


text:
List of Wimbledon champions

The following is a list of Wimbledon champions in tennis:

Junior
‡ = a player who won both the junior and senior title. † = a player who won the junior title and reached the senior final.

title: List of Wimbledon champions


text:
James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce

James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce, (10 May 1838 – 22 January 1922), was a British academic, jurist, historian, and Liberal politician. According to Keoth Robbins, he was a widely traveled authority on law, government, and history whose expertise led to high political offices culminating with his successful role as ambassador to the United States, 1907–13. His intellectual influence was greatest in The American Commonwealth (1888), an in-depth study of American politics that shaped the understanding of America in Britain and in the United States as well.

Background and education
Bryce was born in Arthur Street in Belfast, County Antrim, in Ulster, the son of Margaret, daughter of James Young of Whiteabbey, and James Bryce, LLD, from near Coleraine, County Londonderry. The first eight years of his life were spent residing at his grandfather's Whiteabbey residence, often playing for hours on the tranquil picturesque shoreline. Annan Bryce was his younger brother. He was educated under his uncle Reuben John Bryce at the Belfast Academy, Glasgow High School, the University of Glasgow, the University of Heidelberg and Trinity College, Oxford.

He was elected a fellow of Oriel College, Oxford, in 1862 and was called to the Bar, Lincoln's Inn, in 1867. His days as a student at the University of Heidelberg gave him a long-life admiration of German historical and legal scholarship. He became a believer in "Teutonic freedom", an ill-defined concept that was held to bind Germany, Britain and the United States together. For him, the United States, the British Empire and Germany were "natural friends".

Academic career
Bryce was admitted to the Bar and practised law in London for a few years but was soon called back to Oxford to become Regius Professor of Civil Law, a position he held from 1870 to 1893. From 1870 to 1875 he was also Professor of Jurisprudence at Owens College, Manchester. His reputation as a historian had been made as early as 1864 by his work on the Holy Roman Empire.

In 1872 Bryce travelled to Iceland to see the land of the Icelandic sagas, as he was a great admirer of Njáls saga. In 1876 he ventured through Russia to Mount Ararat, climbed above the tree line and found a piece of hand-hewn timber, 4 ft long and 5 in thick. He agreed that the evidence fit the Armenian Church's belief that it was from Noah's Ark and offered no other explanations.

In 1872 Bryce, a proponent of higher education, particularly for women, joined the Central Committee of the National Union for Improving the Education of Women of All Classes (NUIEWC).

Member of Parliament
In 1880 Bryce, an ardent Liberal in politics, was elected to the House of Commons as member for the constituency of Tower Hamlets in London. In 1885 he was returned for South Aberdeen and he was re-elected there on succeeding occasions. He remained a Member of Parliament until 1907.

Bryce's intellectual distinction and political industry made him a valuable member of the Liberal Party. As early as the late 1860s he served as Chairman of the Royal Commission on Secondary Education. In 1885 he was made Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs under William Ewart Gladstone but had to leave office after the Liberals were defeated in the general election later that year. In 1892 he joined Gladstone's last cabinet as Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster and was sworn of the Privy Council at the same time.

In 1894 Bryce was appointed President of the Board of Trade in the new cabinet of Lord Rosebery, but had to leave this office, along with the whole Liberal cabinet, the following year. The Liberals remained out of office for the next ten years.

In 1897, after a visit to South Africa, Bryce published a volume of Impressions of that country that had considerable influence in Liberal circles when the Second Boer War was being discussed. He devoted significant sections of the book to the recent history of South Africa, various social and economic details about the country, and his experiences while travelling with his party. In 1900 he introduced a Private Member's Bill to secure access for the public to the mountains and moorlands in Scotland.

The "still radical" Bryce was made Chief Secretary for Ireland in Prime Minister Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman's cabinet in 1905 and remained in office throughout 1906. Bryce was critical of many of the social reforms proposed by this Liberal Government, including old-age pensions, the Trade Disputes Act and the redistributive "People's Budget," which he regarded as making unwarranted concessions to socialism.

The American Commonwealth (1888)
Bryce had become well known in America for his book The American Commonwealth (1888), a thorough examination of the institutions of the United States from the point of view of a historian and constitutional lawyer. Bryce painstakingly reproduced the travels of Alexis de Tocqueville, who wrote Democracy in America (1835–1840). Tocqueville had emphasised the egalitarianism of early-19th-century America, but Bryce was dismayed to find vast inequality: "Sixty years ago, there were no great fortunes in America, few large fortunes, no poverty. Now there is some poverty ... and a greater number of gigantic fortunes than in any other country of the world" and "As respects education ... the profusion of…elementary schools tends to raise the mass to a higher point than in Europe ... [but] there is an increasing class that has studied at the best universities. It appears that equality has diminished [in this regard] and will diminish further." The work was heavily used in academia, partly as a result of Bryce's close friendships with men such as James B. Angell, President of the University of Michigan and successively Charles W. Eliot and Abbott Lawrence Lowell at Harvard. The work also became a key text for American writers seeking to popularise a view of American history as distinctively Anglo-Saxon. The American Commonwealth contains Bryce's observation that "the enormous majority" of American women opposed their own right to vote.

Ambassador to the United States

In February 1907 Bryce was appointed Ambassador to the United States. He held this office until 1913, and was very efficient in strengthening Anglo-American ties and friendship. The appointment, criticised at the time as withdrawing from the regular diplomatic corps one of its most coveted posts, proved a great success. The United States had been in the habit of sending, as minister or ambassador to the Court of St James's, one of its leading citizens: a statesman, a man of letters, or a lawyer whose name and reputation were already well known in Great Britain. For the first time Great Britain responded in kind. Bryce, already favourably regarded in America as the author The American Commonwealth, made himself thoroughly at home in the country; and, after the fashion of American ministers or ambassadors in England, he took up with eagerness and success the role of public orator on matters outside party politics, so far as his diplomatic duties permitted.

He made many personal friends among American politicians, such as President Theodore Roosevelt. The German ambassador in Washington, Graf Heinrich von Bernstorff, later stated how relieved he felt that Bryce was not his competitor for American sympathies during the First World War, even though Bernstorff helped to keep the United States from declaring war until 1917.

Most of the questions with which he had to deal related to the relations between the United States and Canada, and in this connection he paid several visits to Canada to confer with the Governor General and his ministers. At the close of his embassy he told the Canadians that probably three-fourths of the business of the British embassy at Washington was Canadian, and of the eleven or twelve treaties he had signed nine had been treaties relating to the affairs of Canada. "By those nine treaties," he said, "we have, I hope, dealt with all the questions that are likely to arise between the United States and Canada questions relating to boundary; questions relating to the disposal and the use of boundary waters; questions relating to the fisheries in the international waters where the two countries adjoin one another; questions relating to the interests which we have in sealing in the Behring Sea, and many other matters." He could boast that he left the relations between the United States and Canada on an excellent footing.

Peerage
In 1914, after his retirement as Ambassador and his return to Britain, Bryce was raised to the peerage as Viscount Bryce, of Dechmount in the County of Lanark. Thus he became a member of the House of Lords, the powers of which had been curtailed by the Parliament Act 1911.

First World War
Along with other English scholars, who had ties of close association with German learning, he was reluctant in the last days of July 1914 to contemplate the possibility of war with Germany, but the violation of Belgian neutrality and the stories of outrages committed in Belgium by German troops brought him speedily into line with national feeling. Following the outbreak of the First World War Bryce was commissioned by Prime Minister H. H. Asquith to write what became known as The Bryce Report in which he described German atrocities in Belgium. The report was published in 1915 and was damning of German behaviour against civilians. Bryce's account was confirmed by Vernon Lyman Kellogg, the Director of the American Commission for Relief in Belgium, who told the New York Times that the German military had enslaved hundreds of thousands of Belgian workers, and abused and maimed many of them in the process.

Bryce strongly condemned the Armenian genocide in the Ottoman Empire mainly in 1915. Bryce was the first person to speak on the subject in the House of Lords, in July 1915. Later, with the assistance of the historian Arnold J. Toynbee, he produced a documentary record of the massacres that was published as a Blue Book by the British government in 1916. In 1921 Bryce wrote that the Armenian genocide had also claimed half of the population of the Assyrians in the Ottoman Empire and that similar cruelties had been perpetrated upon them.

Beliefs
According to Moton Keller:"Bryce believed in Liberalism, the classic 19th century Liberalism of John Bright and William Gladstone, of free trade, free speech and press, personal liberty, and responsible leadership. This notably genial gregarious man had his hates, chief among them illiberal regimes: the Turkish oppressors of Bulgars and Armenians, and, later the Kaiser's Reich in World War I."

Bryce had a distrust of current democratic practices seen as late as his Modern Democracy (1921), which was a comparative study of a certain number of popular governments in their actual working. On the other hand, he was a leader in promoting international organizations. During the last years of his life Bryce served as a judge at the International Court in The Hague, and promoted the establishment of the League of Nations.

Honours and other public appointments
Bryce received numerous academic honours from home and foreign universities. In September 1901, he received the degree of Doctor of Laws from Dartmouth College, and in October 1902 he received an honorary degree (LLD) from the University of St Andrews, and in 1914 he received an honorary degree from Oxford. He became a fellow of the Royal Society in 1894.

In earlier life, he was a notable mountain climber, ascending Mount Ararat in 1876, and published a volume on Transcaucasia and Ararat in 1877; in 1899 to 1901, he was the president of the Alpine Club. From his Caucasian journey, he brought back a deep distrust of Ottoman rule in Asia Minor and a distinct sympathy for the Armenian people.

In 1882, Bryce established the National Liberal Club, whose members, in its first three decades, included fellow founder Prime Minister Gladstone, George Bernard Shaw, David Lloyd George, H. H. Asquith and many other prominent Liberal candidates and MP's such as Winston Churchill and Bertrand Russell. In April 1882 Bryce was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society. He was elected an International Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1893 and an International Member of the American Philosophical Society in 1895.

In 1907 he was made a Member of the Order of Merit by King Edward VII, At the King's death, Bryce arranged his Washington Memorial Service. At the time of Bryce's memorial service at Westminster Abbey, his wife, Elizabeth, received condolences from King George V, who "regarded Lord Bryce as an old friend and trusted counsellor to whom I could always turn." Queen Victoria had said that Bryce was "one of the best informed men on all subjects I have ever met". In 1918 he was appointed GCVO.

Bryce was president of the American Political Science Association from 1907 to 1908. He was the fourth person to hold this office. He was president of the British Academy from 1913 to 1917. In 1919 he delivered the British Academy's inaugural Raleigh Lecture on History, on "World History".

Bryce chaired the Conference on the Reform of the Second Chamber in 1917–1918.

Personal life
Bryce married Elizabeth Marion, daughter of Thomas Ashton and sister of Thomas Ashton, 1st Baron Ashton of Hyde, in 1889. Lord and Lady Bryce had no children.

Bryce died while on holiday on 22 January 1922, aged 83, of heart failure in his sleep at The Victoria Hotel, Sidmouth, Devon, on the last of his lifelong travels. The viscountcy died with him. He was cremated at Golders Green Crematorium, following which his ashes were buried near to his parents at Grange Cemetery, Edinburgh.

Lady Bryce is recalled in the memoirs of Captain Peter Middleton, grandfather of Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge who wrote, "Nor will I forget my terror of Lady Bryce", who was the aunt of his mother's first cousins, sisters Elinor and Elizabeth Lupton.

Lady Bryce died in 1939. Her papers are held at the Bodleian Library.

Memorials
There is a large monument to Viscount Bryce in the southwest section of the Grange Cemetery in Edinburgh, facing north at the west end of the central east–west avenue. His ashes are buried there.

There is a bust of Viscount Bryce in Trinity Church on Broadway, near Wall Street in New York. A similar bust is in the U.S. Capitol Building and there is a commemorative Bryce Park in Washington DC.

In 1965 the James Bryce Chair of Government was endowed at the University of Glasgow. "Government" was changed to "Politics" in 1970.

In 2013 the Ulster History Circle unveiled a blue plaque dedicated to him, near his birthplace in Belfast.

On the occasion of the 160th anniversary of Bryce's birth, a small street off of Baghramyan Avenue in Yerevan, Armenia was named "James Bryce Street" in 1998.

Publications

 * The Holy Roman Empire, First edition 1864 revised edition 1904, many reprints.
 * Report on the Condition of Education in Lancashire, 1867
 * The Trade Marks Registration Act, with Introduction and Notes on Trade Mark Law, 1877
 * Transcaucasia and Ararat, 1877
 * The American Commonwealth, 1888, Volume I, Volume II, Volume III
 * Impressions of South Africa, 1897
 * Studies in History and Jurisprudence, 1901, Volume I, Volume II
 * Studies in Contemporary Biography, 1903
 * The Hindrances to Good Citizenship, 1909 Reissued by Transaction Publishers, 1993, edited and with a new Introduction by Howard G. Schneiderman
 * South America: Observations and Impressions 1912
 * The Treatment of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire 1915–16, 1916
 * Essays and Addresses in War Time, 1918
 * Modern Democracies, 1921 Volume I, Volume II
 * Modern Democracies, 1921 Volume I, Volume II

His Studies in History and Jurisprudence (1901) and Studies in Contemporary Biography (1903) were republications of essays.

Selected articles

 * "The Future of English Universities," The Fortnightly Review, Vol. XXXIX, 1883.
 * "An Ideal University," The Contemporary Review, Vol. XLV, June 1884.
 * "The Relations of History and Geography," The Contemporary Review, Vol. XLIX, January/June 1886.
 * "An Age of Discontent," The Contemporary Review, Vol. LIX, January 1891.
 * “Thoughts on the Negro Problem.” The North American Review 153, no. 421 (1891): 641–60.
 * "The Migrations of the Races of Men Considered Historically," The Contemporary Review, Vol. LXII, July 1892.
 * "The Teaching of Civic Duty," Educational Review, Vol. VI, 1893.
 * "Equality," The Century; A Popular Quarterly, Vol. LVI, No. 3, July 1898.
 * "What is Progress?," The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. C, 1907.

Famous quotations

 * "Patriotism consists not in waving the flag, but in striving that our country shall be righteous as well as strong."
 * "No government demands so much from the citizen as Democracy and none gives back so much."
 * "Life is too short for reading inferior books."
 * "Excessive anger against human stupidity is itself one of the most provoking forms of stupidity."

title: James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce


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Crocodylinae

Crocodylinae is a subfamily of true crocodiles within the family Crocodylidae, and is the sister taxon to Osteolaeminae (dwarf crocodiles and slender-snouted crocodiles).

Taxonomy
Crocodylinae was cladistically defined by Christopher Brochu in 1999 as Crocodylus niloticus (the Nile crocodile) and all crocodylians more closely related to it than to Osteolaemus tetraspis (the Dwarf crocodile). This is a stem-based definition, and is the sister taxon to Osteolaeminae.

Crocodylinae contains the extant genus Crocodylus. It is disputed as to whether is also includes Mecistops (slender-snouted crocodiles), or the extinct genus Voay.

Phylogeny
Some morphological studies have recovered Mecistops as a basal member of Crocodylinae, more closely related to Crocodylus than to Osteolaemus and the other members of Osteolaeminae, as shown in the cladogram below.

The below cladogram is based on a 2021 study using paleogenomics that extracted DNA from the extinct Voay, recovering it as a member of Crocodylinae.

Species list
Crocodylinae contains 13-14 extant species and 6 extinct species.

 * Subfamily Crocodylinae
 * Genus Crocodylus
 * Crocodylus acutus, American crocodile
 * Crocodylus halli, Hall's New Guinea crocodile
 * Crocodylus intermedius, Orinoco crocodile
 * Crocodylus johnstoni, Freshwater crocodile, or Johnstone's crocodile
 * Crocodylus mindorensis, Philippine crocodile
 * Crocodylus moreletii, Morelet's crocodile or Mexican crocodile
 * Crocodylus niloticus, Nile crocodile
 * Crocodylus novaeguineae, New Guinea crocodile
 * Crocodylus palustris, mugger, marsh or Indian crocodile
 * Crocodylus porosus, Saltwater crocodile or Estuarine crocodile
 * Crocodylus raninus, Borneo crocodile, is currently considered to be a synonym of Crocodylus porosus; whether or not it is a distinct species remains unclear.
 * Crocodylus rhombifer, Cuban crocodile
 * Crocodylus siamensis, Siamese crocodile
 * Crocodylus suchus, West African crocodile, desert or sacred crocodile
 * Crocodylus anthropophagus
 * Crocodylus checchiai
 * Crocodylus falconensis
 * Crocodylus palaeindicus
 * Crocodylus thorbjarnarsoni
 * Genus Voay
 * Voay robustus (formerly Crocodylus robustus)

title: Crocodylinae


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Server farm

A server farm or server cluster is a collection of computer servers, usually maintained by an organization to supply server functionality far beyond the capability of a single machine. They often consist of thousands of computers which require a large amount of power to run and to keep cool. At the optimum performance level, a server farm has enormous financial and environmental costs. They often include backup servers that can take over the functions of primary servers that may fail. Server farms are typically collocated with the network switches and/or routers that enable communication between different parts of the cluster and the cluster's users. Server "farmers" typically mount computers, routers, power supplies and related electronics on 19-inch racks in a server room or data center.

Applications
Server farms are commonly used for cluster computing. Many modern supercomputers comprise giant server farms of high-speed processors connected by either Ethernet or custom interconnects such as Infiniband or Myrinet. Web hosting is a common use of a server farm; such a system is sometimes collectively referred to as a web farm. Other uses of server farms include scientific simulations (such as computational fluid dynamics) and the rendering of 3D computer generated imagery (see render farm).

Server farms are increasingly being used instead of or in addition to mainframe computers by large enterprises. In large server farms, the failure of an individual machine is a commonplace event: large server farms provide redundancy, automatic failover, and rapid reconfiguration of the server cluster.

Performance
The performance of the largest server farms (thousands of processors and up) is typically limited by the performance of the data center's cooling systems and the total electricity cost rather than by the processors' performance. Computers in server farms run 24/7 and consume large amounts of electricity. For this reason, the critical design parameter for both large and continuous systems tends to be performance per watt rather than cost of peak performance or (peak performance / (unit * initial cost)). Also, for high availability systems that must run 24/7 (unlike supercomputers that can be power-cycled to demand, and also tend to run at much higher utilizations), there is more attention to power-saving features such as variable clock-speed and the ability to turn off both computer parts, processor parts, and entire computers (WoL and virtualization) according to demand without bringing down services. The network connecting the servers in a server farm is also an essential factor in overall performance, especially when running applications that process massive volumes of data.

Performance per watt
The EEMBC EnergyBench, SPECpower, and the Transaction Processing Performance Council TPC-Energy are benchmarks designed to predict performance per watt in a server farm. The power used by each rack of equipment can be measured at the power distribution unit. Some servers include power tracking hardware so the people running the server farm can measure the power used by each server. The power used by the entire server farm may be reported in terms of power usage effectiveness or data center infrastructure efficiency.

According to some estimates, for every 100 watts spent on running the servers, roughly another 50 watts is needed to cool them. For this reason, the siting of a server farm can be as important as processor selection in achieving power efficiency. Iceland, which has a cold climate all year as well as cheap and carbon-neutral geothermal electricity supply, is building its first major server farm hosting site. Fibre optic cables are being laid from Iceland to North America and Europe to enable companies there to locate their servers in Iceland. Other countries with favorable conditions, such as Canada, Finland, Sweden and Switzerland, are trying to attract cloud computing data centers. In these countries, heat from the servers can be cheaply vented or used to help heat buildings, thus reducing the energy consumption of conventional heaters.

title: Server farm