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Southwark Cathedral

Southwark Cathedral or The Cathedral and Collegiate Church of St Saviour and St Mary Overie, Southwark, London, lies near the south bank of the River Thames close to London Bridge. It is the mother church of the Diocese of Southwark. It has been a place of Christian worship for more than 1,000 years, but the church was not raised to cathedral status until the creation of the diocese of Southwark in 1905.

Between 1106 and 1538 it was the church of an Augustinian priory, Southwark Priory, dedicated in honour of the Virgin Mary (St. Mary – over the river, 'overie'). Following the dissolution of the monasteries, it became a parish church, with a dedication to the Holy Saviour (St. Saviour). The church was in the diocese of Winchester until 1877, when the parish of St Saviour's, along with other South London parishes, was transferred to the diocese of Rochester. The present building retains the basic form of the Gothic structure built between 1220 and 1420, although the nave is a late 19th-century reconstruction.

Legendary origins
The 16th-century London historian John Stow recorded an account of the origins of the Southwark Priory of St Mary that he had heard from Bartholomew Linsted, who had been the last prior when the priory was dissolved. Linsted claimed it had been founded as a nunnery "long before the [Norman] Conquest" by a maiden named Mary, on the profits of a ferry across the Thames she had inherited from her parents. Later it was converted into a college of priests by "Swithen, a noble lady". Finally in 1106 it was refounded as an Augustinian priory.

The tale of the ferryman's daughter Mary and her benefactions became very popular, but later historians tried to rationalise Linsted's story. Thus the author of an 1862 guidebook to the then St Saviour's Church suggested it was probable that the "noble lady" Swithen had in fact been a man – Swithun, Bishop of Winchester, from 852 or 853 until his death in 863.

In the 20th century this identification was accepted by Thomas P. Stevens, succentor and sacrist, and later honorary canon, of Southwark Cathedral, who wrote a number of guidebooks to the cathedral, and a history that was revised and reprinted many times. He went on to date the foundation of the supposed original nunnery to "about the year 606", although he provided no evidence to support the date. Although recent guidebooks are more circumspect, referring only to "a tradition", an information panel at the east end of the cathedral still claims that there had been "A convent founded in 606 AD" and "A monastery established by St Swithun in the 9th century".

It is unlikely that this minster pre-dated the conversion of Wessex in the mid-7th century, or the foundation of the "burh" c. 886. There is no proof for suggestions that a convent was founded on the site in 606 nor for the claim that a monastery was founded there by St Swithun in the 9th century.

Saxon and Norman
The earliest reference to the site was in the Domesday Book of 1086, when the "minster" of Southwark seems to have been under the control of William the Conqueror's half-brother, Bishop Odo of Bayeux.

The Old English minster was a collegiate church serving an area on the south side of the Thames. In 1106, during the reign of Henry I it became an Augustinian priory, under the patronage of the Bishops of Winchester, who established their London seat Winchester Palace immediately to the west in 1149. A remaining wall of the palace refectory, with a rose window, survives in Clink Street.

The Priory was dedicated to the Virgin Mother as 'St Mary' but had the additional soubriquet of "Overie" ("over the river") to distinguish it from the many churches in the City of London (on the opposite bank of the Thames) with the same name.

Some fragments of 12th-century fabric survive. The church in its present form, however, dates to between 1220 and 1420, making it the first Gothic church in London.

Gothic reconstruction

The church was severely damaged in the Great Fire of 1212. Rebuilding took place during the thirteenth century, although the exact dates are unknown. In its reconstructed state – the basic layout of which survives today – the church was cruciform in plan, with an aisled nave of six bays, a crossing tower, transepts, and a five bay choir. Beyond the choir stood a lower retrochoir or Lady chapel, the form of which can also be interpreted as group of four chapels with separate gabled roofs, two opening from the choir, and two from each aisle.

There was a chapel dedicated to Mary Magdalen, for the use of the parishioners, in the angle between the south transept and the choir, and another chapel was later added to the east of the retrochoir. This was to become known as the "Bishop's chapel" as it was the burial place of Lancelot Andrewes.

In the 1390s, the church was again damaged by fire, and in around 1420 the Bishop of Winchester, Henry Beaufort, assisted with the rebuilding of the south transept and the completion of the tower.

During the 15th century the parochial chapel was rebuilt, and the nave and north transept were given wooden vaults following the collapse of the stone ceiling in 1469. Some of the carved bosses from the vault (destroyed in the 19th century) are preserved in the cathedral.

The 14th-century poet John Gower lived in the priory precinct and is entombed in the church, with a splendid memorial, with polychrome panels. There is also a recumbent effigy of a knight in timber (rather than brass or stone) and it is suggested by the church that this dates from the 13th century. If so then this is one of the oldest such memorials and some credence can be given to the suggestion by its lack of heraldic emblems.

16th and 17th centuries
In around 1520 the Bishop of Winchester, Richard Foxe, carried out a programme of improvement, installing a stone altar screen, a new west doorway with a window above and a new window in the east gable of the choir.

Along with all the other religious houses in England, the priory was dissolved by Henry VIII, being surrendered to the Crown in 1540. The receiver in charge of dissolving St Marie Overie was William Saunders. In that year St Mary Overie received the new dedication of St Saviour and became the church of a new parish, which combined those of St Mary Magdalen (the attached parochial chapel) and the nearby church of St Margaret, which was deconsecrated. The parishioners leased the priory church and rectory from the Crown until 1614, when they purchased the church outright for £800.

During the reign of Queen Mary heresy trials were held in the retrochoir. In January 1555, six high-ranking clergymen, including the former Bishop of Gloucester, John Hooper, were condemned to death there.

As the parish church for the Bankside area, St Saviour's had close connections with the great Elizabethan dramatists. William Shakespeare's brother, Edmund, was buried there in 1607. His grave is unmarked, but a commemorative stone was later placed in the paving of the choir. The cathedral instituted a festival to commemorate this cultural history in the 1920s which endured into the late 20th century.

There is a large stained glass window dedicated to William Shakespeare, depicting scenes from his plays, at the base of which is an alabaster statue representing the playwright reclining, holding a quill. Two dramatists, John Fletcher and Philip Massinger were buried in the church. Along with Edward Alleyn they were officers and benefactors of the parish charities and of St Saviour's Grammar School.

John Harvard was born in the parish and was baptised in the church on 29 November 1607. He is commemorated by the Harvard Chapel in the north transept, paid for by Harvard University alumni resident in England. His father, Robert, a local butcher and inn-holder, was a business associate of Shakespeare's family and a parochial, school, and church officer with the playwright's colleagues.

The connection with the bishops of Winchester continued after the Reformation. Lancelot Andrewes, bishop of Winchester until his death in 1626, and a contributor to the Authorized Version of the Bible, was buried in a small chapel at the east end that afterwards became known as the "Bishop's Chapel". After the destruction of the chapel in 1830, his tomb was moved to a new position, immediately behind the high altar.

It was from the tower of St Saviour's that the Czech artist Wenceslas Hollar drew his Long View of London from Bankside in 1647, a panorama which has become a definitive image of the city in the 17th century.

19th century
By the early 19th century the fabric of the church had fallen into disrepair. All the medieval furnishings were gone, and the interior was as Francis Bumpus later described it, "pewed and galleried to a fearful extent." Between 1818 and 1830, the tower and choir were restored by George Gwilt Jun. In his efforts to return the church to its thirteenth-century appearance, Gwilt removed the early sixteenth-century windows at the east end of the choir and, lacking firm evidence as to the original design, substituted an elevation of his own invention, with three lancet windows, and a circular one in the gable above. The transepts were restored, less sympathetically, by Robert Wallace. The Bishop's Chapel and parochial chapel were removed, but plans for the demolition of the retrochoir were averted, and it was restored by Gwilt in 1832.

At a vestry meeting held in May 1831 it was decided to remove the nave roof, which had become unsafe, leaving the interior open to the weather, and to hold all future services in the choir and transepts. In 1839, the roofless nave was demolished to within seven feet of the ground, and rebuilt to a design by Henry Rose.

The new nave was at a higher level than the surviving mediaeval eastern part, and closed off from it by a glazed screen. It had a plaster vault carried on iron columns, and a wooden gallery around three sides. It was widely criticised, notably by Pugin who wrote "It is bad enough to see such an erection spring up at all, but when a venerable building is demolished to make way for it, the case is quite intolerable."

On the initiative of Anthony Thorold, Bishop of Rochester, the nave was once again rebuilt between 1890 and 1897 by Arthur Blomfield, in a manner intended to recreate its 13th-century predecessor as accurately as possible, and to preserve the few surviving mediaeval fragments. In 1895 an appeal was issued to complete the restoration, with some £8000 required to restore the choir and tower. The church's treasurer was Sir Frederick Wigan.

The main railway viaduct connecting London Bridge station to Blackfriars, Cannon Street and Charing Cross stations passes only eighteen metres from the southeast corner of the cathedral, blocking the view from the south side. This was a compromise when the railway was extended along this viaduct in 1852; the alternative was to demolish the building completely to allow a more direct passage for the line.

The churchyard was closed to burials in 1853 (an exception being made in 1856 for Gwilt). In 1910, on behalf of the cathedral chapter, the Metropolitan Public Gardens Association's landscape gardener Madeline Agar renovated the south-west corner of the churchyard. That garden was restored in 2001.

Since 1900
The collegiate parish church of St Saviour was designated as a cathedral in 1905 when the Church of England Diocese of Southwark was created. The nearby early-18th-century church of St Thomas became the new cathedral's chapter-house.

The cathedral stands in an area heavily damaged by German bombing during the Second World War. The total number of bombs dropped on Southwark between 7 October 1940 to 6 June 1941 alone was 1,651 High Explosive Bombs and 20 Parachute Mines. On 20 February 1941 it was reported (after being unrestricted by the ministry of information) that the cathedral had been damaged by a bomb. Shrapnel damage is still visible on the outside of the building to this day.

There are memorials to Isabella Gilmore and the victims of the Marchioness disaster and monuments to Nelson Mandela and Desmond Tutu. In 2001 Mandela opened a new northern "cloister" on the site of the old monastic one, with a refectory, shop, conference centre, education centre and museum. In 2002, these Millennium buildings received an award for being one of the best new buildings of the year.

On 16 November 1996 the cathedral became a focus of controversy when it hosted a twentieth-anniversary service for the Lesbian and Gay Christian Movement. Jeffrey John, the openly gay Dean of St Albans and former bishop-elect of Reading, had been Canon Theologian of Southwark.

After the introduction of civil partnerships and, later, of civil marriage for same-sex couples in England, the cathedral announced that "same sex couples are welcome to approach the clergy with regard to preparation and prayers when entering a Civil Partnership and for continuing support and counsel within their relationship ... couples approaching the clergy should expect a warm welcome and affirmation". The cathedral now says, "Southwark Cathedral is an inclusive community where LGBTi+ people are welcomed and affirmed. The clergy would be delighted to help you to prepare prayerfully for your Civil Partnership."

Other information
The cathedral is used by London South Bank University for its annual honorary degree ceremony, by Regent's College for its graduation ceremonies, and by King's College London for its medical and dental degree ceremonies, an association stemming from its merger with Guy's and St Thomas' teaching hospitals, St Thomas' having started as an infirmary attached to the Priory of St Mary. The cathedral also hosts the London Nautical School's annual Christmas Carol Service.

There are two other cathedrals in Southwark: the Roman Catholic St George's Cathedral Southwark and the Greek Orthodox St Mary's at Camberwell New Road.

Resident cat
The cathedral is known for having a resident cat. The first such cat Doorkins Magnificat, a brown female cat who began visiting in 2008 as a stray looking for food and shelter. She later made the cathedral her permanent home and was often found curled up beneath a radiator or prowling the aisles. Dean Colin Slee named the cat as a joke reference to prominent atheist Richard Dawkins. Doorkins became known as a local celebrity and met both the Mayor of London and Queen Elizabeth II on formal visits to the cathedral. She is the subject of the children's book Doorkins the Cathedral Cat, and in 2018 was immortalised with a stone gargoyle inside the cathedral. Doorkins retired from the cathedral and was adopted by one of the cathedral staff in October 2019. The death of Doorkins was reported on 2 October 2020. A memorial service was held at the cathedral on 27 October 2020, something apparently unprecedented for a cat and reported in the national press.

The cathedral made plans to acquire a new cat in 2020, due to mouse problems in the building and a feeling that Doorkins' presence was missed. Hodge, a black and white tuxedo cat, was formally adopted from a rescue organisation in 2020, coincidentally on the day of Doorkins' death. Like Doorkins, Hodge has become a celebrity in his own right with various souvenirs available in the cathedral shop, and his own social media accounts.

Main Cathedral Choir
The Cathedral Choir is supported financially by the St Olave's & St Saviour's Schools Foundation, which stems from the two parochial schools set up in the 1560s which still hold their commemoration and annual services at the cathedral as their 'foundation' church. As the cathedral does not have a choir school, the boys and girls of the Cathedral Choir are drawn from schools throughout London and surrounding areas. Girls are usually admitted to the choir between the ages of ten and eleven, and boys between the ages of seven and ten. There are six Lay Clerks in the Cathedral Choir and up to six Choral Scholars. Three of the Lay Clerks are supported by endowments from The Ouseley Trust, the Vernon Ellis Foundation, and the Friends of Cathedral Music.

The Cathedral Choir performed the music for the television series Mr. Bean.

Former choristers of Southwark Cathedral include David Gedge, who served as Organist of Brecon Cathedral from 1966 until 2007,   Richard Marlow, who subsequently directed the choir at Trinity College, Cambridge, and Chuka Umunna, former Member of Parliament for Streatham and formerly Shadow Secretary of State for Business, Innovation and Skills.

Ernest Lough, who later made a celebrated recording of O for the Wings of a Dove with the choir of the Temple Church under George Thalben-Ball, auditioned unsuccessfully for a position as chorister at Southwark Cathedral.

Both Alan Young and Jonathan Darbourne, Hammerstein Chanters (head choristers) between 1999 and 2000, were also trebles at English National Opera. Darbourne, in particular, is known for critically acclaimed performances as Miles in Britten's The Turn of the Screw at the East London Theatre on Well Street (now Ensign Street) and as one of the three Child-Spirits in Mozart's The Magic Flute at the London Coliseum. Young performed Harry in Britten's Albert Herring, Paris in Tippet's King Priam, and John (silent role) in Britten's Peter Grimes. Rollo Armstrong also used Young's recorded vocals for Dusted's single Always Remember to Respect and Honour Your Mother, which reached no. 19 in the UK single charts.

Merbecke Choir
In 2004 the cathedral founded the Southwark Cathedral Merbecke Choir. It is intended to be the place both for boys and girls who leave the cathedral choirs and also other young singers who wish to maintain their sight-reading skills acquired as choristers and explore a wide range of repertoire under expert tuition.

The choir sings Compline on the fourth Sunday of each month and performs a seasonal concert of music each term. It also sings for livery companies in the City of London and for other organisations. In 2006 it performed as part of the Queen's Christmas Broadcast, which was recorded at the cathedral.

The choir is named after the Tudor composer John Merbecke (1510–1585) who wrote one of the most popular settings of the Book of Common Prayer communion service. In 1543, Merbecke and three other companions were tried for heresy in the retrochoir at Southwark. He was found guilty and condemned to death, but his sentence was commuted by Stephen Gardiner, Bishop of Winchester, who decided that, as a mere musician, Merbecke "knew no better".

Thursday Singers
The Thursday Singers are made up of people from the local community. There is no audition. They sing for festival Eucharists which fall on a weekday. They also sing one service of Choral Evensong most terms and lead the singing at the cathedral's Carol Sing-In before Christmas.

Hubert Chesshyre and child sexual abuse scandal
Hubert Chesshyre was a lay clerk of Southwark Cathedral from 1971 until 2003. He was also a member of the British Royal Household, serving as Clarenceux King of Arms and Secretary of the Order of the Garter. Because of his connections with both the Royal Household and the cathedral choir, Chesshyre saw through a grant of a coat of arms to the cathedral and a separate grant awarding heraldic badges to the area bishops of Kingston-upon-Thames, Woolwich, and Croydon.

At a trial of the facts held in 2015, it was proven that Chesshyre had sexually abused a teenage chorister during the 1990s.

Organ
The cathedral's main organ was built by Lewis & Co. of Brixton, and completed in 1897. It was inspired by the Schulze organ of Doncaster Minster. Thomas Christopher Lewis, the company's founder, was renowned for building instruments that had a bright, vibrant tone which, in part, was due to his use of low wind pressures. Consequently, he was somewhat out of step with the trend at the time, which was tending towards high wind pressures and rather thicker tone. The instrument's action was, and is, electro-pneumatic with slider chests, and the main case was designed by Arthur Blomfield.

Apart from routine maintenance, the instrument remained untouched until 1952, when Henry Willis & Sons undertook a major rebuild, during which the wind pressures were increased. The balanced swell pedal and the hitch-down solo pedal were replaced by Willis's Infinite Speed and Gradation pedals. The choir organ – which had been housed in front of the swell – was relocated to the north side, and a new console was installed adjacent to it (the original console was on the south side). The choir organ's Flauto Traverso was replaced by a nazard, and a tierce was provided on a new slider. A number of new couplers were also provided and the violon unit (32'-16'-8') was extended by 12 pipes to create a Viola 4'.

Some years after the rebuild it was thought that the Willis changes, though well intentioned, detracted too much from the original concept, so it was decided to restore the instrument to the Lewis specifications. The Durham-based firm of Harrison and Harrison was engaged, and the work was carried out in two stages. In 1986, the electrics were renewed, and although the Willis console was retained, it was given a solid state action with eight memory levels for the combination pistons and four for the crescendo pedal. Also, the Willis swell pedals were replaced by balanced pedals.

In 1991, the main work was undertaken, including the re-voicing of the stops on Lewis's original wind pressures. A Lewis Flauto Traverso rank was obtained for the choir organ, to replace the one discarded by Willis, and the nazard and tierce were removed – meaning that the great organ's octave quint is now the instrument's only mutation register. The two prepared for drawstops on the pedal were also disposed of. Thus, the stop list is now as Lewis left it, except for the Viola 4' which was retained because it was a gift in memoriam.

Former organists of Southwark Cathedral have included organist/composer Starling Goodwin (1711-1774) who also played at the Ranelagh Gardens, E. T. Cook, who was known for his lunchtime organ broadcasts on the BBC, and the organ builder Ralph Downes.

title: Southwark Cathedral


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Lintong, Xi'an

Lintong District, formerly Lintong County, is one of 11 urban districts of the prefecture-level city of Xi'an, the capital of Shaanxi Province, Northwest China. The district was approved to establish from the former Lintong County (临潼县) by the Chinese State Council on June 25, 1997. The Terracotta Army and the Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor was discovered in March 1974 near this district. The district borders the prefecture-level cities of Xianyang to the northwest and Weinan to the east, Gaoling County to the northeast, Baqiao District to the southeast, Lianhu and Xincheng Districts to the south, and Chang'an District to the southwest.

Artifacts from the tomb of Qin Shi Huang, China's first emperor, can be viewed at the Emperor Qinshihuang's Mausoleum Site Museum (秦始皇帝陵博物院) in Lintong District.

The National Time Service Center, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (中国科学院国家授时中心), formerly known as Shaanxi Astronomical Observatory (陕西天文台), was established in 1966 in Lintong responsible for the time standard in mainland China. It was renamed to its present name in 2001.

The name of the district comes from two rivers. Lin river is on the east side and Tong river is on the west side of the district.

Lintong is headquarters of the 47th Group Army of the People's Liberation Army, one of the two group armies that comprise the Lanzhou Military Region responsible for defending China's northwest borders.

Administrative divisions
As 2020, Lintong District is divided to 23 subdistricts.
 * Subdistricts

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Lintong, Xi'an


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1940 Governor General's Awards

The 1940 Governor General's Awards for Literary Merit were the fifth rendition of the Governor General's Awards, Canada's annual national awards program which then comprised literary awards alone. The awards recognized Canadian writers for new English-language works published in Canada during 1940 and were presented in 1941. There were no cash prizes.

There was one award in each of three established categories, which recognized English-language works only.

Winners

 * Fiction: Ringuet, Thirty Acres
 * Poetry or drama: E. J. Pratt, Brébeuf and His Brethren
 * Non-fiction: J. F. C. Wright, Slava Bohu

title: 1940 Governor General's Awards


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Scriptorium

A scriptorium was a writing room in medieval European monasteries for the copying and illuminating of manuscripts by scribes.

The term has perhaps been over-used—only some monasteries had special rooms set aside for scribes. Often they worked in the monastery library or in their own rooms. Most medieval images of scribing show single figures in well-appointed studies, although these are generally author portraits of well-known authors or translators. Increasingly, lay scribes and illuminators from outside the monastery also assisted the clerical scribes. By the later Middle Ages secular manuscript workshops were common, and many monasteries bought in more books than they produced themselves.

The functional outset

When monastic institutions arose in the early sixth century (the first European monastic writing dates from 517), they defined European literary culture and selectively preserved the literary history of the West. Monks copied Jerome's Latin Vulgate Bible and the commentaries and letters of early Church Fathers for missionary purposes as well as for use within the monastery.

In the copying process, there was typically a division of labor among the monks who readied the parchment for copying by smoothing and chalking the surface, those who ruled the parchment and copied the text, and those who illuminated the text. Sometimes a single monk would engage in all of these stages to prepare a manuscript. The illuminators of manuscripts worked in collaboration with scribes in intricate varieties of interaction that preclude any simple understanding of monastic manuscript production.

The products of the monasteries provided a valuable medium of exchange. Comparisons of characteristic regional, periodic as well as contextual styles of handwriting do reveal social and cultural connections among them, as new hands developed and were disseminated by travelling individuals, respectively what these individuals represented, and by the examples of manuscripts that passed from one cloister to another. Recent studies follow the approach, that scriptoria developed in relative isolation, to the extent that paleographers are sometimes able to identify the product of each writing centre and to date it accordingly.

By the start of the 13th century, secular workshops developed, where professional scribes stood at writing-desks to work the orders of customers, and during the Late Middle Ages the praxis of writing was becoming not only confined to being generally a monastic or regal activity. However, the practical consequences of private workshops, and as well the invention of the printing press vis-a-vis monastic scriptoria is a complex theme.

There is also evidence that women scribes, in religious or secular contexts, produced texts in the medieval period. Archaeologists identified lapis lazuli, a pigment used in the decoration of medieval illuminated manuscripts, embedded in the dental calculus of remains found in a religious women's community in Germany, which dated to the 11th-12th centuries. Chelles Abbey, established in France during the early medieval period, was also well known for its scriptorium, where nuns produced manuscripts and religious texts. There is also evidence of Jewish women working as scribes of Hebrew texts from the 13th to 16th centuries, though these women primarily worked out of their homes rather than religious institutions, as daughters and wives of scribes. Women were not only the producers of these texts, but could also be the consumers or commissioners of them. There were also women who worked as professional, secular scribes, including Clara Hätzlerin in 15th century Augsburg, who has at least nine surviving manuscripts signed by or attributed to her.

The physical scriptorium
Much as medieval libraries do not correspond to the exalted sketches from Umberto Eco's The Name of the Rose, it seems that ancient written accounts, as well as surviving buildings, and archaeological excavations do not invariably attest to the evidence of scriptoria. Scriptoria, in the physical sense of a room set aside for the purpose, perhaps mostly existed in response to specific scribal projects; for example, when a monastic (and) or regal institution wished a large number of texts copied.

References in modern scholarly writings to 'scriptoria' typically refer to the collective written output of a monastery, somewhat like the chancery in the early regal times is taken to refer to a specific fashion of modelling formulars, but especially traditional is the view that scriptoria was a necessary adjunct to a library, as per the entry in du Cange, 1678 'scriptorium'.

San Giovanni Evangelista, Rimini
At this church whose patron was Galla Placidia (died 450), paired rectangular chambers flanking the apse, accessible only from each aisle, have been interpreted as paired (Latin and Greek) libraries and perhaps scriptoria. The well-lit niches half a meter deep, provisions for hypocausts beneath the floors to keep the spaces dry, have prototypes in the architecture of Roman libraries.

Cassiodorus and the Vivarium
The monastery built in the second quarter of the 6th century under the supervision of Cassiodorus at the Vivarium near Squillace in southern Italy contained a scriptorium, for the purpose of collecting, copying, and preserving texts.

Cassiodorus' description of his monastery contained a purpose-built scriptorium, with a sundial, a water-clock, and a "perpetual lamp," that is, one that supplied itself with oil from a reservoir. The scriptorium would also have contained desks where the monks could sit and copy texts, as well as the necessary ink wells, penknives, and quills. Cassiodorus also established a library where, at the end of the Roman Empire, he attempted to bring Greek learning to Latin readers and to preserve texts both sacred and secular for future generations. As its unofficial librarian, Cassiodorus collected as many manuscripts as he could, he also wrote treatises aimed at instructing his monks in the proper uses of texts. In the end, however, the library at the Vivarium was dispersed and lost, though it was still active around 630.

Cistercians
The scriptoria of the Cistercian order seem to have been similar to those of the Benedictines. The mother house at Cîteaux, one of the best-documented high-medieval scriptoria, developed a severe "house style" in the first half of the 12th century. The 12th-century scriptorium of Cîteaux and its products, in the context of Cistercian scriptoria, have been studied by Yolanta Załuska, L'enluminure et le scriptorium de Cîteaux au XIIe siècle (Brecht:Cîteaux) 1989.

Institutions
In Byzantium or Eastern Roman Empire learning maintained importance and numerous monastic 'scriptoria' were known for producing Bible/Gospel illuminations, along with workshops that copied numerous classical and Hellenistic works. Records show that one such monastic community was that of Mount Athos, which maintained a variety of illuminated manuscripts and ultimately accumulated over 10,000 books.

Benedictines
Cassiodorus' contemporary, Benedict of Nursia, allowed his monks to read the great works of the pagans in the monastery he founded at Monte Cassino in 529. The creation of a library here initiated the tradition of Benedictine scriptoria, where the copying of texts not only provided materials needed in the routines of the community and served as work for hands and minds otherwise idle, but also produced a marketable end-product. Saint Jerome stated that the products of the scriptorium could be a source of revenue for the monastic community, but Benedict cautioned, "If there be skilled workmen in the monastery, let them work at their art in all humility".

In the earliest Benedictine monasteries, the writing room was actually a corridor open to the central quadrangle of the cloister. The space could accommodate about twelve monks, who were protected from the elements only by the wall behind them and the vaulting above. Monasteries built later in the Middle Ages placed the scriptorium inside, near the heat of the kitchen or next to the calefactory. The warmth of the later scriptoria served as an incentive for unwilling monks to work on the transcription of texts (since the charter house was rarely heated).

St. Gall
The Benedictine Plan of St. Gall is a sketch of an idealised monastery dating from 819–826, which shows the scriptorium and library attached to the northeast corner of the main body of the church; this is not reflected by the evidence of surviving monasteries. Although the purpose of the plan is unknown, it clearly shows the desirability of scriptoria within a wider body of monastic structures at the beginning of the 9th century.

Cistercians
There is evidence that in the late 13th century, the Cistercians would allow certain monks to perform their writing in a small cell "which could not... contain more than one person". These cells were called scriptoria because of the copying done there, even though their primary function was not as a writing room.

Carthusians
The Carthusians viewed copying religious texts as their missionary work to the greater Church; the strict solitude of the Carthusian order necessitated that the manual labor of the monks be practiced within their individual cells, thus many monks engaged in the transcription of texts. In fact, each cell was equipped as a copy room, with parchment, quill, inkwell, and ruler. Guigues du Pin, or Guigo, the architect of the order, cautioned, "Let the brethren take care the books they receive from the cupboard do not get soiled with smoke or dirt; books are as it were the everlasting food of our souls; we wish them to be most carefully kept and most zealously made."

The Resava
After the establishment of Manasija Monastery by Stefan Lazarević in the early 15th century, many educated monks have gathered there. They fostered copying and literary work that by its excellence and production changed the history of the South Slavic literature and languages spreading its influence all over the Orthodox Balkans. One of the most famous scholars of the so-called School of Resava was Constantine the Philosopher /Konstantin Filozof/, an influential writer and biographer of the founder of the school (Stefan Lazarević).

Rača
During the Turkish invasions of the Serbian lands (which lasted from the end of the 14th to the beginning of the 19th centuries) the monastery was an important centre of culture. The scriptorium of each monastery was a bastion of learning where illuminated manuscripts were being produced by monk-scribes, mostly Serbian liturgical books and Old Serbian Vita. hagiographies of kings and archbishops.

Numerous scribes of the Serbian Orthodox Church books—at the term of the 16th and the beginning of the 18th centuries—who worked in the Rača monastery are named in Serbian literature – "The Račans". . Among the monk-scribes the most renown are the illuminator Hieromonk Hristifor Račanin, Kiprijan Račanin, Jerotej Račanin, Teodor Račanin and Gavril Stefanović Venclović. These are well-known Serbian monks and writers that are the link between literary men and women of the late medieval (Late Middle Ages) and Baroque periods in art, architecture and literature in particular.

Cassiodorus' Institutes
Although it is not a monastic rule as such, Cassiodorus did write his Institutes as a teaching guide for the monks at Vivarium, the monastery he founded on his family's land in southern Italy. A classically educated Roman convert, Cassiodorus wrote extensively on scribal practices. He cautions over-zealous scribes to check their copies against ancient, trustworthy exemplars and to take care not to change the inspired words of scripture because of grammatical or stylistic concerns. He declared "every work of the Lord written by the scribe is a wound inflicted on Satan", for "by reading the Divine Scripture he wholesomely instructs his own mind and by copying the precepts of the Lord he spreads them far and wide". It is important to note that Cassiodorus did include the classical texts of ancient Rome and Greece in the monastic library. This was probably because of his upbringing, but was, nonetheless, unusual for a monastery of the time. When his monks copied these texts, Cassiodorus encouraged them to amend texts for both grammar and style.

Saint Benedict
The more famous monastic treatise of the 7th century, Saint Benedict of Nursia's Rule, fails to mention the labor of transcription by name, though his institution, the monastery of Montecassino, developed one of the most influential scriptoria, at its acme in the 11th century, which made the abbey "the greatest center of book production in South Italy in the High Middle Ages". Here was developed and perfected the characteristic "Cassinese" Beneventan script under Abbot Desiderius.

The Rule of Saint Benedict does explicitly call for monks to have ready access to books during two hours of compulsory daily reading and during Lent, when each monk is to read a book in its entirety. Thus each monastery was to have its own extensive collection of books, to be housed either in armarium (book chests) or a more traditional library. However, because the only way to obtain a large quantity of books in the Middle Ages was to copy them, in practice this meant that the monastery had to have a way to transcribe texts in other collections. An alternative translation of Benedict's strict guidelines for the oratory as a place for silent, reverent prayer actually hints at the existence of a scriptorium. In Chapter 52 of his Rule, Benedict's warns: "Let the oratory be what it is called, and let nothing else be done or stored there". But condatur translates both as stored and to compose or write, thus leaving the question of Benedict's intentions for manuscript production ambiguous. The earliest commentaries on the Rule of Saint Benedict describe the labor of transcription as the common occupation of the community, so it is also possible that Benedict failed to mention the scriptorium by name because of the integral role it played within the monastery.

Saint Ferréol
Monastic life in the Middle Ages was strictly centered around prayer and manual labor. In the early Middle Ages, there were many attempts to set out an organization and routine for monastic life. Montalembert cites one such sixth-century document, the Rule of Saint Ferréol, as prescribing that "He who does not turn up the earth with the plough ought to write the parchment with his fingers." As this implies, the labor required of a scribe was comparable to the exertion of agriculture and other outdoor work. Another of Montalembert's examples is of a scribal note along these lines: "He who does not know how to write imagines it to be no labour, but although these fingers only hold the pen, the whole body grows weary."

Cistercians
An undated Cistercian ordinance, ranging in date from 1119–52 (Załuska 1989) prescribed literae unius coloris et non depictae ("letters of one color and not ornamented"), that spread with varying degrees of literalness in parallel with the Cistercian order itself, through the priories of Burgundy and beyond.

In 1134, the Cistercian order declared that the monks were to keep silent in the scriptorium as they should in the cloister.

Books and transcription in monastic life
Manuscript-writing was a laborious process in an ill-lit environment that could damage one's health. One prior complained in the tenth century:

"Only try to do it yourself and you will learn how arduous is the writer's task. It dims your eyes, makes your back ache, and knits your chest and belly together. It is a terrible ordeal for the whole body".

The director of a monastic scriptorium would be the armarius ("provisioner"), who provided the scribes with their materials and supervised the copying process. However, the armarius had other duties as well. At the beginning of Lent, the armarius was responsible for making sure that all of the monks received books to read, but he also had the ability to deny access to a particular book. By the 10th century the armarius had specific liturgical duties as well, including singing the eighth responsory, holding the lantern aloft when the abbot read, and approving all material to be read aloud in church, chapter, and refectory.

While at Vivarium c. 540–548, Cassiodorus wrote a commentary on the Psalms entitled Expositio Psalmorum as an introduction to the Psalms for individuals seeking to enter the monastic community. The work had a broad appeal outside of Cassiodorus' monastery as the subject of monastic study and reflection.

Abbot Johannes Trithemius of Sponheim wrote a letter, De Laude Scriptorum (In Praise of Scribes), to Gerlach, Abbot of Deutz in 1492 to describe for monks the merits of copying texts. Trithemius contends that the copying of texts is central to the model of monastic education, arguing that transcription enables the monk to more deeply contemplate and come to a more full understanding of the text. He then continues to praise scribes by saying "The dedicated scribe, the object of our treatise, will never fail to praise God, give pleasure to angels, strengthen the just, convert sinners, commend the humble, confirm the good, confound the proud and rebuke the stubborn". Among the reasons he gives for continuing to copy manuscripts by hand, are the historical precedent of the ancient scribes and the supremacy of transcription to all other manual labor. This description of monastic writing is especially important because it was written after the first printing presses came into popular use. Trithemius addresses the competing technology when he writes, "The printed book is made of paper and, like paper, will quickly disappear. But the scribe working with parchment ensures lasting remembrance for himself and for his text". Trithemius also believes that there are works that are not being printed but are worth being copied.

In his comparison of modern and medieval scholarship, James J. O'Donnell describes monastic study in this way:

"[E]ach Psalm would have to be recited at least once a week all through the period of study. In turn, each Psalm studied separately would have to be read slowly and prayerfully, then gone through with the text in one hand (or preferably committed to memory) and the commentary in the other; the process of study would have to continue until virtually everything in the commentary has been absorbed by the student and mnemonically keyed to the individual verses of scripture, so that when the verses are recited again the whole phalanx of Cassiodorian erudition springs up in support of the content of the sacred text".

In this way, the monks of the Middle Ages came to intimately know and experience the texts that they copied. The act of transcription became an act of meditation and prayer, not a simple replication of letters.

title: Scriptorium


text:
RCI

RCI may refer to one of the following.
 * RCI (company), a Timeshare Exchange Company
 * RCI Engineering, a manufacturer of agricultural equipment, including the Ag-Bag product line
 * Racer's Choice Inc., a manufacturer of racing automotive products, Texas, USA
 * Radio Canada International, international broadcasting service of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation
 * Radio Caraïbes International, a radio station in Martinique and Guadeloupe
 * Radio Caribbean International, a radio station in St. Lucia
 * Random coil index, a predictor of protein flexibility
 * Rapid Continuous Improvement, a process improvement practice based on the Japanese concept of Kaizen
 * Rehabilitation Council of India, an Indian council for the disabled
 * Renault Crédit International, former name of the French company RCI Banque
 * Research Centre Imarat, an Indian defence laboratory under DRDO responsible for the development of missiles. (See IGMDP)
 * Residential/Commercial/Industrial Meter - a common metric in City Building computer games
 * Revival Centres International, a Pentecostal church founded in Australia
 * Revolutionary Communist International, a network of Trotskyist parties in several dozen countries
 * Riverside College, Inc., a medical college in the Philippines
 * Roadway Characteristics Inventory, a database containing information on roads
 * Rogers Communications Inc., a Canadian communications company
 * Royal Canadian Institute, an organization dedicated to the advancement of science.
 * Royal Caribbean International, a cruise line based in Florida, USA

title: RCI


text:
Radio y Televisión Martí

Radio Televisión Martí is an American state-run radio and television international broadcaster based in Miami, Florida, financed by the federal government of the United States through the U.S. Agency for Global Media (formerly Broadcasting Board of Governors, BBG). It transmits propaganda in Spanish to Cuba and its broadcasts can also be heard and viewed worldwide through their website and on shortwave radio frequencies.

Named after the Cuban national hero and intellectual José Martí, Radio Televisión Martí was established in 1983 and TV Martí was added in 1990. The 2014 budget for the Cuba broadcasting program was approximately US$27 million.

Radio y Televisión Martí is overseen by the Office of Cuba Broadcasting (OCB).

Radio Televisión Martí is an element of the International Broadcasting Bureau (IBB).

History
In the early 1980s, the U.S. Government planned to create a radio station to be known as Radio Free Cuba, modeled on Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, the mission of fighting communism in the hope of hastening the fall of Cuban President Fidel Castro. The station – renamed Radio Martí after Cuban writer José Martí, who had fought for Cuba's independence from Spain and against U.S. influence in the Americas – was established in 1983 by President Ronald Reagan at the urging of Jorge Mas Canosa. Existing North American broadcasters objected strenuously to the establishment of Radio Martí, fearing that its broadcasts would lead Cuba to retaliate by jamming existing commercial medium-wave broadcasts from Florida.

On May 20, 1985, Radio Martí began broadcasts to Cuba from the United States. The first day of broadcasting was chosen to commemorate the 83rd anniversary of Cuba's independence from United States rule on May 20, 1902. The fears of broadcasters proved well-founded, when Cuba-based transmitters briefly broadcast powerful signals on the medium-wave band in 1985, disrupting U.S. AM radio station broadcasts in several states. Cuba continues to broadcast interference against U.S. broadcasts specifically directed to Cuba in attempts to prevent them from being received within Cuba.

After the collapse of the Soviet Union at the end of 1991, the budget for all U.S.-government-run foreign broadcasters, with the exception of Radio Martí, was sharply reduced. In 1996, Radio Martí's studios were moved from Washington, D.C. to Miami, Florida. The move, in addition to placing the station's studios closer to its target audience, also underscored its growing independence from the Voice of America, another U.S.-government-run foreign broadcaster with which Radio Martí had previously shared studios.

Today
Today, Radio Marti broadcasts a 24-hour radio program over short-wave transmitters in Delano, California, and Greenville, North Carolina, and a medium-wave transmitter in Marathon, Florida (GC: 24.69944°N, -81.08861°W). Its studios are located in Miami, Florida. Cuba jams both the medium-wave and shortwave signals, but the shortwave program is heard in Canada and throughout Central and South America.

Two hours of Radio Martí's news programs are carried each night, 10:00 PM to midnight local time, by Miami's WSUA (Caracol 1260 AM). It is also available at various times to subscribers of SiriusXM Satellite Radio on its bilingual channel 153, La Politica Talk.

Radio Martí operates with about 100 employees and a budget of $15 million. Its mission, in its own words, is to provide "a contrast to Cuban media and provide its listeners with an uncensored view of current events." Former prisoners in Cuba and Cuban exiles often speak on Radio Martí, and on Saturdays a Spanish-language version of the U.S. president's weekly radio address, as well as the opposition's response, are transmitted.

Assessments
There is much debate about the effectiveness of these broadcasts. As with Radio Free Europe during the Cold War, there is no way to judge the station's true audience through the usual listener surveys. Thus, the actual number of listeners is open to speculation. However, after the fall of the communist Soviet satellite governments of Eastern Europe in 1989 and of the Soviet Union itself at the end of 1991, a Hoover Institution conference reviewing reports from citizens in newly independent Russia, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and other countries tended to substantiate the effectiveness of RFE and U.S. Voice of America broadcasts both in providing information and bolstering pro-liberal democracy movements within those countries, despite attempts at electronic jamming and counter-propaganda.

The watchdog group Cuban Americans for Engagement (CAFE) has been critical of the radio and television station for broadcasts critical of warming relations and cooperative efforts with U.S. organizations. A report by the Committee on Foreign Relations in 2010 stated that less than 2 percent of Cubans listen in. U.S. Senator Mark Pryor (D-Arkansas) and U.S. House of Representatives member Betty McCollum introduced the Stop Wasting Taxpayer Money on Cuba Broadcasting Act to shut the stations down. The Alliance for Responsible Cuba Policy has also been critical of the stations.

History
In 1990, the U.S. Government created TV Martí to broadcast television programming to Cuba. It began broadcasting on March 27, 1990, beaming daily programs in Spanish via a transmitter affixed to an aerostat balloon – nicknamed "Fat Albert" by people in the area – tethered 10,000 feet (3,048 m) above Cudjoe Key, Florida. Weather affected the broadcasts; "Fat Albert" sometimes was hauled down because of high winds, once broke loose and drifted into the Everglades in 1991, and was destroyed by Hurricane Dennis in 2005. After the aerostat's destruction, TV Martí in October 2006 began to use fixed-wing aircraft to transmit its signals, first a military C-130 Hercules which proved too expensive to operate, and then a Gulfstream twin engine airplane flying a figure-eight pattern off Key West, Florida. One of these aircraft has since been retired.

The first TV Martí broadcasts took place in the very early morning hours to avoid interference with Cuban domestic television programming. This combined with Cuban jamming of the signal has led to low viewership of TV Martí in Cuba, where, according to a U.S. official who was stationed in Havana in the station's early days, it is known as La TV que no se ve ("The TV that can't be seen"). U.S. Government telephone surveys in 1990, 2003, 2006, and 2008 reported Cuban viewership of TV Martí of less than one percent; the U.S. Government ceased the surveys after 2008, claiming that obtaining accurate Cuban domestic television viewership statistics was too difficult.

Despite the frequent reports of its low viewership in Cuba, TV Martí's defenders cited continuing Cuban government jamming of its signal as evidence of its importance, and U.S. Government funding of it continued, with TV Martí broadcasting daily programs in Spanish. In 2012, the administration of President Barack Obama finally asked the United States Congress to cease funding of the program, but Congress nonetheless continued to provide money for it.

TV Martí today
Like Radio Martí, TV Martí is an element of the International Broadcasting Bureau. TV Marti airs half-hour early and late evening newscasts which a low-power Miami television channel, WGEN-LD, Virtual digital Channel 8.1 (RF digital Channel 8.1), carries along with other programming. The pay-TV platform DirecTV, which is pirated by many people in Cuba, also carries TV Martí.

In May 2013, the U.S. Congress finally eliminated funding for the operation of Aero Martí, the lone aircraft still committed to TV Martí broadcasts. However, funding for the preservation and maintenance of the plane continues, and it remains in storage in a hangar in Cartersville, Georgia, ready to return to service if funding of its operations resumes.

Controversy and legality
Fabio Leite, Deputy Director of the Radiocommunications Office of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), has condemned radio and television transmissions to Cuba from the United States as illegal and inadmissible and more so when they are designed to foment internal subversion on the island. The director emphasized that this constant U.S. attack is in violation of ITU regulations, which stipulate that radio transmissions within commercial broadcasting on medium wave, FM, or television must be conceived of as a good quality national service within the limits of the country concerned.

The Radio Martí broadcasts are directed at Cuba, but can be picked up throughout North, Central, and South America when Cuba is not jamming them. However, Radio Martí programs cannot be specifically directed at U.S. citizens under the same law that restricts Voice of America broadcasts.

On November 15, 2007, delegates to the World Radiocommunication Conference 2007 declared illegal the U.S. government's use of airplanes to beam the signals of Washington-funded Radio y Televisión Martí into Cuba, stating "A radio broadcasting station that functions on board an aircraft and transmits only to the territory of another administration without its agreement cannot be considered in conformity with the radio communications regulations."

A report by the U.S. Government Accountability Office accuses the station of engaging in political propaganda in the forms of editorializing, use of offensive and incendiary language in broadcasts, use of unsubstantiated reports coming from Cuba, and presentation of individual views as news. The claims of unprofessionalism are strongly rejected by the station's management. National Public Radio's On the Media program has pointed out that while "the U.S. has spent close to a half billion dollars on TV and Radio Martí, the Cuban government has managed to effectively block the transmission signal, at least on the TV side. Viewership on the island is estimated to be a third of one percent. One study several years ago found that nine out of ten Cubans had never even heard of the channel."

Democracy Now! went on to state that a senior TV Martí executive was indicted by federal prosecutors for providing kickbacks in trade for certain contracts and the inspector general's office has launched a review into the operations of the Office of Cuba Broadcasting which oversees Martí. In addition, the program indicates that Massachusetts Congressman William Delahunt has also promised to hold hearings on TV Martí.

Other critics consider the actual ineffectiveness to reach a Cuban audience, the risk of the broadcaster's purposes for heavy budget-cuts and the fear of limited editorial independence in order to be manipulated by right-wing Cuban exiles and their political agenda for personal political gain.

In May 2018 Martí broadcast video segments attacking George Soros as a "multimillionaire Jew of Hungarian origin" threatening Latin American democracy. The videos were based on assertions by Judicial Watch. In October 2018 the employees responsible for producing the videos were placed on administrative leave pending an investigation into their conduct.

title: Radio y Televisión Martí


text:
Bull-baiting

Bull-baiting is a blood sport involving pitting a bull against dogs with the aim of attacking and subduing the bull by biting and holding onto its nose or neck, which often resulted in the death of the bull.

England
Crowds in London during the Royal Entry of James VI and I in March 1604 were entertained by bull-baiting. During the time of Queen Anne, bull-baiting was practiced in London at Hockley-in-the-Hole, twice a week – and was also reasonably common in provincial towns, for instance at Birmingham's Bull Ring. At Tutbury, a bull was tied to an iron stake so that it could move within a radius of about 30 feet. The object of the sport was for the dogs to immobilize the bull.

Before the event started, the bull's nose was blown full of pepper to enrage it before the baiting. The bull was often placed in a hole in the ground. A variant of bull-baiting was "pinning the bull", where specially-trained dogs would set upon the bull one at a time, a successful attack resulting in the dog fastening his teeth strongly in the bull's snout. The extinct Old English Bulldog was specially bred for this sport.

Bull-baiting was not only practiced as a form of recreation; there was a long-held belief that baiting improved the meat quality and tenderness when consumed. By the early nineteenth century, the sport began to die out, both because the baiting caused a public nuisance and because of new concerns about animal cruelty.

The Bull Baiting at Wokingham was advertised in the newspaper in 1774. "BULL BAITING. On Wednesday next, being St. Thomas's Day, Two Bulls will be baited in the Market-Place, Wokingham, which will be run for, a very handsome MOROCCO COLLAR, stitched with Silver, and a Silver Plate for a Label, of a Guinea and Half Value. Each Dog is to be let three Times at the first Bull, four Times at the second, and only one Dog run at a Time. The Owner of each Dog that runs, pays One Shilling for Entrance. Proper Judges will be appointed before running to determine who may be the Winner, A good Ordinary at the King's Inn, between the Times of Baiting the Bulls."

Bull baiting advertised in 1780 appears to indicate that it was organized by a local hostelry. "NOTICE IS HEREBY GIVEN, THAT an exceeding good BULL will be baited on Wednesday the 27th day of December 1780, near the DOG and STAR at Alresford, Hants, when and where a dinner will be given gratis to every person that shall produce a good bull-dog; likewise a Silver Collar of twenty-four shillings value, to the owner of the dog that shall pin the bull oftenest and fairest, and seven shillings and sixpence to the owner of the second best dog. But if none shall pin him, seven and sixpence will be given to the owner of the best, and five shillings to the owner of the second dog. N.B. No dog will be allowed to run unless produced at the place before ten o'clock in the forenoon."

A Bill for the suppression of the practice was introduced into the House of Commons in 1800 by Sir William Pulteney. The Bill was defeated by a one-vote margin. A second Bill was introduced in 1802 by John Dent, but was defeated by thirteen votes. Bull baiting was still taking place, a newspaper reported in 1818 that a bull being taken from the stake to a stable had killed a man at Bilston Wake. Bulls were excluded from the protections afforded to other cattle in the Cruel Treatment of Cattle Act 1822. Bull-baiting was not finally outlawed until parliament passed the Cruelty to Animals Act of 1835, which forbade the keeping of any house, pit, or other places for baiting or fighting any bull, bear, dog, or other animals.

Ireland
Bull-baiting (tarbh-ghríosú) was widespread in Ireland in the 17th–19th centuries.

In Dublin, bull-baiting took place near the Cornmarket and in Smithfield. On St Stephen's Day 1789, a riot followed a bull-bait: soldiers fired on the crowd and four were killed.

In Wexford, the activity arrived in 1621, brought by the Guild of Butchers. Bulls were baited twice a year and their hides presented to the Mayor. The area where bull-baiting took place is still called the Bullring.

In Kilkenny it took place at the site called The Ring, first in 1609, and commonly on the feast-day of John the Baptist (December 27). The last recorded bull-bait was in 1837, after they had become illegal under an 1835 Act.

Bull-baiting also took place in Waterford, Naas, Drogheda, Tuam, Carrickfergus, Belfast and Athlone.

North America

In the 19th century, and during Spanish Colonial Rule, bulls used to be pitted against bears in California and Mexico. Kingsley (1920) said that the bulls that fought the bears, at least while California was part of the United States, were not domesticated Hereford bulls, but Spanish Fighting Bulls, whose weight, agility, speed, sharp horns, and hot temper were said to be dangerous to both bears and humans, and Wistar (1937) said that those bulls were fearless. In a case of the bull winning, victory could come early, when the bull used its strength to gore the bear to death with its horns, or toss the bear into the air.

Dogs in bull baiting
Bull-baiting dogs, including Old English Bulldogs, Bullenbeissers, Spanish Bulldogs, Ca de Bous and bull and terriers, were bred to bait animals, mainly bulls and bears. During bull-baiting, the dog would attempt to flatten itself to the ground, creeping as close to the bull as possible, then darting out and attempting to bite the bull in the nose or head area. The bull would often be tethered by a collar and rope, which were staked into the ground. As the dog darted at the bull, the bull would attempt to catch the dog with his head and horns, and throw the dog into the air.

In 1835, the Cruelty to Animals Act was passed in Parliament that outlawed "Blood Sport" in the United Kingdom. The bulldog's work was suddenly over and the bulldog rapidly started dying out. Around 1865, dog fanciers began developing dog clubs which eventually culminated into conformation shows. Many fanciers utilized various remnants of the dog utilized for "Blood Sport" to resurrect the "Bull" dog and ultimately developed today's modern English bulldog.

In literature
Washington Irving, in his 1837 book, The Adventures of Captain Bonneville, wrote that a bear was baited, and likewise, a wild, fierce bull, before they were brought by vaqueros to an arena in a small amphitheatre in Monterey, California, to fight each other. He called the fight "a favorite, though barbarous sport." In this case, he said that the bear used its sharp claws against the nose of the bull, before catching its tongue, after being repeatedly gored by the bull. Then the bull overturned it "with a desperate effort", and then "dispatched" it rather easily.

title: Bull-baiting


text:
UL

UL or Ul may refer to:

Arts and media

 * UL (The Belgariad), one of the gods in David Eddings' fantasy saga The Belgariad
 * New Hampshire Union Leader, a statewide daily newspaper in New Hampshire, US
 * Unwritten Law, an alternative rock band from Poway, California

Businesses and organizations

 * Cambridge University Library or University Library, a library at numerous universities
 * SriLankan Airlines (IATA code UL)
 * UL (safety organization), an American worldwide safety consulting and certification company previously known as Underwriters Laboratories
 * Unia Lewicy a Polish political party
 * Unilever (stock symbol), a multinational corporation
 * Upplands Lokaltrafik, a Swedish transport company

United Kingdom

 * University of Lincoln
 * University of London
 * University of Leicester

Elsewhere

 * University of Louisiana at Lafayette, Louisiana, United States
 * Université Laval, Québec, Canada
 * University of Leoben, Austria
 * University of Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada
 * University of Liberia, Monrovia
 * University of Limerick, Ireland
 * University of Lima, Perú
 * University of Linz, Austria
 * University of Lisbon, Portugal
 * University of Limpopo, South Africa
 * University of Ljubljana, Universitas Labacensis, Slovenia

Computing and telecommunication

 * Uplink, in telecommunication
 * Upload, the transfer of electronic data
 * Unordered list (), an HTML element
 * , a UNIX command for translating underscores to terminal specific codes for displaying underlined text

Other uses in science and technology

 * 3271 Ul, an asteroid
 * Microlitre or microliter (μL), a unit of volume
 * Tolerable Upper Intake Level, part of the Dietary Reference Intake system of the US National Academy of Sciences

Other uses

 * Ul (mythology), a lunar deity in Vanuatuan mythology
 * Ul (Portugal), a civil parish in Portugal
 * Uttaranchal now Uttarakhand, a state in northern India (former ISO 3166-2 code)
 * Ultralight aviation
 * Unlimited liability

title: UL


text:
Talk:Medical emergency

TIA
TIA is not a medical emergency. Axl 11:22, 30 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * Sure, if you happen to know that it is a TIA and not a stroke.  RogueNinja talk  18:39, 5 February 2008 (UTC)
 * Would classify it as a medical emergency. We now have TIA clinics which work up TIAs within 24hours.  It is as much of an emergency as angina maybe more so.  You treat the TIA to prevent the stroke.  Treating strokes is like closing the door after the horse has left the barn.  TNK in stroke give a slit improvement in morbidity but has no effect on mortality.  Preventing the stroke will improve both.-- Doc James  (talk · contribs · email) 17:41, 15 April 2009 (UTC)

Stylistic issues
Like many other first aid-related pages this article makes the capital mistake of addressing the reader in first person. The final section, for example, exhorts emergency physicians to keep their skills up-to-date. This is intensely patronising, annoying and childish. Nobody likes to be told what to do, especially by a free encyclopedia. Moreover, most readers are not emergency physicians, and a large number of them will never (need to) gain the relevant skills. JFW | T@lk  09:45, 11 Jan 2005 (UTC)

 * I have edited the article accordingly. Please refrain from writing "you" apart from in a direct quote. JFW | T@lk  10:02, 11 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Meanings of "medical"
The way this page is written, it does not deal with the idea that a surgical emergency might not be a medical emergency.

 * This page does not make this distinction. Please sign your posts, Nqn. JFW | T@lk  10:04, 17 Jan 2005 (UTC)

US terminology
This article seems choc-a-block full of US style terminology. To make it clearer to all people, it needs some form of clean up.--jrleighton 04:21, 18 August 2005 (UTC)

 * Care to give some examples so that whoever does this clean up knows what needs cleaning up? --Corvun 13:36, August 17, 2005 (UTC)

 * Nothing. Comment attached to wrong article ! Oops...was in the middle of horrible saving timeouts on several windows. :-)--jrleighton 04:21, 18 August 2005 (UTC)

 * Ah. I've been having a horrible time with timeouts here on Wikipedia too.  I predict a fundraiser in the not-too-distant future.  --Corvun 11:26, August 18, 2005 (UTC)

Citation needed / Example needed
I'm baffled by some of the "citation needed" / "example needed" tags in this article. The lead, for instance, asks for examples of emergency conditions that may be, and citations that they can be, treated by the patient themselves. The one seems redundant in the absence of the other, and as the lead contains no examples of medical emergencies it seems stylistically bizarre to start listing examples of certain types of emergency.

The most egregious example, though, is the "citation needed" tag half-way down the "Response" section, which asks for a citation to support the statement that bystanders can be used to keep the area around a casualty clear to give the responder room. This seems a basic statement to me, rather than something that needs to be evidenced. I'm not clear on WP policy on removing tags, so I have just removed this last one for now in the hopes that someone better versed in policy will see the edit and assess the relevance of the other tags. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 194.75.39.250 (talk) 12:50, 28 January 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Medical emergency


text:
Turkology

Turkology (or Turcology or Turkic studies) is a complex of humanities sciences studying languages, history, literature, folklore, culture, and ethnology of people speaking Turkic languages and Turkic peoples in chronological and comparative context. This includes ethnic groups from the Sakha in East Siberia to the Turks in the Balkans and the Gagauz in Moldova.

History
Ethnological information on Turkic tribes for the first time was systemized by the 11th-century Turkic philologist Mahmud al-Kashgari in the Dīwān ul-Lughat it-Turk (Dictionary of Turkic language). Multi-lingual dictionaries were compiled from the late 13th century for the practical application of participants in international trade and political life. One notable such dictionary is the Codex Cumanicus, which contains information for Cuman, Persian, Latin, and German. There are also bilingual dictionaries for Kipchak and Armenian as well as Kipchak and Russian. In the Middle Ages, Turkology was centred around Byzantine/Greek historians, ambassadors and travelers, and geographers. In the 15th–17th centuries the main subject of Turkology was the study of the Ottoman Empire and the Turkish language, and the Turkic languages of Eastern Europe and Western Asia. In 1533 a first hand-written primer appeared, and by 1612 a printed grammar by Jerome Megizer was published, followed by F. Mesgnien-Meninski's four-volume Thesaurus Linguarum Orientalium published in 1680.

P. S. Pallas initiated a more scientific approach to Turkology with his Comparative dictionaries of all languages and dialects (1787) which included lexical materials from Tatar, Mishar, Nogai, Bashkir, and other Turkic languages. In the 19th century, Turkology was further developed by M. A. Kazembek's Grammar of the Turkish-Tatar language (1839), O. N. Betlingk Grammar of the Yakut language (1851). A major achievement was the deciphering at the end of the 19th century of the Early Middle Age Orkhon inscriptions by V. Thomsen and W. W. Radloff (1895). By the end of the 19th century, Turkology developed into a complex discipline that included linguistics, history, ethnology, archeology, arts and literature. In the 20th century the Turkology complex included physical anthropology, numismatics, genetics, ancient Turkic alphabetic scripts, typology, genesis, and etymology, onomastics and toponymy. The appearance of Türkische Bibliothek (1905–1927) inaugurated specialised periodicals, followed by Mitteilungen zur Osmanischen Geschichte (1921–1926). Scientific developments allowed calibrated dating, dendrochronology, metallurgy, chemistry, textile, and other specialized disciplines which contributed to the development of the Turkological studies. Deeper study of the ancient sources allowed better understanding of economical, social, mythological and cultural forces of the sedentary and nomadic societies. Linguistic studies uncovered pre-literate symbioses and mutual influences between different peoples.

Persecution in Soviet Russia
On 9 August 1944 the Central Committee VKP(b), the ruling party of the USSR, published an edict prohibiting "ancientization" of Turkic history. The edict was followed by a consecutive wave of mass arrests, imprisoning and killing of the Turkology intelligentsia, massive creation of replacement scientists, and re-writing of history pages on an industrial scale.

Many Turkology scholars in Russia were persecuted or imprisoned by Stalin's political oppression movement, the Great Purge, occurring during the 1930s–1940s, on the basis of disputed Islamic writings and publications. Other cultural Scholars, such as Egyptologists and Japanologists were also subject to the political repression, in Stalin's movement to cleanse Communist Russia of ethnic minorities that posed opposition to Communism.

Most Oriental and other cultural scholars that had been repressed in the 1930s and 1940s (as well as their respective scientific works) were, however, officially rehabilitated in or after 1956.

On the other hand, this edict brought unintended benefits to Turkology. One was the nearly immediate linguistic development of an alternate lexicon which replaced the nouns and adjectives containing the word Türk by a wealth of euphemisms: "nomads, Siberians, Paleosiberians, Middle Asians, Scythians, Altaians, Tuvians", etc. that filled scientific publications. The other was "writing into a drawer", when results of the years of fruitful work were written down for future publication. When the bonds relaxed, the publications exploded. Another was a flight of scientists from European Russia into remote areas, which brought first class scientists to many intellectually starved outlying areas of Middle Asia. Another one was connected with the statewide efforts to re-invent the history, when a wealth of Turkological facts were found in the process of search for "correct" history. And another one was a built-up of the public interest for the forbidden subjects, that resulted that no print size could satisfy the demand. L.N.Gumilev and O.Suleimenov inflamed a surge in the new generation of Turkology scholars.

With the physical culling of the scholars from the society, an organized a total extermination of all their published and unpublished works took place concurrently. Their books were removed from the libraries and destroyed from private collections by an intimidated population, articles and publications were culled, published photographs were retouched, private photographs were destroyed, published scientific references were erased, or publications with undesired references were destroyed. Very few of the early 20th century expedition diaries, ethnographical notes, reports and drafts for publications were ever recovered.

Turkology scholars persecuted in 20th-century Soviet Russia

 * Я. В. Васильков, М. Ю. Сорокина (eds.), Люди и судьбы. Биобиблиографический словарь востоковедов – жертв политического террора в советский период (1917–1991) ("People and Destiny. Bio-Bibliographic Dictionary of Orientalists – Victims of the political terror during the Soviet period (1917–1991)"), Петербургское Востоковедение (2003). online edition
 * Д.Д.Тумаркин (ed.), Репрессированные Этнографы, Вып. 1, М., Вост. лит., 2002 (Tumarkin D.D., "Prosecuted Ethnographers", Issue 1, Moscow, Oriental Literature, 2002)
 * Tallgren A.M., 1936. Archaeological studies in Soviet Russia // Eurasia septentrionalis antiqua. X.
 * А.А.Формозов, Русские археологи и политические репрессии 1920-1940-х гг. Институт археологии РАН, Москва, 1998 (Formozov A.A., "Russian archeologists and political repressions of the 1920-1940's", Russian Academy of Sciences Archeology Institute, Moscow, 1998)

Pseudoscientific theories
The linguistic field of Turkology has been noted as particularly influenced by 'pseudo-turkologists', whose theories do not follow due diligence to properly prove Turkish origins in non-related languages. Some extreme pseudo-turkologists contend that Turkic history stretches back hundreds of thousands of years, that every major civilization in history is of Turkic origin, and that major historical figures such as Jesus Christ and Genghis Khan were of Turkic origin. Ethnic Russian scholars have put forth similar theories with an added Turco-Slavic synthesis, in an attempt to put "the Russian world at its proper place at the center of world civilization". Many conflicting theories among Turkic peoples of Central and North Asia seek to connect their peoples to a larger legacy and place in history. According to historians Konstantin Sheiko and Stephen Brown, these theories are influenced by "the Turkic rejection of Russian imperialism" driven by a post-soviet need for nation-building.

As journalist Luka Ivan Jukić concludes in his examination of extreme pseudo-turkology: "Turkic countries have suffered greatly over the last century and a half. After the brutality of World War I, Turkey was set to be wiped off the map by the diktat of Western powers, a fate already shared by every other Turkic people. During Soviet rule, the traditional nomadic lifestyle of Turkic Steppe peoples was derided by official Soviet historiography as backward, uncivilized and feudal — something to be ashamed of, not proud of.

On the margins of the development of global capitalism, or in the furnace of communist social and economic engineering, Turkic peoples have borne the brunt of modernity’s failures and experienced few of its successes. Ancient history, invented or otherwise, offers a refuge. Pseudo-Turkology, which places Turks at the very heart of the history of all human civilization, provides a source of unlimited pride."

List of Turkologists

 * Abramzon, S. M. (1905–1977) (ethnographer)
 * Abu al-Ghazi Bahadur (1605–1664) (historian, Turkologist)
 * Adamovic M. (Uralic languages, Turkologist)
 * Akhatov G. Kh. (1927–1986) (Professor of Philology, Turkologist, Linguist, Orientalist)
 * Ahatanhel Krymsky (1871–1942) (Orientalist, Historian, Linguist, Philologist, Ethnographer
 * Ahinjanov S. M. (1939–1991) (archeologist, historian, Turkologist)
 * Akishev, K. A. (1924–2003) (archeologist, historian, investigated Issyk Kurgan)
 * Altheim, F. (1898–1976) (historian)
 * Amanjolov, A. S. (runiform writing)
 * Anokhin, A. V. (1867–1931) (Turkologist, ethnographer, ancient musical arts)
 * Aristov, N. A. (1847–1903) (Orientalist)
 * Artamonov, M. (1898–1972) (Archaeologist, Turkologist, historian, Khazar studies)
 * Asmussen, J. P. (1928–2002), (Orientalist, Manichaeism historian)
 * Ayda Adile (1912–1992) (Etruscologist, Orientalist)
 * Bacot, J. (1877–1965) (Orientalist)
 * Baichorov S. Ya. (Turkologist, philologist, runiform writing)
 * Bailey, H. W. (1899–1996) (Orientalist)
 * Bang W. (Bang Kaup J. W., J. Kaup) (1869–1934) (Turkologist, linguist)
 * Barfield T. J. (history, anthropology, and social theory)
 * Bartold, W. W. (1869–1930) (Orientalist)
 * Baskakov, N. A. (1905–1995) (Turkologist, linguist, ethnologist)
 * Batmanov I. A. (Turkologist, philologist, runiform writing)
 * Bazin Louis (Sinologist, orientalist)
 * Beckwith, C. (Uralic and Altaic Studies)
 * Benzing J. (1913–2001) (Turkic and northern Eurasia languages)
 * Bichurin, N. Ya. (1777–1853) (Sinologist, orientalist)
 * Bidjiev Kh. Kh.-M. (1939–1999) (archeologist, Turkologist)
 * Bosworth, C. E. (Orientalist, Arabist)
 * Bretschneider, E. (1833–1901) (Sinologist)
 * Budberg, P. A. (Boodberg) (1903–1972) (Sinologist, orientalist)
 * Çağatay, Saadet
 * Castrén, M. A. (1813–1852)
 * Chavannes, E. (1865–1918) (Sinologist)
 * Chia-sheng, Feng (Jiasheng, Fen Tszia-shen, C. S. Feng)
 * Csirkés, Ferenc Péter (Orientalist)
 * Clauson, G. (1891–1974) (Orientalist, Turkish language)
 * Ekrem Čaušević (Turkologist)
 * de Guignes, Joseph (1721–1800) (Orientalist)
 * Dal, Vladimir (1801–1872, Russian language lexicographer)
 * Dilaçar, Agop (1895–1979) (linguist)
 * Doblhofer E. (Historical philology,)
 * Doerfer, G. (1920–2003) (Turkologist)
 * Dolgih B. O. (1904–1971) (historian, ethnographer-Sibirologist)
 * Donner, O. (1835–1909) (linguist)
 * Drompp M. R. (Orientalist, Turkologist)
 * Dybo, A. V. (Philologist, Turkologist, comparative linguist)
 * Eberhard Wolfram (1909–1988) (Sinologist, Philologist, Turkologist)
 * Erdal Marcel (linguist)
 * Eren, H. (1919–2007) (linguist, Turkologist, Hungarologist )
 * Fedorov-Davydov, G. A. (1931–2000) (archeologist)
 * Frye, R. N. (philologist, historian)
 * von Gabain, A. (1901–1993) (Turkologist, Sinologist, linguist, art historian)
 * Gasratjan, M. A. (1924–2007) (historian, Turkologist, Kurdologist)
 * Geng Shimin 耿世民 (Turkologist, Uighurologist, Manichaeanism, linguist, archeologist, historian)
 * Gibbon, E. (1737–1794) (historian)
 * Giraud, M. R. (1904–1968) (philologist, historian)
 * Gökalp, Z. (1886–1924) (Sociologist)
 * Golden, P. (historian)
 * Golubovsky P. V. (1857–1907) (historian)
 * de Groot, J. J. M. (1854–1921) (Sinologist)
 * Grousset, R. (1885–1952)
 * Gumilev, L. (Arslan) (1912–1992)
 * Halasi-Kun Tibor (1914–1991) (Turkologist)
 * Gustav Haloun (1898–1951)
 * Hamilton, J. R. (linguist, Uighur and Chigil studies)
 * Harmatta, J. (1917–2004) (linguist)
 * Hashimoto Mantaro (1932－1987) (linguist, philologist, Sinologist; the influence of Altaic languages on Mandarin Chinese)
 * Hazai, György (Turkologist, linguist)
 * Heissig, W. (1913–2005) (Mongolist)
 * Henning, W. B. (1908–1967)
 * von Herberstein, S. (Siegmund, Sigismund, Freiherr von Herberstein, Gerbershtein) (1486–1566) (historian, writer, diplomat)
 * Hirth, F. (1845–1927) (Sinologist)
 * Howorth, H. H. (1842–1923) (archeologist, historian)
 * Hulsewe, A. F. P. (1910–1993) (Sinologist)
 * Ismagulov, Orazak (anthropologist)
 * Jalairi Kadir Galy (Djalairi, Kadyrali, Kadyr Ali, Kydyrgali) (ca 1620) (historian)
 * Jankowski Henryk (turkologist)
 * Jarring, G. (1907–2002) (Turkologist)
 * Jdanko, T. (Zhdanko) (ethnographer)
 * Johanson, L. (Turkologist)
 * Kantemir, D. (Cantemir) (1673–1723) (historian, linguist, ethnographer)
 * Khalikov, A. Kh. (1929–1994) (archeologist, historian, Turkologist)
 * Khazanov, A. (social anthropologist and ethnologist)
 * Kitsikis, Dimitri (political science)
 * Klaproth, J. (1783–1835), (Orientalist, Linguist, Historian, Ethnographer)
 * Köprülü, M. F. (Koprulu) (1890–1966)
 * Korkmaz, Zeynep (Dialectologist)
 * Kormushin, I. V. (Turkologist, philologist, runiform writing)
 * Kotwicz, W. (1872–1944) (Orientalist)
 * Kradin, N. N. (anthropologist, archaeologist)
 * Küner, N. V. (1877–1955) (17-languages polyglot, Turkologist)
 * Kurat, A. N. (historian) (1903–1971)
 * Kvaerne, P. (Tibetology, Religions)
 * Kyzlasov, I. L. (Turkologist, runiform writing)
 * Lagashov, B. R. (Caucasology, philology)
 * Laude-Cirtautas, Ilse (Turkology)
 * von Le Coq, A. (1860–1930) (archaeologist, explorer)
 * Liu Mau-tsai (Liu Guan-ying) (Sinologist, Turkologist)
 * Lubotsky, A. (philologist)
 * Maenchen-Helfen, O. J. (1894–1969) (academic, sinologist, historian, author, and traveler)
 * Malov, S. E. (1880–1957) (Orientalist, runiform writing)
 * Marquart, J. (Markwart) (1864–1930)
 * McGovern W. M. (1897–1964) (Orientalist)
 * Mélikoff, Irène
 * Ménage, V. L. (1920–2015) (British turkologist, historian)
 * Mészáros, Gyula (1883–1957) (Hungarian ethnographer, Orientalist, Turkologist)
 * Minorsky, V. F. (1877–1966) (Orientalist)
 * Moravcsik, Gyula (1892–1972) (Byzantinology)
 * Mukhamadiev, A. (Numismatist, orientalist, philologist)
 * Müller, G. F. (Miller) (1705–83) (father of ethnography)
 * Munkacsi, B. (1860–1937) (linguist)
 * Nadelyaev, V. M. (Turkologist, philologist, runiform writing)
 * Nasilov, D. M. (Turkologist, philologist)
 * Németh, Gyula (1890–1976) (Turkologist, linguist)
 * Ogel, B. (1923–1989) (Philology)
 * Pallas, P. S. (1741–1811) (naturalist, ethnographer)
 * Pelliot, P. (1878–1945) (Sinologist)
 * Peskov, Dmitry
 * Pletneva, S. A. (archeologist)
 * Podolak, Barbara (Turkologist, linguist)
 * Polivanov, E. D. (1891–1938) (Founder of Altaistics, theorist in linguistics, Orientalist, polyglot) Поливанов, Евгений Дмитриевич
 * Poppe, N. N. (1897–1991) (linguist-Altaist)
 * Potanin, G. N. (1835–1920) (Explorer, historian)
 * Potapov, L. P. (1905–2000) (Turkologist, ethnographer, ethnologist)
 * Potocki, Yan (or Jan) (1761–1815) (ethnologist, linguist, historian)
 * Poucha, P. (Central Asian philology)
 * Puech, H.-C. (linguist)
 * Radloff, W. (1837–1918)
 * Ramstedt, G. H. (1873–1950) (Altaic languages)
 * Räsänen, Martti (Ryasyanen, M.)
 * Rásonyi László (1899–1984) (Turkologist)
 * Rasovsky, D. A. (historian)
 * Rémi-Giraud, S. (linguist)
 * William of Rubruck (Dutch: Willem van Rubroeck, Latin: Gulielmus de Rubruquis) (traveller, ca. 1248–1252)
 * Rochrig, F. L. O. (Roehrig) (1819–1908) (Orientalist, Turkologist, Native American linguist)
 * Ettore Rossi (1884–1955) (Turkologist, Arabist, Iranist, historian and linguist)
 * Samoilovich, A. N. (1880–1938, killed in Stalinist repressions) (Orientalist, Turkologist)
 * Samolin, W. (1911–1972?) (Orientalist)
 * Senigova, T. N. (Fine Arts, Turkologist)
 * Sergi Jikia (1898–1993) (Historian and orientalist, founder of the Turkology in Georgia)
 * Seydakmatov, K. (Turkologist, runiform writing)
 * Shcherbak, A. M. (1926–2008) (Turkologist, runiform writing)
 * Siemieniec-Gołaś, Ewa (Turkologist, linguist)
 * Smirnova, O. I. (numismatist)
 * Stachowski, Marek (linguist, etymologist)
 * Stachowski, St. (linguist)
 * Starostin, S. (1953–2005) (linguist, Altaic languages hypothesis)
 * von Strahlenberg, P. J. (Philip Johan Tabbert) (1676–1747)
 * Tekin, Talât (Altaic languages)
 * Edkhyam Tenishev (1921–2004) (linguist, Central Asian philology)
 * von Tiesenhausen, W. (Tizengauzen, V.G.) (1825–1902) (Orientalist, numismatist, archeologist)
 * Tietze, Andreas (1914–2003; Turkologist)
 * Thomsen, Vilhelm (1842–1927) (Danish linguist, decipherer of the Orkhon inscriptions)
 * Togan, Zeki Velidi (1890–1970) (historian, Turkologist, leader of liberation movement)
 * Sergey Tolstov (1907–1976) (archeologist)
 * Tremblay, X. (philology)
 * Vainberg, B. I. (archeologist, numismatist)
 * Vaissière, Étienne de la (Orientalist, philologist)
 * Valihanov, Chokan (Shokan, Chokan Chingisovich) (1835–1865) (Turkologist, ethnographer, historian)
 * Vambery, A. (1832–1913)
 * Vandewalle, Johan
 * Vasiliev, D. D. (Türkic runiform script)
 * Velikhanly, N. M (Velikhanova) (Orientalist)
 * Velyaminov-Zernov, V. V. (1830–1904) (Turkologist)
 * Wang Guowei (王国维, 1877–1927) (Sinologist, historian, philologist)
 * Wikander, S. (1908–1983) (Orientalist, philologist, Native American linguist) Stig Wikander (sv)
 * Wittfogel, K. A. (1896–1988) (Sinologist, historian)
 * Yadrintsev, N.V. (1842–1894) (archeologist, Turkologist, explorer)
 * Yudin, V. P. (1928–1983) (Orientalist, historian, and philologist)
 * Ananiasz Zajączkowski (1903–1970) (Turkologist)
 * Zakiev, M. (Philologist)
 * Zehren, E. (Orientalist, archeologist)
 * Vásáry, István (Turkologist, historian)
 * Zhirinovsky, V. V. (Turkologist, philologist, politician)
 * Zieme, P. W. H. (Turkologist, linguist)
 * Zuev, Yu. (1932–2006) (Sinologist)

title: Turkology