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World Evangelical Alliance

The World Evangelical Alliance (WEA) is an interdenominational organization of evangelical Christian churches with 600 million adherents that was founded in 1846 in London, England, to unite evangelicals worldwide. WEA is the largest international organization of evangelical churches. It has offices at the United Nations in New York City, Geneva, and Bonn. It brings together nine regional and 143 national evangelical alliances of churches, and over one hundred member organizations. Moreover, a number of international evangelical denominations are members of the WEA. As of March 2021, the Secretary General of the WEA is German theologian Thomas Schirrmacher.

History
The organization has its origins in the Evangelical Alliance, a British organization founded in 1846 by 52 evangelical denominations in London, England. In 1912, it took the name of World Evangelical Alliance. In 1951, the World Evangelical Fellowship was founded by evangelical leaders from 21 countries at the first general assembly in Woudschoten (Zeist) in the Netherlands. In 2001, after the General Assembly in Kuala Lumpur, WEF became the World Evangelical Alliance. As of 2005, the WEA had collegiate management under the leadership of Canadian leader Geoff Tunnicliffe. Offices were opened in Vancouver, Canada (Leadership), San Francisco (Information Technology), Washington (Publications), and Geneva (International Relations). In 2006, it opened an office at the United Nations in Geneva, which added to that in New York City. In 2018, it established its headquarters in Deerfield, Illinois.

Beliefs
The Alliance has a Protestant confession of faith.

Governance
The governance of the organization is ensured by a Secretary-General and regional secretaries in the 9 continental member regions. The office has been vacant since April 2024. A new Secretary General is to be elected by the end of 2024 at the latest.

List of former leaders
This list contains the former leaders of the WEA since 1951.

 * Roy Cattell (United Kingdom) and J. Elwin Wright (United States), co-secretaries, (1951–1953)
 * A.J. Dain (United Kingdom) and J. Elwin Wright (United States), co-secretaries, (1953–1958)
 * Fred Ferris (United States), International Secretary, United States, (1958–1962)
 * Gilbert Kirby (United Kingdom), International Secretary, (1962–1966)
 * Dennis Clark (Canada), International Secretary, (1966–1970)
 * Gordon Landreth (United Kingdom), interim International Secretary, (1970–1971)
 * Clyde Taylor (United States), International Secretary, (1971–1975)
 * Waldron Scott (United States), General Secretary, (1975–1980)
 * Wade Coggins (United States), Interim General Secretary, (1981)
 * David M. Howard (United States), International Director (1982–1992)
 * Agustin Vencer (Philippines), International Director (1992–2001)
 * Gary Edmonds (United States), Secretary General (2002–2004)
 * Geoff Tunnicliffe (Canada, Secretary General (2005–2014)
 * Efraim Tendero (Philippines), Secretary General (2015–2021)
 * Thomas Schirrmacher (Germany), Secretary General (2021–2024)

Commissions
In 1974, the WEA created six commissions to better achieve its mandates.

 * Alliance development Function: To strengthen existing evangelical alliances and create new ones.
 * Church in community Function: To provide programs and resources to churches for different social groups.
 * Missions and evangelism Function: Coordinate the activities of evangelization.
 * Public engagement Function: Coordinate partnerships with international organizations, such as the UN.
 * Relief and development Function: Coordinate Christian humanitarian aid and development aid.
 * Theological concerns Function: To reflect on subjects of evangelical theology, and questions of importance concerning churches and society in the world, to monitor religious freedom.

Statistics
In 2020, WEA brought together 143 national alliances of churches that would have 600 million believers. Moreover, the WEA unites only a certain percentage of evangelical churches, because some churches are not members of a Christian denomination or national alliance.

Membership
The World Evangelical Alliance embraces member-bodies whose identity and vocation are rooted in what it understands as historic biblical Christianity. WEA affirms and seeks the biblical unity of Christ's body, the Church, celebrating the diversity of practices and theological emphases consistent with the WEA Statement of Faith, recognizing the existing dynamic tension between unity and diversity.

There are three types of membership, each with its distinct qualifications and responsibilities:
 * Regional and national alliances are regional evangelical fellowships and their national fellowships/alliances.
 * Affiliate members are independently incorporated organizations with their own specific ministries and accountability, an international scope of ministry, and the capacity and authority to serve in and beyond the WEA community.
 * Church networks and denominations are networks of churches (located in one or a number of countries), in agreement with the statement of faith and objectives of the World Evangelical Alliance.

General Assemblies
A General Assembly takes place every six years in a country that differs depending on the year. It is a time of prayer and conferences for national alliances and associations. It is an opportunity for decision making and the training of leaders of each country. The last GA was held in 2019 in Jakarta in Indonesia and the leaders notably committed to building alliances in the 62 countries that do not have them and getting more involved in the religious freedom.

 * 1951 Amsterdam (Woudschoten), Netherlands, August 4–11
 * 1953 Clarens, Switzerland, July 27–31
 * 1956 Rhode Island, United States, August 27–31
 * 1962 Hong Kong, April 25 – May 2
 * 1968 Lausanne, Switzerland, May 4–10
 * 1974 Château d'Oex, Switzerland, July 25–29
 * 1980 London (Hoddesdon) England, UK, March 24–28
 * 1986 Singapore, June 23–27
 * 1992 Manila, Philippines, June 21–26
 * 1997 Abbotsford, British Columbia, Canada, May 8–15
 * 2001 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, May 4–10
 * 2008 Pattaya, Thailand, October 25–30
 * 2014 Seoul, South Korea, [canceled]
 * 2019 Jakarta, Indonesia, November 7–14

Publications
There are two quarterly publications: a journal Evangelical Review of Theology (published on behalf by Paternoster Periodicals since 1977) and a newsletter Theological News (since 1969). Books are published occasionally.

Development
The fight against poverty is a major concern of the WEA. Publications and meetings of the Alliance are the means used to influence and inspire development initiatives and actions humanitarian in churches, NGOs and political. It is the origin of the Micah Challenge, an initiative to educate Christians and promote decision making among leaders.

Ecumenical participation
On June 5, 2010, Geoff Tunnicliffe, the International Director of the WEA, appeared alongside the leaders of the Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity and the World Council of Churches (WCC) in a press conference, entitled “Christian unity today”, at the Edinburgh 2010 Conference. The gathering marked the centennial of the 1910 World Missionary Conference. In the same year, on 17 October 2010, Olav Fykse Tveit, the general secretary of the WCC, gave an invited address to the 3rd International Congress of the Lausanne Movement. In the address he said, "we are called to participate in the one mission of God". The World Evangelical Alliance, Geoff Tunnicliffe, the International Director and other WEA leaders were involved at each level in the development of the programme, and helped choose its participants. In May 2014 the Lausanne International Student Ministry Global Leadership Network became a "docked network" with the WEA's Mission Commission.

On 22 January 2015, the WCC and WEA announced plans for closer cooperation, worship and witness. In the same year, in June 2015, the WEA reported that discussions with the Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity were finalised, and that "the open questions of the 16th century are almost answered". The WEA representatives also reported that "still open is the question to what extend [sic] evangelical Christians who stem from the reformation churches have full access to salvation according to the catholic view".

On May 24, 2017, the WEA participated in a two-day Global Christian Forum meeting with the World Council of Churches, officials from the Vatican and Eastern Orthodox Churches, and the Pentecostal World Federation to facilitate moves 'towards greater oneness in Christ'. The meeting was held at the WCC's Bossey Ecumenical Institute. Some criticism was voiced of the WEA for lack of consultation about this move, the absence of regional and national discussion, or a vote of the General Assembly prior to the meeting.

Advocacy for human rights and freedom of religion
The WEA is also advocating for the respect of human rights, including freedom of religion and belief for all. Furthermore, its involvement with UN mechanisms (Human Rights and other) has grown into a dedicated department, the "Global Advocacy Department".

The WEA has consultative status with the Economic and Social Council of the UN (ECOSOC) since 1997, which allows it to engage in the UN mechanisms with statements, reports, and recommendations, notably as part of the Human Rights Council sessions and the Universal Periodic Review (UPR).

In the context of the UPR, several recommendations from the WEA have been reiterated by States, meaning that recommendations formulated in a very similar way than those suggested by the WEA, appear in the final recommendations addressed to the State under review, on behalf of a reviewing State. This was the case for its reports regarding human trafficking in Switzerland (2012) and Canada (2018),  its report on religious freedom in Bhutan in 2019,  and its report on Iran in 2020 for which the WEA successfully advocated for the inclusion of “Christian converts” as a group whose religious freedom should be respected by Iran.

Regarding the Human Rights Council sessions, an example of the WEA’s impact was reported by Evangelical Focus. In 2020, the WEA made a statement, as part of the UPR's outcome adoption of Spain, mentioning unreasonably high standards for non-Catholic religious communities in Catalonia and discrimination against retired Protestant pastors who have been excluded from the pension system since Franco’s regime. The Spanish ambassador responded to WEA’s statement at the Human Rights Council session and both recommendations were accepted. At the end of 2020, the Evangelical Council of Catalonia announced that an agreement had been reached with the municipality of L'Hospitalet de Llobregat to avoid the closure of five churches.

Neglect of the suffering church in China
The WEA was criticised for its positive assessment of the situation of the churches in China after meeting with Chinese government-approved representatives in 2009. ChinaAid and Church in Chains claimed, "There are many Christians in China who are not free to worship, do not have Bibles of their own and are not free to organise their own affairs and this situation is not mentioned in your press release… our concern is that you have turned your back on these brothers and sisters." One exemplary case of abuse, that of imprisoned Uyghur Christian Alimujiang Yimiti, was raised in the criticism, but the WEA did not respond in detail.

title: World Evangelical Alliance


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JezzBall

JezzBall is a video game originally published for Microsoft Windows in 1992. The player must capture parts of a rectangular space by dividing it with horizontal or vertical lines. While each line is being drawn it must not be touched by bouncing balls. JezzBall has similarities with Qix, a 1981 arcade game.

History
JezzBall was programmed by Dima Pavlovsky. It was published in 1992 as part of the Microsoft Entertainment Pack and later released within the Best of Microsoft Entertainment Pack. Its name is also a play on words on Jezebel.

The game was remade as a Modern UI app for Windows 8 and later by Random Salad Games, under the name "Jezzball Galaxy".

Gameplay
The game starts with two atoms (red-and-white balls), bouncing about a room (the rectangular field of play). The player points at a position within the room and clicks to start building either vertical or horizontal lines, also called walls, from the pointer position, either up and down or left and right. If the walls reach the edge of the area without a ball colliding into them then the area bound by the line and not containing a ball is 'captured' and filled black. If a ball collides with a wall while it is building then the wall stops at that point and the player loses a life. The player has a time limit within which to capture at least 75% of the room's surface area. When that percentage is exceeded the level is complete and the player progresses to a fresh room with one more atom bouncing in it than in the previous level. There are an infinite number of levels, but from level 49 onwards every level starts with 50 atoms.

The game is controlled by a standard pointing device such as a mouse. Right click alternates between horizontal and vertical orientation for wall creation and left click starts the walls building.

The player begins each level with the same number of lives as there are atoms in that level. The game finishes if all lives are lost.

Clones

 * Barrack
 * KBounce
 * Jezzball in HTML/Javascript
 * JezzBall Atomic

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: JezzBall


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Combine

Combine may refer to:

Machinery

 * Combine harvester, or combine, a machine to harvest grain crops
 * Seed drill, or combine seeder, a machine to plant seeds

Company structure

 * Corporate group, an industrial business group in Western democracies
 * Combine (Soviet enterprise), an industrial business group in socialist countries, particularly the former Soviet Union

Places

 * Combine, Texas, U.S.

Sports

 * A sports combine, an event held by certain professional sports leagues to evaluate prospective players, such as:
 * AFL Draft Combine in Australian rules football
 * CFL Combine in Canadian football
 * NBA Draft Combine in basketball
 * NFL Scouting Combine in American football

Other

 * Combine car, or combine, a type of railroad car which combines sections for passengers and freight
 * Combine painting, a type of artwork
 * COMBINE, a computational biology initiative
 * Combine (Half-Life), a fictional alien enemy force from the Half-Life video game series
 * The Combine (group), an organized crime group
 * The Combine (Australian film industry)
 * Combine Music Group, a defunct music publisher
 * Combine (API), a reactive programming framework for Swift

title: Combine


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S60 (software platform)

The S60 Platform (formerly Series 60 User Interface) was a software platform for smartphones that runs on top of the Symbian operating system. It was created by Nokia based on the 'Pearl' user interface from Symbian Ltd. It was introduced at COMDEX in November 2001 and first shipped with the Nokia 7650 smartphone. The platform has since seen 5 updated editions. Series 60 was renamed to S60 in November 2005.

In 2008, the Symbian Foundation was formed to consolidate all the assets of different Symbian platforms (S60, UIQ, MOAP), making it open source. In 2009, based on the code base of S60, the first iteration of the platform since the creation of Symbian Foundation was launched as S60 5th Edition, or Symbian^1, on top of Symbian OS 9.4 as its base. Subsequent iterations were named Symbian^2 (Japanese market only) and Symbian^3.

The S60 software was a multivendor standard for smartphones that supports application development in Java MIDP, C++, Python and Adobe Flash. Its API was called Avkon UI. S60 consists of a suite of libraries and standard applications, such as telephony, personal information manager (PIM) tools, and Helix-based multimedia players. It was intended to power fully featured modern phones with large colour screens, which are commonly known as smartphones.

Originally, the most distinguishing feature of S60 phones was that they allowed users to install new applications after purchase. Unlike a standard desktop platform, however, the built-in apps are rarely upgraded by the vendor beyond bug fixes. New features are only added to phones while they are being developed rather than after public release. Certain buttons are standardized, such as a menu key, a four way joystick or d-pad, left and right soft keys and a clear key.

S60 was mainly used by Nokia but they also licensed it to a few other manufacturers, including Lenovo, LG Electronics, Panasonic, Samsung, Sendo, Siemens Mobile, Sony Ericsson, Solstice and Vertu. Sony Ericsson notably was the main vendor using the competing UIQ Symbian interface.

In addition to the manufacturers the community includes:
 * Software integration companies such as Sasken, Elektrobit, Teleca, Digia, Mobica, Atelier.tm
 * Semiconductor companies Texas Instruments, STMicroelectronics, Broadcom, Sony, Freescale Semiconductor, Samsung Electronics
 * Operators such as Vodafone and Orange who develop and provide S60-based mobile applications and services
 * Software developers and independent software vendors (ISVs).

Editions

There have been four major releases of S60: "Series 60" (2001), "Series 60 Second Edition" (2002), "S60 3rd Edition" (2005) and "S60 5th Edition" (2008). Each release had an updated version called Feature Pack, sometimes known as relay. Each runs on a different Symbian version.

 * Series 60 1st Edition: The devices' display resolution was fixed to 176×208. The Siemens SX1 meanwhile had 176×220.
 * Version 0.9 was the original and first shipped with Nokia 7650.
 * Version 1.2 (marketed as Feature Pack 1) first shipped with Nokia 3600/3650 in 2003.

 * Series 60 2nd Edition: Also known as S60v2.
 * Version 2 was the original and first shipped with Nokia 6600.
 * Version 2.1 (Feature Pack 1) first came with Nokia 6620.
 * Version 2.6 (Feature Pack 2) first came with Nokia 6630.
 * Version 2.8 (Feature Pack 3) first started shipping with Nokia N70 in September 2005. FP3 now supports multiple resolutions, i.e. Basic (176×208), and Double (352×416). The N90 was the first Series 60 device to support a higher resolution (352×416).

 * S60 3rd Edition: S60v3 uses a hardened version of Symbian OS (v9.1), which has mandatory code signing. In S60v3, a user may install only programs that have a certificate from a registered developer, unless the user disables that feature or modify the phone's firmware through third-party hacks that circumvent the mandatory signing restrictions. This makes software written for S60 1st Edition or 2nd Edition not binary-compatible with S60v3.
 * Version 3 was first introduced with Nokia N91 in 2006.
 * Version 3.1 (Feature Pack 1) first shipped with Nokia N95.
 * Version 3.2 (Feature Pack 2) first shipped with Nokia N78.

 * In 2006, a "Designed for S60 Devices" logo program for developers was launched. The logotype can be used with conforming programs regardless of them being native Symbian or Java.

 * S60 5th Edition: In October 2008 Symbian^1, also known as S60v5, was launched as the first OS under the Symbian Foundation, based on the S60 code so therefore also called S60 5th Edition. Nokia skipped the number 4 as they traditionally always do (due to East Asian tetraphobia). S60 5th Edition runs on Symbian OS version 9.4. The major feature of 5th Edition is support for high-resolution 640×360 touchscreens; before 5th Edition, all S60 devices had a button-based user interface. S60 5th Edition also integrates standard C/C++ APIs and includes Adobe Flash Lite 3.0 with S60-specific ActionScript extensions that give Flash Lite developers access to phone features like contacts, text messaging, sensors and device location information (GPS). Despite the introduction of S60 5th Edition, the 3rd Edition continued to be marketed new as well, as 5th Edition is specially designed for, and exclusively available on touchscreens (ex. Nokia 5800 XpressMusic, Nokia C5-03, Nokia C6-00, Nokia N97, Nokia N97 Mini, Nokia 5228, Nokia 5230, Nokia 5233, Nokia 5530).

 * Version 5 was first introduced with Nokia 5800 XpressMusic in 2008.

 * S60 5th Edition was the last edition of S60. It was succeeded by Symbian^2 (based on MOAP) and Symbian^3 in 2010.

Versions and supported devices
Many devices are capable of running the S60 software platform with the Symbian OS. Devices ranging from the early Nokia 7650 running S60 v0.9 on Symbian OS v6.1, to the latest Samsung i8910 Omnia HD running S60 v5.0 on Symbian OS v9.4. In Symbian^3 the version of the revised platform is v5.2.

The table lists devices carrying each version of S60 as well as the Symbian OS version on what it is based. Note that new devices since Symbian^3 May be capable of upgrading to later systems, such as Symbian Anna and Symbian Belle. Therefore, you may see a device being listed more than once.

Symbian is now progressing through a period of organisational change to metamorph into an open source software platform project. As an OS, Symbian OS originally provided no user interface (UI), the visual layer that runs atop an operating system. This was implemented separately. Examples of Symbian UIs are MOAP; Series 60; Series 80; Series 90 and UIQ. This separation of UI from underlying OS has created both flexibility and some confusion in the market place. The Nokia purchase of Symbian was brokered with the involvement of the other UI developers and all major user interface layers have been (or have been pledged to be) donated to the open source foundation who will independently own the Symbian operating system. The new Symbian Foundation has announced its intent to unify different Symbian UIs into a single UI based on the S60 platform. (Announcements made in March 2009 indicated this would be the S60 5th edition with feature pack 1).

Symbian Anna
On 12 April 2011, Nokia announced Symbian Anna as a software update to the Symbian^3 release. Three new devices (500, X7 and E6) were announced which will have Symbian Anna pre-installed. Symbian Anna will be available as a Software Update for Symbian^3 based devices as well. Most Significant updates that come with "Anna" are
 * Portrait QWERTY with split-view data entry
 * New Icon Set
 * New internet browser with an improved user interface, search-integrated address field, faster navigation and page loading.
 * Updated Ovi Maps (search public transport, download full country maps via WLAN or Nokia Ovi Suite, check-in to Facebook, Twitter and Foursquare).
 * Java Runtime 2.2, Qt Mobility 1.1 and Qt4.7.

Symbian Belle
On 24 August 2011, Nokia announced Symbian Belle (later renamed Nokia Belle) as a software update to the Symbian Anna release. Three new devices (603, 700 and 701) [Nokia 600 is cancelled and is replaced with Nokia 603] were announced which will have Symbian Belle pre-installed. Symbian Belle was available as a Software Update for Symbian Anna-based devices as well. Most Significant updates that came with "Belle" were
 * Free-form, differently-sized, live widgets
 * More homescreens
 * Improved status bar
 * Dropdown menu
 * Modernised navigation
 * New apps
 * Informative lock screen
 * NFC devices
 * Visual multitasking

Symbian Carla and Donna
In November 2011, Nokia announced the Carla and Donna updates. Carla was expected to be released in late 2012 or early 2013 and feature a new web browser, new widgets, new NFC capabilities and Dolby Surround audio enhancement. Donna was going to be a dual-core processor exclusive, and was planned to be released late 2013 or early 2014. In May 2012 a Nokia executive claimed that Carla and Donna were cancelled, and that Nokia would instead only release Belle Feature Pack 2 later in 2012, lacking many of the new features that were planned for Carla and Donna.

Legacy
In February 2011, Nokia announced a partnership with Microsoft to adopt Windows Phone 7 as Nokia's primary operating system, leaving further Symbian development in question. Nokia has promised support for Symbian and its newer devices until at least 2016, but no new Symbian devices will be released after Nokia 808 PureView. On 29 April 2011, Nokia announced that it would transfer Symbian activities to Accenture along with 3,000 employees.

title: S60 (software platform)


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Norman Angell

Sir Ralph Norman Angell (26 December 1872 – 7 October 1967) was an English Nobel Peace Prize winner. He was a lecturer, journalist, author and Member of Parliament for the Labour Party.

Angell was one of the principal founders of the Union of Democratic Control. He served on the Council of the Royal Institute of International Affairs, was an executive for the World Committee against War and Fascism, a member of the executive committee of the League of Nations Union, and the president of the Abyssinia Association. He was made a Knight Bachelor in 1931 and awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1933.

Biography
Angell was one of six children, born to Thomas Angell Lane and Mary (née Brittain) Lane in Holbeach, Lincolnshire, England. He was born Ralph Norman Angell Lane, but later adopted Angell as his sole surname. He attended several schools in England, the Lycée Alexandre Ribot at Saint-Omer in France, and the University of Geneva, while editing an English-language newspaper published in Geneva.

In Geneva, Angell felt that Europe was "hopelessly entangled in insoluble problems". Then, still only 17, he emigrated to the West Coast of the United States, where he for several years worked as a vine planter, an irrigation-ditch digger, a cowboy, a California homesteader (after filing for American citizenship), a mail-carrier, a prospector, and then, closer to his natural skills, as a reporter for the St. Louis Globe-Democrat and later the San Francisco Chronicle.

Due to family matters he returned to England briefly in 1898, then moved to Paris to work as a sub-editor on the English-language Daily Messenger, and then as a staff contributor to the newspaper Éclair. He also through this period acted as French correspondent for some American newspapers, to which he sent dispatches on the progress of the Dreyfus case. During 1905–12, he became the Paris editor for the Daily Mail.

He returned to England and, in 1914, he was one of the founders of the Union of Democratic Control. He joined the Labour Party in 1920 and was parliamentary candidate for Rushcliffe in the general election of 1922 and for Rossendale in 1923. He was MP for Bradford North from 1929 to 1931; after the formation of the National Government, he announced his decision not to seek re-election on 24 September 1931. In 1931 he was knighted for his public and political services, and in 1933 he was presented with the Nobel Peace Prize. He stood unsuccessfully for the London University seat in 1935.

From the mid-1930s, Angell actively campaigned for collective international opposition to the aggressive policies of Germany, Italy, and Japan. He went to the United States in 1940 to lecture in favour of American support for Britain in World War II, and remained there until after the publication of his autobiography in 1951. He later returned to Britain and died at the age of 94 in Croydon, Surrey.

He married Beatrice Cuvellier but they separated and he lived his last 55 years alone. He purchased Northey Island, Essex, which is attached to the mainland only at low tide, and lived in the sole dwelling on the island.

Angell's Nobel Prize medal was sold at auction at Sotheby's, London, in 1983 for $12,000. It is now in the collection of the Imperial War Museum, London with its accompanying scroll.

The Great Illusion
Angell is most widely remembered for his 1909 pamphlet, Europe's Optical Illusion, which was published the following year (and many years thereafter) as the book, The Great Illusion. (The anti-war film La Grande Illusion took its title from his pamphlet.) The thesis of the book was that the integration of the economies of European countries had grown to such a degree that war between them would be entirely futile, making militarism obsolete. This quotation from the "Synopsis" to the popular 1913 edition summarizes his basic argument.

"He establishes this apparent paradox, in so far as the economic problem is concerned, by showing that wealth in the economically civilized world is founded upon credit and commercial contract (these being the outgrowth of an economic interdependence due to the increasing division of labour and greatly developed communication). If credit and commercial contract are tampered with in an attempt at confiscation, the credit-dependent wealth is undermined, and its collapse involves that of the conqueror; so that if conquest is not to be self-injurious it must respect the enemy’s property, in which case it becomes economically futile. Thus the wealth of conquered territory remains in the hands of the population of such territory. When Germany annexed Alsace, no individual German secured a single mark’s worth of Alsatian property as the spoils of war. Conquest in the modern world is a process of multiplying by x, and then obtaining the original figure by dividing by x. For a modern nation to add to its territory no more adds to the wealth of the people of such nation than it would add to the wealth of Londoners if the City of London were to annex the county of Hertford."During World War I, British historian and polemicist G. G. Coulton authored a purported refutation of Angell's pamphlet.

The Money Game
Angell was also the designer of The Money Game, a visual method of teaching schoolchildren the fundamentals of finance and banking. First published in 1928 by J. M. Dent & Sons, The Money Game, How to Play It: A New Instrument of Economic Education was both a book and a game. The bulk of the book was an essay on money and a discussion of economic theory, it also contained a summary of the game's story and an explanation of the rules.

Influence
Angell's book The Press and the Organisation of Society is cited as a source in F. R. Leavis' pamphlet Mass Civilisation and Minority Culture (1930). Vera Brittain quoted Angell's statement on "the moral obligation to be intelligent" several times in her work.

Works

 * (As Ralph Lane) Patriotism under Three Flags: A Plea for Rationalism in Politics (1903)
 * America and the New World State (in U.S., 1912)
 * War and the Workers (1913)
 * The World's Highway (1916)
 * The Dangers of Half Preparedness (1916, in U.S.)
 * War Aims: The Need for a Parliament of the Allies (1917)
 * Why Freedom Matters (1917)
 * The Political Conditions of Allied Success: A Protective Union of the Democracies (1918, in U.S.)
 * The Treaties and the Economic Chaos (1919)
 * The British Revolution and the American Democracy (1919)
 * The Press and the Organization of Society (1922)
 * If Britain is to Live (1923)
 * Foreign Policy and Human Nature (1925)
 * Must Britain Travel the Moscow Road? (1926)
 * The Public Mind: Its Disorders: Its Exploitation (1927)
 * The Money Game: Card Games Illustrating Currency (1928)
 * Can Governments Cure Unemployment? (1931, with Harold Wright)
 * From Chaos to Control (1932)
 * The Unseen Assassins (1932)
 * The Great Illusion—1933 (1933)
 * The Menace to Our National Defence (1934)
 * Preface to Peace: A Guide for the Plain Man (1935)
 * The Mystery of Money: An Explanation for Beginners (1936)
 * This Have and Have Not Business: Political Fantasy and Economic Fact (1936)
 * Raw Materials, Population Pressure and War (1936, in U.S.)
 * The Defence of the Empire (1937)
 * Peace with the Dictators? (1938)
 * Must it be War? (1938)
 * The Great Illusion—Now (1939)
 * For What do We Fight? (1939)
 * You and the Refugee (1939)
 * Why Freedom Matters (1940)
 * America's Dilemma (1941, in U.S.)
 * Let the People Know (1943, in U.S.)
 * The Steep Places (1947)
 * After All: The Autobiography of Norman Angell (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1951; rpt. New York: Farrar, Straus and Young, 1952). [Out of print.]
 * The Great Illusion—Now (1939)
 * For What do We Fight? (1939)
 * You and the Refugee (1939)
 * Why Freedom Matters (1940)
 * America's Dilemma (1941, in U.S.)
 * Let the People Know (1943, in U.S.)
 * The Steep Places (1947)
 * After All: The Autobiography of Norman Angell (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1951; rpt. New York: Farrar, Straus and Young, 1952). [Out of print.]

title: Norman Angell


text:
Talk:Homosexuality and psychology

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 25 January 2021 and 14 May 2021. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): AleyahCD.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 22:33, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

Evelyn hooker
Should there be a subsection on evelyn hookers studies? WesPhil (talk) 13:20, 21 June 2022 (UTC)

Reference [1]
How does the reference to the subject court case have any relationship to the assertion for which it is being used as a reference? There is absolutely none. I'm not saying that the assertion cannot be backed up by a reference, just not that one. 2601:2C5:C100:87B0:29F3:35D6:588C:D63 (talk) 00:39, 26 July 2022 (UTC)

Mental illness or personality disorder?
Focusing attention on and rejecting the extreme idea of homosexuality as "mental illness," the likelihood that the condition has a psychological cause of a less serious nature is ignored. What could that cause be? A number of things. But they all have to do with identity. 2600:8801:BE01:2500:49E:3ADE:B440:E2B3 (talk) 05:09, 19 May 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Homosexuality and psychology


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Hygrometer

A hygrometer is an instrument which measures the humidity of air or some other gas: that is, how much water vapor it contains. Humidity measurement instruments usually rely on measurements of some other quantities such as temperature, pressure, mass and mechanical or electrical changes in a substance as moisture is absorbed. By calibration and calculation, these measured quantities can lead to a measurement of humidity. Modern electronic devices use the temperature of condensation (called the dew point), or they sense changes in electrical capacitance or resistance to measure humidity differences. A prototype hygrometer was invented by Leonardo da Vinci in 1480. Major leaps came forward during the 1600s; Francesco Folli invented a more practical version of the device, while Robert Hooke improved a number of meteorological devices including the hygrometer. A more modern version was created by Swiss polymath Johann Heinrich Lambert in 1755. Later, in the year 1783, Swiss physicist and Geologist Horace Bénédict de Saussure invented the first hygrometer using human hair to measure humidity.

The maximum amount of water vapor that can be held in a given volume of air (saturation) varies greatly by temperature; cold air can hold less mass of water per unit volume than hot air. Temperature can change humidity.

Ancient hygrometers
Crude hygrometers were devised and developed during the Shang dynasty in Ancient China to study weather. The Chinese used a bar of charcoal and a lump of earth: its dry weight was taken, then compared with its damp weight after being exposed in the air. The differences in weight were used to tally the humidity level.

Other techniques were applied using mass to measure humidity, such as when the air was dry, the bar of charcoal would be light, while when the air was humid, the bar of charcoal would be heavy. By hanging a lump of earth and a bar of charcoal on the two ends of a staff separately and adding a fixed lifting string on the middle point to make the staff horizontal in dry air, an ancient hygrometer was made.

Metal-paper coil type
The metal-paper coil hygrometer is very useful for giving a dial indication of humidity changes. It appears most often in inexpensive devices, and its accuracy is limited, with variations of 10% or more. In these devices, water vapor is absorbed by a salt-impregnated paper strip attached to a metal coil, causing the coil to change shape. These changes (analogous to those in a bimetallic thermometer) cause an indication on a dial. There is usually a metal needle on the front of the gauge that will change where it points to.

Hair tension hygrometers
These devices use a human or animal hair under some tension. The hair is hygroscopic (tending toward retaining moisture); its length changes with humidity, and the length change may be magnified by a mechanism and indicated on a dial or scale. In the late 17th century, such devices were called by some scientists hygroscopes; that word is no longer in use, but hygroscopic and hygroscopy, which derive from it, still are. The traditional folk art device known as a weather house works on this principle. Whale bone and other materials may be used in place of hair.

In 1783, Swiss physicist and geologist Horace Bénédict de Saussure built the first hair-tension hygrometer using human hair.

"It consists of a human hair 8 or long, b c, Fig. 37, fastened at one extremity to a screw, a, and at the other passing over a pulley, c, being strained tight by a silk thread and weight, d."

The pulley is connected to an index which moves over a graduated scale (e). The instrument can be made more sensitive by removing oils from the hair, such as by first soaking the hair in diethyl ether.

Psychrometer (wet-and-dry-bulb thermometer)
A psychrometer, or a wet and dry-bulb thermometer, consists of two calibrated thermometers, one that is dry and one that is kept moist with distilled water on a sock or wick. At temperatures above the freezing point of water, evaporation of water from the wick lowers the temperature, such that the wet-bulb thermometer will be at a lower temperature than that of the dry-bulb thermometer. When the air temperature is below freezing, however, the wet-bulb must be covered with a thin coating of ice, in order to be accurate. As a result of the heat of sublimation, the wet-bulb temperature will eventually be lower than the dry bulb, although this may take many minutes of continued use of the psychrometer.

Relative humidity (RH) is computed from the ambient temperature, shown by the dry-bulb thermometer and the difference in temperatures as shown by the wet-bulb and dry-bulb thermometers. Relative humidity can also be determined by locating the intersection of the wet and dry-bulb temperatures on a psychrometric chart. The dry and wet thermometers coincide when the air is fully saturated, and the greater the difference the drier the air. Psychrometers are commonly used in meteorology, and in the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) industry for proper refrigerant charging of residential and commercial air conditioning systems.

Sling psychrometer
A sling psychrometer, which uses thermometers attached to a handle is manually spun in free air flow until both temperatures stabilize. This is sometimes used for field measurements, but is being replaced by more convenient electronic sensors. A whirling psychrometer uses the same principle, but the two thermometers are fitted into a device that resembles a ratchet or football rattle.

Chilled mirror dew point hygrometer
Dew point is the temperature at which a sample of moist air (or any other water vapor) at constant pressure reaches water vapor saturation. At this saturation temperature, further cooling results in condensation of water. Chilled mirror dewpoint hygrometers are some of the most precise instruments commonly available. They use a chilled mirror and optoelectronic mechanism to detect condensation on the mirror's surface. The temperature of the mirror is controlled by electronic feedback to maintain a dynamic equilibrium between evaporation and condensation, thus closely measuring the dew point temperature. An accuracy of 0.2 °C is attainable with these devices, which correlates at typical office environments to a relative humidity accuracy of about ±1.2%. Older chilled-mirrors used a metallic mirror that needed cleaning and skilled labor. Newer implementations of chilled-mirrors use highly polished surfaces that do not require routine cleaning.

More recently, spectroscopic chilled-mirrors have been introduced. Using this method, the dew point is determined with spectroscopic light detection which ascertains the nature of the condensation. This method avoids many of the pitfalls of the previous chilled-mirrors and is capable of operating drift free.

Chilled-mirrors remain the reference measurement for calibration of other hygrometers. This is due to their fundamental first-principle nature that refers to the core of condensation physics and measures temperature which is one of the fundamental units (Length, Time, Amount of substance, electric current, Temperature, Luminous intensity, Mass).

Capacitive
When cost, space, or fragility are important, other types of electronic sensors are used, at the price of lower accuracy. Capacitive hygrometers measure the effect of humidity on the dielectric constant of a polymer or a metal oxide. When calibrated, their accuracy at relative humidities between 5% and 95% is ±2% RH; uncalibrated, this is two to three times worse. Capacitive sensors are robust against effects such as condensation and temporary high temperatures, but subject to contamination, drift and aging effects. They are, however, suitable for many applications.

Resistive
In resistive hygrometers, the change in electrical resistance of a material due to humidity is measured. Typical materials are salts and conductive polymers. Resistive sensors are less sensitive than capacitive sensors – the change in material properties is less, so they require more complex circuitry. The material properties also tend to depend both on humidity and temperature, which means in practice that the sensor must be combined with a temperature sensor. The accuracy and robustness against condensation vary depending on the chosen resistive material. Robust, condensation-resistant sensors exist with an accuracy of up to ±3% RH (relative humidity).

Thermal
In thermal hygrometers, the change in thermal conductivity of air due to humidity is measured. These sensors measure absolute humidity rather than relative humidity.

Gravimetric
A gravimetric hygrometer extracts the water from the air (or other gas) and weighs it separately, for example by weighing a desiccant before and after it has absorbed the water. The temperature, pressure and volume of the resulting dry gas are also measured, providing enough information to calculate the amount of water per mole of gas.

This is considered the most accurate primary method of measuring absolute humidity, and national standards based on it have been developed in US, UK, EU and Japan. However, the inconvenience of using such devices means they are usually only used to calibrate less accurate instruments, called Transfer Standards.

Optical
An optical hygrometer measures the absorption of light by water in the air. A light emitter and a light detector are arranged with a volume of air between them. The attenuation of the light, as seen by the detector, indicates the humidity, according to the Beer–Lambert law. Types include the Lyman-alpha hygrometer (using Lyman-alpha light emitted by hydrogen), the krypton hygrometer (using 123.58 nm light emitted by krypton), and the differential absorption hygrometer (using light emitted by two lasers operating at different wavelengths, one absorbed by humidity and the other not).

Applications
Aside from greenhouses and industrial spaces, hygrometers are also used in some incubators, saunas, humidors and museums. They are also used in the care of wooden musical instruments such as pianos, guitars, violins, and harps which can be damaged by improper humidity conditions. Hygrometers play a big part in firefighting as the lower the relative humidity, the more vigorously fuels may burn. In residential settings, hygrometers are used to assist in humidity control (too low humidity can damage human skin and body, while too high humidity favors growth of mildew and dust mite). Hygrometers are also used in the coating industry because the application of paint and other coatings may be very sensitive to humidity and dew point.

Difficulty of accurate humidity measurement
Humidity measurement is among the most difficult problems in basic metrology. According to the WMO Guide, "The achievable accuracies [for humidity determination] listed in the table refer to good quality instruments that are well operated and maintained. In practice, these are not easy to achieve." Two thermometers can be compared by immersing them both in an insulated vessel of water (or alcohol, for temperatures below the freezing point of water) and stirring vigorously to minimize temperature variations. A high-quality liquid-in-glass thermometer if handled with care should remain stable for some years. Hygrometers must be calibrated in air, which is a much less effective heat transfer medium than is water, and many types are subject to drift so need regular recalibration. A further difficulty is that most hygrometers sense relative humidity rather than the absolute amount of water present, but relative humidity is a function of both temperature and absolute moisture content, so small temperature variations within the air in a test chamber will translate into relative humidity variations.

In a cold and humid environment, sublimation of ice may occur on the sensor head, whether it is a hair, dew cell, mirror, capacitance sensing element, or dry-bulb thermometer of an aspiration psychrometer. The ice on the probe matches the reading to the saturation humidity with respect to ice at that temperature, i.e. the frost point. However, a conventional hygrometer is unable to measure properly under the frost point, and the only way to go around this fundamental problem is to use a heated humidity probe.

Psychrometer calibration
Accurate calibration of the thermometers used is fundamental to precise humidity determination by the wet-dry method. The thermometers must be protected from radiant heat and must have a sufficiently high flow of air over the wet bulb for the most accurate results. One of the most precise types of wet-dry bulb psychrometer was invented in the late 19th century by Adolph Richard Assmann (1845–1918); in English-language references the device is usually spelled "Assmann psychrometer." In this device, each thermometer is suspended within a vertical tube of polished metal, and that tube is in turn suspended within a second metal tube of slightly larger diameter; these double tubes serve to isolate the thermometers from radiant heating. Air is drawn through the tubes with a fan that is driven by a clockwork mechanism to ensure a consistent speed (some modern versions use an electric fan with electronic speed control). According to Middleton, 1966, "an essential point is that air is drawn between the concentric tubes, as well as through the inner one."

It is very challenging, particularly at low relative humidity, to obtain the maximal theoretical depression of the wet-bulb temperature; an Australian study in the late 1990s found that liquid-in-glass wet-bulb thermometers were warmer than theory predicted even when considerable precautions were taken; these could lead to RH value readings that are 2 to 5 percent points too high.

One solution sometimes used for accurate humidity measurement when the air temperature is below freezing is to use a thermostatically controlled electric heater to raise the temperature of outside air to above freezing. In this arrangement, a fan draws outside air past (1) a thermometer to measure the ambient dry-bulb temperature, (2) the heating element, (3) a second thermometer to measure the dry-bulb temperature of the heated air, then finally (4) a wet-bulb thermometer. According to the World Meteorological Organization Guide, "The principle of the heated psychrometer is that the water vapor content of an air mass does not change if it is heated. This property may be exploited to the advantage of the psychrometer by avoiding the need to maintain an ice bulb under freezing conditions.".

Since the humidity of the ambient air is calculated indirectly from three temperature measurements, in such a device accurate thermometer calibration is even more important than for a two-bulb configuration.

Saturated salt calibration
Various researchers have investigated the use of saturated salt solutions for calibrating hygrometers. Slushy mixtures of certain pure salts and distilled water have the property that they maintain an approximately constant humidity in a closed container. A saturated table salt (sodium chloride) bath will eventually give a reading of approximately 75%. Other salts have other equilibrium humidity levels: Lithium chloride ~11%; Magnesium chloride ~33%; Potassium carbonate ~43%; Potassium sulfate ~97%. Salt solutions will vary somewhat in humidity with temperature and they can take relatively long times to come to equilibrium, but their ease of use compensates somewhat for these disadvantages in low precision applications, such as checking mechanical and electronic hygrometers.

title: Hygrometer


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Nikolay Bobrikov

Nikolay Ivanovich Bobrikov (Николай Иванович Бобриков; 27 January 1839 – 17 June 1904) was a Russian general and politician. He was the Governor-General of Finland and the Finnish Military District from 29 August 1898 until his death, during the early reign of Emperor Nicholas II, and was responsible for the Russification of Finland. After appointment as the governor-general, he quickly became very unpopular and was assassinated by Eugen Schauman, a Finnish nationalist born in Kharkiv.

Early life
Bobrikov's father Ivan Vasileyvich Bobrikov (1798–1883) was a military physician who had risen to the status of a member of the scientific council of the military medical board. His mother was the Baltic German Alexandra Seeland.

Nikolay Ivanovich Bobrikov was born on January 15, 1839 in the village of Strelna near Saint Petersburg and attended the 1st Cadet Corps. Upon graduation, he became a lieutenant and served in the Russian Imperial Guard. After which he served in the Kazan Military District and as divisional chief-of-staff in Novgorod. He became a colonel in 1869. A year later he was transferred to Saint Petersburg for special duties in the imperial guard. This gave Bobrikov access to the imperial court. In 1878 he became a major general.

Bobrikov was married in Kazan in 1867 to Olga Petrovna Leontyeva. The couple had five children. After Olga's death in 1895 Bobrikov was married again to Elizabeth (Yelizaveta Ivanovna) Staël von Holstein, the daughter of a general. The couple had a daughter. Bobrikov's only surviving son Nikolay Nikolayevich Bobrikov (1882–1956) followed in his father's footsteps and was promoted to colonel. One of Bobrikov's sons-in-law was the Norwegian-born Finnish officer Johannes Holmsen, who was later promoted to lieutenant general. Bobrikov was an energetic and capable man whose views were strongly Russian nationalistic.

Bobrikov's daughter Lionbow Bobrikoff-Holmsen (1880–1939) was a lady-in-waiting at the imperial court in Saint Petersburg. She married the Norwegian-born general of the Russian army Johannes Holmsen. In the early days of World War I, Holmsen was captured by the Germans but later got to live in Norway, where he died after the Russian Revolution. His spouse escaped over the border to Sweden with her children after the revolution. They later lived as refugees in London, Berlin and Paris. Lionbow Bobrikoff-Holmsen died in Paris on 23 January 1939.

Military career
Nikolay Bobrikov was promoted to an officer after finishing cadet school in 1858. He later got a degree at the Nikolay general staff academy, after which he was appointed to the general staff of the Kazan military district. From 1867 he served as the chief of staff at the 22nd infantry division in Novgorod. In 1869 he was promoted to colonel. In 1876 he was sent to Bucharest, Romania as the Russian military official and in 1878 he was promoted to major general during the Russo-Turkish War.

in 1889, Emperor Alexander II of Russia appointed Bobrikov as a member of the special committee (Verhovnaya Rasporyaditelnaya Komissiya) led by Mikhail Loris-Melikov. The mission of the committee was to fight against the revolutionaries. Bobrikov was actively involved in investigating the bomb strike held at the Winter Palace in 1880. In 1884 he was promoted to lieutenant general and he became the chief of staff of the guard and of the Saint Petersburg military district. He was promoted to general of the infantry in 1897.

Governor-General of Finland
In 1898, Tsar Nicholas II appointed Bobrikov as the Governor-General of Finland as well as the Finnish Military District.

Upon appointment, he introduced a Russification programme into the Grand Duchy, the 11 main points were:

 * Unification of the Finnish army.
 * Restricting the power of the Minister–Secretary of State.
 * Introducing of a special programme for dealing with cases common to the empire and the grand duchy.
 * Adoption of the Russian language as the official language of the Senate, education and administration.
 * Bringing the University of Helsinki and secondary schools under tighter control of the Russian authorities.
 * Allowing Russian citizens to hold offices in Finland.
 * Discontinuation of the Finnish markka.
 * Removal of the customs border between Finland and Russia, as well as merging the Finnish Customs into that of Russia.
 * Introduction of Russian newspapers into Finland to spread the official viewpoint of the Russian government.
 * Redesign of the festive celebrations of the Diet of Finland.
 * Redesign of the directive of the Governor-General of Finland.

Bobrikov quickly became very unpopular and hated in Finland as he was an adamant supporter of the curtailing of the grand duchy's extensive autonomy, which had in the late 1800s come into conflict with Russian ambitions of a unified and indivisible Russian state. In 1899, Nicholas II signed the "February Manifesto" which marked the beginning of the first "Years of Oppression" (sortovuodet) from the traditional Finnish perspective. In this manifesto the tsar decreed that the Diet of the Estates of Finland could be overruled in legislation if it was in Russian imperial interest. Half a million Finns, considering the decree a coup against the Finnish constitution, signed a petition to Nicholas II, requesting to revoke the manifesto. The tsar did not even receive the delegation bringing the petition.

In 1900, Bobrikov issued orders that all correspondence between government offices was to be conducted in Russian and that education in the Russian language was to be increased in schools. The Finnish army was abolished in 1901, and Finnish conscripts could now be forced to serve with Russian troops anywhere in the Russian empire. To the first call-up in 1902, only 42% of the conscripts showed up. In 1905, conscription in Finland was abolished since Finns were seen as unreliable. In 1903, Bobrikov was given dictatorial powers by the tsar so that he could dismiss government officials and close newspapers.

Interview on 1 March 1899
Journalist Valfrid Spångberg of the Swedish newspaper Aftonbladet visited Bobrikov on 1 March 1899 to ask a few questions about the February Manifesto.

Spångberg: "How does Your Highness find the Finns and conditions in Finland, better or worse than what you had expected?"

Bobrikov: "Neither. The view I had had earlier about this has generally strengthened. The internal order in Finland is excellent, and the Finns are a lawful and patriotic people, which I greatly respect, as I do the Senate and the Estates. But their point of view and mine differ in many parts. As soon as they come to realise that the Russian government means the best for them I will be convinced we will get along perfectly."

Spångberg: "How does the Finnish press do its duty?"

Bobrikov: "Not to my full satisfaction. I am a friend of the press, but the Finnish newspapers are accustomed to a way of speaking that I cannot accept, and they present views which I feel cannot do anything else than spread discomfort and cause damage. It is not the place of the press to comment negatively on the actions of the highest authorities."

Bobrikov and the February Manifesto
Bobrikov was involved in creating the February Manifesto, which became a cornerstone for systematic Russification of Finland. Because of this, the Finns gathered the Great Petition bearing the names of half a million Finns. The petition took Bobrikov by complete surprise and he was angry that such an act had been undertaken, he viewed the entire petition as illegal. After the publication of the manifesto Bobrikov said: "All people in Finland who are capable of thinking are satisfied with the Emperor's manifesto." To support his opinions in Finland, in 1900 Bobrikov founded the Russian-language newspaper Finlandskaya Gazeta funded with government support, whose early issues were also published in Finnish under the name Suomen Sanomat.

Russian peddlers and rumours of land redistribution
As Governor-General of Finland, Bobrikov sought to get the landless people and the poor in Finland on his side. However, the Finns did not trust Bobrikov's promises, but instead thought it was a plot. About 1000 to 2000 "laukkuryssäs" ("bag Russians"), meaning peddlers from White Karelia, circulated the country, spreading rumours of how excellently Russia had handled things for the landless people and for the farmers. They said that land redistribution for free would begin soon. These rumours started appearing more and more often since February 1899. To combat this, the labour movement, youth societies and students such as Eugen Schauman started educating people about what the circumstances in Russia were really like. The Porvoo-based newspaper Uusimaa claimed that the rumours had originated from the Moskovskiye Vedomosti secret Finnish correspondent P. I. Messarosch. In 1897 he had published a book, according to which Finland should be assimilated into the Russian Empire, and he acted as an informant to Bobrikov. Messarosch left Finland in spring 1900.

The Swedish journalist Valfrid Spångberg said that the Russians had sent agents into the midst of the landless people in Finland, such as they had already done to other states around the Baltic Sea, when they had tried to coax people into converting to the Orthodox faith. The jurist professor Wilhelm Chydenius wrote that Bobrikov was responsible for spreading the rumours. The Finlandskya Gazeta claimed in 1900 that only the Russian officials were true friends of the Finnish peasants. According to Senator Gripenberg, the agitation done by the Russian peddlers was an act of purposeful spreading of distrust between the different social classes in Finland. In Finland people generally did not trust the Russian peddlers, except possibly in the countryside. By Bobrikov's initiative, a law was passed on 2 July 1900 making the Russian peddler trade legal.

Assassination

On June 16, 1904, Bobrikov was assassinated by Eugen Schauman in Helsinki. Schauman shot Bobrikov three times and then himself twice. Schauman died instantly, while Bobrikov, mortally wounded, died at the hospital in the early hours of the following morning. It was described as the following (Old Style dates): "On June 3, at 11:00 am, in the Senate building on the second floor staircase, an attempt was made on the life of the Finnish governor-general and commander of the troops, Adjutant-General N. I. Bobrikov; an official of the main school management in Finland and a former employee of the Senate, the son of a former senator, Yevgeny Shauman fired three shots at the governor-general. One bullet hit the neck is not dangerous, another contusil, hitting the order, the third - in the stomach. On giving first aid to a Russian doctor, the governor-general was moved home. Doctors recognized the need to produce an early operation. The wounded man took communion. After the abdomen, the bullet was removed. Many blood clots have been found; part of the small intestine wounded by the bullet was removed. The wounded man died quietly on the night of June 4th. The criminal shot himself on the spot."

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title: Nikolay Bobrikov


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William B. Travis

William Barret "Buck" Travis (August 1, 1809 – March 6, 1836) was a 19th-century American lawyer and soldier. He is known for helping set the Texas Revolution in motion during the Anahuac disturbances and commanding the Misión San Antonio de Valero (aka "The Alamo") as a lieutenant colonel in the Texian Army.

During the Alamo siege, Travis wrote a letter pleading for reinforcements that became known as the "Victory or Death" letter. It is considered one of the most notable documents in American history. When Travis and the defenders were defeated, killed, and burned by Santa Anna's army, it made him a martyr, and battle cry, for the cause of Texas independence. It is considered one of the most notable last stands in history. The battle cry of "Remember the Alamo" became the official motto of Texas from 1836 to 1930 and remains on the state seal. The Alamo is the number one tourist destination in Texas, a National Landmark, and a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Fort Travis, Travis Park, Travis County, Lake Travis, Travis High School, Travis Early College High School, Travis Science Academy, William B. Travis Building (Austin), and 12 elementary schools are named in his honor.

Ancestry, early years, and education
Travis's grandfather, Berwick (also known as Barrett) Travis, came to the British Colonies of North America at the age of 12, where he was placed in indentured servitude for more than a decade. Berwick's ancestors came to North America in the late 1600s, and Berwick's (Barrett's) grandfather was born in Perquimans, North Carolina, but went back to Great Britain for his medical training. A descendant of the Travers of Tulketh Castle in Preston, England, Berwick had a life that hardly resembled his ancestor's glory and wealth. After working his period of servitude, he traveled south to the colony of South Carolina, where he received a grant of over 100 acres of land in what is now Saluda County, South Carolina. A year later, he married Anne Smallwood, and they lived out their lives there. They had four daughters and three sons, including Mark Travis and the Baptist missionary Alexander Travis.

Mark Travis married Jemima Stallworth on June 1, 1808. She gave birth to William Barret Travis on August 1, 1809. Records differ as to whether his date of birth was the first or the ninth of August, but his youngest brother, James C. Travis, who was in possession of the Travis family Bible at the time of his statement, indicated that William was born on the first. Mark and Jemima had nine other children over the next twenty years.

Travis's uncle Alexander migrated to the new territory of Alabama following the War of 1812, settling in modern-day Conecuh County. He urged his brother and family to come join him, where he said that the land was cheap and easy to acquire, so Mark took his family, including young William, then age 9, to Alabama. They settled in the newly forming town of Sparta, where Mark Travis purchased the very first certificate from the Sparta Land company. Young Travis grew up in Sparta, and while his father tended to the farming, his uncle Alexander became prominent, organizing the Old Beulah Church (among other churches), preaching in neighboring counties and nearby Evergreen, Alabama, and leaving a strong influence on young Travis.

During that same time, Alexander also founded the Sparta Academy and served as its superintendent. Travis received his first formal education at the Sparta Academy, studying subjects ranging from Greek and Latin to history and mathematics. After a few years, Travis moved to the academy of Professor William H. McCurdy in Claiborne, Alabama.

After completing his education at the age of 18, Travis gained a position as an assistant teacher in Monroe County, a position he held for less than a year. He met a student, Rosanna Cato, to whom he immediately felt attracted and with whom he began a romantic relationship.

Life in Claiborne, ensuing debt and troubles
Eager to get away from farm life, Travis made his move to Claiborne permanent where he began studying law. Famed lawyer James Dellet accepted Travis as his apprentice. At that time, Claiborne was a major city in Alabama that was right next to the Alabama River, where trade and social life seemed to be miles ahead of the still-growing community of Sparta.

Mounting debt and failure
Travis and Cato married on October 26, 1828. Cato gave birth to their first son, Charlie, a year later, though there is evidence to support that Charlie was born out of wedlock or possibly even a year beforehand.

While still studying law under Dellet, Travis was eager to resume his professional career and to join the high ranks of Claiborne society. Travis started a newspaper, the Claiborne Herald, which, like many other newspapers of the day, published stories ranging from activities in Congress to stories of adventures across the world, local notices, advertisements and more. Travis essentially operated the newspaper himself, and while it provided a modest income during the first few months of operation, it was hardly enough to support himself, Rosanna and young Charlie. The financial stress led to carelessness at the Herald: advertisements were accidentally printed upside down, the type was not set properly in the printing press, letting words fall out of line, and advertisements that had expired were still published. He struggled to continue the paper, and though he asked for help, he received none.

On February 27, 1829, Travis passed his law examination and received permission to legally practice, so he borrowed $55.37 (~$ in ) to open a law office, as well as $90 earlier in the year to help pay for the Herald. Now in debt and with no practical income, he took in three boarding students, and to help Rosanna with the workload, he purchased two slaves. Maintaining the slaves increased his expenses, pushing Travis further into debt.

In 1829, the Herald's editions declined; only six issues were published in the fall when it was intended to be a weekly publication. It went from a newspaper to a two-sided sheet. Still, no one helped Travis with his newspaper, and by the end of that year, the Herald stopped being printed.

With hardly any law business coming in, the debts continued to mount. The earlier loans had never been paid, and more came - $192.40 in May 1829, $50.12 in June, and $50.00 in July. His law practice failed to attract any significant clients because men like Dellet continued to be trusted more than Travis. By the end of his law practice in Claiborne, he had had only six cases, and had received less than a total of $4.00. By the spring of 1831, his debt was $834 (~$ in ).

Dellet, along with others to whom Travis owed money, had no choice but to file suit for Travis's debts to be repaid. At one point during the suit, Travis filed a plea that the case be dismissed on the grounds of infancy (he was still considered a minor in many parts of Alabama). Dellet responded by forcing Travis to stand, yelling at the courtroom "Gentlemen, I make 'proofest' of this infant!". Travis stood humiliated in a courtroom filled with people who were roaring with laughter, and the Court's clerk issued orders for his arrest on March 31, 1831.

At some point during his time in Claiborne, Travis heard stories of Texas, which was then an outlying state in the First Mexican Republic. In Texas, there was a massive amount of land speculation and immigration, with settlers coming in from the United States and Europe. There was also a strong demand for lawyers to deal with the influx of immigrants and land dealings, so he quickly made the decision to go to Texas. He promised Rosanna (now pregnant with a second child) that, while in Texas, he would earn enough money to pay back all of his debts. Rosanna trusted him to eventually return or send for her and his children. He did neither. Travis avoided arrest and left for Texas.

Texas and the Anahuac disturbances
In May 1831, upon his arrival in Mexican Texas, a part of northern Mexico at the time, Travis purchased land from Stephen F. Austin, who appointed him counsel from the United States.

He set up a law practice in Anahuac and helped start a militia to oppose Mexican rule. He subsequently became a pivotal figure in the Anahuac Disturbances.

The Anahuac disturbances were conflicts that came shortly before the Texas Revolution and were the result of tensions between the Mexican government and Texian militias.

The first disturbance in 1832 was triggered by a dispute around the ownership of escaped slaves that the Mexican brigadier general Juan Davis Bradburn was keeping safe in his compound in Galveston, as well as Bradburn's suspicions around the militia that Travis was part of. In 1832, the slaveowner hired Travis to represent him and try to get the slaves back. He was arrested twice by Bradburn, including for suspicion of sending a threatening letter to Bradburn. Bradburn himself was convinced that Austin was part of a plot to revolt against Mexican rule. When an Anglo-Texian militia came to free Travis, he encouraged them to attack the Mexicans during the negotiation, despite Bradburn threatening to shoot Travis if the militia attacked. While Austin was freed in the negotiation, there was a short conflict that led to six deaths and the Turtle Bayou Resolutions.

A second dispute arose on June 27, 1835, when tensions escalated following anti-tax protests by the Texians, and the organization of a group known as the Citizens of Texas.

Two men of the group, Briscoe and Harris, organized a stunt to test the tax laws and were arrested by Mexican commander Capt. Antonio Tenorio. The soldiers escorting Harris and Briscoe shot and wounded another Texian, young William Smith.

When news of the arrests was heard in San Felipe de Austin, political chief Peter Miller authorized Travis to gather a Texian Militia for a response. Travis commandeered a vessel at Harrisburg, and sailed for Anahuac. His 25-man force quickly gained surrender of the more than 40 Mexican troops. After disarming them, Travis and the company freed the Texians and expelled the Mexican troops.

Because Travis had acted without broad community support, he apologized to avoid endangering Stephen F. Austin who was in Mexico City at the time. Later that summer, Mexican military authorities demanded the surrender of Travis for military trial, but the colonists opposed this.

The Texas Revolution and the Alamo
Travis was commissioned as a lieutenant colonel of the Legion of Cavalry and became the chief recruiting officer for a new regular Texian army. Governor Henry Smith ordered Travis to raise a company of professional soldiers to reinforce the Texians who were then under the command of James C. Neill at the Alamo Mission in San Antonio. Travis considered disobeying his orders, writing to Smith: "I am willing, nay anxious, to go to the defense of Bexar, but sir, I am unwilling to risk my reputation ... by going off into the enemy's country with such little means, so few men, and with them so badly equipped." James Bowie arrived at the Alamo with 30 men on January 19, 1836. On February 3, Travis arrived in San Antonio with eighteen regulars as reinforcements. A compromise was reached between Bowie and Travis for command of the Alamo, with Bowie in command of the volunteers and Travis in command of the regulars. When Bowie's health began to fail the compromise became irrelevant, and Travis became the official commander of the Alamo garrison. On March 6, 1836, following a thirteen-day siege, Santa Anna ordered the assault on the Alamo during the predawn hours. Travis died fighting to the end, and his remains were burned along with all the other Alamo defenders.

Travis's "Victory or Death" letter from the Alamo

On February 24, 1836, during Santa Anna's siege of the Alamo, Travis wrote a letter addressed "To the People of Texas and All Americans in the World":

Fellow citizens and compatriots; I am besieged, by a thousand or more of the Mexicans under Santa Anna. I have sustained a continual Bombardment and cannonade for 24 hours and have not lost a man. The enemy has demanded a surrender at discretion, otherwise, the garrison are to be put to the sword, if the fort is taken. I have answered the demand with a cannon shot, and our flag still waves proudly from the walls. I shall never surrender or retreat. Then, I call on you in the name of Liberty, of patriotism and everything dear to the American character, to come to our aid, with all dispatch. The enemy is receiving reinforcements daily and will no doubt increase to three or four thousand in four or five days. If this call is neglected, I am determined to sustain myself as long as possible and die like a soldier who never forgets what is due to his own honor and that of his country. VICTORY or DEATH.
 * William Barret Travis
 * Lt. Col. Comdt.

P.S. The Lord is on our side. When the enemy appeared in sight we had not three bushels of corn. We have since found in deserted houses 80 or 90 bushels and got into the walls 20 or 30 head of Beeves.
 * Travis

He gave this letter to courier Albert Martin to deliver. The envelope that contained the letter was labeled "VICTORY or DEATH". The letter, while unable to bring aid to the garrison at the Alamo, did much to motivate the Texian army and helped to rally support in America for the cause of Texas independence. It also cemented Travis's status as a hero of the Texas Revolution.

Alleged burial
A year after the battle, acting upon orders from General Felix Huston, Colonel Juan Seguín oversaw the reclamation of the abandoned ashes of the Alamo defenders from three sites. On March 28, 1837, an official public ceremony was conducted to give a Christian burial to the ashes. It was believed they were buried in the vicinity of the Alamo, but their exact location was forgotten over time. When San Antonio's Cathedral of San Fernando was being renovated for a new altar during the Texas 1936 centennial, human remains believed to be those of the Alamo defenders were found. Because of discrepancies in various accounts in the ensuing century after the burial, public opinion was divided about whether or not these were the remains of the defenders. The recovered ashes were re-interred in a marble sarcophagus inside the cathedral, purportedly containing the bones of Travis, Crockett and Bowie, as well as others. Calls for DNA testing have not been acted upon.

Family
Travis married one of his former students, 16-year-old Rosanna Cato (1812–1848), on October 26, 1828. The couple stayed in Claiborne and had a son, Charles Edward, in 1829 and a daughter, Susan, in 1831. They were officially divorced by the Marion County courts on January 9, 1836, by Act no. 115. Rosanna married Samuel G. Cloud in Monroeville, Alabama, on February 14, 1836. They both died of yellow fever during an epidemic which afflicted the state in 1848.

Charles Edward Travis (1829–1860) was raised by his mother and her second husband. He won a seat in the Texas legislature in 1853. In 1855, he enlisted in the United States Army as a captain in a cavalry regiment (which was later renamed the 5th Cavalry Regiment (United States) commanded by Albert Sidney Johnston) but was discharged in May 1856 for "conduct unbecoming an officer and a gentleman," following an allegation that he had cheated at cards. He appealed the decision to no avail. He then turned to studying law, earning a degree from Baylor University in 1859. He died of consumption (tuberculosis) within a year and is buried in the Masonic Cemetery.

Susan Isabella Travis (1831–1868) was born after Travis had departed for Texas. Although her paternity has been questioned, Travis did name her as his daughter in his will. She married a planter from Chappell Hill, Texas. Their son, who died young, was William Barret Grissett, and their daughter was Mary Jane Grissett Davidson DeCaussey.

Legacy

 * Twelve elementary schools
 * 1836, Fort Travis
 * 1840, Travis County
 * 1870, Travis Park
 * 1891, Heroes of the Alamo Monument
 * 1936, Cenotaph by Pompeo Coppini
 * 1936, William B. Travis, Hall of Heroes at the Hall of State, by Pompeo Coppini
 * 1942, Lake Travis
 * 1953, Travis Early College High School
 * 1956, Travis Science Academy, Temple
 * 1971, William Barret Travis, THC Historical Marker #9135, Fort Anahuac Park
 * 1985, William B. Travis Building, Austin
 * 2003, “Victory or Death”, Statues of Heroes at The Alamo, by Glenna Goodacre
 * 2006, William B. Travis High School
 * 2007, “The Line”, Collin County Courthouse, by James N. Muir
 * 2019, William B. Travis Heritage Trail

title: William B. Travis