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User:CalRis25/Temp-Discussion-Misc

General recommendations
Example: alpha Delphini is listed by various as catalogues as follows: Simbad: m=3.771 as HR7906 (= Bright Star Catalogue): m=3.77 mit Sp=B9IV as HD196867: m=3.86 (photovisual magnitude) as HIP101958: m=3.77 (Johnson V System) as BD+15 4222: m=3.5 (estimated visual magnitude) as PPM138790: m=3.8 both HD and PPM claim that this star is B8 instead of B9 (the latter from XEphem) http://www.alcyone.de/SIT/ is a good starting point as it contains data for the bright stars (6.5m and brighter) from various catalogs (BSC/HR, a Variable Star Catalogue, SAO).
 * Which names of objects should be used (Bayer, Flamsteed, HD, BD etc.) inside articles? My recommendation:
 * Stars: if available use the Bayer-designation (e. g. alpha Delphini), otherwise use a designation in this order: Flamsteed (e. g. 15 Del), HD (e. g. HD196867). If none of these is available, use any other designation at your discretion.
 * Nebulae: Messier-number if available otherwise an NGC-number. If none of these is available, use any other designation at your discretion.
 * Accuracy of values (how many decimal places?) for brightness. Should the value be rounded or simply truncated? My recommendation: no rounding and only 1 decimal place as the values in the different catalogues vary too much, e. g. 3.8, 12.3, -0.3
 * Double/Multiple star systems: mag?
 * Distances: light-years or parsec or both or depending on context?
 * Which catalogues/sources should be used to get values for brightness, distance, size etc.?
 * HR (Harvard Revised HR, Bright Star Catalogue BSC): for stars brighter 6.5m (includes spectral type)
 * HIP (Hipparcos Catalogue) and TYC (Tycho Catalogue): precise positions
 * PPM (for stars not included in the HR/BSC): includes spectral type
 * Other catalogues as is deemed necessary

Recommendations concerning constellation

 * Minimum information for stars mentioned in the "Notable Features"-section of the Constellation-articles. Should there be any minimum information? If yes which?
 * Spectral class: only e. g. O3 or O3-Ia?
 * Proper name if available: e. g. Betelgeuse, Rigel
 * Bayer-designation if available: e. g. alpha Delphini
 * Distance in light-years if near? If yes, what is "near"?
 * Should there be a minimum-magnitude for an object to be listed (in order to prevent listmania)?
 * Values for RA and Dec.: giving here ONE specific value is rather ambiguous as long as it isn't clearly stated which "point in space" is meant. Solutions:
 * Indicate its extension "RA: 20h13 to 21h06", "Dec: +2.2° to +20.8°" (see constellation section of "E-Sky" http://www.glyphweb.com/esky/default.htm)
 * State RA/Dec for the principal star of the constellation, i. e. the Alpha-star (not necessarily the brightest star).
 * "On meridian": giving the "exact" hour seems to me to be overdoing things. Giving a date would be more than enough for anybody to gauge if a constellation is "up" or not, wouldn't it?
 * Order of "Bordering Constellations": start at the north and then continue clockwise

title: User:CalRis25/Temp-Discussion-Misc


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Promise Keepers

Promise Keepers is an Evangelical Christian parachurch organization for men. It opposes same-sex marriage, and champions chastity and marital fidelity and the man as being head of the household.

Promise Keepers originated in the United States, but independent branches have also been established in Canada and New Zealand. It is a non-profit organization, not affiliated with any Christian church or denomination. Its most widely publicized events tend to be mass rallies held at football stadiums and similar venues.

History
Promise Keepers was founded in 1990 by Bill McCartney, then the head football coach at the University of Colorado Boulder. The organization was incorporated as a nonprofit in the state of Colorado on December 3, 1990.

What Makes a Man?, Promise Keepers' first hardbound book written for the organization, was published by The Navigators' Navpress publishing arm in 1992 for its first Folsom Field gathering in June of that year. James Dobson had McCartney on his Focus on the Family nationwide radio program that same month. McCartney resigned his coaching position in 1994 in order to focus his attention on the organization.

Promise Keepers' most notable event was its Stand in the Gap: A Sacred Assembly of Men open-air gathering at the National Mall in Washington, D.C., on October 4, 1997. C-SPAN carried the event live in its entirety. Attendance figures vary but have been estimated to be between 600,000 and 800,000. This was probably its peak, with the organization halving its office staff four months later due to financial problems and the admission fee of $60 for regional rallies dropped in a number of regions. Rally attendance and finances continued to suffer and a planned millennial march to take part at the capital of every state was cancelled.

Promise Keepers has at the same time extended its organization outside the United States, setting up Promise Keepers International which holds "Summit Meetings" in at least seven languages and has set up chapters in other countries.

McCartney resigned as president on October 1, 2003, after a personal leave of absence to take care of his ailing wife, who had a severe respiratory illness.

In April 2018, Promise Keepers announced that the appointment of a new chairman of the board, Ken Harrison. Harrison is also CEO of WaterStone Foundation, a Christian donor-advised fund. He is a former police officer with the Los Angeles Police Department.

Promise Keepers relaunch
Under Harrison's leadership, Promise Keepers then began a "relaunch" campaign with a new approach focused on having one stadium event per year and following up with Bible studies and other resources.

In May 2020, Promise Keepers announced that its relaunch event at AT&T Stadium would become an online virtual event in light of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Since moving their relaunch event at the AT&T Stadium in Arlington, Texas to a virtual platform, Promise Keepers has hosted a variety of live-streamed events and has a live, in-person AT&T Stadium event scheduled for July 16–17, 2021.

Doctrines
The Promise Keepers has been lauded for its Christian focus. However, the group has also been criticized for doctrinal compromises and inconsistent doctrines.

Raymond Hartwig, a former president of the South Dakota District of the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod, commented: "They use the Bible in a very simplistic form, as a springboard to jump into the law."

Homophobia
The Promise Keepers keep a central tenet of championing the exclusive legitimacy of hetero-sexual male behavior and decry homo-sexual behavior as abnormal. Promise Keeper founder, University of Colorado football coach Bill McCartney, called homosexuals "a group of people who don't reproduce, yet want to be compared with people who do reproduce," and maintains that he believes, "Homosexuality is an abomination of Almighty God."

Feminism
The National Organization for Women (NOW), an American feminist organization, has expressed the view that the Promise Keepers pose a threat to women's rights. NOW contends that the group encourages inequality within marriages and teaches a doctrine of male superiority.

In August, 2020, Promise Keepers chairman Ken Harrison spoke on the topic of Promise Keepers and how it relates to women. "We're really calling men to be humble, proactive leaders in their homes. I don't feel like it's my role to tell women how they should be. That is for their pastor and other people."

According to Amy Schindler, "the discourse of masculinity found within conservative religious movements, such as the Promise Keepers and the Victorian era movement 'muscular Christianity,' is inherently political. Any masculinity project aimed at restoring or reclaiming a 'traditional' male role for privileged white, heterosexual males has a political impact within the tapestry of class, race, and gender power" (1998). Academic Browyn Kara Conrad argued in a 2006 article that the organization reproduces problematic sexual scripts such as the Madonna/whore view of female sexuality and a view of the male sex drive as uncontrollable. A 2002 article from the Nordic Journal of Feminist and Gender Research argued that, despite their initial appearance to be pro-feminist, the Promise Keepers build upon patriarchal assumptions, including having the man as the actor in the family, church, and world, and that they expect women to be passively dependent.

Manhood
The organization places particular emphasis on godly manhood, with an emphasis on fatherhood. John Bartkowski saw Promise Keepers' leadership in 2000 as evoking two types of manhood: first, is an essentialist appeal to gender difference advocated by Edwin Louis Cole that emphasizes aggression, strength, and rationality; second, is Gary Oliver's "expressive manhood", which says that all of the traits now traditionally attributed to women were practiced by Jesus, and that men should re-connect with their sensitive side. According to a 1999 Yeshiva University study, when it comes to fatherhood, the organization tends to be more conservative, supporting heterosexist, male predominance in the family.

Race
Following the murder of George Floyd, Promise Keepers launched Promise 6 Sunday, an event aimed toward "building unity" among churches. The event included resources from various evangelical leaders and American public figures including Samuel Rodriguez, Tony Dungy, Alveda King, Donald Burgs, Jr., Chad Hennings, and Ken Harrison.

Patrick Glynn argues that the Promise Keepers succeed in racial reconciliation where politics has seemed to fail. Scholar Siphiwe Dube notes that the organization has open discussions of race that promote racial reconciliation. L. Dean Allen finds that while the organizations' leaders primarily claim that Satan is responsible for fostering racism in individuals and that the best way to counter racism is for people to personally repent and go to confession, PK participants see racism as a more multifaceted issue, citing historical animosity, economic differences, and racial fear. Further, while both leaders and participants see forming relationships with members of other races as important to battling racism, participants do not see PK events as valuable in developing these relationships. Andrea Smith also notes that race relations between Promise Keepers and Native communities is more open.

Books

 * Brickner, Bryan W. (1999). The Promise Keepers: Politics and Promises. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books. ISBN 978-0-7391-0008-0.
 * Bartkowski, John P. (2004). The Promise Keepers: Servants, Soldiers, and Godly Men. Piscataway, NJ: Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-3335-3.
 * Claussen, Dane S. (1999). Standing on the Promises: The Promise Keepers and the Revival of Manhood. Cleveland, OH: The Pilgrim Press. ISBN 978-0-8298-1307-4.
 * Claussen, Dane S. (2000). The Promise Keepers: Essays on Masculinity & Christianity. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-0700-2.
 * Hardisty, Jean V. (1999). Mobilizing Resentment: Conservative Resurgence from the John Birch Society to the Promise Keepers. Boston: Beacon Press. ISBN 978-0-8070-4316-5.
 * Novosad, Nancy (2000). Promise Keepers: Playing God. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 2000.
 * Williams, Rhys H. (2001). Promise Keepers and the New Masculinity: Private Lives and Public Morality. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books. ISBN 978-0-7391-0230-5.

Other

 * Anderson, Connie (1997). "Visions of Involved Fatherhood: Pro-Feminists and 'Promise Keepers.'" Paper, annual meeting, American Sociological Association, Toronto.
 * Bellant, Russ (1995). "Promise Keepers: Christian Soldiers for Theocracy". In Berlet, Chip. Eyes Right: Challenging the Right Wing Backlash. Boston: South End Press. p. 81–85. ISBN 978-0-89608-523-7. Also available at publiceye.org.
 * Berkowitz, Bill (1996). "Promise Keepers: Brotherhood and Backlash." Culture Watch, September (1,4).
 * Conason, Joe, Alfred Ross, and Lee Cokorinos (October 7, 1996). "The Promise Keepers Are Coming: The Third Wave of the Religious Right". The Nation.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Promise Keepers


text:
TMI

TMI may refer to:

Organizations

 * TMI Associates, a Japanese law firm
 * TMI Episcopal, formerly Texas Military Institute, a preparatory school affiliated with the Episcopal Church
 * Taiwan Music Institute, a musical institute in Taiwan
 * Teen Missions International, an interdenominational mission organization based in Florida
 * Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station, a nuclear power station in Pennsylvania, USA
 * Time Module (TMI), a member of the Seiko Group, manufacturer of watch movements
 * Toastmasters International, an international public speaking organization
 * Tolani Maritime Institute, a Merchant Navy training institute
 * The Monroe Institute, a nonprofit education and research organization
 * Thomas More Institute, a secular academic institution located in Montreal, Quebec, Canada

Science

 * Trans-Mars injection, a propulsive maneuver used to set a spacecraft on a trajectory which will cause it to arrive to Mars
 * Transmarginal inhibition, a mental response to extreme stresses or pain
 * Trimethylindium, the most preferred metalorganic indium source for the MOCVD of Compound Semiconductors

Other uses

 * TMI, abbreviation for "Too much information", indicating information overload or excessively personal information
 * "T.M.I." (South Park), a 2011 episode
 * TMI Mudlib (TMI or TMI-2), online game software named for The Mud Institute
 * The Mortal Instruments, a series of books by Cassandra Clare
 * Sam & Mark's TMi Friday, previously called TMi, a Saturday morning show on CBBC
 * Ton-mile or tmi, a unit of freight transportation quantity
 * Tumlingtar Airport, an airport serving Tumlingtar, a city in Nepal
 * "TMI" a song by Joan Jett and the Blackhearts from the 2013 album Unvarnished

title: TMI


text:
Ole Worm

Ole Worm (13 May 1588 – 31 August 1654), who often went by the Latinized form of his name Olaus Wormius, was a Danish physician, natural historian and antiquary. He was a professor at the University of Copenhagen where he taught Greek, Latin, physics and medicine.

Biography
Worm was the son of Willum Worm, who served as the mayor of Aarhus, and was made a rich man by an inheritance from his father. Ole Worm's grandfather Johan Worm, a magistrate in Aarhus, was a Lutheran who had fled from Arnhem in Gelderland while it was under Catholic rule.

Worm married Dorothea Fincke, the daughter of a friend and colleague, Thomas Fincke. Fincke was a Danish mathematician and physicist, who invented the terms 'tangent' and 'secant' and taught at the University of Copenhagen for more than 60 years. Through Fincke, Worm became connected to the powerful Bartholin family of physicians, and later theologians and scientists, that dominated the University of Copenhagen throughout the 17th and 18th centuries.

Ole Worm was something of a perpetual student: after attending the grammar school of Aarhus, he continued his education at the University of Marburg, studying theology in 1605. He received his doctor of medicine degree from the University of Basel in 1611, and received a master of arts degree from the University of Copenhagen in 1617. The rest of his academic career was spent in Copenhagen, where he taught Latin, Greek, physics, and medicine. He was personal physician to King Christian IV of Denmark. Somewhat remarkable for a physician of the time, he remained in the city of Copenhagen to minister to the sick during an epidemic of the bubonic plague, which led to his own death from the plague in 1654.

Scientific and cultural significance
In medicine, Worm's chief contributions were in embryology. The Wormian bones (small bones that fill gaps in the cranial sutures) are named after him.

Worm is known to have been a collector of early literature in the Scandinavian languages. He also wrote a number of treatises on runestones and collected texts that were written in runic. Worm received letters of introduction to the bishops of Denmark and Norway from the King of Denmark due to the king's interest and approval.

In 1626 Worm published his "Danish Chronology" (Fasti Danici) containing the results of his researches into runic lore; and in 1636 his "Runes: the oldest Danish literature" (Runir seu Danica literatura antiquissima), a compilation of transcribed runic texts. In 1643 his "Danish Monuments" (Danicorum Monumentorum) was published. The first written study of runestones, it is also one of the only surviving sources for depictions of numerous runestones and inscriptions from Denmark, some of which are now lost. An illustration of his pet bird, a great auk, survives as the only known illustration of a live member of the species, which is now extinct.

As a scientist, Worm straddled the line between modern and pre-modern. As an example, in a very modern, empirical mode, Worm determined in 1638 that the unicorn did not exist and that purported unicorn horns simply were from the narwhal. At the same time, however, he then wondered if the anti-poison properties associated with a unicorn's horn still held true, and undertook experiments in poisoning pets and then serving them ground up narwhal horn (his poisoning must have been relatively mild because he reported that they did recover).

Other empirical investigations he conducted included providing convincing evidence that lemmings were rodents and not, as some thought, spontaneously generated by the air (Worm 1655, p. 327), and also by providing the first detailed drawing of a bird-of-paradise proving that they did, despite much popular speculation to the opposite, indeed have feet like regular birds. Worm's primary use of his natural history collection was for the purpose of pedagogy.

Museum Wormianum
As a natural philosopher, Worm assembled a great collection of curiosities, which ranged from native artifacts collected from the New World, to taxidermed animals, to fossils, on which he speculated greatly. Museum Wormianum was the cabinet of rarities of the natural history cabinet established by Ole Worm in Copenhagen. It consists of minerals, plants, animals, and man-made objects.

Worm compiled engravings of his collection, along with his speculations about their meaning, into a catalog of his Museum Wormianum, published after his death in 1654. Museum Wormianum contained a detailed description of the natural history cabinet. The text is divided into four books; the first three dealing with minerals, plant and animal. The fourth detailed archaeological and ethnographic items.

In popular culture
The early twentieth century horror author H. P. Lovecraft mentions Olaus Wormius as having translated the fictional Al Azif  (commonly known as the Necronomicon) from Greek to Latin; however, he dates this translation 1228, four centuries before the historical Wormius's lifetime. Horror writer Anders Fager has elaborated this myth in several of his tales. Ole Worm appears in one of the Icelandic Sjón's novels From the Mouth of the Whale.

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Andean flamingo

The Andean flamingo (Phoenicoparrus andinus) is a species of flamingo native to the Andes mountains of South America. Until 2014, it was classified in genus Phoenicopterus. It is closely related to James's flamingo, and the two make up the genus Phoenicoparrus. The Chilean flamingo, Andean flamingo, and James' flamingo are all sympatric, and all live in colonies (including shared nesting areas).

Description
It is distinguished from other flamingos by its deeper lower mandible and the very long filtering filaments on the maxilla. It is the largest flamingo in the Andes and is one of the two heaviest living flamingos alongside the taller greater flamingo. Reportedly body mass of the Andean flamingo has ranged from 1.5 to 4.9 kg, height from 1 to 1.4 m and wingspan from 1.4 to 1.6 m.

The flamingo has a pale pink body with brighter upperparts, deep vinaceous-pink lower neck, breast, and wing coverts. It is the only flamingo species with yellow legs and three-toed feet. Its bill is pale yellow near the skull, but black for the majority of its length, and curves downward. Its lower mandible is less apparent than those of the genus Phoenicopterus.

Plumages
Juveniles present a uniformly pale gray plumage. It is often duskier on the head and neck. Coverts and scapulars can have darker brown centers. Meanwhile, adults are overall pale pink, with the feathers on the lower neck and chest being much brighter pink; coverts may be similarly bright pink. Head and upper neck may be a brighter pink than the rest of the body, which can appear almost white with only a pale pink wash, but head and pp upper neck never as bright as the lower neck and breast. Primaries and secondaries black, which when wings are folded, appear as bold black triangle that is not obscured by other feathers.

Fossil history
Fossils attributed to Andean Flamingo have been found at the Salar de Atacama border and roughly date to the Early Formative period, approximately 3,000 to 2,200 BP. These fossils date to a period consistent with the onset of modern climate conditions that the species now inhabits.

Feeding
These flamingos are filter feeders and their diet ranges over the entire spectrum of available foods, from fish to invertebrates, from vascular plants to microscopic algae.

The flamingos feed from the bottom layer of the lake for small particles, mainly diatoms. They have a deep-keeled bill; the upper mandible is narrower than the lower, creating a gape on the dorsal surface of the bill. The bill morphology facilitates feeding of diatoms through inertial impaction. This mechanism entails that food particles denser than water, such as diatoms, would impact the filtering surface in the bill, causing water to flow out of the mouth and leaving diatoms in the flamingo's bill. The flamingos forage in shallow salty waters for resources. They exhibit the most flexible foraging pattern compared to that of the Chilean and James's flamingos.

When grouping the Andean flamingos with Chilean flamingos or James's flamingos, Andean flamingos adopt the foraging patterns of the species with which it is grouped. Thus, when grouped with Chilean flamingos, they use a moderate and deep foraging depth strategy more than or the same as expected. If they are grouped with James's flamingos, they adopt the edge and the shallow foraging strategy. However, the overall foraging behavior of Andean flamingos remains unclear.

Vocalization
Very poorly known; the available recordings fall into three distinct call types, but specific information on function lacking. Peep a surprisingly high-pitched (c 2 kHz), short (c 0.1–0.2 s), clear note that sounds rather Passerine-like. Most often given in a quick series that slightly descends, but sometimes also singly. Quack a brief, rough nasal quack or honk-like note that can be given individually or in series. Lower-pitched and shorter in duration than the analogous call in Chilean Flamingo, but slightly higher-pitched than in James's Flamingo. Often heard in flight. Chuckle a quiet, conversational call made up of short, low-pitched quack-like notes. Lower-pitched and less nasal than the Quack call, and typically given in a faster series.

Distribution, habitat, and movements
This Andean flamingo is native to the wetlands of the high Andes mountain range from southern Peru to northwestern Argentina and northern Chile. Andean flamingos are migratory, with the ability to travel up to 700 miles in one day. In the summer, they live in salt lakes, and migrate to the lower wetlands for the winter. The cause of this migration from summer to winter is possibly due to the extreme aridity of salt flats during the winter. The path of migration is unknown, but it is thought to occur between the Chilean breeding grounds and the wetlands of central and western Argentina.

Breeding is concentrated in northern Chile, extreme southwestern Bolivia, and northwestern Argentina. During the nonbreeding season, some birds remain around the same wetlands where they bred, but others move to lower elevation wetlands and lakes, including east to the central plains of Argentina, and also north through the Andes to southern Peru.

Vagrant as far north as Conococha in central Peru, to the coast of Peru and northern Chile, to Amazonian Brazil, to southern Argentina, and to coastal southern Brazil.

Status and conservation
The Andean flamingo is considered a vulnerable species due to the mining business and human disturbances causing changes in its habitat.

Mining
The Andean flamingo's habitat is constantly changing due to human activity. The primary threat to the flamingo population is mining excavations, which occur at the end of the summer rainy season. The habitat of the Andean flamingo is rich in boron compounds, specifically borax. Borax is fairly toxic at high dosages to animals such as the Andean flamingo, but not to humans. Studies testing the effects of borax exposure in animals show that excess boron causes skeletal malformations, cardiovascular defects, and degeneration of testes. Borax is a derivative of boric acid; a study comparing the toxicology of borates determined that salts of boric acid produce comparable effects. A study on the mining environment determined as little as 5 g of borax can produce adverse effects in animal populations, but human workers remain unaffected at these levels. Therefore, the miners remain unaffected while the animals suffer from developmental and reproductive toxicity.

A study on Salinas Lake in Peru showed that mining companies have established themselves adjacent to the flamingos' nesting sites, and some mining is performed near flamingo breeding grounds and feeding sites. Flamingos abandoned their nesting sites if mining was initiated after the establishment of nesting colonies and in close proximity. An increase of hydrocarbon exploration resulted in a decreased success rate for breeding. Less than 1% of the flamingos observed were juveniles. The decreased reproductive success may be due to borax exposure or to an altered environment caused by bulldozers disturbing the lake bed. Mining creates a muddy environment, which entraps flamingos, thus increasing mortality. Surveys conducted on residents near the mining activities report sightings of dead flamingos exhumed by the bulldozers.

The extraction process also affects the water availability. Andean flamingos filter surface water for food, but borax mining pollutes this water. Along with the pollution, the extractions expedite the removal of lake moisture. By limiting the amount of water in the lake, mining companies can increase visibility, thus contributing to more optimal mining. A study comparing the correlation between water availability and flamingo population determined that the number of flamingos was strongly correlated to the proportion of water in the lake. With an insufficient food supply and a disturbed habitat, the decrease in offspring seems inevitable.

In Argentina, the rarest species of flamingo is primarily found in northern provinces (Salta, Catamarca, and Jujuy) during warmer months, as well as in low-lying areas of the central region, mainly Córdoba and Santa Fe. The National Mining Secretariat reports 38 lithium projects across the country, with 17 situated in the vast salt flats of Salta province.

Biologists and conservationists have raised concerns about the negative impacts of lithium brine extraction on areas where these birds reproduce and feed. This species, part of the flamingo family alongside the Andean and James's flamingos, has been classified as "vulnerable" by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.

Human disturbance
Not only are the flamingos' offspring numbers diminished by mining activities, but they are also affected by the egg collection by locals. This illegal hunting has increased over time due to an increase in international demand for flamingo eggs. Poaching is conducted by organized groups within Chile; the group members trap the flamingos and export them to Europe, the United States, and other overseas destinations. The exportation process in conducted mainly in the Altiplano, which is an area that has deep cultural roots in egg poaching. During the reproductive season, local families also take eggs from flamingo nests. The removal of eggs can disturb the nesting process and cause the flamingo to abandon its nest, even if some eggs remain. Egg removal might be acceptable if the local populations were malnourished, but studies on the diets of the local people show no protein deficiency. In the area of study, the common people raise llamas and alpacas, which offer a higher content of protein than flamingo eggs.

Alongside mining activities, unregulated tourism has taken its toll on the flamingos' habitat. Over time, numerous peat bogs have developed throughout the land. These bogs gradually build up and begin to overflow into the lake. When the bogs enter the lake, they decrease the surface area of the water and prevent the flamingos from entering the lake to feed. As a result of the mining and the tourism, new infrastructure, such as highways, are being built into the Andes. Highways now run alongside the flamingos' habitat. With the addition of these roads, accessibility to the flamingos' habitat increases, leading to more commercial mining and tourism, which in turn results in detrimental effects to the Andean flamingo population. The development of new infrastructure has caused severe fragmentation of the lake, diminishing the biodiversity, and increasing the possibility of extinction for all species.

The demand for surface and underground water, energy production, and transportation, as well as unregulated tourism, have all increased in the last two decades. These increases were documented to be most significant in Chile, the main location for Andean flamingo breeding colonies. As a consequence, these areas are concentrated with toxic compounds due to mineral and hydrocarbon exploration. Since the 1980s, the number of successful breeding colonies and the total production of chicks of Andean flamingos declined. As a result, the Andean flamingo is a threatened species.

Conservation plans
According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, the Andean flamingo is an "insufficiently known species". Thus, despite being negatively affected for at least the previous two decades, it was finally declared endangered in September 2010. In this announcement, it was stated that this flamingo would be protected under the Endangered Species Act of 1973. Most of the areas in which the flamingos reside, both in the summer and the winter, have been covered by the implementation of national parks. However, these parks are absent in habitats incurring changes. Thus, the main breeding grounds are still susceptible to outside disturbances that decrease the population of the flamingos. Because the Andean flamingo is a recent addition to the endangered species list, few plans have been implemented to protect their species. However, the National Institution of Natural Resources (http://www.nri.org/) is currently developing a plan. This group is working with conservationists to find a way to solve the problems of borate extraction and egg collecting and poaching. The plan consists of an environmental education strategy to inform businessmen, workers, villagers, and any other people who pose as a threat to the flamingos. Local authorities in the Salinas Lake district have created an outpost to prevent illicit actions and to find possible solutions to present problems. Creation of national parks has decreased the egg collecting; however, environmental education will be necessary to eliminate this activity.

The Flamingo Specialist Group, established in 1971, is actively trying to inform the public on the vulnerability of flamingos. They produce an annual newsletter to tell readers the current status of several species. In 2000, this group conducted a census that revealed a total population less than 34,000 Andean flamingos, giving them the label of most rare species. Recently, this group has joined sides with the International Union for Conservation of Nature to create an action plan for the flamingos. A meeting was held in Miami, Florida, in 2000 to develop a group to control an action place to protect the six species and subspecies of flamingos.

Under the auspices of the Convention on Migratory Species of Wild Animals, also known as the Bonn Convention, the Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) on the Conservation of High Andean Flamingos and their Habitats was concluded and came into effect on 4 December 2008. The MoU covers Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, and Peru. As of August 2012, Bolivia, Chile, and Peru have signed the MoU. The MoU aims to improve the conservation status of the species and their habitats through coordinated and concerted actions across the range.

title: Andean flamingo


text:
Talk:Promise Keepers

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article is or was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): BenBugajski.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 07:17, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

Untitled
Section removed which appears to be an acknowledged copyright infringement. jimfbleak

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Wow! This is a really good advertisement for Promise Keepers. (Mental note: need to expand on and NPOV this article. Please stand by.)  --MTR (严加华) 05:40, 17 Apr 2004 (UTC)

This Article Needs More On the Section Titled Beliefs
After visiting this article I find almost no information on what the promise keepers believe. Could someone add to that section? This article does not inform me at all.

Hotel room rentals
Where's the stuff about the Promise Keepers-event where a hotel saw a 600% increase in porn rentals during their conference? I'm trying to find out whether it's true or not, so if anybody can help me out I'd be thankful. Mastgrr 22:30, 23 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Probably because it never happened, though you obviously wish it did. FAF —Preceding unsigned comment added by 64.122.187.234 (talk) 14:34, February 17, 2006

Yea, I don't see why people get so upset about crap like that. This is clearly not an add - the person who wrote it if anything has a bias against it. Who cares, read it - take it for what it is. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 198.86.248.1 (talk) 10:21, March 27, 2006

thats a common type of urban legend.there are different varieties, like an increase in alcohol and condom sales in towns where Christian events are held. Rds865 (talk) 18:07, 13 April 2008 (UTC)

Witnessing History
I had the pleasure of attending several Promise Keepers events in the 1990s. My first was 1994 Indianapolis, where the dome sold out 62,500 seats, the largest at that time. It was the most amazing event of my life to that point. The singing was incredible, especially the hymn "Holy, Holy, Holy", and the speakers were right on target for issues that the average man was dealing with in his daily life. Also amazing was how all of us were fed box lunches in surounding parking lots in just 90 minutes; each lunch was half a chicken...that's over 30,000 chickens eaten in an hour and a half!

The greatest event in the 1990s had to be Stand in the Gap, the prayer meeting on the Washington Mall. I was there sitting on the north slope of the Washington Monument watching one of 11 jumbotrons. During the time there was singing and praying for our families and nation. Imagine if you will the sight of hundreds of thousands of men on their knees or laying prostrate on the lawn, many with tears of repentance in their eyes. It is a time I can never forget.

All in all, I attended six stadium events and the Washington Mall event and have been changed because of my involvement during that critical time in my life. I now have an eight year old son whom I hope to take to a Promise Keepers event in the next few years, with the goal that he will grow up to be a man who will keep his promises.

Larry Quicksall--216.176.81.47 02:05, 12 May 2005 (UTC)

Good page.
Thanks to whoever created this page! -- Promisekeeper2005 23:30, 24 October 2005 (UTC)

Weasel Words
"After more months of prayer, 72 men came together at Boulder Valley Christian Church in Boulder to organize" This paragraph holds no information. please rephrase. When did 72 men come together at Boulder Valley? Instead of "After more months of prayer ...", I'd wish for "On [date] ..." —Preceding unsigned comment added by 87.78.113.17 (talk) 21:12, July 17, 2006

Given that Promise Keepers is a men's movement, are there really people who criticise it's exclusion of women? Really? DJ Clayworth 17:11, 27 July 2006 (UTC)
 * It's possible. There are people who criticise the Boy Scouts for excluding girls. I suppose the best counter is to demand boys be allowed to join the Girl Scouts. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 72.67.93.133 (talk) 06:51, 11 April 2008 (UTC)

It is kinda crazy how much they hate it, but they do. Rds865 (talk) 18:10, 13 April 2008 (UTC)

There, hopefully that's less biased
I just did a major overhaul of this article, the guy who wrote the original article was obviously a Promise Keeper himself since he had nothing but glowing praise for the organization --Todeskaefer 21:16, 28 July 2006 (UTC) \

Whoever put that paragraph in about doctrines is obviously one of those arrogant types who feels that only his doctrine is correct. It is precisely this type of sectarian garbage that is the destroying the church in America today and driving away millions of men who are crying out for answers but are afraid of being judged or beat up because of disagreements on a few finer points. What does this person suggest? Interviewing everyone at the door and denying entry to anyone whose doctrine differs slightly from his? Has this person ever even been to a PK event? I've been to several of them and I can tell you that it's a beautiful thing to see thousands of men get together where love of Christ is the only thing that matters and doctrines, demoninations and socio-economic considerations get left at the door.

Also, I'm not sure where the comment about how it's wholly white and conservative came from, but the events I attended were in Florida and there were lots of minorities both on the stage and in the audience. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.193.252.225 (talk)  21:58, October 1, 2006

 * This is an encyclopedia and not a discussion forum or even a place to debate the correctness of doctrine. Since this type of criticism does exist in the public sphere covering it up is irresponsible. --JNZ 11:49, 14 October 2006 (UTC)

i changed the bit at the beginning because i thought it didnt fully explain the whole submission doctrine and felt it would confuse non Christians.

As far as i've understood and been taught women actually want to submit to a man (its part of their curse from eve, go ask a str8 girl if u dont beleive me) but its first the responsibility of a man to lay down his life the Bible says in a way that she will willingly do so.

Similar to how a Christian loves Christ because Christ first loved them and put his money were his mouth is on the cross. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Safetybutton (talk) 11:32, April 13, 2007
 * This is a good point in the discussion to ask a question. One that has nagged me for quite a while.  PK is a "Christian" organization, as stated and generally assumed.  If that is the case, why do the rally's feature prayers offered by Buddists, Native Americans, Muslims, Jews... etc... that's far from "Christian?" I am wondering if Unitarian or Universalist, Zorastian,  or BaHai might provide a better, clearer statement of faith than Christian?   Following doctrinal Christian thought (dogma) is one of "no other Name but Jesus" and "No other God but the Father of Jesus."  Perhaps I was a little perplexed when viewing a televised PK event in Washington DC which televised the prayer to several other gods.   The interesting point to me, which became immediately evident was the Unitarian bent along with a sort of Masonic order twist to it.  Again, I found it interesting, especially in light of what diverse denominational backing this organization has garnered over the years.   One writer persumes conservative backing, unitarian/masonic thought is far from conservative.  If traditionally conservative denominations are backing PK, it is probably in error, or perhaps hitching onto the tail of a comet hoping to gain a meteoric rise which would persumably further their public image and marketing strategies.  The only impression that I can take away from this, is that PK is teaching a doctrine which is all encompassing; Christianity doesn't perscribe to that reasoning, and PK and all the follow on groups supporting it should review there tenant documents and approach this, and other movements with a cautionary view of what is scriptural, and what isn't.  Followers of the Christian ethic would probably do better to stick with what is scriptural NT guidance rather than something as nebulous and off track as PK.  But that's just my 2cents. —Preceding unsigned comment added by  172.135.136.157 (talk)  10:32, May 29, 2007

_______________________________________________________________________________

"As far as i've understood and been taught women actually want to submit to a man (its part of their curse from eve, go ask a str8 girl if u dont beleive me)"

Uh, no. "Str8" girl here (I believe most people spell that "straight"?) And if you would ask me, I would tell you something much more truthful: that men WANT to believe that women want to submit to them, and men want to make women believe that they want to submit to them. Wanting to submit to someone and wanting someone to submit to you belongs solely to S&M. And if you're into that kind of thing, I won't judge you. But you should know what it is. You dirty bird.

Just thought I'd set you "str8" on this misconception. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Jdru (talk • contribs) 21:51, May 29, 2007

POV
This article seems to have had most of the substantial criticisms discarded, despite that fact that the Books and Other reference sections cite numerous critical books and aricles. I have tagged this entry for POV. It is basically one-sided.--Cberlet 03:29, 30 June 2007 (UTC)

No problems here
What I find interesting is what actually upsets woman regarding PK. It would appear that it is only the areas around PK encouraging woman to submit. Now whilst I am actually yet to hear a PK speaker say that, and regardless if they do as my wife is a free thinking individual who is encouraged by me to be her own woman, I find it disappointing to see that the woman who are so against PK cannot see past this one issue and look at the good the orginisation is doing around the world. It's a little like me seeing the word lesbian on the National Organization for Women website and go away thinking that all the readers are big fat ugly shemales who can't get a man so go for second best, not that I do think that. Come on, us Christians are forever told to get an open mind, how about taking a little of your own medicine. 203.89.184.91 07:00, 9 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Yeah, why can't they get over it? All they're being asked to do is give up their personal freedom and be treated as less than a human being by a man who thinks God justifies his actions! Come on, ladies! GET OVER IT! --70.178.212.159 (talk) 13:31, 7 May 2008 (UTC)
 * Oh, also, the lesbian thing was also ignorant and rude of you. It would be like someone saying "I saw the word 'Christian' on the Promise Keepers website and all I left with was the impression that they were misogynistic assholes who use their beliefs for their own personal benefit and never for the good of the community. The kinds of people who will fight wars and sign off on the murder of women and children if it's in the name of their God or patriotism. Not that I believe that, or anything." You see what I'm getting at here? --70.178.212.159 (talk) 13:31, 7 May 2008 (UTC)
 * I believe the point was that feminists seem to do exactly what you say here, assume that as an organization aimed largely at Christian men it's got to be full of misogynistic, power-crazed bigots who are trying to return women to their "proper place" inferior to men. This would indeed be similar to the assumption he suggested.  He wasn't saying that that's how he saw them, just that that's the negative stereotypes associated with them.  On a separate point, I'd like to see if there are any responses to criticisms and accusations, as I'm sure they've talked about public opinion.  I'm not part of PK, but as I've understood it's largely about trying to become worthy as men.  — Preceding unsigned comment added by 12.45.169.2 (talk) 18:09, 10 September 2013 (UTC)

I wonder when we're gonna get over the pissing match of masculinism and feminism and find some kind of egalitarian balance. Feminism is misandry, and masculinism is misogyny - both do a disservice to the race and the right of individuals to choose their own way. Mason.witt (talk) 00:09, 29 September 2009 (UTC)

rallies
It seems to me the core of the group is it's rallies. I am pretty sure, it is neither a lobbying group or another political organization. Therefore there should be more information on what happens at the rallies. I went to one, and there was a variety speakers, who spoke on several themes, how to be a good husband, how to be a good father, and how to be a good son. There was also worship and a concert by a band composed of father and sons. really the purpose is to make men better, not improve men's place in society. Their exclusion of women could be seen as similar to the exclusion of CEOs as a convention for plumbers. Rds865 (talk) 18:49, 13 April 2008 (UTC)
 * I don't think people are objecting to the exclusion of women in club membership. I think they are talking about how the organization wants women to be submissive to their husbands and views that sort of relationship as ideal.--70.178.212.159 (talk) 13:34, 7 May 2008 (UTC)

Nowhere have I ever heard that PK wants woman to be submissive! —Preceding unsigned comment added by 203.89.184.68 (talk) 23:02, 28 May 2009 (UTC)

What's the big deal?
This entry seems fine to me and in alignment with my search on Promise Keepers (which I am not). I have heard of PKs, but could not answer when my wife asked what it was. As an encyclopedia, this entry does a nice job. Are there arguments on scandals and doctrine, sure but that is not what PK seems to be about. Those types of arguments belong in articles not reference materials IMO. Similarly, descriptive text of Christianity should not seek to debate denominational doctrine. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 64.203.223.219 (talk) 01:36, 15 May 2008 (UTC)

Ecumenism
There should maybe be information on inclusion of Roman Catholics within Promise Keepers, since this has apparently been controversial among Protestant fundamentalists. It has also been addressed within the USCCB, which urges caution on the matter. . ADM (talk) 20:12, 27 January 2009 (UTC)

Promise Keepers Is A Cult
Why isn't Promise Breakers listed under cults? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 74.215.147.95 (talk)  02:05, June 17, 2009
 * Mainly because it isn't one! —Preceding unsigned comment added by 202.49.187.78 (talk)  00:59, June 23, 2009
 * Actually it is one. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 74.215.147.95 (talk) 11:45, 2 August 2009 (UTC)
 * Perhaps you should refer to 'cult' in your dictionary —Preceding unsigned comment added by 202.49.187.78 (talk) 00:13, 9 November 2009 (UTC)

Cult:
 * A system of religious veneration and devotion directed toward a particular figure or object.
 * A relatively small group of people having religious beliefs or practices regarded by others as strange or sinister.

Check, and check! Thanks for pointing out we can use a dictionary to find the definitions of words. Now we can clearly see PK is a cult. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 134.161.227.70 (talk) 21:04, 20 March 2012 (UTC)

Famous Promise Keepers
There should be a list of notable or famous Promise Keepers (celebrities, etc) in this article.
 * Sure, go ahead and add one, but you have to use reliable sources where the individuals identify as Promise Keepers, and they should already have articles to show that they are notable by our criteria. Dougweller (talk) 11:09, 6 August 2012 (UTC)

title: Talk:Promise Keepers


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Talk:Phaser

I just removed the speculation about what Phaser stands for. Unless there is any source for the comparison with Laser, let's take the Star Trek Encyclopedia as authoritative. DJ Clayworth

The reference for Lasr/Phaser naming is "The Making of Star Trek" Stephen E Whitfield. DJ Clayworth

It should be noted that the "vaporization" effect of phasers isnt the same as real-life vaporization. A person can stand next to an individual who is vaporized and not be burned (the sudden flash of heat would be enough to cause burns) or harassed in any way.

title: Talk:Phaser


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Social statistics

Social statistics is the use of statistical measurement systems to study human behavior in a social environment. This can be accomplished through polling a group of people, evaluating a subset of data obtained about a group of people, or by observation and statistical analysis of a set of data that relates to people and their behaviors.

History

Adolph Quetelet was a proponent of social physics. In his book Physique sociale he presents distributions of human heights, age of marriage, time of birth and death, time series of human marriages, births and deaths, a survival density for humans and curve describing fecundity as a function of age. He also developed the Quetelet Index.

Francis Ysidro Edgeworth published "On Methods of Ascertaining Variations in the Rate of Births, Deaths, and Marriages" in 1885 which uses squares of differences for studying fluctuations and George Udny Yule published "On the Correlation of total Pauperism with Proportion of Out-Relief" in 1895.

A numerical calibration for the fertility curve was given by Karl Pearson in 1897 in his "The Chances of Death, and Other Studies in Evolution" In this book Pearson also uses standard deviation, correlation and skewness for studying humans.

Vilfredo Pareto published his analysis of the distribution of income in Great Britain and Ireland in 1897, this is now known as the Pareto principle.

Louis Guttman proposed that the values of ordinal variables can be represented by a Guttman scale, which is useful if the number of variables is large and allows the use of techniques such as ordinary least squares.

Macroeconomic statistical research has provided stylized facts, which include:
 * Bowley's law (1937) regarding the proportion between wages and national output
 * The Phillips curve (1958) regarding the relation between wages and unemployment

Statistics and statistical analyses have become a key feature of social science: statistics is employed in economics, psychology, political science, sociology and anthropology.

Statistical methods in social sciences

Methods and concepts used in quantitative social sciences include:
 * Research design, survey methodology and survey sampling
 * Delphi method

Statistical techniques include:

Covariance based methods

 * Regression analysis
 * Canonical correlation
 * Causal analysis
 * Multilevel models
 * Factor analysis
 * Linear discriminant analysis
 * Path analysis
 * Structural Equation Modeling

Probability based methods

 * Probit and logit
 * Item response theory
 * Bayesian statistics
 * Stochastic process
 * Latent class model

Distance based methods

 * Cluster analysis
 * Multidimensional scaling

Methods for categorical data

 * Classification analysis
 * Cohort analysis

Usage and applications
Social scientists use social statistics for many purposes, including:
 * the evaluation of the quality of services available to a group or organization,
 * analyzing behaviors of groups of people in their environment and special situations,
 * determining the wants of people through statistical sampling
 * evaluation of wage expenditures and savings
 * preventing industrial diseases
 * prevention of industrial accidents
 * labour disputes, such as supporting the Anthracite Coal Strike Commission of 1902-1903
 * supporting governments in times of peace and war

Reliability
The use of statistics has become so widespread in the social sciences that many universities such as Harvard, have developed institutes focusing on "quantitative social science." Harvard's Institute for Quantitative Social Science focuses mainly on fields like political science that incorporate the advanced causal statistical models that Bayesian methods provide. However, some experts in causality feel that these claims of causal statistics are overstated. There is a debate regarding the uses and value of statistical methods in social science, especially in political science, with some statisticians questioning practices such as data dredging that can lead to unreliable policy conclusions of political partisans who overestimate the interpretive power that non-robust statistical methods such as simple and multiple linear regression allow. Indeed, an important axiom that social scientists cite, but often forget, is that "correlation does not imply causation."

title: Social statistics


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Email art

Email art refers to artwork created for the medium of email. It includes computer graphics, animations, screensavers, digital scans of artwork in other media, and even ASCII art. When exhibited, Email art can be either displayed on a computer screen or similar type of display device, or the work can be printed out and displayed.

Email art is an evolution of the networking Mail Art movement and began during the early 1990s. Chuck Welch, also known as Cracker Jack Kid, connected with early online artists and created a net-worker telenetlink. The historical evolution of the term "Email art" is documented in Chuck Welch's Eternal Network: A Mail Art Anthology published and edited by University of Calgary Press.

By the end of the 1990s, many mailartists, aware of increasing postal rates and cheaper internet access, were beginning the gradual migration of collective art projects towards the web and new, inexpensive forms of digital communication. The Internet facilitated faster dissemination of Mail Art calls (invitations), Mail Art blogs and websites have become commonly used to display contributions and online documentation, and an increasing number of projects include an invitation to submit Email art digitally, either as the preferred channel or as an alternative to sending contributions by post. In 2006, Ramzi Turki received an e-mail containing a scanned work of Belgian artist Luc Fierens, so he sent this picture to about 7000 e-mail addresses artists seeking their interactions in order to acquire about 200 contributions and answers.

title: Email art


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Unicellular organism

A unicellular organism, also known as a single-celled organism, is an organism that consists of a single cell, unlike a multicellular organism that consists of multiple cells. Organisms fall into two general categories: prokaryotic organisms and eukaryotic organisms. Most prokaryotes are unicellular and are classified into bacteria and archaea. Many eukaryotes are multicellular, but some are unicellular such as protozoa, unicellular algae, and unicellular fungi. Unicellular organisms are thought to be the oldest form of life, with early protocells possibly emerging 3.8–4.8 billion years ago.

Although some prokaryotes live in colonies, they are not specialised cells with differing functions. These organisms live together, and each cell must carry out all life processes to survive. In contrast, even the simplest multicellular organisms have cells that depend on each other to survive.

Most multicellular organisms have a unicellular life-cycle stage. Gametes, for example, are reproductive unicells for multicellular organisms. Additionally, multicellularity appears to have evolved independently many times in the history of life.

Some organisms are partially unicellular, like Dictyostelium discoideum. Additionally, unicellular organisms can be multinucleate, like Caulerpa, Plasmodium, and Myxogastria.

Evolutionary hypothesis
Primitive protocells were the precursors to today's unicellular organisms. Although the origin of life is largely still a mystery, in the currently prevailing theory, known as the RNA world hypothesis, early RNA molecules would have been the basis for catalyzing organic chemical reactions and self-replication.

Compartmentalization was necessary for chemical reactions to be more likely as well as to differentiate reactions with the external environment. For example, an early RNA replicator ribozyme may have replicated other replicator ribozymes of different RNA sequences if not kept separate. Such hypothetic cells with an RNA genome instead of the usual DNA genome are called 'ribocells' or 'ribocytes'.

When amphiphiles like lipids are placed in water, the hydrophobic tails aggregate to form micelles and vesicles, with the hydrophilic ends facing outwards. Primitive cells likely used self-assembling fatty-acid vesicles to separate chemical reactions and the environment. Because of their simplicity and ability to self-assemble in water, it is likely that these simple membranes predated other forms of early biological molecules.

Prokaryotes
Prokaryotes lack membrane-bound organelles, such as mitochondria or a nucleus. Instead, most prokaryotes have an irregular region that contains DNA, known as the nucleoid. Most prokaryotes have a single, circular chromosome, which is in contrast to eukaryotes, which typically have linear chromosomes. Nutritionally, prokaryotes have the ability to utilize a wide range of organic and inorganic material for use in metabolism, including sulfur, cellulose, ammonia, or nitrite. Prokaryotes are relatively ubiquitous in the environment and some (known as extremophiles) thrive in extreme environments.

Bacteria

Bacteria are one of the world's oldest forms of life, and are found virtually everywhere in nature. Many common bacteria have plasmids, which are short, circular, self-replicating DNA molecules that are separate from the bacterial chromosome. Plasmids can carry genes responsible for novel abilities, of current critical importance being antibiotic resistance. Bacteria predominantly reproduce asexually through a process called binary fission. However, about 80 different species can undergo a sexual process referred to as natural genetic transformation. Transformation is a bacterial process for transferring DNA from one cell to another, and is apparently an adaptation for repairing DNA damage in the recipient cell. In addition, plasmids can be exchanged through the use of a pilus in a process known as conjugation.

The photosynthetic cyanobacteria are arguably the most successful bacteria, and changed the early atmosphere of the earth by oxygenating it. Stromatolites, structures made up of layers of calcium carbonate and trapped sediment left over from cyanobacteria and associated community bacteria, left behind extensive fossil records. The existence of stromatolites gives an excellent record as to the development of cyanobacteria, which are represented across the Archaean (4 billion to 2.5 billion years ago), Proterozoic (2.5 billion to 540 million years ago), and Phanerozoic (540 million years ago to present day) eons. Much of the fossilized stromatolites of the world can be found in Western Australia. There, some of the oldest stromatolites have been found, some dating back to about 3,430 million years ago.

Clonal aging occurs naturally in bacteria, and is apparently due to the accumulation of damage that can happen even in the absence of external stressors.

Archaea

Hydrothermal vents release heat and hydrogen sulfide, allowing extremophiles to survive using chemolithotrophic growth. Archaea are generally similar in appearance to bacteria, hence their original classification as bacteria, but have significant molecular differences most notably in their membrane structure and ribosomal RNA. By sequencing the ribosomal RNA, it was found that the Archaea most likely split from bacteria and were the precursors to modern eukaryotes, and are actually more phylogenetically related to eukaryotes. As their name suggests, Archaea comes from a Greek word archaios, meaning original, ancient, or primitive.

Some archaea inhabit the most biologically inhospitable environments on earth, and this is believed to in some ways mimic the early, harsh conditions that life was likely exposed to. Examples of these Archaean extremophiles are as follows: Methanogens are a significant subset of archaea and include many extremophiles, but are also ubiquitous in wetland environments as well as the ruminant and hindgut of animals. This process utilizes hydrogen to reduce carbon dioxide into methane, releasing energy into the usable form of adenosine triphosphate. They are the only known organisms capable of producing methane. Under stressful environmental conditions that cause DNA damage, some species of archaea aggregate and transfer DNA between cells. The function of this transfer appears to be to replace damaged DNA sequence information in the recipient cell by undamaged sequence information from the donor cell.
 * Thermophiles, optimum growth temperature of 50 °C-110 °C, including the genera Pyrobaculum, Pyrodictium, Pyrococcus, Thermus aquaticus and Melanopyrus.
 * Psychrophiles, optimum growth temperature of less than 15 °C, including the genera Methanogenium and Halorubrum.
 * Alkaliphiles, optimum growth pH of greater than 8, including the genus Natronomonas.
 * Acidophiles, optimum growth pH of less than 3, including the genera Sulfolobus and Picrophilus.
 * Piezophiles, (also known as barophiles), prefer high pressure up to 130 MPa, such as deep ocean environments, including the genera Methanococcus and Pyrococcus.
 * Halophiles, grow optimally in high salt concentrations between 0.2 M and 5.2 M NaCl, including the genera Haloarcula, Haloferax, Halococcus.

Eukaryotes
Eukaryotic cells contain membrane bound organelles. Some examples include mitochondria, a nucleus, or the Golgi apparatus. Prokaryotic cells probably transitioned into eukaryotic cells between 2.0 and 1.4 billion years ago. This was an important step in evolution. In contrast to prokaryotes, eukaryotes reproduce by using mitosis and meiosis. Sex appears to be a ubiquitous and ancient, and inherent attribute of eukaryotic life. Meiosis, a true sexual process, allows for efficient recombinational repair of DNA damage and a greater range of genetic diversity by combining the DNA of the parents followed by recombination. Metabolic functions in eukaryotes are more specialized as well by sectioning specific processes into organelles.

The endosymbiotic theory holds that mitochondria and chloroplasts have bacterial origins. Both organelles contain their own sets of DNA and have bacteria-like ribosomes. It is likely that modern mitochondria were once a species similar to Rickettsia, with the parasitic ability to enter a cell. However, if the bacteria were capable of respiration, it would have been beneficial for the larger cell to allow the parasite to live in return for energy and detoxification of oxygen. Chloroplasts probably became symbionts through a similar set of events, and are most likely descendants of cyanobacteria. While not all eukaryotes have mitochondria or chloroplasts, mitochondria are found in most eukaryotes, and chloroplasts are found in all plants and algae. Photosynthesis and respiration are essentially the reverse of one another, and the advent of respiration coupled with photosynthesis enabled much greater access to energy than fermentation alone.

Protozoa

Protozoa are largely defined by their method of locomotion, including flagella, cilia, and pseudopodia. While there has been considerable debate on the classification of protozoa caused by their sheer diversity, in one system there are currently seven phyla recognized under the kingdom Protozoa: Euglenozoa, Amoebozoa, Choanozoa sensu Cavalier-Smith, Loukozoa, Percolozoa, Microsporidia and Sulcozoa. Protozoa, like plants and animals, can be considered heterotrophs or autotrophs. Autotrophs like Euglena are capable of producing their energy using photosynthesis, while heterotrophic protozoa consume food by either funneling it through a mouth-like gullet or engulfing it with pseudopods, a form of phagocytosis. While protozoa reproduce mainly asexually, some protozoa are capable of sexual reproduction. Protozoa with sexual capability include the pathogenic species Plasmodium falciparum, Toxoplasma gondii, Trypanosoma brucei, Giardia duodenalis and Leishmania species.

Ciliophora, or ciliates, are a group of protists that utilize cilia for locomotion. Examples include Paramecium, Stentors, and Vorticella. Ciliates are widely abundant in almost all environments where water can be found, and the cilia beat rhythmically in order to propel the organism. Many ciliates have trichocysts, which are spear-like organelles that can be discharged to catch prey, anchor themselves, or for defense. Ciliates are also capable of sexual reproduction, and utilize two nuclei unique to ciliates: a macronucleus for normal metabolic control and a separate micronucleus that undergoes meiosis. Examples of such ciliates are Paramecium and Tetrahymena that likely employ meiotic recombination for repairing DNA damage acquired under stressful conditions.

The Amebozoa utilize pseudopodia and cytoplasmic flow to move in their environment. Entamoeba histolytica is the cause of amebic dysentery. Entamoeba histolytica appears to be capable of meiosis.

Unicellular algae

Unicellular algae are plant-like autotrophs and contain chlorophyll. They include groups that have both multicellular and unicellular species:
 * Euglenophyta, flagellated, mostly unicellular algae that occur often in fresh water. In contrast to most other algae, they lack cell walls and can be mixotrophic (both autotrophic and heterotrophic). An example is Euglena gracilis.
 * Chlorophyta (green algae), mostly unicellular algae found in fresh water. The chlorophyta are of particular importance because they are believed to be most closely related to the evolution of land plants.
 * Diatoms, unicellular algae that have siliceous cell walls. They are the most abundant form of algae in the ocean, although they can be found in fresh water as well. They account for about 40% of the world's primary marine production, and produce about 25% of the world's oxygen. Diatoms are very diverse, and comprise about 100,000 species.
 * Dinoflagellates, unicellular flagellated algae, with some that are armored with cellulose. Dinoflagellates can be mixotrophic, and are the algae responsible for red tide. Some dinoflagellates, like Pyrocystis fusiformis, are capable of bioluminescence.

Unicellular fungi

Unicellular fungi include the yeasts. Fungi are found in most habitats, although most are found on land. Yeasts reproduce through mitosis, and many use a process called budding, where most of the cytoplasm is held by the mother cell. Saccharomyces cerevisiae ferments carbohydrates into carbon dioxide and alcohol, and is used in the making of beer and bread. S. cerevisiae is also an important model organism, since it is a eukaryotic organism that is easy to grow. It has been used to research cancer and neurodegenerative diseases as well as to understand the cell cycle. Furthermore, research using S. cerevisiae has played a central role in understanding the mechanism of meiotic recombination and the adaptive function of meiosis. Candida spp. are responsible for candidiasis, causing infections of the mouth and/or throat (known as thrush) and vagina (commonly called yeast infection).

Macroscopic unicellular organisms
Most unicellular organisms are of microscopic size and are thus classified as microorganisms. However, some unicellular protists and bacteria are macroscopic and visible to the naked eye. Examples include:
 * Brefeldia maxima, a slime mold, examples have been reported up to a centimetre thick with a surface area of over a square metre and weighed up to around 20 kg
 * Xenophyophores, protozoans of the phylum Foraminifera, are the largest examples known, with Syringammina fragilissima achieving a diameter of up to 20 cm
 * Nummulite, foraminiferans
 * Valonia ventricosa, an alga of the class Chlorophyceae, can reach a diameter of 1 to 4 cm
 * Acetabularia, algae
 * Caulerpa, algae, may grow to 3 metres long
 * Gromia sphaerica, amoeba, 5 to 38 mm
 * Thiomargarita magnifica is the largest bacterium, reaching a length of up to 20 mm
 * Epulopiscium fishelsoni, a bacterium
 * Stentor, ciliates nicknamed trumpet animalcules
 * Bursaria, largest colpodean ciliates.

title: Unicellular organism


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Woodstock (disambiguation)

Woodstock was a 1969 music festival in Bethel, New York, U.S.

Woodstock may also refer to:

Australia

 * Woodstock, New South Wales
 * Woodstock, Queensland
 * Woodstock, Tasmania, a locality
 * Woodstock, Victoria

Canada

 * Woodstock, New Brunswick, a town in Carleton County
 * Woodstock Parish, New Brunswick, civil parish surrounding the town
 * Woodstock (electoral district), a provincial electoral district for the Legislative Assembly of New Brunswick, Canada
 * Woodstock, Newfoundland and Labrador
 * Woodstock, Nova Scotia
 * Woodstock, Ontario
 * Woodstock railway station (Ontario)

Ireland

 * Woodstock Estate, a wooded estate by the river Nore

New Zealand

 * Woodstock, Tasman, near Motueka, in the northwestern South Island
 * Woodstock, Waikato, now called Fairfield, a suburb of Hamilton
 * Woodstock, West Coast, near Kaniere, in the western South Island

South Africa

 * Woodstock, Cape Town
 * Woodstock railway station (Cape Town), a Metrorail railway station in Woodstock, Cape Town

United Kingdom

 * Woodstock, Oxfordshire, a small town in Oxfordshire, England
 * Woodstock (UK Parliament constituency), a defunct Parliamentary constituency
 * Woodstock Palace, a former royal residence
 * Woodstock, Belfast, an electoral ward of East Belfast
 * Woodstock, Kent, a location in Kent
 * Woodstock, Pembrokeshire, Wales

United States

 * Woodstock, Alabama
 * Woodstock, Alameda, California
 * Woodstock, Connecticut
 * Woodstock, Georgia
 * Woodstock Country Club, Indiana
 * Woodstock, Illinois
 * Woodstock (Metra), a commuter-rail station in the town of Woodstock, Illinois
 * Woodstock Township, Schuyler County, Illinois
 * Woodstock, Kentucky, a former community near Louisville, Kentucky, now annexed to Graymoor-Devondale
 * Woodstock, Maine
 * Woodstock, Maryland
 * Woodstock Township, Michigan
 * Woodstock, Minnesota
 * Woodstock, New Hampshire
 * Woodstock, New York
 * Woodstock (CDP), New York, the primary hamlet within the town of Woodstock
 * Woodstock, Ohio
 * Woodstock, Portland, Oregon
 * Woodstock Park (Portland, Oregon)
 * Woodstock, Vermont
 * Woodstock (village), Vermont, in the town of Woodstock
 * Woodstock, Virginia
 * Battle of Woodstock, an American Civil War battle near Woodstock, Virginia
 * Woodstock, Northampton County, Virginia
 * Woodstock, Wisconsin

Buildings of note

 * Woodstock, Burwood, a heritage-listed building in the Sydney suburb of Burwood, New South Wales
 * Woodstock (Lexington, Kentucky), listed on the NRHP in Fayette County, Kentucky
 * Woodstock (Natchez, Mississippi), a Greek Revival building built in 1851
 * Woodstock (Scotland Neck, North Carolina), listed on the NRHP in Halifax County, North Carolina
 * Woodstock (Trenton, Kentucky), listed on the NRHP in Todd County, Kentucky
 * Woodstock (Upper Marlboro, Maryland), a historic home in Upper Marlboro, Prince George's County, Maryland, United States
 * Woodstock (Wilmington, Delaware), listed on the NRHP in Wilmington, Delaware

People

 * Edmund of Woodstock, 1st Earl of Kent (1301–1330), son of Edward I of England
 * Mary of Woodstock (1279–1332), daughter of Edward I of England
 * Thomas of Woodstock, 1st Duke of Gloucester (1355–1397), son of Edward III of England
 * William Bentinck, Viscount Woodstock (born 1984), writer and social entrepreneur

Literature

 * Woodstock (novel), an 1826 novel by Walter Scott
 * Thomas of Woodstock (play), a play which has been spuriously attributed to Shakespeare

Festivals

 * Woodstock Festival, original festival 1969
 * Woodstock Sound-Outs, mini-festivals held outside Woodstock, NY from 1967 to 1970
 * Woodstock '79, 10th anniversary rock concert that took place at Madison Square Garden
 * Woodstock '89, "The Forgotten Woodstock", 20th anniversary rock concert that took place in August 1989 on the site of the original Woodstock concert
 * Woodstock '94, 25th anniversary music festival
 * Woodstock '99, 30th anniversary music festival
 * Woodstock 50, cancelled 50th anniversary music festival
 * The Harlem Cultural Festival, also known as the "Black Woodstock", a series of music concerts in New York City held in 1969
 * Przystanek Woodstock, an annual Polish music festival, named after the 1969 event
 * Woodstock en Beauce, a summer festival in Southern Quebec, Canada
 * Woodstockert, an event held at Stockert Radio Telescope, Germany

Albums

 * Woodstock: Music from the Original Soundtrack and More, a live album from the 1969 festival
 * Woodstock Two, the second live album from the 1969 festival
 * Woodstock: Three Days of Peace and Music, a box set of performances from the 1969 festival
 * Woodstock 40 Years On: Back To Yasgur's Farm, a box set of performances from the 1969 festival
 * Woodstock (Jimi Hendrix album), 1994
 * Woodstock (Portugal. The Man album), 2017
 * Woodstock 1999 (album), a live album from the 1999 festival
 * Woodstock – Back to the Garden: The Definitive 50th Anniversary Archive, a 38-disc box set of the music of the 1969 festival

Songs

 * "Woodstock" (song) by Joni Mitchell, covered by Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young and other artists
 * "Woodstock", a song by Big and Rich from the deluxe digital version of Between Raising Hell and Amazing Grace
 * ”Woodstock (Psychedelic Fiction)”, a song by American rapper/singer-songwriter Jon Bellion

Other arts, entertainment, and media

 * Woodstock (film), a 1970 documentary about the 1969 festival
 * Woodstock (Peanuts), a character in the comic strip Peanuts
 * Woodstock Express (disambiguation), a number of roller coasters operated by Cedar Fair and named for the character
 * Woodstock Times, a newspaper in the New York town of Woodstock
 * Woodstock Film Festival, an American film festival that was launched in 2000

Education

 * Woodstock Academy, a school in Woodstock, Connecticut, U.S.
 * Woodstock College, a former Jesuit seminary in Maryland, U.S.
 * Woodstock Theological Center, a Catholic theological research institute in Washington D.C.
 * Woodstock Elementary School (disambiguation)
 * Woodstock High School (disambiguation)
 * Woodstock School (disambiguation)

Other uses

 * Woodstock, a typewriter invented by Alvah C. Roebuck
 * Maupin Woodstock One, glider
 * Woodstock Pub, a pub in Bangkok, Thailand

title: Woodstock (disambiguation)