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Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo

Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo (born 5 June 1942) is an Equatoguinean politician and former military officer who has served as the 2nd President of Equatorial Guinea since 1982 and as well as the President of the Democratic Party of Equatorial Guinea since the party's foundation in 1987. Previously, he was the Chairman of the Supreme Military Council from 1979 to 1982. As of 2024, he is the second-longest consecutively serving current non-royal national leader in the world (after Paul Biya in Cameroon).

After graduating from military school in Zaragoza, Spain, Obiang held multiple positions under the presidency of his uncle, Francisco Macías Nguema, including director of the notorious Black Beach prison. He ousted Macías in a military coup in 1979 and took control of the country as president and chairman of the Supreme Military Council. After the country's nominal return to civilian rule in 1982, he founded the Democratic Party of Equatorial Guinea (PDGE) in 1987, which was the country's sole legal party until 1992. He has overseen Equatorial Guinea's emergence as an important oil producer, beginning in the 1990s. Obiang was Chairperson of the African Union from 2011 to 2012.

Obiang is regarded as an totalitarian leader. He has been widely accused of corruption and abuse of power. Under his rule, Equatorial Guinea continues to have one of the worst human rights records in the world. In marked contrast to the trend toward democracy in most of Africa, Equatorial Guinea is currently a dominant-party state, in which Obiang's PDGE holds virtually all governing power in the nation and has held all or almost all seats in the legislature since its creation. The constitution provides Obiang sweeping powers, including the right to rule by decree, effectively making his government a legal dictatorship. He has also placed family members in key government positions.

Early life
From a family of the Esangui ethnic clan, he was born in the town of Akoacám (Mongomo district, Wele-Nzas province), belonging to the colony of Spanish Guinea, on the current border with Gabon, within the Continental Equatorial Guinea. Son of the Gabonese Santiago Nguema Eneme Obama and María Mbasogo Ngui, Obiang was the third of ten brothers, among whom are also the National Security Delegate Armengol Ondo Nguema Mbasogo and former National Defense Minister Antonio Mba Nguema Mikue. Obiang's parents emigrated from Gabon to avoid paying capitation taxes and take advantage of the good economic situation in Spanish Guinea. After the death of María Mbasogo Ngui, Obiang and his brothers were raised by his father and his new wife Carmen Mikue Mbira.

Obiang completed his first studies at the Cardenal Cisneros School Group in Ebibeyin and at the La Salle Center in Bata (now the Enrique Nvo Okenve National College), where he obtained a degree in labor administration.

Obiang joined the Colonial Guard during Equatorial Guinea's colonial period and attended the General Military Academy in Zaragoza, Spain. He achieved the rank of lieutenant after his uncle, Francisco Macías Nguema, was elected the country's first president. Under Macías, Obiang held various positions, including the governor of Bioko and leader of the National Guard. He was also head of Black Beach Prison, notorious for severely torturing its inmates.

Coup and aftermath
After Macías ordered the murders of several members of the family they shared, including Obiang's brother, Obiang and others in Macías's inner circle feared the president had become insane. Obiang overthrew his uncle on 3 August 1979 in a bloody coup d'état, and placed him on trial for his actions, including the genocide of the Bubi people, over the previous decade. Macías was sentenced to death and executed by firing squad on 29 September 1979. A new Moroccan presidential guard was required to form the firing squad, because local soldiers feared his alleged magical powers.

Obiang declared that the new government would make a fresh start from Macías's brutal and repressive régime. He granted amnesty to political prisoners, and ended the previous régime's system of forced labor. He also reversed the previous régime's most repressive measures; Obiang unbanned glasses and Christianity, which were previously banned during his uncle's régime. However, he made virtually no mention of his own role in the atrocities committed under it.

New constitution
The country nominally returned to civilian rule in 1982, with the enactment of a slightly less authoritarian constitution. At the same time, Obiang was elected to a seven-year term as president; he was the only candidate. He was reelected in 1989, again as the only candidate. After other parties were nominally allowed to organize in 1992, he was reelected in 1996 and 2002 with 98 percent of the vote in elections condemned as fraudulent by international observers. In 2002, for instance, at least one voting district was recorded as giving Obiang 103 percent of the vote.

He was reelected for a fourth term in 2009 with 97% of the vote, again amid accusations of voter fraud and intimidation, beating opposition leader Plácido Micó Abogo. Obiang's rule was at first considered more humane than that of his uncle. By some accounts, however, it has become increasingly brutal, and has bucked the larger trend toward greater democracy in Africa. According to most domestic and international observers, he leads one of the most corrupt, ethnocentric and repressive regimes in the world. Equatorial Guinea is essentially a one-party state dominated by Obiang's Democratic Party of Equatorial Guinea (PDGE). The constitution grants Obiang sweeping powers, including the power to rule by decree.

Although opposition parties were legalized in 1992, the legislature remains dominated by the PDGE, and there is no substantive opposition to executive decisions. There have never been more than eight opposition deputies in the lower house, while the PDGE has held every seat in the Senate since its inception in 2013. For all intents and purposes, Obiang holds all governing power in the nation.

The opposition is barely tolerated; indeed, a 2006 article in Der Spiegel quoted Obiang as asking, "What right does the opposition have to criticize the actions of a government?" The opposition is severely hampered by the lack of a free press as a vehicle for their views. There are no newspapers and all broadcast media are either owned outright by the government or controlled by its allies.

Relations with the United States and other nations
Equatorial Guinea's relations with the United States cooled in 1993, after Ambassador John E. Bennett was accused of practicing witchcraft at the graves of 10 British airmen who were killed when their plane crashed there during World War II. Bennett left after receiving a death threat at the U.S. Embassy in Malabo in 1994. In his farewell address, he publicly named the government's most notorious torturers, including Equatorial Guinea's Minister of National Security, Manuel Nguema Mba, another Obiang uncle. No new envoy was appointed, and the embassy was closed in 1996, leaving its affairs to be handled by the embassy in neighboring Cameroon.

Things turned around for the Obiang regime after the terrorist attacks in 2001 on New York and Washington, after which the United States re-prioritized its dealings with key African states. On 25 January 2002, the Institute for Advanced Strategic and Political Studies, a neoconservative Israeli-based think tank, sponsored a forum on 15 May 2006. Speaking at the IASPS forum, Assistant Secretary of State for Africa Walter H. Kansteiner said, "African oil is of national strategic interest to us, and it will increase and become more important as we move forward."

In a lengthy state visit from March to April 2006, President Obiang sought to reopen the closed embassy in the US, saying that "the lack of a U.S. diplomatic presence is definitely holding back economic growth." President Obiang was warmly greeted by Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice, who called him a "good friend". Public relations company Cassidy & Associates may have been partially responsible for the change in tone between Obiang and the United States government. Since 2004, Cassidy had been employed by the dictator's government at a rate of at least $120,000 a month.

By October 2006, however, the Senate Foreign Relations Committee had raised concerns about the proposal to build the new embassy on land owned by Obiang, whom the United Nations Commission on Human Rights accused of directly overseeing the torture of opponents. The new embassy chancery opened in 2013.

Cameroon

Equatorial Guinea has cordial relations with neighbouring Cameroon, although there was criticism in Cameroon in 2000 about perceived mistreatment of Cameroonians working in Equatorial Guinea. Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea have an unresolved maritime border dispute. The majority Fang ethnic group of mainland Equatorial Guinea extends both north and south into the forests of Cameroon and Gabon. Cameroon exports some food products to Equatorial Guinea and imports oil from Equatorial Guinea for its refinery at nearby Limbe.

In December 2008, Equatorial Guinea security forces killed a Cameroonian fisherman and abducted two immigrants, Cameroon closed its border in response.

North Korea

In the 1970s Equatorial Guinea signed military, technical and economic agreements with many socialist states, which included North Korea. North Korea sent troops to Equatorial Guinea so they could be used as advisors. After Francisco Macías Nguema was overthrown and executed by his nephew Teodoro Obiang in 1979, his family fled to Pyongyang, where his three children were raised by the North Korean government. One of them, Mónica, left the DPRK in 1994 after fifteen years.

Despite this, close relations continued after the coup, and remain active. In 2011 Yang Hyong-sop, Vice President of the Presidium of the Supreme People's Assembly, made a four-day visit to Equatorial Guinea. In 2013 President Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo was presented the first International Kim Jong-il Prize by a North Korean delegation. In 2016, Kim Yong-nam of North Korea visited Equatorial Guinea and held amicable talks with President Teodoro Obiang. In 2018, Equatorial Guinea reported that it had severed economic ties with North Korea and repatriated North Korean workers in line with United Nations sanctions. However, North Korea reported continued friendly relations.

Spain

In August 1979, Spain offered to help Francisco Macías Nguema during the coup. Between 1979 and 1983, Spain sent Equatorial Guinea 15 million Spanish pesetas for the development of the nation. Relations between both nations almost severed again due to debt renegotiation in 1983 and the fact that Equatorial Guinea owed Spain over 6 million Spanish pesetas. Agreements were made before more drastic measures were taken. During the 2004 coup d'état attempt, President Obiang accused Spain of knowing about the coup attempt and for sending two Spanish warships to the region, however, Spanish Prime Minister José María Aznar denied the allegations that the ships were there to assist in the coup.

In 2016, trade between Equatorial Guinea and Spain totaled €748 million Euros. 90% of Equatorial Guinea's exports to Spain is in oil. Spain's main exports to Equatorial Guinea include: drinks, furniture and lamps, mechanical equipment, automobiles and trucks, and electronic material. Spain's has €3 million Euros of investment in Equatorial Guinea, mainly in the construction industry. At the same time, Equatorial Guinea's investment in Spain totals €4 million Euros. Equatorial Guinea is Spain's ninth biggest trading partner from Africa (78th largest globally). Spain is Equatorial Guinea's third biggest trading partner globally (after China and the United States).

Economy
The economy of this small nation continued to struggle under President Obiang, with the country depending mostly on foreign aid to pay its bills. This changed in 1995 when ExxonMobil discovered oil in the country. Massive offshore discoveries over the past decade have boosted oil to about 380,000 barrels per day, ranking Equatorial Guinea behind only Nigeria and Angola among Sub-Saharan African producers.

As expected, income from petroleum led to a boom and the country experienced rapid economic growth. According to UNESCO, the country has the highest adult literacy rate in sub-Saharan Africa, with an average of 95 per cent. It also has the highest per capita income in Africa. More than three-quarters of the population live below the poverty line, according to data from the World bank. This wealth is distributed extremely unevenly and most of it is concentrated in the hands of the ruling family.

President Obiang has a net worth of $600 million, according to Forbes, meaning he is easily one of the world’s richest heads of state, while the country's HDI ranks 145th out of 191. The vast majority of the oil revenue of Equatorial Guinea has been siphoned under the guise of funding large infrastructure projects executed by contractors with ties to President Obiang’s inner circle. Education and health receive an average of 2–3 per cent of the budget, while extraction has already been declining since 2012 and oil reserves are estimated to dry out by 2035.

New capital city
The planned city's location was chosen for its easy access and milder climate. It is notably on the mainland, in contrast to Malabo, which is on the island of Bioko. It was designed by the Portuguese Studio for Architecture and Urbanism FAT – Future Architecture Thinking. It is projected to have around 200,000 inhabitants, a new Parliament building, a number of presidential villas and an area of 8150 hectares. The construction of this new capital has been criticised by the political opposition to Obiang, the driving force behind the initiative. The Government of Equatorial Guinea began to move to the city in early 2017.

Funding is provided through the AICEP. The plans come from a Portuguese architectural office. The construction work will be supported by China, Poland, Brazil and North Korea. Construction faces delays such as, according to unconfirmed reports, President Obiang ordered a building to be moved because he did not like the view. Additionally, all materials are imported.

Human rights
In 2006, Obiang signed an anti-torture decree banning all forms of abuse and improper treatment in Equatorial Guinea, and commissioned the renovation and modernization of Black Beach prison in 2007 to ensure the humane treatment of prisoners. However, human rights abuses have continued. Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International among other non-governmental organizations have documented severe human rights abuses in prisons, including torture, beatings, unexplained deaths and illegal detention.

In their most recently publishing findings (2020), Transparency International awarded Equatorial Guinea a total score of 16 on their Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI). CPI ranks countries by their perceived level of public corruption where zero is very corrupt and 100 is extremely clean. Equatorial Guinea was the 174th lowest scoring nation out of a total of 180 countries. Freedom House, a pro-democracy and human rights NGO, described Obiang as one of the world's "most kleptocratic living autocrats", and complained about the US government welcoming his administration and buying oil from it.

As of 2023 the current government has "limited ability of citizens to change their government; increased reports of unlawful murders of civilians by security forces; government-sanctioned kidnappings; systematic torture of prisoners and detainees by security forces; life threatening conditions in prisons and detention facilities; impunity; arbitrary arrest and detention and incommunicado detention; harassment and deportation of foreign residents with limited due process; judicial corruption and lack of due process; restrictions on the right to privacy; restrictions on freedom of speech and of the press; restrictions on the rights of assembly, association, and movement; government corruption; violence and discrimination against women; suspected trafficking in persons; discrimination against ethnic minorities; and restrictions on labor rights."

LGBT+ rights
Although there are no laws against homosexuality in Equatorial Guinea, the International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association (ILGA) report "there is evidence that State intimidation of sexually diverse individuals persists." The criminal code in force in Equatorial Guinea is a revision of the Spanish Criminal Code that dates back to the Francoist era and is said to post-colonially carry homophobic undertones that influence those perception today. The age of consent is set at 18, regardless of gender and/or sexual orientation.

Controversy
In July 2003, state-operated radio declared Obiang "the country's God" with "all power over men and things." It added that the president was "in permanent contact with the Almighty" and "can decide to kill without anyone calling him to account and without going to hell." He personally made similar comments in 1993. His uncle and predecessor Macías had also proclaimed himself a god.

Obiang has encouraged his cult of personality by ensuring that public speeches end in well-wishing for himself rather than for the nation as a whole. Many important buildings have a presidential lodge, many towns and cities have streets commemorating Obiang's coup against Macías, and many people wear clothes with his face printed on them.

Like his predecessor and other African strongmen such as Idi Amin and Mobutu Sese Seko, Obiang has assigned himself several creative titles. Among them are "gentleman of the great island of Bioko, Annobón and Río Muni." He also refers to himself as El Jefe (the boss).

In 2008, American journalist Peter Maass called Obiang Africa's worst dictator, worse than Robert Mugabe of Zimbabwe. While he was researching a book on the country's oil boom in 2004, Maass recalled that no one approached him on the streets. He believed that the only time he had encountered a more docile populace was in North Korea.

In an October 2012 interview on CNN, Christiane Amanpour asked Obiang whether he would step down at the end of his current term (2009–2016) since he had been reelected at least four times in his reign of over thirty years. In his response, Obiang categorically refused to step down despite term limits in the 2011 constitution.

Abuses
Abuses under Obiang have included "unlawful killings by security forces; government-sanctioned kidnappings; systematic torture of prisoners and detainees by security forces; life-threatening conditions in prisons and detention facilities; impunity; arbitrary arrest, detention, and incommunicado detention."

The few private media outlets in the country are largely owned by people close to Obiang. Freedoms of association and of assembly are severely curtailed, and the government imposes restrictive conditions on the registration and operation of nongovernmental organizations. The few local activists who work on human rights-related issues often face intimidation, harassment, and reprisals.

Wealth
Forbes has said that Obiang, with a net worth of US$600 million, is one of the world's wealthiest heads of state.

In 2003, Obiang told his citizenry that he felt compelled to take full control of the national treasury in order to prevent civil servants from being tempted to engage in corrupt practices. Obiang then deposited more than half a billion dollars into more than sixty accounts controlled by himself and his family at Riggs Bank in Washington, D.C., leading a U.S. federal court to fine the bank $16 million for allowing him to do so. A United States Senate investigation in 2004 found that the Washington-based Riggs Bank had taken $300 million in payments on behalf of Obiang from ExxonMobil and Hess Corporation. In 2008, the country became a candidate for the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative – an international project meant to promote openness about government oil revenues – but never qualified and missed the April 2010 deadline. Transparency International includes Equatorial Guinea on its list of twelve most corrupt states.

Beginning in 2007, Obiang and several other African state leaders came under investigation for corruption and fraudulent use of funds. He was suspected of using public funds to finance private mansions and other luxuries for both himself and his family. He and his son, in particular, owned several properties and supercars in France. Several complaints were also filed in US courts against Obiang's son. Attorneys stressed that the funds appropriated by the Obiangs were taken quite legally under Equatoguinean laws, even though those laws might not agree with international standards.

The U.S. Department of Justice alleged that Obiang and his son had appropriated hundreds of millions of dollars through corruption. In 2011 and early 2012, many assets were seized from Obiang and his son by the French and American governments, including mansions, wine collections, and supercars. The United States, France and Spain have all investigated the Obiang family's use of public funds. The corruption investigation is ongoing. Obiang, his cabinet and his family allegedly have received billions in undisclosed oil revenue each year from the nation's oil production. Marathon Oil purchased land from Abayak, Obiang's personal investment vehicle, for more than $2 million; in June 2004 the sale was pending but Marathon had already made a $611,000 first payment with a check made out to Obiang. Marathon also was involved in a joint venture to operate two gas plants with GEOGAM, a quasi-state firm in which Abayak controlled a 75% stake.

Although the cabinet has made moderate increases in social spending, these remain far overshadowed by the spending on, for instance, presidential palaces. In addition, the Obiang administration has been characterized by harassment of dissenters and foreign officials seeking to report on conditions.

Obiang filed a libel lawsuit in a French court against an organization he believed was demeaning his image by saying that his government had committed such acts, but the case was dismissed. Obiang has made several pledges to commit to open governance, reduce corruption, increase transparency, and improve the quality of life and uphold the basic freedoms of his citizens. Critics say that Obiang's government has made very little progress toward this goal, however. Several international groups have called for Obiang to: The U.S. Justice Department has alleged that Obiang's son also extorted funds from lumber and construction companies by inflating contractor payments by as much as 500%, then funnelled the funds into a private accounts for his own use. Obiang and his cabinet have defended Kiki, as his son is known. Lawyers uphold his innocence in both US and French courts, saying he received the funds legally though legitimate business enterprises.
 * increase fiscal transparency and accountability by publishing all government revenues, and conducting and publishing annual audits of government accounts, including those abroad, and forcing officials to declare assets
 * Disclose natural resource revenues
 * Greatly increase spending alleviation of poverty
 * Uphold political freedoms and rights
 * Allow judicial practices to meet international standards
 * Cease harassing and hindering his critics
 * Allow foreign inspectors and groups to travel freely, unhindered and unharassed.

Shortly after the emergence of these allegations, Obiang named his son Equatorial Guinea's deputy permanent delegate to UNESCO, possibly giving him diplomatic immunity from prosecution. Obiang has created an independent audit task force to review the expenditures and financials of public figures in the government, screen for corruption, and increase financial transparency. The head of this task force, however, was appointed by Obiang himself.

He also owns 2 mansions in the United States one in Los Angeles and the other in Washington, D.C. He usually goes there for meetings and when he’s not there is a caretaker.

Finances
Obiang had a close relationship with the Washington DC-based Riggs Bank. He is said to have been welcomed by top Riggs officials, who held a luncheon in his honor. Publicity regarding this relationship would later contribute to the downfall of Riggs.

On 10 November 2010, the Supreme Court of France ruled that a complaint filed by Transparency International in France on 2 December 2008 was admissible to the court system there. The decision allowed the appointment of an investigating judge and a judicial inquiry into claims that Obiang used state funds to purchase private property in France.

A 2010 article published in Forbes magazine suggested that Obiang gathered roughly $700 million of the country's wealth in US bank accounts.

Personal life
On December 12, 1968, Obiang married Constancia Mangue Nsue Okomo (born August 20, 1951).

In 2006, it was reported that Obiang favoured his son Teodoro Nguema to succeed him.

Honours

 * 🇵🇭 Philippines: Grand Collar of the Order of Lakandula, Rank of Supremo (19 May 2006)
 * 🇸🇷 Suriname: Grand Officer Honorary Order of the Yellow Star

title: Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo


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Radical behaviorism

Radical behaviorism is a "philosophy of the science of behavior" developed by B. F. Skinner. It refers to the philosophy behind behavior analysis, and is to be distinguished from methodological behaviorism—which has an intense emphasis on observable behaviors—by its inclusion of thinking, feeling, and other private events in the analysis of human and animal psychology. The research in behavior analysis is called the experimental analysis of behavior and the application of the field is called applied behavior analysis (ABA), which was originally termed "behavior modification."

Radical behaviorism as natural science
Radical behaviorism inherits from behaviorism the position that the science of behavior is a natural science, a belief that animal behavior can be studied profitably and compared with human behavior, a strong emphasis on the environment as cause of behavior, and an emphasis on the operations involved in the modification of behavior. Radical behaviorism does not claim that organisms are tabula rasa whose behavior is unaffected by biological or genetic endowment. Rather, it asserts that experiential factors play a major role in determining the behavior of many complex organisms, and that the study of these matters is a major field of research in its own right.

Operant psychology
Skinner believed that classical conditioning did not account for the behavior that many people are interested in, such as riding a bike or writing a book. His observations led him to propose a theory about how these and similar behaviors, called "operants", come about.

Roughly speaking, in operant conditioning, an operant is actively emitted and produces changes in the world (i.e., produces consequences) that alter the likelihood that the behavior will occur again.

As represented in the table below, operant conditioning involves two basic actions (increasing or decreasing the probability that a specific behavior will occur in the future), which are accomplished by adding or removing stimuli.

In other words:
 * If the probability of a behavior is increased as a consequence of the presentation of a stimulus, that stimulus is a positive reinforcer.
 * If the probability of a behavior is increased as a consequence of the withdrawal of a stimulus, that stimulus is a negative reinforcer.
 * If the probability of a behavior is decreased as a consequence of the presentation of a stimulus, that stimulus is a positive punisher.
 * If the probability of a behavior is decreased as a consequence of the withdrawal of a stimulus, that stimulus is a negative punisher.

Instrumental conditioning is another term for operant conditioning that is most closely associated with scientists who studied organisms running through a maze. Skinner pioneered the free operant technique, where organisms could respond at any time during a protracted experimental session. Thus Skinner's dependent variable was usually the frequency or rate of responding, not the errors that were made or the speed of traversal of a maze.

Operant conditioning affects the future of the organism, that is how the organism will respond after the actions summarized above occur.

Explaining behavior and the importance of the environment
John B. Watson argued against speaking of mental states and held that psychology should study behavior directly, holding private events as impossible to study scientifically. Skinner rejected this position, conceding the importance of thinking, feelings and "inner behavior" in his analysis. Skinner did not hold to truth by agreement, as Watson did, so he was not limited by observation.

In Watson's days (and in Skinner's early days), it was held that psychology was at a disadvantage as a science because behavioral explanations should take physiology into account. Very little was known about physiology at the time. Skinner argued that behavioral explanations of psychological phenomena are "just as true" as physiological explanations. In arguing this, he took a non-reductionistic approach to psychology. Skinner, however, redefined behavior to include "everything that an organism does," including thinking, feeling and speaking, and argued that these phenomena were valid scientific subject matters. The term radical behaviorism refers to just this: that everything an organism does is a behavior. However, Skinner ruled out thinking and feeling as valid explanations of behavior. According to him, thinking and feeling are not epiphenomena nor have they any other special status; they are just more behavior to explain. Skinner proposed environmental factors as proper causes of behavior because environmental factors are at a different logical level than behavior and actions, and one can manipulate behavior by manipulating the environment. This holds only for explaining operant behaviors.

Some argue that Skinner held that the organism is a blank slate or a tabula rasa. Skinner wrote extensively on the limits and possibilities nature places on conditioning. According to him, conditioning is implemented in the body as a physiological process and is subject to the current state, learning history, and history of the species. Skinner maintained that behavior can be explained without taking into account what goes on inside the organism. However, the black box is not private events, but physiology. Skinner considers physiology useful, interesting, valid, etc., but not necessary for operant behavioral theory and research.

Private events
Radical behaviorism differs from other forms of behaviorism in that it treats everything done as behavior, including private events (such as thinking and feeling) Unlike John B. Watson's behaviorism, private events are not dismissed as "epiphenomena," but are seen as subject to the same principles of learning and modification as have been discovered to exist for overt behavior. Although private events are not publicly observable behaviors, radical behaviorism accepts that one is each an observer of their own private behavior. Skinner explicitly noted that private events were essential for behaviorists to understand and account for, though he also considered them beyond the limits of direct analysis.

Outgrowths
There are radical behaviorist schools of animal training, management, clinical practice, and education. Skinner's philosophical views have left their mark in principles adopted by a small handful of utopian communities, such as Los Horcones and Twin Oaks, and in ongoing challenges to aversive techniques in control of human and animal behavior.

Radical behaviorism has generated numerous descendants. Examples of these include molar approaches associated with Richard Herrnstein and William Baum, Howard Rachlin's teleological behaviorism, William Timberlake's behavior systems approach, and John Staddon's theoretical behaviorism. Contextual behavioral science, associated with the works of Steven C. Hayes, is also an interpretation of radical behaviorism.

Skinner's theories on verbal behavior have seen widespread application in therapies for children with autism that are based on applied behavior analysis (ABA).

Criticism
Critics such as Noam Chomsky label Skinnerian or radical behaviorism as S–R (stimulus–response, or to use Skinner's term, "respondent"), or Pavlovian psychology, and argue that this limits the approach. Chomsky has further argued Skinner's experimental results could not be extended to humans. Contemporary psychology rejects many of Skinner's conclusions, although some scholars find his work into operant conditioning, which emphasizes the importance of consequences in modifying discriminative responses, useful when combined with current understandings about the uniqueness of evolved human thought compared to other animals.

Some argue that radical behaviorism maintains the position that animals (including humans) are passive receivers of conditioning, although others have countered that operant behavior is titled operant because it operates on the environment, it is emitted, not elicited, and that the consequence of a behavior can itself be a stimulus; one needs not present anything for shaping to take place.

Radical behaviorism is sometimes described as a form of logical positivism,. Skinnerians maintain that Skinner was not a logical positivist and recognized the importance of thinking as behavior, as Skinner emphasizes in About Behaviorism.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Radical behaviorism


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IBM 632

The IBM 632 was a valve-and-relay driven basic (very basic) accounting machine, introduced in 1958, that was available in seven different models. It consisted of an IBM Electric typewriter and at least a punched card unit (like the IBM 024) that housed the "electronics" in two gates (a relay gate and an electronic gate). Some machines also had a card reader unit (like the IBM 026). A small core memory provided storage for 8 numeric 12 digit words.

The machine was programmed primarily with a plastic tape that moved synchronously with the typewriter carriage. Each tape would typically handle one application. The tape mechanism was mounted behind the carriage in the typewriter unit. Further programming was provided in the card machines program drums. Programs were only executed as the machine typed or spaced over a column - tabbing or carriage returning was not recognised.

As the typewriter carriage moved from field to field three program entries were available in the last three columns of each field - as I recall they were Calc1, Calc2, and Pgm. One calculation was allowed in each Calc column. The PGM field allowed a program instruction - a jump in the form of a "jump" to a new column then auto printout of a calculated field (including decimal place control) as well as punched card control, etc. The PGM column was actually the column the typewriter would space to after typing the last character in the field (either under operator or PGM control).

For example, after entering "price" then tabbing and entering "qty", the machine could automatically space through a dummy field, calculate the $amount on the way and then continue to print it out. The PGM field could then have dictated a carriage return, ready for the next entry.

Two programs were allowed on each tape: primary and alternate. But by resetting the tab-stops it was possible to overlap programs in amazingly complex ways.

Adding was carried out electronically, but multiplication was electro-mechanical. The machine gave off a characteristic kerr-ick-kit-i-tic, kerr-ick-kit-i-tic sound as the relays worked furiously. Multiplication took 3 or 4 seconds, addition, on the other, hand was immediate.

Most machines were used for some type of order-entry/invoicing application, providing a hard-copy invoice and a punched card that could be processed further on some other system. Those with a card reader could do some of that processing themselves, especially if augmented with a sorter.

The first installation was in early 1958 into the Barclay Knitwear company in Kingston, New York. They struck an issue with the 632 because they sold units by the dozen, but because the 632 worked in decimal, rounding meant they were losing money. This was because 1/12 was converted to 0.083. IBM solved the issue by rewiring the 632 so that it worked to five decimal places (0.08333) rather than three.

Cost, price and rental rates

Maintenance/service was included in all monthly rental prices. Maintenance/service for purchased machines was additional.

title: IBM 632


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International folk dance

International folk dance includes Balkan dance, Middle Eastern dance, contra dance, Hungarian dance, polka, Chinese dance, and Japanese dance. Clubs featuring these ethnic dance genres are enjoyed by non-professional dancers for entertainment. Many clubs that use collections of ethnic folk dances will use the term "international folk dance" or similar in their name.

History
International folk dance developed in the immigrant communities of the United States of America during the first half of the 20th century. Traditional dances such as branles, polkas, quadrilles and others have been done internationally for hundreds of years; however, the creation of international folk dance as such is often attributed to Vytautas Beliajus, a Lithuanian-American who studied, taught, and performed dances from various ethnic traditions in the 1930s.

Also, in the mid 1930s, Scandinavian dancing began to take hold in non-Scandinavian communities. Clubs began to form around this style. A pioneer of this era was the ethnic Chinese illustrator Song Chang, who, struck by the lack of bigotry among the Scandinavian dancers, encouraged others to join, advised clubs, and had a club named in his honor, the Chang's International Folk Dancers, still located in San Francisco. Other prominent teachers and promoters of international folk dance in its first few decades included Michael Herman and Mary Ann Herman, Jane Farwell, and Dick Crum.

Those groups known as international folk dance clubs began to take hold in the 1930s and 1940s, with more diverse selections of music than just Scandinavian, with Balkan dances, Western European dances, and dances from the Philippines. The Folk Dance Federation of California was founded in 1942. By 1946, there were approximately 100 clubs in California alone. In 1948, the College of the Pacific Folk Dance Camp, now known as the Stockton Folk Dance Camp, was founded. Other camps were founded later, and all draw on teaching talent both American and foreign. At the inaugural Statewide Festival held in Ojai, California, occurring on May 11, 1946, there were over 500 dancers and 3000 spectators.

In 1964, a new idea took hold in a pair of dancers in Los Angeles. Rudy Dannes and Athan Karras opened a coffeehouse that also functioned as a place for international folk dancers to dance at night without having to worry about renting a space, called The Intersection. The idea took off, with new people starting their own dance coffeehouses, such as Cafe Danssa in L.A., founded by Dani Dassa, and the famous Ashkenaz in Berkeley, founded by David Nadel in 1973.

In 1975, the Folk Arts Center of New England was founded by Conny Taylor and Marianne Taylor to preserve and encourage international folk dancing and other folk arts.

In the 1980s, costs escalated, and the number of active clubs shrank somewhat. Many events such as camps or festivals had to be put on hold until the organizers could gather the money and the people. In 1984, The Intersection shut its doors due to lowering turnout. However, on the East Coast, the NFO, or the National Folk Organization, was founded in Chicago in 1986 by Vytautas Beliajus, Mary Bee Jensen, George Frandsen, and L. DeWayne Young, an organization dedicated to the preservation of folk arts.

In the 1990s, interest in dancing increased again, and dances from the Chinese, Japanese and Hispanic groups were added to the repertoires over the '80s and '90s as neighborhoods diversified. Ballroom dance, swing dance, tango and salsa dance became more popular, with some dancers from these genres also entering the international folk dance scene as a whole.

International folk dance has grown into a large community of dancers, performing groups and recreational folk dance clubs throughout the United States, Europe, Canada, Japan, Australia and other countries. Dance festivals and conventions are held year-round. Dance "camps" or workshops invite teachers to instruct dancers in dances from many traditions. These groups usually focus on European dances, but the international folk dance repertoire may include dances from every part of the world: Europe, Africa, North and South America, the Middle East, the Far East, Australia and the South Pacific.

Clubs
The most common way to dance "international folk dance" is in a club setting. These can range in style of organization from a small gathering to highly structured and regulated meetings, depending on the preferences of the dancers. Many clubs are associated with international folk dance societies or federations, such as the Folk Dance Federation of California, who provide them with music and exposure. A club can have a mixture of dances on their playlist, or specialize in a single genre or a few genres. (For example, a club could be a Serbian dance club, or a Balkan dance club, or a mixed repertoire with a preference for Balkan, or a club with no preference and a varied playlist.) Many require no experience or partner whatsoever to participate. The most common genres of the clubs that choose a specific genre are Balkan dance, contra dance, and English country dance.

Classes
Many clubs are also classes, or are entirely so. Classes usually have a master teacher, either creating their own event or using time at a club, teaching new dances to add to the repertoire. These are always open to the public and usually have a "party" afterwards where people dance to requests. Some master teachers teach for their livelihoods, while others are local dancers with the will to teach.

Festivals
Festivals are multi-day events that combine the club and class atmosphere. Often a day will be mostly full of teaching sessions and the evening for dancing and requests. Often they sell food to dancers as well. Examples of festivals include the Zlatne Uste Golden Festival in New York City, the Blossom Festival in San Francisco, the Kolo Festival in San Francisco, and the Tanatsfestival in Belgium.

Camps
Camps are essentially festivals that include room and board. Oftentimes dancers sleep on-site or in a hotel that has specifically been reserved for the event, with food and drinks also provided to the dancers. Famous camps include the Stockton Folk Dance Camp in Stockton, CA and Camp Yofi in Italy.

title: International folk dance


text:
User:Jwrosenzweig

Hello. I'm James W. Rosenzweig, and I became an contributor to Wikipedia in June of 2003, having used it as a reference tool for some months prior. I'm interested, as you can see below, in an wide array of topics, and am happy to engage in conversation about them (especially if you think I can be helpful to an specific effort to write/improve a article or set of articles). Thanks for dropping by.

In case it is of relevance, I am an administrator, and have been since September of 2003. If that means I can help you, please let me know here. I was a bureaucrat from June 2004 until December 2015, but never a terribly active one: I'm happy to chat about it, if anyone is curious, but I'd recommend talking to current or at least more recently active folk for better information. I was once an elected member of the Arbitration Committee (8/04-12/04); I was also a member of the Mediation Committee from February-December 2005 (and served very briefly as its chair from February until April of that year).

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text:
IBM 6400

The IBM 6400 family of line matrix printers were modern highspeed business computer printers introduced by IBM in 1995. These printers were designed for use on a variety IBM systems including mainframes, servers, and PCs.

Configuration
The 6400 was available in a choice of open pedestal (to minimize floor size requirements) or an enclosed cabinet (for quiet operation). Three models existed, with print speeds of 500, 1000 or 1500 lines/minute.

When configured with the appropriate graphics option, it could print mailing bar codes "certified by the U.S. Postal service. Twelve configurations were commonly sold by IBM.

Rebadged
These printers were manufactured by Printronix Corp and rebranded for IBM. All internal parts had the Printronix Logo and/or artwork. Although they once did, IBM no longer manufactures printers. One of their old printer divisions became Lexmark The other became the IBM Printing Systems Division, which was subsequently sold to Ricoh in 2007.

title: IBM 6400


text:
Wikipedia talk:Sites that use Wikipedia as a source

 * Please see Wikipedia talk:Mirrors and forks for current discussion

I think this represents a radical reading of the GFDL. If a work uses Wikipedia source text, then that work must be released under GFDL. But if a website hosts a work that uses Wikipedia source text, it doesn't licence the whole website under GFDL! - Someone else 00:33 9 Jul 2003 (UTC)

I don't think that is what this text means. This is certainly not what I meant when I made it. I meant the pages that were derived form wikipedia. MB 01:25 9 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * I misread it then, I think I can clarify by changing a few words... -- Someone else 01:31 9 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * Thinking about it, I think it's important to distinguish those pages that use Wikipedia text from those which cite Wikipedia as a reference. Citing Wikipedia as a reference should have no effect: we should want to be cited as a reference, and shouldn't suggest that a citation opens a work up to the provisions of the GFDL, because that will certainly stop people from citing us. -- Someone else 01:40 9 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Although there is a boilerplate text in Wikipedia:Copyrights for copyright violations in Wikipedia articles, I don't see any such boilerplate for notifying external sites of violations of the GFDL. Here is my proposed wording, which needs to be reviewed by someone who knows something about copyright law:

"Dear [insert addressee]:

I have noticed that your website uses text obtained from www.wikipedia.org and that the content of your webpage is not released under the terms of the GNU Free Document License (GFDL). Please understand that by not doing so, you are violating the terms of the GFDL and thereby also violating the copyright of Wikipedia. When content from Wikipedia is used in another work, that work becomes a Modified Version (as defined in the GFDL) of the content and must in turn be released under terms of the GNU Free Document License.

The particular text that prompts this notice is found at [insert URL of violating content], and contains a copy of information found at [insert URL(s) of copied Wikipedia content]. Please either remove the copied information from your website, or release the content of your webpage under the terms of the GFDL.

Thank you.

Sincerely, [insert your name]"

 * There are some letters at Standard GFDL violation letter. MB 06:50 9 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Also, Wikipedia doesn't have any copyrights. The various contributors to Wikipedia do. (For example, I own the copyright to the current version of this talk page, which is a derived work from the previous version. Because that previous version was also under copyright, I obtain this copyright for the derived version only because its licence (the GFDL) explictly allows this. Yet that licence also requires me to release my own derived work under the GFDL, so I do. Now you may form your own derived work by replying, and get a copyright to own yourself!) -- Toby Bartels 21:46 9 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * Ahem. You only own the copyright to what you yourself wrote. And the Wikimedia Foundation does own the collective copyright along with everything Jimbo has written or has paid for (all the stuff Larry wrote while on the Bomis payroll, for example). --mav

 * Hang on, what's the "collective copyright"? I thought we each owned the copyright to our own bits (as you say in your first sentence), and that nobody else did. -- Oliver P. 22:24 9 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * Yes. We all own the bits but the collection of those bits in the order we have them here in Wikipedia is owned by the Wikimedia Foundation (not the bits themselves but the way in which the whole thing is put together). This is also the only copyright a distributor of Linux has over their work; their unique choice of which programs to have in their distribution is protected by copyright law. All this is rather academic though since "collective copyright" is extremely hard to enforce. Or so I gather since IANAL. --mav

 * Oh! That does make sense. Thanks for explaining that, mav. -- Oliver P. 23:07 9 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * Actually, no one owns any copyright to anything here. This is because (as far a I know) no one has applied for a copyright.  Now, Jimbo could apply for a copyright, but this would directly violate the GFDL.  We have what the FSF likes to call a "copyleft" system.  Now, I would have to do some research, but you may (or may not) be able to claim intellectual property (IP), but I honestly don't know the legal definition of IP, it may require a copyright.  Wikimedia owns this site, but no one owns the actual content.  There are creators, contributors, etc, but no owners.  MB 22:36 9 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * Incorrect. That's registration, which is required to take action to defend your copyright, but copyright itself is assigned under the Berne Convention once a work is in a "fixed medium"--which brings up an entirely different problem: work here is, by our own admission, never finished, so have we reached a fixed medium on anything?  Will we at any time before releasing the site on DVD or CD-ROM?  Do tarballs count?  Koyaanis Qatsi 22:40 9 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * Our additions reside in fixed form in the "Page history", don't they? And surely you're wrong about registration being required to defend copyright? My knowledge of copyright law isn't very extensive, but I have heard from someone knowledgeable in these matters that although registration helps in proving your case, it is not required. -- Oliver P. 23:07 9 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * See . Note: "Before an infringement suit may be filed in court, registration is necessary for works of U. S. origin." --mav

 * Oh dear. Now comes the inevitable question... I'm doing all this from the UK. Is my work of U.S. origin? If my work is stored in a fixed medium before I submit it to the Wikipedia, then it clearly isn't. But if (as I usually do) I just type away at the keyboard and then click on "Save page", it doesn't exist in any fixed form outside the U.S.. Does that make it "of U. S. origin"? -- Oliver P. 23:25 9 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * Um, wow. At this point sane people run screaming.  Eek!  Eek!  someone get a lawyer.  Koyaanis Qatsi 23:28 9 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * Sorry but you could not be more wrong MB. See Note: "Copyright is secured automatically when the work is created, and a work is "created" when it is fixed in a copy or phonorecord for the first time." --mav

 * Thanks for that link Mav, b/c I found this text there:

 * WHAT IS NOT PROTECTED BY COPYRIGHT?

 * "Works consisting entirely of information that is common property and containing no original authorship (for example: standard calendars, height and weight charts, tape measures and rulers, and lists or tables taken from public documents or other common sources)"

 * Since Wikipedia is "common property", it can't be copyrighted by anyone. :)  MB 22:57 9 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * MB - Wikipedia is not "common property" per the above def. To say so is also a bit insulting (implying that Wikipedia articles have no copyrightable creative merit - like a list or a phone book). --mav

 * Yup. As mav says, that's a very specific definition of "common property", it means property equally owned by all members of, at least, a state. this doesn't apply to Wikipedia at all. --AW

 * That's talking about mere collections of information with no creative input behind them: e.g. a chronological list of every winner of the Academy Award for Cinematography. Speaking only for myself, I try to make sure my articles go beyond basic uncopyrightable information, and include original authorship: explanation of historical context, relevance of the subject to various groups, comparisons to similar subjects etc.  Not that I'm interested in copyrighting my work, but it is certainly eligible for copyright.  Koyaanis Qatsi 23:05 9 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * The Wikipedia has "no original authorship"? A funny idea. :) -- Oliver P. 23:07 9 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * Just a further note on this - intellectual property isn't a concrete legal concept in itself, it's just a convenient catch-all term when referring to the type of things protected by copyrights, patents on knowledge and so on. It's the copyrights and the patents that are the actual legal devices doing the work. --AW

Well then, base on the above information, it is still unclear to me who owns the copyright to the wikipedia articles. IF someone owns the copyright, then they can keep the copyrighted article from being published without thier consent (I assume). Which in turn means that people who contributed to that work, but don't hold the copyright, can not reproduce that work. In addition, all the sites listed on this meta page cannot reproduce the copyrighted article, b/c that would be copyright infringement. However, these copyright issues violate the GFDL. I am so confused! MB 23:11 9 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * Again. All Wikipedia contributors own the unique, creative work they submit to Wikipedia. But by agreeing to submit their work to Wikipedia they are publishing it under terms of the GNU FDL. Wikipedia can therefore use that text under terms of the GNU FDL (as far as I know this license cannot be revoked even by the copyright owner - so long as they were or should have been aware of the consequences of submitting under this license). In short; the original author still owns the copyright but has agreed to copyleft their text (thus freeing it in the sense of freedom). The only real enforceable rights still retained by the owner is to make additional copies of their work under any other license (or even to place it into the public domain) and to sue anybody who violates the terms of the copyright they placed on their work (aside: theoretically they could even create a proprietary fork of their work but Wikipedia itself could never have a proprietary fork since all editors would have to agree to publishing a copy of all their work under the proprietary license). All that is important to us, however, is that at least one version is licensed under the GNU FDL so those are the only copyright terms we need concern ourselves with. --mav

 * No-one outright owns the copyright on any article unless no-one else has contributed to it. Imagine a new article occurs. The author owns the copyright and releases the article under the GFDL, which allows others to modify it and own the copyright on the derivation of the original article, which remains under the original author's copyright. On top of all this, as has been mentioned, the collective copyright - essentially the copyright on the overall form of the work - is owned by the foundation. There is no conflict between copyright and the GFDL. The GFDL is a license which essentially involves voluntarily relinquishing the right you originally have to enforce certain copyright provisions. Limiting the exercise of a legal right you own in this way is a perfectly legal thing to do. This character of the GFDL also explains why you can release things under dual licenses, as you can with software. --AW

 * Alright, I clearly have to nit-pick the GFDL, but just a quick question. If the "copyright on the overall form of the work - is owned by the foundation", does that mean that only the foundation can distribute it in any form? Or is a copy of it considered a derivative work? You say that the GFDL relinquishes the owners right to enforce some provisions, so what is enforcable by the copyright holder? MB 23:28 9 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * I think the first of these questions is basically, "Has the overall form of the work been released under the GFDL, as well as the individual bits?" Now that I come to think of it, I don't know if anyone has actually answered this question. Copyrights speaks of "Wikipedia content" and "Wikipedia articles", but I can't find a mention of the overall form... -- Oliver P. 23:55 9 Jul 2003 (UTC)

But using information obtained from www.wikipedia.org means nothing in terms of the GFDL. It's using text obtained from www.wikipedia.org that would cause an issue. You can't copyright information: you can copyright text. -- Someone else 02:41 9 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * I agree and have fixed the boilerplate. --mav

 * Oh, was that your IP address?  In that case I'll amend a couple spellings and change a word or two for your approval! == Someone else 04:05 9 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * Nope - that wasn't me. I never edit via IP anymore (too paranoid in my old age). Do to the text what you think is best. :) --mav

 * I did, it's just more fun when it's you, if only because I know you won't be offended  -- Someone else 05:17 9 Jul 2003 (UTC)

I think there is an error of logic in this page. The word "must" is ambiguous, isn't it? The page says, "any derivative of works from Wikipedia must be released under the GFDL". This is true, if taken to mean that the creator of the derived work has a legal obligation to release the work. But I don't think it is true if it is taken to mean that it must be the case that the work has been thus released. It is only in the latter case that we are free to harvest those derivative works for content. (The page still says "information" rather than "content", but as Someone else pointed out above, this is certainly an error...) Hang on, I'll reword the page... -- Oliver P. 22:24 9 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * Good catch. It implies obligation, not action --e.g. there are copyrighted photos people have uploaded, under claim of "fair use," but that has nothing to do with the original copyright.  Koyaanis Qatsi 22:28 9 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * Yes, that's right. But I wasn't referring to the use of non-GFDLed Wikipedia content, if that's what you thought I meant. I meant that even if the content someone else takes from us is GFDLed, we can't treat their derived work as being GFDLed unless they explicitly release it under the terms of the GFDL - even if they have a legal obligation to do so! I may be wrong here, though. I am not a lawyer... -- Oliver P. 23:07 9 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Have there ever been any legal cases where the GFDL has been held up in court? Or is it just an idealology, and not supportable by law? MB 23:14 9 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * No legal cases yet. But none of the terms of the GNU FDL break any fair use or other copyright law and there is a long tradition of court cases backing-up specific copyright terms (we simply have all agreed to submit under one such specific set of copyright terms). --mav

 * Yup. False opposition. It's arguable that a sign of a *good* license is that it hasn't NEEDED to stand up in court. The GPL has never been tested in a court case, but it doesn't follow that either the GFDL or the GPL are "just ideologies". --AW

I could use some help in deciding what to do about the pages listed on Sites that use Wikipedia as a source/temp. I will be adding pages to it, and I would appriciate it if other people could move them to the main article (adding any appropriate GFDL & link information), and remove them from /temp. Thanks. MB 14:10 18 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * Ok, I see. So the /temp are for ones that haven't been thoroghly (sp?) looked at yet, and then we move them to the main page when they've been "reviewed" for breaches, etc..  How you add a sentence or two on the main page at the top, which says something like: "Sites which haven't been reviewed yet at at /Temp, please review and place on this page, blah, blah, blah..."  dave

- MB: about the arabic thing, maybe we ca ask the people at ar.wikipedia.org to create an arabic translation of the standard letter. Or you can search google for arabic-english translator's and then provide ar.wikipedia.org with something to start with, or just send the translation directly. Here's one: http://curtains.parikolijeni.info/ dave

OneLook.com
move to Wikipedia talk:Sites that use Wikipedia as a source

I came across http://pillows.parikolijeni.info/ and http://quinces.parikolijeni.info/ when checking an article Denial that looked like it was copied from that page (see VfD under July 17). Taking another look or two, I found that they link to many Wikipedia articles from their results pages (search for "Earth" for an example). That looks like a good thing. However, there does not seem to be any further explanation about Wikipedia, they just give you a box "Encyclopedia article" with the article's opening sentences and the link. I've got no clue whether this has any GFDL implications. Has anybody been in contact with OneLook? Kosebamse 10:51 18 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * IANAL, but it looks to me like a case of fair use. I think that anything which brings extra traffic to Wikipedia is a good thing! It would be nice if they at least said "Article from Wikipedia" instead of "Encyclopedia article", though. They give a source for all the other hits; they should give one for Wiki as well. -- Wapcaplet 11:30 18 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * Already answered at Sites that use Wikipedia as a source.

 * Thanks Martin, I didn't know that page. Kosebamse 11:42 18 Jul 2003 (UTC)

This talk page is largely of historical interest. Please use pages such as Wikipedia talk:Mirrors and forks for new comments.


text:
Jack Aubrey

John "Jack" Aubrey, is a fictional character in the Aubrey–Maturin series of novels by Patrick O'Brian. The series of novels portrays his rise from lieutenant to rear admiral in the Royal Navy during the Napoleonic Wars. The twenty (and one incomplete draft)-book series encompasses Aubrey's adventures and various commands along his course to flying a rear admiral's flag.

Some of his naval battles and adventures are drawn from Royal Navy history. Several of his exploits and reverses, most importantly those in the plots of Master and Commander, The Reverse of the Medal and Blue at the Mizzen, are directly based on the chequered career of Thomas Cochrane. Often in the other 17 novels in the series,

Besides reaching the peak of naval skills and authority, Aubrey is presented as being interested in mathematics and astronomy, a great lover of music and player of the violin, a hearty singer and is generally accompanied by his friend and shipmate Stephen Maturin on the cello. He is noted for his mangling and mis-splicing of proverbs, sometimes with Maturin's involvement, such as “Never count the bear’s skin before it is hatched” and “There’s a good deal to be said for making hay while the iron is hot.”

Aubrey is played by Russell Crowe in the 2003 film Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World and by Michael Troughton and David Robb in the BBC Radio 4 adaptations of the novels.

Education and early life
Aubrey's mother died when he was a boy; he is an only child. His father General Aubrey lives a longer life, and is a character in some of the novels, often working against the career interest of his son with clumsy politics. In Master and Commander, Aubrey describes the efforts of his slightly older neighbour "Queeney" to teach him some Latin and the mathematics associated with a sailing ship and its navigation so that he could pass his examination for lieutenant, an event that happened before the first novel. Queeney's family had occupied Damplow when Aubrey was a boy, a house adjoining General Aubrey's estate ("they were almost in our park").

Queeney appears in Aubrey's life when she marries Lord Keith, who heads up the Mediterranean Fleet of the Royal Navy. In the first novel, Lord Keith gave him his promotion to master and commander and his first command, and Lord Keith is married to Queeney at that time. Queeney is the historic Hester Maria Elphinstone, Viscountess Keith, and in Queeney's mother the reader will recognise the historic Hester Thrale.

Early career
This section covers the career of Aubrey before the Aubrey-Maturin series, for more information on that period, see the individual books.

Like many officers in the British fleet, Aubrey spent much of his life raised on the sea, joining the navy very early: he was on the books at the age of nine and at sea when he was twelve. While a midshipman aboard HMS Resolution commanded by a friend of General Aubrey's, Captain Douglas, Jack was turned before the mast for hiding a girl aboard the ship. He spent six months as a common seaman before being re-rated as a midshipman. This was when Lord Keith was still Captain Elphinstone, therefore pre-1797.

Aubrey also spent some time as fifth lieutenant aboard HMS Hannibal (in service 1786–1801), under Captain John Newman. There, after insulting the first lieutenant, he was put in front of a board, with Lord Keith upon it, which reprimanded him for his "petulance," which led to Aubrey spending eight months ashore with half pay.

While second lieutenant aboard HMS Foudroyant (1798), Aubrey was the leader of the prize crew for the Généreux after it was captured by Nelson's fleet in 1800. He earned a silver Nile medal, having served as a lieutenant aboard HMS Leander during the battle of the Nile in 1798, mentioned in Master and Commander. The Nile Medal is mentioned whenever Aubrey wears his dress uniform. The Battle of the Nile was a major turning point in the long wars between the United Kingdom and Napoleon's France, in which dominance on the sea went to the United Kingdom. Horatio Nelson became a hero for his role in that 1798 battle.

Career and characteristics depicted in the novels
Aubrey is between twenty and thirty years old when the first story opens, a lieutenant passing time on the island of Minorca, at a musical performance. When he returns to his inn, his letter of promotion to master and commander awaits him. He is given his first command: a fourteen-gun brig-rigged sloop, HMS Sophie. He rises to the rank of post captain, though he is once struck off the Navy List, reinstated, then suspends himself in 1814 as peace comes in spring. As was the practice in the Royal Navy, once on the list of post captains, he moved up the list for promotion to admiral by the end of the series of novels, set during the Napoleonic Wars.

In his early career, according to HMS Surprise, Aubrey was not a skilled mathematician. In that book, he is described as learning mathematics and "...he studied the mathematics, and like some other late-developers he advanced at a great pace." In later books, Aubrey is presented as interested and skilled in mathematics and astronomy. He is also a great lover of music and player of the violin; he is a hearty singer. He is a man of even temperament, generally cheerful, sociable and alert to the feelings of his shipmates. He knows every aspect of the ships he sails and how best to gain speed over the oceans from each one by use of the sails without putting too much stress on the masts or yards (which would then break), a complex and hard-earned knowledge. He has been described as "the bluff and ultracompetent Aubrey". He feels the joy of battle; he is skilled in planning his attacks and in carrying them out, using cannon or hand-to-hand fighting. By contrast, he cannot watch his close friend, Dr Maturin, perform a surgery, and is sickened at the sight of blood on Maturin, the natural result of performing surgeries. On board ship, Aubrey on his violin is generally accompanied by his friend and shipmate Stephen Maturin on the cello. Aubrey is particularly fond of the music of Corelli and Boccherini. He is noted for his mangling and mis-splicing of proverbs, sometimes with Maturin's involvement, such as “Never count the bear’s skin before it is hatched” and “There’s a good deal to be said for making hay while the iron is hot.”

Maturin enters actively into the humour of fractured proverbs by the eighth novel, The Ionian Mission, as shown in this exchange between the two friends in Chapter 10: 'Why, as to that,' said Jack, blowing on his coffee-cup and staring out of the stern-window at the harbour, 'as to that ... if you do not choose to call him a pragmatical clinchpoop and kick his breech, which you might think ungenteel, perhaps you could tell him to judge the pudding by its fruit.' 'You mean, prove the tree by its eating.' 'No, no, Stephen, you are quite out: eating a tree would prove nothing. And then you might ask him, had he ever seen many poltroons in the Navy?' 'I am not quite sure what you mean by poltroons.'

Aubrey frequently mentions his respect of Lord Nelson, repeating a line he heard him say at a dinner in his early life in the navy, "Never mind manoeuvres, always go at them," in Chapter 3 of Master and Commander and in many of the subsequent novels, then quoted by Tom Pullings as "Never mind manoeuvres, always go straight at them." In one of his letters to his wife written from Boston, when Aubrey has a wounded right arm and can write to her only with his left hand, he couches this news of his injury to her as part of his desire to imitate Nelson in all things, except matrimonially, in Chapter 4 of The Fortune of War.

He enjoys the company of women. From the incident of keeping a girl aboard ship in his youth, unbeknownst to him, she was pregnant when he sailed away. Their son, Samuel Panda, appears in Aubrey's life fully grown and educated, a dark-skinned version of himself, but a Catholic priest. Before he knew of this young man, Aubrey married Sophia Williams, whom he met and courted in the peace of 1802, when he was on land. They married and had three children, twin daughters Fanny and Charlotte, and a son George. He loves his family, though most of the time he is away on a ship.

When his father dies, Jack Aubrey inherits the Aubrey family estate and the role of lord of the manor in The Letter of Marque. He displays extensive knowledge of the laws and practices surrounding that role in The Yellow Admiral, when he opposes enclosing the only commons left to the manor. His good connections with his neighbours in Woolcombe gain him a seat in Parliament from the pocket borough held by his neighbour Cousin Edward Norton; gaining that seat aided in his restoration to the Navy List. He sits as justice of the peace for certain local matters. This knowledge and well-tempered judgement seems to match with his skill in running a tight ship, a happy ship, and is a contrast to his financial faux pas. He can earn the money by taking rich prizes, but only with the help of his wife's good management and his lawyer's persistence at winning in lawsuits meant to take it from him, does the money stay in his hands for good uses.

Watches real battles, fights fictional battles
Aubrey is a prisoner of war with a perfect view of the naval battle in Algeciras Bay in Master and Commander. He is a passenger aboard HMS Java when she is captured by USS Constitution in The Fortune of War. Again a prisoner of war, Aubrey arrives in Boston aboard USS Constitution. He heals from a serious wound in Boston. He, Maturin and Diana Villiers escape aboard HMS Shannon, which defeats USS Chesapeake in Boston Harbor as part of the War of 1812, also in The Fortune of War. The battles in which Aubrey participates are inspired by real ship engagements, but not involving the same ships by name, or sometimes by exact date of the real encounter. An example of this is Aubrey's first command, HMS Sophie taking a far heavier Spanish frigate with 32 12-pound guns to the Sophie's 14 4-pounders and a crew of 319 compared to 56, which is very similar to an encounter of HMS Speedy under Cochrane in May 1801.

The taking of the two islands in The Mauritius Command is closely based on the actual Mauritius campaign of 1809–1811, and the encounter with the Spanish ships carrying gold from their South American colonies that closes the story in Post Captain, with Aubrey in temporary command of one of the British ships, closely matches the Battle of Cape Santa Maria, including the names of the British and Spanish ships in the encounter.

Most of his naval battles and adventures are drawn from actual Royal Navy history. Several of his exploits and reverses, most importantly those in the plots of Master and Commander, The Reverse of the Medal and Blue at the Mizzen, are directly based on the chequered career of Thomas Cochrane: as his friend the botanist and surgeon Stephen Maturin mused, "There was something of Cochrane in Jack, a restless impatience of authority, a strong persuasion of being in the right."

Ships commanded by Jack Aubrey
During the series of novels, Jack Aubrey commands a succession of many different vessels. Most of them are warships of the Royal Navy, prefixed HMS (His Majesty's Ship). On one occasion he commands an Honourable East India Company ship, and for some time after she is sold out of the service, the Surprise is a hired vessel working for the Royal Navy (HMHV), having been purchased by Stephen Maturin. The Franklin is a privateer Jack Aubrey captures and uses for a brief time before he sells it. The status of the Nutmeg of Consolation is undefined, as she belongs to Stamford Raffles, the Governor of Batavia. Although the names and characteristics of real Royal Navy ships are used in the novels, the ships often do not take the same cruises or appear in the same battles as they did in history. In his first memorable success, he uses the smaller HM Sloop Sophie to take a larger Spanish vessel. The battle action is based on Cochrane's similar feat as captain of the HM Sloop Speedy in 1800.

Awards and rewards
Aubrey earned the silver Nile medal and wore it on his dress uniform always (mentioned in nearly every novel when the dress uniform is donned). He earned it as a lieutenant in an action before the series began, in the 1798 Battle of the Nile. His portrait was painted to hang at home, showing him wearing the red ribbon of the Order of the Bath, described at the start of Desolation Island, after he returned from great success in The Mauritius Command. The Order of the Bath at that date was an order of knighthood and the recipient would invariably be titled "Sir" unless they had a higher title. However, O'Brian never refers to Aubrey as Sir John, nor does the author have any other character refer to him as Sir John, in any of the novels.

He also received an elaborate diamond chelengk, earned in The Ionian Mission from the Turks, and mentioned in Treason's Harbour as having been saved by Killick. He has a Lloyd's 100-guinea presentation sword, mentioned in the start of The Reverse of the Medal and in The Nutmeg of Consolation. The Order of the Bath ribbon is again mentioned in the unfinished novel The Final Unfinished Voyage of Jack Aubrey, when Aubrey is about to step aboard the ship flying his broad pennant as Rear Admiral of the Blue.

Aubrey is described with his military awards at the start of The Reverse of the Medal.

Grateful owners of merchant ships honoured Aubrey with gifts of silver plate and cash when his efforts protected their ships and cargo. In HMS Surprise, the merchants in Calcutta pay to refit his ship. In The Letter of Marque, Aubrey receives a gift of silver plate from the merchants whose ships had been harried by a French-American privateer captured by the Surprise, herself a British letter of marque.

Heraldry
The Aubreys were an old land holding family who owned various, though untitled, lordships of the manor. Their arms were azure, 3 sheep's heads erased, proper. In addition, Jack was granted the augmentation of 2 Moors' heads, proper, on this arms in honour of his success in the Mauritius campaign.

The complete achievement below shows Jack's awards: the silver Nile medal awarded by his hero Admiral Nelson and the insignia of a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath, which he is entitled to as he was given the Bath for the Mauritius Campaign (notional year above 1809) and so before the reorganization of the Order in 1815. Due to the reorganization in 1815, the existing Knights Companion (of which there were 60) became Knight Grand Cross. Knights Grand Cross and Knights Commander, as the earlier pre-1815 knights, have the privilege of prefixing "Sir" to their forenames. Wives of these Knights may prefix "Lady" to their surnames. However, neither Jack nor Sophie were ever called "Sir" or "Lady" in the novels. Knights Grand Cross are also entitled to receive heraldic supporters. O'Brian never mentioned any supporters for Jack's arms. Furthermore, knights grand cross may encircle their arms with a depiction of the circlet (a red circle bearing the motto) with the badge pendant and the collar; the former is shown either outside or on top of the latter. Also shown are crossed anchors and crossed flags representing Jack's rank in the Royal Navy, the right flag showing his final rank in the books as Rear Admiral of the Blue.

Portrayed in adaptations of the novels
Jack Aubrey is played by Russell Crowe in the 2003 film Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World. He is played by David Robb in the BBC Radio 4 adaptations of the novels. Played by Michael Troughton in BBC Radio 4 six part adaption "Master and Commander" (1995).

title: Jack Aubrey