text:
White-collar crime

The term "white-collar crime" refers to financially motivated, nonviolent or non-directly violent crime committed by individuals, businesses and government professionals. The crimes are believed to be committed by middle- or upper-class individuals for financial gains. It was first defined by the sociologist Edwin Sutherland in 1939 as "a crime committed by a person of respectability and high social status in the course of their occupation". Typical white-collar crimes could include wage theft, fraud, bribery, Ponzi schemes, insider trading, labor racketeering, embezzlement, cybercrime, copyright infringement, money laundering, identity theft, and forgery. White-collar crime overlaps with corporate crime.

Definitional issues
Modern criminology generally prefers to classify the type of crime and the topic:
 * By the type of offense, e.g., property crime, economic crime, and other corporate crimes like environmental and health and safety law violations. Some crime is only possible because of the identity of the offender, e.g., transnational money laundering requires the participation of senior officers employed in banks. But the FBI has adopted the narrow approach, defining white-collar crime as "those illegal acts which are characterized by deceit, concealment, or violation of trust and which are not dependent upon the application or threat of physical force or violence" (1989, 3). While the true extent and cost of white-collar crime are unknown, the FBI and the Association of Certified Fraud Examiners estimate the annual cost to the United States to fall between $300 and $660 billion.
 * By the type of offender, e.g., by social class or high socioeconomic status, the occupation of positions of trust or profession, or academic qualification, researching the motivations for criminal behavior, e.g., greed or fear of loss of face if economic difficulties become obvious. Shover and Wright point to the essential neutrality of a crime as enacted in a statute. It almost inevitably describes conduct in the abstract, not by reference to the character of the persons performing it. Thus, the only way that one crime differs from another is in the backgrounds and characteristics of its perpetrators.
 * By organizational culture rather than the offender or offense which overlaps with organized crime. Appelbaum and Chambliss offer a twofold definition:
 * Occupational crime which occurs when crimes are committed to promote personal interests, say, by altering records and overcharging, or by the cheating of clients by professionals.
 * Organizational or corporate crime which occurs when corporate executives commit criminal acts to benefit their company by overcharging or price fixing, false advertising, etc.

Blue-collar crime
The types of crime committed are a function of what is available to the potential offender. Thus, those employed in relatively unskilled environments have fewer opportunities to exploit than those who work in situations where large financial transactions occur. Blue-collar crime tends to be more obvious and thus attracts more active police attention such as vandalism or shoplifting. In contrast, white-collar employees can incorporate legitimate and criminal behavior, thus making themselves less obvious when committing the crime. Therefore, blue-collar crime will more often use physical force, whereas in the corporate world, the identification of a victim is less obvious and the issue of reporting is complicated by a culture of commercial confidentiality to protect shareholder value. It is estimated that a great deal of white-collar crime is undetected or, if detected, it is not reported.

Corporate crime
Corporate crime benefits the corporation (company or other type of business organization), rather than individuals. It may, however, result from decisions of high-ranking individuals within the corporation. Corporations are not, unlike individuals, litigated in criminal courts, which means the term "crime" does not really apply. Litigation usually takes place in civil courts or by institutions with jurisdiction over specific types of offences, such as the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission that litigates violations of financial market and investment statutes.

State-corporate crime
State-corporate crime is “illegal or socially injurious actions that occur when one or more institutions or political governance pursue a goal in direct cooperation with one or more institutions of economic production and distribution.” The negotiation of agreements between a state and a corporation will be at a relatively senior level on both sides, this is almost exclusively a white-collar "situation" which offers the opportunity for crime. Although law enforcement claims to have prioritized white-collar crime, evidence shows that it continues to be a low priority.

When senior levels of a corporation engage in criminal activity using the company this is sometimes called control fraud.

Organized transnational crime
Organized transnational crime is organized criminal activity that takes place across national jurisdictions, and with advances in transportation and information technology, law enforcement officials and policymakers have needed to respond to this form of crime on a global scale. Some examples include human trafficking, money laundering, drug smuggling, illegal arms dealing, terrorism, and cybercrime. Although it is impossible to precisely gauge transnational crime, the Millennium Project, an international think tank, assembled statistics on several aspects of transnational crime in 2009:
 * World illicit trade of almost $780 billion
 * Counterfeiting and piracy of $300 billion to $1 trillion
 * Global drug trade of $321 billion

Red-collar crime
When a white collar criminal turns violent, it becomes red collar crime. This can take the form of killing a witness in a fraud trial to silence them, or murdering someone who exposed the fraud, such as a journalist, detective or whistleblower. Perri and Lichtenwald defined red collar crime as follows:"“This sub-group is referred to as red-collar criminals because they straddle both the white-collar crime arena and, eventually, the violent crime arena. In circumstances where there is threat of detection, red-collar criminals commit brutal acts of violence to silence the people who have detected their fraud and to prevent further disclosure.”"According to a 2018 report by the Bureau of Labour Statistics, homicide is the third highest cause of death in the American workplace. The Atlantic magazine reported that red collar criminals often have traits of narcissism and psychopathy, which ironically, are seen as desirable qualities in the recruitment process. Even though it puts a company at risk of employing a white collar criminal.

One investigator, Richard G. Brody, said that the murders might be difficult to detect, being mistaken for accidents or suicides:

“Whenever I read about high-profile executives who are found dead, I immediately think red-collar crime,” he said. “Lots of people are getting away with murder.”

Occupational crime
Occupational crime is “any act punishable by law that is committed through opportunity created on the course of an occupation that is legal.” Individuals may commit crime during employment or unemployment. The two most common forms are theft and fraud. Theft can be of varying degrees, from a pencil to furnishings to a car. Insider trading, the trading of stock by someone with access to publicly unavailable information, is a type of fraud.

Crimes related to national interests
The crimes related to the national interests consist mainly of treason. In the modern world, there are a lot of nations which divide the crimes into some laws. "Crimes Related to Inducement of Foreign Aggression" is the crime of communicating with aliens secretly to cause foreign aggression or menace. "Crimes Related to Foreign Aggression" is the treason of co-operating with foreign aggression positively regardless of the national inside and outside. "Crimes Related to Insurrection" is the internal treason. Depending on a country, criminal conspiracy is added to these. One example is Jho Low, a mega thief and traitor who stole billions in USA currency from a Malaysian government fund and is now on a run as a fugitive.

Demographics
According to a 2016 American study, "A considerable percentage of white-collar offenders are gainfully employed middle-aged Caucasian men who usually commit their first whitecollar offense sometime between their late thirties through their mid-forties and appear to have middle-class backgrounds. Most have some higher education, are married, and have moderate to strong ties to community, family, and religious organizations. Whitecollar offenders usually have a criminal history, including infractions that span the spectrum of illegality, but many do not overindulge in vice. Recent research examining the five-factor personality trait model determined that white-collar offenders tend to be more neurotic and less agreeable and conscientious than their non-criminal counterparts."""

Punishment
In the United States, sentences for white-collar crimes may include a combination of imprisonment, fines, restitution, community service, disgorgement, probation, or other alternative punishment. These punishments grew harsher after the Jeffrey Skilling and Enron scandal, when the Sarbanes–Oxley Act of 2002 was passed by the United States Congress and signed into law by President George W. Bush, defining new crimes and increasing the penalties for crimes such as mail and wire fraud. Sometimes punishment for these crimes could be hard to determine due to the fact that convincing the courts that what the offender has done is challenging within itself. In other countries, such as China, white-collar criminals can be given the death penalty under aggravating circumstances, yet some countries have a maximum of 10–25 years imprisonment. Certain countries like Canada consider the relationship between the parties to be a significant feature on sentence when there is a breach of trust component involved. Questions about sentencing disparity in white-collar crime continue to be debated. The FBI, concerned with identifying this type of offense, collects statistical information on several different fraud offenses (swindles and cons, credit card or ATM fraud, impersonation, welfare fraud, and wire fraud), bribery, counterfeiting and forgery, and embezzlement.

In the United States, the longest sentences for white-collar crimes have included the following: Sholam Weiss (845 years for racketeering, wire fraud and money laundering in connection with the collapse of National Heritage Life Insurance Company); Norman Schmidt and Charles Lewis (330 years and 30 years, respectively, for "high-yield investment" scheme); Bernard Madoff (150 years for $65 billion fraud scheme); Frederick Brandau (55 years for $117 million Ponzi scheme); Martin Sigillito (40 years for $56 million Ponzi scheme); Eduardo Masferrer (30 years for accounting fraud); Chalana McFarland (30 years for mortgage fraud scheme); Lance Poulsen (30 years for $2.9 billion fraud).

Theories
From the perspective of an offender, the easiest targets to entrap in "white collar" crime are those with certain degree of vulnerability or those with symbolic or emotional value to the offender. Examples of these people can be family members, clients, and close friends who are wrapped up in personal or business proceedings with the offender. The way that most criminal operations are conducted is through a series of different particular techniques. In this case, a technique is a certain way to complete a desired task. When one is committing a crime, whether it be shoplifting or tax fraud, it is always easier to successfully pull off the task with experience in the technique. Shoplifters who are experienced at stealing in plain sight are much more successful than those who do not know how to steal. The major difference between a shoplifter and someone committing a white collar crime is that the techniques used are not physical but instead consist of acts like talking on the phone, writing, and entering data.

Often these criminals utilize the "blame game theory", a theory in which certain strategies are utilized by an organization or business and its members in order to strategically shift blame by pushing responsibility to others or denying misconduct. This theory is particularly used in terms of organizations and indicates that offenders often do not take blame for their actions. Many members of organizations will try to absolve themselves of responsibility when things go wrong.

Forbes Magazine lays out four theories for what leads a criminal to commit a "white collar" crime. The first is that there are poorly designed job incentives for the criminal. Most finance professionals are given a certain type of compensation or reward for short-term mass profits. If a company incentivizes an employee to help commit a crime, such as assisting in a Ponzi Scheme, many employees will partake in order to receive the reward or compensation. Often, this compensation is given in the form of a cash "bonus" on top of their salaries. By doing a task in order to receive a reward, many employees feel as though they are not responsible for the crime, as they have not ordered it. The "blame game theory" comes into play as those being asked to carry out the illegal activities feel as though they can place the blame on their bosses instead of themselves. The second theory is that the company's management is very relaxed when it comes to enforcing ethics. If unethical practices are already a commonplace in the business, employees will see that as a "green light" to conduct unethical and unlawful business practices to further the business. This idea also ties into Forbes' third theory, that most stock traders see unethical practices as harmless. Many see white collar crime as a victimless crime, which is not necessarily true. Since many of these stock traders cannot see the victims of their crimes, it seems as if it hurts no one. The last theory is that many firms have unrealistic, large goals. They preach the mentality that employees should "do what it takes".

title: White-collar crime


text:
John Cheke

Sir John Cheke (or Cheek; 16 June 1514 – 13 September 1557) was an English classical scholar and statesman. One of the foremost teachers of his age, and the first Regius Professor of Greek at the University of Cambridge, he played a great part in the revival of Greek learning in England. He was tutor to Prince Edward, the future King Edward VI, and also sometimes to Princess Elizabeth. Of strongly Reformist sympathy in religious affairs, his public career as provost of King's College, Cambridge, Member of Parliament and briefly as Secretary of State during King Edward's reign was brought to a close by the accession of Queen Mary in 1553. He went into voluntary exile abroad, at first under royal licence (which he overstayed). He was captured and imprisoned in 1556, and recanted his faith to avoid death by burning. He died not long afterward, reportedly regretting his decision.

Origins and earlier career
The Cheke or Cheeke family is said to have originated in Northamptonshire and to be descended from Sir William de Butevillar. At the time of John's birth, the family seat had been, for more than a century, at Mottistone in the Isle of Wight. John's father, Peter Cheke of Cambridge (the son of Robert Cheke of Mottistone), was Esquire Bedell of the University of Cambridge from 1509 until his death in 1529. John's mother was Agnes Duffield, daughter of Andrew Duffield of Cambridge: John was born in that city in 1514, and had five sisters, Ann, Alice, Elizabeth, Magdalen, and Mary. His grammatical education was begun by John Morgan, M.A. He was educated at St John's College, where he proceeded to receive a B.A. in 1529, and obtained a Fellowship. He commenced with an M.A. in 1533. His tutor was George Day, who became an opponent of the Edwardian Reformation.

At university, Cheke, and his friend, Thomas Smith (a student of Civil Law at Queens' College), were thought so outstanding that each was granted an exhibition by King Henry to support them in their studies. Both were largely impressed by the classical learning of John Redman, who had studied in Paris, and sought to emulate him. Both Queens' College (where the influence of Erasmus remained) and St John's fostered Reformist principles which Cheke and Smith embraced.

During the early 1530s Cheke and Smith studied together privately to restore proper definition to the pronunciation of ancient Greek diphthongs, which by custom had become obscured. The language itself, its cadences and inflexions of meaning, thereby gained new life and the works of the ancient scholars and orators were freshly received and understood. Smith, giving Greek lectures from 1533, around 1535 began to make public trial of these effects, and soon gained a following. Smith's student John Poynet, succeeding his tutor, maintained the new pronunciation in his lectures: both Cheke and Smith began to coach students in their method, and the Plutus of Aristophanes was acted at St. John's in the new manner. After Poynet as Greek Reader came Roger Ascham, Cheke's student, who read Isocrates, at first disputing but afterwards coming round fully to the innovations, which also won the approval of John Redman.

Academic manoeuvres
Through the mediation of Matthew Parker, Cheke obtained the support of Anne Boleyn for his student William Bill to continue his studies. After a year as Master of St John's, and as University Vice-Chancellor, George Day was appointed by King Henry to be provost of King's College in 1538, Smith having become University Orator in 1537 in succession to him. In 1540, at the King's creation of the Regius Professorships, Smith was made Professor of Law, Cheke Professor of Greek, and John Blythe (of King's College) Professor of Physick. Blythe married Alice, one of Cheke's sisters, before 1536, and in 1541 William Cecil (afterwards Lord Burleigh), Cheke's distinguished student, married Mary Cheke, another. (Mary Cecil died two years later, leaving Cecil with a son, Thomas Cecil.) In 1542 one "Mistress Cheke" was still resident in the Cheke home at Market Hill, Cambridge.

In June 1542, Bishop Gardiner, as chancellor of the university, issued his Edict to all who recognized his authority that the sounds customarily used for the pronunciation of Greek or Latin should not be changed by anyone, and gave a list of them with phonetic explanations. He pronounced severe and potentially exclusionist penalties at all levels of the academic hierarchy for those who contravened this ruling, and further wrote to the vice-chancellor requiring that his edict be observed. Cheke, as one of the principal targets of Gardiner's disapproval, entered into a correspondence of seven letters with him, but the Bishop remained inflexible. However the seeds of his method had been sown, and took root. At that time the letters remained unpublished.

In that year Cheke was incorporated M.A. at the University of Oxford, being made a canon of King Henry VIII's College. In 1544 he succeeded Smith as Public Orator in the University of Cambridge. Day, consecrated Bishop of Chichester in 1543, remained provost of King's. At this time Cheke prepared his Latin translation (dedicated to the King) of the De Apparatu Bellico of the Byzantine Emperor Leo VI, often sharing and talking over his work with Roger Ascham. Thomas Hoby was then one of his pupils. Cheke's reading and thought in the Greek Histories, and his use of them to extract examples of policy and conduct, can be studied in his annotations to print copies (from the Aldine Press) of Herodotus and Thucydides.

In 1543 and 1545, his Latin versions of the homilies of St John Chrysostom were published, opening with a letter of dedication to his patron the King. On 10 June 1544 Cheke was appointed tutor to the future King Edward VI of England, as a supplement to his tutor Dr Richard Cox, to teach him "of toungues, of the scripture, of philosophie and all liberal sciences" (as the Prince wrote in his Journal ), and commenced his duties at Hampton Court soon afterwards. At the Prince's invitation, the young Henry Hastings shared in his studies. Roger Ascham felt strongly Cheke's absence from the university, where his example was so inspirational. Special interest has been found in Cheke's lengthy preface to his Latin translation of Plutarch's De Superstitione, prepared as a New Year's gift for the King in 1545 or 1546.

Edward's tutor in French, the Huguenot Jean Belmain, was Cheke's nephew by marriage. Ascham's pupil William Grindal was, at his recommendation to Cheke, chosen to read Greek to Princess Elizabeth, until his untimely death in 1548. By that time William Bill was Master of St John's, and John Redman Master of the newly-founded Trinity College (1546), in which Bill succeeded him in 1551.

On 11 May 1547, Cheke married Mary, daughter of Richard Hill (formerly Sergeant of the Wine-cellar to Henry VIII) and now stepdaughter of Sir John Mason. Cheke's religious and scholarly purpose bore fruit in the highest quarters. Gerard Langbaine the elder expressed it thus:"'under God M. Cheek was a speciall instrument of the propagation of the Gospell, & that Religion which we now professe in this Kingdome. For he not only sowed the seeds of that Doctrine in the heart of Prince EDWARD, which afterwards grew up into a generall Reformation when he came to be King, but by his meanes the same saveing truth was gently instilled into the Lady ELIZABETH, by those who by his procurement were admitted to be the Guides of her younger Studies.'"

Status and compromise
Upon the accession of Edward to the throne Cheke, now Schoolmaster to the King, was made a Gentleman of the Privy Chamber, being allowed an annuity of £100 from the Augmentations in August. On 1 October, he was returned to Parliament as a member for Bletchingley, Sussex, probably under the patronage of Sir Thomas Cawarden. He was very soon placed in a compromise by Thomas Seymour (brother of the Duke of Somerset), who had drafted a letter as from the King to the Lords of the Parliament House seeking their approval to separate the offices of Lord Protector and Lord Regent, and to appoint Thomas Seymour himself as Protector. He urged Cheke to pass the letter to the King and to induce him to sign it, which Cheke refused to do, stating that Lord Paget had prohibited any such dealings. At Christmas, Seymour followed this up with a gift of £40 to Cheke, half for himself and half for the King. Seymour approached the King himself without success: Edward took Cheke's advice, and refused to sign it.

On 1 April 1548 Cheke was chosen by special mandate of the King, overriding university statutes, to replace his former tutor George Day as provost of King's College. He received by purchase a large grant of lands in London and elsewhere, including the site of the former College of St John the Baptist at Stoke-by-Clare in Suffolk, in October 1548. Matthew Parker, its dean, had established a school there, and after its superstitious constitution had been dissolved he advised Cheke on its condition and maintenance.

The Seymour affair came to a head in January 1548/9, when Thomas Seymour was formally charged with using improper means to influence King Edward, and Cheke became implicated as his likely accomplice. On 11 January Cheke came near to losing his office as schoolmaster to the King. Seymour confessed the gift, but on 20 February Cheke exonerated himself by an honest declaration of his dealings in the matter. Unfortunately, Mistress Cheke offended the Duchess of Somerset in the course of these proceedings; an apology had to be made. Following Seymour's execution in March Cheke retreated to Cambridge for a time, tending his library and readjusting his circumstances, aware that he had come near to losing his position (as his letter to Peter Osborne indicates). Other royal preceptors, Sir Anthony Cooke or Dr. Cox, maintained the young King's instruction.

In the Epistle to his Arte of Logique (published 1551), Thomas Wilson speaks of Cheke and Cooke as "your Maiesties teachers and Scholemaisters in all good litterature".

The antiquary Francis Blomefield dates to 1550 Cheke's receipt of a 21-year lease of the manor and rectory of Rushworth, Norfolk (a former collegiate estate established by the Gonville family ), which he re-leased to his brother-in-law, George Alyngton, of Stoke-by-Clare.

Religious reform: friends and rewards
In discharge of their Commission, in May–July 1549 the Bishops Goodrich of Ely and Ridley of Rochester, Sir William Paget and Sir Thomas Smith, John Cheke and two others conducted the King's Visitation of the University of Cambridge to investigate and amend statutes tending towards ignorance and Romish superstition. William Bill was now Master of St John's and vice-chancellor. On 6 May Cheke delivered the King's statute before the University Senate. Colleges were visited, complaints were heard, investigated and acted upon; two disputations (20 and 25 June) were held in the Philosophy Schools upon the question of the Real Presence in the Sacrament. Their business concluded, the congress broke up on 8 July.

In that year Cheke published his lasting work The Hurt of Sedition, in the aftermath of the suppression of Kett's rebellion. This made plain his full commitment to the Edwardian reform and its authority. He was chosen one of 8 divines, among 32 Commissioners, to draw up a reform of laws for the governance of the Church. The Latin form of their report, which Cheke prepared with Walter Haddon, remained long unpublished. He returned to London, giving evidence at the examination of Bishop Bonner in September 1549, and sitting in the Parliamentary third session, towards the close of which he was granted property in Lincolnshire and Suffolk worth £118 a year for his care in the King's instruction. In April 1550, following Somerset's fall, Cheke was given licence to keep 50 retainers. In May he acquired the manor and town of Dunton Wayletts in Essex, and the manors of Preston and Hoo in Sussex, from John Poynet. He obtained for Roger Ascham the role of secretary to Sir Richard Morison's Embassy to Emperor Charles V.

Archbishop Cranmer reputedly told Cheke that he might be glad all the days of his life to have such a scholar as the Prince, "for he hathe more divinitie in his litle fynger, then all we have in al our bodies." Cheke meanwhile prepared a Latin version of the first Book of Common Prayer, the form in which Peter Martyr read it when consulted over its review by Cranmer. Peter Martyr doubted if the bishops would approve it, but Cheke foreknew the King's determination to implement it. In October 1550 his friend Martin Bucer, Cambridge Regius Professor of Divinity (who was indebted to Cheke for some favour offered by the King towards his countryman Johann Sleidan), presented him with the draft manuscript of his De Regno Christi (which remained unpublished until 1557).

With Sir Thomas Smith, William Cecil, Sir Anthony Wingfield, Sir Thomas Wroth and Sir Ralph Sadler, Cheke gave evidence at the interrogation and deprivation of Stephen Gardiner in January 1551. At that time he was appointed to a weighty Commission to inquire into, amend and punish heresies, renewed in the following year. Martin Bucer died in February. In May 1551 Cheke's annuity was cancelled, and in its place he received an enhanced grant of Stoke-by-Clare with its former lands and dependencies in Suffolk, Essex, Norfolk, Lincolnshire, Huntingdon, etc, with other properties, worth £192 per annum, for his industry in teaching the King. He was serving as commissioner for relief in Cambridgeshire, and, having conducted a Visitation of Eton in September, he and his brother-in-law Cecil (now a Secretary of State and chancellor of the Order of the Garter) on 11 October received knighthoods, the day upon which the Earl of Warwick was created Duke of Northumberland, and others of the nobility were advanced.

Shortly thereafter Cheke took part in two important private disputations upon the Real Presence, one at Cecil's house and the second at Sir Richard Morison's, held as a preparation for the review of the Prayer Book to be conducted in 1552. Among the auditors were Sir Thomas Wroth, Sir Anthony Cooke, Lord Russell and Sir Nicholas Throckmorton, and the debate lay between Cheke, Cecil, Edmund Grindal and others, against the presence, and John Feckenham, Dr Yong and others upholding it. The matter of the debates was printed by John Strype. The commission for examination of ecclesiastical laws, as required by Act of Parliament, was issued on 12 February. At this time Cheke, who had the books and papers of Martin Bucer, was attempting to build up the royal Library, and at the death of his friend and admirer John Leland, the antiquary, in April 1552 acquired his materials for the same purpose. Having suffered a severe inflammation of the lungs in May 1552, he held a further disputation in Cambridge upon the doctrine of the Harrowing of Hell, with Christopher Carlile, before joining a royal progress. In July 1552, he was granted a special licence to shoot at certain fowl and deer with crossbow or hand-gun; in August he was created Chamberlain of the Receipt of the King's Exchequer, in the place of Anthony Wingfield, deceased, with a lifetime authority to appoint its officers (he entered office on 12 September 1552), and was also awarded the wardship and marriage of the heir of Sir Thomas Barnardiston.

In mid-September he received from Archbishop Cranmer the Forty-two Articles prepared for the revision of the Prayer-Book with the instruction to discuss them with Cecil and to set them in order. Being approved by the Convocation they were published in 1553: in the same period Cheke had apparently prepared the Latin translation of Cranmer's Defence of the True and Catholic Doctrine of the Sacrament of 1550, and this too was published in 1553.

During 1552, he was visited in London by Girolamo Cardano, who lodged with him. Cheke was, like others of his time, somewhat given to judicial astrology. John Dee claimed that Cheke had declared his 'good liking' of him to William Cecil.

At least two horoscopes of Cheke's birth exist, one by Sir Thomas White and one by Cardano. Cardano's observations on Cheke were published in his De Genituris Liber.

Cheke gave him some exact dates concerning events in his life, and Cardano described him as a slender, manly figure with fine skin of good colour, well-set and sharp eyes, of noble bearing, handsome and hirsute.

Apotheosis
Cheke was returned again for the Parliament of March 1553, and was at about that time a clerk of the Privy Council. In May 1553 he was further rewarded for his services to the King's education both in childhood and in youth, by the grant of the manor of Clare, Suffolk and the fees of various possessions of the Honour of Clare in Suffolk, Cambridgeshire and Huntingdonshire, worth £100 per annum. As the King's health declined and the question of succession became imminent, on 2 June 1553 Cheke was sworn as one of the principal Secretaries of State and took his place in the Privy Council. If that had been in anticipation of the resignation of Sir William Petre or Sir William Cecil, in the event neither resigned and there were for that time three Secretaries, all of whom signed the Engagement of the Council written out by Petre to certify the King's appointment of the succession, and the Duke of Northumberland's Letters Patent to that effect, dated 21 June 1553.

In Edward's last weeks Sir Thomas Wroth enfeoffed Cheke, and members of his own family, with his estates to the uses of his Wroth descendants, probably anticipating the danger of dispossession.

Roger Ascham wrote from Brussels to congratulate Cheke on future hopes for the King's reign, but too late. The King died on 6 July and Lady Jane Grey was proclaimed Queen on the 10th. Cheke remained as her Secretary of State and was loyal to her to the last. The council received a letter from Mary dated 9 July, from Kenninghall in Norfolk, stating her claim to the throne and demanding their loyalty. Sir John Cheke composed the reply of the same date, signed by the Lords of the council, informing her of Jane's rightful succession, of the witnessed and sealed deeds declaring the late King's will, and of their duty to her. He was present at the proclamation of Queen Mary on 19 July, hours after he had written to Lord Rich on behalf of the council to ensure his loyalty to Jane. He bowed to the inevitable.

Among the numerous arrests which followed, Sir John Cheke and the Duke of Suffolk (Queen Jane's father) were taken on 27 or 28 July 1553 and imprisoned in the Tower, articles of indictment being drawn up against him two weeks later. Cranmer, also imprisoned, wrote to Cecil for news of Cheke's welfare.

Following the executions of the Duke of Northumberland and Sir John Gates on 22 August, Mary's initial response was one of clemency. Cheke was released from the Tower on 13 September 1553. He ceased to be provost of King's College, Cambridge. His office in the Exchequer was granted to Robert Strelley in November 1553 and to Henry, Lord Stafford in February 1554. Cheke's property was seized, but in the spring of 1554 he was granted licence to go abroad. By the time his pardon for offences before 1 October 1553 was granted, on 28 April 1554, he had already left England.

Marian exile
Travelling under licence in early spring 1554, Cheke took with him Sir Thomas Wroth and Sir Anthony Cooke (who were not under licence), going first in April to Strasbourg and thence to Basel. There he met Caelius Secundus Curio, a distinguished Italian humanist, who had sent books and a greeting to Cheke in 1547. Cheke explained to him his system of Greek pronunciation and entrusted to him the correspondence between himself and Stephen Gardiner on that subject. By July 1554 they were in Italy, where at Padua he gave lectures upon Demosthenes in Greek to English students, met with Sir Thomas Wylson and many others, and entertained Sir Philip Hoby. Wroth, Cheke and Cooke, with their companies, joined with the Hoby party on an excursion to Mantua and Ferrara, returning to Padua in late November.

The following August, the Hobys' company having proceeded to Caldero beside Verona, Wroth and Cheke joined them there from Padua, avoiding a fresh outbreak of the plague, and they progressed north together through Rovereto, Innsbruck and Munich to Augsburg, where they arrived on 28 August 1555. After this the Hobys went on to Frankfurt, but Wroth and Cheke diverted to Strasbourg, and remained there, Cheke being chosen public Professor of the Greek tongue. During 1555 his correspondence with Bishop Gardiner on the Greek pronunciation was published at Basel by Curio without his knowledge; but not without provocation to Bishop Gardiner, now Lord Chancellor, and to his doctrine. Cheke remained in correspondence with Sir William Cecil at this time. Cheke may also have been in Emden to supervise the publication of his Latin edition of Thomas Cranmer's Defence of the True and Catholic Doctrine of the Sacrament of the Body and Blood of Christ and other Reformist publications.

In the spring of 1556 he visited Brussels to make a rendezvous with his wife, and, under promise of safe conduct, to meet with Lord Paget and Sir John Mason, his wife's stepfather. In the return journey, between Brussels and Antwerp, he and Sir Peter Carew were seized on 15 May 1556, by order of Philip II of Spain, and returned unceremoniously to England, where they were imprisoned in the Tower. In Cheke's words, he was "taken as it were in a whirlwind from the place he was in, and brought over sea, and never knew whither he went till he found himself in the Tower of London." John Poynet considered that Paget and Mason had treacherously arranged the arrest, causing them to be "taken by the Provost Marshall, spoiled of their horses, and clapt into a cart, their legs, arms, and bodies tyed with halters to the body of the cart, and so carried to the sea-side, and from thence into the Tower of London."

Imprisonment, recantation and death
Cheke, whose wife was allowed to attend him, was visited by two priests and by Dr John Feckenham, Dean of St Paul's, with whom he had formerly disputed. Cheke wrote to the Queen expressing his willingness to obey her laws. Feckenham attempted to intercede for him, but nothing less than a full recantation, in prescribed terms, was acceptable to Mary. The fates of so many, of John Bradford, Rowland Taylor, Ridley, Latimer and Cranmer stood newly before him. In early September 1556 he wrote a submission to the Queen which Her Majesty approved, though he was made to write it out again for having failed to mention King Philip: Feckenham sent him some notes on the real presence. He agreed to be received into the Church of Rome by Cardinal Pole, and, following a public oration by John Feckenham, made his public recantation on 4 October 1556. John Foxe continues:"'Then after his recantation, hee was thorough the craftie handlyng of the catholikes, allured first to dine and company with them, at length drawen unwares to sit in place, where the pore Martyrs were brought before Boner and other Bishops to bee condemned, the remorse whereof so mightely wrought in his hart, that not longe after he lefte this mortal life. Whose fall although it was full of infirmitie, yet his rising again by repentaunce was greate, and his ende comfortable, the Lorde bee praised.'"

In the wake of his recantation the confiscated freehold properties in the eastern counties granted to him by King Edward VI were restored to him but immediately exchanged for other freehold lands in Suffolk, Devon and Somerset providing for an annual return of almost £250. He surrendered ownership of the Manor of Barnardiston to Queen Mary on 31 May 1557. In July 1557, living at Peter Osborne's house in Wood Street (Cheapside), he wrote to Sir Thomas Hoby thanking him for inviting his editorial comments on Hoby's translation of The Courtier (Il Cortegiano) of Baldassare Castiglione, over the Preface to which he had taken some pains. An advocate of English linguistic purism, he remarked "our own tung shold be written cleane and pure, vnmixt and vnmangeled with borowing of other tunges... For then doth our tung naturallie and praisablie vtter her meaning"; and he complimented Hoby on the 'roundness' of his 'saienges and welspeakinges'.

His brief will, providing for an annuity of £10 for his son Henry's continuing education, making his wife and his friend and kinsman Peter Osborne (husband of Cheke's niece Anne Blythe) his executors and his "deerely beloved" Sir John Mason his overseer, was written on 13 September 1557. Mylady Cheke, Mistress Osborne and his son's schoolmaster William Irelande (a distinguished early pupil of Roger Ascham's ) were among the witnesses. He died, aged 43, on the same day, at Osborne's house in London, carrying, as Thomas Fuller remarked, "God's pardon and all good men's pity along with him." The will was proved on 18 January following. He was buried at St Alban, Wood Street and had a memorial inscription there, written by Walter Haddon, recorded by Gerard Langbaine:

Roger Ascham remembered him as "My dearest frend, and best master that ever I had or heard in learning, Syr I. Cheke, soch a man, as if I should live to see England breed the like againe, I feare, I should live over long..." Thomas Wilson, in the epistle prefixed to his translation of the Olynthiacs of Demosthenes (1570), has a long and interesting eulogy of Cheke; and Thomas Nashe, in a preface to Robert Greene's Menaphon (1589), called him "the Exchequer of eloquence, Sir John Cheke, a man of men, supernaturally traded in all tongues." The antiquary John Gough Nichols, who (after John Strype) developed historiographical understanding of Sir John Cheke, called him "in many respects, one of the most interesting personages of the century."

Portraits
A portrait of Sir John Cheke is attributed to Claude Corneille de Lyon. The line engraving attributed to Willem de Passe, published in 1620, might be based on an earlier portrait. The Joseph Nutting engraving published in Strype's Life of 1705 apparently derives from the same source as a later engraving by James Fittler, A.R.A., after a drawing by William Skelton, itself said to be based on an original picture at Ombersley Court, Worcestershire, formerly in possession of the Dowager Marchioness of Devonshire. The portrait formerly in the collection of the Dukes of Manchester at Kimbolton Castle was sold at Christie's in 2020.

Children

 * Henry Cheke (c. 1548–1586) married first Frances Radclyffe (sister of Edward Radclyffe), by whom he had three sons and two daughters, and second Frances daughter of Marmaduke Constable of York. He became a member of parliament and travelled in Italy in 1576–79. He was the translator of Francesco Negri's Italian morality play, Libero Arbitrio, as Freewyl.
 * (Sir) Thomas Cheke, son of Henry, was also a member of parliament and settled at Pyrgo in Essex. He married Lady Essex Rich (daughter of Robert Rich, 1st Earl of Warwick), and was the father of Essex Cheke.
 * John Cheke (died 1580) was in the retinue of his uncle Lord Burghley for at least six years, but become impatient of his life and persuaded his master to release him so that he could take up the life of a soldier. He was killed in 1580 by a Spanish sniper during the siege of Dún An Óir (the Fort del Ore at Smerwick in the Dingle Peninsula of County Kerry). He died without issue.
 * Edward Cheke. He was living at his father's death, but died without issue.

Writings
Gerard Langbaine gives this list of his writings:

 * Original
 * Introductio Grammaticus, 1 book
 * De Ludimagistrorum Officio, 1 book
 * De pronunciatione linguae Graecae.
 * Corrections to Herodotus, Thucidides, Plato, Demosthenes, and Xenophon. Many books
 * Epitaphia, 1 book
 * Panegyricum in nativitatem EDVARDI Principis.
 * Elegia de Aegrotatione et Obitu EDVARDI VI.
 * In obitum Antonii Denneii, 1 book
 * De obitu Buceri.
 * Commentarii in Psalmum CXXXIX et alios.
 * An liceat nubere post Divortium, 1 book
 * De Fide Iustificante, 1 book
 * De Aqua Lustrali, Cineribus, et Palmis, ad [Stephen Gardiner] Wintoniensem, 1 book
 * De Eucharistiae Sacramento, 1 book
 * He collected the arguments and rationales in Parliament on either side in the question of the Eucharist.
 * He edited a book on The Hurt of Sedition.

 * Translations from Greek into Latin
 * Euripides and Sophocles quaedam ad literam.
 * Aristotle De Anima.
 * Demosthenes Olynthiacs, Philippics, and Contra Leptinem.
 * Aeschines and Demosthenes, Orationes adversariae.
 * Plutarch, De Superstitione.
 * Leo Imperator, De Apparatu Bellico.
 * Josephus, De Antiquitatibus Iudaicis.
 * St John Chrysostom, Homilies:
 * Contra Observatores Novilunii, 1 book, and De Dormientibus in Christo, 1 book.
 * De Providentia Dei, 3 books, and De Fato, 3 books.
 * St Maximus, Monachi Asceticum.

 * Translations from English into Latin
 * Thomas Cranmer Liber de Sacramentis.
 * Officium de Communione.

An edition of his English translation of the Gospel of St Matthew appeared in 1843.

Many of Cheke's works are still in manuscript: some have been altogether lost.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: John Cheke


text:
Robert Kett

Robert Kett (c. 1492 – December 7, 1549) was the leader of Kett's Rebellion.

Kett was the fourth son of Thomas Kett, of Forncett, Norfolk and his wife Margery. He is thought to have been a tanner, but he certainly held the manor of Wymondham in Norfolk. With his brother William he led the men of Wymondham in their quarrel with John Flowerdew, the father of Edward Flowerdew. They tore down the enclosure fences Flowerdew had erected on the Hethersett common, and having thus come into prominence, he headed the men of Norfolk when they rose in rebellion in 1549 owing to the hardships inflicted by the extensive enclosures of common lands and by the general policy of Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset, then Lord Protector. A feast held at Wymondham in July 1549 developed into a riot and gave the signal for the outbreak. Leading his followers to Norwich, Kett formed a camp on Mousehold Heath, where he is said to have commanded 16,000 men, introduced a regular system of discipline, administered justice and blockaded the region. The 29 clauses of the Petition survives and the petition is below. It is notable in reflecting the language of the new religion, in line with the Lord Protector’s inclinations; and in its carefully diplomatic format of requesting changes. Broadly speaking, the clauses seek:

 * To limit the power of the gentry
 * To restrain rapid economic change
 * Prevent the over use of communal resources
 * And remodel the values of the clergy, echoing Somerset’s religious radicalism

 * 1) We pray your grace that where it is enacted for enclosing that it be not hurtful to such as have enclosed saffron grounds for they be greatly chargeable to them, and that from henceforth no man shall enclose any more.
 * 2) We certify your grace that whereas the lords of the manors have been charged with certain free rent, the same lords have sought means to charge the freeholders to pay the same rent, contrary to right.
 * 3) We pray your grace that no lord of no manor shall common upon the common.
 * 4) We pray that priests from henceforth shall purchase no lands neither free nor bond, and the lands that they have in possession may be letten to temporal men, as they were in the first year of the reign of King Henry VII.
 * 5) We pray that all the marshes that are held of the king’s majesty by free rent or of any other, may be at such price as they were in the first year of King Henry VII.
 * 6) We pray that reed ground and meadow ground may be at such price as they were in the first year of King Henry VII.
 * 7) We pray that all bushels within your realm be of one stice, that is to say, to be in measure VIII gallons.
 * 8) We pray that priests or vicars that be not able to preach and set forth the word of God to his parishioners may be thereby put from his benefice, and the parishioners there to choose another or else patron or lord of the town.
 * 9) We pray that the payments of castle ward rent, blanch farm, and office lands, which hath been accustomed to be gathered of the tenements, whereas we suppose the lords ought to pay the same to their bailiffs for their rents gathering, and not the tenants.
 * 10) We pray that no man under the degree of a knight or esquire keep a dove house, except it hath been of an old ancient custom.
 * 11) We pray that all freeholders and copyholders may take the profits of all commons, and there to common, and the lords not to common nor take profits of the same.
 * 12) We pray that no feodary within your shores shall be a counselor to any man in his office making, whereby the king may be truly served, so that a man being of good conscience may be yearly chosen to the same office by the commons of the same shire.
 * 13) We pray your grace to take all liberty of leet your own hands whereby all men may quietly enjoy their commons with all profits.
 * 14) We pray that copyhold land that is unreasonable rented may go as it did in the first year of King Henry VII. And that at the death of a tenant, or of a sale the same lands to be charged with an easy fine as a capon or a reasonable sum of money for a remembrance.
 * 15) We pray that no priest shall hold no other office to any man of honour or worship, but only to be resident upon their benefices, whereby their parishioners may be instructed within the laws of God.
 * 16) We pray that all bond men may be made free, for God made all free with his precious bloodshedding.
 * 17) We pray that Rivers may be free and common to all men for fishing and passage.
 * 18) We pray that no man shall be put by your Feudatory to find any office, unless he holdeth of your grace in chief, or capite above 10 by year.
 * 19) We pray that the poor mariners or fishermen may have the whole profits of their fishings such as porpoises, grampuses, whales, or any great fish so it be not prejudicial to your grace.
 * 20) We pray that every proprietary parson or vicar having a benefice of 10 or more by year, shall either by themselves, or by some other person teach poor men’s children of their parish the book called the catechism and the primer.
 * 21) We pray that it be not lawful to the lords of any manor to purchase lands freely, (i.e. that are freehold), and to let them out again by copy or court roll to their great advancement, and to the undoing of your poor subjects.
 * 22) We pray that no proprietary parson or vicar, in consideration of avoiding trouble and lawsuit between them and their poor parishioners, which they daily do proceed and attempt, shall from henceforth take for the full contents of all the tenths which now they do receive, but 8.
 * 23) We pray that no lord, knight, esquire, nor gentlemen do graze nor feed any bullocks or sheep if he may spend forty pounds a year by his lands but only for the provision of his house.
 * 24) We pray that no man under the degree of [word missing] shall keep any conies upon any freehold or copyhold unless he pale them in so that it shall not be to the commons’ annoyance.
 * 25) We pray that no person of what estate degree or condition he be shall from henceforth sell the awardship of any child, but that the same child if he live to his full age shall be at his own choosing concerning his marriage the King’s wards only except.
 * 26) We pray that no manner of person having a manor of his own, shall be no other lord’s bailiff but only his own.
 * 27) We pray that no lord, knight, or gentleman shall have or take in form any spiritual promotion.
 * 28) We pray your grace to give license and authority by your gracious commission under your great seal to such commissioners as your poor commons have chosen, or to as many of them as your majesty and your counsel shall appoint and think meet, for to redress and reform all such good laws, statues, proclamations and all other your proceedings; which hath been hidden by your Justices of your peace, Sheriff, Feudatories, and other your officers, from your poor commons, since the first year of the reign of your noble grandfather King Henry VII.
 * 29) We pray that those your officers, which have offended your grace and your commons, and [are] so proved by the complaint of your poor commons, do give unto these poor men so assembled 4d. every day so long as they have remained there.

He refused the royal offer of an amnesty on the grounds that innocent and just men had no need of pardon, and on 1 August 1549 attacked and took possession of Norwich. John Dudley, Earl of Warwick, marched against the rebels, and after his offer of pardon had been rejected he forced his way into the city, driving its defenders before him. Then, strengthened by the arrival of some foreign mercenaries, he attacked the main body of the rebels at Dussindale on 27 August. Although Kett's men were faced with a trained soldiery, the battle saw fierce fighting and lasted most of the day: but Kett's men were ultimately defeated and Robert and William Kett were seized and taken to London, where they were condemned to death for treason. On 7 December 1549 Robert was executed at Norwich, and his body was hanged on the top of the castle, while that of William was hanged on the church tower at Wymondham. The Kett line still survives to this day.

title: Robert Kett


text:
Macau Security Force

The Macau Security Force (, Forças de Segurança de Macau) is Macau's public security body under the Secretariat for Security, responsible for handling government activities ranging from law enforcement to public safety.

History
In 1975, the MSF was created to take the place of the Macau Independent Territorial Command, which was in charge of Portuguese military forces involved in the colony's national security. Portuguese military involvement ended in 1995 and was replaced by Macanese officers recruited to the MSF.

On December 20, 1999, the various police force branches of Macau (Security Forces of Macau and Judiciary Police), under the jurisdiction of Security and Justice departments (except the customs police, who were reassigned to the Financial Service Department) were assigned to the MSF, under the supervision of the secretary of security (security department). At the time of the handover of Macau to the People's Republic of China, plans were in place to modernize the police force with the goal of better positioning the force to combat organized crime and to stop illegal immigration.

On October 15, 2019, the MSF's Discipline Supervision Committee was given the power to investigate complaints made towards anyone working under the MSF.

Structure
The MSF has the following organizations under its command:

 * Public Security Forces Affairs Bureau (DSFSM)
 * Unitary Police Service (SPU)
 * Public Security Police Force of Macau (PSP)
 * Judiciary Police (PJ)
 * Correctional Services Bureau (DSC)
 * Fire Services Bureau (CB)
 * Macau Customs Service
 * Academy of Public Security Forces

Academy of Public Security Forces
MSF Joint Center of Instruction was created in 1976 to attract membership from the public. The current training school was created in 1988 to provide a higher level of training.

title: Macau Security Force


text:
Solomon Stoddard

Solomon Stoddard (September 27, 1643, baptized October 1, 1643 – February 11, 1729) was the pastor of the Congregationalist Church in Northampton, Massachusetts Bay Colony. He succeeded Rev. Eleazer Mather, and later married his widow around 1670. Stoddard significantly liberalized church policy while promoting more power for the clergy, decrying drinking and extravagance, and urging the preaching of hellfire and the Judgment. The major religious leader of what was then the frontier, he was known as the "Puritan Pope of the Connecticut River valley" and was concerned with the lives (and the souls) of second-generation Puritans. The well-known theologian Jonathan Edwards (1703–1758) was his grandson, the son of Solomon's daughter, Esther Stoddard Edwards. Stoddard was the first librarian at Harvard University and the first person in American history known by that title.

Religious leader
Stoddard was an influential religious leader in colonial New England, and was the grandfather of the prominent theologian Rev. Jonathan Edwards.

For 55 years, Stoddard occupied an unparalleled position in the Connecticut River Valley region of Massachusetts. His theology was not widely accepted in Boston, but was popular on the frontier. Opponents sometimes referred to him as "Pope" Stoddard, rhetorically placing him in the locally detested camp of the Roman Catholic Church. Yet what started as an insult from Increase Mather changed as his presbyterian influences over Congregational church government grew. Stoddard insisted that the sacrament of the Lord's Supper should be available to all who lived outwardly pious lives and had a good reputation in the community, even if they weren't full members of the church. This was his attempt to save his church from a "dying religion", and was the cause of great theological controversy in 18th century New England (see also Halfway Covenant).

Although in acknowledging his grandfather as a "sort of deity", Edwards minimised his influence over Northampton, being dismissive of the oracle who had caused great wounds and split the church. Nevertheless, years later Timothy Dwight would assess his impact as more profound than any other clergyman over a thirty-year period.

Early life
Stoddard was born in Boston on September 26, 1643, to Anthony Stoddard, a wealthy Boston merchant, and Mary Downing (sister of Sir George Downing (after whom Downing Street in London is named), niece to Governor John Winthrop). He was baptized on October 1 at the First Church, Boston. As such, he was born into the highest stratum of aristocratic New England, but his mother died suddenly in June 1647, when he was still an infant.

He attended Cambridge Grammar School, probably the best one in New England "to instruct youth so far as they may be fitted for Universities", "under the most reputable" Elijah Corlet, Oxon MA.

Going up in 1658 he aimed to "lead an honest, sober and Godly life," permitted to speak only Latin, "diligently avoid being inoffensive in word or gesture." In the rigid disciplinary world of the Puritan Theocracy, alcohol was forbidden, except for a weak beer, as was tobacco. The "poenal laws" included expulsion for blasphemy and "prophanation of the Lords Day Ordinances". He graduated BA from this "elite gathering" at Harvard College in July 1662. The MA during the next three years was 'Puritan casuistry' becoming an expert in a systematic study of theology adhering to the fundamentals of Holy Scripture. Rational theology was not pure Calvinism, but divined from Covenant; it resembled philosophy, offering a distilled thesis of disputation.

A Fellow and Tutor of Harvard Corporation for a year, he was then chosen in March 1667, to be the "first American librarian known to history by that title" when he was appointed "Library keeper", and Library Laws were enacted specifying that he should keep the Library "duly swept" and the books "clean and orderly." The following is found in the records of Harvard College:

"March 27, 1667, 'Mr Solomon Stoddard was chosen Library keeper.' 'For the rectifying of ye Library & Rules for the Library Keeper', sixteen 'orders were made.' 'No person resident in the College, except an Overseer', and 'no Schollar in the College, under a Senior', could borrow a book, and 'no one under master of Art (unless it be a fellow) ... without the allowance of the President.'"

It was there that he studied the British Presbyterian history with a maverick perspective on order from chaos. To improve his health, Stoddard went to Barbados and served as a chaplain to Governor Daniel Searle from 1667 to 1669. But he soon felt the need to return to New England. As he prepared to depart from Boston for a position in England, he received a call from Northampton Church to stand in for the recently deceased Eleazar Mather, brother of Increase Mather. He accepted the offer, and relocated to Northampton, which in 1670 was on the frontier. Within a few months, Stoddard had married Mather's widow Esther (née Esther, daughter of Rev. John Warham, of Windsor, CT; c. 1644 - February 10, 1736), moved into his house, and took over his pulpit to become Northampton's second minister. He held the post for 55 years, during which time he and Esther produced thirteen children: John, Solomon, Samuel, Solomon, Anthony (d.infant), Anthony, Aaron, Israel, Mary, Christian, Sarah, Esther, Hannah. Stoddard was pastor of a group ministry of churches at Dorchester, Roxbury, and Springfield as well as Northampton, purchased from the Indians in 1653. Although well versed in the Latin and Hebrew of the Boston Puritan elite, he preferred to use the common language of the frontier in his sermons. A sense of the frontier life may be gleaned from his proposal in 1703 to use dogs "to hunt Indians as they do Bears", the argument being that dogs would catch many an Indian who would be too light of foot for the townsmen. This was not considered inhumane, for the Indians, in Stoddard's view, "act like wolves and are to be dealt with as wolves." Three years later. Massachusetts passed an act for the raising of dogs to better secure the frontier borders.

Half-way Covenant
Stoddard is credited with propounding the Half-way Covenant, at Northampton on 18 April 1661. while young Elezear Mather was the pastor. It represented a reaffirmation of the Communion rules that accompanied a decline of piety in the Congregational church. Stoddard's interest was to insure the growth of church congregations in a colony of second-generation pilgrims who were increasingly interested in the political and economic life of the frontier, as opposed to the pure idealism of their immigrant parents. Stoddard taught that people who had grown up in the church and were not scandalous in behavior could receive communion as a means of grace; and have their children baptized, despite the fact that the Puritan tradition had previously required prospective members of the church to proclaim a spiritual "conversion". Eleazer Mather opposed the Covenant as contrariwise to the Cambridge Platform of 1648, voted against the innovations of Synod of 1662. When in 1669, Mather died, the Northampton Church declared: "to rest contented with that share and portion of privilege belonging to them that are only in a state of Education in Christ's House...and have their children baptized." That was the position when Stoddard took over the congregation. At a meeting on August 1670, Solomon was promised 20 acres of land, but then offered £100 instead. And eventually setting on four acres to build a house, to be funded by a Ministers Rate of 2s 6d. Stoddard was ordained as pastor of Northampton on the strength of a Letter of Recommendation (Feb 7, 1672) from Rev John Strong, regional convenor of the Congregational Church in neighbouring towns of Massachusetts and Connecticut. Subscribing to the Doctrine of Faith, the Half-Way Covenant was put in place was an essential prerequisite to installment. Mather's orthodox Puritanism had witnessed declining numbers, yet Stoddard was able to revitalise the church through liberal reforms.

The Northampton Church was in danger of extinction unless additional members were admitted on a "half-way" basis, explains Harry Swanhart. Stoddard's decision to admit all but the "scandalous" to the church attracted the ire and rancour of the Mathers from the Massachusetts Bay area. For his case, Stoddard turned to the Northampton Town Meeting, abandoning the old Theocracy, but making the "communion of saints" subject to civilian political control. In September 1675, he implored Increase Mather to speak with the Governor to "care for a Reformation...especially mention oppression, that Intollerable Pride in Cloathes and hair, the tolleration of so many taverns, especially in Boston," he wrote from Northampton. Mather eventually came to realise that children were being left without discipline, and so it was axiomatic to support the Synod "to bring them under the yoke of Christ," even if it proved an impossibility.

Congregationalism and Stoddard
Stoddard's Congregationalism would "Whole-way ruin all in a little time", admonished Mather in "The Danger of Apostacy". In theology, Stoddard contradicted nearly every standard belief of his Puritan colleagues. Puritan theology at the time stressed a strict doctrine of salvation by repentance. Stoddard believed that everyone should experience God's glory for himself, whether through Nature or Scripture. When one sees this glory for himself, Stoddard preached that one's will is automatically affected. He explained that "the gloriousness of God has a commanding power on the heart". Membership without conversion should come experientially rather than through any set process or education. Mather countered this belief by stating that, although a Harvard education may assist in the pulpit on Sunday mornings, the sermon is useless unless the minister has experienced God's saving grace.

Stoddard's concepts of theology were not widely accepted either by fellow clergy or laymen in New England. As he believed the ministry was key to bringing people closer to the Lord God Almighty, his main goal was conversion of the hearts of sinners. The only source of salvation was God's Word, especially as related through the sermon. If a community continued to remain unconverted, then either the preacher himself was unconverted, or he needed to modify his sermons to better address the unconverted. This called for a revision in church policy.

"We fear the dangers ahead", averred Edward Taylor of Westfield, whose group, jealous of the improving church-going numbers in Northampton recommended a plan for the adoption of a "Church State." Stoddard called presbyterian like councils to discuss and debate innovations in policy: he wanted to develop the "Instituted Church" in order to preserve purity among ministers. Each church would be instructed through a national church, which determined the proper qualifications for ministers. The redemption of the sinner's soul was to be the evangelical purpose of this church. His ideas, at least in this respect, gained few adherents. Stoddard's position was expressed through debates with his in-laws Cotton and Increase Mather. As leader of one of Boston's primary churches, Cotton Mather wielded influence during Stoddard's lifetime. Mather's arguments could not hold sway: Congregationalism eventually adopted Stoddard's stance on communion, despite initial fears of "New England's apostasy."

Mather remained a formidable opponent. Another contrast between Stoddard and the other Puritan leaders of his time was his belief in the strict dichotomy between the converted (or regenerate) and the unconverted. Stoddard rejected the Puritan claim that no one could discern whether he was saved. Like his own conversion experience, he believed that a person would know when he had been converted, because predestination elected whom God saved and those who were unregenerate. This belief led to the communion controversy: Because of his conversion experience, Solomon stressed the importance of an open communion which would be used as a converting ordinance. In 1677 all members of the community who were instructed in Christian doctrine, made a public profession of faith; and living decent lives, could participate in communion. Stoddard explained that there was no biblical justification for allowing only sinners to take communion.

Businessman and administrator
During King Philip's War Stoddard, already a man of stature in his community, played an outstanding part in organizing defence against the Indian invasions that fell on the townspeople "like wolves and are to be dealt withall as wolves". Later at the ambush of Dewey's Hole, Stoddard was almost killed by Indians. The effect was that he began his pastorate feeling all hostiles should be hunted down and killed. But by 1723 he had undergone a complete transformation, becoming the Indians greatest defender, advocating their conversion to Christianity. In the civil world he maintained a good personal friendship with Judge Samuel Sewall, one of Boston's eminent men. He informed the Governor Gurdon Saltonstall of "this Excellent Divine, respecting the Indians." "I congratulate", Sewall told his friend, "the unparalleled constancy of Serviceableness, which God has honoured you..."

In 1701 his step-daughter Eunice Mather was carried off and never seen again. This event had a profound impact upon such a religious man. He wrote copiously to Increase Mather and the Governor warning of impending doom "for our preservation...that which the Lord ad delivered." Stoddard was a major contributor to the definitive history of the events: A Briefe History of the War with the Indians in New England. he rose to be assumed the public spokesman of his community to Boston. He proposed road-building to improve trade. In 1700 he managed to transfer the ownership of lands to the Township of Northampton, which was granted by petition in 1701.

Stoddard's Ecclesiology
Raised in an orthodox Reformed context, today Stoddard is remembered mostly for his introduction of the Halfway Covenant in Northampton. By the mid-seventeenth century Puritan New England's first American-born children had come of age, but most children of this second generation were not presenting themselves for full membership in the church. Stoddard introduced the practice of "halfway covenanting" or "owning the covenant" in the Northampton church, which permitted adult children who had not formally joined the church to become "halfway members." Halfway membership made it possible to affiliate more closely with the church without making a public statement of faith and conversion. The objective of the practice was to allow the adult children of the first generation of settlers, who were committed to Christianity but unsure of their own conversions, to bring their own young children for baptism in the church. Puritans typically reserved the sacrament of baptism only for adult converts and the children of full members.

Later years
Stoddard's change in the sacraments produced little increase in the number of communicants. Nevertheless, he was able to propose two motions to the Northampton Church in 1690: first, to abolish the public profession of faith and second, to appoint the Lord's Supper as a converting ordinance. The first passed by a majority and as a result the population of Northampton doubled from 500 to 1000 in twenty years. The second motion was opposed by the elders of the church, the motion was denied, although the younger people supported it. In 1725, his congregation decided to bring in an assistant, choosing his grandson Jonathan Edwards. Stoddard had a major influence on his grandson and was succeeded by him as the pastor of the church at Northampton. Edwards later repudiated his views, becoming the most famous and fiery orator of the Great Awakening of 1735-1745. The Great Awakening was to some extent a reaction to the failure of The Halfway Covenant to strengthen the church. But Stoddard's influence persisted in Northampton. Edwards' views eventually displeased his parishioners, and he was dismissed from the pulpit.

Stoddard may have been too liberal for his grandson Jonathan Edwards, but he was lampooned for prudishness concerning petticoats in an anonymous pamphlet attributed to Benjamin Franklin. Stoddard published a pamphlet in 1722 entitled "Answer to Some Cases of Conscience" in which he argued that the newly fashionable hoop petticoats were "Contrary to the Light of Nature" and that "Hooped Petticoats have something of Nakedness". Franklin's satirical response was entitled "Hoop-Petticoats Arraigned and Condemned, by the Light of Nature, and Law of God".

Ultimately, Stoddard's power seems to derive more from his personality, political influence, and preaching ability, than from the force of his ideas. One man describes Stoddard with a poem:

Works
- Shewing the Vertue of Christ's Blood to cleanse from sin. - That Natural Men are under the Government of Self-Love. - That the Gospel is the Means of Conversion. - To Stir up Young Men and Maidens to Praise the Name of the Lord. (Boston: Daniel Henchman, 1717.)
 * The Safety of Appearing at the day of Judgment: In the righteousness of Christ, Opened and Applied (1687)
 * The Tryal of Assurance, set forth in a Sermon; Preached at Boston upon a Lecture Day, July 7, 1698 (Boston, 1698)
 * The Doctrine of the Instituted Churches (Boston, 1700)
 * The Way for a People to Live long inn the Land that God hath given them...(Boston: Benjamin Eliot, 1703)
 * The Sufficiency of One Good Sign, to prove a man to be in a State of Life; cleared up and applied in a sermon preached at Boston, May 30, 1703 (Boston: Benjamin Eliot, 1703)
 * The Inexcusableness of Neglecting the Worship of the Lords Supper (Boston, 1708)
 * An Appeal to the Learned. Being a Vindication of the right of Visible Saints to the Lords Supper, though they be destitute of a saving work of God's spirit on their hearts: against the exceptions of Mr Increase Mather. (Boston, 1709)
 * Those Taught by God the Father, to know God the Son, are Blessed. A sermon preached at the Boston lecture, July 3, 1712. (Boston: Benjamin Eliot, 1712)
 * Four Sermons Lately Preach'd at Boston:
 * The Presence of Christ with the Ministers of the Gospel, Swampsfield, Jan 1st, 1717–18, at the ordination of Joseph Willard. (Boston: Benjamin Green, 1718).
 * A Treatise Concerning the Nature of Saving Conversion, and the way wherein it is wrought... A Lecture-Srmon at Boston, July 2, 1719. (Boston: Daniel henchman, 1719)
 * A Guide to Christ: or, The Way of Directing Souls that are Under the Work of Conversion
 * The Doctrine of Instituted Churches: Explained and Proved from the Word of God
 * An Answer to Some Cases of Conscience Respecting the Country (1722)
 * Question Whether God is not Angry with the Indians for doing so little towards the Conversion of the Indians? (Boston, 1723)
 * A guide to Christ, Or, The Way of directing Souls that are under the Work of Conversion, compiled for the help of Young Ministers...Preface by Increase Mather (Boston: J. Draper, 1735)

title: Solomon Stoddard


text:
Horizon Air

Horizon Air is an American regional airline headquartered in SeaTac, Washington, within the Seattle metropolitan area. It is a wholly-owned subsidiary of the Alaska Air Group and it is paid by fellow group member Alaska Airlines to staff, operate and maintain aircraft used on flights that are scheduled, marketed and sold by Alaska Airlines. Planes operated by Horizon are co-branded as Alaska HORIZON in order to differentiate Horizon's planes from those operated by Alaska's other regional airline partner, SkyWest Airlines.

Horizon Air started operations in September 1981, was purchased by the Alaska Air Group in November 1986, and continued to fly as a separately branded airline until 2011, when it shifted to the current capacity purchase agreement business model.

The airline is headquartered in the Seattle suburb of SeaTac, not far from Seattle–Tacoma International Airport, and the airline's primary maintenance base is at Portland International Airport. Horizon also considers Seattle–Tacoma and Portland airports to be its hubs.

History
Horizon Air was formed in May 1981 by Milt Kuolt, Joe Clark, and Bruce McCaw, with initial plans to fly to Hawaii but later changed to serve Washington state. The airline started operations on September 1, 1981, with three Fairchild F-27 aircraft. Its headquarters were in an area that is now within SeaTac, Washington.

Horizon Air's first route connected Yakima to Seattle–Tacoma International Airport and was followed a week later by Tri-Cities Airport in Pasco to Seattle. The general offices of Horizon Air were operated out of an old house behind Sea-Tac Airport. Horizon acquired Air Oregon on June 17, 1982, after both airlines were losing hundreds of thousands of dollars monthly, in order to consolidate and reduce their operating deficit. Horizon agreed to purchase Transwestern Airlines of Utah in September 1983, once again to try to reduce operating deficit of the airline.

A single Fokker F28 Fellowship twin jet, purchased in July 1984 from an African carrier, was the first jet owned by Horizon Air (however, the first jet operated by Horizon was a wet leased Douglas DC-9-10).

An initial public offering occurred in 1985 to secure operating capital, which after only one profitable year since founding, was needed to keep the airline afloat. That summer, Horizon entered into its first codeshare agreement with United Airlines, and on September 8, Horizon signed an agreement with de Havilland Canada to begin purchasing the airline's first brand new aircraft, the de Havilland Canada Dash 8-100 twin turboprop.

Late in 1985, Horizon entered into an agreement to purchase their chief competitor in Washington, Cascade Airways, but by early 1986 were released from the agreement. Merger talks between the two had begun in late 1982.

In January 1986, the airline became an international carrier when it began service to Calgary, Alberta, in association with Cascade Airways.

Acquisition
Alaska Airlines struck a deal to acquire Horizon Air in November 1986. The year before, Alaska had undergone a major corporate restructuring with the airline now being owned by the Alaska Air Group, an airline holding company. Under the agreement, the Alaska Air Group became the owner of Horizon Air after approval by the Transportation Department in late December. The Alaska Air Group continued to operate Horizon as a separately branded airline, with a codesharing agreement with its new sister airline, Alaska, while ending its codeshare with United Airlines.

In 1988, Horizon signed a code share agreement with Northwest Airlines.

International service was expanded in May 1989 with flights to Vancouver and Victoria in British Columbia, using both Dash 8-100s and Fairchild Swearingen Metroliner turboprop aircraft.

Horizon was the launch customer for the Dornier 328 turboprop, intending to replace the Metroliners with this new aircraft which promised speed and comfort on par with jetliners. In recognition of the order, Dornier painted its second prototype of the 328 in Horizon colors. Twelve aircraft were delivered between November 1993 and November 1995, but they were quickly phased out in late 1997, along with the remaining Metroliners, in favor of fleet standardization to the Dash 8 series of turboprops.

Throughout its history, Horizon has either operated as a standalone carrier or as a regional affiliate of Alaska Airlines, except between 2004 and 2007 when it operated Bombardier CRJ700 aircraft on behalf of Frontier Airlines.

Brand phase-out

In late 2010, Horizon's parent company, the Alaska Air Group, made the decision to no longer operate Horizon as a separate regional airline. Starting on January 1, 2011, Horizon shifted to a capacity purchase agreement (CPA) business model, which had by that time become the regional airline industry standard. Under the CPA, Horizon operates and maintains its aircraft, while Alaska Airlines is responsible for scheduling, marketing and pricing all flights. As part of the change to the new business model, the Horizon Air brand was retired and all Horizon planes were repainted with a co-branded "Alaska HORIZON" livery.

Alaska Airlines entered into a similar capacity purchase agreement with SkyWest Airlines in May 2011. As part of the agreement, Alaska Air Group managers agreed to sell Horizon's fleet of five Bombardier CRJ700 regional jet aircraft to SkyWest, which used the aircraft to operate six West Coast routes as "Alaska SkyWest". The move left Horizon with a fleet consisting of a single type of aircraft; the De Havilland Canada Dash 8-400 turboprop.

Horizon announced in April 2016 that it would expand its fleet and once again operate regional jets, placing an order for 30 Embraer 175 airplanes.

The airline experienced a period of turmoil in 2017. Amid unprecedented growth (spurred by the addition of the new aircraft), Horizon experienced a severe pilot shortage, forcing the airline to cancel hundreds of flights and delay delivery of new aircraft. The pilot shortage was part of a broader problem affecting all regional airlines, but hit Horizon particularly hard. After the airline industry started to rebound in 2013 after a decade long downturn, mainline air carriers started to hire pilots, mostly from regional carriers which offer low wages and limited opportunities for advancement. More experienced regional carrier pilots moved to higher paying mainlines. Horizon responded with drastically increased pay for flight crews and worked with Alaska, its sister airline, to create more opportunities for advancement. As a result, there is an influx of new, young pilots with less experience.

In response to the crisis, Alaska shifted some of its flights from Horizon to its other regional partner, SkyWest Airlines. It was a move that Horizon's CEO described as "disheartening." Because of the shift, SkyWest ordered additional Embraer 175 airplanes that it will fly for Alaska.

At the end of the troubled year, Horizon's CEO Dave Campbell announced that he would step down effective January 5, 2018, for personal reasons. Gary Beck became CEO in January 2018. In November 2019, former retiree of the company Joe Sprague returned to Horizon Air as president.

Destinations
Horizon's 45 destinations are located in the U.S. states of Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, Minnesota, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Texas, Utah, and Washington as well as the Canadian provinces of Alberta and British Columbia.

Current fleet
, the Horizon Air fleet comprises the following aircraft:

The Embraer 175 is a regional jet operated in a three-class configuration (first class, premium class, and main cabin) with a total of 76 all leather, reclining seats. The premium class and main cabin sections of the aircraft have two seats either side of the aisle, while the first class section has a single seat on one side of the aisle and two seats on the other.

Historical fleet
Aircraft operated by Horizon Air in the past include:

Aircraft livery
At the start of the carrier, Horizon had a painted sunrise with a small beach with capitalized words saying "Horizon". Until 2011, the Horizon Air livery was very similar to that of its parent, Alaska Airlines, except for a dark red (rather than blue) cheatline, and the tail featured a stylized sunset logo, rather than an Eskimo. Two E175s are currently painted in special liveries. Some Dash 8-100s and Q200s (no longer in service with Horizon Air) had names of various destinations preceded by "Great City of" or "Great Cities of" printed on the front of the airplane. The first Dash 8-100, N811PH was dedicated as the "Great Cities of Seattle/Tacoma" and the second airplane, N812PH was the "Great City of Portland". N824PH was dedicated as the "Great Cities of Pullman/Moscow" on one side and the "Great Cities of Moscow/Pullman" on the other side. N363PH (Q200) was the first airplane to incorporate the "deep bing cherry red" on the underside of the engine nacelle. This became the standard for Horizon's brand livery as well as the current Alaska Airlines livery. Prior to this change, the underside of the nacelle was painted "Horizon White".

On January 25, 2011, Horizon Air announced it was retiring its public brand and adopting the trademark Eskimo of its sister company, Alaska Airlines, on its fleet. Horizon's Bombardier Q400 fleet was repainted with a new scheme prominently featuring "Alaska" across the fuselage and the Eskimo on the tail. The planes continue to include a small Horizon logo on the sides of the aircraft, which now appears in Alaska's dark blue color.

On March 5, 2019, Horizon introduced a themed livery in celebration of Horizon's heritage. Bombardier Q400 #N421QX featured stripes down the side in the traditional Horizon colors and the sunset logo on the tail. The aircraft made its inaugural flight from Yakima to Seattle, the route of Horizon's first ever flight.

On-board meals and beverages
Flight time permitting, passengers in the main cabin are offered a complimentary small snack (cookie, nuts or a snack mix) and a beverage.

Horizon, like its parent airline Alaska, focuses on serving and selling items produced by West Coast. Coffee from fellow Seattle company Starbucks is served on all flights. Horizon Air was the first airline in the world to serve Starbucks coffee onboard its flights, beginning on February 1, 1990. Horizon's parent company, Alaska began serving Starbucks on February 1, 2012.

Horizon's aircraft are equipped with a First Class cabin and Premium Class cabin and offer a similar onboard experience to that of Alaska, with complimentary meals in First Class and complimentary alcoholic beverages in both classes.

On-board Internet access
Horizon's aircraft are equipped with an in-flight Wi-Fi and streaming entertainment system. Alaska and Horizon use Gogo Inflight Internet, a land-based internet service, covering all routes served by the airline. The service is fee-based for all passengers, depending on the length of the flight.

Flight accidents and incidents

 * On May 2, 1986, a Fairchild Metroliner was hijacked over Oregon, between Eugene and Portland. The pilot convinced the hijacker to allow the plane to stop in Hillsboro to refuel and even let the pilot off the plane, who then called the FBI.
 * On April 15, 1988,, a De Havilland Canada Dash 8-100 (N819PH – Great City of Sun Valley), en route from Seattle to Spokane with 37 passengers and 3 crew members, crashed after attempting an emergency landing at Seattle–Tacoma International Airport (Sea-Tac). The number two (right side/starboard) engine caught fire (due to a manufacturing defect) after take-off from Seattle. Loss of hydraulic pressure due to the fire caused the aircraft to veer off the runway, across the grass, across Taxiway B, and crashed into the B7 and B9 jetways, destroying the plane. There were four serious injuries but no fatalities.
 * On May 23, 1990, a Fairchild Metroliner III on a flight from Portland to Seattle suffered a window blowout at 14000 ft above Olympia. The flight made an emergency descent and landing to its planned destination of Sea-Tac Airport. The passenger seated next to the window, who was partially sucked out of the plane for a brief period, was taken to a local hospital where he was treated for his injuries and released.
 * On August 10, 2018, a Horizon Air Bombardier Dash 8 Q400 aircraft registered N449QX was stolen from Seattle–Tacoma International Airport by Richard Russell, a ground service agent for Horizon. The incident prompted F-15 fighter jets to scramble and intercept the aircraft. After being in contact with air traffic control for over an hour, the aircraft crashed on Ketron Island in Pierce County, Washington, killing Russell, the only person on the aircraft.
 * On October 22, 2023, Flight 2059 was operating from Paine Field in Everett, Washington to San Francisco International Airport when an off-duty pilot sitting in the jumpseat inside the flight deck, Joe Emerson, reportedly tried to pull both engine fire extinguisher handles on the overhead panel. The Embraer 175 aircraft was operating at 31,000 feet at the time, and if Emerson was successful at activating the fire extinguishers, both engines would have shut down. The crew was able to subdue him and land at the Portland International Airport in Oregon, where Emerson was arrested and later charged with 83 counts of attempted murder.

Lawsuits
In November 2023, a class-action lawsuit was filed against Horizon and Alaska Airlines on behalf of the passengers on board Flight 2059, alleging that that the passengers' lives were put at risk by an off-duty pilot who was allowed to ride in the cockpit and who attempted to shut off the engines during flight on October 22, 2023, and seeking an injunction that would require the airlines to "conduct reasonable examinations" of all employees with access to the cockpit immediately prior to boarding.

In July 2024, Horizon was sued by a flight attendant for the airline, who alleged that she was "repeatedly and severely" sexually harassed by two Horizon pilots from September 2023 through February of 2024 and that Horizon's human resources department "took no action" to protect her.

title: Horizon Air