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Maria I of Portugal

Dona Maria I (17 December 1734 – 20 March 1816) was Queen of Portugal from 24 February 1777 until her death in 1816. Known as Maria the Pious in Portugal and Maria the Mad in Brazil, she was the first undisputed queen regnant of Portugal and the first monarch of Brazil.

Maria was the eldest daughter of King Dom José I (Joseph I) of Portugal and Queen Mariana Victoria. As the heir to the throne, she held the titles of Princess of Brazil and Duchess of Braganza. She married her uncle Infante Pedro (Peter) in 1760. They had six children, of whom three survived infancy: José, João (John), and Mariana Vitória. The death of King José in 1777 placed Maria, then 42 years old, on the throne. Her husband Pedro was nominally king alongside her as Dom Pedro III.

Upon ascending the throne, Maria dismissed her father's powerful chief minister, Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal. The early part of Maria's reign witnessed growth in Portugal's economy. Maria had a number of national buildings constructed and renovated, leading to the completion of the Palace of Queluz and the inauguration of the Palace of Ajuda and other new monuments. The death of her husband in 1786, followed by the deaths in 1788 of her eldest son, José, and her confessor Inácio de São Caetano, caused the queen to develop clinical depression. Her second son, João, then served as prince regent. With Napoleon's European conquests, Maria and her court moved to the Portuguese colony of Brazil in 1807. After Brazil was elevated to a kingdom in 1815, Maria became Queen of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. Upon her death in 1816, her son succeeded her as King Dom João VI.

Early life
Maria was born at the Ribeira Palace in Lisbon and baptized Maria Francisca Isabel Josefa Antónia Gertrudes Rita Joana. She was the eldest of four daughters born to Dom José (Joseph), Prince of Brazil (later King Dom José I of Portugal), and Infanta Mariana Victoria of Spain. Her father José was the eldest surviving son of the reigning King Dom João V (John V) of Portugal and his wife Maria Anna of Austria. Her mother, Mariana Victoria, was the eldest daughter of King Don Felipe V (Philip V) of Spain and Queen Elisabeth Farnese. This made her the eldest grandchild of King Dom João V (John V) of Portugal and King Don Felipe (Philip) V of Spain. King João appointed his granddaughter Maria as the Princess of Beira on the day of her birth.

Maria's grandfather João V died on 31 July 1750. Her father, Prince José, then succeeded to the throne as Dom José I. As José's eldest child, Maria became his heir presumptive and was given the traditional titles of Princess of Brazil and Duchess of Braganza.

Influence of the Marquis of Pombal
King José's government was dominated completely by Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal. The Marquis of Pombal secured control of the government after the 1755 Lisbon earthquake, in which around 100,000 people lost their lives. The palace of Maria's birth was also destroyed in the disaster.

After the earthquake, King José was often uncomfortable at the thought of staying in enclosed spaces, and later experienced claustrophobia. The king had a palace built in Ajuda, away from the city centre. This palace became known as Real Barraca de Ajuda (Royal Hut at Ajuda) because it was made of wood. The family spent much time at the large palace. (The palace was the birthplace of Maria's first child, José, Dom Joseph.) In 1794 the palace burned to the ground and the Palace of Ajuda was built in its place.

On 6 June 1760 Maria married the king's younger brother, her uncle Pedro (later King Dom Pedro III of Portugal). Maria and Pedro had six children: José, João Francisco, João (later King Dom João VI), Mariana Vitória, Maria Clementina, and Maria Isabel. Only José, João, and Mariana Vitória survived to adulthood. Maria also delivered a stillborn boy in 1762.

Reign

King José died on 24 February 1777. His daughter, Maria, then became the first undisputed queen regnant of Portugal. With Maria's accession, her husband became nominal king as Dom Pedro III, but the actual regal authority was vested solely in Maria, as she was the lineal heir of the crown. Also, as Pedro's kingship was jure uxoris only, his reign would cease in the event of Maria's death, and the crown would pass to Maria's descendants. However, Pedro predeceased his wife in 1786. Maria is considered to have been a good ruler in the period prior to her madness. Her first act as queen was to dismiss the autocratic minister, the Marquis of Pombal. Noteworthy events of this period include Portugal's membership in the League of Armed Neutrality (July 1782) and the 1781 cession of Delagoa Bay from Austria to Portugal. However, the queen suffering from melancholia and declining mental health (perhaps due to porphyria) made her incapable of handling state affairs after 1792.

On 5 January 1785 the queen issued a charter imposing heavy restrictions on industrial activity in Brazil; how, for example, it prohibited the manufacture of fabrics and other products, extinguishing all textile manufactures in the colony, except the industry of coarse cloth for the use of slaves and workers; since the Portuguese colonial administration did not look favorably on the development of industrial activities in Brazil for fear of economic and, perhaps, political independence. During her reign, the trial, conviction and execution of ensign Joaquim José da Silva Xavier, known as Tiradentes, took place in 1789.

Mental deterioration
Maria's madness was first officially noticed in 1786, when she had to be carried back to her apartments in a state of delirium. Afterward, the queen's mental state became increasingly worse. On 25 May 1786, her husband died; Maria was devastated and forbade any court entertainments. According to a contemporary account, state festivities began to resemble religious ceremonies. The queen's eldest son and heir, Prince Dom José, died aged 27 from smallpox on 11 September 1788, and her confessor Inácio de São Caetano, Titular Archbishop of Salonica, died in November that year. These deaths may have resulted in Queen Maria developing major depressive disorder. Another potential cause was her incestuous ancestry; this is substantiated by two of her sisters having had similar conditions.

In February 1792, Maria was deemed insane and was treated by Francis Willis, the same physician who attended the British king George III. Willis wanted to take her to England, but the plan was refused by the Portuguese court. Potentially as a result of Willis' more advisory role in Maria's care, rather than the hands-on care of King George III, Willis deemed the queen incurable. Maria's second son, Dom João (John), now Prince of Brazil, took over the government in her name, even though he only took the title of Prince Regent in 1799. When the Real Barraca de Ajuda burnt down in 1794, the court was forced to move to Queluz, where the ill queen would lie in her apartments all day. Visitors would complain of terrible screams that would echo throughout the palace.

Napoleonic Wars
In 1801 Spanish Prime Minister Manuel de Godoy sent an army to invade Portugal with backing from the French leader Napoleon, resulting in the War of the Oranges. Though the Spanish ended their invasion, the Treaty of Badajoz on 6 June 1801 forced Portugal to cede Olivença and other border towns to Spain. (This cession is not recognized by the present Portuguese government, and the country officially considers those territories still to be Portuguese possessions.) On 29 September 1801 Prince Dom João signed the Treaty of Madrid (1801), ceding half of Portuguese Guyana to France, which became French Guiana.

The refusal of the Portuguese government to join the French-sponsored Continental Blockade against Britain culminated in the late 1807 Franco-Spanish invasion of Portugal led by General Jean-Andoche Junot. The ultimate Napoleonic plan for Portugal was to split it into three sections. The northern parts of Portugal, from the Douro to the Minho, would become the Kingdom of Northern Lusitania, and its throne was promised to King Louis II of Etruria. The Alentejo Province and Kingdom of the Algarve would be merged to form the Principality of the Algarves, of which Manuel de Godoy would be sovereign. The remaining portion of Portugal would have been directly ruled by France.

Transfer to Brazil
At the urging of the British government, the entire House of Braganza decided to flee on 29 November 1807 to establish a government in exile in the Portuguese Viceroyalty of Brazil. Along with the royal family, Maria was transported aboard the carrack Príncipe Real. During her move from the royal palace to the docks she was heard screaming throughout the trip, in the middle of the crowd and in the carriage. The queen's dementia was so great that she feared that she was going to be tortured or robbed during her movement by her servants.

In January 1808 Prince Regent João and his court arrived in Salvador da Bahia. Under pressure by local aristocracy and the British, the prince regent signed a commercial regulation after his arrival that opened commerce between Brazil and friendly nations, which in this case represented the interests of Great Britain above all. This law broke an important colonial pact that had previously allowed Brazil to maintain direct commercial relations only with Portugal.

On 1 August 1808 British General Arthur Wellesley (later Duke of Wellington) landed a British army in Lisbon to initiate the Peninsular War. The impact of Wellesley's initial victory over Junot at the Battle of Vimeiro (21 August 1808) was wiped out by his superiors in the Convention of Cintra (30 August 1808), which allowed the defeated French troops to evacuate peacefully from Portugal.

Wellesley (soon to be made Lord Wellington) returned to Portugal on 22 April 1809 to recommence the campaign. Portuguese forces under British command distinguished themselves in the defence of the Lines of Torres Vedras (1809–1810) and in the subsequent invasion of Spain and France. In 1815 Prince João's government elevated Brazil to the status of a kingdom, and Maria was proclaimed Queen of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. When Napoleon was finally defeated in 1815, Maria and her family remained in Brazil.

Death and legacy

Maria lived in Brazil for a total of eight years, always in a state of incapacitation. In 1816, she died at the Carmo Convent in Rio de Janeiro at the age of 81. After her death, the prince regent was acclaimed as King Dom João VI. In 1821, Maria's body was returned to Lisbon to be interred in a mausoleum in the Estrela Basilica (Basílica da Estrela), which she had helped found.

Maria is a greatly admired figure in both Brazil and Portugal due to the tremendous changes and events that took place during her reign. In Portugal, she is celebrated as a strong female figure. Her legacy shines at Portugal's Queluz Palace, a baroque-roccoco masterpiece that she helped conceive. A large statue of her stands in front of the palace, and a pousada near the palace is named in her honour. A large marble statue of the queen was erected at the Portuguese National Library in Lisbon by the students of Joaquim Machado de Castro.

In Brazil, Maria is admired as a key figure in the eventual independence of Brazil. It was during her reign, albeit through the government of her son's regency, that many of the national institutions and organizations in Brazil were created. These institutions were the precursors to their modern-day equivalents and granted large degree of power to the Brazilian colonials. While she is often called A Louca (the Mad) in Brazil, Brazilian and Portuguese historians hold her in high esteem.

Marriage and issue
Maria married her uncle Pedro on 6 June 1760. At the time of their marriage, Maria was 25 and Pedro was 42. Despite the age gap, the couple had a happy marriage. Upon Maria's accession in 1777, her husband became the nominal King Dom Pedro III of Portugal. They had the following children:

title: Maria I of Portugal


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Moving walkway

A moving walkway, also known as an autowalk, moving pavement, moving sidewalk, people-mover, travolator, or travelator (British English), is a slow-moving conveyor mechanism that transports people across a horizontal or inclined plane over a short to medium distance. Moving walkways can be used by standing or walking on them. They are often installed in pairs, one for each direction.

History
The first moving walkway debuted at the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893 in Chicago, Illinois, in the United States as The Great Wharf Moving Sidewalk. Designed by architect Joseph Lyman Silsbee, it had two sections: one where passengers were seated, and one where they could stand or walk. It ran in a loop down the length of a lakefront pier to a casino.

Six years later, another moving walkway was presented to the public at the 1900 Exposition Universelle in Paris as the Rue de l'Avenir. It consisted of three elevated platforms—the first stationary, the second moving at a moderate speed, and the third moving at about 10 km/h. These demonstrations likely inspired some of H. G. Wells' settings mentioned in the "Science Fiction" section below.

The Beeler Organization, a New York City consulting firm, proposed a Continuous Transit System with Sub-Surface Moving Platforms for Atlanta in 1924, with a design roughly similar to the Paris Exposition system. The proposed drive system used a linear induction motor. The system was not constructed.

The Speedwalk, the first commercial moving walkway in the United States was installed in 1954 in Jersey City, New Jersey, inside the Hudson & Manhattan Railroad Erie station at the Pavonia Terminal. Built by Goodyear, it was 84.5 m long and moved up a 10% grade at 2.4 km/h. It was removed a few years later when traffic patterns at the station changed.

The first moving walkway in an airport was installed in 1958 at Love Field in Dallas, Texas. On January 1, 1960, Tina Marie Brandon, age 2, was killed on the moving sidewalk.

Moving walkways generally move at a slower speed than a natural walking pace, and when people step onto one, they tend to slow their pace to compensate; thus moving walkways only minimally improve travel times and overall transport capacity.

Designs
Moving walkways are built in one of two basic styles:
 * Pallet type – a continuous series of flat metal plates join together to form a walkway – and are effectively identical to escalators in their construction. Most have a metal surface, though some models have a rubber surface for extra traction. The plates are one-piece, die-cast aluminium pallets, with a typical width between the walkway sides of 800 - 1200 mm. The walkway can be powered by an AC induction motor. Example speed is 0.5 m/s.
 * Moving belt – these are generally built with mesh metal belts or rubber walking surfaces over metal rollers. The walking surface may have a solid feel or a "bouncy" feel.

Both types of moving walkway have a grooved surface to mesh with combplates at the ends. Also, nearly all moving walkways are built with moving handrails similar to those on escalators.

Early examples
In 1961, Jim Downer designed and had produced by Dunlop, the first flat running 'Travelator' for a BBC exhibition in Charing Cross underground station.

In the 1970s, Dunlop developed the Speedaway system. It was in fact an invention by Gabriel Bouladon and Paul Zuppiger of the Battelle Memorial Institute at their former Geneva, Switzerland facility. A prototype was built and demonstrated at the Battelle Institute in Geneva in the early 1970s, as can be attested by a (French-speaking) Swiss television program entitled Un Jour une Heure aired in October 1974. The great advantage of the Speedaway, as compared to the then existing systems, was that the embarking/disembarking zone was both wide and slow-moving (up to four passengers could embark simultaneously, equating to around 10,000 per hour), whereas the transportation zone was narrower and fast-moving.

The entrance to the system was like a very wide escalator, with broad metal tread plates of a parallelogram shape. After a short distance the tread plates were accelerated to one side, sliding past one another to form progressively into a narrower but faster-moving track which travelled at almost a right angle to the entry section. The passenger was accelerated through a parabolic path to a maximum design speed 15 km/h. The experience was unfamiliar to passengers, who needed to understand how to use the system to be able to do so safely. Developing a moving hand-rail for the system presented a challenge, also solved by the Battelle team. The Speedaway was intended to be used as a stand-alone system over short distances or to form acceleration and deceleration units providing entry and exit means for a parallel conventional (but fast-running) Starglide walkway which covered longer distances. The system was still in development in 1975 but never went into commercial production.

Another attempt at an accelerated walkway in the 1980s was the TRAX (Trottoir Roulant Accéléré), which was developed by Dassault and RATP and whose prototype was installed at Invalides station in Paris. The speed at entry and exit was 3 km/h, while the maximum speed was 15 km/h. It was a technical failure due to its complexity, and was never commercially exploited.

In the mid-1990s, the Loderway Moving Walkway company patented and licensed a design to a number of larger moving walkway manufacturers. Trial systems were installed at Flinders Street railway station in Melbourne and Brisbane Airport Australia. These met with a positive response from the public, but no permanent installations were made. This system is of the belt type, with a sequence of belts moving at different speeds to accelerate and decelerate riders. A sequence of different speed handrails is also used.

Trottoir roulant rapide (TRR)
In 2002, CNIM designed and installed the experimental, 185 m trottoir roulant rapide high-speed walkway in the Montparnasse–Bienvenüe station in France. At first it operated at a speed of 12 kph but was later reduced to 9 kph due to safety concerns. As the design of the walkway requires riders to have at least one hand free to hold the handrail, those carrying bags, shopping, etc., or who are infirm or physically disabled, must use the ordinary walkway beside it, and staff were positioned at each end to determine who could and who could not use it.

Using this walkway is similar to using any other moving walkway, except that there are special procedures to follow when entering or exiting at either end. On entering, there is a 10 m acceleration zone where the "ground" is a series of metal rollers. Riders stand still with both feet on these rollers and use one hand to hold the handrail and let it pull them so that they glide over the rollers. The idea is to accelerate the riders so that they will be traveling fast enough to step onto the moving walkway belt. Riders who try to walk on these rollers are at significant risk of falling over. Once on the walkway, riders can stand or walk as on an ordinary moving walkway. At the exit, the same technique is used to decelerate the riders. Users step onto a series of rollers which decelerate them slowly, rather than the abrupt halt which would otherwise take place.

The walkway proved to be unreliable, leading to many users losing their balance and having accidents. Consequently, it was removed by RATP in 2011 after nine years in service, being replaced with a standard moving walkway.

ThyssenKrupp ACCEL
In 2007, ThyssenKrupp installed two high-speed walkways in Terminal 1 at Toronto Pearson International Airport. They connect the international gates in the newly opened Pier F, located at one end of the pier, with the rest of the terminal. One walkway serves departing passengers traveling towards the gates and the other serves arriving passengers traveling towards the terminal. The airport decided to decommission the walkway in 2020.

The walkway's pallet-type design accelerates and decelerates users in a manner that eliminates many of the safety risks generated by the moving belt-type used in Paris, making it suitable for use by people of all ages and sizes regardless of their health condition. The pallets "intermesh" with a comb and slot arrangement. They expand out of each other when speeding up, and compress into each other when slowing down. The handrails work in a similar manner, and because of this, there is no need to hold the handrails when entering or exiting the walkway. It moves at roughly 2 kph when riders step onto it and speeds up to approximately 7 kph, which it remains at until near the end, where it slows back down.

ThyssenKrupp continued development of that product, and its effect is Accel, an upgraded version of Express Walkway, offering speeds of up to 12 kph, which is 5 kph faster than of Express Walkway, and is the same speed as of original version of TRR walkway.

Inclined moving walkways
An inclined moving walkway is a type of vertical transportation used in airports and supermarkets to move people to another floor with the convenience of an elevator (namely, that people can take along their suitcase trolley, shopping cart, or baby carriage) and the capacity of an escalator. Conflicting sources name either Goodyear Tire or Canadian elevator company Turnbull as the inventor of the inclined moving walkway.

Some department stores instead use shopping cart conveyors to transport passengers and their carts between store levels simultaneously. Walmart in Canada require users of wheelchairs and other mobility aids to be accompanied by shop staff when using their moving walkways, which they refer to as 'movators'. This policy has been superseded in some stores by the installation of elevators.

Shopping carts used on inclined moving walkways usually have wheels specially designed to get caught in the grooves of the walkway's tread when rolled onto the walkway, thereby preventing the cart from rolling down. The wheels are lifted off the tread by the landing plate at the end.

Applications
Moving walkways are frequently found in the following locations:

Airports
Moving walkways are commonly used in larger airports, as passengers – often with heavy luggage in tow – typically need to walk considerable distances. Moving walkways may be used:
 * in passageways between concourses and the terminal
 * within particularly long concourses
 * as a connector between terminals, or
 * as access to a parking facility or a ground transport station.

Of particular note is the Charles de Gaulle Airport in Paris, France, which has several moving walkways inside a series of futuristic suspended tubes.

Public transport
Moving walkways can be useful for lengthier connections between lines or platforms; for example:

 * London Underground (London): on the Waterloo & City line terminus at Bank station and on the Jubilee Line at Waterloo and London Bridge
 * Glasgow Subway (Glasgow): from Buchanan Street subway station to Queen Street railway station
 * MTR (Hong Kong): between Central and Hong Kong stations on Hong Kong Island, and between Tsim Sha Tsui and East Tsim Sha Tsui stations in Kowloon
 * MRT (Singapore): in Bugis, Dhoby Ghaut, Serangoon, Botanic Gardens, Orchard, Outram Park and Changi Airport stations
 * Chongqing Rail Transit/CRT(Chongqing): Moving walkways inside Jiaochangkou station's interchange channel for transfers between Line 1 and Line 2.
 * Montreal Metro, the entrance of the Beaudry station

A moving walkway was formerly part of the complex in Spadina subway station in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Installed in 1978, it reduced the travel time needed to transfer between the platforms on the Bloor–Danforth and the Yonge–University–Spadina lines. They were removed in 2004 and patrons are now required to walk between the stations.

Urban areas
Moving walkways have been heavily incorporated into Hong Kong's system of Central–Mid-Levels escalators.

Museums
Moving sidewalks may be used:
 * to ensure that a museum exhibit is viewed in a certain sequence
 * to provide a particular aesthetic effect in an exhibit
 * to make sure the crowd moves through at a reliable pace.

The 1975–76 American Freedom Train did this with a moving walkway inside each successive railroad car, thus maximizing the number of people who could view the interior exhibits in the limited time the train was stopped in each town.

The National Gallery of Art in Washington, DC, US, uses a moving walkway to connect the two main buildings.

The Tower of London in London, England, uses a moving walkway where visitors are passing the cabinets which contain the Crown Jewels.

Zoos
Similar to museums, some zoological park exhibits have a moving walkway to ease guests through an animal display or habitat. An aquarium at the Mall of America does this with a moving walkway made up of specially rounded pallets that enable it to change directions en route. The San Diego Zoo uses moving ramps to help guests ascend steep grades.

Theme parks
Some amusement park rides, such as continuous-motion dark rides like Disney's Omnimover rides, make use of a moving sidewalk to assist passengers in boarding and disembarking rides and attractions. Some examples include:
 * the Ultra Twister, a roller coaster at the now closed Astroworld in Houston, Texas, had a moving walkway with no handrail for passengers to step on prior to boarding their car. The walkway would move at the same speed as the approaching cars, allowing passengers completing the ride to step off and for boarding passengers to enter the car. An announcement played "Moving conveyor, please watch your step" to warn of the moving walkway.
 * the exit from the Space Mountain attraction at Walt Disney World Resort formerly had a long moving walkway which changed inclination multiple times. As of November 15, 2018, it has been converted to conventional flooring.
 * the exit from the Pirates of the Caribbean attraction at Walt Disney World has an inclined moving walkway leading towards a gift shop.
 * the Tomorrowland Transit Authority PeopleMover attraction at Walt Disney World Resort has two inclined moving walkways to carry guests between the ground level and the attraction's load and unload stations, where guests step onto another moving walkway that is one of the few circular moving walkways

Theatrical sets
The Phantom of the Opera by Andrew Lloyd Webber uses a travelator in the number "The Phantom of the Opera" (act one, scene six), to give the illusion the Phantom and Christine are traveling the catacombs below the Paris Opera House a great distance to the Phantom's lair on the subterranean lake.

Ski resorts
Moving walkways known as magic carpets are also used in ski resorts. Skiers can place their skis on the walkway, which is designed to provide a strong level of grip. Since the walkways cannot be too steep and are slow compared to other aerial lifts, they are used especially for beginners or to transport people over a short uphill distance, such as to reach a restaurant or another lift's station. Moving walkways can also be found at the entrances of chairlifts to help passengers in the boarding process.

Retail
In the UK, inclined travelators are used in stores, including Asda, B&M Bargains, IKEA, Marks & Spencer, Morrisons, Sainsbury's, and Tesco. For example, Tesco in Aberystwyth uses six inclined travelators (three up, three down in a criss-cross layout) to transport shoppers and their trolleys between the store, the rooftop car park and the under-store car park.

In the United States, inclined walkways can be found in certain IKEA, Menards, Publix, H-E-B, Wegmans, Costco Wholesale, and Whole Foods Market stores.

Safety
When in operation, travelators have similar safety risks to traditional escalators, with the most common injuries on travelators being caused by tripping or falling over, and thus typically have similar guidelines to escalators to use them safely.

Science fiction
The concept of a megalopolis based on high-speed walkways is common in science fiction. The first works set in such a location are "A Story of the Days To Come" (1897) and When The Sleeper Wakes (1899) (also republished as The Sleeper Awakes), written by H. G. Wells, which take place in a future London. Thirty years later, the silent film Metropolis (1927) depicted several scenes showing moving sidewalks and escalators between skyscrapers at high levels. Later, the short story "The Roads Must Roll" (1940), written by Robert A. Heinlein, depicts the risk of a transportation strike in a society based on similar-speed sidewalks. The novel is part of the Future History saga, and takes place in 1976. Isaac Asimov, in the novel The Caves of Steel (1954) and its sequels in the Robot series, uses similar enormous underground cities with a similar sidewalk system. The period described is about the year 5,000.

In each of these cases, there is a massive network of parallel moving belts, the inner ones moving faster. Passengers are screened from wind, and there are chairs and even shops on the belt. In the Heinlein work the fast lane runs at 100 mph, and the first "mechanical road" was built in 1960 between Cincinnati and Cleveland. The relative speed of two adjacent belts is 5 mph (in the book, the fast lane stops while the second lane keeps running at 95 mph). In the Wells and Asimov works there are more steps in the speed scale and the speeds are less extreme.

In Arthur C. Clarke's novel, Against the Fall of Night (later rewritten as The City and the Stars) the Megacity of Diaspar is interwoven with "moving ways" which, unlike Heinlein's conveyor belts, are solid floors that can mysteriously move as a fluid. In the novel, Clarke writes, "An engineer of the ancient world would have gone slowly mad trying to understand how a solid roadway could be fixed at both ends while its centre travelled at a hundred miles an hour... The corridor still inclined upwards, and in a few hundred feet had curved through a complete right-angle. But only logic knew this: to the senses it was now as if one were being hurried along an absolutely level corridor. The fact that he was in reality travelling up a vertical shaft thousands of feet deep gave Alvin no sense of insecurity, for a failure of the polarizing field was unthinkable." In his non-fiction book Profiles of the Future, Arthur C. Clarke mentions moving sidewalks but made of some sort of anisotropic material that could flow in the direction of travel but hold the weight of a person. The fluid would have the advantage of offering a continuous gradient of speed from the edge to edge so there would be no jumps, and simply moving from side to side would effect a change in speed.

In the Strugatsky brothers' Noon Universe, the worldwide network of moving roads is one of the first megaprojects undertaken on newly united Earth, before the advent of FTL starships and its consequences turned everybody's attention to the stars. These roads there are quasiliving organisms similar to Clarke's description and were used for both local commuting and long-distance non-urgent transport until their use was eclipsed by an instant teleportation network.

The animated TV series The Jetsons depicts moving walkways everywhere, even in private homes.

Slidewalk
A slidewalk is a fictional moving pavement structurally sound enough to support buildings and large populations of travelers. Adjacent slidewalks moving at different rates could let travelers accelerate to great speeds. The term is also used colloquially for a conventional moving walkway.

They were imagined by science fiction writer H. G. Wells in When the Sleeper Wakes. Robert A. Heinlein made them the instruments of social upheaval in the 1940 short story The Roads Must Roll. Isaac Asimov, in his Robot series, imagined slidewalks as the potential method of transportation of practically the entire urban population on Earth, with expressways moving at up to 60 mph equipped with seating accommodations for long-distance travel, and with slower subsidiary tracks branching off from the main lines. Arthur C. Clarke also used them in The City and the Stars. Larry Niven used them in Ringworld and Flatlander. Slidewalks figure prominently in The Jetsons.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Moving walkway


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Potentilla

Potentilla is a genus containing over 500 species of annual, biennial and perennial herbaceous flowering plants in the rose family, Rosaceae.

Potentillas may also be called cinquefoils in English, but they have also been called five fingers and silverweeds. Some species are called tormentils, though this is often used specifically for common tormentil (P. erecta). Others are referred to as barren strawberries, which may also refer to P. sterilis in particular, or to the closely related Waldsteinia fragarioides. Several other cinquefoils formerly included here are now separated in distinct genera – notably the popular garden shrub P. fruticosa, now Dasiphora fruticosa.

Potentillas are generally found throughout the northern continents of the world (holarctic), though some occur in montane biomes of the New Guinea Highlands.

Description
Typical cinquefoils look most similar to strawberries, but differ in usually having dry, inedible fruit (hence the name "barren strawberry" for some species). Many cinquefoil species have palmate leaves. Some species have just three leaflets, while others have fifteen or more leaflets arranged pinnately. The flowers are usually yellow, but may be white, pinkish or red. The accessory fruits are usually dry but may be fleshy and strawberry-like, while the actual seeds – each one technically a single fruit – are tiny nuts.

Taxonomy
Among the Rosaceae, cinquefoils are close relatives of avens (genus Geum) and roses (Rosa), and even closer relatives of agrimonies (Agrimonia). Yet more closely related to Potentilla are lady's mantles (Alchemilla) and strawberries (Fragaria). Dryas is a more distantly related genus, long-held beliefs notwithstanding.

Analysis of internal transcribed spacer DNA sequence data has yielded valuable information on cinquefoil relationships, supporting previous hypotheses as to their descent, but also resulting in a number of changes to the circumscription of Potentilla.

The horkelias, mousetails, and mock-strawberries formerly classified in the genera Horkelia, Ivesia, and Duchesnea are now all included in the genus Potentilla. Conversely, the shrubby plants previously included in this genus are now separated in the genus Dasiphora, while some distinctive and apparently protocarnivorous herbaceous cinquefoils are placed in Drymocallis. The marsh cinquefoil is now in the genus Comarum, and the three-toothed cinquefoil makes up the monotypic genus Sibbaldiopsis. As already proposed by John Hill in the 18th-5century, the silverweeds of genus Argentina may be distinct, but as the immediate sister genus of Potentilla, its boundary is still unclear.

Subdivision
Estimates of the number of valid species in this large genus depend on the circumscription used, and over 500 species are currently recognised by Plants of the World Online.

See the list of Potentilla species.

Formerly included in Potentilla

 * Argentina (segregate)
 * Comarum
 * Dasiphora
 * Drymocallis
 * Sibbaldiopsis

Etymology
"Cinquefoil" in the Middle English Dictionary is described as "Pentafilon – from Greek Pentaphyllon – influenced by foil, a leaf. The European cinquefoil (Potentilla reptans), often used medicinally." The word is derived from Old French cinc, Middle English cink and ultimately Latin quinque – all meaning "five" –, and feuille and foil/foille which mean "leaf". Formerly this term referred to five-leaved plants in general. In medieval times, the word "cinquefoil" was used almost exclusively in England. In France, the genus was called quintefeuille, first attested in Normandy and Brittany in the 11th-century.

The scientific name Potentilla seems to have been influenced by a fusion of ancient names for these plants. Common tormentil, P. erecta, was known as tormentilla in medieval Latin, derived from early Spanish – literally "a little torment", meaning pain that, while not debilitating, is unpleasant and persistent (such as a stomach ache, against which P. erecta was used). The change from initial "t" to "p" seems to have been influenced by terms such as poterium – Latin for the related burnets (genus Sanguisorba) – or propedila and similar words used for the European cinquefoil (P. reptans) in the now-extinct Dacian language, as attested in Latin herbals.

In another medieval dictionary the French word potentille is defined as a "wild Tansie, a silver weed", a reference to the tansy (Tanacetum vulgare) and similar taxa of the genus Tanacetum. The related adjective potentiel/potentiells means "strong", "forcible", or "powerful in operation". Its origin is the French potence ("strong", "powerful", "mighty", or "potent"). The origin of these words is the Latin potens, with the same meaning.

Distribution and habitat
Cinquefoils grow wild in most cool and cold regions of the world. Most species are herbaceous perennials but a few are erect or creeping shrubs. Some are troublesome weeds. Other types are grown in gardens.

Ecology
Cinquefoils are a prominent part of many ecosystems. In the United Kingdom alone, common tormentil (P. erecta) together with purple moor grass (Molinia caerulea) defines many grassy mires, and grows abundantly in the typical deciduous forest with downy birch (Betula pubescens), common wood sorrel (Oxalis acetosella), and sessile oak (Quercus petraea). In upland pastures on calcareous soil it typically accompanies common bent (Agrostis capillaris), sheep's fescue (Festuca ovina), and wild thyme (Thymus praecox). It is most commonly seen in regions dominated by common heather (Calluna vulgaris), including common lowland heaths with bell heather (Erica cinerea), maritime heaths with spring squill (Scilla verna), submontane heaths dominated by red peat moss (Sphagnum capillifolium) and common bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus), and the mountain heathlands of Scotland with alpine juniper (Juniperus communis ssp. alpina).

The leaves of cinquefoils are eaten by the caterpillars of many Lepidoptera, notably the grizzled skippers (genus Pyrgus), butterflies of the skipper family. Adult butterflies and moths visit cinquefoil flowers; for example, the endangered Karner blue butterfly (Plebejus melissa samuelis) takes nectar from common cinquefoil (P. simplex). The Polish cochineal (Porphyrophora polonica), a scale insect once used to produce red dye, lives on cinquefoils and other plants in Eurasia. Some, but not all, cinquefoils are insect-pollinated, producing nectar that lures bees, hoverflies, muscid flies, butterflies, true bugs, and ants.

Fossil record
One fossil fruitlet of †Potentilla pliocenica has been described from a middle Miocene stratum of the Fasterholt area near Silkeborg in Central Jutland, Denmark. Four fossil fruits of †Potentilla pliocenica have been extracted from bore hole samples of the Middle Miocene fresh water deposits in Nowy Sacz Basin, West Carpathians, Poland.

Horticulture

Some cinquefoils are grown as ornamental plants. These are generally high species with bright, showy flowers, such as golden cinquefoil (P. aurea), ruby cinquefoil (P. atrosanguinea), Nepal cinquefoil (P. nepalensis), and sulphur cinquefoil (P. recta). Horticultural hybrids such as Hopwood's cinquefoil (Potentilla × hopwoodiana) and tongue cinquefoil (Potentilla × tonguei) have been bred, and there exists a range of cultivars. Some double-flowered cinquefoils have been bred, starting with Victor Lemoine's 'Gloire de Nancy' in 1854. Other taxa and varieties are useful for more specialized gardening purposes, such as rock gardens or swamps. Among the former is the hardy spring cinquefoil (P. neumanniana), the floral emblem of Cromartyshire.

Health
Some species are used in herbalism. Common tormentil (P. erecta), for example, has been used as an herbal remedy for inflammation and gastrointestinal disorders. Research continues to determine its safety and usefulness as an alternative medicine for such disorders as ulcerative colitis. Potentilla discolor and P. multifida are Chinese medicinal herbs used to treat diabetes.

Cultural references
In heraldry, the cinquefoil emblem or potentilla signified strength, power, honor, and loyalty. Depiction of the five-petalled flower appears as early as 1033, in the architecture of the church built in the village of Reulle-Vergy in Burgundy, France, two years before the reign of William the Conqueror. The cinquefoil emblem was used generously in the architecture of numerous churches built in Normandy and Brittany through the 15th century.

From the 11th to 14th century, the word potence, related to potentilla, was used mainly in a military context and to describe the condition of the soul.

At the time of William the Conqueror, the potentilla was used as the device of Bardolph of Brittany, who was the master of William's military engineer corps.

title: Potentilla


text:
Talk:Commodity

Cryptocurrency
Since the SEC has determined that bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies are considered commodities, it would be prudent to add a section on this interpretation of what constitutes a commodity (vs. fiat vs. security). Niubrad (talk) 01:21, 5 November 2021 (UTC)

Commodity
Gujarati 2409:4041:2E05:4B2E:A71C:2FB1:A520:2E3C (talk) 03:39, 13 March 2022 (UTC)

Karl Marx invented commodities
Reading this article in its current form, you would be excused for thinking that Karl Marx invented commodities, or certainly its definition. It's a pretty good indication of Wikipedia's bias though. 89.8.26.93 (talk) 10:38, 27 July 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Commodity


text:
Leeds (disambiguation)

Leeds is a major town in West Yorkshire, England.

Leeds may also refer to:

Business

 * Leeds City Credit Union, a savings and loans co-operative
 * Leeds TV, formerly Made in Leeds, television station

Peerages

 * Baron Milner of Leeds
 * Duke of Leeds
 * Leeds baronets

Canada

 * Leeds (federal electoral district), Ontario
 * Leeds County, Ontario, historic county
 * United Counties of Leeds and Grenville

West Yorkshire

 * Leeds city centre, the core inner portion of the settlement
 * City of Leeds, local government district created 1974
 * Leeds City Region, the area whose economic development is supported by the Leeds City Region Partnership, a sub-regional economic development partnership

Historical entities

 * Leeds manorial borough (1207–1626), within Leeds manor, within Leeds parish
 * Leeds (incorporated borough) (1626–1836)
 * Leeds Municipal Borough (1836–1889)
 * County Borough of Leeds (1889–1974)
 * Leeds (UK Parliament constituency) (1832–1885)
 * Leeds (European Parliament constituency) (1979–1999)

Kent

 * Leeds, Kent, a village near Maidstone
 * Leeds Castle, a castle near Leeds, Kent
 * Leeds Priory, a priory near Leeds, Kent

United States

 * Leeds, Alabama, a city
 * Leeds, Maine, a town
 * Leeds, Massachusetts, a village within Northampton, Massachusetts
 * Leeds Township, Murray County, Minnesota, a township
 * Leeds, Kansas City, a neighborhood of Kansas City, Missouri
 * Leeds, New York, a hamlet
 * Leeds, North Dakota, a city
 * Leeds Township, Benson County, North Dakota
 * Leeds, Utah, a town
 * Leeds, Wisconsin, a town
 * Leeds (community), Wisconsin, an unincorporated community
 * Leeds Center, Wisconsin, an unincorporated community

England

 * University of Leeds
 * Leeds Beckett University, formerly Leeds Metropolitan University and Leeds Polytechnic
 * Leeds Trinity University, Horsforth, West Yorkshire
 * Leeds Arts University, formerly Leeds College of Art
 * Leeds College of Music
 * Leeds College of Technology
 * Leeds City College
 * Leeds College of Building

United States

 * Leeds School of Business, Boulder, Colorado, United States

Sports

 * Leeds Carnegie, sports teams associated with the Carnegie School of Physical Education
 * Leeds City F.C., a 1904–19 football club
 * Leeds City Vixens L.F.C., now Guiseley A.F.C. Vixens, a women's football club
 * Leeds Rhinos, a rugby league club
 * Leeds Road, a former football stadium in Huddersfield, England
 * Leeds Tykes, a rugby union club
 * Leeds United F.C., a football club
 * Leeds United L.F.C., a football club

Other uses

 * Leeds (surname) (including a list of people bearing the surname)
 * Leeds railway station, the central station in Leeds city centre
 * HM Prison Leeds, a prison in Armley, Leeds, West Yorkshire, England
 * "Leeds", a song by the Indigo Girls from Shaming of the Sun

title: Leeds (disambiguation)


text:
Louis Antoine de Bougainville

Louis-Antoine, Comte de Bougainville (,, ; 12 November 1729 – 31 August 1811) was a French admiral and explorer. A contemporary of the British explorer James Cook, he took part in the Seven Years' War in North America and the American Revolutionary War against Britain. Bougainville later gained fame for his expeditions, including a circumnavigation of the globe in a scientific expedition in 1763, the first recorded settlement on the Falkland Islands, and voyages into the Pacific Ocean. Bougainville Island of Papua New Guinea as well as the Bougainvillea flower are named after him.

Early career
Bougainville was born in Paris, the capital of the Kingdom of France, the son of notary Pierre-Yves de Bougainville (1688–1756), on 12 November 1729. In early life, he studied law, but soon abandoned the profession.

In 1753, he entered the French Army in the corps of Musketeers of the Guard. At the age of twenty-five he published a treatise on integral calculus, as a supplement to Guillaume de l'Hôpital's treatise, Des infiniment petits.

In 1755, he was sent to England as secretary to the French embassy in London, where he was made a member of the Royal Society.

Seven Years' War (French and Indian War)
In 1756, Bougainville was stationed in Canada as captain of dragoons and aide-de-camp to the Marquis de Montcalm. He took an active part in the capture of Fort Oswego in 1756 and the 1757 Battle of Fort William Henry. He was wounded in 1758 at the successful defense of Fort Carillon. He sailed back to France the following winter, under orders from the marquis to obtain additional military resources for the colony. During this crossing, he continued to learn about the ways of the sea, skills that would later serve him well. Having distinguished himself in the war against Britain, Bougainville was rewarded with the Cross of St Louis and promoted to colonel. When he returned to Canada the following year, he had gained few supplies. The metropolitan officials had decided that, "When the house is on fire, one does not worry about the stables".

During the pivotal year of 1759 (see Seven Years' War and French and Indian War), Bougainville participated in the defence of fortified Quebec, the capital of New France. With a small elite troop under his command, among which were the Grenadiers and the Volontaires à cheval, he patrolled the north shore of the St. Lawrence River, upstream from the city; he prevented the British several times from landing and cutting communications with Montreal. He did not have sufficient time, however, to rally his troops and attack the British rear when they successfully ascended the Plains of Abraham and attacked Quebec on 13 September.

Following the death of the Marquis de Montcalm and the fall of Québec on 18 September 1759 – after the colonel's aborted attempt to resupply the besieged city – Bougainville was dispatched to the western front by his new commanding officer, the Chevalier de Lévis. He attempted to stop the three-pronged attack against Montréal from his entrenchments at Île-aux-Noix. He was among the officers who accompanied Lévis to Saint Helen's Island off Montreal for the last French stand in North America before the general capitulation of September 1760. Of the war, Bougainville wrote in his journal: "It is an abominable kind of war. The very air we breathe is contagious of insensibility and hardness".

Shipped back to Europe along with the other French officers, all deprived of military honors by the victors, Bougainville was prohibited by the terms of surrender from any further active duty against the British. He spent the remaining years of the Seven Years' War (1761 to 1763) as a diplomat, helping to negotiate the Treaty of Paris. Under this France ceded most of New France east of the Mississippi River to the British Empire.

Îles Malouines settlement
After the peace, the French decided to colonise the "Îles Malouines" (Falkland Islands). These islands were at that time almost unknown. At his own expense, Bougainville undertook the task of resettling Acadians who had been deported to France by the British because of their refusal to sign loyalty oaths.

On 15 September 1763, Bougainville set out from France with the frigate L'Aigle (Eagle) (captained by Nicolas Pierre Duclos-Guyot) and the sloop Le Sphinz (Sphinx) (captained by François Chenard de la Giraudais). This expedition included the naturalist and writer Antoine-Joseph Pernety (known as Dom Pernety), the priest and chronicler accompanying the expedition, together with the engineer and geographer Lhuillier de la Serre.

The expedition arrived in late January 1764 in French Bay (later renamed Berkeley Sound). They landed at Port Louis named after King Louis XV. A formal ceremony of possession of the Islands was held on 5 April 1764, after which Bougainville and Pernety returned to France. Louis XV formally ratified possession on 12 September 1764.

Although the French colony did not number more than 150 people, for financial motivations (Bougainville having paid for the expeditions) and diplomatic reasons (Spain feared that the Falklands would become a rear base to attack her Peruvian gold), Bougainville was ordered by the French government to dismantle his colony and sell it to the Spanish. Bougainville received 200,000 francs in Paris and an additional 500,000 francs in Buenos Aires. Spain agreed to maintain the colony in Port Louis, thus preventing Britain from claiming title to the islands. Spain had claimed dominion before the French settlement in association with its colonies on the mainland. On 31 January 1767 at Río de la Plata, Bougainville met Don Felipe Ruiz Puente, commanding the frigate La Esmeralda and La Liebre ("the Hare") and future governor of Islas Malvinas, to transfer possession and evacuate the French population.

Bougainville wrote:

"It was not before 1766, that the English sent a colony to settle in Port de la Croisade, which they had named Port Egmont; and captain Macbride, of the Jason frigate, came to our settlement the same year, in the beginning of December. He pretended that these parts belonged to his Britannic majesty, threatened to land by force, if he should be any longer refused that liberty, visited the governor, and sailed away again the same day."

Circumnavigation

In 1766, Bougainville received from Louis XV permission to circumnavigate the globe. He would become the 14th navigator, and the first Frenchman, to sail around the world (though some are led to believe that Richard of Normandie, who was part of the fleet of Ferdinand Magellan during his circumnavigation, was the first Frenchman to do so). Completion of his mission bolstered the prestige of France following its defeats during the Seven Years' War. This was the first expedition to circumnavigate the globe with professional naturalists and geographers aboard.

Bougainville left Nantes on 15 November 1766 with two ships: Boudeuse (captain : Nicolas Pierre Duclos-Guyot) and the Étoile (commanded by François Chenard de la Giraudais). This was a large expedition, with a crew of 214 aboard Boudeuse and 116 aboard Étoile. Included in the party was the botanist Philibert Commerçon (who named the flower Bougainvillea) and his valet. Commerson's valet was later revealed to be a woman Jeanne Barret (also  Baré or Baret); she would become the first woman known to circumnavigate the globe. Other notable people on this expedition were the astronomer Pierre-Antoine Veron; the surgeon of Boudeuse Dr. Louis-Claude Laporte; the surgeon of the Étoile Dr. François Vives; the engineer and cartographer aboard the Étoile Charles Routier de Romainville; and the writer and historian Louis-Antoine Starot de Saint-Germain.

Tahiti

He saw islands of the Tuamotu group on the following 22 March, on 2 April saw the peak of Mehetia and visited the island of Otaheite shortly after. He narrowly missed becoming their discoverer; a previous visit and claim had been made by British explorer Samuel Wallis in HMS Dolphin less than a year previously. Bougainville claimed the island for France and named it New Cythera. During this part of his expedition, one of his crew members, Jeanne Barret, was discovered to be a woman and confessed.

His expedition left Tahiti and sailed westward to southern Samoa and the New Hebrides, then on sighting Espiritu Santo turned west still looking for the Southern Continent. On 4 June he almost ran into heavy breakers and had to change course to the north and east. He had almost found the Great Barrier Reef. He sailed through what is now known as the Solomon Islands but, because of the hostility of the people there, avoided landing. He named Bougainville Island for himself. The expedition was attacked by people from New Ireland so the French expedition made for the Moluccas. At Batavia, they received news of Wallis and Carteret who had preceded Bougainville in discovering Tahiti.

Return to France

On 16 March 1769, the expedition completed its circumnavigation and arrived at Saint-Malo. It had lost only seven of its 340 crew, an extremely low level of casualties. This result was considered a credit to the enlightened management of the expedition by Bougainville.

Bougainville brought to France a Tahitian named Ahutoru who volunteered to come with him. In France, Bougainville introduced Ahutoru to the high society, including introducing him to the King and Queen at Versailles. Bougainville also underwrote part of the costs for Ahutoru's return to Tahiti after a two-year absence. The voyage took place under Marion Dufresne, but Ahutoru died en route of smallpox in October 1771.

Voyage autour du monde

In 1771, Bougainville published his travel log from the expedition under the title Le voyage autour du monde, par la frégate La Boudeuse, et la flûte L'Étoile (a.k.a. Voyage autour du monde and A Voyage Around the World). The book describes the geography, biology and anthropology of Argentina (then a Spanish colony), Patagonia, Tahiti, and Indonesia (then a Dutch colony). The book was a sensation, especially the description of Tahitian society. Bougainville described it as an earthly paradise where men and women lived in blissful innocence, far from the corruption of civilization.

Bougainville's descriptions powerfully expressed the concept of the noble savage, influencing the utopian thoughts of philosophers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau before the advent of the French Revolution. Denis Diderot's book Supplément au voyage de Bougainville retells the story of Bougainville's landing on Tahiti, narrated by an anonymous reader to one of his friends. Diderot used his fictional approach, including a description of the Tahitians as noble savages, to criticize Western ways of living and thinking.

American Revolutionary War
After several years of absence, Bougainville again accepted a naval command. In 1777, he was captain of the 74-gun Bien-Aimé. He took part in the War of American Independence, playing a crucial part in the French victory at the Battle of the Chesapeake.

At the Battle of the Saintes, Bougainville commanded the 80-gun Auguste. He managed to rally eight ships of his own division, and bringing them safely into Saint Eustace after the defeat of Comte de Grasse. He was promoted to chef d'escadre. When he re-entered the French Army, he was commissioned as maréchal de camp.

After Peace of Paris in 1783, Bougainville returned to Paris. He obtained the place of associate of the Académie de Marine. He proposed a voyage of discovery to the North Pole, but did not gain the support of the French government.

Promotion and retirement
In 1787, he became a member of the French Academy of Sciences. He obtained the rank of vice-admiral in 1791.

In 1794, having escaped from the Reign of Terror, he retired to his estate in Normandy. Returning to Paris, he was one of the founding members of the Bureau des Longitudes. In 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte, at the time serving as First Consul of the Republic, made him a senator. He died in Paris on 31 August 1811, during Napoleon's reign of the First French Empire.

Legacy and honors

 * Bougainville's name is given to the largest eastern island of Papua New Guinea; and to the strait which divides it from the island of Choiseul. It is also applied to the strait between Mallicollo and Espiritu Santo islands of the New Hebrides group. In the Falklands, Port Louis, and "Isla Bougainville" (Lively Island's Spanish name) commemorate him.
 * The genus of South American climbing shrubs with colorful bracts, Bougainvillea, is named after him.
 * 1804, he was made a Grand Officier de la Légion d'honneur in 1804.
 * 1808, Napoleon gave him the title of count (the Comte de Bougainville).
 * Thirteen ships of the French Navy have been named in his honor, see French ship Bougainville.

Notes and references

Notes

References

Bibliography
 * ISBN 9781602230019.
 * ISBN 9781602230019.
 * ISBN 9781602230019.
 * ISBN 9781602230019.

title: Louis Antoine de Bougainville


text:
National Arts Centre Orchestra

The National Arts Centre Orchestra (NAC Orchestra) is a Canadian orchestra based in Ottawa, Ontario led by music director Alexander Shelley. The NAC Orchestra's primary concert venue is Southam Hall at the National Arts Centre. Since its inception, the Orchestra has commissioned more than 90 works, mostly from Canadian composers. The NAC Orchestra has made over 50 commercially released recordings. The Orchestra has visited more than 125 cities in Canada and more than 130 cities internationally in its 51-year history, including a coast-to-coast Canadian tour in 1999 and again in 2017. In May 2019, the NAC Orchestra completed a major European tour, performing and delivering education events in five countries.

History
The NAC Orchestra was founded in 1969 as the resident orchestra of the newly opened National Arts Centre, with Jean-Marie Beaudet as music director and Mario Bernardi as founding conductor. Bernardi became music director in 1971 and held the post until 1982. The NAC Orchestra undertook first international tour in 1973 to Europe, travelling as far as Leningrad. The NAC Orchestra has remained committed to touring internationally, averaging approximately one tour per every two years. Previous tours have taken them to the UK, China, the United-States of America, and all over Europe.

Beaudet and Bernardi are the only Canadian conductors to be appointed music director of the NAC Orchestra. Bernardi was named Conductor Laureate in 1997. Subsequent NAC Orchestra music directors have included Franco Mannino (1982 to 1987), Gabriel Chmura (1987 to 1990), and Trevor Pinnock (1991-1997). From 1999 to 2015, Pinchas Zukerman was the NAC Orchestra's music director. The orchestra expanded to 61 players during Zukerman's tenure. In October 2013, the NAC Orchestra announced the appointment of Alexander Shelley as its next music director, as of the 2015–2016 season, with an initial contract of 4 years. In 2018, the NAC announced that his contract was renewed through to 2022.

Franz-Paul Decker was Principal Guest Conductor from 1991 to 1999. In 2001, Jean-Philippe Tremblay became the NAC Orchestra's Apprentice Conductor, a then newly created post, for a two-year term. John Storgards is the current Principal Guest conductor of the NAC Orchestra while Jack Everly is the Principal Pops Conductor.

Music Directors

 * Jean-Marie Beaudet (1969–1971)
 * Mario Bernardi (1971–1982)
 * Franco Mannino (1982–1987)
 * Gabriel Chmura (1987–1990)
 * Trevor Pinnock (1991–1997)
 * Pinchas Zukerman (1999–2015)
 * Alexander Shelley (2015–present)

title: National Arts Centre Orchestra


text:
Talk:London Symphony Orchestra

sponsors
Something must be said about the fact that the LSO has sunk so low as to accept sponsorship from the devil, the tobacco companies 180.216.102.61 (talk) 03:55, 3 February 2012 (UTC)

Untitled
I quite like linking the dates it is very useful when building the year in music pages to look at 'what links here' and then see that Abbado became principle conductor of the LSO, if you were working on 1979 for instance. SimonP 15:00 28 Jun 2003 (UTC)

 * Well, I don't feel very strongly about it (not today, anyway), so if you want to put them back, I won't remove them again. But I do think it looks ugly, and I think they're of very limited interest for the reader. --Camembert

I probably over linked the first time, you can cover every year for the conductors' by linking to just one of the two. SimonP 15:07 28 Jun 2003 (UTC)

 * Yeah, it looks much better now. Thanks Simon. --Camembert

It might be nice to have a link on this page to the other symphonies in London. Rmhermen 17:00 28 Jun 2003 (UTC)

 * Good idea - I've added five that I can think of. I'm sure there are others. --Camembert

Was looking at Londons Symphony Orchestra page, and it looks like that's all this is. Anyone else agree with the merge suggestion?

There is a redirect from the LSO page to the London Symphony Orchestra. I don't know how to set it up myself, but there should be a disambiguation page for the Local Shared Object entry.

Principal conductors
Why is there a principal conductors section when it just duplicates exactly what is in the template of the same name? I'll remove the section for now, it can be discussed here, if needed. I'll also preserve the table on this page Le  the  21:28, 4 September 2007 (UTC)
 * although i am agnostic on the subject for now, i replaced the section on principal conductors as the issue should be discussed before article is changed. although the data is indeed somewhat redundant, it should be noted that the template only indicates begin dates, and do not reflect periods of vacancy. --emerson7 | Talk 05:23, 5 September 2007 (UTC)

Links
I think its wrong to link each notable recording to the LSO website, where one can proceed to purchase. we are not a sales engine for record sales, no matter how high minded the operation is. i see this talk page is not very active. I will probably remove the links in the next week, unless someone argues successfully for some other plan.Mercurywoodrose (talk) 17:14, 12 September 2010 (UTC)

Why so widely used?
It would be interesting to know why LSO is so widely used in TV, Movie, Games, non-classical music etc. It seems that if a rockband used a orchestra, if a tv-game used a orchestra or latest if Apple used an orchestra it always is LSO. Why? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 85.226.157.61 (talk) 09:55, 21 October 2010 (UTC)

'Recordings' section not representative
The Recordings section of this article is currently heavily biased towards film music and commercial (pop) initiatives which, although very notable (see for instance the query above), could scarcely be considered the major artistic recording achievements of this orchestra. I've temporarily created a 'Further reading' section so as to add Richard Morrison's LSO biography to the article: although not currently cited as a "source", I feel it must be one of the most comprehensive best available.--MistyMorn (talk) 09:35, 23 October 2011 (UTC)

Just a query: Stuart, Philip. Decca Classical, 1929–2009, accessed 7 July 2012 is cited as a source in the LSO recordings section, but not the same author's 938-paged specific London Symphony Orchestra Discography, 1913-2009 (pdf file) (3.4 MB) available at http://www.charm.rhul.ac.uk/download/download.html. Cg2p0B0u8m (talk) 14:31, 5 August 2012 (UTC)

infobox
The infobox is wrong - none of these have been members. If correct, the box would need to have 100s of names in there (even the current complement would have 80 or so names (http://www.lso.co.uk/players)). This is particularly ironic for this orchestra, one of the few which had a book published consisting entirely of the thoughts of the players themselves... Cg2p0B0u8m (talk) 15:52, 3 April 2013 (UTC)
 * I so agree, but the infobox zealots are not to be budged. A victory for theology over common sense, I fear. I think they'd be outraged at the idea that "members" should actually list the members. And which of the zealots, I wonder, would bother to keep the list up to date from month to month from the LSO's website. Heigh ho! Tim riley (talk) 19:14, 3 April 2013 (UTC)
 * Have removed the non-members from the "members" category. Have done the same chez BBC Symphony Orchestra. If Cg2p0B0u8m likes to extend this removal of misinformation in other articles about symphony orchestras I shall applaud heartily. Tim riley (talk) 19:31, 10 April 2013 (UTC)

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George Alexander Macfarren (1813-1887): Symphony no. 7 in C-Sharp minor (1845)
London Symphony Orchestra, Riccardo Muti 37.77.122.238 (talk) 19:49, 13 January 2023 (UTC)
 * I. Allegro con brio
 * II. Andante cantabile
 * III. Minuetto: Tempo
 * IV. Presto assai scherzando

title: Talk:London Symphony Orchestra


text:
Alforsite

Alforsite is a barium phosphate chloride mineral with formula: Ba5(PO4)3Cl. It was discovered in 1981, and named to honor geologist John T. Alfors (1930–2005) of the California Geological Survey for his work in the area where it was discovered.

Alforsite is a hexagonal colorless crystal in the chemical class phosphates and the group apatite. It is found in certain parts of central California, primarily Fresno, Mariposa, and Tulare Counties. It has also been found in Baja California, Mexico.

Alforsite is a constituent of the apatite group of minerals. It crystallizes in the hexagonal crystal system with a point group of 6/m and space group P63/m. It occurs as colorless grains that are hard to distinguish from fluoroapatite, as they both display low birefringence and high relief.

Composition
Alforsite's ideal chemical formula is Ba5(PO3)4Cl. Chemical analysis of the composition of alfrosite was demonstrated by the use of an Ortex current digitizer and an electron microbe. Synthetic barium chlorapatite, strontianite, and fluorapatite were used as standards for the elements they contain. The chemical analysis revealed that traces of Mn, S, Si, and Pb were present and provided computational formulas of (Ba4.68Sr0.19Ca0.13)(P2.98Si0.01)O11.96(Cl0.99F0.05) and (Ba4.05Ca0.75Sr0.24Pb0.03)(P2.94Si0.01)O11.93(Cl0.93F0.14).

Structure
Alforsite exhibits Lau symmetry 6/m. It is concluded that the space group is P63/m because every single apatite compound possess that space group. The parameters of the unit cell are a=10.25 Å and c=7.64 Å. One barium atom in the unit cell is enclosed by nine oxygen atoms with a mean distance of 2.824 Å. Another barium atom is surrounded by six oxygen atoms with a mean distance of 2.791 Å and 3.230 Å, which creates two crystallographically distinctive barium atoms. The phosphate group in alforsite forms a regular tetrahedron.

Geologic occurrence
It is found crystallizing in the massive metasedimentary rock, sanbornite, which is found near granodiorite intrusions in Fresno and Mariposa counties, California. John T. Alfors’ colleagues named the mineral in his honor for his works with rare barium minerals of the sanbornite deposits. Alforsite was first discovered in samples from the Big Creek locality. Electron microprobe analysis of a thin-section of the sample from Big Creek revealed the new mineral, which resembled ordinary apatite. Rare barium minerals, mainly silicates, can be uncovered in sanbornite deposits of eastern Fresno and Mariposa counties, California. Alforsite is found in metamorphic sanbornite quartz, which occurs within a few hundred meters of granodiorite intrusions, and foliated quartzite. Gneissic banded rocks contain the mineral, which has been shown to be associated with witherite, sanbornite, and celsian in samples (with quartz-rich and gillespite-rich bands) from Incline. In order for the witherite- sanbornite-quartz to be stable, temperatures of 500 °C to 600 °C and pressures of 1–3 kbar are required.

Special characteristics
Synthetic alforsite has environmental importance because it may be used to replicate contamination by lead without the harmful effects of lead toxicity. For this reason, remediation of metal in soil can be practiced. Synthetic alforsite is prepared in a laboratory and mixed with soil to create a polluted soil, and then is treated with a mixture of salt and ammonium dihydrogen phosphate and maintained at a pH level of nine for two weeks.

Physical properties
Alforsite occurs as colorless, minuscule subhedral grains with a diameter less than 0.05 mm. However, on rare occasions, it can crystallize to a diameter up to 0.2 mm. Minerals that belong to different groups, such as silicates, and sulfates exhibit the structural typology of apatite. This can pose problems and confusion because alforsite bears an almost exact resemblance to other barium silicates, which exemplifies its group Greek name, apatao, meaning, “I am misleading”. The only way to differentiate alforsite from other barium minerals is through microchemical analysis (Walstrom and Leising, 2005). This misleading mineral emulates the physical and structural features of apatite and is analogously similar to chlorapatite, providing alfrosite with the alternate name, barium chlorapatite. Alforsite has a low birefringence and a high relief resembling fluorapatite in thin-section. A reddish-violet cathodoluminescence appears on thin-section showing major levels of chlorine, phosphorus, and barium. Alforsite can be recognized by electron microprobe analysis or by intense violet fluorescence in the 10–15 kV electron beam of a luminoscope

Origin of the name
The mineral Alforsite was named for John T. Alfors in recognition of his extensive research of the type locality of barium minerals and other related rare and new minerals. John T. Alfors was a highly regarded geologist and mineralogist who worked for the state Division of Mines and Geology in California.

title: Alforsite


text:
Talk:List of flowers

Location of plants

 * African flowers
 * Asian flowers
 * Australian flowers
 * European flowers
 * North American flowers
 * South American flowers

I've removed these links, because I think the new category system makes them redundant. Plant articles should be tagged with categories indicating where they grow natively. I say natively, as with greenhouses, imported soil, etc, it's possible to grow most plants almost anywhere, so listing where they will grow doesn't seem useful. These categories can then be linked to by this article.

This does need some more thought (I don't think simply adding Category:LocationEurope, or whatever the form is, will work). Any ideas or links to related discussion? Mr. Jones 06:58, 10 Jun 2004 (UTC)
 * I think you are right, although I'm not sure how to suggest formatting the categories. In general, people are not likelty to be so interested in where they can be grown, given that with help, the range would be pretty wide. Types (shrubs, vines, etc.) and color (yellow flowers, red flowers, etc.) are more useful. The article can give where native, growing conditions like frost sensitive, etc. - Marshman 16:25, 10 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Title of the Article
I'm not sure about the grammar of this title, shoudn't it be either 'list of flowering plants' or 'list of flowers' SimonP 15:04 28 Jun 2003 (UTC)

Do we include any plant that flowers (e.g. almond trees and coleus) or limit to plants most known for their flowers? Koyaanis Qatsi 18:21 2 Jul 2003 (UTC)

I ask because if we include any plant that flowers, as we have some of the trees already, we'd end up including almost all the vegetables on this list. If we don't, we start into some muddy waters trying to determine public sentiment. Koyaanis Qatsi 18:23 2 Jul 2003 (UTC)

I would list any plant that is grown specifically for its flowers. Thus potatoes should not make the list, but cherry trees should because they are fairly often grown ornamentally. It isn't much different than the list of Russian writers, we put notable people who are well known for their writing. Stalin certainly put pen to paper quite frequently, but that does not qualify him for that list, just as the potato shouldn't appear here. SimonP 18:30 2 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Presumably also wild plants especially known for their flowers, even if they aren't grown ornamentally? Loren Rosen 18:42 2 Jul 2003 (UTC)

That's a good point, yes wild plants should certainly be included. SimonP 19:04 2 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Why are the names not capitalised? Some of them are derived from names, e.g. Magnolia, and others are botanic genus names. It is conventional to capitalise these, and it would be simplest to capitalise the lot. Imc 20:11, 14 Aug 2003 (UTC) (and I meant Proper Capitalise of course! Imc 08:58, 15 Aug 2003 (UTC) )

List of Flowers was correct
I sense from the discussions above that this list is really intended to be a list of plants grown (or at least appreciated) for their flowers linking to articles/pictures of those flowers. If that is so, then most "wild plants" should probably not be included and the original article name was the correct one (List of flowers). Flowering plants are all of the angiosperms, so a "List of flowering plants" would be a list of every angiosperm discussed in Wikipedia, a not very valuable listing considering many have very inconspicuous flowers (all grasses are flowering plants) and the taxonomic listings that exist are a far more organized way to approach listing all of the angiosperms. Any comments? Otherwise, I'll move this article back to List of flowers and provide a better intro to what it is all about. - Marshman 01:54, 2 Jan 2004 (UTC)

 * I would think that wild flowers should have another list, perhaps regionalized to keep it from being overwhelming. I realize the line is blurred between cultivated and wild, but a list of all could be an encyclopedia in itself. I have many wildflower photos (of eastern North America), but they did not seem appropriate to this category. I searched for any present Wikipedia listings of wild flowers, but found none. There are a few individual ones already present, but nothing to unify any list. To get the ball rolling, I will create such a list, link to goldenrod, which is already in Wikipedia, and add the Pine Barrens Gentian, a relatively rare, but stunningly beautiful wilddlower. If the format seems good to others, please add to it. If not, rework it...  Pollinator 13:49, 7 Jan 2004 (UTC)
 * Well, Marshman, I see you were thinking of this too, and added the wildflower category on the page, even as I was thinking out loud. I'll hold off for now. But wonder if a second list would be better, as it is potentially huge?   I'm probably not going to be able to do much right now, as Wikipedia is very slow this morning, and I keep getting "page not found" timeouts.  Pollinator 14:01, 7 Jan 2004 (UTC)
 * I try to grow trilliums, but they're not wild flowers for me, far from it, they are difficult exotics. I'm in England. Most flowers are wild somewhere. Imc 17:24, 7 Jan 2004 (UTC)
 * I decided (as you saw) that wildflowers could be included, just categorized separately. My feeling is, go with this organization. But as soon as the list seems long enough to justify, create something like List of Flowers: Wildflowers article and move that part of the list there.  Yes, all garden flowers come from wildflowers, but garden flowers are mostly (though certainly not entirely) exotics that have been selected for their beauty and modified by horticulturalists. Those "time outs" are driving me nuts - Marshman 17:39, 7 Jan 2004 (UTC)

 * Agreed with Imc - every flower (hybrids excepted) is wild somewhere, and to have a separate section for 'wildflowers' is nonsensical, particularly as everything included in it can also be fitted into one of the other categories. MPF 12:59, 9 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * Simply not true. Every flower is NOT wild somewhere. Many garden flowers are not wild anywhere, but are horticultural varieties found only in the "trade". Of course, all have a wild relative or origin. The distinction would be whether the plant is a garden plant or a wildflower. There are plenty of books out there on "wildflowers", so the distinction is actually a pretty clear one. But of course there would be overlap. - Marshman 17:34, 9 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * True, at species level. And it is going to be task enough to devote a Wiki entry for every species, let alone descending to the depths of individual cultivars! So far, all the entries on the list are genera, or at least groups of species in a genus. And it misses the other side of the point, that no flower is wild everywhere; my wild flowers are not the same as yours. Wild flower books are all local/regional; Wikipedia isn't. - MPF 21:09, 9 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Categorisation by lifespan is problematic
Categorisation under the headings annuals, biennials et.c. is going to be a problem because many plants will fit under multiple headings; e.g. Begonias have many commonly grown forms, and these can be tuberous, non-tuberous perennials, houseplants in temperate regions, annuals in temperate regions, and foliage plants. Similarly for aster, daisy, sunflower, geranium, potentilla... Also, if every obscure plant is listed here (e.g. kimjongilia) the list could run into multiple tens of thousands. Imc 17:34, 7 Jan 2004 (UTC)
 * Agree. I think we can either select better categories (although those we have are meaningful) or list some flowers more than once if applicable. Never worry about the potential size (true for most lists at Wikipedia) until we start approaching some kind of limit 8^)- Marshman 17:39, 7 Jan 2004 (UTC) Thinking more about, I guess "perennials" should apply to everything that is NOT an annual (or biennial?), and should not, therefore be a category on the list - Marshman 17:41, 7 Jan 2004 (UTC)

Perhaps this should be a list of common garden plants. Mr. Jones 06:58, 10 Jun 2004 (UTC)
 * I think this is essentially a list of flowering garden plants. There already is a list of garden vegetables I believe - Marshman 16:18, 10 Jun 2004 (UTC)
 * In that case, shouldnt it be merged with List of garden plants? TeunSpaans 06:35, 5 Aug 2004 (UTC)

what is the purpose of this list? If its aim is to include all flowers, it seems very incomplete: Groundsel, Coltsfoot, and probably a lot more seem to be missing. (yes, I know I am free to add them, but I'm concentrating on flowers in the dutch wiki). Or should these be listed on a separate list of weeds? What categories do we define for flowers? TeunSpaans 08:12, 11 Jun 2004 (UTC)

I agree that List of flowers is superfluous and should be made a redirect to the (far more complete) List of garden plants; maybe that latter should be re-named as List of plant genera, as almost every plant that exists, is grown in a garden somewhere. - MPF 15:52, 15 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * I'm not a fan of lists, especially since the Category form can replace them in many cases. But I would agree, "List of Flowers" is a bit silly, as all Angiosperms have flowers, so to attempt to list that many plants would create something unusable. Merging with a more restricted list (Garden Plants only) makes sense, but again, would be a really BIG list. - Marshman 17:27, 16 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * Coming into this a bit after the fact, but this is one of the silliest, most pointless articles I have yet come across on Wikipedia--and that's quite aside from the sheer subjectivity of the inclusion or exclusion of various "flowers". MrDarwin 21:24, 10 September 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:List of flowers


text:
Maria II of Portugal

Dona Maria II (4 April 1819 – 15 November 1853) "the Educator" ("a Educadora") or "the Good Mother" ("a Boa Mãe"), was Queen of Portugal from 1826 to 1828, and again from 1834 to 1853. Her supporters considered her to be the rightful queen also during the period between her two reigns.

Maria was born in Rio de Janeiro during the reign of her paternal grandfather, King Dom João VI. She was the first child of the Duke and Duchess of Braganza, who later became Emperor Dom Pedro I and Empress Dona Maria Leopoldina of Brazil. In 1826, her father became king of Portugal but quickly abdicated in favour of the seven-year-old Maria. Both Pedro and Maria remained in Brazil, and her aunt Dona Isabel Maria initially served as regent for them in Portugal. Later Emperor Pedro's brother Miguel replaced Isabel Maria as regent and was to marry Maria when she came of age. However, a few months after Miguel's arrival in Portugal in early 1828 he deposed the absent Maria and declared himself king, thus beginning the Liberal Wars over royal succession. Maria remained outside Portugal throughout her first reign, finally arriving in Gibraltar just in time to learn of her deposition. She proceeded to England and then returned to Brazil. In 1831 her father (having abdicated the Brazilian throne) returned to Europe with his daughter and led a military expedition in support of Maria's claim while she pursued her education in France. She finally set foot in Portugal for the first time in 1833 after Lisbon was occupied by forces supporting her. In 1834, Miguel was forced to abdicate and Maria was restored as undisputed queen. She remained a member of the Brazilian imperial family until 1835 when she was excluded from the Brazilian line of succession by law.

Maria's second reign was marked by continued political turmoil. In January 1835, she married Auguste, Duke of Leuchtenberg, who died two months after their marriage. In April 1836, Maria remarried to Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Maria's second husband was proclaimed King Dom Fernando II a year later in accordance with Portuguese law following the birth of their first child, Pedro. Maria faced a series of difficult pregnancies and ultimately died in childbirth in 1853, at the age of 34. She was succeeded by her eldest son, Dom Pedro V.

Birth
Maria II was born Maria da Glória Joana Carlota Leopoldina da Cruz Francisca Xavier de Paula Isidora Micaela Gabriela Rafaela Gonzaga on 4 April 1819 in the Palace of São Cristóvão in Rio de Janeiro, Kingdom of Brazil. She was the eldest daughter of Prince Dom Pedro de Alcântara, future King of Portugal as Pedro IV and first Emperor of Brazil as Pedro I, and his first wife Dona Maria Leopoldina (née Archduchess Caroline Josepha Leopoldine of Austria), herself a daughter of Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor. She was titled Princess of Beira upon her birth. Born in Brazil, Maria was the only European monarch to have been born outside of Europe, though she was still born in Portuguese territory.

Succession crisis
The death of Maria's grandfather, King Dom João VI, in March 1826 sparked a succession crisis in Portugal. The king had a male heir, Dom Pedro, but Pedro had proclaimed the independence of Brazil in 1822 with himself as Emperor. The late king also had a younger son, Infante Dom Miguel, but he was exiled to Austria after leading a number of rebellions against his father and his liberal regime.

Before his death, the king had nominated his favourite daughter, Dona Isabel Maria, to serve as regent until "the legitimate heir returned to the kingdom" — but he had failed to specify which of his sons was the legitimate heir: the liberal Emperor Dom Pedro I in Brazil or the absolutist, exiled Miguel in Austria.

Most people considered Pedro to be the legitimate heir, but Brazil did not want him to unite the Portuguese and Brazilian thrones again. Aware that his brother's supporters were ready to bring Miguel back and put him on the throne, Pedro decided for a more consensual option: he would renounce his claim to the Portuguese throne in favor of his eldest daughter Maria (who was only seven years old), and that she was to marry her uncle Miguel, who would accept the liberal constitution and act as a regent until his niece reached the age of majority.

During her first reign, Maria remained in Brazil with her father, and her aunt Isabel Maria continued to serve as regent until Miguel agreed to his brother's plan and returned to replace her in that role in early 1828. Miguel pretended to accept the agreement, but a few months after his arrival in Portugal he deposed Maria and proclaimed himself king, abrogating the liberal constitution in the process. Maria had finally sailed from Brazil a few days earlier, escorted by the Marquis of Barbacena. She was expected to land in Genoa and proceed from there to her grandfather's court in Vienna.

Refuge in England and return to Brazil
Maria's first reign was interrupted by the coup d'état led by her uncle, fiancé and regent Miguel, who was proclaimed King of Portugal on 11 July 1828, thus beginning the Liberal Wars that lasted until 1834, the year in which Maria was restored to the throne and Miguel exiled to Germany.

The Marquis of Barbacena, arriving in Gibraltar with the princess on 3 September 1828, was informed by an emissary of what was happening in Portugal. He had the foresight to understand that Miguel had come from Vienna determined to put himself at the head of the absolutist movement, advised by Prince Klemens von Metternich, who was directing European politics, and so it was dangerous for the young Queen to go to Vienna. Taking responsibility, he changed the direction of the journey, and departed for London, where he arrived on 7 October. English policy was not conducive to its purpose. The Duke of Wellington's office openly sponsored Miguel, so the asylum the Marquis had sought was not safe. Maria II was received in court with the honors due to her high rank, but the British prevented the Portuguese emigres to go to reinforce the garrison of Terceira Island.

Miguel's coup d'état had not gone unopposed. On 16 May 1828, the garrison of Porto revolted, and in Lagos an infantry battalion did likewise. The revolts were stifled. Saldanha, Palmela, and others, who had come to take charge of the movement in Porto, re-embarked on the ship Belfast, which had brought them; the Porto garrison, reinforced by the academic volunteers of Coimbra and other liberal troops, emigrated to Galiza and from there to England. In January 1829, at the head of a small liberal expedition, the Marquis of Saldanha attempted to disembark in Terceira, Azores, but was not allowed to do it by the British frigate Ranger, whose vigilance could not avoid, however, that on 22 June 1829 the Count of Vila Flor, later Duke of Terceira, was able to disembark. In time, because in August 1829 appeared in front of the island a large Miguelist squadron that landed a body of disembarkation. A battle ensued on August 11th in the village of Praia, where the Miguelists were defeated. When the emigrants in England received the news of the victory, they felt great enthusiasm. They soon lost hope when they found out that the young Queen was returning to Brazil. In fact, Maria II's situation in the English court, alongside the unfriendly attitude of the ministry in power, became embarrassing and humiliating. The Queen left London for Portsmouth to join the ship carrying her new stepmother, Amélie of Leuchtenberg from Ostend to Brazil. They left together on 30 August 1829 for Rio de Janeiro, arriving on 16 October.

The constitutional cause was thought to have been lost. The dispersed emigres (France, England and Brazil) were divided into rival factions. Only Terceira Island recognized the constitutional principles, and even there Miguelist guerillas appeared. France was ready to recognize Miguel's government when the revolution of July broke out in Paris in 1830, which encouraged the Portuguese liberals.

Civil war
On 7 April 1831, Dom Pedro I abdicated the imperial crown of Brazil on behalf of his son Dom Pedro II, Maria's younger brother, and came to Europe with his daughter and his second wife, to support his daughter's rights to the crown of Portugal and joined the forces loyal to Maria in the Azores in their war against Miguel. He took the title of Duke of Braganza, and Regent in her name.

Almost at the same time, the regency of Terceira Island, named by Pedro and composed of the Marquis of Palmela, the Count of Vila Flor and José António Guerreiro, prepared an expedition that soon took possession of the Azores. While extending the constitutional territory, Pedro disembarked in France, being welcomed with sympathy by the new government and by Louis Philippe I. Miguel's government had defied the immunities of French subjects and had not at once satisfied the complaints of the French government, which had sent a squadron commanded by Admiral Roussin to force the bar of Lisbon and impose humiliating conditions of peace.

Pedro left his daughter in Paris to finish her education, delivered to her stepmother, Empress Amélie, with good masters, and left for the Azores at the head of an expedition organized on Belle Isle, bringing his supporters together. Arriving in the Azores on 3 March 1832, he formed a new ministry, assembled a small army, whose command he gave to the Count of Vila Flor, and giving command of the fleet to Admiral Sartorius, departed for mainland Portugal, disembarking on 8 July at Memória Beach in Matosinhos. It was followed by the Siege of Porto and a series of battles until, on 24 July 1833, the Duke of Terceira entered victorious in Lisbon, having won the Battle of Cova da Piedade the day before. Porto and Lisbon, the main cities, were in the power of the liberals. Pedro came to Lisbon, and summoned his daughter from Paris, forcing his brother, Miguel to abdicate in 1834. Maria was thereupon restored to the throne, and obtained an annulment of her betrothal. Soon after her restoration to the throne, her father died from tuberculosis.

On 7 February 1833, in order to protect the Queen, the 2nd Lancers Regiment was created, first known as the Regimento de Lanceiros da Rainha (Queen's Lancers Regiment), with the motto Morte ou Glória, "Death or Glory" (the same as the 17th Lancers, since Lt. Col. Sir Anthony Bacon was its first commander), a fortunate coincidence since the queen's name was Maria da Glória.

Occupying the Portuguese throne, Maria II was still heir presumptive to her brother Pedro II as Princess Imperial of Brazil, until her exclusion from the Brazilian line of succession by law no. 91 of 30 October 1835.

Reign
Maria married Auguste, Duke of Leuchtenberg, son of Eugène de Beauharnais and grandson of Empress Josephine of France, on 26 January 1835, at the age of fifteen. However, he died only two months later, on 28 March 1835.

On 9 April 1836, Maria married the cultured Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. In accordance with Portuguese law, he was proclaimed King Dom Fernando II upon the birth of their first child and heir, Pedro.

In 1842, Pope Gregory XVI presented Maria with a Golden Rose.

Maria's reign saw a revolutionary insurrection on 16 May 1846, but this was crushed by royalist troops on 22 February 1847, and Portugal otherwise avoided the European Revolution of 1848. Maria's reign was also notable for a public health act aimed at curbing the spread of cholera throughout the country. She also pursued policies aimed at raising the levels of education throughout the country.

Death

From her first pregnancy at the age of eighteen, Maria II faced problems in giving birth, with prolonged and extremely difficult labor. An example of this was her third pregnancy, whose labor lasted 32 hours, after which a girl was baptized in articulo mortis with the name of Maria (1840).

At 25 years of age and in her fifth pregnancy, Maria II became obese and her births became even more complicated. In 1847, the fetal distress that preceded the birth of her eighth child – Infante Augusto, Duke of Coimbra – brought to the world a child "quite purple and with little breathing".

The dangerous routine of successive pregnancies, coupled with obesity (which eventually caused her heart problems) and the frequency of dystocic births (worrisome, especially as a multiparous woman) led doctors to warn the queen about the serious risks she would face in future pregnancies. Indifferent to the warnings, Maria II merely replied: "If I die, I die at my post."

On 15 November 1853, thirteen hours after the onset of labor of the stillborn Infante Eugénio, her eleventh child, Maria II died at the age of 34. The announcement of death was published in the Government Gazette of 16 November 1853:

"Necessidades Palace, November 15, 1853, at half an hour after noon.

Her Majesty the Queen began to notice announcements of childbirth at nine-thirty of last night. Difficulties appeared in the progress of the same childbirth, which forced the doctors to resort to operations, through which the extraction of an Infante was obtained, of time, who received the baptism before being extracted.

The result of these operations took place at ten o'clock in the morning. Unfortunately, after an hour and a half, Her Majesty, exhausted from all strength, surrendered her soul to God, after having received all the sacraments.

- Francisco Elias Rodrigues da Silveira. Dr. Kessler. Ignacio António da Fonseca Benevides. António Joaquim Farto. Manuel Carlos Teixeira."

In a letter dated 28 November 1853, the Duchess of Ficalho, the queen's lady-in-waiting, reported the outcome to her brother, the 2nd Count of Lavradio:

"At two o'clock after midnight from the 14th to the 15th, I was ordered to go to the Palace, where I arrived at about three o'clock. I found the Empress in the Queen's room, where I immediately entered, thinking Her Majesty troubled and even a little out of character. We stayed like that until five o'clock, and then we left the immediate room and asked Teixeira what he thought, to which he replied: 'Her Majesty is going well, but slowly'. I did not like it, and it was like that, until half past eight. It was then that Teixeira called the doctors, who were out and who had not seen the Queen, and as soon as they examined her, the horrible operation was decided. The doctors were Teixeira, Farto, Kessler, Elias and Benevides. Kessler immediately considered the case very dangerous.

The operation began. I climbed onto the bed. On the right side, the Empress, full of tears; the Queen, without fainting, but with a very bad look and, complaining that she was suffering a lot, said in her natural voice: 'O Teixeira? If I am in danger, tell me; don't deceive me.

The Empress got down from the bed, and said to me: 'The Queen must confess'; and immediately went to tell the King, who replied: 'Call the Patriarch'. By this time, Farto had already baptized the boy. The Patriarch entered, and the operation was not completely finished, and everything was horrible, but it was more than ten o'clock. When it was over, the Patriarch spoke to the Queen, who was in very bad shape, and told her to perform the act of contrition with him to absolve her, but, after this, Her Majesty was able to confess, receive the sacrament and be anointed, and at half past eleven o'clock she expired.

The Queen was saying: '- It is nothing like the other times'. And she had already undergone an operation. I cannot explain the consternation of King Fernando and the entire Palace."

Queen Maria II is remembered as a good mother and a kind person who always acted according to her convictions in her attempt to help her country. She was later given the nickname "The Good Mother".

Marriages and issue
Maria first married Auguste Charles, 2nd Duke of Leuchtenberg, son of Eugène de Beauharnais, grandson of Empress Josephine, who died soon after arriving in Portugal.

She then married Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, son of Prince Ferdinand Georg August of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and his wife Princess Maria Antonia Koháry de Csábrág.

Honours
National honours
 * Grand Master of the Three Orders
 * Grand Master of the Order of the Tower and Sword
 * Grand Master of the Order of the Immaculate Conception of Vila Viçosa
 * Sovereign and Grand Mistress of the Order of Saint Isabel
 * undefined: Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the Southern Cross

Foreign honours
 * undefined: Dame of the Order of the Starry Cross, 1st Class
 * undefined: Dame Grand Cordon of the Order of Saint Catherine, September 1850
 * 🇪🇸 Spain: Dame of the Order of Queen Maria Luisa, 27 May 1834
 * undefined: Knight of the Order of Order of Saint Januarius
 * undefined: Bailiff Knight Grand Cross with Collar of Justice of the Sacred Military Constantinian Order of Saint George

In literature
In 1832, Letitia Elizabeth Landon published The Queen of Portugal, a poem protesting at her banishment and offering sympathy and hope for a peaceful restoration. This accompanied a vignette portrait of the Queen by James Holmes.

title: Maria II of Portugal