text:
Talk:WWKB

Untitled
Please understand that WKBW Radio is no longer a radio station in Buffalo. At the time of sale WKBW-AM became WWKB-AM radio. Recently they have tried to link themselves with the former WKBW radio for baby boomer rating purposes. A tribute site to the former WKBW-AM radio is: www.wkbwradio.com

I corrected a few mistakes on this page. First, neither WWKB (nor any other US AM radio station) has a 100,000 watt transmitter. The legal maximum is 50,000 watts.

Secondly, the link to DJ "Jackson Armstrong" is completely false, because it links to some Canadian historian and actor. The DJ's real name is John Larsh, and he began using the "Jack Armstrong" alias in Cleveland at WIXY in 1966. Originally, Jack Armstrong was a copyrighted name for the DJ in the evening time slot, and referred to the 1930s radio serial "Jack Armstrong, the All American Boy."

When Larsh left the station in 1967 to join a competitor, he could not use the name "Jack Armstrong" because of the copyright. He instead began calling himself "Big Jack" and later, "Jackson W. Armstrong" to taunt WIXY and their copyright. That is where the mistaken reference in this article came from. He has used the alias "Jack Armstrong" ever since he began working at WMEX in Boston in 1968. -- Elaich 04:31, 18 January 2006 (UTC)

Is there a source for the "Well Know Bible Witness"? The story as I have always heard it is that it stood for "Well Know Bible Works", which alas, I have no source for.--68.69.67.94 22:44, 11 July 2006 (UTC)

I have no source for that, but i know for a fact that channel 7 has aired numerous pieces on occasion, generally milestone anniversaries, stating that it was well known bible witness.

Jack Armstrong
Put up link to DJ Jack Armstrong. -- Elaich 05:59, 21 August 2006 (UTC)

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External link dead
Referenced link not working: http://wkbwradio.com/ Dannyboy143 (talk) 19:35, 7 July 2023 (UTC)

 * I've removed it. (External links are generally not supposed to be within the body of the article, anyway.)  WC  Quidditch  ☎   ✎  20:37, 7 July 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:WWKB


text:
Campina Grande

Campina Grande is the second most populous Brazilian city in the State of Paraíba after João Pessoa, the capital. It is considered to be the most important city of the Northeastern Brazilian subregion called agreste. It is considered one of the main industrial, technological and educational centers in the northeastern region of Brazil. Settled in the 17th century, the city was officially established in 1864. Campina Grande also has a large cultural agenda, including the world's largest Saint John's Festival (called O Maior São João do Mundo), which takes place during the entire month of June.

Origin
The founding of Campina Grande is credited to Captain Teodósio de Oliveira Ledo who led a group of Ariús Indians to settle the land and begin farming on December 1, 1697. However, some historians do not agree with this version and suggest that the place was already a settlement and named Campina Grande when Teodósio arrived with the Ariús. This position is certainly supported by the fact that Campina Grande is in a critical geographic location for people travelling between the highlands and the coast.

The political actions of Teodósio in mentioning Campina Grande to the king of Portugal in May 1699 went a long way to establishing the location as place of importance.

The Ariús inhabited a small farm made up of shacks which became the first street in the new community. Later, this street was called Rua do Oriente (Street of the East) and today it is known as rua Vila Nova da Rainha (New Village of the Queen). The Cathedral of Campina Grande was constructed on one of the higher slopes in the area. It formed the Matriz plaza which later also became one of city's most important streets: Avenida Marechal Floriano Peixoto.

The village soon became a town because of the commerce it attracted and the fact that there were few settlements in Paraíba.

Campina Grande began as a small village situated in front of an old lake called Açude Velho. These people were known as tropeiros because they were traveling merchants who traded and sold goods such as meat, cotton clothes and corn flour among the cities and villages they passed by. Campina Grande became the village (Vila Nova da Rainha) that they rested in as they were coming from the coast to the west, and vice versa.

The introduction of the railroad caused this tiny village to develop into a bustling city. At the beginning of the 20th century, Campina Grande was called "The Brazilian Liverpool" because of the numerous cotton plantations and factories. At the time, it was the second biggest producer in the world.

Today, the city has added to its old and rich traditions by becoming an oasis of high technologies in the middle of northeastern Brazil.

The town
Campina Grande reached the category of town in 1790 with more than 100 houses. On April 6, 1790, it changed its name to de Vila Nova da Rainha (New Village of the Queen). At this point the town also began to have a formal government made up of a town council and Notary's office.

Although the name of the town changed, the local inhabitants continued to call the place Campina Grande. However, in official documents the name, de Vila Nova da Rainha, was the only one used.

The town's development was spurred on by the growth of the regional cotton industry which preferred to ship its product through Campina Grande.

At this point the town included a large area of almost 900 km2,including many smaller villages in the area.

The creation of the Village of Cabaceiras in 1835 and the Village of Alagoa Nova in 1850 reduced the area Campina Grande controlled.

In 1829, a dam across the Piabas stream was started and this became the lake referred to as Açude Velho. In 1852 the population of the town had reached 17,900 people, but in 1856, an epidemic killed almost 1,550 people. So many bodies arrived at the churches that they didn't have enough room to bury them.

The city
On October 11, 1864, Campina Grande was raised to the category of city. It was not the first to reach this designation though. In 1846, Areia had been designated a city and dominated the region economically, politically and culturally. Although Campina Grande was not as established as Areia, it was really not any smaller than that city. At this time, the city of Campina Grande had three plazas, four streets and about 300 houses. Of these, there still exist today the two churches: the Matriz (the cathedral) and the Church of Our Lady of the Rosary. The latter had been destroyed at one time, but was rebuilt. Although there was plenty of commercial activity, there was very little actual construction of houses and government buildings. By the end of the nineteenth century, Campina Grande still only had about 500 houses.

In the year 1864 a building was constructed for the marketing of goods. This area had many names over time: "Largo do Comércio Novo", "Praça da Uruguaiana", "Praça das Gameleiras", "Praça da Independência" and finally, "Praça Epitácio Pessoa". In 1870 a law banning the washing of clothes and animals in Açude Velho was proclaimed. On September 18, 1865, the metric system was made the official form of measurement in Campina Grande.

In 1874, a rebellion led by João Vieira occurred. João Vieira and a number of revolutionaries came down from the Bodopitá mountain range and invaded the city's market. They broke into some money boxes and destroyed a few things. The revolt spread out across the region. Over time the rebels grew in numbers and became well armed. They were led by Manoel de Barros Souza and Alexandre de Viveiros. One of the objectives of Alexandre de Viveiros was to break into the city jail and liberate all the prisoners, including the father of Manoel de Barros Souza. They also planned to set the municipal offices on fire in order to destroy all the records kept there. However, over the next number of months the police force disrupted their plans. Alexandre de Viveiros was eventually imprisoned, but João Vieirad disappeared. After the revolt, the police abused the population without cause, arresting or punishing innocent citizens. Thus, the average person suffered both from the rebels and the police.

On March 25, 1877, a new municipal building was constructed next to the cathedral. It became one of the most elegant buildings in the state and initiated an area of fine homes.

In May 1891, a theatre was constructed for the purpose of both teaching and performance. This became the Colégio Alfredo Dantas.

The city continued to gradually develop, but economic and social changes really occurred only from the early 20th century. In this period, the railroad arrived and with it came cheaper and more varied products which impacted the local economy.

Technological centre
For a long time Campina Grande has had a strong technological focus. In 1967, the city was the first location in northeastern Brazil to receive a computer (at the Federal University of Campina Grande). Today, Campina Grande is a point of reference when it comes software development and computer science industries.

In April 2001, Newsweek magazine chose nine cities around the world that represented a new vision for technology. Brazil is represented on this list by Campina Grande and it was the only city chosen from Latin America. In 2003, it was mentioned again as the “Brazilian Silicon Valley,"

The reason for this success is mostly due to technological research performed by the Federal University of Campina Grande. Since 1967, when the university obtained support to buy its first computer for US$500,000, the city has developed a tradition of technological excellence that is recognized around the world.

Campina Grande has approximately 50 software companies that contribute about 20% of the city's total revenue.

Main sights

 * Libraries
 * Felix Araújo Municipal Library
 * Açude Velho Public Library
 * Campina Grande Public Library
 * Cultural Centres
 * Academia Campinense de Letras
 * Museums
 * Historical and Geographic museum of Campina Grande
 * Assis Chateaubriand Museum of Art
 * Museum of Cotton
 * Museum of Luiz Gonzaga
 * Museum of St. John
 * Assis Chateaubriand Museum
 * Home Marshal Anderson
 * Squares and parks
 * Flag Square
 * Clementino Procópio Square
 * Açude Novo (New Dam)
 * Açude Velho (Old Dam)
 * Bodocongó Dam
 * People's Park – Where the St. John's festival (O Maior São João do Mundo) is held
 * Park of the Child
 * Theatres
 * Severino Bezerra Cabral Municipal Theatre
 * Elba Ramalho Theatre
 * Rosil Cavalcanti Theatre
 * Facisa Theatre
 * Raul Priston Theatre
 * Ariano Suassuna Theatre

Culture
 O Maior São João do Mundo, June

The Queen of Borborema is home to the largest event in the state of Paraíba and the biggest São João celebration in the world, typically gathering 2 million people over the course of a month. The São João of Campina Grande is an annual event organized by the municipality of Campina Grande in the Brazilian state of Paraíba, held throughout the month of June. In the cultural tradition of the Brazilian Northeast, it is customary to celebrate the day of São João with performances, dances, and square dances.

The festival takes place in various venues throughout the city, with a focal point being the Parque do Povo, also known as the "headquarters of forró," situated in the city center. The event is recognized by the Ranking Brazil Institute as the largest St. John's Festival in the country.

Other events in the city:

 * Meeting for the Christian Conscience (February, during Carnival)
 * Meeting of the New Conscience (February, during Carnival)

 * Vaquejada Park Ivandro Cunha Lima (March)
 * Micarande (April)
 * Campina Grande Winter Festival (August)
 * Vaquejada Park Maria da Luz (October)
 * Animal Exposition (October)
 * Living Christmas Cradle (December)
 * New Year's Eve on Açude Velho (December)

Transportation

 * Presidente João Suassuna Airport
 * Argemiro de Figueiredo Bus Station – New
 * Cristiano Lauritzen Bus Station – Old

Post-secondary education

 * Federal University of Campina Grande – UFCG
 * State University of Paraíba – UEPB
 * Campina Grande Union of Secondary Education – UNESC (private)
 * College of Applied Social Sciences – FACISA (private)
 * Reinaldo Ramos Center of Secondary Education – CESREI (private)
 * Acaraú Valley University – U.V.A. (private)
 * English-American College (private)

Sports
Sport and recreation structures in Campina Grande include:
 * Plínio Lemos Sports Complex
 * The Meninão Gymnasium
 * Amigão Stadium
 * Renatão Stadium home stadium of the Campinense Clube
 * President Vargas Stadium, home stadium of the Treze Futebol Clube

Local teams include:
 * Campinense Clube
 * Treze Futebol Clube
 * Grêmio Serrano
 * Associação Desportiva Perilima
 * Associação Atlética Leonel

Neighborhoods

 * Acácio Figueiredo
 * Alto Branco
 * Araxá
 * Bairro das Cidades
 * Bairros das Nações
 * Bela Vista
 * Bodocongó
 * Cachoeira
 * Araxá
 * Castelo Branco
 * Catolé
 * Centenário
 * Centro
 * Conceição
 * Cruzeiro
 * Cuités
 * Dinamérica
 * Distrito Industrial
 * Estação Velha
 * Glória
 * Itararé
 * Jardim Borborema
 * Jardim Continental
 * Jardim Paulistano
 * Jardim Tavares
 * Jeremias
 * José Pinheiro
 * Lauritzen
 * Liberdade
 * Louzeiro
 * Malvinas
 * Mirante
 * Monte Castelo
 * Monte Santo
 * Nova Brasília
 * Novo Bodocongó
 * Palmeira
 * Pedregal
 * Prata
 * Presidente Médice
 * Quarenta
 * Ramadinha
 * Sandra Cavalcante
 * Santa Cruz
 * Santa Rosa
 * Santo Antônio
 * São José
 * Serrotão
 * Tambor
 * Três Irmãs
 * Universitário
 * Velame
 * Vila Cabral

Economy
According to 1996 statistics from the Instituto de Pesquisa Econômica Aplicada, the Gross Internal Product was estimated at R$591.93 million: 3.3% came through agricultural and livestock based activities, 19.8% came through industry, and 76.9% was the result of the commerce and service sectors. The yield per capita was of R$1.717.09.

By 2002 the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics estimated that the Gross Internal Product to have grown to R$1.600 billion and the yield per capita to R$4,387.00.

Local government
Campina Grande has 255,282 eligible voters distributed among 598 sections and four electoral districts.

The first election in 1878 had 34 eligible voters.

The office of Municipal mayor was created on March 2, 1895, by State Law. The first mayor of Campina Grande was  Francisco Camilo of Araújo. People began to have the opportunity to vote for the mayor directly only from 1947.

Education

 * Illiteracy rate: 17.12%.

Health

 * 2,634 hospital beds of which 2,148 are for free public health (2003, IBGE).
 * Infant mortality: 76.6 persons/million (Ministry of Health/1998).
 * Life expectancy: 63.5 years (IBGE, Census 2000).

Flora
A list of 15 plants commonly found in the Campina Grande area. Of the 132 species of trees found, 51.2% originate from other countries and 32.8% are native species.

Climate
Campina Grande has a dry-summer tropical savanna climate (Köppen: As) that borders on a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen: BSh).

Notable people

 * Genival Lacerda, singer
 * Hulk, footballer
 * Mike Deodato, Comic Book Artist
 * Bethe Correia, mixed martial artist
 * Renan da Silva Costa, footballer
 * Thaciano, footballer
 * Aderbar Melo dos Santos Neto, footballer
 * Valdeno Brito, racing driver

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Campina Grande


text:
Sturminster Newton

Sturminster Newton is a town and civil parish situated on the River Stour in the north of Dorset, England. The town is at the centre of the Blackmore Vale, a large dairy agriculture region around which the town's economy is built, and is known as 'the heart of the Blackmore vale'.

The town has shops, a primary and secondary school – Sturminster Newton High School – and a school and college catering for children with special educational needs. A market is held in the town on Mondays. One of the largest cattle markets in England used to be held here, but it was closed in 1998.

The town is noted for its connections with the authors Thomas Hardy and William Barnes, and as part of the historic West Country Carnival circuit.

History
Sturminster Newton was recorded in the Anglo Saxon charter in 968 as Nywetone at Stoure, and in the Domesday Book as Newentone. Newton refers to a new farm or estate, and Sturminster to a church (minster) on the Stour. Originally the two parts of the name referred to the settlements on the north and south of the river, but were combined to distinguish the town from Sturminster Marshall and other Newtons. The history of the town and surrounding area has been researched by the Sturminster Newton Heritage Trust, which runs the Sturminster Newton Museum in the Old Market Cross House in the centre of town. The Museum is open to visitors on some days every week.

Hidden on the hill above the bridge over the river are the ruins of Sturminster Newton Castle, a manor house rather than a defensive building. The 14th-century building stands on a crescent shaped mound which could be the site of an Iron Age hillfort. The town and castle were part of Sturminster Newton hundred.

Sturminster Newton is situated at a historic fording point on the River Stour. The ford was replaced in the 16th century with a six-arch stone bridge, and a quarter-kilometre embankment crossing the flood plain. The bridge was widened from 12 to 18 ft in 1820. A 19th-century plaque affixed to the bridge states that anyone damaging the bridge would be transported to Australia as a felon.

The Sturminster Newton Heritage Trust runs the Sturminster Newton Mill on the south bank of the river and which has existed since at least 1016. The mill was restored in 1980 and is now a working museum watermill which is open to visitors on some days every week between the end of March and the end of September. The mill resumed commercial production of flour in 2020.

The town centre is built in a mixture of styles, including 17th- and 18th-century thatched cottages, Georgian stone buildings, and 19th-century brick buildings. Set back from the main road is the market square and parish church of St Mary, which was rebuilt in 1486 by the abbots of Glastonbury. The church was heavily modified in the 19th century, but the carved wagon roof remains.

Sturminster Newton railway station was served by the Somerset and Dorset Railway, which ran through the town from 1863 until it was dismantled in 1966 as part of the Beeching Axe. The railway goods yard gave milk trains access to the private sidings of the local creamery. Started in 1913 by local farmers to produce cheddar cheese and pasteurised milk, it was taken over by the Milk Marketing Board in 1937. Milk trains ceased in 1966 on closure of the line, with the creamery remaining in operation until 2000 under successor Dairy Crest. The station and goods yard were demolished in the mid-1970s.

The town is set in the vale on which Thomas Hardy based his fictional Vale of the little dairies (in his Tess of the d'Urbervilles) and Sturminster had the largest cattle market in Europe, which stood close to the town centre until it was closed and demolished in 1997.

Governance
Sturminster Newton electoral ward elects one member to Dorset Council. The town also has a town council of 11 members.

In the UK parliament, Sturminster is in the North Dorset parliamentary constituency which is currently represented by Simon Hoare of the Conservative party.

Geography
Sturminster Newton civil parish covers about 4550 acre at an elevation of 45 to 119 m, with the highest ground being in the southeast.

The town is situated on a meander of the River Stour. The larger part of the town (Sturminster) lies on a low limestone ridge to the north side of the river, and includes most shops and services, whilst to the south is the smaller Newton, separated by a wide flood plain.

The geology of the parish comprises Oxford clay in the northwest, Corallian limestone and sands in the northeast, centre and southwest, and Kimmeridge clay in the southeast.

To the southeast of the town are Girdlers Coppice and Piddles Wood, areas of mature woodland that are designated as sites of special scientific interest.

Demography
In the 2011 census the town's civil parish—which also includes the small settlements of Bagber, Broad Oak and Puxey— had 2,016 dwellings, 1,910 households and a population of 4,292.

Culture
Sturminster Newton is the home of the annual UK Boogie Woogie Festival, which in 2009 saw an appearance from veteran boogie woogie star Little Willie Littlefield.

The Exchange, a community arts and conference centre, on Old Market Hill, was built on the site of the old cattle market. It was officially opened by Julian Fellowes in December 2007 and provides a venue for music concerts, drama and other events.

The Dorset Bach Cantata Club is based in Sturminster Newton.

Sturminster Newton United F.C., founded in 1871, play in the Dorset Premier Football League.

Media
Local news and television programmes are provided by BBC West and ITV West Country. Television signals are received from the Mendip TV transmitter, BBC South and ITV Meridian can also be received from the Rowridge TV transmitter.

Local radio stations are BBC Radio Solent, Greatest Hits Radio South (formerly Vale FM), and Abbey104, a community based radio station that broadcast from its studio in Sherborne.

The Dorset Echo is the local newspaper that serves the town.

Twin towns
Sturminster Newton is twinned with:
 * Montebourg, Normandy, France

Notable people

 * Keith Kyle (1925–2007), writer, broadcaster and historian, was born in the town
 * Bryan "Badger" Goss (born 1940), Motocross rider
 * Mark Price, Baron Price (born 1961), UK Minister of Trade and Investment and former managing director of Waitrose, lives in the town.
 * William Barnes (1801–1886)
 * Thomas Hardy (1840–1928) and his wife Emma lived in the town from 1876 to 1878, and he wrote his 1878 The Return of the Native during this time.
 * Eden Paul (1865–1944), physician, translator, communist activist, was born in the town

title: Sturminster Newton


text:
Vaginismus

Vaginismus is a condition in which involuntary muscle spasm interferes with vaginal intercourse or other penetration of the vagina. This often results in pain with attempts at sex. Often it begins when vaginal intercourse is first attempted. Vaginismus may be considered an older term for pelvic floor dysfunction.

The formal diagnostic criteria specifically requires interference during vaginal intercourse and a desire for intercourse. However, the term vaginismus is sometimes used more broadly to refer to any muscle spasm occurring during the insertion of some or all types of objects into the vagina, sexually motivated or otherwise, including the usage of speculums and tampons.

The underlying cause is generally a fear that penetration will hurt. Risk factors include a history of sexual assault, endometriosis, vaginitis, or a prior episiotomy. Diagnosis is based on the symptoms and examination. It requires there to be no anatomical or physical problems (e.g., pelvic floor dysfunction, vulvodynia, vestibulodynia, etc) and a desire for penetration.

Treatment may include behavior therapy such as graduated exposure therapy and gradual vaginal dilatation. Surgery is not generally indicated. Botulinum toxin (botox), a muscle spasm treatment, is being studied. There are no epidemiological studies of the prevalence of vaginismus. Estimates of how common the condition is are varied. One textbook estimates that 0.5% of women are affected. However, rates in clinical settings indicate that between 5–17% of women experience vaginismus. Outcomes are generally good with treatment.

Signs and symptoms
Physical symptoms may include burning, and sharp pain or pressure in and around the vagina upon penetration. Psychological symptoms include increased anxiety. Pain during vaginal penetration varies.

Despite it being a fairly common female sexual dysfunction, there is low social awareness of vaginismus and women around the world face difficulties finding support, even through the healthcare system. An integrative review published in 2023 found that studies on vaginismus show it often takes years to finally receive a diagnosis

Primary vaginismus
Vaginismus occurs when penetrative sex or other vaginal penetration cannot be experienced without pain. It is commonly discovered among teenage girls and women in their early twenties, as this is when many girls and young women first attempt to use tampons, have penetrative sex, or undergo a Pap smear. Awareness of vaginismus may not happen until vaginal penetration is attempted. Reasons for the condition may be unknown.

A few of the main factors that may contribute to primary vaginismus include:
 * chronic pain conditions like vulvodynia and harm-avoidance behaviour
 * negative emotional reaction towards sexual stimulation, e.g. disgust both at a deliberate level and also at a more implicit level
 * strict conservative moral education, which also can elicit negative emotions

The cause of primary vaginismus is often unknown.

Vaginismus has been classified by Lamont according to the severity of the condition. Lamont describes four degrees of vaginismus: In first degree vaginismus, the person has spasm of the pelvic floor that can be relieved with reassurance. In second degree, the spasm is present but maintained throughout the pelvis even with reassurance. In third degree, the person elevates the buttocks to avoid being examined. In fourth degree vaginismus (also known as grade 4 vaginismus), the most severe form of vaginismus, the person elevates the buttocks, retreats and tightly closes the thighs to avoid examination. Pacik expanded the Lamont classification to include a fifth degree in which the person experiences a visceral reaction such as sweating, hyperventilation, palpitations, trembling, shaking, nausea, vomiting, losing consciousness, wanting to jump off the table, or attacking the doctor.

Although the pubococcygeus muscle is commonly thought to be the primary muscle involved in vaginismus, Pacik identified two additionally-involved spastic muscles in people who were treated under sedation. These include the entry muscle (bulbocavernosum) and the mid-vaginal muscle (puborectalis). Spasm of the entry muscle accounts for the common complaint that people often report when trying to have intercourse: "It's like hitting a brick wall".

Secondary vaginismus
Secondary vaginismus occurs when a person who has previously been able to achieve penetration develops vaginismus. This may be due to physical causes such as a yeast infection or trauma during childbirth, while in some cases it may be due to psychological causes, or to a combination of causes. The treatment for secondary vaginismus is the same as for primary vaginismus, although, in these cases, previous experience with successful penetration can assist in a more rapid resolution of the condition. Peri-menopausal and menopausal vaginismus, often due to a drying of the vulvar and vaginal tissues as a result of reduced estrogen, may occur as a result of "micro-tears" first causing sexual pain then leading to vaginismus.

Mechanism
Specific muscle involvement is unclear, but the condition may involve the levator ani, bulbocavernosus, circumvaginal, or perivaginal muscles.

Diagnosis
The diagnosis of vaginismus, as well as other diagnoses of female sexual dysfunction, can be made when "symptoms are sufficient to result in personal distress." The DSM-IV-TR defines vaginismus as "recurrent or persistent involuntary spasm of the musculature of the outer third of the vagina that interferes with sexual intercourse, causing marked distress or interpersonal difficulty".

Treatment
A Cochrane review found little high quality evidence regarding the treatment of vaginismus in 2012. Specifically it is unclear if systematic desensitisation is better than other measures including nothing.

Psychological
According to a 2011 study, those with vaginismus are twice as likely to have a history of childhood sexual interference and held less positive attitudes about their sexuality, whereas no correlation was noted for lack of sexual knowledge or (nonsexual) physical abuse.

Physical

Often, when faced with a person experiencing painful intercourse, a gynecologist will recommend reverse Kegel exercises and provide some additional lubricants. Although vaginismus has not been shown to affect a person's ability to produce lubrication, providing additional lubricant can be helpful in achieving successful penetration. This is due to the fact that women may not produce natural lubrication if anxious or in pain. Achieving sufficient arousal during foreplay is crucial for the release of lubrication which can contribute to the ease of sexual penetration and pain-free intercourse.

Though strengthening exercises such as Kegel exercises were previously considered to be a helpful intervention for pelvic pain, new research suggests that these exercises, which function to strengthen the pelvic floor, may not be helpful or may make conditions that are caused by over-active muscles such as vaginismus worse. Exercises that stretch or relax the pelvic floor may be a better treatment option for vaginismus.

To help develop a treatment plan that best fits the needs of their patient, a gynecologist or general practitioner may refer a person experiencing painful intercourse to a Pelvic floor physical therapist or occupational therapist. These therapists specialize in the treatment of disorders of the pelvic floor muscles such as vaginismus, pelvic floor dysfunction, dyspareunia, vulvodynia, constipation, and fecal or urinary incontinence. After performing a manual exam both internally and externally to assess muscle function and to isolate possible trigger points for pain or tightness on the muscles, pelvic floor physical or occupational therapists develop a treatment plan consisting of muscle exercises, muscle stretches, dilator training, electrostimulation, and/or biofeedback interventions. Treatment of vaginismus often involves the use of Hegar dilators (sometimes called vaginal trainers), progressively increasing the size of the dilator inserted into the vagina. The technique is used to practice conscious diaphragmatic breathing (breathing in deeply allowing one's belly to expand) and allowing the pelvic floor muscles to lengthen during inhale; then exhale, bringing belly in and repeat. Research suggests pelvic floor physical or occupational therapy is one of the safest and most effective treatments for vaginismus.

Many people find vaginal trainers like dilators helpful, but some often need more information on how to use them than is provided, or also seek out lubricant, topical anaesthetic or escitalopram, a medicine commonly used to treat depression and anxiety.

Neuromodulators
Botulinum toxin A (Botox) has been considered as a treatment option, under the idea of temporarily reducing the hypertonicity of the pelvic floor muscles. Although no random controlled trials have been done with this treatment, experimental studies with small samples have shown it to be effective, with sustained positive results through 10 months. Similar in its mechanism of treatment, lidocaine has also been tried as an experimental option.

Anxiolytics and antidepressants are other pharmacotherapies that have been offered to people in conjunction with other psychotherapy modalities, or if these people's experience high levels of anxiety from their condition. Evidence for these medications, however, is limited.

Epidemiology
There are no epidemiological studies of the prevalence of vaginismus. Estimates of how common the condition is varies. A 2016 textbook estimated about 0.5% of women are affected, while rates in Morocco and Sweden were estimated at 6%.

Among those who attend clinics for sexual dysfunction, rates may be as high as 12% to 47%.

History
The term vaginismus was developed by James Marion Sims in 1866 to describe the “hymeneal hyperaethesia with a spasmodic contraction of the sphincter vaginae” that, under examination, “will produce such agony as to cause the patient to shriek out, complaining at the same time that the pain is that of thrusting a sharp knife into the sensitive part.” At that time, the condition was understood to be biological in origin and medically treatable. During the 1930-1960s, under the influence of Freudian psychology, gynecologists increasingly understood vaginismus as psychological in origin. As psychology turned away from Freudian ideas and toward behaviorism, the condition was re-cast as a learned fear or anxiety response.

In popular culture
The Netflix miniseries Unorthodox depicted a young woman suffering from extreme pain during intercourse, which she was told was due to vaginismus.

The comedy feature film, Lady Parts, main character struggles with painful sex and later is diagnosed with vaginismus.

title: Vaginismus


text:
Horacio Altuna

Horacio Altuna (born November 24, 1941) is an Argentine comics artist.

Biography
Altuna was born in Córdoba. He began working in the comics world in 1965 for the publisher Editorial Columbia. His first characters were Titan, a Superman-like superhero, Kabul de Bengala (1971, written by Héctor Germán Oesterheld and Armando Fernández among others), Big Norman, Hilario Corvalán and others.

From 1973 to 1976, Altuna collaborated with Fleetway, Ediciones Record, Charlton Comics, Playboy and the French Les Humanoïdes Associés.

Beginning in July 1975, for the newspaper Clarín, Altuna together with writer Carlos Trillo created the character of journalist Hugo Chávez, better known as El loco Chavez (Crazy Chavez), for years one of the Argentine's most popular comics strips. Also with Trillo script, Altuna drew the series Charlie Moon and Las puertitas del señor López (Mr Lopez little doors)

In 1982, Altuna moved to Sitges in Spain, drawing stories for the Editorial Toutain and short erotic stories for Playboy. Since February 2005, has designed the comic strip Familia Tipo (Average Family) for the Spanish newspaper El Periódico.

Awards

 * 1986:  and  for Best Foreign Author

title: Horacio Altuna


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Skvader

The skvader is a Swedish fictional creature that was constructed in 1918 by the taxidermist Rudolf Granberg and is permanently displayed at the museum at Norra Berget in Sundsvall. It has the forequarters and hindlegs of a European hare (Lepus europaeus), and the back, wings and tail of a female wood grouse (Tetrao urogallus). It was later jokingly given the Latin name Tetrao lepus pseudo-hybridus rarissimus L.

The term has taken on a general meaning of two disparate elements put together, often conveying a sense of a less fortunate such combination.

Name
The name is a combination of two words, explained by the Svenska Akademiens ordbok (Dictionary of the Swedish Academy) as being from the "prefix skva- from skvattra (quack or chirp), and the suffix -der from tjäder (wood grouse)".

Origins
The skvader originates from a tall tale hunting story told by a man named Håkan Dahlmark during a dinner at a restaurant in Sundsvall in the beginning of the 20th century. To the amusement of the other guests, Dahlmark claimed that he in 1874 had shot such an animal during a hunt north of Sundsvall. On his birthday in 1907, his housekeeper jokingly presented him with a painting of the animal, made by her nephew and shortly before his death in 1912, Dahlmark donated the painting to a local museum. During an exhibition in Örnsköldsvik in 1916 the manager of the museum became acquainted with the taxidermist Rudolf Granberg. He then mentioned the hunting story and the painting and asked Granberg if he could re-construct the animal. In 1918 Granberg had completed the skvader and it has since then been a very popular exhibition item at the museum, which also has the painting on display.

Similar creatures
A strikingly similar creature called the "rabbit-bird" was described by Pliny the Elder in Natural History. This creature had the body of a bird with a rabbit's head and was said to have inhabited the Alps.

Other similar creatures include the Bavarian wolpertinger, the Austrian raurakl, the Thuringian Forest's rasselbock, the Palatinate's Elwedritsche, and the American jackalope.

Symbolism
The skvader has since then often been seen as an unofficial symbol of Sundsvall and when the province Medelpad was to be given a provincial animal (in addition to the provincial flower) in 1987, many locals voted for the skvader. The final choice was a kind of compromise, the mountain hare, which is the front-end of the skvader.

Other uses
The term skvader can be used colloquially in Swedish to mean 'a combination of contradicting elements'.

Skvader also became the nickname in the 1950s and 1960s for a bruck, a combination of bus and truck (lorry in British English) with the front-end of a bus taking passengers and the back-end as an open loading bay. The skvader was used on small bus routes in Norrland and to deliver milk from small farmers to the nearest dairy.

"Skvaderns" is also a herbal liqueur made with herbs from the forest Lunde Skog, the place Skvaderns first were shot at.

title: Skvader


text:
Camaragibe

Camaragibe (population 156,736) is a city in the Northeastern region of Brazil, in the state of Pernambuco. It lies near Recife at 8.00° South, 35.04° West.

Currently, Camaragibe is run by Nadegi Queiroz (from the political party Republicans) and Délio Junior (The Vice-mayor).

The lands now belonging to the city were used as a reserve of wood, and then for sugar planting. It was populated by natives, until the arrival of Portuguese with Duarte Coelho Pereira, around 1500. After the Portuguese arrival, however, the natives were not completely driven from the area. Instead, they lived "peacefully" with the invaders.

In the 16th century the city (then just an engenho) was considered one of richest in the region until the Dutch invasion in 1645. At that time, the farm was burned to the ground by the natives.

On 13 May 1982, Camaragibe, which was then part of the bigger city São Lourenço da Mata, was elevated to the category of city.

The small city is considered among the most densely populated urban areas in the world because of the very accelerated growth that the city experienced from the emancipation until now.

Geography

 * State - Pernambuco
 * Region - RMR (Recife)
 * Boundaries - Paulista (N), Sao Lourenco da Mata (S), Paudalho (W), Recife (E)
 * Area - 55.08 km2
 * Elevation - 55 m
 * Hydrography - Capibaribe and Beberibe rivers
 * Vegetation - Hidrofila, capoeira, and sugarcane plantation
 * Climate - Hot tropical and humid
 * Annual average temperature - 25.1 °C
 * Main road - PE 005
 * Distance to Recife - 16 km

Economy
The main economic activities in Camaragibe are based in commerce and general industry. Also is a main and terminal stop in the metropolitan train (subway or tube system), with integration with local bus lanes.

Economic Indicators
Economy by Sector 2006

Notable people

 * Hélio José Muniz Filho, Brazilian criminal suspected of killing 65 people
 * Érica de Sena, racewalker

title: Camaragibe


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Hemodynamics

Hemodynamics or haemodynamics are the dynamics of blood flow. The circulatory system is controlled by homeostatic mechanisms of autoregulation, just as hydraulic circuits are controlled by control systems. The hemodynamic response continuously monitors and adjusts to conditions in the body and its environment. Hemodynamics explains the physical laws that govern the flow of blood in the blood vessels.

Blood flow ensures the transportation of nutrients, hormones, metabolic waste products, oxygen, and carbon dioxide throughout the body to maintain cell-level metabolism, the regulation of the pH, osmotic pressure and temperature of the whole body, and the protection from microbial and mechanical harm.

Blood is a non-Newtonian fluid, and is most efficiently studied using rheology rather than hydrodynamics. Because blood vessels are not rigid tubes, classic hydrodynamics and fluids mechanics based on the use of classical viscometers are not capable of explaining haemodynamics.

The study of the blood flow is called hemodynamics, and the study of the properties of the blood flow is called hemorheology.

Blood
Blood is a complex liquid. Blood is composed of plasma and formed elements. The plasma contains 91.5% water, 7% proteins and 1.5% other solutes. The formed elements are platelets, white blood cells, and red blood cells. The presence of these formed elements and their interaction with plasma molecules are the main reasons why blood differs so much from ideal Newtonian fluids.

Viscosity of plasma
Normal blood plasma behaves like a Newtonian fluid at physiological rates of shear. Typical values for the viscosity of normal human plasma at 37 °C is 1.4 mN·s/m2. The viscosity of normal plasma varies with temperature in the same way as does that of its solvent water ;a 3°C change in temperature in the physiological range (36.5°C to 39.5°C)reduces plasma viscosity by about 10%.

Osmotic pressure of plasma
The osmotic pressure of solution is determined by the number of particles present and by the temperature. For example, a 1 molar solution of a substance contains $6.022$ molecules per liter of that substance and at 0 °C it has an osmotic pressure of 2.27 MPa. The osmotic pressure of the plasma affects the mechanics of the circulation in several ways. An alteration of the osmotic pressure difference across the membrane of a blood cell causes a shift of water and a change of cell volume. The changes in shape and flexibility affect the mechanical properties of whole blood. A change in plasma osmotic pressure alters the hematocrit, that is, the volume concentration of red cells in the whole blood by redistributing water between the intravascular and extravascular spaces. This in turn affects the mechanics of the whole blood.

Red blood cells
The red blood cell is highly flexible and biconcave in shape. Its membrane has a Young's modulus in the region of 106 Pa. Deformation in red blood cells is induced by shear stress. When a suspension is sheared, the red blood cells deform and spin because of the velocity gradient, with the rate of deformation and spin depending on the shear rate and the concentration. This can influence the mechanics of the circulation and may complicate the measurement of blood viscosity. It is true that in a steady state flow of a viscous fluid through a rigid spherical body immersed in the fluid, where we assume the inertia is negligible in such a flow, it is believed that the downward gravitational force of the particle is balanced by the viscous drag force. From this force balance the speed of fall can be shown to be given by Stokes' law

 * $$U_s = \frac{2}{9}\frac{\left(\rho_p - \rho_f\right)}{\mu} g\, a^2$$

Where a is the particle radius, ρp, ρf are the respectively particle and fluid density μ is the fluid viscosity, g is the gravitational acceleration. From the above equation we can see that the sedimentation velocity of the particle depends on the square of the radius. If the particle is released from rest in the fluid, its sedimentation velocity Us increases until it attains the steady value called the terminal velocity (U), as shown above.

Hemodilution
Hemodilution is the dilution of the concentration of red blood cells and plasma constituents by partially substituting the blood with colloids or crystalloids. It is a strategy to avoid exposure of patients to the potential hazards of homologous blood transfusions.

Hemodilution can be normovolemic, which implies the dilution of normal blood constituents by the use of expanders. During acute normovolemic hemodilution (ANH), blood subsequently lost during surgery contains proportionally fewer red blood cells per milliliter, thus minimizing intraoperative loss of the whole blood. Therefore, blood lost by the patient during surgery is not actually lost by the patient, for this volume is purified and redirected into the patient.

On the other hand, hypervolemic hemodilution (HVH) uses acute preoperative volume expansion without any blood removal. In choosing a fluid, however, it must be assured that when mixed, the remaining blood behaves in the microcirculation as in the original blood fluid, retaining all its properties of viscosity.

In presenting what volume of ANH should be applied one study suggests a mathematical model of ANH which calculates the maximum possible RCM savings using ANH, given the patients weight Hi and Hm.

To maintain the normovolemia, the withdrawal of autologous blood must be simultaneously replaced by a suitable hemodilute. Ideally, this is achieved by isovolemia exchange transfusion of a plasma substitute with a colloid osmotic pressure (OP). A colloid is a fluid containing particles that are large enough to exert an oncotic pressure across the micro-vascular membrane. When debating the use of colloid or crystalloid, it is imperative to think about all the components of the starling equation:
 * $$\ Q = K ( [P_c - P_i]S - [P_c - P_i] )$$

To identify the minimum safe hematocrit desirable for a given patient the following equation is useful:
 * $$\ BL_s = EBV \ln \frac{H_i}{H_m} $$

where EBV is the estimated blood volume; 70 mL/kg was used in this model and Hi (initial hematocrit) is the patient's initial hematocrit. From the equation above it is clear that the volume of blood removed during the ANH to the Hm is the same as the BLs. How much blood is to be removed is usually based on the weight, not the volume. The number of units that need to be removed to hemodilute to the maximum safe hematocrit (ANH) can be found by
 * $$ANH = \frac {BL_s}{450}$$

This is based on the assumption that each unit removed by hemodilution has a volume of 450 mL (the actual volume of a unit will vary somewhat since completion of collection is dependent on weight and not volume). The model assumes that the hemodilute value is equal to the Hm prior to surgery, therefore, the re-transfusion of blood obtained by hemodilution must begin when SBL begins. The RCM available for retransfusion after ANH (RCMm) can be calculated from the patient's Hi and the final hematocrit after hemodilution(Hm)
 * $$ RCM = EVB \times (H_i - H_m) $$

The maximum SBL that is possible when ANH is used without falling below Hm(BLH) is found by assuming that all the blood removed during ANH is returned to the patient at a rate sufficient to maintain the hematocrit at the minimum safe level
 * $$ BL_H = \frac {RCM_H} {H_m}$$

If ANH is used as long as SBL does not exceed BLH there will not be any need for blood transfusion. We can conclude from the foregoing that H should therefore not exceed s. The difference between the BLH and the BLs therefore is the incremental surgical blood loss (BLi) possible when using ANH.
 * $$\ {BL_i} = {BL_H} - {BL_s} $$

When expressed in terms of the RCM
 * $$ {RCM_i} = {BL_i} \times {H_m} $$

Where RCMi is the red cell mass that would have to be administered using homologous blood to maintain the Hm if ANH is not used and blood loss equals BLH.

The model used assumes ANH used for a 70 kg patient with an estimated blood volume of 70 ml/kg (4900 ml). A range of Hi and Hm was evaluated to understand conditions where hemodilution is necessary to benefit the patient.

Result
The result of the model calculations are presented in a table given in the appendix for a range of Hi from 0.30 to 0.50 with ANH performed to minimum hematocrits from 0.30 to 0.15. Given a Hi of 0.40, if the Hm is assumed to be 0.25.then from the equation above the RCM count is still high and ANH is not necessary, if BLs does not exceed 2303 ml, since the hemotocrit will not fall below Hm, although five units of blood must be removed during hemodilution. Under these conditions, to achieve the maximum benefit from the technique if ANH is used, no homologous blood will be required to maintain the Hm if blood loss does not exceed 2940 ml. In such a case, ANH can save a maximum of 1.1 packed red blood cell unit equivalent, and homologous blood transfusion is necessary to maintain Hm, even if ANH is used. This model can be used to identify when ANH may be used for a given patient and the degree of ANH necessary to maximize that benefit.

For example, if Hi is 0.30 or less it is not possible to save a red cell mass equivalent to two units of homologous PRBC even if the patient is hemodiluted to an Hm of 0.15. That is because from the RCM equation the patient RCM falls short from the equation giving above. If Hi is 0.40 one must remove at least 7.5 units of blood during ANH, resulting in an Hm of 0.20 to save two units equivalence. Clearly, the greater the Hi and the greater the number of units removed during hemodilution, the more effective ANH is for preventing homologous blood transfusion. The model here is designed to allow doctors to determine where ANH may be beneficial for a patient based on their knowledge of the Hi, the potential for SBL, and an estimate of the Hm. Though the model used a 70 kg patient, the result can be applied to any patient. To apply these result to any body weight, any of the values BLs, BLH and ANHH or PRBC given in the table need to be multiplied by the factor we will call T
 * $$ T = \frac {\text{patient's weight in kg}} {70} $$

Basically, the model considered above is designed to predict the maximum RCM that can save ANH.

In summary, the efficacy of ANH has been described mathematically by means of measurements of surgical blood loss and blood volume flow measurement. This form of analysis permits accurate estimation of the potential efficiency of the techniques and shows the application of measurement in the medical field.

Cardiac output

The heart is the driver of the circulatory system, pumping blood through rhythmic contraction and relaxation. The rate of blood flow out of the heart (often expressed in L/min) is known as the cardiac output (CO).

Blood being pumped out of the heart first enters the aorta, the largest artery of the body. It then proceeds to divide into smaller and smaller arteries, then into arterioles, and eventually capillaries, where oxygen transfer occurs. The capillaries connect to venules, and the blood then travels back through the network of veins to the venae cavae into the right heart. The micro-circulation — the arterioles, capillaries, and venules —constitutes most of the area of the vascular system and is the site of the transfer of O2, glucose, and enzyme substrates into the cells. The venous system returns the de-oxygenated blood to the right heart where it is pumped into the lungs to become oxygenated and CO2 and other gaseous wastes exchanged and expelled during breathing. Blood then returns to the left side of the heart where it begins the process again.

In a normal circulatory system, the volume of blood returning to the heart each minute is approximately equal to the volume that is pumped out each minute (the cardiac output). Because of this, the velocity of blood flow across each level of the circulatory system is primarily determined by the total cross-sectional area of that level.

Cardiac output is determined by two methods. One is to use the Fick equation:

$$CO = VO2/C_aO_2-C_vO_2 $$

The other thermodilution method is to sense the temperature change from a liquid injected in the proximal port of a Swan-Ganz to the distal port.

Cardiac output is mathematically expressed by the following equation:

 * $$CO = SV \times HR $$

where The normal human cardiac output is 5-6 L/min at rest. Not all blood that enters the left ventricle exits the heart. What is left at the end of diastole (EDV) minus the stroke volume make up the end systolic volume (ESV).
 * CO = cardiac output (L/sec)
 * SV = stroke volume (ml)
 * HR = heart rate (bpm)

Anatomical features
Circulatory system of species subjected to orthostatic blood pressure (such as arboreal snakes) has evolved with physiological and morphological features to overcome the circulatory disturbance. For instance, in arboreal snakes the heart is closer to the head, in comparison with aquatic snakes. This facilitates blood perfusion to the brain.

Turbulence
Blood flow is also affected by the smoothness of the vessels, resulting in either turbulent (chaotic) or laminar (smooth) flow. Smoothness is reduced by the buildup of fatty deposits on the arterial walls.

The Reynolds number (denoted NR or Re) is a relationship that helps determine the behavior of a fluid in a tube, in this case blood in the vessel.

The equation for this dimensionless relationship is written as:
 * $$NR=\frac{\rho v L}{\mu}$$
 * ρ: density of the blood
 * v: mean velocity of the blood
 * L: characteristic dimension of the vessel, in this case diameter
 * μ: viscosity of blood

The Reynolds number is directly proportional to the velocity and diameter of the tube. Note that NR is directly proportional to the mean velocity as well as the diameter. A Reynolds number of less than 2300 is laminar fluid flow, which is characterized by constant flow motion, whereas a value of over 4000, is represented as turbulent flow. Due to its smaller radius and lowest velocity compared to other vessels, the Reynolds number at the capillaries is very low, resulting in laminar instead of turbulent flow.

Velocity
Often expressed in cm/s. This value is inversely related to the total cross-sectional area of the blood vessel and also differs per cross-section, because in normal condition the blood flow has laminar characteristics. For this reason, the blood flow velocity is the fastest in the middle of the vessel and slowest at the vessel wall. In most cases, the mean velocity is used. There are many ways to measure blood flow velocity, like videocapillary microscoping with frame-to-frame analysis, or laser Doppler anemometry. Blood velocities in arteries are higher during systole than during diastole. One parameter to quantify this difference is the pulsatility index (PI), which is equal to the difference between the peak systolic velocity and the minimum diastolic velocity divided by the mean velocity during the cardiac cycle. This value decreases with distance from the heart.

 * $$PI = \frac{v_{systole} - v_{diastole}}{v_{mean}}$$

Vascular resistance
Resistance is also related to vessel radius, vessel length, and blood viscosity.

In a first approach based on fluids, as indicated by the Hagen–Poiseuille equation. The equation is as follows:

 * $$\Delta P = \frac{8 \mu l Q}{\pi r^4}$$
 * ∆P: pressure drop/gradient
 * μ: viscosity
 * l: length of tube. In the case of vessels with infinitely long lengths, l is replaced with diameter of the vessel.
 * Q: flow rate of the blood in the vessel
 * r: radius of the vessel

In a second approach, more realistic of the vascular resistance and coming from experimental observations on blood flows, according to Thurston, there is a plasma release-cell layering at the walls surrounding a plugged flow. It is a fluid layer in which at a distance δ, viscosity η is a function of δ written as η(δ), and these surrounding layers do not meet at the vessel centre in real blood flow. Instead, there is the plugged flow which is hyperviscous because holding high concentration of RBCs. Thurston assembled this layer to the flow resistance to describe blood flow by means of a viscosity η(δ) and thickness δ from the wall layer.

The blood resistance law appears as R adapted to blood flow profile :

 * $$R = \frac{c L \eta(\delta)}{(\pi \delta r^3)} $$

where
 * R = resistance to blood flow
 * c = constant coefficient of flow
 * L = length of the vessel
 * η(δ) = viscosity of blood in the wall plasma release-cell layering
 * r = radius of the blood vessel
 * δ = distance in the plasma release-cell layer

Blood resistance varies depending on blood viscosity and its plugged flow (or sheath flow since they are complementary across the vessel section) size as well, and on the size of the vessels. Assuming steady, laminar flow in the vessel, the blood vessels behavior is similar to that of a pipe. For instance if p1 and p2 are pressures are at the ends of the tube, the pressure drop/gradient is:
 * $$\frac{p_1 - p_2}{l} = \Delta P$$

The larger arteries, including all large enough to see without magnification, are conduits with low vascular resistance (assuming no advanced atherosclerotic changes) with high flow rates that generate only small drops in pressure. The smaller arteries and arterioles have higher resistance, and confer the main blood pressure drop across major arteries to capillaries in the circulatory system.

In the arterioles blood pressure is lower than in the major arteries. This is due to bifurcations, which cause a drop in pressure. The more bifurcations, the higher the total cross-sectional area, therefore the pressure across the surface drops. This is why the arterioles have the highest pressure-drop. The pressure drop of the arterioles is the product of flow rate and resistance: ∆P=Q xresistance. The high resistance observed in the arterioles, which factor largely in the ∆P is a result of a smaller radius of about 30 μm. The smaller the radius of a tube, the larger the resistance to fluid flow.

Immediately following the arterioles are the capillaries. Following the logic observed in the arterioles, we expect the blood pressure to be lower in the capillaries compared to the arterioles. Since pressure is a function of force per unit area, (P = F/A), the larger the surface area, the lesser the pressure when an external force acts on it. Though the radii of the capillaries are very small, the network of capillaries has the largest surface area in the vascular network. They are known to have the largest surface area (485 mm^2) in the human vascular network. The larger the total cross-sectional area, the lower the mean velocity as well as the pressure.

Substances called vasoconstrictors can reduce the size of blood vessels, thereby increasing blood pressure. Vasodilators (such as nitroglycerin) increase the size of blood vessels, thereby decreasing arterial pressure.

If the blood viscosity increases (gets thicker), the result is an increase in arterial pressure. Certain medical conditions can change the viscosity of the blood. For instance, anemia (low red blood cell concentration) reduces viscosity, whereas increased red blood cell concentration increases viscosity. It had been thought that aspirin and related "blood thinner" drugs decreased the viscosity of blood, but instead studies found that they act by reducing the tendency of the blood to clot.

To determine the systemic vascular resistance (SVR) the formula for calculating all resistance is used.

$$ R = (\Delta pressure) / flow. $$

This translates for SVR into:

$$SVR=(MAP -CVP)/CO $$

Where To get this in Wood units the answer is multiplied by 80.
 * SVR = systemic vascular resistance (mmHg/L/min)
 * MAP = mean arterial pressure (mmHg)
 * CVP = central venous pressure (mmHg)
 * CO = cardiac output (L/min)

Normal systemic vascular resistance is between 900 and 1440 dynes/sec/cm−5.

Wall tension

Regardless of site, blood pressure is related to the wall tension of the vessel according to the Young–Laplace equation (assuming that the thickness of the vessel wall is very small as compared to the diameter of the lumen):
 * $$ \sigma_\theta = \dfrac{Pr}{t} \ $$

where For the thin-walled assumption to be valid the vessel must have a wall thickness of no more than about one-tenth (often cited as one twentieth) of its radius.
 * P is the blood pressure
 * t is the wall thickness
 * r is the inside radius of the cylinder.
 * $$ \sigma_\theta \! $$ is the cylinder stress or "hoop stress".

The cylinder stress, in turn, is the average force exerted circumferentially (perpendicular both to the axis and to the radius of the object) in the cylinder wall, and can be described as:
 * $$ \sigma_\theta = \dfrac{F}{tl} \ $$

where:
 * F is the force exerted circumferentially on an area of the cylinder wall that has the following two lengths as sides:
 * t is the radial thickness of the cylinder
 * l is the axial length of the cylinder

Stress
When force is applied to a material it starts to deform or move. As the force needed to deform a material (e.g. to make a fluid flow) increases with the size of the surface of the material A., the magnitude of this force F is proportional to the area A of the portion of the surface. Therefore, the quantity (F/A) that is the force per unit area is called the stress. The shear stress at the wall that is associated with blood flow through an artery depends on the artery size and geometry and can range between 0.5 and 4 Pa.
 * $$\sigma = \frac{F}{A}$$.

Under normal conditions, to avoid atherogenesis, thrombosis, smooth muscle proliferation and endothelial apoptosis, shear stress maintains its magnitude and direction within an acceptable range. In some cases occurring due to blood hammer, shear stress reaches larger values. While the direction of the stress may also change by the reverse flow, depending on the hemodynamic conditions. Therefore, this situation can lead to atherosclerosis disease.

Capacitance
Veins are described as the "capacitance vessels" of the body because over 70% of the blood volume resides in the venous system. Veins are more compliant than arteries and expand to accommodate changing volume.

Blood pressure
The blood pressure in the circulation is principally due to the pumping action of the heart. The pumping action of the heart generates pulsatile blood flow, which is conducted into the arteries, across the micro-circulation and eventually, back via the venous system to the heart. During each heartbeat, systemic arterial blood pressure varies between a maximum (systolic) and a minimum (diastolic) pressure. In physiology, these are often simplified into one value, the mean arterial pressure (MAP), which is calculated as follows:

$$MAP = DP + 1/3(PP) $$

where:
 * MAP = Mean Arterial Pressure
 * DP = Diastolic blood pressure
 * PP = Pulse pressure which is systolic pressure minus diastolic pressure.

Differences in mean blood pressure are responsible for blood flow from one location to another in the circulation. The rate of mean blood flow depends on both blood pressure and the resistance to flow presented by the blood vessels. Mean blood pressure decreases as the circulating blood moves away from the heart through arteries and capillaries due to viscous losses of energy. Mean blood pressure drops over the whole circulation, although most of the fall occurs along the small arteries and arterioles. Gravity affects blood pressure via hydrostatic forces (e.g., during standing), and valves in veins, breathing, and pumping from contraction of skeletal muscles also influence blood pressure in veins.

The relationship between pressure, flow, and resistance is expressed in the following equation:

 * $$Flow = Pressure/Resistance $$

When applied to the circulatory system, we get:

 * $$CO = (MAP-RAP)/TPR $$

where
 * CO = cardiac output (in L/min)
 * MAP = mean arterial pressure (in mmHg), the average pressure of blood as it leaves the heart
 * RAP = right atrial pressure (in mmHg), the average pressure of blood as it returns to the heart
 * TPR = total peripheral resistance (in mmHg * min/L)

A simplified form of this equation assumes right atrial pressure is approximately 0:

 * $$CO\approx MAP/TPR$$

The ideal blood pressure in the brachial artery, where standard blood pressure cuffs measure pressure, is <120/80 mmHg. Other major arteries have similar levels of blood pressure recordings indicating very low disparities among major arteries. In the innominate artery, the average reading is 110/70 mmHg, the right subclavian artery averages 120/80 and the abdominal aorta is 110/70 mmHg. The relatively uniform pressure in the arteries indicate that these blood vessels act as a pressure reservoir for fluids that are transported within them.

Pressure drops gradually as blood flows from the major arteries, through the arterioles, the capillaries until blood is pushed up back into the heart via the venules, the veins through the vena cava with the help of the muscles. At any given pressure drop, the flow rate is determined by the resistance to the blood flow. In the arteries, with the absence of diseases, there is very little or no resistance to blood. The vessel diameter is the most principal determinant to control resistance. Compared to other smaller vessels in the body, the artery has a much bigger diameter (4 mm), therefore the resistance is low.

The arm–leg (blood pressure) gradient is the difference between the blood pressure measured in the arms and that measured in the legs. It is normally less than 10 mm Hg, but may be increased in e.g. coarctation of the aorta.

Pressure monitoring
Hemodynamic monitoring is the observation of hemodynamic parameters over time, such as blood pressure and heart rate. Blood pressure can be monitored either invasively through an inserted blood pressure transducer assembly (providing continuous monitoring), or noninvasively by repeatedly measuring the blood pressure with an inflatable blood pressure cuff.

Hypertension is diagnosed by the presence of arterial blood pressures of 140/90 or greater for two clinical visits.

Pulmonary Artery Wedge Pressure can show if there is congestive heart failure, mitral and aortic valve disorders, hypervolemia, shunts, or cardiac tamponade.

Remote, indirect monitoring of blood flow by laser Doppler
Noninvasive hemodynamic monitoring of eye fundus vessels can be performed by Laser Doppler holography, with near infrared light. The eye offers a unique opportunity for the non-invasive exploration of cardiovascular diseases. Laser Doppler imaging by digital holography can measure blood flow in the retina and choroid, whose Doppler responses exhibit a pulse-shaped profile with time This technique enables non invasive functional microangiography by high-contrast measurement of Doppler responses from endoluminal blood flow profiles in vessels in the posterior segment of the eye. Differences in blood pressure drive the flow of blood throughout the circulation. The rate of mean blood flow depends on both blood pressure and the hemodynamic resistance to flow presented by the blood vessels.

Glossary

 * ANH:Acute Normovolemic Hemodilution
 * ANHu:Number of Units During ANH
 * BLH:Maximum Blood Loss Possible When ANH Is Used Before Homologous Blood Transfusion Is Needed
 * BLI:Incremental Blood Loss Possible with ANH.(BLH – BLs)
 * BLs:Maximum blood loss without ANH before homologous blood transfusion is required
 * EBV:Estimated Blood Volume(70 mL/kg)
 * Hct:Haematocrit Always Expressed Here As A Fraction
 * Hi:Initial Haematocrit
 * Hm:Minimum Safe Haematocrit
 * PRBC:Packed Red Blood Cell Equivalent Saved by ANH
 * RCM:Red cell mass.
 * RCMH:Cell Mass Available For Transfusion after ANH
 * RCMI:Red Cell Mass Saved by ANH
 * SBL:Surgical Blood Loss

Etymology and pronunciation
The word hemodynamics uses combining forms of hemo- (which comes from the ancient Greek haima, meaning blood) and dynamics, thus "the dynamics of blood". The vowel of the hemo- syllable is variously written according to the ae/e variation.

 * Blood hammer
 * Blood pressure
 * Cardiac output
 * Cardiovascular System Dynamics Society
 * Electrical cardiometry
 * Esophogeal doppler
 * Hemodynamics of the aorta
 * Impedance cardiography
 * Photoplethysmogram
 * Laser Doppler imaging
 * Windkessel effect
 * Functional near-infrared spectroscopy

title: Hemodynamics


text:
Ali (name)

Ali (علي) is a common unisex (originally male) name.

Ali is derived from the Arabic triconsonantal root ʕ-l-w, which literally means "high", "elevated", "champion", ”king of kings”, ”emperor”, and is used as both a given name and surname. Islamic traditional use of the name goes back to the Islamic leader Ali ibn Abi Talib, but the name is also present among some pre-Islamic Arabs (e.g. Banu Hanifa, and some rulers of Saba and Himyar). It is identical in form and meaning to the עֵלִי, Eli, which goes back to the High Priest Eli in the biblical Books of Samuel.

The Ali surname is especially common in Arab countries and the rest of the Muslim world.

Ali is the most common last name in Qatar, Bahrain, United Arab Emirates, Somalia, Kuwait and Libya. The last name can also be found among the Indian Muslim and Pakistani communities, as it is often associated with the descendants of Ali in these regions.

The name Ali is also used in various other cultures as a given name. Among English speakers it is used as a short form of male or female names starting with "Ali", such as Alice, Alison, Alisha, Alistair, Alexander, or Alexandra. In Old Norse, Áli and Åle are alternative forms of Onela. Ali is a Finnish male given name, derived from Aleksanteri.

Islam

 * Ali ibn Abi Talib (601–661), cousin and son-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, the fourth Caliph of Sunni Islam, and the first Imam in most schools of Shia Islam
 * Ali ibn Husayn (Zayn al-Abidin) (c. 659), grandson of Ali ibn Abi Talib, fourth infallible Imam in Isma'ili and Twelver Shia Islam
 * Ali ibn Musa (ar-Reza) (c. 766 – 818), eighth infallible Imam in Shia Islam
 * Ali ibn Muhammad (al-Hadi) (c. 829), tenth infallible Imam in Shia Islam
 * Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari, Persian Muslim scholar, physician and psychologist
 * Ali ibn al-Mu'tasim, 9th-century Abbasid prince and son of Al-Mu'tasim
 * Ali al-Muktafi, Abbasīd caliph from 902 to 908
 * Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin, Imam in Shiʻi Islam
 * Husayn ibn Ali, Abu Abd Allah or Imam Husayn, a grandson of Muhammad
 * Hasan ibn Ali, the firstborn son of Ali and Fatima and a grandson of Muhammad
 * Ali ibn al-Athir, 12th- and 13th-century Islamic historian and geographer
 * Ali Jaunpuri (1800–1873), Islamic scholar
 * Ali bin Hussein, King of Hejaz (1879 - 1935), second king of Hejaz

Arts and entertainment

 * Ali Akbar Navis, Indonesian author
 * Ali Gatie, Iraqi-Canadian singer-songwriter
 * Ali Hassan (born 1972), Indian television actor
 * Ali Kiba (born 1986), Tanzanian singer and songwriter
 * Ali Marhyar (born 1984), French actor, film director and screenwriter
 * Ali Özgentürk, Turkish film director
 * Ali Rehman Khan, Pakistani actor
 * Ali Saad (actor), Lebanese actor and voice actor
 * Ali Saleem, Pakistani television host
 * Ali Salem, Egyptian playwright
 * Ali Shahalom, British-Bangladeshi comedian
 * Ali Al-Zein, Lebanese actor and voice actor
 * Ali Campbell, British singer and member of UB40

Sports

 * Ali Adnan Kadhim (born 1993), Iraqi footballer
 * Ali Alaaeddine (born 1993), Lebanese footballer
 * Ali Alanç (born 1959), Turkish football manager
 * Ali Annabi, Tunisian fencer
 * Ali Asfand (born 2004), Pakistani cricketer
 * Ali Bacher, South African cricket batsman and administrator
 * Ali Daei (born 1969), Iranian footballer
 * Ali Daher (born 1996), Lebanese footballer
 * Ali Demić, Bosnian basketball player
 * Ali Dia (born 1965), Senegalese footballer
 * Ali Badara Dia (born 1941), Guinea footballer
 * Ali Eren Demirezen (born 1990), Turkish amateur boxer
 * Ali Fakih (born 1967), Lebanese footballer
 * Ali Farahat, Egyptian chess player
 * Ali Farokhmanesh (born 1988), American basketball player and coach
 * Ali Fayad (disambiguation), multiple people
 * Ali Gaye (born 1998), American football player
 * Ali Ferit Gören (1913–1987), Austrian-Turkish Olympic sprinter
 * Ali Güneş, Turkish footballer
 * Ali Kaya (athlete) (born Stanley Kiprotich Mukche in 1994), Kenyan-Turkish long-distance runner
 * Ali Kireş, Turkish footballer
 * Ali Marpet (born 1993), American football player in the NFL
 * Ali Marwi, Kuwaiti footballer
 * Ali Musse (born 1996), Somali footballer
 * Ali Noorzad, Afghan basketball player
 * Ali Ölmez (born 1983), Turkish footballer
 * Ali Öztürk (footballer, born 1986), Turkish footballer
 * Ali Öztürk (footballer, born 1987), Turkish footballer
 * Ali Sabeh (born 1994), Lebanese footballer
 * Ali Sami Yen, Turkish Association football entrepreneur
 * Ali Sánchez, Venezuelan professional baseball player
 * Ali Sarı (born 1986), Turkish taekwondo practitioner
 * Ali Tandoğan, Turkish footballer
 * Ali Topaloğlu (born 1998), Turkish track and field athlete with Down syndrome
 * Ali Turan, Turkish footballer
 * Ali Williams (born 1981), New Zealand rugby union player
 * Ali Nihat Yazıcı (born 1964), Turkish chess official
 * Ali Efe Yeğin (born 1993), Turkish professional motorcycle racer

Others

 * Ali Aaltonen, Finnish Red Guard commander
 * Ali al-Abdallah, Syrian writer and human rights activist
 * Ali Akdemir, Turkish scientist
 * Ali Alatas, Indonesian diplomat
 * Ali Aldabbagh, Iraqi engineer and politician
 * Ali ibn al-Athir, Hadith expert, historian and biographer
 * Ali Abu Awwad, Palestinian pacifist
 * Ali Babacan, Turkish politician
 * Ali Mohammad Besharati (born 1945), Iranian politician
 * Ali Bozer, Turkish politician
 * Ali Brownlee (1959–2016), English sportscaster
 * Ali Çetinkaya, Turkish Army officer
 * Ali al-Dandachi, Syrian scout leader
 * Ali Dizaei (born 1962), Anglo-Iranian police officer and criminal
 * Ali Džabič (1853–1918), Bosnian mufti
 * Ali Erdemir, Turkish scientist
 * Ali Fadel, Iraqi politician
 * Ali Hassan al-Majid (1941–2010), Iraqi politician and mass murderer
 * Ali ibn Hazm, Andalusian Muslim polymath and scholar
 * Ali Hekimoğlu, Ottoman grand vizier and general
 * Ali Jarbawi, Palestinian politician
 * Ali Karimov (1919–2000), Azerbaijani statesman
 * Ali Kaya (serial killer) (born 1979), Turkish serial killer
 * Ali Kemal Bey, Turkish journalist, newspaper editor and poet
 * Ali Khademhosseini (born 1975), Iranian-Canadian bioengineer
 * Ali Khamenei (born 1939), Supreme Leader of Iran since 1989
 * Ali Kiliç, Ottoman Grand Admiral
 * Ali Kordan (1958–2009), Iranian politician
 * Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi, 11th-century physician
 * Ali Maksum, Indonesian Islamic leader
 * Ali al-Masudi (al-Masʿūdī), Arab historian, geographer and traveler
 * Ali Mech, 13th-century tribal chief
 * Ali Akbar Moinfar, Iranian politician
 * Ali Moulana, Sri Lankan politician, chairman of Eravur Urban Council
 * Ali Qanso, Lebanese politician
 * Ali İsmet Öztürk (born 1964), Turkish aerobatics pilot
 * Ali ibn Ridwan, 11th-century astrologer
 * Ali Sabancı, Turkish businessman
 * Ali Sadikin, Indonesian politician
 * Ali Said Raygal, Somali politician
 * Ali Sastroamidjojo, 8th and 10th Prime Minister of Indonesia
 * Ali Sayyar (1926–2019), Bahraini journalist and politician
 * Ali bin Hossein Seydi, Ottoman admiral and author
 * Ali Shayegan (1903–1981), Iranian politician
 * Ali Tayebnia (born 1960), Iranian academic and politician
 * Ali Topuz (1932–2019), Turkish politician
 * Ali Wallace (naturalist), assistant to naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace
 * Ali Wazir, Pakistani politician and leader of the Pashtun Tahafuz Movement
 * Ali Yafie (1926–2023), Indonesian Islamic leader
 * Ali Yusuf Kenadid, Somali Sultan of the Sultanate of Hobyo
 * Ali I of Yejju (died 1788), Ethiopian leader
 * Ali II of Yejju (c. 1819 – c. 1866), Ethiopian leader

Arts and entertainment

 * Ali Barter (born 1986), Australian singer-songwriter
 * Ali Bastian (born 1982), English actress
 * Ali Benjamin, American author
 * Ali Brown (born 1971), American author
 * Ali Brustofski (born 1993), American singer
 * Ali Bryan, Canadian novelist
 * Ali Caldwell (born 1988), American singer
 * Ali Cobrin (born 1989), American actress
 * Ali Cobby Eckermann (born 1963), Australian poet
 * Ali Ewoldt (born 1982), American theatre actress
 * Ali Fedotowsky (born 1984), American television presenter
 * Ali Gass, American curator
 * Ali Hillis (born 1978), American actress
 * Ali Kay, American model
 * Ali Landry (born 1973), American model and actress
 * Ali Larter (born 1976), American actress
 * Ali Lee (born 1982), Hong Kong actress
 * Ali Liebegott (born 1971), American writer
 * Ali Liebert (born 1981), Canadian actress
 * Ali Lohan (born 1993), American model and actress
 * Ali MacGraw (born 1939), American actress
 * Ali McGregor, Australian soprano
 * Ali Michael (born 1990), American fashion model
 * Ali Rogers (born 1991), American beauty pageant titleholder
 * Ali Ryerson (born 1952), American flutist
 * Ali Shaw (born 1982), Scottish television presenter
 * Ali Smith (born 1962), Scottish author
 * Ali Sotto (born 1961), Filipino actress
 * Ali Spagnola, American musician
 * Ali Sparkes (born 1966), British author
 * Ali Stephens (born 1991), American model
 * Ali Stone (born 1992), Spanish record producer
 * Ali Stroker (born 1987), American actress
 * Ali Tamposi (born 1989), American songwriter
 * Ali Wentworth (born 1965), American actress
 * Ali Wong (born 1982), American comedian and actress

Sports

 * Ali Bernard (born 1986), American Olympic athlete
 * Ali Brigginshaw (born 1989), Australian international rugby league player
 * Ali Frantti (born 1996), American volleyball player
 * Ali Johnson (born 1998), English footballer
 * Ali Krieger (born 1984), American soccer player
 * Ali Loke (born 1993), Welsh squash player
 * Ali Riley (born 1987), American-born New Zealand soccer player
 * Ali Viola (born 1976), American softball player

Others

 * Ali Cupper (born 1980), Australian politician
 * Ali Hewson (born 1961), Irish activist
 * Ali Hogg (born 1980), Australian activist
 * Ali Holman (born 1973), American author
 * Ali Vincent (born 1975), American spokeswoman
 * Ali Watkins (born 1992), American journalist
 * Kao Chin Su-mei (Atayal name: Ciwas Ali, born 1965), Taiwanese politician

Middle name

 * Abbas Ali Khalatbari (1912–1979), Iranian diplomat
 * Abdus Sobahan Ali Sarkar (born 1976), Bengali MLA of Assam
 * Ahmad Ali Sepehr (1889–1976), Iranian historian and politician
 * Ahmed Ali Enayetpuri (1898–1959), Bengali author and journalist
 * Ajmal Ali Choudhury (1916–1971), Bengali politician
 * Akbar Ali Khan, Bangladeshi economist
 * Golam Ali Chowdhury (1824–1888), Bengali landlord and philanthropist
 * Güzelce Ali Pasha, Ottoman statesman and military figure
 * Hatem Ali Jamadar (1872–1982), Bengali politician
 * Janab Ali Majumdar, Bengali politician
 * Lotf Ali Khan (c. 1769–1794), last Shah of the Zand dynasty, of Persia
 * Mahbub Ali Khan (1934–1984), Bangladeshi chief of naval staff
 * Mehmet Ali Birand (1941–2013), Turkish journalist
 * Mohammad Ali Varasteh (1896–1989), Iranian statesman
 * Mohammed Ali Qamar, Bengali boxer
 * Morshed Ali Khan Panni, Bangladeshi politician
 * Müezzinzade Ali Pasha, Ottoman statesman and naval officer
 * Najib Ali Choudhury, Bengali Islamic scholar
 * Osman Ali Sadagar (1856–1948), Bengali-Assamese politician and educationist
 * Rowshan Ali Chowdhury (1874–1933), Bengali journalist
 * Saif Ali Khan Indian film actor
 * Seydi Ali Reis, Ottoman admiral and navigator
 * Sherman Ali Ahmed, Bengali MLA of Assam
 * Uluç Ali Reis (1519–1587), Italian farmer who became Kapudan Pasha
 * Wajid Ali Choudhury, Bengali MLA of Assam
 * Wajed Ali Khan Panni (1871–1936), Bengali aristocrat
 * Wajid Ali Khan Panni II, Bangladeshi politician
 * Yakub Ali Chowdhury (1888–1940), Bengali essayist

Arts and entertainment

 * Aamir Ali, Indian television actor
 * Ahmad Ali (1910–1994), Pakistani writer
 * Ahmad Ismail Ali (1917–1974), Egyptian army officer
 * Alauddin Ali (1952–2020), Bangladeshi music composer
 * Ali (born 1968), Indian film actor
 * Begum Nawazish Ali (born 1979), Pakistani television host
 * Egypt Ali, stage name Egypt Speaks (born 1998), American musician
 * Filiz Ali (born 1937), Turkish pianist
 * Idris Ali (1940–2010), Egyptian author
 * Imtiaz Ali (born 1971), Indian film director
 * Laylah Ali (born 1968), American visual artist
 * Mahershala Ali (born 1974), American actor
 * Maya Ali (born 1989), Pakistani actress
 * Shahalom Ali, better known as Ali Shahalom, comedian and television presenter
 * Rashied Ali (1935–2009), American drummer
 * Sadeq Ali (1800–1862), Bengali poet, writer and judge
 * Somy Ali (born 1976), Bollywood actress
 * Syed Murtaza Ali, Bengali writer and historian
 * Tatyana Ali (born 1979), American actress and singer

Sports

 * Abdulaziz Ali (born 1980), Qatari footballer
 * Ahmed Ali, Emirati football player
 * Ahmad Ismail Ali (born 1917), Commander-in-Chief of Egypt's army
 * Almoez Ali (born 1996), Qatari international footballer of Sudanese descent
 * Awais Ali (born 2005), Pakistani cricketer
 * Hamdi Ali (born 1997), Qatari high jumper
 * Hameen Ali (born 1977), American football player
 * Hyder Ali (born 1720), the Sultan and de facto ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore in southern India
 * Imtiaz Ali (born 1954), West Indian cricketer
 * Imtiaz Ali, Trinidadian cricketer
 * Josh Ali (born 1999), American football player
 * Jusif Ali (born 2000), Finnish footballer
 * Khalid Ali, Emirati football defender
 * Laila Ali (born 1977), American television personality and former professional boxer, daughter of Muhammad Ali
 * Meral Yıldız Ali (born 1987), Romanian-Turkish female table tennis player
 * Moeen Ali (born 1987), English cricketer
 * Muhammad Ali (1942–2016; born Cassius Clay), American boxer, activist and philanthropist
 * Mukhtar Ali, Saudi Arabian professional footballer
 * Mohamed Ali (born 1992), Indian professional footballer
 * Nur Ali (born 1974), Pakistani-American racing driver
 * Rahaman Ali (born 1943; born Rudolph Arnett Clay, later rechristened to Rudolph Valentino), American boxer, brother of Muhammad Ali
 * Rasheen Ali (born 2001), American football player
 * Veronica Porché Ali, American psychologist and the former wife of boxer Muhammad Ali

Others

 * Abu Saeed Muhammad Omar Ali (1945–2012), Bangladeshi Islamic scholar and translator
 * Ahmadu Ali (born 1936), Nigerian politician
 * Anwar Ali, Pakistani economist
 * Ayaan Hirsi Ali (born 1969), writer and politician
 * Altab Ali, factory garment worker murdered by three teenagers in a racist attack in East London
 * Ayub Ali (1919–1995), Bangladeshi Islamic scholar and educationist
 * Ayub Ali Master (1880–1980), British-Bangladeshi social worker and entrepreneur
 * Azad Ali, IT worker and civil servant for the HM Treasury
 * Azmin Ali (born 1964), Malaysian politician
 * Enam Ali, founder of the British Curry Awards, Spice Business Magazine and Ion TV
 * Hassan Al-Ali (Scouting), former General Secretary of the Kuwait Boy Scouts Association
 * Hasan ibn Ali, early Islamic Alid political and religious leader
 * Husayn ibn Ali, early Islamic figure
 * Hussein bin Ali, King of Hejaz, Arab leader from the Banu Qatadah branch of the Banu Hashim clan
 * Idris Ali (politician) (1950–2024), Indian politician
 * Ilias Ali (Bangladeshi politician), Bangladeshi politician, Organising Secretary of the Bangladesh National Party
 * Abul Aziz Muhammad Ismail Ali (1868–1937), Urdu poet and activist
 * Jobeda Ali (1975–2020), British social entrepreneur, documentary filmmaker and chief executive of Three Sisters Care
 * Kazim Ali (born 1971), American poet, novelist, essayist, and professor
 * Mahbub Ali, Bangladeshi politician and Member of Parliament
 * M. A. Yusuff Ali, Indian businessman and billionaire
 * Mahmud Ali (statesman), Indian Freedom Movement leader, statesman
 * Mir Masoom Ali, Bangladeshi American statistician, Distinguished Professor and author
 * Mir Maswood Ali, Canadian statistician and mathematician
 * Mockbul Ali, British diplomat and former Islamic Issues Adviser to the Foreign and Commonwealth Office
 * Munsur Ali, British film producer, screenwriter and director
 * Mustafa Ali, Malaysian politician
 * Muhammad Shamsi Ali (born 1967), Indonesian-American Muslim scholar
 * Siraj Ali, British Bangladeshi restaurateur and philanthropist
 * Nasim Ali, UK Labour Party politician, councillor and former Mayor of Camden
 * Noble Drew Ali (1886–1929), founder of the Moorish Science Temple of America
 * Ragib Ali, Bangladeshi industrialist, pioneer tea-planter, educationalist, philanthropist and banker
 * Rushanara Ali (born 1975), British politician
 * Sabahattin Ali (1907–1948), Turkish novelist and journalist
 * Saeed Abu Ali, Palestinian politician and jurist
 * Safiye Ali (1891–1952), Turkish physician
 * Saleem Ali (born 1973), Pakistani-American scholar
 * Salim Ali (1896–1987), Indian ornithologist and naturalist
 * Samina Ali, Indian-American author and activist
 * Sarfraz Ali (born c. 1977), convicted of the racially motivated murder of Ross Parker
 * Shah Muhammad Ibrahim Ali (1872–1931), Bengali poet and Islamic scholar
 * Sonni Ali (died 1492), first king of the West African Songhai empire
 * Syed Mohammad Ali (1928–1993), Bangladeshi journalist, founder of Bangladesh The Daily Star
 * Syed Mohsin Ali (1948–2015), Bangladeshi politician, Minister of Social Welfare
 * Syed Mujtaba Ali (1904–1974), Indo-Bangladeshi author, journalist, travel enthusiast, academician, scholar and linguist
 * Sheikh Razzak Ali (1928–2015), Bangladeshi author, journalist and politician
 * Takis Mehmet Ali, German politician
 * Yashar Ali, American journalist with Iranian ancestry
 * Zahid Ali, Norwegian stand-up comedian
 * Zaynab bint Ali (626–682), eldest daughter of Fatima and Ali ibn Abi Talib
 * Zine El Abidine Ben Ali, 2nd president of Tunisia

Male

 * Abdul Ali
 * Ali Reza
 * Ali Sher (disambiguation)
 * Barkat Ali
 * Mehmet Ali

Female

 * Aaliyah
 * Aliye
 * Aliya

Umm Ali

 * Umm Ali Jijak, mother of Abbasid caliph al-Muktafi

Stage name or pseudonym

 * Ali (actor), Telugu comedian and TV presenter
 * Ali (French rapper) (born 1995), French rapper of Moroccan origin
 * Ali (graffiti artist), American artist and musician
 * Ali (American rapper), aka Ali Jones, American rapper
 * Ali (South Korean singer)
 * Ali (wrestler), ring name of Pakistani-American professional wrestler Adeel Alam
 * Ali B, Dutch rapper
 * Ali B (DJ), British DJ
 * Ali Bongo (magician) (1929–2009), stage name of British comedy magician William Wallace
 * Ali G, stage persona used by comedian Sacha Baron Cohen
 * Ali Hassan (actor) (born 1972), Indian television actor
 * Ali Official, British-Bangladeshi comedian
 * Big Ali, American rapper and DJ

Fictional characters

 * Ali (character), a Chinese cartoon character
 * Ali (House), a character in the television series House
 * Ali Baba, a character in the folk tale of Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves
 * Ali Bombay, a character in the television series M.A.S.K.
 * Ali Osman, a character in the soap opera EastEnders
 * Ali Al-Saachez, a character in the anime series Mobile Suit Gundam 00

title: Ali (name)


text:
Telephone keypad

A telephone keypad is a keypad installed on a push-button telephone or similar telecommunication device for dialing a telephone number. It was standardized when the dual-tone multi-frequency signaling (DTMF) system was developed in the Bell System in the United States in the 1960s that replaced rotary dialing originally developed in electromechanical switching systems. Because of the installed abundance of rotary dial equipment well into the 1990s, many telephone keypads were also designed to produce loop-disconnect pulses electronically, and some could be optionally switched to produce either DTMF or pulses.

The development of the modern telephone keypad is attributed to research in the 1950s by Richard Deininger under the directorship of John Karlin at the Human Factors Engineering Department of Bell Labs. The modern keypad is laid out in a rectangular array of twelve push buttons arranged as four rows and three columns of keys. For military applications, a fourth, right-most column of keys was added for priority signaling in the Autovon system in the 1960s. Initially, between 1963 and 1968, the keypads for civilian subscriber service omitting the lower left and lower right keys that commonly are assigned to the star (✻) and number sign (#) signals, respectively. These keys were added to provide signals for anticipated data entry purposes in business applications, but found use in Custom Calling Services (CLASS) features installed in electronic switching systems.

Layout
The layout of the digit keys is different from that commonly appearing on calculators and numeric keypads. This layout was chosen after extensive human factors testing at Bell Labs. At the time (late 1950s), mechanical calculators were not widespread, and few people had experience with them. Indeed, calculators were only just starting to settle on a common layout; a 1955 paper states "Of the several calculating devices we have been able to look at... Two other calculators have keysets resembling [the layout that would become the most common layout].... Most other calculators have their keys reading upward in vertical rows of ten," while a 1960 paper, just five years later, refers to today's common calculator layout as "the arrangement frequently found in ten-key adding machines". In any case, Bell Labs testing found that the telephone layout with 1, 2, and 3 in the top row, was slightly faster than the calculator layout with them in the bottom row.

The key labeled ✻ was officially named the "star" key. The key labeled # is officially called the "number sign" key, but other names such as "pound", "hash", "hex", "octothorpe", "gate", "lattice", and "square", are common, depending on national or personal preference. The Greek symbols alpha and omega had been planned originally.

These can be used for special functions. For example, in the UK, users can order a 7:30am alarm call from a BT telephone exchange by dialing: ✻55✻0730#.

Most of the keys also bear letters according to the following system:

These letters have been used for multiple purposes. Originally, they referred to the leading letters of telephone exchange names. In the mid-20th century United States, before the switch to All-Number Calling, telephone numbers had seven digits including a two-digit prefix which was expressed in letters rather than digits, e.g.; KL5-5445. The UK telephone numbering system used a similar two-letter code after the initial zero to form the first part of the subscriber trunk dialling code for a region. For example, Aylesbury was assigned 0AY6, which translated into 0296.

The letters have also been used, mainly in the United States, as a technique for remembering telephone numbers easily. For example, an interior decorator might license the telephone number 1-800-724-6837, but advertise it as the more memorable phoneword 1-800-PAINTER. Sometimes businesses advertise a number with a mnemonic word having more letters than there are digits in the phone number. Usually, this means that the caller just stops dialing at seven digits after the area code or that the extra digits are ignored by the central office.

In feature phones the letters on the keys are used for text entry tasks such as text messaging, entering names in the phone book, and browsing the web. To compensate for the smaller number of keys, phones used multi-tap and later predictive text processing to speed up the process. Touchscreen phones have made these input methods obsolete, as screens are typically large enough to show as many virtual buttons as necessary for full text entry.

Key tones
Pressing a single key of a traditional analog telephone keypad produces a telephony signaling event to the remote switching system. For touchtone service, the signal is a dual-tone multi-frequency signaling tone consisting of two simultaneous pure tone sinusoidal frequencies. The row in which the key appears determines the low-frequency component, and the column determines the high-frequency component. For example, pressing key 1 results in a signal composed of tones with frequencies 697 hertz (Hz) and 1209 Hz.

Letter mapping

In the course of telephone history, the positions of telephone dials, as well as keypads have been associated with various patterns of mapping letters and characters to numbers (keyboard layout).

The system used in Denmark was different from that used in the U.K., which was different from the U.S. and Australia. The use of alphanumeric codes for exchanges was abandoned in Europe when international direct dialing was introduced in the 1960s, because, for example, dialing VIC 8900 on a Danish telephone would result in a different number to dialling it on a British telephone. At the same time letters were no longer placed on the dials of new telephones.

Letters did not re-appear on phones in Europe until the introduction of mobile phones, and the layout followed the new international standard ITU E.161/ISO 9995-8. The ITU established an international standard (ITU E.161) in the mid-1990s, and that should be the layout used for any new devices. There is a standard, ETSI ES 202 130, that covers European languages and other languages used in Europe, published by the independent ETSI organisation in 2003 and updated in 2007. Work describing some principles of the standard is available.

Since many newer smartphones, such as the Palm Treo and BlackBerry, have full alphanumeric keyboards instead of the traditional telephone keypads, the user must execute additional steps to dial a number containing convenience letters. On certain BlackBerry devices, a user can press the Alt key, followed by the desired letter, and the device will generate the appropriate DTMF tone.

title: Telephone keypad