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Filesystem Hierarchy Standard

The Filesystem Hierarchy Standard (FHS) is a reference describing the conventions used for the layout of Unix-like systems. It has been made popular by its use in Linux distributions, but it is used by other Unix-like systems as well. It is maintained by the Linux Foundation. The latest version is 3.0, released on 3 June 2015.

Directory structure
In the FHS, all files and directories appear under the root directory, even if they are stored on different physical or virtual devices. Some of these directories only exist in a particular system if certain subsystems, such as the X Window System, are installed.

Most of these directories exist in all Unix-like operating systems and are generally used in much the same way; however, the descriptions here are those used specifically for the FHS and are not considered authoritative for platforms other than Linux.

FHS compliance
Most Linux distributions follow the Filesystem Hierarchy Standard and declare it their own policy to maintain FHS compliance. GoboLinux and NixOS provide examples of intentionally non-compliant filesystem implementations.

Some distributions generally follow the standard but deviate from it in some areas. The FHS is a "trailing standard", and so documents common practices at a point in time. Of course, times change, and distribution goals and needs call for experimentation. Some common deviations include:
 * Modern Linux distributions include a  directory as a virtual filesystem (sysfs, comparable to , which is a procfs), which stores and allows modification of the devices connected to the system, whereas many traditional Unix-like operating systems use   as a symbolic link to the kernel source tree.
 * Many modern Unix-like systems (like FreeBSD via its ports system) install third-party packages into, while keeping code considered part of the operating system in.
 * Some Linux distributions no longer differentiate between  and   and have   symlinked to.
 * Some Linux distributions no longer differentiate between  and   and between   and  . They may symlink   to   and   to  . Other distributions choose to consolidate all four, symlinking them to.

Modern Linux distributions include a  directory as a temporary filesystem (tmpfs), which stores volatile runtime data, following the FHS version 3.0. According to the FHS version 2.3, such data were stored in, but this was a problem in some cases because this directory is not always available at early boot. As a result, these programs have had to resort to trickery, such as using,  ,   or   directories, even though the device directory is not intended for such data. Among other advantages, this makes the system easier to use normally with the root filesystem mounted read-only. For example, below are the changes Debian made in its 2013 Wheezy release:
 * (writeable files) →
 * (writeable files) →
 * (writeable files) →
 * (writeable files) →

The name of
originally stood for "user". This was an artifact of early Unix programming. Specifically, when Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie were migrating Unix to a PDP-11, the ... directories, which were to be the first directories to be mounted on startup, and must contain all essentials for the OS to function, became bigger than the RK05 disk drive. So they put some of those in the first RK05, including those that are required for loading the second RK05 drive. The rest were put into the  directory. When they got a third drive, users' files were moved to a new directory named.

FHS was created as the FSSTND (short for "Filesystem Standard" ), largely based on similar standards for other Unix-like operating systems. Notable examples are these: the hier(7) description of file system layout, which has existed since the release of Version 7 Unix (in 1979); the SunOS filesystem(7) and its successor, the Solaris filesystem(7).

title: Filesystem Hierarchy Standard


text:
Polonnaruwa

Poḷonnaruwa, (පොළොන්නරුව; பொலன்னறுவை) also referred as Pulathisipura and Vijayarajapura in ancient times, is the main town of Polonnaruwa District in North Central Province, Sri Lanka. The modern town of Polonnaruwa is also known as New Town, and the other part of Polonnaruwa remains as the royal ancient city of the Kingdom of Polonnaruwa.

The second oldest of all Sri Lanka's kingdoms, Polonnaruwa was first established as a military post by the Sinhalese kingdom. It was renamed Jananathamangalam by the Chola dynasty after their successful invasion of the country's then capital, Anuradhapura, in the 10th century. The Ancient City of Polonnaruwa has been declared a World Heritage Site.

Modern Polonnaruwa is undergoing a major development project known as the "Awakening of Polonnaruwa," championed by former President Maithripala Sirisena. It envisions the development of all sectors in Polonnaruwa including roads, electricity, agriculture, education, health and environment.

Etymology
The name Polonnaruwa is of unknown origin. Its Tamil form, Pulainari, is mentioned in Tamil inscriptions of the Chola dynasty found at Polonnaruwa. The name was perhaps a contraction of its ancient name Pulastya nagara or Pulatti nakaram meaning city of the Hindu sage Pulastya.

It was renamed under Chola rule as Jananathapuram or Jananathamangalam. The place was later known as Vijayarajapuram as mentioned in the records of Jayabahu I, which probably was derived from the name of Vijayabahu I.

Demographic
Polonnaruwa has a Sinhalese majority. Muslims form the second largest group. There are also small numbers of Sri Lankan Tamils and Indian Tamils. Others include Burgher and Malay.

Ethnicity according to Polonnaruwa Town (2012)
Source:statistics.gov.lk

History
Polonnaruwa was first established as a military post by the Sinhalese kingdom. And, it was renamed Jananathamangalam by the Chola dynasty after their successful invasion of the country in the 10th century. Raja Raja Chola I built Vanavan Mahadevisvaram, a Shiva temple at Polonnaruwa named after his queen, which presently is known as Siva Devale. The temple among other contained Ganesha and Parvati statues of bronze. north and central parts of Sri Lanka was under this period ruled under Rajendra Chola I directly as a Chola province. However, following the year 1070 AD ended the Chola rule in the island, and Polonnaruwa was captured by Vijayabahu I of Polonnaruwa also known as Vijayabahu the great.

Starting from Mahanagakula on the south of the Walawe river, Vijayabahu dispatched three armies to attack Polonnaruwa from three fronts. One army was sent along the western shore of the country to the port of Mahathittha to deal with any reinforcements arriving from South India. Afterwards, part of this army moved towards Polonnaruwa and attacked from the northwest. A second army was sent from the east across Magama to attack Polonnaruwa from the east. The third and main force advanced across the country, led by the king. Surrounded by these three armies, Polonnaruwa was besieged for seven months before king Vijayabahu's forces entered the city. In 1070, Vijayabahu became the ruler of Polonnaruwa. At that time Sri Lanka was known as Thambapanni.

Trade and agriculture flourished under the patronage of the famous grandson of King Vijayabahu I of Polonnaruwa, king Prakramabahu the Great, who was so adamant that no drop of water falling from the heavens was to be wasted and each was to be used toward the development of the land. Hence, irrigation systems that are far superior to those of the Anuradhapura Age were constructed during Parakramabahu's reign – systems which to this day supply the water necessary for paddy cultivation during the scorching dry season in the east of the country. The greatest of these systems is the Parakrama Samudra or the Sea of Parakrama which was also used as a large sea-going ship anchorage via the Mahaweli River. The Kingdom of Polonnaruwa was completely self-sufficient during King Parakramabahu's reign.

With the exception of his immediate successor, Nissankamalla I, the other monarchs of Polonnaruwa were not as strong-willed and were prone to picking fights within their own court. They also went on to form more matrimonial alliances with stronger South Indian kingdoms until these matrimonial links superseded the local royal lineage. This prompted an invasion by the Aryacakravarti dynasty warlord Kalinga Magha in 1214, which saw the complete destruction of the metropolises of Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa by burning.

Present day
Today the ancient city of Polonnaruwa remains one of the best-planned archaeological relic cities in the country, standing testimony to the discipline and greatness of the Kingdom's first rulers. Its beauty was also used as a backdrop to film scenes for the Duran Duran music video Save a Prayer in 1982. The ancient city of Polonnaruwa has been declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.

Near the ancient city, there is a small town with several hotels and some glossy shops, and places to fulfil day-to-day needs. There are government institutions in a newly built area called “New Town,” about 6 km away from the town and the main road. The largest school in the district, Polonnaruwa Royal Central College is situated in the new town.

Polonnaruwa is the second largest city in North Central Province, but it is known as one of the cleanest and more beautiful cities in the country. The green environment, amazing ancient constructions, Parakrama Samudra (a huge lake built in 1200), and attractive tourist hotels and hospitable people, make it a tourism hotspot.

Another draw for tourists is the city's population of toque macaques. The monkeys have been living in the ruins since the human occupation and continued to thrive there long after the humans left.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Polonnaruwa


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DBS Bank

DBS Bank Limited is a Singaporean multinational banking and financial services corporation headquartered at the Marina Bay Financial Centre in the Marina Bay district of Singapore. The bank was previously known as The Development Bank of Singapore Limited, which "DBS" was derived from, before the present abbreviated name was adopted on 21 July 2003 to reflect its role as a global bank. It is one of the "Big Three" local banks in Singapore, along with Oversea-Chinese Banking Corporation (OCBC) and United Overseas Bank (UOB).

DBS is the largest bank in Southeast Asia by assets and among the largest banks in Asia, with assets totaling S$739 billion It also holds market-dominant positions in consumer banking, treasury and markets, securities brokerage, equity and debt fund-raising in other regions aside from Singapore, including in China, Hong Kong, Taiwan and Indonesia.

According to Asian Private Banker magazine in 2023, DBS replaced Credit Suisse as the third-largest private bank in Asia, excluding onshore China, with approximately US$201 billion (S$271 billion) assets under management.

Overview
Listed on the Singapore Exchange, DBS was officially incorporated by the Government of Singapore on 16 July 1968 to take over the industrial financing responsibilities of the Economic Development Board (EDB).

DBS's largest and controlling shareholder is Temasek Holdings, Singapore's second-largest sovereign wealth fund after GIC. Temasek owns 29% of DBS shares. The bank's reliable capital position has garnered a "AA−" and "Aa1" credit ratings by Standard & Poor's and Moody's, which are among the highest in the Asia-Pacific region, as well as earning the Global Finance's "Safest Bank in Asia" accolade for fifteen consecutive years, from 2009 to 2023. The Bank was also awarded the Best Digital Bank in the World in 2016 by Euromoney. In July 2019, DBS became the first bank in the world to concurrently hold three of the most prestigious global best bank honours from Euromoney, Global Finance and The Banker.

DBS has been listed on the Dow Jones Sustainability Asia Pacific Index since 2 October 2018, making it the first bank in Southeast Asia to do so. DBS was one of the first companies in Singapore to be recognised for gender equality efforts along with City Developments Limited in the first Bloomberg L.P. Gender-Equality Index (GEI) that was published in 2018.

History
The Development Bank of Singapore Limited was established on 16 July 1968 by the Singapore government to take over the industrial financing responsibilities of the Economic Development Board (EDB) and began operations on 1 September 1968. The bank's main function upon its establishment was to finance Singapore’s industrialisation and the government’s urban development projects. Back in 1960, the government invited a United Nations (UN) industrial survey mission to assess the economic situation in Singapore and to come up with an industrialization programme for the city. The proposal included setting up a development bank, together with an economic body to attract foreign investments to Singapore and also provide industrial financing and management of industrial estates.

In April 1968, then Minister for Finance, Goh Keng Swee revealed the government’s plans to form a development bank with equity participation from the public in order to have greater financing for Singapore’s industrialisation project. The establishment of the DBS marked the first time the private sector was allowed to fully participate in the financing of manufacturing and other industrial projects in Singapore. With a startup capital of S$100 million, share ownership in its first year of operations comprised the following: S$48.6 million by the Singapore government; S$25.9 million by commercial banks; S$7.6 million by insurance companies and other financial institutions; and S$17.9 million by other companies and members of the public.

DBS launched its trademark logo in 1972. Set against a white backdrop, the mark consisted of a cluster of four inward-pointing red arrows shaped after the caissons of its former headquarters – DBS Building on Shenton Way.

Acquisition of POSB Bank
Formerly known as Post Office Savings Bank, it was established on 1 January 1877 at the General Post Office Building in Raffles Place by the Straits Settlements government.

By 1976, POSB had one million depositors, while deposits crossed the S$1 billion mark. The bank was then renamed POSBank in 1990, before being acquired by DBS Bank on 16 November 1998 for S$1.6 billion (first announced on 24 July 1998), giving it a dominant market share with over four million customers. The merger was seen to enable POSB to compete better with full-fledged commercial banks, to better serve more sophisticated customers, and in line with the government's call for local banks to merge and create larger and stronger banks to compete internationally.

POSB Bank still operates one of the highest numbers of bank branches in Singapore, especially in the heartlands, and operates the highest number of ATM outlets throughout the country. The integration of both banks allowed customers of either bank to share the facilities; DBS Bank depositors may use the Cash Deposit Machine installed islandwide in POSBank branches, likewise for POSB Bank depositors.

The Islamic Bank of Asia (2007 – 2015)
DBS Bank launched The Islamic Bank of Asia (IB Asia) on 7 May 2007, after receiving official approval from the Monetary Authority of Singapore for a full bank licence. IB Asia's founding shareholders include majority stakeholder DBS and 34 Middle Eastern investors from prominent families and industrial groups from Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries.

On 14 September 2015, DBS Bank announced that it will progressively cease IB Asia as it was not able to achieve economies of scale when operated as a single entity. The process was estimated to take about 2 to 3 years. DBS stated that it would developing its own Islamic compliant banking products instead.

DBS iB Secure Device and Internet banking (2006 – present)
Starting in late 2006, the bank began releasing to its Internet banking customers a Dual Factor Authentication device to assist in thwarting phishing attacks. The DBS iB Secure Device is a hardware device with a key fob form factor that generates a password that is linked to the log-on name. The password changes every sixty seconds and once used is no longer valid. The institution Code for DBS is 7171.

In 2012, DBS introduced a New Generation IB Secure Device as part of the financial industry-wide initiative for an even safer online banking experience. The device has stronger authentication capabilities and provides users with an extra layer of security against potential fraudulent activities and threats.

DBS had a total of 2.4 million Internet banking users in Singapore as of 2013.

Digital banking (2010 – present)
On 15 April 2010, DBS Bank launched mBanking to both DBS and POSB customers. It allows customers to view their banking and credit card accounts, transfer funds and pay bills via their mobile phones.

Customers using mBanking will be protected by DBS Bank's 'money-safe' guarantee. The bank promised reimbursements if were are any unauthorised transactions.

As of 2013, there were 839,000 mBanking users in Singapore.

In 2014, DBS released its mobile wallet service named PayLah!, which garnered more than 100,000 users less than two months after its launch in Singapore. As of 2018, PayLah! had more than 1 million users.

In 2014, CEO Piyush Gupta and his leadership team launched a digital transformation programme intended to "Make Banking Joyful". Under this programme, the bank would consider itself "a technology company delivering banking services" and benchmark its progress against leading technology companies and aim to be the "D" in the acronym GANDALF, alongside Google, Amazon, Netflix, Apple, LinkedIn, and Facebook.

In 2016 and 2018, the Euromoney magazine named DBS the world's best digital bank and the world's best small and medium-size enterprise bank.

Digital banking disruptions (2023)
On 29 March 2023, DBS experienced a service outage that prevented users from using its digital banking services, including its mobile app and PayLah! app, from about 8.30am until about 5.45pm. The Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS) stated that the disruption was "unacceptable" and that the bank had fallen short of MAS's expectations that the bank would maintain "high system availability and ensure its IT systems are recovered expeditiously". The regulator stated that it would "take the commensurate supervisory actions against DBS after gathering the necessary facts". At the bank's annual general meeting held on 31 March 2023, CEO Piyush Gupta apologised for the service outage that had occurred earlier in the month. Chairman Peter Seah announced that a special board committee had been set up to investigate the incident and that external experts would be brought in to assist the bank.

On 5 May 2023, DBS's online banking and payment services, as well as its ATM services, were disrupted from about noon until about 3.10pm. The disruption affected the bank's PayLah! service as well as the 'paywave' feature on credit and debit cards. Following the incident, the MAS imposed additional capital requirements on DBS, requiring it to apply a multiplier of 1.8 times to its risk-weighted assets for operational risk, such that its total additional regulatory capital would need to amount to approximately S$1.6 billion. On 14 October 2023, DBS suffered a service disruption that affected its digital banking services, including its online banking and payment services as well as its ATM services. The disruption lasted from began from 3pm and lasted for at least several hours. At 10.10pm, DBS announced that all ATMs were back up and running, although some digital services, such as digital banking and its PayLah! service continued to be disrupted.

On 1 November 2023, in response to the incidents, the MAS imposed restrictions on DBS: prohibiting it from acquiring any new business ventures and requiring it to pause all non-essential IT changes for 6 months. DBS was also prohibited from reducing the size of its branch and ATM networks in Singapore. CEO Piyush Gupta apologised for the disruption and stated that the bank will set aside a special budget of S$80 million to enhance system resiliency. According to CEO Piyush Gupta, four out of five of the bank's major disruptions in 2023 were related to software bugs, and further that "in at least two or three of these incidents, the bug was so deep that we wouldn't be able to pick it up". He also cited "working from home" as a possible cause for these software bugs and said that the bank intended to improve the depth of its engineering team. DBS has set aside a special budget of S$80 million to enhance system resiliency and hopes to have a more robust recovery process in place by the end of Q1 2024.

Senior leadership

 * Chairman: Peter Seah (since May 2010)
 * Chief Executive: Piyush Gupta (since November 2009)

List of former chairmen

 * 1) Hon Sui Sen (1968–1970)
 * 2) Howe Yoon Chong (1970–1979)
 * 3) J. Y. Pillay (1979–1985)
 * 4) Howe Yoon Chong (1985–1990); second term
 * 5) Ngiam Tong Dow (1990–1998)
 * 6) S. Dhanabalan (1999–2005)
 * 7) Koh Boon Hwee (2006–2010)

List of former CEOs

 * 1) Patrick Yeoh Khwai Hoh (1993–1995)
 * 2) John Olds (1998–2001)
 * 3) Philippe Paillart (2001–2002)
 * 4) Jackson Tai (2002–2007)
 * 5) Richard Stanley (2008–2009)

Shareholders
The ten largest shareholders as of 10 February 2023 are: ''* Percentage is calculated based on the total number of issued ordinary shares, excluding treasury shares

Temasek Holdings (Pte) Ltd, a company wholly owned by the Ministry of Finance, is deemed to be interested in all the ordinary shares held by Maju. In addition, Temasek is deemed to be interested in 4,449,781 ordinary shares in which its other subsidiaries and associated companies have or are deemed to have an interest pursuant to Section 4 of the Securities and Futures Act, Chapter 289.

International operations
DBS Bank has branches and offices in Australia, China, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Japan, South Korea, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Taiwan, Thailand, the United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom, the United States and Vietnam.

China
Strategically located in the key trade and financial hubs of mainland China, DBS has a network of full service branches in Beijing, Guangzhou, Shanghai, Shenzhen, Suzhou, Tianjin, Dongguan, Nanning and Hangzhou; and representative offices in Fuzhou which provide a comprehensive range of commercial and corporate banking services. In December 2006, DBS Bank received approval from the China Banking Regulatory Commission (CBRC) to prepare for local incorporation in Mainland China. DBS is the only Singapore bank among nine foreign banks to receive this approval. In 2010, it also became the first Singapore bank to issue UnionPay debit cards in mainland China.

Hong Kong
DBS started its operations in Hong Kong in 1999 by acquiring Kwong On Bank from Leung's family & Japanese-based Fuji Bank, and renamed it as DBS Kwong On Bank Limited. It acquired Dao Heng Bank (and its subsidiary Overseas Trust Bank) in 2001. The three banks were later merged under the trading name of DBS Bank (Hong Kong) Limited.

India
DBS has been present in India for 29 years, opening its first office in Mumbai in 1994. DBS Bank India Limited is the first among the large foreign banks in India to start operating as a wholly-owned, locally incorporated subsidiary of a leading global bank. The bank now has a network of 530+ branches across 19 states in India with presence in cities such as Bangalore, Chennai, Cuddalore, Calicut, Kochi, Hyderabad, Kolhapur, Kolkata, Coimbatore, Moradabad, Indore, Mumbai (Andheri, Nariman Point), Nashik, New Delhi, Noida, Gurugram, Pune, Salem, Surat and Vadodara. On 17 November 2020, Reserve Bank of India instructed Lakshmi Vilas Bank (LVB) to be merged with DBS Bank India Limited after LVB having placed under moratorium for 30 days.

Indonesia
DBS has a 99%-owned subsidiary, PT Bank DBS Indonesia, with 39 branches and sub-branches in 11 cities.

On 2 April 2012, DBS announced that it was planning to buy over a majority stake in Bank Danamon from Temasek Holdings. Initial reactions to the proposed purchase in Indonesia were cautious with most commentators saying that the deal was expected to be approved but that government regulators would doubtless wish to look at some of the details, including reciprocity from Singapore policy makers, quite closely before making a final decision.

On 31 July 2013, DBS announced that it had allowed the Bank Danamon bid to lapse, but that they remained committed to Indonesia and will continue to invest and grow the franchise.

Taiwan
DBS first established a presence in Taiwan in 1983. In May 2008, DBS integrated Taiwan's Bowa Bank into its operations after acquiring the "good bank assets" in February. There are 40 distribution outlets across the country, half of which are based in Taipei.

In January 2022, DBS announced the acquisition of Citigroup’s consumer banking business in Taiwan, paying a premium of S$930 million (NT$22 billion) at the close of the deal. After completing the acquisition on 14 August 2023, DBS became the largest foreign bank by assets in Taiwan.

Awards

 * Best SME Banking Brand in Taiwan awarded by Global Brands Magazine.
 * Best Customer Service Brand in Taiwan awarded by Global Brands Magazine.
 * World's Best Bank, by Global Finance (New York).
 * Global Bank of the Year, by The Banker (Financial Times).
 * Asia's Best Bank For SMEs 2022.

1Malaysia Development Berhad fund fiasco
In October 2016, the Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS) imposed financial penalties amounting to S$1 million on DBS for 10 breaches of anti-money laundering requirements and control lapses in relation to Malaysia’s scandal-tainted 1Malaysia Development Berhad (1MDB) related fund flows.

Wirecard scandal
In June 2023, DBS was fined S$2.6 million by the Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS) for breaching anti-money laundering and countering the financing of terrorism requirements, in a matter related to the German payments provider Wirecard scandal between July 2015 and February 2020, in relation to the accounts of 11 corporate customers. DBS had failed to maintain relevant and up-to-date due diligence information on the customers’ beneficial ownerships, and to update their risk ratings for money laundering and terrorism financing. The bank also failed to adequately establish the source of wealth of higher-risk customers and their beneficial owners. In addition, it did not adequately inquire into the background and purpose of unusually large transactions that were not consistent with its knowledge of the customers, or had no apparent economic purpose.

HKMA fine (2024)
On 5 July 2024, DBS Bank (Hong Kong) Limited was fined HK$10 million (S$1.73 million) by Hong Kong Monetary Authority (HKMA) for lapses in adhering to anti-money laundering and counter-terrorist financing regulations. DBS Bank (Hong Kong) failed to continuously monitor business relationships and conduct enhanced due diligence in high risk situations. The bank also failed to keep records on some of its customers.

title: DBS Bank


text:
SEM

SEM or Sem can refer to:

Computing

 * Search engine marketing, promoting websites by increasing their visibility in search engine results
 * Security event manager, a security log tool used on data networks

Economics and management

 * Stock Exchange of Mauritius, the principal stock exchange of the island country of Mauritius
 * Strategic enrollment management, an element of planning for new growth at a university or college
 * Samsung Electro-Mechanics, a South Korean company

Energy

 * Single Electricity Market, the integration of the electricity sectors of the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland in a single market
 * Strategic energy management, continuous improvement process for energy efficiency based on behavioral change

Mathematics and statistics

 * Structural equation modeling, in data analysis
 * Simultaneous equations model, in econometrics
 * Standard error of the mean in statistics

Places

 * Craig Field (Alabama) (IATA code: SEM), a public airport four miles southeast of Selma, in Dallas County, Alabama
 * Sem, Ariège, a former commune in the Ariège department in southwestern France
 * Sem, Norway, a village in Tønsberg Municipality in Vestfold county, Norway
 * Sem Municipality, a former municipality in Vestfold county, Norway

Science and technology

 * Scanning electron microscope
 * Space Experiment Module, of the Freestar experiment on space shuttle Columbia
 * Synthesizer expansion module in an Oberheim Electronics synthesizer
 * Sistema Eléctrico de Magallanes, an electrical power grid of Chile
 * SEM, instrument (seismometer) of the Surface Science Platform (Kazachok) mission ExoMars 2022
 * A protecting group in organic chemistry, see 2-(trimethylsilyl)ethoxymethyl chloride (SEM-Cl)

Schools, organisations, societies

 * Society for Experimental Mechanics, an engineering professional organization.
 * The School of Ecclesiastic Music the school of Byzantine Music in Mount Lebanon
 * Swedish Evangelical Mission
 * Society for Ethnomusicology, an ethnomusicology in Indiana, US
 * Science and Engineering Magnet, a school in Dallas, Texas, US
 * S.E.M. Group civil engineering company based in South Australia
 * Steam Engine Makers' Society, early British trade union
 * Shandong Engineering Machinery, owned by Caterpillar Inc.
 * State Secretariat for Migration (Switzerland)

People

 * Shem or Sem, one of the sons of Noah, as depicted in the Bible
 * Sem (given name), a usually masculine given name
 * Sem (artist) (1863–1934), French caricaturist
 * Elise Sem (1870–1950), Norwegian barrister, women's activist, and sports official
 * Ingebjørg Dahl Sem (born 1938), Norwegian Christian writer
 * Ingebjørg Sem (1931–2009), Norwegian actress
 * John Sem (born 1973), Papua New Guinean Olympic boxer
 * Niels Arntzen Sem (1782–1859), Norwegian politician
 * Suy Sem (born 1947), Cambodian politician

Other

 * Super Étendard Modernisé, a French fighter aircraft
 * Self-evaluation maintenance theory, a psychological theory of self
 * New Austrian tunnelling method or Sequential Excavation Method
 * Sports and exercise medicine

title: SEM


text:
Monetary Authority of Singapore

The Monetary Authority of Singapore or (MAS), is the central bank and financial regulatory authority of Singapore. It administers the various statutes pertaining to money, banking, insurance, securities and the financial sector in general, as well as currency issuance and manages the foreign-exchange reserves. It was established in 1971 to act as the banker to and as a financial agent of the Government of Singapore. The body is duly accountable to the Parliament of Singapore through the Minister-in-charge, who is also the Incumbent Chairman of the central bank.

History
The Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS) was founded in 1971 to oversee various monetary functions associated with banking and finance. Prior its establishment, monetary functions were performed by government departments and agencies. The acronym MAS resembles mas, the word for 'gold' in Malay, Singapore's national language—although the acronym is pronounced with each of its initial letters.

As Singapore progressed, an increasingly complex banking and monetary environment required more dynamic and coherent monetary administration. Therefore, in 1970, the Parliament of Singapore passed the Monetary Authority of Singapore Act leading to the formation of MAS on 1 January 1971. The act gives MAS the authority to regulate all elements of monetary policy, banking, and finance in Singapore.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, MAS brought forward its bi-annual meeting from some time in April to 30 March. The MAS decided to ease the Singapore dollar's appreciation rate to zero percent, as well as adjust the policy band downwards, the first such move since the Global Financial Crisis. This marks the first time the MAS had taken these two measures together.

Unlike many central banks around the world, the MAS is not independent from the Singapore Government—the MAS is under the purview of the Prime Minister's Office (PMO); chairmen of the MAS were either former or incumbent Minister for Finance. Some includes the former Prime Ministers or the current Deputy Prime Ministers.

Policy
Since 1981, monetary policy in Singapore is mainly conducted through the management of the exchange rate (rather than inflation targeting) of the Singapore dollar, in order to promote price stability as a basis for sustainable economic growth. The exchange rate is an intermediate target of monetary policy in the context of the small and open Singapore economy (where gross exports and imports of goods and services are more than 300 percent of GDP and almost 40 cents of every Singapore dollar spent domestically is on imports), the exchange rate represents a significantly stronger influence on inflation than the interest rate. As a result, the nominal exchange rate, directly and indirectly, affects a wide range of prices in the Singapore economy, such as import and export prices, wages and rentals, consumer prices and output prices.

MAS controls monetary policy through direct interventions in the foreign exchange markets and bears a stable and predictable relationship with the price stability as the final target of policy, over the medium-term. The Singapore dollar (SGD) is managed against a basket of currencies of Singapore's major trading partners and competitors; the various currencies are assigned weights in accordance with the importance of the country to Singapore's international trading relations (as shown below) and the composition of the basket is revised periodically to take into account any changes in trade patterns.

MAS operates a managed float regime for the Singapore dollar. The tradeweighted exchange rate, which is known as the 'Singapore dollar Nominal Effective Exchange Rate' (S$NEER) is allowed to fluctuate within a policy band; the level and direction of which is announced semi-annually (typically every six months) to the market. The policy band provides a mechanism to accommodate short-term fluctuations in the foreign exchange markets and allows flexibility in managing the exchange rate.

The exchange rate policy band is periodically reviewed by MAS to ensure that the policy band remains consistent with underlying fundamentals of the economy; the path of the exchange rate is continually assessed every 6 months in order to prevent a misalignment in the currency value. A Monetary Policy Statement (MPS) is released by MAS after each review, which provides information on the recent movements of the exchange rate and explaining the forward guidance of future exchange rate policy. MAS would also release an accompanying report, the Macroeconomic Review (MR), which provides detailed information on the assessment of macroeconomic developments and trends in the Singapore economy; the MR is aimed to enhance market and public understanding of the monetary policy stance.

As the MAS utilises the choice of the exchange rate as the intermediate target of monetary policy, this implies that MAS does not have any control over domestic interest rates (and money supply), due to the commonly accepted concept in international economics known as the policy trilemma. In the context of free capital movements, interest rates in Singapore are largely determined by foreign interest rates and investor expectations of the future movements in the Singapore dollar. Singapore domestic interest rates have typically been below U.S. Fed funds interest rates and reflect market expectations of a trend appreciation of the Singapore dollar over time.

The exchange rate has emerged as an effective anti-inflation tool for the Singapore economy. In the twenty years since the exchange rate framework was in place, domestic inflation was relatively low, averaging 1.9% per annum from 1981 to 2010. As a result of the long record of low inflation, expectations of price stability in Singapore have become more entrenched over the years. The exchange rate system has also functioned to mitigate the adverse effects of short-term volatility on the real economy, while at the same time ensuring that the exchange rate remains aligned with economic conditions and fundamentals. The success of the exchange rate system is heavily dependent on the economic fundamentals of Singapore, such as prudent fiscal policy, flexible product and factor markets, sound financial system, and robust domestic corporate sector.

Debt
Singapore's debts are under the responsibility of MAS. As of 2022, the Singapore Government debt exceeds the country's GDP at about 150%. However, these are not net debts, but gross external debts, which can be traced to the debt liabilities in Singapore's banking sector—a reflection of the country's stature as a major global financial hub. In essence, Singapore borrows to invest, not to spend. Therefore, unlike other countries, Singapore is a net creditor with no debt to anyone, and has a net debt-to-GDP ratio of 0%, maintained for almost three decades since 1995.

Accordingly, Singapore is the only country in Asia with a AAA sovereign credit rating from all major rating agencies. For multiple years, Singapore emerged as the top country in the world with the least-risky credit rating under the Euromoney Country Risk (ECR) rankings, being one of the safest investment destinations. The country was also ranked as the freest economy in the world on the Index of Economic Freedom rankings.

Issuing banknotes and coins
Following its merger with the Board of Commissioners of Currency on 1 October 2002, the MAS assumed the function of currency issuance.

MAS has the exclusive right to issue banknotes and coins in Singapore. Their dimensions, designs and denominations are determined by the Monetary Policy Committee with Government approval. The banknotes and coins issued have the status of legal tender within the country for all transactions, both public and private, without limitation.

In December 2020, MAS approved digital bank licenses for 4 tech giants, Grab–Singtel consortium, Ant Group, Sea Group, and Greenland Financial consortium. Grab-Singtel and Sea Group were awarded digital full banking licenses, while Ant Group and Greenland Financial were awarded digital wholesale banking licenses. In May 2021, the ability to transfer money between Singapore's PayNow and Thailand's PromptPay was announced.

ASEAN Financial Innovation Network
ASEAN Financial Innovation Network (AFIN) is a non-profit organisation, established by the Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS), ASEAN Bankers Association (ABA), and the International Finance Corporation (IFC), a member of the World Bank Group in 2018. AFIN launched the Application Programming Interface Exchange (APIX), a global fintech marketplace and regulatory sandbox in 2018.

Asian Institute of Digital Finance
The Asian Institute of Digital Finance (AIDF) is a research institute to enhance education, research and entrepreneurship in digital finance. AIDF is a collaboration between the Monetary Authority of Singapore, the National Research Foundation and the National University of Singapore (NUS) and was established in 2021.

Elevandi
Elevandi is an independent organisation, created by the Monetary Authority of Singapore in August 2021 to foster an active and open dialogue between the public and private sectors, to advance FinTech further in the global digital economy. Elevandi organises Singapore FinTech Festival, Elevandi Insights Forum, Point Zero Forum, Inclusive FinTech Forum, The Founders Peak, The Capital Meets Policy Dialogue, Green Shoots and Elevandi Education. Elevandi Japan is the first international subsidiary of Elevandi as part of its global reach to enhance Japan’s financial and fintech ecosystem.

Project Nexus
The Bank for International Settlements signed an agreement with Central Bank of Malaysia, Bank of Thailand, Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas, Monetary Authority of Singapore, and the Reserve Bank of India on 30 June 2024 as founding member of Project Nexus, a multilateral international initiative to enable retail cross-border payments. Bank Indonesia involved as a special observer. The platform, which is expected to go live by 2026, will interlink domestic fast payment systems of the member countries.

Singapore FinTech Festival
Singapore FinTech Festival (SFF) annually organised by MAS, Elevandi in partnership with The Association of Banks in Singapore in collaboration with Constellar, to connect the various FinTech communities around the world to interact with each other.

title: Monetary Authority of Singapore


text:
Jill St. John

Jill St. John (born Jill Arlyn Oppenheim; August 19, 1940) is an American retired actress. She is best known for playing Tiffany Case, the first American Bond girl of the James Bond film franchise, in 1971's Diamonds Are Forever. Additional performances in film include Holiday for Lovers, The Lost World, Tender Is the Night, Come Blow Your Horn, for which she received a Golden Globe nomination, Who's Minding the Store?, Honeymoon Hotel, The Liquidator, The Oscar, Tony Rome, Sitting Target and The Concrete Jungle.

On television, St. John has appeared in such top rated shows as Batman, The Big Valley, Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In, Hart to Hart, Vega$, The Love Boat, Fantasy Island, Magnum, P.I. and Seinfeld. During her Hollywood heyday she was almost equally famous for her high-profile social life and frequent romantic associations with prominent stars. St. John is married to actor Robert Wagner and has known him since she was 18 years old. They share credits on nearly a dozen screen and stage productions, notably the miniseries remake of Around the World in 80 Days.

Early life
St. John was born Jill Arlyn Oppenheim in Los Angeles on August 19, 1940, to Edward Oppenheim, a restaurateur from Brooklyn, and his philanthropist wife Betty (née Goldberg), from Philadelphia. She has no siblings, but grew up with many cousins, her mother being one of eight surviving children and her father one of three. St. John's parents married in 1934. Her maternal grandparents were Russian, of partial Jewish descent, while her paternal great-great-grandparents emigrated from Hessen, Germany and Amsterdam.

Raised in Encino, St. John was a member of the Children's Ballet Company with Natalie Wood and Stefanie Powers. All three would later marry or co-star with actor Robert Wagner. When she was 13, her stage mother Betty changed Jill's last name to the more marketable St. John.

Child actress
St. John made her stage debut at age five in The Conspiracy at Geller's Theater Workshop on January 31, 1946. Her television debut came two years later, when she joined the cast of Sandy Dreams, a musical fantasy series for children featuring Richard Beymer. In December 1949, she played Missie Cratchit in The Christmas Carol, one of the earliest filmed adaptations of Charles Dickens' classic 1843 story. Shot in kinescope, it is a rare example of a 1940s live TV broadcast still surviving in entirety.

By the age of 10, St. John was a regular on KTLA's Fantastick Studios, Ink. At 11, she appeared in two episodes of The George Burns and Gracie Allen Show. She had an uncredited role in the film Thunder in the East (1951) and was in episodes of Sky King, Fireside Theatre, and Cavalcade of America.

She attended Powers Professional School and received her high school diploma from Hollywood Professional School in the spring of 1955 at age 14. With a reported IQ of 162, at age 15 St. John enrolled at UCLA's Extension School.

During this time, she appeared on a large number of radio shows, notably Red Ryder and One Man's Family.

Universal
St. John was 16 in May 1957 when Universal Pictures signed her to a contract for seven years starting at $200 a week. Her major studio film debut was in Summer Love (1958) starring John Saxon. She also appeared on TV in episodes of The Christophers, Schlitz Playhouse, and The DuPont Show of the Month (an adaptation of Junior Miss). She said her idol was Kay Kendall.

20th Century Fox
St John then signed a contract with 20th Century Fox, who tried to build her into a star. She played the daughter of Clifton Webb in The Remarkable Mr. Pennypacker and Holiday for Lovers (both 1959), then was put in an adventure movie, The Lost World (1960).

"Nothing but starlet parts," she later said. "You know, the daughter, the niece, the girlfriend."

Fox picked up their option on her. Warner Bros. borrowed her for The Roman Spring of Mrs. Stone (1961), then she had a supporting role in Tender Is the Night (1962).

Comedy
St. John had a key role in Come Blow Your Horn (1963), where she starred opposite Frank Sinatra. She received a Golden Globe Award nomination as Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy for her performance in the film.

"I'm a comedienne," she said in 1963. "I've never pretended to be a dramatic actress. But I'm very funny."

She followed this with a series of comedies: Who's Minding the Store? (1963) with Jerry Lewis, Who's Been Sleeping in My Bed? (1963) with Dean Martin, and Honeymoon Hotel (1964) with Robert Morse and Nancy Kwan.

"Now I play the sexy comedienne, which is my forte" she said in 1964. "Comedy is what I've always wanted to do."

She guest-starred on television shows like Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea, Burke's Law, The Rogues, and Theatre of Stars. In 1964, she guest-starred with Lauren Bacall and Bacall's then husband, Jason Robards, Jr., in the episode "Take a Walk Through the Cemetery" of the drama series Mr. Broadway. She also appeared in some variety specials with Bob Hope.

MGM gave her the female lead in a spy spoof The Liquidator (1965) with Rod Taylor, and she was in The Oscar (1966) with Stephen Boyd.

St. John appeared in the first and second episodes of the television series Batman as the Riddler's moll Molly. She became the first character to die in an episode of Batman in that second episode. She was also in an episode of The Big Valley at that time.

Universal reprise
St. John signed a contract at Universal. She was in a TV movie Fame Is the Name of the Game (1966), and had a supporting role in How I Spent My Summer Vacation (1967), starring future husband Robert Wagner.

She did the Bob Hope comedy Eight on the Run (1967), then made Banning (1967) with Wagner, and The King's Pirate (1967) with Doug McClure.

In 1966, she said "My goal is to be at a point where I have so proved myself as an actress that I can be more discriminating in the roles I choose. I want to be able to choose the parts I know I can do next." St. John nearly landed a starring role in The Fearless Vampire Killers (1967), which instead went to Sharon Tate.

She was reunited with Sinatra in Tony Rome (1967) and did a TV movie The Spy Killer (1969), which was popular enough for the sequel Foreign Exchange (1970). She guested on The Name of the Game. Decisions! Decisions! (1971) was a TV movie St. John did with Bob Newhart and Jean Simmons.

James Bond
St. John achieved her biggest success starring as diamond smuggler Tiffany Case, the love interest of James Bond in Diamonds Are Forever (1971), opposite Sean Connery. She was the first American to play a Bond girl. The character Tiffany is argumentative, abrasive, loud, and brash when compared to previous Bond girls who were more demure; film scholars have inferred that she is meant to be a stereotypical commentary on American women.

In 1972, St. John appeared alongside Oliver Reed in the British crime drama Sitting Target. After the shoot wrapped, she took a break from her career. She later explained that "two pictures in a row was exhausting... I decided I needed a new way of life."

Television
St. John did the TV movies Saga of Sonora (1973) and Brenda Starr (1976) (playing the title role), and guest-starred on Vega$, The Love Boat, Magnum, P.I., Fantasy Island, and Matt Houston. She also appeared in the pilot episode for Hart to Hart. She was cast as the princess in Day of the Assassin (1979), but bowed out when her deposit failed to arrive on time; Susana Dosamantes replaced her.

In 1981, following a decade-long sabbatical in Aspen, Colorado, St. John made Hollywood her primary residence again. "I really don't have to work," she said of her return. "But you know what? I got bored." St. John did the TV movies Two Guys from Muck (1982) and Rooster (1982) and was top-billed in the feature The Concrete Jungle (1982), a woman in prison film in which she played Warden Fletcher. She had a small role in The Act (1983).

During 1983–1984, she starred with Dennis Weaver on the short-lived soap opera Emerald Point N.A.S., in which she played Deanna Kinkaid, Thomas Mallory's conniving former sister-in-law. It also starred another former Bond girl, Maud Adams.

Later career
St. John and Robert Wagner were in Around the World in 80 Days (1989); Something to Believe In (1998); and The Calling (2002). They made brief cameo appearances as themselves in Robert Altman's Hollywood satire The Player (1992).

In 1996, they started appearing together on stage in a national touring production of Love Letters.

In 1997, the couple appeared together at the end of "The Yada Yada" episode of the television sitcom Seinfeld.

St. John appeared without Wagner in Out There (1995) and The Trip (2002).

In 2014, St. John played Mrs. Claus in the TV movie Northpole alongside Wagner, who played the part of Santa Claus. The film marked her first acting role after a 12-year absence from the screen. She has since officially retired from acting, but remains involved in civic activities.

Avocation
In 1972, St. John largely left Hollywood behind and moved to Aspen, where she focused on personal interests and cooking. She is among the celebrities credited with increasing the popularity of the town along with Goldie Hawn and Jack Nicholson.

Her interest in cooking eventually led to her becoming a culinary personality, appearing in monthly cooking segments on ABC-TV's Good Morning America and her writing a column in USA Weekend magazine through the 1980s. This culminated in authoring The Jill St. John Cookbook (1987), a collection of healthy recipes and some anecdotes.

St. John also developed a handmade Angora sweater business, and became interested in orchid growing, skiing, hiking, river rafting, camping, and gardening. In 1987, she said "I'm a mountain gal now. I love the outdoors and I love harvesting and using fresh vegetables and herbs."

Charity work
During the Vietnam War, St. John entertained American soldiers at United Service Organizations (USO) shows.

She is founder of the Aunts Club, a Rancho Mirage-based group of women who contribute at least $1,000 per year to provide financial support for a child.

Politics
St. John ran unsuccessfully in 2023 for a board seat on the Aspen Fire Department.

Personal life
St. John has been married four times. Her husbands:
 * Neil Dubin (May 12, 1957 – July 3, 1958; divorced) St. John was 16 years old when they eloped to Yuma, Arizona. Dubin was heir to a linen fortune. St. John complained that he harassed and ridiculed her.
 * Lance Reventlow (March 24, 1960 – October 30, 1963; divorced) Reventlow was the son of Barbara Hutton, heir to the F. W. Woolworth fortune. St. John received a settlement of $86,000. Despite their divorce and subsequent remarriages, she refers to Reventlow as "my late husband" in interviews.
 * Jack Jones (October 14, 1967 – February 28, 1969; divorced) Jones said demands on his singing career and the involved traveling contributed to the breakup.
 * Robert Wagner (May 26, 1990 – present) The couple first met in 1959 when they were contract players at 20th Century Fox, and have been together since Valentine's Day 1982.

Between marriages, St. John dated entertainment, sports, and political personalities including Ben Barnes, Gianni Bulgari, Sammy Cahn, Michael Caine, Oleg Cassini, Barry Coe, Sean Connery, Ahmet Ertegun, Robert Evans, Glenn Ford, David Frost, Jack Haley Jr., Bill Hudson, Henry Kissinger, Sidney Korshak, Sandy Koufax, Peter Lawford, George Lazenby, Jim Lonborg, Trini López, Tom Mankiewicz, George Montgomery, Joe Namath, Jack Nicholson, Hugh O'Brian, Ogden Mills Phipps, Roman Polanski, Alejandro Rey, Tom Selleck, Frank Sinatra, U Thant, Robert Vaughn, Giovanni Volpi, Adam West and David L. Wolper.

St. John has also had amorous relationships with criminal court judge Jerome M. Becker, ski instructor Ricky Head, Olympic ski champion Brownie Barnes, plastic surgeon Steven Zax, investment broker Lenny Ross, Chicago businessman Delbert W. Coleman and Brazilian entrepreneur Francisco "Baby" Pignatari. She was engaged to Miami real estate developer Robert Blum in 1974, but called off the engagement.

She has three stepdaughters:
 * Katie Wagner, born 1964 to Wagner and Marion Marshall
 * Natasha Gregson, born 1970 to Richard Gregson and Natalie Wood, but raised in the Wagner/St. John household after Wood died
 * Courtney Wagner, born 1974 to Wagner and Wood

In 2007, Wagner and St. John sold the Brentwood ranchette they'd lived on since 1983 for a reported $14 million and relocated full-time to Aspen.

Mutual animosity between St. John and her husband's former sister-in-law, actress Lana Wood, extends back to 1971, when Sean Connery was simultaneously involved with both women during the filming of Diamonds Are Forever. The pair's half-century feud has been highlighted by two well-documented public altercations: one in September 1999, when St. John refused to be photographed with Wood at a Bond girl reunion for Vanity Fair magazine, and another in February 2016, when Wood crashed an event honoring St. John in Palm Springs and confronted Wagner over the reopened homicide case of her sister Natalie, who drowned in 1981 while yachting with Wagner off the coast of Santa Catalina Island.

title: Jill St. John


text:
University of Vermont

The University of Vermont (UVM), officially titled as University of Vermont and State Agricultural College, is a public land-grant research university in Burlington, Vermont. Founded in 1791, the university is the oldest in Vermont and the fifth-oldest in New England, making it among the oldest in the United States. It is one of the original eight Public Ivies.

UVM is organized into ten schools, including seven undergraduate colleges, an honors college, a graduate college, and the Robert Larner College of Medicine. Vermont's largest hospital complex, the University of Vermont Medical Center, has its primary facility on campus. UVM has a history of student-led activism. Considered one of the most sustainable campuses in the United States, the university has committed to carbon neutrality by 2030. In, the university attracted $263 million in research and development funding. It is classified among "R2: Doctoral Universities – High research activity".

History
The University of Vermont was founded as a private university in 1791, the same year Vermont became the fourteenth U.S. state. The university enrolled its first students ten years later. Its first president, Daniel C. Sanders, was hired in 1800, and served as the sole faculty member for seven years. Instruction began in 1801, and the first class graduated in 1804. In 1865, the university merged with Vermont Agricultural College (chartered November 22, 1864, after the passage of the Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act of 1862), emerging as the University of Vermont and State Agricultural College. The university was granted 150,000 acres, which it sold for $122,626.

Much of the initial funding and planning for the university was undertaken by Ira Allen, who is honored as UVM's founder. Allen donated a 50 acre parcel of land for establishment of the university. Most of this land has been maintained as the university's main green, where stands a statue of Allen.

The citizens of Burlington helped fund the university's first edifice. When it was destroyed by fire in 1824, they also paid for its replacement. This building came to be known as "Old Mill" for its resemblance to New England mills of the time. The Marquis de Lafayette, a French general who became a commander in the American Revolution, while in Vermont laid the cornerstone of Old Mill, which stands on University Row along with Ira Allen Chapel, Billings Library, Williams Hall, Royall Tyler Theatre, and Morrill Hall. A statue of Lafayette stands at the north end of the main green.

UVM was the first American institution of higher education with a charter declaring that the "rules, regulations, and by-laws shall not tend to give preference to any religious sect or denomination whatsoever".

In 1871, UVM defied custom and admitted two women as students. It was the first American university to admit women (1875) and African Americans (1877) into Phi Beta Kappa, the country's oldest collegiate academic honor society.

Justin Smith Morrill, a U.S. Representative (1855–1867), and Senator (1867–1898) from Vermont, author of the Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act that created federal funding for establishing the U.S. land-grant colleges and universities, served as a trustee of the university from 1865 to 1898.

In 1924, UVM's WCAX, now called WVMT, sent out the first radio broadcast in Vermont. It was run by UVM students and faculty before being sold in 1931. WCAX is now the call sign of a commercial television station. A new radio station was set up in 1955, dubbed WRUV. It currently runs a FM broadcast at 90.1 MHz and an internet stream at wruv.org. The station, run by students, faculty, and local community members, dubs itself Burlington's Better Alternative . It is known for playing a wide range of music, boasting "the largest catalog in the State of Vermont" at over 50,000 albums.

In the second half of the 20th century, UVM gained a reputation for its political activism, and struggles ensued on campus between student and faculty activists and the university administration. In 1953, the university's board of trustees ousted Alex B. Novikoff, a tenured professor and cell biologist in the College of Medicine, over his association with the Communist Party.

In March 1957, student protests against a motel owner who refused service to an African-American woman led the Vermont General Assembly to outlaw discrimination in public accommodations. UVM held an annual "Kake Walk" where students wore blackface for 73 years, until the practice was abolished in 1969 under pressure from the student body and the community.

In 1972 the board of trustees intervened again to deny tenure to Michael Parenti, a popular Marxist political science professor who drew ire from the authorities due to his participation in anti-war demonstrations. The board overrode the recommendation of the faculty, the deans' council and the administration. Parenti later brought a federal suit against the university, which was settled out of court for $15,000.

In the 1980s, the university faced increasing pressure from the student body to divest from companies doing business in apartheid South Africa. Student protests against investment in apartheid culminated in the construction of a "shantytown" on the green across from the Waterman building on October 12, 1985. On December 6, the board voted 12-7 to divest.

UVM has undertaken several other divestment actions due to advocacy from student groups, including divestment from "Sudan-friendly" companies in 2006, during the Darfur genocide, and divestment from cluster munitions and depleted uranium weapons in 2009, during the Iraq and Afghanistan wars. In 2013 and 2016, trustees rejected calls to divest from fossil fuels.

On July 1, 2019, Suresh Garimella was appointed UVM's 27th president. Under his tenure, the university faced record enrollment and a 50 percent increase in research funding to $250 million; however, he has been criticized for his public relations with students and faculty. In 2021, the university administration imposed budget cuts that terminated three departments, 12 majors, 11 minors and four master’s degree programs in the College of Arts and Sciences.

In 2020, under pressure from a student campaign, UVM trustees voted unanimously to divest from fossil fuels by July 2023.

In 2022, the U.S. Department of Education opened an investigation into the university's response to antisemitism on campus. The investigation concluded in April 2023, after the university and the Office of Civil Rights settled in a voluntary resolution. A press release from the Department of Education stated that the university failed to adequately respond to incidents. University administrators denied the allegations, insisting that they responded appropriately. The university agreed to adopt new practices around bias reporting, but it did not adopt the demands of the complainant. The Department of Education did not make a finding of guilt or wrongdoing or create new federal policy in closing the investigation.

In October 2023, UVM's Division of Safety and Compliance abruptly canceled a planned guest lecture by Palestinian author Mohammed El-Kurd, citing an inability to provide adequate "safety and security" for the event. An investigative report by Seven Days found no evidence of threats related to the event.

The university's graduate students voted to unionize with the UAW in March of 2024. In April 2024, UVM's chapter of Students for Justice in Palestine established a protest encampment on the Andrew Harris Commons, demanding transparency in the university's endowment and divestment from "all weapons manufacturers, Israeli companies, and companies involved in the occupation of historic Palestine.” They also demanded that the university cancel a planned commencement speech by Linda Thomas-Greenfield.

Seal
The university first adopted an official seal in 1807. The seal depicts the sun rising over the Green Mountains with the original college edifice, now the remodeled Old Mill. It includes a diagram of Euclid's "windmill proof" of the Pythagorean theorem, a globe, and a sextant. It includes the motto "Universitas V. Montis. A.D. 1791" in the outer ring "Collegiumque Agriculturae" in the inner one, noting the establishment of the College of Agriculture in 1865.

Undergraduate admissions
Undergraduate admissions are classified as "more selective", indicating that test score data for first-year students is in the 80th to 100th percentile of selectivity among all baccalaureate institutions. UVM received 30,231 applications for the class of 2026, accepting 18,075 for an admit rate of 59.8%. Of those accepted, 3,000 enrolled, a yield rate (the percentage of accepted students who chose to attend) of 16.6%. UVM's first-year retention rate is 88.71%, with 75.6% going on to graduate within six years.

Of the 37.5% of the incoming first-year class who submitted SAT scores; the middle 50% composite scores were 1280–1420. Of the 14.4% of enrolled first-years in who submitted ACT scores; the middle 50% composite scores were between 28 and 32.

Academics
Offering over 100 undergraduate majors, the university comprises seven undergraduate colleges, an honors college, a graduate college, and a college of medicine. The Patrick Leahy Honors College does not offer its own degrees; instead, students concurrently enroll in one of the university's seven undergraduate colleges.

Bachelors, masters, and doctoral programs are offered through the Robert Larner College of Medicine, the College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, the College of Arts and Sciences, the College of Education and Social Services, the College of Engineering and Mathematical Sciences, the College of Nursing and Health Sciences, the Graduate College, the Grossman School of Business, and the Rubenstein School of Environment and Natural Resources. The University of Vermont is accredited by the New England Commission of Higher Education.

Rankings
The U.S. News & World Report's annual university rankings ranked UVM as tied for 56th among public universities and tied for 121st nationally.

In, Forbes' America's Top Colleges list ranked UVM 163rd overall out of 498 private and public colleges and universities in America, and also ranks it 75th among public universities and 114th among research universities.

The University of Vermont was ranked 40th on a list published by BusinessWeek.com of the top 50 U.S. colleges and universities whose bachelor's degree graduates earn the highest salaries.

Research
UVM is classified among "R2: Doctoral Universities – High research activity". For the fiscal year, UVM attracted $250.1 million in research and development funding. Research expenditures topped $195 million in.

College of Arts and Sciences

The College of Arts and Sciences is the largest of UVM's schools and colleges and has the largest number of students, faculty, and staff. The college also offers the bulk of the foundational courses to help ensure that students all over campus have the tools to succeed in all academic endeavors. It offers 45 areas of study in the humanities, fine arts, social sciences, mathematics, natural sciences, and physical sciences.

Grossman School of Business
UVM's Grossman School of Business is accredited by the AACSB International and offers undergraduate and graduate programs. In 2015, the school was renamed Grossman School of Business in honor of a $20 million gift from alumnus Steven Grossman, the largest single gift in the university's history.

In, Corporate Knights ranked the Grossman School as the 8th best MBA program in the world for social and environmental impact.

As of, according to the Princeton Review, the Grossman School has the 2nd best Green MBA in the United States.

College of Engineering and Mathematical Sciences
CEMS is home to five ABET-accredited engineering programs—Biomedical, Civil, Environmental, Electrical and Mechanical Engineering—in addition to the Department of Computer Science and the Department of Mathematics and Statistics. It also features three research centers: the Transportation Research Center, the Complex Systems Center and the Vermont Advanced Computing Center. The college has about 1400 undergraduate students, 250 graduate students, and 85 faculty members.

College of Agriculture and Life Sciences
The College of Agriculture and Life Sciences (CALS) offers programs in animal science (early admission to the Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine at Tufts University is available); biochemistry; biological science; community entrepreneurship; community and international development; dietetics, nutrition and food sciences; ecological agriculture; environmental science; environmental studies; microbiology; molecular genetics; plant biology; public communication; and sustainable landscape horticulture. The college is also home to the Center for Rural Studies.

The college also offers programs in conjunction with the college of arts and sciences. Students who choose these majors, such as Biological Sciences, can choose between either college.

As a land grant college, UVM receives an annual grant under the Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service to provide agricultural research services to the state of Vermont.

College of Education and Social Services
UVM's College of Education and Social Services (CESS) offers degrees in teacher education, human development & family science, and social work. Minors are also available in American Sign Language, special education, and education for cultural and linguistic diversity. The college comprises the Department of Leadership and Developmental Sciences, Department of Education, Department of Social Work, and the Center on Disability and Community Inclusion. Studies leading to a master's degree or doctorate (Ed.D. or Ph.D.) also are offered.

College of Medicine
In 1804, John Pomeroy began teaching students in his house in Burlington, as the first medical department at a state college or university. In 1822, the College of Medicine was established as the seventh medical school in the United States, founded by Pomeroy and the medical educator Nathan Smith.

UVM enrolls approximately 100 medical students in each class; there are approximately 400 medical students. The University of Vermont Medical Center is the primary site of clinical education.

The College of Medicine currently ranks tied for 29th for overall quality in primary care training among the country's 89 programs ranked by U.S. News & World Report for 2016 and 43rd out of 120 in.

On October 21, 2016, Joe Biden visited the university campus to discuss Cancer Moonshot.

Charles A. Dana Medical Library
The largest medical library in Vermont, the Charles A. Dana Library, is the Vermont Resource Library of the National Network of Libraries of Medicine and serves the information needs of the Academic Health Center at the University of Vermont. The Academic Health Center is composed of the faculty, staff and students at UVM's College of Medicine and the College of Nursing and Health Sciences, as well as the physicians, and other health care providers at the University of Vermont Medical Center. The library also meets the health sciences information needs of the university's undergraduate and graduate programs and is open to the residents of the state of Vermont with health sciences information questions.

College of Nursing and Health Sciences
The College of Nursing and Health Sciences at UVM comprises four departments: Biomedical and Health Sciences, Communication Sciences and Disorders, Nursing, and Rehabilitation and Movement Science, as well as the Institute of Integrative Health, a shared program with the Robert Larner College of Medicine offering a Certificate in Integrative Healthcare.Some of these undergraduate degrees prepare students to enter graduate degree programs for Speech-Language Pathology, Audiology, or a doctorate of physical therapy program. The college also utilizes clinical facilities at the UVM Medical Center (formerly known as Fletcher Allen Health Care).

The Patrick Leahy Honors College
The Patrick Leahy Honors College sponsors opportunities for students to participate in co-curricular programs and extracurricular activities — special symposia, dinners with visiting scholars, and trips to museums and theaters in Montreal and Boston.

Faculty are selected from throughout the university to participate in the college as lecturers in a first-year ethics course and advanced seminars, as participants in reading groups, as speakers at the Plenary Lecture Series, and as mentors to honors students conducting research.

Through a required ethics course, small seminars, informal gatherings, and special research projects, students work alongside scholars from a section of the university's academic disciplines in the humanities, the sciences, engineering, nursing, medicine, education, business and more.

In May 2023, the college was renamed in honor of former U.S. senator Patrick Leahy.

Rubenstein School of Environment and Natural Resources

From its origins in the School of Natural Resources (originally established in 1973), the Rubenstein School of Environment and Natural Resources (RSENR) was created in 2003. The Rubenstein School of Environment and Natural Resources seeks to cultivate an appreciation and understanding of ecological and social processes and values aimed at maintaining the integrity of natural systems and achieving a sustainable human community in harmony with the natural environment. The Rubenstein School targets three general areas of emphasis for scholarly pursuit: 1. Applied Ecology; 2. Environment & Society; and 3. Development & Use of Innovative Tools (e.g. GIS, spatial analysis, and modeling).

The main building hosting RSENR is located at the George D. Aiken Center, which was renovated in 2012 and received a U.S. Green Building Council LEED Platinum certification.

In 2007, the university won a $6.7 million grant to research the pollution problems of Lake Champlain.

Athletics
The athletic teams at UVM are known as the Catamounts. The university offers 18 varsity sports. Women's teams include basketball, cross country, field hockey, ice hockey, lacrosse, skiing, soccer, swimming and diving, and track and field (indoor and outdoor). Men's teams include basketball, cross country, ice hockey, lacrosse, skiing, soccer, and track and field (indoor and outdoor). All teams compete at the NCAA Division I level. Most teams compete in the America East Conference. Men's and women's hockey teams compete in the Hockey East Association. The alpine and Nordic ski teams compete in the E.I.S.A. (Eastern Intercollegiate Ski Association).

UVM's athletic teams won seven straight America East Academic Cups (2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, and 2011) for the best overall combined GPA among its student-athletes. UVM is the first school in the America East Conference to win three straight years and four times overall.

Highlights of recent varsity athletic seasons include the men's hockey teams trip to the Frozen Four in 2009; the women's and men's basketball teams advancing to the 2010 NCAA Tournament following America East Tournament titles; the ski team winning its sixth NCAA National Championship in 2012 in Bozeman, Montana; in 2014, the men's hockey team earned its third trip to the NCAA Tournament since 2009 and the men's basketball team won the America East Regular Season title for the sixth time. The university has discontinued several major sports programs in its history, including football, softball and baseball. The softball and baseball programs were eliminated in 2009.

Thirty-six former UVM athletes have competed in 16 Olympic Games (13 winter, 3 summer) and combined have won six Olympic medals. The UVM fight song was written in 1938 and is entitled "Vermont Victorious."

Club sports
UVM sponsors many club sports teams. The UVM sailing team was competitively ranked 8th in the nation as of November 15, 2009. UVM crew competes in the Head of the Charles Regatta and Dad Vail Regatta, winning bronze for the men's coxed four in the 2015 ACRA national club rowing championship. The cycling team competes against other collegiate varsity teams and has won multiple national titles.

Arts
UVM's Lane Performing Arts Series and Music Department sponsor instrumental and choral performances featuring national and international performers throughout the year. The Royall Tyler Theatre presents theater productions on its mainstage, often featuring Equity actors along with student talent. In addition to the Department of Theatre's three mainstage shows each year, a group of student-directed one acts, and The Toys Take Over Christmas, a holiday tradition in Burlington, are also performed. Past mainstage shows have included Godspell (2009); Compleat Female Stage Beauty (2008); The Miss Firecracker Contest, Found a Peanut, and La Ronde (2007); Ring Round the Moon, The Underpants, and Macbeth (2006); A Midsummer Night's Dream, Beyond Therapy, and Hair (2005); The Art of Dining, Anouilh's Antigone, and Rumors (2004); and Remember the Children: Terezin and Metamorphoses (2003).

The Fleming Museum of Art is the university's museum. Its permanent collection includes works of art as well as anthropological and ethnographic artifacts. The museum also features various visiting exhibits and special events.

The Vermont Mozart Festival developed at UVM, and its first festivals also were held at UVM. The festival was incorporated as an independent nonprofit organization in 1976 but retains ties to UVM.

Student life
Student clubs and organizations, totaling more than 100, span student interests and receive sponsorship from the Student Government Association. Clubs with longstanding history and the largest memberships include: Volunteers in Action, the UVM Outing Club, Ski & Snowboard Club. Hillel also has a strong presence on the UVM campus. UVM also is home to the oldest FeelGood chapter in the nation, started in 2006, with the chapter raising over $100,000 since its inception for the end of extreme poverty by 2030 through on-campus grilled cheese delis.

In 2015, the university launched a wellness program called the Wellness Environment, or WE, a substance-free residential program that gives interested students access to fitness and nutrition coaches, has daily yoga instruction, round-the-clock meditation sessions, and a mentorship program that pairs them with a Burlington youth. In the fall of 2017, the Central Campus Residence Hall completed construction, and now houses nearly 700 residents in the Wellness Environment.

Thanks to an organization known as GIRT, or Gender Inclusive Restroom Taskforce, the University of Vermont has a growing number of single-occupancy, gender-neutral bathrooms for use by non-binary and gender non-conforming students, faculty, and visitors.

Outing Club
The UVM Outing Club was established in 1913 and is the largest outing club in the country. The club is completely student run and offers kayaking, canoeing, hiking, backpacking, rock climbing, ice climbing, backcountry skiing, and nordic skiing trips. The club has assisted with the formation of TREK, an outdoor pre-orientation student program that takes incoming freshman on 5 day excursions to connect them to the UVM community and the State of Vermont. One of the most remarkable events annual run by the club is the Catamountain Classic event, in which the club hikes all 272 miles of the Long Trail in one weekend. Students will hike in memory of Avi Kurganoff (a UVM Outing Club leader who passed away in the spring of 2012) and teams will be asked to raise funds to establish a scholarship program that sends local underprivileged youth on an Outward Bound trip.

Events
UVM Program Board (UPB) is responsible for bringing campus events and activities to the UVM community. Over the past few years, UPB has organized events like the annual SpringFest featuring comedian Michelle Wolf, Two Door Cinema Club and Laverne Cox. It was also run battles of the bands, weekly pub quiz tournaments, and international film and food events.

Concerts
In addition to campus events, UPB organizes live musical entertainment featuring acts from across the country as well as local bands. UPB is composed of four committees, one of which is a concerts committee. The concerts committee learns about various aspects of the music industry by putting on shows and working with local sound and production professionals. Students are in charge of choosing and booking bands and are responsible for all production aspects on the day of the show.

The Concert Bureau was established in 1971. It has brought in artists such as R.E.M., Phish (three of its four members attended UVM in the 1980s), Red Hot Chili Peppers, Sting, Lou Reed, Primus, The String Cheese Incident, James Brown, Bob Dylan, The Allman Brothers Band, Death Cab for Cutie, Jurassic 5, the Disco Biscuits, The Grateful Dead, Guster, and The Flaming Lips.

Since 2001, an annual festival known as SpringFest is held in April. Headliners have included Vida Blue, The Roots, Cake, Keller Williams, Gov't Mule, co-headliners Robert Randolph & the Family Band, Ziggy Marley, and Talib Kweli. Other acts to perform at various SpringFests have included The Meditations, Toots & the Maytals, Soulive, Rjd2, Apollo Sunshine, Ratatat in 2009, MSTRKRFT in 2010, The Roots and Thievery Corporation in 2011, Dillon Francis in 2012, MGMT in 2013, Atmosphere in 2014, The Disco Biscuits in 2015, The Head and the Heart in 2016, Two Door Cinema Club in 2017, and Playboi Carti in 2018.

Greek life
The University of Vermont Greek community is one of the oldest in the nation, with the first fraternal organization starting in 1836. 2% of male students and 2% of female students join Greek life. Fraternity and sorority members become involved in Student Government Association (SGA) and work as Orientation Leaders, advocates, and Residence Assistants.

The Phi Gamma Delta fraternity, also known as FIJI, was suspended for four years in 2017 due to hazing and alcohol abuse. One of the fraternity's pledges had stolen a Black Lives Matter flag from the Davis Center flagpole. He said he had been told to steal it as part of a hazing ritual.

Sustainability
The University of Vermont has a long history of environmental sustainability on its campus. In, The Princeton Review placed UVM in 13th place among the "Top 50 Green Colleges" in the country.

1990s
In 1995, the Environmental Council at UVM was established to fill a gap regarding a bridge between operations and academics on campus greening issues. The council's first project was to hear presentations from the various environmental programs on campus to provide a baseline scan of campus operation environmental impact. Greening UVM was published in 1998 by the council to establish a baseline on the environmental impact of the campus' operations. During the same year, a recycled paper policy was created and was implemented in 1999. As a community stakeholder in the Lab-XL project, the Environmental Council received an EPA grant to support the Tracking UVM project and publication to assess the relative environmental impact and community interest in laboratory chemical waste. Tracking UVM, a follow-up to the Greening UVM report, was published in 2002 and reported on the environmental progress of the university from 1990 to 2000. The University of Vermont's commitment to tracking its environmental performance was recognized in 2004 with Vermont's Governor's Award for Environmental Excellence for this 2002 environmental report card. Tracking UVM is one of the first report cards that track the environmental impact of campus operations in an institution of higher education.

2000s
In 2005, UVM's President Daniel M. Fogel signed the institution's Green Building Policy. The recycled paper policy was updated in 2006 after two students pushed for the university to commit to purchasing 100% post-consumer, chlorine-free paper for routine copying and printing.

In 2007, President Fogel signs on to the American College and University Presidents' Climate Commitment. The American College & University Presidents' Climate Commitment (ACUPCC) is a high-visibility effort to address global climate disruption undertaken by a network of colleges and universities that have made institutional commitments to eliminate net greenhouse gas emissions from specified campus operations, and to promote the research and educational efforts of higher education to equip society to re-stabilize the earth's climate. Its mission is to accelerate progress towards climate neutrality and sustainability by empowering the higher education sector to educate students, create solutions, and provide leadership by example for the rest of society. In 2008, UVM dissolved the Environmental Council and established the Office of Sustainability. The Office of Sustainability aims to foster sustainable development and promote environmental responsibility at the University of Vermont by strategically bridging the academic activities of teaching, research, and outreach with the operations of the university. The sustainability office reports jointly to the Provost and to the Vice President for Finance & Administration, who supervises the director. There are two full-time staff and four Graduate Fellows, plus an Academic Advisor and a team of supporters.

2010s
In 2011, UVM released its Climate Action Plan to the American College & University President's Climate Commitment. The Climate Action Plan focuses on the direct and indirect greenhouse gas emissions from the institution's operations. The target dates for UVM's Climate Action Plan were 2015 for 100% carbon neutral electricity (Scope 1) and 2020 for carbon neutral heating, cooling, and fleet (Scope 2). UVM aims to target the net zero emissions for its "Scope 3" sources by 2025.

In 2012, UVM became one of the first institutions nationwide to end the sale of bottled water on campus and mandate that one third of drinks offered in vending machines be healthy options. During the same year, UVM's Board of Trustees passed a resolution to earmark $13 million for the fund, making it the largest challenge to date. Harvard's $12 million green loan fund had been the largest. In March 2012, UVM became fifth school in the nation to sign the "Real Food Campus Commitment", pledging to purchase 20% "real food" by 2020. In April 2017, UVM announced it had surpassed this goal and set a new goal to source 25% "real food" by 2020.

The Certification for Sustainable Transportation (CST) was founded in 2012 to help improve economic, environmental, and energy efficiency within the passenger transportation sector. The CST is a direct outgrowth of work that began at the University of Vermont in 2005 and now houses the eRating certification, driver trainings, and an array of awareness and education programs. It is a nonprofit operating out of UVM's Extensions office.

In May 2015, UVM introduced a sustainability requirement for all undergraduates, allowing students to choose from pre-approved sustainability classes.

Present
In April 2023, the university committed to carbon neutrality by 2030. It would pursue investments in renewable energy, electrified buildings and vehicles, reduced vehicle fleets, and geothermal exploration.

Lawrence Debate Union
The Lawrence Debate Union (LDU) has been UVM's official debate team since 1899. Competing in British parliamentary debate, policy debate, and social justice-oriented debate, it is one of the oldest organizations on campus, receiving funding from a private grant established in 1899. The LDU has sent students to international competitions, from Slovenia, Malaysia, and Thailand (2007) to Greece and South Africa. The school has also sent students to the World Universities Debating Championship held in Ireland, Turkey, Botswana, Manila, Berlin, and Chennai, breaking into elimination rounds in the 2011 World University Debating Championship. Debaters from the LDU have also regularly competed in tournaments hosted by Oxford University and Cambridge University, and in 2013 won the title of the Budapest IV and Vienna IV in consecutive tournaments. Domestically, the LDU has also won the title of Northeast Universities Debating Sweepstakes champion for four consecutive years. The program is currently ranked seventh in the top schools for British Parliamentary debate in the world, and is the third-ranked American university on the list, behind only Yale and Cornell. It encourages participation of all interested UVM students, and sponsors public debates at UVM and for the Burlington community. The late Alfred C. Snider, who coached the LDU for over thirty years, was one of the most decorated debate coaches in the world. He also coached the National Speech and Debate Organization's national high school debate team to compete in the world championships.

Publications

 * The Vermont Cynic, an award-winning, digital student newspaper
 * The Water Tower, an alternative weekly student newspaper
 * Vermont Quarterly, UVM's alumni magazine
 * UVM Today, news from the Strategic Communications office
 * Proverbium: Yearbook of International Proverb Scholarship

title: University of Vermont


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Hypermedia

Hypermedia, an extension of the term hypertext, is a nonlinear medium of information that includes graphics, audio, video, plain text and hyperlinks. This designation contrasts with the broader term multimedia, which may include non-interactive linear presentations as well as hypermedia. It is also related to the field of electronic literature. The term was first used in a 1965 article written by Ted Nelson. Hypermedia can be refer to a type of multimedia that includes interactive elements, such as links, buttons, and other features that allows users to navigate and engage with the content in non-linear manner. example of hypermedia include: Hyperlinks, Interactive image, Multimedia presentations, Hypertext, and Interactive videos.

The World Wide Web is a classic example of hypermedia to access web content, whereas a non-interactive cinema presentation is an example of standard multimedia due to the absence of hyperlinks.

The first hypermedia work was, arguably, the Aspen Movie Map. Bill Atkinson's HyperCard popularized hypermedia writing, while a variety of literary hypertext and hypertext works, fiction and non-fiction, demonstrated the promise of links. Most modern hypermedia is delivered via electronic pages from a variety of systems including media players, web browsers, and stand-alone applications (i.e., software that does not require network access). Audio hypermedia is emerging with voice command devices and voice browsing.

Development tools
Hypermedia may be developed in a number of ways. Any programming tool can be used to write programs that link data from internal variables and nodes for external data files. Multimedia development software such as Adobe Flash, Adobe Director, Macromedia Authorware, and MatchWare Mediator may be used to create stand-alone hypermedia applications, with emphasis on entertainment content. Some database software, such as Visual FoxPro and FileMaker Developer, may be used to develop stand-alone hypermedia applications, with emphasis on educational and business content management.

Hypermedia applications may be developed on embedded devices for the mobile and the digital signage industries using the Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG) specification from W3C (World Wide Web Consortium). Software applications, such as Ikivo Animator and Inkscape, simplify the development of hypermedia content based on SVG. Embedded devices, such as the iPhone, natively support SVG specifications and may be used to create mobile and distributed hypermedia applications.

Hyperlinks may also be added to data files using most business software via the limited scripting and hyperlinking features built in. Documentation software, such as the Microsoft Office Suite and LibreOffice, allow for hypertext links to other content within the same file, other external files, and URL links to files on external file servers. For more emphasis on graphics and page layout, hyperlinks may be added using most modern desktop publishing tools. This includes presentation programs, such as Microsoft PowerPoint and LibreOffice Impress, add-ons to print layout programs such as Quark Immedia, and tools to include hyperlinks in PDF documents such as Adobe InDesign for creating and Adobe Acrobat for editing. Hyper Publish is a tool specifically designed and optimized for hypermedia and hypertext management. Any HTML editor may be used to build HTML files, accessible by any web browser. CD/DVD authoring tools, such as DVD Studio Pro, may be used to hyperlink the content of DVDs for DVD players or web links when the disc is played on a personal computer connected to the internet.

Learning
There have been a number of theories concerning hypermedia and learning. One important claim in the literature on hypermedia and learning is that it offers more control over the instructional environment for the reader or student. Another claim is that it levels the playing field among students of varying abilities and enhances collaborative learning. A claim from psychology includes the notion that hypermedia more closely models the structure of the brain, in comparison with printed text.

Application programming interfaces
Hypermedia is used as a medium and constraint in certain application programming interfaces. HATEOAS, Hypermedia as the Engine of Application State, is a constraint of the REST application architecture where a client interacts with the server entirely through hypermedia provided dynamically by application servers. This means that in theory no API documentation is needed, because the client needs no prior knowledge about how to interact with any particular application or server beyond a generic understanding of hypermedia. In other service-oriented architectures (SOA), clients and servers interact through a fixed interface shared through documentation or an interface description language (IDL).

title: Hypermedia


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Harlem River

The Harlem River is an 8 mi tidal strait in New York, United States, flowing between the Hudson River and the East River and separating the island of Manhattan from the Bronx on the New York mainland.

The northern stretch, also called the Spuyten Duyvil ("spewing devil") Creek, has been significantly altered for navigation purposes. Originally it curved around the north of Marble Hill, but in 1895 the Harlem Ship Canal was dug between Manhattan and Marble Hill, and in 1914 the original course was filled in.

Use
Harlem River Drive and Harlem River Greenway run along the west bank of the river, and the Metro-North Railroad's Hudson Line and Major Deegan Expressway on the east.

The Harlem River was the traditional rowing course for New York, analogous to the Charles River in Boston and the Schuylkill River in Philadelphia. On the Harlem's banks is the boathouse for the Columbia University crew, and the river is the home course for the university's crew. Since 1952, a large flat rock face, called the "(Big) C Rock" has been painted with Columbia's varsity "C". Also on the river are the Peter Jay Sharp Boathouse and Harlem River Community Rowing, two community rowing facilities. The river is used by crews from New York University, Fordham University, and Manhattan College, though the only university with permanent facilities on the river is Columbia.

Historically, the west bank of the Harlem River was also an amusement destination. The area between 190th and 192nd Streets was occupied by the Fort George Amusement Park, a trolley park/amusement park, from 1895 to 1914. Its site is now a seating area in Highbridge Park. In the 1890s, the City of New York built a racetrack for horses, the Harlem River Speedway, along the riverbank of the park; the project started construction in 1894 and opened in July 1898. The Speedway later became the Harlem River Drive, and regular motorists were first allowed on the drive in 1919.

Crossings
The Harlem River is spanned by seven swing bridges, four lift bridges, and four arch bridges, and is navigable to any boat with less than 55 ft of air draft. However, any boat requiring more than 5 ft of clearance will require the Spuyten Duyvil Bridge to swing open. All other movable bridges on the Harlem River provide at least 24 ft of clearance while closed, so boats and ships requiring between 5 and 24 ft of clearance need only have one bridge swing open. These bridges replaced fixed bridges or lower bridges in the late 19th century to improve navigation. High Bridge was erected between 1837 and 1848 to carry the Croton Aqueduct across the river. It is the oldest bridge in New York City.

The New York City Department of Transportation advises that while they make every effort to ensure that all bridges are operating, many of them are under repair at any time, and outside contractors are responsible for opening of bridges under repair.

title: Harlem River