text:
Talk:Manuel Castells

Life
Just a passing edit suggestion. I read:

At the age of twenty-four, Doctor Castells became an instructor at the University of Paris, from 1967 to 1979; first at the Paris X University Nanterre, who fired him because of the 1968 student protests, then at the École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales, from 1970 to 1979.

I'm guessing that "1967 to 1979" should be "1967 to 1969" but I don't have any citations and could be wrong. It's just that the year 1979 doesn't seem to make sense there. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 98.206.137.143 (talk) 03:10, 5 March 2011 (UTC)

Place of birth
Castells says he was born in La Mancha:

http://globetrotter.berkeley.edu/people/Castells/castells-con1.html

--Andres

Shouldn't it be "Walter" instead of "Wallis" Annenberger? --VentrueCapital

No, it is the "Wallis Annenberg Chair in Communication Technology & Society." Reference added. --lanalana — Preceding unsigned comment added by 64.203.11.235 (talk) 06:46, 4 February 2012 (UTC)

I deleted the paragraph relating to Richard Albrecht in the theory section because it was poorly written and does not belong here. -- Felix

this man writes the weirdest sentences ever in the history and some of the chapters in his books are full of hot air and repetition. it takes half an hour to read and comprehend every single page. here is an example of one of his sentences: "The technological and managerial transformation of labor, and of production relationships, in and around the emerging network enterprise is the main lever by which the informational paradigm and the process of globalization affect society at large." the rise of the network society, blackwell publishers, 1998, pg: 201

Hi why did you wipe out the soft critical remark of Dr Albrecht ? P.

Because it concerned a minor point that was in no relationship to the general level of the article, and the main reference was the author's own article. F.

Hi - sorry dear, you may be a happy guy ("Felix";-)) - but the introductory chp. Dr Castell publ. within the 1st of his 3-vol.es "op.magn." is in fact poorly written - either hot air or cloudy issue. Moreover, any social scientist looking for a good red herring ("diagnosis of our time": Carl Mannheim) will not be able to grasp what this sociological writer wants to express ... his language expresses his confused thinking ... y.s., BeeJay

Castells early life in Spain
I read the remark Castells says he was born in La Mancha: http://globetrotter.berkeley.edu/people/Castells/castells-con1.html --Andres and have just checked the reference to the fact that Castells himself says he was born in La Mancha Is there a conflict of evidence? (MihalOrela (talk) 04:52, 14 August 2008 (UTC))

Publications
I propose a minor edit — the use of the reference generator to turn the publication list into a searchable list (especially wrt ISBN numbers) —Preceding unsigned comment added by MihalOrela (talk • contribs) 07:45, 13 August 2008 (UTC)

Epilogues to other authors' books don't belong under Castells' publications. I deleted one of those.

Theory
I think it appropriate to expand on Castells' concept of the Net here. Currently, there is no explanation that it is at the same time an elusion to the internet, an important literary device in The Rise of the Network Society (obvious as it may seem), and possibly to the other meaning of the word 'net', which relates to a total sum.

I propose the addition perhaps in the following sentences, as it appears now: "The Net means the new, networked forms of organisation which are replacing vertically integrated hierarchies as the dominant form of social organization." —Preceding unsigned comment added by EvolutionRevolution (talk • contribs) 06:13, 22 October 2008 (UTC)

why is it not any links to ideas that compet whit him like negri or maybe kevin kelly ? and the other experts that are critic to him that felix booik write abut? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 187.132.5.92 (talk) 19:47, 13 March 2009 (UTC)

Title
For me it is a little bit strange that this article speaks of "Prof Castells" all the time. From my reading experience in Wikipedia I'm not used to this frequent stating of a title. If there are some guidelines on that I would change it. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 146.231.129.50 (talk) 09:16, 5 December 2011 (UTC)

External links modified
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title: Talk:Manuel Castells


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User talk:Timothy Muggli

Hello there Tim welcome to Wikipedia! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. If you ever need editing help visit How does one edit a page or how to format them visit our manual of style. Experiment at Sandbox. If you need pointers on how we title pages visit Naming conventions. If you have any other questions about the project then check out Help or add a question to the Village pump or my talk page. Cheers, Muriel Gottrop

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Timothy Muggli


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Avon Safety Wheel

The Avon Safety Wheel was a new type of wheel for cars, invented by the Avon Tyre Company of Britain in the early 1970s. With the advent of radial tyres, taking over from the older crossply type, it was found that in the event of a puncture or blowout, the tyre would be much more prone to detach from the rim, which would make a bad situation somewhat worse.

The Avon Safety Wheel avoids the detachment of a deflated tyre by having a much shallower central recess within the interior of the wheel. The recess is so shallow that the tyre is prevented from twisting to an angle that would allow it to slip over the edge of the rim, so it is retained. Such a shallow recess would also prevent the fitment of new tyres, if it weren't for the inclusion of a deep channel, allowing the bead of the tyre to enter the channel to permit fitting. The channel is covered by a metal band that is tightened around the wheel after the tyre is fitted but before it is inflated.

The fitting procedure is relatively troublesome and not popular with tyre fitters. This may be one reason that this design of wheel has not been widely adopted, meaning that modern cars are still prone to tyre detachment, though tyre safety itself has improved dramatically in the last 30 years. The Avon Safety Wheel was first used on the 1974 Vauxhall Firenza.

The wheel design was also used on British Leyland's Morris Marina Safety Research Vehicle, though featuring very different styling from the version employed by Vauxhall. It was also used on the Bristol 411 series 4.

title: Avon Safety Wheel


text:
Eelpout

The eelpouts are the ray-finned fish family Zoarcidae. As the common name suggests, they are somewhat eel-like in appearance. All of the 300 species are marine and mostly bottom-dwelling, some at great depths. Eelpouts are predominantly found in the Northern Hemisphere. The Arctic, north Pacific and north Atlantic oceans have the highest concentration of species; however, species are found around the globe.

They are conventionally placed in the "perciform" assemblage; in fact, the Zoarcoidei seem to be specialized members of the Gasterosteiformes-Scorpaeniformes group of Acanthopterygii.

The largest member of the family is Zoarces americanus, which may reach 1.1 m in length. Other notable genera include Lycodapus and Gymnelus.

Taxonomy
The eelpout family was first proposed as the family Zoarchidae in 1839 by the English naturalist William John Swainson but the spelling was changed to Zoarcidae after the spelling of the genus Zoarces was corrected by Theodore Gill in 1861. The 5th edition of Fishes of the World classifies this family within the suborder Zoarcoidei, within the order Scorpaeniformes. Other authorities classify this family in the infraorder Zoarcales within the suborder Cottoidei of the Perciformes because removing the Scorpaeniformes from the Perciformes renders that taxon non monophyletic.

Fishes of the World mentions four subfamilies but does not assign genera to the subfamilies but these were set out in Anderson and Federov's Annotated Checklist and this has been followed by FishBase and Catalog of Fishes.

Evolution and adaptations
Eelpout species have evolved to efficiently give birth to future generations. They utilize demersal eggs, which are eggs that are deposited on the seafloor, and can be either free or connected to the substrate. These egg clusters can range from 9.2 mm, to 9.8 mm, which are the largest compared to any other marine egg cluster. It has been found that eelpouts grow larger and heavier in areas where the water is relatively shallow. In these areas, this species consumes molluscs, invertebrates, and small fish. The difference of biodiversity at varying depths has led to the evolution of distinct populations, connecting to the study that temperature might have a significant effect on them. Studies have shown that there are three large families of eelpout species; Zoarcidae, Stichaeidae, and Pholidae. These species have been thought to have evolved in northern, colder seas, each diverging off of each other at different points in time, millions of years ago. The notched-fin eelpout, which is commonly found in the Sea of Okhotsk, have shown researchers what the average length of an adult eelpout is, usually sitting between 21 and 26 cm long (females typically larger than males). Their size has been found to increase as the depth of water in which they have been studied lowers. They feed commonly on Gammarids (small, shrimp like organisms), Polychaetes (marine worms), and Bivalves (clams and muscles) on the seafloor.

Subfamilies and genera
The eelpouts are classified into four subfamilies and 61 genera with around 300 species:

 * subfamily Gymnelinae Gill, 1863
 * Andriashevia Fedorov & Neelov, 1978
 * Barbapellis Iglésias, Dettai & Ozouf-Costaz, 2012
 * Bilabria Schmidt, 1936
 * Davidijordania Popov, 1931
 * Ericandersonia Shinohara & Sakurai, 2006
 * Gymnelopsis Soldatov, 1922
 * Gymnelus Reinhardt 1834
 * Hadropareia Schmidt, 1904
 * Krusensterniella Schmidt, 1904
 * Magadanichthys Shinohara, Nazarkin & Chereshnev, 2006
 * Melanostigma Günther, 1881
 * Nalbantichthys Schultz, 1967
 * Opaeophacus Bond & Stein, 1984
 * Puzanovia Fedorov, 1975
 * Seleniolycus Anderson, 1988
 * subfamily Lycodinae Gill, 1861
 * Aiakas Gosztonyi, 1977
 * Argentinolycus Matallanas & Corbella, 2012
 * Austrolycus Regan, 1913
 * Bellingshausenia Matallanas, 2009
 * Bentartia Matallanas, 2010
 * Bothrocara Bean, 1890
 * Bothrocarina Suvorov, 1935
 * Crossostomus Lahille, 1908
 * Dadyanos Whitley, 1951
 * Derepodichthys Gilbert, 1896
 * Dieidolycus Anderson, 1988
 * Eucryphycus Anderson, 1988
 * Exechodontes DeWitt, 1977
 * Gosztonyia Matallanas, 2009
 * Hadropogonichthys Fedorov, 1982
 * Iluocoetes Jenyns, 1842
 * Japonolycodes Shinohara, Sakurai & Machida, 2002
 * Letholycus Anderson, 1988
 * Lycenchelys Gill, 1884
 * Lycodapus Gilbert, 1890
 * Lycodes Reinhardt, 1831
 * Lycodichthys Pappenheim, 1911
 * Lycodonus Goode & Bean, 1883
 * Lycogrammoides Soldatov & Lindberg, 1928
 * Lyconema Gilbert, 1896
 * Maynea Cunningham, 1871
 * Notolycodes Gosztonyi, 1977
 * Oidiphorus McAllister & Rees 1964
 * Ophthalmolycus Regan, 1913
 * Pachycara Zugmayer. 1911
 * Patagolycus Matallanas & Corbella, 2012
 * Petroschmidtia Taranetz & Andriashev, 1934
 * Phucocoetes Jenyns, 1842
 * Piedrabuenia Gosztonyi, 1977
 * Plesienchelys Anderson, 1988
 * Pogonolycus Norman, 1937
 * Pyrolycus Machida & Hashimoto, 2002
 * Santelmoa Matallanas, 2010
 * Taranetzella Andriashev, 1952
 * Thermarces Rosenblatt & Cohen, 1986
 * Zestichthys Jordan & Hubbs, 1925
 * subfamily Lycozarcinae Andriashev, 1939
 * Lycozoarces Popov, 1935
 * subfamily Zoarcinae Swainson, 1839
 * Zoarces Cuvier 1829

Characteristics
The body of eelpouts is relatively elongated and laterally compressed. Their heads are relatively small and ovoid. Juveniles have a more rounded snout and relatively larger eye than adults. Their scales are absent or very small. The dorsal and anal fins are continuous down their bodies up to their caudal fin. They produce the pigment biliverdin, which turns their bones green. This feature has no apparent evolutionary function and is harmless. Overall, there is no sexual dimorphism.

Biology
Little is known about eelpout populations because they often slip through nets in sampling studies, and because some species live in inaccessibly deep habitats. Species for which trophic ecology has been documented are typically, if not always, benthic scavengers or predators. At least one species has also adapted to able to breathe air when out of water.

Metabolic adaptations to low temperatures
Species of eelpouts have adapted in order to grow and thrive in the extreme low temperatures of their habitats. The metabolic responses of Antarctic and temperate eelpout species during exercise and subsequent recovery at 0 °C is a point of emphasis when understanding this species. Contrary to the hypothesis of reduced glycolytic capacity in Antarctic fish as an adaptation to low temperatures, findings revealed similar increases in white muscle lactate, intracellular pH drop, and phosphocreatine depletion during strenuous exercise in both species. Notably, Antarctic eelpout exhibited faster recovery kinetics, including lactate clearance. This suggests a superior metabolic cold compensation mechanism compared to temperate eelpout. The study also proposed a correlation between reduced ATP energy content and muscular fatigue, highlighting the intricate metabolic adjustments crucial for sustaining activity in extreme cold conditions. These environmental factors surrounding this species show how it has adapted and survived over time.

Thermal stress responses
As global temperatures continue to rise, understanding how aquatic species adapt to thermal stress becomes increasingly crucial. The physiological responses of temperate eelpout (Zoarces viviparus) from the North Sea and Antarctic eelpout (Pachycara brachycephalum) to gradually increasing water temperatures were examined. The study explored parameters such as standard metabolic rate (SMR), intracellular pH regulation, and the upper critical temperature limit (TcII), to explain the species' thermal tolerance. Results revealed distinct differences in metabolic responses between the two species, indicating varied thermal sensitivities and adaptation strategies. The habitat of an eelpout can vary greatly throughout the year, as seasonal temperatures can change drastically between 3 and 12 degrees C. With increasing temperatures of the water in these regions, the eelpouts struggle to cope. Certain signs of this struggle are apparent when being studied in a lab, as they raise their pectoral fins, swim around more vigorously, and attempt to jump out of their holding aquariums, leading to the conclusion that higher temperatures lead to higher levels of agitation. For short periods of time, however, this species is able to cope. These findings have implications for understanding the physiological constraints faced by eelpout fish under thermal stress and offer insights into potential shifts in species distribution patterns driven by global warming.

title: Eelpout


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NACA (disambiguation)

NACA is the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, a former federal agency of the US government, the forerunner of NASA. NACA may also refer to:

Organizations

 * National Agricultural Chemicals Association, involved with pesticide regulation in the United States
 * National Association for Campus Activities, an organization for programmers of university and college activities
 * National Association of Consumer Advocates, a member organization of the Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights
 * National Athletic and Cycling Association, a sports organization of Ireland
 * Neighborhood Assistance Corporation of America, a non-profit community organization where Detria Russell worked
 * Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific, an intergovernmental organization that promotes rural development through sustainable aquaculture
 * National Civil Aviation Agency (Mauritania)
 * Native American Community Academy
 * Northern Alberta Curling Association, the regional governing body for the sport of curling in Northern Alberta, incorporated into Curling Alberta in 2018

Science and technology

 * NACA (gene), a human gene
 * NACA duct, a type of air intake for an engine
 * NACA airfoil, airfoil shapes for aircraft wings developed by NACA
 * NACA cowling, a type of aerodynamic fairing used to streamline radial engines for use on airplanes
 * N-Acetylcysteine amide, an amide derivative of N-acetylcysteine

People

 * Kristin Naca, an American poet
 * Mihai Naca (1939 – 2009), a Romanian rugby union coach
 * Naca Seru (born 1969), a Fijian rugby union football player

title: NACA (disambiguation)


text:
Yass Valley Council

Yass Valley Council is a local government area in the Southern Tablelands region of New South Wales, Australia. The area is located adjacent to the Hume and Barton Highways and the Main Southern railway line.

The Shire includes the towns, and extensive rural and residential areas of: • Yass

• Binalong

• Bowning

• Bywong (part)

• Gundaroo

• Murrumbateman

• Parkwood

• Sutton (part)

• Wallaroo It also includes the localities of: • Bango

• Bellmount Forest (part)

• Boambolo

• Bookham

• Brindabella (part)

• Burrinjuck

• Cavan

• Good Hope

• Jeir

• Kangiara

• Laverstock

• Manton

• Marchmont

• Mullion

• Nanima

• Narrangullen

• Springrange

• Uriarra (part)

• Wee Jasper

• Woolgarlo

• Yass River

The Yass Shire was proclaimed on 1 January 1980 following the amalgamation of Goodradigbee Shire and the Municipality of Yass. Yass Shire in turn was dissolved and merged into the Yass Valley Council on 11 February 2004, following a further amalgamation of Yass Shire and parts of Gunning and Yarrowlumla Shires.

The mayor of Yass Valley Council is Cr. Allan McGrath.

Demographics
At the, Yass Valley had a population of 16,142, 7,931 males and 8,209 females. It had grown from 15,020 at the, an increase of 7.5%. In the previous five years it grew by 14.4% from 13,135 at the. There were 400 people (2.5%) who identified as being of Indigenous origin in the 2016 census. The median age was 42 years.

82.8% of the population was born in Australia. 3.6% were born in England, 1.2% in New Zealand and 0.4% in each of Germany, the United States and Netherlands. English was stated as the only language spoken at home by 14,550 people (90.2%). The three most common languages spoken at home other than English were Croatian (0.4%), German (0.4%) and Dutch (0.2%). 84.3% of households had at least one resident who accessed the internet by any type of electronic device.

The median weekly individual income for people aged 15 years and over at the 2016 census was $869 (Australian average: $662). The median weekly family was $2,214 (Australian average: $1,734) and the median household family was $1,879 (Australian average: $1,438).

In the 2016 census, there were 5,185 separate houses (94.0%), 216 semi detached, row or terrace houses and townhouses (3.9%), 27 flats, units or apartments (0.5%) and 37 other dwellings (0.7%). Of all occupied private dwellings, 4,343 were either fully owned or being purchased, which represents (78.6%) of all occupied private dwellings, while 1,011 (18.3%) were being rented.

Current composition and election method
Yass Valley Council is composed of nine councillors elected proportionally as one entire ward. All councillors are elected for a fixed four-year term of office. The mayor is elected by the councillors at the first meeting of the council. The most recent election was held on 4 December 2021, and the makeup of the council is as follows:

The current Council, elected in 2016, in order of election, is:

Transport facilities
Yass Valley is serviced by the following transport facilities:

 * Hume Highway (National Highway 31)
 * Barton Highway (National Highway 25)
 * Lachlan Valley Way (State Route 81)
 * Main Southern Railway (NSW TrainLink)
 * Transborder Express (A local bus & coach firm)

title: Yass Valley Council


text:
Gymnosperm

The gymnosperms (lit. 'revealed seeds') are a group of seed-producing plants that includes conifers, cycads, Ginkgo, and gnetophytes, forming the clade Gymnospermae. The term gymnosperm comes from the composite word in γυμνόσπερμος (γυμνός and σπέρμα), literally meaning 'naked seeds'. The name is based on the unenclosed condition of their seeds (called ovules in their unfertilized state). The non-encased condition of their seeds contrasts with the seeds and ovules of flowering plants (angiosperms), which are enclosed within an ovary. Gymnosperm seeds develop either on the surface of scales or leaves, which are often modified to form cones, or on their own as in yew, Torreya, Ginkgo. The life cycle of a gymnosperm involves alternation of generations, with a dominant diploid sporophyte phase, and a reduced haploid gametophyte phase, which is dependent on the sporophytic phase. The term "gymnosperm" is often used in paleobotany to refer to (the paraphyletic group of) all non-angiosperm seed plants. In that case, to specify the modern monophyletic group of gymnosperms, the term Acrogymnospermae is sometimes used.

The gymnosperms and angiosperms together constitute the spermatophytes or seed plants. The spermatophytes are subdivided into five divisions, the angiosperms and four divisions of gymnosperms: the Cycadophyta, Ginkgophyta, Gnetophyta, and Pinophyta (also known as Coniferophyta). Newer classification place the gnetophytes among the conifers. Numerous extinct seed plant groups are recognised including those considered pteridosperms/seed ferns, as well other groups like the Bennettitales.

By far the largest group of living gymnosperms are the conifers (pines, cypresses, and relatives), followed by cycads, gnetophytes (Gnetum, Ephedra and Welwitschia), and Ginkgo biloba (a single living species). About 65% of gymnosperms are dioecious, but conifers are almost all monoecious.

Some genera have mycorrhiza, fungal associations with roots (Pinus), while in some others (Cycas) small specialised roots called coralloid roots are associated with nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria.

Diversity and origin
Over 1,000 living species of gymnosperm exist. It was previously widely accepted that the gymnosperms originated in the Late Carboniferous period, replacing the lycopsid rainforests of the tropical region, but more recent phylogenetic evidence indicates that they diverged from the ancestors of angiosperms during the Early Carboniferous. The radiation of gymnosperms during the late Carboniferous appears to have resulted from a whole genome duplication event around. Early characteristics of seed plants are evident in fossil progymnosperms of the late Devonian period around 383 million years ago. It has been suggested that during the mid-Mesozoic era, pollination of some extinct groups of gymnosperms was by extinct species of scorpionflies that had specialized proboscis for feeding on pollination drops. The scorpionflies likely engaged in pollination mutualisms with gymnosperms, long before the similar and independent coevolution of nectar-feeding insects on angiosperms. Evidence has also been found that mid-Mesozoic gymnosperms were pollinated by Kalligrammatid lacewings, a now-extinct family with members which (in an example of convergent evolution) resembled the modern butterflies that arose far later.

All gymnosperms are perennial woody plants, Unlike in other extant gymnosperms the soft and highly parenchymatous wood in cycads is poorly lignified, and their main structural support comes from an armor of sclerenchymatous leaf bases covering the stem, with the exception of species with underground stems. There are no herbaceous gymnosperms and compared to angiosperms they occupy fewer ecological niches, but have evolved both parasites (Parasitaxus), epiphytes (Zamia pseudoparasitica) and rheophytes (Retrophyllum minus).

Conifers are by far the most abundant extant group of gymnosperms with six to eight families, with a total of 65–70 genera and 600–630 species (696 accepted names). Most conifers are evergreens. The leaves of many conifers are long, thin and needle-like, while other species, including most Cupressaceae and some Podocarpaceae, have flat, triangular scale-like leaves. Agathis in Araucariaceae and Nageia in Podocarpaceae have broad, flat strap-shaped leaves.

Cycads are the next most abundant group of gymnosperms, with two or three families, 11 genera, and approximately 338 species. A majority of cycads are native to tropical climates and are most abundantly found in regions near the equator. The other extant groups are the 95–100 species of Gnetales and one species of Ginkgo.

Today gymnosperms are the most threatened of all plant groups.

Classification
A formal classification of the living gymnosperms is the "Acrogymnospermae", which form a monophyletic group within the spermatophytes. The wider "Gymnospermae" group includes extinct gymnosperms and is thought to be paraphyletic. The fossil record of gymnosperms includes many distinctive taxa that do not belong to the four modern groups, including seed-bearing trees that have a somewhat fern-like vegetative morphology (the so-called "seed ferns" or pteridosperms). When fossil gymnosperms such as these and the Bennettitales, glossopterids, and Caytonia are considered, it is clear that angiosperms are nested within a larger gymnospermae clade, although which group of gymnosperms is their closest relative remains unclear.

The extant gymnosperms include 12 main families and 83 genera which contain more than 1000 known species.

Subclass Cycadidae
 * Order Cycadales
 * Family Cycadaceae: Cycas
 * Family Zamiaceae: Dioon, Bowenia, Macrozamia, Lepidozamia, Encephalartos, Stangeria, Ceratozamia, Microcycas, Zamia

Subclass Ginkgoidae
 * Order Ginkgoales
 * Family Ginkgoaceae: Ginkgo

Subclass Gnetidae
 * Order Welwitschiales
 * Family Welwitschiaceae: Welwitschia
 * Order Gnetales
 * Family Gnetaceae: Gnetum
 * Order Ephedrales
 * Family Ephedraceae: Ephedra

Subclass Pinidae
 * Order Pinales
 * Family Pinaceae: Cedrus, Pinus, Cathaya, Picea, Pseudotsuga, Larix, Pseudolarix, Tsuga, Nothotsuga, Keteleeria, Abies
 * Order Araucariales
 * Family Araucariaceae: Araucaria, Wollemia, Agathis
 * Family Podocarpaceae: Phyllocladus, Lepidothamnus, Prumnopitys, Sundacarpus, Halocarpus, Parasitaxus, Lagarostrobos, Manoao, Saxegothaea, Microcachrys, Pherosphaera, Acmopyle, Dacrycarpus, Dacrydium, Falcatifolium, Retrophyllum, Nageia, Afrocarpus, Podocarpus
 * Order Cupressales
 * Family Sciadopityaceae: Sciadopitys
 * Family Cupressaceae: Cunninghamia, Taiwania, Athrotaxis, Metasequoia, Sequoia, Sequoiadendron, Cryptomeria, Glyptostrobus, Taxodium, Papuacedrus, Austrocedrus, Libocedrus, Pilgerodendron, Widdringtonia, Diselma, Fitzroya, Callitris, Actinostrobus, Neocallitropsis, Thujopsis, Thuja, Fokienia, Chamaecyparis, Cupressus, Juniperus, Calocedrus, Tetraclinis, Platycladus, Microbiota
 * Family Taxaceae: Austrotaxus, Pseudotaxus, Taxus, Cephalotaxus, Amentotaxus, Torreya

Extinct groupings

 * Order Cordaitales
 * Order Calamopityales
 * Order Callistophytales
 * Order Caytoniales
 * Order Gigantopteridales
 * Order Glossopteridales
 * Order Lyginopteridales
 * Order Medullosales
 * Order Peltaspermales
 * Order Corystospermales (also known as Umkomasiales)
 * Order Czekanowskiales
 * Order Bennettitales (cycadeoids)
 * Order Erdtmanithecales
 * Order Pentoxylales
 * Order Czekanowskiales
 * Order Petriellales

Life cycle
Gymnosperms, like all vascular plants, have a sporophyte-dominant life cycle, which means they spend most of their life cycle with diploid cells, while the gametophyte (gamete-bearing phase) is relatively short-lived. Like all seed plants, they are heterosporous, having two spore types, microspores (male) and megaspores (female) that are typically produced in pollen cones or ovulate cones, respectively. The exception is the females in the cycad genus Cycas, which form a loose structure called megasporophylls instead of cones. As with all heterosporous plants, the gametophytes develop within the spore wall. Pollen grains (microgametophytes) mature from microspores, and ultimately produce sperm cells. Megagametophytes develop from megaspores and are retained within the ovule. Gymnosperms produce multiple archegonia, which produce the female gamete.

During pollination, pollen grains are physically transferred between plants from the pollen cone to the ovule. Pollen is usually moved by wind or insects. Whole grains enter each ovule through a microscopic gap in the ovule coat (integument) called the micropyle. The pollen grains mature further inside the ovule and produce sperm cells. Two main modes of fertilization are found in gymnosperms. Cycads and Ginkgo have flagellated motile sperm that swim directly to the egg inside the ovule, whereas conifers and gnetophytes have sperm with no flagella that are moved along a pollen tube to the egg. After syngamy (joining of the sperm and egg cell), the zygote develops into an embryo (young sporophyte). More than one embryo is usually initiated in each gymnosperm seed. The mature seed comprises the embryo and the remains of the female gametophyte, which serves as a food supply, and the seed coat.

Gymnosperms ordinarily reproduce by sexual reproduction, and only rarely express parthenogenesis. Sexual reproduction in gymnosperms appears to be required for maintaining long-term genomic integrity. Meiosis in sexual land plants provides a direct mechanism for repairing DNA in reproductive tissues. The likely primary benefit of cross-pollination in gymnosperms, as in other eukaryotes, is that it allows the avoidance of inbreeding depression caused by the presence of recessive deleterious mutations.

Genetics
The first published sequenced genome for any gymnosperm was the genome of Picea abies in 2013.

Uses
Gymnosperms have major economic uses. Pine, fir, spruce, and cedar are all examples of conifers that are used for lumber, paper production, and resin. Some other common uses for gymnosperms are soap, varnish, nail polish, food, gum, and perfumes.

title: Gymnosperm


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Renaissance humanism

Renaissance humanism was a worldview centered on the nature and importance of humanity, that emerged from the study of Classical antiquity. This first began in Italy and then spread across Western Europe in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries. During the period, the term humanist (umanista) referred to teachers and students of the humanities, known as the studia humanitatis, which included the study of Latin and Ancient Greek literatures, grammar, rhetoric, history, poetry, and moral philosophy. It was not until the 19th century that this began to be called humanism instead of the original humanities, and later by the retronym Renaissance humanism to distinguish it from later humanist developments. During the Renaissance period most humanists were Christians, so their concern was to "purify and renew Christianity", not to do away with it. Their vision was to return ad fontes ("to the sources") to the simplicity of the Gospels and of the New Testament, bypassing the complexities of medieval Christian theology.

Under the influence and inspiration of the classics, Renaissance humanists developed a new rhetoric and new learning. Some scholars also argue that humanism articulated new moral and civic perspectives, and values offering guidance in life to all citizens. Renaissance humanism was a response to what came to be depicted by later whig historians as the "narrow pedantry" associated with medieval scholasticism.

Renaissance humanists sought to create a citizenry able to speak and write with eloquence and clarity, and thus capable of engaging in the civic life of their communities and persuading others to virtuous and prudent actions. Humanism, while set up by a small elite who had access to books and education, was intended as a cultural movement to influence all of society. It was a program to revive the cultural heritage, literary legacy, and moral philosophy of the Greco-Roman civilization. There were important centres of Renaissance humanism in Bologna, Ferrara, Florence, Genoa, Livorno, Mantua, Padua, Pisa, Naples, Rome, Siena, Venice, Vicenza, and Urbino.

Definition
Very broadly, the project of the Italian Renaissance humanists of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries was the studia humanitatis: the study of the humanities, "a curriculum focusing on language skills." This project sought to recover the culture of ancient Greece and Rome through its literature and philosophy and to use this classical revival to imbue the ruling classes with the moral attitudes of said ancients—a project James Hankins calls one of "virtue politics". But what this studia humanitatis actually constituted is a subject of much debate. According to one scholar of the movement, "Early Italian humanism, which in many respects continued the grammatical and rhetorical traditions of the Middle Ages, not merely provided the old Trivium with a new and more ambitious name (Studia humanitatis), but also increased its actual scope, content and significance in the curriculum of the schools and universities and in its own extensive literary production. The studia humanitatis excluded logic, but they added to the traditional grammar and rhetoric not only history, Greek, and moral philosophy, but also made poetry, once a sequel of grammar and rhetoric, the most important member of the whole group."However, in investigating this definition in his article "The changing concept of the studia humanitatis in the early Renaissance," Benjamin G. Kohl provides an account of the various meanings the term took on over the course of the period. Around the middle of the fourteenth century, when the term first came into use among Italian literati, it was used in reference to a very specific text: as praise of the cultural and moral attitudes expressed in Cicero's Pro Archia poeta (62 BCE). Tuscan humanist Coluccio Salutati popularized the term in the 1370s, using the phrase to refer to culture and learning as a guide to moral life, with a focus on rhetoric and oration. Over the years, he came to use it specifically in literary praise of his contemporaries, but later viewed the studia humanitatis as a means of editing and restoring ancient texts and even understanding scripture and other divine literature. But it was not until the beginning of the quattrocento (15th century) that the studia humanitatis began to be associated with particular academic disciplines, when Pier Paolo Vergerio, in his De ingenuis moribus, stressed the importance of rhetoric, history, and moral philosophy as a means of moral improvement. By the middle of the century, the term was adopted more formally, as it started to be used in Bologna and Padua in reference to university courses that taught these disciplines as well as Latin poetry, before then spreading northward throughout Italy. But the first instance of it as encompassing grammar, rhetoric, history, poetry, and moral philosophy all together only came when Tommaso Parentucelli wrote to Cosimo de' Medici with recommendations regarding his library collection, saying, "de studiis autem humanitatis quantum ad grammaticam, rhetoricam, historicam et poeticam spectat ac moralem" ("concerning studies of the humanities, insofar as they [consist of] grammar, rhetoric, history and poetry, and also ethics"). And so, the term studia humanitatis took on a variety of meanings over the centuries, being used differently by humanists across the various Italian city-states as one definition got adopted and spread across the country. Still, it has referred consistently to a mode of learning—formal or not—that results in one's moral edification.

Origin

In the last years of the 13th century and in the first decades of the 14th century, the cultural climate was changing in some European regions. The rediscovery, study, and renewed interest in authors who had been forgotten, and in the classical world that they represented, inspired a flourishing return to linguistic, stylistic and literary models of antiquity. There emerged a consciousness of the need for a cultural renewal, which sometimes also meant a detachment from contemporary culture. Manuscripts and inscriptions were in high demand and graphic models were also imitated. This "return to the ancients" was the main component of so-called "pre-humanism", which developed particularly in Tuscany, in the Veneto region, and at the papal court of Avignon, through the activity of figures such as Lovato Lovati and Albertino Mussato in Padua, Landolfo Colonna in Avignon, Ferreto de' Ferreti in Vicenza, Convenevole from Prato in Tuscany and then in Avignon, and many others.

By the 14th century some of the first humanists were great collectors of antique manuscripts, including Petrarch, Giovanni Boccaccio, Coluccio Salutati, and Poggio Bracciolini. Of the four, Petrarch was dubbed the "Father of Humanism," as he was the one who first encouraged the study of pagan civilizations and the teaching of classical virtues as a means of preserving Christianity. He also had a library, of which many manuscripts did not survive. Many worked for the Catholic Church and were in holy orders, like Petrarch, while others were lawyers and chancellors of Italian cities, and thus had access to book copying workshops, such as Petrarch's disciple Salutati, the Chancellor of Florence.

In Italy, the humanist educational program won rapid acceptance and, by the mid-15th century, many of the upper classes had received humanist educations, possibly in addition to traditional scholastic ones. Some of the highest officials of the Catholic Church were humanists with the resources to amass important libraries. Such was Cardinal Basilios Bessarion, a convert to the Catholic Church from Greek Orthodoxy, who was considered for the papacy, and was one of the most learned scholars of his time. There were several 15th-century and early 16th-century humanist Popes one of whom, Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini (Pope Pius II), was a prolific author and wrote a treatise on The Education of Boys. These subjects came to be known as the humanities, and the movement which they inspired is shown as humanism.

The migration waves of Byzantine Greek scholars and émigrés in the period following the Crusader sacking of Constantinople and the end of the Byzantine Empire in 1453 was a very welcome addition to the Latin texts scholars like Petrarch had found in monastic libraries for the revival of Greek literature and science via their greater familiarity with ancient Greek works. They included Gemistus Pletho, George of Trebizond, Theodorus Gaza, and John Argyropoulos.

Italian humanism spread northward to France, Germany, the Low Countries, Poland-Lithuania, Hungary and England with the adoption of large-scale printing after 1500, and it became associated with the Reformation. In France, pre-eminent humanist Guillaume Budé (1467–1540) applied the philological methods of Italian humanism to the study of antique coinage and to legal history, composing a detailed commentary on Justinian's Code. Budé was a royal absolutist (and not a republican like the early Italian umanisti) who was active in civic life, serving as a diplomat for François I and helping to found the Collège des Lecteurs Royaux (later the Collège de France). Meanwhile, Marguerite de Navarre, the sister of François I, was a poet, novelist, and religious mystic who gathered around her and protected a circle of vernacular poets and writers, including Clément Marot, Pierre de Ronsard, and François Rabelais.

Paganism and Christianity in the Renaissance
Many humanists were churchmen, most notably Pope Pius II, Sixtus IV, and Leo X, and there was often patronage of humanists by senior church figures. Much humanist effort went into improving the understanding and translations of Biblical and early Christian texts, both before and after the Reformation, which was greatly influenced by the work of non-Italian, Northern European figures such as Erasmus, Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples, William Grocyn, and Swedish Catholic Archbishop in exile Olaus Magnus.

Description
The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy describes the rationalism of ancient writings as having tremendous impact on Renaissance scholars:

"Here, one felt no weight of the supernatural pressing on the human mind, demanding homage and allegiance. Humanity—with all its distinct capabilities, talents, worries, problems, possibilities—was the center of interest. It has been said that medieval thinkers philosophised on their knees, but, bolstered by the new studies, they dared to stand up and to rise to full stature."

In 1417, for example, Poggio Bracciolini discovered the manuscript of Lucretius, De rerum natura, which had been lost for centuries and which contained an explanation of Epicurean doctrine, though at the time this was not commented on much by Renaissance scholars, who confined themselves to remarks about Lucretius's grammar and syntax.

Only in 1564 did French commentator Denys Lambin (1519–72) announce in the preface to the work that "he regarded Lucretius's Epicurean ideas as 'fanciful, absurd, and opposed to Christianity'." Lambin's preface remained standard until the nineteenth century. Epicurus's unacceptable doctrine that pleasure was the highest good "ensured the unpopularity of his philosophy". Lorenzo Valla, however, puts a defense of epicureanism in the mouth of one of the interlocutors of one of his dialogues.

Epicureanism
Charles Trinkhaus regards Valla's "epicureanism" as a ploy, not seriously meant by Valla, but designed to refute Stoicism, which he regarded together with epicureanism as equally inferior to Christianity. Valla's defense, or adaptation, of Epicureanism was later taken up in The Epicurean by Erasmus, the "Prince of humanists:"

"If people who live agreeably are Epicureans, none are more truly Epicurean than the righteous and godly. And if it is names that bother us, no one better deserves the name of Epicurean than the revered founder and head of the Christian philosophy Christ, for in Greek epikouros means 'helper'. He alone, when the law of Nature was all but blotted out by sins, when the law of Moses incited to lists rather than cured them, when Satan ruled in the world unchallenged, brought timely aid to perishing humanity.  Completely mistaken, therefore, are those who talk in their foolish fashion about Christ's having been sad and gloomy in character and calling upon us to follow a dismal mode of life.  On the contrary, he alone shows the most enjoyable life of all and the one most full of true pleasure."

This passage exemplifies the way in which the humanists saw pagan classical works, such as the philosophy of Epicurus, as being in harmony with their interpretation of Christianity.

Neo-Platonism
Renaissance Neo-Platonists such as Marsilio Ficino (whose translations of Plato's works into Latin were still used into the 19th century) attempted to reconcile Platonism with Christianity, according to the suggestions of early Church Fathers Lactantius and Saint Augustine. In this spirit, Pico della Mirandola attempted to construct a syncretism of religions and philosophies with Christianity, but his work did not win favor with the church authorities, who rejected it because of his views on magic.

Widespread view
Historian Steven Kreis expresses a widespread view (derived from the 19th-century Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt), when he writes that: "The period from the fourteenth century to the seventeenth worked in favor of the general emancipation of the individual. The city-states of northern Italy had come into contact with the diverse customs of the East, and gradually permitted expression in matters of taste and dress. The writings of Dante, and particularly the doctrines of Petrarch and humanists like Machiavelli, emphasized the virtues of intellectual freedom and individual expression. In the essays of Montaigne the individualistic view of life received perhaps the most persuasive and eloquent statement in the history of literature and philosophy." Two noteworthy trends in Renaissance humanism were Renaissance Neo-Platonism and Hermeticism, which through the works of figures like Nicholas of Kues, Giordano Bruno, Cornelius Agrippa, Campanella and Giovanni Pico della Mirandola sometimes came close to constituting a new religion itself. Of these two, Hermeticism has had great continuing influence in Western thought, while the former mostly dissipated as an intellectual trend, leading to movements in Western esotericism such as Theosophy and New Age thinking. The "Yates thesis" of Frances Yates holds that before falling out of favour, esoteric Renaissance thought introduced several concepts that were useful for the development of scientific method, though this remains a matter of controversy.

Sixteenth century and beyond
Though humanists continued to use their scholarship in the service of the church into the middle of the sixteenth century and beyond, the sharply confrontational religious atmosphere following the Reformation resulted in the Counter-Reformation that sought to silence challenges to Catholic theology, with similar efforts among the Protestant denominations. However, a number of humanists joined the Reformation movement and took over leadership functions, for example, Philipp Melanchthon, Ulrich Zwingli, Martin Luther, Henry VIII, John Calvin, and William Tyndale.

With the Counter-Reformation initiated by the Council of Trent (1545–1563), positions hardened and a strict Catholic orthodoxy based on scholastic philosophy was imposed. Some humanists, even moderate Catholics such as Erasmus, risked being declared heretics for their perceived criticism of the church. In 1514 he left for Basel and worked at the University of Basel for several years.

The historian of the Renaissance Sir John Hale cautions against too direct a linkage between Renaissance humanism and modern uses of the term humanism: "Renaissance humanism must be kept free from any hint of either 'humanitarianism' or 'humanism' in its modern sense of rational, non-religious approach to life ... the word 'humanism' will mislead ... if it is seen in opposition to a Christianity its students in the main wished to supplement, not contradict, through their patient excavation of the sources of ancient God-inspired wisdom."

The Baron Thesis
Hans Baron (1900–1988) was the inventor of the now ubiquitous term "civic humanism." First coined in the 1920s and based largely on his studies of Leonardo Bruni, Baron's "thesis" proposed the existence of a central strain of humanism, particularly in Florence and Venice, dedicated to republicanism. As argued in his chef-d'œuvre, The Crisis of the Early Italian Renaissance: Civic Humanism and Republican Liberty in an Age of Classicism and Tyranny, the German historian thought that civic humanism originated in around 1402, after the great struggles between Florence and Visconti-led Milan in the 1390s. He considered Petrarch's humanism to be a rhetorical, superficial project, and viewed this new strand to be one that abandoned the feudal and supposedly "otherworldly" (i.e., divine) ideology of the Middle Ages in favour of putting the republican state and its freedom at the forefront of the "civic humanist" project. Already controversial at the time of The Crisis ' publication, the "Baron Thesis" has been met with even more criticism over the years. Even in the 1960s, historians Philip Jones and Peter Herde found Baron's praise of "republican" humanists naive, arguing that republics were far less liberty-driven than Baron had believed, and were practically as undemocratic as monarchies. James Hankins adds that the disparity in political values between the humanists employed by oligarchies and those employed by princes was not particularly notable, as all of Baron's civic ideals were exemplified by humanists serving various types of government. In so arguing, he asserts that a "political reform program is central to the humanist movement founded by Petrarch. But it is not a 'republican' project in Baron's sense of republic; it is not an ideological product associated with a particular regime type."

Garin and Kristeller
Two renowned Renaissance scholars, Eugenio Garin and Paul Oskar Kristeller collaborated with one another throughout their careers. But while the two historians were on good terms, they fundamentally disagreed on the nature of Renaissance humanism. Kristeller affirmed that Renaissance humanism used to be viewed just as a project of Classical revival, one that led to great increase in Classical scholarship. But he argued that this theory "fails to explain the ideal of eloquence persistently set forth in the writings of the humanists," asserting that "their classical learning was incidental to" their being "professional rhetoricians." Similarly, he considered their influence on philosophy and particular figures' philosophical output to be incidental to their humanism, viewing grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history, and ethics to be the humanists' main concerns. Garin, on the other hand, viewed philosophy itself as being ever-evolving, each form of philosophy being inextricable from the practices of the thinkers of its period. He thus considered the Italian humanists' break from Scholasticism and newfound freedom to be perfectly in line with this broader sense of philosophy.

During the period in which they argued over these differing views, there was a broader cultural conversation happening regarding Humanism: one revolving around Jean-Paul Sartre and Martin Heidegger. In 1946, Sartre published a work called "L'existentialisme est un humanisme," in which he outlined his conception of existentialism as revolving around the belief that "existence comes before essence"; that man "first of all exists, encounters himself, surges up in the world – and defines himself afterwards," making himself and giving himself purpose. Heidegger, in a response to this work of Sartre's, declared: "For this is humanism: meditating and caring, that human beings be human and not inhumane, "inhuman", that is, outside their essence." He also discussed a decline in the concept of humanism, pronouncing that it had been dominated by metaphysics and essentially discounting it as philosophy. He also explicitly criticized Italian Renaissance humanism in the letter. While this discourse was taking place outside the realm of Renaissance Studies (for more on the evolution of the term "humanism," see Humanism), this background debate was not irrelevant to Kristeller and Garin's ongoing disagreement. Kristeller—who had at one point studied under Heidegger —also discounted (Renaissance) humanism as philosophy, and Garin's Der italienische Humanismus was published alongside Heidegger's response to Sartre—a move that Rubini describes as an attempt "to stage a pre-emptive confrontation between historical humanism and philosophical neo-humanisms." Garin also conceived of the Renaissance humanists as occupying the same kind of "characteristic angst the existentialists attributed to men who had suddenly become conscious of their radical freedom," further weaving philosophy with Renaissance humanism.

Hankins summarizes the Kristeller v. Garin debate quite well, attesting to Kristeller's conception of professional philosophers as being very formal and method-focused. Renaissance humanists, on the other hand, he viewed to be professional rhetoricians who, using their classically-inspired paideia or institutio, did improve fields such as philosophy, but without the practice of philosophy being their main goal or function. Garin, instead, wanted his "humanist-philosophers to be organic intellectuals," not constituting a rigid school of thought, but having a shared outlook on life and education that broke with the medieval traditions that came before them.

title: Renaissance humanism


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Seven Sisters (colleges)

The Seven Sisters are a group of seven highly prestigious private liberal arts colleges in the Northeastern United States that are historically women's colleges. Barnard College, Bryn Mawr College, Mount Holyoke College, Smith College, and Wellesley College are still women's colleges. Vassar College became coeducational in 1969, and Radcliffe College was absorbed in 1999 by Harvard College and now offers programs in advanced study.

The name Seven Sisters is a reference to the Greek myth of The Pleiades, goddesses immortalized as stars in the sky: Maia, Electra, Taygete, Alcyone, Celaeno, Sterope, and Merope.

20th Century
The consortium was founded in 1915 when Vassar President Henry Noble MacCracken called Vassar, Wellesley, Smith, and Mount Holyoke together “to deliver women opportunities for higher education that would improve the quality of life for the human family and that would put them on an equal footing with men in a democracy that was about to offer them the vote.” The success of this Four College Conference led to the decision to establish a larger and more formal group in 1926 during a second conference held at Bryn Mawr College. That year Bryn Mawr, Barnard, and Radcliffe were added and the group gained the name “Seven Sisters” after the Pleiades. The Seven Sisters in name and standing were meant to mimic the then male “Ivy League”, although Cornell, one of the eight Ivy League school has been open to accepting women since its founding, and admitted Jennie Spencer in 1870.

The Seven Sisters in the early 20th century would meet to discuss various matters including self-government, teaching, and undergraduate issues. At the top of the list was securing more money to increase the endowments of the college in order to match the pay rates for the professors at elite male universities.

21st Century
Each year on a rotating schedule, one of the colleges hosts the Seven Siblings Conference. Each school sends members of their undergraduate student government to discuss matters of self governance, inclusiveness, campus traditions, publicity, and student issues.

From 1982 to 2019, a Seven Sisters Athletic Championship was held between the colleges with events in basketball, crew, cross country, field hockey, lacrosse, soccer, squash, swimming and diving, tennis and volleyball.

The Seven Sister Alum Group was started in 2016 by Smith College graduate Jen McNally. It serves alumni and current students of the various colleges. The group has over 80,000 members, including 53,000 alumni and current students. The organization hosts events, both professional and social, sends out a newsletter, provides career related information, and other resources.

Due the transition of Vassar to coeducational and admission of transgender and nonbinary students at other colleges, some have started to refer to the Seven Sisters as the Seven Siblings group.

Locations
Four of the colleges are in Massachusetts, two are in New York, and one is in Pennsylvania.

In Massachusetts, Mount Holyoke College and Smith College are part of the Five College Consortium with Amherst College, Hampshire College, and University of Massachusetts Amherst. Wellesley College has cross-registration and dual-degree programs with Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Olin College, and cross-registration with Brandeis University and Babson College. Wellesley College has an exchange program with Spelman College. Radcliffe College shared a common and overlapping history with Harvard College from the time it was founded as "the Harvard Annex" in 1879. Harvard and Radcliffe integrated genders in 1977, but Radcliffe continued to be the sponsoring college for women at Harvard until the entities officially merged in 1999.

In New York, Vassar College ultimately became co-educational in 1969 and remains independent. Barnard College was Columbia University's women's liberal arts undergraduate college until its all-male coordinate school Columbia College went co-ed in 1983; Barnard continues to be a women's undergraduate college affiliated with (but still legally separate from) Columbia, and students receive their degree from Columbia University.

In Pennsylvania, Bryn Mawr College, along with Haverford College and Swarthmore College, make up the Tri-College Consortium, which belongs to the Quaker Consortium along with nearby University of Pennsylvania. Bryn Mawr students may attend classes at Haverford, Swarthmore, and Penn, and vice versa. A merger between Bryn Mawr and Haverford College was considered at one point.

History of the Colleges and Women's Education
Irene Harwarth, Mindi Maline, and Elizabeth DeBra note that "independent nonprofit women's colleges, which included the 'Seven Sisters', were founded to provide educational opportunities to women equal to those available to men and were geared toward women who wanted to study the liberal arts". The colleges also offered broader opportunities in academia to women, hiring many female faculty members and administrators.

Early proponents of education for women were Sarah Pierce (Litchfield Female Academy, 1792); Catharine Beecher (Hartford Female Seminary, 1823); Zilpah P. Grant Banister (Ipswich Female Seminary, 1828); and Mary Lyon. Lyon was involved in the development of both Hartford Female Seminary and Ipswich Female Seminary. She was also involved in the creation of Wheaton Female Seminary (now Wheaton College, Massachusetts) in 1834. In 1837, Lyon founded Mount Holyoke Female Seminary (Mount Holyoke College). Mount Holyoke received its collegiate charter in 1888 and became Mount Holyoke Seminary and College. It became Mount Holyoke College in 1893. Vassar, however, was the first of the Seven Sisters to be chartered as a college in 1861.

Wellesley College was chartered in 1870 as the Wellesley Female Seminary, and was renamed Wellesley College in 1873. It opened to students in 1875. Smith College was chartered in 1871 and opened its doors in 1875. Bryn Mawr opened in 1885.

Radcliffe College grew out of the Women's Education Association of Boston, founded by a group of influential women, including Elizabeth Cary Agassiz, whose late husband was a famous Harvard scientist. Radcliffe College was founded in 1879 and chartered by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in 1894. It was informally called The Harvard Annex because Harvard professors repeated the lectures they had given to male Harvard students there until 1943. By 1946, the majority of Harvard College courses were offered to both female Radcliffe students and male Harvard students. The schools further integrated in the 1960s, and in 1963 the first Harvard degrees were conferred on Radcliffe women. Despite having joint admissions, women's degrees would continue to bear both Harvard and Radcliffe seals until 1999, when the merger of the two schools was completed. Since 1999, all undergraduate students have received diplomas bearing the seal of Harvard College, and been identified as Harvard students. Radcliffe College no longer exists as an undergraduate institution, but Radcliffe class reunions take place at Harvard each year. The Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study was created following the merger in 1999, and today offers non-degree instruction and executive education programs.

The Barnard Bulletin in 1976 described the relationship between Barnard College and Columbia University as "intricate and ambiguous". Barnard president Debora Spar said in 2012 that "the relationship is admittedly a complicated one, a unique one and one that may take a few sentences to explain to the outside community". Outside sources often describe Barnard as part of Columbia; The New York Times in 2013, for example, called Barnard "an undergraduate women's college of Columbia University". Its front gates state "Barnard College of Columbia University". Barnard describes itself as "both an independently incorporated educational institution and an official college of Columbia University" that is "one of the University's four colleges, but we're largely autonomous, with our own leadership and purse strings", and advises students to state "Barnard College, Columbia University" or "Barnard College of Columbia University" on résumés. Facebook includes Barnard students and alumnae within the Columbia interest group. Columbia describes Barnard as an affiliated institution that is a faculty of the university or is "in partnership with" it. Both the college and Columbia evaluate Barnard faculty for tenure, and Barnard graduates receive Columbia diploma; signed by both the Barnard and the Columbia presidents.

Coeducation
Radcliffe College and Vassar College are no longer women's colleges. Radcliffe merged completely into Harvard College in 1999, and no longer exists as a separate undergraduate institution. The component parts of its campus, the Radcliffe Quadrangle and Radcliffe Yard, retain the designation "Radcliffe" in perpetuity, and serve or house both male and female students to this day. Vassar declined an offer to merge with Yale University and became independently coeducational in 1969.

Barnard College was founded in 1889 as a women's college affiliated with Columbia University. However, it is independently governed, while making available to its students the instruction and the facilities of Columbia University. Columbia College, the university's largest liberal-arts undergraduate school, began admitting women in 1983 after a decade of failed negotiations with Barnard for a merger along the lines of the one between Harvard College and Radcliffe and between Brown and Pembroke. Barnard has an independent faculty (subject to Columbia University tenure approval) and board of trustees. Columbia University issues its diplomas, however, and most of Barnard's classes and activities are open to all members of Columbia University, male or female, and vice versa, in a reciprocal arrangement dating from 1900.

In 1969 Bryn Mawr and Haverford College (then all-male) developed a system of sharing residential colleges. When Haverford became coeducational in 1980, Bryn Mawr discussed the possibility of coeducation as well but decided against it.

As with Bryn Mawr, Mount Holyoke College, Smith College, and Wellesley College decided against adopting coeducation. Mount Holyoke engaged in a lengthy debate under the presidency of David Truman over the issue of coeducation. On November 6, 1971, "after reviewing an exhaustive study on coeducation, the board of trustees decided unanimously that Mount Holyoke should remain a women's college, and a group of faculty was charged with recommending curricular changes that would support the decision." Smith also made a similar decision in 1971. Two years later, Wellesley also announced that it would not adopt coeducation.

Transgender issues
Since the late 2000s, there has been discussion and controversy over how to accommodate transgender inclusion at the remaining women's colleges. This has risen to attention due to students that have in the course of their times at the colleges transitioned from women to other genders, and trans women applicants. Mount Holyoke became the first Seven Sisters college to accept transgender women in 2014. Barnard, Bryn Mawr, Smith, and Wellesley College announced trans-inclusive admissions policies in 2015.

title: Seven Sisters (colleges)


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Seven Sisters, East Sussex

The Seven Sisters are a series of chalk sea cliffs on the English Channel coast, and are a stretch of the sea-eroded section of the South Downs range of hills, in the county of East Sussex, in south-east England. The Seven Sisters cliffs run between the mouth of the River Cuckmere near Seaford, and the chalk headland of Beachy Head outside of Eastbourne. The dips or swales that separate each of the seven crests from the next are the remnants of dry valleys in the chalk South Downs which are being gradually eroded by the sea.

Some of the cliffs and adjacent countryside make up the Seven Sisters Country Park, which is bounded on its inland side by the A259 road, and is itself a part of the larger South Downs National Park.

Cliffs
From west to east, the sequence starts just east of Cuckmere Haven. The cliff peaks and the dips between them are individually named. Listed below, the peaks are in italics. There are seven hills, with an eighth one being created by the erosion of the sea.

 * Haven Brow
 * Short Bottom
 * Short Brow
 * Limekiln Bottom
 * Rough Brow
 * Rough Bottom
 * Brass Point
 * Gap Bottom
 * Flagstaff Point (continuing into Flagstaff Brow)
 * Flagstaff Bottom
 * Flat Hill
 * Flathill Bottom
 * Baily's Hill
 * Michel Dean
 * Went Hill Brow.

Just east of the last peak is Birling Gap. Beyond, on the top of the next hill, is Belle Tout Lighthouse and beyond that Beachy Head. A lighthouse in the sea marks the latter headland.

The South Downs Way runs along the edge of the cliffs, taking a very undulating course. Many landmarks around the area are named after the cliffs, including the Seven Sisters Sheep Centre.

Film and television
The Seven Sisters cliffs are occasionally used in filmmaking and television production as a stand-in for the more famous White Cliffs of Dover, since they are relatively free of anachronistic modern development and are also allowed to erode naturally. As a result, the Seven Sisters and Beachy Head remain a bright white colour, whereas the White Cliffs of Dover are protected due to the important port and are therefore increasingly covered in vegetation and are greening as a result. They are also featured at the beginning of the film Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves, and at the end of the film Atonement where Robbie and Cecilia always wanted to live.

The Seven Sisters are seen in the background of the Quidditch World Cup in the 2005 film Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, and also when Slartibartfast is showing Arthur Dent the "new" Earth in The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, released the same year.

Much of the 2015 feature film Mr. Holmes was filmed around the Seven Sisters.

The 2019 film Hope Gap, starring Bill Nighy and Annette Bening was against the backdrop of Seaford Head. The film is named after the distinctive area of chalk cliff between Seaford and Cuckmere Haven. In 2020, Jessica Swale's feature film debut Summerland premiered, shot around the Seaford area, featuring numerous views of the Seven Sisters.

The Netflix series Anatomy of a Scandal had shots of the Seven Sisters Cliffs that featured Sienna Miller and Rupert Friend.

An east-facing photo of the Seven Sisters is included as one of the default landscape wallpapers packaged with Microsoft Windows 7.

The Seven Sisters is featured in episode 5 of the Netflix series 3 Body Problem.

title: Seven Sisters, East Sussex


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.hk

.hk is the designated Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for Hong Kong. It is administered by the Hong Kong Internet Registration Corporation (HKIRC), the only organization endorsed by the Hong Kong Government to undertake the administration of 'hk' domain names. Hong Kong Internet Registration Corporation (HKIRC) is a non-profit making, non-statutory, member-based corporation established in 2001.

History
From its inception in 1990 until 2002, the domain was administered by the Joint University Computer Centre. In 2002, through a "Memorandum of Understanding" with the Hong Kong government, HKIRC took over the administration of '.hk', while the Hong Kong Domain Name Registration Corporation Limited (HKDNR), its wholly owned subsidiary of HKIRC, is responsible for the day-to-day management of the registration service for Specific '.hk' Domain Names and Generic '.hk' Domain Name (e.g., www.myname.hk). '.hk' domain names can be registered at both the second and third level.

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title: .hk


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Talk:St. Mary's College of Maryland

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article is or was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment. Further details are available on the course page. Peer reviewers: Jolynknowsthings.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 10:06, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:St. Mary's College of Maryland


text:
RRP

RRP may refer to:

Business

 * Recommended retail price
 * Reverse repurchase agreement

Medicine

 * Radical retropubic prostatectomy
 * Recurrent respiratory papillomatosis

Other uses

 * Rembrandt Research Project
 * Region of Republican Subordination (Russian: Raiony Respublikanskogo Podchineniya), in Tajikistan
 * Rishi Rich Productions
 * Renovation, Repair and Painting, a safety regulation for lead-based paint in the United States

title: RRP


text:
Talk:Florida Keys

Plagiarism in the "Major Islands" section
Sorry I don't have time to properly address this myself, I've gotta run to a final exam. The entire "Major Islands" section seems to be cut and pasted from About the Florida Keys. I noticed it first because it made the article read like a tourist's guide, then looked up the edits and found that part changed as well as that link added, followed the link and saw the plagiarism. If someone could remove the plagiarized text and clean it up, it would be appreciated. Thanks! —Preceding unsigned comment added by Bcherry (talk • contribs) 20:07, 20 March 2008 (UTC)

A map and some photographs would be nice... Anyone? 159.46.248.216 08:40, 6 Aug 2003 (UTC)

Key Biscayne is not a peninsula and not the home of Miami Beach. The only municipality on Key Biscayne is the Village of Key Biscayne. Please see my talk secion on Key Biscayne for further details.

Re: Key Biscayne is its own city - Agreed (I live in Miami-Dade County). Since nobody else has made the change I've gone ahead and done so. --65.3.137.171 03:12, 5 Apr 2005 (UTC)

FL KEYS: Hello. I came to get information regarding the Florida Keys. Nowhere does it say the total length from mainland to the end of the keys. This info would be nice (perhaps 'belongs'?) in an encyclopedia entry. Thanks. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 64.124.12.253 (talk • contribs) 18:34, 21 June 2006 (UTC)

In the same vein as that last point, "About 1700 islands" seems a little vague.D.C.Rigate (talk) 17:59, 22 July 2008 (UTC)

Labor Day Hurricane (1935)
Where does the information about "Flagler railroad workers" being killed in the hurricane come from? The sources I've read say that the many workers killed were WW I vets who were in the keys working on government mosquito control and road-building projects as a form of relief. The hurricane built from tropical storm strength to Category 5 intensity in only a day -- there was very little warning, so it's doubtful anybody had the time to decide that any group of workers wasn't allowed to evacuate. Late on the Monday that the storm hit, a train backed down the tracks from Homestead to evacuate the vets, but it was too late, and the train was washed off the tracks by the storm. Estimates place the number of vets killed at around 400, with perhaps 200 or more civilians also killed. A map of where bodies were found (and burned) was created and hangs in a historical museum in the Keys. DavidH 29 June 2005 17:12 (UTC)

Etymology of key
I have pulled the link to On the etymology of "keys" from the References section because it is quite likely wrong. Cay entered English from Spanish cayo (American English spells it key). Spanish apparantly acquired the word from the Taino language. The Tainos in the Bahamas called themselves Lukku-cairi, or island people, which became Lucaya. (Caton, Michael, 1986, A History of the Bahamas, San Salvador Press, Waterloo, Ontario. ISBN 0-9692568-0-9) --  Dalbury ( Talk )  22:11, 19 December 2005 (UTC)

Key Biscayne
This article says that, "Key Biscayne is not considered part of the Keys by some Floridians. It is, however, part of the same geological formation". The Key Biscayne article says, "It and nearby Virginia Key, while named keys, are not geologically part of the Florida keys". I'm having some difficulty reconciling these. Mark1 20:03, 21 January 2006 (UTC)
 * I knew I needed to get around to this. The best explanation I've found is at . Key Biscayne and places north are barrier islands, built up of sand. Starting with Elliott Key and extending down past Key West, the Florida Keys are exposed ancient reefs, coral formations that are now above sea level, with little sand. Some small islands to the north of Elliott Key, from Soldier Key down to Sands Key, are transitional keys. --  Dalbury ( Talk )  21:31, 21 January 2006 (UTC)

Upper/Middle/Low Keys
I've done some re-org of these Keys groups. Basically, most speak of the "Upper" and "Lower" Keys. The division between these two groups is Big Pine and West Summerland Key. All the keys from Big Pine (including No Name) on down to Key West are the Lower Keys. All the keys from West Summerland and northward are the Upper Keys. There is a geological division between the two groups. The upper keys are made of Key Largo Limestone and are the remains of a reef, the lower keys are made of Miami Oolite and are the remains of built up sedament. The idea of the 'middle keys' is more recent, and usually is used to refer to the area around Marathon and prehaps also Layton. --Emb021 19:33, 24 July 2006 (UTC)

No map???
There's no map in this article? Badagnani (talk) 01:16, 3 September 2008 (UTC)

 * Any map has to be free (public domain or released under a license at least as free as the GFDL). I've looked some, but haven't seen anything suitable. -- Donald Albury 12:04, 3 September 2008 (UTC)
 * I found and added some good maps from the NOAA. --Nricardo (talk) 17:37, 16 November 2008 (UTC)

I clarified the implication of having only a 2 lane highway...traffic. —Preceding unsigned comment added by KeithBeltham (talk • contribs) 06:53, 3 June 2009 (UTC)

Wreckers removed navigational markers?
I have hidden a sentence in the section 'Early history' that said, "A legend says that wreckers removed navigational markers from shallow areas to strand unsuspecting captains ashore." Wrecking (shipwreck) covers the history of wrecking in the Keys. As all salvage from wrecked ships had to be taken into Admiralty Court, there are very good records of wrecks on the Florida Reef. I would note that the only navigational markers of interest to ships passing along the Keys were the lighthouses, and there is no historical record of wreckers removing lighthouses (although Confederate sympathizers removed the machinery from the Cape Florida Light in 1860, but that was to prevent it from being an aid to the Federal blockaders). The travel guide is just repeating a silly story that has no basis in history. -- Donald Albury 03:46, 23 December 2010 (UTC)

Are the Keys cays?
Are the Keys technically cays (also called keys)? Or at least something like cays? If so, it's worth a mention, and any etymological link noted.

I read above, but not sure if there's an authoritative answer... --Chriswaterguy talk 19:13, 22 October 2011 (UTC)

There appears to be some argument regarding Florida barrier islands vs. official "Florida Keys." The Florida Keys are in by definition all barrier islands. The Keys are generally consider the official name Florida Keys and only the ones which are located from Key Largo to Key West. Geologically this is not correct. These barrier islands start in the Dry Tortugas and extend to Fernandina Beach, Florida on the Georgia border. Amelia Island, is not considered or named a Key, but is a barrier island in the classic sense of the word. Historically speaking and by their name sake, "Key" Biscayne is the northern most Florida Key on the Florida east coast and Anclote "Key" not island is the northern most key on the west coast of Florida. "Key" comes from the Bahamian word "Cay" or a small island with no fresh water source. For example; Bahamian Islands such as Andros Island and Freeport Grand Bahama, are not called Cays or Keys. Remote, unattached, uninhabited barrier islands directly fronting on open bodies of water and located only in tropical latitudes, qualify as Cays or in the United States, term Keys applies i.e. Florida Keys. Unsettled argument — Preceding unsigned comment added by 65.32.190.183 (talk) 13:38, 9 August 2014 (UTC)

Middle-Upper divide
I'm finding conflicting information about this divide. Logic would dictate that the longest bridge, that from Conch Key to Long Key, is a psychological barrier, and the Florida DEP agrees (but note that it's the Lower-Upper divide). Lists such as also agree that the Middle Keys begin with Conch. --NE2 07:54, 3 April 2014 (UTC)

Drug smuggling
An IP removed a section here. I don't know if it should be readded. --NE2 04:14, 22 December 2014 (UTC)

External links modified
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A Commons file used on this page has been nominated for speedy deletion
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title: Talk:Florida Keys


text:
Bonefish

The bonefish (Albula vulpes) is the type species of the bonefish family (Albulidae), the only family in order Albuliformes.

Taxonomy
Bonefish were once believed to be a single species with a global distribution, however 9 different species have since been identified. There are three identified species in the Atlantic and six in the Pacific. Albula vulpes is the largest and most widespread of the Atlantic species.

Distribution
This species inhabits warm subtropical and tropical waters of the western Atlantic, and is found off the coasts of southern Florida, the Gulf of Mexico, and the West Indies.

Description
The bonefish weighs up to 14 lb and measures up to 79 cm long. The color of bonefish can range from very silver sides and slight darker backs to olive green backs that blend to the silver side. Slight shading on the scales often leads to very soft subtle lines that run the flank of the fish from the gills to the tail. The bases of the pectoral fins are sometimes yellow. Bonefish can live up to 20 years and reach sexual maturity at 2–3 years of age (when they're over 17 inches (43.18 cm) long). Larvae drift for an average of 53 days. Juveniles often live over open sandy bottoms.

Behavior
An amphidromous species, it lives in inshore tropical waters and moves onto shallow mudflats or sand flats to feed with the incoming tide. Adults and juveniles may shoal together, and mature adults may be found singly or in pairs.

The bonefish feeds on benthic worms, fry, crustaceans, and mollusks. Ledges, drop-offs, and clean, healthy seagrass beds yield abundant small prey such as crabs and shrimp. It may follow stingrays to catch the small animals they root from the substrate.

In the Los Roques archipelago bonefish primarily hunt glass minnows, however this behavior is atypical.

Fishing and cuisine
Bonefish are considered one of the premier fly and light tackle game fish. Fishing for bonefish, called bonefishing, is a popular sport in the Bahamas, Puerto Rico, southern Florida, Cargados Carajos. Since bonefish live in shallow inshore water, fishing may be done by wading or from a shallow-draft boat. Bonefishing is mostly done for the sport, so the fish are released, but they may also be eaten in less developed areas. A typical Bahamian recipe is a split fish seasoned with pepper sauce and salt, then baked.

Bonefish are notoriously wary and great skill must be taken both in approach and presentation when fishing for them. English speaking fishermen often refer to them as “grey ghosts."

title: Bonefish


text:
User talk:Wampa Jabba

Hello there Wampa welcome to Wikipedia! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. If you ever need editing help visit How does one edit a page or how to format them visit our manual of style. Experiment at Sandbox. If you need pointers on how we title pages visit Naming conventions. If you have any other questions about the project then check out Help or add a question to the Village pump or my talk page. Cheers, Muriel Gottrop

title: User talk:Wampa Jabba


text:
Ismael "El Mayo" Zambada

Ismael Mario Zambada García (born 1 January 1948) is a Mexican drug lord, co-founder and current top leader of the Sinaloa Cartel, an international crime syndicate based in Sinaloa. Before he assumed leadership of the entire cartel, he allegedly served as the logistical coordinator for its Guzmán-Zambada organization, which has overseen the trafficking of cocaine and heroin into Chicago and other US cities by aircraft, narcosubs, container ships, go-fast boats, fishing vessels, buses, rail cars, tractor trailers, and automobiles. As of 2024, he has never been arrested or incarcerated and is the single last remaining fugitive on the list of Mexico's 37 most-wanted drug lords.

Career
Zambada has historically worked closely with the Juárez Cartel and the Carrillo Fuentes family, while maintaining independent ties to Colombian cocaine suppliers.

In 1989, when Mexican drug lord Miguel Ángel Félix Gallardo was arrested, his organization split into two opposing factions: the Tijuana Cartel whose leadership was inherited by his nephews and heirs, the Arellano Félix brothers and the Sinaloa Cartel whose leadership fell to former lieutenants Héctor Luis Palma Salazar, Ismael Zambada García and Joaquín Guzmán Loera (El Chapo). The Sinaloa Cartel drug lords were active in the states of Sinaloa, Durango, Chihuahua, Sonora, Nuevo León, and Nayarit.

Since 1998, Zambada has been wanted by Mexico's attorney general's office, when it issued bounties totaling $2.8 million USD on him and five other leaders of the Juárez Cartel.

In 2006, the administration of President Felipe Calderón launched an offensive against Mexico's drug trafficking networks. The Tijuana Cartel, the largest and most sophisticated of the Mexican cartels at the time, received the brunt of the blows. Taking advantage of the pressure being placed on the Tijuana Cartel, other drug bosses, most notably Ismael Zambada and Joaquín Guzmán, began to encroach on strongholds in northwestern Mexico, leading to full-scale war.

Zambada's organization, the Sinaloa Cartel, receives multi-ton quantities of cocaine, mostly by sea from Colombian sources. It uses a variety of methods, including airplanes, trucks, cars, boats, and tunnels to transport the cocaine to the United States. Members of the cartel smuggle the cocaine to distribution cells in Arizona, Atlanta, California, Illinois, and New York. Zambada has been operating primarily in the States of Sinaloa and Durango, with influence along a large portion of Mexico's Pacific coast, as well as in Cancun, Quintana Roo, Sonora, and Nuevo Leon.

In 2007, Zambada was featured on America's Most Wanted, and the FBI has been offering up to US$5 million for information leading to his capture.

In 2011, it was thought Zambada may have had plastic surgery and disguised himself to move throughout Mexico. Zambada headed the Sinaloa Cartel in partnership with Joaquín "El Chapo" Guzmán until 2016, when El Chapo was captured. Since 2016, Zambada is thought to have assumed full command of the Sinaloa Cartel and to be Mexico's most enduring and powerful drug lord.

In 2019 his son, Vicente Zambada Niebla, testified against Joaquín Guzman Loera and recounted the shipment of tons of drugs by his father, and "that his father’s bribery budget was often as much as $1 million per month, with bribes going to many high-level Mexican public officials."

Personal life
Zambada is married to Rosario Niebla Cardoza. He has four sons and four daughters. His wife and sons, Serafín Zambada-Ortiz (alias "el Sera", as of 2018 arrested and released), and Ismael Zambada-Imperial (alias "el Mayito gordo", convicted), as well as his four daughters, María Teresa, Midiam Patricia, Mónica del Rosario, and Modesta, have played an active role in narcotics' distribution and money laundering. On 18 March 2009, his son Vicente Zambada Niebla was arrested by the Mexican Army. His other son, Ismael "Mayito" Zambada Jr. has been sought for conspiracy to distribute a controlled substance in the United States.

On 20 October 2010, some of his relatives were arrested in Mexico City on drug trafficking charges: Ismael's brother, Jesus "The King" Zambada, along with Ismael's son and nephew.

On 18 June 2014, his son-in-law, Juan Gabriel González Ibarra, husband of Midiam Patricia, died after suffering an electric shock at his home in Culiacán.

In June 2020, former DEA agent Mike Vigil revealed that Zambada was "sick with diabetes."

In popular culture
"Don Ismael", a character inspired by Zambada García, was featured in the 2017 television series El Chapo.

title: Ismael "El Mayo" Zambada