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Gaussian gravitational constant

The Gaussian gravitational constant (symbol $k$) is a parameter used in the orbital mechanics of the Solar System. It relates the orbital period to the orbit's semi-major axis and the mass of the orbiting body in Solar masses.

The value of $k$ historically expresses the mean angular velocity of the system of Earth+Moon and the Sun considered as a two body problem, with a value of about 0.986 degrees per day, or about 0.0172 radians per day. As a consequence of the law of gravitation and Kepler's third law, $k$ is directly proportional to the square root of the standard gravitational parameter of the Sun, and its value in radians per day follows by setting Earth's semi-major axis (the astronomical unit, au) to unity, $k$:(rad/d) = ($G$)0.5·au−1.5.

A value of $k$ = $0.017$ rad/day was determined by Carl Friedrich Gauss in his 1809 work Theoria Motus Corporum Coelestium in Sectionibus Conicis Solem Ambientum ("Theory of the Motion of the Heavenly Bodies Moving about the Sun in Conic Sections"). Gauss's value was introduced as a fixed, defined value by the IAU (adopted in 1938, formally defined in 1964), which detached it from its immediate representation of the (observable) mean angular velocity of the Sun–Earth system. Instead, the astronomical unit now became a measurable quantity slightly different from unity. This was useful in 20th-century celestial mechanics to prevent the constant adaptation of orbital parameters to updated measured values, but it came at the expense of intuitiveness, as the astronomical unit, ostensibly a unit of length, was now dependent on the measurement of the strength of the gravitational force.

The IAU abandoned the defined value of $k$ in 2012 in favour of a defined value of the astronomical unit of $1.496 m$ exactly, while the strength of the gravitational force  is now to be expressed in the separate standard gravitational parameter $G$,  measured in SI units of m3⋅s−2.

Discussion
Gauss's constant is derived from the application of Kepler's third law to the system of Earth+Moon and the Sun considered as a two-body problem, relating the period of revolution ($P$) to the major semi-axis of the orbit ($a$) and the total mass of the orbiting bodies ($M$). Its numerical value was obtained by setting the major semi-axis and the mass of the Sun to unity and measuring the period in mean solar days:
 * $k$ = 2$\pi$ √$a$3 / ($P$ √$M$ ) ≈ 0.0172021 [rad], where:
 * $P$ ≈ 365.256 [days], $M$ = (++) ≈ 1.00000304 [], and $a$ = 1 by definition.

The value represents the mean angular motion of the Earth-Sun system, in radians per day, equivalent to a value just below one degree (the division of the circle into 360 degrees in Babylonian astronomy was likely intended as approximating the number of days in a solar year ). The correction due to the division by the square root of $M$ reflects the fact that the Earth–Moon system is not orbiting the Sun itself, but the center of mass of the system.

Isaac Newton himself determined a value of this constant which agreed with Gauss's value to six significant digits. Gauss (1809) gave the value with nine significant digits, as 3548.18761 arc seconds.

Since all involved parameters, the orbital period, the Earth-to-Sun mass ratio, the semi-major axis and the length of the mean solar day, are subject to increasingly refined measurement, the precise value of the constant would have to be revised over time. But since the constant is involved in determining the orbital parameters of all other bodies in the Solar System, it was found to be more convenient to set it to a fixed value, by definition, implying that the value of $a$ would deviate from unity. The fixed value of $k$ = 0.01720209895 [rad] was taken to be the one set by Gauss (converted from degrees to radian), so that $a$ = 4π2:($k$2 $P$2 $M$) ≈ 1.

Gauss's 1809 value of the constant was thus used as an authoritative reference value for the orbital mechanics of the Solar System for two centuries. From its introduction until 1938 it was considered a measured quantity, and from 1938 until 2012 it was used as a defined quantity, with measurement uncertainty delegated to the value of the astronomical unit. The defined value of $k$ was abandoned by the IAU in 2012, and the use of $k$ was deprecated, to be replaced by a fixed value of the astronomical unit, and the (measured) quantity of the standard gravitational parameter $G$.

Role as a defining constant of Solar System dynamics
Gauss himself stated the constant in arc seconds, with nine significant digits, as $k$ =  3548″.187  61. In the late 19th century, this value was adopted, and converted to radian, by Simon Newcomb, as $k$ = 0.017  202  098  95. and the constant appears in this form in his  Tables of the Sun, published in 1898.

Newcomb's work was widely accepted as the best then available and his values of the constants were incorporated into a great quantity of astronomical research. Because of this, it became difficult to separate the constants from the research; new values of the constants would, at least partially, invalidate a large body of work. Hence, after the formation of the International Astronomical Union in 1919 certain constants came to be gradually accepted as "fundamental": defining constants from which all others were derived. In 1938, the VIth General Assembly of the IAU declared,

"We adopt for the constant of Gauss, the value "$k$ = 0.01720 20989 50000" the unit of time is the mean solar day of 1900.0"

However, no further effort toward establishing a set of constants was forthcoming until 1950. An IAU symposium on the system of constants was held in Paris in 1963, partially in response to recent developments in space exploration. The attendees finally decided at that time to establish a consistent set of constants. Resolution 1 stated that

"The new system shall be defined by a non-redundant set of fundamental constants, and by explicit relations between these and the constants derived from them."

Resolution 4 recommended

"that the working group shall treat the following quantities as fundamental constants (in the sense of Resolution No. 1)."

Included in the list of fundamental constants was

"The gaussian constant of gravitation, as defined by the VIth General Assembly of the I.A.U. in 1938, having the value 0.017202098950000."

These resolutions were taken up by a working group of the IAU, who in their report recommended two defining constants, one of which was

"Gaussian gravitational constant, defining the au     $k$ = 0.01720209895"

For the first time, the Gaussian constant's role in the scale of the Solar System was officially recognized. The working group's recommendations were accepted at the XIIth General Assembly of the IAU at Hamburg, Germany in 1964.

Definition of the astronomical unit
Gauss intended his constant to be defined using a mean distance of Earth from the Sun of 1 astronomical unit precisely. With the acceptance of the 1964 resolutions, the IAU, in effect, did the opposite: defined the constant as fundamental, and the astronomical unit as derived, the other variables in the definition being already fixed: mass (of the Sun), and time (the day of $k$ seconds). This transferred the uncertainty from the gravitational constant to uncertainty in the semi-major axis of the Earth-Sun system, which was no longer exactly one au (the au being defined as depending on the value of the gravitational constant). The astronomical unit thus became a measured quantity rather than a defined, fixed one.

In 1976, the IAU reconfirmed the Gaussian constant's status at the XVIth General Assembly in Grenoble, declaring it to be a defining constant, and that

"The astronomical unit of length is that length ($86,400$) for which the Gaussian gravitational constant ($A$) takes the value $k$ when the units of measurement are the astronomical units of length, mass and time. The dimensions of $k^{2}$ are those of the constant of gravitation ($0.017$), i.e., . The term "unit distance" is also used for the length ($G$)."

From this definition, the mean distance of Earth from the Sun works out to 1.000 000 03 au, but with perturbations by the other planets, which do not average to zero over time, the average distance is 1.000 000 20 au.

Abandonment
In 2012, the IAU, as part of a new, self-consistent set of units and numerical standards for use in modern dynamical astronomy, redefined the astronomical unit as "a conventional unit of length equal to $A$ exactly, ...

... considering that the accuracy of modern range measurements makes the use of distance ratios unnecessary"

and hence abandoned the Gaussian constant as an indirect definition of scale in the Solar System, recommending

"that the Gaussian gravitational constant $149,597,870,700 m$ be deleted from the system of astronomical constants."

The value of k based on the defined value for the astronomical unit would now be subject to the measurement uncertainty of the standard gravitational parameter, $$k = \sqrt{G M_\odot }  \cdot \text{au}^{-1.5} \cdot \text{d}  =  {1.32712440018(9)}^{0.5} \cdot 1.495978707^{-1.5} \cdot 8.64 \cdot 10^{-2.5} = 0.0172020989484(6).$$

Units and dimensions
$k$ is given as a unit-less fraction of the order of 1.7%, but it can be considered equivalent to the square root of the gravitational constant, in which case it has the units of au$k$⋅d−1⋅−$3/2$, where
 * au is the distance for which $1/2$ takes its value as defined by Gauss—the distance of the unperturbed circular orbit of a hypothetical, massless body whose orbital period is $2π⁄k$ days,
 * d is the mean solar day (86,400 seconds),
 * is the mass of the Sun.

Therefore, the dimensions of $k$ are
 * length$k$ time−1 mass−$3/2$ or $L^ T^{−1} M^{−1/2}$.

In spite of this $1/2$ is known to much greater accuracy than $k$ (or the square root of $G$). The absolute value of $G$ is known to an accuracy of about 10−4, but the product $G$ (the gravitational parameter of the Sun) is known to an accuracy better than 10−10.

Gauss's original
Gauss begins his Theoria Motus by presenting without proof several laws concerning the motion of bodies about the Sun. Later in the text, he mentions that Pierre-Simon Laplace treats these in detail in his Mécanique Céleste. Gauss's final two laws are as follows:
 * The area swept by a line joining a body and the Sun divided by the time in which it is swept gives a constant quotient. This is Kepler's second law of planetary motion.
 * The square of this quotient is proportional to the parameter (that is, the latus rectum) of the orbit and the sum of the mass of the Sun and the body. This is a modified form of Kepler's third law.

He next defines:

 * $2p$ as the parameter (i.e., the latus rectum) of a body's orbit,
 * $G$ as the mass of the body, where the mass of the Sun = 1,
 * $1⁄2g$ as the area swept out by a line joining the Sun and the body,
 * $μ$ as the time in which this area is swept,

and declares that
 * $$\frac{g}{t\sqrt{p}\sqrt{1+\mu}}$$

is "constant for all heavenly bodies". He continues, "it is of no importance which body we use for determining this number," and hence uses Earth, defining He states that the area swept out by Earth in its orbit "will evidently be" $π√p$, and uses this to simplify his constant to
 * unit distance = Earth's mean distance (that is, its semi-major axis) from the Sun,
 * unit time = one solar day.
 * $$\frac{2\pi}{t\sqrt{1+\mu}}.$$

Here, he names the constant $t$ and plugging in some measured values, $k$ = $t$ days, $365.256$ = $μ$ solar masses, achieves the result $k$ = $1⁄354,710$.

In modern terms
Gauss is notorious for leaving out details, and this derivation is no exception. It is here repeated in modern terms, filling out some of the details.

Define without proof

 * $$h=2\frac{dA}{dt},$$

where

 * $dA⁄dt$ is the time rate of sweep of area by a body in its orbit, a constant according to Kepler's second law, and
 * $0.017$ is the specific angular momentum, one of the constants of two-body motion.

Next define

 * $$h^2=\mu p,$$

where Note that every variable in the above equations is a constant for two-body motion. Combining these two definitions,
 * $μ = G(M + m)$, a gravitational parameter, where
 * $h$ is Newton's gravitational constant,
 * $μ$ is the mass of the primary body (i.e., the Sun),
 * $G$ is the mass of the secondary body (i.e., a planet), and
 * $M$ is the semi-parameter (the semi-latus rectum) of the body's orbit.

 * $$\left(2\frac{dA}{dt}\right)^2=G(M+m)p,$$

which is what Gauss was describing with the last of his laws. Taking the square root,

 * $$2\frac{dA}{dt}=\sqrt{G}\sqrt{M+m}\sqrt{p},$$

and solving for $√G$,

 * $$\sqrt{G}=\frac{2dA}{dt\sqrt{M+m}\sqrt{p}}.$$

At this point, define $k ≡ √G$. Let $m$ be the entire area swept out by the body as it orbits, hence $dA = πab$, the area of an ellipse, where $p$ is the semi-major axis and $dA$ is the semi-minor axis. Let $dt = P$, the time for the body to complete one orbit. Thus,

 * $$k=\frac{2\pi ab}{P\sqrt{M+m}\sqrt{p}}.$$

Here, Gauss decides to use Earth to solve for $a$. From the geometry of an ellipse, $p = b^{2}⁄a$. By setting Earth's semi-major axis, $a = 1$, $b$ reduces to $b^{2}$ and $√p = b$. Substituting, the area of the ellipse "is evidently" $π√p$, rather than $πab$. Putting this into the numerator of the equation for $k$ and reducing,

 * $$k=\frac{2\pi}{P\sqrt{M+m}}.$$

Note that Gauss, by normalizing the size of the orbit, has eliminated it completely from the equation. Normalizing further, set the mass of the Sun to 1,

 * $$k=\frac{2\pi}{P\sqrt{1+m}},$$

where now $p$ is in solar masses. What is left are two quantities: $k$, the period of Earth's orbit or the sidereal year, a quantity known precisely by measurement over centuries, and $m$, the mass of the Earth–Moon system. Again plugging in the measured values as they were known in Gauss's time, $P$ = $m$ days, $P$ = $365.256$ solar masses, yielding the result $m$ = $1⁄354,710$.

Gauss's constant and Kepler's third law
The Gaussian constant is closely related to Kepler's third law of planetary motion, and one is easily derived from the other. Beginning with the full definition of Gauss's constant,

 * $$k=\frac{2\pi ab}{P\sqrt{M+m}\sqrt{p}},$$

where
 * $k$ is the semi-major axis of the elliptical orbit,
 * $0.017$ is the semi-minor axis of the elliptical orbit,
 * $a$ is the orbital period,
 * $b$ is the mass of the primary body,
 * $P$ is the mass of the secondary body, and
 * $M$ is the semi-latus rectum of the elliptical orbit.

From the geometry of an ellipse, the semi-latus rectum, $m$ can be expressed in terms of $p$ and $p$ thus: $a$. Therefore,

 * $$\sqrt{p}=\frac{b}{\sqrt{a}}.$$

Substituting and reducing, Gauss's constant becomes

 * $$k=\frac{2\pi}{P}\sqrt{\frac{a^3}{M+m}}.$$

From orbital mechanics, $2π⁄P$ is just $b$, the mean motion of the body in its orbit. Hence,

 * $$\begin{align}

k&=n\sqrt{\frac{a^3}{M+m}},\\[8pt] k^2&=\frac{n^2a^3}{M+m},\\[8pt] k^2(M+m)&=n^2a^3, \end{align}$$

which is the definition of Kepler's third law. In this form, it is often seen with $p = b^{2}⁄a$, the Newtonian gravitational constant in place of $k^{2}$.

Setting $a = 1$, $M = 1$, $m ≪ M$, and $n$ in radians per day results in $k ≈ n$, also in units of radians per day, about which see the relevant section of the mean motion article.

Other definitions
The value of Gauss's constant, exactly as he derived it, had been used since Gauss's time because it was held to be a fundamental constant, as described above. The solar mass, mean solar day and sidereal year with which Gauss defined his constant are all slowly changing in value. If modern values were inserted into the defining equation, a value of $G$ would result.

It is also possible to set the gravitational constant, the mass of the Sun, and the astronomical unit to 1. This defines a unit of time with which the period of the resulting orbit is equal to $2π$. These are often called canonical units.

title: Gaussian gravitational constant


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File:TheProdigy-MusicForTheJiltedGeneration.jpg

Summary
The Prodigy - Music for the Jilted Generation album cover. Copyright 1995 XL Records. Image uploaded under fair use doctrine.

Derived from a digital capture (scan/photo) of the album/CD cover (creator of this digital version is irrelevant as the copyright in all equivalent images is still held by the same party). Copyright held by the record company or the artist. Claimed as fair use regardless.

Fair use rationale for Music for the Jilted Generation
Though this image is subject to copyright, its use is covered by the U.S. fair use laws because:
 * 1) It's a low resolution copy of a CD/album cover.
 * 2) It doesn't limit the copyright owner's rights to sell the CD/album in any way, in fact, it may encourage sales.
 * 3) Because of the low resolution, copies could not be used to make illegal copies of the album artwork on another CD.
 * 4) The image is itself a subject of discussion in the article or used in the infobox thereof.
 * 5) The image on the cover is significant because it was made by a famous artist.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Music for the Jilted Generation

Music for the Jilted Generation is the second studio album by English electronic music group the Prodigy. It was first released on 4 July 1994 by XL Recordings in the United Kingdom and by Mute Records in the United States. Just as on the group's debut album Experience (1992), Maxim Reality was the only member of the band's line-up—besides Liam Howlett—to contribute to the album.

A remastered and expanded edition of the album titled More Music for the Jilted Generation was released in 2008.

Music and content
Music for the Jilted Generation uses elements of rave, breakbeat techno, techno, and hardcore techno.

The album is largely a response to the corruption of the rave scene in Britain by its mainstream status as well as the United Kingdom's Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994, which criminalised raves and parts of rave culture. This is exemplified in the song "Their Law" with the spoken word intro and the predominant lyric, the "Fuck 'em and their law" sample. Many years later, after the controversy died down, Liam Howlett derided the title of the album, which he referred to as "stupid", and maintained that the album was never meant to be political in the first place.

Many of the samples featured on the album are sound clips from, or inspired by, movies. "Full Throttle" contains a reverse sample from the original Star Wars movie, and "The Heat (The Energy)" features a sample from Poltergeist III, while "Claustrophobic Sting" contains a recreation of dialogue from 2001: A Space Odyssey.

When Liam Howlett came to the cutting room for the final phase in the album production, he realised that all the tracks he had originally planned for would not fit onto a CD; so "One Love" was edited (resulting in a cut of approximately 3 minutes and 53 seconds), "The Heat (The Energy)" was slightly cut, and "We Eat Rhythm" was left out. "We Eat Rhythm" was later released on a free cassette with Select magazine in October 1994 entitled Select Future Tracks. Howlett later asserted that he felt the edit of "One Love" and "Full Throttle" could have been dropped from the track listing.

Artwork
The album artwork for Music for the Jilted Generation was designed by Stewart Haygarth (cover) and Les Edwards (inner). The inner art, alluding to the conflicts of raver versus the police during the era of the 1994 Criminal Justice Act, is particularly renowned.

Reception
Music for the Jilted Generation has received critical acclaim. Rolling Stone gave it three-and-a-half stars, calling it "truly trippy" and saying it "generates universal dance fever". Alternative Press said it "throws much darker shapes than its predecessor" and "slams harder and rawer and covers more ground".

Robert Christgau called it "one of the rare records that's damn near everything you want cheap music to be".

Mojo ranked it number 83 in their "100 Modern Classics" list, Spin ranked it number 60 in their "90 Greatest Albums of the '90s" and NME ranked it number 9 in their "Top 50 Albums of 1994".

On 4 December 2008, radio presenter Zane Lowe inducted it into his 'masterpieces' by playing the album in full on his BBC Radio 1 show.

It was nominated for the Mercury Music Prize in 1994 and is included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die.

"An amazing record," remarked David Bowie. "It impressed me quite a lot."

Samples
Besides the movie samples described above, Liam Howlett also employed a lot of musical material from other artists:
 * "Break and Enter" contains a sample from Baby D's "Casanova". The latter was also remixed by Liam.
 * "Their Law" contains a sample from "Drop That Bassline" by Techno Grooves.
 * "Voodoo People" contains a sample from "You're Starting Too Fast" by Johnny Pate. The guitar riff is based on "Very Ape" by Nirvana and is played by Lance Riddler.
 * "The Heat (The Energy)" contains a sample from "Why'd U Fall" by Lil Louis, "Thousand" by Moby and 2-Mad's "Don't Hold Back The Feeling".
 * "Poison" contains a sample from "It's a New Day" by Skull Snaps, "Amen, Brother" by The Winstons and Bernard "Pretty" Purdie's "Heavy Soul Slinger".
 * "No Good (Start The Dance)" contains a sample from "No Good for Me" by Kelly Charles and "Funky Nassau" by Bahamian funk group The Beginning of the End.
 * "One Love" uses the "Arabic Muezzin" a sample from the ethnic vocals section of a Zero G sample CD by Time + Space Records. The same sample was also used in "Everybody Say Love" by "The Magi & Emanation" which was remixed by Liam Howlett.
 * "3 Kilos", Part One of The Narcotic Suite, is based on a riff sampled from Bernard "Pretty" Purdie's Good Livin' (Good Lovin')
 * "Skylined", Part Two of The Narcotic Suite, features a Proteus/3 preset also used in the musical score by Mark Snow for The X-Files episode "Deep Throat" (season 1, episode 2).

Personnel

 * Liam Howlett – performing, synthesizers, keyboards, sampling, drum-machines, production (on tracks 1, 2, 3, 6, 8, 11, 12, and 13) at Earthbound studios, co-production (on tracks 4, 5, 7, 9, and 10) at The Strongroom, mixing, engineering
 * Maxim Reality – co-writer and vocalist on "Poison"
 * Neil McLellan – co-production and mixing (on tracks 4, 5, 7, 9, and 10) at The Strongroom
 * Pop Will Eat Itself – performer on "Their Law"
 * Phil Bent – live flute
 * Lance Riddler – live guitar on "Voodoo People"
 * Mike Champion – management
 * Les Edwards – inside sleeve painting
 * Stuart Haygarth – front cover
 * Jamie Fry – rear sleeve

title: Music for the Jilted Generation


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title: File:TheProdigyExperience.jpg


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Sam Francis

Samuel Lewis Francis (June 25, 1923 – November 4, 1994) was an American painter and printmaker.

Early life
Sam Francis was born in San Mateo, California, the son of Katherine Lewis Francis and Samuel Augustus Francis Sr. The 1935 death of his mother affected him deeply; she had encouraged his interest in music. He later developed a strong bond with his stepmother, Virginia Peterson Francis. He attended San Mateo High School in the early 1940s.

Francis served in the United States Air Force during World War II. In 1944, while in the Air Corps he was diagnosed with Spinal Tuberculosis. He was in the hospital for several years, and it was while there, after being visited by artist David Park in 1945, that he began to paint. Once out of the hospital he returned to Berkeley, this time to study art. He received both his BA degree (1949) and MA degree (1950) in Art from the University of California, Berkeley, where he studied botany, medicine, and psychology.

Career and artistic development
Francis was initially influenced by the work of abstract expressionists such as Mark Rothko, Arshile Gorky and Clyfford Still. His loose style was most influenced by the work of Jackson Pollock. He later became loosely associated with the second generation of abstract expressionists, including Joan Mitchell and Helen Frankenthaler, who were increasingly interested in the expressive use of color. But Francis never fit neatly into any school of art. He charted his own trajectory as one of the first global artists working around the world.

He spent the 1950s in Paris, having his first exhibition there at the Galerie Nina Dausset in 1952. While in Paris he became associated with Tachisme, and had his work championed by art critics Michel Tapié and Claude Duthuit ( the son-in-law of the painter Henri Matisse).

Between 1950 and 1958 Francis spent time and painted in Paris, the south of France, Tokyo, Mexico City, Bern and New York. His artistic development was affected by his exposure to French modern painting, Asian culture and Zen Buddhism in particular. His paintings of the 1950s evolved through a series of stages, beginning with monochromatic abstractions, followed by larger richly colored murals and "open" paintings that feature large areas of whiteness. After his 1953 painting "Big Red" was included in the 1956 exhibition "Twelve Artists" at the Museum of Modern Art, New York, Francis began a rapid rise to international prominence.

Francis painted large murals for the Kunsthalle, Basel in 1956-8 and for the Chase Manhattan Bank, New York in 1959.

Between 1960 and 1963 he created several series of works, including the "Blue Balls" series. Consisting of biomorphic predominantly blue forms and drips, these works referenced the pain that resulted from the renal tuberculosis that he suffered in 1961.

In the early to mid 1960s Francis was represented by the Martha Jackson Gallery in New York City. He returned to California during the 1960s and continued painting, mainly in Los Angeles, but also in Tokyo where he lived primarily in 1973-4. In 1965 Francis started a series of paintings that featured large areas of open canvas, minimal color and strong line. His work evolved further after he began intensive Jungian analysis with Dr. James Kirsch in 1971 and began paying careful attention to his dreams and the unconscious images they suggested.

Francis' works of the early 1970s have been referred to as Fresh Air pictures. Created by adding pools, drips and splatters of color to wet bands of paint applied with a roller, these works re-asserted the artist's interest in color. By 1973–4 many of Francis' paintings featured a formal grid or matrix made up of crossing tracks of color. Many of these matrix works were large in scale, measuring up to twenty feet long.

After 1980 the formal structure of the grid gradually disappeared from Francis' work. He was extremely active as a printmaker, creating numerous etchings, lithographs and monotypes, many of which were executed in Santa Monica at the Litho Shop, which Francis owned.

In 1984 Francis founded The Lapis Press with the goal of producing unusual and timely texts in visually compelling formats.

During the last year of his life, suffering from prostate cancer and unable to paint with his right hand after a fall, in a final burst of energy he used his left hand to complete a dazzling series of about 150 small paintings before he died. He died in Santa Monica and was buried in Olema, in Marin County, California.

Personal life
Sam Francis was married five times, and was the father of four children. He was married from 1947 through 1952 to Vera Miller, a high school girlfriend, then to California painter Muriel Goodwin (1955–58) then to Japanese painter Teruko Yokoi with whom he had a daughter, Kayo. In 1966 he married Mako Idemitsu, with whom he had two sons: Osamu and Shingo.

He married his last wife, painter Margaret Smith, in a Shinto ceremony in Japan in 1985. Their son Augustus, born in 1986, is also an artist.

International reputation
Because he worked and exhibited in the United States, Europe and Asia, Sam Francis is credited with helping secure international recognition for postwar American painting. His work has been seen most often and best understood in Europe and Japan. In 1991, he was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Associate member, and became a full Academician in 1994.

International collections
Paintings by Sam Francis can be found in international museum collections including those of The Metropolitan Museum of Art, The Museum of Modern Art, New York, The [Norton Simon Museum, Pasadena, California], The Kunstmuseum Basel, the Idemitsu Museum of Arts, Tokyo, the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art and the Centre Pompidou-Musee National d'Art Moderne, Paris.

Auction records
On May 11, 2010, a Francis 1957 painting titled "Middle Blue" was sold at auction for $6,354,500, a record for the artist. On May 15, 2013, "Symphony in Blue," a 1958 watercolor and gouache on paper set the record for a Sam Francis work on paper, selling at Sotheby's for $1,145,000.00. On May 11, 2016 "Summer #1" a 1957 Francis oil on canvas painting sold for $11,842,000. a new world record for the artist. This painting was acquired by the collector Eli Broad. On November 9, 2022, "Composition in black and blue" a 1955 Sam Francis oil on canvas sold for $13,557,500. at the Paul Allen sale at Christies, New York

Foundation
In the wake of the artist's death, the Sam Francis Foundation was founded. Its stated mission is to "research, document, protect and perpetuate the creative legacy of the artist" and "promote awareness of and knowledge about the art of Sam Francis to the public through education and information." The United States copyright representative for the Francis Foundation is the Artists Rights Society.

The Foundation published, in collaboration with the University of California Press, a Catalogue Raisonné of Francis' Canvas and Panel Paintings, 1946 – 1994. The catalogue consists of both a printed book and 2 DVDs which document 1,855 Francis  paintings. There are also photos, writings by and about Francis, and films of Francis at work. Foundation Director Debra Burchett-Lere is currently working on a second volume which will feature all of the artist's known unique works on paper. The Foundation has a page dedicated to locating any "missing works" and is requesting information from any parties who can assist in their location.

Documentary
In 2010, artist and filmmaker Jeffrey Perkins released the documentary "The Painter Sam Francis". The documentary includes film of Francis at work, filmed between 1968 and the early '90s together with interviews with friends, family, and professional associates of Francis.

Tribute song

 * Sam Francis: Sam Francis (1985) song by Lopez Beatles

Solo exhibitions, 1952–1994
During his lifetime the work of Sam Francis was featured in 113 solo exhibitions in museums and galleries. Since his death in 1994 he has been the subject of over 90 solo exhibitions.

Writings

 * Aphorisms, Lapis, Santa Monica 1984 ISBN 978-0-932499-02-8

title: Sam Francis


text:
Experience (The Prodigy album)

Experience (also known as The Prodigy Experience) is the debut studio album by English electronic music group the Prodigy. It was released on 28 September 1992 by XL Recordings in the United Kingdom and by Elektra Records in the United States.

Album information
Liam Howlett was the sole composer; of the additional three members at that time, only Maxim Reality actually contributed to the album, performing the vocals on the last track. A wide variety of artists in the breakbeat hardcore scene in the early 1990s are given respect and namechecked in the sleeve notes of the album, including SL2, Carl Cox, Moby, Tim Westwood, Orbital and Aphex Twin. Experience peaked at No. 12 in the UK Albums Chart and went on to achieve platinum status in that country. It also went gold in Poland.

Reception
From contemporary reviews, Kris Needs of NME declared that "the time-pod to enable future generations to get a handle on what happened in 1992, The Prodigy's debut album will be a much safer bet to illustrate the Rave Phenomenon than any half-assed "40 Bowel-Erupting Rave Greats" compilation. If only to show what killed it, some would say."

Experience received very positive reviews upon its release. AllMusic gave the album 5 out of 5 stars, saying that it "shows the Prodigy near the peak of their game from the get go" and stating that "almost every song sounds like a potential chart topper". Tom Ewing of Freaky Trigger commended the album as "four-minute-warnings, [...] hyperactive ravey blasts which boasted genuine irreverence rather than learned attitude."

Moby credited Experience with changing his perception about dance albums; previously he felt that "dance albums had always failed [...] because they didn't work over the full length of the record. Mostly they were singles collections which was exactly what I didn't want to do," and noted that Experience "impressed me because they'd managed to create a full listening experience which encompassed various styles. This was the kind of vision I had for my debut album."

Personnel

 * Liam Howlett – production, keyboards, synthesizers, sampling, programming, engineering
 * Maxim Reality – vocals on "Death of the Prodigy Dancers (Live)"
 * Simone – vocals on "Music Reach (1/2/3/4)", "Ruff in the Jungle Bizness" and "Rip Up the Sound System" (non-album song)
 * Alex Garland – artwork

title: Experience (The Prodigy album)


text:
IBM PC Convertible

The IBM PC Convertible (model 5140) is a laptop computer made by IBM, first sold in April 1986. The Convertible was IBM's first laptop-style computer, following the luggable IBM Portable, and introduced the 3½-inch floppy disk format to the IBM product line. Like modern laptops, it featured power management and the ability to run from batteries.

It was replaced in 1991 by the IBM PS/2 L40 SX, and in Japan by the IBM Personal System/55note, the predecessor to the ThinkPad.

Predecessors
IBM had been working on a laptop for some time before the Convertible. In 1983, work was underway on a laptop similar to the Tandy Model 100, codenamed "Sweetpea", but it was rejected by Don Estridge for not being PC compatible. Another attempt in 1984 produced the "P-14" prototype machine, but it failed to pass IBM's human factors tests, especially after poor public reception of the display in the competing Data General-One.

Description
The PC Convertible came in three models: PC Convertible, PC Convertible Model 2 and PC Convertible Model 3. The latter two were released in October 1987 and are primarily distinguished by their LCD panels. The original Convertible used a non-backlit panel which was considered difficult to read. The Model 2 lacked a backlight as well but upgraded to an improved supertwist panel, and the Model 3 included a backlight. The other hardware specifications are largely the same for all three models.

The CPU is an Intel 80C88, the CMOS version of the Intel 8088 CPU. The base configuration included $256 KB$ of RAM, expandable to $640 KB$, dual $720 KB$ 3.5-inch floppy drives, and a monochrome, CGA-compatible LCD screen. It weighed just over 12 pounds and featured a built-in carrying handle, with a battery rated for 10 hours (4 hours in the backlit Model 3).

The first model was introduced at a price of US$1995, the Model 2 at US$1395 with 256K of RAM and US$1900 with 640K, and the Model 3 at US$1,695 with 256K of RAM.

The LCD screen displayed characters, but has a very wide aspect ratio, so text characters and graphics are compressed vertically, appearing half their normal height. The display is capable of text and graphics modes of  and  pixels.

The PC Convertible has expansion capabilities through a proprietary ISA-based port on the rear of the machine. Extension modules, including a small printer and a video output module, were provided as plastic modules that snap into place. The machine can also take an internal modem, but has no room for an internal hard disk. The concept and the design of the body was made by German industrial designer Richard Sapper.

Pressing the power button on the computer does not turn it off, but puts the machine into "suspend" mode, which will hold the machine's state as long as battery power lasts, to save on boot time. The CMOS 80C88 CPU has a static core, which holds its state indefinitely by stopping the system clock oscillator, and can resume processing when the clock signal is restarted as long as it is kept powered. The system RAM in the Convertible is SRAM rather than DRAM, both for lower power consumption and less circuitry to fit into the cramped laptop case.

Pressing a lever between the two floppy drives just below the display detaches the entire screen from the unit. This feature allows the use of a full-size desktop monitor while at one's desk, an early forerunner of the "docking station" concept, and similar to Apple's PowerBook Duo.

Reception
The machine had difficulty in the marketplace and was seen as a poor value for money, since other laptops in the market had more built-in features, although it enjoyed some success with business users, who saw its battery life and portability as selling points. Even after the release of the Model 3 in October 1987, which fixed some of the machine's issues, lack of built-in features remained a pain point. The parallel, serial and video ports all required adapters, while competing machines included these as integrated features. The Convertible was heavy, not much faster than the Portable it replaced, had no traditional PC expansion ports (such as serial ports and a parallel port) without an add-on, and had a hard-to-read, oddly-shaped LCD screen. It also competed against faster portables based on the Intel 80286 that offered optional hard drives, from companies such as Compaq, and laptops from companies such as Toshiba and Zenith that were lighter and offered similar specifications, sometimes at half the price. The keyboard was also criticized for lacking several important keys.

title: IBM PC Convertible


text:
Quantitative marketing research

Quantitative marketing research is the application of quantitative research techniques to the field of marketing research. It has roots in both the positivist view of the world, and the modern marketing viewpoint that marketing is an interactive process in which both the buyer and seller reach a satisfying agreement on the "four Ps" of marketing: Product, Price, Place (location) and Promotion.

As a social research method, it typically involves the construction of questionnaires and scales. People who respond (respondents) are asked to complete the survey. Marketers use the information to obtain and understand the needs of individuals in the marketplace, and to create strategies and marketing plans.

Data collection
The most popular quantitative marketing research method is a survey. Surveys typically contain a combination of structured questions and open questions. Survey participants respond to the same set of questions, which allows the researcher to easily compare responses by different types of respondent. Surveys can be distributed in one of four ways: telephone, mail, in-person and online (whether by mobile or desktop).

Another quantitative research method is to conduct experiments into how individuals respond to different situations or scenarios. One example of this is A/B testing of a piece of marketing communications, such as a website landing page. Website visitors are shown different versions of the landing page, and marketers track which is more effective.

Differences between consumer and B2B quantitative research
Quantitative research is used in both consumer research and business-to-business (B2B) research. However, there are differences in how consumer researchers and B2B researchers distribute their surveys. Generally, surveys are distributed online more than in-person, by telephone or by mail. However, in B2B research, online research is not always possible, often because it is difficult to get hold of certain business decision-makers via email. As a result, B2B researchers still often conduct surveys via telephone.

Typical general procedure
Simply put, there are five major and important steps involved in the research process:

 * 1) Defining the problem.
 * 2) Research design.
 * 3) Data collection.
 * 4) Data analysis.
 * 5) Report writing & presentation.

A brief discussion on these steps is:

 * 1) Problem audit and problem definition - What is the problem? What are the various aspects of the problem? What information is needed?
 * 2) Conceptualization and operationalization - How exactly do we define the concepts involved? How do we translate these concepts into observable and measurable behaviours?
 * 3) Hypothesis specification - What claim(s) do we want to test?
 * 4) Research design specification - What type of methodology to use? - examples: questionnaire, survey
 * 5) Question specification - What questions to ask? In what order?
 * 6) Scale specification - How will preferences be rated?
 * 7) Sampling design specification - What is the total population? What sample size is necessary for this population? What sampling method to use?- examples: Probability Sampling:- (cluster sampling, stratified sampling, simple random sampling, multistage sampling, systematic sampling) & Nonprobability sampling:- (Convenience Sampling, Judgement Sampling, Purposive Sampling, Quota Sampling, Snowball Sampling, etc. )
 * 8) Data collection - Use mail, telephone, internet, mall intercepts
 * 9) Codification and re-specification - Make adjustments to the raw data so it is compatible with statistical techniques and with the objectives of the research - examples: assigning numbers, consistency checks, substitutions, deletions, weighting, dummy variables, scale transformations, scale standardization
 * 10) Statistical analysis - Perform various descriptive and inferential techniques (see below) on the raw data. Make inferences from the sample to the whole population. Test the results for statistical significance.
 * 11) Interpret and integrate findings - What do the results mean? What conclusions can be drawn? How do these findings relate to similar research?
 * 12) Write the research report - Report usually has headings such as: 1) executive summary; 2) objectives; 3) methodology; 4) main findings; 5) detailed charts and diagrams. Present the report to the client in a 10-minute presentation. Be prepared for questions.

The design step may involve a pilot study in order to discover any hidden issues. The codification and analysis steps are typically performed by computer, using statistical software. The data collection steps, can in some instances be automated, but often require significant manpower to undertake. Interpretation is a skill mastered only by experience.

Statistical analysis
The data acquired for quantitative marketing research can be analysed by almost any of the range of techniques of statistical analysis, which can be broadly divided into descriptive statistics and statistical inference. An important set of techniques is that related to statistical surveys. In any instance, an appropriate type of statistical analysis should take account of the various types of error that may arise, as outlined below.

Reliability and validity
Research should be tested for reliability, generalizability, and validity.

Generalizability is the ability to make inferences from a sample to the population.

Reliability is the extent to which a measure will produce consistent results.
 * Test-retest reliability checks how similar the results are if the research is repeated under similar circumstances. Stability over repeated measures is assessed with the Pearson coefficient.
 * Alternative forms reliability checks how similar the results are if the research is repeated using different forms.
 * Internal consistency reliability checks how well the individual measures included in the research are converted into a composite measure. Internal consistency may be assessed by correlating performance on two halves of a test (split-half reliability). The value of the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient is adjusted with the Spearman–Brown prediction formula to correspond to the correlation between two full-length tests. A commonly used measure is Cronbach's α, which is equivalent to the mean of all possible split-half coefficients. Reliability may be improved by increasing the sample size.

Validity asks whether the research measured what it intended to.
 * Content validation (also called face validity) checks how well the content of the research are related to the variables to be studied; it seeks to answer whether the research questions are representative of the variables being researched. It is a demonstration that the items of a test are drawn from the domain being measured.
 * Criterion validation checks how meaningful the research criteria are relative to other possible criteria. When the criterion is collected later the goal is to establish predictive validity.
 * Construct validation checks what underlying construct is being measured. There are three variants of construct validity: convergent validity (how well the research relates to other measures of the same construct), discriminant validity (how poorly the research relates to measures of opposing constructs), and nomological validity (how well the research relates to other variables as required by theory).
 * Internal validation, used primarily in experimental research designs, checks the relation between the dependent and independent variables (i.e. Did the experimental manipulation of the independent variable actually cause the observed results?)
 * External validation checks whether the experimental results can be generalized.

Validity implies reliability: A valid measure must be reliable. Reliability does not necessarily imply validity, however: A reliable measure does not imply that it is valid.

Types of errors
Random sampling errors: Research design errors: Interviewer errors: Respondent errors: Hypothesis errors:
 * sample too small
 * sample not representative
 * inappropriate sampling method used
 * random errors
 * bias introduced
 * measurement error
 * data analysis error
 * sampling frame error
 * population definition error
 * scaling error
 * question construction error
 * recording errors
 * cheating errors
 * questioning errors
 * respondent selection error
 * non-response error
 * inability error
 * falsification error
 * type I error (also called alpha error)
 * the study results lead to the rejection of the null hypothesis even though it is actually true
 * type II error (also called beta error)
 * the study results lead to the acceptance (non-rejection) of the null hypothesis even though it is actually false

title: Quantitative marketing research


text: User talk:203.62.171.1

title: User talk:203.62.171.1


text:
Talk:List of computer display standards

Nobody uses these
Are these letter names for screen resolutions actually used anywhere except on laptop/monitor packaging?

Nobody knows or cares what a WHQWVGA screen is 2.124.230.41 (talk) 17:37, 14 April 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:List of computer display standards


text:
File:TheProdigy-TheFatOfTheLand.jpg

Summary
The Prodigy - The Fat of the Land album cover. Copyright 1997 XL Recordings. Image uploaded under fair use doctrine.

Derived from a digital capture (scan/photo) of the album/CD cover (creator of this digital version is irrelevant as the copyright in all equivalent images is still held by the same party). Copyright held by the record company or the artist. Claimed as fair use regardless.

Fair use rationale for 'The Fat of the Land
Though this image is subject to copyright, its use is covered by the U.S. fair use laws because:
 * 1) It's a low resolution copy of a CD/album cover.
 * 2) It doesn't limit the copyright owner's rights to sell the CD/album in any way, in fact, it may encourage sales.
 * 3) Because of the low resolution, copies could not be used to make illegal copies of the album artwork on another CD.
 * 4) The image is itself a subject of discussion in the article or used in the infobox thereof.
 * 5) The image on the cover is significant because it was made by a famous artist.

title: File:TheProdigy-TheFatOfTheLand.jpg


text:
Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire

The Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire were a set of revolutions that took place in the Austrian Empire from March 1848 to November 1849. Much of the revolutionary activity had a nationalist character: the Empire, ruled from Vienna, included ethnic Germans, Hungarians, Poles, Bohemians (Czechs), Ruthenians (Ukrainians), Slovenes, Slovaks, Romanians, Croats, Italians, and Serbs; all of whom attempted in the course of the revolution to either achieve autonomy, independence, or even hegemony over other nationalities. The nationalist picture was further complicated by the simultaneous events in the German states, which moved toward greater German national unity.

Besides these nationalists, liberal, and even socialist currents resisted the Empire's longstanding conservatism.

Background
The events of 1848 were the product of mounting social and political tensions after the Congress of Vienna of 1815. During the "pre-March" period, the already conservative Austrian Empire moved further away from ideas of the Age of Enlightenment, restricted freedom of the press, limited many university activities, and banned fraternities.

Social and political conflict
Conflicts between debtors and creditors in agricultural production as well as over land use rights in parts of Hungary led to conflicts that occasionally erupted into violence. Conflict over organized religion was pervasive in pre-1848 Europe. Tension came both from within Catholicism and between members of different confessions. These conflicts were often mixed with conflict with the state. Important for the revolutionaries were state conflicts including the armed forces and collection of taxes. As 1848 approached, the revolutions the Empire crushed to maintain longstanding conservative minister Klemens Wenzel von Metternich's Concert of Europe left the empire nearly bankrupt and in continual need of soldiers. Draft commissions led to brawls between soldiers and civilians. All of this further agitated the peasantry, who resented their remaining feudal obligations.

Despite lack of freedom of the press and association, there was a flourishing liberal German culture among students and those educated in German universities. They published pamphlets and newspapers discussing education and language; the need for basic liberal reforms was assumed. These middle class liberals largely understood and accepted that forced labor is not efficient, and that the Empire should adopt a wage labor system. The question was how to institute such reforms.

Notable liberal clubs of the time in Vienna included the Legal-Political Reading Club (established 1842) and Concordia Society (1840). They, like the Lower Austrian Manufacturers' Association (1840) were part of a culture that criticized Metternich's government from the city's coffeehouses, salons, and even stages, but prior to 1848 their demands had not even extended to constitutionalism or freedom of assembly, let alone republicanism. They had merely advocated relaxed censorship, freedom of religion, economic freedoms, and, above all, a more competent administration. They were opposed to outright popular sovereignty and the universal franchise.

More to the left was a radicalized, impoverished intelligentsia. Educational opportunities in 1840s Austria had far outstripped employment opportunities for the educated.

Industrial revolution
The industrial revolution, which spread to Austria in the 1840s, has been cited as a key factor leading up to the 1848 revolution, and argued to be a far greater contributor than intellectual developments in the 19th century. The industrial revolution had hurt small businesses and brought poor working conditions, which made ordinary citizens - namely the middle and lower classes - more receptive to revolutionary thought.

Direct cause of the outbreak of violence
In 1845, potato blight arrived in Belgium from North America, thus starting the Hungry Forties. As the disease quickly spread throughout Europe, the major calorie source for the poorer population failed and food prices soared. In 1846 there had been an uprising of Polish nobility in Austrian Galicia, which was only countered when peasants, in turn, rose up against the nobles. The economic crisis of 1845–47 was marked by recession and food shortages throughout the continent. At the end of February 1848, demonstrations broke out in Paris. Louis Philippe of France abdicated the throne, prompting similar revolts throughout the continent.

An early victory leads to tension
After news broke of the February victories in Paris, uprisings occurred throughout Europe, including in Vienna, where the Diet (parliament) of Lower Austria at Niederösterreichisches Landeshaus (Estates House of Lower Austria) in March demanded the resignation of Prince Metternich, the conservative State Chancellor and Foreign Minister. With no forces rallying to Metternich's defense, nor word from Ferdinand I of Austria to the contrary, he resigned on 13 March. Metternich fled to London, and Ferdinand appointed new, nominally liberal, ministers. By November, the Austrian Empire saw several short-lived liberal governments under five successive Ministers-President of Austria: Count Kolowrat (17 March–4 April), Count Ficquelmont (4 April–3 May), Baron Pillersdorf (3 May–8 July), Baron Doblhoff-Dier (8 July–18 July) and Baron Wessenberg (19 July–20 November).

The established order collapsed rapidly because of the weakness of the Austrian armies. Field Marshal Joseph Radetzky was unable to keep his soldiers fighting Venetian and Milanese insurgents in Lombardy-Venetia, and instead had to order the remaining troops to evacuate.

Social and political conflict as well as inter and intra confessional hostility momentarily subsided as much of the continent rejoiced in the liberal victories. Mass political organizations and public participation in government became widespread. However, liberal ministers were unable to establish central authority. Provisional governments in Venice and Milan quickly expressed a desire to be part of an Italian confederacy of states; but for the Venetian government this lasted only five days, after the 1848 armistice between Austria and Piedmont. A new Hungarian government in Pest announced its intentions to break away from the Empire and elect Ferdinand its King, and a Polish National Committee announced the same for the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria.

Social and political tensions after the "Springtime of Peoples"
The victory of the party of movement was looked at as an opportunity for lower classes to renew old conflicts with greater anger and energy. Several tax boycotts and attempted murders of tax collectors occurred in Vienna. Assaults against soldiers were common, including against Radetzky's troops retreating from Milan. The archbishop of Vienna was forced to flee, and in Graz, the convent of the Jesuits was destroyed.

The demands of nationalism and its contradictions became apparent as new national governments began declaring power and unity. Charles Albert of Sardinia, King of Piedmont-Savoy, initiated a nationalist war on March 23 in the Austrian held northern Italian provinces that would consume the attention of the entire peninsula. The German nationalist movement faced the question of whether or not Austria should be included in the united German state, a quandary that divided the Frankfurt National Assembly. The liberal ministers in Vienna were willing to allow elections for the German National Assembly in some of the Habsburg lands, but it was undetermined which Habsburg territories would participate. Hungary and Galicia were clearly not German; German nationalists (who dominated the Bohemian Diet ) felt the old crown lands rightfully belonged to a united German state, despite the fact that the majority of the people of Bohemia and Moravia spoke Czech — a Slavic language. Czech nationalists viewed the language as far more significant, calling for a boycott of the Frankfurt Parliament elections in Bohemia, Moravia, and neighboring Austrian Silesia (also partly Czech-speaking). Tensions in Prague between German and Czech nationalists grew quickly between April and May. After the abolition of serfdom on April 17, Supreme Ruthenian Council was established in Galicia to promote the unification of ethnic Ukrainian lands of Eastern Galicia, Transcarpathia and Bukovina in one province. Ukrainian language department was opened in Lviv University, and the first Ukrainian newspaper Zoria Halytska started publishing in Lviv on May 15, 1848. On July 1, serfdom was also abolished in Bukovina.

By early summer, conservative regimes had been overthrown, new freedoms (including freedom of the press and freedom of association) had been introduced, and multiple nationalist claims had been exerted. New parliaments quickly held elections with broad franchise to create constituent assemblies, which would write new constitutions. The elections that were held produced unexpected results. The new voters, naïve and confused by their new political power, typically elected conservative or moderately liberal representatives. The radicals, the ones who supported the broadest franchise, lost under the system they advocated because they were not the locally influential and affluent men. The mixed results led to confrontations similar to the "June Days" uprising in Paris. Additionally, these constituent assemblies were charged with the impossible task of managing both the needs of the people of the state and determining what that state physically is at the same time. The Austrian Constituent Assembly was divided into a Czech faction, a German faction, and a Polish faction, and within each faction was the political left-right spectrum. Outside the Assembly, petitions, newspapers, mass demonstrations, and political clubs put pressure on their new governments and often expressed violently many of the debates that were occurring within the assembly itself.

The Czechs held a Pan-Slavic congress in Prague between June 2 and June 12, 1848. It was primarily composed of Austroslavs who wanted greater freedom within the Empire, but their status as peasants and proletarians surrounded by a German middle class doomed their autonomy. They also disliked the prospect of annexation of Bohemia to a German Empire.

Counterrevolution
Insurgents quickly lost in street fighting to King Ferdinand's troops led by General Radetzky, prompting several liberal government ministers to resign in protest. Ferdinand, now restored to power in Vienna, appointed conservatives in their places. These actions were a considerable blow to the revolutionaries, and by August most of northern Italy was under Radetzky's control.

In Bohemia, the leaders of both the German and Czech nationalist movements were both constitutional monarchists, loyal to the Habsburg Emperor. Only a few days after the Emperor reconquered northern Italy, Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz took provocative measures in Prague to prompt street fighting. Once the barricades went up, he led Habsburg troops to crush the insurgents. After having taken back the city, he imposed martial law, ordered the Prague National Committee dissolved, and sent delegates to the "Pan-Slavic" Congress home. These events were applauded by German nationalists, who failed to understand that the Habsburg military would crush their own national movement as well.

Attention then turned to Hungary. War in Hungary again threatened imperial rule and prompted Emperor Ferdinand and his court to once more flee Vienna. Viennese radicals welcomed the arrival of Hungarian troops as the only force able to stand up against the court and ministry. The radicals took control of the city for only a short period of time. Windisch-Grätz led soldiers from Prussia to quickly defeat the insurgents. Windisch-Grätz restored imperial authority to the city. The reconquering of Vienna was seen as a defeat over German nationalism. At this point, Ferdinand I named the noble Prince Felix of Schwarzenberg head of government. Schwarzenberg, a consummate statesman, persuaded the feeble-minded Ferdinand to abdicate the throne to his 18-year-old nephew, Franz Joseph. Parliamentarians continued to debate, but had no authority on state policy.

Both the Czech and Italian revolutions were defeated by the Habsburgs. Prague was the first victory of counter-revolution in the Austrian Empire.

Lombardy-Venetia was quickly brought back under Austrian rule in the mainland, even because popular support for the revolution vanished: revolutionary ideals were often limited to part of middle and upper classes, which failed both to gain "hearts and minds" of lower classes and to convince the population about Italian nationalism. Most part of lower classes indeed were quite indifferent, and actually most part of Lombard and Venetian troops remained loyal. The only widespread support to the revolution was in the cities of Milan and Venice, with the Republic of San Marco lasting under siege until 28th of August, 1849.

Revolution in the Kingdom of Hungary
The Hungarian Diet was reconvened in 1825 to handle financial needs. A liberal party emerged in the Diet. The party focused on providing for the peasantry in mostly symbolic ways because of their inability to understand the needs of the laborers. Lajos Kossuth emerged as the leader of the lower gentry in the Diet.

In 1848, news of the outbreak of revolution in Paris arrived as a new national cabinet took power under Kossuth, and the Diet approved a sweeping reform package, referred to as the "April laws" (also "March laws"), that changed almost every aspect of Hungary's economic, social, and political life: (The April laws based on the 12 points:

 * Freedom of the Press (The abolition of censure and the censor's offices)
 * Accountable ministries in Buda and Pest (Instead of the simple royal appointment of ministers, all ministers and the government must be elected and dismissed by the parliament)
 * An annual parliamentary session in Pest. (instead of the rare ad-hoc sessions which was convoked by the king)
 * Civil and religious equality before the law. (The abolition of separate laws for the common people and nobility, the abolition of the legal privileges of nobility. Full religious liberty instead of moderated tolerance: the abolition of (Catholic) state religion)
 * National Guard. (The forming of their own Hungarian national guard, it worked like a police force to keep the law and order during the transition of the system, thus preserving the morality of the revolution)
 * Joint share of tax burdens. (abolition of the tax exemption of the nobility, the abolition of customs and tariff exemption of the nobility)
 * The abolition of socage. (abolition of Feudalism and abolition of the serfdom of peasantry and their bondservices)
 * Juries and representation on an equal basis. (The common people can be elected as juries at the legal courts, all people can be officials even on the highest levels of the public administration and judicature, if they have the prescribed education)
 * National Bank.
 * The army to swear to support the constitution, our soldiers should not be sent to abroad, and foreign soldiers should leave our country.
 * The freeing of political prisoners.
 * Union with Transylvania

In April 1848, Hungary became the third country of Continental Europe (after France, in 1791, and Belgium, in 1831) to enact a law implementing democratic parliamentary elections. The new suffrage law (Act V of 1848) transformed the old feudal parliament (Estates General) into a democratic representative parliament. This law offered the widest right to vote in Europe at the time. The April laws utterly erased all privileges of the Hungarian nobility.

These demands were not easy for the imperial court to accept, however, its weak position provided little choice. One of the first tasks of the Diet was abolishing serfdom, which was announced on March 18, 1848.

The Hungarian government set limits on the political activity of both the Croatian and  Romanian national movements. Croats and Romanians had their own desires for self-rule and saw no benefit in replacing one central government for another. Armed clashes between the Hungarians and the Croats, Romanians, Serbs, along one border and Slovaks on the other ensued. In some cases, this was a continuation and an escalation of previous tensions, such as the 1845 July victims in Croatia.

The Habsburg Kingdom of Croatia and the Kingdom of Slavonia severed relations with the new Hungarian government in Pest and devoted itself to the imperial cause. Conservative Josip Jelačić, who was appointed the new ban of Croatia-Slavonia in March by the imperial court, was removed from his position by the constitutional monarchist Hungarian government. He refused to give up his authority in the name of the monarch. Thus, there were two governments in Hungary issuing contradictory orders in the name of Ferdinand von Habsburg.

Aware that they were on the path to civil war in mid-1848, the Hungarian government ministers attempted to gain Habsburg support against Jelačić by offering to send troops to northern Italy. Additionally, they attempted to come to terms with Jelačić himself, but he insisted on the recentralization of Habsburg authority as a pre-condition to any talks. By the end of August, the imperial government in Vienna officially ordered the Hungarian government in Pest to end plans for a Hungarian army. Jelačić then took military action against the Hungarian government without any official order.

The national assembly of the Serbs in Austrian Empire was held between 1 and 3 May 1848 in Sremski Karlovci, during which the Serbs proclaimed autonomous Habsburg crownland of Serbian Vojvodina. The war started, leading to clashes as such in Srbobran, where on July 14, 1848, the first siege of the town by Hungarian forces began under Baron Fülöp Berchtold. The army was forced to retreat due to a strong Serbian defense. With war raging on three fronts (against Romanians and Serbs in Banat and Bačka, and Romanians in Transylvania), Hungarian radicals in Pest saw this as an opportunity. Parliament made concessions to the radicals in September rather than let the events erupt into violent confrontations. Shortly thereafter, the final break between Vienna and Pest occurred when Field Marshal Count Franz Philipp von Lamberg was given control of all armies in Hungary (including Jelačić's). In response to Lamberg being attacked on arrival in Hungary a few days later, the imperial court ordered the Hungarian parliament and government dissolved. Jelačić was appointed to take Lamberg's place. War between Austria and Hungary had officially begun.

The war led to the October Crisis in Vienna, when insurgents attacked a garrison on its way to Hungary to support Croatian forces under Jelačić.

After Vienna was recaptured by imperial forces, General Windischgrätz and 70,000 troops were sent to Hungary to crush the Hungarian revolution and as they advanced the Hungarian government evacuated Pest. However the Austrian army had to retreat after heavy defeats in the Spring Campaign of the Hungarian Army from March to May 1849. Instead of pursuing the Austrian army, the Hungarians stopped to retake the Fort of Buda and prepared defenses. In June 1849 Russian and Austrian troops entered Hungary heavily outnumbering the Hungarian army. Kossuth abdicated on August 11, 1849, in favour of Artúr Görgey, who he thought was the only general who was capable of saving the nation. However, in May 1849, Czar Nicholas I pledged to redouble his efforts against the Hungarian Government. He and Emperor Franz Joseph started to regather and rearm an army to be commanded by Anton Vogl, the Austrian lieutenant-field-marshal. The Czar was also preparing to send 30,000 Russian soldiers back over the Eastern Carpathian Mountains from Poland.

On August 13, after several bitter defeats in a hopeless situation Görgey, signed a surrender at Világos (now Şiria, Romania) to the Russians, who handed the army over to the Austrians.

Western Slovak Uprising
Slovak Uprising was an uprising of Slovaks against Magyar (i.e. ethnic Hungarian) domination in the Western parts of Upper Hungary (present-day Western Slovakia), within the 1848/49 revolution in the Habsburg Monarchy. It lasted from September 1848 to November 1849. During this period Slovak patriots established the Slovak National Council as their political representation and military units known as the Slovak Volunteer Corps. The political, social and national requirements of the Slovak movement were declared in the document entitled "Demands of the Slovak Nation" from April 1848.

Serb Revolution of 1848–1849
The Serb Revolution of 1848 was an uprising of Serbs living in Délvidék against Magyar domination. The majority of the Serbs there sided with the Austrians. However, there were also some exceptions, e.g. General János Damjanich of the Hungarian Revolutionary Army.

The Second Wave of Revolutions
Revolutionary movements of 1849 faced an additional challenge: to work together to defeat a common enemy. Previously, national identity allowed Habsburg forces to conquer revolutionary governments by playing them off one another. New democratic initiatives in Italy in the spring of 1848 led to a renewed conflict with Austrian forces in the provinces of Lombardy and Venetia. At the very first anniversary of the first barricades in Vienna, German and Czech democrats in Bohemia agreed to put mutual hostilities aside and work together on revolutionary planning. Hungarians faced the greatest challenge of overcoming the divisions of the previous year, as the fighting there had been the most bitter. Despite this, the Hungarian government hired a new commander and attempted to unite with Romanian democrat Avram Iancu, who was known as Crăişorul Munţilor ("The Prince of the Mountains"). However, division and mistrust were too severe.

Three days after the start of hostilities in Italy, Charles Albert of Sardinia abdicated the throne of Piedmont-Savoy, essentially ending the Piedmontese return to war. Renewed military conflicts cost the Empire the little that remained of its finances. Another challenge to Habsburg authority came from Germany and the question of either "big Germany" (united Germany led by Austria) or "little Germany" (united Germany led by Prussia). The Frankfurt National Assembly proposed a constitution with Friedrich Wilhelm of Prussia as monarch of a united federal Germany composed of only 'German' lands. This would have led to the relationship between Austria and Hungary (as a 'non-German' area) being reduced to a personal union under the Habsburgs, rather than a united state, an unacceptable arrangement for both the Habsburgs and Austro-German liberals in Austria. In the end, Friedrich Wilhelm refused to accept the constitution written by the Assembly. Schwarzenberg dissolved the Hungarian Parliament in 1849, imposing his own constitution that conceded nothing to the liberal movement. Appointing Alexander Bach head of internal affairs, he oversaw the creation of the Bach system, which rooted out political dissent and contained liberals within Austria and quickly returned the status quo. After the deportation of Lajos Kossuth, a nationalist Hungarian leader, Schwarzenberg faced uprisings by Hungarians. Playing on the long-standing Russian tradition of conservativism, he convinced Tsar Nicholas I to send Russian forces in. The Russian army quickly destroyed the rebellion, forcing the Hungarians back under Austrian control. In less than three years, Schwarzenberg had returned stability and control to Austria. However, Schwarzenberg had a stroke in 1852, and his successors failed to uphold the control Schwarzenberg had so successfully maintained.