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United States Basketball League

The United States Basketball League (USBL) was a professional men's spring basketball league. The league was formed in 1985 and ceased operations in 2008. The USBL started in 1985 as one of the first basketball leagues to play a late-spring to early-summer schedule. The league quickly became known as a development league for players, with many players moving up to the National Basketball Association (NBA) and many more playing in Europe after stints here. In 1996, the league made a stock offering, a rarity among sports leagues. However, in later years, the league declined as rival leagues appeared and USBL had a tougher time replacing teams that folded. In the last two seasons, the league was mainly a midwestern league, with teams mainly in Kansas, Nebraska, and Oklahoma. After speculation that the USBL might fold after the 2007 season, the league announced that it would sit out the 2008 season and consider its options for the future. In January 2010, the league expressed hopes to resume play in April 2010. However, no further news has surfaced from the league. The final champions are the Kansas Cagerz, who won the title game on July 1, 2007.

History
The United States Basketball League was founded in December 1984 by Daniel T. Meisenheimer, a stockbroker from Connecticut. The league management initially planned to schedule about 40 games during the summer, and started to look for new teams to join the newly formed USBL. Former NBA referee Richie Powers was named the league's vice president and director of operations, while Earl Monroe was the commissioner. Meisenheimer introduced a salary cap of $250,000 per team. The teams for the first season were the Connecticut Colonials from New Haven, Connecticut; the New Jersey Jammers from Jersey City, New Jersey; the Long Island Knights from Long Island, New York (owned by Meisenheimer himself); the Rhode Island Gulls from Warwick, Rhode Island; the Springfield Fame from Springfield, Massachusetts; the Westchester Golden Apples from Westchester, New York; and the Wildwood Aces from Wildwood, New Jersey. Several players with NBA experience joined the USBL: among them Ken Bannister, Jim Bostic, Tracy Jackson, Lowes Moore, Eddie Lee Wilkins and Sam Worthen. Other players who played in the 1985 USBL season would later play in the NBA, such as Michael Adams, Manute Bol, Ron Crevier, Spud Webb and John "Hot Rod" Williams. After the regular season ended after each team played 25 games, the league management decided not to organize postseason games, since many players were going to join other teams for the start of the regular season of other leagues such as the NBA or the CBA. The first USBL champions were the Springfield Fame, that had ended the regular season leading the league with a 19–6 record. Hot Rod Williams and Tracy Jackson were named co-MVPs, while Manute Bol led the league both in rebounds per game (14.2) and blocks per game (11.2).

In 1986 two teams, the Long Island Knights and the Rhode Island Gulls, left the league, and three new franchises joined the USBL: the Gold Coast Stingrays from West Palm Beach, Florida, the Staten Island Stallions from Staten Island, New York and the Tampa Bay Flash from Tampa, Florida. In the same year Nancy Lieberman joined the Springfield Fame and became the first female player to play in a professional league with men. Lieberman debuted in June 1986 in a game against the Staten Island Stallions, playing 3 minutes during which she did not score. In 1987 another woman joined the USBL: Lynette Richardson, who had played college basketball at Florida International, signed for the Miami Tropics. On June 13, 1987, Richardson and Lieberman played against each other during a game between the Miami Tropics and the Long Island Knights: Richardson scored 3 points while Lieberman scored 2.

The top teams of the regular season advanced to the USBL Postseason Festival, a playoffs system that saw teams play single elimination games in order to advance to the final game. On three occasions (1985, 1986 and 1990) no postseason was held, and the team with the best regular season record won the championship. In 1989 the USBL ceased operations temporarily in order to improve its organization, and resumed the following season, in 1990.

USBL Champions
Teams played a single championship game at the end of the playoffs to name the league champions
 * 1985 Springfield Fame (19–6) won regular season, no playoffs
 * 1986 Tampa Bay Flash (22–8) won regular season, no playoffs
 * 1987 Miami Tropics 103 Rhode Island Gulls 99
 * 1988 New Haven Skyhawks 134 Palm Beach Stingrays 126
 * 1989 USBL suspended operations
 * 1990 Jacksonville Hooters (15–1) won regular season, no playoffs
 * 1991 Philadelphia Spirit 110 Miami Tropics 108
 * 1992 Miami Tropics 116 Philadelphia Spirit 114
 * 1993 Miami Tropics 139 Westchester Stallions 127
 * 1994 Jacksonville Hooters 117 Atlanta Trojans 109
 * 1995 Florida Sharks 109 Atlanta Trojans 104
 * 1996 Florida Sharks 118 Atlantic City Seagulls 115
 * 1997 Atlantic City Seagulls 114 Long Island Surf 112
 * 1998 Atlantic City Seagulls 100 Long Island Surf 96
 * 1999 Atlantic City Seagulls 83 Connecticut Skyhawks 77
 * 2000 Dodge City Legend 89 Oklahoma Storm 86
 * 2001 Pennsylvania ValleyDawgs 100 Dodge City Legend 91
 * 2002 Oklahoma Storm 122 Kansas Cagerz 109
 * 2003 Dodge City Legend 97 Pennsylvania ValleyDawgs 96
 * 2004 Pennsylvania ValleyDawgs 118 Brooklyn Kings 116
 * 2005 Dodge City Legend 97 Kansas Cagerz 84
 * 2006 Nebraska Cranes 100 Dodge City Legend 92
 * 2007 Kansas Cagerz 95 Brooklyn Kings 92
 * 2008 USBL suspended operations

Player of the Year

 * 1985: John "Hot Rod" Williams, Rhode Island Gulls & Tracy Jackson, Springfield Fame
 * 1986: Don Collins, Tampa Bay Flash
 * 1987: Don Collins (2), Tampa Bay Stars
 * 1988: Lewis Lloyd, Philadelphia Aces
 * 1990: Jerry Johnson, Jacksonville Hooters
 * 1991: Michael Anderson, Philadelphia Spirit
 * 1992: Roy Tarpley, Miami Tropics
 * 1993: Ken Bannister, Miami Tropics
 * 1994: Stan Rose, Atlanta Trojans
 * 1995: Charles Smith, Florida Sharks
 * 1996: Brent Scott, Portland Mountain Cats
 * 1997: Dennis Edwards, Florida Sharks
 * 1998: Curt Smith, Washington Congressionals
 * 1999: Adrian Griffin, Atlantic City Seagulls
 * 2000: Sean Colson, Dodge City Legend
 * 2001: Jason Lampa, Brooklyn Kings
 * 2002: Kwan Johnson, Brevard Blue Ducks
 * 2003: Albert Mouring, Oklahoma Storm
 * 2004: Chudney Gray, Brooklyn Kings
 * 2005: Nate Johnson, Kansas Cagerz
 * 2006: Quannas White, Oklahoma Storm
 * 2007: Anthony Richardson, Kansas Cagerz

Postseason MVP

 * 1987: World B. Free, Miami Tropics
 * 1988: Bobby Parks, New Haven Skyhawks
 * 1991: Paul Graham, Philadelphia Spirit
 * 1992: Duane Washington, Miami Tropics
 * 1993: Ken Bannister, Miami Tropics
 * 1994: Fred Lewis, Jacksonville Hooters
 * 1995: Charles Smith, Florida Sharks
 * 1996: Charles Smith (2), Florida Sharks
 * 1997: Mark Baker, Atlantic City Seagulls & Brent Scott, Atlantic City Seagulls
 * 1998: Adrian Griffin, Atlantic City Seagulls
 * 1999: Adrian Griffin (2), Atlantic City Seagulls
 * 2001: Frantz Pierre-Louis, Pennsylvania ValleyDawgs & Ace Custis, Pennsylvania ValleyDawgs
 * 2002: Joe Ira Clark, Oklahoma Storm
 * 2003: Darrin Hancock, Dodge City Legend
 * 2004: Marcus Fleming, Pennsylvania ValleyDawgs
 * 2005: Jermaine Boyette, Dodge City Legend
 * 2006: Alex Sanders, Nebraska Cranes
 * 2007: Nate Johnson, Kansas Cagerz

Rookie of the Year

 * 1985: John "Hot Rod" Williams, Rhode Island Gulls
 * 1986: Marty Embry, Jersey Jammers
 * 1987: Muggsy Bogues, Rhode Island Gulls
 * 1988: Ricky Grace, Jersey Shore Bucs
 * 1990: Randy Henry, Jacksonville Hooters
 * 1991: Greg Sutton, Empire State Stallions
 * 1992: Fred Lewis, Jacksonville Hooters
 * 1993: Khari Jaxon, Palm Beach Stingrays
 * 1994: Randy Carter, Memphis Fire
 * 1995: Roger Crawford, Memphis Fire
 * 1996: Mike Lloyd, Atlantic City Seagulls
 * 1997: Mikki Moore, Atlanta Trojans
 * 1998: Kerry Thompson, Tampa Bay Windjammers
 * 1999: Adrian Pledger, New Hampshire Thunder Loons
 * 2000: Jason Lampa, Long Island Surf
 * 2001: George Evans, Maryland Mustangs
 * 2002: Devin Brown, Kansas Cagerz & Corsley Edwards, Adirondack Wildcats
 * 2003: Lenny Cooke, Brooklyn Kings
 * 2004: Tony Bland, Brevard Blue Ducks
 * 2005: Badou Gaye, Westchester Wildfire & John Allen, New Jersey Flyers
 * 2006: Tristan Smith, Long Island PrimeTime
 * 2007: Adam Schaper, Gary Steelheads

Coach of the Year

 * 1985: Gerald Oliver, Springfield Fame
 * 1986: Henry Bibby, Springfield Fame
 * 1987: Gordon Gibbons, Tampa Bay Stars
 * 1988: Dave Ervin, Philadelphia Aces
 * 1990: Rex Morgan, Jacksonville Hooters
 * 1991: Bill Lange, Philadelphia Spirit
 * 1992: Al Outlaw, Atlanta Eagles
 * 1993: John Lucas II, Miami Tropics
 * 1994: Al Outlaw (2), Atlanta Trojans
 * 1995: Mike Mashak, Jersey Turnpikes
 * 1996: Eric Musselman, Florida Sharks
 * 1997: Kevin Mackey, Atlantic City Seagulls
 * 1998: Ray Hodge, Connecticut Skyhawks
 * 1999: Darryl Dawkins, Pennsylvania ValleyDawgs & Kevin Mackey (2), Atlantic City Seagulls
 * 2000: Kent Davidson, Dodge City Legend
 * 2001: Robert Parish, Maryland Mustangs
 * 2002: Francis Flax, Kansas Cagerz & Harvey Grant, Brevard Blue Ducks
 * 2003: Cliff Levingston, Dodge City Legend
 * 2004: Dale Osbourne, Dodge City Legend
 * 2005: Ken Charles, Brooklyn Kings
 * 2006: Bryan Gates, Oklahoma Storm
 * 2007: Dale Osbourne (2), Dodge City Legend

Defensive Player of the Year

 * 2002: Johnny Jackson, Kansas Cagerz
 * 2003: Kevin Freeman, Westchester Wildfire
 * 2004: Immanuel McElroy, Dodge City Legend
 * 2005: Eric Coley, Oklahoma Storm
 * 2006: Anthony Johnson, Kansas Cagerz
 * 2007: Ronald Ross, Albany Patroons

Man of the Year

 * 1986: Jim Bostic, Westchester Golden Apples
 * 1987: World B. Free, Miami Tropics
 * 1988: Michael Brooks, Philadelphia Aces
 * 1992: John Lucas II, Miami Tropics
 * 1993: Al Outlaw, Atlanta Eagles
 * 1996: Roy Jones Jr., Jacksonville Barracudas

20th Anniversary Team
On 21 July 2005 the League announced the players of its "Top 20 and Beyond Anniversary Team" were chosen by a vote of executives, coaches, and administrators that have served over the years in the USBL.

Players
An alphabetical listing of 20 voted players is as follows:
 * 🇺🇸 Michael Adams - Guard
 * 🇺🇸 Herman Alston - Guard
 * 🇺🇸 Darrell Armstrong - Guard
 * 🇺🇸 Ken Bannister - Forward
 * 🇸🇩 Manute Bol - Center
 * 🇺🇸 Don Collins - Forward
 * 🇺🇸 Tyrone Bogues - Guard
 * 🇺🇸 Adrian Griffin - Guard
 * 🇺🇸 Johnny Jackson - Forward
 * 🇺🇸 Avery Johnson - Guard
 * 🇺🇸 Kwan Johnson - Guard
 * 🇺🇸 Jason Lampa - Guard
 * 🇺🇸 Michael Lloyd - Guard
 * 🇺🇸 Anthony Mason - Forward
 * 🇺🇸 Andre Perry  - Forward
 * 🇺🇸 Brent Scott - Forward
 * 🇺🇸 Charles Smith - Guard
 * 🇺🇸 John Strickland - Forward
 * 🇺🇸 Roy Tarpley  - Center
 * 🇺🇸 John "Hot Rod" Williams   - Center

Honorable mention by USBL (2005):
 * 🇺🇸 Chris Childs - Spent two years with the Miami Tropics and then a long NBA career.

 * 🇺🇸 Norris Coleman - Second All-Time leading scorer in the USBL.

 * 🇺🇸 Lloyd Daniels - "Sweet Pea" first showed the world his talents in the USBL.

 * 🇺🇸 Richard Dumas - Proved that his troubles were behind him with the 1992 Miami Tropics.

 * 🇺🇸 Mario Elie - A short stint in 1987 was parlayed into a 12 year NBA career.
 * 🇺🇸 Dennis Edwards - The 1998 Player of the Year.

 * 🇺🇸 Darrin Hancock - Is one of only two players with 3 USBL Championship Rings.

 * 🇺🇸 Damon Jones - The Miami Heat guard played on a talented 1998 Jacksonville squad.

 * 🇺🇸 Tim Legler - The ESPN analyst played 4 great seasons with the Philadelphia franchise.

 * 🇺🇸 Sam Mitchell - Toronto Raptors Head Coach played two season in Westchester in 1985-85.

 * 🇺🇸 Kareem Reid - Known as "The Best Kept Secret".

 * 🇺🇸 Lazarus Sims - Known as "Z".

 * 🇺🇸 Curt Smith - The 1998 Player of the Year.
 * 🇺🇸 Jermaine Walker - A scoring force for 5 seasons for Rex Morgan's coached teams.
 * 🇺🇸 Spud Webb - Set the stage for Arkansas Little men becoming a force in the NBA.

Coaches

 * 🇺🇸 Kareem Abdul-Jabbar
 * 🇹🇹 Ken Charles
 * 🇺🇸 Darryl Dawkins
 * 🇺🇸 Francis Flax
 * 🇺🇸 Gordon Gibbons
 * 🇺🇸 Ray Hodge
 * 🇺🇸 John Lucas
 * 🇺🇸 Rex Morgan
 * 🇺🇸 Eric Musselman
 * 🇺🇸 Gerald Oliver

Notable past players
Source

 * Flag of the United States.svg Michael Adams – (Springfield Fame)
 * Flag of the Philippines.svg Bong Alvarez - (Pennsylvania ValleyDawgs)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Michael Anderson – (Philadelphia Aces, Philadelphia Spirit)
 * Flag of the United Kingdom.svg Nate Archibald – (Jersey Shore Bucs)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Darrell Armstrong – (Atlanta Trojans)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Raja Bell – (Tampa Bay Windjammers)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Henry Bibby - (Springfield Fame)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Mark Blount – (Atlantic City Seagulls, New Jersey Shorecats)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Tyrone "Muggsy" Bogues – (Rhode Island Gulls)
 * Flag of Sudan.svg Manute Bol – (Rhode Island Gulls)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Devin Brown – (Kansas Cagerz)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Chris Childs – (Miami Tropics)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Lloyd Daniels – (Miami Tropics)
 * Flag of Nigeria.svg Yinka Dare – (New Jersey Shorecats)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Mark Davis – (Long Island Knights)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Waliyy Dixon – (Atlantic City Seagulls)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Richard Dumas – (Miami Tropics)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Mario Elie – (Miami Tropics)
 * Flag of the United States.svg LeRon Ellis – (Connecticut Skyhawks)
 * Flag of the United States.svg World B. Free – (Miami Tropics)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Doug Gottlieb – (Oklahoma Storm)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Darrin Hancock – (New Jersey Shore Cats, Dodge City Legend, Pennsylvania ValleyDawgs, Kansas Cagerz)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Antonio Harvey – (Atlanta Eagles)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Vince Hizon – (Pennsylvania Valleydawgs)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Craig Hodges – (Washington Congressionals)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Anderson Hunt – (Miami Tropics)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Mike James – (Long Island Surf)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Keith Jennings – (Jacksonville Hooters)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Avery Johnson – (Palm Beach Stingrays)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Anthony Jones – (Palm Beach Stingrays)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Roy Jones Jr. – (Brevard Blue Ducks)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Eddie Jordan – (Jersey Jammers)
 * Flag of the United States.svg R. Kelly – (Atlantic City Seagulls)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Shawn Kemp - Oklahoma Storm
 * Flag of the United States.svg Rusty LaRue – (Carolina Cardinals)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Nancy Lieberman – (Springfield Fame)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Anthony Mason – (Long Island Surf)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Cheryl Miller – (Staten Island Stallions)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Jamario Moon – (Dodge City Legend), (Gary Steelheads)
 * Flag of Argentina.svg Marcelo Nicola – (Long Island Surf)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Moochie Norris – (Washington Congressionals)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Kevin Ollie – (Connecticut Skyhawks)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Terrell Owens – (Adirondack Wildcats)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Victor Page – (Washington Congressionals)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Simeon Rice – (Philadelphia Power)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Lynette Richardson – (Miami Tropics)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Micheal "Sugar" Ray Richardson – (Long Island Knights)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Cliff Robinson – (Miami Tropics)
 * Flag of the United States.svg LaMont "ShowBoat" Robinson - (Long Island Knights)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Jim Rowinski - (Long Island Surf)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Shawnelle Scott – (Long Island Surf)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Charles Smith – (Florida Sharks)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Curt Smith – (Washington Congressionals)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Mark Strickland – (Philadelphia Spirit, Atlanta Trojans, Atlantic City Seagulls)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Derek Strong – (Miami Tropics)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Roy Tarpley – (Miami Tropics)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Kelvin Upshaw – (Palmbeach Stingrays)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Chris Washburn – (Miami Tropics, Westchester Stallions)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Anthony "Spud" Webb – (Rhode Island Gulls)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Freeman Williams – (Miami Tropics)
 * Flag of the United States.svg John "Hot Rod" Williams – (Rhode Island Gulls)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Lorenzo Williams – (Palmbeach Stingrays)
 * Flag of the United States.svg Ime Udoka – (Adirondack Wildcats)

title: United States Basketball League


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Dumping (pricing policy)

Dumping, in economics, is a form of predatory pricing, especially in the context of international trade. It occurs when manufacturers export a product to another country at a price below the normal price with an injuring effect. The objective of dumping is to increase market share in a foreign market by driving out competition and thereby create a monopoly situation where the exporter will be able to unilaterally dictate price and quality of the product. Trade treaties might include mechanisms to alleviate problems related to dumping, such as countervailing duty penalties and anti-dumping statutes.

Overview
A standard technical definition of dumping is the act of charging a lower price for the like product in a foreign market than the normal value of the product, for example the price of the same product in a domestic market of the exporter or in a third country market. This is often referred to as selling at less than "normal value" on the same level of trade in the ordinary course of trade. Under the World Trade Organization's Antidumping Agreement, full name Agreement on Implementation of Article VI of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994, dumping is not prohibited unless it causes or threatens to cause material injury to a domestic industry in the importing country. Dumping is also prohibited when it causes "material retardation" in the establishment of an industry in the domestic market.

The term has a negative connotation, as advocates of competitive markets see "dumping" as a form of unfair competition. Furthermore, advocates for workers and laborers believe that safeguarding businesses against such practices, such as dumping, help alleviate some of the harsher consequences of such practices between economies at different stages of development (see protectionism). The Bolkestein directive, for example, was accused in Europe of being a form of "social dumping", as it favored competition between workers, as exemplified by the Polish plumber stereotype. While there are few examples of a national scale dumping that succeeded in producing a national-level monopoly, there are several examples of local 'dumping' that produced a monopoly in regional markets for certain industries. Ron Chernow points to the example of regional oil monopolies in Titan: The Life of John D. Rockefeller, Sr. where lining an approved strategy where oil in one market, Cincinnati, would be sold at or below cost to drive competition's profits down and force them to exit the market. In another area where other independent businesses were already driven out, namely in Chicago, prices would be increased by a quarter.

Third country dumping refers to a situation in which exports of a product from one country are being injured or threatened with injury because of exports of a product from a second country into a third country at less than fair value.

Legal issues
If a company exports a product at a price that is lower than the price it normally charges in its own home market, or sells at a price that does not meet its full cost of production, it is said to be "dumping" the product. It is a sub part of the various forms of price discrimination and is classified as third-degree price discrimination. Opinions differ as to whether or not such practice constitutes unfair competition, but many governments take action against dumping to protect domestic industry. The WTO agreement does not pass judgment. Its focus is on how governments can or cannot react to dumping—it disciplines anti-dumping actions, and it is often called the "anti-dumping agreement". (This focus only on the reaction to dumping contrasts with the approach of the subsidies and countervailing measures agreement.)

The legal definitions are more precise, but broadly speaking, the WTO agreement allows governments to act against dumping where there is genuine ("material") injury to the competing domestic industry. To do so, the government has to show that dumping is taking place, calculate the extent of dumping (how much lower the export price is compared to the exporter's home market price), and show that the dumping is causing injury or threatening to cause injury.

Definitions and extent
While permitted by the WTO, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) (Article VI) allows countries the option of taking action against dumping. The Anti-Dumping Agreement clarifies and expands Article VI, and the two operate together. They allow countries to act in a way that would normally break the GATT principles of binding a tariff and not discriminating between trading partners—typically anti-dumping action means charging extra import duty on the particular product from the particular exporting country, in order to bring its price closer to the "normal value" or to remove the injury to domestic industry in the importing country.

There are many different ways of calculating whether a particular product is being dumped heavily or only lightly. The agreement narrows down the range of possible options, providing three methods to calculate a product's "normal value". The main one is based on the price in the exporter's domestic market. When this cannot be used, two alternatives are available, the price charged by the exporter in another country, or a calculation based on the combination of the exporter's production costs, other expenses and normal profit margins. The agreement also specifies how a fair comparison can be made between the export price and what would be a normal price.

Five-percent rule
According to footnote 2 to the Anti-Dumping Agreement, domestic sales of the like product are sufficient to base normal value on if they account for 5 percent or more of the sales of the product under consideration to the importing country market. This is often called the five-percent or home-market-viability test. This test is applied globally by comparing the quantity sold of a like product on the domestic market with the quantity sold to the importing market.

Normal value cannot be based on the price in the exporter's domestic market when there are no domestic sales, for example if the products are only sold on the foreign market. The normal value will then have to be determined on another basis. Additionally, some products may be sold on both markets but the quantity sold on the domestic market may be small compared to quantity sold on a foreign market. This situation happens often in countries with small domestic markets like Hong Kong and Singapore, though similar circumstances may also happen in larger markets. This is because of differences in factors like consumer taste and maintenance.

Calculating the extent of dumping on a product is not enough. Anti-dumping measures can only be applied if the act of dumping is harming the industry in the importing country. Therefore, a detailed investigation must first be conducted according to specified rules. The investigation must evaluate all relevant economic factors that have a bearing on the state of the industry in question; if it is revealed that dumping is taking place and hurting domestic industry, the exporting company can raise its price to an agreed level in order to avoid anti-dumping import duties.

Procedures in investigation and litigation
Detailed procedures are set out on how anti-dumping cases are to be initiated, how the investigations are to be conducted, and the conditions for ensuring that all interested parties are given an opportunity to present evidence. Anti-dumping measures must expire five years after the date of imposition, unless a review shows that ending the measure would lead to injury.

Generally speaking, an anti-dumping investigation usually develops along the following steps: domestic producers make a request to the relevant authority to initiate an anti-dumping investigation. Then investigation to the foreign producer is conducted to determine if the allegation is valid. It uses questionnaires completed by the interested parties to compare the foreign producer's (or producers') export price to the normal value (the price in the exporter's domestic market, the price charged by the exporter in another country, or a calculation based on the combination of the exporter's production costs, other expenses and normal profit margins). If the foreign producer's export price is lower than the normal price and the investigating body proves a causal link between the alleged dumping and the injury suffered by the domestic industry, it comes to a conclusion that the foreign producer is dumping its products. According to Article VI of GATT, dumping investigations shall, except in special circumstances, be concluded within one year, and in no case more than 18 months after initiation. Anti-dumping measures must expire five years after the date of imposition, unless a review shows that ending the measure would lead to injury.

Anti-dumping investigations are to end immediately in cases where the authorities determine that the margin of dumping is, de minimis, or insignificantly small (defined as less than 2% of the export price of the product). Other conditions are also set. For example, the investigations also have to end if the volume of dumped imports is negligible (i.e., if the volume from one country is less than 3% of total imports of that product—although investigations can proceed if several countries, each supplying less than 3% of the imports, together account for 7% or more of total imports).

The agreement says member countries must inform the Committee on Anti-Dumping Practices about all preliminary and final anti-dumping actions, promptly and in detail. They must also report on all investigations twice a year. When differences arise, members are encouraged to consult each other. They can also use the WTO's dispute settlement procedure.

Actions in the United States
In the United States, domestic firms can file an anti-dumping petition under the regulations determined by the U.S. Department of Commerce, which determines "less than fair value" and the International Trade Commission, which determines "injury". These proceedings operate on a timetable governed by U.S. law. The Department of Commerce has regularly found that products have been sold at less than fair value in U.S. markets. If the domestic industry is able to establish that it is being injured by the dumping, then anti-dumping duties are imposed on goods imported from the dumpers' country at a percentage rate calculated to counteract the dumping margin. In 2021, this happened when the US Aluminum Association filed a complaint to the Department of Commerce against Armenia and several other countries claiming that due to "aggressively low-priced import of the aluminum", it is being sold at less than fair value. Because of that Biden administration has introduced an anti-dumping measure of Armenian exporters being obliged to pay a deposit equal to 188.4% of the product value at the Customs.

Related to anti-dumping duties are "countervailing duties". The difference is that countervailing duties seek to offset injurious subsidization while anti-dumping duties offset injurious dumping.

Some commentators have noted that domestic protectionism, and lack of knowledge regarding foreign cost of production, lead to the unpredictable institutional process surrounding investigation. Members of the WTO can file complaints against anti-dumping measures.

Because of the 1997 Asian financial crisis, October 27, 1997 mini-crash, and 1998 Russian financial crisis, the United States steel producers were severely harmed by a record surge of more than 40 million tons of cheap steel imports, resulting in the loss of more than 10,000 steel production jobs in 1998, and was the imminent cause of three bankruptcies by medium-sized steel companies (Acme Steel, Laclede Steel, and Geneva Steel), reduced volume, lower prices, and affecting the willingness of private banks and investment institutions to make loans to the U.S. steel producers. As a result, Congress passed the Emergency Steel Loan Guarantee and Emergency Oil and Gas Guaranteed Loan Act of 1999, also known as the Emergency Steel Loan Guarantee Act of 1999.

Third country dumping
Section 1318 of the Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act of 1988 (PL 100-418) establishes procedures for US industries to petition the US Trade Representative to request a foreign government that is a signatory to the GATT Anti-Dumping Code to initiate an antidumping investigation on behalf of a US industry that claims it is being injured by dumping in that country's market.

Actions in the European Union
European Union anti-dumping actions are under the purview of the European Commission. The Commission is obliged to launch an anti-dumping investigation if it receives a valid complaint from an EU industry providing sufficient evidence that exporting producers from one or more countries are dumping a particular product onto the EU market and causing injury to the EU industry. Regulation (EC) No 2423/88 was the first regulation applicable to this policy field.

Later actions were governed by Council Regulation (EC) No 384/96 of 22 December 1995 on protection against dumped imports from countries not members of the European Community (as it then was), and Council Regulation (EC) No 1225/2009 of 30 November 2009 on protection against dumped imports from countries not members of the European Community. However, implementation of anti-dumping actions (trade defence actions) is taken after voting by various committees with member state representation.

Regulation (EC) No 384/96 was repealed by Regulation (EC) No 1225/2009; however, the repeal of the 1996 regulation did not prejudice the validity of proceedings already underway. Regulation (EU) 2016/1036 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 8 June 2016 on protection against dumped imports from countries not members of the European Union (codification) now applies.

EU regulations provide for a compulsory "lesser duty rule", which states that the level of the duty imposed must be limited to "the minimum level necessary to offset [the] injury" caused to the EU industry. The European Commission put forward a proposal in 2013 which would remove the "lesser duty rule" in some cases, where circumvention of the rules, subsidies, or "structural raw material distortions" are in operation, i.e. where states "interfere [with] trade of raw materials with a view to keeping raw materials in those countries for the benefit of domestic downstream users, for instance by imposing export taxes or operating dual pricing schemes". The European Parliament and the Council agreed in the modernisation of EU trade defence legislation that the rule would no longer apply in anti-subsidy proceedings from mid-2018.

The bureaucratic entity responsible for advising member states on anti-dumping actions is the Directorate General Trade (DG Trade) in Brussels. Community industry can apply to have an anti-dumping investigation begin. DG Trade first investigates the standing of the complainants. If they are found to represent at least 25% of community industry, the investigation will probably begin. The process is guided by quite specific guidance in the regulations. The DG Trade will make a recommendation to a committee known as the Anti-Dumping Advisory Committee, on which each member state has one vote. Member states abstaining will be treated as if they voted in favour of industrial protection, a voting system which has come under considerable criticism.

As is implied by the criterion for beginning an investigation, EU anti-dumping actions are primarily considered part of a "trade defence" portfolio. Consumer interests and non-industry related interests ("community interests") are not emphasized during an investigation. An investigation typically looks for damage caused by dumping to community producers, and the level of tariff set is based on the damage done to community producers by dumping.

If no consensus is reached, the decision is referred to the European Council.

If imposed, theoretically duties last for five years. In practice they last at least a year longer, because expiry reviews are usually initiated at the end of the five years, and during the review process the status quo is maintained.

An example of an anti-dumping duty action taken by the European Union is that of the duty imposed upon bicycle imports from China into the EU, which has recently be continued at a rate of 48.5%. The tax has also been extended to imports from Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka and Tunisia. However, some companies are excluded or have a reduced rate.

Common Agricultural Policy
The Common Agricultural Policy of the European Union has often been accused of dumping despite significant reforms, as part of the Agreement on Agriculture at the Uruguay round of GATT negotiations in 1992 and in subsequent incremental reforms, notably the Luxembourg Agreement in 2003. Initially, the CAP sought to increase European agricultural production and provide support to European farmers through a process of market intervention whereby a special fund, the European Agricultural Guidance and Guarantee Fund, would buy up surplus agricultural produce if the price fell below the centrally-determined intervention level.

European farmers were given a "guaranteed" price for their produce when it was sold in the European Community, and a system of export reimbursements ensured that European exports would sell at or below world prices, at no detriment to the European producer. The policy was heavily criticised as distorting world trade, and since 1992, the policy has moved away from market intervention and towards direct payments to farmers regardless of production, called "decoupling". Furthermore, the payments are generally dependent on farmers fulfilling certain environmental or animal welfare requirements to encourage responsible, sustainable farming in what is termed "multifunctional" agricultural subsidies. Social, environmental and other benefits of subsidies would no longer not include a simple increase in production.

Chinese economic situation
The dumping investigation essentially compares domestic prices of the accused dumping nation with prices of the imported product on the European market. However, several rules are applied to the data before the dumping margin is calculated. Most contentious is the concept of "analogue market". Some exporting nations are not granted "market economy status" by the EU: China is a prime example because its market status is considered "state-sponsored capitalism". In such cases, the DG Trade is prevented from using domestic prices as the fair measure of the domestic price. A particular export industry may also lose market status if the DG Trade concludes that this industry receives government assistance. Other tests applied include the application of international accounting standards and bankruptcy laws.

The consequences of not being granted market economy status have a big impact on the investigation. For example, if China is accused of dumping widgets, the basic approach is to consider the price of widgets in China against the price of Chinese widgets in Europe. But China does not have market economy status, so Chinese domestic prices cannot be used as the reference. Instead, the DG Trade must decide upon an analogue market: a market which does have market economy status, and which is similar enough to China. Brazil and Mexico have been used, but the United States is a popular analogue market. In this case, the price of widgets in the United States is regarded as the substitute for the price of widgets in China. This process of choosing an analogue market is subject to the influence of the complainant, which has led to some criticism that it is an inherent bias in the process.

Critics have argued that it is quite unreasonable to compare China's goods price to the United States as analogue. China is now developing to a more free and open market, unlike its planned-economy in the early 1960s, the market in China is more willing to embrace the global competition. It is thus required to improve its market regulations and conquer the free trade barriers to improve the situation and produce a properly judged pricing level to assess the "dumping" behaviour.

India
The current set of anti-dumping laws in India is defined by Section 9A and 9B of Customs and Tariffs Act, 1975 (Amended 1995) and The Anti-dumping rules such as (Identification, Assessment and Collection of Anti-dumping Duty on Dumped Articles and for Determination of Injury) Rules of 1995, Section 9A of customs and tariffs Act 1975 states that "If any article is exported from any country or territory to India at less than its normal value, then, upon the importation of such article into India, the central government may by notification in the official gazette, impose an anti-dumping duty not exceeding the margin of dumping in relation to such article." As of November 28, 2016, 353 anti-dumping cases has been initiated by Directorate General of Anti-Dumping and Allied Duties (DGAD) out of which in one hundred and thirty cases, anti-dumping measures are in force. In January 2017, the Indian government imposed anti-dumping duty on colour coated steel products imported from the European Union and China for 6 months.

Though, the move was applauded by Essar Steel India Commercial Director, H Shivram Krishnan but, importers expressed their concern regarding protective measures like minimum import price and anti-dumping duty especially when domestic is narrowing and imports are falling.

On July, 2015, the government imposed anti-dumping duty on fibreboard imported from Indonesia and Vietnam. This came after CEO and joint-Managing Director of Greenply Industries, Shobhan Mittal filed an application for anti-dumping probe initiation. The primary reason behind the probe was that the price differential between domestic and imported MDF stood at 5–6 percent and net MDF imports was at around 30–35 percent, majority of which came from Indonesia and Vietnam.

On 8 March 2017, the government of India imposed anti-dumping duty ranging from US$6.30 to US$351.72 per tonne on imports of jute and its products from Bangladesh and Nepal. Later the government of India withdrew the anti-dumping duty in case of Nepal.

On 26 October 2017, India imposed anti-dumping duty on stainless steel from US, EU and China.

India has imposed anti-dumping duty on certain stainless steel products from the European Union and other nations including China and Korea, in order to protect the domestic industry from cheap imports.

The duty was imposed by the Revenue department following the recommendation by the Directorate General of Anti-Dumping and Allied Duties (DGAD).

 * The levied duty will range between 4.58 per cent and 57.39 per cent of the landed value of cold-rolled flat products of stainless steel.
 * The anti-dumping duty will be in effect until 10 December 2020.
 * The direction however, exempts certain grades of stainless steel from the duty.
 * The duty will be levied on the imports of stainless steel products from China, Taiwan, South Korea, South Africa, Thailand, the United States and the European Union.

On 22nd December 2023, India imposed anti-dumping duty on the imports of industrial laser machines, including laser cutting, marking, and welding machines, originating in or exported from China. The duty was imposed by the Revenue department by the recommendation of the Directorate General of Anti-Dumping and Allied Duties (DGAD). Exemptions
 * The Central Government has imposed anti-dumping duties ranging from 24.66% to 147.20% of the CIF value on industrial laser machines imported from China.
 * The duty applies to imports from China, regardless of the country of export.
 * The anti-dumping duty will be in effect for 5 years from the date of notification, unless revoked or amended earlier.
 * The anti-dumping duty does not apply to imports of industrial laser machines produced by certain Chinese producers, who were found to not be dumping.

Israel
Israel's anti-dumping and countervailing duty tribunal is the Trade Levies Commission.

Abuse of anti-dumping measures
Although anti-dumping measures play a vital rule in preventing protectionism and promote free trade, many instances of anti-dumping practices suggest that anti-dumping measures have been used as a tool of protectionism. India and China have been alleged to have used Anti-dumping Duty (ADD) as a form of "safety valve" – to ease competitive pressure in domestic market. Anti-dumping measures have also been used as a form of "retaliation" against products of countries that impose ADDs against the products of the host country. The USA has been consistently alleged to have abused anti-dumping measures with its practice of zeroing. Similarly, in only around 2% cases the EU has been found to have imposed ADDs to offset dumping. In the remaining 98% cases of anti-dumping have been used for purposes other than offsetting dumping.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Dumping (pricing policy)


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Talk:List of developmental and minor sports leagues

Untitled
There are many, many minor baseball leagues. There's an article at Minor league baseball, does the Wikipedia really need to list indivdual leagues all over again here? (Wow, my first talk page!) Rick

Hockey
I removed the Class A, AA, wording. The class system is not an offical system at all. Since this is both developmental and minor sports leagues, the whole listing on the list of hockey leagues, except for the NHL could be listed, which would mean a much longer article. Limasbravo (talk) 19:05, 11 June 2008 (UTC)

Pro Wrestling
I don't think you can call TNA a "minor" promotion any longer. They are a national company with monthly PPV, and weekly television on both Spike TV and FOX Sports Net. While not global like WWE, they are certainly on par with the NWA or AWA in it's heyday. Patrick Riverside (talk) 12:17, 25 December 2008 (UTC)

Developmental Football International (DFI)
New sports (American football) league launched in Aug 2018, it has four teams in Cal. and four others in the Eastern US. Not sure if it'll last over one season, but here's their web site. https://www.developmentalfootball.com/ 12.218.47.124 (talk) 00:53, 13 September 2018 (UTC)

Pro Wrestling (2023)
I think NXT, and NXT Level Up should be added here for the WWE, and for other small wrestling promotions it should be the OVW, PWG, CZW, GCW, MZW, and others, even probl defunct indie/rookie wrestling promotions. WrestleLuxury Wiki (talk) 23:37, 26 September 2023 (UTC)

 * Nah. While NXT is developmental, pro wrestling is not a sport. It's an athletic performance art that imitates a sport as part of its milieu. oknazevad (talk) 00:10, 27 September 2023 (UTC)


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Talk:C.S. Forester

This is a semi-dup with C. S. Forester. Stan 01:55 20 Jun 2003 (UTC)

title: Talk:C.S. Forester


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Redhead (bird)

The redhead (Aythya americana) is a medium-sized diving duck. The scientific name is derived from Greek aithuia, an unidentified seabird mentioned by authors including Hesychius and Aristotle, and Latin americana, of America. The redhead is 37 cm long with an 84 cm Wingspan. Redhead weight ranges from 2.0 to 2.5 lbs (907–1134 g), with males weighing an average of 2.4 lbs (1089 g) and females weighing an average of 2.1 lbs (953 g). It belongs to the genus Aythya, together with 11 other described species. The redhead and the common pochard form a sister group which together is sister to the canvasback.

The redhead goes by many names, including the red-headed duck and the red-headed pochard. This waterfowl is easily distinguished from other ducks by the male's copper coloured head and bright blue bill during the breeding season.

Taxonomy
The redhead is in the family Anatidae (ducks, swans, geese) and genus Aythya (diving ducks). There are currently no described subspecies of the redhead.

The two syntype specimens of Fuligula americana Eyton (Monogr. Anat., 1838, p.155) are held in the vertebrate zoology collections of National Museums Liverpool at World Museum, with accession numbers NML-VZ D829 (male immature) and NML-VZ D829a (female adult). The specimens were collected in North America and came to the Liverpool national collection via Thomas Campbell Eyton’s collection and the 13th Earl of Derby’s collection which was bequeathed to the city of Liverpool.

Phylogeny
The redhead and the common pochard form a sister group which itself is sister to the canvasback. This group is then sister to the monophyletic group consisting of the white-eyes (hardhead, Madagascar pochard, and the sister species ferruginous duck and baer's pochard) and scaups (New Zealand scaup, ring-necked duck, tufted duck, greater scaup, lesser scaup).

Description
The redhead is a pochard, a diving duck specially adapted to foraging underwater. Their legs are placed farther back on the body, which makes walking on land difficult, the webbing on their feet is larger than dabbling ducks and their bills are broader, to facilitate underwater foraging. In addition, pochards have a lobed hind toe. No pochard has a metallic coloured speculum, something that is characteristic of other ducks.

Males
During breeding season, adult males have a copper head and neck, with a black breast. The back and sides are grey, the belly is white and the rump and tail are a light black. Male bills are pale blue with a black tip and a thin ring separating the two colours. Non-breeding males lose the copper colour and instead have brown heads.

Females

Adult females, however, have a yellow to brown head and neck. The breast is brown, the belly is white and the rest of the body is a grey to brown. The female bills are slate with a dark tip that is separated by a blue ring. Females remain the same colour year round.

Distribution
During breeding season, redheads are found across a wide range of North America, from as far north as Northern Canada to the Caribbean. Their preferred areas include the intermontane regions of British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and the Dakotas with some small localities in Ontario, Quebec and southern United States. These pochards then migrate south to winter in warmer climates. These areas include southern United States where breeding does not occur and extends to Mexico, Guatemala, Cuba, and the Bahamas. In both seasons, redheads use wetlands as their main habitat.

Habitat
Small, semi-permanent wetlands in non-forested country where the water is deep enough to provide dense emergent vegetation is considered ideal breeding habitat for redheads. When wintering, redheads switch to large areas of water near the coast that are protected from wave action but can also be found in reservoirs, lakes, playa wetlands, freshwater river deltas, coastal marshes, estuaries and bays.

Predators
Redheads do not have many predators and are most likely to die of disease or indirect human impact. These ducks are considered less desirable as table fare than their puddle duck cousins like the mallard; however, their beautiful plumage makes them a targeted species for waterfowl hunters looking to focus on diving ducks. Adults can be preyed upon by northern river otters, red-tailed hawks, great horned owls, bald eagles, golden eagles and to a greater extent, minks. Most predation comes in the form of duckling predation and egg foraging. Northern pike and snapping turtles are known to eat ducklings whereas skunks, minks, crows and magpies will steal and eat redhead eggs.

Population status
The North American Waterfowl Management Plan for redheads is 760,000 North American birds. The population size has increased in the past few decades to well over 1.4 million birds. Redheads make up 2% of North America's duck population and only 1% of its harvested ducks. Populations may be stable because of restrictive bag limits for the species. In addition, the species uses semi-permanent and permanent wetlands to breed and these habitats are less likely to be affected by drought. For future management of the species, organizations are looking into wetland conservation.

Spring
Redheads begin to leave their winter range in late January and February with the northernmost birds migrating by late April. In western North America, migrants begin arriving in Oregon, British Columbia and Colorado in February. In central North America, migrants arrive as soon as temperatures open wetlands and lakes, which can range from late February (Nebraska) to early May (Alberta, Manitoba and Iowa). In the Great Lakes region and north-eastern North America, migrants will also arrive as soon as bodies of water open up.

Fall
Western birds migrate through Great Basin to the Pacific Coast. In British Columbia, fall migration begins in September and continues through October. The Great Salt Lake region is of particular importance to migrants in western United States. Central North American redheads will begin migrating earlier, around August/September and go through the Great Plains to the Texas coast. Eastern populations will migrate through the Great Lakes region to the Atlantic Coast or Florida from October to November. Most redheads winter along the Gulf of Mexico (offshore Louisiana, Florida and Mexico) however eastern populations will winter in South Carolina.

Mating
Redheads flock together on lakes and other bodies of water but migrate in pairs, which are formed in December or January through elaborate courtship rituals. Unpaired redheads migrate together in a ‘courting party’ that can be up to 25 individuals strong, enabling them to find a mate within the group. The pair bonds are established yearly through a long courtship process. Males begin this process through neck-kinking and head throwing displays while emitting a cat-like call. The male continues by initiating a neck-stretching display while producing a cough-like call. If interested, the female produces inciting calls towards the male while performing alternate lateral and chin lifting movements. The male then swims ahead of her and turns the back of his head towards the female. Once courtship is finished, the two birds are paired for the year. The male initiates copulation by alternating bill dipping and preening dorsally towards the female, upon which the female may return to the male.

Nesting
Once copulation is completed, female redheads begin forming nests. They are built with thick and strong plant material in emergent vegetation, such as hard stem bulrush, cattails and sedges, over or near standing water. Redheads do not defend their territory or home range; they are instead social while in their breeding ground. This is thought to facilitate brood parasitism on other pochards, which is particularly prevalent on the part of younger, less experienced redhead females. In this process, redheads lay their eggs in other pochards’ nests, including the canvasback, ring-necked duck and greater and lesser scaups, and this parasitism by redheads reduces the hatching success of other pochards’ eggs, especially those of the canvasback. The parasitic relationship between the redhead and other pochards promotes hybridization between the species; redhead hybrids with the ring-necked duck, canvasback and the greater and lesser scaups have been found. Canvasback × redhead hybrids can be fertile. Brood sizes range from 5 to 7 young, with the mother abandoning the chicks at 8 weeks old, 2–4 weeks before they are capable of flight.

Vocalizations
There is little information on redhead vocalizations outside of breeding calls. When the neck is fully extended in the neck-stretching display, males emit a cat-like wheee-oww. Males may also produce a soft coughing call, although this call is less frequent. Females emit a soft errrr note when inciting a male.

Feeding habits
All pochards have similar diets that include both plant and animal materials. Redheads undergo a niche switch when breeding and when wintering. During the breeding season, redheads will eat as much animal matter as possible, including gastropods, mollusks and insect larvae. They will eat the occasional grass and other emergent vegetation. However, once they fly south, redheads will change their diet to include mostly plant material, including pondweeds, wild rice, wild celery, wigeon grass, bulrushes, muskgrass and shoal grass.

Gastropods known as food of Aythya americana include: Acteocina canaliculata, Acteon punctostriatus, Anachis avara, Anachis obesa, Caecum nitidum, Calliostoma sp., Cerithidea pliculosa, Cerithium lutosum, Crepidula convexa, Diastoma varium, Melanella sp., Mitrella lunata, Nassarius acutus, Nassarius vibex, Natica sp., Neritina virginea, Odostomia trifida, Olivella minuta, Olivella watermani, Polinices sp., Pyramidellidae, Pyrgocythara plicosa, Rissoina catesbyana, Sayella livida, Turbonilla sp., Turbonilla interrupta and Vitrinella sp.

title: Redhead (bird)


text:
Tony Award for Best Musical

The Tony Award for Best Musical is given annually to the best new Broadway musical, as determined by Tony Award voters. The award is one of the ceremony's longest-standing awards, having been presented each year since 1949. The award goes to the producers of the winning musical. A musical is eligible for consideration in a given year if it has not previously been produced on Broadway and is not "determined... to be a 'classic' or in the historical or popular repertoire", otherwise it may be considered for Best Revival of a Musical.

Best Musical is the final award presented at the Tony Awards ceremony. Excerpts from the musicals that are nominated for this award are usually performed during the ceremony before this award is presented.

This is a list of winners and nominees for the Tony Award for Best Musical.

Records
Accumulated records as of 2022:
 * The Producers has won the most Tonys, winning in 12 categories, including Best Musical.
 * Hamilton is the most-nominated production in Tony history, with 16 nominations.
 * The Sound of Music and Fiorello! are the only two musicals to date to have ever tied for the Best Musical award (in 1960).
 * Passion is the shortest-running winner, with 280 performances. (If preview performances are included, then that distinction belongs to A Strange Loop.)
 * The Phantom of the Opera is the longest-running Best Musical winner, with 16 previews and over 13,981 performances.
 * Hallelujah, Baby! is the only show thus far to have won the Tony Award for Best Musical after closing.
 * Kiss Me, Kate and Titanic are the only two shows to win the Tony Award for Best Musical without any Tony nominations in the acting categories. (In Kiss Me, Kate's case, only winners were announced that year, and only in the lead performance categories.)
 * Two Gentlemen of Verona (1972), Raisin (1974), 42nd Street (1981) and A Strange Loop (2022) won Best Musical and only one other Tony Award.
 * What is now the Richard Rodgers Theatre has housed more Best Musical winners than any other theater on Broadway: Guys and Dolls (1951), Damn Yankees (1956), Redhead (1959), How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying (1962), 1776 (1969), Raisin (1974), Nine (1982), In the Heights (2008), and Hamilton (2016).
 * The Mystery of Edwin Drood was the first winner of the Tony Award for Best Musical to be entirely written by one man, Rupert Holmes. Rent (by Jonathan Larson), Hamilton (by Lin-Manuel Miranda), and A Strange Loop (by Michael R. Jackson) also achieved this feat. Hadestown is the first musical entirely written by one woman, Anaïs Mitchell, to win this award.
 * Fun Home was the first musical written entirely by a team of women to win the Tony Award for Best Musical.
 * The 74th Tony Awards (2020) is the first ceremony in which only jukebox musicals were nominated.

title: Tony Award for Best Musical


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Bend It Like Beckham

Bend It Like Beckham is a 2002 sports comedy-drama film directed by Gurinder Chadha from a screenplay by Chadha, Paul Mayeda Berges, and Guljit Bindra. The film stars Parminder Nagra, Keira Knightley, Jonathan Rhys Meyers, Anupam Kher, Juliet Stevenson, Shaznay Lewis and Archie Panjabi. In Bend It Like Beckham, Jesminder Bhamra (Nagra) and Jules Paxton (Knightley) chase careers in professional football despite their parents' wishes.

Development for the film began after Chadha, Bindra, and Berges completed the screenplay by early 2001. Nagra and Knightley were hired soon after, with casting rounded out with the additions of Meyers, Kher, Stevenson, Lewis, and Panjabi by that May. Principal photography began in June 2001 and lasted until September, with filming locations including London, Shepperton Studios, and Hamburg. Production collaborated with The Football Association, while the film's title refers to David Beckham's curling free kick technique, also known as bending.

Bend It Like Beckham was theatrically released first in the United Kingdom on 12 April 2002 by Redbus Film Distribution. The film received generally positive reviews from critics, with praise for the screenplay, light-hearted tone, and commentary on Punjabi social norms and culture. Bend It Like Beckham grossed $76.6 million at the box office, making it the highest-grossing football sports film. In 2015 it was adapted into a stage musical that opened at the Phoenix Theatre.

Plot
18-year-old Jesminder "Jess" Bhamra is the daughter of British Indian Punjabi Sikhs living in Hounslow, London. Jess is passionate of football, but her parents do not support her interest. However, she sometimes plays in the park with boys, including her best friend, Tony, who is thought to be interested in Jess, but is gay. Jess's family is occupied with planning for the upcoming wedding of her older sister Pinky.

Jules Paxton, a member of the Hounslow Harriers, a local women's amateur football team, notices Jess's football skills and befriends her, inviting her to try out for the team. The coach, Joe, a young Irish former player whose own career was derailed by injuries, accepts her into the team. Although Jess's parents (mainly her mother) forbid her to join the team, she continues playing in secret, claiming to have a summer job when she is actually at football practice. When Joe learns that Jess is on the team without her parents' permission, he pleads with Mr. Bhamra to allow Jess to play, but he refuses, revealing that he does not want Jess to suffer the way he did when he was excluded from a cricket club because of anti-Indian sentiment.

With Pinky covering for her, Jess travels with the team to play a match in Germany; the Harriers lose the match after Jess fails to score a penalty kick. When they go out clubbing in Hamburg after the match, Jules catches Joe and Jess about to kiss. This sours the two girls' friendship, as Jules also is attracted to Joe despite denying fancying him when Jess asked her earlier. Furthermore, Jess's parents find out she is still playing football after her father sees a newspaper article about the Hamburg match. After returning, Jess goes to Jules's house to try to patch up their friendship but is rebuffed. Jules's mother, confused by overhearing parts of their argument out of context, thinks they are in a lesbian relationship.

Jess's father secretly attends one of her games and sees Jess mocked with a racial slur by an opposing player, and Joe hugging her afterward to comfort her. The Harriers qualify for the finals of the league tournament, but the championship match, with an American talent scout in attendance, is to be held on the same day as Pinky's wedding, so Jess resigns herself to missing the game. At Pinky's wedding, Jess is visibly miserable; her father tells her to go to the game so she can be happy on her sister's wedding day. The Harriers are behind 1–0 when Jess arrives, but they rally, and eventually, Jess wins the game with a free kick. The scout offers Jess and Jules sports scholarships at Santa Clara University in California. Jules and Jess share a hug and kiss to celebrate, furthering Jules's mother's suspicions. Jess returns to the wedding, happy and able to celebrate. Jules heads to the wedding as well, being given a ride by her mother, which, upon arriving, leads to Mrs. Paxton confronting Jess and accusing her of being a hypocrite and a lesbian. Jules drags her mother away, angrily clarifying her friendship with Jess and her sexual orientation.

Later that day, Jess has still not told her parents about the scholarship; she is afraid they might not allow her to go to the United States on her own. Tony, attempting to help Jess, decides to lie to the family and tell them he will get engaged to Jess as long as she gets to go to any college she wants. The Bhamras happily accept, but Jess immediately confesses the truth. Jess's mother ignores Jess's heartfelt speech and scolds Jess's father for letting Jess leave Pinky's wedding. But her father announces he doesn't want Jess to suffer as he did and accepts her desire to play football, eventually leading her mother to finally accept it as well. Jess runs to the football field to tell Joe of her parents' decision. The two almost kiss, but Jess pulls away, saying her parents would object, and that although they had come far enough to let her go to America to play, she doesn't think they would be able to handle another cultural rebellion from her.

On the day of Jess and Jules's flight to America, the two are about to board the plane when Joe arrives and confesses his love for Jess. The two kiss secretly and Jess agrees to sort out their relationship (and her parents) when she returns for Christmas. While at the airport, they see David Beckham with his wife Victoria, which Jules takes as a good sign. The two leave through the gate waving happily to their families.

While Jess and Jules are away, they send a team photo indicating their continued success in football. Pinky is revealed to be pregnant and Mr. Bhamra gets back into playing cricket and is seen playing outside with Joe and Pinky's husband.

Production
Gurinder Chadha co-wrote the script with Guljit Bindra and screenwriting partner Paul Mayeda Berges. Nayar and Chadha actively pursued financing for the film at Sundance Film Festival. Having previously worked with Road Movies, a German production company on several other projects, Nayar approached them and they came on board, followed by British Screen and The Film Council. The film is loosely based on the life of Permi Jhooti.

Helkon SK, formerly known as Redbus, picked up the script. Fox Searchlight Pictures picked up the rights for distribution in the United States at the Cannes Film Festival in 2002. For its American cinema release it was suggested that the title of the movie be changed to Move It Like Mia, as marketeers were concerned that American audience would be unfamiliar with David Beckham.

Filming
Principal photography began on 18 June 2001. A variety of locations around London and Shepperton Studios, Surrey were used for the nine-week shoot, with the semi-final taking place over a three-day period in Hamburg, Germany.

Casting

Chadha, who played an active role in casting, chose Parminder Nagra and Keira Knightley, who would play the two lead roles in the film, while Archie Panjabi and Jonathan Rhys Meyers were in early talks to join the cast. Shaznay Lewis and Anupam Kher were also in final talks. Juliet Stevenson and Frank Harper joined as Paula Paxton and Alan Paxton, mother and father of Jules.

For the role of Jess's mother, Mrs Bhamra, Chadha turned to Shaheen Khan, whom she had previously cast in Bhaji on the Beach. Anupam Kher, a Bollywood actor, was cast as Mr Bhamra, Jess's father. Chadha worked with The Football Association and ended up casting actual players from a variety of school teams.

Theatrical
Bend It Like Beckham was released theatrically on 12 April 2002 by Redbus Film Distribution. The film then received a limited theatrical release in the United States on 12 March 2003 by Fox Searchlight Pictures. When originally released in the United Kingdom, it topped the country's box office for the next three weekends, before being overtaken by About a Boy.

Home media
The film was released on DVD and VHS on 18 November 2002 in Europe by Warner Home Video and released on 30 September 2003 in the United States by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment. Among the DVD bonus features, several scenes did not make the final release. Some include dialogue from Pinky's friends and from Jules, as well as her mother meeting Kevin and his friends outside a shop, which would have been helpful, as Kevin is mentioned three times but is never seen.

On the North American Billboard video charts, the film entered the top ten of the Top DVD Sales and Top DVD Rentals charts, at number six on Top VHS Sales, and number seven on Top VHS Rentals.

In the United Kingdom, it was the sixth most-watched film of 2003 on subscription television, with 810,000 viewers on Sky Premier that year. It was later the most-watched film on UK television during the first half of 2005, with 7.3 million viewers on BBC1 during that period. Combined, the film drew at least million UK viewership during 2003 and 2005.

Critical response
Bend It Like Beckham surprised critics and met with mostly positive reviews. Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 85% based on 154 reviews, with an average rating of 7.2/10. The consensus states, "Inspiring, compassionate, and with a sly undercurrent of social commentary, Bend It Like Beckham is a lively feel-good movie that genuinely charms." Metacritic gave the movie a score of 66 based on 32 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".

Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times noted that the film "was really full of easy humor, an impeccable sense of milieu that is the result of knowing the culture intimately enough to poke fun at it while understanding its underlying integrity."

The Times of India noted the film's social context, saying, "[it] is really about the bending of rules, social paradigms and lives – all to finally curl that ball, bending it like Beckham, through the goalpost of ambition ... The creeping divide shows that Britain is changing, but hasn't quite changed yet. The stiff upper lip has traveled miles from the time Chadha's father was denied a pint at some pubs at Southall, but like dollops of coagulated spice in badly stirred curry, discrimination crops up to spoil the taste, every now and then, in multi-racial Britain."

Planet Bollywood gave the film a mark of 9 out of 10: the "screenplay not only explores the development of Jess as a person, but also the changing values and culture of NRI teens: Jess's urge to break the social norm of the Indian home-maker, her sister's (Archie Punjabi) sexually active relationship, and the gay Indian [Tony, played by Ameet Chana]."

The Hindu argued, "If ever there is a film that is positive, realistic and yet delightful, then it has to be Dream Production's latest venture directed by Gurinder Chadha... Light-hearted, without taking away the considerable substance in terms of values, attitudes and the love for sport, the film just goes to prove that there are ways to be convincing and honest."

Jamie Russell at the BBC gave it 4 out of 5 stars, and argued that "Mr Beckham ought to be proud to have his name on such a great film." The British film was distributed by iDream Productions in India, and went on to set the record in India for most tickets sold during a single weekend for a foreign movie.

Bend it Like Beckham has also been favorably received by LGBTQ+ community members and press, with one reviewer from Vice noting its discussion of queer themes and symbolic queer undertones. The reviewer also shares: "Keira Knightley told PrideSource that she wants a lesbian Bend it Like Beckham sequel and agreed that her and Parminder’s characters should've ended up together."

Box office
In the United Kingdom, the film grossed over £11million, making it one of the highest-grossing Black/Asian-themed British films. With US$32.5 million in US box office revenue, Bend It Like Beckham became the highest-grossing Indian-themed film in the United States since Gandhi (1982). At the time of its release, Bend It Like Beckham became the highest-grossing association football themed sports film in the United States; it remains the third highest-grossing film there in this genre (behind Kicking & Screaming and She's the Man). The film grossed US$76.6 million worldwide.

Wins

 * 2004 Pyongyang Film Festival: Music Prize
 * 2002 Bordeaux International Feminine Film Festival: Best actress, Special Jury Prize, Audience Award
 * 2002 British Comedy Awards: Best comedy film
 * 2003 ESPY Awards: Best Sports Movie ESPY Award
 * 2004 GLAAD Media Awards: Outstanding Film – Wide Release

Nominations

 * 2006 Billie Award – Entertainment (Best film)
 * 2004 Writers Guild of America Award – Best Screenplay
 * 2003 British Academy of Film and Television Arts – Best Film
 * 2003 Golden Globe for Best Film – Musical or Comedy
 * 2002 Locarno International Film Festival: Audience Award – Gurinder Chadha
 * 2002 London Film Critics Circle Awards: British Newcomer of the Year – Keira Knightley
 * 2002 International Film Festival of Marrakech: Special Jury Award – Gurinder Chadha
 * 2003 National Board of Review of Motion Pictures: Special Recognition
 * 2002 Sydney Film Festival: PRIX UIP – Gurinder Chadha
 * 2003 The Comedy Festival: Film Discovery Jury Award – Gurinder Chadha

Soundtrack
The release of the soundtrack in the United Kingdom features bhangra music, and songs by the Spice Girls' Victoria Beckham and Melanie C and rock band Texas. It also features "Baddest Ruffest" by Backyard Dog, the aria Nessun Dorma, from Puccini's Turandot and excerpts from dance band Basement Jaxx. The USA release rearranges the tracks and excludes some material. "Dream the Dream" appears in the movie but does not appear on the soundtrack.

Release (United Kingdom)

 * 1) Craig Pruess & Bally Sagoo Feat. Gunjan – "Titles"
 * 2) Blondie – "Atomic"
 * 3) Backyard Dog – "Baddest Ruffest"
 * 4) B21 – "Darshan"
 * 5) (Movie Dialogue) – "It's Beckham's Corner"
 * 6) Victoria Beckham – "I Wish"
 * 7) (Movie Dialogue) – "Learn To Cook Dahl"
 * 8) Malkit Singh – "Jind Mahi"
 * 9) Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan – "Tere Bin Nahin Lagda"
 * 10) Bally Sagoo Feat Gunjan – "Noorie"
 * 11) (Movie Dialogue) – "Juicy Juicy Mangoes"
 * 12) Basement Jaxx – "Do Your Thing"
 * 13) (Movie Dialogue) – "Eyes Down"
 * 14) Texas – "Inner Smile"
 * 15) Melanie C – "Independence Day"
 * 16) (Movie Dialogue) – "Can't Make Round Chapattis"
 * 17) Hans Raj Hans – "Punjabiyan Di Shaan"
 * 18) Gunjan – "Kinna Sohna"
 * 19) Tito Beltrán – "Nessun Dorma"
 * 20) (Movie Dialogue) – "The Offside Rule Is"
 * 21) Bina Mistry – "Hot Hot Hot"
 * 22) Craig Pruess & Bally Sagoo Feat. Gunjan – "Hai Raba!"
 * 23) Curtis Mayfield – "Move on Up"

Release (United States)

 * 1) Craig Pruess & Bally Sagoo Feat. Gunjan – "Titles"
 * 2) (Movie Dialogue) – "It's Beckham's Corner"
 * 3) Texas – "Inner Smile"
 * 4) Malkit Singh – "Jind Mahi"
 * 5) Bally Sagoo Feat Gunjan – "Noorie"
 * 6) (Movie Dialogue) – "Learn To Cook Dahl"
 * 7) Victoria Beckham – "I Wish"
 * 8) (Movie Dialogue) – "Juicy Juicy Mangoes"
 * 9) Gunjan – "Kinna Sohna"
 * 10) Partners in Rhyme (featuring Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan) – "Tere Bin Nahin Lagda"
 * 11) (Movie Dialogue) – "Can't Make Round Chapattis"
 * 12) Melanie C – "Independence Day"
 * 13) B21 – "Darshan"
 * 14) (Movie Dialogue) – "Eyes Down"
 * 15) Bina Mistry – "Hot Hot Hot"
 * 16) Blondie – "Atomic"
 * 17) Craig Pruess & Bally Sagoo Feat. Gunjan – "Hai Raba!"
 * 18) Tito Beltrán – "Nessun Dorma"

North Korean broadcast
To mark the tenth anniversary of North Korea's relations with the United Kingdom, an edited version of Bend It Like Beckham was broadcast on North Korean state television on 26 December 2010, Boxing Day. The British Ambassador to South Korea, Martin Uden, said it was the "first-ever Western-made film to air on television" in North Korea.

Stage musical
A stage musical version of the film opened at London's Phoenix Theatre in June 2015.

On 7 May 2019 it was announced that the stage production, which debuted in London's West End, would have its North American premiere in Toronto, with a limited run at the St. Lawrence Centre for the Arts' Bluma Appel Theatre beginning in December 2019.

title: Bend It Like Beckham


text:
Canvasback

The canvasback (Aythya valisineria) is a species of diving duck, the largest found in North America.

Taxonomy
Scottish-American naturalist Alexander Wilson described the canvasback in 1814. The genus name is derived from Greek aithuia, an unidentified seabird mentioned by authors, including Hesychius and Aristotle. The species name valisineria comes from the wild celery Vallisneria americana, whose winter buds and rhizomes are the canvasback's preferred food during the nonbreeding period. The celery genus is itself named for seventeenth century Italian botanist Antonio Vallisneri.

The duck's common name is based on early European inhabitants of North America's assertion that its back was a canvas-like color. In other languages it is just a white-backed duck; for example in French, morillon à dos blanc, or Spanish, pato lomo blanco. In Mexico it is called pato coacoxtle.

Description
It ranges from 48 – in length and weighs 862 –, with a wingspan of 79 –. It is the largest species in the genus Aythya, being similar in size to a mallard but with a heavier and more compact build than it. 191 males wintering in western New York averaged 1252 g and 54 females there averaged 1154 g. The canvasback has a distinctive wedge-shaped head and long graceful neck. The adult male (drake) has a black bill, a chestnut red head and neck, a black breast, a grayish back, black rump, and a blackish brown tail. The drake's sides, back, and belly are white with fine vermiculation resembling the weave of a canvas, which gave rise to the bird's common name. The bill is blackish and the legs and feet are bluish-gray. The iris is bright red in the spring, but duller in the winter. The adult female (hen) also has a black bill, a light brown head and neck, grading into a darker brown chest and foreback. The sides, flanks, and back are grayish brown. The bill is blackish and the legs and feet are bluish-gray. Its sloping profile distinguishes it from other ducks.

Breeding
The breeding habitat of the canvasback is in North American prairie potholes. The bulky nest is built from vegetation in a marsh and lined with down. Loss of nesting habitat has caused populations to decline. The canvasback usually takes a new mate each year, pairing in late winter on ocean bays. It prefers to nest over water on permanent prairie marshes surrounded by emergent vegetation, such as cattails and bulrushes, which provide protective cover. Other important breeding areas are the subarctic river deltas in Saskatchewan and the interior of Alaska.

It has a clutch size of approximately 5–11 eggs, which are greenish drab. The chicks are covered in down at hatching and able to leave the nest soon after. The canvasback sometimes lays its eggs in other canvasback nests and redheads often parasitize canvasback nests.

Migration
The canvasback migrates through the Mississippi Flyway to wintering grounds in the mid-Atlantic United States and the Lower Mississippi Alluvial Valley (LMAV), or the Pacific Flyway to wintering grounds along the coast of California. Historically, the Chesapeake Bay wintered the majority of canvasbacks, but with the recent loss of submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV) in the bay, their range has shifted south towards the LMAV. Brackish estuarine bays and marshes with abundant submergent vegetation and invertebrates are ideal wintering habitat for canvasbacks. A small number of birds are also known to have crossed the Atlantic, with several sightings being recorded in the United Kingdom. In December 1996, a canvasback was observed in a quarry in Kent, which was followed by an additional sighting in Norfolk in January 1997. At least five more sightings have since been confirmed in England.

Diet
The canvasback feeds mainly by diving, sometimes dabbling, mostly eating seeds, buds, leaves, tubers, roots, snails, and insect larvae. Besides its namesake, wild celery, the canvasback shows a preference for the tubers of sago pondweed, which can make up 100% of its diet at times. The canvasback has large webbed feet adapted for diving and its bill helps it dig tubers from the substrate. In the late 1930s, studies showed that four-fifths of the food eaten by canvasbacks was plant material. In the early 1950s it was estimated that there were 225,000 canvasbacks wintering in the Chesapeake Bay; this represented one-half of the entire North American population. By 1985, there were only 50,000 ducks wintering there, or one-tenth of the population. Canvasbacks were extensively hunted around the start of the 20th century, but federal hunting regulations now restrict their harvest, so hunting is ruled out as a cause for the decline. Scientists have now concluded that the decline in duck populations was due to the decline in sub-aquatic vegetation acreage. Today the population has stabilized and is even increasing slightly, although it is nowhere near previous levels. Studies have now shown that by the 1970s four-fifths of the ducks' diet was made up of Baltic Clams, which are very common in the Chesapeake Bay: the ducks have been able to adapt to the decline in sub-aquatic vegetation by changing their diet. Redheads, which also feed on the tubers of sub-aquatic vegetation, have not been able to adapt, and their population remains low.

Cuisine
Canvasback ducks were a particularly prestigious game dish in mid-19th-century America. They were rarely found on everyday menus, and often featured at banquets. They were generally sourced from Maryland and Chesapeake Bay, and their flavor was attributed to their diet of wild celery. By the end of the century, though, they had become "scarce, expensive, or unobtainable".

Edith Wharton refers to canvasback with  blackcurrant sauce as an especially luxurious dinner served in New York City in the 1870s. Canvasback duck was a canonical element, along with Terrapin à la Maryland, of the elegant "Maryland Feast" menu, an "elite standard... that lasted for decades".

Conservation
Populations have fluctuated widely. Low levels in the 1980s put the canvasback on lists of special concern, but numbers increased greatly in the 1990s. The canvasback is particularly vulnerable to drought and wetland drainage on the prairies of North America.

Many species of ducks, including the canvasback, are highly migratory, but are effectively conserved by protecting the places where they nest, even though they may be hunted away from their breeding grounds. Protecting key feeding and breeding grounds is key for conserving many types of migratory birds.

title: Canvasback


text:
Tranquility Bay

Tranquility Bay was a residential treatment facility affiliated with World Wide Association of Specialty Programs and Schools (WWASPS), located in Calabash Bay, Saint Elizabeth Parish, Jamaica. The facility operated from 1997 to 2009 and received notoriety for its harsh and often abusive treatment of its students, eventually shutting down in 2009 after allegations of child abuse came to light through lawsuits and highly publicized student testimonies. The adolescents reported violence to their parents, only to be ignored.

History
The director was Jay Kay, a college dropout with no training in child development who ran a mini-mart in San Diego, and who is son of WWASPS president Ken Kay. The cost for one child ranged from $25,000 to $40,000 a year. Tranquility Bay was generally acknowledged as the toughest of the WWASPS schools. As with other WWASPS facilities, Tranquility Bay has been the subject of much controversy, including allegations of torture, unsanitary living conditions, unqualified employees, and denial of medical care; these claims have been the subject of multiple lawsuits from former Tranquility Bay residents.

In 1998 was the focus of a legal case after neighbors of a family reported parents to police for kidnapping and false imprisonment by sending him to Tranquility Bay. Judge Ken Kawaichi denied the writ of habeas corpus due to lack of evidence of abuse at Tranquility bay.

Tranquility Bay stated that it was dedicated to helping parents who are having difficulty with their children, whether they are doing drugs, breaking the law, or being disobedient or disrespectful. In 2003, Kay said "if I have kids, and they start giving me a problem, well, they are going straight in the program. If I had to, I'd pull the trigger without hesitation"; however, in 1999, Kay (who at that time was not working for WWASPS) said that the Tranquility Bay staff were "untrained", without "credentials of any kind", and that Tranquility Bay "could be leading these kids to long-term problems that we don't have a clue about because we're not going about it in the proper way".

Children as young as 12 were admitted to Tranquility Bay, for reasons ranging from drug use to conflicts with a new stepmother. From 2002 to 2005 the Government of the Cayman Islands sent some delinquent youth to Tranquility Bay; the government funded the students as they were located in Tranquility Bay.

on the 7th of December 2004 the British Broadcasting Company aired a program on BBC Two called Locked in Paradise.

Tranquility Bay was shut down in January 2009, after the case of Isaac Hersh gained national media and political attention and years of alleged abuse and torture came to light. Many politicians, including Hillary Clinton, were involved in Isaac's release.

Observation Placement
Observation Placement was a punishment that could demote any student to level one and take away all their points. During Observation Placement, people were forced to lay down on their faces. Some people spent 18 months in this punishment.

Transportation
Tranquillity bay used teen escort companies to facilitate the transportation of youths from the United States of America to their facility in Jamaica. this would normally take place in the early hours of the morning and often involved the use of handcuffs.

In popular culture
The "Cassie" episode of the A&E program Intervention, first shown in January 2011, features a young woman addicted to prescription painkillers who had been sent to Tranquility Bay as a child and blamed her father for not rescuing her. In the episode, Cassie alleged that her fellow residents consumed "chemicals" so they would be sent to the hospital and would be able to talk to their parents regarding the abuse they were enduring. However, she alleged that when they vomited in response to the poison, rather than being sent to a hospital, they were restrained by staff face down in their own vomit.

title: Tranquility Bay


text:
Leonard Adleman

Leonard Adleman (born December 31, 1945) is an American computer scientist. He is one of the creators of the RSA encryption algorithm, for which he received the 2002 Turing Award. He is also known for the creation of the field of DNA computing.

Biography
Leonard M. Adleman was born to a Jewish family in California. His family had originally immigrated to the United States from modern-day Belarus, from the Minsk area. He grew up in San Francisco and attended the University of California, Berkeley, where he received his B.A. degree in mathematics in 1968 and his Ph.D. degree in EECS in 1976. He was also the mathematical consultant on the movie Sneakers. In 1996, he became a member of the National Academy of Engineering for contributions to the theory of computation and cryptography. He is also a member of the National Academy of Sciences.

Adleman is also an amateur boxer and has sparred with James Toney.

Discovery
In 1994, his paper Molecular Computation of Solutions To Combinatorial Problems described the experimental use of DNA as a computational system. In it, he solved a seven-node instance of the Hamiltonian Graph problem, an NP-complete problem similar to the travelling salesman problem. While the solution to a seven-node instance is trivial, this paper is the first known instance of the successful use of DNA to compute an algorithm. DNA computing has been shown to have potential as a means to solve several other large-scale combinatorial search problems. Adleman is widely referred to as the Father of DNA Computing.

In 2002, he and his research group managed to solve a 'nontrivial' problem using DNA computation. Specifically, they solved a 20-variable SAT problem having more than 1 million potential solutions. They did it in a manner similar to the one Adleman used in his seminal 1994 paper. First, a mixture of DNA strands logically representative of the problem's solution space was synthesized. This mixture was then operated upon algorithmically using biochemical techniques to winnow out the 'incorrect' strands, leaving behind only those strands that 'satisfied' the problem. Analysis of the nucleotide sequence of these remaining strands revealed 'correct' solutions to the original problem.

He is one of the original discoverers of the Adleman–Pomerance–Rumely primality test.

Fred Cohen, in his 1984 paper, Experiments with Computer Viruses credited Adleman with coining the term "computer virus".

As of 2017, Adleman is working on the mathematical theory of Strata. He is a Computer Science professor at the University of Southern California.

Awards
For his contribution to the invention of the RSA cryptosystem, Adleman, along with Ron Rivest and Adi Shamir, has been a recipient of the 1996 Paris Kanellakis Theory and Practice Award and the 2002 Turing Award, often called the Nobel Prize of Computer Science. Adleman was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2006 and a 2021 ACM Fellow.

title: Leonard Adleman