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Ark-La-Tex

The Ark-La-Tex (a portmanteau of Arkansas, Louisiana, and Texas; also stylized as Arklatex or ArkLaTex) is a socio-economic tri-state region where the Southern U.S. states of Arkansas, Louisiana, and Texas join together. The region contains portions of Northwest Louisiana, Northeast Texas, and South Arkansas as well as the extreme southeastern tip of Oklahoma, in McCurtain County (part of Choctaw Country), partly centered upon the Red River, which flows along the Texas–Oklahoma state line into Southwestern Arkansas and Northwest Louisiana.

The population of the 40-county core region as of 2020 is 1,469,860 people, down from 1,515,056 in 2010. Shreveport, Louisiana, with 187,593 people in 2020, is the largest city, economic and geographic center of the region, and principal hub for both the Shreveport–Bossier City metropolitan area and Northwestern Louisiana. Longview, Texas, with a population of 81,683 people in 2020, is the second-largest city as well as a principal city of the Tyler–Longview metropolitan conurbation and Greater Longview metropolitan area. The twin cities of Texarkana, Texas, and Texarkana, Arkansas, are the fourth- and sixth-largest cities, respectively, but collectively make up the region's third-largest metropolitan area (with a combined population exceeding 140,000 residents) as the center of the Texarkana metropolitan area encompassing Miller County, Arkansas, and Bowie County, Texas. Other cities in the Ark-La-Tex with 20,000 or more residents include Bossier City, Louisiana; Nacogdoches, Texas; Marshall, Texas; and Ruston, Louisiana.

The counties in the area's western section are largely part of the East Texas region (except for McCurtain County, Oklahoma, which is part of the Choctaw Country tourist region) and mainly encompass the Tyler–Longview–Lufkin–Nacogdoches television market area, while the counties and parishes in the eastern half of the region are included in the Shreveport–Texarkana television market. However, some Arkansas counties—under certain, looser definitions of the Ark-La-Tex region—in northwesternmost areas of the southwestern section of the state are included in the Little Rock viewing area.

Etymology
Although use of the term to refer to the tri-state region dates back to the early 1900s, the name "Ark-La-Tex" was popularized regionally by a Shreveport Chamber of Commerce promotional campaign developed in 1932–33 to increase tourism in the area.

The campaign, dubbing the area as "The Land of Arklatex", was based on the idea that "the interests of all the people in the Tri-state area of South Arkansas, North Louisiana and East Texas are practically identical in matters pertaining to agriculture, industry, commerce and trade, and education." The region is alternatively, although seldom in most media and promotional parlance, referred to as "Arklatexoma", which more inclusively encompasses McCurtain County and other parts of extreme Southeastern Oklahoma that lie along the Red River.

Geography
The Ark-La-Tex covers over 14,000 sqmi across the four-state area; if the Ark-La-Tex were a U.S. state, it would be larger than Maryland. Most of the Ark-La-Tex is located in the Piney Woods, an ecoregion of dense forests of mixed deciduous and conifer flora. The forests are periodically punctuated by sloughs and bayous that are linked to larger bodies of water such as Caddo Lake or the Red River. Three of the four National Forests located within the Piney Woods of East Texas are wholly or partially within the Ark-La-Tex boundaries: Angelina National Forest (spanning Angelina, Nacogdoches, San Augustine and Jasper counties), Sabine National Forest (near Hemphill) and Davy Crockett National Forest (between Lufkin and Crockett).

The Red River is the principal mainstem waterway in the region, exiting from the eastern end of Lake Texoma and running generally east along the Oklahoma–Texas border towards Southwestern Arkansas (entering it near the state line between Little River County, Arkansas, and Bowie County, Texas) before turning southward northwest of Texarkana (in so doing, forming the eastern border of Miller County) and passing into Northwestern Louisiana. The bordering Louisiana cities of Shreveport and Bossier City were developed along the river bank; its span within the Ark-La-Tex ends in Natchitoches Parish, Louisiana (where the Red River spans to the adjacent northwest of the parish's namesake county seat), at its intersection with Grant and Rapides parishes.

Definition
As with all vernacular regions, the Ark-La-Tex has no official boundaries or status and is defined differently by various sources. Most definitions of the Ark-La-Tex delineate the region as encompassing 40 parishes and counties, and most weather radars suggest a 40-county or -parish area. {|width=75%
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Louisiana (13 parishes)

 * Bienville
 * Bossier
 * Caddo
 * Claiborne
 * DeSoto
 * Jackson
 * Lincoln
 * Natchitoches
 * Red River
 * Sabine
 * Union
 * Webster
 * Winn

Arkansas (10 counties)

 * Columbia
 * Hempstead
 * Howard
 * Lafayette
 * Little River
 * Miller
 * Nevada
 * Ouachita
 * Sevier
 * Union
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Oklahoma (one county)

 * McCurtain

Texas (16 counties)

 * Bowie
 * Camp
 * Cass
 * Gregg
 * Harrison
 * Marion
 * Morris
 * Nacogdoches
 * Panola
 * Red River
 * Rusk
 * Sabine
 * San Augustine
 * Shelby
 * Titus
 * Upshur
 * }

Alternate definitions can include eight additional Texas counties (Lamar, Delta, Hopkins, Franklin, Wood, Smith, Cherokee, and Angelina), include the Monroe, Louisiana metropolitan area and Ouachita Parish, Louisiana (which is considered part of the Ark-La-Miss region), exclude the counties encompassing the El Dorado, Arkansas micropolitan area, or exclude McCurtain County, Oklahoma. McCurtain County is usually included in the region's areal definition, primarily for media distribution purposes, even though the Oklahoma Department of Tourism and Recreation formally defines it as being part of its Choctaw Country tourism region. Another alternate definition is solely the vicinity of the Ark-La-Tex region's three principal cities, Shreveport, Longview, and Texarkana.

Climate
The Ark-La-Tex is situated in a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa) typical of the Southeastern United States, albeit occasionally interrupted by intrusions of cold air during the winter months. Rainfall is abundant, with the normal annual precipitation averaging over 51 in in some areas (such as Shreveport), with monthly averages ranging from less than 3 in in August to more than 5 in in June. Portions of East Texas within the region receive more rainfall, 35 to 60 in, than the rest of the state. Due to the flat topography of some areas and the prominence of smaller waterways that are prone to backwater flooding from the Red River, communities occasionally experience severe flooding events. A notable occurrence of severe flooding occurred in March 2016, after torrential rains caused a rapid rise of many local waterways, displacing upwards of 3,500 people from their homes across Caddo and Bossier parishes and adjacent areas of Northwest Louisiana that lie along the Red River. Freezing rain and ice storms occasionally occur during the winter months.

Severe thunderstorms with heavy rain, hail, damaging winds and tornadoes occur in the area during the spring and summer months, although severe weather can also occur during the winter months. The region is in the western section of the "Dixie Alley" tornado climatology region, where tornadogenesis is most often attributed by high precipitation supercell thunderstorms—within which tornadoes are often partially or fully wrapped in curtains of heavy rain, impairing them from being seen by storm spotters and chasers, law enforcement, and the public—due to an increase of moisture from proximity to the nearby Gulf of Mexico. Some areas of the region, such as Bossier City, average a slightly above normal rate of tornadoes when compared to the national average. The winter months are normally mild; Shreveport, in particular, averages 35 days of freezing or below-freezing temperatures per year. Ice and sleet storms occasionally occur during this timeframe. The summer months are hot and humid, with high to very high relative average humidity, often as a result of moisture being advected from the Gulf of Mexico; in Shreveport, maximum temperatures exceed 90 °F an average of 91 days per year.

The National Weather Service (NWS) operates a Weather Forecast Office in Shreveport, which provides local weather forecasts and warnings, watches and advisories for hazardous weather conditions for 39 counties and parishes within the greater Ark-La-Tex region.

Largest cities
List of cities with over 3,500 people (in 2020): {|width=75%
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Louisiana

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Texas

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Oklahoma

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Culture
The culture of the Ark-La-Tex region, and especially its music, shows a mixture of influences from the related, but distinct, cultures of its surrounding states. The music of the area is marked by country and blues sounds typical of the music of the Southern United States, the Western music of Texas, and the well-documented music of New Orleans and Acadiana in Louisiana. The area had a significant role in the development of country and rock-and-roll music, beginning in the 1940s. On March 1, 1948, Shreveport radio station KWKH launched a country music variety show called the Ark-La-Tex Jubilee, followed a month later by the long-running and influential Louisiana Hayride program. Hayride director Horace Logan and regular performer Webb Pierce started a music publishing company called Ark-La-Tex Music. Drummer Brian Blade, a Shreveport native, included a song entitled "Ark.La.Tex." on his 2014 album Landmarks, exploring the mixture of musical influences in his home region.

Colleges and universities
The region contains Stephen F. Austin State University in Nacogdoches, one of four public universities unaffiliated with any of Texas's six university systems, and Louisiana Tech University, a public research university in Ruston, which are the largest public institutions of higher education in the Ark-La-Tex. Named after Stephen F. Austin, who led the second and most successful colonization of the region that would become the state of Texas through the migration of 300 families from other parts of the United States in 1825, the former of the two major universities was founded as a teachers' college in 1923 as a result of legislation authored by State Senator Wilfred Roy Cousins, Sr. Louisiana Tech opened in 1894 (as the Industrial Institute and College of Louisiana) to provide educational subjects pertaining to the arts and sciences for the development of an industrial economy in Louisiana post-Reconstruction. In the 1960s the school (then named Louisiana Polytechnic Institute) became desegregated, and allowed integrated classes with white and black students; after it achieved criteria of a research university under the leadership of President F. Jay Taylor, the university officially adopted its current name in 1970. Louisiana Tech also operates a satellite campus in Shreveport as well as classes at the Academic Success Center and Barksdale Air Force Base Instructional Site in Bossier City, and at the CenturyLink corporate headquarters in Monroe. Ruston is also home to a branch campus of Monroe-based Louisiana Delta Community College.

The Shreveport–Bossier City area is home to several colleges; among them, the Methodist-affiliated Centenary College of Louisiana (originally founded in the East Feliciana Parish town of Jackson in 1825, eventually relocating to Shreveport in 1908), Louisiana Baptist University and Theological Seminary (founded in 1973), Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center Shreveport (opened in 1969 as the only medical school in northern Louisiana) and one of the largest nursing schools in northern Louisiana, the Northwestern State University College of Nursing (opened in 1949) as well as satellite campuses of Louisiana State University (opened as a two-year institution in 1967, and expanded into a four-year college in 1976), Southern University (opened in 1967 with a two-year associate's degree program). Longview, Texas, is home to LeTourneau University, a private, four-year Christian university founded by R.G. LeTourneau in 1946, originally as LeTourneau Technical Institute. Inclusively, Tyler, Texas is also home to satellite higher education campuses through the University of Texas System by way of the University of Texas at Tyler (opened in 1971 as Tyler State College) and the University of Texas Health Center at Tyler (opened in 1947 as the East Texas Tuberculosis Sanitarium and chartered into The University of Texas System in 1977 by the system's Board of Regents) as well as one of two independent institutions, Tyler Junior College (opened in 1926).

The Texarkana metropolitan area is home to Texas A&M University–Texarkana, a four-year satellite branch of the Texas A&M University System (founded as an upper-level extension college of East Texas State University in 1971), and Texarkana College (a public community college formed in 1927 as a branch of the Texarkana Independent School District and separated into an independent institution via a public vote in 1941). Arkadelphia is home to two liberal arts institutions: Henderson State University (founded in 1890 as Arkadelphia Methodist College), which is the only member of the Council of Public Liberal Arts Colleges based in Arkansas and announced plans to join the Arkansas State University System in October 2019, and Ouachita Baptist University, a private, Baptist college affiliated with the Arkansas Baptist State Convention (opened in 1886).

The area also houses several historically black colleges and universities (HBCU). The largest of these, Grambling State University, located in the namesake Lincoln Parish town of Grambling (4 mi west of the Louisiana Tech University campus), was founded in 1901 as the Colored Industrial and Agricultural School. The university was created out of the desire of African-American farmers in rural areas of northern Louisiana to educate other black residents in that section of the state; it moved to its present location in 1905 (as the North Louisiana Agricultural and Industrial School) and became a state junior college (renamed the Louisiana Negro Normal and Industrial Institute) by 1928, when it began offering two-year professional certificates and diplomas to graduates. Grambling received accreditation by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (SACS) in 1949. Other HBCUs in the region include Texas College in Tyler (opened in 1894), Jarvis Christian College in Hawkins (a Christian-based HBCU founded in 1912), and Wiley College in Marshall (a private liberal arts college founded in 1873 by Methodist Episcopal Church Bishop Isaac Wiley and certified in 1882 by the Freedman's Aid Society, which is one of the oldest predominantly black colleges west of the Mississippi River).

Newspapers

 * Athens Daily Review – Athens (Daily, except Sundays and Mondays)
 * Bossier Press-Tribune – Bossier City (Bi-weekly)
 * The Daily Sentinel – Nacogdoches (Daily/Morning)
 * Longview News-Journal – Longview (Daily)
 * Lufkin Daily News – Lufkin (Daily)
 * Marshall News Messenger – Marshall (Daily/Morning)
 * McCurtain County Gazette – Idabel (Daily/Morning)
 * Natchitoches Times – Natchitoches (Daily/Morning)
 * Ruston Daily Leader – Ruston (Daily, except Saturdays)
 * Texarkana Gazette – Texarkana, AR (Daily/Morning)
 * The Times – Shreveport (Daily/Morning)
 * Tyler Morning Telegraph – Tyler (Daily/Morning)

TV
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Shreveport/Texarkana (Northwest Louisiana and Southwest Arkansas)

 * KTAL-TV (channel 6) – Texarkana/Shreveport (NBC affiliate)
 * KMSS-TV (channel 33) – Shreveport/Texarkana (Fox affiliate)
 * KSHV-TV (channel 45) – Shreveport/Texarkana (MyNetworkTV affiliate)
 * KPXJ (channel 21) – Minden/Shreveport/Texarkana (CW affiliate)
 * KSLA (channel 12) – Shreveport/Texarkana (CBS affiliate)
 * KTBS-TV (channel 3) – Shreveport/Texarkana (ABC affiliate)
 * KLTS (channel 24) – Shreveport (PBS member station; Louisiana Public Broadcasting satellite)
 * KETG (channel 9) – Arkadelphia (PBS member station; Arkansas PBS satellite)
 * KTVE (channel 10) – El Dorado/Monroe (NBC affiliate)
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Tyler/Lufkin (East Texas)

 * KLTV (channel 7) – Tyler/Longview (ABC affiliate)
 * KYTX (channel 19) – Nacogdoches/Lufkin/Tyler/Longview/Jacksonville (CBS affiliate)
 * KFXK (channel 51) – Longview/Tyler (Fox affiliate)
 * KCEB (channel 54) – Longview/Tyler (beIN Sports Xtra Español affiliate)
 * KETK-TV (channel 56) – Jacksonville/Tyler/Longview (NBC affiliate)
 * KTRE (channel 9) – Lufkin/Nacogdoches (ABC affiliate; semi-satellite of KLTV)
 * }

AM stations
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Arkansas

 * KVRC (1240; "Fox Sports Arkansas") – Arkadelphia (Sports/Fox Sports Radio)
 * KDMS (1290) – El Dorado (Gospel)
 * KELD (1400; "The Fan") – El Dorado (Sports/Fox Sports Radio)

Louisiana

 * KEEL (710) / K2689GO (101.7 FM, repeater; "KEEL 101.7 FM & 710 AM") – Shreveport/Bossier City (News/talk)
 * KOKA (980) – Shreveport/Bossier City (Urban contemporary gospel)
 * KBCL (1070; "Praise 1070") – Bossier City/Shreveport (Christian talk)
 * KWKH (1130; "1130 The Tiger") – Shreveport/Bossier City (Sports radio/Fox Sports Radio)
 * KASO (1240) – Minden/Shreveport/Bossier City (Classic hits)
 * KSYB (1300; "1300 AM KSYB") – Shreveport/Bossier City (Gospel)
 * KNCB (1320; "Caddo Country") – Vivian/Shreveport/Bossier City (Classic hits)
 * KRMD (1340; "The Ticket") – Shreveport/Bossier City / K264AS (100.7 FM, repeater) – Mooringsport (Sports talk)
 * KNOC (1450) / K240EY (95.9; "95.9 Kix Country") – Natchitoches (Classic country)
 * KTKC (1460 AM; "Red de Radio Amistad") – Springhill (Spanish Christian)
 * KIOU (1480) – Shreveport/Bossier City (Christian radio)
 * KRUS (1490) / K242DA (96.3; "Rejoice! 96.3 FM") – Ruston (Black gospel)
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Texas

 * KTBB (600) – Tyler/Longview / KTBB-FM (97.5) – Troup (News/talk)
 * KCMC (740) / K300DW (107.9 FM, repeater; "107.9 The Fan") – Texarkana, TX (Sports/CBS Sports Radio)
 * KSFA (860; "News Talk 860") – Lufkin/Nacodgdoches (News/talk)
 * KTFS (940) / K290CP (105.9 FM, repeater) – Texarkana, TX (Gospel)
 * KSST (1230 AM) – Sulphur Springs (Oldies)
 * KDOK (1240; "All Hit Radio K-DOK") – Kilgore/Longview/Marshall (Classic Hits)
 * KZHN (1250; "1250 The Texan") – Paris (Classic country)
 * KSML (1260; "NBC Sports Radio 1260") – Lufkin/Nacodgdoches (Sports/NBC Sports Radio)
 * KIVY (1290) – Crockett/Lufkin/Nacodgdoches (Adult standards)
 * KGLD (1330 AM; "The Light") – Tyler/Longview (Gospel)
 * KRBA (1340 AM) – Lufkin/Nacodgdoches (News/talk/variety)
 * KHDY (1350; "K-Car") – Clarksville (Classic Country)
 * KFRO (1370) – Longview/Marshall (Talk)
 * KKTK (1400) / K246CR (97.1 FM, repeater; "Fox Sports 1400 AM") – Texarkana, TX (Sports/Fox Sports Radio)
 * KEES (1430) – Gladewater/Longview/Marshall (Black gospel)
 * KMHT (1450; "ESPN Radio 1450") – Marshall/Longview (Sports/ESPN Radio)
 * KWRD (1470) / K253CE (98.5; "1470 AM / 98.5 FM KWRD") – Henderson/Longview/Marshall (Country)
 * KPLT (1490; "Classic Country KPLT") – Paris (Classic country)
 * KYZS (1490) / K239CB (95.7, repeater; "ESPN East Texas 95.7") – Tyler (Sports/ESPN Radio)

Oklahoma

 * KBEL (1240; "Talk 1240") – Idabel (News/talk)
 * }

FM stations
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Arkansas

 * KBSA (90.9; "Red River Radio") – El Dorado (NPR/Public Radio International)
 * KAGL (93.3; "The Eagle") – El Dorado (Classic rock)
 * KMJI (93.3; "Majic 93-3") – Ashdown/Texarkana, AR (Urban Contemporary)
 * KMRX (96.1; "Big 96.1") – El Dorado (Classic hits)
 * KMLK (98.7; "The Heart and Soul 98.7") – El Dorado (Urban Adult Contemporary)
 * KDEL-FM (100.9; "Fox Sports Arkansas") – Arkadelphia (Sports/Fox Sports Radio)
 * KIXB (103.3; "KIX 103") – El Dorado (Country)
 * KPGG (103.9) – Ashdown/Texarkana, AR / KHDY-FM (98.5 FM; "98.5 & 103.9 The Pig") – Clarksville (Classic country)
 * KTOY (104.7; "Jammin 104.7") – Texarkana, AR (Urban Adult Contemporary)
 * KYGL (106.3; "Eagle 106.3") – Texarkana, AR (Classic rock)
 * KTFS-FM (107.1; "News Talk 107.1 KTFS") – Texarkana, AR (News/talk)

Louisiana

 * KVSE (89.1; "Miracle 89.1") – Blanchard/Shreveport/Bossier City (Contemporary Christian)
 * KLPI (89.1) – Ruston (College-leading Alternative rock)
 * KBIO (89.7; "Radio Maria") – Natchitoches (Christian radio)
 * KDAQ (89.9; "Red River Radio") – Shreveport (NPR/Public Radio International)
 * KNWD (91.7; "The Demon") – Natchitoches (College-leading Alternative rock)
 * KJVC (92.7) – Mansfield (Country)
 * KXKS-FM (93.7; "Kiss Country") – Shreveport/Bossier City/Minden/Marshall (Country)
 * KRUF (94.5; "K94.5") – Shreveport/Bossier City (Top 40 CHR)
 * KSBH (94.9; "94.9 The River") – Coushatta/Natchitoches (Country)
 * KLKL (95.7; "The River 95.7") – Minden/Shreveport/Bossier City (Classic hits)
 * KVKI-FM (96.5) – Shreveport/Bossier City (Adult contemporary)
 * KQHN (97.3; "Q 97.3") – Waskom/Shreveport/Bossier City (Hot Adult Contemporary)
 * KDBH-FM (97.5; "Country Legends 97.5") – Natchitoches (Classic country)
 * KTAL-FM (98.1; "98 Rocks") – Texarkana/Shreveport (Rock)
 * KPCH (99.3; "The Peach 99.3") – Ruston (Classic hits)
 * KMJJ-FM (99.7) – Shreveport/Bossier City (Urban Contemporary)
 * KZBL (100.7) – Natchitoches (Oldies)
 * KBNF-LP (101.3) – Ruston (High school-leading '80s Classic hits)
 * KDKS-FM (102.1; "KDKS Hot 102 Jams") – Blanchard/Shreveport/Bossier City (Urban adult contemporary)
 * KVMA-FM (102.9; "Magic 102.9") – Shreveport/Bossier City (Soul/R&B Oldies-leaning Urban Adult Contemporary)
 * KXKZ (107.5; "Z107.5") – Ruston (Country)
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Texas

 * KLDN (88.9; "Red River Radio") – Lufkin/Nacodgdoches (NPR/Public Radio International)
 * KVNE (89.5) / KGLY (91.3; "Encouragement FM") – Tyler/Longview (Contemporary Christian)
 * KAXM (90.1; "Your East Texas Alternative") – Nacodgdoches/Lufkin (College radio)
 * KSWP (90.9) – Lufkin/Nacodgdoches (Contemporary Christian)
 * KBWC (91.1) – Marshall/Longview (College-leading Urban contemporary)
 * KTXK (91.5) – Texarkana, TX (NPR)
 * KAVX (91.9) – Lufkin/Nacodgdoches (Christian talk)
 * KRWR (92.1; "92.1 The Team FM") – Tyler/Longview (Sports/Fox Sports Radio)
 * KDPM (92.3) – Marshall/Longview (silent)
 * KXXE (92.5) – San Augustine/Lufkin/Nacodgdoches (Country)
 * KTYL-FM (93.1; "Mix 93.1") – Tyler/Longview (Hot Adult Contemporary)
 * KOYN (93.9) – Paris (Country)
 * KTRG (94.1; "ESPN Texarkana") – Hooks/Texarkana, TX (Sports)
 * KVLL (94.7; "My 94.7") – Wells/Lufkin/Nacodgdoches (Adult contemporary)
 * KEWL (95.1; "The Rewind on 95.1") – New Boston/Texarkana, TX (Classic hits)
 * KAFX-FM (95.5; "KFOX 95.5") – Diboll/Lufkin (Top 40 CHR)
 * KITX (95.5; "K 95.5") – Paris (Country)
 * KPWW (95.9; "Power 95-9") – Hooks/Texarkana, TX (Top 40 CHR)
 * KSCH (95.9 FM) – Sulphur Springs / KSCN (96.9 FM, repeater) – Pittsburg (Country)
 * KKTX-FM (96.1; "Classic Rock 96.1") – Kilgore/Tyler/Longview/Marshall (Classic rock)
 * KOYE (96.7; "La Invasora 96.7") – Frankston/Lufkin/Nacodgdoches (Regional Mexican)
 * KLVH (97.1; "K-Love") – Cleveland/Lufkin/Nacodgdoches (Contemporary Christian)
 * KGFZ (97.7; "Z-97.7") – Burke/Lufkin/Nacodgdoches (Urban contemporary)
 * KALK (97.7 FM; "K-Lake 97.7") – Winfield/Paris (Classic hits)
 * KLOW (98.9 FM; "Trumpet Radio 98.9") – Reno/Paris (Contemporary Christian)
 * KTUX (98.9; "Highway 98.9") – Carthage/Shreveport (Rock)
 * KAPW (99.3; "Mega 99.3") – White Oak/Longview/Marshall (Regional Mexican)
 * KNRB (100.1) – Atlanta (Contemporary Christian)
 * KRMD-FM (101.1; "Country 101.1 KRMD") – Oil City/Shreveport/Bossier City (Country)
 * KYBI (100.1; "Y100") – Lufkin/Nacodgdoches (Country)
 * KTYK (100.7; "Red River Radio") – Overton/Tyler/Longview (NPR/Public Radio International)
 * KNUE (101.5) – Tyler (Spanish Christian)
 * KBYB (101.7) – Hope / K257FY (99.3, repeater; "101.7 Hot FM") – Texarkana, TX (Country)
 * KBUS (101.9; "101.9 The Bus") – Paris (Classic rock)
 * KSML-FM (101.9; "Super Mix 101.9") – Huntington/Lufkin (Regional Mexican)
 * KLFZ (102.3; "Fun Radio") – Jacksonville/Tyler/Longview (Top 40)
 * KKYR-FM (102.5; "Kicker 102.5") – Texarkana, TX (Country)
 * KBLZ (102.7; "The Blaze") – Winona/Tyler (Urban Contemporary)
 * KJCS (103.3; "103 The Bull") – Nacodgdoches/Lufkin (Classic country)
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 * KZRB (103.5) – New Boston/Texarkana, TX (Urban Contemporary)
 * KMHT-FM (103.9; "103.9 Classic Country") – Marshall/Longview (Classic country)
 * KKUS (104.1; "The Ranch") – Tyler/Longview (Classic country)
 * KFYN-FM (104.3; "The River") – Detroit (Traditional/Red Dirt Country)
 * KYKS (105.1; "Kicks 105") – Lufkin/Nacodgdoches (Country)
 * KYKX (105.7) – Longview/Tyler (Country)
 * KOOI (106.5; "Jack 106.5") – Jacksonville/Tyler/Longview (Variety hits)
 * KISX (107.3; "Hot1073Jamz") – Whitehouse/Tyler (Urban Adult Contemporary)
 * KPLT-FM (107.7 FM; "Mix 107.7") – Paris (Mainstream Top 40)
 * KTBQ (107.7; "Q107") – Nacodgdoches/Lufkin (Classic rock)

Oklahoma

 * KBWW (88.3; "The Gospel Station") – Broken Bow (Southern Gospel)
 * KYHD (94.7; "HD 94.7") – Valliant (News/talk)
 * KBEL-FM (96.7) – Idabel (Country)
 * KQIB (102.9; "Q102.9") – Idabel (Hot Adult Contemporary)
 * KIBE (104.9; "Mountaineer Radio") – Broken Bow (Variety)
 * KKBI (106.1; "Best Country 106") – Broken Bow (Country music)
 * }

Airports
Shreveport Regional Airport (IATA: SHV; ICAO: KSHV), located off Hollywood Avenue in southwestern Shreveport, is the region's primary commercial airport. Established in 1952, Shreveport Regional is served by Allegiant Air (with flights to McCarran International Airport in Las Vegas and Orlando Sanford International Airport), American Airlines (to Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport), Delta Air Lines (to Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport), GLO Airlines (to Louis Armstrong New Orleans International Airport), and United Airlines (as United Express, to George Bush Intercontinental Airport in Houston and Denver International Airport). Shreveport Downtown Airport (IATA: DTN; ICAO: KDTN), built in 1931 and located north of downtown Shreveport along the Red River, is the city's general aviation airport and also serves as a reliever airport for Shreveport Regional Airport, itself built to replace the Downtown Airport as Shreveport's main commercial airport due to the limited growth that could be made to that facility due to its close proximity of the Red River.

General and limited commercial aviation is additionally available at several smaller airfields in the Ark-La-Tex; Tyler Pounds Regional Airport (IATA: TYR; ICAO: KTYR), a city-owned public use airport in Tyler; offers service to and from Dallas/Fort Worth International and, on a seasonal basis, Denver International, respectively, via American Eagle and Frontier Airlines. East Texas Regional Airport (IATA: GGG; ICAO: KGGG), located 9 mi south of Longview, is used for general aviation and military training but also provides connector service to Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport via American Airlines and American Eagle. Texarkana Regional Airport (IATA: TXK; ICAO: KTXK), a city-owned public use facility located 3.4 mi northeast of Texarkana, Arkansas's central business district, mainly provides general aviation travel but is also served by American Eagle. Exclusively general aviation service is provided by Angelina County Airport (IATA: LFK; ICAO: KLFK), located 8.05 mi southwest of downtown Lufkin; A.L. Mangham Jr. Regional Airport (IATA: OCH; ICAO: KOCH), located 1 mi outside Loop 224 northwest of TX State Highway 7; and Natchitoches Regional Airport (ICAO: KIER), located 2.3 mi south of downtown Natchitoches.

Major highways
The Ark-La-Tex is an integral point on the United States Interstate Network, with three major interstate highways—Interstate 20, Interstate 30, and Interstate 49—servicing the region, connecting five of the region's largest cities, Tyler, Longview, Marshall, Shreveport and Bossier City. Interstates 20 and 49—the latter of which has its northern terminus at the intersection of the former of the two Interstates—bisect Shreveport, intersecting with I-220 and LA Highway 3132 (which both serve as bypass routes connecting the northern and southern parts of Shreveport) on the city's west side, with U.S. 171 in downtown Shreveport, and with I-220 in central Bossier Parish (north of Barksdale Air Force Base, at which point it begins sharing an overlap with U.S. 71 as it traverses eastward towards Monroe).

The region is a point within the planned extension of the otherwise presently disjointed Interstate 69. A branch of the Interstate (I-369) presently runs north on U.S. 59 within Texas from Tenaha to Texarkana, where the span will eventually connect to Interstates 30 and 49. In response to widespread opposition from environmental groups and property rights activists, the Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT) announced in June 2008 that it would complete I-69 through upgrades to the existing spans of U.S. 59, U.S. 77 and U.S. 281 to Interstate standards through rural areas, with bypasses around urban centers along the route, which will be financed through private sector investment. An approximately 350 mi portion of the I-69 extension to extend from south of Clarksdale, Mississippi, to the Louisiana/Texas state line will be built as a new-terrain route that parallels existing U.S. and state highways in some areas. One of the current segments, SIU 16, covers areas of East Texas to the northeast of Nacogdoches, extending until it terminates at U.S. 171 near Stonewall. Another segment, SIU 15, continues over the southern and eastern sections of Shreveport, crossing I-49 and ending at I-20 near Haughton. The third existing segment, SIU 14, extends northeast from I-20 to US 82 near El Dorado, Arkansas.

{|width=80%
 * -valign=top
 * width=5%|

Interstates

 * [[Image:I-20.svg|20px]] Interstate 20
 * [[Image:I-30.svg|20px]] Interstate 30
 * [[Image:I-49.svg|20px]] Interstate 49
 * [[Image:I-69 (Future).svg|20px]] Interstate 69 (Future)
 * [[Image:I-220.svg|20px]] Interstate 220 (Louisiana)
 * [[Image:I-369.svg|20px]] Interstate 369 (Texas)

U.S. Routes

 * [[Image:US 59.svg|20px]] U.S. Route 59
 * [[Image:US 63.svg|20px]] U.S. Route 63
 * [[Image:US 67.svg|20px]] U.S. Route 67
 * [[Image:US 69.svg|20px]] U.S. Route 69
 * [[Image:US 70.svg|20px]] U.S. Route 70
 * [[Image:US 71.svg|20px]] U.S. Route 71
 * [[Image:US 79.svg|20px]] U.S. Route 79
 * [[Image:US 79B.svg|20px]] U.S. Route 79 Business
 * [[Image:US 80.svg|20px]] U.S. Route 80
 * [[Image:US 82.svg|20px]] U.S. Route 82
 * [[Image:US 82B.svg|20px]] U.S. Route 82 Business
 * [[Image:US 84.svg|20px]] U.S. Route 84
 * [[Image:US 167.svg|20px]] U.S. Route 167
 * [[Image:US 171.svg|20px]] U.S. Route 171
 * [[Image:US 175.svg|20px]] U.S. Route 175
 * [[Image:US 259.svg|20px]] U.S. Route 259
 * [[Image:US 270.svg|20px]] U.S. Route 270
 * [[Image:US 271.svg|20px]] U.S. Route 271
 * U.S. Route 271 Business
 * [[Image:US 278.svg|20px]] U.S. Route 278
 * [[Image:US 287.svg|20px]] U.S. Route 287
 * [[Image:US 371.svg|20px]] U.S. Route 371
 * width=5%|

State highways

 * [[Image:Texas 7.svg|20px]] TX State Highway 7
 * [[Image:Texas 8.svg|20px]] TX State Highway 8
 * [[Image:Texas 11.svg|20px]] TX State Highway 11
 * [[Image:Texas 19.svg|20px]] TX State Highway 19
 * [[Image:Texas 21.svg|20px]] TX State Highway 21
 * [[Image:Texas 24.svg|20px]] TX State Highway 24
 * [[Image:Texas 31.svg|20px]] TX State Highway 31
 * [[Image:Texas 37.svg|20px]] TX State Highway 37
 * [[Image:Texas 42.svg|20px]] TX State Highway 42
 * [[Image:Texas 43.svg|20px]] TX State Highway 43
 * [[Image:Texas 49.svg|20px]] TX State Highway 49
 * [[Image:Texas 57.svg|20px]] TX State Highway 57
 * [[Image:Texas 63.svg|20px]] TX State Highway 63
 * [[Image:Texas 64.svg|20px]] TX State Highway 64
 * [[Image:Texas 77.svg|20px]] TX State Highway 77
 * [[Image:Texas 93.svg|20px]] TX State Highway 93
 * [[Image:Texas 94.svg|20px]] TX State Highway 94
 * [[Image:Texas 98.svg|20px]] TX State Highway 98
 * [[Image:Texas 103.svg|20px]] TX State Highway 103
 * [[Image:Texas 110.svg|20px]] TX State Highway 110
 * [[Image:Texas 135.svg|20px]] TX State Highway 135
 * [[Image:Texas 147.svg|20px]] TX State Highway 147
 * [[Image:Texas 149.svg|20px]] TX State Highway 149
 * [[Image:Texas 154.svg|20px]] TX State Highway 154
 * [[Image:Texas 155.svg|20px]] TX State Highway 155
 * [[Image:Texas 182.svg|20px]] TX State Highway 182
 * [[Image:Texas 204.svg|20px]] TX State Highway 204
 * [[Image:Texas 294.svg|20px]] TX State Highway 294
 * [[Image:Texas 300.svg|20px]] TX State Highway 300
 * [[Image:Texas 315.svg|20px]] TX State Highway 315
 * [[Image:Texas 322.svg|20px]] TX State Highway 322
 * [[Image:Texas 323.svg|20px]] TX State Highway 323
 * [[Image:Texas 338.svg|20px]] TX State Highway 338

State highway loops

 * [[Image:Texas Loop 49.svg|20px]] [[Image:Toll Texas 49 new.svg|20px]] Loop 49
 * [[Image:Texas Loop 151.svg|20px]] TX Loop 151
 * [[Image:Texas Loop 286.svg|20px]] TX Loop 286
 * [[Image:Texas Loop 301.svg|20px]] TX Loop 301
 * [[Image:Texas Loop 304.svg|20px]] TX Loop 304
 * [[Image:Texas Loop 323.svg|20px]] TX Loop 323
 * [[Image:Texas Loop 390.svg|20px]] TX Loop 390
 * [[Image:Texas Loop 485.svg|20px]] TX Loop 485
 * width=5%|

Louisiana state highways

 * [[Image:Louisiana 1.svg|20px]] LA Highway 1
 * [[Image:Louisiana 2.svg|20px]] LA Highway 2
 * [[Image:Louisiana 3.svg|20px]] LA Highway 3
 * [[Image:Louisiana 4.svg|20px]] LA Highway 4
 * [[Image:Louisiana 5.svg|20px]] LA Highway 5
 * [[Image:Louisiana 6.svg|20px]] LA Highway 6
 * [[Image:Louisiana 9.svg|20px]] LA Highway 9
 * [[Image:Louisiana 33.svg|20px]] LA Highway 33
 * [[Image:Louisiana 34.svg|20px]] LA Highway 34
 * [[Image:Louisiana 72.svg|20px]] LA Highway 72
 * [[Image:Louisiana 118.svg|20px]] LA Highway 118
 * [[Image:Louisiana 126.svg|20px]] LA Highway 126
 * [[Image:Louisiana 127.svg|20px]] LA Highway 127
 * [[Image:Louisiana 156.svg|20px]] LA Highway 156
 * [[Image:Louisiana 173.svg|20px]] LA Highway 173
 * [[Image:Louisiana 174.svg|20px]] LA Highway 174
 * [[Image:Louisiana 471.svg|20px]] LA Highway 471
 * [[Image:Louisiana 480.svg|20px]] LA Highway 480
 * [[Image:Louisiana 499.svg|20px]] LA Highway 499
 * [[Image:Louisiana 500.svg|20px]] LA Highway 500
 * [[Image:Louisiana 501.svg|20px]] LA Highway 501
 * [[Image:Louisiana 505.svg|20px]] LA Highway 505
 * [[Image:Louisiana 526.svg|20px]] LA Highway 526
 * [[Image:Louisiana 1228.svg|20px]] LA Highway 1228
 * [[Image:Louisiana 3014.svg|20px]] LA Highway 3014
 * [[Image:Louisiana 3049.svg|20px]] LA Highway 3049
 * [[Image:Louisiana 3132 (2008).svg|20px]] LA Highway 3132
 * [[Image:Louisiana 3136.svg|20px]] LA Highway 3136
 * [[Image:Louisiana 3194.svg|20px]] LA Highway 3194
 * [[Image:Louisiana 3249.svg|20px]] LA Highway 3249
 * [[Image:Louisiana 3278.svg|20px]] LA Highway 3276
 * [[Image:Louisiana 3278.svg|20px]] LA Highway 3278
 * [[Image:Louisiana 3280.svg|20px]] LA Highway 3280
 * width=5%|

Arkansas state highways

 * [[Image:Arkansas 4.svg|20px]] AR Highway 4
 * [[Image:Arkansas 7.svg|20px]] AR Highway 7
 * [[Image:Arkansas 8.svg|20px]] AR Highway 8
 * [[Image:Arkansas 9.svg|20px]] AR Highway 9
 * [[Image:Arkansas 15.svg|20px]] AR Highway 15
 * [[Image:Arkansas 19.svg|20px]] AR Highway 19
 * [[Image:Arkansas 24.svg|20px]] AR Highway 24
 * [[Image:Arkansas 26.svg|20px]] AR Highway 26
 * [[Image:Arkansas 27.svg|20px]] AR Highway 27
 * [[Image:Arkansas 29.svg|20px]] AR Highway 29
 * [[Image:Arkansas 32.svg|20px]] AR Highway 32
 * [[Image:Arkansas 41.svg|20px]] AR Highway 41
 * [[Image:Arkansas 51.svg|20px]] AR Highway 51
 * [[Image:Arkansas 53.svg|20px]] AR Highway 53
 * [[Image:Arkansas 84.svg|20px]] AR Highway 84
 * [[Image:Arkansas 88.svg|20px]] AR Highway 88
 * [[Image:Arkansas 98.svg|20px]] AR Highway 98
 * [[Image:Arkansas 108.svg|20px]] AR Highway 108
 * [[Image:Arkansas 129.svg|20px]] AR Highway 129
 * [[Image:Arkansas 134.svg|20px]] AR Highway 134
 * [[Image:Arkansas 151.svg|20px]] AR Highway 151
 * [[Image:Arkansas 160.svg|20px]] AR Highway 160
 * [[Image:Arkansas 196.svg|20px]] AR Highway 196
 * [[Image:Arkansas 237.svg|20px]] AR Highway 237
 * [[Image:Arkansas 245.svg|20px]] AR Highway 245
 * [[Image:Arkansas 296.svg|20px]] AR Highway 296
 * [[Image:Arkansas 355.svg|20px]] AR Highway 355
 * [[Image:Arkansas 549.svg|20px]] AR Highway 549
 * [[Image:Arkansas 874.svg|20px]] AR Highway 874

Oklahoma state highways

 * [[Image:Oklahoma State Highway 3.svg|20px]] OK State Highway 3
 * [[Image:Oklahoma State Highway 4.svg|20px]] OK State Highway 4
 * [[Image:Oklahoma State Highway 37.svg|20px]] OK State Highway 37
 * [[Image:Oklahoma State Highway 87.svg|20px]] OK State Highway 87
 * [[Image:Oklahoma State Highway 98.svg|20px]] OK State Highway 98
 * }

River transportation
River transportation is available through two inland multi-modal transportation and distribution centers along the Red River: the 2,300 acre Port of Caddo-Bossier, located at the head of navigation on the J. Bennett Johnston Waterway (4 mi south of Shreveport on LA Highway 1), and the 700 acre Natchitoches Parish Port, located on Louisiana Highways 6 and 486 (U.S. 71/U.S. 84) in Campti, Louisiana on the only slack water port on the Red River. The Port of Caddo-Bossier began loading its first cargo in 1995, and has received more than nine million tons of barge freight and over eight million tons of rail freight. The port—which houses more than 17 freight and shipping companies—links the Ark-La-Tex to domestic and international markets via the Mississippi River, and the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway. Bossier City hosts three riverboat casino gambling resorts along the east bank of the Red River: Margaritaville Resort Casino, Horseshoe Bossier City, and Boomtown Bossier City.

title: Ark-La-Tex


text:
History of topos theory

This article gives some very general background to the mathematical idea of topos. This is an aspect of category theory, and has a reputation for being abstruse. The level of abstraction involved cannot be reduced beyond a certain point; but on the other hand context can be given. This is partly in terms of historical development, but also to some extent an explanation of differing attitudes to category theory.

In the school of Grothendieck
During the latter part of the 1950s, the foundations of algebraic geometry were being rewritten; and it is here that the origins of the topos concept are to be found. At that time the Weil conjectures were an outstanding motivation to research. As we now know, the route towards their proof, and other advances, lay in the construction of étale cohomology.

With the benefit of hindsight, it can be said that algebraic geometry had been wrestling with two problems for a long time. The first was to do with its points: back in the days of projective geometry it was clear that the absence of 'enough' points on an algebraic variety was a barrier to having a good geometric theory (in which it was somewhat like a compact manifold). There was also the difficulty, that was clear as soon as topology took form in the first half of the twentieth century, that the topology of algebraic varieties had 'too few' open sets.

The question of points was close to resolution by 1950; Alexander Grothendieck took a sweeping step (invoking the Yoneda lemma) that disposed of it—naturally at a cost, that every variety or more general scheme should become a functor. It wasn't possible to add open sets, though. The way forward was otherwise.

The topos definition first appeared somewhat obliquely, in or about 1960. General problems of so-called 'descent' in algebraic geometry were considered, at the same period when the fundamental group was generalised to the algebraic geometry setting (as a pro-finite group). In the light of later work (c. 1970), 'descent' is part of the theory of comonads; here we can see one way in which the Grothendieck school bifurcates in its approach from the 'pure' category theorists, a theme that is important for the understanding of how the topos concept was later treated.

There was perhaps a more direct route available: the abelian category concept had been introduced by Grothendieck in his foundational work on homological algebra, to unify categories of sheaves of abelian groups, and of modules. An abelian category is supposed to be closed under certain category-theoretic operations—by using this kind of definition one can focus entirely on structure, saying nothing at all about the nature of the objects involved. This type of definition can be traced back, in one line, to the lattice concept of the 1930s. It was a possible question to ask, around 1957, for a purely category-theoretic characterisation of categories of sheaves of sets, the case of sheaves of abelian groups having been subsumed by Grothendieck's work (the Tôhoku paper).

Such a definition of a topos was eventually given five years later, around 1962, by Grothendieck and Verdier (see Verdier's Nicolas Bourbaki seminar Analysis Situs). The characterisation was by means of categories 'with enough colimits', and applied to what is now called a Grothendieck topos. The theory was rounded out by establishing that a Grothendieck topos was a category of sheaves, where now the word sheaf had acquired an extended meaning, since it involved a Grothendieck topology.

The idea of a Grothendieck topology (also known as a site) has been characterised by John Tate as a bold pun on the two senses of Riemann surface. Technically speaking it enabled the construction of the sought-after étale cohomology (as well as other refined theories such as flat cohomology and crystalline cohomology). At this point—about 1964—the developments powered by algebraic geometry had largely run their course. The 'open set' discussion had effectively been summed up in the conclusion that varieties had a rich enough site of open sets in unramified covers of their (ordinary) Zariski-open sets.

From pure category theory to categorical logic
The current definition of topos goes back to William Lawvere and Myles Tierney. While the timing follows closely on from that described above, as a matter of history, the attitude is different, and the definition is more inclusive. That is, there are examples of toposes that are not a Grothendieck topos. What is more, these may be of interest for a number of logical disciplines.

Lawvere and Tierney's definition picks out the central role in topos theory of the sub-object classifier. In the usual category of sets, this is the two-element set of Boolean truth-values, true and false. It is almost tautologous to say that the subsets of a given set X are the same as (just as good as) the functions on X to any such given two-element set: fix the 'first' element and make a subset Y correspond to the function sending Y there and its complement in X to the other element.

Now sub-object classifiers can be found in sheaf theory. Still tautologously, though certainly more abstractly, for a topological space X there is a direct description of a sheaf on X that plays the role with respect to all sheaves of sets on X. Its set of sections over an open set U of X is just the set of open subsets of U. The space associated with a sheaf, for it, is more difficult to describe.

Lawvere and Tierney therefore formulated axioms for a topos that assumed a sub-object classifier, and some limit conditions (to make a cartesian-closed category, at least). For a while this notion of topos was called 'elementary topos'.

Once the idea of a connection with logic was formulated, there were several developments 'testing' the new theory:

 * models of set theory corresponding to proofs of the independence of the axiom of choice and continuum hypothesis by Paul Cohen's method of forcing.
 * recognition of the connection with Kripke semantics, the intuitionistic existential quantifier and intuitionistic type theory.
 * combining these, discussion of the intuitionistic theory of real numbers, by sheaf models.

Position of topos theory
There was some irony that in the pushing through of David Hilbert's long-range programme a natural home for intuitionistic logic's central ideas was found: Hilbert had detested the school of L. E. J. Brouwer. Existence as 'local' existence in the sheaf-theoretic sense, now going by the name of Kripke–Joyal semantics, is a good match. On the other hand Brouwer's long efforts on 'species', as he called the intuitionistic theory of reals, are presumably in some way subsumed and deprived of status beyond the historical. There is a theory of the real numbers in each topos, and so no one master intuitionist theory.

The later work on étale cohomology has tended to suggest that the full, general topos theory isn't required. On the other hand, other sites are used, and the Grothendieck topos has taken its place within homological algebra.

The Lawvere programme was to write higher-order logic in terms of category theory. That this can be done cleanly is shown by the book treatment by Joachim Lambek and P. J. Scott. What results is essentially an intuitionistic (i.e. constructive logic) theory, its content being clarified by the existence of a free topos. That is a set theory, in a broad sense, but also something belonging to the realm of pure syntax. The structure on its sub-object classifier is that of a Heyting algebra. To get a more classical set theory one can look at toposes in which it is moreover a Boolean algebra, or specialising even further, at those with just two truth-values. In that book, the talk is about constructive mathematics; but in fact this can be read as foundational computer science (which is not mentioned). If one wants to discuss set-theoretic operations, such as the formation of the image (range) of a function, a topos is guaranteed to be able to express this, entirely constructively.

It also produced a more accessible spin-off in pointless topology, where the locale concept isolates some insights found by treating topos as a significant development of topological space. The slogan is 'points come later': this brings discussion full circle on this page. The point of view is written up in Peter Johnstone's Stone Spaces, which has been called by a leader in the field of computer science 'a treatise on extensionality'. The extensional is treated in mathematics as ambient—it is not something about which mathematicians really expect to have a theory. Perhaps this is why topos theory has been treated as an oddity; it goes beyond what the traditionally geometric way of thinking allows. The needs of thoroughly intensional theories such as untyped lambda calculus have been met in denotational semantics. Topos theory has long looked like a possible 'master theory' in this area.

Summary
The topos concept arose in algebraic geometry, as a consequence of combining the concept of sheaf and closure under categorical operations. It plays a certain definite role in cohomology theories. A 'killer application' is étale cohomology.

The subsequent developments associated with logic are more interdisciplinary. They include examples drawing on homotopy theory (classifying toposes). They involve links between category theory and mathematical logic, and also (as a high-level, organisational discussion) between category theory and theoretical computer science based on type theory. Granted the general view of Saunders Mac Lane about ubiquity of concepts, this gives them a definite status. The use of toposes as unifying bridges in mathematics has been pioneered by Olivia Caramello in her 2017 book.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: History of topos theory


text:
Reichenau, Switzerland

Reichenau (La Punt) is a village in the municipality of Tamins in the Canton of Graubünden, Switzerland, where the two Rhine tributaries Vorderrhein and Hinterrhein meet, forming the Alpine Rhine. It is a major traffic junction of the routes from Chur towards the Oberalp Pass and Lukmanier Pass and from Chur towards San Bernardino Pass and Julier Pass.

The civilisation of the place is traced back until the year 500. The name originates from the Benedictine Abbey of Reichenau on Reichenau Island in Lake Constance which owned properties in this area during the Middle Ages. The monastery was founded in 724 and drew to itself abbots with connections to the highest Carolingian and Ottonian society; it housed a school, and a famous scriptorium. See Abbey of Reichenau.

In the 14th century the first bridges were built over the Rhine tributaries.

A roadhouse was built 1570 to collect the bridge toll. In the 17th century the first buildings for the sovereignty of Reichenau were built which became the castle of Reichenau. The Rhaetian Railway reached Reichenau in 1896.

Transportation
Rhaetian Railway operate services to Reichenau-Tamins (Rhaetian Railway station) nearby.

title: Reichenau, Switzerland


text:
Rithmomachia

Rithmomachia (also known as Rithmomachy, Arithmomachia, Rythmomachy, Rhythmomachy, The Philosophers' Game, and other variants) is an early European mathematical board game. Its earliest known description dates from the eleventh century. The name comes loosely from Greek and means "The Battle of the Numbers." The game is somewhat like chess except that most methods of capture depend on the numbers inscribed on each piece.

The game was used as an educational tool that teachers could introduce while teaching arithmetic as part of the quadrivium to those in Western Europe who received a classical education during the medieval period. David Sepkoski wrote that between the twelfth and sixteenth centuries, "rithmomachia served as a practical exemplar for teaching the contemplative values of Boethian mathematical philosophy, which emphasized the natural harmony and perfection of number and proportion, that it was used both as a mnemonic drill for the study of Boethian number theory and, more importantly, as a vehicle for moral education, by reminding players of the mathematical harmony of creation." The game declined sharply in popularity in the 17th century, as it was no longer used in education, and potential players were not introduced to it during their schooling.

History
Little is known about the origin of the game. Medieval writers attributed it to Pythagoras, but no trace of it has been discovered in Greek literature. The earliest surviving mentions of it is are from the early 11th century, suggesting it was created in the late 10th or early 11th century. The name and its many variations are from Greek; it is unclear whether this was due to being created by a rare Western European with a classical education that involved learning Greek, or if the game had a genuine origin in Greece and the Greek-speaking Byzantine Empire of the period.

The first written evidence of Rithmomachia dates to around 1030, when a monk named Asilo created a game that illustrated the number theory of Boethius' De institutione arithmetica, for the students of monastery schools. De institutione arithmetica was the standard textbook for instruction in arithmetics in the period for those lucky enough to receive a medieval education. The rules of the game were improved and spelled out more shortly thereafter by another monk, Hermannus Contractus (1013–1054) from Reichenau, and in the school of Liège. In the following centuries, Rithmomachia spread through schools and monasteries in the southern parts of Germany and France. It was used mainly as a teaching aid, but gradually intellectuals started to play it for pleasure. In the 13th century Rithmomachia came to England, where famous mathematician Thomas Bradwardine wrote a text about it. Even Roger Bacon recommended Rithmomachia to his students, while Sir Thomas More let the inhabitants described in the book Utopia play it for recreation. The game was known well enough to justify printed treatises in Latin, French, Italian, and German, in the sixteenth century. Two notices advertising a game set for sale have been found, one in Paris (1556) and the other in London (1563). Nevertheless, no archaeological evidence of the game (such as playing boards) has survived from the medieval and early modern periods, in contrast to many other board games.

Rithmomachia was at its most popular in the 16th century. The Tudor polymath, statesman and publisher of the Geneva Bible, Sir Rowland Hill, published on the game under the title The most ancient and learned Playe, called the Philosopher's Game invented for the honest recreation of Students and other sober persons, in passing the tedious of tyme to the release of their labours, and the exercise of their Wittes in 1562; his house at Soulton Hall also contains a board for the game on a basement parlour or prayer room.

In 1572 Francesco Barozzi published a version in Venice which was translated into German by Augustus II, Duke of Brunswick. It lost its popularity sharply in the 17th century, virtually disappearing as the style of teaching mathematics changed, and Boethius's mathematics was considered old-fashioned and obsolete. One issue was that the rules were never standardized, with major variations from teacher to teacher. The game partially survived by clinging to the now far more popular chess. Gustavus Selenus included the rules of rithmomachia as an appendix in one of his books on chess, and the game persisted as "arithmetic chess" or "numerical checkers" as a side mention in German chess books for some time afterward, a curiosity but a rarely-played one. The game was rediscovered in the 20th century by historians of board games such as Arno Borst.

Gameplay

Rithmomachia is played on a board resembling the one used for chess or checkers with eight squares on the shorter side, but with sixteen on the longer side. The forms used for the pieces were triangles, squares, and rounds. Pyramids could be formed by stacking pieces. The game was noteworthy in that the black and white forces were not symmetrical. Although each side had the same array of pieces, the numbers on them differed, allowing different possible captures and winning configurations to the two players.

The rules below describe the most common version of the game, played through much of the Middle Ages and Renaissance. There was also a variant propounded by Fulke in the 16th century, with significantly different (and somewhat more consistent) capture rules.

Pieces
There are four types of pieces: Rounds, Triangles, Squares, and Pyramids.
 * Rounds: Rounds move one square in any of the four diagonals.
 * Triangles: Triangles can move exactly two squares vertically or horizontally, but not diagonally.
 * Squares: Squares can move exactly three squares vertically or horizontally, but not diagonally.
 * Pyramids: Pyramids are not actually one piece, but more than one piece put together. The white pyramid is made of a "36" square, a "25" square, a "16" triangle, a "9" triangle, a "4" round, and a "1" round, which totals up to the pyramid's value of 91. The black pyramid is made up of a "64" square, a "49" square, a "36" triangle, a "25" triangle, and a "16" round, which adds up to the pyramid's value of 190. These irregular values make it hard for them to be captured by most of the capturing methods listed below, except for siege. Pyramids can move like a round, a triangle, or a square, as long as they still contain the respective piece, which makes them very valuable.

Capturing
There were a variety of capture methods. Pieces do not land on another piece to capture it, but instead remain in their square and remove the other. If a piece is captured, it changes sides.

 * Meeting: If a piece could capture another piece with the same value by landing on it, the piece stays in its location and the opponent's piece is taken from the board.
 * Assault: If a piece with a small value, multiplied by the number of vacant spaces between it and another larger piece is equal to the larger piece, the larger piece is captured.
 * Ambuscade: If two pieces' sum is equal to an enemy piece that is placed between the two (i.e. the enemy piece is within a move of both attacking pieces), the enemy piece is captured and removed from the board.
 * Siege: If a piece is surrounded on all four sides, it is removed.

Victory
There were also a variety of victory conditions for determining when a game would end and who the winner was. There were common victories, and proper victories, which were recommended for more skilled players. Proper victories required placing pieces in linear arrangements in the opponent's side of the board, with the numbers formed by the arrangement following various types of numerical progression. The types of progression required — arithmetic, geometric and harmonic — fit with the mathematical and numerological teachings of Boethius.
 * Common victories:
 * De corpore (Latin: "by body"): If a player captures a certain number of pieces set by both players, they win the game.
 * De bonis ("by goods"): If a player captures enough pieces to add up to or exceed a certain value that is set by both players, they win the game.
 * De lite ("by lawsuit"): If a player captures enough pieces to add up to or exceed a certain value that is set by both players, and the number of digits in their captured pieces' values are less than a number set by both players, they win the game.
 * De honore ("by honour"): If a player captures enough pieces to add up to or exceed a certain value that is set by both players, and the number of pieces they captured are less than a certain number set by both players, they win the game.
 * de honore liteque ("by honour and lawsuit"): If a player captures enough pieces to add up to or exceed a certain value that is set by both players, the number of digits in their captured pieces' values are less than a number set by both players, and the number of pieces they captured are less than a certain number set by both players, they win the game.
 * Proper victories:
 * Victoria magna ("great victory"): This occurs when three pieces that are arranged are in an arithmetic progression.
 * Victoria major ("greater victory"): This occurs when four pieces that are arranged have three pieces that are in a certain progression, and another three pieces that are in another type of progression.
 * Victoria excellentissima ("most excellent victory"): This occurs when four pieces that are arranged have all three types of mathematical progressions in three different groups.

title: Rithmomachia


text:
William Huskisson

William Huskisson (11 March 1770 – 15 September 1830) was a British statesman, financier, and Member of Parliament for several constituencies, including Liverpool.

He is commonly known as the world's first widely reported railway passenger casualty as he was run over and fatally injured by Robert Stephenson's pioneering locomotive Rocket (however, the first railway casualty had happened 9 years earlier ).

Background and education
Huskisson was born at Birtsmorton Court, Malvern, Worcestershire, the son of William and Elizabeth Huskisson, both members of Staffordshire families. He was one of four brothers. After their mother Elizabeth died, their father William eventually remarried and had further children by his second wife.

Early life
Huskisson was a student at Appleby Grammar School (later renamed Sir John Moore Church of England Primary School), a boarding school designed by Sir Christopher Wren on the Leicestershire/Derbyshire borders. In 1783, he was sent to Paris to live with his maternal great-uncle Dr. Richard Gem, who was physician to the British embassy there. He remained in Paris until 1792, and his experience as an eyewitness to the prelude and beginning of the French Revolution gave him a lifelong interest in politics. Huskisson first came to public notice while still in Paris. As a supporter of the moderate party, he became a member of the "Club of 1789", which favoured making France into a constitutional monarchy. On 29 August 1790, he delivered a speech entitled "Sur les Assignats", about the issue of assignats by the French government. This speech gave him a reputation as an expert in finance. From 1790 to 1792, the Marquess of Stafford was the British ambassador to Paris. Huskisson became a protégé of the Marquess, and returned to London with him.

Political career
Once in London, Huskisson quickly gained an additional two powerful political patrons: Henry Dundas, the Home Secretary, and William Pitt the Younger, the Prime Minister. Because of Huskisson's fluency in French, Dundas appointed him in January 1793 to oversee the execution of the Aliens Act, which mostly dealt with French refugees. In the discharge of his delicate duties, he manifested such ability that in 1795 he was appointed Under-Secretary at War (the Secretary at War's deputy).

In the following year he entered Parliament as member for Morpeth, but for a considerable period he took scarcely any part in the debates. In 1800 he inherited a fortune from Dr Gem. On the retirement of Pitt in 1801 he resigned office, and after contesting Dover unsuccessfully he withdrew for a time into private life. Having in 1804 been chosen to represent Liskeard, he was appointed secretary of the treasury on the restoration of the Pitt ministry, holding office till the dissolution of the ministry after the death of Pitt in January 1806.

After being elected for Harwich in 1807, he accepted the same office under the Duke of Portland, but he withdrew from the ministry along with Canning in 1809. In the following year he published a pamphlet on the currency system, which confirmed his reputation as the ablest financier of his time; but his free-trade principles did not accord with those of his party. In 1812 he was returned for Chichester.

When in 1814 he re-entered government, it was only as First Commissioner of Woods and Forests, but his influence was from this time very great in the commercial and financial legislation of the country. He took a prominent part in the debates over the Corn Laws in 1814 and 1815; and in 1819 he presented a memorandum to Lord Liverpool advocating a large reduction in the unfunded debt, and explaining a method for the resumption of cash payments, which was embodied in the act passed the same year. In 1821 he was a member of the committee appointed to inquire into the causes of the agricultural distress then prevailing, and the proposed relaxation of the Corn Laws embodied in the report was understood to have been chiefly due to his strenuous advocacy.

In 1823 he was appointed President of the Board of Trade and Treasurer of the Navy, and shortly afterwards he received a seat in the cabinet. In the same year he was returned for Liverpool as successor to Canning, and as the only man who could reconcile the Tory merchants to a free trade policy. Among the more important legislative changes with which he was principally connected were a reform of the Navigation Acts, admitting other nations to a full equality and reciprocity of shipping duties; the repeal of the labour laws; the introduction of a new sinking fund; the reduction of the duties on manufactures and on the importation of foreign goods, and the repeal of the quarantine duties.

As a Secretary for Colonies in 1826, he proposed the revised Consolidated Slave Law which was accepted by Parliament and passed by the Barbadian legislature.

In 1826 after the Power-loom riots, a number of manufacturers subsequently agreed to pay a standard rate to the weavers, but on their own admission it was a "starvation" wage. Those who stuck to the agreement found it difficult to compete with those manufacturers who did not, and could therefore undercut them, prompting an appeal to William Huskisson, the President of the Board of Trade, to introduce a legally binding minimum wage. Huskisson's response was dismissive, expressing his view that to introduce such a measure would be "a vain and hazardous attempt to impose the authority of the law between the labourer and his employer in regulating the demand for labour and the price to be paid for it".

In accordance with his suggestion Canning in 1827 introduced a measure on the corn laws proposing the adoption of a sliding scale to regulate the amount of duty. A misapprehension between Huskisson and the Duke of Wellington led to the duke proposing an amendment, the success of which caused the abandonment of the measure by the government.

After the death of Canning in the same year Huskisson accepted the secretaryship of the colonies under Lord Goderich, an office which he continued to hold in the new cabinet formed by the Duke of Wellington in the following year. After succeeding with great difficulty in inducing the cabinet to agree to a compromise on the corn laws, Huskisson finally resigned office in May 1828 on account of a difference with his colleagues in regard to the disfranchisement of East Retford.

He was followed out of the government by other Tories who are usually described as Canningites including Lord Palmerston, Charles Grant and Lord Dudley.

Death

Huskisson had been diagnosed with strangury, a tender inflammation of the kidneys. He had undergone surgery, and had been advised by Royal doctor William George Maton to cancel all forthcoming appointments, which included the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. Huskisson chose to ignore this advice, believing the opening event too important to avoid. He rode down the line in a special train constructed for the Duke of Wellington and his guests and dignitaries, pulled by the locomotive Northumbrian which was driven by George Stephenson himself. This train was the only train on the south track; the other seven were in procession on the northern track. At Parkside railway station, near the midpoint of the line, the locomotives made a scheduled stop to take on fuel and water. Although the company had implicitly warned passengers to remain on the trains while this took place, around 50 of the dignitaries on board alighted when the Duke of Wellington's special train stopped. One of those who got off was Huskisson, who approached the Duke to take this opportunity to repair their relationship after a great falling out, which resulted in Huskisson leaving the government, and shook his hand.

At this time the train being pulled by Rocket approached on the other line. Rocket was being driven by Joseph Locke, George Stephenson's assistant and future eminent engineer in his own right. A shout went up, "An engine is approaching. Take care, gentlemen!" The other disembarked passengers either climbed back into their seats, or stepped over the northern line and completely out of the way. A third option was available, to stand with one's back to the stationary coaches, as there was a four-foot gap between the lines, and even though the Duke's private carriage was wider than a then-standard carriage, it would have still been possible to stand between the stationary train and the travelling train and remain safe. However, what unfolded was a calamitous series of events. Huskisson was known to be clumsy, and had endured a long list of problems from his regular trips and falls; he had twice broken his arm and never fully recovered the use of it. Added to this, he was only a few weeks post surgery and was present against his doctor's advice.

On realising his danger, he panicked and made two attempts to cross the other line, but changed his mind and returned to the Duke's carriage. At this point Joseph Locke became aware and threw Rocket into reverse, but it would have taken 10 seconds to have any effect. Huskisson then panicked that the gap between the two trains was not big enough and so tried to clamber into the Duke's carriage. However, the carriage door had not been latched, and so it slowly swung open, leaving him hanging directly in the path of the oncoming Rocket, which hit the door, throwing Huskisson onto the tracks in front of the train. His leg was horrifically mangled by the locomotive.

A door was ripped from a railway building and Huskisson was placed on it, and George Stephenson uncoupled Northumbrian from the Duke's train and coupled it to a small carriage that had been occupied by a band; the mortally injured MP was placed inside with a small group of friends. They set off to Eccles and walked from the station to the vicarage, where a doctor was called. A tourniquet had been applied, but it was not deemed possible to do a field amputation, so he was made comfortable with the assistance of the vicar's wife Emma Blackburne, whose "activity, sense & conduct" were mentioned in The Manchester Courier and The Times and remembered with gratitude by Huskisson's widow Emily who arrived at the vicarage from Liverpool. Huskisson was able to make his will and at 9 pm he finally succumbed to his injury.

The death and funeral of Huskisson led to wide reporting on the opening of the railway, for the first time making people around the world aware that cheap and rapid long-distance transport was now possible, if dangerous.

Family and commemorations
On 6 April 1799, Huskisson married Emily Milbanke, the younger daughter of Mark Milbanke, the commander-in-chief at Portsmouth. Emily Huskisson survived her husband and did not remarry, dying in April 1856. They had no children. In 1800 Huskisson bought Eartham House in West Sussex from his friend William Hayley, and is commemorated in the parish church by a long carved eulogy from Emily on the south wall.

The monument where his remains are buried is the centrepiece of St James Cemetery, Liverpool. A marble statue of him was housed in a mausoleum there until 1968, when it was transferred to the Walker Art Gallery in Liverpool.

Emily also commissioned a second marble statue for the Custom House in Liverpool. This statue now stands in Pimlico Gardens in London, between Grosvenor Road and the river Thames. A bronze casting of it was unveiled at the Custom House in 1847 and, after several moves, is now in Duke Street in Liverpool city centre.

The town of Huskisson, New South Wales was named after Huskisson by the 9th Governor of New South Wales, Sir George Gipps.

title: William Huskisson


text:
Constitution of the Confederate States

The Constitution of the Confederate States was the supreme law of the Confederate States of America. It superseded the Provisional Constitution of the Confederate States, the Confederate State's first constitution, in 1862. It remained in effect until the end of the American Civil War in 1865.

The original Provisional Constitution is located at the American Civil War Museum in Richmond, Virginia, and differs slightly from the version later adopted. The final, handwritten Constitution is located in the Hargrett Rare Book and Manuscript Library at the University of Georgia. Most of its provisions are word-for-word duplicates from the United States Constitution; however, there are crucial differences between the two documents in tone and legal content, primarily regarding slavery.

Comparison with the U.S. Constitution

 * The preambles of both the U.S. and the Confederate Constitutions have some similarities, but it seems that the Confederate Constitution authors set out to give a different feel to the new preamble. Both preambles are provided here. The bold text shows the differences between them. The Confederate Constitution's preamble includes references to God, a perpetual government, and the sovereignty and the independence of each state.
 * The Preamble to the U.S. Constitution: "We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America."
 * The Preamble to the Confederate Constitution: "We, the people of the Confederate States, each state acting in its sovereign and independent character, in order to form a permanent federal government, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity – invoking the favor and guidance of Almighty God – do ordain and establish this Constitution for the Confederate States of America."

Article summaries
The Confederate Constitution followed the U.S. Constitution for the most part in the main body of the text but with some changes:

Article I differences
"But Congress may, by law, grant to the principal officer in each of the Executive Departments a seat upon the floor of either House, with the privilege of discussing any measures appertaining to his department." "The Congress shall have power – To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises for revenue, necessary to pay the debts, provide for the common defense, and carry on the Government of the Confederate States; but no bounties shall be granted from the Treasury; nor shall any duties or taxes on importations from foreign nations be laid to promote or foster any branch of industry; and all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the Confederate States."
 * Amended Article I Section 2(1) to prohibit persons "of foreign birth" who were "not a citizen of the Confederate States" from voting "for any officer, civil or political, State or Federal."
 * Article I Section 2(3) is essentially the same, and the clause still counts only "three-fifths of all slaves" for the population total of each state, just as it did in the U.S. with the Three-Fifths Compromise: "The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every fifty thousand". while in the U.S. Constitution "The Number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty Thousand." A proposed Amendment to the U.S. Constitution which had been awaiting ratification by the states would have changed the maximum number of representatives to one for every fifty thousand.
 * Amended Article I Section 2(5) to allow the state legislatures to impeach federal officials who live and work only within their state with a two-thirds vote of both houses of the state legislature.
 * Concerning the appointment of Senators, Article I Section 3(1) adds "at the regular session next immediately preceding the commencement of the term of service." The state legislature, which then was responsible for the appointment of senators, had to wait until the seat was vacant.
 * Article I Section 4(1) deals with elections and adds "subject to the provisions of this Constitution" to the U.S. Constitution Clause. That meant that each state legislature was free to make its own decision unless the constitution laid out other rules. The aforementioned Article I Section 2(1) and Article I Section 3(1) clauses would fall into that category.
 * Amended Article I Section 6(2) to allow the House of Representatives and the Senate the ability to grant seats to the heads of each executive department to discuss issues involving their departments with Congress. The clause is the same as the one from the U.S. Constitution and adds:
 * Amended Article I Section 7(2) to provide the President of the Confederate States with a line-item veto but also required any bill in which the president used the veto in to be resubmitted to both houses for a possible override vote by two thirds of both houses.
 * In an attempt to prevent the Confederate Congress from protecting industry, the framers added to Article I Section 8(1):

 * The phrase "general Welfare" was dropped from the Confederate Clause as well.

"The Congress shall have Power To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States; but all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States;"

Article I Section 8(3) added quite a bit to the U.S. Constitution in an attempt to block the Confederate Congress from appropriating money to build "internal improvements" to "facilitate commerce," with some exceptions allowing for safety and improvement to waterways.
 * Article I Section 8 of the U.S. Constitution.

"To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes."

 * Article I Section 8(3) of the Confederate Constitution.

"To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes; but neither this, nor any other clause contained in the constitution, shall ever be construed to delegate the power to Congress to appropriate money for any internal improvement intended to facilitate commerce; except for the purpose of furnishing lights, beacons, and buoys, and other aids to navigation upon the coasts, and the improvement of harbors and the removing of obstructions in river navigation, in all which cases, such duties shall be laid on the navigation facilitated thereby, as may be necessary to pay the costs and expenses thereof." "Congress shall appropriate no money from the treasury except by a vote of two-thirds of both Houses, taken by yeas and nays, unless it be asked and estimated for by some one of the heads of Department, and submitted to Congress by the President; or for the purpose of paying its own expenses and contingencies; or for the payment of claims against the Confederate States, the justice of which shall have been judicially declared by a tribunal for the investigation of claims against the government, which it is hereby made the duty of Congress to establish." "All bills appropriating money shall specify in federal currency the exact amount of each appropriation and the purposes for which it is made; and Congress shall grant no extra compensation to any public contractor, officer, agent or servant, after such contract shall have been made or such service rendered." "Every law or resolution having the force of law, shall relate to but one subject, and that shall be expressed in the title."
 * There are changes and additions to Article 1 Section 9 Clauses (1), (2), and (4) that are covered in the Slavery section below.
 * The first twelve amendments to the U.S. Constitution, including the Bill of Rights, were directly incorporated into the Confederate Constitution. That was done primarily in Article I Section 9 of the Confederate Constitution, with the first eight amendments to the U.S. Constitution becoming clauses (12) to (19).
 * In addition to this, there were three altogether-new clauses in the Confederate Constitution for Article I, Section 9.
 * Article I, Section 9(9)
 * Article I, Section 9(10)
 * Amendments I through VIII are contained, in the same order, in Article I, Section 9(12) through Article I, Section 9(19) (the remainder of the U.S. Bill of Rights is in Article VI).
 * Article I, Section 9(20) was added to limit new bills to only one subject presented.

Then in Section 10: "No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty on tonnage, except on sea-going vessels, for the improvement of its rivers and harbors navigated by the said vessels; but such duties shall not conflict with any treaties of the Confederate States with foreign nations; and any surplus revenue, thus derived, shall, after making such improvement, be paid into the common treasury. Nor shall any state keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another state, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay. But when any river divides or flows through two or more States, they may enter into compacts with each other to improve the navigation thereof."
 * Article I Section 10(3): Individual states were unable to tax ships and negotiate treaties concerning waterways with other states without congressional consent. The clause limited the states’ ability to keep troops or to engage in war, but provided some ability to enter compacts for the improvement of shared rivers.

Article II
Changes to Article III Changes to Article IV "Other states may be admitted into this Confederacy by a vote of two-thirds of the whole House of Representatives, and two-thirds of the Senate, the Senate voting by states; but no new state shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other state; nor any state be formed by the junction of two or more states, or parts of states, without the consent of the legislatures of the states concerned as well as of the Congress."
 * The President of the Confederate States of America is to be elected by electors, chosen by the individual states, for a single six-year term, rather than a then-unlimited number of four-year terms. Article 2 Section 1(1) reads as: "The executive power shall be vested in a President of the Confederate States of America. He and the Vice President shall hold their offices for the term of six years; but the President shall not be re-eligible."
 * Amendment XII of the U.S. Constitution is added here as Article II Section 1(3), (4), and (5)
 * Article II Section 1(7) of the Confederate Constitution required candidates for the President of the Confederacy to have resided "within the limits of the Confederate States" for 14 years.
 * Article III Section 2(1) of the Confederate Constitution combines the first clause of Article III Section 1 in the U.S. Constitution with Amendment XI. The phrase "citizens of the same state" is left out and "and foreign states, citizens or subjects; but no state shall be sued by a citizen or subject of any foreign state" is added in the Confederate Constitution.
 * There were changes and additions to Article IV Section 2(1) and Article IV Section 3(3), which are covered in the Slavery section below.
 * Article IV Section 3(1) required a two-thirds of both houses of Congress vote for a new state to join the Confederacy.

Changes to Article V Changes to Article VI "Article VI Section 1(1)
 * The Confederate Congress, unlike in the U.S. Constitution, could not propose amendments. Instead, amendments had to be proposed by constitutional conventions in at least three states. The Confederate Constitution also clarified an ambiguity in the U.S. Constitution's Article V by declaring that a national convention could propose only amendments that were suggested by state conventions, as opposed to having the authority to amend the entire Constitution. The process of amendment became easier (Article V Section 1(1)) by requiring only two thirds of the states to ratify, rather than three fourths.
 * The Confederate Constitution added a clause to aid with the transition from the provisional government.

The Government established by this Constitution is the successor of the Provisional Government of the Confederate States of America, and all the laws passed by the latter shall continue in force until the same shall be repealed or modified; and all the officers appointed by the same shall remain in office until their successors are appointed and qualified, or the offices abolished." Changes to Article VII "When five states shall have ratified this Constitution, in the manner before specified, the Congress under the Provisional Constitution, shall prescribe the time for holding the election of President and Vice President; and, for the meeting of the Electoral College; and, for counting the votes, and inaugurating the President. They shall, also, prescribe the time for holding the first election of members of Congress under this Constitution, and the time for assembling the same. Until the assembling of such Congress, the Congress under the Provisional Constitution shall continue to exercise the legislative powers granted them; not extending beyond the time limited by the Constitution of the Provisional Government."
 * Amendments IX and X of the U.S. Constitution were added here as Article VI Section 1(5), and (6)
 * Article VII Section 1(2), with instructions for electing permanent officials after the ratification of the Confederate Constitution, was added.

Slavery
There were several major differences between the constitutions concerning slavery.
 * Whereas the original U.S. Constitution did not use the word "slavery" or the term "Negro Slaves" but instead used "Person[s] held to Service or Labour," which included whites and Native Americans in indentured servitude, the Confederate Constitution addresses the legality of slavery directly and by name.
 * Though Article I, Section 9(1), of both constitutions are quite similar in banning the importation of slaves from foreign nations, the Confederate Constitution permitted the Confederate States to import slaves from the United States and specified the "African race" as the subject. The importation of slaves into the United States, including the South, had been illegal since 1808.

"Article I Section 9(1)

The importation of Negroes of the African race from any foreign country, other than the slave-holding States or Territories of the United States of America, is hereby forbidden; and Congress is required to pass such laws as shall effectually prevent the same."

 * While the U.S. Constitution reads

"The Migration or Importation of such Persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such Importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each Person."
 * The Confederate Constitution then added a clause that gave Congress the power to prohibit the importation of slaves from any non-Confederate state.

"Article I Section 9(2)

Congress shall also have power to prohibit the introduction of slaves from any State not a member of, or Territory not belonging to, this Confederacy."

 * While the U.S. Constitution has a clause that states "No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed," the Confederate Constitution also added a phrase that explicitly protected slavery.

"Article I Section 9(4)

No bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law denying or impairing the right of property in negro slaves shall be passed."
 * The U.S. Constitution states in Article IV, Section 2, "The Citizens of each State shall be entitled to all Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the several States." The Confederate Constitution added that a state government could not prohibit the rights of slave owners traveling or visiting from a different state with their slaves.

"Article IV Section 2(1)

The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all the privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States; and shall have the right of transit and sojourn in any State of this Confederacy, with their slaves and other property; and the right of property in said slaves shall not be thereby impaired."
 * The Confederate Constitution added a clause about the question of slavery in the territories, the key constitutional debate of the 1860 election, by explicitly stating slavery to be legally protected in the territories.

"Article IV Section 3(3)

The Confederate States may acquire new territory; and Congress shall have power to legislate and provide governments for the inhabitants of all territory belonging to the Confederate States, lying without the limits of the several states; and may permit them, at such times, and in such manner as it may by law provide, to form states to be admitted into the Confederacy. In all such territory, the institution of negro slavery as it now exists in the Confederate States, shall be recognized and protected by Congress, and by the territorial government: and the inhabitants of the several Confederate States and Territories, shall have the right to take to such territory any slaves lawfully held by them in any of the states or territories of the Confederate states."

States' rights
The Confederate Constitution's preamble included the phrase "each State acting in its sovereign and independent character," which focused the new constitution on the rights of the individual states.
 * The Preamble to the Confederate Constitution, began, "We, the people of the Confederate States, each State acting in its sovereign and independent character...."

States of the Confederacy gained several rights that states of the Union do not have, such as the right to impeach federal judges and other federal officers if they worked or lived solely in their state.

"Article I Section 2(5)

The House of Representatives shall choose their speaker and other officers; and shall have the sole power of impeachment; except that any judicial or other federal officer, resident and acting solely within the limits of any state, may be impeached by a vote of two-thirds of both branches of the Legislature thereof. " "Article I Section 10(1)
 * The Confederate Constitution omitted the phrase "emit Bills of Credit" from Article 1 Section 10 of the U.S. Constitution, which denied the states the right to issue such bills of credit.

No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, or ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts; or grant any title of nobility. "

 * U.S. Constitution's Article I Section 10 including the included "emit Bills of Credit."

"No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Confederation; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal; coin Money; emit Bills of Credit; make any Thing but gold and silver Coin a Tender in Payment of Debts; pass any Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law, or Law impairing the Obligation of Contracts, or grant any Title of Nobility." "Article I Section 9(7)
 * The Confederate Constitution enabled states to tax ships by omitting the phrase from the U.S. Constitution that prohibits it.

No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one State over those of another."

 * The U.S. Constitution reads:

"No Preference shall be given by any Regulation of Commerce or Revenue to the Ports of one State over those of another: nor shall Vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay Duties in another. "

 * The ability to tax ships to raise revenue for the Confederate States is reinforced in Article 1 Section 10(3).

"Article I Section 10(3)

No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty on tonnage, except on seagoing vessels, for the improvement of its rivers and harbors navigated by the said vessels; but such duties shall not conflict with any treaties of the Confederate States with foreign nations; and any surplus revenue thus derived shall, after making such improvement, be paid into the common treasury." The Confederate States lost a few rights that the Union states retained. "Article I Section 9(6)
 * States lost the right to determine if foreigners can vote in their states: Article I Section 2(1) as mentioned above.
 * States also lost the ability to restrict the rights of traveling and sojourning slave owners: Article IV Section 2(1) as mentioned above. (Many Southerners were already of the opinion that the U.S. Constitution already protected the rights of sojourning and traveling slave owners and that the Confederate Constitution merely made it explicit.)

No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State, except by a vote of two-thirds of both Houses."
 * The Confederate Constitution contained many of the phrases and clauses that had led to disagreement among U.S. states, including a Supremacy Clause, a Commerce Clause, and a Necessary and Proper Clause. The Supremacy Clause and the Necessary and Proper Clause are nearly identical in both constitutions.
 * The Commerce Clause differed slightly from the U.S. version in that the Confederate Congress was prevented from appropriating money for "internal improvements" to "facilitate commerce,".

Signers
The signers and the states they represented were:
 * Howell Cobb, President of the Congress
 * South Carolina: R. Barnwell Rhett, C. G. Memminger, Wm. Porcher Miles, James Chesnut, Jr., R. W. Barnwell, William W. Boyce, Laurence Keitt, T. J. Withers
 * Georgia: R. Toombs, Francis S. Bartow, Martin J. Crawford, Alexander H. Stephens, Benjamin H. Hill, Thos. R. R. Cobb, E. A. Nisbet, Augustus R. Wright, A. H. Kenan
 * Florida: Jackson Morton, J. Patton Anderson, Jas. B. Owens
 * Alabama: Richard W. Walker, Robt. H. Smith, Colin J. McRae, William P. Chilton, Stephen F. Hale, David P. Lewis, Tho. Fearn, Jno. Gill Shorter, J. L. M. Curry
 * Mississippi: Alex. M. Clayton, James T. Harrison, William S. Barry, W. S. Wilson, Walker Brooke, W. P. Harris, J. A. P. Campbell
 * Louisiana: John Perkins Jr., Alex. de Clouet, C. M. Conrad, Duncan F. Kenner, Henry Marshall, Edward Sparrow
 * Texas: John Hemphill, Thomas N. Waul, John H. Reagan, Williamson S. Oldham, Louis T. Wigfall, John Gregg, William Beck Ochiltree

Ratification
Congress began to move for ratification of the Confederate States Constitution on March 11, 1861:

Judicial review
Although the Confederate States Supreme Court was never constituted, the supreme courts of the various Confederate states issued numerous decisions interpreting the Confederate Constitution. Unsurprisingly, since the Confederate Constitution was based on the United States Constitution, the Confederate State Supreme Courts often used U.S. Supreme Court precedents. The jurisprudence of the Marshall Court thus influenced the interpretation of the Confederate Constitution. The state courts repeatedly upheld robust powers of the Confederate Congress, especially on matters of military necessity.

Analysis
Contemporary historians overwhelmingly agree that secession was motivated by the preservation of slavery. There were numerous causes for secession, but the preservation and the expansion of slavery were easily the most important of them. The confusion may come from blending the causes of secession with the causes of the war, which are separate but related issues. (Lincoln entered a military conflict not to free the slaves but to put down a rebellion.) According to historian Kenneth M. Stampp, each side supported states' rights or federal power only when it was convenient to do so. Stampp also cited Confederate Vice President Alexander H. Stephens's A Constitutional View of the Late War Between the States as an example of a Southern leader who said that slavery was the "cornerstone of the Confederacy" when the war began but, after the Southern defeat, said that the war had been instead about states' rights.

According to an 1861 speech delivered by Alabama politician Robert Hardy Smith, the State of Alabama declared its secession from the United States to preserve and to perpetuate the practice of slavery, the debate over which he referred to as the "Negro quarrel." In his speech, Smith praised the Confederate constitution for its lack of euphemisms and its succinct protections of the right to own "Negro" slaves:

"We have dissolved the late Union chiefly because of the negro quarrel. Now, is there any man who wished to reproduce that strife among ourselves? And yet does not he, who wished the slave trade left for the action of Congress, see that he proposed to open a Pandora's box among us and to cause our political arena again to resound with this discussion. Had we left the question unsettled, we should, in my opinion, have sown broadcast the seeds of discord and death in our Constitution. I congratulate the country that the strife has been put to rest forever, and that American slavery is to stand before the world as it is, and on its own merits. We have now placed our domestic institution, and secured its rights unmistakably, in the Constitution. We have sought by no euphony to hide its name. We have called our negroes 'slaves', and we have recognized and protected them as persons and our rights to them as property."

Georgia Democrat Alexander H. Stephens, who would become the Confederate vice president, stated within his Cornerstone Speech that the Confederate constitution was "decidedly better than" the American one, as the former "put at rest, forever, all the agitating questions relating to our peculiar institution. African slavery as it exists amongst us; the proper status of the negro in our form of civilization. This was the immediate cause of the late rupture and present revolution. Jefferson in his forecast, had anticipated this, as the 'rock upon which the old Union would split.' He was right."

title: Constitution of the Confederate States