text:
1989 in aviation

This is a list of aviation-related events from 1989.

Events

 * Lauda Air initiates in first long-haul service, offering flights from between Vienna, Austria, and Melbourne and Sydney, Australia.

January

 * January 1 – Norway forms the Accident Investigation Board for Civil Aviation – the future Accident Investigation Board Norway – within its Ministry of Transport and Communications.
 * January 4
 * Two United States Navy F-14 Tomcats of Fighter Squadron 32 (VF-32) aboard the aircraft carrier USS John F. Kennedy (CV-67) shoot down two Libyan Air Force Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23s (NATO reporting name "Flogger") off the coast of Libya using AIM-7 Sparrow and AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missiles. They are the third and fourth of five kills scored by F-14s during the Tomcat's career in U.S. Navy service.
 * Two French television journalists are arrested for trying to plant fake bombs – each consisting of a package containing molding clay, an alarm clock, wires, and the message "Congratulations! You have found our phony bomb!" – aboard three airliners at John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York City bound for Paris, France, as a test of airport security, planning that their colleagues will film the arrival of the packages in Paris. The charges ultimately will be dropped in 1994.
 * January 8 – Attempting to make an emergency landing at East Midlands Airport in Castle Donington in North West Leicestershire, England, British Midland Flight 092, a Boeing 737-4Y0 crashes just short of the runway on an embankment of the M1 motorway, killing 47 of the 126 people on board.

February

 * February 8 – On approach to Santa Maria Airport in the Azores, Independent Air Flight 1851, a chartered Boeing 707-331B, crashes into Pico Alto on Santa Maria Island after a misunderstanding between its crew and air traffic control. All 144 people on board died.
 * February 19 – Flying Tiger Line Flight 66, a Boeing 747-247F cargo aircraft, crashes near Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, killing the entire crew of four.
 * February 24 – A cargo door failure causes a piece of fuselage to detach from United Airlines Flight 811, a Boeing 747-122, over the Pacific Ocean near Honolulu, Hawaii. Nine people are sucked from the plane by explosive decompression to their deaths. Another 38 people are injured. The plane lands safely at Honolulu International Airport.

March

 * March 10 – Unable to clear trees beyond the end of the runway due to ice and snow on its wings, Air Ontario Flight 1363, a Fokker F28-1000 Friendship, crashes 15 seconds after takeoff from Dryden Regional Airport in Dryden, Ontario, Canada, killing 24 of the 69 people on board and injuring all 45 survivors.
 * March 22 – An Antonov An-225 Mriya sets a total of 106 world and class records during a 3-hour, 30-minute flight. Its total weight at take-off is 508,200 kg (1,129,370 lb).
 * March 26 – The airline Binter Canarias, a subsidiary of Iberia, begins flight operations.

April

 * Vietnam Airlines is established as a state-owned enterprise of the Government of Vietnam. It becomes the national airline.
 * April 1 – Burma Airways is renamed Myanma Airways. It eventually will become Myanmar National Airlines.
 * April 12 – A British Airways Concorde loses a large piece of its rudder on a flight between Christchurch, New Zealand, and Sydney, Australia. The plane makes a safe landing at Sydney Airport and the plane is repaired.
 * April 21 – U.S. Air Force Lockheed SR-71A Blackbird 61–7974 Item 2025, outbound on an operational sortie  from Kadena Air Base, Okinawa, suffers an engine explosion and total hydraulic failure. The crew eject safely. It is the final Blackbird loss before the type is withdrawn from service.

May

 * May 13 – An Antonov An-225 Mriya carries the Soviet Buran orbiter for the first time.
 * May 23 – First flight of the second and last Grumman X-29, American experimental aircraft that tested a forward-swept wing, canard control surfaces, and other novel aircraft technologies.
 * May 26 – Eurofly is founded. It will begin flight operations in February 1990.

June

 * June 2 – Two Israeli Air Force F-15C Eagles shoot down two Syrian MiG-29s (NATO reporting name "Fulcrum").
 * June 7 – With its crew knowingly attempting to land using an inappropriate navigation signal and ignoring alarms warning them of an impending crash, Surinam Airways Flight 764, a McDonnell Douglas DC-8 Super 62, crashes on approach to Paramaribo-Zanderij International Airport at Paramaribo, Suriname, killing 176 of the 187 people on board and injuring all 11 survivors.
 * June 8 – A Soviet Air Force Mikoyan MiG-29 suffers a birdstrike during a display at the Paris Air Show. Pilot Anatoli Kvochur manages to prevent the plane from injuring anyone, and saves himself by ejecting at only 400 feet (122 m).
 * June 17 – American astronaut S. David Griggs is killed when the vintage World War II-era North American AT-6D training aircraft (registration N3931S) he is piloting crashes at Earle, Arkansas.
 * June 23 – Trump Airlines begins operations.
 * June 26 – East Germany's national airline, Interflug, takes delivery of its first Western-built airliner, an Airbus A310.

July

 * July 4 – Crash of an unmanned MiG-23 in Kortrijk, Belgium. The pilot had believed he was experiencing an engine failure shortly after take-off from the Soviet airbase near Kołobrzeg, Poland and had ejected, while the aircraft continued on autopilot for 900 km (559 miles), until running out of fuel. One 18-year-old teenager on the ground was killed in the crash.
 * July 16 – European air traffic is halted due to industrial action by French air traffic controllers.
 * July 19 – United Airlines Flight 232, a Douglas DC-10, suffers decompression in and catastrophic failure of its tail-mounted engine, knocking out all its flight controls. In what is considered a prime example of successful crew resource management, the plane's crew manages to use engine throttles to fly the plane to Sioux City, Iowa, where it crashes on landing. Although 111 of the people on board die, the crew is credited with saving the other 185 by coaxing the aircraft to Sioux City..

August

 * 3 August 1989: an Olympic Aviation Short 330, operating as Olympic Aviation Flight 545, crashed on a hillside in Samos island, Greece, while attempting a landing approach in thick fog. All 3 crew members and 31 passengers were killed.
 * August 5 – Piedmont Airlines merges into USAir.
 * August 7
 * Mickey Leland, a member of the United States House of Representatives representing Texas's 18th Congressional District, and all of the other 15 people on board are killed when a de Havilland DHC-6 Twin Otter (registration ET-AIL) crashes into a mountain near Gambela, Ethiopia, while flying at low altitude in thunderstorms during a refugee relief inspection flight.
 * Flying Tiger Line merges into Federal Express.
 * August 9 – L'Express Airlines begins operations, offering 45 weekly flights to seven Louisiana cities: Alexandria, Baton Rouge, Lafayette, Lake Charles, Monroe, New Orleans, and Shreveport.
 * August 13 – Larkin I. Smith, a member of the U.S. House of Representatives representing Mississippi's 5th Congressional District, and his pilot are killed when their Cessna 177 Cardinal crashes in a forest near Janice, Mississippi, while flying in hazy weather. Rescuers must bulldoze their way through the forest to reach the plane's wreckage, delaying the recovery of the bodies until the following day.
 * August 18 – A Qantas Boeing 747, the Spirit of Australia, flies non-stop from London to Sydney, setting a world record for a four engine jet, after having flown 11,000 miles in 20 hours.
 * August 21 – Rare Bear, a highly modified Grumman F8F Bearcat, sets a new piston-engined speed record of 528.33 mph (850.77 km/h).
 * August 22 – Soviet aeronautical engineer and founder of the Yakovlev Design Bureau Alexander Yakovlev dies, aged 84.
 * August 23 – 1989 Australian pilots' dispute: All of Australia's 1,645 domestic airline pilots resign over an airline's move to dismiss and sue them over a wage dispute.

September

 * September 3 – The pilots of Varig Flight 254, a Boeing 737-241 with 54 people on board, enter an incorrect heading into the flight computer before taking off from Marabá, Brazil, for Belém, Brazil. By the time they discover their error, they have too little fuel to reach an airport; they belly-land in the Amazon jungle near São José do Xingu, Brazil, killing 13 passengers. Thirty-four of the 41 survivors are injured, many seriously; they are not rescued for two days.
 * September 8 – Vibration from an auxiliary power unit aboard Partnair Flight 394, a Convair CV-580 on a charter flight, spreads to the tail section, causing the rudder to jam to the left. The plane dives from 22,000 feet (6,706 m) into the North Sea off Hirtshals, Denmark, disintegrating during the dive and killing all 55 people on board.
 * September 19 – A bomb explodes in the cargo hold of UTA Flight 772, a McDonnell Douglas DC-10-30, over the Sahara Desert. The DC-10 breaks up in mid-air and crashes near Bilma and Ténéré in Niger, killing all 170 people on board. Responsibility for the bombing is never determined.
 * September 20 – USAir Flight 5050, a Boeing 737-401 with 63 people on board, aborts its takeoff in low visibility on a wet runway at LaGuardia Airport in New York City and slides off the end of the runway into Bowery Bay, killing two people and injuring 21.

October

 * Hainan Province Airlines – the future Hainan Airlines – is founded. It will begin flight operations in May 1993.
 * October 11 – A Syrian Arab Air Force pilot defects to Israel, landing his MiG-23MLD at Megiddo Airport. The Israeli Air Force later flies the MiG-23MLD at its Flight Test Center.
 * October 21 – TAN-SAHSA Flight 414, a Boeing 727-200, crashes into a hill near Toncontin International Airport in Tegucigalpa Honduras, while on approach to landing there, killing 127 of the 146 people on board and injuring all 19 survivors.
 * October 26 – China Airlines Flight 204, a Boeing 737-209, crashes into a mountain after takeoff from Hualien Airport on Taiwan, killing all 54 people on board.

November

 * November 6 – Braniff Inc.—the second airline to use the Braniff name, operating under bankruptcy protection since late September 1989—ends scheduled commercial flights and lays off most employees.
 * November 8 – A McDonnell Douglas KC-10A Extender tanker aircraft refuels a Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit bomber in the air. It is the first aerial refueling of a B-2.
 * November 12 – California Polytechnic State University flies the first human-powered helicopter.
 * November 15 – Midway Airlines begins operating its second hub, located at Philadelphia International Airport in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
 * November 21 – A British Airways Boeing 747 narrowly misses crashing into the Penta hotel near Heathrow Airport
 * November 27 – Five minutes after takeoff from El Dorado International Airport in Bogotá, Colombia. a bomb planted by the Medellin drug cartel in an attempt to assassinate Colombian presidential candidate César Gaviria Trujillo explodes aboard Avianca Flight 203, a Boeing 727, while it is over Soacha, Colombia. All 107 people on board die in the resulting crash, as do three people on the ground. Gaviria is not on the plane.

December

 * December 10 – California Polytechnic State University's Da Vinci III makes the first flight by a human-powered helicopter, remaining airborne for 7.1 seconds and reaching an altitude of 20 cm (8 inches).
 * December 15
 * All four engines of a KLM Boeing 747-400 operating KLM Flight 867 with 245 people on board, shut down when the plane flies through a volcanic ash cloud from Mount Redoubt during its descent to Anchorage International Airport. After descending more than 14,000 feet (4,267 m) without power, the crew successfully restart the engines and the plane lands safely. This incident is similar to British Airways Flight 9 that occurred in 1982.
 * Atlantic Coast Airlines begins flight operations. It operates as United Express for United Airlines.
 * December 20 – The United States invasion of Panama, Operation Just Cause, begins with over 300 U.S. military aircraft participating. The U.S. Air Force's F-117A Nighthawk stealth fighter and the U.S. Army's AH-64 Apache attack helicopter make their combat debuts. One of the first U.S. operations is an air assault by the 1st Battalion (Airborne) of the U.S. Army's 508th Parachute Infantry Regiment which secures Fort Amador.
 * December 24 – Major combat operations in Operation Just Cause conclude.
 * December 26 – United Express Flight 2415, a BAe Jetstream 31 operated by North Pacific Airlines, crashes on approach to Tri-Cities Airport at Pasco, Washington, in the United States, killing all six people on board.
 * December 30 – Air Dolomiti is founded. Flight operations begin in January 1991.
 * December 31 – U.S. airlines complete their worst ever recorded year for baggage handling: nearly eight suitcases per 1,000 passengers are reported lost, damaged, or misdirected during 1989.

January

 * January 2 – Tupolev Tu-204 CCCP-64001
 * January 11 – AASI Jetcruzer 450 N5369M
 * January 12 - Aerostar AG-6 YR-BGX
 * January 25 – MAC Mamba

March

 * March 19 – Bell Boeing V-22 Osprey 163911

April

 * April 30 – SOCATA TB 31 Oméga
 * April - ENAER Ñamcú

May

 * May 28 – AIDC Ching-Kuo
 * May 29 – Swearingen SA-32T Turbo Trainer

June

 * June 13 – General Avia F.22

July

 * July 17 – B-2 Spirit

October

 * October 7 – Enstrom 480

November

 * Westland Battlefield Lynx, later the Westland Lynx AH.9

December

 * December 26 – NAMC N-5A
 * December 31 – Sukhoi Su-30 (NATO reporting name "Flanker-C")

Entered service

 * February 9 – Boeing 747-400 with Northwest Airlines
 * October 27 – ATR-72 with Karair

Deadliest crash
The deadliest crash of this year was Surinam Airways Flight 764, a McDonnell Douglas DC-8 which crashed during approach to Paramaribo, Suriname, on 7 June killing 176 of the 187 people aboard.

title: 1989 in aviation


text:
Charles F. Kettering

Charles Franklin Kettering (August 29, 1876 – November 25, 1958) sometimes known as Charles Fredrick Kettering was an American inventor, engineer, businessman, and the holder of 186 patents. He was a founder of Delco, and was head of research at General Motors from 1920 to 1947. Among his most widely used automotive developments were the electrical starting motor and leaded gasoline. In association with the DuPont Chemical Company, he was also responsible for the invention of Freon refrigerant for refrigeration and air conditioning systems. At DuPont he also was responsible for the development of Duco lacquers and enamels, the first practical colored paints for mass-produced automobiles. While working with the Dayton-Wright Company he developed the "Bug" aerial torpedo, considered the world's first aerial missile. He led the advancement of practical, lightweight two-stroke diesel engines, revolutionizing the locomotive and heavy equipment industries. In 1927, he founded the Kettering Foundation, a non-partisan research foundation, and was featured on the cover of Time magazine in January 1933.

Early life
Charles was born in Loudonville, Ohio, United States, the fourth of five children of Jacob Henry Kettering and Martha (Hunter) Kettering. Poor eyesight gave him headaches in school. After graduation he followed his sister Emma into a teaching position at Bunker Hill School. By all accounts he was an engaging and innovative teacher. He attracted students to evening scientific demonstrations on electricity, heat, magnetism, and gravity.

He took classes at The College of Wooster, before transferring to Ohio State University. He was a member of the Delta Upsilon fraternity. Eye problems forced him to withdraw, and he took a job as foreman of a telephone line crew. At first, the termination of his studies caused him to be depressed. Then he found ways to apply his electrical engineering skills on the job, and his spirits revived. He also met his future wife, Olive Williams. When his eye condition improved, he was able to return to his studies and graduated from OSU in 1904 with an electrical engineering degree.

NCR
Kettering was hired directly out of school to head the research laboratory at National Cash Register (later known as NCR Corporation). Kettering invented an easy credit approval system, a precursor to today's credit cards, and the electric cash register in 1906, which made ringing up sales physically much easier for sales clerks. Kettering distinguished himself as a practical inventor. As he said, "I didn't hang around much with other inventors and the executive fellows. I lived with the sales gang. They had some real notion of what people wanted." During his five years at NCR, from 1904 to 1909, Kettering secured 23 patents for NCR. He attributed his success to a good amount of luck but added, "I notice the harder I work, the luckier I get."

The Barn Gang
Beginning in 1907, his NCR colleague Edward A. Deeds convinced Kettering to develop improvements for the automobile. Deeds and Kettering invited other NCR engineers, including Harold E. Talbott, to join them nights and weekends in their tinkering at Deeds's barn. They became known as the "Barn Gang," and Kettering was called Boss Ket. Their first goal was to find a replacement for the magneto.

Delco
In 1909, Kettering resigned from NCR to work full-time on automotive developments, and the group incorporated as Dayton Engineering Laboratories Company, or Delco.

The self-starter
The hand crank used to start early automobiles could kick back under some circumstances. Byron Carter, founder of Cartercar, died from complications after such an accident in Detroit's Belle Isle park. Henry M. Leland – the head of Cadillac – became determined to develop an electric self-starting device. When Leland's engineers failed to develop a self-starter small enough to be practical he consulted Kettering, and Delco developed a practical model by February 1911.

Automobile electrical system
Kettering's key insight lay in devising an electrical system performing the three functions it still serves in modern cars: starter; producer of spark for ignition; and source of current for lighting. Leland ordered 12,000 self-starters for his 1912 models; Delco had to then transition from its research and development activities to production. The invention won a Dewar Trophy in 1913.

Kettering helped found the Engineers Club of Dayton in 1914.

Flxible

In 1914, Flxible Sidecar Company was incorporated with the help of Kettering, who then became president of the company and joined the board of directors. Kettering provided significant funding for the company in its early years, particularly after 1916, when Kettering sold his firm, the Dayton Engineering Laboratories Company (Delco), to United Motors Company for $2.5 million. Kettering continued to serve as president of Flxible until he became chairman of the board in 1940, a position that he held until his death in 1958.

General Motors
Delco was sold to General Motors in 1918, as part of United Motors. Delco became the foundation for the General Motors Research Corporation and Delco Electronics. Kettering became vice-president of General Motors Research Corporation in 1920 and held the position for 27 years.

Between 1918 and 1923, he led the research and development at GM's Dayton research laboratories to commercialize air-cooled engines for cars and trucks. They used fans forcing air across copper fins for heat dissipation. The commercialization, attempted between 1921 and 1923, was unsuccessful due to a combination of factors, nontechnical and technical. Air-cooled engines have had commercial success before and since, in various fields (small engines, aircraft, cars), but the historical moment of GM's "copper-cooled" automotive engine was inauspicious.

Leaded gas
Kettering's research in fuel was based on his belief that oil would be in short supply and additives would allow more efficient engines with higher compression. His "high percentage" solution was to mix ethanol with gasoline, while his "low percentage solution" looked for additives that would be added in small quantities to increase what later would be called the octane rating of gasoline. Thomas Midgley Jr. and Kettering identified tetraethyllead (TEL) in December 1921 as an additive that would eliminate engine knocking at a dilution of one thousand to one. While use of ethanol could not be patented, TEL's use as an additive could. Kettering and Midgley secured its patent and proceeded to promote the use of TEL as an additive instead of other options. Kettering became the first president of the newly founded Ethyl Corporation that started to produce TEL in 1923. One year later, he hired Robert A. Kehoe as the medical expert to proclaim that leaded gasoline was safe for humans. That its use was an ecological disaster leading to a global lead contamination was not acknowledged until many decades later.

Personal life
Kettering married Olive Williams of Ashland, Ohio, on August 1, 1905. Their only child, Eugene Williams Kettering, was born on April 20, 1908. Eugene W. Kettering joined Winton Engine in 1930, which was acquired by General Motors and was eventually incorporated into the General Motors Electro-Motive Division (EMD). The younger Kettering became a central figure in the development of the EMD 567 locomotive engine and the Detroit Diesel 6-71 engine, serving at EMD until his retirement in 1960.

Charles Kettering built a house, "Ridgeleigh Terrace", in 1914. According to local sources, this house was the first in the United States to have electric air conditioning. Ridgeleigh Terrace was the home of his son, Eugene Kettering, until his death. Eugene's wife, Virginia Kettering, lived in the house for many years, restoring and redecorating it. In the late 1990s, the house was seriously damaged in a fire, but it was rebuilt according to the original blueprints.

Some of his memorable quotations are: "It doesn't matter if you try and try and try again, and fail. It does matter if you try and fail, and fail to try again.", "Failures are finger posts on the road to achievement.", "My interest is in the future because I am going to spend the rest of my life there." .

Kettering died on November 25, 1958. After his death, his body lay in honor at the Engineers Club and then was interred in the mausoleum at Woodland Cemetery, Dayton, Ohio.

Legacy

Max D. Liston, one of Kettering's co-workers at GM, described him "one of the gods of the automotive field, particularly from an inventive standpoint." Liston quoted Kettering as advising him, "People won't ever remember how many failures you've had, but they will remember how well it worked the last time you tried it."

Kettering and Deeds had a lifelong business, professional and personal relationship. In 1914, recognizing that Dayton was among the leading industrial cities in the US because of the skilled engineers and technicians in the city, they founded the Engineers Club of Dayton and the Foreman's Club of Dayton, which later on became the National Management Association.

Kettering held 186 U.S. patents. He invented the all-electric starting, ignition, and lighting system for automobiles. Electric starters replaced crank (manual) starting of automobiles. First incorporated in the 1912 Cadillac, all-electric starting aided in the growth of the US auto industry by making the automobile easy for anyone to start. Other patents included a portable lighting system and an incubator for premature infants. His engine-driven generator was combined with storage batteries to form a "Delco Plant", providing an electrical power for farmsteads and other locations far from the electrical power grid.

In 1918 Kettering designed the "aerial torpedo", nicknamed the Kettering Bug. The 300 lb (136 kg) papier-mache missile had 12 foot (3.6 m) cardboard wings, and a 40 hp (30 kW) engine. It could carry 300 lbs (136 kg) of high explosives at 50 mph (80 km/h), and cost $400. The "Bug" is considered the first aerial missile, and lessons learned from the "Bug" led to development of the first guided missiles, as well as radio-controlled drones.

Kettering and colleagues' development of leaded gasoline ultimately caused the release of large quantities of lead into the atmosphere as a result of the combustion of leaded gasoline all over the world. Due to the neurotoxic effects of lead, leaded gasoline has been widely banned since the late 1990s. The development of Freon using CFCs has been implicated in the depletion of the ozone layer.

He developed the idea of Duco paint and helped develop diesel engines and ways to harness solar energy. He was a pioneer in the application of magnetism to medical diagnostic techniques.

His inventions, especially the electric automobile starter, made him wealthy. In 1945, he helped found what became the Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, based on the premise that American industrial research techniques could be applied to cancer research.. His son and daughter-in-law, Eugene and Virginia, created Kettering Medical Center in Ohio, as a tribute to Charles Kettering's life and his work in healthcare research.

On January 1, 1998, the former General Motors Institute changed its name to Kettering University to honor Kettering as a founder.

Awards

 * He was awarded the Franklin Medal in 1936.
 * He was awarded the Hoover Medal in 1955.
 * He was awarded the IEEE Edison Medal in 1958.

Honors

 * He was elected to the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1928.
 * He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1930.

Memorials
In 1998, GMI Engineering and Management Institute (formerly General Motors Institute), of Flint, Michigan, changed its name to Kettering University in honor of Kettering. His ideals, prowess, and belief in co-operative education continue there. Kettering is also remembered through the Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, a cancer research and treatment center in New York City, and through the Kettering Health Network, which includes several hospitals and medical center campuses as well as Kettering College in Kettering, Ohio.

The city of Kettering, Ohio, a suburb of Dayton, was named after him when it was incorporated in 1955.

The former U.S. Army Air Service testing field, McCook Field, is now a Dayton park called Kettering Field.

Several U.S. public schools are named after him:
 * Charles F. Kettering Sr. High School in Detroit, Michigan
 * Charles F. Kettering High School in Waterford, Michigan
 * Charles F. Kettering Elementary School in Ypsilanti, Michigan
 * Charles F. Kettering Elementary School in Long Beach, California
 * Kettering Fairmont High School in Kettering, Ohio
 * Kettering Elementary School in Westland, Michigan (now closed and demolished)
 * The Department of Environmental Health at the University of Cincinnati is housed in the Kettering Lab

The endowed Olive Williams Kettering Chair of The College of Wooster Department of Music is named in honor of his wife.

The University of Dayton's engineering building, Kettering Labs, is named after him.

The Kettering Science center on the Ashland University campus in Ohio is named for him.

Kettering Hall at Wilmington College is named for him, also Kettering Hall of Science at Oberlin College.

At Antioch College, the 1929 Science Building he donated was not named after him (it is now the Arts and Science Building), but the school's 33.000-square-foot Charles F. Kettering Building was (the same being originally a research facility, now home to campus radio station WYSO), while the college's Olive Kettering Library was named after his wife.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Charles F. Kettering


text:
Laurence Canter and Martha Siegel

Laurence A. Canter (born June 24, 1953) and Martha S. Siegel (born April 9, 1948) were partners in a husband-and-wife firm of lawyers who posted the first massive commercial Usenet spam on April 12, 1994.

Canter and Siegel were not the first Usenet spammers. The "Green Card" spam, however, was the first commercial Usenet spam, and its unapologetic authors are seen as having set the precedent for the modern global practice of spamming.

Green card spam
In early 1994, Canter and Siegel contracted with Leigh Benson to write a program to advertise on Usenet, but Benson was unable to write their software. In April 1994 they used a Perl script written by a programmer known only as "Jason", to generate advertisements for their service of enrolling people in a "green card lottery". This US government program allocates a limited quantity of "green cards" to certain non-citizens, allowing them to stay and work in the country. The two lawyers offered to do the necessary paperwork for a fee.

Canter and Siegel sent their advertisement, with the subject "Green Card Lottery – Final One?", to at least 5,500 Usenet discussion groups, an enormous number at the time. Rather than cross-posting a single copy of the message to multiple groups, so a reader would only see it once (considered a common courtesy when posting the same message to more than one group), they posted it as separate postings in each newsgroup, so a reader would see it in each group they read. Their internet service provider, Internet Direct, received so many complaints that its mail servers crashed repeatedly for the next two days; it promptly terminated their service. Despite the ire directed at the two lawyers, they posted another advertisement to 1,000 newsgroups in June 1994. This time, Arnt Gulbrandsen put together a software "cancelbot" to trawl Usenet and kill their messages within minutes. Canter claimed in a December 1994 interview regarding the spam that "The best I can recall we probably made somewhere between $100,000 to $200,000 related to that".

On May 5, 1994, the couple established a company called Cybersell. They promoted themselves as experts in the then-new business of online retail and in February 1995 undertook the first known commercial spamming on behalf of clients (so-called "spam for hire"). They wrote a book titled How to Make a Fortune on the Information Superhighway: Everyone's Guerrilla Guide to Marketing on the Internet and Other On-line Services (ISBN 0-06-272065-1). In 1997, Martha Siegel published a revised version titled How to Make a Fortune on the Internet (ISBN 0-06-273466-0) under her name only.

In 1997, the Supreme Court of Tennessee disbarred Canter in part for illegal advertising practices. William W. Hunt III, of the Tennessee Board of Professional Responsibility, said at the time that he believed it was the first time a lawyer had been disciplined for Internet advertising practices.

title: Laurence Canter and Martha Siegel


text:
Talk:Transvaal (province)

Untitled
Removed the rather vapid concluding lines of this article:

 * The natives in the area were very hospitable and had no sense of private property, so 	they allowed the Boers to have free run of the land. The Boers took advantage of this and put fences up around all of the land they claimed, thus preventing any of the natives from passing through.

title: Talk:Transvaal (province)


text:
Precedence

Precedence may refer to:

 * Message precedence of military communications traffic
 * Order of precedence, the ceremonial hierarchy within a nation or state
 * Precedence (mathematics) for defining the order of operations in a computation
 * Precedence Entertainment, a defunct American game publisher
 * Precedence (solitaire), a solitaire card game which uses two decks of playing cards
 * Precedence, a brand of SPECT/CT scanner manufactured by Philips

title: Precedence


text:
Schön scandal

The Schön scandal concerns German physicist Jan Hendrik Schön (born August 1970 in Verden an der Aller, Lower Saxony, West Germany) who briefly rose to prominence after a series of apparently successful experiments with semiconductors that were discovered later to be fraudulent. Before he was exposed, Schön had received the Otto-Klung-Weberbank Prize for Physics and the Braunschweig Prize in 2001, as well as the Outstanding Young Investigator Award of the Materials Research Society in 2002, all of which were later rescinded.

The scandal provoked discussion in the scientific community about the degree of responsibility of coauthors and reviewers of scientific articles. The discussion mainly concerned whether peer review, traditionally designed to find errors and determine relevance and originality of articles, should also be required to detect deliberate fraud.

Beginning of fame
Schön's topic of research was condensed matter physics and nanotechnology. He received his PhD from the University of Konstanz in 1997. During late 1997, he was hired by Bell Labs, where he worked on electronics in which conventional semiconducting elements (such as silicon) were replaced by crystalline organic (meaning carbon-based) materials. Schön, however, claimed spectacular ability for changing the conductivity of the organic materials, well beyond anything achieved to date. His measurements in most cases confirmed various theoretical predictions, notably that the organic materials could be made to display superconductivity or be used in lasers. The findings were published in prominent scientific publications, including the journals Science and Nature, and gained worldwide attention. However, no research group anywhere in the world succeeded in reproducing the results claimed by Schön.

In 2001, he was listed as an author on an average of one newly published research paper every eight days. In the same year, he announced in Nature that he had produced a transistor on the molecular scale. Schön claimed to have used a thin layer of organic dye molecules to assemble an electric circuit that, when acted on by an electric current, behaved as a transistor. The implications of his work were significant. It would have been the beginning of a transition from using silicon-based electronics and toward using organic electronics. It would have allowed the continued miniaturization of transistors past the point at which silicon breaks down, which would continue Moore's law for much longer than was then predicted. It also would have drastically reduced the cost of electronics.

A major element of Schön's work claimed that successful observation of various physical phenomena in organic materials was dependent on the transistor setup. Specifically, Schön claimed to use a thin layer of aluminium oxide which he incorporated into his transistors using laboratory facilities at the University of Konstanz. However, while the equipment and materials used were common in laboratories all over the world, none succeeded in preparing aluminium oxide layers of similar quality to the ones claimed by Schön.

Allegations and investigation
Soon after Schön published his work on single-molecule semiconductors, others in the physics community alleged that his data contained anomalies. Julia Hsu and Lynn Loo originally noticed problems with Schön's paper describing the assembly of molecular transistors while attempting to patent research concerning lithography, realizing that Schön had duplicated some numbers. Hsu and Loo had attempted initial experiments to gather evidence for their patent but relied on the scientific outcomes of Schön's work. It was not until April 19, 2002, when Loo and Hsu were meeting with their patent lawyer John McCabe, that they noticed the duplicated data. Lydia Sohn, then of Princeton University, noticed that two experiments carried out at very different temperatures had identical noise. When the editors of Nature mentioned this to Schön, he claimed to have accidentally submitted the same graph twice. Paul McEuen of Cornell University then found the same noise in a paper describing a third experiment. More research by McEuen, Sohn, Loo, and other physicists revealed a number of examples of duplicate data in Schön's work. This had a series of reactions that quickly caused Lucent Technologies (which managed Bell Labs) to start a formal investigation.

During May 2002, Bell Labs established a committee to investigate, with Malcolm Beasley from Stanford University as chair. The committee obtained information from all of Schön's coauthors and interviewed the three principal ones (Zhenan Bao, Bertram Batlogg and Christian Kloc). It examined electronic drafts of the disputed articles, which included processed numeric data. The committee requested copies of the raw data, but found that Schön had kept no laboratory notebooks. His raw data files had been erased from his computer. According to Schön, the files were erased because his computer had limited hard drive space. Additionally, all of his experimental samples had been discarded or damaged beyond repair.

On September 25, 2002, the committee released its report publicly. The report contained details of 24 allegations of misconduct on Schön's part. They found evidence of scientific misconduct in at least 16 of them, while the remaining 8 were either unrelated to publications or were "troubling", but lacked compelling evidence of misconduct. They found that whole data sets had been reused for a number of different experiments. They also found that some of his graphs, which had purportedly been plotted from experimental data, had instead been produced using mathematical functions.

The report found that all of the misdeeds had been performed by Schön alone. All of the coauthors (including Bertram Batlogg, who was the head of the team) were exonerated of scientific misconduct. This caused widespread debate in the scientific community on how the blame for misconduct should be distributed among co-authors, particularly when they share a significant part of the credit.

Aftermath and sanctions
Schön acknowledged that the data were incorrect in many of these articles. He claimed that the substitutions could have occurred by honest mistake. He omitted some data and stated that he did so to show more convincing evidence for behavior that he observed.

Researchers at Delft University of Technology and the Thomas J. Watson Research Center have since performed experiments similar to Schön's, without achieving similar results. Even before the allegations had become public, several research groups had tried to reproduce most of his spectacular results with respect to the topic of the physics of organic molecular materials, without success.

In June 2004 the University of Konstanz issued a press release stating that Schön's doctoral degree had been revoked due to "dishonourable conduct". Department of Physics spokesman Wolfgang Dieterich termed the affair the "biggest fraud in physics in the last 50 years" and said that the "credibility of science had been brought into disrepute". Schön appealed the ruling, but on October 28, 2009, it was sustained by the university. In response, Schön sued the university and appeared in court to testify on September 23, 2010. The court overturned the university's decision on September 27, 2010. However, in November 2010 the university acted to appeal the court's ruling. The state court ruled in September 2011 that the university was correct in revoking his doctorate. The Federal Administrative Court sustained the state court's decision in July 2013, and the Federal Constitutional Court confirmed it in September 2014.

In October 2004, the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, the German Research Foundation) Joint Committee announced sanctions against him. The former DFG post-doctorate fellow was deprived of his right to vote in DFG elections or serve on DFG committees for an eight-year period. During that period, Schön was also unable to serve as a peer reviewer or apply for DFG funds.

Schön returned to Germany and accepted a job with an engineering company.

Withdrawn journal articles
On October 31, 2002, Science withdrew eight articles written by Schön:

On December 20, 2002, Physical Review withdrew six articles written by Schön:

On February 24, 2003, Applied Physics Letters withdrew four articles written by Schön:

On March 5, 2003, Nature withdrew seven articles written by Schön:

On March 20, 2003, Advanced Materials withdrew two articles written by Schön:

On May 2, 2003, Science withdrew another article written by Schön:

Further questionable journal articles
The retraction notices from February 24, 2003, in Applied Physics Letters relayed concerns about seven articles written by Schön and published in the Applied Physics Letters:

The retraction notice from March 20, 2003, in Advanced Materials mentions concerns about another article written by Schön:

title: Schön scandal


text:
Classification of demons

There have been various attempts at the classification of demons within the contexts of classical mythology, demonology, occultism, and Renaissance magic. These classifications may be for purposes of traditional medicine, exorcisms, ceremonial magic, witch-hunts, lessons in morality, folklore, religious ritual, or combinations thereof. Classifications might be according to astrological connections, elemental forms, noble titles, or parallels to the angelic hierarchy; or by association with particular sins, diseases, and other calamities; or by what angel or saint opposes them.

Many of the authors of such classifications identified as Christian, though Christian authors are not the only ones who have written on the subject.

The Testament of Solomon
The Testament of Solomon is a pseudepigraphical work, purportedly written by King Solomon, in which the author mostly describes particular demons who he enslaved to help build the temple, the questions he put to them about their deeds and how they could be thwarted, and their answers, which provide a kind of self-help manual against demonic activity. The date is very dubious, though it is considered the oldest surviving work particularly concerned with individual demons.

Psellus' classification
Michael Psellus prepared the influential De operatione dæmonum (On the Operation of Demons) in the 11th century, with a taxonomy dividing demons into six types: Leliurium (Igneous), Aërial, Marine (Aqueous), Terrestrial (Earthly), Subterranean, and Lucifugous (Heliophobic).

Lanterne of Light
In 1409–1410 The Lanterne of Light (an anonymous English Lollard tract often attributed to John Wycliffe) provided a classification system based on the seven deadly sins, known as the "seven deadly devils" or "seven princes of Hell", with each demon tempting people by means of those sins, as follows:

This list was later used in the works of John Taylor, the Water Poet. Later writers, such as Peter Binsfeld, assigned different demons to the respective sins and should not be confused with this list. The two classification systems are shown side-by-side below:

Spina's classification
Alphonso de Spina, in 1467, prepared a classification of demons based

This classification is somewhat capricious and it is difficult to find a criterion for it. It seems that Spina was inspired by several legends and stories. The drudes belong to German folklore. Familiars, goblins, and other mischievous demons belong to the folklore of most European countries.
 * Incubi and succubi
 * Wandering groups or armies of demons can include multiple regions in hell
 * Familiars
 * Drudes
 * Cambions and other demons that are born from the union of a demon with a human being.
 * Liar and mischievous demons
 * Demons that attack the saints are rogue demons
 * Demons that try to induce old women to attend Witches' Sabbaths

The belief in incubi and succubi (and their ability to procreate) seem to have inspired the sixth category, but it could also have been inspired in the Talmudic legend of demons having sexual intercourse with mortal women and men (see also Mastema).

The visions of tempting demons that some early (and not so early) saints had, perhaps inspired the eighth category (e.g. the visions of Anthony the Great).

The idea of old women attending Sabbaths was common during the European Middle Ages and Renaissance, and Spina mentioned it before the Malleus Maleficarum.

Agrippa's classification
In De occulta philosophia (1509-1510), Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa proposed several classifications for demons, based on numeric scales, like his whole Cosmology. Francis Barrett, in his book The Magus (1801), adopted this classification of demons.

Scale of unity

 * One prince of rebellion, of angels, and darkness:
 * Lucifer

Scale of binary

 * Two chiefs of the devils:
 * Behemoth
 * Leviathan

Scale of ternary

 * Three furies:
 * Alecto
 * Megera
 * Ctesiphon

 * Three infernal judges:
 * Minos
 * Aeacus
 * Rhadamanthus

Scale of quaternary

 * Four Princes of devils in the elements:
 * Samael: Fire
 * Azrael: Water
 * Azazel: Air
 * Mahazael: Earth

 * Four Princes of spirits, upon the four angles of the world
 * : East
 * Paymon: West
 * Egyn: North
 * Amaymon: South

Despite listing these separately, Agrippa mentions that these groups are identical, making the first as the Hebrew equivalent of the names of the latter. The same four demons appear in the Semiphoras and Schemhamforas.

Scale of six

 * Six authors of all calamities:
 * Acteus
 * Megalesius
 * Ormenus
 * Lycus
 * Nicon
 * Mimon

Scale of novenary

 * Nine princes ruling over nine orders of devils (with biblical references):
 * Beelzebub: under review
 * Python: Spirits of Lying
 * Belial: Instruments of iniquity and wrath
 * Asmodeus: Revengers of Wickedness
 * Satan: Deluders or Imitators of miracles
 * Merihem: Aerial Powers
 * Abaddon: Furies – sowing mischief
 * Astaroth: Calumniators – inquisitors and accusers
 * Mammon: evil genies – tempters and ensnarers

Binsfeld's classification
As part of his 1589 Treatise on Confessions by Evildoers and Witches, German theologian Peter Binsfeld prepared a classification of demons known as the Princes of Hell. Like the Lanterne of Light, Binsfeld used the seven deadly sins as a basis, though the two schemes differ in various ways.
 * 1) Lucifer: pride
 * 2) Mammon: greed
 * 3) Asmodeus: lust
 * 4) Leviathan: envy
 * 5) Beelzebub: gluttony
 * 6) Satan: wrath
 * 7) Belphegor: sloth

King James classification
King James' dissertation titled Daemonologie was first published in 1597, several years before the first publication of the King James Authorized Version of the Bible. Its three short books are in the form of a philosophical dialogue, making arguments and comparisons between magic, sorcery, and witchcraft. Within them, James classified demons into four sections:
 * Lemures or Spectra: Spirits that trouble houses or solitary places
 * Obsession: Spirits that follow upon certain people to outwardly trouble them at various times of the day
 * Possession: Spirits that enter inwardly into a person to trouble them
 * Fairies: Spirits that prophesy, consort, and transport

His classification was not based on separate demonic entities with their names, ranks, or titles, but rather categorized them based on four methods used by any given devil to cause mischief or torment on a living individual or a corpse. The purpose was to relay the belief that spirits caused maladies and that magic was possible only through demonic influence. He further quotes previous authors who state that each devil has the ability to appear in diverse shapes or forms for varying arrays of purposes as well. In his description of them, he relates that demons are under the direct supervision of God and are unable to act without permission, further illustrating how demonic forces are used as a "Rod of Correction" when men stray from the will of God and may be commissioned by witches, or magicians to conduct acts of ill will against others but will ultimately only conduct works that will end in the further glorification of God despite their attempts to do otherwise.

Michaëlis's classification
In 1613 the Dominican prior and French inquisitor, Sébastien Michaëlis wrote a book, Admirable History, which included a classification of demons as it was told to him by the demon Berith when he was exorcising a nun, according to the author. This classification is based on the Pseudo-Dionysian hierarchies, according to the sins the devil tempts one to commit, and includes the demons' adversaries (who suffered that temptation without falling).

First hierarchy
The first hierarchy includes angels that were Seraphim, Cherubim, and Ophanim/Thrones:
 * Beelzebub was a prince of the Cherubim, founder of Hell’s Order of the Fly. He tempts men with envy and is opposed by St. Francis.
 * Leviathan was also a prince of the Cherubim who tempts people to give into heresy, and is opposed by St. Peter.
 * Asmodeus was a prince of the Ophanim/Thrones, burning with desire to tempt men into wantonness. He is opposed by St. John the Baptist.
 * Berith was a prince of the Cherubim. He tempts men to commit homicide, and to be quarrelsome, contentious, and blasphemous. He is opposed by St. Barnabas.
 * Astaroth was a prince of Thrones, who tempts men to be lazy and is opposed by St. Bartholomew.
 * Verrine was also a prince of Thrones, just below Astaroth. He tempts men with impatience and is opposed by St. Dominic.
 * Gressil was the third prince of Thrones, who tempts men with impurity and is opposed by St. Bernard.
 * Soneillon was the fourth prince of Thrones, who tempts men to hate and is opposed by St. Stephen.

Second hierarchy
The second hierarchy includes Powers, Dominions, and Virtues:
 * Carreau was a prince of Powers. He tempts men with hardness of heart and is opposed by St. Vincent.
 * Carnivale was also a prince of Powers. He tempts men to obscenity and shamelessness, and is opposed by John the Evangelist.
 * Oeillet was a prince of Dominions. He tempts men to break the vow of poverty and is opposed by St. Martin.
 * Rosier was the second in the order of Dominions. He tempts men against sexual purity and is opposed by St. Basil.
 * Belias was the prince of Virtues. He tempts men with arrogance and women to be vain, raise wanton children, and gossip during mass. He is opposed by St. Francis de Paul.

Third hierarchy
The third hierarchy Principalities, Archangels, and Angels:
 * Verrier was the prince of Principalities. He tempts men against the vow of obedience and is opposed by St. Bernard.
 * Olivier was the prince of the Archangels. He tempts men with cruelty and mercilessness toward the poor and is opposed by St. Lawrence, patron saint of the poor.
 * Iuvart was the prince of Angels. At the time of Michaelis's writing, Iuvart was believed to have possessed a young novice nun of the Ursulines, Madeleine Demandols de La Palud, from whom it was exorcised.

Many of the names and ranks of these demons appear in the Sabbath litanies of witches, according to Jules Garinet's Histoire de la magie en France, and Collin de Plancy's Dictionnaire Infernal.

Classification by office
In the study of demonology, many spirits are classified by office, rank, or titles which theologians believe were once held in heaven before the fall, or which they currently hold in their infernal dwelling. These offices are usually elaborated in several grimoires which determines their authority in hell or abilities. Demons categorized by office are often depicted in a militant hierarchy, in which a general may hold command over some designated legion for a specialized function which they may trouble men. Other theologians have determined the classification of a spirit's office depending on the times or locations which they roam the Earth.

The Book of Abramelin
The Book of Abramelin, possibly written in the 14th or 15th century, lists four princes of the demons: Lucifer, Leviathan, Satan and Belial. There are also eight sub-princes: Astaroth, Magoth, Asmodee, Beelzebub,, Paimon, Ariton (Egin) and Amaymon. Under the rule of these there are many lesser demons.

Le Livre des Esperitz
Written in the 15th or 16th century, this grimoire was a likely source for Wierus hierarchy of demons, but while Wierus mentions 69 demons, Le Livre des Esperitz has only 46. Wierus omitted, however, the four demons of the cardinal points:, Ponymon, Amaymon and Equi (see Agrippa's classification) and the three great governors of all the other demons: Lucifer, Beelzebub and Satan.

The Munich Manual of Demonic Magic
Written in the 15th century, this manual includes a list of eleven demons.

Fasciculus Rerum Germanicarum
Written in 1494, this grimoire contains a list of 37 demons.

Le Dragon Rouge (or Grand Grimoire)
Like many works of mystical nature, Le Dragon Rouge (or the Red Dragon) claims to come from Solomon and his priests and is said to be published in 1517 by Alibeck the Egyptian. However, it was most likely written in France in the 18th century.

The grimoire details the different hosts of hell and their powers, describing how to enter a pact with them to attain the magicians' goals. The demons of hell are classified by three different tiers from Generals to Officers.

Pseudomonarchia Daemonum
Pseudomonarchia Daemonum, by Johann Weyer, is a grimoire that contains a list of demons and the appropriate hours and rituals to conjure them in the name of God, Jesus and the Holy Ghost (simpler than those cited by The Lesser Key of Solomon below).

This book was written around 1583, and lists sixty-nine demons. The demons Vassago, Seir, Dantalion and Andromalius are not listed in this book. Pseudomonarchia Daemonum does not attribute seals to the demons.

The Lesser Key of Solomon
The Lesser Key of Solomon or Lemegeton Clavicula Salomonis is an anonymous 17th century grimoire, and one of the most popular books of demonology. The Lesser Key of Solomon contains detailed descriptions of spirits and the conjurations needed to invoke and oblige them to do the will of the conjurer (referred to as the "exorcist"). It details the protective signs and rituals to be performed, the actions necessary to prevent the spirits from gaining control, the preparations prior to the invocations, and instructions on how to make the necessary instruments for the execution of these rituals.

The author of The Lesser Key of Solomon copied Pseudomonarchia Daemonum almost completely, but added demons' descriptions, their seals and details.

The Ars Goetia
Ars Goetia is the first section of The Lesser Key of Solomon, containing descriptions of the seventy-two demons that King Solomon is said to have evoked and confined in a bronze vessel sealed by magic symbols, and that he obliged to work for him.

The Ars Goetia assigns a rank and a title of nobility to each member of the infernal hierarchy, and gives the demons "signs they have to pay allegiance to", or seals.

Dictionnaire Infernal
The Dictionnaire Infernal (Infernal Dictionary) is a book on demonology, organised in hellish hierarchies. It was written by Jacques Collin de Plancy and first published in 1818. There were several editions of the book, but perhaps the most famous is the edition of 1863, in which sixty-nine illustrations were added to the book. These illustrations are drawings that depict the descriptions of the appearance of a number of demons. Many of these images were later used in S. L. MacGregor Mathers's edition of The Lesser Key of Solomon though some of the images were removed.

The book was first published in 1818 and then divided into two volumes, with six reprints and many changes between 1818 and 1863. This book attempts to provide an account of all the knowledge concerning superstitions and demonology.

CollindePlancy presented a hierarchy of demons based in modern European courts:
 * Princes and dignitaries: Beelzebub, supreme chief of the empire of hell, founder of the order of the Fly. Satan, prince dethroned and chief of the opposition party. Eurynome, prince of death, Grand Cross of the order of the Fly. Moloch, prince of the country of tears, Grand Cross of the order. Pluton, Prince of Fire, also Grand Cross of the order and governor of the regions in flames. Pan, prince of incubi and Lilith, princess of succubi. Leonard, the great lord of the Sabbath, Knight of the Fly. Balberith, great pontiff, lord of alliances. Proserpina, archdiablesse, princess of evil spirits.
 * Ministers of the Office: Adrammelech, Grand Chancellor and Grand Cross of the Order of the Fly. Ashtaroth, general treasurer, Knight of the Fly. Nergal, chief of the secret police. Baal, commander in chief of the armies of Hell, Grand Cross of the Order of the Fly. Leviathan, Grand Admiral, Knight of the Fly.
 * Ambassadors: Belfegor, Ambassador of France. Mammon, of England. Belial, of Italy. Rimmon, of Russia. Tammuz, of Spain. Hutgin, of Turkey. Martinet, of Switzerland.
 * Justice: Lucifer, chief of (in)justice, Knight of the Fly. Alastor, executor of his sentences.
 * House of the princes: Verdelet, master of ceremonies. Succorbenoth, chief of the eunuchs of the seraglio. Chamos, Grand Chambelain, Knight of the Fly. Melchom, payer treasurer. Nisroch, chief of the kitchen. Behemoth, chief cupbearer. Dagon, grand pantler. Mullin, first valet.
 * Secret expenses: Kobal, director of theaters. Asmodeus, superintendent of the gambling houses. Nybbas, grand buffoon. Antichrist, charlatan and necromancer.

Alexis-Vincent-Charles Berbiguier used some of these names and ranks for the demons who tormented him, in his autobiographical work Les farfadets ou Tous les démons ne sont pas de l'autre monde (1821).

The Satanic Bible
LaVey utilized the symbolism of the Four Crown Princes of Hell in The Satanic Bible, with each chapter of the book being named after each Prince. The Book of Satan: The Infernal Diatribe, The Book of Lucifer: The Enlightenment, The Book of Belial: Mastery of the Earth, and The Book of Leviathan: The Raging Sea. This association was inspired by the demonic hierarchy from The Book of the Sacred Magic of Abra-Melin the Mage. The adversary, representing opposition, the element of fire, the direction of the south, and the Sigil of Baphomet during ritual. The bringer of light, representing pride and enlightenment, the element of air, the direction of the east, and candles during ritual. The baseness of the earth, independence and self-sufficiency, the element of earth, the direction of the north, and the sword during ritual. The great dragon, representing primal secrecy, the element of water, the direction of the west, and the chalice during ritual.
 * Satan (Hebrew) "Lord of the Inferno":
 * Lucifer (Latin) "The Morning Star":
 * Belial (Hebrew) "Without a Master":
 * Leviathan (Hebrew) "Serpent of the Abyss":

title: Classification of demons


text:
Microscope image processing

Microscope image processing is a broad term that covers the use of digital image processing techniques to process, analyze and present images obtained from a microscope. Such processing is now commonplace in a number of diverse fields such as medicine, biological research, cancer research, drug testing, metallurgy, etc. A number of manufacturers of microscopes now specifically design in features that allow the microscopes to interface to an image processing system.

Image acquisition
Until the early 1990s, most image acquisition in video microscopy applications was typically done with an analog video camera, often simply closed circuit TV cameras. While this required the use of a frame grabber to digitize the images, video cameras provided images at full video frame rate (25-30 frames per second) allowing live video recording and processing. While the advent of solid state detectors yielded several advantages, the real-time video camera was actually superior in many respects.

Today, acquisition is usually done using a CCD camera mounted in the optical path of the microscope. The camera may be full colour or monochrome. Very often, very high resolution cameras are employed to gain as much direct information as possible. Cryogenic cooling is also common, to minimise noise. Often digital cameras used for this application provide pixel intensity data to a resolution of 12-16 bits, much higher than is used in consumer imaging products.

Ironically, in recent years, much effort has been put into acquiring data at video rates, or higher (25-30 frames per second or higher). What was once easy with off-the-shelf video cameras now requires special, high speed electronics to handle the vast digital data bandwidth.

Higher speed acquisition allows dynamic processes to be observed in real time, or stored for later playback and analysis. Combined with the high image resolution, this approach can generate vast quantities of raw data, which can be a challenge to deal with, even with a modern computer system.

It should be observed that while current CCD detectors allow very high image resolution, often this involves a trade-off because, for a given chip size, as the pixel count increases, the pixel size decreases. As the pixels get smaller, their well depth decreases, reducing the number of electrons that can be stored. In turn, this results in a poorer signal-to-noise ratio.

For best results, one must select an appropriate sensor for a given application. Because microscope images have an intrinsic limiting resolution, it often makes little sense to use a noisy, high resolution detector for image acquisition. A more modest detector, with larger pixels, can often produce much higher quality images because of reduced noise. This is especially important in low-light applications such as fluorescence microscopy.

Moreover, one must also consider the temporal resolution requirements of the application. A lower resolution detector will often have a significantly higher acquisition rate, permitting the observation of faster events. Conversely, if the observed object is motionless, one may wish to acquire images at the highest possible spatial resolution without regard to the time required to acquire a single image.

2D image techniques
Image processing for microscopy application begins with fundamental techniques intended to most accurately reproduce the information contained in the microscopic sample. This might include adjusting the brightness and contrast of the image, averaging images to reduce image noise and correcting for illumination non-uniformities. Such processing involves only basic arithmetic operations between images (i.e. addition, subtraction, multiplication and division). The vast majority of processing done on microscope image is of this nature.

Another class of common 2D operations called image convolution are often used to reduce or enhance image details. Such "blurring" and "sharpening" algorithms in most programs work by altering a pixel's value based on a weighted sum of that and the surrounding pixels (a more detailed description of kernel based convolution deserves an entry for itself) or by altering the frequency domain function of the image using Fourier Transform. Most image processing techniques are performed in the Frequency domain.

Other basic two dimensional techniques include operations such as image rotation, warping, color balancing etc.

At times, advanced techniques are employed with the goal of "undoing" the distortion of the optical path of the microscope, thus eliminating distortions and blurring caused by the instrumentation. This process is called deconvolution, and a variety of algorithms have been developed, some of great mathematical complexity. The end result is an image far sharper and clearer than could be obtained in the optical domain alone. This is typically a 3-dimensional operation, that analyzes a volumetric image (i.e. images taken at a variety of focal planes through the sample) and uses this data to reconstruct a more accurate 3-dimensional image.

3D image techniques
Another common requirement is to take a series of images at a fixed position, but at different focal depths. Since most microscopic samples are essentially transparent, and the depth of field of the focused sample is exceptionally narrow, it is possible to capture images "through" a three-dimensional object using 2D equipment like confocal microscopes. Software is then able to reconstruct a 3D model of the original sample which may be manipulated appropriately. The processing turns a 2D instrument into a 3D instrument, which would not otherwise exist. In recent times this technique has led to a number of scientific discoveries in cell biology.

Analysis
Analysis of images will vary considerably according to application. Typical analysis includes determining where the edges of an object are, counting similar objects, calculating the area, perimeter length and other useful measurements of each object. A common approach is to create an image mask which only includes pixels that match certain criteria, then perform simpler scanning operations on the resulting mask. It is also possible to label objects and track their motion over a series of frames in a video sequence.

title: Microscope image processing


text:
Frank Wilczek

Frank Anthony Wilczek ( or ; born May 15, 1951) is an American theoretical physicist, mathematician and Nobel laureate. He is the  Herman Feshbach Professor of Physics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Founding Director of T. D. Lee Institute and Chief Scientist at the Wilczek Quantum Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University (SJTU), distinguished professor at Arizona State University (ASU) and full professor at Stockholm University.

Wilczek, along with David Gross and H. David Politzer, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2004 "for the discovery of asymptotic freedom in the theory of the strong interaction". In May 2022, he was awarded the Templeton Prize for his investigations into the fundamental laws of nature, that have transformed our understanding of the forces that govern our universe and revealed an inspiring vision of a world that embodies mathematical beauty.

Early life and education
Born in Mineola, New York, Wilczek is of Polish and Italian origin. His grandparents were immigrants who "really did work with their hands", according to Wilczek, but his father took night school classes to educate himself, working as a repairman to support his family. Wilczek's father became a "self-taught engineer", whose interests in technology and science inspired his son.

Wilczek was educated in the public schools of Queens, attending Martin Van Buren High School. It was around this time Wilczek's parents realized that he was exceptional, in part as a result of their son having been administered an IQ test.

After skipping two grades, Wilczek started high school in the 10th grade, when he was 13 years old. He was particularly inspired by two of his high school physics teachers, one of whom taught a course that helped students with the national Westinghouse Science Talent Search. Wilczek was a finalist in 1967 and ultimately won fourth place, based on a mathematical project involving group theory.

He received his Bachelor of Science in Mathematics and membership in Phi Beta Kappa at the University of Chicago in 1970. During his last year as a math major at Chicago, he attended a course taught by Peter Freund on group theory in physics, which Wilczek later described as being "basically particle physics", and very influential: "Peter Freund played a big role in my life, though, because he taught this course on group theory, or symmetry in physics that—he was so enthusiastic, and he really gushed—and it's beautiful material. Still to this day I think the quantum theory of angular momentum is one of the absolute pinnacles of human achievement. Just beautiful."

Wilczek went to Princeton as a mathematics graduate student. After a year and a half, he transferred from mathematics to physics, with David Gross as his thesis advisor.

He earned a Master of Arts in Mathematics in 1972 and a Ph.D. in physics in 1974, both from Princeton University.

Personal life
Wilczek met Betsy Devine at Princeton, when both watched the televised 1972 Fisher-Spassky chess matches. They married in 1973, and together they have two daughters. His favorite physicist is James Clerk Maxwell.

Religious views
Wilczek was raised Catholic but later "lost faith in conventional religion" although he told Scientific American that religion "had meant a lot to me as a teenager". He has been described as an agnostic but tweeted in 2013 that "pantheist" is "closer to the mark".

Wilczek said that "the world embodies beautiful ideas" but "although this may inspire a spiritual interpretation, it does not require one".

Science outreach and activism
Wilczek is a member of the Scientific Advisory Board for the Future of Life Institute, an organization that works to mitigate existential risks facing humanity, particularly existential risk from advanced artificial intelligence.

In 2014, Wilczek penned a letter, along with Stephen Hawking and two other scholars, warning that "Success in creating AI would be the biggest event in human history. Unfortunately, it might also be the last, unless we learn how to avoid the risks."

Wilczek is also a supporter of the Campaign for the Establishment of a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly, an organization which advocates for democratic reform in the United Nations, and the creation of a more accountable international political system.

Wilczek is on the board for Society for Science & the Public. He is a co-founding member of the Kosciuszko Foundation of the Collegium of Eminent Scientists of Polish Origin and Ancestry.

Wilczek has appeared on an episode of Penn & Teller: Bullshit!, where Penn referred to him as "the smartest person [they have] ever had on the show".

Honors
In 1982, he was awarded a MacArthur Fellowship.

Wilczek was elected as a member of the National Academy of Sciences in 1990, a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1993, and the American Philosophical Society in 2005.

Wilczek became a foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2000. He was awarded the Lorentz Medal in 2002. Wilczek won the Lilienfeld Prize of the American Physical Society in 2003. In the same year, he was awarded the Faculty of Mathematics and Physics Commemorative Medal from Charles University in Prague. He was the co-recipient of the 2003 High Energy and Particle Physics Prize of the European Physical Society. The Nobel Prize in Physics 2004 was awarded jointly to David J. Gross, H. David Politzer and Frank Wilczek "for the discovery of asymptotic freedom in the theory of the strong interaction". Wilczek was also the co-recipient of the 2005 King Faisal International Prize for Science. In that same year, he received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement. On January 25, 2013, Wilczek received an honorary doctorate from the Faculty of Science and Technology at Uppsala University, Sweden. He also served on the Physical Sciences jury for the Infosys Prize from 2009 to 2011. In 2011, Wilczek gave the George Gamow Memorial Lecture at the University of Colorado Boulder. In 2022 he was awarded the Templeton Prize for the work that reveals "a vision of a universe that he regards as embodying mathematical beauty at the scales of the magnificently large and unimaginably small".

Wilczek holds the Herman Feshbach Professorship of Physics at MIT Center for Theoretical Physics. He has also worked at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton and the Institute for Theoretical Physics at the University of California, Santa Barbara and was also a visiting professor at NORDITA.

Research
Wilczek's 2004 Nobel Prize was for asymptotic freedom, but he has helped reveal and develop axions, anyons, asymptotic freedom, the color superconducting phases of quark matter, and other aspects of quantum field theory. He has worked on condensed matter physics, astrophysics, and particle physics.

Asymptotic freedom
In 1973, while a graduate student working with David Gross at Princeton University, Wilczek (together with Gross) discovered asymptotic freedom, which holds that the closer quarks are to each other, the less the strong interaction (or color charge) between them; when quarks are in extreme proximity, the nuclear force between them is so weak that they behave almost as free particles. The theory, which was independently discovered by H. David Politzer, was important for the development of quantum chromodynamics. According to the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences when awarding Wilczek its Lorentz Medal in 2002, "This [asymptotic freedom] is a phenomenon whereby the building blocks which make up the nucleus of an atom – 'quarks' – behave as free particles when they are close together, but become more strongly attracted to each other as the distance between them increases. This theory forms the key to the interpretation of almost all experimental studies involving modern particle accelerators."

Axions
The axion is a hypothetical elementary particle. If axions exist and have low mass within a specific range, they are of interest as a possible component of cold dark matter.

In 1977, Roberto Peccei and Helen Quinn postulated a solution to the strong CP problem, the Peccei–Quinn mechanism. This is accomplished by adding a new global symmetry (called a Peccei–Quinn symmetry.) When that symmetry is spontaneously broken, a new particle results, as shown independently by Wilczek and by Steven Weinberg. Wilczek named this new hypothetical particle the "axion" after a brand of laundry detergent, while Weinberg called it "Higglet". Weinberg later agreed to adopt Wilczek's name for the particle.

Although most experimental searches for dark matter candidates have targeted WIMPs, there have also been many attempts to detect axions. In June, 2020, an international team of physicists working in Italy detected a signal that could be axions.

Anyons
In physics, an anyon is a type of quasiparticle that occurs only in two-dimensional systems, with properties much less restricted than fermions and bosons. In particular, anyons can have properties intermediate between fermions and bosons, including fractional electric charge. This anything-goes behavior inspired Wilczek in 1982 to name them "anyons".

In 1977, a group of theoretical physicists working at the University of Oslo, led by Jon Leinaas and Jan Myrheim, calculated that the traditional division between fermions and bosons would not apply to theoretical particles existing in two dimensions. When Daniel Tsui and Horst Störmer discovered the fractional quantum Hall effect in 1982, Bertrand Halperin (1984) expanded the math Wilczek proposed in 1982 for fractional statistics in two dimensions to help explain it.

Frank Wilczek, Dan Arovas, and Robert Schrieffer analyzed the fractional quantum Hall effect in 1984, proving that anyons were required to describe it.

In 2020, experimenters from the Ecole Normale Supérieure and from the Centre for Nanosciences and Nanotechnologies (C2N) reported in Science that they had made a direct detection of anyons.

Time crystals
In 2012 he proposed the idea of a time crystal. In 2018, several research teams reported the existence of time crystals. In 2018, he and Qing-Dong Jiang calculated that the so-called "quantum atmosphere" of materials should theoretically be capable of being probed using existing technology such as diamond probes with nitrogen-vacancy centers.

Current research

 * "Pure" particle physics: connections between theoretical ideas and observable phenomena;
 * behavior of matter: phase structure of quark matter at ultra-high temperature and density; color superconductivity;
 * application of particle physics to cosmology;
 * application of field theory techniques to condensed matter physics;
 * quantum theory of black holes; see, e.g., the application of the moving mirror model to black holes.

For lay readers

 * 2021 Fundamentals: Ten Keys to Reality, Penguin Press ISBN 978-0735223790
 * 2015 A Beautiful Question: Finding Nature’s Deep Design, Allen Lane, ISBN 9781846147012
 * 2014 (with Stephen Hawking, Max Tegmark and Stuart Russell). "Transcending Complacency on Superintelligent Machines". Huffington Post.
 * 2008. The Lightness of Being: Mass, Ether, and the Unification of Forces. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-00321-1.
 * 2007. La musica del vuoto. Roma: Di Renzo Editore.
 * 2006. Fantastic Realities: 49 Mind Journeys And a Trip to Stockholm. World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-256-655-3.
 * 2002, "On the world's numerical recipe (an ode to physics)", Daedalus 131(1): 142–47.
 * 1989 (with Betsy Devine). Longing for the Harmonies: Themes and Variations from Modern Physics. W W Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-30596-8.

Technical

 * 1988. Geometric Phases in Physics.
 * 1990. Fractional Statistics and Anyon Superconductivity.

title: Frank Wilczek


text:
Tornado watch

A tornado watch (SAME code: TOA) is a statement issued by weather forecasting agencies to advise the public that atmospheric conditions in a given region may lead to the development of tornadoes within (or near) the region over several hours. In addition to the potential for tornado development, thunderstorms that develop within the watch area may contain large hail, straight-line winds, intense rainfall and/or flooding that pose a similar damage risk as the attendant tornado threat. A tornado watch does not mean a tornado is active or will appear, just that favorable conditions increases the likelihood of such happening. A watch must not be confused with a tornado warning.

Definition
A tornado watch indicates that atmospheric conditions observed in and close to the watch area have created a significant risk for the development and intensification of severe convective thunderstorms capable of producing tornadoes, and are normally issued in advance of the onset of severe weather. If severe weather actually does occur, a severe thunderstorm warning or tornado warning would then be issued. Residents and travelers in the watch area are advised to immediately undertake safety preparations ahead of the arrival of severe weather. A tornado watch is not required for a warning to be issued; tornado warnings are occasionally issued when a tornado watch is not active (i.e., when a severe thunderstorm watch is active or if conditions for tornadic development are not expected to be substantive enough to require a watch), if a severe thunderstorm has a confirmed tornado or developed strong rotation. A tornado watch can replace an existing severe thunderstorm watch, if not merely a portion of it, if conditions that were originally considered marginally conducive, if at all for tornadic development have evolved to permit a greater risk of tornado formation.

Although the risk of tornadoes is emphasized as the primary hazard, depending on storm cell intensity, the probability exists for other hazardous phenomena exceeding regional severe criterion to occur: severe thunderstorms that develop within the watch area will also pose a likelihood of producing large hailstones, intense straight-line winds that can produce serious structural damage equivalent to a lower-category tornado over a comparatively broader areal swath, intense lightning, torrential rainfall and/or flash flooding caused by high rainfall accumulations. A tornado watch therefore implies that it is also a severe thunderstorm watch.

When a tornado watch is issued, people within the region of expected tornado threat are advised to review safety precautions in the event they must seek immediate shelter in a basement, cellar, safe room or a sturdy above-ground room in the center section of a home or building (such as a bathroom or closet) when a tornado warning or severe thunderstorm warning is issued for their area. Residents are also advised to monitor conditions ahead of the developing weather situation, and keep abreast of warnings and updated storm information through local broadcast media, weather radio, weather app alert notifications, SMS notifications and/or automated emergency phone calls. Where present, tornado sirens and local police or fire department dispatch units are also used as an outdoor warning system in the event of a tornado or particularly intense non-tornadic thunderstorm in some tornado-prone regions.

United States
In the United States, tornado watches are issued by the Storm Prediction Center (SPC), a national guidance center of the National Weather Service (NWS), for areas of the lower 48 states where atmospheric conditions favor the development of tornadoes and accompanying severe thunderstorms. Although watch issuances for those states are exceedingly rare as their respective climates are less favorable for the kind of convective conditions capable of tornadogenesis, responsibilities for issuing tornado watches covering Alaska and Hawaii are respectively handled by local NWS forecast offices in Fairbanks, Anchorage, Juneau, Alaska, and Honolulu, Hawaii. Watches are typically valid for six to nine hours (extending if necessary as long as 12 hours during tropical cyclones or other unusually steady-state or slow-moving severe weather events) after the time of issuance, and are intended to precede the first reported tornado by two hours and the first report of severe hail or wind by one hour. SPC watch boxes—termed because the approximate watch area is represented as a quadrilateral for aviation purposes—are usually outlined in the approximate delineation of x miles north and south, or east and west, or either side of a line (perpendicular to the center line) from y miles direction of city, state, to z miles another direction of another city, state (e.g., "50 miles either side of a line from 10 miles northeast of Columbia, South Carolina to 15 miles south-southwest of Montgomery, Alabama"). Geographic coverage of tornado watches (which ranges from 20000 - 40000 sqmi on average, encompassing portions of one or more states) vary based on the size of the land area under threat, the duration of severe weather risk, and the forward motion of the parent storm system and associated surface boundaries.

In situations in which the SPC has outlined a “high risk” or high-end “moderate risk” of severe convective storms within and near the watch area, the intensified wording "particularly dangerous situation" (PDS) can be added into the watch product to highlight high forecaster confidence that atmospheric conditions support the development of multiple strong to violent tornadoes (rated EF2–EF5 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale) capable of significant damage, if not total destruction of property and severe injury or death from the intense winds and projectile debris, as well as the possibility of destructive straight-line winds and hail from the parent supercells. (Tornadoes occurring in these situations may develop during the storm's maturation stage under typical low-level mesocyclonic tornadogenesis, or by accelerated mesocyclonic maturation generated early in the thunderstorm's development from sufficient wind shear and very high convective available potential energy [CAPE] values.) PDS tornado watches—which, based on SPC watch issuance averages between 1996 and 2005, account for ~3% of all tornado watches issued per year in the U.S.—usually suggest the likelihood of a major tornado outbreak, although they can be issued if a significant threat exists of isolated intense tornadoes. The SPC (then the National Severe Storms Forecast Center) conceived the PDS verbiage for use in tornado watches in 1981; it was applied to a public tornado watch product for the first time—encompassing portions of northern Texas and southern Oklahoma—during the outbreak of April 2, 1982. (The indicated threat would be verified, with seven of the 14 significant (F3+) tornadoes observed that day—four rated F3, two rated F4 and one rated F5—occurring within the watch area.) In subsequent years but in earnest since 2011, the SPC and the National Weather Service have applied PDS verbiage to other watch and warning types (including tornado warnings, severe thunderstorm watches and warnings, flash flood warnings and red flag warnings) to emphasize an exceptionally high risk to life and property.

SPC meteorologists utilize WarnGen software integrated into the National Centers Advance Weather Interactive Processing System (N-AWIPS) and/or the SPC Product Generator (PRODGEN) to generate the watch statement, which is disseminated through various communication routes accessed by the media and various agencies, on the internet, to NOAA satellites, and over NOAA Weather Radio. The term "red box," often used in parlance within the meteorological community, refers to the coloring assigned to tornado watch boxes for hazard maps used by the Storm Prediction Center and the National Weather Service; severe weather alert displays used by many local television stations typically assign other colors (most commonly, green, yellow or purple) to highlight tornado watches. (Red, which television alert displays usually reserve as an identifier for tornado warnings, is seldom if ever used to highlight tornado watches.)

The Storm Prediction Center, in conjunction with local NWS Weather Forecast Offices, issues component watch products to communicate the approximate area, primary hazards and other pertinent information about the tornado watch to the public, NOAA meteorologists, emergency management and aviation personnel. The graphical and text Public Watch products—in addition to outlining the approximate affected area, valid time, meteorological and aviation discussions, and other pertinent information—includes language specifying the forecast tornado threat (e.g., "several tornadoes and a few intense tornadoes likely"), and attendant severe wind and hail threats (e.g., "widespread damaging wind gusts to 70 mph likely, isolated very large hail events to 2 inches in diameter possible") in the primary hazards list. The Watch Probability Table describes probabilities for all modes of severe weather, including probabilities of two or more tornadoes and one or more strong to violent tornadoes. (Currently, the minimum tornado probabilities for a tornado watch issuance require a ~30% chance of two or more tornado reports and, for PDS watches, an 80% chance of one or more strong tornadoes within the watch area over the valid time period, although that criterion was previously lower.)

The SPC produces two separate products listing all counties or equivalent subdivisions (parishes, independent cities, and coastal marine zones) included in the broader watch area: Watch County Lists (WCL), which are produced internally preceding the watch issuance for collaborative use with local NWS offices to outline counties and equivalent subdivisions being proposed for inclusion in the watch, and Watch Outline Update (WOU) messages, a public list of the determined watch subdivisions published upon the initial tornado watch issuance. Local NWS offices concurrently issue Watch County Notification (WCN) messages that list subdivisions within their designated area of responsibility that the office has considered to be in the initial watch; WCN messages—which the SPC uses as the basis for their Watch Outline Update product—are updated to denote changes to the watch by local WFOs, which are provided responsibility for adding or removing counties/subdivisions from the watch, extending its time of expiration, or cancelling the watch entirely if conditions no longer support a severe weather threat (if atmospheric conditions have become less conducive to form tornadoes or were insufficient for tornadic development compared to earlier forecast analysis). The SPC updates Watch Outline Updates at least on an hourly basis to incorporate changes made by the accordant WFOs in their Watch County Notification messages.

The SPC issues Watch Status Messages to designate areas considered to have a continuing severe weather threat, based primarily on the position of surface features (such as cold fronts and drylines)—and the NWS offices decide what counties to remove from the watch (the local offices will almost always follow the SPC recommendation on the status messages). If conditions are no longer favorable for tornadoes in the watch area, a tornado watch may either be replaced by a severe thunderstorm watch or cancelled outright; likewise, a tornado watch may replace a severe thunderstorm watch, if not merely a section of it, should conditions that were originally forecast to be conducive for non-tornadic severe thunderstorms evolve to allow an increased possibility of tornado formation. If no convective development or tornadic activity occurs, this leads to a tornado watch "bust", which can factor into determinations by the SPC and National Weather Service offices on whether to cancel the watch.

Because the Storm Prediction Center and local National Weather Service WFOs each have roles in the watch issuance process, the subdivisions listed in the Watch Outline Update and Watch County Notification products will sometimes differ from the outlined watch box area, including subdivisions located outside the outlined quadrilateral; however the local Weather Forecast Office is tasked with determining which counties should be included in or, in lieu of a new downstream watch, added to the designated watch area. The WFOs monitoring their sector of the watch area can also consult, via conference call, with the Storm Prediction Center to relay and determine locally dictated changes to the tornado watch, regarding replacement of the watch and extensions of time and areal coverage if conditions warrant.

Canada
In Canada, Environment and Climate Change Canada issues tornado watches through regional Meteorological Service offices based in Vancouver, Edmonton, Winnipeg, Toronto, Montreal and Dartmouth. Unlike the box/subdivision structure of watches issued by the U.S. Storm Prediction Center, tornado watches issued by the Meteorological Service are issued strictly for groups of census subdivisions, often covering a total area that is relatively smaller than tornado watches in the U.S.). Watches are disseminated to the public through broadcast and online media outlets (including local television stations and The Weather Network/MétéoMédia), and Weatheradio Canada; depending on regional office discretion, the watch may require activation of the National Public Alerting System (Alert Ready) (Système national d'alertes à la population [En Alerte]) and feeding provincial alerting systems (such as Alberta Emergency Alert and SaskAlert) to distribute the alert to local broadcast media and cellular phones.

Example of a tornado watch
SEL6

URGENT - IMMEDIATE BROADCAST REQUESTED Tornado Watch Number 76 NWS Storm Prediction Center Norman OK  515 PM CDT Fri Mar 24 2023

The NWS Storm Prediction Center has issued a

* Tornado Watch for portions of     Eastern Arkansas Northeastern Louisiana Central and northern Mississippi Western Tennessee

* Effective this Friday afternoon from 515 PM until Midnight CDT.

* Primary threats include... Several tornadoes and a couple intense tornadoes likely Widespread damaging winds and isolated significant gusts to 75 mph likely Scattered large hail events to 1.5 inches in diameter possible

SUMMARY...A maturing squall line will surge eastward from Arkansas into western Tennessee and northwestern Mississippi through early tonight, with an accompanying threat for swaths of damaging winds (up to 75 mph) and tornadoes with embedded circulations. Farther south, a few semi-discrete supercells are expected ahead of the squall line, from northeast Louisiana across southeastern Arkansas and west central/northwestern Mississippi. A few strong-intense tornadoes will be possible in this corridor with any persistent supercells later this evening.

The tornado watch area is approximately along and 120 statute miles east and west of a line from 25 miles northwest of Memphis TN to 20 miles south of Natchez MS. For a complete depiction of the watch see the associated watch outline update (WOUS64 KWNS WOU6).

PRECAUTIONARY/PREPAREDNESS ACTIONS...

REMEMBER...A Tornado Watch means conditions are favorable for tornadoes and severe thunderstorms in and close to the watch area. Persons in these areas should be on the lookout for threatening weather conditions and listen for later statements and possible warnings.

&&

OTHER WATCH INFORMATION...CONTINUE...WW 75...

AVIATION...Tornadoes and a few severe thunderstorms with hail surface and aloft to 1.5 inches. Extreme turbulence and surface wind gusts to 65 knots. A few cumulonimbi with maximum tops to 500. Mean storm motion vector 23050.

...Thompson

Example of a Watch Outline Update
Below is another example issued by the Storm Prediction Center.

BULLETIN - IMMEDIATE BROADCAST REQUESTED TORNADO WATCH OUTLINE UPDATE FOR WT 559 NWS STORM PREDICTION CENTER NORMAN OK  1100 PM CST FRI DEC 10 2021

TORNADO WATCH 559 IS IN EFFECT UNTIL 500 AM CST FOR THE FOLLOWING LOCATIONS

ILC003-027-047-051-055-059-065-069-077-081-087-121-127-145-151- 153-165-181-185-189-191-193-199-111100-  /O.NEW.KWNS.TO.A.0559.211211T0500Z-211211T1100Z/

IL   .    ILLINOIS COUNTIES INCLUDED ARE

ALEXANDER           CLINTON             EDWARDS FAYETTE             FRANKLIN            GALLATIN HAMILTON            HARDIN              JACKSON JEFFERSON           JOHNSON             MARION MASSAC              PERRY               POPE PULASKI             SALINE              UNION WABASH              WASHINGTON          WAYNE WHITE               WILLIAMSON

INC051-125-129-147-163-173-111100- /O.NEW.KWNS.TO.A.0559.211211T0500Z-211211T1100Z/

IN   .    INDIANA COUNTIES INCLUDED ARE

GIBSON              PIKE                POSEY SPENCER             VANDERBURGH         WARRICK

KYC007-033-035-039-047-055-059-075-083-101-105-107-139-143-145- 149-157-177-219-221-225-233-111100-  /O.NEW.KWNS.TO.A.0559.211211T0500Z-211211T1100Z/

KY   .    KENTUCKY COUNTIES INCLUDED ARE

BALLARD             CALDWELL            CALLOWAY CARLISLE            CHRISTIAN           CRITTENDEN DAVIESS             FULTON              GRAVES HENDERSON           HICKMAN             HOPKINS LIVINGSTON          LYON                MARSHALL MCCRACKEN           MCLEAN              MUHLENBERG TODD                TRIGG               UNION WEBSTER

MOC017-031-133-157-201-111100- /O.NEW.KWNS.TO.A.0559.211211T0500Z-211211T1100Z/

MO   .    MISSOURI COUNTIES INCLUDED ARE

BOLLINGER           CAPE GIRARDEAU      MISSISSIPPI PERRY               SCOTT

ATTN...WFO...PAH...LSX...

Example of a Watch Status Message
STATUS REPORT #1 ON WW 68

VALID 261425Z - 261540Z

SEVERE WEATHER THREAT CONTINUES RIGHT OF A LINE FROM 20 ESE PNS TO 30 N DHN TO 15 E ATL.

..SPC..03/26/09

ATTN...WFO...TAE...FFC...

title: Tornado watch