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Asalluhi

Asalluhi, also spelled as Asarluhi or Asalluhe, also known as Asaralimnuna, Asaralim, Asalim or Asarnuna was a Mesopotamian god primarily associated with the sphere of incantations and exorcism, commonly operating together with his father Enki. He is likely the same deity as Asar, who was attested starting from the third millennium BCE.

During the Old Babylonian period, Asalluhi gradually became syncretized with Marduk, eventually becoming another name for Marduk.

Name
The name Asalluhi is written phonetically as dasal-lú-ḫi, da-sa-lu-úḫ, da-sa-lú-ḫi or da-sa-al-lú-ḫi. An offering list from Ur III Umma spells the name as dÉ.ŠÁRA-lú-ḫi.

The meaning of Asar remains uncertain. Johandi offers two suggestions, that asar(re) could be a-sar-(re(d)) "swift seed" or a-ari-sar "water impregnating the field plots." dasar is attested in third millennium god lists, personal names and administrative documents, while the name Asalluhi was first attested until the Ur III period. However, the spelling Asalluhi appeared in an incantation against the demon Samana which Finkel dated to the Old Akkadian period. If the dating is right, then Asalluhi was an attested spelling earlier than the Ur III period.

Jacobsen reads lú-ḫi as lú-ḫe, meaning "man-drenching", and thus argues that Asalluhi's name means "man drenching Asal." Lambert proposes that the lú-ḫi element in the name Asalluhi may be a phonetic spelling of luḫe, which the meaning of the root luḫ (purge) would be fitting for Asalluhi’s role in incantations related to exorcism. Johandi offers another explanation that since many of the instructions Enki gives to Asalluhi involves mixing together ingredients, lú-ḫi may have originally been an epithet meaning "the mixer" which eventually connected with the original name Asar to form Asalluhi. lú-ḫi could also have been an ellipsis for lú-ḫe-ĝál/nun, meaning "the one of abundance and plenty."

The Nippur god list from the Old Babylonian period gives Asalluhi another name called Asarag, which could possibly be translated as "the good Asar." This name is unattested elsewhere.

Character and iconography
Asar was already attested in the Third Millennium as part of incantations, albeit playing a minor role.

Asalluhi often appears in incantations in relation to his father Enki. This type of incantation follows the formula where two deities are engaged in a conversation, discussing how to treat the patient. In his studies on incantations, Falkenstein has dubbed it the Marduk-Ea type invocations. However, the name is not very representative of the whole, and Cunningham has shown that the formula was attested earlier in the Fāra and Ebla texts, with Enlil taking the role of Ea and Ningirima taking the role of Marduk. Earlier incantations had Asalluhi send a messenger to Enki to seek support, but starting in the Ur III period Asalluhi started to occasionally directly seek out Enki in his temple to ask for support, possibly emphasizing the mediating role of temples instead of messengers.

The general structure of the Asalluhi-Enki dialogues starts with Asalluhi noticing a problem and reporting to his father Enki. Enki assures Asalluhi that he knows everything that he knows, and then proceeds to instruct Asalluhi on the procedures.

Geller argued that during the Old Babylonian period the incantation priest would assume the role of Asalluhi, who would be acting as the messenger for Enki. Johandi notes that such a translation would not make sense for some of the texts, and there is nothing like the first millennium texts where the priests directly claim to be in the image of Asalluhi/Marduk, although the option still remains possible.

Asalluhi also appears in what is commonly termed the legitimation-type formula as per Falkenstein. The priests will legitimize themselves by establishing them as the representative of the gods. As most of the incantations of this type are directed against demons, Enki and his circle feature prominently among them. The priest would claim that the incantation is the incantation of gods such as Asalluhi, while in other texts they would claim that the gods themselves cast the incantation. Asalluhi is claimed to be the one to recite the "incantation of Eridu" in the Old Babylonian period, whereas in earlier periods the role was assumed by the human priest.

Asalluhi also features in consecration incantations, which prepares objects and materials for rituals. In particular, he seems to appear in preparing objects for purification.

Although in hymns Asalluhi's role as an exorcist is not stated, and outside of incantations his connections with magic are doubtful, his role as a divine exorcist was already well established by the Old Babylonian period. It would still seem that in the Asalluhi-Enki formula, Asalluhi functioned as the executor of Enki's orders, and Asalluhi cannot be called an expert, lacking initiative and needing Enki's encouragement. In other texts, such as a myth, and incantation texts of other formulas like the legitimation-type, though, Asalluhi is described as an exorcist or as the exorcist of the gods.

In the Sumerian Temple Hymns, Asalluhi is described with more aggressive characteristics, listing epithets like "the strong prince", "the hero", and was even described as a leopard and a storm. The other name given to Asalluhi in the hymn, Asaralimnuna can either mean "Asar, the princely bison" or "Asar, the bison of the prince." Johandi notes that this imagery is reminiscent of the young warrior gods archetype, for example Ninurta.

Asalluhi seemed to have a relationship with the deified Shulgi, who was honored in Asalluhi's temple in Kuara. Other texts relate Asar/Asalluhi to deities associated with the underworld and other deified kings, so it is possible that Asalluhi may have had a connection with the underworld.

Jacobsen had argued that Asalluhi was originally a storm god based on the reading of lú-ḫi as lú-ḫe, which would translate the name Asalluhi as "man-drenching Asal," and that Ishkur was also attested with the lú-ḫe epithet. Johandi suggests that it is possible, however there is no other evidence pointing to Asar/Asalluhi originally functioning as a storm god, and points out that a deity being associated with storm imagery does not corroborate to a deity being a storm god with Ninurta being the prime example.

Asalluhi was also said to have granted wisdom to Mesopotamian kings in a couple texts, taking over the role usually reserved for Enki. In Asalluhi A, Asalluhi was described with several traits reminiscent of that of Enki. The sharing of traits with Enki is likely due to the father-son relationship.

In contrast to his usual portrayal as a deity benevolent to humans, some texts, namely Sin-Iddinam's prayer to Ninisina and another Old Babylonian letter relate Asalluhi to plagues. Oshima believes that Marduk was the god related to disease and sickness and Sin-iddinam's prayer is suggestive of Marduk's possible original role before the identification with Asalluhi, but Johandi disagrees and suggests that Asalluhi may have had a similar role prior to the identification with Marduk as the letter was dated quite early (reign of Sumu-abum), although evidence for Asalluhi's role in human sickness is scarce. Asalluhi's implied ability to cancel incantations could also point to a less benevolent side to the god.

Associations with other deities
Asalluhi is considered the son of Enki, likely due to the close proximity between Kuara and Eridu. Although previously it was believed that the earliest attested father-son relationship between Enki and Asalluhi dated to the Ur III period, Johandi noted that the relationship between Asar and Enki dated back the Early Dynastic Period. In an Early Dynastic incantation against snake-bite, Asar sends a man to his father Enki, to which Enki responds that everything he knows, Asar knows too, mirroring the Asalluhi-Enki incantation formula attested later. Asalluhi was identified as Enki's daughter in one text, and twice in a text from Ugarit. However, as Asalluhi is identified as male in every other text from Mesopotamia, this was likely a scribal mistake.

Asar and Asalluhi are commonly believed to be the same god, but Cunningham suggests that Asar and Asalluhi may have originally been separate gods, as an Old Babylonian god list refers to Asar and Asalluhi separately in consecutive lines. Johandi believes that the separation between Asar and Asalluhi was to distinguish Marduk and Asalluhi apart, not Asar and Asalluhi. The possibility cannot be excluded that Asar, Asalluhi and Asaralimnuna were originally different deities, but it is also just as likely that they were the same god.

During the Old Babylonian period, Asalluhi started to be syncretized with Marduk, with Sin-iddinam's prayer to Ninisina offering the earliest evidence of such syncretism. Another Old Babylonian text substitutes "son of Eridu" with "lord of Tintir" as a title for Asalluhi. A hymn to Asalluhi (Asalluhi A) identifies Asalluhi with Marduk. and a hymn to Marduk from Sippar calls him Asalluhi. A prayer made to Marduk/Asalluhi by Hammurabi clearly views the two to be the same deity. Asalluhi is often substituted with Marduk in the Akkadian bilinguals of the incantations starting from the Old Babylonian period, although some bilinguals still write Asalluhi in the Akkadian version. However, in the Old Babylonian period the syncretism was not yet complete, as one incantation text mentions Marduk and Asalluhi separately and occupying different roles, with Marduk capturing the victim either because of powerlessness or he refused to help, and Asalluhi reporting to Enki and securing a treatment for the victim. Another incantation text against Lamashtu lists Asalluhi and Marduk separately as deterrence to the demon. A prayer for Samsu-iluna also lists Marduk and Asalluhi separately, perhaps as a deliberate policy by Samsu-iluna to reclaim authority over the rebellious south, or as indication that the syncretism was not complete yet during the Old Babylonian period.

It is unclear why Asalluhi and Marduk were syncretized. Sommerfield suggested that both gods had similar traits and were gods of incantations, while Johandi believes that Marduk and Asalluhi were syncretized together for something other than magic. Lambert suggests that Marduk's syncretism with Asalluhi was purely political to make Marduk more respectable.

The name of the wife of Asalluhi was probably Panunanki or Eru(a), judging by how both names were known as alternative names for Marduk's wife Zarpanit. A goddess known as Ninmeḫama appeared together with Asalluhi in The Lamentation for Sumer and Ur. Her actual name could probably be Nin é-HA.A-ke4, meaning "lady of the temple of Kuara." She was likely viewed as Asalluhi's wife, especially as a god list equated Ninmeḫama with Sarpanit.

During the Early Dynastic period, Asar was seemingly associated with other deities, particularly Ashgi and Ishkur. Ninshubur may have also had a connection with Asalluhi. Asalluhi sometimes appears together with Utu in incantation texts, which Johandi interprets as possibly due to influence from syncretism with Marduk, although the sun god was already noted to appear in incantations in connection with deities related to water, including Enki.

Worship
Asalluhi's cult center was the city of Kuara. A text from Abu Salabikh praised Asar-lú-KAL of Kuara, and a hymn praised Asalluhi as the patron god of Kuara, giving him the epithet "highly esteemed prince."

An offering list from Girsu during the Lagash II period lists Asar, who received one sila of princely oil and one sila of dates. Asar/Asalluhi appears in administrative texts from the Ur III period, most commonly from Puzrish-Dagan. Despite being the god of the city of Kuara, in the Ur III texts Ninsun repeatedly receives more offerings than Asalluhi, meaning that Ninsun was likely perceived as the more important deity in Kuara during the Ur III period. Asalluhi appears often with the circle of Enki in offering lists from Nippur and Umma in the Ur III period. It would also seem like Asalluhi received regular offerings in Ur III Girsu. He appears in offering lists from Larsa, Ur and Nippur in the Old Babylonian period, also together with the circle of Enki. As the son and less important god, Asalluhi is generally given less offerings than Enki and Damgalnuna. In texts outside of incantations, Asalluhi appears after Enki and Damgalnuna, forming a triad attested since the Ur III period.

title: Asalluhi


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Eastern Rumelia

Eastern Rumelia (Източна Румелия; Rumeli-i Şarkî; Ανατολική Ρωμυλία) was an autonomous province (oblast in Bulgarian, vilayet in Turkish) of the Ottoman Empire with a total area of 32,978 km2, which was created in 1878 by virtue of the Treaty of Berlin and de facto ceased to exist in 1885, when it was united with the Principality of Bulgaria, also under nominal Ottoman suzerainty. It continued to be an Ottoman province de jure until 1908, when Bulgaria declared independence. Ethnic Bulgarians formed a majority of the population in Eastern Rumelia, but there were significant Turkish and Greek minorities. Its capital was Plovdiv (Ottoman Filibe, Greek Philippoupoli). The official languages of Eastern Rumelia were Bulgarian, Greek and Ottoman Turkish.

History
Eastern Rumelia was created as an autonomous province within the Ottoman Empire by the Treaty of Berlin in 1878. The region roughly corresponded to today's southern Bulgaria, which was also the name the Russians proposed for it; this proposal was rejected by the British. It encompassed the territory between the Balkan Mountains, the Rhodope Mountains and Strandzha, a region known to all its inhabitants—Bulgarians, Ottoman Turks, Greeks, Roma, Armenians and Jews—as Northern Thrace. The artificial name, Eastern Rumelia, was given to the province on the insistence of the British delegates to the Congress of Berlin: the Ottoman notion of Rumelia refers to all European regions of the empire, i.e. those that were in Antiquity under the Roman Empire. Some twenty Pomak (Bulgarian Muslim) villages in the Rhodope Mountains refused to recognize Eastern Rumelian authority and formed the so-called Republic of Tamrash.

The province is remembered today by philatelists for having issued postage stamps from 1880 on. See the main article, Postage stamps and postal history of Eastern Rumelia.

Unification with Bulgaria
After a bloodless revolution on 6 September 1885, the province was annexed by the Principality of Bulgaria, which was de jure an Ottoman tributary state but de facto functioned as independent. After the Bulgarian victory in the subsequent Serbo-Bulgarian War, the status quo was recognized by the Porte with the Tophane Agreement on 24 March 1886. With the Tophane Act, Sultan Abdul Hamid II appointed the Prince of Bulgaria (without mentioning the name of the incumbent prince Alexander of Bulgaria) as Governor-General of Eastern Rumelia, thus retaining the formal distinction between the Principality of Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia and preserving the letter of the Berlin Treaty. However, it was clear to the Great Powers that the union between the Principality of Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia was permanent, and not to be dissolved. The Republic of Tamrash and the region of Kardzhali were reincorporated in the Ottoman Empire. The province was nominally under Ottoman suzerainty until Bulgaria became de jure independent in 1908. 6 September, Unification Day, is a national holiday in Bulgaria.

Government
According to the Treaty of Berlin, Eastern Rumelia was to remain under the political and military jurisdiction of the Ottoman Empire with significant administrative autonomy (Article 13). The law frame of Eastern Rumelia was defined with the Organic Statute which was adopted on 14 April 1879 and was in force until the Unification with Bulgaria in 1885. According to the Organic Statute the head of the province was a Christian Governor-General appointed by the Sublime Porte with the approval of the Great Powers. The legislative organ was the Provincial Counsel which consisted of 56 persons, of which 10 were appointed by the governor-general, 10 were permanent and 36 were directly elected by the people.

Arkady Stolypin was the Russian civil administrator from 9 October 1878 to 18 May 1879. The first governor-general was Prince Alexander Bogoridi (1879–1884), a Bulgarian aristocrat, who was acceptable to both Bulgarians and Greeks in the province. The second governor-general was Gavril Krastevich (1884–1885), a Bulgarian historian.

During the period of Bulgarian annexation Georgi Stranski was appointed as a commissioner for South Bulgaria (9 September 1885 – 5 April 1886), and when the province was restored to nominal Ottoman sovereignty, but still under Bulgarian control, the prince of Bulgaria was recognized by the Sublime Porte as the governor-general in the Tophane Agreement of 1886.

Administrative divisions
Eastern Rumelia consisted of the departments (called in Bulgarian окръзи okrazi, in Ottoman terminology sanjaks) of Plovdiv (Пловдив, Filibe), Tatarpazardzhik (Татарпазарджик, Tatarpazarcığı), Haskovo (Хасково, Hasköy), Stara Zagora (Стара Загора, Eski Zağra), Sliven (Сливен, İslimye) and Burgas (Бургас, Burgaz), in turn divided into 28 cantons (equivalent to Bulgarian околии okolii, Ottoman kazas).

The cantons were:
 * Department of Plovdiv: Plovdiv, Konush (the canton seat was in Stanimaka), Ovchi Halm (seat in Golyamo Konare), Stryama (seat in Karlovo), Sarnena Gora (seat in Brezovo) and Rupchos (seat in Chepelare)
 * Department of Pazardzhik: Pazardzhik, Peshtera, Panagyurishte and Ihtiman
 * Department of Haskovo: Haskovo, Hadzhi Eles, Harmanli and Kardzhali
 * Department of Stara Zagora: Stara Zagora, Kazanlak, Chirpan, Nova Zagora and Tarnovo Seymen
 * Department of Sliven: Sliven, Yambol, Kazalagach, Kavakli and Kotel
 * Department of Burgas: Burgas, Anhialo, Karnobat and Aytos

Pre 1878
The following is a district-by-district population extract from the 1876 Ottoman salname for the Vilayet of Adrianople, which is in turn based on the vilayet-wide census of 1875. As is common for Ottoman statistics, figures refer to males only (figures at the bottom are male-female aggregated estimates):

Post 1878
According to a British report before the 1877–1878 war, the non-Muslim population (consisting mostly of Bulgarians) of Eastern Rumelia was about 60%, a proportion that grew due to the flight and emigration of Muslims during and after the war. The 1878 census show a population of 815,946 people- 573,231 Bulgarians (70.29%), 174,759 Muslims (21.43%), 42,516 Greeks (5.21%), 19,524 Roma, 4,177 Jews, and 1,306 Armenians.

The results of the first Regional Assembly elections of 17 October 1879 show a predominantly Bulgarian character: Of the 36 elected deputies, 31 were Bulgarians (86.1%), 3 were Greeks (8.3%) and two were Turks (5.6%). The ethnic statistics from the censuses of 1880 and 1884 show a Bulgarian majority in the province. In the discredited census of 1880, out of total population of 815,951 people some 590,000 (72.3%) self-identified as Bulgarians, 158,000 (19.4%) as Turks, 19,500 (2.4%) as Roma, and 48,000 (5.9%) belonged to other ethnicities, notably Greeks, Armenians and Jews. The repetition of the census in 1884 returned similar data: 70.0% Bulgarians, 20.6% Turks, 2.8% Roma and 6.7% others.

The Greek inhabitants of Eastern Rumelia were concentrated on the coast, where they were strong in numbers, and certain cities in the interior such as Plovdiv (known in Greek as Philippopolis), where they formed a substantial minority. Most of the Greek population of the region was exchanged with Bulgarians from the Greek provinces of Macedonia and Thrace in the aftermath of the Balkan Wars and World War I.

Eastern Rumelia was also inhabited by foreign nationals, most notably Austrians, Czechs, Hungarians, French people and Italians.

The ethnic composition of the population of Eastern Rumelia, according to the provincial census taken in 1884, was the following:

The population's ethnic composition in the Bulgarian provinces of Pazardzhik, Plovdiv, Stara Zagora, Haskovo, Sliven, Yambol and Burgas, which have approximately the same territory as Eastern Rumelia according to the 2001 census is the following:

Property rights
Property abandoned by Muslims fleeing the Imperial Russian Army during the 1877–1878 war was appropriated by the local Christian population. The former owners, mostly large landholders, were threatened with trial by military court if they had committed crimes during the war so that they would not return. Two Turkish landowners who did return were in fact sentenced to death thus preventing others from desiring to come back. Those Turkish landowners who were not able to take possession of their land were financially compensated, with the funds collected by the Bulgarian peasants, some of whom were indebted as a result. For those who did return a 10% property tax was issued, forcing many to sell off their property in order to pay the tax. Michael Palairet claimed that land rights of Muslim owners were largely disregarded, despite being guaranteed by the great powers, and the de-Ottomanization of Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia led to economic decline in the region. Though this is contradicted by many other authors, who show rapid growth of the economy as well as rapid industrial development and growth of exports in Bulgaria after 1878.

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title: Eastern Rumelia


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Oath

Traditionally an oath (from Anglo-Saxon āþ, also called plight) is either a statement of fact or a promise taken by a sacrality as a sign of verity. A common legal substitute for those who conscientiously object to making sacred oaths is to give an affirmation instead. Nowadays, even when there is no notion of sanctity involved, certain promises said out loud in ceremonial or juridical purpose are referred to as oaths. "To swear" is a verb used to describe the taking of an oath, to making a solemn vow.

Etymology
The word comes from Anglo-Saxon āþ judicial swearing, solemn appeal to deity in witness of truth or a promise," from Proto-Germanic *aiþaz (source also of Old Norse eiðr, Swedish ed, Old Saxon, Old Frisian eth, Middle Dutch eet, Dutch eed, German Eid, Gothic aiþs "oath"), from PIE *oi-to- "an oath" (source also of Old Irish oeth "oath"). Common to Celtic and Germanic, possibly a loan-word from one to the other, but the history is obscure and it may ultimately be non-Indo-European, in reference to careless invocations of divinity, from the late 12th century.

Divine oath
Oaths usually have referred to a deity significant in the cultural sphere in question. The reciter's personal views upon the divinity of the aspects considered sacred in a predictated text of an oath may or may not be taken in to account. There might not be alternative personal proclamations with no mention of the sacred dogma in question, such as affirmations, to be made. This might mean an impasse to those with unwillingness to edify the dogma they see as untrue and those who decline to refer to sacred matters on the subject at hand.

The essence of a divine oath is an invocation of divine agency to be a guarantor of the oath taker's own honesty and integrity in the matter under question. By implication, this invokes divine displeasure if the oath taker fails in his or her sworn duties. It therefore implies greater care than usual in the act of the performance of one's duty, such as in testimony to the facts of the matter in a court of law.

A person taking an oath indicates this in a number of ways. The most usual is the explicit "I swear", but any statement or promise that includes "with * as my witness" or "so help me *", with '*' being something or someone the oath-taker holds sacred, is an oath. Many people take an oath by holding in their hand or placing over their head a book of scripture or a sacred object, thus indicating the sacred witness through their action: such an oath is called corporal. However, the chief purpose of such an act is for ceremony or solemnity, and the act does not of itself make an oath.

Historical development as a legal concept

Making vows and taking oaths became a symbolic concept in law practice that developed over time in different cultures.

Jewish tradition
The concept of oaths is deeply rooted within Judaism. It is found in Genesis 8:21, when God swears that he will "never again curse the ground because of man and never again smite every living thing". This repetition of the term never again is explained by Rashi, the pre-eminent biblical commentator, as serving as an oath, citing the Talmud Shavous 36a for this ruling.

The first personage in the biblical tradition to take an oath is held to be Eliezer, the chief servant of Abraham, when the latter requested of the former that he not take a wife for his son Isaac from the daughters of Canaan, but rather from among Abraham's own family.

The foundational text for oath making is in Numbers 30:2: "When a man voweth a vow unto the Lord, or sweareth an oath to bind his soul with a bond, he shall not break his word; he shall do according to all that proceedeth out of his mouth." According to the Rabbis, a neder (usually translated as "vow") refers to the object, a shâmar (usually translated as "oath") to the person. The passage distinguishes between a neder and a shvua, an important distinction between the two in Halakha: a neder changes the status of some external thing, while a shvua initiates an internal change in the one who swears the oath.

Roman tradition
In the Roman tradition, oaths were sworn upon Iuppiter Lapis or the Jupiter Stone located in the Temple of Jupiter, Capitoline Hill. Iuppiter Lapis was held in the Roman tradition to be an Oath Stone, an aspect of Jupiter in his role as divine law-maker responsible for order and used principally for the investiture of the oathtaking of office.

According to Cyril Bailey, in "The Religion of Ancient Rome" (1907):

"We have, for instance, the sacred stone (silex) which was preserved in the temple of Iuppiter on the Capitol, and was brought out to play a prominent part in the ceremony of treaty-making. The fetial, who on that occasion represented the Roman people, at the solemn moment of the oath-taking, struck the sacrificial pig with the silex, saying as he did so, "Do thou, Diespiter, strike the Roman people as I strike this pig here to-day, and strike them the more, as thou art greater and stronger." Here no doubt the underlying notion is not merely symbolical, but in origin the stone is itself the god, an idea which later religion expressed in the cult-title specially used in this connection, Iuppiter Lapis."

The punisher of broken oaths was the infernal deity Orcus.

Hindu tradition

In Hindu epics, like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, oaths, called pratigya, are taken seriously. It is mentioned that people would give up their lives, but not break a vow. Due to this, King Dasharatha took an oath for his Queen Kaikeyi (on her maid, Manthara's insistence) and thus had to exile his favorite son, Lord Rama along with his wife Devi Sita and brother Lakshmana for fourteen years in the forest.

In the Mahabharata, Devrata took an oath of celibacy so that Satyavati's father would marry her to Devrata's father, King Shantanu. He also took an oath to not rule the kingdom and remain loyal to the king, who would be a descendant of Satyavati. Thus, Devavrata got the name Bhishma, which means someone who has taken a terrible oath. Many others also took oaths that they fulfilled.

Greek tradition
Walter Burkert has shown that since Lycurgus of Athens (d. 324 BCE), who held that "it is the oath which holds democracy together", religion, morality and political organization had been linked by the oath, and the oath and its prerequisite altar had become the basis of both civil and criminal, as well as international law.

In traditional Greek folk songs, such as The Dead Brother's Song, the significance of the oath is highlighted. The power of an oath is such that it transcends death, as the deceased brother arises from the grave to fulfill his oath to his mother.

Christian tradition
Various religious groups have objected to the taking of oaths, most notably the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) and Anabaptist groups, like Mennonites, Amish, Hutterites and Schwarzenau Brethren. This is principally based on Matthew 5:34–37, the Antithesis of the Law. Here, Christ is reported as having said: "I say to you: 'Swear not at all. James the Just stated in 5:12 "Above all, my brothers, do not swear—not by heaven or by earth or by anything else. Let your 'Yes' be yes, and your 'No', no, or you will be condemned." Beyond this scriptural authority, Quakers place importance on being truthful at all times, so the testimony opposing oaths springs from a view that "taking legal oaths implies a double standard of truthfulness" suggesting that truthfulness in legal contexts is somehow more important than truthfulness in non-legal contexts and that truthfulness in those other contexts is therefore somehow less important.

Not all Christians interpret this reading as forbidding all types of oaths, however. Opposition to oath-taking among some groups of Christian caused many problems for these groups throughout their history. Quakers were frequently imprisoned because of their refusal to swear loyalty oaths. Testifying in court was also difficult; George Fox, Quakers' founder, famously challenged a judge who had asked him to swear, saying that he would do so once the judge could point to any Bible passage where Jesus or his apostles took oaths — the judge could not, but this did not allow Fox to escape punishment. Legal reforms from the 18th century onwards mean that everyone in the United Kingdom now has the right to make a solemn affirmation instead of an oath. The United States has permitted affirmations since it was founded; it is explicitly mentioned in the Constitution. Only President Franklin Pierce has chosen to affirm rather than swear at his inauguration.

As late as 1880, Charles Bradlaugh was denied a seat as an MP in the Parliament of the United Kingdom because of his professed atheism as he was judged unable to swear the Oath of Allegiance in spite of his proposal to swear the oath as a "matter of form".

Islamic tradition
Islam takes the fulfillment of oaths extremely seriously, as directed by the Qur'an:

"God does not hold you responsible for the mere utterance of oaths; He holds you responsible for your actual intentions. If you violate an oath, you shall atone by feeding ten poor people from the same food you offer to your own family, or clothing them, or by freeing a slave. If you cannot afford this, then you shall fast three days. This is the atonement for violating the oaths that you swore to keep. You shall fulfill your oaths. God thus explains His revelations to you, that you may be appreciative."

- Quran Chapter 5: Verse 89

Germanic tradition
Germanic warrior culture was significantly based on oaths of fealty.

A prose passage inserted in the eddic poem Helgakviða Hjörvarðssonar relates: Hedin was coming home alone from the forest one Yule-eve, and found a troll-woman; she rode on a wolf, and had snakes in place of a bridle. She asked Hedin for his company. "Nay," said he. She said, "Thou shalt pay for this at the bragarfull." That evening the great vows were taken; the sacred boar was brought in, the men laid their hands thereon, and took their vows at the bragarfull. Hedin vowed that he would have Sváva, Eylimi's daughter, the beloved of his brother Helgi; then such great grief seized him that he went forth on wild paths southward over the land, and found Helgi, his brother.

Such Norse traditions are directly parallel to the "bird oaths" of late medieval France, such as the voeux du faisan (oath on the pheasant) or the (fictional) voeux du paon (oath on the peacock). Huizinga, The Autumn of the Middle Ages (ch. 3); Michel Margue, "Vogelgelübde" am Hof des Fürsten. Ritterliches Integrationsritual zwischen Traditions- und Gegenwartsbezug (14. – 15. Jahrhundert)

Modern law

In the modern law, oaths are made by a witness to a court of law before giving testimony and usually by a newly appointed government officer to the people of a state before taking office. However, in both of those cases, an affirmation can usually be replaced with a written statement, only if the author swears the statement is true. This statement is called an affidavit. This is in contrast to a statutory declaration, where no sworn oath or affirmation is involved. The oath given to support an affidavit is frequently administered by a notary, who will certify the giving of the oath by affixing her or his seal to the document. Willfully delivering a false oath (or affirmation) is the crime of perjury.

There are some places where there is a confusion between the "oath" and other statements or promises. For example, the current Olympic Oath is really a pledge, not properly an oath, since there is only a promise but there is no appeal to a sacred witness. Oaths may also be confused with vows, but vows are really just a particular kind of an oath.

Hand gestures

Instead of, or in addition to, holding one's hand upon an object of ceremonial importance, it can be customary for a person swearing an oath to hold a raised hand in a specific gesture. Most often the right hand is raised. This custom has been explained with reference to medieval practices of branding palms.

International customs
The Scout Sign can be made while giving the Scout Promise. In Scouting for Boys the movement's founder, Robert Baden-Powell, instructed: "While taking this oath the scout will stand, holding his right hand raised level with his shoulder, palm to the front, thumb resting on the nail of the digitus minimus (little finger) and the other three fingers upright, pointing upwards."

Types of oaths

 * Hippocratic Oath, an oath historically taken by physicians and other healthcare professionals swearing to practice medicine honestly.
 * Veterinarian's Oath, an oath taken by veterinarians as practitioners of veterinary medicine in a manner similar to the Hippocratic Oath.
 * Oath of allegiance, an oath whereby a subject or citizen acknowledges a duty of allegiance and swears loyalty to monarch or country.
 * Oath of citizenship, an oath taken by immigrants that officially naturalizes immigrants into citizens.
 * Oath of office, an oath or affirmation a person takes before undertaking the duties of an office.
 * Juror's oath, an oath taken by jurors at the beginning of jury selection or trial
 * Pauper's oath, a sworn statement or oath by a person that he or she is completely without any money or property.
 * Military oath, delivered on enlistment into the military service of the state military.

Notable oaths in history and fiction

 * The oath of Bhishma in Hindu culture.
 * Hittite military oath, a Hittite text on two cuneiform tablets.
 * Ironclad Oath, promoted by Radical Republicans and opposed by President Abraham Lincoln during the American Civil War.
 * Lwów Oath, by Polish king John II Casimir.
 * Oath Against Modernism, required of clergy and others in the Catholic Church from 1910 until 1967.
 * Oaths in Freemasonry.
 * Oath More Judaico or Jewish Oath, rooted in antisemitism and accompanied by certain ceremonies.
 * Oaths of Strasbourg, a military pact made in 842.
 * Hitler Oath, sworn by German soldiers of the Wehrmacht and the German civil service, pledging allegiance to Adolf Hitler personally.
 * Omertà, a Southern Italian code of silence and code of honor and conduct.
 * Scout Oath or Scout Promise.
 * Tennis Court Oath, taken on 20 June 1789 by members of the French Third Estate.
 * Oath of Fëanor, in the fiction of J. R. R. Tolkien.
 * Oath of the Peach Garden, a fictional event in the 14th century Chinese historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms by Luo Guanzhong.
 * The Baljuna Covenant, an oath sworn by Genghis Khan and a small group of companions

title: Oath


text:
Wile Carding Mill

The Wile Carding Mill is a defunct but still operational carding mill, in Bridgewater, Nova Scotia, Canada. The mill is now owned by the Province of Nova Scotia and operated as a museum by the DesBrisay Museum.

This water-powered mill was owned and operated by the Wile family from 1860 to 1968. The Wiles ran the mill but employed a number of workers, usually unmarried women, to operate the machinery. The mill was powered by a 7-horsepower (5 kW) overshot waterwheel using the water of Shady Brook, a tributary of the Lahave River.

It became a Registered Heritage Property in Bridgewater in 2013.

title: Wile Carding Mill


text:
Air Supply

Air Supply is a soft rock duo formed in Melbourne, Australia, in 1975, consisting of Englishman Graham Russell (vocals, guitar) and Australian Russell Hitchcock (vocals). With record sales of 100 million worldwide, they had a succession of hits worldwide, including eight top-five hits on the US Billboard Hot 100, "Lost in Love" (1979), "All Out of Love", "Every Woman in the World" (both 1980), "The One That You Love", "Here I Am" (both 1981), "Sweet Dreams", "Even the Nights Are Better" (both 1982) and "Making Love Out of Nothing at All" (1983). In Australia, they had four top ten placements with "Love and Other Bruises" (1976), "All Out of Love", "Every Woman in the World" and "The One That You Love". Their highest charting studio album, The One That You Love (1981) reached number ten in both Australia and the US. The group, which relocated to Los Angeles in the late 1970s, has included many members, with Hitchcock and Russell at the core. The Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) inducted Air Supply into their Hall of Fame on 1 December 2013, at the annual ARIA Awards.

Formation and early years: 1975–1980
Air Supply's founding members met on 12 May 1975, while rehearsing for the Australian production of the musical Jesus Christ Superstar. Chrissie Hammond portrayed Mary Magdalene, while Russell Hitchcock and Graham Russell were in the chorus. With the show they toured Australia and New Zealand for 18 months. In 1958, as a three-year-old, English-born Hammond had migrated to Melbourne with her family, including older sister Lyndsay Hammond, who also became a rock singer. Russell, also English-born, had been a percussionist in United Kingdom group, Union Blues, in 1965. After arriving in Australia in 1968, Russell performed solo and was later a member of Eli Flash with Hammond. Hitchcock left school in 1965 to work as a salesman, also joining a group, 19th Generation, on drums and vocals.

With Hammond and Hitchcock on vocals and Russell on guitar, they formed Air Supply as a harmony vocal group in Melbourne in 1975. When the show's run finished in late 1976, Hammond departed to form a hard rock group, Cheetah, with her sister. Hammond was replaced in the group by Jeremy Paul (ex-Soffrok) who provided bass guitar and backing vocals. Paul had joined the cast of Jesus Christ Superstar when it reached Brisbane and continued with the show to New Zealand. According to Paul, the group's name was "indicative of the sound and feeling forming the relationships within the band". The group's first single, "Love and Other Bruises", was released in October 1976 and peaked at No. 6 on the Australian Kent Music Report singles chart. Russell recalled that they had been unable to promote "Love and Other Bruises" while still performing in Jesus Christ Superstar, due to contractual obligations to the show. It was first aired on weekly teen pop music TV show, Countdown in early December 1976. It remains their highest charting single in Australia.

The group followed with their debut album, Air Supply, in December 1976, which reached No. 17 on the Kent Music Report albums chart and achieved gold accreditation for shipment of 20,000 copies. It was produced by Peter Dawkins (Spectrum, Ross Ryan) with the line-up of Hitchcock, Paul, Russell and drummer Jeff Browne, guitarist Mark McEntee, and keyboardist Adrian Scott. Other singles were "If You Knew Me", "Empty Pages" and "Feel the Breeze", but none reached the top 40. McEntee had left Air Supply by the end of 1976 to work as a session musician. In 1980, bandmates McEntee and Paul formed Divinyls alongside Chrissy Amphlett. Air Supply undertook a national tour in support of their debut album with Hitchcock, Paul, Russell and Scott joined by Nigel Macara (ex–Tamam Shud, Ariel) on drums and Brenton White (Skintight) on guitar. Brenton White rehearsed but did not perform with Air Supply. In April 1977, portions of their music videos for "Empty Pages" and "Do What You Do" were screened on Countdown.

Their second album, The Whole Thing's Started, also produced by Dawkins, was released in July 1977, with White replaced on lead guitar by Rex Goh. The album provided three singles, but neither album nor singles charted in the top 40. In mid-1977, the group supported Rod Stewart during his tour of Australia, and he invited them to continue to the United States and Canada. Mid-tour they worked on their third album, Love & Other Bruises, in Los Angeles from July to August. It included re-recordings of tracks from their previous two albums, with Jimmy Horowitz producing, and was released later that year in the US on Columbia Records. At the end of 1977, Paul left and the line-up of Hitchcock, Macara, Goh and Russell, were joined by Joey Carbone on keyboards, Robin Le Mesurier on co-lead guitar and Howard Sukimoto on bass guitar. Air Supply performed in London supporting Chicago and Boz Scaggs.

Although their music had some commercial success, Russell claimed, on a 1995 DVD, that he and Hitchcock were so poor that they checked the backs of hotel sofas for change so that they could buy bread to make toast. By early 1978, the line-up was Hitchcock, Macara and Russell, with Ken Francis on guitar, Rick Mellick on keyboards and Bill Putt (Spectrum, Ariel) on bass guitar. In April of that year, Russell was considering relocating to Los Angeles: "Even though it's expensive it's the music centre of the world. In Australia you can hit yourself against a brick wall." By mid-1978, only Hitchcock and Russell remained, backed by Ralph Cooper (Windchase) on drums, and former Sailor members Brian Hamilton on bass guitar and vocals and David Moyse on guitar.

In April 1979, the band released Life Support, a concept album which included a picture disc on its first pressing. It was recorded at Trafalgar Studios, Sydney. The album had a five-and-a-half-minute version of "Lost in Love", written by Russell, which was released as a single and peaked at No. 13 in Australia and No.3 in New Zealand. The track caught the attention of Arista Records boss Clive Davis, who remixed the song and released it as a single in the US early the following year. The line-up for the album kept Hitchcock, Russell, Cooper, and Moyse, and added Criston Barker (bass guitar) and Frank Esler-Smith (keyboards) with help from other session musicians. Esler-Smith had previously known Hitchcock and Russell from working with them in Jesus Christ Superstar.

A re-recorded and remixed version of "Lost in Love" was issued internationally as a single in January 1980 on Arista Records. The associated album, Lost in Love, appeared in March, which was co-produced by Robie Porter, Rick Chertoff and Charles Fisher. It contained three US top five singles, including the title track, which peaked at No. 3 on the Billboard Hot 100. The others were "Every Woman in the World" (No. 5) and "All Out of Love" (No. 2). The latter two singles were top 10 hits in Australia, with "All Out of Love" also reaching No. 11 on the United Kingdom Singles Chart and No. 17 in the Netherlands. The album had the same line-up of Barker, Cooper, Esler-Smith, Hitchcock, Moyse and Russell. It sold three million copies in the US and peaked at No. 22 on the Billboard 200. It reached No, 21 in Australia and No. 22 in New Zealand.

1981–1990
Air Supply's sixth studio album, The One That You Love (July 1981), was produced by Harry Maslin with the title track issued as a single in April. It is the group's only No. 1 on the Billboard Hot 100. The album provided two more US top five hits, "Here I Am (Just When I Thought I Was Over You)" (August) and "Sweet Dreams" (December). A fourth single, "I'll Never Get Enough of You", a cover version of Samantha Sang's song, was released in Japan in 1981 and achieved top ten status there. During recording, Barker left and was replaced by David Green on bass guitar, while early member Goh returned on guitar.

From 1981 Air Supply regularly appeared on US music show, Solid Gold (1980–1988). Hitchcock and Russell also filled-in as co-hosts when resident co-host Andy Gibb was unavailable. Gibb's attendance on the show became problematic and he was fired in 1982. The duo co-hosted the show in October 1983 (with Marilyn McCoo) and September 1985 (with Dionne Warwick).

Their seventh studio album Now and Forever, was released in June 1982 with the line-up of Cooper, Esler-Smith, Goh, Green, Hitchcock, Moyse and Russell; it was produced by Maslin, again. It continued the group's popularity in the US with top 5 hit "Even the Nights Are Better" (June) and two top 40 singles, "Young Love" and "Two Less Lonely People in the World" (November). On the Australian singles chart, "Even the Nights Are Better" reached the top 40 and is the group's last single to do so. It also peaked in the top 40 in New Zealand.

They released their first compilation album, Greatest Hits, in August 1983, which included a new single, "Making Love Out of Nothing at All" (July), written by Jim Steinman. The album reached number one in Australia, number two in New Zealand, and number seven on the US Billboard 200 – selling 5 million copies in the US by March 1993 according to Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA).

"Making Love Out of Nothing at All" was their equal second biggest US hit (with "All Out of Love") at No. 2, behind their only US number-one single, "The One That You Love". The band also released their first live video album, Air Supply Live in Hawaii in 1983. Their song "I Can Wait Forever", which was co-written by Russell with David Foster and Jay Graydon, was featured in a scene of the film, Ghostbusters (June 1984), and was included on its soundtrack album in the same month.

By the mid-1980s, Goh, Green and Moyse had all left, and the band's February 1985 self-titled album had Cooper, Esler-Smith, Hitchcock and Russell joined by Wally Stocker (ex-the Babys) on guitar, Don Cromwell on bass guitar, and Ken Rarick on keyboards. This album included their last top 20 Billboard hit with their rendition of Rob Hegel's 1982 single, "Just as I Am" (May 1985), which was also their last charting single in Australia. They released a cover version of Jennifer Rush's "The Power of Love" in July, which reached No. 21 in New Zealand, and they had a minor US hit with "Lonely Is the Night" from the album Hearts in Motion (August 1986) – their last US charting studio album on the Billboard 200.

Russell and Hitchcock recorded a 1987 Christmas Album, containing the holiday single "The Eyes of a Child", before taking a break as a band. During this time, Hitchcock released a solo self-titled album in 1988 which was not a big seller. However, his single "Swear to Your Heart" (1990) – from the soundtrack album for the film Arachnophobia – received significant airplay and reached the top ten on the US Adult Contemporary chart.

1991–2000
Using previous producer, Maslin and the returning Cooper, the duo recorded The Earth Is ..., which was released in July 1991 by Giant Records/Warner Bros. Records. It contains their rendition of Badfinger's "Without You", which reached the US Adult Contemporary top 50. Other singles from the album are "Stronger Than the Night" and "Stop the Tears". The album is dedicated to Frank Esler-Smith who had died in March of that year, from pneumonia. The official fan club released The Earth Is World Tour video, which contains live footage from the band's global tour.

They followed with their twelfth studio album, The Vanishing Race, in May 1993, which was supported by the single "Goodbye" (September), with lyrics by David Foster and Linda Thompson. Although it did not chart in Australian or the US Top 100, it was critically praised in Asia, where in many countries it reached number No. 1. In Taiwan, Power Station and Terry Lin, the latter of whom has admitted to have been influenced by Air Supply, covered "Goodbye" but renamed it "Loving you is not like loving the sea" in 2009. "It's Never Too Late" was the album's second single.

They undertook another world tour in 1993 alongside Earth, Wind & Fire guitarist Dick Smith. The album was dedicated to the plight of the Native Americans, the Vanishing Race of the album's title, and sold 4 million copies. Their third album of the decade, News from Nowhere, was released in 1995. It contained the Asian hit singles "Someone", "Always", and a cover of "Unchained Melody".

The duo's popularity continued in South-east Asia, culminating in the release of Greatest Hits Live ... Now and Forever (June 1996), a CD and DVD recording of two live concerts from mid-June 1995 in Taipei, Taiwan, which stayed at the top of the Hong Kong album charts for 15 weeks. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic rated the album at two-and-a-half stars out-of-five and explained, "it's slick and professional... but the intent is clearly replication, not interpretation... it's not bad — it's pleasant, even — but it's not necessary." Hitchcock combined with Judith Durham (of the Seekers) and Mandawuy Yunupingu (of Yothu Yindi) for a cover version of "I Am Australian" (originally by Bruce Woodley of the Seekers and Dobe Newton of the Bushwackers), which was issued as a single in January 1997. It reached No. 17 on the ARIA singles chart.

2001–2011
From the late 1990s Air Supply toured Asia and select US venues into the new millennium. They released further adult contemporary albums, The Book of Love (1997), Yours Truly (2001), and Across the Concrete Sky (2003). In 2005 they issued live albums both on CD and DVD. They performed in Havana, Cuba, becoming one of the first foreign bands invited to perform in the country. They were scheduled to perform two concerts, and played the first show on 7 July, the day before Hurricane Dennis hit the island. In high winds, that concert had an audience of 175,000. Due to the hurricane, the second show was cancelled. Fans staying at their hotel on 8 July had Russell performing acoustically for them, as there was no electricity. Songs were used in feature films, Bad Company (2002), Mr. & Mrs. Smith and The Wedding Date (both 2005).

In 2006 they issued an acoustic album, The Singer and the Song. To support it they made their first trip to India in May 2006. On 2 December 2006, the duo performed to a capacity crowd in Kingston, Jamaica. This was their second visit, after performing at the Air Jamaica Jazz and Blues Festival in January. In 2007 Russell released his first adult contemporary solo album, The Future. He also made an appearance in the film Believe (2007), a comedy about multi-level marketing. In 2008 based on their chart performances, they were ranked the 83rd best musical act of all time in Billboard Hot 100's 50th anniversary edition.

In May 2010, Air Supply released Mumbo Jumbo, the duo's first studio album in eight years. It was recorded at Russell's home studio near Park City, Utah and at Odds on Records' state of the art facilities in Las Vegas with session musicians and an orchestra. It was produced by Russell and engineered by Sean O'Dwyer (Pink Floyd, Randy Newman and Blink-182). The first single "Dance with Me" reached number 28 on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart and "Faith in Love", which peaked at number 30. The music video for "All Out of Love" is seen briefly in the 2010 Australian film, Animal Kingdom.

2011–present
In October 2012 Air Supply were honoured by Gray Line's Ride of Fame. A double-decker tour bus was dedicated to them, which roamed the streets of New York City. On 24 October 2013 the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) announced that Air Supply were to be inducted into their Hall of Fame on 1 December 2013 at the same ceremony as the ARIA Music Awards of 2013. Speaking on behalf of the duo, Hitchcock declared it was a great honour for them and was totally unexpected. He continued that the pair were due to return to Australia for the ceremony and "have fun with everybody and we want to say thank you to all who participated in our ARIA Hall of Fame induction." In 2014, the group were approached by the Wideboys to remix their single "Desert Sea Sky". Penned by Russell, the UK remix duo created multiple versions of the song to suit Billboard dance club DJs, clubs, radio stations and the Billboard Dance Club Songs chart. On 2 December 2014, Evolution Music Group released Air Supply's first high-definition concert film, Air Supply - Live in Hong Kong on their evosound label. The album was released on blu-ray, DVD, CD and LP formats. The concert was recorded on 11 August 2013 at Asia World-Expo, Hong Kong. It showcased new songs, "Desert Sea Sky", "Dance with Me" and "I Won't Stop Living You", alongside their earlier hits.

"I Want You" reached number 35 on the Billboard Dance Club Songs chart in September 2015. They also released the single "I Adore You" that same month. Air Supply were scheduled to perform in Haifa on 25 November 2016 but postponed due to fires in the region. The band gave 200 free tickets to the wives of the firemen through the Haifa Fire Department workers union.

A jukebox musical based on Air Supply's songs, All Out of Love: The Musical (October 2018), was made in the Philippines. It was created and produced by Naomi Toohey and Dale Harrison, and written by Canadian playwright Jim Millan. It starred Mig Ayesa, Rachel Alejandro, Tanya Manalang, Raymund Concepcion and Jamie Wilson. It premiered at the Newport Performing Arts Theater in Resorts World Manila. It included a new song, "I Was in Love with You", written by Russell. In 2020, Air Supply were listed at number 48 in Rolling Stone Australia's list of the "50 Greatest Australian Artists of All Time".

Members
Credits:

Current members
 * Russell Hitchcock – co-lead vocals (1975–present)
 * Graham Russell – co-lead vocals, acoustic and rhythm guitar (1975–present)
 * Aaron McLain - lead guitarist, musical director (2011–present)
 * Mirko Tessandori - keyboards (2016–present)
 * Doug Gild - bass guitar (2017–present)
 * Pavel Valdman - drums (2020–present)

Former members
 * Chrissie Hammond – co-lead vocals (1975)
 * Jeremy Paul – bass guitar, co-lead and backing vocals (1975–1977)
 * Mark McEntee – lead guitar (1976)
 * Jeff Browne – drums (1976)
 * Adrian Scott – keyboards (1976–1977)
 * Brenton White – lead guitar (1977)
 * Rex Goh – lead guitar (1977, 1981–1983, 1997)
 * Nigel Macara – drums (1977–1978)
 * Robin Le Mesurier – lead guitar (1977)
 * Joey Carbone – keyboards, clavinet (1977)
 * Howard Sukimoto – bass guitar (1977)
 * Ken Francis – lead guitar (1978)
 * Tim Gaze – lead guitar (1978)
 * Bill Putt – bass guitar (1978)
 * Rick Mellick – keyboards (1978)
 * Brian Hamilton – vocals, bass guitar (1978–1979)
 * David Moyse – lead guitar, backing vocals (1978–1983)
 * Ralph Cooper – drums, percussion (1978–1983, 1983–1988, 1991–1993)
 * Jamie Rogers – bass guitar (1979)
 * Criston Barker – bass guitar, backing vocals (1979–1980)
 * David Green – bass guitar, backing vocals (1980–1983)
 * Frank Esler-Smith – keyboards (1981–1983, 1983–1986, died 1991)
 * Don Cromwell – bass guitar, backing vocals (1983–1987)
 * Ken Rarick – keyboards (1983–1986)
 * Wally Stocker – lead guitar (1985–1986)
 * Robin Swensen – keyboards, backing vocals (1986–1988)
 * Greg Hilfman – keyboards, backing vocals (1986–1988)
 * Tim Godwin – lead guitar, backing vocals (1986–1987)
 * Jimmy Haun – lead guitar (1987–1993, 2001)
 * Larry Antonino – bass guitar (1988–1994, 1997, 2000–2001)
 * Michael Sherwood – keyboards, backing vocals (1988–1994, 1997)
 * David Young – keyboards (1988–1993)
 * Guy Allison – keyboards (1990–1995, 1997)
 * Cliff Rehrig – bass guitar (1992–2000)
 * Michael Thompson – lead guitar (1992–1994)
 * Mark Williams – drums (1992–2002)
 * Hans Zermuehlen – keyboards (1993–1994)
 * Billy Sherwood – bass, vocals (1993–1994)
 * Jed Moss – piano (1995–2009)
 * Christopher Pellani – percussion, backing vocals (1997, 1999)
 * Jonni Lightfoot – bass (2001–2016)
 * Mike Zerbe – drums (2002–2011)
 * Amir Efrat – keyboards (2009–2016)
 * Christian Nesmith – lead guitar (2010–2011)
 * CJ Burton – drums (2009–2013)
 * Tiki Pasillas – drums (2012–2014)
 * Aviv Cohen – drums (2014–2020)
 * Derek Frank – bass guitar (2016–2017)

Discography

 * Air Supply (1976)
 * The Whole Thing's Started (1977)
 * Love & Other Bruises (1977)
 * Life Support (1979)
 * Lost in Love (1980)
 * The One That You Love (1981)
 * Now and Forever (1982)
 * Air Supply (1985)
 * Hearts in Motion (1986)
 * The Christmas Album (1987)
 * The Earth Is ... (1991)
 * The Vanishing Race (1993)
 * News from Nowhere (1995)
 * The Book of Love (1997)
 * Yours Truly (2001)
 * Across the Concrete Sky (2003)
 * Mumbo Jumbo (2010)

ARIA Music Awards
The ARIA Music Awards is an annual awards ceremony that recognises excellence, innovation, and achievement across all genres of the music of Australia. They commenced in 1987. Air Supply were inducted into the Hall of Fame in 2013.

Denis Handlin AM, ARIA Chairman & CEO of Sony Music Entertainment Australia & New Zealand and President, Asia said: "On behalf of the ARIA Board we are honoured to induct Air Supply into the ARIA Hall of Fame... at the 27th Annual ARIA Awards. With their many timeless songs that have crossed generations and led to ground-breaking success overseas, Air Supply are one of Australia's most unique and successful musical stories."

 * 2013
 * themselves
 * ARIA Hall of Fame
 * inductee
 * inductee

TV Week / Countdown Awards
Countdown was an Australian pop music TV series on national broadcaster ABC-TV from 1974 to 1987, it presented music awards from 1979 to 1987, initially in conjunction with magazine TV Week. The TV Week / Countdown Awards (1979–1980) were a combination of popular-voted and peer-voted awards and were followed by the Countdown Australian Music Awards (1981–1986).

 * 1980
 * Themselves
 * Most Outstanding Achievement
 * Nominated
 * 1981
 * Themselves
 * Most Outstanding Achievement
 * Won
 * Most Outstanding Achievement
 * Won

Tours

 * The Power of Love World Tour (1985)
 * The Earth Is...World Tour (1991)
 * Always World Tour (1995)
 * From the Heart Tour (2008)
 * 40th Anniversary Tour (2016)
 * The Lost in Love Experience (2019)

General

 * Note: Archived [on-line] copy has limited functionality.
 * Note: [on-line] version established at White Room Electronic Publishing Pty Ltd in 2007 and was expanded from the 2002 edition.
 * Note: [on-line] version established at White Room Electronic Publishing Pty Ltd in 2007 and was expanded from the 2002 edition.

title: Air Supply


text: File:All out of love (Air Supply song - sample).ogg


text:
Radio National

Radio National, known on-air as RN, is an Australia-wide public service broadcasting radio network run by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC). From 1947 until 1985, the network was known as ABC Radio 2.

1937: Predecessors and beginnings
From 1928, the National Broadcasting Service, as part of the federal Postmaster-General's Department, gradually took over responsibility for all the existing stations that were sponsored by public licence fees ("A" Class licences). The outsourced Australian Broadcasting Company supplied programs from 1929. In 1932 a commission was established, merging the original ABC company and the National Broadcasting Service. It is from this time that Radio National dates as a distinct network within the ABC, in which a system of program relays was developed during the subsequent decades to link stations spread across the nation.

The beginnings of Radio National lie with Sydney radio station 2FC, which aired its first test broadcast on 5 December 1923 and officially went to air on 9 January 1924. 2FC stood for Farmer and Company, the original owner of the station before the ABC bought the station in 1937.

The ABC then rolled out a national network across the country, somewhat similar in nature to the BBC National Programme. The origins of the other stations in the network were:

 * 3AR Melbourne – 26 January 1924 "Associated Radio Company of Australia", organised by Esmond Laurence Kiernan and others.
 * 5CL Adelaide – 20 November 1924 "Central Broadcasters Ltd".
 * 7ZL Hobart – 17 December 1924.
 * 4QG Brisbane – 27 July 1925 "Queensland Government" (operated by the Queensland Radio Service, an agency within the Office of the Chief Secretary).
 * 6WN Perth – 5 October 1938 "Wanneroo".
 * 2CY Canberra – 23 December 1938.
 * 2NA Newcastle – 20 December 1943.

The first transmitters for 2FC, 5CL and 4QG were made by AWA with power of 5 kW (note that until about 1931 in Australia, transmitter powers were defined in terms of DC input to final amplifier, typically about 3 times that of the power into the antenna; thus power today would be stated as about 1.7 kW). They used a MT7A valve for the final high power RF stage and a MT7B for the modulator. The power supply was 12,000 volts from three phase power rectified by MR7 valves. 4QG commenced with a 500 Watt transmitter which continued for about 6 months until the 5 kW unit was commissioned.

The radio transmitters for 3AR and 2FC were upgraded to 10 kW in a contract let in 1938 to STC. The transmitters were designed by Charles Strong in London, and were notable in using negative feedback to ensure a high quality flat frequency response.

From 1947 until the mid-1980s, "Radio 2" (as it came to be known) was broadcast to the major metropolitan centres, with a large broadcast footprint in adjacent areas due to the powerful AM transmitters in use. It contained most of the ABC's national programming.

The power level of 2FC and 3AR was upgraded to 50 kW in the early 1950s. The transmitters for these were housed in the same building as the radio 1 network. They were manufactured by STC. The final stage contained three parallel 3J/261E air cooled triodes running in class C amplifier at 90% efficiency. These were driven by a class B push-pull modulator with the same type of valves. That of 5CL had to wait until late 1961, when a new joint facility with 5AN was opened at Pimpala.

1970s–1980s
In the 1970s, the network's program format began to take on a more serious tone, a style which continues to this day. Art critic Peter Timms later remarked that the network is "virtually the only non-print media forum for art in this country".

In the early 1980s the broadcast footprint was extended with the construction of the first of over 300 regional FM transmitters (including community re-broadcast sites). In 1985, the ABC renamed "Radio 2" as "Radio National".

1990s
Since 1990, all Radio National stations have had the same callsign, "RN".

As a result of cuts in the 1996–97 budget, Radio National was hit with a reduction of a million dollars in its funding, with a significant impact on programming.

21st century
In 2008, controversial programming changes once more raised the issue of funding cuts to the public broadcaster. Presenter Stephen Crittenden leaked confidential programming changes in an unscheduled live broadcast before the start of his show, criticising his superiors. He was suspended for his outburst, and his unscripted comments were cut from Radio National's podcast and transcript of the program. Religious commentator Paul Collins on crikey.com subsequently echoed Crittenden's fears. Crittenden was reinstated in 2009 as a reporter on Background Briefing, after a settlement was reached. However, his program and the other eight programs that had been cancelled or merged were not re-instated that year. The head of ABC Radio, Sue Howard, was dismissed in 2009.

In January 2012 Radio National was rebranded as RN, partly in recognition of the station's growing digital audience. RN has also been used as shorthand for the station's name by many presenters going back several years. RN's tagline, which has changed regularly over the years, was also changed to "Your World Unfolding" to mesh with the station's new logo and visual identity.

In 2012 a new Religion and Ethics report was launched, hosted by Andrew West. The Media Report was also relaunched, hosted by broadcaster and former Life Matters host Richard Aedy. The Media Report was, however, cancelled again in 2015.

In late 2016, the new head of the ABC, Michelle Guthrie, defended the removal of staff and programmes from the Radio National 2017 schedule. In January 2017 the schedule was reduced in scope due to loss of staff and programmes.

Description
Radio National broadcasts national programming in subjects that include news and current affairs, the arts, social issues, science, drama and comedy. Some programs are relayed on Radio Australia, the ABC's international broadcasting service which was transmitted on shortwave until January 2017, as well as 24-hour FM stations, local relay stations and live satellite.

All radio programs are available for live streaming over the Internet, and most (excluding drama, poetry and music) as audio-on-demand, or for download as MP3s for at least four weeks after broadcast. Some programs are available as MP3s going back to 2005, when Radio National commenced podcasting.

Selected programs
Some of the following programs, listed in order of start date, are aired on both Radio National and ABC Local Radio networks.
 * Boyer Lectures (1959–present)
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 * The Coming Out Show (1975–c. 1998)
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 * The Health Report (1985–present, Norman Swan and Tegan Taylor)
 * Late Night Live (1991–present, Phillip Adams)
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 * Conversations (2012–present)
 * The National Interest (1995–2011, Terry Lane, Peter Mares)
 * Sound Quality (1995–2015, Tim Ritchie)
 * The World Today (1999–present)
 * Bush Telegraph (2001–2014)
 * Big Ideas (c.2002–present, Paul Barclay)
 * AWAYE!
 * Speaking Out (1990–present, Larissa Behrendt)
 * The Night Air (2002–2013)
 * All in the Mind (c.2003–present)
 * Counterpoint (2004–present, Amanda Vanstone)
 * RN Drive (2012–2014 Waleed Aly; 2015–2021 Patricia Karvelas; 2022–present Andy Park ), covering politics, current affairs, arts, and culture
 * The Minefield (April 2015–present), hosted by Waleed Aly and Scott Stephens, which discusses ethical dilemmas
 * The Art Show, formerly The Art Hub (December 2017–), hosted by Ed Ayres until mid-January 2020, when it was taken over by Namila Benson. Around July 2021 Daniel Browning became the main presenter.
 * Sporty (c.2019–2022, Amanda Smith)
 * Sunday Extra (2019–present, Julian Morrow, including Background Briefing and Ockham's Razor, and apparently superseding Correspondents Report)
 * Stop Everything!, presented by Benjamin Law and Beverley Wang
 * The Screen Show, with Jason Di Rosso

title: Radio National


text:
Bau (goddess)

Bau, also read Baba or Babu (cuneiform: 𒀭𒁀𒌑 dBa-U2), was a Mesopotamian goddess. The reading of her name is a subject of debate among researchers, though Bau is considered the conventional spelling today. While initially regarded simply as a life-giving deity, in some cases associated with the creation in mankind, over the course of the third and second millennia BCE she also acquired the role of a healing goddess. She could be described as a divine midwife. In art she could be depicted in the company of waterfowl or scorpions.

In sources from Lagash and Girsu, Bau's husband was the god Ningirsu. Among their children were deities such as Igalim, Shulshaga and Ḫegir. While they could still be regarded as a couple in later sources, from the Old Babylonian period onwards Bau was also viewed as the wife of Zababa, the tutelary god of Kish. Another deity associated with her was her attendant goddess Lammašaga. Most likely for political reasons, Bau also came to be associated, and partially syncretised, with the medicine goddess Ninisina. However, their character was not identical, for example Bau was not associated with dogs and was not invoked against demons in incantations. In the late second millennium BCE she also came to be associated with Gula, and could be equated with her, though texts where they are two separate goddesses are known too. In one case, Bau is described as the deity who bestowed Gula's position upon her.

The earliest evidence indicates that Bau's initial cult center was Girsu, and that early on she also came to be worshipped in Lagash. Multiple kings of this city left behind inscriptions which mention her, and some of them, for example Uru'inimgina, referred to her as their divine mother. She is also attested in the theophoric names of many ordinary people. While the area where she was initially worshipped declined in the Old Babylonian period, she was transferred to Kish, and continued to be venerated there as late as in the Neo-Babylonian period. She is also attested in texts from Uruk dating to the Seleucid period.

Name
The meaning of Bau's name is unknown. Thorkild Jacobsen's proposal that it was "an imitation of dog's bark, as English 'bowwow'" is regarded as erroneous today, as unlike other healing goddesses (Gula, Ninisina, Nintinugga and Ninkarrak) Bau was not associated with dogs.

The reading of Bau's name has historically been a subject of debate in Assyriology, and various possibilities have been proposed, including Bau, Baba, Bawu and Babu. While "Baba" is a relatively common reading older in literature, the evidence both in favor and against it is inconclusive. Edmond Sollberger considered "Bawa" to be the original form, with Baba being a latter pronunciation, similar to the change from Huwawa to Humbaba. Maurice Lambert assumed Baba was the Akkadian reading and that as such in scholarship it should be only employed in strictly Akkadian contexts. Richard L. Litke regarded "Bau" as the most likely pronunciation. Giovani Marchesi notes that it is not certain if the phonetic spelling "Baba" found in a few Old Akkadian texts corresponds to this goddess or another deity, though he remarks it does seem that "Baba" and "Bau" were interchangeable in the writing of theophoric names, for example in the case of the legendary queen Kubaba/Ku-Bau. He concludes that Bau was most likely the original pronunciation at the time when the orthography of the name was standardized in the third millennium BCE. However, Gonazalo Rubio disagrees with Marchesi's conclusions and argues that the reading Baba would fit the pattern evident in other names of Mesopotamian deities with no clear Sumerian or Semitic etymologies, such as Alala, Bunene or Zababa. Christopher Metcalf in a more recent publication notes that the reading Bau is supported by the attestations of the dative form dBa-U2-ur2. Due to the uncertainties surrounding the reading of the name, some experts favor the spelling BaU, or Ba-U2, including Manuel Ceccarelli, Jeremiah Peterson, Julia M. Asher-Greve and Joan Goodnick Westenholz. However, Irene Sibbing-Plantholt notes that as of 2022, Bau can be considered the conventional spelling.

Character and iconography
The earliest sources represent Bau as a "life-giving" and "motherly" deity. A hymn from the reign of Ishme-Dagan preserves a tradition according to which she was believed to be the mother of mankind. While not a healing goddess at first, Bau acquired traits of this class of deities at some point in the third millennium BCE. Curiously, in sources from the third millennium BCE only Bau is referred to as an asû, "physician." At the same time, there is no evidence that physicians were involved in her cult, unlike in the cases of Gula, Ninisina and Nintinugga. This might indicate her healing role was associated with domestic religious practices.

As a healing goddess Bau was also connected to midwifery. She could be described as (ama) arḫuš, "merciful (mother)." It has been proposed that this epithet reflected "the knowledge of the female body," and that it designated deities bearing it as midwives. A hymn praising Bau for her role as a midwife was composed to celebrate the birth of the child of queen Kubatum, wife of Shu-Sin. She was also regarded as a goddess of abundance, and as such was depicted with a vase with flowing streams of water in art. Furthermore, she was believed to be capable of mediating with other deities on behalf of supplicants.

A depiction of Bau accompanied by a snake is known from a seal, and according to Julia M. Asher-Greve might indicate this animal was perceived as her symbol in the role of a healing deity. This interpretation has been questioned by Irene Sibbing-Plantholt, who points out that while the owner of the seal, a certain Ninkalla, was a midwife, there is no other evidence for the association between Bau and snakes, and the animal therefore might fulfill a general apotropaic role.

In other contexts, presumably pertaining to her role as a wife or mother, Bau could be depicted with scorpions (associated with marriage), swans or miscellaneous waterfowl. The various symbols assigned to her indicate that she was a multifaceted deity with a fluid sphere of influence. However, in the case of works of art later than the end of the third millennium BCE identifying individual depictions of Bau is difficult.

Associations with other deities
Bau's father was An, as already attested in an inscription of Gudea. She was described as his firstborn daughter sometimes. Her mother was the goddess Abba or Ababa/Abau (this writing of the name poses the same problems for interpretation as that of her daughter), attested in the Lamentation over the Destruction of Ur and in the god list An = Anum. Another deity sharing the same name, known from a different An = Anum passage and first millennium BCE lamentation texts, was instead male and a son of Bau.

Bau's husband was Ningirsu. One of the few known reliefs showing a god with his wife sitting in his lap is most likely a depiction of this couple from the reign of Gudea (another similar one is instead interpreted as a depiction of Nanna and Ningal from the reign of Ur-Namma). Such images were meant to highlight that the divine couples, depicted as loving spouses, act in unison, and that the corresponding kings had a special relation to them. References to Bau and Ningirsu as a couple are also known from later sources, for example they appear together in two curse formulas inscribed on kudurru (boundary stones). In sources from Lagash, the siblings Igalim and Shulshaga were regarded as their sons. Furthermore, an inscription of Gudea labels the goddess Ḫegir as their daughter. One of the Gudea cylinders states she was a member of a group referred to as "the seven lukur priestesses of Ningirsu" or "the septuplets of Bau."

In Kish, where Bau was introduced in the Old Babylonian period, she was regarded as the spouse of Zababa, a local war god. Initially Zababa was the husband of Ishtar of Kish (regarded as separate from Ishtar of Uruk), but after the Old Babylonian period she was replaced in the role of his spouse by Bau, though she continued to be worshiped independently. Couples such as Bau and Zababa, which consisted of a healing goddess and a warrior god, were common in Mesopotamian mythology, with the most commonly referenced example being Ninisina and her husband Pabilsag. A single older reference to Bau and Zababa as a couple is known from the Lament for Sumer and Ur. Bau and Zababa appear together in various religious texts, including the incantation series Šurpu, a hymn to Nanaya, and various compositions from the north of Babylonia. The tradition presenting them as a couple is also known from Assyrian sources, for example from a treaty of Ashur-nirari V.

An association between Bau and Nergal is attested in Old Babylonian sources from Ur and in one case from Larsa as well.

Bau's divine vizier (sukkal) was the goddess Lammašaga, "good guardian angel (lamma)," lamma being a class of tutelary and intercessory minor goddesses in Mesopotamian religion. She had a temple of her own in Lagash, and hymns dedicated to her are known from the curriculum of scribal schools. In the past, attempts were sometimes made to prove was a manifestation of Bau rather than a separate goddess, but this view is no longer considered plausible. A hymn formerly believed to be a praise of Bau, while sometimes referred to as Bau A according to the ETCSL naming system, has been subsequently identified as a composition dedicated to Lammašaga instead. Bau herself was possibly sometimes addressed as a lamma in Lagash. In a handful of inscriptions, Bau's mother, left nameless in them, is also designated as such a deity.

Bau and medicine goddesses
A degree of syncretism occurred between Bau and Ninisina, and the former is simply given as the name of the latter in Girsu in the composition Ninisina and the Gods. A hymn composed on behalf of Ishme-Dagan describes Bau with epithets which normally belonged to Ninisina. It is possible that the development of a connection between these goddesses was politically motivated and was supposed to help the kings of Isin with posing as rightful successors of earlier influential dynasties. According to Manuel Ceccarelli it developed in parallel with the connection between their respective husbands, Ningirsu and Pabilsag. The character of Bau and Ninisina was however not identical, for example the former typically does not appear in incantations and was not invoked as an opponent of demons, unlike the latter. Her lack of association with dogs, well attested for other healing goddesses, might be related to this difference.

Another medicine goddess associated with Bau was Gula, though they were not closely connected with each other until the late second millennium BCE. They were likely regarded as analogous in the Middle Assyrian period, with examples including the interchangeable use of their names in colophons and direct equation in a local version of the Weidner god list, but they were not always viewed as identical. Irene Sibbing-Plantholt suggests that the phrase Bau ša qēreb Aššur might have been used specifically to differentiate Bau as a name of Gula and Bau as an independent goddess. In the Gula Hymn of Bulluṭsa-rabi, composed at some point between 1400 and 700 BCE, Bau is listed as one of the names of the eponymous goddess. This composition, despite equating various goddesses with Gula, nonetheless preserves information about the individual character of each of them. The section dedicated to Bau highlights her role as a life-giving deity. However, a late Babylonian incantation states that Gula was exalted by the command of Bau, which affirms they were viewed as separate. They also function separately from each other in sources pertaining to a festival held in Uruk in the first millennium BCE. Bau's association with Zababa was also exclusive to her.

In the third millennium BCE
While the oldest attestations of Bau come from scribal school texts from Shuruppak from the Early Dynastic period, her original cult center was Girsu. She was worshiped in the shrine Egalgasu, "house filled with counsel," which was located in the Etarsirsir, a temple dedicated to her in the Uru-ku, the so-called "sacred quarter" of the city. References to this house of worship are available from the reign of Ur-Nanshe. Bau was also worshiped in the Eninnu, which was primarily a temple of Ningirsu. The name Etarsirsir also referred to Bau's temple in the city of Lagash, though she was not yet worshiped there in the Early Dynastic period. It has been suggested that this might indicate she was initially not a separate goddess, but a secondary name of Lagashite Gatumdug, but this explanation is not considered plausible. Attested members of the staff of Bau's temples from the Early Dynastic period include various types of clergy (for example gudu and gala); temple administrators (sanga); writers (dub-sar); musicians (nar); housekeepers (agrig); various artisans; shepherds; fishermen; and more. Various kings of Lagash dedicated votive offerings to Bau, with particularly many being known from the reign of Uru'inimgina. Some of the Lagashite rulers, including him, as well as Eanatum and Lugalanda, designated her as their divine mother, though sometimes this role was fulfilled by Gatumdag instead, for example in the case of Enanatum I and Enmetena. Bau's connection to kings extended to the cult of deceased rulers as well. She appears frequently in theophoric names from Lagash. Examples include Bau-alša ("Bau shows mercy"), Bau-amadari ("Bau is the eternal mother"), Bau-dingirmu ("Bau is my deity"), Bau-gimabaša ("Who is merciful like Bau?"), Bau-ikuš ("Bau takes care"), Bau-menmu ("Bau is my crown"), Bau-umu ("Bau is my light"), Gan-Bau ("servant of Bau;" Gebhard Selz translates the first element as feminine), Geme-Bau ("maid of Bau"), Lu-Bau ("man of Bau"), and more.

Bau's importance grew further during the reign of the Second Dynasty of Lagash (c. 2230-2110 BCE) on the account of her connection with Ningirsu. Gudea elevated her rank to equal of that of Ningirsu, and called her "Queen who decides the destiny in Girsu." This made her the highest ranking goddess of the local pantheon of Lagash, putting her above Nanshe. During the subsequent reign of the Third Dynasty of Ur, she was the second most notable goddess worshiped chiefly in association with her respective husband after Ninlil. The highest cultic official of Bau in the province of Lagash, and as a result one of the most powerful political figures in it was an ereš-dingir priestess, with one named Geme-Lamma being known from a number of seals. While servants and scribes are depicted led by minor goddesses to meet with Bau in seals, the high priestess was depicted interacting with the goddess directly. In the same period Bau came to be worshiped in Nippur, though neither she not her husband Ningirsu were major members of the local pantheon. According to Walther Sallaberger, she received offerings in the Ešumša, a temple of Ninurta.

Later attestations
Kings from the dynasty of Isin, in particular Ishme-Dagan, showed interest in the cult of Bau, though she was not introduced to the pantheon of Isin itself, and in documents from it she only appears in theophoric names. Evidence for the worship of Bau from the Old Babylonian period is scarce. In Ur she is only attested near its end, always in association with Nergal. While the original Lagashite cult of Bau declined alongside the city (a situation analogous to that of Ningirsu as an independent deity, as well as other southern deities such as Shara and Nanshe), she continued to be worshiped in Kish in northern Babylonia. Old Babylonian evidence for the presence of her worshipers in this city includes a record from the reign of Ammi-Ditana which mentions a woman serving as a courtyard purifier (kisalluḫḫatum) of this goddess, and a seal from Hammurabi's time whose owner referred to herself as a servant of Zababa and Bau. She remained a major goddess of that city as late as the Neo-Babylonian period. An inscription from the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II mentions the rebuilding of the local temple Edubba for both the city god, Zababa, and for Bau. A cella dedicated to her bore the name Egalgasu, which originally referred to her shrine in Girsu.

Elsewhere in the Middle Babylonian period and beyond, Bau retained a degree of popularity, and next to Ishtar and Gula was the most commonly invoked goddess in theophoric names. One historically notable bearer of such a name was Bau-asītu, a daughter of Nebuchadnezzar II. In Babylon, "Bau of Kish" was celebrated during certain festivals in the temple of Gula. According to Andrew R. George, the temple Eulšarmešudu, "house of jubilation and perfect me," possibly located in Der and known from an unpublished hymn, might have been dedicated to Bau. Her cult is also attested in Assyria, and she had a temple in which she was worshiped alongside Zababa in Assur.

While Bau was not yet worshiped in Uruk in the Neo-Babylonian period, she is mentioned in a text describing the procession of deities who took part in the akītu festival which was celebrated in this city in the Seleucid period. She also occurs in a single theophoric name from this location.

title: Bau (goddess)


text:
Anchorite

In Christianity, an anchorite or anchoret (female: anchoress; from ἀναχωρέω) is someone who, for religious reasons, withdraws from secular society to be able to lead an intensely prayer-oriented, ascetic, or Eucharist-focused life. Anchorites are frequently considered to be a type of hermit, but unlike hermits, they were required to take a vow of stability of place, opting for permanent enclosure in cells often attached to churches. Also unlike hermits, anchorites were subject to a religious rite of consecration that closely resembled the funeral rite, following which they would be considered dead to the world and a type of living saint. Anchorites had a certain autonomy, as they did not answer to any ecclesiastical authority apart from bishops.

The anchoritic life is one of the earliest forms of Christian monasticism. In the Catholic Church, eremitic life is one of the forms of consecrated life. In medieval England, the earliest recorded anchorites lived in the 11th century. Their highest number—around 200 anchorites—was recorded in the 13th century.

From the 12th to the 16th centuries, female anchorites consistently outnumbered their male counterparts, sometimes by as many as four to one (in the 13th century); this ratio eventually dropped to two to one (in the 15th century). The sex of a high number of anchorites, however, is not recorded for these periods.

Between 1536 and 1539, the dissolution of the monasteries ordered by Henry VIII of England effectively brought the anchorite tradition to an end in England.

Anchoritic life
The anchoritic life became widespread during the early and high Middle Ages. Examples of the dwellings of anchorites and anchoresses survive, a large number of which are in England. They tended to be a simple cell (also called anchorhold) built against one of the walls of the local village church. In Germanic-speaking areas, from at least the tenth century it was customary for the bishop to say the Office of the Dead as the anchorite entered their cell, to signify the anchorite's death to the world and rebirth to a spiritual life of solitary communion with God and the angels. Sometimes, if the anchorite was walled up inside the cell, the bishop would put his seal upon the wall to stamp it with his authority. Some anchorites, however, freely moved between their cells and the adjoining churches.

Most anchoritic strongholds were small, perhaps at most 12 to 15 ft square, with three windows. Viewing the altar, hearing Mass, and receiving the Eucharist were possible through one small, shuttered window in the common wall facing the sanctuary, called a "hagioscope" or "squint". Anchorites provided spiritual advice and counsel to visitors through these windows, gaining a reputation for wisdom. Another small window allowed access to those who saw to the anchorite's physical needs. A third window, often facing the street but covered with translucent cloth, allowed light into the cell.

Anchorites committed to a life of uncompromising enclosure. Those who considered leaving possibly believed their souls might be damned for spiritual dereliction. Some refused to leave their cells even when pirates or looters were pillaging their towns and consequently burned to death when the church was torched. They ate frugal meals, spending their days both in contemplative prayer and interceding on behalf of others. Their body waste was managed using a chamber pot. Some anchorholds had a few small rooms or attached gardens. Servants tended to the basic needs of anchorites, providing food and water and removing waste. Julian of Norwich, for example, is known to have had several maidservants, among them Sara and Alice. Aelred of Rievaulx wrote an anchorite rule book, c. 1161, for his recluse sister titled De Institutione Inclusarum; in it, he suggested keeping no housemates other than an older woman, to act as companion and doorkeeper, and a young maid as domestic servant.

In addition to being the physical location wherein the anchorite could embark on a journey toward union with God, the anchorhold also provided a spiritual and geographic focus for people from the wider society seeking spiritual advice and guidance. Though set apart from the community by stone walls and specific spiritual precepts, the anchorite lay at the very centre of the community. The anchorhold has been called a communal "womb" from which would emerge an idealised sense of a community's reborn potential as Christians and as human subjects.

Influential texts
An idea of their daily routine can be gleaned from an anchoritic rule. The most widely known today is the early 13th-century text known as Ancrene Wisse. Another, less widely known, example is the rule known as De Institutione Inclusarum written in the 12th century, around 1160–1162, by Aelred of Rievaulx for his sister. It is estimated that the daily set devotions detailed in Ancrene Wisse would take some four hours, on top of which anchoresses would listen to services in the church and engage in their own private prayers and devotional reading.

Richard Rolle, an English hermit and mystic, wrote one of the most influential guide books regarding the life of an anchoress. His book The Form of Living was addressed to a young anchoress named Margaret Kirkby who was responsible for preserving his texts. Her connection to the town of Hampole has been commonly associated with Rolle; he is sometimes referred to as 'Richard Rolle of Hampole' despite a lack of conclusive evidence that Rolle was ever in the small village.

Notable anchorites

The earliest recorded anchorites lived in the third century AD. Saint Anthony the Anchorite (251-356), also known as "Anthony of the Desert", has a traditional reputation as Christianity's "Father of Monasticism". Hilarion (Gaza, 291 – Cyprus, 371) was known as the founder of anchoritic life in Palestine.

The anchoritic life proved popular in England, where women outnumbered men in the ranks of the anchorites, especially in the 13th century. Written evidence supports the existence of 780 anchorites on 600 sites between 1100 and 1539, when the Dissolution of the Monasteries ordered by Henry VIII brought anchoritism in England to an end. However, the lack of a consistent registration system for anchorites suggests there may have been substantially more. English anchorholds can still be seen at Chester-le-Street in County Durham and at Hartlip in Kent.

 * Bede records that prior to a conference in 602 with Augustine of Canterbury, British churchmen consulted an anchorite about whether to abandon their Celtic Christian traditions for the Roman practices which Augustine was seeking to introduce.
 * Toward the end of the seventh century, Guthlac of Crowland, related to the royal family of Mercia, withdrew from the monastery at Repton to an island in the Lincolnshire Fens where he lived for some 15–20 years.
 * Wulfric of Haselbury (died 1154) was enclosed as an anchorite in a cell built against the church in his village of Haselbury Plucknett in Somerset.
 * Christine Carpenter, who submitted a petition in 1329 and was granted permission to become the anchoress of Shere Church (also known as the Church of St. James) in the Borough of Guildford, received her food and drink through a metal grating on the outside wall. In the interior of the church, a quatrefoil through which she could receive the Eucharist and a hagioscope for her use for prayer and reflection were cut out of the wall. Although she left her cell, in 1332 she applied for—and was granted—permission to be re-enclosed.
 * Katherine of Ledbury, anchorite at Ledbury, Herefordshire in the early 14th century.
 * Margaret Kirkby (possibly 1322 to c. 1391–1394), an anchoress at Hampole, for whom Richard Rolle wrote his vernacular guide The Form of Living.
 * In 1346, an unnamed anchorite scribe translated Latin texts into Welsh, producing what is today known as Book of the Anchorite of Llanddewibrefi (Jesus College, Oxford MS 119).
 * Walter Hilton (c.  1340/1345 – 1396) composed the first book of his Scale of Perfection for an unnamed enclosed woman.
 * Eve of Wilton an English anchoress of the 12th century.
 * Patrick Begley (or Beglin) an Irish anchorite who lived in a cell at Fore Abbey in the 17th century.
 * Julian of Norwich, whose writings made a permanent contribution to Christian spirituality. Her cell, attached to St Julian's Church, Norwich, was destroyed during an air raid during World War II. The church itself was gutted, but the original walls remain, and it was rebuilt. On the site of the cell is a modern shrine to Julian.
 * Nazarena of Jesus was an American who felt called to become an anchorite and entered the Camaldolese Abbey of Sant'Antimo in Rome in 1945, remaining there until her death in 1990.

Other anchorites included Calogerus the Anchorite (c. 466 - 561), Cyriacus the Anchorite (448 - 557) and Suster Bertken (1426 - 1514).

General and cited references

 * "About Anchorites". Hermits & Anchorites of England, University of Exeter, 2010.
 * The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. "Great Chain of Being". Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 27 May 2015.
 * Dixon, Alan. "The 'Great Chain of Being. Inner Civilization, 1 Jan. 1970.
 * "Richard Rolle's Form of Living: A Medieval Guide for an Anchoress". Hermitary – the hermit, hermits, eremitism, solitude, silence, and simplicity, 2006.
 * "Richard Rolle's Form of Living: A Medieval Guide for an Anchoress". Hermitary – the hermit, hermits, eremitism, solitude, silence, and simplicity, 2006.
 * "Richard Rolle's Form of Living: A Medieval Guide for an Anchoress". Hermitary – the hermit, hermits, eremitism, solitude, silence, and simplicity, 2006.

Historical development

 * The Anchorhold at All Saints Church, King's Lynn, Norfolk
 * Chapter 1 of The Rule of Saint Benedict re: Anchorites
 * The Way of an Anchoress
 * Anchorite Cell at St Luke's Church in Duston
 * Marsha, Anchoritic Spirituality in Medieval England: The Form, the Substance, the Rule
 * Rotha Mary Clay, Full Text plus illustrations, The Hermits and Anchorites of England.
 * Introduction to the Ancrene Wisse
 * anchorite? (anchorite.org, blog)
 * Fully digitised copy of a British Library manuscript of the Ancrene Wisse, an influential rule for anchoresses written in the 13th century

Roman Catholic Church links

 * English tr. of canon 603 of The Code of Canon Law (1983) re: Anchorites as members of the Consecrated Life in the Catholic Church. Latin text of canon 603.

Poustevník Anakoret

title: Anchorite


text:
Talk:Michael Spence

Untitled
According to this page at the International Development Research Center IDRC, Michael Spence and Amartya Sen are going to meet to discuss the impact of information technology on economic development and markets in developing countries.

Birth date 30 November 1942?
If we check www.nobelprize.org we have Born:	30 November 1942, Montclair, NJ, USA see also diff Wikidata and nobelprize.org - Salgo60 (talk) 13:16, 12 October 2018 (UTC)
 * Good catch! --Ronz (talk) 15:05, 13 October 2018 (UTC)

No Subject
Since 1960, according to nobel laureate Panditvenkatesh545 (talk) 14:46, 17 June 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Michael Spence


text:
Populist (disambiguation)

A Populist is a believer in the rights, wisdom, or virtues of the common people.

Populist may also refer to:

 * Populist Caucus, a Democratic Congressional caucus founded by Bruce Braley of Iowa
 * Populist Party (United States), an alternate name of the People's Party, a major political party in the United States in the late 19th century
 * The Progressive Populist, a newspaper founded in 1995 based in Storm Lake, Iowa

title: Populist (disambiguation)