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Wifredo Lam

Wifredo Óscar de la Concepción Lam y Castilla (December 8, 1902 – September 11, 1982), better known as Wifredo Lam, was a Cuban artist who sought to portray and revive the enduring Afro-Cuban spirit and culture. Inspired by and in contact with some of the most renowned artists of the 20th century, including Pablo Picasso, Henri Matisse, Frida Kahlo and Diego Rivera, Lam melded his influences and created a unique style, which was ultimately characterized by the prominence of hybrid figures. This distinctive visual style of his also influences many artists. Though he was predominantly a painter, he also worked with sculpture, ceramics and printmaking in his later life.

Early life
Wifredo Lam was born and raised in Sagua La Grande, a village in the sugar farming province of Villa Clara, Cuba. He was of mixed-race ancestry: his mother, the former Ana Serafina Castilla, was born to a Congolese former slave mother and a Cuban mulatto father and his father, Yam Lam, was a Chinese immigrant. In Sagua La Grande, Lam was surrounded by many people of African descent; his family, like many others, practiced Catholicism alongside their African traditions. Through his godmother, Matonica Wilson, a Santería priestess locally celebrated as a healer and sorceress, he was exposed to rites of the African orishas. While Lam was never initiated into Santería, Palo Monte, or Abakuá Secret Society, he was familiar with the practices, as cultural participation was widespread in Cuba. His contact with African celebrations and spiritual practices proved to be his largest artistic influence.

In 1916, Lam moved to Havana to study law, a path that his family had thrust upon him. Simultaneously he also began studying tropical plants at the Botanical Gardens. From 1918 to 1923, Lam studied painting at the Escuela de Bellas Artes. However, he disliked both academic teaching and painting. He left for Madrid, Spain, in the autumn of 1923 to further his art studies.

Career in Europe
In 1923, Lam began studying in Madrid under Fernando Álvarez de Sotomayor y Zaragoza, the curator of the Museo del Prado and teacher of Salvador Dalí. In the mornings he would attend his conservative teacher's studio, while he spent his evenings working alongside young, nonconformist painters. At the Prado, he discovered and was awed by the work of Hieronymus Bosch and Pieter Bruegel I. While Lam's early paintings were in the modernist Spanish tradition, his work soon became more simplified and decorative. Though his dislike for academic conservatism persisted, his time in Spain marked his technical development, in which he began to merge a primitive aesthetic and the traditions of Western composition. It was in Paris that Lam was exposed to conventions of African sculpture. In 1929, he married Eva Piriz, but both she and their young son died in 1931 of tuberculosis; it is likely that this personal tragedy contributed to the dark nature of his work.

During the 1930s, Lam was exposed to a variety of influences. The influence of Surrealism was discernible in his work, as well as that of Henri Matisse. Lam had begun to incorporate Surrealist techniques before his time in Europe, learning of artists like Matisse through publications and news from a friend. Throughout Lam's travels through the Spanish countryside, he developed empathy for the Spanish peasants, whose troubles in some ways mirrored those of the former slaves he grew up around in Cuba. At the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War, he sided with the Republicans in 1936-1937 and used his talent to fashion Republican posters and propaganda. Drafted to defend Madrid, Lam was incapacitated during the fighting in late 1937 and was sent to Barcelona. There he met Helena Holzer, a German researcher, and the Catalan artist known as Manolo Hugué. Manolo gave Lam the letter of introduction that sparked his friendship with Picasso, whose artwork had impressed and inspired Lam a year before when he saw an exhibition in Madrid.

In 1938, Lam moved to Paris. He quickly gained the support of Picasso, who introduced him to many of the leading artists of the time, such as Fernand Léger, Henri Matisse, Georges Braque and Joan Miró. In his trip to Mexico in the same year, Lam stayed with Frida Kahlo and Diego Rivera.

Picasso also introduced him to Pierre Loeb, a Parisian art dealer; Loeb gave Lam his first exhibition at the Galerie Pierre Loeb in 1939, which received an enthusiastic response from critics. Picasso and Lam also exhibited their work together at the Perls Galleries in New York in the same year. Lam's work went from showing the influence of Matisse, seen in his still lifes, landscapes and simplified portraits, to being influenced by Cubism. Mainly working with gouache, Lam began producing stylized figures that appear to be influenced by Picasso. Much of his work in 1938 possessed emotional intensity; the subject matter ranged from interacting couples to women in despair and showed a considerably stronger African influence, seen in the figures' angular outlines and the synthesis of their bodies.

While Lam began simplifying his forms before he came into contact with Picasso's work, it is apparent that Picasso had a significant impact on him. With regard to Picasso's exhibition, Lam said that it was "not only a revelation, but… a shock." Lam gained the approval of Picasso, whose encouragement has been said to have led Lam to search for his own interpretation of modernism.

With the outbreak of World War II and the invasion of Paris by the Germans, Lam left for Marseille, France, in 1940. There he rejoined many intellectuals, including the Surrealists, with whom he had been associated since he met André Breton in 1939. While in Marseille, Lam and Breton collaborated on the publication of Breton's poem Fata Morgana, which was illustrated by Lam. Though the drawings he created in Marseille between 1940 and 1941 are known as the Fata Morgana suite, only about three inspired the illustrations for the poem. In 1941, Breton, Lam and Claude Lévi-Strauss, accompanied by many others, left for Martinique, only to be imprisoned. After forty days, Lam was released and allowed to leave for Cuba, which he reached in midsummer 1941.

Havana years

Upon his return to Havana, Lam developed a new awareness of Afro-Cuban traditions. He noticed that the descendants of the slaves were still being oppressed and that the Afro-Cuban culture was degraded and made picturesque for the sake of tourism. He believed that Cuba was in danger of losing its African heritage and therefore sought to free them from cultural subjugation. In an interview with Max-Pol Fouchet, he said:

"'I wanted with all my heart to paint the drama of my country, but by thoroughly expressing the negro spirit, the beauty of the plastic art of the blacks. In this way I could act as a Trojan horse that would spew forth hallucinating figures with the power to surprise, to disturb the dreams of the exploiters.'" Additionally, his time in Cuba marked a rapid evolution of his style. Drawing from his study of tropical plants and familiarity with Afro-Cuban culture, his paintings became characterized by the presence of a hybrid figure—part human, part animal, and part vegetal. His style was also distinctive because of its fusion of Surrealist and Cubist approaches with imagery and symbols from Santería. In 1943, he began his best-known work, The Jungle. It reflected his mature style, depicting four figures with mask-like heads, half-emerging from dense tropical vegetation. Later that year it was shown in an exhibition at the Pierre Matisse Gallery in New York, where it created controversy. The painting depicted the tension between Modernism and the vibrancy and energy of African culture. The Jungle was ultimately purchased by the Museum of Modern Art in New York. It is often compared to Picasso's Guernica, which is hung in the Museo Reina Sofía in Madrid.

Another work of Picasso's that has been compared to The Jungle is Les Demoiselles d'Avignon. Although these two paintings were created thirty-six years apart and have different cultural contexts, they both depict women in a sexualized context and both contain primitivist and Cubist elements in their designs.

The combination of African ideas with a European style in Lam's work, The Jungle led to Lam and his second wife experiencing discrimination from the largely nonwhite Cuban population. Upon his return to Cuba, Lam moved away from the cosmopolitan art community and experimented more with Cuban avant-garde styles. Cuban artists have accused Lam of being an impostor when it comes to his artwork and his identity as a Cuban.

Lam continued to simplify and synthesize abstraction yet continued painting figurally; he also kept on developing the mythology and totemism that defined his style. In 1944, he married Helana Holzer, whom he divorced in 1950. In 1946, he and Breton spent four months in Haiti. There Lam enriched his already extensive understanding and knowledge of African divinity and magic rituals through observing Voodoun ceremonies, although he later said that his contact with the African spirituality that he found throughout the Americas did not directly impact his formal style. African poetry, on the other hand, was said to have had a broadening effect on his paintings. In 1950, he worked with René Portocarrero and others; in the village of Santiago de Las Vegas, the group of painters worked on ceramic. Lam settled in Paris in 1952 after having divided his time between Cuba, New York, and France.

Lam, who continued to sympathize with the common man, exhibited a series of paintings at Havana University in 1955 to demonstrate his support for the students' protests against Batista's dictatorship. Similarly, in 1965, six years after the revolution, he showed his loyalty to Castro and his goals of social and economic equality by painting El Tercer Mundo (The Third World) for the presidential palace. In 1960, Lam established a studio in Albissola Marina on Italy's northwest coast and settled there with his wife Lou Laurin, a Swedish painter, and their three sons. In 1964, he was awarded the Guggenheim International Award and between 1966 and 1967 there were many retrospectives of his work throughout Europe. At the encouragement of Asger Jorn and after being intrigued by the local pottery-making, Lam began to experiment with ceramics and had his first ceramic exhibition in 1975. He progressed to model sculptures and cast in metal in his twilight years, often depicting personages similar to those he had painted.

Wifredo Lam died on September 11, 1982, in Paris, aged 79. Having had more than one hundred personal exhibitions around the world, Lam had a well established reputation by the time of his death.

Legacy
Lam, like many of the most renowned artists of the 20th century, combined radical modern styles with the "primitive" arts of the Americas. While Diego Rivera and Joaquín Torres García drew inspiration from Pre-Columbian art, Lam was influenced by the Afro-Cubans of that time. He dramatically synthesized the Surrealist and Cubist strategies while incorporating the iconography and spirit of Afro-Cuban religion. For that reason, his work does not belong to any particular art movement.

He held the belief that society focused too much on the individual and sought to show humanity as a whole in his artwork. He painted generic figures, creating the universal. To further his goal, he often painted mask-like faces. While Cuban culture and mythology permeated his work, it dealt with the nature of man and therefore was wholly relatable to non-Cubans.

Opened in 1983, the Wifredo Lam Center for Contemporary Art (in Spanish: Centro de Arte Contemporáneo Wifredo Lam) is a state-run gallery in tribute to Lam and located in Havana, Cuba. This art gallery is responsible for the organization of the Bienal de la Habana, Cuba, a permanent art collection of approx. 1000 works, and research and study of contemporary visual arts in developing countries.

In 2015, a retrospective exhibition of his works opened at the Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris, set to travel to the Reina Sofia Museum in Spain and the Tate Museum in London afterwards.

In 2019, his work was included in the group show The Gift of Art, at Pérez Art Museum Miami. The exhibition highlighted important artworks within PAMM's permanent collection on Latinx and Latin American artists. Among the artists featured in the exhibition were José Bedia (Cuba), Teresa Margolles (Mexico), Roberto Matta (Chile), Oscar Murillo (Colombia), Amelia Peláez (Cuba), Zilia Sánchez (Cuba), Tunga (Brazil), and Carmen Herrera (Cuba).

The Jungle

The Jungle, which is considered Lam's masterpiece, is exemplary of the artist's mature style. The polymorphism, for which Lam is well known, juxtaposes aspects of humans, animals, and plants, creating monstrous, hybrid creatures. This merging of human, animal, and plant forms is described as magical metamorphosis. Scholars have hypothesized that these figures originated from Lam's subconscious, connecting the artwork to Surrealist principles. The dense composition creates a claustrophobic feeling while the forms remain difficult to differentiate. Scholars attribute this abstract construction of figures to the Cubist art style.

Elements of the painting
The four figures' elongated limbs lack definition, while much emphasis is placed on body parts, such as their large feet, round buttocks and breasts, and images under two of the figures' mouths that Adrían claims resemble male genitalia. There are also African-inspired masked heads; scholars report that Lam was interested the carvings on African masks. Additionally, the iridescent quality of the forms enhances the painting's tropical feeling. The imagery of the tropics is also suggested with the densely packed cane stalks and palm leaves that merge with the figures, mirroring cosmological concepts from Afro-Cuban religions where deities that inhabit elements in nature. The sugarcane in the painting is suggested to allude to the fields in which African slaves owned by the Spanish and Portuguese worked. The figure on the far right holding the shears is thought to be harvesting the sugarcane and figure on the far left resembles a horse and is suspected to represent a figure from Afro-Cuban mythology. Although the sugarcane provides some potential context to the artwork, there is no specific geographic location where The Jungle is supposed to occur. Scholars suggest that this lack of specificity makes orients the artwork towards a more universal audience.

The somber palette containing a mixture of blue, green, yellow, and white suggests a hidden moonlit scene, perhaps a reference to the secret practice of African religions among enslaved peoples. The usage of color in The Jungle can also be viewed as occurring during the day in depths of a jungle. Furthermore, historians suggest that the usage of red and orange in the color palette represent blood.

Cultural context
The Jungle was not, however, intended to describe the primitivism of Cuba. Rather, Lam's intention was to depict a spiritual state—which is surely inspired by Santería; he sheds light on the absurdity that has become Afro-Cuban culture and more specifically on the way Afro-Cuban traditions were cheapened for tourism. Specifically, Caribbean and Atlantic studies scholar Francisco-J. Hernández Adrián suggests that The Jungle serves as a critique of the exoticizing lens placed on the Atlantic as a byproduct of the colonial era. He sought to describe the reality of the Afro-Cuban experience of his time and gained acclaim and fame for doing so. The artwork is suggested to have challenged the colonial viewpoint. Furthermore, Hernández Adrián claims that the imagery of the artwork reflects the constant struggles black people faced in Cuban society. Specifically, one of the central struggles in the artwork is the slave labor suggested by the sugar cane in The Jungle. Art historian Doris Maria-Reina Bravo argues that the intensive labor in which many had to participate in Cuba as suggested by the artwork strongly differs from the way tourists viewed Cuba. She claims that during the time of the artwork's creation, tourists viewed Cuba as a "playground".

Art market
On December 6, 2017, Sotheby's sold Lam's A Trois Centimetres de la Terre (1962) for €4.44m ($5.24m), which established a new record price for the painter. The work was sold as part of the Alain and Candice Fraiberger collection. The previous record for the artist was set in May 2012, when Idolo (Oya/Divinit de l'air de la mort) sold for $4.56m. A new record was established on June 28, 2020, when Sotheby's auctioned Lam's "Omi Obini" for $9,603,800.

Artworks

 * Anamu. 1942.  Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago
 * Deux personnages. 1938.  Collection Conseil général de Martinique, France
 * Doble desnudo II – mujeres recostadas (Double Nude II – Reclining Women). 1937. Pérez Art Museum Miami
 * El Tercer Mundo. 1965–1966.  Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes, Havana
 * Exodo. 1948.  Howard University Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
 * The Jungle. 1943.  The Museum of Modern Art, New York
 * Untitled. 1943. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
 * Homenaje a jicotea. ca. 1943.  Lowe Art Museum, University of Miami
 * La Chevelure (The Mane). 1945. Pérez Art Museum Miami
 * La Table Blanche (The White Table). 1939. Pérez Art Museum Miami
 * La Ventana I (The Window). 1935. Pérez Art Museum Miami
 * Le guerrier. 1947. Galerie Lelong, Paris
 * Le Reve. 1947. Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Smithsonian Institution
 * L'Espirit aveugle. 1948. Indianapolis Museum of Art
 * Lisamona. 1950. Collection Steven M. Greenbaum, New Hampshire
 * Les enfants sans âme. 1964. Museum of Modern Art, Brussels
 * Mother and Child. 1939.  Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago
 * Satan. 1942.  Museum of Modern Art, New York
 * The Shadow of Days. 1970
 * Untitled. 1945. Galerie Lelong, Paris

Exhibitions

 * "Wifredo Lam Peintures." Galerie Pierre, Paris.  June 30 – July 14, 1939.
 * "Drawings by Picasso and Gouaches by Wifredo Lam." Perls Gallery, New York.  November 13–December 2, 1939.
 * "Lam Paintings." Pierre Matisse Gallery, New York.  November 17–December 5, 1942.
 * "Lam Paintings." Pierre Matisse Gallery, New York.  June 6–24, 1944.
 * "Lam Paintings." Pierre Matisse Gallery, New York.  November 20–December 8, 1945.
 * "Wifredo Lam." Galerie Pierre, Paris.  December 12–31, 1945.
 * "Lam" Centre d'Art Galerie, Port-au-Prince, Haïti, January 24–February 3, 1946.
 * "The Cuban Painter Wifredo Lam." The London Gallery, London.  November 5–30, 1946.
 * "Lam: Obras Recientes 1950." Parque Central, Havana.  October 2–15, 1950.
 * "Wifredo Lam." Museo de Bellas Artes, Caracas, May 8–22, 1955.
 * "Wifredo Lam." University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, January 8–22, 1961.
 * "Wifredo Lam Malerei, Vic Gentils Bildhauerei." Kunsthalle, Basel, September 10–October 9, 1966; "Wifredo Lam." Kestnergesellschaft, Hanover, December 16, 1966 – January 16, 1967; Stedelijk Museum, January 26–March 12, 1967; Moderna Museet, Stockholm, April 8–May 7, 1967; Palais des Beaux-Arts, Brussels, May 18–June 18, 1967.
 * "Wifredo Lam." Ordrupgaard, Charlottenlund (Denmark), September 14–October 15, 1978; Sonja Henie, Niels Onstad Foundation, Høvikkoden (Norway),
 * "Homenaje a Wifredo Lam 1902–1982." Museo Nacional de Arte Contemporaneo, Madrid, October 20–December 12, 1982; Musée d'Ixelles, Brussels, January 7–March 6, 1983; Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris, Paris, March 23–May 22, 1983.
 * "Wifredo Lam, Prints." Central Institute of Fine Arts, Beijing; Palace of Fine Arts, Shanghaï; Institute of Fine Arts, Hangzhou, Institute of Fine Arts; Guangzhou; Art Center, Hong Kong, September 1991–March, 1992.
 * "Wifredo Lam: A Retrospective of Works on Paper." Americas Society, New York, September 19–December 20, 1992; Fundacio La Caixa, Barcelona, January 21–March 21, 1993.
 * "Wifredo Lam." Museo Nacional Centreo de Arte Reina Sofia, Madrid, September 29–December 14, 1992; Fundacio Miró, Barcelona, January, 21–March 21, 1993.
 * "Lam métis." Fondation Dapper, Paris, September 26, 2001 – January 20, 2002.
 * "Wifredo Lam: The Changing Image, Centennial Exhibition." Yokohama Museum of Art, Yokohama, October 2002–January 2003.
 * "Wifredo Lam et les poètes." Musée Campredon, Maison René Char, L'Isle sur la Sorgue, France, July 7–October 2, 2005.
 * "Wifredo Lam in North America," Haggerty Museum of Art, Marquette University, Milwaukee October 11, 2007 – January 21, 2008. Miami Art Museum, Miami, February 8 – May 18, 2008; Museum of Latin American Art, Long Beach, June 12–August 31, 2008; Dalí Museum, St Petersburg (FL), October 2, 2008 – January 10, 2009.
 * "Wifredo Lam, gravuras," Caixa Cultural de Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, October 22–January 3, 2010; Pinacoteca de Estado, São Paulo, February 27–May 2, 2010.
 * "Wifredo Lam 1902–1982: Voyages entre caraïbes et avant-gardes," Musée des Beaux-Arts de Nantes, France, May 6–August 29, 2010.
 * "Césaire, Lam, Picasso, Nous nous sommes trouvés," Galerie nationales du Grand Palais, Paris, France, March 16–June 6, 2011.
 * "Césaire, Lam, Picasso, Nous nous sommes trouvés," Fondation Clément, Le François (Martinique), December 6, 2013 – March 2, 2014.
 * "Wifredo Lam, Imagining New Worlds, McMullen Museum of Art," Boston, August 30–December 14, 2014; High Museum of Art, Atlanta, February 10–May 24, 2015.
 * Wifredo Lam, the Ey Exhibition. London, Tate Modern Gallery (September 14, 2016 – January 8, 2017).
 * "Wifredo Lam," Musée national d'Art Moderne, Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris, September 30, 2015 – February 15, 2016; Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofia, Madrid, April 5-August 15, 2016; Tate Modern, London, September 14, 2016 – January 8, 2017.
 * "The Drawings of Wifredo Lam: 1940–1955. From the personal collection of Juan Castillo Vázquez, Havana, Cuba." Lehigh University Art Galleries, Zoellner Arts Center, Bethlehem PA, August 30–December 10, 2017.

title: Wifredo Lam


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Sikorsky Aircraft

Sikorsky Aircraft is an American aircraft manufacturer based in Stratford, Connecticut. It was established by the Russian aviation pioneer Igor Sikorsky in 1923, and was among the first companies to manufacture helicopters for civilian and military use. It also produced seaplanes for passenger transport and surface vehicles such as trains and boats.

Sikorsky was owned by United Technologies Corporation until November 2015, when it was sold to Lockheed Martin.

History
On March 5, 1923, the Sikorsky Aero Engineering Corporation was founded near Roosevelt Field, New York, by Igor Sikorsky, an immigrant to the United States who was born in Kyiv, Ukraine (then part of the Russian Empire). In 1925, the company name was changed to Sikorsky Manufacturing Company. After the success of the S-38, the company was reorganized as the Sikorsky Aviation Corporation with capital of $5,000,000, allowing the purchase of land and the building of a modern aircraft factory in Stratford. In 1929, the company moved to Stratford, Connecticut, and it became a part of United Aircraft and Transport Corporation (later United Technologies Corporation or UTC) in July of that year.

In the United States, Igor Sikorsky originally concentrated on the development of multiengine landplanes and then amphibious aircraft. In the late 1930s, sales declined and United Aircraft merged his division with Vought Aircraft. He then began work on developing a practical helicopter. After first flying the VS-300 he developed the Sikorsky R-4, the first stable, single-rotor, fully controllable helicopter to enter full-scale production in 1942, upon which most subsequent helicopters were based.

Sikorsky Aircraft remains a leading helicopter manufacturer, producing such well-known models as the UH-60 Black Hawk and SH-60 Seahawk, and experimental types such as the Sikorsky S-72. Sikorsky has supplied the Presidential helicopter since 1957. Sikorsky's VH-3 and VH-60 perform this role now.

The company acquired Helicopter Support Inc. (HSI) in 1998. HSI handles non-U.S. government aftermarket support for parts and repair for the Sikorsky product lines.

UTC acquired Schweizer Aircraft Corp. in 2004, after which it operated as a subsidiary of Sikorsky. The product lines of the two firms were complementary, and had little overlap, as Sikorsky primarily concentrates on medium and large helicopters, while Schweizer produces small helicopters, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV), gliders, and light planes. The Schweizer deal was signed on August 26, 2004, exactly one week after the death of Paul Schweizer, the company's founder and majority owner. In late 2005, Sikorsky completed the purchase of Keystone Helicopter Corporation, located in Coatesville, Pennsylvania. Keystone had been maintaining and completing Sikorsky S-76 and S-92 helicopters prior to the sale.

In 2007, Sikorsky opened the Hawk Works, a Rapid Prototyping and Military Derivatives Completion Center located west of the Elmira-Corning Regional Airport in Big Flats, New York. That same year Sikorsky purchased the PZL Mielec plant in Poland. The plant is assembling the S-70i for international customers.

In February 2009, Sikorsky Global Helicopters was created as a business unit of Sikorsky Aircraft to focus on the construction and marketing of commercial helicopters. The business unit combined the main civil helicopters that were produced by Sikorsky Aircraft and the helicopter business of Schweizer Aircraft that Sikorsky had acquired in 2004. It was based at Coatesville, Pennsylvania until 2022.

In 2011, Sikorsky laid off 400 workers at the Hawk Works plant, and later in 2012 the remaining 570 workers and closed all Sikorsky facilities in Chemung County; moving the military completion work to their West Palm Beach, Florida, facility. The commercial products had already been moved to their Coatesville, Pennsylvania facility.

Sikorsky's main plant and administrative offices are located in Stratford, Connecticut, as is a large company-owned private heliport. Other Sikorsky facilities are in Trumbull, Shelton, and Bridgeport, Connecticut (with small company heliport ); Fort Worth, Texas; West Palm Beach, Florida; and Huntsville and Troy, Alabama. Sikorsky-owned subsidiaries are in Grand Prairie, Texas, and elsewhere around the world.

In 2023, Sikorsky Aircraft celebrated their 100-year anniversary.

Acquisition
In 2015, UTC considered Sikorsky to be less profitable than its other subsidiaries, and analyzed a possible spin-off rather than a tax-heavy sale.

On July 20, 2015, Lockheed Martin announced an agreement to purchase Sikorsky from UTC for $9.0 billion. The deal required review from eight different jurisdictions, and the final approval came in November 2015. The sale was completed on November 6, 2015.

AHS Sikorsky Prize
In 1980, the American Helicopter Society International offered a prize of US$10,000 for the first human-powered helicopter flight (60-second duration, a height of 3 meters, and staying within an area of 10 x 10 m) and soon increased prize money to US$25,000. In 2010, Sikorsky Aircraft pledged to increase the prize sponsorship to US$250,000. Canadian engineers Dr. Todd Reichert and Cameron Robertson developed the world's largest human-powered helicopter with a team from the University of Toronto. The first flight of AeroVelo Atlas was achieved in August 2012, the 64-second, 3.3-m-flight that won the prize on June 13, 2013.

Products
Sikorsky designates nearly all of its models with S-numbers; numbers S-1 through S-27 were designed by Igor Sikorsky before he left the Russian Empire. Later models, especially helicopters, received multiple designations by the military services using them, often depending on purpose (UH, SH, and MH for instance), even if the physical craft had only minor variations in equipment. In some cases, the aircraft were returned to Sikorsky or to another manufacturer and additionally modified, resulting in still further variants on the same basic model number.

Airplanes

 * Sikorsky S-28: projected four-engine, 32-passenger biplane airliner; Sikorsky's first American design (1919)
 * Sikorsky S-29-A: twin-engine, cargo biplane, first Sikorsky aircraft built in the U.S. (1924)
 * Sikorsky S-30: twin-engine biplane airliner/mailplane, never built (1925)
 * Sikorsky S-31: single-engine biplane (1925)
 * Sikorsky S-32: single-engine, two-passenger biplane (1926)
 * Sikorsky S-33 Messenger: single-engine biplane (1925)
 * Sikorsky S-34: twin-engine sesquiplane flying boat prototype (1927)
 * Sikorsky S-35: three-engine biplane transport (1926)
 * Sikorsky S-36 "Amphibion": eight-seat two-engine sesquiplane flying boat (1927)
 * Sikorsky S-37 "Guardian": eight-seat two-engine sesquiplane; Sikorsky's last land-based fixed wing design (1927)
 * Sikorsky S-38: eight-seat, two-engine sesquiplane flying boat (US Navy PS) (1928–1933)
 * Sikorsky RS: transport flying boat (US Navy RS)
 * Sikorsky S-39: five-seat, single-engine variant of S-38 (1929–1932)
 * Sikorsky S-40: four-engine, 28-passenger monoplane flying boat (1931)
 * Sikorsky S-41: twin-engine monoplane flying boat (1931) (USN RS-1); scaled-up monoplane version of S-38
 * Sikorsky XP2S: twin-engine patrol flying boat prototype (1932)
 * Sikorsky XSS: Naval scout flying-boat (1933)
 * Sikorsky S-42 "Clipper": four-engine flying boat (1934–1935)
 * Sikorsky XBLR-3: Bomber aircraft (1935-1936); Sikorsky's last fixed-wing design
 * Sikorsky S-43 "Baby Clipper": twin-engine, amphibious flying boat (1935–1937) (Army OA-1, USN JRS-1); downsized, twin-engine version of S-42
 * Sikorsky VS-44 "Excalibur": four-engine flying boat (1937)
 * Sikorsky S-45: six-engine flying boat (for Pan Am), never built (1938)
 * Sikorsky S-57/XV-2: Supersonic convertiplane with single blade retractable rotor. Never built.

Other aircraft

 * Boeing-Sikorsky RAH-66 Comanche
 * Sikorsky Cypher: Doughnut-shaped UAV (1992)
 * Sikorsky Cypher II: development of the Cypher (2001)
 * Vertical Take-Off and Landing Experimental Aircraft: design and development of a hybrid VTOL/Conventional design

Other products

 * UAC TurboTrain (1968)
 * Sikorsky ASPB Assault Support Patrol Boat (1969)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Sikorsky Aircraft


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Talk:Bohemian (demonym)

Untitled
I have lived the Bohemian lifestyle for years, and not known it, until I came across this Wikipedia site, and discovered my true self!

So, in retrospect,I realize the roots of my Bohemity have been growing since childhood

In the 1980's I discovered a true Bohemian spirit - the singer Joni Mitchell. Her lyrics are free and unrestrained, as is her creative music.

Living with art, writing and music has been like living among passionate friends. But does one have to own the arts in order to be Bohemian?

For years, all I ever have wanted of art was to have a room in which to be creative - to keep the hours I needed and eat when the stomach popped... to wake to endless hours of art, writing and dating.

Insert non-formatted text here

Is being Bohemian simply self-gratification? In some ways it is... you see, we are not on this earth simply to serve ourselves, and fill our days with egoconcentric circles of nausea-creating piles of manure.

Here is my goal as a Bohemian: to maintain integrity to the true meaning of the word without stepping all over my fellow man to do so. And I want to share my art with the world.

Haight-Ashbury was not the Bohemian neighborhood in San Francisco until the early/mid-1960s.

Before that it was North Beach.

The Haight was not "bohemia" in the 19th or early 20th c.

I changed the page so that it now only dicusses "Bohemian" as a nationality and created Bohemian (disambiguation). I'm now in the process of gradually changing all the "life style bohemian" links to Bohemianism. Help would be appreciated. --Chino 05:39, 12 Jun 2005 (UTC)

I will agree with you Chino. I am in the process of doing some research on the Bohemian and Bohemian way of life, including purchasing a copy of a book called the bohemian manifesto. Clearly a lot more work has to be done on this entry...

 * Chino - although English is not my mother-tongue I would say that bohemian is a lot more in use as an expression in the lifestyle sense, not in the origin sense. that's why I think the lifestyle article should be here, not an old expression for a kind of people
 * I guess you have never been to Chicago? Peyna 02:37, 24 August 2006 (UTC)

By the way, the article about the people is I believe wrong when saying that the expression just kind of died out. It was the expression for the Germans living in that area until the end of WWII, more information probably if you look for Benes-Decrees in google or Bohemia, only about the western two thirds have been Bohemia.217.185.235.88 18:05, 29 November 2005 (UTC)

Any more Bohemian info?
I am 1/8 Bohemian, and would love to know more about it, which this page does not do much of. Such as, what other ethnic groups are Bohemians close genetically to? I mean, i know some Czechs and some Bohemians, and, from what I have seen, Bohemians seem to be different, more tan, I guess. Just wondering if anyone here knew. Oh, and whoever said, "the lifestyle article should be here, not an old expression for a kind of people", I could not disagree with you more. People are ethnicly Bohemians, and if "Italian" got the same freak connotation as Bohemian, the page on Italian should not be devoted to that, but to the ethnicity. Only problem is, there are more Italians, and Italy is still a country. Bohemia is more defenseless, but still deserving of its own article--but it's too generic, I want more of the culture which I long for yet know so little about.
 * Not sure about your comment regarding Bohemians being tan; the Bohemian side of my family is very pale and has red hair. (We took our last name from the region, apparently as well). Peyna 02:39, 24 August 2006 (UTC)
 * You can hardly speak about differences between Czechs and Bohemians, because Czechs are Bohemians. --Zik2 (talk) 12:32, 29 March 2009 (UTC)

Karpaten1 (talk) 03:27, 6 June 2009 (UTC) But not all Bohemians are Czechs.

What about the bohemian people
I am 1/4 Bohemian and it is hard to find anything on my families past. This page as helped me learn about so much yet the one thing that I am really curious about it doesn't have. Bohemia is a culture and for some people their ethinic background. I even think people would find that the Bohemian language is almost extinct but not yet. There are still a few that speak it, but they came from the bad clan that gave the rest of the Bohamians such trouble. Ya there was two clans, one that just did what everyday people do and the other that was theaves, fortune tellers, and prostitutes. The sad part is the only people who know of this are the ones with this ancestry. It would be nice if you guys could give more information on the heritage. And about being tan, my family is pale as well. I have been told by others that my features resemble Bohemians which are dark blone- lite brown hair, hazel green eyes, rosey pink cheeks, and fair skin. 67.142.130.26 09:32, 14 March 2007 (UTC)Tasha R.
 * I think Bohemian's (the ethnicity) should be turned in to it's own page, just like any of the other groups of people. Bohemian's still recognize themselves as such before considering themselves as Czech's from my understanding. JanderVK —Preceding unsigned comment added by JanderVK (talk • contribs) 04:09, 4 September 2007 (UTC)

the connection between the word "bohemian" and catholic propaganda
I've heard from various sources (please back me up) that the origins of what we currently define as bohemian came from accusations of the catholic church against the "bohemians" or members of the hussite revolution. This was done in order to defame the movement. Aspects of this propaganda included "wildness" or "orgies" or a generally unconventional lifestyle that was seperate from and against the catholic church. Was this propaganda the origin of our current usage of the word Bohemian? —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 87.192.252.130 (talk) 02:55, 26 April 2007 (UTC). Thomasjefferson33 (talk) 11:15, 14 March 2011 (UTC)I have been a bohemian for over 60years. I believe the articles can be very misleading. the above article has things pretty straight on. Being a Bohemian is just like an Irishman having his heritage being from Ireland. A Scotish man having his ancestors being from Scotland. My ancestors were from a small area in Czech called Bohemia. The language that was spoke between my mother and my grandmother was Bohemian, a language that came from German and Czech. My close family is not that of thieves, artist, or muscians that don't fit in anywhere else. I lived and was born in a small area of Chicago known as "little Bohemia". When living with my grandmother my mother and I went to a Catholic church that I always thought spoke everything in Latin, only to discover recently that the church is and was called "The Bohemian Catholic Church". My mother was raised a Catholic. Being raised by my step-father there was not alot of church going. After a short talk with my grandmother at the age of 4 of the statues in her bedroom of Jesus and Mother Mary, I knew that God existed. I have felt a very strong spitual raltionship with him. Growing up, I began questioning the reliougous teachings my mother grew up with. I have read of some bohemians who were called "Free thinkers". I think that does really apply to me. My bohemian upbringing was nothing about being talented artist, singer, or the desire to be broke and poor, on the contrary I very much like having the luxeries of life. I do get alittle upset at the thought that at sometime in america people who disagreed with the cival war or wanted freedom were called bohemian. The same as anyone would feel if that statement were true about their true nationality. I was a teenager in the 1960's, I had very little freedom, with high moral standards and dressed the same as the other girls in school. There is one thing that I find to be a little differant when growing up. It was very normal to hear about ghost stories, or for my mother, my stepfather, aunt and uncle to have a sense' led by my mother. To recieve a Quiqie board for Christmas was very normal for us. I just thought it was cool to have a mother who went to physcics in the 1940's. I also remember feeling like I was differant than others. I assumed that because every now and then I would know how things would turn out, others did the same thing. I also knew my mother could read tea leaves, and my grandmother was even better than my mother. Then one day, when I was extremely close to my dying father in law, it happend, he came to me to say good-bye. I even had witnesses present when the garbage pail lid fell in the garbage can for no reason. I immediately called the hospital and the nurse came to answer the phone, and to call for someone to come and take my father in law to the morgue. When I called, she was still in the room with my ex and hadn't even covered my father in law up. Slowly after that I randomly took one class here and another there and found myself right were i should be. Having our father lead me to my spiritual beliefs, yes, I talk to my past loves ones and have had many paranormal experiences, just as the gypsies of the past. My brother, he was extremely artistic and talented. For those who want to know what a bohemian is like. Freedom does mean everything to me. Freedom to be me, to be unique, and to be proud that I beat a differant drum. I dress younger than my age, I act younger than my age, and I believe it's easier to be a clone like everyone else, but that's not me. I would of made a great hippie, I loved the shops then. I was old fashioned with my morals and loose. I have a drive to help people and to help make my life of value in the whole scheme of thing that's deeply inbedded in me, and I have. Be yourself, and feel free to be you as you are, I guess that would, in my opinion, make you as close as a bohemian as you could be, follow your faith and stick to it, and dare to be differant. For those who would like to know more about their heritage, try the Ellis Island registry. Look up the last name, if your bohemian, it would say your family name is from Bohemia, or Czech. I recently did this and was proud to find out that yes, my bio dad was also bohemian. The strange part, most people where I live have no idea or have never heard of a Bohemian.Thomasjefferson33 (talk) 11:15, 14 March 2011 (UTC)

Reference for Hindenburg's nickname for Hitler...
I'd like to know the source of this statement... and the article should point it out for the shake of completeness.

RE: Reference for Hindenburg's nickname for Hitler...
Shirer's "The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich"

 * you should anedote it. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 72.222.129.203 ([[User

talk:72.222.129.203|talk]]) 00:53, 4 October 2007 (UTC)

Disambiguation
I've removed the content about modern bohemianism. Readers can find the more comprehensive bohemianism article through the disambig page. Superm401 - Talk 05:56, 27 February 2008 (UTC)

bohemian
I just found out I was bohemian I have lite blond hair and green eyes and am tan. My grandmothers last name was hrasky. We also had five other races. Just here tring to learn more about who and where I came from. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 98.18.192.253 (talk) 20:04, 19 April 2009 (UTC)

P.s. Call me later ashley

Always Bohemian
I have always known I was Bohemian on my Father's side, I just don't know how much. I am curious to know more about the culture. My last name was shortened when my ancester's came here. I am curious to know who has the username Broz? That is my maiden name. I also have dark blonde hair and hazel eyes. I have fair complection but my younger sister has an olive skin tone. —Preceding unsigned comment added by BrozD (talk • contribs) 23:02, 2 March 2010 (UTC)
 * Your last name was probably Brož (in English it means brooch). It is a common name here in Czechia. It was probably changed to Broz to better fit abroad. Jirka.h23 (talk) 17:39, 13 October 2020 (UTC)

Nationalism?
The article is full of disgusting Czech nationalism and should be deleted completely, since there´s a much better article about Bohemia, which explains things much better. A Bohemian is simply someone from the former kingdom of Bohemia. A Bohemian is not necessarily a Czech, he/she may be German or even Hungarian or Pole. The kingdom of Bohemia was part of Holly Roman empire till 1806, later part of the Habsburg empire. Since about 1300 it was ruled by kings of German descent and with German elite and a German speaking majority in the west, including Prague. When the Habsburg empire collapsed in 1918, the western part of Bohemia with a vast German speaking majority was forced into a now Czech dominated state, although these people voted to become a part of the new Austrian state. This lead to the Munich Treaty in 1938, when Germany received the German speaking parts of Bohemia and a little later conquered all of Bohemia. After the German defeat in WW2 the Czechs committed a genocide at the German speaking population in Bohemia, with the consent of the Allies. 188.98.255.119 (talk) 16:53, 17 June 2013 (UTC)
 * Anonymious german nonsens--Posp68 (talk) 11:00, 28 August 2016 (UTC)
 * A Czech is not necessarily Bohemian, but a Czech he can be Bohemian, Moravian or Silesian. And you're wrong, since 1306 it was not ruled only by kings of German descent, what about Charles IV, John the Blind, Wenceslaus IV, Sigismund, George of Podebrady, and others? The Sudetenland has been part of the Czech kingdom for a whole millennium and the Germans came to it as immigrants since the 13th century. After the Battle of White Mountain, German language was made equal with Czech, but the Germans never had a majority in Prague. Jirka.h23 (talk) 09:00, 8 September 2020 (UTC)

The article is full of Czech nationalism. A Bohemian is simply someone from the former kingdom of Bohemia. Bohemia was in the central part of what is known in 2020 as the Czech Republic and Slovakia. They were artisans is glasswork; music; dance; art, etc. The boundaries moved around many times during WWI and WWII and afterward. My Great grandmother was from the same city all her life. It was Austria at her birth, then Czechoslovakia as she was growing up. She was Bohemian by self admission and DNA. Although she identified herself as a Czech. My great grandfather was also Bohemian, but the city he came from now is now in Slovakia. We've had DNA done and know this to be true. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2605:a000:1e02:49db:39fd:393e:9498:eab (talk • contribs) 01:12, 8 September 2020 (UTC)
 * What is the point of your post? So they are both Bohemians, that doesn't mean she can't call herself a Czech. Jirka.h23 (talk) 09:00, 8 September 2020 (UTC)

Requested move 24 April 2021

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.

The result of the move request was: Moved disambiguation page to base name and moved the article to Bohemian (demonym), since that was suggested by one user and approved by another. Several expressed no great concern with what the article was titled so long as it was moved. There was one objection to the proposed title. I agree with Uanfala and No such user that "demonym" describes its contents accurately. (closed by non-admin page mover) Srnec (talk) 01:26, 17 May 2021 (UTC)

– Before making this nomination, I checked the incoming links. There were 480 of them, and a round 200 were wrong. This suggests no WP:PTOPIC, but it was worse than that. A handful of those links were just silly (Bohemians in Kerala, the Bohemian quarters of Harare and Beirut, Bohemian language of the streets of Tiflis, the Bohemian zone of the prehistoric La Tène culture) - but a good number of other 183 were not just misleading but downright racially offensive, including (but not limited to} an enclave of freaks, immigrants and bohemians long before the hippies got there; a cafe which was frequented by prostitutes, musicians and Bohemian spirits; Bohemian con artists; a bohemian life of drugs and work as an exotic dancer; and drunken and promiscuous Bohemian motorcyclists.
 * Bohemian → Bohemian (ethnic group)
 * Bohemian (disambiguation) → Bohemian

Neither Bohemian people nor Bohemians would work as the title for an article for the ethnic group. Both terms are also applicable to people who practice a bohemian lifestyle.

Note to closer: if the move is made, ping me and I will help to WP:FIXDABLINKS. Narky Blert (talk) 15:56, 24 April 2021 (UTC) The discussion above is closed. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page. No further edits should be made to this discussion. You asked to be pinged. Srnec (talk) 01:26, 17 May 2021 (UTC)
 * Support. The article currently called Bohemian is well down the page views ranking for the dab, just behind Bohemian F.C..  As the term appears to have no primary topic, the disambiguation page should reside at the base name.  Choosing the qualifier is problematic: "ethnic group" is the best attempt so far but a better alternative would be welcome.  I would also be happy to help fix incoming links; this could be done before moving the dab once we know that a move will occur.  Certes (talk) 16:58, 24 April 2021 (UTC)
 * After reading later comments, I support a move to Bohemian (demonym) as first choice and to any other reasonable title as second choice; the priority is to vacate title Bohemian for the dab. Certes (talk) 12:03, 3 May 2021 (UTC)
 * Oppose this is a geographically defined group of people—not an ethnic group at all since it would include ethnically Czech, German, and Jewish people. I do support taking this off primary topic but a different disambiguator is needed. Alternatively, the article could be merged into Bohemia where the various inhabitants are discussed. (t · c)  buidhe  17:41, 24 April 2021 (UTC)
 * Support merging article. This article has almost no sources. Merge content (to Bohemia, Bohemianism, or other appropriate articles), and move Bohemian (disambiguation) to the now-vacant Bohemian. 162 etc. (talk) 21:39, 24 April 2021 (UTC)
 * (demonym) is OK but my first choice would be merge. (t · c)  buidhe  00:11, 30 April 2021 (UTC)
 * Support moving from primary. Per User:Buidhe, I have no idea what this page should be moved to, but it should definitely be moved. The disambiguation page should be moved to primary. Paintspot Infez (talk) 21:04, 24 April 2021 (UTC)
 * Support moving from primary, but '(ethnic group)' may be problematic. However, the description in Ethnic group does not require a shared ancestry and it seems to apply here: Bohemians share a language, traditions and cultural practices that may distinguish them from other population groups. Would Bohemian (population group) be better? Verbcatcher (talk) 12:41, 25 April 2021 (UTC)
 * Bohemians don't necessarily speak the same language, some spoke Czech, others German, there's also Bohemian Romani and Bohemian Jewish language... (t · c)  buidhe  00:11, 30 April 2021 (UTC)
 * Comment (nom). I would agree with either a merge or a different qualifier or title - just so long as Bohemian becomes the basename, to stop the sort of garbage which I found from collecting again, and to stop innocent searching readers being directed to an inappropriate page. Narky Blert (talk) 20:23, 25 April 2021 (UTC)
 * Merge this somewhere, preferably to a trash can, and move the dab page here. Unsourced article without a clear topic (it's mostly about the word Bohemian and how it is (not) used to refer to things Czech). The article Bohemia already contains everything that should be said about the subject; it uses the demonym "Bohemians" exactly four times, in an obvious manner, and does not even bother to link to this article. No such user (talk) 07:25, 27 April 2021 (UTC)
 * P.S. Bohemian people could be useful as an interim title. It's currently a redlink, suggesting that nobody has found it plausible so far, and I don't think it can plausibly refer to those of bohemian lifestyle. No such user (talk) 07:29, 27 April 2021 (UTC)
 * I think Bohemian people is still ambiguous, but that doesn't detract from your most important point: the disambiguation page should occupy the base name Bohemian. What we do with the article currently there is a secondary detail.  Certes (talk) 12:58, 27 April 2021 (UTC)
 * Support move of dab page per nom: there's clearly no primary topic here. As for the new title of the article currently sitting at Bohemian, how about Bohemian (demonym)? This seems less ambiguous, and it more faithfully reflects the article's actual scope. – Uanfala (talk) 13:48, 28 April 2021 (UTC)
 * Yes, I agree that Bohemian (demonym) best describes the current scope. I still prefer merge, but realistically the RM closer is not going to perform it, and for the time being it's good enough just to move this out of the way. No such user (talk) 14:29, 28 April 2021 (UTC)
 * I think this is a two-stage process:
 * Move Bohemian → Bohemian something, and Bohemian (disambiguation) → Bohemian per the original proposal (perhaps with a better qualifier)
 * Merge Bohemian something (into what?), which can be done later, either boldly or following a separate discussion
 * – Certes (talk) 14:40, 28 April 2021 (UTC)
 * (Nom) - (demonym) is a better qualifier than anything I managed to come up with; I like it. Narky Blert (talk) 10:47, 3 May 2021 (UTC)
 * Support moving dab page here and moving this page to Bohemians Red   Slash  17:51, 3 May 2021 (UTC)
 * (nom) Two from my chamber of horrors - "artistic Bohemians and the down-and-outs" and "an enclave of freaks, immigrants and Bohemians long before the hippies got there". Narky Blert (talk) 10:38, 6 May 2021 (UTC)
 * Move from primary and merge with Bohemia, although not much info to copy that isn't already there. I would also support simply deleting it. Vpab15 (talk) 18:52, 3 May 2021 (UTC)
 * I attempted to start to fixing the incoming links to the moved dab but hit a snag. Please can someone explain to me (preferably in words of one syllable) the difference between Bohemianism and Bohemian style?  Thanks, Certes (talk) 02:59, 17 May 2021 (UTC)
 * There's a lot of overlap; but bohemians are generally broke, whereas people who live in bohemian style have money. Narky Blert (talk) 06:16, 17 May 2021 (UTC)
 * Compare the lifestyle of actual shepherds and milkmaids with French aristocrats at Versailles pretending to be ones. Narky Blert (talk) 06:30, 17 May 2021 (UTC)
 * Thanks for the ping. ✅. Narky Blert (talk) 13:54, 17 May 2021 (UTC)

Thanks to everyone who helped clear up the incoming links so quickly. Certes (talk) 15:11, 17 May 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Bohemian (demonym)


text:
User:Piolinfax

User ca:User:Piolinfax Vikipediisto Userfr:Utilisateur:PiolinfaxUser User User pl:Wikipedysta:Piolinfax User

Hi there. If you leave me a message in my talk page in en.wikipedia, I am likely to miss it for a long time. This is a better place for your messages to me. Regards. -- Piolinfax (talk) 00:35, 23 December 2008 (UTC)

title: User:Piolinfax


text:
Talk:Lumitalo

The lumitalo does exist! Lumitalos were built in Houghton and Hancock, Michigan in the winters of 2001-2002 and 2002-2003! --Daniel C. Boyer 17:43 12 Jul 2003 (UTC)

title: Talk:Lumitalo


text:
Mary Garden

Mary Garden (20 February 1874 – 3 January 1967) was a Scottish-American operatic lyric soprano, then mezzo-soprano with a substantial career in France and America in the first third of the 20th century. She spent the latter part of her childhood and youth in the United States and eventually became an American citizen, although she lived in France for many years and eventually retired to Scotland, where she spent the last 30 years of her life and died.

Described as "the Sarah Bernhardt of opera", Garden was an exceptional actress as well as a talented singer. She was particularly admired for her nuanced performances which employed interesting uses of vocal color. Possessing a beautiful lyric voice that had a wide vocal range and considerable amount of flexibility, Garden first arose to success in Paris during the first decade of the 20th century. She became the leading soprano at the Opéra-Comique; notably portraying roles in several world premieres, including Mélisande in Claude Debussy's Pelléas et Mélisande (1902). She worked closely with Jules Massenet, in whose operas she excelled. Massenet notably wrote the title role in his opera Chérubin (1905) for her.

In 1907, Oscar Hammerstein convinced Garden to join the Manhattan Opera House in New York where she became an immediate success. By 1910 she was a household name in America and Garden appeared in operas in several major American cities; including performing with the Boston Opera Company and the Philadelphia Opera Company. Between 1910 and 1932 Garden worked in several opera houses in Chicago. She first worked with the Chicago Grand Opera Company (1910–1913) and then joined the Chicago Opera Association in 1915, ultimately becoming the company's director in 1921. Although director for only one year, Garden was notably responsible for staging the world premiere of Sergei Prokofiev's The Love for Three Oranges before the company went bankrupt in 1922. Shortly thereafter she became the director of the Chicago Civic Opera where she commissioned the opera Camille by 28-year-old composer Hamilton Forrest. She sang roles at the Civic Opera until 1931, notably in several United States and world premieres.

Additionally, Garden appeared in two silent films made by Samuel Goldwyn.

After retiring from the opera stage in 1934, Garden worked as a talent scout for MGM. She also gave lectures and recitals, mostly on the life and works of Claude Debussy, until 1949. She retired to Scotland and in 1951 published a successful autobiography, Mary Garden's Story.

Her voice is preserved on a number of recordings made for the Gramophone Company (including some with Debussy at the piano), Edison Records, Pathé, Columbia Records and the Victor Talking Machine Company between 1903 and 1929.

Early years
Mary Garden was born on 20 February 1874 at 35 Charlotte Street, Aberdeen, Scotland, the oldest of the four daughters of Robert Davidson Garden (b. 1851), a cashier at the Blaikie ironworks, and his wife Mary (née Joss) (1852–1948). Her parents married a little over a month before her birth. Two of her sisters were born in Scotland while another was born in the United States.

The family moved to Chicopee, Massachusetts, United States when she was nine years old. They then moved to Hartford, Connecticut a few years later, and then to Chicago in 1888 when Mary was 14.

Voice student
She showed promise as a young singer, and studied with Sarah Robinson-Duff in Chicago under the financial support of wealthy patrons David and Florence Mayer. In 1896 she pursued further studies in Paris, chiefly with Ange-Pierre de Trabadelo and Lucien Fugère, still under the support of the Mayers. She also studied some under Jacques Bouhy, Jules Chevalier, and Mathilde Marchesi. In 1899 Garden lost the backing of her benefactors, and she began to study singing with the American soprano Sibyl Sanderson. Sanderson introduced her to Jules Massenet and Albert Carré, the director of the Opéra-Comique.

Operatic debut
Impressed with her voice, Carré invited her to join the roster at the Opéra-Comique in 1900. Garden made her professional opera debut with the company on 10 April 1900 in the title role of Gustave Charpentier's Louise, which had received its world premiere only two months before. Although Garden had been preparing the role, her debut, at the eighth performance of the work, was unscheduled as she was a last minute replacement for Marthe Rioton who had become ill. From 1901 for two years, she carried on an affair with André Messager, who conducted her in Louise. She claimed that when the Opéra-Comique director Albert Carré asked her to marry him, she replied that she had someone else in her life – Messager. Her description is of a tempestuous relationship, but they remained friends until his death.

After her debut, Garden quickly became one of the leading sopranos at the Opéra-Comique. In 1901 she starred in two world premieres, Marie in Lucien Lambert's La Marseillaise and Diane in Gabriel Pierné's La fille de Tabarin. That same year she sang the title role in Massenet's Thaïs at Aix-les-Bains, and sang both the title roles in Massenet's Manon and Messager's Madame Chrysanthème at the Opéra de Monte-Carlo; all under the coaching of Sanderson. In 1902, Claude Debussy selected her to play the female lead at the Opéra-Comique debut of his Pelléas et Mélisande. Garden's performances met with considerable critical acclaim. She also created a sensation as Salomé in the French version of Richard Strauss's opera of that name.

Following the success of Pelléas et Mélisande, Garden periodically went to London to sing at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden while still appearing in performances in Paris. At Covent Garden she sang Manon, Juliette in Charles Gounod's Roméo et Juliette, and Marguerite in Gounod's Faust during the 1902 and 1903 seasons. Garden, however, did not care for London and decided to not take any more engagements in that city. Her performances at the Opéra-Comique during this time included the title role in Massenet's Grisélidis (1902), Violetta in Giuseppe Verdi's La traviata (1903), the title role in the world premiere of Xavier Leroux's La reine Fiammette (1903), and the title role in Saint-Saëns's Hélène (1905). In 1905 she sang at the Opéra de Monte-Carlo in the world premiere of Massenet's Chérubin, a role which the composer wrote specifically for her. The following year she returned to the Opéra-Comique to sing Chrysis in the world premiere of Camille Erlanger's Aphrodite.

Departure from the Opéra-Comique and later career in the United States
Persuaded by Oscar Hammerstein to join his competition against the Metropolitan Opera, Garden quit her frequent Opéra-Comique engagements to join the Manhattan Opera House in New York City. She made her American debut in the Manhattan Opera House on 25 November 1907 in the title role in Thaïs, a role which fitted her personality and art like a glove. She further astounded American audiences with her uncanny portrayal of a young boy in Massenet's Le jongleur de Notre-Dame (1908) and in the United States premiere of Pelléas et Mélisande.

In 1908 she returned to Paris to join the roster at the Opéra National de Paris. She sang there for one season, notably portraying Ophelia in Ambroise Thomas's Hamlet (1908) and the title part in Henry Février's Monna Vanna (1909) among other roles. She also sang the role of Marguerite in Gounod's Faust (1909) in Brussels. Afterwards, Garden returned again to New York in 1909 to perform the title role in the French version of Richard Strauss's Salome. During the performance she lasciviously kissed the severed head of John the Baptist which shocked the morals of a number of the audience members even more than her Dance of the Seven Veils (which she performed in a bodystocking). By 1910, Garden had become a household name within America. She left the Manhattan Opera House to join the Chicago Grand Opera Company where she sang from 1910 to 1913 in such roles as Mélisande, Fanny in Massenet's Sapho, Dulcinée in Massenet's Don Quichotte, the Prince in Massenet's Cendrillon, the title role in Georges Bizet's Carmen, and the title role in Giacomo Puccini's Tosca. During this time she also sang in other American cities, notably appearing in the world premiere of Victor Herbert's Natoma in Philadelphia on 25 February 1911 and in the title role Février's Monna Vanna in its United States premiere in Boston. In late April 1912 Garden along with Caruso and the Metropolitan Opera Company gave special concerts in which they raised $12,000(over quarter of a million in 2017) dollars for aid to survivors of the Titanic tragedy.

Garden next sang with the Chicago Opera Association from 1915 until 1921 where she sang such roles as the title part in Massenet's Cléopâtre and the title part in the world premiere of Février's Gismonda (both 1919), and the role of Fiora in Montemezzi's L'amore dei tre re (1920) among many others. She notably became the director of the Chicago Opera Association in a notorious coup for the organization's final 1921–22 season. She was also an early proponent of radio, and entered into an agreement with Chicago radio station KYW to broadcast that season's grand opera performances, the first time this had been done.

Although serving as director for only one year, she was responsible for producing the world première of Prokofiev's The Love for Three Oranges. Also during this time she appeared in two silent films made by Samuel Goldwyn, the title role in a film version of Thais (1917) and the role of Dolores Fargis in The Splendid Sinner (1918). During World War I she was decorated by the French and Serbian governments and made a Chevalier (knight) of the Légion d'Honneur in 1921.

In 1922 Garden became the director of the newly formed Chicago Civic Opera where she also performed roles until 1931. Among the many roles she performed with the Chicago Civic Opera are Charlotte in Massenet's Werther (1924), Katyusha in Franco Alfano's Risurrezione (1925, in French) and the heroine of Arthur Honegger's Judith (1927), the last two both United States premières. In 1930 she sang in the world premiere of Hamilton Forrest's Camille, an opera based on Dumas' The Lady of the Camellias. That same year she returned to the Opéra-Comique to appear in several operas. In 1931 Garden sang her last role with the Chicago Civic Opera, Carmen, after which the company went bankrupt.

Garden retired from the opera stage in 1934, after making her last appearance as Katyusha in Franco Alfano's Risurrezione at the Opéra-Comique. After retiring, Garden worked as a talent scout for MGM and gave lectures and recitals, mostly on the life and works of Claude Debussy up through 1949. For much of her life she had openly encouraged young singers and even secretly paid for them to receive training. She continued to support young artists after her retirement through master classes, often allowing aspiring artists to attend for free. She also had her own voice studio in Chicago where one of her pupils was soprano and philanthropist Jean Tennyson. Tennyson later used her great wealth to provide scholarships for young singers to study the French repertoire with Garden; including soprano Beverly Sills. Garden and Tennyson remained lifelong friends, and Garden dedicated her autobiography "To Jean Tennyson in loving appreciation of our long and loyal friendship."

Personal life
As portrayed in both her autobiography and Michael Turnbull's biography, Garden was an archetypal diva who knew exactly how to get her own way. She had a number of feuds with various colleagues from which she invariably emerged victorious, eventually ending up in control of the Chicago Opera. A relentless self-publicist, a woman however of genuine beauty, her flamboyant personal life was often the subject of more attention than her public performances, and her affairs with men, real or imagined, were liable to emerge as scandalous rumours in the newspapers.

Her autobiography, Mary Garden's Story (1951), is marred by inaccuracies. Always prone to embellish and exaggerate, Garden was already succumbing to dementia when the manuscript was being prepared.

It was in recognition of her personal history that Scottish Opera chose to present in their inaugural 1962 season Pelléas et Mélisande. That year marked the centenary of Debussy's birth and the diamond jubilee of the opera. By the time of the first performance Mary Garden was unable to accept her invitation to attend, being in hospital after a fall, and with her health in decline.

Mary Garden died in Inverurie, close to Aberdeen, where she spent the last 30 years of her life. An award for opera singing at the Aberdeen International Youth Festival is made in her name. There is a small memorial garden dedicated to her in the west-end of Aberdeen, with a small inscribed stone and a bench.

Recordings and films
Mary Garden made about 40 gramophone records between 1903 and 1929 for G & T, Columbia and Victor. They continue to be reissued and are of interest to connoisseurs of historical recordings—although Garden herself was said to have been generally disappointed with the results. Of special interest are the four 1904 Black G&T recordings she made accompanied by Claude Debussy in Paris. There are also a small number of recordings made from radio broadcasts.

She made two silent films, Thais (1917) and a World War I romance entitled The Splendid Sinner (1918). Without her singing voice, her acting was criticized and neither film was a success. In the 1930s, Garden appeared on Cecil B. DeMille's Lux Radio Theater. One such airing had Garden and Melvyn Douglas reading the play Tonight or Never by ) which had recently been made into a motion picture.

Literary references
Garden is cited with other artistic figures of the period in Hugh MacDiarmid's poem A Drunk Man Looks at the Thistle (ll.30–2): Whaur's Isadora Duncan dancin nou, Is Mary Garden in Chicago still And Duncan Grant in Paris – and me fou?

Allen Ginsberg contrasts the relative silence surrounding Garden's death with the uproar caused by the death of Jack Ruby in "Bayonne Turnpike to Tuscarora," from the 1973 award-winning collection The Fall of America:  Mary Garden dead in Aberdeen, Jack Ruby dead in Dallas - Sweet green incense in car cabin ... New Years' 1967 come, Reynolds Metals up a Half Mary Garden, 92, sleeping tonite in Aberdeen Garden and Ruby both died on 3 January 1967.

title: Mary Garden


text:
User:Hemmer

fr:Utilisateur:Hemmer

he M me R member from the french Wikipédia (see heMmeR).

Born in Rouen, now living in Liévin, Pas-de-Calais.

title: User:Hemmer


text:
George Colman

George Colman may refer to:

 * George Colman the Elder (1732–1794), English dramatist
 * George Colman the Younger (1762–1836), English dramatist, son of the above

title: George Colman


text:
Talk:Public holidays in Australia

This list belongs in the Australia article as part of the standard country format. I suggest a merge. I don't think other countries have a separate article for holidays. --Jiang 18:04 12 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * A check of the Holiday article shows that a number of countries have separate articles concerning their national holidays. Keep this separate and expand the article, with a brief article in the main country section. kiwiinapanic 07:54, 8 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * The country articles are supposed to be about important stuff. Cameron is quite right. Tannin 10:43, 8 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Labor Day vs. Labor Day
The paragraph on Labor Day doesn't match the text on Labor Day. Can someone familiar with this fix them, please ? -- PFHLai 19:11, 2 March 2006 (UTC)

Easter Tuesday
Easter Tuesday was only a bank holiday in Tasmania up until 2006 (that is, government departments, banks, the University got the day off, but no-one else did). From 2007 it is a "full" holiday. I can't find any notices or news reports on the change though - just that the official source has quietly updated. Anyone have any more details? -- Chuq 04:52, 4 April 2007 (UTC)
 * This doesn't seem to have happened. It remains only a government holiday.--Dacium (talk) 22:35, 14 April 2008 (UTC)

"Australia has ten standard public holidays nationally"
It looks like only nine to me.

For boxing day, is lists the 2 dates that it can be on. Is that not the same for all public holidays that fall on a Sunday? --RobBrisbane 09:16, 17 July 2007 (UTC)
 * Its 10. New Years, Australia, Good Friday, Easter Sat, Easter Mond, Anzac Day, Queens Birth, Christmas, Boxing, Labour Day or eqivalent. Its sometimes caled nine because easter saturday never falls on a week day and there is no weekday holiday for it, but its technically a public holiday.--Dacium (talk) 22:35, 14 April 2008 (UTC)

 * Easter Saturday is not a holiday in TAS or WA (see references to state govt sites within article), so it's not a national holiday. MrDizzy (talk) 15:27, 16 August 2008 (UTC)MrDizzy

Substitute Holidays in Victoria
Substitute Holidays for Christmas and New Years were restored in 2004 by the current State Government.

See this press release:

http://www.dpc.vic.gov.au/domino/Web_Notes/newmedia.nsf/b0222c68d27626e2ca256c8c001a3d2d/acea1150f2e9b76dca256e38007b5336!OpenDocument —Preceding unsigned comment added by Neb-Maat-Re (talk • contribs) 23:52, 19 February 2008 (UTC)

There is no "substitute" Holiday for Anzac day in victoria for 2015 http://www.theage.com.au/victoria/no-extra-public-holiday-for-anzac-day-2015-20140720-zv1ep.html http://www.business.vic.gov.au/victorian-public-holidays-and-daylight-saving/victorian-public-holidays

I think that WA has it as a regulation that an extra Anzac day holiday on Monday exists, no one else does. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 199.61.25.253 (talk) 19:22, 2 April 2015 (UTC)

What is Easter Saturday ?
The wikipedia entry for "Easter Saturday" states it is the Saturday which is 6 days after Easter Sunday. However, in Australia,   the day between Good Friday and Easter (Sunday)  is always called Easter Saturday.Eregli bob (talk) 08:47, 20 March 2008 (UTC)

 * Secularly it is called Easter Saturday, the christian name is Holy Saturday, with easter saturday being the next saturday.--Dacium (talk) 22:35, 14 April 2008 (UTC).

What is the concern about the term "easter saturday". In NSW and QLD it is called the day after Good Friday and in Victoria it is called the day before Easter Sunday. Is there some type of religious taboo about mentioning Easter Saturday - like Vodemort from Harry Potter?

Problems
There are some problems i see with article. It claims boxing day for example in QLD is not substituted unless it falls on a sunday. This is totally incorrect. If boxing day is a monday it is subsituated to tuesday. I blieve most of that table is wrong/missleading because the acts have been poorly read/understood. Furthermore, the minister may declar any other public holiday and in modern times the same number is given every year, so when the rules say we don't get one, we usually get it anyway be proclomation.--Dacium (talk) 03:45, 17 November 2008 (UTC)

Same story in NSW. I'd update the table myself if I knew how to

http://www.industrialrelations.nsw.gov.au/About_OIR/Public_Holidays.html —Preceding unsigned comment added by 203.47.220.118 (talk) 09:38, 23 November 2009 (UTC)

Only some states are mentioned in the "Public holidays by state" section.

I think a table of the actual dates for each state for the current/next year would be a great idea!

Request to Change Adelaide Cup / Adelaide Cup Day -> March Public Holiday
The article has a few references for SA's "Adelaide Cup Day", but that name is only colloquial and the official name of the holiday is "March Public Holiday". March public holiday legislatively falls on the third monday in March, but has been proclaimed to fall on the second monday until 2019. This is all from the existing source "Public Holidays 2011" SA, http://www.safework.sa.gov.au/show_page.jsp?id=2483#item33650

The name in this article should reflect the actual name of the holiday, as wikipedia does not currently recognise it at all.

101.103.156.237 (talk) 03:25, 5 March 2016 (UTC)

Easter Sunday in Queensland
The table has Easter Sunday as not being a public holiday in Queensland. This is incorrect; it has been a public holiday in Queensland since 2017.

Source: https://www.qld.gov.au/recreation/travel/holidays/public

See footnote 5 "Easter Sunday is appointed as a public holiday. These arrangements have been in place since 2017 following amendments to the Holidays Act 1983 (passed by Parliament on 1 December 2016)."

Invasion Day?
Maybe it's too soon to tell whether the current protests in Australia mean the end of Australia Day, or merely its renaming to Invasion Day. Presumably this will be sorted out one way or another in due course. (My dad was born on April 25, 1916, the first Anzac Day if one counts the beach storming at Gallipoli as the zeroth Anzac Day. At least that's not currently being protested.)  Vaughan Pratt (talk) 22:32, 26 January 2021 (UTC)

Heritage Day
how is the day celebrated 41.122.132.109 (talk) 13:04, 13 April 2024 (UTC)
 * This Australian has never heard of it. It's certainly not a national public holiday, nor a public holiday in my state, Victoria. HiLo48 (talk) 23:42, 13 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Public holidays in Australia