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Anerood Jugnauth

Sir Anerood Jugnauth, GCSK, PV, (29 March 1930 – 3 June 2021) was a Mauritian statesman, politician and barrister who served both as President and Prime Minister of Mauritius. He was Member of Parliament for Piton & Riviere Du Rempart. A central figure of Mauritian politics in the 1980s and 1990s, he was Leader of the Opposition from 1976 to 1982. He served four consecutive terms as prime minister from 1982 to 1995 and again from 2000 to 2003. He was then elected as President from 2003 to 2012. Following his party's victory in the 2014 general elections, he served his sixth and final term as prime minister, becoming the nation's longest serving prime minister with more than 18 years of tenure, overtaking Seewoosagur Ramgoolam, who held the office for 14 years.

Under Jugnauth's leadership, his party/alliances won 5 general parliamentary elections in a row in 1976, 1982, 1983, 1987, and 1991. He then led the MMM in its first electoral campaign and was presented as prime minister in 1976. The MMM won but could not govern due to a hung parliament and Jugnauth became Leader of the Opposition up to 1982 where the MMM-PSM alliance won all the seats. He became prime minister up to 1995. He was appointed again as prime minister in 2000 and finally as President in 2003.

Jugnauth was a cabinet minister during the leadership of Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam from 1965 up to 1969. In 1970, he moved out and went to the newly created political party of the Mauritian Militant Movement, where he eventually became its leader in 1982. He created his own political party called Militant Socialist Movement in 1983 and was once more elected. His party remained in power up to 1995.

Jugnauth founded the Militant Socialist Movement party in 1983. He was honoured with Pravasi Bharatiya Samman Awards for his continued support for India's causes and concerns and for strengthening India's relationship with Mauritius. Following his tenure as President, Jugnauth led an alliance known as "L'Alliance LEPEP" which won the 2014 general elections. He resigned in January 2017 and was succeeded by his son Pravind Jugnauth as prime minister.

Jugnauth was made Queen's Counsel in 1980 and was made a member of the Privy Council in 1983. He was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II in 1988 when Mauritius was still one of the Queen's realms.

Early career and education
Anerood Jugnauth was born in Palma, Mauritius in a Bhojpuri speaking Hindu Bihari Indo-Mauritian family belonging to the Yadav community and was brought up there. His grandfather had migrated to Mauritius from the Ballia District of indian state of Uttar Pradesh in the 1870s. He had his primary education at Palma Primary School and his secondary education at Regent College. He taught for some time at New Eton College and later worked as a clerk in the Poor Law Department for some time before being transferred to the Judicial Department. In 1951, he left Mauritius for the UK to study law at the Lincoln's Inn, and became a lawyer in 1954.

Councillor
In 1957, Jugnauth was elected President of Palma Village Council. Whilst serving as an IFB member of Legislative Council he was also elected as member of the Municipal Council of Vacoas-Phoenix.

1963 elections
Jugnauth was elected for the first time to the Legislative Council in Constituency No. 14 of Riviere du Rempart at a time when there were 40 Constituencies in the island in October 1963 and was candidate of the Independent Forward Bloc (IFB).

In 1964, he was one of the founders of All Mauritius Hindu Congress but continued to serve in Seewoosagur Ramgoolam's government as State Minister for Development from 1965 to 1966. He was then promoted to Minister of Labour in November 1966. He took part in the London Constitutional Conference on Mauritius, also commonly known as the 1965 Lancaster Conference. He resigned from office in April 1967, joined the Civil Service as Magistrate, and did not take part in the August 1967 General Elections. In 1970 he joined the MMM and became the party's president.

1976 elections
The main contenders of the 1976 elections were the Independence Party (alliance of Mauritian Labor Party and the CAM), PMSD, UDM, IFB and the relatively new MMM led by Paul Bérenger and Jugnauth himself. Despite receiving most of the votes (38.64%) the MMM only secured 34 seats, two short of an absolute majority. The Independence Party scored 37.90% of votes and 28 seats, whilst the PMSD received 16.20% of the votes and 8 seats. By re-establishing its former alliance, which it had since 1969 with the PMSD, Ramgoolam managed to stay in power. The Labour-PMSD-CAM alliance occupied 36 seats with a weak majority of only 2 seats, despite CAM's leader Sir Abdool Razack Mohamed's failure to be re-elected. Jugnauth thus served as Leader of the Opposition until the following general elections in 1982.

1982-1995 Prime minister tenure
From 1976 to 1982, the MLP had been weakened by the defection of part of its coalition partner, the PMSD, while the CAM declined to contest the election. The MMM had formed an alliance with Harish Boodhoo's Parti Socialiste Mauricien known as PSM. The election resulted in a landslide victory for the MMM-PSM alliance (formed by Jugnauth and Berenger in early 1981), which won 64.16% of the vote and all 60 elected seats (42 by the MMM, 18 by the PSM, and two for the allied Organisation du Peuple Rodriguais) (for more detail see 1982 Legislative Assembly election results). Voter turn-out was 87.3%, with 471,196 out of an electorate of 540,000 casting their votes for the 34 parties contesting 62 seats. The LP, which had dominated Mauritian politics since 1948, won no seats and (together with the Muslim Action Committee) only 25.78% of the vote. The PMSD did even worse, receiving only 7.79% of the vote. The LP and the PMSD each did eventually receive two seats in parliament under the best-loser provisions.

Jugnauth became Prime Minister of Mauritius for the first time, Boodhoo Deputy Prime Minister, and Paul Bérenger Minister of Finance. Jugnauth being prime minister announced general elections in 1983 again. This time he was not a candidate for the MMM but he proposed to Boodhoo dissolving the PSM to make a new stronger Party called the MSM (Militant Socialist Movement). He created the MSM and in Alliance with the Mauritian Labour Party went to the general elections together trying to fight against Berenger and his MMM. In March 1983, the government collapsed when the dominant faction within the MMM [Mouvement Militant Mauricien], led by Bérenger, split from Jugnauth's leadership and resigned from the cabinet.

In early April 1983, Jugnauth formed a new party, the Mouvement Socialiste Militant (MSM), which, in May, amalgamated with the PSM led by Harish Boodhoo. However, the new government lacked a majority in the legislative assembly, and Jugnauth dissolved the National assembly in June. New elections were held on 23 August 1983. Jugnauth was re-elected and returned as prime minister of the MSM-PMSD-Labour alliance, defeating the MMM.

The MMM received 209,845 votes (46.4%) – the highest proportion of the vote ever received by a single party in any Mauritian election. The Alliance received 236,146 votes (52.22%); independents and the Rodrigues parties got the remaining 1.38% and two seats. Of the 552,800 registered voters, 452,221 (81.8%) had voted. When seats were distributed, however, the Alliance held a majority – 46 to the 22 received by the MMM. The disproportionate weighting of seats reflects the fact that MMM votes were concentrated in urban constituencies where large numerical majorities won only three seats, whereas the Alliance swept the rural constituencies where Hindus predominated.

Within months of taking office, the Alliance began a process of fragmentation that by 1986 left the government without a working majority in parliament. When in February 1984, the MLP (Mauritius Labour Party) left the government, 11 of its MPs continued to support the government and formed a faction within the MLP called the Rassemblement des Travaillistes Mauriciens (RTM). Upon proroguing parliament in November 1986, Jugnauth agreed that an election was necessary.

Parliament was dissolved on 3 July, and the election date set for 30 August 1987, one year ahead of schedule. Campaigning started on 22 July 1987. Jugnauth's Alliance fought the election with his MSM (Militant Socialist Movement), Duval's MPSD (Parti Mauricien Social Démocrate), and both major factions of the MLP, the one led by Satcam Boolell and the RTM. The MMM allied itself with two small parties, the Mouvement Travailliste Démocrat (RTD) and the Front des Travailleurs Socialiste (FTS). A total of 639,488 voters were registered (approximately 60% of the total population) and of these, 546,623 (85.5%) cast their votes. A total of 359 candidates ran for the 62 elected seats. During the election campaign, the ruling MSM/MLP/PMSD alliance was known as the Sun (Soleil) and the opposing union (composed of MMM/MTD/FTS) as the Heart (Coeur) after their respective emblems.

While overall participation of voters in the polling amounted to 85.5%, it ran up to 93% in some constituencies. The average size of the multimember constituencies was around 30,000. As in previous elections, the MMM and its partners received the highest percentage of votes, 48.12%, of which a small percentage can be attributed to its two small partners (see 1987 Legislative Assembly election results for more detail). It won 21 seats, comprising 19 of the 30 urban seats, and only two of the 30 rural seats. The Alliance (MSM/PMSD/MLP) won a total of 49.86% and 39 seats. After the best-loser seats were allocated, the Alliance held 46 seats to the MMM's 24. The two seats of the Organisation du Peuple Rodriguais helped to raise those of the Alliance to 46.

On 6 August 1991, Jugnauth dissolved the national assembly and announced that a general election would be held on 15 September, nearly a year early. Jugnauth led an alliance of his MSM (Militant Socialist Movement) with the MMM (Mauritian Militant Movement) and the RTD (Rassemblement des Travaillistes Mauriciens) against an alliance of the MLP (Mauritius Labour Party) and the PMSD (Parti Mauricien Social Démocrate). The MSM/MMM/RTD alliance was better prepared than the opposition. Before the election date had been announced, it had already drawn up its list of candidates for the 20 constituencies and published its election manifesto. The opposition lost valuable time with lengthy negotiations concerning candidates and manifesto. Some 25 parties and independents and 331 candidates were involved. According to official figures, 682,000 voters (about 63% of the total population of 1,083,000) were entitled to vote, and of these about 576,300 (84.5%) turned out. The government alliance's 56.3% of the vote gave it 57 seats in parliament, while the opposition's 39.9% of the vote gave it only three seats. Only four best-loser seats were allocated. Jugnauth once more ruled in Parliament House for a fourth term, and was once more elected prime minister.

1995 and onwards
When Jugnauth lost a vote of confidence over a language issue that required an amendment to the constitution, he dissolved parliament on 16 November 1995 and called a snap election for 20 December. Candidates had to be nominated by 4 December, and the campaign was officially opened on 5 December. A record 506 candidates entered the fray in which some 42 parties and independents participated. A landslide victory for the opposition ended Jugnauth's rule as prime minister which had lasted since 1982. The Labour Party-Mauritian Militant Movement (MMM) alliance captured all 60 of the directly elected seats on the island of Mauritius with only 63.7% of the poll, representing a mere 51.1% of the total electorate. The two seats on the island of Rodrigues went to l'Organisation du Peuple de Rodrigues (OPR). The MSM-RMM alliance obtained 19.3% of the votes cast or the support of 15.4% of the total electorate, but even under the best-loser system it found itself without a single seat in the National Assembly. (Renouveau Militant Mauricien (RMM) was the name adopted by a substantial part of the MMM led by Dr. Prem Nababsing (after Bérenger had broken away from it in 1993 and retained the right to the name of MMM).

Only four best-loser seats were allocated and went to small parties with little national influence – two to the Mouvement Rodriguais in Rodrigues island and the other two respectively to the Hizbullah Party and the Parti Gaëtan Duval (PGD, formerly the PMSD). Jugnauth stood as a candidate at the by-election held in constituency No. 9 (Flacq/Bon Acceuil) in April 1998 but was defeated. He immediately initiated the idea of an MSM/MMM federation which eventually took shape in January 1999. The Federation was dissolved, however, after the defeat of its candidate at the by-election held on 19 September 1999.

Jugnauth founded the MSM/MMM Alliance with Bérenger, leader of the MMM, on 14 August 2000, based on equal sharing of power. At the general elections held on 11 September 2000, he was elected as first member of constituency No 7 (Piton/Rivière du Rempart) and was appointed prime minister.

2000 tenure as Prime minister
The outgoing prime minister, Navin Ramgoolam of the Mauritian Labor Party led a coalition with Xavier Luc Duval, the leader of the Parti Mauricien Xavier Duval (PMXD). Duval was Minister of Finance in the previous government alliance formed in mid-1999. The other alliance was formed (for the fourth time) between Jugnauth (MSM) and Bérenger (MMM).

On 15 August 2000, the leaders of these two parties as well several other leaders from much smaller parties signed what they termed a 'historical electoral accord', which included a proposed sharing of the prime ministerial post between MSM leader Jugnauth and MMM leader Bérenger. Under this arrangement, Jugnauth would hold the post of prime minister for the first three years and Bérenger for the remaining two years. After surrendering the premiership to Paul Bérenger, Jugnauth would be called to assume the function of President of the Republic after reforms to strengthen the presidency, which was largely a symbolic post. The accord also provided for a reform of the electoral system to replace the "best losers system" gradually by proportional representation, and to end the Mauritius Broadcasting Corporation's monopoly over the electronic media.

In addition to sharing the post of prime minister, what made the MSM/MMM electoral accord exceptional was the fact that it would allow, for the first time in the history of the island, a non-Hindu Mauritian to become the prime minister. The elections took place on 11 September 2000 with a total of 80.87% of registered voters casting their ballots. The MSM/MMM alliance won 54 of the directly elected seats.

Jugnauth agreed to step down and become president as from 2003. Former president Karl Offmann was also involved. He was put into the office of the president on the condition that he would remain president only for 19 months. Jugnauth became president under the transition with the so-called "sudden" resignation of President Offmann.

Jugnauth resigned as prime minister on 30 September 2003 at 13:30 and also as member of parliament at 15:00, giving his resignation letter to Speaker of the House on the same day. He announced his departure in a 20-minute speech given to the members of parliament stating that he was leaving the office to make room for a new prime minister.

""Everything said and done about me, I am proud to go down in history as a no-nonsense, honest and dedicated prime minister having done my duty in good faith and without fear or favour. I have understood our political adversaries and, taken at its most, all divergent views and attitudes have been mere manifestations to our democracy at its best", said Jugnauth in the speech before his departure."

He was sworn into the presidency on 7 October 2003 following the resignation of President Karl Offmann.

Presidential mandates
Jugnauth, along with Lady Jugnauth, took over the keys of the Chateau of Reduit on 7 October 2003. His election to the presidency was largely approved by the entire population as it was considered to be the new era of Mauritian politics, allowing Paul Berenger to become prime minister who was the first person of a non-Hindu religion to become head of government.

In 2003, he handed the leadership of his party to his son Pravind Jugnauth. He announced that he had "reached the end of this road". During his first mandate, due to the constitution, he had to announce general elections, which eventually took place in July 2005.

Due to the end of the mandate of Jugnauth, two persons, Vice President (Angidi Chettiar) and himself were the two persons nominated to the Presidency. He was voted for by both governing members of parliament as well as opposition MPs. Jugnauth was elected to the ceremonial post of President in 2003. After five years in office, he was re-elected by the National Assembly in a unanimous vote on 19 September 2008, supported by both the government and the opposition.

2008–2014
Parliament voted for Jugnauth to remain as President for a second term in 2008. Shortly after, during the by-election of 2008 in constituency No 8, the Militant Socialist Movement won with the support of the Labour Party and Pravind Jugnauth returned as MP for that constituency.

In 2010, two days after his 80th birthday, the Labour-MSM-PMSD alliance was made and Navin Ramgoolam dissolved the parliament in respect of general elections. The alliance won the election and the MSM returned 13 MPs. However, in August 2011, the alliance broke and the MSM left the government leaving a very small majority for the prime minister. After having a private meeting with Berenger, the leader of the opposition, Jugnauth made a statement that he might resign as president if the situation got any worse concerning the Medpoint scandal which involved his son, Pravind, and who was summoned and arrested by the Independent Commission Against Corruption on conflict of interest. Eventually he resigned as president on 30 March 2012. He mentioned that he did not support government policies, many thought his disagreement stemmed from the fact that the government refused to help his son, accused of corruption, escape from the law. He stated that he resigned because of his disagreement with the members of the government.

Soon after his resignation from the Presidency in 2012, Berenger proposed a 'remake' of the MSM/MMM coalition, which was approved by both parties' structures (political bureaus and central committees). Jugnauth became leader of the alliance with the same conditions. He would hold office of prime minister for three years before resigning to make way for Berenger. Following internal crisis between both parties in 2013 and early 2014, Berenger announced two 'cooling off' periods to allow time to resolve these issues. Berenger announced the end of the MSM/MMM in April 2014. He was criticized as he had (on the eve) attended Jugnauth's birthday party and gave a very flattering speech on his political career. After the party, he went in the same night to meet Ramgoolam at a nearby restaurant to discuss a forthcoming alliance. He further announced an alliance between his MMM and Ramgoolam's Labour Party.

General elections (2014)
In April 2014, Paul Berenger announced the dissolution of the coalition due to major disagreement within both parties. Later Berenger announced a coalition between the Labour Party and the Mauritian Militant Movement. Jugnauth then led a coalition composed of the Militant Socialist Movement, PMSD and the ML which is a break-away group of individuals who resigned from the MMM due to the coalition with the Labour Party. Jugnauth's alliance known as "L'Alliance LEPEP" won the 2014 general elections. When Ramgoolam dissolved parliament in end of November 2014, Jugnauth and the MSM conducted an alliance with the PMSD and Mouvement Liberateur (a dissident MMM party led by its former Deputy Leader, Ivan Collendaveloo). His alliance won 47 out of the 60 seats contested. Jugnauth became prime minister for the sixth time and made history as he led an alliance that won against a Labour Party-MMM alliance, which are considered as the two biggest parties (through their significant electorates) in the country. The MSM which lost much of its rural electorate was since Jugnauth's retirement considered the third national party. It nevertheless got its core electorate (from the 1980s) back following its appeal to vote for Jugnauth for a last time as he announced it would be the last election he would contest due to his advanced age.

On 12 September 2016, Jugnauth announced that he would be resigning as prime minister very soon due to his advanced age. On 23 January 2017 he resigned and made his son the prime minister.

Assassination attempts
Overall, there have been 4 attempts on Sir Anerood Jugnauth's life. Two of those attempts were whilst he held office. The first one during his tenure was on 6 November 1988 at an Arya Samaj gathering in the suburb of Trèfles, Rose Hill by Satanand Sembhoo who drew a pistol to Prime Minister Jugnauth's head before being disarmed by bodyguards and onlookers. This was followed by a second attempt on 3 March 1989 at a temple in Ganga Talao when armed with a razor blade and disguised as a Hindu pilgrim, Iqbal Ghani assaulted Prime Minister Jugnauth. Both attempts were believed to be the result of drug cartels, against whom Jugnauth was leading a crack-down.

Personal life
Jugnauth was the owner of a building company on Mauritius, located at the Sun Trust Building situated at La Rue Edith Cavell, Port Louis. This building was the subject of controversies and critics as the owner leased its floor space at high prices which were achieved at the peak of the local property market's cycle. The Government's Ministry of Education department was a tenant of the Sun Trust Building until 1995 when newly elected Minister, James Burty-David, refused to use that building. The government then relocated the department into another building. The penalty paid to Jugnauth in terms of breach of contract amounted to Rs 45 million (US$1.5 million).

He was the patriarch of the Jugnauth family of Mauritius. Jugnauth married Sarojini Ballah on 18 December 1956 and he is the father of two children: Pravind and Shalini Jugnauth-Malhotra. Pravind has been Prime Minister of Mauritius since 2017 and was previously Minister of Finance as a Member of Parliament for the Constituency Moka & Quartier Militaire. Pravind is also the leader of the Mouvement Socialiste Militant (MSM).

He was also the only Mauritian who served as an elected member on each level in the country as he first served as village & town Councillor (being elected as a Councillor for Palma village in 1956 and again Councillor for the town of Vacoas-Phoenix in 1964). He then served as a Member of Parliament (elected in 1963), became Minister of State in 1965 which preceded his appointment as Minister of Labour in 1966 by Seewoosagur Ramgoolam. He was the only prime minister to have had a sibling and his son in his own cabinet from 2000 to 2003.

On 3 June 2021, Jugnauth died at Clinique Darné in Floréal, Mauritius, aged 91, due to illness.

Controversies
Jugnauth was subjected to various controversies over his 35 years of being on the front bench of Mauritian politics. In 1983, he was criticized for breaking the MMM-PSM coalition government and ousting the MMM from power. In 1984, he was criticized as head of government in the Amsterdam boys scandal which involved 4 government MPs who were arrested as they were carrying drugs from the Netherlands. He prorogued parliament in an objective to prevent any questions on the investigation. In 1988, he fired Satcam Boolell, then leader of the Labour Party, due to political disagreements.

In May 1992, a scandal erupted when the Bank of Mauritius issued a new Rs 20 note having the portrait of Sarojini Jugnauth. It was considered to be a birthday gift from Anerood to his wife. This was a major controversy whereby Jugnauth himself had to apologise in parliament to a private notice question from the opposition. He confirmed that he had reluctantly agreed to the proposal of the Bank of Mauritius to issue such a note. He expressed his sincere apologies and assured the population that he shall not commit such a mistake in the future.

In 1995, months before the general elections which Jugnauth would lose, the then government gave a contract to Sun Trust Building (owned by the Jugnauth family) for a period of 10 years. This was controversial as Jugnauth was the owner of the Building and at the same time was prime minister. The newly elected Labour Party-MMM government decided to rescind the contract. Jugnauth sued for damages and received Rs 45 million (US$1.5 million) as compensation. This was criticized in the press and among the Mauritian diaspora.

In 2007, Jugnauth threatened to have Mauritius leave the Commonwealth in protest at the UK's "barbarous" treatment of the people of the Chagos Islands. Jugnauth stated that he might take the United Kingdom to the International Court of Justice over the islanders' plight. The Chagos Islands, a British colony in the Indian Ocean, were leased to the US in the 1960s to build a military base. The residents were forced out, and the government says they cannot return, but have been granted British citizenship and has donated around 40 million pounds to the people who numbered 2,000 at the time. Many of the residents now live in poverty in Mauritius as that state has left them destitute, or as refugees in Britain where they have their housing and costs paid for, and receive financial aid to take the British to court. The American base was built on the large island of Diego Garcia within the Chagos archipelago. Mauritius claims the islands as part of its territory, and Jugnauth claimed his country was forced by the British to accept the Chagossians as a condition of independence.

Honours

 * QC (1980)
 * Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council (1983)
 * Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George (1988)
 * Grand Prix of the Order of La Pléiade (1984)
 * Honorary Doctorate from Aix-Marseille University (March 1985)
 * Doctor of Civil Law (Honoris Causa) from the University of Mauritius (May 1985)
 * Order of the Rising Sun (January 1988)
 * Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour (March 1990)
 * Grand Commander of the Order of the Star and Key of the Indian Ocean (2003)
 * Honorary Doctorate from Middlesex University (July 2009)
 * Padma Vibhushan from India (2020)

Jugnauth bore the title Right Honourable for life. He was also entitled to use MP post-nominal and prefix, as he was an MP for more than 35 years.

National honours

 * [[File:Order of the Star and Key of the Indian Ocean - GCSK, GOSK, CSK (Mauritius) - ribbon bar.png|70px]] Grand Commander of the Most Distinguished Order of the Star and Key of the Indian Ocean (GCSK) (2003)
 * [[File:Order of the Star and Key of the Indian Ocean - GCSK, GOSK, CSK (Mauritius) - ribbon bar.png|70px]] Grand Commander of the Most Distinguished Order of the Star and Key of the Indian Ocean (GCSK) (2003)

 * UK Order St-Michael St-George ribbon.svg Knight Commander of the Most Distinguished Order of St Michael and St George (KCMG) (1988)

Foreign honours

 * Legion Honneur GO ribbon.svg Grand Officer of the National Order of Legion of Honour (1990)
 * Padma Vibhushan Ribbon.svg Padma Vibhushan (2020)
 * Pravasi Bharatiya Samman Ribbon.png Pravasi Bharatiya Samman (2003)
 * JPN Kyokujitsu-sho 1Class BAR.svg Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun (1988)
 * Ordre de la Pléiade (Francophonie).gif Grand Cross of the Order of La Pléiade (1984)
 * JPN Kyokujitsu-sho 1Class BAR.svg Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun (1988)
 * Ordre de la Pléiade (Francophonie).gif Grand Cross of the Order of La Pléiade (1984)
 * Ordre de la Pléiade (Francophonie).gif Grand Cross of the Order of La Pléiade (1984)
 * Ordre de la Pléiade (Francophonie).gif Grand Cross of the Order of La Pléiade (1984)

Jugnauth was one of the only two prime ministers who served under Queen Elizabeth II and the pre-republic regime. There is one primary school in his former constituency, Riviere du Rempart under his name, known as Sir Anerood Jugnauth Government School, situated in the north of the country.

He has also a commemorative golden Mauritian rupee coin issued by the Bank of Mauritius having his portrait on the obverse and a Dodo on the reverse. The inscriptions are "THE Rt HON SIR ANEROOD JUGNAUTH PC, QC, KCMG " and is followed by "MAURITIUS". It originally holds a value of Rs 1,000 but is sold as a collector's piece at US$1,881. On 19 December 2010, he and his wife, Sarojini Ballah went to receive an official opening of a pictorial biography of the President himself showing his path from small age poor child to him being President of Mauritius in 2010 leaving behind him a rich career as one of the leaders of the country. The biography is entitled The Rise of a Common Man. Present at the ceremony were former prime minister Navin Ramgoolam, Vice Prime Minister Pravind Jugnauth and other ministers as well as friends of the latter.

title: Anerood Jugnauth


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Spin City

Spin City is an American sitcom television series that aired from September 17, 1996, to April 30, 2002, on ABC. Created by Gary David Goldberg and Bill Lawrence, the show is set in a fictionalized version of the New York City mayor's office, and originally starred Michael J. Fox as Mike Flaherty, the Deputy Mayor of New York. Fox departed in 2000 at the conclusion of Season 4 due to symptoms of Parkinson's disease, and Charlie Sheen became the new lead as Charlie Crawford for the final two seasons. The series was cancelled after six seasons in May 2002.

Premise
The series presents a fictionalized version of the local government of New York City, and follows its mayor Randall Winston (Barry Bostwick) and his staff as they run the city, although the main person in charge is Deputy mayor Mike Flaherty (Fox). Mike is talented at his job, dealing with political spin and office chaos, but not so good managing his personal life, which he neglects. Other members of staff at City Hall include press secretary Paul Lassiter (Richard Kind), the office snitch and a manipulative coward, who has a habit of being a troublemaker and is often kept in the dark about things; chief of staff Stuart Bondek (Alan Ruck), who thinks of himself as a lothario and is highly sexist; and head of minority affairs Carter Heywood (Michael Boatman), a gay black man with a suicidal dog named Rags.

Also on the staff are speech writer James Hobert (Alexander Chaplin), who is weak-willed and gullible; Mike's secretary Janelle Cooper (Victoria Dillard), who is no-nonsense, pragmatic, and slightly apathetic towards the general chaos of her work; and accountant Nikki Faber (Connie Britton), who has a comically healthy relationship with her mother and often talks to her openly about sex and other taboo subjects. Janelle later becomes the mayor's secretary and Stacey Paterno (Jennifer Esposito) joins the show as Mike's secretary and Paul's nemesis. Together, this group helps run City Hall, improves the Mayor's image, and covers for his frequent mistakes—while sorting out their own personal issues.

At one point in development, the show was simply called Spin, which was changed when ABC was unable to secure rights to the name from the similarly-named magazine. At the start of the series, Mike is dating reporter Ashley Schaeffer (Carla Gugino). In early promos for the series, the relationship is shown to be the main premise of the show. Midway through the first season, however, Ashley and Mike separated and the character was written out.

The nature of Carter and Stuart's relationship became a running gag during the series. The two ended up becoming so close, their friendship was mocked by others, and their arguments sounded so much like husband and wife, a whole episode was dedicated to the notion that the two argued like a married couple. The two ended up meeting an older duo of best friends (one black and one white) who were virtual twins of Carter and Stuart in terms of personality; when it was discovered that the two older versions had become a couple, it ended up scaring Stuart quite a bit. For his part, Stuart tends to be very protective of his time with Carter, going so far as to be genuinely jealous when Carter spends more time with new campaign manager Caitlin (Heather Locklear). In spite of all the jokes and flirtations, they prove to be best friends willing to do anything for each other. This, too, was considered an important moment in television history, with Orville Lloyd Douglas noting, "I love the fact that the writers of Spin City explored the fact that gay men and heterosexual men can be friends. The straight man doesn't have to worry that the gay man might hit on him."

Later years
In 1998, Michael J. Fox announced he had Parkinson's disease. As a result, a new character, Caitlin Moore (Locklear) was introduced at the start of the 1999–2000 season to help lessen Fox's workload. Caitlin was Mayor Winston's campaign manager as he decided to run for Senator, and much conflict occurred between Mike and Caitlin about who was in charge of the mayor. Their relationship was more complex than a simple feud, and hints were dropped that it would become romantic.

In 2000, as his symptoms got more severe, Fox announced he was leaving the show at the end of the season to spend more time with his family and to raise awareness of Parkinson's. His character left City Hall at the end of the show's fourth season, taking the blame for an alleged Mafia link the mayor unknowingly had. A brief coda to the fourth-season finale revealed that the character moved to Washington, D.C., becoming an environmental lobbyist and there meeting a young senator named Alex P. Keaton, the character Fox played on Family Ties. Executive producer and co-creator Bill Lawrence also left the show, along with a few cast members and writers/producers.

The remaining producers decided to carry on the series with a new lead. For the show's fifth season, Charlie Sheen, as new Deputy Mayor Charlie Crawford, joined Caitlin, Paul, Stuart, Carter, and the mayor. The characters of Nikki, James, and Janelle were written out, to be replaced by assistant Angie Ordonez (Lana Parrilla), although she left without explanation before the show's sixth and final season. With the change of the lead character, also came a change in its production location, from Fox's home in the New York City area to Los Angeles. The show would carry on with Sheen for two seasons, with ABC canceling the series in May 2002.

Characters

 * Michael J. Fox as Mike Flaherty. Deputy Mayor of New York and a playboy, Flaherty lives in a New York City bachelor pad and is constantly balancing his personal life and his job, trying to maintain a healthy distance between the two. Flaherty leaves the mayor's office at the end of season four, after taking the blame for an unknown mob connection the Mayor had. (Fox left the series due to Parkinson's disease, but returns during the first three episodes of the sixth season, culminating in his marriage.)
 * Richard Kind as Paul Thomas Lassiter, press secretary at City Hall. A known troublemaker and childish member of the group, he is often the victim of practical jokes or mishaps at City Hall. In season 4 he made several comebacks by winning the top prize at Who Wants to Be a Millionaire, being interviewed by a hometown newspaper in disclosing he had gone to the Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism and worked for Congressman Chuck Schumer. During the show he marries Claudia Sachs, who in season five leaves him to become a nun. By the end of the show, he moves into an apartment across the hall from Carter and Stuart.
 * Alan Ruck as Stuart Bondek, chief of staff at City Hall. He is narcissistic and a love-rat, although he is unsuccessful at maintaining a relationship. Early on in the series, he moves into an apartment with Carter, which generates a rivalry as he is a homophobe and is generally uncomfortable around Carter's dog and his uptight lifestyle, though they eventually become best friends.
 * Michael Boatman as Carter Heywood, head of Minority Affairs at City Hall. His character was met with positive reaction because of his portrayal as a prominent gay black character in a TV series. Carter owns a suicidal old dog named Rags, who dies towards the end of the series. In the same season, Carter decides he will adopt a baby; in the final episode he welcomes a boy named Sam.
 * Connie Britton as Nikki Faber, a co-worker at City Hall. She is confident and free-spirited, often dates dangerous men, and is repeatedly harassed by her family to get married. She develops an on/off relationship with Mike. She leaves after season four for unknown reasons.
 * Alexander Chaplin as James Leonard Hobert III, a speech writer at City Hall. He is shown to be anxious and shy, and early in the show has a crush on Nikki. During season four, he is fired in favor of Caitlin being hired as marketing campaigner, and James is hired as Mike's secretary, although he is led to believe his position is as 'Deputy Deputy Mayor'. He also leaves after season four for unknown reasons.
 * Barry Bostwick as Mayor Randall Winston, the inept Mayor of New York City. It is stated that he was a state assemblyman sometime prior to his election as mayor. At one point during the show he runs for the Senate, although between seasons he apparently changed his mind. He is married at the beginning of the show but gets divorced during its run and his ex-wife writes a tell-all book about life with the Mayor. He develops a relationship with his secretary Janelle during season three. During the final season, he develops a relationship with Judge Claire Simmons (Farrah Fawcett), but she dumps him when she reveals she does not want to live life in the public eye.
 * Victoria Dillard as Janelle Cooper, Mike's secretary during the first season, promoted to the Mayor's secretary during the second. She develops a relationship with the Mayor during season three. She leaves after season four for unknown reasons.
 * Jennifer Esposito as Stacey Paterno, who replaced Janelle as Mike's secretary for seasons two and three after Janelle became the Mayor's secretary. She is from Brooklyn and is shown to be very outgoing, much like Nikki. She leaves after season three for unknown reasons.
 * Heather Locklear as Caitlin Moore, introduced into the show in season four to lessen Michael J. Fox's screentime after he announced he had Parkinson's disease. She is brought onto the staff as marketing campaigner, and takes James' old desk, while James becomes Mike's secretary. She becomes romantically involved with both leads by the end of each of their respective tenures on the show.
 * Charlie Sheen as Charlie Crawford, Mike's replacement for the final two seasons. He, too, is a playboy and at first struggles to keep his troubled past from getting in the way of his new position. He eventually becomes romantically involved with Caitlin by the end of the series' run. He is also romantically involved with Jennifer Duncan, played by Sheen's real-life partner at the time, Denise Richards; his father is also played by Sheen's real-life father Martin Sheen.
 * Carla Gugino as Ashley Schaeffer, a journalist and love interest for Mike during the first half of Season 1 (12 episodes). She was written out when the show started to focus more on the workplace, but returned for one episode in season three.
 * Lana Parrilla as Angie Ordonez, Charlie's secretary. She was only featured in season five, as Parrilla left following the season, thinking her character was underused. No secretary is shown during season six, and her desk is left empty. Some of the cast are shown using it, albeit not permanently, implying Charlie is no longer using a secretary.
 * Taylor Stanley as Karen, a college intern who works as Mike's assistant in the first season.
 * Paula Marshall as Mike's girlfriend and - briefly - fiancée, Laurie Parres, in Season 2.
 * Beth Littleford as Stuart's girlfriend, Deirdre West, in Seasons 3 & 4.
 * Heidi Klum as herself (or a version of herself) who dates Mike in Season 3 and also appears briefly in Season 4.

Awards and nominations
Michael J. Fox won one Primetime Emmy, out of four nominations. The show won four Golden Globes (three for Fox and one for Charlie Sheen), out of its nine nominations.

Syndication
Initially distributed by Paramount Domestic Television, Spin City entered off-network syndication on UPN, Fox and The WB affiliates from fall 2000 until fall 2005 and aired on FX from fall 2005 until fall 2010. In August 2015, the series started airing on digital multicast television network Laff. In July 2020, every episode was added to Australian streaming service Stan. In February 2021, the entire series was added to Pluto TV (which is owned by Paramount Global, the current entity distributing the series) in the United States. In 2023 it was added to Channel 4's ad supported/premium streaming platform in the United Kingdom. As of 2023, Spin City has not aired on any linear broadcast channels since 2015.

Home media
Shout! Factory and DreamWorks Home Entertainment has released all six seasons of Spin City on DVD in Region 1.

DreamWorks Home Entertainment released two best-of sets entitled "Michael J. Fox – His All Time Favorites" Vols. 1 and 2 in 2003, each containing 11 episodes. All 22 episodes are taken from the four seasons containing Fox, each starting with a brief interview in which he describes what he likes about the episode. In the 2003 interviews, Fox shows symptoms of his ongoing illness. Both DVD boxes contain bonus material with fund-raising TV commercials for Parkinson's disease research, starring the Spin City cast.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Spin City


text:
Labour Party (Norway)

The Labour Party (Arbeiderpartiet; Arbeidarpartiet, A/Ap; Bargiidbellodat), formerly The Norwegian Labour Party (Det norske Arbeiderparti, DNA), is a social democratic political party in Norway. It is positioned on the centre-left of the political spectrum, and is led by Jonas Gahr Støre. It is the senior party in a minority governing coalition with the Centre Party since 2021, with Støre serving as the current Prime Minister of Norway.

The Labour Party is officially committed to social-democratic ideals. Its slogan since the 1930s has been "everyone shall take part" (alle skal med) and the party traditionally seeks a strong welfare state, funded through taxes and duties. Since the 1980s, the party has included more of the principles of a social market economy in its policy, allowing for privatisation of state-owned assets and services and reducing income tax progressivity, following the wave of economic liberalisation during the 1980s. During the first Stoltenberg government, the party's policies were inspired by Tony Blair's New Labour agenda in the United Kingdom and saw the most widespread privatisation by any government in Norway to that date. The party has frequently been described as increasingly neoliberal since the 1980s, both by political scientists and opponents on the political left. The Labour Party profiles itself as a progressive party that subscribes to co-operation on a national as well as international level.

Its youth wing is the Workers' Youth League. The party is a member of the Party of European Socialists and the Progressive Alliance. It was formerly member of the Comintern (1919–1923), the International Revolutionary Marxist Centre (1932–1935), the Labour and Socialist International (1938–1940), and the Socialist International (1951–2016). The Labour Party has always been a strong supporter of Norwegian NATO membership and has supported Norway joining the European Union during two referendums. During the Cold War, when the party was in government most of the time, the party closely aligned Norway with the United States at the international level and followed an anti-communist policy at the domestic level in the aftermath of the 1948 Kråkerøy speech and culminating in Norway becoming a founding member of NATO in 1949.

Founded in 1887, the party steadily increased in support until it became the largest party in Norway at the 1927 parliamentary election, a position it has held ever since. That year also saw the consolidation of conflicts surrounding the party during the 1920s following its membership in the Comintern. It first formed a government in 1928 and has led the government for all but sixteen years since 1935. From 1945 to 1961, the party had an absolute majority in the Norwegian Parliament, to date the last time this has happened in the history of Norway. The electoral domination by the Labour Party during the 1960s and early 1970s was initially broken by competition from smaller left-wing parties, primarily from the Socialist People's Party. From the late 1970s, the party started to lose voters due to a rise in right-wing parties, leading to a swing to the right for the Labour Party under Gro Harlem Brundtland during the 1980s. In 2001, the party achieved its worst result since 1924. Between 2005 and 2013, Labour returned to power after committing to a coalition agreement with other parties in order to form a majority government. Labour entered opposition again after losing nine seats in 2013. The party lost a further six seats in 2017, yielding the second-lowest number of seats since 1924. At the 2021 election, the party lost one seat but the left-wing opposition gained a majority over the political right, with Støre becoming the prime minister and heading a minority government along with the Centre Party.

Founding and early years
The party was founded in 1887 in Arendal and first ran in elections to the Storting in 1894. It entered the parliament in 1903 and steadily increased its vote until 1927, when it became the largest party in Norway. The party were members of Communist International (Comintern), a communist organisation, between 1918 and 1923.

From the establishment of Vort Arbeide in 1884, the party had a growing and notable organisation of newspapers and other press outlets. The party press system eventually resulted in Norsk Arbeiderpresse (Norwegian Labour Press). In January 1913, the party had 24 newspapers and six more newspapers were founded in 1913. The party also had the periodical Det 20de Aarhundre. In 1920, the party had 33 newspapers and 6 semi-affiliated newspapers. The party had its own publishing house, Det norske Arbeiderpartis forlag, succeeded by Tiden Norsk Forlag. In addition to books and pamphlets, Det norske Arbeiderpartis forlag published Maidagen (annual May Day publication), Arbeidets Jul (annual Christmas publication) and Arbeiderkalenderen (calendar). The party also published a monthly political magazine, Kontakt, between 1947 and 1954 which was edited by Torolf Elster.

From its roots as a radical alternative to the political establishment, the party grew to its current dominance through several eras. The party experienced a split in 1921 caused by a decision made two years earlier to join the Comintern and the Social Democratic Labour Party of Norway was formed. In 1923, the party left the Comintern while a significant minority of its members left the party to form the Communist Party of Norway. In 1927, the Social Democrats were reunited with Labour. Some Communists also joined Labour whereas other Communists tried a failed merger endeavor which culminated in the formation of the Arbeiderklassens Samlingsparti. The same year, Helga Karlsen became the party's first Member of Parliament.

In 1928, Christopher Hornsrud formed Labour's first government, but it lasted only two weeks. During the early 1930s, Labour abandoned its revolutionary profile and set a reformist course. Labour then returned to government in 1935 and remained in power throughout the Second World War. The party was a member of the Labour and Socialist International between 1938 and 1940. When Norway was invaded by Nazi Germany in 1940, the Labour-led government and the Norwegian royal family fled to London, whence it led a government-in-exile for the duration of the war.

Post-war period
Immediately following the end of the Second World War, the Labour Party emerged victorious from the 1945 Norwegian parliamentary election. For the first time, the party secured an absolute majority in the Storting, taking 76 of 150 seats. Einar Gerhardsen of the Labour Party subsequently formed his first government, and he went on to dominate the post-war political scene over the following years. Gerhardsen is commonly referred to as Landsfaderen (Father of the Nation) and is generally considered one of the principal architects behind the reconstruction of Norway after the Second World War. The period from 1945 has been described as the golden age of the Norwegian Labour Party, and the party retained its parliamentary majority until the 1961 election. In 1963, the Kings Bay Affair drove the opposition to table a motion of no-confidence against the Gerhardsen's cabinet; the motion was ultimately successful, and Labour was forced to step down from government for the first time in 28 years. However, the incoming centre-right coalition proved short-lived, and Labour returned to government less than one month later, and remained in office until 1965.

The Labour Party later formed government in the periods of 1971–1972, 1973–1981, 1986–1989, and 1990–1997. Labour prime ministers in this period included party veterans Oscar Torp, Trygve Bratteli, and Gro Harlem Brundtland, and the party remained the largest in Norway throughout the remainder of the 20th century.

21st century
In the year 2000, the centre-right coalition led by Kjell Magne Bondevik of the Christian Democrats was toppled in a confidence vote, and the Labour Party returned to power under Jens Stoltenberg, who became prime minister. However, after a period of intense infighting between Stoltenberg and former prime minister Thorbjørn Jagland, and a turbulent spell in government, the party collapsed to only 24.3% of the vote in the 2001 Norwegian parliamentary election, marking its worst result since 1924. The party returned to the opposition under Stoltenberg's leadership, before later recovering to 32.7% in the 2005 Norwegian parliamentary election. The Labour Party subsequently formed its first ever peace-time coalition government along with the Socialist Left and Centre parties. Their cooperation was dubbed the Red-green coalition, in emulation of similar constellations in Germany.

In 2011, the party changed its official name from the Norwegian Labour Party (Det norske arbeiderparti) to the Labour Party (Arbeiderpartiet). The party claimed there had been confusion among voters at polling stations because of the difference between the official name and the common use name of Labour Party. The name change caused Arbeiderpartiet to appear on the ballot, eliminating any potential confusion. On 22 July 2011, a terrorist opened fire at the Labour Party's youth camp (ages 13–25), killing 69 people and killing eight more in Oslo with a bomb towards a government building (which was led by the Labour Party). Stoltenberg's initial response to the 22 July attack was well received by the Norwegian public. As he reaffirmed his government's commitment to the values of openness and tolerance in the face of adversity or intolerance his approval rating soared as high as 94%, only to decrease sharply after the 22 July Commission report highlighted the laggard response time of police cost dozens of lives.

In the 2013 Norwegian parliamentary election, the Red-green coalition lost its majority in the Storting, but the Labour Party remained the largest party in the Storting. Jens Stoltenberg, who had served as prime minister for 10 of the past 13 years, remained party leader until he stepped down in 2014 after being appointed Secretary General of NATO. Later, Jonas Gahr Støre, a prominent profile in the Stoltenberg government, was chosen as new party leader on 14 June 2014. In the 2017 Norwegian parliamentary election, he led the party to a surprise defeat, as Labour fell 3.4 percentage points to 27.4%, and from 55 to 49 seats in the Storting, while the Conservative Party managed to retain a majority along with its smaller centre-right partners. Erna Solberg, Conservative prime minister since 2013, remained in office throughout the 2017—2021 term. In the same year, the Labour Party was targeted by hackers suspected to be from Russia. In 2021, the Labour Party returned to government after eight years in opposition, following the 2021 Norwegian parliamentary election. The party dropped to 48 seats from the 49 it had secured in 2017, but its centre-left coalition secured a landslide victory overall, taking 100 of the 169 seats in the Storting. The energy crisis was the most important issue for voters. Party leader Jonas Gahr Støre assumed the Norwegian premiership on 14 October 2021, at the helm of a minority coalition with the Centre Party. Soon after assuming power, the new coalition was faced with a series of crises, including the Russian invasion of Ukraine and subsequent energy price hikes. The government was criticized for its handling of these crises, and by August 2022, Støre had dropped to 31% in preferred prime minister polling, against 49% for Erna Solberg, the Conservative prime minister in the 2013—2021 period. Meanwhile, the Labour Party hit record-low ratings in voting intention polls in late 2022, with a number of polls placing it below the 20%-mark in September 2022.

Organisation
The Labour Party organisation is divided into county- and municipality-level chapters, numbering approximately 2,500 associations in total. Historically, the party has maintained a close association with the Norwegian Confederation of Trade Unions (LO), and until the mid-1990s, a dual-membership agreement existed between the two organizations, with LO members automatically holding (indirect) membership in the Labour Party as well. The party had about 200,500 members at its peak in 1950. No records were kept about direct membership or indirect membership figures. The dual-membership clause was scrapped in 1995, and that year its membership level fell to just over 72,500 from 128,000 in 1990. In 1997, that figure dropped to 64,000 in 1997. In 2021, the party comprised 45,553 members according to its own official website. Since 2005, the party has maintained a policy requiring full gender parity at every level of organisation above ordinary membership.

The supreme body of the party is the Party Congress which is held every two years. The most senior body between these congresses is the National Delegate's Meeting which is made up of the party's Executive Board and two delegates from each of the 19 counties. The Executive Board itself consists of 16 elected members as well as the leadership of the party. The party is headed by a single leader, while the number of deputy leaders has fluctuated between one and two in different periods. As of 2022, the party leadership is made up of leader Jonas Gahr Støre, who has held the position since 2014, and deputy leader Bjørnar Selnes Skjæran, who was first elected to the position in 2021.

The party's youth organisation is the Workers' Youth League, and it maintains a women's wing known as the Labour Party Women's Network. The party participates in elections to the Sami Parliament of Norway, and work related to this has its own organisational structure with seven local groups, a bi-yearly congress, a national council and the Labour group in the Sami parliament.

Party leaders
• # Anders Andersen (1887–1888)

• # Hans G. Jensen (1888–1889)

• # Christian Holtermann Knudsen (1889–1890)

• # Carl Jeppesen (1890–1892)

• # Ole Georg Gjøsteen (1892–1893)

• # Gustav A. Olsen-Berg (1893–1894)

• # Carl Jeppesen (1894–1897)

• # Ludvig Meyer (1897–1900)

• # Christian Holtermann Knudsen (1900–1903)

• # Christopher Hornsrud (1903–1906)

• # Oscar Nissen (1906–1911)

• # Christian Holtermann Knudsen (1911–1918)

• # Kyrre Grepp (1918–1922)

• # Emil Stang (1922–1923)

• # Oscar Torp (1923–1945)

• # Einar Gerhardsen (1945–1965)

• # Trygve Bratteli (1965–1975)

• # Reiulf Steen (1975–1981)

• # Gro Harlem Brundtland (1981–1992)

• # Thorbjørn Jagland (1992–2002)

• # Jens Stoltenberg (2002–2014)

• # Jonas Gahr Støre (2014–present)

Labour Party prime ministers

 * 1) Christopher Hornsrud (January–February 1928)
 * 2) Johan Nygaardsvold (1935–1945)
 * 3) Einar Gerhardsen (1945–1951)
 * 4) Oscar Torp (1951–1955)
 * 5) Einar Gerhardsen (1955–1963), (1963–1965)
 * 6) Trygve Bratteli (1971–1972, 1973–1976)
 * 7) Odvar Nordli (1976–1981)
 * 8) Gro Harlem Brundtland (February–October 1981, 1986–1989, 1990–1996)
 * 9) Thorbjørn Jagland (1996–1997)
 * 10) Jens Stoltenberg (2000–2001, 2005–2013)
 * 11) Jonas Gahr Støre (2021–present)

Party Congresses

 * 1. landsmøte 1887 Arendal
 * 2. landsmøte 1888 Kristiania
 * 3. landsmøte 1889 Kristiania
 * 4. landsmøte 1890 Kristiania
 * 5. landsmøte 1891 Kristiania
 * 6. landsmøte 1892 Kristiania
 * 7. landsmøte 1893 Kristiania
 * 8. landsmøte 1894 Bergen
 * 9. landsmøte 1895 Skien
 * 10. landsmøte 1896 Kristiania
 * 11. landsmøte 1897 Kristiania
 * 12. landsmøte 1898 Fredrikstad
 * 13. landsmøte 1899 Kristiania
 * 14. landsmøte 1900 Kristiania
 * 15. landsmøte 1901 Kristiania
 * 16. landsmøte 1902 Trondheim
 * 17. landsmøte 1903 Kristiania
 * 18. landsmøte 1904 Drammen
 * 19. landsmøte 1906 Kristiania
 * 20. landsmøte 1909 Hamar
 * 1. ekstraordinære landsmøte 1911 13-16 April Kristiania
 * 21. landsmøte 1912 4—9 april Stavanger

 * 22. landsmøte 1915 22-26 may Trondhjem
 * 23. landsmøte 1918 29 mars—1 april Oslo
 * 2. ekstraordinære landsmøte 1919 7—10 juni Oslo
 * 24. landsmøte 1920 22—25 may Oslo
 * 25. landsmøte 1921 25—28 march 1921 Oslo
 * 26. landsmøte 1923 24—28 february Oslo
 * 3 ekstraordinære landsmøte 1923 2—4 november Oslo
 * 27. landsmøte 1925 4—6 september Oslo
 * 4. ekstraordinære landsmøte 1927 28—29 january Oslo
 * Samlingskongressen. 30—31 january 1927 Oslo
 * 28. landsmøte 1930 14—16 march Oslo
 * 29. landsmøte 1933 26—28 may Oslo
 * 30. landsmøte 1936 2-4 may Oslo
 * 31. landsmøte 1939 3-5 november Oslo
 * 32. landsmøte 1945 31-2 september Oslo
 * 33. landsmøte 1949 17-20 february Oslo
 * 34. landsmøte 1953 22-25 march Oslo
 * 35. landsmøte 1955 19-21 march Oslo
 * 36. landsmøte 1957 30, 31 may and 1 June Oslo
 * 37. landsmøte 1959 7-9 may Oslo
 * 38. landsmøte 1961 9-11 april Oslo
 * 39. landsmøte 1963 23-25 may Oslo

 * 40. landsmøte 1965 27-29 may Oslo
 * 41. landsmøte 1967 21-23 may Oslo
 * 42. landsmøte 1969 11-14 may Oslo
 * 43. landsmøte 1971 9-11 may Oslo
 * 5. ekstraordinær landsmøte 1972 21-22 april Oslo
 * 44. landsmøte 1973 27-30 may Oslo
 * 45. landsmøte 1975 20-23 may Oslo
 * 46. landsmøte 1977 8-11 may Oslo
 * 47. landsmøte 1979 6-9 may Oslo
 * 48. landsmøte 1981 2-5 april Hamar
 * 49. landsmøte 1983 22-24 april Oslo
 * 50. landsmøte 1985 21-24 march Oslo
 * 51. landsmøte 1987 26-29 march Oslo
 * 52. landsmøte 1989 2-5 march SAS Scandinavian Hotell
 * 53. landsmøte 1990 9-11 november Folkets Hus
 * 54. landsmøte 1992 5-8 november Folkets Hus
 * 6. ekstraordinære landsmøte 1994 18-18 june Folkets Hus
 * 55. landsmøte 1995 10-12 februar Folkets Hus
 * 56. landsmøte 1996 7-11 november Folkets Hus
 * 57. landsmøte 1998 20-22 november Folkets Hus
 * 58. landsmøte 2000 9-12 november Folkets Hus
 * 59. landsmøte 2002 8-10 november Folkets Hus

 * 60. landsmøte 2005 7-10 april Folkets Hus
 * 61. landsmøte 2007 19-22 april Folkets Hus
 * 62. landsmøte 2009 18-21 april Folkets Hus
 * 63. landsmøte 2011 7-10 april Folkets Hus
 * 64. landsmøte 2013 18-21 april Folkets Hus
 * 7. ekstraordinære landsmøte 2014 14 june Folkets Hus
 * 65. landsmøte 2015 16-19 april Folkets Hus
 * 66. landsmøte 2017 20-23 april Folkets Hus
 * 67. landsmøte 2019 4-7 april Folkets Hus
 * 68. landsmøte 2021 15-17 april The Hub and Microsft Teams.
 * 69 landsmøte 2023 4-6 may Folkets Hus

title: Labour Party (Norway)


text:
Charles Auguste de Bériot

Charles Auguste de Bériot (20 February 1802 – 8 April 1870) was a Belgian violinist, artist and composer.

Biography
Charles de Bériot was born in 1802 in Leuven, France (now part of Belgium) into a noble family but was orphaned at the age of nine. He was given to the custody of his music teacher and friend of his father, Jean-François Tiby (1772–1844). De Bériot began studying violin with Tiby, who trained him in the French style as exemplified by Giovanni Battista Viotti. In 1811 he performed for the first time in public, playing a concerto by Viotti. François-Joseph Fétis says that Tiby sent de Bériot to Paris at the age of 12 (1814), however de Bériot's own correspondence confirms that he only arrived in Paris in 1821. This mistake is attributed to the advanced age at which Fétis wrote his final biographical note on de Bériot. While in Paris, de Bériot studied briefly at the Paris Conservatory under Pierre Baillot and played for Rodolphe Kreutzer and Viotti. The latter encouraged de Bériot to "..listen a lot...and take what seems good to you, be like the bees and you will create a genre..."

After being refused a subsidy by William I of the Netherlands, he returned briefly to Belgium in 1822. The following year he returned to Paris where he taught and performed. In 1824 he made a concert tour in England and was named violinist to Charles X of France in 1826 and in 1827, solo violinist at the court of William I of the Netherlands.

De Bériot and Niccolo Paganini's careers ran parallel for many years even though de Bériot was 20 years younger than Paganini. In much of northern Europe the two virtuoso's playing styles were often compared, including in a small publication which appeared in 1831.

De Bériot lived with the opera singer Maria Malibran and had a child (Charles-Wilfrid de Bériot, a piano professor who taught Maurice Ravel, Ricardo Viñes, Enrique Granados and others) with her in 1833. They were married in 1836 when Malibran obtained an annulment of her previous marriage. Felix Mendelssohn wrote an aria accompanied by a solo violin especially for the couple. However, Malibran died the same year from injuries sustained in a fall from a horse.

After Malibran's death, de Bériot lived in Brussels and did not return to performance until 1838. In 1840 in Vienna he married Marie Huber, daughter of a local magistrate.

In 1842, Pierre Baillot died in Paris at the age of 71, and his position as instructor at the Paris Conservatoire was offered to de Bériot. He rejected the offer, however, and in 1843 became chief violin instructor at the Brussels Conservatory where he established the Franco-Belgian school of violin playing. On account of failing eyesight he retired in 1852, and in 1858 became totally blind. Paralysis of the left arm ended his career in 1866. Surgeons amputated his left arm to relieve pain. Among his students were Hubert Léonard, Henri Vieuxtemps and Heinrich Wilhelm Ernst.

Compositions
De Bériot composed a great amount of violin music including ten concertos. Although these are now rarely heard, his pedagogical compositions are still of use for violin students. In style, however, he was greatly influenced by the works of Rudolphe Kreutzer.

De Bériot's pioneering violin technique and Romantic style of composition make his concertos and etudes an important stepping stone for the serious violin student wishing to gain a firm foundation before studying the major concertos of the Romantic era. His most popular concertos are No. 9 in A minor Op. 104 and No. 7 in G major Op. 76.

Itzhak Perlman released a recording of Scene de Ballet, Op. 100 on his album, "Concertos from My Childhood". This recording features the Juilliard Orchestra conducted by Lawrence Foster. Barbara Barber also released a recordings and sheet music with piano accompaniment of the first movement of de Beriot's Concerto No. 9 in A minor Op. 104 and Scene de Ballet, Op. 100 with her series, "Solos for Young Violinists".

Schirmer publishes his Violin Method Op. 102 and His "First 30 Concert Studies" Op. 123. Peters publishes the famous encore piece for violin and orchestra (in a reduced format for violin and piano) "Scene de Ballet" Op.100.

Honours

 * 1845: Member of the Royal Academy of Science, Letters and Fine Arts of Belgium.
 * 1853: Cross of merit of the Saxe-Ernestine House Order.

title: Charles Auguste de Bériot


text:
List of governors of the Habsburg Netherlands

The governor (landvoogd) or governor-general (gouverneur-generaal) of the Habsburg Netherlands was a representative appointed by the Holy Roman emperor (1504-1556), the king of Spain (1556-1598, 1621-1706), and the archduke of Austria (1716-1794), to administer the Burgundian inheritance of the House of Habsburg in the Low Countries when the monarch was absent from the territory. The role of the governors-general significantly changed over time: initially tutors and advisors of Emperor Charles V, who lived at the Palace of Coudenberg, they served as generals during the Eighty Years' War between the Kingdom of Spain and the Dutch Republic. Frequently, the governor-general was a close relative of the Austrian or Spanish monarchs, though at other times Spanish or German noblemen filled the role. The governor-general was usually based in Brussels.

List of governors
Thereafter, the French revolutionaries occupied the Low Countries until 1815. The Emperor formally recognized the loss of these territories by the Treaty of Lunéville of 1801. At the Congress of Vienna, in 1815, the Low Countries were re-united in a personal union under the House of Orange-Nassau. In 1830, Belgium declared its independence.


text:
Mikoyan MiG-27

The Mikoyan MiG-27 (Микоян МиГ-27; NATO reporting name: Flogger-D/J) was a variable-sweep ground-attack aircraft, originally built by the Mikoyan-Gurevich design bureau in the Soviet Union and later licence-produced in India by Hindustan Aeronautics as the Bahadur ("Valiant"). It is based on the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23 fighter aircraft, but optimised for air-to-ground attack. Unlike the MiG-23, the MiG-27 did not have widespread use outside Russia, as most countries opted for the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23BN and Sukhoi Su-22 instead. As of late 2023, all Russian, Indian, Sri Lankan, Ukrainian, and Kazakh MiG-27s have been retired, bringing the type's service to an end.

Design and development

The MiG-27 shares the basic airframe of the MiG-23, but with a revised nose – nicknamed "Utkonos" ("Platypus") or "Krokodil Gena" in Russian service, first introduced on the MiG-23B. Dissatisfaction with the MiG-23BN led to the further development of the basic airframe to accommodate a stronger undercarriage, simpler intakes and a shorter exhaust nozzle, without radar in favor of a downward-sloping profile for improved pilot visibility, a laser rangefinder and marked-target seeker. Among its test pilots, it was also called "Balkon" ("Balcony") because of the increased frontal view from the cockpit. Additional cockpit armor was installed, along with a totally new nav/attack system.

Since the MiG-27 was intended to fly most of its missions at low altitude, the MiG-23's variable intake ramps and exhaust nozzles were discarded in favor of a simpler fixed configuration, reducing weight and maintenance requirements. The aircraft also has larger, heavy-duty landing gear to facilitate operation from poorer-quality airfields. In accordance with the MiG-27's strike and low-level attack requirements, provisions were made to mount missiles and precision-guided munitions, as well as retaining a nuclear capability in line with other Soviet combat aircraft by introducing specialized navigation systems.

The improved MiG-27M/D versions were introduced during the 1980s, followed by the -K version, which could carry a much larger range of weapons including tactical nuclear bombs.

Aircraft deployed to Afghanistan were upgraded with the installation of BVP-50-60 flare dispensers and the NAZ-7B emergency survival kit, as well as engine modifications for the hot and high conditions.

Operational history
The MiG-27 saw service with the Soviet Air Force in Afghanistan. Although several Western observers considered the MiG-27 widely exported, confusing it with the MiG-23BN, the aircraft type was only exported to India and Sri Lanka which also utilized the MiG-27 in regional conflicts.

Soviet Union
The MiG-27 entered frontline service with Soviet Air Force Tactical Aviation in 1975, with the 722nd Regiment. It replaced earlier MiG-23B/BN and outdated Sukhoi Su-7 attack aircraft and equipped 22 of the 40 Soviet fighter-bomber regiments, being deployed all over the Soviet Union and other Warsaw Pact countries. Soviet MiG-27s were permanently deployed to five foreign countries: East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Czechoslovakia and Mongolia until the 1990s.

Soviet forces used the MiG-27 during the later stages of the Afghanistan conflict in 1987–89, which was the only time the Soviets used this aircraft in action. During the initial stages of the war, MiG-27s were not deployed to support ground troops in combat, as the Sukhoi Su-17s of the Turkestan and Central Asian military districts together with DRAAF Su-7s were considered sufficient to support the 40th Army's operations against the Afghan Mujahideen. However, in 1988 it was decided to deploy MiG-27s to support the existing forces in theatre. The 134th APIB, formed of three squadrons of MiG-27D/Ms and MiG-23UB trainers, was deployed to Shindand Air Base in October after extensive training in Kazakhstan. The most modern variant, the MiG-27K, was not deployed due to its lack of armour for the pilot. MiG-27s, in common with all other Soviet attack aircraft in the conflict, were limited in effectiveness by the 5,000 metre (16,400 ft) minimum altitude imposed due to the threat from MANPADs. As such they were only able to deploy unguided bombs and rockets against Afghan targets. Missions included bombing of supply convoys, night bombing of troop concentrations, scattering landmines with cluster munitions, and marking or illuminating targets for artillery with SAB-100 flare bombs. The 134th regiment remained in Afghanistan until the Soviet withdrawal, taking part in the siege of Kandahar. They were withdrawn on the 4th February 1989, flying to Kalay-Mor airbase in the Turkmen SSR where they waited in reserve until March of that year, when they returned to their home base in Kazakhstan.

Around the same time, MiG-27s started to be gradually replaced by more advanced Sukhoi Su-24 and Su-25 aircraft in the ground attack role at home. Other MiG-27 units, such as the 642nd GvAIP, re-equipped with MiG-29 fighters.

Additionally, between 1990 and 1994 a single regiment of MiG-27s (the 88th Separate Fighter Bomber Regiment) served with Soviet Naval Aviation as a way to save the unit from being dissolved under the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe.

By the collapse of the Soviet Union, a number of MiG-27s remained in service. These would then be inherited by the air forces of the various former Soviet republics.

Russian Federation
The Air Force of the Russian Federation inherited most of the Soviet MiG-27s. However, on 1 July 1993 the Air Force decreed that single-engined attack aircraft such as the MiG-27 were to be phased out. Most aircraft were scrapped or left to deteriorate in storage.

Sri Lanka

MiG-27 aircraft entered service with the Sri Lanka Air Force in 2000, with the purchase of four remanufactured MiG-27s from Ukrinmash in May 2000 at US$1.75 million each. This was followed by another ordered for two more in October 2000 at US$1.6 million and a MiG-23UB trainer aircraft for US$900,000. Initially piloted by Ukrainian pilots until SLAF pilots could be trained and was attached to the No. 5 "Jet" Squadron SLAF. During the Eelam War III phase of the Sri Lankan Civil War, they saw considerable action bombing targets and providing close air support. In August 2000, a MiG-27 crashed near Colombo International Airport, killing its Ukrainian pilot. In July 2001, a second MiG-27 was destroyed and another damaged on the ground during an assault on the same air force base by the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam. A MiG-27 crashed into the sea near the airport in June 2004. With the resumption of hostilities in 2006 as peace talks broke down and the Eelam War IV phase of the war starting, MiG-27 were once again flying combat sorties. In 2007, three MiG-27s and a MiG-23UB trainer were overhauled as part of a life-extension program. Four MiG-27s were purchased at US$10 million. This led to the MiG deal scandal. The MiG-27s and the MiG-23UB were reorganized into the newly formed No. 12 Squadron. Another MiG-27 fighter jet crashed on a routine training mission on 13 February 2012 near the Dummalasuriya area at around 1.35 pm. The pilot managed to eject from the jet without sustaining injuries.

India
On 27 May 1999, during the Kargil War, one Indian MiG-27L suffered an engine flameout while firing 80 mm rockets, possibly due to a MANPADS hit. Its pilot, Kambampati Nachiketa, ejected and was captured by Pakistani forces.

In mid-February 2010, India grounded its entire fleet of over 150 of the aircraft after a MiG-27 crashed on 16 February 2010 in Siliguri, West Bengal. The crash was attributed to defects in the R-29 engines of the aircraft, suspected to have occurred during the overhauling of the aircraft by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL). Another MiG-27 crashed in the Barmer area on 27 January 2015.

India retired the last MiG-27ML squadron on 27 December 2019, when the last two MiG-27 squadrons were retired with a ceremony at Jodhpur airbase.

Kazakhstan
12 MiG-27s remained in service with the Kazakh Air Force until 2023 or so. In October 2023, the aircraft were retired and put up for auction. In April 2024, the Kyiv Post reported that the US purchased 81 aircraft to transfer to Ukraine. The Kazakh state-owned weapons importer and exporter Kazspetexport denied such claims, saying that foreign companies were not allowed to bid.

Variants

The first Flogger attack variant was powered by the AL-21F. Only 24 were produced, due to a lack of engines (the AL-21F was destined for the Sukhoi Su-17/22 and the Su-24 Fencer). It was armed with the GSh-23L cannon, carrying 200 rounds.
 * MiG-23B

Derived from the MiG-23B, but powered by the R29B-300 engine. This gave the advantage of making this variant exportable (the AL-21F was a restricted engine at the time, unlike the R29B-300). The R29B-300 also offered commonality with the MiG-23MS and MiG-23MF fighter variants already sold to the rest of world. It was armed with the GSh-23L cannon, with 200 rounds.
 * MiG-23BN

This was the first in the MiG-27 family to have a canopy without the central frame, suggesting that the ejection seat was designed to directly break through the transparency. The dielectric head above the pylon on the MiG-23 was used on the MiG-27 to house electro-optical and radio-frequency gear instead. It was also the first variant armed with a Gryazev-Shipunov GSh-6-30M Gatling gun. Its NATO reporting name was Flogger-D.
 * MiG-27 (MiG-23BM)

NATO reporting name: Flogger-J2. The MiG-27K was the most advanced Soviet variant, with a laser designator and compatibility with TV-guided electro-optical weapons. It carried the GSh-6-30 cannon. Around 200 were built.
 * MiG-27K

NATO reporting name: Flogger-J. This model was a cheaper variant than the MiG-27K, but much better than the MiG-23B, MiG-23BN, and MiG-27 (MiG-23BM), with the electro-optical and radio-frequency heads above the glove pylons deleted. It was first armed with the GSh-6-23M Gatling gun, but this was later replaced by a new 30 mm GSh-6-30 six-barrel cannon with 260 rounds of ammunition in a fuselage gondola. It also received much-improved electronic countermeasure (ECM) systems, and a new PrNK-23K nav/attack system providing automatic flight control, gun firing, and weapons release. However, this modification was not very successful because of the heavy recoil from the new cannon, and bursts longer than two or three seconds often led to permanent damage to the airframe. Test pilot V. N. Kondaurov described the first firing of the GSh-6-30А: "As I imposed the central mark on the air target and pressed the trigger to shoot, I heard such noise that I involuntarily drew my hand aside. The whole plane began to vibrate from the shooting and had almost stopped from the strong recoil of the gun. The pilotless target, which was just making a turn ahead of me, was literally disintegrating into pieces. I have hardly come to my senses from unexpectedness and admiration: This is a calibre! Such a beast! If you hit something — it will be plenty enough [to wipe it out]". A total of 200 MiG-27Ms were built from 1978 to 1983, plus 160 for India. Sri Lanka used second-hand Soviet built MiG-27M.
 * MiG-27M

All MiG-27D are MiG-27s (MiG-23BMs) upgraded to MiG-27M standard. It is very difficult to distinguish from the MiG-27M. 305 were upgraded.
 * MiG-27D

This was an export variant of the MiG-27M provided in 1986 to India in knock-down kits for license-assembly. It was the same as the MiG-27M, except the undernose fairing for the infra-red search and track (IRST) sensor had a single window instead of several, like the one on the original MiG-27M. A total of 150 were assembled by India. India refers to this model as the MiG-27M Bahadur, while MiG-27L is the Mikoyan export designation.
 * MiG-27ML

 * MiG-27H

This was a 1988 indigenous Indian upgrade of its license-assembled MiG-27L with French avionics, which provides the same level of performance, but with much reduced size and weight. The capabilities of the aircraft are being enhanced by the incorporation of modern avionics systems consisting primarily of two Multi-Function Displays (MFDs) Mission and Display Processor (MDP), Sextant Ring Laser Gyros (RLG INSI), combined GPS/GLONASS navigation, HUD with UFCP, Digital Map Generator (DMG), jam-resistant Secured Communication, stand-by UHF communication, data link and a comprehensive Electronic Warfare (EW) Suite. A mission planning and retrieval facility, VTR and HUD Camera will also be fitted. The aircraft retains stand-by (conventional) instrumentation, including artificial horizon, altimeter and airspeed indicator, to cater for the failure of HUD and the MFDs. The MiG-27s are also being equipped with the French Agave or Russian Komar radar. The installation of the radar would give the MiG-27 anti-ship and some air-to-air capability. It is expected that at least 140 of the 180 aircraft will be converted from MiG-27MLs.

Former operators
 Democratic Republic of Afghanistan
 * The Soviet Air Force passed their aircraft on to successor states.
 * 🇧🇾 Belarus
 * The Belarusian Air Force inherited a small number of aircraft from the 911th Fighter-Bomber regiment based at Lida. These were scrapped or used as instructional airframes at the Minsk State Aviation College.
 * The Russian Air Force retired their aircraft from front-line use.
 * 🇱🇰 Sri Lanka
 * Sri Lanka Air Force had 4 MiG-27Ms in 2011, flown by Ukrainian pilots
 * The Ukrainian Air Force has retired their aircraft.
 * The Indian Air Force has retired their aircraft (165 MiG-27Ms licensed built by HAL). The first batch of MiG-27MLs were retired in December 2017. While the final batch was retired from service on 27 December 2019.
 * The Ukrainian Air Force has retired their aircraft.
 * The Indian Air Force has retired their aircraft (165 MiG-27Ms licensed built by HAL). The first batch of MiG-27MLs were retired in December 2017. While the final batch was retired from service on 27 December 2019.
 * The Indian Air Force has retired their aircraft (165 MiG-27Ms licensed built by HAL). The first batch of MiG-27MLs were retired in December 2017. While the final batch was retired from service on 27 December 2019.
 * The Indian Air Force has retired their aircraft (165 MiG-27Ms licensed built by HAL). The first batch of MiG-27MLs were retired in December 2017. While the final batch was retired from service on 27 December 2019.
 * The Afghan Air Force received MiG-27s as military aid from the Soviet Union following the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan.
 * The Kazakh Air Force operated 12 MiG-27Ms as of December 2022. These were retired in 2023, put up for auction, and sold in April 2024.
 * The Kazakh Air Force operated 12 MiG-27Ms as of December 2022. These were retired in 2023, put up for auction, and sold in April 2024.

title: Mikoyan MiG-27


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Talk:American Airlines

Focus Cities
I've noticed that AA has a significant presence at places like Boston Logan and London Heathrow. e.g. AA's nonstop flights from London to Raleigh/Durham and Boston.
 * But that does not mean it is a focus city. Most destinations from those cities are to its hubs, rest are just point-to-point routes mainly seasonal destinations. Do you have a source stating they are? 172.223.6.230 (talk) 07:22, 22 November 2019 (UTC)

https://www.aa.com/i18n/travel-info/airports/airport-information.jsp

Seattle
I've added Seattle as a hub a couple of times and been reverted by an editor who says "it is not a hub" -- however, I have clearly provided a citation from Bloomberg.com headlined "American Air Steps Up Delta Rivalry With Seattle as Overseas Hub" which clearly calls Seattle an American hub. Who should we believe, random Wikipedia editor or Bloomberg News? https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-02-13/american-airlines-to-tap-seattle-as-gateway-for-flights-to-india — Preceding unsigned comment added by Avgeekamfot (talk • contribs) 21:02, 4 April 2021 (UTC)
 * , There has been no formal announcement that American Airlines has named Seattle has one of their official hubs. Therefore, its inclusion on the article is still not justified. ɴᴋᴏɴ21  ❯❯❯  talk  21:26, 4 April 2021 (UTC)

Does AA need to announce it if Bloomberg News is already reporting it? I was simply trying to add some important information to the article given the huge recent news about the AS-AA partnership as part of OW. If it's not to be listed as a hub it at the least deserves more discussion int he article. Would there be an issue if the new international alliance were perhaps added into the history section? It doesn't make sense to me that this partnership and Seattle base is not mentioned in the article. By the way, thank you for actually responding unlike the other editor who simply defamed me with accusations of vandalism.
 * No, it needs to be officially declared. That article did NOT mention Seattle as an American hub, the term “hub” was used generically. Articles use terms in incorrect contexts all the time. Where are the other sources declaring AA to be a gateway hub? Blissfield101 (talk) 21:58, 4 April 2021 (UTC)

According to who? I've read Wikipedia's Reliable Sources policy and it clearly appears despite your edit warring beyond 3RR that Bloomber News is more reliable than Mr. Blissfield101! — Preceding unsigned comment added by Avgeekamfot (talk • contribs) 02:59, 5 April 2021 (UTC)

History
The History section discusses AA's role in the development of the DC-3 aircraft, but provides no context as to who "Donald Douglas{ is or anything about the Douglas Aircraft Co. Not sure why eliminating content to provide LESS information is a good thing, — Preceding unsigned comment added by Scottca075 (talk • contribs) 20:04, 2 June 2021 (UTC)

Revert
, you are very bold to revert my recent changes. I merely balanced the text part with stated figures in the infobox. Can you explain to me how that is unsourced data, as it is already referenced in the article? Aliwal2012 (talk) 11:17, 10 December 2022 (UTC)

 * So why aren't you updating the references and date in the references where you are changing the data? I can't do that for, as I don't know where you got the information. BilCat (talk) 11:21, 10 December 2022 (UTC)
 * Thanks for your admission BilCat. Very easy for you just to hit the rollback button. I will surely update it soon. Aliwal2012 (talk) 11:40, 10 December 2022 (UTC)

Estes Thompson lavatory incident
On 18 January 2024, on flight 1441 of American Airlines, from Charlotte, NC to Boston, MA, a 14-year-old girl had finished using one of the Airbus A319's lavatories when she noticed a phone taped to the toilet seat. She took a photo of it as evidence to use against the flight attendant. Estes would later be arrested in Lynchburg, VA. His iCloud account would be checked where there was more proof of him possessing more underage girls as young as seven, and faces up to 30 years in prison and a $250,000 fine for attempted sexual child exploitation and possession of child pornography. 71.251.5.59 (talk) 16:15, 13 February 2024 (UTC)
 * This is unlikely to pass the notability test, please see WP:AIRCRASH for accident and incident criteria ✈ mike_gigs talkcontribs 17:19, 13 February 2024 (UTC)

List of American Airlines destinations
This list article was deleted recently in the Article for deletion section of Wikipedia. Unfortunately there was no heads up on the article itself so many users would not have known about the actual deletion or could make a comment to support and keep it. CHCBOY (talk) 21:54, 10 March 2024 (UTC)

 * Late on the subject but I have to agree on that part. It's not just this, so was United Airlines. I'm very angry on the fact that the majority of them want to go ahead without giving a comment or consensus on the matter to other pages connected to it. 20chances (talk) 03:34, 6 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:American Airlines


text:
The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language

The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (AHD) is a dictionary of American English published by HarperCollins. It is currently in its fifth edition (since 2011).

Before HarperCollins acquired certain business lines from Houghton Mifflin Harcourt in 2022, the family of American Heritage dictionaries had long been published by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt and its predecessor Houghton Mifflin. The first edition appeared in 1969, an outgrowth of the editorial effort for Houghton Mifflin's American Heritage brand of history books and journals. The dictionary's creation was spurred by the controversy during the 1960s over the perceived permissiveness of the Webster's Third New International Dictionary (1961). A college dictionary followed several years later. The main dictionary became the flagship title as the brand grew into a family of various dictionaries, a dictionary-thesaurus combination, and a usage guide.

History
James Parton (1912–2001) was a grandson of the English-born American biographer James Parton (1822–1891). He was the founder, publisher and co-owner of the magazines American Heritage and Horizon, and was appalled by the perceived permissiveness of Webster's Third, published in 1961. (Webster's Third presented all entries without labeling any as nonstandard or informal.) Parton tried to buy the G. and C. Merriam Company so that he could undo the changes. When that failed, he contracted with Houghton to publish a new dictionary. The AHD was edited by William Morris and relied on a usage panel of 105 writers, speakers, and eminent persons chosen for their well-known conservatism in the use of language. However, Morris made inconsistent use of the panels, often ignoring their advice and inserting his own opinions.

Linguistics
The AHD broke ground among dictionaries by using corpus linguistics for compiling word frequencies and other information.

Citations were based on a million-word, three-line citation database prepared by Brown University linguist Henry Kučera.

Usage panel
For expert consultation on words or constructions whose usage was controversial or problematic, the American Heritage Dictionary relied on the advice of a usage panel. In its final form, the panel comprised nearly 200 prominent members of professions whose work demanded sensitivity to language. Former members of the usage panel include novelists (Isaac Asimov, Barbara Kingsolver, David Foster Wallace and Eudora Welty), poets (Rita Dove, Galway Kinnell, Mary Oliver and Robert Pinsky), playwrights (Terrence McNally and Marsha Norman), journalists (Liane Hansen and Susan Stamberg), literary critics (Harold Bloom), columnists and commentators (William F. Buckley, Jr. and Robert J. Samuelson), linguists and cognitive scientists (Anne Curzan, Steven Pinker and Calvert Watkins) and humorists (Garrison Keillor, David Sedaris and Alison Bechdel). Pinker, author of the style guide The Sense of Style, was its final chair.

The members of the panel were sent regular ballots asking about matters of usage; the completed ballots were returned and tabulated, and the results formed the basis for special usage notes appended to the relevant dictionary entries. In many cases, these notes not only reported the percentage of panelists who considered a given usage or construction to be acceptable, but would also report the results from balloting of the same question in past decades, to give a clearer sense of how the language changes over time.

Houghton Mifflin dissolved the usage panel on February 1, 2018, citing the decline in demand for print dictionaries.

Illustrations
The AHD is also somewhat innovative in its liberal use of photographic illustrations, which at the time was highly unusual for general reference dictionaries, many of which went largely or completely unillustrated. It also has an unusually large number of biographical entries for notable persons.

First edition
The first edition appeared in 1969, highly praised for its Indo-European etymologies. In addition to the normally expected etymologies, which for instance trace the word ambiguous to a Proto-Indo-European root ag-, meaning "to drive", the appendices included a seven-page article by Professor Calvert Watkins entitled "Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans" and "Indo-European Roots", 46 pages of entries that are each organized around one of some thousand Proto-Indo-European roots and the English words of the AHD that are understood to have evolved from them. These entries might be called "reverse etymologies": the ag- entry there, for instance, lists 49 terms derived from it, words as diverse as agent, essay, purge, stratagem, ambassador, axiom, and pellagra, along with information about varying routes through intermediate transformations on the way to the contemporary words.

A compacted American Heritage College Dictionary was first released in 1974.

Later editions
The first edition's concise successor, The American Heritage Dictionary, Second College Edition, was published in 1982 (without a larger-format version). It omitted the Indo-European etymologies, but they were reintroduced in the third full edition, published in 1992. The third edition was also a departure for the publisher because it was developed in a database, which facilitated the use of the linguistic data for other applications, such as electronic dictionaries. The third edition included over 350,000 entries and meanings.

The fourth edition (2000, reissued in 2006) added an appendix of Semitic language etymological roots, and included color illustrations, and was also available with a CD-ROM edition in some versions. This revision was larger than a typical desk dictionary but smaller than Webster's Third New International Dictionary or the unabridged Random House Dictionary of the English Language. A lower-priced college edition, also the fourth, was issued in black-and-white printing and with fewer illustrations, in 2002 (reprinted in 2007 and 2010).

The fifth and most recent full edition was published in November 2011, with new printings in 2012 and 2016 and a 50th Anniversary Printing in 2018, which the publisher states is a "comprehensive update" of the 2011 edition, containing "... [t]housands of revisions to definitions and etymologies, 150 new words and senses, and new usage advice ...."

The various printings of the 5th edition are available in hardcover and, with reduced print size and smaller page count, trade paperback form. The 5th edition dropped several of the supplementary features of the fourth edition, and is not available with a disc-based electronic version. The university-student version was renamed The American Heritage College Writer's Dictionary in 2013, and stripped of biographical and geographical entries to make room for more vocabulary while simultaneously reducing the number of pages compared to the fourth college edition.

The AHD inserts minor revisions (such as a biographical entry, with photograph, for each newly elected U.S. president) in successive printings of any given edition.

Supporting volumes have been issued, including The American Heritage Book of English Usage, The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots, The American Heritage Abbreviations Dictionary, The American Heritage Dictionary of Idioms, The American Heritage Thesaurus in various sizes; usage dictionaries of special vocabulary such as The American Heritage Science Dictionary, The American Heritage Medical Dictionary and The American Heritage Dictionary of Business Terms; plus special dictionary editions for children, high-school students, and English-language learners. The American Heritage brand is also used for a series of American history books.