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Henry James Sumner Maine

Sir Henry James Sumner Maine, (15 August 1822 – 3 February 1888), was a British Whig comparative jurist and historian. He is famous for the thesis outlined in his book Ancient Law that law and society developed "from status to contract." According to the thesis, in the ancient world individuals were tightly bound by status dealing with(in) a particular group while in the modern one, in which individuals are viewed as autonomous agents, they are free to make contracts and form associations with whomever they choose. Because of this thesis, Maine can be seen as one of the forefathers of modern legal anthropology, legal history and sociology of law.

Early life
Maine was the son of Dr. James Maine, of Kelso, Roxburghshire. He was educated at Christ's Hospital, where a boarding house was named after him in 1902, being the 7th block on the avenue, and 3rd on the East Side. From there he went up to Pembroke College, Cambridge, in 1840. At Cambridge, he was noted as a classical scholar and also won the Chancellor's Gold Medal for poetry in 1842. He won a Craven scholarship and graduated as senior classic in 1844, being also senior chancellor's medallist in classics. He was a Cambridge Apostle.

Shortly afterwards, he accepted a tutorship at Trinity Hall. In 1847, he was appointed Regius Professor of Civil Law, and he was called to the bar three years later; he held this chair until 1854. Meanwhile, in 1852 he had become one of the readers appointed by the Inns of Court.

In India

The post of legal member of council in India was offered to Maine in 1861; he declined it once, on grounds of health. The following year Maine was persuaded to accept, and it turned out that India suited him much better than Cambridge or London. He was asked to prolong his services beyond the regular term of five years, and he returned to England in 1869.

The subjects on which it was Maine's duty to advise the government of India were as much political as legal. They ranged from such problems as the land settlement of the Punjab, or the introduction of civil marriage to provide for the needs of unorthodox Hindus, to the question of how far the study of Persian should be required or encouraged among European civil servants. Plans of codification were prepared, and largely shaped, under Maine's direction, which were implemented by his successors, Sir James Fitzjames Stephen and Dr Whitley Stokes.

Maine became a member of the Secretary of State's council in 1871 and remained so for the rest of his life. In the same year he was gazetted a K.C.S.I.

Oxford professor
In 1869, Maine was appointed to the chair of historical and comparative jurisprudence newly founded in the University of Oxford by Corpus Christi College. Residence at Oxford was not required, and the election amounted to an invitation to the new professor to resume and continue in his own way the work he had begun in Ancient Law.

In 1877, the mastership of Trinity Hall, Cambridge, where Maine had formerly been tutor, became vacant. There were two strong candidates whose claims were so nearly equal that it was difficult to elect either; the difficulty was solved by a unanimous invitation to Maine to accept the post. His acceptance entailed the resignation of the Oxford chair, though not continuous residence at Cambridge. Ten years later, he was elected to succeed Sir William Harcourt as Whewell Professor of International Law at Cambridge.

In 1886, he was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society.

Death
Maine's health, which had never been strong, gave way towards the end of 1887. He went to the Riviera under medical advice, and died at Cannes, France, on 3 February 1888. He left a wife, Jane, and two sons, of whom the elder died soon afterwards. An oil portrait of Jane remains in the possession of their descendants.

Works
Maine wrote journalism in 1851 for the Morning Chronicle, edited by John Douglas Cook. With Cook and others, in 1855, he then founded and edited the Saturday Review, writing for it to 1861. Like his close friend James Fitzjames Stephen, he enjoyed occasional article-writing, and never quite abandoned it.

Maine contributed to the Cambridge Essays an essay on Roman law and legal education, republished in the later editions of Village Communities. Lectures delivered by Maine for the Inns of Court were the groundwork of Ancient Law (1861), the book by which his reputation was made at one stroke. Its object, as stated in the preface, was "to indicate some of the earliest ideas of mankind, as they are reflected in ancient law, and to point out the relation of those ideas to modern thought." He published the substance of his Oxford lectures: Village Communities in the East and the West (1871); Early History of Institutions (1875); Early Law and Custom (1883). In all these works, the phenomena of societies in an archaic stage are brought into line to illustrate the process of development in legal and political ideas (see freedom of contract).

As vice-chancellor of the University of Calcutta, Maine commented on the results produced by the contact of Eastern and Western thought. Three of these addresses were published, wholly or in part, in the later editions of Village Communities; the substance of others is in the Rede lecture of 1875, in the same volume. An essay on India was his contribution to the composite work entitled The Reign of Queen Victoria (editor Thomas Humphry Ward, 1887).

His brief work in international law is represented by the posthumous volume International Law (1888). Maine had published in 1885 his one work of speculative politics, a volume of essays on Popular Government, designed to show that democracy is not in itself more stable than any other form of government and that there is no necessary connexion between democracy and progress.

In 1886, there appeared in the Quarterly Review an article on the posthumous work of J. F. McLennan, edited and completed by his brother, entitled "The Patriarchal Theory". The article, though unsigned by the rule of the Quarterly at the time, was Maine's reply to the McLennan brothers' attack on the historical reconstruction of the Indo-European family system put forward in Ancient Law and supplemented in Early Law and Custom. Maine charged McLennan in his theory of primitive society with neglecting and misunderstanding of the Indo-European evidence.

A summary of Maine's writings was in Sir Mountstuart Grant Duff's memoir.

Selected publications

 * Ancient Law: Its Connection with the Early History of Society, and Its Relation to Modern Ideas. London: John Murray, 1861.
 * Village-Communities in the East and West. London: John Murray, 1871.
 * The Early History of the Property of Married Women. Manchester: A. Ireland and Co., 1873.
 * Lectures on the Early History of Institutions. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1875.
 * Dissertations on Early Law and Custom: Chiefly Selected from Lectures Delivered at Oxford. London: John Murray, 1883.
 * Popular Government: Four Essays. London: John Murray, 1885.
 * International Law: A Series of Lectures Delivered Before the University of Cambridge, 1887. London: John Murray, 1888.
 * Plato: A Poem. Cambridge: Privately Printed, 1894.

Selected articles

 * "Mr. Fitzjames Stephen's Introduction to the Indian Evidence Act," The Fortnightly Review, Vol. XIX, 1873.
 * "South Slavonians and Rajpoots," The Nineteenth Century, Vol. II, 1877.
 * "The King and his Successor," The Fortnightly Review, Vol. XXXVII, 1882.

title: Henry James Sumner Maine


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Tiberius II Constantine

Tiberius II Constantine (Tiberius Cōnstantīnus; Τιβέριος Κωνσταντῖνος; died 14 August 582) was Eastern Roman emperor from 574 to 582. Tiberius rose to power in 574 when Justin II, prior to a mental breakdown, proclaimed him caesar and adopted him as his own son. In 578, the dying Justin II gave him the title of augustus, thus becoming co-emperor alongside him. Tiberius became sole ruler less than two weeks later, assuming the regnal name of "Constantine" under which he reigned until his death.

Early career
Born in Thrace in the mid-6th century, Tiberius was appointed to the post of notarius. There, sometime after 552, he was introduced by the Patriarch Eutychius to the future emperor, Justin II, with whom he became firm friends. Under Justin's patronage, Tiberius was promoted to the position of Comes excubitorum, which he held from approximately 565 through to 574. He was present during Justin's imperial accession on 14 November 565 and also attended his inauguration as consul on 1 January 566.

Justin ceased making payments to the Avars, which had been implemented by his predecessor, Justinian. In 569, he appointed Tiberius to the post of Magister utriusque militiae, with instructions to deal with the Avars and their demands. After a series of negotiations, Tiberius agreed to allow the Avars to settle on Roman territory in the Balkans, in exchange for male hostages taken from various Avar chiefs. Justin, however, rejected the agreement, insisting on taking hostages from the family of the Avar Khan himself. That condition was rejected by the Avars and so Tiberius mobilized for war.

Avar War of 570
In 570, he defeated an Avar army in Thrace and returned to Constantinople. While attempting to follow up that victory in late 570 or early 571, Tiberius was defeated in a battle in which he narrowly escaped death, as his army was fleeing the battlefield. Agreeing to a truce, Tiberius provided an escort to the Avar envoys to discuss the terms of a treaty with Justin. On their return, the Avar envoys were attacked and robbed by local tribesmen, prompting them to appeal to Tiberius for help. He tracked down the group responsible and returned the stolen goods.

In 574, Justin had a mental breakdown, forcing Empress Sophia to turn to Tiberius to manage the empire, which was fighting the Persians to the east and dealing with the internal crisis of the plague. To achieve a measure of breathing space, Tiberius and Sophia agreed to a one-year truce with the Persians, at the cost of 45,000 nomismata. On 7 December 574, Justin, in one of his more lucid moments, had Tiberius proclaimed Caesar and adopted him as his own son. Tiberius added the name Constantine to his own. Although his position was now official, he was still subordinate to Justin. Sophia was determined to remain in power and kept Tiberius tightly controlled until Justin died, in 578.

Elevation as caesar (574–578)
The day after his appointment as Caesar, the plague abated, giving Tiberius more freedom of movement than Justin had been able to achieve. Tiberius also charted a very different course from his predecessor and proceeded to spend the money that Justin had doggedly saved in order to defend the imperial frontiers and win over the populace who had turned against him. According to Paul the Deacon, Tiberius found two treasures: the treasure of Narses and 1,000 centenaria: 100,000 pounds of gold or 7,200,000 solidi (nomismata), under a slab. The treasures were given away to the poor, to the consternation of Sophia.

Alongside generous donations, he also proceeded to reduce state revenue by removing taxes on wine and bread instituted by Justinian I. He continued the official ban on the sale of governorships, which was highly popular. He also negotiated a truce with the Avars, paying them 80,000 nomismata per year for which the Avars agreed to defend the Danube frontier, thereby allowing Tiberius to transfer troops across to the east for a planned renewal of the conflict against the Persians.

In 575, Tiberius began moving the armies of Thrace and Illyricum to the eastern provinces. Buying time to make the necessary preparations, he agreed to a three-year truce with the Persians, paying 30,000 nomismata, though the truce excluded action in the region around Armenia. Not content with making preparations, Tiberius also used this period to send reinforcements to Italy under the command of Baduarius with orders to stem the Lombard invasion. He saved Rome from the Lombards and allied the Empire with Childebert II, the King of the Franks, to defeat them. Unfortunately, Baduarius was defeated and killed in 576, allowing even more imperial territory in Italy to slip away. Tiberius was unable to respond as the Sassanid Emperor Khosrau I struck at the empire's Armenian provinces in 576, sacking Melitene and Sebastea. Shifting his attention eastward, Tiberius sent his general Justinian with the eastern armies to push the Persians back across the Euphrates. The Byzantines followed, and pushed deep into Persian territory, culminating in a raid on Atropatene. In 577, however, Justinian was defeated in Persian Armenia, forcing a Byzantine withdrawal. In response to that defeat, Tiberius replaced Justinian with the future emperor Maurice. During the truce that Tiberius concluded with Khosrau, he busily enhanced the army of the east not only with transfers from his western armies but also through barbarian recruits, which he formed into a new foederati unit, amounting to some 15,000 troops by the end of his reign.

Throughout 577 and into 578, Tiberius avoided all other entanglements that would have distracted him from the approaching Persian conflict. He appeased, quite successfully, both Chalcedonian and Monophysite Christians by the use of strategic appointments and the easing of persecutions. He paid the Lombard tribal chieftains some 200,000 nomismata in an attempt to keep them divided and to prevent the election of a king. When the Slavs invaded Illyricum, he transported Avar armies to attack them and force their retreat. Consequently, when Khosrau invaded Roman Mesopotamia in 578, his general, Maurice, was able to invade Persian Arzanene and Mesopotamia, sacking a number of key towns and forcing the Persians to abandon their advance and defend their own territory. It was during that period that the ailing emperor, Justin, finally died on 5 October 578.

Reign as augustus (578–582)
On 26 September 578, Tiberius was made Augustus by the rapidly-failing Justin. He used that opportunity to give away 7,200 pounds of gold, a practice that he continued annually throughout the four years of his reign.

Sophia, Justin's widow, tried to maintain her power and influence by marrying the new emperor, but he refused her proposal because he was already married to Ino. When Tiberius had first been raised to the rank of Caesar, Sophia had refused the request for Ino and her children to move into the Imperial palace with her husband, forcing them to reside in a small residence nearby and prohibiting them from entering the palace. Once Tiberius was elevated to the rank of Augustus, however, he had his family moved into the palace and renamed Ino as Anastasia, much to Sophia's resentment. Therefore, Sophia sought revenge, and a secret pact was made between the dowager empress and General Justinian, whom Tiberius had replaced the year before. They conspired to overthrow the emperor and seat Justinian in his place. The conspiracy failed, however, and Sophia was reduced to a modest allowance; Justinian was forgiven by Tiberius.

The ongoing success against the Persians in the East once again allowed Tiberius to turn his gaze westward. In 579, he again extended his military activities into the remnants of the Western Roman Empire. He sent money and troops to Italy to reinforce Ravenna and to retake the port of Classis. He formed an alliance with one of the Visigothic princes in Spain, who was fomenting rebellion, and his generals defeated the rebellious Berbers under their king Garmul in North Africa. He also intervened in Frankish affairs in the former province of Gaul, which had been largely free of imperial contacts for close to a century. Consequently, he might have been the basis for the fictional emperor Lucius Tiberius of Arthurian legend, who sent envoys to former Roman provinces after a long period without an imperial presence.

The reality, however, was that the empire was seriously overextended. In 579, with Tiberius occupied elsewhere, the Avars decided to take advantage of the lack of troops in the Balkans by besieging Sirmium. At the same time, the Slavs began to migrate into Thrace, Macedonia and southern Greece, which Tiberius was unable to halt as the Persians refused to agree to a peace in the east, which remained the emperor's main priority. Furthermore, the army of the East was beginning to become restless, as it had not been paid, and it threatened to mutiny.

In 580, General Maurice launched a new offensive, raiding well beyond the Tigris. The following year, he again invaded Persian Armenia and almost succeeded in reaching the Persian capital, Ctesiphon, before a Persian counterinvasion of Byzantine Mesopotamia forced him to withdraw in order to deal with that threat. By 582, with no apparent end to the Persian war in sight, Tiberius was forced to come to terms with the Avars, and he agreed to pay an indemnity and to hand over the vital city of Sirmium, which the Avars then looted. The migration of the Slavs continued, with their incursions reaching as far south as Athens. Although a new Persian invasion was halted with a significant defeat at Constantina in June 582, by now, Tiberius was dying, apparently having eaten some poorly-prepared or possibly-deliberately poisoned food.

In this state, Tiberius initially named two heirs, each of whom married one of his daughters. Maurice was betrothed to Constantina, and Germanus, related through blood to the great emperor Justinian, was married to Charito. It appears that his plan was to divide the empire in two, with Maurice receiving the eastern provinces and Germanus the western provinces. This plan was never implemented, and on 13 August 582, he elevated Maurice to the rank of Augustus.

Tiberius died on the following day, 14 August 582, and his last words were spoken to his successor: "Let my sovereignty be delivered to thee with this girl. Be happy in the use of it, mindful always to love equity and justice."

Character and legacy
A native of the Latin-speaking part of Thrace, Tiberius was nonetheless distinguished as the first of the "Greek[-speaking] Caesars" by Edward Gibbon, who cited the 13th-century Syriac Orthodox bishop and writer Bar Hebraeus. Tiberius reportedly was tall and handsome, with a regal bearing. He was gentle and humane, both as a man and a ruler, with a reputation for generosity. Unlike his predecessor, he largely refrained from persecuting his Monophysite subjects, but his Arian subjects in the west did not fare as well. He also spent a good deal of money on building projects, most notably the continued expansion of the Great Palace of Constantinople.

According to Gibbon, Tiberius II was a good emperor:

"With the odious name of Tiberius, he assumed the more popular appellation of Constantine, and imitated the purer virtues of the Antonines. After recording the vice or folly of so many Roman princes, it is pleasing to repose, for a moment, on a character conspicuous by the qualities of humanity, justice, temperance, and fortitude; to contemplate a sovereign affable in his palace, pious in the church, impartial on the seat of judgment, and victorious, at least by his generals, in the Persian war. The most glorious trophy of his victory consisted in a multitude of captives, whom Tiberius entertained, redeemed, and dismissed to their native homes with the charitable spirit of a Christian hero. The merit or misfortunes of his own subjects had a dearer claim to his beneficence, and he measured his bounty not so much by their expectations as by his own dignity. This maxim, however dangerous in a trustee of the public wealth, was balanced by a principle of humanity and justice, which taught him to abhor, as of the basest alloy, the gold that was extracted from the tears of the people. For their relief, as often as they had suffered by natural or hostile calamities, he was impatient to remit the arrears of the past, or the demands of future taxes: he sternly rejected the servile offerings of his ministers, which were compensated by tenfold oppression; and the wise and equitable laws of Tiberius excited the praise and regret of succeeding times. Constantinople believed that the emperor had discovered a treasure: but his genuine treasure consisted in the practice of liberal economy, and the contempt of all vain and superfluous expense. The Romans of the East would have been happy, if the best gift of Heaven, a patriot king, had been confirmed as a proper and permanent blessing. But in less than four years after the death of Justin, his worthy successor sunk into a mortal disease, which left him only sufficient time to restore the diadem, according to the tenure by which he held it, to the most deserving of his fellow-citizens."

That opinion was not shared by John Bagnall Bury, who commented:

"But though he might have made a very good minister of war, Tiberius did not make a good Emperor. It was natural that his first acts should be reactionary, as Justin's government had been extremely unpopular. He removed the duty on the 'political bread,' and remitted a fourth part of the taxes throughout the Empire. Had he been contented with this he might deserve praise, but he began a system of most injudicious extravagance. He gratified the soldiers with large and frequent Augustatica, and he granted donations to members of all the professions--scholastics or jurists ('a very numerous profession'), physicians, silversmiths, bankers. This liberality soon emptied the treasury of its wealth. . . . The result was that by the end of the first year of his reign he had spent 7200 lbs. of gold, beside silver and silk in abundance; and before he died he was obliged to have recourse to the reserve fund which the prudent economy of Anastasius had laid by, to be used in the case of an extreme emergency. And, notwithstanding these financial difficulties, he laid out money on new buildings in the palace." "The consequence of this recklessness was that when Maurice came to the throne he found the exchequer empty and the State bankrupt. . . . There is considerable reason, I think, to remove Tiberius from his pedestal."

Family
Originally betrothed as a young man to the daughter of Ino, Tiberius eventually married Ino after her daughter and husband died. She took on the name Anastasia in 578 after his accession to the throne.

They had three children together, one of whom died before Tiberius was created Caesar in 574. Of his other two, both daughters, Constantina was married to Tiberius's successor, Maurice, and Charito was married to Germanus. His wife and two daughters all outlived him.

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title: Tiberius II Constantine


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Whitley Stokes (Celtic scholar)

Whitley Stokes, CSI, CIE, FBA (28 February 1830 – 13 April 1909) was an Irish lawyer and Celtic scholar.

Background
He was a son of William Stokes (1804–1878), and a grandson of Whitley Stokes the physician and anti-Malthusian (1763–1845), each of whom was Regius Professor of Physic at Trinity College Dublin. His sister Margaret Stokes was a writer and archaeologist.

He was born at 5 Merrion Square, Dublin and educated at St Columba's College where he was taught Irish by Denis Coffey, author of a Primer of the Irish Language. Through his father he came to know the Irish antiquaries Samuel Ferguson, Eugene O'Curry, John O'Donovan and George Petrie. He entered Trinity College Dublin in 1846 and graduated with a BA in 1851. His friend and contemporary Rudolf Thomas Siegfried (1830–1863) became assistant librarian in Trinity College in 1855, and the college's first professor of Sanskrit in 1858. It is likely that Stokes learnt both Sanskrit and comparative philology from Siegfried, thus acquiring a skill-set rare among Celtic scholars in Ireland at the time.

Career
Stokes qualified for the bar at Inner Temple. His instructors in the law were Arthur Cayley, Hugh McCalmont Hughes, and Thomas Chitty. Stokes became an English barrister on 17 November 1855, practicing in London before going to India in 1862, where he filled several official positions. In 1865 he married Mary Bazely by whom he had four sons and two daughters. One of his daughters, Maïve, compiled a book of Indian Fairy Tales in 1879 (she was 12 years old) based on stories told to her by her Indian ayahs and a man-servant. It also included some notes by Mrs. Mary Stokes. Mary died while the family was still living in India. In 1877, Stokes was appointed legal member of the viceroy's council, and he drafted the codes of civil and criminal procedure and did much other valuable work of the same nature. In 1879 he became president of the commission on Indian law. Nine books by Stokes on Celtic studies were published in India. He returned to settle permanently in London in 1881 and married Elizabeth Temple in 1884. In 1887 he was made a CSI, and two years later a CIE He was an original fellow of the British Academy, an honorary fellow of Jesus College, Oxford and foreign associate of the Institut de France.

Celtic scholarship
Whitley Stokes is perhaps most famous as a Celtic scholar, and in this field he worked both in India and in England. He studied Irish, Breton and Cornish texts. His chief interest in Irish was as a source of material for comparative philology. Despite his learning in Old Irish and Middle Irish, he never acquired Irish pronunciation and never mastered Modern Irish. In the hundred years since his death he has continued to be a central figure in Celtic scholarship. Many of his editions have not been superseded in that time and his total output in Celtic studies comes to over 15,000 pages. He was a correspondent and close friend of Kuno Meyer from 1881 onwards. With Meyer he established the journal Archiv für celtische Lexicographie and was the co-editor, with Ernst Windisch, of the Irische Texte series. In 1876 Stokes's translation of Vita tripartita Sancti Patricii, along with a written introduction, was published.

In 1862 he was awarded the Cunningham Gold Medal by the Royal Irish Academy.

Death and reputation
Stokes died at his London home, 15 Grenville Place, Kensington, in 1909 and is buried in Paddington Old Cemetery. Willesden Lane, where his grave is marked by a Celtic cross. Another Celtic cross was erected as a memorial to him at St Fintan's, Sutton, Dublin. The Gaelic League paper An Claidheamh Soluis called Stokes "the greatest of the Celtologists" and expressed pride that an Irishman should have excelled in a field which was at that time dominated by continental scholars. In 1929 the Canadian scholar James F. Kenney described Stokes as "the greatest scholar in philology that Ireland has produced, and the only one that may be ranked with the most famous of continental savants".

A conference entitled "Ireland, India, London: The Tripartite Life of Whitley Stokes" took place at the University of Cambridge from 18 to 19 September 2009. The event was organised to mark the centenary of Stokes's death. A volume of essays based on the papers delivered at this conference, The Tripartite Life of Whitley Stokes (1830–1909), was published by Four Courts Press in autumn 2011.

In 2010 Dáibhí Ó Cróinín published Whitley Stokes (1830–1909): The Lost Celtic Notebooks Rediscovered, a volume based on the scholarship in Stokes's 150 notebooks which had been resting unnoticed at the University Library, Leipzig since 1919.

Works

 * The Passion: Middle Cornish Poem (1860–1861)
 * Three Irish Glossaries (1862)
 * Gwreans an Bys: the Creation of the World Translation of William Jordan's 1611 Cornish play (1864)
 * Beunans Meriasek The Life of Saint Meriasek Bishop and Confessor (1872) - Editor[Trubner & Co London]
 * Three Middle-Irish Homilies (1877)
 * Old Irish Glosses at Merzburg and Carlsruhe (1887)
 * Irische Texte published at Leipzig (1880–1900), co-editor with Ernst Windisch
 * The Anglo-Indian Codes (1887).
 * Lives of Saints from the Book of Lismore (1890) translator
 * Urkeltischer Sprachschatz (1894) with Adalbert Bezzenberger
 * Thesaurus Palaeohibernicus (1901–03) with John Strachan

Collections
In 1910 Stokes' daughters presented University College London with their father's library. The collection spans c.2000 books, many of which contain autograph letters between Stokes and Kuno Meyer, and from other philologists. Stokes' archive also resides at University College London; the 4 box collection comprises his working notes on philology.

title: Whitley Stokes (Celtic scholar)


text:
Ptelea trifoliata

Ptelea trifoliata, commonly known as common hoptree, wafer ash, stinking ash, and skunk bush, is a species of flowering plant in the citrus family (Rutaceae). It is native to North America, where it is found in Canada, Mexico, and the United States. It is a deciduous shrub or tree, with alternate, trifoliate leaves.

Description
Ptelea trifoliata is a small tree, or often a shrub of a few spreading stems, growing to around 6 - 8 m tall with a broad crown. The bark is reddish brown to gray brown, with short horizontal lenticels (warty corky ridges), becoming slightly scaly, The plant has an unpleasant odor and bitter taste. Branchlets are dark reddish brown, shining, covered with small excrescences. The twigs are slender to moderately stout, brown with deep U-shaped leaf scars, and with short, light brown, fuzzy buds. It has thick fleshy roots.

Leaves
Its leaves are alternate and compound with three leaflets, dotted with oil glands. The leaflets are sessile, ovate or oblong, 3-5 in long by 2-3 in broad, pointed at the base, entire or serrate, and gradually pointed at the apex. They are feather-veined, with a prominent midrib and primary veins. They come out of the bud conduplicate and very downy. When fully grown the leaves are dark green and shiny above and paler green beneath. In autumn they turn a rusty yellow. The petioles are stout, 6.3–7.6 cm long, with an enlarged base. Stipules are absent. The western and southwestern forms have smaller leaves, 5–11 cm, than the eastern forms 10–18 cm, an adaptation to the drier climates in the west.

Flowers
The flowers are small, 1–2 cm across, with 4–5 narrow, greenish white petals. The pedicels are downy. The 4- or 5-part calyx is downy and imbricate in bud. The corolla has four or five petals which are white, downy, spreading, hypogynous, and imbricate in bud. The five stamens alternate with the petals. The pistillate flowers bear rudimentary anthers. The filaments are awl-shaped and more-or-less hairy. The anthers are ovate or cordate, two-celled, with cells opening longitudinally. The ovaries are superior, hairy, abortive in the staminate flowers, two to three-celled. The style is short, the stigma 2- or 3-lobed, with two ovules per cell. Fertile and sterile flowers are produced together in terminal, spreading, compound cymes—the sterile being usually fewer and falling after the anther cells mature.

Flowers are produced in May and June. Some find the odor unpleasant but to others the plant has a delicious scent.

Fruit
The fruit is a round wafer-like papery samara, 2–2.5 cm across, light brown, and two-seeded. The fruit ripens in October, and is held on the tree until high winds shake them loose in the early winter.

Wood
Its wood is yellow brown; heavy, hard, close-grained, satiny. The specific gravity is 0.8319; weight per cubic foot is 51.84 lb.

Taxonomy
While Ptelea trifoliata is most often treated as a single species with subspecies and/or varieties in different distribution ranges, some botanists treat the various hoptrees as a group of four or more closely related species:
 * P. trifoliata subsp. trifoliata – common hoptree or eastern hoptree; eastern Canada & United States (U.S.), central U.S.
 * P. trifoliata subsp. trifoliata var. trifoliata – eastern Canada & (U.S.), central U.S.
 * P. trifoliata subsp trifoliata var. mollis Torr. & A. Gray – eastern and central U.S.
 * P. trifoliata subsp. angustifolia (Benth.) V.L.Bailey – south-central U.S.
 * P. trifoliata subsp. angustifolia var. angustifolia (Benth.) M.E.Jones (P. angustifolia, P. lutescens) – narrowleaf hoptree; south-central U.S.
 * P. trifoliata subsp. angustifolia var. persicifolia (Greene) V.L.Bailey – south-central U.S.
 * P. trifoliata subsp. pallida (Greene) V.L.Bailey – pallid hoptree, south-central and southwest U.S.
 * P. trifoliata subsp. pallida var. pallida (Greene) V.L.Bailey – southwest U.S.
 * P. trifoliata subsp. pallida var. cognata (Greene) Kearney & Peebles – southwest U.S.
 * P. trifoliata subsp. pallida var. confinis (Greene) V.L.Bailey – south-central and southwest U.S.
 * P. trifoliata subsp. pallida var. lutescens – southwest U.S.
 * P. trifoliata subsp. polyadenia (Greene) V.L.Bailey – pallid hoptree, south-central and southwest U.S.
 * P. trifoliata var. baldwinii (Torr. & A.Gray) D.B.Ward (P. baldwinii)

The specific epithet "trifoliata" refers to the three-parted compound leaf.

Other common names for this shrub include stinking prairie bush, Carolina shrub-trefoil, tree-trefoil, swamp dogwood, ague bark, paleleaf hoptree, prairie-grub, prickaway-anise, quinine tree, sang-tree, water-ash, western hoptree, wingseed, and woolly hoptree.

Distribution and habitat
Ptelea trifoliata is native to North America, where its northern limits are in Ontario and Quebec, Canada. It is native through much of the eastern and southwestern United States, although it is absent from some areas of the Upper Midwest and is rare in much of New England. Its southern limits are in Mexico.

It has a wide-ranging natural habitat. In the Southeastern United States it is most often found in rocky forests, in both moist and dry soil, often associated with calcareous or mafic substrates. In the Midwest, habitats include forests, savannas, prairies, glades, and sand dunes. In Arizona it is common in canyons.

Ecology
Larva of the giant swallowtail butterfly Papilio cresphontes feed on the leaves. Treehoppers of the genus Enchenopa infest the branches, laying white-frothy masses of eggs on the branch undersides. Several ant species tend to the treehoppers, including Camponotus pennsylvanicus, Formica montana, and Formica subsericea. Several bee species have been documented visiting the flowers of wafer ash, including Agapostemon virescens, Andrena commoda, Andrena crataegi, Andrena cressonii, Apis mellifera, Bombus auricomus, Bombus bimaculatus, Bombus impatiens, Ceratina calcarata, Ceratina dupla, Ceratina mikmaqi, and Lasioglossum imitatum.

Uses
It has several Native American uses as a seasoning and as an herbal medicine for different ailments.

Numerous cultivars have been developed for ornamental use in parks and gardens. The cultivar 'Aurea' with golden leaves has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.

German immigrants to Texas in the 19th century used its seeds in place of hops in the beer-making process, lending the species its common name.

title: Ptelea trifoliata


text:
Frederic William Maitland

Frederic William Maitland (28 May 1850 – c. 19 December 1906) was an English historian and jurist who is regarded as the modern father of English legal history. From 1884 until his death in 1906, he was reader in English law, then Downing Professor of the Laws of England at the University of Cambridge.

Born into a distinguished intellectual family, Maitland was educated at Eton College and Trinity College, Cambridge. Leaving for the bar after an initial failure to obtain a fellowship at Cambridge, he returned to academia in 1884, and quickly became one of the most distinguished historians of his generation.

Early life and education, 1850–72
Frederic William Maitland was born on May 28, 1850, at 53 Guilford Street in London. He was the only son and second of three children of John Gorham Maitland and of Emma, daughter of John Frederic Daniell. His grandfather was Samuel Roffey Maitland. Maitland's father was a barrister but, having little practice, became a civil servant, serving as secretary to the Civil Service Commission.

Maitland was educated at a preparatory school in Brighton before entering Eton College in 1863, where Edward Daniel Stone was his private tutor. At Eton, Maitland was not prominent either academically or athletically, although a close school friend thought he would become "a kind of philosophic Charles Lamb". He then matriculated at Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1869 as a commoner. A dislike of classics acquired at Eton initially led him to read mathematics, with little success. Then, inspired by Henry Sidgwick, he switched to the relatively new moral sciences tripos in 1870, and took first-class honours in 1872, being bracketed senior with his friend William Cunningham; he was elected a scholar of his college the same year. The following year, he took his degree and won the Whewell Scholarship in international law.

Popular among his contemporaries, Maitland was elected secretary, then president, of the Cambridge Union. He was also, like his father before him, a Cambridge Apostle. A lover of exercise since his Eton days, he rowed for Trinity and ran for the university, winning a blue for representing the university in three-mile races.

Maitland's mother had died in 1851, shortly after the birth of his younger sister. Then, both his father and grandfather died when he was still at school. From his grandfather he inherited a manor house and some land in Brookthorpe, Gloucestershire. The estate provided him with an income until the agricultural depression in the 1880s.

Career at the bar
After Cambridge, Maitland tried to gain a fellowship in philosophy at Trinity College in 1875 with a dissertation entitled A Historical Sketch of Liberty and Equality: As Ideals of English Political Philosophy from the Time of Hobbes to the Time of Coleridge, but was beaten out by fellow Apostle James Ward. Having joined Lincoln's Inn as a student in 1872, he was called to the bar there in 1876, and became a competent equity lawyer and conveyancer.

Meanwhile, encouraged by Sidgwick, he began a book on property law, but abandoned it out of frustration at certain features of English property law; he expressed these sentiments in an anonymous article in the Westminster Review in 1879, described as "a bold, eloquent, and humorous plea for a sweeping change in the English law of Real Property". It was followed by three further articles in the Law Magazine and Review between 1881 and 1883.

Meeting with Vinogradoff
In 1880, Maitland was introduced by Frederick Pollock, who had been to Eton and Cambridge with him, to the Sunday Tramps, a walking club founded by Leslie Stephen. Through Pollock, Maitland was introduced in 1884 to Paul Vinogradoff, a Russian medievalist who was in England to study records lodged in the Public Record Office.

Maitland would later write that the day of his first meeting with Vinogradoff "determined the rest of my life". According to H. A. L. Fisher, Maitland was so chagrined by the fact that a Russian knew more about English legal records than he did that he made his first visit to the PRO shortly thereafter, though Geoffrey Elton points out that Maitland had already been working in the archives before he met Vinogradoff. The result of Maitland's initial work was Pleas of the Crown for the County of Gloucester, a transcription of the 1221 Gloucestershire eyre roll, which he published at his own expense in 1884 and dedicated to Vinogradoff.

Return to Cambridge and marriage, 1884–88
In 1884, Maitland was elected Reader in English law at Cambridge, having failed to be elected to a readership at Oxford the previous year. The post had been personally endowed by Sidgwick, to the tune of £300 a year for four years. In 1887, Maitland published, again at his own expense, an edition of Bracton's note book in three volumes, acting on a suggestion by Vinogradoff. He also published extensively on legal history in the Law Quarterly Review, which was edited by Sidgwick.

On 20 July 1886, Maitland married Florence Henrietta Fisher in a village church in Hampshire. He had met her through Stephen: her aunt was Stephen's second wife. Fisher was the daughter of Herbert William Fisher and the sister of H. A. L. Fisher, a future Liberal minister and Maitland's biographer. They had two daughters: Ermengard (named after a woman whose name appeared in Bracton's note book) in 1887 and Fredegond in 1889. By all account the marriage was a success, and the household a happy one.

Selden Society
In 1887, Maitland was among the founders of the Selden Society, established to promote the study of the history of English law, mainly through the publication of English legal manuscripts. The Society's first years were rocky: its treasurer, P. E. Dove, committed suicide in 1894, leaving behind a deficit of £1,000. Nevertheless, the Society published a steady stream of volumes under Maitland's direction as its first literary director. He personally edited eight volumes for the Society, contributed to more, and personally reviewed the proofs of every volume.

Downing Professor, 1888–1906
In 1888, Maitland was elected Downing Professor of the Laws of England, becoming a fellow of Downing College. On 13 October 1888 he gave his inaugural lecture, "Why the History of English Law is Not Written". The post carried with it an official residence, and Maitland's family settled in happily. He held frequent musical gatherings, and kept a series of exotic pets, including a monkey, a meerkat, and a badger. The same year, he published Select pleas of the Crown, A.D. 1200–1225, the first publication of the Selden Society.

In addition to teaching duties, Maitland served on numerous University and college bodies. He advocated for a number of reforms, including the abandonment of Greek as a compulsory entrance subject and the admission of women to degrees. In March 1897 he helped defeat a proposal for the creation of a Queen's University for women only as an alternative to granting them Cambridge degrees, making a speech which was long afterwards remembered.

Meanwhile, Maitland published extensively, making important contributions to the Cambridge Modern History, the English Historical Review, the Law Quarterly Review, Harvard Law Review and other publications. He delivered the Ford Lectures in English history at Oxford in 1897 (later published as Township and Borough) and the Rede Lecture in 1901. His most important work, The History of English Law Before the Time of Edward I, appeared in 1895. It was co-authored with his friend Sir Frederick Pollock, though the latter wrote only the chapter on Anglo-Saxon law: "Chapter 1...was Pollock's work, and Maitland's reaction was never to let him write another." Popularly known as "Pollock and Maitland", The History of English Law has been described as "the best book on English legal history ever published in the English language."

In 1902 Maitland was offered the Regius Professorship of Modern History at Cambridge by Arthur Balfour in succession to Lord Acton, but declined. In the same year he became one of the founding fellows of the British Academy.

Final years and death
Maitland's health began to deteriorate in the 1890s: the exact nature of his illness remains unclear, but has been variously ascribed to tuberculosis or to diabetes. In 1898 he suffered from an attack of pleurisy, and thereafter he wintered either in the Canary Islands or in Madeira. In December 1906, he left Cambridge for the Canaries for the last time: during the trip, he contracted influenza, which turned into double pneumonia. He died at Las Palmas and was buried in the English Cemetery there.

Upon his death, the University of Oxford presented an address of condolence to Cambridge, described by Sir Geoffrey Elton as an "unprecedented tribute". Such addresses were often presented to the royal family, but the only precedent in the case of Maitland was an address to the University of Berlin upon the death of Theodor Mommsen.

Posthumous publications by his students, editing their lecture notes based on his lectures, include The Constitutional History of England, Equity, and The Forms of Action at Common Law. The latter publication has been repeatedly reprinted, and contains perhaps his most-quoted observation, which still appears in learned articles and superior court judgments: "The forms of action we have buried but still they rule us from their graves."

Personal life
Maitland married Florence Henrietta Fisher, daughter of the historian Herbert William Fisher, in 1886 and they had two daughters, Ermengard (1887–1968) and Fredegond (1889–1949); after Maitland's death his widow married Sir Francis Darwin, a son of Charles Darwin.

Maitland was a moderate Liberal in politics, sympathizing with the Liberal Party but striving to maintain objectivity in his scholarship. Florence Fisher's brother, the Liberal scholar and politician H. A. L. Fisher, edited Maitland's papers and lectures on English constitutional history after his death.

Approach and style
His written style was elegant and lively. His historical method was distinguished by his thorough and sensitive use of historical sources, and by his determinedly historical perspective. Maitland taught his students, and all later historians, not to investigate the history of law purely or mostly by reference to the needs of the present, but rather to consider and seek to understand the past on its own terms.

Memoranda de Parliamento
In 1889, Maitland was invited by Henry Maxwell Lyte, the Deputy Keeper of the Public Records, to examine and edit the petitions presented to Edward I's parliament. Maitland quickly determined that the task was too large to be completed by one man. However, by chance he discovered a hitherto unpublished parliament roll from 1305, which he edited and published in 1893 as part of the Rolls Series. This formed the basis of what Elton described as his "most explosive contribution to English history".

At the time, it was generally believed that early English parliaments were, from the beginning, an assembly of the estates of the realm who met to discuss affairs of state. This view had been laid down by Stubbs, who had based his view on the 1295 "Model Parliament". In his introduction to the 1305 roll, Maitland instead proposed that early English parliaments were judicial bodies which met mainly to receive petitions to address grievances. Though the revolutionary nature of Maitland's suggestion was realised only later, most historians have come to accept Maitland's view.

"Why the history of English Law is not written?"
On 13 October 1888, Maitland gave his inaugural lecture as Downing Professor of the Laws of England. Pointing out that "no attempt has ever been made to write the history of English law as a whole", he proposed two causes: the insularity of English law and the conflicting logics of the lawyer and of the historian.

Assessment
Maitland was held in high regard by his contemporaries. Lord Acton called him the ablest historian in England.

Maitland's reputation has stood high since his death. Speaking in 1980, S. F. C. Milsom said that Maitland is "not just revered but loved" by historians, while in 1985, Sir Geoffrey Elton wrote of Maitland as the "patron saint" of historians.

Beginning in the 1960s, scholars such as S. F. C. Milsom and Patrick Wormald began to point out shortcomings in Maitland's views, which had by then become the orthodoxy, although the criticisms were inevitably coupled with sincere admiration for Maitland. The highly technical nature of Maitland's work, as well as the relative decline of legal history, made Maitland's views "lasting orthodoxies", as few historians had either the technical knowledge or the inclination to challenge them. Speaking on the centenary of the publication of Pollock and Maitland, Milsom said that:"'if we go on as we are, we can look forward to our successors celebrating the bicentenary of 'Pollock and Maitland' as still the last word on the history of English law in its most crucial period. I wonder whether he would be pleased.'"

Honours and memorials
During his lifetime, Maitland received honorary doctorates from the universities of Cambridge (1891), Oxford (1899), Glasgow (1896), Moscow and Kracow. He was one of the founding fellows of the British Academy in 1902, and was a corresponding member of the Royal Prussian Academy of the Arts and of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences and Humanities. He was also an honorary fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and an honorary bencher of Lincoln's Inn. On the latter honour, Maitland wrote to Pollock that "one of the vacant bishoprics would have been less of a surprise". Just before his death Maitland received the Ames Medal from Harvard Law School, and at the time of the death he had been invited by Oxford to deliver the Romanes Lecture.

After his death, the F. W. Maitland Memorial Fund was established at Cambridge in 1907 to promote research in legal history. It continues to award grants and studentships for that purpose. In 2000, a Maitland Legal History Room was established within the Squire Law Library of the Faculty of Law at the University of Cambridge. The Maitland Historical Society of Downing College, Cambridge, is also named in his honour.

At Oxford, a Maitland Library, begun with 300 books from Maitland's personal library, was established in 1908. Originally housed at All Souls College, Oxford, it was eventually taken over by the Bodleian Library, and was maintained as a separate collection until 1933.

In 2001, a memorial stone for Maitland was unveiled in Poet's Corner, Westminster Abbey; he was the first professional historian to be so honoured. The stone, cut by Richard Kindersley, is inscribed with a quote from Doomsday Book and Beyond: "By slow degrees the thoughts of our forefathers their common thoughts about common things will have become thinkable once more".

Works
His principal works include:
 * Pleas of the Crown for the County of Gloucester before the Abbot of Reading and his Fellows Justices Itinerant, Macmillan & Co., 1884.
 * Justice and Police, Macmillan & Co., 1885.
 * Bracton's Note-Book, Vol. 2, C. J. Clay & Sons, 1887 [reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2010]. ISBN 978-1-108-01031-3)
 * Memoranda de Parliamento, H.M. Stationery Office, 1893.
 * History of English Law before the Time of Edward I, with Sir Frederick Pollock, Cambridge University Press, 1899 [1st Pub. 1895; new ed. 1898].
 * Domesday Book and Beyond, Cambridge University Press, 1897.
 * Township and Borough: Being the Ford Lectures Delivered in the University of Oxford in the October Term of 1897, Cambridge University Press, 1898.
 * Roman Canon Law in the Church of England, Methuen & Co., 1898.
 * English Law and the Renaissance: the Rede Lecture for 1901, Cambridge University Press, 1901.
 * Charters of the Borough of Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1901 (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2010. ISBN 978-1-108-01043-6)
 * Life and Letters of Leslie Stephen, Duckworth & Co., 1906.
 * The Constitutional History of England, Cambridge University Press, 1909 [1st Pub. 1908].
 * Equity. Also the Forms of Action at Common Law, Edited by A.H. Chaytor and W.J. Whittaker, Cambridge University Press, 1910.
 * The Collected Papers of Frederic William Maitland, H.A.L. Fisher, ed., Vol. I, Cambridge University Press, 1911.
 * The Collected Papers of Frederic William Maitland, H.A.L. Fisher, ed., Vol. II, Cambridge University Press, 1911.
 * The Collected Papers of Frederic William Maitland, H.A.L. Fisher, ed., Vol. III, Cambridge University Press, 1911.
 * A Sketch of English Legal History, with Francis G. Montague, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1915.

Essays

 * "The Relation of Punishment to Temptation," Mind, Vol. V, 1880.
 * "The Criminal Liability of the Hundred," The Law Magazine and Review, Vol. VII, 1882.
 * "Mr. Herbert Spencer's Theory of Society," Part II, Mind, Vol. VIII, 1883.
 * "From the Old Law Courts to the New," The English Illustrated Magazine, Vol. I, 1883.
 * "The Seisin of Chattels," The Law Quarterly Review, Vol. I, 1885.
 * "The Deacon and the Jewess: or, Apostasy at Common Law," The Law Quarterly Review, Vol. II, 1886.
 * "The Mystery of Seisin," The Law Quarterly Review, Vol. II, 1886.
 * "The Suitors of the County Court," The English Historical Review, Vol. III, 1888.
 * "The Beatitude of Seisin," Part II, The Law Quarterly Review, Vol. IV, 1888.
 * "The Surnames of English Villages", The Archaeological Review, Vol. IV, No. 4, 1889.
 * "The Introduction of English Law into Ireland," The English Historical Review, Vol. IV, 1889.
 * "The Materials for English Legal History," Part II, Political Science Quarterly, Vol. IV, 1889.
 * "The 'Praerogativa Regis'," The English Historical Review, Vol. VI, 1891.
 * "Henry II and the Criminous Clerks," The English Historical Review, Vol. VII, 1892.
 * "The 'Quatripartitus'," The Law Quarterly Review, Vol. VIII, 1892.
 * "The History of Cambridgeshire Manor," The English Historical Review, Vol. IX, No. 35, July 1894.
 * "The Origin of the Borough," The English Historical Review, Vol. IX, 1896.
 * "Wyclif on English and Roman Law," The Law Quarterly Review, Vol. XII, 1896.
 * "'Execrabilis' in the Common Pleas," The Law Quarterly Review, Vol. XII, 1896.
 * "Canon Law in England," The English Historical Review, Vol. XII, 1897.
 * "The Corporation Sole," The Law Quarterly Review, Vol. XVI, 1900, pp. 335–354
 * "The Crown as Corporation," The Law Quarterly Review, Vol. XVII, 1901, pp. 131–146
 * "Prologue to a History of English Law." In: Select Essays in Anglo-American Legal History, Vol. I. Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1907.
 * "Materials For the History of English Law." In: Select Essays in Anglo-American Legal History, Vol. II. Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1908.
 * "The History of the Register of Original Writs." In: Select Essays in Anglo-American Legal History, Vol. II. Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1908.

Other

 * "Glanville, Ranulf de." In: Dictionary of National Biography, Vol. XXI, 1890.
 * "Court Rolls, Manorial Accounts and Extents." In: Dictionary of Political Economy, Vol. I, 1894.
 * Essays on the Teaching of History, William Arthur Jobson Archbold, ed., with an introduction by F.W. Maitland, Cambridge University Press, 1901.

title: Frederic William Maitland


text:
William Stubbs

William Stubbs (21 June 1825 – 22 April 1901) was an English historian and Anglican bishop. He was Regius Professor of Modern History at the University of Oxford between 1866 and 1884. He was Bishop of Chester from 1884 to 1889 and Bishop of Oxford from 1889 to 1901.

Early life
The son of William Morley Stubbs, a solicitor, and his wife, Mary Ann Henlock, he was born in a house on the High Street in Knaresborough, Yorkshire, and was educated at Ripon Grammar School and Christ Church, Oxford, where he graduated MA in 1848, obtaining a first-class in Literae Humaniores and a third in mathematics.

Education and career to 1889
Stubbs was elected a Fellow of Trinity College, during his time living in Navestock, Essex, from 1850 to 1866, where he served as parish priest for the same period.

In 1859, he married Catherine Dellar, daughter of John Dellar, of Navestock, and they had several children. He was librarian at Lambeth Palace, and in 1862 was an unsuccessful candidate for the Chichele Professorship of Modern History at Oxford.

In 1866, Stubbs was appointed Regius Professor of Modern History at Oxford, and held the chair until 1884. His lectures were thinly attended, and he found them a distraction from his historical work. Some of his statutory lectures are published in his Lectures on Mediaeval and Modern History. In 1872, he founded Oxford University's School of Modern History, allowing postclassical history to be taught as a distinct subject for the first time. He accepted the patronage of the Stubbs Society during his time at Oxford, where he interacted with future doyens of the historical profession.

Stubbs was rector of Cholderton, Wiltshire, from 1875 to 1879, when he was appointed a canon of St Paul's Cathedral. He served on the ecclesiastical courts commission of 1881–1883 and wrote the weighty appendices to the report. On 25 April 1884 he was consecrated Bishop of Chester, and in 1889 became Bishop of Oxford until his death. As Bishop of Oxford he was also ex officio the Chancellor of the Order of the Garter. He was a Member of the Chetham Society, and served as vice-president from 1884.

Approach to church office
Stubbs was a High Churchman whose doctrines and practice were grounded on learning and a veneration for antiquity. His opinions were received with marked respect by his brother prelates, and he acted as an assessor to the archbishop in the trial of Edward King, Bishop of Lincoln.

Final illness and death
An attack of illness in November 1900 seriously impaired Stubbs's health. He was able, however, to attend the funeral of Queen Victoria on 2 February 1901, and preached a remarkable sermon before King Edward VII and the German Emperor Wilhelm II on the following day. Stubbs's illness became critical on 20 April. He died in Cuddesdon on 22 April 1901. Stubbs was buried in the churchyard of All Saints, Cuddesdon, next to the palace of the bishops of Oxford.

Honours and degrees
Both in England and America, Stubbs was universally acknowledged as the head of all English historical scholars, and no English historian of his time was held in equal honour in European countries. Among his many distinctions he was D.D. and honorary D.C.L. of Oxford, LL.D. of Cambridge and Edinburgh, Doctor in utroque jure of Heidelberg; an hon. member of the University of Kyiv, and of the Prussian, Bavarian and Danish academies; he received the Prussian order Pour le Mérite, and was corresponding member of the Académie des sciences morales et politiques of the French Institute. Stubbs was elected an International Honorary member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1881, an International Member of the American Philosophical Society in 1891, and a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1897.

Reception
Until Stubbs found it necessary to devote all his time to his episcopal duties, he had concentrated on historical study. He argued that the theory of the unity and continuity of history should not remove distinctions between ancient and modern history. He believed that work on ancient history is a useful preparation for the study of modern history, but either may advantageously be studied apart. He also believed that the effects of individual character and human nature will render generalizations vague and useless. While pointing out that history is useful as a mental discipline and a part of a liberal education, he recommended its study chiefly for its own sake. It was in this spirit that he worked; he had the faculty of judgment and a genius for minute and critical investigation. He was equally eminent in ecclesiastical history, as an editor of texts and as the historian of the British constitution.

Registrum sacrum, Constitutional History, and Select Charters
In 1858 Stubbs published his Registrum Sacrum Anglicanum, (with a second edition published in 1897) which sets forth episcopal consecration data in England from 597 CE, which was followed by many other later works, and particularly by his share in Councils and Ecclesiastical Documents, edited in co-operation with the Rev. A. W. Haddan, for the third volume of which he was especially responsible. He edited nineteen volumes for the Rolls series of Chronicles and Memorials.

It is, however, by Stubbs's Constitutional History of England (3 vols., 1874–78) that he is most widely known as a historian. It became at once the standard authority on its subject. The appearance of this book, which traces the development of the English constitution from the Teutonic invasions of Britain till 1485, marks a distinct step in the advance of English historical learning. It was followed by its companion volume of Select Charters and Other Illustrations of English Constitutional History.

His merits as a historian
By Stubbs's contemporaries and after his death, Stubbs was considered to have been in the front rank of historical scholars both as an author and a critic, and as a master of every department of the historian's work, from the discovery of materials to the elaboration of well founded theories and literary production. He was a good palaeographer, and excelled in textual criticism, in examination of authorship, and other such matters, while his vast erudition and retentive memory made him second to none in interpretation and exposition. His merits as an author are often judged solely by his Constitutional History.

However, Stubbs's work is not entirely unquestionable. Some modern historians have questioned his acceptance of some medieval chronicles, written by monastical scribes whose views would be, to some extent, influenced by the politics of the Catholic Church. One such criticism was Stubbs's tirade against William Rufus whose character was much-maligned by the chroniclers perhaps due to his opposition to Gregorian reforms during his reign, which led to Archbishop Anselm going into exile.

Among the most notable examples of Stubbs's work for the Rolls series are the prefaces to Roger of Hoveden, the Gesta regum of William of Malmesbury, the Gesta Henrici II, and the Memorials of St. Dunstan.

Modern views of him
In the main Stubbs's ideas of a confrontational political framework have been superseded by K. B. McFarlane's "community of interest" theory; the idea that the amount of possible conflict between a king and his nobles was actually very small (case in point, Henry IV, 1399–1413). Historians like Michael Hicks, Rosemary Horrox and notably May McKisack, have pushed this view further.

J. W. Burrow proposed that Stubbs, like John Richard Green and Edward Augustus Freeman, was an historical scholar with little or no experience of public affairs, with views of the present which were romantically historicised and who was drawn to history by what was in a broad sense an antiquarian passion for the past, as well as a patriotic and populist impulse to identify the nation and its institutions as the collective subject of English history, making "the new historiography of early medieval times an extension, filling out and democratising, of older Whig notions of continuity. It was Stubbs who presented this most substantially; Green who made it popular and dramatic... It is in Freeman...of the three the most purely a narrative historian, that the strains are most apparent."

Publications

 * The medieval kingdoms of Cyprus and Armenia: two lectures delivered 26 and 29 October 1878. Oxford: E. Pickard Hall, M.A., and J.H. Stacy (1878)
 * The constitutional History of England, 3 vols, 5th ed. (Oxford, 1891–98).
 * The Constitutional History of England in Its Origin and Development, (sixth edition 1903)
 * Volume One
 * Volume Two
 * Volume Three

title: William Stubbs


text:
Sequent

In mathematical logic, a sequent is a very general kind of conditional assertion.

 * $$A_1,\,\dots,A_m \,\vdash\, B_1,\,\dots,B_n.$$

A sequent may have any number m of condition formulas Ai (called "antecedents") and any number n of asserted formulas Bj (called "succedents" or "consequents"). A sequent is understood to mean that if all of the antecedent conditions are true, then at least one of the consequent formulas is true. This style of conditional assertion is almost always associated with the conceptual framework of sequent calculus.

The form and semantics of sequents
Sequents are best understood in the context of the following three kinds of logical judgments:  Unconditional assertion. No antecedent formulas. Conditional assertion. Any number of antecedent formulas. Simple conditional assertion. Single consequent formula. Sequent. Any number of consequent formulas.   Thus sequents are a generalization of simple conditional assertions, which are a generalization of unconditional assertions.
 * Example: ⊢ B
 * Meaning: B is true.
 * Example: A1, A2, A3 ⊢ B
 * Meaning: IF A1 AND A2 AND A3 are true, THEN B is true.
 * Example: A1, A2, A3 ⊢ B1, B2, B3, B4
 * Meaning: IF A1 AND A2 AND A3 are true, THEN B1 OR B2 OR B3 OR B4 is true.

The word "OR" here is the inclusive OR. The motivation for disjunctive semantics on the right side of a sequent comes from three main benefits. All three of these benefits were identified in the founding paper by.
 * 1) The symmetry of the classical inference rules for sequents with such semantics.
 * 2) The ease and simplicity of converting such classical rules to intuitionistic rules.
 * 3) The ability to prove completeness for predicate calculus when it is expressed in this way.

Not all authors have adhered to Gentzen's original meaning for the word "sequent". For example, used the word "sequent" strictly for simple conditional assertions with one and only one consequent formula. The same single-consequent definition for a sequent is given by.

Syntax details
In a general sequent of the form
 * $$\Gamma\vdash\Sigma$$

both Γ and Σ are sequences of logical formulas, not sets. Therefore both the number and order of occurrences of formulas are significant. In particular, the same formula may appear twice in the same sequence. The full set of sequent calculus inference rules contains rules to swap adjacent formulas on the left and on the right of the assertion symbol (and thereby arbitrarily permute the left and right sequences), and also to insert arbitrary formulas and remove duplicate copies within the left and the right sequences. (However,, uses sets of formulas in sequents instead of sequences of formulas. Consequently the three pairs of structural rules called "thinning", "contraction" and "interchange" are not required.)

The symbol ' $$\vdash$$ ' is often referred to as the "turnstile", "right tack", "tee", "assertion sign" or "assertion symbol". It is often read, suggestively, as "yields", "proves" or "entails".

Effects of inserting and removing propositions
Since every formula in the antecedent (the left side) must be true to conclude the truth of at least one formula in the succedent (the right side), adding formulas to either side results in a weaker sequent, while removing them from either side gives a stronger one. This is one of the symmetry advantages which follows from the use of disjunctive semantics on the right hand side of the assertion symbol, whereas conjunctive semantics is adhered to on the left hand side.

Consequences of empty lists of formulas
In the extreme case where the list of antecedent formulas of a sequent is empty, the consequent is unconditional. This differs from the simple unconditional assertion because the number of consequents is arbitrary, not necessarily a single consequent. Thus for example, ' ⊢ B1, B2 ' means that either B1, or B2, or both must be true. An empty antecedent formula list is equivalent to the "always true" proposition, called the "verum", denoted "⊤". (See Tee (symbol).)

In the extreme case where the list of consequent formulas of a sequent is empty, the rule is still that at least one term on the right be true, which is clearly impossible. This is signified by the 'always false' proposition, called the "falsum", denoted "⊥". Since the consequence is false, at least one of the antecedents must be false. Thus for example, ' A1, A2 ⊢ ' means that at least one of the antecedents A1 and A2 must be false.

One sees here again a symmetry because of the disjunctive semantics on the right hand side. If the left side is empty, then one or more right-side propositions must be true. If the right side is empty, then one or more of the left-side propositions must be false.

The doubly extreme case ' ⊢ ', where both the antecedent and consequent lists of formulas are empty is "not satisfiable". In this case, the meaning of the sequent is effectively ' ⊤ ⊢ ⊥ '. This is equivalent to the sequent ' ⊢ ⊥ ', which clearly cannot be valid.

Examples
A sequent of the form ' ⊢ α, β ', for logical formulas α and β, means that either α is true or β is true (or both). But it does not mean that either α is a tautology or β is a tautology. To clarify this, consider the example ' ⊢ B ∨ A, C ∨ ¬A '. This is a valid sequent because either B ∨ A is true or C ∨ ¬A is true. But neither of these expressions is a tautology in isolation. It is the disjunction of these two expressions which is a tautology.

Similarly, a sequent of the form ' α, β ⊢ ', for logical formulas α and β, means that either α is false or β is false. But it does not mean that either α is a contradiction or β is a contradiction. To clarify this, consider the example ' B ∧ A, C ∧ ¬A ⊢ '. This is a valid sequent because either B ∧ A is false or C ∧ ¬A is false. But neither of these expressions is a contradiction in isolation. It is the conjunction of these two expressions which is a contradiction.

Rules
Most proof systems provide ways to deduce one sequent from another. These inference rules are written with a list of sequents above and below a line. This rule indicates that if everything above the line is true, so is everything under the line.

A typical rule is:

 * $$ \frac{\Gamma,\alpha\vdash\Sigma\qquad \Gamma\vdash\alpha}{\Gamma\vdash\Sigma}$$

This indicates that if we can deduce that $$\Gamma,\alpha$$ yields $$\Sigma$$, and that $$\Gamma$$ yields $$\alpha$$, then we can also deduce that $$\Gamma$$ yields $$\Sigma$$. (See also the full set of sequent calculus inference rules.)

History of the meaning of sequent assertions
The assertion symbol in sequents originally meant exactly the same as the implication operator. But over time, its meaning has changed to signify provability within a theory rather than semantic truth in all models.

In 1934, Gentzen did not define the assertion symbol ' ⊢ ' in a sequent to signify provability. He defined it to mean exactly the same as the implication operator ' ⇒ '. Using ' → ' instead of ' ⊢ ' and ' ⊃ ' instead of ' ⇒ ', he wrote: "The sequent A1, ..., Aμ → B1, ..., Bν signifies, as regards content, exactly the same as the formula (A1 & ... & Aμ) ⊃ (B1 ∨ ... ∨ Bν)". (Gentzen employed the right-arrow symbol between the antecedents and consequents of sequents. He employed the symbol ' ⊃ ' for the logical implication operator.)

In 1939, Hilbert and Bernays stated likewise that a sequent has the same meaning as the corresponding implication formula.

In 1944, Alonzo Church emphasized that Gentzen's sequent assertions did not signify provability.

 * "Employment of the deduction theorem as primitive or derived rule must not, however, be confused with the use of Sequenzen by Gentzen. For Gentzen's arrow, →, is not comparable to our syntactical notation, ⊢, but belongs to his object language (as is clear from the fact that expressions containing it appear as premisses and conclusions in applications of his rules of inference)."

Numerous publications after this time have stated that the assertion symbol in sequents does signify provability within the theory where the sequents are formulated. Curry in 1963, Lemmon in 1965, and Huth and Ryan in 2004 all state that the sequent assertion symbol signifies provability. However, states that the assertion symbol in Gentzen-system sequents, which he denotes as ' ⇒ ', is part of the object language, not the metalanguage.

According to Prawitz (1965): "The calculi of sequents can be understood as meta-calculi for the deducibility relation in the corresponding systems of natural deduction." And furthermore: "A proof in a calculus of sequents can be looked upon as an instruction on how to construct a corresponding natural deduction." In other words, the assertion symbol is part of the object language for the sequent calculus, which is a kind of meta-calculus, but simultaneously signifies deducibility in an underlying natural deduction system.

Intuitive meaning
A sequent is a formalized statement of provability that is frequently used when specifying calculi for deduction. In the sequent calculus, the name sequent is used for the construct, which can be regarded as a specific kind of judgment, characteristic to this deduction system.

The intuitive meaning of the sequent $$\Gamma\vdash\Sigma$$ is that under the assumption of Γ the conclusion of Σ is provable. Classically, the formulae on the left of the turnstile can be interpreted conjunctively while the formulae on the right can be considered as a disjunction. This means that, when all formulae in Γ hold, then at least one formula in Σ also has to be true. If the succedent is empty, this is interpreted as falsity, i.e. $$\Gamma\vdash$$ means that Γ proves falsity and is thus inconsistent. On the other hand an empty antecedent is assumed to be true, i.e., $$\vdash\Sigma$$ means that Σ follows without any assumptions, i.e., it is always true (as a disjunction). A sequent of this form, with Γ empty, is known as a logical assertion.

Of course, other intuitive explanations are possible, which are classically equivalent. For example, $$\Gamma\vdash\Sigma$$ can be read as asserting that it cannot be the case that every formula in Γ is true and every formula in Σ is false (this is related to the double-negation interpretations of classical intuitionistic logic, such as Glivenko's theorem).

In any case, these intuitive readings are only pedagogical. Since formal proofs in proof theory are purely syntactic, the meaning of (the derivation of) a sequent is only given by the properties of the calculus that provides the actual rules of inference.

Barring any contradictions in the technically precise definition above we can describe sequents in their introductory logical form. $$\Gamma$$ represents a set of assumptions that we begin our logical process with, for example "Socrates is a man" and "All men are mortal". The $$\Sigma$$ represents a logical conclusion that follows under these premises. For example "Socrates is mortal" follows from a reasonable formalization of the above points and we could expect to see it on the $$\Sigma$$ side of the turnstile. In this sense, $$\vdash$$ means the process of reasoning, or "therefore" in English.

Variations
The general notion of sequent introduced here can be specialized in various ways. A sequent is said to be an intuitionistic sequent if there is at most one formula in the succedent (although multi-succedent calculi for intuitionistic logic are also possible). More precisely, the restriction of the general sequent calculus to single-succedent-formula sequents, with the same inference rules as for general sequents, constitutes an intuitionistic sequent calculus. (This restricted sequent calculus is denoted LJ.)

Similarly, one can obtain calculi for dual-intuitionistic logic (a type of paraconsistent logic) by requiring that sequents be singular in the antecedent.

In many cases, sequents are also assumed to consist of multisets or sets instead of sequences. Thus one disregards the order or even the numbers of occurrences of the formulae. For classical propositional logic this does not yield a problem, since the conclusions that one can draw from a collection of premises do not depend on these data. In substructural logic, however, this may become quite important.

Natural deduction systems use single-consequence conditional assertions, but they typically do not use the same sets of inference rules as Gentzen introduced in 1934. In particular, tabular natural deduction systems, which are very convenient for practical theorem-proving in propositional calculus and predicate calculus, were applied by and  for teaching introductory logic in textbooks.

Etymology
Historically, sequents have been introduced by Gerhard Gentzen in order to specify his famous sequent calculus. In his German publication he used the word "Sequenz". However, in English, the word "sequence" is already used as a translation to the German "Folge" and appears quite frequently in mathematics. The term "sequent" then has been created in search for an alternative translation of the German expression.

Kleene makes the following comment on the translation into English: "Gentzen says 'Sequenz', which we translate as 'sequent', because we have already used 'sequence' for any succession of objects, where the German is 'Folge'."

title: Sequent


text:
Talk:Snowy Owl

Capitalisation
How come this bird (and perhaps others) is capitalised? I note that Britannica refers to it simply as a "snowy owl". Why the proper noun? Stevage 20:24, 3 April 2006 (UTC) ya rly

 * Bird books capitalise species' names. After much discussion it was agreed some years ago that bird species would be fully capitalised with an obligatory lower case redirect. No consensus exists for other animal groups, so the practice with mammals, fish etc varies dependeing who's writing them. jimfbleak 15:00, 28 August 2006 (UTC)

 * That was something I was wondering about myself, too, since all of my field guides refer to animal, plant and mushroom species with (aside from the scientific ones that already have cap genus name) capitalized names throughout the text. Thank you for answering this for me, too. One thing, though: does the snowy owl remind anybody else of Cher? It's weird, but each time I see a snowy owl... 62.194.0.236 14:11, 22 October 2006 (UTC)

Vandalism
Can this article be locked untill more experts can contribute to it? —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 70.127.65.2 (talk) 01:54, 7 January 2007 (UTC).

Yes, probably because of the owl meme this page is being hacked. There's an invisible sentence about a guy spotting one in Virginia. It should be locked. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 173.164.81.245 (talk) 03:52, 30 November 2011 (UTC)

Day hunter
I'm not the one to do it, as I am not formally educated whatsoever on this subject -- just a fan of raptors, especially this one. But would anyone be willing to explain that this owl is diurnal, what that means and why it's unusual, etc.? Thanks for your consideration. Harfang 04:40, 10 October 2007 (UTC) This is true please lisen. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 163.6.220.10 (talk) 15:34, 4 November 2008 (UTC)

Note also this poorly written and obscene sentence below the first paragraph. After the paragraph ending, "The Snowy Owl is the official bird of Quebec" one finds:

"they are the stupid animals in the would. they have sex in the nest and there babys do that to th there sisters."

please emend this and lock the page. kburke — Preceding unsigned comment added by 50.78.189.49 (talk) 19:29, 22 November 2012 (UTC)

add to winkipedia
Snowy Owls Love the snow oviously,the snowy owl does not like the heat! Thats why snowy owl live in the snow. Thats why there called SNOWy owls

 * Thats just ridiculous. I'm sure most people don't think snowy owls don't like heat. Next time, use your common sense.

snow owl
i think you should put the way it behave with human —Preceding unsigned comment added by 168.184.246.174 (talk) 16:34, 7 May 2008 (UTC)

go
let them go. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 163.6.220.10 (talk) 15:32, 4 November 2008 (UTC)

Why? What would I have to eat then? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 207.157.30.200 (talk) 14:02, 8 January 2009 (UTC)

Inuit vs Inuktitut
Don't want to be too pedantic, but would anyone mind if the sentence stating "... Inuit word for..." were reworded to "The Inuit refer to the Snowy Owl using the Inuktitut word...."? "Inuit" refers to the name of the people and "Inuktitut" is their language. Pierrefonds (talk) 19:55, 20 November 2008 (UTC)
 * I've fixed it but only by being more pedantic. Inuktitut is just one of several Inuit languages. CambridgeBayWeather Have a gorilla 21:59, 20 November 2008 (UTC)

SNOWY OWL
I AM DOING A PROGECT ON SNOWY OWLS THIS WEBSITE HAS HELPED ME A LOT.BY BRITTANY HUPMAN —Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.89.200.213 (talk) 20:59, 27 January 2009 (UTC) hi my name is kelley i live in hamilton mo. and about 15 mils away in breckenridge is a snow owl it is so nice to see something so pretty. i know it does not belong hear but i hop it stays thank you kelley davis hi —Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.253.116.125 (talk) 21:12, 15 October 2009 (UTC)

Robot
Why is there a picture of a robot snowy owl on the snowy owl page? Shouldn't there only be pictures of real live snowy owls? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 129.2.49.52 (talk) 21:35, 20 September 2010 (UTC)

Move discussion in progress
There is a move discussion in progress on Talk:Black-legged kittiwake which affects this page. Please participate on that page and not in this talk page section. Thank you. —RMCD bot 21:15, 6 May 2014 (UTC)

title: Talk:Snowy Owl


text:
Paul Vinogradoff

Sir Paul Gavrilovitch Vinogradoff (Па́вел Гаври́лович Виногра́дов; 30 November 1854 was a Russian and British historian and medievalist. He was a leading thinker in the development of historical jurisprudence and legal history as disciplines.

Early life
Vinogradoff was born in Kostroma and was educated at the local gymnasium and Moscow University, where he studied history under Vasily Klyuchevsky. After graduating in 1875, he obtained a scholarship to continue his studies in Berlin, where he studied under Theodor Mommsen and Heinrich Brunner.

Career
Vinogradoff became professor of history at the University of Moscow, but his zeal for the spread of education brought him into conflict with the authorities, and consequently he was obliged to leave Russia. Having settled in England, Vinogradoff brought a powerful and original mind to bear upon the social and economic conditions of early England, a subject which he had already begun to study in Moscow.

Vinogradoff visited Britain for the first time in 1883, working on records in the Public Records Office and meeting leading English scholars such as Sir Henry Maine and Sir Frederick Pollock. He also met Frederic William Maitland, who was heavily influenced by their meeting.

Vinogradoff was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1897.

In 1903 he was elected to the position of Corpus Professor of Jurisprudence at the University of Oxford, and held this position until he died in 1925. He was elected a Fellow of the British Academy in 1905. He received honorary degrees from the principal universities (including D.C.L. from the University of Oxford in October 1902, in connection with the tercentenary of the Bodleian Library. ), was made a member of several foreign academies and was appointed honorary professor of history at Moscow.

Upon the death of Maitland, Vinogradoff became the literary director of the Selden Society with Sir Frederick Pollock, a position he held until 1920. During World War I he gave valuable assistance to the British Foreign Office in connection with Russian affairs. Vinogradoff was knighted in 1917, and he and his children were naturalized as British subjects in 1918.

In 1925, Vinogradoff traveled to Paris to receive an honorary degree; while in Paris, he developed pneumonia and died there on 19 December.

Books
According to the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, published in 1911, Vinogradoff's Villainage in England (1892) was "perhaps the most important book written on the peasantry of the feudal age and the village community in England; it can only be compared for value with FW Maitland's Domesday Book and Beyond. In masterly fashion Vinogradoff here shows that the villein of Norman times was the direct descendant of the Anglo-Saxon freeman, and that the typical Anglo-Saxon settlement was a free community, not a manor, the position of the freeman having steadily deteriorated in the centuries just around the Norman Conquest. The status of the villein and the conditions of the manor in the 12th and 13th centuries are set forth with a legal precision and a wealth of detail which shows its author, not only as a very capable historian, but also as a brilliant and learned jurist."

The article considered that almost equally valuable was Vinogradoff's essay on “Folkland” in vol. viii. of the English Historical Review (1893), which proved for the first time the real nature of this kind of land. Vinogradoff followed up his Villainage in England with The Growth of the Manor (1905) and English Society in the Eleventh Century (1908), works on the lines of his earlier book.

In Outlines in Historical Jurisprudence (1920–22), Vinogradoff traces the development of basic themes of jurisprudence, including marriage, property, and succession, in six different types of society: the totemistic, the tribal, the ancient city state, the medieval system of feudalism and canon law, and modern industrial society.

Works

 * The Origins of Feudal Relations in Lombard Italy, 1880.
 * Villainage in England, Clarendon Press, [publ. 1887; trans. to English 1892].
 * The Teaching of Sir Henry Maine: An Inaugural Lecture, Henry Frowde, 1904.
 * The Growth of the Manor, George Allen & Company, 1911 [1st Pub. 1905].
 * English Society in the Eleventh Century, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1908.
 * Roman Law in Medieval Europe, Harper & Brothers, 1909.
 * Essays in Legal History Read Before the International Congress of Historical Studies, held in London in 1913, Oxford University Press, 1913.
 * Common-sense in Law, H. Holt and Company, 1914.
 * Self-government in Russia, Constable, 1915.
 * Outlines in Historical Jurisprudence (Introduction and Tribal Law), Oxford University Press, 1920.
 * Outlines in Historical Jurisprudence (The Jurisprudence of the Greek City), Oxford University Press, 1922.
 * The Collected Papers of Paul Vinogradoff, 2 Vol., Oxford, The Clarendon Press, 1928.
 * The Collected Papers of Paul Vinogradoff, 2 Vol., Oxford, The Clarendon Press, 1928.

Other

 * "The Reforming Work of Tzar Alexander II." In Kirkpatrick, F. A., Lectures on the History of the Nineteenth Century, Cambridge University Press, 1902.
 * "Social and Economic Conditions of the Roman Empire in the Fourth Century." In Gwatkin, H. M. The Cambridge Medieval History, Vol. I, The MacMillan Company, 1911.
 * "Foundations of Society (Origins of Feudalism)." In Gwatkin, H. H. The Cambridge Medieval History, Vol. II, The MacMillan Company, 1913.
 * "Russian Culture." In Bingham, Alfred. Handbook of the European War, Vol. II, H. W. Wilson Company, 1914.
 * "Russia: The Psychology of a Nation," Oxford Pamphlets, Oxford University Press, 1914.
 * The Russian Problem, George H. Doran Co., 1914.
 * "Magna Carta, C. 39. Nullus Liber Homo, etc." In Malden, Henry Elliot. Magna Carta Commemoration Essays, Royal Historical Society, 1917.
 * "The Situation in Russia." In The Reconstruction of Russia, Oxford University Press, 1919.
 * "Introduction." In Hübner, Rudolf. A History of Germanic Private Law, Little, Brown & Company, 1918.
 * "The Work of Rome." In Marvin, F. S. The Evolution of Peace, Oxford University Press, 1921.
 * "The Work of Rome." In Marvin, F. S. The Evolution of Peace, Oxford University Press, 1921.

As editor

 * Oxford Studies in Social and Legal History, Vol. IV, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1914.

Articles

 * "The Customs of Ragusa," The Law Quarterly Review, Vol. XXI, 1905.
 * "Magna Carta," The Law Quarterly Review, Vol. XXI, 1905.
 * "A Constitutional History of Hungary," The Law Quarterly Review, Vol. XXI, 1905.
 * "Transfer of Land in Old English Law," The Harvard Law Review, Vol. 20, No. 7, May, 1907.
 * "Aristotle on Legal Redress," Columbia Law Review, Vol. 8, No. 7, Nov., 1908.
 * "The Crisis of Modern Jurisprudence," The Yale Law Journal, Vol. 29, No. 3, Jan., 1920.
 * "The Meaning of Legal History," Columbia Law Review, Vol. 22, No. 8, Dec., 1922.

title: Paul Vinogradoff


text:
Talk:Environmental engineering

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 14 January 2019 and 2 April 2019. Further details are available on the course page. Peer reviewers: WumboWaffles.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 20:41, 16 January 2022 (UTC)

This article should also be in the Chemical engineering category
It may also be considered a ramification of Chemical Engineering. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.110.158.253 (talk • contribs) 24 June 2003 (UTC)
 * I agree and it is now so categorized. - mbeychok 00:43, 2 March 2007 (UTC)

Moved from article
"Two of the principal current environmental problems are
 * the increasing number of humans on Earth. Along this line, one of the first applications of environmental engineering is the removal of sewage from cities, which became increasingly important as population grew. There were (and still is in many countries) initially no treatment : wastes are for example simply brought to the nearest stream. However, since sewage disposal eventually cause damages to natural waters, methods of treating wastewaters prior to discharge were developed.
 * the second major factor is the rising standard of living in many nations, such as in Europe and Australia. A higher living standard generate more consumption of natural resources and more pollution." hi

I buy part of the the first and not the second, there is lots of evidence that developing nations pollute more capita than developed nations because of lack of pollution control.

At any rate, these belong in discussion of environment more than environmental engineering which is not really concerned with either population control or standard of living, but rather more narrow engineering issues. dml 13:52, 24 June 2003 (UTC)

 * I disagree with you. I was trying to give to environmental engineering a historical perspective. These engineering techniques are not only about environmental issues, but also about health issues. I think a topic gains at being properly introduced, rather than giving links to other topics and letting the reader try to envision for which reasons env. eng. was developped.

 * Env. Eng. developped much sooner than environmental issues were ever raised up. And they developped primarily because some production of waste generated by a growing population could not be managed by environment natural clean-up services quickly enough to avoid human health issues. Typically, european cities began to suffer from accumulation of wastes, and decrease of water quality in middle ages. Before that, cities were small enough that it did not cause any major health issues. Then at some point, the wastes began badly accumulating in the street, that water carried microorganims which caused the huge epidemics, then env. eng. was set up. It was essentially then, setting up pipes to move dirty water out of the city. Napoleon building Paris sewage system. Only later, in the early 1900 did env. eng. techniques began to take care of cleaning the waste water.

 * This does not mean there were necessarily environmental damages then. There were health issues mostly. That is why I think *this* does belong here, and not in the environment article which is a different topic.

 * As for the second paragraph you don't buy, please then rephrase it. There is nothing wrong with it. It only states obvious points. Right now, developped nations consume more than before, and the more is consumed, the more wastes are generated. It does not matter that regulations are set up. A regulation alone won't lower the amount of waste. Only more (or different) clean up techniques used by industries (for example) pushed by regulations will.

 * It may be insufficient for the whole article. But, what I mostly wanted to refer to are the historical reasons why env. eng. originally developped. It is true that now, with pollution control, situation is different, but I see not why we should not put historical context under the reason the situation may be different now.

 * I intend this article to be more than two poor paragraphs, and not to be only about modern env. eng. in the modern states. There is more to say about it than just that. So, please edit instead of removing. I will try to improve later. anthere 22.56 24 June, 2003

Merged the "Environmental engineer" article into this article
I have just completed the merging of the "Environmental engineer" article into this article. I have deleted most of the resulting redundant Wiki links ... but there are probably still some that need deleting.

The "Environmental engineer" article, after merging into this one, was converted into a redirect to this article.

I am not sure that the "Other applications" sub-section in this article serves any useful function. Personally, I think it should be deleted. Perhaps some of the links in that section could be re-located into the "See also" section. What do others think? - mbeychok 00:04, 3 March 2007 (UTC)

Amenity & Aesthetics
Many engineers and their clients would extend the scope of Environmental Engineering somewhat wider than the current article. While dust and noise get brief mentions, there are those who would extend Environmental Engineering to include indoor heating and ventilation (artificial climate) control, use of natural and artificial lighting of enclosed spaces, ambience, acoustics, etc. No doubt this derives from a broader definition of environment than is implicit in the current article. Perhaps the article should be extended, therefore, to include the engineering of artificial or interventionalist environments.

Certainly, environmental engineers are not only engaged in the restoration of 'natural' environments as the current article seems to assume. In fact environmental engineering is often engaged in the 'improvement' of environments for the benefit of mankind. Used in this way there will often be arguments about whether environmental engineering is desirable or not. A case in point is the use of coastal defences to prevent or delay erosion of coastlines. For the farmer or householder who owns coastal property, groynes (etc.) are a beneficial environmental engineering intervention. For many environmental scientists, this is unwarranted intervention which is upsetting the natural erosional/depositional balance of this, and adjacent, locales. Sometimes, environmental engineering might even be compared with landscape gardening whereby a perfectly acceptable environment is heavily modified to turn it into some other kind of environment. On occasion this can be merely indulgent for a rich landowner who wants some feature on his estate, but this approach is increasingly being used to provide more habitats of a particular kind that have never existed at that point before - the generation of wetlands to provide bird, fish and plantlife is a relatively frequent example. It would be useful if the article was to cover this point, too.

Finally, the article should point out that restoration, in practice, often means restoration to a pre-industrial condition, not to a pre-human condition. It is still intervention, hopefully beneficial. 128.243.220.41 (talk) 14:11, 6 August 2008 (UTC)

what are the subject involve in these course —Preceding unsigned comment added by 196.220.19.74 (talk) 15:36, 23 December 2009 (UTC)

pls i need a writeup on the Role of Environmental Engineering on the society —Preceding unsigned comment added by 217.14.85.242 (talk) 14:42, 28 July 2010 (UTC)

Refrain mistake
In the third paragragh of general statement, the last sentence "Some subdivision of environmental engineering include natural resources engineering, agricultural engineering, and agricultural engineering." involves unnecessary refrain of "agricultural engineering". — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2001:DA8:203:CB85:844B:AFB4:6A4A:C9F9 (talk) 00:57, 20 June 2018 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: Research Process and Methodology - SU22 - Sect 202 - Tue
— Assignment last updated by OneGoodNut (talk) 17:27, 23 July 2022 (UTC)

 * @Dc4825 The scentece you added is unclear: "While on the part of civil engineering, the Environmental Engineering is focused mainly on Sanitary Engineering". Could you expand on what you mean? Unbeatable101 (talk) 12:35, 19 November 2023 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: English Composition 2
— Assignment last updated by ENCPROJ. (talk) 04:47, 20 February 2023 (UTC)

Groundwater - a major topic for Environmental Engineering
Should I add Groundwater as a topic in this article somewhere? In the Australian context, Groundwater doesn't fit neatly under "Water pollution", as Environmental Engineers use groundwater hydrology science to report on sustainable water management, in particular where large mining projects extract quantities of water large enough to impact quite distant farming communities. Civil engineering projects can have a significant impact on the groundwater environment.

At RMIT, Melbourne, Australia, the most common "major" in Environmental Engineering degree is in "Groundwater", where students study hydrogeology and related sciences) for Environmental Engineering practice.

Bachelor of Engineering (Environmental Engineering) Degree, 'Groundwater' major https://iah.org/education/professionals/degree-courses/environmental-engineering-including-groundwater-options

Permacultura (talk) 03:25, 19 May 2023 (UTC)

Removed section "Mass Balance"
This section was out of place in an overview article on environmental engineering. It is a calculation and analysis technique engineers use but is too detailed for this article. Other detailed tasks environmental engineers do are not in the article. Further, it is poorly written:

"Consider a man made chemical that we wish to find the fate of in relation to time, position, some phase of matter, or flow of a liquid. We represent the measured change in concentration as a function of all the rates of change that effect that clump of chemical matter.

$$V{dC \over dt}=\sum({d^bm \over dt^b})$$

"Meaning that for some control volume, the change in concentration versus change in linear independent time is equal to the sum of whatever changes are occurring in (+) and out(-) of that control volume. This is allowed for a few different reasons:

(1) Conservation of mass.$$totalmass=mass_a+mass_b+mass_c...mass_n$$(2) Representation as an ordinary differential equation.

$$a_0(x)y +a_1(x)y' + a_2(x)y'' +\cdots +a_n(x)y^{(n)}+b(x)=0,$$

(3) A solution exists.

"Although differential equations can be intimidating, this formula for a change in the concentration for a control volume per time is very versatile even without calculus. Take for instance the common scenario of a tank containing a volume with a contaminant of a certain concentration. Given that there is a first order reaction -kC taking place and that the tank is in steady state the effluent concentration becomes an expression of the initial concentration, the reaction constant k, and the hydraulic retention time (HRT) which is equal to the quotient of the volume of the tank by the flow.

$$C=C_0/(1+\tau*k)$$ "

Carax (talk) 18:03, 10 June 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Environmental engineering