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Race and ethnicity in the United States census

In the United States census, the U.S. Census Bureau and the Office of Management and Budget define a set of self-identified categories of race and ethnicity chosen by residents, with which they most closely identify. Residents can indicate their origins alongside their race, and are asked specifically whether they are of Hispanic or Latino origin in a separate question.

The racial categories represent a social-political construct for the race or races that respondents consider themselves to be and, "generally reflect a social definition of race recognized in this country". The OMB defines the concept of race as outlined for the census to be not "scientific or anthropological", and takes into account "social and cultural characteristics as well as ancestry", using "appropriate scientific methodologies" that are not "primarily biological or genetic in reference." The race categories include both racial and national-origin groups.

Race and ethnicity are considered separate and distinct identities, with a person's origins considered in the census. Thus, in addition to their race or races, all respondents are categorized by membership in one of two ethnic categories, which are "Hispanic or Latino" and "Not Hispanic or Latino." However, the practice of separating "race" and "ethnicity" as different categories has been criticized both by the American Anthropological Association and members of U.S. Commission on Civil Rights.

In 1997, the OMB issued a Federal Register notice regarding revisions to the standards for the classification of federal data on race and ethnicity. The OMB developed race and ethnic standards in order to provide "consistent data on race and ethnicity throughout the federal government". The development of the data standards stem in large measure from new responsibilities to enforce civil rights laws. Among the changes, The OMB issued the instruction to "mark one or more races" after noting evidence of increasing numbers of mixed-race children and wanting to record diversity in a measurable way after having received requests by people who wanted to be able to acknowledge theirs and their children's full ancestry, rather than identifying with only one group. Prior to this decision, the census and other government data collections asked people to report singular races.

As of 2023, the OMB built on the 1997 guidelines and suggested the addition of a Middle Eastern or North African (MENA) racial category and considered combining racial and ethnic categories into one question. In March 2024, the Office of Management and Budget published revisions to Statistical Policy Directive No. 15: Standards for Maintaining, Collecting, and Presenting Federal Data on Race and Ethnicity that included a combined question and a MENA category, while also collecting additional detail to enable data disaggregation.

How data on race and ethnicity is used
The OMB states, "many federal programs are put into effect based on the race data obtained from the decennial census (i.e., promoting equal employment opportunities; assessing racial disparities in health and environmental risks). Race data is also critical for the basic research behind many policy decisions. States require this data to meet legislative redistricting requirements. The data is needed to monitor compliance with the Voting Rights Act by local jurisdictions".

Data on ethnic groups are important for putting into effect a number of federal statutes (i.e., enforcing bilingual election rules under the Voting Rights Act and monitoring/enforcing equal employment opportunities under the Civil Rights Act). Data on ethnic groups is also needed by local governments to run programs and meet legislative requirements (i.e., identifying segments of the population who may not be receiving medical services under the Public Health Service Act; evaluating whether financial institutions are meeting the credit needs of minority populations under the Community Reinvestment Act).

1790 census

The 1790 United States census was the first census in the history of the United States. The population of the United States was recorded as 3,929,214 as of Census Day, August 2, 1790, as mandated by Article I, Section 2 of the United States Constitution and applicable laws.

The law required that every household be visited, that completed census schedules be posted in two of the most public places within each jurisdiction, remain for the inspection of all concerned, and that "the aggregate amount of each description of persons" for every district be transmitted to the president. The U.S. Marshals were also responsible for governing the census.

Loss of data
About one-third of the original census data has been lost or destroyed since documentation. The data was lost in 1790–1830, and included data from Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Vermont, and Virginia. However, the census was proven factual and the existence of most of this data can be confirmed in many secondary sources pertaining to the first census.

Data
Census data included the name of the head of the family and categorized inhabitants as: free white males at least 16 years of age (to assess the country's industrial and military potential), free white males under 16 years of age, free white females, all other free persons (reported by sex and color), and slaves. Thomas Jefferson, then the Secretary of State, directed U.S. Marshals to collect data from all 13 original states, and from the Southwest Territory. The census was not conducted in Vermont until 1791, after that state's admission to the Union as the 14th state on March 4 of that year.

Contemporary perception

Some doubt surrounded the numbers, as President George Washington and Thomas Jefferson maintained the population was undercounted. The potential reasons Washington and Jefferson may have thought this could be refusal to participate, poor public transportation and roads, spread-out population, and restraints of current technology.

Data availability
No microdata from the 1790 population census are available, but aggregate data for small areas and their compatible cartographic boundary files, can be downloaded from the National Historical Geographic Information System. However, the categories of "Free white males" of 16 years and upward, including heads of families under 16 years, "Free white females", including heads of families, All other free persons, and "Slaves," existed in the census form.

1800 and 1810 census
In 1800 and 1810, the age question regarding free white males was more detailed with five cohorts and included All other free persons, except "Indians not taxed", and "Slaves".

1820 census
The 1820 census built on the questions asked in 1810 by asking age questions about slaves. Also the term "colored" entered the census nomenclature. In addition, a question stating "Number of foreigners not naturalized" was included.

1830 census
In the 1830 census, a new question, which stated, "The number of White persons who were foreigners not naturalized" was included.

1850 census
The 1850 census had a dramatic shift in the way information about residents was collected. For the first time, free persons were listed individually instead of by head of household. Two questionnaires were used - one for free inhabitants and one for slaves. The question on the free inhabitants schedule about color was a column that was to be left blank if a person were white, marked "B" if a person were black, and marked "M" if a person were mulatto. Slaves were listed by owner, and classified by gender and age, not individually, and the question about color was a column that was to be marked with a "B" if the slave were black and an "M" if mulatto.

1890 census
For 1890, the Census Office changed the design of the population questionnaire. Residents were still listed individually, but a new questionnaire sheet was used for each family. Additionally, this was the first year that the census distinguished among different Asian ethnic groups, such as Japanese and Chinese, due to increased immigration. This census also marked the beginning of the term "race" in the questionnaires. Enumerators were instructed to write "White", "Black", "Mulatto", "Quadroon", "Octoroon", "Chinese", "Japanese", or "Indian".

1900 census
During 1900, the "Color or Race" question was slightly modified, removing the term "Mulatto". Also, there was an inclusion of an "Indian Population Schedule" in which "enumerators were instructed to use a special expanded questionnaire for American Indians living on reservations or in family groups off of reservations." This expanded version included the question "Fraction of person's lineage that is white."

1910 census
The 1910 census was similar to that of 1900, but it included a reinsertion of "Mulatto" and a question about the "mother tongue" of foreign-born individuals and individuals with foreign-born parents. "Ot" was also added to signify "other races", with space for a race to be written in. This decade's version of the Indian Population Schedule featured questions asking the individual's proportion of white, black, or American Indian lineage.

1920 census
The 1920 census questionnaire was similar to 1910, but excluded a separate schedule for American Indians. "Hin", "Kor", and "Fil" were also added to the "Color or Race" question, signifying Hindu (Asian Indian), Korean, and Filipino, respectively.

1930 census
The biggest change in this census was in racial classification. Enumerators were instructed to no longer use the "Mulatto" classification. Instead, they were given special instructions for reporting the race of interracial persons. A person with both white and black ancestry (termed "blood") was to be recorded as "Negro", no matter the fraction of that lineage (the "one-drop rule"). A person of mixed black and American Indian ancestry was also to be recorded as "Neg" (for "Negro") unless they were considered to be "predominantly" American Indian and accepted as such within the community. A person with both white and American Indian ancestry was to be recorded as American Indian, unless their Indigenous ancestry was small, and they were accepted as white within the community. In all situations in which a person had white and some other racial ancestry, they were to be reported as that other race. People who had minority interracial ancestry were to be reported as the race of their father.

For the first and only time, "Mexican" was listed as a race. Enumerators were instructed that all people born in Mexico, or whose parents were born in Mexico, should be listed as Mexicans, and not under any other racial category. In prior censuses and in 1940, enumerators were instructed to list Mexican Americans as white, perhaps because some of them were of white background (mainly Spanish), many others mixed white and Native American and some of them Native American.

The supplemental American Indian questionnaire was back, but in abbreviated form. It featured a question asking if the person was of full or mixed American Indian ancestry.

1940 census
President Franklin D. Roosevelt promoted a Good Neighbor policy that sought better relations with Mexico. In 1935, a federal judge ruled that three Mexican immigrants were ineligible for citizenship because they were not white, as required by federal law. Mexico protested, and Roosevelt decided to circumvent the decision and make sure the federal government treated Hispanics as white. The State Department, the Census Bureau, the Labor Department, and other government agencies therefore made sure to uniformly classify people of Mexican descent as white. This policy encouraged the League of United Latin American Citizens in its quest to minimize discrimination by asserting their whiteness.

The 1940 census was the first to include separate population and housing questionnaires. The race category of "Mexican" was eliminated in 1940, and the population of Mexican descent was counted with the white population.

1940 census data was used for Japanese American internment. The Census Bureau's role was denied for decades, but was finally proven in 2007.

1950 census
The 1950 census questionnaire removed the word "color" from the racial question, and also removed Hindu and Korean from the race choices.

1960 census
The 1960 census re-added the word "color" to the racial question, and changed "Indian" to "American Indian", as well as adding Hawaiian, Part-Hawaiian, Aleut, and Eskimo. The "Other (print out race)" option was removed.

1970 census
This year's census included "Negro or Black", re-added Korean and the Other race option. East Indians (the term used at that time for people whose ancestry is from the Indian subcontinent) were counted as White. There was a questionnaire that was asked of only a sample of respondents. These questions were as follows:

Questions on Spanish or Hispanic Origin or Descent
 * 1) a. Where was this person born?
 * 2) b. Is this person's origin or descent... Mexican Puerto Rican Cuban Central or South American Other Spanish None of These
 * 3) What country was the person's father born in?
 * 4) What country was the person's mother born in?
 * 5) a. For persons born in a foreign country – Is the person naturalized?
 * 6) b When did the person come to the United States to stay?
 * 7) What language, other than English, was spoken in the person's home as a child?
 * 8) Spanish
 * 9) French
 * 10) Italian
 * 11) German
 * 12) Other
 * 13) None, only English

Is this person's origin or descent?

Mexican

Puerto Rican Cuban

Central American Other Spanish

No, none of these

1980 census
This year added several options to the race question, including Vietnamese, Indian (East), Guamanian, Samoan, and re-added Aleut. Again, the term "color" was removed from the racial question, and the following questions were asked of a sample of respondents:

Questions on Spanish or Hispanic Origin or Descent
 * 1) In what state or foreign country was the person born?
 * 2) If this person was born in a foreign country...
 * 3) a. Is this person a naturalized citizen of the United States?
 * 4) b. When did this person come to the United States to stay?
 * 5) a. Does this person speak a language other than English at home?
 * 6) b. If yes, what is this language?
 * 7) c. If yes, how well does this person speak English?
 * 8) What is this person's ancestry?

Is this person of Spanish/Hispanic origin or descent?

No, not Spanish/Hispanic

Yes, Mexican, Mexican American, Chicano

Yes, Puerto Rican

Yes, Cuban

Yes, other Spanish/Hispanic

1990 census
The racial categories in this year are as they appear in the 2000 and 2010 censuses. The following questions were asked of a sample of respondents for the 1990 census:

The 1990 census was not designed to capture multiple racial responses, and when individuals marked the "other" race option and provided a multiple write-in. The response was assigned according to the race written first. "For example, a write-in of 'black-white' was assigned a code of 'black,' while a write-in of 'white-black' was assigned a code of 'white.
 * 1) In what U.S. State or foreign country was this person born?
 * 2) Is this person a citizen of the United States?
 * 3) If this person was not born in the United States, when did this person come to the United States to stay?

Questions on Spanish or Hispanic Origin or Descent

Is this person of Spanish/Hispanic origin?

No, not Spanish/Hispanic

Yes, Mexican, Mexican American, Chicano

Yes, Puerto Rican

Yes, Cuban

Yes, other Spanish/Hispanic, print one group ...

"Census data indicate that the number of children in interracial families grew from less than one-half million in 1970 to about two million in 1990. In 1990, for interracial families with one White partner, the other parent was Black for about 20 percent of all children, the other parent was Asian for 45 percent, and the other parent was American Indian and Alaska Native for about 34 percent."

2000 census
Race was asked differently in the 2000 census in several other ways than previously. Most significantly, respondents were given the option of selecting one or more race categories to indicate racial identities. Data show that nearly seven million Americans identified as members of two or more races. Because of these changes, the 2000 census data on race are not directly comparable with data from the 1990 census or earlier censuses. Use of caution is therefore recommended when interpreting changes in the racial composition of the U.S. population over time.

The following definitions apply to the 2000 census only.
 * White — A person having origins in any of the original peoples of Europe, the Middle East, or North Africa. It includes people who indicate their race as "white-skinned people" or report entries such as Irish, German, Italian, Lebanese, Near Easterner, Arab, or Polish.
 * Black or African American — A person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa. It includes people who indicate their race as "Black, African Am., or Negro", or provide written entries such as African American, Afro American, Kenyan, Nigerian, or Haitian.
 * American Indian and Alaska Native — A person having origins in any of the original peoples of North and South America (including Central America) and who maintain tribal affiliation or community attachment.
 * Asian — A person having origins in any of the original peoples of the Far East, Southeast Asia, or the Indian subcontinent including, for example, Cambodia, China, India, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Pakistan, the Philippine Islands, Thailand, and Vietnam. It includes "Asian Indian", "Chinese", "Filipino", "Korean", "Japanese", "Vietnamese", and "Other Asian".
 * Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander — A person having origins in any of the original peoples of Hawaii, Guam, Samoa, or other Pacific Islands. It includes people who indicate their race as "Native Hawaiian", "Guamanian or Chamorro", "Samoan", and "Other Pacific Islander".
 * Some other race — Includes all other responses not included in the "White", "Black or African American", "American Indian or Alaska Native", "Asian", and "Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander" race categories described above. Respondents providing write-in entries such as multiracial, mixed, interracial, We-Sort, or a Hispanic/Latino group (for example, Mexican, Puerto Rican, or Cuban) in the "Some other race" category are included here.
 * Two or more races — People may have chosen to provide two or more races either by checking two or more race response check boxes, by providing multiple write-in responses, or by some combination of check boxes and write-in responses.

The federal government of the United States has mandated that "in data collection and presentation, federal agencies are required to use a minimum of two ethnicities: "Hispanic or Latino" and "Not Hispanic or Latino". The Census Bureau defines "Hispanic or Latino" as "a person of Cuban, Mexican, Puerto Rican, South or Central American or other Spanish culture or origin regardless of race."

Use of the word "ethnicity" for Hispanics only is considerably more restricted than its conventional meaning, which covers other distinctions, some of which are covered by the "race" and "ancestry" questions. The distinct questions accommodate the possibility of Hispanic and Latino Americans' also declaring various racial identities (see also White Hispanic and Latino Americans, Black Hispanic and Latino Americans, and Asian Hispanic and Latino Americans).

In the 2000 census, 12.5% of the U.S. population reported "Hispanic or Latino" ethnicity and 87.5% reported "Not-Hispanic or Latino" ethnicity.

2010 census
The 2010 census included changes designed to more clearly distinguish Hispanic ethnicity as not being a race. That included adding the sentence: "For this census, Hispanic origins are not races." Additionally, the Hispanic terms were modified from "Hispanic or Latino" to "Hispanic, Latino or Spanish origin".

Although used in the census and the American Community Survey, "Some other race" is not an official race, and the Bureau considered eliminating it prior to the 2000 census. As the 2010 census form did not contain the question titled "Ancestry" found in prior censuses, there were campaigns to get non-Hispanic West Indian Americans, Turkish Americans, Armenian Americans, Arab Americans, and Iranian Americans to indicate their ethnic or national background through the race question, specifically the "Some other race" category.

The Interagency Committee has suggested that the concept of marking multiple boxes be extended to the Hispanic origin question, thereby freeing individuals from having to choose between their parents' ethnic heritages. In other words, a respondent could choose both "Hispanic or Latino" and "Not Hispanic or Latino".

2020 census
The 2020 census featured similar designs to the 2000 and 2010 censuses. Subsequently, the Census Bureau adhered to the 1997 OMB standards and thus used two separate questions to collect data on race and ethnicity. However, there were improvements in the phrasing of the race and ethnicity questions within the OMB guidelines, that would enhance clarity for respondents.

The Hispanic origin question included the same checkboxes as the 2010 census ("Mexican, Mexican Am., Chicano", "Puerto Rican", "Cuban"), along with a "Yes, another Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin". Under this category, two changes emerged. The first was the shift from "Print origin, for example" to "Print, for example". The removal of the word origin was due to the surveyed confusion and differentiating meanings origin has for respondents or varying backgrounds. Furthermore, the Census Bureau updated the write-in instructions for the "Some Other Race" category and included the instruction to "Print race", but changed the instruction to read "Print race or origin" to match the primary instruction to "Mark ☒ one or more boxes AND print origins".

According to the United States Census Bureau, as a result of significant feedback, a detailed write-in response and example were included for the "White" and the "Black or African Am." racial categories to compensate a wider horizon of identities. There were also six example groups for each of the "White", "Black or African American", and "American Indian or Alaska Native" racial categories. In addition, after 100 years, the term "Negro" was removed from the 2020 census, as a large portion of respondents advocated for its removal. Instead, the category shifted from "Black, African Am., or Negro" to "Black or African Am." on paper questionnaires and electronic instruments.

The identification of the term African American first occurred in the 2000 census, reflecting a long-standing history of offensive terminology since the censuses' inception. The 1790 census included other "free persons" by color and "slaves". From 1850 to 1880, the codes for enumerators were generally Black (B) and Mulatto (M). In 1900, there were no specified categories on the census listing form, and the instructions called for enumerators to list "B" for "Black (or negro or negro descent)", displaying the first occurrence of the controversial term "Negro". In 1930, there were specific instructions that used the term "Negro". Mixed persons were to be counted as "Negro" no matter how small the share of blood, also known as the one-drop rule. It was not until 1970 that the term Black appeared on a census form, and in 1990 the enumerator of color was eliminated.

The 2020 census was also "the first to specifically solicit Middle Eastern North African (MENA) responses" through the write-in response for the White racial category. The term MENA includes the Arab American population, which is growing quickly as of 2023. This allowed the 2020 census to include dis-aggregated data on MENA populations, which made up over 3.5 million Americans. California, New York, and Michigan have the largest MENA populations, and Lebanese, Iranian, and Egyptian populations made up nearly half of them. This was almost triple the 2000 census' estimate of a population of 1.2 million Arab Americans, based on the "Ancestry" question rather than the racial category question. That number may have been an under count however, as 19% of the American population provided no answer for the "Ancestry" question.

This is significant because MENA identities were previously only tracked through the "Ancestry" write-in question on the American Community Survey in 2010. The Arab American population was then estimated through the number of responses that included one or more Arab ancestries. The 2020 census changed this by explicitly prompting write-in responses with Arab American examples listed as "Print, for example, German, Irish, English, Italian, Lebanese, Egyptian, etc".

The improvements are part of a larger effort reviewing the 1997 OMB guidelines, specifically to move MENA from under the White racial category into a new label. An OMB working group officially recommended a new MENA category in 2023 based on public feedback going back to 2015 and "plans to make final decisions on revisions by Summer 2024". Many people in the community "may not be perceived, nor perceive themselves, to be White". The added category could allow for more targeted funding, social programs, and political representation. A 2015 study from Rutgers University found significant inequalities in household income, citizenship rates, and English-speaking rates between New Jersey's White population and Arab population, concluding that America's White and Arab populations might be different enough both culturally and economically to justify a separate category.

The next change was reordering the example groups from "Argentinean, Colombian, Dominican, Nicaraguan, Salvadoran, Spaniard, and so on." to "Salvadoran, Dominican, Colombian, Guatemalan, Spaniard, Ecuadorian, etc." to reflect the ever-increasing geographic diversity of the Hispanic or Latino category and the variations in populations sums each year. * Net coverage error is statistically significantly different from 0.

Though the issues of identification questions of origin were addressed, the accuracy of the 2020 census displays undercounts and overcounts of Black people, Latinos, and Native Americans according to the work conducted under Robert Santos, the current director of the United States Census Bureau. A follow-up survey concluded that the miscounting of children under five years of age and that American Indians and Alaska Natives living on reservations continued to have the highest net undercount rate, similar to 2010. One of the leading factors of the misrepresented information in the 2020 census is the coronavirus pandemic, which caused notable delays in the Census Bureau's Post-Enumeration Survey. The Post-Enumeration Survey is used to determine how accurate the census results are and inform planning for the next national count in 2030. Furthermore, discrepancies persisted due to the irrefutable variables of delays to field work, migration of many college students and others, and some respondents failed to answer the necessary questions required for the Post-Enumeration Survey to match the census. Journalist Michael Wines of the New York Times attributes group quarters like college dormitories, long-term care facilities and prisons to have the largest contingencies in the tally as the pandemic pushed many university students to return home, making it harder to count them in the dormitories or apartments where they normally would have been.

Hispanic or Latino

Translating the data set, the 3.45 difference in net coverage error for the Hispanic or Latino category proves widely problematic, but is an avid reflection of the seismic shifts in the United States. Mexican immigrants have been at the center of one of the largest mass migrations in contemporary history, reaching a peak of 12.8 million in 2007, but have since declined, as reported by the Pew Research Center. The predominant reasoning being shifts in political authority and the coronavirus pandemic resulting in policy changes. More specifically, immigrants entering through a permanent legal residency (green card), visa overstays, and apprehensions have drastically changed the input and output of data.

The total number of non-immigrant visas processed in Mexico by the U.S. Department of State dropped 35% in 2020 compared with the prior year, from about 1.5 million in 2019 to about 960,000 in 2020. The temporary visas were processed for tourism, business, or crossing the border. Consequently, due to political shifts, apprehensions of unauthorized Mexican immigrants increased considerably after the pandemic started in 2020. In fiscal 2020, the number of detainments of Mexican adults at the U.S.-Mexican border reached sky-high new levels under former president Donald Trump. There were 253,118 such encounters, up 52% from 166,458 the previous year.

Relation between ethnicity and race in census results
The Census Bureau warns that data on race in 2000 census are not directly comparable to those collected in previous censuses. Many residents of the United States consider race and ethnicity to be the same.

In the 2000 census, respondents were tallied in each of the race groups they reported. Consequently, the total of each racial category exceeds the total population because some people reported more than one race.

According to James P. Allen and Eugene Turner from California State University, Northridge, by some calculations in the 2000 census the largest part white biracial population is white/Native American and Alaskan Native, at 7,015,017, followed by white/black at 737,492, then white/Asian at 727,197, and finally white/Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander at 125,628.

The Census Bureau implemented a Census Quality Survey, gathering data from about 50,000 households to assess the reporting of race and Hispanic origin in the 2000 census with the purpose of creating a way to make comparisons between the 2000 census with previous census racial data.

In September 1997, during the process of revision of racial categories previously declared by OMB Directive No. 15, the American Anthropological Association (AAA) recommended that OMB combine the "race" and "ethnicity" categories into one question to appear as "race/ethnicity" for the 2000 census. The Interagency Committee agreed, stating that "race" and "ethnicity" were not sufficiently defined and "that many respondents conceptualize 'race' and 'ethnicity' as one and the same [sic] underscor[ing] the need to consolidate these terms into one category, using a term that is more meaningful to the American people."

The AAA also stated: "The American Anthropological Association recommends the elimination of the term 'race' from OMB Directive 15 during the planning for the 2010 census. During the past 50 years, 'race' has been scientifically proven to not be a real, natural phenomenon. More specific, social categories such as 'ethnicity' or 'ethnic group' are more salient for scientific purposes and have fewer of the negative, racist connotations for which the concept of race was developed.

Yet the concept of race has become thoroughly—and perniciously—woven into the cultural and political fabric of the United States. It has become an essential element of both individual identity and government policy. Because so much harm has been based on 'racial' distinctions over the years, correctives for such harm must also acknowledge the impact of 'racial' consciousness among the U.S. populace, regardless of the fact that 'race' has no scientific justification in human biology. Eventually, however, these classifications must be transcended and replaced by more non-racist and accurate ways of representing the diversity of the U.S. population."

The recommendations of the AAA were not adopted by the Census Bureau for the 2000, 2010, and 2020 censuses. This includes Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin, which remained an ethnicity, not a race. While race/ethnicity definitions for 2020 remained consistent, individuals who identify as White, Black/African American, and/or American Indian or Alaska Native were asked to specifically identify their racial origins.

Other agencies
In 2001, the National Institutes of Health adopted the new language to comply with the revisions to Directive 15, as did the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission of the United States Department of Labor in 2007.


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Maximianus of Constantinople

Maximianus (Greek: Μαξιμινιανός; died 12 April 434) was the archbishop of Constantinople from 25 October 431 until his death on 12 April 434.

Biography
Maximianus was born in Rome from wealthy and pious parents. He had led a monastic life and had entered presbyteral orders; his action in building, at his own expense, tombs for the remains of holy men had obtained for him a reputation of sanctity. Sisinnius of Constantinople ordained him presbyter.

The action of the First Council of Ephesus had thrown the churches of Constantinople into direst confusion. A large proportion of the citizens held strongly to Nestorius; the clergy, with one voice, agreed in the anathema. When the deposition became a fact no longer to be disputed, the excitement was continued about the election of a successor. After four months, agreement was arrived at in the election of Maximian.

In principles he followed the former archbishops, Chrysostom, Atticus, and Sisinnius. Pope Celestine I wrote to him in highly complimentary terms on his elevation. The appointment was made by the unanimous vote of clergy, emperor, and people. The letter of Maximian announcing to the pope his succession is lost, but that to Saint Cyril of Alexandria remains, with its high eulogium on Cyril's constancy in defending the cause of Jesus.

It was the custom for occupants of the principal sees on election to send a synodical letter to the most considerable bishops of the Christian world, asking for the assurance of their communion. Maximian sent his synodical to the Easterns as to the others. Communion was refused by bishop Helladius of Tarsus; and, we may conclude, by Eutherius of Tyana, Himerius of Nicomedia, and Dorotheus of Martianopolis, as Maximian deposed them. Patriarch John of Antioch approved the refusal of the bishop of Tarsus, and praised him for having declined to insert the name of Maximian in the diptychs of his church.

Maximian's earnest appeal for reunion continued. Pope Sixtus III wrote to him several times, urging him to extend his charity to all whom he could possibly regain. Maximian spared no effort, and although he was in closest harmony with Saint Cyril, he pressed him strongly to give up his anathemas, which seemed an insurmountable obstacle to reunion. He even wrote to the emperor's secretary Aristolaus the tribune, who was greatly interested in the question of peace, almost complaining that he did not press Cyril enough on the point, and to his archdeacon Epiphanius.

Harmony being restored, John of Antioch and the other Eastern bishops wrote Maximian a letter of communion indicating their consent to his election and to the deposition of Nestorius. Cyril wrote to him, attributing the blessed result to the force of his prayers. A letter to Maximian from Aristolaus, which Maximian caused to be read in his church to his people, was pronounced spurious by Dorotheus of Martianopolis, evidently because it took the side of Maximian so decidedly.

Maximianus died in office. Of all his letters, only that to Saint Cyril is extant.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Maximianus of Constantinople


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Talk:German East Africa

Norway's claim
By looking online it seems (likely) that Jarlsberg proposed that Norway should be given (parts of) German East Africa. However, I have not been able to find a source that confirms that he was successful in his claim. The current citation is to nothing more than a blog-like page. Rmodule (talk) 22:48, 2 June 2016 (UTC)

Untitled
If anyone can add some more dates about the war in East Africa I would appreciate it. Cheers, KCG23@cam.ac.uk

I have added a date for the Battle of Tanga, will try to add more parslad

Infobox
Would someone please, with more Wiki skills than I, take a look at the Infobox. I've listed all governors, however, the last three refuse to show up. Thanks. --Gamahler 03:19, 25 August 2007 (UTC)
 * It is not intended to list all title-holders in the infobox, that's why a limit is set on how many it will display. If less than 5, then all can be listed. If more, then only the first and last should be given. Having long lists in the infobox make it very long, and such long lists are better displayed within the article itself. - 52 Pickup 07:50, 28 August 2007 (UTC)

Create category
Is it possible to create Category:German East Africa ? --Mr Accountable (talk) 23:30, 26 October 2008 (UTC)

Clarification
In the first paragraph of the article it is stated that German East Africa INCLUDED Tanganyika, Burundi and Rwanda. Is this to imply that there was more, or that there has been a variation of borders - apart from the division of Ruanda-urundi and the union of Tanganyika with Zanzibar? Would it not be better to use the word COMPRISED? Apalomita (talk) 16:35, 6 September 2009 (UTC)

Kenya?
I understand that most of the territory came under British control after WW1, but why does it say that the Kenya colony took some land? Bezuidenhout (talk) 10:33, 28 August 2010 (UTC)

Flag and coat of arms
The flag shown in the infobox is the flag of the "German East African Scoiety" also known as "Peters flag" and the coat of arms shown there is just a proposed one and was never in official use just like the "Peters flag" which was never the flag of the Schutzgebiet (protectorate)! --92.223.57.52 (talk) 08:20, 19 August 2011 (UTC)

First governor
was von Wissman, not Peters, per the 1911 EB and the German version of this page. Not sure where the article got the idea otherwise but, if there's some hedge that needs to be added ("informal", "acting", "provisional"...), add it. — Llywelyn II   16:27, 13 March 2014 (UTC)

Tabora
was NEVER "Whiteman's hell" or any version of that name; it was just "Tabora". See n. 1 in the German Wikipedia's article on the city. — Llywelyn II   00:52, 14 March 2014 (UTC)

External links modified
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External links modified
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Constant removal of info.
Not every line has to be sourced, if the citation is provided. Which is has been. I happy to correct if you think one of the place names is not real or not cited. Classicwiki (talk) (ping me please) 17:57, 23 January 2018 (UTC)

German placenames
The intro text of the section is obvious nonsense (and unsubstantiated). Majority of places in Tanganyika never had German names. Some were continued for a while. Else British adminstration was fast in renaming, among other reasons to endear itself to its new subjects, especially where African named locations had been given German names before. The list below is ok, but it is not exceptions.Kipala (talk) 08:17, 17 March 2021 (UTC)

 * The footnote 31 (link to minutes of Reichstag) is useless. The link ios wrong. That volume has nothing about colonies. Besides it is a link showing no page no., which is not helpful in volume of more than 1000 pages Kipala (talk) 07:59, 22 March 2021 (UTC)
 * By 1914 there were  ______ District in  aest  Africa 154.74.154.93 (talk) 03:12, 3 October 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:German East Africa


text:
Wellington College, Wellington

Wellington College, is a state-run boys secondary school in Wellington, New Zealand. It is situated on 12 hectares of green belt land in the suburb of Mount Victoria, in the vicinity of the Basin Reserve and Government House. The school was founded in 1867 through a deed of endowment from Sir George Grey, the then Governor of New Zealand.

Wellington College is one of the oldest boys' secondary schools in New Zealand. The history and influence of Wellington College have made it notable in the history of New Zealand, with prominent alumni such as Arthur Coningham, Bernard Freyberg and William Pickering. The school is known nationally for both its academic success, as well as a large number of sporting activities.

The school has an enrolment of about 1750 boys. Glen Denham is the current Headmaster.

History
Wellington College opened in 1867 as Wellington Grammar School in Woodward Street, though Sir George Grey gave the school a deed of endowment in 1853. In 1869 the school moved to a new, spired, wooden building on the hills above the central city in Clifton Terrace from where it could be seen from many places in Wellington. In 1874 the college opened in a much larger building at its present location. The former boarding establishment at the College, Firth House, was named after Joseph Firth, the headmaster from 1892 to 1921.

Wellington College's Pavilion, Firth House, and the Gifford Observatory were opened on 1 December, 1924. The War Memorial Hall was opened on 2 March, 1928, financially supported by £6000 from the Old Boys' Association. The War Memorial Hall and classroom wings were demolished by the Ministry of Works and replaced in the 1960s with a new hall and seven-storey Tower classroom block due to its lack of earthquake reinforcements. The stained glass window from the front of the War Memorial Hall is now in the front of the existing hall.

In the 1960s the Old Boys Gymnasium was built on the eastern boundary of the campus replacing the swimming pool and during the 1970s the Maths, Library, and Technology blocks were opened, replacing the last of the War Memorial Hall building and classroom wings that opened in 1928.

In 1980 Firth House was demolished to make way for a new gymnasium which opened in 1982. 1988 saw the opening of the Arts and Music block, and the Brierley Theatre, named after old boy Ron Brierley.

The first dedicated computer rooms in the College opened in 1994 in a new building behind the school hall.

2001 saw the Science block's opening on the western boundary of the campus. In 2008 the Languages block opened, also located on the west boundary.

The campus also has many prefabricated buildings, some functioning as offices or classrooms.

The only "historical" buildings remaining on campus to this day are Firth Hall, the Pavilion, and the Gifford Observatory.

In 2016, the College Hall was demolished to make way for a larger Assembly Hall and Performing Arts Centre, which would be able to hold the entire school with its growing population. In preparation for this, the staffroom was moved to Firth Hall, the Uniform Shop opened a new premise next to the Archives, and the Computer Block was opened on the first floor of Tower Block. Construction on the new hall commenced in September 2016 and was opened in 2018 by Jacinda Ardern.

About
Wellington College's enrolment zone mainly covers the central and western suburbs of Wellington (Rongotai College serves the southeastern suburbs, and Onslow College the northern suburbs). The school also competes in a local athletics competition known as "McEvedy Shield" along with St. Patrick's College (Town), St. Patrick's College (Silverstream) and Rongotai College. Historically, Wellington College has won the shield more than any other school.

It is next to Wellington East Girls' College, also in Mount Victoria, and shares with that college the Gifford Observatory. Although Wellington College is situated next to Wellington East Girls' College, its sister college is Wellington Girls' College located in Thorndon.

In 2011, 2012, and 2013, Wellington College earned the highest number of scholarships in the New Zealand scholarship exams.

Board of trustees
The Wellington College Board of Trustees consists of twelve elected and appointed members.

Currently the Board Chair is Cameron Harland, who is also the Chief Executive at NZ On Air

The Arts

 * John Beaglehole – historian
 * Colin Beyer – lawyer and businessman
 * Roy Cowan – potter, illustrator, and printmaker
 * Maxwell Fernie – organist, conductor and music teacher
 * Alexander Grant – ballet dancer, teacher, and company director
 * W. Gray Young – architect
 * Jonathan Harlen – author
 * Dai Henwood – comedian
 * Raybon Kan – writer and comedian
 * Bret McKenzie – Academy Award-winning songwriter and member of Flight of the Conchords
 * Gordon McLauchlan – writer
 * John Mulgan – editor, writer, journalist and Army officer
 * Clive Matthew-Wilson – writer
 * David Mitchell – poet
 * Don Peebles – artist
 * Robert J. Pope – songwriter, poet, cricketer
 * Jack Shallcrass – author, educator, and humanist
 * Burton Silver – cartoonist, parodist, and writer
 * Charles Treadwell – lawyer, soldier, author and politician
 * Karl Urban – actor
 * Clement Gordon Watson – editor, journalist, soldier, communist activist
 * Kenneth Athol Webster – collector and dealer of manuscripts, fine art, and ethnographic artifacts associated with Oceanic peoples.

Broadcasting & journalism

 * Edward George Honey – Australian journalist credited by some as the originator of the Two-minute silence tradition
 * John Campbell – journalist, radio and television personality
 * Graeme Moody – sports broadcaster
 * Keith Quinn – TV and radio sports presenter
 * Chris Spence – journalist
 * Selwyn Toogood – radio and television personality.
 * Bryan Waddle – cricket commentator & radio presenter

Business

 * Ron Brierley – businessman
 * George Burnes – businessman and first-class cricketer
 * Stewart Duff – businessman, civic advocate and politician
 * Alan Gibbs – businessman
 * Saul Goldsmith – importer and merchant
 * Michael Hirschfeld – businessman, and was President of the New Zealand Labour Party from 1995 to 1999.
 * Arthur Myers – businessman and politician
 * Steve Outtrim – businessman
 * Frank Renouf – businessman
 * Stephen Town – chief executive

Public service

 * Henry Avery – New Zealand's Quartermaster General during World War Two and former All Black
 * Grafton Francis Bothamley – Clerk of the New Zealand House of Representatives
 * George T. Bolt – public servant, served as chairman of the Public Service Commission
 * Alfred Brandon (mayor) – Mayor of Wellington
 * Alfred Brandon (RAF officer) – lawyer and military aviator who served in the First World War
 * Edmund Percy Bunny – Mayor of Lower Hutt
 * John Gibbs Churchill – trade unionist and local politician
 * Arthur Coningham – World War II commander and World War I Air Ace. Portrayed in the film Patton
 * Ken Douglas – trade union leader and politician
 * James Lloyd Findlay – soldier and air force officer who served in both World Wars.
 * Bernard Freyberg – Governor-General, World War I VC Winner and World War II commander
 * Les Gandar – politician of the National Party.
 * William Gaudin – politician
 * Thomas Gault – Justice of the Supreme Court of New Zealand
 * William Gentry – World War II commander
 * Thomas Goddard – jurist
 * Lord Grey of Naunton – last Governor of Northern Ireland
 * Hamish Hancock – former National Party MP for Horowhenua and a lawyer
 * Frederick Hanson – World War II commander, subsequently Commissioner of Works at the Ministry of Works
 * Michael Hardie Boys – former Governor-General of New Zealand
 * Thomas Hislop – Mayor of Wellington from 1931 to 1945
 * Don Hunn CNZM – senior New Zealand diplomat, civil servant, and State Services Commissioner
 * Thomas Jordan – was the mayor of Masterton from 1925 to 1944, and was a teacher and then lawyer.
 * John Larkindale – former New Zealand public servant and diplomat
 * Ngātata Love – academic and Treaty negotiator
 * John Levy MacDuff – lawyer and magistrate
 * Aussie Malcolm – former National Party politician
 * Peter Malone – veterinary surgeon and politician
 * Rex Mason – politician
 * Colin McLeod – civil engineer, who served as the Commissioner of Works between 1973 and 1981.
 * Frank Moore – political activist
 * Norman Harold Moss – Mayor of Stratford, New Zealand from 1947 to 1957.
 * Michael Myers – judge
 * Humphrey O'Leary – Chief Justice of New Zealand, from 1946 to 1953.
 * Matthew Oram – lawyer, politician, Speaker of Parliament
 * Graham Beresford Parkinson – World War II commander
 * Paul Reeves – former Governor-General of New Zealand
 * Adrian G. Rodda – senior civil servant and Chairman of the State Services Commission
 * Eric Roussell – Clerk of the New Zealand House of Representatives
 * Rino Tirikatene – Labour Party politician and a former MP
 * Alastair Scott – politician
 * Tom Seddon – politician of the Liberal Party, and a lawyer in Greymouth
 * Charles Skerrett – fifth Chief Justice of New Zealand, from 1926 to 1929
 * Ron Smith – public servant, communist and peace activist
 * Duncan Stout – medic, soldier and author
 * William Ball Sutch – New Zealand public servant, put on trial for espionage
 * Geoff Thompson – former New Zealand politician of the National Party.
 * Ray Wallace – Mayor of Lower Hutt from 2010 to 2019
 * Thomas Wilford – politician
 * Hugh Williams – former president of the New Zealand Electoral Commission and a retired judge of the High Court of New Zealand. From 2016 to 2022 he was Chief Justice of the Cook Islands.
 * Bill Young – politician representing the National Party

Science

 * George Leslie Adkin – farmer, geologist, ethnologist, photographer, and environmentalist.
 * Brian Barratt-Boyes – New Zealand cardiothoracic surgeon
 * David Beaglehole – New Zealand physicist
 * David Benney – emeritus professor and former head of the Department of Mathematics at MIT
 * Ian Foster – computer scientist
 * Murray Hill – seed technologist
 * Diamond Jenness – anthropologist in Canada
 * William Pickering – former Head of the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (space scientist)
 * Philip Robertson – chemist, university professor and writer
 * John Salmon – photographer, entomologist, academic, conservationist, and author.
 * Jonathan Sarfati – creationist, scientist, and New Zealand Chess Champion
 * Fred White – New Zealand-born Australian physicist and ornithologist who was Chairman of CSIRO

Sport

 * Leni Apisai – rugby union player
 * Ernest Beechey – cricketer
 * Charles Benbow – cricketer
 * Ernest Bezzant – cricketer
 * James Blackwell – rugby union player
 * Perry Freshwater – rugby union player for Leicester Tigers and England Rugby
 * Nelson Asofa-Solomona – rugby league player for Melbourne Storm
 * Trevor Barber – cricketer
 * Wally Barclay – cricketer
 * Tom Blundell – professional cricketer for the Wellington Firebirds and New Zealand Black Caps
 * Leo Bertos – former professional football player for the Wellington Phoenix, Rochdale A.F.C., Perth Glory FC and the All Whites
 * Harry Boam – cricketer for the Wellington Firebirds
 * Craig Bradshaw – Former Professional Basketballer, and member of New Zealand Tall Blacks
 * George Bridgewater – New Zealand rower
 * Tim Brown – former professional footballer for the Wellington Phoenix and the All Whites. Also co-founder of Allbirds
 * Ralph Caulton – All Black
 * Dane Coles – All Black
 * David Collins – cricketer
 * Ambrose Curtis – rugby union player
 * Victor du Chateau – cricketer
 * Ernie Dodd – rugby union player
 * Quentin Donald – rugby union player
 * Ross Durant – football player for New Zealand All Whites
 * Bill Dustin – cricketer
 * Simon Elliott – former football player with the Los Angeles Galaxy, San Jose Earthquakes and New Zealand All Whites
 * Ken Elliott – All black
 * Marc Ellis – former All Black, entertainer, businessman
 * James Franklin – cricketer, plays for Black Caps and Wellington Firebirds
 * Wilfred Findlay – cricketer, soldier and businessman
 * Henry Foley – cricketer
 * Perry Freshwater – English rugby union player
 * Wes Goosen – Rugby Union player for
 * Reggie Goodes – former South African-born rugby union player
 * Frank Glasgow – rugby union player
 * Hāmi Grace – cricketer
 * Ken Gray – All Black
 * Bernard Griffiths – cricketer
 * Jack Griffiths (rugby union) – rugby union player
 * Charlie Gubb – former rugby league player for New Zealand Warriors
 * Everett Hales – cricketer
 * Brian Hastings – cricketer
 * Kemara Hauiti-Parapara – rugby union player
 * TJ Ioane – rugby union player
 * Frank Joplin – cricketer
 * Joe Latta – rugby union player
 * Tiny Leys – rugby union player
 * Martin Luckie – cricketer
 * Frank Luxford – cricketer
 * Brian Marris – cricketer
 * Onny Parun – tennis player
 * Dion Prewster – Professional Basketballer, and member of New Zealand Tall Blacks.
 * Euan Robertson – distance runner
 * Lima Sopoaga – All Black
 * Peter Taylor – New Zealand rower
 * Neemia Tialata – All Black
 * Filo Tiatia – All Black
 * Ian Uttley – All Black
 * Phillip Wilson – Olympic gold medallist rower

title: Wellington College, Wellington