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Consumer Reports

Consumer Reports (CR), formerly Consumers Union (CU), is an American nonprofit consumer organization dedicated to independent product testing, investigative journalism, consumer-oriented research, public education, and consumer advocacy.

Founded in 1936, CR was created to serve as a source of information that consumers could use to help assess the safety and performance of products. Since that time, CR has continued its testing and analysis of products and services, and attempted to advocate for the consumer in legislative and rule-making areas. Among the reforms in which CR played a role were the advent of seat belt laws, exposure of the dangers of cigarettes, and more recently, the enhancement of consumer finance protection and the increase of consumer access to quality health care. The organization has also expanded its reach to a suite of digital platforms. Consumer Reports Advocacy frequently supports environmental causes, including heightened regulations on auto manufacturers.

The organization's headquarters, including its 50 testing labs, are located in Yonkers, New York, while its automotive testing track is in East Haddam, Connecticut. CR is funded by subscriptions to its magazine and website, as well as through independent grants and donations. Marta L. Tellado is the current CEO of Consumer Reports. She joined the organization in 2014, following her work with the Ford Foundation, with the goal of expanding its engagement and advocacy efforts.

Consumer Reports' flagship website and magazine publishes reviews and comparisons of consumer products and services based on reporting and results from its in-house testing laboratory and survey research center. CR accepts no advertising, pays for all the products it tests, and as a nonprofit organization has no shareholders. It also publishes general and targeted product/service buying guides.

Advocacy and campaigns

Consumer Reports has hundreds of thousands of online advocates who take action and write letters to policymakers about the issues its advocates take on. This group continues to grow as Consumer Reports expands its reach, with 6 million paid members who have access to online tools like a car recall tracker and personalized content. An additional base of online members join for free and received guidance on a range of products (i.e. gas grills, washing machines) at no charge. CR has also launched several advocacy websites, including HearUsNow.org, which helps consumers with telecommunications policy matters. In March 2005, CR campaign PrescriptionforChange.org released "Drugs I Need", an animated short with a song from the Austin Lounge Lizards, that was featured by The New York Times, JibJab, BoingBoing, and hundreds of blogs. On Earth Day 2005, CR launched GreenerChoices.org, a web-based initiative meant to "inform, engage, and empower consumers about environmentally friendly products and practices".

Consumer Reports was a sponsor of the Safe Patient Project, whose goal was to help consumers find the best quality of health care by promoting the public disclosure of hospital-acquired infection rates and medical errors. The US Centers for Disease Control states that about 2 million patients annually (about 1 in 20) will acquire an infection while being treated in a hospital for an unrelated health care problem, resulting in 99,000 deaths and as much as $45 billion in excess hospital costs.

The campaign has worked in every state calling for legislation requiring hospitals to disclose infection rates to the public. The Safe Patient Project also works on medical devices, prescription drugs, and physician accountability.

GreenerChoices.org offers an "accessible, reliable, and practical source of information on buying 'greener' products that have minimal environmental impact and meet personal needs". The site contains many articles about different products, rating them on how "green" they are. It also focuses on electronics and appliance recycling and reuse, as well as conservation and global warming prevention.

Funding for Consumer Reports has recently been provided by USPIRG Education Fund, the Kentucky Equal Justice Center and the California Pan-Ethnic Health Network among other advocacy organizations.

In recent years, the organization has been vocal on key issues, including championing consumer choice and industry competition in the debate against the Sprint T-Mobile merger, advocating for consumer preference to leave net neutrality protections in place, exposing how data is used to engage in racial discrimination when determining consumer pricing offers, and advocating for stronger privacy laws in the wake of Cambridge Analytica.

Editorial independence
Consumer Reports is well known for its policies on editorial independence, which it says are to "maintain our independence and impartiality ... [so that] CR has no agenda other than the interests of consumers". CR has unusually strict requirements and sometimes has taken extraordinary steps; for example it declined to renew a car dealership's bulk subscription because of "the appearance of an impropriety". However, Consumer Reports in 2021 took a $375,000 grant from an environmental group, the Climate Imperative Foundation, to examine gas stoves and indoor air quality, which resulted in the publication of an article entitled "Is Your Gas Range a Health Risk?" published on Oct. 4, 2022, with a note indicating that the article was funded in part by a grant from the Climate Imperative Foundation. This article appeared prior to an Oct. 25 memo by Consumer Products Safety Commission Commissioner Richard L. Trumka entitled 'Notice of Proposed Rulemaking to Ban Gas Stoves'.

Consumer Reports does not allow outside advertising in the magazine, but its website has retailers' advertisements. Consumer Reports states that PriceGrabber places the ads and pays a percentage of referral fees to CR, who has no direct relationship with the retailers. Consumer Reports publishes reviews of its business partner and recommends it in at least one case. CR had a similar relationship with BizRate at one time and has had relationships with other companies including Amazon.com, Yahoo!, The Wall Street Journal, The Washington Post, BillShrink, and Decide.com. CR also accepts grants from other organizations.

Consumer Reports says its secret shoppers purchase all tested products at retail prices on behalf of the organization, that they do so anonymously, and that CR accepts no free samples in order to limit bias from bribery and to prevent being given better than average samples. Consumer Reports pays a rental fee to manufacturers when using these press samples and does not include the products in its ratings. For most of CR's history, it minimized contact with government and industry experts "to avoid compromising the independence of its judgment". In 2007, in response to errors in infant car seat testing, it began accepting advice from a wide range of experts on designing tests, but not on final assessments. Also, at times CR allows manufacturers to review and respond to criticism before publication. CR also accepts referral fees from websites such as Amazon for including "affiliate links" to websites where customers can purchase reviewed products.

Some objective and comparative tests published by Consumer Reports are carried out under the umbrella of the international consumer organization International Consumer Research & Testing. Consumer Reports also uses outside labs for testing, including for 11 percent of tests in 2006.

Publications
ConsumerReports.org, the website of Consumer Reports, is largely available only to paid subscribers. ConsumerReports.org provides updates on product availability, and adds new products to previously published test results. In addition, the online data includes coverage that is not published in the magazine; for example, vehicle reliability (frequency of repair) tables online extend over the full 10 model years reported in the Annual Questionnaires, whereas the magazine has only a six-year history of each model.

In 1990, Consumer Reports launched Consumer Reports Television. By March 2005 it was "hosted" by over 100 stations.

On August 1, 2006, Consumer Reports launched ShopSmart, a magazine aimed at young women.

In 2008, Consumer Reports acquired The Consumerist blog from Gawker Media.

Magazine copies distributed in Canada include a small four-page supplement called "Canada Extra", explaining how the magazine's findings apply to that country and lists the examined items available there.

In 1998, Consumer Reports launched the grant-funded project Consumer Reports WebWatch, which aimed to improve the credibility of Web sites through investigative reporting, publicizing best-practices standards, and publishing a list of sites that comply with the standards. WebWatch worked with the Stanford Web Credibility Project, Harvard University's Berkman Center, The Annenberg School of Communications at the University of Pennsylvania, and others. WebWatch is a member of ICANN, the W3C and the Internet Society. Its content is free. As of July 31, 2009, WebWatch has been shut down, though the site is still available.

Consumer Reports Best Buy Drugs is available free on Consumer Reports Health.org. It compares prescription drugs in over 20 major categories, such as heart disease, blood pressure and diabetes, and gives comparative ratings of effectiveness and costs, in reports and tables, in web pages and PDF documents, in summary and detailed form.

Also in 2005 Consumer Reports launched the service Greener Choices, which is meant to "inform, engage, and empower consumers about environmentally-friendly products and practices". It contains information about conservation, electronics recycling and conservation with the goal or providing an "accessible, reliable, and practical source of information on buying "greener" products that have minimal environmental impact and meet personal needs".

Consumer Reports published a kids' version of Consumer Reports called Penny Power, later changed to Zillions. This publication was similar to Consumer Reports but served a younger audience. At its peak, the magazine covered close to 350,000 subscribers. It gave children financial advice for budgeting their allowances and saving for a big purchase, reviewed kid-oriented consumer products (e.g., toys, clothes, electronics, food, videogames, etc.), and generally promoted smart consumerism in kids and teens; testing of products came from kids of the age range a product was targeted toward. It also taught kids about deceitful marketing practices practiced by advertising agencies. The magazine folded in 2000.

Consumer Reports had an annual testing budget of approximately US$25 million, as well as approximately 7 million subscribers (3.8 million print and 3.2 million digital) as of April 2016.

The organization had around 6 million members in July 2018.

Founding and early years
In 1927, F.J. Schlink and Stuart Chase published their best selling novel, Your Money's Worth, which saw massive readership due to the consumer movement. The demand for brand research led to Schlink to found the company Consumers' Research in 1927. The company was responsible for publishing Consumers’ Research Bulletin (previously named Consumer Club Commodity List). The subscriber count in 1933 was reported to be over 42,000. It was in this year, that Consumer Research moved its operations to New York City. Following this move, employees began to unionize, citing unfair pay. Schlink proceeded to fire the strikers. The former Consumers' Research employees, teamed up with "journalists, engineers, academics, and scientists" to found the company Consumers Union-- presently known as Consumer Reports—in February 1936. Consumers Union differentiated themselves from Consumers' Research by establishing a community amongst readers. Within the overall mission of creating more informed consumers, Consumers Union united with women's clubs and citizen groups, creating a progressive message. Consumers Union would surpass Schlink's Consumers' Research in subscribers by 1940, accumulating a readership of 71,000.

Resistance
Numerous business and corporations set out to suppress the actions of Consumers Union. In an effort to suppress the critiques of Consumers' Union, The New York Herald Tribune established an institute with the goal of demonstrating that the efforts of consumers groups were futile, in that businesses already conducted extensive product-testing. The Crowell Institute on Consumer Relations founded in 1937, sprouted from the forum Woman's Home Companion, which had a readership of 2 million. The institute suppressed the efforts of consumer groups by giving business and advertisers the platform to putdown the consumers' pursuit of "lower distribution costs, grade labeling, and regulation," asserting that these businesses were already taking these factors into account. The New York Times proved to be an obstacle for Consumers Union, refusing CU's requests to advertise. Other major publications would follow suit.

In the year 1938, CU would find itself at the center of The Dies Committee's investigation into "unpatriotic propaganda". The committee brought on former member of Consumers' Research' board, J.B. Matthews as its research director. In Matthews' official report, he accused CU and its CEO Arthur Kallet of holding Communist ideals, and going as far as to label CU as "Communist front". The smear campaign was criticized by Consumers Union for its lack of legitimacy. The allegations proved fruitless, and rather served to delegitimize CR and Congressman Dies. In part due to actions of Consumers' Research, the House Un-American Activities Committee placed Consumers Union on a list of subversive organizations, only to remove it in 1954.

Role in consumer movement
Consumers Union established themselves as an advocate for consumer rights during the interwar years. The rise of Consumers Union happened simultaneously with women's groups interest in consumption. Despite the mobilization of citizens interested in consumption, the pursuit of consumer rights were not validated until the New Deal. The programs represented an acknowledgment of the consumer movement, by actively working to improve consumer purchaser power.

In World War II, Consumer Union took a stance in support of the war effort. The urged their supporters to put aside their personal interest by consuming less, and following the government ordered policies of consumption. They were also critical of businesses who saw the war period as an opportunity to advertise their products and as a result were wasting paper. The government's vested interest in the politics of consumption would escalate in the postwar period. Government would encourage to consume both through propaganda as well as the protections instituted to promote individual consumption.

Consumer Reports has helped start several consumer groups and publications, in 1960 helping create global consumer group Consumers International and in 1974 providing financial assistance to Consumers' Checkbook which is considered akin to Consumer Reports for local services in the seven metropolitan areas they serve.

Other organizational maneuvers
Prominent consumer advocate Ralph Nader was on the board of directors, but left in 1975 due to a "division of philosophy" with new Executive Director Rhoda Karpatkin. Nader wanted Consumer Reports to focus on policy and product advocacy, while Karpatkin focused on product testing. Karpatkin was appointed executive director in 1974 and retired as president in the early 2000s.

At the start of 2009, Consumer Reports acquired The Consumerist blog from Gawker Media for approximately $600,000.

Prior to 2012, the organization did business as Consumers Union. The reason for the name change was that the name of "Consumer Reports" was more familiar to the public than the name of "Consumers Union".

Consumer Reports spent $200,000 on lobbying in 2015.

The Consumerist was subsequently closed in December 2017, when its content was folded into the Consumer Reports website.

Product changes after Consumer Reports tests
In the July 1978 issue, Consumer Reports rated the Dodge Omni/Plymouth Horizon automobile "not acceptable", the first car it had judged such since the AMC Ambassador in 1968. In its testing they found the possibility of these models' developing an oscillatory yaw as a result of a sudden violent input to the steering; the manufacturer claimed: "Some do, some don't" show this behavior, but it has no "validity in the real world of driving". Nevertheless, the next year, these models included a lighter weight steering wheel rim and a steering damper, and Consumer Reports reported that the previous instability was no longer present.

In a 2003 issue of CR, the magazine tested the Nissan Murano crossover utility vehicle and did not recommend the vehicle because of a problem with its power steering, even though the vehicle had above-average reliability. The specific problem was that the steering would stiffen substantially on hard turning. CR recommended the 2005 model, which had addressed this problem.

BMW changed the software for the stability control in its X5 SUV after replicating a potential rollover problem discovered during a CR test.

In 2010, CR rated the 2010 Lexus GX 460 SUV unsafe after the vehicle failed one of the magazine's emergency safety tests. Toyota temporarily suspended sales of the vehicle, and after conducting its own test acknowledged the problem and issued a recall for the vehicle, which later passed a CR re-test.

In 2016, CR found wildly inconsistent battery life in its testing of Apple's 2016 MacBook Pro. This led to the discovery of a bug in the Safari web browser, which Apple promptly fixed via a software update.

In May 2018, CR said it could not recommend the Tesla Model 3 due to concerns about the car's long stopping distance. Within days, Tesla issued a remote software update. CR retested the car's brakes, then gave the Model 3 a "recommended" rating.

Lawsuits against Consumer Reports
Consumer Reports has been sued several times by companies unhappy with reviews of their products. Consumer Reports has fought these cases vigorously. As of October 2000, Consumer Reports had been sued by 13 manufacturers and never lost a case.

Bose
In 1971, Bose Corporation sued Consumer Reports (CR) for libel after CR reported in a review that the sound from the system it reviewed "tended to wander about the room". The case eventually reached the United States Supreme Court, which affirmed in Bose Corp. v. Consumers Union of United States, Inc. that CR statement was made without actual malice and therefore was not libelous.

Suzuki
In 1988, Consumer Reports announced during a press conference that the Suzuki Samurai had demonstrated a tendency to roll and deemed it "not acceptable". Suzuki sued in 1996 after the Samurai was again mentioned in a CR anniversary issue. In July 2004, after eight years in court, the suit was settled and dismissed with no money changing hands and no retraction issued, but Consumers Union did agree to no longer refer to the 16-year-old test results of the 1988 Samurai in its advertising or promotional materials.

Rivera Isuzu
In December 1997, the Isuzu Trooper distributor in Puerto Rico sued CR, alleging that it had lost sales as a result of disparagement of the Trooper by the Consumers Union of the United States (CU). A trial court granted the motion for summary judgment by the CU, and the U.S. Court of Appeals for the First Circuit affirmed the favorable judgment.

Sharper Image
In 2003, Sharper Image sued CR in California for product disparagement over negative reviews of its Ionic Breeze Quadra air purifier. CR moved for dismissal on October 31, 2003, and the case was dismissed in November 2004. The decision also awarded CR $525,000 in legal fees and costs.

Controversy over child safety seats
The February 2007 issue of Consumer Reports stated that only two of the child safety seats it tested for that issue passed the organization's side impact tests. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, which subsequently retested the seats, found that all those seats passed the corresponding NHTSA tests at the speeds described in the magazine report. The CR article reported that the tests simulated the effects of collisions at 38.5 mph. However, the tests that were completed in fact simulated collisions at 70 mph. CR stated in a letter from its president Jim Guest to its subscribers that it would retest the seats. The article was removed from the CR website, and on January 18, 2007, the organization posted a note on its home page about the misleading tests. Subscribers were also sent a postcard apologizing for the error. On January 28, 2007, The New York Times published an op-ed from Joan Claybrook, who served on the board of CR from 1982 to 2006 and was the head of the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration from 1977 to 1981, where she discussed the sequence of events leading to the publishing of the erroneous information.

Other errors or issues
In February 1998, the organization tested pet food and claimed that Iams dog food was nutritionally deficient. It later retracted the report claiming that there had been "a systemic error in the measurements of various minerals we tested – potassium, calcium and magnesium".

In 2006, Consumer Reports said six hybrid vehicles would probably not save owners money. The organization later discovered that it had miscalculated depreciation and released an update stating that four of the seven vehicles would save the buyers money if the vehicles were kept for five years (and received the federal tax credit for hybrid vehicles, which expired after each manufacturer sold 60,000 hybrid vehicles).

Graphs
Consumer Reports graphs formerly used a modified form of Harvey balls for qualitative comparison. The round ideograms were arranged from best to worst. On the left of the diagram, the red circle indicated the highest rating, the half red and white circle was the second highest rating, the white circle was neutral, the half black circle was the second-lowest rating, and the entirely black circle was the lowest rating possible.

As part of a wider rebranding of Consumer Reports in September 2016, the appearance of the magazine's rating system was significantly revamped. The Harvey balls were replaced with new color-coded circles: green for excellent; lime green for very good; yellow for good; orange for fair; and red for poor. It was stated that this new system will help improve the clarity of ratings tables by using a "universally understood" metaphor.

title: Consumer Reports


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Consumers Digest

Founded in 1959 and published by Consumers Digest Communications, LLC, Consumers Digest was an American magazine. It was based in Chicago. The last issue was published in February 2019.

The magazine had no subscribers and did not test the products they select as 'Best Buys'. Instead, companies paid Consumers Digest for the right to promote their products as 'Best Buys'. They relied on consumer confusion of their name with the well-known Consumer Reports magazine, published by the nonprofit organization Consumers Union. Consumers Digest Communications is a privately owned, for-profit business entity.

History
The magazine was sold at newsstands only and did not reveal its sales figures. In 2001, when it ceased subscription distribution, it listed 700,000 subscribers (the list was sold to Time, Inc.). The publication has no connection with the Consumer Reports magazine or with Consumers Digest Weekly. It was possible to subscribe to the on-line edition of Consumers Digest.

Controversy
Consumers Digest had a history of not paying its contributors. In an October 30, 2017, article published by Talking Biz News (TBN), it was reported that at least three journalists were suing the company run by publisher Randy Weber for nonpayment. Two other journalists also shared their attempts to collect on what was owed them.

As of February 2019, following multiple, additional lawsuits from 2018, it appeared the company had closed down, as the website no longer was active and the company phone number was disconnected.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Consumers Digest


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Aspen Movie Map

The Aspen Movie Map was a hypermedia system developed at MIT that enabled the user to take a virtual tour through the city of Aspen, Colorado. It was developed by a team working with Andrew Lippman in 1978 with funding from ARPA.

Features
The Aspen Movie Map enabled the user to take a virtual tour through the city of Aspen, Colorado (that is, a form of surrogate travel). It is an early example of a hypermedia system.

A gyroscopic stabilizer with four 16mm stop-frame film cameras was mounted on top of a car with an encoder that triggered the cameras every ten feet. The distance was measured from an optical sensor attached to the hub of a bicycle wheel dragged behind the vehicle. The cameras were mounted in order to capture front, back, and side views as the car made its way through the city. Filming took place daily between 10 a.m. and 2 p.m. to minimize lighting discrepancies. The car was carefully driven down the center of every street in Aspen to enable registered match cuts.

The film was assembled into a collection of discontinuous scenes (one segment per view per city block) and then transferred to laserdisc, the analog-video precursor to modern digital optical disc storage technologies such as DVDs. A database was made that correlated the layout of the video on the disc with the two-dimensional street plan. Thus linked, the user was able to choose an arbitrary path through the city; the only restrictions being the necessity to stay in the center of the street; move ten feet between steps; and view the street from one of the four orthogonal views.

The interaction was controlled through a dynamically generated menu overlaid on top of the video image: speed and viewing angle were modified by the selection of the appropriate icon through a touch-screen interface, harbinger of the ubiquitous interactive-video kiosk. Commands were sent from the client process handling the user input and overlay graphics to a server that accessed the database and controlled the laserdisc players. Another interface feature was the ability to touch any building in the current field of view, and, in a manner similar to the ISMAP feature of web browsers, jump to a façade of that building. Selected buildings contained additional data: e.g., interior shots, historical images, menus of restaurants, video interviews of city officials, etc., allowing the user to take a virtual tour through those buildings.

In a later implementation, the metadata, which was in large part automatically extracted from the animation database, was encoded as a digital signal in the analog video. The data encoded in each frame contained all the necessary information to enable a full-featured surrogate-travel experience.

Another feature of the system was a navigation map that was overlaid above the horizon in the top of the frame; the map both served to indicate the user's current position in the city (as well as a trace of streets previously explored) and to allow the user to jump to a two-dimensional city map, which allowed for an alternative way of moving through the city. Additional features of the map interface included the ability to jump back and forth between correlated aerial photographic and cartoon renderings with routes and landmarks highlighted; and to zoom in and out à la Charles Eames's Powers of Ten film.

Aspen was filmed in early fall and winter. The user was able to in situ change seasons on demand while moving down the street or looking at a façade. A three-dimensional polygonal model of the city was also generated, using the Quick and Dirty Animation System (QADAS), which featured three-dimensional texture-mapping of the facades of landmark buildings, using an algorithm designed by Paul Heckbert. These computer-graphic images, also stored on the laserdisc, were also correlated to the video, enabling the user to view an abstract rendering of the city in real time.

Credits
MIT undergraduate Peter Clay, with help from Bob Mohl and Michael Naimark, filmed the hallways of MIT with a camera mounted on a cart. The film was transferred to a laserdisc as part of a collection of projects being done at the Architecture Machine Group (ArcMac).

The Aspen Movie Map was filmed in the fall of 1978, in winter 1979 and briefly again (with an active gyro stabilizer) in the fall of 1979. The first version was operational in early spring of 1979.

Many people were involved in the production, most notably: Nicholas Negroponte, founder and director of the Architecture Machine Group, who found support for the project from the Cybernetics Technology Office of DARPA; Andrew Lippman, principal investigator; Bob Mohl, who designed the map overlay system and ran user studies of the efficacy of the system for his PhD thesis; Richard Leacock (Ricky), who headed the MIT Film/Video section and shot along with MS student Marek Zalewski the Cinéma vérité interviews placed behind the facades of key buildings; John Borden, of Peace River Films in Cambridge, Massachusetts, who designed the stabilization rig; Kristina Hooper Woolsey of UCSC; Rebecca Allen; Scott Fisher, who matched the photos of Aspen in the silver-mining days from the historical society to the same scenes in Aspen in 1978 and who experimented with anamorphic imaging of the city (using a Volpe lens); Walter Bender, who designed and built the interface, the client/server model, and the animation system; Steve Gregory; Stan Sasaki, who built much of the electronics; Steve Yelick, who worked on the laserdisc interface and anamorphic rendering; Eric "Smokehouse" Brown, who built the metadata encoder/decoder; Paul Heckbert worked on the animation system; Mark Shirley and Paul Trevithick, who also worked on the animation; Ken Carson; Howard Eglowstein; and Michael Naimark, who was at the Center for Advanced Visual Studies and was responsible for the cinematography design and production.

The Ramtek 9000 series image display system was used for this project. Ramtek created a 32 bit interface to the Interdata for this purpose. Ramtek supplied image display systems which supplied square displays (256x256 or 512x512) as its competition did but also screen matches such as 320x240, 640x512 and 1280x1024. The original GE CAT Scanners all used the Ramtek 320x240 display. Some prices of the day may be of interest. A keyboard, joystick or trackball would each sell for around $1,200. A 19" CRT had an OEM price of around $5,000 and this would be purchased from Igagami in Japan. The production of a single CD master (around 13") was $300,000.

Purpose and applications
ARPA funding during the late 1970s was subject to the military application requirements of the Mansfield Amendment introduced by Mike Mansfield (which had severely limited funding for hypertext researchers like Douglas Engelbart).

The Aspen Movie Map's military application was to solve the problem of quickly familiarizing soldiers with new territory. The Department of Defense had been deeply impressed by the success of Operation Entebbe in 1976, where the Israeli commandos had quickly built a crude replica of the airport and practiced in it before attacking the real thing. DOD hoped that the Movie Map would show the way to a future where computers could instantly create a three-dimensional simulation of a hostile environment at much lower cost and in less time (see virtual reality).

While the Movie Map has been referred to as an early example of interactive video, it is perhaps more accurate to describe it as a pioneering example of interactive computing. Video, audio, still images and metadata were retrieved from a database and assembled on the fly by the computer (an Interdata minicomputer running the MagicSix operating system) redirecting its actions based upon user input; video was the principal, but not sole affordance of the interaction.

title: Aspen Movie Map


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Crash test

A crash test is a form of destructive testing usually performed in order to ensure safe design standards in crashworthiness and crash compatibility for various modes of transportation (see automobile safety) or related systems and components.

Types

 * Frontal-impact tests: which is what most people initially think of when asked about a crash test. Vehicles usually impact a solid concrete wall at a specified speed, but these can also be vehicle impacting vehicle tests. SUVs have been singled out in these tests for a while, due to the high ride-height that they often have.
 * Moderate Overlap tests: in which only part of the front of the car impacts with a barrier (vehicle). These are important, as impact forces (approximately) remain the same as with a frontal impact test, but a smaller fraction of the car is required to absorb all of the force. These tests are often realized by cars turning into oncoming traffic. This type of testing is done by the U.S.A. Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS), Euro NCAP, Australasian New Car Assessment Program (ANCAP) and ASEAN NCAP.
 * Small Overlap tests: this is where only a small portion of the car's structure strikes an object such as a pole or a tree, or if a car were to clip another car. This is the most demanding test because it loads the most force onto the structure of the car at any given speed. These are usually conducted at 15–20% of the front vehicle structure.
 * Side-impact tests: these forms of accidents have a very significant likelihood of fatality, as cars do not have a significant crumple zone to absorb the impact forces before an occupant is injured.
 * Pole-impact tests: A difficult test which places a large amount of force on a small proportion on the side of the vehicle.
 * Roll-over tests: which tests a car's ability (specifically the pillars holding the roof) to support itself in a dynamic impact. More recently, dynamic rollover tests have been proposed in lieu of static crush testing (video).
 * Roadside hardware crash tests: are used to ensure crash barriers and crash cushions will protect vehicle occupants from roadside hazards, and also to ensure that guard rails, sign posts, light poles and similar appurtenances do not pose an undue hazard to vehicle occupants.
 * Old versus new: Often an old and big car against a small and new car, or two different generations of the same car model. These tests are performed to show the advancements in crash-worthiness.
 * Computer model: Because of the cost of full-scale crash tests, engineers often run many simulated crash tests using computer models to refine their vehicle or barrier designs before conducting live tests.
 * Sled testing: A cost-effective way of testing components such as airbags and seat belts is conducting sled crash testing. The two most common types of sled systems are reverse-firing sleds which are fired from a standstill, and decelerating sleds which are accelerated from a starting point and stopped in the crash area with a hydraulic ram. It can also be used to evaluate the whiplash protection of a vehicle's seat.

Major providers

 * Auto Review Car Assessment Program (ARCAP)
 * Allgemeiner Deutscher Automobil-Club (ADAC) in Germany
 * National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) in the United States, specifically the Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard (FMVSS) and New Car Assessment Program (NCAP)

Data collection

Crash tests are conducted under rigorous scientific and safety standards. Each crash test is very expensive so the maximum amount of data must be extracted from each test. Usually, this requires the use of high-speed data-acquisition, at least one triaxial accelerometer and a crash test dummy, but often includes more.

Some organizations that conduct crash tests include Calspan, an independent test laboratory in Buffalo, NY. As a result of the capabilities and expertise at Calspan, Calspan has been awarded 5 year contracts by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) to execute for the NHTSA FMVSS No. 214, Side Impact Protection Compliance Testing, FMVSS No. 301 Fuel System Integrity, and FMVSS No. 305 Electric Powered Vehicles: Electrolyte Spillage and Electrical Shock Protection vehicle crash tests. Calspan also holds the NHTSA contracts for executing New Car Assessment Program crash tests.

Also, Monash University department of Civil Engineering, routinely conducts crash tests for the purposes of roadside barrier safety and design.

Consumer response

 * In 1998 the Rover 100 received a one-star Adult Occupant Rating in EuroNCAP crash tests; sales promptly collapsed and the 18-year-old design was quickly scrapped.
 * In 2005 the Daewoo Kalos made news in Europe and Australia by scoring only two stars in its crash test, resulting in lower sales and demonstrating the influence of vehicle crashworthiness on a model's success in the marketplace. The result for Holden in Australia, who retailed the Kalos under the Holden Barina name, resulted in a considerable amount of negative publicity, with the managing director of Holden forced to publicly defend the vehicle.
 * The second generation Isuzu Trooper (1995–1997) models were rated "Not Acceptable" by Consumer Reports for their tendency to roll over during testing. After the report Trooper sales never recovered and two years later production ceased.

Crash testing programs
There are a number of crash test programs around the world dedicated to providing consumers with a source of comparitative information in relation to the safety performance of new and used vehicles. Examples of new car crash test programs include National Highway Traffic Safety Administration's NCAP, the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, Australasian New Car Assessment Program, EuroNCAP and JapNCAP. Programs such as the Used Car Safety Ratings provide consumers information on the safety performance of vehicles based on real world crash data.

In 2020, EuroNCAP introduces a mobile progressive deformable barrier (MPDB) test first experimented on the Toyota Yaris.

title: Crash test


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Crash Test Dummies

Crash Test Dummies are a Canadian rock band from Winnipeg, Manitoba.

Anchored by Brad Roberts (vocals, guitar) and his distinctive bass-baritone voice, the other band members have fluctuated over the years. Its most prominent line-up consisted of Roberts, Ellen Reid (co-vocals, keyboards), Brad's brother Dan Roberts (bass guitar, backing vocals), Benjamin Darvill (harmonica, mandolin), and Mitch Dorge (drums, percussion).

The band is widely known internationally for their 1993 single "Mmm Mmm Mmm Mmm" and in Canada for the 1991 single "Superman's Song".

Beginnings: 1988–1991
The origin of Crash Test Dummies is tied to the history of two Winnipeg nightspots, the Spectrum Cabaret and the Blue Note Cafe, owned by Curtis Riddell.

In 1986, Riddell joined with Brad Roberts to form the decidedly less-than-serious bar band Bad Brad Roberts and the St. James Rhythm Pigs. Over time, the band evolved into Crash Test Dummies, a name suggested by a friend of the band who was in medical school. The diagnostic mannequin, known colloquially as a crash test dummy, was known to the public already by this time. The band adopted the name as a joke, but nevertheless kept it. Ellen Reid and Benjamin Darvill became permanent additions. George West, the original bass player, quit and was replaced by Dan Roberts, Brad's brother. Riddell was replaced by Vince Lambert, who was replaced by Mitch Dorge just before the release of The Ghosts That Haunt Me.

After signing with BMG Records in 1991, the band signed with manager Jeff Rogers (Swell) who managed the band until the end of 1999 when he left to become Head of Artist Development at Richard Branson's V2 Records.

Mainstream success: 1991–1999
The band first began to achieve commercial success in Canada with the release of The Ghosts that Haunt Me in 1991. The album eventually reached sales of 400,000 in Canada, largely due to the popularity of the hit single "Superman's Song", which appeared on the RPM Top Singles chart that year, featured on the soundtrack of an episode of the TV series "Due South" and earned the band the 1992 Juno Award for Group of the Year.

The band did not receive much international recognition until the 1993 release of their second album, God Shuffled His Feet. Particularly instrumental in increasing the band's exposure in the American market was the appearance of a new type of radio format, adult album-oriented alternative rock (AAA). These stations put the first single "Mmm Mmm Mmm Mmm" in high rotation and the song peaked at No. 4 on the US Hot 100. "Mmm Mmm Mmm Mmm" did even better in the United Kingdom, where it was a No. 2 hit, and Australia where it peaked at No. 1. Popular parodist "Weird Al" Yankovic parodied the song under the title "Headline News" in 1994.

In their native Canada, "Mmm Mmm Mmm Mmm" was a comparative disappointment on the charts, only peaking at No. 14. Two other songs from the album went top 10 in Canada: "Swimming In Your Ocean" and "Afternoons & Coffeespoons". This latter song was also a top 40 hit in Australia and the United Kingdom and hit the lower portion of the US Hot 100. The result was that by mid-1994 the album had passed the platinum sales mark (one million) in the United States and had also earned the band three Grammy nominations and three more Juno nominations. To date, God Shuffled His Feet has sold more than five and a half million copies worldwide.

In January 1995, the band released "The Ballad of Peter Pumpkinhead" (a cover of XTC's 1992 track) as a single and on the soundtrack of the Jim Carrey and Jeff Daniels comedy Dumb and Dumber. The single, credited to The Crash Test Dummies and Ellen Reid, charted at No. 30 in the UK singles chart and was a No. 4 hit in Canada.

In 1996, the Dummies' third album, A Worm's Life, was released to mixed critical and moderate commercial success. The guitar-heavy singles were warmly received in some markets. Lead single "He Liked to Feel It" hit No. 2 in Canada, becoming the band's highest-charting single in their home country, but internationally nothing matched the runaway success of either "Superman's Song" or "Mmm Mmm Mmm Mmm". Regardless, the album went platinum in Canada in less than one month.

Give Yourself A Hand, the Dummies' fourth album, was released March 23, 1999. The album was recorded in Nassau, Bahamas at Compass Point Studios and produced by Greg Wells. The album showcased a new sound for the Dummies, as it featured Ellen Reid singing lead vocals on three tracks, and Brad Roberts singing in a falsetto on several others. The whole sound of the album was much more electronic than the previous recordings. Once again, the lead single ("Keep A Lid On Things") was a top 10 hit in Canada.

During a hiatus between albums, Benjamin Darvill became the first Dummy to release solo material. Under the name Son Of Dave, Darvill first brought out the album B. Darvill's Wild West Show, followed with O1, both released on Benjamin's own label, Husky Records.

Post-mainstream career: 2000–2006
The less-than-stellar commercial success of both A Worm's Life and Give Yourself a Hand resulted in the band feeling much more restricted by their label BMG, especially after the label rejected 35 songs during the production of Give Yourself a Hand. As a result, the band and the label parted ways, and Brad Roberts formed his own independent label "Cha-Ching Records" (later renamed to "Deep Fried Records").

Free from major-label restrictions, the Dummies surprised their fans in 2001 by putting their solo projects on hold for a fifth studio album and tour. After suffering a near-fatal car accident in the fall of 2000, Brad found himself recuperating in the town of Argyle, Nova Scotia. It was there that he met some local "lobster fishermen" who happened to be quite musically inclined – Kent Greene, Dave Morton, and Danny MacKenzie. Together, they recorded the bulk of I Don't Care That You Don't Mind, which was to have been Brad's first solo album. Later on, Ellen was brought in to record backing vocals for a few tunes, and Dan agreed to tour with Brad. When Ellen and Mitch agreed to tour as well, the Crash Test Dummies name was put on the record. This album saw the Dummies returning to their acoustic roots. Brad compared this album to the Dummies' first, The Ghosts That Haunt Me, though he calls it more atmospheric and polished.

Near the end of 2001, some new Dummies solo albums were released. First, Ellen Reid launched her debut solo effort, Cinderellen.

Soon after, Brad Roberts' long-awaited double-live CD and rockumentary entitled Crash Test Dude were made available through MapleMusic.

2002 opened with the surprise of Mitch Dorge's debut album, As Trees Walking. On the CD, Mitch played almost all of the instruments, took some of the photos for the liner notes, and won a Prairie Music Award for Best Instrumental Recording.

Brad, Dan, and Ellen returned as Crash Test Dummies at the end of 2002 with Jingle All the Way, a long-rumoured Christmas album.

In 2003, Puss 'n' Boots was released. Much like I Don't Care, the album began life as a Brad Roberts solo project. Co-written by Stuart Cameron, 13 songs were selected from a pool of 30. Ellen sang backing vocals and Dan played bass, though much of the music – funky grooves that would not have seemed out of place on Give Yourself A Hand – was performed by other musicians.

Songs of the Unforgiven, the eighth studio album under the Crash Test Dummies name, was recorded not long after Puss 'n' Boots.

Hiatus, Oooh La La 2006–2014
After releasing three records through his own label, Roberts realized he was losing money. As such, he stopped recording and touring and instead worked as a songwriting teacher in New York City, while participating in yoga, chanting, and meditation (the latter influencing Roberts's side-project Satsang Circus).

Despite the hiatus, in 2006 Brad Roberts began to record the album that would become Oooh La La with producer and friend Stewart Lerman, using the optigan and omnichord.

In October, 2007 Sony BMG released The Best of Crash Test Dummies, featuring twelve tracks selected from the band's entire catalog, including most of their singles and several album tracks. The compilation would later be re-released on March 10, 2008, as "Best of Crash Test Dummies – Collections" with two previously unreleased tracks: "Laid Back" and "You Said You'd Meet Me (In California)", the latter being an early version of a song that would later appear on Oooh La La.

In addition a new online store was opened allowing users to purchase downloads from all of the band's post-BMG releases, including Cape Breton Lobster Bash series, a collection of songs written about Brad Roberts's experiences at Cape Breton and an annual tradition known as the "Lobster Bash".

Work continued in 2008 on songs for an album which was tentatively titled Toys. In July 2009, the title of the album was renamed from Toys to Oooh La La.

A fourth song in the Cape Breton Lobster Bash series was released on July 27, 2009.

Oooh La La was released on May 11, 2010. The album's release was accompanied by the band touring in an "Acoustic Trio" format consisting of Roberts and Ellen Reid, accompanied by either Stuart Cameron or Murray Pulver on guitar. On October 9, 2010, as part of the Canadian leg of the tour, Dan Roberts and Mitch Dorge joined Brad Roberts and Ellen Reid in the band's hometown of Winnipeg for the first performance by the original line-up in a decade. Benjamin Darvill was not present for the reunion, despite having played a solo show in town a few days earlier. During the tour, Brad Roberts began the habit of taking photographs at random and posting them on his blog and the band's Facebook page.

In 2011, the band continued to tour in support of Oooh La La. On April 19, 2011, the band released Demo-litions: Cast-off Recordings 1996–97 featuring previously unreleased demos of songs written during the recording of Give Yourself a Hand.

In June 2012, Brad Roberts wrote a blog post saying that there is an incomplete new album lying around, but that producer Stewart Lerman is currently too busy with other projects to work on it.

"Promised Land" 2014–2017
In 2014, Marc Mysterio helped form a new lineup with Roberts and Mark Crozer from Jesus and Mary Chain. This led to the release of the re-vamped lineup's debut single "Promised Land", featuring both Marc Mysterio and Brad Roberts on lead vocals, with Mark Crozer on Bass and Drums. Mysterio wrote, composed and produced the song as well as playing guitar and keyboard on the record. Proceeds went to benefit the International Red Cross to assist with the unprecedented refugee crisis in Europe.

Brad Roberts of Crash Test Dummies described how the new group came to be to scores of media outlets, "Marc Mysterio and I shared a few common friends and when his deal with Godsmack fell through, I stepped up to record the new song. In studio, Marc asked me to add in humming to the track and then after, my wife commented, 'Marc is really on to something there'".

"Promised Land" went on to score a Top 10 on radio in United States.

Second hiatus, solo tour, side projects: 2015–2016
Following the completion of touring for Oooh La La, the band went on an indefinite hiatus, as Ellen Reid decided to retire from performing and Brad Roberts began to develop back problems. However, the hiatus was ended when Brad Roberts decided to go on a solo tour in 2015.

In the spring of 2016, Brad Roberts announced his first tour of Canada in five years. In an interview about the tour, Roberts provided an update about the other members of the band, who he still keeps in touch with: Dan Roberts now has a family in Winnipeg, Mitch Dorge devotes most of his time now to motivational speaking at schools, Ellen Reid is married and spends her time creating elaborate Facebook pages with all her own illustrations, and Benjamin Darvill has found success for himself as Son of Dave. Roberts confirmed that he is the last remaining active member of Crash Test Dummies, with it just being him and guitarist Stuart Cameron going on tour.

On May 28, 2016, to commemorate his first Canadian tour in five years, Brad Roberts released the new song "I'll Be Peaceful Then".

Full band reunion and Nostalgia tours: 2017–present
In the summer of 2017, the full band, except Benjamin Darvill, reunited for a show in Winnipeg and Brad Roberts went on a tour of South Africa in early 2018. The band continued to perform together that summer, including a stop at Ontario's Burl's Creek Event Grounds in July. In the fall of 2018, it was announced that Brad Roberts, Ellen Reid, Dan Roberts, and Mitch Dorge would be going on their first full tour of Canada and the United States in nearly two decades to celebrate the 25th anniversary of God Shuffled His Feet. The band continued to tour through 2022 in celebration of the 30th anniversary of their first album The Ghosts That Haunt Me.

In early 2023, the band released "Sacred Alphabet," their first song with the full band in over a decade. The song did not chart and received no substantive airplay on radio in Canada or elsewhere.

Instrumentation
Throughout their career, Crash Test Dummies have experimented with many different styles and genres of music. These styles include the acoustic folk rock of The Ghosts That Haunt Me, the electric alternative rock of A Worm's Life, the urban influences of Give Yourself a Hand, and the optigan-based compositions of Oooh La La!

Crash Test Dummies recorded as a full five piece band from their debut album The Ghosts That Haunt Me until Give Yourself a Hand. At this time, the most notable instrumentation of the band's music included Brad Roberts' lead guitar, Ellen Reid's keyboards, and Benjamin Darvill's harmonica. Another notable element of Crash Test Dummies' music are the contrasting harmonies between Brad Roberts' deep lead vocals and Ellen Reid's backing vocals in the higher register.

Beginning with I Don't Care That You Don't Mind in 2001, the band's albums were recorded primarily by Brad Roberts, Ellen Reid, and a rotating roster of session musicians.

Influences
One of the biggest influences for Brad Roberts was the band XTC and Andy Partridge in particular. The band even went on to cover two of XTC's songs: "The Ballad of Peter Pumpkinhead" for the soundtrack to the film Dumb and Dumber, and "All You Pretty Girls" for the XTC tribute album A Testimonial Dinner.

Band members

 * Brad Roberts – lead vocals, guitar (1988–present)
 * Ellen Reid – vocals, keyboards, accordion (1988–2012, 2017–present)
 * Dan Roberts – bass, backing vocals (1988–2004, 2010, 2017–present)
 * Mitch Dorge – drums (1991–2002, 2010, 2017–present)

Former and inactive members
 * Benjamin Darvill – harmonica, percussion, guitar, mandolin, backing vocals (1988–2000)
 * Daniel Koulack – bass
 * Vince Lambert – drums (1988–1991)
 * Curtis Riddell – drums (1988)
 * George West – bass (1988)
 * Marc Mysterio – vocals, guitar, keyboard (2014–16)
 * Mark Crozer – bass, drums (2014–16)

Touring members
 * Stuart Cameron – guitar, backing vocals (2001–present)
 * Murray Pulver – guitar, backing vocals (1996–2000, 2010–present)
 * Marc Arnould – keyboards (2021–present)
 * James Reid – guitar, backing vocals (2010)
 * Kathy Brown – keyboards (1993–1995)
 * Ray Coburn – keyboards (1999–2000)
 * Andy Prestwich – kazoo, mouth harp (2019–present)

Discography

 * Studio albums
 * The Ghosts That Haunt Me (1991)
 * God Shuffled His Feet (1993)
 * A Worm's Life (1996)
 * Give Yourself a Hand (1999)
 * I Don't Care That You Don't Mind (2001)
 * Puss 'n' Boots (2003)
 * Songs of the Unforgiven (2004)
 * Oooh La La! (2010)

Awards and nominations
Delivered since 1991, the GAFFA Awards are a Danish award that rewards popular music by the magazine of the same name.
 * Denmark GAFFA Awards

!Ref.
 * rowspan="2"| 1994
 * Crash Test Dummies
 * Foreign Newcomer
 * Won
 * style="text-align:center;" rowspan="2"|
 * God Shuffled His Feet
 * Foreign CD-Cover
 * Won
 * }
 * Won
 * }
 * }

The Grammy Awards are awarded annually by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences of the United States. Crash Test Dummies received three nominations.
 * Grammy Awards

 * rowspan="3"| || Crash Test Dummies || Best New Artist || Nominated
 * "Mmm Mmm Mmm Mmm" || Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals || Nominated
 * God Shuffled His Feet || Best Alternative Music Album || Nominated
 * "Mmm Mmm Mmm Mmm" || Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals || Nominated
 * God Shuffled His Feet || Best Alternative Music Album || Nominated
 * God Shuffled His Feet || Best Alternative Music Album || Nominated

The Juno Awards are a Canadian awards ceremony presented annually by the Canadian Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences. Crash Test Dummies won the 1992 Juno for Group of the Year and received an additional 10 nominations.
 * Juno Awards

 * rowspan="4"| || Crash Test Dummies || Group of the Year || Won
 * The Ghosts That Haunt Me || Best Album || Nominated
 * Kevin Mutch, The Ghosts That Haunt Me || Best Album Design || Nominated
 * Dale Heslip, "Superman's Song" || Best Video || Nominated
 * rowspan="2"| || Kevin Mutch, God Shuffled His Feet || Best Album Design || Nominated
 * Dale Heslip, "Mmm Mmm Mmm Mmm" || Best Video || Nominated
 * rowspan="3"| || Crash Test Dummies || Entertainer of the Year || Nominated
 * Crash Test Dummies || Group of the Year || Nominated
 * "Mmm Mmm Mmm Mmm" || Single of the Year || Nominated
 * || Tim Hamilton, "The Ballad of Peter Pumpkinhead" || Best Video || Nominated
 * || Greg Wells, "Keep A Lid On Things" and "Get You in the Morning" || Best Producer || Nominated
 * Dale Heslip, "Mmm Mmm Mmm Mmm" || Best Video || Nominated
 * rowspan="3"| || Crash Test Dummies || Entertainer of the Year || Nominated
 * Crash Test Dummies || Group of the Year || Nominated
 * "Mmm Mmm Mmm Mmm" || Single of the Year || Nominated
 * || Tim Hamilton, "The Ballad of Peter Pumpkinhead" || Best Video || Nominated
 * || Greg Wells, "Keep A Lid On Things" and "Get You in the Morning" || Best Producer || Nominated
 * "Mmm Mmm Mmm Mmm" || Single of the Year || Nominated
 * || Tim Hamilton, "The Ballad of Peter Pumpkinhead" || Best Video || Nominated
 * || Greg Wells, "Keep A Lid On Things" and "Get You in the Morning" || Best Producer || Nominated
 * || Greg Wells, "Keep A Lid On Things" and "Get You in the Morning" || Best Producer || Nominated
 * || Greg Wells, "Keep A Lid On Things" and "Get You in the Morning" || Best Producer || Nominated

title: Crash Test Dummies


text:
Gutenberg Bible

The Gutenberg Bible, also known as the 42-line Bible, the Mazarin Bible or the B42, was the earliest major book printed in Europe using mass-produced metal movable type. It marked the start of the "Gutenberg Revolution" and the age of printed books in the West. The book is valued and revered for its high aesthetic and artistic qualities and its historical significance.

The Gutenberg Bible is an edition of the Latin Vulgate printed in the 1450s by Johannes Gutenberg in Mainz, in present-day Germany. Forty-nine copies (or substantial portions of copies) have survived. They are thought to be among the world's most valuable books, although no complete copy has been sold since 1978. In March 1455, the future Pope Pius II wrote that he had seen pages from the Gutenberg Bible displayed in Frankfurt to promote the edition, and that either 158 or 180 copies had been printed.

The 36-line Bible, said to be the second printed Bible, is also sometimes referred to as a Gutenberg Bible, but may be the work of another printer.

Text
The Gutenberg Bible, an edition of the Vulgate, contains the Latin version of the Hebrew Old Testament and the Greek New Testament. It is mainly the work of St Jerome who began his work on the translation in AD 380, with emendations from the Parisian Bible tradition, and further divergences.

Printing history
While it is unlikely that any of Gutenberg's early publications would bear his name, the initial expense of press equipment and materials and of the work to be done before the Bible was ready for sale suggests that he may have started with more lucrative texts, including several religious documents, a German poem, and some editions of Aelius Donatus's Ars Minor, a popular Latin grammar school book.

Preparation of the Bible probably began soon after 1450, and the first finished copies were available in 1454 or 1455. It is not known exactly how long the Bible took to print. The first precisely datable printing is Gutenberg's 31-line Indulgence which certainly existed by 22 October 1454.

Gutenberg made three significant changes during the printing process.

Some time later, after more sheets had been printed, the number of lines per page was increased from 40 to 42, presumably to save paper. Therefore, pages 1 to 9 and pages 256 to 265, presumably the first ones printed, have 40 lines each. Page 10 has 41, and from there on the 42 lines appear. The increase in line number was achieved by decreasing the interline spacing, rather than increasing the printed area of the page. Finally, the print run was increased, necessitating resetting those pages which had already been printed. The new sheets were all reset to 42 lines per page. Consequently, there are two distinct settings in folios 1–32 and 129–158 of volume I and folios 1–16 and 162 of volume II.

The most reliable information about the Bible's date comes from a letter. In March 1455, the future Pope Pius II wrote that he had seen pages from the Gutenberg Bible, being displayed to promote the edition, in Frankfurt. It is not known how many copies were printed, with the 1455 letter citing sources for both 158 and 180 copies. Scholars today think that examination of surviving copies suggests that somewhere between 160 and 185 copies were printed, with about three-quarters on paper and the others on vellum.

The production process: Das Werk der Bücher

In a legal paper, written after completion of the Bible, Johannes Gutenberg refers to the process as Das Werk der Bücher ("the work of the books"). He had introduced the printing press to Europe and created the technology to make printing with movable types finally efficient enough to facilitate the mass production of entire books.

Many book-lovers have commented on the high standards achieved in the production of the Gutenberg Bible, some describing it as one of the most beautiful books ever printed. The quality of both the ink and other materials and the printing itself have been noted.

Pages

The paper size is 'double folio', with two pages printed on each side (four pages per sheet). After printing the paper was folded once to the size of a single page. Typically, five of these folded sheets (ten leaves, or twenty printed pages) were combined to a single physical section, called a quinternion, that could then be bound into a book. Some sections, however, had as few as four leaves or as many as twelve leaves. The 42-line Bible was printed on the size of paper known as 'Royal'. A full sheet of Royal paper measures 42 x and a single untrimmed folio leaf measures 42 x. There have been attempts to claim that the book was printed on larger paper measuring 44.5 x, but this assertion is contradicted by the dimensions of existing copies. For example, the leaves of the copy in the Bodleian Library, Oxford, measure 40 ×. This is typical of other folio Bibles printed on Royal paper in the fifteenth century. Most fifteenth-century printing papers have a width-to-height ratio of 1:1.4 (e.g. 30:42 cm) which, mathematically, is a ratio of 1 to the square root of 2 or, simply, $\sqrt{2}$. Many suggest that this ratio was chosen to match the so-called Golden Ratio, $\tfrac{1+\sqrt{5}}{2}$, of 1:1.6; in fact the ratios are, plainly, not at all similar (equating to a difference of about 12 per cent). The ratio of 1:1.4 was a long established one for medieval paper sizes. A single complete copy of the Gutenberg Bible has 1,288 pages (4×322 = 1288) (usually bound in two volumes); with four pages per folio-sheet, 322 sheets of paper are required per copy. The Bible's paper consists of linen fibers and is thought to have been imported from Caselle in Piedmont, Italy based on the watermarks present throughout the volume.

Ink
In Gutenberg's time, inks used by scribes to produce manuscripts were water-based. Gutenberg developed an oil-based ink that would better adhere to his metal type. His ink was primarily carbon, but also had a high metallic content, with copper, lead, and titanium predominating. Head of collections at the British Library, Kristian Jensen, described it thus: "if you look [at the pages of The Gutenberg Bible] closely you will see this is a very shiny surface. When you write you use a water-based ink, you put your pen into it and it runs off. Now if you print that's exactly what you don't want. One of Gutenberg's inventions was an ink which wasn't ink, it's a varnish. So what we call printer's ink is actually a varnish, and that means it sticks to its surface."

Type
Each unique character requires a piece of master type in order to be replicated. Given that each letter has uppercase and lowercase forms, and the number of various punctuation marks and ligatures (e.g., "ﬁ" for the letter sequence "fi", commonly used in writing), the Gutenberg Bible needed a set of 290 master characters. It seems probable that six pages, containing 15,600 characters altogether, would be set at any one moment.

Type style
The Gutenberg Bible is printed in the blackletter type styles that would become known as Textualis (Textura) and Schwabacher. The name Textura refers to the texture of the printed page: straight vertical strokes combined with horizontal lines, giving the impression of a woven structure. Gutenberg already used the technique of justification, that is, creating a vertical, not indented, alignment at the left and right-hand sides of the column. To do this, he used various methods, including using characters of narrower widths, adding extra spaces around punctuation, and varying the widths of spaces around words.

Rubrication, illumination and binding

Initially the rubrics—the headings before each book of the Bible—were printed, but this practice was quickly abandoned at an unknown date, and gaps were left for rubrication to be added by hand. A guide of the text to be added to each page, printed for use by rubricators, survives.

The spacious margin allowed illuminated decoration to be added by hand. The amount of decoration presumably depended on how much each buyer could or would pay. Some copies were never decorated. The place of decoration can be known or inferred for about 30 of the surviving copies. It is possible that 13 of these copies received their decoration in Mainz, but others were worked on as far away as London. The vellum Bibles were more expensive, and perhaps for this reason tend to be more highly decorated, although the vellum copy in the British Library is completely undecorated.

There has been speculation that the "Master of the Playing Cards", an unidentified engraver who has been called "the first personality in the history of engraving," was partly responsible for the illumination of the copy held by the Princeton University library. However, all that can be said for certain is that the same model book was used for some of the illustrations in this copy and for some of the Master's illustrated playing cards.

Although many Gutenberg Bibles have been rebound over the years, nine copies retain fifteenth-century bindings. Most of these copies were bound in either Mainz or Erfurt. Most copies were divided into two volumes, the first volume ending with The Book of Psalms. Copies on vellum were heavier and for this reason were sometimes bound in three or four volumes.

Early owners
The Bible seems to have sold out immediately, with some initial purchases as far away as England and possibly Sweden and Hungary. At least some copies are known to have sold for 30 florins (equivalent to about 100 g of gold), which was about three years' wages for a clerk. Although this made them significantly cheaper than manuscript Bibles, most students, priests or other people of moderate income would not have been able to afford them. It is assumed that most were sold to monasteries, universities and particularly wealthy individuals. At present only one copy is known to have been privately owned in the fifteenth century. Some are known to have been used for communal readings in monastery refectories; others may have been for display rather than use, and a few were certainly used for study. Kristian Jensen suggests that many copies were bought by wealthy and pious laymen for donation to religious institutions.

Influence on later Bibles
The Gutenberg Bible had a profound effect on the history of the printed book. Textually, it also had an influence on future editions of the Bible. It provided the model for several later editions, including the 36 Line Bible, Mentelin's Latin Bible, and the first and third Eggestein Bibles. The third Eggestein Bible was set from the copy of the Gutenberg Bible now in Cambridge University Library. The Gutenberg Bible also had an influence on the Clementine edition of the Vulgate commissioned by the Papacy in the late sixteenth century.

Forgeries
Joseph Martini, a New York book dealer, found that the Gutenberg Bible held by the library of the General Theological Seminary in New York had a forged leaf, carrying part of Chapter 14, all of Chapter 15, and part of Chapter 16 of the Book of Ezekiel. It was impossible to tell when the leaf had been inserted into the volume. It was replaced in the fall of 1953, when a patron donated the corresponding leaf from a defective Gutenberg second volume which was being broken up and sold in parts. This made it "the first imperfect Gutenberg Bible ever restored to completeness." In 1978, this copy was sold for US$2.2 million to the Württembergische Landesbibliothek in Stuttgart, Germany.

Surviving copies
, 49 Gutenberg Bibles are known to exist, but of these only 21 are complete. Others have pages or even whole volumes missing. In addition, there are a substantial number of fragments, some as small as individual leaves, which are likely to represent about another 16 copies. Many of these fragments have survived because they were used as part of the binding of later books.

Recent history
Today, few copies remain in religious institutions, with most now owned by university libraries and other major scholarly institutions. After centuries in which all copies seem to have remained in Europe, the first Gutenberg Bible reached North America in 1847. It is now in the New York Public Library. In the last hundred years, several long-lost copies have come to light, considerably improving the understanding of how the Bible was produced and distributed.

In 1921 a New York rare book dealer, Gabriel Wells, bought a damaged paper copy, dismantled the book and sold sections and individual leaves to book collectors and libraries. The leaves were sold in a portfolio case with an essay written by A. Edward Newton, and were referred to as "Noble Fragments". In 1953 Charles Scribner's Sons, also book dealers in New York, dismembered a damaged paper copy of volume II. The largest portion of this, the New Testament, is now owned by Indiana University. The leaf carrying part of Chapter 14, all of Chapter 15, and part of Chapter 16 of the Book of Ezekiel was donated to the General Theological Seminary to repair their copy of the bible (now located at the Württembergische Landesbibliothek). The matching first volume of this copy was subsequently discovered in Mons, Belgium, having been bequeathed by Edmond Puissant to the city in 1934.

The only copy held outside Europe and North America is the first volume of a Gutenberg Bible (Hubay 45) at Keio University in Tokyo. The Humanities Media Interface Project (HUMI) at Keio University is known for its high-quality digital images of Gutenberg Bibles and other rare books. Under the direction of Professor Toshiyuki Takamiya, the HUMI team has made digital reproductions of 11 sets of the bible in nine institutions, including both full-text facsimiles held in the collection of the British Library.

The last sale of a complete Gutenberg Bible took place in 1978, which sold for $2.4 million. This copy is now in Austin, Texas. The price of a complete copy today is estimated at $25−35 million.

A two-volume paper edition of the Gutenberg Bible was stolen from Moscow State University in 2009 and subsequently recovered in an FSB sting operation in 2013.

Possession of a Gutenberg Bible by a library has been equated to keeping a "trophy book".

General bibliography

 * Niels Henry Sonne. America's Oldest Episcopal Seminary Library and the Needs It Serves. New York?: General Theological Seminary, 1953.
 * St. Mark's Library (General Theological Seminary). The Gutenberg Bible of the General Theological Seminary. New York: St. Mark's Library, the General Theological Seminary, 1963.
 * The Gutenberg Bible of 1454, Göttingen Library, Facsimile Edition, 2 vols + booklet, ed. Stephan Füssel, 1400 pp. Taschen: Cologne. In Latin

title: Gutenberg Bible


text:
1986 Governor General's Awards

Each winner of the 1986 Governor General's Awards for Literary Merit was selected by a panel of judges administered by the Canada Council for the Arts.

The four Canada Council Children's Literature Prizes, two each for children's book writers and illustrators, were outside the Governor General's Awards program for the last time. For Children's Literature Prize winners 1975 to 1986, see "Children's literature" (2) and "Children's illustration" (2) in the footer navigation box.

Two awards for literary translation were also included, bringing the number of Governor General's Awards for Literary Merit from 8 in 1986 to 14 in 1987.

title: 1986 Governor General's Awards


text:
RNW Media

RNW Media (formerly known as Radio Nederland Wereldomroep) is an international non-governmental organisation based in Hilversum, the Netherlands. RNW Media focuses on engaging young people and supporting them to create positive change in their societies. Using digital media platforms – websites, WhatsApp, Facebook, Twitter, Instagram – RNW Media builds digital communities of young people in restrictive settings. Thematic areas are: Social Cohesion and Inclusive Governance (SCIG); Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights (SRHR); Media Capacity Building.

History
From 1947 to 2012, RNW Media was known as Radio Netherlands Worldwide or RNW (Radio Nederland Wereldomroep), the Dutch international public broadcaster, and it was funded by the Netherlands Ministry of Education, Culture and Science. In 2013, RNW Media was restructured and became a media NGO for free speech with funding from the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The free speech organisational programme ended in 2016. That year, RNW Media developed a new strategy – “Enabling the Next Generation: Young people, media and social change” – and a corresponding organisational programme.

Locations
RNW Media operates in 13 countries: Burundi, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Kenya, Mali, Nigeria and Uganda in Africa; Egypt, Libya, Syria and Yemen in the Middle East and North Africa; China in Asia. Through the social franchise-based Love Matters Global Network, RNW Media is also active in India and Mexico via the respective host organisations: Development Consortium and México Vivo.

Funding
RNW Media's main funder is currently the Dutch Foreign Ministry. It also receives funding from AmplifyChange, EuropeAid, the Dutch Nationale Postcode Loterij, the Swedish Postcode Foundation and Nuffic.

Governance
RNW Media is led by a CEO, Jacqueline Lampe, and she is overseen by a supervisory board (Raad van Toezicht).

Supervisory Board
RNW Media is governed by a supervisory board which is responsible for overseeing the policy of the CEO and the general running of the organisation.

Personnel
RNW Media employs a core staff in the Netherlands who are responsible for strategic planning, programme management, communications, branding and stakeholder management, business development and data and digital processes. They manage, coordinate and support the local teams and partners based in the target countries who are responsible for programme implementation. On 1 January 2019, RNW Media had 160 staff members, 55 of whom were based in the Netherlands and 105 in the target countries.

Social cohesion and inclusive governance
‘Citizens’ Voice’ is RNW Media's programme designed to strengthen social cohesion and inclusive governance so young people can be meaningful participants and leaders in their communities. Citizens’ Voice creates digital communities where young people can come together to voice opinions, discuss sensitive subjects, engage in constructive dialogue and imagine the kind of society they want to live in. Local networks of journalists, bloggers and change-makers from across the political and social spectrum run the Citizens’ Voice platforms and use modern media strategies to spark and moderate discussions and foster diversity of opinion. Currently Citizen's Voice is active in Yemen, Libya, Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Mali, China and Egypt.

Sexual and reproductive health and rights
‘Love Matters’ is RNW Media's SRHR programme. It is a global digital community supporting safe, healthy and pleasurable love, sex and relationships for young people. Love Matters uses a social franchise model to ensure sustainability of impact and provides online educational platforms that deliver accessible evidence- and right-based information and advice to young people. The programme also creates online spaces for visitors to share their thoughts and ask questions to experts. Currently, Love Matters is active in China, India, Kenya, DRC, Nigeria, Egypt and Mexico.

Media training
RNW Media's training centre, RNTC, celebrated its 50th anniversary in 2018 and has become a centre of expertise for media and communications professionals around the world, especially for those working in fragile states or countries in transition. RNTC offers a mix of long and short courses— from Media campaigns for Development and Social Change to Producing Media to Counter Radicalisation. Other themes include Data Visualisation and Digital Thinking. RNTC also offers tailor-made and pop-up trainings for universities, NGOs, media organisations and embassies. RNTC's Online Academy provides independent online courses in English, Chinese, Arabic and French. Accredited by the Dutch Qualification Framework (NLQF), RNTC offers a six-month Honours Programme in ‘Advocacy Journalism in the Digital world.’ The programme covers data journalism, investigative journalism, video and podcast development as well as broadcast entrepreneurship, among other areas of work.

title: RNW Media


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Linda Miles

Linda M. Miles (born August 28, 1978) is an American former professional wrestler and professional wrestling manager. She worked under the ring name Shaniqua for World Wrestling Entertainment's (WWE) SmackDown brand between 2002 and 2004. She won the second season of WWE Tough Enough alongside Jackie Gayda, receiving a one-year contract with WWE.

Basketball
After graduating from Hughes High School in Cincinnati, Ohio, Miles attended Rutgers University, where she played basketball for the Rutgers Scarlet Knights. She graduated from Rutgers in 2001. In May 2001, she tried out for a roster spot with the Seattle Storm of the WNBA, but was released during the team's training camp. Miles and her Rutgers teammates were featured in a 2004 documentary film of the team's 2000–2001 season entitled This Is A Game, Ladies.

World Wrestling Entertainment (2002–2004)
In 2002, Miles entered and won the second series of WWE Tough Enough. She and co-winner Jackie Gayda were awarded developmental contracts with the professional wrestling promotion World Wrestling Entertainment.

Miles made her in-ring debut on the June 8, 2002 episode of WWE Velocity and faced off against her villainous trainer, Ivory, with Gayda in her corner. Miles lost to Ivory after Gayda turned villainous by pushing her off the top turnbuckle, costing her the match. On the June 13 episode of SmackDown!, Miles teamed with WWE Women's Champion Trish Stratus to defeat the team of Gayda and Ivory. The two divas were then placed on the Raw brand. On the June 24 edition of Raw, Miles teamed with Trish Stratus to defeat Gayda and Molly Holly.

Later in 2002, Miles became the onscreen manager of Shelton Benjamin. It did not last long, however, as Benjamin formed Team Angle with Kurt Angle and Charlie Haas. Miles then disappeared from WWE television.

In late-2002, Miles was sent to Ohio Valley Wrestling for further training and development.

Miles returned to WWE television in June 2003 as a villain under the name "Shaniqua", the dominatrix manager of the Basham Brothers. She often interfered in matches, including a match where she surprisingly had to interfere to ensure the Bashams' victory over two jobbers. In the late summer of 2003, Shaniqua began to establish her dominance over the weaker divas. She interfered in the Bourbon Street Bikini Contest on the September 4 episode of Smackdown!, attacking all of the Divas except for Sable, who had escaped. After attacking Dawn Marie and Torrie Wilson, she press slammed Nidia over the top rope. She then began a brief feud with fellow SmackDown! divas Torrie Wilson, Dawn Marie and Nidia. One week after the Bourbon Street Bikini Contest, Dawn Marie challenged Shaniqua to a singles match in which Shaniqua won by disqualification after interference from Nidia and Wilson, who struck Shaniqua with a steel chair. The following week, Shaniqua defeated Wilson and Nidia in a handicap match. After said handicap match, the villainous Shaniqua attacked Dawn Marie, who had accompanied Nidia and Wilson to ringside, by delivering a big boot to her chest and then ramming her head into the ring post, proving that while on SmackDown! Linda Miles was the most dominant Diva on the SmackDown! roster. The feud then ended abruptly and Shaniqua was not seen on TV again until the October 2 episode of Smackdown! where she interfered in a match between the APA and the Basham Brothers, allowing the latter to achieve victory. For her troubles, she was nailed with a Clothesline From Hell via Bradshaw and was put out of action for several weeks. She made her return during the No Mercy PPV and gained a measure of retribution on Bradshaw by clubbing him in the back with a night stick during his tag team match against the Bashams. Upon Shaniqua's return, she had new breast implants which were explained via storyline by permanent swelling as a result of the Clothesline From Hell weeks earlier. Shaniqua then spent the next few weeks in the Bashams corner during their feud with Los Guerreros, regularly interfering in matches. By late-2003 and early-2004, Shaniqua and the Basham Brothers sparked a feud with the then WWE Tag Team Champions Scotty 2 Hotty and Rikishi, with Shaniqua almost being given the Stink Face by Rikishi during house shows weekly between November 2003 and February 2004, and was eventually given the humiliating move at a house show. Shaniqua joined her team in a handicap WWE Tag Team championship match against Rikishi and Scotty Too Hotty at No Way Out. Shaniqua's team lost when she was pinned following a Banzai Drop from Rikishi. This marked her last televised appearance with WWE.

Miles was subsequently once again assigned to Ohio Valley Wrestling. She was released from WWE on November 12, 2004.

Toryumon (2005)
After leaving WWE, Miles wrestled one final match. On May 14, 2005 in Mexico City, she wrestled for Toryumon as part of its eight anniversary show, losing to fellow former WWE Tough Enough contestant Nidia Guenard. She then retired from professional wrestling.

Basketball refereeing career
After leaving professional wrestling, Miles began working as a college basketball referee.

Championships and accomplishments

 * World Wrestling Entertainment
 * Tough Enough II - with Jackie Gayda

title: Linda Miles


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1939 Governor General's Awards

The 1939 Governor General's Awards for Literary Merit were the fourth rendition of the Governor General's Awards, Canada's annual national awards program which then comprised literary awards alone. The awards recognized Canadian writers for new English-language works published in Canada during 1939 and were presented in 1940. There were no cash prizes.

There was one award in each of three established categories, which recognized English-language works only.

Winners

 * Fiction: Franklin D. McDowell, The Champlain Road
 * Poetry or drama: Arthur S. Bourinot, Under the Sun
 * Non-fiction: Laura G. Salverson, Confessions of an Immigrant's Daughter

title: 1939 Governor General's Awards