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Te Ruki Kawiti

Te Ruki Kawiti (1770s – 5 May 1854) was a prominent Māori rangatira (chief). He and Hōne Heke successfully fought the British in the Flagstaff War in 1845–46.

He traced descent from Rāhiri and Nukutawhiti of the Ngātokimatawhaorua canoe, the ancestors of the Ngāpuhi. He was born in the north of New Zealand into the Ngāti Hine hapū, one of the subtribes of the Ngāpuhi. From his youth he was trained in leadership and warfare by Hongi Hika. He was present at the Battle of Moremonui in 1807 or 1808 when many Ngāpuhi were slaughtered by Ngāti Whātua. Almost twenty years later, in 1825, he was at the Battle of Te Ika-a-ranga-nui when it was Ngāpuhi's turn to slaughter Ngāti Whātua in an act of utu, or revenge. He took a number of Ngāti Whātua captive and refused to hand them over to Hongi Hika, preferring instead to return them to their own people to whom he was related.

Treaty of Waitangi
Kawiti initially refused to sign the Treaty of Waitangi on 6 February 1840, believing that it would inevitably lead to further European encroachment and the loss of Māori land. However he eventually yielded to pressure from his own people and signed the Treaty in May 1840, right at the top, above those chiefs who had signed earlier.

However he soon grew disenchanted with British law and supported Hōne Heke in his protests against British rule. Hōne Heke sought support from Kawiti and other leaders of the Ngāpuhi iwi by the conveying of ‘te ngākau’, the custom observed by those who sought help to settle a tribal grievance.

Battle of Kororāreka
Hōne Heke and Te Ruki Kawiti worked out the plan to draw the Colonial forces into battle, with the opening provocations focusing on the flagstaff on Maiki Hill at the north end Kororāreka. When in March 1845 Heke cut down the flag pole at Kororāreka for the fourth time, thereby initiating the Flagstaff War, Kawiti, now in his seventies, created a diversion by attacking the town.

The Māori warriors followed their chief and would fight in separate groups; however Kawiti and Heke co-ordinated their tactics at each battle. The conduct of the Flagstaff War appears to follow a strategy of drawing the Colonial forces into attacking a fortified pā, from which the warriors could fight from a strong defensive position that was secure from cannon fire. Kawiti was the senior rangatira and appears to have had a key role in the strategic decisions as to the design of the strengthened defences of Pene Taui's pā at Ōhaeawai and the design and construction of the new pā that was built at Ruapekapeka to engage the British forces.

Battle of the sticks
After the Battle of Kororāreka, Heke and Kawiti and the warriors travelled inland to Lake Ōmāpere near to Kaikohe some 20 mi, or two days travel, from the Bay of Islands. Tamati Waka Nene built a pā close to Lake Ōmāpere. Heke's pā named Puketutu, was 2 mi away, while it is sometimes named as "Te Mawhe" however the hill of that name is some distance to the north-east. In April 1845, during the time that the colonial forces were gathering in the Bay of Islands, the warriors of Heke and Nene fought many skirmishes on the small hill named Taumata-Karamu that was between the two pās and on open country between Ōkaihau and Te Ahuahu. Heke's force numbered about three hundred men; Kawiti joined Heke towards the end of April with another hundred and fifty warriors. Among Kawiti's supporters was his nephew Reweti Maika. Opposing Heke and Kawiti were about four hundred warriors that supported Tamati Waka Nene including the chiefs, Makoare Te Taonui and his son Aperahama Taonui, Mohi Tawhai, Arama Karaka Pi, and Nōpera Panakareao.

Attack on Heke's Pā at Puketutu
The first major engagement of the Flagstaff War was the attack on Heke's Pā at Puketutu in May 1845 by the colonial forces led by Lt Col William Hulme. While Heke occupied the pā itself, Kawiti and his warriors arrived at the battle and engaged with the Colonial forces in the scrub and gullies around the pā. They successfully prevented the Colonial forces from launching a coordinated attack on the pā but at quite a heavy cost in casualties. The Colonial forces were unable to overcome the defences of the pā and retreated back to the Bay of Islands.

Battle of Te Ahuahu
The next major engagement was the Battle of Te Ahuahu. The contemporary European accounts of the battle describe it as being fought on 12 June 1845 nearby Te Ahuahu and that it involve only the warriors of Hōne Heke fighting the warriors of Tāmati Wāka Nene. However, there are no detailed accounts of the action; Hugh Carleton (1874) mentions

"Heke committed the error (against the advice of Pene Taui) of attacking Walker [Tāmati Wāka Nene], who had advanced to Pukenui. With four hundred men, he attacked about one hundred and fifty of Walker's party, taking them also by surprise; but was beaten back with loss. Kahakaha was killed, Haratua was shot through the lungs."

Thomas Walker was a name adopted by Tāmati Wāka Nene. In this battle Nene's warriors carried the day. Heke was severely wounded and did not rejoin the conflict until some months later, at the closing phase of the Battle of Ruapekapeka. On this account of the early engagements of the Flagstaff War, Kawiti appears to have made the better strategic decisions as to which battles to fight and which not to fight.

Battle of Ōhaeawai
A debate occurred between Kawiti and the Ngatirangi chief Pene Taui as to the site of the next battle; Kawiti eventually agreed to the request to fortify Pene Taui's pā at Ōhaeawai.

The Colonial forces arrived before the Ōhaeawai Pā on 23 June and established a camp about 500 m away. On the summit of a nearby hill (Puketapu) they built a four gun battery. They opened fire next day and continued until dark but did very little damage to the palisade. The next day the guns were brought to within 200 m of the pā. The bombardment continued for another two days but still did very little damage. Partly this was due to the elasticity of the flax covering the palisade but the main fault was a failure to concentrate the cannon fire on one area of the defences.

After two days of bombardment without effecting a breach, Lieutenant Colonel Despard ordered a frontal assault. He was, with difficulty, persuaded to postpone this pending the arrival of a 32-pound naval gun which came the next day, 1 July. However an unexpected sortie from the pā resulted in the temporary occupation of the knoll on which Tāmati Wāka Nene had his camp and the capture of Nene's colours – the Union Flag. The Union Flag was carried into the pā. There it was hoisted, upside down, and at half-mast high, below the Māori flag, which was a Kākahu (Māori cloak). This insulting display of the Union Jack was the cause of the disaster which ensued. Infuriated by the insult to the Union Jack, Despard ordered an assault upon the pā the same day. The attack was directed to the section of the pā where the angle of the palisade allowed a double flank from which the defenders of the pā could fire at the attackers; the attack was a reckless endeavour. The British persisted in their attempts to storm the unbreached palisades and five to seven minutes later 33 were dead and 66 injured.

Battle of Ruapekapeka
Towards the end of 1845 the British launched a major expedition against Kawiti's new pā at Ruapekapeka. It took two weeks to bring the heavy guns into range of the pā, they started the cannon bombardment on 27 December 1845. The siege continued for some two weeks with enough patrols and probes from the pā to keep everyone alert. Then, early in the morning of Sunday, 11 January 1846, William Walker Turau, the brother of Eruera Maihi Patuone, discovered that the pā appeared to have been abandoned; although Te Ruki Kawiti and a few of his warriors remained behind, and appeared to have been caught unaware by the British assault. Fighting took place behind the pā and most casualties occurred in this phase of the battle.

The reason why the defenders appeared to have abandoned but then re-entered the pā is the subject of continuing debate. It was later suggested that most of the Māori had been at church, many of them were devout Christians. Knowing that their opponents, the British, were also Christians they had not expected an attack on a Sunday.

It was Māori custom that the place of a battle where blood was spilt became tapu so that the Ngāpuhi left Ruapekapeka Pā. After the battle Kawiti and his warriors, carrying their dead, travelled some four miles north-west to Waiomio, the ancestral home of the Ngāti Hine. After the battle of Ruapekapeka Kawiti expressed the will to continue to fight, however Kawiti and Heke made it known that they would end the rebellion if the Colonial forces would leave the Ngāpuhi land.Tāmati Wāka Nene acted as the intermediary in the negotiations, with Nene persuading the Governor to accept the terms of Kawiti and Heke – that they were to be unconditionally pardoned for their rebellion.

Aftermath of the Flagstaff War
After the conclusion of the Flagstaff War Kawiti went to live near Henry Williams at Pakaraka, and was baptised by Williams in 1853. He succumbed to measles on 5 May 1854 at Otaikumikumi, close to Waiomio which is south of Kawakawa. The meeting house and marae complex at Waiomio Caves are his memorial.

Legacy of Kawiti and the fifth flagpole at Kororāreka
At the conclusion of the Flagstaff War, the Hokianga and the Bay of Islands region was nominally under British influence; the fact that the government's flag was not re-erected was symbolically very significant. Such significance was not lost on Henry Williams, who, writing to E. G. Marsh on 28 May 1846, stated that "the flag-staff in the Bay is still prostrate, and the natives here rule. These are humiliating facts to the proud Englishman, many of whom thought they could govern by a mere name."

Some argue that the Flagstaff War can be considered an inconclusive stalemate, as both sides wished the war to end, both gained somewhat from the fighting, and the situation more or less remained the same as it was before the outbreak of hostilities. The opinion of Henry Williams, who had counseled Kawiti to abandon the rebellion, was that the Ngāpuhi and the colonial government both agreed that each should let the other alone, so that Kawiti achieved peace on his terms. Henry Williams wrote to his son-in-law Hugh Carleton on 13 March 1854 in response to an earlier comment by Carleton as to the consequences of Kawiti having made peace with Governor Grey:

"But you say, "Grey will go upon Kawiti's submission as a proof of victory." I ask you in what form was Kawiti's submission? and to what and when did it take place? This is new to me, as also to Kawiti. Compare Kawiti's letter to Governor FitzRoy with the proclamation of Grey, immediately on Grey's return to Auckland, after Te Ruapekapeka was upset, or before peace was made, that all parties were to return to their own places, keeping in mind that the bone of contention was the flag-staff. Nothing was demanded from the chiefs in arms; nothing was given; but Kawiti demanded in his letter that if peace were made, it should be made with respect to the land. This was acceded to by Grey, and the flag-staff has remained prostrate to this day, though several attempts have been made to re-erect it. Captain Stanley was applied to replace it; he consented to do so immediately, but asked,--who would take care of it. Major Bridge declared it would take a thousand men to keep it in its place. Why? the natives had gained their point, and to this day laugh at the idea of submission. Peace was made with the natives on the understanding that each should let the other alone, and the demands of Kawiti having been complied with by Grey, where is the evidence of Kawiti's submission? Rather, does not the evidence shew Grey's submission to Kawiti? The war was a perfect farce, both in the North and in the South."

Upon the death of Kawiti, his son Maihi Paraone Kawiti, who had been a missionary teacher at Mangakahia, succeeded Kawiti as leader of the Ngāti Hine hapū. Maihi Paraone Kawiti was a supporter of te ture (the law) and te whakapono (the gospel). Deputations came to Maihi Paraone Kawiti from the Taranaki and Waikato iwi asking the Ngāpuhi to join the Māori King Movement; the reply from Maihi Paraone Kawiti was that the Ngāpuhi had no desire for a ‘Māori Kingi’ as ‘Kuini Wikitoria’ was their ‘Kingi'.

Maihi Paraone Kawiti, as a signal to Governor Thomas Gore Browne that he did not follow his father's path, arranged for the fifth flagpole to be erected at Kororāreka; this occurred in January 1858 with the flag being named Whakakotahitanga, "being at one with the Queen." As a further symbolic act, the 400 Ngāpuhi warriors involved in preparing and erecting the flagpole were selected from the ‘rebel’ forces of Kawiti and Heke – that is, Ngāpuhi from the hapū of Tāmati Wāka Nene (who had fought as allies of the British forces during the Flagstaff War), observed, but did not participate in the erection of the fifth flagpole. The restoration of the flagpole was presented by Maihi Paraone Kawiti as a voluntary act on the part of the Ngāpuhi that had cut it down in 1845, and they would not allow any other to render any assistance in this work.

The legacy of Kawiti's rebellion during the Flagstaff War was that during the time of Governor Grey and Governor Thomas Gore Browne, the colonial administrators were obliged to take account of opinions of the Ngāpuhi before taking actions in the Hokianga and Bay of Islands. The continuing symbolism of the fifth flagpole at Kororāreka is that it exists because of the goodwill of the Ngāpuhi.

title: Te Ruki Kawiti


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Parody mass

A parody mass is a musical setting of the mass, typically from the 16th century, that uses multiple voices of a pre-existing piece of music, such as a fragment of a motet or a secular chanson, as part of its melodic material. It is distinguished from the two other most prominent types of mass composition during the Renaissance, the cantus firmus and the paraphrase mass.

Etymology
In the sense considered here, the term parody mass applies to masses where a polyphonic fragment from another work is used as the basis of a new composition. The term imitation mass has been suggested instead of parody mass, as being both more precise and closer to the original usage, since the term parody is based on a misreading of a late 16th-century text. In contradistinction, masses which incorporated only a single voice of the polyphonic source, treated not as a cantus firmus ('Tenor Mass') but elaborated and moving between different parts, are referred to by writers on musical theory as paraphrase masses. Other compositional techniques provided the basis for the cyclic mass, canon mass, and soggetto cavato.

The modern English word 'parody' derives from 'parody', from parōidia, 'burlesque song or poem', from para- 'beside, parallel to' (in this case, "mock-") + ōidē 'song, or ode". See also A.Gr:parode, the first ode sung by the chorus after its entrance in the ancient Greek drama.

In the case of masses, "parody" has almost nothing to do with humor or ridicule, as understood in the modern definition of the word; while in some cases bawdy secular songs were indeed used in composition of masses, equally often non-liturgical sacred music such as motets formed the basis for parody masses.

History
The parody or imitation mass was a very popular model during the Renaissance: Palestrina alone wrote some 50-odd examples, and by the first half of the 16th century this style was the dominant form. The Council of Trent, in a document dated 10 September 1562, banned the use of secular material, "...let nothing profane be intermingled ... banish from church all music which contains, whether in the singing or the organ playing, things that are lascivious or impure." The proposed reforms were most carefully followed only in Italy; in France, a change in taste had already brought about many of the wishes of the members of the council, and in Germany they were largely ignored.

Parody techniques include adding or removing voices from the original piece, adding fragments of new material, or only using the fragment at the beginning of every part of the mass. In his colossal 22-volume El melopeo y maestro of 1613, Italian music theorist Pietro Cerone gave some general guidelines for writing a parody mass: each of the main sections of the mass should start with the beginning of the source; the interior section of the Kyrie should use a secondary motive; and some portions, for example the second and third Agnus Dei, should not be chained to the model but be freely composed. He also recommended using as many subsidiary musical ideas from the model as possible.

Some examples of early parody masses include the Missa Mater Patris, Missa Malheur me bat, and Missa Fortuna desperata of Josquin des Prez, and the Missa de Dringhs by Antoine Brumel. The Missa Mater Patris by des Prez is considered to be the first true parody mass as it does not include a structural cantus firmus. By the middle of the 16th century, a high percentage of all masses composed used the parody technique.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Parody mass


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National Electrical Manufacturers Association

The National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) is the largest trade association of electrical equipment manufacturers in the United States. Founded in 1926, it advocates for the industry, and publishes standards for electrical products. Notably, the form of US household electrical outlets and plugs is specified by NEMA.

Description
It was founded in 1926 and maintains its headquarters in Rosslyn, Virginia, in the Washington metropolitan area. Its approximately 350 member companies manufacture products used in the generation, transmission, distribution, control, and end use of electricity. These products are used in utility, industrial, commercial, institutional, and residential applications. The association's Medical Imaging and Technology Alliance (MITA) division represents manufacturers of cutting-edge medical diagnostic imaging equipment including MRI, CT, x-ray, and ultrasound products. Other major end markets include building systems, electrical infrastructure, industrial systems, lighting systems and utility systems. Their combined industries account for 360,000 American jobs in more than 7,000 facilities in every state. Their industry produces $106 billion shipments of electrical equipment and medical imaging technologies per year with $36 billion exports. NEMA also has offices in Mexico City.

In addition to lobbying activities, NEMA has published nearly 1,000 electrical and medical imaging standards, application guides, white papers, and technical papers. Among its major standards are those for electrical enclosures, motors and magnet wire, AC plugs and receptacles; the NEMA connectors are universal in North America and also used by some other countries.


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Ş

S-cedilla (majuscule: Ş, minuscule: ş) is a letter used in some of the Turkic languages. It occurs in the Azerbaijani, Gagauz, Turkish, and Turkmen alphabets. It is also planned to be in the Latin-based Kazakh alphabet. It is used in Brahui, Chechen, Crimean Tatar, Kurdish, and Tatar as well, when they are written in the Latin alphabet.

It commonly represents /ʃ/, the voiceless postalveolar fricative (like sh in -şoe- shoe).

It is written as the letter S with a cedilla below and it has both the lower-case (U+015F) and the upper-case variants (U+15E).

Romanian

In early versions of Unicode, the Romanian letter Ș (S-comma) was considered a glyph variant of Ş, and therefore was not present in the Unicode Standard. It is also not present in the Windows 1250 (Central Europe) code page. The letter was only added to the standard in Unicode 3.0, and some texts in Romanian still use Ş instead.

Character encoding
HTML entity (HTML 5 only, not supported on all browsers):

Related characters & digraphs

 * Ţ|T-cedilla (Ţ)
 * S-comma (Ș)
 * S-caron (Š), which is also used to represent [ʃ]
 * Ç|C-cedilla (Ç)
 * Cyrillic Sha (Ш)
 * Sh, a digraph used in English and other languages

title: Ş


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CEMA

CEMA or Cema may stand for:
 * CEMA = Council for the Encouragement of Music and the Arts, predecessor (1940) of the Arts Council of Great Britain
 * CEMA (European agricultural machinery), an agricultural machinery association in Europe
 * CEMA, The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance
 * CEMA (record label distributor), a branch of Capitol-EMI
 * California Ethnic and Multicultural Archives a repository of primary source materials from California's ethnic history
 * Centre d'Essais de Matériels Aériens, a French aircraft test centre at Vélizy – Villacoublay Air Base
 * Centro de Estudios Macroeconómicos de Argentina or Universidad del CEMA, a university in Buenos Aires
 * Chef d'État-Major des Armées, the Chief of the Defence Staff of France
 * Committee for the Encouragement of Music and the Arts, the predecessor to the Arts Council of Great Britain
 * Consumer Electronics Manufacturers Association, now the Consumer Electronics Association
 * Japan Construction Equipment Manufacturers Association, a group which represents construction equipment manufacturers in Japan
 * Civil Emergency Measures Act, a law in Yukon responding to the COVID-19 pandemic

title: CEMA


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Radionuclide therapy

Radionuclide therapy (RNT, also known as unsealed source radiotherapy or molecular radiotherapy) uses radioactive substances called radiopharmaceuticals to treat medical conditions, particularly cancer. These are introduced into the body by various means (injection or ingestion are the two most commonplace) and localise to specific locations, organs or tissues depending on their properties and administration routes. This includes anything from a simple compound such as sodium iodide that locates to the thyroid via trapping the iodide ion, to complex biopharmaceuticals such as recombinant antibodies which are attached to radionuclides and seek out specific antigens on cell surfaces.

This is a type of targeted therapy which uses the physical, chemical and biological properties of the radiopharmaceutical to target areas of the body for radiation treatment. The related diagnostic modality of nuclear medicine employs the same principles but uses different types or quantities of radiopharmaceuticals in order to image or analyse functional systems within the patient.

RNT contrasts with sealed-source therapy (brachytherapy) where the radionuclide remains in a capsule or metal wire during treatment and needs to be physically placed precisely at the treatment position.

When the radionuclides are ligands (such as with Lutathera and Pluvicto), the technique is also known as radioligand therapy.

Thyroid conditions
Iodine-131 (131I) is the most common RNT worldwide and uses the simple compound sodium iodide with a radioactive isotope of iodine. The patient (human or animal) may ingest an oral solid or liquid amount or receive an intravenous injection of a solution of the compound. The iodide ion is selectively taken up by the thyroid gland. Both benign conditions like thyrotoxicosis and certain malignant conditions like papillary thyroid cancer can be treated with the radiation emitted by radioiodine. Iodine-131 produces beta and gamma radiation. The beta radiation released damages both normal thyroid tissue and any thyroid cancer that behaves like normal thyroid in taking up iodine, so providing the therapeutic effect, whilst most of the gamma radiation escapes the patient's body.

Most of the iodine not taken up by thyroid tissue is excreted through the kidneys into the urine. After radioiodine treatment the urine will be radioactive or 'hot', and the patients themselves will also emit gamma radiation. Depending on the amount of radioactivity administered, it can take several days for the radioactivity to reduce to the point where the patient does not pose a radiation hazard to bystanders. Patients are often treated as inpatients and there are international guidelines, as well as legislation in many countries, which govern the point at which they may return home.

Bone metastasis
Radium-223 chloride, strontium-89 chloride and samarium-153 EDTMP are used to treat secondary cancer in the bones. Radium and strontium mimic calcium in the body. Samarium is bound to tetraphosphate EDTMP, phosphates are taken up by osteoblastic (bone forming) repairs that occur adjacent to some metastatic lesions.

Bone marrow conditions
Beta emitting phosphorus-32 (32P), as sodium phosphate, is used to treat overactive bone marrow, in which it is otherwise naturally metabolised.

Yttrium-90 colloid
An yttrium-90 (90Y) colloidal suspension is used for radiosynovectomy in the knee joint.

Yttrium-90 spheres
90Y in the form of a resin or glass spheres can be used to treat primary and metastic liver cancers.

Iodine-131 mIBG
131I-mIBG (metaiodobenzylguanidine) is used for the treatment of phaeochromocytoma and neuroblastoma.

Lutetium-177
177Lu is bound with a DOTA chelator to target neuroendocrine tumours.

Experimental antibody based methods
At the Institute for Transuranium Elements (ITU) work is being done on alpha-immunotherapy, this is an experimental method where antibodies bearing alpha isotopes are used. Bismuth-213 is one of the isotopes which has been used. This is made by the alpha decay of actinium-225. The generation of one short-lived isotope from longer lived isotope is a useful method of providing a portable supply of a short-lived isotope. This is similar to the generation of technetium-99m by a technetium generator. The actinium-225 is made by the irradiation of radium-226 with a cyclotron.

title: Radionuclide therapy


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Energy Orchard

Energy Orchard were a guitar-based rock band of the late 1980s and early 1990s, from Belfast, Northern Ireland. Fronted by Bap Kennedy (brother of singer-songwriter Brian Kennedy), their style drew heavily on the influence of Van Morrison and other rhythm and blues acts, but incorporated traditional elements of Irish folk music. The band emerged from the remnants of one other Belfast-based punk/new wave band, 10 Past 7.

Career
Following the band's early concerts at the New Pegasus they were signed to MCA on the recommendation of Steve Earle.

The band consisted of:
 * Bap Kennedy (lead vocals)
 * Paul Toner (lead guitar)
 * David Toner (percussion)
 * Spade McQuade (rhythm guitar/mandolin/vocals)
 * Joby Fox (bass guitar)
 * Kevin Breslin (keyboards)

Whilst the majority of the songs were written by Kennedy, it was Fox that wrote their biggest hit, "Belfast". But following personal problems Fox left to be replaced for a short time initially by Michael Kelpie and then Steve Lawrence. Following another re-jig McQuade switched to bass, in what would become the final line up until the band parted in 1997.

Their debut single, "Belfast" was their most successful song, and reached 52 in the UK Singles Chart, and featured on EastEnders. The 1990 follow-up was "Sailortown". The first album, Energy Orchard, was released to some critical appreciation. Subsequent albums included the 1992 release Stop the Machine, 1993's Shinola (released on Essential Records), Pain Killer (1995) and the 1996 live album, Orchardville.

Despite extensive touring, the breakthrough to mainstream success eluded them. The band having completed their recording contract with Castle Communications in 1996 disbanded. The split up saw Kennedy go on to launch a successful solo career (his first album saw a renewed partnership with Steve Earle), whilst McQuade and Breslin relocated to Jacksonville, Florida. Whilst there they played together in local band Celtic Soul, prior to McQuade launching his own group Spade McQuade and the Allstars.

Both Paul and David Toner left the music industry with Paul reading Law at Queens University, Belfast, and David for a time moving to Sweden to teach English.

With Stan Lynch from Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers and Jim DeVito, Kevin Breslin formed Buffalo Diamond and recorded The Things You Do released in November 2005.

Singles

 * "Belfast" (1990) – UK No. 52
 * "Sailortown" (1990) – UK No. 73

Albums

 * Energy Orchard (1990) – UK No. 53
 * Stop the Machine (1992)
 * Shinola (1993)
 * Pain Killer (1995)
 * Orchardville (1996)

title: Energy Orchard


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Brachytherapy

Brachytherapy is a form of radiation therapy where a sealed radiation source is placed inside or next to the area requiring treatment. Brachy is Greek for short. Brachytherapy is commonly used as an effective treatment for cervical, prostate, breast, esophageal and skin cancer and can also be used to treat tumours in many other body sites. Treatment results have demonstrated that the cancer-cure rates of brachytherapy are either comparable to surgery and external beam radiotherapy (EBRT) or are improved when used in combination with these techniques. Brachytherapy can be used alone or in combination with other therapies such as surgery, EBRT and chemotherapy.

Brachytherapy contrasts with unsealed source radiotherapy, in which a therapeutic radionuclide (radioisotope) is injected into the body to chemically localize to the tissue requiring destruction. It also contrasts to External Beam Radiation Therapy (EBRT), in which high-energy x-rays (or occasionally gamma-rays from a radioisotope like cobalt-60) are directed at the tumour from outside the body. Brachytherapy instead involves the precise placement of short-range radiation-sources (radioisotopes, iodine-125 or caesium-131 for instance) directly at the site of the cancerous tumour. These are enclosed in a protective capsule or wire, which allows the ionizing radiation to escape to treat and kill surrounding tissue but prevents the charge of radioisotope from moving or dissolving in body fluids. The capsule may be removed later, or (with some radioisotopes) it may be allowed to remain in place.

A feature of brachytherapy is that the irradiation affects only a very localized area around the radiation sources. Exposure to radiation of healthy tissues farther away from the sources is therefore reduced. In addition, if the patient moves or if there is any movement of the tumour within the body during treatment, the radiation sources retain their correct position in relation to the tumour. These characteristics of brachytherapy provide advantages over EBRT – the tumour can be treated with very high doses of localised radiation whilst reducing the probability of unnecessary damage to surrounding healthy tissues.

A course of brachytherapy can be completed in less time than other radiotherapy techniques. This can help reduce the chance for surviving cancer-cells to divide and grow in the intervals between each radiotherapy dose. Patients typically have to make fewer visits to the radiotherapy clinic compared with EBRT, and may receive the treatment as outpatients. This makes treatment accessible and convenient for many patients. These features of brachytherapy mean that most patients are able to tolerate the brachytherapy procedure very well.

The global market for brachytherapy reached US$680 million in 2013, of which the high-dose rate (HDR) and LDR segments accounted for 70%. Microspheres and electronic brachytherapy comprised the remaining 30%. One analysis predicts that the brachytherapy market may reach over US$2.4 billion in 2030, growing by 8% annually, mainly driven by the microspheres market as well as electronic brachytherapy, which is gaining significant interest worldwide as a user-friendly technology.

Medical uses
Brachytherapy is commonly used to treat cancers of the cervix, prostate, breast, and skin.

Brachytherapy can also be used in the treatment of tumours of the brain, eye, head and neck region (lip, floor of mouth, tongue, nasopharynx and oropharynx), respiratory tract (trachea and bronchi), digestive tract (oesophagus, gall bladder, bile-ducts, rectum, anus), urinary tract (bladder, urethra, penis), female reproductive tract (uterus, vagina, vulva), and soft tissues.

As the radiation sources can be precisely positioned at the tumour treatment site, brachytherapy enables a high dose of radiation to be applied to a small area. Furthermore, because the radiation sources are placed in or next to the target tumour, the sources maintain their position in relation to the tumour when the patient moves or if there is any movement of the tumour within the body. Therefore, the radiation sources remain accurately targeted. This enables clinicians to achieve a high level of dose conformity – i.e. ensuring the whole of the tumour receives an optimal level of radiation. It also reduces the risk of damage to healthy tissue, organs or structures around the tumour, thus enhancing the chance of cure and preservation of organ function.

The use of HDR brachytherapy enables overall treatment times to be reduced compared with EBRT. Patients receiving brachytherapy generally have to make fewer visits for radiotherapy compared with EBRT, and overall radiotherapy treatment plans can be completed in less time. Many brachytherapy procedures are performed on an outpatient basis. This convenience may be particularly relevant for patients who have to work, older patients, or patients who live some distance from treatment centres, to ensure that they have access to radiotherapy treatment and adhere to treatment plans. Shorter treatment times and outpatient procedures can also help improve the efficiency of radiotherapy clinics.

Brachytherapy can be used with the aim of curing the cancer in cases of small or locally advanced tumours, provided the cancer has not metastasized (spread to other parts of the body). In appropriately selected cases, brachytherapy for primary tumours often represents a comparable approach to surgery, achieving the same probability of cure and with similar side effects. However, in locally advanced tumours, surgery may not routinely provide the best chance of cure and is often not technically feasible to perform. In these cases radiotherapy, including brachytherapy, offers the only chance of cure. In more advanced disease stages, brachytherapy can be used as palliative treatment for symptom relief from pain and bleeding.

In cases where the tumour is not easily accessible or is too large to ensure an optimal distribution of irradiation to the treatment area, brachytherapy can be combined with other treatments, such as EBRT and/or surgery. Combination therapy of brachytherapy exclusively with chemotherapy is rare.

Cervical cancer
Brachytherapy is commonly used in the treatment of early or locally confined cervical cancer and is a standard of care in many countries. Cervical cancer can be treated with either LDR, PDR or HDR brachytherapy. Used in combination with EBRT, brachytherapy can provide better outcomes than EBRT alone. The precision of brachytherapy enables a high dose of targeted radiation to be delivered to the cervix, while minimising radiation exposure to adjacent tissues and organs.

The chances of staying free of disease (disease-free survival) and of staying alive (overall survival) are similar for LDR, PDR and HDR treatments. However, a key advantage of HDR treatment is that each dose can be delivered on an outpatient basis with a short administration time providing greater convenience for many patients.

Research shows locally advanced carcinoma of the cervix must be treated with a combination of external beam radiotherapy (EBRT) and intracavity brachytherapy (ICBT).

Prostate cancer
Brachytherapy to treat prostate cancer can be given either as permanent LDR seed implantation or as temporary HDR brachytherapy.

Permanent seed implantation is suitable for patients with a localised tumour and good prognosis  and has been shown to be a highly effective treatment to prevent the cancer from returning. The survival rate is similar to that found with EBRT or surgery (radical prostatectomy), but with fewer side effects such as impotence and incontinence. The procedure can be completed quickly and patients are usually able to go home on the same day of treatment and return to normal activities after one to two days. Permanent seed implantation is often a less invasive treatment option compared to the surgical removal of the prostate.

Temporary HDR brachytherapy is a newer approach to treating prostate cancer, but is currently less common than seed implantation. It is predominantly used to provide an extra dose in addition to EBRT (known as "boost" therapy) as it offers an alternative method to deliver a high dose of radiation therapy that conforms to the shape of the tumour within the prostate, while sparing radiation exposure to surrounding tissues. HDR brachytherapy as a boost for prostate cancer also means that the EBRT course can be shorter than when EBRT is used alone.

Breast cancer
Radiation therapy is standard of care for women who have undergone lumpectomy or mastectomy surgery, and is an integral component of breast-conserving therapy. Brachytherapy can be used after surgery, before chemotherapy or palliatively in the case of advanced disease. Brachytherapy to treat breast cancer is usually performed with HDR temporary brachytherapy. Post surgery, breast brachytherapy can be used as a "boost" following whole breast irradiation (WBI) using EBRT. More recently, brachytherapy alone is used to deliver APBI (accelerated partial breast irradiation), involving delivery of radiation to only the immediate region surrounding the original tumour.

The main benefit of breast brachytherapy compared to whole breast irradiation is that a high dose of radiation can be precisely applied to the tumour while sparing radiation to healthy breast tissues and underlying structures such as the ribs and lungs. APBI can typically be completed over the course of a week. The option of brachytherapy may be particularly important in ensuring that working women, the elderly or women without easy access to a treatment centre, are able to benefit from breast-conserving therapy due to the short treatment course compared with WBI (which often requires more visits over the course of 1–2 months).

There are five methods that can be used to deliver breast brachytherapy: Interstitial breast brachytherapy, Intracavitary breast brachytherapy, Intraoperative radiation therapy, Permanent Breast Seed Implantation and non-invasive breast brachytherapy using mammography for target localization and an HDR source.

Interstitial breast brachytherapy
Interstitial breast brachytherapy involves the temporary placement of several flexible plastic catheters in the breast tissue. These are carefully positioned to allow optimal targeting of radiation to the treatment area while sparing the surrounding breast tissue. The catheters are connected to an afterloader, which delivers the planned radiation dose to the treatment area. Interstitial breast brachytherapy can be used as "boost" after EBRT, or as APBI.

Intraoperative radiation therapy
Intraoperative radiation therapy (IORT) delivers radiation at the same time as the surgery to remove the tumour (lumpectomy). An applicator is placed in the cavity left after tumour removal and a mobile electronic device generates radiation (either x-rays or electrons ) and delivers it via the applicator. Radiation is delivered all at once and the applicator removed before closing the incision.

Intracavitary breast brachytherapy
Intracavitary breast brachytherapy (also known as "balloon brachytherapy") involves the placement of a single catheter into the breast cavity left after the removal of the tumour (lumpectomy). The catheter can be placed at the time of the lumpectomy or postoperatively. Via the catheter, a balloon is then inflated in the cavity. The catheter is then connected to an afterloader, which delivers the radiation dose through the catheter and into the balloon. Currently, intracavitary breast brachytherapy is only routinely used for APBI.

There are also devices that combine the features of interstitial and intracavitary breast brachytherapy (e.g. SAVI). These devices use multiple catheters but are inserted through a single-entry point in the breast. Studies suggest the use of multiple catheters enables physicians to target the radiation more precisely.

Permanent breast seed implantation
Permanent breast seed implantation (PBSI) implants many radioactive "seeds" (small pellets) into the breast in the area surrounding the site of the tumour, similar to permanent seed prostate brachytherapy. The seeds are implanted in a single 1–2 hour procedure and deliver radiation over the following months as the radioactive material inside them decays. Risk of radiation from the implants to others (e.g. partner/spouse) has been studied and found to be safe.

Brain tumors
Surgically Targeted Radiation Therapy (STaRT), branded as GammaTile Therapy, is a type of brachytherapy implant specifically designed for use inside the brain. GammaTile is FDA-cleared to treat newly diagnosed, operable malignant intracranial neoplasms (i.e., brain tumors) and operable recurrent intracranial neoplasms, including meningiomas, metastases, high-grade gliomas, and glioblastomas.

In a clinical study, GammaTile Therapy improved local tumor control compared to previous same-site treatments without an increased risk of side effects.

Esophageal cancer
For esophageal cancer radiation treatment, brachytherapy is one option for effective treatment, involves definitive radiotherapy (boost) or palliative treatments. Definitive radiotherapy (boost) can deliver the dose precisely and palliative treatments can be given to relieve dysphagia. The large diameter applicators or balloon type catheter are used with the afterloader to expand the esophagus and facilitate the delivery of radiation dose to tumor with sparing of nearby normal tissue.

Brachytherapy followed EBRT or surgery have been shown to improve the survival rate and local recurrent rate than EBRT or surgery only for esophageal cancer patients.

Skin cancer
HDR brachytherapy for nonmelanomatous skin cancer, such as basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma, provides an alternative treatment option to surgery. This is especially relevant for cancers on the nose, ears, eyelids or lips, where surgery may cause disfigurement or require extensive reconstruction. Various applicators can be used to ensure close contact between the radiation source(s) and the skin, which conform to the curvature of the skin and help ensure precision delivery of the optimal irradiation dose.

Another type of brachytherapy which has similar advantages as the HDR is provided be the Rhenium-SCT (Skin Cancer Therapy). It makes use of the beta ray emissions of Rhenium-188 to treat basal cell or squamous cell carcinomas. the radiation source is enclosed in a compound which is applied to a thin protective foil directly over the lesion. This way the radiation source can be applied to complex locations and minimize radiation to healthy tissue.

Brachytherapy for skin cancer provides good cosmetic results and clinical efficacy; studies with up to five years follow-up have shown that brachytherapy is highly effective in terms of local control, and is comparable to EBRT. Treatment times are typically short, providing convenience for patients. It has been suggested that brachytherapy may become a standard of treatment for skin cancer in the near future.

Blood vessels
Brachytherapy can be used in the treatment of coronary in-stent restenosis, in which a catheter is placed inside blood vessels, through which sources are inserted and removed. In treating In-stent restenosis (ISR) Drug Eluting stents (DES) have been found to be superior to Intracoronary Brachytherapy (ICBT). However, there is continued interest in vascular brachytherapy for persistent restenosis in failed stents and vein grafts. The therapy has also been investigated for use in the treatment of peripheral vasculature stenosis and considered for the treatment of atrial fibrillation.

Side effects
The likelihood and nature of potential acute, sub-acute or long-term side-effects associated with brachytherapy depends on the location of the tumour being treated and the type of brachytherapy being used.

Acute
Acute side effects associated with brachytherapy include localised bruising, swelling, bleeding, discharge or discomfort within the implanted region. These usually resolve within a few days following completion of treatment. Patients may also feel fatigued for a short period following treatment.

Brachytherapy treatment for cervical or prostate cancer can cause acute and transient urinary symptoms such as urinary retention, urinary incontinence or painful urination (dysuria). Transient increased bowel frequency, diarrhoea, constipation or minor rectal bleeding may also occur. Acute and subacute side effects usually resolve over a matter of days or a few weeks. In the case of permanent (seed) brachytherapy for prostate cancer, there is a small chance that some seeds may migrate out of the treatment region into the bladder or urethra and be passed in the urine.

Brachytherapy for skin cancer may result in a shedding of the outer layers of skin (desquamation) around the area of treatment in the weeks following therapy, which typically heals in 5–8 weeks. If the cancer is located on the lip, ulceration may occur as a result of brachytherapy, but usually resolves after 4–6 weeks.

Most of the acute side effects associated with brachytherapy can be treated with medication or through dietary changes, and usually disappear over time (typically a matter of weeks), once the treatment is completed. The acute side effects of HDR brachytherapy are broadly similar to EBRT.

Long-term
In a small number of people, brachytherapy may cause long-term side effects due to damage or disruption of adjacent tissues or organs. Long-term side effects are usually mild or moderate in nature. For example, urinary and digestive problems may persist as a result of brachytherapy for cervical or prostate cancer, and may require ongoing management.

Brachytherapy for prostate cancer may cause erectile dysfunction in approximately 15–30% of patients. However, the risk of erectile dysfunction is related to age (older men are at a greater risk than younger men) and also the level of erectile function prior to receiving brachytherapy. In patients who do experience erectile dysfunction, the majority of cases can successfully be treated with drugs such as Viagra. Importantly, the risk of erectile dysfunction after brachytherapy is less than after radical prostatectomy.

Brachytherapy for breast or skin cancer may cause scar tissue to form around the treatment area. In the case of breast brachytherapy, fat necrosis may occur as a result of fatty acids entering the breast tissues. This can cause the breast tissue to become swollen and tender. Fat necrosis is a benign condition and typically occurs 4–12 months after treatment and affects about 2% of patients.

Safety around others
Patients often ask if they need to have special safety precautions around family and friends after receiving brachytherapy. If temporary brachytherapy is used, no radioactive sources remain in the body after treatment. Therefore, there is no radiation risk to friends or family from being in close proximity with them.

If permanent brachytherapy is used, low dose radioactive sources (seeds) are left in the body after treatment – the radiation levels are very low and decrease over time. In addition, the irradiation only affects tissues within a few millimeters of the radioactive sources (i.e. the tumour being treated). As a precaution, some people receiving permanent brachytherapy may be advised to not hold any small children or be too close to pregnant women for a short time after treatment. Radiation oncologists or nurses can provide specific instructions to patients and advise for how long they need to be careful.

Types
Different types of brachytherapy can be defined according to (1) the placement of the radiation sources in the target treatment area, (2) the rate or 'intensity' of the irradiation dose delivered to the tumour, and (3) the duration of dose delivery.

Source placement
The two main types of brachytherapy treatment in terms of the placement of the radioactive source are interstitial and contact.

In the case of interstitial brachytherapy, the sources are placed directly in the target tissue of the affected site, such as the prostate or breast.

Contact brachytherapy involves placement of the radiation source in a space next to the target tissue. This space may be a body cavity (intracavitary brachytherapy) such as the cervix, uterus or vagina; a body lumen (intraluminal brachytherapy) such as the trachea or oesophagus; or externally (surface brachytherapy) such as the skin. A radiation source can also be placed in blood vessels (intravascular brachytherapy) for the treatment of coronary in-stent restenosis.

Dose rate
The dose rate of brachytherapy refers to the level or 'intensity' with which the radiation is delivered to the surrounding medium and is expressed in Grays per hour (Gy/h).

Low-dose rate (LDR) brachytherapy involves implanting radiation sources that emit radiation at a rate of up to 2 Gy·h−1. LDR brachytherapy is commonly used for cancers of the oral cavity, oropharynx, sarcomas and prostate cancer

Medium-dose rate (MDR) brachytherapy is characterized by a medium rate of dose delivery, ranging between 2 Gy·h−1 to 12 Gy·h−1.

High-dose rate (HDR) brachytherapy is when the rate of dose delivery exceeds 12 Gy·h−1. The most common applications of HDR brachytherapy are in tumours of the cervix, esophagus, lungs, breasts and prostate. Most HDR treatments are performed on an outpatient basis, but this is dependent on the treatment site.

Pulsed-dose rate (PDR) brachytherapy involves short pulses of radiation, typically once an hour, to simulate the overall rate and effectiveness of LDR treatment. Typical tumour sites treated by PDR brachytherapy are gynaecological and head and neck cancers.

The calculation of radiation dose from radioactive seeds is crucial in the planning and administration of brachytherapy treatments. Most modern calculation are done using the formalism published by the American Association of Physicists in Medicine. For the geometry in figure 1, this formalism uses five parameters. The equation which links these parameters is, $$D(r,\theta)=S_k \Lambda \frac{G(r,\theta)}{G(r_0,\theta_0)}g(r)F(r,\theta)t$$
 * Strength of the source: How much radiation is being emitted by the seed, expressed as air kerma strength and denoted by $$S_k$$.
 * Dose rate of the source: How much dose the seed will deliver to the reference point over a certain period of time, denoted by $$\Lambda$$.
 * Geometry factor: How the shape of the seed will affect the dose at points away from the reference point, denoted by $$G(r,\theta)$$.
 * Anisotropy function: How the much radiation will be stopped before passing out of the seed, denoted by $$F(r,\theta)$$.
 * Radial dose function: How the radiation will interact with the material surrounding the seed, denoted by $$g(r)$$.

Duration of dose delivery
The placement of radiation sources in the target area can be temporary or permanent.

Temporary brachytherapy involves placement of radiation sources for a set duration (usually a number of minutes or hours) before being withdrawn. The specific treatment duration will depend on many different factors, including the required rate of dose delivery and the type, size and location of the cancer. In LDR and PDR brachytherapy, the source typically stays in place up to 24 hours before being removed, while in HDR brachytherapy this time is typically a few minutes.

Permanent brachytherapy, also known as seed implantation, involves placing small LDR radioactive seeds or pellets (about the size of a grain of rice) in the tumour or treatment site and leaving them there permanently to gradually decay. Over a period of weeks or months, the level of radiation emitted by the sources will decline to almost zero. The inactive seeds then remain in the treatment site with no lasting effect. Permanent brachytherapy is most commonly used in the treatment of prostate cancer.

Initial planning
To accurately plan the brachytherapy procedure, a thorough clinical examination is performed to understand the characteristics of the tumour. In addition, a range of imaging modalities can be used to visualise the shape and size of the tumour and its relation to surrounding tissues and organs. These include x-ray radiography, ultrasound, computed axial tomography (CT or CAT) scans and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The data from many of these sources can be used to create a 3D visualisation of the tumour and the surrounding tissues.

Using this information, a plan of the optimal distribution of the radiation sources can be developed. This includes consideration of how the source carriers (applicators), which are used to deliver the radiation to the treatment site, should be placed and positioned. Applicators are non-radioactive and are typically needles or plastic catheters. The specific type of applicator used will depend on the type of cancer being treated and the characteristics of the target tumour.

This initial planning helps to ensure that 'cold spots' (too little irradiation) and 'hot spots' (too much irradiation) are avoided during treatment, as these can respectively result in treatment failure and side-effects.

Insertion
Before radioactive sources can be delivered to the tumour site, the applicators have to be inserted and correctly positioned in line with the initial planning.

Imaging techniques, such as x-ray, fluoroscopy and ultrasound are typically used to help guide the placement of the applicators to their correct positions and to further refine the treatment plan. CAT scans and MRI can also be used. Once the applicators are inserted, they are held in place against the skin using sutures or adhesive tape to prevent them from moving. Once the applicators are confirmed as being in the correct position, further imaging can be performed to guide detailed treatment planning.

Creation of a virtual patient

The images of the patient with the applicators in situ are imported into treatment planning software and the patient is brought into a dedicated shielded room for treatment. The treatment planning software enables multiple 2D images of the treatment site to be translated into a 3D 'virtual patient', within which the position of the applicators can be defined. The spatial relationships between the applicators, the treatment site and the surrounding healthy tissues within this 'virtual patient' are a copy of the relationships in the actual patient.

Optimizing the irradiation plan
To identify the optimal spatial and temporal distribution of radiation sources within the applicators of the implanted tissue or cavity, the treatment planning software allows virtual radiation sources to be placed within the virtual patient. The software shows a graphical representation of the distribution of the irradiation. This serves as a guide for the brachytherapy team to refine the distribution of the sources and provide a treatment plan that is optimally tailored to the anatomy of each patient before actual delivery of the irradiation begins. This approach is sometimes called 'dose-painting'.

Treatment delivery
The radiation sources used for brachytherapy are always enclosed within a non-radioactive capsule. The sources can be delivered manually, but are more commonly delivered through a technique known as 'afterloading'.

Manual delivery of brachytherapy is limited to a few LDR applications, due to risk of radiation exposure to clinical staff.

In contrast, afterloading involves the accurate positioning of non-radioactive applicators in the treatment site, which are subsequently loaded with the radiation sources. In manual afterloading, the source is delivered into the applicator by the operator.

Remote afterloading systems provide protection from radiation exposure to healthcare professionals by securing the radiation source in a shielded safe. Once the applicators are correctly positioned in the patient, they are connected to an 'afterloader' machine (containing the radioactive sources) through a series of connecting guide tubes. The treatment plan is sent to the afterloader, which then controls the delivery of the sources along the guide tubes into the pre-specified positions within the applicator. This process is only engaged once staff are removed from the treatment room. The sources remain in place for a pre-specified length of time, again following the treatment plan, following which they are returned along the tubes to the afterloader.

On completion of delivery of the radioactive sources, the applicators are carefully removed from the body. Patients typically recover quickly from the brachytherapy procedure, enabling it to often be performed on an outpatient basis.

Between 2003 and 2012 in United States community hospitals, the rate of hospital stays with brachytherapy (internal radiation therapy) had a 24.4 percent average annual decrease among adults aged 45–64 years and a 27.3 percent average annual decrease among adults aged 65–84 years. Brachytherapy was the OR procedure with the greatest change in occurrence among hospital stays paid by Medicare and private insurance.

Radiation sources
Commonly used radiation sources (radionuclides) for brachytherapy include:

History
Brachytherapy dates back to 1901 (shortly after the discovery of radioactivity by Henri Becquerel in 1896) when Pierre Curie suggested to Henri-Alexandre Danlos that a radioactive source could be inserted into a tumour. It was found that the radiation caused the tumour to shrink. Independently, Alexander Graham Bell also suggested the use of radiation in this way. In the early twentieth century, techniques for the application of brachytherapy were pioneered at the Curie institute in Paris by Danlos and at St Luke's and Memorial Hospital in New York by Robert Abbe.

Working with the Curies in their radium research laboratory at the University of Paris, American physicist William Duane refined a technique for extracting radon-222 gas from radium sulfate solutions. Solutions containing 1 gram of radium were "milked" to create radon "seeds" of about 20 millicuries each. These "seeds" were distributed throughout Paris for use in an early form of brachytherapy named endocurietherapy. Duane perfected this "milking" technique during his time in Paris and referred to the device as a "radium cow".

Duane returned to the United States in 1913 and worked in a joint role as assistant professor of physics at Harvard and Research Fellow in Physics of the Harvard Cancer Commission. The Cancer Commission was founded in 1901 and hired Duane to investigate the usage of radium emanations in the treatment of cancer. In 1915 he built Boston's first "radium cow" and thousands of patients were treated with the radon-222 generated from it.

Interstitial radium therapy was common in the 1930s. Gold seeds filled with radon were used as early as 1942 until at least 1958. Gold shells were selected by Gino Failla around 1920 to shield beta rays while passing gamma rays. Cobalt needles were also used briefly after World War II. Radon and cobalt were replaced by radioactive tantalum and gold, before iridium rose in prominence. First used in 1958, iridium is the most commonly used artificial source for brachytherapy today.

Following initial interest in brachytherapy in Europe and the US, its use declined in the middle of the twentieth century due to the problem of radiation exposure to operators from the manual application of the radioactive sources. However, the development of remote afterloading systems, which allow the radiation to be delivered from a shielded safe, and the use of new radioactive sources in the 1950s and 1960s, reduced the risk of unnecessary radiation exposure to the operator and patients. This, together with more recent advancements in three-dimensional imaging modalities, computerised treatment planning systems and delivery equipment has made brachytherapy a safe and effective treatment for many types of cancer today.

The word "brachytherapy" comes from the Greek word βραχύς, meaning "short-distance" or "short".

Environmental hazard
Due to the small size of brachytherapy sources and low control in early decades, there is a risk that some of these have escaped into the environment to become orphaned sources. A radium needle was found in a Prague playground in 2011, radiating 500 μSv/h from one metre away.

title: Brachytherapy


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Ğ

Ğ (g with breve; minuscule: ğ) is a Latin letter found in the Turkish and Azerbaijani alphabets as well as the Latin alphabets of Zazaki, Laz, Crimean Tatar, Tatar, and Kazakh. It traditionally represented the voiced velar fricative or the voiced uvular fricative. However, in Turkish, the phoneme has in most cases been reduced to a silent letter, serving as a vowel-lengthener.

Current use
In Turkish, the $⟨ğ⟩$ is known as yumuşak ge ('soft g') and is the ninth letter of the Turkish alphabet. It always follows a vowel, and can be compared to the blødt g ('soft g') in Danish. In modern Turkish, the letter has no sound of its own and serves as a transition between two vowels, since they do not occur consecutively in native Turkish words. (In loanwords they may sometimes be separated by a glottal stop, e.g. cemaat or cemaât, which may be pronounced as either or .)

The realization of the phoneme depends on its location in a word and the surrounding vowels:

 * in word-final and syllable-final positions it lengthens the preceding vowel, for example: dağ(lar) ('mountain[s]'), sığ  ('shallow'); when following a front vowel (e, i), it may sound  instead: değnek  ('cane');
 * between identical back vowels (a, ı, u) it is silent: sığınak ('shelter'), uğur  ('good luck');
 * between identical front vowels (e, i, ü) it is either silent: sevdiğim ('that I love'), or  pronounced : düğün  ('wedding');
 * between different rounded vowels (o, u, ö, ü), or between rounded (o, u, ö, ü) and unrounded (a, e) vowels it is mostly silent, but may be a bilabial glide: soğuk  ('cold'), soğan  ('onion');
 * ağı may sound as two vowels or as long a: ağır ('heavy');
 * ığa is always two vowels: sığan ('which fits');
 * in eği and iğe it is either silent or pronounced as if written y: değil  ('not'), diğer  ('other'); in colloquial speech eği is long i: değil ;
 * eği and ağı in the future suffix -(y)AcAK- are formally / or colloquially /: seveceğim ('I will love'); yazacağım  ('I will write').

Some webpages may use $⟨Ð⟩$ (uppercase) and $⟨ð⟩$ (lowercase) for $⟨Ğ⟩$ because of improper encoding; see Turkish characters for the reasons of this.

Historical use
The letter, and its counterpart in the Ottoman Turkish alphabet, $⟨غ⟩$, were once pronounced as a consonant, , the voiced velar fricative, until very recently in the history of Turkish, but it has undergone a sound change by which the consonant was completely lost and compensatory lengthening of the preceding vowel occurred, hence its function today. The sound change is not yet complete in some Turkish dialects. The previous consonantal nature of the sound is evinced by earlier English loanwords from Turkish, such as yogurt/yoghurt (modern Turkish yoğurt) and agha (modern Turkish ağa), and the corresponding velar fricative found in cognate words in the closely related Azerbaijani language and the Turkish-influenced Crimean Tatar language. In Old Turkic (as well as earlier during Proto-Turkic times), this voiced velar fricative originated as an allophone of, the voiced velar stop, when it occurred intervocalically. The expected process of lenition (weakening and eventual loss of the intervocalic Proto-Turkic consonant *) is thus complete in Turkish and underway in many other Common Turkic languages.

Azerbaijani and Crimean Tatar use
In Azerbaijani and Crimean Tatar, $⟨ğ⟩$ represents, the voiced velar fricative.

Tatar use
The Tatar language is mainly written in Cyrillic, but a Latin-based alphabet is also in use. In the Latin alphabet, ğ represents, the voiced uvular fricative. In Cyrillic, Tatar uses г for both g and ğ without distinction.

Kazakh use
The current Kazakh Latin alphabet proposal, last updated in March 2021 and commissioned by Tokayev, uses ğ to replace the Kazakh Cyrillic Ғ to represent the IPA. The earlier 2020 proposal listed Ǵ instead, but was replaced after public criticism.

Friulian use
The Faggin–Nazzi alphabet for Friulian language uses the caron, owing to its Slavic influence. However, $⟨Ǧ⟩$/$⟨ǧ⟩$ is often substituted with $⟨Ğ⟩$/$⟨ğ⟩$ due to the former's lack of availability in fonts and input systems. This is because $⟨Ğ⟩$/$⟨ğ⟩$ is in Latin Extended-A alongside $⟨Č⟩$/$⟨č⟩$ and $⟨Š⟩$/$⟨š⟩$, the other caron bearing letters in the alphabet, whereas $⟨Ǧ⟩$/$⟨ǧ⟩$ is in Latin Extended-B, which is available in fewer fonts and input systems.

title: Ğ


text:
Consumer Technology Association

The Consumer Technology Association (CTA) is a standard and trade organization representing 1,376 consumer technology companies in the United States. CTA is led by president and CEO Gary J. Shapiro.

CES
CES is a major technology trade show held each January in Las Vegas.

The first CES was held in 1967 in New York City. It was a spin-off from the Chicago Music Show, which until then had served as the main event for exhibiting consumer electronics. The event had 17,500 attendees and over 100 exhibitors. From 1978 to 1994, CES was held twice each year: once in January in Las Vegas, known as Winter Consumer Electronics Show (WCES), and once in June in Chicago, known as Summer Consumer Electronics Show. In 1998, the show changed to an annual format with Las Vegas as the location. CES is one of the largest and longest-running trade shows held in Las Vegas, taking up to 17 days to set up, run, and break down.

CES Asia
CES Asia is owned and produced by the International CES (Shanghai) Exhibition Co. Ltd., a wholly foreign-owned enterprise by the Consumer Technology Association (CTA), and is co-produced by Shanghai INTEX Exhibition Co., Ltd (Shanghai INTEX). Special co-organizers for CES Asia are the China Chamber of Commerce for Import and Export of Machinery and Electronic Products (CCCME) and the China Electronic Chamber of Commerce (CECC). CES Asia serves as a platform for both Chinese and American companies to introduce new products into the Asian marketplace.

Gary Shapiro
Gary J. Shapiro is the president and CEO of CTA. Shapiro has worked for CTA since 1979, when he was a law student. Shapiro is also the chairman of the Home Recording Rights Coalition. As chairman, Shapiro has testified often before Congress and has helped ensure the growth of the video rental market, VCRs, home computers, and audio-recording equipment, including MP3 technology. Shapiro is also the author of the bestselling book, The Comeback: How Innovation Will Restore the American Dream.

Shapiro holds a law degree from the Georgetown University Law Center. He is also a Phi Beta Kappa graduate of the Binghamton University, where he majored in economics and psychology. Shapiro was an associate at the law firm of Squire, Sanders and Dempsey. He also worked as a legislative aide on Capitol Hill.

David Hagan
David Hagan serves as chairman of the board.

It Its Innovation (i3) magazine
i3, CTA's flagship magazine, is published six times a year and focuses on innovation in technology, policy and business as well as the entrepreneurs, industry leaders and startups that grow the consumer technology industry. The magazine has a circulation of 38,600 (print and digital) and has won a number of awards including the Eddie Award, Full Issue (N/D 2017), FOLIO, Top 25 Tabbie Best Issue Award (J/A 2017).

CTA Corporate Report
The CTA Corporate Report is published every year and covers CTA's accomplishments and assesses trends relevant to the consumer electronics industry. The Corporate Report won a Platinum Award from the League of American Communications Professionals.

Digital America
Digital America is the CTA's annual comprehensive report on the state of the consumer electronics industry in the United States. Digital America includes market research, analysis of new and existing technology, industry history, and other detailed information.

Awards programs
CTA has several awards programs for industry leaders, inventors, products, and technologies.

Since 1976, the Innovations Design and Engineering Awards has given consumer technology manufacturers and developers an opportunity to have their newest products judged by a panel of designers, engineers and members of the trade press.

CTAPAC
CTAPAC is CTA's political action committee.

CTA Foundation
In 2009, CTA established a charitable foundation dedicated to providing seniors and the disabled with technology in order to enhance their quality of life. Selfhelp Community Services, an eldercare service organization, in New York City received the first grant issued by what was originally called the CEA Foundation. The grant was dedicated to reducing social isolation and providing better access to community services among homebound seniors using computer and internet technology.

Hall of Fame
The CTA maintains a Hall of Fame, to which notable contributors to the field of consumer electronics are named.

Name changes
CTA originally started as the Radio Manufacturers Association (RMA) in 1924. In 1950, it changed its name to Radio-Television Manufacturers Association (RTMA). In 1953, it changed its name to Radio-Electronics-Television Manufacturers Association (RETMA). It was then the Electronic Industries Association (EIA) from 1957 to 1998, when it became the Electronic Industries Alliance. In 1995, EIA's Consumer Electronics Group (CEG) became the Consumer Electronics Manufacturers Association (CEMA). In 1999, President Gary Shapiro announced the trade group's name change from CEMA to the Consumer Electronics Association (CEA) and became an independent sector of the Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA). The name of CEA was changed to Consumer Technology Association (CTA) in November 2015.

title: Consumer Technology Association


text:
CES

CES may stand for:
 * Closed ecological system, isolated from the outside
 * Clean Energy Standards
 * Constant elasticity of substitution, in economics, a feature of a particular class of production function
 * The ISO 639 code for the Czech language

Technology

 * Consumer Electronics Show, annual trade show, Las Vegas, Nevada, US
 * Circuit Emulation Service, a telecommunication technology
 * Cryogenic energy storage
 * Character encoding scheme, a reversible transformation of sequences of code units to sequences of bytes
 * Charge-exchange spectroscopy, a diagnostic used in plasma physics

Companies

 * ICAO Code designator for China Eastern Airlines

Medicine

 * Cauda equina syndrome, a serious neurological condition
 * Cranial electrotherapy stimulation, therapeutic brain stimulation
 * Camurati-Engelmann disease, also called "Camurati Engelmann syndrome" (CES)
 * Carboxylesterase, an enzyme that catalyzes the reaction between a carboxylic ester and water

Organization

 * Caspian Engineers Society
 * Center for Economic Studies, University of Munich
 * Center for Ethical Solutions, bioethics think tank in the United States
 * Centre for Environmental Studies, former UK research organization
 * Church Educational System, of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
 * Coalition for Economic Survival, a Los Angeles–based community organization
 * Coalition of Essential Schools, US educational reform
 * Community Exchange System, international Internet trading network
 * Commonwealth Employment Service, former Australian Government employment agency
 * Confédération Européenne de Scoutisme or Confederation of European Scouts
 * Centre for European Studies (disambiguation), the name of several educational institutions
 * Center for Election Science, a US-based Approval voting advocacy organization

People

 * Jean Ces, French boxer of the 1920s

Transportation

 * Central South station, a proposed MTR station in Hong Kong
 * Cessnock Airport, IATA airport code "CES"

title: CES


text:
Talk:The Craft (film)

"The Craft(film)" listed at Redirects for discussion
An editor has identified a potential problem with the redirect The Craft(film) and has thus listed it for discussion. This discussion will occur at Redirects for discussion/Log/2022 March 24 until a consensus is reached, and readers of this page are welcome to contribute to the discussion. Steel1943 (talk) 05:52, 24 March 2022 (UTC)

Nancy Downs
Shouldn't the character Nancy Downs have her own separate article, like say, Tony Montana? She is pretty known and was influential with the teen and goth sub-lifestyle when the movie came out...Antonio Mr. Nancy Downs Martin Well, well, well... 11:45, December 7, 2022 (UTC

title: Talk:The Craft (film)


text:
1988 in aviation

This is a list of aviation-related events from 1988.

January

 * Sometime during the first week of January, the Iraqi Air Force hits a Greek-owned commercial cargo ship in the Persian Gulf with an Exocet missile.
 * During early January, Iran experiments with the use of AGM-65 Maverick air-to-surface missiles in antishipping strikes in the Persian Gulf. The Maverick's warhead proves too small to inflict significant damage on merchant ships.
 * January 1 – The United States Government begins to track the on-time-arrival and baggage-handling performance of United States airlines.
 * January 15 – Since January 1, Iraq has conducted five airstrikes against shipping in the Persian Gulf and one against urban and economic targets in Iran, while Iran has carried out two air attacks against Persian Gulf shipping, but none against urban and economic targets in Iraq.
 * January 19 – Mid Pacific Air ceases all passenger service to Hawaii. It will cease all cargo service to Hawaii a month later.
 * January 26 – The French Ministry of Defense approves full-scale development of the Dassault Rafale.
 * January 27 – An Iraqi Air Force Mirage F-1 flies an attack profile against the United States Navy dock landing ship USS Portland (LSD-37) in the Persian Gulf, apparently not realizing the identity of its target. Another United States Navy ship establishes radio contact with the Mirage pilot and warns him off before he can fire at Portland.
 * January 30 – A Boeing 747 sets a new around-the-world record of 36 hours 54 minutes.
 * January 31 – Since January 16, Iraq has conducted 11 airstrikes against shipping in the Persian Gulf and Iran has carried out two. Neither country has attacked urban and economic targets on the other's territory.

February

 * In retaliation for a bomb attack on a bank in South-West Africa, South African Air Force Mirage aircraft attack the headquarters of the South West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO).
 * During the month, the United States Navy withdraws the last of the eight RH-53D Sea Stallion minesweeping helicopters it had deployed to the Persian Gulf in August 1987 to assist in the clearing of Iraqi and Iranian naval mines.
 * In mid-February, an Iraqi Air Force Tupolev Tu-16 (NATO reporting name "Badger") bomber fires Silkworm missiles which come within eight nautical miles (15 km) of a convoy escorted by United States Navy ships.
 * February 7 – The Iraqi Air Force strikes Iran's Kharg Island for the first time since November 4, 1987.
 * February 9 – The Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force makes rare use of its F-14 Tomcats in an air-to-air combat role, ambushing two Iraqi Air Force Mirage F-1s as they turn north to attack Farsi Island. Using AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missiles, they shoot down at least one of the Mirages. Iran has lost most of its air power during the course of the Iran–Iraq War, but appears to have about seven to nine F-14s, 20 F-4 Phantom IIs, and 20 F-5 Freedom Fighters that still are operational.
 * February 13 – The United States Navy guided-missile destroyer USS Chandler (DDG-996) comes within seconds of firing at an Iraqi Air Force Mirage F-1 flyng an attack profile before the Iraqi pilot turns away without firing.
 * February 15 – Since February 1, Iraq has conducted four airstrikes against shipping in the Persian Gulf and 27 against urban and economic targets in Iran, while Iran has carried out three air attacks against Persian Gulf shipping but none against urban or economic targets in Iraq.
 * February 18 – The airline Binter Canarias, a subsidiary of Iberia, is founded. It will begin flight operations in March 1989.
 * February 26 – After Iraqi troops are driven out of the area, Iraqi aircraft drop mustard gas on the town of Halabja in Iraqi Kurdistan. Iran responds by firing hydrogen cyanide gas into the area using artillery. The two poison gas attacks combined kill 5,000 people.
 * February 27 – The Iraqi Air Force carries out a major raid against the Rey oil refinery in Tehran, badly damaging it and forcing Iran to resume rationing of petroleum products.
 * February 29 – Since February 16, Iraq has conducted 13 airstrikes against urban and economic targets in Iran, while Iran has carried out five against urban or economic targets in Iraq. Neither side has launched air attacks against Persian Gulf shipping during the period.

March

 * Spanair commences operations.
 * March 6 – Iranian Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps forces aboard small boats and an oil platform fire on American military helicopters performing routine reconnaissance patrols over the Persian Gulf. It is the first combat to take place in the Persian Gulf since February 12, ending one of the longest lulls in fighting in the Persian Gulf since Western forces intervened there in 1987.
 * March 8
 * The Iraqi Air Force hits an Iranian ship for the first time since February 9, beginning a series of regular Iraqi attacks against shipping in the Persian Gulf. Iraq claims it has hit 23 ships in the Persian Gulf since January 1, but shipping companies confirm only nine ships damaged.
 * During a domestic flight in the Soviet Union from Kurgan to Leningrad, the Ovechkin family hijacks Aeroflot Flight 3739, a Tupolev Tu-154B (NATO reporting name "Careless") airliner, and demand that the crew fly to London so that they can escape from the Soviet Union. The crew persuades the hijackers that they must first land in Finland to refuel, but instead lands at the Soviet military airbase at Veshchevo, where a Soviet interior ministry incident response team storms the aircraft. Four hostages are killed and five hijackers commit suicide; ten surviving hijackers are arrested.
 * March 15 – As both Iran and Iraq escalate their air campaigns against one another, Iraq has conducted five airstrikes against shipping in the Persian Gulf and 114 against urban and economic targets in Iran since March 1, while Iran has carried out 42 air attacks against urban or economic targets in Iraq, but none against shipping.
 * March 17 – Avianca Flight 410, a Boeing 727-21, crashes near Cúcuta, Colombia, killing all 143 people on board.
 * March 19 – The Iraqi Air Force conducts a major raid against Iran's Kharg Island, setting two tankers ablaze and killing 46 crewmen.
 * March 31 – Since March 16, Iraq has conducted 14 airstrikes against shipping in the Persian Gulf and 94 against urban and economic targets in Iran, while Iran has carried out 15 air attacks against Persian Gulf shipping and 129 against urban or economic targets in Iraq.
 * During a major Iraqi ground offensive in northern Iran, the Iraqi Air Force flies an average of 224 sorties per day, losing an average of three aircraft per day. The Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force probably loses a few of its small remaining force of operational F-5 Freedom Fighters.

April

 * The Mexican government-owned airline Aeroméxico is declared bankrupt and grounded. After privatization, it will resume operations in October with a new corporate identity but still marketed as Aeroméxico.
 * April 7 – The Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force stages a raid against Baghdad, inflicting little damage and apparently losing one aircraft.
 * April 8 – Pacific Southwest Airlines shuts down operations and is integrated to US Air.
 * April 15 – Since April 1, Iraq has conducted two airstrikes against shipping in the Persian Gulf and 38 against urban and economic targets in Iran, while Iran has carried out one air attack against Persian Gulf shipping and 85 against urban or economic targets in Iraq.
 * April 17 – Iraq launches a major ground offensive to retake al-Faw from Iran, claiming that its fixed-wing aircraft and attack helicopters have flown 318 combat sorties during the day.
 * April 18
 * The United States Navy conducts Operation Praying Mantis against Iranian forces and facilities in the Persian Gulf. A-6E Intruders from the aircraft carrier USS Enterprise (CVN-65) sink a speedboat, assist surface ships in sinking the frigate Sahand, and cripple the frigate Sabalan. Two Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force F-4 Phantom II fighters approach the guided-missile cruiser USS Wainwright (CG-28), which damages one of them with a surface-to-air missile.
 * Al-Faw falls to Iraqi forces, and Iran makes an unfounded claim that American attack helicopters have supported the Iraqi offensive.
 * April 23 – Kanellos Kanellopoulos recreates the mythical flight of Daedalus by flying a pedal-powered aircraft, the MIT Daedalus, from Crete to Santorini, covering the 119 km in 3 hours 54 minutes.
 * April 28 – Aloha Airlines Flight 243 suffers an explosive decompression in flight over the Hawaiian Islands, with the roof blowing off the Boeing 737-200 from the cockpit to just in front of the wings. All 90 passengers and four of the five crew survive; one flight attendant is swept out of the plane and falls to her death.
 * April 30 – Since April 16, Iraq has conducted two airstrikes against shipping in the Persian Gulf and seven against urban and economic targets in Iran, while Iran has carried out five air attacks against Persian Gulf shipping and 58 against urban or economic targets in Iraq.

May

 * May 6 – Widerøe Flight 710, a de Havilland Canada Dash 7, descends too quickly on approach in heavy fog to Brønnøysund Airport at Brønnøy, Norway, and crashes into the mountain Torghatten, killing all 36 people on board. It remains the deadliest accident involving a Dash 7.
 * May 8 – The world's smallest airplane, the Starr Bumble Bee II, makes its first flight, piloted by its builder, Robert H. Starr. It crashes the same day due to engine failure, seriously injuring Starr.
 * May 10 – Airbus A300s are delivered to American Airlines and enter service with the airline.
 * May 14; An Iraqi airforce jet fires missiles at an oil tanker, the Jahre Viking ( at the time the biggest tanker in the world ). The ship is on fire and sinks, but it is refloated repaired and used for some more years.
 * May 15 – Since May 1, Iraq has conducted 12 airstrikes against shipping in the Persian Gulf and two against urban and economic targets in Iran, while Iran has carried out no airstrikes.
 * May 23 – Shamu One, a Southwest Airlines Boeing 737-300 painted like and named after a SeaWorld killer whale, begins flying for the airline.
 * May 24 – British Airways takes over British Caledonian.
 * May 24 – Descending to land at Moisant Field in New Orleans, Louisiana, TACA Flight 110, a Boeing 737-3T0, encounters heavy rain, hail, and turbulence which cause both of its engines to lose power. The pilots make a deadstick landing on a wide grass levee at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's Michoud Assembly Facility in the Michoud area of eastern New Orleans. There are no fatalities, and only seven of the 45 people on board suffer injuries, all minor.
 * May 25 – The Iraqi Air Force strikes the power station at Neka, Iran.
 * May 29 – Saudi Arabian investor and businessman Salem bin Laden, a half-brother and cousin of future al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden, dies when the Spirit ultralight aircraft he is piloting near San Antonio, Texas, strikes overhead power lines and falls 115 ft to the ground.
 * May 30 – The first aircraft carrier to be built in Spain, Principe de Asturias, is commissioned into the Spanish Navy.
 * May 31 – Since May 16, Iraq has conducted two airstrikes against shipping in the Persian Gulf and two against urban and economic targets in Iran, while Iran has carried out five air attacks against Persian Gulf shipping, but none against urban or economic targets in Iraq.

June

 * June 6 – Ascending from Plano, Texas, Swedish aviator Per Lindstrand sets a new world altitude record for hot-air balloons, reaching 19,811 m. The record will stand until 26 November 2005.
 * June 8 – Operating in the Persian Gulf, the United States Navy guided-missile frigate USS Halyburton (FFG-40) orders an airliner operating as British Airways Flight 147 to turn away or risk being fired upon, the airliner comes into a near-miss situation with another airliner, prompting the Dubai air traffic control center to lodge a formal protest.
 * June 15 – Since June 1, Iraq has conducted three airstrikes against shipping in the Persian Gulf, but nine against urban and economic targets in Iran, while Iran has carried out no air attacks.
 * June 18 – Iraqi and Mujahideen-e-Khalq grounds forces launch an offensive to take Mehran, Iran, supported by 580 sorties by Iraqi Air Force jets and Iraqi attack helicopters.
 * June 23 – The Iraqi Air Force launches its heaviest attack against urban and economic targets in Iran in two months, setting six crude oil production units in Ahwaz, two oil pumping stations in Bibi Hakemeh, and two oil installations at Kaj Saran ablaze.
 * June 25 – Iraqi ground forces launch a major ground offensive against Iranian forces around Majnoon and behind the Majnoon Islands. Iraqi Air Force jets and Iraqi attack helicopters apparently fly over 40 sorties in support of the offensive. The Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force commits 35 aircraft to countering the Iraqi offensive and suffers heavy losses.
 * June 26 – The first crash of an Airbus A320 occurs when Air France Flight 296, an Airbus A320-111 carrying 130 passengers and a crew of six, makes a low-altitude, low-speed flyby with landing gear down as part of an air show at Mulhouse-Habsheim Airport in France, strikes trees beyond the runway, and crashes. Three passengers die and 50 people on board are injured.
 * June 30 – The Iraqi Air Force strikes an Iranian natural gas facility and an Iranian offshore oil platform. Since June 16, Iraq has conducted 13 airstrikes against urban and economic targets in Iran, while Iran has carried out one against urban and economic targets in Iraq. Neither country had launched air raids against shipping in the Persian Gulf.

July

 * July 1 – The Government of Australia creates the Civil Aviation Authority to control aviation safety regulation and provide air traffic control services in Australia.
 * July 3 – After an Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps Navy speedboat fires on her LAMPS Mark III helicopter while it observes the activities of Iranian gunboats and speedboats in the Persian Gulf, the United States Navy guided-missile cruiser USS Vincennes (CG-49) engages the Iranian craft with gunfire. Shortly thereafter, Vincennes shoots down Iran Air Flight 655, an Airbus A300B2-203 airliner flying from Bandar Abbas International Airport in Bandar Abbas, Iran, to Dubai International Airport in Dubai in the United Arab Emirates, killing all 290 people on board. The United States Government maintains that the cruiser's crew believed the airliner was a threatening Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force F-14 Tomcat and blames the airliner's crew for failing to monitor warning frequencies and Iranian air traffic control for routing the aircraft at too low an altitude over a known area of hostilities; the Government of Iran argues that the ship's crew knew that the aircraft was an airliner and shot it down deliberately and unlawfully.
 * July 8–13 – Eleven-year-old Chris Marshall flies a Mooney M20 from San Diego, California, in the United States to Paris, France.
 * July 12 – Two United States Army helicopters exchange fire with two Iranian gunboats in the Persian Gulf east of Farsi Island, forcing the Iranian vessels to break off their attack on the tanker Universal Monarch.
 * July 13 – A British International Helicopters Sikorsky S-61N helicopter ditches in the North Sea northeast of Sumburgh Airport, Shetland, Scotland, without injury to any of the 21 people on board.
 * July 14 – Sichuan Airlines begins flight operations. Its first route is between Chengdu and Wanzhou, China.
 * July 15 – Since July 1, Iraq has conducted five airstrikes against shipping in the Persian Gulf and three against urban and economic targets in Iran, while Iran has carried out five air attacks against Persian Gulf shipping, but none against urban or economic targets in Iraq.
 * July 25 – The Portuguese regional airline Portugália is established. It will begin flight operations in July 1990.
 * July 31 – Since July 16, Iraq has conducted four airstrikes against urban and economic targets in Iran, but Iran has carried out no air attacks against urban or economic targets in Iraq. Neither country has launched air attacks against Persian Gulf shipping during the period.

August

 * August 17 – During its initial climb after takeoff from Bahawalpur Airport in Bahawalpur, Pakistan, a Pakistan Air Force Lockheed C-130B Hercules carrying President of Pakistan Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq crashes 7 km north of the airport, killing all 30 people on board. In addition to Zia, the dead include the chairman of Pakistan's Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee, General Akhtar Abdur Rahman, Brigadier Siddique Salik, United States Ambassador to Pakistan Arnold Lewis Raphel, and the head of the United States military aid mission to Pakistan, General Herbert M. Wassom.
 * August 20
 * Since August 1, Iraq has conducted five airstrikes against urban and economic targets in Iran, but has not attacked Persian Gulf shipping, while Iran has carried out one air attack against Persian Gulf shipping but has not launched air attacks against urban or economic targets in Iraq.
 * A ceasefire officially brings the seven-year-eleven-month-long Iran–Iraq War to an end, although Iran and Iraq had formally announced an end to all fighting on August 8.
 * August 28 – The Ramstein airshow disaster takes place during a performance by the Italian Air Force Frecce Tricolori aerobatic demonstration team at Ramstein Air Base in West Germany when three Aermacchi MB-339 PAN aircraft collide, killing all three pilots and 67 spectators on the ground and injuring 346 people. It is the worst air show accident in history.
 * August 31 – Delta Air Lines Flight 1141, a Boeing 727, crashes on takeoff from Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport in Euless, Texas, killing 14 and injuring 76 of the 108 people on board.

September

 * September 7 – Trans World Airlines stockholders approve majority owner Carl Icahn's proposal to take the company private. The transaction earns $610.3 million for the stockholders – of which $469 million goes to Icahn – and adds $539.7 million to the airline's debt.
 * September 10 – Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force aircraft bomb the Iraqi nuclear reactor at Tuwaitha.
 * September 15 – Ethiopian Airlines Flight 604, a Boeing 737-260, strikes a flock of speckled pigeons during takeoff from Bahir Dar Airport at Bahir Dar, Ethiopia. Both of its engines ingest birds and lose thrust as the aircraft returns to the airport, and the plane catches fire during a belly landing. Thirty-five of the 104 people on board die.
 * September 30 – American race car driver Al Holbert is fatally injured when the Piper PA-60-601P Aerostar he is piloting crashes near Columbus, Ohio, just after takeoff because its clamshell door is not closed.

October

 * October 1 – The privately owned airline Aerovias de Mexico SA de CV begins flight operations, using the remaining assets of its predecessor, the Mexican government-owned Aeroméxico, which had ceased operations in April due to bankruptcy. The new airline also operates as Aeroméxico.
 * October 5 – Donald Trump makes arrangements to purchase the Eastern Air Lines Shuttle. The deal will be completed in June 1989.
 * October 12 – A Bar Harbor Airlines ATR 42 loses the required separation between it and Air Force One while both are descending to land at Newark International Airport. The minimum distance between the two aircraft was 500 ft vertically and 1.58 mi horizontally.
 * October 19 – Indian Airlines Flight 113, a Boeing 737-2A8, strikes trees and a high-tension pylon while on approach in fog to Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel International Airport in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India, and crashes, killing 130 of the 135 people on board and leaving all five survivors injured.

November

 * November 2 – LOT Flight 703, an Antonov An-24W, crash-lands at Białobrzegi, Poland, when its engines shut down due to atmospheric icing while the aircraft is on approach to Rzeszów-Jasionka Airport. One person is killed in the crash, but the other 28 people on board evacuate quickly, escaping before the plane bursts into flame; among the survivors is Polish radio presenter Tomasz Beksiński. As a result of the crash, LOT Polish Airlines replaces all of its An-24s with ATR 42 and ATR 72 aircraft.
 * November 10 – The United States Air Force publicly unveils the Lockheed F-117A Nighthawk stealth fighter. It had been operational secretly since 1983.
 * November 18 – Malév Hungarian Airlines begins phasing out its Soviet-era planes with the introduction of its first Western-designed aircraft, a Boeing 737-200. It is the first airline in a Communist Eastern European country to acquire a Western-built aircraft.

December

 * Flying Tiger Line is sold to Federal Express. It will complete its merger with Federal Express in August 1989.
 * December 8 – A United States Air Force A-10 Thunderbolt II on a low-level flying exercise crashes into the upper floor of an apartment complex in a residential area of Remscheid, West Germany, killing the pilot and five people on the ground and injuring 50 others.
 * December 16 – A Learjet 24B flying from Memphis International Airport in Memphis, Tennessee, to Addison, Texas, overshoots its destination. After air traffic controllers fail to contact its two-person crew – one of them National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) astronaut candidate Susan Reynolds – a United States Air Force T-38 Talon intercepts it and finds it flying with frost apparently inside its cockpit windows, but also cannot communicate with its crew. The Learjet flies into Mexico and crashes near Cuatro Ciénegas in Coahuila, Mexico, after it runs out of fuel, killing both crew members.
 * December 21 – Pan American World Airways Flight 103, a Boeing 747 flying from London to New York City, and carrying many American passengers home for Christmas, explodes over Lockerbie, Scotland, killing all 259 on board and eleven on the ground. English rock musician Paul Jeffreys and his new wife, flying to their honeymoon, are among the dead. Libyan terrorists are blamed for the tragedy.
 * December 31 – In a pilot error incident at Odessa Airport, an Aeroflot Tupolev Tu-134A (NATO reporting name "Crusty") achieves the highest landing speed for an aircraft, at 415 km/h.

February

 * February 11 – Cirrus VK-30
 * February 19 – Boeing 737-400
 * February 22 – IRGC Fajr

March

 * March 18 – Akaflieg Braunschweig SB-13 Arcus

April

 * April 16 – McDonnell Douglas T-45 Goshawk
 * April 21 – Boeing 747-400
 * April 29 – Grob G 116

May

 * May 8 – Starr Bumble Bee II

June

 * June 14 – Schweizer 330 N330TT
 * June 28 – Sukhoi Su-27M (NATO reporting name "Flanker-E")

July

 * July 12 – Scaled Composites/Beechcraft Model 143 Triumph N143SC, also first flight of the Williams International FJ44 turbofan engine.
 * July 14 – Socata TBM700 F-WTBM

August

 * August 15 – SZD-55 sailplane.
 * August 25 – FFV Aerotech BA-14 Starling.
 * August 28 – Hoffmann H-40 D-EIOF.

September

 * September 28 – Ilyushin Il-96

October

 * October 15 – MBB Bo 108 D-HBOX.
 * October 27 – ATR 72 F-WWEY.

December

 * December 9 – JAS 39 Gripen.
 * December 12 – CMC Leopard G-BKRL.
 * December 21 – Antonov An-225 Mriya
 * December 28 – Let L-610 OK-130.

Entered service
April
 * April 29 – Airbus A320 with British Airways

May
 * May 9 – British Aerospace ATP with British Midland

Deadliest crash
The deadliest crash of this year was Iran Air Flight 655, a Airbus A300 which was shot down over the Strait of Hormuz on 3 July, killing all 290 people onboard. Later that year, a terrorist bomb exploded aboard Pan Am Flight 103, a Boeing 747 which then crashed into Lockerbie, Scotland on 21 December, killing all 259 people on board as well as 11 on the ground; this disaster may have been aided by Iran in reaction to the shootdown of Flight 655 not six months earlier.

title: 1988 in aviation