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Human Torch (android)

The Human Torch, also known as Jim Hammond (originally, Hamond), is a superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Created by writer and artist Carl Burgos, he first appeared in Marvel Comics #1 (October 1939), published by Marvel's predecessor, Timely Comics.

The "Human" Torch was an android created by scientist Phineas Horton, off of the tutelage of Victor Timely. He possessed the ability to surround himself with fire and control flames. In his earliest appearances, he was portrayed as a science fiction monstrosity, but quickly became a hero and adopted a secret identity as a police officer for the New York City Police Department.

The Human Torch was one of Timely Comics' three signature characters, along with Captain America and Namor the Sub-Mariner. Like many superheroes, the Human Torch fell into obscurity by the 1950s. In 1961, Stan Lee and Jack Kirby repurposed his name and powers for a new character, Johnny Storm, a member of the Fantastic Four who is a mutate instead of an android. Unlike Captain America and the Sub-Mariner, the original Human Torch has had only a small presence in the post-1950s Marvel comic books and is closely associated with the Golden Age.

Publication history
Following his debut in the hit Marvel Comics #1, the Human Torch proved popular enough that he soon became one of the first superheroes to headline a solo title. Through the 1940s, the Torch starred or was featured in Marvel Mystery Comics (the book's title beginning with issue #2), The Human Torch (premiering with issue #2, Fall 1940, having taken over the numbering of the defunct Red Raven Comics), and Captain America Comics #19, 21–67, 69, 76–77, as well as appearing in several issues of All Select Comics, All Winners Comics, and Young Allies Comics.

Seeing a natural "fire and water" theme, Timely was responsible for comic books' first major crossover, with a two-issue battle between the Human Torch and the Sub-Mariner that spanned Marvel Mystery Comics #8–9—telling the same story from the two characters' different perspectives.

Marvel Mystery Comics ended its run with #92 (June 1949), and The Human Torch with #35 (March 1949), as superheroes in general had faded in popularity. Timely Comics publisher Martin Goodman—who by the early 1950s had transitioned the company to its next iteration, as Atlas Comics—attempted to revive superheroes with the anthology comic Young Men #24–28 (Dec. 1953 – June 1954), starring the Human Torch (art by Syd Shores and Dick Ayers, variously, with covers and initially some panels featuring the Torch redrawn by Burgos for style consistency), along with the Sub-Mariner and Captain America. The solo title The Human Torch returned for issues #36–38 (April–Aug. 1954) before again being canceled. The Torch also appeared in stories in the briefly revived Captain America Comics and Sub-Mariner Comics, and in the anthology Men's Adventures #28 (July 1954).

The original Human Torch debuted in present-day Marvel Comics continuity in Fantastic Four Annual #4 (Nov. 1966).

Human Torch appeared as a regular character in the 2010–2013 Secret Avengers series, from issue #23 (April 2012) through its final issue #37 (March 2013).

Starting in 2014, the Human Torch began appearing as a main character in the Marvel NOW! relaunch of The Invaders.

Early life
The Human Torch was an android created by Professor Phineas Horton in his lab in Brooklyn, New York for "scientific" purposes. At a press-conference unveiling, however, Horton's creation burst into flames when exposed to oxygen. The android showed human-like sentience, personality, and awareness, but the spectators feared that he posed a safety threat. Public outcry led to the Torch being sealed in concrete, though he escaped due to a crack that let oxygen seep in. The Torch then inadvertently caused parts of New York City to burn and, after dealing with a mobster who wanted to gain advantage of his abilities for fire insurance (and accidentally causing the mobster's death in an explosion), he eventually learned to control his flame, rebelled against his creator, and vowed to help humanity.

The Torch later first encountered and battled Namor the Sub-Mariner.

He would join other heroes as war broke out in Europe, and later in the Pacific, to fight the Axis powers. In his solo title's debut issue, he acquired a young partner, Thomas "Toro" Raymond, the mutant son of two nuclear scientists whose exposure to radiation gave him the ability to control fire. The Human Torch also joined the New York City police force as part of his "human cover" under the name James "Jim" Hammond. He would later drop the human name and serve the police force outright as the Human Torch, fighting villains and his off-and-on foe, the Sub-Mariner.

Both the Torch and the Sub-Mariner joined with Captain America and his partner Bucky as the core of the superhero team the Invaders, fighting Nazis during World War II (in retcon stories that premiered in 1970s comics). With the Invaders, he was soon brainwashed by the Red Skull and battled the Liberty Legion. He later gave a blood transfusion to Jacqueline Falsworth, giving her superhuman powers to become Spitfire.

The Torch, the Sub-Mariner, Captain America, and Bucky banded together with the Whizzer, and Miss America in post-war America in a subsequent super-team, the All-Winners Squad (the original Captain America and Bucky's membership were later retconned as having been the second Captain America and Bucky). In Marvel continuity, the Human Torch was responsible for the death of Adolf Hitler. When the Russians were invading Berlin, the Torch and Toro broke into Hitler's bunker just as he was about to commit suicide, to offer him the chance to surrender himself to the Americans, rather than the Russians. Hitler lunged for a red switch, presumed by the Torch to be a bomb. In return, the Human Torch blasted fire at Hitler, burning him alive.

Sometime afterward, the Torch was placed in deactivation sleep in the Mojave Desert; an atomic bomb test awoke him. Learning that Toro had been captured by the Soviets and brainwashed, the Torch rescued his old partner and learned that the nuclear bomb's radiation had made his powers both much stronger and more unstable.

To keep Toro a young boy, the writers retconned the character slightly, claiming the Torch met him after World War II rather than at the beginning of the war. The revival lasted five issues. Later writers explained how fearing he would become a danger to those around him, the Torch flew back out into the desert and went nova, using up his energy reserve and effectively deactivating himself.

Reactivation and joining Avengers West Coast
In modern-day continuity, the supervillain the Mad Thinker reactivated the Torch to have him battle the Fantastic Four, deactivating him when the Torch refused to kill the heroes. In a storyline in the Avengers that dealt with the secret background of its android member, the Vision revealed that the Torch's body had been found by a renegade robot named Ultron 5, and modified to become the Vision, his mind wiped of past memories and his powers altered with the coerced help of the Human Torch's original creator, Phineas Horton. The seed of this idea was planted by artist Neal Adams and worked out in detail in The Avengers #133–135 (May–June 1975) by writer Steve Englehart.

A later story by Roy Thomas in What If? #4 (Aug. 1977), planted the suggestion that the Vision was actually made from a second android created by Horton, named Adam II. This freed up the Human Torch for a possible revival. This was followed up by John Byrne, who had the Scarlet Witch revive the Torch in Avengers West Coast, seeking answers about her husband, the Vision, and to help Ann Raymond, wife of Tom "Toro" Raymond. In these stories, it was determined that the Vision had been made by Ultron out of the Torch's spare parts, which explained their physical similarities. The Torch served the Avengers for many issues before losing his powers to save the former superheroine Spitfire in the 1990s series Namor. His powers gone, the Torch settled down with Ann Raymond.

He became the Chief of Security for Oracle, Inc., and would appear later as the CEO of Oracle, Inc., a company run by Namor. There he ran the mercenary team Heroes for Hire, and his mysterious connection to the Vision was furthered when Ant-Man (Scott Lang) declared that his internal mechanisms were not merely similar, but identical to the Vision's, despite the profound differences in their appearance and powers. During the time-travel adventure Avengers Forever, the Avengers subsequently discovered Immortus, the custodian of Limbo, had used a device called the Forever Crystal to diverge the Torch's personal timeline while keeping the two outcomes concurrent. According to this explanation, the Human Torch is the Vision, but also continues to exist as himself.

When Oracle, Inc., was closed down and Heroes for Hire disbanded, Hammond was soon asked to head Citizen V's V-Battalion upon the retirement of Roger Aubrey, the Destroyer. While on leave from the V-Battalion as field leader of the New Invaders, he became attached to Tara, a female android based on him, whom he came to regard as a daughter of sorts. He also renewed acquaintances with Spitfire, to the dismay of her beau, Union Jack (Joey Chapman). Tara was revealed to have been created by the Red Skull; overrides on her developing personality allowed the Invaders' enemies, the Axis Mundi, to use her as a weapon against the team. As Tara heated toward overload to kill the Invaders, the Torch channeled her heat to prevent her meltdown. With his own systems then overloading, he flew high into the atmosphere, away from where he could cause harm, and detonated.

The Torch's remains were recovered by the United Nations and sequestered for research. They were subsequently stolen by professor Zhang Chin, who used the Torch's chemistry to create a virus weapon that caused infected persons to immolate. Captain America (Barnes) and the Sub-Mariner stopped the attack, and were able to pressure the U.S. Government into burying the Torch with full military honors.

The superhuman training camp created in the aftermath of the Civil War is named Camp Hammond, in the Torch's honor. A statue of Hammond on the grounds bears the inscription "JIM HAMMOND, THE FIRST OF THE MARVELS: He showed us that heroes can be made". When the camp was shut down by Norman Osborn, an angry mob tore down the statue.

Avengers/Invaders
The original Human Torch appears in the Avengers/Invaders maxi-series alongside his fellow Invaders when an incident takes them from the battlefields of World War II to the present Marvel Universe, where they encounter both the New Avengers and Mighty Avengers. During his time in the future, the Torch briefly attempts to 'lead' S.H.I.E.L.D.'s Life Model Decoys against the organization in the belief that they are sentient machines that have been enslaved by the agency, but it is revealed that he has been deceived by Ultron, who had infiltrated the Helicarrier.

Weaponization
Some time after his destruction, the pieces of his body are gathered and reassembled in a secret UN lab, until stolen by a squad of mercenaries led by Batroc the Leaper, at the behest of the Chinese science-villain Professor Pandemic. As a young boy, the Professor was rescued from Japanese authorities by the Invaders, and was fascinated by the Torch. Now, he intends to use the technology to further his goals. Captain America (James Barnes), Black Widow, and the Sub-Mariner race to prevent this from happening. The Professor used the Torch's chemistry and cell structure to create an airborne virus that can spontaneously kill people. The Professor plans to use this virus to eradicate half of Earth's population. Luckily, Cap is able to stop this and made sure that Jim received a proper burial.

The Torch
At the beginning of Dark Reign, the recently resurrected Toro is captured by A.I.M. during an attempt to kill the Mad Thinker. Initial experimentation on Toro makes the Mad Thinker realize that he can reconstruct the Torch. A.I.M. steals the Torch's body from Arlington National Cemetery for experimentation.

After the Mad Thinker and A.I.M. spent months experimenting on the Torch's corpse and on the captive Toro they are able to resurrect the Torch, but it seems all memories of his past have disappeared. The Mad Thinker gains complete control of the Torch using "Compound D", a synthetic molecule he adapted from the Torch's cells (H42N2C2O6), which he dubs "Horton cells". Meanwhile, Toro's powers begin to manifest themselves again and a startling discovery proves that Toro's mutation may have been created as a result of his mother working for Horton.

Torch is now a weapon of mass destruction, and quickly reduces an entire town to debris, killing everyone and everything in sight after destroying several Estonian air force jets. An escape attempt by Toro damages the control mechanism and sets the Torch free. He immediately returns to the A.I.M. carrier and he begins murdering everyone in sight (again). The Mad Thinker reveals that he has managed to synthesize more of the Compound D which can interact with living organisms and control them. As he teleports to safety from the Torch killing spree the compound starts pouring into the ocean. It reaches an Atlantean settlement below, as it was being visited by Namor, and infects the population.

As the Compound D infection spreads through New York, the Torch battles an infected Sub-Mariner and learns the nature of Compound D after Sub-Mariner attempts to infect him. Sub-Mariner is defeated and while Reed Richards can create an antidote, he cannot create enough of it fast enough. The Torch, Toro, and Johnny Storm team up and attack the Mad Thinker's base and the Thinker at first refuses to cooperate until the Torch threatens that he will scorch the Earth clean to defeat Compound D, starting with the Thinker. The Thinker realizes that the Torch is telling the truth as the Torch's emotions, memories, and humanity are still recovering from his recent demise and restoration and provides the antidote but warns them of it and teleports away. The antidote is released and all infected victims are cured but Reed Richards determines that the antidote breaks down all Horton cells, not just Compound D and that the Torch has only a few days before he is destroyed.

Toro attempts to investigate his past to learn of his parents' association with Professor Horton and learns that some Horton cell prototypes were stolen long ago. The Torch is visited by the Golden Age Vision who advises him to seek out Toro and aid him while he still can. Their quest takes them across the world to where an underground society called "New Berlin" exists and the population is educated under the premise that the Axis powers won WW2; people who leave the underground city burst into flames and are incinerated. The leader of this colony lures the Mad Thinker to it and then holds him captive to coerce him to cooperate. It is revealed that all citizens of New Berlin are in fact androids created from the unstable prototype Horton cells and that the atmosphere of the colony is saturated with anti-combustion chemicals to keep the citizens intact, however this also prevents Toro and the Torch from using their powers and they are captured.

The Thinker helps stabilize the New Berlin leader's weapon, the android Inhuman Torch so that it can function without destroying itself due to the prototype Horton cells. However the Thinker also aids in freeing the Torch and Toro, and despite the Torch still dying from the Compound D antidote engages the Inhuman Torch in battle. The Inhuman Torch however can easily control, absorb, and manipulate all flame and siphons the flame from the Torch and Toro. However the Torch bids Toro farewell and reignites himself and engages the Inhuman Torch in a final fight. The Torch at first offers to aid the Inhuman Torch in learning about itself and humanity but it refuses and the Torch then channels his nova flame into the Inhuman Torch which overloads it and renders it a fused and inert statue, however a side effect of using his nova flame this time was that it deactivated the enzyme that breaks down Horton cells and thus the Torch's life is saved. They bid farewell to New Berlin and the Golden Age Vision takes them back to New York. The Thinker escapes and reveals that the leader of "New Berlin" is himself an android due to the actual founder of the city being unable to have children of his own. The leader of New Berlin didn't believe this until he left the city and exploded into flame and was incinerated.

Secret Avengers
The Torch is later offered membership in the Secret Avengers by Captain America after Hawkeye takes over as the team's leader. During his first mission with the group, the Secret Avengers travel to the Core, a subterranean city inhabited by an advanced race of robots called Descendants. The Torch finds that he is worshiped by the Descendants, who respectfully refer to him as "Grandfather". During an encounter with a cyborg resembling the original Miss America, the Torch learns that the city was created by a man known as the Father, who created the Descendants back in the 1940s as part of a failed attempt to replicate Professor Horton's work. The Torch is badly damaged during the Avengers' escape from the Core, and is placed in stasis until his body can be repaired.

Black Ant later frees the Torch and teleports him back to the Core, where he is repaired by Father. There, the Torch sides with the Descendants, realizing that he never quite fit in with humans. He then leads an army of robots during a raid on New York City, with the goal of forcibly assimilating the human race through the use of nanotechnology. The Torch eventually realizes that he had been brainwashed, and destroys the Orb of Necromancy, the mystical artifact that granted life to the descendants. Although the human race is saved, the Descendants are all killed as a result. Distraught, the Torch quits the Avengers and flies off to parts unknown.

All-New Invaders
A number of months after his resignation from the Avengers, Hammond is shown living in a small town called Blaketon, now working as a mechanic. He is forced to abandon his new life after being attacked by a squadron of Kree soldiers, resuming his identity as the Human Torch once again. After being saved by the intervention of Captain America and the Winter Soldier, the Torch joins the newly reformed Invaders.

When the Fantastic Four are declared to be unfit guardians for the children of the Future Foundation, Hammond offers to take custody of the children to provide a guardian that the FF can trust who they know will do all that he can to reunite them with their parents, even threatening to leave S.H.I.E.L.D. if he is forced to make a choice between the agency and his promise to protect the children. During the final confrontation with the forces of Counter-Earth – unleashed by the mysterious Quiet Man as part of his plan against the FF – Sleepwalker revealed that Hammond had a soul despite his artificial origin.

Physiology
Earlier writers portrayed the Torch's body as anatomically identical to human, but made out of synthetic material. Correspondingly, the Torch was shown to have human needs and human weaknesses; he has been felled by drugs, poison gas, hypnotic and telepathic attacks in both Golden Age stories and the Invaders series from the 1970s. The Torch has a heart, lungs, circulatory and digestive systems, and has been shown sleeping, eating, and drinking on more than one occasion. Toro has humorously implied that the Torch has normal human excretory functions. This concept of a living, artificial human made of synthetic flesh and blood was unique in comics, as opposed to the much more common theme of a mechanical automaton that only externally resembles a human being.

After the Mad Thinker's modification and reactivation of the Torch, writers began to portray him as clearly mechanical, containing circuits, relays, and motors, much like a traditional robot. This variable presentation of his anatomy remains an unresolved issue, whether an overlooked continuity error or explained within the fictional context of the stories. After his creation by Phineas Horton, many others have examined and experimented on the Torch's body, including the Mad Thinker, Zhang Chin, Henry Pym, and unspecified scientists working for the United Nations. It is unclear if any of these entities have made additions to the Torch's original body design that could explain the appearance of his mechanical components. Captain America #47 describes the Torch's anatomy as biologically based, moving the pendulum back in the other direction: the Torch's body has both DNA and a cellular structure, according to Zhang Chin. Other writers have continued to emphasize the Torch's mechanical aspects, both in terms of showing metallic body components and references to the Torch having 'programming' that can be altered.

The Mad Thinker has stated that the Torch's organs are composed of "Horton cells" – synthetic replicas of human cells using plastic and carbon polymers that duplicate the structures found in organic human cells. These cells can be grown in a culture, and are compatible with human and mutant physiology. Even in small clusters, they are capable of generating and storing a remarkable amount of power:
 * While traveling inside the Human Torch in miniaturized form, Scott Lang temporarily gained a version of the Torch's powers after coming in contact with one of the cells that powers the Torch. This is a homage to a similar incident in which Hank Pym entered the Vision's body and was temporarily rendered intangible.
 * The Pyronanos, a type of nanomachine-based artificial beings, were created using cells secretly extracted from Jim Hammond.
 * Compound D, a mind control substance created by the Mad Thinker, is made from Horton cells.
 * Thomas "Toro" Raymond, the Torch's teenaged sidekick, is a mutant who was exposed to Horton cells as a child. The cells bonded to his nervous system and caused his powers to manifest as an exact duplicate of the Torch's.

Of particular note is the Torch's synthetic blood, which in addition to being a universal blood type has been shown to have restorative properties:
 * A "blood transfusion" from the Torch gave Spitfire her superspeed powers, and prevented her conversion to one of the undead; a second transfusion decades later saved her life and restored her youth. Aware of the initial transformation, the Hyena obtained a blood specimen from the Torch in the hopes of creating an army of Nazi speedsters. A similar transfusion to Warrior Woman reversed much of her brain damage and restored her health and power.
 * The robot Ultron reported he could "taste life" after drinking the Torch's blood.

Powers and abilities
The Human Torch is a synthetic being designed and constructed of artificial materials. He has the capacity for creative intelligence, unlimited self-motivated activity, and human-like emotions. The Torch has the ability to envelop his body in fiery plasma without harm to himself and to utilize this heat energy for various effects, including flight, formation of fiery shapes, energy releases in the form of heat blasts, "nova flame bursts" (highest intensity heat blasts, similar to the heat-pulse of a nuclear warhead), and concussive force blasts. The Torch has the ability to control ambient heat energy in his immediate environment, which allows him to control flames not of his own generation, makes him immune to the effects of external heat and to absorb heat from other sources. The Torch's flame can be extinguished by lack of oxygen, or by smothering materials such as water, sand, fire-fighting foam, or heat-resistant blankets unless his flame is at such intensity that it immediately vaporizes such materials on contact.

While in flame form, the original Human Torch has engaged in hand-to-hand combat with Namor, the Sub-Mariner. He has also dug underground and through vessels like a human missile.

The upper limit of his resistance has been undefined over the years, having once walked out stronger from a nuclear blast, and on another time considered destroyed by another nuclear blast, this last one happening in the last issue of New Invaders.

The Torch was a member of the NYPD in the 1940s, and has police academy training. He has received some training in unarmed combat by Captain America, and is an expert in the combat use of his superhuman powers. The Torch is also an accomplished street fighter.

The Torch can live without oxygen, entering a stasis mode.

Reception
In 2012, Hammond was ranked 28th in IGN's list of "The Top 50 Avengers".

Television

 * The android Human Torch makes a cameo appearance in a flashback in the Fantastic Four episode "When Calls Galactus".
 * The android Human Torch appears in The Super Hero Squad Show episode "World War Witch!", voiced by Jim Cummings. This version is a member of the Invaders.

Film
The android Human Torch makes a cameo appearance in Captain America: The First Avenger as a synthezoid dubbed the "Synthetic Man" on display at the 1943 Stark Expo.

Video games

 * Jim Hammond appears as an unlockable playable character in Lego Marvel's Avengers, voiced by Sam Riegel.
 * Jim Hammond appears as a playable character in Marvel Puzzle Quest.

title: Human Torch (android)


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Syrinx (disambiguation)

In Greek mythology, Syrinx was a nymph who was transformed into water reeds that were then fashioned into a musical instrument by the god Pan.

Syrinx may also refer to:

Music

 * Syrinx (also known as panpipes or Pan flute), a musical instrument consisting of multiple pipes
 * Simion Stanciu (1949–2010), Romanian pan flautist, stage name "Syrinx"
 * Syrinx (Debussy), a piece of music for solo flute
 * Syrinx (band), a Canadian electronic music group

Biology

 * Syrinx (bird anatomy), the vocal organ of birds
 * Syrinx (gastropod), a sea snail genus
 * Syrinx (medicine), a fluid-filled cavity in the nervous system
 * Caroline reed warbler (Acrocephalus syrinx), a bird

Other

 * 3360 Syrinx, an asteroid
 * Syringe

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Syrinx (disambiguation)


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Kalinga-Apayao

Kalinga-Apayao was a province of the Philippines in the Cordillera Administrative Region in the island of Luzon. It was formed, along with Benguet, Ifugao, and the new Mountain Province, from the earlier Mountain Province, with the passage of Republic Act No. 4695 in 1966. The said law was amended by RA No. 7878 in 1995, which divided the province into two new ones, Kalinga and Apayao.

As part of a cult of personality, long-time President Ferdinand Marcos made gradual changes to the borders of Kalinga-Apayao over the course of his rule with the aim of making the outline of the province, on a map, resemble the silhouette of his own head, facing towards his own native province of Ilocos Norte. The plan was unfinished when Marcos was overthrown in 1986.

Before Mountain Province
Prior to the establishment of the province, the sub-provinces of Kalinga and Apayao, upon their establishment through Act No. 1642 in 1907, were used to be part of Lepanto-Bontoc (as Kalinga was taken from Cagayan and Isabela) and Cagayan provinces respectively. The sub-provinces were annexed into the Mountain Province which was established through Act No. 1876 in 1908.

In the early years, the sub-provinces underwent series of territorial changes:
 * Part of Kalinga was transferred to another sub-province Bontoc (Executive Order 53, 1914); same as part of Apayao to the province of Ilocos Norte (EO 21, 1920).
 * 1922: In Apayao, a barrio of municipal district of Bayag (Calanasan) to Namaltugan.
 * 1926: In Kalinga, barrios in municipal district of Pinukpuk to Balbalan.
 * 1927: Parts of the municipal district of Pinukpuk in Kalinga to Conner in Apayao.

As sub-provinces of Mountain Province
The sub-provinces became part of Kalinga-Apayao which was created along with three other new provinces comprising the old Mountain Province through Republic Act 4695 on June 18, 1966. Those provinces, with Abra, would become part of the Cordillera Administrative Region, created through EO 220 on July 15, 1987.

Since the creation of the sub-provinces, Tabuc (Tabuk) was designated as the capital of Kalinga. In Apayao, its first sub-provincial capital was Tauit until mid-1915, when it was moved to Kabugao via EO 45.

During the Marcos dictatorship
The beginning months of the 1970s marked a period of turmoil and change in the Philippines, as well as in Kalinga-Apayao. During his bid to be the first Philippine president to be re-elected for a second term, Ferdinand Marcos launched an unprecedented number of public works projects. This caused the Philippine economy took a sudden downwards turn known as the 1969 Philippine balance of payments crisis, which in turn led to a period of economic difficulty and social unrest.

With only a year left in his last constitutionally allowed term as president Ferdinand Marcos placed the Philippines under Martial Law in September 1972 and thus retained the position for fourteen more years. This period in Philippine history is remembered for the Marcos administration's record of human rights abuses, particularly targeting political opponents, student activists, journalists, religious workers, farmers, and others who fought against the Marcos dictatorship. The Kalinga-Apayao became known as a flashpoint of conflict between the Marcos dictatorship and the various indigenous peoples who lived in the area, because of the Chico River Dam Project, which, even if only the most essential part of it were built, would have encompassed the municipalities of Tinglayan, Lubuagan, Pasil, and parts of Tabuk in Kalinga Province, as well as numerous municipalities in Mountain Province; and  would have displaced about 100,000 indigenous people. Because the great value placed on deceased ancestors who were buried within these communities, the issue was not just one of livelihood, but also one of sacred grounds. Marcos sent three armed brigades to quell down the protests, resulting in heightened tensions in the area. In 1977 alone, numerous Kalinga dam protesters — including tribal leaders Lumbaya Aliga Gayudan and Macli-ing Dulag, and even a 12-year-old child — were rounded up by these forces and incarcerated for up to two months.

The 24 April 1980 murder of Macli-ing Dulag became a turning point when coverage of the murder led to public outrage. It was the first time since the 1972 declaration of Martial Law where the mainstream Philippine press managed to report on the arrests of civilians under Martial Law, and the turn of public opinion against both the Chico River Dam and Martial law, coupled with the united anger of the various peoples of the Cordillera Mountains led the Ferdinand Marcos administration to give up on the dam project. As a result, the Chico River Dam Project is now considered a landmark case study concerning ancestral domain issues in the Philippines.

After the People Power Revolution
After Marcos was finally deposed by the civilian-led People Power Revolution in 1986, many of the activists who had joined the underground movement decided to "surface," as the new administration of Corazon Aquino released political prisoners and initiated peace talks. However, anti-left sentiment in Aquino's new cabinet, which included figures who had sided witht he Reform the Armed Forces Movement, made the peace process difficult, and negotiations eventually collapsed, and the insurgency in Kalinga-Apayao persisted. By December 1988, 52% of the barangays in the province were controlled by the New People's Army communist insurgent group while 43% are "under its influence" according to the House of Representatives Committee on National Defense.

Another event in 1986 marked the beginning of political change in the region, however - the splitting of the Cordillera People's Liberation Army from the New People's Army. Former Catholic priest Conrado Balweg, who had left his calling and joined the NPA in 1979, had been having disagreements with the NPA leadership over tactics and objectives in the Cordillera for four years when he finally decided to split from the NPA in early April 1986, believing that Igorot interests were better served through regional struggles for liberation, rather than the national-scale conflict pursued by the NPA.

Peace accord and creation of the Cordillera Autonomous Region
In September 1986, the CPLA signed the Mount Data Peace Accord with the government, which led to the creation of what became called the Cordillera Autonomous Region, although attempts to ratify actual autonomy in the region have failed due to non-ratification during plebiscites. Having later been divided into two new provinces, Kalinga and Apayao were separately declared insurgency-free in 2010: Apayao in February, Kalinga in November.

Abolition and division
By virtue of RA 7878, signed on February 14, 1995, the sub-provinces in Kalinga-Apayao were converted into two new provinces, Kalinga and Apayao, with their capitals remain the same as before. Both comprises the same municipalities that were used to be part of these sub-provinces.

Majority of voters in Kalinga-Apayao ratified the said law in a plebiscite on May 8.

Administrative divisions
By the time Kalinga-Apayao was established, eight municipalities remained part of the subprovince of Kalinga, six municipalities in the Subprovince of Apayao as well.

Within almost three decades, two new municipalities were later created. On the same day of the creation of the province, Pasil in Kalinga was created (RA 4741); also, Santa Marcela in Apayao in 1967 (RA 4974). Meanwhile, the municipality of Quirino in Kalinga, which had established before, was abolished sometime between 1975 and 1980. Before the division in 1995, the province had 15 municipalities and 283 barangays.

title: Kalinga-Apayao


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Numa Denis Fustel de Coulanges

Numa Denis Fustel de Coulanges (18 March 1830 – 12 September 1889) was a French historian. Joseph M. McCarthy argues that his first great book, The Ancient City (1864), was based on his in-depth knowledge of the primary Greek and Latin texts. The book argued that:
 * Religion was the sole factor in the evolution of ancient Greece and Rome, the bonding of family and state was the work of religion, that because of ancestor worship the family, drawn together by the need to engage in the ancestral cults, became the basic unit of ancient societies, expanding to the gens, the Greek phratry, the Roman tribe, to the patrician city state, and that decline in religious belief and authority in the moral crisis provoked by Roman wealth and expansion doomed the republic and resulted in the triumph of Christianity and the death of the ancient city-state.

Biography
Coulanges was born in Paris; he was of Breton descent. After studying at the École Normale Supérieure he was sent to the French School at Athens.

Career
In 1853, he directed some excavations in Chios, and wrote an historical account of the island.

After his return he filled various educational offices, and took his doctorate with two theses, Quid Vestae cultus in institutis veterum privatis publicisque valuerit and Polybe, ou la Grèce conquise par les Romains (1858). In these works his distinctive qualities were already revealed. His minute knowledge of the language of the Greek and Roman institutions, coupled with his low estimation of the conclusions of contemporary scholars, led him to go directly to the original texts, which he read without political or religious bias. When, however, he had succeeded in extracting from the sources a general idea that seemed to him clear and simple, he attached himself to it as if to the truth itself.

From 1860 to 1870 he was a professor of history at the faculty of letters at Strasbourg, where he had a brilliant career as a teacher, but never yielded to the influence exercised by the German universities in the field of classical and Germanic antiquities.

The Ancient City
It was at Strasbourg that he published La Cité antique (1864), in which he showed the part played by religion in the political and social evolution of Greece and Rome. The book was so consistent throughout, so full of ingenious ideas, and written in so striking a style, that it ranks as one of the masterpieces of the French language in the 19th century. By this literary merit, Fustel set little store, but he clung tenaciously to his theories. When he revised the book in 1875, his modifications were very slight, and it is conceivable that, had he recast it, as he often expressed the desire to do in the last years of his life, he would not have abandoned any part of his fundamental thesis.

Direction of the École normale supérieure and first chair of medieval history at the Sorbonne
Fustel de Coulanges was appointed to a lectureship at the École Normale Supérieure in February 1870, to a professorship at the Paris faculty of letters in 1875, and to the chair of medieval history created for him at the Sorbonne in 1878, he applied himself to the study of the political institutions of ancient France. The invasion of France by the German armies during the Franco-Prussian War attracted his attention to the Germanic invasions under the Roman Empire. Pursuing the theory of J.-B. Dubos, but also transforming it, he maintained that those invasions were not marked by the violent and destructive character usually attributed to them; that the penetration of the German barbarians into Gaul was a slow process; that the Germans submitted to the imperial administration; that the political institutions of the Merovingians had their origins in the Roman laws at least as much as, if not more than, in German usages; and, consequently, that there was no conquest of Gaul by the Germans.

This thesis he sustained in his Histoire des institutions politiques de l'ancienne France, the first volume of which appeared in 1874. It was the author's original intention to complete this work in four volumes, but as the first volume was keenly attacked in Germany as well as in France, Fustel was forced in self-defense to recast the book entirely. He re-examined all the texts and wrote a number of dissertations, which were dominated by his general idea and characterised by a total disregard for the results of such historical disciplines as diplomatic. From this crucible issued an entirely new work, less well arranged than the original, but rich in facts and critical comments. The first volume was expanded into three volumes, La Gaule romaine (1891), L'Invasion germanique et la fin de l'empire (1891) and La Monarchie franque (1888), followed by three other volumes, L'Alleu et le domaine rural pendant l'époque mérovingienne (1889), Les Origines du système féodal: le bénéfice et le patronat ... (1890) and Les Transformations de la royauté pendant l'époque carolingienne (1892).

Thus, in six volumes, he had carried the work no farther than the Carolingian period. The dissertations not embodied in his work were collected by himself and (after his death) by his pupil, Camille Jullian, and published as volumes of miscellanies: Recherches sur quelques problèmes d'Histoire (1885), dealing with the Roman colonate, the land system in Normandy; the Germanic mark, and the judiciary organization in the kingdom of the Franks; Nouvelles recherches sur quelques problèmes d'histoire (1891); and Questions historiques (1893), which contains his paper on Chios and his thesis on Polybius.

His life was devoted almost entirely to his teaching and his books. In 1875, he was elected member of the Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques, and in 1880 reluctantly accepted the post of director of the École Normale. Without intervening personally in French politics, he took a keen interest in the questions of administration and social reorganization arising from the fall of the imperialist régime and the disasters of the war.

He wished the institutions of the present to approximate more closely to those of the past and devised for the new French constitution a body of reforms which reflected the opinions he had formed upon the democracy at Rome and in ancient France. But these were dreams which did not hold him long, and he would have been scandalised had he known that his name was subsequently used as the emblem of a political and religious party. He died at Massy (then called Seine-et-Oise) in 1889.

Throughout his historical career – at the École Normale and the Sorbonne and in his lectures delivered to the empress Eugénie — his sole aim was to ascertain the truth, and in the defence of truth his polemics against what he imagined to be the blindness and insincerity of his critics sometimes assumed a character of harshness and injustice. But, in France at least, these critics were the first to render justice to his learning, his talents and his disinterestedness.

Works

 * Mémoire sur l'île de Chio, Paris, 1856.
 * Quid Vestæ Cultus in Institutis Veterum Privatis Publicisque Valuerit?, T. Jeunet, 1858.
 * Polybe ou la Grèce Conquise par les Romains, T. Jeunet, 1858.
 * La Cité Antique, Durand, 1864.
 * Histoire des Institutions Politiques de l'Ancienne France:
 * La Gaule Romaine.
 * L'Invasion Germanique et la Fin de l'Empire.
 * La Monarchie Franque.
 * L'Alleu et le Domaine Rural pendant l'Époque Mérovingienne.
 * Les Origines du Système Féodal.
 * Les Transformations de la Royauté pendant l'Époque Carolingienne.
 * Recherches sur Quelques Problèmes d'Histoire, Paris, Hachette, 1885.
 * Nouvelles Recherches sur Quelques Problèmes d'Histoire, Hachette, 1891.
 * Questions Historiques, Hachette, 1893.
 * Questions Contemporaines, Hachette, 1917 [1st Pub. 1916].
 * Leçons à l'Impératrice sur les Origines de la Civilisation Française, Hachette, 1930.

Works in English translation

 * The Ancient City: A Study on the Religion, Laws and Institutions of Greece and Rome, Lee & Shepard, 1877.
 * The Origin of Property in Land, Sonnenschein, 1891.
 * Polybius and the Roman Conquest of Greece, Invictus Publishing, 2023.

Historiography

 * Les communaux et le domaine à l'époque franque : réponse à m. Fustel de Coulanges, Glasson, Ernest-Désiré; Paris: F. Pichon, 1890.
 * Numa-Denis Fustel de Coulanges, Ledos, Eugène-Gabriel; Paris : Revue des Questions historiques, 1890.
 * Fustel de Coulanges, Guiraud, Paul; Paris: Hachette, 1896.
 * Fustel de Coulanges, Labelle, Eugène; Paris: Bloud, 1913.
 * L'histoire des institutions politiques de Fustel de Coulanges, Lazare de Gérin, Richard; Paris: Société française d'éditions littéraires et techniques, E. Malfère, 1936.
 * The historical thought of Fustel de Coulanges, Herrick, Jane; Washington, Catholic University of America Press, 1954.
 * Le XIXe siècle et l'histoire : le cas Fustel de Coulanges, Hartog, François; Paris: Seuil, 2001.

title: Numa Denis Fustel de Coulanges


text:
Abington School District v. Schempp

Abington School District v. Schempp, 374 U.S. 203 (1963), was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court decided 8–1 in favor of the respondent, Edward Schempp, on behalf of his son Ellery Schempp, and declared that school-sponsored Bible reading and the recitation of the Lord's Prayer in public schools in the United States was unconstitutional.

Background
Public schools in Pennsylvania had been required to start the school day by reading Bible verses since 1949. By the 1960s, four more states had passed similar laws requiring daily Bible reading. Twenty-five states had laws allowing "optional" Bible reading, with the remainder of the states having no laws supporting or rejecting Bible reading. In eleven of those states with laws supportive of Bible reading or state-sponsored prayer, state courts had declared the laws to be unconstitutional.

The Establishment Clause had already been applied to the states in Everson v. Board of Education (1947) by a process called incorporation

Edward Schempp, a Unitarian Universalist filed suit against the Abington School District in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania challenging the Pennsylvania law under the First and Fourteenth Amendments.

Lower court history
During the first trial in federal district court, Edward Schempp and his children testified as to specific religious doctrines "which were contrary to the religious beliefs which they held and to their familial teaching". The children testified that all of the doctrines to which they referred were read to them at various times as part of the exercises. The other two children and Edward L. Schempp, their father, testified similarly. In November 1956 Ellory Schempp decided that he would read the Quran during the daily Bible reading and informed school personnel that he would no longer stand for the recitation of the Lord's Prayer because he felt it was unconstitutional.

The district court ruled in Schempp's favor and struck down the Pennsylvania statute. The school district appealed the ruling. While that appeal was pending, the Pennsylvania legislature amended the statute to allow children to be excused from the exercises upon the written request of their parents. After the law changed, the Supreme Court vacated the first ruling and remanded the case back to the district court. Schempp believed that, even with the change to allow students to leave the classroom, his children's relationships with their teachers and classmates would be adversely affected. The district court again found for Schempp. The school district appealed to the Supreme Court again, and, on appeal, the case was consolidated with a similar Maryland case Murray v. Curlett.

The Supreme Court granted certiorari to settle the persistent and vigorous protests resulting from its previous decision in Engel v. Vitale regarding religion in schools. Henry W. Sawyer argued the case for Schempp.

Majority opinion
The Supreme Court upheld the District Court's decision and found the Pennsylvania prayer statute unconstitutional. In writing the opinion of the Court, Justice Tom C. Clark stated, "This Court has decisively settled that the First Amendment's mandate [in the Establishment Clause] has been made wholly applicable to the States by the Fourteenth Amendment ... in a series of cases since Cantwell. The Court explicitly upheld Engel v. Vitale in which the Court ruled that the sanctioning of a prayer by the school amounted to a violation of the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution, which states, "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion." The Abington court held that in organizing a reading of the Bible, the school was conducting "a religious exercise," and "that cannot be done without violating the 'neutrality' required of the State by the balance of power between individual, church, and state that has been struck by the First Amendment".

What was unexpected, however, were the ideas expressed in the second portion of Justice Clark's opinion written for the majority. The Court's recognition of religious ideals as valuable to the culture of the United States in that opinion are generally not cited much by either side of the church-state debate when discussing the case and the effect it had on the United States. His opening thoughts explicitly spelled out that view in past jurisprudence with cases similar to Abington v. Schempp.

Clark continued that the Court was of the feeling that regardless of the religious nature of the citizenry, the government at all levels, as required by the Constitution, must remain neutral in matters of religion "while protecting all, prefer[ring] none, and disparag[ing] none." The Court had rejected "the contention by many that the Establishment Clause forbade only governmental preference of one faith over another."

Citing Justice Hugo Black in Torcaso v. Watkins, Justice Clark added, "We repeat and again reaffirm that neither a State nor the Federal Government can constitutionally force a person 'to profess a belief or disbelief in any religion.' Neither can it constitutionally pass laws or impose requirements which aid all religions as against non-believers, and neither can it aid those religions based on a belief in the existence of God as against those religions founded on different beliefs." Such prohibited behavior was self-evident in the Pennsylvania law requiring Bible reading (and allowing recitation of the Lord's Prayer) in its public schools. The Court recognized the value of such ideal neutrality from lessons of history when government and religion were either fully fused or cooperative with one another and religious liberty was nonexistent or seriously curtailed.

Brennan's concurrence
Justice Brennan filed a lengthy concurrence over seventy pages long that reviewed the history of the First Amendment and the relevant judicial and legislative history. Brennan argued that an originalist approach would be "misdirected", giving several reasons including the ambiguity of the historical record and the increasing religious diversity of American society which raised well-founded concerns about the traditional role of prayer and Bible reading in public schools. Brennan emphasized that the First Amendment does not require "official hostility towards religion, but only neutrality".

Brennan has defended the "wall of separation" view of the Establishment Clause in other cases including a dissent he wrote in Marsh v. Chambers where he quoted his Schempp concurrence: "to be truly faithful to the Framers 'our use of the history of their time must limit itself to broad purposes, not specific practices'".

Stewart's dissent
Justice Potter Stewart filed the only dissent in the case. In it, he was critical of both the lower court opinions and the decision the Supreme Court had reached regarding them. He wished to remand the case to lower courts for further proceedings.

Stewart had dissented in Engel v. Vitale and viewed the doctrine relied on in that case as implausible, given the long history of government religious practice in the United States, including the fact that the Supreme Court opens its sessions with the declaration, "God Save this Honorable Court" and that Congress opens its sessions with prayers, among many other examples. Stewart believed that such practice fit with the nation's long history of permitting free exercise of religious practices, even in the public sphere.

He declared the cases consolidated with Schempp as "so fundamentally deficient as to make impossible an informed or responsible determination of the constitutional issues presented," specifically of whether the Establishment Clause was violated. As to the intent and scope of the religion clauses of the First Amendment, he stated:

"It is, I think, a fallacious oversimplification to regard the [religion clauses] as establishing a single constitutional standard of 'separation of church and state', which can be applied in every case to delineate the required boundaries between government and religion... As a matter of history, the First Amendment was adopted solely as a limitation upon the newly created National Government. The events leading to its adoption strongly suggest that the Establishment Clause was primarily an attempt to ensure that Congress not only would be powerless to establish a national church, but would also be unable to interfere with existing state establishments. ... So matters stood until the adoption of the Fourteenth Amendment, or more accurately, until this Court's decision in Cantwell...."

He stated his agreement with the doctrine of the Fourteenth Amendment's embrace and application of the Bill of Rights, but pointed out the irony of such an amendment "designed to leave the States free to go their own way should now have become a restriction upon their autonomy".

Other critics of the Court's findings in Abington v. Schempp often quote the following excerpt from Justice Stewart's opinion:

"If religious exercises are held to be an impermissible activity in schools, religion is placed in an artificial and state-created disadvantage.... And a refusal to permit religious exercises thus is seen, not as the realization of state neutrality, but rather as the establishment of a religion of secularism, or at least, as governmental support of the beliefs of those who think that religious exercises should be conducted only in private."

Subsequent developments
The public was divided in reaction to the Court's decision, which has sparked persistent and ongoing criticism from proponents of prayer in school. In 1964, Life magazine declared Madalyn Murray O'Hair, the mother of the plaintiff in one of the associated cases, to be "the most hated woman in America."

Newspapers were no exception. The Washington Evening Star, for example, criticized the decision, declaring that "God and religion have all but been driven from the public schools. What remains? Will the baccalaureate service and Christmas carols be the next to go? Don't bet against it." In contrast, The New York Times was more accepting of the Court's ruling. The paper printed significant portions of the opinions with no significant comments, either supportive or critical. Opponents characterized the decision as the one which "kicked God and prayer out of the schools".

The views of various religious entities on the decision split between mainline Protestants and Jews, who in general strongly supported the decision, and evangelical Protestants and conservative Catholics, who strongly opposed the decision. Speaking from the evangelical perspective, Billy Graham said, "[i]n my opinion... the Supreme Court... is wrong.... Eighty percent of the American people want Bible reading and prayer in schools. Why should a majority be so severely penalized...?" The mainline denominations, with the exception of the Roman Catholic Church, expressed less critical opinions of the verdict. Some considered it to support religious freedom because it limited governmental authority in the sphere of public schools.

The United States Congress reacted by drafting more than 150 resolutions to overturn the ruling by a constitutional amendment. Abington v. Schempp was used as precedent for similar cases such as Board of Education v. Allen and Lemon v. Kurtzman in the decades that followed. The three-part Lemon test had its basis in the jurisprudence of Abington v. Schempp. Under the test, the constitutionality of a given church-state law is weighed by three criteria: whether a law has a non-secular purpose, advances or inhibits religion, or results in excessive government entanglement with religion.

The Lemon test was overturned in the 2022 decision of Kennedy v. Bremerton School District in which the Court ruled that a coach who held a private prayer on the sports field, joined voluntarily by students and others, did not violate the Establishment Clause, and it maintained the First Amendment rights of the coach. However, that decision did not affect Schempp and restrictions against school prayer.

title: Abington School District v. Schempp


text:
Talk:Thursday (band)

Genre
I think Thursday is flat out great, no matter what "genre" you want to put them into. As far as I see it, Thursday is unlike any band I have heard before. Maybe we should call it "Thursday_x_core" <--- *sarcasm*  —Preceding unsigned comment added by 67.177.205.243 (talk) 21:12, 28 January 2008 (UTC)

I set their main article genre to ROCK, which encompasses alternative, punk, hardcore, post-hardcore, emocore, indie, and other styles that have influenced this band. Those influences have been listed in the sidebox. Please stop changing the article without discussing it here. ACA 18:37, 12 June 2007 (UTC)

I think their primary genre, from my listening experience to Thursday, can be considered Emo Progressive, with hints of Post-hardcore. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 72.81.80.66 (talk) 00:53, 15 February 2009 (UTC)
 * For one, I wholeheartedly disagree, as I'm not even sure that an "Emo Progressive" genre actually exists. Plus, without an actual source CALLING them "Emo Progressive", we aren't going to change the genre. Rwiggum  (Talk /Contrib ) 18:06, 15 February 2009 (UTC)

OK, can we fix this genre anarchy? I don't think most of the genres listed are at all necessary. Emo Violence? whats this? From my understanding its basically another name for (old-school?) screamo, and it links to regular emo? I think It should be removed. I Think maybe Post-hardcore, Emo, and Screamo would cover them. The citation for them being "New Prog" links to A youtube of Randy Johnson's bird pitch. This is madness. I'm taking out these uncited genres. 24.63.46.64 (talk) 17:39, 6 January 2010 (UTC)

Old genre discussion
Can't we just call them a rock band? All these labels - "Screamo", "emo-hardcore", whatever, are so debated and thrown around that they don't even mean anything. I'm not a "genre-pedant" or a "scenester" - being 17 in this town, "the scene" is ubiqitous. --Tothebarricades.tk 19:44, 24 Sep 2004 (UTC)

There is no such thing as EMO. depressed, suicidal, emotional, sick and people who are deep into the art and creativity of music (indie). This deffinatly is a hard concept to accept, it was for me a year ago. If you have any questions you can Instant Message me at Thursday3031. Thursday is just an indie band that pushes into post-hardcore and many other genres. They just have a unique, diverse sound of their own. No one in Thursday can be replaced with another person, the vocals/lyrics fit perfectly with the music. - Thursday3031

I think that Thursday is not EMO but I do think that there musical talent is far beyond any of these labels that we are trying to put on them, because if we label a great band like this we are mearly stating that we can not see beyond the name/genre,because we are to busy fighting over which group they belong to instead of appriciating the real music.Frobot

There is such a thing as emo. Thursday has some friends/influences that are emo, such as You and I, but they are certainly not emo. Post-hardcore suits them perfectly fine, and we're leaving it at that. - Timeasimperialism

I disagree. They most cirtainly aren't post hardcore. If the band seem so dedicated to avoiding labels, leave it that way. - ChalkFacedGoon

Dude get it through your heads they are EMO!!!!!Chriscool334 22:03, 9 February 2007 (UTC)

There us such a thing as emo. Emo is Emotive Hardcore like Rites of Spring and Moss Icon. Thursday is post-hardcore. I don't even see how people can debate that. Thursday is Post-Hardcore; end of story.

It makes sense that Thursday belong in a couple different genres, but they're definitely emo. Emo can mean a lot of things though, it's not just mushy and bad: it started as an offshoot of hardcore punk and Thursday are definitely among the bands in the post-hardcore scene that have been returning to more hardcore aspects of emo, rather than the less heavy indie element in emo. I think that's adequately reflected in calling them an "emo/post-hardcore" outfit in the first line. —Tarnas 02:19, 13 August 2005 (UTC)

Of course, but if you say they're emo, then you must say every band is emo. Bands like As I Lay Dying, The Number 12 Looks Like You, Mars Volta. Emotions come from every song you listen to regardless the genre, so it's either everything is emo, or nothing is emo. - Thursday3031

Allmusic.com puts them in the genre of rock and the style of Emo.

Everything, or nothing is emo, let's know what the term is before we use it and talk about it. - Thursday3031

The0208 18:34, 8 October 2005 (UTC)

o man you must be fucked up in the head thursday has a lot of emocore, screamo and post hardcore

but the lyrics are rather critical than emotional

they have the basement of punkrock lyrically, and post hardcore musically.

andrés, today

Thursday is an awesome band, and I think all these labels are pointless. There is no point in arguing about who's what or whatever. It doesn't matter because if we all like the same band, then we should celebrate the music and support the bands that we love.--Leandreamo
 * The point is this is an encyclopaedia, and important information about bands, such as their genre, should be included. Thursday are definitely emo. More of a post-hardcore-ish emo, less of the modern pop-punk emo stuff, but emo. --Switch 12:37, 10 April 2006 (UTC)

You got me there. This is an encyclopedia. But I guess my point is that kids nowadays are focusing too much on labels and not really listening. I tried to introduce Thursday to an acquataince (is that how you spell it?) at school and the first thing out of his mouth was "what are they?" meaning what genre are they? Kids will refuse to even try to listen to a new band if the label is not what they like. And the sad thing is that Thursday's music is not that much different from the bands that that guy actually likes. People miss out on a lot of great bands just because of what labels are cool and what's not. But that's just the way I feel about it so I guess it doesn't really matter. But I do agree that encyclopedia's need genre's for bands and stuff.-Leandreamo

i'm w/ u man... i dont really mind qualifying bands by genre i listen to different genres including nu metal, emo, post hardcore, hip hop

but when i hear the word emo it comes to my mind those little guys that like things that sound pretty

not garage screams

but production pop-romatic-lyricked songs

and when i listen to waiting, i hear something very alike to the "like linus" of Deftones, full collapse is more emoish, war all the time, a very critical album (tho the band claims its love seen as war), and a city by the light divided is 100% indie rock

so, would you put Thursday together with The Used or Simple Plan

they are far from it

call it indiecore

Simple plan and The Used are Pop-Rock, Thursday are Post-hardcore, neither have anything to do with emo. Emo is used correctly on this site so frequently I have stopped trusted 90% of what music articles say. If you don't know what emo means, you shouldn't toss it around. Rites of Sping is emo. Sunny Day Real Estate is emo. Moss Icon is Emo. Simple Plan is Pop-Rock.

Thursday is the best representing of Indiecore.

i'm sure the genre titles are irrelevant in this day and age, what's wrong with calling them a rock band. Bands these days have very little connection to the bands they take their influences from, and there for have very little to do with the genre some other bands have comfort masquerading as. (afroXcore)

Guys...they're a post-hardcore band. This is really very simple. They're not emo or "emocore". Indiecore isn't even a real genre. You're stretching this really far.

This isn't emo or screamo or any of that junk. You could say it has influences in emo music but "emotive hardcore punk rock" does not fit Thursday. And screamo? That's a completely different genre. They aren't even close. They're not really alternative either, although I'll keep it because they do have some alternative influences, especially in their newest album. Just keep it as post-hardcore and indie rock. -- FatalError (talk | contribs) 04:09, 23 February 2008 (UTC)

 * But anyway, it doesn't matter what genre we think they are, because we need to go by the sources. Numerous sources cite them as post-hardcore, so I don't think that's arguable, but I've also found a few that call them screamo, so I've added that. Please don't remove it before discussing here. -- FatalError 23:50, 27 May 2008 (UTC)

Just to express my honest genre opinion: I wouldn't really consider Thursday emo except for their first album which has a bit of a indie-emo sound,but they SHOULD NOT be recognized as Emo.

I think they should be recognized as Post-Hardcore. And when i say 'Post-Hardcore' i don't mean the shitty modern bands like Enter Shikari and Silverstein that consist of 19-21 year olds,appearing in Kerrang!,sounding all boring and samey. I'm talking about the Indie-rock bands(that the stuiped 12 and 13 year olds haven't heard of)that were formed in the 90's such as At The Drive-in,Glassjaw,The Blood Brothers,Hot Water Music etc that have highly influenced a lot more than some teenagers in a 'Hardcore/Emo/FashionXCore band.

And i wouldn't consider them screamo,being a fan of such bands as Circle Takes The Square and Antioch Arrow,but they are credible to staarting this so called 'Second Wave' with Underoath so I guess you'd have to leave it in.

Indie rock,definetly.On the split with Envy,they produced this Post-Rock stuff and the Parrent term for Post-Rock = Indie Rock ! —Preceding unsigned comment added by Nirvanarox55 (talk • contribs) 16:39, 14 June 2009 (UTC)

--Nirvanarox55 (talk) 16:40, 14 June 2009 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:Thursday-logo2.png
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BetacommandBot (talk) 05:10, 30 November 2007 (UTC)

Cleanup
The other day I spent a while cleaning up the article because it was a mess. Links were used instead of references, quotes were uncited, and there were many phrases and sentences with an unencyclopedic tone. I hope it looks better. Also, I added screamo to the genre list in the infobox, because unfortunately that's what the sources say, however wrong it is. If anyone requests that I add more for verification, I will. Oh, and can I remove that "unreferenced" template now? We have a total of 8 sources in the article, but I don't know if that's enough to consider it verifiable. -- FatalError 23:54, 27 May 2008 (UTC)
 * Well, ideally almost everything should be sourced. Information about the band like "The band began playing basement shows in New Brunswick and surrounding New Jersey and New York areas." or "Thursday originally toyed with the idea of double album" should really be sourced. But more importantly any opinions like "A City by the Light Divided was generally received well by critics, and spawned two singles, "Counting 5-4-3-2-1" and "At This Velocity", though the latter received considerably less attention ."; and anything strongly worded/not neutral/with a POV like " Hesitant to join a larger label, but with full support from Eyeball Records". should definitely have a source. You're doing a good job so far. I've replaced the Unrefenced template with a Refimprove template. kollision (talk) 03:08, 28 May 2008 (UTC)
 * Well keep in mind that this was all done in under an hour. I didn't really even read the whole article, I just fixed things that popped out at me. But I'll work some more on it. It has the potential to be a great article, it just has a lot of little mistakes. Thanks. -- FatalError 03:56, 28 May 2008 (UTC)

A City by the Light Divided
That entire section (or almost) is copied from here. I wouldn't doubt that other parts of the article are as well, though I don't have the time to check right now. If someone could rewrite that, it would be really appreciated. If no one does it, I'll get around to it sometime in the next few days when I'm not bombarded with homework. Or at least find the original source before I get going with that. Thanks. -- FatalError 04:13, 7 June 2008 (UTC)

No.. I wrote the Wiki article. That site copied the wiki I wrote. ACA (talk) 04:18, 7 June 2008 (UTC)

 * Oh...just kidding then. They didn't have a source or anything so I figured they wrote it. Thanks for letting me know. -- FatalError 05:43, 7 June 2008 (UTC)

Image copyright problem with Image:Thursday-counting54321.ogg
The image Image:Thursday-counting54321.ogg is used in this article under a claim of fair use, but it does not have an adequate explanation for why it meets the requirements for such images when used here. In particular, for each page the image is used on, it must have an explanation linking to that page which explains why it needs to be used on that page. Please check

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Assessment comments
''These have been moved here from a subpage as part of a cleanup process. See Discontinuation of comments subpages.''

I have assessed this article as C-class and identified the following areas for improvement:  shirulashem     (talk)   19:28, 26 December 2008 (UTC)
 * The article needs inline citations
 * The article needs references

New Prog?
The citation links to an MLB video on Youtube that's been taken down. I'm deleting it. NoremacDaGangsta (talk)

"War All the Time" Banned by MTV?
The statement under the heading War All the Time about MTV banning the video for the song "War All the Time" because of "controversial material involving a fake news feed that appeared to be real and teenagers being weapon targets" is not supported by the cited source. The cited source is merely a blog and makes no mention of a fake news feed, teenagers, weapons, or targets. A better source would be an MTV press release stating why MTV decided to ban the video. If no one knows with any certainty whether or why MTV banned the video, I'd like to delete that statement from the article. BillyPreset (talk) 00:51, 9 September 2010 (UTC)
 * I agree with your logic here. Go ahead and remove it. If someone can manage to find a proper source that provides more information on this topic in the future, it could easily be added back. Fezmar9 (talk) 01:01, 9 September 2010 (UTC)

Band name
Anything regarding how the band got their name sourced or not? • GunMetal Angel  22:13, 10 November 2011 (UTC)

External links modified
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Two things
First, is anyone willing to add the fact that My Chemical Romance announced that Thursday would play with them on MCR's reunion show in LA?

Second, what about the plane crash that Thursday was in during the writing of A City By The Light Divided? They even wrote two songs about it, which appeared on ACBTLD. — Preceding unsigned comment added by OfficalKevinOsmond (talk • contribs) 12:51, 9 November 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Thursday (band)


text:
Land letter

The Land letter was a letter sent to U.S. President George W. Bush by five evangelical Christian leaders on October 3, 2002, outlining their support for a just war pre-emptive invasion of Iraq. As its foundation for support, the letter refers to the "criteria of just war theory as developed by Christian theologians in the late fourth and early fifth centuries A.D." The letter was written by Richard D. Land, president of the Ethics & Religious Liberty Commission of the Southern Baptist Convention. It was co-signed by:

 * Chuck Colson, founder of Prison Fellowship Ministries
 * Bill Bright, chairman of the Christian organization Cru
 * James Kennedy, president of Coral Ridge Ministries, and
 * Carl D. Herbster, president of the American Association of Christian Schools

The letter asserted that a pre-emptive invasion of Iraq met the criteria of traditional 'just war' theory because:
 * such an action would be defensive
 * the intent is found to be just and noble. The United States does not intend to 'destroy, conquer, or exploit Iraq'
 * it is a last resort because Saddam Hussein had a record of attacking his neighbors, of the 'headlong pursuit and development of biochemical and nuclear weapons of mass destruction' and their use against his own people, and harboring Al-Qaeda in Iraq terrorists
 * it is authorized by a legitimate authority, namely the United States
 * it has limited goals
 * it has reasonable expectation of success
 * non-combatant immunity would be observed
 * it meets the criteria of proportionality—the human cost on both sides would be justified by the intended outcome

title: Land letter


text:
Talk:Simplified Chinese characters

Nomenclature
A few points I've been thinking about, though maybe it's good to have this on Talk:Chinese characters or Project:China or somewhere. Remsense (talk) 22:34, 29 September 2023 (UTC)
 * So, I think it's correct to view 'traditional' and 'simplified' characters per se as sister sets, just like men didn't descend from apes: their character variants were both in use well before the two sets were standardized in the 20th century. If Khitan small script is a sibling of Simplified, so is Traditional, imo.
 * There's a conflation throughout the article, maybe an insignificant one, but it seems important to me, between 'simplified' and 'Simplified' characters, and likewise with traditional. It feels right to use 'simplified' when talking about the concept in general and looking and various examples, and 'Simplified' when talking about the specific standard promulgated by the PRC, and its political/scholarly history &c &c. This is reinforced of course by the fact that there are different Traditional character sets used in Hong Kong versus Taiwan etc, and simplified variants that aren't on the PRC list.

ruhinsiDi
Students hvn😄😃 — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2409:4080:CE1A:B581:CA87:789:DB06:80B5 (talk) 08:48, 15 December 2023 (UTC)

Hmmm...
What issues are there? 🤔 PlaneCrashKing1264 (talk) 00:37, 11 February 2024 (UTC)

 * By far, the biggest issue with this article is that many paragraphs, and even entire sections, lack any inline citations. Remsense  诉  02:24, 11 February 2024 (UTC)
 * Like what? PlaneCrashKing1264 (talk) 04:17, 11 February 2024 (UTC)
 * Many of the claims are a pain to find sources for if one can't read Chinese, but here's a representative example—the first paragraph of the article body:
 * Remsense 诉  04:32, 11 February 2024 (UTC)
 * Oh, ok PlaneCrashKing1264 (talk) 13:36, 11 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Simplified Chinese characters


text:
Alien Technology

Alien Technology, founded in 1994, is a manufacturer of RFID technology. The company is headquartered in San Jose, California, having the Alien RFID Solutions Center, in the Dayton, Ohio area, and sales offices in the United States, Europe and Asia. As of August 2010, Alien employs approximately 235 people. Alien produces (EPC) Class 1 and Class 1 Gen 2 RFID inlays, tags, and readers designed for use in manufacturing lines, warehouses, distribution centers, and retail stores.

History
The company was founded in 1994 by John Stephen Smith.

Products
Due to potential applications in a wide variety of mass-produced electronic devices, the company received funding and technical support from a number of other manufacturers, such as DuPont Displays and Philips Components. The company has established relationships with Walmart, the United States Department of Defense, The Gillette Company, Hewlett-Packard, IBM, Unisys, VeriSign, Dublin, Manhattan Associates, Microsoft, The Kennedy Group, Nashua Corporation, NCR Corporation, Zebra Technologies, and Paxar.

Products from Alien Technology are as follows;

 * Handheld RFID Reader
 * Fixed RFID Readers
 * RFID Antennas
 * RFID Inlays
 * Accessories

title: Alien Technology


text:
Maillard reaction

The Maillard reaction is a chemical reaction between amino acids and reducing sugars to create melanoidins, the compounds which give browned food its distinctive flavor. Seared steaks, fried dumplings, cookies and other kinds of biscuits, breads, toasted marshmallows, and many other foods undergo this reaction. It is named after French chemist Louis Camille Maillard, who first described it in 1912 while attempting to reproduce biological protein synthesis. The reaction is a form of non-enzymatic browning which typically proceeds rapidly from around 140 to 165 C. Many recipes call for an oven temperature high enough to ensure that a Maillard reaction occurs. At higher temperatures, caramelization (the browning of sugars, a distinct process) and subsequently pyrolysis (final breakdown leading to burning and the development of acrid flavors) become more pronounced.

The reactive carbonyl group of the sugar reacts with the nucleophilic amino group of the amino acid and forms a complex mixture of poorly characterized molecules responsible for a range of aromas and flavors. This process is accelerated in an alkaline environment (e.g., lye applied to darken pretzels; see lye roll), as the amino groups (RNH3+->RNH2) are deprotonated, and hence have an increased nucleophilicity. This reaction is the basis for many of the flavoring industry's recipes. At high temperatures, a probable carcinogen called acrylamide can form. This can be discouraged by heating at a lower temperature, adding asparaginase, or injecting carbon dioxide.

In the cooking process, Maillard reactions can produce hundreds of different flavor compounds depending on the chemical constituents in the food, the temperature, the cooking time, and the presence of air. These compounds, in turn, often break down to form yet more flavor compounds. Flavour scientists have used the Maillard reaction over the years to make artificial flavors, the majority of patents being related to the production of meat-like flavours.

History
In 1912, Louis Camille Maillard published a paper describing the reaction between amino acids and sugars at elevated temperatures. In 1953, chemist John E. Hodge with the U.S. Department of Agriculture established a mechanism for the Maillard reaction.

Foods and products

The Maillard reaction is responsible for many colors and flavors in foods, such as the browning of various meats when seared or grilled, the browning and umami taste in fried onions and coffee roasting. It contributes to the darkened crust of baked goods, the golden-brown color of French fries and other crisps, browning of malted barley as found in malt whiskey and beer, and the color and taste of dried and condensed milk, dulce de leche, toffee, black garlic, chocolate, toasted marshmallows, and roasted peanuts.

6-Acetyl-2,3,4,5-tetrahydropyridine is responsible for the biscuit or cracker-like flavor present in baked goods such as bread, popcorn, and tortilla products. The structurally related compound 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline has a similar smell and also occurs naturally without heating. The compound gives varieties of cooked rice and the herb pandan (Pandanus amaryllifolius) their typical smells. Both compounds have odor thresholds below 0.06 nanograms per liter.

The browning reactions that occur when meat is roasted or seared are complex and occur mostly by Maillard browning with contributions from other chemical reactions, including the breakdown of the tetrapyrrole rings of the muscle protein myoglobin. Maillard reactions also occur in dried fruit and when champagne ages in the bottle

Caramelization is an entirely different process from Maillard browning, though the results of the two processes are sometimes similar to the naked eye (and taste buds). Caramelization may sometimes cause browning in the same foods in which the Maillard reaction occurs, but the two processes are distinct. They are both promoted by heating, but the Maillard reaction involves amino acids, whereas caramelization is the pyrolysis of certain sugars.

In making silage, excess heat causes the Maillard reaction to occur, which reduces the amount of energy and protein available to the animals that feed on it.

Archaeology
In archaeology, the Maillard process occurs when bodies are preserved in peat bogs. The acidic peat environment causes a tanning or browning of skin tones and can turn hair to a red or ginger tone. The chemical mechanism is the same as in the browning of food, but it develops slowly over time due to the acidic action on the bog body. It is typically seen on Iron Age bodies and was described by Painter in 1991 as the interaction of anaerobic, acidic, and cold (typically 4 °C) sphagnum acid on the polysaccharides.

The Maillard reaction also contributes to the preservation of paleofeces.

Chemical mechanism

 * 1) The carbonyl group of the sugar reacts with the amino group of the amino acid, producing N-substituted glycosylamine and water
 * 2) The unstable glycosylamine undergoes Amadori rearrangement, forming ketosamines
 * 3) Several ways are known  for the ketosamines to react further:
 * 4) * Produce two water molecules and reductones
 * 5) * Diacetyl, pyruvaldehyde, and other short-chain hydrolytic fission products can be formed.
 * 6) * Produce brown nitrogenous polymers and melanoidins

The open-chain Amadori products undergo further dehydration and deamination to produce dicarbonyls. This is a crucial intermediate.

Dicarbonyls react with amines to produce Strecker aldehydes through Strecker degradation.

Acrylamide, a possible human carcinogen, can be generated as a byproduct of Maillard reaction between reducing sugars and amino acids, especially asparagine, both of which are present in most food products.

title: Maillard reaction


text:
English billiards

English billiards, called simply billiards in the United Kingdom and in many former British colonies, is a cue sport that combines the aspects of carom billiards and pool. Two (one white and one yellow) and a red  are used. Each player or team uses a different cue ball. It is played on a billiards table with the same dimensions as one used for snooker and points are scored for and pocketing the balls.

History
English billiards originated in England, and was originally called the winning and losing carambole game, folding in the names of three predecessor games, the winning game, the losing game, and an early form of carom billiards that combined to form it.

The winning game was played with two white balls, and was a 12- contest. To start, the player who could strike a ball at one end of the table and get the ball to come to rest nearest the opposite cushion without lying against it earned the right to shoot for points first. This is the origin of the modern custom of "" (or "").

A player who pocketed the opponent's ball scored two points, as is still the case in modern billiards. A player missing the opponent's ball, considered a, added one point to the opponent's total; the shooter conceded two points if their own ball went into a pocket after striking the opponent's ball; and the player conceded three points if the cue ball was pocketed without even hitting the opponent's ball. These rules continued to exist in English billiards until 1983, when a standard of two points for all fouls was introduced.

By contrast, in the losing game a player could only score two points by pocketing the cue ball through a off the opponent's ball. "" and "" are terms still mentioned in the official rules for these two fundamental shot types, although "" and "" have become the usual terms for them in British English.

The final element was the  (or ) shot, which came from carom billiards, a game popular in various countries of western Continental Europe, especially France, and in many parts of Asia and South America. In the 1700s, the carom game added a red to the two white cue balls, and dispensed with the pockets. This ball was adopted into the English game, which retained the pockets, and the goal was to cannon off both the red and the opponent's ball on a single shot, earning 2 points. This influence on the English game appears to have come about through the popularity of French tables in English coffee houses; London alone had over two thousand such establishments in the early 18th century. One period advertisement read: "A very good French Billiard Table, little the worse for wearing, full size, with all the materials fit for French or English play".

The three ancestral games had their British heyday in the 1770s, but had combined into English billiards, with a 16-point score total, by approximately 1800. The skill required in playing these games helped retire the in favour of the cue stick.

There are a number of pocket billiard games directly descended from English billiards, including bull dog, scratch pool, thirty-one pool and thirty-eight. The last of these gave rise to the more well-known game cowboy pool. English Billiards was virtually unknown in the United States until 1913, when Melbourn Inman visited the US and played the game against Willie Hoppe. By 1915 the game had become rather popular, prompting American billiard hall proprietors of the period to increase the number of English-style tables in their establishments. It also became favored in British colonies; the game's longest-running champion was an Australian, Walter Lindrum, who held the World Professional Billiards Championship from 1933 until his retirement in 1950. The game remains popular in the UK, although it has been eclipsed by snooker.

As a sport
The first governing body of the game, the Billiards Association, was formed in the UK in 1885, a period that saw a number of sporting bodies founded across the British sporting world. By the mid-20th century, the principal sanctioning body was the Billiards Association and Control Council (later the Billiards and Snooker Control Council), formed in 1919 by an amalgamation of the Billiards Association and the Billiards Control Club (founded in 1908).

In the 19th century and up through the mid-1950s, a common way for championship titles to change hands was by a challenge match. A challenge was issued to a championship title holder accompanied by money held by a third party. Up until the first organised professional tournament in 1870, all English billiards champions were decided by challenge.

The first champion was Jonathan Kentfield, who held the title from 1820 to 1849, losing it to John Roberts Sr. after Kentfield refused his challenge. Roberts's 21-year reign lasted until he lost to William Cook in 1870. That year was also the first in which an English billiards challenge match was held in the United States.

From 1870 to 1983 the champions were: William Cook, (1870, 1871–74); John Roberts Jr., (1870, 1871, 1875–77, 1885); Joseph Bennett, (1870, 1880–81); Charles Dawson, (1899–1900, 1901, 1903); H. W. Stevenson, (1901, 1909–11); Melbourne Inman, (1908–09, 1912–19); Willie Smith, (1920, 1923); Tom Newman, (1921–22, 1924–27); Joe Davis, (1928–32); Walter Lindrum, (1933–50); Clark McConachy, (1951-68); Rex Williams, (1968–76, 1982–83); and Fred Davis, (1980).

A "Women's Billiard Association" was formed in Britain in 1931. One of the founders was Teresa Billington-Greig who had been a leading suffragette and was then married to a billiard ball manufacturer.

Over the course of the 20th century, English billiards was largely superseded as the favoured cue sport in the United Kingdom by snooker and the rise of English-style eight-ball pool. The game does retain some popularity amongst snooker players, who can use the same equipment for both games and play the game to practise ball control.

Balls and table
There are three balls. They are the same size as snooker balls (52.5 mm or $2 1/16$ in with a tolerance of 0.05 mm) and they must weigh the same to a tolerance of 0.5 g within a set.

The balls are designated as:
 * White – the for player 1, and an  for player 2
 * Yellow – the cue ball for player 2, and an object ball for player 1 (historically a white ball with spots was used)
 * Red – an object ball for both players

The billiard table used has the same dimensions as in snooker, and in many venues, both games are played on the same equipment. The playing area of a standard tournament table measures 11 feet 8 inches by 5 ft 10 in (3.569 m by 1.778 m) with a tolerance of $1/2$ inch (1.26 cm) in both directions, though smaller ones, down to half size, are often found in snooker halls, pubs and home billiard rooms.

Beginning the game
To see who will be the starting player, players perform a, where both simultaneously hit a cue ball up the table, bouncing it off the top cushion so that it returns to (the first quarter-length of the table). The player who gets their ball closer to the baulk cushion can now choose which cue ball they want to use during the game and to break or let the opponent break.

The red ball is placed on the at the  of the table (same as the  in snooker) and the first player begins by playing in-hand from  behind the baulk line. The other cue ball remains off the table until the opponent's first turn, when they play in hand from the "D".

The idea is to leave the balls by creating either a double baulk (both object balls in baulk), or the red in baulk with the cue-ball   to the top-side cushion.

Scoring
Points are awarded as follows:

 * – striking the cue ball so that it hits, in any order, the other cue ball and the red ball on the same shot: 2 points.
 * (or, in snooker terms) – striking another ball with one's cue ball so that the red enters a pocket: 3 points; or striking another ball with one's cue ball so that the other cue ball enters a pocket: 2 points.
 * ( in snooker terms) – striking one's cue ball so that it hits another ball and then enters a pocket: 3 points if the red ball was hit first; 2 points if the other cue ball was hit first; 2 points if the red and the other cue ball are hit simultaneously.

Combinations of the above may all be scored on the same shot. The most that can be scored in a single shot is therefore 10 – the red and the other cue ball are both potted via a cannon (the red must be struck first), and the cue ball is also potted, making a losing hazard off the red.

The winner is determined by a player reaching a fixed number of points set at the start of the game, or by which player is leading at the end of a timed game.

Other rules
If the red is potted it is on the spot at the top of the table (the black spot). After the red has been potted twice off the spot in a row (i.e. without a cannon or losing hazard), it is respotted on the. If the middle spot is occupied, it goes on the (the pink spot in snooker). If both the middle and pyramid spots are occupied, it goes back on the spot. When potted from the middle or pyramid spot, it returns to the spot at the top of the table.

After a losing hazard, play continues in-hand from the "D". When playing from in-hand, a striker must touch a ball or cushion out of baulk before striking a ball in baulk.

If playing in-hand and all balls on the table are in baulk, and contact is not made with any ball, this is a miss; 2 points are awarded to the opponent, who must play from where the balls have come to rest.

If an opponent's cue ball is potted, it remains off the table until it is that opponent's turn to play, when it is returned to that player, who may play it in-hand from the "D". There is one exception to this rule: if the non-striker's ball is off the table as a result of the final stroke of the non-striker’s last turn. If the striker then makes 15 consecutive hazards, the non-striker's ball is spotted, after the fifteenth hazard, in the Middle of the Baulk-line or, if that spot is occupied, on the right-hand corner of the “D”, as viewed from baulk. It becomes a "line ball" and may not be played directly from baulk.

If the cue ball is touching an object ball, then the balls must be respotted: red on its spot and opponent's ball in the centre spot, with the striker to play from in-hand.

Matches held under professional regulations include a rule forcing the player to execute a shot in a way to have his cue ball cross the baulk line, heading towards the baulk cushion, once between 80 and 99 points in every 100 in a running break.

Fouls
If a foul occurs, two points are awarded to the opposing player who has the choice of playing from where the balls lie or they can be respotted.

There are a few different ways a foul can occur, by:
 * Playing/Striking the opponent's cue ball or Red object ball
 * Making any ball jump off the table
 * Failing to make contact between one's cue ball and at least one object ball (unless double baulked)
 * A double-hit or push shot
 * Jumping one's cue ball over an object ball
 * Playing a 16th consecutive hazard or 76th consecutive cannon
 * When in-hand, not hitting an object ball or cushion out of baulk before hitting a ball in baulk.

title: English billiards


text:
Dayna Curry

Dayna Curry (born November 4, 1971) is an American citizen, who was held a prisoner by Taliban government of Afghanistan in 2001. She befriended fellow aid worker Heather Mercer while attending Antioch Community Church in Waco, Texas. In 2001 the pair were part of a German-based missionary group called Shelter Now International when they were imprisoned by the Taliban for proselytization. Their captivity coincided with the September 11 attacks and the beginning of the US-led War in Afghanistan. In November 2001, Curry and her fellow workers were rescued from Taliban captivity by US military forces.

Early life
Curry was raised in Forest Hills, Tennessee. In 1989, she graduated from Brentwood High School in Brentwood, Tennessee and went to Baylor University in Waco, Texas. A social work major, Dayna volunteered at the Waco Center for Youth (a residential facility treats teenagers with emotional and behavioral problems) while she was attending Baylor. After graduation, Curry took a job as a social worker at a high school for troubled teens in Waco.

Dayna Curry and Heather Mercer got to know each other in Waco when they both joined the Antioch Community Church, an evangelical, non-denominational church.

Imprisonment and rescue
In March 2001, Curry and Heather Mercer traveled to Afghanistan to join the German-based aid agency Shelter Now International, which worked with Afghan women and children in Kabul. Their colleagues included four German and two Australian aid workers. On August 3, 2001, Curry and her fellow aid workers were arrested by the ruling Taliban regime for allegedly preaching Christianity in the strict Islamic state. The two were visiting a private home in Kabul when they were arrested. The Taliban, which forbade foreigners from visiting local homes, allege that the two women went beyond their activities with helping the needy and began spreading the Christian gospel, a crime under Taliban law. The women had been showing the Jesus film.

A joint trial for the imprisoned aid workers began September 1 in Kabul. At first, it appeared that their punishment might be minor, a short time in prison followed by expulsion from the country. Then came the September 11 attacks on the United States. Their trial was suspended, and their relatives were ordered out of Kabul. After more than three months of confinement in Taliban prisons they were picked up on November 15, 2001, by the U.S. military.

Return to the United States
After their release and subsequent return to the United States, Curry and Mercer met with President George W. Bush at the White House on November 26, 2001. The two co-authored a book entitled Prisoners of hope: the story of our captivity and freedom in Afghanistan, that was published in 2002.

title: Dayna Curry