text:
Talk:Generational list of programming languages

Multiple inheritance
Why is C# listed as a derivative of C, but Java is not? The whole premise of this list, i.e. that languages form a simple tree is a bit suspect. 0xBAC 06:56, 1 Aug 2003 (UTC)

An interesting idea, but I agree a tree is suspect—I think you can so a tree of principal influences and pointers to other. But where is Smalltalk? Where is Prolog? RPL? If we have VBScript, why not Javascript. What about Perl, PHP. Isn't SQL a language, other 4GLs. What about shell scripts- TeX- assemblers?

There are languages that, arguably, are created specifically in an attempt to "merge" the outstanding characteristics of two other languages. J is a good example: if one didn't knew that APL was also created by Iverson, it would be hard to say whether J is influenced more by APL than Backus's FP/FL or viceversa. I ended up listing it under both and making a referential note. Sure enough, if this technique were to be missused, the Generational list would end up being a Generational mesh ;-) --Danakil
 * Indeed—the concept of multiple inheritance is rampant, here :-). Rexx, for example, has a strong syntactic resemblance to PL/I, with symbolic concepts adapted from BASIC and the PL/I macro processor, and many semantic aspects (few limits and system interfaces in particular) taken from EXEC 2. mfc
 * Err, maybe I'm reading something wrong, but shouldn't NGL be under J instead of K? Egregius

Worse: why is C# listed under C at all? There are trivial syntax differences between C# and Java, whereas there are major conceptual differences between C# and C. For example, C# is all-garbage collected; C is not, but Java is. C# compiles (normally) to a byte code; C does not, but Java does (generally). C# does not support RAII (because the 'finalizers' aren't called at any particular time); C does and Java does not.

While there is a resemblance to Java, C#'s reserved words and operators pretty much match C++. And, given Anders Hejlsberg's work in development of Turbo Pascal and Delphi, C# probably has as much cause to be in the ALGOL/Pascal/Modula tree as anywhere. Also, call it p-code or byte-code -- the concept and practice of virtual machines first saw widespread use in the 1970s in UCSD Pascal's p-system... Hejlsberg says in that "In the design of C#, we looked at a lot of languages. We looked at C++, we looked at Java, at Modula 2, C, and we looked at Smalltalk. There are just so many languages that have the same core ideas that we're interested in, such as deep object-orientation, object-simplification, and so on." So, here's another vote for something other than a tree model. 209.98.143.77 20:07, 12 June 2007 (UTC)

I think the whole tree format is inherantly flawed for this information. It really needs a graph for multipule parents and cycles. C(99), for example, did take some inspirations from C++(98), which was inspired by C(89).
 * Things in real life are not always perfect representations of concepts. This list is great. It should be assumed that ideas spread.90.134.99.224 (talk) 14:01, 13 March 2008 (UTC)

Concurrent Turing
Hi, There is no such language as Concurrent Turing. Turing Plus is concurrent, but it has never been called Concurrent Turing.

Jim Cordy (co-author of the Turing, Turing Plus and Object-Oriented Turing languages)

Dialects of BASIC.
In the languages that have descended from the BASIC branch of the tree, some of the entries are just BASIC dialects (eg. QBasic) rather than BASIC-derived languages like COMAL. Should we prune this tree from the BASIC branch and instead start a generational list of BASIC dialects? Ae-a 04:57, 28 September 2005 (UTC)
 * I think the dialects are interesting. We should add more, such as Integer BASIC and Applesoft BASIC. Maybe there should be a way to denote that a language is a dialect.90.134.99.224 (talk) 13:58, 13 March 2008 (UTC)
 * BASIC is correctly listed under FORTRAN because their original purposes and syntax for mathematical calculations were similar. But implementations have been typically radically different -- all early BASICs were interpreted; FORTRAN has always been compiled.  Fair enough; but Perl was originally writtent to combine the capabilities of ksh and awk, while adding some of Larry Wall's ideas (correct, it turns out) as to what would be useful.  Perl is apparently listed under C simply because it uses curly brackets to mark logical blocks of code, but this seems a rather shallow criterion.  Why not under BASIC, since both use $ as a variable marker (though BASIC only for strings, and it's a suffix) and both are interpreted?  This attempt to shoehorn computer languages into a strict genealogy tree seems strained and arbitrary in many respects.  (Why is Modula-2 an independent branch of ALGOL instead of a descendent of Pascal?  Is ADA related to Pascal or Modula?  etc. etc. etc.) -- Craig Goodrich 24.14.168.244 (talk) 00:36, 19 April 2009 (UTC)

Simula and ALGOL 60
Shouldn't Simula be listed under ALGOL 60? Kaldari 07:00, 8 January 2007 (UTC)

isn't perl a derivitive of Pascal?
IO recantly read that perl was derivided from pascal (was derived from ALGOL) but here its listed as a from C? Oxinabox (talk) 01:28, 2 March 2008 (UTC)

Visual Basic
Visual Basic is much more rememincient of C++, than of original BASIC. even in some syntax. It my have evolved from BASIC, folllowing Microsoft's quick basic, - visual basic 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 line. but by the time VB^ comes around it's been so heavily influenced by C++. DOn't know what should be done, Maybe a cross reference in the tree? Oxinabox (talk) 01:28, 2 March 2008 (UTC)
 * Mmmpf. I took a look at T-SQL recently (on a dare) and have come to the conclusion that in Redmond's damp climate, all languages rot into a form of Visual Basic in three years or less. -- Craig Goodrich 24.14.168.244 (talk) 00:42, 19 April 2009 (UTC)

-based or -influenced
The list is organized by which language a given language was based upon. How about saying a given language was influenced by a language rather than based upon it?90.134.106.50 (talk) 15:17, 24 March 2008 (UTC)

Others
Is Scala (programming language) missing? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 99.162.208.204 (talk) 23:36, 30 June 2008 (UTC)

Is MATLAB Programming missing ? MATLAB programming supports OOPS and activex server programming too. Is it missing because it is costly? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 65.200.157.177 (talk) 21:02, 7 October 2008 (UTC)

Having programmed in both SNOBOL3 and COMIT, I can assure you that they are utterly different in style, syntax, model of the universe, and everything else except that a) statements were punched into the first 72 columns of a Hollerith card, b) they were both text-processing languages, and c) both are deader than Etruscan. I wrote my first program around 1967 in the basement of the Old Gym at Indiana U in Bloomington, a former basketball court converted to house a CDC-3400/3600 system (the 3400 acted as an input preprocessor for the 3600).  So why is SNOBOL shown as a "descendant" of COMIT? -- Craig Goodrich  24.14.168.244 (talk) 00:05, 19 April 2009 (UTC)

Why is Mark 1 Autocode (the first publicly available high level programming language, a couple of years before Fortran) not on this list? Or the original (Glennie, 1952) Manchester Autocode? They probably ought to be here. MichealT (talk) 14:07, 27 February 2010 (UTC)

Python is not C=based definetely
Python is based on Modula-2/Oberon models, not C. It should be placed in Pascal family near Lua. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 93.80.71.142 (talk) 22:19, 8 September 2010 (UTC)

python is based on many languages but the syntax is from ABC~fred — Preceding unsigned comment added by 96.250.190.3 (talk) 02:07, 5 August 2011 (UTC)

 * Should SETL (correctly listed as parent of ABC and grandparent of Python) really be a root? I have always assumed it was strongly influenced by ALGOL. However I cannot find any mention of this by Jack Schwartz or anyone else involved in the design of the language. --Finnw (talk) 20:09, 19 November 2011 (UTC)

D is more based on C++ than C
It was designed as a replacement for C++ and includes almost all features presented in C++. Vladislav.kuzkokov (talk) 08:23, 22 February 2011 (UTC)

Redlinked languages and WP:WTAF?
Should this list be subject to WP:WTAF? There are a number of redlinks, and more get added over time, although some are removed as well. On List of programming languages, for example, the no redlink policy is fairly strictly enforced. I think the policy should apply here, but as it clearly has not been really enforced in some time (if ever), I thought I'd open a discussion before removing them. I've recently removed the redlinks from List of programming languages by type, without objection (and some encouragement from another editor), although the problem was more severe there. Rwessel (talk) 07:54, 22 December 2013 (UTC)

 * Support. Go for it.  WP:BEBOLD.  Msnicki (talk) 08:07, 22 December 2013 (UTC)

Done. A summary:

 * A variety of redlinks and other items without articles were removed per WP:WTAF.
 * Today based section removed – no primary article, only a stub for the single derived language.
 * Neat3 removed – link only
 * RPG: link removed, in article
 *   removed (no more references)

Rwessel (talk) 20:02, 14 January 2014 (UTC)


text:
Talk:Raku ware

Aluminium container not explained
Under the section "Oxidation reduction", it starts by stating "In raku firing, the aluminium container acts as a reduction tube" This needs an explanation - it has no mention in the article before, i.e. what container, why aluminium, what process ?, is the container a substitute for a kiln ? It could begin e.g. "Raku is fired in a metal container, mostly made of aluminium .... etc For someone who has no previous knowledge of Raku, like me, it needs to be better explained. Thanks

this section of "oxidation reduction" should be included under "western firing". this is not a technique from the original japanese tradition. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 98.246.209.194 (talk) 04:29, 3 April 2013 (UTC)

Korea
I was reading the information about Raku and didn't see any reference to Raku's techinique origins in Korea and history prior to Japan.

Raku has its roots actually "originating in Korea". It was brought to Japan by a Korean potter known as "Amenya"..and that latter changed his name to "Masakichi" when he settled in Kyoto..it was his wife" " Teirin" and later by her Son(Sen No Rikio)Chorjiro who after taking over his kiln after his death, made a sucess of it in Kyoto. Facts are the technique was "Imported" to Japan and it was created earlier then the 16th century in Korea.Little seems to be said about the technique being brought "back"..by artistians of Korean origin and Imported after invasions and trips to Korea and China, then adopted..by the buddhist Monks in Japan who further developed it.(1)

"Much of Japan's borrowing from China came via Korea and often reflected Korean adaptation of Chinese culture.  The process was especially important in the fifth through eighth centuries. Japanese tribute missions to China during the Nara and Heian periods general traveled via Korea, often on Korean ships.The Japanese often imported Korean manufactured goods and art works which were used as models.  For example, archaeology suggests that the distinctive swords and armor of the samurai are probably of Korean origin.  Borrowing and influences from Korea were continuous: bonsai trees, raku ware pottery, sumo wrestling and Neo-Confucianism were imported from or influenced by Korea" 2

Ibid:

References:

1.Japan and China:Its History Arts and Literature,F. Brinkly, page 32.Volume VIII,Keramic Art 1904

http://books.google.com/books?id=u-kVAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA32&dq=raku+began+in+korea#PPP5,M1

2.Michael J. Seth James Madison University

http://74.125.47.132/search?q=cache:8xQuXFoREfkJ:www.uba.ar/ceca/download/korean-history.doc+raku+roots+in+korea&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=15&gl=us

hope you get this claified,Leaving out the facts, discounts the cultural influences of Korea on Japan's Raku and other arts and Industry..Time give credit where it is due??..

Regards, Steven S. Stamp,BFA (Ceramic's)Eastern Michigan University 93"

1/8/09 —Preceding unsigned comment added by Steveshrdw (talk • contribs) 06:02, 8 January 2009 (UTC)

After doing some reasearch on the internet about Ogata Kenzan I do understand that he was not doing rakuyaki himself but created his own style called kenzan-yaki. Since there is no reference that can back up the statement Ogata Kenzan was one of the best-known raku potters I think it is save to remove it.

References:
 * http://www.asia.si.edu/exhibitions/online/kenzan/raku.htm
 * http://www.e-yakimono.net/guide/html/kyo-yaki.html
 * http://www.e-yakimono.net/html/wilson-richard-interview.html
 * http://www.raku-yaki.or.jp/

cheers, --synthetik 06:57, 1 Aug 2003 (UTC)

Western Raku
The discussion of Western raku contained some minor gaps and inaccuracies, primarily in the discussion of the firing methods and times. This is based partially on my own experience of doing raku firings, and confirmed by further research.

Reference:

 * Peterson, Susan. The Craft and Art of Clay.  The Overlook Press, Woodstock, NY, Second Edition 1996. ISBN 0-87951-634-8.

C whitney 17:37, 11 September 2005 (UTC)

 * This is an evolving western technique and our description should reflect that variability, if possible. Every modern Raku potter, I know (including me!) does things a little differently from the next guy.  You should see some of the variations of method in our group studio alone!  We work primarily in a groggy gray stoneware and fire about 1900 degrees F, but other nearby potters work in a smooth earthenware and fire at much lower temperatures.  So, please add your information and what methods you prefer, but let's work on reflecting the flexibility of the technique for western artists.    Thanks.  WBardwin 02:42, 13 September 2005 (UTC)

I added a bit about the purpose of the reducing chamber; the source is Paul Soldner himself (I was a student of his 1989-1992). Western raku was simultaneously invented by another, lesser-known potter and introduced at the same conference in the mid-60's. Unfortunately, I have this all as an anecdotal story from Paul and I don't think it's included in any of his books, so I'm not inserting it into the article. Some of the details may be wrong, and this is currently one of the best-written short articles I've seen on wikipedia. Jberkus 06:08, 22 October 2005 (UTC)

Images
Anyone have a nice image of a Japanese tea bowl - historic or modern? I could probably come up with some Western raku images. Thanks. WBardwin 08:41, 2 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Re: Images
The only tea bowl images I have are copy-righted images from books.

If you'd like pictures of Western raku pots, we have many that you can take your pick from. btw - thanks for differentiating between traditional and western raku techniques. :)

- David Your image identified as raku in Kiln is actually in the post combustion treatment, aka reduction step after the kiln firing. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 65.78.170.102 (talk) 14:11, 14 November 2022 (UTC)

Link to commercial raku artists
I made a revision to the Raku page by adding a link to an artist's web site that had a collection of raku vessels. The reference was intended for informational purposes, but was deleted because it was a "commercial link." The page did have prices next to the vessels. The work in question is a unique representation of the western raku style, and has won many awards. What if there was a separate page without prices? There is another link to an artist (Janice James) who sells raku masks at galleries, but does not sell them online - is that commercial?

 * Wiki policy is quite firm about commercial sites tied to the articles in the encyclopedia -  they do not see themselves as a free advertising site.  So, usually, sites with prices and mechanisms to place orders are included in that commercial category and will be deleted.  If there is a page without prices (perhaps only showing the value of the piece) and the ability to place orders, it is usually OK to place a link.  Or, if the artist and photographer is willing to release a photograph of a piece from copyright, it would be very welcome in the article.  The James' site is on the edge, in my opinion, and I will expect someone else to challenge and delete it in the future.  Best wishes.  WBardwin 05:09, 8 January 2006 (UTC)

 * This issue keep recurring -- should we delete all commercial sites and leave only museums/govt collections? Have a seperate section in the article which lists modern raku practitioners -- with selected sites?  Ideas to deal with problem? Sounds like something a project site should decide.  See Pottery talk page about a proposed clay project.  WBardwin 20:17, 12 April 2006 (UTC)

 * I deleted all but one of the commercial sites -- how does everyone feel about the issue? A poll?  WBardwin 19:01, 21 May 2006 (UTC)

 * Please comment on the question and then perhaps we can vote:
 * Commercial sites intended to allow the reader to view, order and purchase materials are globally prohibited on Wikipedia. On this article, and related articles, should commercial sites be allowed when:
 * 1) they also provide educational or instructional material?
 * 2) do not contain price information or allow the reader to order work?
 * 3) have images that illustrate the material covered in the article, and no non-commercial sites are available?

 * I feel it would be troublesome to allow sites that can be construed as commercial, if exceptions are made they may be seen as policy, and the policy is firm that there be no commercial links, and is unlikely to change.
 * However, there is no policy disallowing a link from the image page to a commercial site, so in my opinion, a fair work-around would be to upload an image given by a commercial site, an image placed into the public domain. The public domain tag generally is accompanied by information as to who placed the image into the public domain, and that information in my opinion and interpretation of present policy could include the web address of the image provider.  This might encourage someone to  allow the use of one or several images to be used, without a direct link to a commercial site, and still allow credit to be given for the generous contribution of the image.Pedant 06:01, 9 July 2006 (UTC)

Traditional raku
it would be nice to have more information on traditional raku, techniques, and raku masters, at present it seems there is more about 'western' raku. Pedant

this article lacks both Wabi-sabiwabi and sabi
This article needs a redo from word one.

 * added link to title to clarify user's topic. So, if you have issues, go ahead and improve our aesthetic presentation!  In my opinion, Wiki editors should come here to work.    WBardwin 06:27, 14 October 2006 (UTC)

Utility
Shouldn't it be made known that Raku ware is NOT to be used for serving food/drink? It's gorgeous stuff, but the lead seeps out...

--Gautam3 18:10, 13 December 2006 (UTC)

Raku ware doesn't necessarily contain lead...none of my raku glazes do? Teapotgeorge 09:08, 9 April 2007 (UTC)

 * None of my glazes contain lead. But my bodies do remain pourous, so I mark them as not food safe.  WBardwin 21:12, 27 April 2007 (UTC)

Quotation and introduction
I restored the introduction which had apparently been lost to vandalism. I also restored the quotation -- which I had originally placed at the head of the article. Objections? Comments? WBardwin 21:12, 27 April 2007 (UTC)
 * Yes. The quotation is unrelated to raku, and its apparent author was a master of tea and not a potter. So there is no value to its inclusion here. I vote for deletion —Preceding unsigned comment added by 194.126.226.253 (talk) 16:23, 18 July 2008 (UTC)

List of books moved from article
Randor: Chilton Book Company, 1973. 318. Print. Featured Tip of the Day. Ceramic Publications Company, 5 Nov. 2009. Web. 26 May 2010. .
 * Pitelka, Morgan. Handmade Culture: Raku Potters, Patrons, and Tea Practitioners in Japan. University of Hawaii Press, 2005. ISBN 0-8248-2970-0.
 * Hamer, Frank and Janet. The Potter's Dictionary of Materials and Techniques. A & C Black Publishers, Limited, London, England, Third Edition 1991. ISBN 0-8122-3112-0.
 * Peterson, Susan. The Craft and Art of Clay. The Overlook Press, Woodstock, NY, Second Edition 1996. ISBN 0-87951-634-8.
 * Watkins, James C. Alternative Kilns & Firing Techniques: Raku * Saggar * Pit * Barrel, Lark Ceramics Publications, 2007. ISBN 9781579904555, ISBN 1579904556.
 * Branfman, Steven. "Raku FAQs." Ceramics Today. Ceramics Today, Sept. 2002. Web. 6 May 2010.
 * Herb, Bill. "What Is Raku." Dimensional Design. Bill Herb A.k.a Dimensional Design, Jan. 2000. Web. 6 May 2010.
 * Knapp, Brian J. Oxidation and Reduction. Port Melbourne, Vic.: Heinemann Library, 1998. Print.
 * Birks, Tony. The New Potter's Companion. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1982. Print.
 * Mitchell, John. Personal Interview.  30 Apr. 2010.
 * Rhodes, Daniel. “Special Glazes and Surface Effects.”  Clay and Glazes for the Potter.  Revised ed.
 * Zamek, Jeff. "» Glazes: Materials, Mixing, Testing, Firing." » Ceramic Arts Daily –
 * Andrews, Tim " Raku:a review of contemporary work".A.C.Black,London.1994 ISBN 0-7136836-2
 * Andrews, Tim " Raku". A.C.Black, London. 2nd Ed.2005 ISBN 0-71366490-8
 * The list has been added back by another user, I still think the list is a mess and mostly promotional in content.  Teapot  george Talk  14:48, 8 May 2011 (UTC)

Reduction Firing 2
This section, as well as oxidation reduction firing section are wandering far from the topic of raku ware. Information on firings might be more appropriate under an entry on kilns or firing. No other forms or styles of ceramics in wiki have information about firings. Additionally, the reduction firing is noted under the Western Raku section, which would be appropriate, since western-style raku is the only style that has reduction outside the kiln. I would recommend deleting Oxidation Reduction Firing and Reduction Firing 2. At the very least they should be brutally edited and perhaps a remaining sentence or two added to Western Raku. If someone feels a need to have this much detail under western raku reduction firings, perhaps they could create a new entry. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 98.246.209.194 (talk) 13:38, 3 April 2013 (UTC)

Oxidation reduction?
Aren't Oxidation and Reduction complete opposite processes it seems like the section is only talking about reduction. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Tyleryocum11 (talk • contribs) 16:37, 13 March 2017 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Raku ware


text:
Talk:Thirteen Colonies

"declared independence in 1776 and formed the United States of America"
Did the Declaration form the USA or did the Constitution?

The Declaration mentions the "United States of America," but did that mean "states of America united in revolution," rather than the Union which was created with ratification of the Constitution several years later? The founders spent years after the war negotiating the Constitution to form the Union. In 1776, they were states, they were in America, they were united in revolution, but were they the "United States of America" as we've known it since 1789?

Just wonderin' soibangla (talk) 03:13, 7 June 2021 (UTC)

 * all the textbooks and reliable sources say 1776, as well as official national birthday on July 4. Lots of countries write new constitutions but remain the same country. France & other countries recognized the new USA diplomatically in before 1789.  Rjensen (talk) 03:23, 7 June 2021 (UTC)

 * I understand, but what exactly do those source say? We declared our independence, it's our birthday, but did the "USA" formally result? soibangla (talk) 03:29, 7 June 2021 (UTC)

 * The new USA acted as a national government, created a national army under GW, was recognized in Europe, and made treaties in the name of USA -- all before 1789 Rjensen (talk) 03:45, 7 June 2021 (UTC)

 * But federal government providing common defense, unified foreign policy and regulation of interstate commerce (and the POTUS) were established by the Constitution. Founders drafted Articles of Confederation in 1777, but later ditched it in favor of stronger federal government in the Constitution. My point is that the Declaration did not create the Union that we now call USA, despite the Declaration using those words. The lead sentence makes it seem it did. soibangla (talk) 05:43, 7 June 2021 (UTC)
 * What we NOW consider USA was created in 1860s. Rjensen (talk) 09:42, 9 June 2023 (UTC)

Territorial extension
Any data about the total extension of the territory? have not seen any and I think it would be nice to know the territorial extension of the 13 colonies. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 38.25.7.64 (talk) 19:39, 22 June 2022 (UTC)

Area size
I think we could approximate and state the area size 197.186.8.45 (talk) 13:24, 24 August 2022 (UTC)

Slavery in all thirteen colonies
The two statements that you removed, and that I restored, and that you removed again, were duly supported by citations of what I assumed were reliable sources. (In addition one can read about it in linked Wikipedia articles, and in a later section of this article, Thirteen Colonies.) The burden of proof is on you to show that there was something wrong with them. Bruce leverett (talk) 17:23, 7 June 2023 (UTC)

 * yes slavery in all 13 in 1775: quote "all the thirteen colonies sanctioned slaveholding on the eve of the Revolution" cite= Wiecek, William M. “The Statutory Law of Slavery and Race in the Thirteen Mainland Colonies of British America.” The William and Mary Quarterly, vol. 34, no. 2, 1977, pp. 258–80. at p. 260 online at  https://doi.org/10.2307/1925316   See also at pp. 261-264 "By the time of the Revolution, each of the mainland  colonies had at least the rudiments of a statutory law of slavery...and nine of them had fairly elaborate slave codes that specified four basic legal characteristics of American slavery.  First, the statutes defined slavery as a lifetime condition, distinguishing it from servitude and other forms of unfree status, which lasted only for a term of years. Second...slave status was made hereditable through the mother. In so providing, the American  colonies reversed the common-law rule that personal status followed the condition of the father.... The third fundamental statutory characteristic of American slavery was racial identification....The fourth and most troublesome of the elements of slavery for colonial  legislators was the precise legal status of a slave as property.... southern jurisdictions ...settled on the legal definition of a slave as a "chattel personal."  [quoting from pp 261-264] Rjensen (talk) 17:45, 7 June 2023 (UTC)
 * Yep, Vermont (as an independent entity) abolished in 1777; Pennsylvania introduced gradual emancipation in 1780; Massachusetts courts ended slavery there (including the District of Maine) with the Quock Walker Case in 1783. Gradual emancipation plans were passed in Connecticut and Rhode Island in 1784 and New York in 1817. New Jersey passed very gradual emancipation in 1804. An 1857 constitutional change in New Hampshire effectively barred slavery. The 1790 Census (see: ) recorded enslaved people in every state enumerated except Massachusetts (including the District of Maine) and Vermont (not yet a state). —Carter (Tcr25) (talk) 18:02, 7 June 2023 (UTC)
 * Regarding the Dutch role in the Atlantic slave trade (at least as it applies to the Thirteen Colonies, the given source states: "The first Africans recorded to have arrived in English Virginia came on a Dutch vessel in 1619; they had actually been seized from a Portuguese slaver by an English privateer working in partnership with the Dutch ship. ... Thereafter, Dutch vessels brought only a slightly larger number of slaves to the English mainland colonies, as first Brazil and then English Barbados consumed nearly every enslaved body the WIC could provide. ... That they were able to make the transition was largely due to expertise, personnel, and enslaved African labor provided by the Dutch of Brazil and Curaçao." Beyond this, the New Netherland Institute documents the role of enslaved Africans in New Netherland; so it's not just Dutch traders selling people to Virginia and Barbados, but enslaved Africans being brought to the Dutch colony in North America, too. —Carter (Tcr25) (talk) 20:13, 7 June 2023 (UTC)

Rhode Island outlawed slavery in 1652. —Dilidor (talk) 15:24, 12 June 2023 (UTC)

 * The law was officially overturned in 1703 at the colony level. "That 1652 municipal law was superseded by a 1703 law passed by the Rhode Island General Assembly that legally recognized black and Native American slavery and whites as their owners." BilCat (talk) 16:25, 12 June 2023 (UTC)
 * Indeed, even according to the Brown source cited for the 1652 law, that 1652 law was never enforced, and Rhode Island had the highest percentage of enslaved persons in all New England by the time of the Revolution. Alanscottwalker (talk) 16:57, 12 June 2023 (UTC)
 * Also, for the record, the same problematic editing has come up before, see Talk:Thirteen Colonies/Archive 2 the first two sections. Where the 'legal in all 13' was previously shown with sources to be the case. (see also, diff) --Alanscottwalker (talk) 17:07, 12 June 2023 (UTC)
 * I find it a bit odd that Dilidor has apparently, for at least five years, been pushing this narrative that slavery had been illegal in all of Rhode Island since 1652. That just didn't add up to me, given Rhode Island's prominent role in the slave trade. I did a G-search on "rhode island and slavery". and found the Time article in less than five minutes. I'm not trying to be overly critical, but it's important to check a broad range of sources. BilCat (talk) 17:25, 12 June 2023 (UTC)
 * Actually, all they had to do is read fully the cite they gave (the Brown cite) and the multiple cites they have been given over the years, to know their claims were and are false. Alanscottwalker (talk) 17:17, 13 June 2023 (UTC)
 * I want note that Dilidor has also been removing sourced information about slavery from several other New England articles over the past few months, as well. I found slavery-related removals at Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations diff1 diff2, History of Providence, Rhode Island diff3, New England diff4, Plymouth Colony diff5, and Roger Williams diff6. CoatGuy2 (talk) 22:34, 3 August 2023 (UTC)

« America » or « North America »
Dilidor and I have disagreed on this point in the lead. He prefers saying the colonies were on the Atlantic coast of « America »; I prefer « North America ». In my view, « America » is more of a political statement. Standard description of the continent as a geographic location is « North America » (in English, at least). Would welcome comments. Mr Serjeant Buzfuz (talk) 18:49, 7 June 2023 (UTC)

 * I'd agree with using North America here. —Carter (Tcr25) (talk) 20:16, 7 June 2023 (UTC)

 * I would specify “North America”… after all, several European nations had colonies on the Atlantic coast of South America, but these are not the colonies we are talking about. Blueboar (talk) 20:24, 7 June 2023 (UTC)
 * (Waves hand.) These are not the colonies your are looking for" BilCat (talk) 20:40, 7 June 2023 (UTC)
 * I concur that North America is clearer here. The usage of "America" to refer to the Americas is generally avoided on English Wikipedia, and for good reason. BilCat (talk) 20:38, 7 June 2023 (UTC)

Overuse
Critics have marked sections that depend too heavily on one book by Richter. I replaced with multiple cites to specialized books and articles. Rjensen (talk) 20:17, 27 November 2023 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 8 January 2024
There is a typo in this sentence, where "shown" is spelled "dhown" "New Netherland with 17th-century Dutch claims in areas that later became English colonies dhown in red and yellow." It is the image for Middle Colonies Pnc4k (talk) 22:45, 8 January 2024 (UTC)
 * Fixed. Thanks for reporting that. Vsmith (talk) 23:20, 8 January 2024 (UTC)

Relatively
"A relatively high degree of self-governance" means the same as "A high degree of self-governance", i.e. you are getting zero value for those four syllables. Or am I missing something? Actually I wonder if the use of "relatively" here is actually just an attempt to hedge and/or express doubt, kind of like MOS:DOUBT. In either case it doesn't belong. Bruce leverett (talk) 18:17, 17 April 2024 (UTC)

 * I'd agree it doesn't add much. To better align with what's in both the Government section of the article and the linked article "a culture of self-governance" or "a well-established tradition of self-governance" would probably be more accurate. —Carter (Tcr25) (talk) 19:17, 17 April 2024 (UTC)
 * Relatively adds the information that the concept is rooted in time, certainly not what a modern reader would understand as self-governance. -- Alanscottwalker (talk) 19:29, 17 April 2024 (UTC)
 * To get that meaning you'd need to say something like "compared to modern standards" somewhere in there. "Relatively" just indicates "in comparison to [something]", but just what it's being compared to is left open-ended the way it's currently stated. —Carter (Tcr25) (talk) 19:36, 17 April 2024 (UTC)
 * No, it's not. Both the structural limit of the vote and the imperial power over the colony is mentioned in the lead, which only makes sense because the distance worked in favor of the degree of self-governance, yet most all, including the largest, were royal colonies so very much subject to the imperial intendency. Alanscottwalker (talk) 19:45, 17 April 2024 (UTC)
 * I agree that adding "relatively" adds nothing and perhaps subtracts. And I agree it indicates a comparison but not compared to what. It is imprecise wording. "A culture of self-governance" or "a well-established tradition of self-governance" gets the point across. ---Steve Quinn (talk) 20:07, 17 April 2024 (UTC)
 * And I admit that "a high degree of self-governance" provides clarity. It's not saying the colonies or whatever entities were "self-governed." So yes, "relatively" only adds vagueness to that sentence. ---Steve Quinn (talk) 20:14, 17 April 2024 (UTC)
 * I'd go with "degree of self-governance" --  "high" is a comparison, and it also rather overstates it. Also as the lead is trying to talk about many areas over a continent.  Alanscottwalker (talk) 20:27, 17 April 2024 (UTC)
 * @Alanscottwalker, in this comment, it sounds like you're seeing "relatively" as a limiter (as in "a somewhat high degree"). Is your concern that "high degree" alone sounds like a greater level of self-governance than is warranted? —Carter (Tcr25) (talk) 20:25, 17 April 2024 (UTC)
 * I see relatively as a contextual explainer. Alanscottwalker (talk) 20:28, 17 April 2024 (UTC)
 * I don't think it's pulling that off here successfully. I'd be fine with simply "a degree of self-governance" as an alternative. —Carter (Tcr25) (talk) 20:31, 17 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Thirteen Colonies


text:
Ilon Wikland

Maire-Ilon Wikland (née Pääbo; born 5 February 1930) is an Estonian-born Swedish artist and illustrator.

Wikland was born in Tartu, Estonia and raised in Haapsalu, Lääne County on Estonia's Baltic coast. In 1944 she escaped with the family of a classmate from the second Soviet occupation of Estonia, to Sweden, where she arrived as a refugee.

In 1953 Wikland applied for a job as illustrator at Rabén & Sjögren. She was met by Astrid Lindgren, who had just finished writing the book Mio, my Son and who could see immediately that Wikland was able to "draw fairytales". Wikland did a test-drawing for the book and after that her collaboration with Lindgren continued. Wikland has said that Lindgren's writing continually makes her see inner pictures. She also derives inspiration for her pictures from real life. In the same way that Lindgren wrote for "the child within her", Wikland often also draws for the child within her.

Wikland is the artist who has illustrated the greatest number of Lindgren's books: She has also provided the illustrations for many picture books by Lindgren and many other writers, including The Dragon with Red Eyes, I Want a Brother or Sister, That’s My Baby, Brenda Helps Grandmother, Simon Small Moves in, and The Borrowers.
 * The Six Bullerby Children (a.k.a. The Children of Noisy Village)
 * The Children on Troublemaker Street
 * The Brothers Lionheart
 * Karlsson-on-the-Roof
 * Mardie
 * Mio, My Son
 * Simon Small Moves In
 * Ronia the Robber's Daughter
 * Seacrow Island
 * The Ghost of Skinny Jack
 * The Red Bird.

In 2004 Wikland decided to gift her original illustrations to Estonia. The artwork was originally exhibited in Wikland's gallery in Haapsalu, Estonia. In 2009 "Ilon's Wonderland", a gallery and theme centre for children and families based on her works and illustrations, was opened in Haapsalu.

Awards
Wikland was awarded the Illis quorum by the government of Sweden in 2002 for her "outstanding ability to bring environments and characters to life from her own and Astrid Lindgren's writings".

title: Ilon Wikland


text:
Desaparecidos (band)

Desaparecidos was an American punk rock band from Omaha, Nebraska headed by singer/guitarist Conor Oberst, the frontman of indie rock band Bright Eyes.

Name
Formed in 2001, "desaparecidos" figuratively means "disappeared ones" in Spanish and Portuguese and is a reference to the people who were arrested by various South American right-wing military dictatorships and then vanished without a trace. More specifically, Desaparecidos take their name from the forcibly disappeared under Augusto Pinochet’s right-wing military dictatorship in Chile between 1973 and 1990.

Read Music/Speak Spanish and hiatus (2002-2010)
Desaparecidos broke up in 2002 while the band was attracting an increasingly large following after their debut album Read Music/Speak Spanish, especially touring with Jimmy Eat World and The Promise Ring and being the feature of an MTV You Hear it First episode. However, Oberst did not have the time to dedicate to the band with the continually increasing success of Bright Eyes. Oberst continued to record with Bright Eyes, while the other members of Desaparecidos went on to form other projects. Matt Baum joined The '89 Cubs, later drumming Race for Titles and the Coffin Killers; Ian McElroy formed Rig 1; Denver Dalley moved onto bands Statistics and Intramural; Landon Hedges joined (and is currently in) Little Brazil.

Reunion, signing to Epitaph, and second album (2010-2015)
Desaparecidos reunited for a single show at the Concert for Equality in Omaha's Benson neighborhood on July 31, 2010. In April 2012, the band launched an official website and announced that they would again reunite, this time to play Omaha's MAHA Fest. In August 2012 the band embarked on a short tour, their first since 2002.

The band released two new tracks, "MariKKKopa" and "Backsell" in August 2012, the first recorded material since their return. The song "MariKKKopa" was written in reference to Sheriff Joe Arpaio of Maricopa County, Arizona and his outspoken stance and civil rights abuses he's committed against undocumented immigrants.

In February 2013, the band made available two tracks, "Anonymous" and "The Left is Right" via stream through Rolling Stone. The songs deal with the Anonymous hacker group and the Occupy movement. On August 2, 2013, the band released a new single "Te Amo Camila Vallejo", b/w "The Underground Man".

On January 27, 2015, the band announced via their Twitter page that they had signed to Epitaph Records. On April 7, Epitaph posted a new Desaparecidos single on YouTube, "City on the Hill."

Desaparecidos released their second album, Payola, in June 2015, thirteen years after Read Music/Speak Spanish. Payola was co-produced with Mike Mogis and was recorded in several batches over the past few years. The album contains the six tracks released since reforming as well as eight additional tracks.

On October 28, 2015, it was announced that Conor Oberst had been hospitalized due to "laryngitis, anxiety, and exhaustion," according to a press release. The entirety of Desaparecidos' remaining tour dates were cancelled and Oberst returned to his hometown of Omaha to recuperate. , the band have not performed live or released any new music since this cancellation.

Musical style
The band's sound was labeled "full-on emo-in-the-garage" by Alternative Press, "the sort of howlingly tuneful Midwestern punk that disappeared with Hüsker Dü" by Entertainment Weekly, "anthemic thrash" by Rolling Stone, and as such is noted for its sonic differences from Oberst's primary band. They have also been hailed as the "Saddle Creek supergroup". Hailing from Omaha, Nebraska, Desaparecidos' lyrics are mostly about the sociopolitical state of affairs in America. The band has been both lauded and criticized for its intentionally raw sound following the release of Read Music/Speak Spanish. In sharp contrast to Bright Eyes' confessional, even sometimes mournful lyrics, Desaparecidos's angular, energetic and engaging vocals sound like those typically heard in post-hardcore.

Members

 * Conor Oberst — vocals, guitar
 * Landon Hedges — bass guitar, vocals
 * Matt Baum — drums
 * Denver Dalley — guitar
 * Ian McElroy — keyboards

Albums

 * Read Music/Speak Spanish (2002, Saddle Creek Records)
 * Payola (2015, Epitaph Records)

EPs
Both EPs contain the same tracks in a different order.
 * The Happiest Place on Earth (2001, Saddle Creek Records)
 * What's New For Fall (2001, Wichita Recordings)

Live

 * Live at Shea Stadium 6.25.15 (2022, Freeman Street Records & Shea Stadium Records)

Singles

 * "MariKKKopa" / "Backsell" (2012, self-released)
 * "Anonymous" / "The Left is Right" (2013, self-released)
 * "Te Amo Camila Vallejo" / "The Underground Man" (2013, self-released)

Compilation albums

 * NE vs. NC (2002, Redemption Recording Co.)
 * song: "What's New for Fall"

 * Saddle Creek 50 (2002, Saddle Creek Records)
 * songs: "Man and Wife, the Latter (Damaged Goods)," "Popn' Off at the F"

 * Punk Rock Strike Volume Three: Third Strike (2002, Springman Records)
 * song: "The Happiest Place On Earth"

 * Liberation: Songs to Benefit PETA (2003, Fat Wreck Chords)
 * song: "Man and Wife, the Latter (Damaged Goods)"

title: Desaparecidos (band)


text:
Talk:Peasant multiplication

The user must also know what is odd numbers (:-}

A section of analysis of how this actually works would be good. I daresay some thought will reveal it, but sadly chores beckon! GRAHAMUK 01:10, 13 Oct 2003 (UTC)
 * I've added a sentence that will hopefully clarify how it works; more could probably added by someone more qualified to do so. ThereIsNoSteve 01:39, 13 Oct 2003 (UTC)

This page is redirected from russian peasant multiplication, but a google search for the exact phrase russian:peasant:multiplication scores 570 and peasant:multiplication only 689. To me this implies that it is nearly 5 times as likely to be refered to as russian peasant multiplication in english. Moving the page is not really worth while, but a recognition of the alternative name in the text seems to make sense to me.

On the subject of the proposed merge with ancient egyptian multiplication, the two techniques, while relying on the same fundemental mathematical principal, are very different in practice. These multiplication schemes are specifically about practice, not theory. The people that use/used these techniques use them empirically.

pcrtalk 22:37, 25 April 2006 (UTC)
 * I agree with pcr, above. However, Egyptian mathematics is quite long, and Ancient Egyptian multiplication is rather short. I don't see any obvious ways for it to grow. Might we just merge all the content from Ancient Egyptian multiplication into Egyptian mathematics? Tom Harrison Talk 20:13, 6 May 2006 (UTC)

 * Tom Harrison's suggestion looks like the best approach. Put it all in Egyptian mathematics. Maestlin 03:20, 7 May 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Peasant multiplication


text:
Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle

Eduardo Alfredo Juan Bernardo Frei Ruiz–Tagle (born 24 June 1942) is a Chilean politician and civil engineer who served as president of Chile from 1994 to 2000. He was also a Senator, fulfilling the role of President of the Senate from 2006 to 2008. He attempted a comeback as the candidate of the ruling Concertación coalition for the 2009 presidential election, but was narrowly defeated. His father was Eduardo Frei Montalva, president of Chile from 1964 to 1970.

His presidency was marked by a consolidation of Chile's transition to democracy albeit the indictment and arrest of Augusto Pinochet in his last year of government heated up national politics. Economically, he oversaw a period of rapid economic growth that was only temporarily stunted by the 1997 Asian financial crisis.

In the 2020s he has taken political positions different from those of the Christian Democratic Party aligning more with the views of centrist and right-wing parties in the constitutional referendums of 2022 and 2023.

Early life
Frei was born in Santiago to Eduardo Frei Montalva and María Ruiz-Tagle Jiménez. He received all his schooling at the Luis Campino Institute. He then attended the University of Chile, where he graduated as a civil engineer, specializing in hydraulics. After graduation, he followed advanced courses in management in Italy.

Political career
Frei took his first steps in politics while at the university, where he was a student leader. In 1958, he joined the Christian Democrat party, and in 1964 participated actively in his father's successful presidential campaign. Between 1969 and 1988 he concentrated on his profession, as one of the partners of Sigdo Koppers S.A., the largest engineering company in Chile.

In 1988 Frei founded and promoted the Comité Pro Elecciones Libres ("Committee for the promotion of free elections"). In 1989, he was elected Senator for Santiago, obtaining the highest number of votes in the whole country. In the Senate, he presided over the Treasury and Budget Commission and was a member of the Housing Commission.

Presidency

In 1992, Frei participated in the presidential primary election of his coalition, defeating Ricardo Lagos, and then went on to win the presidential elections of 1993 by securing 58% of the votes cast.

He took office on 11 March 1994 and was succeeded by Lagos in 2000. Frei's presidency was notable in making improvements in health and education as well as reducing poverty.

Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle, had particularly good relations with his Argentine counterpart Carlos Menem. During Frei's ternure the Laguna del Desierto territorial dispute with Argentina was solved, albeit the arbitrage favoured the Argentine position.

Following the end of his presidency, Frei assumed, as a former President, a seat as senator-for-life in Congress.

Return to the Congress
Since constitutional reforms in 2005 abolished life senators from 2006, Frei ran for and won an elected Senate seat in the December 2005 parliamentary elections in the electoral district of Valdivia Province and Osorno Province, together with Andrés Allamand. On 11 March 2006, Frei became President of the Senate, like his father, who was also President of the Senate after being President of the Republic.

Frei, whose grandfather Eduardo Frei Schlinz had emigrated to Chile from Switzerland, obtained Swiss citizenship in February 2009.

In 2009–2010 elections, Frei ran for the presidency of Chile for a second time, again as the candidate of the centre-left Concertación center-coalition, promising continuity of the popular outgoing President Michelle Bachelet's path. Some of his presidential campaign banners and billboards pictured him, accompanied by Bachelet over his left shoulder. In the first round of the elections, held on 13 December 2009, Frei held 29.60% of the official vote, second to his opponent Sebastián Piñera, who led with 44.05%. Since neither candidate received more than half of the total votes, a runoff election was held on Sunday, 17 January 2010. The first preliminary results announced by the Deputy Interior Ministry at 21:00 GMT on election day gave Piñera 51.87% and Frei holding 48.12%. Frei conceded to Piñera at 21:44 GMT.

In a graceful exit from the campaign, Frei stated, "The election is over and Chileans have shown civic maturity.... The results clearly show the solidity of our democracy. It has been clean and transparent in line with our tradition. I want to congratulate Pinera, to whom most Chileans have given their trust for the next four years." ''

National honours

 * CHL Order of Merit GC and Collar.svg Grand Master (1994–2000) and Collar of the Order of Merit
 * CHL Order of Bernardo O'Higgins - Grand Cross BAR.png Grand Master (1994–2000) and Collar of the Order of Bernardo O'Higgins

Foreign honours

 * 🇵🇪 Peru:
 * PER Order of the Sun of Peru - Commander BAR.png Commander of the Order of the Sun (Peru)
 * 🇮🇹 Italy:
 * Cordone di gran Croce di Gran Cordone OMRI BAR.svg Knight Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic (19 July 1995)
 * 🇭🇷 Croatia:
 * Ribbon of an order of king Tomislav.png Grand Cross of the Grand Order of King Tomislav ("For outstanding achievements in promoting the development of friendship and fruitful cooperation in political, cultural and economic development between the Republic of Croatia and the Republic of Chile, and in promoting peace, democracy, stability and international cooperation in the world on the basis of the principles of the UN Charter and the provisions of international law." – 8 November 1994)
 * 🇲🇾 Malaysia:
 * MY Darjah Utama Seri Mahkota Negara (Crown of the Realm) - DMN.svg Honorary Recipient of the Order of the Crown of the Realm (1995)
 * 🇵🇱 Poland:
 * POL Order Zaslugi RP kl1 BAR.svg Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Republic of Poland
 * 🇪🇸 Spain:
 * Order of Isabella the Catholic - Sash of Collar.svg Knight of the Collar of the Order of Isabella the Catholic, 3 March 1995
 * Member of the Club de Madrid, an independent non-profit organization created to promote democracy and change in the international community, composed by more than 100 members: former democratic Heads of State and Government from around the world.
 * 🇺🇾 Uruguay
 * Medal of the Oriental Republic of Uruguay - ribbon bar.gif Medal of the Oriental Republic of Uruguay (1996)

title: Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle


text:
Zach Gowen

Zachary Mark Gowen (born March 30, 1983) is an American professional wrestler and promoter. Gowen competed for World Wrestling Entertainment and Total Nonstop Action Wrestling.

Gowen's left leg was amputated when he was eight years old. He is the first one-legged competitor ever to compete in WWE. (Although Kerry Von Erich only had one foot)

Early life
Gowen was diagnosed with cancer as a child, and lost his left leg due to amputation at the age of eight. He was a fan of professional wrestling from a young age, and cites Shawn Michaels and Rey Mysterio as two of his favorite wrestlers.

Gowen is an alumnus at Churchill High School in Livonia, Michigan, Class of 2001.

Early career
After being trained by Truth Martini, Gowen made his professional wrestling debut on March 16, 2002, in a loss to Martini. While training Gowen made the decision to wrestle without his prosthetic leg as he found it difficult to wrestle with the "dead weight".

Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (2003, 2005, 2006)
Gowen first gained national exposure wrestling for Total Nonstop Action Wrestling during early 2003 under the name Tenacious Z. On the January 29 NWATNA PPV, Tenacious Z defeated Truth Martini in a dark match. On the February 5 NWATNA PPV, Tenacious Z defeated B.G. James. On the February 12 NWATNA PPV, Tenacious Z, Ron Killings and Jorge Estrada defeated BG James, Glenn Gilbertti and Mike Sanders. Afterwards Gowen left TNA, opting not to sign an official contract on the advice of Martini, who advised him WWE were likely to offer him a contract. In February 2003, Gowan signed a development contract with World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE).

Gowen later returned to TNA on May 15, 2005, at their Hard Justice pay-per-view event, as the second entrant in the 20-Man Gauntlet for the Gold match. He lasted just under five minutes in the ring before being eliminated by Shark Boy. The next month, Gowen wrestled at the Slammiversary pay-per-view, losing in a six-way match. He also appeared on TNA Impact!, wrestling Mikey Batts to a no contest before leaving the promotion once again later that year. In October 2006, at Bound for Glory, Gowen returned to TNA during the Kevin Nash X-Division Open Battle Royal Gauntlet match as the sixth entrant, but was eliminated by Johnny Devine.

World Wrestling Entertainment (2003–2004)
He made his World Wrestling Entertainment debut on the May 15, 2003 episode of SmackDown! as a planted fan in the audience, who attempted to help Mr. America when he was being attacked by Roddy Piper and Sean O'Haire. During the segment, Piper pulled off Gowen's prosthetic leg. This began a short collaboration of Gowen and Mr. America, and a feud pitting the two against Roddy Piper and Sean O'Haire. This storyline culminated at the Judgment Day pay-per-view when Mr. America, accompanied by Gowen, defeated Piper, who was accompanied by O'Haire.

Gowen's partnership with Mr. America put him on bad terms with Mr. McMahon, as McMahon was convinced Mr. America was Hulk Hogan in disguise. On the June 26 episode of SmackDown!, McMahon told Gowen that if he would join his "Kiss My Ass Club", he would be awarded a WWE contract. Instead Gowen attacked McMahon. As a result, Gowen and Stephanie McMahon were put in a match against the Big Show, in what McMahon billed as the first "real" handicap match (referring to Gowen and his amputee status in addition to the two vs. one parameters of the match). With help from both Kurt Angle and Brock Lesnar, Gowen and Stephanie McMahon defeated the Big Show, winning Gowen a contract. Gowen's win further fueled the ill-feelings toward him from Mr. McMahon. This feud culminated in a one-on-one match between the two at Vengeance in which McMahon defeated Gowen.

Gowen then lost several singles matches to wrestlers including Shannon Moore, Nunzio, and John Cena, with Gowen being attacked by Matt Hardy, Moore's mentor, following each loss. The storyline was cut short on the August 21 episode of SmackDown!, when Gowen defeated Brock Lesnar by disqualification after Lesnar broke Gowen's leg in storyline.

Gowen was absent from television for nearly a month, returning in an interview on the October 2 episode of SmackDown! promoting his in-ring return for the following week. In his in-ring return, Gowen lost to Moore following interference from Hardy, reigniting their feud. As a result, Gowen and Hardy faced off in a singles match at No Mercy, which Gowen won. On the October 23 episode of SmackDown!, Gowen lost to Tajiri in a singles match, and afterward was attacked by two of Tajiri's associates. Gowen did not return to WWE television due to suffering an injury, and was later released from his WWE contract on February 4, 2004.

Independent circuit (2004–present)
Following his release from WWE, Gowen decided to focus on his education and work limited professional wrestling dates. He appeared for several independent promotions, including Independent Wrestling Association Mid-South (IWA Mid-South) where he played the character of an egotistical heel (villain). Gowen was part of the Jeff Peterson Memorial Cup in 2004.

In All American Wrestling, he is also a part of the "Michigan Invasion" heel stable (along with fellow Michigan wrestlers Truth Martini, "Amazing" N8 Mattson, Eddie Venom and Brian Gorie). On April 14, 2007, Gowen and his mystery partner Krotch defeated "Michigan Invasion" members Truth Martini and "Amazing" N8 Mattson to become new AAW Tag Team Champions. They then lost the championship to Trik Davis and Conrad Kennedy III in a four-way elimination match on June 16, 2007. In a circus-based independent wrestling promotion, Squared Circle Revue, Gowen portrays a one-legged boy, under the ring name, Pogo The 1 Legged Boy.

In Prime Wrestling, Gowen formed a tag team with Gregory Iron known as "The Handicapped Handguns". The duo defeated The Dead Wrestling Society in January 2013 to become the Prime Tag Team Champions. They held the championship for three months, until losing it to Marion Fontaine and Jeremy Madrox on April 19. As the "Handicapped Heroes", Gowen and Iron also won the Clash Tag Team Championship on April 27. On October 20, 2013, The Handicapped Heroes regained the Prime Tag Team Championship.

Ring of Honor (2006, 2008, 2010)
Gowen made his Ring of Honor (ROH) debut on October 7, 2006, losing to Delirious in a singles match. Gowen would later return to ROH on February 22, 2008, in Deer Park, New York, immediately aligning himself with The Age of the Fall. On November 12, 2010, he appeared at an ROH show in Detroit, where he was announced as the newest member of Truth Martini's House of Truth faction. He teamed with ROH World Champion Roderick Strong and Michael Elgin in a loss to the Briscoe Brothers and Christopher Daniels. After a tag team loss to Grizzly Redwood and Bobby Dempsey at the following day's event in Toronto, Elgin and Martini turned on Gowen and kicked him out of the House of Truth.

Juggalo Championship Wrestling (2007–2008; 2011–present)
Gowen debuted in Juggalo Championship Wrestling as a part of their 2007 internet wrestling show SlamTV!. Initially a villain, his hard work ethic and wrestling abilities earned him the respect of the juggalo audience, per storyline. Following a failed attempt to win the JCW Heavyweight Championship from then-champion Trent Acid, Gowen formed the tag team Pimp & Gimp Connection with Human Tornado. The team made an immediate impact and earned themselves a spot in the 8 Team Tag-Team Elimination match for the JCW Tag Team Championship at Bloodymania. They failed to capture the championship after Gowen was eliminated by Doug Basham.

In the following season, Gowen formed a tag team with Conrad Kennedy to compete in the JCW Tag Team Tournament for the vacant championship. Tornado, though, saw villainous manager Scott D'Amore leaving Kennedy's dressing room and grew suspicious. Two weeks later, Kennedy attacked Gowen after the team lost their match against The Bloody Brothers. Human Tornado ran into the ring to save Gowen, forcing Kennedy to retreat to the stage, where Scott D'Amore met with him. The following week, a match was set for Bloodymania II between Pimp & Gimp Connection and Conrad Kennedy with a mystery partner. The match, however, was scrapped after Gowen legitimately no-showed the event.

Gowen returned to the company on March 23, 2011, where he defeated Jimmy Jacobs. He formed a tag team at Up in Smoke with U-Gene, who believed that he could be Gowen's second leg. Though U-Gene cost his team the match by distracting the referee, Gowen forgave him and announced that the team would wrestle again at the next event. On July 28, Gowen and U-Gene defeated the Ring Rydas to win the JCW Tag Team Championship. However, Gowen forfeited the championship after realizing that U-Gene cheated to win, causing U-Gene to attack him and disband the team. Both men wrestled each other at Bloodymania 5, with Gowen emerging victorious after U-Gene was caught cheating again.

Personal life
Gowen attended Eastern Michigan University, where he studied Secondary Education and Mathematics. He has four children with his wife.

In 2016, Gowen competed in the Indianapolis qualifying round of the eighth season of American Ninja Warrior. He fell on the third obstacle, the fly wheels, and did not move on to the city finals.

Gowen released a memoir, "High Risk Maneuvers" in 2018 and currently tours as a motivational speaker for kids.

Championships and accomplishments

 * '''3XWrestling
 * 3XW Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
 * All American Wrestling
 * AAW Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Krotch
 * Blue Water Championship Wrestling
 * BWCW Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
 * CLASH Wrestling
 * CLASH Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Gregory Iron
 * Cleveland All-Pro Wrestling
 * CAPW Junior Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
 * Cleveland Wrestling Alliance
 * CWA Latino Velez Memorial Championship (1 time)
 * Independent Wrestling Revolution
 * IWR King of the Indies Championship (1 time)
 * IWR Tag Team Championships (1 time) - with Kamikaze
 * Michigan Championship Wrestling Association
 * MCWA Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
 * Mid American Wrestling
 * MAW Tag Team Championships (1 time) - with Silas Young
 * Mr. Chainsaw Productions Wrestling
 * MCPW Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Gregory Iron
 * Prime Wrestling
 * Prime Tag Team Championship (2 times) – with Gregory Iron
 * Pro Wrestling All-Stars Of Detroit
 * PWASD Downriver Championship (1 time)
 * PWASD Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Gregory Iron
 * Pro Wrestling Illustrated
 * PWI Most Inspirational Wrestler of the Year (2003)
 * PWI Rookie of the Year (2003)
 * Pro Wrestling Syndicate
 * PWS Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Gregory Iron
 * Pure Pro Wrestling
 * PPW Michigan State Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
 * Twin Wrestling Entertainment
 * Nacho Cup (2006)
 * Xtreme Intense Championship Wrestling
 * XICW Light Heavyweight Championship (3 times)
 * XICW Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Jaimy Coxxx
 * XICW Xtreme Intense Championship (1 time)

title: Zach Gowen


text:
Read Music/Speak Spanish

Read Music/Speak Spanish is the first studio album by American punk band Desaparecidos. Released in February 2002, the record is the forty-second release of Saddle Creek Records. Reviews were mostly positive upon release.

About
Read Music/Speak Spanish is a punk/indie-rock concept album loosely centered on perceived American materialism and greed. Song topics include the pressures of upward mobility on marriage, the suburban expansion of Omaha, the desire to always follow the latest fashion or fad, the effect of consumerism on developing countries, and the mixture of religion and politics.

The album was recorded in one week, the same week of the September 11 attacks. Since the concept of the album is a criticism of American consumerism, the band considered not releasing it and partly due to this timing the album failed commercially. Despite its lack of commercial success, the album gained an extensive cult following.

Personnel

 * Conor Oberst - vocals, guitar
 * Denver Dalley - guitar
 * Ian McElroy - keyboards
 * Landon Hedges - bass, vocals
 * Matt Baum - drums

title: Read Music/Speak Spanish


text:
Eduardo Frei

Eduardo Frei may refer to either of two presidents of Chile:

 * Eduardo Frei Montalva (1911–1982), Chilean political figure and president of Chile from 1964 to 1970
 * Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle (born 1942), Chilean politician and civil engineer, president of Chile from 1994 to 2000, son of the above

title: Eduardo Frei


text:
ACH

ACH or Ach may refer to:

Businesses

 * ACH Food Companies, Inc., American subsidiary of Associated British Foods
 * ACH Network, American electronic fund clearing house
 * Automotive Components Holdings, LLC, a Ford-managed temporary company

Hospitals

 * Adelaide Children's Hospital, former component of the Women's and Children's Hospital, Adelaide, South Australia
 * Akron Children's Hospital, Akron, Ohio, U.S.
 * Alberta Children's Hospital, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
 * Arkansas Children's Hospital, Little Rock, Arkansas, U.S.

Organizations

 * Accion contra el hambre, part of the Action Against Hunger network
 * Association for Computers and the Humanities

People

 * Ach (surname)
 * ACH (wrestler), American professional wrestler Albert C. Hardie, Jr (born 1987)
 * Ach., taxonomic author abbreviation for Erik Acharius (1757–1819), Swedish botanist

Places

 * Aach (toponymy), a term for "river" in German hydronymy
 * Ach (Ammer), a tributary of the Ammer, Bavaria, Germany
 * Ach (Blau), a tributary of the Blau, Baden-Württemberg, Germany
 * Bregenzer Ach, a tributary of Lake Constance, Austria
 * Dornbirner Ach, a tributary of Lake Constance, Austria
 * Friedberger Ach, a tributary of the Lech, Bavaria, Germany
 * Ach, Iran, a village in Qazvin Province

Science

 * Acetone cyanohydrin, an organic compound
 * Acetylcholine (ACh), a neurotransmitter
 * Aluminium chlorohydrate, a group of water-soluble, specific aluminium salts

Sports

 * AC Horsens, a Danish football club
 * Allan Cup Hockey, a Canadian senior ice hockey league

Transportation

 * Achnashellach railway station, Scotland, National Railway code ACH
 * St. Gallen–Altenrhein Airport, Switzerland, IATA airport code ACH

Other uses

 * Acholi dialect, ISO 639 code ach
 * Advanced Combat Helmet, in the United States Army
 * Air changes per hour, a measure of ventilation
 * Analysis of competing hypotheses, a methodology
 * Automated clearing house, a network for processing transactions

title: ACH


text:
Kavitrayam

Kavitrayam (Telugu: కవిత్రయం) is a Telugu expression for trinity of poets. Kavitrayam popularly refers to the poets who translated the great epic Mahabharata into Telugu. The group/trinity consists of Nannayya, Tikkana and Yerrapragada.

Nannayya
Nannayya was popularly hailed as the Adi Kavi or the first poet, and he belonged to Rajamahendravaram, an ancient city in East Godavari District of Andhra Pradesh. He was said to have lived during the years 1000 - 1100. Nannayya initiated the gigantic task of translation of the great epic Mahabharata into the Telugu language. But before he could translate everything, he had to revise Telugu by building new grammar rules and increase its vocabulary. Nannayya used many of the Sanskrit words directly in Telugu too. Thus Nannayya made Telugu more Sanskrit related. Thus a lot of Nannayya's years were gone in the process of building a scaffold for the great task to translate the Mahabharata. However, he was still able to translate the first 2½ parvas (chapters) into Telugu.

Thikkana
Thikkana belonged to Paturu, or Kovur taluk of present day Nellore district, a territory in 13th century's Kakatiya kingdom. Thikkana took over the task from Nannayya. He translated from the 4th to 18th chapters of the Mahabharata, almost completing the last. He could start the task of translation right from day one, because Telugu was considerably an improved language by the time. However, he never attempted the 3rd chapter due to his life span, thus still leaving the task incomplete.

Yerrapragada
Errana was a great Telugu poet in the court of Prolaya Vemareddy (1325–1353), the founder of Reddy dynasty (1325–1424) of Kondaveedu, who ruled Guntur, Prakasam, Nellore, and Kurnool districts with capital of Addanki. Errana was also known as Yellapregada or Errapregada. He was honored with the title Prabandha Parameswara (the supreme lord of Prabandha) and Sambudasusu. One of his greatest accomplishments were that he complete the full translation of the third chapter ending the task of getting the Mahabharatam to Telugu.

title: Kavitrayam


text:
NRC

NRC, or nrc, may refer to:

Education

 * NRC School
 * Northern Regional College

Education

 * National Resource Center, US Department of Education program promoting international studies and languages through grants
 * National Resource Center for Health Information Technology, a part of the US Department of Health and Human Services

Politics

 * N. R. Congress, an Indian political party
 * National Republican Convention, a Nigerian political party
 * National Redemption Council, the ruling government in Ghana from 1972 to 1975
 * National Reformation Council, a group of senior military officers who seized control of the Sierra Leone government

Research

 * National Research Centre (Egypt)
 * National Research Council (Canada)
 * National Research Council of Sri Lanka
 * Nokia Research Center
 * United States National Research Council

Other organizations

 * Norwegian Refugee Council
 * National Railroad Construction and Maintenance Association, United States
 * National Response Center, the sole US government point of contact for reporting all sorts of ecological spills
 * NATO–Russia Council
 * Nuclear Regulatory Commission, an independent agency of the US government

Science and technology

 * Noise reduction coefficient
 * Normal retinal correspondence

Sports

 * National Rugby Championship, an Australian rugby union competition
 * Newbury Racecourse, United Kingdom
 * Nigel Reo-Coker, an English footballer
 * No Remorse Corps, professional wrestling group
 * Nottingham Rowing Club, an English rowing club
 * USA Cycling National Racing Calendar, an American set of bicycle racing events

Transport

 * Nigerian Railway Corporation
 * NRC, the IATA code for NASA Crows Landing Airport in the state of California, US
 * NRC, the National Rail code for Newbury Racecourse railway station in the county of Berkshire, UK

Other uses

 * NRC Handelsblad, Dutch newspaper that was rebranded as NRC
 * National Radio Club, a US non-profit hobbyist organization
 * National Register of Citizens, a registry for citizens of India
 * Nature Reviews Cancer, a monthly scientific journal of review articles covering the field of oncology
 * Netherlands Reformed Congregations
 * New Roc City, an American entertainment complex in New Rochelle, New York
 * Nigerian Railway Corporation

title: NRC


text:
Talk:Conman

This should be merged with confidence trick. --Delirium 09:54, Aug 1, 2003 (UTC)

title: Talk:Conman


text:
Psaltery

A psaltery (ψαλτήρι) (or sawtry, an archaic form) is a fretboard-less box zither (a simple chordophone) and is considered the archetype of the zither and dulcimer. Plucked keyboard instruments such as the harpsichord were also inspired by it. Its resonance box is usually trapezoidal, rectangular or in the form of a "pig's head" and often richly decorated.

Etymology
The psaltery of Ancient Greece (epigonion) was a harp-like stringed instrument. The word psaltery derives from the Ancient Greek ψαλτήριον (psaltḗrion), "stringed instrument, psaltery, harp" and that from the verb ψάλλω (psállō), "to touch sharply, to pluck, pull, twitch" and in the case of the strings of musical instruments, "to play a stringed instrument with the fingers, and not with the plectrum." The psaltery was originally made from wood, and relied on natural acoustics for sound production.

In the King James Bible "psaltery", and its plural, "psalteries", are used to translate several words from the Hebrew Bible whose meaning is now unknown.

Characteristics
While the Greek instruments were harps, psaltery came to mean instruments that were strung across a resonating wood box. The box-zither psalteries may have a Phoenician origin. The strings of the medieval instrument were usually made of metal, unlike the finger-plucked harp, strung with catgut, and played using a plectrum or “pick.” The harp is strung with a single string for each tone, open to be plucked from either side of the instrument; a psaltery may have multiple strings for each tone, strung across a soundboard. The psaltery has been compared to the harpsichord and dulcimer, though some forms of the latter are not plucked, but struck with hammers.

Medieval and Renaissance psalteries
From the 12th through the 15th centuries, psalteries are widely seen in manuscripts, paintings and sculpture throughout Europe. Examples found in one reference book, the Groves New Encyclopedia of Musical Instruments, show examples in paintings from the 9th century Carolingian Empire Benedictine Psalter, in 13th century Spain (in the Cantigas de Santa Maria), in Bohemia in the 14th century, in Italy in the 14th century, and Germany in the 15th century.

Shapes included "triangular, trapezoidal, semitrapezoidal, wing shaped, or harp shaped". The psalterion decacordum was shaped like a square and had ten strings strung vertically. Stings could run in courses, as viewed in the middle-ages artwork.

Modern psaltery
While psalteries had largely died out in Europe by the 19th century, the salterio remained common in Mexico well into the twentieth century and is still played in some regional styles.

The hammered dulcimer and related instruments, such as the santur, cimbalom, yangqin, and khim, appear very similar to psalteries, and it is often hard to tell which one historical images represent. They differ in that the player strikes the strings with small hammers rather than plucking them. As a result, they have much higher string tension and heavier frames.

In the 19th century, several related zithers came into use, notably the guitar zither and the autoharp. In the 20th century, the bowed psaltery came into wide use. It is set up in a triangular format so that the end portion of each string can be bowed.

title: Psaltery


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CHU (radio station)

CHU is the call sign of a shortwave time signal radio station operated by the Institute for National Measurement Standards of the National Research Council. CHU's signal is used for continuous dissemination of official Canadian government time signals, derived from atomic clocks.

History
Radio time signals allowed accurate and rapid distribution of time signals beyond the range of the telegraph or visual signals. This was of particular value in surveying remote areas, where time signals allowed accurate determination of longitude. In the summer of 1914, a survey party at Quinze Dam in the Ottawa River watershed attempted to receive time signals transmitted from Kingston; however, signals were not resolvable and the time signal from NAA in Arlington, Virginia was used instead.

The station was started in 1923 by the Dominion Observatory in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, with a call sign of 9CC on an experimental basis until 1928. Regular daytime transmission began under the callsign of VE9OB in January 1929 on a wavelength of 40.8 metres (about 7.353 MHz). Continuous transmission at 90 metres began at the end of 1929, with other wavelengths being used experimentally. Time signals were generated from the observatory's own pendulum clocks. The transmitter oscillators were condenser-tuned and so frequency stability was not high until quartz crystal control was implemented in 1933.

In 1938 the call was changed to CHU, operating on frequencies of 3.33, 7.335 and 14.67 MHz, at a transmitter power of only 10 W. The 1,000 Hz tone imposed on the carrier was derived from the quartz oscillator that determined transmit frequency, but the seconds pulses were still derived from the observatory pendulum clocks. The station automatically sent its call sign in Morse code once per hour, and pulses were coded to identify the time of day. Since the CHU power was not high enough to cover much of Canada, including survey parties working in the North, observatory time signals were also transmitted by a Department of Transport station with 2 kW power. In 1947, three new transmitters with 300 W power were installed for the three frequencies, relocated to the station's present rural location. In 1951, a Collins transmitter rated for 3 kW was put in service on 7.335 MHz.

The purpose of the station was to provide accurate time-keeping information, especially to rural and remote areas that didn't have local access to accurate time. The station also pioneered the use of microwave and satellite communication to transmit its signal to remote areas.

Initially, the signal consisted of a constant frequency interrupted by patterns of Morse Code pulses to indicate the time. In the 1930s, station identification via Morse Code was added to the transmission. Since deciphering even a simple time code "by ear" was occasionally difficult under field conditions, voice announcements of time and station identification were added to CHU in 1952, using a speaking clock made by Ateliers Brillié Frères of France. Fredrick Martin Meach of the Canadian embassy in Paris recorded the time announcements in English, which were stored on strips of photographic film and played back under control of the observatory clocks. In 1960 the speaking clock was replaced with one manufactured by Audichron corporation and rented by the Dominion Observatory; this unit had more intelligible voice quality and lower maintenance. New English voice announcements were recorded by Harry Mannis of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Bilingual announcements started in 1964, with French speech provided by Miville Couture of CBC Montreal. The station switched to digital audio in the 1990s.

Until 1959 the carrier frequency, tone frequency and second pulses were derived from independent sources, and the carrier stability as that of any commercial short wave transmitter. A divider chain was put into service so that all of the CHU signals were derived from Western Electric standard crystal oscillators with pulses for seconds monitored by continuous comparison with the observatory clocks. By 1978 all parts of the CHU transmitted signal were derived from an NRC-designed cesium beam frequency standard.

Also in 1959, the 14.67 MHz transmitter was replaced with a new 20 kW unit. All site antennas were replaced with vertical antennas by 1971. The station continued to be operated by the Observatory until 1970, when its operation was transferred to the Institute for National Measurement Standards at the National Research Council.

Effective January 1, 2009, the 7.335 MHz frequency was changed to 7.85 MHz. The change was necessary due to an ITU HF global reallocation at the 2003 World Radio Conference (WRC-03), where the 7.3 MHz range was reallocated to broadcasting. The power output was later reduced from 10 kW to 5 kW due to complaints from New Zealand that the signal was causing interference on its new frequency.

Transmission system
The station is unmanned and equipped with modified 1960s-era 10 kW transmitters and is controlled remotely from the National Research Council's headquarters on Montreal Road.

CHU transmits 3 kW signals on 3.33 and 14.67 MHz, and a 5 kW signal on 7.85 MHz. These nonstandard time signal frequencies were chosen to avoid interference from WWV and WWVH. The signal is amplitude modulated, with the lower sideband suppressed (emission type H3E). The same information is carried on all three frequencies simultaneously including announcements every minute, alternating between English and French. The CHU transmitter is located near Barrhaven, Ontario, 15 km (10 miles) southwest of Ottawa's central business district.

The systems feeding the transmitters are duplicated for reliability, and have both battery and generator protection. The generator can also supply the transmitters. The announcements are made using digitally recorded voices. Individual vertical dipole antennas are used for each frequency. CHU has long been licensed as a "fixed service" within the band allocations of the International Telecommunication Union.

, CHU has three atomic clocks at the station, contained in a special enclosure to eliminate possible electromagnetic interference and compared with the atomic clocks at NRC's headquarters.

CHU mails QSL cards to acknowledge listeners' reception reports.

Time signal format
The primary time signal is a series of 300 ms-long [[Media:1000Hz.ogg|1,000 Hz]] tones, transmitted once per second, on the second. The following exceptions to the pattern provide additional information:
 * The top of the minute is marked by a half-second-long beep.
 * The top of the hour is marked with a one-second-long beep, followed by nine seconds of silence.
 * The 29th second of a minute is always omitted (no beep).
 * Between one and sixteen seconds past the minute (except at the top of the hour), CHU transmits the difference between UT1 and Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) by using split tones. For positive DUT1 values from +0.1 to +0.8 s, seconds 1 through 8 are split.  For negative DUT1 values from −0.1 to −0.8 s, seconds 9 through 16 are split.
 * Between 31 and 39 seconds past the minute inclusive, the once-per-second tones are reduced to 10-millisecond "ticks" while a digital time code is transmitted. The digital time code is formatted so that a Bell 103-compatible 300-baud modem can decode it, and CHU is the only time signal station that uses this format for its time code transmissions.
 * For the last 9 seconds of each minute (seconds 51 to 59), the once-per-second tones are again cut to 10 milliseconds each, while CHU transmits a brief voice station identification, followed by voice announcements of the next minute in UTC, alternating between French and English. French announcements, using the voice of Radio-Canada news anchor Simon Durivage, are transmitted first on the odd minutes, while English announcements, voiced by late CBC Radio announcer Harry Mannis, come first on the even minutes.

The digital time code sends 10 characters at 300 bits per second using 8N2 asynchronous serial communication. This follows the Bell 103 standard, a 2,225 Hz tone to represent a mark (1 bit) and 2,025 Hz tone for a space (0 bit). Immediately after the 10 ms tick, a mark tone is sent until 133.3 ms, then 110 data bits, ending at precisely 500 ms. The final stop bit is extended by 10 ms of mark tone to ensure it is detected reliably, and the final 490 ms of the second are silent. The time of day (day of year through second) is transmitted twice during each second from 32 to 39. During second 31, additional information (year, DUT1, daylight saving time, and leap second warning bits) is transmitted.

A similar National Research Council Time Signal was broadcast by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) radio services daily at noon ET on Radio-Canada's Première Chaîne, and 1 p.m. ET on CBC Radio One. Its last broadcast was on October 9, 2023.

Western Canada signal coverage
CHU often cannot be received in Western Canada on any of its broadcast frequencies. Propagation conditions, low transmitter power coupled with the typical two ionospheric hops distances from Ottawa result in relatively weak time signals for Western Canada. Electromagnetic interference can further aggravate reception difficulty in urban areas in the West. CHU can be practically unusable in most of Western Canada, Nunavut, and the Northwest Territories, for significant stretches of time. U.S. stations WWV and WWVH are the fallback in Western Canada. In the high Arctic, however, both the U.S. shortwave time stations and CHU become essentially unusable or unreliable. Canada has no longwave time signal transmitters. The American station WWVB is the only option for reliable time signals during geomagnetic storms in the Western Arctic, based on WWVB's published pattern maps. If WWVB is not available, those who need precision time transfer may be able to use GPS time transfer instead.

title: CHU (radio station)


text:
Anuradhapura

Anuradhapura (අනුරාධපුරය; அனுராதபுரம்) is a major city located in the north central plain of Sri Lanka. It is the capital city of North Central Province and the capital of Anuradhapura District. The city lies 205 km north of the current capital of Colombo in the North Central Province, on the banks of the historic Malwathu Oya. The city is now a World Heritage Site famous for its well-preserved ruins of the ancient Sinhalese civilisation.

While Mahāvaṃsa places the founding of the city in 437 BCE, the site has been inhabited for much longer, making it a major human settlement on the island for almost three millennia and one of the oldest continuously occupied cities in Asia. It is the cradle of the Hydraulic Sinhalese civilisation, Theravada Buddhism, and the longest-serving ancient capital of Sri Lanka that has survived for 1500 years. Moreover, It was the first capital of the Sinhala Kingdom of Rajarata, following the kingdoms of Tambapanni and Upatissa Nuwara. Anuradhapura was also the centre of Theravada Buddhism for many centuries and has been a major Buddhist pilgrimage site with ruins of many ancient Buddhist temples, including the famous Anuradhapura Maha Viharaya and the Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi, the oldest still-living, documented, planted tree in the world and that is believed to have originally been a branch of the sacred fig tree at Bodh Gaya (Bihar, India), under which the Buddha attained enlightenment. These vast networks of ancient temples and monasteries now cover over 40 mi2 of area of the city today.

The city was mostly destroyed and largely deserted after 993 CE, with the Chola invasion from South India. Although several attempts were made by later Sinhalese kings to return the capital to Anuradhapura, it was not reestablished as a major population centre of the island until the British colonial era in the 19th century CE. Despite its political decline, Anuradhapura remained a vital pilgrimage site for Buddhists throughout the medieval period and continues to be an important spiritual destination to this day. The revival of the current city began in earnest in the 1870s. The contemporary city, much of which was moved during the mid-20th century to preserve the site of the ancient capital, is a major road junction of northern Sri Lanka and lies along a railway line. The city is the headquarters of Sri Lanka's archeological survey, and tourism is a significant factor in its economy.

Etymology
According to historical records such as Mahavamsa, the origin of the name Anuradhapura is traced to the minister named 'Anuradha' in the court of Prince Vijaya (543–505 BCE ), the first Sinhalese king of the island. According to the legends related to Vijaya, his minister named 'Anuradha' established the settlement that later became Anuradhapura. However, the finding of earlier settlements in the citadel area of the old city dating back to until 10 century BCE would doubt this claim.

The name 'Anuradhapura' means the 'city of Anuradha' (Anuradha+pura), where "pura" stand for 'city' in Sinhala, Sanskrit, Pali, and Tamil. However, before Anuradhapura was considered a city, it was called the 'Anuradhagrama,' meaning the 'village of Anuradha,' from "Anuradha" and "grama". This older name was also mentioned in the work of ancient Greek and Roman scholars such as Strabo and Claudius Ptolemy. In Ptolemy's world map from 2 century CE, the place was named 'Anourogrammoi.' Thus, It is believed that the expansion of this earlier smaller settlement called Anuradhagrama into a city during the reign of Sinhalese king Pandukabhaya (474–367 BCE ) in 437 BCE caused the change of the name to Anuradhapura.

Significant milestones in the development of the name

 * Naming the earlier smaller settlement after the minister 'Anuradha' in the court of Prince Vijaya as Anuradhagrama (6th century BCE ).
 * Anuradhagrama stand for 'village of Anuradha' (Anuradha+grama).
 * Changing the name into Anuradhapura due to the expansion of settlement into a city during Sinhalese king Pandukabhaya (437 BCE ).
 * Anuradhapura stands for 'city of Anuradha' (Anuradha+pura).

Early history
Anuradhapura is the best representation of the beginnings of pre-modern urbanization in Sri Lanka. The development of the initial settlement at the site of the city can be attributed to the second global cycle of historical evolution with the generalised diffusion of iron technology in the Old World through the first millennium BCE, culminating in the emergence of many historical civilizations. The history of Anuradhapura then extends from its traditional founding in the recorded history in the fourth century BCE and its subsequent laying-out by Devanampiya Tissa (250–210 BCE ) to its abandonment by the last of the Anuradhapura kings at the end of the tenth century CE, its brief reoccupation in the eleventh century and the restoration of some of its major monuments, in the late 13th century CE by Vijayabahu IV (1267–1270 CE ).

Iron Age
Even though, historical chronicle Mahāvaṃsa (5th century CE ) place founding of the city in the 5th century BC, the archaeological data from the excavation of the citadel area of the old city puts the date of the human settlement as far back as the 10th century BC. According to these excavations, protohistoric Iron Age of the city spans from 900 - 600 BCE, with the appearance of iron technology, pottery, the horse, domestic cattle and paddy cultivation. In the time period 700-600 BCE, the settlement in Anuradhapura had grown over an area of at least 50 ha. Irrigable and fertile land surround the city, strategically situated with major ports northwest and northeast of the island. The city also benefited from dense jungle surroundings, providing a natural defense from invaders.

Excavation at Anuradhapura has unearthed Painted Gray Ware (PGW) pottery from the 'Basal early historic' period of Anuradhapura (600 BC-500 BCE) showing connections with North India (during vedic period).

Early Historic Period
Details of city's development in this early historic period, spanning from 500 to 250 BCE can be found in Sinhalese Chronicles. According to these records, King Pandukabhaya formally planned the city with gates and quarters for traders. The city at the time covered an area of one square kilometer, making it one of the largest cities on the continent at the time.The city was largely deserted after the invasion by the Chola Tamil Hindu king Rajaraja 1 in 993 CE and his son Rajendra 1 in 1014 CE. According to Culavamsa (6th century CE -18th century CE ), Anuradhapura was "utterly destroyed in every way by the Chola army. Still, the place was continuously inhabited after this event as indicated by records of visitors to the island such as Robert Knox and others. Thus, the city was the longest-serving Sinhalese capital of Sri Lanka from the 5th century BCE (437 BCE ) until the 11th century CE (1017 CE) flourishing for around 1,500 years.

Buddhism
Anuradhapura was a major intellectual centre for early Theravada Buddhism, home to revered Buddhist philosophers including Buddhaghosa.

During the reign of Dhatusena (455-473) a redaction of the Theravada Buddhist canon took place while at the same time 18 new vihara (temple complexes) were built and a statue erected for Mahinda, the Indian prince-monk who introduced Buddhism to the island.

During the late Anuradhapura period, the royal family and nobility of Sri Lanka strongly supported Buddhism. As such, they frequently commissioned works of art and donated these items to Buddhist temples. In return, the temple and local Buddhist community supported the king's rule. Artworks featuring depictions of Avalokitesvara, the Bodhisattva of Mercy and Compassion, became increasingly popular.

European discovery
The area was sparsely inhabited for many centuries, but the local population remained aware of the ruins. In Robert Knox's 1681 An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon, he wrote: "At this City of Anurodgburro is a Watch kept, beyond which are no more people that yield obedience to the King of Kandy". In 1821, John Davy wrote that: "Anooradapoora, so long the capital of Ceylon, is now a small mean village, in the midst of a desert. A large tank, numerous stone pillars, two or three immense tumuli, (probably old dagobahs,) are its principal remains. It is still considered a sacred spot; and is a place of pilgrimage."

Excavations
Various excavations have taken place at the site, beginning in 1884–86 by Stephen Montagu Burrows.

Sacred city and new town
Anuradhapura became the centre of administration of the North Central Province and with the building of the Northern Railway line, Anuradhapura became an important railway town with the opening of the Anuradhapura railway station in 1904. The Government of Ceylon tasked Oliver Weerasinghe to develop the Anuradhapura Preservation Plan in 1949, aimed at establishing a new planned town east of the existing Anuradhapura town, thereby establishing the Sacred city of Anuradhapura, with the aim of preserving the ancient city. The "New Town" had many of the government offices and law courts moved into it. The Anuradhapura Preservation Board was established with this aim.

Nissanka Wijeyeratne was Government Agent of Anuradhapura District from 1958 to 1962. He was arguably the best known of all government agents of his time. His stature ensured that the voice of Anuradhapura was heard at the highest levels in Colombo. Apart from being Government Agent, he was Chairman of the Anuradhapura Preservation Board. This was the time when the city of Anuradhapura was in a period of historic transition. The new town of Anuradhapura was being built, and the residents of the old were being transferred to the new town. It was a time of some tension and of excitement. He managed this process of change with courage and remarkable political skills. While in Anuradhapura, he unveiled a memorial for H. R. Freeman, a popular British Government Agent who later was elected by the people of the district to represent them in the 1st State Council of Ceylon. Coming events cast their shadows before. A striking feature of Wijeyeratne's Anuradhapura days was his great ability to see the bigger picture and focus on the key issues, and delegate responsibilities to his staff officers. He was never one to be enmeshed in detail. He also set up the Sacred City of Anuradhapura shifted the urban city to the newly created Anuradhapura town and is responsible for the establishment of Anuradhapura Airport.

Places of veneration

 * Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi
 * Ruwanwelisaya
 * Thuparamaya
 * Lovamahapaya
 * Abhayagiri Dagaba
 * Jetavanarama
 * Mirisaveti Stupa
 * Lankarama

Other structures

 * Dakkhina Stupa
 * Isurumuniya
 * Kiribath Vehera
 * Kuttam Pokuna
 * Mahamevnāwa Gardens
 * Naka Vihara
 * Ranmasu Uyana
 * Rathna Prasadaya
 * Samadhi Statue
 * Sela Cetiya
 * Toluvila statue
 * Vessagiriya

Demographics
Source: www.statistics.gov.lk - Census 2001

Climate
Anuradhapura has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen As).

Transportation
Anuradhapura is served by railway and highways. The Northern railway line connects Anuradhapura with Colombo, Jaffna, and Kankesanthurai. Anuradhapura railway station is the city's rail gateway, with major services, such as the Yal Devi, Uttara Devi stopping there.

There are a number of bus routes passing through Anuradhapura from Colombo to the northern province. Some of them are 04, 15, 57, 87 etc.

Anuradhapura is a central city in Sri Lanka. It is directly connected by road to a large number of major cities and towns on the island. By road, it is connected to Vavuniya, Dambulla, Matale, Puttalam, Trincomalee, Jaffna, Kurunegala and Kandy.

title: Anuradhapura