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Ottoman Albania

Ottoman Albania refers to a period in Albanian history from the Ottoman conquest in the late 15th century to the Albanian declaration of Independence and official secession from the Ottoman Empire in 1912. The Ottomans first entered Albania in 1385 upon the invitation of the Albanian noble Karl Thopia to suppress the forces of the noble Balša II during the Battle of Savra. They had some previous influence in some Albanian regions after the battle of Savra in 1385 but not direct control. The Ottomans placed garrisons throughout southern Albania by 1420s and established formal jurisdiction in central Albania by 1431. Even though The Ottomans claimed rule of all Albanian lands, most Albanian ethnic territories were still governed by medieval Albanian nobility who were free of Ottoman rule. The Sanjak of Albania was established in 1420 or 1430 controlling mostly central Albania, while Ottoman rule became more consolidated in 1481, after the fall of Shkodra and League of Lezhe with the country (including areas of today's Kosovo, Montenegro and Macedonia) being mostly free in the period of 1443–1481. Albanians revolted again in 1481 but the Ottomans finally controlled Albania by 1488.

The term used in Ottoman sources for the country was Arnavudluk (Ottoman Turkish: آرناوودلق), including areas such as present-day Albania, Kosovo, western North Macedonia, southern Serbia, southern Montenegro and parts of northern Greece.

In 1431, Many Albanian princes including Gjergj Arianiti, Zenevisi family, Andrea Thopia and Gjon Kastrioti started a war against the Ottoman Empire which resulted in defeat of Gjon Kastrioti but victory in 4 battles for Gjergj Arianiti and 1 victory for Andrea Thopia. These Albanian victories opened the way for the coming of Skanderbeg in 1443 in Kruja. Independence for most of the Albanian regions was maintained during 1443–1479, with the uprising under the lead of Skanderbeg that together with other Albanian nobles such Gjergj Arianiti, Andrea Thopia and Lek Dukagjini achieved remarkable result of 30+ victories against the Ottoman Empire.

The Albanian resistance and war against Ottomans continued for 48 years. The last towns captured by the Ottomans were Shkodër in 1480, Durrës in 1501 and Himara in 1509, except for the northern parts of the Albanian highlands and Mirdita, which could never be fully invaded. The Ottomans seeing the impossibility to invade this place they were forced to ensure the region the right of autonomy with its own heredity princes. Principality of Mirdita remained always free which was ruled by the Gjomarka family for 400 years essentially throughout the entire Ottoman period in the Balkans.

Albanians would enter later on in a period of Islamization, starting in the late 14th century and early 15th century, and increasing especially in the 16th and 17th centuries. Albanians through converting to Islam would eventually dominate the Ottoman power structures disproportionally to their small population considering the large territory and huge population of the Ottoman Empire. They would become one of the most important and prestigious nations in the Empire playing an important role in the 15th and 16th centuries and especially a striking role in the 17th,18th and 19th centuries.

A period of the semi-independence started for local Albanian rulers in Balkans in the 1750s with the era of the so called Independent Albanian Pashas. In 1754 the autonomous Albanian Pashalik of Bushati family would be established with center the city of Shkodra called Pashalik of Shkodra. Later on the same autonomous Pashalik of Berat would be established and culminating with the Albanian Pashalik of Ali Pashe Tepelena in 1787. The Albanian Pashaliks would end in 1831 with the last one being the Bushati Pashalik. These de facto independent Albanian Pashaliks would extend from Bosnia to south of Morea (Peloponnese) in today's southern Greece.

Meanwhile, an Ottoman Albanian commander Mehmet Ali of Egypt, would seize power in Egypt in 1805 through his Albanian mercenaries by establishing a dynasty lasting up to 1954. He would take over Sudan and many regions of Saudi Arabia by 1824 and would take over Levant later on in 1831  by even defeating Ottomans in 1833. The conflict would rise again in what is known as Egyptian-Ottoman War (1839-1841) and only European Powers would stop Mehmet Ali and his son Ibrahim Pasha to seize Constantinople and replace the Ottoman dynasty with the Albanian one by thus resolving the Oriental Crisis of 1840. Albanian communities exist up to this day in Egypt and other areas of Levant such as Syria and Palestine.

The territory which today belongs to the Republic of Albania remained part of the Ottoman Empire until it declared independence in 1912, during the Balkan Wars.

14th century

The Ottomans expanded their control from Anatolia to the Balkans in the middle of the 14th century. They entered European territory in 1352, and they defeated a Balkan coalition army led by Serbs, that also included some Albanians and Bosnians in the Battle of Kosovo in 1389. Ottoman pressure lessened in 1402 when the Mongol leader Timur (Tamerlane) attacked Anatolia from the east, killed the Sultan, and sparked a civil war. When order was restored, the Ottomans renewed their westward progress. In 1453, Sultan Mehmed II's forces overran Constantinople and killed the last Byzantine emperor.

The division of the Albanian-populated lands into small, quarreling fiefdoms ruled by independent feudal lords and tribal chiefs made them easy prey for the Ottoman armies. In 1385, the Albanian ruler of Durrës, Karl Thopia, appealed to the sultan for support against his rivals, the Balsha noble family. An Ottoman force quickly marched into Albania along the Via Egnatia and routed Balsha II in the Battle of Savra. Some of the Albanian Principalities soon started to become vassals of the Ottoman Empire after 1420. Gjirokastra became the county town of the Sanjak of Albania in 1420. and than Kruja was established as the center of Sanjak of Albania after Gjergj Arianiti defeated the Ottomans between 1431 and 1435.

The Ottomans allowed Albanian clan chiefs to maintain their positions, rule and property, but they had to pay tribute, and sometimes send their sons to the Ottoman court as hostages, and provide the Ottoman army with auxiliary troops. However many Albanian clans and Principalities did not recognize the Ottoman authority and did not pay tribute.

Albanian resistance

The Albanians' resistance to the Ottomans in the 14th century and especially in the 15th century won them acclaim all over Europe. Gjon Kastrioti of Krujë was one of the Albanian nobles and clan leaders who submitted to Ottoman suzerainty in 1425. He was compelled to send his four sons to the Ottoman capital to be trained for military service. The youngest, George Kastrioti (1403–68), who would become the Albanians' national hero, captured the sultan's attention. Renamed Iskander when he converted to Islam, the young man participated in military expeditions to Asia Minor and Europe becoming one of the main Ottoman generals. When appointed to administer a Balkan district, Iskander became known as Skanderbeg. After Ottoman forces under Skanderbeg's command suffered defeat in a battle near Niš (intentionally by him) present-day Serbia in 1443, Skanderbeg rushed to Krujë and tricked a Turkish pasha into surrendering the Albanian fortress. Skanderbeg then embraced Roman Catholicism and declared a holy war against the Ottoman Empire.

On 1 March 1444, Albanian chieftains gathered in the cathedral of Lezhë with the prince of Montenegro and delegates from Venice and proclaimed Skanderbeg commander of the Albanian resistance. All of Albania accepted his leadership against the Ottomans, but local leaders kept control of their own districts. Under a red flag bearing Skanderbeg's heraldic emblem, an Albanian force of about 10,000-15.000 men held off Ottoman campaigns against their lands for twenty-four years when Skanderbeg was commander in chief and for another 11 years after his death.

Three times the Albanians overcame sieges of Krujë. In 1450, the Albanians routed Sultan Murad II himself. Later, they repulsed attacks led by Sultan Mehmed II in 1466 and 1467. In 1461, Skanderbeg went to the aid of his suzerain, King Alfonso I of Naples, against the kings of Sicily by practically defeating all his rivals in southern Italy. Albanians also defeated Venice in 1449 in 3 battles in Albanian–Venetian War.

Sometimes the government under Skanderbeg was unstable, however, and at times local Albanian rulers cooperated with the Ottomans against him.

With political and minor material support from the Kingdom of Naples and the Vatican, resistance to the Ottoman Empire continued for 36 years.

Krujë fell to the Ottomans only in 1478, ten years after the death of Skanderbeg; Shkodër succumbed in 1479 after a failed siege in 1474 and a stronger siege in 1478 that ended with Venice ceding Shkodra to the Ottomans. The Venetians then evacuated Durrës, in 1501. The conquests triggered a great exodus of Albanian nobles to Venice and Italy, especially to the kingdom of Naples, as well as to Sicily, Romania and Egypt. Most of the Albanian refugees belonged to the Orthodox Church. The Albanians of Italy significantly influenced the Albanian national movement in future centuries, and Albanian Franciscan priests, most of whom were descended from émigrés to Italy, played a significant role in the preservation of Catholicism in Albania's northern regions.

Skanderbeg's long struggle to keep Albania free became highly significant to the Albanian people, as it strengthened their solidarity, made them more conscious of their national identity, and served later as a great source of inspiration in their struggle for national unity, freedom, and national identity. The memory of the mid-15th century resistance under Skanderbeg continues to be important to Albanians, and his family's banner, bearing a black two-headed eagle on a red field, became the flag under which the Albanian national movement rallied centuries later. 11 years after the death of Skenderbeg and the fall of Krujë, the Ottoman Empire gained control of the ethnic Albanian territories and made many political changes.

16th–17th centuries
The Albanian population gradually began to convert to Islam through the teachings of Bektashism, which offered considerable material advantages in Ottoman trade networks, bureaucracy and army. Many Albanians were recruited initially into the Janissary and Devşirme (in many cases sons of Albanian nobles) and later on through becoming Muslims they opened their path for very successful military and political carriers, persuading other Albanians to do so

Albanians would enter later on in the 15th and especially 16th and 17th centuries, a period of Islamization. Albanians through converting to Islam would eventually dominate the Ottoman power structures disporportinally to their small population considering the large territory and huge population of the Ottoman Empire. They would become one of the most important and prestigious nations in the Empire playing a stringing role since the 15th century, but especially in the 17th,18th and 19th centuries.

For example, 48 Grand Viziers were of Albanian origin who managed the Ottoman state approximately 190 years. Some of the most prominent Albanians during Ottoman rule were: George Kastrioti Skanderbeg, Ballaban Badera, Koca Davud Pasha, Hamza Kastrioti, Iljaz Hoxha, Pargalı Ibrahim Pasha, Mimar Sinan, Nezim Frakulla, Köprülü Mehmed Pasha, Ali Pasha, Edhem Pasha, Omer Vrioni, Patrona Halil, Haxhi Shehreti, Ali Pasha of Gucia, Ibrahim Pasha of Berat, Köprülü Fazıl Ahmed, Muhammad Ali of Egypt, Kara Mahmud Bushati, Kara Murad Pasha, Ahmet Kurt Pasha, Mustafa Bushati, Ibrahim Bushati, Sedefkar Mehmed Agha.

Albanians also played a crucial role during the Ottoman–Venetian War (1499–1503), Ottoman–Hungarian Wars and Ottoman–Habsburg wars before gaining Independence.

Ottoman Empire would be heavily dependent on Albanian Mercenaries in its warfare between the early 1600s to middle 1800s until the reforms of Tanzimat.

18th–19th centuries and the Albanian Pashaliks

The weakening of Ottoman central authority and the timar system brought anarchy to the Albanian-populated lands. In the 18th century, two Albanian centers of power emerged: Shkodër, under the Bushati family; and Ioannina, under Ali Pasha of Tepelenë. When it suited their goals, both places cooperated with the Sublime Porte, and when it was expedient to defy the central government, each acted independently. The Bushati family initially dominated the Shkodër region through a network of alliances with various highland tribes and later expanded in huge areas in today's Montenegro, Northern Albania, Kosovo, Macedonia, southern Serbia. Kara Mahmud Bushati attempted to establish a de juro independent principality and expand the lands under his control by playing off Austria and Russia against the Sublime Porte. In 1785, Kara Mahmud's forces attacked and conquered Montenegrin territory, and Austria offered to recognize him as the ruler of all Albania if he would ally himself with Vienna against the Sublime Porte. Seizing an opportunity, Kara Mahmud sent the sultan the heads of an Austrian delegation in 1788, and the Ottomans appointed him governor of Shkodër. When he attempted to wrest the final lands from the last free tribes in Montenegro in 1796, however, he was killed by an ambush in northern Montenegro. Kara Mahmud's brother, Ibrahim Bushati, cooperated with the Sublime Porte until his death in 1810, but his successor, Mustafa Pasha Bushati, proved to be recalcitrant despite important participation in Ottoman military campaigns against Greek revolutionaries and rebel pashas. He cooperated with the mountain tribes and brought a large area in Balkans under his control like Kara Mahmud Bushati. Visiting Albania and Ali Pasha in 1814, Charles Robert Cockerell admired Ali Pasha's governance, stating: "There is law — for everyone admits his impartiality as compared with that of rulers in other parts of Turkey — and there is commerce. He [Ali Pasha] has made roads, fortified the borders, put down brigandage, and raised Albania into a power of great importance in Europe."

During the ending of the 1700s century and beginning of the 19th century Albanian Pashaliks extended from Bosnia to the south of today's Greece in Peloponnese matching a climax of power which Albanians would never achieve again.

South of the Shkumbini River, the mostly peasant Tosks lived in compact villages under elected rulers. Some Tosks living in settlements high in the mountains maintained their independence and often escaped payment of taxes. The Tosks of the lowlands, however, were easy for the Ottoman authorities to control. The Albanian tribal system disappeared there, and the Ottomans imposed a system of military fiefs under which the sultan granted soldiers and cavalrymen temporary landholdings, or timars, in exchange for military service. By the 18th century, many military fiefs had effectively become the hereditary landholdings of economically and politically powerful families who squeezed wealth from their hard-strapped Christian and Muslim tenant farmers. The beys, like the clan chiefs of the northern mountains, became virtually independent rulers in their own provinces, had their own military contingents, and often waged war against each other to increase their landholdings and power. The Sublime Porte attempted to press a divide-and-rule policy to keep the local beys from uniting and posing a threat to Ottoman rule itself, but with little success.

Ottoman-Albanian relations worsened in the year 1826 during the reign of Mahmud II, he had instigated the notorious Auspicious Incident and the turmoil that followed caused the violent dissolution of the Janissary, Devşirme and the entire Balkan Muslim leadership in Rumelia causing a new wave of revolts and instability in the gradually weakening Ottoman Empire.

After crushing the Bushatis and Ali Pasha, the Sublime Porte introduced a series of reforms, known as the tanzimat, which were aimed at strengthening the empire by reining in fractious pashas. The timars officially became large individual landholdings, especially in the lowlands. In 1835, the Sublime Porte divided the Albanian-populated lands into the vilayets of Janina and Rumelia and dispatched officials from Constantinople to administer them. This provoked a series of revolts in 1843–1844, but they were suppressed by the Ottoman army.

After 1865, the central authorities redivided the Albanian lands between the vilayets of Scutari, Janina, and Monastir. The reforms angered the highland Albanian chieftains, who found their privileges reduced with no apparent compensation, and the authorities eventually abandoned efforts to control them. Ottoman troops crushed local rebellions in the lowlands, however, and conditions there remained bleak. The religious division of the northern Albanian tribes brought them into opposition. The Muslim northern Albanian tribes participated in the Ottoman campaigns against Christian Albanian tribes, such as in 1876 when they devastated the territory populated by the Mirditë Catholics. Large numbers of Tosks emigrated to join sizable Albanian émigré communities in Romania, Egypt, Bulgaria, Constantinople, southern Italy, and later the United States.

20th century

In 1906, opposition groups in the Ottoman Empire emerged, one of which evolved into the Committee of Union and Progress, more commonly known as the Young Turks, which proposed restoring constitutional government in Constantinople, by revolution if necessary. In July 1908, a month after a Young Turk rebellion in Macedonia supported by an Albanian uprising in Kosovo and Vardar Macedonia escalated into widespread insurrection and mutiny within the imperial army, Sultan Abdül Hamid II agreed to demands by the Young Turks to restore constitutional rule. Many Albanians participated in the Young Turks uprising, hoping that it would gain their people autonomy within the empire. The Young Turks lifted the Ottoman ban on Albanian-language schools and on writing the Albanian language. As a consequence, Albanian intellectuals meeting in Manastir (present day town of Bitola) in 1908 chose the Latin alphabet as a standard script. The Young Turks, however, were set on maintaining the empire and not interested in making concessions to the myriad nationalist groups within its borders. After securing the abdication of Abdül Hamid II in April 1909, the new authorities levied taxes, outlawed guerrilla groups and nationalist societies, and attempted to extend Constantinople's control over the northern Albanian mountain men. In addition, the Young Turks legalized the bastinado, or beating with a stick, even for misdemeanors, banned carrying rifles, and denied the existence of an Albanian nationality. The new government also appealed for Islamic solidarity to break the Albanians' unity and used the Muslim clergy to try to impose the Arabic alphabet, while also banning the Albanian national flag.

The Albanians refused to submit to the Young Turks' campaign to "Ottomanize" them by force. New Albanian uprisings began in Kosovo and the northern mountains in early April 1910. Ottoman forces quashed these rebellions after three months, outlawed Albanian organizations, disarmed entire regions, and closed down schools and publications. Montenegro, preparing to grab Albanian-populated lands for itself, supported a 1911 uprising by the mountain tribes against the Young Turks regime that grew into a widespread revolt. Unable to control the Albanians by force, the Ottoman government granted concessions on schools, military recruitment, and taxation and sanctioned the use of the Latin script for the Albanian language. The government refused, however, to unite the four Albanian-inhabited vilayets into one, Albanian vilayet.

Governance
Administratively, the Ottomans divided the Albanian-inhabited lands among a number of districts, or vilayets. The Ottoman authorities did not stress conversion to Islam and the conversion was done initially by Albanian nobles in the end of the 14th century and beginning of 15th one and was gradually accepted by the mass. The Ottomans persecuted non Muslim Albanians and murdered their children and women in masses and those whom they did not murder they cut their tongues or eyes ,or they burnt their eyes ,as mentioned in Meshari of Gjon Buzuku additional by Gjon Buzuku ,when he talked of the treatment of the Albanian people by Turk governance.

By 1479, the entire country, except for Durrës, Ulcinj and Bar, was under Ottoman suzerainty. Prominent viziers and pashas hailed from Albania, and were appointed to their posts long before the majority of Albanians professed Islam.

Administrative divisions

 * For details of : State Organization

The Ottoman sultan considered himself God's agent on Earth, the leader of a religious—not a national—state whose purpose was to defend and propagate Islam. Non-Muslims paid extra taxes and held an inferior status, but they could retain their old religion and a large measure of local autonomy. By converting to Islam, individuals among the conquered could elevate themselves to the privileged stratum of society. In the early years of the empire, all Ottoman high officials were the sultan's bondsmen the children of Christian subjects chosen in childhood for their promise, converted to Islam, and educated to serve. Some were selected from prisoners of war, others sent as gifts, and still others obtained through devshirme, the tribute of children levied in the Ottoman Empire's Balkan lands. Many of the best fighters in the sultan's elite guard, the janissaries, were conscripted as young boys from Christian Albanian families, and high-ranking Ottoman officials often had Albanian bodyguards.

Taxation
According to historian Zija Shkodra, Albania was developed as much as the rest of the Balkans. In the mountains north of the Shkumbini River, Geg herders maintained their self-governing society base on clans. An association of clans was called a bajrak.

Taxes on the northern tribes were difficult if not impossible for the Ottomans to collect because of the rough terrain and fierceness of the Albanian highlanders. Some mountain tribes succeeded in defending their independence through the centuries of Ottoman rule, engaging in intermittent guerrilla warfare with the Ottomans, who never deemed it worthwhile to subjugate them.

Until recent times, Geg clan chiefs, or bajraktars, exercised patriarchal powers, arranged marriages, mediated quarrels, and meted out punishments. The tribesmen of the northern Albanian mountains recognized no law but the Code of Lekë Dukagjini (Kanuni i Lekë Dukagjinit), a collection of tribal laws transcribed in the 14th century by a Roman Catholic priest. The code regulates a variety of subjects, including blood vengeance. Even today, many Albanian highlanders regard the canon as the supreme law of the land.

Religion

Four centuries of Ottoman rule grouped the Albanian people along religious, regional, and tribal lines. In the 16th century and early 17th century, Albanians converted to Islam in large numbers. Within a century, the Muslim Albanian community was the largest religious community in the country, losing their previous entirely Orthodox and Catholic religious identity. Albanians in this time were divided into two distinct tribal and dialectal groupings: the Gegs and Tosks (see Albanian language). In the rugged northern mountains, Geg shepherds lived in a tribal society often completely independent of Ottoman rule. In the south, Muslim and Orthodox Tosks worked the land for Muslim beys, provincial rulers who frequently revolted against the sultan's authority.

In the 15th and especially 16th and 17th centuries, many Albanian converts to Islam migrated elsewhere to escape the Ottoman Empire. Some attained powerful positions in the Ottoman administration, which severely disadvantaged the Catholic community since conversion to Islam came with numerous upper-class affiliations. About 48 Albanians rose to the position of grand vizier, chief deputy to the sultan himself. In the second half of the 17th century, the Albanian Köprülü family provided 6 grand viziers, who fought against corruption, temporarily shored up eroding central government control over rapacious local beys, and won several military victories by max expanding the Ottoman states to the gates of Vienna and middle Ukraine..

As early as the 18th century, a mystic Islamic sect, the Bektashi dervishes, spread into the empire's Albanian-populated lands. Probably founded in the late 13th century in Anatolia, Bektashism became the janissaries' official faith in the late 16th century. The Bektashi sect contains features quite distinct from normative Islam and emphasizes man as a reflection of the Divine. Women, veiled, participate in Bektashi ceremonies and the celebrants use wine despite the ban on alcohol in most Islamic interpretations of the Sharia. The Bektashis became a fringe zealous religious group in southern Albania after the sultan disbanded the janissaries in 1826. Bektashi leaders played key roles in the Albanian nationalist movement of the late 19th century.

In the 19th century, the Ottoman sultans tried in vain to shore up their collapsing empire by introducing a series of reforms aimed at reining in recalcitrant local officials and dousing the fires of nationalism among its myriad peoples. The power of nationalism, however, proved too strong to counteract.

Nowadays, Albanians tend to not have strong affiliations to their varied religious identities as a result of about 50 years of Communist rule (especially under the regime of Enver Hoxha) that banned the practice of religion.

title: Ottoman Albania


text:
Geraldine of Albania

Geraldine (born Countess Géraldine Margit Virginia Olga Mária Apponyi de Nagy-Appony; 6 August 1915 – 22 October 2002) was Queen of the Albanians from her marriage to King Zog I on 27 April 1938 until King Zog was deposed on 7 April of the following year.

Geraldine was born in Austria-Hungary into the noble Apponyi family. Her family fled to Switzerland in 1918, when the monarchy of Austria-Hungary was abolished. They returned to Hungary in 1921. However, after her father Gyula died in 1924, her American-born mother Gladys took Geraldine and her two siblings to live in Southern France. Later Geraldine was educated at a boarding school in Austria. She met King Zog in 1938, and they married shortly afterwards.

The Italian invasion of Albania cut short Zog's reign. During World War II, Zog and Geraldine lived first in France and later in England. Later on, they would live in France again and in Egypt. After her husband died in Paris in 1961, Geraldine took the title Queen Mother and asserted the rights of her son Leka, Crown Prince of Albania, to rule. She and Leka fled successively to Spain, Rhodesia, and South Africa. Geraldine was allowed to return to Albania in 2002, and she died that year aged 87.

Early life
Geraldine was born in Budapest, Austria-Hungary, a daughter of Count Gyula Apponyi de Nagy-Appony (1873–1924), Grand Marshal of the Hungarian Court, of the old and noble Apponyi family which had been great landowners in Upper Hungary since the 13th century. Her mother was Gladys Virginia Stewart (1891–1947), an American, daughter of John Henry Stewart, a diplomat who served as US Consul in Antwerp, Belgium, and his wife Mary Virginia Ramsay Harding (later Mrs. Gustaf Stråle af Ekna), who both came from monied families of the New World, specifically Virginia, Maryland and North Carolina.

When Geraldine was three, the Empire of Austria-Hungary collapsed, and the Apponyi family went to live in Switzerland. In 1921 they returned to the Kingdom of Hungary which was stable under Regent Miklós Horthy. However, when Geraldine's father died in 1924, her mother and their three children (Geraldine, now nine, Virginia, and Gyula) went to live in the resort of Menton, in the south of France. When the Countess married a French officer, her Hungarian in-laws insisted that the children be returned to Hungary for their schooling. The girls were sent to the Sacred Heart boarding school in Pressbaum, near Vienna. Geraldine's happy childhood then continued at the chateau Oponice (Appony) in present-day Slovakia, Apponyi ancestral family possessions in Slovakia; at the time, the part of Czechoslovakia (whose citizenship Geraldine gained). She lived there until 1938. Her family's fortune spent, Geraldine earned a living as a shorthand typist. She also worked in the gift shop of the Budapest National Museum, where her uncle was the director.

Royal life
Geraldine was introduced in December 1937 to King Zog I of the Albanians, who had seen a photograph of her. She visited the Albanian Kingdom and within days the couple were engaged to be married. Known as the "White Rose of Hungary", Geraldine was raised to royal status as Princess Geraldine of Albania prior to her wedding.

On 27 April 1938, in Tirana, Albania, Geraldine married the King in a ceremony witnessed by Galeazzo Ciano, envoy and son-in-law of Il Duce and Prime Minister of Italy, Benito Mussolini. She was Roman Catholic and King Zog was Muslim. Geraldine wore a new diamond tiara, specially commissioned from Austrian jewellers, featuring the motifs of the white rose for the bride, and the heraldic goat for the groom. They drove to their honeymoon in an open-top scarlet Mercedes-Benz 540K, a present from Adolf Hitler.

The couple had one son, Crown Prince Leka Zogu (1939–2011).

Zog's rule was cut short by the Italian invasion of Albania in April 1939, and the family fled the country into exile. From April 1939, Geraldine and Zog fled Albania via Greece and Turkey and settled in France, and then in England. They lived in the Ritz Hotel, London, at Ascot and, for most of the war, at Parmoor House, Frieth, Buckinghamshire, England. In 1946 they went to Egypt, and then in 1952 to France. King Zog I died in Hauts-de-Seine, France, in 1961 and their son, Crown Prince Leka, was proclaimed King Leka I by the royalist government in exile. Following this, the royal family moved to Spain, Rhodesia and then South Africa.

Later life
After her husband's death, Geraldine preferred to be known as the "Queen Mother of Albania". In June 2002, Geraldine returned from South Africa to live in Albania, after the law was changed to allow her to do so. She continued to assert that her son Leka was the legitimate King of the Albanians.

Queen Geraldine of the Albanians died five months later at the age of 87 in a military hospital in Tirana. After being admitted for treatment for lung disease, she suffered at least three heart attacks, the last of which was fatal, on 22 October 2002. She was buried by the Central House of the Army with full honors, including a funeral oration at St Paul's Cathedral, on 26 October 2002, and interred in the Sharra cemetery, Albania, in the "VIP plot". She was later reburied in the Royal Mausoleum in Tirana.

On 5 April 2004 her grandson, Leka, Crown Prince of Albania, accepted the Mother Teresa Medal awarded to her posthumously by the Albanian government in recognition of her charitable efforts for the people of Albania. Leka's daughter Geraldine (born 22 October 2020 at Queen Geraldine Maternity Hospital in Tirana, on the 18th death anniversary of Queen Geraldine) was named in her honor.

Honors

 * ALB Order of Fidelity (1939) - Grand Cross BAR.png Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Fidelity (26 April 1938).
 * Decoration without ribbon - en.svg Mother Teresa Medal [posthumous] (5 April 2004).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Geraldine of Albania


text:
Talk:Geraldine of Albania

Untitled
Prince Leka has never been king in Albania. There was a referendum about a return to a monarchy and it was not approved. Leka went came to Albania with a bunch of armed thugs, but he was kicked out. Dori 23:41, 7 Aug 2003 (UTC)

Indeed. One should also note that Leka declared himself king and was sworn in by a "Parliament" of Albanian exiles after his father died, and that he still calls himself king. Perhaps it should be better to call him "self-styled King of the Albanians". I've also made another change to the page: the three daughters of Queen Geraldine were not her daughters, but were the sisters of King Zog.Erwin 09:59, 8 Aug 2003 (UTC)

As the son of a legitimately ruling King, HM King Leka has the right to call himself King sice his father's passing. This is standard practice amongst Royal Courts in exile. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 129.234.4.10 (talk • contribs)

 * It never is. BTW it should be courts not court's. And stop doctoring articles to push political agendas. If you keep doing it you will be banned from editing here. This is the umpteenth article you have doctored to include pro-Leka propaganda.   FearÉIREANN [[Image:Map of Ireland's capitals.png|15px]]\(caint)  00:36, 10 May 2006 (UTC)

For goodness sake, please, her title was definitely Her Majesty Queen Geraldine of the Albanians, she was a ruling Queen consort. You contest her son's titles but you cannot contest these! (although perhaps I did go overboard, Queen will do) (129.234.4.10 11:14, 10 May 2006 (UTC))

Wikipedia, like other sources, refers to deceased consorts by maiden name or title, not consort title. The reason why this is universally done is simple: consorts don't have ordinals (numbers) so distinguishing between them would be impossible where names are repeated. Hence historians and biographers use Catherine of Aragon, Catherine Howard, Catherine Parr, Elizabeth of York, Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon, Blanche of Castile, Marie-José of Belgium etc etc, not Queen Catherine, Queen Catherine, Queen Catherine, Queen Elizabeth, Queen Elizabeth, Queen Blanche and Queen Marie-José. Even Diana, Princess of Wales is increasingly referred to by her maiden name, Diana Spencer, in writings. No disrespect is intended to the late Queen of Albania. It is simply the standard way of referring to a deceased consort. During her lifetime this page would have belonged at Queen Catherine of Albania. But not any more. The rules for naming on Wikipedia are all laid down in the relevant Naming Conventions. Please follow them like everyone else. FearÉIREANN \(caint) 21:33, 10 May 2006 (UTC)

Fair enough if that is what the guidelines say and what is done with those named above, I shall not attempt further changes to the name. (129.234.4.76 07:17, 11 May 2006 (UTC))

Queen
She was Queen, and referred to as such, throughout her life. The fact that her husband ruled for a "brief" 340 odd days after their marriage is blatant propaganda in an attempt to somehow discredit Her Majesty's use of this title, for whatever reason. I am not objecting to the length of time she was Queen in Albania being mentioned, however, it was used in, I believe, a sense of PoV.--Couter-revolutionary 13:50, 28 November 2006 (UTC)

 * It is a fact. It is an important and neutral fact. It is not propaganda. You are being entirely unreasonable. --SandyDancer 15:05, 28 November 2006 (UTC)
 * Not much better, no. She was, from her marriage, consistently Queen of Albania until her death.--Couter-revolutionary 15:39, 28 November 2006 (UTC)

 * Why is this sentence; "Through her mother Geraldine was a very distant cousin of President Richard Nixon" considered "royalist drivel". I am not saying I think it should be where it was but there is no need to be rude.  It is an important fact, however, as many sourced believe Leka was assisted via his relations to Nixon.--Couter-revolutionary 23:59, 28 November 2006 (UTC)

 * If you think Leka was assisted, then you MUST CITE IT, and PROVE IT. Not just state it. Surely you must know this by now.Mowens35 00:07, 29 November 2006 (UTC)
 * Where did I ever state it? I am merely mentioning it now, do not attempt to chastise me for something which I have not even attempted to do. I think the source is in one of the numerous articles already referenced.--Couter-revolutionary 00:10, 29 November 2006 (UTC)
 * But to drop Nixon's name in with no reason for it being there is incorrect. If you want to use his name, then state why and the circumstances and give a citation and a page. Otherwise, I'll keep deleting it. The article needs facts, not trivia.Mowens35 00:12, 29 November 2006 (UTC)
 * I was not the one who added the name.  I was merely raising an point of information.--Couter-revolutionary 00:17, 29 November 2006 (UTC)

 * How is she related to Nixon? What is the evidence?  ChilternGiant (talk) 23:26, 10 January 2017 (UTC)

Name
According to the Albanian embassy, Queen Geraldine was GERALDINA in Albanian, ie that is the spelling of her name in Albanian. Hence it's use in parentheses is utterly fine. She was known thusly in her adopted country.Mowens35 00:12, 29 November 2006 (UTC)

 * There is no page like Geraldina. that should be a disambiguation. Avjoska 07:58, 21 May 2007 (UTC)
 * Queen Geraldine? Was this same woman also known as the Princess Geraldine Jones?  —Preceding unsigned comment added by 204.111.105.92 (talk) 22:54, 18 September 2010 (UTC)

Geraldine's final title
Officially and technically, she would not have been Queen Mother, though it was used as a courtesy title. So should the dates of her time as Queen Geraldine be expanded to 2002, when she died, given that she wasn't technically Queen Mother?Mowens35 00:35, 29 November 2006 (UTC)
 * I would expand the dates of Queen to until 2002, yes. Underneath I would then add that she was known as Queen Mother as a courtesey between X and Y.--Couter-revolutionary 00:39, 29 November 2006 (UTC)

Photograph
It would be good if someone could get a photograph to put up here. --Counter-revolutionary 20:05, 16 May 2007 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:Geraldinealbania.jpg
Image:Geraldinealbania.jpg is being used on this article. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in this Wikipedia article constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use.

Please go to the image description page and edit it to include a fair use rationale. Using one of the templates at Fair use rationale guideline is an easy way to insure that your image is in compliance with Wikipedia policy, but remember that you must complete the template. Do not simply insert a blank template on an image page.

If there is other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on the other images used on this page. Note that any fair use images uploaded after 4 May, 2006, and lacking such an explanation will be deleted one week after they have been uploaded, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.

BetacommandBot 18:13, 13 September 2007 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:Geraldinealbania.jpg
Image:Geraldinealbania.jpg is being used on this article. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in this Wikipedia article constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use.

Please go to the image description page and edit it to include a fair use rationale. Using one of the templates at Fair use rationale guideline is an easy way to insure that your image is in compliance with Wikipedia policy, but remember that you must complete the template. Do not simply insert a blank template on an image page.

If there is other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on the other images used on this page. Note that any fair use images uploaded after 4 May, 2006, and lacking such an explanation will be deleted one week after they have been uploaded, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.

BetacommandBot 18:27, 13 September 2007 (UTC)

Ancestry
Listed as her great-great-grandparents are Theodore Nixon Ramsay and Virginia Elizabeth Deal. This comes from information compiled by the late eminent genealogist William A. Reitwiesner. This information is wrong, though, because according to Reitwiesner, Lucy Booker Ramsay was born in 1839. Theodore Nixon Ramsay, according to census records, was born in 1846 and married Virginia Deal in 1877. Here is the link to the 1850 census listing 4-year-old Theodore N. Ramsay--https://familysearch.org/pal:/MM9.1.1/M4BL-ZQV. If one looks at his siblings, one of them is Lucy B. Ramsay, aged 11 (meaning she was born in 1839). — Preceding unsigned comment added by Lordmarmont (talk • contribs) 04:58, 3 January 2013 (UTC)

Propose to move to Geraldine of the Albanians
Google:
 * Geraldine of the Albanians 1,730,000 results
 * Queen Geraldine of the Albanians 856,000 results
 * Géraldine Apponyi de Nagyappony only 3,130 results Irvi Hyka 01:06, 2 February 2013 (UTC)

Nationality ?
According to the Melbourne Argus Newspaper of 4 Feb 1938: " KING ZOG'S BRIDE PRAGUE, Thursday. The solicitor for the Apponyi family says that Countess Geraldine Apponyi, who is a Czechoslovakian citizen, will be married to King Zog of Albania in the middle of April. The engagement was announced officially at Tirana last week."

According to her family's lawyer, she was a citizen of Czechoslavakia prior to her marriage.Lathamibird (talk) 01:17, 1 September 2014 (UTC)

Marriage to Zogu
There is a photo purporting to be of their wedding here:

It is quite clearly not in a church. Lathamibird (talk) 01:26, 1 September 2014 (UTC)

Inaccurate Label
A photo labelled "...during an official ceremony in Tirana" is actually taken in Sweden. ChilternGiant (talk) 22:14, 4 January 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Geraldine of Albania


text:
Olav Aukrust

Olav Aukrust (21 January 1883 – 3 November 1929 ) was a Norwegian poet and teacher. He popularized the use of Nynorsk as a literary language and is most commonly associated with his poem Himmelvarden (1916).

Biography
Aukrust was born in the parish of Lom in Oppland, Norway. He was raised in the traditional region of Gudbrandsdal. His parents Olav Olavsson Aukrust (1851–1931) and Mari Pålsdatter Andvord (1864–1936) were farmers on the Nordgard Aukrust farm in the valley of Bøverdalen. His brother Lars Olsen Aukrust (1886–1965) was a teacher and local official. His nephews Odd Aukrust (1915 –2008) was an economist and Kjell Aukrust (1920–2002) was an author, poet and artist.

Aukrust was a student of the folk college at Romundgard in Sel operated by priest and educator Christopher Bruun (1839–1920). From 1915 to 1917, he worked as a teacher at the folk high school at Dovre where future novelist Ingeborg Møller (1878–1964) was also a teacher. He later taught at Gausdal.

In 1911, he married Gudrun Blekastad (1887–1984), daughter of Haugean businessman Ivar Blekastad (1850–1936). She was the sister of artist Hallvard Blekastad (1883–1966) and sister-in-law of literary historian Milada Blekastad (1917–2003).

He was strongly influenced by priest and author Ivar Mortensson-Egnund (1857–1934) who advocate of the use of Nynorsk. Aukrust wrote poems with a renewed national romantic style and used a characteristically similar form. His use of rural dialect contributed to the growth of Nynorsk as a literary language.

Olav Aukrust joined the Anthroposophical Society in December 1921 after he and his wife, Gudrun Aukrust, traveled through Goetheanum on their way home from Italy. He suffered from tuberculosis, which came to characterize his last year and led to an early death at age 46.

Legacy
Nordgard Aukrust is now open to the public. The farm has a large garden and offers the sales of agricultural products during the tourist season.

Sculptor Dyre Vaa designed the Olav Aukrust statue (bronze, 1952) which was installed at Lom in 1952.

Related reading

 * Downs, Brian W. (1966) Modern Norwegian Literature 1860–1918 (Cambridge University Press) ISBN 9780521048545

title: Olav Aukrust


text:
Advanced Placement

Advanced Placement (AP) is a program in the United States and Canada created by the College Board. AP offers undergraduate university-level curricula and examinations to high school students. Colleges and universities in the US and elsewhere may grant placement and course credit to students who obtain qualifying scores on the examinations.

The AP curriculum for each of the various subjects is created for the College Board by a panel of experts and college-level educators in that academic discipline. For a high school course to have the designation as offering an AP course, the course must be audited by the College Board to ascertain that it satisfies the AP curriculum as specified in the Board's Course and Examination Description (CED). If the course is approved, the school may use the AP designation and the course will be publicly listed on the AP Course Ledger.

20th century
After the end of World War II, the Ford Foundation created a fund that supported committees studying education. The program, which was then referred to as the "Kenyon Plan", was founded and pioneered at Kenyon College in Gambier, Ohio, by the then-college president Gordon Chalmers. The first study was conducted by four prep schools—the Lawrenceville School, Phillips Academy, Phillips Exeter Academy, and St. Paul's School —and three universities—Harvard University, Princeton University and Yale University. In 1952 they issued the report General Education in School and College: A Committee Report which recommended allowing high school seniors to study college-level material and to take achievement exams that allowed them to attain college credit for this work. The second committee, the Committee on Admission with Advanced Standing, developed and implemented the plan to choose a curriculum. A pilot program was run in 1952 which covered eleven disciplines. In the 1955–56 school year, it was nationally implemented in ten subjects: Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, English, History, French, German, Spanish, and Latin.

The College Board, a non-profit organization based in New York City, has run the AP program since 1955.

From 1965 to 1989, Harlan Hanson was the director of the Advanced Placement Program. It develops and maintains guidelines for the teaching of higher-level courses in various subject areas. In addition, it supports teachers of AP courses and supports universities. These activities are funded through fees required to take the AP exams.

21st century
In 2006, over one million students took over two million Advanced Placement examinations. Many high schools in the United States offer AP courses, though the College Board allows any student to take any examination regardless of participation in its respective course. Therefore, home-schooled students and students from schools that do not offer AP courses have an equal opportunity to take AP exams.

As of the 2024 testing season, exams cost $98 each, though the cost may be subsidized by local or state programs. Financial aid is available for students who qualify for it; the exam reduction is $36 per exam from College Board plus an additional $9 rebate per fee-reduced exam from the school. There may be further reductions depending on the state.

On April 3, 2008, the College Board announced that four AP courses—French Literature, Latin Literature, Computer Science AB, and Italian Language and Culture—would be discontinued after the 2008–2009 school year due to lack of funding. However, the Italian Language and Culture test was again offered beginning in 2011.

Starting July 2013 AP allowed students for the first time to both view and send their scores online.

The number of AP exams administered each year has seen a steady increase over the past decade. In 2003, 175,860 English Language and Composition exams were administered. By 2013, this number had risen to 476,277, or an increase of 171%. Such an increase has occurred in nearly all AP exams offered, with the AP Psychology exam seeing a 281% increase over the past decade. In 2022, the most taken AP exam was English Language and Composition with 520,771 students and the least taken AP exam was Italian Language and Culture with 2,194 students.

In the 2022–2023 school year, College Board launched a pilot AP African American Studies course. The course is currently acknowledged credit at about 75 colleges and universities.

AP exams begin on the second Monday in May and last ten school days.

Scoring
AP tests are scored on a 1 to 5 scale as follows:

The multiple-choice component of the exam is scored by computer, while the free-response and essay portions are scored by trained Readers at the AP Reading each June. The scores on various components are weighted and combined into a raw Composite Score. The Chief Reader for each exam then decides on the grade cutoffs for that year's exam, which determine how the Composite Scores are converted into the final grades. During the process, a number of reviews and statistical analyses are performed to ensure that the grading is reliable. The overall goal is for the grades to reflect an absolute scale of performance which can be compared from year to year.
 * 5 – Extremely well qualified
 * 4 – Well qualified
 * 3 – Qualified
 * 2 – Possibly qualified
 * 1 – No recommendation

Some colleges use AP test scores to exempt students from introductory coursework, others use them to place students in higher designated courses, and some do both. Each college's policy is different, but most require a minimum score of 3 or 4 to receive college credit. Typically, this appears as a "CR" grade on the college transcript, although some colleges and universities will award an A grade for a 5 score. Some countries, such as Germany, that do not offer general admission to their universities and colleges for holders of an American high school diploma without preparatory courses will directly admit students who have completed a specific set of AP tests, depending on the subject they wish to study there.

In addition, completing AP courses helps students qualify for various types of scholarships. According to the College Board, 31 percent of colleges and universities look at AP experience when making scholarship decisions.

Beginning with the May 2011 AP Exam administration, the College Board changed the scoring method of AP Exams. Total scores on the multiple-choice section are now based on the number of questions answered correctly. Points are no longer deducted for incorrect answers and, as was the case before, no points are awarded for unanswered questions. However, scoring requirements have also been increased.

Score reporting
Starting with the May 2013 AP Examination Administration, the College Board launched an Internet-based score reporting service. Students can use their 2013 AP Number or Student Number (if one was indicated) along with a College Board Account to access current and previous years' exam scores. This system can also be used to send scores to colleges and universities for which a four-digit institutional code is assigned.

Exam subsidies
Recognizing that the cost could be an impediment to students of limited means, a number of states and municipalities independent of the College Board have partially or fully subsidized the cost. The state of Florida reimburses school districts for the exam costs of students enrolled in Advanced Placement courses. The Los Angeles Unified School District, the Montebello Unified School District, the Hawaii Department of Education, New York City Department of Education, and the state of Indiana subsidize Examination fees in subjects of math, science, and English, and the Edmonds School District in suburban Seattle currently subsidizes Advanced Placement fees of students who enroll in the free school lunch program. Some school districts, such as Fairfax County Public Schools, will fully cover the cost of a limited number of exams, after which point the student must pay. In addition, some school districts offer free tests to all students enrolled in any Advanced Placement class.

Courses
There are currently 38 courses and exams available through the AP Program.

• Arts

• AP 2-D Art and Design

• AP 3-D Art and Design

• AP Drawing

• AP Art History

• AP Music Theory

• English

• AP English Language and Composition

• AP English Literature and Composition

• History and Social Sciences

• AP African American Studies

• AP Comparative Government and Politics

• AP European History

• AP Human Geography

• AP Macroeconomics

• AP Microeconomics

• AP Psychology

• AP United States Government and Politics

• AP United States History

• AP World History: Modern

• Math and Computer Science

• AP Computer Science Principles

• AP Computer Science A

• AP Calculus AB

• AP Calculus BC

• AP Precalculus

• AP Statistics

• Sciences

• AP Biology

• AP Chemistry

• AP Environmental Science

• AP Physics 1: Algebra-Based

• AP Physics 2: Algebra-Based

• AP Physics C: Electricity and Magnetism

• AP Physics C: Mechanics

• World Languages and Cultures

• AP Chinese Language and Culture

• AP French Language and Culture

• AP German Language and Culture

• AP Italian Language and Culture

• AP Japanese Language and Culture

• AP Latin

• AP Spanish Language and Culture

• AP Spanish Literature and Culture

2016–2017

 * AP World History
 * This exam will also undergo the same basic changes to the 2014–2015 United States History and 2015–2016 European History exams.
 * Shortened multiple-choice section with 55 questions, accounting for 40% of the total exam score. These are reduced from 70 questions and 50% in previous years, respectively.
 * Four short-answer questions, however students are only required to answer one of the final two short-answer questions, in place of one of the long essays, accounting for 20% of the total exam score. These questions are given a 40-minute writing period.
 * Document-based question (DBQ) and the remaining long essay now account for 25% and 15% of the exam score respectively. New writing periods of 60 minutes and 40 minutes respectively are given instead of the combined 120-minute writing period for all three essays in previous exams.
 * AP Calculus AB
 * Time format changed
 * Addition of L'Hôpital's rule
 * AP Calculus BC
 * Addition of limit comparison tests, absolute and conditional convergence, and the alternating series.

2018–2019

 * AP United States Government and Politics
 * Section I (MCQ) will be extended from 60 questions in 45 minutes to 55 questions in 80 minutes. It will still count towards 50% of the total exam score.
 * The questions will feature greater use of scenarios and stimulus material.
 * The number of answer choices for each question will be reduced from five to four.
 * Section II (FRQ) will include four questions in 100 minutes (the same amount of questions and time as the previous exams). The section as a whole will be worth 50% of the total exam score. All four questions are weighted equally (each is worth 12.5% of the total exam score).
 * One will be a concept application question involving a political scenario.
 * One will be a quantitative analysis and interpretation question with a visual stimulus.
 * One will be a SCOTUS Comparison, a comparison between one case that is required knowledge outlined in the course and exam description, and the other not being of prior knowledge to the students.
 * One will be an argumentation essay requiring supporting evidence and reasoning.

2019–2020

 * As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, the College Board announced that AP exams may be taken from home. The exams are modified to only cover approximately the first 75% of the course. For most exams, the exam is 45 minutes long and consists of one or two free-response questions that can be submitted typed or handwritten. The exams are open note, open book, and open Internet.
 * AP Computer Science A
 * Topics such as abstract classes and interfaces have been removed.
 * AP World History
 * The course will now be split up into two different exams:
 * AP World History: Modern - It will cover world history from the year 1200 CE to the present.
 * AP World History: Ancient - This course will be released at a later, unspecified date.
 * The Exam format will remain the same.

2020–2021

 * AP Comparative Government and Politics
 * Section I (Multiple Choice): The number of questions will remain the same at 55 questions, but time for the section will increase from 45 minutes to 60 minutes. It will continue to be worth 50% of the total exam score.
 * Each question will now have 4 possible options instead of 5.
 * There will be 2 text-based sources followed by a few questions.
 * There will be 3 quantitative sources followed by a few questions.
 * Section II (Free Response): The number of questions will decrease from 8 questions to 4 questions. The time will also decrease from 100 minutes to 90 minutes. It will continue to be worth 50% of the total exam score.
 * Question 1: Conceptual Analysis
 * Question 2: Quantitative Analysis
 * Question 3: Comparative Analysis
 * Question 4: Argument Essay
 * AP Biology
 * Section I (Multiple Choice): The number of questions will be reduced from 69 to 60 questions. Grid-in questions will no longer be on the exam.
 * Section II (Free Response): The number of questions will be reduced from 8 to 6, but the time allocation for the section stays the same.
 * The two long questions will both focus on "interpreting and evaluating experimental results".
 * The section will have four short-answer questions.
 * AP English Language and Composition
 * Section I (Multiple Choice): The number of questions will be reduced from 52–55 to 45.
 * Section II (Free Response): The questions will now be scored with analytic rubrics.
 * AP Human Geography
 * Section I (Multiple Choice): The number of questions will be reduced from 75 to 60, with increased emphasis on analyzing quantitative and qualitative sources. The time allocation for the section remains the same.
 * Section II (Free Response): Each question will now be worth 7 points.
 * AP Computer Science Principles
 * The Explore Performance Task will be replaced with some multiple-choice questions, and the College Board will be releasing a new Create Task.
 * AP Italian Language and Culture
 * Section I (Multiple Choice): The 65 questions will now be split into two parts with nine sets total:
 * Part A will have 30 questions and be 40 minutes long.
 * Part B will have 35 questions and be 55 minutes long.

2021–2022

 * AP Physics 1: Algebra-Based
 * Units 8-10 have been removed from the AP Physics 1 curriculum as they are covered in AP Physics 2.
 * The topics of electric charges and forces, DC circuits, and mechanical waves and sound have been removed. However, kinematics, dynamics, circular motion and gravitation, energy, momentum, simple harmonic motion, and torque and rotational motion are still covered with increased emphasis on each topic.

2022–2023

 * AP Chemistry
 * Section I (Multiple Choice): Questions will now permit the use of a calculator. The number and type of questions, as well as the section's time allocation remains the same.

2023–2024

 * AP Precalculus
 * New course added with first testing term being May 2024. The exam has two sections: 40 multiple-choice questions on the first and four free-response questions on the second.
 * AP World History: Modern
 * Scoring criteria for the DBQ and LEQ have changed, requiring the use of 4 or more sources for both analysis points.
 * AP Computer Science Principles
 * On the Create Task, the Written Responses will be replaced with a Personalized Project Reference. Then, on the end-of-course exam, after the MCQ section, there will be a new Written Response section, with 2 questions (4 prompts total) in 1 hour, worth 20% of one's score.

 * AP United States Government and Politics
 * College score verification year for the class, resulting in the exam being made easier and pass rate increasing by 23.8%.

2024–2025

 * AP Physics 1: Algebra-Based and AP Physics 2: Algebra-Based
 * Fluids, which used to be Unit 1 in AP Physics 2, will become Unit 8 in AP Physics 1.
 * The format of both exams will change in the same way:
 * The number of MCQs will go down from 50 to 40, and the time for the section will go down from 90 minutes to 80 minutes. Multiselect questions will be removed.
 * The number of FRQs will go down from 5 to 4, but the time for the section will go up from 90 minutes to 100 minutes
 * AP Physics C: Mechanics and AP Physics C: Electricity and Magnetism
 * The format of both exams will change in the same way:
 * The number of MCQs will increase from 35 to 40, and the time for that section will increase from 45 minutes to 80 minutes.
 * Each MCQ will now only have 4 options, rather than 5.
 * The number of FRQs will increase from 3 to 4, and the time for that section will increase from 45 minutes to 100 minutes.
 * The exams will no longer be in the same testing session.
 * Several AP Exams will go fully digital, including AP African American Studies, AP Computer Science Principles, AP English Language and Composition, AP English Literature and Composition, AP European History, AP Psychology, AP Seminar, AP United States History, and AP World History: Modern.

2025–2026

 * Several AP Exams will go fully digital, including AP Art History, AP Comparative Government and Politics, AP Computer Science A, AP Human Geography, AP Latin, AP United States Government and Politics.

Recent exam information

Below are statistics from the 2022 exam cycle showing the number of participants, the percentage who obtained a score of 3 or higher, and the mean score. Students generally need a score of 3 or higher to receive credit or benefit.

The College Board estimates that about 2/3 of students enrolled in an AP course take the course's AP test. On the other hand, a study of University of California system students found that only about 55% to 60% of AP students took their course's exam.

One 2014 study of math and science AP courses showed that participation rates were 52.7% for AP Chemistry, 53.6% for AP Physics, 57.7% for AP Biology, and 77.4% for AP Calculus. A 2017 study found similar participation rates (49.5% for AP Chemistry, 52.3% for AP Physics, 54.5% for Biology, and 68.9% for Calculus). History exams were found to have slightly higher participation rates (57.9% for AP European History, 58.5% for AP World History, and 62.8% for AP U.S. History), and 65.4% of AP English students took either the AP English Language or AP English Literature exam. This study found that for "core AP subjects (i.e., no arts or language subjects)", the overall test participation rate was 60.8%.

In February 2014 College Board released data from the previous ten years of AP exams. College Board found that 33.2% of public high school graduates from the class of 2013 had taken an AP exam, compared to 18.9% in 2003. In 2013 20.1% of graduates who had taken an AP test achieved a 3 or higher compared to 12.2% in 2003.

Decreasing quality
Researchers have begun to question whether AP can maintain high academic standards while experiencing explosive growth. Research has shown that the most popular AP tests tend to have the lowest passing rates, a possible indication that less academically prepared students are enrolling in AP classes. Whether the AP program can serve large numbers of students without decreasing academic rigor is a matter of debate within the education field.

Passing scores and university credit
University faculty, such as former professor and high school teacher John Tierney, have expressed doubts about the value of a passing AP score. Students who receive scores of 3 or 4 are being given college credit at fewer universities. Academic departments also criticise the increasing proportion of students who take and pass AP courses but are not ready for college-level work.

Website performance
Several users and developers have criticized the poor performance of AP classroom's website for being unresponsive and slow.

Academic achievement
Researchers have since 2010 studied the impact of the Advanced Placement program on students' academic achievement. An early study published in AP: A critical examination of the Advanced Placement program found that students who took AP courses in the sciences but failed the AP exam performed no better in college science courses than students without any AP course at all. Referring to students who complete the course but fail the exam, the head researcher, Phillip M. Sadler, stated in an interview that "research shows that they don't appear to have learned anything during the year, so there is probably a better course for them."

Two other studies compared non-AP students with AP students who had not taken their course's AP exam, had taken the AP exam but did not pass it, or had passed the AP exam. Like Sadler's study, both found that AP students who passed their exam scored highest in other measures of academic achievement. The largest study of this sort, with a sample size of over 90,000, replicated these results and also showed that non-AP students performed with equal levels of academic achievement as AP students who did not take their course's AP exam—even after controlling for over 70 intervening variables. This led the authors to state that AP participation "is not beneficial to students who merely enroll in the courses..."

Some researchers have questioned the validity of Advanced Placement scores or Advanced Placement as an effective form of positive reinforcement. It is argued that the pursuit of extrinsic reward is not an accurate reflection of intrinsic interest in course material. Many other criteria should also be employed to judge a student including standardized test scores, research experience, breadth and the level of courses taken, and academic-related extracurriculars performance. Writing honors thesis or semi-independent research in a subject may be more signal of interest or academic potential than achieving the label of "Advance Placement" student.

title: Advanced Placement


text:
User:Libdemplus

Hi there!

I guess this is where I put stuff about me?

Well,,,,,, I guess I should start with my chosen user name "Libdemplus".

I have found that all too often when people read stuff I write they quickly jump to wildly false conclusions about me and my political positions. Mostly people assume (as in ass-u-me) that I am some sort of "right-wing-republican-bible-thumping-homophobe-pistol-packin-Liberal-hater..."

To start with, I'm Atheist, Liberal, Democrat, friendly towards gays,...

Well, you get my point. That's why my username, to head-off stereotypes and accusations. Such accusations against me simply go to prove how stupid and inaccurate stereotypes are.

I am for full and equal rights for every adult (with the possible exception of convicted violent criminals): for abortion rights for teenaged girls. (Abortion rights extend up untill the time when the feotus has developed to the point where it is capable of continuing to develop normally outside the womb.)
 * Full and equal rights for homosexuals, yes, meaning marriage and adoption and everything else.
 * Full and uninfringed abortion rights for adult women, and very liberal rules
 * As strict as possible seperation of church and state. Meaning freedom ->of<- religion for the people can only be secure when government is free ->from<- religion.
 * As wide as possible lattitude in the exercise of rights, short of harming the rights of other people.
 * More detailed positions to follow soon....

I am and always have been a Liberal, no, I would say, extreme Liberal, a Registered Democrat since I was 18 (Jimmy Carter in 1976), and only rather recently a gun-rights advocate, about 6 years now and an NRA member, about 3 years now.

I voted for Carter both times, Mondale, Clinton both times, and if my party had offered us a rational Democrat in 2000 I probably would have voted for him as well.

To my grave embarrassment, I also voted for Gray Davis both times and Diane Feinstein each time untill 2000.

Much more to come soon.

Liberal-Democrat-Plus more...

title: User:Libdemplus


text:
Hula Hoops

Hula Hoops are a snack food made out of potatoes and corn in the shape of short, hollow cylinders. They were created by KP Snacks in the United Kingdom in 1973. As well as being sold in the UK, they are also sold in the Republic of Ireland, New Zealand and South Africa. Hula Hoops are also sold in Belgium under the "Croky" tag, made in the UK but marketed and distributed from Mouscron, Belgium. In France, Hula Hoops are produced by Vico.

Hula Hoops come in different flavours, and are made by parent company KP Snacks. In 2008, KP started a new variety made with corn called 'Hula Hoops Tortilla', which come in Cool Original, Chilli Salsa, and Nacho Cheese flavours.

As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, the distribution of Hula Hoops is limited in Asia and South America. Regular distribution was scheduled to proceed in October 2021.

Flavours and packet colours
Currently available flavours are: Other flavours have included:
 * BBQ Beef (brown)
 * Cheese & Onion (green)
 * Original (red)
 * Roast Chicken (mustard)
 * Salt & Vinegar (blue)
 * Smoky Bacon (purple)
 * Sweet Chilli (pink)
 * Tikka (deep purple)
 * Crisp Roulette (dark red)
 * Tangy Cheese (light orange)

Former flavours
The following flavours were available for a short time, either because they tied-in with special promotions, or failed to meet sales expectations:

 * Barbecue (brown)
 * Beef and Mustard (black 'Big O's' & XL bag)
 * Cheese (yellow)
 * Prawn Cocktail (purple)
 * Sour Cream and Chive (dark green)
 * Tomato Ketchup (blue)
 * Vanilla Cream (dark pink crisp roulette bag)

Big O's
In 1998, KP launched 'Big O's' from Hula Hoops, using comedians Harry Enfield and Paul Whitehouse in their advertising campaign as their characters the Self-Righteous Brothers. Big O's were larger-than-normal Hula Hoops, packaged in larger bags and only available in Beef & Mustard flavour. The bag design used a black background featuring a large Big O's logo. A smaller Hula Hoops logo featured in the bottom-corner whilst the flavour was in the opposite bottom-corner. Big O's are no longer in production, nor available.

Shoks
For a short while in the early 2000s, KP produced Hula Hoops Shoks. These were miniature versions of the classic Hula Hoop, but had a much more intense flavour than the bags. They were packaged in either a stiff flexible plastic cube, or in a small resealable pot. The launch was first announced in March 2002, to be available in April, with KP claiming that the product would "revolutionise the snacks market". The company made a £4m investment in Shoks during the first eight weeks, with marketing controller Clare Robinson saying: "Complacency is not a Hula Hoops value and we wanted to rewrite some of the rules." According to the Morning Advertiser, Robinson said that consumer sampling had been "overwhelmingly successful". She added: "We've never experienced a reaction like it". Shoks were aimed at the 12 to 24-year old market, and KP estimated that they could earn over £10m in sales during its first year.

They were available in the following flavours:

 * Totally Cheesy (orange, cube)
 * Beef (brown, pot)
 * Pickled Onion (green, cube)
 * Sweet Chilli (pink, cube or pot)
 * Salt and Vinegar (blue, cube)
 * Rib and Saucy (purple, cube)

Hula Hoops XL
In 2001, KP launched Hula Hoops XL, which were larger-than-normal Hula Hoops, much like the previous Big O's incarnation. They were packaged in larger bags and were available in a limited range of flavours; however, they recorded poor sales and were soon dropped. Each bag was black with a large XL logo on the front, with the flavour overlaid. They were available in the following flavours:

 * Beef & Mustard
 * Chilli
 * Nacho cheese
 * Curry

Frozen Hula Hoops
In late 1999, KP produced Hula Hoops that could be cooked at home. Frozen Hula hoops were not a crisp-based snack; instead, they resembled hash browns. They began production again in 2013 as part of a range of frozen versions of crisps, this time exclusive to Iceland stores. , they are available in the following flavours:

 * Original Salted (red)
 * BBQ Beef (brown)

Big Hoops
In 2011, XL had a successor, Big Hoops. Essentially the same design as the XL range, they were targeted towards adults who had memories of placing regular sized hoops onto their fingers, but could no longer do so. , they were available in £1 price marked packs (87.4g) and 'Grab Bag' impulse packs (50g). 160g bags were once also produced. Big Hoops have been available in the following flavours:

 * Salted, formerly Original (red)
 * Sour Cream & Chive (dark green) (discontinued)
 * Sweet Chilli (pink) (discontinued)
 * BBQ Beef (brown)
 * Chilli (black) (discontinued)
 * Spicy Chilli (magenta)
 * Salt & Vinegar (blue)

Puft
KP Snacks launched Hula Hoops Puft, a "lighter version" of the product, in early 2015. Available in a 20g "handy pack", the product came in a cheese flavour, which was said to be "a first for the brand". KP's trading controller in convenience Matt Collins commented: "Hula Hoops is an £83million brand and we are extremely excited to grow this further with an all-new concept. Hula Hoops Puft will bring to life the fun element of the brand, whilst engaging with those in search of a lighter snack. Innovation is incredibly important for our future product development and Hula Hoops Puft is a perfect example of this." Puft is a registered trademark. They are described on the packs as "Light and crispy puffed hoops".

, Puft is available in four flavours:

 * Salted (red)
 * Sweet Chili (purple)
 * Salt & Vinegar (blue)
 * Beef (brown)

Flavarings
In May 2018, KP began production of Hula Hoops Flavarings in both Salt and Vinegar and Tangy Cheese flavours. Flavarings are a larger ring than standard Hula Hoops, and are maize-based, rather than potato, leading to a different texture, more akin Monster Munch than traditional Hula Hoops. They are described on the packets as "Big crispy bursts of flavour".

, the product is available in the following flavours:

 * Tangy Cheese (yellow)
 * Salt & Vinegar (blue)
 * Spicy (red)

Nutritional information
Each 24g (formerly 25g) multipack bag of the original Hula Hoops contains around 120 calories. They also contain 0.8g of protein, 15.4g of carbohydrates, 6g of fat, 0.5g of fibre, and 0.2g of sodium. These values vary between flavours.

Marketing slogans/formula

 * "Now 55% less Saturated Fat - Same great taste"
 * "Cooked with 100% Sunflower Oil"
 * "Best ever flavour"
 * "Amazing taste and satisfaction"
 * "Now no artificial flavours, colours, or MSG. Same great taste!"

Charity activities
In 2010, Hula Hoops partnered with Sport Relief to organize mass hula hoop displays. The Hoopathons were on Sunday 21 March, and 1,388 people took part to set a Guinness World Record-breaking largest number of people to hula-hoop simultaneously across the United Kingdom for two minutes.

title: Hula Hoops


text:
Robert Carr, 1st Earl of Somerset

Robert Carr, 1st Earl of Somerset (c. 1587 – 17 July 1645), was a politician, and favourite of King James VI and I.

Background
Robert Kerr was born in Wrington, Somerset, England, the younger son of Sir Thomas Kerr (Carr) of Ferniehurst, Scotland, by his second wife, Janet Scott, sister of Walter Scott of Buccleuch. About the year 1601, while an obscure page to Sir George Home, he met Thomas Overbury in Edinburgh. The two became friends and travelled to London together. Overbury soon became Carr's secretary. When Carr embarked on his career at court, Overbury became mentor, secretary, and political advisor to his more charismatic friend, the brain behind Carr's steady rise to prominence.

King's favourite
In 1607, Carr happened to break his leg at a tilting match, at which King James VI and I was in attendance. According to Thomas Howard, 1st Earl of Suffolk, the king taught him Latin. The king subsequently knighted the young Carr and took him into favour. Sir Walter Raleigh had, through his attainder, forfeited his life-interest in the manor of Sherborne, even though he had previously executed a conveyance by which the property was to pass on his death to his eldest son (a conveyance which helped to codify many aspects of the English use of primogeniture, still in practice even today). Unfortunately for Raleigh, this document was rendered worthless by a flaw that gave the king eventual possession of the property. Acting on the advice of Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury, his Secretary of State, James conferred the manor on Carr. The case was argued at law, and in 1609 judgment was given for the Crown. Apparently Lady Raleigh received some inadequate compensation, and Carr at once entered on possession. Carr's influence became such that in 1610 he was instrumental in persuading the king to dissolve Parliament, which had shown signs of attacking the king's Scottish favourites. On 24 March 1611 he was created Viscount Rochester, and subsequently a Privy Councillor.

Marriage to Frances Howard
When Salisbury died in 1612, James had the notion of governing in person as his own chief Minister of State, with Carr carrying out many of Salisbury's former duties and acting as the king's secretary. But James' inability to attend closely to official business exposed the government to factionalism. The Howard party, consisting of Henry Howard, 1st Earl of Northampton; Thomas Howard, 1st Earl of Suffolk; his son-in-law William Knollys, 1st Earl of Banbury; Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Nottingham, and Sir Thomas Lake, soon took control of much of the government and its patronage. Even the powerful Carr, hardly experienced for the responsibilities thrust upon him and often dependent on his intimate friend Overbury for assistance with government papers, fell into the Howard camp. He had done this after beginning an affair with Frances Howard, Countess of Essex, daughter of the Earl of Suffolk.

Overbury mistrusted the Howards and still had Carr's ear, and tried to prevent the marriage. In order to remove him from court, the Howard faction manipulated Overbury into seeming to be disrespectful to the queen. They then persuaded the king to offer Overbury an assignment as ambassador to the court of Tsar Michael of Russia, aware that his refusal would be tantamount to treason. The plan worked and Overbury declined, wishing to remain in England and at his friend's side. On 22 April 1613 Overbury was placed in the Tower of London at the king's "request", eventually dying there five months later on 15 September "of natural causes".

On 25 September 1613, and supported by the king, Lady Essex obtained a decree of nullity of marriage against her husband, Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex. On 3 November 1613 Carr was advanced to the Earldom of Somerset, on 23 December appointed Treasurer of Scotland. On 26 December, Lady Essex married Carr. Wedding festivities included The Masque of Flowers, depicting a scene in Virginia.

Power, scandal, and downfall
In 1614 Carr was appointed Lord Chamberlain. He supported the earl of Northampton and the Spanish party in opposition to the old tried advisers of the king, such as the Lord Chancellor Ellesmere, who were endeavouring to maintain the union with the Protestants abroad. As the years progressed James showered Somerset with more gifts, until 1615 when the two men had a falling out and Somerset was replaced by George Villiers (whom James made Duke of Buckingham). James wrote a letter that year detailing a list of complaints he then had against Somerset. Somerset still retained some favour, and might possibly have remained in power for some time longer but for the discovery in July of the murder of Overbury by poisoning. At the infamous trial Edward Coke and Francis Bacon were set to unravel the plot.

Eventually, four people had been convicted for taking part in the murder, and hanged at Tyburn at the end of 1615. They were Sir Gervase Helwys, Lieutenant of the Tower of London, Richard Weston, a gaoler, Mrs Anne Turner, a "waiting woman" of Frances Howard, and an apothecary called Franklin. Sir Thomas Monson, 1st Baronet was also implicated in the case, but the charges against him were later dropped.

Somerset and Howard were brought to trial in the spring of 1616. The latter confessed, and her guilt is widely accepted. Somerset's share is far more difficult to uncover, and probably will never be fully known. The evidence against him rested on mere presumption, and he consistently declared himself innocent. Probabilities are on the whole in favour of the hypothesis that he was no more than an accessory after the fact.

Fearing Somerset might seek to implicate him, James repeatedly sent messages to the Tower pleading with him to admit his guilt in return for a pardon stating, "It is easy to be seen that he would threaten me with laying an aspersion upon me of being, in some sort, accessory to his crime".

The king eventually let matters take their course, and both Somerset and Howard were found guilty and confined to the Tower. The sentence, however, was not carried into effect against either culprit. Howard was pardoned immediately, but both remained in the Tower until 1622. Somerset appears to have refused to buy forgiveness by concessions, and did not obtain his pardon until 1624.

He emerged into public view only once more when, in 1630, he was prosecuted in the Star Chamber for communicating a paper recommending the establishment of arbitrary government by Robert Dudley to John Holles, 1st Earl of Clare.

Somerset died in July 1645, leaving one daughter, Anne, the sole issue of his ill-fated marriage, afterwards wife of William Russell, 1st Duke of Bedford.

Material culture
An inventory of the Earl of Somerset's possessions was made in November 1615 at the request of Sir Edward Coke. The Earl's servant Walter James helped make the inventory of the forty rooms of his lodgings at Whitehall Palace. There was a bed with gilt pillars hung with purple velvet curtains and lined with yellow silk damask, tapestries of the Trojan wars and Roman history, and two Irish harps, a theorbo, and a lute. Somerset had over 100 paintings in a picture gallery in a former bowling alley, the subjects included the Adoration of Shepherds, The Wise Men, and Samson and Delilah. Sir George More was given custody of his jewels and plate, including diamond buttons and hatbands. George More returned a diamond-set chain to the goldsmith George Heriot, as Somerset had not paid the £250 bill. Some of Somerset's tapestries and paintings were put in the custody of his friend, the Scottish courtier Henry Gibb.

Somerset may have begun collecting paintings to cement his position at court. He gave instructions to the diplomat William Trumbull to buy for him in Brussels. His agents in Venice were Isaac Wake and Dudley Carleton. Carleton worked with Daniel Nys to supply fifteen paintings including works by Tintoretto for the Bowling Alley gallery and twenty-nine cases of antique (ancient Greek and Roman) marbles. The marbles arrived after Somerset's disgrace and Carleton had difficulties finding another buyer.

In popular culture
The rise and fall of Robert Carr and his relationship to Thomas Overbury are the subject of Rafael Sabatini's 1930 novel The Minion, written shortly before Sabatini's divorce from his first wife in 1931. (Given The Minion's more tragic tone, it may have been Sabatini's divorce that tainted his normally optimistic, hero-wins-out writing style.)

Laurie Davidson portrays him in the miniseries, Mary & George.

title: Robert Carr, 1st Earl of Somerset


text:
Chemiluminescence

Chemiluminescence (also chemoluminescence) is the emission of light (luminescence) as the result of a chemical reaction, i.e. a chemical reaction results in a flash or glow of light. A standard example of chemiluminescence in the laboratory setting is the luminol test. Here, blood is indicated by luminescence upon contact with iron in hemoglobin. When chemiluminescence takes place in living organisms, the phenomenon is called bioluminescence. A light stick emits light by chemiluminescence.

Physical description
As in many chemical reactions, chemiluminescence starts with the combining of two compounds, say A and B, to give a product C. Unlike most chemical reactions, the product C converts to a further product, which is produced in an electronically excited state often indicated with an asterisk:
 * A + B →  C
 * C → D*

D* then emits a photon (hν), to give the ground state of D: I
 * D* →  D  +  hν

In theory, one photon of light should be given off for each molecule of reactant. In practice, the yield ("quantum efficiency") is often low owing to side reactions.

For example, A could be luminol and [B] hydrogen peroxide. D would be 3-APA (3-aminophthalate).

Chemiluminescence differs from fluorescence or phosphorescence in that the electronic excited state is the product of a chemical reaction rather than of the absorption of a photon. It is the antithesis of a photochemical reaction, in which light is used to drive an endothermic chemical reaction. Here, light is generated from a chemically exothermic reaction. The chemiluminescence might be also induced by an electrochemical stimulus, in this case is called electrochemiluminescence.

Liquid-phase reactions
Chemiluminescence was first observed with lophine (triphenylimidazole). When in basic solution, this compound converts to the imidazolate, which reacts with oxygen to eventually give a dioxetane. Fragmentation of the dioxetane gives the excited state of an anionic diamide.

Chemiluminescence in aqueous system is mainly caused by redox reactions.
 * Luminol in an alkaline solution with hydrogen peroxide in the presence of iron or copper, or an auxiliary oxidant, produces 3-aminophtalate in an excited state, which exhibits chemiluminescence. The luminol reaction is

Gas-phase reactions

 * One of the oldest known chemiluminescent reactions is that of elemental white phosphorus oxidizing in moist air, producing a green glow. This is a gas-phase reaction of phosphorus vapor, above the solid, with oxygen producing excited states of (PO)2 and HPO.
 * Another gas phase reaction is the basis of nitric oxide detection in commercial analytic instruments applied to environmental air-quality testing. Ozone (O3) is combined with nitric oxide (NO) to form nitrogen dioxide (NO2) in an activated state [◊]:

 * The activated NO2[◊] luminesces broadband visible to infrared light as it reverts to a lower energy state. A photomultiplier and associated electronics counts the photons that are proportional to the amount of NO present. To determine the amount of nitrogen dioxide, NO2, in a sample (containing no NO) it must first be converted to nitric oxide, NO, by passing the sample through a converter before the above ozone activation reaction is applied. The ozone reaction produces a photon count proportional to NO that is proportional to NO2 before it was converted to NO. In the case of a mixed sample that contains both NO and NO2, the above reaction yields the amount of NO and NO2 combined in the air sample, assuming that the sample is passed through the converter. If the mixed sample is not passed through the converter, the ozone reaction produces activated NO2[◊] only in proportion to the NO in the sample. The NO2 in the sample is not activated by the ozone reaction. Though unactivated NO2 is present with the activated NO2[◊], photons are emitted only by the activated species that is proportional to original NO. Final step: Subtract NO from (NO + NO2) to yield NO2

Infrared chemiluminescence
In chemical kinetics, infrared chemiluminiscence (IRCL) refers to the emission of infrared photons from vibrationally excited product molecules immediately after their formation. The intensities of infrared emission lines from vibrationally excited molecules are used to measure the populations of vibrational states of product molecules.

The observation of IRCL was developed as a kinetic technique by John Polanyi, who used it to study the attractive or repulsive nature of the potential energy surface for gas-phase reactions. In general the IRCL is much more intense for reactions with an attractive surface, indicating that this type of surface leads to energy deposition in vibrational excitation. In contrast reactions with a repulsive potential energy surface lead to little IRCL, indicating that the energy is primarily deposited as translational energy.

Enhanced chemiluminescence
Enhanced chemiluminescence (ECL) is a common technique for a variety of detection assays in biology. A horseradish peroxidase enzyme (HRP) is tethered to an antibody that specifically recognizes the molecule of interest. This enzyme complex then catalyzes the conversion of the enhanced chemiluminescent substrate into a sensitized reagent in the vicinity of the molecule of interest, which on further oxidation by hydrogen peroxide, produces a triplet (excited) carbonyl, which emits light when it decays to the singlet carbonyl. Enhanced chemiluminescence allows detection of minute quantities of a biomolecule. Proteins can be detected down to femtomole quantities, well below the detection limit for most assay systems.

Applications

 * Gas analysis: for determining small amounts of impurities or poisons in air. Other compounds can also be determined by this method (ozone, N-oxides, S-compounds). A typical example is NO determination with detection limits down to 1 ppb. Highly specialised chemiluminescence detectors have been used recently to determine concentrations as well as fluxes of NOx with detection limits as low as 5 ppt.
 * Analysis of inorganic species in liquid phase
 * Analysis of organic species: useful with enzymes, where the substrate is not directly involved in the chemiluminescence reaction, but the product is
 * Detection and assay of biomolecules in systems such as ELISA and Western blots
 * DNA sequencing using pyrosequencing
 * Lighting objects. Chemiluminescence kites, emergency lighting, glow sticks (party decorations).
 * Combustion analysis: Certain free radical species (such as •CH and •OH) give off radiation at specific wavelengths. The heat release rate is calculated by measuring the amount of light radiated from a flame at those wavelengths.
 * Children's toys.
 * Glow sticks.

Biological applications
Chemiluminescence has been applied by forensic scientists to solve crimes. In this case, they use luminol and hydrogen peroxide. The iron from the blood acts as a catalyst and reacts with the luminol and hydrogen peroxide to produce blue light for about 30 seconds. Because only a small amount of iron is required for chemiluminescence, trace amounts of blood are sufficient.

In biomedical research, the protein that gives fireflies their glow and its co-factor, luciferin, are used to produce red light through the consumption of ATP. This reaction is used in many applications, including the effectiveness of cancer drugs that choke off a tumor's blood supply. This form of bioluminescence imaging allows scientists to test drugs in the pre-clinical stages cheaply. Another protein, aequorin, found in certain jellyfish, produces blue light in the presence of calcium. It can be used in molecular biology to assess calcium levels in cells. What these biological reactions have in common is their use of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) as an energy source. Though the structure of the molecules that produce luminescence is different for each species, they are given the generic name of luciferin. Firefly luciferin can be oxidized to produce an excited complex. Once it falls back down to a ground state a photon is released. It is very similar to the reaction with luminol.

Many organisms have evolved to produce light in a range of colors. At the molecular level, the difference in color arises from the degree of conjugation of the molecule, when an electron drops down from the excited state to the ground state. Deep sea organisms have evolved to produce light to lure and catch prey, as camouflage, or to attract others. Some bacteria even use bioluminescence to communicate. The common colors for the light emitted by these animals are blue and green because they have shorter wavelengths than red and can transmit more easily in water.

In April 2020, researchers reported having genetically engineered plants glow much brighter than previously possible by inserting genes of the bioluminescent mushroom Neonothopanus nambi. The glow is self-sustained, works by converting plants' caffeic acid into luciferin and, unlike for bacterial bioluminescence genes used earlier, has a relatively high light output that is visible to the naked eye.

Chemiluminescence is different from fluorescence. Hence, fluorescent proteins such as Green fluorescent protein are not chemiluminescent. However, combining GFP with luciferases allows bioluminescence resonance energy transfer (BRET), which increases the quantum yield of light emitted in these systems.

title: Chemiluminescence