text:
Talk:List (abstract data type)

Changes
Changes I made:
 * Lists are not necessary allowed to be of heterogenous type, though the traditional Lisp lists of course are. Lists in Standard ML, for example, must be of a specific type (e.g. int list, or string list).
 * The traditional way of implementing lists, originating with Lisp, is using cons cells: each list element has a "car" field containing the value, and a "cdr" field pointing to the next element (or NULL/null/nil/etc. for the last element). This turns into a linked list for non-nested lists, or a tree for nested lists.  Lists can be implemented with arrays, but this isn't standard (or common, afaik).

--Delirium 03:47 6 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Cleanup
I removed the October 2005 cleanup tag as there is no discussion here of what needs improvement. Hyacinth 11:20, 10 February 2006 (UTC)

page should be renamed to say "List (Lisp)" not "List (computing)
This is the structure for lists used by the Lisp programming language. Also, while easy to build in RAM, it's not the greatest structure, due to its asymmetry and more (I could argue Lisp speaks lists with a lisp). Other programming languages generally represent & construct lists differently, and often more symmetrically, as via arrays. Even (X)HTML (a very popular part of computing) doesn't use such structures (cons-cells) externally to construct its lists (OL & UL plus the other XML attributes), nor I really doubt uses them internally in any implementation. So rename the title of this page. In its present form, it gives a mis-impression that Computer Science represents Lists this way and THINKS of lists this way, when, more often than not, it doesn't. --MBParker (talk) 01:15, 4 January 2008 (UTC) (MIT CS grad)
 * I agree that the page should be renamed to just List (data type): what is described is not exactly one abstract data type. I do not agree that this page describes Lisp lists (linked lists) only: those have their own page. Rp (talk) 11:04, 19 March 2012 (UTC)
 * I agree with List (data type). I recommend that at least python be referenced for its built-in list and list-comprehension as described in [5. Data Structures — Python 3.7.6 documentation](https://docs.python.org/3.7/tutorial/datastructures.html) dating back at least to 1996's version 1.4 [Python Tutorial](https://docs.python.org/release/1.4/tut/). Python's version is described as an ADT. DavidLeasure —Preceding undated comment added 18:50, 24 January 2020 (UTC)

Misleading lead claimng that a string is a tuple
User:Jorge Stolfi, a given string is indeed a tuple. But a string as a variable can have any length, not a fixed one, like tuple does! A list is a string, not a tuple. Pcap ping  12:25, 17 August 2009 (UTC)
 * A list, string, or uple value has fixed length, as you say. In some programming languages, a tuple (or list) variable can be assigned values of different lengths; Python is an example. In other programming languages, a tuple (or list) variable can only be assigned values of the declared length; Pascal is an example.  Therefore that criterion does not distinguish strings from tuples or tuples from lists.  Moreover, the concepts of "variable" and "assignment" do not exist in formal language theory. All the best, --Jorge Stolfi (talk) 18:54, 17 August 2009 (UTC)
 * The confusion you have with tuples is because you do not consider polymorphic lists. I'll expand on this later; (see chapter 29 in B.C. Pierce (2002) Types and Programming Languages, if you're inclined to write the stuff yourself). Insofar I've fixed the article on tuple to explain the difference between an n-tuple in set theory and a (typed) tuple in type theory, i.e. an element of a product type. Clearly a product type is not the same as a polymorphic list type. Pcap ping  00:41, 18 August 2009 (UTC)

 * Pcap is right. In type theory, lists are defined by an inductive definition such as A* = μ α. 1 + A × α . So an instance of a list type is indeed isomorphic to a tuple of the form A × ... × A, but the concepts are quite distinct.  --Classicalecon (talk) 09:14, 18 August 2009 (UTC)

 * The point is that lists (or tuples, or any other data structure) are intuitive concepts that can be (and were, and are) defined, used, and studied — in fully rigorous and precise terms — independently of any type theory. Type theory (or theories) may be nice and useful, but they are not the truth: they are attempts to formalize what programmers and compiler writers do.  Sometimes a formal theory helps, but sometimes it only makes things harder to understand.  Presenting the theoretical definition of a list as if it were the definition, or even a more "correct" defintion, is historically, pedagogically, and practically misleading.  All the best, --Jorge Stolfi (talk) 21:47, 18 August 2009 (UTC)

Yes, you can do a lot in untyped lambda calculus, and a Turing machine works on untyped data. It's okay to be pragmatic, and the way the body of this article is structured follows the "concrete to abstract" path, except the lead start with the abstract notion. To fully follow your approach, you'd need to change it to focus on the concrete, which is more inconvenient because there are (several) other articles on concrete implementations of lists. So, you need to abstract away the implementation details at some point for this article to be more than a survey of list implementations.

Just like the word aaa is an element of many formal languages (in particular a*, but also words of length three over any alphabet including a), so a tuple is a an instance of a list type, but also of a product type. But that does not make a product type coincide with the list type, just like aaa being part of many languages does not make those languages coincide. So, it's not okay to identify the ADT list (of which there are at least two typed flavors in widespread use: monomorphic and polymorphic) with the notion of tuple. I've fixed the article in this respect. Pcap ping  22:47, 18 August 2009 (UTC)

Monad section issues
That section needs some integration with the definition above it. To start, the notation needs to be changed. Also, I don't see why you need the stuff besides return and append to give the monad. The rest appears to be superfluous for that purpose. Pcap ping  00:41, 18 August 2009 (UTC)

Original research, and a proposal to clean it up
While I believe most of this article to be true and if necessary verifiable by reliable sources, I have still tagged it as original research, because I think its lede suffers from original synthesis of ideas. Citing parts the lede:

 * In computer science, a list or sequence is an abstract data type that implements a finite ordered collection of values

Very well. This is the mathematical idea of a string (yes, that's mathematical idea, I've encountered it outside computer science in the context of pure logic), or a finite sequence. However, this could as well be an informal definition of arrays.

 * Some languages may allow list types to be indexed or sliced like array types, in which case the data type is more accurately described as an array.

True, but then they provide support for very different data types called lists: something prepend-only linked lists, as is common in functional and logic programming. Sometimes, as in Python, for dynamic arrays called "lists" due to historic accident (?).

What I think should be done is that we make a stricter distinction between lists and arrays. A Haskell/Lisp/Prolog list is a list. A Python list is not, but it gets a hatnote. As for "sequence" being a synonym of list, both Lisp and Python programmers will disagree on that one. Q VVERTYVS (hm?) 21:08, 30 May 2014 (UTC)
 * Sorry, but you're splitting hairs over fine lexigraphical usages, not the sense of the meanings. I fail to see where that constitutes a violation of OR. The mission is to impart educational information, not, and especially NOT, in the lede confuse the poor sod who happens by to check a term's general meaning. I haven't seen Lisp in two decades and never wrote in it, nor do I use Python and other such languages as a computer engineer... they don't do a very good job talking to hardware!
 * If you think something it the lede is in violation of "Do not combine material from multiple sources to reach or imply a conclusion not explicitly stated by any of the sources", then by all means change it. But it seems a stretch to disable the sense of what the class is, to obfuscate the general understanding by being overly picky at sentence construct. Edit it as you can to retain that for the ignorant masses, or perhaps better yet, add a note (see notelist etc.) that explains the distinction (or claim or vice versa) is not solid and why.
 * I removed the OR tag as I saw nothing which was controversial or new to me (I first coded in 1976!) and seems plenty solid. I'm simply not going to get drawn into hashing it out over such a fine split hair. If you are an academic and find my understanding to be short of yours... well, I hope so! But is it worth an in-your-face tag that diminishes and makes the wiki look like a bunch of clowns? Not to me. Hang a questionable or citation-needed or some such IN-LINE tag on the offending sentences or phrasing would be my approach. I'd have to revisit which are available now, the template coders alway build a better mousetrap and break old tried and true tools. (But one reason I hardly bother to contribute here anymore! It's far too often a hostile environment. Hope my BALDERDASH! didn't make it more so for YOU! It wasn't personal, but all too often some kid comes along and starts tagging everything in sight... you know what I mean?) No way to pass along years of experience and discretion in exercising judgement! Do consider the in-line option. I see the tag is back!

Best regards, Fra nkB 17:25, 19 August 2014 (UTC)

 * Re: splitting hairs, check out what I excised from the article: "The items in a list can be sorted for the purpose of fast search (binary search)." This is true for one of the two meanings of "list" that are being conflated, not for the other. So it's not "fine lexigraphical usages", it's the difference between fast code and slow code that we're dealing with here.
 * (Maybe you're right that a big tag isn't as helpful as a lot of small ones, but I didn't find the time to sort through the article systematically; otherwise I'd probably have fixed it instead.) Q VVERTYVS (hm?) 18:11, 19 August 2014 (UTC)

 * So let's fix it! My intuition is the following: there are roughly two types of things called "lists", indexed sequences which are array-like things; examples of which are the python list, java list, C# list, etc. etc. and the nil/cons pair as found in OCaml, Scala, Lisp, etc. The lazy behavior of the Haskell list currently links to Stream (computing), but I'm not sure if that's ideal either - that lumps things like the standard input stream together with a lazily evaluated sequence, which IMO are quite different beasts - so let's put that one aside for a moment. These two are quite different beasts, but I wouldn't agree to calling either of these concepts a "real" list - implying that the other is not. The article is problematic in that it claims some things that go for one of these but not for the other as universal, and splitting that up sounds like a good idea. I'm going to make an edit to the first paragraph to try and define the subject matter. Lets see if we can work from there. Martijn Hoekstra (talk) 09:19, 11 November 2014 (UTC)

list vs array
Lists may be many things so the context needs to be explained. Assuming (abstract data type) is what we are discussing.

From experience implementing list objects in various projects. The difference between a list and an array is blurred by the fact that a list may be implemented as an array.

 * 1) Arrays contain a set number of elements of the same type.
 * 2) A list contains some indefinite number of elements, including 0 elements(an empty list), of any type. A list element may be a list.
 * 3) Lists may infact be implemented as an array(under laying structure). In lisp 2 they were dynamic arrays containing pointers to typed objects. That is each element of the array was a pointer to a typed element. In this case the array still contains only like elements. A pointer to an object. The list is it's self an object containing it's size(number of elements) and the array of pointers.

Example of lisp 2 like object in C++ structures. In implementation the pointer points at the data (last field in the object). The data type is contained at a negative (-2 BYTEs offset on a PC) offset from the pointer, hiding the implementation data. A negative type value is a list. Positive values are atomic data elements. LISP 2 indexed list elements.

struct LispTwoObject {

...        // data type dependent data. (integer fraction digits, object attribute data)

short type; // type>0 atomic element type, type== 0 nil(empty list), type<0 negative list length union data {  // An object pointer points here. -size short is type. void* elm[]; // list array of pointers BYTE val[]; // numeric object type, integer, floating etc.    char  str[]; // character object type: character, ASCIIZ string, symbol etc char* name; // types having a string display name }};

The most defining difference between arrays and lists is that an array contains elements of the same type. A list may contain elements of different types. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Steamerandy (talk • contribs) 19:26, 6 October 2014 (UTC)

 * In Haskell, lists are of homogeneous type, just like arrays. In Scheme, both lists and arrays ("vectors") are of heterogeneous type. Q VVERTYVS (hm?) 21:36, 6 October 2014 (UTC)

Flat list listed at Redirects for discussion
An editor has asked for a discussion to address the redirect Flat list. Please participate in the redirect discussion if you wish to do so. Hildeoc (talk) 19:46, 8 June 2019 (UTC)

Move discussion in progress
There is a move discussion in progress on Talk:Associative array which affects this page. Please participate on that page and not in this talk page section. Thank you. —RMCD bot 00:32, 27 January 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:List (abstract data type)


text:
Occidental Mindoro

Occidental Mindoro (Kanlurang Mindoro), officially the Province of Occidental Mindoro (Lalawigan ng Kanlurang Mindoro), is a province in the Philippines located in the Mimaropa region. The province occupies the western half of the island of Mindoro. Its capital is Mamburao, but the largest municipality is San Jose occupying almost half of the entire province. As of 2020, Occidental Mindoro has 525,354 inhabitants.

The province is bordered on the east by the province of Oriental Mindoro, and on the south by the Mindoro Strait. The South China Sea is to the west of the province and Palawan is located to the southwest, across the Mindoro Strait. Batangas is to the north, separated by the Verde Island Passage, a protected marine area and the center of the world's marine biodiversity.

Early history
Mindoro Island was originally known to the ancients as Ma-i. It was formally called Mait, and known to the Chinese traders before the coming of the Spanish. Its existence was mentioned in the old Chinese chronicles in 775 A.D. and more elaborately in 1225. It was a major anchorage in the Southeast Asia trade route during the pre-Philippines period. Chinese, Arab and Indian merchants traded with the natives.

Spanish colonial era
In 1570, the Spanish began to explore the island and named it Mina de Oro ("mine of gold") after finding some of the precious metal, though no major gold discoveries were ever made.

The natives of Mindoro were called Manguianes by the Spaniards. But the natives refer to themselves by their ethnic or clan identification. There were seven such ethnic or clan distinctions, which are differentiated by language and areas where each can be found.

The Mangyans, as they are now anthropologically known, do not have a warrior society. They are a peaceful, shy but friendly people. They are rarely known to be hostile, and have had no significant record of violent conflict with other people in the entire history of the province. They grow root crops in forest clearings (slash and burn farms), and hunt wild animals in the forest for their meat needs.

There are no authentic documents in existence explaining the original stock of the Mangyan people, but later theoreticians postulate that they migrated from Indonesia before 775 A.D. They hopped from island to island, until finally settling down permanently in Mindoro. It appeared that clan settlements existed in the North as well as in the southern ends of the island. By 779, the southwest coast of the island was already a known trading center, and its fine natural harbor frequented by Arab, Indian and Chinese maritime traders who plied the route. But there was no attempt of subjugation, just trading.

The first semblance of a political system in Mindoro's experience was provided by China in the 13th century. Chinese imperial forces under Admiral Cheng Ho with a powerful armada of 60 war junks visited Mindoro and other parts of the archipelago in the 13th century, with the purpose of gaining more trading favors for Chinese merchants.

For a time, Admiral Ho tried to exert some effort of rule as a prelude to Sino annexation. Internal trouble in the Chinese home front, however, recalled the armada, and the attempts of the empire to annex the archipelago did not materialize.

Some time after the Ho overture, Islamic influence reached the island, probably, through Suluanons who traded with the natives. Moslem peoples, possibly - Orang Dampuans (economic refugees from Sulu) crossed Mindoro Strait from Paragua (now Palawan) and settled along the coastal areas, developing progressive maritime communities.

In 1572, Captain Juan de Salcedo of the Spanish expeditionary army set sail from Cebu and explored the west coast of the island, encountering the Mangyans, who appeared used to seeing foreigners and were not at all a bit surprised at their arrival. On the contrary, it was Salcedo and Martin de Goiti who were surprised to see cross designs on the clothing and basketwork of the natives, and thought some early Christian missionary had been there before them. But later scholars believed the design was Indic in origin and had no religious meaning.

The Spaniards also encountered Moro settlers in Lubang Island that were vassals of and paid tribute to the kingdom of Maynila in the North, under Rajah Sulayman. This was the first real political system in the island. The Moros, who apparently had heard of the invaders from their kinsmen in the south, engaged the small Spanish force who landed on their shore, but the Spaniards' arquebuses and cannon fire from the ships hoved-to broadside to the island took the field. The Moros fled to the hills, and Salcedo burned their village.

After the defeat of Sulaiman in the same year, Mindoro and other vassal states of Maynila became subject of Castillan rule. The island was officially referred to from then on as Mina de Oro (Mine of Gold), compressed later on into Mindoro. The free land name, Ma-i, fell into disuse. The Spanish-Moro war would rage on in Mindoro until toward the end of the Spanish regime in the 19th century.

In 1602, Moro forces plundered the most important Spanish towns along the coasts of Mindoro and Southern Luzon, and subsequently reestablished their hold in Mindoro by constructing a fort at Mamburao. From 1720 onwards, Moro raids became devastating not only to the island's Hispanized communities but to other parts of the archipelago as well.

In 1757, the Moros, more particularly, the Iranuns (a relative of the Maranaws of the Lake Lanao regions) organized a war fleet of 74 fast native ships called prahus. They destroyed several settlements in the island, carrying off their inhabitants to be sold as slaves in Jolo.

The fact that a Moro fort at Mamburao threatened Manila, the capital of the colonial government, embarrassed the conquerors in the eyes of their native subjects, which was politically intolerable to the Spanish administrators. So in 1766, the Spaniards gathered a large force of 1,200 marines, augmented by a large army of native mercenaries, and burned the Iranun fort. But the Moros simply faded into the hills to escape, and came back when the counter-raid was over and the raiders returned to Manila.

The Moros not only plundered goods, but also took prisoners of war which they sold as slaves. Many Islamic leaders in Mindanao, in spite of the peace settlement with the Spaniards contained in treaties and formal agreements, supported piratical raids with arms, ammunition and food, not only because it was a patriotic act (defending Moroland), but this patriotism was also giving them handsome profits. They received part of the "prisoners of war" when a successful raider returned, which earned them huge amounts.

Most of the raids were successful because of the fast watercraft in the employ of the raiders. It was not until the commission of the vapor, fast steamships, in the mid-18th century that the Spanish navy successfully patrolled the archipelagic waters, and fared well against the wind-powered native seacraft of the pirates. Many pirate fleets were sunk at sea, or confined to their hiding places.

The invention of machines during the Industrial Revolution, which gradually replaced manual labor, and the consecutive abolitions of slave ownership in many liberalized countries, caused a great decline in the demand for slave labor. Many of the pirate markets closed, and prices fell severely for captives.

With losses to the Spanish navy increasing, and the eventual fall in profits from slave selling, raiding became less appealing to the Iranuns and their Islamic supporters. Uneconomical patriotism simply did not make quite an appeal. Thus, it came to pass that the Moro pirates faded from Mindoro's history. The pirate fort in Mamburao was abandoned, and the Moros retreated to Mindanao to consolidate their forces and continue the Moslem resistance at the homefront. Mindoro Island then became a Spanish possession in a truer sense for the first time. But not for long.

In 1896, the Philippine Revolution begun, which spread throughout the islands. In 1897, the Spaniards posted a rifle company of 140 troops and 51 marines to Calapan to secure the island from the forces of General Emilio Aguinaldo and his revolutionary army, then beginning to overrun Spanish positions in the archipelago. Only Mindoro was relatively safe. In 1898, the revolutionaries attacked and overwhelmed the settlement that is now Bongabong. The revolution also ignited in the western part (Occidental Mindoro), which seized control of the settlements there from the Spaniards. Finally, they marched against the capital of Calapan with some 1,000 ill-armed foot soldiers.

The attack came to nothing. The Spanish defenses held. It was only the arrival of 1,000 regular army troops with artillery, all under the command of General Malvar in Batangas, that compelled the surrender of the Spaniards under Governor Morales. Hence on July 1, 1898, the Spanish rule in Mindoro Island, lasting for 328 years, ended.

American invasion era
A new battalion "Mindoro", with two rifle companies, was formed under the command of Captain Ruperto Hernandez and Estanislao Cayton, both from Batangas. The revolutionary political reins were held by the elite, who also held the same reins under the Spaniards (and later under the Americans). The revolution, therefore, was for liberation against colonial rule but not a war for social change, which was to be defeated late in the US-Filipino war that followed.

In 1910, the successor United States politico-military administration granted over 50 km2 of land to the Welch and Fargo Sugar Company in what is now San Jose, which built the first modern and biggest sugar mill in the Far East at Siete Central (now barangay Central). In the same year, the boldly developing community of sugar cane planters, mill workers, company professionals and businessmen enabled the creation of San Jose as an official Philippine town.

Philippine independence
In 1950, the province of Mindoro was divided into Oriental Mindoro and Occidental Mindoro by virtue of Republic Act No. 505.

Contemporary history
In April 2023, the provincial government placed the entire province under a state of calamity due to the 20-hour daily power outage that has been occurring for a month and a half.

Geography

Occidental Mindoro covers a total area of 5,865.71 km2 occupying the western section of the Mindoro island, and includes outlying islands in the northwest.

General land surface features that characterize Occidental Mindoro are mountains, rivers, hills, valleys, wide plains and some small fresh water lakes. The taller mountains can be found in the interior that it shares with Oriental Mindoro. Mountain ranges converge on the two central peaks, Mount Halcon in the north, and Mount Baco in the south. There is also a mountain known as bundok ng susong dalaga, the "Maiden's breast mountain", that looks like a reclined woman.

The northern part of the province has relatively fewer plains, while the southern parts have wider flatlands. Most of the plains are cultivated fields, with few remaining untouched forests. Significant hilly areas can be found rolling off in Santa Cruz in the north, and in San Jose and Magsaysay in the south. These are grassed-over rather than forested.

There are several major drainage or river systems flowing on a generally westerly course: Mamburao River, Pagbahan, Mompong, Biga, Lumintao, Busuanga and Caguray. Swamp areas are restricted to the south, specially, along the river mouths.

The province is also home to one of the most popular coral reefs in the Philippines, Apo Reef.

Climate
Occidental Mindoro has two distinct weather types: rainy season and dry season. Rains begin to fall in the province in late May, intensifying through June, July, August, September and October, then gradually subsides in November. The months of August and September are the wettest period, with storms directly passing through the area.

On the other hand, dry season starts in November, with rainfall subsiding in intensity, and altogether ceasing in January, February, March and April. March and April are the driest period, with cloudless skies and parched earth characterizing the general area.

Temperature range is from 26 C in the windy uplands to 32 C in the lowlands.

Administrative divisions
Occidental Mindoro comprises 11 municipalities and 2 legislative districts.

Demographics
The population of Occidental Mindoro in the 2020 census was 525,354 people, with a density of undefined PD/km2.

Major languages spoken are Tagalog and the Mangyan languages. Tagalog is usually spoken with Batangas dialect both due to its geographical contact with Batangas and Batangueño residents in the province, with great influences from native Mangyan and Visayan languages. Ilokano, Visayan, and Bikolano, are varyingly spokren by people who migrated from the provinces where they are spoken. Occidental Mindoro is a cultural melting pot, populated mostly by recent immigrants.

The indigenous people in the province are the Mangyans (Manguianes in Spanish, Mañguianes in Old Tagalog), consisting of 7 distinct tribes. They occupy the foothills and interior. The Mangyan have inhabited the island since pre-history. They are believed to have originally traveled from Indonesia and settled down for good in the island.

There is much evidence, historical and geophysical, that the Mangyan tribes formerly lived near the coastlines. They were compelled, however, to move into the interior jungles of the island when the inter-island immigrants came, in order to avoid confrontations, which the peace-loving tribes wished to avoid at all costs. They also wished to avoid cultural changes and to preserve their way of life.

Today, the Mangyan number to only around 80,000 (freely moving in and out in both provinces of Oriental and Occidental Mindoro). But there is no accurate accounting of them since many still live elusively in the upper regions of the island, avoiding contact with lowlanders.

Religion
Like the Eastern half of the island, most of the population of Occidental Mindoro are of Roman Catholic conviction (82%) while minor religions are usually represented by various Christian denominations, Islam, indigenous Philippine folk religions, animism, and atheism.

Economy
Occidental Mindoro is an agricultural area devoted to the production of food. Its economic base is rice production (Oryza sativa culture), a Philippine staple crop. It is the leading activity and source of seasonal employment in the province, participated in by almost 80 per cent of the population, including children.

Wetland or lowland rice is a rainy season crop, heavily dependent on water and therefore produced from July (planting season) to October (harvest season). Tobacco, onions, garlic and vegetables are grown during the dry season (November to May) since they are not water-intensive crops, and require longer photoperiodicity.

Rice, corn, onions, garlic, salt, fishes (both wild and cultured) are some of the relatively significant surpluses produced in the province in exportable quantities. Mangoes, cashew nuts, cooking bananas (saba) and some other fruits grown in upland orchards are among the other exports of Occidental Mindoro that have traditionally contributed to its income. Peanuts are also grown in some parts of the province, as well as cassava, sweet potatoes, ginger and other minor cultivars.

Forest resources include timber and minerals, among them gold, copper, silver, chrome, and non-metallic minerals such as lime for making cement, and greenstones for ornaments. Timber groups include many species of hardwoods, such as mahogany, and other types of trees in high demand for durability.

There is no large industry in the province. The government is the biggest employer, absorbing most of the off-farm labor force. The local electric cooperative, Occidental Mindoro Electric Cooperative (OMECO), is the biggest employer in the private sector, with nearly 150 regular employees. The rest of the population is engaged in private trades.

Problems
There are many multi-faceted problems in Occidental Mindoro's economy. In rice farming, the biggest issue confronting the producers is the high cost of production. This is attributed mainly to the spiraling prices of farm inputs. A study concluded that from 1997 to 2003, the cost of production rose by 47 per cent, while the income derived from marketing rice maintained 1997 levels. There are also confused reports that the average production rate has declined due to the reduced application of necessary farm chemicals. In street language, this means that the farmers simply cut the amount of inputs because they cannot afford the high capital requirements of following all the recommended inputs in the farming calendar.

Another structural problem is the inadequacy of irrigation. Most of the river systems in the province no longer have the demanded volume of water to make irrigation feasible. This is attributed to the greatly deforested watersheds.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Occidental Mindoro


text:
Westgate Las Vegas

The Westgate Las Vegas Resort & Casino is a hotel, casino, and timeshare resort in Winchester, Nevada. Located near the northern end of the Las Vegas Strip, it is owned by Westgate Resorts. It opened in 1969 as the International Hotel, and was known for many years as the Las Vegas Hilton, then briefly as the LVH – Las Vegas Hotel and Casino. From 1981 to 1990, it was the largest hotel in the world.

Facilities
The Westgate is located on a 64 acre site on the east side of Paradise Road, approximately 0.4 mi east of Las Vegas Boulevard. It is adjacent to the Las Vegas Convention Center to the south and Las Vegas Country Club to the east.

The hotel has 2,956 rooms. The hotel tower is 375 ft tall, with 30 floors. The top floor consists of three "Sky Villas" geared towards "high roller" customers, each with a private swimming pool and at least 12000 sqft of space.

The casino has 54923 sqft of gaming space as of 2017, with 576 slot machines, 38 table games, 10 poker tables, and a race and sports book. The casino's sportsbook, the SuperBook, is billed as the largest in the world.

The Westgate has various eateries, including fine dining restaurants, a buffet, and a food court. Benihana Village, opened in 1974, is a Japanese-themed area with streams and gardens, with several restaurants centered around its namesake teppanyaki grill.

The Westgate's convention center has 225000 sqft of event space, including the 70000 sqft Paradise Event Center (formerly the Hilton Center) and the 43000 sqft Pavilion (formerly the Hilton Pavilion).

Recreation amenities at the Westgate include a 5 acre pool deck, a fitness center, a 10000 sqft spa, and six tennis courts. The hotel also has several retail shops, a wedding chapel, and a business center.

The Westgate station of the Las Vegas Monorail is located at the front of the property.

International Hotel (1969–1971)
The hotel site was previously part of the grounds of Las Vegas Park, a defunct racetrack. In 1965, the 400 acre track site was purchased by National Equities, a real estate development firm chaired by Marvin Kratter. Kratter announced development plans for the site to include a 40-floor, 1,500-room hotel, as well as a golf course and private homes.

Meanwhile, Kirk Kerkorian, the chairman of Trans International Airlines and landlord of Caesars Palace, began formulating plans to build a 1,000-room casino hotel in Las Vegas. After considering several potential locations, he selected the racetrack site, reasoning that it was natural to put a hotel next to the Convention Center. Kratter had decided not to build a hotel himself, and in 1967, National Equities sold a 65.5 acre portion of the site to Kerkorian for $5 million. Kerkorian announced that he would build a 30-story hotel with 1,510 rooms, at a cost of $50 million. Some believed it was very risky to build such a property away from the Strip, but Kerkorian believed that it would spark the development of a "second Strip" along Paradise Road.

Kerkorian's hotel would be named the International Hotel, matching the name of Kratter's International Country Club (now the Las Vegas Country Club). He hired airline executive Fred Benninger to oversee the development, and Martin Stern Jr., who had designed several noted Las Vegas high-rises, as the hotel's architect. The general contractor selected to build the hotel was Taylor Construction Co. Construction began with an elaborate groundbreaking ceremony in February 1968.

With planning for the hotel underway, Kerkorian purchased the Flamingo casino, to serve as a training ground for the International's staff. Later, during the International's construction, Kerkorian formed the publicly traded company International Leisure to own the two casinos.

Howard Hughes, the eccentric billionaire who had purchased several Las Vegas casinos, saw Kerkorian as a rival and the International as unwelcome competition. He attempted to deter Kerkorian from building the project, first by making a sham announcement of a major planned expansion of his Sands Hotel, and then by conveying false claims to Kerkorian about damage to buildings from nearby nuclear tests. When these ruses failed, Hughes schemed to buy the project from Kerkorian and halt its construction, but this plan came to nothing. Ultimately, Hughes decided to compete head-on with the International by purchasing the unfinished Landmark Hotel and Casino, located across the street. Hughes completed construction of the Landmark and opened it one day before Kerkorian's hotel.

The International Hotel opened on July 2, 1969. At the time, it was Nevada's tallest building and largest hotel. Entertainment director Bill Miller signed Barbra Streisand to open in the showroom, along with Peggy Lee performing in the hotel's lounge.

In keeping with the hotel's name, rooms were furnished with different international decors, with each floor featuring either a Spanish, Italian, or French theme. There was also a complex of international restaurants, offering Bavarian, Italian, Japanese and Mexican cuisines. Employees were outfitted in costumes from different cultures, such as Scottish kilts, Slavic shirts, and French gendarme uniforms.

On July 31, 1969, immediately following Streisand's engagement, Elvis Presley performed the first show of what would become a seven-year run at the hotel, encompassing 636 consecutive sold-out shows. Many of the performers who worked the International before Presley were upset at their disrupted prospects.

Late in 1969, Kerkorian made plans to raise $29 million through a secondary offering of International Leisure stock. He needed the money to help pay off loans that he had taken out to purchase major stakes in Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and Western Airlines. The offering was rejected, however, by the Securities and Exchange Commission, because the company was unable to provide five years of financial history for the Flamingo. Short on cash, Kerkorian was forced to put International Leisure up for sale.

Las Vegas Hilton (1971–2012)
In 1970 and 1971, Kerkorian sold his shares of International Leisure to Hilton Hotels. The International was renamed the Las Vegas Hilton in July 1971. Hilton took complete ownership in 1972, acquiring all outstanding shares of International Leisure.

The hotel had performed unevenly in its early years as the International, but as the Hilton, it soon came to be regarded as the most successful hotel in Las Vegas.

An east tower extension with 620 rooms was completed in 1975 at a cost of $20 million. In 1977, the hotel opened the Hilton Pavilion, a $7.5-million venue for sports and entertainment events, with a seating capacity of up to 5,000 people. A $23-million expansion added another 644 rooms to the north tower. The general contractor selected to build the expansion was Del E. Webb Corporation. Ground was broken in 1977 and it was completed in 1979.

1981 fire
On the night of February 10, 1981, a major fire occurred at the Hilton. Philip Bruce Cline, a hotel busboy who was under the influence of drugs, set fire to a curtain in an elevator lobby on the eighth floor of the east tower. The fire spread to the exterior of the tower and then traveled up to the top of the building within 25 minutes. Eight people were killed, and approximately 350 were injured, including 48 firefighters. Among the victims treated for smoke inhalation was singer Natalie Cole.

The casino and hotel reopened nine days after the fire with 1,000 available rooms. The rest of the rooms were repaired over the following three months, at an estimated cost of $10 million.

Cline was convicted in 1982 of arson and murder and sentenced to life in prison without parole. Hilton and other companies involved in the hotel paid a $23 million settlement to victims. The tragedy, in combination with the MGM Grand fire that had occurred months earlier, inspired major changes to Nevada's fire safety regulations.

1981–2012
Around the end of 1981, another extension to the north tower was completed, adding 391 rooms at a cost of $21 million. This made the Las Vegas Hilton the largest hotel in the world, with a total of 3,174 rooms. (The Rossiya Hotel in Moscow had more rooms, but was not deemed to be a larger hotel by the Guinness Book of World Records because many of its rooms were used as dormitories.) It held this title until 1990, when it was surpassed by the Flamingo.

In 1984, the hotel completed construction of the $10-million Hilton Center, a 70000 sqft convention and event space at the southwest corner of the property, west of the Hilton Pavilion.

In 1986, amid growing popularity of sports betting in Nevada, the Hilton opened its race and sports book, the Superbook, at a cost of $17 million.

In 1991, the Hilton was at the center of the Tailhook scandal, in which numerous United States Navy officers were accused of acts of sexual assault during a convention at the hotel. One of the victims, Paula Coughlin, sued the Hilton for providing inadequate security for the convention, and eventually was paid a $5.2 million judgment. The lawsuit led Hilton to successfully lobby for the so-called "Tailhook bill", a state law shielding hotels from liability for injuries to patrons caused by third parties.

The hotel completed a new 362 feet, $4-million marquee sign in 1994. Later that year, however, it was partially destroyed by a windstorm. The sign was reconstructed in 1997 for $9 million with a reduced height of 279 feet, making it the world's tallest free-standing advertising sign.

In 1994, the hotel entered an arrangement with the Sahara Country Club, which was renamed as the Las Vegas Hilton Country Club. This lasted until 1997, when the course became the Las Vegas National Golf Club. Hilton attempted to buy the neighboring Las Vegas Country Club the following year, but its $60-million offer was rejected.

In 1995, the Hilton completed a $40-million renovation of its penthouse floor to construct the Sky Villas. The hotel also spent $12 million on a new room for baccarat, a favorite game of Asian high rollers. The Hilton at the time was one of only four Las Vegas casinos able to compete for the business of the "whales", the top tier of high rollers.

In 1998, Hilton spun off its casino properties, including the Las Vegas Hilton, as Park Place Entertainment.

Hilton's timeshare arm, Hilton Grand Vacations, began construction of a complex at the northeast corner of the property in 1998. It opened in 1999 with 230 suites.

Around 1999, Park Place began seeking a buyer for the Las Vegas Hilton, because the company hoped to concentrate on its properties on the Las Vegas Strip, especially the newly acquired Caesars Palace. In 2000, Park Place agreed to sell the Hilton to Edward Roski Jr. for $365 million. Roski planned to transform the Hilton to shift its focus away from high rollers and toward convention attendees. The deal fell through, however, and the property was locked up in litigation between Park Place and Roski until 2003, when they settled their claims against each other.

The Las Vegas Monorail opened in 2004, with one of its stations located at the Hilton. The system had been under construction since 2001. Hilton had led the group of hotels that had promulgated the proposal for the monorail as early as 1996.

In June 2004, Caesars Entertainment (formerly Park Place) sold the Las Vegas Hilton to Colony Capital for $280 million. Colony partnered in the purchase with Goldman Sachs, which also lent $200 million of the purchase price. In 2005, the Hilton was placed under the banner of Colony's newly formed casino affiliate, Resorts International Holdings, which was headquartered at the property.

The Hilton prospered in its first few years under Colony's management, but began losing money in the face of the Great Recession and an oversupply of hotel rooms in Las Vegas. In June 2011, the Hilton began defaulting on payments to Goldman Sachs on the loan. The same month, Hilton Worldwide opted to terminate its franchise agreement with the property, effective at the end of the year, because the facilities had fallen below the standards of the Hilton brand.

Goldman Sachs issued a foreclosure notice in September 2011. At Goldman's request, a court appointed a receiver to take control of the property.

LVH (2012–2014)
On January 3, 2012, the Las Vegas Hilton became the LVH – Las Vegas Hotel and Casino, as the contract to use the Hilton brand ended.

Colony Capital initially tried to fight against foreclosure of the property, but ultimately concluded that its equity in the LVH was worthless, and agreed to let the foreclosure proceed. Goldman Sachs formed a joint venture with Gramercy Capital to acquire the property. They bought the property at its foreclosure auction in October 2012, where they were the only bidder. The Navegante Group was retained to manage the LVH on their behalf.

In 2013, the LVH affiliated with the Leo Hotel Collection, a network of independent hotels newly created by Red Lion Hotels.

Westgate Las Vegas (2014–present)
On June 30, 2014, timeshare developer Westgate Resorts bought the LVH from Goldman and Gramercy for a price between $150 and $170 million. Westgate CEO David Siegel was hoisted to the top of the hotel's sign the following day to begin removing the letters "LVH" to make way for the property's new name, Westgate Las Vegas. Siegel stated that the company would spend at least $160 million on renovations, and that it would begin converting hotel rooms into timeshare units. According to Siegel, the timeshare conversion would take 15 to 20 years, and, even after its completion, at least 30 percent of the units would remain available as hotel rooms at any given time.

Westgate retained Paragon Gaming to replace Navegante as the property's manager in 2015. In 2020, GVII LLC, a company formed by former gaming regulator Mark Lipparelli, replaced Paragon as the casino manager.

In 2023, a tunnel was drilled to the resort for a future Las Vegas Convention Center Loop underground Tesla shuttle service station.

Architecture
Martin Stern designed the hotel in the International Style of architecture. Architect Stefan Al described the building's aesthetics as a milestone in the corporatization of Las Vegas: "Characterized by its rectilinear forms and bare surfaces, stripped of ornamentation, this elite form of architecture stood miles away from the Mafia-tainted neon of existing casinos." Architecture critic Alan Hess also noted the simplicity of the International (and the nearby Landmark Hotel) in comparison to older casinos: "As singular, self-contained forms, they showed none of the complexity of the different pieces and sequential additions that made the original Strip visually and urbanistically richer."

The Y-shaped plan for the hotel tower was inspired by the UNESCO Headquarters building; it was chosen to maximize the number of rooms that could be fit into a square plot while allowing each room to have a satisfactory view. This design was imitated by later Las Vegas hotels such as the Mirage, Mandalay Bay, and Venetian.

The International has been cited as the first Las Vegas "megaresort" (though that distinction is often instead credited to the Mirage, opened in 1989). It was the first to house all of the hotel's functions in a single large structure, whereas earlier casinos had housed them in separate buildings. The design of the property, along with the next Kerkorian/Stern project, the original MGM Grand Hotel and Casino, had a major influence on the development of the modern casino resort. As gaming historian David G. Schwartz describes it:

"The casino resorts designed by Kerkorian and Stern became the favored models for both the next generation of Strip resorts and the resorts that, after 1978, could be found throughout the United States. When you enter a casino with a sweeping porte cochere, attached parking garage, barn-like casino/entertainment/retail complex, and high-rise hotel towers, you are in a design first realized by Stern and Kerkorian."

International Theater
The property's main entertainment venue is the 1,607-seat International Theater. Since 2018, the theater hosts Barry Manilow's residency show, The Hits Come Home.

From the opening of the hotel in 1969, the main showroom was a "star policy" venue, meaning that popular musical artists and comedians were booked to perform for two to four weeks at a time. The typical schedule comprised two shows per night: a dinner show at 8pm and a cocktail show at midnight.

One of the most famous engagements at the hotel was that of singer and pianist Liberace. A longtime mainstay of Las Vegas showrooms, Liberace debuted at the Hilton in 1972, and began appearing regularly in 1973. He performed in the showroom for as many as 17 weeks out of the year, earning as much as $175,000 per week. Liberace's shows were known for his flamboyant costumes and for his being driven onstage in a Rolls-Royce limousine. He appeared at the Hilton as late as 1982. Hilton chairman Barron Hilton remembered Liberace as "one of the most popular entertainers ever to grace the stage of the Las Vegas Hilton showroom."

In 1982, the production show Bal du Moulin Rouge opened in the theater, featuring a cast of acrobats, dancers, and variety acts. The show centered around a 45-minute slot for a headline performer, which was filled at times by Suzanne Somers, Charo, and others. Shifting to a production show was intended to reduce the Hilton's entertainment costs by avoiding the need to book bigger stars, whose salaries had been spiraling ever higher. The show closed in 1986, and the theater returned to star policy.

Singer Wayne Newton, another longtime Las Vegas star, headlined the Hilton showroom from 1987 to 1993. By the end of his run, he was performing there twenty weeks out of the year, and was described as the highest-paid entertainer on the Las Vegas Strip. Newton's shows were known for beginning with him descending onto the stage in a spaceship amid a laser show. He made over 950 performances in total.

In 1993, the Andrew Lloyd Webber musical Starlight Express opened in the main theater. The Hilton Showroom was renamed as the Hilton Theatre, and underwent a $12-million renovation to add bridges and embankments to accommodate the show, which features performers on roller skates. The opening of the show was cited as part of a trend in Las Vegas toward family-friendly attractions and away from individual headliner acts. The show was signed to a five-year contract, but closed early in 1997 amid lagging ticket sales. The hotel then adopted a "limited star policy" for the theater, booking headline acts for runs of less than a week at a time.

In the early 2000s, the theater kept a rotating stable of headliners who each performed for ten weeks out of the year, including at times The Commodores, The Righteous Brothers, Sheena Easton, The Fab Four, Engelbert Humperdinck, and The Smothers Brothers.

Manilow began an extended run at the Hilton in 2005. His engagement was an early example of the trend of major recording artists establishing residency shows in Las Vegas, which was begun by Celine Dion at Caesars Palace in 2003. His show began as Manilow: Music and Passion, and was then revamped in 2008 as Ultimate Manilow: The Hits. The show ended in 2009. In November 2018, Paula Abdul revealed she was initially offered to do a show in the International Theater in 2005 but felt she wasn't the right artist to perform in it as it was “so special and magical”, so she told Hilton Hotels to offer it to Manilow.

During the summer of 2006, Reba McEntire performed her residency show, Reba: Key to the Heart, which ran for five non-consecutive weeks.

The $250,000 Game Show Spectacular ran from October 2007 to April 2008. The show rotated through three hosts: creator Bob Eubanks, Chuck Woolery, and Jamie Farr. A temporary "American TV Game Show Hall of Fame" opened and closed on site in conjunction with the show, inducting Peter Marshall, Hugh Downs, Wink Martindale, and Monty Hall. The concept was originated by entertainment publicist Jerry Digney. The logo was designed by Dan Acree.

Recent long-running shows in the theater include the classic rock tribute show Raiding the Rock Vault, from 2013 to 2014, and the Prince tribute show Purple Reign, from 2016 to 2017.

Westgate Cabaret
Smaller shows are hosted in the 400-seat Westgate Cabaret. This venue hosts magician Jen Kramer (since 2018), Motown tribute act Soul of Motown (since 2019), and the comedy night Comedy Cabaret (since 2023).

Starting in the 1990s, the venue was known as The NightClub. Combining elements of a dance club and a traditional Las Vegas lounge, it helped pave the way for dance clubs to open in many Las Vegas casinos.

The NightClub was renamed as the Shimmer Cabaret in 2004 when the Hilton came under the ownership of Colony Capital. Long-running acts at the Shimmer Cabaret included comedian David Brenner (2004–05), musical comedies Menopause the Musical (2006–09) and Nunsense (2010–13), show band The Scintas (2007–09), singer Lani Misalucha (2009–10), topless revue Sin City Bad Girls (2009–10), impressionists Greg London (2011–12) and Rich Little (2012–13), a Rat Pack tribute show led by Sandy Hackett (2011–13), Purple Reign (2014–16), and the "Icons of Comedy" series (2011–12), featuring comedians such as Gilbert Gottfried and Hal Sparks.

In 2015, after the hotel was purchased by Westgate, the room was given its current name. Previous productions and headliners at the Westgate Cabaret include the adult revue Sexxy (2015–21), funk band Cameo and comedian Vinnie Favorito, (both 2016–17), comedian George Wallace (2018–21), and rock band The Bronx Wanderers (2021–22)

Star Trek: The Experience
In January 1998, Star Trek: The Experience opened, featuring a motion simulator ride, a museum, and Quark's Bar. A portion of the casino floor was transformed into the SpaceQuest Casino, a space-themed casino complete with high-tech table games, which served as the gateway to the Experience.

In March 2004, a new Borg Invasion 4D ride was added.

The attraction closed in September 2008, after the operator, Cedar Fair, could not agree on terms for a renewed lease with the Hilton.

Elvis performances and legacy
Elvis Presley was signed for a four-week engagement in 1969 as the second performer to appear in the International's showroom, following Barbra Streisand. It would be his first public stage appearance in eight years. Presley's first show proved so popular that the hotel immediately signed him to a five-year contract for two month-long engagements per year. He would go on to perform a total of 636 shows at the hotel from 1969 to 1976, with every show sold out. Presley's run of performances at the Hilton was cut short by his death in August 1977.

During his engagements at the hotel, Presley famously resided in the 5000 sqft Imperial Suite on the 30th floor. Years after his death, the suite was renamed as the Elvis Presley Suite. It was demolished in 1994 to make way for the Sky Villas.

Presley's manager, Colonel Tom Parker, lived at the Hilton for several years after Presley's death, and was a fixture at the hotel as an entertainment consultant for much of the remainder of his life.

The hotel has recognized and capitalized on Presley's legacy in assorted ways through the years. A year after his death, a bronze statue of Presley was unveiled at the hotel; it has since occupied various spots around the property. Various festivals and conventions for Elvis fans and impersonators have been held at the hotel.

Elvis: An American Musical, a multimedia production incorporating archival footage with live songs and re-enactments, premiered at the Hilton showroom in 1988, where it ran for two months before going on a national tour. Elvis impersonator Trent Carlini performed at the Hilton in various runs, both on the main stage and in the cabaret, from 2000 to 2004 and again from 2010 to 2015.

"Elvis: The Exhibition" opened at the Westgate in April 2015 in the former Star Trek attraction space. The exhibit, developed in association with Elvis Presley Enterprises, featured 28000 sqft of artifacts and memorabilia from the singer's life. In conjunction with the opening of the exhibit, the hotel's theater was renamed as the Elvis Presley International Showroom, and was set to feature rotating shows inspired by Presley, starting with The Elvis Experience. The show fared poorly in its two-month run, however, and the plans for further shows did not materialize. The exhibition closed suddenly in February 2016, leading to a protracted legal dispute.

In 2016, the Westgate successfully petitioned to rename the street leading from the hotel to Las Vegas Boulevard as Elvis Presley Boulevard.

Television

 * Ann-Margret – When You're Smiling, a 1973 NBC television special starring actress and singer Ann-Margret, was recorded mainly in the Hilton showroom.
 * Perry Como, Las Vegas Style, a 1976 NBC special starring singer Perry Como, was recorded at the Hilton.
 * The game show Let's Make a Deal filmed its 1976–77 season in the Hilton showroom.
 * The Mrs. America Pageant was televised from the hotel annually from 1977 to 1983, in 1986, 1987, 1996, and 1997, from 2015 to 2019, and in 2021.
 * Liberace recorded parts of two CBS specials, 1978's Leapin' Lizards, It's Liberace and 1979's Liberace – A Valentine's Special, and the 1980 Showtime special, Liberace in Las Vegas, at the Hilton.
 * The CBS New Year's Eve special, Happy New Year, America, was anchored at the Hilton's Grand Ballroom in 1979 and 1980, and included segments at the Hilton in 1981 and 1982.
 * In 1980, singer Lou Rawls starred in two specials recorded at the Hilton, An Evening with Lou Rawls on HBO and The Lou Rawls Parade of Stars on CBS.
 * On May 2, 1982, the National Cable Television Association held its annual convention in the ballroom of the Hilton for the inaugural telecast of The Weather Channel.
 * Wayne Newton Live in Concert, a 1989 pay-per-view special, was aired live from the Hilton showroom.
 * Two episodes of Roseanne were taped here in 1991.
 * Prime Time Country, a nightly talk show on The Nashville Network, came to the Hilton theater four times between 1997 and 1999, recording a week's worth of episodes on each occasion.
 * The Oak Ridge Boys Live, a variety show starring country music group The Oak Ridge Boys that ran for one season on the Nashville Network, was taped over the span of two weeks in the Hilton Theatre in 1998.
 * Penn & Teller's Sin City Spectacular, an FX variety show that ran for one season starting in 1998, recorded some of its episodes at the Hilton theater.
 * Two live pay-per-view concert specials were televised from the Hilton theater under the name For the Record in 1998 and 1999, starring, respectively, Alabama and Merle Haggard.
 * The syndicated game show Wheel of Fortune came to the Hilton four times, taping two or three weeks of episodes on each occasion. The show was aired from the Hilton Center in 1998, and from the theater in 1999, 2002, and 2005.
 * The Mrs. World pageant was recorded at the Hilton in 2000, 2001, and 2003, to be aired on Pax TV.
 * In 2001, the game show Jeopardy! taped two weeks of episodes in the Hilton theater, comprising one week of Celebrity Jeopardy! and one week of International Jeopardy!
 * The Entertainer, a 2005 reality competition series on the E! network starring Wayne Newton, was set primarily at the Hilton, with contestants living in the Sky Villas.
 * The 2006 PBS special Barry Manilow: Music and Passion was filmed during one of the singer's shows at the Hilton.
 * World Series of Blackjack, a Game Show Network series, recorded its 2006 and 2007 seasons at the Hilton.
 * Louis Theroux: Gambling in Las Vegas, a 2007 BBC documentary, was filmed mainly at the Hilton, where it follows several of the casino's regulars and employees.
 * The 37th and 38th Daytime Emmy Awards ceremonies were held in the Hilton's theater in 2010 and 2011.

Film

 * The 1970 documentary Elvis: That's the Way It Is primarily covers several of Presley's concerts at the hotel.
 * In the 1971 James Bond film Diamonds Are Forever, the hotel's exterior is depicted as the Whyte House casino.
 * Over the Top, a 1987 Sylvester Stallone drama, depicts an arm wrestling tournament at the Hilton, incorporating footage from an actual tournament that was held there.
 * The Hilton appears in the 1993 film Indecent Proposal as the hotel where Robert Redford stays and makes the titular proposition to Demi Moore.
 * The 2022 Baz Luhrmann biographical film Elvis depicts Presley's residence and performances at the hotel.

Boxing
The hotel has a history as a prominent professional boxing venue. In 1969, the showroom hosted the first major boxing match held at a Las Vegas hotel, Sonny Liston vs. Leotis Martin (previous fights had been held at the Convention Center). The Hilton Pavilion was the site in 1978 of Leon Spinks's victory over Muhammad Ali for the world heavyweight championship, which is remembered as one of the biggest upsets in the sport's history. The hotel then took a seven-year hiatus from hosting boxing matches.

In 1985, Donald Curry defeated Milton McCrory at the Hilton Center to unify and become the undisputed welterweight champion. The success of the Curry–McCrory fight led the Hilton to begin pursuing more major matches, to challenge Caesars Palace as the premier boxing venue in Las Vegas. The hotel struck a deal to host several fights in the heavyweight unification series, a tournament to establish an undisputed heavyweight champion. A 14,600-seat outdoor arena was temporarily erected in the Hilton's parking lot for some of the fights. The series culminated in Mike Tyson's defeat of Tony Tucker at the Hilton Center in 1987 to unify and become the undisputed champion.

By 1995, the Hilton had reportedly backed away from seeking to host the biggest fights, because of escalating costs. The hotel hosted no boxing matches between 2002 and 2008; since then, it has occasionally hosted minor fights.

Other sports
The Hilton Pavilion hosted two nationally televised tennis events in 1978: the WCT Tournament of Champions and the World Team Tennis All-Star Match.

The hotel was the venue for Evo 2014, a major competitive video gaming tournament.

title: Westgate Las Vegas


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Old Dominion Athletic Conference

The Old Dominion Athletic Conference (ODAC) is an intercollegiate athletic conference that competes in the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division III. Of its 15 member schools, all but one are located in Virginia; the other full member is in North Carolina. The conference also has two associate members: one in Virginia and one in North Carolina.

History

The conference was founded in May 1975 as the Virginia College Conference. On January 1, 1976, the name was changed to the Old Dominion Athletic Conference. The 1976–77 season was the first in which championships were offered. In 1980, Maryville College joined and became the first member outside of Virginia. In 1981, Catholic University joined the conference after leaving Division I's Colonial Athletic Association. In 1982–83, women's sports were added, and Hollins College (now university), Randolph–Macon Woman's College (now Randolph College), and Sweet Briar College all joined. Mary Baldwin College (now university) joined in 1984. In 1988, Maryville left and was replaced by Virginia Wesleyan College (now university). In 1989 Catholic left the conference to become a charter member of the Capital Athletic Conference, returning in 1999 as a football-only member. They were replaced by Guilford College two years later. The next school to leave the conference was Mary Baldwin, which left in 1992.

In 2010 the ODAC announced the addition of Shenandoah University as a full-time member, with its first full year of involvement during the 2012–13 academic year.

The league office moved its physical location from Salem, to Forest in eastern Bedford County located just outside centrally located Lynchburg, Virginia. They also contracted Jim Ward Design for its new marks.

On March 3, 2015, Sweet Briar College announced it was to close (cease operations) at the end of the 2015 summer session. However, on June 20, 2015, the Virginia Attorney General announced a mediation agreement that kept Sweet Briar College open for the 2015–16 academic year. Sweet Briar reactivated its sports teams in the 2015–16 season and remained a full member of the ODAC.

On September 29, 2015, it was announced that Catholic University would withdraw in 2017 as associate member to join the new football league at the New England Women's and Men's Athletic Conference.

In June 2017, it was announced that Ferrum College would become the 15th full-time member of the Old Dominion Athletic Conference after it moved from the USA South Conference.

Southern Virginia University, which joined the ODAC as a football only member in 2019, announced in December of that year that it was leaving both the ODAC and Coast to Coast Athletic Conference to join the football-sponsoring USA South Athletic Conference as a full member.

The conference has hosted Division III championships in football and men's basketball, both of which were held in Salem, Virginia. D-III softball has also used Salem as a championship host along with Division III women's lacrosse and volleyball on several occasions. Since 1993 - the conference and city have hosted over 80 Division III national championships.

It was announced on November 17, 2020, that Emory & Henry College would leave the ODAC and begin its transition to Division II in July 2021 and compete in the South Atlantic Conference in 2022.

The most recent change in conference membership was announced on March 8, 2021, that Averett University would leave the USA South and join its former USA South counterpart Ferrum College in the ODAC as a full member in 2022.

Chronological timeline

 * 1975 – The ODAC was founded as the Virginia Athletic Conference. Charter members included Bridgewater College, Eastern Mennonite College (now Eastern Mennonite University), Emory & Henry College, Hampden–Sydney College, Lynchburg College (now the University of Lynchburg), Randolph–Macon College, Roanoke College and Washington and Lee University. However, it was renamed to become the Old Dominion Athletic Conference on 1 January 1976, effective beginning the 1976–77 academic year, their first year of competition.
 * 1980 – Maryville College joined the ODAC, effective in the 1980–81 academic year.
 * 1981 – Catholic University joined the ODAC, effective in the 1981–82 academic year.
 * 1982 – Women's sports were instated in the ODAC, also three women's sports institutions of Hollins College (now Hollins University), Randolph–Macon Woman's College (now Randolph College) and Sweet Briar College joined the ODAC, effective in the 1982–83 academic year.
 * 1984 – Mary Baldwin College (now Mary Baldwin University) joined the ODAC, effective in the 1984–85 academic year.
 * 1988 – Maryville left the ODAC, effective after the 1987–88 academic year.
 * 1989
 * Catholic (D.C.) left the ODAC, effective after the 1988–89 academic year.
 * Virginia Wesleyan College (now Virginia Wesleyan University) joined the ODAC, effective in the 1989–90 academic year.
 * 1991 – Guilford College joined the ODAC, effective in the 1991–92 academic year.
 * 1992 – Mary Baldwin left the ODAC, effective after the 1991–92 academic year.
 * 1999 – Catholic (D.C.) re-joined the ODAC as an associate member for football, effective in the 1999 fall season (1999–2000 academic year).
 * 2011 – Greensboro College and Notre Dame of Maryland University joined the ODAC as associate members for women's swimming, effective in the 2011–12 academic year.
 * 2012 – Shenandoah University joined the ODAC, effective in the 2012-13 academic year.
 * 2015 – Ferrum College joined the ODAC as an associate member for men's and women's swimming, effective in the 2015–16 academic year.
 * 2016 – Notre Dame (Md.) left the ODAC as an associate member for women's swimming by discontinuing the sport, effective after the 2015–16 academic year.
 * 2017 – Catholic (D.C.) left the ODAC as an associate member for football, effective after the 2016 fall season (2016–17 academic year).
 * 2018 – Ferrum upgraded to join the ODAC for all sports, effective in the 2018–19 academic year.
 * 2019 – Southern Virginia University joined the ODAC as an associate member for football, effective in the 2019 fall season (2019–20 academic year).
 * 2021
 * Southern Virginia left the ODAC as an associate member for football, effective after the 2020 fall season (2020–21 academic year).
 * Emory & Henry left the ODAC to join the Division II ranks of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) by becoming an NCAA D-II Independent in the 2021–22 academic year. They joined the South Atlantic Conference (SAC) in the 2022–23 academic year.
 * Averett University announced that it would join the ODAC, effective in the 2022–23 academic year.
 * 2022 – Southern Virginia and Greensboro joined as associate members in men's wrestling in the 2022–23 academic year.
 * 2023 – The ODAC announced that it would add men's volleyball for the 2025 season (2024–25 academic year), initially with seven full members. At the time of announcement, Eastern Mennonite, Randolph–Macon, and Roanoke had established programs; Averett and Virginia Wesleyan were preparing to play their first varsity seasons in 2024; and Lynchburg and Randolph had committed to starting varsity play in 2025.
 * 2025
 * Ferrum will leave the ODAC to join the Division II ranks and Conference Carolinas (CC) in the 2025–26 academic year.
 * Gallaudet University will join the ODAC as an associate member for football for the 2025 season (2025–26 academic year).

Current members
The ODAC currently has 15 full members; all are private schools:

 * Notes:

Associate members
The ODAC currently has two associate members; both are private schools:

Former members
The ODAC has four former full members; all are private schools:

 * Notes:

Former associate members
The ODAC had three former associate members; all are private schools:

 * Notes:

Membership timeline
This timeline is expressed with color bars.

Purple denotes football playing member. Green denotes non-football playing member. Red denotes associate member (football-only). Blue denotes associate member (non-football).

Sports
The conference sponsors championships in the following sports:

title: Old Dominion Athletic Conference


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Tugela Falls

Tugela Falls (uThukela in Zulu) is a complex of seasonal waterfalls located in the Drakensberg (Dragon's Mountains) of Royal Natal National Park in KwaZulu-Natal Province, Republic of South Africa. According to some measurements, it is the world's tallest waterfall. A revisited validation of waterfall measurements is not available, and there's still uncertainty whether Tugela or Venezuela's Angel Falls is the tallest (both measurements were taken at considerable distance from the two waterfalls).

The combined total drop of its five distinct free-leaping falls is officially 948 m. In 2016, however, a Czech scientific expedition took new measurements, making the falls 983 m tall. The data were sent to the World Waterfall Database for confirmation. The source of the Tugela River (Zulu for 'sudden') is the Mont-Aux-Sources plateau which extends several kilometres beyond the Amphitheatre escarpment from which the falls drop.

Height controversy

There is an argument that Tugela Falls is the tallest waterfall in the world, rather than the more commonly cited Angel Falls. This argument is based on two likely inaccuracies regarding the presumed heights of the respective falls.

Firstly, many now believe that Angel Falls is not as tall as was claimed in the initial survey carried out by American journalist Ruth Robertson in 1949. The quoted figure of 979 m corresponds almost precisely with the difference in altitude between the top of the falls and the confluence of the Rio Gauja and the Río Churún, which is roughly 2 km away from the base of the Auyan Tepui escarpment and 1.6 km downstream from the last segment of the Rio Gauja that could possibly be considered a ‘waterfall’.

The starting altitude of Angel Falls is often given as 1500 m, from which the falls plunge a vertical 807 m, then proceed to cascade for approximately 0.4 km with relatively little altitude loss, before a final drop of 30 m below the Talus Rapids, near the famous viewpoint known as Mirador Laime. After this the Rio Gauja flows with very little altitude loss, with nothing approaching a waterfall or even cascade before it empties into the Río Churún. However, the altitude of Mirador Laime is usually given as approximately 700 m, which would suggest that Angel Falls is only about 800 m in total height (roughly the height of the first drop).

Angel Falls, however, is almost universally regarded as having the tallest single uninterrupted drop of any waterfall in the world (the total height of Tugela Falls, even though possibly the tallest on Earth, is divided into five smaller tiers, and its tallest individual tier is 411 m). Even this measurement invites some debate, however, as some botanical sources list the height of Angel Falls' tallest drop as 738 m, rather than the usually cited 807 m.

Access
At the right time of year, the falls are easily visible from the main road into the park, especially after a heavy rain. There is an undeveloped camp site and mountain hut immediately above the falls.

There are two trails to Tugela Falls. The most spectacular trail is to the top of Mont-Aux-Sources, which starts at "The Sentinel" car park (through Phuthaditjhaba on the R57, approximately two hours drive from Royal Natal National Park via the R74, 90 minutes from Harrismith via the R712, or 80 minutes from Golden Gate Highlands National Park). From here it is a relatively easy climb to the top of the Amphitheatre that takes about 4.5 to 8 hours round-trip depending on fitness level. Access to the summit is via two chain ladders. This is the only day hiking trail which leads to the top of the Drakensberg escarpment. Another trail to the foot of Tugela Falls starts at Royal Natal National Park. The easy 7 km gradient up the Tugela Gorge winds through indigenous forests. The last part of the hike to Tugela Falls is a boulder hop. A little chain ladder leads over the final stretch for a view of the falls rushing down the amphitheatre in a series of five cascades.

title: Tugela Falls


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Takakkaw Falls

Takakkaw Falls (also spelled Takkakaw ) is a waterfall in Yoho National Park, near Field, British Columbia, in Canada. The falls have a total height of 373 m, making them the second tallest waterfall in Canada. The main drop of the waterfall has a height of 254 m.

"Takakkaw" translates to "magnificent” in Cree. The falls are fed by the meltwater of the Daly Glacier, which is part of the Waputik Icefield.   The glacier keeps the volume of the falls up during the warm summer months, and they are a tourist attraction, particularly in late spring after the heavy snow melts, when the falls are at peak condition.

Height
Various sources place the total vertical height of Takakkaw Falls between 302 m and 373 m. The waterfall was formerly thought to be the tallest in Canada, but a survey in 1985 found that it is actually shorter than Della Falls on Vancouver Island. The results of that survey also concluded that the main drop of the falls is 254 m high.

In popular culture
The Takakkaw Falls were featured in the 1995 film Last of the Dogmen.

title: Takakkaw Falls


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Applegate

Applegate may refer to:

Places

 * Applegate, California, United States
 * Applegate, Michigan, United States
 * Applegate, Oregon, United States
 * Applegate Peak in Oregon
 * The Applegate River in Oregon
 * Applegate Lake, on the Applegate River
 * Applegate Valley, along the Applegate River
 * Applegate Valley AVA, an American Viticultural Area
 * Applegate Trail, a pioneer trail through the Oregon Territory
 * Applegate language, a language in the Athabaskan group
 * Applegate tribe, a Native American people

Other uses

 * Applegate (surname)

title: Applegate


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Basaseachic Falls

Basaseachic Falls (Spanish: Cascada de Basaseachi) on the Basaseachic River is the second-highest waterfall in Mexico, located in the Parque Nacional Basaseachic (Basaseachic Falls National Park) at Cañón Basaseachic in the Copper Canyon region of northwest Mexico, near Creel, Chihuahua. It is 246 meters (807 ft) tall, second in Mexico only to the Cascada de Piedra Volada (Flying Stone Falls).

Basaseachic Falls is located in the high mountains of the Sierra Madre Occidental, in the Municipality of Ocampo, 3 km from Basaseachi community and about 265 km west of Chihuahua. It is reached via Federal Highway 16 and its surroundings make up the Basaseachic Falls National Park (Parque Nacional Cascada de Basaseachic).

The waterfall is made by two streams, Arroyo del Durazno and Arroyo de Basaseachic, which merge in the high mountains and then fall down the canyon wall. Past the falls, the stream is called Río Candameña (Candameña River), which is the namesake of the canyon it flows through, Candameña Canyon (Cañón Candameña). The Candameña River is a tributary of the Río Mayo (Mayo River).

Basaseachic Falls was considered the tallest waterfall in México until the measurement in September, 1994 of the Cascada de Piedra Volada. Both of these waterfalls are seasonal, drying up in the Spring and Autumn dry seasons.

title: Basaseachic Falls


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Sam (text editor)

Sam is a multi-file text editor based on structural regular expressions. It was originally designed in the early 1980s at Bell Labs by Rob Pike with the help of Ken Thompson and other Unix developers for the Blit windowing terminal running on Unix; it was later ported to other systems. Sam follows a classical modular Unix aesthetic. It is internally simple, its power leveraged by the composability of a small command language and extensibility through shell integration.

Design and features
Sam is designed as two synchronous programs: a command interpreter and a mouse-oriented bitmap windowing interface. The interpreter's command set is modeled after the UNIX editor ed and may be used to operate the editor from a standard text terminal. By default, however, Sam presents its own graphical user interface (GUI) window, samterm, which additionally allows point-and-click operations through pop-up context menus. This two-process structure allowed sam to access files on networked host systems through remote execution of the file-access process while running the windowing interface locally, thereby bypassing latency over slow connections.

Samterm presents windows to files being edited and to a persistent command window which accepts input as sam commands. Most common editing operations are quickly and naturally accomplished with the point-and-click interface, which also functions inside the command window. This latter fact allows commands to be edited (and resubmitted) just as any other text, a function inherited from the DMD 5620 terminal interface.

Command syntax
Sam's command syntax is formally similar to ed's or ex's, containing (structural-) regular expression based conditional and loop functions and scope addressing, even sharing some of ed's syntax for such functions. But while ed's commands are line-oriented, sam's are selection-oriented. Selections are contiguous strings of text (which may span multiple lines), and are specified either with the mouse (by sweeping it over a region of text) or by a pattern match. Sam's commands take such selections as basic—more or less as other Unix tools treat lines; thus, multi-line and sub-line patterns are as naturally handled by Sam as whole-line patterns are by ed, vi, AWK, Perl, etc. This is implemented through a model called structural regular expressions, which can recursively apply regular-expression matching to obtain other (sub)selections within a given selection. In this way, sam's command set can be applied to substrings that are identified by arbitrarily complex context.

Sam extends its basic text-editing command set to handling of multiple files, providing similar pattern-based conditional and loop commands for filename specification. Any sequence of text-editing commands may be applied as a unit to each such specification.

Infinite undos
Sam was one of the first text editors to support "infinite" undo to revert any number of editing errors. This feature, combined with Sam's facility to easily edit its own commands and, fundamentally, its small, orthogonal command set (containing only 33 commands), represent the program's bias toward a low learning threshold over other more expressive "power editors."

Endorsers
Sam is the preferred text editor of several eminent programmers. It was the first full screen editor Ken Thompson liked. Sam is the text editor used by Bjarne Stroustrup, Brian Kernighan, Douglas McIlroy and Tom Duff. Others, like Dennis Ritchie, Rob Pike and Russ Cox, have transitioned to acme, an editor with the same command language as sam, but with an assortment of additional features, including mouse chording and automatic tiling of opened files.

The latest version of sam was written as part of the Plan 9 operating system, but there are Microsoft Windows, macOS and X Window System ports available.

title: Sam (text editor)


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Battle of Fort Stedman

The Battle of Fort Stedman, also known as the Battle of Hare's Hill, was fought on March 25, 1865, during the final weeks of the American Civil War. The Union Army fortification in the siege lines around Petersburg, Virginia, was attacked in a pre-dawn Confederate assault by troops led by Maj. Gen. John B. Gordon. The attack was the last serious attempt by Confederate troops to break the Siege of Petersburg. After an initial success, Gordon's men were driven back by Union troops of the IX Corps commanded by Maj. Gen. John G. Parke.

Background
During March 1865, Confederate General Robert E. Lee continued to defend his positions around Petersburg, but his Army was weakened by desertion, disease, and shortage of supplies and he was outnumbered by his Union counterpart, Lt. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant, by about 125,000 to 50,000, and he asked Maj. Gen. John B. Gordon for advice. Gordon replied that he had three recommendations, in decreasing order of preference: first, offer peace terms to the enemy; second, retreat from Richmond and Petersburg, link up with the Confederate army in North Carolina under General Joseph E. Johnston, jointly defeat Sherman, and then go after Grant; third, fight without delay. An argument ensued, with Lee rejecting the political implications of the first choice and indicating the difficulty of the second, but Gordon left the meeting with the impression that Lee was considering those options. On March 6, however, Gordon was summoned back to headquarters and Lee told him that "there seemed to be but one thing that we could do—fight. To stand still was death. It could only be death if we fought and failed."

Gordon later wrote in his memoirs that he "labored day and night at this exceedingly grave and discouraging problem, on the proper solution of which depended the commander's decision as to when and where he would deliver his last blow for the life of the Confederacy." He worked on his plans until March 23 and decided to recommend a surprise attack on the Union lines that would force Grant to contract his lines and disrupt his plans to assault the Confederate works (which, unbeknownst to Lee and Gordon, Grant had already ordered for March 29).

Gordon planned a pre-dawn assault from the Confederate stronghold known as Colquitt's Salient against Fort Stedman, one of the fortifications in Union lines that encircled Petersburg, named for Griffin A. Stedman, a Union colonel from Connecticut who had been killed in the vicinity in August 1864. It was one of the closest spots to the Confederate works, there were fewer wooden chevaux de frise obstructions protecting it, and a supply depot on the U.S. Military Railroad was less than a mile behind the fort. Directly after capturing Fort Stedman and its artillery, Confederate soldiers would move north and south along the Union lines to clear the neighboring fortifications and make way for the main attack, which would lead to the main Union supply base of City Point (also Grant's headquarters), ten miles (16 km) northeast where the Appomattox River joins the James River.

The assault force was three divisions of Gordon's Second Corps (under Brig. Gen. Clement A. Evans, Maj. Gen. Bryan Grimes, and Brig. Gen. James A. Walker), two brigades from the Fourth Corps division of Maj. Gen. Bushrod R. Johnson (under Brig. Gens. Matt W. Ransom and William H. Wallace) in close support, and two brigades from Maj. Gen. Cadmus M. Wilcox's Third Corps division in reserve. Lee had also ordered the division of Maj. Gen. George Pickett of the First Corps to move from its position north of the James River in time to join the action. This represented almost half of Lee's infantry of the Army of Northern Virginia: 11,500 men from Gordon's corps and Bushrod Johnson's division, 1,700 of Wilcox's men nearby, and 6,500 from Pickett moving up. Maj. Gen. W.H.F. "Rooney" Lee's cavalry division was designated to exploit the expected infantry breakthrough. Opposing them were the Union IX Corps commanded by Maj. Gen. John G. Parke, defending the first 7 mi south from the Appomattox River, and manning in Gordon's front (from north to south) artillery Batteries IX and X, Fort Stedman, and Batteries XI and XII. Parke's 3rd Division, under Brig. Gen. John F. Hartranft, was in reserve behind the lines. While Maj. Gen. George G. Meade was away at City Point with Grant, Parke was the acting commander of the Army of the Potomac, although he would not realize that until after Gordon's attack started.

Confederate attack
Gordon's attack started at 4:15 a.m. Lead parties of sharpshooters and engineers masquerading as deserting soldiers headed out to overwhelm Union pickets and to remove obstructions that would delay the infantry advance. They were followed by three groups of 100 men assigned to storm the Union works and stream back into the Union rear area. These men relied on surprise and speed—they carried unloaded muskets so that no one could accidentally fire and alert the enemy. The main thrust was between Batteries XI and X, with one group moving north for Battery XI and the other two for X and Stedman. The movement achieved complete surprise.

Brevet Brig. Gen. Napoleon B. McLaughlen, the officer responsible for the Fort Stedman sector, heard the sounds of the attack, dressed quickly in the predawn darkness, and rode to Fort Haskell, just to the south of Battery XII, which he found to be ready to defend itself. As he moved north, McLaughlen ordered Battery XII to open fire on Battery XI and ordered a reserve infantry regiment, the 59th Massachusetts, to counterattack, which they did with fixed bayonets, briefly re-capturing Battery XI. Assuming that he had sealed the only breach in the line, McLaughlen rode into Fort Stedman. He recalled, "I crossed the parapet and meeting some men coming over the curtains, whom in the darkness I supposed to be part of the picket, I established them inside the work, giving directions with regard to position and firing, all of which were instantly obeyed." He suddenly realized that the men he was ordering were Confederates and they realized he was a Union general, capturing him. He was taken back across no man's land and surrendered his sword personally to Gordon.

Gordon soon arrived at Fort Stedman and found his attack had so far exceeded his "most sanguine expectations." Within minutes, Batteries X, XI (Retaken from the 59th Massachusetts), and XII and Fort Stedman had been seized, opening a gap nearly 1000 ft long in the Union line. Confederate artillerists under Lt. Col. Robert M. Stribling used the captured guns in Stedman and Battery X to open up enfilading fire on the entrenchments to the north and south. The attack began having difficulty at Battery IX to the north, where the Union troops formed a battle line and the Confederates were too confused by the maze of trenches to attack it effectively. Gordon turned his attention to the southern flank of his attack and Fort Haskell, against which he launched his division under Clement Evans. The defenders successfully employed canister rounds from three cannons, halting the assault. The Confederate artillery from Colquitt's Salient began bombarding Fort Haskell and the Federal field artillery returned fire, along with the massive siege guns in the rear. When the Union flag was knocked down, the Union gunners assumed that it had fallen to the Confederates and opened fire on their own men. Volunteers were found to raise the flag again and four of them were killed before the Federal artillery ceased fire.

Gordon sent a message back to Lee that the attack was going well, but he was unaware of the trouble developing. His three 100-man detachments were wandering around the rear area in confusion and many had stopped to satisfy their hunger with captured Federal rations. The cavalry had not found an avenue through which to advance into the rear. Pickett's Division had such difficulty with rail transportation that only three of its four brigades departed on schedule, and they did not arrive until midday, too late to take part in the battle. And the main Union defense force was beginning to mobilize. Parke acted decisively, ordering Hartranft's reserve division to close the gap while his reserve artillery under Col. John C. Tidball took up positions on a ridge east of Fort Stedman and began shelling the Confederates.

Union counterattack

Hartranft, in the words of historian Noah Andre Trudeau, "was a man possessed. From the instant he received word that Fort Stedman had fallen, Hartranft worked furiously to limit the Confederate penetration and, once that objective has been achieved, to eliminate the pocket." Finding that Maj. Gen. Orlando B. Willcox, Parke's 1st Division commander and a more senior officer, was preparing his headquarters to withdraw, Hartranft was able to convince Willcox to yield tactical command and he organized defensive forces that completely ringed the Confederate penetration by 7:30 a.m., stopping it just short of the military railroad depot, Meade Station. The Union artillery, aware that Confederates occupied the batteries and Fort Stedman, launched punishing fire against them.

Gordon, who was in Fort Stedman, realized his plan had failed when his lead men started returning and reported remarkable Union resistance. With permission from Lee, who had arrived to watch the battle, Gordon scrambled to get his forces back to safety. By 7:45 a.m., 4,000 Union troops under Hartranft were positioned in a semicircle of a mile and a half, ready to counterattack. A messenger arrived with word from Parke to delay the attack while reinforcements came up from the VI Corps, but Hartranft ordered his line to charge, writing afterward that "I saw that the enemy had already commenced to waver, and that success was certain. I, therefore, allowed the line to charge; besides this, it was doubtful whether I could have communicated with the regiments on the flanks in time to countermand the movement." The retreating Confederates came under Union crossfire, suffering heavy casualties. Their attack had failed. Fort Stedman was recaptured by a squad from the 208th Pennsylvania.

Aftermath
A distinguished visitor came close to witnessing the action on March 25. President Abraham Lincoln was conferring with General Grant and a division-size review parade was scheduled nearby for that morning. Because of the Confederate attack, the review was postponed until that afternoon. A Confederate prisoner was amazed to see the general and president so soon after what he considered a massive attack, riding "by us seemingly not the least concerned and as if nothing had happened." He and his fellow prisoners took note of this self-confidence and "with one accord agreed that our cause was lost." Lincoln had telegraphed to Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton that morning, "Arrived here all safe about 9 P.M. yesterday. No war news ... Robert [Lincoln's son, serving as an aide to Grant] just now tells me there was a little rumpus up the line this morning, ending about where it began."

The attack on Fort Stedman turned out to be a four-hour action with no impact on the Union lines. The Confederate Army was forced to set back its own lines, as the Union attacked further down the front line. To give Gordon's attack enough strength to be successful, Lee had weakened his own right flank. The II Corps and VI Corps seized much of the entrenched Confederate picket line southwest of Petersburg, but found the main line still well manned. This Union advance prepared the ground for Grant's breakthrough attack in the Third Battle of Petersburg on April 2, 1865.

Union casualties in the Battle of Fort Stedman were 1,044 (72 killed, 450 wounded, 522 missing or captured), Confederate casualties a considerably heavier 4,000 (600 killed, 2,400 wounded, 1,000 missing or captured). But more seriously, the Confederate positions were weakened, and irreplaceable men lost. After the battle, Lee's defeat was only a matter of time. His final opportunity to break the Union lines and regain the momentum was gone. The Battle of Fort Stedman was the final offensive action of the Army of Northern Virginia. One week later the Union Army broke the Confederate lines ending the Richmond–Petersburg Campaign. Immediately following was the Appomattox Campaign and the final surrender of Lee's army on April 9, 1865.

title: Battle of Fort Stedman


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Rio (windowing system)

rio is Plan 9 from Bell Labs' windowing system. It is well known for making its window management transparent to the application. This allows running rio inside of another window manager.

History
rio is the latest in a long series of graphical user interfaces developed at Bell Labs, mostly developed by Rob Pike, the concurrent window system, and the Blit (which predated X).

$8 1/2$
$8 1/2$ was a window system developed for the Plan 9 from Bell Labs operating system by Rob Pike. According to its documentation, the system has little graphical fanciness, a fixed user interface, and depends on a three-button mouse. Like much of the Plan 9 operating system, many operations work by reading and writing to special files.

Because of the limitations stemming from its unusual implementation, $8 1/2$ has been completely rewritten into its successor rio in recent Plan 9 versions.

rio
rio was a complete rewrite of 8½ in Alef. Its main change was that it stopped parsing and rewriting graphical commands and let the client write pixels directly. This was done mainly for efficiency. As Alef disappeared due to being too difficult to maintain given the number of people working on Plan 9 at the time, rio was rewritten in C. This was done using the Plan 9 thread library which was inspired by Alef and had most of its features, such as blocking channels for interthread and interprocess communication. Another important change, due more to the environment than to rio per se, is that rio supports full colour, using alpha compositing, whereas 8½ uses bitblt operations.

Design concepts
Many of its features embody key Plan 9 design concepts:
 * Each window runs in its own private namespace.
 * It exports a file system interface to running applications. This interface is the same rio receives from the operating system, so rio can run inside a rio window without any special arrangements. Because the interface uses 9P, rio is network transparent even if it doesn't include any network-aware code.
 * Windows are treated as completely editable text.

title: Rio (windowing system)