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James VI and I

James VI and I (James Charles Stuart; 19 June 1566 – 27 March 1625) was King of Scotland as James VI from 24 July 1567 and King of England and Ireland as James I from the union of the Scottish and English crowns on 24 March 1603 until his death in 1625. Although he long tried to get both countries to adopt a closer political union, the kingdoms of Scotland and England remained sovereign states, with their own parliaments, judiciaries, and laws, ruled by James in personal union. He was the longest-reigning monarch of the Kingdom of Scotland.

James was the son of Mary, Queen of Scots, and a great-great-grandson of Henry VII, King of England and Lord of Ireland, and thus a potential successor to all three thrones. He acceded to the Scottish throne at the age of thirteen months, after his mother was forced to abdicate in his favour. Four regents governed during his minority, which ended officially in 1578, though he did not gain full control of his government until 1583. In 1589, he married Anne of Denmark. Three of their children survived to adulthood: Henry Frederick, Elizabeth, and Charles. In 1603, James succeeded his cousin Elizabeth I, the last Tudor monarch of England and Ireland, who died childless. He continued to reign in all three kingdoms for 22 years, a period known as the Jacobean era, until his death in 1625. After the Union of the Crowns, he based himself in England (the largest of the three realms) from 1603, returning to Scotland only once, in 1617, and styled himself "King of Great Britain and Ireland". He was an advocate of a single parliament for England and Scotland. In his reign, the Plantation of Ulster and English colonisation of the Americas began.

At 57 years and 246 days, James's reign in Scotland was the longest of any Scottish monarch. He achieved most of his aims in Scotland but faced great difficulties in England, including the Gunpowder Plot in 1605 and conflicts with the English Parliament. Under James, the "Golden Age" of Elizabethan literature and drama continued, with writers such as William Shakespeare, John Donne, Ben Jonson, and Francis Bacon contributing to a flourishing literary culture. James was a prolific writer, authoring works such as Daemonologie (1597), The True Law of Free Monarchies (1598), and Basilikon Doron (1599). He sponsored the translation of the Bible into English (later named after him, the Authorized King James Version), and the 1604 revision of the Book of Common Prayer. Anthony Weldon claimed that James had been termed "the wisest fool in Christendom", an epithet associated with his character ever since. Since the latter half of the 20th century, historians have tended to revise James's reputation and treat him as a serious and thoughtful monarch. He was strongly committed to a peace policy, and tried to avoid involvement in religious wars, especially the Thirty Years' War that devastated much of Central Europe. He tried but failed to prevent the rise of hawkish elements in the English Parliament who wanted war with Spain. He was succeeded by his second son, Charles I.

Birth

James was the only son of Mary, Queen of Scots, and her second husband, Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley. Mary and Darnley were great-grandchildren of Henry VII of England through Margaret Tudor, the older sister of Henry VIII. Mary's rule over Scotland was insecure, and she and her husband, being Roman Catholics, faced a rebellion by Protestant noblemen. During Mary's and Darnley's difficult marriage, Darnley secretly allied himself with the rebels and conspired in the murder of the queen's private secretary, David Rizzio, just three months before James's birth.

James was born on 19 June 1566 at Edinburgh Castle, and as the eldest son and heir apparent of the monarch automatically became Duke of Rothesay and Prince and Great Steward of Scotland. Five days later, an English diplomat Henry Killigrew saw the queen, who had not fully recovered and could only speak faintly. The baby was "sucking at his nurse" and was "well proportioned and like to prove a goodly prince". He was baptised "Charles James" or "James Charles" on 17 December 1566 in a Catholic ceremony held at Stirling Castle. His godparents were Charles IX of France (represented by John, Count of Brienne), Elizabeth I of England (represented by the Francis Russell, Earl of Bedford), and Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy (represented by ambassador Philibert du Croc). Mary refused to let the Archbishop of St Andrews, whom she referred to as "a pocky priest", spit in the child's mouth, as was then the custom. The subsequent entertainment, devised by Frenchman Bastian Pagez, featured men dressed as satyrs and sporting tails, to which the English guests took offence, thinking the satyrs "done against them".

Lord Darnley was murdered on 10 February 1567 at Kirk o' Field, Edinburgh, perhaps in revenge for the killing of Rizzio. James inherited his father's titles of Duke of Albany and Earl of Ross. Mary was already unpopular, and her marriage on 15 May 1567 to James Hepburn, Earl of Bothwell, who was widely suspected of murdering Darnley, heightened widespread bad feeling towards her. In June 1567, Protestant rebels arrested Mary and imprisoned her in Lochleven Castle; she never saw her son again. She was forced to abdicate on 24 July 1567 in favour of the infant James and to appoint her illegitimate half-brother James Stewart, Earl of Moray, as regent. This made James the third consecutive Scottish monarch to ascend to the throne as an infant.

Regencies

The care of James was entrusted to the Earl and Countess of Mar, "to be conserved, nursed, and upbrought" in the security of Stirling Castle. James was anointed King of Scotland at the age of thirteen months at the Church of the Holy Rude in Stirling, by Adam Bothwell, Bishop of Orkney, on 29 July 1567. The sermon at the coronation was preached by John Knox. In accordance with the religious beliefs of most of the Scottish ruling class, James was brought up as a member of the Protestant Church of Scotland, the Kirk. The Privy Council selected George Buchanan, Peter Young, Adam Erskine (lay abbot of Cambuskenneth), and David Erskine (lay abbot of Dryburgh) as James's preceptors or tutors. As the young king's senior tutor, Buchanan subjected James to regular beatings but also instilled in him a lifelong passion for literature and learning. Buchanan sought to turn James into a God-fearing, Protestant king who accepted the limitations of monarchy, as outlined in his treatise De Jure Regni apud Scotos.

In 1568, Mary escaped from Lochleven Castle, leading to several years of sporadic violence. The Earl of Moray defeated Mary's troops at the Battle of Langside, forcing her to flee to England, where she was subsequently kept in confinement by Elizabeth. On 23 January 1570, Moray was assassinated by James Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh. The next regent was James's paternal grandfather, Matthew Stewart, Earl of Lennox, who was carried fatally wounded into Stirling Castle a year later after a raid by Mary's supporters. His successor, the Earl of Mar, "took a vehement sickness" and died on 28 October 1572 at Stirling. Mar's illness, wrote James Melville, followed a banquet at Dalkeith Palace given by James Douglas, Earl of Morton.

Morton was elected to Mar's office and proved in many ways the most effective of James's regents, but he made enemies by his rapacity. He fell from favour when Frenchman Esmé Stewart, Sieur d'Aubigny, first cousin of James's father Lord Darnley and future Earl of Lennox, arrived in Scotland and quickly established himself as the first of James's powerful favourites. James was proclaimed an adult ruler in a ceremony of Entry to Edinburgh on 19 October 1579. Morton was executed on 2 June 1581, belatedly charged with complicity in Darnley's murder. On 8 August, James made Lennox the only duke in Scotland. The king, then fifteen years old, remained under the influence of Lennox for about one more year.

Rule in Scotland

Lennox was a Protestant convert, but he was distrusted by Scottish Calvinists who noticed the physical displays of affection between him and the king and alleged that Lennox "went about to draw the King to carnal lust". In August 1582, in what became known as the Ruthven Raid, the Protestant earls William Ruthven, Earl of Gowrie and Archibald Douglas, Earl of Angus lured James into Ruthven Castle, imprisoned him, and forced Lennox to leave Scotland. On 19 September 1582, during James's imprisonment, John Craig, whom the king had personally appointed royal chaplain in 1579, rebuked him so sharply from the pulpit for having issued a proclamation so offensive to the clergy "that the king wept".

After James escaped from Falkland on 27 June 1583, he assumed increasing control of his kingdom. He pushed through the Black Acts to assert royal authority over the Kirk, and denounced the writings of his former tutor Buchanan. Between 1584 and 1603, he established effective royal government and relative peace among the lords, ably assisted by John Maitland of Thirlestane, who led the government until 1592. An eight-man commission known as the Octavians brought some control over the ruinous state of James's finances in 1596, but it drew opposition from vested interests. It was disbanded within a year after a riot in Edinburgh, which was stoked by anti-Catholicism and led the court to withdraw to Linlithgow temporarily.

One last Scottish attempt against the king's person occurred in August 1600, when James was apparently assaulted by Alexander Ruthven, the younger brother of John Ruthven, Earl of Gowrie at Gowrie House, the seat of the Ruthvens. Ruthven was run through by James's page John Ramsay, and the Earl of Gowrie was killed in the ensuing fracas; there were few surviving witnesses. Given James's history with the Ruthvens and the fact that he owed them a great deal of money, his account of the circumstances was not universally believed.

In 1586, James signed the Treaty of Berwick with England. That and his mother's execution in 1587, which he denounced as a "preposterous and strange procedure", helped clear the way for his succession south of the border. Queen Elizabeth was unmarried and childless, and James was her most likely successor. Securing the English succession became a cornerstone of his policy. During the Spanish Armada crisis of 1588, he assured Elizabeth of his support as "your natural son and compatriot of your country". Elizabeth sent James an annual subsidy from 1586 which gave her some leverage over affairs in Scotland.

Marriage

Throughout his youth, James was praised for his chastity, since he showed little interest in women. After the loss of Lennox, he continued to prefer male company. A suitable marriage, however, was necessary to reinforce his rule, and the choice fell on fourteen-year-old Anne of Denmark, younger daughter of the Protestant Danish king Frederick II. Shortly after a proxy marriage in Copenhagen in August 1589, Anne sailed for Scotland but was forced by storms to the coast of Norway. On hearing that the crossing had been abandoned, James sailed from Leith with a 300-strong retinue to fetch Anne personally in what historian David Harris Willson called "the one romantic episode of his life". The couple were married formally at the Bishop's Palace in Oslo on 23 November. James received a dowry of 75,000 Danish dalers and a gift of 10,000 dalers from his mother-in-law, Sophie of Mecklenburg-Güstrow. After stays at Elsinore and Copenhagen and a meeting with Tycho Brahe, James and Anne returned to Scotland on 1 May 1590. By all accounts, James was at first infatuated with Anne and, in the early years of their marriage, seems always to have shown her patience and affection. The royal couple produced three children who survived to adulthood: Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales, who died of typhoid fever in 1612, aged 18; Elizabeth, later queen of Bohemia; and Charles, James's successor.

Anne suffered from recurrent bouts of sickness and was seriously ill from 1617. James visited Anne only three times during her last illness. She died before her husband, in March 1619.

Witch hunts

James's visit to Denmark, a country familiar with witch-hunts, sparked an interest in the study of witchcraft, which he considered a branch of theology. He attended the North Berwick witch trials, the first major persecution of witches in Scotland under the Witchcraft Act 1563. Several people were convicted of using witchcraft to send storms against James's ship, most notably Agnes Sampson.

James became concerned with the threat posed by witches and wrote Daemonologie in 1597, a tract inspired by his personal involvement that opposed the practice of witchcraft and that provided background material for Shakespeare's Macbeth. James personally supervised the torture of women accused of being witches. After 1599, his views became more sceptical. In a later letter written in England to his son Henry, James congratulates the prince on "the discovery of yon little counterfeit wench. I pray God ye may be my heir in such discoveries ... most miracles now-a-days prove but illusions, and ye may see by this how wary judges should be in trusting accusations".

Highlands and Islands
The forcible dissolution of the Lordship of the Isles by James IV of Scotland in 1493 had led to troubled times for the western seaboard. James IV had subdued the organised military might of the Hebrides, but he and his immediate successors lacked the will or ability to provide an alternative form of governance. As a result, the 16th century became known as linn nan creach, the time of raids. Furthermore, the effects of the Reformation were slow to affect the Gàidhealtachd, driving a religious wedge between this area and centres of political control in the Central Belt.

In 1540, James V had toured the Hebrides, forcing the clan chiefs to accompany him. There followed a period of peace, but the clans were soon at loggerheads with one another again. During James VI's reign, the citizens of the Hebrides were portrayed as lawless barbarians rather than being the cradle of Scottish Christianity and nationhood. Official documents describe the peoples of the Highlands as "void of the knawledge and feir of God" who were prone to "all kynd of barbarous and bestile cruelteis". The Gaelic language, spoken fluently by James IV and probably by James V, became known in the time of James VI as "Erse" or Irish, implying that it was foreign in nature. Parliament decided that Gaelic had become a principal cause of the Highlanders' shortcomings and sought to abolish it. It was against this background that James VI authorised the "Gentleman Adventurers of Fife" to civilise the "most barbarous Isle of Lewis" in 1598. James wrote that the colonists were to act "not by agreement" with the local inhabitants, but "by extirpation of thame". Their landing at Stornoway began well, but the colonists were driven out by local forces commanded by Murdoch and Neil MacLeod. The colonists tried again in 1605 with the same result, although a third attempt in 1607 was more successful. The Statutes of Iona were enacted in 1609, which required clan chiefs to provide support for Protestant ministers to Highland parishes; to outlaw bards; to report regularly to Edinburgh to answer for their actions; and to send their heirs to Lowland Scotland, to be educated in English-speaking Protestant schools. So began a process "specifically aimed at the extirpation of the Gaelic language, the destruction of its traditional culture and the suppression of its bearers."

In the Northern Isles, James's cousin Patrick Stewart, Earl of Orkney, resisted the Statutes of Iona and was consequently imprisoned. His natural son Robert led an unsuccessful rebellion against James, and the Earl and his son were hanged. Their estates were forfeited, and the Orkney and Shetland islands were annexed to the Crown.

Theory of monarchy

In 1597–98, James wrote The True Law of Free Monarchies and Basilikon Doron (Royal Gift), in which he argues a theological basis for monarchy. In the True Law, he sets out the divine right of kings, explaining that kings are higher beings than other men for Biblical reasons, though "the highest bench is the sliddriest to sit upon". The document proposes an absolutist theory of monarchy, by which a king may impose new laws by royal prerogative but must also pay heed to tradition and to God, who would "stirre up such scourges as pleaseth him, for punishment of wicked kings".

Basilikon Doron was written as a book of instruction for the four-year-old Prince Henry and provides a more practical guide to kingship. The work is considered to be well written and perhaps the best example of James's prose. James's advice concerning parliaments, which he understood as merely the king's "head court", foreshadows his difficulties with the English House of Commons: "Hold no Parliaments," he tells Henry, "but for the necesitie of new Lawes, which would be but seldome". In the True Law, James maintains that the king owns his realm as a feudal lord owns his fief, because kings arose "before any estates or ranks of men, before any parliaments were holden, or laws made, and by them was the land distributed, which at first was wholly theirs. And so it follows of necessity that kings were the authors and makers of the laws, and not the laws of the kings."

Literary patronage
In the 1580s and 1590s, James promoted the literature of his native country. He published his treatise Some Rules and Cautions to be Observed and Eschewed in Scottish Prosody in 1584 at the age of 18. It was both a poetic manual and a description of the poetic tradition in his mother tongue of Scots, applying Renaissance principles. He also made statutory provision to reform and promote the teaching of music, seeing the two in connection. One act of his reign urges the Scottish burghs to reform and support the teaching of music in Sang Sculis.

In furtherance of these aims, James was both patron and head of a loose circle of Scottish Jacobean court poets and musicians known as the Castalian Band, which included William Fowler and Alexander Montgomerie among others, Montgomerie being a favourite of the king. James was himself a poet, and was happy to be seen as a practising member of the group.

By the late 1590s, James's championing of native Scottish tradition was reduced to some extent by the increasing likelihood of his succession to the English throne. William Alexander and other courtier poets started to anglicise their written language, and followed the king to London after 1603. James's role as active literary participant and patron made him a defining figure in many respects for English Renaissance poetry and drama, which reached a pinnacle of achievement in his reign, but his patronage of the high style in the Scottish tradition, which included his ancestor James I of Scotland, became largely sidelined.

Accession in England
From 1601, in the last years of Elizabeth's life, certain English politicians—notably her chief minister Robert Cecil—maintained a secret correspondence with James to prepare in advance for a smooth succession. With the queen clearly dying, Cecil sent James a draft proclamation of his accession to the English throne in March 1603. Elizabeth died in the early hours of 24 March, and James was proclaimed king in London later the same day.

On 5 April, James left Edinburgh for London, promising to return every three years (a promise that he did not keep), and progressed slowly southwards. Local lords received him with lavish hospitality along the route and James was amazed by the wealth of his new land and subjects, claiming that he was "swapping a stony couch for a deep feather bed". James arrived in the capital on 7 May, nine days after Elizabeth's funeral. His new subjects flocked to see him, relieved that the succession had triggered neither unrest nor invasion. On arrival at London, he was mobbed by a crowd of spectators.

James's English coronation took place on 25 July at Westminster Abbey. An outbreak of plague restricted festivities. The Royal Entry to London with elaborate allegories provided by dramatic poets such as Thomas Dekker and Ben Jonson was deferred to 15 March 1604. Dekker wrote that "the streets seemed to be paved with men; stalls instead of rich wares were set out with children; open casements filled up with women".

The kingdom to which James succeeded, however, had its problems. Monopolies and taxation had engendered a widespread sense of grievance, and the costs of war in Ireland had become a heavy burden on the government, which had debts of £400,000.

Early reign in England

James survived two conspiracies in the first year of his reign, despite the smoothness of the succession and the warmth of his welcome: the Bye Plot and Main Plot, which led to the arrest of Henry Brooke, Lord Cobham and Walter Raleigh, among others. Those hoping for a change in government from James were disappointed at first when he kept Elizabeth's Privy Councillors in office, as secretly planned with Cecil, but James soon added long-time supporter Henry Howard and his nephew Thomas Howard to the Privy Council, as well as five Scottish nobles.

In the early years of James's reign, the day-to-day running of the government was tightly managed by the shrewd Cecil, later Earl of Salisbury, ably assisted by the experienced Thomas Egerton, whom James made Baron Ellesmere and Lord Chancellor, and by Thomas Sackville, soon Earl of Dorset, who continued as Lord Treasurer. As a consequence, James was free to concentrate on bigger issues, such as a scheme for a closer union between England and Scotland and matters of foreign policy, as well as to enjoy his leisure pursuits, particularly hunting.

James was ambitious to build on the personal union of Scotland and England to establish a single country under one monarch, one parliament, and one law, a plan that met opposition in both realms. "Hath He not made us all in one island," James told the English Parliament, "compassed with one sea and of itself by nature indivisible?" In April 1604, however, the Commons refused his request to be titled "King of Great Britain" on legal grounds. In October 1604, he assumed the title "King of Great Britain" instead of "King of England" and "King of Scotland", though Francis Bacon told him that he could not use the style in "any legal proceeding, instrument or assurance" and the title was not used on English statutes. James forced the Scottish Parliament to use it, and it was used on proclamations, coinage, letters, and treaties in both realms.

James achieved more success in foreign policy. Never having been at war with Spain, he devoted his efforts to bringing the long Anglo–Spanish War to an end, and a peace treaty was signed between the two countries in August 1604, thanks to the skilled diplomacy of the delegation, in particular Robert Cecil and Henry Howard, now Earl of Northampton. James celebrated the treaty by hosting a great banquet. Freedom of worship for Catholics in England, however, continued to be a major objective of Spanish policy, causing constant dilemmas for James, distrusted abroad for repression of Catholics while at home being encouraged by the Privy Council to show even less tolerance towards them.

Gunpowder Plot
A dissident Catholic, Guy Fawkes, was discovered in the cellars of the parliament buildings on the night of 4–5 November 1605, the eve of the state opening of the second session of James's first English Parliament. Fawkes was guarding a pile of wood not far from 36 barrels of gunpowder with which he intended to blow up Parliament House the following day and cause the destruction, as James put it, "not only ... of my person, nor of my wife and posterity also, but of the whole body of the State in general". The sensational discovery of the "Gunpowder Plot," as it quickly became known, aroused a mood of national relief at the delivery of the king and his sons. The Earl of Salisbury exploited this to extract higher subsidies from the ensuing Parliament than any but one granted to Elizabeth. Fawkes and others implicated in the unsuccessful conspiracy were executed.

King and Parliament
The co-operation between monarch and Parliament following the Gunpowder Plot was atypical. Instead, it was the previous session of 1604 that shaped the attitudes of both sides for the rest of the reign, though the initial difficulties owed more to mutual incomprehension than conscious enmity. On 7 July 1604, James had angrily prorogued Parliament after failing to win its support either for full union or financial subsidies. "I will not thank where I feel no thanks due", he had remarked in his closing speech. "... I am not of such a stock as to praise fools ... You see how many things you did not well ... I wish you would make use of your liberty with more modesty in time to come".

As James's reign progressed, his government faced growing financial pressures, partly due to creeping inflation but also to the profligacy and financial incompetence of James's court. In February 1610, Salisbury proposed a scheme, known as the Great Contract, whereby Parliament, in return for ten royal concessions, would grant a lump sum of £600,000 to pay off the king's debts plus an annual grant of £200,000. The ensuing prickly negotiations became so protracted that James eventually lost patience and dismissed Parliament on 31 December 1610. "Your greatest error", he told Salisbury, "hath been that ye ever expected to draw honey out of gall". The same pattern was repeated with the so-called "Addled Parliament" of 1614, which James dissolved after a mere nine weeks when the Commons hesitated to grant him the money he required. James then ruled without parliament until 1621, employing officials such as the merchant Lionel Cranfield, who were astute at raising and saving money for the crown, and sold baronetcies and other dignities, many created for the purpose, as an alternative source of income.

Spanish match
Another potential source of income was the prospect of a Spanish dowry from a marriage between Charles, Prince of Wales, and Infanta Maria Anna of Spain. The policy of the Spanish match, as it was called, was also attractive to James as a way to maintain peace with Spain and avoid the additional costs of a war. Peace could be maintained as effectively by keeping the negotiations alive as by consummating the match—which may explain why James protracted the negotiations for almost a decade. The policy was supported by the Howards and other Catholic-leaning ministers and diplomats—together known as the Spanish Party—but deeply distrusted in Protestant England. When Walter Raleigh was released from imprisonment in 1616, he embarked on a hunt for gold in South America with strict instructions from James not to engage the Spanish. Raleigh's expedition was a disastrous failure, and his son Walter was killed fighting the Spanish. On Raleigh's return to England, James had him executed to the indignation of the public, who opposed the appeasement of Spain. James's policy was further jeopardised by the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War, especially after his Protestant son-in-law, Frederick V, Elector Palatine, was ousted from Bohemia by the Catholic Emperor Ferdinand II in 1620, and Spanish troops simultaneously invaded Frederick's Rhineland home territory. Matters came to a head when James finally called a Parliament in 1621 to fund a military expedition in support of his son-in-law. The Commons on the one hand granted subsidies inadequate to finance serious military operations in aid of Frederick, and on the other—remembering the profits gained under Elizabeth by naval attacks on Spanish gold shipments—called for a war directly against Spain. In November 1621, roused by Edward Coke, they framed a petition asking not only for war with Spain but also for Prince Charles to marry a Protestant, and for enforcement of the anti-Catholic laws. James flatly told them not to interfere in matters of royal prerogative or they would risk punishment, which provoked them into issuing a statement protesting their rights, including freedom of speech. Urged on by George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, and the Spanish ambassador Diego Sarmiento de Acuña, Count of Gondomar, James ripped the protest out of the record book and dissolved Parliament.

In early 1623, Prince Charles, now 22, and Buckingham decided to seize the initiative and travel to Spain incognito, to win Infanta Maria Anna directly, but the mission proved an ineffectual mistake. Maria Anna detested Charles, and the Spanish confronted them with terms that included the repeal of anti-Catholic legislation by Parliament. Though a treaty was signed, Charles and Buckingham returned to England in October without the infanta and immediately renounced the treaty, much to the delight of the British people. Disillusioned by the visit to Spain, Charles and Buckingham now turned James's Spanish policy upon its head and called for a French match and a war against the Habsburg empire. To raise the necessary finance, they prevailed upon James to call another Parliament, which met in February 1624. For once, the outpouring of anti-Catholic sentiment in the Commons was echoed in court, where control of policy was shifting from James to Charles and Buckingham, who pressured the king to declare war and engineered the impeachment of Lord Treasurer Lionel Cranfield, by now made Earl of Middlesex, when he opposed the plan on grounds of cost. The outcome of the Parliament of 1624 was ambiguous: James still refused to declare or fund a war, but Charles believed the Commons had committed themselves to finance a war against Spain, a stance that was to contribute to his problems with Parliament in his own reign.

King and Church
After the Gunpowder Plot, James sanctioned harsh measures to control English Catholics. In May 1606, Parliament passed the Popish Recusants Act, which could require any citizen to take an Oath of Allegiance denying the pope's authority over the king. James was conciliatory towards Catholics who took the Oath of Allegiance, and tolerated crypto-Catholicism even at court. Henry Howard, for example, was a crypto-Catholic, received back into the Catholic Church in his final months. On ascending the English throne, James suspected that he might need the support of Catholics in England, so he assured Henry Percy, Earl of Northumberland, a prominent sympathiser of the old religion, that he would not persecute "any that will be quiet and give but an outward obedience to the law".

In the Millenary Petition of 1603, the Puritan clergy demanded the abolition of confirmation, wedding rings, and the term "priest", among other things, and that the wearing of cap and surplice become optional. James was strict in enforcing conformity at first, inducing a sense of persecution amongst many Puritans; but ejections and suspensions from livings became rarer as the reign continued. As a result of the Hampton Court Conference of 1604, some Puritan demands were acceded to in the 1604 Book of Common Prayer, though many remained displeased. The conference also commissioned a new translation and compilation of approved books of the Bible to resolve discrepancies among different translations then being used. The King James Version, as it came to be known, was completed in 1611 and is considered a masterpiece of Jacobean prose. It is still in widespread use.

In Scotland, James attempted to bring the Scottish Kirk "so neir as can be" to the English church and to reestablish episcopacy, a policy that met with strong opposition from presbyterians. James returned to Scotland in 1617 for the only time after his accession in England, in the hope of implementing Anglican ritual. James's bishops forced his Five Articles of Perth through a General Assembly the following year, but the rulings were widely resisted. James left the church in Scotland divided at his death, a source of future problems for his son.

Personal relationships
Throughout his life James had close relationships with male courtiers, which has caused debate among historians about their exact nature. In Scotland Anne Murray was known as the king's mistress. After his accession in England, his peaceful and scholarly attitude contrasted strikingly with the bellicose and flirtatious behaviour of Elizabeth, as indicated by the contemporary epigram Rex fuit Elizabeth, nunc est regina Iacobus (Elizabeth was King, now James is Queen).

Some of James's biographers conclude that Esmé Stewart, Duke of Lennox; Robert Carr, Earl of Somerset; and George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, were his lovers. John Oglander observed that he "never yet saw any fond husband make so much or so great dalliance over his beautiful spouse as I have seen King James over his favourites, especially the Duke of Buckingham" whom the king would, recalled Edward Peyton, "tumble and kiss as a mistress". Restoration of Apethorpe Palace, Northamptonshire, undertaken in 2004–08 revealed a previously unknown passage linking the bedchambers of James and Villiers.

Some biographers of James argue that the relationships were not sexual. James's Basilikon Doron lists sodomy among crimes "ye are bound in conscience never to forgive", and James's wife Anne gave birth to seven live children, as well as suffering two stillbirths and at least three other miscarriages. Contemporary Huguenot poet Théophile de Viau observed that "it is well known that the king of England / fucks the Duke of Buckingham". Buckingham himself provides evidence that he slept in the same bed as the king, writing to James many years later that he had pondered "whether you loved me now ... better than at the time which I shall never forget at Farnham, where the bed's head could not be found between the master and his dog". Buckingham's words may be interpreted as non-sexual, in the context of 17th-century court life, and remain ambiguous despite their fondness. It is also possible that James was bisexual.

When the Earl of Salisbury died in 1612, he was little mourned by those who jostled to fill the power vacuum. Until Salisbury's death, the Elizabethan administrative system over which he had presided continued to function with relative efficiency; from this time forward, however, James's government entered a period of decline and disrepute. Salisbury's passing gave James the notion of governing in person as his own chief Minister of State, with his young Scottish favourite Robert Carr carrying out many of Salisbury's former duties, but James's inability to attend closely to official business exposed the government to factionalism.

The Howard party (consisting of Henry Howard, Earl of Northampton; Thomas Howard, Earl of Suffolk; Suffolk's son-in-law William Knollys, Lord Knollys; Charles Howard, Earl of Nottingham; and Thomas Lake) soon took control of much of the government and its patronage. Even the powerful Carr fell into the Howard camp, hardly experienced for the responsibilities thrust upon him and often dependent on his intimate friend Thomas Overbury for assistance with government papers. Carr had an adulterous affair with Frances Howard, Countess of Essex, daughter of the Earl of Suffolk. James assisted Frances by securing an annulment of her marriage to free her to marry Carr, now Earl of Somerset.

In summer 1615, however, it emerged that Overbury had been poisoned. He had died on 15 September 1613 in the Tower of London, where he had been placed at the king's request. Among those convicted of the murder were the Earl and Countess of Somerset; the Earl had been replaced as the king's favourite in the meantime by Villiers. James pardoned the Countess and commuted the Earl's sentence of death, eventually pardoning him in 1624. The implication of the king in such a scandal provoked much public and literary conjecture and irreparably tarnished James's court with an image of corruption and depravity. The subsequent downfall of the Howards left Villiers unchallenged as the supreme figure in the government by 1619.

Health and death
In his later years, James suffered increasingly from arthritis, gout and kidney stones. He also lost his teeth and drank heavily. The king was often seriously ill during the last year of his life, leaving him an increasingly peripheral figure, rarely able to visit London, while Buckingham consolidated his control of Charles to ensure his own future. One theory is that James suffered from porphyria, a disease of which his descendant George III exhibited some symptoms. James described his urine to physician Théodore de Mayerne as being the "dark red colour of Alicante wine". The theory is dismissed by some experts, particularly in James's case, because he had kidney stones which can lead to blood in the urine, colouring it red.

In early 1625, James was plagued by severe attacks of arthritis, gout, and fainting fits, and fell seriously ill in March with tertian ague and then suffered a stroke. He died at Theobalds House in Hertfordshire on 27 March during a violent attack of dysentery, with Buckingham at his bedside. James's funeral on 7 May was a magnificent but disorderly affair. Bishop John Williams of Lincoln preached the sermon, observing, "King Solomon died in Peace, when he had lived about sixty years ... and so you know did King James". The sermon was later printed as Great Britain's Salomon [sic].

James was buried in Westminster Abbey. The position of the tomb was lost for many years until his lead coffin was found in the Henry VII vault, during an excavation in the 19th century.

Legacy
James was widely mourned. For all his flaws, he had largely retained the affection of his people, who had enjoyed uninterrupted peace and comparatively low taxation during the Jacobean era. "As he lived in peace", remarked the Earl of Kellie, "so did he die in peace, and I pray God our king [Charles I] may follow him". The Earl prayed in vain: once in power, King Charles I and the Duke of Buckingham sanctioned a series of reckless military expeditions that ended in humiliating failure. James had often neglected the business of government for leisure pastimes, such as the hunt; his later dependence on favourites at a scandal-ridden court undermined the respected image of monarchy so carefully constructed by Elizabeth I.

Under James, the Plantation of Ulster by English and Scots Protestants began, and the English colonisation of North America started its course with the foundation of Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607 and Cuper's Cove, Newfoundland, in 1610. During the next 150 years, England would fight with Spain, the Netherlands, and France for control of the continent, while religious division in Ireland between Protestants and Catholics has lasted for 400 years. By actively pursuing more than just a personal union of his realms, James helped lay the foundations for a unitary British state.

According to a tradition originating with anti-Stuart historians of the mid-17th-century, James's taste for political absolutism, his financial irresponsibility, and his cultivation of unpopular favourites established the foundations of the English Civil War. James bequeathed his son Charles a fatal belief in the divine right of kings, combined with a disdain for Parliament, which culminated in the execution of Charles I and the abolition of the monarchy. Over the last three hundred years, the king's reputation has suffered from the acid description of him by Anthony Weldon, whom James had sacked and who wrote treatises on James in the 1650s.

Other influential anti-James histories written during the 1650s include: Edward Peyton's Divine Catastrophe of the Kingly Family of the House of Stuarts (1652); Arthur Wilson's History of Great Britain, Being the Life and Reign of King James I (1658); and Francis Osborne's Historical Memoirs of the Reigns of Queen Elizabeth and King James (1658). David Harris Willson's 1956 biography continued much of this hostility. In the words of historian Jenny Wormald, Willson's book was an "astonishing spectacle of a work whose every page proclaimed its author's increasing hatred for his subject". Since Willson, however, the stability of James's government in Scotland and in the early part of his English reign, as well as his relatively enlightened views on religion and war, have earned him a re-evaluation from many historians, who have rescued his reputation from this tradition of criticism.

Representative of the new historical perspective is the 2003 biography by Pauline Croft. Reviewer John Cramsie summarises her findings:"Croft's overall assessment of James is appropriately mixed. She recognises his good intentions in matters like Anglo-Scottish union, his openness to different points of view, and his agenda of a peaceful foreign policy within his kingdoms' financial means. His actions moderated frictions between his diverse peoples. Yet he also created new ones, particularly by supporting colonisation that polarised the crown's interest groups in Ireland, obtaining insufficient political benefit with his open-handed patronage, an unfortunate lack of attention to the image of monarchy (particularly after the image-obsessed regime of Elizabeth), pursuing a pro-Spanish foreign policy that fired religious prejudice and opened the door for Arminians within the English church, and enforcing unpalatable religious changes on the Scottish Kirk. Many of these criticisms are framed within a longer view of James' reigns, including the legacy—now understood to be more troubled—which he left Charles I."

Titles and styles
In Scotland, James was "James the sixth, King of Scotland", until 1604. He was proclaimed "James the first, King of England, France, and Ireland, defender of the faith" in London on 24 March 1603. On 20 October 1604, James issued a proclamation at Westminster changing his style to "King of Great Brittaine, France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, &c." The style was not used on English statutes, but was used on proclamations, coinage, letters, treaties, and in Scotland. James styled himself "King of France", in line with other monarchs of England between 1340 and 1801, although he did not actually rule France.

Arms
As King of Scotland, James bore the ancient royal arms of Scotland: Or, a lion rampant Gules armed and langued Azure within a double tressure flory counter-flory Gules. The arms were supported by two unicorns Argent armed, crined and unguled Proper, gorged with a coronet Or composed of crosses patée and fleurs de lys a chain affixed thereto passing between the forelegs and reflexed over the back also Or. The crest was a lion sejant affrontée Gules, imperially crowned Or, holding in the dexter paw a sword and in the sinister paw a sceptre both erect and Proper.

The Union of the Crowns of England and Scotland under James was symbolised heraldically by combining their arms, supporters and badges. Contention as to how the arms should be marshalled, and to which kingdom should take precedence, was solved by having different arms for each country.

The arms used in England were: Quarterly, I and IV, quarterly 1st and 4th Azure three fleurs de lys Or (for France), 2nd and 3rd Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England); II Or a lion rampant within a tressure flory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland, this was the first time that Ireland was included in the royal arms). The supporters became: dexter a lion rampant guardant Or imperially crowned and sinister the Scottish unicorn. The unicorn replaced the red dragon introduced by the Tudors. The unicorn has remained in the royal arms of the two united realms. The English crest and motto was retained. The compartment often contained a branch of the Tudor rose, with shamrock and thistle engrafted on the same stem. The arms were frequently shown with James's personal motto, Beati pacifici.

The arms used in Scotland were: Quarterly, I and IV Scotland, II England and France, III Ireland, with Scotland taking precedence over England. The supporters were: dexter a unicorn of Scotland imperially crowned, supporting a tilting lance flying a banner Azure a saltire Argent (Cross of Saint Andrew) and sinister the crowned lion of England supporting a similar lance flying a banner Argent a cross Gules (Cross of Saint George). The Scottish crest and motto was retained, following the Scottish practice the motto In defens (which is short for In My Defens God Me Defend) was placed above the crest.

As royal badges James used: the Tudor rose, the thistle (for Scotland; first used by James III of Scotland), the Tudor rose dimidiated with the thistle ensigned with the royal crown, a harp (for Ireland) and a fleur de lys (for France).

Issue

James's queen, Anne of Denmark, gave birth to seven children who survived beyond birth, of whom three reached adulthood:

 * 1) Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales (19 February 1594 – 6 November 1612). Died, probably of typhoid fever, aged 18.
 * 2) Elizabeth, Queen of Bohemia (19 August 1596 – 13 February 1662). Married 1613 Frederick V, Elector Palatine. Died aged 65.
 * 3) Margaret (24 December 1598 – March 1600). Died aged 1.
 * 4) Charles I, King of England, Scotland and Ireland (19 November 1600 – 30 January 1649). Married 1625 Henrietta Maria of France. Succeeded James I & VI.
 * 5) Robert, Duke of Kintyre (18 January 1602 – 27 May 1602). Died aged 4 months.
 * 6) Mary (8 April 1605 – 16 December 1607). Died aged 2.
 * 7) Sophia (June 1606). Died within 48 hours of birth.

List of writings

 * The Essayes of a Prentise in the Divine Art of Poesie (also called Some Reulis and Cautelis), 1584
 * His Majesties Poeticall Exercises at Vacant Houres, 1591
 * Lepanto, poem
 * Daemonologie, 1597
 * Extra-titular Works from the Collected Demonology, 1616
 * A Letter To The Whole Church Militant,
 * The Argument Of This Whole Epistle,
 * A Paraphrase Upon The Revelation,
 * The Two Meditations
 * The True Law of Free Monarchies, 1598
 * Basilikon Doron, 1599
 * A Counterblaste to Tobacco, 1604, a strong denunciation of tobacco
 * An Apologie for the Oath of Allegiance, 1608
 * A Premonition to All Most Mightie Monarches, 1609

title: James VI and I


text:
Talk:History of the United States (1945–1964)

This article lacks continuity and good writing style
This needs to be re-written in such a way that actually has a sequential time-line and doesn't bounce around with no underlying specific theme. The text is quite good but clearly an editor needs to paste it back together so it flows better. The schizophrenic back and forth between events is very distracting. This should read like a history, not a crossword. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 72.73.26.243 (talk) 07:05, 19 August 2008 (UTC)

Neutrality
I see several issues with the article as it stands
 * "The period of U.S. history 1945-1964 is seen as a period of active foreign policy designed to rescue Europe from the devastation of World War II and from Communism"
 * This assumes that Communism is something people need to be saved from.
 * This also assumes that the US's intentions toward Europe were entirely altruistic
 * Allied soldiers were sent to Korea to fight the forces of Communism.
 * The phrase "forces of Communism" is imprecise and propagandaic.
 * "large fancy cars"
 * Somehow I don't believe the word fancy belongs in an encyclopedia.
 * "Inventions familiar in the early 21st century made their first appearance during this era."
 * All over the world, in fact.
 * "Householders enjoyed centrally heated homes with running hot water. New style furniture was bright, cheap, and light and easy to move around."
 * For middle-class Americans, at least. Poor Americans didn't enjoy the same comforts.

I didn't correct these yet because I wanted the contributors to be able to glance at it, plus the whole article probably needs a neutral rewrite. laddiebuck 16:40, 9 August 2006 (UTC)

 * For me:
 * "The period of U.S. history 1945-1964 is seen as a period of active foreign policy designed to the Containment of Communism"
 * "Allied soldiers were sent to Korea to fight the forces of North Korea and China.
 * --Duroy 15:50, 15 August 2006 (UTC)

 * Further on the topic of inventions, the 50s and 60s, while rich in inventions, contributed overall much less than the Victorian age or the inter-war period, so that whole sentence should probably be deleted outright. laddiebuck 19:49, 8 November 2006 (UTC)

hot would would?
The following phrase appears in the "Containment" section and I can't for the life of me figure out what it's supposed to be: no hot would would be necessary. Could someone with better knowledge of the context figure this out? --Danger (talk) 19:25, 7 September 2011 (UTC)
 * maybe "no HOT WAR would be necessary" ie it would stay COLD war. Rjensen (talk) 01:24, 8 September 2011 (UTC)

Alaska and Hawaii?
I'm surprised that the addition of two new states in 1959 is not mentioned at all in this article. —Gordon P. Hemsley→ ✉ 00:36, 16 April 2012 (UTC)

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Move discussion in progress
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Image in infobox
There seems to be some controversy on whether an image of Martin Luther King Jr. should be included in the infobox. I personally including an image is a visually appealing way to ground a historical infobox, and they have been including in many other articles that include Infobox: Historical era. I see there have been back and forth edits on other pages as well, which I was not aware of when i made my edit. Does anyone what to discuss what if anything they think is an appropriate image for a historical infobox? @GoodDay @Drdpw @Tscdrwh Bluealbion (talk) 01:23, 14 July 2022 (UTC)

Possible copyright problem
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license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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User talk:Melvinchagas

Greetings! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. If you have questions or doubts of any sort, do not hesitate to post them on the Village Pump, somebody will respond ASAP. Other helpful pages include: Have fun! --Jiang 11:12 16 Jul 2003 (UTC)
 * Welcome, newcomers
 * How does one edit a page
 * Manual of style
 * Naming conventions

title: User talk:Melvinchagas


text:
User talk:Pieterclaassen

Greetings! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. If you have questions or doubts of any sort, do not hesitate to post them on the Village Pump, somebody will respond ASAP. Other helpful pages include: Have fun! --Jiang 11:15 16 Jul 2003 (UTC)
 * Welcome, newcomers
 * How does one edit a page
 * Manual of style
 * Naming conventions

title: User talk:Pieterclaassen


text:
List of members of the House of Lords

This is a list of members of the House of Lords, the upper house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom.

Lords Spiritual
Twenty-six bishops of the Church of England sit in the House of Lords: the Archbishops of Canterbury and of York, the Bishops of London, of Durham and of Winchester, and the next 21 most senior diocesan bishops (with the exception of the Bishop in Europe and the Bishop of Sodor and Man). Under the Lords Spiritual (Women) Act 2015, female bishops take precedence over men until May 2025 to become new Lords Spiritual for the 21 seats allocated by seniority.

Lords Temporal
Lords Temporal include life peers, excepted hereditary peers elected under the House of Lords Act 1999 and remaining law life peers.

Notes

Current non-sitting members
There are also peers who remain members of the House, but are currently ineligible to sit and vote.

Peers on leave of absence
Under section 23 of the Standing Orders of the House of Lords, peers may obtain a leave of absence for the remainder of a Parliament. The following peers are currently on a leave of absence.

Peers disqualified
Under section 137(3) of the Constitutional Reform Act 2005, holders of certain judicial offices who are peers are disqualified from sitting and voting in the House of Lords while in office. The following peers are currently subject to this provision.

Peers suspended
The following peers are currently suspended from the House in accordance with section 1 of the House of Lords (Expulsion and Suspension) Act 2015.

Ceased to be members
Apart from retired Lords Spiritual and the surviving hereditary peers excluded under the House of Lords Act 1999, including the Marquess of Cholmondeley who was exempt from the 1999 Act by virtue of his position as Lord Great Chamberlain until the accession of Charles III in September 2022, there are a number of living peers who have permanently ceased to be members of the House.

Resigned
Under section 1 of the House of Lords Reform Act 2014, peers may permanently retire or otherwise resign their membership of the House. The following peers have exercised that right and are still living:

Removed for non-attendance
Under section 2 of the House of Lords Reform Act 2014, peers who fail to attend any sittings of the House during a whole parliamentary session cease to be members of the House at the start of the next session. The following peers have been subject to this provision since the Act came into force and are still living:

Resigned under the Constitutional Reform and Governance Act 2010
Under section 41 of the Constitutional Reform and Governance Act 2010, peers are automatically and compulsorily treated as domiciled in the United Kingdom for tax purposes. Section 42 allowed peers who did not wish to comply with the provision to choose within three months of the act coming into force to give notice with the same effect as to resign and retire from the House of Lords. The following peers opted to exercise that right and are still living:

Recently deceased
The following life peers and elected hereditary peers have died since July 2023:

Incoming members
The following people have been announced to become peers but have not yet received their writ of summons or letters patent and have not been introduced.

title: List of members of the House of Lords


text:
Diner

A diner is a type of restaurant found across the United States and Canada, as well as parts of Western Europe. Diners offer a wide range of cuisine, mostly American cuisine, a casual atmosphere, and, characteristically, a combination of booths served by a waitstaff and a long sit-down counter with direct service, in the smallest simply by a cook. Many diners have extended hours, and some along highways and areas with significant shift work stay open for 24 hours. Considered quintessentially American, many diners share an archetypal exterior form. Some of the earliest were converted rail dining cars, retaining their streamlined structure and interior fittings. From the 1920s to the 1940s, diners, by then commonly known as "lunch cars", were usually prefabricated in factories, like modern mobile homes, and delivered on site with only the utilities needing to be connected. As a result, many early diners were typically small and narrow to fit onto a rail car or truck. This small footprint also allowed them to be fitted into tiny and relatively inexpensive lots that otherwise were unable to support a larger enterprise. Diners were historically small businesses operated by the owner, with some presence of restaurant chains evolving over time.

Diners typically serve staples of American cuisine such as hamburgers, french fries, onion rings, club sandwiches, and other simple, quickly cooked, and inexpensive fare, such as meatloaf or steak. Much of the food is grilled, as early diners were based around a gas-fueled flattop grill. Coffee is a diner staple. Diners often serve milkshakes and desserts such as pies, cake or ice cream. Comfort food cuisine draws heavily from, and is deeply rooted in, traditional diner fare. Along with greasy spoon menu items, many diners will serve regional cuisine as well, such as clam chowder in New England and tacos in California.

Classic American diners often have an exterior layer of stainless steel siding—a feature unique to diner architecture. In some cases, diners share nostalgic, retro-style features also found in some restored drive-ins and old movie theatres.

History

A crude precursor of the diner was created in 1872 by Walter Scott, who sold food out of a horse-pulled wagon to employees of the Providence Journal, in Providence, Rhode Island. Scott's diner can be considered the first diner with walk-up service, as it had windows on each side of the wagon. Commercial production of such "lunch wagons" began in Worcester, Massachusetts, in 1887, by Thomas Buckley. Buckley was successful and became known for his "White House Cafe" wagons. Charles Palmer received the first patent (1893) for the diner, which he billed as a "Night-Lunch Wagon." He built his "fancy night cafes" and "night lunch wagons" in the Worcester area until 1901.

Prefabricated diners
As the number of seats increased, wagons gave way to pre-fabricated buildings made by many of the same manufacturers which had made the wagons. Like the lunch wagon, a stationary diner allowed one to set up a food service business quickly using pre-assembled constructs and equipment.

The Transfer Station neighborhood of Union City, New Jersey was the site, in 1912, of the first lunch wagon built by Jerry and Daniel O'Mahoney and John Hanf, which was bought for $800 and operated by restaurant entrepreneur Michael Griffin, who chose the location for its copious foot traffic. The wagon helped spark New Jersey's golden age of diner manufacturing, which in turn made the state the diner capital of the world. In the decades that followed, nearly all major U.S. diner manufacturers, including Jerry O'Mahoney Inc., started in New Jersey. Jerry O'Mahony (1890–1969), who hailed from Bayonne, New Jersey, is credited by some to have made the first such "diner". The O'Mahony Diner Company of Elizabeth, New Jersey, produced 2,000 diners from 1917 to 1952. Only approximately twenty remain throughout the United States and abroad. Others more credibly credit Philip H. Duprey and Grenville Stoddard, who established the Worcester Lunch Car and Carriage Manufacturing Company in Worcester, Massachusetts, in 1906, when O'Mahony was still just 16.

Until the Great Depression, most diner manufacturers and their customers were located in the Northeast. Diner manufacturing suffered with other industries during the Depression, though not as much as many industries, and the diner offered a less expensive way of getting into the restaurant business as well as less expensive food than more formal establishments. After World War II, as the economy returned to civilian production and the suburbs boomed, diners were an attractive small business opportunity. During this period, diners spread beyond their original urban and small town market to highway strips in the suburbs, even reaching the Midwest, with manufacturers such as Valentine. After the Interstate Highway System was implemented in the U.S. in the 1960s, diners saw a boom in business as mobile travellers would stop for a meal.

In many areas, diners were superseded in the 1970s by fast food restaurants, but in parts of New Jersey, New York, the New England states, Delaware, and Pennsylvania, the independently owned diner remains relatively common. Since the 1970s, most newly constructed diners lack the original narrow, stainless steel, streamlined appearance, and are usually much bigger buildings, though some are still made of several prefabricated modules, assembled on site, and manufactured by the old line diner builders. A wide variety of architectural styles were now used for these later diners, including Cape Cod and Colonial styles. The old-style single module diners featuring a long counter and a few small booths sometimes now grew additional dining rooms, lavish wallpaper, fountains, crystal chandeliers and Greek statuary. The definition of the term "diner" began to blur as older, prefabricated diners received more conventional frame additions, sometimes leaving the original structure nearly unrecognizable as it was surrounded by new construction or a renovated facade. Businesses that called themselves diners but which were built onsite and not prefabricated began to appear. These larger establishments were sometimes known as diner-restaurants.

Manufacturers

 * Bixler Manufacturing Company
 * DeRaffele Manufacturing Co. Inc
 * Fodero Dining Car Company
 * Jerry O'Mahony Diner Company
 * Kullman Dining Car Company
 * Mountain View Diners Company
 * Silk City Diners
 * Tierney Dining Cars
 * Worcester Lunch Car Company
 * Sterling Streamliner diners

Inspired by the streamlined trains, and especially the Burlington Zephyr, Roland Stickney designed a diner in the shape of a streamlined train called the Sterling Streamliner in 1939. Built by the J.B. Judkins coach company, which had built custom car bodies, the Sterling and other diner production ceased in 1942 at the beginning of American involvement in World War II. Two Sterling Streamliners remain in operation: the Salem Diner at its original location in Salem, Massachusetts and the Modern Diner in Pawtucket, Rhode Island.

Architecture
Like a mobile home, the original style diner is narrow and elongated and allows roadway or railway transportation to the restaurant's site. In the traditional diner floorplan, a service counter dominates the interior, with a preparation area against the back wall and floor-mounted stools for the customers in front. Larger models may have a row of booths against the front wall and at the ends. The decor varied over time. Diners of the 1920s–1940s feature Art Deco or Streamline Moderne elements or copy the appearance of rail dining cars (though very few are, in fact, refurbished rail cars). They featured porcelain enamel exteriors, some with the name written on the front, others with bands of enamel, others in flutes. Many had a "barrel vault" roofline. Tile floors were common. Diners of the 1950s tended to use stainless steel panels, porcelain enamel, glass blocks, terrazzo floors, Formica, and neon sign trim. Diners built in the 2000s generally have a different type of architecture; they are laid out more like restaurants, retaining some aspects of traditional diner architecture (stainless steel and Art Deco elements, usually) while discarding others (the small size, and emphasis on the counter).

Cuisine
Many diners serve casual inexpensive food, such as hamburgers, french fries, club sandwiches, and other simple fare, with menus resembling those from greasy spoon-style restaurants.. Much of the food is grilled, as early diners were based around a grill. There is often an emphasis on breakfast foods such as eggs (including omelets), waffles, pancakes, and French toast. Some diners serve these "breakfast foods" throughout the business day and others that focus on breakfast may close in the early afternoon. These are most commonly known as pancake houses. Coffee is ubiquitous at diners. Many diners do not serve alcoholic drinks, although some may serve beer and inexpensive wine, while others—particularly in New Jersey and on Long Island—carry a full drink menu, including mixed drinks. Many diners serve hand-blended milkshakes.

There is regional variation among diners with traditional food. In the U.S., Michigan and the Ohio Valley at "Coney Island–style" restaurants, coney dogs are served, as are certain types of Greek cuisine like gyros influenced by Greek diner owners. In Indiana and Iowa, pork tenderloin sandwiches are often on the menu. The Northeast has more of a focus on seafood, with fried clams and fried shrimp commonly found in Maine and cheesesteak sandwiches and scrapple in Pennsylvania. Diners in the Southwest U.S. may serve tamales. In the southern U.S., typical breakfast dishes include grits, biscuits and gravy, and soul food such as fried chicken and collard greens. In New Jersey, the "Taylor Ham, Egg, and Cheese Sandwich" is a feature of many diners. Many diners have transparent display cases in or behind the counter for the desserts. It is common with new diners to have the desserts displayed in rotating pie cases. Typical desserts include a variety of pies and cheesecake.

Immigrant influences
Several international ethnic influences have been introduced into the diner industry in the U.S., because of generations of immigration. Many diners in the United States—especially in the Northeast—are owned or operated by first and second generation Americans. Greek-Americans, as well as Polish, Ukrainian, Eastern European Jews, Italian-Americans, Mexicans and Cubans, have notable presences depending on the area. These influences can be seen in certain frequent additions to diner menus, such as Greek moussaka, Slavic blintzes, and Jewish matzah ball soup, deli-style sandwiches (e.g., corned beef, pastrami, Reubens), and bagels and lox.

Cultural significance
Diners attract a wide spectrum of the local populations, and are generally small businesses. From the mid-twentieth century onwards, they have been seen as quintessentially American, reflecting the perceived cultural diversity and egalitarian nature of the country at large. Throughout much of the 20th century, diners, mostly in the Northeast, were often owned and operated by Greek-American immigrant families. The presence of Greek casual food, like gyros and souvlaki, on several northeastern diners' menus, testifies to this cultural link.

Diners frequently stay open 24 hours a day, especially in cities, and were once the most widespread 24-hour public establishments in the U.S., making them an essential part of urban culture, alongside bars and nightclubs; these two segments of nighttime urban culture often find themselves intertwined, as many diners get a good deal of late-night business from persons departing drinking establishments. Many diners were also historically placed near factories which operated 24 hours a day, with night shift workers providing a key part of the customer base. For this reason, diners sometimes served as symbols of loneliness and isolation. Edward Hopper's iconic 1942 painting Nighthawks depicts a diner and its occupants, late at night. The diner in the painting is based on a real location in Greenwich Village, but was chosen in part because diners were anonymous slices of Americana, meaning that the scene could have been taken from any city in the country-and also because a diner was a place to which isolated individuals, awake long after bedtime, would naturally be drawn. The spread of the diner meant that by 1942 it was possible for Hopper to cast this institution in a role for which, fifteen years earlier, he had used an Automat all-night restaurant. The diner as an institution in this painting is a vignette mimicked by a movie lead-in aired nightly on the Turner Classic Movie Channel.

But as a rule, diners were always symbols of American optimism. Norman Rockwell made his 1958 painting, The Runaway, generically American by placing his subjects, a young boy and a protective highway patrolman, at the counter of an anonymous diner. In television and cinema (e.g. The Blob, Happy Days, Grease and Diner), diners and soda fountains have come to symbolize the period of prosperity and optimism in America in the 1950s. They are shown as the place where teenagers meet after school and as an essential part of a date. The television show Alice used a diner as the setting for the program, and one is often a regular feature in sitcoms such as Seinfeld. The diner's cultural influence continues today. Many non-prefab restaurants (including franchises like Denny's) have copied the look of 1950s diners for nostalgic appeal, while Waffle House uses an interior layout derived from the diner.

Manhattan was once known for its diners. The Moondance Diner was shipped to Wyoming to make room for development. Diners provide a nationwide, recognizable, fairly uniform place to eat and assemble, desirable traits mirrored by fast food chains. The types of food served are likely to be consistent, especially within a region (exceptions being districts with large immigrant populations, in which diners and coffee shops will often cater their menus to those local cuisines), as are the prices charged. At the same time, diners have much more individuality than fast food chains; the structures, menus, and even owners and staff, while having a certain degree of similarity to each other, vary much more widely than the more rigidly standardized chain and franchise restaurants. The Poirier's Diner and Munson Diner, both manufactured by the Kullman Dining Car Company of Lebanon, New Jersey, are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

Diners have figured significantly in American films and television since the form developed. In I Love Lucy, the episode titled "The Diner" shows the perils, pitfalls, and difficulty in operating a diner, to much comedic effect. Archetypal appearances include significant scenes in classic films such as Sullivan's Travels and The Killers. The 1982 "rites of passage" film Diner was centered on an eatery shared by the protagonists. Waitress in 2007 was about a waitress in a diner. Television series include the Food Network show Diners, Drive-Ins, and Dives. Pennsylvania Diners and Other Roadside Restaurants, is a 1993 documentary. Diners are the focus of photorealist painter John Baeder who spent about 40 years painting diners across the US. In 1990, Williams Electronics Games introduced a pinball machine entitled Diner. The object of the game is to serve all customers to light-up Dine Time (the jackpot).

title: Diner


text:
User talk:H0041464

Greetings! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. If you have questions or doubts of any sort, do not hesitate to post them on the Village Pump, somebody will respond ASAP. Other helpful pages include: Have fun! --Jiang 11:46 16 Jul 2003 (UTC)
 * Welcome, newcomers
 * How does one edit a page
 * Manual of style
 * Naming conventions

title: User talk:H0041464


text:
Operation Granby

Operation Granby, commonly abbreviated Op Granby, was the code name given to the British military operations during the 1991 Gulf War. 53,462 members of the British Armed Forces were deployed during the conflict. Forty-seven British personnel were killed during Op Granby and many more were injured during the hostilities there. The total cost of operations was £2.434 billion (1992), of which at least £2.049 billion was paid for by other nations such as Kuwait and Saudi Arabia. £200 million of equipment was lost or written off.

Commanders
The Joint Commander Gulf Forces, based in the United Kingdom at RAF High Wycombe, was Air Chief Marshal (ACM) Sir Patrick Hine 1 October 1990 – 31 March 1991, and Air Chief Marshal Sir Michael Graydon from 31 March 1991. His political adviser was Andrew Palmer.

The Commander of British Forces Middle East, the in-theatre commander, based in Riyadh, was Air Marshal (AM) Andrew Wilson (September–October 1990), then Lieutenant-General Sir Peter de la Billière 6 October 1990 – March 1991, and Air Vice-Marshal Ian Macfadyen from March 1991.

The Air Commander of British Forces Middle East, initially Arabian Peninsula, was Air Vice Marshal Andrew Wilson from August to 17 November 1990, then Air Vice Marshal William (Bill) Wratten from 17 November 1990.

The Senior British Naval Officer Middle East was Captain Anthony McEwen, Royal Navy until September 1990, on HMS York (D98), then Commodore Paul Haddacks from September to December 1990. Commodore Christopher Craig, on HMS Brave (F94) and HMS London (F95), was in command from 3 December 1990 to March 1991.

Royal Air Force
Within nine days of the invasion of Kuwait on 2 August 1990, 12 Panavia Tornado F3 interceptors from 5 (AC) Squadron and 29 (F) Squadron from RAF Coningsby arrived in Saudi Arabia, alongside aircraft of the United States Air Force (USAF). Later, Jaguar GR1 aircraft from RAF Coltishall, and Tornado GR1s, redeployed from service in RAF Germany deployed to the theatre. Buccaneer aircraft from RAF Lossiemouth were deployed in order to laser designate ground targets for the Tornado and Jaguar.

This action had the effect of maintaining the confidence of friendly nations, and limiting the potential for further Iraqi expansion. When an economic embargo was placed on Iraq, these aircraft helped maintain it. The force of Tornado F3s was expanded to 18, drawn from the three British bases then housing F3s, RAF Leuchars, RAF Leeming, and RAF Coningsby, with 27 air crew and 350 ground personnel. RAF ground personnel and aircraft weapons technicians were also taken from TWCU at RAF Honington, and operated Tornados out of Tabuk airfield.

The first SCUD missile attack launched against a coalition airbase was at Tabuk. It was a conventional missile and only caused minor damage.

RAF forces were based at the Royal Saudi Air Force airbase at Dhahran, from where they flew patrols inside the range of Iraqi ground radar systems. Before the launch of the operation to liberate Kuwait, they flew over 2,000 sorties. Victor tankers based at Jubail Naval Base provided AAR support to all the coalition aircraft. Hercules, VC10, and TriStar aircraft supplied both the Royal Air Force and other military endeavours. Nimrod MR.2P aircraft assisted naval operations. At bases in Tabuk, Dhahran, and Muharraq, the RAF deployed Rapier missiles as part of surface-to-air defences. In total, around 6,000 RAF personnel were deployed to the Gulf.

RAF commanders, along with the other partners in the coalition, deemed it necessary to prevent the Iraqi Air Force (IrAF) operating to any significant degree. Believed to have around 700 combat aircraft, as well as Scud ballistic missiles and chemical weapons, they could not be left to help support Iraqi ground forces, now entrenched in positions on the border. Because of the level of supplies coming from Iraq to forces in Kuwait, it would have been impossible to separate targets merely in Kuwait from an offensive into Iraq. Coalition air forces outnumbered the IrAF 3-to-1.

The first part of the Gulf War air campaign was directed against the IrAF. Early on 17 January, RAF Tornado GR1s flew into Iraq, with air-to-air refuelling tanker support. The first targets were Iraqi airbases, which housed a variety of defence systems and aircraft. These attacks were co-ordinated in Riyadh by the Joint Allied Headquarters, with Wratten now leading the British command. Aircraft were almost totally integrated into a single coalition force. Support aircraft in raids, therefore, could be from any coalition power. Within 24 hours, a hundred sorties were completed.

After seven days, the RAF's focus, like the rest of coalition air forces, moved to targets supporting Iraqi forces in Kuwait. These included oil refineries, and strategic bridges over the River Euphrates. During operations, civilians were killed in incidences when the sophisticated guidance systems on the weaponry used failed, and buildings close to these bridges, many in populated areas, were hit instead. On the whole, many pilots were frustrated by the lack of combat.

In every combat role, the RAF was second to USAF involvement, but ahead of other members of the coalition. Of the around 55 Allied aircraft lost, eight were RAF Tornados; these aircraft types flew a total of 2,500 sorties. Five air crew were lost in operations, and three in preparations.

British Army
A single British Army armoured brigade was initially dispatched to the Gulf, later augmented to a two-brigade division, which became the British 1st Armoured Division. The decision was made that the relatively new Challenger tank be sent, rather than the older and more reliable Chieftain tanks, which were being superseded. The Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, "insisted on Challenger's reliability in the Gulf. In consequence to this demand, BAOR regiments in Germany became 'a scrap yard' of [tank hulls] without spares, sitting on wooden blocks. Everything else was being sent to the Gulf as spares in support of 7th Armoured Brigade." The entire British Army's power pack repair facility was deployed to the Gulf with the division.

The ground forces had a peak strength of 28,000 men, comprising 7,000 vehicles, including 179 Challenger 1 tanks, 316 Warriors, 79 artillery pieces and 16 MLRS.

During the ground phase, the 1st Armoured Division took part in the "left-hook" which outflanked Iraqi forces. It participated in the Battle of Norfolk. British Challenger 1 tanks destroyed approximately 300 Iraqi tanks, including achieving the longest-range tank-kill in the war from three miles away.

The British Army also inflicted heavy artillery and various other combat vehicle losses on the Iraqi Army. The British Army destroyed approximately five Iraqi divisions in 48 hours of combat. A friendly fire incident, when an American Fairchild Republic A-10A Thunderbolt aircraft attacked two British Warrior vehicles, resulted in the deaths of nine British service personnel. This incident was featured in a edition of The Cook Report entitled "Death by Maverick".

Royal Navy
The Royal Navy made a significant contribution to Allied efforts in the early stages of the war. In particular, Royal Navy Westland Lynx helicopters were responsible for the destruction of almost the entire Iraqi Navy in the Battle of Bubiyan, also known as the Battle of the Bubiyan Channel.

Royal Navy minehunters cleared Iraqi mines near the Kuwaiti coast, allowing the US battleships Wisconsin and Missouri to move in close enough to launch devastating bombardments against Iraqi ground forces. HMS Gloucester intercepted an Iraqi Silkworm missile heading towards HMS London, mine countermeasures vessels, and the US battleships.

title: Operation Granby


text:
Talk:Eastern Air Lines

POV
Strange how the truth gets fuzzy after just a few short years. It was indeed disaterous when Lorenzo purchased the airline, however the circumstances surrounding that purchase and later detailed in the Movie "Wall Street", were equally bizzare. Rumored,Col. Borman's wife was the cousin of F. Lorenzo's wife. F. Lorenzo's wife was the niece of Rockefeller who promptly exchanced Chase Manhattens interests from Eastern Airlines to Boeing Aircraft stock to divert attention to it being a "Family Affair". The article refers to enteprenur, Mr. Martin Shugrue. Marty as he affectionately like to be called was a past VP of Mr. Lorenzo's ill fated Texas Air and had been lured from his training at Eastern Airlines to run the finances of Texas Air. He was fired by Lorenzo for supposed poor decision making, but then when Mr. Marty began an airline consulting firm, Lorenzo's interests became his only customer. Once Lorenzo successfully placed Eastern in Bankruptcy, ridding the fields of the Unions presence one day before they were prepared to make all the concessions necessary, another under the table deal was made with the New York judge to place Mr. Marty at the helm of the foundering airline. His true purpose was to align everything over time for liquidation. From bankruptcy, Mr. Lorenzo did not have to pay off the debt of the airline, he was able to write off the two million he put up as front money to buy the airline, (which by the way was loaned to him by Eastern Airlines), and Mr. Marty was able to collect a salary in excess of Col. Borman's salary when the airline was a viable carrier. Do you think Enron, or World Com were the first such companies to have involvement of scurolous management and ownership? It cost many people thier jobs, their families, and some, their lives. Thank you corporate America. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 152.163.252.195 (talk • contribs) 12:02, 16 July 2003 (UTC).

Union Attitude
While many factors influenced the demise of Eastern, the greatest factor was that of a greedy union. Without concessions from the unions in the competitive markets of the late 80's, Eastern was doomed. Salvation for Eastern lay in the hands of it's machinists. Eastern's managers had already taken huge pay cuts (I should know by experience) but it was not enough to move the machinist unions to help with their fair share. One comment that I will never forget came from a union member, a ramp service man based in Columbus, Ohio who was making over $20/hr, exceptional for that era. After Eastern was forced to shut down he told me (a manager for Eastern) "We sure showed them (Lorenzo)". Ok, maybe you did. But now you're working at a gas station making, maybe $10/hr. WTG. Next time think about other the thousands of others who will lose their jobs because of your selfish actions....You moron. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 71.48.75.85 (talk • contribs) 05:08, 7 July 2006 (UTC).
 * Yes and no. While the mechanics' union certainly helped create the problem (i.e. bringing Lorenzo into power in the first place by refusing to cooperate with the other unions and with Frank Borman, the previous CEO), once Lorenzo was there, it was mainly his fault that the airline went other. By the time he was done, most of the employees had turned against him, not just the mechanics. Dbinder (talk) 12:26, 7 July 2006 (UTC)

Don't ask me, but isn't this gossip / hearsay and basically not worthy of an encyclopedia, even an online one? For a manager, don't you know that machinist isn't capitalized? And it's you're, not your when it is a contraction? Greatest isn't capitalized either, unless it's the first word in a sentence. Publish your screed, fine, but at least write it correctly. Layed is not the past tense of "to lay"./anon/6-3-08

Personalities and Wikifying
It would be interesting to find out who in addition to Eddie Rickenbacker controlled Eastern during the 1920s to 1960s. Why was Rickenbacker pushed out? It's great drama, and analysis of the mistakes made or the situation that led to Eastern closing its doors would be great information to add. Any idea for sources to go to?

I'm going to add some info about early air mail routes and some structure, as well as a short account of Rickenbacker's part in the airline, especially during World War II.Wipfeln 16:23, 8 July 2006 (UTC)

Slight reorg
I moved a couple of things around (Shuttle, Accident, Walt Disney), but didn't delete anything (except one sentence that was repeated in two sections about Trump). The excessive sections weren't easily distinguishable as to if it was a new section or if it continued from the previous section, so I also altered those a bit (as well as lowercase per Wiki style). The "Other Facts" was also promoted. Clipper471 05:58, 9 July 2006 (UTC)

Changes to the cause of the June, 1975 crash at JFK
I removed the reference to "wind shear," since that phrase was not used in the official Probable Cause finding, of the accident report, and replaced it with a more accurate wording of what happened in that crash, and why. --EditorASC 05:38, 25 July 2006 (UTC)

Newark
Was Newark not a hub? Did they not have an NYC hub? --DavidShankBone 15:47, 11 August 2006 (UTC)
 * I believe Kennedy and LaGuardia were hubs and/or focus cities (if they used that term). I know, for example, that the Shuttle ran from LGA, as it does now under US Airways. Dbinder (talk) 17:20, 11 August 2006 (UTC)
 * Newark was/is the hub for Continental. Eastern used Kennedy and LaGuardia, as the user above stated. Jeffpw 22:52, 18 February 2007 (UTC)

Flight 212
Not sure where to post this. The Eastern_Air_Lines_Flight_212 page is removed from wikipedia. Why, it was a good article. Can still be found in google cache http://66.249.93.104/search?q=cache:en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Air_Lines_Flight_212 217.121.193.200 13:03, 18 September 2006 (UTC)
 * It hasn't been deleted. It's not visible due to a delay in updating the database. Clipper471 23:12, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

Flight 512
Anyone care to explain the difference between "fatally injured" and oh, I don't know, "Killed?" —Preceding unsigned comment added by 75.72.5.94 (talk) 04:10, 4 June 2008 (UTC)
 * My $0.02, it's a matter of time. One who is "killed" is found DOA, while one who is "fatally injured" at least received some attempt at keeping them alive before they succumb to their injuries, either at the site or in the hospital. oknazevad (talk) 20:30, 13 November 2008 (UTC)

Cleanup
This article contains a great deal of sections, but with limited information in most of them. I recommend this article be a candidate for cleanup. --OneCyclone 03:31, 14 September 2007 (UTC)

Link added by newbie
I attempted to add a link but am not sure I did it correctly. Would someone please review and fix?

Link: http://www.bizjournals.com/southflorida/stories/2008/04/14/story1.html Article title: "New airline could have famous name"

BTW, link to article of same title from Mass High Tech website no longer reaches the article. I was not able to find the article by keyword search of Mass High Tech. http://www.masshightech.com/?b=1208145600%25255E1617931

Thanks EA dependent (talk) 21:40, 16 June 2008 (UTC)EA dependent, 16 June 08, 1640 CDT

A pic from 1951, public domain

 * Eastern Air Liner crash landing, Curles Neck Farm --CopperKettle (talk) 08:31, 5 December 2008 (UTC)

Clipped
From the time when I last was on this page around February this article has been reduced greatly in size and quality. At one time it explaineed in great detail the history and downturn of Eastern with many useful pictures to go with it but now it has been reduced to 4 or 5 sections which do not explain in the same level of detail Easterns history. This should be reversed immediately! SJHQC (talk) 19:22, 12 April 2009 (UTC)
 * Were the sections sourced? WhisperToMe (talk) 21:01, 18 June 2009 (UTC)
 * I removed the section he is referring to in this edit in March. My edit summary was: "Removed duplicate hsitory section with much POV content added in Sept. 07; removed myriad subheadings serving little purpose; removed uncited section oddly titled 'Fleet Curiosities'." Someone had added in the duplicate section (tho not identical in anyway) with no attempt to integrate it with the existing history subsections. None of the additions were sourced, and they contained POV material. Nothing of substance was not already covered in the existing sections. The only image not now in the article was File:Eastern Timetable.JPG, which was deleted in March before I removed the material. Hope that helps. - BillCJ (talk) 22:42, 18 June 2009 (UTC)

New Eastern Air Lines
I have seen the website for a new Eastern Airlines, no idea how far they've gotten since last year, but the plan is still in the works. Surely worth mentioning here. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Travelsonic (talk • contribs) 16:56, 20 June 2012 (UTC)
 * Could you provide a link to this website? I can't seem to find it on a Google search.  —Comp dude 123 15:19, 21 June 2012 (UTC)

http://easternairlines.aero

Eastern Airlines takes delivery of its first 737 Max in the summer of 2014. RicHicks (talk) 01:35, 16 May 2014 (UTC)

Why doesn't the new eastern airlines have it's own page? maybe call it "Eastern Airlines--2012" this would be a different company from the original correct? I know they have purchased the name and property but it would be something like Frontier same name different company. Coloradoweatherdude (talk) 07:56, 9 June 2014 (UTC)

 * I'll adapt the style of Frontier. I'll move this to a new article titled Eastern Air Lines (1926-1991), and use New Eastern Air Lines for the new airline, at least until it becomes an established name. Eastern Air Lines will redirect to the old air line in the meantime.heat_fan1 (talk) 15:16, 13 August 2014 (UTC)
 * Okay okay. We'll leave Eastern Air Lines alone as it is, but I still created the new article for New Eastern Air Lines. heat_fan1 (talk) 15:35, 13 August 2014 (UTC)

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United doesn’t own Eastern
United has had zero to do with Eastern. The EA trademarks were never held by Continental and when United acquired Continental there was no EA trademarks or anything in the deal. Why is that in the info box? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 23.30.46.218 (talk) 06:36, 9 March 2020 (UTC)
 * Not my specialist subject - and it all seems a right tangle - but does this, about Texas Air Corporation (and see the lede there, "In 1986 the company acquired Eastern Air Lines and People Express .. "), cast any light?
 * It could all certainly do with clarifying!?
 * --'' SquisherDa (talk) 17:50, 11 March 2020 (UTC)
 * It could all certainly do with clarifying!?
 * --'' SquisherDa (talk) 17:50, 11 March 2020 (UTC)
 * --'' SquisherDa (talk) 17:50, 11 March 2020 (UTC)

Controversy
Why is there no mention on this page or any of the linked articles about their flights about the controversy involving smuggled contraband being found on their planes? 22 members of the company were indicted for drug smuggling in 1986 (https://www.nytimes.com/1986/09/27/us/us-indicts-22-at-eastern-air-on-drug-counts.html) after the company itself had been fined in 1985 for prior charges (https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1985-08-30-mn-25227-story.html). More recent investigations found that Flight 980, which crashed but left behind very little evidence including its black boxes going missing, had over $1 in poached caiman skins in its cargo hold which were recovered during the initial investigation before investigators basically threw their hands up and left. I find it very surprising the amount of illegal activity that went on in this company isn't included. --157.21.14.70 (talk) 18:43, 10 August 2020 (UTC)
 * I can't think of a reason why this can't be discussed, as it seems to meet notability guidelines. Feel free to add a section; be bold. Carguychris (talk) 16:23, 11 August 2020 (UTC)

Still Operating
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P2ZuJxiNxIs — Preceding unsigned comment added by Martin Ziegler (talk • contribs) 09:13, 4 June 2023 (UTC)

 * That's a different company using the same name. See Eastern Airlines, LLC. BilCat (talk) 22:01, 4 June 2023 (UTC)

Eastern fleet corrections
Eastern had 23 A 300, 37 B 757, 35 L 1011, only 20 Convair 440, no other Convair. I was a pilot there 1964 1989 73.156.235.88 (talk) 23:00, 17 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Eastern Air Lines


text:
Talk:Dynamic range compression

"Music production" and "Marketing" sections are reduplicative
The "Music production" and "Marketing" sections seem somewhat reduplicative. They should probably be combined. —Christian Campbell 02:22, 2 April 2008 (UTC)

 * I don't see an issue here currently. Probably was improved somewhere in the last 16 years. ~Kvng (talk) 02:11, 24 April 2024 (UTC)

Use
The Use section needs some work. There are other important reasons for using compression. I've removed the incomplete summary of uses from the lead until I have time to address this. --Kvng (talk) 12:36, 27 April 2011 (UTC)

 * Uses section has been reviewed. I've now added a summary paragraph of this section to the lead. ~Kvng (talk) 02:29, 24 April 2024 (UTC)

History of the Fairchild 660 and 670 Compressor/Limiters
One of the earliest and arguably most classic compressor/limiters is the Fairchild 660 and 670. The design was created by Rein Narma as he was building Les Paul's first 8-channel mixing console. The design was then licensed by Sherman Fairchild who hired Rein Narma as the company's chief engineer:

[|1959 Rein Narma Fairchild 670 Compressor Limiter]

It includes a link to a podcast with Les Paul about its creation.

Robert.Harker (talk) 00:04, 15 November 2012 (UTC)

 * These are probably notable enough to deserve their own article. -—Kvng 14:37, 16 November 2012 (UTC)

 * Agreed. An article about the Fairchild family of compressors would be good. Beatles engineer Geoff Emerick loved the unit for its fast attack, soft knee and sonic signature. He always used it on vocals.
 * The 660/670 has been cloned digitally in plugins. Bono's vocals were processed with a Fairchild plugin for the U2 album No Line On The Horizon. Binksternet (talk) 17:05, 16 November 2012 (UTC)

I created an article for Fairchild Recording Equipment Corporation just so the story of where the design came from would not get lost. Not up writing a article about the compressors themselves. Robert.Harker (talk) 19:20, 16 November 2012 (UTC)

I created the Fairchild 660 article about the 660 and 670 earlier this year. Feel free to expand.synthfiend (talk) 18:56, 28 October 2021 (UTC)

 * Speaking of The Beatles: I think it's in his book Summer of Love where George Martin says that as early as 1963, John and Paul played Elvis and Chuck Berry records to him and he thought, "Oh my God, how can they make it so loud without the needle jumping off the record?" So he phoned the studio engineers in Memphis, Nashville, and St. Louis, and they explained to him what compression was and how it worked, and they immediately started using it on Beatles records overall, years before Peter Brown acquired the Fairchild compressors and Geoff Emerick used them particularly on their vocals. --2003:DA:CF04:926:F1D7:F80D:2D56:5017 (talk) 11:50, 25 June 2024 (UTC)

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Talk:Scientology controversies

Semi-protected edit request on 10 December 2022
Please remove the section beginning "The following letter, written by L. Ron Hubbard". There is no source cited for the claim that the letter was seized in an FBI raid, and I'm sure that's incorrect anyway. The first public appearance of this letter was in an affidavit filed by Gerry Armstrong (activist) in 1982 as one of many supporting documents he said he removed from Scientology offices while working there, but the only sources I can find for that explanation are not what we would call reliable.

Unfortunately, I don't think there can be any reliable source to support the claim that the letter was actually written by Hubbard. I'm sure Armstrong is telling the truth, but that means nothing here.

In theory we could say "the following letter was allegedly written by Hubbard," but that's weak sauce and not, in my opinion, up to Wikipedia standards. 67.188.1.213 (talk) 08:55, 10 December 2022 (UTC)
 * ✅ Aaron Liu (talk) 19:25, 23 December 2022 (UTC)

NZ link archive address, please add
https://web.archive.org/web/20120214130628/http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=3048935 2404:4408:638C:5E00:E1A3:D1FA:ADD3:8ABC (talk) 14:06, 16 May 2023 (UTC)

 * ✅. I took the live url from Scientology status by country. Grorp (talk) 06:23, 17 May 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Scientology controversies