text:
Richard Jobson

Richard Jobson may refer to:

 * Richard Jobson (explorer), 17th-century English explorer
 * Richard Jobson (footballer) (born 1963), English former footballer
 * Richard Jobson (television presenter) (born 1960), filmmaker, TV presenter, and musician, formerly of Skids

title: Richard Jobson


text:
Bottrop

Bottrop is a city in west-central Germany, on the Rhine–Herne Canal, in North Rhine-Westphalia. Located in the Ruhr industrial area, Bottrop adjoins Essen, Oberhausen, Gladbeck, and Dorsten. The city had been a coal-mining and rail center and contains factories producing coal-tar derivatives, chemicals, textiles, and machinery. Bottrop grew as a mining center beginning in the 1860s, was chartered as a city in 1921, and bombed during the Oil Campaign of World War II. In 1975, it unified with the neighbouring communities of Gladbeck and Kirchhellen, but Gladbeck left it in 1976, leading to Kirchhellen becoming a district of Bottrop as Bottrop-Kirchhellen. It is also twinned with Blackpool, England.

Boroughs
The total area of the municipal territory is about 101 km2. The longest north-south distance is 17 km, and from west to east 9 km. The highest peak within the city's territory is 78 m, the lowest one being 26 m above sea level.

Bottrop is divided into three boroughs: Bottrop-Mitte (Bottrop-Center), Bottrop-Süd (Bottrop South) and Bottrop-Kirchhellen, each having a borough representation and a borough ruler.

These boroughs are further subdivided into city parts, partly named after their traditional names, while the newly built parts are only recently named:

 * Bottrop-Mitte: Eigen, Fuhlenbrock, Stadtmitte, and Marktviertel
 * Bottrop-Süd: Batenbrock, Boy, Ebel, Lehmkuhle, Vonderort, Gartenstadt Welheim (Garden city Welheim), and Welheimer Mark
 * Bottrop-Kirchhellen: Ekel, Feldhausen, Grafenwald, Hardinghausen, Holthausen, Im Loh, Kirchhellen, Kuhberg, and Overhagen

For statistical reasons, Bottrop is also divided into statistical boroughs. They are (with their official numbering):

Kirchhellen
From 1919 until 1976, Kirchhellen was its own town. Following a communal reorganization reform in 1975, both Kirchhellen and Gladbeck joined the city of Bottrop. This resulted in the nickname "GlaBotKi". Gladbeck left the city in 1976, and became part of the district of Recklinghausen.

Most of Kirchhellen is Catholic (around 65%). It has three churches, including one Lutheran church.

Mayor
The current Mayor of Bottrop is Bernd Tischler of the Social Democratic Party (SPD) since 2009. The most recent mayoral election was held on 13 September 2020, and the results were as follows:

! colspan=2| Candidate ! Party ! Votes ! % ! colspan=3| Valid votes ! 43,493 ! 97.5 ! colspan=3| Invalid votes ! 1,114 ! 2.5 ! colspan=3| Total ! 44,607 ! 100.0 ! colspan=3| Electorate/voter turnout ! 92,241 ! 48.4
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Bernd Tischler
 * align=left| Social Democratic Party
 * 31,795
 * 73.1
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Andrea Swoboda
 * align=left| Alliance 90/The Greens
 * 4,117
 * 9.5
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Andreas Bucksteeg
 * align=left| Free Democratic Party
 * 3,023
 * 7.0
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Michael Gerber
 * align=left| German Communist Party
 * 2,071
 * 4.8
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Marianne Dominas
 * align=left| Ecological Democratic Party
 * 1,334
 * 3.1
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Günter Blocks
 * align=left| The Left
 * 1,153
 * 2.7
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Günter Blocks
 * align=left| The Left
 * 1,153
 * 2.7
 * 2.7
 * colspan=5| Source: State Returning Officer
 * }
 * }

City council
The Bottrop city council governs the city alongside the Mayor. The most recent city council election was held on 13 September 2020, and the results were as follows:

! colspan=2| Party ! Votes ! % ! +/- ! Seats ! +/- ! colspan=2| Valid votes ! 43,912 ! 98.5 ! ! ! ! colspan=2| Invalid votes ! 672 ! 1.5 ! ! ! ! colspan=2| Total ! 44,584 ! 100.0 ! ! 58 ! 4 ! colspan=2| Electorate/voter turnout ! 92,241 ! 48.3 ! 0.2 ! !
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Social Democratic Party (SPD)
 * 17,668
 * 40.2
 * 7.4
 * 24
 * 2
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Christian Democratic Union (CDU)
 * 10,513
 * 23.9
 * 3.2
 * 14
 * 1
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Alliance 90/The Greens (Grüne)
 * 5,639
 * 12.8
 * 7.4
 * 8
 * 5
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Alternative for Germany (AfD)
 * 3,076
 * 7.0
 * 5.2
 * 4
 * 3
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Ecological Democratic Party (ÖDP)
 * 1,856
 * 4.2
 * 0.4
 * 2
 * 1
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| German Communist Party (DKP)
 * 1,832
 * 4.2
 * 0.2
 * 2
 * ±0
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| Free Democratic Party (FDP)
 * 1,821
 * 4.1
 * 1.5
 * 2
 * 1
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| The Left (Die Linke)
 * 1,507
 * 3.4
 * 0.7
 * 2
 * ±0
 * bgcolor=|
 * align=left| The Left (Die Linke)
 * 1,507
 * 3.4
 * 0.7
 * 2
 * ±0
 * ±0
 * colspan=7| Source: State Returning Officer
 * }
 * }

Theaters, museums, and buildings

 * Main Post Office, constructed 1921-1923
 * The Quadrat is a museum housing permanent exhibitis on local history and displaying works by Josef Albers and many temporary exhibitions.
 * City Hall (Neo-Renaissance 1910–1916) is regarded as the emblem of the city.
 * Schloss Beck theme park and castle (late baroque period 1766–1777)
 * Villa Dickmann, constructed 1901–1903 (art nouveau)
 * Alte Apotheke (Old Pharmacy, Wilhelminian style 1895)
 * Catholic churches
 * Heilige Familie
 * Heilig Kreuz, built 1955–57, windows by Georg Meistermann
 * Herz Jesu, built 1929
 * Liebfrauen
 * St. Antonius
 * St. Barbara
 * St. Bonifatius
 * St. Cyriakus, Propstei, built 1861/62 by Emil von Manger
 * St. Elisabeth, built 1954
 * St. Franziskus
 * St. Johannes Baptist (BOT-Boy)
 * St. Johannes der Täufer (BOT-Kirchhellen)
 * St. Joseph
 * St. Ludger
 * St. Mariä Himmelfahrt
 * St. Matthias
 * St. Michael
 * St. Paul
 * St. Peter
 * St. Pius
 * St. Suitbert, built 1955
 * Protestant churches
 * Auferstehungskirche
 * Friedenskirche
 * Gnadenkirche
 * Martin-Niemöller-Kirche
 * Martinskirche, erbaut 1884
 * Paul-Gerhardt-Kirche
 * Pauluskirche
 * Malakow-Turm (1872) of the coal mine Prosper II
 * Coal Mining Tip Haniel with an open-air theater (Amphitheater) and the Kreuzweg designed by Tisa von der Schulenburg and Adolf Radecki and opened in 1995.
 * Saalbau, convention center

Attractions

 * Alpincenter - the world's longest indoor ski slope
 * Tetraeder is a 50-m-tall walkable steel tetrahedron, placed on a 90-m slag heap. It has been the town's landmark since its construction in 1995.
 * Movie Park Germany - theme park (in Bottrop-Kirchhellen)
 * Schloss Beck is a castle turned into an amusement park (in Bottrop-Kirchhellen).
 * Indoor Skydiving Bottrop, a powerful vertical wind tunnel, attracts skydivers from all over Europe.
 * Since September 12, 2005, so called Stolpersteine have been placed by artist Gunter Demnig all over the city in remembrance of the people deported and killed by the Nazis.

Periodic events

 * January: Festival Orgel PLUS (music festival started in 1989)
 * February: Rose Monday Parade and Carnival
 * May: Horse Market
 * May: Asparagus - Farmers' Market in Kirchhellen
 * Brezelfest (Pretzel Festival) in Kirchhellen
 * May/June/July: Schützenfeste (marksmen festivals) of Bottrops marksmen companies (BSV Bottrop Batenbrock, BSV Bottrop Eigen, BSV Bottrop Fuhlenbrock, BSV Bottrop Vonderort, BSV Andreas Hofer, Alte Allgemeine Bürgerschützengesellschaft, BSV Bottrop Boy)
 * September: Michaelismarket

Religion

 * Catholic: 50% (19 churches)
 * Protestant (Lutheran): 20% (8 churches)
 * Atheist/agnostic: 20%
 * Muslim: 2%

Notable people

 * Josef Albers (1888–1976), painter, graphic artist, designer, art teacher
 * August Everding (1928–1999), director of the Hamburgische Staatsoper 1973–77, general director of the Bavarian State Theater rector
 * Sabine Gaudzinski-Windheuser (born 1965), archaeologist
 * Paul Holz (1952–2017), football player
 * Martin Honert (born 1953), artist, professor at the Dresden Academy of Fine Arts
 * Da Hool (born 1968), DJ and music producer
 * Theo Jörgensmann (born 1948), jazz musician and composer
 * Gisela Kinzel (born 1961), athlete and Olympian
 * Ulla Kock am Brink (born 1961), television presenter
 * Bernhard Korte (born 1938), mathematician and computer scientist
 * Werner Münch (born 1940), politician (CDU), prime minister of Saxony-Anhalt (1991–1993)
 * Christian Scheuß (born 1966), journalist and writer
 * Claus Spahn (born 1940), journalist and author
 * Andrea C. Hoffer (born 1964), painter
 * Andy Vine (1948–1985), author and poet

Twin towns – sister cities
Bottrop is twinned with:
 * 🏴 Blackpool, England, United Kingdom (1980)
 * 🇵🇱 Gliwice, Poland (2007)
 * 🇩🇪 Merseburg, Germany (1989)
 * 🇩🇪 Mitte (Berlin), Germany (1983)
 * 🇫🇷 Tourcoing, France (1967)
 * 🇭🇺 Veszprém, Hungary (1987)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Bottrop


text:
Talk:Xuanzang

Hiuen Tsang, or is it Hsüan Tsang
"Xuanzang [ɕɥɛ̌n.tsâŋ] (Chinese: 玄奘; fl. 602 – 664), born Chen Hui / Chen Yi (陳禕), also known as Hiuen Tsang"... Shouldn't that be Hsüan Tsang? Imerologul Valah (talk) 01:57, 18 November 2021 (UTC)
 * Yes/no. No, it wasn't a mistake. Yes, the Wade–Giles romanization is more important and should be listed before the older irregular form. No, the language clutter in the lead sentence should be cleaned up anyway and both should be removed to the #Names section. The Chinese IPA is entirely worthless (any reader who can turn those marks into the correct sounds can already read the pinyin just fine and, no, that isn't what the name sounds like in English anyway) and should be left in the infobox where it belongs. — Llywelyn II   20:50, 29 May 2024 (UTC)

Pilgrimage vs "Great Tang Records on the Western Regions" article
I am trying to see the connection between the "Pilgrimage" section here and the Great Tang Records on the Western Regions article, which was apparently written specifically to cover the "travelogue" for this pilgramage.

It is not at all clear to me whether the "Pilgrimage" section is based largely (or completely?) on the "travelogue" or also significantly on other sources? Having the "travelogue" material in the dedicated article that was apparently created for it would not only help clarify that, it just seems like a better place for it. And my guess (and it is just that) is that most of the "pilgrimage" material should probably be over there in Great Tang Records on the Western Regions then?

The other issue that should be probably be resolved (or clarified) is the signifant conflict between the two articles in describing the veracity of the "travelogue". The "Great Tang Records on the Western Regions" article talks of "great value" and of the book being "known for having "exact descriptions of distances and locations of different places"", suggesting nothing but an accurate account. But the current article describes it as a mix of "a mix of the implausible, the hearsay and a firsthand account" with several telling examples. This seriously contradicts the impression created by the other article that (I would think) should be a more detailed and more accurate description of the "travelogue".AlexFekken (talk) 03:27, 22 December 2022 (UTC)

A better wording
QUOTE: his efforts to bring over 657 Indian texts to China, END OF QUOTE

A better wording for 'India' would be South Asia. There was no India as a nation before British-India. As to the use of the word 'India' before that, it is a messy mix of some other words which were quietly converted into 'India' by Arabian and European maritime traders and other outsiders. No one in South Asia could have claimed that they were 'Indians' in those days.

As to 'Indian texts', it might be ancient Sanskrit texts that are being hinted at. These things also do not have any 'Indian' tag on them. These texts were on the verge of entering into oblivion, when the officials of the English East India Company took urgent steps to retrive them from remote Brahmin households from mutually unconnected locations. The antiquity of Sanskrit literature entered into South Asian / British Indian mainstream only when Sanskrit words and usages were poured into local languages to make them develop. 59.97.175.217 (talk) 02:12, 4 January 2023 (UTC)

Pilgrimage
The section entitled Pilgrimage attempts to summarize nearly every event in the text discussed. As a result, it is far too long and rambling. I believe it falls under the 'long plot' category. section RobotBoy66 (talk) 01:07, 12 June 2023 (UTC)
 * Not where that goes. In any case, future editors take note that the version of the page before 12 June 2023 may include helpful details that have been mistakenly removed and might need reinclusion. — Llywelyn II   15:43, 4 June 2024 (UTC)

Language
language of Buddhist text was Pali, not sanskrit. Arvindpandey (talk) 17:03, 29 January 2024 (UTC)
 * The Mahayana sutras he brought from ancient India were written in Sanskrit, Prakrit dialects or Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit. JimRenge (talk) 17:56, 29 January 2024 (UTC)

Xuanzang ain't a proper name
the way English parses 'em. It's another honorific title and should be translated just like the others. As above, the names need a lot of cleanup. The Chinese IPA is in the infobox and shouldn't be cluttering the lead sentence. The characters, tonal pinyin, and many many variant transcriptions are already handled in the infoboxes and name section and shouldn't be cluttering the lead sentence as badly as they are now. Minor variants can be left to Wikidata now and the more common present and historical ones should have cites. &c. — Llywelyn II   20:53, 29 May 2024 (UTC)

Sources for future article expansion
Inter alia, covers the political background for Xuanzang and the reasoning behind the imperial support on his return & its use of his record of his travels. — Llywelyn II   15:57, 4 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Xuanzang


text:
User talk:Optigan

Hello Optigan, welcome to Wikipedia. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian. You can learn more on the how to edit page. The naming conventions and manual of style pages are also useful. Feel free to experiment at the Sandbox. If you have any questions about the project then check out Help or add a question to the Village pump. Angela

AKFD
I wish to throw 'AIDS Kills Fags Dead' slogan to the wolves - see Talk:AKFD/redirect. You voted against that, so I'm specifically contacting you.

Image's copyright status
Hello Optigan, I noticed you uploading lots of maps. Can you please provide sources for these so that the copyright status of these maps can be verified? -- JeLuF 21:25, 25 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * last edit = 15 July? Martin 21:54, 25 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Image copyright problem with Image:Astrakhan.jpg
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Image:Mainz.jpg listed for deletion
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title: User talk:Optigan


text:
Cochlear

Cochlear, the adjective form of cochlea, may refer to:

 * Cochlear implant, a sensory aid for the deaf
 * Cochlear nuclei, the ventral cochlear nucleus and the dorsal (or lateral) cochlear nucleus
 * Vestibular-cochlear or Vestibulocochlear nerve, the eighth cranial nerve
 * Cochlear nerve, a division of the eighth cranial nerve
 * Cochlear aqueduct, or aqueduct of cochlea, a communication between the perilymphatic space and the subarachnoid space
 * Cochlear artery, a division of the internal auditory artery
 * Cochlea, part of the Labyrinth (inner ear)
 * Cochlear duct, also known as the scala media, the endolymph-filled part of the cochlea
 * Cochlear, an alternate term for the spoon (liturgy) used in the Eastern Orthodox Church in serving the sacramental wine, sometimes with a particle of the sacramental bread
 * The spoon-like tip of the scape found on the epigyne of some female spiders
 * Cochlear Limited, manufacturer of Nucleus Cochlear Implant
 * Cochlear Bone Anchored Solutions, manufacturer of Baha bone anchored hearing aid

title: Cochlear


text:
Eof

Eof (also Eoves) was a swineherd who claimed to have seen a vision of the Virgin Mary at Evesham in England, about 701. Eof related this vision to Egwin, Bishop of Worcester, who founded the great Evesham Abbey on the site of the apparition. Evesham means Eof's ham (homestead).

Legend
The standard Lives, and Saint Egwin and his Abbey of Evesham say Eof was a swineherd. A letter, apparently written by Ecgwin, says "... primum cuidam pastori gregum ...", and the Acta Sanctorum (Lives of the Saints) states something similar: " ...pastores gregum ..." The Latin means either a shepherd or a herdsman. William Dugdale in Monasticon Anglicanum says "Eoves, a herdsman of the bishop ...". George May, the most eminent of Evesham historians, gives both herdsman and swineherd.

The story that Eof was a swineherd goes back at least to William of Malmesbury, writing in the twelfth century. The obverse of the conventual seal of Evesham Abbey clearly shows stylised pigs rather than sheep; the monks of the Abbey clearly thought Eof kept pigs.

The legend of Eof's vision has been commemorated by a bronze statue sited in the town centre paid for by public subscription and created by the British born sculptor John McKenna. The statue was unveiled in a public ceremony that took place on Sunday 15 June 2008.

Eof vs. Eoves
The question of whether the swineherd was named Eof or Eoves is a long-standing question still argued about today. Writing in 1920 however, the historian O.G. Knapp argued that "It is impossible that Eoves should have been the Swineherd’s name for several reasons. In the first place the letter ‘V’ is not found in the Saxon alphabet, having been brought to this country by the Normans; so that Eofeshamme, given in one of the charters, indicates the older and better form of the name ... But even if Eofes is older and more accurate than Eoves it cannot be the original form of the name. A moment’s reflection will show that if Evesham means the meadow of some person, the name of that person must be in what Grammarians call the Genitive (or Possessive) Case, Singular. This in modern English is nearly always denoted by ’s placed at the end of the word; the apostrophe showing that a vowel has dropped out of the termination. Anglo-Saxon had a larger selection of endings for the Genitive Case, but the one in –es (the original form of our modern ’s) belonged to what are called ‘strong’ Masculine nouns, which usually ended in a consonant. Eofes, therefore, would be the natural Genitive of a man’s proper name, Eof. Ferguson suggests that the original form of the name might have been Eofa, but such a name would correspond to the ‘weak’ nouns which made their Genitive by adding not –es but –an; in which case the name of the town would have been Eofanham, as is shown in the case of Offenham, the Ham of Offa or Uffa. We may therefore take it as certain that the real name of the Swineherd was not Eoves, Eofes, or even Eofa, but Eof."

title: Eof


text:
Evesham Abbey

Evesham Abbey was founded by Saint Egwin at Evesham in Worcestershire, England between 700 and 710 following an alleged vision of the Virgin Mary by a swineherd by the name of Eof.

According to the monastic history, Evesham came through the Norman Conquest unusually well, because of a quick approach by Abbot Æthelwig to William the Conqueror. The abbey is of Benedictine origin, and became in its heyday one of the wealthiest in the country. Simon de Montfort (1208–1265) is buried near the high altar of the ruined abbey, the spot marked by an altar-like memorial monument dedicated by the Archbishop of Canterbury in 1965.

During the 16th-century dissolution of the monasteries, almost all of the abbey was demolished. Today, only one section of walling survives from the abbey itself, although fragments of the 13th-century chapter house, together with the almonry, the 16th-century bell tower and a gateway remain. The abbey's site is a scheduled monument and has several listed structures within it and adjacent to it, of which four are designated at the highest Grade I level.

Foundation
The year of the foundation of the abbey (that is, when a monastic community was first established) is problematic. William Tindal (1794) comments that "I have a MS. but without name or reference, which says that he [i.e. Ecgwine] began his Abbey in the year 682. This is before he was made bishop, and seems improbable. Tanner [Not. Mon. p.168] says in 701. The date of Pope Constantine’s charter may decide the point as to the consecration of his Abbey, but there is reason to suppose that Egwin began to build as early as the year 702". George May gives 701 as the year that Ethelred conferred on Ecgwine the whole peninsula with the erection of the monastery commencing in the same year.

On the other hand, the year of the consecration derives from the grant of the first privilege to the abbey from Pope Constantine "written in the seven hundred and ninth year of our Lord’s incarnation." Ecgwine allegedly returned from Rome bearing this charter, which was apparently read out by Archbishop Berhtwald at a council of "the whole of England" held at Alcester, although that meeting was probably fictitious. Thomas of Marlborough records that, in accordance with the apostolic command, a community of monks was then established (meaning the foundation has also been dated to 709):

"When the blessed Ecgwine saw that longed-for day when the place which he had built would be consecrated, and a monastic order established to serve God in that place, he then abandoned all concerns for worldly matters, and devoted himself to a contemplative way of life. Following the example of the Lord by humbling himself, he resigned his bishop's see, and became abbot of the monastery."

The alleged charter of Ecgwine (purportedly written in 714) records that on the feast of All Saints "Bishop Wilfrid and I consecrated the church which I had built to God, the Blessed Mary, and to all Christ’s elect". The feast of All Saints became established in the West after 609 or 610 under Pope Boniface IV; its observance on 1 November dates from the time of Pope Gregory III (died 741). A Bishop Wilfrid was Egwin’s successor to the see of Worcester (though he is sometimes confused with Wilfrid, Bishop of York, who died c. 709).

Although the exact year of the foundation remains unclear, it has sometimes been assumed that the date of the abbey's consecration was the feast of All Saints in 709. That the consecration occurred on this feast day would provide a neat connection with All Saints' Church in Evesham. That Abbot Clement Lichfield lies buried beneath the Chantry Chapel, now known as the Lichfield Chapel in consequence, provides a link to the closing days of the life of the abbey.

Surviving structures
During the dissolution of the monasteries, on its surrender to the king in 1540 the abbey was plundered and razed to the ground, although the bell tower built earlier that century was saved. The tower stands 110 ft tall and is a Grade I listed building. Other remains include:

The full area of the abbey precincts, most of which is today a public park, was designated as a scheduled monument in 1949. , the site in general and in particular the almonry and Abbot Reginald's wall, are on Historic England's Heritage at Risk register owing to their vulnerable condition.
 * The abbey's almonry, from the 15th century and earlier, Grade I listed, has been restored and houses the Almonry Museum and Heritage Centre
 * The L-shaped house which is now numbers 53 and 54, Merstow Green, incorporates the abbey's Great Gate from the early 14th century and a vaulted passage from the same period; Grade I listed
 * Abbot Reginald's gateway and wall, c.1120 with 15th-century room above; Grade I listed
 * Part of the south wall of the abbey precinct, restored, including an arched doorway
 * A 13th-century archway which led to the chapter house
 * Fragmentary remains of the west wall of the north transept of the abbey
 * A wall, blocked arches and a window which are the remains of the abbey stables, 14th and 15th centuries; Grade II* listed

Other buildings linked to the history of the abbey include Middle Littleton tythe barn.

Relics of saints

 * Saint Egwin, third bishop of Worcester and founder of Evesham Abbey
 * Saint Credan, abbot of the abbey during the reign of King Offa of Mercia
 * Saint Wigstan of Mercia (aka Wulstan and Wystan)
 * Saint Odulf, a Frisian saint and missionary (d. 855) recorded in the Hagiographies of Secgan, 'Saint Ecgwine', and hagiography of St Odulf, the Ave presul gloriose Augustine psalter, and Chronicon Abbatiae de Evesham

Other burials

 * Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester
 * Henry de Montfort
 * Hugh le Despencer, 1st Baron le Despencer
 * Robert de Stafford
 * Thomas of Marlborough

Prints and paintings
Prints of picturesque ruins accompanied the growth of domestic tourism in Britain during the second half of the 18th century, among which can be found striking images of the remains of the abbey walls and bell tower at Evesham. These, accompanied by scenic and historical descriptions, were collected, for example, in such works as Francis Grose's Antiquities of England and Wales (1786) and, more particularly, Samuel Ireland's Picturesque Views on the Upper or Warwickshire Avon (1795). Among the visiting artists who came to paint them was J. M. W. Turner, who in 1793 made pen and wash studies of the abbey gateway and of the Church of St Laurence seen through the bell tower's arch. An anonymous artist of the period also left a panorama of the tower and churches behind it as seen from the river.

In the following century, the antiquary Edward Rudge began excavations of the abbey remains on parts of his property, between 1811 and 1834. The results were given to the Society of Antiquaries of London; illustrations of the discoveries were published in their Vetusta Monumenta with a memoir by his son, Edward John Rudge and illustrations by his wife, Anne Rudge.

Conservation
Evesham Abbey Trust, a charity and charitable incorporated organisation registered in 2016, aims to conserve, preserve and improve the abbey site and environs. Since May 2017, the trust owns the freehold of much of the site following its gifting by the Rudge family. The trust in 2019 obtained over £1m of funding from the National Lottery Heritage Fund, Historic England and other local and regional funders to begin the conservation and restoration of the abbey walls and the creation of a set of interpretive gardens. The work was completed in 2023.

Commemoration
One of the Great Western Railway Star class locomotives was named Evesham Abbey and numbered 4065. It was subsequently rebuilt as a Castle class locomotive, being renumbered as 5085 while retaining the name Evesham Abbey.

title: Evesham Abbey


text:
Talk:Mazu

The woman's death
For some reason, I remembered Lin Muoniang died because she tried to save her 2 brothers and father from drowning when their boat flipped. And to reply her mother's call on the shore, she opened her mouth, thereby dropping one of her family member she was carrying by the mouth. And somehow she drowned after that. Mmm... it sounds a bit ironic. In any case, in no online references did I find such a thing, none even mentioned how she died, so young! Does anybody know? --Menchi 12:15 29 Jun 2003 (UTC)

Found how she died when working on the Matsu Islands article. I was wrong about them not relating. Although some of those articles providing her death cause mistaken the Matsu Islands being her origin, her birthplace. --Menchi 19:25 29 Jun 2003 (UTC)

Sources for future article expansion I
—?
 * 天后信仰與政治秩序：香港與台灣的比較 (Matsu Worships and Political Order: Hong Kong-Taiwan Comparison) (in Traditional Chinese)
 * Eh, great, but why is it important or useful? What does it say? — Llywelyn II   11:19, 28 November 2016 (UTC)

Matsu or Mazu?
Matsu or Mazu? Is pinyin a good idea? --Jiang

 * I don't think pinyin works here. My understanding is that her name, being non-pinyin, is in the Sun Yat-sen category. Moreover, "Matsu" isn't a personal name. Lastly, Matsu is actually more popular in Taiwan, than in China. Much more so, if you be mathematical and take the density (100 Matsuians/1 km²). --Menchi 20:56 16 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * I am moving it back to Matsu. It is more widely used, and a Google test supports it. --HYC 17:53, 11 August 2006 (UTC)

 * So I have not monitored the flip-flopping between Wale-Giles vs. pinyin for awhile. I am curious what is the current consensus on this issue. My personal view is that it is a bad idea to blindly convert every old English transliteration of Chinese words into pinyin because some of these words have already taken root in the English language. Changing them only create a disconnect from all old literature. There are many examples, the first one comes to mind is Dimsum which entered the English language as Cantonese because most early immigrants to the US were from South China. It would be totally wrong to convert Dimsum into dianxin, the proper pinyin transliteration of the Chinese term (點心) in Mandarin. Doing so not only changed the meaning of the English loan word into a Chinese transliteration, it also wipes clean all the historical immigrant background behind the word. Apparently, this Mazu vs. Matsu debate falls in similar category. I have a bad feeling when I see that people (most likely Chinese mainlanders) came into wikipedia and replaced all existing loan words into phonetic notations (which in my opinion is what pinyin should be) without considering the etymology and history of these words in the English language. To me, it is like converting all English words into IPA notations. I guess this topic has been discussed numerous times before, can someone point me to a link to the conclusion? Kowloonese (talk) 17:48, 11 May 2012 (UTC)

 * and.

 * Short answer: Wiki defaults to pinyin and mentions it in any Chinese article, but goes with the common English name regardless. Here, pinyin's definitely taken over. — Llywelyn II   11:23, 28 November 2016 (UTC)

Mazu's festival
The article says:
 * Her birthday-festival is on 23 March of the lunar calendar.

This is misleading: I'm sure her festival is on the 23rd day of the Fourth lunar month. This year it's on 30 May, in the Gregorian calendar. I'll try and correct the sentence as best I can. --Gareth Hughes 14:08, 18 May 2005 (UTC)
 * It's the 23rd day of the 3rd month, according to Holidays in Taiwan. So, it should be May 1 in 2005. -- PFHLai 19:03, 2005 May 24 (UTC)
 * Right. Mr Hughes was just mistaken. — Llywelyn II   11:25, 28 November 2016 (UTC)

Notoriety?
The article currently states that the Matsu temple in Los Angeles has gained "notoriety." Is that really what is meant? Notoriety is a kind of fame, but for something bad-- if the temple is disliked, perhaps the article should say why.—?
 * Fixed. — Llywelyn II   11:25, 28 November 2016 (UTC)

Popular with Vietnamese?
I'm Vietnamese from a region that's very close to the sea and have never heard of her. Can she be "extremely popular" among the Vietnamese people? DHN 07:03, 7 November 2005 (UTC)

Green and red generals
I've seen Matsu festivals in Taiwan ; Matsu always had a pair of tall military helpers drawing. One of them is red and hears all (順風耳) and the other is green and sees all (千里眼). We should write about them. David.Monniaux 11:26, 1 November 2006 (UTC)

Taiwanese animated feature
Maybe this could be mentioned somewhere? Esn (talk) 01:58, 11 April 2008 (UTC)
 * Along with other TV shows and movies. Sure. — Llywelyn II   11:28, 28 November 2016 (UTC)

Official titles
I found this section in the article just plain silly. Some of these Chinese titles were given by the emperor at the time, I don't see how listing the translation of each of these titles would make them official. I can easily come up with 5 different variations in translations to each of these Chinese titles, how meaningful can this list be to the English readers. What I mean is that though the Chinese titles were official, the English translations of them are arbitrary, hence including a list of random translations in this article just does not make any sense at all. Besides, according to the Chinese edition of this topic, this goddess has received no less than 29 official titles from various emperors throughout many dynasties. The list in the English edition is not only incomplete, it is also inaccurate and useless. I would suggest removing the list and just state the fact that she has numerous official titles. And many were designed with the sole purpose to praise and glorify her, for example, a 64 characters official title "護國庇民妙靈昭應宏仁普濟福佑群生諴感咸孚顯神贊順垂慈篤祜安瀾利運澤覃海宇恬波宣惠道流衍慶靖洋錫祉恩周德溥衛漕保泰振武綏疆天后之神" was not intended for practical use. Kowloonese (talk) 18:08, 11 May 2012 (UTC)
 * I disagree as does our general policy. It might go in a footnote but they should be included and they should be glossed in English. Of course the Chinese forms should be given and sourced as well. Of course it's better (where possible) to have sourced English translations rather than our own editors' shots at it. — Llywelyn II   11:31, 28 November 2016 (UTC)

Alt names
Ma-Cho Temple gave the names "Dragon Girl" and "Goddess of the Sea" but they need sourcing for inclusion. If they're translations of Chinese titles, they need the Chinese forms and romanizations. — Llywelyn II   04:37, 21 November 2016 (UTC)

Sources for article expansion II
These sources are given by the bibliography but currently unused by the article: Kindly reïnclude them once they are being used as sources to verify statements in the running text.

Even better, these sources are considered authoritative on the topic by Clark and it would be good to find usable online copies or to have page numbers to verify statements in the running text: In the case of the Japanese and Chinese sources, however, we should just use them to supplement the English-language sources where possible. — Llywelyn II   11:35, 28 November 2016 (UTC)

Revival of the cult in mainland China
The situation of the cult (which when used as a synonym of "culture" or "worship" does not convey negative connotations) of goddess Mazu in mainland China is not as negative as the article seems to suggest. Indeed, Mazuism has energetically revived in the mainland with new temples built in all coastal provinces and all sorts of study conferences and rituals organised with the participation not only of mainland and Taiwanese cultural associations, but also of cadres of the CCP. Not being an "official religion" in China does not mean to be "outlaw" and "banned". Indeed, being an "official religion" in China (of which there are five) means that that given religion is "officially regulated" by a state apparatus. This is not the case of folk or popular religions of deities, which freely flourish without government interference. It is also important to notice that "religion" in China means "doctrine", and "worship", "cults" or "cultures" of deities are not regarded as such, but rather as "living systems" or "ways of life". Indeed, Mazuism is officially recognised at regional level in Fujian (see p. 22), not merely as a "religion" but as a "culture", which as we have seen has broader implications in Chinese language.--80.182.232.5 (talk) 22:43, 5 December 2016 (UTC)
 * Also note how well China's state media treat the cult of the goddess: TJTV - Mazu culture in Tianjin; Mazu - Goddess of the Sea; Fujian province holds Mazu Culture Forum.--80.182.232.5 (talk) 22:52, 5 December 2016 (UTC)

External links modified (January 2018)
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Also a Mazu temple in Tianjin?
Isn't there also a Mazu temple in Tianjin, northern China, called "天津天后宫"? 173.88.246.138 (talk) 02:43, 14 December 2022 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the nomination page. —Community Tech bot (talk) 18:38, 21 February 2023 (UTC)
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title: Talk:Mazu


text:
Fra Diavolo

Fra Diavolo (lit. Brother Devil; 7 April 1771–11 November 1806), is the popular name given to Michele Pezza, a guerrilla leader who resisted the French occupation of Naples, proving an "inspirational practitioner of popular insurrection". Pezza figures prominently in folk lore and fiction. He appears in several works of Alexandre Dumas, including The Last Cavalier: Being the Adventures of Count Sainte-hermine in the Age of Napoleon, not published until 2007 and in Washington Irving's short story "The Inn at Terracina".

Biography
The nickname "Fra Diavolo" came about due to an old Itrano custom: Until early in the twentieth century Itrani boys and girls who had recently recovered from serious illnesses were dressed as monks on the second Sunday after Easter, for a procession in honor of St. Francis of Paola, the patron of sick children. On one of these solemn occasions little Michele, who was apparently a handful to begin with, proved so naughty that someone called him "Fra Diavolo" (Brother Devil) which stuck.

Early life
The notion that Pezza "was born of low parentage" has received wide circulation but is hardly accurate; it forms part of a hostile tradition derived from French propaganda. The Pezzas had some land in olives and were also engaged in the wool trade. The family home has some interesting architectural details, which also suggests some wealth, and they were related to several of the most prominent families in Itri, such as the Ialongo and the Pennachia.

Although little is known with certainty of his early life, Pezza learned to read and write, hardly a common accomplishment at the time, and further indication of some wealth in the family. As a young man he secured employment as a courier for the Neapolitan Royal Mail, making the 240 km round trip between Terracina and Naples twice a week for 50 ducats a year, a considerable sum, while becoming intimately familiar with the local terrain, which had a reputation for brigandage, knowledge that would later serve him in good stead. In 1797, while so employed, he vied for the affections of a young woman with another young man. One night his rival and another man ambushed Pezza, intending to do him some harm. Pezza, who reportedly had a "fiery temper", managed to kill both of his attackers. He took to the hills, but was soon caught. Tried, he was convicted of manslaughter, since the slaying had been committed in self-defense, and on 25 October 1797 he was sentenced to a tour in the army in lieu of prison.

On 20 January 1798 Pezza was enrolled in the Reggimento di Messapi, stationed at Fondi, about a dozen miles north of Itri and perhaps a dozen south of the frontier with the Papal States. Pezza rose quickly, becoming a sergeant, probably because he was literate and, as a member of the middle class and a former Royal courier, already familiar with firearms. In November of late 1798 Pezza took part in the disastrous attempt of the Neapolitan Army to oust the French from the Papal States.

The French responded quickly to the Neapolitan incursion, forcing them to retreat, and then undertook an invasion of the Kingdom of Naples. Plagued by cold and heavy rains, the Neapolitans fell back along the Appian Way. Thousands of troops deserted and many more were captured. Pezza, who was with the rear guard, was almost captured by the French, but escaped by donning peasant dress, and took to the hills above Itri. During the retreat, the Neapolitan Reggimento di Lucania fortified an old Roman sanctuary, the Fortino di San Andrea, located about a few miles northwest of Itri, where a pass carries the Appian Way over the Aurunci Mountains. On 26 December, reinforced by some irregulars hastily recruited by Pezza, the regiment ambushed elements of the French "Polish Legion", touching off a three-day skirmish. Unable to get through the easily defended defile, some French troops passed down the coast road, along the ancient Via Flacca, from Terracina to capture Sperlonga. The weather was foul, very cold with incessant rains that turned to ice. From Sperlonga, the French began working their way overland across the mountains, to outflank the Neapolitans at the old villa, and by dawn on the 29th were in position to attack. But the French movement had been detected by Pezza's irregulars, who were patrolling the hills, and they guided the Neapolitan troops safely out of the encirclement, so that they could fall back on the great fortress of Gaeta, about 15 miles down the coast. The French pressed on, and over the next few weeks, despite unusually cold and icy weather, overran the rest of Naples, capturing the city itself on 22 January 1799 and proclaiming the Parthenopaean Republic. For Pezza, the most critical event of this period occurred on 30 December, when French and Polish troops captured Itri. A band of peasants from the vicinity attempted to resist, but were rapidly overcome. The invaders then shot their prisoners, plundered the town a bit, proclaimed a new age of freedom, erected a "Liberty Tree", and held a ball.

Resistance to French rule 1798–1799
Though many reform-minded nobles and some intellectuals backed it, the French puppet regime in Naples, the Parthenopaean Republic, had little popular support. In addition, French and Polish troops acted abominably; looting and rape were common. French atrocities were so blatant that their commander in Naples, General Jean Étienne Championnet, was sacked by Guillaume-Charles Faipoult, one of the government representatives on mission, and subsequently imprisoned.

Irregular resistance had begun almost as soon as the invaders entered the country, and French atrocities only served to send more young men into the hills to join the insurgency. Attacks on French soldiers became common. The French retaliated swiftly and brutally, which only made matters worse. The experience of Itri was typical. On 15 January two French soldiers were killed while patrolling the Appian Way near the town. The next day a mixed force of French and Polish troops inflicted severe reprisals on the town, looting, raping, and murdering, leaving 60 men, women, and children lying dead in the streets; Michele Pezza's 67-year-old father was among the dead.

Meanwhile, although in exile in Sicily, the Neapolitan government, effectively controlled by Queen Maria Carolina, wife of King Ferdinand IV of Naples, appointed Fabrizio Ruffo, a progressive government minister and one of the last laymen to hold the dignity of cardinal in the Roman Catholic Church, to organize a resistance movement. On 8 February 1799, British and Neapolitan ships landed 5,000 troops and volunteers under Ruffo's command in Calabria. This force soon expanded into an unruly army of laymen and clerics, nobles and peasants, rich and poor, men, women, and children. Dubbed la Armata cristiana della Santa Fede ("the Christian Army of the Holy Faith"), this horde made up for its lack of training and equipment with enthusiasm, ferocity, and suicidal courage.

Pezza had already organized a small band of irregulars in the northern part of the Terra di Lavoro, and soon became one of Ruffo's principal subordinate commanders. His massa ("band") quickly grew to some 4,000 men, including his three brothers and the scions of a number of the leading families of Itri, such as Pasquale-Maria Nofi, who served as his adjutant with the rank of lieutenant. With these men, he raided French outposts far and wide. On one occasion he slipped into heavily occupied Fondi in the guise of a priest — thus becoming once again "Fra Diavolo" — to cut down the "Liberty Tree" which the French had planted there, replacing it with a cross that still stands. He even harassed French forces holding Gaeta, the great fortress dominating the northwestern route into the Kingdom of Naples, ambushing supply trains (once making off with 1,400 sheep) and couriers. Pezza made the Fortino di San Andrea his base of operations, and spread terror against French supporters over a wide area. He soon had a substantial price on his head.

The city of Naples was liberated from the French in June, Gaeta was recaptured at the end of July by royal troops and Pezza's men, aided by the British fleet. By late September the French had largely been driven out of the kingdom, and a Neapolitan army had gone on to liberate Rome. The Neapolitan insurrection had probably cost the lives of 50,000 or 60,000 people in the kingdom.

A hard, tough leader, Pezza gave no quarter. His men committed "most monstrous misdeeds", torturing and murdering hundreds of prisoners of war, including a French general. He was so ferocious that for a time Cardinal Ruffo placed him under arrest for his many atrocities. Nevertheless, for his services, Pezza was made a colonel in the army, ennobled as the Duke of Cassero, granted an annual pension of 2,500 ducats — making him one of the richest men in the district — and even given a lock of the queen's hair. He settled down near Itri with his wife, Fortunata Rachele Di Franco, a local beauty whom he had married in July 1799, when she was just 18, and he was en route to the liberation of Rome. For the next few years they lived quietly, while producing two sons.

Resistance to French rule 1806
In 1806 Napoleon, Emperor of the French, decided to place his brother Joseph Bonaparte on the Neapolitan throne. Some 32,000 French troops invaded Naples in January, in three columns under General Laurent de Gouvion-Saint-Cyr, later a Marshal of France; about 12,000 men marched down the Adriatic coast, 15,000 more attacked down the Apennines, which form the spine of Italy, and General Jean Louis Reynier led about 10,000 troops down the Appian Way. The Neapolitan Army, with barely 13,000 men available for mobile operations, fell back on Calabria as the French quickly occupied frontier areas and pressed on. By February Reynier's column had captured Fondi and continued on towards Itri. Some Neapolitan troops were garrisoned at Pezza's old base, the Fortino di San Andrea,, but they fled south to Itri when the French turned up. The French pursued. There was a short skirmish at Itri, which hardly impeded the French advance. Reynier sent a regiment ahead to seize Gaeta by a coup de main, but the fortress, commanded by Louis, Landgrave of Hesse-Philippsthal, resisted stoutly. The Siege of Gaeta lasted until 18 July. The French found the rest of Naples easier prey. The capital fell on 14 February as the king and queen once more fled to Sicily, and the French soon overran most of the rest of the kingdom.

When the French invaded, Pezza was recalled to active duty, and ordered to organize a guerrilla column to resist the attackers. But the French moved so fast he was barely able to escape, and fled with his brothers to Sicily. He soon returned, however, and, on 23 March 1806, clashed with the French near Itri. Shortly afterwards, Pezza was recalled to Sicily to gather more forces, and in April joined an expedition to reinforce Gaeta that was led by the British admiral Sir Sidney Smith, one of Napoleon's most inveterate foes.

Hesse-Philippsthal gave Pezza command of a band of irregulars who were landed along the coast near the mouth of the Garigliano River, about 20 miles southeast of Gaeta, with instructions to stir up guerrilla resistance in the French rear. Pezza conducted several raids against French outposts, but then undertook an ill-advised attack against a substantial French force. Defeated, he fled back to Gaeta, assuming a disguise so as to trick a French officer into giving him a pass through the siege lines. To Hesse-Philippsthal this smacked of treachery, and he decided that Pezza was secretly in league with the French. Pezza was arrested and sent in chains to Palermo in May 1806. Sir Sidney quickly cleared Pezza's name, however, and for a few weeks he conducted seaborne raids against French outposts along the coast from Ponza and the other islands in the Gulf of Gaeta.

On 4 July, a small British and Sicilian force inflicted a stunning defeat on the French in the Battle of Maida, in Calabria. Hoping to follow up this victory, Pezza and a band of followers landed at Amante, in Calabria, on the 26th. Pezza proved to be the most effective of the many guerrilla leaders who had sprung up in the aftermath of the invasion, and soon attracted considerable local support. The French were soon closely invested at Cosenza. Given time the guerrillas might have taken the city. But Gaeta had fallen to the French on 18 July, after twelve days of heavy bombardment, during which Hesse-Phillipsthal had been gravely wounded. This released some 10,000 French troops, most of whom were promptly sent into Calabria. The various guerrilla leaders unwisely attempted to make a stand at Lauria. There, on 8 August, Marshal André Masséna defeated them, virtually annihilating their forces in a no quarter fight. Although on 14 August, with the support of Sir Sydney's ships, Pezza managed to capture Fort Licosa from the enemy, that very same day the French relieved Cosenza. As by this time enormously superior French forces were on the march, the British decided to withdraw their expedition; this withdrawal arguably prevented the Neapolitan insurgency from developing into an "ulcer" such as the Peninsular War in Spain beginning in 1808.

Despite the withdrawal of the British, for a time the guerrilla fighting in Calabria intensified. It was a horribly bloody affair, with the French often slaughtering whole villages, and the people massacring French prisoners. Surprisingly, Pezza proved far less ferocious than he had been in 1799. He even turned French prisoners over to the British in return for money and supplies, and once proved enormously courteous to the some French officers' wives whom he had captured. Nevertheless, the French posted a 50,000 ducat reward for anyone who killed or captured him, a sum equivalent to millions of dollars today.

Capture and death
Late in August 1806, Sir Sidney transferred Pezza and about 300 of his guerrillas by sea to the coast near Sperlonga, north of Gaeta. For a couple of weeks Pezza caused considerable trouble for the French, raiding local garrisons and ambushing convoys. On 5 September he ambushed and massacred a considerable French force near Itri. As a result, the French organized a "flying column", which pinned him down near Itri on the 28th. A hot battle resulted, but the French were able to storm his position from three different directions, resulting in the defeat of Pezza's band, which lost more than one hundred killed and about 60 taken prisoner, all of whom were immediately shot by the French. Pezza himself was reported dead, but survived.

With the remnants of his band, Pezza fled eastwards over the mountains. He was soon operating near Sora in the Abruzzi, with two thousand men and two cannon, having joined forces with other guerrilla leaders. A much stronger French force converged on his base. Pezza failed to retreat in time, and the French closed in on 24 October, storming his base camp. Most of his men were killed or captured, and Pezza was again initially thought to be dead, but he had escaped, though wounded; it was, however, to no avail. On 1 November, while at Baronissi, near Avellino, he was betrayed and captured in a pharmacy by French Corsican troops under the command of Major Joseph Léopold Sigisbert Hugo, father of the novelist Victor Hugo.

The French offered Pezza an enormous bribe if he would join them. When he refused, they tried him on charges of banditry, and sentenced him to death. The French spurned an offer by Queen Maria Carolina to exchange 200 French prisoners for him, and on 9 November they hanged him in the Piazza del Mercato at Naples, ostensibly for banditry. Pezza's last words reportedly were "It pains me that I am condemned as a bandit and not a soldier".

Pezza's death did not end the insurrection against the French, as it was not until 1811 that widespread resistance came to an end, and there were still sporadic outbreaks as late as 1815. Over 33,000 suspected guerrillas were arrested during the fighting, and thousands – men, women, and children alike – were killed.

Legacy
In addition to the works by Alexandre Dumas and Washington Irving, noted above, Pezza figures in a number of other artistic endeavors.

Daniel Auber's opera Fra Diavolo is founded on traditions associated with the legend, but has very little historical accuracy. Laurel and Hardy starred as "Stanlio" and "Ollio" in the 1933 feature film The Devil's Brother (sometimes titled as Fra Diavolo) based on Auber's opera.

There are several other films about Fra Diavolo, a complete listing of which may be found in the Italian Wikipedia site. The most important of these is Fra Diavolo, made in 1942 by Luigi Zampa and based on a play of the same name by Luigi Bonelli, later a prolific screenwriter. In the film, Pezza is a Robin Hood-like figure fighting the French.

The only Italian film about Pezza to be available in English is the 1964 Giovanni production, The Legend of Fra Diavolo, with an Italian cast, but starring Tony Russel, which was released in the US by Globe Films International. The film is rather more realistic than the Bonelli effort.

Paul Féval, père used the character of Fra Diavolo in his Les Habits Noirs book series. In it, Michele Bozzo (sic) is the nearly immortal Colonel Bozzo-Corana, feared leader of an international criminal brotherhood.

Fra diavolo sauce is believed to be named after Pezza.

title: Fra Diavolo


text:
Operation Nougat

Operation Nougat was a series of 44 nuclear tests conducted (with one exception) at the Nevada Test Site in 1961 and 1962, immediately after the Soviet Union abrogated a testing moratorium, with the US' Mink test shot taking place the day before the Soviets test-detonated the Tsar Bomba. Most tests were limited-yield underground test shots. New designs would be further developed in atmospheric testing during Operation Dominic I and II.

Operation Dominic I and II would follow Operation Nougat, with some testing overlap. Operation Hardtack II preceded Nougat and the testing moratorium.

Antler
Antler was the first shot fired as part of the resumption of nuclear testing by the United States. Fired 15 September 1961, containment was immediately lost when the shot vented via the tunnel portal, destroying much of the test data. This was a recurring problem for tunnel tests of the era. The problem was thought to be caused by water above the blast zone draining into the explosion cavity where it was vaporised and escaped as steam.

Shrew
Shrew was the first Los Alamos test after the resumption of testing. The device was buried to a depth of 325 ft in a canister 32.5 ft long. The shaft was 32 inch wide, lined with 0.5 inch steel, and backfilled with sand to above the canister and concrete to the surface. Post-test, some radioactivity was detected by sampling aircraft.

British tests
Some accounts include the first British nuclear weapons test at the Nevada Test Site, shot Pampas, as part of Nougat. See British nuclear testing in the United States for more details.

title: Operation Nougat


text:
Diamond (dog)

Diamond was, according to legend, Sir Isaac Newton's favourite dog, who, by upsetting a candle, set fire to manuscripts containing his notes on experiments conducted over the course of twenty years. According to one account, Newton is said to have exclaimed: "O Diamond, Diamond, thou little knowest the mischief thou hast done." The story is largely apocryphal: according to another account, Newton simply left a window open when he went to church, and the candle was knocked over by a gust of wind. Some historians claim that Newton never owned pets.

The story of "Newton's Mischief" has been reproduced over the centuries as early as 1833 in "The Life of Sir Isaac Newton" by David Brewster and later in St. Nicholas Magazine. In 1816 Walter Scott used the story in the third of his Waverley Novels, The Antiquary (volume 2, chapter 1).

This pet of Newton's was also mentioned in Thomas Carlyle's book The French Revolution: A History, employed in discussing the deathbed of Louis XV. Carlyle writes "To the eye of History many things, in that sick room of Louis, are now visible, which to the courtiers there present were invisible. For indeed it has been well said, 'in every object there is inexhaustible meaning; the eye sees in it what the eye brings means of seeing.' To Newton and to Newton's dog Diamond, what a different pair of Universes; while the painting on the optical retina of both was, most likely, the same!"

Nevertheless, Diamond is the subject of several anecdotes concerning Newton. In another tale, Newton is said to have claimed that the dog discovered two theorems in a single morning. He added, however, that "one had a mistake and the other had a pathological exception."

title: Diamond (dog)


text:
Talk:Finlandization

Archive sections
I wonder what "liberal" in liberal democracy indicates. What's the difference between a "liberal democracy" and a simple "democracy"?

I've made a link of the term, in case someone would feel like filling in. -- Ruhrjung 12:27 29 Jun 2003 (UTC)

 * As opposed to popular democracy or organic democracy -- Error 02:46, 8 July 2003 (UTC)

Removed this since the author seemed to have a misunderstanding of the context of Finlandization. The term was generally used in a context that presupposed that is was a very bad thing. I don't know of any "proponents of Finlandization".

 * The concept of "Finlandization" in foreign policy indicates how a nation could make a deal with the Soviet Union without losing its sovereignty. Finland cut such a deal with the USSR in the late 1940s, basically reverting to her 19th century traditions. Finland did not challenge USSR's foreign policy, but exerted to keep her independence. Authorities on Finnish foreign relations often argue, that proponents of the Finlandization-term persistently failed to mention, that Finland had achieved its negotiating position after successfully fending of military attacks of the Soviet Union in the Winter War and the Continuation War. If Finland had attempted to get a "Finlandization" deal in the 1930s or 1920s, she might likely have wound up like Latvia, Estonia, and Lithuania at the time.

-- User:Roadrunner 16:12, 18 July 2003 (UTC)

User:Roadrunner also included the following:
 * Finlandization is an expression coined during the Cold War to express the process of turning into a country which maintained internal autonomy but did not challenge the Soviet Union - similar to that of Finland.

I must admit to be a bit questioning.

First of all, the expression "maintained internal autonomy" gives a clear hint at the situation for non-sovereign states. While it might have been a totally motivated wording for Finland as an autonomous Grand Duchy, and possibly also of Soviet-satelites such as DDR, I can't see this to be an appropriate or correct wording for independent Finland.

Secondly, the User:Roadrunner's given reason for the exclusion is based on a misunderstanding. The text speaks of "proponents of the term" not proponents of Finlandization.

-- Ruhrjung 06:54 24 Jul 2003 (UTC)

With all due respect, the following--though true--is way off-topic for an article on Finlandization:

 * This "middle-ground" position resulted in paradoxes like the Finnish Air Force flying both MiG Soviet planes and the American F-18 Hornet.

The Hornets we bought long after the Finlandization brickbat had been well and truly decommisioned. -- Cimon Avaro on a pogostick 10:42, 23 July 2003 (UTC)

 * OK. Can you put something then about how the Finnish Army carefully balanced its buyings between East and West and how this was unusual in the world? -- Error 00:52 24 Jul 2003 (UTC)

I could, if I weren't so ignorant. I suppose I could do some research and come back to you. But if someone else knows about this, feel free to add it. The only thing that comes to my mind is that Finland tried to have a strong domestic defence materials industry. But that isn't what you are asking for... -- Cimon Avaro on a pogo-stick 14:38 24 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * Well, if the strong industry is a consequence of Finlandizaion it is worth mentioning as well. Did they sell to both sides? -- Error 00:31 25 Jul 2003 (UTC)

well, if it is, it is something that I have no knowledge about. Please someone, who actually knows something about Finnish procurement practises, feel free to step in... -- Cimon Avaro on a pogo-stick 00:51 25 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * A quick look in my copy of "Suomen puolustusvoimat ennen ja nyt" shows that Finland bought some british jet fighters (Vampires and Folland Gnats), tanks (Charioteers) and a frigate in the fifties. After that it seems to be only stuff from Sweden and the Soviets. -- Jniemenmaa 12:57 27 Jul 2003 (UTC)

I don't see any credible evidence to back an assertion that Finland procured hardware from both sides just to maintain the policy of neutrality. Finland was, quite simply, one of the very few places on earth that could. Finland was also a relatively poor country for much of the cold war. This, and its extensive bartering agreements with the Soviet Union often made otherwise inferior Soviet technology the preferred, or indeed the only choice. Markonen 15:27 27 Jul 2003 (UTC)

I have made some changes to the article, which I will motivate in the following:
 * Finlandization is a process by which a small nation can maintain relative sovereignty by avoiding challenging a neighboring superpower and adopting a policy of neutrality. This echoes Finland's policies vis-à-vis the Soviet Union after the second World War and during the Cold War.

I object against the notion of relative sovereignty. Maybe with exception for superpowers, sovereignty can always be shown to be somehow limited. There is however no reason why the limitations should be emphasized in this context. At this time Finland was much more a sovereign country than was West-Germany.

Further, it's highly questionable if the brief period between the Second World War and the Cold War is appropriate to mention here. The Finno-Soviet relations were exceptional, as the Paris Peace Treaty wasn't concluded, until 1947. The start of the Cold War is often determined to the autumn of 1945.

Finally, I question the confusion of the concept of "nation" with "sovereignty". Rulers and states can be sovereign, also nation states, but not nations.

 * In the aftermath of WWII and Finland's two wars against the Soviet Union, Finnish leaders realized that opposing the Soviets head-on was no longer feasible.

Although I agree to the indirect notion of independent Finland's policy towards USSR as "opposing head-on", I beg to remind that Finland had three wars during WWII, that the shift in Finnish policy came earlier than the wording above indicates, and that "Finland's two wars against the Soviet Union" seem to be circumventing the fact that both of those wars followed USSR attacks on Finland - both without a declaration of War - and at least the first attack totally unprovoked.

 * Germany, Finland's ally in the wars, had been conquered while the neighboring Sweden had demonstrated its willingness and ability to stay neutral of a military attack on Finland.

This is factually wrong. All of it. Germany was USSR's ally in the Winter War, Finland's co-belligerent in the Continuation War, and Finland's sole enemy in the Lapland War. Neither was Sweden neutral during the Winter War, and the wording above is misleading also for Sweden's policies during the Continuation War and Germany's "Crusade against Bolshevism".

 * Under this mutual assistance pact, Finland was obligated to resist armed attacks by Germany or its allies against Finland, or against the Soviet Union through Finland, and, if necessary, accept Soviet military aid to do so.

It's important to note that the Soviet military aid had to be requested from Finland - although this wasn't established from the begining.

 * At the same time, the agreement recognized Finland's desire to remain outside great-power conflicts, allowing the country to adopt a policy of neutrality during the Cold War. This policy precluded Finland from participating in the Marshall Plan and guided the country to take neutral positions on Soviet overseas initiatives. As a specific example of the tradeoffs stipulated by this policy, signing the Warsaw Pact could be avoided by keeping very cool relations to NATO and western military powers in general.

It wasn't Finland's neutrality-policy which made Finland abstain from the Marshall Plan. The wording on "avoiding signing the Warsaw Pact" gives the wrong impression.

 * It was a persistent fear of US foreign policy experts that Western Europe would be Finlandized, leading to a continent that no longer supported the United States nor opposed the Soviet Union.

This is of course wrong. The most of the continent was already behind the Iron Curtain. What made strategists nervous were concerns for Western Europe.

Tuomas 01:46, 10 August 2003 (UTC)

 * See, stir the pot a little, and someone steps up to produce a much better article :) Thanks, Tuomas, for your work. What I object to in the language you reverted back into the article is this talk about Finlandization being a bilateral a "deal"; While that may be true in a semantic sense, we don't want to leave the impression that a single treaty alone codifies the whole concept of Finlandization. it is clear that Finns pretty much stumbled in the dark with regards to how much conformance with the Soviets was really needed, and this illustrates the unilateral aspects involved.
 * Also, most of my changes were only made to improve the language of the article in order to get rid of clumsy costructs such as "leading to situation in which Western Europe no longer supported the United States". In this case, you objected to a single word in the rewritten version ("continent"), and chose to revert the whole paragraph.
 * Markonen 11:41, 10 Aug 2003 (UTC)

Regarding language, I think I understand your feelings pretty well. Our language, when we try to express ourself in foreign tongues, gets clumsy. And the balance act between retaining factual correctness and producing readable prose suitable for the www-medium is no easy exercise. And when we feel we have went out of our way to produce a good text, someone else disagrees for some reason or another, ...and that had been OK if only the changes had led to improvements, but when not... (I had a similar experience very recently in the Swedish language wikipedia, and I discovered that I got more hurt than I would have expected. I won't write anything for the Swedish clowns in the future ...at least not in the nearest future.)

I agree to have done some changes by simple copy-and-paste, which I understand if you react against. On the other hand, I aimed at factual correctness, which I hope you appreciate.

Then regarding Finnish understanding and usage of the Finlandization-term, I must admit it might be an impossible task to describe. But I hope you agree that what in the article's current revision is called a "revertion to 19th century policies" was both a radical change and a successful change, why I think "the deal" defends its position to be mentioned first. But you are certainly right that the pact of 1948 in no ways was an agreement between equals - and absolutely no Finn would in his heart believe so, although we maybe choose to pretend.

I am not too fond of the disposition of this article, but I don't know really how it should best be improved. However, I can understand if you ask why the self-censorship aspects of Finlandization are mentioned in the nineth paragraph, while "the deal" aspect is mentioned in the third paragraph.

I removed the following wordings, and replaced it with a rather detailed report on Finland's varying foreign politics during the world wars and inbetween, and a reference to Germany's Stalingrad-defeat.
 * Finnish leaders realized that opposing the Soviets head-on was no longer feasible.
 * Germany, Finland's ally  supporter ...had been conquered
 * Sweden had demonstrated its willingness and ability to stay neutral of a military attack on Finland.  unwillingness to go to war, even for the sake of Finland's. Finland had to meet Russia on her own, without any greater power's protection.

I had in my mind the possibility to write something on how the February manifesto and the October revolution had made the idea of trustful relations to Russia an impossible thought for generations of Finnish politicians, and that only dire neccessity could make them overcome their aversion against Paasikivi's line. ...but I arrived at the conclusion that there already was too much on Finland's pre-WWII history, which maybe isn't quite relevant.

...besides, I would like to remind that what the Swedes had demonstrated was basically nothing else than their sincerity when they in the 1930s had insisted on exertions for improved Finno-Soviet relations. That Helsinki had made miscalculations on the relative strengths of different Swedish opinions, and underestimated the importance of Social Democracy in general and Pacifism among Liberals, Agrarians and Social Democrats in particular, that is another thing.

Paasikivi had been (a less than successful) ambassador to Stockholm in the late 1930s, and maybe the Finnish disappointment in the too limited support during the Winter War makes us blind for President Paasikivi's skillful use of Swedish self-interests for Finland's advantage during the Cold War.

I put in your wordings again. :-)

Feel free to improve both language and disposition. Can you make it without revealing any bias, and without introducing factual errors, you are worth much praise.

--Tuomas 01:37, 11 Aug 2003 (UTC)

I would like to argue that what you call Pacifism among the Swedish political leadership better should be called for instance anti-Activism, if Activism is understood as similar to what USA recently has shown in Iraq - and Germany during both world wars. Their stance was, basically, that Sweden oughtn't engage in warfare outside of its borders, as defensive wars are fought from a morally superior position. Sweden re-armed drastically from the late 1930s and on, which those alleged "pacifists" didn't oppose.

But I note that you don't mention Sweden in the article, which I think is wise. ;-)) -- Ruhrjung 05:15, 12 Aug 2003 (UTC)

Huge imbalance in the article?
Am I Hallucinating, or is this article largely about Finnish history. Since us Finns didn't used to use the term, and still only do so ironically, should there not be much more about the uses that the term served in those countries who actually did use the word! Of course I could be wrong, but as it stands the article seems awfully lopsided to put it mildly. -- User:Cimon avaro 21:49, 12 August 2003 (UTC)

No, your perception is obviously unaffected by the heat. Maybe one solution would be to write articles on the Paasikivi doctrine, the Agreement of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance, and the Kekkonen-era? Then much of the stuff would better fit there, and could be moved. --Ruhrjung 06:12, 13 Aug 2003 (UTC)

 * Uhm. Actually that isn't what I was thinking at all. Rather I was thinking how thin this article is on the domestic policy ramifications of wawing the "We Must Oppose The Danger Of Finlandization At Any Cost" flag during election campaigns frex. in BRD and the "competition" of "who is most anti-Finlandization". It seems to me that the stuff that should really be at the focus of the article is all before the Table of Contents! And that is cursory to the max. This article should be about the rhetoric usages of the term at least much as a discussion whether the term had any real basis at all.
 * That said, I took another look at the article. Maybe the "historical backround" section is a bit heavy in proportion to the subject. It would still need to be summarised in my opinion. But what I would really like to see is what domestic political ramifications the "Finlandization" rhetoric had for those who used it. -- Cimon Avaro on a pogostick 10:23, 14 August 2003 (UTC)

There is a lot of emotion, reflecting a lot of historical pain, on this page. This just my perspective, from somebody who has almost no connection to Finland, the Soviet Union, and the European theatre of WW2. Can somebody work on the overall editing to incorporate all the different perspectives? It's disconcerting to sense the implicit argument going on between different authors. Naif 03:19, 30 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * Finlandization???

What kind of stupid word isnt that as it sounds like an over the top patriotic word like Finland for Finns. Stupid Germans couldnt even use the correct word which in my opinion had been Russifization. Cold war politics again? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 83.102.43.193 (talk) 12:00, 9 September 2008 (UTC)

Finnish success?
Although Finland fought well, clearly they lost both the Winter War and Continuation War. The Soviets were much too powerful. Though the Finns won some battles and didn't make it easy for the Soviets they lost both wars badly and in no way sucsessfully fought off the Soviet advance. The best they did was make it harder for the Soviets to advance and the Finns wound up losing more territory than if they had accepted the change of land with no war. The fact the Soviets were so unprepared led Nazi Germany to believe the Soviets were ripe for the plucking so to speak. Had Finland accepted the overture of land for land and no war, they would've retained their land and Germany wouldn't have been assured at how badly the Soviets were trained. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 4.142.78.138 (talk) 17:22, 7 September 2006 (UTC)

 * The military success doesn't mean that Finns won. It simply means that Finns were able to hold attacker so long and inflict enough losses to it that it become inconvenient and even dangerous for attacker to stick on its original plans and forced it in a negotiated solution.
 * You are assuming in your text that Soviet Union would have been satisfied if its original demands were granted. The available evidence doesn't support that. The Baltic states granted what the SU wanted but the SU continued demanding more and more until they were annexed to the SU. And after the Winter War, the SU started using similar policy towards Finland, demanded troop transfer rights, opposed alliance with Sweden, demanded control of Petsamo mines, demanded the dismissal of ministers etc. -just the similar demands which were used with Baltic states!
 * On the other hand, you would be correct about the size of the country. Based on the agreements O.W.Kuusinen did with the SU, most of the East Karelia would have been incorporated to Finland. On the other hand, the front line would have crossed Finland most likely twice and compared with statistics from Estonia, it would have doubled the casualties country suffered in the WWII. Also the GNP would be about the half/the third of the current one and there would be half a million Russians living among the Finns.
 * Without the Winter War Soviets would have maintained their delusion that the Red Army was the strongest of the armies in the world. So, instead of attacking unprepared, Nazi Germany would have made more careful preparations with its attack and the SU wouldn't have started corrective actions but a year later, when it would have been perhaps too late to save the country. --Whiskey 05:57, 8 September 2006 (UTC)
 * While Finland did eventually have to give in to Soviet demands in the Winter War, it can still be regarded as a victory of sorts. Firstly, it would seem that the USSR made demands in the expectation that Finland would reject them and thereby provide a pretext for seizing the whole of Finland. In this, the Soviets failed and only obtained a minority of Finnish territory. The Red Army performed extremely poorly and lost a shocking number of soldiers and amount of equipment. In a war between a major power and a much weaker opponent the former has to win decisively and rapidly in order to maintain credibility. That Finland managed to retain its independence and avoid being swallowed up like the Baltic states was surely a victory. Koekemakranka (talk) 19:40, 10 April 2009 (UTC)

Origin of the term
Hello everyone. I have found the following page which states the following:

 * Le terme de « finlandisation » a été inventé en 1953 par Karl Gruber (ministre autrichien des Affaires étrangères). Il a été repris par l'Allemand Franz Joseph Strauss pour dénoncer les dangers de l'Ostpolitik allemande, et désignant les limitations imposées par un État puissant à l'autonomie d'un voisin plus faible. Processus par lequel, sous le couvert de maintenir des relations amicales avec l'URSS, un pays voit sa souveraineté diminuer. La Finlande s'est insurgée contre ce terme.

or in English translation

 * "Finlandisation" as term was invented in 1953 by Karl Gruber, the Austrian minister of Foreign Affairs. Franz Joseph Strauss used the term to denounce the dangers of the German Ostpolitik as a reference to the limitations imposed by a powerful state upon the autonomy of a weaker neighbour. Through this process the sovereignty of a country is reduced under the guise of friendly relations with the USSR. Finland rebelled against [the usage of]] this term.

As far as I can tell, there is no mention of this in the article. Therefore, I would like to request your comment on the above to see if this can be introduced into the article. RedZebra 13:21, 20 September 2006 (UTC)

Potential source for this article
Here is a recently declassified CIA document from 1972, titled "Finlandization" In Action: Helsinki's Experience With Moscow: http://www.foia.cia.gov/CPE/ESAU/esau-55.pdf

I'm not an expert of this subject but maybe material from this source should be included into the article? jni 12:31, 27 June 2007 (UTC)

 * I created a stub on the author Carolyn Ekedahl, who still worked for the CIA in 2004. There really isn't much info available on-line. There is however much more information on Melvin Goodman, who seems to be her husband. -- Petri Krohn 03:15, 28 June 2007 (UTC)

anyone read Nordlinger?

 * But foreign policy scholars such as Eric Nordlinger in his book "Isolationism Reconfigured" have argued that 'the fear of the possible "Finlandization" of Europe was always counterfactual. A vision of Finlandization in America's absence runs up squarely against the European states' long-standing Communist antipathies and wariness of Moscow's peaceful wiles, valued national traditions and strong democratic institutions, as well as their size and wherewithal.'

Does Nordlinger explain in his book how Finland with "long-standing Communist antipathies and wariness of Moscow's peaceful wiles, valued national traditions and strong democratic institutions" would be subject to Findlandization?

Also, part of that section seems lifted from http://www.independent.org/publications/tir/article.asp?issueID=37&articleID=489 except that "the fear of the possible "Finlandization" of Europe was always counterfactual" are the words of the reviewer and not Nordlinger's words. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Notheotherhorizon (talk • contribs) 19:07, 28 February 2008 (UTC)

Finlandifization??
What kind of stupid word isnt that as it sounds like an over the top patriotic word like Finland for Finns. Stupid Germans couldnt even use the correct word which in my opinion had been Russifization. Cold war politics again? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 83.102.43.193 (talk) 12:08, 9 September 2008 (UTC)
 * No. Myrkkyhammas (talk) 15:04, 17 February 2009 (UTC)

The Germans were right. It was the Finnish politicians who were very eager to please. Finland is still not a western democracy but nobody is noticing since there is no more threat from Russia.

BTW, Have never heard this: "As far as perceptions of the policy within Finland go, Finlandization has been (humorously) explained as the art of bowing to the East without mooning the West." There, however a saying I have heard several times, (the language is rather rude but I think it is important, for historical accuracy to tell it like it has been said) explaining Finland's position "sucking the russians cock while the swedes are pounding the ass" - whihc, although humorous, was correct. Alas there still is forced Swedish in Finnish schools, everyone hates it but since there is no democracy, it stays. --Finnlandisierung (talk) 10:42, 16 March 2010 (UTC)

 * And the Finlanders who natively speak Swedish of course have no say, right? BP OMowe (talk) 11:05, 6 May 2022 (UTC)

Human rights violations associated with Finlandization
The last chapter is new research and accordign to Wikipedia rules I understand it should not be accepted. In many ways it is not accepted in general. If Finland being democracy is questioned, one must note that US has much bigger democratic problems and I don't still think think it being democracy would be in this way questioned. The part of the article should be removed immediatly as it is in no way generally accepted view of the situation. --193.210.145.13 (talk) 13:12, 30 July 2009 (UTC)
 * It is sourced to a book. It may be problematic, but not entirely original research as Wikipedia defines it. SchmuckyTheCat (talk)
 * I think his/her point was that accepting a single source for a controversial issue is not the standard across Wikipedia ie. what a single source claims is not necessarily the truth, or rather, noteworthy. In this case, it *sounds* like politically motivated propaganda IF there are no other independent sources. - G3, 17:33, 29 September 2009 (UTC)

It is completely non-related to the either Finlandization's etymology or history. Now removed. —Preceding unsigned comment added by MrLobster (talk • contribs) 18:28, 15 November 2009 (UTC) I have removed a large portion of this section's content and changed the title to neutraly reflect what's left. If we are going to use "human rights" by the somewhat prevalent sense of international customary law here we need to have a proper authority's decision to have an assertive wording like this, that these practicies were in fact violations, the Council of Europe for example, or even a Finnish court post-judging these facts. The other possibility would be to quote human rights activist groups (those that have a general acceptance of being reliable in their work), with a proper attribution of who made that claim. None of these is fulfilled here, the source used, while reliable, makes no such value judgement, but is used here (and partially misquoted as well) just to verify the fact by itself, the editor that added this material made a judgement on what this fact constituted on his own, which violates WP:OR.--77.49.210.149 (talk) 05:33, 30 June 2010 (UTC)

Censorship
I am removing the sourced section on banned books. While it is true that books were "banned" this has nothing top do with Finlandization. The 1944–1946 ban was mandated by the Moscow Armistice and the Allied Control Commission. (See fi:Kielletyt kirjat.) The claim about censorship is also questionable. The books mainly contained war propaganda and racist hate speech. Under modern Finnish or European legislation they would be banned as incitement to ethnic or racial hatred. The fact that they are again widely available is only because old hate speech tends to lose its incisiveness. -- Petri Krohn (talk) 22:30, 20 July 2010 (UTC)

 * Still, those books would not be otherwise banned. Some of books were (self-)banned for political reasons, such as Kollaa kestää and Neuvostovakoilun varjossa. However, I think this section should be expand to give better view for a reader. Peltimikko (talk) 06:23, 21 July 2010 (UTC)
 * For related denazification see the section on Allied Denazification in Nazi book burnings. -- Petri Krohn (talk) 10:32, 4 October 2010 (UTC)

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Post-Soviet Finlandization
Shouldn't the article address the fact that Finland remains very submissive to Russia even after the breakup of the Soviet Union? — Red XIV (talk) 08:32, 27 January 2022 (UTC)
 * Not anymore; Finland, and Sweden, have decided to outright join NATO after Russian invasion of Ukraine. 2603:8000:B600:4000:F9E7:890D:442:9700 (talk) 01:42, 5 July 2022 (UTC)

Updated the article with a section explaining the ways Finlandization ended (first with end of Cold War, and now with Finland's accession to NATO), since the article seemed to lack a definite end point for this when applied to Finland itself. 104.175.74.27 (talk) 06:13, 10 May 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Finlandization


text:
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Swimming (disambiguation)

Swimming is the self-propulsion of a human through water or another liquid, usually for recreation, sport, exercise, or survival.

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Movement and sport

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 * Swimming (French Kicks album), a 2008 album
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title: Swimming (disambiguation)