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E6 (mathematics)

In mathematics, E6 is the name of some closely related Lie groups, linear algebraic groups or their Lie algebras $$\mathfrak{e}_6$$, all of which have dimension 78; the same notation E6 is used for the corresponding root lattice, which has rank 6. The designation E6 comes from the Cartan–Killing classification of the complex simple Lie algebras (see ). This classifies Lie algebras into four infinite series labeled An, Bn, Cn, Dn, and five exceptional cases labeled E6, E7, E8, F4, and G2. The E6 algebra is thus one of the five exceptional cases.

The fundamental group of the complex form, compact real form, or any algebraic version of E6 is the cyclic group Z/3Z, and its outer automorphism group is the cyclic group Z/2Z. Its fundamental representation is 27-dimensional (complex), and a basis is given by the 27 lines on a cubic surface. The dual representation, which is inequivalent, is also 27-dimensional.

In particle physics, E6 plays a role in some grand unified theories.

Real and complex forms
There is a unique complex Lie algebra of type E6, corresponding to a complex group of complex dimension 78. The complex adjoint Lie group E6 of complex dimension 78 can be considered as a simple real Lie group of real dimension 156. This has fundamental group Z/3Z, has maximal compact subgroup the compact form (see below) of E6, and has an outer automorphism group non-cyclic of order 4 generated by complex conjugation and by the outer automorphism which already exists as a complex automorphism.

As well as the complex Lie group of type E6, there are five real forms of the Lie algebra, and correspondingly five real forms of the group with trivial center (all of which have an algebraic double cover, and three of which have further non-algebraic covers, giving further real forms), all of real dimension 78, as follows:

 * The compact form (which is usually the one meant if no other information is given), which has fundamental group Z/3Z and outer automorphism group Z/2Z.
 * The split form, EI (or E6(6)), which has maximal compact subgroup Sp(4)/(±1), fundamental group of order 2 and outer automorphism group of order 2.
 * The quasi-split form EII (or E6(2)), which has maximal compact subgroup SU(2) × SU(6)/(center), fundamental group cyclic of order 6 and outer automorphism group of order 2.
 * EIII (or E6(-14)), which has maximal compact subgroup SO(2) × Spin(10)/(center), fundamental group Z and trivial outer automorphism group.
 * EIV (or E6(-26)), which has maximal compact subgroup F4, trivial fundamental group cyclic and outer automorphism group of order 2.

The EIV form of E6 is the group of collineations (line-preserving transformations) of the octonionic projective plane OP2. It is also the group of determinant-preserving linear transformations of the exceptional Jordan algebra. The exceptional Jordan algebra is 27-dimensional, which explains why the compact real form of E6 has a 27-dimensional complex representation. The compact real form of E6 is the isometry group of a 32-dimensional Riemannian manifold known as the 'bioctonionic projective plane'; similar constructions for E7 and E8 are known as the Rosenfeld projective planes, and are part of the Freudenthal magic square.

E6 as an algebraic group
By means of a Chevalley basis for the Lie algebra, one can define E6 as a linear algebraic group over the integers and, consequently, over any commutative ring and in particular over any field: this defines the so-called split (sometimes also known as "untwisted") adjoint form of E6. Over an algebraically closed field, this and its triple cover are the only forms; however, over other fields, there are often many other forms, or "twists" of E6, which are classified in the general framework of Galois cohomology (over a perfect field k) by the set H1(k, Aut(E6)) which, because the Dynkin diagram of E6 (see below) has automorphism group Z/2Z, maps to H1(k, Z/2Z) = Hom (Gal(k), Z/2Z) with kernel H1(k, E6,ad).

Over the field of real numbers, the real component of the identity of these algebraically twisted forms of E6 coincide with the three real Lie groups mentioned above, but with a subtlety concerning the fundamental group: all adjoint forms of E6 have fundamental group Z/3Z in the sense of algebraic geometry, with Galois action as on the third roots of unity; this means that they admit exactly one triple cover (which may be trivial on the real points); the further non-compact real Lie group forms of E6 are therefore not algebraic and admit no faithful finite-dimensional representations. The compact real form of E6 as well as the noncompact forms EI=E6(6) and EIV=E6(-26) are said to be inner or of type 1E6 meaning that their class lies in H1(k, E6,ad) or that complex conjugation induces the trivial automorphism on the Dynkin diagram, whereas the other two real forms are said to be outer or of type 2E6.

Over finite fields, the Lang–Steinberg theorem implies that H1(k, E6) = 0, meaning that E6 has exactly one twisted form, known as 2E6: see below.

Automorphisms of an Albert Algebra
Similar to how the algebraic group G2 is the automorphism group of the octonions and the algebraic group F4 is the automorphism group of an Albert algebra, an exceptional Jordan algebra, the algebraic group E6 is the group of linear automorphisms of an Albert algebra that preserve a certain cubic form, called the "determinant".

Dynkin diagram
The Dynkin diagram for E6 is given by, which may also be drawn as.

Roots of E6

Although they span a six-dimensional space, it is much more symmetrical to consider them as vectors in a six-dimensional subspace of a nine-dimensional space. Then one can take the roots to be
 * (1,−1,0;0,0,0;0,0,0), (−1,1,0;0,0,0;0,0,0),
 * (−1,0,1;0,0,0;0,0,0), (1,0,−1;0,0,0;0,0,0),
 * (0,1,−1;0,0,0;0,0,0), (0,−1,1;0,0,0;0,0,0),
 * (0,0,0;1,−1,0;0,0,0), (0,0,0;−1,1,0;0,0,0),
 * (0,0,0;−1,0,1;0,0,0), (0,0,0;1,0,−1;0,0,0),
 * (0,0,0;0,1,−1;0,0,0), (0,0,0;0,−1,1;0,0,0),
 * (0,0,0;0,0,0;1,−1,0), (0,0,0;0,0,0;−1,1,0),
 * (0,0,0;0,0,0;−1,0,1), (0,0,0;0,0,0;1,0,−1),
 * (0,0,0;0,0,0;0,1,−1), (0,0,0;0,0,0;0,−1,1),

plus all 27 combinations of $$(\mathbf{3};\mathbf{3};\mathbf{3})$$ where $$\mathbf{3}$$ is one of $$\left(\frac{2}{3}, -\frac{1}{3}, -\frac{1}{3}\right),\ \left( -\frac{1}{3}, \frac{2}{3}, -\frac{1}{3}\right),\ \left( -\frac{1}{3}, -\frac{1}{3}, \frac{2}{3} \right),$$ plus all 27 combinations of $$(\bar{\mathbf{3}};\bar{\mathbf{3}};\bar{\mathbf{3}})$$ where $$\bar{\mathbf{3}}$$ is one of $$\left(-\frac{2}{3},\frac{1}{3},\frac{1}{3}\right),\ \left(\frac{1}{3}, -\frac{2}{3}, \frac{1}{3} \right),\ \left( \frac{1}{3}, \frac{1}{3}, -\frac{2}{3} \right).$$

Simple roots

One possible selection for the simple roots of E6 is:
 * (0,0,0;0,0,0;0,1,−1)

 * (0,0,0;0,0,0;1,−1,0)

 * (0,0,0;0,1,−1;0,0,0)

 * (0,0,0;1,−1,0;0,0,0)

 * (0,1,−1;0,0,0;0,0,0)

 * $$\left(\frac{1}{3},-\frac{2}{3},\frac{1}{3};-\frac{2}{3},\frac{1}{3},\frac{1}{3};-\frac{2}{3},\frac{1}{3},\frac{1}{3}\right)$$

E6 roots derived from the roots of E8
E6 is the subset of E8 where a consistent set of three coordinates are equal (e.g. first or last). This facilitates explicit definitions of E7 and E6 as:

 * E7 = {α ∈ Z7 ∪ (Z+$1⁄2$)7 :  Σαi2 + α12 = 2, Σαi + α1 ∈ 2Z},
 * E6 = {α ∈ Z6 ∪ (Z+$1⁄2$)6 :  Σαi2 + 2α12 = 2, Σαi + 2α1 ∈ 2Z}

The following 72 E6 roots are derived in this manner from the split real even E8 roots. Notice the last 3 dimensions being the same as required:
 * E6-roots-of-E8.svg

An alternative description
An alternative (6-dimensional) description of the root system, which is useful in considering E6 × SU(3) as a subgroup of E8, is the following:

All $$4\times\begin{pmatrix}5\\2\end{pmatrix}$$ permutations of
 * $$(\pm1,\pm1,0,0,0,0)$$ preserving the zero at the last entry,

and all of the following roots with an odd number of plus signs

 * $$\left(\pm{1\over 2},\pm{1\over 2},\pm{1\over 2},\pm{1\over 2},\pm{1\over 2},\pm{\sqrt{3}\over 2}\right).$$

Thus the 78 generators consist of the following subalgebras:

 * A 45-dimensional SO(10) subalgebra, including the above $$4\times\begin{pmatrix}5\\2\end{pmatrix}$$ generators plus the five Cartan generators corresponding to the first five entries.
 * Two 16-dimensional subalgebras that transform as a Weyl spinor of $$\operatorname{spin}(10)$$ and its complex conjugate. These have a non-zero last entry.
 * 1 generator which is their chirality generator, and is the sixth Cartan generator.

One choice of simple roots for E6 is given by the rows of the following matrix, indexed in the order :

 * $$\left [\begin{smallmatrix}

1&-1&0&0&0&0 \\ 0&1&-1&0&0&0 \\ 0&0&1&-1&0&0 \\ 0&0&0&1&1&0 \\ -\frac{1}{2}&-\frac{1}{2}&-\frac{1}{2}&-\frac{1}{2}&-\frac{1}{2}&\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}\\ 0&0&0&1&-1&0 \\ \end{smallmatrix}\right ]$$

Weyl group
The Weyl group of E6 is of order 51840: it is the automorphism group of the unique simple group of order 25920 (which can be described as any of: PSU4(2), PSΩ6−(2), PSp4(3) or PSΩ5(3)).

Cartan matrix

 * $$\left [\begin{smallmatrix}

2&-1&0&0&0&0\\ -1&2&-1&0&0&0\\ 0&-1&2&-1&0&-1\\ 0&0&-1&2&-1&0\\ 0&0&0&-1&2&0\\ 0&0&-1&0&0&2 \end{smallmatrix}\right ]$$

Important subalgebras and representations

The Lie algebra E6 has an F4 subalgebra, which is the fixed subalgebra of an outer automorphism, and an SU(3) × SU(3) × SU(3) subalgebra. Other maximal subalgebras which have an importance in physics (see below) and can be read off the Dynkin diagram, are the algebras of SO(10) × U(1) and SU(6) × SU(2).

In addition to the 78-dimensional adjoint representation, there are two dual 27-dimensional "vector" representations.

The characters of finite dimensional representations of the real and complex Lie algebras and Lie groups are all given by the Weyl character formula. The dimensions of the smallest irreducible representations are :

 * 1, 27 (twice), 78 , 351 (four times), 650 , 1728 (twice), 2430 , 2925 , 3003 (twice) , 5824 (twice) , 7371 (twice), 7722 (twice), 17550 (twice), 19305 (four times), 34398 (twice), 34749 , 43758 , 46332 (twice), 51975 (twice), 54054 (twice), 61425 (twice), 70070 , 78975 (twice) , 85293 , 100386 (twice), 105600 , 112320 (twice), 146432 (twice) , 252252 (twice) , 314496 (twice), 359424 (four times), 371800 (twice) , 386100 (twice), 393822 (twice), 412776 (twice), 442442 (twice) ...

The underlined terms in the sequence above are the dimensions of those irreducible representations possessed by the adjoint form of E6 (equivalently, those whose weights belong to the root lattice of E6), whereas the full sequence gives the dimensions of the irreducible representations of the simply connected form of E6.

The symmetry of the Dynkin diagram of E6 explains why many dimensions occur twice, the corresponding representations being related by the non-trivial outer automorphism; however, there are sometimes even more representations than this, such as four of dimension 351, two of which are fundamental and two of which are not.

The fundamental representations have dimensions 27, 351, 2925, 351, 27 and 78 (corresponding to the six nodes in the Dynkin diagram in the order chosen for the Cartan matrix above, i.e., the nodes are read in the five-node chain first, with the last node being connected to the middle one).

The embeddings of the maximal subgroups of E6 up to dimension 78 are shown to the right.

E6 polytope
The E6 polytope is the convex hull of the roots of E6. It therefore exists in 6 dimensions; its symmetry group contains the Coxeter group for E6 as an index 2 subgroup.

Chevalley and Steinberg groups of type E6 and 2E6
The groups of type E6 over arbitrary fields (in particular finite fields) were introduced by.

The points over a finite field with q elements of the (split) algebraic group E6 (see above), whether of the adjoint (centerless) or simply connected form (its algebraic universal cover), give a finite Chevalley group. This is closely connected to the group written E6(q), however there is ambiguity in this notation, which can stand for several things:

 * the finite group consisting of the points over Fq of the simply connected form of E6 (for clarity, this can be written E6,sc(q) or more rarely $$\tilde E_6(q)$$ and is known as the "universal" Chevalley group of type E6 over Fq),
 * (rarely) the finite group consisting of the points over Fq of the adjoint form of E6 (for clarity, this can be written E6,ad(q), and is known as the "adjoint" Chevalley group of type E6 over Fq), or
 * the finite group which is the image of the natural map from the former to the latter: this is what will be denoted by E6(q) in the following, as is most common in texts dealing with finite groups.

From the finite group perspective, the relation between these three groups, which is quite analogous to that between SL(n,q), PGL(n,q) and PSL(n,q), can be summarized as follows: E6(q) is simple for any q, E6,sc(q) is its Schur cover, and E6,ad(q) lies in its automorphism group; furthermore, when q−1 is not divisible by 3, all three coincide, and otherwise (when q is congruent to 1 mod 3), the Schur multiplier of E6(q) is 3 and E6(q) is of index 3 in E6,ad(q), which explains why E6,sc(q) and E6,ad(q) are often written as 3·E6(q) and E6(q)·3. From the algebraic group perspective, it is less common for E6(q) to refer to the finite simple group, because the latter is not in a natural way the set of points of an algebraic group over Fq unlike E6,sc(q) and E6,ad(q).

Beyond this "split" (or "untwisted") form of E6, there is also one other form of E6 over the finite field Fq, known as 2E6, which is obtained by twisting by the non-trivial automorphism of the Dynkin diagram of E6. Concretely, 2E6(q), which is known as a Steinberg group, can be seen as the subgroup of E6(q2) fixed by the composition of the non-trivial diagram automorphism and the non-trivial field automorphism of Fq2. Twisting does not change the fact that the algebraic fundamental group of 2E6,ad is Z/3Z, but it does change those q for which the covering of 2E6,ad by 2E6,sc is non-trivial on the Fq-points. Precisely: 2E6,sc(q) is a covering of 2E6(q), and 2E6,ad(q) lies in its automorphism group; when q+1 is not divisible by 3, all three coincide, and otherwise (when q is congruent to 2 mod 3), the degree of 2E6,sc(q) over 2E6(q) is 3 and 2E6(q) is of index 3 in 2E6,ad(q), which explains why 2E6,sc(q) and 2E6,ad(q) are often written as 3·2E6(q) and 2E6(q)·3.

Two notational issues should be raised concerning the groups 2E6(q). One is that this is sometimes written 2E6(q2), a notation which has the advantage of transposing more easily to the Suzuki and Ree groups, but the disadvantage of deviating from the notation for the Fq-points of an algebraic group. Another is that whereas 2E6,sc(q) and 2E6,ad(q) are the Fq-points of an algebraic group, the group in question also depends on q (e.g., the points over Fq2 of the same group are the untwisted E6,sc(q2) and E6,ad(q2)).

The groups E6(q) and 2E6(q) are simple for any q, and constitute two of the infinite families in the classification of finite simple groups. Their order is given by the following formula :

 * $$|E_6 (q)| = \frac{1}{\mathrm{gcd}(3,q-1)}q^{36}(q^{12}-1)(q^9-1)(q^8-1)(q^6-1)(q^5-1)(q^2-1)$$
 * $$|{}^2\!E_6 (q)| = \frac{1}{\mathrm{gcd}(3,q+1)}q^{36}(q^{12}-1)(q^9+1)(q^8-1)(q^6-1)(q^5+1)(q^2-1)$$

. The order of E6,sc(q) or E6,ad(q) (both are equal) can be obtained by removing the dividing factor gcd(3,q−1) from the first formula, and the order of 2E6,sc(q) or 2E6,ad(q) (both are equal) can be obtained by removing the dividing factor gcd(3,q+1) from the second.

The Schur multiplier of E6(q) is always gcd(3,q−1) (i.e., E6,sc(q) is its Schur cover). The Schur multiplier of 2E6(q) is gcd(3,q+1) (i.e., 2E6,sc(q) is its Schur cover) outside of the exceptional case q=2 where it is 22·3 (i.e., there is an additional 22-fold cover). The outer automorphism group of E6(q) is the product of the diagonal automorphism group Z/gcd(3,q−1)Z (given by the action of E6,ad(q)), the group Z/2Z of diagram automorphisms, and the group of field automorphisms (i.e., cyclic of order f if q=pf where p is prime). The outer automorphism group of 2E6(q) is the product of the diagonal automorphism group Z/gcd(3,q+1)Z (given by the action of 2E6,ad(q)) and the group of field automorphisms (i.e., cyclic of order f if q=pf where p is prime).

Importance in physics

$W$ supergravity in five dimensions, which is a dimensional reduction from eleven-dimensional supergravity, admits an $W′$ bosonic global symmetry and an $g3$ bosonic local symmetry. The fermions are in representations of $g8$, the gauge fields are in a representation of $B$, and the scalars are in a representation of both (Gravitons are singlets with respect to both). Physical states are in representations of the coset $E_{6}$.

In grand unification theories, $N = 8$ appears as a possible gauge group which, after its breaking, gives rise to $E_{6}$ gauge group of the standard model. One way of achieving this is through breaking to $Sp(8)$. The adjoint $Sp(8)$ representation breaks, as explained above, into an adjoint $E_{6}$, spinor $E_{6}/Sp(8)$ and $E_{6}$ as well as a singlet of the $the SU(3) × SU(2) × U(1)$ subalgebra. Including the $SO(10) × U(1)$ charge we have

 * $$78 \rightarrow 45_0 \oplus 16_{-3} \oplus \overline{16}_3 + 1_0. $$

Where the subscript denotes the $78$ charge.

Likewise, the fundamental representation $45$ and its conjugate $16$ break into a scalar $\overline{16}$, a vector $SO(10)$ and a spinor, either $U(1)$ or $U(1)$:

 * $$27 \rightarrow 1_4 \oplus 10_{-2} \oplus 16_1, $$
 * $$\bar{27} \rightarrow 1_{-4} \oplus 10_2 \oplus \overline{16}_{-1}. $$

Thus, one can get the Standard Model's elementary fermions and Higgs boson.

title: E6 (mathematics)


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E6

E6, E06, E.VI or E-6 may refer to:

Science and technology

 * E6 series (number series), of preferred numbers for electronic components
 * E6 (mathematics), a Lie group in mathematics
 * E6 polytope, in geometry
 * Thyroiditis (ICD-10 code: E06)
 * E-6 process, a common photographic process for developing transparency film
 * E6 protein, a protein encoded by Human papillomavirus
 * Honda E6, one of the predecessors of Honda's ASIMO robot
 * Motorola ROKR E6, a 2006 multimedia phone model
 * Nokia E6, a smartphone

Rail

 * EMD E6, a diesel locomotive
 * LNER Class E6, a class of British steam locomotives
 * PRR E6, an American steam locomotive
 * LB&SCR E6 class, a British steam locomotive
 * E6 Series Shinkansen, a Japanese high-speed train

Road

 * European route E6, a European highway route
 * London Buses route E6, a Transport for London contracted bus route
 * North–South Expressway Central Link, route E6 in Malaysia
 * NAIA Expressway, route E6 in the Philippines
 * Jōban Expressway, Sendai-Tōbu Road, Sanriku Expressway (between Sendaiko-kita IC and Rifu JCT) and Sendai-Hokubu Road, the E6 expressway in Japan
 * BYD e6, an electric car by BYD Auto

Aviation

 * Eurowings Europe (IATA code: E6), a Maltese airline subsidiary of Lufthansa
 * E-6 Mercury, a US Navy derivative of the Boeing 707
 * Eggenfellner E6, an American aircraft engine design
 * Pfalz E.VI, a World War I German aircraft

Other transport

 * E6 European long distance path, a long-distance hiking trail

Music

 * Electric Six, a Detroit rock band
 * E6, the first note of the whistle register
 * "E6", a song by Norwegian band D.D.E. The song title is a reference to the European route E6.
 * Elephant 6, a collective of independent American musicians
 * E6, the first note of Runaway (Kanye West song)

Other uses

 * E6, a London postcode district in the E postcode area
 * E6, an error by the Shortstop in baseball
 * E-6 (rank), the sixth rank of enlisted soldier in the US armed services
 * E6 grade, of difficulty in rock climbing
 * E6 (short for Epic 6), a variant of Dungeons & Dragons v3.5

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: E6


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Filmy dome spider

The filmy dome spider (Neriene radiata) is a sheet weaver: a spider in the family Linyphiidae with a holarctic distribution. These spiders construct a dome of fine spider silk and hang upside-down under it, waiting for their prey. It is a preferential host for the kleptoparasitic Argyrodes trigonum.

title: Filmy dome spider


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Njimi

Njimi was the capital of the Kanuri state of Kanem (later Kanem-Bornu), north of Lake Chad, from the 11th through the 14th centuries. Founded by the Sefawa dynasty in the 11th century, the town dominated trans-Saharan trade in ivory and slaves between the central Sahara and Libya. The precise location of Njimi has yet to be determined.

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Abitibi-Consolidated

Abitibi Consolidated Inc. was a Canadian pulp and paper company based in Montreal, Quebec. Abitibi-Consolidated was formed from the merger of Abitibi-Price Inc. and Stone Consolidated Corp. on May 29, 1997; the Company merged with Bowater in 2007 to form AbitibiBowater.

Operations
A network of 19 paper mills, 20 sawmills, 4 remanufacturing facilities and 2 engineered wood facilities, located in Canada, the United States and the United Kingdom, supplied publishers, printers, building products distributors and housing manufacturers in over 70 countries. It had approximately 12,500 employees.

A global leader in newsprint, commercial printing papers and wood products, the Company saw combined revenues of $4.85 billion in 2006. Number one in Canada in terms of total certified woodlands, Abitibi-Consolidated was also one of the largest recyclers of newspapers and magazines, serving 21 metropolitan areas in North America and the United Kingdom.

In addition, the Company had significant hydroelectric generating assets in eastern Canada, which provided a cost advantage for the associated production facilities and was an extension into the energy sector.

Price Brothers
Price Brothers & Company Limited was a lumber firm from Quebec founded in 1820 as William Price Company by William Price. Following the death of Price Sr sons William Evan Price and Evans John Price took over and the firm became Price Brothers and Company Limited.

In 1910 the company became Price Brothers Limited as (Sir) William Price III took control of the family firm. After Sir William's death in 1924, his sons John Herbert and Arthur Clifford Price assumed control. In the 1930s the Price family lost control and the firm was sold. Price Brothers and Company was renamed Price Limited in 1966 and was acquired by Abitibi Power and Paper Co. and became Abitibi-Price in 1974. When Abitibi-Price became Abitibi-Consolidated in 1997, the Price name finally disappeared.

Abitibi
Abitibi Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd. was founded in 1912 at Iroquois Falls, Ontario on the Abitibi River by Frank Harris Anson. The following February, the company name was changed to Abitibi Power and Paper Co. Ltd. to reflect the power generation business it created through the need to build a dam to generate electricity for its mill. The company expanded to other locations in Ontario where it also built dams and operated hydro electric power stations. Wherever the company built a mill, a new town sprang up around it and it even built radio stations such as CFCH in Iroquois Falls to serve these remote new communities. The company acquired other small lumber operations and grew to become a major force in the North American newsprint business but the Great Depression forced the company to file for bankruptcy protection on September 10, 1932. A Royal commission was held to enquire into the company's affairs, with its report issued in March 1941. It remained under the control of the Court-appointed Receiver until 1946, the longest such receivership in Canadian history. Emerging from bankruptcy, the company prospered in the post-World War II industrial boom and in 1965 changed its name to the Abitibi Paper Company Ltd. In 1974, Abitibi purchased a controlling interest in the Price Brothers & Company Limited which had extensive operations in the Province of Quebec and whose vast forestry business dated back to the William Price Company established in Quebec City in 1820. The merger of Abitibi and the Price Brothers made it the world's biggest newsprint producer. In 1979, the corporate name was changed to Abitibi-Price Inc. and in 1981 it was taken over by Olympia and York Developments Ltd. In 1982, Abitibi-Price bought out the Hilroy companies, whose founder, Roy Hill, had been a member of the Abitibi board of directors and had died in 1978. With the purchase of Hilroy, Abitibi-Price became the premiere vertically-integrated supplier of office stationery in the Canadian market. The collapse of Olympia and York in 1992 resulted in the consortium of banks being forced to take control of Abitibi-Price Inc. for a short time until they sold it through a public share issue in 1994. The share issue also entailed the divestment and sale of Hilroy to the Mead Corporation.

Consolidated
The Bathurst Power and Paper Company Ltd. built a mill in Bathurst, New Brunswick in 1914. Majority control of the company was obtained in the late 1930s by Arthur J. Nesbitt and his partner Peter A. T. Thomson through their holding company, Power Corporation of Canada. In the early 1960s, Power Corporation bought the Consolidated Paper Company. When Paul Desmarais acquired control of Power Corporation in 1968, the two companies were merged to become Consolidated-Bathurst Inc., which, in 1989, was sold to Stone Container Corporation of Chicago, Illinois who renamed it Stone Consolidated Inc.

Acquisitions
In 2000, Abitibi-Consolidated acquired a majority shareholding in Canadian integrated forest products company Donohue Inc.

Merger with Bowater
On January 29, 2007, Bowater and Abitibi-Consolidated announced they would be merging to create AbitibiBowater. The merger created the third largest pulp and paper company in North America, and the eighth largest in the world. Following the merger, Abitibi-Consolidated was rated B1, B+ and B+ by Moody's, Standard & Poor's and Fitch Ratings respectively.

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Suboccipital nerve

The suboccipital nerve (first cervical dorsal ramus) is the dorsal primary ramus of the first cervical nerve (C1). It exits the spinal cord between the skull and the first cervical vertebra, the atlas.

It lies within the suboccipital triangle along with the vertebral artery, where the artery enters the foramen magnum.

It supplies muscles of the suboccipital triangle, the rectus capitis posterior major, obliquus capitis superior, and obliquus capitis inferior. The suboccipital nerve also innervates rectus capitis posterior minor.

title: Suboccipital nerve


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Supergroup

Supergroup or super group may refer to:

 * Supergroup (music), a music group formed by artists who are already notable or respected in their fields
 * Supergroup (physics), a generalization of groups, used in the study of supersymmetry
 * Supergroup (City of Heroes), the term for player guilds in the City of Heroes MMORPG
 * SuperGroup plc, the former name of British clothing company Superdry
 * Supergroup (TV series), a VH1 reality show
 * Super Group, an album by Shonen Knife
 * Supergroup (stratigraphy), a geological unit
 * Supergroup (biology), one of a number of taxonomic groups proposed for Eukaryotes
 * Super-group, a team of superheroes who work together
 * Supergroup, a rarely used term in mathematics for the counterpart of a subgroup
 * In L-carrier, a multiplexed group of Channel Groups
 * Super Group the holding company for online sports betting and gaming businesses: Betway and Spin

title: Supergroup


text:
Talk:Christological argument

Santa Claus argument
I removed the following: "If you believe your parents existed and that their claims are valid, and that they claim Santa Claus exists, and if they never said otherwise, you should accept that Santa Claus exists."

If the author would like to reword this as a fallacy of this "arugment", s/he can put this back. Samw 03:20, 11 Aug 2003 (UTC)

=Trilemma?=

Is there a reason this article hasn't been merged with Trilemma? It seems to cover alot of the same ground and even points out that the "Lewis Triumvirate" is the same thing. Lewis Triumvirate points to the C.S. Lewis page under the heading "Trilemma". TheIncredibleEdibleOompaLoompa 03:04, 2005 May 6 (UTC)
 * I added a paragraph distinguishing them. Samw 03:14, 6 May 2005 (UTC)

Bah. Looking at the paragraph that refers to the Triumvirate I now see it begins with "A related line of evangelical argument..." which answers my question quite nicely. Sorry about that. TheIncredibleEdibleOompaLoompa 07:35, 2005 May 6 (UTC)

Prophecy of Jesus reinforces his claims of the existence of God?
There are several evangelical arguments that reinforce their claims of Jesus's divinity by mentioning Messianic prophecy in the Old Testament. Does mention of this belong here with the Christological argument? johnpseudo 18:13, 10 April 2007 (UTC)

Trilemma as a Christological argument
The 'trilemma' as used by Lewis and others is not an argument for the existence of God. Is there any evidence that it has been so used? Have any notable writers used it as such? At the moment there is only a convoluted reference to the trilemma argument and how it is not necessarily an argument for the existence of God. How is this useful? Rbreen (talk) 12:46, 6 December 2007 (UTC)

 * "The 'trilemma' as used by Lewis and others is not an argument for the existence of God" - The version quoted in Lewis's_trilemma contains an argument with a premise 'Jesus was a great moral teacher' and the conclusion 'Jesus was the son of God', with the simple, direct entailment 'God exists'.
 * A reference to the trilemma argument is useful because it can form part of a Christological argument. A mention that it can be used in other ways is just useful background information that helps the reader cement his understanding. I don't see the problem. Ilkali (talk) 12:20, 7 December 2007 (UTC)

 * Firstly, the argument is presented in this article as an argument for the existence of God. But no evidence is presented that it has ever actually been used in this way, only that in principle it could be. I have seen it used on numerous occasions but as far as I can recall it is always used to argue only for the incarnation. There was a reference to Josh McDowall's Evidence That Demands a Verdict but as far as I know that book also uses it only to support the incarnation. Granted the idea of the existence of God is indeed entailed by the argument, but is the drawing out of that conclusion being done in the real world, outside the opinion of the Wikipedia editor who originally wrote this article? The article says that the argument 'exists in several forms'. Does it actually exist, or has Wikipedia invented it? I am, of course, perfectly willing to accept a citation here that proves that it has been so used, if it has.
 * Secondly, as currently presented it muddles two approaches - that of McDowell and others who include the claims about Jesus accepting the title 'Son of God', and C. S. Lewis, who avoids that particular one. This point is central to the detail but not to the logic of the argument, and I think it best left out of this reference and discussed instead in the more detailed specific article.
 * Finally, a casual reader of this article, if unfamiliar with the subject, would surely assume that this is primarily an argument for the existence of God, when in fact it has rarely, perhaps never, been so used, and I suspect some of those who use it would balk at seeing it so used. That it 'can be used in other ways' is not a 'background argument' - it is, historically, the main way it has been used and to present it in any other way risks misleading to the reader. Any reader wishing to understand it in its proper context ought to be made aware that this it is primarily advanced in support of the incarnation. Rbreen (talk) 23:11, 7 December 2007 (UTC)

 * Having looked back over the details, I'm going to shift my stance a little and agree that there's room for improvement. I want to emphasise that there are two distinct arguments involved here:
 * The trilemma, which asserts solely that Christ could only be a liar, a lunatic or a messiah.
 * The associated Christological argument, which presupposes that: 1) the trilemma is accurate and 2) Jesus was a great moral teacher, and concludes that God exists.
 * The article doesn't make sufficient distinction between these two, and I think that should be attended to. Once the distinction is made, I think most of the problems you mention evaporate.
 * "Firstly, the argument is presented in this article as an argument for the existence of God. But no evidence is presented that it has ever actually been used in this way, only that in principle it could be" - Do we agree that the argument presented in the article (argument #2, above) is a valid Christological argument? If so, are we only disagreeing (on this point, at least) on whether it has ever been used?
 * "Secondly, as currently presented it muddles two approaches - that of McDowell and others who include the claims about Jesus accepting the title 'Son of God', and C. S. Lewis, who avoids that particular one" - Fair enough. We only really need a summary of the trilemma here, so I think we can reasonably prune some of these details.
 * "Finally, a casual reader of this article, if unfamiliar with the subject, would surely assume that this is primarily an argument for the existence of God" - Well, argument #2 is primarily an argument for the existence of God. The trilemma can be used for other things, but the Christological argument can't. Ilkali (talk) 16:48, 8 December 2007 (UTC)
 * Yes, I am not disputing that it can in principle be used that way, only whether it actually has, and the existing wording doesn't make the difference between the two uses as clear as it needs to be. I also think it's useful for readers to be aware that this is not the context in which it is most usually found.Rbreen (talk) 08:53, 10 December 2007 (UTC)
 * We're not talking about two uses, we're talking about two arguments. If the trilemma is distinguished as a separate argument then I'm not sure we need a note saying it's often used in other ways, but I wouldn't particularly object to one. I'll try to reword the section later today if I remember, and we can see what modifications might be useful from there. Ilkali (talk) 12:05, 10 December 2007 (UTC)

I think the new version is much clearer, but I have edited it to change all the references to 'son of God' to 'God'. Two reasons: one is that the claim to be 'son of God' is only relevant if it amounts to a claim to be God, and that is arguable (and if it does, then why not focus on the underlying claim); and the other is that the supporters of the trilemma do not necessarily base their arguments on statements by Jesus identifying himself as 'son of God' but rather on other, indirect claims (such as, pace Lewis, the ability to forgive sins). Rbreen (talk) 20:31, 10 December 2007 (UTC)
 * "the claim to be 'son of God' is only relevant if it amounts to a claim to be God" - I disagree. If X is the son of Y, then Y must have existed at some point. That's all the argument needs to show. Equating 'Jesus' with 'God' causes conflicts with non-trinitarian Christianities, but calling him the son of God is completely uncontroversial.
 * Yes, but Equating 'Jesus' with 'God' is the whole point of this argument. If the title 'son of God' is taken to mean only some sort of assumed spiritual relationship (as any Christians might describe themselves as 'children of God'), that does not prove the relationship, or the being associated with it exists (since one could be mistaken about such a relationship). The whole thing centres on the assumption that Jesus was claiming to be equal and identical to God, in the narrow Trinitarian sense that "Son of God" is equal to "God the Son". If (the argument goes) you believe yourself to be identical to the creator of the universe you must be either insane (since that's not something you could be mistaken about) or actually be God. And if the latter is true, then it would imply that God must exist. Rbreen (talk) 23:27, 10 December 2007 (UTC)
 * "supporters of the trilemma do not necessarily base their arguments on statements by Jesus identifying himself as 'son of God' but rather on other, indirect claims (such as, pace Lewis, the ability to forgive sins)" - But I think that's only relevant insofar as it implies that he's the son of God? "I can forgive sins" doesn't take you to "God exists". Ilkali (talk) 22:21, 10 December 2007 (UTC)
 * "I can forgive sins" doesn't take you to "God exists". Again, this is exactly what C S Lewis argues - anyone who claims they can forgive the sins must be claiming to be God. Here is how he puts it in Mere Christianity:

 * "Now unless the speaker is God, this is really so preposterous as to be comic. We can all understand how a man forgives offences against himself. You tread on my toe and I forgive you, you steal my money and I forgive you. But what should we make of a man, himself unrobbed and untrodden on, who announced that he forgave you for treading other men's toes and stealing other men's money? Asinine fatuity is the kindest description we should give of his conduct. Yet this is what Jesus did. He told people that their sins were forgiven, and never waited to consult all the other people whom their sins had undoubtedly injured. He unhesitatingly behaved as if He was the party chiefly concerned, the person chiefly offended in all offences. This makes sense only if He really was the God whose laws are broken and whose love is wounded in every sin. In the mouth of any speaker who is not God, these words would imply what I can regard as a silliness and conceit unrivaled by any other character in history."

 * Unless 'son of God' here is taken to mean, 'God the Son', the argument doesn't work. I'm not saying it's convincing - only that that's how it works. Rbreen (talk) 23:27, 10 December 2007 (UTC)
 * So Lewis' argument is that by claiming to be able to forgive sins, Jesus implicitly claims to be God, yes? And in Christianity, it's uncontroversial that Jesus, if divine, is the son of God. Lewis might not be using those terms, but would they be inaccurate within his belief system? Ilkali (talk) 08:32, 11 December 2007 (UTC)
 * First question: yes, that is, as I understand it, Lewis's claim (he also mentions Jesus as claiming to have always existed, and to be coming back to judge the world, in support of his view).
 * Second question: yes, but that formulation sort of presupposes the conclusion. Lewis believes he has proved that Jesus is God, and he understands that to mean Son of God in the Trinitarian "God the Son" way; if Jesus is divine, the term is uncontroversial. But what's controversial is whether that's what Jesus believed. A crucial point in analysing the argument is whether Jesus claimed to be God or not. Many people not familiar with the details assume that Jesus called himself Son of God, and intended this as a statement of Trinitarian identity, and they therefore assume that this premise needs no proof. In fact, there is no clear evidence that Jesus used that title for himself, nor that in the context of the time that it would inevitably imply a Trinitarian "God the Son"; which is why Lewis and others who use this argument need to find other arguments to support this premise. To say that Jesus is divine implies that he is the Son of God; but to say that he is the Son of God does not necessarily imply that he is divine. Rbreen (talk) 11:51, 11 December 2007 (UTC)

Citation Inquiry for Premise 1: Argument from the wisdom of Jesus
On the principal objection to the aformentioned argument, the article states that a citation is needed for the following premise: "The reports of Jesus' character in the Bible are not reliable[citation needed]." However, if a citation is needed for the first premise of the objection, should not the first premise of the argument require one as well? "The character and wisdom of Jesus is such that his views about reality are (or are likely to be) correct." — Preceding unsigned comment added by 129.119.166.246 (talk) 05:54, 6 February 2012 (UTC)

I removed both citation needed tags. They are unnecessary because the point of this article is just to explain the arguments and information related to them, such as responses. The point of this article is not to defend the arguments or responses by providing sources backing up their premises, though obviously examples of scholars defending or arguing against the premises are welcome.2600:1702:3190:38A0:F4E9:E38B:E722:A901 (talk) 23:15, 13 August 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Christological argument


text:
Mount Seymour

Mount Seymour is a mountain located in Mount Seymour Provincial Park in the District of North Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. It is a part of the North Shore Mountains, rising to the north from the shores of Burrard Inlet and Indian Arm to a summit of 1449 m above the Indian River and Deep Cove neighbourhoods. Mount Seymour is most commonly identified for its ski area of the same name, and as a popular hiking area. It is named in honour of Frederick Seymour, second governor of the Colony of British Columbia. The name is used to refer to the ridge although the main summit is one of several, and is also known as Third Peak.

History
In the 1920's a road was built ending in a parking lot part way up the mountain. The parking lot and a small shelter and bulletin board became the starting point for early hiking and skiing. In 1936 the area was designated as a provincial park. In 1938 under the ownership of the Swedish emigrant, Harald Enqvist, a lodge was built housing a ski rental and a cafeteria. In 1949 the Government of British Columbia, then a Liberal Conservative coalition under B.Johnson, extended the road to its present location and bought the ski area. The Government did not have the experience to run a ski area, so, they issued Mr. Enqvist the first Park Use Permit to operate the area. The name Enqvist was later spelled Enquist giving name to "The Enquist Lodge" and "Enquist Tube Park" among other facilities. When the permit expired in 1951, the government found a concessionaire, who was put in charge of running the lifts, ski school and cafeteria. Under government ownership the Mystery Peak double chairlift was installed in 1977. The government retained overall ownership until 1984, when Bill Bennett's Social Credit government privatized its operation. Under the contract the private resort operator owns all the equipment and facilities but pays rent for use of the park land. The contracts were for 60 (or 50) years and could be renewed after 30 years. Similar arrangements were made at the time for Ski resorts operating in Cypress Provincial Park and Manning Provincial Park.

The ski area has been run by the Wood family since 1984. They installed the Lodge chairlift, a short lift taking riders up to the main lodge, in 1986 and the Brockton chairlift, a lift taking riders up and beyond Mystery Peak, in the early 1990s. Starting in the 2010s, the mountain has been more aggressively upgraded. The original Mystery Peak chairlift was removed in 2012 and replaced with a high-speed quad, while the Goldie rope tow was replaced with a magic carpet. Next, Mt Seymour replaced the Lodge chair with a high-speed quad for the 2023-2024 ski season.

On January 19, 2014, search and rescue leader Tim Jones died while coming down from the North Shore Rescue team cabin on Mount Seymour. Jones had saved many lives on the mountain over the years. Shortly after his death a community movement was formed to name the yet-unnamed Second Peak of Seymour after him. The BC government officially named the place Tim Jones Peak in 2017.

Facilities
The Mount Seymour ski area has four lifts: the Mystery Peak Express, a high-speed quad chairlift, the Lodge Chairlift, a quad chairlift paired with a loading conveyor belt, Brockton double chairlift, and the Goldie Lake covered magic carpet. Another double chairlift, the Ridge Chair, was destroyed in a windstorm in 1998, and is currently still standing, though gradually rotting away. Another beginner lift, the Goldie Ropetow was removed in 2011 replaced by the magic carpet. The area offers 330 m of vertical drop and about 1000 cm of annual snowfall. Skiing and snowboarding are available on 40 marked trails and many unmarked routes. The longest trail is 1.6 km long (Unicorn) and 18 of the trails have night lighting. Four additional terrain parks exist for freestyle activities. Terrain has also been developed for snowtubing and tobogganing.

Guided and unguided snowshoeing takes place on a separate 10 km network of maintained trails. Backcountry access for snowshoeing and camping is permitted.

Mount Seymour's Enquist Cabin, located in the Tube Park Parking Lot was destroyed in a fire in the late spring of 2005. The cabin was available for rental and was the home of the Mount Seymour Ski Club. This cabin has been rebuilt, and has been in operation since the beginning of the 2010/2011 season.

Snow depth
Mount Seymour has three weather stations: one at the bottom of the Mystery Peak Chairlift, one near tower 9 of the Mystery Peak Chairlift, and one just below Brockton Point which is the top lift station of the Brockton Chairlift. Except for the unusually warm winter of 2014-2015, there is usually a snow depth of 500 cm or more at the Brockton weather station.

BCRFC historical records (from 1960 to 1989) report that Mount Seymour's average snow base has been 160 cm on January 1, increasing through winter and spring to 345 cm on May 1.

Broadcasting
Several Vancouver-area broadcasters use transmission towers located on Mount Seymour. On 16 December 1953, the first television broadcast in Western Canada was transmitted from this site by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation's CBUT Channel 2. The CBC broadcasting site on Mount Seymour was both the first television broadcasting site in Western Canada and the first high elevation/mountain top broadcasting site in Canada.

FM stations

 * CBU-2-FM 88.1 (CBC Radio One)
 * CBUX-FM 90.9 (ICI Musique)
 * CKYE-FM 93.1 (Red FM)
 * CJJR-FM 93.7 (JR-FM)
 * CFBT-FM 94.5 (Virgin Radio 94.5)
 * CKZZ-FM 95.3 (Z 95.3)
 * CHKG-FM 96.1 (Fairchild Radio)
 * CJAX-FM 96.9 (Jack FM)
 * CBUF-FM 97.7 (ICI Radio-Canada Première)
 * CFOX-FM 99.3 (99.3 The Fox)
 * CFMI-FM 101.1 (Rock 101)
 * CKPK-FM 102.7 (The Peak)
 * CHQM-FM 103.5 (103.5 QM/FM)
 * CHHR-FM 104.3 (LG 104.3 FM)
 * CKKS-FM-2 104.9 (Kiss Radio)
 * CBU-FM 105.7 (CBC Radio 2)
 * CKAV-FM-2 106.3 (Aboriginal Voices Radio)

TV stations

 * CBUT-DT Channel 2.1 (CBC): UHF 35 (digital)
 * CHAN-DT Channel 8.1 (Global): UHF 22 (digital)
 * CKVU-DT Channel 10.1 ("Citytv"): UHF 33 (digital)
 * CIVI-DT-2 Channel 17.1 (rebroadcaster of CIVI-TV, CTV Two): UHF 17 (digital)
 * CBUFT-DT Channel 26.1 (Radio-Canada): UHF 26 (digital)
 * CIVT-DT Channel 32.1 (CTV): UHF 32 (digital)
 * CHNM-DT Channel 42.1 (OMNI): UHF 20 (digital)
 * CHNU-DT Channel 66.1 (Joy TV 10): UHF24 (digital)

Filming location
Due to its easy road access and ample parking lots, Mount Seymour is often used as a filming location. Films and TV series shot using its forests, snowy slopes and region-spanning vistas include:

 * MacGyver
 * Highlander: The Series
 * Pathfinder
 * Stargate SG-1
 * X-Files
 * Hot Tub Time Machine
 * The Twilight Saga: Eclipse

title: Mount Seymour


text:
Domtar

Domtar Corporation is a North American pulp and paper company that manufactures and markets wood fiber-based pulp and paper products. The company operates pulp mills and paper mills in Windsor, Quebec; Dryden, Ontario; Kamloops, British Columbia; Ashdown, Arkansas; Hawesville, Kentucky; Plymouth, North Carolina; Marlboro County, South Carolina; and Kingsport, Tennessee. While Domtar operated independently for several decades and was listed on the Toronto and New York stock exchanges, the company was acquired by Paper Excellence Group in November 2021 and has since operated as a subsidiary.

Specifically, Domtar designs, manufactures, markets and distributes a wide range of business, commercial printing, publication as well as technical and specialty papers with recognized brands such as Cougar, Lynx Opaque Ultra, Husky Opaque Offset, First Choice, Sandpiper (premium 100% recycled unbleached), and Domtar EarthChoice Office Paper, part of a family of environmentally and socially responsible papers.

Domtar owns and operates Domtar Distribution Group, an extensive network of paper distribution facilities. The company overall employs nearly 6,400 people. Its head offices are in Montreal, Quebec, and Fort Mill, South Carolina.

Origins in Britain
In 1848, Henry Potter Burt founded Burt, Boulton Holdings Ltd. in England, a company that specialized in treating timber against rot from moisture. The company used substances, such as creosote derived from coal tar, to prolong lumber's useful life, supplying railway ties and pilings for wharves and foundations throughout Europe and the British Empire. Within eleven years Burt, Boulton was exporting to North America and acquired a sawmill in Quebec's Eastern Townships.

In the coal-intensive environment of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, there was an ever-increasing source of coal tar, and a demand for treated wood. Growth continued for Burt, Boulton Holdings Ltd. and led to the founding of a new company on February 4, 1903. It was called the Dominion Tar and Chemical Company, Limited. Dominion Tar's first plant was located in Sydney, Nova Scotia, and began operations just eight months later.

In 1910, the company obtained two major contracts. The first, from the Canadian Pacific Railway, was to treat railway ties, and the second, with the Lake Superior Iron & Steel Company (a predecessor of Algoma Steel), was to process tar produced from the coke ovens at its Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario mill. This required the financing of two new plants at opposite ends of Eastern Canada. Burt, Boulton retained the majority of shares in the company but took on Senator John S. McLennan from Nova Scotia and Drummond, McCall & Co. of Montreal as the corporation's first Canadian shareholders.

When the First World War broke out in 1914, Dominion Tar established its head office in Montreal, Canada.

Incorporation in Canada
Throughout the first quarter of the twentieth century, Dominion Tar opened offices in Toronto, Halifax, Vancouver, and Calgary. On November 26, 1928, Canadian business magnates Sir Herbert Holt of Montreal and Harold Gundy of Toronto acquired the British-owned corporation.

In 1929, Dominion Tar and Chemical Company Ltd was formed as a Canadian corporation in order to acquire the assets of the former company, and shortly thereafter offered its shares for public sale. It was then listed on the Montreal and Toronto stock exchanges. By the following year, it had unlisted trading privileges on the American Stock Exchange.

During the Great Depression of 1931–36, operating costs were slashed and capital expenditures delayed. Employee wages were reduced 10% and management was consolidated. Several plants were closed — some temporarily, others permanently. Dominion Tar withheld its annual dividend on common stock from 1932 to 1937.

In 1937, Dominion Tar invested in Industrial Minerals, an Alberta company that was producing salt under the Sifto brand.

In the 1950s, the firm's assets grew from $35 million to over $500 million, with annual sales surging from $33 million to $325 million, and annual net profits climbing from less than $2.25 million to almost $19 million. Operations were still based on coal tar, salt, and construction materials. However, throughout this decade the company negotiated a series of acquisitions to fuel its growth:

 * In 1956, it began accumulating shares of Howard Smith Paper Mills, Canada's largest fine paper company.
 * In 1958, it entered the field of construction materials with the acquisition of Gypsum, Lime, & Alabastine Canada Limited, makers of gypsum wallboard

It also elevated Dominion Tar into the ranks of the largest Canadian-owned corporations, with plants located across the country, over $350 million in assets, and annual sales to match.

While continuing to invest in all its business sectors, Dominion Tar began to concentrate efforts on paper manufacturing, and converted the Windsor, Quebec pulp mill to exclusive production of bleached hardwood pulp and building a new greenfield pulp mill in Lebel-sur-Quévillon.

In 1962, the Cape Breton operations were abandoned, leaving behind Dominion Tar's contribution to the Sydney Tar Ponds, a Canadian hazardous waste site on Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia.

Creation of Domtar
In 1961, Dominion Tar entered into a merger with several other companies:

 * Howard Smith Paper (involving those shareholders who had not yet sold out to Dominion Tar),
 * St. Lawrence Corporation Limited, and
 * Hinde & Dauch Limited.

In 1965, Dominion Tar & Chemical Company, Limited became known as Domtar Ltd. (later changed to Domtar Inc.). In addition, the newly formed Domtar was reorganized into several operating divisions:

 * Chemicals,
 * Consumer Products (sold to Bristol Myers in 1967),
 * Construction Materials (sold to Georgia Pacific in 1998),
 * Kraft and Fine Papers,
 * Newsprint and Containerboard, and
 * Packaging.

In 1967, the latter three units were consolidated into a single pulp and paper group. By then, total corporate assets had reached $477 million, and Domtar was now determined to become a leader in paper manufacturing.

Acquisitions and rationalizations
Throughout the 1970s, Domtar began to re-evaluate its non-paper businesses as it continued to expand. The first noteworthy venture was the acquisition of Buntin Reid Paper Co. Ltd., the largest independent fine paper merchant in Canada. Next came the modernization and expansion of the flagship Cornwall, Ontario mill (closed in 2006), the expansion of the Caledonia gypsum wallboard plant, investments in a new laminated products plant at Huntsville, Ontario, and the acquisition of McFarlaneson & Hodgson Inc., a major Canadian fine paper merchant. Domtar also launched several joint ventures to increase its lumber operations and to supply more wood to its newsprint mill in Dolbeau, Quebec.

In 1978, Argus Corporation, a long-time controlling shareholder in Domtar, entered into a private deal with MacMillan Bloedel to sell its 19% stake. Macmillan Bloedel proceeded to make a takeover bid for the rest of Domtar's shares, and Domtar retaliated with its own bid for MB's shares. When the Province of British Columbia announced that it was opposing any attempt to acquired MB, both bids were dropped and MB sold its Domtar shares to the Caisse de dépôt et placement du Québec in 1979. In 1981, the Caisse and the Société générale de financement du Québec expanded their shareholdings to a total of 42% of all outstanding common shares.

In 1979, Domtar acquired Reed Limited, a subsidiary of a U.K. pulp and paper manufacturer, with three corrugated container plants, a linerboard mill, and a waste paper recycling plant, all in the Toronto area. That same year, Domtar acquired Kaiser Cement's gypsum resources in the United States and Canada. Lastly, the company founded Domtar Resources Inc. as an entry into the natural gas and oil exploration business in western Canada. The levelling off of energy costs eventually led to the venture's demise.

In the early 1980s, Domtar withdrew from its manufacturing activities abroad and closed its U.K. fine paper mill. Paper remained paramount and Domtar began to explore the potential for paper recycling, and the Packaging Group proceeded to convert purchased waste paper into pulp.

In 1989, the company divested itself of the Arborite Products and Salt divisions, and exited the consumer products business to turn to manufacturing commodities for conversion or packaging prior to sale.

In December 1997, Domtar and Cascades Inc. developed a joint venture called Norampac. A major North American manufacturer and distributor of container board, Norampac is Canada's largest producer of corrugated packaging. Since 2006, Cascades owns Norampac.

In 1998, it bought the E. B. Eddy Company.

In January 2000, Domtar launched an e-business application, e-PAPER, enabling merchants and distributors to communicate with Domtar via the Internet. It also enabled customers to check on inventory, place orders, and track orders in transit via truck-mounted GPS units.

In July 2000, Domtar completed its acquisition of Ris Paper Company Inc., one of the largest independent merchants of commercial printing and business papers in the United States. On August 7, 2001, Domtar purchased four paper mills and their associated businesses and assets from Georgia-Pacific Corporation for a total of US$1.65 billion. With the acquisition of mills in Ashdown, Arkansas; Nekoosa and Port Edwards in Wisconsin; and Woodland, Maine, Domtar became Canada's largest paper company in terms of sales, third-largest producer of uncoated free sheet paper in North America, and fourth-largest in the world. The Port Edwards plant was closed in 2008 and sold in 2013, and the Woodland plant was sold in 2010.

In August 2011 Domtar acquired Attends Healthcare, Inc., manufacturer and supplier of incontinence products, from KPS Capital Partners, L.P. for $315 million. Domtar also purchased Attends Healthcare Limited, manufacturer and supplier of adult incontinence care products in Europe, from Rutland Partners for €180 million, pursuant to a definitive agreement entered into on January 26, 2012. The brand was founded by Procter and Gamble in 1979.

Merger with Weyerhaeuser
On August 22, 2006, Domtar, Inc. agreed to merge with the paper division of Weyerhaeuser. The merger was effected as an arrangement under the Canada Business Corporations Act, taking place in several steps:

 * Weyerhauser transferred its division to Weyerhauser TIA, Inc., whose shares would be spun off to Weyerhauser's shareholders.
 * Domtar's shareholders would exchange their shares for those of Weyerhauser TIA.
 * The shareholdings were effectively split 55% for Weyerhauser's shareholders and 45% for Domtar's former shareholders.
 * Weyerhauser had the right to nominate a majority of the new board of directors.

On March 7, 2007, the transaction officially closed, and Weyerhauser TIA was subsequently renamed as Domtar Corporation.

In March 2013, Domtar announced it was acquiring Xerox's US and Canadian Paper businesses and began being the exclusive seller and distributor of Xerox products as of June 1, 2013. Cornwall coated cover was produced for a time in Chinese paper mills due to the closure of the Cornwall, Ontario plant, but production has since ceased.

Acquisition by Paper Excellence
On May 11, 2021, privately held forest products company Paper Excellence announced that it was acquiring Domtar Corp. for US$2.8-billion.

Nova Scotia
The company was originally known as the Dominion Tar and Chemical Company, Limited. Its first plant was located in Cape Breton, Nova Scotia.

Dominion Tar and Chemical Company Ltd (Domtar) operated a coal tar refining plant and a coal tar storage facility in Sydney from 1903 to 1962. This facility was situated directly adjacent to and north of the coke oven operations. It diverted coal tar from the coke ovens, refined it, moved it through pipes, and stored it in tanks for shipping elsewhere. Domtar ceased operations in Sydney in 1962 abandoning its storage tanks, waste disposal lagoons, pipes, buildings and equipment. Domtar conducted little or no clean up of the site. A large tank, referred to as the "Domtar tank", remained in place adjacent to the coke ovens site into the 2000s, measuring 28 m (92 ft.) in diameter and 6 m (20 ft.) high. It contained materials abandoned by Domtar and other materials added in the years since the facility's abandonment.

This site, which is located adjacent to the former Sydney Steel plant, is included in a $400 million government sponsored cleanup of what is referred to as the Sydney Tar Ponds.

In 2008 Domtar partnered with WWF as a part of an ongoing effort to help them source their materials responsibly. They are also a long-time member of the Two Sides initiative.

Cornwall
Domtar operated a paper mill in Cornwall until 2006. The original mill was built by the Toronto Manufacturing Company in 1881 and purchased by Howard Smith Paper Mills in 1919.

In the early 1970s, Domtar persuaded the City of Cornwall to permit the dumping of its paper mill waste (sludge, bark and lime dregs) behind a shopping mall in the middle of the city. Part of the dump was sodded over while dumping continued, and Domtar funded a "bunny" ski hill there, known as "Big Ben".

By the late 1980s, Domtar was pumping "an average of 102 million litres of waste water into the St. Lawrence River every day". In May 1988, Greenpeace hung a banner from the company's smokestacks demanding: 'Zero discharge now', referring to discharges of heavy metals, PCBs, phenols, and dioxin. Domtar was "fighting efforts to make it clean up" and it was listed as one of the worst polluters in Ontario in 1989.

By the mid-1990s this Domtar landfill was rapidly filling up with sludge, bark, and lime dregs from the Cornwall kraft and fine paper mill. The problem was exacerbated when new waste water regulations required the Cornwall mill to also remove lignin and starch—formerly discharged into the St. Lawrence River—from its waste water. In response, Domtar began selling dewatered mill waste to Cornwall and area residents labeled as "Soil Conditioner".

For some five years—until high levels of fecal coliforms and fecal streptococcus were discovered in the waste—this "Soil Conditioner" was sold for home garden use and was used by local farmers as fertilizer. Domtar at first claimed that their process could not have contributed e-coli and fecal coli from human feces. The company later revealed to the Ontario Ministry of the Environment (MOE) that some toilets and urinals at the mill connected with the mill's waste water treatment process, rather than with the city's sanitary sewers. Moreover, a stormwater system also emptied into the sludge generating system.

The paper mill site (now a brownfield) was sold to Paris Holdings of Cornwall in 2006 with undisclosed terms and covenants relating to liability and clean up of soil and water affected, for over 120 years, by mill and human waste. Domtar still maintains control of the adjacent dump which is the source of a leachate plume polluting ground water between it and the St. Lawrence River (with the City of Cornwall Water Purification Plant in between). The dump which is officially named, the "Big Ben Landfill And Recreation Area", currently receives demolition waste and asbestos from the decommissioned paper mill.

In 2007, Domtar Corporation made a request to the MOE to additionally allow the dumping of soil at "Big Ben", contaminated with coal tar and bitumen waste, from another Dominion Tar and Chemical Co. Limited site in Cornwall. This manufacturing facility at 7th St. W. and Cumberland Street in Cornwall produced "bituminous fibre" pipe, from 1929 to 1976 known variously as; Cornwall "Standard" Fibre Conduit (1929–38), Cornwall Nocrete Conduit (1938–44), and finally No-co-rode Co. Ltd. – Fibre Conduit Division (1944–76).

In September 2008, over public opposition and in spite of MOE reports indicating off-site leachate impact from the dump and the likelihood of runoff to the St. Lawrence River, the MOE permitted dumping at the "Big Ben" site of contaminated soils from Domtar's former No-co-rode Ltd. site.

Domtar has not remediated its former lands in Cornwall including; its paper mill site, its sludge and bark dump, and its coal tar pipe lands.

Western Canada
Domtar also operated a wood treatment facility in Cochrane, Alberta, treating railroad ties. This ceased operation about 1982, leaving significantly contaminated land. The latest of several clean-up operations is attempting to prevent the underground migration of the main contaminant plume. Building of non-residential structures is now in progress on part of the land.

The company once operated a wood treatment facility in the Transcona section of Winnipeg, Manitoba. The facility has been dismantled, and a residential development was created adjacent to the site in the early 1980s. The site itself remained largely vacant. In the late 1990s, years of debate and scientific study culminated with the re-detoxification. Many properties adjacent to the site were excavated to remove contaminated earth. Dozens of homes had their backyards completely dug up, and a handful also had parts of their homes removed and rebuilt—all at the company's expense. The site itself, was converted to a wildlife sanctuary with a nature path.

Domtar operated a wood treatment plant in northeast Edmonton from 1924 to 1987. The 37-hectare property in question served as a Domtar Inc. wood-treatment operation from 1924 to 1987. Cherokee bought the land in 2010 to build a residential subdivision. Between 1924 and 1987, Domtar used this area to treat wood with creosote and other chemicals. Until 1972, the company simply dumped its untreated waste into a drainage ditch. When the plant went out of business, the soil and groundwater were left contaminated. In 1991, the Edmonton Board of Health issued warning letters, telling Hermitage neighbours to keep their children away from that area.

But Domtar and a Toronto-based brownfield specialist, Cherokee, carried out extensive remediation of the site. Eventually, Cherokee bought the whole 37-hectare parcel for $1.8 million. Parts of the property were more polluted than others.

Other locations
Dayton, Ohio

Other Domtar sites contaminated by creosote and coal tar by products include; "Sunalta" in Calgary, Alberta; Truro, Nova Scotia; Newcastle, New Brunswick; and New Westminster, British Columbia. Domtar also operated a tie treating plant in Trenton, Ontario for many years.

Domtar operated a paper mill in Toronto from 1961 to late 1980s and is now site of Crothers Woods.

As of 2019, amongst the COVID-19 outbreak, Domtar announced a temporary reduction at its paper-making capacity at its Kingsport Mill, Tennessee due to decreased demand during the pandemic.

Permanent paper machine closures have been further announced at the Ashdown, Arkansas pulp and paper mill, and the Port Huron, Michigan paper mill.

Paper

 * Air dry metric ton

Research facility
In 2010, Domtar joined with FPInnovations to create a new company that uses nanocrystalline cellulose, a material whose applications potentially include optically reflective films, high-durability varnishes, and innovative bioplastics. A new experimental plant will be located at the Domtar's Windsor, Quebec pulp and paper mill site.

Personal care
Domtar has manufacturing, distribution and research and development facilities in the following locations:

 * Greenville, North Carolina
 * Aneby, Sweden
 * Jesup, Georgia

In January 2021, the company announces that it has entered into an agreement to sell its personal care business to American Industrial Partners (AIP) for $920 million. This decision follows a strategic review of the business in August 2020 and the decision to reinforce its strategy on focused business portfolio.

title: Domtar


text:
Greater occipital nerve

The greater occipital nerve is a nerve of the head. It is a spinal nerve, specifically the medial branch of the dorsal primary ramus of cervical spinal nerve 2. It arises from between the first and second cervical vertebrae, ascends, and then passes through the semispinalis muscle. It ascends further to supply the skin along the posterior part of the scalp to the vertex. It supplies sensation to the scalp at the top of the head, over the ear and over the parotid glands.

Structure
The greater occipital nerve is the medial branch of the dorsal primary ramus of cervical spinal nerve 2. It may also involve fibres from cervical spinal nerve 3. It arises from between the first and second cervical vertebrae, along with the lesser occipital nerve. It ascends after emerging from below the suboccipital triangle beneath the obliquus capitis inferior muscle. Just below the superior nuchal ridge, it pierces the fascia. It ascends further to supply the skin along the posterior part of the scalp up to the vertex.

Function
The greater occipital nerve supplies sensation to the scalp at the top of the head, over the ear and over the parotid glands.

Clinical significance
Problems with the greater occipital nerve may be a cause of cervicogenic headaches. These may be referred to as occipital neuralgias. A common site, and usually misdiagnosed area of entrapment for the greater occipital nerve, is at the obliquus capitis inferior muscle. These may be treated with a temporary nerve block.

Occipital pain management
Most people with tension headaches experience increasing intensity with time, and report pain originating in the back of the head (occipital) moving to the front of the head (supraorbital). Neurostimulation is sometimes used to treat tension headaches that originate from the occipital nerve.

title: Greater occipital nerve


text:
Lesser occipital nerve

The lesser occipital nerve (or small occipital nerve ) is a cutaneous spinal nerve of the cervical plexus.  It arises from second cervical (spinal) nerve (C2) (along with the greater occipital nerve). It innervates the skin of the back of the upper neck and of the scalp posterior to the ear.

Origin
It arises from the (lateral branch of the ventral ramus ) of cervical spinal nerve C2;    it (sources differ) receives or may also receive fibres from cervical spinal nerve C3. It originates between the atlas, and axis.

The lesser occipital nerve is one of the four cutaneous branches of the cervical plexus.

Course and relations
It curves around the accessory nerve (CN XI)   to come to course anterior to it. It then curves around and ascends along the posterior border of the sternocleidomastoid muscle;   rarely, it may pierce the muscle. Near the cranium, it perforates the deep cervical fascia. It is continued upwards along the scalp posterior to the auricle. It divides into medial and lateral segments between the inion, and intermastoid line.

Branches
It has an auricular, a mastoid, and an occipital branch.

Its auricular branch supplies the skin of the upper and back part of the auricula, communicating with the mastoid branch of the great auricular. This branch is occasionally derived from the greater occipital nerve.

Distribution
The nerve provides sensory innervation to the upper part of the back of the neck and adjacent  scalp posterior to the auricle;  it may also contribute to the sensory innervation of the auricle itself.

Communications
It communicates with the greater occipital nerve, great auricular nerve, and the auricular branch of the facial nerve.

Variation
Rarely, the lesser occipital nerve may be duplicated or triplicated.

Clinical significance
Problems with the lesser occipital nerve cause occipital neuralgia. Nerve block is difficult due to variation in the course of the nerve.

title: Lesser occipital nerve


text:
Lynx spider

Lynx spider (Oxyopidae) is a family of araneomorph spiders first described by Tamerlan Thorell in 1870. Most species make little use of webs, instead spending their lives as hunting spiders on plants. Many species frequent flowers in particular, ambushing pollinators, much as crab spiders do. They tend to tolerate members of their own species more than most spiders do, and at least one species has been identified as exhibiting social behaviour.

Description
There are several genera of Oxyopidae and they differ in their habits and adaptations. Most of them have large spiny bristles on their legs and in many species the bristles form almost a basket-like structure that may assist in confining the prey that they grasp, and protect the spider from its struggles. Most Oxyopes and Hamataliwa species are small to medium in size. Lynx spiders, in spite of being largely ambush hunters, are very speedy runners and leapers, alert and with good vision. Oxyopidae in general rely on keen eyesight in stalking, chasing, or ambushing prey, and also in avoiding enemies.

Identification
As with many other families of spiders, the arrangement of their eyes is typical of the family and is an important aid in identifying them as members of the family. Six of the eight eyes of Oxyopid spiders are arranged in a hexagon-like pattern, more or less on a prominent hump on the front upper corner of the prosoma. The other two eyes are smaller, less conspicuous, and generally are situated in front of and below the other six. The basal parts of the chelicerae of most species are large, vertical and parallel, which combine with the bluff front end, a "high forehead" to the prosoma, to give most species a peculiar "flat-faced" appearance.

Hunting
They tend to be drab ambush hunters, depending to some extent on the season, some occupy flowers, ambushing pollinating insects. In this they resemble the crab spiders (Thomisidae) in behaviour. Others crouch in wait, camouflaged on plant stalks or bark. Peucetia species on the other hand, commonly are larger. They are rangy and their camouflage is vivid green, adapted to hunting or hiding among foliage.

Behavior
Except when defending egg purses, many tend to flee rapidly when approached by predators or large creatures such as humans. They tend not to be very aggressive towards other members of their own species, and sometimes meet casually in small groups. Possibly as an extreme example, at least one member of the genus Tapinillus is remarkable as being one of the few social spiders, living in colonies with communal feeding, cooperative brood care, and generational overlap. Peucetia viridans is unusual among spiders in that females defending their egg purses will spray or "spit" venom at intruders, including humans.

Benefits
Some members of the genus Oxyopes are abundant enough to be important in agricultural systems as biological control agents. This is especially true of the striped lynx spider (Oxyopes salticus). Their net value in agriculture has been disputed however, on the grounds of their predation of pollinators.

Genera
Genera common in the United States include common lynx spiders and green lynx spiders. , the World Spider Catalog accepts the following genera:

 * Hamadruas Deeleman-Reinhold, 2009 — Asia
 * Hamataliwa Keyserling, 1887 — South America, North America, Central America, Asia, Australia, Africa, Caribbean
 * Hostus Simon, 1898 — Madagascar
 * Oxyopes Latreille, 1804 — Africa, North America, South America, Oceania, Asia, Central America, Caribbean, Italy
 * Peucetia Thorell, 1869 — Asia, Australia, Europe, South America, Africa, United States, Panama
 * Pseudohostus Rainbow, 1915 — Australia
 * Schaenicoscelis Simon, 1898 — Brazil, Guyana
 * Tapinillus Simon, 1898 — Brazil
 * Tapponia Simon, 1885 — Malaysia, Indonesia

title: Lynx spider


text:
Supergroup (physics)

The concept of supergroup is a generalization of that of group. In other words, every supergroup carries a natural group structure, but there may be more than one way to structure a given group as a supergroup. A supergroup is like a Lie group in that there is a well defined notion of smooth function defined on them. However the functions may have even and odd parts. Moreover, a supergroup has a super Lie algebra which plays a role similar to that of a Lie algebra for Lie groups in that they determine most of the representation theory and which is the starting point for classification.

Details
More formally, a Lie supergroup is a supermanifold G together with a multiplication morphism $$\mu :G \times G\rightarrow G$$, an inversion morphism $$i : G \rightarrow G$$ and a unit morphism $$e: 1 \rightarrow G$$ which makes G a group object in the category of supermanifolds. This means that, formulated as commutative diagrams, the usual associativity and inversion axioms of a group continue to hold. Since every manifold is a supermanifold, a Lie supergroup generalises the notion of a Lie group.

There are many possible supergroups. The ones of most interest in theoretical physics are the ones which extend the Poincaré group or the conformal group. Of particular interest are the orthosymplectic groups Osp(M|N) and the superunitary groups SU(M|N).

An equivalent algebraic approach starts from the observation that a supermanifold is determined by its ring of supercommutative smooth functions, and that a morphism of supermanifolds corresponds one to one with an algebra homomorphism between their functions in the opposite direction, i.e. that the category of supermanifolds is opposite to the category of algebras of smooth graded commutative functions. Reversing all the arrows in the commutative diagrams that define a Lie supergroup then shows that functions over the supergroup have the structure of a Z2-graded Hopf algebra. Likewise the representations of this Hopf algebra turn out to be Z2-graded comodules. This Hopf algebra gives the global properties of the supergroup.

There is another related Hopf algebra which is the dual of the previous Hopf algebra. It can be identified with the Hopf algebra of graded differential operators at the origin. It only gives the local properties of the symmetries i.e., it only gives information about infinitesimal supersymmetry transformations. The representations of this Hopf algebra are modules. Like in the non-graded case, this Hopf algebra can be described purely algebraically as the universal enveloping algebra of the Lie superalgebra.

In a similar way one can define an affine algebraic supergroup as a group object in the category of superalgebraic affine varieties. An affine algebraic supergroup has a similar one to one relation to its Hopf algebra of superpolynomials. Using the language of schemes, which combines the geometric and algebraic point of view, algebraic supergroup schemes can be defined including super Abelian varieties.

Examples
The Super-Poincaré group is the group of isometries of superspace (specifically, Minkowski superspace with $$\mathcal{N}$$ supercharges, where often $$\mathcal{N}$$ is taken to be 1). It is most often treated at the algebra level, and is generated by the Super-Poincaré algebra

The Super-conformal group is the group of conformal symmetries of superspace, generated by the super-conformal algebra.

title: Supergroup (physics)


text:
Loperamide

Loperamide, sold under the brand name Imodium, among others, is a medication of the opioid receptor agonist class used to decrease the frequency of diarrhea. It is often used for this purpose in irritable bowel syndrome, inflammatory bowel disease, short bowel syndrome Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis. It is not recommended for those with blood in the stool, mucus in the stool, or fevers. The medication is taken by mouth.

Common side effects include abdominal pain, constipation, sleepiness, vomiting, and a dry mouth. It may increase the risk of toxic megacolon. Loperamide's safety in pregnancy is unclear, but no evidence of harm has been found. It appears to be safe in breastfeeding. It is an opioid with no significant absorption from the gut and does not cross the blood–brain barrier when used at normal doses. It works by slowing the contractions of the intestines.

Loperamide was first made in 1969 and used medically in 1976. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. Loperamide is available as a generic medication. In 2021, it was the 287th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 700,000 prescriptions.

Medical uses
Loperamide is effective for the treatment of a number of types of diarrhea. This includes control of acute nonspecific diarrhea, mild traveler's diarrhea, irritable bowel syndrome, chronic diarrhea due to bowel resection, and chronic diarrhea secondary to inflammatory bowel disease. It is also useful for reducing ileostomy output. Off-label uses for loperamide also include chemotherapy-induced diarrhea, especially related to irinotecan use.

Loperamide should not be used as the primary treatment in cases of bloody diarrhea, acute exacerbation of ulcerative colitis, or bacterial enterocolitis.

Loperamide is often compared to diphenoxylate. Studies suggest that loperamide is more effective and has lower neural side effects.

Side effects
Adverse drug reactions most commonly associated with loperamide are constipation (which occurs in 1.7–5.3% of users), dizziness (up to 1.4%), nausea (0.7–3.2%), and abdominal cramps (0.5–3.0%). Rare, but more serious, side effects include toxic megacolon, paralytic ileus, angioedema, anaphylaxis/allergic reactions, toxic epidermal necrolysis, Stevens–Johnson syndrome, erythema multiforme, urinary retention, and heat stroke. The most frequent symptoms of loperamide overdose are drowsiness, vomiting, and abdominal pain, or burning. High doses may result in heart problems such as abnormal heart rhythms.

Contraindications
Treatment should be avoided in the presence of high fever or if the stool is bloody. Treatment is not recommended for people who could have negative effects from rebound constipation. If a suspicion exists of diarrhea associated with organisms that can penetrate the intestinal walls, such as E. coli O157:H7 or Salmonella, loperamide is contraindicated as a primary treatment. Loperamide treatment is not used in symptomatic C. difficile infections, as it increases the risk of toxin retention and precipitation of toxic megacolon.

Loperamide should be administered with caution to people with liver failure due to reduced first-pass metabolism. Additionally, caution should be used when treating people with advanced HIV/AIDS, as cases of both viral and bacterial toxic megacolon have been reported. If abdominal distension is noted, therapy with loperamide should be discontinued.

Children
The use of loperamide in children under two years is not recommended. Rare reports of fatal paralytic ileus associated with abdominal distention have been made. Most of these reports occurred in the setting of acute dysentery, overdose, and with very young children less than two years of age. A review of loperamide in children under 12 years old found that serious adverse events occurred only in children under three years old. The study reported that the use of loperamide should be contraindicated in children who are under 3, systemically ill, malnourished, moderately dehydrated, or have bloody diarrhea.

In 1990, all formulations for children of the antidiarrheal loperamide were banned in Pakistan.

The National Health Service in the United Kingdom recommends that loperamide should only be given to children under the age of twelve if prescribed by a doctor. Formulations for children are only available on prescription in the UK.

Pregnancy and breast feeding
Loperamide is not recommended in the United Kingdom for use during pregnancy or by nursing mothers. Studies in rat models have shown no teratogenicity, but sufficient studies in humans have not been conducted. One controlled, prospective study of 89 women exposed to loperamide during their first trimester of pregnancy showed no increased risk of malformations. This, however, was only one study with a small sample size. Loperamide can be present in breast milk, and is not recommended for breast-feeding mothers.

Drug interactions
Loperamide is a substrate of P-glycoprotein; therefore, the concentration of loperamide increases when given with a P-glycoprotein inhibitor. Common P-glycoprotein inhibitors include quinidine, ritonavir, and ketoconazole. Loperamide is capable of decreasing the absorption of some other drugs. As an example, saquinavir concentrations can decrease by half when given with loperamide.

Loperamide is an antidiarrheal agent, which decreases intestinal movement. As such, when combined with other antimotility drugs, the risk of constipation is increased. These drugs include other opioids, antihistamines, antipsychotics, and anticholinergics.

Mechanism of action
Loperamide is an opioid-receptor agonist and acts on the μ-opioid receptors in the myenteric plexus of the large intestine. It works like morphine, decreasing the activity of the myenteric plexus, which decreases the tone of the longitudinal and circular smooth muscles of the intestinal wall. This increases the time material stays in the intestine, allowing more water to be absorbed from the fecal matter. It also decreases colonic mass movements and suppresses the gastrocolic reflex.

Loperamide's circulation in the bloodstream is limited in two ways. Efflux by P-glycoprotein in the intestinal wall reduces passage of loperamide, and the fraction of drug crossing is then further reduced through first-pass metabolism by the liver. Loperamide metabolizes into an MPTP-like compound, but is unlikely to exert neurotoxicity.

Blood–brain barrier
Efflux by P-glycoprotein also prevents circulating loperamide from effectively crossing the blood–brain barrier, so it can generally only antagonize muscarinic receptors in the peripheral nervous system, and currently has a score of one on the anticholinergic cognitive burden scale. Concurrent administration of P-glycoprotein inhibitors such as quinidine potentially allows loperamide to cross the blood–brain barrier and produce central morphine-like effects. At high doses (>70mg), loperamide is able to saturate P-glycoprotein (thus overcoming the efflux) and produce euphoric effects. Loperamide taken with quinidine was found to produce respiratory depression, indicative of central opioid action.

High doses of loperamide have been shown to cause a mild physical dependence during preclinical studies, specifically in mice, rats, and rhesus monkeys. Symptoms of mild opiate withdrawal were observed following abrupt discontinuation of long-term treatment of animals with loperamide.

Synthesis
Loperamide is synthesized starting from the lactone 3,3-diphenyldihydrofuran-2(3H)-one and ethyl 4-oxopiperidine-1-carboxylate, on a lab scale. On a large scale a similar synthesis is followed, except that the lactone and piperidinone are produced from cheaper materials rather than purchased.

Physical properties
Loperamide is typically manufactured as the hydrochloride salt. Its main polymorph has a melting point of 224 °C and a second polymorph exists with a melting point of 218 °C. A tetrahydrate form has been identified which melts at 190 °C.

History
Loperamide hydrochloride was first synthesized in 1969 by Paul Janssen from Janssen Pharmaceuticals in Beerse, Belgium, following previous discoveries of diphenoxylate hydrochloride (1956) and fentanyl citrate (1960).

The first clinical reports on loperamide were published in 1973 in the Journal of Medicinal Chemistry with the inventor being one of the authors. The trial name for it was "R-18553". Loperamide oxide has a different research code: R-58425.

The trial against placebo was conducted from December 1972 to February 1974, its results being published in 1977 in the journal Gut.

In 1973, Janssen started to promote loperamide under the brand name Imodium. In December 1976, Imodium got US FDA approval.

During the 1980s, Imodium became the best-selling prescription antidiarrheal in the United States.

In March 1988, McNeil Pharmaceutical began selling loperamide as an over-the-counter drug under the brand name Imodium A-D.

In the 1980s, loperamide also existed in the form of drops (Imodium Drops) and syrup. Initially, it was intended for children's usage, but Johnson & Johnson voluntarily withdrew it from the market in 1990 after 18 cases of paralytic ileus (resulting in six deaths) were registered in Pakistan and reported by the World Health Organization (WHO). In the following years (1990-1991), products containing loperamide have been restricted for children's use in a number of countries (ranging from two to five years of age).

In the late 1980s, before the US patent expired on 30 January 1990, McNeil started to develop Imodium Advanced containing loperamide and simethicone for treating both diarrhea and gas. In March 1997, the company patented this combination. The drug was approved in June 1997, by the FDA as Imodium Multi-Symptom Relief in the form of a chewable tablet. A caplet formulation was approved in November 2000.

In November 1993, loperamide was launched as an orally disintegrating tablet based on Zydis technology.

In 2013, loperamide in the form of 2-mg tablets was added to the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines.

In 2020, it was discovered by researchers at Goethe University that Loperamide was effective at killing glioblastoma cells.

United States
Loperamide was formerly a controlled substance in the United States. First, it was a Schedule II controlled substance. However, this was lowered to Schedule V. Loperamide was finally removed from control in 1982, during the Drug Enforcement Administration of Francis M. Mullen Jr.

UK
Loperamide can be sold freely to the public by chemists as the treatment of diarrhoea and acute diarrhoea associated with medically diagnosed irritable bowel syndrome in adults over 18 years of age

Economics
Loperamide is sold as a generic medication. In 2016, Imodium was one of the biggest-selling branded over-the-counter medications sold in Great Britain, with sales of £32.7 million.

Brand names
Loperamide was originally marketed as Imodium, and many generic brands are sold.

Off-label/unapproved use
Loperamide has typically been deemed to have a relatively low risk of misuse. In 2012, no reports of loperamide abuse were made. In 2015, however, case reports of extremely high-dose loperamide use were published. The primary intent of users has been to manage symptoms of opioid withdrawal such as diarrhea, although a small portion derive psychoactive effects at these higher doses. At these higher doses central nervous system penetration occurs and long term use may lead to tolerance, dependence, and withdrawal on abrupt cessation. Dubbing it "the poor man's methadone", clinicians warned that increased restrictions on the availability of prescription opioids passed in response to the opioid epidemic were prompting recreational users to turn to loperamide as an over-the-counter treatment for withdrawal symptoms. The FDA responded to these warnings by calling on drug manufacturers to voluntarily limit the package size of loperamide for public-safety reasons. However, there is no quantity restriction on number of packages that can be purchased, and most pharmacies do not feel capable of restricting its sale, so it is unclear that this intervention will have any impact without further regulation to place loperamide behind the counter. Since 2015, several reports of sometimes-fatal cardiotoxicity due to high-dose loperamide abuse have been published.

title: Loperamide


text:
Great auricular nerve

The great auricular nerve is a cutaneous (sensory) nerve of the head. It originates from the second and third cervical (spinal) nerves (C2-C3) of the cervical plexus. It provides sensory innervation to the skin over the parotid gland and the mastoid process, parts of the outer ear, and to the parotid gland and its fascia.

Pain resulting from parotitis is caused by an impingement on the great auricular nerve.

Structure
The great auricular nerve is the largest of the ascending branches of the cervical plexus.

Origin
It arises from the second and third cervical (spinal) nerves (C2-C3), with the predominant contribution coming from C2.

Course and relations
The great auricular nerve is a large trunk that ascends almost vertically over the sternocleidomastoid.  It winds around the posterior border of the sternocleidomastoid muscle, then perforates the deep fascia before ascending alongside the external jugular vein upon that sternocleidomastoid muscle beneath the platysma muscle to the parotid gland. Upon reaching the parotid gland, it divides into an anterior branch and a posterior branch.

Branches
Anterior branch

The anterior branch (or facial branch) is distributed to the skin of the face over the parotid gland.

It communicates with the facial nerve (CN VII) inside the parotid gland.

Posterior branch

The posterior branch (or mastoid branch) innervates the skin over the mastoid process, on the back of the auricle (save for its upper part), of the lobule, and of the lower part of the concha.

The posterior branch communicates with the lesser occipital nerve, the auricular branch of the vagus, and the posterior auricular branch of the facial.

Distribution
The great auricular nerve is distributed to the skin of the face over the angle of the mandible  and parotid gland (via anterior branch ),   skin over of the mastoid region  (i.e. skin over the mastoid process ) (via posterior branch ), parts of the auricle (posterior branch ),   and the parotid gland and parotid fascia.

Clinical significance
The great auricular nerve may be damaged during surgery on the parotid gland, reducing sensation to the face.

Pain resulting from parotitis is caused by an impingement on the great auricular nerve.

The intermingling of the great auricular nerve and the facial nerve (CN VII) is thought to be responsible for the pathogenesis of Frey's syndrome following parotidectomy.

title: Great auricular nerve


text:
Lesser auricular nerve

The lesser auricular nerve originates from the cervical plexus, composed of branches of spinal nerves C2 and C3.

Therefore, the "Great auricular nerve" is incorrectly named "Greater auricular nerve".

The Great auricular nerve runs posteriorly to the ear, and is "greater," since it provides most of the innervation to the ear: the back of the ear, front of the ear and earlobe. The rest is provided by the auriculotemporal nerve, which supplies the skin anterior to the external auditory meatus.

title: Lesser auricular nerve